text: Tarth have evolved on Korga, a world extremely hostile to organic life, only one third the size of Jupiter. Thus, they are large (about 180 centimeters wide, height and weight not specified), lumbering behemoths with a thick, orange hide covered in scale-like plates. Tarth are bipedal creatures, somewhat resembling bulldogs, with a powerful frame and a short tail. They have 4 fingers on each arm (one thumb) and 3 toes on each foot. The modern Tarth society was founded by Guh, who started his life a warrior, and finished it an astronomer. Guh had been severely injured in battle and was preparing to die, when his gaze fell on one of the seven natural satellites of his planet - Tunt. As he watched, a volcano erupted on Tunt. Cloud formations visibly changed. Fascinated, Guh regained his will to live and limped back to his comrades. He later became a hermit and constructed his planet's first telescope, discovering life on Tunt.

text: Finally, the party reach the barrier protecting the Lethe Forest. Mel removes it, and they enter the Witch Village. Cecille feels at ease in the Village, which she finds strange. The party then meet Claire, the leader of the Witches who masters Lightning magic. The party is tested by her, Vivi and Mavi (but strangely, Lucia does not join the battle and Mel fights alongside the Garden Children) and pass the test, convincing Claire that the planet has chosen them. The group then catch wind of a peril to Lucia at a volcano near the village, and so with Vivi in tow they pursue her. On the way, Alph, Theo, Leon, Cecille, Saki and Nikolai learn that the planet is itself a sentient being: it is able to sense danger to itself, hence the recent earthquakes. They then find Lucia surrounded by monsters and rescue her. Fortunately, Lucia has found the last item they need to reverse Vanessa's spell: a draconic geode.

text: However, the orbit (and close distance to its star) of Kepler-61b may play a key in preventing it and the hypothetical moon from being habitable. The eccentricity of the planet is 0.25, which means it has an elliptical orbit. Kepler-61b's orbit takes it slightly beyond the inner edge of the habitable zone and then out to the middle of it, which would result in the planet experiencing temperatures of up to  at is closest point in its orbit, and as low as  at its farthest point. These temperatures may vary if Kepler-61b has an intense greenhouse effect, resulting in the planet being too hot to support liquid water altogether.

text: However, the orbit (and close distance to its star) of Kepler-61b may play a key in preventing it and the hypothetical moon from being habitable. The eccentricity of the planet is 0.25, which means it has an elliptical orbit. Kepler-61b's orbit takes it slightly beyond the inner edge of the habitable zone and then out to the middle of it, which would result in the planet experiencing temperatures of up to  at is closest point in its orbit, and as low as  at its farthest point. These temperatures may vary if Kepler-61b has an intense

entity_name: Greenhouse effect

text: greenhouse effect

text: , resulting in the planet being too hot to support liquid water altogether.

text: The iron-rich core region of the Earth is divided into a  radius solid inner core and a  radius liquid outer core. The rotation of the Earth creates convective eddies in the outer core region that cause it to function as a dynamo. This generates a magnetosphere about the Earth that deflects particles from the solar wind, which prevents significant erosion of the atmosphere from sputtering. As heat from the core is transferred outward toward the mantle, the net trend is for the inner boundary of the liquid outer core region to freeze, thereby releasing thermal energy and causing the solid inner core to grow. This iron crystallization process has been ongoing for about a billion years. In the modern era, the radius of the inner core is expanding at an average rate of roughly  per year, at the expense of the outer core. Nearly all of the energy needed to power the dynamo is being supplied by this process of inner core formation.

text: The iron-rich core region of the Earth is divided into a  radius solid

entity_name: Inner core

text: inner core

text: and a  radius liquid

entity_name: Outer core

text: outer core

text: . The rotation of the Earth creates convective eddies in the outer core region that cause it to function as a

entity_name: Dynamo

text: dynamo

text: . This generates a

entity_name: Earth's magnetic field

text: magnetosphere

text: about the Earth that deflects particles from the

entity_name: Solar wind

text: solar wind

text: , which prevents significant erosion of the atmosphere from

entity_name: Sputtering

text: sputtering

text: . As heat from the core is transferred outward toward the mantle, the net trend is for the inner boundary of the liquid outer core region to freeze, thereby releasing thermal energy and causing the solid inner core to grow. This iron crystallization process has been ongoing for about a billion years. In the modern era, the radius of the inner core is expanding at an average rate of roughly  per year, at the expense of the outer core. Nearly all of the energy needed to power the dynamo is being supplied by this process of inner core formation.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: The short film is about a boy who lives and works on a farm. One day when going to sell vegetables at a market, his cart breaks down. Two strangers, a frog and a mole, offer him a strange seed in exchange for the vegetables. The boy accepts and finds that the seed grows into a miniature planet. It continues growing as he tends to it, forming an atmosphere, weather systems and life. After being taken back to the city, he meets the stranger who sold the seed to him, and they release the planet into a galaxy of similar planets, where it will grow  for years until becoming a real planet.

text: In Hellenistic, Vedic, Medieval and Renaissance astrology each house is ruled by the planet that rules the sign on its cusp. For example, if a person has the sign Aries on the cusp of their 7th house, the planet Mars is said to "rule" the 7th house. This means that when a planet is allotted a house, the planet's attributes will have some bearing on the topics related to that house within the life of the individual whose chart is being analyzed. This planet is considered very important for events specifically pertaining to that house's topics; in fact, its placement in the chart will have at least as much influence on the chart as the planets placed within the house. In traditional Western & Hindu astrology, each sign is ruled by one of the 7 visible planets (note that in astrology, the Sun and Moon are considered planets, which literally means wanderers, i.e. wandering stars, as opposed to the fixed stars of the constellations).

text: In Hellenistic,

entity_name: Hindu astrology

text: Vedic

text: , Medieval and Renaissance astrology each house is ruled by the planet that rules the sign on its cusp. For example, if a person has the sign Aries on the cusp of their 7th house, the planet Mars is said to "rule" the 7th house. This means that when a planet is allotted a house, the planet's attributes will have some bearing on the topics related to that house within the life of the individual whose chart is being analyzed. This planet is considered very important for events specifically pertaining to that house's topics; in fact, its placement in the chart will have at least as much influence on the chart as the planets placed within the house. In

entity_name: History of astrology

text: traditional Western & Hindu astrology

text: , each sign is ruled by one of the 7 visible

entity_name: Planet

text: planet

text: s (note that in

entity_name: Astrology

text: astrology

text: , the Sun and Moon are considered

text: planet

text: s, which literally means wanderers, i.e. wandering stars, as opposed to the fixed stars of the constellations).

text: Kepler-26e is a Super-Earth 1573 light years away. It orbits a K or M type star. Its orbital period is 46.8279 days long and orbits at 0.218 AU, placing it on the inner edge of the habitable zone. Because of its proximity to its star, it's probably tidally locked. There would be a small sliver of habitability. Because of its high radius, it probably also has high mass, making it more likely to possess a thick atmosphere, thus making more of the planet habitable due to the greenhouse effect. There are other planets in this system, but none are likely to be habitable.

text: e is a

entity_name: Super‐Earth

text: Super-Earth

entity_name: Light-year

text: light years

text: away. It orbits a

entity_name: K-type main-sequence star

text: K

text: or

entity_name: Red dwarf

text: M

text: type

entity_name: Star

text: star

text: . Its

entity_name: Orbital period

text: orbital period

text: is 46.8279

entity_name: Day

text: day

text: s long and orbits at 0.218 AU, placing it on the inner edge of the

entity_name: Circumstellar habitable zone

text: habitable zone

text: . Because of its proximity to its star, it's probably

entity_name: Tidal locking

text: tidally locked

text: . There would be a small sliver of habitability. Because of its high

entity_name: Radius

text: radius

text: , it probably also has high

entity_name: Mass

text: mass

text: , making it more likely to possess a thick

entity_name: Atmosphere

text: atmosphere

text: , thus making more of the planet habitable due to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . There are other

text: planet

text: s in this system, but none are likely to be habitable.

text: Vakragati means retrograde motion. As the Earth passes by a planet that particular planet appears to move backwards i.e. westward, amid the stars, this phenomenon is called retrograde motion, which motion invariably occurs at a time when that planet is visible for a relatively longer period. the approximate midpoint of which period in respect of the superior planets coincides with opposition and the Earth is between the Sun and that planet. However, retrograde motion of a planet is merely an illusion, the planet only appears to retrograde, actually it does not and in which event if the faster planet is retrograde it can approach the slower planet from a later degree by backward motion which phenomenon is known as - "the applying aspect" in the Western astrology and the "Tajika System".

text: Vakragati means retrograde motion. As the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: passes by a planet that particular planet appears to move backwards i.e. westward, amid the stars, this phenomenon is called retrograde motion, which motion invariably occurs at a time when that planet is visible for a relatively longer period. the approximate midpoint of which period in respect of the superior planets coincides with opposition and the Earth is between the Sun and that planet. However, retrograde motion of a planet is merely an illusion, the planet only appears to retrograde, actually it does not and in which event if the faster planet is retrograde it can approach the slower planet from a later degree by backward motion which phenomenon is known as - "the applying aspect" in the

entity_name: Western astrology

text: Western astrology

text: and the "Tajika System".

text: The flowers are borne singly in leaf axils and lack a stalk. There are 5 overlapping, oblong to lance-shaped, pointed sepals which are  long, glabrous on the outer surface but hairy on the inner side and edges. The petals are  long and are joined at their lower end to form a tube and are shorter than those of most other eremophilas.  The petal tube is lilac-coloured on the outside and white with lilac spots inside.The petal tube and lobes are glabrous on both surfaces except for the lower lobe which has short, flattened hairs and the inside of the tube which is filled with long, soft hairs. The 4 stamens extend slightly beyond the end of the petal tube. Flowering mainly occurs between October and December and is followed by fruits which are oval-shaped,  long and have a hard covering.

text: The flowers are borne singly in leaf axils and lack a stalk. There are 5 overlapping, oblong to lance-shaped, pointed

entity_name: Sepal

text: sepal

text: s which are  long,

entity_name: Glabrousness

text: glabrous

text: on the outer surface but hairy on the inner side and edges. The

entity_name: Petal

text: petal

text: s are  long and are joined at their lower end to form a tube and are shorter than those of most other eremophilas.  The petal tube is lilac-coloured on the outside and white with lilac spots inside.The petal tube and lobes are glabrous on both surfaces except for the lower lobe which has short, flattened hairs and the inside of the tube which is filled with long, soft hairs. The 4 stamens extend slightly beyond the end of the petal tube. Flowering mainly occurs between October and December and is followed by fruits which are oval-shaped,  long and have a hard covering.

text: Earth has an outer shell made of a number of discrete, moving tectonic plates floating on a solid convective mantle above a liquid core. The mantle's flow is driven by the descent of cold tectonic plates during subduction and the complementary ascent of plumes of hot material from lower levels. The surface of the earth reflects stretching, thickening and bending of the tectonic plates as they interact.

text: The early Solar System may have begun with five giant planets. In numerical simulations of the jumping-Jupiter scenario the ice giant is often ejected following its gravitational encounters with Jupiter and Saturn, leaving planetary systems that begin with four giant planets with only three. Although beginning with a higher-mass planetesimal disk was found to stabilize four-planet systems, the massive disk either resulted in excess migration of Jupiter and Saturn after the encounters between an ice giant and Jupiter or prevented these encounters by damping eccentricities. This problem led David Nesvorný to investigate planetary systems beginning with five giant planets. After conducting thousands of simulations he reported that simulations beginning with five giant planets were 10 times as likely to reproduce the current orbits of the outer planets. A follow-up study by David Nesvorny and Alessandro Morbidelli sought initial resonant configurations that would would reproduce the semi-major axis of the four outer planets, Jupiter's eccentricity, and a jump from <2.1 to >2.3 in Jupiter's and Saturn's period ratio. While less than 1% of the best four-planet models met these criteria roughly 5% of the best five-planet models were judged successful, with Jupiter's eccentricity being the most difficult to reproduce. A separate study by Konstantin Batygin and Michael Brown found similar probabilities (4% vs 3%) of reproducing the current outer Solar System beginning with four or five giant planets using the best initial conditions. Their simulations differed in that the planetesimal disk was placed close to the outer planet resulting in a period of migration before planetary encounters began. Criteria included reproducing the the oscillations of Jupiter's and Saturn's eccentricities, a period when Neptune's eccentricity exceeded 0.2 during which hot classical Kuiper belt objects were captured, and the retention of a primordial cold classical Kuiper belt, but not the jump in Jupiter's and Saturn's period ratio. Their results also indicate that if Neptune's eccentricity exceeded 0.2, preserving a cold classical belt may require the ice giant to be ejected in as little as 10,000 years.

text: The early Solar System may have begun with five giant planets. In numerical simulations of the jumping-Jupiter scenario the ice giant is often

entity_name: Rogue planet

text: ejected

text: following its gravitational encounters with Jupiter and Saturn, leaving

entity_name: Planetary system

text: planetary system

text: s that begin with four giant planets with only three. Although beginning with a higher-mass planetesimal disk was found to stabilize four-planet systems, the massive disk either resulted in excess migration of Jupiter and Saturn after the encounters between an ice giant and Jupiter or prevented these encounters by damping eccentricities. This problem led David Nesvorný to investigate planetary systems beginning with five giant planets. After conducting thousands of simulations he reported that simulations beginning with five giant planets were 10 times as likely to reproduce the current orbits of the outer planets. A follow-up study by David Nesvorny and Alessandro Morbidelli sought initial resonant configurations that would would reproduce the semi-major axis of the four outer planets, Jupiter's eccentricity, and a jump from <2.1 to >2.3 in Jupiter's and Saturn's period ratio. While less than 1% of the best four-planet models met these criteria roughly 5% of the best five-planet models were judged successful, with Jupiter's eccentricity being the most difficult to reproduce. A separate study by

entity_name: Konstantin Batygin

text: Konstantin Batygin

text: and Michael Brown found similar probabilities (4% vs 3%) of reproducing the current outer Solar System beginning with four or five giant planets using the best initial conditions. Their simulations differed in that the planetesimal disk was placed close to the outer planet resulting in a period of migration before planetary encounters began. Criteria included reproducing the the oscillations of Jupiter's and Saturn's eccentricities, a period when Neptune's eccentricity exceeded 0.2 during which hot classical Kuiper belt objects were captured, and the retention of a primordial

entity_name: Classical Kuiper belt object

text: cold classical Kuiper belt

text: , but not the jump in Jupiter's and Saturn's period ratio. Their results also indicate that if Neptune's eccentricity exceeded 0.2, preserving a cold classical belt may require the ice giant to be ejected in as little as 10,000 years.

text: Growth of the inner core is thought to play an important role in the generation of Earth's magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core. This occurs mostly because it cannot dissolve the same amount of light elements as the outer core and therefore freezing at the inner core boundary produces a residual liquid that contains more light elements than the overlying liquid. This causes it to become buoyant and helps drive convection of the outer core. The existence of the inner core also changes the dynamic motions of liquid in the outer core as it grows and may help fix the magnetic field since it is expected to be a great deal more resistant to flow than the outer core liquid (which is expected to be turbulent).

text: Growth of the inner core is thought to play an important role in the generation of

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: by

entity_name: Dynamo theory

text: dynamo

text: action in the liquid outer core. This occurs mostly because it cannot dissolve the same amount of light elements as the outer core and therefore freezing at the inner core boundary produces a residual liquid that contains more light elements than the overlying liquid. This causes it to become

entity_name: Buoyancy

text: buoyant

text: and helps drive convection of the outer core. The existence of the inner core also changes the dynamic motions of liquid in the outer core as it grows and may help fix the magnetic field since it is expected to be a great deal more resistant to flow than the outer core liquid (which is expected to be turbulent).

text: The world's oceans are made up of many different water masses. Each have particular temperature and salinity characteristics as a result of the location in which they formed. Once formed at a particular source, a water mass will travel some distance via large-scale ocean circulation. Typically, the flow of water in the ocean is described as turbulent (i.e. it doesn't follow straight lines). Water masses can travel across the ocean as turbulent eddies, or parcels of water usually along constant density (isopycnic) surfaces where the expenditure of energy is smallest. When these turbulent eddies of different water masses interact, they will mix together. With enough mixing, some stable equilibrium is reached and a mixed layer is formed. Turbulent eddies can also be produced from wind stress by the atmosphere on the ocean. This kind of interaction and mixing through buoyancy at the surface of the ocean also plays a role in the formation of a surface mixed layer.

text: The world's oceans are made up of many different

entity_name: Water mass

text: water mass

text: es. Each have particular temperature and salinity characteristics as a result of the location in which they formed. Once formed at a particular source, a water mass will travel some distance via large-scale ocean circulation. Typically, the flow of water in the ocean is described as turbulent (i.e. it doesn't follow straight lines). Water masses can travel across the ocean as turbulent eddies, or parcels of water usually along constant density (isopycnic) surfaces where the expenditure of energy is smallest. When these turbulent eddies of different water masses interact, they will mix together. With enough mixing, some stable equilibrium is reached and a mixed layer is formed. Turbulent eddies can also be produced from wind stress by the atmosphere on the ocean. This kind of interaction and mixing through buoyancy at the surface of the ocean also plays a role in the formation of a surface mixed layer.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: In Roman Egypt during the 2nd century CE, Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy) attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Observations of Mars had shown that the planet appeared to move 40% faster on one side of its orbit than the other, in conflict with the Aristotelian model of uniform motion. Ptolemy modified the model of planetary motion by adding a point offset from the center of the planet's circular orbit about which the planet moves at a uniform rate of rotation. He proposed that the order of the planets, by increasing distance, was: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection Almagest, which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries.

text: In

entity_name: Egypt (Roman province)

text: Roman Egypt

text: during the 2nd century CE,

entity_name: Ptolemy

text: Claudius Ptolemaeus

text: (Ptolemy) attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars. Observations of Mars had shown that the planet appeared to move 40% faster on one side of its orbit than the other, in conflict with the Aristotelian model of uniform motion. Ptolemy modified the model of planetary motion by adding a

entity_name: Equant

text: point offset

text: from the center of the planet's circular orbit about which the planet moves at a uniform

entity_name: Angular velocity

text: rate of rotation

text: . He proposed that the order of the planets, by increasing distance, was: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the fixed stars. Ptolemy's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi-volume collection

entity_name: Almagest

text: Almagest

text: , which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries.

text: However, it was still not understood where the huge forces that moved the nappes came from. Only with the arrival of plate tectonic theory in the 1950s an explanation was found. In plate tectonics, the horizontal movement of tectonic plates over the Earth's soft asthenosphere causes horizontal forces within the crust. Presently, geologists believe most mountain chains are formed by convergent movements between tectonic plates.

text: However, it was still not understood where the huge forces that moved the nappes came from. Only with the arrival of

entity_name: Plate tectonics

text: plate tectonic theory

text: in the 1950s an explanation was found. In plate tectonics, the horizontal movement of

text: tectonic plate

text: s over the Earth's soft

entity_name: Asthenosphere

text: asthenosphere

text: causes horizontal forces within the crust. Presently, geologists believe most mountain chains are formed by convergent movements between tectonic plates.

text: Araouane has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) typical of the Tombouctou Region, characterized by a pronounced lack of rainfall and extreme heat. It lies in one of the hottest regions on the planet in the western section of the Sahara Desert, and thus, is obviously one of the hottest locations on Earth. The average annual rainfall barely reaches 45 mm (1,77 in) but is extremely variable from year to year and mostly fall between July and September, inclusively. The annual mean temperature is about 29 °C (84.2 °F). Averages highs exceed 42.8 °C (109 °F) during six consecutive months from April to September, inclusively, and reach an extreme peak of 46.6 °C (115.9 °F).

text: Araouane has a

entity_name: Desert climate

entity_section: Hot desert climates

text: hot desert climate

entity_name: Köppen climate classification

text: Köppen climate classification

text: BWh) typical of the Tombouctou Region, characterized by a pronounced lack of rainfall and extreme heat. It lies in one of the hottest regions on the planet in the western section of the Sahara Desert, and thus, is obviously one of the hottest locations on Earth. The average annual rainfall barely reaches 45 mm (1,77 in) but is extremely variable from year to year and mostly fall between July and September, inclusively. The annual mean temperature is about 29 °C (84.2 °F). Averages highs exceed 42.8 °C (109 °F) during six consecutive months from April to September, inclusively, and reach an extreme peak of 46.6 °C (115.9 °F).

text: Some of the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and other planets are believed to have formed from smaller, circumplanetary analogs of the protoplanetary disks.  The formation of planets and moons in geometrically thin, gas- and dust-rich disks is the reason the planets are arranged in an ecliptic plane. Tens of millions of years after the formation of the Solar System, the inner few AU of the Solar System likely contained dozens of moon- to Mars-sized bodies that were accreting and consolidating into the terrestrial planets that we now see. The Earth's moon likely formed after a Mars-sized protoplanet obliquely impacted the proto-Earth ~30 million years after the formation of the Solar System.

text: Some of the moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and other planets are believed to have formed from smaller, circumplanetary analogs of the protoplanetary disks.  The formation of planets and moons in geometrically thin, gas- and dust-rich disks is the reason the

text: planets

text: are arranged in an

entity_name: Ecliptic

text: ecliptic plane

text: . Tens of millions of years after the formation of the Solar System, the inner few AU of the Solar System likely contained dozens of moon- to Mars-sized bodies that were accreting and consolidating into the terrestrial planets that we now see. The Earth's moon likely formed after a Mars-sized protoplanet obliquely

entity_name: Giant-impact hypothesis

text: impacted

text: the proto-Earth ~30 million years after the formation of the Solar System.

text: Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the earth’s crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause earthquakes.

text: Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of

text: plate tectonics

text: Tectonic plate

text: s slide very slowly over the

text: Earth

text: 's

entity_name: Mantle (geology)

text: mantle

text: , a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the earth’s crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form

entity_name: Mountain

text: mountain

text: s. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated

entity_name: Rock (geology)

text: rock

text: from the mantle can burst through the

entity_name: Crust (geology)

text: crust

text: to form

entity_name: Volcano

text: volcano

text: es. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause

entity_name: Earthquake

text: earthquake

text: s.

text: The Antarctic Plate is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica and extending outward under the surrounding oceans. After breakup from Gondwana (the southern part of the supercontinent Pangea), the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate. The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional mid-ocean ridge systems. The adjoining plates are the Nazca Plate, the South American Plate, the African Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, the Pacific Plate, and, across a transform boundary, the Scotia Plate.

text: The Antarctic Plate is a

text: tectonic plate

text: containing the

entity_name: Continent

text: continent

text: of

entity_name: Antarctica

text: Antarctica

text: and extending outward under the surrounding

entity_name: Ocean

text: ocean

text: s. After breakup from

entity_name: Gondwana

text: Gondwana

text: (the southern part of the

entity_name: Supercontinent

text: supercontinent

entity_name: Pangaea

text: Pangea

text: ), the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate. The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional

entity_name: Mid-ocean ridge

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: systems. The adjoining plates are the

entity_name: Nazca Plate

text: Nazca Plate

text: , the

entity_name: South American Plate

text: South American Plate

text: , the

entity_name: African Plate

text: African Plate

text: , the

entity_name: Indo-Australian Plate

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: , the

entity_name: Pacific Plate

text: Pacific Plate

text: , and, across a

entity_name: Transform fault

text: transform boundary

text: , the

entity_name: Scotia Plate

text: Scotia Plate

text: Because each monthly chart gives the path of the current on one particular day, the monthly positions are strongly influenced by short period meandering of the Stream. Only annual values of the index which average out this variability can be meaningfully used to look at long-term changes.

text: Geologists generally agree that the following tectonic plates currently exist on the Earth's surface with roughly definable boundaries. Tectonic plates are sometimes subdivided into three fairly arbitrary categories: major (or primary) plates, minor (or secondary) plates, and microplates (or tertiary plates).

text: In the Hipparchian and Ptolemaic systems of astronomy, the epicycle (from , literally on the circle, meaning circle moving on another circle) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in speed and direction of the apparent motion of the Moon, Sun, and planets. In particular it explained the apparent retrograde motion of the five planets known at the time. Secondarily, it also explained changes in the apparent distances of the planets from Earth.

text: In the Hipparchian and

text: Ptolemaic system

text: s of

text: astronomy

text: , the epicycle (from , literally on the circle, meaning circle moving on another circle) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in speed and direction of the apparent motion of the

text: Moon

text: Sun

text: , and

text: planets

text: . In particular it explained the

text: apparent retrograde motion

text: of the five planets known at the time. Secondarily, it also explained changes in the apparent distances of the planets from Earth.

text: Infrared observation has shown there are no bodies of three or more Jupiter masses in this system, out to at least a distance of 500 AU from the host star. Planets with similar masses and temperatures as Jupiter should be detectable by Spitzer at distances beyond 80 AU, but none has been discovered in this range. Planets more than 150% as massive as Jupiter can be ruled out at the inner edge of the debris disk at 30−35 AU.

text: Infrared observation has shown there are no bodies of three or more

text: Jupiter mass

text: es in this system, out to at least a distance of 500 AU from the host star. Planets with similar masses and temperatures as Jupiter should be detectable by Spitzer at distances beyond 80 AU, but none has been discovered in this range. Planets more than 150% as massive as Jupiter can be ruled out at the inner edge of the debris disk at 30−35 AU.

text: Observations of females in this wild population have revealed, contrary to laboratory populations, activity patterns are crepuscular rather than nocturnal, possibly to avoid nocturnal predators such as owls.Owls, however, have also evolved to hunt at dusk and dawn, and even during the day on rare occasions, so the predator avoidance advantage may not apply to owls in particular. Another theory is that hamsters, which are extremely sensitive to temperature fluctuations, may be crepuscular to avoid the extreme temperatures of full daylight and night time temperatures.

text: Observations of females in this wild population have revealed, contrary to laboratory populations, activity patterns are

text: crepuscular

text: rather than

text: nocturnal

text: , possibly to avoid nocturnal predators such as owls.Owls, however, have also evolved to hunt at dusk and dawn, and even during the day on rare occasions, so the predator avoidance advantage may not apply to owls in particular. Another theory is that hamsters, which are extremely sensitive to temperature fluctuations, may be crepuscular to avoid the extreme temperatures of full daylight and night time temperatures.

text: Jupiter's grand tack resolves the Mars problem by limiting the material available to form Mars. The Mars problem is a conflict between some simulations of the formation of the terrestrial planets, which when begun with planetesimals distributed throughout the inner Solar System, end with a 0.5–1.0 Earth-mass planet in its region, much larger than the actual mass of Mars, 0.107 Earth-mass. Jupiter's inward migration alters this distribution of material, driving planetesimals inward to form a narrow dense band with a mix of materials inside 1.0 AU, and leaving the Mars region largely empty. Planetary embryos quickly form in the narrow band. While most later collide and merge to form the larger terrestrial planets, some are scattered outside the band. These scattered embryos, deprived of additional material slowing their growth, form the lower mass terrestrial planets Mars and Mercury.

text: Jupiter's grand tack resolves the Mars problem by limiting the material available to form Mars. The Mars problem is a conflict between some simulations of the formation of the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s, which when begun with planetesimals distributed throughout the inner Solar System, end with a 0.5–1.0 Earth-mass planet in its region, much larger than the actual mass of Mars, 0.107 Earth-mass. Jupiter's inward migration alters this distribution of material, driving planetesimals inward to form a narrow dense band with a mix of materials inside 1.0 AU, and leaving the Mars region largely empty. Planetary embryos quickly form in the narrow band. While most later collide and merge to form the larger terrestrial planets, some are scattered outside the band. These scattered embryos, deprived of additional material slowing their growth, form the lower mass terrestrial planets Mars and

text: Mercury

text: The geology of Mars is differentiable from that of Earth by, among other things, its extremely large volcanoes and lack of crust movement. A goal of the MEP is to understand these differences from Earth along with the way that wind, water, volcanoes, tectonics, cratering and other processes have shaped the surface of Mars. Rocks can help scientists describe the sequence of events in Mars' history, tell whether there was an abundance of water on the planet through identifying minerals that are formed only in water, and tell if Mars once had a magnetic field (which would point toward Mars at one point being a dynamic Earth-like planet).

text: The

text: geology of Mars

text: is differentiable from that of Earth by, among other things, its extremely large volcanoes and lack of crust movement. A goal of the MEP is to understand these differences from Earth along with the way that wind, water, volcanoes, tectonics,

text: cratering

text: and other processes have shaped the surface of Mars. Rocks can help scientists describe the sequence of events in Mars' history, tell whether there was an abundance of water on the planet through identifying minerals that are formed only in water, and tell if Mars once had a

text: magnetic field

text: (which would point toward Mars at one point being a dynamic Earth-like planet).

text: The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than Earth expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water  (silica and water form a deep eutectic.)

text: The appearance of plate tectonics on

text: terrestrial planet

text: s is related to planetary mass, with

text: more massive planets than Earth

text: expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water  (silica and water form a deep

text: eutectic

text: A planet (likely a gas giant) with an inner satellite system.

text: A planet (likely a

text: gas giant

text: ) with an inner satellite system.

text: The planet would likely be inhospitable because of a runaway greenhouse effect on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would have boiled away due to the high stellar flux, and as this occurred, the temperature would have risen to around . The water vapor would have accumulated in the atmosphere to the point where the surface temperature would rise to around  as the planet would have been overwhelmed by water vapor—a powerful greenhouse gas. Little amounts of carbon dioxide would have been present, as HD 85512 b was probably an ocean planet (with little to no landmasses) very shortly after its star was formed into the main sequence, before the stellar flux increased to its estimated present state. The surface pressure would have also increased to about 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100 kilopascals, 100 atm) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Thus, HD 85512 b is likely a desert planet rather than an ocean planet because of the increased stellar flux.

text: The planet would likely be inhospitable because of a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would have boiled away due to the high stellar flux, and as this occurred, the temperature would have risen to around . The

text: water vapor

text: would have accumulated in the atmosphere to the point where the surface temperature would rise to around  as the planet would have been overwhelmed by water vapor—a powerful greenhouse gas. Little amounts of

text: carbon dioxide

text: would have been present, as HD 85512 b was probably an

text: ocean planet

text: (with little to no landmasses) very shortly after its star was formed into the

text: main sequence

text: , before the stellar flux increased to its estimated present state. The surface pressure would have also increased to about 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100

text: kilopascal

text: s, 100

text: atm

text: ) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Thus, HD 85512 b is likely a

text: desert planet

text: rather than an ocean planet because of the increased stellar flux.

text: Herzberg pointed out direct evidence of H molecules in the atmospheres of the outer planets. The atmospheres of the inner planets (including Earth) and of Saturn's big moon Titan show strong CIA in the infrared, due to concentrations of molecular gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. exist. In more recent years extrasolar planetswere discovered, whose atmospheres are hot (thousand kelvin or more), but resemble otherwise Jupiter's atmosphere (mixtures of mostly H and He), where strong CIA exists.

text: Herzberg pointed out direct evidence of H molecules in the atmospheres of the

text: outer planets

text: . The atmospheres of the inner planets (including Earth) and of

text: Saturn

text: 's big moon

text: Titan

text: show strong CIA in the infrared, due to concentrations of molecular gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. exist. In more recent years extrasolar planetswere discovered, whose atmospheres are hot (thousand

text: kelvin

text: or more), but resemble otherwise Jupiter's atmosphere (mixtures of mostly H and He), where strong CIA exists.

text: A large satellite also increases the likelihood of plate tectonics through the effect of tidal forces on the planet's crust. The impact that formed the Moon may also have initiated plate tectonics, without which the continental crust would cover the entire planet, leaving no room for oceanic crust. It is possible that the large scale mantle convection needed to drive plate tectonics could not have emerged in the absence of crustal inhomogeneity.

text: A large satellite also increases the likelihood of

text: plate tectonics

text: through the effect of

text: tidal force

text: s on the planet's crust. The impact that formed the Moon may also have initiated plate tectonics, without which the

text: continental crust

text: would cover the entire planet, leaving no room for

text: oceanic crust

text: . It is possible that the large scale

text: mantle convection

text: needed to drive plate tectonics could not have emerged in the absence of crustal inhomogeneity.

text: The accretion disk of the protostar IRAS 16293-2422 has parts rotating in opposite directions. This is the first known example of a counterrotating accretion disk. When its planets form, the inner planets will orbit in the opposite direction to the outer planets.

text: The

text: accretion disk

text: of the protostar

text: IRAS 16293-2422

text: has parts rotating in opposite directions. This is the first known example of a counterrotating accretion disk. When its planets form, the inner planets will orbit in the opposite direction to the outer planets.

text: The inner core is solid, the outer core is liquid, and the mantle solid/plastic. This is because of the relative melting points of the different layers (nickel–iron core, silicate crust and mantle) and the increase in temperature and pressure as depth increases. At the surface both nickel–iron alloys and silicates are sufficiently cool to be solid. In the upper mantle, the silicates are generally solid (localised regions with small amounts of melt exist); however, as the upper mantle is both hot and under relatively little pressure, the rock in the upper mantle has a relatively low viscosity. In contrast, the lower mantle is under tremendous pressure and therefore has a higher viscosity than the upper mantle. The metallic nickel–iron outer core is liquid because of the high temperature, despite the high pressure. As the pressure increases, the nickel–iron inner core becomes solid because the melting point of iron increases dramatically at these high pressures.

text: The inner core is solid, the outer core is liquid, and the mantle solid/plastic. This is because of the relative melting points of the different layers (nickel–iron core, silicate crust and mantle) and the increase in temperature and pressure as depth increases. At the surface both nickel–iron alloys and silicates are sufficiently cool to be solid. In the upper mantle, the silicates are generally solid (localised regions with small amounts of melt exist); however, as the upper mantle is both hot and under relatively little pressure, the rock in the upper mantle has a relatively low

text: viscosity

text: . In contrast, the lower mantle is under tremendous pressure and therefore has a higher viscosity than the upper mantle. The metallic nickel–iron outer core is liquid because of the high temperature, despite the high pressure. As the pressure increases, the nickel–iron inner core becomes solid because the melting point of iron

text: increases dramatically

text: at these high pressures.

text: Using the radial velocity technique, the search for substellar companions has thus far failed to find a brown dwarf or extrasolar planet in the "hot zone" orbit around Kappa Ceti.  Given the regular eruption of superflares, however, it is unlikely that Earth-type life could survive for long on any inner terrestrial planet.  The distance from the star where an Earth-type planet (with liquid water) would be stable is centered on 0.92 astronomical units from the star (between the orbital distances of Earth and Venus in the Solar system). At this distance, such a planet would have an orbital period of almost 324 days.

text: Using the

text: radial velocity

text: technique, the search for substellar companions has thus far failed to find a

text: brown dwarf

text: or

text: extrasolar planet

text: in the "

text: hot zone

text: " orbit around Kappa Ceti.  Given the regular eruption of superflares, however, it is unlikely that Earth-type life could survive for long on any inner

text: terrestrial planet

text: .  The distance from the star where an Earth-type planet (with liquid water) would be stable is centered on 0.92

text: astronomical unit

text: s from the star (between the orbital distances of

text: Earth

text: and

text: Venus

text: in the

text: Solar system

text: ). At this distance, such a planet would have an orbital period of almost 324

text: day

text: s.

text: HR 8799 b is an extrasolar planet located approximately 129 light-years away in the constellation of Pegasus, orbiting the 6th magnitude Lambda Boötis star HR 8799.  It has a mass between 4 and 7 Jupiter masses and a radius from 10 to 30% larger than Jupiter's. It orbits at 68 AU from HR 8799 (or 7 AU inside the inner edge of the dust disk orbiting the star) with an unknown eccentricity and a period of 460 years, and is the outermost known planet in the HR 8799 system.  Along with two other planets orbiting HR 8799, the planet was discovered on November 13, 2008 by Marois et al., using the Keck and Gemini observatories in Hawaii.  These planets were discovered using the direct imaging technique.

text: HR 8799 b is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: located approximately 129

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Pegasus

text: , orbiting the 6th

text: magnitude

text: Lambda Boötis star

text: HR 8799

text: .  It has a mass between 4 and 7

text: Jupiter mass

text: es and a radius from 10 to 30% larger than

text: Jupiter

text: 's. It orbits at 68

text: AU

text: from HR 8799 (or 7 AU inside the inner edge of the

text: dust disk

text: orbiting the star) with an unknown eccentricity and a period of 460 years, and is the outermost known planet in the HR 8799 system.  Along with two other planets orbiting HR 8799, the planet was discovered on November 13, 2008 by Marois et al., using the

text: Keck

text: and

text: Gemini observatories

text: in

text: Hawaii

text: .  These planets were discovered using the

text: direct imaging

text: technique.

text: The relatively recent study of plate tectonics has discovered that Asia has several regions that would be considered distinct landmasses if strictly geologic and tectonic criteria were used (for example, South Asia and East Asia). Definition of continental plates is the realm of geologists. Strictly in terms of geological landmasses or tectonic plates, Europe is a western peninsula of Eurasia and of the Africa-Eurasia landmass. In the latter, Europe and Asia are parts of the Eurasian plate, which excludes the Arabian and Indian tectonic plates.

text: The relatively recent study of

text: plate tectonics

text: has discovered that Asia has several regions that would be considered distinct landmasses if strictly geologic and tectonic criteria were used (for example, South Asia and East Asia). Definition of

text: continental plates

text: is the realm of

text: geologists

text: . Strictly in terms of geological landmasses or tectonic plates, Europe is a western peninsula of

text: Eurasia

text: and of the Africa-Eurasia landmass. In the latter, Europe and Asia are parts of the Eurasian plate, which excludes the Arabian and Indian tectonic plates.

text: The inferior planet mechanism includes the sun (treated as a planet in this context), Mercury, and Venus. For each of the three systems there is an epicyclic gear whose axis is mounted on b1, thus the basic frequency is the Earth year (as it is, in truth, for epicyclic motion in the sun and all the planets—excepting only the moon). Each meshes with a gear grounded to the mechanism frame. Each has a pin mounted, potentially on an extension of one side of the gear that enlarges the gear, but doesn't interfere with the teeth; in some cases the needed distance between the gear's centre and the pin is farther than the radius of the gear itself. A bar with a slot along its length extends from the pin toward the appropriate coaxial tube, at whose other end is the object pointer, out in front of the front dials. The bars could have been full gears, although there is no need for the waste of metal, since the only working part is the slot. Also, using the bars avoids interference between the three mechanisms, each of which are set on one of the four spokes of b1. Thus there is one new grounded gear (one was identified in the wreckage, and the second is shared by two of the planets), one gear used to reverse the direction of the sun anomaly, three epicyclic gears and three bars/coaxial tubes/pointers, which would qualify as another gear each. Five gears and three slotted bars in all.

text: All the inner satellites of Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have very dark surfaces with an albedo between 0.06 (Metis) and 0.10 (Adrastea). Saturn's satellites, in contrast, have very bright surfaces, with albedos between 0.4 and 0.6. This is thought to be because their surfaces are being coated with fresh ice particles swept up from the ring system within which they orbit. The inner satellites around the other planets may have been darkened by space weathering. None of the known inner satellites possesses an atmosphere.

text: All the inner satellites of Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have very dark surfaces with an

text: albedo

text: between 0.06 (

text: Metis

text: ) and 0.10 (

text: Adrastea

text: ). Saturn's satellites, in contrast, have very bright surfaces, with albedos between 0.4 and 0.6. This is thought to be because their surfaces are being coated with fresh ice particles swept up from the ring system within which they orbit. The inner satellites around the other planets may have been darkened by

text: space weathering

text: . None of the known inner satellites possesses an atmosphere.

text: The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, which ride on the fluid-like (visco-elastic solid) asthenosphere. Plate motions range up to a typical 10–40 mm/year (Mid-Atlantic Ridge; about as fast as fingernails grow), to about 160 mm/year (Nazca Plate; about as fast as hair grows). The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below.

text: The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct

text: tectonic plate

text: s, which ride on the fluid-like (

text: visco-elastic

text: solid) asthenosphere. Plate motions range up to a typical 10–40 mm/year (

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: ; about as fast as

text: fingernail

text: s grow), to about 160 mm/year (

text: Nazca Plate

text: ; about as fast as

text: hair

text: grows). The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below.

text: The exoskeleton of Anabaraspis is relatively flat, oval to inverted egg-shaped. The glabella subpentagonal with a blunt frontal tip, and widest near the back of the frontal lobe. The glabella is divided into three rings by furrows that cross the midline, although the most frontal of these is shallow in the middle. In front of that may be two faint sets of furrows that do not cross-over. The area in front of the glabella is relatively long (about ⅓× the length of the glabella), and not differentiated into a preglabellar field and the anterior border. The facial suture in front of the eye is long and strongly divergent, while the portion behind the eye isshort. The genal spine is short and stout. The articulate middle part of the body (or thorax) has 15 to 18 segments with long, sickle-shaped spines. The inner part of the ribs is about as wide as the axis. The tailshield (or pygidium) is longer than wide, slightly hexagonal, with a long, flat posterior area. The rear margin of the pygidium is truncate or indented. The pygidial axis is short, with 1 axial ring. The surface is smooth.

text: The

text: exoskeleton

text: of Anabaraspis is relatively flat, oval to inverted egg-shaped. The glabella subpentagonal with a blunt frontal tip, and widest near the back of the frontal lobe. The glabella is divided into three rings by furrows that cross the midline, although the most frontal of these is shallow in the middle. In front of that may be two faint sets of furrows that do not cross-over. The area in front of the glabella is relatively long (about ⅓× the length of the glabella), and not differentiated into a preglabellar field and the anterior border. The facial suture in front of the eye is long and strongly divergent, while the portion behind the eye isshort. The genal spine is short and stout. The articulate middle part of the body (or

text: thorax

text: ) has 15 to 18 segments with long, sickle-shaped spines. The inner part of the ribs is about as wide as the axis. The tailshield (or

text: pygidium

text: ) is longer than wide, slightly hexagonal, with a long, flat posterior area. The rear margin of the pygidium is truncate or indented. The pygidial axis is short, with 1 axial ring. The surface is smooth.

text: The inner satellites are small in comparison with the major moons of their respective planets. All are too small to have attained a gravitationally-collapsed spheroidal shape. Many are highly elongated, such as for example, Amalthea, which is twice as long as wide. By far the largest of the inner satellites is Proteus, which is about 440 km across in its longest dimension and close to spherical, but not spherical enough to be considered a gravitationally collapsed shape. Most known inner satellites are 50 to 200 km across, while the smallest confirmed is Daphnis at 6 to 8 km in size. Unconfirmed bodies orbiting close to Saturn's F ring, such as S/2004 S 6, may be somewhat smaller moons, if they are not transient clumps of dust instead. The Cassini spacecraft has recently found indications (small dusty rings) that even smaller moonlets may be orbiting in the Cassini Division. The size of the smallest known inner moons around the outer planets increases with distance from the Sun, but this trend is thought to be due to increasingly difficult lighting and observing conditions rather than any physical trend. Smaller inner moons may eventually be discovered.

text: The inner satellites are small in comparison with the major moons of their respective planets. All are too small to have attained a gravitationally-collapsed spheroidal shape. Many are highly elongated, such as for example, Amalthea, which is twice as long as wide. By far the largest of the inner satellites is Proteus, which is about 440 km across in its longest dimension and close to spherical, but not spherical enough to be considered a gravitationally collapsed shape. Most known inner satellites are 50 to 200 km across, while the smallest confirmed is Daphnis at 6 to 8 km in size. Unconfirmed bodies orbiting close to Saturn's

text: F ring

text: , such as

text: S/2004 S 6

text: , may be somewhat smaller moons, if they are not transient clumps of dust instead. The

text: Cassini spacecraft

text: has recently found indications (small dusty rings) that even smaller moonlets may be orbiting in the

text: Cassini Division

text: . The size of the smallest known inner moons around the outer planets increases with distance from the Sun, but this trend is thought to be due to increasingly difficult lighting and observing conditions rather than any physical trend. Smaller inner moons may eventually be discovered.

text: Planetary surfaces are found throughout the Solar System, from the inner terrestrial planets, to the asteroid belt, the natural satellites of the gas giant planets and beyond to the Trans-Neptunian objects.  Surface conditions, temperatures and terrain vary significantly due to a number of factors including Albedo often generated by the surfaces itself.  Measures of surface conditions include surface area, surface gravity, surface temperature and surface pressure. Surface stability may be affected by erosion through Aeolian processes, hydrology, subduction, volcanism, sediment or seismic activity. Some surfaces are dynamic while others remain unchanged for millions of years.

text: Planetary surfaces are found throughout the

text: Solar System

text: , from the inner

text: terrestrial planet

text: s, to the

text: asteroid belt

text: , the natural satellites of the

text: gas giant

text: planets and beyond to the

text: Trans-Neptunian object

text: s.  Surface conditions, temperatures and

text: terrain

text: vary significantly due to a number of factors including

text: Albedo

text: often generated by the surfaces itself.  Measures of surface conditions include

text: surface area

text: surface gravity

text: surface temperature

text: and

text: surface pressure

text: . Surface stability may be affected by erosion through

text: Aeolian processes

text: hydrology

text: subduction

text: volcanism

text: sediment

text: or

text: seismic

text: activity. Some surfaces are dynamic while others remain unchanged for millions of years.

text: Surface devices have an internal microphone and speakers optimized for the Cortana intelligent personal assistant feature included on Windows 10 devices.

text: Surface devices have an internal microphone and speakers optimized for the

text: Cortana

text: intelligent personal assistant

text: feature included on Windows 10 devices.

text: In 2002, further measurements revealed the presence of a long-period planet in an orbit at around 5 AU from the star. The same measurements also indicated the presence of another inner planet, designated 55 Cancri c.

text: In 2002, further measurements revealed the presence of a long-period planet in an orbit at around 5

text: AU

text: from the star. The same measurements also indicated the presence of another inner planet, designated

text: 55 Cancri c

text: Lōihi Seamount (also known as Loihi) is an active submarine volcano located about  off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii. The top of the seamount is about  below sea level. This seamount lies on the flank of Mauna Loa, the largest shield volcano on Earth. Lōihi, meaning "long" in Hawaiian, is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, a string of volcanoes that stretches over  northwest of Lōihi. Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Lōihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary. Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot, and as the youngest volcano in the chain, Lōihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development.

text: Lōihi Seamount (also known as Loihi) is an active

text: submarine volcano

text: located about  off the southeast coast of the island of

text: Hawaii

text: . The top of the seamount is about  below

text: sea level

text: . This seamount lies on the flank of

text: Mauna Loa

text: , the largest

text: shield volcano

text: on Earth. Lōihi, meaning "long" in Hawaiian, is the newest volcano in the

text: Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain

text: , a string of volcanoes that stretches over  northwest of Lōihi. Unlike most active volcanoes in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: that make up the active

text: plate margins

text: on the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: , Lōihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain are

text: hotspot volcanoes

text: and formed well away from the nearest

text: plate boundary

text: . Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the

text: Hawaii hotspot

text: , and as the youngest volcano in the chain, Lōihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine

text: preshield stage

text: of development.

text: Kridsadaporn is amongst another group of bodies [Mars-crossing (MC) and/or near-Earth object (NEO) populations] that may have originated from the main asteroid belt as fragments injected into a mean-motion resonance or secular resonance, developing increasingly higher orbital eccentricity over time resulting in the perihelion distance becoming smaller than the aphelion distances of the inner planets. At their birth, near-earth asteroids (NEAs) and MC orbits are in resonance, and when their orbital eccentricity becomes large enough, to the point that their orbits cross those of the inner planets, their orbits then become modified in a random-walk fashion. This results in a complex interplay between planetary encounters and resonances which may lead to a range of unexpected outcomes including cometary-type orbits; solar collisions; or, eventual ejection from the Solar System.

text: Kridsadaporn is amongst another group of bodies [Mars-crossing (MC) and/or near-Earth object (NEO) populations] that may have originated from the

text: main asteroid belt

text: as fragments injected into a

text: mean-motion resonance

text: or

text: secular resonance

text: , developing increasingly higher orbital eccentricity over time resulting in the

text: perihelion distance

text: becoming smaller than the

text: aphelion distances

text: of the

text: inner planets

text: . At their birth, near-earth asteroids (NEAs) and MC orbits are in resonance, and when their orbital eccentricity becomes large enough, to the point that their orbits cross those of the inner planets, their orbits then become modified in a

text: random-walk fashion

text: . This results in a complex interplay between planetary encounters and resonances which may lead to a range of unexpected outcomes including cometary-type orbits; solar collisions; or, eventual ejection from the

text: Solar System

text: Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn. Frequently described as a planet-like moon, Titan's diameter is 50% larger than Earth's natural satellite, the Moon, and it is 80% more massive. It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System, after Jupiter's moon Ganymede, and is larger than the smallest planet, Mercury, although only 40% as massive. Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens,  Titan was the first known moon of Saturn, and the sixth known planetary satellite. Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii. From Titan's surface Saturn subtends an arc of 5.7 degrees and would appear 11.4 times the size our moon does to us.

text: Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from

text: Saturn

text: . Frequently described as a planet-like moon, Titan's diameter is 50% larger than Earth's natural satellite, the

text: Moon

text: , and it is 80% more massive. It is the

text: second-largest moon

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: , after Jupiter's moon

text: Ganymede

text: , and is larger than the smallest planet,

text: Mercury

text: , although only 40% as massive. Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: ,  Titan was the first known moon of Saturn, and the sixth known planetary satellite. Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii. From Titan's surface Saturn subtends an arc of 5.7 degrees and would appear 11.4 times the size our moon does to us.

text: An error of about 1000 light-seconds is over 1% of a light-day, which can be a significant error when measuring temporal phenomena for short period astronomical objects over long time intervals. To clarify this issue, the ordinary Julian day is sometimes referred to as the Geocentric Julian Day (GJD) in order to distinguish it from HJD.

text: The game starts the player with a 5th level character. The available classes are: Clerics, Fighters, Paladins, Rangers, Mages, and Thieves. There are three main parts to the game: docked at a planet, in space travel and ship-to-ship combat, and on-board personal combat. When at a planet, various text menus allowed the player to buy and sell cargo, repair and upgrade their ship, buy and sell character equipment, and seek missions. A rudimentary trade system allowed players to make money shipping goods from planet to planet, and some key planets had more options for ship repairs and equipment. In space, the player can travel from planet to planet, or simply point the ship in any direction and go. Real-time ship-to-ship combat using ballistae and catapults takes place in a simple 3D view. The player can steer his ship to aim the weapons at his enemy, and to try to avoid enemy missiles. The occasional meteor storm is a minor hazard while spelljamming.

text: Kepler-421b is an exoplanet that, as of July 2014, has the longest known year of any transiting planet (704 days), although not as long as the planets that have been directly imaged, or many of the planets found by the radial-velocity method, or as long as some transiting planet candidates which are listed as planets in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia (KIC 5010054 b etc.). It is the first transiting-planet found near the snow-line.

text: Kepler-421b is an

text: exoplanet

text: that, as of July 2014, has the longest known

text: year

text: of any

text: transiting planet

text: (704 days), although not as long as the planets that have been

text: directly imaged

text: , or many of the planets found by the

text: radial-velocity method

text: , or as long as some transiting planet candidates which are listed as planets in the

text: Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia

text: (KIC 5010054 b etc.). It is the first transiting-planet found near the

text: snow-line

text: Volcanoes: Earth's Inner Fire : A Carolrhoda Earth Watch Book (Earth Watch).  (1994)

text: There are three confirmed planets, all in direct orbit. The outer two planets, Kepler-9b (the inner one) and Kepler-9c (the outer one), are low density gas giants that are respectively 25% and 17% the mass of Jupiter and around 80% the radius of Jupiter. Both planets have a density less than that of water, similar to Saturn. The innermost planet, Kepler-9d, is a super-Earth with a radius that is 1.64 times that of Earth, orbiting the star every 1.6 days. It is estimated that there is a 0.59% chance that the discoveries are false.

text: There are three confirmed

text: planets

text: , all in direct orbit. The outer two planets,

text: (the inner one) and

text: (the outer one), are low density gas giants that are respectively 25% and 17% the mass of Jupiter and around 80% the radius of Jupiter. Both planets have a density less than that of water, similar to

text: Saturn

text: . The innermost planet,

text: , is a

text: super-Earth

text: with a radius that is 1.64

text: times that of Earth

text: , orbiting the star every 1.6 days. It is estimated that there is a 0.59% chance that the discoveries are false.

text: Planets around brown dwarfs are likely to be carbon planets depleted of water.

text: Planets around brown dwarfs are likely to be

text: carbon planet

text: s depleted of water.

text: There are various elements within the story which make up the atmosphere. The description of the setting, Jijo’s Ocean, portrays the atmosphere as full of wonder and eeriness because it is so different from what the dolphins are used to.

text: The terrestrial Planet V hypothesis was later examined by Ramon Brasser and Alessandro Morbidelli. Their work was the first to focus on the magnitude of the bombardment caused by Planet V. Brasser and Morbidelli calculated that to create the Late Heavy Bombardment Planet V would have to remove 95% of the pre-LHB main asteroid belt or 98% of the inner asteroid belt (semi-major axis < 2.5 AU). Depleting the main asteroid belt by 95% with a 0.5 Mars-mass Planet V was found to require it remain in an orbit crossing the entire asteroid belt for 300 Million years. This orbital evolution was not observed in any simulations, Planet V typically entered an Earth-crossing orbit resulting in a short dynamic lifetime before entering such an orbit. In a few percent of simulations Planet V remained in the inner belt long enough to produce the LHB. However, producing the LHB from the inner asteroid belt would require the inner asteroid belt to have begun with 4–13 times the mass, and 10-24 time the orbital density, as the rest of the asteroid belt.

text: A plasma torch, at temperatures in the region of 4000C to 7000C, is used to heat a container into which waste products are fed. The plasma is an ionised gas at extremely high temperature, which is used to initiate rapid chemical decomposition by the action of this extreme heat. The material is currently fed in a slurry form, although research is ongoing for the destruction of entire munitions. It is a complex production system that has a high power requirement.

text: Harvesting occurs when the average size of celery in a field is marketable; due to extremely uniform crop growth, fields are harvested only once. The petioles and leaves are removed and harvested; celery is packed by size and quality (determined by colour, shape, straightness and thickness of petiole, stalk and midrib length and absence of disease, cracks, splits, insect damage and rot). Under optimal conditions, celery can be stored for up to seven weeks between . Inner stalks may continue growing if kept at temperatures above . Freshly cut petioles of celery are prone to decay, which can be prevented or reduced through the use of sharp blades during processing, gentle handling, and proper sanitation.

text: Harvesting occurs when the average size of celery in a field is marketable; due to extremely uniform crop growth, fields are harvested only once. The

text: petioles

text: and leaves are removed and harvested; celery is packed by size and quality (determined by colour, shape, straightness and thickness of petiole, stalk and midrib length and absence of disease, cracks, splits, insect damage and rot). Under optimal conditions, celery can be stored for up to seven weeks between . Inner stalks may continue growing if kept at temperatures above . Freshly cut petioles of celery are prone to decay, which can be prevented or reduced through the use of sharp blades during processing, gentle handling, and proper sanitation.

text: Also many moons, even those that do not orbit the Sun directly, often exhibit features in common with true planets. There are 19 moons in the Solar System that have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium and would be considered planets if only the physical parameters are considered.  Both Jupiter's moon Ganymede and Saturn's moon Titan are larger than Mercury, and Titan even has a substantial atmosphere, thicker than the Earth's. Moons such as Io and Triton demonstrate obvious and ongoing geological activity, and Ganymede has a magnetic field. Just as stars in orbit around other stars are still referred to as stars, some astronomers argue that objects in orbit around planets that share all their characteristics could also be called planets. Indeed, Mike Brown makes just such a claim in his dissection of the issue, saying:

text: Also many moons, even those that do not orbit the Sun directly, often exhibit features in common with true planets. There are 19 moons in the Solar System that have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium and would be considered planets if only the physical parameters are considered.  Both Jupiter's moon

text: Ganymede

text: and Saturn's moon

text: Titan

text: are larger than Mercury, and Titan even has a substantial atmosphere, thicker than the Earth's. Moons such as

text: Io

text: and

text: Triton

text: demonstrate obvious and ongoing geological activity, and Ganymede has a

text: magnetic field

text: . Just as

text: star

text: s in orbit around other stars are still referred to as stars, some astronomers argue that objects in orbit around planets that share all their characteristics could also be called planets. Indeed, Mike Brown makes just such a claim in his dissection of the issue, saying:

text: Science fiction has often featured planets of binary or ternary stars as a setting, for example George Lucas' Tatooine from Star Wars, and one notable story, "Nightfall", even takes this to a six-star system. In reality, some orbital ranges are impossible for dynamical reasons (the planet would be expelled from its orbit relatively quickly, being either ejected from the system altogether or transferred to a more inner or outer orbital range), whilst other orbits present serious challenges for eventual biospheres because of likely extreme variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. Planets that orbit just one star in a binary system are said to have "S-type" orbits, whereas those that orbit around both stars have "P-type" or "circumbinary" orbits. It is estimated that 50–60% of binary systems are capable of supporting habitable terrestrial planets within stable orbital ranges.

text: Science fiction

text: has often featured

text: planet

text: s of binary or ternary stars as a setting, for example George Lucas'

text: Tatooine

text: from

text: Star Wars

text: , and one notable story, "

text: Nightfall

text: ", even takes this to a six-star system. In reality, some orbital ranges are impossible for dynamical reasons (the planet would be expelled from its orbit relatively quickly, being either ejected from the system altogether or transferred to a more inner or outer orbital range), whilst other orbits present serious challenges for eventual

text: biosphere

text: s because of likely extreme variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. Planets that orbit just one star in a binary system are said to have "S-type" orbits, whereas those that orbit around both stars have "P-type" or "

text: circumbinary

text: " orbits. It is estimated that 50–60% of binary systems are capable of supporting habitable terrestrial planets within stable orbital ranges.

text: As well as an inability to work in periods of drought, the amount of water available could also vary the power of machinery powered by it. The amount and type of work to be carried out by heavy industries could be influenced by the seasonal availability of water. In 1785 Kirkstall Forge near Leeds wrote to a customer,  'It will be convenient for us just now to roll a few tons because we have a full supply of water—and we cannot manufacture thin plate so well when our water is short.'

text: As well as an inability to work in periods of drought, the amount of water available could also vary the power of machinery powered by it. The amount and type of work to be carried out by heavy industries could be influenced by the seasonal availability of water. In 1785

text: Kirkstall Forge

text: near

text: Leeds

text: wrote to a customer,  'It will be convenient for us just now to roll a few tons because we have a full supply of water—and we cannot manufacture thin plate so well when our water is short.'

text: Study of the oceans is linked to understanding global climate changes, potential global warming and related biosphere concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of evaporation and precipitation as well as thermal flux (and solar insolation). Wind stress is a major driver of ocean currents while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. All these factors relate to the ocean's biogeochemical setup.

text: Study of the oceans is linked to understanding global climate changes, potential

text: global warming

text: and related

text: biosphere

text: concerns. The atmosphere and ocean are linked because of

text: evaporation

text: and

text: precipitation

text: as well as

text: thermal flux

text: (and solar

text: insolation

text: Wind

text: stress is a major driver of

text: ocean currents

text: while the ocean is a sink for atmospheric

text: carbon dioxide

text: . All these factors relate to the ocean's

text: biogeochemical

text: setup.

text: Indirect cycling involves thermal exchange outside of the core. The compressor air would be sent to a heat exchanger. The nuclear reactor core would heat up pressurized water or liquid metal and send it to the heat exchanger as well. That hot liquid would be cooled by the air; the air would be heated by the liquid and sent to the turbine. The turbine would send the air out the exhaust, providing thrust.

text: Tyrrhenus Mons (Tyrrhena Patera) is an eroded, low-lying volcano in the western part of Hesperia Planum. It is one of the oldest large central-vent volcanoes on the planet and a member of a class of volcanoes called highland paterae, which erupted mainly in the Late Noachian and Early Hesperian. Tyrrhenus Mons stands only 1.5 km above the surrounding plains. At its center lies a 40 km diameter depression, or caldera, from which radiate numerous flat-floored valleys and ridges that suggest the volcano has been highly eroded. The low relief of Tyrrhenus Mons combined with its degraded state indicate the volcano consists largely of friable and easily eroded material such as volcanic ash. The ash was likely derived from the interaction of magma with groundwater or ice.

text: Tyrrhenus Mons (

text: Tyrrhena Patera

text: ) is an eroded, low-lying volcano in the western part of Hesperia Planum. It is one of the oldest large central-vent volcanoes on the planet and a member of a class of volcanoes called

text: highland paterae

text: , which erupted mainly in the Late

text: Noachian

text: and Early

text: Hesperian

text: . Tyrrhenus Mons stands only 1.5 km above the surrounding plains. At its center lies a 40 km diameter depression, or

text: caldera

text: , from which radiate numerous flat-floored valleys and ridges that suggest the volcano has been highly eroded. The low relief of Tyrrhenus Mons combined with its degraded state indicate the volcano consists largely of

text: friable

text: and easily eroded material such as

text: volcanic ash

text: . The ash was likely derived from the interaction of

text: magma

text: with

text: groundwater

text: or ice.

text: This silken document contains 926 ancient characters in three sections, each of which involves some aspect of the lunisolar Chinese calendar. Li and Cook (1999) call them the "Year (Inner Long Text)", "Seasons (Inner Short Text)", and "Months (Surrounding Text)".

text: This silken document contains 926 ancient characters in three sections, each of which involves some aspect of the

text: lunisolar

text: Chinese calendar

text: . Li and Cook (1999) call them the "Year (Inner Long Text)", "Seasons (Inner Short Text)", and "Months (Surrounding Text)".

text: Jupiter and Saturn consist mostly of hydrogen and helium, with heavier elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of the mass. They are thought to consist of an outer layer of molecular hydrogen surrounding a layer of liquid metallic hydrogen, with probably a molten rocky core. The outermost portion of their hydrogen atmosphere is characterized by many layers of visible clouds that are mostly composed of water and ammonia. The layer of metallic hydrogen makes up the bulk of each planet, and is referred to as "metallic" because the very large pressure turns hydrogen into an electrical conductor. The gas giants' cores are thought to consist of heavier elements at such high temperatures (20,000 K) and pressures that their properties are poorly understood.

text: Jupiter and Saturn consist mostly of hydrogen and helium, with heavier elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of the mass. They are thought to consist of an outer layer of

text: molecular hydrogen

text: surrounding a layer of liquid

text: metallic hydrogen

text: , with probably a molten rocky core. The outermost portion of their hydrogen atmosphere is characterized by many layers of visible clouds that are mostly composed of water and ammonia. The layer of metallic hydrogen makes up the bulk of each planet, and is referred to as "metallic" because the very large pressure turns hydrogen into an electrical conductor. The gas giants' cores are thought to consist of heavier elements at such high temperatures (20,000

text: K

text: ) and pressures that their properties are poorly understood.

text: Seated on His chariot with Arjuna, Krsna began to proceed north, crossing over many planetary systems. These are described in the Srimad-Bhagavatam as sapta-dvipa. Dvipa means island. All these planets, are sometimes described in the Vedic literature as dvipas. The planet on which we are living is called Jambudvipa. Outer space is taken as a great ocean of air, and within that great ocean of air there are many islands, which are the different planets. In each and every planet there are oceans also. In some of the planets, the oceans are of salt water, and in some of them there are oceans of milk. In others there are oceans of liquor, and in others there are oceans of ghee or oil. There are different kinds of mountains also. Each and every planet has a different type of atmosphere.

text: With high confidence (see footnote), Smith et al. (2001) concluded that a small increase in global mean temperature (up to 2 °C  above the 1990 global mean temperature level) would result in an increase in the frequency and magnitude of many extreme climate events. Higher levels of warming would be associated with further increases in the frequency and magnitude of extreme events. Examples of extreme events include floods, soil moisture deficits, tropical and other storms, anomalous temperatures, and fires. IPCC (2007) pointed to evidence of greater vulnerability to extreme events than had previously been estimated in the TAR.

text: With high confidence (see footnote), Smith et al. (2001) concluded that a small increase in global mean temperature (up to 2 °C  above the 1990 global mean temperature level) would result in an increase in the frequency and magnitude of many extreme climate events. Higher levels of warming would be associated with further increases in the frequency and magnitude of extreme events. Examples of extreme events include

text: flood

text: s,

text: soil moisture

text: deficits,

text: tropical

text: and other

text: storm

text: s, anomalous temperatures, and

text: fire

text: s. IPCC (2007) pointed to evidence of greater vulnerability to extreme events than had previously been estimated in the TAR.

text: If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a second collision occurred that countered the angular momentum from the first impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to destabilize the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometres in diameter would likely have spiralled inwards and collided with Venus.

text: If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a second collision occurred that countered the

text: angular momentum

text: from the first impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to destabilize the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometres in diameter would likely have spiralled inwards and collided with Venus.

text: HD 187123 c is an extrasolar planet located approximately 156 light-years away in the constellation of Cygnus, orbiting the star HD 187123. This planet was published in 2006. The radius of the planet's orbit is 4.80 AU, 113 times more distant from the star than first companion. This takes 10 years to orbit. As it is typical for very long-period planets, the orbit is eccentric, referring to as "eccentric Jupiter". At periastron, the orbital distance is 3.60 AU and at apastron, the distance is 6.00 AU. The planet's mass is nearly 2 times that of Jupiter, but is likely to be smaller in size than the inner planet.

text: HD 187123 c is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: located approximately 156

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Cygnus

text: , orbiting the

text: star

text: HD 187123

text: . This planet was published in 2006. The radius of the planet's orbit is 4.80

text: AU

text: , 113 times more distant from the star than first

text: companion

text: . This takes 10 years to orbit. As it is typical for very long-period planets, the orbit is

text: eccentric

text: , referring to as "

text: eccentric Jupiter

text: ". At

text: periastron

text: , the orbital distance is 3.60 AU and at

text: apastron

text: , the distance is 6.00 AU. The planet's mass is nearly 2 times that of Jupiter, but is likely to be smaller in size than the inner planet.

text: and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes. The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in Chile, 1960; Alaska, 1957; Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the San Andreas Fault (1857, 1906), the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey (1939) and the Denali Fault in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.

text: and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes. The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in

text: Chile, 1960

text: Alaska, 1957

entity_name: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

text: Sumatra, 2004

text: , all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: (1857, 1906), the

text: North Anatolian Fault

text: in Turkey (1939) and the

text: Denali Fault

text: in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.

text: Terraforming Venus requires two major changes; removing most of the planet's dense 9 MPa carbon dioxide atmosphere and reducing the planet's 450 °C (723.15 K) surface temperature. These goals are closely interrelated, because Venus's extreme temperature is thought to be due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense atmosphere. Sequestering the atmospheric carbon would likely solve the temperature problem as well.

text: Terraforming

text: Venus

text: requires two major changes; removing most of the planet's dense 9

text: MPa

text: carbon dioxide atmosphere and reducing the planet's 450 °C (723.15

text: K

text: ) surface temperature. These goals are closely interrelated, because Venus's extreme temperature is thought to be due to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: caused by its dense atmosphere. Sequestering the atmospheric carbon would likely solve the temperature problem as well.

text: Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with transmission spectroscopy. Mid-infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces, and near-infrared may identify magma oceans or high-temperature lavas, hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice, giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets.

text: Surface features can be distinguished from atmospheric features by comparing emission and reflection spectroscopy with

text: transmission spectroscopy

text: . Mid-infrared spectroscopy of exoplanets may detect rocky surfaces, and near-infrared may identify magma oceans or high-temperature lavas, hydrated silicate surfaces and water ice, giving an unambiguous method to distinguish between rocky and gaseous exoplanets.

text: Gliese 581 c has an orbital period ("year") of 13 Earth days and its orbital radius is only about 7% that of the Earth, about 11 million km, while the Earth is 150 million kilometres from the Sun. Since the host star is smaller and colder than the Sun—and thus less luminous—this distance places the planet on the "warm" edge of the habitable zone around the star according to Udry's team. Note that in astrophysics, the "habitable zone" is defined as the range of distances from the star at which a planet could support liquid water on its surface: it should not be taken to mean that the planet's environment would be suitable for humans, a situation which requires a more restrictive range of parameters. A typical radius for an M0 star of Gliese 581's age and metallicity is 0.00128 AU, against the sun's 0.00465 AU. This proximity means that the primary star should appear 3.75 times wider and 14 times larger in area for an observer on the planet's surface looking at the sky than the Sun appears to be from Earth's surface.

text: Gliese 581 c has an

text: orbital period

text: ("year") of 13 Earth days and its orbital radius is only about 7% that of the Earth, about 11 million km, while the Earth is 150 million kilometres from the

text: Sun

text: . Since the host star is smaller and colder than the Sun—and thus less luminous—this distance places the planet on the "warm" edge of the habitable zone around the star according to Udry's team. Note that in astrophysics, the "habitable zone" is defined as the range of distances from the star at which a planet could support liquid water on its surface: it should not be taken to mean that the planet's environment would be suitable for humans, a situation which requires a more restrictive range of parameters. A typical radius for an M0 star of Gliese 581's age and

text: metallicity

text: is 0.00128 AU, against the sun's 0.00465 AU. This proximity means that the primary star should appear 3.75 times wider and 14 times larger in area for an observer on the planet's surface looking at the sky than the Sun appears to be from Earth's surface.

text: In order of their distance from the planet, the irregular moons are Triton, Nereid, Halimede, Sao, Laomedeia, Psamathe, and Neso, a group that includes both prograde and retrograde objects. The five outermost moons are similar to the irregular moons of other giant planets, and are thought to have been gravitationally captured by Neptune, unlike the regular satellites, which probably formed in situ.

text: In order of their distance from the planet, the irregular moons are

text: Triton

text: Nereid

text: Halimede

text: Sao

text: Laomedeia

text: Psamathe

text: , and

text: Neso

text: , a group that includes both prograde and retrograde objects. The five outermost moons are similar to the irregular moons of other

text: giant planet

text: s, and are thought to have been gravitationally captured by Neptune, unlike the regular satellites, which probably formed

text: in situ

text: The surfaces of other planets have also been divided into quadrangles by the USGS. Martian quadrangles are also named after local features.

text: The economy in Pardus is dynamic and relies mostly on player actions. Several times each day at fixed intervals all planets, starbases and buildings in the game consume and produce a variety of commodities, provided certain upkeep needs are met. There are dozens of types of commodities available, ranging from low-tech raw materials such as Food, Water, Energy, Ore, and Metal, to high-end finished products such as Droids and Hand Weapons. Several illegal commodities, such as slaves, drugs, and body parts also exist.

text: InSight primary objective is to study the earliest evolutionary history of the processes that shaped Mars. By studying the size, thickness, density and overall structure of Mars' core, mantle and crust, as well as the rate at which heat escapes from the planet's interior, InSight will provide a glimpse into the evolutionary processes of all of the rocky planets in the inner Solar System. The rocky inner planets share a common ancestry that begins with a process called accretion. As the body increases in size, its interior heats up and evolves to become a terrestrial planet, containing a core, mantle and crust. Despite this common ancestry, each of the terrestrial planets is later shaped and molded through a poorly understood process called differentiation. InSight mission's goal is to improve understanding of this process and, by extension, terrestrial evolution, by measuring the planetary building blocks shaped by differentiation: a terrestrial planet's core, mantle and crust.

text: InSight primary objective is to study the earliest evolutionary history of the processes that shaped Mars. By studying the size, thickness, density and overall structure of Mars' core, mantle and crust, as well as the rate at which heat escapes from the planet's interior, InSight will provide a glimpse into the evolutionary processes of all of the rocky planets in the inner Solar System. The rocky inner planets share a common ancestry that begins with a process called

text: accretion

text: . As the body increases in size, its interior heats up and evolves to become a terrestrial planet, containing a core, mantle and crust. Despite this common ancestry, each of the terrestrial planets is later shaped and molded through a poorly understood process called

text: differentiation

text: . InSight mission's goal is to improve understanding of this process and, by extension, terrestrial evolution, by measuring the planetary building blocks shaped by differentiation: a terrestrial planet's core, mantle and crust.

text: Because the inner moons of Jupiter are in synchronous rotation around Jupiter, the planet always appears in nearly the same spot in their skies (Jupiter would wiggle a bit because of the non-zero eccentricities). Observers on the sides of the Galilean satellites facing away from the planet would never see Jupiter, for instance.

text: Because the inner moons of Jupiter are in

text: synchronous rotation

text: around Jupiter, the planet always appears in nearly the same spot in their skies (Jupiter would wiggle a bit because of the non-zero eccentricities). Observers on the sides of the Galilean satellites facing away from the planet would never see Jupiter, for instance.

text: The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals. Planetesimals are the smaller precursors of the protoplanets. Between Mars and Jupiter, however, gravitational perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much orbital energy for them to accrete into a planet. Collisions became too violent, and instead of fusing together, the planetesimals and most of the protoplanets shattered. As a result, 99.9% of the asteroid belt's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System, leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits.

text: The asteroid belt formed from the primordial

entity_name: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: solar nebula

text: as a group of

text: planetesimal

text: s. Planetesimals are the smaller precursors of the

text: protoplanet

text: s. Between Mars and Jupiter, however,

text: gravitational

text: perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much orbital energy for them to

text: accrete

text: into a planet. Collisions became too violent, and instead of fusing together, the planetesimals and most of the protoplanets shattered. As a result, 99.9% of the asteroid belt's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner

text: Solar System

text: , leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably

text: perturbed

text: whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an

text: orbital resonance

text: with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a

text: Kirkwood gap

text: occurs as they are swept into other orbits.

text: Ascraeus Mons is a large shield volcano located in the Tharsis region of the planet Mars. It is the northernmost and tallest of three shield volcanoes collectively known as the Tharsis Montes. The volcano's location corresponds to the classical albedo feature Ascraeus Lacus.

text: Ascraeus Mons is a large

text: shield volcano

text: located in the

text: Tharsis

text: region of the

text: planet

text: Mars

text: . It is the northernmost and tallest of three shield volcanoes collectively known as the

text: Tharsis Montes

text: . The volcano's location corresponds to the

text: classical albedo feature

text: Ascraeus Lacus.

text: The ocean and atmosphere can work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time. Examples of this type of variability include the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmopshere and/or by altering the cloud/water vapor/sea ice distribution which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.

text: The ocean and atmosphere can work together to spontaneously generate internal climate variability that can persist for years to decades at a time. Examples of this type of variability include the

text: El Niño-Southern Oscillation

text: , the

text: Pacific decadal oscillation

text: , and the

text: Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

text: . These variations can affect global average surface temperature by redistributing heat between the deep ocean and the atmopshere and/or by altering the cloud/water vapor/sea ice distribution which can affect the total energy budget of the earth.

text: The Queen Charlotte Triple Junction is a geologic triple junction where three tectonic plates meet: the Pacific Plate, the North American Plate, and the Explorer Plate. The three plate boundaries which intersect here are the Queen Charlotte Fault, the northern Cascadia subduction zone, and the Explorer Ridge. The Queen Charlotte triple junction is currently positioned adjacent to the Queen Charlotte Sound near the Dellwood Knolls off the coast of Vancouver Island.  10 Ma to 1.5 Ma prior to the triple junction’s current location, it was located southwest of Vancouver Island   The movements of the triple junction have been characterized by two major shifts in the Pacific-North American Tertiary plate tectonic record. First, at approximately 40 Ma the relative plate motions switched from orthogonal convergence to right-lateral strike slip. The variance in location of the triple junction may have also been related to the formation of an independent basin block.  This formation could have been produced by fore-arc bending of the Pacific Plate, due to oblique underthrusting prior to 1 Ma which produced stresses sufficient to break the Pacific Plate and isolate the block. Transpression of 15–30 mm/yr since 5 Ma has been taking place, as well as varying amounts of both transpression and transtension occurring before then.  To the northwest of the triple junction the Pacific plate currently has 15 degrees of oblique convergence, passing under the North American plate along the Queen Charlotte transform fault zone.  The Explorer plate is a small chunk of the Juan de Fuca plate that broke away from the Juan de Fuca Plate about 3.5 Ma and has moved much slower with respect to North America.

text: The Queen Charlotte Triple Junction is a geologic

text: triple junction

text: where three

text: tectonic plate

text: s meet: the

text: Pacific Plate

text: , the

text: North American Plate

text: , and the

text: Explorer Plate

text: . The three plate boundaries which intersect here are the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: , the northern

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , and the

text: Explorer Ridge

text: . The Queen Charlotte triple junction is currently positioned adjacent to the

text: Queen Charlotte Sound

text: near the Dellwood Knolls off the coast of

text: Vancouver Island

text: .  10 Ma to 1.5 Ma prior to the triple junction’s current location, it was located southwest of Vancouver Island   The movements of the triple junction have been characterized by two major shifts in the Pacific-North American Tertiary plate tectonic record. First, at approximately 40 Ma the relative plate motions switched from orthogonal convergence to right-lateral strike slip. The variance in location of the triple junction may have also been related to the formation of an independent basin block.  This formation could have been produced by fore-arc bending of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: , due to oblique

text: underthrusting

text: prior to 1 Ma which produced stresses sufficient to break the Pacific Plate and isolate the block. Transpression of 15–30 mm/yr since 5 Ma has been taking place, as well as varying amounts of both transpression and transtension occurring before then.  To the northwest of the triple junction the Pacific plate currently has 15 degrees of oblique convergence, passing under the North American plate along the Queen Charlotte transform fault zone.  The Explorer plate is a small chunk of the Juan de Fuca plate that broke away from the Juan de Fuca Plate about 3.5 Ma and has moved much slower with respect to North America.

text: Yan Ruoqu (; November 11, 1636 – July 9, 1704) was an influential Chinese scholar of the early Qing Dynasty. He was born to a scholarly family in Taiyuan, Shanxi. Yan Ruoqu is most famous for proving that the "Old Text" chapters of the Confucian classic Book of Documents were forgeries (see :zh:尚書古文疏證). He also made observations and theories about the motions of the moon and the planets.

text: Yan Ruoqu (; November 11, 1636 – July 9, 1704) was an influential Chinese scholar of the early

text: Qing Dynasty

text: . He was born to a scholarly family in

text: Taiyuan

text: Shanxi

text: . Yan Ruoqu is most famous for proving that the "

text: Old Text

text: " chapters of the

text: Confucian

text: classic

text: Book of Documents

text: were forgeries (see

text: :zh:尚書古文疏證

text: ). He also made observations and theories about the motions of

text: the moon

text: and the

text: planet

text: s.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of Kepler-419c, this would be practically the same to have a stable orbit, albeit a bit longer, around 65 days.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's

text: orbital period

text: P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of Kepler-419c, this would be practically the same to have a stable orbit, albeit a bit longer, around 65 days.

text: A feature in archaeology and especially excavation is a collection of one or more contexts representing some human non-portable activity that generally has a vertical characteristic to it in relation to site stratigraphy. Examples of features are pits, walls, and ditches. General horizontal elements in the stratigraphic sequence, such as layers, dumps, or surfaces are not referred to as features. Examples of surfaces include yards, roads, and floors. Features are distinguished from artifacts in that they cannot be separated from their location without changing their form.

text: A feature in archaeology and especially

text: excavation

text: is a collection of one or more

text: contexts

text: representing some human non-portable activity that generally has a

text: vertical

text: characteristic to it in relation to site

text: stratigraphy

text: . Examples of features are

text: pits

text: , walls, and ditches. General

text: horizontal

text: elements in the stratigraphic

text: sequence

text: , such as layers, dumps, or surfaces are not referred to as features. Examples of surfaces include yards, roads, and floors. Features are distinguished from

text: artifacts

text: in that they cannot be separated from their location without changing their form.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in ice ages. There have been at least five such ice ages in the Earth's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is currently in an ice age, in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in

text: ice ages

text: . There have been at least five such ice ages in the

text: Earth

text: 's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is

text: currently in an ice age

text: , in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Most meteorites date from the oldest times in the solar system and are by far the oldest material available on our planet. Despite their age, they are fairly vulnerable to terrestrial environment: water, salt, oxygen attack the meteorites as soon they reach the ground.

text: A shield volcano is a type of volcano usually built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. They are named for their low profile, resembling a warrior's shield lying on the ground. This is caused by the highly fluid lava they erupt, which travels farther than lava erupted from stratovolcanoes. This results in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcano's distinctive form. The shape of shield volcanoes is due to the low viscosity of their mafic lava.

text: A shield volcano is a type of

text: volcano

text: usually built almost entirely of

text: fluid

text: lava

text: flows. They are named for their low profile, resembling a

text: warrior's shield

text: lying on the ground. This is caused by the highly fluid lava they erupt, which travels farther than lava erupted from

text: stratovolcano

text: es. This results in the steady accumulation of broad sheets of lava, building up the shield volcano's distinctive form. The shape of shield volcanoes is due to the low viscosity of their

text: mafic

text: lava

text: For rocky exoplanets larger than Earth, the initial interior temperature after planetary convalescence may be an important controlling factor of surface motion. Noack and Breuer (2014) demonstrated that a core-mantle boundary initial temperature of 6100 K would likely form a stagnant lid, while a planet of the same dimensions with an initial core-mantle boundary 2000 K hotter will likely eventually evolve plate tectonics. This effect is diminished on planets smaller than Earth, because their smaller planetary interiors efficiently redistribute heat, reducing core-mantle heat gradients that drive mantle convection.

text: For rocky exoplanets larger than Earth, the initial interior temperature after planetary convalescence may be an important controlling factor of surface motion. Noack and Breuer (2014) demonstrated that a core-mantle boundary initial temperature of 6100

text: K

text: would likely form a stagnant lid, while a planet of the same dimensions with an initial core-mantle boundary 2000 K hotter will likely eventually evolve plate tectonics. This effect is diminished on planets smaller than Earth, because their smaller planetary interiors efficiently redistribute heat, reducing core-mantle heat gradients that drive mantle convection.

text: In 2011, it was reported that two planetary candidates had been detected in close orbit around this star. The planets were discovered through Doppler spectroscopy using the HARPS spectrograph at La Silla Observatory in Chile. Their presence was revealed by periodic variations in the radial velocity of the host star due to gravitational perturbations by the orbiting objects. Both planets have brief orbital periods: the inner planet is orbiting the host star every 7.28 days while the outer planet orbits every 10.86 days. Their individual masses are more than twice that of the Earth, placing them in the regime of Super-Earth or Neptune mass planets.

text: In 2011, it was reported that two planetary candidates had been detected in close orbit around this star. The planets were discovered through

text: Doppler spectroscopy

text: using the

entity_name: High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher

text: HARPS

text: spectrograph at

text: La Silla Observatory

text: in

text: Chile

text: . Their presence was revealed by periodic variations in the

text: radial velocity

text: of the host star due to

text: gravitational perturbations

text: by the orbiting objects. Both planets have brief orbital periods: the inner planet is orbiting the host star every 7.28 days while the outer planet orbits every 10.86 days. Their individual masses are more than twice that of the Earth, placing them in the regime of

text: Super-Earth

text: or

text: Neptune

text: mass planets.

text: William Sager, a marine geophysicist from the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Houston, began studying the volcano in about 1993 at the Texas A&M College of Geosciences. According to Sager and his team, Tamu Massif is "the biggest single shield volcano ever discovered on Earth". While other igneous features on the planet are larger, such as the Ontong Java Plateau, it has not yet been determined if they are indeed just one volcano or rather complexes of several volcanoes.

text: William Sager

text: , a

text: marine geophysicist

text: from the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the

text: University of Houston

text: , began studying the volcano in about 1993 at the

text: Texas A&M College of Geosciences

text: . According to Sager and his team, Tamu Massif is "the biggest single shield volcano ever discovered on Earth". While other igneous features on the planet are larger, such as the

text: Ontong Java Plateau

text: , it has not yet been determined if they are indeed just one volcano or rather complexes of several volcanoes.

text: The Okhotsk Plate is a minor tectonic plate covering the Sea of Okhotsk, the Kamchatka Peninsula, Sakhalin Island and Tōhoku and Hokkaidō in Japan.  It was formerly considered a part of the North American Plate, but recent studies indicate that it is an independent plate, bounded on the north by the North American Plate. The boundary is a left-lateral moving transform fault, the Ulakhan Fault.  On the east, the plate is bounded by the Pacific Plate at the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench and the Japan Trench, on the south by the Philippine Sea Plate at the Nankai Trough, on the west by the Eurasian Plate, and possibly on the southwest by the Amurian Plate.

text: The Okhotsk Plate is a minor

text: tectonic plate

text: covering the

text: Sea of Okhotsk

text: , the

text: Kamchatka Peninsula

text: Sakhalin Island

text: and

text: Tōhoku

text: and

text: Hokkaidō

text: in

text: Japan

text: .  It was formerly considered a part of the

text: North American Plate

text: , but recent studies indicate that it is an independent plate, bounded on the north by the North American Plate. The boundary is a

text: left-lateral

text: moving

text: transform fault

text: , the

text: Ulakhan Fault

text: .  On the east, the plate is bounded by the

text: Pacific Plate

text: at the

text: Kuril-Kamchatka Trench

text: and the

text: Japan Trench

text: , on the south by the

text: Philippine Sea Plate

text: at the

text: Nankai Trough

text: , on the west by the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: , and possibly on the southwest by the

text: Amurian Plate

text: A fraction of the crew, led by George,  visit the double planet Rocheworld, landing a Surface Lander and Ascent Module (SLAM) on the water-free lobe, dubbed Roche (French for rock as well as the name of the French mathematician who worked on Roche limits). After exploring Roche, they again split up, and one group journeys via the space-plane Dragonfly to the other lobe, Eau (French for water), which is covered almost entirely by ocean. The crew are caught in a violent storm that causes their plane to experience a crash water-landing. The flooded propulsion systems of the space-plane are unable to provide enough thrust to break free and take off from the ocean surface. The crew decide to use the plane's lift fans as propellers to make their way to the inner pole of the double planet, where the gravitation from the other lobe of the double planet should help them to break free and allow rendezvous with the remaining crew in the lander at the zero point between the two lobes.

text: A fraction of the crew, led by George,  visit the

text: double planet

text: Rocheworld, landing a Surface Lander and Ascent Module (SLAM) on the water-free

text: lobe

text: , dubbed Roche (French for rock as well as the name of the French mathematician who worked on

text: Roche limit

text: s). After exploring Roche, they again split up, and one group journeys via the space-plane Dragonfly to the other lobe, Eau (French for water), which is covered almost entirely by ocean. The crew are caught in a violent storm that causes their plane to experience a crash water-landing. The flooded propulsion systems of the space-plane are unable to provide enough thrust to break free and take off from the ocean surface. The crew decide to use the plane's lift fans as propellers to make their way to the inner pole of the double planet, where the

text: gravitation

text: from the other lobe of the double planet should help them to break free and allow rendezvous with the remaining crew in the lander at the zero point between the two lobes.

text: A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor may have occurred on Venus. In this scenario, early Venus may have had a global ocean. As the brightness of the early Sun increased, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increased, increasing the temperature and consequently increasing the evaporation of the ocean, leading eventually to the situation in which the oceans boiled, and all of the water vapor entered the atmosphere. On Venus today there is little water vapor in the atmosphere. If water vapor did contribute to the warmth of Venus at one time, this water is thought to have escaped to space. Some evidence for this scenario comes from the extremely high deuterium to hydrogen ratio in Venus' atmosphere, roughly 150 times that of Earth, since light hydrogen would escape from the atmosphere more readily than its heavier isotope, deuterium.  Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into hydrogen and oxygen by ultraviolet light. The hydrogen can then escape from the atmosphere and the oxygen recombines. Carbon dioxide, the dominant greenhouse gas in the current Venusian atmosphere, owes its larger concentration to the weakness of carbon recycling as compared to Earth, where the carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes is efficiently subducted into the Earth by plate tectonics on geologic time scales.

text: A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor may have occurred on

text: Venus

text: . In this scenario, early Venus may have had a global ocean. As the brightness of the early Sun increased, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increased, increasing the temperature and consequently increasing the evaporation of the ocean, leading eventually to the situation in which the oceans boiled, and all of the water vapor entered the atmosphere. On Venus today there is little water vapor in the atmosphere. If water vapor did contribute to the warmth of Venus at one time, this water is thought to have escaped to space. Some evidence for this scenario comes from the extremely high deuterium to hydrogen ratio in Venus' atmosphere, roughly 150 times that of Earth, since light hydrogen would escape from the atmosphere more readily than its heavier

text: isotope

text: deuterium

text: .  Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: oxygen

text: by ultraviolet light. The hydrogen can then escape from the atmosphere and the oxygen recombines. Carbon dioxide, the dominant greenhouse gas in the current Venusian atmosphere, owes its larger concentration to the weakness of carbon recycling as compared to

text: Earth

text: , where the carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes is efficiently

text: subducted

text: into the Earth by plate tectonics on geologic time scales.

text: The world's oceans are warming due to climate change. Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect, variation in the sun's energy that reaches Earth, and changes in reflectivity within Earth's atmosphere and its surface. The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight. Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space. Greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth. Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect.

text: This is a list of countries by total renewable water resources mostly based on The World Factbook. This entry provides the long-term average water availability for a country in cubic kilometers of precipitation, recharged ground water, and surface inflows from surrounding countries.

text: This is a list of countries by total renewable

text: water resources

text: mostly based on

text: The World Factbook

text: . This entry provides the long-term average water availability for a country in

text: cubic kilometers

text: of precipitation,

text: recharged ground water

text: , and surface inflows from surrounding countries.

text: The first involves the addition of material to a tectonic plate. When two tectonic plates collide, one of the plates may slide under the other, a process known as subduction. The plate which is being subducted (the plate going under), is floating on the asthenosphere and is pushed up and against the other, subducting plate. Sediment on the ocean floor will often be scraped by the subducting plate. This scraping causes the sediment to come off the subducted plate and form a mass of material called the accretionary wedge, which attaches itself to the upper, subducting plate. Volcanic island arcs or seamounts may collide with the continent, and as they are of relatively light material (i.e. low density) they will often not be subducted, but are thrust into the side of the continent, thereby adding to it.

text: The first involves the addition of material to a tectonic plate. When two tectonic plates collide, one of the plates may slide under the other, a process known as

text: subduction

text: . The plate which is being subducted (the plate going under), is floating on the

text: asthenosphere

text: and is pushed up and against the other, subducting plate. Sediment on the ocean floor will often be scraped by the subducting plate. This scraping causes the sediment to come off the subducted plate and form a mass of material called the

text: accretionary wedge

text: , which attaches itself to the upper, subducting plate. Volcanic island arcs or seamounts may collide with the continent, and as they are of relatively light material (i.e. low density) they will often not be subducted, but are thrust into the side of the continent, thereby adding to it.

text: Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above , sometimes rising by  or more within only a few minutes. More extreme events have also been documented, where temperatures have been reported to exceed . However, such extreme events have never been officially verified. Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong, even damaging, winds.

text: Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above , sometimes rising by  or more within only a few minutes. More extreme events have also been documented, where temperatures have been reported to exceed . However, such extreme events have never been officially verified. Heat bursts are also characterized by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong, even damaging,

text: wind

text: s.

text: In England and Wales, the legal year 1751 was a short year of 282 days, running from 25 March to 31 December. 1752 began on 1 January. To align the calendar in use in England to that on the continent, the Gregorian calendar was adopted: and the calendar was advanced by 11 days: Wednesday 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday 14 September 1752. The year 1752 was thus a short year (355 days) as well.

text: A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away, brave rebellious fighters destroyed the menacing hordes of The Machine and its tyranny-spreading satellite, which circled the planet of the brave, the planet called Landorin. The evil moon was gone, but Landorin wasn´t free. The Machine still ruled the surface of the planet. The Landorins retreated to the inner core of their world to await their inevitable death. The machines and mutants, however, went on to roam through the deserted ruins of a long-lost paradise in search of the entrance to the secret caves.

text: The Galilean moons are the four largest moons of Jupiter—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They were discovered by Galileo Galilei around January 1610 and were the first group of objects found to orbit another planet. Their names derive from the lovers of Zeus. They are among the largest objects in the Solar System with the exception of the Sun and the eight planets, with radii larger than any of the dwarf planets. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and is even bigger than the planet Mercury. The three inner moons—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—are in a 4:2:1 orbital resonance with each other.

text: The Galilean moons are the four largest

text: moons of Jupiter

text: Io

text: Europa

text: Ganymede

text: , and

text: Callisto

text: . They were discovered by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: around January 1610 and were the first group of objects found to orbit another planet. Their names derive from the lovers of

text: Zeus

text: . They are among

text: the largest objects

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: with the exception of the

text: Sun

text: and the eight

text: planet

text: s, with radii larger than any of the

text: dwarf planet

text: s. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and is even bigger than the planet

text: Mercury

text: . The three inner moons—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—are in a 4:2:1

text: orbital resonance

text: with each other.

text: Aryabhata described a geocentric model of the solar system, in which theSun and Moon are each carried by epicycles. They in turn revolve aroundthe Earth. In this model, which is also found in the Paitāmahasiddhānta (c. CE 425), the motions of the planets are each governed by two epicycles, a smaller manda (slow) and a larger śīghra (fast). The order of the planets in terms of distance from earth is taken as: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the asterisms."

text: Aryabhata described a

text: geocentric

text: model of the solar system, in which theSun and Moon are each carried by

text: epicycle

text: s. They in turn revolve aroundthe Earth. In this model, which is also found in the Paitāmahasiddhānta (c. CE 425), the motions of the planets are each governed by two epicycles, a smaller manda (slow) and a larger śīghra (fast). The order of the planets in terms of distance from earth is taken as: the

text: Moon

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: , the

text: Sun

text: Mars

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: , and the

text: asterisms

text: The original Nice model resolved this problem by beginning with the Jupiter and Saturn inside their 2:1 resonance. Jupiter's and Saturn's eccentricities are excited when, after a period of slow divergent migration, they cross the 2:1 resonance. This destabilizes the outer Solar System and a series of gravitational encounters ensues during which Uranus and Neptune are scattered outward into the planetesimal disk. There they scatter a great number of planetesimals inward accelerating the migration of the planets. The scattering of planetesimals and the sweeping of resonances through the asteroid belt produce a bombardment of the inner planets. In addition to reproducing the positions and eccentricities of the outer planets, the original Nice model provided for the origin of: the Jupiter and Neptune trojans;  the irregular satellites of Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune; the various populations of trans-Neptunian objects; the magnitude of, and with the right initial conditions, the timing of the Late Heavy Bombardment.

text: The original Nice model resolved this problem by beginning with the Jupiter and Saturn inside their 2:1 resonance. Jupiter's and Saturn's eccentricities are excited when, after a period of slow divergent migration, they cross the 2:1 resonance. This destabilizes the outer Solar System and a series of gravitational encounters ensues during which Uranus and Neptune are scattered outward into the planetesimal disk. There they scatter a great number of planetesimals inward accelerating the migration of the planets. The scattering of planetesimals and the sweeping of resonances through the

text: asteroid belt

text: produce a bombardment of the

text: inner planets

text: . In addition to reproducing the positions and eccentricities of the outer planets, the original Nice model provided for the origin of: the Jupiter and

text: Neptune trojan

text: s;  the

text: irregular satellites

text: of Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune; the various populations of

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s; the magnitude of, and with the right initial conditions, the timing of the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of 38 Virginis b, the orbital period would have to be no greater than 80 days (a little over 2 months) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: orbital period

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of 38 Virginis b, the orbital period would have to be no greater than 80 days (a little over 2 months) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: As visitors leave the Planetarium theater, they exit to the Size Scales of the Universe exhibit which shows the vast array of sizes in the universe; the walkway itself is a timeline of the Universe from the Big Bang to the present. This exhibit leads to the Big Bang Theater and exits to the Heilbrun Cosmic Pathway, an interactive exhibit designed by the AMNH Exhibitions Lab at the Rose Center, which shows the history of the universe. From the bottom of the Cosmic Pathway, visitors can stop by the Hall of Planet Earth to explore geology, weather, plate tectonics, and more, or go down to the Hall of the Universe to explore the realms of planets, stars, galaxies and more. The  ramp illustrates 13 billion years of cosmic history at a rate of about 36,111,111 years per foot (about 1,184,748 years per centimeter); a typical adult walking step length of approximately  covers about 84 million years.

text: As visitors leave the Planetarium theater, they exit to the Size Scales of the Universe exhibit which shows the vast array of sizes in the universe; the walkway itself is a timeline of the Universe from the Big Bang to the present. This exhibit leads to the Big Bang Theater and exits to the Heilbrun Cosmic Pathway, an interactive exhibit designed by the

text: AMNH Exhibitions Lab

text: at the Rose Center, which shows the history of the universe. From the bottom of the Cosmic Pathway, visitors can stop by the Hall of Planet Earth to explore geology, weather, plate tectonics, and more, or go down to the Hall of the Universe to explore the realms of planets, stars, galaxies and more. The  ramp illustrates 13 billion years of cosmic history at a rate of about 36,111,111 years per foot (about 1,184,748 years per centimeter); a typical adult walking step length of approximately  covers about 84 million years.

text: The vast majority of geologists regard the hypothesis of catastrophic plate tectonics as pseudoscience; they reject it in favor of the conventional geological theory of plate tectonics. It has been argued that the tremendous release of energy necessitated by such an event would boil off the Earth's oceans, making a global flood impossible. Not only does catastrophic plate tectonics lack any plausible geophysical mechanism by which its changes might occur, it also is contradicted by considerable geological evidence (which is in turn consistent with conventional plate tectonics), including:

text: The vast majority of geologists regard the hypothesis of catastrophic plate tectonics as pseudoscience; they reject it in favor of the conventional geological theory of plate tectonics. It has been argued that the tremendous release of energy necessitated by such an event would boil off the Earth's oceans, making a global flood impossible. Not only does catastrophic plate tectonics lack any plausible

text: geophysical

text: mechanism by which its changes might occur, it also is contradicted by considerable geological evidence (which is in turn consistent with conventional plate tectonics), including:

text: Even planets in more stable orbits of a binary star system would suffer other kinds of problems according to her such as climatic problems. As an example, a planet in a binary star system orbiting the larger star would be drawn closer to its gravitational field, causing the planet to endure heat of great temperatures during this period. As the planet passes its larger star and reaches the orbit of its smaller star, the gravitational field of that star would give the planet more distance from it. The distance (perhaps along with the smaller solar projection of the star) would send the planet into extreme frigid temperatures.

text: In the French novella The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, the Prince's and Rose's planet Asteroid B-612 most prominent features are three minuscule volcanoes (two active, and one dormant or extinct). Izalco and Santa Ana Volcano are the two active, and Cerro Verde is the dormant volcano. The book was inspired by Antoine's life with his Salvadoran wife Consuelo de Saint Exupéry.

text: In the French novella

text: The Little Prince

text: by

text: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

text: , the Prince's and Rose's planet Asteroid

text: most prominent features are three minuscule volcanoes (two active, and one dormant or extinct). Izalco and

text: Santa Ana Volcano

text: are the two active, and Cerro Verde is the dormant volcano. The book was inspired by Antoine's life with his Salvadoran wife

text: Consuelo de Saint Exupéry

text: One possible explanation for this event is that it is part of a cyclic process on Venus. On Earth, plate tectonics allows heat to escape from the mantle by advection, the transport of mantle material to the surface and the return of old crust to the mantle. But Venus has no evidence of plate tectonics, so this theory states that the interior of the planet heats up (due to the decay of radioactive elements) until material in the mantle is hot enough to force its way to the surface. The subsequent resurfacing event covers most or all of the planet with lava, until the mantle is cool enough for the process to start over.

text: One possible explanation for this event is that it is part of a cyclic process on Venus. On Earth, plate tectonics allows heat to escape from the mantle by

text: advection

text: , the transport of mantle material to the surface and the return of old crust to the mantle. But Venus has no evidence of plate tectonics, so this theory states that the interior of the planet heats up (due to the decay of radioactive elements) until material in the mantle is hot enough to force its way to the surface. The subsequent resurfacing event covers most or all of the planet with lava, until the mantle is cool enough for the process to start over.

text: A fall in temperature can result in a decrease in the number of molecules that are available within the organism per unit of time. A drop in temperature will lower this number and physiological functions can come to a standstill. This is how an extreme drop in temperature can result in the eventual collapse of physiological functioning and eventual death of an animal. Ectotherms are unable to survive in extremely cold temperatures (around 0.7 degrees Celsius) as their internal body temperature must match the outside temperature and cannot handle very cold temperatures. However, this can be dealt with in a few different ways, and one such way is the changing of actual lipid conformation and composition. This adaptation will cause a rise in fluidity and a higher physical tolerance of the cells undergoing this temperature change.

text: A fall in temperature can result in a decrease in the number of molecules that are available within the organism per unit of time. A drop in temperature will lower this number and physiological functions can come to a standstill. This is how an extreme drop in temperature can result in the eventual collapse of physiological functioning and eventual death of an animal. Ectotherms are unable to survive in extremely cold temperatures (around 0.7 degrees Celsius) as their internal body temperature must match the outside temperature and cannot handle very cold temperatures. However, this can be dealt with in a few different ways, and one such way is the changing of actual

text: lipid

text: conformation and composition. This adaptation will cause a rise in fluidity and a higher physical tolerance of the cells undergoing this temperature change.

text: The European Southern Observatory estimates that if water and an atmosphere are present, a far more clement environment would result from such a configuration. In a world including oceans, with average temperatures similar to those on Earth, assuming an atmospheric N pressure of 1 bar and ∼0.01 bar of CO, a wide equatorial belt (non-synchronous rotation), or the majority of the sunlit side (synchronous rotation), would be permanently ice-free.<ref name='Habitability Vol II'/> A large portion of the planet may be habitable if it has an atmosphere thick enough to transfer heat to the side facing away from the star. If it has an atmosphere, simulations suggest that the planet could have lost about as much as the amount of water that Earth has due to the early irradiation in the first 100–200 million years after the planet's formation. Liquid water may be present only in the sunniest regions of the planet's surface in pools either in an area in the hemisphere of the planet facing the star or diurnally in the equatorial belt (3:2 resonance rotation).<ref name='Habitability Vol II'>The habitability of Proxima Centauri b - II. Possible climates and observability. Retrieved 25 August 2016.</ref> All in all, astrophysicists consider the ability of Proxima Centauri b to retain water from its formation as the most crucial point in evaluating the planet's present habitability. The planet may be within reach of telescopes and techniques that could reveal more about its composition and atmosphere, if it has any.

text: The

text: European Southern Observatory

text: Artisans used a mass of mud and straw fixed around a metal rod to form a core, and built up a vessel by either dipping the core in liquified glass, or by trailing liquid glass over the core. The core was removed after the glass had cooled, and handles, rims and bases were then added. These vessels are characterised by relatively thick walls, bright colours and zigzagging patterns of contrasting colours, and were limited in size to small unguent or scent containers. This early technique continued in popularity during the 1st century BC, despite the earlier introduction of slumped and cast vessels.

text: Artisans used a mass of mud and straw fixed around a metal rod to form a core, and built up a vessel by either dipping the core in liquified glass, or by trailing liquid glass over the core. The core was removed after the glass had cooled, and handles, rims and bases were then added. These vessels are characterised by relatively thick walls, bright colours and zigzagging patterns of contrasting colours, and were limited in size to small

text: unguent

text: or scent containers. This early technique continued in popularity during the 1st century BC, despite the earlier introduction of

text: slumped

text: and

text: cast

text: vessels.

text: There is no single standard definition for a volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edifices or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Tengger caldera complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active or dormant, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.

text: There is no single standard definition for a volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edifices or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface

text: magma chamber

text: as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young

text: parasitic cone

text: s from flank vents or at a central

text: crater

text: . Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the

text: Tengger caldera complex

text: , although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either

text: active

text: or

text: dormant

text: , cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records,

text: radiocarbon dating

text: , or

text: geothermal

text: activities.

text: There are several factors that can determine planetary temperatures and therefore several measures that can draw comparisons to that of the Earth in planets where atmospheric conditions are unknown. Equilibrium temperature is used for planets without atmospheres. With atmosphere, a greenhouse effect is assumed. Finally, surface temperature is used. Each of these temperatures is affected by climate, which is influenced by the orbit and rotation (or tidal locking) of the planet, each of which introduces further variables.

text: There are several factors that can determine planetary temperatures and therefore several measures that can draw comparisons to that of the Earth in planets where atmospheric conditions are unknown.

text: Equilibrium temperature

text: is used for planets without atmospheres. With atmosphere, a

text: greenhouse effect

text: is assumed. Finally, surface temperature is used. Each of these temperatures is affected by climate, which is influenced by the orbit and rotation (or tidal locking) of the planet, each of which introduces further variables.

text: Ceres is possibly a surviving protoplanet (planetary embryo), which formed 4.57 billion years ago in the asteroid belt. Although the majority of inner Solar System protoplanets (including all lunar- to Mars-sized bodies) either merged with other protoplanets to form terrestrial planets or were ejected from the Solar System by Jupiter, Ceres is thought to have survived relatively intact. An alternative theory proposes that Ceres formed in the Kuiper belt and later migrated to the asteroid belt. The discovery of ammonia salts in Occator crater supports an origin in the outer Solar System. Another possible protoplanet, Vesta, is less than half the size of Ceres; it suffered a major impact after solidifying, losing ~1% of its mass.

text: Ceres is possibly a surviving

text: protoplanet

text: (planetary embryo), which formed 4.57 billion years ago in the asteroid belt. Although the majority of

text: inner Solar System

text: protoplanets (including all lunar- to Mars-sized bodies) either merged with other protoplanets to form

text: terrestrial planet

text: s or were ejected from the

text: Solar System

text: by Jupiter, Ceres is thought to have survived relatively intact. An alternative theory proposes that Ceres formed in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: and later migrated to the asteroid belt. The discovery of ammonia salts in

text: Occator crater

text: supports an origin in the outer Solar System. Another possible protoplanet, Vesta, is less than half the size of Ceres; it suffered a major impact after solidifying, losing ~1% of its mass.

text: In addition to showing how the inner solar system formed, Wetherill's work provided the basis for a model of a giant-impact origin for the Moon and the core of Mercury. It also led to explanations for the isotopic abundances of present-day planetary atmospheres. Recently, Wetherill has shown that Jupiter plays an important role in the evolution of the Solar System; by ejecting comets from the solar system, it offers a protective presence to the inner planets. Wetherill's theoretical work supports discussions on the origins of the Solar System as well as on extrasolar planets.

text: In addition to showing how the inner solar system formed, Wetherill's work provided the basis for a model of a giant-impact origin for the

text: Moon

text: and the core of Mercury. It also led to explanations for the isotopic abundances of present-day planetary atmospheres. Recently, Wetherill has shown that

text: Jupiter

text: plays an important role in the evolution of the

text: Solar System

text: ; by ejecting

text: comets

text: from the solar system, it offers a protective presence to the inner planets. Wetherill's theoretical work supports discussions on the origins of the Solar System as well as on

text: extrasolar planets

text: The planet was discovered by four team members including Steve Vogt in 2005 using their radial velocity method, which used to measure changes in red- and blue-shifting of the star that indicate the presence of planets caused by gravitational tug. He also indicated the existence of two additional outer planets.

text: The planet was discovered by four team members including

text: Steve Vogt

text: in 2005 using their

text: radial velocity method

text: , which used to measure changes in red- and blue-shifting of the star that indicate the presence of planets caused by

text: gravitational tug

text: . He also indicated the existence of two additional outer planets.

text: They notice that the planet looks orange on the surface. Suddenly, they realize they are being attacked by long flying arms on clumps. They attack and fly by the planet, then they pull up. A lump on the surface of the planet appears and then the boss of the first stage attacks them, coming out of the lump. They are able to escape; just as they are going away, Dan takes a clear look and recognizes distinct features on the planet that has been overrun by the bacteria.  They report this to the ship, and they decide to order an assault on the planet. Hordes of ships from either side confront each other and attack. In the fray, the three pilots clearly stand out and they help their side. Later, they are forced to retry and fight through many waves of enemies.

text: Another impact of hypersegregation can be found in the health of the residents of certain areas. Poorer inner-cities often lack the health care that is available in outside areas. That many inner-cities are so isolated from other parts of society also is a large contributor to the poor health often found in inner-city residents. The overcrowded living conditions in the inner-city caused by hypersegregation means that the spread of infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, occurs much more frequently. This is known as "epidemic injustice" because racial groups confined in a certain area are affected much more often than those living outside the area.

text: Another impact of hypersegregation can be found in the health of the residents of certain areas. Poorer inner-cities often lack the health care that is available in outside areas. That many inner-cities are so isolated from other parts of society also is a large contributor to the poor health often found in inner-city residents. The overcrowded living conditions in the inner-city caused by hypersegregation means that the spread of infectious diseases, such as

text: tuberculosis

text: , occurs much more frequently. This is known as "epidemic injustice" because racial groups confined in a certain area are affected much more often than those living outside the area.

text: This crater is a circular formation with a low rim and a relatively featureless inner wall and interior floor. There are some tiny craterlets around the rim, including one across the northwest wall and another on the inner wall to the south. The interior has no significant features, with only a tiny craterlet to mark the surface.

text: In 2010, a reanalysis of the old Apollo seismic data on the deep moonquakes using modern processing methods confirmed that the Moon has an iron rich core with a radius of . The same reanalysis established that the solid inner core made of pure iron has the radius of . The core is surrounded by the partially (10 to 30%) melted layer of the lower mantle with a radius of  (thickness ~150 km). These results imply that 40% of the core by volume has solidified. The density of the liquid outer core is about 5 g/cm and it could contain as much 6% sulfur by weight. The temperature in the core is probably about 1600–1700 K.

text: In 2010, a reanalysis of the old

entity_name: Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package

text: Apollo

text: seismic data on the deep

text: moonquake

text: s using modern processing methods confirmed that the Moon has an iron rich core with a radius of . The same reanalysis established that the solid inner core made of pure iron has the radius of . The core is surrounded by the partially (10 to 30%) melted layer of the lower mantle with a radius of  (thickness ~150 km). These results imply that 40% of the core by volume has solidified. The density of the liquid outer core is about 5 g/cm and it could contain as much 6%

text: sulfur

text: by weight. The temperature in the core is probably about 1600–1700 K.

text: Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger ones have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, they were often distinguished from asteroids of the asteroid belt. In this article, the term "asteroid" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter.

text: Asteroids are

text: minor planet

text: s, especially those of the

text: inner Solar System

text: . The larger ones have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the

text: Sun

text: that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active

text: comet

text: . As

text: minor planets in the outer Solar System

text: were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, they were often distinguished from asteroids of the

text: asteroid belt

text: . In this article, the term "asteroid" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with

text: Jupiter

text: The axial tilt of Neptune is 28.32°, which is similar to the tilts of Earth (23°) and Mars (25°). As a result, this planet experiences similar seasonal changes. The long orbital period of Neptune means that the seasons last for forty Earth years. Its sidereal rotation period (day) is roughly 16.11 hours. Because its axial tilt is comparable to Earth's, the variation in the length of its day over the course of its long year is not any more extreme.

text: NEPTUNE is an acronym for North-East Pacific Time-series Undersea Networked Experiments.  The North-East Pacific is home to the Juan de Fuca plate—smallest of Earth’s 12 tectonic plates. Its small size and close proximity to the coast gives NEPTUNE Canada a unique opportunity to observe tectonic processes. NEPTUNE Canada is built to provide continuous observations for 25 years. The time-series data gathered will allow scientists to study long-term changes over the life of the project. Instruments comprising the undersea observatory will operate at depths ranging from 17 to 2,660 m. Hundreds of instruments have been connected to the Internet by way of shielded cables carrying both power and fibre-optic communication lines. A database will archive and provide networked access to all archived data. Taking advantage of this platform, scientists collaborating with NEPTUNE are expected to conduct thousands of unique experiments over the life of the project.

text: NEPTUNE is an acronym for North-East Pacific Time-series Undersea Networked Experiments.  The North-East Pacific is home to the

text: Juan de Fuca plate

text: —smallest of Earth’s 12

text: tectonic plates

text: . Its small size and close proximity to the coast gives NEPTUNE Canada a unique opportunity to observe tectonic processes. NEPTUNE Canada is built to provide continuous observations for 25 years. The time-series data gathered will allow scientists to study long-term changes over the life of the project. Instruments comprising the undersea observatory will operate at depths ranging from 17 to 2,660 m. Hundreds of instruments have been connected to the Internet by way of

text: shielded cable

text: s carrying both power and

text: fibre-optic communication

text: lines. A database will archive and provide

text: networked

text: access to all archived data. Taking advantage of this platform, scientists collaborating with NEPTUNE are expected to conduct thousands of unique experiments over the life of the project.

text: The surface of Venus is dominated by volcanic features and has more volcanoes than any other planet in the Solar System. It has a surface that is 90% basalt, and about 65% of the planet consists of a mosaic of volcanic lava plains, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. There are more than 1000 volcanic structures and possible periodic resurfacing of Venus by floods of lava. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Venus has a carbon dioxide rich atmosphere, with a density that is 90 times greater than Earth.

text: The surface of

text: Venus

text: is dominated by volcanic features and has more volcanoes than any other

text: planet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: . It has a surface that is 90%

text: basalt

text: , and about 65% of the planet consists of a mosaic of volcanic

text: lava

text: plains, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. There are more than 1000 volcanic structures and possible periodic resurfacing of Venus by floods of lava. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Venus has a carbon dioxide rich atmosphere, with a density that is 90 times greater than Earth.

text: The retrograde motion of a planet is its apparent backward motion through the sky caused by the earth travelling past a slower moving outer planet, or when the earth is itself passed by a faster moving inner planet. For secondary progression or the day-for-a-year method, retrograde motion means that progressing a planet forward one day in time leads to the planet's moving 'backwards' in the chart in an anti-clockwise fashion. In astrology this backward movement was traditionally thought to be unlucky or inauspicious, as it went against the 'natural' order of movement (or 'direct movement' as it is known), and a planet which was retrograde at the time of birth was considered a weak spot in the natal chart.

text: The

text: retrograde motion

text: of a planet is its apparent backward motion through the sky caused by the earth travelling past a slower moving outer planet, or when the earth is itself passed by a faster moving inner planet. For secondary progression or the day-for-a-year method, retrograde motion means that progressing a planet forward one day in time leads to the planet's moving 'backwards' in the chart in an anti-clockwise fashion. In astrology this backward movement was traditionally thought to be unlucky or inauspicious, as it went against the 'natural' order of movement (or 'direct movement' as it is known), and a planet which was retrograde at the time of birth was considered a weak spot in the natal chart.

text: V. griseus is a cold-blooded ectotherm whose behaviors therefore depend on the outside temperatures. Many lizards become sluggish in cold weather and even may become inactive if the temperature decreases substantially.  Their olfactory and nerve signals significantly slow down, which severely limit the lizard from either catching potential prey or escaping from predators. The body temperature of V. griseus is directly proportional to its running speed between the temperatures of 21 and 37 °C. Between those temperatures, the running speed of the monitor lizard increases from a little over 1 m/s at 21 °C to around 3 m/s at 37 °C. Over 37 °C, its running speed does not increase, and below 21 °C, the lizards are extremely sluggish. If they are being pursued by a predator while their body temperature is less than 21 °C, they will not flee, but will instead hold their ground and become extremely aggressive.

text: V. griseus is a cold-blooded

text: ectotherm

text: whose behaviors therefore depend on the outside temperatures. Many lizards become sluggish in cold weather and even may become inactive if the temperature decreases substantially.  Their olfactory and nerve signals significantly slow down, which severely limit the lizard from either catching potential

text: prey

text: or escaping from

text: predator

text: s. The body temperature of V. griseus is directly proportional to its running speed between the temperatures of 21 and 37 °C. Between those temperatures, the running speed of the monitor lizard increases from a little over 1 m/s at 21 °C to around 3 m/s at 37 °C. Over 37 °C, its running speed does not increase, and below 21 °C, the lizards are extremely sluggish. If they are being pursued by a

text: predator

text: while their body temperature is less than 21 °C, they will not flee, but will instead hold their ground and become extremely aggressive.

text: The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" (see image). However, there have been some studies which have shown that the upper mantle (asthenosphere) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough friction to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in the image above, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper , as deduced from seismic tomography and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about . The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the North American Plate are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.

text: The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" (see image). However, there have been some studies which have shown that the upper

text: mantle

text: asthenosphere

text: ) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough

text: friction

text: to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in the image above, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper , as deduced from

text: seismic tomography

text: and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about . The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the

text: North American Plate

text: are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.

text: The Tom Van Flandern model was first proposed in 1993 in the first edition of his book. In the revised version from 1999 and later, the original Solar System had 6 pairs of twin planets each fissioned off from the equatorial bulges of an overspinning Sun (outward centrifugal forces exceed the inward gravitational force) at different times so having different temperatures, sizes, and compositions, and having condensed thereafter with the nebular disk dissipating after some 100 million years, with 6 planets exploding. Four of these were helium dominated, fluid, and unstable (helium class planets). These were V (Bellatrix) (V standing for the 5th planet, the first 4 including Mercury and Mars), K (Krypton), T (transneptunian), and Planet X. In these cases, the smaller moons exploded because of tidal stresses leaving the 4 component belts of the 2 major planetoid zones.  Planet LHB-A, the explosion for which is postulated to have caused the Late Heavy Bombardment (about 4 eons ago), was twinned with Jupiter, and LHB-B, the explosion for which is postulated to have caused another LHB, was twinned with Saturn. In planets LHB-A, Jupiter, LHB-B, and Saturn,  being gigantic, Jovian planets, the inner and smaller partner in each pair was subjected to enormous tidal stresses causing it to blow up. The explosions took place before they were able to fission off moons. As the 6 were fluid they left no trace. Solid planets fission off only one moon and Mercury was a moon of Venus but drifted away because of the Sun's gravitational influence. Mars was a moon of Bellatrix.	One major argument against exploding planets and moons is that there would not be an energy source powerful enough to cause such explosions, but Van Flandern provides 3 possible mechanisms: change of state, natural nuclear reactor, and gravitational heat energy. The first 2 he considers as being powerful enough only for smaller planets, but the third relies on LaSage gravity which has fallen out of favour (see Le Sage's theory of gravitation).	The other major argument is that there isn’t enough mass in the Main Belt to account for the calamity, but, in this type of explosion, most of the mass would be vapourized. Van Flandern presents over 100 points of evidence in 11 lines of evidence for such explosions.  The EPH (exploded planet hypothesis) has been supported also by Olbers (who originated it in 1812), Lagrange in 1814,  Reginald Daly in 1944, Brown and Patterson in 1948 (Van Flandern, 1999, loc. cit.), Sergei Orloff (who gave the name of  Phaeton to the missing planet), Ovenden in 1972 and 1973 (Van Flandern, 1999, loc. cit.), Opik in 1978 (Van Flandern, 1999, loc. cit.).	It is the only model that explains the twinning of planets (and moons), but also explains coplanar and circular orbits, angular momentum distribution, the asteroid belts, the small size and orbital anomalies of Mars and Mercury, and the late heavy bombardments.

text: The

text: Tom Van Flandern

text: model was first proposed in 1993 in the first edition of his book. In the revised version from 1999 and later, the original Solar System had 6 pairs of twin planets each fissioned off from the equatorial bulges of an overspinning Sun (outward centrifugal forces exceed the inward gravitational force) at different times so having different temperatures, sizes, and compositions, and having condensed thereafter with the nebular disk dissipating after some 100 million years, with 6 planets exploding. Four of these were helium dominated, fluid, and unstable (helium class planets). These were V (Bellatrix) (V standing for the 5th planet, the first 4 including Mercury and Mars), K (Krypton), T (transneptunian), and Planet X. In these cases, the smaller moons exploded because of tidal stresses leaving the 4 component belts of the 2 major planetoid zones.  Planet LHB-A, the explosion for which is postulated to have caused the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: (about 4 eons ago), was twinned with Jupiter, and LHB-B, the explosion for which is postulated to have caused another LHB, was twinned with Saturn. In planets LHB-A, Jupiter, LHB-B, and Saturn,  being gigantic, Jovian planets, the inner and smaller partner in each pair was subjected to enormous tidal stresses causing it to blow up. The explosions took place before they were able to fission off moons. As the 6 were fluid they left no trace. Solid planets fission off only one moon and Mercury was a moon of Venus but drifted away because of the Sun's gravitational influence. Mars was a moon of Bellatrix.	One major argument against exploding planets and moons is that there would not be an energy source powerful enough to cause such explosions, but Van Flandern provides 3 possible mechanisms: change of state, natural nuclear reactor, and gravitational heat energy. The first 2 he considers as being powerful enough only for smaller planets, but the third relies on LaSage gravity which has fallen out of favour (see

text: Le Sage's theory of gravitation

text: ).	The other major argument is that there isn’t enough mass in the Main Belt to account for the calamity, but, in this type of explosion, most of the mass would be vapourized. Van Flandern presents over 100 points of evidence in 11 lines of evidence for such explosions.  The EPH (exploded planet hypothesis) has been supported also by

text: Olbers

text: (who originated it in 1812),

text: Lagrange

text: in 1814,

text: Reginald Daly

text: in 1944, Brown and Patterson in 1948 (Van Flandern, 1999, loc. cit.), Sergei Orloff (who gave the name of

text: Phaeton

text: to the missing planet), Ovenden in 1972 and 1973 (Van Flandern, 1999, loc. cit.),

text: Opik

text: in 1978 (Van Flandern, 1999, loc. cit.).	It is the only model that explains the twinning of planets (and moons), but also explains coplanar and circular orbits, angular momentum distribution, the asteroid belts, the small size and orbital anomalies of Mars and Mercury, and the late heavy bombardments.

text: Some of these are available from the Planet Dog records website at www.planetdogrecords.com

text: The seven classical planets are those easily seen with the naked eye, and were thus known to ancient astrologers. They are the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Sometimes, the Sun and Moon were referred to as "the lights" or the "luminaries". Vesta and Uranus can also just be seen with the naked eye, though no ancient culture appears to have taken note of them. The astrological descriptions attached to the seven classical planets have been preserved since ancient times. Astrologers call the seven classical planets "the seven personal and social planets", because they are said to represent the basic human drives of every individual. The personal planets are the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. The social or transpersonal planets are Jupiter and Saturn. Jupiter and Saturn are often called the first of the "transpersonal" or "transcendent" planets as they represent a transition from the inner personal planets to the outer modern, impersonal planets. The outer modern planets Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are often called the collective or transcendental planets. The following is a list of the planets and their associated characteristics.

text: The seven

text: classical planets

text: are those easily seen with the naked eye, and were thus known to ancient astrologers. They are the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Sometimes, the Sun and Moon were referred to as "the lights" or the "

text: luminaries

text: Vesta

text: and

text: Uranus

text: can also just be seen with the naked eye, though no ancient culture appears to have taken note of them. The astrological descriptions attached to the seven classical planets have been preserved since ancient times. Astrologers call the seven classical planets "the seven personal and social planets", because they are said to represent the basic human drives of every individual. The personal planets are the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars. The social or transpersonal planets are Jupiter and Saturn. Jupiter and Saturn are often called the first of the "transpersonal" or "transcendent" planets as they represent a transition from the inner personal planets to the outer modern, impersonal planets. The outer modern planets Uranus, Neptune and Pluto are often called the collective or transcendental planets. The following is a list of the planets and their associated characteristics.

text: Water from treated tap water is available in the village.Water from untreated tap water is available in the village.Water from covered wells is not available in the village.Water from uncovered wells is available in the village.Water from Hand pumps is available in the village.Water from Tube wells / Bore wells is available in the village.Water from Springs is not available in the village.Water from River / Canal is available in the village.Water from Tank / Pond / Lake is available in the village.

text: The flowers are borne singly or in pairs in leaf axils on straight, hairy stalks mostly  long. There are 5 lance-shaped sepals which are  long and densely covered with branched hairs, especially on the inner surface. The flower buds are yellowish but when the flowers open, the petals are white to pale lilac. The petals are  long and are joined at their lower end to form a tube.  The outside of the petal tube is mostly glabrous but the outer surface of the petal lobes is hairy, whilst their inner surface is glabrous. The inside of the tube is filled with long, soft hairs. The 4 stamens are fully enclosed in the petal tube. Flowering mainly occurs between August and September and is followed by fruit which are dry, woody, oval-shaped and  long with a papery covering.

text: The flowers are borne singly or in pairs in leaf axils on straight, hairy stalks mostly  long. There are 5 lance-shaped

text: sepal

text: s which are  long and densely covered with branched hairs, especially on the inner surface. The flower buds are yellowish but when the flowers open, the petals are white to pale lilac. The

text: petal

text: s are  long and are joined at their lower end to form a tube.  The outside of the petal tube is mostly

text: glabrous

text: but the outer surface of the petal lobes is hairy, whilst their inner surface is glabrous. The inside of the tube is filled with long, soft hairs. The 4 stamens are fully enclosed in the petal tube. Flowering mainly occurs between August and September and is followed by fruit which are dry, woody, oval-shaped and  long with a papery covering.

text: During the Jurassic period, four tectonic plates developed in the Pacific Basin: the Kula and the Farallon in the north, the large Pacific Plate in the centre and south and the Phoenix Plate in the far south. The Kula Plate was subducted under the eastern and south-eastern Asian landmass. The northern part of the Farallon was subducted under North America while its southern section, together with the Phoenix Plate, was subducted under South America and the Antarctic. During the late Tertiary period, the Farallon plate broke up, leaving the Juan de Fuca Plate in the north, the Cocos Plate off today's Central America, and the Nazca and Phoenix Plates in the southern Pacific.

text: During the

text: Jurassic

text: period, four

text: tectonic plate

text: s developed in the Pacific Basin: the

text: Kula

text: and the

text: Farallon

text: in the north, the large

text: Pacific Plate

text: in the centre and south and the

text: Phoenix Plate

text: in the far south. The Kula Plate was subducted under the eastern and south-eastern Asian landmass. The northern part of the Farallon was subducted under North America while its southern section, together with the Phoenix Plate, was subducted under South America and the Antarctic. During the late

text: Tertiary

text: period, the Farallon plate broke up, leaving the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: in the north, the

text: Cocos Plate

text: off today's Central America, and the

text: Nazca

text: and

text: Phoenix Plate

text: s in the southern Pacific.

text: In 665, Li introduced a reform calendar. It was called the Linde calendar. It improved the prediction of planets' positions and included an “intercalary month.” That is similar to the idea of a leap day. It would catch up a lunar year to a solar year because twelve lunar months are 1.3906 days short of one solar year. It was added every three years. The Linde calendar is the most prominent accomplishment of Li.

text: In 665, Li introduced a reform

text: calendar

text: . It was called the Linde calendar. It improved the prediction of planets' positions and included an “

text: intercalary month

text: .” That is similar to the idea of a leap day. It would catch up a lunar year to a solar year because twelve lunar months are 1.3906 days short of one solar year. It was added every three years. The Linde calendar is the most prominent accomplishment of Li.

text: Plate tectonics offers yet another way of defining continents. Today, Europe and most of Asia constitute the unified Eurasian Plate, which is approximately coincident with the geographic Eurasian continent excluding India, Arabia, and far eastern Russia. India contains a central shield, and the geologically recent Himalaya mobile belt forms its northern margin. North America and South America are separate continents, the connecting isthmus being largely the result of volcanism from relatively recent subduction tectonics. North American continental rocks extend to Greenland (a portion of the Canadian Shield), and in terms of plate boundaries, the North American plate includes the easternmost portion of the Asian land mass. Geologists do not use these facts to suggest that eastern Asia is part of the North American continent, even though the plate boundary extends there; the word continent is usually used in its geographic sense and additional definitions ("continental rocks," "plate boundaries") are used as appropriate.

text: Plate tectonics offers yet another way of defining continents. Today, Europe and most of Asia constitute the unified

text: Eurasian Plate

text: , which is approximately coincident with the geographic Eurasian continent excluding India, Arabia, and far eastern Russia. India contains a central shield, and the geologically recent

text: Himalaya

text: mobile belt forms its northern margin. North America and South America are separate continents, the connecting

text: isthmus

text: being largely the result of

text: volcanism

text: from relatively recent subduction tectonics. North American continental rocks extend to Greenland (a portion of the

text: Canadian Shield

text: ), and in terms of plate boundaries, the North American plate includes the easternmost portion of the Asian land mass. Geologists do not use these facts to suggest that eastern Asia is part of the North American continent, even though the plate boundary extends there; the word continent is usually used in its geographic sense and additional definitions ("continental rocks," "plate boundaries") are used as appropriate.

text: A German astronomer, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) formulated three laws of planetary motion. A key discovery was that the motion of Mars followed an elliptical path. His model with a circular orbit did not match the observations of Mars.The planet's pronounced eccentricity was key in discovering the non-circularity of its orbit, and consequently of orbits in general.

text: Amphibion then comes across Hulk (Bruce Banner) walking in a desert after he returned to Earth. Amphibion explains to the Hulk that when he was returned to his home planet in their original battle, he found his world in chaos. When he questioned the Council of Elders on his world, they judged him to be arrogant and heretic and sent him into permanent exile for his failure for their planet's troubles. He then asks Banner for help to go back to the Watcher's planet to get the Ultimate Machine so that he could use it to bring peace back to his planet. After that they use the Leaders old equipment to transport themselves via "thoughtwaves", but instead of landing on the Watcher's planet, they are bounced to a nearby planet. The residents of the planet explain that the proximity of the Watcher's world is causing them to have nightmares and slowly driving them to insanity. Banner and Qnax volunteer to take a ship to the Watcher's planet to help them. Banner and Qnax take the ship and manage to get through the Watcher's barrier around his planet. After getting on the surface, they are subjected to visions such as Galactus devouring a world, the Skrull and Kree fighting on the moon, and the Hulk battling the Avengers. They also find the Watcher and explain what they are there for, and just as the Watcher hands them the Ultimate Machine, the natives of the other planet they were on decide to attack. The Watcher makes a retreat to the inner parts of the planet with Banner and Qnax right behind him during the attack. The Watcher reveals that the true Ultimate Machine shows not only all the known knowledge in the universe but also the "truth" as he puts it. Banner and Qnax both decide to use the machine on themselves, Banner sees his whole life for what it is and finds acceptance in all aspects. Qnax sees the history of his race and that the Council of Elders were only after power, not order. Once its over, Amphibion (Qnax) is sent back to his planet of Xantares' in the hopes that he can bring peace to his world with a new sense of justice, while Hulk (Banner) is sent back to Earth and continues to live his life.

text: Amphibion then comes across Hulk (Bruce Banner) walking in a desert after he returned to Earth. Amphibion explains to the Hulk that when he was returned to his home planet in their original battle, he found his world in chaos. When he questioned the Council of Elders on his world, they judged him to be arrogant and heretic and sent him into permanent exile for his failure for their planet's troubles. He then asks Banner for help to go back to the Watcher's planet to get the Ultimate Machine so that he could use it to bring peace back to his planet. After that they use the Leaders old equipment to transport themselves via "thoughtwaves", but instead of landing on the Watcher's planet, they are bounced to a nearby planet. The residents of the planet explain that the proximity of the Watcher's world is causing them to have nightmares and slowly driving them to insanity. Banner and Qnax volunteer to take a ship to the Watcher's planet to help them. Banner and Qnax take the ship and manage to get through the Watcher's barrier around his planet. After getting on the surface, they are subjected to visions such as

text: Galactus

text: devouring a world, the

text: Skrull

text: and

text: Kree

text: fighting on the moon, and the Hulk battling the

text: Avengers

text: . They also find the Watcher and explain what they are there for, and just as the Watcher hands them the Ultimate Machine, the natives of the other planet they were on decide to attack. The Watcher makes a retreat to the inner parts of the planet with Banner and Qnax right behind him during the attack. The Watcher reveals that the true Ultimate Machine shows not only all the known knowledge in the universe but also the "truth" as he puts it. Banner and Qnax both decide to use the machine on themselves, Banner sees his whole life for what it is and finds acceptance in all aspects. Qnax sees the history of his race and that the Council of Elders were only after power, not order. Once its over, Amphibion (Qnax) is sent back to his planet of Xantares' in the hopes that he can bring peace to his world with a new sense of justice, while Hulk (Banner) is sent back to Earth and continues to live his life.

text: The formation of giant planets is a more complicated process. It is thought to occur beyond the frost line, where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice. As a result, they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk. What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear. Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5–10 Earth masses—the threshold value, which is necessary to begin accretion of the hydrogen–helium gas from the disk. The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process, which continues for several million years, but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses () it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner. Jupiter- and Saturn-like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10,000 years. The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted. The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation. Ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune are thought to be failed cores, which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared.

text: The formation of

text: giant planet

text: s is a more complicated process. It is thought to occur beyond the

text: frost line

text: , where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice. As a result, they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk. What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear. Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5–10

text: Earth mass

text: es—the threshold value, which is necessary to begin accretion of the

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: gas from the disk. The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process, which continues for several million years, but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses () it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner.

text: Jupiter

text: - and

text: Saturn

text: -like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10,000 years. The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted. The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation.

text: Ice giant

text: s such as

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: are thought to be failed cores, which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared.

text: The jumping-Jupiter scenario specifies an evolution of giant-planet migration described by the Nice model, in which an ice giant (Uranus, Neptune, or an additional Neptune-mass planet) is scattered inward by Saturn and outward by Jupiter, causing the step-wise separation of their orbits. The jumping-Jupiter scenario was proposed by Ramon Brasser, Alessandro Morbidelli, Rodney Gomes, Kleomenis Tsiganis, and Harold Levison after their studies revealed that the smooth divergent migration of Jupiter and Saturn resulted in an inner Solar System significantly different from the current Solar System. The sweeping of secular resonances through the inner Solar System during the migration excited the eccentricities of the terrestrial planets beyond current values and left an asteroid belt with an excessive ratio of high- to low-inclination objects. The step-wise separation of Jupiter and Saturn described in the jumping-Jupiter scenario can allow these resonances to quickly cross the inner Solar System without altering orbits excessively, although the terrestrial planets remain sensitive to its passage. The jumping-Jupiter scenario also results in a number of other differences with the original Nice model. The fraction of lunar impactors from the core of the asteroid belt during the Late Heavy Bombardment is significantly reduced, most of the Jupiter trojans are captured during Jupiter's encounters with the ice giant, as are Jupiter's irregular satellites. In the jumping-Jupiter scenario, the likelihood of preserving four giant planets on orbits resembling their current ones appears to increase if the early Solar System originally contained an additional ice giant, which was later ejected by Jupiter into interstellar space. However, this remains an atypical result, as is the preservation of the current orbits of the terrestrial planets.

text: The jumping-Jupiter scenario specifies an evolution of giant-

text: planet migration

text: described by the

text: Nice model

text: , in which an

text: ice giant

text: (Uranus, Neptune, or an

text: additional Neptune-mass planet

text: ) is scattered inward by Saturn and outward by Jupiter, causing the step-wise separation of their

text: orbit

text: s. The jumping-Jupiter scenario was proposed by Ramon Brasser, Alessandro Morbidelli, Rodney Gomes, Kleomenis Tsiganis, and Harold Levison after their studies revealed that the smooth divergent migration of Jupiter and Saturn resulted in an

text: inner Solar System

text: significantly different from the current Solar System. The sweeping of

text: secular resonance

text: s through the inner Solar System during the migration excited the

text: eccentricities

text: of the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s beyond current values and left an

text: asteroid belt

text: with an excessive ratio of high- to low-

text: inclination

text: objects. The step-wise separation of Jupiter and Saturn described in the jumping-Jupiter scenario can allow these resonances to quickly cross the inner Solar System without altering orbits excessively, although the terrestrial planets remain sensitive to its passage. The jumping-Jupiter scenario also results in a number of other differences with the original Nice model. The fraction of lunar impactors from the core of the asteroid belt during the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: is significantly reduced, most of the

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s are captured during Jupiter's encounters with the ice giant, as are Jupiter's

text: irregular satellites

text: . In the jumping-Jupiter scenario, the likelihood of preserving four giant planets on orbits resembling their current ones appears to increase if the early

text: Solar System

text: originally contained an

text: additional ice giant

text: , which was later ejected by Jupiter into

text: interstellar space

text: . However, this remains an atypical result, as is the preservation of the current orbits of the terrestrial planets.

text: The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries. Mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another. Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, in which the continents move across the surface of the Earth over geologic time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.

text: The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries.

text: Mid-ocean ridge

text: s, high regions on the seafloor where

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s and volcanoes exist, were explained as

text: divergent boundaries

text: , where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as

text: convergent boundaries

text: , where one plate

text: subducts

text: under another.

text: Transform boundaries

text: , such as the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: , in which the

text: continents

text: move across the surface of the Earth over geologic time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.

text: On August 10, 1990, the US Magellan probe, named after the explorer Ferdinand Magellan, arrived at its orbit around the planet and started a mission of detailed radar mapping at a frequency of 2.38 GHz. Whereas previous probes had created low-resolution radar maps of continent-sized formations, Magellan mapped 98% of the surface with a resolution of approximately 100 m. The resulting maps were comparable to visible-light photographs of other planets, and are still the most detailed in existence. Magellan greatly improved scientific understanding of the geology of Venus: the probe found no signs of plate tectonics, but the scarcity of impact craters suggested the surface was relatively young, and there were lava channels thousands of kilometers long. After a four-year mission, Magellan, as planned, plunged into the atmosphere on October 11, 1994, and partly vaporized; some sections are thought to have hit the planet's surface.

text: On August 10, 1990, the US

text: Magellan

text: probe, named after the explorer

text: Ferdinand Magellan

text: , arrived at its orbit around the planet and started a mission of detailed

text: radar

text: mapping at a frequency of 2.38 GHz. Whereas previous probes had created low-resolution radar maps of continent-sized formations, Magellan mapped 98% of the surface with a resolution of approximately 100 m. The resulting maps were comparable to visible-light photographs of other planets, and are still the most detailed in existence. Magellan greatly improved scientific understanding of the

text: geology of Venus

text: : the probe found no signs of

text: plate tectonics

text: , but the scarcity of impact craters suggested the surface was relatively young, and there were

text: lava channel

text: s thousands of kilometers long. After a four-year mission, Magellan, as planned, plunged into the atmosphere on October 11, 1994, and partly vaporized; some sections are thought to have hit the planet's surface.

text: Volcanology has an extensive history. The earliest known recording of a volcanic eruption may be on a wall painting dated to about 7,000 BCE found at the Neolithic site at Çatal Höyük in Anatolia, Turkey. This painting has been interpreted as a depiction of an erupting volcano, with a cluster of houses below shows a twin peaked volcano in eruption, with a town at its base (though archaeologists now question this interpretation). The volcano may be either Hasan Dağ, or its smaller neighbour, Melendiz Dağ.

text: Volcanology has an extensive history. The earliest known recording of a volcanic eruption may be on a wall painting dated to about 7,000 BCE found at the

text: Neolithic

text: site at Çatal Höyük in

text: Anatolia

text: Turkey

text: . This painting has been interpreted as a depiction of an erupting volcano, with a cluster of houses below shows a twin peaked volcano in eruption, with a town at its base (though archaeologists now question this interpretation). The volcano may be either

text: Hasan Dağ

text: , or its smaller neighbour, Melendiz Dağ.

text: The Revelle effect describes how only a small fraction of pCO is present in ocean water when  much larger amounts are added to the atmosphere. Depending on the alkalinity of the water, DIC  is either present as CO, HCO, or CO. When the pH is high (basic) the Revelle factor is greatest, causing much of the DIC to exist as HCO or CO, and not CO. So, the greater the buffering effect (low Revelle Factor) the more DIC  occurs as CO or HCO, effectively lowering the pCO levels in both the atmosphere and ocean.

text: The Revelle effect describes how only a small fraction of pCO is present in ocean water when  much larger amounts are added to the atmosphere. Depending on the

text: alkalinity

text: of the water, DIC  is either present as CO, HCO, or CO. When the pH is high (basic) the Revelle factor is greatest, causing much of the DIC to exist as HCO or CO, and not CO. So, the greater the buffering effect (low Revelle Factor) the more DIC  occurs as CO or HCO, effectively lowering the pCO levels in both the atmosphere and ocean.

text: The inner Solar System, the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU, was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like iron, nickel, and aluminium) and rocky silicates. These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars). These compounds are quite rare in the Universe, comprising only 0.6% of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05 Earth masses () and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet-sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes (see Terrestrial planets below).

text: The

text: inner Solar System

text: , the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU, was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like

text: iron

text: nickel

text: , and

text: aluminium

text: ) and rocky

text: silicate

text: s. These rocky bodies would become the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s (

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: , and

text: Mars

text: ). These compounds are quite rare in the Universe, comprising only 0.6% of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05

text: Earth mass

text: es () and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet-sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes (see

text: Terrestrial planets

text: below).

text: On the other hand, if year 2 is already a short year of 383 days, there will be a problem if TM2 is on a Wednesday. because Rosh Hashanah in year 2 will have to be postponed from Wednesday to Thursday and this will cause year 2 to be only 382 days long. In this case, year 2 is extended by one day by postponing Rosh Hashanah in year 3 from Monday to Tuesday (the fourth deḥiyyah), and year 2 will have 383 days.

text: Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate, or at a mid-ocean ridge or hotspot.  At a depth of around 100 km, melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a shield volcano or a stratovolcano. Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the US.

text: Volcanoes are formed when

text: a plate is pushed below another plate

text: , or at a

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: or

text: hotspot

text: .  At a depth of around 100 km, melting occurs in rock above the slab (due to the addition of water), and forms

text: magma

text: that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it often builds a volcanic mountain, such as a

text: shield volcano

text: or a

text: stratovolcano

text: . Examples of volcanoes include

text: Mount Fuji

text: in Japan and

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: in the Philippines. The magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain: magma that solidifies below ground can still form

text: dome mountain

text: s, such as

text: Navajo Mountain

text: in the US.

text: Solar sails can travel to and from all of the inner planets.  Trips to Mercury and Venus are for rendezvous and orbit entry for the payload.  Trips to Mars could be either for rendezvous or swing-by with release of the payload for aerodynamic braking.

text: Solar sails can travel to and from all of the inner planets.  Trips to Mercury and Venus are for rendezvous and orbit entry for the payload.  Trips to Mars could be either for rendezvous or swing-by with release of the payload for

text: aerodynamic braking

text: Kepler-11 is a G-type star, much like the Sun is, and is located 613 parsecs away in the Cygnus constellation. It has 95% the mass and 110% the radius of the Sun. Its mass and radius, combined with an approximate iron content (metallicity) of 0 and effective temperature of 5680 K, makes the star very similar to the Sun, though slightly more diffuse and slightly cooler. However, the star is approximately 1.74 times the age of the Sun, and is estimated to have existed for eight billion years. Kepler-11 has six known planets in orbit: Kepler-11b, Kepler-11c, Kepler-11d, Kepler-11e, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g.   Kepler-11's five inner planets orbit closely to their host star, and their orbits would fit within that of Mercury's.

text: Kepler-11 is a

text: G-type star

text: , much like the Sun is, and is located 613

text: parsec

text: s away in the Cygnus constellation. It has 95% the

text: mass

text: and 110% the

text: radius

text: of the Sun. Its mass and radius, combined with an approximate iron content (

text: metallicity

text: ) of 0 and

text: effective temperature

text: of 5680

text: K

text: , makes the star very similar to the Sun, though slightly more diffuse and slightly cooler. However, the star is approximately 1.74 times the age of the Sun, and is estimated to have existed for eight billion years. Kepler-11 has six known planets in orbit:

text: , Kepler-11f, and

text: .   Kepler-11's five inner planets orbit closely to their host star, and their orbits would fit within that of

text: Mercury

text: 's.

text: It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth. This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect.

text: It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by a

text: dynamo

text: effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth. This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect.

text: Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity. The thickness of the crust varies from about  (kilometers) under the oceans to 30–50 km for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and  below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core. The Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year. The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

text: Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their

text: chemical

text: or physical (

text: rheological

text: ) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct

text: silicate

text: solid crust, which is underlain by a highly

text: viscous

text: solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the

text: Mohorovičić discontinuity

text: . The thickness of the crust varies from about  (kilometers) under the oceans to 30–50 km for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the

text: upper mantle

text: are collectively known as the lithosphere, and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed. Beneath the lithosphere is the

text: asthenosphere

text: , a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and  below the surface, spanning a

text: transition zone

text: that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid

text: outer core

text: lies above a solid

text: inner core

text: . The Earth's inner core might rotate at a slightly higher

text: angular velocity

text: than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year. The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth.

text: During active missions, small surface features are often given informal names. These may include landing sites, spacecraft impact sites, and small topographic features, such as craters, hills, and rocks. Such names will not be given official status by the IAU, except as provided for by Rule 2 above. As for the larger objects, official names for any such small features would have to conform to established IAU rules and categories.

text: Since astronomic data came to be known with much greater accuracy, it became necessary to consider how the motion of a planet around the Sun is affected by other planets. This was the origin of the three-body problem; thus, in studying the system Moon–Earth–Sun the mass ratio between the Moon and the Earth was chosen as the small parameter. Lagrange and Laplace were the first to advance the view that the constants which describe the motion of a planet around the Sun are  "perturbed" , as it were, by the motion of other planets and vary as a function of time; hence the name  "perturbation theory" .

text: Since astronomic data came to be known with much greater accuracy, it became necessary to consider how the motion of a planet around the Sun is affected by other planets. This was the origin of the

text: three-body problem

text: ; thus, in studying the system Moon–Earth–Sun the mass ratio between the Moon and the Earth was chosen as the small parameter.

text: Lagrange

text: and

text: Laplace

text: were the first to advance the view that the constants which describe the motion of a planet around the Sun are  "perturbed" , as it were, by the motion of other planets and vary as a function of time; hence the name  "perturbation theory" .

text: Irkutsk is characterized by an extreme variation of temperatures between seasons. It can be very warm in the summer, and very cold in the winter. However, Lake Baikal has a tempering effect thanks to which temperatures in Irkutsk are not as extreme as elsewhere in Siberia. The warmest month of the year is July, when the average temperature is , the highest temperature recorded being . The coldest month of the year is January, when the average temperature is , and record low of . Precipitation also varies widely throughout the year, with July also being the wettest month, when precipitation averages . The driest month is February, when precipitation averages only . Almost all precipitation during the Siberian winter falls as flurry, dry snow.

text: Irkutsk is characterized by an extreme variation of temperatures between seasons. It can be very warm in the summer, and very cold in the winter. However, Lake Baikal has a tempering effect thanks to which temperatures in Irkutsk are not as extreme as elsewhere in Siberia. The warmest month of the year is July, when the average temperature is , the highest temperature recorded being . The coldest month of the year is January, when the average temperature is , and record low of .

text: Precipitation

text: also varies widely throughout the year, with July also being the wettest month, when precipitation averages . The driest month is February, when precipitation averages only . Almost all precipitation during the Siberian winter falls as flurry, dry snow.

text: The Principia deals primarily with massive bodies in motion, initially under a variety of conditions and hypothetical laws of force in both non-resisting and resisting media, thus offering criteria to decide, by observations, which laws of force are operating in phenomena that may be observed. It attempts to cover hypothetical or possible motions both of celestial bodies and of terrestrial projectiles. It explores difficult problems of motions perturbed by multiple attractive forces. Its third and final book deals with the interpretation of observations about the movements of planets and their satellites. It shows how astronomical observations prove the inverse square law of gravitation (to an accuracy that was high by the standards of Newton's time); offers estimates of relative masses for the known giant planets and for the Earth and the Sun; defines the very slow motion of the Sun relative to the solar-system barycenter; shows how the theory of gravity can account for irregularities in the motion of the Moon; identifies the oblateness of the figure of the Earth; accounts approximately for marine tides including phenomena of spring and neap tides by the perturbing (and varying) gravitational attractions of the Sun and Moon on the Earth's waters; explains the precession of the equinoxes as an effect of the gravitational attraction of the Moon on the Earth's equatorial bulge; and gives theoretical basis for numerous phenomena about comets and their elongated, near-parabolic orbits.

text: Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth. Moving objects on the surface of the Earth experience a Coriolis force, and appear to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern. Movements of air in the atmosphere and water in the ocean are notable examples of this behavior: rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would on a non-rotating planet, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator, and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).

text: Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the

text: Earth

text: . Moving objects on the surface of the Earth experience a Coriolis force, and appear to veer to the right in the

text: northern hemisphere

text: , and to the left in the

text: southern

text: . Movements of air in the atmosphere and water in the ocean are notable examples of this behavior: rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would on a non-rotating planet, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the

text: equator

text: , and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large

text: cyclones

text: (see

text: Coriolis effects in meteorology

text: is the embodiment of compassion; it is the emotional spectrum entity for the Indigo Tribe. The entity is revealed during the Blackest Night storyline. In Green Lantern (vol. 4) #52, Proselyte's origins is explained as: "Rage grows from murder. Hope from Prayer. And at last, compassion is offered to us all." It takes the form of a cephalopod with four visible appendages, which represent its reaching out to offer itself to all living beings. Its inner surface is lined with features that resemble the Indigo Tribe's insignia.

text: is the embodiment of

text: compassion

text: ; it is the

text: emotional spectrum

text: entity for the Indigo Tribe. The entity is revealed during the

text: Blackest Night

text: storyline. In Green Lantern (vol. 4) #52, Proselyte's origins is explained as: "Rage grows from murder. Hope from Prayer. And at last, compassion is offered to us all." It takes the form of a

text: cephalopod

text: with four visible appendages, which represent its reaching out to offer itself to all living beings. Its inner surface is lined with features that resemble the Indigo Tribe's insignia.

text: Kepler-438b (also known by its Kepler Object of Interest designation KOI-3284.01) is a confirmed near-Earth-sized exoplanet, likely rocky, orbiting on the inner edge of the habitable zone of the red dwarf as it receives 1.4 times our solar flex. Kepler-438, about 470 light-years (145 parsecs, or nearly  km) from Earth in the constellation Lyra. The planet was discovered by NASA's Kepler spacecraft using the transit method, in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. NASA announced the confirmation of the exoplanet on 6 January 2015. Although it is not habitable, as of June 2015, it has the highest index on the Earth Similarity Index, with a rating of 0.88.

text: Kepler-438b (also known by its

text: Kepler Object of Interest

text: designation KOI-3284.01) is a confirmed near-Earth-sized

text: exoplanet

text: , likely

text: rocky

text: , orbiting on the inner edge of the

text: habitable zone

text: of the

text: red dwarf

text: as it receives 1.4 times our solar flex.

text: , about 470

text: light-year

text: s (145

text: parsec

text: s, or nearly

text: km

text: ) from

text: Earth

text: in the constellation

text: Lyra

text: . The planet was discovered by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Kepler spacecraft

text: using the

text: transit method

text: , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. NASA announced the confirmation of the exoplanet on 6 January 2015. Although it is not habitable, as of June 2015, it has the highest index on the

text: Earth Similarity Index

text: , with a rating of 0.88.

text: Ascraeus Mons was discovered by the Mariner 9 spacecraft in 1971. The volcano was originally called North Spot because it was the northernmost of only four spots visible on the surface due to a global dust storm that was then enshrouding the planet. As the dust cleared, the spots were revealed to be extremely tall volcanoes whose summits had projected above the dust-laden, lower atmosphere. The volcano's name officially became Ascraeus Mons in 1973.

text: Ascraeus Mons was discovered by the

text: Mariner 9

text: spacecraft in 1971. The volcano was originally called North Spot because it was the northernmost of only four spots visible on the surface due to a global dust storm that was then enshrouding the planet. As the dust cleared, the spots were revealed to be extremely tall volcanoes whose summits had projected above the dust-laden, lower atmosphere. The volcano's name officially became Ascraeus Mons in 1973.

text: Topography is the study of the shape and features of the surface of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. The topography of an area could refer to the surface shapes and features themselves, or a description (especially their depiction in maps).

text: Topography is the study of the shape and features of the

text: surface

text: of the

text: Earth

text: and other observable

text: astronomical object

text: s including

text: planet

text: s,

text: moons

text: , and

text: asteroids

text: . The topography of an area could refer to the surface shapes and features themselves, or a description (especially their

text: depiction

text: in maps).

text: There is debate as to what criteria should be used to distinguish "double planet" from a "planet–moon system". The following are considerations.

text: There are three types of pulsar planets known so far. The PSR B1257+12 planets were formed out of the debris of a destroyed companion star that used to orbit the pulsar. In PSR J1719-1438, the planet most likely is the companion, or what's left of it after being almost entirely blasted away by the extreme irradiation from the nearby pulsar. PSR B1620-26 b is most likely a captured planet.

text: There are three types of pulsar planets known so far. The PSR B1257+12 planets were formed out of the debris of a destroyed companion star that used to orbit the pulsar. In

text: PSR J1719-1438

text: , the planet most likely is the companion, or what's left of it after being almost entirely blasted away by the extreme irradiation from the nearby pulsar. PSR B1620-26 b is most likely a captured planet.

text: The Sun and the Moon, the two luminaries, do not have Vakra state, they do not acquire retrograde motion, the other five planets (Tara grahas) have Vakra state, they acquire retrograde motion from time to time when they transit from 5th to the 8th house from the Sun. Rahu and Ketu, which are not planets in true sense, have perpetual retrograde motion. Suryasiddhanta refers to eight varieties of motion of which Vakra, Ativakra and Kutila refer to Vakragati i.e. retrograde motion, when they are believed to be moving away from light, and the remaining five verities viz;  manda, manda tara, sama, sighra and atisighra refer to Rujugati i.e. direct motion, when planets are freed from vakragati and are known as Margi grahas that are believed to be moving towards light. A planet hemmed between two Vakri grahas behaves as a Vakri graha, this applies to the Moon. Whereas Mars, Jupiter and Saturn appear to retrograde in the signs opposite to the one occupied by the Sun, Mercury and Venus appear to retrograde when they are farthest away from the Sun. Mercury and Venus can never be in the 5th to the 8th house from the Sun. According to Sanketa Nidhi of Ramadayalu when it is retrograde Mars gives the results of the 3rd house from the house of its occupation, Mercury gives the results of the 4th, Jupiter of the 5th, Venus of the 7th and Saturn of the 8th house. Vakri grahas and Paramuchcha grahas no doubt gain superior strength but do not produce identical results and even become over-powered in Grahayuddhas. If the Sun is Arohi a Vakri graha although very strong but because of the variations in its motion does not produce results uniformly.  Situated in their debilitation sign if owning good houses Vakri grahas produce good results, if owning bad houses they give bad results. Phaladeepika holds the view that a retrograde planet in its sign of debilitation is equal to its occupation of exaltation sign, and that exalted retrograde planets act as though they are debilitated. And, excepting the retrograde ones, those planets which occupy unfriendly signs take away 1/3rd of their allotted term of life. Vakra also means Kuja (Mars). Vakri grahas having gained exceptional strength give thrice the term of life allotted to them.

text: The

text: Sun

text: and the

text: Moon

text: , the two luminaries, do not have Vakra state, they do not acquire retrograde motion, the other five planets (Tara grahas) have Vakra state, they acquire retrograde motion from time to time when they transit from 5th to the 8th house from the Sun.

text: Rahu

text: and

text: Ketu

text: , which are not planets in true sense, have perpetual retrograde motion.

text: Suryasiddhanta

text: refers to eight varieties of motion of which Vakra, Ativakra and Kutila refer to Vakragati i.e. retrograde motion, when they are believed to be moving away from light, and the remaining five verities viz;  manda, manda tara, sama, sighra and atisighra refer to Rujugati i.e. direct motion, when planets are freed from vakragati and are known as Margi grahas that are believed to be moving towards light. A planet hemmed between two Vakri grahas behaves as a Vakri graha, this applies to the Moon. Whereas Mars, Jupiter and Saturn appear to retrograde in the signs opposite to the one occupied by the Sun, Mercury and Venus appear to retrograde when they are farthest away from the Sun. Mercury and Venus can never be in the 5th to the 8th house from the Sun. According to

text: Sanketa Nidhi

text: of Ramadayalu when it is retrograde Mars gives the results of the 3rd house from the house of its occupation, Mercury gives the results of the 4th, Jupiter of the 5th, Venus of the 7th and Saturn of the 8th house. Vakri grahas and Paramuchcha grahas no doubt gain superior strength but do not produce identical results and even become over-powered in Grahayuddhas. If the Sun is Arohi a Vakri graha although very strong but because of the variations in its motion does not produce results uniformly.  Situated in their debilitation sign if owning good houses Vakri grahas produce good results, if owning bad houses they give bad results.

text: Phaladeepika

text: holds the view that a retrograde planet in its sign of debilitation is equal to its occupation of exaltation sign, and that exalted retrograde planets act as though they are debilitated. And, excepting the retrograde ones, those planets which occupy unfriendly signs take away 1/3rd of their allotted term of life. Vakra also means Kuja (

text: Mars

text: ). Vakri grahas having gained exceptional strength give thrice the term of life allotted to them.

text: Because of the size of Olympus Mons and its shallow slopes, an observer standing on the Martian surface would be unable to view the entire profile of the volcano, even from a great distance. The curvature of the planet and the volcano itself would obscure such a synoptic view. Similarly, an observer near the summit would be unaware of standing on a very high mountain, as the slope of the volcano would extend far beyond the horizon, a mere 3 kilometers away.

text: HD 231701 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 354 light years away in the constellation of Sagitta. This planet orbits at 0.55 AU from the star HD 231701 with eccentricity 0.19. Based on its high mass of 1.08 M, the planet is probably a gas giant, meaning the planet has no solid surface and have composition similar to solar system's outer planets.

text: HD 231701 b is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: approximately 354

text: light year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Sagitta

text: . This planet orbits at 0.55

text: AU

text: from the star

text: HD 231701

text: with

text: eccentricity

text: 0.19. Based on its high mass of 1.08 M, the planet is probably a

text: gas giant

text: , meaning the planet has no solid surface and have composition similar to

text: solar system

text: 's

text: outer planets

text: On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of a five planet system containing three small gas giants and the first two Earth-sized extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e (the first known extrasolar planet smaller than Earth orbiting a main-sequence star) and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star. Although the planets are Earth-sized, they are not Earth-like in the respect that they are much closer to their star than Earth, and are hence not near the habitable zone, with expected surface temperatures of  and  , respectively. The three other Neptune-sized planets in the system, Kepler-20b, Kepler-20c, and Kepler-20d, all orbit similarly close to the star. Kepler-20g is an non-transiting exoplanet orbiting Kepler-20.

text: On December 20, 2011, the

text: Kepler Space Telescope

text: team reported the discovery of a five planet system containing three small gas giants and the first two

text: Earth-sized

text: extrasolar planet

text: s,

text: (the first known extrasolar planet smaller than

text: Earth

text: orbiting a main-sequence star) and

text: , orbiting a

text: Sun-like star

text: . Although the planets are

text: Earth-sized

text: , they are not

text: Earth-like

text: in the respect that they are much closer to their star than Earth, and are hence not near the habitable zone, with expected surface temperatures of  and  , respectively. The three other

text: Neptune-sized

text: planets in the system,

text: , and

text: , all orbit similarly close to the star.

text: is an non-transiting

text: exoplanet

text: orbiting Kepler-20.

text: The comics are wordless humorous gag-a-day short stories (most often between one and four pages long) about the misadventures of Plunk, a little pink alien with green trousers and a green hat from the planet Smurk.

text: The comics are wordless humorous

text: gag-a-day

text: short stories (most often between one and four pages long) about the misadventures of Plunk, a little pink alien with green trousers and a green hat from the planet Smurk.

text: Spacecraft exploration over the last two decades has shown that volcanoes on other planets can take many unexpected forms. Over the same time period, geologists were discovering that volcanoes on Earth are more structurally complex and dynamic than previously thought. Recent work has attempted to refine the definition of a volcano to incorporate geologic features of widely different shapes, sizes, and compositions throughout the Solar System. One surprising and controversial conclusion from this synthesis of ideas is that the Tharsis region may be a single giant volcano. This is the thesis of geologists Andrea Borgia and John Murray in a Geological Society of America special paper published in 2010.

text: Spacecraft exploration over the last two decades has shown that volcanoes on other planets can take many unexpected forms. Over the same time period, geologists were discovering that volcanoes on Earth are more structurally complex and dynamic than previously thought. Recent work has attempted to refine the definition of a

text: volcano

text: to incorporate geologic features of widely different shapes, sizes, and compositions throughout the Solar System. One surprising and controversial conclusion from this synthesis of ideas is that the Tharsis region may be a single giant volcano. This is the thesis of geologists Andrea Borgia and John Murray in a

text: Geological Society of America

text: special paper published in 2010.

text: The third season, debuting in the UK on February 6, 2000 on the British Sci-Fi Channel, comprises 13 episodes in which the Lexx is trapped in orbit around the warring planets Fire and Water, and the crew encounters an enigmatic and cheerful evil being known as Prince, who may be the Devil. The two planets orbit each other at extremely close distance, and share one atmosphere, allowing the inhabitants to pass freely between them.  Fire is the afterlife for all evil souls,  the inhabitants of which are continually engaged in attacks on Planet Water, which is the afterlife of all good souls. Fire is filmed between the dunes of Namibia and the Gothic architecture of Berlin.  The rulers of Fire are Prince and Duke, who both reincarnate whenever it suits them. Water appears to have no ruler, and contains a small population of hedonists on floating islands.

text: The third season, debuting in the UK on February 6, 2000 on the British Sci-Fi Channel, comprises 13 episodes in which the Lexx is trapped in orbit around the warring

text: planet

text: s

text: Fire

text: and

text: Water

text: , and the crew encounters an enigmatic and cheerful

text: evil

text: being known as

text: Prince

text: , who may be the

text: Devil

text: . The two planets orbit each other at extremely close distance, and share one atmosphere, allowing the inhabitants to pass freely between them.  Fire is the afterlife for all evil souls,  the inhabitants of which are continually engaged in attacks on Planet Water, which is the afterlife of all good souls. Fire is filmed between the

text: dune

text: s of

text: Namibia

text: and the

text: Gothic architecture

text: of Berlin.  The rulers of Fire are Prince and Duke, who both reincarnate whenever it suits them. Water appears to have no ruler, and contains a small population of

text: hedonists

text: on floating

text: island

text: s.

text: Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a region. It affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around the world at least one month out of every year. More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water.

text: Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet

text: water needs

text: within a region. It affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around the world at least one month out of every year. More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water.

text: One issue with a majority of current research is that it occurs over a short time span such as a few hours to a couple of days; however, teachers and professors are more interested in ensuring the material they teach remains long term.  Through the study people's recollection of high school Spanish words, Harry Bahrick was able to show that a considerable portion of information learned in a particular class is remember throughout a person's life and is known as permastore. Bahrick found that spaced post-study sessions promoted permastore for Spanish vocabulary, and likewise, Landauer and Ainslie found that the testing effect increased scores on the information over a year later.  The long term effect over decades is still unknown and being researched.

text: If Proxima were bound to the Alpha Centauri system during its formation, the stars would be likely to share the same elemental composition. The gravitational influence of Proxima might also have stirred up the Alpha Centauri protoplanetary disks. This would have increased the delivery of volatiles such as water to the dry inner regions, so possibly enriching any terrestrial planets in the system with this material.

text: If Proxima were bound to the Alpha Centauri system during its formation, the stars would be likely to share the same

text: elemental

text: composition. The gravitational influence of Proxima might also have stirred up the Alpha Centauri

text: protoplanetary disk

text: s. This would have increased the delivery of

text: volatiles

text: such as water to the dry inner regions, so possibly enriching any

text: terrestrial planet

text: s in the system with this material.

text: When they arrive they find that the planet has been split in two, with the surviving half still retaining a breathable atmosphere. The Wayfarer lands and the Doctor and the crew disembark. Whilst looking round the devastated landscape they encounter dozens of mutated Arkheonites, devolved by the radiation fallout. They chase the crew to the very edge of the planet, where they are captured by Daleks. After destroying their weapons the Daleks force the Doctor and the crew onto a lift, which descends down the side of the planet towards they core. Here the Doctor discovers that the Daleks, far from searching for Arkheon, have been on the planet for years. They have constructed a huge underground base where thousands of human prisoners from Auros are mining the core, looking for the Threshold. The base also contains experimentation labs, and the largest Dalek Prison outside of Skaro.

text: When they arrive they find that the planet has been split in two, with the surviving half still retaining a breathable atmosphere. The Wayfarer lands and the Doctor and the crew disembark. Whilst looking round the devastated landscape they encounter dozens of mutated Arkheonites, devolved by the radiation fallout. They chase the crew to the very edge of the planet, where they are captured by Daleks. After destroying their weapons the Daleks force the Doctor and the crew onto a lift, which descends down the side of the planet towards they core. Here the Doctor discovers that the Daleks, far from searching for Arkheon, have been on the planet for years. They have constructed a huge underground base where thousands of human prisoners from Auros are mining the core, looking for the Threshold. The base also contains experimentation labs, and the largest Dalek Prison outside of

text: Skaro

text: The short-term NOAEL of 9.6 – 10 mg/kg bw/day was derived from 90-day rat, 90-day dog and 1-year dog studies and the long-term NOAEL was 7.5 mg/kg bw/day.The Acceptable Daily Intake of diphenylamine was 0.075 mg/kg bw/day based on the 2-year rat study, applying a safety factor of 100; the Acceptable Operator Exposure Level was 0.1 mg/kg bw/day.

text: The short-term

text: NOAEL

text: of 9.6 – 10 mg/kg bw/day was derived from 90-day rat, 90-day dog and 1-year dog studies and the long-term NOAEL was 7.5 mg/kg bw/day.The

text: Acceptable Daily Intake

text: of diphenylamine was 0.075 mg/kg bw/day based on the 2-year rat study, applying a safety factor of 100; the Acceptable Operator Exposure Level was 0.1 mg/kg bw/day.

text: At the close distances that red dwarf planets would have to maintain to their stars in order to maintain liquid water at their surfaces, tidal locking to the host star is likely, causing the planet to rotate around its axis once for every revolution around the star; as a result, one side of the planet would eternally face the star and another side would perpetually face away, creating great extremes of temperature. For many years, it was believed that life on such planets would be limited to a ring-like region known as the terminator, where the star would always appear on the horizon.

text: At the close distances that red dwarf planets would have to maintain to their stars in order to maintain liquid water at their surfaces, tidal locking to the host star is likely, causing the planet to rotate around its axis once for every revolution around the star; as a result, one side of the planet would eternally face the star and another side would perpetually face away, creating great extremes of temperature. For many years, it was believed that life on such planets would be limited to a ring-like region known as the

text: terminator

text: , where the star would always appear on the horizon.

text: Geologists' embrace of plate tectonics became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the "earth sciences", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets.

text: Geologists' embrace of

text: plate tectonics

text: became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with

text: meteorology

text: and

text: oceanography

text: as one of the "earth sciences", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets.

text: In production and project management, a bottleneck is one process in a chain of processes, such that its limited capacity reduces the capacity of the whole chain. The result of having a bottleneck are stalls in production, supply overstock, pressure from customers and low employee morale. There are both short and long-term bottlenecks. Short-term bottlenecks are temporary and are not normally a significant problem. An example of a short-term bottleneck would be a skilled employee taking a few days off. Long-term bottlenecks occur all the time and can cumulatively significantly slow down production. An example of a long-term bottleneck is when a machine is not efficient enough and as a result has a long queue.

text: In

text: production

text: and

text: project management

text: , a bottleneck is one process in a chain of processes, such that its limited capacity reduces the capacity of the whole chain. The result of having a bottleneck are stalls in production, supply overstock, pressure from customers and low employee morale. There are both short and long-term bottlenecks. Short-term bottlenecks are temporary and are not normally a significant problem. An example of a short-term bottleneck would be a skilled employee taking a few days off. Long-term bottlenecks occur all the time and can cumulatively significantly slow down production. An example of a long-term bottleneck is when a machine is not efficient enough and as a result has a long queue.

text: On November 30, 2015, Environment Canada issued its winter outlook for December, January, and February, as part of their monthly climate outlooks. Above-average temperatures were favoured throughout most of Canada, with the exception of northern Quebec and the southern tip of Baffin Island; areas that were considered the most likely to see above normal temperatures included the Lower Mainland of British Columbia, the Maritime provinces, southern Newfoundland, central Quebec and Ontario, and northern Manitoba and Saskatchewan; in those areas, the probability of above-normal temperatures was over 80%. The areas where below-normal temperatures were favoured included extreme northern areas of Quebec and Labrador, along with southern parts of Baffin Island. Above average precipitation was favoured in the Lower Mainland of B.C., New Brunswick, northern Quebec, northern Newfoundland, the Northwest Territories, and western Nunavut. Below-average precipitation was favoured on the south-eastern tip of Baffin Island and a small area just north of Lake Superior.

text: On November 30, 2015,

text: Environment Canada

text: issued its winter outlook for December, January, and February, as part of their monthly climate outlooks. Above-average temperatures were favoured throughout most of Canada, with the exception of northern

text: Quebec

text: and the southern tip of

text: Baffin Island

text: ; areas that were considered the most likely to see above normal temperatures included the Lower Mainland of British Columbia, the

text: Maritime provinces

text: , southern

text: Newfoundland

text: , central Quebec and Ontario, and northern Manitoba and Saskatchewan; in those areas, the probability of above-normal temperatures was over 80%. The areas where below-normal temperatures were favoured included extreme northern areas of Quebec and Labrador, along with southern parts of Baffin Island. Above average precipitation was favoured in the Lower Mainland of B.C., New Brunswick, northern Quebec, northern Newfoundland, the Northwest Territories, and western Nunavut. Below-average precipitation was favoured on the south-eastern tip of Baffin Island and a small area just north of

text: Lake Superior

text: Helium-3 was trapped in the planet when it formed.  Some He is being added by meteoric dust, primarily collecting on the bottom of oceans (although due to subduction, all oceanic tectonic plates are younger than continental plates). However, He will be degassed from oceanic sediment during subduction, so cosmogenic He is not affecting the concentration or noble gas ratios of the mantle.

text: was trapped in the planet when it formed.  Some He is being added by meteoric dust, primarily collecting on the bottom of oceans (although due to

text: subduction

text: , all oceanic

text: tectonic plates

text: are younger than continental plates). However, He will be degassed from oceanic sediment during

text: subduction

text: , so cosmogenic He is not affecting the concentration or

text: noble gas

text: ratios of the

text: mantle

text: Kepler-10c is the outermost of the two known planets of Kepler-10, completing one orbit of the star every 45.29485 days at a distance of 0.2407 AU. The inner planet, Kepler-10b, is a rocky planet that orbits every ~0.8 days at a distance of 0.01684 AU. Kepler-10c's equilibrium temperature is estimated at 584 K, almost four times hotter than Jupiter's. The planet's orbital inclination is 89.65º, or almost edge-on with respect to Earth and to Kepler-10. Transits have been observed at points where Kepler-10c has crossed in front of its host star.

text: Kepler-10c is the outermost of the two known planets of Kepler-10, completing one orbit of the star every 45.29485 days at a distance of 0.2407 AU. The inner planet, Kepler-10b, is a rocky planet that orbits every ~0.8 days at a distance of 0.01684

text: AU

text: . Kepler-10c's

text: equilibrium temperature

text: is estimated at 584 K, almost four times hotter than Jupiter's. The planet's

text: orbital inclination

text: is 89.65º, or almost edge-on with respect to Earth and to Kepler-10. Transits have been observed at points where Kepler-10c has crossed in front of its host star.

text: Common surface features include:

text: Common surface features include:

text: The outer rim of Merrill is worn and the features are softened, but only a few impact craters lie along the edge and inner side. The inner walls are uneven slopes down to the relatively flat interior floor. This surface is marked by several small craterlets, including a pair near the midpoint. The satellite craters Merrill X and Merrill Y form a merged, dual-lobed feature that is attached to the northern outer rim of Merrill.

text: The outer rim of Merrill is worn and the features are softened, but only a few impact craters lie along the edge and inner side. The inner walls are uneven slopes down to the relatively flat interior floor. This surface is marked by several small craterlets, including a pair near the midpoint. The

text: satellite

text: craters Merrill X and Merrill Y form a merged, dual-lobed feature that is attached to the northern outer rim of Merrill.

text: Announced in 2009, two extrasolar planets were discovered to be orbiting the star.  Both planets are less massive than Jupiter. The inner planet HD 215497 b orbits very close to the star and is termed a “hot super-Earth”. The outer planet HD 215497 c is Saturn-sized and orbits a little bit further from the star as the Earth, at around 1.282 AU.

text: Announced in 2009, two

text: extrasolar planet

text: s were discovered to be orbiting the star.  Both planets are less massive than

text: Jupiter

text: . The inner planet

text: HD 215497 b

text: orbits very close to the star and is termed a “

text: hot super-Earth

text: ”. The

text: outer planet

text: HD 215497 c

text: is Saturn-sized and orbits a little bit further from the star as the

text: Earth

text: , at around 1.282 AU.

text: Most planets known to humans are either gaseous Jovian planets or solid terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These inner planets have a rocky surface with metal interiors. The Jovian planets consist of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. While these planets are larger, their only land surface is a small rocky core surrounded by a large, thick atmosphere. The gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, are thought to have surface layers composed of liquid hydrogen rather than solid land; however, their planetary geology is not well understood. The possibility of Uranus and Neptune (the ice giants) possessing hot, highly compressed, supercritical water under their thick atmospheres has been hypothesised.  While their composition is still not fully understood, a 2006 study by Wiktorowicz et al. ruled out the possibility of such a water "ocean" existing on Neptune, though some studies have suggested that exotic oceans of liquid diamond are possible. The entire surface of a rocky planet or moon is considered land, even with a lack of seas or oceans for contrast. Planetary bodies that have a thin atmosphere often have land that is marked by impact craters since atmospheric conditions would normally break-down incoming objects and erode rough impact sites. Land on planetary bodies other than Earth can also be bought and sold although ownership of extraterrestrial real estate is not recognized by any authority.

text: Most planets known to humans are either gaseous

text: Jovian planets

text: or solid

text: terrestrial planets

text: . Terrestrial planets include

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: , and

text: Mars

text: . These inner planets have a rocky surface with metal interiors. The Jovian planets consist of

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: . While these planets are larger, their only land surface is a small rocky core surrounded by a large, thick atmosphere. The

text: gas giant

text: s, Jupiter and Saturn, are thought to have surface layers composed of

text: liquid hydrogen

text: rather than solid land; however, their

text: planetary geology

text: is not well understood. The possibility of Uranus and Neptune (the

text: ice giant

text: s) possessing hot, highly compressed, supercritical water under their thick atmospheres has been hypothesised.  While their composition is still not fully understood, a 2006 study by Wiktorowicz et al. ruled out the possibility of such a water "ocean" existing on Neptune, though some studies have suggested that exotic oceans of liquid diamond are possible. The entire surface of a rocky planet or moon is considered land, even with a lack of seas or oceans for contrast. Planetary bodies that have a thin atmosphere often have land that is marked by impact craters since atmospheric conditions would normally break-down incoming objects and erode rough impact sites. Land on planetary bodies other than Earth can also be bought and sold although ownership of

text: extraterrestrial real estate

text: is not recognized by any authority.

text: While this design eliminates the need for a moderator, the core still needs to be cooled. Ideally the coolant would be both highly efficient, allowing the core size to be reduced, as well as being largely transparent to neutrons. The most studied example of such a material is liquid sodium, although salts and other metals have also been considered.

text: While this design eliminates the need for a moderator, the core still needs to be cooled. Ideally the coolant would be both highly efficient, allowing the core size to be reduced, as well as being largely transparent to neutrons. The most studied example of such a material is liquid

text: sodium

text: , although salts and other metals have also been considered.

text: Based on computer models, the presence of the Moon appears to stabilize the obliquity of the Earth, which may help the planet to avoid dramatic climate changes. This stability is achieved because the Moon increases the precession rate of the Earth's spin axis (that is, the precession motion of the ecliptic), thereby avoiding resonances between the precession of the spin and precession of the planet's orbital plane relative to that of Jupiter. However, as the semimajor axis of the Moon's orbit continues to increase, this stabilizing effect will diminish. At some point, perturbation effects will probably cause chaotic variations in the obliquity of the Earth, and the axial tilt may change by angles as high as 90° from the plane of the orbit. This is expected to occur between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now.

text: Based on computer models, the presence of the Moon appears to stabilize the obliquity of the Earth, which may help the planet to avoid dramatic climate changes. This stability is achieved because the Moon increases the

text: precession

text: rate of the Earth's spin axis (that is, the precession motion of the

text: ecliptic

text: ), thereby avoiding resonances between the precession of the spin and precession of the planet's orbital plane relative to that of Jupiter. However, as the semimajor axis of the Moon's orbit continues to increase, this stabilizing effect will diminish. At some point, perturbation effects will probably cause chaotic variations in the obliquity of the Earth, and the

text: axial tilt

text: may change by angles as high as 90° from the plane of the orbit. This is expected to occur between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now.

text: The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star so that the habitable zone can be at different distances. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet.

text: Emi Koussi has been studied as an analogue of the Martian volcano Elysium Mons.  One of the most important morphological differences between volcanoes on Mars and Earth is the widespread furrowing of the surface due to flowing water on terrestrial volcanoes. The furrows are shallow valleys. Larger channels have a different origin. Major channels can be seen on volcanoes on both planets and indicate low points in caldera rims where lava spilled out of pre-collapse craters.

text: Emi Koussi has been studied as an analogue of the

text: Martian

text: volcano

text: Elysium Mons

text: .  One of the most important morphological differences between volcanoes on

text: Mars

text: and

text: Earth

text: is the widespread furrowing of the surface due to flowing water on

text: terrestrial

text: volcanoes. The furrows are shallow valleys. Larger channels have a different origin. Major channels can be seen on volcanoes on both planets and indicate low points in

text: caldera

text: rims where

text: lava

text: spilled out of pre-collapse craters.

text: Although a short day plant cannot flower during the long days of summer, it is not actually the period of light exposure that limits flowering.  Rather, a short day plant requires a minimal length of uninterrupted darkness in each 24-hour period (a short daylength) before floral development can begin.  It has been determined experimentally that a short day plant (long night) does not flower if a flash of phytochrome activating light is used on the plant during the night.

text: In the late 1960s, geophysicists working with new technologies of marine magnetic surveying and earthquake seismology proved the operation of seafloor spreading, devised explanations with the new concepts of plate tectonics, and showed that ocean floors and mobile continents jointly formed tectonic plates. Hamilton was a pioneer in showing how land geology also had evolved by plate interactions, like those now active, for which submarine evidence was newly generated. He published in 1969 and 1970 syntheses of the evolution of California, and of much of the Soviet Union, as controlled by converging tectonic plates. He “paved new paths for the structure and tectonics community to integrate plate-tectonic concepts and on-land geology.”

text: In the late 1960s, geophysicists working with new technologies of marine magnetic surveying and earthquake seismology proved the operation of

text: seafloor spreading

text: , devised explanations with the new concepts of

text: plate tectonics

text: , and showed that ocean floors and mobile continents jointly formed

text: tectonic plates

text: . Hamilton was a pioneer in showing how land geology also had evolved by plate interactions, like those now active, for which submarine evidence was newly generated. He published in 1969 and 1970 syntheses of the evolution of California, and of much of the Soviet Union, as controlled by converging tectonic plates. He “paved new paths for the structure and tectonics community to integrate plate-tectonic concepts and on-land geology.”

text: Ergs are a geological feature that can be found on planets where an atmosphere capable of significant wind erosion acts on the surface for a significant period of time, creating sand and allowing it to accumulate.Today at least three bodies, apart from Earth, are known in the solar system to feature ergs on their surface: Venus, Mars and Titan.

text: Ergs are a geological feature that can be found on

text: planet

text: s where an

text: atmosphere

text: capable of significant

text: wind erosion

text: acts on the surface for a significant period of time, creating

text: sand

text: and allowing it to accumulate.Today at least three bodies, apart from Earth, are known in the

text: solar system

text: to feature ergs on their surface: Venus, Mars and Titan.

text: Taking place in S.D 368 (A.D 2454), 2 years after Star Ocean: The Second Story and the defeat of the 10 Wise Men, all the characters have since moved on with their lives. Claude has taken Rena, Leon, and Precis to live on Earth with him. While constantly being sent on missions into space, Claude's relationship with Rena doesn't change much at all. Ashton, Celine, Dias, Noel, Chisato, and Bowman still live on Planet Expel. Ernest and Opera are treasure hunting when their ship crash lands on Planet Edifice. Opera manages to send out an S.O.S. to Precis, who then rounds up the entire gang (sans Claude and Rena, who are on a Federation mission) in her self-built ship and heads to the planet. They are also mysteriously pulled down through the planet's atmosphere and crash-land. They decide to explore their surroundings and search for their missing comrades, hoping that Claude and Rena will rescue them, but they too crash-land on Edifice later on in the game.

text: Taking place in S.D 368 (A.D 2454), 2 years after

text: Star Ocean: The Second Story

text: and the defeat of the 10 Wise Men, all the characters have since moved on with their lives. Claude has taken Rena, Leon, and Precis to live on Earth with him. While constantly being sent on missions into space, Claude's relationship with Rena doesn't change much at all. Ashton, Celine, Dias, Noel, Chisato, and Bowman still live on Planet Expel. Ernest and Opera are treasure hunting when their ship crash lands on Planet Edifice. Opera manages to send out an S.O.S. to Precis, who then rounds up the entire gang (sans Claude and Rena, who are on a Federation mission) in her self-built ship and heads to the planet. They are also mysteriously pulled down through the planet's atmosphere and crash-land. They decide to explore their surroundings and search for their missing comrades, hoping that Claude and Rena will rescue them, but they too crash-land on Edifice later on in the game.

text: Close to Jupiter, the planet's rings and small moons absorb high-energy particles (energy above 10 keV) from the radiation belts. This creates noticeable gaps in the belts' spatial distribution and affects the decimetric synchrotron radiation. In fact, the existence of Jupiter's rings was first hypothesized on the basis of data from the Pioneer 11 spacecraft, which detected a sharp drop in the number of high-energy ions close to the planet. The planetary magnetic field strongly influences the motion of sub-micrometer ring particles as well, which acquire an electrical charge under the influence of solar ultraviolet radiation. Their behavior is similar to that of co-rotating ions. The resonant interaction between the co-rotation and the orbital motion is thought to be responsible for the creation of Jupiter's innermost halo ring (located between 1.4 and 1.71 R), which consists of sub-micrometer particles on highly inclined and eccentric orbits. The particles originate in the main ring; however, when they drift toward Jupiter, their orbits are modified by the strong 3:2 Lorentz resonance located at 1.71 R, which increases their inclinations and eccentricities. Another 2:1 Lorentz resonance at 1.4 Rj defines the inner boundary of the halo ring.

text: Close to Jupiter, the planet's rings and small moons absorb high-energy particles (energy above 10 keV) from the radiation belts. This creates noticeable gaps in the belts' spatial distribution and affects the decimetric synchrotron radiation. In fact, the existence of Jupiter's rings was first hypothesized on the basis of data from the

text: Pioneer 11

text: spacecraft, which detected a sharp drop in the number of high-energy ions close to the planet. The planetary magnetic field strongly influences the motion of sub-micrometer ring particles as well, which acquire an electrical charge under the influence of solar

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: . Their behavior is similar to that of co-rotating

text: ion

text: s. The resonant interaction between the co-rotation and the orbital motion is thought to be responsible for the creation of Jupiter's innermost halo ring (located between 1.4 and 1.71 R), which consists of sub-micrometer particles on highly

text: inclined

text: and

text: eccentric

text: orbits. The particles originate in the main ring; however, when they drift toward Jupiter, their orbits are modified by the strong 3:2 Lorentz resonance located at 1.71 R, which increases their inclinations and eccentricities. Another 2:1 Lorentz resonance at 1.4 Rj defines the inner boundary of the halo ring.

text: In summary, as long as at least  of water is available from the Colorado River, California is allocated ; Nevada, ; and Arizona, the remainder.  If more water is available, California is entitled to 50% of the water from the Colorado River, Arizona to 46%, and Nevada to 4%.  If less water is available, the Secretary of the Interior must allocate the water according to various formulas (which were the subjects of the court cases) to ensure that each state receives a specified amount, with California receiving an absolute fixed maximum of  per year (376 U.S. 342). Some of the adjustments involved rights of the U.S. Government with respect to supplying water to Indian tribes pursuant to Executive Orders signed by the President of the United States as far back as 1907.

text: In summary, as long as at least  of water is available from the Colorado River, California is allocated ; Nevada, ; and Arizona, the remainder.  If more water is available, California is entitled to 50% of the water from the Colorado River, Arizona to 46%, and Nevada to 4%.  If less water is available, the Secretary of the Interior must allocate the water according to various formulas (which were the subjects of the court cases) to ensure that each state receives a specified amount, with California receiving an absolute fixed maximum of  per year (376 U.S. 342). Some of the adjustments involved rights of the U.S. Government with respect to supplying water to Indian tribes pursuant to

text: Executive Order

text: s signed by the

text: President of the United States

text: as far back as 1907.

text: Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human sewage and in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006, waterborne diseases were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water. It is clear that people in the developing world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity, water purification technology and availability and distribution systems for water. In many parts of the world the only sources of water are from small streams often directly contaminated by sewage.

text: Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human

text: sewage

text: and in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006,

text: waterborne diseases

text: were estimated to cause 1.8 million deaths each year while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water. It is clear that people in the developing world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity,

text: water purification

text: technology and availability and distribution systems for water. In many parts of the world the only sources of water are from small streams often directly contaminated by sewage.

text: Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense core with a mixture of elements, a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen with some helium, and an outer layer predominantly of molecular hydrogen. Beyond this basic outline, there is still considerable uncertainty. The core is often described as rocky, but its detailed composition is unknown, as are the properties of materials at the temperatures and pressures of those depths (see below). In 1997, the existence of the core was suggested by gravitational measurements, indicating a mass of from 12 to 45 times that of Earth, or roughly 4%–14% of the total mass of Jupiter.The presence of a core during at least part of Jupiter's history is suggested by models of planetary formation that require the formation of a rocky or icy core massive enough to collect its bulk of hydrogen and helium from the protosolar nebula. Assuming it did exist, it may have shrunk as convection currents of hot liquid metallic hydrogen mixed with the molten core and carried its contents to higher levels in the planetary interior. A core may now be entirely absent, as gravitational measurements are not yet precise enough to rule that possibility out entirely.

text: Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense

text: core

text: with a mixture of elements, a surrounding layer of liquid

text: metallic hydrogen

text: with some helium, and an outer layer predominantly of

text: molecular hydrogen

text: . Beyond this basic outline, there is still considerable uncertainty. The core is often described as

text: rocky

text: , but its detailed composition is unknown, as are the properties of materials at the temperatures and pressures of those depths (see below). In 1997, the existence of the core was suggested by gravitational measurements, indicating a mass of from 12 to 45 times that of Earth, or roughly 4%–14% of the total mass of Jupiter.The presence of a core during at least part of Jupiter's history is suggested by models of planetary formation that require the formation of a rocky or icy core massive enough to collect its bulk of hydrogen and helium from the

text: protosolar nebula

text: . Assuming it did exist, it may have shrunk as convection currents of hot liquid metallic hydrogen mixed with the molten core and carried its contents to higher levels in the planetary interior. A core may now be entirely absent, as gravitational measurements are not yet precise enough to rule that possibility out entirely.

text: Cybertron has a metallic surface, although whether this extends to the core is debatable: in The Legacy of Unicron (UK #146 to #151) and later in Primal Scream (UK #259 to 261, US #61) it is revealed to have originally been ‘space junk’, the composition of which is unknown. The atmosphere is breathable by carbon-based life, but liquid water is rare enough on the planet that its existence is in doubt. Cybertron previously orbited Alpha Centauri, but was later thrown out of orbit and sent wandering through the galaxy.

text: Cybertron has a metallic surface, although whether this extends to the core is debatable: in The Legacy of Unicron (UK #146 to #151) and later in Primal Scream (UK #259 to 261, US #61) it is revealed to have originally been ‘space junk’, the composition of which is unknown. The atmosphere is breathable by carbon-based life, but liquid water is rare enough on the planet that its existence is in doubt. Cybertron previously orbited

text: Alpha Centauri

text: , but was later thrown out of orbit and sent wandering through the galaxy.

text: Earth and the tools to study it are constantly changing. The tectonic plates are continuously in motion, though so slowly that even with the highest precision instruments, months or years of observations are necessary to measure it. Over the last several decades, the advent of space-based geodetic techniques have improved the ability to measure tectonic plate motion by several orders of magnitude in spatial and temporal resolution as well as accuracy, and to establish stable terrestrial and celestial reference frames required to achieve these improvements. The research with these systems has led to revolutionary progress in our understanding of plate boundaries and plate interiors.

text: Tidal forces between celestial orbiting bodies cause friction that heats up their interiors. This is known as tidal heating, and it helps keep the interior liquid. A liquid interior that can conduct electricity is required to produce a dynamo. Saturn's Enceladus and Jupiter's Io have enough tidal heating to liquify their inner cores, but they may not create a dynamo because they cannot conduct electricity. Mercury, despite its small size, has a magnetic field, because it has a conductive liquid core created by its iron composition and friction resulting from its highly elliptical orbit. It is theorized that the Moon once had a magnetic field, based on evidence from magnetized lunar rocks, due to its short-lived closer distance to Earth creating tidal heating. An orbit and rotation of a planet helps provide a liquid core, and supplements kinetic energy that supports a dynamo action.

text: The British Isles do not experience extreme weather regularly. There have been several occasions where extreme weather events have occurred.  In the winter of 1982, for a few days parts of central and southern England experienced temperatures lower than central Europe and Moscow. In contrast, the summers of 1975 and 1976 experienced temperatures as high as . It was so dry the country suffered drought and water shortages. Extended periods of extreme weather, such as the drought of 1975–1976 and the very cold winters of 1946–1947, 1962–1963, 1978–79, 1981–1982 and 2009–2010, are often caused by blocking anti-cyclones which can persist several days or even weeks. In winter they can bring long periods of cold dry weather and in summer long periods of hot dry weather.

text: The British Isles do not experience

text: extreme weather

text: regularly. There have been several occasions where extreme weather events have occurred.  In the winter of 1982, for a few days parts of central and southern England experienced temperatures lower than

text: central Europe

text: and

text: Moscow

text: . In contrast, the summers of 1975 and 1976 experienced temperatures as high as . It was so dry the country suffered drought and water shortages. Extended periods of extreme weather, such as the drought of 1975–1976 and the very cold winters of 1946–1947, 1962–1963, 1978–79, 1981–1982 and 2009–2010, are often caused by blocking

text: anti-cyclone

text: s which can persist several days or even weeks. In winter they can bring long periods of cold dry weather and in summer long periods of hot dry weather.

text: Ice planets usually appear nearly white with geometric albedos of more than 0.9. An ice planet's surface can be composed of water, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide (known as "dry ice"), carbon monoxide, and other volatiles, depending on its surface temperature. Ice planets would have surface temperatures below 260 K (−13°C) if composed primarily of water, below 180 K (−93°C) if primarily composed of CO and ammonia, and below 80 K (−193°C) if composed primarily of methane.

text: Ice planets usually appear nearly white with

text: geometric albedo

text: s of more than 0.9. An ice planet's surface can be composed of

text: water

text: methane

text: ammonia

text: carbon dioxide

text: (known as "

text: dry ice

text: carbon monoxide

text: , and other volatiles, depending on its surface temperature. Ice planets would have surface temperatures below 260

text: K

text: (−13°C) if composed primarily of water, below 180 K (−93°C) if primarily composed of CO and ammonia, and below 80 K (−193°C) if composed primarily of methane.

text: Water problems involve stakeholders such as agriculture and industry, urban developers and environmental conservationists competing for the limited and common resource of available water. These problems also cross physical, disciplinary, and jurisdictional boundaries. Because of these competing needs and objectives, it is difficult to find acceptable solutions to water problems.

text: Water problems involve stakeholders such as agriculture and industry,

text: urban developers

text: and

text: environmental conservationists

text: competing for the limited and common resource of available water. These problems also cross physical, disciplinary, and jurisdictional boundaries. Because of these competing needs and objectives, it is difficult to find acceptable solutions to water problems.

text: Premium however, is required to get deeper into this game. There are 3 premiums, each which cost $1 monthly. For all 3 premiums, it's a $3 monthly cost. There is industry premium, planet premium, and combat premium. Industry premium allows you to use salvage and mining beams above class 5, as well as add more than 1 ring to your Apollo Starbase. Combat premium allows you to use weapons, shields, or armor panels above class 5. Planet premium lets you settle all all of the inner 8 system's planets, besides for the 1 other system which can not be settled on. All of the premiums give you 300 stellar credits monthly combined, or 100 SC monthly per each premium.. Colonies cost 80 SC each monthly, and outer starbases cost 40 SC monthly. However, if you link your starbase to a colony, then theres no additional cost.

text: Awaking from a century-long slumber, and shocked with the increase in pollution of planet that has sustained in such a short (by her standards) time, she summons the Planeteers to defend the planet and gives them each an elemental ring.

text: Impact craters are roughly circular shaped depressions in the surface of a planet due to high velocity impacts with extraterrestrial bodies. The surface of Venus contains almost 1000 impact craters. However, unlike some planets in our system, Venus' thick atmosphere creates a strong shield that decelerates, flattens, and can fracture incoming projectiles. The Venusian surface is devoid of small craters (≤30–50 km in size) because of the effect the atmosphere has on small bodies. Depending on the angle of impact, velocity, size, and strength of the approaching body, the atmosphere may tear and crush the projectile, essentially melting it in the air. This is an important observation for studies of the surface of Venus, as crater are used to determine relative ages and to approximate absolute ages of surface features.

text: Impact craters

text: are roughly circular shaped depressions in the surface of a planet due to high velocity impacts with extraterrestrial bodies. The surface of Venus contains almost 1000 impact craters. However, unlike some planets in our system, Venus' thick atmosphere creates a strong shield that decelerates, flattens, and can fracture incoming projectiles. The Venusian surface is devoid of small craters (≤30–50 km in size) because of the effect the atmosphere has on small bodies. Depending on the angle of impact, velocity, size, and strength of the approaching body, the atmosphere may tear and crush the projectile, essentially melting it in the air. This is an important observation for studies of the surface of Venus, as crater are used to determine relative ages and to approximate absolute ages of surface features.

text: The sum of human experience has resulted in the accumulation of 58 solar years in space and a much better understanding of how the human body adapts. In the future, industrialisation of space and exploration of inner and outer planets will require humans to endure longer and longer periods in space. The majority of current data comes from missions of short duration and so some of the long-term physiological effects of living in space are still unknown. A round trip to Mars  with current technology is estimated to involve at least 18 months in transit alone. Knowing how the human body reacts to such time periods in space is a vital part of the preparation for such journeys. On-board medical facilities need to be adequate for coping with any type of trauma or emergency as well as contain a huge variety of diagnostic and medical instruments in order to keep a crew healthy over a long period of time, as these will be the only facilities available on board a spacecraft for coping not only with trauma, but also with the adaptive responses of the human body in space.

text: The sum of human experience has resulted in the accumulation of 58 solar years in space and a much better understanding of how the human body adapts. In the future,

text: industrialisation of space

text: and exploration of inner and outer planets will require humans to endure longer and longer periods in space. The majority of current data comes from missions of short duration and so some of the long-term physiological effects of living in space are still unknown. A round trip to

text: Mars

text: with current technology is estimated to involve at least 18 months in transit alone. Knowing how the human body reacts to such time periods in space is a vital part of the preparation for such journeys. On-board medical facilities need to be adequate for coping with any type of trauma or emergency as well as contain a huge variety of diagnostic and medical instruments in order to keep a crew healthy over a long period of time, as these will be the only facilities available on board a spacecraft for coping not only with trauma, but also with the adaptive responses of the human body in space.

text: After managing to escape the Predacons, Goldbug returns to the Autobots' volcano base, only to discover that the Ark had been restored and had blasted off. Blindsided by Decepticon leader Ratbat, Goldbug's toy body is blasted, but soon found by the Autobot Headmasters - freshly arrived from the planet Nebulos - who uses their technology to construct his body for him again. The group soon learns that the brain patterns of Optimus Prime (who died sometime before) have been preserved on computer disk by a human named Ethan Zachary. Goldbug takes the disk to Nebulos, where Prime is restored to life as a Powermaster.

text: After managing to escape the

text: Predacons

text: , Goldbug returns to the Autobots' volcano base, only to discover that the Ark had been restored and had blasted off. Blindsided by Decepticon leader

text: Ratbat

text: , Goldbug's toy body is blasted, but soon found by the Autobot

text: Headmasters

text: - freshly arrived from the planet

text: Nebulos

text: - who uses their technology to construct his body for him again. The group soon learns that the brain patterns of Optimus Prime (who died sometime before) have been preserved on computer disk by a human named Ethan Zachary. Goldbug takes the disk to Nebulos, where Prime is restored to life as a

text: Powermaster

text: Beneath the Earth's mantle lies the core, which is made up of two parts: the solid inner core and liquid outer core. Both have significant quantities of iron. The liquid outer core moves in the presence of the magnetic field and eddies are set up into the same due to the Coriolis effect. These eddies develop a magnetic field which boosts Earth's original magnetic field—a process which is self-sustaining and is called the geomagnetic dynamo.

text: Along with the Sun, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of most of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane (Mercury is the only planet that is closer to the Sun's equator in orbital tilt), the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner Solar System's history.

text: Along with the Sun, the

text: gravitational

text: influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of most of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's

text: orbital plane

text: than the Sun's

text: equatorial plane

text: Mercury

text: is the only planet that is closer to the Sun's equator in orbital tilt), the

text: Kirkwood gap

text: s in the

text: asteroid belt

text: are mostly caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: of the inner Solar System's history.

text: Now the question arises: when an Earthling (or Oscar for simplicity's sake) and his twin on Twin Earth say 'water' do they mean the same thing? (The twin is also called 'Oscar' on his own planet, of course. Indeed, the inhabitants of that planet call their own planet 'Earth'. For convenience, we refer to this putative planet as 'Twin Earth', and extend this naming convention to the objects and people that inhabit it, in this case referring to Oscar's twin as Twin-Oscar.)  Ex hypothesi, their brains are molecule-for-molecule identical. Yet, at least according to Putnam, when Oscar says 'water', the term refers to HO, whereas when Twin Oscar says 'water' it refers to XYZ. The result of this is that the contents of a person's brain are not sufficient to determine the reference of terms they use, as one must also examine the causal history that led to this individual acquiring the term. (Oscar, for instance, learned the word 'water' in a world filled with HO, whereas Twin Oscar learned 'water' in a world filled with XYZ.)

text: Near Cape Mendocino, the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The Mendocino Fracture Zone (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the Gorda Ridge) is a transform fault that separates the Pacific and Gorda Plates. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and North American Plate is accommodated by the San Andreas Fault, and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the Cascadia Subduction Zone.

text: Near

text: Cape Mendocino

text: , the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the

text: Gorda Ridge

text: ) is a

text: transform fault

text: that separates the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: Gorda Plate

text: s. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and

text: North American Plate

text: is accommodated by the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the

text: Cascadia Subduction Zone

text: The flag assembly was stored immediately behind the left side of the LM ladder. Due to the exhaust from the descent engine, the temperatures were calculated to be  for most of the landing, however the temperatures would increase to  during the final 13 seconds at touchdown. To insulate the flag from these extreme temperatures, it had to be packed inside a dual-walled protective shroud consisting of a stainless steel outer case separated from an aluminum layer by Thermoflex insulation, with several layers of Kapton thermal insulation foil between the inner case and the flag. The insulation limited the temperature to which the flag was subjected to . The shroud was estimated to cost several hundred dollars.

text: The formation of terrestrial planets differs from that of giant gas planets, also called Jovian planets. The particles that make up the terrestrial planets are made from metal and rock that condense in the inner Solar System. However, Jovian planets begin as large, icy planetesimals, which then capture hydrogen and helium gas from the solar nebula.  Differentiation between these two classes of planetesimals arise due to the frost line of the solar nebula.

text: The formation of

text: terrestrial planet

text: s differs from that of giant gas planets, also called

text: Jovian planet

text: s. The particles that make up the terrestrial planets are made from metal and rock that condense in the inner

text: Solar System

text: . However, Jovian planets begin as large, icy planetesimals, which then capture hydrogen and helium gas from the

text: solar nebula

text: .  Differentiation between these two classes of planetesimals arise due to the

text: frost line

text: of the solar nebula.

text: In most cases, the Laplace plane is very close to the equatorial plane of its primary planet (if the satellite is very close to its planet) or to the plane of the primary planet's orbit around the Sun (if the satellite is far away from its planet).  This is because the strength of the planet's perturbation on the satellite's orbit is much stronger for orbits close to the planet, but drops below the strength of the Sun's perturbation for orbits farther away.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's equatorial plane include the satellites of Mars and the inner satellites of the giant planets.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's orbital plane include Earth's Moon and the outer satellites of the giant planets.  Some satellites, such as Saturn's Iapetus, are situated in the transitional zone and have Laplace planes that are midway between their planet's equatorial plane and the plane of its solar orbit.

text: In most cases, the Laplace plane is very close to the equatorial plane of its primary planet (if the satellite is very close to its planet) or to the plane of the primary planet's orbit around the Sun (if the satellite is far away from its planet).  This is because the strength of the planet's perturbation on the satellite's orbit is much stronger for orbits close to the planet, but drops below the strength of the Sun's perturbation for orbits farther away.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's equatorial plane include the

text: satellites of Mars

text: and the

text: inner satellites of the giant planets

text: .  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's orbital plane include Earth's

text: Moon

text: and the

text: outer satellites of the giant planets

text: .  Some satellites, such as Saturn's

text: Iapetus

text: , are situated in the transitional zone and have Laplace planes that are midway between their planet's equatorial plane and the plane of its solar orbit.

text: The Solar System consists of an inner region of small rocky planets and outer region of large gas giants. However, other planetary systems can have quite different architectures. Studies suggest that architectures of planetary systems are dependent on the conditions of their initial formation. Many systems with a hot Jupiter gas giant very close to the star have been found. Theories, such as planetary migration or scattering, have been proposed for the formation of large planets close to their parent stars.At present, few systems have been found to be analogous to the Solar System with terrestrial planets close to the parent star. More commonly, systems consisting of multiple Super-Earths have been detected.

text: The Solar System consists of an inner region of small

text: rocky planets

text: and outer region of large

text: gas giants

text: . However, other planetary systems can have quite different architectures. Studies suggest that architectures of planetary systems are dependent on the conditions of their initial formation. Many systems with a

text: hot Jupiter

text: gas giant very close to the star have been found. Theories, such as

text: planetary migration

text: or scattering, have been proposed for the formation of large planets close to their parent stars.At present, few systems have been found to be analogous to the Solar System with terrestrial planets close to the parent star. More commonly, systems consisting of multiple

text: Super-Earth

text: s have been detected.

text: This formation has been heavily worn by subsequent impacts, leaving a round-shouldered outer rim that is nearly even with the surrounding terrain and an inner surface that slopes down to the floor without terraces or horizontal features. A number of tiny craterlets lie along the rim edge and inner walls, as well as across the level interior surface. The floor lacks a central peak at the midpoint, but has a small but notable crater lying next to the western inner wall.

text: This formation has been heavily worn by subsequent impacts, leaving a round-shouldered outer rim that is nearly even with the surrounding terrain and an inner surface that slopes down to the floor without

text: terrace

text: s or horizontal features. A number of tiny craterlets lie along the rim edge and inner walls, as well as across the level interior surface. The floor lacks a central peak at the midpoint, but has a small but notable crater lying next to the western inner wall.

text: Understanding plate tectonics helps to explain the cause of submarine earthquakes. The Earth's surface or lithosphere comprises tectonic plates which average approximately 50 miles in thickness, and are continuously moving very slowly upon a bed of magma in the asthenosphere and inner mantle. The plates converge upon one another, and one subducts below the other, or, where there is only shear stress, move horizontally past each other (see transform plate boundary below). Little movements called  fault creep are minor and not measurable. The plates meet with each other, and if rough spots cause the movement to stop at the edges, the motion of the plates continue. When the rough spots can no longer hold, the sudden release of the built-up motion releases, and the sudden movement under the sea floor causes a submarine earthquake. This area of slippage both horizontally and vertically is called the epicenter, and has the highest magnitude, and causes the greatest damage.

text: Understanding

text: plate tectonics

text: helps to explain the cause of submarine earthquakes. The Earth's surface or

text: lithosphere

text: comprises

text: tectonic plates

text: which average approximately 50 miles in thickness, and are continuously moving very slowly upon a bed of magma in the

text: asthenosphere

text: and inner

text: mantle

text: . The plates converge upon one another, and one subducts below the other, or, where there is only shear stress, move horizontally past each other (see

text: transform plate boundary

text: below). Little movements called

text: fault creep

text: are minor and not measurable. The plates meet with each other, and if rough spots cause the movement to stop at the edges, the motion of the plates continue. When the rough spots can no longer hold, the sudden release of the built-up motion releases, and the sudden movement under the sea floor causes a submarine earthquake. This area of slippage both horizontally and vertically is called the

text: epicenter

text: , and has the highest magnitude, and causes the greatest damage.

text: A star's metallicity measurement is one parameter that helps determine if a star will have planets and the type of planets, as there is a direct correlation between metallicity and the type of planets a star may have. Measurements have demonstrated the connection between a star's metallicity and gas giant planets, like Jupiter and Saturn.  The more metals in a star and thus its planetary system and proplyd, the more likely the system may have gas giant planets and rocky planets.  Current models show that the metallicity along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star are key to planet and planetesimal formation. Metallicity also affects a star's color temperature.  Metal poor stars are bluer and metal rich stars are redder. The Sun, with 8 planets and 5 planetesimals, is used as the reference, with a [Fe/H] of 0.00. Other stars are noted with a positive or negative value.  A star with a  has the same iron abundance as the Sun. A star with  has one tenth heavy elements of that found in the Sun. At , the heavy element abundance is 10 times the Sun's value. The survey of stellar population of stars shows that older stars have less metallicity.

text: A star's metallicity measurement is one parameter that helps determine if a star will have

text: planet

text: s and the type of planets, as there is a direct correlation between metallicity and the type of planets a star may have. Measurements have demonstrated the connection between a star's metallicity and

text: gas giant

text: planets, like

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: .  The more metals in a star and thus its

text: planetary system

text: and

text: proplyd

text: , the more likely the system may have gas giant planets and

text: rocky planets

text: .  Current models show that the metallicity along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star are key to planet and

text: planetesimal

text: formation. Metallicity also affects a star's

text: color temperature

text: .  Metal poor stars are

text: bluer

text: and metal rich stars are redder. The

text: Sun

text: , with

text: 8 planets

text: and 5 planetesimals, is used as the reference, with a [Fe/H] of 0.00. Other stars are noted with a positive or negative value.  A star with a  has the same iron abundance as the Sun. A star with  has one tenth heavy elements of that found in the Sun. At , the heavy element abundance is 10 times the Sun's value. The survey of

text: stellar population

text: of stars shows that older stars have less metallicity.

text: HAT-P-9b is an exoplanet approximately 1560 light years away in the constellation Auriga. This planet was found by the transit method on June 26, 2008. It has a mass 78% that of Jupiter and a radius 140% that of Jupiter. As with most transiting planets, this planet is a hot Jupiter, meaning this Jupiter-like planet orbits extremely close to its parent star, taking only 3.92 days to orbit.

text: HAT-P-9b is an

text: exoplanet

text: approximately 1560

text: light year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: . This planet was found by the

text: transit method

text: on June 26, 2008. It has a

text: mass

text: 78% that of

text: Jupiter

text: and a

text: radius

text: 140% that of Jupiter. As with most transiting planets, this planet is a

text: hot Jupiter

text: , meaning this Jupiter-like planet orbits extremely close to its parent star, taking only 3.92 days to orbit.

text: The abundance of elements in the Sun and outer planets is similar to that in the universe. Due to solar heating, the elements of Earth and the inner rocky planets of the Solar System have undergone an additional depletion of volatile hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, and carbon (which volatilizes as methane). The crust, mantle, and core of the Earth show evidence of chemical segregation plus some sequestration by density. Lighter silicates of aluminum are found in the crust, with more magnesium silicate in the mantle, while metallic iron and nickel compose the core. The abundance of elements in specialized environments, such as atmospheres, or oceans, or the human body, are primarily a product of chemical interactions with the medium in which they reside.

text: The planet has the third lowest insolation of the known transiting planets (only Gliese 436 b and HD 17156 b have lower insolation). The temperature implies it falls into the pL class of hot Jupiters: planets which lack significant quantities of titanium(II) oxide and vanadium(II) oxide in their atmospheres and do not have temperature inversions. An alternative classification system for hot Jupiters is based on the equilibrium temperature and the planet's Safronov number. In this scheme, for a given temperature, class I planets have high Safronov numbers and tend to be in orbit around cooler host stars, while class II planets have lower Safronov numbers. In the case of WASP-11b/HAT-P-10b, the equilibrium temperature is 1030 K and the Safronov number is 0.047±0.003, which means it is located close to the dividing line between the class I and class II planets.

text: The planet has the third lowest

text: insolation

text: of the known transiting planets (only

text: Gliese 436 b

text: and

text: HD 17156 b

text: have lower insolation). The temperature implies it falls into the pL class of hot Jupiters: planets which lack significant quantities of

text: titanium(II) oxide

text: and

text: vanadium(II) oxide

text: in their atmospheres and do not have

text: temperature inversion

text: s. An alternative classification system for hot Jupiters is based on the equilibrium temperature and the planet's

text: Safronov number

text: . In this scheme, for a given temperature, class I planets have high Safronov numbers and tend to be in orbit around cooler host stars, while class II planets have lower Safronov numbers. In the case of WASP-11b/HAT-P-10b, the equilibrium temperature is 1030

text: K

text: and the Safronov number is 0.047±0.003, which means it is located close to the dividing line between the class I and class II planets.

text: While crew members repair the ship, Takigawa goes into the ship's drill-bow. When Miyoshi and June return to the control room thy find a tap recording made by Takigawa. He tells them that while building the Gohten, he discovered how to make a bomb so powerful, that it could blow up a planet. That was why he didn't want to launch the Gohten and why the aliens wanted him. He detached the drill from the Gohten with him inside and launched it into the Daimakan, causing it to crash into an active volcano. That in turn causes a chain reaction all over Venus. The rest of the Gohten, piloted by Miyochi and June head back to Earth just before Venus is destroyed.

text: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet (or other solar system body) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness (albedo) with adjacent areas.

text: An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a

text: planet

text: (or other

text: solar system

text: body) which shows a contrast in brightness or darkness (

text: albedo

text: ) with adjacent areas.

text: The typical atmospheric pressure at the top of Olympus Mons is 72 pascals, about 12% of the average Martian surface pressure of 600 pascals. Both are exceedingly low by terrestrial standards. By comparison, the atmospheric pressure at the summit of Mount Everest is 32,000 pascals, or about 32% of Earth's sea level pressure.  Olympus Mons shows that there is a composition of 44% silicates, 17.5% iron oxides, giving the planet its red coloration, 7% aluminum, 6% magnesium, 6% calcium, and particularly high proportions of sulfur oxide with 7%. These results point to the fact that the surface is largely composed of basalts and other mafic rocks, which would have erupted as low viscosity lava flows and hence lead to the low gradients on the surface of the planet. After plate tectonics ceased on Mars, hotspots, which cause volcanoes such as these, remained under the same areas for a very long time, and the volcanoes kept growing. Olympus Mons is supported by a  thick lithosphere.

text: The typical atmospheric pressure at the top of Olympus Mons is 72

text: pascal

text: s, about 12% of the average Martian surface pressure of 600 pascals. Both are exceedingly low by terrestrial standards. By comparison, the atmospheric pressure at the summit of

text: Mount Everest

text: is 32,000 pascals, or about 32% of Earth's sea level pressure.  Olympus Mons shows that there is a composition of 44%

text: silicate

text: s, 17.5%

text: iron oxide

text: s, giving the planet its red coloration, 7%

text: aluminum

text: , 6%

text: magnesium

text: , 6%

text: calcium

text: , and particularly high proportions of

text: sulfur oxide

text: with 7%. These results point to the fact that the surface is largely composed of

text: basalt

text: s and other

text: mafic

text: rocks, which would have erupted as low viscosity lava flows and hence lead to the low gradients on the surface of the planet. After

text: plate tectonics

text: ceased on Mars,

text: hotspots

text: , which cause volcanoes such as these, remained under the same areas for a very long time, and the volcanoes kept growing. Olympus Mons is supported by a  thick

text: lithosphere

text: Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and density of the crust, which result in differences in gravitational forces) and drag, with downward suction, at the subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.

text: Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth's lithosphere has greater strength than the underlying

text: asthenosphere

text: . Lateral density variations in the mantle result in

text: convection

text: . Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge (due to variations in topography and density of the crust, which result in

entity_section: Variation in gravity and apparent gravity

text: differences in gravitational forces

text: ) and

text: drag

text: , with downward

text: suction

text: , at the subduction zones. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the

text: Sun

text: and

text: Moon

text: . The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.

text: Positioned as a direct competitor to Apple's iPad line, Surface included several notable features, including a folding kickstand, which allows the tablet to stand at some angles, and the ability to attach optional protective covers that incorporate keyboards. Surface served as the launch device for Windows RT, a variation of Windows 8 that was designed for devices based on ARM architecture. Windows RT contains notable differences and limitations compared to Windows 8, including several removed features, being bundled with a special edition of Microsoft Office 2013 Home & Student, and, besides software included with the operating system, being incompatible with desktop software that runs on Windows 8 for personal computers and tablets with Intel compatible processors. Windows RT can only run Metro-style apps obtained from Windows Store. However visually resembling Surface Pro 2-in-1 detachable, Surface is not considered a 2-in-1 PC, being in fact a variant of a hybrid tablet.

text: Positioned as a direct competitor to

text: Apple

text: 's

text: iPad

text: line, Surface included several notable features, including a folding kickstand, which allows the tablet to stand at some angles, and the ability to attach optional protective covers that incorporate

text: keyboard

text: s. Surface served as the launch device for

text: Windows RT

text: , a variation of

text: Windows 8

text: that was designed for devices based on

text: ARM architecture

text: . Windows RT contains notable differences and limitations compared to Windows 8, including several removed features, being bundled with a special edition of

text: Microsoft Office 2013

text: Home & Student, and, besides software included with the operating system, being incompatible with desktop software that runs on Windows 8 for

text: personal computer

text: s and tablets with

text: Intel compatible

text: processors. Windows RT can only run

text: Metro-style app

text: s obtained from

text: Windows Store

text: . However visually resembling

text: Surface Pro

text: 2-in-1 detachable

text: , Surface is not considered a

text: 2-in-1 PC

text: , being in fact a variant of a

text: hybrid tablet

text: In 1927, Dutch graduate student Cyprianus Annius van den Bosch made a determination of the mass of Mars based upon the motions of the Martian moons, with an accuracy of 0.2%. This result was confirmed by the Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter and published posthumously in 1938. Using observations of the near Earth asteroid Eros from 1926 to 1945, German-American astronomer Eugene K. Rabe was able to make an independent estimate the mass of Mars, as well as the other planets in the inner Solar System, from the planet's gravitational perturbations of the asteroid. His estimated margin of error was 0.05%, but subsequent checks suggested his result was poorly determined compared to other methods.

text: In 1927, Dutch graduate student Cyprianus Annius van den Bosch made a determination of the mass of Mars based upon the motions of the Martian moons, with an accuracy of 0.2%. This result was confirmed by the Dutch astronomer

text: Willem de Sitter

text: and published posthumously in 1938. Using observations of the

text: near Earth

text: asteroid

text: Eros

text: from 1926 to 1945, German-American astronomer

text: Eugene K. Rabe

text: was able to make an independent estimate the mass of Mars, as well as the other planets in the

text: inner Solar System

text: , from the planet's gravitational

text: perturbations

text: of the asteroid. His estimated margin of error was 0.05%, but subsequent checks suggested his result was poorly determined compared to other methods.

text: Variability of water availability is important both for the functioning of aquatic species and also for the availability of water for human use: water that is only available in a few wet years must not be considered renewable. Because most global runoff comes from areas of very low climatic variability, the total global runoff is generally of low variability.

text: The absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible calderas remains an enigma. The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, approximately 300–600 million years old. Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets. Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called "farra", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km across, and from 100 to 1,000 m high; radial, star-like fracture systems called "novae"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as "arachnoids"; and "coronae", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin.

text: The absence of evidence of

text: lava

text: flow accompanying any of the visible

text: caldera

text: s remains an enigma. The planet has few

text: impact crater

text: s, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, approximately 300–600 million years old. Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets. Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called "

text: farra

text: ", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km across, and from 100 to 1,000 m high; radial, star-like fracture systems called "novae"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as "

text: arachnoids

text: "; and "coronae", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin.

text: Once the cores are of sufficient mass (), they begin to gather gas from the surrounding disk. Initially it is a slow process, increasing the core masses up to  in a few million years. After that, the accretion rates increase dramatically and the remaining 90% of the mass is accumulated in approximately 10,000 years. The accretion of gas stops when the supply from the disk is exhausted. This happens gradually, due to the formation of a density gap in the protoplanetary disk and to disk dispersal. In this model ice giants—Uranus and Neptune—are failed cores that began gas accretion too late, when almost all gas had already disappeared. The post-runaway-gas-accretion stage is characterized by migration of the newly formed giant planets and continued slow gas accretion. Migration is caused by the interaction of the planet sitting in the gap with the remaining disk. It stops when the protoplanetary disk disappears or when the end of the disk is attained. The latter case corresponds to the so-called hot Jupiters, which are likely to have stopped their migration when they reached the inner hole in the protoplanetary disk.

text: Once the cores are of sufficient mass (), they begin to gather gas from the surrounding disk. Initially it is a slow process, increasing the core masses up to  in a few million years. After that, the accretion rates increase dramatically and the remaining 90% of the mass is accumulated in approximately 10,000 years. The accretion of gas stops when the supply from the disk is exhausted. This happens gradually, due to the formation of a density gap in the protoplanetary disk and to disk dispersal. In this model ice giants—Uranus and Neptune—are failed cores that began gas accretion too late, when almost all gas had already disappeared. The post-runaway-gas-accretion stage is characterized by migration of the newly formed giant planets and continued slow gas accretion. Migration is caused by the interaction of the planet sitting in the gap with the remaining disk. It stops when the protoplanetary disk disappears or when the end of the disk is attained. The latter case corresponds to the so-called

text: hot Jupiters

text: , which are likely to have stopped their migration when they reached the inner hole in the protoplanetary disk.

text: Miniaturization of modern integrated circuits has led to hugely increased current densities and therefore, self-heating.  In particular, vias, or vertical interconnects, experience extreme local temperature fluctuations, which can strongly influence the electrical performance of multi-level interconnect structures.  In addition, these large, highly localized temperature fluctuations cause repeated stress gradients on the vias, ultimately leading to device failure.  Traditional thermometry techniques use electrical characterization to determine resistivity and estimate the average temperature along an interconnect.  However, this method is not able to characterize local temperature rises which may be significantly higher near vias due to their extremely high aspect ratios. Optical methods are diffraction limited to resolutions greater than 1 um, far larger than most modern vias feature sizes. SJEM has been used to do in situ thermal mapping of these devices with lateral resolution in the sub-0.1 um range.

text: Liquid reveals that he plans to destroy the Patriots' core AI with a nuclear strike using Metal Gear REX's railgun, and that he will substitute the core with his own to gain control. To facilitate his plan, Liquid needs a non ID-tagged nuclear warhead, which is to be recovered from the Shadow Moses facility, familiar to Snake from prior adventures. Snake, tormented by old memories, infiltrates Shadow Moses Island and reaches REX's hangar only to be ambushed by Vamp who has Naomi with him. Raiden assists Snake in battling Vamp and ultimately kills him. Naomi, revealing she is riddled with cancer and tormented by her mistakes, disables her nanomachines holding off the cancer and dies. Snake and Raiden use REX to head out of the hangar and battle Metal Gear RAY, piloted by Liquid. Upon his defeat, Liquid reveals Outer Haven, a modified version of Arsenal Gear ready to fulfill his launch plan. Raiden is severely injured during the attack while defending Snake. The , captained by Mei Ling, arrives and begins firing on Haven, causing it to retreat. Seizing the moment it surfaces to launch the nuke, Snake, Meryl, and Johnny board the ship via catapults. When Snake arrives at the core, he uses Otacon's robot to install a computer virus coded by Naomi and Sunny, that destroys the core AI and the Patriot system controlling the entire world, leaving the bare necessity for the modern civilization to survive. The destruction of the Patriots brings the war economy to a halt, counteracts the Patriots' upcoming civilian control scheme, and causes a mental breakdown for the enemy soldiers as their mind-control systems are disabled. Snake, after passing out in the core room, awakes atop Outer Haven's tower to find Liquid, and defeats him in combat.

text: Liquid reveals that he plans to destroy the Patriots' core AI with a nuclear strike using

text: Metal Gear REX

text: 's

text: railgun

text: , and that he will substitute the core with his own to gain control. To facilitate his plan, Liquid needs a non ID-tagged nuclear warhead, which is to be recovered from the Shadow Moses facility, familiar to Snake from prior adventures. Snake, tormented by old memories, infiltrates Shadow Moses Island and reaches REX's hangar only to be ambushed by Vamp who has Naomi with him. Raiden assists Snake in battling Vamp and ultimately kills him. Naomi, revealing she is riddled with cancer and tormented by her mistakes, disables her nanomachines holding off the cancer and dies. Snake and Raiden use REX to head out of the hangar and battle

text: Metal Gear RAY

text: , piloted by Liquid. Upon his defeat, Liquid reveals Outer Haven, a modified version of

text: Arsenal Gear

text: ready to fulfill his launch plan. Raiden is severely injured during the attack while defending Snake. The , captained by

entity_name: List of characters in the Metal Gear series

text: Mei Ling

text: , arrives and begins firing on Haven, causing it to retreat. Seizing the moment it surfaces to launch the nuke, Snake, Meryl, and Johnny board the ship via catapults. When Snake arrives at the core, he uses Otacon's robot to install a computer virus coded by Naomi and Sunny, that destroys the core AI and the Patriot system controlling the entire world, leaving the bare necessity for the modern civilization to survive. The destruction of the Patriots brings the war economy to a halt, counteracts the Patriots' upcoming civilian control scheme, and causes a mental breakdown for the enemy soldiers as their mind-control systems are disabled. Snake, after passing out in the core room, awakes atop Outer Haven's tower to find Liquid, and defeats him in combat.

text: Sphenodontians are also abundant in the Kota microvertebrate asssemblage and have acrodont dentitions, raising the possibility that Bharatagama is not one of the earliest lizards but rather a sphenodontian misidentified as a lizard. Bharatagama also shares with sphenodontians an enlarged coronoid process on the lower jaw. However, this feature is also seen in some acrodontans and is not unique to Sphenodontia. The combination of features such as pleurodont teeth at the front of the jaws, hatchling teeth behind them, the lack of wear marks on the inner surfaces of the teeth (a characteristic feature of sphenodontians), and the shape of the maxilla, premaxilla, and angular bones all point to Bharatagama being an early acrodont lizard.

text: Sphenodontians are also abundant in the Kota microvertebrate asssemblage and have acrodont dentitions, raising the possibility that Bharatagama is not one of the earliest lizards but rather a sphenodontian misidentified as a lizard. Bharatagama also shares with sphenodontians an enlarged

text: coronoid process

text: on the lower jaw. However, this feature is also seen in some acrodontans and is not unique to Sphenodontia. The combination of features such as pleurodont teeth at the front of the jaws, hatchling teeth behind them, the lack of wear marks on the inner surfaces of the teeth (a characteristic feature of sphenodontians), and the shape of the

text: maxilla

text: premaxilla

text: , and

text: angular bone

text: s all point to Bharatagama being an early acrodont lizard.

text: Geological formations such as cryogeysers are thought to exist on the surface of several icy moons ejecting water vapor due to tidal heating and may indicate the presence of substantial quantities of subsurface water. Plumes of water vapor have been detected on Jupiter's moon Europa and are similar to plumes of water vapor detected on Saturn's moon Enceladus. Traces of water vapor have also been detected in the stratosphere of Titan. Water vapor has been found to be a major constituent of the atmosphere of dwarf planet, Ceres, largest object in the asteroid belt The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes." According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids." Scientists studying Mars hypothesize that if water moves about the planet, it does so as vapor.

text: Geological formations such as

text: cryogeyser

text: s are thought to exist on the surface of several

text: icy moons

text: ejecting water vapor due to

text: tidal heating

text: and may indicate the presence of substantial quantities of subsurface water. Plumes of water vapor have been detected on Jupiter's moon

text: Europa

text: and are similar to plumes of water vapor detected on Saturn's moon

text: Enceladus

text: . Traces of water vapor have also been detected in the stratosphere of

text: Titan

text: . Water vapor has been found to be a major constituent of the atmosphere of

text: dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: , largest object in the

text: asteroid belt

text: The detection was made by using the

text: far-infrared abilities

text: of the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: . The finding is unexpected because

text: comets

text: , not

text: asteroids

text: , are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes." According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids." Scientists studying

text: Mars

text: hypothesize that if water moves about the planet, it does so as vapor.

text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres. These include all the gas giants, as well as Mars, Venus, and Pluto. Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do comets and the Sun. There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect, aerosol and cloud physics, and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics.

text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other

text: astronomical object

text: s in the

text: Solar System

text: have

text: atmosphere

text: s. These include all the

text: gas giants

text: , as well as

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Pluto

text: . Several

text: moons

text: and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do

text: comet

text: s and the

text: Sun

text: . There is evidence that

text: extrasolar planet

text: s can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: aerosol

text: and cloud physics, and

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: and dynamics.

text: 47 Ursae Majoris b orbits at a distance of 2.10 AU from its star, taking 1,078 days or 2.95 years to complete a revolution. It was the first long-period planet around a main sequence star to be discovered. Unlike the majority of known long-period extrasolar planets, the eccentricity of the orbit of 47 Ursae Majoris b is low.

text: 47 Ursae Majoris b orbits at a distance of 2.10

text: AU

text: from its star, taking 1,078 days or 2.95 years to complete a

text: revolution

text: . It was the first long-period planet around a

text: main sequence

text: star to be discovered. Unlike the majority of known long-period extrasolar planets, the

text: eccentricity

text: of the orbit of 47 Ursae Majoris b is low.

text: More speculatively, features in dust disks sometimes suggest the presence of full-sized planets. Some disks have a central cavity, meaning that they are really ring-shaped. The central cavity may be caused by a planet "clearing out" the dust inside its orbit. Other disks contain clumps that may be caused by the gravitational influence of a planet. Both these kinds of features are present in the dust disk around epsilon Eridani, hinting at the presence of a planet with an orbital radius of around 40 AU (in addition to the inner planet detected through the radial-velocity method).  These kinds of planet-disk interactions can be modeled numerically using collisional grooming techniques.

text: More speculatively, features in dust disks sometimes suggest the presence of full-sized planets. Some disks have a central cavity, meaning that they are really ring-shaped. The central cavity may be caused by a planet "clearing out" the dust inside its orbit. Other disks contain clumps that may be caused by the gravitational influence of a planet. Both these kinds of features are present in the dust disk around

text: epsilon Eridani

text: , hinting at the presence of a planet with an orbital radius of around 40

text: AU

text: (in addition to the inner planet detected through the radial-velocity method).  These kinds of planet-disk interactions can be modeled numerically using

text: collisional grooming

text: techniques.

text: Some features look like volcanoes.  Some of them may be mud volcanoes where pressurized mud is forced upward forming cones.  These features may be places to look for life as they bring to the surface possible life that has been protected from radiation.

text: According to its solvent-accessible surface representation, p16 features clustered charged groups on its surface and a pocket located on the right side with a negatively charged left inner wall and a positively charged right inner wall.

text: According to its

text: solvent

text: -accessible surface representation, p16 features clustered charged groups on its surface and a pocket located on the right side with a

text: negatively charged

text: left inner wall and a

text: positively charged

text: right inner wall.

text: Kepler-11 is a G-type star in the Cygnus constellation. With a mass of .95 M, a radius of 1.1 R, a measured metallicity of 0, and an effective temperature of 5680 K, Kepler-11 is near in mass (95% of Sun), radius (110% of Sun), and iron content as the Sun. Metallicity has been observed to play a major role determining the type of planet a star forms. As metal-rich gas clouds tend to cause planetary cores to aggregate to a gravitationally prominent size while primordial gases still exist in the system, gas giants tend to form under such conditions. It is also slightly cooler than the Sun. However, it is estimated to be eight (± two) billion years old, far older than the Sun is. Kepler-11 is host to five other planets other than Kepler-11d: Kepler-11b, Kepler-11c, Kepler-11e, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g. The first five planets in the system have orbits that would collectively fit inside the orbit of planet Mercury, while Kepler-11g orbits at a considerably further distance in relation to the orbits of its inner counterparts.

text: is a

text: G-type star

text: in the

text: Cygnus

text: constellation. With a mass of .95

text: M

text: , a radius of 1.1

text: R

text: , a measured

text: metallicity

text: of 0, and an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5680 K, Kepler-11 is near in mass (95% of Sun), radius (110% of Sun), and iron content as the Sun. Metallicity has been observed to play a major role determining the type of planet a star forms. As metal-rich gas clouds tend to cause planetary cores to aggregate to a gravitationally prominent size while primordial gases still exist in the system, gas giants tend to form under such conditions. It is also slightly cooler than the Sun. However, it is estimated to be eight (± two) billion years old, far older than the Sun is. Kepler-11 is host to five other planets other than Kepler-11d:

text: , and

text: . The first five planets in the system have orbits that would collectively fit inside the orbit of planet

text: Mercury

text: , while Kepler-11g orbits at a considerably further distance in relation to the orbits of its inner counterparts.

text: Rare Earth's assertion that the Moon's stabilization of Earth's obliquity and spin is a requirement for complex life has been questioned. Kasting argues that a moonless Earth would still possess habitats with climates suitable for complex life and questions whether the spin rate of a moonless Earth can be predicted. Although the giant impact theory posits that the impact forming the Moon increased Earth's rotational speed to make a day about 5 hours long, the Moon has slowly "stolen" much of this speed to reduce Earth's solar day since then to about 24 hours and continues to do so: in 100 million years Earth's solar day will be roughly 24 hours 38 minutes (the same as Mars's solar day); in 1 billion years, 30 hours 23 minutes. Larger secondary bodies would exert proportionally larger tidal forces that would in turn decelerate their primaries faster and potentially increase the solar day of a planet in all other respects like earth to over 120 hours within a few billion years. This long solar day would make effective heat dissipation for organisms in the tropics and subtropics extremely difficult in a similar manner to tidal locking to a red dwarf star. Short days (high rotation speed) causes high wind speeds at ground level. Long days (slow rotation speed) cause the day and night temperatures to be too extreme.

text: Rare Earth's assertion that the Moon's stabilization of Earth's obliquity and spin is a requirement for complex life has been questioned. Kasting argues that a moonless Earth would still possess habitats with climates suitable for complex life and questions whether the spin rate of a moonless Earth can be predicted. Although the

text: giant impact theory

text: posits that the impact forming the Moon increased Earth's rotational speed to make a day about 5 hours long, the Moon has slowly "

text: stolen

text: " much of this speed to reduce Earth's solar day since then to about 24 hours and continues to do so: in 100 million years Earth's solar day will be roughly 24 hours 38 minutes (the same as Mars's solar day); in 1 billion years, 30 hours 23 minutes. Larger secondary bodies would exert proportionally larger tidal forces that would in turn decelerate their primaries faster and potentially increase the solar day of a planet in all other respects like earth to over 120 hours within a few billion years. This long solar day would make effective heat dissipation for organisms in the tropics and subtropics extremely difficult in a similar manner to tidal locking to a red dwarf star. Short days (high rotation speed) causes high wind speeds at ground level. Long days (slow rotation speed) cause the day and night temperatures to be too extreme.

text: The closest object in our Solar System to an iron planet is Mercury, which is a mixed iron-silicate planet with a high density of 5.4 g/cm, compared to 7.9 g/cm for pure iron at standard temperature and pressure. The Earth is also a mixed iron-silicate planet, although with a lower percentage of iron than Mercury. Notably, both planets have magnetic fields, unlike the silicate planets in the inner Solar System (Venus, Mars, and the Moon).

text: The closest object in our Solar System to an iron planet is

text: Mercury

text: , which is a mixed iron-silicate planet with a high density of 5.4 g/cm, compared to 7.9 g/cm for pure iron at standard temperature and pressure. The

text: Earth

text: is also a mixed iron-silicate planet, although with a lower percentage of iron than Mercury. Notably, both planets have magnetic fields, unlike the silicate planets in the inner Solar System (

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: , and the

text: Moon

text: The International Astronomical Union's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature is responsible for naming Martian surface features.

text: The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: 's

text: Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature

text: is responsible for naming Martian surface features.

text: The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU (about 700 million km) from the Sun.

text: The inner Solar System is the region comprising the

text: terrestrial planets

text: and the

text: asteroid belt

text: . Composed mainly of

text: silicate

text: s and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within the

text: frost line

text: , which is a little less than 5

text: AU

text: (about 700 million km) from the Sun.

text: Progressions are usually only important for the inner personal planets (Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars) as the progressed outer planets will have moved only an insignificant distance. However, the personal planets do make aspects to the transpersonal and outer planets. Significant events in the motion of a slow moving body, such as a station retrograde or direct by progression, are also considered significant by many astrologers who use progressions.

text: A planetary-mass object (PMO), planemo , or planetary body is a celestial object with a mass that falls within the range of the definition of a planet: massive enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium (to be rounded under its own gravity), but not enough to sustain core fusion like a star. By definition, all planets are planetary-mass objects, but the purpose of this term is to refer to objects that do not conform to typical expectations for a planet. These include dwarf planets, which are rounded by their own gravity but not massive enough to clear their own orbit, the larger moons, and free-floating planemos, which may have been ejected from a system (rogue planets) or formed through cloud-collapse rather than accretion (sometimes called sub-brown dwarfs).

text: A planetary-mass object (PMO), planemo , or planetary body is a celestial object with a mass that falls within the range of the definition of a planet: massive enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium (to be rounded under its own gravity), but not enough to sustain core fusion like a star. By definition, all planets are planetary-mass objects, but the purpose of this term is to refer to objects that do not conform to typical expectations for a planet. These include

text: dwarf planet

text: s, which are rounded by their own gravity but not massive enough to

text: clear their own orbit

text: , the larger

text: moons

text: , and free-floating planemos, which may have been ejected from a system (

text: rogue planet

text: s) or formed through cloud-collapse rather than accretion (sometimes called

text: sub-brown dwarf

text: s).

text: The Nice 2 model addresses some weaknesses of the original Nice model. The first weakness is the artificial selection of the initial orbits of the outer planets to produce an instability that matches the timing of the Late Heavy Bombardment. The second weakness is the sensitivity of the timing of the instability to the location of the inner edge of the planetesimal disk. The Nice 2 model uses particular initial conditions, derived from the examination of the orbital evolution of giant planets orbiting in a gas disk, which may occur under appropriate circumstances. An instability trigger with no apparent correlation between the timing of the instability and the position of the inner edge of the planetesimal disk is the result of the incorporation of the interactions between planetesimals into the Nice 2 model.

text: The Nice 2 model addresses some weaknesses of the original Nice model. The first weakness is the artificial selection of the initial orbits of the outer planets to produce an instability that matches the timing of the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: . The second weakness is the sensitivity of the timing of the instability to the location of the inner edge of the planetesimal disk. The Nice 2 model uses particular initial conditions, derived from the examination of the orbital evolution of

text: giant planet

text: s orbiting in a gas disk, which may occur under appropriate circumstances. An instability trigger with no apparent correlation between the timing of the instability and the position of the inner edge of the planetesimal disk is the result of the incorporation of the interactions between planetesimals into the Nice 2 model.

text: The study of Gliese 581 c by the von Bloh et al. team has been quoted as concluding "The super-Earth Gl 581c is clearly outside the habitable zone, since it is too close to the star." The study by Selsis et al. claims even "a planet in the habitable zone is not necessarily habitable" itself, and this planet "is outside what can be considered the conservative habitable zone" of the parent star, and further that if there was any water there then it was lost when the red dwarf was a strong X-ray and EUV emitter, it could have surface temperatures ranging from 700 K to 1000 K (430 to 730 °C), like Venus today.  Temperature speculations by other scientists were based on the temperature of (and heat from) the parent star Gliese 581 and have been calculated without factoring in the margin of error (96 °C/K) for the star's temperature of 3432 K to 3528 K, which leads to a large irradiance range for the planet, even before eccentricity is considered.

text: The study of Gliese 581 c by the von Bloh et al. team has been quoted as concluding "The super-Earth Gl 581c is clearly outside the habitable zone, since it is too close to the star." The study by Selsis et al. claims even "a planet in the habitable zone is not necessarily habitable" itself, and this planet "is outside what can be considered the conservative habitable zone" of the parent star, and further that if there was any water there then it was lost when the red dwarf was a strong X-ray and EUV emitter, it could have surface temperatures ranging from 700 K to 1000 K (430 to 730 °C), like

text: Venus

text: today.  Temperature speculations by other scientists were based on the temperature of (and heat from) the parent star

text: Gliese 581

text: and have been calculated without factoring in the margin of error (96 °C/K) for the star's temperature of 3432 K to 3528 K, which leads to a large

text: irradiance

text: range for the planet, even before eccentricity is considered.

text: A terrestrial planet of the right size is needed to retain an atmosphere, like Earth and Venus. On Earth, once the giant impact of Theia thinned Earth's Atmosphere other events were needed to make the atmosphere capable of sustaining life for a long time span. On Earth the Late Heavy Bombardment reseeded Earth with water lost after the impact of Theia. The development of an ozone layer formed protection from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun.  Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are needed in a correct ratio for life to form. Nitrogen is needed for amino and nucleic acids. Lightning is needed for nitrogen fixation to happen. The carbon dioxide gas needed for life comes from sources such as volcanoes and geysers. Carbon dioxide is only needed at low levels, in Earth's atmosphere it is at 0.04 percent (400 ppm) by volume of the atmosphere. At high levels carbon dioxide is a poisonous. Precipitation is needed to have a stable water cycle. A proper atmosphere must reduce temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).

text: A terrestrial planet of the right size is needed to retain an atmosphere, like Earth and Venus. On Earth, once the giant impact of

text: Theia

text: thinned

text: Earth's Atmosphere

text: other events were needed to make the atmosphere capable of sustaining life for a long time span. On Earth the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: reseeded Earth with water lost after the impact of Theia. The development of an

text: ozone layer

text: formed protection from

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) radiation from the Sun.

text: Nitrogen

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: are needed in a correct ratio for life to form. Nitrogen is needed for

text: amino

text: and

text: nucleic acid

text: s.

text: Lightning

text: is needed for

text: nitrogen fixation

text: to happen. The carbon dioxide

text: gas

text: needed for life comes from sources such as

text: volcano

text: es and

text: geyser

text: s. Carbon dioxide is only needed at low levels, in Earth's atmosphere it is at 0.04 percent (400

text: ppm

text: ) by volume of the atmosphere. At high levels carbon dioxide is a poisonous.

text: Precipitation

text: is needed to have a stable water cycle. A proper atmosphere must reduce

text: temperature

text: extremes between

text: day

text: and

text: night

text: (the

text: diurnal temperature variation

text: If planets are L dwarfs or T dwarfs then they must be both young (younger than 350 million years) and heavy. The cooler a Y dwarf, the higher the likelihood that it is a planet. WISE 0535-7500 is the second-nearest Y dwarf that could be of a type cooler than Y1, so could easily be the second-nearest free planet to Earth. Of the two nearer Y dwarfs, WISE 0855−0714 has an effective temperature below the freezing point of water, and WISE 0350−5658 has an effective temperature above the boiling point of water. WISE 0535−7500 is of a spectral type between that of WISE 0855−0714 and WISE 0350−5658 so the possibility exists that it may in the correct temperature range for liquid water to exist on its surface.

text: If planets are L dwarfs or T dwarfs then they must be both young (younger than 350 million years) and heavy. The cooler a Y dwarf, the higher the likelihood that it is a planet. WISE 0535-7500 is the second-nearest Y dwarf that could be of a type cooler than Y1, so could easily be the second-nearest

text: free planet

text: to Earth. Of the two nearer Y dwarfs,

text: WISE 0855−0714

text: has an effective temperature below the freezing point of water, and

text: WISE 0350−5658

text: has an effective temperature above the boiling point of water. WISE 0535−7500 is of a spectral type between that of

text: WISE 0855−0714

text: and

text: WISE 0350−5658

text: so the possibility exists that it may in the correct temperature range for liquid water to exist on its surface.

text: The rings of the Solar System's gas giants are aligned with their planet's equator. However, for exoplanets that orbit close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet's orbital plane around the star. A planet's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet's equator so that if the planet has a tilted rotational axis, then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system.

text: The rings of the Solar System's gas giants are aligned with their planet's equator. However, for exoplanets that orbit close to their star, tidal forces from the star would lead to the outermost rings of a planet being aligned with the planet's orbital plane around the star. A planet's innermost rings would still be aligned with the planet's equator so that if the planet has a

text: tilted rotational axis

text: , then the different alignments between the inner and outer rings would create a warped ring system.

text: All these researches, as well as the world scientific trends of the '60s in the field of plate tectonics catalyses Marcian Bleahu's research activity and he becomes a pioneer in the field of global tectonics not only in Romania, but also with significant contributions in the international scientific community. The results of his studies were synthesized in the book Global tectonics - Bucharest,  1983, Editura Științifică, (Tectonica globală), in two volumes, with over 1000 pages.

text: The liquid outer core also appears to have density 5–10% lower than iron. Shibazaki and others estimate that it should have a somewhat higher proportion of hydrogen than the inner core, but there is not enough data about molten FeH for accurate estimates.  Narygina and others estimate 0.5–1.0% (weight) of hydrogen in the melt. Similar, but without extrapolations in pressure, theoretical estimates give a narrower range of concentrations 0.4-0.5% (weight), however, this results to too low mean atomic mass of the inner core (43.8-46.5) and hydrogen seems to be less likely than other elements (S, Si, C, O) to be the main light alloying element in the core.

text: On the opposite side, the less massive M and K types  are by far the most common and long-lived stars of the universe, but their potential for supporting life is still under study. Their low luminosity reduces the size of the habitable zone, which are exposed to ultraviolet radiation outbreaks that occur frequently, especially during their first billion year of existence. When a planet's orbit is too short, it can cause tidal locking of the planet, where it always presents the same hemisphere  to the star, known as day hemisphere. Even if the existence of life were possible in a system of this type, it is unlikely that any exoplanet belonging to a red dwarf star would be considered superhabitable.

text: On the opposite side, the less massive

text: M

text: and

text: K

text: types  are by far the most common and long-lived stars of the universe, but their potential for supporting life is still under study. Their low luminosity reduces the size of the

text: habitable zone

text: , which are exposed to ultraviolet radiation outbreaks that occur frequently, especially during their first billion year of existence. When a planet's orbit is too short, it can cause

text: tidal locking

text: of the planet, where it always presents the same hemisphere  to the star, known as day hemisphere. Even if the existence of life were possible in a system of this type, it is unlikely that any exoplanet belonging to a

text: red dwarf

text: star would be considered superhabitable.

text: Wampas are a horned, clawed, white-furred, carnivorous species native to the frozen world of Hoth. They are a semi-sentient race of predators standing over 2 m (6.6 ft) in height, subsisting in the cold climate by hunting tauntauns. Wampas are usually solitary creatures, but are known to occasionally hunt in packs. Their white fur allows wampas to blend-in with Hoth's blinding blizzards, enabling them to catch their prey completely unaware. Once they have made their kill, wampas drag the carcasses back to their icy lair, where they suspend them from the ceiling until ready to eat them. Due to the extreme temperatures of Hoth and the cold-blooded nature of the Wampa, the creatures are difficult to track on radar. A similar species is believed to inhabit the planet Gall, in the Outer Rim.  First appearance in The Empire Strikes Back.

text: Wampas are a horned, clawed, white-furred,

text: carnivorous

text: species native to the frozen world of

text: Hoth

text: . They are a semi-

text: sentient

text: race of

text: predator

text: s standing over 2 m (6.6 ft) in height, subsisting in the cold climate by hunting

text: tauntaun

text: s. Wampas are usually

text: solitary

text: creatures, but are known to occasionally

text: hunt in packs

text: . Their white fur allows wampas to blend-in with Hoth's blinding

text: blizzards

text: , enabling them to catch their prey completely unaware. Once they have made their kill, wampas drag the carcasses back to their icy lair, where they suspend them from the ceiling until ready to eat them. Due to the extreme temperatures of Hoth and the

text: cold-blooded

text: nature of the Wampa, the creatures are difficult to track on radar. A similar species is believed to inhabit the planet

text: Gall

text: , in the Outer Rim.  First appearance in

text: The Empire Strikes Back

text: Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form carbonic acid (HCO), bicarbonate (HCO) and carbonate (CO). There is about fifty times as much carbon dissolved in the oceans as exists in the atmosphere. The oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, and have taken up about a third of CO emitted by human activity.

text: Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form

text: carbonic acid

text: (HCO),

text: bicarbonate

text: (HCO) and

text: carbonate

text: (CO). There is about fifty times as much carbon dissolved in the oceans as exists in the atmosphere. The oceans act as an enormous

text: carbon sink

text: , and have taken up about a third of CO emitted by human activity.

text: Another huge advantage of the liquid core is its ability to release xenon gas which normally acts as a neutron absorber and causes structural occlusions in solid fuel elements (leading to early replacement of solid fuel rods with over 98% of the nuclear fuel unburned, including many long lived actinides). In contrast Molten Salt Reactors (MSR) are capable of retaining the fuel mixture for significantly extended periods, which not only increases fuel efficiency dramatically, but also incinerates the vast majority of its own waste as part of the normal operational characteristics.

text: Active shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over extremely long periods of time, resulting in the gradual build-up of edifices that can reach extremely large dimensions. With the exclusion of flood basalts mature shields are the largest volcanic features on Earth: the summit of the largest subaerial volcano in the world, Mauna Loa, lies  above sea level, and the volcano, over  wide at its base, is estimated to contain about  of basalt. The mass of the volcano is so great that it has slumped the crust beneath it a further ; accounting for this subsidence and for the height of the volcano above the sea floor the "true" height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about . Mount Everest, by comparison, is  in height. In September 2013 a team led by the University of Houston's William Sager announced the singular origination of Tamu Massif, an enormous extinct submarine shield volcano of previously unknown origin which, approximately  in area, dwarfs all previously known volcanoes on the planet. The research has not yet been confirmed.

text: Active

text: shield volcanoes experience near-continuous eruptive activity over extremely long periods of time, resulting in the gradual build-up of edifices that can reach extremely large dimensions. With the exclusion of flood basalts mature shields are the largest volcanic features on Earth: the summit of the largest

text: subaerial

text: volcano in the world,

text: Mauna Loa

text: , lies  above

text: sea level

text: , and the volcano, over  wide at its base, is estimated to contain about  of basalt. The mass of the volcano is so great that it has slumped the

text: crust

text: beneath it a further ; accounting for this subsidence and for the height of the volcano above the

text: sea floor

text: the "true" height of Mauna Loa from the start of its eruptive history is about .

text: Mount Everest

text: , by comparison, is  in height. In September 2013 a team led by the

text: University of Houston

text: 's

text: William Sager

text: announced the singular origination of

text: Tamu Massif

text: , an enormous extinct

text: submarine

text: shield volcano of previously unknown origin which, approximately  in area, dwarfs all previously known volcanoes on the planet. The research has not yet been confirmed.

text: The northern and southern hemispheres of Mars are strikingly different from each other in topography and physiography. This dichotomy is a fundamental global geologic feature of the planet. Simply stated, the northern part of the planet is an enormous topographic depression. About one-third of the planet’s surface (mostly in the northern hemisphere) lies 3–6 km lower in elevation than the southern two-thirds. This is a first-order relief feature on par with the elevation difference between Earth’s continents and ocean basins. The dichotomy is also expressed in two other ways: as a difference in impact crater density and crustal thickness between the two hemispheres. The hemisphere south of the dichotomy boundary (often called the southern highlands or uplands) is very heavily cratered and ancient, characterized by rugged surfaces that date back to the period of heavy bombardment. In contrast, the lowlands north of the dichotomy boundary have few large craters, are very smooth and flat, and have other features indicating that extensive resurfacing has occurred since the southern highlands formed. The third distinction between the two hemispheres is in crustal thickness. Topographic and geophysical gravity data indicate that the crust in the southern highlands has a maximum thickness of about , whereas crust in the northern lowlands "peaks" at around  in thickness. The location of the dichotomy boundary varies in latitude across Mars and depends on which of the three physical expressions of the dichotomy is being considered.

text: The northern and southern hemispheres of Mars are strikingly different from each other in

text: topography

text: and physiography. This

text: dichotomy

text: is a fundamental global geologic feature of the planet. Simply stated, the northern part of the planet is an enormous topographic depression. About one-third of the planet’s surface (mostly in the northern hemisphere) lies 3–6 km lower in elevation than the southern two-thirds. This is a first-order relief feature on par with the elevation difference between Earth’s continents and ocean basins. The dichotomy is also expressed in two other ways: as a difference in impact crater density and crustal thickness between the two hemispheres. The hemisphere south of the dichotomy boundary (often called the southern highlands or uplands) is very heavily cratered and ancient, characterized by rugged surfaces that date back to the period of

text: heavy bombardment

text: . In contrast, the lowlands north of the dichotomy boundary have few large craters, are very smooth and flat, and have other features indicating that extensive resurfacing has occurred since the southern highlands formed. The third distinction between the two hemispheres is in crustal thickness. Topographic and geophysical gravity data indicate that the crust in the southern highlands has a maximum thickness of about , whereas crust in the northern lowlands "peaks" at around  in thickness. The location of the dichotomy boundary varies in latitude across Mars and depends on which of the three physical expressions of the dichotomy is being considered.

text: The Inner Planets Trilogy

text: The Inner Planets Trilogy

text: As heat is transferred outward toward the mantle, the net trend is for the inner boundary of the liquid region to freeze, causing the solid inner core to grow. This growth rate is estimated to be 1 mm per year.

text: As heat is transferred outward toward the

text: mantle

text: , the net trend is for the inner boundary of the liquid region to freeze, causing the solid inner core to grow. This growth rate is estimated to be 1 mm per year.

text: The series originated with A Wrinkle in Time, written in 1959 to 1960 and turned down by 26 publishers before Farrar, Straus & Giroux finally decided to publish it in 1962. A Wrinkle in Time won the Newbery Medal and has sold over 6 million copies. The sequel, A Wind in the Door, takes place the following year but was published over a decade later, in 1973. A Swiftly Tilting Planet, set ten years after A Wrinkle in Time, followed in 1978.  The fourth title of the quintet, Many Waters, was published in 1986, but takes place several years before A Swiftly Tilting Planet. This is readily apparent from the fact that Sandy and Dennys Murry are in high school as of Many Waters, but refer to their college studies at the time of A Swiftly Tilting Planet; and from Meg's unmarried status as of Many Waters.

text: The series originated with

text: A Wrinkle in Time

text: , written in 1959 to 1960 and turned down by 26 publishers before

text: Farrar, Straus & Giroux

text: finally decided to publish it in

text: . A Wrinkle in Time won the

text: Newbery Medal

text: and has sold over 6 million copies. The sequel, A Wind in the Door, takes place the following year but was published over a decade later, in

text: . A Swiftly Tilting Planet, set ten years after A Wrinkle in Time, followed in

text: .  The fourth title of the quintet, Many Waters, was published in

text: , but takes place several years before A Swiftly Tilting Planet. This is readily apparent from the fact that

text: Sandy and Dennys Murry

text: are in high school as of Many Waters, but refer to their college studies at the time of A Swiftly Tilting Planet; and from Meg's unmarried status as of Many Waters.

text: Condition () is a 2011 science fiction film, directed by  Andrei Severny and produced by Amir Naderi. The film is a meditative psychological drama set in apocalyptic atmosphere. The story is a sensory battle of the two female characters: sound therapist Mary Taggert and her patient, young disturbed woman Alaska. The doctor evacuates with her patient, driving a car away from the city to unspecified northern territory towards the border. Having run out of gas, two women are stranded in mysterious rough and rocky wilderness close to the ocean where it becomes a battle for survival and a struggle with the inner wounds and salvation with sound and nature. The psychologically complex and slow narrative of Condition relies on sequences of abstract images that one could expect to see at a museum or gallery.

text: Condition () is a 2011

text: science fiction film

text: , directed by

text: Andrei Severny

text: and produced by

text: Amir Naderi

text: . The film is a meditative psychological drama set in apocalyptic atmosphere. The story is a sensory battle of the two female characters: sound therapist Mary Taggert and her patient, young disturbed woman Alaska. The doctor evacuates with her patient, driving a car away from the city to unspecified northern territory towards the border. Having run out of gas, two women are stranded in mysterious rough and rocky wilderness close to the ocean where it becomes a battle for survival and a struggle with the inner wounds and salvation with sound and nature. The psychologically complex and slow narrative of Condition relies on sequences of abstract images that one could expect to see at a museum or gallery.

text: The water available is often determined by means of a water flow test (opening a fire hydrant and recording the water pressures and gallons flow per minute). Some municipal water jurisdictions may provide their own estimate of available water supplies.

text: The water available is often determined by means of a

text: water flow test

text: (opening a fire hydrant and recording the water pressures and gallons flow per minute). Some municipal water jurisdictions may provide their own estimate of available water supplies.

text: Ice cap climate (EF): This climate is dominant in Antarctica and inner Greenland, but also occurs at extremely high altitudes on mountains, above even tundra. All twelve months have average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).

text: Ice cap climate

text: (EF): This climate is dominant in Antarctica and inner Greenland, but also occurs at extremely high altitudes on mountains, above even tundra. All twelve months have average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F).

text: Volcanoes are present in almost any mountain belt, but this does not make it a volcanic arc. Often there are isolated, but impressively huge volcanoes in a mountain belt. For instance, Vesuvius and the Etna volcanoes in Italy are part of separate but different kinds of mountainous volcanic ensembles.

text: Volcanoes are present in almost any mountain belt, but this does not make it a volcanic arc. Often there are isolated, but impressively huge volcanoes in a mountain belt. For instance,

text: Vesuvius

text: and the

text: Etna

text: volcanoes in Italy are part of separate but different kinds of mountainous volcanic ensembles.

text: A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminium and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.

text: A foundry is a

text: factory

text: that produces

text: metal

text: casting

text: s. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are

text: aluminium

text: and

text: cast iron

text: . However, other metals, such as

text: bronze

text: brass

text: steel

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: zinc

text: , are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.

text: Young Earth creationists believe that the flood described in Genesis 6–9 did occur, was global in extent, and submerged all dry land on Earth. Some Young Earth Creationists go further and advocate a kind of flood geology which relies on the appropriation of late eighteenth and early nineteenth century arguments in favor of catastrophism made by such scientists as Georges Cuvier and Richard Kirwan. This approach which was replaced by the mid-nineteenth century almost entirely by uniformitarianism was adopted most famously by George McCready Price and this legacy is reflected in the most prominent YEC organizations today. YEC ideas to accommodate the massive amount of water necessary for a flood that was global in scale included inventing such constructs as an orbiting vapor canopy which would have collapsed and generated the necessary extreme rainfall or a rapid movement of tectonic plates causing underground aquifers or tsunamis from underwater volcanic steam to inundate the planet.

text: Young Earth creationists believe that the flood described in Genesis 6–9 did occur, was global in extent, and submerged all dry land on Earth. Some Young Earth Creationists go further and advocate a kind of

text: flood geology

text: which relies on the appropriation of late eighteenth and early nineteenth century arguments in favor of

text: catastrophism

text: made by such scientists as

text: Georges Cuvier

text: and

text: Richard Kirwan

text: . This approach which was replaced by the mid-nineteenth century almost entirely by

text: uniformitarianism

text: was adopted most famously by

text: George McCready Price

text: and this legacy is reflected in the most prominent YEC organizations today. YEC ideas to accommodate the massive amount of water necessary for a flood that was global in scale included inventing such constructs as an orbiting

text: vapor canopy

text: which would have collapsed and generated the necessary extreme rainfall or a

text: rapid movement of tectonic plates

text: causing underground aquifers or tsunamis from underwater volcanic steam to inundate the planet.

text: In 1937, Inge Lehmann determined that within the earth's liquid outer core there is a solid inner core.

text: In 1937,

text: Inge Lehmann

text: determined that within the earth's liquid outer core there is a solid inner core.

text: The fiber materials are considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be checked for corrosion periodically. Liquid nitrogen, LN2, is commonly transported in insulated tanks, up to 50 litres, at atmospheric pressure. These tanks, being non-pressurized tanks, are not subject to inspection. Very large tanks for LN2 are sometimes pressurized to less than 25 psi to aid in transferring the liquid at point of use.

text: The satellite system of Uranus is notably different from those of Jupiter and Saturn in that it lacks precise resonances among the larger moons, while the majority of the larger moons of Jupiter (3 of the 4 largest) and of Saturn (6 of the 8 largest) are in mean-motion resonances. In all three satellite systems, moons were likely captured into mean-motion resonances in the past as their orbits shifted due to tidal dissipation (a process by which satellites gain orbital energy at the expense of the primary's rotational energy, affecting inner moons disproportionately). In the Uranus System, however, due to the planet's lesser degree of oblateness, and the larger relative size of its satellites, escape from a mean-motion resonance is much easier. Lower oblateness of the primary alters its gravitational field in such a way that different possible resonances are spaced more closely together. A larger relative satellite size increases the strength of their interactions. Both factors lead to more chaotic orbital behavior at or near mean-motion resonances. Escape from a resonance may be associated with capture into a secondary resonance, and/or tidal evolution-driven increases in orbital eccentricity or inclination.

text: The satellite system of Uranus is notably different from those of Jupiter and Saturn in that it lacks precise resonances among the larger moons, while the majority of the larger moons of Jupiter (3 of the 4 largest) and of Saturn (6 of the 8 largest) are in mean-motion resonances. In all three satellite systems, moons were likely captured into mean-motion resonances in the past as their orbits shifted due to

text: tidal dissipation

text: (a process by which satellites gain orbital energy at the expense of the primary's rotational energy, affecting inner moons disproportionately). In the Uranus System, however, due to the planet's lesser degree of

text: oblate

text: ness, and the larger relative size of its satellites, escape from a mean-motion resonance is much easier. Lower oblateness of the primary alters its gravitational field in such a way that different possible resonances are spaced more closely together. A larger relative satellite size increases the strength of their interactions. Both factors lead to more chaotic orbital behavior at or near mean-motion resonances. Escape from a resonance may be associated with capture into a secondary resonance, and/or tidal evolution-driven increases in

text: orbital eccentricity

text: or

text: inclination

text: The UP's governing body is the United Planets Inner Council, which is composed of the President of Earth and the heads of government of four other planets, with one of those members serving as the president of the United Planets.

text: The mantle is a layer inside a terrestrial planet and some other rocky planetary bodies. For a mantle to form, the planetary body must be large enough to have undergone the process of planetary differentiation by density. The mantle lies between the core below and the crust above. The terrestrial planets (Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury), the Moon, two of Jupiter's moons (Io and Europa) and the asteroid Vesta each have a mantle made of silicate rock. Interpretation of spacecraft data suggests that at least two other moons of Jupiter (Ganymede and Callisto), as well as Titan and Triton each have a mantle made of ice or other solid volatile substances.

text: The mantle is a layer inside a

text: terrestrial planet

text: and some other

text: rocky

text: planetary bodies

text: . For a mantle to form, the planetary body must be large enough to have undergone the process of

text: planetary differentiation

text: by

text: density

text: . The mantle lies between the

text: core

text: below and the

text: crust

text: above. The terrestrial planets (

text: Earth

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: and

text: Mercury

text: ), the

text: Moon

text: , two of

text: Jupiter

text: 's

text: moon

text: s (

text: Io

text: and

text: Europa

text: ) and the

text: asteroid

text: Vesta

text: each have a mantle made of

text: silicate

text: rock. Interpretation of spacecraft data suggests that at least two other moons of Jupiter (

text: Ganymede

text: and

text: Callisto

text: ), as well as

text: Titan

text: and

text: Triton

text: each have a mantle made of

text: ice

text: or other

text: solid volatile

text: substances.

text: HD 23596 b is an exoplanet approximately 170 light years away in the constellation Perseus. The planet is very massive, at least 7.8 times that of Jupiter, classifying as mid-superjovian. Based on its mass, the planet would probably be a gas giant with no solid surface. The planet orbits at the average distance of 2.83 AU, taking 1565 days to complete its orbit with average velocity of 19.7 km/s. The eccentricity of the planet’s orbit is higher than all the planets in the Solar System, bringing as close as 2.00 AU to as far as 3.66 AU from the parent star.

text: HD 23596 b is an

text: exoplanet

text: approximately 170

text: light year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: Perseus

text: . The planet is very massive, at least 7.8 times that of

text: Jupiter

text: , classifying as mid-

text: superjovian

text: . Based on its mass, the planet would probably be a

text: gas giant

text: with no solid surface. The planet orbits at the average distance of 2.83 AU, taking 1565 days to complete its orbit with average velocity of 19.7 km/s. The eccentricity of the planet’s orbit is higher than all the planets in the

text: Solar System

text: , bringing as close as 2.00 AU to as far as 3.66 AU from the parent star.

text: "Specific water availability is the residual (after use) per capita quantity of fresh water." Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed in terms of space and time and can go from floods to water shortages within months in the same area. In 1998 76% of the total population had a specific water availability of less than 5.0 thousand m3 per year per capita. Already by 1998, 35% of the global population suffered "very low or catastrophically low water supplies" and Shiklomanov predicted that the situation would deteriorate in the twenty-first century with "most of the Earth's population will be living under the conditions of low or catastrophically low water supply" by 2025. There is only 2.5% of fresh water in the hydrosphere.

text: After all these considerations, Plate Tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics") became quickly accepted in the scientific world, and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts:

text: Players of 3025 connected to an MMOG-style server, selected an affiliation in the form of a Great House, selected a planet, then descended to the surface to engage in a virtual four-on-four battle with opposing players.  The results of such battles were planets being won and lost for the five major houses, shifting the borders of various factions in the Inner Sphere.  3025 used many more of the original BattleTech rules than the MechWarrior series.

text: Players of 3025 connected to an

text: MMOG

text: -style

text: server

text: , selected an affiliation in the form of a

text: Great House

text: , selected a planet, then descended to the surface to engage in a virtual four-on-four battle with opposing players.  The results of such battles were planets being won and lost for the five major houses, shifting the borders of various factions in the

text: Inner Sphere

text: .  3025 used many more of the original

text: BattleTech

text: rules than the

text: MechWarrior

text: series.

text: As a Predator, the game starts in the jungles, where a youngblood is proving himself strong and fit enough for the rank of Elite. Once the trials are complete, the Elite, named "Dark", is dispatched with a group of other Predators to a planet to investigate a distress call, sent by a youngblood hunting party on another planet (BG 386). On arriving at BG 386, the Predators destroy the orbiting Marine ship, the USS Marlow, and launch the Elites to the planet's surface.

text: The Pacific NECC is known to be stronger during El Niño events where there is anomalous warming of the eastern and central Pacific that peaks in boreal winter.  Klaus Wyrtki hypothesized in the early 1970s that an unusually strong NECC in the western Pacific would lead to an anomalous accumulation of warm water of the coast of Central America and, thus, El Niño.  The sea surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific and the transport of the NECC are indeed highly correlated.  This does not, however, exclude other atmospheric and oceanic factors from contributing to anomalous warming.  ENSO is a complicated, coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in which basin-wide changes in sea surface temperatures, trade winds, and atmospheric convection are intimately related.

text: The inner satellites that have been imaged show heavily cratered surfaces. The cratering rate for bodies orbiting close to giant planets is greater than for the main and outer moons because of gravitational focusing: Sun-orbiting bodies which pass into a large region in the vicinity of a giant planet are preferentially deflected towards the planet by its gravitational field, so that the frequency of potential impactors passing through a given cross-sectional area close to the planet is much greater than in interplanetary space. As a result, it has been estimated that very small bodies in inner orbits are expected to be disrupted by external impactors on a timescale much shorter than the age of the solar system. This would place a lower limit on the size of the inner moons that remain.

text: The inner satellites that have been imaged show heavily cratered surfaces. The cratering rate for bodies orbiting close to giant planets is greater than for the main and outer moons because of

text: gravitational focusing

text: : Sun-orbiting bodies which pass into a large region in the vicinity of a

text: giant planet

text: are preferentially deflected towards the planet by its gravitational field, so that the frequency of potential impactors passing through a given cross-sectional area close to the planet is much greater than in interplanetary space. As a result, it has been estimated that very small bodies in inner orbits are expected to be disrupted by external impactors on a timescale much shorter than the age of the solar system. This would place a lower limit on the size of the inner moons that remain.

text: The asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, and beyond them a newly discovered population of sednoids. Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets. Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris. In addition to these two regions, various other small-body populations, including comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds, freely travel between regions. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites, usually termed "moons" after the Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects.

text: The

text: asteroid belt

text: , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie the

text: Kuiper belt

text: and

text: scattered disc

text: , which are populations of

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s composed mostly of ices, and beyond them a newly discovered population of

text: sednoid

text: s. Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as

text: dwarf planet

text: s. Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid

text: Ceres

text: and the trans-Neptunian objects

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: . In addition to these two regions, various other small-body populations, including

text: comet

text: s,

text: centaurs

text: and

text: interplanetary dust cloud

text: s, freely travel between regions. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by

text: natural satellite

text: s, usually termed "moons" after the

text: Moon

text: . Each of the outer planets is encircled by

text: planetary ring

text: s of dust and other small objects.

text: Reading in  that "it came to pass, after seven days, that the waters of the flood were upon the earth," the Gemara asked what the nature of these seven days was (that God delayed the flood on their account). Rav taught that these were the days of mourning for Methuselah, and thus that lamenting the righteous postpones retribution. Another explanation is that during "the seven days" God reversed the order of nature (, bereishit) (established at the beginning of creation), and the sun rose in the west and set in the east (so that sinners might be shocked into repentance). Another explanation is that God first appointed for them a long time (the 120 years to which  alludes), and then a short time (a seven-day grace period in which to repent). Another explanation is that during "the seven days," God gave them a foretaste of the world to come, so that they might know the nature of the rewards of which they were depriving themselves.

text: Reading in  that "it came to pass, after seven days, that the waters of the flood were upon the earth," the Gemara asked what the nature of these seven days was (that God delayed the flood on their account).

text: Rav

text: taught that these were the days of mourning for Methuselah, and thus that lamenting the righteous postpones retribution. Another explanation is that during "the seven days" God reversed the order of nature (, bereishit) (established at the beginning of creation), and the sun rose in the west and set in the east (so that sinners might be shocked into repentance). Another explanation is that God first appointed for them a long time (the 120 years to which  alludes), and then a short time (a seven-day grace period in which to repent). Another explanation is that during "the seven days," God gave them a foretaste of the world to come, so that they might know the nature of the rewards of which they were depriving themselves.

text: There are four different types of bedrock in Manhattan. In Central Park, Manhattan schist and Hartland schist, which are both metamorphosed sedimentary rock, are exposed in various outcroppings. The other two types, Fordham gneiss (an older deeper layer) and Inwood marble (metamorphosed limestone which overlays the gneiss), do not surface in the park. Fordham gneiss, which consists of metamorphosed igneous rocks, was formed a billion years ago, during what is known as the Grenville orogeny that occurred during the creation of an ancient super-continent. It is the oldest rock in the Canadian Shield, the most ancient part of the North American tectonic plate. Manhattan schist and Hartland schist were formed in the Iapetus Ocean during the Taconic orogeny in the Paleozoic era, about 450 million years ago. During this period the tectonic plates began to move toward each other, which resulted in the creation of the supercontinent, Pangaea.

text: There are four different types of

text: bedrock

text: in Manhattan. In Central Park,

text: Manhattan schist

text: and Hartland schist, which are both metamorphosed

text: sedimentary rock

text: , are exposed in various outcroppings. The other two types,

text: Fordham gneiss

text: (an older deeper layer) and

text: Inwood marble

text: (metamorphosed

text: limestone

text: which overlays the

text: gneiss

text: ), do not surface in the park. Fordham gneiss, which consists of metamorphosed

text: igneous rock

text: s, was formed a billion years ago, during what is known as the

text: Grenville orogeny

text: that occurred during the creation of an ancient super-continent. It is the oldest rock in the

text: Canadian Shield

text: , the most ancient part of the North American

text: tectonic plate

text: . Manhattan schist and Hartland schist were formed in the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: during the

text: Taconic orogeny

text: in the

text: Paleozoic era

text: , about 450 million years ago. During this period the tectonic plates began to move toward each other, which resulted in the creation of the supercontinent,

text: Pangaea

text: Terrestrial planets will acquire water during their accretion, some of which will be buried in the magma ocean but most of it will go into a steam atmosphere, and when the atmosphere cools it will collapse on to the surface forming an ocean. There will also be outgassing of water from the mantle as the magma solidifies—this will happen even for planets with a low percentage of their mass composed of water, so "super-Earth exoplanets may be expected to commonly produce water oceans within tens to hundreds of millions of years of their last major accretionary impact."

text: A widely accepted theory of planet formation, the so-called planetesimal hypotheses, the Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis and that of Viktor Safronov, states that planets form out of cosmic dust grains that collide and stick to form larger and larger bodies. When the bodies reach sizes of approximately one kilometer, then they can attract each other directly through their mutual gravity, enormously aiding further growth into moon-sized protoplanets. This is how planetesimals are often defined. Bodies that are smaller than planetesimals must rely on Brownian motion or turbulent motions in the gas to cause the collisions that can lead to sticking. Alternatively, planetesimals may form in a very dense layer of dust grains that undergoes a collective gravitational instability in the mid-plane of a protoplanetary disk or via the concentration and gravitational collapse of swarms of larger particles in streaming instabilities. Many planetesimals eventually break apart during violent collisions, as may have happened to 4 Vesta and 90 Antiope, but a few of the largest planetesimals may survive such encounters and continue to grow into protoplanets and later planets.

text: A widely accepted theory of

text: planet

text: formation, the so-called planetesimal hypotheses, the

text: Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis

text: and that of

text: Viktor Safronov

text: , states that planets form out of

text: cosmic dust

text: grains that collide and

text: stick

text: to form larger and larger bodies. When the bodies reach sizes of approximately one kilometer, then they can attract each other directly through their mutual

text: gravity

text: , enormously aiding further growth into moon-sized

text: protoplanet

text: s. This is how planetesimals are often defined. Bodies that are smaller than planetesimals must rely on

text: Brownian motion

text: or turbulent motions in the gas to cause the collisions that can lead to sticking. Alternatively, planetesimals may form in a very dense layer of dust grains that undergoes a collective gravitational instability in the mid-plane of a protoplanetary disk or via the concentration and gravitational collapse of swarms of larger particles in

text: streaming instabilities

text: . Many planetesimals eventually break apart during violent collisions, as may have happened to

text: 4 Vesta

text: and

text: 90 Antiope

text: , but a few of the largest planetesimals may survive such encounters and continue to grow into protoplanets and later planets.

text: Long before mission control teams on Earth began scheduling work shifts according to the Martian sol while operating spacecraft on the surface of Mars, it was recognized that humans probably could adapt to this slightly longer diurnal period. This suggested that a calendar based on the sol and the Martian year might be a useful timekeeping system for astronomers in the short term and for explorers in the future. For most day-to-day activities on Earth, people do not use Julian days, as astronomers do, but the Gregorian calendar, which despite its various complications is quite useful. It allows for easy determination of whether one date is an anniversary of another, whether a date is in winter or spring, and what is the number of years between two dates. This is much less practical with Julian days count. For similar reasons, if it is ever necessary to schedule and co-ordinate activities on a large scale across the surface of Mars it would be necessary to agree on a calendar.

text: Long before mission control teams on Earth began scheduling work shifts according to the Martian sol while operating spacecraft on the surface of Mars, it was recognized that humans probably could adapt to this slightly longer diurnal period. This suggested that a calendar based on the sol and the Martian year might be a useful timekeeping system for astronomers in the short term and for explorers in the future. For most day-to-day activities on Earth, people do not use

text: Julian day

text: s, as astronomers do, but the

text: Gregorian calendar

text: , which despite its various complications is quite useful. It allows for easy determination of whether one date is an anniversary of another, whether a date is in winter or spring, and what is the number of years between two dates. This is much less practical with Julian days count. For similar reasons, if it is ever necessary to schedule and co-ordinate activities on a large scale across the surface of Mars it would be necessary to agree on a calendar.

text: Many of the features of Highs may be understood in context of middle- or meso-scale and relatively enduring dynamics of a planet's atmospheric circulation. For example, massive atmospheric subsidences occur as part of the descending branches of Ferrel cells and Hadley cells. Hadley cells help form the subtropical ridge, steer tropical waves and tropical cyclones across the ocean and is strongest during the summer.  The subtropical ridge also helps form most of the world's deserts.

text: Many of the features of Highs may be understood in context of middle- or

text: meso-scale

text: and relatively enduring dynamics of a planet's

text: atmospheric circulation

text: . For example, massive atmospheric subsidences occur as part of the descending branches of

text: Ferrel cell

text: s and

text: Hadley cell

text: s. Hadley cells help form the

text: subtropical ridge

text: , steer

text: tropical wave

text: s and

text: tropical cyclone

text: s across the ocean and is strongest during the summer.  The subtropical ridge also helps form most of the world's

text: desert

text: s.

text: Several bright surface features (also known as faculae) were discovered on the dwarf planet Ceres by the Dawn spacecraft in 2015.

text: Several bright surface features (also known as

text: facula

text: e) were discovered on the dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: by the

text: Dawn spacecraft

text: in 2015.

text: Computer simulations of the dusty disk orbiting Epsilon Eridani suggest that the shape of the disk may be explained by the presence of a second planet, tentatively dubbed Epsilon Eridani c. Clumping in the dust disk may occur because dust particles are being trapped in orbits that have resonant orbital periods with a planet in an eccentric orbit. The postulated Epsilon Eridani c would orbit at a distance of 40 AU, with an eccentricity of 0.3 and a period of 280 years. The inner cavity of the disk may be explained by the presence of additional planets. Current models of planet formation cannot easily explain how a planet could have been created at this distance from Epsilon Eridani. The disk is expected to have dissipated long before a giant planet could have formed. Instead, the planet may have formed at an orbital distance of about 10 AU then migrated outward because of gravitational interaction with the disc or with other planets in the system.

text: Computer simulations of the dusty disk orbiting Epsilon Eridani suggest that the shape of the disk may be explained by the presence of a second planet, tentatively dubbed Epsilon Eridani c. Clumping in the dust disk may occur because dust particles are being trapped in orbits that have

text: resonant

text: orbital periods with a planet in an eccentric orbit. The postulated Epsilon Eridani c would orbit at a distance of 40 AU, with an eccentricity of 0.3 and a period of 280 years. The inner cavity of the disk may be explained by the presence of additional planets. Current models of planet formation cannot easily explain how a planet could have been created at this distance from Epsilon Eridani. The disk is expected to have dissipated long before a giant planet could have formed. Instead, the planet may have formed at an orbital distance of about 10 AU then migrated outward because of gravitational interaction with the disc or with other planets in the system.

text: The smaller inner moon of the dwarf planet Haumea, Namaka, is one tenth the mass of the larger outer moon, Hiiaka. Namaka revolves around Haumea in 18 days in an eccentric, non-Keplerian orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined 13° from Hiiaka. Over the timescale of the system, it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. It appears that it has been disturbed by resonances with the more massive Hiiaka, due to converging orbits as it moved outward from Haumea because of tidal dissipation. The moons may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times. They probably passed through the 3:1 resonance relatively recently, and currently are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance.  Namaka's orbit is strongly perturbed, with a current precession of about -6.5° per year.

text: The smaller inner moon of the

text: dwarf planet

text: Haumea

text: Namaka

text: , is one tenth the mass of the larger outer moon,

text: Hiiaka

text: . Namaka revolves around Haumea in 18 days in an eccentric,

text: non-Keplerian

text: orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined 13° from Hiiaka. Over the timescale of the system, it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. It appears that it has been disturbed by resonances with the more massive Hiiaka, due to converging orbits as it moved outward from Haumea because of tidal dissipation. The moons may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times. They probably passed through the 3:1 resonance relatively recently, and currently are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance.  Namaka's orbit is strongly

text: perturbed

text: , with a current precession of about -6.5° per year.

text: In early models for the formation of the atmosphere and ocean, the second atmosphere was formed by outgassing of volatiles from the Earth's interior. Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact. The ocean and atmosphere would therefore have started to form even as the Earth formed. The new atmosphere probably contained water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and smaller amounts of other gases.

text: In early models for the formation of the atmosphere and ocean, the second atmosphere was formed by outgassing of

text: volatiles

text: from the Earth's interior. Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact. The ocean and atmosphere would therefore have started to form even as the Earth formed. The new atmosphere probably contained

text: water vapor

text: , carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and smaller amounts of other gases.

text: Globally, the World Meteorological Organization has claimed that extreme weather events are on the rise as a result of human interference in the climate system, and climate models indicate the potential for increases in extremes of temperature, precipitation, droughts, storms, and floods. The CSIRO predicts that a temperature rise of between 2 and 3 degrees Celsius on the Australian continent could incur some of the following extreme weather occurrences, in addition to standard patterns:

text: Globally, the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: has claimed that

text: extreme weather

text: events are on the rise as a result of human interference in the climate system, and climate models indicate the potential for increases in extremes of temperature, precipitation, droughts, storms, and floods. The CSIRO predicts that a temperature rise of between 2 and 3 degrees Celsius on the Australian continent could incur some of the following extreme weather occurrences, in addition to standard patterns:

text: During the smooth migration of the giant planets the ν5 secular resonance sweeps through the inner Solar System, exciting the eccentricities of the terrestrial planets. For the original Nice model, these eccentricities can reach levels that destabilize the inner Solar System, leading to collisions between planets or the ejection of Mars, during the slow approach of Jupiter and Saturn to their 2:1 resonance. In later versions of the Nice model, Jupiter's and Saturn's divergent migration across (or from) the 2:1 resonance is more rapid and the nearby ν5 resonance crossings are brief, hence not resulting in the excessive excitation of the orbits of Earth and Mars. The authors proposed that the last two resonance crossings were avoided, also preventing the excessive excitation of the eccentricities of Mercury and Venus. This would occur if gravitational encounters between an ice giant and both gas giants caused the Jupiter–Saturn period ratio to jump from below 2.1 to beyond 2.3. The authors named this alternative evolution the jumping-Jupiter scenario.

text: During the smooth migration of the giant planets the ν5

text: secular resonance

text: sweeps through the

text: inner Solar System

text: , exciting the

text: eccentricities

text: of the terrestrial planets. For the original

text: Nice model

text: , these eccentricities can reach levels that destabilize the inner Solar System, leading to collisions between planets or the ejection of Mars, during the slow approach of Jupiter and Saturn to their 2:1

text: resonance

text: . In later versions of the Nice model, Jupiter's and Saturn's divergent migration across (or from) the 2:1 resonance is more rapid and the nearby ν5 resonance crossings are brief, hence not resulting in the excessive excitation of the orbits of Earth and Mars. The authors proposed that the last two resonance crossings were avoided, also preventing the excessive excitation of the eccentricities of Mercury and Venus. This would occur if gravitational encounters between an ice giant and both gas giants caused the Jupiter–Saturn period ratio to jump from below 2.1 to beyond 2.3. The authors named this alternative evolution the jumping-Jupiter scenario.

text: Oceans, seas, lakes and other bodies of liquids can be composed of liquids other than water, for example the hydrocarbon lakes on Titan. The possibility of seas of nitrogen on Triton was also considered but ruled out. There is evidence that the icy surfaces of the moons Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Titan and Enceladus are shells floating on oceans of very dense liquid water or water–ammonia. Earth is often called the ocean planet because it is 70% covered in water. Extrasolar terrestrial planets that are extremely close to their parent star will be tidally locked and so one half of the planet will be a magma ocean. It is also possible that terrestrial planets had magma oceans at some point during their formation as a result of giant impacts. Hot Neptunes close to their star could lose their atmospheres via hydrodynamic escape, leaving behind their cores with various liquids on the surface. Where there are suitable temperatures and pressures, volatile chemicals that might exist as liquids in abundant quantities on planets include ammonia, argon, carbon disulfide, ethane, hydrazine, hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, neon, nitrogen, nitric oxide, phosphine, silane, sulfuric acid, and water.

text: Oceans, seas, lakes and other bodies of liquids can be composed of liquids other than water, for example the

text: hydrocarbon

text: lakes on

text: Titan

text: . The possibility of seas of

text: nitrogen

text: on

text: Triton

text: was also considered but ruled out. There is evidence that the icy surfaces of the moons

text: Ganymede

text: Callisto

text: Europa

text: , Titan and

text: Enceladus

text: are shells floating on oceans of very dense liquid water or water–ammonia. Earth is often called the ocean planet because it is 70% covered in water. Extrasolar

text: terrestrial planet

text: s that are extremely close to their parent star will be tidally locked and so one half of the planet will be a magma ocean. It is also possible that terrestrial planets had magma oceans at some point during their formation as a result of giant impacts.

text: Hot Neptune

text: s close to their star could lose their atmospheres via

text: hydrodynamic escape

text: , leaving behind their cores with various liquids on the surface. Where there are suitable temperatures and pressures, volatile chemicals that might exist as liquids in abundant quantities on planets include

text: ammonia

text: argon

text: carbon disulfide

text: ethane

text: hydrazine

text: hydrogen

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: methane

text: neon

text: nitrogen

text: nitric oxide

text: phosphine

text: silane

text: sulfuric acid

text: , and

text: water

text: Our heroes reach the planet Trydetol, where they continue to fend with the military and are forced to defend themselves against Lilin's vengeful daughter. The third OVA movie, Full Metal Soldier, presumably takes place during this time. In this short film, a radical member of Posidal's army attempts to ambush Daba with his bizarre Heavy Metal, which is controlled with an electric keyboard. Although the Daba and the L-Gaim are nearly defeated, Daba manages to somehow defeat him. Gavlet is given countless number of Heavy Metals in his pursuit but when he is given the prototype Heavy Metal, Amon Duule Stack he performs very poorly.  During a battle Kyao steals the Stack and its creator, Mesh Maker. Sympathizing with the rebellions' efforts, Mesh decides to help. Kyao and himself highly modify the Amon Duule Stack and correct its problems by studying the L-Gaim's inner workings, turning it into the powerful L-Gaim Mk-II; an upgrade from L-Gaim in every sense with transformation ability, a self learning bio computer (that fans of the Five Star Stories will recognize the sillouhette of.), and a powerful generator capable of firing its main weapon, the Buster Launcher with almost none of the energy drain the weapon usually has on Heavy Metals. Upon its initial launch, it easily defeats a number of Heavy Metals including Nei's Auge with but one single shot of its powerful main weapon. Although Daba's new A-Class Mk-II outclasses almost all current Heavy Metals, a major threat to even Auge, the rebellion's progress is still troubled. Upset with what seems to be hopeless efforts against the military, Leccee leaves our heroes.  Meeting up with rebel leader Semuj Shato, Daba continues to build up the rebel's power as they plan an assault on Gastogal.  Meanwhile, Poseidal decides to promote Olibee over Giwaza, upsetting him so much that he decides to gather the Elite 13 and rebel against her, taking over Pentagona for himself.  The rebels return to the planet Mizum and meet back up with Leccee, whose taken command of the ship Whale.  After numerous battles with the military there, Daba returns to space where he once more encounters Olibee, who is still in Poseidal's grasps.

text: Our heroes reach the planet Trydetol, where they continue to fend with the military and are forced to defend themselves against Lilin's vengeful daughter. The third OVA movie, Full Metal Soldier, presumably takes place during this time. In this short film, a radical member of Posidal's army attempts to ambush Daba with his bizarre Heavy Metal, which is controlled with an electric keyboard. Although the Daba and the L-Gaim are nearly defeated, Daba manages to somehow defeat him. Gavlet is given countless number of Heavy Metals in his pursuit but when he is given the prototype Heavy Metal, Amon Duule Stack he performs very poorly.  During a battle Kyao steals the Stack and its creator,

text: Mesh Maker

text: . Sympathizing with the rebellions' efforts, Mesh decides to help. Kyao and himself highly modify the Amon Duule Stack and correct its problems by studying the L-Gaim's inner workings, turning it into the powerful L-Gaim Mk-II; an upgrade from L-Gaim in every sense with transformation ability, a self learning bio computer (that fans of the Five Star Stories will recognize the sillouhette of.), and a powerful generator capable of firing its main weapon, the Buster Launcher with almost none of the energy drain the weapon usually has on Heavy Metals. Upon its initial launch, it easily defeats a number of Heavy Metals including Nei's Auge with but one single shot of its powerful main weapon. Although Daba's new A-Class Mk-II outclasses almost all current Heavy Metals, a major threat to even Auge, the rebellion's progress is still troubled. Upset with what seems to be hopeless efforts against the military, Leccee leaves our heroes.  Meeting up with rebel leader

text: Semuj Shato

text: , Daba continues to build up the rebel's power as they plan an assault on Gastogal.  Meanwhile, Poseidal decides to promote Olibee over Giwaza, upsetting him so much that he decides to gather the Elite 13 and rebel against her, taking over Pentagona for himself.  The rebels return to the planet Mizum and meet back up with Leccee, whose taken command of the ship Whale.  After numerous battles with the military there, Daba returns to space where he once more encounters Olibee, who is still in Poseidal's grasps.

text: A planet that is too small cannot hold much of an atmosphere. Hence the surface temperature becomes more variable and the average temperature drops. Substantial and long-lasting oceans become impossible. A small planet will also tend to have a rough surface, with large mountains and deep canyons. The core will cool faster, and plate tectonics will either not last as long as they would on a larger planet or may not occur at all. A planet that is too large will retain too much of its atmosphere and will be like Venus. Venus is similar in size and mass to Earth, but has a surface atmosphere pressure that is 92 times that of Earth's. Venus mean surface temperature is 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F) making Venus the hottest planet in the Solar System. Earth had a similar early atmosphere to Venus, but lost it in the giant impact event.

text: A planet that is too small cannot hold much of an atmosphere. Hence the surface temperature becomes more variable and the average temperature drops. Substantial and long-lasting oceans become impossible. A small planet will also tend to have a rough surface, with large mountains and deep canyons. The core will cool faster, and

text: plate tectonics

text: will either not last as long as they would on a larger planet or may not occur at all. A planet that is too large will retain too much of its atmosphere and will be like

text: Venus

text: . Venus is similar in size and mass to Earth, but has a surface atmosphere pressure that is 92 times that of Earth's. Venus mean surface temperature is 735 K (462 °C; 863 °F) making Venus the hottest planet in the Solar System. Earth had a similar early atmosphere to Venus, but lost it in the

text: giant impact event

text: The Aleena are a short-bodied alien race native to the planet Aleen. They are characterized by their thick bodies and short limbs. They waddle when they walk, and are ungainly to look upon. Their heads are dominated by a long, thin plate of body which extended back from the skull, and their faces were flat. Two small eyes sat over a wide mouth which was filled with short, sharp teeth. Aleena were known for their quick-change metabolism, which helped them escape from sagcatchers on their home-world. Individuals were bred for their color variation, another way they avoided becoming prey. As a people, the Aleena had a strong warrior tradition. They possessed exceptional reflexes as well as a fast metabolism which allowed them to convert food into energy very rapidly in order to escape predators on their harsh home planet.

text: Renewable freshwater supply is a metric often used in conjunction when evaluating water scarcity. This metric is informative because it can describe the total available water resource each country contains. By knowing the total available water source, an idea can be gained about whether a country is prone to experiencing physical water scarcity. This metric has its faults in that it is an average; precipitation delivers water unevenly across the planet each year and annual renewable water resources vary from year to year. This metric also does not describe the accessibility of water to individuals, households, industries, or the government. Lastly, as this metric is a description of a whole country, it does not accurately portray whether a country is experiencing water scarcity. Canada and Brazil both have very high levels of available water supply, but still experience various water related problems.

text: Planet U is abundant with Ore and Energy Crystals. The Planet’s surface and crust is made mostly of various types of rock, mainly igneous. There are millions of limestone and marble caverns, studded with gemstones. Its mantle is composed mostly of volcanic rock. It is also where most of the Energy Crystals, Ore and wildlife are located. The outer and inner cores are composed of Ore. Near the planet’s core is an enormous Energy Crystal cache that is heavily guarded by Rock Monsters.

text: Planet U is abundant with Ore and Energy Crystals. The Planet’s surface and crust is made mostly of various types of rock, mainly

text: igneous

text: . There are millions of limestone and marble caverns, studded with gemstones. Its mantle is composed mostly of volcanic rock. It is also where most of the Energy Crystals, Ore and wildlife are located. The outer and inner cores are composed of Ore. Near the planet’s core is an enormous Energy Crystal cache that is heavily guarded by Rock Monsters.

text: Astronomical spectroscopy is a particularly significant type of remote spectral sensing. In this case, the objects and samples of interest are so distant from earth that electromagnetic radiation is the only means available to measure them. Astronomical spectra contain both absorption and emission spectral information. Absorption spectroscopy has been particularly important for understanding interstellar clouds and determining that some of them contain molecules. Absorption spectroscopy is also employed in the study of extrasolar planets. Detection of extrasolar planets by the transit method also measures their absorption spectrum and allows for the determination of the planet's atmospheric composition, temperature, pressure, and scale height, and hence allows also for the determination of the planet's mass.

text: Astronomical spectroscopy

text: is a particularly significant type of remote spectral sensing. In this case, the objects and samples of interest are so distant from earth that electromagnetic radiation is the only means available to measure them. Astronomical spectra contain both absorption and emission spectral information. Absorption spectroscopy has been particularly important for understanding

text: interstellar clouds

text: and determining that some of them contain

text: molecules

text: . Absorption spectroscopy is also employed in the study of

text: extrasolar planets

text: . Detection of extrasolar planets by the

text: transit method

text: also measures their absorption spectrum and allows for the determination of the planet's atmospheric composition, temperature, pressure, and

text: scale height

text: , and hence allows also for the determination of the planet's mass.

text: The Ravigneaux set has two sun gears, a large sun and a small sun, and a single planet carrier, holding two sets of planetary gears, inner planets and outer planets. The carrier is one sub-assembly but has two radii to couple with the inner and outer planets, respectively. The two sets of planet gears rotate independently of the carrier but co-rotate with a fixed gear ratio with respect to each other. The inner planets couple with the small sun gear and co-rotate at a fixed gear ratio with respect to it. The outer planets couple with the large sun gear and co-rotates with a fixed gear ratio with respect to it. Finally, the ring gear also couples and co-rotates with the outer planets in a fixed gear ratio with respect to them.

text: The Ravigneaux set has two sun gears, a large sun and a small sun, and a single planet carrier, holding two sets of planetary gears, inner planets and outer planets. The carrier is one sub-assembly but has two

text: radii

text: to couple with the inner and outer planets, respectively. The two sets of planet gears rotate independently of the carrier but co-rotate with a fixed gear

text: ratio

text: with respect to each other. The inner planets couple with the small sun gear and co-rotate at a fixed gear ratio with respect to it. The outer planets couple with the large sun gear and co-rotates with a fixed gear ratio with respect to it. Finally, the ring gear also couples and co-rotates with the outer planets in a fixed gear ratio with respect to them.

text: The gravitational slingshot technique uses the gravity of planets and moons to change the speed and direction of a spacecraft without using fuel. In typical example, a spacecraft is sent to a distant planet on a path that is much faster than what the Hohmann transfer would call for. This would typically mean that it would arrive at the planet's orbit and continue past it. However, if there is a planet between the departure point and the target, it can be used to bend the path toward the target, and in many cases the overall travel time is greatly reduced. A prime example of this are the two crafts of the Voyager program, which used slingshot effects to change trajectories several times in the outer Solar System. It is difficult to use this method for journeys in the inner part of the Solar System, although it is possible to use other nearby planets such as Venus or even the Moon as slingshots in journeys to the outer planets.

text: The gravitational slingshot technique uses the

text: gravity

text: of planets and moons to change the speed and direction of a spacecraft without using fuel. In typical example, a spacecraft is sent to a distant planet on a path that is much faster than what the Hohmann transfer would call for. This would typically mean that it would arrive at the planet's orbit and continue past it. However, if there is a planet between the departure point and the target, it can be used to bend the path toward the target, and in many cases the overall travel time is greatly reduced. A prime example of this are the two crafts of the

text: Voyager program

text: , which used slingshot effects to change trajectories several times in the outer Solar System. It is difficult to use this method for journeys in the inner part of the Solar System, although it is possible to use other nearby planets such as Venus or even the

text: Moon

text: as slingshots in journeys to the outer planets.

text: In 1989, Jacques Laskar's work indicated that the Earth's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years' time. Modeling the Solar System is subject to the n-body problem.

text: In 1989,

text: Jacques Laskar

text: 's work indicated that the Earth's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years' time. Modeling the Solar System is subject to the

text: n-body problem

text: The precise nature of the boundary between the North American and Eurasian tectonic plates in the area of the Chersky Range is still not fully understood and is the subject of ongoing research.  By the 1980s, the Chersky Range was considered mostly a zone of continental rifting where the crust was spreading apart.  However, the current view is that the Chersky Range is mostly an active suture zone, a continental convergent plate boundary, where compression is occurring as the two plates press against each other.  There is thought to be a point in the Chersky Range where the extensional forces coming from the north change to the compressional forces noted throughout most of the range.  The Chersky Range is also thought to include a geologic triple junction where the Ulakhan Fault intersects the suture zone.  Whatever the exact nature of the regional tectonics, the Chersky Range is a seismically active zone.  It connects in the north with the landward extension of the Laptev Sea Rift, itself a continental extension of the Mid-Arctic Gakkel Ridge.

text: The precise nature of the boundary between the

text: North American

text: and

text: Eurasian

text: tectonic plate

text: s in the area of the Chersky Range is still not fully understood and is the subject of ongoing research.  By the 1980s, the Chersky Range was considered mostly a zone of continental

text: rift

text: ing where the crust was spreading apart.  However, the current view is that the Chersky Range is mostly an active

text: suture zone

text: , a continental

text: convergent plate boundary

text: , where compression is occurring as the two plates press against each other.  There is thought to be a point in the Chersky Range where the extensional forces coming from the north change to the compressional forces noted throughout most of the range.  The Chersky Range is also thought to include a geologic

text: triple junction

text: where the

text: Ulakhan Fault

text: intersects the suture zone.  Whatever the exact nature of the regional tectonics, the Chersky Range is a seismically active zone.  It connects in the north with the landward extension of the

text: Laptev Sea Rift

text: , itself a continental extension of the Mid-Arctic

text: Gakkel Ridge

text: Landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals, ports and many harbors; and geographic features, such as deserts, forests, and grasslands. Many of the terms are not restricted to refer to features of the planet Earth, and can be used to describe surface features of other planets and similar objects in the Universe. Examples are mountains, hills, polar caps, and valleys, which are found on all of the terrestrial planets.

text: Landforms do not include man-made features, such as

text: canal

text: s,

text: port

text: s and many

text: harbor

text: s; and geographic features, such as

text: desert

text: s,

text: forest

text: s, and

text: grassland

text: s. Many of the terms are not restricted to refer to features of the planet

text: Earth

text: , and can be used to describe surface features of other planets and similar objects in the

text: Universe

text: . Examples are mountains, hills, polar caps, and valleys, which are found on all of the

text: terrestrial planets

text: However, they are not thought to be favorable locations for the survival of planetary systems. Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the perturbations of passing stars. A planet orbiting at 1 astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster such as 47 Tucanae would only survive on the order of 10 years. There is a planetary system orbiting a pulsar (PSR B1620−26) that belongs to the globular cluster M4, but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar.

text: However, they are not thought to be favorable locations for the survival of planetary systems. Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the perturbations of passing stars. A planet orbiting at 1

text: astronomical unit

text: around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster such as

text: 47 Tucanae

text: would only survive on the order of 10 years. There is a planetary system orbiting a

text: pulsar

text: PSR B1620−26

text: ) that belongs to the globular cluster

text: , but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar.

text: The Sepik is where the Australian Tectonic Plate collides with the Pacific Plate and confirmed for Carey, many of his ideas about what is now known as plate tectonics. The work involved long periods in jungle covered hill country, field working from temporary camps, managing carrier lines and dealing with villagers. All supplies were carried in from the bases at Matapau and Aitape on the coast. The mapping involved surveyors drawing base maps at scales of six inches to the mile, using what was then the most up to date geographical techniques (radio time signals and sextants to observe stars) and geologists, including Carey, plotting the geology onto the maps from exposures in the banks of streams. Carey was in the field when a magnitude 6.3 earthquake with an epicentre near Aitape occurred which devastated the inland villages and the tracks over the coastal mountains. He published a paper reporting on the event in Australian Geographer. After four years in Papua New Guinea, Carey returned to Sydney and wrote and submitted a thesis for a Doctor of Science degree, entitled Tectonic Evolution of New Guinea and Melanesia. The degree was awarded in 1939. He returned to Papua New Guinea and worked there on oil exploration until the outbreak of the Pacific War in 1942. In 1940 he married Austral Robson, with whom he had four children.

text: In the episode Sorrow, it is revealed that Mongo was once a prosperous blue and green planet; it relied on a glowing red ore called zerilium that was mined on the moon. Mongo's inhabitants even built two small artificial moons named Arkaylia and Surd to process zerilium and shelter the miners. An accident on Mongo released poisonous zerilium gas into the air, which caused acid rain, killed wildlife, and contaminated Mongo's water. The planet became uninhabitable. A small portion of Mongo's people emigrated to Arkaylia. After three generations on the artificial moon, Mongo's environment partially repaired itself. As a result, the people returned to the planet. Clean water, known as "source water", still remained scarce and came from underground. Centuries later, Ming seized power and began his rule.

text: In the episode Sorrow, it is revealed that Mongo was once a prosperous blue and green planet; it relied on a glowing red

text: ore

text: called zerilium that was mined on the moon. Mongo's inhabitants even built two small artificial moons named Arkaylia and Surd to process zerilium and shelter the miners. An accident on Mongo released poisonous zerilium gas into the air, which caused

text: acid rain

text: , killed wildlife, and contaminated Mongo's water. The planet became uninhabitable. A small portion of Mongo's people emigrated to Arkaylia. After three generations on the artificial moon, Mongo's

text: environment

text: partially repaired itself. As a result, the people returned to the planet. Clean water, known as "source water", still remained scarce and came from underground. Centuries later, Ming seized power and began his rule.

text: Strike Force adds several new features; two players may share the screen at one time, the surface of the planet is littered with various special weapons that can be picked up and deployed, and humans can be "mutated" into small green creatures that will fight against the player (although the player may still pick them up for points as with the unmutated humans). The mutants may use vehicles found on the planet's surface against the player.

text: For impact-generated moons of terrestrial planets not too far from their star, with a large planet–moon distance, the orbital planes of moons tend to be aligned with the planet's orbit around the star due to tides from the star, but if the planet–moon distance is small, it may be inclined. For gas giants, the orbits of moons tend to be aligned with the giant planet's equator, because these formed in circumplanetary disks.

text: For impact-generated moons of

text: terrestrial planet

text: s not too far from their star, with a large planet–moon distance, the orbital planes of moons tend to be aligned with the planet's orbit around the star due to tides from the star, but if the planet–moon distance is small, it may be inclined. For

text: gas giant

text: s, the orbits of moons tend to be aligned with the giant planet's equator, because these formed in circumplanetary disks.

text: Milutin Milanković (, pronounced ; 28 May 1879 – 12 December 1958) was a Serbian mathematician, astronomer, climatologist, geophysicist,  civil engineer, doctor of technology, university professor and popularizer of science. Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science. The first contribution is the "Canon of the Earth’s Insolation", which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system. The second contribution is the explanation of Earth's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun, now known as Milankovitch cycles. This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth, as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future. He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system, Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the Moon, as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets. He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences, and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones.

text: Milutin Milanković (, pronounced ; 28 May 1879 – 12 December 1958) was a

text: Serbian

text: mathematician

text: astronomer

text: climatologist

text: geophysicist

text: civil engineer

text: doctor of technology

text: university professor

text: and

text: popularizer of science

text: . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science. The first contribution is the "Canon of the Earth’s

text: Insolation

text: ", which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the

text: Solar system

text: . The second contribution is the explanation of

text: Earth

text: 's long-term

text: climate change

text: s caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the

text: Sun

text: , now known as

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: . This explained the

text: ice age

text: s occurring in the geological past of the Earth, as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future. He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system,

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: , and the

text: Moon

text: , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets. He demonstrated the interrelatedness of

text: celestial mechanics

text: and the Earth sciences, and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of

text: descriptive science

text: s into

text: exact ones

text: As these motions became better understood, more elaborate descriptions were required, the most famous of which was the geocentric Ptolemaic system, which achieved its full expression in the 2nd century.  The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy. Ptolemy himself, in his Almagest, points out that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used.However, he rejected the idea of a spinning earth as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. His planetary hypotheses were sufficiently real that the distances of moon, sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits' celestial spheres as contiguous realities. This made the stars' distance less than 20 Astronomical Units, a regression, since Aristarchus of Samos's heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier necessarily placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.

text: As these motions became better understood, more elaborate descriptions were required, the most famous of which was the geocentric

text: Ptolemaic system

text: , which achieved its full expression in the 2nd century.  The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy. Ptolemy himself, in his

text: Almagest

text: , points out that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used.However, he rejected the idea of a

text: spinning earth

text: as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. His

text: planetary hypotheses

text: were sufficiently real that the distances of moon, sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits'

text: celestial spheres

text: as contiguous realities. This made the stars' distance less than 20

text: Astronomical Units

text: , a regression, since

text: Aristarchus of Samos

text: 's heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier

text: necessarily

text: placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.

text: After resigning himself to perhaps being trapped on Tran-Ky-Ky for the rest of his life, Ethan Fortune learns that scientists at the outpost of Brass Monkey have detected a steady warming in the planet’s atmosphere. This has caused something not seen in generations on the planet: open water on the ice oceans of Tran-Ky-Ky. Taking the giant icerigger Slanderscree with a crew of Tran to investigate, Fortune learns that the warming of the oceans isn’t an accidental or natural event.

text: The inner edge of the HZ is the distance where runaway greenhouse effect vaporize the whole water reservoir and, as a second effect, induce the photodissociation of water vapor and the loss of hydrogen to space. The outer edge of the HZ is the distance from the star where adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere fails to keep the surface of the planet above the freezing point.

text: The inner edge of the HZ is the distance where

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: vaporize the whole water reservoir and, as a second effect, induce the photodissociation of water vapor and the loss of hydrogen to space. The outer edge of the HZ is the distance from the star where adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere fails to keep the surface of the planet above the freezing point.

text: The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun, four relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids, and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects. Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids, including the four giant planets. Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.

text: Copernicus obliquely refers to Earth as a planet in De Revolutionibus when he says, "Having thus assumed the motions which I ascribe to the Earth later on in the volume, by long and intense study I finally found that if the motions of the other planets are correlated with the orbiting of the earth..." Galileo also asserts that Earth is a planet in the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems: "[T]he Earth, no less than the moon or any other planet, is to be numbered among the natural bodies that move circularly."

text: Copernicus obliquely refers to Earth as a planet in De Revolutionibus when he says, "Having thus assumed the motions which I ascribe to the Earth later on in the volume, by long and intense study I finally found that if the motions of the other planets are correlated with the orbiting of the earth..."

text: Galileo

text: also asserts that Earth is a planet in the

entity_name: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

text: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems

text: : "[T]he Earth, no less than the moon or any other planet, is to be numbered among the natural bodies that move circularly."

text: The Earth's  inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years). Many scientists had initially expected that the inner core would be found to be homogeneous, because the solid inner core was originally formed by a gradual cooling of molten material, and continues to grow as a result of that same process. Even though it is growing into liquid, it is solid, due to the very high pressure that keeps it compacted together even if the temperature is extremely high. It was even suggested that Earth's inner core might be a single crystal of iron. However, this prediction was disproved by observations indicating that in fact there is a degree of disorder within the inner core. Seismologists have found that the inner core is not completely uniform, but instead contains large-scale structures such that seismic waves pass more rapidly through some parts of the inner core than through others. In addition, the properties of the inner core's surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km. This variation is surprising, since lateral temperature variations along the inner-core boundary are known to be extremely small (this conclusion is confidently constrained by magnetic field observations). Recent discoveries suggest that the solid inner core itself is composed of layers, separated by a transition zone about 250 to 400 km thick. If the inner core grows by small frozen sediments falling onto its surface, then some liquid can also be trapped in the pore spaces and some of this residual fluid may still persist to some small degree in much of its interior.

text: The Earth's  inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid

text: outer core

text: at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years). Many scientists had initially expected that the inner core would be found to be

text: homogeneous

text: , because the solid inner core was originally formed by a gradual cooling of molten material, and continues to grow as a result of that same process. Even though it is growing into liquid, it is solid, due to the very high pressure that keeps it compacted together even if the temperature is extremely high. It was even suggested that Earth's inner core might be a

text: single crystal

text: of iron. However, this prediction was disproved by observations indicating that in fact there is a degree of disorder within the inner core. Seismologists have found that the inner core is not completely uniform, but instead contains large-scale structures such that seismic waves pass more rapidly through some parts of the inner core than through others. In addition, the properties of the inner core's surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km. This variation is surprising, since lateral temperature variations along the inner-core boundary are known to be extremely small (this conclusion is confidently constrained by

text: magnetic field

text: observations). Recent discoveries suggest that the solid inner core itself is composed of layers, separated by a transition zone about 250 to 400 km thick. If the inner core grows by small frozen sediments falling onto its surface, then some liquid can also be trapped in the pore spaces and some of this residual fluid may still persist to some small degree in much of its interior.

text: From time to time the use of liquid metals to make contacts is researched.  Drawbacks of this approach are the need to contain the liquid metal as it is usually toxic or corrosive, and power losses from induction and turbulence.

text: NASA scientists Hartman and McKay argue that plate tectonics may in fact slow the rise of oxygenation (and thus stymie complex life rather than promote it). Computer modelling by Tilman Spohn in 2014 found that plate tectonics on Earth may have arisen from the effects of complex life's emergence, rather than the other way around as the Rare Earth might suggest.  The action of lichens on rock may have contributed to the formation of subduction zones in the presence of water. Kasting argues that if oxygenation caused the Cambrian explosion then any planet with oxygen producing photosynthesis should have complex life.

text: Plate tectonics is dependent on chemical composition and a long-lasting source of heat in the form of radioactive decay occurring deep in the planet's interior. Continents must also be made up of less dense felsic rocks that "float" on underlying denser mafic rock. Taylor emphasizes that subduction zones (an essential part of plate tectonics) require the lubricating action of ample water; on Earth, such zones exist only at the bottom of oceans.

text: Plate tectonics is dependent on chemical composition and a long-lasting source of heat in the form of

text: radioactive decay

text: occurring deep in the planet's interior. Continents must also be made up of less dense

text: felsic

text: rocks that "float" on underlying denser

text: mafic

text: rock. Taylor emphasizes that

text: subduction

text: zones (an essential part of plate tectonics) require the lubricating action of ample water; on Earth, such zones exist only at the bottom of oceans.

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their declination or motion; for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the diurnal energy represents the planet in direct motion, while the nocturnal energy refers to the retrograde motion of the planets.  For the Moon, this was illustrated by the waxing or waning periods of the Moon, respectively; the Sun's figures were based on the Sun during the day (or northern declination) or during the night (southern declination).  The zodiacal rulerships followed from the diurnal or nocturnal planetary rulership: nocturnal figures are assigned earth and water signs, while diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs.  The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo (for the sake of finding the ascendant in astrological traditions of geomancy).  Once the zodiacal rulerships were agreed upon, all the following correspondences followed upon the geomantic figures, including what part of the body they each ruled over, different countries, planetary hours, body and character types, and so on.

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their

text: declination

text: or

text: motion

text: ; for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the diurnal energy represents the planet in direct motion, while the nocturnal energy refers to the retrograde motion of the planets.  For the Moon, this was illustrated by the waxing or waning periods of the Moon, respectively; the Sun's figures were based on the Sun during the day (or northern declination) or during the night (southern declination).  The zodiacal rulerships followed from the diurnal or nocturnal planetary rulership: nocturnal figures are assigned earth and water signs, while diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs.  The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo (for the sake of finding the ascendant in astrological traditions of geomancy).  Once the zodiacal rulerships were agreed upon, all the following correspondences followed upon the geomantic figures, including what part of the body they each ruled over, different countries,

text: planetary hours

text: , body and character types, and so on.

text: The game takes place on Anachronox (a portmanteau of anachronism and noxious, meaning "poison from the past"), a small planet floating inside a huge artificial sphere known as Sender One. Husks of futuristic cities exist on artificial tectonic plates, which constantly shift to connect different parts of the planet. Inhabitants believe that diseased aliens were quarantined there eons ago, resulting in the name Anachronox. Northern Anachronox is clean and upscale, while southern Anachronox is crime-ridden and run-down. Humanity travels to different planets from Sender One, which had been the center of a transportation system for a race of non-humanoids enabling faster-than-light travel. Inbound and outbound traffic stops at Sender Station, an orbiting construct above Sender One with hotels and a red light district. Civilizations conduct business using currency like the one-dollar coin known as a "loonie", while several people collect MysTech—shards of rock with markings, believed to be dormant weapons or art pieces created by an extinct alien race. MysTech were first found three-hundred years ago, and are poorly understood, though avidly collected.

text: The game takes place on Anachronox (a portmanteau of anachronism and noxious, meaning "poison from the past"), a small planet floating inside a huge artificial sphere known as Sender One. Husks of futuristic cities exist on artificial

text: tectonic plates

text: , which constantly shift to connect different parts of the planet. Inhabitants believe that diseased aliens were quarantined there eons ago, resulting in the name Anachronox. Northern Anachronox is clean and upscale, while southern Anachronox is crime-ridden and run-down. Humanity travels to different planets from Sender One, which had been the center of a transportation system for a race of non-humanoids enabling faster-than-light travel. Inbound and outbound traffic stops at Sender Station, an orbiting construct above Sender One with hotels and a red light district. Civilizations conduct business using currency like the one-dollar coin known as a "

text: loonie

text: ", while several people collect MysTech—shards of rock with markings, believed to be dormant weapons or art pieces created by an extinct alien race. MysTech were first found three-hundred years ago, and are poorly understood, though avidly collected.

text: Mystara is a hollow planet, with a habitable surface on its interior called the Hollow World. This world is lit by an eternal red sun at the center of Mystara, and serves as a "cultural museum," preserving the societies that have become extinct in the outer world. The existence of the Hollow World is not, in general, known to the inhabitants of the outer world. The poles are actually huge, subtly curving holes that allow passage between the outer and inner world, although it is a long, hard trek through a cold, unlit, stormy and anti-magic area. The curvature of the holes is so subtle that explorers from either surface do not notice the transition until after it is already made, causing quite a shock for most.

text: Mystara is a hollow planet, with a habitable surface on its interior called the

text: Hollow World

text: . This world is lit by an eternal red sun at the center of Mystara, and serves as a "cultural museum," preserving the societies that have become extinct in the outer world. The existence of the Hollow World is not, in general, known to the inhabitants of the outer world. The poles are actually huge, subtly curving holes that allow passage between the outer and inner world, although it is a long, hard trek through a cold, unlit, stormy and anti-magic area. The curvature of the holes is so subtle that explorers from either surface do not notice the transition until after it is already made, causing quite a shock for most.

text: The bands seen in the atmosphere of Jupiter are due to counter-circulating streams of material called zones and belts, encircling the planet parallel to its equator. The zones are the lighter bands, and are at higher altitudes in the atmosphere. They have an internal updraft and are high-pressure regions. The belts are the darker bands, are lower in the atmosphere, and have an internal downdraft. They are low-pressure regions. These structures are somewhat analogous to the high and low-pressure cells in Earth's atmosphere, but they have a very different structure—latitudinal bands that circle the entire planet, as opposed to small confined cells of pressure. This appears to be a result of the rapid rotation and underlying symmetry of the planet. There are no oceans or landmasses to cause local heating and the rotation speed is much higher than that of Earth.

text: The bands seen in the

text: atmosphere of Jupiter

text: are due to counter-circulating streams of material called zones and belts, encircling the planet parallel to its equator. The zones are the lighter bands, and are at higher altitudes in the atmosphere. They have an internal updraft and are high-pressure regions. The belts are the darker bands, are lower in the atmosphere, and have an internal downdraft. They are low-pressure regions. These structures are somewhat analogous to the high and low-pressure cells in Earth's atmosphere, but they have a very different structure—latitudinal bands that circle the entire planet, as opposed to small confined cells of pressure. This appears to be a result of the rapid rotation and underlying symmetry of the planet. There are no oceans or landmasses to cause local heating and the rotation speed is much higher than that of Earth.

text: Zoids: Genesis aired in 2005. At a certain point in time, there was a great quake on Planet Zi. An enormous crack ran through the planet, stretching as far as the seabeds to the high mountains. Volcanoes erupted with fire, and the sky was covered in darkness. Many cities were destroyed as they were swallowed in large areas, sinking underwater. This was known as "Gods' Fury."

text: Liquid metal consists of alloys with very low melting points which form a eutectic that is liquid at room temperature. The standard metal used to be mercury, but gallium-based alloys, which are lower both in their vapor pressure at room temperature and toxicity, are being used as a replacement in various applications.

text: Liquid metal consists of

text: alloys

text: with very low melting points which form a

text: eutectic

text: that is liquid at room temperature. The standard metal used to be

text: mercury

text: , but

text: gallium

text: -based alloys, which are lower both in their

text: vapor pressure

text: at room temperature and toxicity, are being used as a replacement in various applications.

text: The separation between stars in a binary may range from less than one astronomical unit (AU) (the average Earth-to-Sun distance) to several hundred AU. In latter instances, the gravitational effects will be negligible on a planet orbiting an otherwise suitable star, and habitability potential will not be disrupted unless the orbit is highly eccentric (see Nemesis, for example). In reality, some orbital ranges are impossible for dynamical reasons (the planet would be expelled from its orbit relatively quickly, being either ejected from the system altogether or transferred to a more inner or outer orbital range), whilst other orbits present serious challenges for eventual biospheres because of likely extreme variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. If the separation is significantly close to the planet's distance, a stable orbit may be impossible.

text: The separation between stars in a binary may range from less than one

text: astronomical unit

text: (AU) (the average Earth-to-Sun distance) to several hundred AU. In latter instances, the gravitational effects will be negligible on a planet orbiting an otherwise suitable star, and habitability potential will not be disrupted unless the orbit is highly eccentric (see

text: Nemesis

text: , for example). In reality, some orbital ranges are impossible for dynamical reasons (the planet would be expelled from its orbit relatively quickly, being either ejected from the system altogether or transferred to a more inner or outer orbital range), whilst other orbits present serious challenges for eventual

text: biosphere

text: s because of likely extreme variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. If the separation is significantly close to the planet's distance, a stable orbit may be impossible.

text: These events are believed to be caused by changes in the flow patterns of the liquid outer core of the Earth.  Another theory is that they are due to torsional oscillations in the solid inner core of the Earth. There have been claims that they are connected to strong earthquakes.

text: These events are believed to be caused by changes in the flow patterns of the liquid

text: outer core of the Earth

text: .  Another theory is that they are due to torsional oscillations in the solid

text: inner core of the Earth

text: . There have been claims that they are connected to strong earthquakes.

text: Besides Vararuci's Vākyas, several other sets of Vākyas had been composed by astronomers and mathematicians of the Kerala school. While Vararuci's Vākyas contain a list of 248 numbers, another set of Vākyas relating to Moon's motion contains 3031 numbers. There is a set of 2075 Vākyas called Samudra-vākyas or Maṇḍala-vākyas or Kujādi-pañcagraha-mahāvākyas relating to the motion of the five planets Kuja (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Guru (Jupiter), Bhrigu (Venus) and Sani (Saturn). There are also lists of Vākyas encoding other mathematical tables like Madhava's sine table.

text: Besides Vararuci's Vākyas, several other sets of Vākyas had been composed by astronomers and mathematicians of the

entity_name: Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

text: Kerala school

text: . While Vararuci's Vākyas contain a list of 248 numbers, another set of Vākyas relating to

text: Moon

text: 's motion contains 3031 numbers. There is a set of 2075 Vākyas called Samudra-vākyas or Maṇḍala-vākyas or Kujādi-pañcagraha-mahāvākyas relating to the motion of the five planets Kuja (

text: Mars

text: ), Budha (

text: Mercury

text: ), Guru (

text: Jupiter

text: ), Bhrigu (

text: Venus

text: ) and Sani (

text: Saturn

text: ). There are also lists of Vākyas encoding other mathematical tables like

text: Madhava's sine table

text: The growth of the inner core may be expected to consume most of the outer core by some 3–4 billion years from now, resulting in a nearly solid core composed of iron and other heavy elements. The surviving liquid envelope will mainly consist of lighter elements that will undergo less mixing. Alternatively, if at some point plate tectonics comes to an end, the interior will cool less efficiently, which may end the growth of the inner core. In either case, this can result in the loss of the magnetic dynamo. Without a functioning dynamo, the magnetic field of the Earth will decay in a geologically short time period of roughly 10,000 years. The loss of the magnetosphere will cause an increase in erosion of light elements, particularly hydrogen, from the Earth's outer atmosphere into space, resulting in less favorable conditions for life.

text: Features tend to have an intrusive characteristic or associated cuts. This is not definitive as surfaces can be referred to as features of a building and free standing structures with no construction cut can still be features. Middens (dump deposits) are also referred to as features due to their discrete boundaries.  This is seen in comparison to leveling dumps, which stretch out over a substantial portion of a site. The concept of a feature is, to a certain degree, fuzzy, as it will change depending on the scale of excavation.

text: Features tend to have an intrusive characteristic or associated

text: cuts

text: . This is not definitive as surfaces can be referred to as features of a building and free standing structures with no

text: construction cut

text: can still be features.

text: Midden

text: s (dump deposits) are also referred to as features due to their discrete boundaries.  This is seen in comparison to leveling dumps, which stretch out over a substantial portion of a site. The concept of a feature is, to a certain degree, fuzzy, as it will change depending on the scale of

text: excavation

text: Seven star systems have been found to have planets. Nu Canis Majoris is an ageing orange giant of spectral type K1III of apparent magnitude 3.91 located around 64 light-years distant. Around 1.5 times as massive and 11 times as luminous as the Sun, it is orbited over a period of 763 days by a planet 2.6 times as massive as Jupiter. HD 47536 is likewise an ageing orange giant found to have a planetary system—echoing the fate of the Solar System in a few billion years as the Sun ages and becomes a giant. Conversely, HD 45364 is a star 107 light-years distant that is a little smaller and cooler than the Sun, of spectral type G8V, which has two planets discovered in 2008. With orbital periods of 228 and 342 days, the planets have a 3:2 orbital resonance, which helps stabilise the system. HD 47186 is another sunlike star with two planets; the inner—HD 47186 b—takes four days to complete an orbit and has been classified as a Hot Neptune, while the outer—HD 47186 c—has an eccentric 3.7-year period orbit and has a similar mass to Saturn. HD 43197 is a sunlike star around 183 light-years distant that has a Jupiter-size planet with an eccentric orbit.

text: Seven star systems have been found to have planets.

text: Nu Canis Majoris

text: is an ageing orange giant of spectral type K1III of apparent magnitude 3.91 located around 64 light-years distant. Around 1.5 times as massive and 11 times as luminous as the Sun, it is orbited over a period of 763 days by a planet 2.6 times as massive as Jupiter.

text: HD 47536

text: is likewise an ageing orange giant found to have a planetary system—echoing the fate of the Solar System in a few billion years as the Sun ages and becomes a giant. Conversely,

text: HD 45364

text: is a star 107 light-years distant that is a little smaller and cooler than the Sun, of spectral type G8V, which has two planets discovered in 2008. With orbital periods of 228 and 342 days, the planets have a 3:2

text: orbital resonance

text: , which helps stabilise the system.

text: HD 47186

text: is another sunlike star with two planets; the inner—

text: HD 47186 b

text: —takes four days to complete an orbit and has been classified as a

text: Hot Neptune

text: , while the outer—

text: HD 47186 c

text: —has an eccentric 3.7-year period orbit and has a similar mass to

text: Saturn

text: HD 43197

text: is a sunlike star around 183 light-years distant that has a Jupiter-size planet with an eccentric orbit.

text: Clairaut subsequently wrote various papers on the orbit of the Moon, and on the motion of comets as affected by the perturbation of the planets, particularly on the path of Halley's comet. He also used applied mathematics to study Venus, taking accurate measurements of the planet's size and distance from the Earth. This was the first precise reckoning of the planet's size.

text: Clairaut subsequently wrote various papers on the

text: orbit

text: of the

text: Moon

text: , and on the motion of

text: comet

text: s as affected by the perturbation of the planets, particularly on the path of

text: Halley's comet

text: . He also used applied mathematics to study

text: Venus

text: , taking accurate measurements of the planet's size and distance from the Earth. This was the first precise reckoning of the planet's size.

text: Kaltenegger is known for her studies of the atmospheres of extrasolar planets, especially Earth-like onesand is a pioneer in the study of the Earth as an astronomical object evolving in time. She studied the change in the Earth's spectral fingerprint as a comparison with the evolutionary stages of Earthlike exoplanets to generate an "Alien ID Chart" - pointing out that as biology and geology change the Earth through the ages, its appearance to a telescope observing it from distant stars would also change. She also investigated the ability of future telescopes like the James Webb Space Telescope to detect evidence of life using spectral biomarkers (biosignatures) and generated the first spectra of Earth seen as a transiting exoplanet in 2009 concluding that it will be a hard problem for JWST and bigger future telescopes are needed to find signatures of life on many planets. In 2009 she discussed how one can determine habitability for moons around giant planets  coinciding with the suggestion of such a moon in the movie Avatar (2009 film).Super-volcanoes on exoplanets: In 2010 she explored whether we could observe geological activity, that is very important for habitability, on exoplanets, finding that about 10 times Pinatubo eruptions could be detected around the closest exoplanets, showing us if other planets are similar to our own Earth. 2011 she led a team to model the spectral fingerprint of Gliese 581 d, one of the first small Radial Velocity planets to be discovered in the habitable zone of its star. In 2013 she was part of the team announcing the discovery of the first two potentially habitable Kepler planets, with radii smaller than 2 Earth radii in the habitable zone of their stars, Kepler 62e and Kepler 62f  and investigated whether or not these planets could still be habitable and how their spectra would look like if they were water worlds.

text: Kaltenegger is known for her studies of the atmospheres of extrasolar planets, especially Earth-like onesand is a pioneer in the study of the Earth as an astronomical object evolving in time. She studied the change in the Earth's spectral fingerprint as a comparison with the evolutionary stages of Earthlike exoplanets to generate an "Alien ID Chart" - pointing out that as biology and geology change the Earth through the ages, its appearance to a telescope observing it from distant stars would also change. She also investigated the ability of future telescopes like the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: to detect evidence of life using spectral biomarkers (

text: biosignatures

text: ) and generated the first

text: spectra of Earth seen as a transiting exoplanet

text: in 2009 concluding that it will be a hard problem for JWST and bigger future telescopes are needed to find signatures of life on many planets. In 2009 she discussed how one can determine

text: habitability for moons around giant planets

text: coinciding with the suggestion of such a moon in the movie

text: Avatar (2009 film)

text: Super-volcanoes on exoplanets

text: : In 2010 she explored whether we could observe geological activity, that is very important for habitability, on exoplanets, finding that about 10 times Pinatubo eruptions could be detected around the closest exoplanets, showing us if other planets are similar to our own Earth. 2011 she led a team to model the spectral fingerprint of

text: Gliese 581 d

text: , one of the first small Radial Velocity planets to be discovered in the

text: habitable zone

text: of its star. In 2013 she was part of the team announcing the discovery of the first two potentially habitable Kepler planets, with radii smaller than 2 Earth radii in the habitable zone of their stars,

text: Kepler 62e

text: and

text: Kepler 62f

text: and investigated whether or not these planets could still be habitable and how their spectra would look like if they were water worlds.

text: Whether or not a tide-locked planet with the orbital characteristics of Gliese 581g is actually habitable depends on the composition of the atmosphere and the nature of the planetary surface. A comprehensive modeling study including atmospheric dynamics, realistic radiative transfer and the physics of formation of sea ice (if the planet has an ocean) indicates that the planet can become as hot as Venus if it is dry and allows carbon dioxide to accumulate in its atmosphere. The same study identified two habitable states for a water-rich planet. If the planet has a very thin atmosphere, a thick ice crust forms over most of the surface, but the substellar point remains hot enough to yield a region of thin ice or even episodically open water. If the planet has an atmosphere with Earthlike pressures, containing approximately 20% (molar) carbon dioxide, then the greenhouse effect is sufficiently strong to maintain a pool of open water under the substellar point with temperatures comparable to the Earth's tropics. This state has been dubbed "Eyeball Earth" by the author. Modeling of the effect of tidal locking on Gliese 581 g's possible atmosphere, using a general circulation model employing an atmosphere with Earthlike surface pressure but a highly idealized representation of radiative processes, indicates that for a solid-surface planet the locations of maximum warmth would be distributed in a sideways chevron-shaped pattern centered near the substellar point.

text: chevron

text: -shaped pattern centered near the substellar point.

text: On June 21, 2012, the discovery of two planets orbiting the star was announced. The planets, a super-Earth and a "mini-Neptune" are unusual in that they have very close orbits; their semi-major axes differ by only 0.013 AU. The outer planet orbits only 11% further than the inner one. Coupled with masses significantly higher than Earth, their gravitational influence to each other is significant, meaning that their interaction causes extreme transit timing variations for both. Kepler-36b and c have estimated densities of 6.8 and 0.86 g/cm, respectively. The two planets are close to a 7:6 orbital resonance.

text: On June 21, 2012, the discovery of two planets orbiting the star was announced. The planets, a

text: super-Earth

text: and a "

text: mini-Neptune

text: " are unusual in that they have very close orbits; their

text: semi-major axes

text: differ by only 0.013

text: AU

text: . The outer planet orbits only 11% further than the inner one. Coupled with masses significantly higher than Earth, their gravitational influence to each other is significant, meaning that their interaction causes extreme

text: transit timing variation

text: s for both. Kepler-36b and c have estimated densities of 6.8 and 0.86 g/cm, respectively. The two planets are close to a 7:6

text: orbital resonance

text: Average January temperatures are a high of  and a low of . Average July temperatures are a high of  and a low of . Temperatures reach  or higher on an average of 36.9 days annually, and drop to  or lower on an average of 164.6 days annually; freezing temperatures have been recorded in every month of the year and summer nighttime temperatures are usually cool, but extreme cold is  rare and temperatures under  are reached only on 2.9 days per winter. The highest recorded temperature in Susanville was  in July 1931, and the lowest recorded temperature was  on February 1, 1956.

text: Nineteen moons are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity, and seven of them are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. They are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but are not dwarf planets because they do not directly orbit the Sun. The seven that are more massive than Eris are the Moon, the four Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), one moon of Saturn (Titan), and one moon of Neptune (Triton). The others are six moons of Saturn (Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, and Iapetus), five moons of Uranus (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon), and one moon of Pluto (Charon). There are additional possibilities among TNOs, including Dysnomia orbiting Eris. Alan Stern calls these moons "satellite planets", one of three categories of planet together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term planemo ("planetary-mass object") covers all three.

text: Nineteen

text: moons

text: are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity, and seven of them are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. They are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but are not dwarf planets because they do not directly orbit the Sun. The seven that are more massive than Eris are the

text: Moon

text: , the four

text: Galilean moons

text: of Jupiter (

text: Io

text: Europa

text: Ganymede

text: , and

text: Callisto

text: ), one moon of Saturn (

text: Titan

text: ), and one moon of Neptune (

text: Triton

text: ). The others are six moons of Saturn (

text: Mimas

text: Enceladus

text: Tethys

text: Dione

text: Rhea

text: , and

text: Iapetus

text: ), five moons of Uranus (

text: Miranda

text: Ariel

text: Umbriel

text: Titania

text: , and

text: Oberon

text: ), and one moon of Pluto (

text: Charon

text: ). There are additional possibilities among TNOs, including

text: Dysnomia

text: orbiting Eris. Alan Stern calls these moons "satellite planets", one of three categories of planet together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term

text: planemo

text: ("planetary-mass object") covers all three.

text: Amirani is an active volcano on Jupiter's moon Io, the inner-most of the Galilean Moons. It is located on Io's leading hemisphere at . The volcano is responsible for the largest active lava flow in the entire Solar System, with recent flows dwarfing those of even other volcanos on Io.

text: Amirani is an active

text: volcano

text: on

text: Jupiter's

text: moon

text: Io

text: , the inner-most of the

text: Galilean Moons

text: . It is located on Io's leading hemisphere at . The volcano is responsible for the largest active lava flow in the entire Solar System, with recent flows dwarfing those of even other volcanos on Io.

text: Gas planets can also have large solid cores: the Saturn-mass planet HD 149026 b has only two-thirds of Saturn's radius, so it may have a rock–ice core of 60 Earth masses or more. Corot-20b has 4.24 times Jupiter's mass but a radius of only 0.84 that of Jupiter—it may have a metal core of 800 Earth masses if the heavy elements are concentrated in the core, or a core of 300 Earth masses if the heavy elements are more distributed throughout the planet.

text: Gas planets can also have large solid cores: the Saturn-mass planet

text: HD 149026 b

text: has only two-thirds of Saturn's radius, so it may have a rock–ice core of 60 Earth masses or more.

text: has 4.24 times Jupiter's mass but a radius of only 0.84 that of Jupiter—it may have a metal core of 800 Earth masses if the heavy elements are concentrated in the core, or a core of 300 Earth masses if the heavy elements are more distributed throughout the planet.

text: To Tovey's objection can be added the prominence of the short-short-short-long rhythmic figure in earlier works by Beethoven's older Classical contemporaries Haydn and Mozart. To give just two examples, it is found in Haydn's "Miracle" Symphony, No. 96) () and in Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 25, K. 503 (). Such examples show that "short-short-short-long" rhythms were a regular part of the musical language of the composers of Beethoven's day.

text: To Tovey's objection can be added the prominence of the short-short-short-long rhythmic figure in earlier works by Beethoven's older

text: Classical

text: contemporaries

text: Haydn

text: and

text: Mozart

text: . To give just two examples, it is found in Haydn's

text: "Miracle" Symphony, No. 96)

text: () and in

text: Mozart

text: 's

text: Piano Concerto No. 25, K. 503

text: (). Such examples show that "short-short-short-long" rhythms were a regular part of the musical language of the composers of Beethoven's day.

text: Nothing he did could stop the Hulk, and soon it came down to rematch between them at the Crown City. By this point, the Hulk had grown even stronger than the Red King's power armor. When the Red King saw his own defeat at hand, he triggered a weapon that would fracture the planet's unstable tectonic plates and destroy everything. The Hulk was able to prevent this and struck the Red King so hard he went flying into the midst of the savage Wildebots, where he was believed to have died.

text: Instead of shooting the Scion as commanded by Braddock, Cooke orders the Tug carrying Burns to follow the Scion. After leading him through an underground tunnel, the Scion confirms that she is Shabayev. She was found by the Scions on Bane after the crash. She explains that Braddock ordered the attack on the drop ships to silence them. He had also ordered the Voyager to be shot down to prevent the AAN from detecting the ISDF base on the Dark Planet. She also reveals to John that the Scions are actually humans who have been fused together with bio-metal. At the core of the Collective are the former members of the Black Dog Squadron. After the uprising, they fled to the Dark Planet, then into the Scion system, where they found the Cthonian ruins on Mire and embraced their culture. Their ultimate goal is not to destroy Earth, but to bring the enlightened Cthonian culture back to humanity.

text: Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing (just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the western desert to  and  in the alluvial plains of southern Iraq. They rise to a mean maximum of about  in the western desert and the northeast, and  in the south. In the summer mean minimum temperatures range from about  and rise to maxima between roughly . Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and have fallen as low as  at Ar Rutbah in the western desert. A such summer heat, even in a hot desert, is high and this can be easily explained by the very low elevations of deserts regions which experience these exceptionally searing high temperatures. In fact, the elevations of cities such as Baghdad or Basra are near the sea level (0 m) because deserts are located predominantly along the Persian Gulf. That's why some Gulf's countries like Iraq, Iran and Kuwait experience extreme heat during summer, even more extreme than the normal level. The searing summer heat only exists in low elevations in these countries while mountains and higher elevations know much more moderated summer temperatures.

text: Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing (just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the western desert to  and  in the alluvial plains of southern Iraq. They rise to a mean maximum of about  in the western desert and the northeast, and  in the south. In the summer mean minimum temperatures range from about  and rise to maxima between roughly . Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and have fallen as low as  at Ar Rutbah in the western desert. A such summer heat, even in a hot desert, is high and this can be easily explained by the very low elevations of deserts regions which experience these exceptionally searing high temperatures. In fact, the elevations of cities such as

text: Baghdad

text: or

text: Basra

text: are near the sea level (0 m) because deserts are located predominantly along the

text: Persian Gulf

text: . That's why some Gulf's countries like

text: Iraq

text: Iran

text: and

text: Kuwait

text: experience extreme heat during summer, even more extreme than the normal level. The searing summer heat only exists in low elevations in these countries while mountains and higher elevations know much more moderated summer temperatures.

text: Kepler-432b is a hot super-Jupiter, an exoplanet that has a radius and mass larger then that of the planet Jupiter, and with an extremely high temperature. It has a temperature of . It has a mass of 5.41  and a radius of 1.45 . It also has a relatively high density for such a planet, at 4.46 g cm.

text: Kepler-432b is a

text: hot super-Jupiter

text: , an exoplanet that has a radius and mass larger then that of the planet

text: Jupiter

text: , and with an extremely high temperature. It has a temperature of . It has a mass of 5.41  and a radius of 1.45 . It also has a relatively high density for such a planet, at 4.46

text: g cm

text: It is estimated that the average global equilibrium temperature (the temperature in the absence of atmospheric effects) of Gliese 581 g would range from 209 to 228 K (−64 to −45 °C, or −84 to −49 °F) for Bond albedos (reflectivities) from 0.5 to 0.3 (with the latter being more characteristic of the inner Solar System). Adding an Earth-like greenhouse effect would yield an average surface temperature in the range of 236 to 261 K (−37 to −12 °C, or −35 to 10 °F). Gliese 581g would be in an orbit where a silicate weathering thermostat could operate, and this could lead to accumulation of sufficient carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to permit liquid water to exist at the surface, provided the planet's composition and tectonic behavior could support sustained outgassing.

text: It is estimated that the average global

text: equilibrium temperature

text: (the temperature in the absence of atmospheric effects) of Gliese 581 g would range from 209 to 228

text: K

text: (−64 to −45 °C, or −84 to −49 °F) for

text: Bond albedo

text: s (reflectivities) from 0.5 to 0.3 (with the latter being more characteristic of the inner

text: Solar System

text: ). Adding an Earth-like

text: greenhouse effect

text: would yield an average surface temperature in the range of 236 to 261 K (−37 to −12 °C, or −35 to 10 °F). Gliese 581g would be in an orbit where a silicate weathering thermostat could operate, and this could lead to accumulation of sufficient carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to permit liquid water to exist at the surface, provided the planet's composition and tectonic behavior could support sustained outgassing.

text: Mount Erebus is currently the most active volcano in Antarctica and is the current eruptive zone of the Erebus hotspot. The summit contains a persistent convecting phonolitic lava lake, one of five long-lasting lava lakes on Earth.  Characteristic eruptive activity consists of Strombolian eruptions from the lava lake or from one of several subsidiary vents, all within the volcano's inner crater.  The volcano is scientifically remarkable in that its relatively low-level and unusually persistent eruptive activity enables long-term volcanological study of a Strombolian eruptive system very close (hundreds of metres) to the active vents, a characteristic shared with only a few volcanoes on Earth, such as Stromboli in Italy. Scientific study of the volcano is also facilitated by their proximity to McMurdo Station (U.S.) and Scott Base (New Zealand), both sited on Ross Island approximately thirty-five kilometres away.

text: Mount Erebus is currently the most active

text: volcano

text: in Antarctica and is the current eruptive zone of the

text: Erebus hotspot

text: . The summit contains a persistent convecting

text: phonolitic

text: lava lake, one of five long-lasting

text: lava lake

text: s on Earth.  Characteristic eruptive activity consists of

text: Strombolian eruption

text: s from the lava lake or from one of several subsidiary vents, all within the volcano's inner crater.  The volcano is scientifically remarkable in that its relatively low-level and unusually persistent eruptive activity enables long-term volcanological study of a Strombolian eruptive system very close (hundreds of metres) to the active vents, a characteristic shared with only a few volcanoes on Earth, such as

text: Stromboli

text: in Italy. Scientific study of the volcano is also facilitated by their proximity to

text: McMurdo Station

text: (U.S.) and

text: Scott Base

text: (New Zealand), both sited on

text: Ross Island

text: approximately thirty-five kilometres away.

text: Orbiting the star are three planets, whose discovery was announced in 2008; the discovery paper was published in 2009. The inner planet has a mass at least 7.5 times that of Earth, and is termed a super-Earth (this classification is based solely on the mass of the planet and should not be taken to imply that the planet could support Earthlike conditions). The middle planet and the outer planet are gas giants. The orbital periods for three planets are 9.3743 days for a 7.56 M planet, 962 days for a 0.64 M planet, and 2172 days for a 0.54 M planet. This solution is unstable, more data are required to constrain the orbital position of planet d.

text: Orbiting the star are three

text: planets

text: , whose discovery was announced in 2008; the discovery paper was published in 2009. The inner planet has a mass at least 7.5 times that of Earth, and is termed a

text: super-Earth

text: (this classification is based solely on the mass of the planet and should not be taken to imply that the planet could support Earthlike conditions). The middle planet and the outer planet are

text: gas giant

text: s. The

text: orbital period

text: s for three planets are 9.3743 days for a 7.56 M planet, 962 days for a 0.64

text: M

text: planet, and 2172 days for a 0.54 M planet. This solution is unstable, more data are required to constrain the orbital position of planet d.

text: The Kuumas are the descendants of the clan of Fuuma Le-ar. 20 years after their retreat and the death of Le-ar, Ida revived their leader to conquer the universe once again. They follow a strategy in making a planet part of the Kuuma Empire: they kidnap the children of a planet to alert the adults, they then negotiate with the planets leaders. If they surrender, the planet will become a part of the Kuuma empire. If not the planet is destroyed, the planet Earth is the only planet not under control the Kuuma or destroyed. They have the Time Space Warp (Strange Dimension or Shigi Jikyu in original version) a realm with temperatures reaching up to 6000 degrees Celsius. It magnifies the power of their soldiers and monsters. Like the original Fuuma grunts called Miraclers, Kuuma grunts are also spies and have the ability to disguise as humans. Their known dance is the Shigi Shigi and their music is the revival version of Fushigi (sung by Koorogi '73) which can be heard in original series. Their mothership is different from the mothership of Fuuma.

text: The Kuumas are the descendants of the clan of Fuuma Le-ar. 20 years after their retreat and the death of Le-ar, Ida revived their leader to conquer the universe once again. They follow a strategy in making a planet part of the Kuuma Empire: they kidnap the children of a planet to alert the adults, they then negotiate with the planets leaders. If they surrender, the planet will become a part of the Kuuma empire. If not the planet is destroyed, the planet Earth is the only planet not under control the Kuuma or destroyed. They have the Time Space Warp (Strange Dimension or Shigi Jikyu in original version) a realm with temperatures reaching up to 6000 degrees

text: Celsius

text: . It magnifies the power of their soldiers and monsters. Like the original Fuuma grunts called Miraclers, Kuuma grunts are also spies and have the ability to disguise as humans. Their known dance is the Shigi Shigi and their music is the revival version of Fushigi (sung by Koorogi '73) which can be heard in original series. Their mothership is different from the mothership of Fuuma.

text: A planet's atmospheric conditions influence its ability to retain heat, so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out.

text: A planet's atmospheric conditions influence its ability to retain heat, so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet:

text: desert planet

text: s (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced

text: greenhouse effect

text: , meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out.

text: External sources of planetary heat (namely, radiation from a planet’s host star) can have drastic effects on geodynamic regime. With all other variables held constant, an Earth-sized exoplanet with a surface temperature of 273 K will evolve over its geological lifetime from a plate tectonic regime, to episodic periods of plate tectonics interspersed with stagnant lid geodynamics, to a terminal stagnant lid phase as interior heat is exhausted. Meanwhile, a “hot” planet (759 K surface temperature) under the same initial conditions will have an amorphous surface (due to lithospheric yield stress being constantly exceeded) to a stagnant lid as interior heat is exhausted, with no plate tectonics observed.

text: The CYGNSS science goal is to understand the coupling between ocean surface properties, moist atmospheric thermodynamics, radiation, and convective dynamics in the inner core of a tropical cyclone. To achieve this goal, the system will measure ocean surface wind speed in all precipitating conditions, including those experienced in the eyewall. The mission will also measure ocean surface wind speed in the storm's inner core with sufficient frequency to resolve genesis and rapid intensification. As secondary goal, the project will support the operational hurricane forecast community by producing and providing ocean surface wind speed data products.

text: The CYGNSS science goal is to understand the coupling between ocean surface properties, moist atmospheric thermodynamics, radiation, and convective dynamics in the inner core of a tropical cyclone. To achieve this goal, the system will measure ocean surface wind speed in all precipitating conditions, including those experienced in the

text: eyewall

text: . The mission will also measure ocean surface wind speed in the storm's inner core with sufficient frequency to resolve genesis and rapid intensification. As secondary goal, the project will support the operational hurricane forecast community by producing and providing ocean surface wind speed data products.

text: The Clangers was described by Postgate as a family set in space. They were small creatures living in peace and harmony on – and inside – a small, hollow planet, far, far away, nourished by Blue String Pudding, and Green Soup harvested from the planet's volcanic soup wells by the Soup Dragon. The word "Clanger" is said to derive from the sound made by opening the metal cover of one of the creatures' crater-like burrows, each of which was covered with a door made from an old metal dustbin lid, to protect against meteorite impacts. In each episode, there would be some problem to solve, something invented or discovered, or perhaps some new visitor to meet. Music Trees, with note-shaped fruit, grew on the planet's surface, and music would often be an integral feature in the simple but amusing plots. In the "Fishing" episode, one of the Cheese Trees provided a cylindrical five-line staff for notes taken from the Music Trees.

text: The Clangers was described by Postgate as a family set in space. They were small creatures living in peace and harmony on – and inside – a small, hollow planet, far, far away, nourished by Blue String Pudding, and Green Soup harvested from the planet's volcanic soup wells by the Soup Dragon. The word "Clanger" is said to derive from the sound made by opening the metal cover of one of the creatures' crater-like burrows, each of which was covered with a door made from an old metal dustbin lid, to protect against

text: meteorite

text: impacts. In each episode, there would be some problem to solve, something invented or discovered, or perhaps some new visitor to meet. Music Trees, with note-shaped fruit, grew on the planet's surface, and music would often be an integral feature in the simple but amusing plots. In the "Fishing" episode, one of the Cheese Trees provided a cylindrical five-line

text: staff

text: for notes taken from the Music Trees.

text: By 2.8 billion years from now, the surface temperature of the Earth will have reached , even at the poles. At this point, any remaining life will be extinguished due to the extreme conditions. If the Earth loses its surface water by this point, the planet will stay in the same conditions until the Sun becomes a red giant. If this scenario doesn't happen, then in about 3–4 billion years the amount of water vapour in the lower atmosphere will rise to 40% and a moist greenhouse effect will commence once the luminosity from the Sun reaches 35–40% more than its present-day value. A "runaway greenhouse" effect will ensue, causing the atmosphere to heat up and raising the surface temperature to around . This is sufficient to melt the surface of the planet. However, most of the atmosphere will be retained until the Sun has entered the red giant stage.

text: The axis of this Laplace plane is coplanar with, and between, (a) the polar axis of the parent planet's spin, and (b) the orbital axis of the parent planet's orbit around the Sun. The Laplace plane arises because the equatorial oblateness of the parent planet tends to cause the orbit of the satellite to precess around the polar axis of the parent planet's equatorial plane, while the solar perturbations tend to cause the orbit of the satellite to precess around the polar axis of the parent planet's orbital plane around the Sun.  The two effects acting together result in an intermediate position for the reference axis for the satellite orbit's precession.

text: Scientists start the search for fossil evidence of plants with indirect evidence for their presence, the evidence of photosynthesis in the geological record.  The evidence for photosynthesis in the rock record is varied, but primary evidence comes from around 3000 Ma, in rock records and fossil evidence of cyanobacteria, photosynthesizing prokaryotic organisms.  Cyanobacteria use water as a reducing agent, producing atmospheric oxygen as a byproduct, and they thereby profoundly changed the early reducing atmosphere of the earth to one in which modern aerobic organisms eventually evolved.  This oxygen liberated by cyanobacteria then oxidized dissolved iron in the oceans, the iron precipitated out of the sea water, and fell to the ocean floor to form sedimentary layers of oxidized iron called Banded Iron Formations (BIFs).   These BIFs are part of the geological record of evidence for the evolutionary history of plants by identifying when photosynthesis originated.  This also provides deep time constraints upon when enough oxygen could have been available in the atmosphere to produce the ultraviolet blocking stratospheric ozone layer.  The oxygen concentration in the ancient atmosphere subsequently rose, acting as a poison for anaerobic organisms, and resulting in a highly oxidizing atmosphere, and opening up niches on land for occupation by aerobic organisms.

text: Scientists start the search for fossil evidence of plants with indirect evidence for their presence, the evidence of photosynthesis in the geological record.  The evidence for photosynthesis in the rock record is varied, but primary evidence comes from around 3000 Ma, in rock records and fossil evidence of cyanobacteria, photosynthesizing

text: prokaryotic

text: organisms.  Cyanobacteria use water as a

text: reducing agent

text: , producing atmospheric oxygen as a byproduct, and they thereby profoundly changed the early

text: reducing

text: atmosphere of the earth to one in which modern aerobic organisms eventually evolved.  This oxygen liberated by cyanobacteria then

text: oxidized

text: dissolved

text: iron

text: in the oceans, the iron precipitated out of the sea water, and fell to the ocean floor to form sedimentary layers of oxidized iron called

text: Banded Iron Formation

text: s (BIFs).   These BIFs are part of the geological record of evidence for the evolutionary history of plants by identifying when photosynthesis originated.  This also provides deep time constraints upon when enough oxygen could have been available in the atmosphere to produce the

text: ultraviolet

text: blocking

text: stratospheric

text: ozone layer.  The oxygen concentration in the ancient atmosphere subsequently rose, acting as a poison for

text: anaerobic

text: organisms, and resulting in a highly oxidizing atmosphere, and opening up niches on land for occupation by aerobic organisms.

text: The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet. This is a common "textbook model": the planet will have a constant surface temperature T and an atmosphere with constant temperature T.  For diagrammatic clarity, a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface. Alternatively, T could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere, and T could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere.  In order to justify that T and T remain constant over the planet, strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing.  Furthermore, any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant.

text: The

text: greenhouse effect

text: can be illustrated with an idealized planet. This is a common "textbook model": the planet will have a constant surface temperature T and an atmosphere with constant temperature T.  For diagrammatic clarity, a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface. Alternatively, T could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere, and T could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere.  In order to justify that T and T remain constant over the planet, strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing.  Furthermore, any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant.

text: The cytotoxicity of e-liquids varies, and contamination with various chemicals have been detected in the liquid. Metal parts of e-cigarettes in contact with the e-liquid can contaminate it with metals. Many chemicals including carbonyl compounds such as formaldehyde can inadvertently be produced when the nichrome wire (heating element) that touches the e-liquid is heated and chemically reacted with the liquid. Normal usage of e-cigarettes, and reduced voltage (3.0 V) devices generate very low levels of formaldehyde. Later-generation e-cigarettes used with higher power may generate equal or higher levels of formaldehyde than compared to smoking.

text: The

text: cytotoxicity

text: of e-liquids varies, and contamination with various chemicals have been detected in the liquid. Metal parts of e-cigarettes in contact with the e-liquid can contaminate it with metals. Many chemicals including

text: carbonyl compounds

text: such as formaldehyde can inadvertently be produced when the

text: nichrome wire

text: heating element

text: ) that touches the e-liquid is heated and chemically reacted with the liquid. Normal usage of e-cigarettes, and reduced voltage (3.0 V) devices generate very low levels of

text: formaldehyde

text: . Later-generation e-cigarettes used with higher power may generate equal or higher levels of formaldehyde than compared to smoking.

text: The convergence is taking place at a rate estimated at approximately  per year (by Lonsdale, 1986); however, recent global positioning satellite measurements indicate in places a convergence of  per year across the northern Tonga Trench, which is the fastest plate velocity recorded on the planet; a result is the earth's most active zone of mantle seismicity.While most of the large earthquakes occur at the contact zone between both tectonic plates, related to the friction during subduction, others are produced in the Pacific plate due to its bending.

text: The convergence is taking place at a rate estimated at approximately  per year (by Lonsdale, 1986); however, recent

text: global positioning satellite

text: measurements indicate in places a convergence of  per year across the northern Tonga Trench, which is the fastest plate velocity recorded on the planet; a result is the earth's most active zone of

text: mantle seismicity

text: .While most of the large earthquakes occur at the contact zone between both tectonic plates, related to the friction during subduction, others are produced in the Pacific plate due to its bending.

text: The term "minor planet" would have been abandoned, replaced by the categories "small Solar System body" (SSSB) and a new classification of "pluton". The former would have described those objects underneath the "spherical" threshold. The latter would have been applied to those planets with highly inclined orbits, large eccentricities and an orbital period of more than 200 earth years (that is, those orbiting beyond Neptune). Pluto would have been the prototype for this class. The term "dwarf planet" would have been available to describe all planets smaller than the eight "classical planets" in orbit around the Sun, though would not have been an official IAU classification. The IAU did not make recommendations in the draft resolution on what separated a planet from a brown dwarf. A vote on the proposal was scheduled for August 24, 2006.

text: The term "minor planet" would have been abandoned, replaced by the categories "

text: small Solar System body

text: " (SSSB) and a new classification of "pluton". The former would have described those objects underneath the "spherical" threshold. The latter would have been applied to those planets with highly inclined orbits, large eccentricities and an orbital period of more than 200 earth years (that is, those orbiting beyond Neptune). Pluto would have been the prototype for this class. The term "

text: dwarf planet

text: " would have been available to describe all planets smaller than the eight "classical planets" in orbit around the Sun, though would not have been an official IAU classification. The IAU did not make recommendations in the draft resolution on what separated a planet from a

text: brown dwarf

text: . A vote on the proposal was scheduled for August 24, 2006.

text: But how can year 1 be lengthened if it is already a long ordinary year of 355 days or year 2 be shortened if it is a short leap year of 383 days? That is why the third and fourth deḥiyyahs are needed.

text: Hence, seasonal breeders can be divided into groups based on when they are fertile.  "Long day" breeders cycle when days get longer (spring) and are in anestrus in fall and winter. Some animals that are long day breeders includes; Ring-tailed lemurs, Horses, Hamsters, Groundhogs, and Minks. "Short day" breeders cycle when the length of daylight shortens (fall) and are in anestrus in spring and summer. The decreased light during the fall decreases the firing of the retinal nerves, in turn decreasing the excitation of the superior cervical ganglion, which then decreases the inhibition of the pineal gland, finally resulting in an increase in melatonin. This increase in melatonin results in an increase in GnRH and subsequently an increase in the hormones LH and FSH, which stimulate cyclicity. Some animals that are short day breeders includes; Sheeps, Goats, Foxes, Red Deers, Elks, Mooses, and Mice.

text: Hence, seasonal breeders can be divided into groups based on when they are fertile.  "Long day" breeders cycle when days get longer (spring) and are in anestrus in fall and winter. Some animals that are long day breeders includes;

text: Ring-tailed lemur

text: s,

text: Horse

text: s,

text: Hamster

text: s,

text: Groundhog

text: s, and

text: Mink

text: s. "Short day" breeders cycle when the length of daylight shortens (fall) and are in anestrus in spring and summer. The decreased light during the fall decreases the firing of the retinal nerves, in turn decreasing the excitation of the superior cervical ganglion, which then decreases the inhibition of the pineal gland, finally resulting in an increase in

text: melatonin

text: . This increase in

text: melatonin

text: results in an increase in GnRH and subsequently an increase in the hormones

text: LH

text: and

text: FSH

text: , which stimulate cyclicity. Some animals that are short day breeders includes;

text: Sheep

text: s,

text: Goat

text: s,

text: Fox

text: es,

text: Red Deer

text: s,

text: Elk

text: s,

text: Moose

text: s, and

text: Mice

text: The classification of the Alba Mons volcano is uncertain. Some workers describe it as a shield volcano, others as a lowland patera (in contrast to highland paterae, which are low-lying ancient volcanoes with furrowed ash deposits located in the southern Martian highlands), and still others consider it a one-of-a-kind volcanic structure unique to Mars.  Some researchers have compared Alba Mons to coronae structures on the planet Venus. Alba Mons shares some characteristics with the Syrtis Major volcanic structure. (See Volcanism on Mars.) Both volcanoes are Hesperian in age, cover large areas, have very low relief, and large shallow calderas. Also like Alba, Syrtis Major displays ridged tube- and channel-fed lava flows. Because Alba Mons lies antipodal to the Hellas impact basin, a few researchers have conjectured that the volcano’s formation may have been related to crustal weakening from the Hellas impact, which produced strong seismic waves that focused on the opposite side of the planet.

text: The classification of the Alba Mons volcano is uncertain. Some workers describe it as a

text: shield volcano

text: , others as a lowland patera (in contrast to

text: highland paterae

text: , which are low-lying ancient volcanoes with furrowed ash deposits located in the southern Martian highlands), and still others consider it a one-of-a-kind volcanic structure unique to Mars.  Some researchers have compared Alba Mons to

text: coronae

text: structures on the planet

text: Venus

text: . Alba Mons shares some characteristics with the

text: Syrtis Major

text: volcanic structure. (See

text: Volcanism on Mars

text: .) Both volcanoes are

text: Hesperian

text: in age, cover large areas, have very low relief, and large shallow calderas. Also like Alba, Syrtis Major displays ridged tube- and channel-fed lava flows. Because Alba Mons lies

text: antipodal

text: to the Hellas impact basin, a few researchers have conjectured that the volcano’s formation may have been related to crustal weakening from the Hellas impact, which produced strong

text: seismic wave

text: s that focused on the opposite side of the planet.

text: Map regression, comparing maps from different periods of the same area, can reveal past structures that were recorded but are no longer visible as surface features. Using modern maps to transcribe or re-project earlier maps can help to locate these features with contemporary survey controls and techniques.

text: The repair of inner tubes may be necessary on the road. Several methods exist to locate a small puncture, including submersion in water with dish soap, but without a bowl of water available, the simplest method may be to inflate the tube until air can be felt escaping from the puncture. Once located, the puncture is cleaned, and a patch applied (see Louis Rustin for the invention of the puncture patch). Note that tire valves may also become damaged. In this case, repair of the inner tube will not be possible, and the tube should be replaced.

text: The repair of inner tubes may be necessary on the road. Several methods exist to locate a small puncture, including submersion in water with dish soap, but without a bowl of water available, the simplest method may be to inflate the tube until air can be felt escaping from the puncture. Once located, the puncture is cleaned, and a patch applied (see

text: Louis Rustin

text: for the invention of the puncture patch). Note that tire valves may also become damaged. In this case, repair of the inner tube will not be possible, and the tube should be replaced.

text: A terrestrial planet, telluric planet, or rocky planet is a planet that is composed primarily of silicate rocks or metals. Within the Solar System, the terrestrial planets are the inner planets closest to the Sun, i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The terms "terrestrial planet" and "telluric planet" are derived from Latin words for Earth (Terra and Tellus), as these planets are, in terms of composition, "Earth-like".

text: A terrestrial planet, telluric planet, or rocky planet is a

text: planet

text: that is composed primarily of

text: silicate

text: rocks

text: or

text: metal

text: s. Within the

text: Solar System

text: , the terrestrial planets are the

text: inner planets

text: closest to the

text: Sun

text: , i.e.

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: , and

text: Mars

text: . The terms "terrestrial planet" and "telluric planet" are derived from

text: Latin

text: words for

text: Earth

text: (Terra and Tellus), as these planets are, in terms of composition, "Earth-like".

text: As seen from Earth, all the other planets, asteroids and all objects in the Solar System appear to periodically switch direction as they cross the sky. Though all stars and planets appear to move from east to west on a nightly basis in response to the rotation of Earth, the outer planets generally drift slowly eastward relative to the stars. Asteroids and Kuiper Belt Objects (including Pluto) exhibit apparent retrogradation. This motion is normal for the planets, and so is considered direct motion.  However, since Earth completes its orbit in a shorter period of time than the planets outside its orbit, it periodically overtakes them, like a faster car on a multi-lane highway. When this occurs, the planet being passed will first appear to stop its eastward drift, and then drift back toward the west. Then, as Earth swings past the planet in its orbit, it appears to resume its normal motion west to east. Inner planets Venus and Mercury appear to move in retrograde in a similar mechanism, but as they can never be in opposition to the Sun as seen from Earth, their retrograde cycles are tied to their inferior conjunctions with the Sun. They are unobservable in the Sun's glare and in their "new" phase, with mostly their dark sides toward Earth; they occur in the transition from morning star to evening star.

text: As seen from Earth, all the other planets, asteroids and all objects in the Solar System appear to periodically switch direction as they cross the sky. Though all stars and planets appear to move from east to west on a nightly basis in response to the rotation of Earth, the outer planets generally drift slowly eastward relative to the stars.

text: Asteroids

text: and

text: Kuiper Belt

text: Objects (including

text: Pluto

text: ) exhibit apparent retrogradation. This motion is normal for the planets, and so is considered direct motion.  However, since Earth completes its orbit in a shorter period of time than the planets outside its orbit, it periodically overtakes them, like a faster car on a multi-lane highway. When this occurs, the planet being passed will first appear to stop its eastward drift, and then drift back toward the west. Then, as Earth swings past the planet in its orbit, it appears to resume its normal motion west to east. Inner planets

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mercury

text: appear to move in retrograde in a similar mechanism, but as they can never be

text: in opposition

text: to the Sun as seen from Earth, their retrograde cycles are tied to their inferior conjunctions with the

text: Sun

text: . They are unobservable in the Sun's glare and in their "new" phase, with mostly their dark sides toward Earth; they occur in the transition from morning star to evening star.

text: The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid.

text: The outer region of the Solar System is home to the

text: giant planet

text: s and their large moons. The

text: centaurs

text: and many

text: short-period comet

text: s also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid.

text: A book, movie, television series, or other artistic creation is said to be sui generis when it does not fit into standard genre boundaries. Movie critic Richard Schickel identifies Joe Versus the Volcano as a sui generis movie. Film critic Michael Brooke used the term to describe Fantastic Planet, a 1973 Franco-Czech science fiction film directed by René Laloux.

text: A book, movie, television series, or other artistic creation is said to be sui generis when it does not fit into standard genre boundaries. Movie critic Richard Schickel identifies

text: Joe Versus the Volcano

text: as a sui generis movie. Film critic Michael Brooke used the term to describe

text: Fantastic Planet

text: , a 1973 Franco-Czech science fiction film directed by

text: René Laloux

text: Kepler-90 is notable for the configuration of its planetary system, which has similarities to the Solar System in which the rocky planets are nearer and gas giants further away. The five inner planets are either super-Earths or mini-Neptunes due to their size. The two outer planets are gas giants. The outermost known planet orbits its host star at about the same distance as Earth from the Sun.

text: In March 2015, scientists stated that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean, or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the Curiosity rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in Gale Crater, though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that this new study has not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water.

text: In March 2015, scientists stated that evidence exists for an ancient Martian ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's

text: Arctic Ocean

text: , or approximately 19% of the Martian surface. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and

text: deuterium

text: in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth. Eight times as much deuterium was found at Mars than exists on Earth, suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. Results from the

text: Curiosity

text: rover had previously found a high ratio of deuterium in

text: Gale Crater

text: , though not significantly high enough to suggest the presence of an ocean. Other scientists caution that this new study has not been confirmed, and point out that Martian climate models have not yet shown that the planet was warm enough in the past to support bodies of liquid water.

text: Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, proto-planets, and comets. In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly forming Sun was only at 70% luminosity. By , the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by eroding and transporting solids on the surface.

text: Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by

text: volcanic

text: activity and

text: outgassing

text: that included

text: water vapor

text: . The

text: origin of the world's oceans

text: was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: proto-planets

text: , and

text: comet

text: s. In

text: this model

text: , atmospheric "

text: greenhouse gas

text: es" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly forming Sun was only at 70%

text: luminosity

text: . By , the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the

text: solar wind

text: . The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by eroding and transporting solids on the surface.

text: Using the chondritic reference model and combining known compositions of the crust and mantle, the unknown component, the composition of the inner and outer core, can be determined; 85% Fe, 5% Ni, 0.9% Cr, 0.25% Co, and all other refractory metals at very low concentration. This leaves Earth's core with a 5–10% weight deficit for the outer core, and a 4–5% weight deficit for the inner core; which is attributed to lighter elements that should be cosmically abundant and are iron-soluble; H, O, C, S, P, and Si. Earth's core contains half the Earth's vanadium and chromium, and may contain considerable niobium and tantalum. Earth's core is depleted in germanium and gallium.

text: Using the chondritic reference model and combining known compositions of the

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: , the unknown component, the composition of the inner and outer core, can be determined; 85% Fe, 5% Ni, 0.9% Cr, 0.25% Co, and all other

text: refractory metal

text: s at very low concentration. This leaves Earth's core with a 5–10% weight deficit for the outer core, and a 4–5% weight deficit for the inner core; which is attributed to lighter elements that should be cosmically abundant and are iron-soluble; H, O, C, S, P, and Si. Earth's core contains half the Earth's

text: vanadium

text: and

text: chromium

text: , and may contain considerable

text: niobium

text: and

text: tantalum

text: . Earth's core is depleted in

text: germanium

text: and

text: gallium

text: The Grey Goo starts small again in the late Cretaceous period, consuming the plants and animals of the area, before consuming a volcano and being hit by a meteor, which prevents the dinosaurs from going extinct. In the present, the scientist and the assistant experience changes in the timeline as they happen in the past. After being hit by the meteor, the grey goo travels through time again, but each time it travels through time it reverts to a small size. It then travels to Egypt, and consumes snakes, mummies, cats, people, buildings, and the pyramids. Next it travels to Ancient Rome, where it consumes a feast, people, then buildings and destroys the city, forcing the Romans to pull together and prevent the fall of the empire. Next it travels to Feudal Japan, where it eats rice, ninjas, and buildings, but also consumes Monsterzilla (Godzilla), removing the world's protection from giant monsters and allowing them to ravage the present. The scientist by this point has figured out that the grey goo has only one jump left, this time to their future, and they must be prepared for it, so he and his assistant preserve their brains so they can survive until the grey goo appears. When it does, far in the future, it is microscopic instead of a few centimeters in diameter as when it usually jumps, but the scientist has prepared tiny robots to destroy the grey goo while it is still small. However, it evades the bots and grows larger, necessitating the scientist's second line of defense: energy weapons grafted onto ants, rats, and cats. It evades those too, growing large enough to consume the scientist and his assistants' brains. Giant humanoid tanks armed with powerful lasers are dispatched to destroy the goo, now several meters in diameter, but it evades the blasts, consumes future technology, people, and cars, and destroys the tanks too, destroying the city. Next, it launches into space, grows on space rocks, destroys humanity's last line of defense - large circular spacecraft that measure roughly 150 kilometers in diameter - then moves on to destroy the moon, inner planets, and the gas giants. Next the grey goo consumes small stars around the sun, then the sun itself, working up to larger stars, gas giants, nebulae, a black hole, star clusters, galaxies, and galaxy clusters. Ripping through the fabric of time, it eats said fabric, and discovers that the fabric of time is resting on the back of a turtle, which is on the back of a slightly larger turtle, and that it's turtles all the way down. It then eats the turtles until they are gone, but since the turtles are never ending, the goo feasts forever, then the game is over.

text: The Grey Goo starts small again in the late

text: Cretaceous

text: period, consuming the plants and animals of the area, before consuming a volcano and being hit by a meteor, which prevents the dinosaurs from going extinct. In the present, the scientist and the assistant experience changes in the timeline as they happen in the past. After being hit by the meteor, the grey goo travels through time again, but each time it travels through time it reverts to a small size. It then travels to

text: Egypt

text: , and consumes snakes, mummies, cats, people, buildings, and the pyramids. Next it travels to

text: Ancient Rome

text: , where it consumes a feast, people, then buildings and destroys the city, forcing the Romans to pull together and prevent the fall of the empire. Next it travels to

text: Feudal Japan

text: , where it eats rice, ninjas, and buildings, but also consumes Monsterzilla (Godzilla), removing the world's protection from giant monsters and allowing them to ravage the present. The scientist by this point has figured out that the grey goo has only one jump left, this time to their future, and they must be prepared for it, so he and his assistant

text: preserve their brains

text: so they can survive until the grey goo appears. When it does, far in the future, it is microscopic instead of a few centimeters in diameter as when it usually jumps, but the scientist has prepared

text: tiny robots

text: to destroy the grey goo while it is still small. However, it evades the bots and grows larger, necessitating the scientist's second line of defense: energy weapons grafted onto ants, rats, and cats. It evades those too, growing large enough to consume the scientist and his assistants' brains. Giant humanoid tanks armed with powerful lasers are dispatched to destroy the goo, now several meters in diameter, but it evades the blasts, consumes future technology, people, and cars, and destroys the tanks too, destroying the city. Next, it launches into space, grows on space rocks, destroys humanity's last line of defense - large circular spacecraft that measure roughly 150 kilometers in diameter - then moves on to destroy the moon, inner planets, and the gas giants. Next the grey goo consumes small stars around the sun, then the sun itself, working up to larger stars,

text: gas giant

text: s,

text: nebula

text: e, a

text: black hole

text: , star clusters, galaxies, and galaxy clusters. Ripping through the fabric of time, it eats said fabric, and discovers that the fabric of time is resting on the back of a turtle, which is on the back of a slightly larger turtle, and that it's

text: turtles all the way down

text: . It then eats the turtles until they are gone, but since the turtles are never ending, the goo feasts forever, then the game is over.

text: Vulcanoids, being an entirely new class of celestial bodies, would be interesting in their own right, but discovering whether or not they exist would yield insights into the formation and evolution of the Solar System. If they exist they might contain material left over from the earliest period of planet formation, and help determine the conditions under which the terrestrial planets, particularly Mercury, formed. In particular, if vulcanoids exist or did exist in the past, they would represent an additional population of impactors that have affected no other planet but Mercury, making that planet's surface appear older than it actually is. If vulcanoids are found not to exist, this would place different constraints on planet formation and suggest that other processes have been at work in the inner Solar System, such as planetary migration clearing out the area.

text: Vulcanoids, being an entirely new class of celestial bodies, would be interesting in their own right, but discovering whether or not they exist would yield insights into the

text: formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: . If they exist they might contain material left over from the earliest period of planet formation, and help determine the conditions under which the

text: terrestrial planets

text: , particularly Mercury, formed. In particular, if vulcanoids exist or did exist in the past, they would represent an additional population of impactors that have affected no other planet but Mercury, making that planet's surface appear older than it actually is. If vulcanoids are found not to exist, this would place different constraints on planet formation and suggest that other processes have been at work in the inner Solar System, such as

text: planetary migration

text: clearing out the area.

text: A protoplanetary disk is a rotating circumstellar disk of dense gas and dust surrounding a young newly formed  star, a T Tauri star, or Herbig Ae/Be star. The protoplanetary disk may also be considered an accretion disk for the star itself, because gasses or other material may be falling from the inner edge of the disk onto the surface of the star. But this process should not be confused with the accretion process thought to build up the planets themselves. Externally illuminated photo-evaporating protoplanetary disks are called proplyds.

text: A protoplanetary disk is a rotating

text: circumstellar disk

text: of dense gas and dust surrounding a

text: young newly formed

text: star, a

text: T Tauri star

text: , or

text: Herbig Ae/Be star

text: . The protoplanetary disk may also be considered an

text: accretion disk

text: for the star itself, because gasses or other material may be falling from the inner edge of the disk onto the surface of the star. But this process should not be confused with the accretion process thought to build up the planets themselves. Externally illuminated photo-evaporating protoplanetary disks are called

text: proplyds

text: Kepler-4b's discovery was announced on January 4, 2010. It is the size of planet Neptune, at 0.077 M (7% the mass of Jupiter) and 0.357 R (36% the radius of Jupiter). The planet orbits its star every 3.214 days at 0.045 AU from the star. This distance compares to planet Mercury, which is 0.39 AU from the Sun. Kepler-4's eccentricity was assumed to be 0, however a subsequent independent reanalysis of the discovery data found a value of 0.25 ± 0.12. Likewise, the temperature of the planet is assumed to be 1650 K, far hotter than Jupiter's, which is assumed to be 124 K (not considering its internal heat and atmosphere).

text: 's discovery was announced on January 4, 2010. It is the size of planet

text: Neptune

text: , at 0.077

text: M

text: (7% the mass of

text: Jupiter

text: ) and 0.357

text: R

text: (36% the radius of Jupiter). The planet orbits its star every 3.214 days at 0.045

text: AU

text: from the star. This distance compares to planet

text: Mercury

text: , which is 0.39 AU from the Sun. Kepler-4's

text: eccentricity

text: was assumed to be 0, however a subsequent independent reanalysis of the discovery data found a value of 0.25 ± 0.12. Likewise, the temperature of the planet is assumed to be 1650 K, far hotter than Jupiter's, which is assumed to be 124 K (not considering its internal heat and atmosphere).

text: Bujold pays token attention to the variations in measurable time units from planet to planet, positing an Earth-based “standard year” which holds through the entire Nexus. Moreover, days are calculated in terms of a “standard hour” no matter how long they are, so that Barrayar has a day 26.7 hours long. Bujold herself has commented that her posited system is neither technologically nor economically feasible, but is rather a convenience for storytelling.

text: For gas giants, geometric albedo generally decreases with increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless there are clouds to modify this effect. Increased cloud-column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths, but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths. Optical albedo increases with age, because older planets have higher cloud-column depths. Optical albedo decreases with increasing mass, because higher-mass giant planets have higher surface gravities, which produces lower cloud-column depths. Also, elliptical orbits can cause major fluctuations in atmospheric composition, which can have a significant effect.

text: For

text: gas giant

text: s, geometric albedo generally decreases with increasing metallicity or atmospheric temperature unless there are clouds to modify this effect. Increased cloud-column depth increases the albedo at optical wavelengths, but decreases it at some infrared wavelengths. Optical albedo increases with age, because older planets have higher cloud-column depths. Optical albedo decreases with increasing mass, because higher-mass giant planets have higher surface gravities, which produces lower cloud-column depths. Also, elliptical orbits can cause major fluctuations in atmospheric composition, which can have a significant effect.

text: The phenomenon of day and night is due to the rotation of a celestial body about its axis, creating an illusion of the sun rising and setting. Different bodies spin at very different rates, however. Some may spin much faster than Earth, while others spin extremely slowly, leading to very long days and nights. The planet Venus rotates once every 224.7 days – by far the slowest rotation period of any of the major planets. In contrast, the gas giant Jupiter's sidereal day is only 9 hours and 56 minutes. However, it is not just the sidereal rotation period which determines the length of a planet's day-night cycle but the length of its orbital period as well - Venus has a rotation period of 224.7 days, but a day-night cycle just 116.75 days long due to its retrograde rotation and orbital motion around the Sun. Mercury has the longest day-night cycle as a result of its 3:2 resonance between its orbital period and rotation period - this resonance gives it a day-night cycle 176 days long. A planet may experience large temperature variations between day and night, such as Mercury, the planet closest to the sun. This is one consideration in terms of planetary habitability or the possibility of extraterrestrial life.

text: The phenomenon of day and night is due to the rotation of a

text: celestial body

text: about its axis, creating an illusion of the sun rising and setting. Different bodies spin at very different rates, however. Some may spin much faster than

text: Earth

text: , while others spin extremely slowly, leading to very long days and nights. The planet

text: Venus

text: rotates once every 224.7 days – by far the slowest rotation period of any of the major planets. In contrast, the gas giant

text: Jupiter

text: 's

text: sidereal day

text: is only 9 hours and 56 minutes. However, it is not just the sidereal rotation period which determines the length of a planet's day-night cycle but the length of its orbital period as well - Venus has a rotation period of 224.7 days, but a day-night cycle just 116.75 days long due to its

text: retrograde

text: rotation and orbital motion around the Sun. Mercury has the longest day-night cycle as a result of its 3:2 resonance between its orbital period and rotation period - this resonance gives it a day-night cycle 176 days long. A planet may experience large temperature variations between day and night, such as

text: Mercury

text: , the planet closest to the sun. This is one consideration in terms of

text: planetary habitability

text: or the possibility of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: When the compacted mass of the inert core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about , electron degeneracy is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational compression. A cataclysmic implosion of the core takes place within seconds. Without the support of the now-imploded inner core, the outer core collapses inwards under gravity and reaches a velocity of up to 23% of the speed of light and the sudden compression increases the temperature of the inner core to up to 100 billion kelvin. Neutrons and neutrinos are formed via reversed beta-decay, releasing about 10 joules (100 foe) in a ten-second burst. Also, the collapse of the inner core is halted by neutron degeneracy, causing the implosion to rebound and bounce outward. The energy of this expanding shock wave is sufficient to disrupt the overlying stellar material and accelerate it to escape velocity, forming a supernova explosion. The shock wave and extremely high temperature and pressure rapidly dissipate but are present for long enough to allow for a brief period during which theproduction of elements heavier than iron occurs. Depending on initial size of the star, the remnants of the core form a neutron star or a black hole. Because of the underlying mechanism, the resulting nova is also described as a core-collapse supernova.

text: When the compacted mass of the inert core exceeds the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: of about , electron degeneracy is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational compression. A cataclysmic

text: implosion

text: of the core takes place within seconds. Without the support of the now-imploded inner core, the outer core collapses inwards under gravity and reaches a

text: velocity

text: of up to 23% of the

text: speed of light

text: and the sudden compression increases the temperature of the inner core to up to 100 billion

text: kelvin

text: Neutron

text: s and

text: neutrino

text: s are formed via

text: reversed beta-decay

text: , releasing about 10 joules (100

text: foe

text: ) in a ten-second burst. Also, the collapse of the inner core is halted by

text: neutron degeneracy

text: , causing the implosion to rebound and bounce outward. The energy of this expanding

text: shock wave

text: is sufficient to disrupt the overlying stellar material and accelerate it to escape velocity, forming a supernova explosion. The shock wave and extremely high temperature and pressure rapidly dissipate but are present for long enough to allow for a brief period during which the

text: production of elements

text: heavier than iron occurs. Depending on initial size of the star, the remnants of the core form a

text: neutron star

text: or a

text: black hole

text: . Because of the underlying mechanism, the resulting

text: nova

text: is also described as a core-collapse supernova.

text: After his death, Liquid Snake's right arm was transplanted to Revolver Ocelot, replacing the one he lost his during the events of the previous game. This results in Liquid's personality manifesting itself within Ocelot whenever Solid Snake is in proximity, causing Ocelot to adopt Liquid's voice and mannerisms. This happens for the first time when Snake confronts Ocelot during the hijacking of Metal Gear RAY from the disguised tanker. The rest of Liquid's body was being kept by an unspecified agency until it was stolen by Snake and his partner Hal Emmerich in order to fake Snake's death following the Tanker incident. Liquid's mind manifests within Ocelot once again during the final confrontation atop Arsenal Gear, as he hijacks Metal Gear RAY again with the intent of rebelling against The Patriots.

text: After his death, Liquid Snake's right arm was transplanted to

text: Revolver Ocelot

text: , replacing the one he lost his during the events of the previous game. This results in Liquid's personality manifesting itself within Ocelot whenever Solid Snake is in proximity, causing Ocelot to adopt Liquid's voice and mannerisms. This happens for the first time when Snake confronts Ocelot during the hijacking of

text: Metal Gear RAY

text: from the disguised

text: tanker

text: . The rest of Liquid's body was being kept by an unspecified agency until it was stolen by Snake and his partner

text: Hal Emmerich

text: in order to fake Snake's death following the Tanker incident. Liquid's mind manifests within Ocelot once again during the final confrontation atop

text: Arsenal Gear

text: , as he hijacks Metal Gear RAY again with the intent of rebelling against

text: The Patriots

text: In the moderate latitudes (between the circles and tropics, where most humans live), the length of the day, solar altitude and azimuth vary from one day to the next, and from season to season. The difference between the length of a long summer day and a short winter day increases as one moves farther away from the equator.

text: The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.

text: The average

text: salinity

text: of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large

text: heat reservoir

text: . Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the

text: El Niño-Southern Oscillation

text: The increase in the eccentricity of the inner ice giant was found to be due to the varying strengths of the coupling between the planetesimal disk and the planets. The inner ice giant, with its higher eccentricity due to its resonant capture of the outer ice giant, would normally migrate at a faster rate than the other planets. However, since the resonant configuration requires that the migration be synchronized, the inner ice giant must drag the other planets along. The increase in the inner ice giant’s eccentricity is a result of this process.

text: Western Canada has many volcanoes and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a system of volcanoes found around the margins of the Pacific Ocean. There are over 200 young volcanic centres that stretch northward from the Cascade Range to Yukon. They are grouped into five volcanic belts with different volcano types and tectonic settings. The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province was formed by faulting, cracking, rifting, and the interaction between the Pacific Plate and the North American plate. The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt was formed by subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath the North American Plate. The Anahim Volcanic Belt was formed as a result of the North American Plate sliding westward over the Anahim hotspot. The Chilcotin Group is believed to have formed as a result of back-arc extension behind the Cascadia subduction zone. The Wrangell Volcanic Field formed as a result of subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate at the easternmost end of the Aleutian Trench.

text: Western Canada

text: has many volcanoes and is part of the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: , a system of volcanoes found around the margins of the Pacific Ocean. There are over 200 young volcanic centres that stretch northward from the

text: Cascade Range

text: to

text: Yukon

text: . They are grouped into five

text: volcanic belt

text: s with different volcano types and

text: tectonic

text: settings. The

text: Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province

text: was formed by

text: faulting

text: , cracking,

text: rift

text: ing, and the interaction between the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American plate

text: . The

text: Garibaldi Volcanic Belt

text: was formed by

text: subduction

text: of the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: beneath the North American Plate. The

text: Anahim Volcanic Belt

text: was formed as a result of the North American Plate sliding westward over the

text: Anahim hotspot

text: . The

text: Chilcotin Group

text: is believed to have formed as a result of

text: back-arc extension

text: behind the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: . The

text: Wrangell Volcanic Field

text: formed as a result of subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate at the easternmost end of the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: Planet Stories was an American pulp science fiction magazine, published by Fiction House between 1939 and 1955. It featured interplanetary adventures, both in space and on other planets, and was initially focused on a young readership.  Malcolm Reiss was editor or editor-in-chief for all of its 71 issues.  Planet Stories was launched at the same time as Planet Comics, the success of which probably helped to fund the early issues of Planet Stories.  Planet did not pay well enough to regularly attract the leading science fiction writers of the day, but did manage to obtain work from well-known names on occasion, including Isaac Asimov and Clifford Simak.  In 1952 Planet published Philip K. Dick's first sale, and went on to print four more of his stories over the next three years.

text: Planet Stories was an American

text: pulp

text: science fiction magazine

text: , published by

text: Fiction House

text: between 1939 and 1955. It featured interplanetary adventures, both in space and on other planets, and was initially focused on a young readership.  Malcolm Reiss was editor or editor-in-chief for all of its 71 issues.  Planet Stories was launched at the same time as

text: Planet Comics

text: , the success of which probably helped to fund the early issues of Planet Stories.  Planet did not pay well enough to regularly attract the leading science fiction writers of the day, but did manage to obtain work from well-known names on occasion, including

text: Isaac Asimov

text: and

text: Clifford Simak

text: .  In 1952 Planet published

text: Philip K. Dick

text: 's first sale, and went on to print four more of his stories over the next three years.

text: In May 2009, astronomers from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, announced that they had found evidence of a planet orbit VB 10, which they designated VB 10b. The  Hale telescope at the Palomar Observatory was used to detect evidence of this planet using the astrometry method. The new planet was claimed to have a mass 6 times that of Jupiter and an orbital period of 270 days. However, subsequent studies using Doppler spectroscopy failed to detect the radial velocity variations that would be expected if such a planet was orbiting this small star. The claimants of VB 10b note that these Doppler measurements only rule out planets more massive than 3 times the mass of Jupiter, but this limit is only half the reported best-fit mass of the planet as originally claimed. The claims for this planet thus fall into a long history of claimed astrometric extrasolar planet detections that were subsequently refuted.

text: In May 2009, astronomers from

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: Pasadena, California

text: , announced that they had found evidence of a planet orbit VB 10, which they designated VB 10b. The

text: Hale telescope

text: at the

text: Palomar Observatory

text: was used to detect evidence of this planet using the

text: astrometry method

text: . The new planet was claimed to have a mass 6 times that of

text: Jupiter

text: and an orbital period of 270 days. However, subsequent studies using

text: Doppler spectroscopy

text: failed to detect the

text: radial velocity

text: variations that would be expected if such a planet was orbiting this small star. The claimants of VB 10b note that these Doppler measurements only rule out planets more massive than 3 times the mass of Jupiter, but this limit is only half the reported best-fit mass of the planet as originally claimed. The claims for this planet thus fall into a long history of claimed astrometric

text: extrasolar planet

text: detections that were subsequently refuted.

text: This planet was assumed to be outside the habitable zone on the assumption that the star is K1IVa. Given the star's luminosity, the planet is more likely on the zone's inner edge.

text: In contrast to the outer planets, the inner planets are not believed to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System, because their orbits have remained stable following the period of giant impacts.

text: In contrast to the outer planets, the inner planets are not believed to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System, because their orbits have remained stable following the

text: period of giant impacts

text: The planet would be inhospitable because of a runaway greenhouse effect on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would've boiled away due to the high stellar flux, and as this occurred, the temperature would've risen to around . The water vapor would've accumulated in the atmosphere to the point where the surface temperature would rise to around  as the planet would've been overwhelmed by water vapor (it is a powerful greenhouse gas). Little amounts of carbon dioxide would've been present, as Kepler-69c was probably an ocean planet (with little to no landmasses) very shortly after its star was born into the main sequence, before the stellar flux increased to its estimated present value. The surface pressure would've also increased to around 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100 kilopascals, 100 atm.) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: The planet would be inhospitable because of a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would've boiled away due to the high stellar flux, and as this occurred, the temperature would've risen to around . The

text: water vapor

text: would've accumulated in the atmosphere to the point where the surface temperature would rise to around  as the planet would've been overwhelmed by water vapor (it is a powerful greenhouse gas). Little amounts of

text: carbon dioxide

text: would've been present, as Kepler-69c was probably an

text: ocean planet

text: (with little to no landmasses) very shortly after its star was born into the

text: main sequence

text: , before the stellar flux increased to its estimated present value. The surface pressure would've also increased to around 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100

text: kilopascal

text: s, 100

text: atm.

text: ) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: The phases of iron at atmospheric pressure are important because of the differences in solubility of carbon, forming different types of steel. The high-pressure phases of iron are important as models for the solid parts of planetary cores. The inner core of the Earth is generally assumed to consist essentially of a crystalline iron-nickel alloy with ε structure. The outer core surrounding the solid inner core is believed to be composed of liquid iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.

text: The phases of iron at atmospheric pressure are important because of the differences in solubility of

text: carbon

text: , forming different types of

text: steel

text: . The high-pressure phases of iron are important as models for the solid parts of planetary cores. The

text: inner core

text: of the

text: Earth

text: is generally assumed to consist essentially of a crystalline iron-

text: nickel

text: alloy

text: with ε structure. The outer core surrounding the solid inner core is believed to be composed of liquid iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.

text: The Nice 2 model begins with the outer planets in a stable quadruple resonance with each planet in resonance with its nearest neighbors.  One example among several potential stable quadruple resonance configurations is Jupiter and Saturn in a 3:2 resonance, Saturn and Uranus in a 3:2 resonance, and Uranus and Neptune in a 4:3 resonance. Interactions with an outer planetesimal disk that is gravitationally stirred by Pluto-sized objects cause the planets to migrate inward while remaining in resonance. During this migration the eccentricity of the inner ice giant increases, leading to secular-resonance crossings. After several hundred million years, the resonant configuration is destabilized during one of these secular-resonance crossings. Gravitational encounters between the planets similar to those in the original Nice model begin shortly thereafter.

text: The Nice 2 model begins with the outer planets in a stable quadruple

text: resonance

text: with each planet in resonance with its nearest neighbors.  One example among several potential stable quadruple resonance configurations is

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: in a 3:2 resonance, Saturn and Uranus in a 3:2 resonance, and

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: in a 4:3 resonance. Interactions with an outer planetesimal disk that is gravitationally stirred by

text: Pluto

text: -sized objects cause the planets to migrate inward while remaining in resonance. During this migration the

text: eccentricity

text: of the inner

text: ice giant

text: increases, leading to

text: secular-resonance

text: crossings. After several hundred million years, the resonant configuration is destabilized during one of these secular-resonance crossings. Gravitational encounters between the planets similar to those in the original Nice model begin shortly thereafter.

text: The near-instantaneous quenching of the metal causes the metal to have a near-amorphous crystalline structure, which is very uncharacteristic of a typical crystal. This structure is very similar to liquids, and the only difference between liquids and amorphous solids is the high viscosity of the solid.Solids in general have a crystalline structure instead of an amorphous structure because the crystalline structure has a stronger binding energy. The way a solid can have the irregular spacing between its atoms is when a liquid is cooled below its melting temperature. The reason for this is the molecules do not have enough time to rearrange themselves in a crystalline structure, and therefore, they stay in the liquid-like structure.

text: The near-instantaneous

text: quenching

text: of the metal causes the metal to have a near-

text: amorphous

text: crystalline structure, which is very uncharacteristic of a typical crystal. This structure is very similar to liquids, and the only difference between liquids and amorphous solids is the high

text: viscosity

text: of the solid.Solids in general have a crystalline structure instead of an amorphous structure because the crystalline structure has a stronger binding energy. The way a solid can have the irregular spacing between its atoms is when a liquid is cooled below its melting temperature. The reason for this is the molecules do not have enough time to rearrange themselves in a crystalline structure, and therefore, they stay in the liquid-like structure.

text: In 2005, the Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search Team announced some of the discoveries of an extrasolar planet orbiting the star.

text: In 2005, the

text: Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search Team

text: announced some of the discoveries of an

text: extrasolar

text: planet

text: orbiting the star.

text: BD+20°2457 is a 10th magnitude K-type bright giant star located between 320 and 980 light years away in the constellation of Leo. This star is very metal-poor, containing only 10% as enriched with elements heavier than hydrogen and helium as our sun, almost classifying this as a population II star. On June 10, 2009, two planets were announced to be orbiting the star, with minimum masses 21.4 and 12.5 times the mass of Jupiter and orbital periods of 380 and 622 days for the inner and outer planets respectively. A dynamical analysis reveals that the proposed system is unstable on astronomically-short timescales and so the suggested planetary configuration is unlikely to be correct: further data is needed to determine a physically-plausible explanation for the radial velocity variations.

text: BD+20°2457 is a 10th

text: magnitude

text: K-type

text: bright giant

text: star

text: located between 320 and 980

text: light year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Leo

text: . This star is very metal-poor, containing only 10% as enriched with elements heavier than hydrogen and helium as our sun, almost classifying this as a

text: population II star

text: . On June 10, 2009, two planets were announced to be orbiting the star, with minimum masses 21.4 and 12.5 times the mass of Jupiter and orbital periods of 380 and 622 days for the inner and outer planets respectively. A dynamical analysis reveals that the proposed system is unstable on astronomically-short timescales and so the suggested planetary configuration is unlikely to be correct: further data is needed to determine a physically-plausible explanation for the radial velocity variations.

text: Johannes Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on July 19, 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be uniquely inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids correctly—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding (within the accuracy limits of available astronomical observations) to the relative sizes of each planet’s path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet’s orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.

text: Johannes Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery), was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an

text: epiphany

text: on July 19, 1595, while teaching in

text: Graz

text: , demonstrating the periodic

text: conjunction

text: of

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: in the

text: zodiac

text: : he realized that

text: regular polygon

text: s bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional

text: polyhedra

text: . He found that each of the five

text: Platonic solid

text: s could be uniquely inscribed and circumscribed by spherical

text: orbs

text: ; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: Mars

text: Jupiter

text: , and

text: Saturn

text: . By ordering the solids correctly—

text: octahedron

text: icosahedron

text: dodecahedron

text: tetrahedron

text: cube

text: —Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding (within the accuracy limits of available astronomical observations) to the relative sizes of each planet’s path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet’s orb to the length of its

text: orbital period

text: : from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.

text: This work eventually developed a method that is used to this day. The original temperature measures were made by examining the Doppler shifting of the spectral lines of the atoms in the plasma. However, the inaccuracy of the measurement and spurious results caused by electron impacts with the container led to misleading results. The introduction of lasers provided a new solution. Lasers have extremely accurate and stable frequency control, and the light they emit interacts strongly with free electrons. A laser shone into the plasma will be reflected off the electrons, and will be Doppler shifted by the electrons' movement, a British discovery known as Thomson scattering. The speed of the electrons is a function of their temperature, so by comparing the frequency before and after collisions, the temperature of the electrons could be measured with an extremely high degree of accuracy.

text: This work eventually developed a method that is used to this day. The original temperature measures were made by examining the Doppler shifting of the spectral lines of the atoms in the plasma. However, the inaccuracy of the measurement and spurious results caused by electron impacts with the container led to misleading results. The introduction of

text: laser

text: s provided a new solution. Lasers have extremely accurate and stable frequency control, and the light they emit interacts strongly with free electrons. A laser shone into the plasma will be reflected off the electrons, and will be Doppler shifted by the electrons' movement, a British discovery known as

text: Thomson scattering

text: . The speed of the electrons is a function of their temperature, so by comparing the frequency before and after collisions, the temperature of the electrons could be measured with an extremely high degree of accuracy.

text: After the outer steel mantle has been cleaned, it is again lowered over the outer bell model. The mantle and the outer bell mould are then lowered over the inner mould and the outer and inner sections are clamped together, leaving a space between them. The clamped mould is supported, by being buried in a casting pit which bears the weight of metal and allows even cooling. Ingots of either ready-made bronze or its component metals are melted in a melting furnace and heated until liquid at a temperature of approximately . The liquid metal is then skimmed to remove impurities before the start of the casting process. When everything is ready, the molten bronze is transferred to the moulds using either ladles or a system of brick channels specially constructed in the casting pit, through which the hot metal can then flow from the melting furnace into the space between the two moulds. Holes in the top of the mantle ensure that gases are able to escape. If gas remained in the metal, the bell would be porous and susceptible to cracking. Porousness can also develop if the mould is damp, is not at the proper temperature, or if the metal, when poured, is not hot enough. The bell is allowed to cool for several days. Large bells can take over a week to cool completely. Small bells, those under , can be removed from the moulding pit the following day.

text: After the outer steel mantle has been cleaned, it is again lowered over the outer bell model. The mantle and the outer bell mould are then lowered over the inner mould and the outer and inner sections are clamped together, leaving a space between them. The clamped mould is supported, by being buried in a casting pit which bears the weight of metal and allows even cooling.

text: Ingots

text: of either ready-made bronze or its component metals are melted in a melting furnace and heated until liquid at a temperature of approximately . The liquid metal is then skimmed to remove impurities before the start of the casting process. When everything is ready, the molten bronze is transferred to the moulds using either ladles or a system of brick channels specially constructed in the casting pit, through which the hot metal can then flow from the melting furnace into the space between the two moulds. Holes in the top of the mantle ensure that gases are able to escape. If gas remained in the metal, the bell would be porous and susceptible to cracking. Porousness can also develop if the mould is damp, is not at the proper temperature, or if the metal, when poured, is not hot enough. The bell is allowed to cool for several days. Large bells can take over a week to cool completely. Small bells, those under , can be removed from the moulding pit the following day.

text: As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the African Plate includes the continent and parts of the floor of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea-floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through arc volcanism and accretion of terranes through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain ophiolite sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("mafic") than continental crust ("felsic"). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below sea level (for example most of the Pacific Plate), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page isostasy for explanation of this principle).

text: As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the

text: African Plate

text: includes the continent and parts of the floor of the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Indian

text: Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea-floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through

text: arc volcanism

text: and

text: accretion

text: of

text: terrane

text: s through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain

text: ophiolite

text: sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("

text: mafic

text: ") than continental crust ("

text: felsic

text: "). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below

text: sea level

text: (for example most of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: ), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page

text: isostasy

text: for explanation of this principle).

text: A third Snake brother known as Solidus Snake is introduced as the United States President at the end of Metal Gear Solid and serves as the main antagonist of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty. During his time as President, Solidus became aware of a secretive cabal known as "The Patriots" who were steadily manipulating the course of human history. After his tenure as President is over, Solidus takes control of the "Big Shell" offshore facility, which is being used to develop Arsenal Gear, a mobile undersea fortress designed to house and protect a network of artificial intelligences created to influence human development by filtering the availability of information across the Internet. The game is set four years after Liquid's death in Metal Gear Solid, and it puts the player in control of Raiden, a soldier who fights against Solidus, who is revealed to be his former commander during his term as a child soldier. Raiden joins forces with Snake, and later learns that they are all being manipulated by Revolver Ocelot, who has been working for the Patriots. At the end of the game, Ocelot seemingly becomes possessed by Liquid Snake as the nanomachines from Liquid Snake's arm (Which Ocelot took to replace his own arm after Grey Fox slices it off in Metal Gear Solid) work their way into Ocelot's thought process.

text: A third Snake brother known as

text: Solidus Snake

text: is introduced as the

text: United States President

text: at the end of Metal Gear Solid and serves as the main antagonist of

text: Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty

text: . During his time as President, Solidus became aware of a secretive cabal known as "The Patriots" who were steadily manipulating the course of human history. After his tenure as President is over, Solidus takes control of the "Big Shell" offshore facility, which is being used to develop Arsenal Gear, a mobile undersea fortress designed to house and protect a network of artificial intelligences created to influence human development by filtering the availability of information across the Internet. The game is set four years after Liquid's death in Metal Gear Solid, and it puts the player in control of

text: Raiden

text: , a soldier who fights against Solidus, who is revealed to be his former commander during his term as a child soldier. Raiden joins forces with Snake, and later learns that they are all being manipulated by

text: Revolver Ocelot

text: , who has been working for the Patriots. At the end of the game, Ocelot seemingly becomes possessed by Liquid Snake as the nanomachines from Liquid Snake's arm (Which Ocelot took to replace his own arm after Grey Fox slices it off in Metal Gear Solid) work their way into Ocelot's thought process.

text: Although little-known to the general public, British Columbia is home to a huge area of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Several mountains that many British Columbians look at every day are dormant volcanoes. Most of them have erupted during the Pleistocene and Holocene. Although none of Canada's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes, volcanic fields, and volcanic centers are considered potentially active, 49 of which have erupted in the past 10,000 years and many of which have been active in the past two million years. There are hot springs at some volcanoes while 10 volcanoes in British Columbia appear related to seismic activity since 1975, including: Mount Silverthrone, Mount Meager, Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, Castle Rock, The Volcano, Mount Edziza, Hoodoo Mountain and Crow Lagoon. Numerous shield volcanoes developed during the Tertiary period in north-central British Columbia and some were active intermittently to recent times. Mount Edziza and Level Mountain are most spectacular examples. Mount Edziza is a stratovolcano consisting of a basal shield of basaltic flows surmounted by a central vent and flanked by numerous satellite cones, ash beds and blocky lavas. The complex has a long history of volcanic eruption that began about 10 million years ago and ended about 1300 years ago. The volcanoes are grouped into four volcanic belts with different tectonic settings.

text: Although little-known to the general public, British Columbia is home to a huge area of

text: volcano

text: es and volcanic activity in the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: . Several mountains that many British Columbians look at every day are

text: dormant volcano

text: es. Most of them have erupted during the

text: Pleistocene

text: and

text: Holocene

text: . Although none of Canada's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes,

text: volcanic field

text: s, and volcanic centers are considered potentially active, 49 of which have erupted in the past 10,000 years and many of which have been active in the past two million years. There are

text: hot spring

text: s at some volcanoes while 10 volcanoes in British Columbia appear related to

text: seismic activity

text: since 1975, including:

text: Mount Silverthrone

text: Mount Meager

text: Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field

text: Mount Garibaldi

text: Mount Cayley

text: Castle Rock

text: The Volcano

text: Mount Edziza

text: Hoodoo Mountain

text: and

text: Crow Lagoon

text: . Numerous

text: shield volcano

text: es developed during the

text: Tertiary

text: period in north-central British Columbia and some were active intermittently to recent times.

text: Mount Edziza

text: and

text: Level Mountain

text: are most spectacular examples. Mount Edziza is a

text: stratovolcano

text: consisting of a basal shield of

text: basalt

text: ic flows surmounted by a central vent and flanked by numerous satellite cones, ash beds and blocky lavas. The complex has a long history of volcanic eruption that began about 10 million years ago and ended about 1300 years ago. The volcanoes are grouped into four

text: volcanic belt

text: s with different tectonic settings.

text: Alba Mons (formerly known as Alba Patera, a term that has since been restricted to the volcano's summit caldera) is an immense, low-lying volcano located in the northern Tharsis region of the planet Mars. It is the largest volcano on Mars in terms of area, with volcanic flow fields that extend for at least  from its summit. Although the volcano has a span comparable to that of the United States, it reaches an elevation of only  at its highest point. This is about one-third the height of Olympus Mons, the tallest volcano on the planet. The flanks of Alba Mons have very gentle slopes. The average slope along the volcano's northern (and steepest) flank is 0.5°, which is over five times lower than the slopes on the other large Tharsis volcanoes. In broad profile, Alba Mons resembles a vast but barely raised welt on the planet's surface. It is a unique volcanic structure with no counterpart on Earth or elsewhere on Mars.

text: Alba Mons (formerly known as Alba Patera, a term that has since been restricted to the volcano's summit caldera) is an immense, low-lying

text: volcano

text: located in the northern

text: Tharsis

text: region of the planet

text: Mars

text: . It is the largest volcano on Mars in terms of area, with volcanic flow fields that extend for at least  from its summit. Although the volcano has a span comparable to that of the

text: United States

text: , it reaches an elevation of only  at its highest point. This is about one-third the height of

text: Olympus Mons

text: , the tallest volcano on the planet. The flanks of Alba Mons have very gentle slopes. The average slope along the volcano's northern (and steepest) flank is 0.5°, which is over five times lower than the slopes on the other large

text: Tharsis volcanoes

text: . In broad profile, Alba Mons resembles a vast but barely raised welt on the planet's surface. It is a unique volcanic structure with no counterpart on Earth or elsewhere on Mars.

text: In astronomy, an inner moon or inner natural satellite is a natural satellite following a prograde, low-inclination orbit inwards of the large satellites of the parent planet. They are generally thought to have been formed in situ at the same time as the coalescence of the original planet. Neptune's moons are an exception, as they are likely reaggregates of the pieces of the original bodies, which were disrupted after the capture of the large moon Triton. Inner satellites are distinguished from other regular satellites by their proximity to the parent planet, their short orbital periods (usually under a day), their low mass, small size, and irregular shapes.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: , an inner moon or inner natural satellite is a

text: natural satellite

text: following a

text: prograde

text: , low-

text: inclination

text: orbit

text: inwards of the large satellites of the parent planet. They are generally thought to have been formed

text: in situ

text: at the same time as the coalescence of the original planet.

text: Neptune

text: 's moons are an exception, as they are likely reaggregates of the pieces of the original bodies, which were disrupted after the capture of the large moon

text: Triton

text: . Inner satellites are distinguished from other

text: regular satellites

text: by their proximity to the parent planet, their short orbital periods (usually under a day), their low mass, small size, and irregular shapes.

text: However, the calendar as we know it is 364 days long, making it one and a quarter days short of a true year. This means, if it were put into practice, it would quickly become out of sync with reality. Because of this, Lawrence Schiffman has stated the view that "this calendar was never really put to the test except perhaps for a short period". Uwe Glessmer has proposed on the basis of 4Q319 ("Otot") that the calendar was in fact intercalated, a week being added every seven years to keep it in sync with the solar year. Roger Beckwith suggested that the discrepancy between the calendar and the true year, though noticed, may not have been of concern to the community that used the calendar.

text: However, the calendar as we know it is 364 days long, making it one and a quarter days short of a true year. This means, if it were put into practice, it would quickly become out of sync with reality. Because of this,

text: Lawrence Schiffman

text: has stated the view that "this calendar was never really put to the test except perhaps for a short period". Uwe Glessmer has proposed on the basis of 4Q319 ("Otot") that the calendar was in fact

text: intercalated

text: , a week being added every seven years to keep it in sync with the solar year. Roger Beckwith suggested that the discrepancy between the calendar and the true year, though noticed, may not have been of concern to the community that used the calendar.

text: Short-term goals expect accomplishment in a short period of time, such as trying to get a bill paid in the next few days. The definition of a short-term goal need not relate to any specific length of time. In other words, one may achieve (or fail to achieve) a short-term goal in a day, week, month, year, etc. The time-frame for a short-term goal relates to its context in the overall time line that it is being applied to. For instance, one could measure a short-term goal for a month-long project in days; whereas one might measure a short-term goal for someone's lifetime in months or in years. Planners usually define short-term goals in relation to long-term goals.

text: As the skin effect increases, the currents are concentrated near the outside of the inner conductor (r=a) and the inside of the shield (r=b). Since there is essentially no current deeper in the inner conductor, there is no magnetic field beneath the surface of the inner conductor. Since the current in the inner conductor is balanced by the opposite current flowing on the inside of the outer conductor, there is no remaining magnetic field in the outer conductor itself where

text: Melted micrometeorites (cosmic spherules) were first collected from deep-sea sediments during the 1873 to 1876 expedition of the HMS Challenger. In 1891, Murray and Renard found "two groups [of micrometeorites]: first, black magnetic spherules, with or without a metallic nucleus; second, brown-coloured spherules resembling chondr(ul)es, with a crystalline structure". In 1883, they suggested that these spherules were extraterrestrial because they were found far from terrestrial particle sources, they did not resemble magnetic spheres produced in furnaces of the time, and their nickel-iron (Fe-Ni) metal cores did not resemble metallic iron found in volcanic rocks. The spherules were most abundant in slowly accumulating sediments, particularly red clays deposited below the carbonate compensation depth, a finding that supported a meteoritic origin. In addition to those spheres with Fe-Ni metal cores, some spherules larger than 300 µm contain a core of elements from the platinum group.

text: Melted micrometeorites (cosmic spherules) were first collected from deep-sea sediments during the 1873 to 1876

text: expedition of the HMS Challenger

text: . In 1891, Murray and Renard found "two groups [of micrometeorites]: first, black magnetic spherules, with or without a metallic nucleus; second, brown-coloured spherules resembling chondr(ul)es, with a crystalline structure". In 1883, they suggested that these spherules were extraterrestrial because they were found far from terrestrial particle sources, they did not resemble magnetic spheres produced in furnaces of the time, and their

text: nickel-iron

text: (Fe-Ni) metal cores did not resemble metallic iron found in volcanic rocks. The spherules were most abundant in slowly accumulating sediments, particularly red clays deposited below the

text: carbonate compensation depth

text: , a finding that supported a meteoritic origin. In addition to those spheres with Fe-Ni metal cores, some spherules larger than 300 µm contain a core of elements from the platinum group.

text: The physical problem was addressed by Amerigo Vespucci and subsequently by Galileo Galilei; in 1499 Vespucci used knowledge of the position of the moon to determine his position in Brazil. It became of technical importance in the 1720s, as an accurate solution would be applicable to navigation, specifically for the determination of longitude at sea, solved in practice by John Harrison's invention of the Marine chronometer. However the accuracy of the lunar theory was low, due to the perturbing effect of the Sun and planets on the motion of the Moon around the Earth.

text: The physical problem was addressed by

text: Amerigo Vespucci

text: and subsequently by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: ; in 1499 Vespucci used knowledge of the position of the moon to determine his position in Brazil. It became of technical importance in the 1720s, as an accurate solution would be applicable to navigation, specifically for the

text: determination of longitude at sea

text: , solved in practice by

text: John Harrison

text: 's invention of the

text: Marine chronometer

text: . However the accuracy of the

text: lunar theory

text: was low, due to the perturbing effect of the Sun and planets on the motion of the Moon around the Earth.

text: Many Rare Earth proponents argue that the Earth's plate tectonics would probably not exist if not for the tidal forces of the Moon. The hypothesis that the Moon's tidal influence initiated or sustained Earth's plate tectonics remains unproven, though at least one study implies a temporal correlation to the formation of the Moon. Evidence for the past existence of plate tectonics on planets like Mars  which may never have had a large moon would counter this argument. Kasting argues that a large moon is not required to initiate plate tectonics.

text: A million years before the narrative commences, Mars was a lush world with oceans. As the oceans receded, and the atmosphere grew thin, the planet has devolved into a landscape of partial barbarism; living on an aging planet, with dwindling resources, the inhabitants of Barsoom have become hardened and warlike, fighting one another to survive.  Barsoomians distribute scarce water supplies via a worldwide system of canals, controlled by quarreling city-states. The thinning Martian atmosphere is artificially replenished from an "atmosphere plant".

text: A million years before the narrative commences, Mars was a lush world with oceans. As the oceans receded, and the atmosphere grew thin, the planet has devolved into a landscape of partial barbarism; living on an aging planet, with dwindling resources, the inhabitants of

text: Barsoom

text: have become hardened and warlike, fighting one another to survive.  Barsoomians distribute scarce water supplies via a worldwide system of

text: canals

text: , controlled by quarreling city-states. The thinning Martian atmosphere is artificially replenished from an "atmosphere plant".

text: At the point at which the corium relocates to the lower plenum, Haskin, et al relate that the possibility exists for an incident called a fuel-coolant interaction (FCI) to substantially stress or breach the primary pressure boundary when the corium relocates to the lower plenum of the reactor pressure vessel ("RPV").This is because the lower plenum of the RPV may have a substantial quantity of water - the reactor coolant - in it, and, assuming the primary system has not been depressurized, the water will likely be in the liquid phase, and consequently dense, and at a vastly lower temperature than the corium. Since corium is a liquid metal-ceramic eutectic at temperatures of , its fall into liquid water at  may cause an extremely rapid evolution of steam that could cause a sudden extreme overpressure and consequent gross structural failure of the primary system or RPV. Though most modern studies hold that it is physically infeasible, or at least extraordinarily unlikely, Haskin, et al state that there exists a remote possibility of an extremely violent FCI leading to something referred to as an alpha-mode failure, or the gross failure of the RPV itself, and subsequent ejection of the upper plenum of the RPV as a missile against the inside of the containment, which would likely lead to the failure of the containment and release of the fission products of the core to the outside environment without any substantial decay having taken place.

text: At the point at which the corium relocates to the lower plenum, Haskin, et al relate that the possibility exists for an incident called a fuel-coolant interaction (FCI) to substantially stress or breach the primary pressure boundary when the corium relocates to the lower plenum of the

text: reactor pressure vessel

text: ("RPV").This is because the lower plenum of the RPV may have a substantial quantity of water - the reactor coolant - in it, and, assuming the primary system has not been depressurized, the water will likely be in the liquid

text: phase

text: , and consequently dense, and at a vastly lower temperature than the corium. Since corium is a liquid metal-ceramic eutectic at temperatures of , its fall into liquid water at  may cause an

text: extremely rapid evolution

text: of steam that could cause a sudden extreme overpressure and consequent gross structural failure of the primary system or RPV. Though most modern studies hold that it is physically infeasible, or at least extraordinarily unlikely, Haskin, et al state that there exists a remote possibility of an extremely violent FCI leading to something referred to as an alpha-mode failure, or the gross failure of the RPV itself, and subsequent ejection of the upper plenum of the RPV as a missile against the inside of the containment, which would likely lead to the failure of the containment and release of the fission products of the core to the outside environment without any substantial decay having taken place.

text: The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a tectonic spreading center located off the coasts of the state of Washington in the United States and the province of British Columbia in Canada.  It runs northward from a transform boundary, the Blanco Fracture Zone, to a triple junction with the Nootka Fault and the Sovanco Fracture Zone. To its east is the Juan de Fuca Plate, which together with the Gorda Plate to its south and the Explorer Plate to its north, is what remains of the once-vast Farallon Plate which has been largely subducted under the North American Plate. To its west is the Pacific Plate. The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a remnant of the former Pacific–Farallon Ridge.

text: The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a

text: tectonic

text: spreading center

text: located off the coasts of the state of

text: Washington

text: in the

text: United States

text: and the province of

text: British Columbia

text: in

text: Canada

text: .  It runs northward from a transform boundary, the

text: Blanco Fracture Zone

text: , to a

text: triple junction

text: with the

text: Nootka Fault

text: and the

text: Sovanco Fracture Zone

text: . To its east is the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: , which together with the

text: Gorda Plate

text: to its south and the

text: Explorer Plate

text: to its north, is what remains of the once-vast

text: Farallon Plate

text: which has been largely subducted under the

text: North American Plate

text: . To its west is the

text: Pacific Plate

text: . The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a remnant of the former

text: Pacific–Farallon Ridge

text: The current scientific explanation for Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.

text: The current scientific explanation for

text: Earth's temperature gradient

text: is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and

text: freezing of the inner core

text: The natural satellites orbiting relatively close to the planet on prograde, uninclined circular orbits (regular satellites) are generally thought to have been formed out of the same collapsing region of the protoplanetary disk that created its primary.  In contrast, irregular satellites (generally orbiting on distant, inclined, eccentric and/or retrograde orbits) are thought to be captured asteroids possibly further fragmented by collisions. Most of the major natural satellites of the Solar System have regular orbits, while most of the small natural satellites have irregular orbits. The Moon and possibly Charon are exceptions among large bodies in that they are thought to have originated by the collision of two large proto-planetary objects (see the giant impact hypothesis). The material that would have been placed in orbit around the central body is predicted to have reaccreted to form one or more orbiting natural satellites. As opposed to planetary-sized bodies, asteroid moons are thought to commonly form by this process. Triton is another exception; although large and in a close, circular orbit, its motion is retrograde and it is thought to be a captured dwarf planet.

text: The natural satellites orbiting relatively close to the planet on

text: prograde

text: , uninclined circular orbits (

text: regular satellites

text: ) are generally thought to have been formed out of the same collapsing region of the

text: protoplanetary disk

text: that created its primary.  In contrast,

text: irregular satellite

text: s (generally orbiting on distant,

text: inclined

text: eccentric

text: and/or

text: retrograde

text: orbits) are thought to be captured

text: asteroid

text: s possibly further fragmented by collisions. Most of the major natural satellites of the

text: Solar System

text: have regular orbits, while most of the small natural satellites have irregular orbits. The

text: Moon

text: and possibly

text: Charon

text: are exceptions among large bodies in that they are thought to have originated by the collision of two large proto-planetary objects (see the

text: giant impact hypothesis

text: ). The material that would have been placed in orbit around the central body is predicted to have reaccreted to form one or more orbiting natural satellites. As opposed to planetary-sized bodies,

text: asteroid moon

text: s are thought to commonly form by this process. Triton is another exception; although large and in a close, circular orbit, its motion is retrograde and it is thought to be a captured

text: dwarf planet

text: It is so distant from its star and eccentric, that it will never enter a secondary eclipse relative to Earth, of the planet behind the star. The star's true temperature, and so the planet's surface temperature, cannot be measured with accuracy. Due to the high eccentricity the atmosphere of the planet undergoes a factor of 27 variation in stellar flux during each orbit.

text: It is so distant from its star and eccentric, that it will never enter a

text: secondary eclipse

text: relative to Earth, of the planet behind the star. The star's true temperature, and so the planet's surface temperature, cannot be measured with accuracy. Due to the high eccentricity the atmosphere of the planet undergoes a factor of 27 variation in stellar flux during each orbit.

text: A unique planet, completely covered by a thin layer of water with extremely high surface tension, allowing anyone to walk on it as if on land. The planet is populated by the Bezzarians, who are sentient 6.5-foot amoebae, the only known sentient single-celled organisms in the galaxy. The Bezzarians are quite advanced in the fields of biotechnology and space travel (their ships don't physically move through space; they simply shift their spatial coordinates). They also have a very low temperature tolerance. Humans can only survive on Bezzar for no more than twenty-four hours due to the planet's unique properties.

text: A unique planet, completely covered by a thin layer of water with extremely high

text: surface tension

text: , allowing anyone to walk on it as if on land. The planet is populated by the Bezzarians, who are sentient 6.5-foot

text: amoeba

text: e, the only known sentient

text: single-celled organism

text: s in the galaxy. The Bezzarians are quite advanced in the fields of biotechnology and space travel (their ships don't physically move through space; they simply shift their spatial coordinates). They also have a very low temperature tolerance. Humans can only survive on Bezzar for no more than twenty-four hours due to the planet's unique properties.

text: A number of solar system objects that are mostly to completely invisible to the human eye are reasonably detectable with medium-size binoculars, including larger craters on the Moon; the dim outer planets Uranus and Neptune; the inner "minor planets" Ceres, Vesta and Pallas; Saturn's largest moon Titan; and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. Although visible unaided in pollution-free skies, Uranus and Vesta require binoculars for easy detection. 10×50 binoculars are limited to an apparent magnitude of +9.5 to +11 depending on sky conditions and observer experience. Asteroids like Interamnia, Davida, Europa and, unless under exceptional conditions Hygiea, are too faint to be seen with commonly sold binoculars. Likewise too faint to be seen with most binoculars are the planetary moons except the Galileans and Titan, and the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris. Other difficult binocular targets include the phases of Venus and the rings of Saturn. Only binoculars with very high magnification, 20x or higher, are capable of discerning Saturn's rings to a recognizable extent.  High-power binoculars can sometimes show one or two cloud belts on the disk of Jupiter if optics and observing conditions are sufficiently good.

text: A number of solar system objects that are mostly to completely invisible to the human eye are reasonably detectable with medium-size binoculars, including larger craters on the

text: Moon

text: ; the dim outer planets

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: ; the inner "minor planets"

text: Ceres

text: Vesta

text: and

text: Pallas

text: ; Saturn's largest moon

text: Titan

text: ; and the

text: Galilean moons

text: of

text: Jupiter

text: . Although visible unaided in

text: pollution

text: -free skies, Uranus and Vesta require binoculars for easy detection. 10×50 binoculars are limited to an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +9.5 to +11 depending on sky conditions and observer experience. Asteroids like

text: Interamnia

text: Davida

text: Europa

text: and, unless under exceptional conditions

text: Hygiea

text: , are too faint to be seen with commonly sold binoculars. Likewise too faint to be seen with most binoculars are the planetary moons except the Galileans and Titan, and the

text: dwarf planet

text: s

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: . Other difficult binocular targets include the phases of

text: Venus

text: and the rings of

text: Saturn

text: . Only binoculars with very high magnification, 20x or higher, are capable of discerning Saturn's rings to a recognizable extent.  High-power binoculars can sometimes show one or two cloud belts on the disk of Jupiter if optics and observing conditions are sufficiently good.

text: In October 2016, researchers at France's CNRS research institute stated that there is a considerable chance of the planet harboring surface oceans and having a thin atmosphere. However, unless the planet transits, it is difficult to confirm these hypotheses.

text: An understanding of planetary habitability begins with the host star. The classical HZ is defined for surface conditions only; but a metabolism that does not depend on the stellar light, can still exist outside the HZ, thriving in the interior of the planet where liquid water is available.

text: The RTB model predicts an increase in astronomical evidence that Earth resides at the ideal location in the cosmos for both harboring advanced civilization and technology and making the universe observable. Nontheistic models predict that new astronomical discoveries will show that Earth is unremarkable for both habitability and observation. The RTB model also predicts that as scientists continue to research the causes and effects of plate tectonics, their findings will reveal evidence for the fine-tuning required for long-lasting, stable plate-tectonic activity on a planet with a thin atmosphere. It also predicts that the flood of Noah was a local event. Nontheistic models predict that evidence for fine-tuned, long-lasting plate tectonics will weaken as scientists learn more about plate tectonic phenomena. Young earth models predict that all plate tectonic activity occurred during the past ten thousand years, and that the bulk of that tectonic activity took place between 5,000 and 7,000 years ago.

text: Casters used in and around furnaces and ovens must withstand extreme heat. General purpose casters cannot survive excessive heat because tread materials, lubricants and other critical components can fail. For example, at 200 degrees F, common resilient tread materials are at or above their functional temperature limits. High temperature casters employ special lubricants and materials that can withstand higher heat. Additionally, for very high temperatures, special sleeve bearings may be used that have no lubricant whatsoever.

text: Casters used in and around

text: furnace

text: s and

text: oven

text: s must withstand extreme

text: heat

text: . General purpose casters cannot survive excessive heat because

text: tread

text: materials,

text: lubricant

text: s and other critical components can

text: fail

text: . For example, at 200 degrees F, common resilient tread materials are at or above their functional temperature limits. High temperature casters employ special lubricants and materials that can withstand higher heat. Additionally, for very high temperatures, special sleeve bearings may be used that have no lubricant whatsoever.

text: Fresh water is accessible to 99% of the citizens in the range of one kilometer. In the urban water supply exists a big difference between large and small cities. Tap water is a readily available water supply in large cities such as Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, covering nearly the entire population, whereas in smaller cities, there is a 60% variability.

text: Fresh water is accessible to 99% of the citizens in the range of one kilometer. In the urban water supply exists a big difference between large and small cities. Tap water is a readily available water supply in large cities such as

text: Ho Chi Minh City

text: and

text: Hanoi

text: , covering nearly the entire population, whereas in smaller cities, there is a 60% variability.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of Upsilon Andromedae d, the orbital period would have to be no greater than 120 days (around 4 months) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: orbital period

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of Upsilon Andromedae d, the orbital period would have to be no greater than 120 days (around 4 months) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: The Gorda Ridge is a tectonic spreading center located off the coast of Oregon and northern California north of Cape Mendocino.  It runs northward from the west-striking Mendocino Fracture Zone to another transform boundary, the Blanco Fracture Zone.  To its east is the Gorda Plate, which together with the Juan de Fuca Plate to its north, is what remains of the once-vast Farallon Plate which has been largely subducted under the North American Plate.  To its west is the Pacific Plate.

text: The Gorda Ridge is a

text: tectonic

text: spreading center

text: located off the coast of

text: Oregon

text: and northern

text: California

text: north of

text: Cape Mendocino

text: .  It runs northward from the west-striking

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: to another transform boundary, the

text: Blanco Fracture Zone

text: .  To its east is the

text: Gorda Plate

text: , which together with the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: Farallon Plate

text: North American Plate

text: .  To its west is the

text: Pacific Plate

text: The stars move across the inner surface of the celestial sphere along the circumferences of circles in parallel planes perpendicular to the Earth's axis extended indefinitely into the heavens and intersecting the celestial sphere in a celestial pole. The Sun and the planets do not move in these parallel paths but along another circle, the ecliptic, whose plane is at an angle, the obliquity of the ecliptic, to the axis, bringing the Sun and planets across the paths of and in among the stars.*

text: The

text: star

text: s move across the inner surface of the celestial

text: sphere

text: along the

text: circumference

text: s of

text: circle

text: s in

text: parallel

text: planes

text: perpendicular

text: to the Earth's axis extended indefinitely into the heavens and intersecting the celestial sphere in a celestial pole. The Sun and the

text: planet

text: s do not move in these parallel paths but along another circle, the ecliptic, whose plane is at an angle, the

text: obliquity of the ecliptic

text: , to the axis, bringing the Sun and planets across the paths of and in among the stars.*

text: The figure below illustrates an example of a nonlinear rod-shaped rigid core that gives rise to a bent-rod (calamitic) mesogen, where the antiferroelectric smectic C (Sm CPA) liquid crystal phase exists between the 145℃ (crystalline solid phase) and 162℃ (isotropic liquid phase) temperature range, Figure 7.

text: Recreational usage may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places.  For example, water retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not available to farmers during the spring planting season.  Water released for whitewater rafting may not be available for hydroelectric generation during the time of peak electrical demand.

text: In the years since his death, Motown has issued "You're the Man" on several compilations. Rap act Digable Planets recorded the tribute song, "Marvin, You're the Man", based off this song, for the 1994 tribute album, Inner City Blues: The Music of Marvin Gaye.

text: In the years since his

text: death

text: , Motown has issued "You're the Man" on several compilations. Rap act

text: Digable Planets

text: recorded the

text: tribute song

text: , "Marvin, You're the Man", based off this song, for the 1994 tribute album,

entity_name: Inner City Blues: The Music of Marvin Gaye

text: Inner City Blues: The Music of Marvin Gaye

text: The Uranius group of volcanoes is located on planet Mars in the northeast part of Tharsis and includes Uranius Mons, Ceraunius Tholus, and Uranius Tholus.

text: The Uranius group of volcanoes is located on planet Mars in the northeast part of

text: Tharsis

text: and includes

text: Uranius Mons

text: Ceraunius Tholus

text: , and

text: Uranius Tholus

text: Using the knowledge they had gained from the unwitting Baltar, the Cylons were able to override the sophisticated computer systems on each battlestar and viper fighter in the fleet and shut them down, thus rendering the ships defenseless. Within a few hours virtually the entire Colonial fleet had been destroyed. Despite President Adar's "unconditional surrender" of the Twelve Colonies, the Cylons did not respond, and detonated nuclear bombs on each of the planets. Casualties were extreme, and within a few hours, over 50 billion humans were dead. Within 24 hours after their initial attack, only the battlestars Galactica and Pegasus had survived, although they would not learn of each other's existence for some time. The Cylons, sometime after, occupied the Twelve Colonies. The nuclear attack did irreversible damage to the planets themselves: the nukes spread out so much radiation and did so much damage that the planets were going to go into nuclear winter according to Gaius Baltar. Caprica was shown to be clearly changing just days after the attack, and any survivors needed a supply of anti-radiation medication. The once blue-green world's sky turned noticeably orange, with the trees and vegetation slowly dying from radiation. Even though the Cylons ultimately abandoned the Colonies, the humans couldn't return to their homeworlds, as they were now devastated nuclear wastelands and were now uninhabitable for a very long time (as of the present day, some 150,000 years and counting).

text: Using the knowledge they had gained from the unwitting Baltar, the Cylons were able to override the sophisticated computer systems on each battlestar and viper fighter in the fleet and shut them down, thus rendering the ships defenseless. Within a few hours virtually the entire Colonial fleet had been destroyed. Despite President Adar's "unconditional surrender" of the Twelve Colonies, the Cylons did not respond, and detonated

text: nuclear bomb

text: s on each of the planets. Casualties were extreme, and within a few hours, over 50 billion humans were dead. Within 24 hours after their initial attack, only the battlestars Galactica and Pegasus had survived, although they would not learn of each other's existence for some time. The Cylons, sometime after, occupied the Twelve Colonies. The nuclear attack did irreversible damage to the planets themselves: the nukes spread out so much radiation and did so much damage that the planets were going to go into

text: nuclear winter

text: according to Gaius Baltar. Caprica was shown to be clearly changing just days after the attack, and any survivors needed a supply of anti-radiation medication. The once blue-green world's sky turned noticeably orange, with the trees and vegetation slowly dying from radiation. Even though the Cylons ultimately abandoned the Colonies, the humans couldn't return to their homeworlds, as they were now devastated nuclear wastelands and were now uninhabitable for a very long time (as of the present day, some 150,000 years and counting).

text: The following unidentified sounds have been detected by the USA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration using its Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array.

text: The following unidentified sounds have been detected by the USA

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: using its

text: Equatorial Pacific Ocean autonomous hydrophone array

text: Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, after Mercury. Named after the Roman god of war, it is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth.

text: Mars is the fourth

text: planet

text: from the

text: Sun

text: and the second-smallest planet in the

text: Solar System

text: , after

text: Mercury

text: . Named after the

text: Roman god of war

text: , it is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because the

text: iron oxide

text: prevalent on its surface gives it a

text: reddish appearance

text: . Mars is a

text: terrestrial planet

text: with a thin

text: atmosphere

text: , having surface features reminiscent both of the

text: impact crater

text: s of the

text: Moon

text: and the valleys, deserts, and

text: polar ice caps

text: of

text: Earth

text: The northern and southern hemispheres have atmospheric circulation systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. The atmospheric / ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere, with an apparent additional age of 30 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north. This is probably because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere than in the north. Since the surface ocean is depleted in  because of the marine effect,  is removed from the southern atmosphere more quickly than in the north.

text: The northern and southern hemispheres have

text: atmospheric circulation

text: systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. The atmospheric / ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere, with an apparent additional age of 30 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north. This is probably because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere than in the north. Since the surface ocean is depleted in  because of the marine effect,  is removed from the southern atmosphere more quickly than in the north.

text: The planet orbits its host star or brown dwarf with an orbital radius similar to that of Venus. But the host is likely to be between 3,000 and 1 million times fainter than the Sun, so the top of the planet's atmosphere is likely to be colder than Pluto. However, the planet is likely to maintain a massive atmosphere that would allow warmer temperatures at lower altitudes. It is even possible that interior heating by radioactive decay would be sufficient to make the surface as warm as the Earth, but theory suggests that the surface may be completely covered by a very deep ocean.

text: The planet orbits its host star or

text: brown dwarf

text: with an orbital radius similar to that of Venus. But the host is likely to be between 3,000 and 1 million times fainter than the Sun, so the top of the planet's atmosphere is likely to be colder than

text: Pluto

text: . However, the planet is likely to maintain a massive atmosphere that would allow warmer temperatures at lower altitudes. It is even possible that interior heating by

text: radioactive decay

text: would be sufficient to make the surface as warm as the Earth, but theory suggests that the surface may be completely covered by a very deep ocean.

text: Temperature as an agent of deterioration acts primarily in conjunction with relative humidity but can trigger damage in its own right. At the extremes, temperature can cause structural damage to some materials; paint may become brittle in excessive heat and some plastics may soften or melt in the heat. “High temperatures also accelerate chemical and biological processes.”

text: However, tidal heating is not the only factor shaping a lava planet. In addition to tidal heating from orbiting close to their parent star, the intense stellar irradiation could melt the surface crust directly into lava. The entire illuminated surface of a tidally locked planet could be left covered in lava oceans while the dark side may have lava lakes, or even rock rain caused by the condensation of vaporized rock from the hotter side. The mass of the planet would also be a factor. The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than Earth expected to exhibit plate tectonics and thus more intense volcanic activity.

text: However, tidal heating is not the only factor shaping a lava planet. In addition to tidal heating from orbiting close to their parent star, the intense stellar irradiation could melt the surface crust directly into lava. The entire illuminated surface of a

text: tidally locked

text: planet could be left covered in lava oceans while the dark side may have lava lakes, or even rock rain caused by the condensation of vaporized rock from the hotter side. The mass of the planet would also be a factor. The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than

text: Earth

text: expected to exhibit plate tectonics and thus more intense volcanic activity.

text: The principal term of nutation is due to the regression of the Moon's nodal line and has the same period of 6798 days (18.61 years). It reaches plus or minus 17″ in longitude and 9.2″ in obliquity. All other terms are much smaller; the next-largest, with a period of 183 days (0.5 year), has amplitudes 1.3″ and 0.6″ respectively. The periods of all terms larger than 0.0001″ (about as accurately as one can measure) lie between 5.5 and 6798 days; for some reason (as with ocean tidal periods) they seem to avoid the range from 34.8 to 91 days, so it is customary to split the nutation into long-period and short-period terms. The long-period terms are calculated and mentioned in the almanacs, while the additional correction due to the short-period terms is usually taken from a table.

text: The principal term of nutation is due to the regression of the Moon's

text: nodal line

text: and has the same period of 6798 days (18.61 years). It reaches plus or minus 17″ in

text: longitude

text: and 9.2″ in

text: obliquity

text: . All other terms are much smaller; the next-largest, with a period of 183 days (0.5 year), has amplitudes 1.3″ and 0.6″ respectively. The periods of all terms larger than 0.0001″ (about as accurately as one can measure) lie between 5.5 and 6798 days; for some reason (as with ocean tidal periods) they seem to avoid the range from 34.8 to 91 days, so it is customary to split the nutation into long-period and short-period terms. The long-period terms are calculated and mentioned in the almanacs, while the additional correction due to the short-period terms is usually taken from a table.

text: Earth's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. 71% of Earth's surface is covered with water. The remaining 29% is land mass—consisting of continents and islands—that together has many lakes, rivers, and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere. The majority of Earth's polar regions are covered in ice, including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the Earth's magnetic field, and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics.

text: Earth's

text: lithosphere

text: is divided into several rigid

text: tectonic plates

text: that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. 71% of Earth's surface is covered with water. The remaining 29% is land mass—consisting of continents and islands—that together has many lakes, rivers, and other sources of water that contribute to the

text: hydrosphere

text: . The majority of Earth's

text: polar regions

text: are covered in ice, including the

text: Antarctic ice sheet

text: and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack. Earth's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core, a liquid outer core that generates the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , and a convecting

text: mantle

text: that drives plate tectonics.

text: In 2001, an extrasolar planet was announced by the Anglo-Australian Planet Search team, together with the planet orbiting Epsilon Reticuli. The planet, designated Mu Arae b, was thought to be in a highly eccentric orbit of around 743 days. The discovery was made by analysing variations in the star's radial velocity (measured by observing the Doppler shift of the star's spectral lines) as a result of being pulled around by the planet's gravity.  Further observations revealed the presence of a second object in the system (now designated as Mu Arae e), which was published in 2004. At the time, the parameters of this planet were poorly constrained and it was thought to be in an orbit of around 8.2 years with a high eccentricity.  Later in 2004, a small inner planet designated Mu Arae c was announced with a mass comparable to that of Uranus in a 9-day orbit. This was the first of the class of planets known as "hot Neptunes" to be discovered. The discovery was made by making high-precision radial velocity measurements with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) spectrograph.

text: In 2001, an extrasolar planet was announced by the

text: Anglo-Australian Planet Search

text: team, together with the planet orbiting

text: Epsilon Reticuli

text: . The planet, designated

text: Mu Arae b

text: , was thought to be in a highly

text: eccentric

text: orbit of around 743 days. The discovery was made by analysing variations in the star's

text: radial velocity

text: (measured by observing the

text: Doppler shift

text: of the star's

text: spectral line

text: s) as a result of being pulled around by the planet's

text: gravity

text: .  Further observations revealed the presence of a second object in the system (now designated as

text: Mu Arae e

text: ), which was published in 2004. At the time, the parameters of this planet were poorly constrained and it was thought to be in an orbit of around 8.2 years with a high eccentricity.  Later in 2004, a small inner planet designated

text: Mu Arae c

text: was announced with a mass comparable to that of

text: Uranus

text: in a 9-day orbit. This was the first of the class of planets known as "

text: hot Neptune

text: s" to be discovered. The discovery was made by making high-precision radial velocity measurements with the

text: High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher

text: (HARPS)

text: spectrograph

text: Medieval and Renaissance writers generally accepted the idea of seven planets. The standard medieval introduction to astronomy, Sacrobosco's De Sphaera, includes the Sun and Moon among the planets, the more advanced Theorica planetarum presents the "theory of the seven planets,"  while the instructions to the Alfonsine Tables show how "to find by means of tables the mean motuses of the sun, moon, and the rest of the planets."  In his Confessio Amantis, 14th-century poet John Gower, referring to the planets' connection with the craft of alchemy, writes, "Of the planetes ben begonne/The gold is tilted to the Sonne/The Mone of Selver hath his part...", indicating that the Sun and the Moon were planets. Even Nicolaus Copernicus, who rejected the geocentric model, was ambivalent concerning whether the Sun and Moon were planets. In his De Revolutionibus, Copernicus clearly separates "the sun, moon, planets and stars"; however, in his Dedication of the work to Pope Paul III, Copernicus refers to, "the motion of the sun and the moon... and of the five other planets."

text: Medieval and Renaissance writers generally accepted the idea of seven planets. The standard medieval introduction to astronomy,

text: Sacrobosco's

text: De Sphaera

text: , includes the Sun and Moon among the planets, the more advanced Theorica planetarum presents the "theory of the seven planets,"  while the instructions to the

text: Alfonsine Tables

text: show how "to find by means of tables the mean motuses of the sun, moon, and the rest of the planets."  In his

text: Confessio Amantis

text: , 14th-century poet

text: John Gower

text: , referring to the planets' connection with the craft of

text: alchemy

text: , writes, "Of the planetes ben begonne/The gold is tilted to the Sonne/The Mone of Selver hath his part...", indicating that the Sun and the Moon were planets. Even

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: , who rejected the geocentric model, was ambivalent concerning whether the Sun and Moon were planets. In his

text: De Revolutionibus

text: , Copernicus clearly separates "the sun, moon, planets and stars"; however, in his Dedication of the work to Pope Paul III, Copernicus refers to, "the motion of the sun and the moon... and of the five other planets."

text: Other channels from Discovery available in Denmark are Animal Planet, Discovery Travel & Living, Discovery Science, Discovery World, Discovery HD and Animal Planet HD.

text: Other channels from Discovery available in Denmark are

text: Animal Planet

text: Discovery Travel & Living

text: Discovery Science

text: Discovery World

text: Discovery HD

text: and

text: Animal Planet HD

text: Bith are native to the planet Clak'Dor VII. They have pale skin, large heads and eyes, and long fingers. Their mouths are hidden within three folds of moist skin, and their ears are capable of hearing frequencies far beyond those that most species can perceive. In some cases, Bith have been known to hear high-powered communication broadcast signals without using artificial equipment. Due to their highly tuned audio senses, Bith are often sought after as musicians across the galaxy. They also have great reputations as starship mechanics and scientists. Figrin D'an and the Modal Nodes are a Bith band seen playing music in the Mos Eisley Cantina. Bith are also able to store large amounts of information in a very short period of time and retain that information in an undamaged binary state for short periods of time. They are considered mature at ten years of age and are known for long life.

text: Bith are native to the planet

text: Clak'Dor VII

text: . They have pale skin, large heads and eyes, and long fingers. Their mouths are hidden within three folds of moist skin, and their ears are capable of hearing frequencies far beyond those that most species can perceive. In some cases, Bith have been known to hear high-powered communication broadcast signals without using artificial equipment. Due to their highly tuned audio senses, Bith are often sought after as musicians across the galaxy. They also have great reputations as starship mechanics and scientists.

text: Figrin D'an and the Modal Nodes

text: are a Bith band seen playing music in the

text: Mos Eisley

text: Cantina. Bith are also able to store large amounts of information in a very short period of time and retain that information in an undamaged binary state for short periods of time. They are considered mature at ten years of age and are known for long life.

text: The minor planet is named after the a dormant volcano Nemrut (Nemrut Dağı) in Turkey. It is the most western volcano of a group of volcanoes near Lake Van in Eastern Anatolia. The volcano is named after King Nimrod who is said to have ruled this area in about 2100 BC.

text: The minor planet is named after the a dormant volcano

text: Nemrut

text: (Nemrut Dağı) in Turkey. It is the most western volcano of a group of volcanoes near

text: Lake Van

text: in Eastern Anatolia. The volcano is named after King Nimrod who is said to have ruled this area in about 2100 BC.

text: The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument is a group of unorganized, mostly unincorporated United States Pacific Island territories managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States Department of Commerce. These remote refuges are "the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction". They protect many endemic species including corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere.

text: The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument is a group of unorganized, mostly unincorporated

text: United States

text: Pacific Island

text: territories managed by the

text: Fish and Wildlife Service

text: of the

entity_name: United States Department of the Interior

text: United States Department of the Interior

text: and the

text: of the

text: United States Department of Commerce

text: . These remote refuges are "the most widespread collection of marine- and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country's jurisdiction". They protect many

text: endemic

text: species including

text: coral

text: s,

text: fish

text: shellfish

text: marine mammal

text: s,

text: seabird

text: s, water birds, land birds,

text: insect

text: s, and vegetation not found elsewhere.

text: The Planet V hypothesis posits that a fifth terrestrial planet created the Late Heavy Bombardment when its meta-stable orbit entered the inner asteroid belt. The hypothetical fifth terrestrial planet, Planet V, had a mass less than half of Mars and originally orbited between Mars and the asteroid belt. Planet V's orbit became unstable due to perturbations from the other inner planets causing it to intersect the inner asteroid belt. After close encounters with Planet V, many asteroids entered Earth-crossing orbits producing the Late Heavy Bombardment. Planet V was ultimately lost, likely plunging into the Sun. In numerical simulations, an uneven distribution of asteroids, with the asteroids heavily concentrated toward the inner asteroid belt, has been shown to be necessary to produce the LHB via this mechanism. An alternate version of this hypothesis in which the lunar impactors are debris resulting from Planet V impacting Mars, forming the Borealis Basin, has been proposed to explain a low number of giant lunar basins relative to craters and a lack of evidence of cometary impactors.

text: The Planet V hypothesis posits that a fifth

text: terrestrial planet

text: created the Late Heavy Bombardment when its meta-stable orbit entered the inner asteroid belt. The hypothetical fifth terrestrial planet, Planet V, had a mass less than half of Mars and originally orbited between Mars and the asteroid belt. Planet V's orbit became unstable due to perturbations from the other inner planets causing it to intersect the inner asteroid belt. After close encounters with Planet V, many asteroids entered Earth-crossing orbits producing the Late Heavy Bombardment. Planet V was ultimately lost, likely plunging into the Sun. In numerical simulations, an uneven distribution of asteroids, with the asteroids heavily concentrated toward the inner asteroid belt, has been shown to be necessary to produce the LHB via this mechanism. An alternate version of this hypothesis in which the lunar impactors are debris resulting from Planet V impacting Mars, forming the

text: Borealis Basin

text: , has been proposed to explain a low number of giant lunar basins relative to craters and a lack of evidence of cometary impactors.

text: The main character, Dig Dug (who also goes by the name of Taizo Hori in other games), is equipped with his usual weapon, the pump. Gameplay progresses as Taizo Hori moves from planet to planet, each with a different number of levels, which each have underground levels. On the planet's surface, the gameplay is 3D, and there are a variety of holes. At first, there are no enemies on the surface, but Taizo Hori can still fire his pump in eight directions, the usual, plus diagonally. These holes are closed, but when first reaching a level, a Pooka will jump out, opening a mound. If Taizo Hori is maneuvered into it, the gameplay will shift to underground mode. This mode is basically the same as the original game, but with few more features described later. The enemies can "ghost" through walls at certain times too. After all but one of the enemies are destroyed, the remaining one will begin to flee at double-speed to the top of the level, which now has a tunnel to the surface. If the player destroys it, the level ends, and Taizo Hori appears back on the surface. If it escapes, the same occurs, but now the enemy is on the surface. It still must be killed, but is harder, because its movement is no longer limited to just four directions. Game play goes on like this for the rest of the game.

text: The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.

text: Engineers building a space capsule must take forces such as gravity and drag into consideration. The space capsule must be strong enough to slow down quickly, must endure extremely high or low temperatures, and must survive the landing. When the space capsule comes close to a planet’s or moon’s surface, it has to slow down at a very exact rate. If it slows down too quickly, everything in the capsule will be crushed. If it doesn’t slow down quickly enough, it will crash into the surface and be destroyed. There are additional requirements for atmospheric reentry. If the angle of attack is too shallow, the capsule may skip off the surface of the atmosphere. If the angle of attack is too steep, the deceleration forces may be too high or the heat of reentry may exceed the tolerances of the heat shield.

text: Engineers building a space capsule must take forces such as

text: gravity

text: and

text: drag

text: into consideration. The space capsule must be strong enough to slow down quickly, must endure extremely high or low temperatures, and must survive the landing. When the space capsule comes close to a planet’s or moon’s surface, it has to slow down at a very exact rate. If it slows down too quickly, everything in the capsule will be crushed. If it doesn’t slow down quickly enough, it will crash into the surface and be destroyed. There are additional requirements for atmospheric reentry. If the angle of attack is too shallow, the capsule may skip off the surface of the atmosphere. If the angle of attack is too steep, the deceleration forces may be too high or the heat of reentry may exceed the tolerances of the heat shield.

text: Tectonic boundaries have been discovered on Mars. Valles Marineris is a horizontally sliding tectonic boundary that divides two major partial or complete plates of Mars. The recent finding suggests that Mars is geologically active with occurrences in the millions of years, and there is additional speculation.There has been previous evidence of Mars' geologic activity. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles. The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone.Because the area with the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life. At that time the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. Younger rock does not show any stripes.When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as hematite (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above the Curie temperature, which is 770 °C for pure iron, but lower for oxides such as hematite (approximately 650 °C) or magnetite (approximately 580 °C). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.

text: Tectonic boundaries have been discovered on Mars. Valles Marineris is a horizontally sliding tectonic boundary that divides two major partial or complete plates of Mars. The recent finding suggests that Mars is geologically active with occurrences in the millions of years, and there is additional speculation.There has been previous evidence of Mars' geologic activity. The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s. The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: . However, there are some differences, between the

text: magnetic stripes

text: on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone.Because the area with the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life. At that time the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. Younger rock does not show any stripes.When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as

text: hematite

text: (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above the Curie temperature, which is 770 °C for pure iron, but lower for oxides such as hematite (approximately 650 °C) or magnetite (approximately 580 °C). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.

text: A sizeable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. Hydrogen and helium are expected to continually escape (even to the present day) due to atmospheric escape.Part of the ancient planet is theorized to have been disrupted by the impact that created the Moon, which should have caused melting of one or two large areas.  Earth's present composition suggests that there was not complete remelting as it is difficult to completely melt and mix huge rock masses. However, a fair fraction of material should have been vaporized by this impact, creating a rock vapor atmosphere around the young planet. The rock vapor would have condensed within two thousand years, leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy  atmosphere with hydrogen and water vapor. Liquid water oceans existed despite the surface temperature of  because at an atmospheric pressure of above 27 atmospheres, caused by the heavy  atmosphere, water is still liquid. As cooling continued, subduction and dissolving in ocean water removed most  from the atmosphere but levels oscillated wildly as new surface and mantle cycles appeared.

text: A sizeable quantity of

text: water

text: would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. Hydrogen and helium are expected to continually escape (even to the present day) due to

text: atmospheric escape

text: .Part of the ancient planet is theorized to have been disrupted by the

text: impact that created the Moon

text: , which should have caused melting of one or two large areas.  Earth's present composition suggests that there was not complete remelting as it is difficult to completely melt and mix huge rock masses. However, a fair fraction of material should have been vaporized by this impact, creating a rock vapor atmosphere around the young planet. The rock vapor would have condensed within two thousand years, leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy  atmosphere with

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: water vapor

text: . Liquid water oceans existed despite the surface temperature of  because at an atmospheric pressure of above 27 atmospheres, caused by the heavy  atmosphere, water is still liquid. As cooling continued, subduction and dissolving in ocean water removed most  from the atmosphere but levels oscillated wildly as new surface and mantle cycles appeared.

text: but has been shown to not be a necessary condition for the formation of a secondary eyewall. The wind-induced surface heat exchange (WISHE) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation, which results in a strong heat flux. WISHE has been proposed as a method of generating secondary eyewalls. Later work has shown that while WISHE is a necessary condition to amplify disturbances, it is not needed to generate them.

text: but has been shown to not be a necessary condition for the formation of a secondary eyewall. The

text: wind-induced surface heat exchange

text: (WISHE) is a

text: positive feedback

text: mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation, which results in a strong heat flux. WISHE has been proposed as a method of generating secondary eyewalls. Later work has shown that while WISHE is a necessary condition to amplify disturbances, it is not needed to generate them.

text: There are many causes of the apparent decrease  in our fresh water supply. Principal amongst these is the increase in population through increasing life expectancy, the increase in per capita water use and the desire of many people to live in warm climates that have naturally low levels of fresh water resources. Climate change is also likely to change the availability and distribution of fresh water across the planet:

text: There are many causes of the apparent decrease  in our fresh water supply. Principal amongst these is the increase in population through increasing life expectancy, the increase in per capita water use and the desire of many people to live in warm climates that have naturally low levels of fresh water resources.

text: Climate change

text: is also likely to change the availability and distribution of fresh water across the planet:

text: A planet in a stagnant lid regime has a much lower likelihood of being habitable than one with active surface recycling. The outgassing of mantle-derived carbon and sulfur that occurs along plate margins is critical for producing and maintaining an atmosphere, which insulates a planet from solar radiation and wind. The same atmosphere also regulates surface temperature, providing a clement condition for biological activity. It is for these reasons the search for exoplanets will be steered largely towards finding ones with a plate tectonic geodynamic regime, since they are better candidates for human habitation.

text: The Baja California Peninsula was once a part of the North American Plate, the tectonic plate of which mainland Mexico remains a part.  About 12 to 15 million years ago the East Pacific Rise began cutting into the margin of the North American Plate, initiating the separation of the peninsula from it.  Spreading within the Gulf of California consists of short oblique rifts or ridge segments connected by long northwest trending transform faults, which together comprise the Gulf of California Rift Zone.  The north end of the rift zone is located in the Brawley seismic zone in the Salton Sea basin between the Cerro Prieto Fault and the San Andreas Fault.  The Baja California Peninsula is now part of the Pacific Plate and is moving with it away from the East Pacific Rise in a north northwestward direction.

text: The Baja California Peninsula was once a part of the

text: North American Plate

text: , the

text: tectonic plate

text: of which mainland Mexico remains a part.  About 12 to 15 million years ago the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: began cutting into the margin of the North American Plate, initiating the separation of the peninsula from it.  Spreading within the Gulf of California consists of short oblique rifts or ridge segments connected by long northwest trending

text: transform fault

text: s, which together comprise the

text: Gulf of California Rift Zone

text: .  The north end of the rift zone is located in the

text: Brawley seismic zone

text: in the

text: Salton Sea

text: basin between the

text: Cerro Prieto Fault

text: and the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: .  The Baja California Peninsula is now part of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and is moving with it away from the East Pacific Rise in a north northwestward direction.

text: Estimates regarding how long Phil supposedly remains trapped in the loop, in real time, vary widely.  During filming, Ramis, who was a Buddhist, observed that according to Buddhist doctrine, it takes 10,000 years for a soul to evolve to its next level.  Therefore, he said, in a spiritual sense, the entire arc of Groundhog Day spans 10,000 years.  In the DVD commentary, Ramis estimated a real-time duration of 10 years.  Later, Ramis told a reporter, "I think the 10-year estimate is too short. It takes at least 10 years to get good at anything, and allotting for the down time and misguided years he spent, it had to be more like 30 or 40 years." In 2005, Rubin said, "Ultimately it became this weird political issue because if you asked the studio, 'How long was the repetition?', they'd say, 'Two weeks'.  But the point of the movie to me was that you had to feel you were enduring something that was going on for a long time ... For me it had to be—I don't know. A hundred years. A lifetime."  In 2014, the website WhatCulture combined various time duration assumptions and estimated that Phil spent a total of 12,395 days—just under 34 years—reliving Groundhog Day.

text: Estimates regarding how long Phil supposedly remains trapped in the loop, in real time, vary widely.  During filming, Ramis, who was a

text: Buddhist

text: , observed that according to Buddhist doctrine, it takes 10,000 years for a soul to evolve to its next level.  Therefore, he said, in a spiritual sense, the entire arc of Groundhog Day spans 10,000 years.  In the DVD commentary, Ramis estimated a real-time duration of 10 years.  Later, Ramis told a reporter, "I think the 10-year estimate is too short. It takes at least 10 years to get good at anything, and allotting for the down time and misguided years he spent, it had to be more like 30 or 40 years." In 2005, Rubin said, "Ultimately it became this weird political issue because if you asked the studio, 'How long was the repetition?', they'd say, 'Two weeks'.  But the point of the movie to me was that you had to feel you were enduring something that was going on for a long time ... For me it had to be—I don't know. A hundred years. A lifetime."  In 2014, the website WhatCulture combined various time duration assumptions and estimated that Phil spent a total of 12,395 days—just under 34 years—reliving Groundhog Day.

text: The mountain is one of the most dangerously active volcanoes in the world; its last eruption was recorded in 2006. There are three warm freshwater crater lakes on the volcano, near its peak: Manaro Ngoru, Vui (Voui) and Manaro Lakua. Vui, the inner crater, alone contains 50 million cubic metres of water. Previously, up to 5,000 people living near the volcano have had to be evacuated for their safety.

text: The mountain is one of the most dangerously active volcanoes in the world; its last

text: eruption

text: was recorded in 2006. There are three warm freshwater

text: crater lake

text: s on the volcano, near its peak: Manaro Ngoru, Vui (Voui) and Manaro Lakua. Vui, the inner crater, alone contains 50 million cubic metres of water. Previously, up to 5,000 people living near the volcano have had to be evacuated for their safety.

text: The inner trench wall marks the edge of the overriding plate and the outermost forearc.  The forearc consists of igneous and metamorphic crust, and this crust acts as buttress to a growing accretionary prism (sediments scraped off the downgoing plate onto the inner trench wall, depending on how much sediment is supplied to the trench).  If the flux of sediments is high, material will be transferred from the subducting plate to the overriding plate.  In this case an accretionary prism grows and the location of the trench migrates progressively away from the volcanic arc over the life of the convergent margin. Convergent margins with growing accretionary prisms are called accretionary convergent margins and make up nearly half of all convergent margins.  If the sediment flux is low, material will be transferred from the overriding plate to the subducting plate by a process of tectonic ablation known as subduction erosion and carried down the subduction zone.  Forearcs undergoing subduction erosion typically expose igneous rocks.  In this case, the location of the trench will migrate towards the magmatic arc over the life of the convergent margin. Convergent margins experiencing subduction erosion are called nonaccretionary convergent margins and comprise more than half of convergent plate boundaries. This is an oversimplification, because different parts of a convergent margin can  experience sediment accretion and subduction erosion over its life.

text: The inner trench wall marks the edge of the overriding plate and the outermost forearc.  The forearc consists of

text: igneous

text: and

text: metamorphic

text: crust, and this crust acts as buttress to a growing accretionary prism (sediments scraped off the downgoing plate onto the inner trench wall, depending on how much sediment is supplied to the trench).  If the flux of sediments is high, material will be transferred from the subducting plate to the overriding plate.  In this case an accretionary prism grows and the location of the trench migrates progressively away from the volcanic arc over the life of the convergent margin. Convergent margins with growing accretionary prisms are called accretionary convergent margins and make up nearly half of all convergent margins.  If the sediment flux is low, material will be transferred from the overriding plate to the subducting plate by a process of tectonic ablation known as subduction erosion and carried down the subduction zone.  Forearcs undergoing subduction erosion typically expose igneous rocks.  In this case, the location of the trench will migrate towards the magmatic arc over the life of the convergent margin. Convergent margins experiencing subduction erosion are called nonaccretionary convergent margins and comprise more than half of convergent plate boundaries. This is an oversimplification, because different parts of a convergent margin can  experience sediment accretion and subduction erosion over its life.

text: Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity. By , Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.

text: volcanic

text: activity and

text: outgassing

text: that included water vapor. The

text: origin of the world's oceans

text: was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids,

text: protoplanet

text: s, and

text: comet

text: s. In

text: this model

text: , atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its

text: current luminosity

text: . By ,

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: solar wind

text: During the late Classic period the Maya began to use an abbreviated short count instead of the Long Count. An example of this can be found on altar 14 at Tikal. In the kingdoms of Postclassic Yucatán, the Short Count was used instead of the Long Count. The cyclical Short Count is a count of 13 k'atuns (or 260 tuns), in which each k'atun was named after its concluding day, Ahau ('Lord'). 1 Imix was selected as the recurrent 'first day' of the cycle, corresponding to 1 Cipactli in the Aztec day count. The cycle was counted from katun 11 Ahau to katun 13 Ahau, with the coefficients of the katuns' concluding days running in the order 11 – 9 – 7 – 5 – 3 – 1 – 12 – 10 – 8 – 6 – 4 – 2 – 13 Ahau (since a division of 20 × 360 days by 13 falls 2 days short). The concluding day 13 Ahau was followed by the re-entering first day 1 Imix. This is the system as found in the colonial Books of Chilam Balam. In characteristic Mesoamerican fashion, these books project the cycle onto the landscape, with 13 Ahauob 'Lordships' dividing the land of Yucatán into 13 'kingdoms'.

text: During the late Classic period the Maya began to use an abbreviated short count instead of the Long Count. An example of this can be found on altar 14 at Tikal. In the kingdoms of Postclassic Yucatán, the Short Count was used instead of the Long Count. The cyclical Short Count is a count of 13 k'atuns (or 260 tuns), in which each k'atun was named after its concluding day, Ahau ('Lord'). 1 Imix was selected as the recurrent 'first day' of the cycle, corresponding to 1

text: Cipactli

text: in the Aztec day count. The cycle was counted from katun 11 Ahau to katun 13 Ahau, with the coefficients of the katuns' concluding days running in the order 11 – 9 – 7 – 5 – 3 – 1 – 12 – 10 – 8 – 6 – 4 – 2 – 13 Ahau (since a division of 20 × 360 days by 13 falls 2 days short). The concluding day 13 Ahau was followed by the re-entering first day 1 Imix. This is the system as found in the colonial Books of

text: Chilam Balam

text: . In characteristic Mesoamerican fashion, these books project the cycle onto the landscape, with 13 Ahauob 'Lordships' dividing the land of Yucatán into 13 'kingdoms'.

text: In Terranigma, the planet (a fictionalized Earth) is portrayed as a hollow sphere (though the map in the game is mathematically a  torus) that has both an external and internal face. Since the beginning of the Earth, the external Lightside, the surface world, stood for growth whereas the internal Darkside, the under world, represented decline. Over the course of billions of years, these two forces came to be called God and Devil. Regardless of this inner antagonism, rapid progress took root and primitive life forms evolved to plants, animals, and humans. Technology and industry further expanded civilization, but the fight between God and the Devil was still taking place, more fiercely than ever. The conflict culminated in a final battle in Antarctica, on the surface world. However, neither of the two forces were victorious. The continents of the surface world submerged into the sea and the under world was sealed away.

text: In Terranigma, the planet (a fictionalized

text: Earth

text: ) is portrayed as a

text: hollow sphere

text: (though the map in the game is mathematically a

text: torus

text: ) that has both an external and internal face. Since the beginning of the Earth, the external Lightside, the surface world, stood for growth whereas the internal Darkside, the under world, represented decline. Over the course of

text: billions of years

text: , these two forces came to be called

text: God

text: and

text: Devil

text: . Regardless of this inner antagonism, rapid progress took root and primitive life forms evolved to plants, animals, and humans. Technology and industry further expanded civilization, but the fight between God and the Devil was still taking place, more fiercely than ever. The conflict culminated in a final battle in

text: Antarctica

text: , on the surface world. However, neither of the two forces were victorious. The continents of the surface world submerged into the sea and the under world was sealed away.

text: Mantle convection, the process that drives plate tectonics today, is a result of heat flow from the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface. It involves the creation of rigid tectonic plates at mid-oceanic ridges. These plates are destroyed by subduction into the mantle at subduction zones. During the early Archean (about 3.0 Ga) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around , so convection in the mantle was faster. Although a process similar to present-day plate tectonics did occur, this would have gone faster too. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction zones were more common, and therefore tectonic plates were smaller.

text: Mantle convection

text: , the process that drives plate tectonics today, is a result of heat flow from the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface. It involves the creation of rigid

text: tectonic plate

text: s at

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: s. These plates are destroyed by

text: subduction

text: into the mantle at

text: subduction zone

text: s. During the early Archean (about 3.0 Ga) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around , so convection in the mantle was faster. Although a process similar to present-day plate tectonics did occur, this would have gone faster too. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction zones were more common, and therefore tectonic plates were smaller.

text: He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester. In 2015, he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming, phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen. This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere, which could be very harmful to humans. Petrovskii said, "About two thirds of the planet's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale. This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans." Petrovskii's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology.<ref>"Global warming disaster could suffocate life on planet Earth, research shows." University of Leicester Press Office. University of Leicester, 1 Dec 2015. Web. 17 Jun 2016.

text: He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the

text: University of Leicester

text: . In 2015, he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to

text: global warming

text: phytoplankton

text: might stop producing

text: oxygen

text: . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere, which could be very harmful to humans. Petrovskii said, "About two thirds of the planet's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale. This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans." Petrovskii's study appeared in the

text: Bulletin of Mathematical Biology

text: .<ref>"Global warming disaster could suffocate life on planet Earth, research shows." University of Leicester Press Office. University of Leicester, 1 Dec 2015. Web. 17 Jun 2016.

text: Over the course of eight days stranded in the desert, as the narrator attempts to repair his plane, the little prince recounts the story of his life, often caused by his discussion of the sheep. The prince begins by describing life on his tiny home planet: in effect, an asteroid the size of a house (the asteroid was "named" B-612 by people on Earth, but the Prince called it "asteroid 325"; a real asteroid was named after the fictional asteroid). The asteroid's most prominent features are three minuscule volcanoes (two active, and one dormant or extinct) as well as a variety of plants. The prince describes spending his earlier days cleaning the volcanoes and weeding unwanted seeds and sprigs that infest his planet's soil; in particular, pulling out baobab trees that are constantly trying to grow and overrun the surface. "Catastrophe," the little prince would call it. The prince wants a sheep to eat the undesirable plants until the narrator informs him that a sheep will even eat roses with thorns. Upon hearing this, the prince tells of his love for a mysterious rose that began growing on the asteroid's surface some time ago. The prince says he nourished the rose and listened to her when she told him to make a screen or glass globe to protect her from the cold wind. Although the prince fell in love with the rose, he also began to feel that she was taking advantage of him, and he resolved to leave the planet to explore the rest of the universe. Although the rose finally apologized for her vanity, and the two reconciled, she encouraged him to go ahead with his journey and so he traveled onward. The prince misses his rose and claims that he only needs to look at the millions of stars to be reminded of his rose, since his rose is among one of them.

text: Over the course of eight days stranded in the desert, as the narrator attempts to repair his plane, the little prince recounts the story of his life, often caused by his discussion of the sheep. The prince begins by describing life on his tiny home planet: in effect, an

text: asteroid

text: the size of a house (the asteroid was "named" B-612 by people on Earth, but the Prince called it "asteroid 325"; a

text: real asteroid

text: was named after the fictional asteroid). The asteroid's most prominent features are three minuscule

text: volcano

text: es (two active, and one

text: dormant or extinct

text: ) as well as a variety of plants. The prince describes spending his earlier days cleaning the volcanoes and weeding unwanted seeds and sprigs that infest his planet's soil; in particular, pulling out

text: baobab

text: trees that are constantly trying to grow and overrun the surface. "Catastrophe," the little prince would call it. The prince wants a sheep to eat the undesirable plants until the narrator informs him that a sheep will even eat roses with thorns. Upon hearing this, the prince tells of his love for a mysterious rose that began growing on the asteroid's surface some time ago. The prince says he nourished the rose and listened to her when she told him to make a screen or glass globe to protect her from the cold wind. Although the prince fell in love with the rose, he also began to feel that she was taking advantage of him, and he resolved to leave the planet to explore the rest of the universe. Although the rose finally apologized for her

text: vanity

text: , and the two reconciled, she encouraged him to go ahead with his journey and so he traveled onward. The prince misses his rose and claims that he only needs to look at the millions of stars to be reminded of his rose, since his rose is among one of them.

text: Since this is a very long-period planet detected by the radial velocity method that this planet didn't complete the orbit during the continuous observations, the error range for orbital period is very large, at 4885 ± 1600 days or 13.37 ± 4.4 years. This puts it in the range of semimajor axes between 4.2 and 6.6 AU or between 630 and 990 Gm. So this planet will need couple more years of observations to better constrain the period and semimajor axis.

text: Since this is a very long-period planet detected by the

text: radial velocity method

text: that this planet didn't complete the orbit during the continuous observations, the error range for orbital period is very large, at 4885 ± 1600 days or 13.37 ± 4.4 years. This puts it in the range of semimajor axes between 4.2 and 6.6 AU or between 630 and 990 Gm. So this planet will need couple more years of observations to better constrain the period and semimajor axis.

text: Such oscillation sets up a low-frequency atmospheric gravity wave capable of affecting both atmospheric and oceanic currents in the region.

text: Such oscillation sets up a low-frequency atmospheric

text: gravity wave

text: capable of affecting both atmospheric and oceanic currents in the region.

text: The universe of Star Ocean is science fiction in nature, although like the first two games in the series, much of the plot is set on an "underdeveloped planet."  The game is set in S.D 772 (A.D 2858). It features a galaxy-spanning government in the Pangalactic Federation, several races and species of aliens, different factions, multiple colonized planets, and advanced technology. But despite this science fiction atmosphere, a form of magic exists in the universe: symbology, also translated as heraldry in the Japanese version and in Star Ocean: The Second Story. Standard symbology involves tattooing crests and runes onto one's flesh to draw out apparently latent power in the form of spells, and numerous underdeveloped planets make extensive use of it. Despite its supernatural connotations, Symbology is treated as a legitimate field of scientific study in-universe.

text: The universe of

text: Star Ocean

text: is science fiction in nature, although like the first two games in the series, much of the plot is set on an "underdeveloped planet."  The game is set in S.D 772 (A.D 2858). It features a galaxy-spanning government in the Pangalactic Federation, several races and species of aliens, different factions, multiple colonized planets, and advanced technology. But despite this science fiction atmosphere, a form of magic exists in the universe: symbology, also translated as heraldry in the Japanese version and in

text: Star Ocean: The Second Story

text: . Standard symbology involves

text: tattoo

text: ing crests and runes onto one's flesh to draw out apparently latent power in the form of spells, and numerous underdeveloped planets make extensive use of it. Despite its supernatural connotations, Symbology is treated as a legitimate field of scientific study in-universe.

text: The Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere, or USC(OA), is a high-ranking official in the United States Department of Commerce and the principal advisor to the United States Secretary of Commerce on the environmental and scientific activities of the Department. The Under Secretary is dual hatted as the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration within the Commerce Department

text: The Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere, or USC(OA), is a high-ranking official in the

text: United States Department of Commerce

text: and the principal advisor to the

text: United States Secretary of Commerce

text: on the environmental and scientific activities of the Department. The Under Secretary is dual hatted as the Administrator of the

text: within the Commerce Department

text: Water covers some 70% of the Earth's surface. Approximately 97.2% of it is saline, just 2.8% fresh. Potable water is available in almost all populated areas of the Earth, although it may be expensive and the supply may not always be sustainable. Sources where water may be obtained include:

text: Water covers some 70% of the Earth's surface. Approximately 97.2% of it is

text: saline

text: , just 2.8%

text: fresh

text: . Potable water is available in almost all populated areas of the Earth, although it may be expensive and the supply may not always be sustainable. Sources where water may be obtained include:

text: The seven largest natural satellites in the Solar System (those bigger than 2,500 km across) are Jupiter's Galilean moons (Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa), Saturn's moon Titan, Earth's moon, and Neptune's captured natural satellite Triton. Triton, the smallest of these, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. Similarly in the next size group of nine natural satellites, between 1,000 km and 1,600 km across, Titania, Oberon, Rhea, Iapetus, Charon, Ariel, Umbriel, Dione, and Tethys, the smallest, Tethys, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. As well as the natural satellites of the various planets, there are also over 80 known natural satellites of the dwarf planets, minor planets and other small Solar System bodies. Some studies estimate that up to 15% of all trans-Neptunian objects could have satellites.

text: The seven largest

text: natural satellites

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: (those bigger than 2,500 km across) are

text: Jupiter

text: 's

text: Galilean moon

text: s (

text: Ganymede

text: Callisto

text: Io

text: , and

text: Europa

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Titan

text: , Earth's

text: moon

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: 's captured natural satellite

text: Triton

text: . Triton, the smallest of these, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. Similarly in the next size group of nine natural satellites, between 1,000 km and 1,600 km across,

text: Titania

text: Oberon

text: Rhea

text: Iapetus

text: Charon

text: Ariel

text: Umbriel

text: Dione

text: , and

text: Tethys

text: , the smallest, Tethys, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. As well as the natural satellites of the various planets, there are also over 80 known natural satellites of the

text: dwarf planet

text: s,

text: minor planet

text: s and other

text: small Solar System bodies

text: . Some studies estimate that up to 15% of all

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s could have satellites.

text: The large amount of water used was less important because plenty of used water was often available and was very cheap. In addition, in thrifty rural households the water used to drive it was often used for other purposes as well.

text: The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano.  The features of volcanoes are much more complicated and their structure and behavior depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and ash) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on the landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as Puu Ōō on a flank of Hawaii's Kīlauea.Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune; and mud volcanoes, which are formations often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

text: The most common perception of a volcano is of a

text: conical

text: mountain, spewing

text: lava

text: and poisonous

text: gases

text: from a

text: crater

text: at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano.  The features of volcanoes are much more complicated and their structure and behavior depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by

text: lava dome

text: s rather than a summit crater while others have

text: landscape

text: features such as massive

text: plateau

text: s. Vents that issue volcanic material (including

text: lava

text: and

text: ash

text: ) and gases (mainly

text: steam and magmatic gases

text: ) can develop anywhere on the

text: landform

text: and may give rise to smaller cones such as

text: Puu Ōō

text: on a flank of Hawaii's

text: Kīlauea

text: .Other types of volcano include

text: cryovolcano

text: es (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: ; and

text: mud volcano

text: es, which are formations often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of

text: igneous

text: volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

text: The process of casting is known as cire perdue, and is the most primitive and most commonly employed through the centuries, having been described by the monk Theophilus, and also by Benvenuto Cellini. Briefly, it is as follows: a core, roughly representing the size and form of the object to be produced, is made of pounded brick, plaster or other similar substance and thoroughly dried. Upon this the artist overlays his wax, which he models to the degree required in his finished work. Passing from the core through the wax and projecting beyond are metal rods. The modelling being completed, the outer covering which will form the mould has to be applied; this is a liquid formed of clay and plaster sufficiently thin to find its way into every detail of the wax model. Further coatings of liquid are applied, so that there is, when dry, a solid outer coating and a solid inner core held together by the metal rods, with the work of art modelled in wax between. Heat is applied and the wax melts and runs out, and the molten metal is poured in and occupies every detail which the wax had filled. When cool, the outer casing is carefully broken away, the core raked out as far as possible, the projecting rods are removed and the object modelled in wax appears in bronze. If further finish is required, it is obtained by tooling.

text: The process of casting is known as

text: cire perdue

text: , and is the most primitive and most commonly employed through the centuries, having been described by the monk

text: Theophilus

text: , and also by

text: Benvenuto Cellini

text: . Briefly, it is as follows: a core, roughly representing the size and form of the object to be produced, is made of pounded brick, plaster or other similar substance and thoroughly dried. Upon this the artist overlays his

text: wax

text: , which he models to the degree required in his finished work. Passing from the core through the wax and projecting beyond are metal rods. The modelling being completed, the outer covering which will form the mould has to be applied; this is a liquid formed of clay and plaster sufficiently thin to find its way into every detail of the wax model. Further coatings of liquid are applied, so that there is, when dry, a solid outer coating and a solid inner core held together by the metal rods, with the work of art modelled in wax between. Heat is applied and the wax melts and runs out, and the molten metal is poured in and occupies every detail which the wax had filled. When cool, the outer casing is carefully broken away, the core raked out as far as possible, the projecting rods are removed and the object modelled in wax appears in

text: bronze

text: . If further finish is required, it is obtained by tooling.

text: Temperatures vary wildly throughout the year, with summer highs within the Inner Gorge commonly exceeding 100 °F (37.8 °C) and winter minimum temperatures sometimes falling below zero degrees Fahrenheit (−17.8 °C) along the canyon's rims. Visitors are often surprised by these potentially extreme conditions, and this, along with the high altitude of the canyon's rims, can lead to unpleasant side effects such as dehydration, sunburn, and hypothermia.

text: Temperatures vary wildly throughout the year, with summer highs within the Inner Gorge commonly exceeding 100 °F (37.8 °C) and winter minimum temperatures sometimes falling below zero degrees

text: Fahrenheit

text: (−17.8 °C) along the canyon's rims. Visitors are often surprised by these potentially extreme conditions, and this, along with the high altitude of the canyon's rims, can lead to unpleasant side effects such as

text: dehydration

text: sunburn

text: , and

text: hypothermia

text: Pavonis Mons is the middle of three volcanos (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis bulge near the equator of the planet Mars. The other Tharsis volcanoes are Ascraeus Mons and Arsia Mons.  The three Tharsis Montes, together with some smaller volcanoes to the north, form a fairly straight line.  It has been proposed that this straight line of volcanoes is the result of the sort of plate motion which on Earth makes chains of "hot spot" volcanoes.

text: Pavonis Mons is the middle of three volcanos (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis bulge near the equator of the planet Mars. The other Tharsis volcanoes are Ascraeus Mons and Arsia Mons.  The three Tharsis Montes, together with some smaller volcanoes to the north, form a fairly straight line.  It has been proposed that this straight line of volcanoes is the result of the sort of plate motion which on Earth makes

text: chains of "hot spot" volcanoes

text: Tyson then explains on the nature of plate tectonics that would shape the landmasses of the world. Tyson explains how scientists like Abraham Ortelius hypothesized the idea that land masses may have been connected in the past, Alfred Wegener who hypothesized the idea of a super-continent Pangaea and continental drift despite the prevailing idea of flooded land-bridges at the time, and Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp who discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that supported the theory of plate tectonics. Tyson describes how the landmasses of the earth lay atop the mantle, which moves due to the motion and heat of the earth's outer and inner core.

text: Tyson then explains on the nature of

text: plate tectonics

text: that would shape the landmasses of the world. Tyson explains how scientists like

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: hypothesized the idea that land masses may have been connected in the past,

text: Alfred Wegener

text: who hypothesized the idea of a super-continent

text: Pangaea

text: and

text: continental drift

text: despite the prevailing idea of flooded land-bridges at the time, and

text: Bruce C. Heezen

text: and

text: Marie Tharp

text: who discovered the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: that supported the theory of plate tectonics. Tyson describes how the landmasses of the earth lay atop the

text: mantle

text: , which moves due to the motion and heat of the earth's

text: outer

text: and

text: inner core

text: A mechanism put forward to explain low tectonic variability is related to the temperature of the asthenosphere, which may have been too hot to sustain modern plate tectonics in the early stages of the Earth’s evolution. Instead of vigorous plate recycling at subduction zones, plates were linked together for billions of years until the mantle cooled off enough to further sustain plate motions and the subsequent formation of subduction zones. The onset of this component of plate tectonics may have been aided by the thickening of the crust that, once initiated, caused plate subduction to be anomalously strong. This process occurred around 750 Ma ago, when the crust reached a temperature low enough to initiate and sustain plate tectonics in general and subduction processes in particular.

text: A mechanism put forward to explain low tectonic variability is related to the temperature of the

text: asthenosphere

text: , which may have been too hot to sustain modern plate tectonics in the early stages of the Earth’s evolution. Instead of vigorous plate recycling at

text: subduction zones

text: , plates were linked together for billions of years until the mantle cooled off enough to further sustain plate motions and the subsequent formation of subduction zones. The onset of this component of plate tectonics may have been aided by the thickening of the

text: crust

text: that, once initiated, caused plate subduction to be anomalously strong. This process occurred around 750 Ma ago, when the crust reached a temperature low enough to initiate and sustain plate tectonics in general and subduction processes in particular.

text: According to Nelson & Angel (1998), Eta Cephei would show two significant periodicities of 164 days and 10 years respectively, hinting at the possible presence of one or more jovian planets in orbit around the subgiant. The authors have set an upper limit of 0.64 Jupiter masses for the putative inner planet and 1.2 Jupiter masses for the putative outer one. Also Campbell et al. (1988) inferred the existence of planetary objects or even brown dwarfs less massive than 16.3 Jupiter masses.

text: According to Nelson & Angel (1998), Eta Cephei would show two significant periodicities of 164 days and 10 years respectively, hinting at the possible presence of one or more jovian planets in orbit around the subgiant. The authors have set an upper limit of 0.64

text: Jupiter masses

text: for the putative inner planet and 1.2

text: Jupiter masses

text: for the putative outer one. Also Campbell et al. (1988) inferred the existence of planetary objects or even

text: brown dwarfs

text: less massive than 16.3

text: Jupiter masses

text: The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles  (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered  wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to . These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down.  When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics.  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity. When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface.  The initial data was obtained when MGS traveled close to the planet during aerobraking.  However, later measurements, collected over a 2-year period from an altitude of , revealed that the magnetic features even matched up with known features on the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s  (Terra Cimmeria and

text: Terra Sirenum

text: ). The magnetometer on MGS discovered  wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to . These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down.  When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: .  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity. When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface.  The initial data was obtained when MGS traveled close to the planet during aerobraking.  However, later measurements, collected over a 2-year period from an altitude of , revealed that the magnetic features even matched up with known features on the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The climate is oceanic, with high precipitation all year round and moderate temperatures, which allow the lush vegetation to grow. Temperatures are more extreme in the higher lands of inner Biscay, where snow is more common during winter. The average high temperarures in main city Bilbao is between  in January and  in August.

text: The climate is

text: oceanic

text: , with high precipitation all year round and moderate temperatures, which allow the lush vegetation to grow. Temperatures are more extreme in the higher lands of inner Biscay, where snow is more common during winter. The average high temperarures in main city Bilbao is between  in January and  in August.

text: This starting material is finely powdered, and placed in a container within a Verneuil furnace, with an opening at the bottom through which the powder can escape when the container is vibrated. While the powder is being released, oxygen is supplied into the furnace, and travels with the powder down a narrow tube. This tube is located within a larger tube, into which hydrogen is supplied. At the point where the narrow tube opens into the larger one, combustion occurs, with a flame of at least  at its core. As the powder passes through the flame, it melts into small droplets, which fall onto an earthen support rod placed below. The droplets gradually form a sinter cone on the rod, the tip of which is close enough to the core to remain liquid. It is at that tip that the seed crystal eventually forms. As more droplets fall onto the tip, a single crystal, called a boule, starts to form, and the support is slowly moved downward, allowing the base of the boule to crystallise, while its cap always remains liquid. The boule is formed in the shape of a tapered cylinder, with a diameter broadening away from the base and eventually remaining more or less constant. With a constant supply of powder and withdrawal of the support, very long cylindrical boules can be obtained. Once removed from the furnace and allowed to cool, the boule is split along its vertical axis to relieve internal pressure, otherwise the crystal will be prone to fracture when the stalk is broken due to a vertical parting plane.

text: This starting material is finely powdered, and placed in a container within a Verneuil furnace, with an opening at the bottom through which the powder can escape when the container is vibrated. While the powder is being released,

text: oxygen

text: is supplied into the furnace, and travels with the powder down a narrow tube. This tube is located within a larger tube, into which

text: hydrogen

text: is supplied. At the point where the narrow tube opens into the larger one,

text: combustion

text: occurs, with a flame of at least  at its core. As the powder passes through the flame, it melts into small droplets, which fall onto an earthen support rod placed below. The droplets gradually form a

text: sinter

text: cone on the rod, the tip of which is close enough to the core to remain liquid. It is at that tip that the

text: seed crystal

text: eventually forms. As more droplets fall onto the tip, a

text: single crystal

text: , called a

text: boule

text: , starts to form, and the support is slowly moved downward, allowing the base of the boule to crystallise, while its cap always remains liquid. The boule is formed in the shape of a tapered cylinder, with a diameter broadening away from the base and eventually remaining more or less constant. With a constant supply of powder and withdrawal of the support, very long cylindrical boules can be obtained. Once removed from the furnace and allowed to cool, the boule is split along its vertical axis to relieve internal pressure, otherwise the crystal will be prone to fracture when the stalk is broken due to a vertical

text: parting plane

text: Another point favoring the predominance of superhabitable planets in regard to Earth analogs is that, unlike the latter, most of the requirements of a superhabitable world can occur spontaneously and jointly simply by having a higher mass. A planetary body close to 2 or 3M should have longer-lasting plate tectonics and also will have a larger surface area in comparison to Earth. Similarly, it is likely that its oceans are shallower by the effect of gravity on the planet's crust, its gravitational field more intense and, a denser atmosphere.

text: The serial marks the first appearance of the TARDIS' food machine. The mercury-filled fluid links in the TARDIS console feature again in subsequent stories including The Wheel in Space, written by The Daleks script editor David Whitaker. Anti-radiation drugs are shown to be required to survive on the surface of Skaro in this serial—a plot point repeated in Destiny of the Daleks when the Doctor next returns (chronologically) to the post-war planet.

text: The serial marks the first appearance of the TARDIS' food machine. The mercury-filled fluid links in the TARDIS console feature again in subsequent stories including

text: The Wheel in Space

text: , written by The Daleks script editor David Whitaker. Anti-

text: radiation

text: drugs are shown to be required to survive on the surface of

text: Skaro

text: in this serial—a plot point repeated in

text: Destiny of the Daleks

text: when the Doctor next returns (chronologically) to the post-war planet.

text: The mantle of a planet with plate tectonics has driving forces that exceed the yield strength of the brittle lithosphere, causing the lithosphere to fracture into plates that move relative to each other. A critical element of the plate tectonic system is these lithospheric plates become negatively buoyant at some point in their evolution, sinking into the mantle. The surface mass deficit is balanced by new plate being formed elsewhere through upwelling mantle plumes. Plate tectonics is an efficient method of heat transfer from the interior of the planet to the surface. Earth is the only planet plate tectonics is known to occur on, although evidence has been presented for Jupiter's moon Europa undergoing a form of plate tectonics analogous to Earth's.

text: The mantle of a planet with plate tectonics has driving forces that exceed the

text: yield strength

text: of the brittle lithosphere, causing the lithosphere to fracture into plates that move relative to each other. A critical element of the plate tectonic system is these lithospheric plates become negatively buoyant at some point in their evolution, sinking into the mantle. The surface mass deficit is balanced by new plate being formed elsewhere through upwelling

text: mantle plumes

text: . Plate tectonics is an efficient method of heat transfer from the interior of the planet to the surface. Earth is the only planet plate tectonics is known to occur on, although evidence has been presented for

text: Jupiter's

text: moon

text: Europa

text: undergoing a form of plate tectonics analogous to Earth's.

text: A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called asci, which typically contain eight spores in each ascus. The Discomycetes, which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of cup fungi or within the pits of morels. The Pyrenomycetes, tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called perithecia, within which the asci develop.

text: A

text: hymenium

text: is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of

text: bolete

text: s and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called

text: asci

text: , which typically contain eight spores in each ascus. The

text: Discomycetes

text: , which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of

text: cup fungi

text: or within the pits of

text: morel

text: s. The

text: Pyrenomycetes

text: , tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called

text: perithecia

text: , within which the asci develop.

text: Supercritical fluids, although not liquids, do share various properties with liquids. Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets Uranus and Neptune, it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high-density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles. The gaseous outer layers of Jupiter and Saturn transition smoothly into oceans of supercritical hydrogen. The atmosphere of Venus is 96.5% carbon dioxide, which is a supercritical fluid at its surface.

text: Supercritical fluids, although not liquids, do share various properties with liquids. Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: , it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high-density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles. The gaseous outer layers of

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: transition smoothly into oceans of

text: supercritical

text: hydrogen

text: . The

text: atmosphere of Venus

text: is 96.5%

text: carbon dioxide

text: , which is a supercritical fluid at its surface.

text: Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size, frequency performance, attenuation, power handling capabilities, flexibility, strength, and cost. The inner conductor might be solid or stranded; stranded is more flexible. To get better high-frequency performance, the inner conductor may be silver-plated. Copper-plated steel wire is often used as an inner conductor for cable used in the cable TV industry.

text: Kepler-22b's size is roughly twice that of Earth. Its mass and surface composition are unknown. An Earth-like composition for the planet has been ruled out. It is likely to have a volatile-rich composition with a liquid or gaseous outer shell. The only parameters of the planet's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period, which is about , and its inclination, which is approximately 90°. Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature, assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme greenhouse heating. In the absence of an atmosphere, its equilibrium temperature (assuming an Earth-like albedo) would be approximately .

text: Kepler-22b's size is roughly twice that of Earth. Its

text: mass

text: and surface composition are unknown. An

text: Earth-like composition

text: for the planet has been ruled out. It is likely to have a

text: volatile-rich composition

text: with a liquid or gaseous outer shell. The only parameters of the planet's

text: orbit

text: that are currently available are its

text: orbital period

text: , which is about , and its

text: inclination

text: , which is approximately 90°. Evidence suggests that the planet has a moderate surface temperature, assuming that the surface is not subject to extreme

text: greenhouse heating

text: . In the absence of an atmosphere, its

text: equilibrium temperature

text: (assuming an Earth-like

text: albedo

text: ) would be approximately .

text: It is estimated that 300 of the planet's estimated 700 mud volcanoes sit in Eastern Azerbaijan and the Caspian Sea.

text: It is estimated that 300 of the planet's estimated 700

text: mud volcano

text: es sit in Eastern

text: Azerbaijan

text: and the

text: Caspian Sea

text: The temperature of the inner core can be estimated by considering both the theoretical and the experimentally demonstrated constraints on the melting temperature of impure iron at the pressure which iron is under at the boundary of the inner core (about 330 GPa). These considerations suggest that its temperature is about . The pressure in the Earth's inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores: it ranges from about . Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its melting temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude (see the Clausius–Clapeyron relation).

text: The temperature of the inner core can be estimated by considering both the theoretical and the experimentally demonstrated constraints on the melting temperature of impure iron at the pressure which iron is under at the boundary of the inner core (about 330

text: GPa

text: ). These considerations suggest that its temperature is about . The pressure in the Earth's inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores: it ranges from about . Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its melting temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude (see the

text: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

text: Some of the most significant advances in 20th-century geology have been the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s and the refinement of estimates of the planet's age. Plate tectonics theory arose from two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences. Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old.

text: Some of the most significant advances in 20th-century geology have been the development of the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: in the 1960s and the refinement of estimates of the planet's age. Plate tectonics theory arose from two separate geological observations:

text: seafloor spreading

text: and

text: continental drift

text: . The theory revolutionized the

text: Earth sciences

text: . Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old.

text: The abundance of water on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m. The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of 10,911.4 m.

text: The abundance of water on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the "Blue Planet" from other planets in the Solar System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m. The deepest underwater location is

text: Challenger Deep

text: of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of 10,911.4 m.

text: Ivanova tells Sinclair that the shuttle is about to enter the planet's atmosphere. This is where the planet's defense systems fired at them. When the shuttle goes into the atmosphere, there are no missiles fired.  Garibaldi follows the Centauri transport in another ship. The Centauri transport is able to make it down to the planet untouched and heads toward the landing grid.  Back above the planet, the Hyperion is moving, its forward guns ready to fire. When Garibaldi reaches the landing grid, the Centauri shuttle has already landed, with Mollari, Delenn, Draal, and Varn already heading towards the central console of the machine.

text: The geologic temperature record can be reconstructed from sedimentary evidence. Perhaps the most useful indicator of past climate is the fractionation of oxygen isotopes, denoted δO. This fractionation is controlled mainly by the amount of water locked up in ice and the absolute temperature of the planet, and has allowed a timescale of marine isotope stages to be constructed.

text: The

text: geologic temperature record

text: can be

text: reconstructed

text: from sedimentary evidence. Perhaps the most useful indicator of past climate is the

text: fractionation

text: of

text: oxygen isotope

text: s, denoted

text: δO

text: . This fractionation is controlled mainly by the amount of water locked up in ice and the absolute temperature of the planet, and has allowed a timescale of

text: marine isotope stage

text: s to be constructed.

text: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) is a mid-ocean ridge, a divergent tectonic plate or constructive plate boundary located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, and part of the longest mountain range in the world. In the North Atlantic, it separates the Eurasian and North American Plates, whereas in the South Atlantic it separates the African and South American Plates. The Ridge extends from a junction with the Gakkel Ridge (Mid-Arctic Ridge) northeast of Greenland southward to the Bouvet Triple Junction in the South Atlantic. Although the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is mostly an underwater feature, portions of it have enough elevation to extend above sea level. The section of the ridge that includes the island of Iceland is also known as the Reykjanes Ridge. The ridge has an average spreading rate of about 2.5 cm per year.

text: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) is a

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: , a

text: divergent

text: tectonic plate

text: or constructive plate boundary located along the floor of the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , and part of the

text: longest mountain range in the world

text: . In the North Atlantic, it separates the

text: Eurasian

text: and

text: North American Plate

text: s, whereas in the South Atlantic it separates the

text: African

text: and

text: South American Plate

text: s. The Ridge extends from a junction with the

text: Gakkel Ridge

text: (Mid-Arctic Ridge) northeast of

text: Greenland

text: southward to the

text: Bouvet Triple Junction

text: in the South Atlantic. Although the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is mostly an underwater feature, portions of it have enough elevation to extend above sea level. The section of the ridge that includes the island of

text: Iceland

text: is also known as the Reykjanes Ridge. The ridge has an average spreading rate of about 2.5 cm per year.

text: Uranus, the seventh planet of the Solar System, has 27 known moons, all of which are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. Uranus's moons are divided into three groups: thirteen inner moons, five major moons, and nine irregular moons. The inner moons are small dark bodies that share common properties and origins with Uranus's rings. The five major moons are massive enough to have reached hydrostatic equilibrium, and four of them show signs of internally driven processes such as canyon formation and volcanism on their surfaces. The largest of these five, Titania, is 1,578 km in diameter and the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System, and about one-twentieth the mass of the Moon. The orbits of the regular moons are nearly coplanar with Uranus's equator, which is tilted 97.77° to its orbit. Uranus's irregular moons have elliptical and strongly inclined (mostly retrograde) orbits at large distances from the planet.

text: Uranus

text: , the seventh planet of the

text: Solar System

text: , has 27 known

text: moons

text: , all of which are named after characters from the works of

text: William Shakespeare

text: and

text: Alexander Pope

text: . Uranus's moons are divided into three groups: thirteen inner moons, five major moons, and nine irregular moons. The inner moons are small dark bodies that share common properties and origins with

text: Uranus's rings

text: . The five major moons are massive enough to have reached

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: , and four of them show signs of internally driven processes such as canyon formation and volcanism on their surfaces. The largest of these five, Titania, is 1,578 km in diameter and the

text: eighth-largest

text: moon in the Solar System, and about one-twentieth the mass of the

text: Moon

text: . The orbits of the regular moons are nearly

text: coplanar

text: with Uranus's equator, which is tilted 97.77° to its orbit. Uranus's irregular moons have elliptical and strongly inclined (mostly

text: retrograde

text: ) orbits at large distances from the planet.

text: The 2003 UN World Water Development Report claimed that the amount of water available over the next twenty years would drop by 30%. At that time, 40% of the planet’s inhabitants did not have access to the minimum necessary for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases linked to contaminated water, or from drowning. In 2004, the UK’s WaterAid charity reported that one child died every 15 seconds from water-linked diseases.

text: The 2003

text: UN World Water Development Report

text: claimed that the amount of water available over the next twenty years would drop by 30%. At that time, 40% of the planet’s inhabitants did not have access to the minimum necessary for basic hygiene. Over 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases linked to contaminated water, or from drowning. In 2004, the UK’s

text: WaterAid

text: charity reported that one child died every 15 seconds from water-linked diseases.

text: Entry to the exhibition through a virtual pond of water, that creates ripples as one step on it, excites the visitor. The gallery then unfolds with a plethora of exhibits that cover various issues related to water. How much of it is available on our planet and what percentage of it is potable and in what form is water available on the Earth are some of the issues that are dealt with in the exhibition. Other issues like the water cycle, water on different continents, water in one's body, water conserving devices, water treatment plants, properties of water, cultural and religious practices and their impact on our rivers etc. are also covered in the exhibitions. Significance of water is propounded in almost every religious scripture, and written script exists for water in every language and in every country thus showing how important this life supporting resource is for all of us. The exhibition ends with a computer quiz on water and a pledge which the visitors can take to conserve water and protect this unique life supporting source for our future generations. The Gallery has generated huge interest among the visitors.

text: All inner satellites follow nearly circular, prograde orbits. The median eccentricity is 0.0012, while the most eccentric inner satellite is Thebe with e=0.0177. Their inclination to their planets' equatorial planes is also very low. All but one have inclinations below one degree, the median being 0.1°. Naiad, Neptune's closest moon, is the exception, being inclined at 4.75° to Neptune's equator.

text: All inner satellites follow nearly circular, prograde orbits. The

text: median

text: eccentricity is 0.0012, while the most eccentric inner satellite is

text: Thebe

text: with e=0.0177. Their inclination to their planets' equatorial planes is also very low. All but one have inclinations below one degree, the median being 0.1°. Naiad, Neptune's closest moon, is the exception, being inclined at 4.75° to Neptune's equator.

text: Spherical bearings can be of a hydrostatic or mechanical construction. A spherical bearing by itself consists of an outer ring and an inner ring and a locking feature that makes the inner ring captive within the outer ring in the axial direction only. The outer surface of the inner ring and the inner surface of the outer ring are spherical (or more correctly, toroidal) and are collectively considered the raceway and they slide against each other, either with a lubricant, a maintenance-free (typically polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE) based liner, or they incorporate a rolling element such as a race of ball-bearings, allowing lower friction.

text: Spherical bearings can be of a

text: hydrostatic

text: or mechanical construction. A spherical bearing by itself consists of an outer ring and an inner ring and a locking feature that makes the inner ring captive within the outer ring in the axial direction only. The outer surface of the inner ring and the inner surface of the outer ring are spherical (or more correctly,

text: toroid

text: al) and are collectively considered the raceway and they slide against each other, either with a lubricant, a maintenance-free (typically

text: polytetrafluoroethylene

text: or PTFE) based liner, or they incorporate a rolling element such as a race of ball-bearings, allowing lower friction.

text: Moons are classed in two separate categories according to their orbits: regular moons, which have prograde orbits (they orbit in the direction of their planets' rotation) and lie close to the plane of their equators, and irregular moons, whose orbits can be pro- or retrograde (against the direction of their planets' rotation) and often lie at extreme angles to their planets' equators. Irregular moons are probably minor planets that have been captured from surrounding space. Most irregular moons are less than  in diameter.

text: Moons are classed in two separate categories according to their orbits:

text: regular

text: moons, which have

text: prograde orbit

text: s (they orbit in the direction of their planets' rotation) and lie close to the plane of their equators, and

text: irregular

text: moons, whose orbits can be pro- or

text: retrograde

text: (against the direction of their planets' rotation) and often lie at extreme angles to their planets' equators. Irregular moons are probably minor planets that have been captured from surrounding space. Most irregular moons are less than  in diameter.

text: Volcanoes are not limited to Earth; they can exist on any rocky planet or moon large or active enough to have a molten inner core, and since probes were first launched in the 1960s, volcanoes have been found across the solar system. Shield volcanoes and volcanic vents have been found on Mars, Venus, and Io; cryovolcanoes on Triton; and subsurface hotspots on Europa.

text: Volcanoes are not limited to Earth; they can exist on any

text: rocky planet

text: or

text: moon

text: large or active enough to have a

text: molten

text: inner core

text: , and since probes were first launched in the 1960s, volcanoes have been found across the solar system. Shield volcanoes and volcanic vents have been found on

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Io

text: cryovolcano

text: es on

text: Triton

text: ; and subsurface hotspots on

text: Europa

text: Kepler-16b (formally Kepler-16 (AB)-b) is an extrasolar planet. It is a Saturn-mass planet consisting of half gas and half rock and ice, and it orbits a binary star, Kepler-16, with a period of 229 days. "[It] is the first confirmed, unambiguous example of a circumbinary planet – a planet orbiting not one, but two stars," said Josh Carter of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, one of the discovery team.

text: Kepler-16b (formally Kepler-16 (AB)-b) is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: . It is a

text: Saturn

text: -mass planet consisting of half gas and half rock and ice, and it orbits a

text: binary star

text: , with a period of 229 days. "[It] is the first confirmed, unambiguous example of a

text: circumbinary planet

text: – a planet orbiting not one, but two stars," said Josh Carter of the

entity_name: Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: , one of the discovery team.

text: Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other major planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal–silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteorites, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass. Early in the Solar System's history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately 1/6 that mass and several thousand kilometers across. The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component. A similar process, known as the giant impact hypothesis, has been proposed to explain the formation of the Moon.

text: Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other major planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal–silicate ratio similar to common

text: chondrite

text: meteorites, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass. Early in the Solar System's history, Mercury may have been struck by a

text: planetesimal

text: of approximately 1/6 that mass and several thousand kilometers across. The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component. A similar process, known as the

text: giant impact hypothesis

text: , has been proposed to explain the formation of the

text: Moon

text: There are two main varieties of short-period comet: Jupiter-family comets (those with semi-major axes of less than 5 AU) and Halley-family comets. Halley-family comets, named for their prototype, Halley's Comet, are unusual in that although they are short-period comets, it is hypothesized that their ultimate origin lies in the Oort cloud, not in the scattered disc. Based on their orbits, it is suggested they were long-period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System. This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter-family comets, although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc.

text: There are two main varieties of short-period comet: Jupiter-family comets (those with

text: semi-major axes

text: of less than 5 AU) and Halley-family comets. Halley-family comets, named for their prototype,

text: Halley's Comet

text: , are unusual in that although they are short-period comets, it is hypothesized that their ultimate origin lies in the Oort cloud, not in the scattered disc. Based on their orbits, it is suggested they were long-period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System. This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter-family comets, although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc.

text: In the Solar System, the inner planets are terrestrial, and the outer ones are gas giants, but discoveries of extrasolar planets suggest that this arrangement may not be at all common: numerous Jupiter-sized bodies have been found in close orbit about their primary, disrupting potential HZs. However, present data for extrasolar planets is likely to be skewed towards that type (large planets in close orbits) because they are far easier to identify; thus it remains to be seen which type of planetary system is the norm, or indeed if there is one.

text: In the Solar System, the inner planets are

text: terrestrial

text: , and the outer ones are

text: gas giant

text: s, but discoveries of

text: extrasolar planet

text: s suggest that this arrangement may not be at all common: numerous Jupiter-sized bodies have been found in close orbit about their primary, disrupting potential HZs. However, present data for extrasolar planets is likely to be skewed towards that type (large planets in close orbits) because they are far easier to identify; thus it remains to be seen which type of planetary system is the norm, or indeed if there is one.

text: In the earlier period between 3.8 and 4.1 Ga, changes in the orbits of the giant planets may have caused a heavy bombardment by asteroids and comets that pockmarked the Moon and the other inner planets (Mercury, Mars, and presumably Earth and Venus). This would likely have repeatedly sterilized the planet, had life appeared before that time. Geologically, the Hadean Earth would have been far more active than at any other time in its history. Studies of meteorites suggests that radioactive isotopes such as aluminium-26 with a half-life of 7.17×10 years, and potassium-40 with a half-life of 1.250×10 years, isotopes mainly produced in supernovae, were much more common. Coupled with internal heating as a result of gravitational sorting between the core and the mantle, there would have been a great deal of mantle convection, with the probable result of many smaller and much more active tectonic plates than now exist.

text: In the earlier period between 3.8 and 4.1 Ga, changes in the orbits of the

text: giant planet

text: s may have caused a

text: heavy bombardment

text: by asteroids and

text: comet

text: s that pockmarked the

text: Moon

text: and the other inner planets (

text: Mercury

text: Mars

text: , and presumably Earth and

text: Venus

text: ). This would likely have repeatedly sterilized the planet, had life appeared before that time. Geologically, the Hadean Earth would have been far more active than at any other time in its history. Studies of

text: meteorite

text: s suggests that

text: radioactive isotopes

text: such as

text: with a

text: half-life

text: of 7.17×10 years, and

text: with a half-life of 1.250×10 years, isotopes mainly produced in

text: supernova

text: e, were much more common. Coupled with internal heating as a result of

text: gravitational sorting

text: between the

text: core

text: and the

text: mantle

text: , there would have been a great deal of

text: mantle convection

text: , with the probable result of many smaller and much more active tectonic plates than now exist.

text: The Solar System's planets and officially recognized dwarf planets are known to be orbited by 182 natural satellites, or moons. 19 moons in the Solar System are large enough to be gravitationally rounded, and thus would be considered planets or dwarf planets if they were in direct orbit around the Sun.

text: The

text: Solar System

text: 's planets and officially recognized dwarf planets are known to be orbited by 182

text: natural satellite

text: s, or moons. 19 moons in the Solar System are large enough to be gravitationally rounded, and thus would be considered

text: planets

text: or

text: dwarf planets

text: if they were in direct orbit around the Sun.

text: Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years, random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere, which can result in mass extinctions. These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of  or more, and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion, called a supernova, within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun, called a Near-Earth supernova. Other large-scale geological events are more predictable. If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded, Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end. These periods are caused by eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit. As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle, plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250–350 million years. Some time in the next 1.5–4.5 billion years, the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations, with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90°.

text: Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years, random celestial events pose a global risk to the

text: biosphere

text: , which can result in

text: mass extinction

text: s. These include impacts by

text: comet

text: s or

text: asteroid

text: s with diameters of  or more, and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion, called a

text: supernova

text: , within a 100-

text: light-year

text: radius of the Sun, called a

text: Near-Earth supernova

text: . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable. If the

text: long-term effects of global warming

text: are disregarded,

text: Milankovitch theory

text: predicts that the planet will continue to undergo

text: glacial period

text: s at least until the

text: Quaternary glaciation

text: comes to an end. These periods are caused by

text: eccentricity

text: axial tilt

text: , and

text: precession

text: of the Earth's orbit. As part of the ongoing

text: supercontinent cycle

text: plate tectonics

text: will probably result in a

text: supercontinent

text: in 250–350 million years. Some time in the next 1.5–4.5 billion years, the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations, with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90°.

text: In the same way, the planet Jupiter is the king of the other planets, a giant in size with spectacular, brightly colored clouds and intense storms. Some astronomers believe that it plays an important protecting role in using its massive gravity to capture or expel from the solar system many comets and asteroids that would otherwise threaten Earth and the inner planets. Jupiter takes 11.9 years to orbit the Sun, spending almost an earth year (361 days) in each sign of the zodiac. Furthermore, Jupiter is usually the fourth-brightest object in the sky (after the Sun, the Moon and Venus).

text: The Terrestrial planets all have roughly the same structure—a central metallic core, mostly iron, with a surrounding silicate mantle. The Moon is similar, but lacks a substantial iron core. Three of the four solar terrestrial planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have substantial atmospheres; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which refers to those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).

text: The Terrestrial planets all have roughly the same structure—a central metallic core, mostly

text: iron

text: , with a surrounding silicate

text: mantle

text: . The

text: Moon

text: is similar, but lacks a substantial iron core. Three of the four solar terrestrial planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have substantial

text: atmosphere

text: s; all have

text: impact crater

text: s and

text: tectonic

text: surface features such as

text: rift valley

text: s and

text: volcano

text: es. The term inner planet should not be confused with

text: inferior planet

text: , which refers to those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).

text: Due to the cosθ term in the square root, this outer surface resembles a flattened sphere that touches the inner surface at the poles of the rotation axis, where the colatitude θ equals 0 or π; the space between these two surfaces is called the ergosphere.  Within this volume, the purely temporal component g is negative, i.e., acts like a purely spatial metric component. Consequently, particles within this ergosphere must co-rotate with the inner mass, if they are to retain their time-like character. A moving particle experiences a positive proper time along its worldline, its path through spacetime.  However, this is impossible within the ergosphere, where g is negative, unless the particle is co-rotating with the interior mass M with an angular speed at least of Ω.  Thus, no particle can rotate opposite to the central mass within the ergosphere.

text: Due to the cosθ term in the square root, this outer surface resembles a flattened sphere that touches the inner surface at the poles of the rotation axis, where the colatitude θ equals 0 or π; the space between these two surfaces is called the

text: ergosphere

text: .  Within this volume, the purely temporal component g is negative, i.e., acts like a purely spatial metric component. Consequently, particles within this ergosphere must co-rotate with the inner mass, if they are to retain their time-like character. A moving particle experiences a positive

text: proper time

text: along its

text: worldline

text: , its path through

text: spacetime

text: .  However, this is impossible within the ergosphere, where g is negative, unless the particle is co-rotating with the interior mass M with an angular speed at least of Ω.  Thus, no particle can rotate opposite to the central mass within the ergosphere.

text: The mountain is forested with an elevation of  asl and a base diameter of . On the summit of the volcano is a large crater with bare inner walls that is breached on the eastern side. On the lower flank this side of the predominantly andesitic volcano, is Luzon's largest solfataras and hot springs, some of which deposit siliceous sinter. Naglagbong and Jigabo are two thermal wells located on the volcano. Temperatures up to  were recorded on the fumaroles of Naglagbong.

text: The mountain is forested with an elevation of

text: asl

text: and a base diameter of . On the summit of the volcano is a large crater with bare inner walls that is breached on the eastern side. On the lower flank this side of the predominantly

text: andesitic

text: volcano, is

text: Luzon

text: 's largest

text: solfatara

text: s and

text: hot spring

text: s, some of which deposit

text: siliceous sinter

text: . Naglagbong and Jigabo are two thermal wells located on the volcano. Temperatures up to  were recorded on the fumaroles of Naglagbong.

text: As other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of Ceres, it was realized that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects. In 1802, with the discovery of 2 Pallas, William Herschel coined the term asteroid ("star-like") for these bodies, writing that "they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them, even by very good telescopes". As the first such body to be discovered, Ceres was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of minor-planet designations. By the 1860s, the existence of a fundamental difference between asteroids such as Ceres and the major planets was widely accepted, though a precise definition of "planet" was never formulated.The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet. A proposal before the International Astronomical Union for the definition of a planet would have defined a planet as "a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet". Had this resolution been adopted, it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun. This never happened, however, and on 24 August 2006 a modified definition was adopted, carrying the additional requirement that a planet must have "cleared the neighborhood around its orbit". By this definition, Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit, sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about a third of the mass of the belt. Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second, such as Ceres, were instead classified as dwarf planets.

text: As other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of Ceres, it was realized that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects. In 1802, with the discovery of 2 Pallas, William Herschel coined the term asteroid ("star-like") for these bodies, writing that "they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them, even by very good telescopes". As the first such body to be discovered, Ceres was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of

text: minor-planet designation

text: s. By the 1860s, the existence of a fundamental difference between asteroids such as Ceres and the major planets was widely accepted, though a precise definition of "planet" was never formulated.The 2006 debate surrounding

text: Pluto

text: and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet. A proposal before the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: for the

text: definition of a planet

text: would have defined a planet as "a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet". Had this resolution been adopted, it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun. This never happened, however, and on 24 August 2006 a modified definition was adopted, carrying the additional requirement that a planet must have "

text: cleared the neighborhood

text: around its orbit". By this definition, Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit, sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the

text: asteroid belt

text: and constituting only about a third of the mass of the belt. Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second, such as Ceres, were instead classified as

text: dwarf planet

text: s.

text: The United Nations (UN) estimates that, of 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (1 quadrillion acre-feet) of water on Earth, just 200,000 cubic kilometers (162.1 billion acre-feet) represent fresh water available for human consumption.

text: The

text: United Nations

text: (UN) estimates that, of 1.4 billion cubic kilometers (1 quadrillion acre-feet) of water on

text: Earth

text: , just 200,000 cubic kilometers (162.1 billion acre-feet) represent fresh water available for human consumption.

text: Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their geologic histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a runaway greenhouse effect may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point, so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of Europa is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth. The Solar System's giant planets are also thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.

text: Extraterrestrial oceans

text: may be composed of water or other

text: element

text: s and

text: compounds

text: . The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface

text: liquids

text: are the

text: lakes of Titan

text: , although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the

text: Solar System

text: . Early in their geologic histories,

text: Mars

text: and

text: Venus

text: are theorized to have had large water oceans. The

text: Mars ocean hypothesis

text: suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds such as

text: salts

text: and

text: ammonia

text: dissolved in water lower its freezing point, so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting

text: ice

text: . Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many

text: dwarf planets

text: and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of

text: Europa

text: is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth. The Solar System's

text: giant planet

text: s are also thought to have liquid

text: atmospheric

text: layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on

text: exoplanet

text: s and

text: exomoon

text: s, including surface oceans of liquid water within a

text: circumstellar habitable zone

text: Ocean planet

text: s are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.

text: It has generally been accepted that tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the asthenosphere. Dissipation of heat from the mantle is acknowledged to be the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. The current view, though still a matter of some debate, asserts that as a consequence, a powerful source of plate motion is generated due to the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater density of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone. Although subduction is thought to be the strongest force driving plate motions, it cannot be the only force since there are plates such as the North American Plate which are moving, yet are nowhere being subducted. The same is true for the enormous Eurasian Plate. The sources of plate motion are a matter of intensive research and discussion among scientists. One of the main points is that the kinematic pattern of the movement itself should be separated clearly from the possible geodynamic mechanism that is invoked as the driving force of the observed movement, as some patterns may be explained by more than one mechanism. In short, the driving forces advocated at the moment can be divided into three categories based on the relationship to the movement: mantle dynamics related, gravity related (mostly secondary forces).

text: It has generally been accepted that tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the asthenosphere.

text: Dissipation of heat from the mantle

text: is acknowledged to be the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. The current view, though still a matter of some debate, asserts that as a consequence, a powerful source of plate motion is generated due to the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater

text: density

text: of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone. Although subduction is thought to be the strongest force driving plate motions, it cannot be the only force since there are plates such as the North American Plate which are moving, yet are nowhere being subducted. The same is true for the enormous

text: Eurasian Plate

text: . The sources of plate motion are a matter of intensive research and discussion among scientists. One of the main points is that the kinematic pattern of the movement itself should be separated clearly from the possible geodynamic mechanism that is invoked as the driving force of the observed movement, as some patterns may be explained by more than one mechanism. In short, the driving forces advocated at the moment can be divided into three categories based on the relationship to the movement: mantle dynamics related, gravity related (mostly secondary forces).

text: On July 26, 2010 the California and Carnegie Planet Search team announced the discovery of two planets around 24 Sextantis along with two planets around HD 200964. The inner planet is twice as massive as Jupiter and takes 453 days to orbit the star in a circular orbit at the average distance of 1.33 AU (199 Gm). The outer planet is / the mass of Jupiter and takes 883 days to orbit eccentrically around the star at the average distance of 2.08 AU (312 Gm).

text: On July 26, 2010 the

text: California and Carnegie Planet Search

text: team announced the discovery of two planets around 24 Sextantis along with two planets around

text: HD 200964

text: . The inner planet is twice as massive as Jupiter and takes 453 days to orbit the star in a circular orbit at the average distance of 1.33 AU (199 Gm). The outer planet is / the mass of Jupiter and takes 883 days to orbit eccentrically around the star at the average distance of 2.08 AU (312 Gm).

text: Reconstructions of seismic waves in the deep interior of the Earth show that there are no S-waves in the outer core. This indicates that the outer core is liquid, because liquids cannot support shear. The outer core is liquid, and the motion of this highly conductive fluid generates the Earth's field (see geodynamo). The inner core, however, is solid because of the enormous pressure.

text: Reconstructions of seismic waves in the deep interior of the Earth show that there are no

text: S-waves

text: in the

text: outer core

text: . This indicates that the outer core is liquid, because liquids cannot support shear. The

text: outer core

text: is liquid, and the motion of this highly conductive fluid generates the Earth's field (see

text: geodynamo

text: ). The

text: inner core

text: , however, is solid because of the enormous pressure.

text: A steam explosion is a violent boiling or flashing of water into steam, occurring when water is either superheated, rapidly heated by fine hot debris produced within it, or heated by the interaction of molten metals  (as in a fuel-coolant interaction, or FCI, of molten nuclear-reactor fuel rods with water in a nuclear reactor core following a core-meltdown). Pressure vessels, such as pressurized water (nuclear) reactors, that operate above atmospheric pressure can also provide the conditions for a steam explosion. The water changes from a liquid to a gas with extreme speed, increasing dramatically in volume. A steam explosion sprays steam and boiling-hot water and the hot medium that heated it in all directions (if not otherwise confined, e.g. by the walls of a container), creating a danger of scalding and burning.

text: A steam

text: explosion

text: is a violent boiling or flashing of water into

text: steam

text: , occurring when water is either

text: superheated

text: , rapidly heated by fine hot debris produced within it, or heated by the interaction of molten metals  (as in a fuel-coolant interaction, or FCI, of molten nuclear-reactor fuel rods with water in a

text: nuclear reactor

text: core following a

text: core-meltdown

text: ). Pressure vessels, such as

text: pressurized water (nuclear) reactors

text: , that operate above

text: atmospheric pressure

text: can also provide the conditions for a steam explosion. The water changes from a liquid to a gas with extreme speed, increasing dramatically in volume. A steam explosion sprays steam and boiling-hot water and the hot medium that heated it in all directions (if not otherwise confined, e.g. by the walls of a container), creating a danger of

text: scalding

text: and burning.

text: The outer core of the Earth is a fluid layer about  thick and composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core and below its mantle. Its outer boundary lies  beneath Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately  beneath the Earth's surface. Unlike the inner core, the outer core is not solid. This is also referred to as the "liquid core".

text: The outer core of the Earth is a fluid layer about  thick and composed of mostly

text: iron

text: and

text: nickel

text: that lies above Earth's solid

text: inner core

text: and below its

text: mantle

text: . Its outer boundary lies  beneath Earth's surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately  beneath the Earth's surface. Unlike the inner core, the outer core is not solid. This is also referred to as the "liquid core".

text: Some extrasolar planets are covered entirely in lava oceans, and some are tidally locked planets, whose star-facing hemisphere is entirely lava.

text: Some extrasolar planets are covered entirely in

text: lava oceans

text: , and some are

text: tidally locked

text: planets, whose star-facing hemisphere is entirely lava.

text: During the 18–19th centuries, the study of the three body problem by Euler, Clairaut, and D'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by Lagrange and Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.

text: During the 18–19th centuries, the study of the

text: three body problem

text: by

text: Euler

text: Clairaut

text: , and

text: D'Alembert

text: led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by

text: Lagrange

text: and

text: Laplace

text: , allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.

text: When the terrestrial planets were forming, they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust. The gas was partially supported by pressure and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets. The resulting drag caused a transfer of angular momentum, and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits. Models show that density and temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration, but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated, leaving the planets in their current orbits.

text: When the terrestrial planets were forming, they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust. The gas was partially supported by pressure and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets. The resulting

text: drag

text: caused a transfer of

text: angular momentum

text: , and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits. Models show that density and temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration, but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated, leaving the planets in their current orbits.

text: One of the planets, Wolf 1061 c, is a super-Earth located near the inner edge of the star's habitable zone, which extends from approximately 0.073 to 0.190 AU. It is the closest known potentially habitable planet to Earth after Proxima b. The next planet out, Wolf 1061 d, could be marginally habitable depending on its atmosphere's composition as it orbits just beyond the habitable zone.

text: One of the planets,

text: Wolf 1061 c

text: , is a

text: super-Earth

text: located near the inner edge of the star's

text: habitable zone

text: , which extends from approximately 0.073 to 0.190 AU. It is the closest known potentially habitable planet to Earth after

text: Proxima b

text: . The next planet out, Wolf 1061 d, could be marginally habitable depending on its atmosphere's composition as it orbits just beyond the habitable zone.

text: The design specification for a wind-turbine will contain a power curve and guaranteed availability. With the data from the wind resource assessment it is possible to calculate commercial viability.The typical operating temperature range is . In areas with extreme climate (like Inner Mongolia or Rajasthan) specific cold and hot weather versions are required.

text: The

text: design specification

text: for a wind-turbine will contain a power curve and guaranteed

text: availability

text: . With the data from the

text: wind resource assessment

text: it is possible to calculate commercial viability.The typical

text: operating temperature

text: range is . In areas with extreme climate (like

text: Inner Mongolia

text: or

text: Rajasthan

text: ) specific cold and hot weather versions are required.

text: Since the breakup of the Pangaea supercontinent in the Jurassic (about 250 million years ago) the main tectonic story here has been the North American Plate's subduction of the Farallon Plate (see below) and its remaining fragments (such as the Kula, Juan de Fuca, Gorda, and Explorer plates).  As the North American plate overrides the last of each remnant it comes into contact with the Pacific Plate, generally forming a transform fault, such as the Queen Charlotte Fault running north of Vancouver Island, and the San Andreas Fault on the coast of California.  Between these is the Cascadia subduction zone, the last portion of a subduction zone that once stretched from Central America to Alaska.

text: Since the breakup of the

text: Pangaea

text: supercontinent in the

text: Jurassic

text: (about 250 million years ago) the main tectonic story here has been the North American Plate's subduction of the

text: Farallon Plate

text: (see below) and its remaining fragments (such as the

text: Kula

text: Juan de Fuca

text: Gorda

text: , and

text: Explorer

text: plates).  As the North American plate overrides the last of each remnant it comes into contact with the Pacific Plate, generally forming a

text: transform fault

text: , such as the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: running north of

text: Vancouver Island

text: , and the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: on the coast of California.  Between these is the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , the last portion of a subduction zone that once stretched from Central America to Alaska.

text: Some relationships between the milk ocean and Goloka, the planet of Krishna may be found. Krishna is the same as Vishnu, who lives in a white castle on the ocean of milk and on other hand, Krishna is the same as Vishnu, but He lives on Goloka, a planet of cows (Sanskrit: "Go" - cow, "Loka" - world).Other milky oceans are the yoghurt ocean, and the ghee ocean. These oceans are representative of the meaning that Absolute Truth is also sweet and wonderful – it suggests that humans not only live on Earth with a salt water ocean only, but also that there are other oceans like the sweet water ocean among these 7 oceans that humans may aspire to live in. The material world is compared to the ocean of fault, especially in Kali-Yuga, so a way to go out of this matter is to enter the ocean of bliss – in the eternal world of Vaikuntha. The supreme planet in that ocean of Truth is Goloka, though only a few persons out of thousands and thousands may come to the conclusion of Absolute Truth and may subsequently live on this planet of cows, where the milk ocean exists.

text: Some relationships between the milk ocean and Goloka, the planet of Krishna may be found. Krishna is the same as Vishnu, who lives in a white castle on the ocean of milk and on other hand, Krishna is the same as Vishnu, but He lives on Goloka, a planet of cows (Sanskrit: "Go" - cow, "Loka" - world).Other milky oceans are the yoghurt ocean, and the ghee ocean. These oceans are representative of the meaning that Absolute Truth is also sweet and wonderful – it suggests that humans not only live on Earth with a salt water ocean only, but also that there are other oceans like the sweet water ocean among these 7 oceans that humans may aspire to live in. The material world is compared to the ocean of fault, especially in Kali-Yuga, so a way to go out of this matter is to enter the ocean of bliss – in the eternal world of Vaikuntha. The supreme planet in that ocean of Truth is

text: Goloka

text: , though only a few persons out of thousands and thousands may come to the conclusion of Absolute Truth and may subsequently live on this planet of cows, where the milk ocean exists.

text: Chthonian planets (, sometimes 'cthonian') are a hypothetical class of celestial objects resulting from the stripping away of a gas giant's hydrogen and helium atmosphere and outer layers, which is called hydrodynamic escape. Such atmospheric stripping is a likely result of proximity to a star. The remaining rocky or metallic core would resemble a terrestrial planet in many respects.

text: Chthonian planets (, sometimes 'cthonian') are a hypothetical class of celestial objects resulting from the stripping away of a

text: gas giant

text: 's

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: atmosphere

text: and outer layers, which is called

text: hydrodynamic escape

text: . Such atmospheric stripping is a likely result of proximity to a

text: star

text: . The remaining

text: rocky

text: or

text: metal

text: lic

text: core

text: would resemble a

text: terrestrial planet

text: in many respects.

text: All three planets have masses low enough that they are likely to be rocky planets similar to the inner planets of the Solar System although their actual sizes and densities are currently unknown. However, this information could be determined if the planets happen to transit in front of Wolf 1061 when viewed from Earth. Because all three planets orbit close to the star and have short orbital periods, there is a  chance that this will occur. The University of New South Wales team estimated the chances of a transit at around 14% for planet b, 6% for planet c, and 3% for planet d.

text: All three planets have masses low enough that they are likely to be

text: rocky planet

text: s similar to the

text: inner planet

text: s of the

text: Solar System

text: although their actual sizes and densities are currently unknown. However, this information could be determined if the planets happen to

text: transit

text: in front of Wolf 1061 when viewed from Earth. Because all three planets orbit close to the star and have short orbital periods, there is a  chance that this will occur. The University of New South Wales team estimated the chances of a transit at around 14% for planet b, 6% for planet c, and 3% for planet d.

text: Plate tectonics, in combination with the presence of large bodies of water on a planet, is able to maintain high levels of carbon dioxide () in its atmosphere. This process appears to be common in geologically active terrestrial planets with a significant rotation speed. The more massive a planetary body, the longer time it will generate internal heat, which is a major contributing factor to plate tectonics. However, excessive mass can also slow plate tectonics because of increased pressure and viscosity of the mantle, which hinders the sliding of the lithosphere. Research suggests that plate tectonics peaks in activity in bodies with a mass between 1 and 5M, with an optimum mass of approximately 2M.

text: Plate tectonics

text: , in combination with the presence of large bodies of water on a planet, is able to maintain high levels of

text: carbon dioxide

text: () in its atmosphere. This process appears to be common in geologically active terrestrial planets with a significant rotation speed. The more massive a planetary body, the longer time it will generate internal heat, which is a major contributing factor to plate tectonics. However, excessive mass can also slow plate tectonics because of increased pressure and viscosity of the mantle, which hinders the sliding of the

text: lithosphere

text: . Research suggests that plate tectonics peaks in activity in bodies with a mass between 1 and 5M, with an optimum mass of approximately 2M.

text: Particles can be reduced in size by collisions or by space weathering. When ground down to sizes less than 10 micrometres, the grains are removed from the inner Solar System by solar radiation pressure. The dust is then replenished by the infall from comets. Zodiacal dust around nearby stars is called exozodiacal dust; it is a potentially important source of noise for directly imaging extrasolar planets. It has been pointed out that this exozodiacal dust, or hot debris disks, can can be an indicator of planets, as planets tend to scatter the comets to the inner Solar System.

text: Particles can be reduced in size by collisions or by space weathering. When ground down to sizes less than 10 micrometres, the grains are removed from the inner Solar System by solar radiation pressure. The dust is then replenished by the infall from comets. Zodiacal dust around nearby stars is called

text: exozodiacal dust

text: ; it is a potentially important source of noise for directly imaging

text: extrasolar planets

text: . It has been pointed out that this exozodiacal dust, or hot debris disks, can can be an indicator of planets, as planets tend to scatter the comets to the inner Solar System.

text: These are the facts, how the aether age came upon us. Since then mankind has spread out among the inner planets, but due to the mechanics of aether travel they have not been able to find a way to travel beyond the asteroid belt and thus explore the outer planets. After all, it is by garnering the heat of the sun that enables the water to boil and thus produce the steam that powers the aether propeller.

text: Working fluids are chosen according to the temperatures at which the heat pipe must operate, with examples ranging from liquid helium for extremely low temperature applications (2–4 K) to mercury (523–923 K), sodium (873–1473 K) and even indium (2000–3000 K) for extremely high temperatures. The vast majority of heat pipes for room temperature applications use ammonia (213–373 K), alcohol (methanol (283–403 K) or ethanol (273–403 K)) or water (298–573 K) as the working fluid.  Copper/water heat pipes have a copper envelope, use water as the working fluid and typically operate in the temperature range of 20 to 150 °C. Water heat pipes are sometimes filled by partially filling with water, heating until the water boils and displaces the air, and then sealed while hot.

text: Working fluids are chosen according to the temperatures at which the heat pipe must operate, with examples ranging from

text: liquid helium

text: for extremely low temperature applications (2–4 K) to

text: mercury

text: (523–923 K),

text: sodium

text: (873–1473 K) and even

text: indium

text: (2000–3000 K) for extremely high temperatures. The vast majority of heat pipes for room temperature applications use

text: ammonia

text: (213–373 K),

text: alcohol

text: methanol

text: (283–403 K) or

text: ethanol

text: (273–403 K)) or

text: water

text: (298–573 K) as the working fluid.  Copper/water heat pipes have a copper envelope, use water as the working fluid and typically operate in the temperature range of 20 to 150 °C. Water heat pipes are sometimes filled by partially filling with water, heating until the water boils and displaces the air, and then sealed while hot.

text: Based on rates of cooling of the core, it is estimated that the current solid inner core started solidifying approximately 0.5 to 2 billion years ago out of a fully molten core (which formed just after planetary formation). If true, this would mean that the Earth's solid inner core is not a primordial feature that was present during the planet's formation, but a feature younger than the Earth (the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old).

text: Based on rates of cooling of the core, it is estimated that the current solid inner core started solidifying approximately 0.5 to 2 billion years ago out of a fully molten core (which formed just after

text: planetary formation

text: ). If true, this would mean that the Earth's solid inner core is not a primordial feature that was present during the planet's formation, but a feature younger than the Earth (the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old).

text: In addition, because water strongly absorbs red and infrared light, less energy would be available for aquatic life on red dwarf planets. However, a similar effect of preferential absorption by water ice would increase its temperature relative to an equivalent amount of radiation from a Sun-like star, thereby extending the habitable zone of red dwarfs outward.

text: A subduction zone is a region of the earth's crust where one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate; oceanic crust gets recycled back into the mantle and continental crust gets created by the formation of arc magmas. Arc magmas account for more than 20% of terrestrially produced magmas and are produced by the dehydration of minerals within the subducting slab as it descends into the mantle and are accreted onto the base of the overriding continental plate. Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.

text: A

text: subduction zone

text: is a region of the earth's crust where one

text: tectonic plate

text: moves under another tectonic plate;

text: oceanic crust

text: gets recycled back into the mantle and

text: continental crust

text: gets created by the formation of arc

text: magma

text: s. Arc magmas account for more than 20% of terrestrially produced magmas and are produced by the dehydration of minerals within the subducting slab as it descends into the mantle and are accreted onto the base of the overriding continental plate. Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.

text: One must be careful when measuring temperature to ensure that the measuring instrument (thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In such a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system, but also with the heat transfer properties of the system. An extreme case of this effect gives rise to the wind chill factor, where the weather feels colder under windy conditions than calm conditions even though the temperature is the same. What is happening is that the wind increases the rate of heat transfer from the body, resulting in a larger reduction in body temperature for the same ambient temperature.

text: One must be careful when measuring temperature to ensure that the measuring instrument (thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In such a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system, but also with the heat transfer properties of the system. An extreme case of this effect gives rise to the

text: wind chill factor

text: , where the weather feels colder under windy conditions than calm conditions even though the temperature is the same. What is happening is that the wind increases the rate of heat transfer from the body, resulting in a larger reduction in body temperature for the same ambient temperature.

text: One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.

text: One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of

text: shear zone

text: s. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.

text: Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook.  In 1615, he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy); the first volume (books I–III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V–VII) in 1621. Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based system. The Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.  Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the Medicean satellites of Jupiter,<ref>By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law.

text: Since completing the Astronomia nova, Kepler had intended to compose an astronomy textbook.  In 1615, he completed the first of three volumes of Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy); the first volume (books I–III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V–VII) in 1621. Despite the title, which referred simply to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbook culminated in his own ellipse-based system. The Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contained all three laws of planetary motion and attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes.  Though it explicitly extended the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova) to all the planets as well as the Moon and the

text: Medicean satellites of Jupiter

text: ,<ref>By 1621 or earlier, Kepler recognized that Jupiter's moons obey his third law.

text: The planet is called Meridian, and it spends most of its time in another phase of existence, where its people exist only as consciousness, with no physical being. The planet is in this dimension for a very short time. In twelve days it will disappear for sixty years. Each time it returns, the planet will have less time in this universe, and eventually will stop appearing.

text: The planet is called Meridian, and it spends most of its time in another phase of existence, where its people exist only as

text: consciousness

text: , with no physical being. The planet is in this dimension for a very short time. In twelve days it will disappear for sixty years. Each time it returns, the planet will have less time in this universe, and eventually will stop appearing.

text: Other die components include cores and slides. Cores are components that usually produce holes or opening, but they can be used to create other details as well. There are three types of cores: fixed, movable, and loose. Fixed cores are ones that are oriented parallel to the pull direction of the dies (i.e. the direction the dies open), therefore they are fixed, or permanently attached to the die. Movable cores are ones that are oriented in any other way than parallel to the pull direction. These cores must be removed from the die cavity after the shot solidifies, but before the dies open, using a separate mechanism. Slides are similar to movable cores, except they are used to form undercut surfaces. The use of movable cores and slides greatly increases the cost of the dies. Loose cores, also called pick-outs, are used to cast intricate features, such as threaded holes. These loose cores are inserted into the die by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at the end of the cycle. The core then must be removed by hand. Loose cores are the most expensive type of core, because of the extra labor and increased cycle time. Other features in the dies include water-cooling passages and vents along the parting lines. These vents are usually wide and thin (approximately ) so that when the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and minimizes scrap. No risers are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal from the gate.

text: Other die components include

text: cores

text: and slides. Cores are components that usually produce holes or opening, but they can be used to create other details as well. There are three types of cores: fixed, movable, and loose. Fixed cores are ones that are oriented parallel to the pull direction of the dies (i.e. the direction the dies open), therefore they are fixed, or permanently attached to the die. Movable cores are ones that are oriented in any other way than parallel to the pull direction. These cores must be removed from the die cavity after the shot solidifies, but before the dies open, using a separate mechanism. Slides are similar to movable cores, except they are used to form

text: undercut

text: surfaces. The use of movable cores and slides greatly increases the cost of the dies. Loose cores, also called pick-outs, are used to cast intricate features, such as

text: threaded holes

text: . These loose cores are inserted into the die by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at the end of the cycle. The core then must be removed by hand. Loose cores are the most expensive type of core, because of the extra labor and increased cycle time. Other features in the dies include water-cooling passages and vents along the

text: parting line

text: s. These vents are usually wide and thin (approximately ) so that when the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and minimizes scrap. No

text: risers

text: are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal from the gate.

text: Hydro Hog is the nemesis of the Aquitian Rangers and the main antagonist of Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers. He was known as the Emperor of the Dark Waters on Aquitar for his evil ways. He was known for having destroyed many planets. His main power is to consume all the water available before the Aquitian Rangers can get to it, leaving them dehydrated. Rita Repulsa and Lord Zedd sought out Hydro Hog's help when the Aquitian Rangers proved to be too much against them on their own.

text: Hydro Hog is the nemesis of the

text: Aquitian Rangers

text: and the main antagonist of

text: Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers

text: . He was known as the Emperor of the Dark Waters on

text: Aquitar

text: for his evil ways. He was known for having destroyed many planets. His main power is to consume all the water available before the Aquitian Rangers can get to it, leaving them dehydrated.

text: Rita Repulsa

text: and

entity_name: Villains in Mighty Morphin Power Rangers

text: Lord Zedd

text: sought out Hydro Hog's help when the Aquitian Rangers proved to be too much against them on their own.

text: Colonists could live in the dwarf planet's icy crust or mantle, using fusion or geothermal heat and mining the soft-ice or liquid inner ocean for volatiles and minerals. Given the light gravity and resulting lower pressure in the ice mantle or inner ocean, colonizing the rocky core's outer surface might give colonists the largest number of mineral and volatile resources as well as insulating them from cold. Surface habitats or domes are another possibility, as background radiation levels are likely to be low.

text: Colonists could live in the

text: dwarf planet

text: 's icy

text: crust

text: or

text: mantle

text: , using

text: fusion

text: or

text: geothermal

text: heat and mining the soft-ice or liquid inner

text: ocean

text: for

text: volatiles

text: and

text: mineral

text: s. Given the light gravity and resulting lower pressure in the ice

text: mantle

text: or inner ocean, colonizing the rocky

text: core

text: 's outer surface might give

text: colonists

text: the largest number of

text: mineral

text: and

text: volatile

text: resources as well as insulating them from cold. Surface habitats or

text: domes

text: are another possibility, as

text: background radiation

text: levels are likely to be low.

text: Modelling the formation of the terrestrial and gas giants is relatively straightforward and uncontroversial. The terrestrial planets of the Solar System are widely understood to have formed through collisional accumulation of planetesimals within the protoplanetary disc. The gas giants—Jupiter, Saturn, and their extrasolar counterpart planets—are thought to have formed after solid cores around 10 Earth masses () formed through the same process, while accreting gaseous envelopes from the surrounding solar nebula over the course of a few to several million years (Ma), although alternative models of core formation based on pebble accretion have recently been proposed. Some extrasolar giant planets may instead have formed via gravitational disk instabilities.

text: Modelling the formation of the

text: terrestrial

text: and

text: gas giant

text: s is relatively straightforward and

text: uncontroversial

text: . The terrestrial planets of the

text: Solar System

text: are widely understood to have formed through collisional accumulation of

text: planetesimal

text: s within the

text: protoplanetary disc

text: . The

text: gas giant

text: s—

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: , and their extrasolar counterpart planets—are thought to have formed after solid cores around 10 Earth masses () formed through the same process, while

text: accreting

text: gaseous envelopes from the surrounding

text: solar nebula

text: over the course of a few to several million years (

text: Ma

text: ), although alternative models of core formation based on

text: pebble accretion

text: have recently been proposed. Some extrasolar giant planets may instead have formed via gravitational disk instabilities.

text: Volcano's most recent photographs demonstrate how intersexed bodies can offer an entirely new perspective on the body.  The 'normal' body in relation to Volcano's photographs becomes queer.  Volcano describes the bodies in their latest works as "sites of mutation, loss, and longing."  In these newer works, Volcano takes on the loss of their friend, Kathy Acker and the transformation of their lover Simo Maronati's abled body into a disabled one.  Here, Volcano illustrates the queerness of any body marked by illness or trauma.

text: Volcano's most recent photographs demonstrate how intersexed bodies can offer an entirely new perspective on the body.  The 'normal' body in relation to Volcano's photographs becomes queer.  Volcano describes the bodies in their latest works as "sites of mutation, loss, and longing."  In these newer works, Volcano takes on the loss of their friend,

text: Kathy Acker

text: and the transformation of their lover Simo Maronati's abled body into a disabled one.  Here, Volcano illustrates the queerness of any body marked by illness or trauma.

text: Among the other dwarf planets,  has no known moons. It is 90 percent certain that Ceres has no moons larger than 1 km in size, assuming that they would have the same albedo as Ceres itself.  has two moons, Hi'iaka and Namaka, of radii ~195 and ~100 km, respectively.  has one moon, discovered in April 2016. A satellite having 1% Makemake's brightness would have been detected if it had been located at an angular distance from Makemake farther than 0.4 arcseconds (0.0001 degrees).  has one known moon, Dysnomia. Accurately determining its size is difficult: one indicative estimate of its radius is , but on some assumptions could be as high as . The Kuiper belt object 90482 Orcus, believed to be a dwarf planet, was found in 2005 to have a natural satellite, later named Vanth.As of October 2009, 190 asteroid moons and 63 trans-Neptunian moons had been discovered.

text: Among the other

text: dwarf planets

text: ,  has no known moons. It is 90 percent certain that Ceres has no moons larger than 1 km in size, assuming that they would have the same

text: albedo

text: as Ceres itself.  has two moons,

text: Hi'iaka

text: and

text: Namaka

text: , of radii ~195 and ~100 km, respectively.  has one moon, discovered in April 2016. A satellite having 1% Makemake's brightness would have been detected if it had been located at an

text: angular distance

text: from Makemake farther than 0.4 arcseconds (0.0001 degrees).  has one known moon,

text: Dysnomia

text: . Accurately determining its size is difficult: one indicative estimate of its radius is , but on some assumptions could be as high as . The

text: Kuiper belt

text: object

text: 90482 Orcus

text: , believed to be a dwarf planet, was found in 2005 to have a natural satellite, later named

text: Vanth

text: .As of October 2009, 190

text: asteroid moons

text: and 63

text: trans-Neptunian moons

text: had been discovered.

text: Water resources in Malaysia are abundant and available throughout the year. They are estimated at 580 km3/year (average 1977-2001), equivalent to more than 3,000 cubic meters per capita and year. In 1995, total water withdrawal was estimated at 12.5 km3, or less than 3 percent of available resources. 76 percent of water was used for agriculture, 11 percent for municipal water supply and 13 percent for industries. Thus only less than 1% of available water resources is used for drinking water supply.

text: Water resources in

text: Malaysia

text: are abundant and available throughout the year. They are estimated at 580 km3/year (average 1977-2001), equivalent to more than 3,000 cubic meters per capita and year. In 1995, total water withdrawal was estimated at 12.5 km3, or less than 3 percent of available resources. 76 percent of water was used for agriculture, 11 percent for municipal water supply and 13 percent for industries. Thus only less than 1% of available water resources is used for drinking water supply.

text: The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's  (1974–1975). The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational "slingshot" effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets.  provided the first close-up images of Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools. Unfortunately, due to the length of 's orbital period, the same face of the planet was lit at each of 's close approaches. This made observation of both sides of the planet impossible, and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet's surface.

text: The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was

text: NASA

text: 's  (1974–1975). The spacecraft used the gravity of

text: Venus

text: to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this

text: gravitational "slingshot"

text: effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets.  provided the first close-up images of Mercury's surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps that were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools. Unfortunately, due to the length of 's orbital period, the same face of the planet was lit at each of 's close approaches. This made observation of both sides of the planet impossible, and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet's surface.

text: The Inner Daktylios, which covers the area of the city center, allows vehicles into it depending primarily on the parity of the date and of the vehicle's registration plate, the vehicle type as well as the time of the week/month. On odd dates, only vehicles with an odd plate number are allowed to proceed into the Daktylios. On even dates, only cars with even plate numbers are allowed. Lorries and other heavy vehicles are always banned and residents within the Inner Daktylios area are required to have a special pass that grants them access on all times of the year. The Inner Daktylios is not valid on weekends, bank holidays and during certain months (usually between July and October), with the dates changing every year depending on the expected levels of traffic.

text: The Inner Daktylios, which covers the area of the city center, allows vehicles into it depending primarily on the

text: parity

text: of the date and of the vehicle's registration plate, the vehicle type as well as the time of the week/month. On odd dates, only vehicles with an odd plate number are allowed to proceed into the Daktylios. On even dates, only cars with even plate numbers are allowed. Lorries and other heavy vehicles are always banned and residents within the Inner Daktylios area are required to have a special pass that grants them access on all times of the year. The Inner Daktylios is not valid on weekends, bank holidays and during certain months (usually between July and October), with the dates changing every year depending on the expected levels of traffic.

text: Waiowa (also called Goropu) is an isolated trachyandesitic volcano on New Guinea island, Papua New Guinea. It is located 19 km inland from Collingwood Bay in Oro Province. It lies on a fault line along the northeast flank of the Owen Stanley metamorphic belt. It is one of the planet's newest volcanoes, it formed in September 1943.

text: Waiowa (also called Goropu) is an isolated

text: trachyandesitic

text: volcano on

text: New Guinea

text: island,

text: Papua New Guinea

text: . It is located 19 km inland from

text: Collingwood Bay

text: in

text: Oro Province

text: . It lies on a fault line along the northeast flank of the

text: Owen Stanley

text: metamorphic belt

text: . It is one of the planet's newest volcanoes, it formed in September 1943.

text: Above subduction zones, volcanoes exist in long chains called volcanic arcs.  Volcanoes that exist along arcs tend to produce dangerous eruptions because they are rich in water (from the slab and sediments) and tend to be extremely explosive. Krakatoa, Nevado del Ruiz, and Mount Vesuvius are all examples of arc volcanoes. Arcs are also known to be associated with precious metals such as gold, silver and copper believed to be carried by water and concentrated in and around their host volcanoes in rock called "ore".

text: Above subduction zones, volcanoes exist in long chains called

text: volcanic arc

text: s.  Volcanoes that exist along arcs tend to produce dangerous eruptions because they are rich in water (from the slab and sediments) and tend to be extremely explosive.

text: Krakatoa

text: Nevado del Ruiz

text: , and

text: Mount Vesuvius

text: are all examples of arc volcanoes. Arcs are also known to be associated with precious metals such as gold, silver and copper believed to be carried by water and concentrated in and around their host volcanoes in rock called "ore".

text: Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The falls are obovate to cuneate  (wedge shaped), and  long, and 2.2–3 cm wide. They have lots of dark veining, and in the centre, there is a row of short hairs, a 'beard', which are white or pale blue. Near to the stem, the beard has a yellow  or orange tip. The standards are oblong shaped, and a similar length to the falls,  long, and 2.2–3 cm wide.

text: Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large

text: sepals

text: (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or

text: tepals

text: ), known as the 'standards'. The falls are obovate to cuneate  (wedge shaped), and  long, and 2.2–3 cm wide. They have lots of dark veining, and in the centre, there is a row of short hairs, a 'beard', which are white or pale blue. Near to the stem, the beard has a yellow  or orange tip. The standards are oblong shaped, and a similar length to the falls,  long, and 2.2–3 cm wide.

text: Speculation also continues that the inner core might have exhibited a variety of internal deformation patterns. This may be necessary to explain why seismic waves pass more rapidly in some directions than in others. Because thermal convection alone appears to be improbable, any buoyant convection motions will have to be driven by variations in composition or abundance of liquid in its interior. S. Yoshida and colleagues proposed a novel mechanism whereby deformation of the inner core can be caused by a higher rate of freezing at the equator than at polar latitudes, and S. Karato proposed that changes in the magnetic field might also deform the inner core slowly over time.

text: Speculation also continues that the inner core might have exhibited a variety of internal

text: deformation

text: patterns. This may be necessary to explain why seismic waves pass more rapidly in some directions than in others. Because

text: thermal convection

text: alone appears to be improbable, any buoyant convection motions will have to be driven by variations in composition or abundance of liquid in its interior. S. Yoshida and colleagues proposed a novel mechanism whereby deformation of the inner core can be caused by a higher rate of freezing at the equator than at polar latitudes, and S. Karato proposed that changes in the magnetic field might also deform the inner core slowly over time.

text: An example of an over flow type first flush device for a high pollution load area, such as where there are birds, leaves, seeds, and moss in an urban setting, can be constructed from PVC down pipes in the following manner. The distinguishing feature of this method is the collection pipe is submerged before any water is collected. This prevents 90% of moss, algae, liken, small seeds, and partially digested bird dropping from entering the storage system. This is an important modification to most commercially available systems. Another important feature is the inner tube, and its length. This inner tube helps to settle sediment by keeping the agitation zones away from the collection point. This prevents or vastly reduces the agitated particles from becoming collected.

text: Mars' volcanic features can be likened to Earth's geologic hotspots. Pavonis Mons is the middle of three volcanoes (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis bulge near the equator of the planet Mars. The other Tharsis volcanoes are Ascraeus Mons and Arsia Mons. The three Tharsis Montes, together with some smaller volcanoes to the north, form a straight line. This arrangement suggests that they were formed by a crustal plate moving over a hot spot. Such an arrangement exists in the Earth's Pacific Ocean as the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian Islands are in a straight line, with the youngest in the south and the oldest in the north. So geologists believe the plate is moving while a stationary plume of hot magma rises and punches through the crust to produce volcanic mountains. However, the largest volcano on the planet, Olympus Mons, is thought to have formed when the plates were not moving. Olympus Mons may have formed just after the plate motion stopped. The mare-like plains on Mars are roughly 3 to 3.5 billion years old. The giant shield volcanoes are younger, formed between 1 and 2 billion years ago. Olympus Mons may be "as young as 200 million years."

text: Mars' volcanic features can be likened to Earth's

text: geologic hotspots

text: . Pavonis Mons is the middle of three volcanoes (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis bulge near the equator of the planet Mars. The other Tharsis volcanoes are Ascraeus Mons and Arsia Mons. The three Tharsis Montes, together with some smaller volcanoes to the north, form a straight line. This arrangement suggests that they were formed by a crustal plate moving over a hot spot. Such an arrangement exists in the Earth's

text: Pacific Ocean

text: as the

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: . The Hawaiian Islands are in a straight line, with the youngest in the south and the oldest in the north. So geologists believe the plate is moving while a stationary plume of hot

text: magma

text: rises and punches through the crust to produce volcanic mountains. However, the largest volcano on the planet, Olympus Mons, is thought to have formed when the plates were not moving. Olympus Mons may have formed just after the plate motion stopped. The mare-like plains on Mars are roughly 3 to 3.5 billion years old. The giant shield volcanoes are younger, formed between 1 and 2 billion years ago.

text: Olympus Mons

text: may be "as young as 200 million years."

text: Some volcanoes, such as shield volcanoes Kīlauea and Mauna Loa (respectively the most active and second largest on Earth, are both on the island of Hawaii), form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is basalt which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less viscous than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas, and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop Fernandina Island underwent a collapse in 1968, when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 meters. Kilauea Caldera has an inner crater known as Halema‘uma‘u, which has often been filled by a lava lake.

text: Some volcanoes, such as

text: shield volcano

text: es

text: Kīlauea

text: and

text: Mauna Loa

text: (respectively the most active and second largest on Earth, are both on the island of

text: Hawaii

text: ), form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is

text: basalt

text: which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less

text: viscous

text: than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas, and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop

text: Fernandina Island

text: underwent a collapse in 1968, when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 meters.

text: Kilauea

text: Caldera has an inner crater known as

text: Halema‘uma‘u

text: , which has often been filled by a lava lake.

text: Although the inner most planet has a size similar to Mars, Kepler-138c and d both have a radius of 1.2 Earth radii. All of the planets are too close to their star to be considered within the habitable zone. Although Kepler-138c and d have the same size, their masses and densities vary greatly. Of these two, the inner planet is consistent with a rocky super-Earth, whereas the outer planet is thought to have a significant gas envelope and low density, resembling a miniaturized gas giant (a Gas dwarf). The striking differences between these two planets have been hypothesized to be due photoevaporation.

text: Although the inner most planet has a size similar to

text: Mars

text: , Kepler-138c and d both have a radius of 1.2

text: Earth radii

text: . All of the planets are too close to their star to be considered within the

text: habitable zone

text: . Although Kepler-138c and d have the same size, their masses and densities vary greatly. Of these two, the inner planet is consistent with a rocky

text: super-Earth

text: , whereas the outer planet is thought to have a significant gas envelope and low density, resembling a miniaturized

text: gas giant

text: (a

text: Gas dwarf

text: ). The striking differences between these two planets have been hypothesized to be due

text: photoevaporation

text: Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable. Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop. The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is most likely to exist. Use of the equation to predict the amount of extraterrestrial life, however, is difficult; because many of the variables are unknown, the equation functions as more of a mirror to what its user already thinks. As a result, the number of civilizations in the galaxy can be estimated as low as 9.1 x 10^-11 or as high as 156 million; for the calculations, see Drake equation.

text: Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that

text: extraterrestrial life

text: is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable. Other planets and

text: moons

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: and other

text: planetary system

text: s are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as

entity_name: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: SETI

text: are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the

text: Solar System

text: that may host

text: microbial

text: life include the subsurface of

text: Mars

text: , the upper atmosphere of

text: Venus

text: , and subsurface oceans on some of the

text: moons

text: of the

text: giant planet

text: s.Beyond the Solar System, the region around another

text: main-sequence star

text: that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the

text: habitable zone

text: . The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small

text: red dwarf

text: s have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of

text: tidal locking

text: from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop. The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially

text: habitat

text: -damaging

text: supernova

text: events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the

text: Drake equation

text: are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is most likely to exist. Use of the equation to predict the amount of extraterrestrial life, however, is difficult; because many of the variables are unknown, the equation functions as more of a mirror to what its user already thinks. As a result, the number of civilizations in the galaxy can be estimated as low as 9.1 x 10^-11 or as high as 156 million; for the calculations, see

text: Drake equation

text: In astrogeology, chaos terrain (or chaotic terrain) is a planetary surface area where features such as ridges, cracks, and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another. Chaos terrain is a notable feature of the planets Mars and Mercury, Jupiter's moon Europa, and the dwarf planet Pluto. In scientific nomenclature, "chaos" is used as a component of proper nouns (e.g., "Aureum Chaos" on Mars).

text: In

text: astrogeology

text: , chaos terrain (or chaotic terrain) is a planetary surface area where features such as ridges, cracks, and plains appear jumbled and enmeshed with one another. Chaos terrain is a notable feature of the planets

text: Mars

text: and

text: Mercury

text: Jupiter

text: 's moon

text: Europa

text: , and the dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: . In scientific nomenclature, "chaos" is used as a component of proper nouns (e.g., "

text: Aureum Chaos

text: " on Mars).

text: The estimated masses of planets b - f fall in the range between those of Earth and Neptune. Their estimated densities, all lower than that of Earth, imply that none of them have an Earth-like composition; a significant hydrogen/helium atmosphere is predicted for planets c, d, e, f, and g, while planet b may be surrounded by a steam atmosphere or perhaps by a hydrogen atmosphere.  The low densities likely result from high-volume extended atmospheres that surround cores of iron, rock, and possibly HO.  The inner constituents of the Kepler-11 system were, at the time of their discoveries, the most comprehensively understood extrasolar planets smaller than Neptune.  Currently, observations do not place a firm constraint on the mass of planet g (<25 M).  However, formation and evolution studies indicate that the mass of planet g is not much greater than about 7 M.

text: The estimated masses of planets b - f fall in the range between those of

text: Earth

text: and

text: Neptune

text: . Their estimated densities, all lower than that of Earth, imply that none of them have an Earth-like composition; a significant

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: atmosphere is predicted for planets c, d, e, f, and g, while planet b may be surrounded by a

text: steam

text: atmosphere or perhaps by a

text: hydrogen

text: atmosphere.  The low densities likely result from high-volume extended atmospheres that surround cores of iron, rock, and possibly HO.  The inner constituents of the Kepler-11 system were, at the time of their discoveries, the most comprehensively understood extrasolar planets smaller than Neptune.  Currently, observations do not place a firm constraint on the mass of planet g (<25

text: M

text: ).  However, formation and evolution studies indicate that the mass of planet g is not much greater than about 7

text: M

text: Whilst Trench had in one of his earlier books disregarded the Hollow Earth theory, he admitted to at the time 'being educated along with millions of other people to believe that the Earth had a liquid molten core'.

text: The formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago.  In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period.  The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process, caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates that began in the late Cretaceous Period.

text: The formation of the Alps (the

text: Alpine orogeny

text: ) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago.  In the

text: Paleozoic

text: Era the

text: Pangaea

text: n

text: supercontinent

text: consisted of a single

text: tectonic plate

text: ; it broke into separate plates during the

text: Mesozoic

text: Era and the

text: Tethys

text: sea developed between

text: Laurasia

text: and

text: Gondwana

text: during the

text: Jurassic

text: Period.  The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the

text: Alpide belt

text: , from

text: Gibraltar

text: through the

text: Himalayas

text: to

text: Indonesia

text: —a process that began at the end of the

text: Mesozoic

text: and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process, caused by the collision between the

text: African

text: and the

text: Eurasian

text: plates that began in the late

text: Cretaceous

text: Period.

text: Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as  in a river, lake, wetland, or ocean. It can be contrasted with groundwater and atmospheric water.

text: Surface water is

text: water

text: on the surface of the planet such as  in a

text: river

text: lake

text: wetland

text: , or

text: ocean

text: . It can be contrasted with

text: groundwater

text: and

text: atmospheric water

text: In addition to naming planets and satellites themselves, the individual geological and geographical features such as craters, mountains, and volcanoes, on those planets and satellites also need to be named.

text: In addition to naming planets and satellites themselves, the individual

entity_name: Lists of geological features of the Solar System

text: geological and geographical features

text: such as craters, mountains, and volcanoes, on those planets and satellites also need to be named.

text: The two planets are in a 4:3 resonance, meaning that every time the outer planet orbits the star three times, the inner planet orbits the star four times. The two planets are separated by only 0.35 AU (52 Gm). Because of the small separation between the two massive planets, the gravitational tugs between the two planets is nearely 3 million times greater than the gravitational force between Earth and Mars, 700 times larger than that between Earth and the Moon, and 4 times larger than the pull of the Sun on Earth.

text: The two planets are in a 4:3

text: resonance

text: , meaning that every time the outer planet orbits the star three times, the inner planet orbits the star four times. The two planets are separated by only 0.35 AU (52 Gm). Because of the small separation between the two massive planets, the gravitational tugs between the two planets is nearely 3 million times greater than the

text: gravitational force

text: between Earth and Mars, 700 times larger than that between Earth and the Moon, and 4 times larger than the pull of the Sun on Earth.

text: Rossby waves, also known as planetary waves, are a natural phenomenon in the atmosphere and oceans of planets that largely owe their properties to rotation. Rossby waves are a subset of inertial waves.

text: Rossby waves, also known as planetary waves, are a natural phenomenon in the

text: atmosphere

text: and oceans of planets that largely owe their properties to rotation. Rossby waves are a subset of

text: inertial wave

text: s.

text: The rock cycle  is a basic concept in geology that describes the time-consuming transitions through geologic time among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. As the adjacent diagram illustrates, each of the types of rocks is altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. An igneous rock such as basalt may break down and dissolve when exposed to the atmosphere, or melt as it is subducted under a continent. Due to the driving forces of the rock cycle, plate tectonics and the water cycle, rocks do not remain in equilibrium and are forced to change as they encounter new environments. The rock cycle is an illustration that explains how the three rock types are related to each other, and how processes change from one type to another over time. This cyclical aspect makes rock change a geologic cycle and, on planets containing life, a biogeochemical cycle.

text: The rock cycle  is a basic concept in

text: geology

text: that describes the time-consuming transitions through

text: geologic time

text: among the three main

text: rock

text: types:

text: sedimentary

text: metamorphic

text: , and

text: igneous

text: . As the adjacent diagram illustrates, each of the types of rocks is altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. An igneous rock such as

text: basalt

text: may break down and dissolve when exposed to the

text: atmosphere

text: , or melt as it is

text: subducted

text: under a

text: continent

text: . Due to the driving forces of the rock cycle,

text: plate tectonics

text: and the

text: water cycle

text: , rocks do not remain in equilibrium and are forced to change as they encounter new environments. The rock cycle is an illustration that explains how the three rock types are related to each other, and how processes change from one type to another over time. This cyclical aspect makes rock change a geologic cycle and, on planets containing

text: life

text: , a

text: biogeochemical cycle

text: The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism, and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation, such as the highly deformed tesserae terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as coronae. The planet's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains, which cover about 80% of the surface, 'continental' plateaus and volcanic swells. There is also an abundance of small and large shield volcanoes distributed  over the planet's surface. Based on its surface features, it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a lithosphere that is static.

text: The surface of Venus is dominated by patterns of basaltic volcanism, and by compressional and extensional tectonic deformation, such as the highly deformed

text: tesserae

text: terrain and the pancake like volcano-tectonic features known as

text: coronae

text: . The planet's surface can be broadly characterized by its low lying plains, which cover about 80% of the surface, 'continental' plateaus and volcanic swells. There is also an abundance of small and large

text: shield volcano

text: es distributed  over the planet's surface. Based on its surface features, it appears that Venus is tectonically and convectively alive but has a

text: lithosphere

text: that is static.

text: Simulations have shown that the migration of a Jupiter-sized planet through the inner protoplanetary disk (the region between 5 and 0.1 AU from the star) is not as destructive as one might assume. More than 60% of the solid disk materials in that region are scattered outward, including planetesimals and protoplanets, allowing the planet-forming disk to reform in the gas giant's wake. In the simulation, planets up to two Earth masses were able to form in the habitable zone after the hot Jupiter passed through and its orbit stabilized at 0.1 AU. Due to the mixing of inner-planetary-system material with outer-planetary-system material from beyond the frost line, simulations indicated that the terrestrial planets that formed after a hot Jupiter's passage would be particularly water-rich.

text: Simulations have shown that the migration of a Jupiter-sized planet through the inner protoplanetary disk (the region between 5 and 0.1 AU from the star) is not as destructive as one might assume. More than 60% of the solid disk materials in that region are scattered outward, including

text: planetesimal

text: s and

text: protoplanet

text: s, allowing the planet-forming disk to reform in the gas giant's wake. In the simulation, planets up to two Earth masses were able to form in the

text: habitable zone

text: after the hot Jupiter passed through and its orbit stabilized at 0.1 AU. Due to the mixing of inner-planetary-system material with outer-planetary-system material from beyond the frost line, simulations indicated that the terrestrial planets that formed after a hot Jupiter's passage would be particularly water-rich.

text: Born in Derby and educated at King Henry VIII School, Coventry, Malpass, while writing in his spare time, worked in a bank in Long Eaton Derbyshire. He would return home after a day's work and spend the evening writing. He was a regular contributor to Argosy, a short story magazine although it took him many years before he was first published. Many other short story magazines took his work and in 1955 he won the Observer short story competition. His first book, Beefy Jones, soon followed and then Mornings at Seven which received good reviews in the UK – but poor sales – and which then rocketed to the Best Seller List in Germany. It remained at the top of the List for three years, after which the powers that be stipulated that none one could remain there for so long in future.  After his initial successes, especially with Morning's at Seven, he turned to writing full-time. (The Bank refused initially to accept his resignation, then said he would forfeit his pension and only changed its mind after very protracted discussions. Married, with one son, two granddaughters and five great grandchildren, he lived in Long Eaton, Derbyshire until five years before his death when he moved to Bishop's Waltham in Hampshire.

text: Born in

text: Derby

text: and educated at

text: King Henry VIII School, Coventry

text: , Malpass, while writing in his spare time, worked in a bank in Long Eaton Derbyshire. He would return home after a day's work and spend the evening writing. He was a regular contributor to Argosy, a short story magazine although it took him many years before he was first published. Many other short story magazines took his work and in 1955 he won the Observer short story competition. His first book, Beefy Jones, soon followed and then Mornings at Seven which received good reviews in the UK – but poor sales – and which then rocketed to the Best Seller List in Germany. It remained at the top of the List for three years, after which the powers that be stipulated that none one could remain there for so long in future.  After his initial successes, especially with

text: Morning's at Seven

text: , he turned to writing full-time. (The Bank refused initially to accept his resignation, then said he would forfeit his pension and only changed its mind after very protracted discussions. Married, with one son, two granddaughters and five great grandchildren, he lived in

text: Long Eaton

text: , Derbyshire until five years before his death when he moved to

text: Bishop's Waltham

text: in Hampshire.

text: The study of the internal structure of the earth through the knowledge of the mechanical properties of the constituents of the inner layers of the planet involves extreme conditions; the pressure can be counted in hundreds of gigapascal and temperatures thousands of degrees. The study of the properties of matter under these conditions can be done experimentally through devices such as diamond anvil cell for static pressures, or by subjecting the material to shock waves . It also gave rise to theoretical work to determine the equation of state, that is to say the relations among the different parameters that define in this case the state of matter: the volume (or density), temperature and pressure.

text: The study of the internal structure of the earth through the knowledge of the mechanical properties of the constituents of the inner layers of the planet involves extreme conditions; the pressure can be counted in hundreds of gigapascal and temperatures thousands of degrees. The study of the properties of matter under these conditions can be done experimentally through devices such as diamond anvil cell for static pressures, or by subjecting the material to

text: shock wave

text: s . It also gave rise to theoretical work to determine the equation of state, that is to say the relations among the different parameters that define in this case the state of matter: the volume (or density), temperature and pressure.

text: On April 30 Luke Short was again arrested (along with five other gamblers) and placed in jail.The following day Short and the five others were escorted to the train depot and given their choice of east or west-bound trains. Short went east to Kansas City, Missouri where he looked up Charles E. Bassett at the Marble Hall Saloon.Bassett and Luke had a lot in common, not the least of which was that they both, at different times, owned an interest in the Long Branch Saloon. Bassett had served as the first sheriff of Ford County, as well as city marshal of Dodge City. Both Wyatt Earp and Bat Masterson had, at various times, served under Bassett as deputies. Together, Short and Bassett, along with William F. Petillon, began laying the groundwork for Luke's reinstatement in Dodge. Luke went to Topeka on May 10, where he presented a petition to Governor George W. Glick. Short then returned to Kansas City where he was joined by Bat Masterson. Things started to heat up when Wyatt Earp arrived in Dodge City, along with several gunfighters, on May 31. Short, Earp and Petillon met in Kinsley, Kansas on June 3, 1883 and took the afternoon train to Dodge City. Mayor Deger issued a proclamation the following day ordering the closing of all gambling places in Dodge City.

text: Q (John de Lancie) shows up on USS Voyager to introduce Kathryn Janeway (Kate Mulgrew) to her godson, Q Junior (Keegan de Lancie), who now has the appearance of a human teenager. Q Junior is rambunctious and troublesome, causing various incidents across the ship. Q explains to Janeway that the Continuum hoped his son would help stabilize the Continuum but instead started the same type of problems on a much larger scale such as tearing holes in the fabric of space-time. The Continuum blamed Q and plans to turn Q Junior into an amoeba. Q brough him to Voyager to hopefully have Q Junior learn something. Janeway suggests some "father-son" time, but after ten minutes, Q admits that doesn't help as Q Junior had just rearranged the tectonic plates on a nearby planet. Janeway asserts that Q Junior needs to learn there are consequences of his actions.

text: Q

text: John de Lancie

text: ) shows up on

text: USS Voyager

text: to introduce

text: Kathryn Janeway

text: Kate Mulgrew

text: ) to her

text: godson

text: , Q Junior (

text: Keegan de Lancie

text: ), who now has the appearance of a human teenager. Q Junior is rambunctious and troublesome, causing various incidents across the ship. Q explains to Janeway that the Continuum hoped his son would help stabilize the Continuum but instead started the same type of problems on a much larger scale such as tearing holes in the fabric of space-time. The Continuum blamed Q and plans to turn Q Junior into an amoeba. Q brough him to Voyager to hopefully have Q Junior learn something. Janeway suggests some "father-son" time, but after ten minutes, Q admits that doesn't help as Q Junior had just rearranged the tectonic plates on a nearby planet. Janeway asserts that Q Junior needs to learn there are consequences of his actions.

text: The dissolution of gases, liquids, or solids into a liquid or other solvent is a process by which these original states become solutes (dissolved components), forming a solution of the gas, liquid, or solid in the original solvent. Solid solutions are the result of dissolution of one solid into another, and occur, e.g., in metal alloys, where their formation is governed and described by the relevant phase diagram. In the case of a crystalline solid dissolving in a liquid, the crystalline structure must be disintegrated such that the separate atoms, ions, or molecules are released. For liquids and gases, the molecules must be able to form non-covalent intermolecular interactions with those of the solvent for a solution to form.

text: The dissolution of gases, liquids, or solids into a liquid or other

text: solvent

text: is a process by which these original states become solutes (dissolved components), forming a

text: solution

text: of the gas, liquid, or solid in the original solvent.

text: Solid solution

text: s are the result of dissolution of one solid into another, and occur, e.g., in

text: metal alloy

text: s, where their formation is governed and described by the relevant

text: phase diagram

text: . In the case of a crystalline solid dissolving in a liquid, the crystalline structure must be disintegrated such that the separate atoms, ions, or molecules are released. For liquids and gases, the molecules must be able to form non-

text: covalent

text: intermolecular interactions

text: with those of the solvent for a solution to form.

text: In April 2009, Cave In publicly announced they had ended their more than three year hiatus. The band recorded a new four-song EP, Planets of Old, that was originally exclusive to vinyl from Hydra Head Records, and first made available at their reunion show on July 19, 2009 at Great Scott's in Allston, Massachusetts. The EP was later released on CD in January 2010 with a bonus DVD of Cave In's reunion show. Two songs from the EP, "Retina Sees Rewind" and "Cayman Tongue", were released through iTunes. Cave In chose to make Planets of Old a short EP instead of a full-length because it was less expensive and faster to record and release. Commenting on the duration of recording, Steve Brodsky stated, "we didn't really wanna make a big deal out of it. In the past, we've had more than a couple instances of spending far too long into making a recording. [...] It was a good exercise for us to give ourselves a very strict amount of time to record and then move on."

text: In April 2009, Cave In publicly announced they had ended their more than three year hiatus. The band recorded a new four-song EP,

text: Planets of Old

text: , that was originally exclusive to vinyl from

text: Hydra Head Records

text: , and first made available at their reunion show on July 19, 2009 at Great Scott's in Allston, Massachusetts. The EP was later released on CD in January 2010 with a bonus DVD of Cave In's reunion show. Two songs from the EP, "Retina Sees Rewind" and "Cayman Tongue", were released through iTunes. Cave In chose to make Planets of Old a short EP instead of a full-length because it was less expensive and faster to record and release. Commenting on the duration of recording, Steve Brodsky stated, "we didn't really wanna make a big deal out of it. In the past, we've had more than a couple instances of spending far too long into making a recording. [...] It was a good exercise for us to give ourselves a very strict amount of time to record and then move on."

text: Water use is about 83.5 km3, or 20% of water availability in an average year. However, there are large variations in the utilization rate between years and regions. For example, in the coastal part of the Kantō region that includes Tokyo the utilization rate is over 90% in a dry year. In the relatively dry north of Kyushu it is more than 50%. Of the total use 55.2 km3 was for agriculture, 16.2 km3 for domestic use and 12.1 km3 for industrial use. Despite the introduction of water-saving devices domestic per capita use declined only slightly from 322 liter per capita per day in 2000 to 314 in 2004. Per capita water use thus is slightly lower than in the United States (371 liter in 2005) and more than twice as high as in Germany (122 liter in 2007) or in England (145 liter in 2009).

text: Water use is about 83.5 km3, or 20% of water availability in an average year. However, there are large variations in the utilization rate between years and regions. For example, in the coastal part of the

text: Kantō region

text: that includes Tokyo the utilization rate is over 90% in a dry year. In the relatively dry north of

text: Kyushu

text: it is more than 50%. Of the total use 55.2 km3 was for agriculture, 16.2 km3 for domestic use and 12.1 km3 for industrial use. Despite the introduction of water-saving devices domestic per capita use declined only slightly from 322 liter per capita per day in 2000 to 314 in 2004. Per capita water use thus is slightly lower than in the

entity_name: Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States

text: United States

text: (371 liter in 2005) and more than twice as high as in

text: Germany

text: (122 liter in 2007) or in

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in England and Wales

text: England

text: (145 liter in 2009).

text: With no water to lubricate them, plate tectonics would very likely stop and the most visible signs of geological activity would be shield volcanoes located above mantle hotspots. In these arid conditions the planet may retain some microbial and possibly even multi-cellular life. Most of these microbes will be halophiles and life could find too refuge in the atmosphere as has been proposed that could have happened on Venus. However, the increasingly extreme conditions will likely lead to the extinction of the prokaryotes between 1.6 billion years and 2.8 billion years from now, with the last of them living in residual ponds of water at high latitudes and heights or in caverns with trapped ice; underground life, however, could last longer. What happens next depends on the level of tectonic activity. A steady release of carbon dioxide by volcanic eruption could cause the atmosphere to enter a "supergreenhouse" state like that of the planet Venus. But as stated above without surface water, plate tectonics would probably come to a halt and most of the carbonates would remain securely buried until the Sun became a red giant and its increased luminosity heated the rock to the point of releasing the carbon dioxide.

text: With no water to lubricate them, plate tectonics would very likely stop and the most visible signs of geological activity would be

text: shield volcano

text: es located above mantle

text: hotspots

text: . In these arid conditions the planet may retain some microbial and possibly even multi-cellular life. Most of these microbes will be

text: halophile

text: s and life could find too refuge in the atmosphere as

text: has been proposed that could have happened on Venus

text: . However, the increasingly extreme conditions will likely lead to the extinction of the prokaryotes between 1.6 billion years and 2.8 billion years from now, with the last of them living in residual ponds of water at high

text: latitude

text: s and heights or in caverns with trapped ice; underground life, however, could last longer. What happens next depends on the level of tectonic activity. A steady release of carbon dioxide by volcanic eruption could cause the atmosphere to enter a "supergreenhouse" state like that of the planet

text: Venus

text: . But as stated above without surface water, plate tectonics would probably come to a halt and most of the carbonates would remain securely buried until the Sun became a red giant and its increased luminosity heated the rock to the point of releasing the carbon dioxide.

text: It is the first star in Cassiopeia around which an orbiting planet was discovered (in 2007) using the radial velocity method. Later observations showed that this planet also transited the star. In February 2008, a second planet, HD 17156 c, was proposed, with a 5:1 mean motion resonance to the inner planet HD 17156 b.

text: It is the first star in Cassiopeia around which an orbiting

text: planet

text: was discovered (in 2007) using the

text: radial velocity method

text: . Later observations showed that this planet also

text: transited

text: the star. In February 2008, a second planet,

text: HD 17156 c

text: , was proposed, with a 5:1 mean motion resonance to the inner planet HD 17156 b.

text: In 1972, O'Gallagher's The Blue Planet Notebooks was published, which featured prose, poetry, graphics, collage and experiments with creating art utilizing computers. In the book's introduction, artist, writer and critic Richard Kostelanetz wrote, "Liam O'Gallagher is a genuine polyartist, whose adventurous imagination has already moved through several media and will probably pioneer a few more. It is characteristic that he should be, if only 'in passing' one of the finest visual poets ever seen in America. He takes deep walks in all kinds of space, both inner and outer, artistic and socio-futurological, implicitly instigating jumps in time."

text: In 1972, O'Gallagher's The Blue Planet Notebooks was published, which featured prose, poetry, graphics, collage and experiments with creating art utilizing computers. In the book's introduction, artist, writer and critic

text: Richard Kostelanetz

text: wrote, "Liam O'Gallagher is a genuine polyartist, whose adventurous imagination has already moved through several media and will probably pioneer a few more. It is characteristic that he should be, if only 'in passing' one of the finest visual poets ever seen in America. He takes deep walks in all kinds of space, both inner and outer, artistic and socio-futurological, implicitly instigating jumps in time."

text: Dynamical models indicate that  migrated inward across the inner asteroid belt over long timescales (i.e. the order of ~0.01–1 Gyr) until it reached a planetary gravitational resonance that drove it into the near-Earth asteroid (NEA) population over a timescale of the order of ~1 Myr. From there, gravitational interactions with both the planets and resonances allowed it to reach its current orbit within a few Myr to a few tens of Myr.

text: The Beta Caeli system is similar to our real-life solar system, with a barren, rocky inner planet, terrestrial planets in the habitable zone of the inner system, followed by gas giants in the outer system that first increase and then decrease in size, and a tiny rock outermost.

text: The Beta Caeli system is similar to our real-life

text: solar system

text: , with a barren, rocky inner planet, terrestrial planets in the

text: habitable zone

text: of the inner system, followed by

text: gas giant

text: s in the outer system that first increase and then decrease in size, and a tiny rock outermost.

text: Rocky Jones attempts to save the inhabitants of a planet about to collide with a moon. The empress of the planet, however, is suspicious.  While Rocky and his crew finally succeed in evacuating the planet in time, Cleolanthe's pride and vanity are a major hindrance.  Finally, however, as the last of the planet's population leaves, Cleolanta arrogantly declares that she will stay behind.  Her assistant, however, refuses to allow this, and literally picks her up and carries her on board Rocky's own ship.  She watches in despair as the moon crashes into her planet, the two bodies destroying one another instantly.  As the ship heads for the new home that has been chosen for her people, Cleolanta finally realizes that she had been wrong, and that, as one of her underlings has stated, it is the people that make a nation, not the land itself.  She finally reconciles with Rocky and his crew, and sincerely thanks them for their efforts in her behalf and that of her people.  This marks the end of the character Cleolanta in the Rocky Jones series.  Succeeding episodes contain a new villain.

text: Most of Northern European Russia and Siberia has a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of Northeast Siberia (mostly the Sakha Republic, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of ), and more moderate winters elsewhere. Both the strip of land along the shore of the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.

text: Most of Northern European Russia and Siberia has a

text: subarctic climate

text: , with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of Northeast Siberia (mostly the

text: Sakha Republic

text: , where the Northern

text: Pole of Cold

text: is located with the record low temperature of ), and more moderate winters elsewhere. Both the strip of land along the shore of the Arctic Ocean and the

text: Russian Arctic islands

text: have a

text: polar climate

text: Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots (set directly after Metal Gear Solid and Metal Gear Solid 2) features the character as "Liquid Ocelot". Ocelot deliberately uses self-hypnosis and nanomachines to serve as Liquid's mental doppelgänger to trick the Patriots' AIs. As "Liquid", Ocelot establishes a mother company that runs the four largest PMCs, fighting for the Patriots' control over the world. After hijacking the Patriots' systems, Ocelot's PMCs engage Old Snake. After Snake and Otacon use Naomi Hunter's FOXALIVE virus to delete the Patriots' AIs, Ocelot challenges Snake to a fistfight and appears to die from exhaustion after the final fight, however, Ocelot's death was actually caused by the new FOXDIE strain that Drebin injected into Snake.

entity_name: Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots

text: Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots

text: (set directly after Metal Gear Solid and Metal Gear Solid 2) features the character as "

text: Liquid Ocelot

text: ". Ocelot deliberately uses self-hypnosis and nanomachines to serve as Liquid's mental doppelgänger to trick the Patriots' AIs. As "Liquid", Ocelot establishes a

text: mother company

text: that runs the four largest

text: PMC

text: s, fighting for the Patriots' control over the world. After hijacking the Patriots' systems, Ocelot's PMCs engage Old Snake. After Snake and Otacon use

text: Naomi Hunter

text: 's FOXALIVE virus to delete the Patriots' AIs, Ocelot challenges Snake to a fistfight and appears to die from exhaustion after the final fight, however, Ocelot's death was actually caused by the new FOXDIE strain that

text: Drebin

text: injected into Snake.

text: The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.

text: The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over

text: historical

text: time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including

text: latitude

text: , altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as

text: plate tectonics

text: . Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the

text: thermohaline circulation

text: of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: compared to other ocean basins. Other

text: ocean current

text: s redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to

text: global warming

text: or

text: global cooling

text: . The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.

text: In 1960, 1963, and 1978, W. H. McCrea proposed the protoplanet theory, in which the Sun and planets individually coalesced from matter within the same cloud, with the smaller planets later captured by the Sun's larger gravity. It includes fission in a protoplanetary nebula and there is no solar nebula. Agglomerations of floccules (which are presumed to compose the supersonic turbulence assumed to occur in the interstellar material from which stars are born) formed the Sun and protoplanets, the latter splitting to form planets. The 2 portions can not remain gravitationally bound to each other,  are at a mass ratio of at least 8 to 1, and for inner planets they go into independent orbits while for outer planets one of the portions exits the Solar System. The inner protoplanets were Venus-Mercury and Earth-Mars. The moons of the greater planets were formed from "droplets" in the neck connecting the 2 portions of the dividing protoplanet and these droplets could account for some of the asteroids. Terrestrial planets would have no major moons which does not account for Luna.  It predicts certain observations such as the similar angular velocity of Mars and Earth with similar rotation periods and axial tilts. In this scheme there are 6 principal planets: 2 terrestrial, Venus and Earth, 2 major, Jupiter and Saturn, and 2 outer, Uranus and Neptune; and 3 lesser planets: Mercury, Mars, and Pluto.

text: In 1960, 1963, and 1978,

text: W. H. McCrea

text: proposed the protoplanet theory, in which the Sun and planets individually coalesced from matter within the same cloud, with the smaller planets later captured by the Sun's larger gravity. It includes fission in a protoplanetary nebula and there is no solar nebula. Agglomerations of floccules (which are presumed to compose the supersonic turbulence assumed to occur in the interstellar material from which stars are born) formed the Sun and protoplanets, the latter splitting to form planets. The 2 portions can not remain gravitationally bound to each other,  are at a mass ratio of at least 8 to 1, and for inner planets they go into independent orbits while for outer planets one of the portions exits the Solar System. The inner protoplanets were Venus-Mercury and Earth-Mars. The moons of the greater planets were formed from "droplets" in the neck connecting the 2 portions of the dividing protoplanet and these droplets could account for some of the asteroids. Terrestrial planets would have no major moons which does not account for Luna.  It predicts certain observations such as the similar angular velocity of Mars and Earth with similar rotation periods and axial tilts. In this scheme there are 6 principal planets: 2 terrestrial, Venus and Earth, 2 major, Jupiter and Saturn, and 2 outer, Uranus and Neptune; and 3 lesser planets: Mercury, Mars, and Pluto.

text: In 2006, Fernández was one of a number of dissenters at the IAU's meeting to establish the first definition of "planet." As an alternative to the IAU's draft proposal, which had included Pluto, its moon Charon and Ceres among the planets, Fernández's proposed definition reserved the term "planet" only for those objects in the Solar System which had cleared their neighbourhoods of planetesimals, describing those objects which had not cleared their orbits yet retained a spherical shape as "planetoids." The IAU's final definition incorporated much of Fernández's proposal, though the objects were christened "dwarf planets."The event originated the word "Plutoed" that was selected as the "word of the year 2006" by the American Dialect Society.

text: In 2006, Fernández was one of a number of dissenters at the

text: IAU

text: 's

text: meeting to establish the first definition of "planet

text: As an alternative to the IAU's draft proposal, which had included

text: Pluto

text: , its moon

text: Charon

text: and

text: Ceres

text: among the planets, Fernández's proposed definition reserved the term "

text: planet

text: " only for those objects in the

text: Solar System

text: which had

text: cleared their neighbourhoods

text: of

text: planetesimal

text: s, describing those objects which had not cleared their orbits yet retained a spherical shape as "planetoids." The IAU's final definition incorporated much of Fernández's proposal, though the objects were christened "

text: dwarf planet

text: s."The event originated the word "Plutoed" that was selected as the "word of the year 2006" by the American Dialect Society.

text: A primary atmosphere is an atmosphere of a planet that forms by accretion of gaseous matter from the accretion disc of the planet's sun. Planets such as Jupiter and Saturn have primary atmospheres. Primary atmospheres are very thick compared to secondary atmospheres like the one found on Earth. The primary atmosphere was lost on the terrestrial planets due to a combination of surface temperature, mass of the atoms and escape velocity of the planet.

text: A primary atmosphere is an

text: atmosphere

text: of a

text: planet

text: that forms by accretion of

text: gas

text: eous matter from the

text: accretion disc

text: of the planet's

text: sun

text: . Planets such as

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: have primary atmospheres. Primary atmospheres are very thick compared to

text: secondary atmosphere

text: s like the one found on

text: Earth

text: . The primary atmosphere was lost on the

text: terrestrial planets

text: due to a combination of surface temperature, mass of the

text: atom

text: s and

text: escape velocity

text: of the planet.

text: In the Planet V hypothesis five terrestrial planets were produced during the planetary formation era. The fifth terrestrial planet began on a low-eccentricity orbit between Mars and the asteroid belt with a semi-major axis between 1.8 and 1.9 AU. While long-lived, this orbit was unstable on a time-scale of 600 Myr. Eventually perturbations from the other inner planets drove Planet V onto a high-eccentricity orbit which crossed into the inner asteroid belt. Asteroids were scattered onto Mars-crossing and resonant orbits by close encounters with Planet V. Many of these asteroids then evolved onto Earth-crossing orbits temporarily enhancing the lunar impact rate. This process continued until Planet V was lost most likely by impacting the Sun after entering the ν6 secular resonance.

text: In the Planet V hypothesis five terrestrial planets were produced during the

text: planetary formation

text: era. The fifth terrestrial planet began on a low-

text: eccentricity

text: orbit between Mars and the asteroid belt with a

text: semi-major axis

text: between 1.8 and 1.9

text: AU

text: . While long-lived, this orbit was unstable on a time-scale of 600 Myr. Eventually perturbations from the other

text: inner planet

text: s drove Planet V onto a high-eccentricity orbit which crossed into the inner asteroid belt.

text: Asteroid

text: s were scattered onto

text: Mars-crossing

text: and

text: resonant orbit

text: s by close encounters with Planet V. Many of these asteroids then evolved onto

text: Earth-crossing

text: orbits temporarily enhancing the

text: lunar impact

text: rate. This process continued until Planet V was lost most likely by impacting the Sun after entering the ν6

text: secular resonance

text: Approximately 5,500 minor planets were discovered during the Palomar–Leiden survey and its subsequent Trojan campaigns. A total of 4,622 minor planets have been numbered so far and are directly credited to the survey's principal investigators – Cornelis Johannes van Houten, Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld and Tom Gehrels – by the Minor Planet Center (see ), which is responsible for the designation of minor bodies in the Solar System.  Discoveries included members of the Hungaria and Hilda family, which are asteroids from the inner- and outermost regions of the asteroid belt, respectively, as well as a large number of Jupiter trojans.

text: Approximately 5,500 minor planets were discovered during the Palomar–Leiden survey and its subsequent Trojan campaigns. A total of 4,622 minor planets have been numbered so far and are directly credited to the survey's principal investigators –

text: Cornelis Johannes van Houten

text: Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld

text: and

text: Tom Gehrels

text: – by the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: (see ), which is responsible for the

text: designation

text: of minor bodies in the

text: Solar System

text: .  Discoveries included members of the

text: Hungaria

text: and

text: Hilda

text: family, which are asteroids from the inner- and outermost regions of the

text: asteroid belt

text: , respectively, as well as a large number of

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s.

text: Similarly to all inner satellites of Jupiter, Thebe rotates synchronously with its orbital motion, thus keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its orientation is such that the long axis always points to Jupiter. At the surface points closest to and furthest from Jupiter, the surface is thought to be near the edge of the Roche lobe, where Thebe's gravity is only slightly larger than the centrifugal force. As a result, the escape velocity in these two points is very small, thus allowing dust to escape easily after meteorite impacts, and ejecting it into the Thebe gossamer ring.

text: Similarly to all inner satellites of Jupiter, Thebe

text: rotates synchronously

text: with its orbital motion, thus keeping one face always looking toward the planet. Its orientation is such that the long axis always points to Jupiter. At the surface points closest to and furthest from Jupiter, the surface is thought to be near the edge of the

text: Roche lobe

text: , where Thebe's gravity is only slightly larger than the

text: centrifugal force

text: . As a result, the

text: escape velocity

text: in these two points is very small, thus allowing dust to escape easily after meteorite impacts, and ejecting it into the Thebe gossamer ring.

text: Hours later, the rest of the fleet joins Galactica at this new world.  Lee makes the unorthodox suggestion that they abandon their technology and start afresh, while Adama and others discover primitive humans already occupying the planet. Since finding Earth had always been the goal of the Colonial Fleet, Adama suggests they call this new planet "Earth". The survivors - Galactica's crew, the remaining inhabitants of the fleet, and the Cylon Twos, Sixes and Eights - take basic supplies and spread out across the planet - not to colonize and impose cities like the Twelve Colonies, but to blend in with primitive early humans, adding their own human and humanoid Cylon "genetics" to the early humans. Anders takes control of their abandoned fleet and pilots it into the Sun, so that the new arrivals "can give them the best part of ourselves... not the baggage... not the weapons... our hearts (rather than) our science". The Rebel Cylons decide that their Centurions have earned their freedom, and give them control of the Basestar, which jumps away to parts unknown.  Baltar and Caprica Six are visited by their Inner messengers, who inform them that their destinies - to save Hera - have been fulfilled, and the two decide to live out the rest of their lives together.

text: Hours later, the rest of the fleet joins Galactica at this new world.  Lee makes the unorthodox suggestion that they abandon their technology and start afresh, while Adama and others discover primitive humans already occupying the planet. Since finding Earth had always been the goal of the Colonial Fleet, Adama suggests they call this new planet "Earth". The survivors - Galactica's crew, the remaining inhabitants of the fleet, and the Cylon Twos, Sixes and Eights - take basic supplies and spread out across the planet - not to colonize and impose cities like the

text: Twelve Colonies

text: , but to blend in with primitive early humans, adding their own human and humanoid Cylon "genetics" to the early humans. Anders takes control of their abandoned fleet and pilots it into the Sun, so that the new arrivals "can give them the best part of ourselves... not the baggage... not the weapons... our hearts (rather than) our science". The Rebel Cylons decide that their Centurions have earned their freedom, and give them control of the Basestar, which jumps away to parts unknown.  Baltar and Caprica Six are visited by their

text: Inner messengers

text: , who inform them that their destinies - to save Hera - have been fulfilled, and the two decide to live out the rest of their lives together.

text: Offshore of Cape Mendocino lies the Mendocino Triple Junction, a geologic triple junction where three tectonic plates come together. The San Andreas Fault, a transform boundary, runs south from the junction, separating the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. To the north lies the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Gorda Plate is being subducted under the margin of the North American plate.  Running west from the triple junction is the Mendocino Fault, the transform boundary between the Gorda Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: Offshore of Cape Mendocino lies the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: , a geologic

text: triple junction

text: where three

text: tectonic plates

text: come together. The

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , a

text: transform boundary

text: , runs south from the junction, separating the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . To the north lies the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , where the

text: Gorda Plate

text: is being subducted under the margin of the North American plate.  Running west from the triple junction is the

text: Mendocino Fault

text: , the transform boundary between the Gorda Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300–600 million years ago, followed by a decay in volcanism. Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust.

text: A collet, one type of chuck, is a sleeve with a (normally) cylindrical inner surface and a conical outer surface. The collet can be squeezed against a matching taper such that its inner surface contracts to a slightly smaller diameter, squeezing the tool or workpiece whose secure holding is desired. Most often this is achieved with a spring collet, made of spring steel, with one or more kerf cuts along its length to allow it to expand and contract. An alternative collet design is one that has several tapered steel blocks (essentially tapered gauge blocks) held in circular position (like the points of a star, or indeed the jaws of a jawed chuck) by a flexible binding medium (typically synthetic or natural rubber). The Jacobs Rubber-Flex brand is a name that most machinists would recognize for this type of collet chuck system.

text: A collet, one type of chuck, is a sleeve with a (normally)

text: cylindrical

text: inner surface and a

text: conical

text: outer surface. The collet can be squeezed against a matching taper such that its inner surface contracts to a slightly smaller diameter, squeezing the tool or workpiece whose secure holding is desired. Most often this is achieved with a spring collet, made of

text: spring steel

text: , with one or more

text: kerf

text: cuts along its length to allow it to expand and contract. An alternative collet design is one that has several tapered steel blocks (essentially tapered

text: gauge block

text: s) held in circular position (like the points of a star, or indeed the jaws of a jawed chuck) by a flexible binding medium (typically

text: synthetic

text: or

text: natural

text: rubber). The Jacobs Rubber-Flex brand is a name that most machinists would recognize for this type of collet chuck system.

text: Extremophiles are organisms that grow best extremely cold, acidic, basic or hot environments. P. fumarii is a hyperthermophile, indicating that this organism grows best at extremely high temperatures (70–125 °C). P. fumarii grows best at 106 °C. Due to the extremely high temperatures this archaea is subjected to, this organism needs to have extremely stable biomolecules in order to survive. Without increased stability in the membrane the cell would fall apart, and too many molecules would flow in and out of the membrane destroying the chemical gradients the cell uses as energy, while also allowing all the proteins the cell had synthesized to diffuse away, stopping the cell's metabolic processes.

text: The Copernican Revolution started with the publishing of the book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by Nicolaus Copernicus, which was influenced by earlier theories of Aristarchus and of Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir. His book proposed a heliocentric system contrary to the widely accepted geocentric system of that time. Tycho Brahe accepted Copernicus's model but reasserted geocentricity. However, Tycho challenged the Aristotelian model when he observed a comet that went through the region of the planets. This region was said to only have uniform circular motion on solid spheres, which meant that it would be impossible for a comet to enter into the area. Johannes Kepler followed Tycho and developed the three laws of planetary motion. Kepler would not have been able to produce his laws without the observations of Tycho, because they allowed Kepler to prove that planets traveled in ellipses, and that the Sun does not sit directly in the center of an orbit but at a focus. Galileo Galilei came after Kepler and developed his own telescope with enough magnification to allow him to study Venus and discover that it has phases like a moon. The discovery of the phases of Venus was one of the more influential reasons for the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism. Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica concluded the Copernican Revolution. The development of his laws of planetary motion and universal gravitation explained the presumed motion related to the heavens by asserting a gravitational force of attraction between two objects.

text: The Copernican Revolution started with the publishing of the book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium by Nicolaus Copernicus, which was influenced by earlier theories of Aristarchus and of

text: Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi

text: and

text: Ibn al-Shatir

text: . His book proposed a heliocentric system contrary to the widely accepted geocentric system of that time.

text: Tycho Brahe

text: accepted Copernicus's model but reasserted geocentricity. However, Tycho challenged the

text: Aristotelian model

text: when he observed a comet that went through the region of the planets. This region was said to only have uniform circular motion on solid spheres, which meant that it would be impossible for a comet to enter into the area.

text: Johannes Kepler

text: followed Tycho and developed the

text: three laws of planetary motion

text: . Kepler would not have been able to produce his laws without the observations of Tycho, because they allowed Kepler to prove that planets traveled in ellipses, and that the Sun does not sit directly in the center of an orbit but at a focus.

text: Galileo Galilei

text: came after Kepler and developed his own telescope with enough magnification to allow him to study

text: Venus

text: and discover that it has

text: phases

text: like a moon. The discovery of the phases of Venus was one of the more influential reasons for the transition from

text: geocentrism

text: to

text: heliocentrism

text: . Sir Isaac Newton's

entity_name: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

text: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

text: concluded the Copernican Revolution. The development of his laws of planetary motion and

text: universal gravitation

text: explained the presumed motion related to the heavens by asserting a gravitational force of attraction between two objects.

text: Many flowering plants use the pigment phytochrome to sense seasonal changes in day length, which they take as signals to flower. This sensitivity to day length is termed photoperiodism. Broadly speaking, flowering plants can be classified as long day plants, short day plants, or day neutral plants, depending on their particular response to changes in day length.  Long day plants require a certain minimum length of daylight to starts flowering, so these plants flower in the spring or summer. Conversely, short day plants flower when the length of daylight falls below a certain critical level. Day neutral plants do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism, though some may use temperature sensitivity (vernalization) instead.

text: Many

text: flowering plant

text: s use the pigment phytochrome to sense seasonal changes in

text: day

text: length, which they take as signals to flower. This sensitivity to day length is termed

text: photoperiodism

text: . Broadly speaking, flowering plants can be classified as long day plants, short day plants, or day neutral plants, depending on their particular response to changes in day length.  Long day plants require a certain minimum length of daylight to starts flowering, so these plants flower in the spring or summer. Conversely, short day plants flower when the length of daylight falls below a certain critical level. Day neutral plants do not initiate flowering based on photoperiodism, though some may use temperature sensitivity (

text: vernalization

text: ) instead.

text: Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable Precambrian "shield", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a craton. The craton itself is an accretionary complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of subduction, continental collision and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed sedimentary rock covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or deltaic sediments. Beyond the margin, there is either a continental shelf and drop off to the basaltic ocean basin or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity.

text: Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of

text: metamorphic

text: and

text: igneous rock

text: , largely of

text: granitic

text: composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable

text: Precambrian

text: "shield", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a

text: craton

text: . The craton itself is an

text: accretionary

text: complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of

text: subduction

text: continental collision

text: and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed

text: sedimentary rock

text: covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or

text: deltaic

text: sediment

text: s. Beyond the margin, there is either a

text: continental shelf

text: and drop off to the

text: basalt

text: ic

text: ocean basin

text: or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity.

text: The existence of a liquid, iron–nickel-rich core provides a natural explanation for the intrinsic magnetic field of Ganymede detected by Galileo spacecraft. The convection in the liquid iron, which has high electrical conductivity, is the most reasonable model of magnetic field generation. The density of the core is 5.5–6 g/cm and the silicate mantle is 3.4–3.6 g/cm. The radius of this core may be up to 500 km. The temperature in the core of Ganymede is probably 1500–1700 K and pressure up to  (GPa).

text: The existence of a liquid,

text: iron–nickel

text: -rich core provides a natural explanation for the intrinsic

text: magnetic field

text: of Ganymede detected by Galileo spacecraft. The

text: convection

text: in the liquid iron, which has high

text: electrical conductivity

text: , is the most reasonable model of magnetic field generation. The density of the core is 5.5–6 g/cm and the silicate mantle is 3.4–3.6 g/cm. The radius of this core may be up to 500 km. The temperature in the core of Ganymede is probably 1500–1700 K and pressure up to  (

text: GPa

text: A major problem in any theory is that the amplitudes of the perturbations are a function of the masses of the planets (and other factors, but the masses are the bottlenecks). These masses can be determined by observing the periods of the moons of each planet or by observing the gravitational deflection of spacecraft passing near a planet. More observations produce greater accuracy. Short period perturbations (less than a few years) can be quite easily and accurately determined. But long period perturbations (periods of many years up to centuries) are much more difficult, because the timespan over which accurate measurements exist is not long enough, which may make them almost indistinguishable from constant terms. Yet it is these terms which are the most important influence over the millennia.

text: A major problem in any theory is that the amplitudes of the perturbations are a function of the

text: mass

text: es of the planets (and other factors, but the masses are the bottlenecks). These masses can be determined by observing the periods of the moons of each planet or by observing the gravitational deflection of spacecraft passing near a planet. More observations produce greater accuracy. Short period perturbations (less than a few years) can be quite easily and accurately determined. But long period perturbations (periods of many years up to centuries) are much more difficult, because the timespan over which accurate measurements exist is not long enough, which may make them almost indistinguishable from constant terms. Yet it is these terms which are the most important influence over the

text: millennia

text: The challenge was to make sense of the apparently irregular wanderings of the planets on the assumption that all heavenly motion is actually circular and uniform in speed.  Why circular?  Because, Plato held, the circle is the most perfect and symmetrical form; therefore circular motion, at uniform speed, was most fitting for celestial bodies.  Aristotle agreed with Plato.  In Aristotle's cosmos, everything has a "natural" tendency to motion that fulfills its inner potential.  For the cosmos' sublunary part (the region below the moon), the natural tendency is to move in a straight line:  downward for earthen things (such as rocks) and water; upward for air and fiery things (such as sparks).  But in the celestial realm things are not composed of earth, water, air or fire, but of a "fifth element", or "quintessence," which is perfect and eternal.  And its natural motion is uniformly circular.  The stars, the sun, the moon and the planets are carried in their orbits by a complicated arrangement of crystalline spheres, all centered around an immobile earth.

text: The challenge was to make sense of the apparently irregular wanderings of the planets on the assumption that all heavenly motion is actually circular and uniform in speed.  Why circular?  Because, Plato held, the

text: circle

text: is the most perfect and symmetrical form; therefore circular motion, at uniform speed, was most fitting for celestial bodies.  Aristotle agreed with Plato.  In Aristotle's

text: cosmos

text: , everything has a "natural" tendency to motion that fulfills its inner potential.  For the cosmos' sublunary part (the region below the moon), the natural tendency is to move in a straight line:  downward for earthen things (such as rocks) and water; upward for air and fiery things (such as sparks).  But in the

text: celestial

text: realm things are not composed of earth, water, air or fire, but of a "fifth element", or "

text: quintessence

text: ," which is perfect and eternal.  And its natural motion is uniformly circular.  The stars, the sun, the moon and the planets are carried in their orbits by a complicated arrangement of crystalline spheres, all centered around an immobile earth.

text: Because it is so close to the star, it is likely to be tidally locked, meaning one side permanently faces the star and the other side permanently faces away. Although this scenario could result in extreme temperature differences on the planet, the terminator line that separates the illuminated side and the dark side could potentially be habitable, as the temperature there could be suitable for liquid water to exist. Additionally, a much larger portion of the planet could also be habitable if it has a thick enough atmosphere to facilitate heat transfer away from the side facing the star.

text: Because it is so close to the star, it is likely to be

text: tidally locked

text: , meaning one side permanently faces the star and the other side permanently faces away. Although this scenario could result in extreme temperature differences on the planet, the

text: terminator line

text: that separates the illuminated side and the dark side could potentially be

text: habitable

text: , as the temperature there could be suitable for liquid water to exist. Additionally, a much larger portion of the planet could also be habitable if it has a thick enough atmosphere to facilitate heat transfer away from the side facing the star.

text: Since the inner moons of Saturn are all in synchronous rotation, the planet always appears in the same spot in their skies. Observers on the sides of those satellites facing away from the planet would never see Saturn.

text: Since the inner moons of Saturn are all in

text: synchronous rotation

text: , the planet always appears in the same spot in their skies. Observers on the sides of those satellites facing away from the planet would never see Saturn.

text: Subduction is the process that takes place at convergent boundaries by which one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate and sinks into the mantle as the plates converge. This leads to the sinking of one plate into the mantle which creates a broad range of geochemical transformations or cycling.

text: Subduction

text: is the process that takes place at

text: convergent boundaries

text: by which one

text: tectonic plate

text: moves under another tectonic plate and sinks into the

text: mantle

text: as the plates converge. This leads to the sinking of one plate into the mantle which creates a broad range of geochemical transformations or cycling.

text: Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction carries plates into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories (that still have some supporters) propose gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.

text: Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of

text: crust

text: . Along convergent boundaries,

text: subduction

text: carries plates into the

text: mantle

text: ; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories (that still have some supporters) propose gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.

text: In 1905, Chamberlin and Forest Ray Moulton developed a theory of the formation of the solar system that challenged the Laplacian nebular hypothesis.  Their theory, the Chamberlin-Moulton planetesimal hypothesis, received favorable support for almost a third of a century, but passed out of favor by the late 1930s.  It ultimately was discarded in the 1940s by the realization it was incompatible with the angular momentum of Jupiter. A portion of the theory stating that smaller objects — planetesimals — gradually collided to build the planets by accretion is still well-regarded. From his theories and other geological evidence he concluded that Earth was much older than assumed by Lord Kelvin (ca 100 million years) at the time. His speculations about the source of energy for such a long-lived Sun were prescient, involving the ability of the Sun to somehow extract energy from the inner structures of the atom.

text: In 1905, Chamberlin and

text: Forest Ray Moulton

text: developed a theory of the formation of the

text: solar system

text: that challenged the

text: Laplacian

text: nebular hypothesis

text: .  Their theory, the

text: Chamberlin-Moulton planetesimal hypothesis

text: , received favorable support for almost a third of a century, but passed out of favor by the late 1930s.  It ultimately was discarded in the 1940s by the realization it was incompatible with the

text: angular momentum

text: of

text: Jupiter

text: . A portion of the theory stating that smaller objects —

text: planetesimal

text: s — gradually collided to build the planets by

text: accretion

text: is still well-regarded. From his theories and other geological evidence he concluded that Earth was much older than assumed by

text: Lord Kelvin

text: (ca 100 million years) at the time. His speculations about the source of energy for such a long-lived Sun were prescient, involving the ability of the Sun to somehow extract energy from the inner structures of the atom.

text: A pancake dome, also known as a lava dome, is an unusual type of volcano found on the planet Venus. They are widely scattered on that planet and often form groups or clusters, though with smaller numbers of pancake domes in each group than is typical for the more common shield volcanos. They are commonly found near coronae and tesserae (large regions of highly deformed terrain, folded and fractured in two or three dimensions, believed to be unique to Venus) in the lowland plains. Pancake domes are between 10 and 100 times larger than volcanic domes formed on Earth.

text: A pancake dome, also known as a lava dome, is an unusual type of

text: volcano

text: found on the planet

text: Venus

text: . They are widely scattered on that planet and often form groups or clusters, though with smaller numbers of pancake domes in each group than is typical for the more common

text: shield volcano

text: s. They are commonly found near

text: coronae

text: and tesserae (large regions of highly deformed terrain, folded and fractured in two or three dimensions, believed to be unique to Venus) in the lowland plains. Pancake domes are between 10 and 100 times larger than volcanic domes formed on Earth.

text: Planet Rock is a DAB radio station, which plays primarily classic rock music. The station was established in 1999 and was initially run by the GWR Group; it was sold to Malcolm Bluemel's 'Rock Show' consortium in 2008 and from there to Bauer in 2013. Planet Rock is a digital-only service, transmitting on the DAB network (and through digital TV and online platforms). On 1 March 2016, Planet Rock ceased being a fully national station due to the station transferring to the Sound Digital multiplex, which is not available across all of the UK. Devon, Cornwall, parts of Scotland, Wales, East Anglia and other areas of the UK will no longer be able to receive Planet Rock on DAB.

text: Planet Rock

text: is a DAB radio station, which plays primarily

text: classic rock

text: music. The station was established in 1999 and was initially run by the

text: GWR Group

text: ; it was sold to Malcolm Bluemel's 'Rock Show' consortium in 2008 and from there to Bauer in 2013. Planet Rock is a digital-only service, transmitting on the DAB network (and through digital TV and online platforms). On 1 March 2016, Planet Rock ceased being a fully national station due to the station transferring to the Sound Digital multiplex, which is not available across all of the UK.

text: Devon

text: Cornwall

text: , parts of

text: Scotland

text: Wales

text: East Anglia

text: and other areas of the UK will no longer be able to receive Planet Rock on DAB.

text: Eudoxus of Cnidus was the first astronomer to develop the concept of concentric spheres. He was originally a student at Plato’s academy and is believed to have been influenced by the cosmological speculations of Plato and Pythagoras. He came up with the idea of homocentric spheres in order to explain the perceived inconsistent motions of the planets and to develop a uniform model for accurately calculating the movement of celestial objects. None of his books have survived to the modern day and everything we know about his cosmological theories comes from the works of Aristotle and Simplicius. According to these works, Eudoxus’ model had twenty-seven homocentric spheres with each sphere explaining a type of observable motion for each celestial object. Eudoxus assigns one sphere for the fixed stars which is supposed to explain their daily movement. He assigns three spheres to both the sun and the moon with the first sphere moving in the same manner as the sphere of the fixed stars. The second sphere explains the movement of the sun and the moon on the ecliptic plane. The third sphere was supposed to move on a “latitudinally inclined” circle and explain the latitudinal motion of the sun and the moon in the cosmos. Four spheres were assigned to Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn which were the only known planets at that time. The first and second spheres of the planets moved exactly like the first two spheres of the sun and the moon. According to Simplicius, the third and fourth sphere of the planets were supposed to move in a way that created a curve known as a hippopede. The hippopede was a way to try and explain the retrograde motions of planets. Many historians of science, such as Michael J. Crowe, have argued that Eudoxus did not consider his system of concentric spheres to be a real representation of the universe but thought it was merely a mathematical model for calculating planetary motion.

text: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: was the first astronomer to develop the concept of concentric spheres. He was originally a student at Plato’s academy and is believed to have been influenced by the cosmological speculations of

text: Plato

text: and

text: Pythagoras

text: . He came up with the idea of homocentric spheres in order to explain the perceived inconsistent motions of the planets and to develop a uniform model for accurately calculating the movement of celestial objects. None of his books have survived to the modern day and everything we know about his cosmological theories comes from the works of

text: Aristotle

text: and

text: Simplicius

text: . According to these works, Eudoxus’ model had twenty-seven homocentric spheres with each sphere explaining a type of observable motion for each celestial object. Eudoxus assigns one sphere for the fixed stars which is supposed to explain their daily movement. He assigns three spheres to both the sun and the moon with the first sphere moving in the same manner as the sphere of the fixed stars. The second sphere explains the movement of the sun and the moon on the ecliptic plane. The third sphere was supposed to move on a “latitudinally inclined” circle and explain the latitudinal motion of the sun and the moon in the cosmos. Four spheres were assigned to

text: Mercury

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: Jupiter

text: , and

text: Saturn

text: which were the only known planets at that time. The first and second spheres of the planets moved exactly like the first two spheres of the sun and the moon. According to Simplicius, the third and fourth sphere of the planets were supposed to move in a way that created a curve known as a

text: hippopede

text: . The

text: hippopede

text: was a way to try and explain the

text: retrograde motions

text: of planets. Many historians of science, such as Michael J. Crowe, have argued that Eudoxus did not consider his system of concentric spheres to be a real representation of the universe but thought it was merely a mathematical model for calculating planetary motion.

text: Surface features and polycrystalline surfaces add complexity or change RHEED patterns from those from perfectly flat surfaces. Growing films, nucleating particles, crystal twinning, grains of varying size and adsorbed species add complicated diffraction conditions to those of a perfect surface. Superimposed patterns of the substrate and heterogeneous materials, complex interference patterns and degradation of the resolution are characteristic of complex surfaces or those partially covered with heterogeneous materials.

text: For exoplanets, in almost every case only the planet's orbital period along with either the proportional dimming of the star due to the planet's transit or the radial velocity variation of the star in response to the planet is known with any degree of certainty, and so every other property not directly determined by those measurements is speculative. For example, while surface temperature is influenced by a variety of factors including irradiance, tidal heating, albedo, insolation and greenhouse warming, as these factors are not known for any exoplanet, quoted ESI values use planetary equilibrium temperature as a stand-in.

text: For

text: exoplanet

text: s, in almost every case only the planet's

text: orbital period

text: along with either the

text: proportional dimming of the star due to the planet's transit

text: or the

text: radial velocity variation of the star

text: in response to the planet is known with any degree of certainty, and so every other property not directly determined by those measurements is speculative. For example, while surface temperature is influenced by a variety of factors including

text: irradiance

text: tidal heating

text: albedo

text: insolation

text: and

text: greenhouse warming

text: , as these factors are not known for any exoplanet, quoted ESI values use

text: planetary equilibrium temperature

text: as a stand-in.

text: As a Miss Earth candidate, an environmental advocacy is a must. When asked about Donika's advocacy, she chooses water as her main concern. She says, "As environment is a broad subject I want to focus on water only. As it is well known Water is life! The main precondition for all the planet, including humans, animals and our economies. Climate regulation cycle is also heavily dependent on water! In addition, water is something that crosses national boundaries and therefore its protection is key to the planet and human life." Her project is all about water efficiency. The standardization of eco-toilet flushes is the best solution she thinks to make the water efficient. She supported it with a study that says, "only if only 10% of all toilets in the European Union were to be replaced, households across the EU could save nearly €390m and this would have significant impact on water savings and its efficiency." She is eyeing her hometown, Ferizaj, as the location of the birth of her project, targeting the newly build apartment buildings in the neighborhood to avoid the possible extra costs. She also says that the next level of her project is to "work towards changing national water policies and adopting legislation that makes it mandatory to standardize and make eco-toilet fleshes mandatory."

text: As a Miss Earth candidate, an environmental advocacy is a must. When asked about Donika's advocacy, she chooses water as her main concern. She says, "As environment is a broad subject I want to focus on water only. As it is well known Water is life! The main precondition for all the planet, including humans, animals and our economies. Climate regulation cycle is also heavily dependent on water! In addition, water is something that crosses national boundaries and therefore its protection is key to the planet and human life." Her project is all about water efficiency. The standardization of eco-toilet flushes is the best solution she thinks to make the water efficient. She supported it with a study that says, "only if only 10% of all toilets in the

text: European Union

text: were to be replaced, households across the EU could save nearly

text: 390m and this would have significant impact on water savings and its efficiency." She is eyeing her hometown,

text: Ferizaj

text: , as the location of the birth of her project, targeting the newly build apartment buildings in the neighborhood to avoid the possible extra costs. She also says that the next level of her project is to "work towards changing national water policies and adopting legislation that makes it mandatory to standardize and make eco-toilet fleshes mandatory."

text: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Ocean Service is responsible for one sanctuary:

text: The

text: 's National Ocean Service is responsible for one sanctuary:

text: A volcanologist and his graduate students believe that all of the volcanoes in the world are going to erupt and kill every living thing on the planet.  They try to convince the government that their theory is true while also trying to figure out how to stop it.

text: A sednoid is a trans-Neptunian object with a perihelion greater than  and a semi-major axis greater than . Only two objects are known from this population, 90377 Sedna and , both of which have perihelia greater than , but it is suspected that there are many more. These objects lie outside an apparently nearly empty gap in the Solar System starting at about 50 AU, and have no significant interaction with the planets. They are usually grouped with the detached objects. Some astronomers, such as Scott Sheppard, consider the sednoids to be inner Oort cloud objects (OCOs), though the inner Oort cloud, or Hills cloud, was originally predicted to lie beyond 2,000 AU, several times as far as the aphelia of the two known sednoids.

text: A sednoid is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: with a

text: perihelion

text: greater than  and a

text: semi-major axis

text: greater than . Only two objects are known from this population,

text: 90377 Sedna

text: and , both of which have perihelia greater than , but it is suspected that there are many more. These objects lie outside an apparently nearly empty gap in the Solar System starting at about 50 AU, and have no significant interaction with the planets. They are usually grouped with the

text: detached object

text: s. Some astronomers, such as Scott Sheppard, consider the sednoids to be inner Oort cloud objects (OCOs), though the inner

text: Oort cloud

text: , or Hills cloud, was originally predicted to lie beyond 2,000 AU, several times as far as the aphelia of the two known sednoids.

text: HD 28185 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 138 light-years away from Earth in the constellation of Eridanus. The planet was discovered orbiting the Sun-like star HD 28185 in April 2001 as a part of the CORALIE survey for southern extrasolar planets, and its existence was independently confirmed by the Magellan Planet Search Survey in 2008. HD 28185 b orbits its sun in a circular orbit that is at the inner edge of its star's habitable zone.

text: HD 28185 b is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: approximately 138

text: light-year

text: s away from Earth in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Eridanus

text: . The planet was discovered orbiting the

text: Sun-like

text: star

text: HD 28185

text: in April 2001 as a part of the

entity_name: Swiss 1.2-metre Leonhard Euler Telescope

text: CORALIE

text: survey for southern extrasolar planets, and its existence was independently confirmed by the

text: Magellan Planet Search Survey

text: in 2008. HD 28185 b orbits its sun in a circular orbit that is at the inner edge of its star's

text: habitable zone

text: Those satellites which have an orbital period shorter than their planet's rotation period experience tidal deceleration, causing a very gradual spiraling in towards the planet. In the distant future these moons will impact the planet or penetrate deeply enough within their Roche limit to be tidally disrupted into fragments. The moons so affected are Metis and Adrastea at Jupiter, and the majority of the inner moons of Uranus and Neptune − out to and including Perdita and Larissa, respectively. However, none of Saturn's moons experience this effect because Saturn is a relatively very fast rotator.

text: Those satellites which have an orbital period shorter than their planet's rotation period experience

text: tidal deceleration

text: , causing a very gradual spiraling in towards the planet. In the distant future these moons will impact the planet or penetrate deeply enough within their Roche limit to be tidally disrupted into fragments. The moons so affected are

text: Metis

text: and

text: Adrastea

text: at Jupiter, and the majority of the inner moons of Uranus and Neptune − out to and including

text: Perdita

text: and

text: Larissa

text: , respectively. However, none of Saturn's moons experience this effect because Saturn is a relatively very fast rotator.

text: Earth is the only known planet with seas of liquid water on its surface, although Mars possesses ice caps and similar planets in other solar systems may have oceans. It is still unclear where Earth's water came from, but, seen from space, our planet appears as a "blue marble" of its various forms: oceans, ice caps, clouds. Earth's  of sea contain about 97.2 percent of its known water and cover more than 70 percent of its surface. Another 2.15% of Earth's water is frozen, found in the sea ice covering the Arctic Ocean, the ice cap covering Antarctica and its adjacent seas, and various glaciers and surface deposits around the world. The remainder (about 0.65% of the whole) form underground reservoirs or various stages of the water cycle, containing the freshwater encountered and used by most terrestrial life: vapor in the air, the clouds it slowly forms, the rain falling from them, and the lakes and rivers spontaneously formed as its waters flow again and again to the sea. The sea's dominance of the planet is such that the British author Arthur C. Clarke once noted that "Earth" would have been better named "Ocean".

text: Earth

text: is the only known

text: planet

text: with seas of liquid

text: water

text: on its surface, although

text: Mars

text: possesses

text: ice caps

text: and

text: similar planets

text: in

text: other solar systems

text: may have oceans. It is still unclear

text: where Earth's water came from

text: , but, seen from

text: space

text: , our planet appears as a "

text: blue marble

text: " of its various forms: oceans, ice caps, clouds. Earth's  of sea contain

text: about 97.2 percent of its known water

text: and cover more than 70 percent of its surface. Another 2.15% of Earth's water is frozen, found in the sea ice covering the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: , the ice cap covering

text: Antarctica

text: and its

text: adjacent seas

text: , and various

text: glacier

text: s and surface deposits around the world. The remainder (about 0.65% of the whole) form

text: underground reservoirs

text: or various stages of the

text: water cycle

text: , containing the

text: freshwater

text: encountered and used by most

text: terrestrial life

text: vapor

text: in the

text: air

text: , the

text: cloud

text: s it slowly forms, the

text: rain

text: falling from them, and the

text: lake

text: s and

text: river

text: s spontaneously formed as its waters flow again and again to the sea. The sea's dominance of the planet is such that the British author

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: once noted that "Earth" would have been better named "Ocean".

text: Rainbow is a very comfortable planet with a moderate climate, a calm atmosphere, little seismic activity and a rather phlegmatic native fauna. There is only one continent (in the Northern hemisphere) and some small archipelagos (in the South one, which is covered with an ocean). Remarkably, the coastal line between the southern ocean and the northern continent roughly coincides with the equator.

text: Rainbow is a very comfortable planet with a moderate

text: climate

text: , a calm

text: atmosphere

text: , little seismic activity and a rather phlegmatic native

text: fauna

text: . There is only one continent (in the Northern hemisphere) and some small archipelagos (in the South one, which is covered with an ocean). Remarkably, the coastal line between the southern ocean and the northern continent roughly coincides with the

text: equator

text: The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury mean that it has been far less studied than the other planets. In 1800, Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed  mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°. In the 1880s, Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking. This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation. The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations. Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map.

text: The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury mean that it has been far less studied than the other planets. In 1800,

text: Johann Schröter

text: made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed  mountains.

text: Friedrich Bessel

text: used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°. In the 1880s,

text: Giovanni Schiaparelli

text: mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury's rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to

text: tidal locking

text: . This phenomenon is known as

text: synchronous rotation

text: . The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by

text: Eugenios Antoniadi

text: , who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations. Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the

text: albedo features

text: , take their names from Antoniadi's map.

text: Kepler-11g is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star Kepler-11 by the Kepler spacecraft, a NASA satellite tasked with searching for terrestrial planets. Kepler-11g is the outermost of the star's six planets. The planet orbits at a distance of nearly half the mean distance between Earth and the Sun. It completes an orbit every 118 days, placing it much further from its star than the system's inner five planets. Its estimated radius is a little over three times that of Earth, i.e. comparable to Neptune's size.  Kepler-11g's distance from the inner planets made its confirmation more difficult than that of the inner planets, as scientists had to work to exhaustively disprove all reasonable alternatives before Kepler-11g could be confirmed. The planet's discovery, along with that of the other Kepler-11 planets, was announced on February 2, 2011. According to NASA, the Kepler-11 planets form the flattest and most compact system yet discovered.

text: Kepler-11g is an

text: exoplanet

text: discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star

text: by the

text: Kepler spacecraft

text: , a

text: NASA

text: satellite tasked with searching for

text: terrestrial planet

text: s. Kepler-11g is the outermost of the star's six planets. The planet orbits at a distance of nearly half the

text: mean distance

text: between Earth and the

text: Sun

text: . It completes an orbit every 118 days, placing it much further from its star than the system's inner five planets. Its estimated radius is a little over three times that of

text: Earth

text: , i.e. comparable to Neptune's size.  Kepler-11g's distance from the inner planets made its confirmation more difficult than that of the inner planets, as scientists had to work to exhaustively disprove all reasonable alternatives before Kepler-11g could be confirmed. The planet's discovery, along with that of the other Kepler-11 planets, was announced on February 2, 2011. According to NASA, the Kepler-11 planets form the flattest and most compact system yet discovered.

text: In day-to-day situations, available water is often contaminated, unhealthy, or even naturally poisonous, so that it is necessary to pump potable water from lower levels to higher levels, where it can be of use.  A fresh water source in a lower stream, river, pond, or lake is often pumped to higher ground for irrigation, livestock, cooking, cleaning or other uses by humans, who quite naturally need fresh water. This will purify mostly fresh water, and the treatment of largely contaminated water refer endlessly to pumping.

text: In day-to-day situations, available water is often

text: contaminated

text: , unhealthy, or even naturally

text: poison

text: ous, so that it is necessary to pump

text: potable water

text: from lower levels to higher levels, where it can be of use.  A fresh water source in a lower stream, river, pond, or lake is often pumped to higher ground for irrigation, livestock, cooking, cleaning or other uses by humans, who quite naturally need fresh water. This will purify mostly fresh water, and the treatment of largely contaminated water refer endlessly to pumping.

text: The northern extremities of both Heilongjiang and Inner Mongolia have a subarctic climate; in contrast, most of Hainan Island and parts of the extreme southern fringes of Yunnan have a tropical climate. Temperature differences in winter are considerable, but in summer the variance is considerably less. For example, Mohe County, Heilongjiang has a 24-hour average temperature in January approaching , while the corresponding figure in July exceeds . By contrast, most of Hainan has a January mean in excess of , while the July mean there is generally above .

text: The northern extremities of both

text: Heilongjiang

text: and

text: Inner Mongolia

text: have a subarctic climate; in contrast, most of

text: Hainan Island

text: and parts of the extreme southern fringes of

text: Yunnan

text: have a tropical climate. Temperature differences in winter are considerable, but in summer the variance is considerably less. For example,

text: Mohe County

text: , Heilongjiang has a 24-hour average temperature in January approaching , while the corresponding figure in July exceeds . By contrast, most of Hainan has a January mean in excess of , while the July mean there is generally above .

text: It was named the "monoïde plaxique" by  , who allowed any totally ordered alphabet in the definition. The etymology of the  word "plaxique" is unclear; it may refer to plate tectonics (tectonique des plaques in French), as the action of a generator of the plactic monoid resembles plates sliding past each other in an earthquake.

text: It was named the "monoïde plaxique" by  , who allowed any totally ordered alphabet in the definition. The etymology of the  word "plaxique" is unclear; it may refer to

text: plate tectonics

text: (tectonique des plaques in French), as the action of a generator of the plactic monoid resembles plates sliding past each other in an earthquake.

text: Biological processes also lead to ocean-atmosphere carbon exchange. Carbon dioxide equilibriates between the atmosphere and the ocean's surface layers. As autotrophs add or subtract carbon dioxide from the water through photosynthesis or respiration, they modify this balance, allowing the water to absorb more carbon dioxide or causing it to emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

text: Biological processes also lead to ocean-atmosphere carbon exchange. Carbon dioxide equilibriates between the atmosphere and the ocean's surface layers. As

text: autotroph

text: s add or subtract carbon dioxide from the water through

text: photosynthesis

text: or

text: respiration

text: , they modify this balance, allowing the water to absorb more carbon dioxide or causing it to emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

text: Ganymede, the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury – although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core.

text: Ganymede, the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological

text: Ganymede

text: , cupbearer of the

text: Greek gods

text: and

text: Zeus

text: 's beloved. Ganymede is the

text: largest natural satellite

text: in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet

text: Mercury

text: – although only at about half of its mass since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a

text: magnetosphere

text: , likely created through

text: convection

text: within the liquid iron core.

text: When the Earth is at its furthest point from the sun (aphelion) in summer then variation in temperature between winter and summer are less extreme. When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion) about 5,750 years later, then the variations are at their most extreme. At present the Earth is at its furthest during the northern hemisphere summer, so the northern hemisphere summers and winters are less extreme and the southern hemisphere climate is more extreme.

text: When the Earth is at its furthest point from the sun (

text: aphelion

text: ) in summer then variation in temperature between winter and summer are less extreme. When the earth is closest to the sun (

text: perihelion

text: ) about 5,750 years later, then the variations are at their most extreme. At present the Earth is at its furthest during the northern hemisphere summer, so the northern hemisphere summers and winters are less extreme and the southern hemisphere climate is more extreme.

text: The first civilization known to have a functional theory of the planets were the Babylonians, who lived in Mesopotamia in the first and second millennia BC. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus, that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The MUL.APIN is a pair of cuneiform tablets dating from the 7th century BC that lays out the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets over the course of the year. The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology. The Enuma anu enlil, written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC, comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets. Venus, Mercury, and the outer planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn were all identified by Babylonian astronomers. These would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times.

text: The first civilization known to have a functional theory of the planets were the

text: Babylonia

text: ns, who lived in

text: Mesopotamia

text: in the first and second millennia BC. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian

text: Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa

text: , a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus, that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC. The

text: MUL.APIN

text: is a pair of

text: cuneiform

text: tablets dating from the 7th century BC that lays out the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets over the course of the year. The

text: Babylonian astrologers

text: also laid the foundations of what would eventually become

text: Western astrology

text: . The

text: Enuma anu enlil

text: , written during the

text: Neo-Assyrian

text: period in the 7th century BC, comprises a list of

text: omen

text: s and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.

text: Venus

text: Mercury

text: , and the outer planets

text: Mars

text: Jupiter

text: , and

text: Saturn

text: were all identified by

text: Babylonian astronomers

text: . These would remain the only known planets until the invention of the

text: telescope

text: in early modern times.

text: Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's , e.g., in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.  Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

text: Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid

text: tectonic plates

text: that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are

text: diverging

text: or

text: converging

text: . For example, a

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: , such as the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's , e.g., in the

text: East African Rift

text: and the

text: Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field

text: and

text: Rio Grande Rift

text: in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as

text: mantle plume

text: s. These so-called "

text: hotspots

text: ", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling

text: diapir

text: s with magma from the

text: core–mantle boundary

text: , 3,000 km deep in the Earth.  Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

text: Per the plate tectonics, Assam is in the eastern most projection of the Indian Plate, where it is thrusting underneath the Eurasian Plate creating a subduction zone. It is postulated that due to the northeasterly movement of the Indian plate, the sediment layers of an ancient geocyncline called Tethys (in between Indian and Eurasian Plates) have been pushed upward to form the Himalayas mountain range. Karbi Anglong plateau, which is situated to the south of the Kaziranga (along with the Khasi and Garo Hills) is originally part of the South Indian Plateau system. It is believed that due to the force exerted by the north-eastwardly movement of the Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was  created between the Rajmahal hills and the Karbi-Meghalaya plateau. Later, this depression was filled up by the depositional activity of numerous rivers.  Today the Maghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau remains detached from the main Peninsular block.  Average height of this plateau varies from  to .

text: Per the

text: plate tectonics

text: , Assam is in the eastern most projection of the

text: Indian Plate

text: , where it is thrusting underneath the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: creating a

text: subduction zone

text: . It is postulated that due to the northeasterly movement of the Indian plate, the sediment layers of an ancient geocyncline called

text: Tethys

text: (in between Indian and Eurasian Plates) have been pushed upward to form the

text: Himalayas

text: mountain range.

text: Karbi Anglong plateau

text: , which is situated to the south of the Kaziranga (along with the Khasi and Garo Hills) is originally part of the

text: South Indian Plateau

text: system. It is believed that due to the force exerted by the north-eastwardly movement of the

text: Indian plate

text: at the time of the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was  created between the

text: Rajmahal hills

text: and the

text: Karbi-Meghalaya plateau

text: . Later, this depression was filled up by the depositional activity of numerous rivers.  Today the Maghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau remains detached from the main Peninsular block.  Average height of this plateau varies from  to .

text: The Earth and most of the planets in the Solar System, as well as the Sun and other stars, all generate magnetic fields through the motion of electrically conducting fluids. The Earth's field originates in its core. This is a region of iron alloys extending to about 3400 km (the radius of the Earth is 6370 km). It is divided into a solid inner core, with a radius of 1220 km, and a liquid outer core. The motion of the liquid in the outer core is driven by heat flow from the inner core, which is about , to the core-mantle boundary, which is about . The pattern of flow is organized by the rotation of the Earth and the presence of the solid inner core.

text: The Earth and most of the planets in the Solar System, as well as the Sun and other stars, all generate magnetic fields through the motion of electrically

text: conducting

text: fluids. The Earth's field originates in its core. This is a region of iron alloys extending to about 3400 km (the radius of the Earth is 6370 km). It is divided into a solid

text: inner core

text: , with a radius of 1220 km, and a liquid

text: outer core

text: . The motion of the liquid in the outer core is driven by heat flow from the inner core, which is about , to the

text: core-mantle boundary

text: , which is about . The pattern of flow is organized by the rotation of the Earth and the presence of the solid inner core.

text: The available wind energy estimates range from 300 TW to 870 TW.<ref name = 'Tester 2005'/> Using the lower estimate, just 5% of the available wind energy would supply the current worldwide energy needs. Most of this wind energy is available over the open ocean. The oceans cover 71% of the planet and wind tends to blow more strongly over open water because there are fewer obstructions.

text: The available wind energy estimates range from 300 TW to 870 TW.<ref name = 'Tester 2005'/> Using the lower estimate, just 5% of the available wind energy would supply the current worldwide energy needs. Most of this wind energy is available over the open ocean. The

text: ocean

text: s cover 71% of the planet and wind tends to blow more strongly over open water because there are fewer obstructions.

text: There are also extensions which modify other surface features in addition to increasing the sense of depth. Parallax mapping is one such extension.

text: There are also extensions which modify other surface features in addition to increasing the sense of depth.

text: Parallax mapping

text: is one such extension.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of HIP 57274 d, the moon's orbit would have to be roughly 40 days to support a stable orbit.

text: orbital period

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of HIP 57274 d, the moon's orbit would have to be roughly 40 days to support a stable orbit.

text: The core principle of the new passive  RFID tag design marketed by Omni-ID was that it contained a complex and proprietary  arrangement of metal layers within the tag which reflected and boosted the signal broadcast from an RFID reader. This allowed the tag to be read accurately even when placed on metal, on a liquid container, or even when immersed. This was confirmed in independent testing in November, 2008.

text: Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.

text: Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to

text: sublimate

text: and

text: ion

text: ise, creating a

text: coma

text: : a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.

text: This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the 20th century. During that time, sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis were invented to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet, moon, comet, or asteroid. The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was observed.

text: This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar system until the 20th century. During that time, sophisticated methods of

text: perturbation analysis

text: were invented to calculate the deviations of

text: orbit

text: s due to the influence of multiple bodies on a

text: planet

text: moon

text: comet

text: , or

text: asteroid

text: . The formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet

text: Neptune

text: before it was observed.

text: The story is initially set on the planet Nu-Earth, where a stalemated war between the Norts and Southers is being fought. There is some similarity to both the American Civil War and to World War 1, with the Norts resembling Germany, and the Southers the Allied forces. During the conflict, many forms of chemical and biological weapons have been used, poisoning the planet's atmosphere and oceans. As a result, what remains of the population of the planet, including the troops of both sides, live in enclosed - "domed" - military bases and habitats. They wear protective suits, helmets and respiration gear when outside their domes. These suits are known as "chemsuits". Any damage to the helmet or chemsuit is usually fatal to the wearer, due to the toxic atmosphere of the planet. In an attempt to bring an end to the stalemate, The Southern High Command, over a period of years, have produced the GI - "Genetic Infantryman". The GI is a  type of soldier genetically engineered to be immune to the poisonous atmosphere of Nu-Earth, and therefore be able to fight without the clumsy, inhibiting protective gear required by ordinary soldiers. The Southern High Command deploy the entire GI Regiment in a mass spaceborne capsule drop over an area of Nu Earth known as "The Quartz Zone", which resembles one of the Earth's Poles because the surface has an icy, glacier-like nature. The Quartz Zone assault was intended to be a surprise attack, but because a Traitor within the Southern High Command has passed details of it to the Norts, they are expecting the attack. The Norts employ Elite Infantry Regiments known as the Kashan and Kashar Legions to repulse the assault, and the entire GI Regiment - apart from Rogue - is wiped out, since they are virtually defenceless when dropping to the surface of the planet from space. This event is referred to as "The Quartz Zone Massacre".

text: The story is initially set on the planet

text: Nu-Earth

text: , where a stalemated war between the

text: Norts

text: and

text: Southers

text: is being fought. There is some similarity to both the American Civil War and to World War 1, with the Norts resembling Germany, and the Southers the Allied forces. During the conflict, many forms of chemical and biological weapons have been used, poisoning the planet's atmosphere and oceans. As a result, what remains of the population of the planet, including the troops of both sides, live in enclosed - "domed" - military bases and habitats. They wear protective suits, helmets and respiration gear when outside their domes. These suits are known as "

text: chemsuit

text: s". Any damage to the helmet or chemsuit is usually fatal to the wearer, due to the toxic atmosphere of the planet. In an attempt to bring an end to the stalemate, The Southern High Command, over a period of years, have produced the GI - "Genetic Infantryman". The GI is a  type of soldier genetically engineered to be immune to the poisonous atmosphere of Nu-Earth, and therefore be able to fight without the clumsy, inhibiting protective gear required by ordinary soldiers. The Southern High Command deploy the entire GI Regiment in a mass spaceborne capsule drop over an area of Nu Earth known as "The Quartz Zone", which resembles one of the Earth's Poles because the surface has an icy, glacier-like nature. The Quartz Zone assault was intended to be a surprise attack, but because a Traitor within the Southern High Command has passed details of it to the Norts, they are expecting the attack. The Norts employ Elite Infantry Regiments known as the Kashan and Kashar Legions to repulse the assault, and the entire GI Regiment - apart from Rogue - is wiped out, since they are virtually defenceless when dropping to the surface of the planet from space. This event is referred to as "The Quartz Zone Massacre".

text: The resistance of an area of ocean to absorbing atmospheric  is known as the Revelle factor.

text: The resistance of an area of ocean to absorbing atmospheric  is known as the

text: Revelle factor

text: In the inner Solar System, the three protoplanets to survive more-or-less intact are the asteroids 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, and 4 Vesta. 16 Psyche is likely the survivor of a violent hit-and-run with another object that stripped off the outer, rocky layers of a protoplanet. The asteroid 21 Lutetia also has characteristics that resemble a protoplanet. Kuiper-belt dwarf planets have also been referred to as protoplanets. Because iron meteorites have been found on Earth, it is deemed likely that there once were other metal-cored protoplanets in the asteroid belt that since have been disrupted and that are the source of these meteorites.

text: In the inner Solar System, the three protoplanets to survive more-or-less intact are the

text: asteroid

text: s

text: 1 Ceres

text: 2 Pallas

text: , and

text: 4 Vesta

text: 16 Psyche

text: is likely the survivor of a violent hit-and-run with another object that stripped off the outer, rocky layers of a protoplanet. The asteroid

text: 21 Lutetia

text: also has characteristics that resemble a protoplanet.

text: Kuiper-belt

text: dwarf planet

text: s have also been referred to as protoplanets. Because

text: iron meteorite

text: s have been found on Earth, it is deemed likely that there once were other metal-cored protoplanets in the

text: asteroid belt

text: that since have been disrupted and that are the source of these meteorites.

text: Heller and Armstrong proposed that a series of basic characteristics are required to classify an exoplanet or exomoon as superhabitable; for size, it is required to be about 2 Earth masses, and 1.3 Earth radii will provide an optimal size for plate tectonics. In addition, it would have a greater gravitational attraction that would increase retention of gases during the planet's formation. It is therefore likely that they have a denser atmosphere that will offer greater concentration of oxygen and greenhouse gases, which in turn raise the average temperature to optimum levels for plant life to about . A denser atmosphere may also influence the surface relief, making it more regular and decreasing the size of the ocean basins, which would improve diversity of marine life in shallow waters.

text: Heller and Armstrong proposed that a series of basic characteristics are required to classify an

text: exoplanet

text: or

text: exomoon

text: as superhabitable; for size, it is required to be about 2

text: Earth masses

text: , and 1.3

text: Earth radii

text: will provide an optimal size for

text: plate tectonics

text: . In addition, it would have a greater

text: gravitational attraction

text: that would increase retention of gases during the planet's formation. It is therefore likely that they have a denser

text: atmosphere

text: that will offer greater concentration of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, which in turn raise the average temperature to optimum levels for plant life to about . A denser atmosphere may also influence the surface relief, making it more regular and decreasing the size of the

text: ocean basin

text: s, which would improve diversity of marine life in shallow waters.

text: Don Lynn Anderson (March 5, 1933 – December 2, 2014) was an American geophysicist who made significant contributions to the understanding of the origin, evolution, structure, and composition of Earth and other planets. An expert in numerous scientific disciplines, Anderson’s work combined seismology, solid state physics, geochemistry and petrology to explain how the Earth works. Anderson was best known for his contributions to the understanding of the Earth’s deep interior, and more recently, for the hypothesis that hotspots are the product of plate tectonics rather than narrow plumes emanating from the deep Earth. Anderson was Professor (Emeritus) of Geophysics in the Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences at the  California Institute of Technology (Caltech). He received numerous awards from geophysical, geological and astronomical societies. In 1998 he was awarded the prestigious Crafoord Prize by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences along with Adam Dziewonski. Later that year, Anderson received the National Medal of Science. He held honorary doctorates from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (where he did his undergraduate work in geology and geophysics) and the University of Paris (Sorbonne), and served on numerous university advisory committees, including those at Harvard, Princeton, Yale, University of Chicago, Stanford, University of Paris, Purdue University, and Rice University. Anderson’s wide-ranging research resulted in hundreds of published papers in the fields of planetary science, seismology, mineral physics, petrology, geochemistry, tectonics and the philosophy of science. He continued to work and publish until his death. His widely known textbooks, Theory of the Earth, and New Theory of the Earth are regarded by colleagues as compelling syntheses of the origins of the Earth and its inner workings by one of the great geophysical authorities of our time.

text: Don Lynn Anderson (March 5, 1933 – December 2, 2014) was an

text: American

text: geophysicist

text: who made significant contributions to the understanding of the origin, evolution, structure, and composition of

text: Earth

text: and other planets. An expert in numerous scientific disciplines, Anderson’s work combined

text: seismology

text: solid state physics

text: geochemistry

text: and

text: petrology

text: to explain how the

text: Earth

text: works. Anderson was best known for his contributions to the understanding of the Earth’s deep interior, and more recently, for the hypothesis that

text: hotspots

text: are the product of

text: plate tectonics

text: rather than narrow plumes emanating from the deep

text: Earth

text: . Anderson was Professor (Emeritus) of Geophysics in the Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences at the

text: California Institute of Technology (Caltech)

text: . He received numerous awards from geophysical, geological and astronomical societies. In 1998 he was awarded the prestigious

text: Crafoord Prize

text: by the

text: Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

text: along with

text: Adam Dziewonski

text: . Later that year, Anderson received the

text: National Medal of Science

text: . He held honorary doctorates from

text: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

text: (where he did his undergraduate work in

text: geology

text: and

text: geophysics

text: ) and the

text: University of Paris

text: (Sorbonne), and served on numerous university advisory committees, including those at

text: Harvard

text: Princeton

text: Yale

text: University of Chicago

text: Stanford

text: University of Paris

text: Purdue University

text: , and

text: Rice University

text: . Anderson’s wide-ranging research resulted in hundreds of published papers in the fields of

text: planetary science

text: seismology

text: mineral physics

text: petrology

text: geochemistry

text: tectonics

text: and the

text: philosophy of science

text: . He continued to work and publish until his death. His widely known textbooks, Theory of the Earth, and New Theory of the Earth are regarded by colleagues as compelling syntheses of the origins of the Earth and its inner workings by one of the great geophysical authorities of our time.

text: Most of the exoplanets previously detected by other projects were giant planets, mostly the size of Jupiter and bigger. Kepler is designed to look for planets 30 to 600 times less massive, closer to the order of Earth's mass (Jupiter is 318 times more massive than Earth). The method used, the transit method, involves observing repeated transit of planets in front of their stars, which causes a slight reduction in the star's apparent magnitude, on the order of 0.01% for an Earth-size planet. The degree of this reduction in brightness can be used to deduce the diameter of the planet, and the interval between transits can be used to deduce the planet's orbital period, from which estimates of its orbital semi-major axis (using Kepler's laws) and its temperature (using models of stellar radiation) can be calculated.

text: Most of the

text: exoplanet

text: s previously detected by other projects were

text: giant planet

text: s, mostly the size of

text: Jupiter

text: and bigger. Kepler is designed to look for planets 30 to 600 times less massive, closer to the order of Earth's mass (Jupiter is 318 times more massive than Earth). The method used, the

text: transit method

text: , involves observing repeated

text: transit

text: of planets in front of their stars, which causes a slight reduction in the star's

text: apparent magnitude

text: , on the order of 0.01% for an Earth-size planet. The degree of this reduction in brightness can be used to deduce the diameter of the planet, and the interval between transits can be used to deduce the planet's orbital period, from which estimates of its orbital

text: semi-major axis

text: (using

text: Kepler's laws

text: ) and its temperature (using models of stellar radiation) can be calculated.

text: In his Timaeus, written in roughly 360 BC, Plato mentions, "the Sun and Moon and five other stars, which are called the planets". His student Aristotle makes a similar distinction in his On the Heavens: "The movements of the sun and moon are fewer than those of some of the planets". In his Phaenomena, which set to verse an astronomical treatise written by the philosopher Eudoxus in roughly 350 BC, the poet Aratus describes "those five other orbs, that intermingle with [the constellations] and wheel wandering on every side of the twelve figures of the Zodiac."

text: In his

text: Timaeus

text: , written in roughly 360 BC,

text: Plato

text: mentions, "the Sun and Moon and five other stars, which are called the planets". His student

text: Aristotle

text: makes a similar distinction in his

text: On the Heavens

text: : "The movements of the sun and moon are fewer than those of some of the planets". In his Phaenomena, which set to verse an astronomical treatise written by the philosopher

text: Eudoxus

text: in roughly 350 BC, the poet

text: Aratus

text: describes "those five other orbs, that intermingle with [the constellations] and wheel wandering on every side of the twelve figures of the Zodiac."

text: Volcanoes are the primary landforms built by repeated eruptions of lava and ash over time. They range in shape from shield volcanoes with broad, shallow slopes formed from predominantly effusive eruptions of relatively fluid basaltic lava flows, to steeply-sided stratovolcanoes (also known as composite volcanoes) made of alternating layers of ash and more viscous lava flows typical of intermediate and felsic lavas.

text: Volcanoes are the primary landforms built by repeated eruptions of lava and ash over time. They range in shape from

text: shield volcano

text: es with broad, shallow slopes formed from predominantly effusive eruptions of relatively fluid basaltic lava flows, to steeply-sided

text: stratovolcano

text: es (also known as composite volcanoes) made of alternating layers of ash and more viscous lava flows typical of intermediate and felsic lavas.

text: Z'ha'dum has extensive mountain ranges composed of igneous rock and lava fields from volcanoes of glittering obsidian that tower over sediment-covered plains. Weather patterns are violent, with dust storms covering one-quarter of the planet's surface at any given time. Shadow structures cover 30% of the planet's surface, though most habitats are below ground.

text: Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above , sometimes rising by 20 °F (11 °C) or more within only a few minutes. More extreme events have also been documented, where temperatures have been reported to exceed , although such extreme events have never been officially verified. Heat bursts are also characterised by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong, even damaging, winds.

text: Recorded temperatures during heat bursts have reached well above , sometimes rising by 20 °F (11 °C) or more within only a few minutes. More extreme events have also been documented, where temperatures have been reported to exceed , although such extreme events have never been officially verified. Heat bursts are also characterised by extremely dry air and are sometimes associated with very strong, even damaging,

text: wind

text: s.

text: Turcotte (1993) suggested that Venus has episodic tectonics, whereby short periods of rapid tectonics are separated by periods of surface inactivity lasting on the order of 500 Ma. During periods of inactivity, the lithosphere cools conductively and thickens to over 300 km. The active mode of plate tectonics occurs when the thick lithosphere detaches and founders into the interior of the planet. Large scale lithosphere recycling is thus invoked to explain resurfacing events. Episodic large scale overturns can occur due to a compositionally stratified mantle where there is competition between the compositional and thermal buoyancy of the upper mantle.

text: This dynamo is probably weaker than Earth's because it is driven by thermo-compositional convection associated with inner core solidification. The thermal gradient at the core–mantle boundary is subadiabatic, and hence the outer region of the liquid core is stably stratified with the dynamo operating only at depth, where a strong field is generated. Because of the planet's slow rotation, the resulting magnetic field is dominated by small-scale components that fluctuate quickly with time.

text: The two planets are in a 2:1 resonance, meaning that the outer planet orbits the star once every time when the inner planet orbits the star twice. These two jovian planets are dancing around each other gravitationally.

text: The two planets are in a 2:1

text: resonance

text: , meaning that the outer planet orbits the star once every time when the inner planet orbits the star twice. These two

text: jovian planet

text: s are dancing around each other gravitationally.

text: Habitability of extrasolar moons will depend on stellar and planetary illumination on moons as well as the effect of eclipses on their orbit-averaged surface illumination. Beyond that, tidal heating might play a role for a moon's habitability. In 2012, scientists introduced a concept to define the habitable orbits of moons; they define an inner border of an habitable moon around a certain planet and call it the circumplanetary "habitable edge". Moons closer to their planet than the habitable edge are uninhabitable. When effects of eclipses as well as constraints from a satellite's orbital stability are included into this concept, it is estimated that — depending on a moon's orbital eccentricity — there is a minimum mass of roughly 0.2 solar masses for stars to host habitable moons within the stellar habitable zone. The magnetic environment of exomoons, which is critically triggered by the intrinsic magnetic field of the host planet, has been identified as another factor of exomoon habitability. Most notably, it was found that moons at distances between about 5 and 20 planetary radii from a giant planet could be habitable from an illumination and tidal heating point of view, but still the planetary magnetosphere would critically influence their habitability.

text: Most moderators become less effective with increasing temperature, so under-moderated reactors are stable against changes in temperature in the reactor core:  if the core overheats, then the quality of the moderator is reduced and the reaction tends to slow down (there is a "negative temperature coefficient" in the reactivity of the core).  Water is an extreme case:  in extreme heat, it can boil, producing effective voids in the reactor core without destroying the physical structure of the core; this tends to shut down the reaction and reduce the possibility of a fuel meltdown.  Over-moderated reactors are unstable against changes in temperature (there is a "positive temperature coefficient" in the reactivity of the core), and so are less inherently safe than under-moderated cores.

text: Most moderators become less effective with increasing temperature, so under-moderated reactors are stable against changes in temperature in the reactor core:  if the core overheats, then the quality of the moderator is reduced and the reaction tends to slow down (there is a "negative temperature coefficient" in the reactivity of the core).  Water is an extreme case:  in extreme heat, it can boil, producing

text: effective void

text: s in the reactor core without destroying the physical structure of the core; this tends to shut down the reaction and reduce the possibility of a fuel

text: meltdown

text: .  Over-moderated reactors are unstable against changes in temperature (there is a "positive temperature coefficient" in the reactivity of the core), and so are less inherently safe than under-moderated cores.

text: In addition to relatively long-wavelength radiation, Jupiter also emits synchrotron radiation (also known as the Jovian decimetric radiation or DIM radiation) with frequencies in the range of 0.1–15 GHz (wavelength from 3 m to 2 cm), which is the bremsstrahlung radiation of the relativistic electrons trapped in the inner radiation belts of the planet. The energy of the electrons that contribute to the DIM emissions is from 0.1 to 100 MeV, while the leading contribution comes from the electrons with energy in the range 1–20 MeV. This radiation is well-understood and was used since the beginning of the 1960s to study the structure of the planet's magnetic field and radiation belts. The particles in the radiation belts originate in the outer magnetosphere and are adiabatically accelerated, when they are transported to the inner magnetosphere.

text: In addition to relatively long-wavelength radiation, Jupiter also emits

text: synchrotron radiation

text: (also known as the Jovian

text: decimetric

text: radiation or DIM radiation) with frequencies in the range of 0.1–15 GHz (wavelength from 3 m to 2 cm), which is the

text: bremsstrahlung radiation

text: of the relativistic electrons trapped in the inner radiation belts of the planet. The energy of the electrons that contribute to the DIM emissions is from 0.1 to 100 MeV, while the leading contribution comes from the electrons with energy in the range 1–20 MeV. This radiation is well-understood and was used since the beginning of the 1960s to study the structure of the planet's magnetic field and radiation belts. The particles in the radiation belts originate in the outer magnetosphere and are adiabatically accelerated, when they are transported to the inner magnetosphere.

text: As the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Under Secretary oversees the day-to-day functions of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, as well as laying out its strategic and operational future.  Components of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that the Administrator oversees include the National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Ocean Service, National Weather Service, Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, Marine and Aviation Operations, and the NOAA Corps.

text: As the Administrator of the

text: , the Under Secretary oversees the day-to-day functions of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, as well as laying out its strategic and operational future.  Components of the

text: that the Administrator oversees include the

text: National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service

text: National Marine Fisheries Service

text: National Ocean Service

text: National Weather Service

text: , Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, Marine and Aviation Operations, and the

text: NOAA Corps

text: It has, however, another key difference from Earth. The entire surface of Erna is wrapped in a powerful energy field known as the Fae. The Fae is a type of energy that comes up to the surface from the core of the planet via the plethora of volcanoes and earthquakes that rock the planet's surface. This is an energy that the native animals of Erna sense, and utilize to a small extent to help them survive (i.e. the Fae is often able to tell a Sensitive individual when an earthquake is coming, or if the tides are about to shift). This energy field that encompasses the planet is likened to Earth's magnetic field. Author C.S. Friedman explains how her idea of the Fae was shaped by Isaac Asimov's essay arguing that if magic existed, it would be a natural force governed by consistent rules. "Like fire, it should be useful when controlled, dangerous if uncontrolled," she says. "The fact that we build windmills does not mean we stop fearing hurricanes."

text: It has, however, another key difference from Earth. The entire surface of Erna is wrapped in a powerful energy field known as the Fae. The Fae is a type of energy that comes up to the surface from the core of the planet via the plethora of volcanoes and earthquakes that rock the planet's surface. This is an energy that the native animals of Erna sense, and utilize to a small extent to help them survive (i.e. the Fae is often able to tell a Sensitive individual when an earthquake is coming, or if the tides are about to shift). This energy field that encompasses the planet is likened to Earth's magnetic field. Author C.S. Friedman explains how her idea of the Fae was shaped by

text: Isaac Asimov

text: 's essay arguing that if magic existed, it would be a natural force governed by consistent rules. "Like fire, it should be useful when controlled, dangerous if uncontrolled," she says. "The fact that we build windmills does not mean we stop fearing hurricanes."

text: Sedimentary basins are regions of Earth of long-term subsidence creating accommodation space for infilling by sediments. The subsidence can result from a variety of causes that include: the thinning of underlying crust, sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of adjacent lithosphere. Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually associated with plate tectonic activity. Basins are classified structurally in various ways, with a primary classifications distinguishing among basins formed in various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent, transform, intraplate), the proximity of the basin to the active plate margins, and whether oceanic,  continental or transitional crust underlies the basin. Basins formed in different plate tectonic regimes vary in their preservation potential. On oceanic crust, basins are likely to be subducted, while marginal continental basins may be partially preserved, and intracratonic basins have a high probability of preservation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to increasing pressure and begin the process of lithification. A number of basins formed in extensional settings can undergo inversion which has accounted for a number of the economically viable oil reserves on earth which were formerly basins.

text: Sedimentary basins are regions of

text: Earth

text: of long-term

text: subsidence

text: creating accommodation space for infilling by

text: sediment

text: s. The subsidence can result from a variety of causes that include: the thinning of underlying

text: crust

text: , sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of adjacent

text: lithosphere

text: . Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually associated with

text: plate tectonic

text: activity. Basins are classified structurally in various ways, with a primary classifications distinguishing among basins formed in various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent, transform, intraplate), the proximity of the basin to the active plate margins, and whether

text: oceanic

text: continental

text: or transitional crust underlies the basin. Basins formed in different plate tectonic regimes vary in their preservation potential. On oceanic crust, basins are likely to be subducted, while marginal continental basins may be partially preserved, and intracratonic basins have a high probability of preservation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to increasing

text: pressure

text: and begin the process of

text: lithification

text: . A number of basins formed in extensional settings can undergo

text: inversion

text: which has accounted for a number of the economically viable oil reserves on earth which were formerly basins.

text: Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.

text: Earth was initially molten due to extreme

text: volcanism

text: and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid

text: crust

text: when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The

text: Moon

text: formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth.

text: Outgassing

text: and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing

text: water vapor

text: , augmented by ice delivered from

text: comet

text: s,

text: produced the oceans

text: Although 47 Ursae Majoris b is outside its star's habitable zone, its gravitational influence would disrupt the orbit of planets in the outer part of the habitable zone. In addition, it may have disrupted the formation of terrestrial planets and reduced the delivery of water to any inner planets in the system. Therefore, planets located in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry.

text: Although 47 Ursae Majoris b is outside its star's

text: habitable zone

text: , its gravitational influence would disrupt the orbit of planets in the outer part of the habitable zone. In addition, it may have disrupted the formation of

text: terrestrial planet

text: s and reduced the delivery of water to any inner planets in the system. Therefore, planets located in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry.

text: The traditional components were relatively soft metallic elements and alloys (gold, copper, silver, shakudō, shibuichi, and kuromido) which would form liquid phase diffusion bonds with one another without completely melting. This was useful in the traditional techniques of fusing and soldering the layers together.

text: The traditional components were relatively soft metallic elements and alloys (gold, copper, silver,

text: shakudō

text: shibuichi

text: , and

text: kuromido

text: ) which would form liquid phase

text: diffusion

text: bonds with one another without completely melting. This was useful in the traditional techniques of fusing and soldering the layers together.

text: In 2011, Fogle filmed a new series A Year of Adventures with Lonely Planet and BBC Worldwide in which he travels the world in the pursuit of the ultimate adventure, from solo skydiving in Australia to flying in a Cold War fighter jet in the Czech Republic. During the series he swam from Alcatraz to San Francisco and dived between the tectonic plates of North America and Europe in Iceland.

text: In 2011, Fogle filmed a new series A Year of Adventures with Lonely Planet and BBC Worldwide in which he travels the world in the pursuit of the ultimate adventure, from solo skydiving in Australia to flying in a

text: Cold War

text: fighter jet in the

text: Czech Republic

text: . During the series he swam from

text: Alcatraz

text: to San Francisco and dived between the tectonic plates of North America and Europe in

text: Iceland

text: On April 30, Short was again arrested (along with five other gamblers) and placed in jail. The following day Short and the five others were escorted to the train depot and given their choice of east or west-bound trains. Short went east to Kansas City, Missouri where he looked up Charles E. Bassett at the Marble Hall Saloon. Bassett and Short had a lot in common, not the least of which was that both had, at different times, owned an interest in the Long Branch Saloon. Bassett had served as the first sheriff of Ford County, as well as city marshal of Dodge City. Both Wyatt Earp and Bat Masterson had, at various times, served under Bassett as deputies.

text: On April 30, Short was again arrested (along with five other gamblers) and placed in jail. The following day Short and the five others were escorted to the train depot and given their choice of east or west-bound trains. Short went east to Kansas City, Missouri where he looked up

text: Charles E. Bassett

text: at the Marble Hall Saloon. Bassett and Short had a lot in common, not the least of which was that both had, at different times, owned an interest in the Long Branch Saloon. Bassett had served as the first sheriff of Ford County, as well as city marshal of Dodge City. Both

text: Wyatt Earp

text: and

text: Bat Masterson

text: had, at various times, served under Bassett as deputies.

text: In addition to spending on supporting colonies, terraforming planets, mining planets, and building ships, players can spend money on technological research. This raises the available maximum for each of the five ship technologies. There is also a sixth type of research, "Radical", which gives unpredictable advantages such as improved terraforming, information about distant planets, or a temporary advantage in one tech. Most spending in the game follows the law of diminishing returns: it is more effective to spend lightly but constantly on a given tech or planet for a long period of time than to spend heavily for a short period of time.  For example, a novice player might reason that allocating 20% of one's income to mining a particular planet would yield twice as much metal as allocating 10%; in fact, it yields only 40% more metal.

text: In addition to spending on supporting colonies, terraforming planets, mining planets, and building ships, players can spend money on technological research. This raises the available maximum for each of the five ship technologies. There is also a sixth type of research, "Radical", which gives unpredictable advantages such as improved terraforming, information about distant planets, or a temporary advantage in one tech. Most spending in the game follows the law of

text: diminishing returns

text: : it is more effective to spend lightly but constantly on a given tech or planet for a long period of time than to spend heavily for a short period of time.  For example, a novice player might reason that allocating 20% of one's income to mining a particular planet would yield twice as much metal as allocating 10%; in fact, it yields only 40% more metal.

text: He has also discovered the Jovian moon Adrastea on images taken by Voyager 2 in 1979, and is credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of more than 40 minor planets. The inner main-belt asteroid 6434 Jewitt, discovered by Edward Bowell in 1981, was named in his honor. Naming citation was published on 1 July 1996 (M.P.C. 27462).

text: He has also discovered the Jovian moon

text: Adrastea

text: on images taken by

text: Voyager 2

text: in 1979, and is credited by the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: with the discovery of more than 40 minor planets. The inner main-belt asteroid

text: 6434 Jewitt

text: , discovered by

text: Edward Bowell

text: in 1981, was named in his honor. Naming citation was published on 1 July 1996 (

text: M.P.C.

text: As a result of this extremely large rate of spin, Mesklin is not even slightly spherical; it has a large equatorial bulge. Mesklin's equatorial diameter is 48,000 miles (77,250 km), while from pole-to-pole along its axis of rotation it is 19,740 miles (31,770 km). Then Clement attempted to calculate the polar gravity, finding it surprisingly difficult. He admits, "To be perfectly frank, I don't know the exact value of the polar gravity; the planet is so oblate that the usual rule of spheres... would not even be a good approximation..." "Whirligig World" reports his initial calculations of the pole gravity to be 655 g; the dust jacket of Heavy Planet reports it as 700 g. A later program created by Clement computed it as 275 g, as did a similar program written by the MIT Science Fiction Society. The MIT group also concluded that the planet would have had a sharp edge at the equator. Clement also gave Mesklin a set of rings and massive moons. The inner moon is  from the planet's center, with a period of 2 hours 8 minutes.

text: As a result of this extremely large rate of spin, Mesklin is not even slightly spherical; it has a large

text: equatorial bulge

text: . Mesklin's equatorial diameter is 48,000 miles (77,250 km), while from pole-to-pole along its axis of rotation it is 19,740 miles (31,770 km). Then Clement attempted to calculate the polar gravity, finding it surprisingly difficult. He admits, "To be perfectly frank, I don't know the exact value of the polar gravity; the planet is so oblate that the usual rule of spheres... would not even be a good approximation..." "Whirligig World" reports his initial calculations of the pole gravity to be 655 g; the

text: dust jacket

text: of Heavy Planet reports it as 700 g. A later program created by Clement computed it as 275 g, as did a similar program written by the

text: MIT Science Fiction Society

text: . The MIT group also concluded that the planet would have had a sharp edge at the equator. Clement also gave Mesklin a set of rings and massive moons. The inner moon is  from the planet's center, with a period of 2 hours 8 minutes.

text: Feature data in CAD can be specified either as a collection of surfaces or as volumes. Surface features can be used to describe manufacturing tolerances or locating surfaces in assembly design. Volumetric features on the other hand, can be used in tool path generation, etc. Manufacturing information (particularly in machining) is better portrayed by using volumetric features.

text: Estimates for the temperature of the outer core are about  in its outer regions and  near the inner core. Evidence for a fluid outer core includes observations from seismology which shows that seismic shear-waves are not transmitted through the outer core. Because of its high temperature, modeling work has shown that the outer core is a low viscosity fluid that convects turbulently. Eddy currents in the nickel iron fluid of the outer core are believed to influence the Earth's magnetic field. The average magnetic field strength in the Earth's outer core was measured to be 2.5 millitesla, 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface. The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid even though it has a composition similar to that of the inner core. Sulfur and oxygen could also be present in the outer core.

text: Estimates for the temperature of the outer core are about  in its outer regions and  near the inner core. Evidence for a fluid outer core includes observations from

text: seismology

text: which shows that

text: seismic

text: shear-waves

text: are not transmitted through the outer core. Because of its high temperature, modeling work has shown that the outer core is a low

text: viscosity

text: fluid that convects

text: turbulently

text: Eddy current

text: s in the nickel iron

text: fluid

text: of the outer core are believed to influence the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: . The average

text: magnetic field

text: strength in the Earth's outer core was measured to be 2.5 millitesla, 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface. The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid even though it has a composition similar to that of the inner core.

text: Sulfur

text: and

text: oxygen

text: could also be present in the outer core.

text: Only a limited number of systems are available on which Bode's law can presently be tested. Two solar planets have enough large moons that probably have formed in a process similar to that which formed the planets. The four big satellites of Jupiter and the biggest inner satellite, Amalthea, cling to a regular, but non-Titius–Bode, spacing, with the four innermost locked into orbital periods that are each twice that of the next inner satellite. The big moons of Uranus have a regular, non-Titius–Bode spacing. However, according to Martin Harwit, "a slight new phrasing of this law permits us to include not only planetary orbits around the Sun, but also the orbits of moons around their parent planets." The new phrasing is known as Dermott's law.

text: Only a limited number of systems are available on which Bode's law can presently be tested. Two solar planets have enough large moons that probably have formed in a process similar to that which formed the planets. The four big satellites of

text: Jupiter

text: and the biggest inner satellite,

text: Amalthea

text: , cling to a regular, but non-Titius–Bode, spacing, with the four innermost locked into orbital periods that are each twice that of the next inner satellite. The big moons of Uranus have a regular, non-Titius–Bode spacing. However, according to

text: Martin Harwit

text: , "a slight new phrasing of this law permits us to include not only planetary orbits around the Sun, but also the orbits of moons around their parent planets." The new phrasing is known as

text: Dermott's law

text: 51 Pegasi has a stellar classification of G5V, indicating that it is a main-sequence star that is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core. The effective temperature of the chromosphere is about 5571 K, giving 51 Pegasi the characteristic yellow hue of a G-type star. It is estimated to be 6.1–8.1 billion years old, somewhat older than the Sun, with a radius 24% larger and 11% more massive. The star has a higher proportion of elements other than hydrogen/helium compared to the Sun; a quantity astronomers term a star's metallicity. Stars with higher metallicity such as this are more likely to host planets. In 1996 astronomers Baliunas, Sokoloff, and Soon measured a rotational period of 37 days for 51 Pegasi.

text: 51 Pegasi has a

text: stellar classification

text: of G5V, indicating that it is a

text: main-sequence

text: star that is generating energy through the

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen at its core. The

text: effective temperature

text: of the

text: chromosphere

text: is about 5571 K, giving 51 Pegasi the characteristic yellow hue of a G-type star. It is estimated to be 6.1–8.1 billion years old, somewhat older than the

text: Sun

text: , with a radius 24% larger and 11% more massive. The star has a higher proportion of elements other than hydrogen/helium compared to the Sun; a quantity astronomers term a star's

text: metallicity

text: . Stars with higher metallicity such as this are more likely to host planets. In 1996 astronomers Baliunas, Sokoloff, and Soon measured a rotational period of 37 days for 51 Pegasi.

text: The inner part of the disk is asymmetric and shows structure in the inner 40 AU.  The inner structure has been compared with that expected to be seen if the disk is influenced by larger bodies or has undergone recent planet formation.

text: The inner part of the disk is

text: asymmetric

text: and shows structure in the inner 40 AU.  The inner structure has been compared with that expected to be seen if the disk is influenced by larger bodies or has undergone recent planet formation.

text: If the formation of pebbles is slow, pebble accretion leads to the formation of a few gas giants in the outer Solar System. The formation of the gas giants is a long-standing problem in planetary science. The accretion of the cores of giant planets via the collision and mergers of planetesimals is slow and may be difficult to complete before the gas disk dissipates. (Although formation via planetesimal collisions can be accomplished within the typical lifetime of a protoplanetary disc.)  The largest planetesimals can grow much faster via pebble accretion, but if the formation or delivery of pebbles is rapid numerous Earth-mass planets form instead of a few giant planet cores. As the largest objects approach Earth-mass the radius from which pebbles are accreted is limited by the Hill radius. This slows their growth relative to their neighbors (growth becomes oligarchic) and allows many objects to accrete similar masses of pebbles. However, if the formation or the delivery of pebbles is slow growth timescales becomes longer than the time required for gravitationally stirring. The largest planetesimals then excite the inclinations and eccentricities of the smaller planetesimals. Their inclined orbits keep small planetesimals outside of the narrow disk of pebbles during most of their orbits, limiting their growth. The period of runaway growth is then extended and the largest objects are able to accrete a sizable fraction of the pebbles and grow into giant planet cores. As the cores grow larger some reach masses sufficient to create partial gaps in the gas disk, altering its pressure gradient and blocking the inward drift of pebbles. Accretion of pebbles is then halted and the gas envelope surrounding the core cools and collapses allowing for the rapid accretion of gas and the formation of a gas giant. Cores that do not grow massive enough to clear gaps in the pebble disk are only able to accrete small gas envelopes and instead become ice giants. The rapid growth via pebble accretion allows the cores to grow large enough to accrete massive gas envelopes forming gas giants while avoiding migrating very close to the star. In simulations cold gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn can form via pebble accretion if their initial embryos began growing beyond 20 AU. This distant formation offers a potential explanation for Jupiter's enrichment in noble gases. However, dedicated formation models indicate that it is difficult to reconcile growth via pebble accretion with the final mass and composition of the solar system ice giants Uranus and Neptune.

text: If the formation of pebbles is slow, pebble accretion leads to the formation of a few

text: gas giant

text: s in the

text: outer Solar System

text: . The

text: formation

text: of the gas giants is a long-standing problem in

text: planetary science

text: . The

text: accretion

text: of the cores of

text: giant planets

text: via the collision and mergers of planetesimals is slow and may be difficult to complete before the gas disk dissipates. (Although formation via planetesimal collisions can be accomplished within the typical lifetime of a

text: protoplanetary disc

text: .)  The largest planetesimals can grow much faster via pebble accretion, but if the formation or delivery of pebbles is rapid numerous

text: Earth-mass

text: planets form instead of a few giant planet cores. As the largest objects approach Earth-mass the radius from which pebbles are accreted is limited by the

text: Hill radius

text: . This slows their growth relative to their neighbors (growth becomes oligarchic) and allows many objects to accrete similar masses of pebbles. However, if the formation or the delivery of pebbles is slow growth timescales becomes longer than the time required for gravitationally stirring. The largest planetesimals then excite the

text: inclination

text: s and eccentricities of the smaller planetesimals. Their inclined orbits keep small planetesimals outside of the narrow disk of pebbles during most of their orbits, limiting their growth. The period of runaway growth is then extended and the largest objects are able to accrete a sizable fraction of the pebbles and grow into giant planet cores. As the cores grow larger some reach masses sufficient to create partial gaps in the gas disk, altering its pressure gradient and blocking the inward drift of pebbles. Accretion of pebbles is then halted and the gas envelope surrounding the core cools and collapses allowing for the rapid accretion of gas and the formation of a gas giant. Cores that do not grow massive enough to clear gaps in the pebble disk are only able to accrete small gas envelopes and instead become

text: ice giant

text: s. The rapid growth via pebble accretion allows the cores to grow large enough to accrete massive gas envelopes forming gas giants while avoiding migrating very close to the star. In simulations cold gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn can form via pebble accretion if their initial embryos began growing beyond 20 AU. This distant formation offers a potential explanation for Jupiter's enrichment in noble gases. However, dedicated formation models indicate that it is difficult to reconcile growth via pebble accretion with the final mass and composition of the solar system ice giants

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: The world's oceans absorb a large amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which causes an increase in carbon dioxide concentrations and decreases its overall pH, increasing ocean acidification.

text: The world's oceans absorb a large amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which causes an increase in carbon dioxide concentrations and decreases its overall

text: pH

text: , increasing

text: ocean acidification

text: The Discovery quadrangle lies within the heavily cratered part of Mercury in a region roughly antipodal to the 1550-km-wide Caloris Basin. Like the rest of the heavily cratered part of the planet, the quadrangle contains a spectrum of craters and basins ranging in size from those at the limit of resolution of the best photographs (200 m) to those as much as 350 km across, and ranging in degree of freshness from pristine to severely degraded. Interspersed with the craters and basins both in space and time are plains deposits that are probably of several different origins. Because of its small size and very early segregation into core and crust, Mercury seemingly has been a dead planet for a long time—possibly longer than the Moon. Its geologic history, therefore, records with considerable clarity some of the earliest and most violent events that took place in the inner Solar System.

text: The Discovery

text: quadrangle

text: lies within the heavily cratered part of

text: Mercury

text: in a region roughly antipodal to the 1550-km-wide

text: Caloris Basin

text: . Like the rest of the heavily cratered part of the planet, the quadrangle contains a spectrum of craters and basins ranging in size from those at the limit of resolution of the best photographs (200 m) to those as much as 350 km across, and ranging in degree of freshness from pristine to severely degraded. Interspersed with the craters and basins both in space and time are plains deposits that are probably of several different origins. Because of its small size and very early segregation into core and crust, Mercury seemingly has been a dead planet for a long time—possibly longer than the

text: Moon

text: . Its geologic history, therefore, records with considerable clarity some of the earliest and most violent events that took place in the inner Solar System.

text: Several exoplanets have been discovered that are possibly gas dwarfs, based on known masses and densities. For example, Kepler-11f has a mass of 2.3 , yet its density is the same as that of Saturn, implying that it is a gas dwarf with a thick hydrogen–helium atmosphere and only a small rocky core. The even smaller Kepler-138d, having only roughly Earth's mass, is also suspected to be a gas planet due to its relatively large diameter (~20,500 km) and therefore low density. Such planets are not found orbiting too close to their parent stars, where their thick atmospheres would be evaporated by heat or blown away by stellar winds. It is demonstrated that the inner planets of the Kepler-11 system have higher densities than planets farther away.

text: Several

text: exoplanet

text: s have been discovered that are possibly

text: gas dwarf

text: s, based on known masses and densities. For example,

text: has a mass of 2.3 , yet its density is the same as that of

text: Saturn

text: , implying that it is a gas dwarf with a thick hydrogen–helium atmosphere and only a small rocky core. The even smaller

text: , having only roughly Earth's mass, is also suspected to be a gas planet due to its relatively large diameter (~20,500 km) and therefore low density. Such planets are not found orbiting too close to their parent stars, where their thick atmospheres would be evaporated by heat or blown away by

text: stellar wind

text: s. It is demonstrated that the inner planets of the Kepler-11 system have higher densities than planets farther away.

text: Although the temperature on Mars can reach above freezing (), liquid water is unstable over much of the planet, as the atmospheric pressure is below water's triple point and water ice sublimes into water vapor. Exceptions to this are the low-lying areas of the planet, most notably in the Hellas Planitia impact basin, the largest such crater on Mars. It is so deep that the atmospheric pressure at the bottom reaches 1155 Pa, which is above the triple point, so if the temperature exceeded 0 °C liquid water could exist there.

text: Although the temperature on Mars can reach above freezing (), liquid water is unstable over much of the planet, as the atmospheric pressure is below water's

text: triple point

text: and water ice

text: sublimes

text: into water vapor. Exceptions to this are the low-lying areas of the planet, most notably in the

text: Hellas Planitia

text: impact basin, the largest such crater on Mars. It is so deep that the atmospheric pressure at the bottom reaches 1155 Pa, which is above the triple point, so if the temperature exceeded 0 °C liquid water could exist there.

text: Due to their higher boiling points, only metals and silicates could exist in solid form in the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun, and these would eventually form the rocky planets of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Because metallic elements only comprised a very small fraction of the solar nebula, the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and Oort cloud. The Nice model is an explanation for the creation of these regions and how the outer planets could have formed in different positions and migrated to their current orbits through various gravitational interactions.

text: Due to their higher boiling points, only metals and silicates could exist in solid form in the warm inner Solar System close to the Sun, and these would eventually form the rocky planets of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Because metallic elements only comprised a very small fraction of the solar nebula, the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid. The ices that formed these planets were more plentiful than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial inner planets, allowing them to grow massive enough to capture large atmospheres of hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Leftover debris that never became planets congregated in regions such as the

text: asteroid belt

text: Kuiper belt

text: , and

text: Oort cloud

text: . The

text: Nice model

text: is an explanation for the creation of these regions and how the outer planets could have formed in different positions and migrated to their current orbits through various gravitational interactions.

text: Over millions of years, tectonic plates may move many hundreds of kilometers away from both sides of a divergent plate boundary. Because of this, rocks closest to a boundary are younger than rocks further away on the same plate.

text: Ward and Brownlee argue that tectonics is necessary to support biogeochemical cycles required for complex life to arise and predicted that such geological features would not be found outside of Earth, pointing to a lack of observable orogenic evidence, specifically in the form of mountain ranges and subduction zones. However, recent evidence points to similar activity either having occurred or continuing to occur elsewhere. The geology of Pluto, for example, described by Ward and Brownlee as "without mountains or volcanoes ... devoid of volcanic activity", has since been found to be quite the contrary, with a geologically active surface possessing organic molecules and mountain ranges like Norgay Montes and Hillary Montes comparable in relative size to those of Earth, and observations suggest the involvement of endogenic processes. Plate tectonics has been suggested as a hypothesis for the Martian dichotomy and in 2012 Geologist An Yin put forward evidence for active plate tectonics on Mars. Europa has long suspected to have plate tectonics and in 2014 that NASA announced evidence of active subduction. Kasting suggests that there is nothing unusual about the occurrence of plate tectonics in large rocky planets and liquid water on the surface as most should generate internal heat even without the assistance of radioactive elements. Studies by Valencia and Cowan suggest that plate tectonics may be inevitable for terrestrial planets Earth sized or larger, that is, Super-Earths, which are now known to be more common in planetary systems.

text: Ward and Brownlee argue that

text: tectonics

text: is necessary to support

text: biogeochemical cycles

text: required for complex life to arise and predicted that such geological features would not be found outside of Earth, pointing to a lack of observable

text: orogenic

text: evidence, specifically in the form of mountain ranges and subduction zones. However, recent evidence points to similar activity either having occurred or continuing to occur elsewhere. The

text: geology of Pluto

text: , for example, described by Ward and Brownlee as "without mountains or volcanoes ... devoid of volcanic activity", has since been found to be quite the contrary, with a geologically active surface possessing organic molecules and mountain ranges like

text: Norgay Montes

text: and

text: Hillary Montes

text: comparable in relative size to those of Earth, and observations suggest the involvement of endogenic processes. Plate tectonics has been suggested as a hypothesis for the

text: Martian dichotomy

text: and in 2012 Geologist An Yin put forward evidence for active plate tectonics on Mars. Europa has long suspected to have plate tectonics and in 2014 that NASA announced evidence of active subduction. Kasting suggests that there is nothing unusual about the occurrence of plate tectonics in large rocky planets and liquid water on the surface as most should generate internal heat even without the assistance of radioactive elements. Studies by Valencia and Cowan suggest that plate tectonics may be inevitable for terrestrial planets Earth sized or larger, that is,

text: Super-Earth

text: s, which are now known to be more common in planetary systems.

text: The flowers are usually borne singly in leaf axils on a hairy stalk  long. There are 5 overlapping, reddish-purple, hairy sepals which are usually  long and which differ from egg-shaped to almost circular. The petals are  long and are joined at their lower end to form a tube. The petal tube is purple to reddish-purple, white with dark lilac-purple blotches inside. The outer surface of the lobes and the upper part of the outside of the tube are covered with glandular hairs but the lower part of the outside is glabrous. The inner surface of the petal lobes is also glabrous but the inside of the tube is filled with long hairs. The 4 stamens are fully enclosed in the petal tube. Flowering occurs from May to August and the fruits which follow are dry, oval-shaped, woody,  long and have a papery covering with short hairs.

text: The flowers are usually borne singly in leaf axils on a hairy stalk  long. There are 5 overlapping, reddish-purple, hairy sepals which are usually  long and which differ from egg-shaped to almost circular. The petals are  long and are joined at their lower end to form a tube. The petal tube is purple to reddish-purple, white with dark lilac-purple blotches inside. The outer surface of the lobes and the upper part of the outside of the tube are covered with glandular hairs but the lower part of the outside is

text: glabrous

text: . The inner surface of the petal lobes is also glabrous but the inside of the tube is filled with long hairs. The 4 stamens are fully enclosed in the petal tube. Flowering occurs from May to August and the fruits which follow are dry, oval-shaped, woody,  long and have a papery covering with short hairs.

text: According to the solar nebular disk model, rocky planets form in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk, within the frost line, where the temperature is high enough to prevent condensation of water ice and other substances into grains. This results in coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in the formation of rocky planetesimals. Such conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3–4 AU part of the disk of a Sun-like star.

text: According to the solar nebular disk model,

text: rocky planet

text: s form in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk, within the

text: frost line

text: , where the temperature is high enough to prevent condensation of water ice and other substances into grains. This results in coagulation of purely rocky grains and later in the formation of rocky planetesimals. Such conditions are thought to exist in the inner 3–4 AU part of the disk of a Sun-like star.

text: Attenborough also covered the various series he presented that brought key scientific theories to a mass audience. His first landmark series for the BBC, Life on Earth, first broadcast in the 1970s, covered the story of evolution by following in the footsteps of Attenborough's hero Charles Darwin, and discussing and illustrating Darwin's theory of natural selection. This episode also dealt with the black smokers, deep sea volcanic vents that were found, unexpectedly, to support abundant life. Also covered were tortoises, lung fish and salamanders, and tiktaalik fossils from Canada. Attenborough talked of being a geology student at Cambridge and how he was interested in the distribution of life on the planet. In The Living Planet series, he filmed in front of an erupting volcano (narrowly avoiding being hit by lava bombs), and discussed the theory of continental drift  - how whole continents are moved around the globe over millions of years - by the action of plate tectonics.  This great scientific mystery was not solved until the 1960s.

text: Attenborough also covered the various series he presented that brought key scientific theories to a mass audience. His first landmark series for the BBC,

text: Life on Earth

text: , first broadcast in the 1970s, covered the story of evolution by following in the footsteps of Attenborough's hero

text: Charles Darwin

text: , and discussing and illustrating Darwin's theory of natural selection. This episode also dealt with the

text: black smokers

text: , deep sea volcanic vents that were found, unexpectedly, to support abundant life. Also covered were tortoises, lung fish and salamanders, and

text: tiktaalik

text: fossils from Canada. Attenborough talked of being a geology student at Cambridge and how he was interested in the distribution of life on the planet. In

text: The Living Planet

text: series, he filmed in front of an erupting volcano (narrowly avoiding being hit by

text: lava bombs

text: ), and discussed the theory of

text: continental drift

text: - how whole continents are moved around the globe over millions of years - by the action of

text: plate tectonics

text: .  This great scientific mystery was not solved until the 1960s.

text: This comparison indicates that size alone is a poor measure, particularly in terms of habitability. Temperature must also be considered as Venus and the planets of Alpha Centauri B (discovered in 2012), Kepler-20 (discovered in 2011), COROT-7 (discovered in 2009) and the three planets of Kepler-42 (all discovered in 2011) are very hot, and Mars, Ganymede and Titan are frigid worlds, resulting also in wide variety of surface and atmospheric conditions. The mass of the Solar System's moons are a tiny fraction of that of Earth whereas the mass of extrasolar planets are very difficult to accurately measure. However discoveries of Earth-sized terrestrial planets are important as they may indicate the probable frequency and distribution of Earth-like planets.

text: This comparison indicates that size alone is a poor measure, particularly in terms of

text: habitability

text: . Temperature must also be considered as Venus and the planets of Alpha Centauri B (discovered in 2012),

text: (discovered in 2011), COROT-7 (discovered in 2009) and the three planets of Kepler-42 (all discovered in 2011) are very hot, and

text: Mars

text: Ganymede

text: and

text: Titan

text: are frigid worlds, resulting also in wide variety of surface and atmospheric conditions. The mass of the

text: Solar System's moons

text: are a tiny fraction of that of Earth whereas the mass of

text: extrasolar planets

text: are very difficult to accurately measure. However discoveries of Earth-sized

text: terrestrial planet

text: s are important as they may indicate the probable frequency and distribution of Earth-like planets.

text: Despite the fact that Venus appears to have no global plate tectonic system as such, the planet's surface shows various features associated with local tectonic activity. Features such as faults, folds, and volcanoes are present there and may be driven largely by processes in the mantle.

text: Despite the fact that Venus appears to have no global plate tectonic system as such, the planet's surface shows various features associated with local tectonic activity. Features such as

text: faults

text: folds

text: , and

text: volcano

text: es are present there and may be driven largely by processes in the mantle.

text: Estimates for the habitable zone within the Solar System range from 0.5 to 3.0 astronomical units, though arriving at these estimates has been challenging for a variety of reasons. Numerous planetary mass objects orbit within, or close to, this range and as such receive sufficient sunlight to raise temperatures above the freezing point of water. However their atmospheric conditions vary substantially. The aphelion of Venus, for example, touches the inner edge of the zone and while atmospheric pressure at the surface is sufficient for liquid water, a strong greenhouse effect raises surface temperatures to  at which water can only exist as vapour. The entire orbits of the Moon, Mars, and numerous asteroids also lie within various estimates of the habitable zone. Only at Mars' lowest elevations (less than 30% of the planet's surface) is atmospheric pressure and temperature sufficient for water to, if present, exist in liquid form for short periods. At Hellas Basin, for example, atmospheric pressures can reach 1,115 Pa and temperatures above zero Celsius (around the triple point for water) for 70 days in the Martian year. Despite indirect evidence in the form of seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes, no confirmation has been made of the presence of liquid water there. While other objects orbit partly within this zone, including comets, Ceres is the only one of planetary mass. A combination of low mass and an inability to mitigate evaporation and atmosphere loss against the solar wind make it impossible for these bodies to sustain liquid water on their surface. Most estimates, therefore, are inferred from the effect that a repositioned orbit would have on the habitability of Earth or Venus.

text: Estimates for the habitable zone within the Solar System range from 0.5 to 3.0

text: astronomical units

text: , though arriving at these estimates has been challenging for a variety of reasons. Numerous planetary mass objects orbit within, or close to, this range and as such receive sufficient sunlight to raise temperatures above the freezing point of water. However their atmospheric conditions vary substantially. The aphelion of Venus, for example, touches the inner edge of the zone and while atmospheric pressure at the surface is sufficient for liquid water, a strong greenhouse effect raises surface temperatures to  at which water can only exist as vapour. The entire orbits of the

text: Moon

text: Mars

text: , and numerous asteroids also lie within various estimates of the habitable zone. Only at Mars' lowest elevations (less than 30% of the planet's surface) is atmospheric pressure and temperature sufficient for water to, if present, exist in liquid form for short periods. At

text: Hellas Basin

text: , for example, atmospheric pressures can reach 1,115 Pa and temperatures above zero Celsius (around the triple point for water) for 70 days in the Martian year. Despite indirect evidence in the form of

text: seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes

text: , no confirmation has been made of the presence of liquid water there. While other objects orbit partly within this zone, including comets,

text: Ceres

text: is the only one of planetary mass. A combination of low mass and an inability to mitigate evaporation and atmosphere loss against the solar wind make it impossible for these bodies to sustain liquid water on their surface. Most estimates, therefore, are inferred from the effect that a repositioned orbit would have on the habitability of Earth or Venus.

text: British Columbia and Yukon are home to a vast region of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Several mountains that many British Columbians look at every day are dormant volcanoes. Most of them erupted during the Pleistocene and Holocene. Although none of Canada's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes, volcanic fields, and volcanic centers are considered potentially active.  Hot springs are at some volcanoes, while 10 volcanoes in British Columbia appear related to seismic activity since 1975, including: the Silverthrone Caldera, Mount Meager, Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, Castle Rock, The Volcano, Mount Edziza, Hoodoo Mountain, Crow Lagoon, and Nazko Cone. The volcanoes are grouped into five volcanic belts with different tectonic settings.

text: British Columbia and

text: Yukon

text: are home to a vast region of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Several mountains that many British Columbians look at every day are

text: dormant volcano

text: es. Most of them erupted during the Pleistocene and Holocene. Although none of Canada's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes, volcanic fields, and volcanic centers are considered potentially active.

text: Hot spring

text: s are at some volcanoes, while 10 volcanoes in British Columbia appear related to seismic activity since 1975, including: the

text: Silverthrone Caldera

text: Mount Meager

text: Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field

text: Mount Garibaldi

text: Mount Cayley

text: Castle Rock

text: The Volcano

text: Mount Edziza

text: Hoodoo Mountain

text: Crow Lagoon

text: , and

text: Nazko Cone

text: . The volcanoes are grouped into five volcanic belts with different tectonic settings.

text: The Hiigarans are the playable race in the single player game. Their story began in the original "Homeworld" as a number of Kushan clans on a desert planet called Kharak. They detected a large metal formation in the Great Desert after a deep-space scanning satellite encountered an error in its propulsion system, which turned it around and scanned the planet's "Great Desert". It was revealed to be an ancient space ship, turned into a city, known as the "Khar-Toba". Inside was a stone with a galactic map and the text, "Hiigara", which, despite other linguistic drifts, still meant "Home" in every dialect on Kharak.  The discovery of the stone served as a powerful enough symbol to end all wars and unite the entire global population into an effort to travel into space to discover their origins. The technology discovered allowed the Kushan to build a massive Mothership which took 60 years, according to the opening cutscene. However, no computer was powerful enough to command the Mothership, as there would be too much data to be processed at any one time. A young scientist named Karan S'jet volunteered to become the living core of the Mothership after creating the technology to neurologically link her brain to the Mothership's systems (this action, however, led Karan to become inseparable from the core, but it is revealed at the end of Homeworld 1, she survived being disconnected from the vessel). Within the Khar-Toba was one of the three known Hyperspace Cores, which allowed the Mothership to perform its hyperspace jumps.

text: The Hiigarans are the playable race in the single player game. Their story began in the original "

text: Homeworld

text: In March 2016, a collection of Lederer's poetry and very short stories was published in Berlin. When asked about the title of the new book in an interview on National Public Radio (NPR), Lederer explained that there are two photos of himself on the cover, one as a three year old, another as a fifty-nine year old. "If you had spoken to the three year old me about being fifty-nine he would have thought, 'That's like so many forevers away!' But now looking back the fifty-nine year old, reflecting on being three - that was the day before yesterday. So "In The Widdle Wat Of Time" is meant to take a stab at how puzzling and mysterious this thing called time is. It can seem short or long, depending on perspective."

text: In March 2016, a collection of Lederer's poetry and very short stories was published in Berlin. When asked about the title of the new book in an interview on

text: National Public Radio

text: (NPR), Lederer explained that there are two photos of himself on the cover, one as a three year old, another as a fifty-nine year old. "If you had spoken to the three year old me about being fifty-nine he would have thought, 'That's like so many forevers away!' But now looking back the fifty-nine year old, reflecting on being three - that was the day before yesterday. So "In The Widdle Wat Of Time" is meant to take a stab at how puzzling and mysterious this thing called time is. It can seem short or long, depending on perspective."

text: In 1998 a planet was discovered orbiting 14 Herculis. The planet's eccentric orbital period is 4.8 years. In 2005, a possible second planet was proposed, designated 14 Herculis c. The parameters of this planet are uncertain, but a recent analysis suggests it may lie in the 4:1 resonance with the inner planet, with an orbital period of almost 19 years at an orbital distance of 6.9 AU.

text: In 1998 a planet was discovered orbiting 14 Herculis. The planet's eccentric orbital period is 4.8 years. In 2005, a possible second planet was proposed, designated

text: 14 Herculis c

text: . The parameters of this planet are uncertain, but a recent analysis suggests it may lie in the 4:1

text: resonance

text: with the inner planet, with an orbital period of almost 19 years at an orbital distance of 6.9 AU.

text: HD 205739's designation is from the Henry Draper catalogue. The star was also observed by Hipparcos, which released its catalogue in 1997. The observations that led to the discovery of the planet HD 205739 b started when the N2K Consortium started an extended search for planets around 300 stars not usually targeted by Doppler spectroscopy surveys. In the case of HD 205739, the star was observed using the Magellan Telescopes at Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. HD 205739 was selected primarily because it was a metal-rich star; the N2K collaboration biased their search towards metal-rich stars with closely orbiting Jupiter-size planets, hoping to find a connection between a star's metallicity and its planets' masses.

text: HD 205739's designation is from the

text: Henry Draper catalogue

text: . The star was also observed by

text: Hipparcos

text: , which released its catalogue in 1997. The observations that led to the discovery of the planet HD 205739 b started when the

text: N2K Consortium

text: started an extended search for planets around 300 stars not usually targeted by

text: Doppler spectroscopy

text: surveys. In the case of HD 205739, the star was observed using the

text: Magellan Telescopes

text: at

text: Las Campanas Observatory

text: in Chile. HD 205739 was selected primarily because it was a metal-rich star; the N2K collaboration biased their search towards metal-rich stars with closely orbiting Jupiter-size planets, hoping to find a connection between a star's

text: metallicity

text: and its planets' masses.

text: Some studies indicate that there is a natural limit, set at 1.6R, below which nearly all planets are terrestrial, composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures. Generally, objects with a mass below 6 M are very likely to be of similar composition as Earth. Above this limit, the density of the planets decreases with increasing size, the planet will become a "water world" and finally a gas giant. In addition, most super-Earths' high mass may cause them to lack plate tectonics.  Thus, it is expected that any exoplanet similar to Earth's density and with a radius under 1.6 R may be suitable for life. However, other studies indicate that water worlds represent a transitional stage between mini-Neptunes and the terrestrial planets, especially if they belong to red dwarfs or K dwarfs. Although water planets may be habitable, the average depth of the water and the absence of land area would not make them superhabitable as defied by Heller and Armstrong. From a geological perspective, the optimal mass of a planet is about 2 M, so it must have a radius that keeps the density of the Earth among 1.2 and 1.3R.

text: Some studies indicate that there is a natural limit, set at 1.6R, below which nearly all planets are

text: terrestrial

text: , composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures. Generally, objects with a mass below 6

text: M

text: are very likely to be of similar composition as Earth. Above this limit, the density of the planets decreases with increasing size, the planet will become a

text: "water world"

text: and finally a

text: gas giant

text: . In addition, most

text: super-Earth

text: s' high mass may cause them to lack

text: plate tectonics

text: .  Thus, it is expected that any exoplanet similar to Earth's density and with a radius under 1.6 R may be suitable for life. However, other studies indicate that water worlds represent a transitional stage between

text: mini-Neptune

text: s and the terrestrial planets, especially if they belong to

text: red dwarf

text: s or

text: K dwarfs

text: . Although water planets may be habitable, the average depth of the water and the absence of land area would not make them superhabitable as defied by Heller and Armstrong. From a geological perspective, the optimal mass of a planet is about 2 M, so it must have a

text: radius

text: that keeps the density of the

text: Earth

text: among 1.2 and 1.3R.

text: The attraction is the surrounding scenery. Gwanfogbe, et al., describe it as "remarkable", Lonely Planet as "striking", Rough Guides as "breathtaking" and Bradt Guides as an "almost lunar landscape". Writer and explorer André Gide wrote that Rhumsiki's surroundings are "one of the most beautiful landscapes in the world." The spectacular effect is created by surrounding volcanic plugs (the remnants of long-dormant volcanoes), basalt outcroppings, and the Mandara Mountains. The largest (and most photographed) of these rocks is Kapsiki Peak, a plug standing 1,224 m (4,016 ft) tall.

text: The attraction is the surrounding scenery. Gwanfogbe, et al., describe it as "remarkable",

text: Lonely Planet

text: as "striking",

text: Rough Guides

text: as "breathtaking" and

text: Bradt Guides

text: as an "almost lunar landscape". Writer and explorer

text: André Gide

text: wrote that Rhumsiki's surroundings are "one of the most beautiful landscapes in the world." The spectacular effect is created by surrounding

text: volcanic plug

text: s (the remnants of long-dormant volcanoes),

text: basalt

text: outcroppings, and the Mandara Mountains. The largest (and most photographed) of these rocks is Kapsiki Peak, a plug standing 1,224 m (4,016 ft) tall.

text: The smaller planets retain only silicates, and are terrestrial planets like Earth or Mars, though multiple-M super-Earths have been discovered. The interior structure of rocky planets is mass-dependent: for example, plate tectonics may require a minimum mass to generate sufficient temperatures and pressures for it to occur.

text: The smaller planets retain only

text: silicates

text: , and are

text: terrestrial planet

text: s like Earth or

text: Mars

text: , though multiple-M

text: super-Earths

text: have been discovered. The interior structure of rocky planets is mass-dependent: for example,

text: plate tectonics

text: may require a minimum mass to generate sufficient temperatures and pressures for it to occur.

text: Iron and nickel are notable for being the final elements produced by stellar nucleosynthesis, and the heaviest elements formed with a supernova or similarly cataclysmic event. Iron and nickel are the most abundant metals in metallic meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth.

text: Iron

text: and

text: nickel

text: are notable for being the final elements produced by

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: , and the heaviest elements formed with a

text: supernova

text: or similarly cataclysmic event. Iron and nickel are the most abundant metals in metallic

text: meteorite

text: s and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth.

text: The migrations of the giant planets have many impact throughout the Solar System. The planetesimals scattered inward by Neptune enter planet-crossing orbits, initiating the Late Heavy Bombardment. Some of these planetesimals are jump-captured as Jupiter trojans during encounters between Jupiter and the ejected ice giant as Jupiter's semi-major axis changes.Others are captured as irregular satellites of the giant planets via three-body interactions during encounters between the ejected ice giant and the other planets. These encounters can also disturb the orbits of the regular satellites and may be responsible for the inclination of Iapetus's orbit. Saturn's rotational axis is tilted when it slowly crosses a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune. While Neptune migrates outward several AU, the hot classical Kuiper disk is formed as some planetesimals scattered outward by Neptune are captured in resonances, undergo an exchange of eccentricity vs inclination via the Kozai mechanism, and are released onto higher perihelion, stable orbits. Planetesimals captured in Neptune's 2:1 resonance during this early migration are released when an encounter with the ice giant causes its semi-major axis to jump outward, leaving behind a group of low-inclination, low-eccentricity objects with semi-major axes near 44 AU.  As Neptune slowly approaches its current orbit objects are left in fossilized high-perihelion orbits in the scattered disk. In the inner Solar System, the rapid separation of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn reduces the excitation of the eccentricities of the inner planets due to resonance sweeping. Modest changes in the asteroids orbits also occur, shifting the distribution of eccentricities from that of the Grand Tack model toward the current distribution. Asteroid collisional families can be dispersed as the ice giant crosses the asteroid belt, and planetesimals from the outer belt are embedded in the asteroid belt as P-  and D-type asteroids. When the planets reach their present position the innermost part of the asteroid belt is disrupted leading to an extended Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner planets by rocky objects.

text: The migrations of the giant planets have many impact throughout the Solar System. The planetesimals scattered inward by Neptune enter planet-crossing orbits, initiating the Late Heavy Bombardment. Some of these planetesimals are

text: jump-captured

text: as Jupiter trojans during encounters between Jupiter and the ejected ice giant as Jupiter's semi-major axis changes.Others are captured as irregular satellites of the giant planets via

text: three-body interactions

text: during encounters between the ejected ice giant and the other planets. These encounters can also

text: disturb

text: the orbits of the regular satellites and may be responsible for the inclination of Iapetus's orbit. Saturn's rotational axis is

text: tilted

text: when it slowly crosses a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune. While Neptune migrates outward several AU, the hot classical Kuiper disk is

text: formed

text: as some planetesimals scattered outward by Neptune are captured in resonances, undergo an exchange of eccentricity vs inclination via the Kozai mechanism, and are released onto higher perihelion, stable orbits. Planetesimals captured in Neptune's 2:1 resonance during this early migration are released when an encounter with the ice giant causes its semi-major axis to jump outward,

text: leaving behind

text: a group of low-inclination, low-eccentricity objects with semi-major axes near 44 AU.  As Neptune slowly

text: approaches

text: its current orbit objects are left in fossilized high-perihelion orbits in the scattered disk. In the inner Solar System, the rapid separation of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn

text: reduces

text: the excitation of the eccentricities of the inner planets due to resonance sweeping. Modest

text: changes

text: in the asteroids orbits also occur, shifting the distribution of eccentricities from that of the Grand Tack model toward the current distribution. Asteroid collisional families can be dispersed as the ice giant crosses the asteroid belt, and planetesimals from the outer belt are

text: embedded

text: in the asteroid belt as

text: P-

text: and

text: D-type asteroid

text: s. When the planets reach their present position the innermost part of the asteroid belt is

text: disrupted

text: leading to an extended Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner planets by rocky objects.

text: Galcon is a real-time strategy game where players try to eliminate the enemy by sending ships to take over their planets. Every ship that is sent will destroy one ship docked on the enemy planet; once the planet is reduced to 0 ships, a ship can conquer it. The planet will then begin to produce ships for the new owner. The goal is to capture all the planets on that particular map.  While no longer available on InstantAction, it's available for purchase at Galcon.com

text: Galcon

text: is a

text: real-time strategy

text: game where players try to eliminate the enemy by sending ships to take over their planets. Every ship that is sent will destroy one ship docked on the enemy planet; once the planet is reduced to 0 ships, a ship can conquer it. The planet will then begin to produce ships for the new owner. The goal is to capture all the planets on that particular map.  While no longer available on InstantAction, it's available for purchase at Galcon.com

text: Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur. Subduction is the driving force behind plate tectonics, and without it, plate tectonics could not occur.

text: Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur. Subduction is the driving force behind

text: plate tectonics

text: , and without it, plate tectonics could not occur.

text: Taoudenni is a remote site in the hottest region on the planet, located over a hundred miles from the nearest inhabited location of any size. The region is located in the middle of the Sahara Desert, in the southern part of the Tanezrouft (one of the harshest areas on the planet known for extreme heat and aridity) and features an extreme version of the hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). The region features a torrid, hyper-arid climate with unbroken sunshine all year-long. Averages high temperatures exceed 40° (104°) from April to September and reach an extreme peak of 48° (118.2°) in July, the highest value for such an elevation above sea level. Winters are also very warm compared to the world average. High temperatures average close to 27° (80.6°) in the coolest month. The mean annual daily temperature is around 29° (84.2°), among the highest in the world. The annual average rainfall is between 10 mm (0.39 in) and 20 mm (0.78 in) which mainly falls from July to October. On average, Taoudenni sees 3,700 hours of bright sunshine annually, with 84% of daytime hours being sunny. The site is also located in one of the driest regions on the globe.

text: Taoudenni is a remote site in the hottest region on the planet, located over a hundred miles from the nearest inhabited location of any size. The region is located in the middle of the

text: Sahara Desert

text: , in the southern part of the

text: Tanezrouft

text: (one of the harshest areas on the planet known for extreme heat and aridity) and features an extreme version of the

text: hot desert climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: BWh). The region features a torrid, hyper-arid climate with unbroken sunshine all year-long. Averages high temperatures exceed 40° (104°) from April to September and reach an extreme peak of 48° (118.2°) in July, the highest value for such an elevation above sea level. Winters are also very warm compared to the world average. High temperatures average close to 27° (80.6°) in the coolest month. The mean annual daily temperature is around 29° (84.2°), among the highest in the world. The annual average rainfall is between 10 mm (0.39 in) and 20 mm (0.78 in) which mainly falls from July to October. On average, Taoudenni sees 3,700 hours of

text: bright sunshine

text: annually, with 84% of daytime hours being sunny. The site is also located in one of the driest regions on the globe.

text: John Parnell has suggested that such a process could provide part of the "crucible of life" in the early stages of any early wet rocky planet, so long as the planet is large enough to have generated a system of plate tectonics which brings radioactive minerals to the surface. As the early Earth is thought to have had many smaller plates, it might have provided a suitable environment for such processes.

text: Announced in June 2008, two extrasolar planets were discovered to be orbiting the star.  Both planets are less massive than Jupiter. The inner planet HD 47186 b orbits close to the star and is termed a “hot Neptune”. The outer planet HD 47186 c orbits in a similar distance from the star as the asteroid Vesta, at around 2.4 AU. The inner planet orbits in a circular path while the outer planet orbits in an eccentric path.

text: Announced in June 2008, two

text: extrasolar planet

text: Jupiter

text: . The inner planet

text: HD 47186 b

text: orbits close to the star and is termed a “

text: hot Neptune

text: ”. The

text: outer planet

text: HD 47186 c

text: orbits in a similar distance from the star as the

text: asteroid

text: Vesta

text: , at around 2.4 AU. The inner planet orbits in a circular path while the outer planet orbits in an eccentric path.

text: One day to an 11-year-old would be approximately 1/4,000 of their life, while one day to a 55-year-old would be approximately 1/20,000 of their life. This helps to explain why a random, ordinary day may therefore appear longer for a young child than an adult. The short-term time appears to go faster by square root of their age. So a year experienced by a 55-year-old would pass approximately 2¼ times more quickly than a year experienced by an 11-year-old. If long-term time perception is based solely on the proportionality of a person's age, then the following four periods in life would appear to be quantitatively equal: age 5 to 10 (1x), age 10 to 20 (2x), age 20 to 40 (4x), age 40 to 80 (8x).

text: One day to an 11-year-old would be approximately 1/4,000 of their life, while one day to a 55-year-old would be approximately 1/20,000 of their life. This helps to explain why a random, ordinary day may therefore appear longer for a young child than an adult. The short-term time appears to go faster by square root of their age. So a year experienced by a 55-year-old would pass approximately 2¼ times more quickly than a year experienced by an 11-year-old. If long-term time perception is based solely on the

text: proportionality

text: of a person's age, then the following four periods in life would appear to be quantitatively equal: age 5 to 10 (1x), age 10 to 20 (2x), age 20 to 40 (4x), age 40 to 80 (8x).

text: Ole Christensen Rømer used an astronomical measurement to make the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light. When measured from Earth, the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it. The distance travelled by light from the planet (or its moon) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit, the difference in distance being the diameter of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The observed change in the moon's orbital period is caused by the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance. Rømer observed this effect for Jupiter's innermost moon Io and deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth's orbit.

text: Ole Christensen Rømer

text: used an astronomical measurement to make

entity_name: Rømer's determination of the speed of light

text: the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light

text: . When measured from Earth, the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it. The distance travelled by light from the planet (or its moon) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit, the difference in distance being the

text: diameter

text: of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The observed change in the moon's orbital period is caused by the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance. Rømer observed this effect for

text: Jupiter

text: 's innermost moon

text: Io

text: and deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth's orbit.

text: The signal produced by the planet is very weak and the eccentricity was originally supposed to be very circular which led to speculations of a very Jupiter-like planet, with a system of several large moons like Jupiter itself. Fortunately, the inner system should be stable for Earth-like planets despite a known, smaller inner Neptune-like planet which is known to orbit the star at distance of 0.12 AU every 17 Earth days.

text: The signal produced by the planet is very weak and the eccentricity was originally supposed to be very circular which led to speculations of a very Jupiter-like planet, with a system of several large moons like Jupiter itself. Fortunately, the inner system should be stable for

text: Earth

text: -like planets despite a known, smaller inner

text: Neptune

text: -like planet which is known to orbit the star at distance of 0.12 AU every 17 Earth days.

text: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA; pronounced , like "Noah") is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its civilian employees, 12,000 as of 2012, NOAA research and operations are supported by 500 uniformed service members who make up the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps. The current Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere at the Department of Commerce and the agency's administrator is Kathryn D. Sullivan, who was nominated February 28, 2013, and confirmed March 6, 2014.

text: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA; pronounced , like "

text: Noah

text: ") is an American scientific agency within the

text: United States Department of Commerce

text: focused on the conditions of the

text: oceans

text: and the

text: atmosphere

text: . NOAA warns of dangerous

text: weather

text: , charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the

text: environment

text: . In addition to its civilian employees, 12,000 as of 2012, NOAA research and operations are supported by 500

text: uniformed service

text: members who make up the

text: NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps

text: . The current

entity_name: Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

text: Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

text: at the Department of Commerce and the agency's administrator is

text: Kathryn D. Sullivan

text: , who was nominated February 28, 2013, and confirmed March 6, 2014.

text: is the temperature of the planet.  This temperature, calculated for the case of the planet acting as a black body by setting

text: In the earliest solar system history, the Sun, the planetesimals and the jovian planets were formed. The inner solar system aggregated more slowly than the outer, so the terrestrial planets were not yet formed, including Earth and Moon.

text: In the earliest solar system history, the Sun, the

text: planetesimal

text: s and the

text: jovian planets

text: were formed. The inner solar system aggregated more slowly than the outer, so the terrestrial planets were not yet formed, including

text: Earth

text: and

text: Moon

text: On average, the light that Gliese 581 d receives from its star has about 30% of the intensity of light the Earth receives from the Sun. By comparison, sunlight on Mars has about 40% of the intensity of that on Earth. That might seem to suggest that Gliese 581 d is too cold to support liquid water and hence is inhospitable to life. However, an atmospheric greenhouse effect can significantly raise planetary temperatures. For example, Earth's own mean temperature would be about −18 °C without any greenhouse gases, ranging from around 100 °C on the day side to −150 °C at night, much like that found on the Moon. If the atmosphere of Gliese 581 d produces a sufficiently large greenhouse effect, and the planet's geophysics stabilize the CO levels (as Earth's does via plate tectonics), then the surface temperature might permit a liquid water cycle, conceivably allowing the planet to support life. Calculations by Barnes et al. suggest, however, that tidal heating is too low to keep plate tectonics active on the planet, unless radiogenic heating is somewhat higher than expected.

text: On average, the light that Gliese 581 d receives from its star has about 30% of the intensity of light the Earth receives from the Sun. By comparison, sunlight on Mars has about 40% of the intensity of that on Earth. That might seem to suggest that Gliese 581 d is too cold to support liquid water and hence is inhospitable to life. However, an atmospheric greenhouse effect can significantly raise planetary temperatures. For example, Earth's own mean temperature would be about −18 °C without any greenhouse gases, ranging from around 100 °C on the day side to −150 °C at night, much like that found on the

text: Moon

text: . If the atmosphere of Gliese 581 d produces a sufficiently large

text: greenhouse effect

text: , and the planet's geophysics stabilize the CO levels (as Earth's does via plate tectonics), then the surface

text: temperature

text: might permit a liquid water cycle, conceivably allowing the planet to support life. Calculations by Barnes et al. suggest, however, that

text: tidal heating

text: is too low to keep

text: plate tectonics

text: active on the planet, unless radiogenic heating is somewhat higher than expected.

text: Although traditional usage implies moons orbit a planet, the discovery of planet-sized satellites around brown dwarfs blurs the distinction between planets and moons, due to the low mass of such failed stars. To resolve this confusion, the International Astronomical Union declared, "Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium, that orbit stars or stellar remnants, are planets."

text: Although traditional usage implies

text: moons

text: orbit a

text: planet

text: , the discovery of planet-sized satellites around

text: brown dwarf

text: s blurs the distinction between planets and moons, due to the low mass of such failed

text: star

text: s. To resolve this confusion, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: declared, "Objects with

text: true mass

text: es below the limiting mass for

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of

text: deuterium

text: , that orbit stars or stellar remnants, are planets."

text: His life's work was the study of the Moon's motion (lunar theory) and the compilation of extremely accurate lunar tables.  He also studied the motion of the planets and calculated the orbits of Trojan asteroids.

text: His life's work was the study of the

text: Moon

text: 's motion (

text: lunar theory

text: ) and the compilation of extremely accurate lunar tables.  He also studied the motion of the

text: planet

text: s and calculated the orbits of

text: Trojan asteroid

text: s.

text: A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone due to the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily basalt. Mauna Loa is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of angle of repose.) The composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°), due to the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Besides the examples already mentioned are Mount Shasta, Mount Hood and Mount Rainier.

text: A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone due to the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily

text: basalt

text: . Mauna Loa is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of

text: angle of repose

text: .) The composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°), due to the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Besides the examples already mentioned are

text: Mount Shasta

text: Mount Hood

text: and

text: Mount Rainier

text: Newcomb developed similar formulas and tables for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Uranus and Neptune; those of the inner planets have proved to be the most accurate.

text: Newcomb developed similar formulas and tables for the planets

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: ; those of the inner planets have proved to be the most accurate.

text: This planet's albedo has not been measured directly. The initial estimate of 0.3 had come from averaging Sudarsky's theoretical classes IV and V. The planet's extremely high temperature has forced astronomers to abandon that estimate; now, they predict that the planet must absorb essentially all of the starlight that falls on it — that is, effectively zero albedo like HD 209458 b. Much of the absorption takes place at the top of its atmosphere.

text: This planet's albedo has not been measured directly. The initial estimate of 0.3 had come from averaging Sudarsky's theoretical classes IV and V. The planet's extremely high temperature has forced astronomers to abandon that estimate; now, they predict that the planet must absorb essentially all of the starlight that falls on it — that is, effectively zero albedo like

text: HD 209458 b

text: . Much of the absorption takes place at the top of its atmosphere.

text: HD 209458 b is an extrasolar planet that orbits the Sun-like star HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus.  Spectroscopic studies first revealed the presence of a planet around HD 209458 on November 5, 1999. The planet is now under even more public scrutiny with the announcement that its atmosphere contains water vapor.  Astronomers had made careful photometric measurements of several stars known to be orbited by planets, in the hope that they might observe a dip in brightness caused by the transit of the planet across the star's face.  This would require the planet's orbit to be inclined such that it would pass between the Earth and the star, and previously no transits had been detected.

text: HD 209458 b

text: is an extrasolar planet that orbits the Sun-like star HD 209458 in the constellation Pegasus.

text: Spectroscopic

text: studies first revealed the presence of a planet around HD 209458 on November 5, 1999. The planet is now under even more public scrutiny with the announcement that its atmosphere contains water vapor.  Astronomers had made careful

text: photometric

text: measurements of several stars known to be orbited by planets, in the hope that they might observe a dip in brightness caused by the

text: transit

text: of the planet across the star's face.  This would require the planet's orbit to be inclined such that it would pass between the Earth and the star, and previously no transits had been detected.

text: Pavonis Mons (Latin for "peacock mountain") is a large shield volcano located in the Tharsis region of the planet Mars. It is the middle member of a chain of three volcanic mountains (collectively known as the Tharsis Montes) that straddle the Martian equator between longitudes 235°E and 259°E. The volcano was discovered by the Mariner 9 spacecraft in 1971 and was originally called Middle Spot. Its name formally became Pavonis Mons in 1973.

text: Pavonis Mons (

text: Latin

text: for "

text: peacock

text: mountain") is a large

text: shield volcano

text: located in the

text: Tharsis

text: region of the planet

text: Mars

text: . It is the middle member of a chain of three volcanic mountains (collectively known as the

text: Tharsis Montes

text: ) that straddle the Martian equator between longitudes 235°E and 259°E. The volcano was discovered by the

text: Mariner 9

text: spacecraft in 1971 and was originally called Middle Spot. Its name formally became Pavonis Mons in 1973.

text: Kepler-11c's host star, Kepler-11, is a G-type star 2,000 light-years away in the Cygnus constellation. With a mass of .95 M, a radius of 1.1 R, a metallicity of [Fe/H] = 0, and an effective temperature of 5680 (± 100) K, Kepler-11 is almost identical to the Sun in terms of radius, mass, and temperature. However, Kepler-11 is much older than the Sun, with an estimated age of 8 (± 2) billion years (the Sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old). Along with Kepler-11c, Kepler-11 is host to the planets Kepler-11b, Kepler-11d, Kepler-11e, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g. The inner five planets' orbits would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury, while Kepler-11g orbits Kepler-11 at a much further distance in comparison to the inner components.

text: Kepler-11c's host star, Kepler-11, is a

text: G-type star

text: 2,000 light-years away in the

text: Cygnus

text: constellation. With a mass of .95

text: M

text: , a radius of 1.1

text: R

text: , a

text: metallicity

text: of [Fe/H] = 0, and an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5680 (± 100)

text: K

text: , Kepler-11 is almost identical to the Sun in terms of radius, mass, and temperature. However, Kepler-11 is much older than the Sun, with an estimated age of 8 (± 2) billion years (the Sun is approximately 4.6 billion years old). Along with Kepler-11c, Kepler-11 is host to the planets

text: , and

text: . The inner five planets' orbits would fit within the orbit of planet

text: Mercury

text: , while Kepler-11g orbits Kepler-11 at a much further distance in comparison to the inner components.

text: The terrestrial planets may be much smaller than the giant planets due to the sublimation of water ice as pebbles crossed the ice line. The radial drift of pebbles causes them to cross the ice line where water ice sublimates releasing silicate grains. The silicate grains are less sticky than icy grains resulting in bouncing, or fragmentation during collisions and the formation of smaller pebbles. These smaller pebbles are dispersed into a thicker disk by the turbulence in the gas disk. The mass flow of solids drifting through the terrestrial region is also reduced by half by the loss of water ice. In combination these two factors significantly reduce the rate at which mass is accreted by planetesimals in the inner Solar System relative to the outer Solar System. As a result, lunar mass planetary embryos in the inner Solar System are able to grow only to around Mars-mass, whereas in the outer Solar System they are able to grow to more than 10x Earth-mass forming the cores of giant planets. Beginning instead with planetesimals formed via streaming instabilities yields similar results in the inner Solar System. In the asteroid belt the largest planetesimals grow into Mars-massed embryos. These embryos stir the smaller planetesimals, increasing their inclinations, causing them to leave the pebble disk. The growth of these smaller planetesimals is stalled at this point, freezing their size distribution near that of the current asteroid belt. The variation of accretion efficiency with pebble size during this process results in the size sorting of the chondrules observed in the primitive meteorites. In the terrestrial zone pebble accretion plays a smaller role. Here growth is due to a mix of pebble and planetesimal accretion until an oligarchical configuration of isolate lunar-massed embryos forms. Continued growth due to the accretion of inward drifting chondrules increases the mass of these embryos until their orbits are destabilized, leading to giant impacts between the embryos and the formation of Mars-sized embryos. The cutoff of the inward drift of icy pebbles by the formation of Jupiter before the ice line moved into the terrestrial region would limit the water fraction of the planets formed from these embryos.

text: The terrestrial planets may be much smaller than the giant planets due to the sublimation of water ice as pebbles crossed the ice line. The radial drift of pebbles causes them to cross the ice line where water ice

text: sublimates

text: releasing

text: silicate

text: grains. The silicate grains are less sticky than icy grains resulting in bouncing, or fragmentation during collisions and the formation of smaller pebbles. These smaller pebbles are dispersed into a thicker disk by the turbulence in the gas disk. The mass flow of solids drifting through the

text: terrestrial region

text: is also reduced by half by the loss of water ice. In combination these two factors significantly reduce the rate at which mass is accreted by planetesimals in the inner Solar System relative to the outer Solar System. As a result, lunar mass planetary embryos in the inner Solar System are able to grow only to around Mars-mass, whereas in the outer Solar System they are able to grow to more than 10x Earth-mass forming the cores of giant planets. Beginning instead with planetesimals formed via

text: streaming instabilities

text: yields similar results in the inner Solar System. In the asteroid belt the largest planetesimals grow into Mars-massed embryos. These embryos stir the smaller planetesimals, increasing their inclinations, causing them to leave the pebble disk. The growth of these smaller planetesimals is stalled at this point, freezing their size distribution near that of the current asteroid belt. The variation of accretion efficiency with pebble size during this process results in the size sorting of the chondrules observed in the primitive meteorites. In the terrestrial zone pebble accretion plays a smaller role. Here growth is due to a mix of pebble and planetesimal accretion until an oligarchical configuration of isolate lunar-massed embryos forms. Continued growth due to the accretion of inward drifting chondrules increases the mass of these embryos until their orbits are destabilized, leading to giant impacts between the embryos and the formation of Mars-sized embryos. The cutoff of the inward drift of icy pebbles by the formation of Jupiter before the ice line moved into the terrestrial region would limit the water fraction of the planets formed from these embryos.

text: They performed at the Big Day Out series of concerts in January 1996 – for the Melbourne show they were joined on stage by Cave. Later in 1996 they toured the US again; one of the shows was at Maxwell's, New Jersey. In September that year they issued their next album, Horse Stories, which was voted by Rolling Stone magazine as one of the top three albums of the year. In March 1998 the band issued Ocean Songs, which Billboards Chris Morris felt was "an unexpected new direction" where "the sound is still brazenly live, the atmosphere is generally rapturous and lyrical, instead of explosive and febrile". The album peaked in the top 50 on the ARIA Albums Chart. In October 2010 Ocean Songs was listed in the book 100 Best Australian Albums. It was described as displaying "an Australian sound that had never been heard before, one that was aware of our vast landscape but was reared in the urban landscapes of our various inner-city underground scenes". In May 1998 they started a two month US tour. The group provided five new tracks for the soundtrack of John Curran's debut feature film Praise (1998).

text: They performed at the

text: Big Day Out

text: series of concerts in

text: January 1996

text: – for the Melbourne show they were joined on stage by Cave. Later in 1996 they toured the US again; one of the shows was at

text: Maxwell's

text: New Jersey

text: . In September that year they issued their next album,

text: Horse Stories

text: , which was voted by

text: Rolling Stone

text: magazine as one of the top three albums of the year. In March 1998 the band issued

text: Ocean Songs

text: , which

text: Billboard

text: s

text: Chris Morris

text: felt was "an unexpected new direction" where "the sound is still brazenly live, the atmosphere is generally rapturous and lyrical, instead of explosive and febrile". The album peaked in the top 50 on the

text: ARIA Albums Chart

text: . In October 2010 Ocean Songs was listed in the book

text: 100 Best Australian Albums

text: . It was described as displaying "an Australian sound that had never been heard before, one that was aware of our vast landscape but was reared in the urban landscapes of our various inner-city underground scenes". In May 1998 they started a two month US tour. The group provided five new tracks for the soundtrack of

text: John Curran

text: 's debut feature film Praise (1998).

text: On the other hand, temperatures during late spring and summer can have bouts of extreme heat, with evenings above  for many consecutive days. In recent decades the hottest records have climbed as high as  on July 13, 2005 and  on May 4, 1984. However nighttime low temperatures are typically 15 degrees cooler than daytime highs, due to the very arid conditions. Even in July, the warmest month, temperatures have gotten as low as  in 1975. The median temperature July is . A typical summer day has a low around  and a high near .

text: For animals, the most stressful of all the abiotic stressors is heat.  This is because many species are unable to regulate their internal body temperature.  Even in the species that are able to regulate their own temperature, it is not always a completely accurate system.  Temperature determines metabolic rates, heart rates, and other very important factors within the bodies of animals, so an extreme temperature change can easily distress the animal’s body.  Animals can respond to extreme heat, for example, through natural heat acclimation or by burrowing into the ground to find a cooler space.

text: For animals, the most stressful of all the abiotic stressors is

text: heat

text: .  This is because many species are unable to regulate their internal

text: body temperature

text: .  Even in the species that are able to regulate their own

text: temperature

text: , it is not always a completely accurate system.  Temperature determines

text: metabolic rate

text: s,

text: heart rate

text: s, and other very important factors within the bodies of animals, so an extreme temperature change can easily distress the animal’s body.  Animals can respond to extreme heat, for example, through natural heat acclimation or by burrowing into the ground to find a cooler space.

text: f*INK was recommended by two travel books/guides: Lonely Planet and Rough Guides. In the 2002 edition Lonely Planet New Zealand writes, "Entertainment: The Otago Daily Times newspaper lists what's on around the city, but the best publication is the free f*INK, available around town or online at www.fink.net.nz."  The Rough Guide to New Zealand of 2002 states, "For the latest on the Dunedin Sound, check out f*INK the free entertainment pamphlet available all around town, including the visitor centre (or see www.fink.net.nz), which keeps track of Dunedin's bands, singers and songwriters."

text: f*INK was recommended by two travel books/guides:

text: Lonely Planet

text: and

text: Rough Guides

text: . In the 2002 edition

text: Lonely Planet

text: New Zealand writes, "Entertainment: The

text: Otago Daily Times

text: newspaper lists what's on around the city, but the best publication is the free f*INK, available around town or online at www.fink.net.nz."  The Rough Guide to New Zealand of 2002 states, "For the latest on the Dunedin Sound, check out f*INK the free entertainment pamphlet available all around town, including the visitor centre (or see www.fink.net.nz), which keeps track of Dunedin's bands, singers and songwriters."

text: After the mixture is dissolved, iridium is separated from the other platinum group metals by precipitating ammonium hexachloroiridate () or by extracting  with organic amines. The first method is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollaston used for their separation. The second method can be planned as continuous liquid–liquid extraction and is therefore more suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques.

text: After the mixture is dissolved, iridium is separated from the other platinum group metals by precipitating

text: ammonium hexachloroiridate

text: () or by extracting  with organic amines. The first method is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollaston used for their separation. The second method can be planned as continuous

text: liquid–liquid extraction

text: and is therefore more suitable for industrial scale production. In either case, the product is reduced using hydrogen, yielding the metal as a powder or

text: sponge

text: that can be treated using

text: powder metallurgy

text: techniques.

text: Mars's atmosphere is thought to have changed over the course of the planet's lifetime, with evidence suggesting the possibility that Mars had large oceans a few billion years ago. As stated in the Mars ocean hypothesis, atmospheric pressure on the present-day Martian surface only exceeds that of the triple point of water () in the lowest elevations; at higher elevations water can exist only in solid or vapor form. Annual mean temperatures at the surface are currently < , significantly lower than that needed to sustain liquid water. However, early in its history Mars may have had conditions more conducive to retaining liquid water at the surface. In 2013, scientists published that Mars once had "oxygen-rich" atmosphere billions of years ago.

text: Mars's atmosphere is thought to have changed over the course of the planet's lifetime, with evidence suggesting the possibility that Mars had large oceans a few billion years ago. As stated in the

text: Mars ocean hypothesis

text: , atmospheric pressure on the present-day Martian surface only exceeds that of the

text: triple point

text: of water () in the lowest elevations; at higher elevations water can exist only in solid or vapor form. Annual mean temperatures at the surface are currently < , significantly lower than that needed to sustain liquid water. However, early in its history Mars may have had conditions more conducive to retaining liquid water at the surface. In 2013, scientists published that Mars once had "oxygen-rich" atmosphere billions of years ago.

text: The pilot film depicted human civilization as fairly insular, with an invisible defense shield that surrounded the entire planet, protecting it from invaders. Civilization was restricted to a few cities; the main city seen in the pilot and weekly series was New Chicago, which was also known as the Inner City. Travel beyond the Inner City was hazardous, as much of the planet was said to be a radioactive wasteland inhabited by violent mutants (as Buck discovered when he visited the derelict remains of old Chicago).

text: Surface representations can be expressed as the result of rules acting on the features of the underlying representation. These rules are formulated in terms of transformations on features.

text: Surface representations can be expressed as the result of rules acting on the features of the

text: underlying representation

text: . These rules are formulated in terms of transformations on features.

text: HD 147018 b is a gas giant extrasolar planet which orbits the G-type main sequence star HD 147018, located approximately 140 light years away in the constellation Triangulum Australe. This planet has minimum mass more than twice that of Jupiter but this planet orbits a lot closer to the star than Jupiter to the Sun by a factor of 22. Meanwhile, it has an eccentric orbit. The planet can get as close to the star as 0.13 AU or can get as far as 0.35 AU. Further out, there is another superjovian planet HD 147018 c, which was discovered on the same date as this planet, on August 11, 2009.

text: HD 147018 b is a

text: gas giant

text: extrasolar planet

text: which orbits the

text: G-type

text: main sequence

text: star

text: HD 147018

text: , located approximately 140

text: light year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: Triangulum Australe

text: . This planet has

text: minimum mass

text: more than twice that of

text: Jupiter

text: but this planet orbits a lot closer to the star than

text: Jupiter

text: to the Sun by a factor of 22. Meanwhile, it has an eccentric orbit. The planet can get as close to the star as 0.13 AU or can get as far as 0.35 AU. Further out, there is another superjovian planet

text: HD 147018 c

text: , which was discovered on the same date as this planet, on August 11, 2009.

text: There is a smurf who wants to travel to outer space, so he tries to build a rocketship, but it fails to get off the ground and so he grows moody and depressed. Papa Smurf and the other smurfs make a plan in order to cheer him up; they say him that Handy Smurf repaired the rocket and urge him to board it and become the first "Astrosmurf"; before he boards the ship, they have him toast to the voyage with spiked fruit juice, which promptly puts him to sleep. After that, the smurfs dismantle the ship and take it to a volcano, where they disguise themselves as aliens named "Swoofs", so Astrosmurf believes he has arrived to another planet.

text: There is a smurf who wants to travel to outer space, so he tries to build a rocketship, but it fails to get off the ground and so he grows moody and depressed.

text: Papa Smurf

text: and the other smurfs make a plan in order to cheer him up; they say him that

text: Handy Smurf

text: repaired the rocket and urge him to board it and become the first "Astrosmurf"; before he boards the ship, they have him toast to the voyage with spiked fruit juice, which promptly puts him to sleep. After that, the smurfs dismantle the ship and take it to a volcano, where they disguise themselves as aliens named "Swoofs", so Astrosmurf believes he has arrived to another planet.

text: "Low mass" is partly a relative label: the Earth is low mass when compared to the Solar System's gas giants, but it is the largest, by diameter and mass, and the densest of all terrestrial bodies. It is large enough to retain an atmosphere through gravity alone and large enough that its molten core remains a heat engine, driving the diverse geology of the surface (the decay of radioactive elements within a planet's core is the other significant component of planetary heating). Mars, by contrast, is nearly (or perhaps totally) geologically dead and has lost much of its atmosphere. Thus it would be fair to infer that the lower mass limit for habitability lies somewhere between that of Mars and that of Earth or Venus: 0.3 Earth masses has been offered as a rough dividing line for habitable planets. However, a 2008 study by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics suggests that the dividing line may be higher. Earth may in fact lie on the lower boundary of habitability: if it were any smaller, plate tectonics would be impossible. Venus, which has 85% of Earth's mass, shows no signs of tectonic activity. Conversely, "super-Earths", terrestrial planets with higher masses than Earth, would have higher levels of plate tectonics and thus be firmly placed in the habitable range.

text: "Low mass" is partly a relative label: the Earth is low mass when compared to the Solar System's

text: gas giant

text: s, but it is the largest, by diameter and mass, and the densest of all terrestrial bodies. It is large enough to retain an atmosphere through gravity alone and large enough that its molten core remains a heat engine, driving the diverse geology of the surface (the decay of

text: radioactive

text: elements within a planet's core is the other significant component of planetary heating). Mars, by contrast, is nearly (or perhaps totally) geologically dead and has lost much of its atmosphere. Thus it would be fair to infer that the lower mass limit for habitability lies somewhere between that of Mars and that of Earth or Venus: 0.3 Earth masses has been offered as a rough dividing line for habitable planets. However, a 2008 study by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics suggests that the dividing line may be higher. Earth may in fact lie on the lower boundary of habitability: if it were any smaller, plate tectonics would be impossible. Venus, which has 85% of Earth's mass, shows no signs of tectonic activity. Conversely, "

text: super-Earth

text: s", terrestrial planets with higher masses than Earth, would have higher levels of plate tectonics and thus be firmly placed in the habitable range.

text: The idea of a so-called "Hollow Earth", once popular in fantasy adventure literature, is that the planet Earth has a hollow interior and an inner surface habitable by human beings.  Although the scientific community has made clear that this is pseudoscience, the idea nevertheless is a less popular feature of many fantasy and science fiction stories and of some conspiracy theories.

text: The idea of a so-called "

text: Hollow Earth

text: ", once popular in fantasy adventure literature, is that the planet

text: Earth

text: has a hollow interior and an inner surface habitable by human beings.  Although the scientific community has made clear that this is

text: pseudoscience

text: , the idea nevertheless is a less popular feature of many

text: fantasy

text: and

text: science fiction

text: stories and of some

text: conspiracy theories

text: It is the second part that the heart of Maria Cunitz's simplification is brought forward. Using the geometry and spherical astronomy from part one, Cunitz brings the rotational motions of the planets and moons into light using various mathematical formulas. One of the formulas from the Rudolphine Tables,

text: Some contamination has been detected in ice cores.  The levels of lead on the outside of ice cores is much higher than on the inside. In ice from the Vostok core (Antarctica), the outer portion of the cores have up to 3 and 2 orders of magnitude higher bacterial density and dissolved organic carbon  than the inner portion of the cores, respectively, as a result of drilling and handling.

text: Every thousand years on Tamagotchi Planet, continents collide in an event called the Tamagottssun, causing Dream Town & Tamagotchi Town to fuse as "DreamTamatown". Mametchi, Memetchi, & Kuchipatchi reunited with Lovelitchi, Melodytchi, Moriritchi, Himespetchi, Yumemitchi, Kiraritchi, and numerous other characters that left previously. Miraitchi, Clulutchi, and Candy Paku Paku also return to the past to reunite, but Smartotchi didn't for unknown reasons. A Massive reunion took place as the Tamagotchis learn about the legends of the Tamagottssun in a wonderful world. Towards Tamagottssun's conclusion, though, something tragic happens; The Tamagotchi Planet itself is crying, limiting the supply of water available. If Tamagotchi Planet wasn't cheered up in time, it would be a permanent drought and the Tamagotchi species would become extinct because just like humans, Tamagotchis need water to survive. Luckily, with a lot of work & effort, Tamagotchi Planet cheered up, Dream Town & Tamagotchi Town returned to their normal, non-fused statuses, and everyone was home with their families. That, however, didn't stop Mametchi from creating his most developed invention ever; the DreamTama Rainbow. It's a special flying submarine-like vehicle that permitted transportation all across Tamagotchi Planet, meaning that the bonds the citizens of Dream Town made with the citizens of Tamagotchi Town & vice versa can last forevermore. After flashbacks from several episodes from the past few seasons, Mametchi & all his Tama-Friends thanked the viewers for watching and everyone waved good-bye to the viewers to show that the anime has officially ended.

text: She has written seven books, including  Volcanic Worlds: Exploring the Solar System Volcanoes (Praxis-Springer, 2004), Io After Galileo: A New View of Jupiter's Volcanic Moon (Praxis-Springer, 2007), and Alien Volcanoes (Johns Hopkins Press, 2008). The Volcano Adventure Guide (Cambridge University Press, 2005) describes every volcano on the planet and how to behave around them, information that is essential for anyone wishing to visit or photograph active volcanoes.

text: Joker competes in the tournament and wins. When he goes to receive the scout's mark, Dr. Snap gives him a fake and then corrupts the Incarnus, revealing his motives: he plans to open the gate to the dark world, and is going to use the Incarnus to do so. Having a negative premonition about Dr. Snap's plan and determined to purify the Incarnus somehow, Joker pursues Dr. Snap to Fert Isle. When he obtains the Baryon Sphere from Warden Trump, a disaster strikes Infern Isle, presumably Dr. Snap's doing. Joker arrives at Infern Isle and starts scaling up the volcano. Near the entrance to the inner volcano, Joker must battle the Ace of Spades. After defeating the Ace of Spades, Joker uses the Baryon Sphere, purifying the Incarnus. Joker arrives at the peak of the volcano. There awaits Dr. Snap, who tries to corrupt the Incarnus again, seeing he is back to normal, but Snap runs out, and preoccupies Joker with a buffalogre and a mohawker to defeat, to prevent himself from being stopped.  Joker defeats both monsters, and at that time Snap has collected enough dark matter to corrupt the Incarnus, but clumsily lets all the dark matter fall on him, transforming him into a monster, and attacks Joker, beginning the final battle. After Joker wins the battle the Incarnus seals the portal, takes the mark, transforms into its true form and disappears. Later on, after Joker is advised by Solitaire to go back to Infant Isle, the Incarnus reappears at the Scout's Stone and rejoins Joker.

text: In turn, a molten core may allow plate tectonics, of which Earth shows major features. Mars, as a smaller body than Earth, shows no current tectonic activity, nor mountain ridges from geologically recent activity.  This is assumed to be due to an interior that has cooled faster than the Earth (see geomagnetism below). An edge case may be Venus, which does not appear to have extant tectonics. However, in its history, it likely has had tectonic activity but lost it. It is possible tectonic activity on Venus may still be sufficient to restart after a long era of accumulation.

text: A potentially habitable planet implies a terrestrial planet within the circumstellar habitable zone and with conditions roughly comparable to those of Earth (i.e. an Earth analog) and thus potentially favourable to Earth-like life. However, the question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various geophysical and geodynamical aspects, the radiation, and the host stars plasma environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated.

text: A potentially habitable planet implies a

text: terrestrial planet

text: within the circumstellar habitable zone and with conditions roughly comparable to those of Earth (i.e. an

text: Earth analog

text: ) and thus potentially favourable to Earth-like life. However, the question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various

text: geophysical

text: and

text: geodynamical

text: aspects, the radiation, and the host stars

text: plasma

text: environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated.

text: The discovery of the low-density Earth-mass planet Kepler-138d shows that there is an overlapping range of masses in which both rocky planets and low-density planets occur. Low-mass low-density planets could be ocean planets or super-Earths with a remnant hydrogen atmosphere, or hot planets with a steam atmosphere, or mini-Neptunes with a hydrogen–helium atmosphere.Other possibilities for low-mass low-density planets are large atmospheres of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, or nitrogen.

text: The discovery of the low-density Earth-mass planet

text: d shows that there is an overlapping range of masses in which both rocky planets and low-density planets occur. Low-mass low-density planets could be ocean planets or

text: super-Earth

text: s with a remnant hydrogen atmosphere, or hot planets with a steam atmosphere, or mini-Neptunes with a hydrogen–helium atmosphere.Other possibilities for low-mass low-density planets are large atmospheres of

text: carbon monoxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: , or

text: nitrogen

text: The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976. His model was based on another well-known feature of fluid mechanics, the Taylor–Proudman theorem. It holds that in any fast-rotating barotropic ideal liquid, the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis. The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior. Therefore, the planet's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders, each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others. Those latitudes where the cylinders' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts.

text: The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976. His model was based on another well-known feature of fluid mechanics, the

text: Taylor–Proudman theorem

text: . It holds that in any fast-rotating

text: barotropic

text: ideal liquid, the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis. The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior. Therefore, the planet's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders, each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others. Those latitudes where the cylinders' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts.

text: The naming of astronomical objects and surface features in those objects is handled by two bodies of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). The names of major planets, satellites, and surface features in those bodies, are assigned by the Working Group on Planetary System Nomenclature. Names of comets and minor planets are handled by the Committee on Small Body Nomenclature. These bodies are also responsible for the dissemination of the names. The IAU's website has lists of all these names.

text: The

text: naming of astronomical objects and surface features

text: in those objects is handled by two bodies of the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU). The names of major planets, satellites, and surface features in those bodies, are assigned by the Working Group on Planetary System Nomenclature. Names of comets and minor planets are handled by the Committee on Small Body Nomenclature. These bodies are also responsible for the dissemination of the names. The IAU's website has lists of all these names.

text: The planetary core consists of the innermost layer(s) of a planet; which may be composed of solid and liquid layers. Cores of specific planets may be entirely solid or entirely liquid. In the Solar System, core size can range from about 20% (Moon) to 85% of a planet's radius (Mercury).

text: The planetary core consists of the innermost layer(s) of a

text: planet

text: ; which may be composed of solid and liquid layers. Cores of specific planets may be entirely solid or entirely liquid. In the

text: Solar System

text: , core size can range from about 20% (

text: Moon

text: ) to 85% of a planet's radius (

text: Mercury

text: A planet's domicile is the zodiac sign over which it has rulership, and the rulers of Pisces, or those associated with Pisceans, are Jupiter, Neptune, and the moon. In esoteric astrology, Venus was considered the ruler of Pisces, and prior to the discovery of Neptune in 1846, Jupiter was said to rule Pisces primarily. Neptune is mostly considered the secondary ruling planet of Pisces today because of the association with the Roman god of water and the sea, Neptune. The detriment, or the sign "opposite" to that which is deemed the ruling planet, is Mercury. Venus is exalted in Pisces, while Mercury also falled into Pisces.

text: A planet's

text: domicile

text: is the zodiac sign over which it has rulership, and the rulers of Pisces, or those associated with Pisceans, are

text: Jupiter

text: Neptune

text: , and the moon. In

text: esoteric

text: astrology,

text: Venus

text: was considered the ruler of Pisces, and prior to the discovery of Neptune in 1846, Jupiter was said to rule Pisces primarily. Neptune is mostly considered the secondary ruling planet of Pisces today because of the association with the Roman god of water and the sea,

text: Neptune

text: . The detriment, or the sign "opposite" to that which is deemed the ruling planet, is

text: Mercury

text: . Venus is exalted in Pisces, while Mercury also falled into Pisces.

text: Recent discoveries have uncovered planets that are thought to be similar in size or mass to  Earth. While there is no universal definition of "Earth-sized", ranges are typically defined by mass. The lower range used in many definitions of the super-Earth class is 1.9 Earth masses, likewise, sub-Earths range up to the size of Venus (~0.815 Earth masses). An upper limit of 1.5 Earth radii is also considered, given that above  the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating that these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. Solar analogs and solar twins are stars that resemble the Sun. To date no solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found, however, there are some stars that are nearly identical to the Sun, and are such considered solar twins. An exact solar twin would be a G2V star with a 5,778 K temperature, be 4.6 billion years old, with the correct metallicity and a 0.1% solar luminosity variation. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years are at the most stable state. Proper metallicity and size are also very important to low luminosity variation.

text: Recent discoveries have uncovered planets that are thought to be similar in size or mass to  Earth. While there is no universal definition of "Earth-sized", ranges are typically defined by mass. The lower range used in many definitions of the super-Earth class is 1.9 Earth masses, likewise, sub-Earths range up to the size of Venus (~0.815 Earth masses). An upper limit of 1.5 Earth radii is also considered, given that above  the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating that these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core.

text: Solar analog

text: s and

text: solar twins

text: are stars that resemble the Sun. To date no solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found, however, there are some stars that are nearly identical to the Sun, and are such considered solar twins. An exact solar twin would be a G2V star with a 5,778 K temperature, be 4.6 billion years old, with the correct metallicity and a 0.1%

text: solar luminosity

text: variation. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years are at the most stable state. Proper metallicity and size are also very important to low luminosity variation.

text: Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. Through a process called seafloor spreading, new crust is created by the flow of magma from underneath the lithosphere to the surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through a process called subduction, oceanic crust is pushed underground — beneath the rest of the lithosphere—where it comes into contact with magma and melts—rejoining the mantle from which it originally came.

text: Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. Through a process called

text: seafloor spreading

text: , new crust is created by the flow of magma from underneath the

text: lithosphere

text: to the surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through a process called

text: subduction

text: , oceanic crust is pushed underground — beneath the rest of the lithosphere—where it comes into contact with magma and melts—rejoining the mantle from which it originally came.

text: The more distant planets retrograde more frequently, as they don't move as far in their orbits while Earth completes an orbit itself. The center of the retrograde motion occurs when the body is exactly opposite the sun, and therefore high in the ecliptic at local midnight. The retrogradation of a hypothetical extremely distant (and nearly non-moving) planet would take place during a half-year, with the planet's apparent yearly motion being reduced to a parallax ellipse.

text: The more distant planets retrograde more frequently, as they don't move as far in their orbits while Earth completes an orbit itself. The center of the retrograde motion occurs when the body is exactly opposite the sun, and therefore high in the ecliptic at local midnight. The retrogradation of a hypothetical extremely distant (and nearly non-moving) planet would take place during a half-year, with the planet's apparent yearly motion being reduced to a

text: parallax

text: ellipse.

text: Jupiter moving out of the inner Solar System would have allowed the formation of inner planets, including Earth.

text: Jupiter moving out of the inner Solar System would have allowed the formation of inner planets, including

text: Earth

text: The Nirayana, or sidereal zodiac, is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or tropical zodiac, is divided into 12 equal parts. Each twelfth part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or rāśi  (Sanskrit: 'part').  Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western zodiacs differ in the method of measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa uses primarily the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the Spring equinox). This difference becomes noticeable over time. After two millennia, as a result of the precession of the equinoxes, the origin of the ecliptic longitude has shifted by about 22 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is consistent with the actual zodiac, while in western astrology the planets fall into the following sign, as compared to their placement in the sidereal zodiac, about two thirds of the time.

text: The Nirayana, or

text: sidereal zodiac

text: , is an imaginary belt of 360 degrees, which, like the Sāyana, or

text: tropical zodiac

text: , is divided into 12 equal parts. Each twelfth part (of 30 degrees) is called a sign or rāśi  (

text: Sanskrit

text: : 'part').  Vedic (Jyotiṣa) and Western

text: zodiac

text: s differ in the method of measurement. While synchronically, the two systems are identical, Jyotiṣa uses primarily the sidereal zodiac (in which stars are considered to be the fixed background against which the motion of the planets is measured), whereas most

text: Western astrology

text: uses the

text: tropical zodiac

text: (the motion of the planets is measured against the position of the Sun on the

text: Spring equinox

text: ). This difference becomes noticeable over time. After two

text: millennia

text: , as a result of the

text: precession of the equinoxes

text: , the origin of the

text: ecliptic longitude

text: has shifted by about 22 degrees. As a result, the placement of planets in the Jyotiṣa system is consistent with the actual zodiac, while in western astrology the planets fall into the following sign, as compared to their placement in the sidereal zodiac, about two thirds of the time.

text: Many arid and semi-arid areas actually do have sources of water, but the available water is usually brackish (0.5-5g/L salt) or saline (30-50g/L salt). The water may be present in underground aquifers or as seawater along coastal deserts. With traditional farming practices, saline water results in soil salinization, rendering it unfit for raising most crop plants. Indeed, many arid and semi-arid areas were simply considered unsuitable for agriculture, and agricultural development of these areas was not systematically attempted until the second half of the 20th century.

text: Many arid and semi-arid areas actually do have sources of water, but the available water is usually

text: brackish

text: (0.5-5g/L salt) or

text: saline

text: (30-50g/L salt). The water may be present in underground

text: aquifer

text: s or as

text: seawater

text: along coastal deserts. With traditional farming practices, saline water results in soil

text: salinization

text: , rendering it unfit for raising most crop plants. Indeed, many arid and semi-arid areas were simply considered unsuitable for agriculture, and

text: agricultural development

text: of these areas was not systematically attempted until the second half of the 20th century.

text: In various locations in Canada, extreme temperatures are often recorded. Here is a list of 15 extreme hot and cold  temperature recorded in Canada for the past 120 years, not necessarily the hottest or coldest 15 but some are shown for selected cities or regions, i.e. Toronto. These are officially recognized extreme temperatures by Environment Canada.

text: In various locations in

text: Canada

text: , extreme temperatures are often recorded. Here is a list of 15 extreme hot and cold  temperature recorded in Canada for the past 120 years, not necessarily the hottest or coldest 15 but some are shown for selected cities or regions, i.e. Toronto. These are officially recognized extreme temperatures by

text: Environment Canada

text: Moons orbiting gas giants or brown dwarfs are likely to be tidally locked to their primary: that is, their days are as long as their orbits.  While tidal locking may adversely affect planets within habitable zones by interfering with the distribution of stellar radiation, it may work in favour of satellite habitability by allowing tidal heating. Scientists at the NASA Ames Research Center modelled the temperature on tide-locked exoplanets in the habitability zone of red dwarf stars. They found that an atmosphere with a carbon dioxide () pressure of only  not only allows habitable temperatures, but allows liquid water on the dark side of the satellite.  The temperature range of a moon that is tidally locked to a gas giant could be less extreme than with a planet locked to a star. Even though no studies have been done on the subject, modest amounts of  are speculated to make the temperature habitable.

text: Moons orbiting

text: gas giant

text: s or

text: brown dwarf

text: s are likely to be

text: tidally locked

text: to their primary: that is, their days are as long as their orbits.  While tidal locking may adversely affect planets within habitable zones by interfering with the distribution of stellar radiation, it may work in favour of satellite habitability by allowing

text: tidal heating

text: . Scientists at the NASA

text: Ames Research Center

text: modelled the temperature on tide-locked exoplanets in the

text: habitability zone

text: of

text: red dwarf

text: stars. They found that an atmosphere with a carbon dioxide () pressure of only  not only allows habitable temperatures, but allows liquid water on the dark side of the satellite.  The temperature range of a moon that is tidally locked to a gas giant could be less extreme than with a planet locked to a star. Even though no studies have been done on the subject, modest amounts of  are speculated to make the temperature habitable.

text: Gliese 876 b is in a 1:2:4 Laplace resonance with the inner planet Gliese 876 c and the outer planet Gliese 876 e: in the time it takes planet e to complete one orbit, planet b completes two and planet c completes four. This is the second known example of a Laplace resonance, the first being Jupiter's moons Io, Europa and Ganymede. As a result, the orbital elements of the planets change fairly rapidly as they dynamically interact with one another. The planet's orbit has a low eccentricity, similar to the planets in the Solar System. The semimajor axis of the orbit is only 0.208 AU, less than that of Mercury in the Solar System. However Gliese 876 is such a faint star that this puts it in the outer part of the habitable zone.

text: Gliese 876 b is in a 1:2:4

text: Laplace resonance

text: with the inner planet

text: Gliese 876 c

text: and the outer planet

text: Gliese 876 e

text: : in the time it takes planet e to complete one orbit, planet b completes two and planet c completes four. This is the second known example of a Laplace resonance, the first being

text: Jupiter

text: 's

text: moons

text: Io

text: Europa

text: and

text: Ganymede

text: . As a result, the

text: orbital elements

text: of the planets change fairly rapidly as they dynamically interact with one another. The planet's orbit has a low

text: eccentricity

text: , similar to the planets in the

text: Solar System

text: . The

text: semimajor axis

text: of the orbit is only 0.208

text: AU

text: , less than that of

text: Mercury

text: in the Solar System. However Gliese 876 is such a faint star that this puts it in the outer part of the

text: habitable zone

text: Any topography element that looks like a hill or a pit in wide sense may be taken as a surface feature. Examples of surface features (objects) are: atoms, interstices, molecules, grains, nanoparticles, clusters, crystallites, quantum dots, nanoislets, pillars, pores, short nanowires, short nanorods, short nanotubes, viruses, bacteria, organelles, cells, etc.

text: Any topography element that looks like a hill or a pit in wide sense may be taken as a surface feature. Examples of surface features (objects) are:

text: atom

text: s,

text: interstices

text: molecule

text: s,

text: grains

text: nanoparticle

text: s, clusters,

text: crystallite

text: s,

text: quantum dot

text: s, nanoislets, pillars, pores, short

text: nanowire

text: s, short nanorods, short

text: nanotube

text: s,

text: virus

text: es,

text: bacteria

text: organelle

text: s,

text: cells

text: , etc.

text: It is believed that plate tectonic processes could have been active on Mars early in the planet’s history . Large-scale redistribution of lithospheric crustal material is known to be caused by plate tectonic processes on Earth. Even though it is still not entirely clear how mantle processes affect plate tectonics on Earth, mantle convection is believed to be involved as cells or plumes. Since endogenic processes of Earth are still to be completely understood, studying of similar processes on Mars is very difficult. The dichotomy could be created at the time of the creation of the Martian core. The roughly circular shape of the lowland could then be attributed to plume-like first-order overturn which could occur in the process of rapid core formation. There is evidence for internally driven tectonic events in the vicinity of the lowland area that clearly occurred at the end of the early bombardment phase.

text: It is believed that

text: plate tectonic processes

text: could have been active on Mars early in the planet’s history . Large-scale redistribution of lithospheric crustal material is known to be caused by plate tectonic processes on Earth. Even though it is still not entirely clear how mantle processes affect plate tectonics on Earth, mantle convection is believed to be involved as cells or plumes. Since endogenic processes of Earth are still to be completely understood, studying of similar processes on Mars is very difficult. The dichotomy could be created at the time of the creation of the Martian core. The roughly circular shape of the lowland could then be attributed to plume-like first-order overturn which could occur in the process of rapid core formation. There is evidence for internally driven tectonic events in the vicinity of the lowland area that clearly occurred at the end of the

text: early bombardment phase.

text: Stormworld has geography that is very different from Earth. The first major difference easily noticed are the three suns: a yellow sun, a blue sun and a red sun. The three suns have a strong effect on the geography, flora and fauna of the planet. Because of the increased solar radiation, Stormworld is a very hot planet. This heat means there is a severe lack of fresh water available for the inhabitants. Water rationing and conservation is everyone's first concern. The lack of water also means fewer plants or animals are available as food sources.

text: For the ocean example there was a sharp transition in density at the top or "surface" of the ocean.  However for atmospheres made of gas there is no equivalent sharp transition or edge.  Gas atmospheres simply get less and less dense until they're so thin that they're space.

text: In 1993 the first hydration system was introduced to the market, the Flexi-Flask, it was a water bottle protected by a tissu cover. Two volumes capacities were available, 1,5L and 2,5L. In 1995, the first water pipe was added to the water system. In 2000 more than 8 references were on the catalog for the hydration packs and accessories for the hydration systems were available: Rapid valve, Tube Kit, Source Filler Cap,  Source Tik-Cap,  Weave-Covered Tube Kit, Replacement Inner Bag

text: After a few days of orbiting the planet which revolves around the inner sun, he is attacked by a gryphon, and he falls down on the planet, which is named Nazar. There he wanders about for a short while until he is attacked, this time by an ox. He climbs up into a tree, and to his astonishment the tree can move and talk (this one screamed), and he is taken prisoner by tree-like creatures with up to six arms and faces just below the branches. He is accused of attempted rape on the town clerk's wife, and is put on trial. The case is dismissed and he is set by the Lord of Potu (the utopian state in which he now is located) to learn the language.

text: After a few days of orbiting the planet which revolves around the inner sun, he is attacked by a

text: gryphon

text: , and he falls down on the planet, which is named Nazar. There he wanders about for a short while until he is attacked, this time by an

text: ox

text: . He climbs up into a

text: tree

text: , and to his astonishment the tree can move and talk (this one screamed), and he is taken prisoner by tree-like creatures with up to six arms and faces just below the branches. He is accused of attempted

text: rape

text: on the

text: town clerk

text: 's wife, and is put on trial. The case is dismissed and he is set by the

text: Lord

text: of Potu (the utopian state in which he now is located) to learn the language.

text: Because of Mercury's extremely small axial tilt, there is a suggestion that Mercury's polar regions could be colonized using the same technology, approach, and equipment that is used in colonizing the Moon. Polar colonies on Mercury would avoid the extreme daytime temperatures elsewhere on the planet—the temperatures on the poles are consistently below .Moreover, "Mercury’s very low axial tilt (0.034°) means that its polar regions are permanently shaded and cold enough to contain water ice."

text: Because of Mercury's extremely small

text: axial tilt

text: , there is a suggestion that Mercury's polar regions could be colonized using the same technology, approach, and equipment that is used in colonizing the Moon. Polar colonies on Mercury would avoid the extreme daytime temperatures elsewhere on the planet—the temperatures on the poles are consistently below .Moreover, "Mercury’s very low axial tilt (0.034°) means that its polar regions are permanently shaded and cold enough to contain

text: water ice

text: Monroe County lies in the humid continental climate zone.  The city of Monroe only receives an average of  of snow a year — the lowest average snowfall for any large city in the state.  July is the warmest month with an average high temperature of , and January is the coldest month with an average low temperature of .  The county does not normally have extremely hot or cold temperatures.  On average, the temperature only drops below  a couple of times during a winter season, and it is even rarer for the temperature to rise above  during the summer.  The coldest recorded temperature was  on February 5, 1918.  The highest recorded temperature was  on July 24, 1934, with another equal temperature recorded on one occasion many years earlier.

text: Monroe County lies in the

text: humid continental climate

text: zone.  The city of Monroe only receives an average of  of snow a year — the lowest average snowfall for any large city in the state.  July is the warmest month with an average high temperature of , and January is the coldest month with an average low temperature of .  The county does not normally have extremely hot or cold temperatures.  On average, the temperature only drops below  a couple of times during a winter season, and it is even rarer for the temperature to rise above  during the summer.  The coldest recorded temperature was  on February 5, 1918.  The highest recorded temperature was  on July 24, 1934, with another equal temperature recorded on one occasion many years earlier.

text: The discovery since 1992 of extrasolar planets, or planet-sized objects around other stars ( such planets in  planetary systems including  multiple planetary systems as of ), has widened the debate on the nature of planethood in unexpected ways. Many of these planets are of considerable size, approaching the mass of small stars, while many newly discovered brown dwarfs are, conversely, small enough to be considered planets.  The material difference between a low-mass star and a large gas giant is not clearcut; apart from size and relative temperature, there is little to separate a gas giant like Jupiter from its host star. Both have similar overall compositions: hydrogen and helium, with trace levels of heavier elements in their atmospheres. The generally accepted difference is one of formation; stars are said to have formed from the "top down," out of the gases in a nebula as they underwent gravitational collapse, and thus would be composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, while planets are said to have formed from the "bottom up," from the accretion of dust and gas in orbit around the young star, and thus should have cores of silicates or ices. As yet it is uncertain whether gas giants possess such cores, though the Juno mission to Jupiter could resolve the issue. If it is indeed possible that a gas giant could form as a star does, then it raises the question of whether such an object should be considered an orbiting low-mass star rather than a planet.

text: The discovery since 1992 of

text: extrasolar planet

text: s, or planet-sized objects around other stars ( such planets in

text: planetary system

text: s including

text: multiple planetary systems

text: as of ), has widened the debate on the nature of planethood in unexpected ways. Many of these planets are of considerable size, approaching the mass of small stars, while many newly discovered brown dwarfs are, conversely, small enough to be considered planets.  The material difference between a low-mass star and a large

text: gas giant

text: is not clearcut; apart from size and relative temperature, there is little to separate a gas giant like Jupiter from its host star. Both have similar overall compositions: hydrogen and

text: helium

text: , with trace levels of heavier

text: elements

text: in their

text: atmosphere

text: s. The generally accepted difference is one of formation; stars are said to have formed from the "top down," out of the gases in a nebula as they underwent gravitational collapse, and thus would be composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, while planets are said to have formed from the "bottom up," from the accretion of dust and gas in orbit around the young star, and thus should have cores of

text: silicate

text: s or ices. As yet it is uncertain whether gas giants possess such cores, though the

text: Juno mission

text: to Jupiter could resolve the issue. If it is indeed possible that a gas giant could form as a star does, then it raises the question of whether such an object should be considered an orbiting low-mass star rather than a planet.

text: Gliese 876 c lies at the inner edge of the system's habitable zone. While the prospects for life on gas giants are unknown, it might be possible for a large moon of the planet to provide a habitable environment. Unfortunately tidal interactions between a hypothetical moon, the planet, and the star could destroy moons massive enough to be habitable over the lifetime of the system. In addition it is unclear whether such moons could form in the first place.

text: Gliese 876 c lies at the inner edge of the system's habitable zone. While the prospects for

text: life

text: on gas giants are unknown, it might be possible for a large

text: moon

text: of the planet to provide a

text: habitable

text: environment. Unfortunately

text: tidal

text: interactions between a hypothetical moon, the planet, and the star could destroy moons massive enough to be habitable over the lifetime of the system. In addition it is unclear whether such moons could form in the first place.

text: The Tholians were an extremely xenophobic, non-humanoid hermaphroditic species with a propensity for precision.Tholian biology required high temperatures around 480 Kelvin (207 °C, 404 °F). They could tolerate lower temperatures for a brief period of time; if they were exposed to temperatures around 380 Kelvin or less, their carapace would crack. This was painful or distressing; a Tholian subjected to such a temperature regime could be coerced to cooperate. In temperatures even lower, a Tholian would freeze solid and shatter. (ENT: "Future Tense", "In a Mirror, Darkly")

text: Liquid cores were commonly used in golf balls as early as 1917.  The liquid cores in many of the early balls contained a caustic liquid, typically an alkali, causing eye injuries to children who happened to dissect a golf ball out of curiosity.  By the 1920s, golf ball manufacturers had stopped using caustic liquids, but into the 1970s and 1980s golf balls were still at times exploding when dissected and were causing injuries due to the presence of crushed crystalline material present in the liquid cores.

text: Liquid cores were commonly used in golf balls as early as 1917.  The liquid cores in many of the early balls contained a

text: caustic

text: liquid, typically an

text: alkali

text: , causing eye injuries to children who happened to dissect a golf ball out of curiosity.  By the 1920s, golf ball manufacturers had stopped using caustic liquids, but into the 1970s and 1980s golf balls were still at times exploding when dissected and were causing injuries due to the presence of crushed crystalline material present in the liquid cores.

text: The work of Charles Loloma was featured in the first Heard Museum Fair in 1961 as well as numerous Fairs held by the Heard in subsequent years. In 1962, Lloyd Kiva New became the director of the Institute of American Indian Arts in Santa Fe and recruited Charles and Otellie Loloma as some of the first instructors of the institute, where Charles became the director of the plastic arts department. After a few years there, Loloma returned to Hotevilla and set up his own studio, also selling his jewelry in the Heard Museum Shop and several other galleries.  As his art evolved, he explored the techniques of tufa casting and inlay using stones of varying heights. His technique of including "inner gems" on the interior surfaces of his pieces expressed his belief that "people have inner gems. This is why I include inner gems in much of my work."Loloma had many accomplishments across the globe. He won first prize in the Scottsdale National Indian Art Exhibition seven years in a row. He had two shows in Paris. He was featured in NET and PBS in 1972.  In Japan he was the artist in residence in 1974. He was also commissioned to make a piece for the queen of Denmark. He visited many countries; France, Egypt and Colombia to name a few. His achievements inspired other Native jewelers such Jesse Monongye.

text: The work of Charles Loloma was featured in the first Heard Museum Fair in 1961 as well as numerous Fairs held by the Heard in subsequent years. In 1962,

text: Lloyd Kiva New

text: became the director of the

text: Institute of American Indian Arts

text: in Santa Fe and recruited Charles and Otellie Loloma as some of the first instructors of the institute, where Charles became the director of the plastic arts department. After a few years there, Loloma returned to Hotevilla and set up his own studio, also selling his jewelry in the Heard Museum Shop and several other galleries.  As his art evolved, he explored the techniques of tufa casting and inlay using stones of varying heights. His technique of including "inner gems" on the interior surfaces of his pieces expressed his belief that "people have inner gems. This is why I include inner gems in much of my work."Loloma had many accomplishments across the globe. He won first prize in the Scottsdale National Indian Art Exhibition seven years in a row. He had two shows in Paris. He was featured in NET and PBS in 1972.  In Japan he was the artist in residence in 1974. He was also commissioned to make a piece for the queen of Denmark. He visited many countries; France, Egypt and Colombia to name a few. His achievements inspired other Native jewelers such Jesse Monongye.

text: The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for accretion into planetesimals and eventually planets. The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from giant planets in the Solar System.However, giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars (so-called hot Jupiters). They are thought to have formed outside the frost line, and later migrated inwards to their current positions.  Earth, which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet, has adequate gravitation for keeping methane, ammonia, and water vapor from escaping it. Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth's atmosphere only because of their instability in an oxygen-rich atmosphere that results from life forms (largely green plants) whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time, but of course liquid water and ice, which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere, form much of the surface of Earth.

text: The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for

text: accretion

text: into

text: planetesimals

text: and eventually

text: planets

text: . The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from

text: giant planet

text: s in the

text: Solar System

text: .However, giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars (so-called

text: hot Jupiter

text: s). They are thought to have formed outside the frost line, and later

text: migrated

text: inwards to their current positions.  Earth, which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet, has adequate gravitation for keeping methane, ammonia, and water vapor from escaping it. Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth's atmosphere only because of their instability in an

text: oxygen

text: -rich atmosphere that

text: results from life forms (largely green plants)

text: whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time, but of course

text: liquid water

text: and

text: ice

text: , which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere, form much of the surface of Earth.

text: Kepler-10 is a G-type star, like the Sun. With a mass of 0.895 (± 0.06) M and a radius of 1.056 (± 0.021) R, the star is approximately 10% smaller than and 5% wider than the Sun. The metallicity of Kepler-10, as measured in [Fe/H] (the amount of iron in the star), is -0.15 (± 0.04); this means that Kepler-10 is about 70% as metal-rich as the Sun. Metallicity tends to play a large role in the formation of planets, determining if they form, and what kind of planet they will form. In addition, Kepler-10 is estimated to be 11.9 billion years old and to have an effective temperature of 5627 (± 44) K; To compare, the Sun is younger and hotter, with an age of 4.6 billion years and an effective temperature of 5778 K.

text: Kepler-10 is a

text: G-type

text: star, like the

text: Sun

text: . With a mass of 0.895 (± 0.06)

text: M

text: and a radius of 1.056 (± 0.021)

text: R

text: , the star is approximately 10% smaller than and 5% wider than the Sun. The

text: metallicity

text: of Kepler-10, as measured in [Fe/H] (the amount of

text: iron

text: in the star), is -0.15 (± 0.04); this means that Kepler-10 is about 70% as metal-rich as the Sun. Metallicity tends to play a large role in the formation of planets, determining if they form, and what kind of planet they will form. In addition, Kepler-10 is estimated to be 11.9 billion years old and to have an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5627 (± 44)

text: K

text: ; To compare, the Sun is younger and hotter, with an age of 4.6 billion years and an effective temperature of 5778 K.

text: The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of minerals with high melting points, such as the silicates which form their solid crusts and semi-liquid mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form their cores.

text: The four inner or

text: terrestrial planet

text: s have dense,

text: rocky

text: compositions, few or no

text: moons

text: , and no

text: ring systems

text: . They are composed largely of minerals with high melting points, such as the

text: silicate

text: s which form their solid

text: crusts

text: and semi-liquid

text: mantles

text: , and metals such as

text: iron

text: and

text: nickel

text: , which form their

text: cores

text: Because it is the outermost planet, the effects of tidal evolution from the inner planets and the host star on Kepler-62f are not likely to have had significant outcomes over its lifetime. The axial tilt is likely to have been unchanged, and thus, the planet may have an axial tilt (anywhere from 14°–30°) and rotational period somewhat similar to Earth. This can further make the planet more sustainable for habitability, as it would be able to transfer heat to the night side, instead of it being a planet with its surface being half water and half ice.K-type stars like Kepler-62 can live for approximately 20–40 billion years, 2 to 4 times longer than the estimated lifetime of our Sun. The low stellar activity of orange dwarfs like Kepler-62, creates a relatively benign radiation environment for planets orbiting in their habitable zones, increasing their potential habitability.

text: Heart Peaks is part of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, a long volcanic chain extending from just north of the city of Prince Rupert in British Columbia through Yukon to the Alaska border. Along this line, the North American Plate has been rupturing. Earth's lithosphere consists of several large tectonic plates, which slowly move towards and away from one another, either converging and subducting or diverging and rifting; volcanoes and earthquakes are generated by these activities. The west coast of North America is the site of plate margins between the large Pacific and North American plates, and also between the smaller Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates.

text: Heart Peaks is part of the

text: Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province

text: , a long volcanic chain extending from just north of the city of

text: Prince Rupert

text: in British Columbia through

text: Yukon

text: to the

text: Alaska

text: border. Along this line, the

text: North American Plate

text: has been rupturing. Earth's

text: lithosphere

text: consists of several large

text: tectonic plate

text: s, which slowly move towards and away from one another, either

text: converging

text: and

text: subducting

text: or

text: diverging

text: and

text: rift

text: ing;

text: volcano

text: es and

text: earthquake

text: s are generated by these activities. The west coast of

text: North America

text: is the site of plate margins between the large

text: Pacific

text: and North American plates, and also between the smaller

text: Juan de Fuca

text: and

text: Cocos

text: plates.

text: A very wide range of possible masses can be calculated by combining the radius with densities derived from the possible types of matter from which planets can be made. For example, it could be a rocky terrestrial planet or a lower density ocean planet with a thick atmosphere. A massive hydrogen/helium (H/He) atmosphere is thought, however, to be unlikely in a planet with a radius below 1.5 . Planets with radii of more than 1.5 times that of Earth tend to accumulate the thick atmospheres that would make them less likely to be habitable. Red dwarfs emit a much stronger extreme ultraviolet (XUV) flux when young than later in life. The planet's primordial atmosphere would have been subjected to elevated photoevaporation during that period, which would probably have largely removed any H/He-rich envelope through hydrodynamic mass loss.

text: A very wide range of possible

text: mass

text: es can be calculated by combining the

text: radius

text: with

text: densities

text: derived from the possible types of

text: matter

text: from which planets can be made. For example, it could be a rocky

text: terrestrial planet

text: or a lower density

text: ocean planet

text: with a thick atmosphere. A massive

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: (H/He) atmosphere is thought, however, to be unlikely in a planet with a radius below 1.5 . Planets with radii of more than 1.5 times that of Earth tend to accumulate the thick atmospheres that would make them less likely to be habitable. Red dwarfs emit a much stronger

text: extreme ultraviolet

text: (XUV) flux when young than later in life. The planet's primordial atmosphere would have been subjected to elevated

text: photoevaporation

text: during that period, which would probably have largely removed any H/He-rich envelope through

text: hydrodynamic mass loss

text: Bloodthirsty conquerors, Kaput and Zösky travel the universe, landing on planets and trying to conquer them. They are not the most able tyrants, however, and have trouble holding any planet for more than a few days, if they can even manage to dominate it in the first place. In fact, they spend as much time running for their lives as they do enslaving and slaughtering innocents.  Kaput and Zösky are a dynamic, if generic, duo. Zösky is a cunning, level-headed pseudo-intellectual who always has a plan. Kaput, on the other hand, is short-tempered and volatile; his strategies always involve "crisperizing" everything in sight.  Kaput is a short and dumpy little terrorizer with a brilliant red mohawk, and Zösky is a tall and thin tyrant with a set of yellow antennae.  Their exploits almost always end in the same way for the two space tyrants; the two barely escape from their fates by flying off in their dumpy little spaceship, leaving a red smoke trail behind.

text: Bloodthirsty conquerors, Kaput and Zösky travel the universe, landing on planets and trying to conquer them. They are not the most able tyrants, however, and have trouble holding any planet for more than a few days, if they can even manage to dominate it in the first place. In fact, they spend as much time running for their lives as they do enslaving and slaughtering innocents.  Kaput and Zösky are a dynamic, if generic, duo. Zösky is a cunning, level-headed pseudo-intellectual who always has a plan. Kaput, on the other hand, is short-tempered and volatile; his strategies always involve "crisperizing" everything in sight.  Kaput is a short and dumpy little terrorizer with a brilliant red

text: mohawk

text: , and Zösky is a tall and thin tyrant with a set of yellow

text: antennae

text: .  Their exploits almost always end in the same way for the two space tyrants; the two barely escape from their fates by flying off in their dumpy little spaceship, leaving a red smoke trail behind.

text: If the directional evolution model is valid then the evolution must have been slow and the timing of events would have overlapped considerably. A valid end member interpretation is that the crater population still represents a population emplaced on a mostly inactive planet, but the final throes of a global emplacement of volcanic plains has filled most of the craters with a few hundred meters of volcanic flows. If this is true, then post-tessera plains emplacement must have dragged on for most of the visible surface history of the planet and  the cessation of tessera deformation must have overlapped considerably with emplacement of plains. Thus, while a tessera/plains/rifts evolution is a valid hypothesis, that evolution could not have occurred as a "catastrophe". The highly varying levels of post-impact volcanism and deformation that the craters have experienced are consistent with a steady state model of Venus resurfacing. The craters are in a variety of stages of removal but display the same processes that have operated throughout the visible surface history. It remains a powerful constraint that the distribution of geologic features on the planet (plains, volcanoes, rifts, etc.) is decidedly more nonuniform than the crater population. This means that while the nature of resurfacing on Venus may vary regionally in the uniformitarian hypothesis, the rates must be similar.

text: In A Princess of Mars, John Carter, a Confederate officer and soldier, has taken up prospecting in Arizona after the war to regain his fortune. Under mysterious circumstances, he is transported to Mars, called Barsoom by its inhabitants. There he encounters savage and monstrous aliens, a beautiful princess, and a life of adventure and wonder. Burroughs followed up this first book with several more Barsoom stories, and another series that could be considered Sword & Planet, featuring as hero Carson Napier and his adventures on Venus, natively known as Amtor. Burroughs' Pellucidar series could arguably be considered sword-and-(inner) planet, as it follows most of the plot conventions described below.

text: In A Princess of Mars, John Carter, a

text: Confederate

text: officer and soldier, has taken up prospecting in

text: Arizona

text: after the war to regain his fortune. Under mysterious circumstances, he is transported to

text: Mars

text: , called

text: Barsoom

text: by its inhabitants. There he encounters savage and monstrous aliens, a beautiful princess, and a life of adventure and wonder. Burroughs followed up this first book with several more Barsoom stories, and another series that could be considered Sword & Planet, featuring as hero Carson Napier and his adventures on

text: Venus

text: , natively known as

text: Amtor

text: . Burroughs'

text: Pellucidar

text: series could arguably be considered sword-and-(inner) planet, as it follows most of the plot conventions described below.

text: Kepler-186b is the innermost planet of its system, and thus not suitable for life.Year on the planet is only 4 days long due to its location near the parent star.

text: Kepler-186b is the innermost planet of its system, and thus not

text: suitable for life

text: .Year on the planet is only 4 days long due to its location near the parent star.

text: Like the majority of extrasolar planets found prior to the Kepler mission, 55 Cancri e was discovered by detecting variations in its star's radial velocity. This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the Doppler shift of the spectrum of 55 Cancri A. At the time of its discovery, three other planets were known orbiting the star. After accounting for these planets, a signal at around 2.8 days remained, which could be explained by a planet of at least 14.2 Earth masses in a very close orbit. The same measurements were used to confirm the existence of the uncertain planet 55 Cancri c.

text: Like the majority of extrasolar planets found prior to the

text: Kepler

text: mission, 55 Cancri e was discovered by detecting variations in its star's

text: radial velocity

text: . This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the

text: Doppler shift

text: of the

text: spectrum

text: of 55 Cancri A. At the time of its discovery, three other planets were known orbiting the star. After accounting for these planets, a signal at around 2.8 days remained, which could be explained by a planet of at least 14.2

text: Earth

text: masses in a very close orbit. The same measurements were used to confirm the existence of the uncertain planet

text: 55 Cancri c

text: This is also a time of space colonization. First, humanity (specifically China, followed by the United States and others) colonized Mars in a fashion resembling that outlined in the Mars Direct project. The Moon, Lagrangian points, inner planets and asteroids soon followed. In the late 21st century even some of Saturn's moons have been settled as a base for that planet's Helium-3 scooping operations.

text: This is also a time of

text: space

text: colonization. First, humanity (specifically

text: China

text: , followed by the United States and others) colonized Mars in a fashion resembling that outlined in the

text: Mars Direct

text: project. The

text: Moon

text: Lagrangian point

text: s,

text: inner planet

text: s and

text: asteroid

text: s soon followed. In the late 21st century even some of

text: Saturn

text: 's moons have been settled as a base for that planet's

text: scooping operations.

text: Crazy Planets is an artillery game which uses Facebook's social networking to establish multiplayer games. Gameplay centers around missions on various planets and meteors using a variety of weapons to destroy enemy robots.  Additionally, players collect coins, experience points, and gems while on missions, and can collect metals from their own planet as well as friends' planets once per day.  Coins can be spent while on a mission for power ups, such as increased damage or restoring health, and can also be spent to customize the player's home planet. When enough Experience Points (XP) are accumalated, the player's level increases. Gems are used, in conjunction with metals, to upgrade or purchase new weapons.

text: Crazy Planets is an

text: artillery game

text: which uses Facebook's

text: social networking

text: to establish multiplayer games. Gameplay centers around missions on various planets and meteors using a variety of weapons to destroy enemy robots.  Additionally, players collect coins, experience points, and gems while on missions, and can collect metals from their own planet as well as friends' planets once per day.  Coins can be spent while on a mission for power ups, such as increased damage or restoring health, and can also be spent to customize the player's home planet. When enough Experience Points (XP) are accumalated, the player's level increases. Gems are used, in conjunction with metals, to upgrade or purchase new weapons.

text: Meton of Athens approximated the cycle to a whole number (6,940) of days, obtained by 125 long months of 30 days and 110 short months of 29 days. During the next century, Callippus developed the Callippic cycle of four 19-year periods for a 76-year cycle with a mean year of exactly 365.25 days.

text: Meton of Athens

text: approximated the cycle to a whole number (6,940) of days, obtained by 125 long months of 30 days and 110 short months of 29 days. During the next century,

text: Callippus

text: developed the

text: Callippic cycle

text: of four 19-year periods for a 76-year cycle with a mean year of exactly 365.25 days.

text: This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around  thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with basaltic rocks ("mafic") dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower density granitic rocks ("felsic"). See also Plate tectonics.

text: This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth.

text: Tectonic plates

text: are pieces of Earth's

text: crust

text: and uppermost

text: mantle

text: , together referred to as the

text: lithosphere

text: . The plates are around  thick and consist of two principal types of material:

text: oceanic crust

text: (also called

text: sima

text: from

text: silicon

text: and

text: magnesium

text: ) and

text: continental crust

text: sial

text: from silicon and

text: aluminium

text: ). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with

text: basalt

text: ic rocks ("

text: mafic

text: ") dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower

text: density

text: granitic

text: rocks ("

text: felsic

text: "). See also

text: Plate tectonics

text: Due to the harsh conditions on the surface, little of the planet has been explored; in addition to the fact that life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe, the extent of the tenacity of life on Earth itself has not yet been shown. Creatures known as extremophiles exist on Earth, preferring extreme habitats. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water, acidophiles thrive at a pH level of 3 or below, polyextremophiles can survive a varied number of extreme conditions, and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth. However, the surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees beyond 100 °C.

text: Due to the harsh conditions on the surface, little of the planet has been explored; in addition to the fact that life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe, the extent of the tenacity of

text: life on Earth

text: itself has not yet been shown. Creatures known as

text: extremophiles

text: exist on Earth, preferring extreme habitats.

text: Thermophile

text: s and

text: hyperthermophile

text: s thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water,

text: acidophiles

text: thrive at a

text: pH

text: level of 3 or below,

text: polyextremophile

text: s can survive a varied number of extreme conditions, and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth. However, the surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees beyond 100 °C.

text: In 2007 two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.

text: In 2007 two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of

text: plate tectonics

text: on larger

text: super-Earth

text: s with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.

text: As part of astronautical hygiene control (i.e., protecting astronauts from extremes of temperature, radiation, etc.), a space suit is essential for extravehicular activity. The Apollo/Skylab A7L suit included eleven layers in all: an inner liner, a LCVG, a pressure bladder, a restraint layer, another liner, and a Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment consisting of five aluminized insulation layers and an external layer of white Ortho-Fabric. This space suit is capable of protecting the astronaut from temperatures ranging from  to .

text: As part of

text: astronautical hygiene

text: control (i.e., protecting astronauts from extremes of temperature, radiation, etc.), a space suit is essential for extravehicular activity. The

text: Apollo/Skylab A7L

text: suit included eleven layers in all: an inner liner, a LCVG, a pressure bladder, a restraint layer, another liner, and a Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment consisting of five aluminized insulation layers and an external layer of white Ortho-Fabric. This space suit is capable of protecting the astronaut from temperatures ranging from  to .

text: The new research suggests that the rocky centres of super-Earths are unlikely to evolve into terrestrial rocky planets like the inner planets of the Solar System because they appear to hold on to their large atmospheres. Rather than evolving to a planet composed mainly of rock with a thin atmosphere, the small rocky core remains engulfed by its large hydrogen-rich envelope.

text: Months were grouped in days such that the Kalends was the first day of the month, the Ides was the 13th day of short months, or the 15th day of long months, and the Nones was the 9th day (counted inclusively) before the Ides (i.e., the fifth or seventh day of the month).  All other days of the month were counted backward (inclusively) from these three dates.  In both long and short months (except February and the mensis intercalaris) there were 16 days between the Ides of the month and the Kalends of the next month, and the date referred to the name of the next month, not that of the current month; thus, for example, the date of the 16th day of March was a.d. XVII Kal. Apr.  In intercalary years, the first part of February was terminated on the 23rd, i.e., the day of the Terminalia, and the festivals normally held in the last five days of February were held instead in the last five days of the intercalary month, immediately before the Kalends of March.  The first 22 or 23 days of the intercalary month were inserted between these two parts.

text: A complex volcano, also called a compound volcano, is mixed landform consisting of related volcanic centers and their associated lava flows and pyroclastic rock. They may form due to changes in eruptive habit or in the location of the principal vent area on a particular volcano. Stratovolcanoes can also form a large caldera that gets filled in by a lava dome, or else multiple small cinder cones, lava domes and craters may develop on the caldera's rim.

text: A complex volcano, also called a compound volcano, is mixed

text: landform

text: consisting of related

text: volcanic centers

text: and their associated

text: lava flows

text: and

text: pyroclastic rock

text: . They may form due to changes in

text: eruptive habit

text: or in the location of the principal vent area on a particular volcano. Stratovolcanoes can also form a large

text: caldera

text: that gets filled in by a lava dome, or else multiple small

text: cinder cone

text: s,

text: lava dome

text: s and

text: crater

text: s may develop on the caldera's rim.

text: If formed in the gravity-field of a planet as the planet is forming, a moon will orbit the planet in the same direction as the planet is rotating and is a regular moon. If an object is formed elsewhere and later captured into orbit by a planet's gravity, it can be captured into a retrograde or prograde orbit depending on whether it first approaches the side of the planet that is rotating towards or away from it. This is an irregular moon.

text: If formed in the gravity-field of a planet as the planet is forming, a

text: moon

text: will orbit the planet in the same direction as the planet is rotating and is a

text: regular moon

text: . If an object is formed elsewhere and later captured into orbit by a planet's gravity, it can be captured into a retrograde or prograde orbit depending on whether it first approaches the side of the planet that is rotating towards or away from it. This is an

text: irregular moon

text: Transits of the inner planets (including sun and moon) are generally not considered by astrologers to be of major importance, as they are of such short duration, and so have a limited effect. Most astrologers would not chart these transits on an ongoing basis as they occur so frequently and are so fleeting in their operation. The following are their main characteristics:

text: In the Solar System, many of the disturbances of one planet by another are periodic, consisting of small impulses each time a planet passes another in its orbit. This causes the bodies to follow motions that are periodic or quasi-periodic – such as the Moon in its strongly perturbed orbit, which is the subject of lunar theory. This periodic nature led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846 as a result of its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus.

text: In the Solar System, many of the disturbances of one planet by another are periodic, consisting of small impulses each time a planet passes another in its orbit. This causes the bodies to follow motions that are periodic or quasi-periodic – such as the Moon in its

text: strongly perturbed

text: orbit

text: , which is the subject of

text: lunar theory

text: . This periodic nature led to the

text: discovery of Neptune

text: in 1846 as a result of its perturbations of the orbit of

text: Uranus

text: Maat Mons is a massive shield volcano.  It is the second-highest mountain, and the highest volcano, on the planet Venus. It rises  above the mean planetary radius at , and nearly 5 km above the surrounding plains. It is named after the Egyptian goddess of truth and justice, Ma'at.

text: Maat Mons is a massive

text: shield volcano

text: .  It is the second-highest mountain, and the highest volcano, on the

text: planet

text: Venus

text: . It rises  above the

text: mean planetary radius

text: at , and nearly 5 km above the surrounding plains. It is named after the Egyptian goddess of truth and justice,

text: Ma'at

text: In plate tectonics the outermost part of the earth – the crust and uppermost mantle – are viewed as acting as a single mechanical layer, the lithosphere. The lithosphere is divided into separate 'plates' that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak asthenosphere in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of sea-floor spreading; transform where plates slide past each other and convergent where plates converge and lithosphere is 'consumed' by the process of subduction. Convergent and transform boundaries form the largest structural discontinuities in the lithosphere and are responsible for most of the world's major (M > 7) earthquakes. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's volcanoes, such as around the Pacific Ring of Fire. Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates, either directly or indirectly.

text: In plate tectonics the outermost part of the earth – the

text: crust

text: and uppermost

text: mantle

text: – are viewed as acting as a single mechanical layer, the

text: lithosphere

text: . The lithosphere is divided into separate 'plates' that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak

text: asthenosphere

text: in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries:

text: divergent

text: where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of

text: sea-floor spreading

text: transform

text: where plates slide past each other and

text: convergent

text: where plates converge and lithosphere is 'consumed' by the process of

text: subduction

text: . Convergent and transform boundaries form the largest structural discontinuities in the lithosphere and are responsible for most of the world's major (

text: M

text: > 7)

text: earthquake

text: s. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's

text: volcano

text: es, such as around the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: . Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates, either directly or indirectly.

text: A mini-Neptune (sometimes known as a gas dwarf or transitional planet) is a planet of up to 10 Earth masses (), less massive than Uranus and Neptune, which have about 14.5  and 17 , respectively. Mini-Neptunes have thick hydrogen–helium atmospheres, probably with deep layers of ice, rock or liquid oceans (made of water, ammonia, a mixture of both, or heavier volatiles). These planets have small cores made of low-density volatiles.

text: A mini-Neptune (sometimes known as a

text: gas dwarf

text: or transitional planet) is a planet of up to 10

text: Earth mass

text: es (), less massive than

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: , which have about 14.5  and 17 , respectively. Mini-Neptunes have thick

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: atmospheres, probably with deep layers of ice, rock or liquid oceans (made of

text: water

text: ammonia

text: , a mixture of both, or heavier volatiles). These planets have small cores made of low-density volatiles.

text: The concept of a habitable zone has been used by planetary scientists and astrobiologists to define an orbital region around a star in which a planet (or moon) can sustain liquid water. Under this definition, the inner edge of the habitable zone (i.e., the closest point to a star that a planet can be until it can no longer sustain liquid water) is determined by the point in which the runaway greenhouse process occurs. For sun-like stars, this inner edge is estimated to reside at roughly 84% the distance from the Earth to the sun although feedback such as cloud-induced albedo increase could modify this estimate somewhat.

text: The concept of a

text: habitable zone

text: has been used by planetary scientists and astrobiologists to define an orbital region around a star in which a planet (or moon) can sustain liquid water. Under this definition, the inner edge of the habitable zone (i.e., the closest point to a star that a planet can be until it can no longer sustain liquid water) is determined by the point in which the runaway greenhouse process occurs. For sun-like stars, this inner edge is estimated to reside at roughly 84% the distance from the Earth to the sun although feedback such as cloud-induced albedo increase could modify this estimate somewhat.

text: Citlaltépetl was the common name in the Náhuatl language when the Spanish arrived in Mexico. Citlaltépetl comes from the Náhuatl citlalli (star) and tepētl (mountain) and thus means "Star Mountain". This name is thought to be based on the fact that the snow-covered peak can be seen year round for hundreds of kilometers throughout the region. A legend from the city of Coscomatepec tells of how the planet Venus can be seen settling into the crater of Citlaltépetl. During the colonial era, the volcano was also known as Cerro de San Andrés due to the nearby settlement of San Andrés Chalchicomula at its base.

text: Citlaltépetl was the common name in the Náhuatl language when the Spanish arrived in Mexico. Citlaltépetl comes from the Náhuatl citlalli (star) and tepētl (mountain) and thus means "Star Mountain". This name is thought to be based on the fact that the snow-covered peak can be seen year round for hundreds of kilometers throughout the region. A legend from the city of Coscomatepec tells of how the planet

text: Venus

text: can be seen settling into the crater of Citlaltépetl. During the colonial era, the volcano was also known as Cerro de San Andrés due to the nearby settlement of San Andrés Chalchicomula at its base.

text: The aesthetic focus of the label is psychedelic and experimental music with a global roster of artists representing these genres including Legendary Pink Dots (including solo work by members of the band such as Edward Ka-spel), Nurse With Wound, Current 93, Green Milk from the Planet Orange, LSD March, Volcano The Bear, Daniel Menche, Eyeless in Gaza, and Vas Deferens Organization.

text: The aesthetic focus of the label is

text: psychedelic

text: and

text: experimental music

text: with a global roster of artists representing these genres including

text: Legendary Pink Dots

text: (including solo work by members of the band such as

text: Edward Ka-spel

text: Nurse With Wound

text: Current 93

text: Green Milk from the Planet Orange

text: LSD March

text: Volcano The Bear

text: Daniel Menche

text: Eyeless in Gaza

text: , and

text: Vas Deferens Organization

text: The city locations were generally inspired by the cities of New York and Hong Kong. The atmospheres of the planets and the ethnic groups in Cowboy Bebop mostly originated from Watanabe's ideas, with some collaboration from set designers Isamu Imakake, Shoji Kawamori, and Dai Satō. The animation staff established the particular planet atmospheres early in the production of the series before working on the ethnic groups. It was Watanabe who wanted to have several groups of ethnic diversity appear in the series. Mars was the planet most often used in Cowboy Bebops storylines, with Satoshi Toba, the cultural and setting producer, explaining that the other planets "were unexpectedly difficult to use." He stated that each planet in the series had unique features, and the producers had to take into account the characteristics of each planet in the story. For the final episode, Toba explained that it was not possible for the staff to have the dramatic rooftop scene occur on Venus, so the staff "ended up normally falling back to Mars." In creating the backstory, Watanabe envisioned a world of "statelessness rather than multinationalism". In spite of certain American influences in the series, he stipulated that the country had been destroyed decades prior to the story, later saying the notion of the United States as the center of the world repelled him.

text: The city locations were generally inspired by the cities of

text: New York

text: and

text: Hong Kong

text: . The atmospheres of the planets and the ethnic groups in Cowboy Bebop mostly originated from Watanabe's ideas, with some collaboration from set designers

text: Isamu Imakake

text: Shoji Kawamori

text: , and

text: Dai Satō

text: . The animation staff established the particular planet atmospheres early in the production of the series before working on the ethnic groups. It was Watanabe who wanted to have several groups of ethnic diversity appear in the series.

text: Mars

text: was the planet most often used in Cowboy Bebops storylines, with Satoshi Toba, the cultural and setting producer, explaining that the other planets "were unexpectedly difficult to use." He stated that each planet in the series had unique features, and the producers had to take into account the characteristics of each planet in the story. For the final episode, Toba explained that it was not possible for the staff to have the dramatic rooftop scene occur on

text: Venus

text: , so the staff "ended up normally falling back to Mars." In creating the backstory, Watanabe envisioned a world of "statelessness rather than multinationalism". In spite of certain American influences in the series, he stipulated that the country had been destroyed decades prior to the story, later saying the notion of the United States as the center of the world repelled him.

text: The shield volcano, Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus), rises 22 km above the surrounding volcanic plains, and is the highest known mountain on any planet in the solar system. It is in a vast upland region called Tharsis, which contains several large volcanos. See list of mountains on Mars.  The Tharsis region of Mars also has the solar system's largest canyon system, Valles Marineris or the Mariner Valley, which is 4,000 km long and 7 km deep.  Mars is also scarred by countless impact craters. The largest of these is the Hellas impact basin. See list of craters on Mars.

text: The

text: shield

text: volcano

text: Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus)

text: , rises 22 km above the surrounding volcanic plains, and is the highest known mountain on any planet in the solar system. It is in a vast upland region called

text: Tharsis

text: , which contains several large volcanos. See

text: list of mountains on Mars

text: .  The Tharsis region of Mars also has the solar system's largest canyon system,

text: Valles Marineris

text: or the

text: Mariner

text: Valley, which is 4,000 km long and 7 km deep.  Mars is also scarred by countless

text: impact crater

text: s. The largest of these is the

text: Hellas impact basin

text: . See

text: list of craters on Mars

text: Thanos next seeks out the Champion of the Universe on a planet called Tamarata, where he has been testing his combat prowess against the planet's numerous armies. Challenging him to single combat, Thanos tricks the Champion into destroying the planet and stranding himself in space. He then offers the Champion transportation to the nearest planet in exchange for the Champion's Power Gem, to which the Champion agrees, believing that the gem has never functioned, but not realizing that he has tapped into its power reserves subconsciously. Thanos upholds his part of the bargain, but jettisons the Champion into the unnamed planet's atmosphere, leaving him to plummet to the planet's surface. His reasoning is that he had never promised the Champion a "soft landing."

text: Thanos next seeks out the

text: Champion of the Universe

text: on a planet called Tamarata, where he has been testing his combat prowess against the planet's numerous armies. Challenging him to single combat, Thanos tricks the Champion into destroying the planet and stranding himself in space. He then offers the Champion transportation to the nearest planet in exchange for the Champion's Power Gem, to which the Champion agrees, believing that the gem has never functioned, but not realizing that he has tapped into its power reserves subconsciously. Thanos upholds his part of the bargain, but jettisons the Champion into the unnamed planet's atmosphere, leaving him to plummet to the planet's surface. His reasoning is that he had never promised the Champion a "soft landing."

text: Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, Upsilon Andromedae d was detected by measuring variations in its star's radial velocity as a result of the planet's gravity. This was done by making precise measurements of the Doppler shift of the spectrum of Upsilon Andromedae A. At the time of discovery, Upsilon Andromedae A was already known to host one extrasolar planet, the hot Jupiter Upsilon Andromedae b; however, by 1999, it was clear that the inner planet could not explain the velocity curve.

text: Like the majority of known extrasolar planets, Upsilon Andromedae d was detected by measuring variations in its star's

text: radial velocity

text: as a result of the planet's

text: gravity

text: . This was done by making precise measurements of the

text: Doppler shift

text: of the

text: spectrum

text: of Upsilon Andromedae A. At the time of discovery, Upsilon Andromedae A was already known to host one extrasolar planet, the

text: hot Jupiter

text: Upsilon Andromedae b

text: ; however, by 1999, it was clear that the inner planet could not explain the velocity curve.

text: The orbital distance places it at the outer limits of the habitable zone, the distance at which it is believed possible for water to exist on the surface of a planetary body. At the time of its discovery, the planet's orbit was originally thought to be farther out. However, in late April 2009 the original discovery team revised its original estimate of the planet's orbital parameters, finding that it orbits closer to its star than originally determined with an orbital period of 66.87 days. They concluded that the planet is within the habitable zone where liquid water could exist, thus confirming previous studies. Moreover, the data  also suggested that the proposed exoplanet  could have at least one or more large oceans.

text: The average yearly temperature is around . In considering temperature, location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor. Whether in the extreme north, south, east, or west of the country, temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range. Altitude usually has more of an impact. The average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of  above sea level is , making it a popular destination during hot summers.

text: The average yearly temperature is around . In considering temperature, location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor. Whether in the extreme north, south, east, or west of the country, temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range. Altitude usually has more of an impact. The average annual temperature of

text: Baguio

text: at an elevation of  above sea level is , making it a popular destination during hot summers.

text: Shen is also known for his cosmological hypotheses in explaining the variations of planetary motions, including retrogradation. His colleague Wei Pu realized that the old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent Sun, since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion, and behind it in the retarded phase. Shen's hypotheses were similar to the concept of the epicycle in the Greco-Roman tradition, only Shen compared the side-section of orbital paths of planets and variations of planetary speeds to points in the tips of a willow leaf. In a similar rudimentary physical analogy of celestial motions, as John B. Henderson describes it, Shen likened the relationship of the Moon's path to the ecliptic, the path of the Sun, "to the figure of a rope coiled about a tree."

text: Shen is also known for his

text: cosmological

text: hypotheses in explaining the variations of

text: planetary motion

text: s, including

text: retrogradation

text: . His colleague Wei Pu realized that the old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the

text: apparent Sun

text: , since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion, and behind it in the retarded phase. Shen's hypotheses were similar to the concept of the

text: epicycle

text: in the

text: Greco-Roman

text: tradition, only Shen compared the side-section of

text: orbit

text: al paths of planets and variations of planetary speeds to points in the tips of a

text: willow

text: leaf. In a similar rudimentary physical analogy of celestial motions, as John B. Henderson describes it, Shen likened the relationship of the Moon's path to the ecliptic, the path of the Sun, "to the figure of a rope coiled about a tree."

text: Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'. The recurved falls, are  long and 2.5-3.5cm wide, with dark veining, and a black velvet-like signal patch. In the middle of the falls, also is a row of short hairs called the 'beard', which is made up of, of long bright yellow, or white hairs, with lateral short purple hairs. The obovate standards, are  long and 4-5cm wide, and a similar colour to the falls.

text: sepals

text: tepals

text: ), known as the 'standards'. The recurved falls, are  long and 2.5-3.5cm wide, with dark veining, and a black velvet-like signal patch. In the middle of the falls, also is a row of short hairs called the 'beard', which is made up of, of long bright yellow, or white hairs, with lateral short purple hairs. The obovate standards, are  long and 4-5cm wide, and a similar colour to the falls.

text: In general, super-Earths are defined exclusively by their mass, and the term does not imply temperatures, compositions, orbital properties, habitability, or environments are cited in definitions of super-Earths. While sources generally agree on an upper bound of 10 Earth masses, (~69% of the mass of Uranus, which is the Solar System gas giant with the least mass), the lower bound varies from 1 or 1.9 to 5, with various other definitions appearing in the popular media. The term "super-Earth" is also used by astronomers to refer to planets bigger than Earth-like planets (from 0.8 to 1.25 Earth-radii), but smaller than mini-Neptunes (from 2 to 4 Earth-radii). This definition was made by the Kepler Mission. Some authors further suggest that the term be limited to planets without a significant atmosphere, or planets that have not just atmospheres but also solid surfaces or oceans with a sharp boundary between liquid and atmosphere, which the four giant planets in the Solar System do not have. Planets above 10 Earth masses are termed massive solid planets/mega-Earths or gas giant planets depending on whether they are mostly rock and ice or mostly gas.

text: In general, super-Earths are defined exclusively by their

text: mass

text: , and the term does not imply temperatures, compositions, orbital properties, habitability, or environments are cited in definitions of super-Earths. While sources generally agree on an upper bound of 10

text: Earth mass

text: es, (~69% of the mass of

text: Uranus

text: , which is the Solar System gas giant with the least mass), the lower bound varies from 1 or 1.9 to 5, with various other definitions appearing in the popular media. The term "super-Earth" is also used by astronomers to refer to planets bigger than Earth-like planets (from 0.8 to 1.25 Earth-radii), but smaller than

text: mini-Neptune

text: s (from 2 to 4 Earth-radii). This definition was made by the Kepler Mission. Some authors further suggest that the term be limited to planets without a significant atmosphere, or planets that have not just atmospheres but also solid surfaces or oceans with a sharp boundary between liquid and atmosphere, which the four giant planets in the Solar System do not have. Planets above 10 Earth masses are termed

entity_section: Massive solid planets and giant planets with massive cores

text: massive solid planet

text: s/

text: mega-Earth

text: s or

text: gas giant planet

text: s depending on whether they are mostly rock and ice or mostly gas.

text: Near Cape Mendocino, the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The Mendocino Fracture Zone (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the Gorda Ridge) is a transform fault that separates the Pacific and Gorda Plates. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and North American Plate is accommodated by the San Andreas Fault, and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the Cascadia Subduction Zone. Earthquakes within the Gorda Plate are the result of north-south compression at the Mendocino Fault.

text: Near

text: Cape Mendocino

text: , the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: Gorda Ridge

text: ) is a

text: transform fault

text: that separates the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: Gorda Plate

text: North American Plate

text: is accommodated by the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: Cascadia Subduction Zone

text: . Earthquakes within the Gorda Plate are the result of north-south compression at the Mendocino Fault.

text: According to Sitchin's interpretation of Mesopotamian iconography and symbolism, outlined in his 1976 book The 12th Planet and its sequels, there is an undiscovered planet beyond Neptune that follows a long, elliptical orbit, reaching the inner solar system roughly every 3,600 years. This planet is called Nibiru (although Jupiter was the planet associated with the god Marduk in Babylonian cosmology). According to Sitchin, Nibiru (whose name was replaced with MARDUK in original legends by the Babylonian ruler of the same name in an attempt to co-opt the creation for himself, leading to some confusion among readers) collided catastrophically with Tiamat (a goddess in the Babylonian creation myth the Enûma Eliš), which he considers to be another planet once located between Mars and Jupiter. This collision supposedly formed the planet Earth, the asteroid belt, and the comets. Sitchin states that when struck by one of planet Nibiru's moons, Tiamat split in two, and then on a second pass Nibiru itself struck the broken fragments and one half of Tiamat became the asteroid belt. The second half, struck again by one of Nibiru's moons, was pushed into a new orbit and became today's planet Earth.

text: According to Sitchin's interpretation of Mesopotamian iconography and symbolism, outlined in his 1976 book The 12th Planet and its sequels, there is an undiscovered planet

text: beyond Neptune

text: that follows a long, elliptical orbit, reaching the inner solar system roughly every 3,600 years. This planet is called Nibiru (although

text: Jupiter

text: was the planet associated with the god

text: Marduk

text: in

text: Babylonia

text: n cosmology). According to Sitchin, Nibiru (whose name was replaced with MARDUK in original legends by the Babylonian ruler of the same name in an attempt to co-opt the creation for himself, leading to some confusion among readers) collided

text: catastrophically

text: with

text: Tiamat

text: (a goddess in the Babylonian creation myth the

text: Enûma Eliš

text: ), which he considers to be another planet once located between

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: . This collision supposedly formed the planet Earth, the

text: asteroid belt

text: , and the

text: comet

text: s. Sitchin states that when struck by one of planet Nibiru's moons, Tiamat split in two, and then on a second pass Nibiru itself struck the broken fragments and one half of Tiamat became the asteroid belt. The second half, struck again by one of Nibiru's moons, was pushed into a new orbit and became today's planet Earth.

text: The internal heating within terrestrial planets powers tectonic and volcanic activities. Of the terrestrial planets in the Solar System, Earth has the most internal heating because it is the most massive. Mercury and Mars have no ongoing visible surface effects of internal heating because they are only 5 and 11% the mass of Earth respectively; they are nearly "geologically dead" (however, see Mercury's magnetic field and Geological history of Mars).  Earth, being more massive, has a great enough ratio of mass to surface area for its internal heating to drive plate tectonics and volcanism.

text: The internal heating within

text: terrestrial planet

text: s powers

text: tectonic

text: and

text: volcanic

text: activities. Of the terrestrial planets in the Solar System,

text: Earth

text: has the most internal heating because it is the most massive.

text: Mercury

text: and

text: Mars

text: have no ongoing visible surface effects of internal heating because they are only 5 and 11% the mass of Earth respectively; they are nearly "geologically dead" (however, see

text: Mercury's magnetic field

text: and

text: Geological history of Mars

text: ).  Earth, being more massive, has a great enough ratio of mass to surface area for its internal heating to drive

text: plate tectonics

text: and

text: volcanism

text: For computational purposes, early exoplanet mantle convection models assumed the planet was in a quasi-steady state, that is, the heat input from the core-mantle boundary or internal mantle heating remained constant throughout the model run. Later studies such as that of Noack and Breuer (2014) show that this assumption may have important implications, resulting in a gradual increase of the temperature differential between the core and mantle. A planet modeled with realistic decrease of internal heating throughout time had a lower likelihood of entering a plate tectonic regime compared to the quasi-steady state model.

text: HD 89307 b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HD 89307 located approximately 108 light-years away in the constellation of Leo. The planet takes 187 megaseconds to orbit (roughly 2164 days or 5.9 years). The planet’s minimum mass is 1.92 M since the inclination is unknown. As it is typical for most of the long-period planets, the eccentricity is greater than any planets in the Solar System, orbiting at the average distance of 491 gigameters. The speed of the wobble caused by the planet’s gravity is 31 meters per second. The average orbital velocity is 16.6 m/s.

text: HD 89307 b is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: orbiting the star

text: HD 89307

text: located approximately 108

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Leo

text: . The planet takes 187

text: megasecond

text: s to orbit (roughly 2164 days or 5.9 years). The planet’s

text: minimum mass

text: is 1.92 M since the

text: inclination

text: is unknown. As it is typical for most of the long-period planets, the eccentricity is greater than any planets in the

text: Solar System

text: , orbiting at the average distance of 491

text: gigameter

text: s. The speed of the

text: wobble

text: caused by the planet’s

text: gravity

text: is 31

text: meters per second

text: . The average

text: orbital velocity

text: is 16.6 m/s.

text: In 2013, a circumstellar disk that resulted from the destruction of a water-rich asteroid was detected in close orbit around GD 61, which makes this the first detection of solid or liquid water on an extrasolar body. This asteroid would originally have been 26% water by mass, close to the water content of Ceres. This evidence suggests that a planet, with a rocky surface similar to Earth's, may have existed in the past, with the asteroid thus being an artifact from this period, now possibly part of a debris field from the hypothetical planet's breakup. Such a planet would have had both a rocky surface and water, two key ingredients for life. The researchers used the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph on the Hubble Space Telescope to determine the elemental composition. The elements magnesium, silicon, iron, and oxygen were detected, all components of rocky planets, although the levels of oxygen were much higher than what could be accounted for. The lack of associated carbon left only one candidate for the oxygen excess—water.

text: In 2013, a circumstellar disk that resulted from the destruction of a water-rich asteroid was detected in close orbit around GD 61, which makes this the first detection of solid or liquid water on an

text: extrasolar

text: body. This asteroid would originally have been 26% water by mass, close to the water content of

text: Ceres

text: . This evidence suggests that a planet, with a rocky surface similar to Earth's, may have existed in the past, with the asteroid thus being an artifact from this period, now possibly part of a debris field from the hypothetical planet's breakup. Such a planet would have had both a rocky surface and water, two key ingredients for life. The researchers used the

text: Cosmic Origins Spectrograph

text: on the Hubble Space Telescope to determine the elemental composition. The elements magnesium, silicon, iron, and oxygen were detected, all components of rocky planets, although the levels of oxygen were much higher than what could be accounted for. The lack of associated carbon left only one candidate for the oxygen excess—water.

text: The volcanoes of Mars are very similar to the shield volcanoes on Earth. Both have gently sloping flanks, collapse craters along their central structure, and are built of highly fluid lavas. Volcanic features on Mars were observed long before they were first studied in detail during the 1976–1979 Viking mission. The principal difference between the volcanoes of Mars and those on Earth is in terms of size; Martian volcanoes range in size up to  high and  in diameter, far larger than the  high,  wide Hawaiian shields. The highest of these, Olympus Mons, is the tallest known mountain on any planet in the solar system.

text: The

text: volcanoes of Mars

text: are very similar to the shield volcanoes on Earth. Both have gently sloping flanks, collapse craters along their central structure, and are built of highly fluid lavas. Volcanic features on Mars were observed long before they were first studied in detail during the 1976–1979

text: Viking mission

text: . The principal difference between the volcanoes of Mars and those on Earth is in terms of size; Martian volcanoes range in size up to  high and  in diameter, far larger than the  high,  wide Hawaiian shields. The highest of these,

text: Olympus Mons

text: , is the tallest known mountain on any planet in the solar system.

text: Kepler-11f is an exoplanet (extrasolar planet) discovered in the orbit of the sun-like star Kepler-11 by NASA's Kepler spacecraft, which searches for planets that transit (cross in front of) their host stars. Kepler-11f is the fifth planet from its star, orbiting one quarter of the distance (.25 AU) of the Earth from the Sun every 47 days. It is the furthest of the first five planets in the system. Kepler-11f is the least massive of Kepler-11's six planets, at nearly twice the mass of Earth; it is about 2.6 times the radius of Earth. Along with planets d and e and unlike the two inner planets in the system, Kepler-11f has a density lower than that of water and comparable to that of Saturn. This suggests that Kepler-11f has a significant hydrogen–helium atmosphere. The Kepler-11 planets constitute the first system discovered with more than three transiting planets. Kepler-11f was announced to the public on February 2, 2011 after follow-up investigations at several observatories.  Analysis of the planets and study results were published the next day  in the journal Nature.

text: Kepler-11f is an

text: exoplanet

text: (extrasolar planet) discovered in the orbit of the sun-like star

text: by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Kepler spacecraft

text: , which searches for planets that

text: transit

text: (cross in front of) their host stars. Kepler-11f is the fifth planet from its star, orbiting one quarter of the distance (.25

text: AU

text: ) of the Earth from the Sun every 47 days. It is the furthest of the first five planets in the system. Kepler-11f is the least massive of Kepler-11's six planets, at nearly twice the mass of Earth; it is about 2.6 times the radius of Earth. Along with planets d and e and unlike the two inner planets in the system, Kepler-11f has a density lower than that of water and comparable to that of

text: Saturn

text: . This suggests that Kepler-11f has a significant hydrogen–helium atmosphere. The Kepler-11 planets constitute the first system discovered with more than three transiting planets. Kepler-11f was announced to the public on February 2, 2011 after follow-up investigations at several observatories.  Analysis of the planets and study results were published the next day  in the journal

text: Nature

text: Smaller gas planets and planets closer to their star will lose atmospheric mass more quickly via hydrodynamic escape than larger planets and planets farther out.

text: Smaller gas planets and planets closer to their star will lose atmospheric mass more quickly via

text: hydrodynamic escape

text: than larger planets and planets farther out.

text: Straddling the dichotomy boundary in Mars's western hemisphere is a massive volcano-tectonic province known as the Tharsis region or the Tharsis bulge. This immense, elevated structure is thousands of kilometers in diameter and covers up to 25% of the planet’s surface. Averaging 7–10 km above datum (Martian "sea" level), Tharsis contains the highest elevations on the planet and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System. Three enormous volcanoes, Ascraeus Mons, Pavonis Mons, and Arsia Mons (collectively known as the Tharsis Montes), sit aligned NE-SW along the crest of the buldge. The vast Alba Mons (formerly Alba Patera) occupies the northern part of the region. The huge shield volcano Olympus Mons lies off the main buldge, at the western edge of the province. The extreme massiveness of Tharsis has placed tremendous stresses on the planet’s lithosphere. As a result, immense extensional fractures (grabens and rift valleys) radiate outward from Tharsis, extending halfway around the planet.

text: Straddling the dichotomy boundary in Mars's western hemisphere is a massive volcano-tectonic province known as the

text: Tharsis

text: region or the Tharsis bulge. This immense, elevated structure is thousands of kilometers in diameter and covers up to 25% of the planet’s surface. Averaging 7–10 km above datum (Martian "sea" level), Tharsis contains the highest elevations on the planet and the largest known volcanoes in the Solar System. Three enormous volcanoes,

text: Ascraeus Mons

text: Pavonis Mons

text: , and

text: Arsia Mons

text: (collectively known as the

text: Tharsis Montes

text: ), sit aligned NE-SW along the crest of the buldge. The vast

text: Alba Mons

text: (formerly Alba Patera) occupies the northern part of the region. The huge

text: shield volcano

text: Olympus Mons

text: lies off the main buldge, at the western edge of the province. The extreme massiveness of Tharsis has placed tremendous

text: stresses

text: on the planet’s

text: lithosphere

text: . As a result, immense extensional fractures (

text: grabens

text: and

text: rift valley

text: s) radiate outward from Tharsis, extending halfway around the planet.

text: The runaway greenhouse effect has several meanings. At the least extreme, this implies global warming sufficient to induce out-of-control amplifying feedbacks, such as ice sheet disintegration and melting of methane hydrates. At the most extreme, a Venus-like planet with crustal carbon baked into the atmosphere and a surface temperature of several hundred degrees, an irreversible climate state.

text: The runaway greenhouse effect has several meanings. At the least extreme, this implies global warming sufficient to induce out-of-control amplifying feedbacks, such as ice sheet disintegration and melting of methane hydrates. At the most extreme, a Venus-like planet with crustal carbon baked into the atmosphere and a surface temperature of several hundred degrees, an irreversible

text: climate state

text: Eden's terraforming process uses a bioagent that breaks apart oxygen bonds, carrying the potential to also destroy boptronic computer systems and humans by breaking down their organic molecules. At first Eden performs a number of tests with early versions of the bioagent in testwells aligned with a fault line leading almost all the way up to Plymouth's colony. "The Blight", the uncontrolled expansion of the bioagent, is unleashed upon New Terra when one of their advanced labs explodes. Eden has to evacuate to run from the, at first, mostly unknown cause of the disaster. The water produced by the breaking of oxygen bonds lubricates dormant fault lines, and the air released begins to thicken and storm. These result in more frequent occurrences of earthquakes, lightning storms, and other natural disasters. In Plymouth, a dormant volcano erupts nearby, also forcing them to leave the area. To top off the disasters, the planet does not have enough atmosphere to burn off asteroids as it passes through an asteroid belt. Both factions soon come to the conclusion that New Terra is about to become uninhabitable, and the progressing Blight will soon engulf the entire planet. They decide to evacuate New Terra, but as they discover there are not enough resources left on the planet for two spaceships, confrontation is inevitable.

text: Eden's terraforming process uses a

text: bioagent

text: that breaks apart oxygen bonds, carrying the potential to also destroy boptronic computer systems and humans by breaking down their organic molecules. At first Eden performs a number of tests with early versions of the bioagent in testwells aligned with a fault line leading almost all the way up to Plymouth's colony. "

text: The Blight

text: ", the uncontrolled expansion of the bioagent, is unleashed upon New Terra when one of their advanced labs explodes. Eden has to evacuate to run from the, at first, mostly unknown cause of the disaster. The water produced by the breaking of oxygen bonds lubricates dormant fault lines, and the air released begins to thicken and storm. These result in more frequent occurrences of earthquakes, lightning storms, and other natural disasters. In Plymouth, a dormant volcano erupts nearby, also forcing them to leave the area. To top off the disasters, the planet does not have enough atmosphere to burn off asteroids as it passes through an asteroid belt. Both factions soon come to the conclusion that New Terra is about to become uninhabitable, and the progressing Blight will soon engulf the entire planet. They decide to evacuate New Terra, but as they discover there are not enough resources left on the planet for two spaceships, confrontation is inevitable.

text: When images are first obtained of the surface of a planet or satellite, a theme for naming features is chosen and a few important features are named, usually by members of the appropriate IAU task group (a commonly accepted planet-naming group). Later, as higher resolution images and maps become available, additional features are named at the request of investigators mapping or describing specific surfaces, features, or geologic formations. Anyone may suggest that a specific name be considered by a task group. If the members of the task group agree that the name is appropriate, it can be retained for use when there is a request from a member of the scientific community that a specific feature be named. Names successfully reviewed by a task group are submitted to the IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). Upon successful review by the members of the WGPSN, names are considered provisionally approved and can be used on maps and in publications as long as the provisional status is clearly stated. Provisional names are then presented for adoption to the IAU's General Assembly, which met triennially in the past, and which now adopts nomenclature for planetary surface features as required. A name is not considered to be official — that is, "adopted" — until the General Assembly has given its approval.

text: When images are first obtained of the surface of a planet or satellite, a theme for naming features is chosen and a few important features are named, usually by members of the appropriate IAU task group (a commonly accepted planet-naming group). Later, as higher

text: resolution

text: images and maps become available, additional features are named at the request of investigators mapping or describing specific surfaces, features, or

text: geologic

text: formations. Anyone may suggest that a specific name be considered by a task group. If the members of the task group agree that the name is appropriate, it can be retained for use when there is a request from a member of the scientific community that a specific feature be named. Names successfully reviewed by a task group are submitted to the IAU Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN). Upon successful review by the members of the WGPSN, names are considered provisionally approved and can be used on

text: maps

text: and in publications as long as the provisional status is clearly stated. Provisional names are then presented for adoption to the IAU's General Assembly, which met triennially in the past, and which now adopts nomenclature for planetary surface features as required. A name is not considered to be official — that is, "adopted" — until the General Assembly has given its approval.

text: The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, and it is no thicker than , which is much thicker than Earth's crust which varies between  and . As a result, Mars' crust does not easily deform, as was shown by the recent radar map of the south polar ice cap which does not deform the crust despite being about 3 km thick.

text: The core is surrounded by a silicate

text: mantle

text: that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, and it is no thicker than , which is much thicker than Earth's crust which varies between  and . As a result, Mars' crust does not easily deform, as was shown by the recent radar map of the south polar ice cap which does not deform the crust despite being about 3 km thick.

text: The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates, which form their crusts and mantles, and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).

text: The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense,

text: rocky

text: compositions, few or no

text: moons

text: , and no

text: ring systems

text: . They are composed largely of

text: refractory

text: minerals, such as the

text: silicate

text: s, which form their

text: crusts

text: and

text: mantles

text: , and metals, such as

text: iron

text: and

text: nickel

text: , which form their

text: cores

text: . Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have

text: atmosphere

text: s substantial enough to generate

text: weather

text: ; all have

text: impact crater

text: s and

text: tectonic

text: surface features, such as

text: rift valley

text: s and

text: volcano

text: inferior planet

text: , which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).

text: The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 K to 700 K at the most extreme places: 0°N, 0°W, or 180°W. It never rises above 180 K at the poles,due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. The subsolar point reaches about 700 K during perihelion (0°W or 180°W), but only 550 K at aphelion (90° or 270°W).On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K.The intensity of sunlight on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370 W·m).

text: The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 K to 700 K at the most extreme places: 0°N, 0°W, or 180°W. It never rises above 180 K at the poles,due to the absence of an atmosphere and a steep temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. The subsolar point reaches about 700 K during

text: perihelion

text: (0°W or 180°W), but only 550 K at

text: aphelion

text: (90° or 270°W).On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K.The intensity of

text: sunlight

text: on Mercury's surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the

text: solar constant

text: (1,370 W·m).

text: A scale model of the solar system, the Sagan Planet Walk, begins in the Commons. The Planet Walk is named after famed Cornell University astronomer Carl Sagan, and stretches 3/4 mile from to the Sciencenter. The inner ring planets all fit on a short section of Bank Alley.

text: A scale model of the

text: solar system

text: , the

text: Sagan Planet Walk

text: , begins in the Commons. The Planet Walk is named after famed

text: Cornell University

text: astronomer

text: Carl Sagan

text: , and stretches 3/4 mile from to the

text: Sciencenter

text: . The inner ring planets all fit on a short section of Bank Alley.

text: Kepler-40b, formerly known as KOI-428b, is a hot Jupiter discovered in orbit around the star Kepler-40, which is about to become a red giant. The planet was first noted as a transit event by NASA's Kepler spacecraft. The Kepler team made data collected by its satellite publicly available, including data on Kepler-40; French and Swiss astronomers used the equivalent to one night of measurements on the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph to collect all the data needed to show that a planet was producing the periodic dimming of Kepler-40. The planet, Kepler-40b, is twice the mass of Jupiter and slightly larger than it in size, making it as dense as Neptune. The planet is also nearly thirteen times hotter than Jupiter and orbits five times closer to its star than Mercury is from the Sun.

text: Kepler-40b, formerly known as KOI-428b, is a

text: hot Jupiter

text: discovered in orbit around the star

text: , which is about to become a

text: red giant

text: . The planet was first noted as a transit event by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Kepler

text: spacecraft. The Kepler team made data collected by its satellite publicly available, including data on Kepler-40; French and Swiss astronomers used the equivalent to one night of measurements on the

text: SOPHIE échelle spectrograph

text: to collect all the data needed to show that a planet was producing the periodic dimming of Kepler-40. The planet, Kepler-40b, is twice the mass of

text: Jupiter

text: and slightly larger than it in size, making it as dense as

text: Neptune

text: . The planet is also nearly thirteen times hotter than Jupiter and orbits five times closer to its star than

text: Mercury

text: is from the Sun.

text: The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone. However, the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet, making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect.

text: The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the

text: circumstellar habitable zone

text: . However, the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet, making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect.

text: In contrast to the outer planets, the inner planets are not thought to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System, because their orbits have remained stable following the period of giant impacts.

text: Kepler's first major astronomical work, Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Cosmographic Mystery) [1596], was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an epiphany on July 19, 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realized that regular polygons bound one inscribed and one circumscribed circle at definite ratios, which, he reasoned, might be the geometrical basis of the universe. After failing to find a unique arrangement of polygons that fit known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler began experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical orbs; nesting these solids, each encased in a sphere, within one another would produce six layers, corresponding to the six known planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids selectively—octahedron, icosahedron, dodecahedron, tetrahedron, cube—Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its orbital period: from inner to outer planets, the ratio of increase in orbital period is twice the difference in orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not precise enough.

text: Kepler's first major astronomical work,

text: Mysterium Cosmographicum

text: (The Cosmographic Mystery) [1596], was the first published defense of the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have had an

text: epiphany

text: on July 19, 1595, while teaching in

text: Graz

text: , demonstrating the periodic

text: conjunction

text: of

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: in the

text: zodiac

text: : he realized that

text: regular polygon

text: polyhedra

text: . He found that each of the five

text: Platonic solid

text: s could be inscribed and circumscribed by spherical

text: orbs

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: Mars

text: , Jupiter, and Saturn. By ordering the solids selectively—

text: octahedron

text: icosahedron

text: dodecahedron

text: tetrahedron

text: cube

text: —Kepler found that the spheres could be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative sizes of each planet's path, assuming the planets circle the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating the size of each planet's orb to the length of its

text: orbital period

text: Many proteins are extremely temperature-sensitive, and in many cases can start to denature at temperatures of only 4 degrees celsius. Within the microchannels, temperatures exceed 4 degrees celsius, but the machine is designed to cool quickly so that the time the cells are exposed to elevated temperatures is extremely short (residence time 25 ms-40 ms). Because of this effective temperature control, the Microfluidizer yields higher levels of active proteins and enzymes than other mechanical methods when the proteins are temperature-sensitive.

text: Many proteins are extremely temperature-sensitive, and in many cases can start to denature at temperatures of only 4 degrees celsius. Within the microchannels, temperatures exceed 4 degrees celsius, but the machine is designed to cool quickly so that the time the cells are exposed to elevated temperatures is extremely short (

text: residence time

text: 25 ms-40 ms). Because of this effective temperature control, the Microfluidizer yields higher levels of active proteins and enzymes than other mechanical methods when the proteins are temperature-sensitive.

text: Goddard claims that the very high surface temperatures on Venus are largely attributable to its "extremely high atmospheric pressure" and that the composition of the Venusian atmosphere, which is 96% carbon dioxide, has little influence over surface temperatures on the planet. Though he does not cite him specifically, Goddard's claim echoes the ideas outlined in a 2003 paper authored by Hans Jelbring, which also posits that surface temperatures on a planet are directly influenced by the size of the mass of the atmosphere.

text: Goddard claims that the very high surface temperatures on Venus are largely attributable to its "extremely high atmospheric pressure" and that the composition of the

text: Venusian atmosphere

text: , which is 96% carbon dioxide, has little influence over surface temperatures on the planet. Though he does not cite him specifically, Goddard's claim echoes the ideas outlined in a 2003 paper authored by Hans Jelbring, which also posits that surface temperatures on a planet are directly influenced by the size of the mass of the atmosphere.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many

text: farm

text: s require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a

text: power plant

text: that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: Sedna has an exceptionally long and elongated orbit, taking approximately 11,400 years to complete and a distant point of closest approach to the Sun at 76 AU. These facts have led to much speculation about its origin. The Minor Planet Center currently places Sedna in the scattered disc, a group of objects sent into highly elongated orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune. However, this classification has been contested, because Sedna never comes close enough to Neptune to have been scattered by it, leading some astronomers to conclude that it is in fact the first known member of the inner Oort cloud. Others speculate that it might have been tugged into its current orbit by a passing star, perhaps one within the Sun's birth cluster (an open cluster), or even that it was captured from another star system. Another hypothesis suggests that its orbit may be evidence for a large planet beyond the orbit of Neptune.

text: Sedna has an exceptionally long and elongated orbit, taking approximately 11,400 years to complete and a distant point of closest approach to the Sun at 76 AU. These facts have led to much speculation about its origin. The

text: Minor Planet Center

text: currently places Sedna in the

text: scattered disc

text: , a group of objects sent into highly elongated orbits by the gravitational influence of Neptune. However, this classification has been contested, because Sedna never comes close enough to Neptune to have been scattered by it, leading some astronomers to conclude that it is in fact the first known member of the

text: inner Oort cloud

text: . Others speculate that it might have been tugged into its current orbit by a passing star, perhaps one within the Sun's birth cluster (an

text: open cluster

text: ), or even that it was captured from another star system. Another hypothesis suggests that its orbit may be evidence for a large

text: planet beyond the orbit of Neptune

text: Many authors define "satellite" or "natural satellite" as orbiting some planet or minor planet, synonymous with "moon"—by such a definition all natural satellites are moons, but Earth and other planets are not satellites.A few recent authors define "moon" as "a satellite of a planet or minor planet", and "planet" as "a satellite of a star"—such authors consider Earth as a "natural satellite of the sun".

text: The Indiana State Senate is operated according to a set of internal regulations developed and maintained largely by tradition. These rules are similar to the rules that govern the upper house most of the state senates in the United States. The Senate convenes its annual session the first Tuesday following the first Monday of January every year. In odd numbered years the senate must meet for 61 days (not necessarily consecutive days), and must adjourn no later than April 30. This is typically called a long session. In even numbered years, when elections are held, the Senate must meet for 30 days (not necessarily consecutive days) and adjourn no later than March 15. This is typically called the short session. The only time the senate may convene outside of these dates is if the Governor calls a special assembly.

text: The extended-belt asteroids were located between the current inner boundary of the asteroid belt and the orbit of Mars with semi-major axis ranging from 1.7 to 2.1 astronomical units (AU). In the current Solar System most orbits in this region are unstable due to the presence of the ν6 secular resonance. However, prior to the giant planet migration described in the Nice model the outer planets would have been in a more compact configuration with nearly circular orbits.  With the planets in this configuration the ν6 secular resonance would be located outside the asteroid belt.   Stable orbits would have existed inside 2.1 AU and the inner edge of the primordial asteroid belt would have been defined by Mars crossing orbits.

text: The extended-belt

text: asteroids

text: were located between the current inner boundary of the asteroid belt and the

text: orbit

text: of

text: Mars

text: with

text: semi-major axis

text: ranging from 1.7 to 2.1

text: astronomical units

text: (AU). In the current

text: Solar System

text: most orbits in this region are unstable due to the presence of the ν6

text: secular resonance

text: . However, prior to the

text: giant planet

text: migration

text: described in the

text: Nice model

text: the

text: outer planets

text: would have been in a more compact configuration with nearly circular orbits.  With the planets in this configuration the ν6 secular resonance would be located outside the asteroid belt.   Stable orbits would have existed inside 2.1 AU and the inner edge of the primordial asteroid belt would have been defined by Mars crossing orbits.

text: In the years since, the term triple-junction has come to refer to any point where three tectonic plates meet.

text: Liquids are encapsulated using a rotating extrusion head containing concentric nozzles. In this process, a jet of core liquid is surrounded by a sheath of wall solution or melt. As the jet moves through the air it breaks, owing to Rayleigh instability, into droplets of core, each coated with the wall solution. While the droplets are in flight, the molten wall may be hardened or a solvent may be evaporated from the wall solution. Since most of the droplets are within ± 10% of the mean diameter, they land in a narrow ring around the spray nozzle. Hence, if needed, the capsules can be hardened after formation by catching them in a ring-shaped hardening bath. This process is excellent for forming particles  in diameter. Since the drops are formed by the breakup of a liquid jet, the process is only suitable for liquid or slurries. A high production rate can be achieved, up to  of microcapsules can be produced per nozzle per hour. Heads containing 16 nozzles are available.

text: Liquids are encapsulated using a rotating

text: extrusion

text: head containing concentric nozzles. In this process, a jet of core liquid is surrounded by a sheath of wall solution or melt. As the jet moves through the air it breaks, owing to

text: Rayleigh instability

text: , into droplets of core, each coated with the wall solution. While the droplets are in flight, the molten wall may be hardened or a solvent may be evaporated from the wall solution. Since most of the droplets are within ± 10% of the mean diameter, they land in a narrow ring around the spray nozzle. Hence, if needed, the capsules can be hardened after formation by catching them in a ring-shaped hardening bath. This process is excellent for forming particles  in diameter. Since the drops are formed by the breakup of a liquid jet, the process is only suitable for liquid or

text: slurries

text: . A high production rate can be achieved, up to  of microcapsules can be produced per nozzle per hour. Heads containing 16 nozzles are available.

text: The planet is estimated to be about five times Earth's mass (5.5 ). Some astronomers have speculated that it may have a rocky core like Earth, with a thin atmosphere. Its distance from the star, and the star's relatively low temperature, means that the planet's likely surface temperature is around , making it one of the coldest known. If it is a rocky world, this temperature would make it likely that the surface would be made of frozen volatiles, substances which would be liquids or gases on Earth: water, ammonia, methane and nitrogen would all be frozen solid. If it is not a rocky planet, it would more closely resemble an icy gas planet like Uranus, although much smaller.

text: The planet is estimated to be about five times Earth's mass (5.5 ). Some astronomers have speculated that it may have a rocky

text: core

text: like Earth, with a thin

text: atmosphere

text: . Its distance from the star, and the star's relatively low temperature, means that the planet's likely surface temperature is around , making it one of the coldest known. If it is a rocky world, this temperature would make it likely that the surface would be made of frozen

text: volatiles

text: , substances which would be liquids or gases on Earth: water,

text: ammonia

text: methane

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: would all be frozen solid. If it is not a rocky planet, it would more closely resemble an icy gas planet like

text: Uranus

text: , although much smaller.

text: dee-double-prime) layer. The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ~140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid,  the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 10 and 10 Pa·s, depending on depth. In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10 Pa·s and that of pitch is 10 Pa·s. The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.

text: dee-double-prime) layer. The

text: pressure

text: at the bottom of the mantle is ~140 G

text: Pa

text: (1.4 M

text: atm

text: ). The mantle is composed of

text: silicate

text: rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid,  the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently

text: ductile

text: that it can flow on very long timescales.

text: Convection

text: of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of

text: tectonic plates

text: . As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 10 and 10

text: Pa·s

text: , depending on depth. In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10

text: Pa·s

text: and that of

text: pitch

text: is 10 Pa·s. The

text: source of heat

text: that drives

text: plate tectonics

text: is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium,

text: thorium

text: , and

text: potassium

text: in Earth’s crust and mantle.

text: In either a near-future or alternate present reality, the Earth lies nearly desolate after extensive overuse of its resources in order to colonise other planets. The oceans had undergone 'oxygen mining' to electrolytically provide oxygen for the atmospheres for the new planets, and in doing so had left only the hydrogen extract from the water, which escaped the Earth and stripped the Earth's hospitable atmosphere to about a mile high, and insuring the extinction of most life. As a result, the remaining inhabitants that have not emigrated are forced to live on the drained ocean floors, and have become nocturnal so as to avoid the scorching heat and radiation of the Sun during the day. The last orbiting launch pads are falling out of the sky to the salt dunes and corals towers that were once the ocean bed, and after the last have fallen, the Earth is truly abandoned.

text: In either a near-future or alternate present reality, the Earth lies nearly desolate after extensive overuse of its resources in order to colonise other planets. The oceans had undergone 'oxygen mining' to electrolytically provide

text: oxygen

text: for the

text: atmospheres

text: for the new planets, and in doing so had left only the

text: hydrogen

text: extract from the water, which escaped the Earth and stripped the Earth's hospitable atmosphere to about a mile high, and insuring the extinction of most life. As a result, the remaining inhabitants that have not emigrated are forced to live on the drained ocean floors, and have become

text: nocturnal

text: so as to avoid the scorching heat and radiation of the Sun during the day. The last orbiting launch pads are falling out of the sky to the salt dunes and corals towers that were once the ocean bed, and after the last have fallen, the Earth is truly abandoned.

text: The retrograde motion of a planet is its apparent backward motion through the sky caused by the Earth travelling past a slower-moving outer planet, or when the Earth is itself passed by a faster-moving inner planet. The outer planets are retrograde for over 40% of the time. In astrology, this backward movement was traditionally thought to be unlucky or inauspicious, as it went against the 'natural' order of movement (or 'direct movement' as it is known).

text: The

text: retrograde motion

text: of a planet is its apparent backward motion through the sky caused by the Earth travelling past a slower-moving outer planet, or when the Earth is itself passed by a faster-moving inner planet. The outer planets are retrograde for over 40% of the time. In astrology, this backward movement was traditionally thought to be unlucky or inauspicious, as it went against the 'natural' order of movement (or 'direct movement' as it is known).

text: A different scenario occurs when the moon is either revolving around the primary faster than the primary rotates, or is revolving in the direction opposite the planet's rotation. In these cases, the tidal bulge lags behind the moon in its orbit. In the former case, the direction of angular momentum transfer is reversed, so the rotation of the primary speeds up while the satellite's orbit shrinks. In the latter case, the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs, so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each (that cancel each other out). In both cases, tidal deceleration causes the moon to spiral in towards the primary until it either is torn apart by tidal stresses, potentially creating a planetary ring system, or crashes into the planet's surface or atmosphere. Such a fate awaits the moons Phobos of Mars (within 30 to 50 million years), Triton of Neptune (in 3.6 billion years), Metis and Adrastea of Jupiter, and at least 16 small satellites of Uranus and Neptune. Uranus's Desdemona may even collide with one of its neighboring moons.

text: A different scenario occurs when the moon is either revolving around the primary faster than the primary rotates, or is revolving in the direction opposite the planet's rotation. In these cases, the tidal bulge lags behind the moon in its orbit. In the former case, the direction of angular momentum transfer is reversed, so the rotation of the primary speeds up while the satellite's orbit shrinks. In the latter case, the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs, so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each (that cancel each other out). In both cases,

text: tidal deceleration

text: causes the moon to spiral in towards the primary until it either is torn apart by tidal stresses, potentially creating a

text: planetary ring

text: system, or crashes into the planet's surface or atmosphere. Such a fate awaits the moons

text: Phobos

text: of Mars (within 30 to 50 million years),

text: Triton

text: of Neptune (in 3.6 billion years),

text: Metis

text: and

text: Adrastea

text: of Jupiter, and at least

text: 16 small satellites

text: of Uranus and Neptune. Uranus's

text: Desdemona

text: may even collide with one of its neighboring moons.

text: The population of a planet grows as the planet dwellers reproduce, but at 25% of maximum planet capacity the growth rate starts to slow.  For this reason it is best to keep a planets population at exactly 25%, shipping excess population to another world.   However, transport between planets is not instantaneous, and while moving the population is not (except for Inner Strength races) growing at all and so it is a good idea to have population in transit for the minimum possible time.  In addition, a point will be reached at which there is nowhere left to put excess population; in this situation it is advisable to start filling planets to 100%.

text: Planets with equilibrium temperatures between about 350 K (170 °F, 80 °C) and 800 K (980 °F, 530 °C) do not form global cloud cover, because they lack suitable chemicals in the atmosphere to form clouds. These planets would appear as featureless blue globes because of Rayleigh scattering and absorption by methane in their atmospheres, appearing like Jovian-mass versions of Uranus and Neptune. Because of the lack of a reflective cloud layer, the Bond albedo is low, around 0.12 for a class-III planet around a Sun-like star. They exist in the inner regions of a planetary system, roughly corresponding to the location of Mercury.

text: Planets with equilibrium temperatures between about 350 K (170 °F, 80 °C) and 800 K (980 °F, 530 °C) do not form global cloud cover, because they lack suitable chemicals in the atmosphere to form clouds. These planets would appear as featureless blue globes because of

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: and absorption by

text: methane

text: in their atmospheres, appearing like Jovian-mass versions of

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: . Because of the lack of a reflective cloud layer, the Bond albedo is low, around 0.12 for a class-III planet around a Sun-like star. They exist in the inner regions of a planetary system, roughly corresponding to the location of

text: Mercury

text: Sunday, being the day of the Sun, as the name of the first day of the week, is derived from Hellenistic astrology, where the seven planets, known in English as Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon, each had an hour of the day assigned to them, and the planet which was regent during the first hour of any day of the week gave its name to that day. During the 1st and 2nd century, the week of seven days was introduced into Rome from Egypt, and the Roman names of the planets were given to each successive day.

text: Sunday, being the day of the Sun, as the name of the first day of the week, is derived from

text: Hellenistic astrology

text: , where the

text: seven planets

text: , known in English as Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon, each had an hour of the day assigned to them, and the planet which was regent during the first hour of any day of the week gave its name to that day. During the 1st and 2nd century, the week of seven days was introduced into Rome from Egypt, and the Roman names of the planets were given to each successive day.

text: At the base of the Sun's convection zone the Magnetic Prandtl number is approximately 10, and in the interiors of planets and in liquid-metal laboratory dynamos is approximately 10.

text: At the base of the

text: Sun

text: 's

text: convection zone

text: the Magnetic Prandtl number is approximately 10, and in the interiors of planets and in liquid-metal laboratory dynamos is approximately 10.

text: In plate tectonics, sutures are seen as the remains of subduction zones, and the terranes that are joined together are interpreted as fragments of different paleocontinents or tectonic plates.

text: In plate tectonics, sutures are seen as the remains of

text: subduction zone

text: s, and the terranes that are joined together are interpreted as fragments of different paleo

text: continents

text: or

text: tectonic plate

text: s.

text: The modern understanding of planetary motion arose from the combined efforts of astronomer Tycho Brahe and physicist Johannes Kepler in the 16th century. Tycho is credited with extremely accurate measurements of planetary motions, from which Kepler was able to derive his laws of planetary motion.  According to these laws, planets move on ellipses (not epicycles) about the Sun (not the Earth). Kepler's second and third laws make specific quantitative predictions: planets sweep out equal areas in equal time, and the square of their orbital periods equals a fixed constant times the cube of their semi-major axis. Subsequent observations of the planetary orbits showed that the long axis of the ellipse (the so-called line of apsides) rotates gradually with time; this rotation is known as apsidal precession. The apses of an orbit are the points at which the orbiting body is closest or furthest away from the attracting center; for planets orbiting the Sun, the apses correspond to the perihelion (closest) and aphelion (furthest).

text: The modern understanding of planetary motion arose from the combined efforts of astronomer

text: Tycho Brahe

text: and physicist

text: Johannes Kepler

text: in the 16th century. Tycho is credited with extremely accurate measurements of planetary motions, from which Kepler was able to derive his

text: laws of planetary motion

text: .  According to these laws, planets move on

text: ellipse

text: s (not epicycles) about the

text: Sun

text: (not the Earth). Kepler's second and third laws make specific quantitative predictions: planets sweep out equal areas in equal time, and the square of their

text: orbital period

text: s equals a fixed constant times the cube of their

text: semi-major axis

text: . Subsequent observations of the planetary orbits showed that the long axis of the ellipse (the so-called line of apsides) rotates gradually with time; this rotation is known as apsidal precession. The

text: apses

text: of an orbit are the points at which the orbiting body is closest or furthest away from the attracting center; for planets orbiting the Sun, the apses correspond to the perihelion (closest) and aphelion (furthest).

text: Cotton was a leading New Zealand scientist, and became an international authority on geomorphology through the publication of his books and papers, the most notable of which include Geomorphology of New Zealand (1922), Landscape (1941), Geomorphology (1942), Climatic Accidents in Landscape Making (1942), Volcanoes as Landscape Forms (1944), The Earth Beneath (1945), Living on a Planet (1945), and New Zealand Geomorphology (1955).

text: The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At , it is the largest tectonic plate.

text: The Pacific Plate is an oceanic

text: tectonic plate

text: that lies beneath the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . At , it is the largest tectonic plate.

text: Perhaps the simplest manner in which to understand Hick's theory of pluralism of religions is to share the comparison he makes between his own understanding of religion and the Copernican view of our solar system.  Before Copernicus disseminated his views of the solar-centered universe, the Ptolemaic system ruled in which the stars were painted in the sky, and the sun rose and set around the earth.  In short, the rest of the universe existed for and was centered on earth.  On the other hand, Copernicus asserted that the earth, and other planets as well, circled the sun, which in fact, did not move, but only appeared to move due to the revolution of our planet.  Copernicus introduced our world to the understanding that other planets took similar paths around the sun; while each path differed, all served the same purpose and generated the same result:  every planet makes a full path around our central star. Rotation of a planet about its axis creates day and night for that planet, just as day and night occur on earth.  Although the time frames for a full trip around the sun and for a full day-night cycle differs on a planet-by-planet basis, the concept remains constant throughout our solar system.

text: Perhaps the simplest manner in which to understand Hick's theory of pluralism of religions is to share the comparison he makes between his own understanding of religion and the Copernican view of our solar system.  Before

text: Copernicus

text: disseminated his views of the solar-centered universe, the

text: Ptolemaic system

text: ruled in which the stars were painted in the sky, and the sun rose and set around the earth.  In short, the rest of the universe existed for and was centered on earth.  On the other hand, Copernicus asserted that the earth, and other planets as well, circled the sun, which in fact, did not move, but only appeared to move due to the revolution of our planet.  Copernicus introduced our world to the understanding that other planets took similar paths around the sun; while each path differed, all served the same purpose and generated the same result:  every planet makes a full path around our central star. Rotation of a planet about its axis creates day and night for that planet, just as day and night occur on earth.  Although the time frames for a full trip around the sun and for a full day-night cycle differs on a planet-by-planet basis, the concept remains constant throughout our solar system.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of BD+14°4559 b, the orbital period would have to be no greater than a month (28–29 days) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: orbital period

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of BD+14°4559 b, the orbital period would have to be no greater than a month (28–29 days) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals. Having higher densities than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called iron catastrophe resulted in the separation of a primitive mantle and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered structure of Earth and setting up the formation of Earth's magnetic field. J. A. Jacobs  was the first to suggest that the inner core—a solid center distinct from the liquid outer core—is freezing and growing out of the liquid outer core due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).

text: The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy,

text: siderophile

text: metal

text: s. Having higher

text: densities

text: than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called

text: iron catastrophe

text: resulted in the separation of a

text: primitive mantle

text: and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered

text: structure of Earth

text: and setting up the formation of

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: . J. A. Jacobs  was the first to suggest that the

text: inner core

text: —a solid center distinct from the liquid

text: outer core

text: —is

text: freezing

text: and growing out of the liquid outer core due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).

text: Kepler-20e is an exoplanet orbiting Kepler-20. The planet is notable as it is the first planet with a smaller radius than Earth found orbiting a Sun-like star. The planet is second-closest to the star after Kepler-20b, and at , it is far too hot to have liquid water on its surface. Along with the other four planets in the system, Kepler-20e was announced on 20 December 2011.<blockquote>"Kepler-20e is the first planet smaller than the Earth discovered to orbit a star other than the sun. A year on Kepler-20e only lasts 6 days, as it is much closer to its host star than the Earth is to the sun. The temperature at the surface of the planet, around 1400 degrees Fahrenheit, is much to hot to support life, as we know it.<br>Kepler-20e is likely to be entirely rocky and without an atmosphere. The planet is tidally locked, always showing the same side to its host star, as the moon to the Earth, and could have large temperature differences between its permanent night and day sides.

text: Kepler-20e is an

text: exoplanet

text: orbiting

text: . The planet is notable as it is the first planet with a smaller radius than

text: Earth

text: found orbiting a

text: Sun-like star

text: . The planet is second-closest to the star after

text: , and at , it is far too hot to have liquid water on its surface. Along with the other four planets in the system, Kepler-20e was announced on 20 December 2011.<blockquote>"Kepler-20e is the first planet smaller than the Earth discovered to orbit a star other than the sun. A year on Kepler-20e only lasts 6 days, as it is much closer to its host star than the Earth is to the sun. The temperature at the surface of the planet, around 1400 degrees Fahrenheit, is much to hot to support life, as we know it.<br>Kepler-20e is likely to be entirely rocky and without an atmosphere. The planet is tidally locked, always showing the same side to its host star, as the moon to the Earth, and could have large temperature differences between its permanent night and day sides.

text: Neutrino flux measurements from the Earth's core (see kamLAND) show the source of about two-thirds of the heat in the inner core is the radioactive decay of K, uranium and thorium.  This has allowed plate tectonics on Earth to continue far longer than it would have if it were simply driven by heat left over from Earth's formation; or with heat produced from gravitational potential energy, as a result of physical rearrangement of denser portions of the Earth's interior toward the center of the planet (i.e., a type of prolonged falling and settling).

text: Neutrino flux measurements from the Earth's core (see

entity_name: Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Antineutrino Detector

text: kamLAND

text: ) show the source of about two-thirds of the heat in the inner core is the

text: radioactive decay

text: of

text: K

text: , uranium and thorium.  This has allowed plate tectonics on Earth to continue far longer than it would have if it were simply driven by heat left over from Earth's formation; or with heat produced from gravitational

text: potential energy

text: , as a result of physical rearrangement of denser portions of the Earth's interior toward the center of the planet (i.e., a type of prolonged falling and settling).

text: In August 2005, two planets were discovered orbiting the star, the innermost like Neptune and another like Jupiter orbiting at 3.34 AU.  However, the second planet (HD 11964 b) was not confirmed until May 2007. In September 2007, P.C. Gregory claimed that there was a third planet in the system on the basis of Bayesian analysis of the radial velocity data. The planet was claimed to have a mass similar to that of Saturn and located in a 360-day orbit. Gregory cautioned that the close match between the period of this planet to being exactly a year meant that the radial velocity variations may have been caused by insufficient correction for the motion of the Earth in orbit around the Sun. The planet was not detected in re-reduced data in an analysis published in the Astrophysical Journal in 2009.

text: In August 2005, two planets were discovered orbiting the star, the innermost like Neptune and another like Jupiter orbiting at 3.34 AU.  However, the second planet (

text: HD 11964 b

text: ) was not confirmed until May 2007. In September 2007,

text: P.C. Gregory

text: claimed that there was a third planet in the system on the basis of

text: Bayesian analysis

text: of the radial velocity data. The planet was claimed to have a mass similar to that of

text: Saturn

text: and located in a 360-day orbit. Gregory cautioned that the close match between the period of this planet to being exactly a year meant that the radial velocity variations may have been caused by insufficient correction for the motion of the

text: Earth

text: in orbit around the Sun. The planet was not detected in re-reduced data in an analysis published in the

text: Astrophysical Journal

text: in 2009.

text: The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they are not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new classifications to describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity.  Some alert systems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages.  Other systems use colors and words.  Some systems use a combination of both.

text: __NOTOC__Elena Vladimirovna Pitjeva is a Russian astronomer working at the Institute of Applied Astronomy, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. She has published over 100 articles, as listed in Google Scholar and the Astrophysics Data System in the field of solar system dynamics and celestial mechanics .She began employment activity as an engineer-observer at the Astrophysical observation station of the Astronomical Observatory of Leningrad State University in Byurakan (Armenia). Then Pitjeva worked at the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy of the USSA Academy of Science and the Institute Applied Astronomy RAS since the date of its foundation in 1988 as researcher and senior researcher. At present she is head of the Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy of this institute.Major research interests of Dr. Pitjeva include the construction of numerical ephemerides of the planets, the determination of the planets' and asteroids' masses, the parameters of planet rotation and planetary topography, the solar corona and oblateness and general relativity testing. She is one of creators of the numerical Ephemerides of Planets and the Moon (EPM) of IAA RAS that originated in the seventies of the past century and have been developed since that time.  The version of the EPM2004 ephemeris has been adopted as the ephemeris basis of Russian Astronomical Yearbook since 2006. The updated EPM2008 ephemerides are available to outside users via ftp.The works of Pitjeva have recently been used by several scientists to test several models of modified gravity in the Solar System.Dr. Pitjeva has also contributed to a better understanding an influence of asteroids and Trans-Neptunian Objects on the planets' motion. Recently Dr. Pitjeva collaborated with Dr. Standish and proposed to the IAU Working Group on Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy (NSFA) the values of the masses of the three largest asteroids, the Moon-Earth mass ratio and the astronomical unit in meters, mainly obtained while fitting the constructed DE (JPL) and EPM (IAA RAS) planet ephemerides. These values have been adopted by the 27 General Assembly of International Astronomical Union as Current Best Estimates as the IAU (2009) System of Astronomical Constants.Pitjeva is a member of the International Astronomical Union: OC of Commission 4 “Ephemerides”,Commission 52 “Relativity in Fundamental Astronomy” IAU WG NSFA.”,

text: __NOTOC__Elena Vladimirovna Pitjeva is a

text: Russian

text: astronomer

text: working at the Institute of Applied Astronomy,

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: St. Petersburg

text: . She has published over 100 articles, as listed in

text: Google Scholar

text: and the

text: Astrophysics Data System

text: in the field of solar system dynamics and

text: celestial mechanics

text: .She began employment activity as an engineer-observer at the Astrophysical observation station of the Astronomical Observatory of

text: Leningrad State University

text: in

text: Byurakan

text: (Armenia). Then Pitjeva worked at the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy of the USSA Academy of Science and the Institute Applied Astronomy RAS since the date of its foundation in 1988 as researcher and senior researcher. At present she is head of the Laboratory of

text: Ephemeris

text: Astronomy of this institute.Major research interests of Dr. Pitjeva include the construction of numerical ephemerides of the planets, the determination of the planets' and asteroids' masses, the parameters of planet rotation and planetary topography, the solar corona and oblateness and

text: general relativity

text: testing. She is one of creators of the numerical Ephemerides of Planets and the Moon (EPM) of IAA RAS that originated in the seventies of the past century and have been developed since that time.  The version of the EPM2004 ephemeris has been adopted as the ephemeris basis of Russian Astronomical Yearbook since 2006. The updated EPM2008 ephemerides are available to outside users via ftp.The works of Pitjeva have recently been used by several scientists to test several models of modified gravity in the Solar System.Dr. Pitjeva has also contributed to a better understanding an influence of asteroids and

text: Trans-Neptunian Objects

text: on the planets' motion. Recently Dr. Pitjeva collaborated with

text: Dr. Standish

text: and proposed to the IAU Working Group on Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy (NSFA) the values of the masses of the three largest asteroids, the Moon-Earth mass ratio and the astronomical unit in meters, mainly obtained while fitting the constructed DE (JPL) and EPM (IAA RAS) planet ephemerides. These values have been adopted by the 27 General Assembly of

text: International Astronomical Union

text: as Current Best Estimates as the IAU (2009) System of Astronomical Constants.Pitjeva is a member of the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: : OC of Commission 4 “Ephemerides”,Commission 52 “Relativity in Fundamental Astronomy” IAU WG NSFA.”,

text: Some cores are made from metal fibers - generally the fibers are "woven" into a monolith. Such cores have the advantage that an electrical current can be passed through the monolith to heat the core for regeneration purposes, allowing the filter to regenerate at low exhaust temperatures and/or low exhaust flow rates. Metal fiber cores tend to be more expensive than cordierite or silicon carbide cores, and generally not interchangeable with them because of the electrical requirement.

text: Instead of bands, Plato's student Eudoxus developed a planetary model using concentric spheres for all the planets, with three spheres each for his models of the Moon and the Sun and four each for the models of the other five planets, thus making 26 spheres in all.Callippus modified this system, using five spheres for his models of the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars and retaining four spheres for the models of Jupiter and Saturn, thus making 33 spheres in all.  Each planet is attached to the innermost of its own particular set of spheres.  Although the models of Eudoxus and Callippus qualitatively describe the major features of the motion of the planets, they fail to account exactly for these motions and therefore cannot provide quantitative predictions. Although historians of Greek science have traditionally considered these models to be merely geometrical representations, recent studies have proposed that they were also intended to be physically real or have withheld judgment, noting the limited evidence to resolve the question.

text: Instead of bands, Plato's student Eudoxus developed a

text: planetary model

text: using

text: concentric spheres

text: for all the planets, with three spheres each for his models of the Moon and the Sun and four each for the models of the other five planets, thus making 26 spheres in all.

text: Callippus

text: modified this system, using five spheres for his models of the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars and retaining four spheres for the models of Jupiter and Saturn, thus making 33 spheres in all.  Each planet is attached to the innermost of its own particular set of spheres.  Although the models of Eudoxus and Callippus qualitatively describe the major features of the motion of the planets, they fail to account exactly for these motions and therefore cannot provide quantitative predictions. Although historians of Greek science have traditionally considered these models to be merely geometrical representations, recent studies have proposed that they were also intended to be physically real or have withheld judgment, noting the limited evidence to resolve the question.

text: The orbiting races terraform Earth by crashing ice comets into it to replenish the oceans, and seed the planet with genetically created organisms based upon re-sequenced DNA data saved from the escape to orbit. Once a breathable atmosphere is recreated, and sufficient plant and animal species have been reseeded, some members of the orbiting races ("Sooners") resettle the planet, in violation of treaty agreements.

text: The orbiting races

text: terraform

text: Earth by crashing ice comets into it to replenish the oceans, and seed the planet with genetically created organisms based upon re-sequenced

text: DNA

text: data saved from the escape to orbit. Once a breathable atmosphere is recreated, and sufficient plant and animal species have been reseeded, some members of the orbiting races ("Sooners") resettle the planet, in violation of treaty agreements.

text: In 2006, the term "small Solar System body" was also introduced to cover both most minor planets and comets. Other languages prefer "planetoid" (Greek for "planet-like"), and this term is occasionally used in English especially for larger minor planets such as the dwarf planets as well as an alternative for asteroids since they are not star-like. The word "planetesimal" has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to the small building blocks of the planets that existed when the Solar System was forming. The term "planetule" was coined by the geologist William Daniel Conybeare to describe minor planets, but is not in common use. The three largest objects in the asteroid belt, Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta, grew to the stage of protoplanets. Ceres is a dwarf planet, the only one in the inner Solar System.

text: In 2006, the term "

text: small Solar System body

text: " was also introduced to cover both most minor planets and comets. Other languages prefer "planetoid" (Greek for "planet-like"), and this term is occasionally used in English especially for larger minor planets such as the

text: dwarf planet

text: s as well as an alternative for asteroids since they are not star-like. The word "

text: planetesimal

text: " has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to the small building blocks of the planets that existed when the Solar System was forming. The term "planetule" was coined by the geologist

text: William Daniel Conybeare

text: to describe minor planets, but is not in common use. The three largest objects in the asteroid belt,

text: Ceres

text: Pallas

text: , and

text: Vesta

text: , grew to the stage of

text: protoplanet

text: s. Ceres is a

text: dwarf planet

text: , the only one in the inner Solar System.

text: The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration, and the rate of change of momentum is called force.  To reach a given velocity, one can apply a small acceleration over a long period of time, or one can apply a large acceleration over a short time.  Similarly, one can achieve a given impulse with a large force over a short time or a small force over a long time.  This means that for maneuvering in space, a propulsion method that produces tiny accelerations but runs for a long time can produce the same impulse as a propulsion method that produces large accelerations for a short time.  When launching from a planet, tiny accelerations cannot overcome the planet's gravitational pull and so cannot be used.

text: The rate of change of

text: velocity

text: is called

text: acceleration

text: , and the rate of change of

text: momentum

text: is called

text: force

text: .  To reach a given velocity, one can apply a small acceleration over a long period of time, or one can apply a large acceleration over a short time.  Similarly, one can achieve a given impulse with a large force over a short time or a small force over a long time.  This means that for maneuvering in space, a propulsion method that produces tiny accelerations but runs for a long time can produce the same impulse as a propulsion method that produces large accelerations for a short time.  When launching from a planet, tiny accelerations cannot overcome the planet's gravitational pull and so cannot be used.

text: |-| 7701 Zrzavý ||  || Jan Zrzavý, Czech artist †|-id=704| 7704 Dellen ||  || Dellen, Swedish lake system formed by a meteor impact †|-id=705| 7705 Humeln ||  || Humeln, Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=706| 7706 Mien ||  || Lake Mien, Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=707| 7707 Yes ||  || Yes, rock group*|-id=708| 7708 Fennimore ||  || Guy Fennimore, British secretary of the Society for Popular Astronomy (formerly the Junior Astronomical Society) |-id=710| 7710 Ishibashi ||  ||  Tadashi Ishibashi (b. 1926), retired sea captain, became interested in stars in 1936 and has observed meteors since 1940. Since 1947 he has collected and studied ancient documents about the stars. Currently he lectures on star topics aboard large passenger ships.|-id=711| 7711 Říp || 1994 XF || Říp, a hill near Prague, Czech Republic †|-id=713| 7713 Tsutomu || 1995 YE ||  Tsutomu Ishibashi (b. 1949), a Japanese amateur astronomer, has been using the same 0.1-m reflector to photograph Mars, Jupiter and Saturn since 1971 in order to maintain uniformity in the data contained in the images.|-id=714| 7714 Briccialdi ||  || Giulio Briccialdi, Italian composer*|-id=715| 7715 Leonidarosino ||  || Leonida Rosino, Italian astronomer*|-id=716| 7716 Ube ||  || |-id=717| 7717 Tabeisshi ||  || Japanese amateur astronomer Isshi Tabe (b. 1956) has observed Jupiter and other planets for over 25 years and has published many articles about planets. In 1997 he was given a Magellan Award by the Oriental Astronomical Association. He is also well-known as a planetarium program producer.|-id=718| 7718 Desnoux ||  || |-id=720| 7720 Lepaute || 4559 P-L ||  Named after Nicole-Reine Lepaute (1723-1788), extraordinarily talented French mathematician. The astronomers Lalande and Clairaut sought her help for the computations needed to predict the 1759 return of comet 1P/Halley. Lepaute's computations for the annular eclipse of 1764 were used throughout Europe. Unfortunately, years of calculation left her nearly blind.|-id=721| 7721 Andrillat || 6612 P-L || Yvette Andrillat and/or Henri Andrillat, French astronomers*|-id=722| 7722 Firneis || 2240 T-2 || Maria Firneis, Austrian astronomer*|-id=723| 7723 Lugger || 1952 QW ||  Phyllis Lugger (b. 1954), on the faculty of Indiana University, is known for her work on the luminosity functions of galaxies in clusters and on the dynamics of globular clusters and stellar systems, including the Milky Way galaxy and interacting binary stars. She has also worked on the identification of x-ray sources.|-id=724| 7724 Moroso || 1970 OB || Pascuala Moroso, Argentine farmer, upon whose land the Complejo Astronómico El Leoncito (the discovery site) lies |-id=725| 7725 Sel'vinskij ||  || Il'ya L'vovich Sel'vinskij, Soviet poet|-id=726| 7726 Olegbykov ||  || Oleg Pavlovich Bykov, Russian astronomer †|-id=727| 7727 Chepurova ||  ||  Valentina Mikhajlovna Chepurova, a celestial mechanician at the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in Moscow, is known for her research on the dynamics of the small bodies of the solar system by analytical and qualitative methods. As chair of celestial mechanics, she is also much involved with the education of students.|-id=728| 7728 Giblin ||  || Ian Giblin, British physicist |-id=729| 7729 Golovanov ||  || Yaroslav Kirillovich Golovanov, Russian space engineer and scientific journalist |-id=730| 7730 Sergerasimov ||  || Sergei Gerasimov, 20th-century Soviet actor, pedagogue, film director, and scenario writer |-id=734| 7734 Kaltenegger ||  || Austrian-born Lisa Kaltenegger (b. 1977), at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics since 2005, is involved in the use of space-based instruments to collect sufficient photons from extrasolar planets to characterize their physical and chemical composition and examine their potential habitability.|-id=735| 7735 Scorzelli ||  || Rosa Scorzelli, Brazilian meteoriticist |-id=736| 7736 Nizhnij Novgorod ||  || Nizhny Novgorod, Russia*|-id=737| 7737 Sirrah || 1981 VU || (= Harris backwards) Alan William Harris, astronomer*|-id=738| 7738 Heyman ||  || Named in honor of I. Michael Heyman (b. 1930), secretary and linchpin of the Smithsonian Institution's diverse and incomparably rich programs. Educator, legal scholar, civil rights champion, he has unfailingly supported research at the frontiers of astronomy.|-id=739| 7739 Čech || 1982 CE || Eduard Čech, Czech mathematician †|-id=740| 7740 Petit ||  || Named in honor of the French astronomer Jean-Marc Petit (b. 1961) for his work on the dynamics of planetary rings. Petit has also investigated the collisional evolution of the minor planet belt and the dynamical evolution of the (243) Ida-Dactyl system. Name suggested and citation provided by A. Morbidelli.|-id=741| 7741 Fedoseev ||  || Named in honor of Vladimir Ivanovich Fedoseev (b. 1932), outstanding Russian conductor. He has been artistic director of Tchaikovsky's symphony orchestra in Moscow since 1974. He is also a principal conductor of the Vienna Symphony Orchestra and guest conductor in Tokyo and in many other cities. Fedoseev promotes the Russian classical music of Glinka, Mussorgsky, Rakhmaninov, Sviridov and others. Name suggested by G. Sviridov and supported by the discoverer.|-id=742| 7742 Altamira || 1985 US || Altamira, cave in Spain with cave art †|-id=747| 7747 Michałowski || 1987 SO || Tadeusz Michałowski, Polish astronomer |-id=749| 7749 Jackschmitt || 1988 JP || Harrison 'Jack' Schmitt, American planetary geologist, last astronaut on the Moon, and later a senator |-id=750| 7750 McEwen ||  || Alfred McEwen, American planetary geologist |-id=752| 7752 Otauchunokai || 1988 US ||  Otauchunokai, founded in 1970, is an amateur astronomers' club in the Ota city area, Gunma prefecture. Club activities include observations, studies and public education in astronomy. The discoverers are members of this club.|-id=754| 7754 Gopalan ||  || Gopalan Srinivasan, Canadian geologist and meteoriticist |-id=755| 7755 Haute-Provence ||  || Observatoire de Haute-Provence, France*|-id=756| 7756 Scientia ||  || Science*|-id=757| 7757 Kameya || 1990 KO || Osamu Kameya, a researcher at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=758| 7758 Poulanderson || 1990 KT || Poul Anderson, American science fiction writer †|-id=763| 7763 Crabeels ||  || Henri Crabeels (b. 1904) is an internationally known organist and conductor in Antwerp. This minor planet is dedicated to him on the occasion of his 98th birthday.|-id=766| 7766 Jododaira ||  || Named for the place where the first really big star parties were held in Japan, the "Chiro's Star Festivals", from 1975 to 1984. Jododaira (1600 m above the sea) is near the top of Mt. Azuma, a famous volcano in Fukushima Prefecture in northeastern Japan. After the violent eruption of the volcano in 1893, Percival Lowell climbed the mountain to investigate the result of the eruption. One hundred years later, an astronomical observatory was established there and is open to the public. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by M. Koishikawa and T. Sato.|-id=767| 7767 Tomatic ||  || Named in honor of A. U. Tomatic (b. 1997), collaborator at the Minor Planet Center. An ardent computer of orbits and distributor of observational data of minor planets and comets, Tomatic published his first contribution to this field on MPEC 1997-Y01 (1997 Dec. 16). Tomatic is a godchild of the MPC astronomers B. G. Marsden and G. V. Williams. Name proposed by the first discoverer in gratitude for Tomatic's indefatigable service.|-id=769| 7769 Okuni ||  || Tomimaru Okuni (b. 1931), a retired teacher, is a Japanese amateur astronomer. He has been discovering new minor planets since 1995 at Nanyo in Yamagata prefecture.|-id=770| 7770 Siljan ||  || Siljan, Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=771| 7771 Tvären ||  || Tvären, Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=775| 7775 Taiko || 1992 XD || |-id=776| 7776 Takeishi || 1993 BF || |-id=777| 7777 Consadole ||  ||  Consadole, a team in the Japan Professional Football League J1, has its home in Sapporo city, Hokkaido. The team's name is an anagram combining the Japanese word Dosanco ("born in Hokkaido") and the Spanish olé ("bravo!"), a common international cheer at soccer games. The name was suggested by K. Watanabe.|-id=778| 7778 Markrobinson ||  || Mark Robinson, American planetary geologist. |-id=779| 7779 Susanring || 1993 KL || Susan Ring, author*|-id=780| 7780 Maren || 1993 NJ ||  Named in honor of Maren Elizabeth Child, contemporary paragon of compassion, generosity and patience. Her unselfish devotion to family, friends and community is, fortunately, more frequently observed than is this minor planet that now bears her name. Her support and understanding of the sometimes bizarre demands of her partner's minor planet observing schedules can only be interpreted as an equally serious commitment to astronomy.|-id=781| 7781 Townsend || 1993 QT || Charles Townsend, laser physicist and community-college instructor of astronomy and mathematics*|-id=782| 7782 Mony || 1994 CY ||  Named in memory of Monica De Magistris (1977-1998), a student of physics at Perugia University and a great lover of astronomy who sometimes visited the Santa Lucia observatory. She organized an astronomy exposition as part of Italy's "Scientific and Technological Culture Week" in 1995, giving lectures on the subject to visitors. In her struggle with illness, she was an example of strength, intelligence and passion throughout her short life.|-id=784| 7784 Watterson || 1994 PL || Bill Watterson (b. 1958), the author of the iconic cartoon strip Calvin and Hobbes. |-id=787| 7787 Annalaura || 1994 WW || Annalaura Calvani, wife of Luciano Tesi, co-discoverer of the object †|-id=788| 7788 Tsukuba || 1994 XS || |-id=789| 7789 Kwiatkowski ||  || Teofil Kwiatkowski, Polish painter*|-id=790| 7790 Miselli ||  || Furio Miselli, Italian poet*|-id=791| 7791 Ebicykl || 1995 EB || Ebicykl, a tradition of cycling to Czech and Slovak observatories held by a group of astronomers †|-id=794| 7794 Sanvito ||  || Named in honor of Roberto di San Vito, amateur astronomer. Strongly committed to astronomy and astrometry, he is supporting a new observatory in Montelupo that will bear his name, the "San Vito Observatory".|-id=796| 7796 Járacimrman || 1996 BG || Jára da Cimrman, fictional Czech genius †|-id=797| 7797 Morita ||  || Yukio Morita (b. 1952), a dentist in Hiroshima, is an expert on planetary photography and one of the most active members of the Mars section of the Oriental Astronomical Association.|-id=799| 7799 Martinšolc ||  || Martin Šolc, Czech astronomer †|-id=800| 7800 Zhongkeyuan ||  ||  Named for the Chinese Academy of Sciences (zhong guo ke xue yuan) on the occasion of its 50th anniversary. Founded on 1949 Nov. 1, it is China's most prestigious academic institution and comprehensive research and development center in science and technology. Over the past half century, the Chinese Academy of Sciences has made tremendous contributions to science and technology in China, to the country's economic construction and development and to human civilization and progress.|}

text: 7701 Zrzavý

text: Jan Zrzavý

text: , Czech artist †|-id=704|

text: 7704 Dellen

text: Dellen

text: , Swedish lake system formed by a meteor impact †|-id=705|

text: 7705 Humeln

text: Humeln

text: , Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=706|

text: 7706 Mien

text: Lake Mien

text: , Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=707|

text: 7707 Yes

text: Yes

text: , rock group*|-id=708|

text: 7708 Fennimore

text: ||  || Guy Fennimore, British secretary of the

text: Society for Popular Astronomy

text: (formerly the Junior Astronomical Society) |-id=710|

text: 7710 Ishibashi

text: ||  ||  Tadashi Ishibashi (b. 1926), retired sea captain, became interested in stars in 1936 and has observed meteors since 1940. Since 1947 he has collected and studied ancient documents about the stars. Currently he lectures on star topics aboard large passenger ships.|-id=711|

text: 7711 Říp

text: || 1994 XF ||

text: Říp

text: , a hill near

text: Prague

text: Czech Republic

text: 7713 Tsutomu

text: || 1995 YE ||  Tsutomu Ishibashi (b. 1949), a Japanese amateur astronomer, has been using the same 0.1-m reflector to photograph Mars, Jupiter and Saturn since 1971 in order to maintain uniformity in the data contained in the images.|-id=714|

text: 7714 Briccialdi

text: Giulio Briccialdi

text: , Italian composer*|-id=715|

text: 7715 Leonidarosino

text: Leonida Rosino

text: , Italian astronomer*|-id=716|

text: 7716 Ube

text: ||  || |-id=717|

text: 7717 Tabeisshi

text: ||  || Japanese amateur astronomer Isshi Tabe (b. 1956) has observed Jupiter and other planets for over 25 years and has published many articles about planets. In 1997 he was given a Magellan Award by the Oriental Astronomical Association. He is also well-known as a planetarium program producer.|-id=718|

text: 7718 Desnoux

text: ||  || |-id=720|

text: 7720 Lepaute

text: || 4559 P-L ||  Named after Nicole-Reine Lepaute (1723-1788), extraordinarily talented French mathematician. The astronomers Lalande and Clairaut sought her help for the computations needed to predict the 1759 return of comet 1P/Halley. Lepaute's computations for the annular eclipse of 1764 were used throughout Europe. Unfortunately, years of calculation left her nearly blind.|-id=721|

text: 7721 Andrillat

text: || 6612 P-L ||

text: Yvette Andrillat

text: and/or

text: Henri Andrillat

text: , French astronomers*|-id=722|

text: 7722 Firneis

text: || 2240 T-2 ||

text: Maria Firneis

text: , Austrian astronomer*|-id=723|

text: 7723 Lugger

text: || 1952 QW ||  Phyllis Lugger (b. 1954), on the faculty of Indiana University, is known for her work on the luminosity functions of galaxies in clusters and on the dynamics of globular clusters and stellar systems, including the Milky Way galaxy and interacting binary stars. She has also worked on the identification of x-ray sources.|-id=724|

text: 7724 Moroso

text: || 1970 OB || Pascuala Moroso, Argentine farmer, upon whose land the

text: Complejo Astronómico El Leoncito

text: (the discovery site) lies |-id=725|

text: 7725 Sel'vinskij

text: Il'ya L'vovich Sel'vinskij

text: , Soviet poet|-id=726|

text: 7726 Olegbykov

text: Oleg Pavlovich Bykov

text: , Russian astronomer †|-id=727|

text: 7727 Chepurova

text: ||  ||  Valentina Mikhajlovna Chepurova, a celestial mechanician at the Sternberg Astronomical Institute in Moscow, is known for her research on the dynamics of the small bodies of the solar system by analytical and qualitative methods. As chair of celestial mechanics, she is also much involved with the education of students.|-id=728|

text: 7728 Giblin

text: Ian Giblin

text: , British physicist |-id=729|

text: 7729 Golovanov

text: Yaroslav Kirillovich Golovanov

text: , Russian space engineer and scientific journalist |-id=730|

text: 7730 Sergerasimov

text: Sergei Gerasimov

text: , 20th-century Soviet actor, pedagogue, film director, and scenario writer |-id=734|

text: 7734 Kaltenegger

text: ||  || Austrian-born Lisa Kaltenegger (b. 1977), at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics since 2005, is involved in the use of space-based instruments to collect sufficient photons from extrasolar planets to characterize their physical and chemical composition and examine their potential habitability.|-id=735|

text: 7735 Scorzelli

text: Rosa Scorzelli

text: , Brazilian meteoriticist |-id=736|

text: 7736 Nizhnij Novgorod

text: Nizhny Novgorod

text: , Russia*|-id=737|

text: 7737 Sirrah

text: || 1981 VU || (= Harris backwards)

text: Alan William Harris

text: , astronomer*|-id=738|

text: 7738 Heyman

text: ||  || Named in honor of I. Michael Heyman (b. 1930), secretary and linchpin of the Smithsonian Institution's diverse and incomparably rich programs. Educator, legal scholar, civil rights champion, he has unfailingly supported research at the frontiers of astronomy.|-id=739|

text: 7739 Čech

text: || 1982 CE ||

text: Eduard Čech

text: , Czech mathematician †|-id=740|

text: 7740 Petit

text: ||  || Named in honor of the French astronomer Jean-Marc Petit (b. 1961) for his work on the dynamics of planetary rings. Petit has also investigated the collisional evolution of the minor planet belt and the dynamical evolution of the (243) Ida-Dactyl system. Name suggested and citation provided by A. Morbidelli.|-id=741|

text: 7741 Fedoseev

text: ||  || Named in honor of Vladimir Ivanovich Fedoseev (b. 1932), outstanding Russian conductor. He has been artistic director of Tchaikovsky's symphony orchestra in Moscow since 1974. He is also a principal conductor of the Vienna Symphony Orchestra and guest conductor in Tokyo and in many other cities. Fedoseev promotes the Russian classical music of Glinka, Mussorgsky, Rakhmaninov, Sviridov and others. Name suggested by G. Sviridov and supported by the discoverer.|-id=742|

text: 7742 Altamira

text: || 1985 US ||

text: Altamira

text: , cave in

text: Spain

text: with

text: cave art

text: 7747 Michałowski

text: || 1987 SO ||

text: Tadeusz Michałowski

text: , Polish astronomer |-id=749|

text: 7749 Jackschmitt

text: || 1988 JP ||

text: Harrison 'Jack' Schmitt

text: , American planetary geologist, last astronaut on the Moon, and later a senator |-id=750|

text: 7750 McEwen

text: Alfred McEwen

text: , American planetary geologist |-id=752|

text: 7752 Otauchunokai

text: || 1988 US ||  Otauchunokai, founded in 1970, is an amateur astronomers' club in the Ota city area, Gunma prefecture. Club activities include observations, studies and public education in astronomy. The discoverers are members of this club.|-id=754|

text: 7754 Gopalan

text: Gopalan Srinivasan

text: , Canadian geologist and meteoriticist |-id=755|

text: 7755 Haute-Provence

text: Observatoire de Haute-Provence

text: , France*|-id=756|

text: 7756 Scientia

text: Science

text: 7757 Kameya

text: || 1990 KO || Osamu Kameya, a researcher at the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. |-id=758|

text: 7758 Poulanderson

text: || 1990 KT ||

text: Poul Anderson

text: , American science fiction writer †|-id=763|

text: 7763 Crabeels

text: ||  || Henri Crabeels (b. 1904) is an internationally known organist and conductor in Antwerp. This minor planet is dedicated to him on the occasion of his 98th birthday.|-id=766|

text: 7766 Jododaira

text: ||  || Named for the place where the first really big star parties were held in Japan, the "Chiro's Star Festivals", from 1975 to 1984. Jododaira (1600 m above the sea) is near the top of Mt. Azuma, a famous volcano in Fukushima Prefecture in northeastern Japan. After the violent eruption of the volcano in 1893, Percival Lowell climbed the mountain to investigate the result of the eruption. One hundred years later, an astronomical observatory was established there and is open to the public. Name proposed by the discoverers following a suggestion by M. Koishikawa and T. Sato.|-id=767|

text: 7767 Tomatic

text: ||  || Named in honor of A. U. Tomatic (b. 1997), collaborator at the Minor Planet Center. An ardent computer of orbits and distributor of observational data of minor planets and comets, Tomatic published his first contribution to this field on MPEC 1997-Y01 (1997 Dec. 16). Tomatic is a godchild of the MPC astronomers B. G. Marsden and G. V. Williams. Name proposed by the first discoverer in gratitude for Tomatic's indefatigable service.|-id=769|

text: 7769 Okuni

text: ||  || Tomimaru Okuni (b. 1931), a retired teacher, is a Japanese amateur astronomer. He has been discovering new minor planets since 1995 at Nanyo in Yamagata prefecture.|-id=770|

text: 7770 Siljan

text: Siljan

text: , Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=771|

text: 7771 Tvären

text: Tvären

text: , Swedish lake formed by a meteor impact †|-id=775|

text: 7775 Taiko

text: || 1992 XD || |-id=776|

text: 7776 Takeishi

text: || 1993 BF || |-id=777|

text: 7777 Consadole

text: ||  ||  Consadole, a team in the Japan Professional Football League J1, has its home in Sapporo city, Hokkaido. The team's name is an anagram combining the Japanese word Dosanco ("born in Hokkaido") and the Spanish olé ("bravo!"), a common international cheer at soccer games. The name was suggested by K. Watanabe.|-id=778|

text: 7778 Markrobinson

text: Mark Robinson

text: , American planetary geologist. |-id=779|

text: 7779 Susanring

text: || 1993 KL ||

text: Susan Ring

text: , author*|-id=780|

text: 7780 Maren

text: || 1993 NJ ||  Named in honor of Maren Elizabeth Child, contemporary paragon of compassion, generosity and patience. Her unselfish devotion to family, friends and community is, fortunately, more frequently observed than is this minor planet that now bears her name. Her support and understanding of the sometimes bizarre demands of her partner's minor planet observing schedules can only be interpreted as an equally serious commitment to astronomy.|-id=781|

text: 7781 Townsend

text: || 1993 QT ||

text: Charles Townsend

text: , laser physicist and community-college instructor of astronomy and mathematics*|-id=782|

text: 7782 Mony

text: || 1994 CY ||  Named in memory of Monica De Magistris (1977-1998), a student of physics at Perugia University and a great lover of astronomy who sometimes visited the Santa Lucia observatory. She organized an astronomy exposition as part of Italy's "Scientific and Technological Culture Week" in 1995, giving lectures on the subject to visitors. In her struggle with illness, she was an example of strength, intelligence and passion throughout her short life.|-id=784|

text: 7784 Watterson

text: || 1994 PL ||

text: Bill Watterson

text: (b. 1958), the author of the iconic cartoon strip Calvin and Hobbes. |-id=787|

text: 7787 Annalaura

text: || 1994 WW || Annalaura Calvani, wife of

text: Luciano Tesi

text: , co-discoverer of the object †|-id=788|

text: 7788 Tsukuba

text: || 1994 XS || |-id=789|

text: 7789 Kwiatkowski

text: Teofil Kwiatkowski

text: , Polish painter*|-id=790|

text: 7790 Miselli

text: Furio Miselli

text: , Italian poet*|-id=791|

text: 7791 Ebicykl

text: || 1995 EB ||

text: Ebicykl

text: , a tradition of cycling to Czech and Slovak observatories held by a group of astronomers †|-id=794|

text: 7794 Sanvito

text: ||  || Named in honor of Roberto di San Vito, amateur astronomer. Strongly committed to astronomy and astrometry, he is supporting a new observatory in Montelupo that will bear his name, the "San Vito Observatory".|-id=796|

text: 7796 Járacimrman

text: || 1996 BG ||

text: Jára da Cimrman

text: , fictional Czech genius †|-id=797|

text: 7797 Morita

text: ||  || Yukio Morita (b. 1952), a dentist in Hiroshima, is an expert on planetary photography and one of the most active members of the Mars section of the Oriental Astronomical Association.|-id=799|

text: 7799 Martinšolc

text: Martin Šolc

text: , Czech astronomer †|-id=800|

text: 7800 Zhongkeyuan

text: ||  ||  Named for the Chinese Academy of Sciences (zhong guo ke xue yuan) on the occasion of its 50th anniversary. Founded on 1949 Nov. 1, it is China's most prestigious academic institution and comprehensive research and development center in science and technology. Over the past half century, the Chinese Academy of Sciences has made tremendous contributions to science and technology in China, to the country's economic construction and development and to human civilization and progress.|}

text: Once a planet reaches sufficient mass, the materials of different densities segregate within, during planetary differentiation. This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust. The core may include solid and liquid regions, and some planetary cores generate their own magnetic field, which can protect their atmospheres from solar wind stripping.

text: Once a planet reaches sufficient mass, the materials of different densities segregate within, during

text: planetary differentiation

text: . This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust. The core may include solid and liquid regions, and some planetary cores generate their own

text: magnetic field

text: , which can protect their atmospheres from solar wind stripping.

text: Around the world, dotting the map are volcanoes of all shapes and sizes. Lining the landmass around the Pacific Ocean are the well-known volcanoes of the Pacific Ring of Fire. From the Aleutian Islands to the Andes Mountains in Chile, these volcanoes have sculpted their local and regional environments. Aside from admiring their majestic beauty, one might wonder how these geologic wonders work and what role they play in changing the landscape and atmosphere. Principally, volcanoes are geologic features that exude magmatic material from below Earth's surface onto the surface. Upon reaching the surface, the term "magma" disappears and "lava" becomes the common nomenclature. This lava cools and forms igneous rock. By examining igneous rocks, it is possible to derive a chain of events that led from the original melt of the magma to the crystallization of the lava at Earth's surface. By examining igneous rocks, it is possible to postulate evidence for volcanic outgassing, which is known to alter atmospheric chemistry. This alteration of atmospheric chemistry changes climate cycles both globally and locally.

text: The main protagonists are three longtime friends.  Paul Hagbolt is escorting Margo Gelhorn (and her cat, Miaow) to observe the lunar eclipse at an observatory in California.  Their friend, and Margo's fiance, is Don Merriam, one of the American astronauts at the Moon base.  Following on a whim a sign advertising a "flying saucer symposium", Paul and Margo fall in with a group of intellectuals, dreamers, charlatans and misfits.  At that point events overtake them.  The new planet appears and triggers an earthquake that buries their cars in a landslide.  They must avoid tsunamis, more earthquakes, roving mobs and flying saucers to survive.  On the Moon Don Merriam is the only one to escape the destruction of the moonbase.  He tries to take off in one of the base's spaceships, only to fall through the Moon itself as it splits into two under the influence of the new planet.  His ship is eventually captured by the inhabitants of the new planet.

text: The system contains a gas giant, HIP 11915 b, with a mass and orbit very similar to that of Jupiter, located at approximately the same distance from its star. The discovery of HIP 11915 b is significant, because it is the first, and to date only, distant planetary system found that may be somewhat like the Solar System. The radial velocity data also indicates that there is no large gas giant in this system with an orbital period of less than 1000 days. This means that there could be one or more terrestrial planets in the inner parts of the system, and the possibility of a habitable Earth-like planet.

text: The system contains a gas giant, HIP 11915 b, with a mass and orbit very similar to that of

text: Jupiter

text: , located at approximately the same distance from its star. The discovery of HIP 11915 b is significant, because it is the first, and to date only, distant planetary system found that may be somewhat like the

text: Solar System

text: . The radial velocity data also indicates that there is no large gas giant in this system with an orbital period of less than 1000 days. This means that there could be one or more terrestrial planets in the inner parts of the system, and the possibility of a

text: habitable

text: Earth-like planet

text: The Naboo System is located in the Chommel sector, a region in the galactic Mid-Rim.  Planet Naboo is the third planet of the star system that shares the same name.  The Naboo system comprises five planets, namely Moth (Venus type), Erep (Venus type), Naboo (Earth type), Widow (Mars type) and Storm (Jupiter type).  The planet Naboo has three moons: Ohma D'un, Rori and Tasia. Tasia, an ice moon, is the only Naboo moon to be seen in the entire Star Wars saga. Ohma D'un is a water moon and Rori is a brownish swamp moon.

text: The Naboo System is located in the Chommel sector, a region in the galactic Mid-Rim.  Planet Naboo is the third planet of the star system that shares the same name.  The Naboo system comprises five planets, namely Moth (Venus type), Erep (Venus type), Naboo (Earth type), Widow (Mars type) and Storm (Jupiter type).  The planet Naboo has three moons:

text: Ohma D'un

text: Rori

text: and

text: Tasia

text: . Tasia, an ice moon, is the only Naboo moon to be seen in the entire Star Wars saga. Ohma D'un is a water moon and Rori is a brownish swamp moon.

text: Direct imaging can give only loose constraints of the planet's mass, which is derived from the age of the star and the temperature of the planet. Mass can vary considerably, as planets can form several million years after the star has formed. The cooler the planet is, the less the planet's mass needs to be. In some cases it is possible to give reasonable constraints to the radius of a planet based on planet's temperature, its apparent brightness, and its distance from Earth. The spectra emitted from planets do not have to be separated from the star, which eases determining the chemical composition of planets.

text: One of Murdoch's most significant inventions, for which evidence exists to attribute it to him, was the sun and planet gear which allowed steam power to be used to "produce a continued Rotative or Circular Motion round an Axis or Centre, and thereby to give Motion to the Wheels of Mills or other Machines". This gear converted the vertical motion of a beam, driven by a steam engine, into circular motion using a 'planet', a cogwheel fixed at the end of a rod connected to the beam of the engine. With the motion of the beam this revolved around, and turned, the 'sun' a second rotating cog fixed to and which turned the drive shaft. This system of achieving rotary motion was patented in his own name by James Watt in October 1781 although Samuel Smiles, biographer of Boulton and Watt, attributes this to Murdoch and there also exists a drawing of the sun and planet system in Murdoch's hand dated August 1781. Other evidence attributing this invention to William Murdoch takes the form of a letter from Boulton to a colleague concerning Watt's forthcoming October patents in which he writes:

text: One of Murdoch's most significant inventions, for which evidence exists to attribute it to him, was the

text: sun and planet gear

text: which allowed steam power to be used to "produce a continued Rotative or Circular Motion round an Axis or Centre, and thereby to give Motion to the Wheels of Mills or other Machines". This gear converted the vertical motion of a beam, driven by a steam engine, into circular motion using a 'planet', a

text: cogwheel

text: fixed at the end of a rod connected to the beam of the engine. With the motion of the beam this revolved around, and turned, the 'sun' a second rotating

text: cog

text: fixed to and which turned the

text: drive shaft

text: . This system of achieving rotary motion was patented in his own name by James Watt in October 1781 although Samuel Smiles, biographer of Boulton and Watt, attributes this to Murdoch and there also exists a drawing of the sun and planet system in Murdoch's hand dated August 1781. Other evidence attributing this invention to William Murdoch takes the form of a letter from Boulton to a colleague concerning Watt's forthcoming October patents in which he writes:

text: Gaps in the evidence from ancient rocks have failed to explain the discrepancy between Earth’s atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels. By tracing the movement of chromium isotopes from land to ocean, a process that is sensitive to atmospheric oxygen levels, the earliest signs of significant chromium oxidation have been found. This suggests levels of atmospheric oxygen to have significantly increased around 800 million years ago. Small amounts of oxygen can convert insoluble chromium, a constituent of the continental crust to a soluble form which is then transported to the ocean and deposited in ironstone. By studying the chromium isotope composition in ancient ironstones, measuring the ratio of heavier Cr (which is more sensitive to oxidation) to the lighter Cr, researchers can determine ancient oxygen levels. This research revealed very low oxygen levels during the Boring Billion, which are below 0.1% of present atmospheric levels.

text: Gaps in the evidence from ancient rocks have failed to explain the discrepancy between Earth’s atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels. By tracing the movement of

text: chromium isotopes

text: from land to ocean, a process that is sensitive to atmospheric oxygen levels, the earliest signs of significant chromium oxidation have been found. This suggests levels of atmospheric oxygen to have significantly increased around 800 million years ago. Small amounts of oxygen can convert insoluble chromium, a constituent of the continental crust to a soluble form which is then transported to the ocean and deposited in

text: ironstone

text: . By studying the chromium isotope composition in ancient ironstones, measuring the ratio of heavier Cr (which is more sensitive to oxidation) to the lighter Cr, researchers can determine ancient oxygen levels. This research revealed very low oxygen levels during the Boring Billion, which are below 0.1% of present atmospheric levels.

text: The obelisks for the four inner planets are all contained within the commons area stretching north towards Seneca Street. Mercury is situated to scale about  away from the sun, Venus another  away, Earth another  away, and Mars another  away. This keeps the four inner planets within eyesight of the Sun, yet the representations of each planet appear quite small within their glass windows, and can even be somewhat hard to see. The contrast between the size of the sun and the size of the inner planets coupled with the visible distance between them illustrate the vastness and emptiness of space.

text: Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the  "pertaining to building") is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's lithosphere, over the last hundreds of millions of years. The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

text: Plate tectonics (from the

text: Late Latin

text: tectonicus, from the  "pertaining to building") is a

text: scientific theory

text: describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: lithosphere

text: , over the last hundreds of millions of years. The theoretical model builds on the concept of

text: continental drift

text: developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The

text: geoscientific

text: community accepted plate-tectonic theory after

text: seafloor spreading

text: was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

text: Kepler-11 is a G-type star located in the Cygnus. It has a mass of .95 M and a radius of 1.1 R, and is thus almost the same mass and radius as the Sun. With an effective temperature of 5680 K, it is also almost as hot as the Sun, and with a metallicity of 0, Kepler-11 is almost as metal-rich as the Sun is. Metal-rich stars tend to have easily detectable planets because higher metallicities tend to either facilitate the creation of gas giants or to promote planetary migration, in which the planet orbits more closely to its star. However, Kepler-11 is almost 1.73 times older than the Sun, as it has an estimated age of eight billion years. Kepler-11 is 613 parsecs away from the Earth; its distance contributes to its apparent magnitude of 14.2 (V). It, thus, cannot be seen with the naked eye. Other than Kepler-11e, Kepler-11 is the host star of the planets Kepler-11b, Kepler-11c, Kepler-11d, Kepler-11f, and Kepler-11g. The inner five planets in the system orbit in a tightly knit configuration that would fit within the orbit of planet Mercury, while Kepler-11g, compared to its inner sister planets, orbits at a much further distance.

text: Kepler-11 is a

text: G-type star

text: located in the

text: Cygnus

text: . It has a mass of .95

text: M

text: and a radius of 1.1

text: R

text: , and is thus almost the same mass and radius as the Sun. With an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5680

text: K

text: , it is also almost as hot as the Sun, and with a

text: metallicity

text: of 0, Kepler-11 is almost as metal-rich as the Sun is. Metal-rich stars tend to have easily detectable planets because higher metallicities tend to either facilitate the creation of gas giants or to promote

text: planetary migration

text: , in which the planet orbits more closely to its star. However, Kepler-11 is almost 1.73 times older than the Sun, as it has an estimated age of eight billion years. Kepler-11 is 613

text: parsec

text: s away from the Earth; its distance contributes to its

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 14.2 (V). It, thus, cannot be seen with the

text: naked eye

text: . Other than Kepler-11e, Kepler-11 is the host star of the planets

text: , and

text: . The inner five planets in the system orbit in a tightly knit configuration that would fit within the orbit of planet

text: Mercury

text: , while Kepler-11g, compared to its inner sister planets, orbits at a much further distance.

text: K-278 had a double hull, the inner one being composed of titanium, which gave her an operating depth far greater than that of the best American submarines. The pressure hull was composed of seven compartments with the second and third protected by stronger forward and aft bulkheads creating a "safety zone" in case of an emergency. An escape capsule was fitted in the sail above these compartments to enable the crew to abandon ship in the event of an underwater emergency. Initial Western intelligence estimates of K-278’s speed were based on the assumption that it was powered by a pair of liquid-metal lead-bismuth reactors. When the Soviet Union revealed that the submarine used a single OK-650b-3 conventional pressurized-water reactor, these speed estimates were lowered.

text: K-278 had a double hull, the inner one being composed of

text: titanium

text: , which gave her an operating depth far greater than that of the best American submarines. The pressure hull was composed of seven compartments with the second and third protected by stronger forward and aft bulkheads creating a "safety zone" in case of an emergency. An

text: escape capsule

text: was fitted in the

text: sail

text: above these compartments to enable the crew to abandon ship in the event of an underwater emergency. Initial Western intelligence estimates of K-278’s speed were based on the assumption that it was powered by a pair of

text: liquid-metal

text: lead

text: bismuth

text: reactors. When the

text: Soviet Union

text: revealed that the submarine used a single OK-650b-3 conventional

text: pressurized-water reactor

text: , these speed estimates were lowered.

text: The current Venusian atmosphere has only ~200 mg/kg HO(g) in its atmosphere and the pressure and temperature regime makes water unstable on its surface. Nevertheless, assuming that early Venus's HO had a D/H ratio similar to Earth's Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) of 1.6×10, the current D/H isotopic ratio in the Venusian atmosphere of 1.9×10, at nearly ×120 of Earth's, may indicate that Venus had a much larger HO inventory. While the large disparity between terrestrial and Venusian D/H ratios makes any estimation of Venus's geologically ancient water budget difficult, its mass may have been at least 0.3% of Earth's hydrosphere. Estimates based on Venus's levels of deuterium suggest that the planet has lost anywhere from  of surface water up to "an Earth's ocean's worth".

text: The current Venusian atmosphere has only ~200 mg/kg HO(g) in its atmosphere and the pressure and temperature regime makes water unstable on its surface. Nevertheless, assuming that early Venus's HO had a D/H ratio similar to Earth's Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (

text: VSMOW

text: ) of 1.6×10, the current D/H isotopic ratio in the Venusian atmosphere of 1.9×10, at nearly ×120 of Earth's, may indicate that Venus had a much larger HO inventory. While the large disparity between terrestrial and Venusian D/H ratios makes any estimation of Venus's geologically ancient water budget difficult, its mass may have been at least 0.3% of Earth's hydrosphere. Estimates based on Venus's levels of

text: deuterium

text: suggest that the planet has lost anywhere from  of surface water up to "an Earth's ocean's worth".

text: This type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet: in winter, temperatures can drop to  and in summer, the temperature may exceed . However, the summers are short; no more than three months of the year (but at least one month) must have a 24-hour average temperature of at least  to fall into this category of climate.

text: This type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet: in

text: winter

text: , temperatures can drop to  and in

text: summer

text: , the temperature may exceed . However, the summers are short; no more than three months of the year (but at least one month) must have a 24-hour average temperature of at least  to fall into this category of climate.

text: The Weizsäcker model was modified in 1948 by Dutch theoretical physicist Dirk Ter Haar, in that regular eddies were discarded and replaced by random turbulence which would lead to a very thick nebula where gravitational instability would not occur. He concluded the planets must have formed by accretion and explained the compositional difference (solid and liquid planets) as due to the temperature difference between the inner and outer regions, the former being hotter and the latter being cooler, so only refractories (non-volatiles) condensed in the inner region. A major difficulty is that in this supposition turbulent dissipation takes place in a time scale of only about a millennium which does not give enough time for planets to form.

text: An alternative approach capable of producing a very narrow distribution of grain sizes but with low throughput consists of a rapidly spinning bowl heated to well above the melting point of the material to be powdered. Liquid metal, introduced onto the surface of the basin near the center at flow rates adjusted to permit a thin metal film to skim evenly up the walls and over the edge, breaks into droplets, each approximately the thickness of the film.

text: Several planets or dwarf planets in the Solar System (such as Neptune and Pluto) have orbital periods that are in resonance with each other or with smaller bodies (this is also common in satellite systems). All except Mercury and Venus have natural satellites, often called "moons". Earth has one, Mars has two, and the giant planets have numerous moons in complex planetary-type systems. Many moons of the giant planets have features similar to those on the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and some have been studied as possible abodes of life (especially Europa).

text: Several planets or dwarf planets in the Solar System (such as Neptune and Pluto) have orbital periods that are in

text: resonance

text: with each other or with smaller bodies (this is also common in satellite systems). All except Mercury and Venus have

text: natural satellite

text: s, often called "moons". Earth has one, Mars has two, and the giant planets have numerous moons in complex planetary-type systems. Many moons of the giant planets have features similar to those on the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and some have been studied as possible abodes of life (especially

text: Europa

text: The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for "Mariner Valleys", also known as Agathadaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of  and a depth of up to . The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth is only  long and nearly  deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area, which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse. In 2012, it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a graben, but a plate boundary where  of transverse motion has occurred, making Mars a planet with possibly a two-tectonic plate arrangement.

text: The large canyon,

text: Valles Marineris

text: (Latin for "

text: Mariner

text: Valleys", also known as Agathadaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of  and a depth of up to . The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the

text: Grand Canyon

text: on Earth is only  long and nearly  deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the

text: Tharsis

text: area, which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse. In 2012, it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a

text: graben

text: , but a plate boundary where  of

text: transverse motion

text: has occurred, making Mars a planet with possibly a two-

text: tectonic plate

text: arrangement.

text: Roughly 97% of the planet's water is in its oceans, and the oceans are the source of the vast majority of water vapor that condenses in the atmosphere and falls as rain or snow on the continents. The tremendous heat capacity of the oceans moderates the planet's climate, and its absorption of various gases affects the composition of the atmosphere. The ocean's influence extends even to the composition of volcanic rocks through seafloor metamorphism, as well as to that of volcanic gases and magmas created at subduction zones.

text: Roughly 97% of the planet's water is in its oceans, and the oceans are the source of the vast majority of

text: water vapor

text: that condenses in the atmosphere and falls as

text: rain

text: or

text: snow

text: on the continents. The tremendous

text: heat capacity

text: of the oceans moderates the planet's

text: climate

text: , and its absorption of various gases affects the composition of the

text: atmosphere

text: . The ocean's influence extends even to the composition of

text: volcanic

text: rocks through seafloor

text: metamorphism

text: , as well as to that of volcanic gases and

text: magma

text: s created at

text: subduction zones

text: There are exoplanets that are much closer to their parent star than any planet in the Solar System is to the Sun, and there are also exoplanets that are much further from their star. Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun at 0.4 astronomical units (AU), takes 88 days for an orbit, but the smallest known orbits of exoplanets have orbital periods of only a few hours, e.g. Kepler-70b. The Kepler-11 system has five of its planets in smaller orbits than Mercury's. Neptune is 30 AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit it, but there are exoplanets that are thousands of AU from their star and take tens of thousands of years to orbit, e.g. GU Piscium b.

text: There are exoplanets that are much closer to their parent star than any planet in the Solar System is to the Sun, and there are also exoplanets that are much further from their star.

text: Mercury

text: , the closest planet to the Sun at 0.4

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU), takes 88 days for an orbit, but the smallest known orbits of exoplanets have orbital periods of only a few hours, e.g.

text: . The

text: system has five of its planets in smaller orbits than Mercury's.

text: Neptune

text: is 30 AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit it, but there are exoplanets that are thousands of AU from their star and take tens of thousands of years to orbit, e.g.

text: GU Piscium b

text: As stated, space travel is widely available; there are regular liner services for those who do not own their own spacecraft, and private spacecraft are extremely common and easy to use (a determined novice can navigate one with the aid of the Operator's Manual). Vance's version of FTL travel is the Jarnell intersplit, a subspace or hyperspace drive by another name. It does not muddy the waters with inconvenient relativistic effects; a traveller journeying from one end of the Oikumene to the other could synchronise watches with one who remained planet-bound meanwhile, and at the end of his journey the two watches would still be in agreement; there is no twin paradox to be considered. (This is plausibly explained away in that the traveller never experiences extreme speeds or acceleration in normal space.)

text: As stated, space travel is widely available; there are regular liner services for those who do not own their own spacecraft, and private spacecraft are extremely common and easy to use (a determined novice can navigate one with the aid of the Operator's Manual). Vance's version of

text: FTL

text: travel is the Jarnell intersplit, a subspace or hyperspace drive by another name. It does not muddy the waters with inconvenient relativistic effects; a traveller journeying from one end of the Oikumene to the other could synchronise watches with one who remained planet-bound meanwhile, and at the end of his journey the two watches would still be in agreement; there is no

text: twin paradox

text: to be considered. (This is plausibly explained away in that the traveller never experiences extreme speeds or acceleration in normal space.)

text: As of 2009, HAT-P-13 has been confirmed to have two extrasolar planets orbiting it.  The inner planet was discovered by the "transit method" and the outer planet was found through the radial velocity method. A search for transits by HAT-P-13c was negative, however only 72% of the possible transit configurations could be ruled out. HAT-P-13 was the first star to have a transiting planet and an additional planet on a known orbit. HAT-P-7 and other planets are known to have additional companions, but there is not enough data to characterize the system. OGLE-TR-111 has one confirmed transiting planet, and one unconfirmed transiting planet.

text: As of 2009, HAT-P-13 has been confirmed to have two

text: extrasolar planet

text: s orbiting it.  The inner planet was discovered by the "

text: transit method

text: " and the outer planet was found through the

text: radial velocity

text: method. A search for transits by HAT-P-13c was negative, however only 72% of the possible transit configurations could be ruled out. HAT-P-13 was the first star to have a transiting planet and an additional planet on a known orbit.

text: and other planets are known to have additional companions, but there is not enough data to characterize the system.

text: has one confirmed transiting planet, and one unconfirmed transiting planet.

text: Of the nineteen known natural satellites in the Solar System that are massive enough to have lapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium, several remain geologically active today. Io is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System, while Europa, Enceladus, Titan and Triton display evidence of ongoing tectonic activity and cryovolcanism.  In the first three cases, the geological activity is powered by the tidal heating resulting from having eccentric orbits close to their giant-planet primaries. (This mechanism would have also operated on Triton in the past, before its orbit was circularized.) Many other natural satellites, such as Earth's Moon, Ganymede, Tethys and Miranda, show evidence of past geological activity, resulting from energy sources such as the decay of their primordial radioisotopes, greater past orbital eccentricities (due in some cases to past orbital resonances), or the differentiation or freezing of their interiors. Enceladus and Triton both have active features resembling geysers, although in the case of Triton solar heating appears to provide the energy. Titan and Triton have significant atmospheres; Titan also has hydrocarbon lakes. Four of the largest natural satellites, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, and Titan, are thought to have subsurface oceans of liquid water, while smaller Enceladus may have localized subsurface liquid water.

text: Of the nineteen known natural satellites in the

text: Solar System

text: that are massive enough to have lapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium, several remain geologically active today.

text: Io

text: is the most volcanically active body in the

text: Solar System

text: , while

text: Europa

text: Enceladus

text: Titan

text: and

text: Triton

text: display evidence of ongoing

text: tectonic activity

text: and

text: cryovolcanism

text: .  In the first three cases, the geological activity is powered by the

text: tidal heating

text: resulting from having

text: eccentric orbits

text: close to their giant-planet primaries. (This mechanism would have also operated on Triton in the past, before its orbit was

text: circularized

text: .) Many other natural satellites, such as Earth's

text: Moon

text: Ganymede

text: Tethys

text: and

text: Miranda

text: , show evidence of past geological activity, resulting from energy sources such as the

text: decay

text: of their

text: primordial

text: radioisotope

text: s, greater past orbital eccentricities (due in some cases to past

text: orbital resonance

text: s), or the

text: differentiation

text: or freezing of their interiors. Enceladus and

text: Triton

text: both have active features resembling

text: geysers

text: , although in the case of Triton solar heating appears to provide the energy. Titan and Triton have significant atmospheres; Titan also has

text: hydrocarbon lakes

text: . Four of the largest natural satellites,

text: Europa

text: Ganymede

text: Callisto

text: , and

text: Titan

text: , are thought to have subsurface oceans of liquid water, while smaller Enceladus may have localized subsurface liquid water.

text: The Dalek shuttlecraft is capable of atmospheric landing and has been seen to be able to carry at least four Daleks. The Seventh Doctor in Remembrance described the Dalek shuttle as having massive ground defences but an un-guarded service hatch on the top. Dalek shuttles possess a control position with an "engaged" Dalek. In The Power of the Daleks, a damaged shuttlecraft was discovered buried in a mercury swamp on the Earth colony planet Vulcan, where the dormant Daleks were revived by the colonists, ignorant of what the Daleks were. Exactly how the shuttlecraft came to crash on the planet, and how long it had been buried before discovery, are never explained in the episode.  Like the Dalek time machines it is dimensionally transcendental, with an inner chamber containing Dalek embryos and machinery used to construct Dalek casings.

text: The Dalek shuttlecraft is capable of atmospheric landing and has been seen to be able to carry at least four Daleks. The Seventh Doctor in Remembrance described the Dalek shuttle as having massive ground defences but an un-guarded service hatch on the top. Dalek shuttles possess a control position with an "engaged" Dalek. In

text: The Power of the Daleks

text: , a damaged shuttlecraft was discovered buried in a mercury swamp on the Earth colony planet Vulcan, where the dormant Daleks were revived by the colonists, ignorant of what the Daleks were. Exactly how the shuttlecraft came to crash on the planet, and how long it had been buried before discovery, are never explained in the episode.  Like the Dalek time machines it is dimensionally transcendental, with an inner chamber containing Dalek embryos and machinery used to construct Dalek casings.

text: A gravity assist around a planet changes a spacecraft's velocity (relative to the Sun) by entering and leaving the gravitational field of a planet. The spacecraft's speed increases as it approaches the planet and decreases while escaping its gravitational pull (which is approximately the same). Because the planet orbits the sun, the spacecraft is affected by this motion during the maneuver. To increase speed, the spacecraft flies with the movement of the planet (taking a small amount of the planet's orbital energy); to decrease speed, the spacecraft flies against the movement of the planet. The sum of the kinetic energies of both bodies remains constant (see elastic collision). A slingshot maneuver can therefore be used to change the spaceship's trajectory and speed relative to the Sun.

text: A gravity assist around a planet changes a spacecraft's

text: velocity

text: (relative to the

text: Sun

text: ) by entering and leaving the gravitational field of a planet. The spacecraft's speed increases as it approaches the planet and decreases while escaping its gravitational pull (which is approximately the same). Because the planet orbits the sun, the spacecraft is affected by this motion during the maneuver. To increase speed, the spacecraft flies with the movement of the planet (taking a small amount of the planet's orbital energy); to decrease speed, the spacecraft flies against the movement of the planet. The sum of the kinetic energies of both bodies remains constant (see

text: elastic collision

text: ). A slingshot maneuver can therefore be used to change the spaceship's trajectory and speed relative to the Sun.

text: An orrery is a mechanical model of the solar system that illustrates or predicts the relative positions and motions of the planets and moons, usually according to the heliocentric model. It may also represent the relative sizes of these bodies; but since accurate scaling is often not practical due to the actual large ratio differences, a subdued approximation may be used instead. Though the Greeks had working planetaria, the first orrery that was a planetarium of the modern era was produced in 1704, and one was presented to Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery – whence came the name. They are typically driven by a clockwork mechanism with a globe representing the Sun at the centre, and with a planet at the end of each of the arms.

text: An orrery is a mechanical

text: model of the solar system

text: that illustrates or predicts the relative positions and motions of the

text: planet

text: s and

text: moon

text: s, usually according to the

text: heliocentric

text: model

text: . It may also represent the relative sizes of these bodies; but since accurate scaling is often not practical due to the actual large ratio differences, a subdued approximation may be used instead. Though the Greeks had working

text: planetaria

text: , the first orrery that was a planetarium of the modern era was produced in 1704, and one was presented to

text: Charles Boyle, 4th Earl of Orrery

text: – whence came the name. They are typically driven by a

text: clockwork

text: mechanism with a globe representing the

text: Sun

text: at the centre, and with a planet at the end of each of the arms.

text: In the history of Earth many tectonic plates have come into existence and have over the intervening years either accreted onto other plates to form larger plates, rifted into smaller plates, or have been crushed by or subducted under other plates (or have done all three).

text: Some intermetallic materials e.g. do exhibit metal clusters, reminiscent of molecules and these compounds are more a topic of chemistry than of metallurgy. The formation of the clusters could be seen as a way to 'condense out' (localize) the electron deficient bonding into bonds of a more localized nature. Hydrogen is an extreme example of this form of condensation. At high pressures it is a metal. The core of the planet Jupiter could be said to be held together by a combination of metallic bonding and high pressure induced by gravity. At lower pressures however the bonding becomes entirely localized into a regular covalent bond. The localization is so complete that the (more familiar) H gas results. A similar argument holds for an element like boron. Though it is electron deficient compared to carbon, it does not form a metal. Instead it has a number of complicated structures in which icosahedral B clusters dominate. Charge density waves are a related phenomenon.

text: Some intermetallic materials e.g. do exhibit

text: metal cluster

text: s, reminiscent of molecules and these compounds are more a topic of chemistry than of metallurgy. The formation of the clusters could be seen as a way to 'condense out' (localize) the electron deficient bonding into bonds of a more localized nature.

text: Hydrogen

text: is an extreme example of this form of condensation. At high pressures

text: it is a metal

text: . The core of the planet

text: Jupiter

text: could be said to be held together by a combination of metallic bonding and high pressure induced by gravity. At lower pressures however the bonding becomes entirely localized into a regular covalent bond. The localization is so complete that the (more familiar) H gas results. A similar argument holds for an element like boron. Though it is electron deficient compared to carbon, it does not form a metal. Instead it has a number of complicated structures in which

text: icosahedral

text: B clusters dominate.

text: Charge density wave

text: s are a related phenomenon.

text: In Y. Ke1 and V. S. Solomatov’s model, the core is liquid and is vigorously convecting.  The heat flux out of the thermal boundary layer (at the upper boundary) is close to zero because the temperature profile above the thermal boundary layer quickly reaches a steady state profile in the frame of reference associated with the moving upper boundary of the thermal boundary layer. As the core temperature decreases, the driving temperature difference for convection inside the thermal boundary layer decreases, and the heat flux decreases. Cooling and crystallization of the molten thermal boundary layer is very fast(~100 years). After the melt fraction drops to ~40% the viscosity significantly increases and the core-mantle boundary temperature continues to decrease at a much slower rate. When a relatively modest viscosity contrast between the thermal boundary layer ( at the rheological transition) and the mantle is achieved, a superplume is generated.

text: In Y. Ke1 and V. S. Solomatov’s

text: model

text: , the core is liquid and is vigorously convecting.  The

text: heat flux

text: out of the thermal boundary layer (at the upper boundary) is close to zero because the temperature profile above the thermal boundary layer quickly reaches a

text: steady state

text: profile in the frame of reference associated with the moving upper boundary of the thermal boundary layer. As the core temperature decreases, the driving temperature difference for

text: convection

text: inside the thermal boundary layer decreases, and the

text: heat flux

text: decreases. Cooling and

text: crystallization

text: of the molten thermal boundary layer is very fast(~100 years). After the melt fraction drops to ~40% the

text: viscosity

text: significantly increases and the core-mantle boundary temperature continues to decrease at a much slower rate. When a relatively modest

text: viscosity

text: contrast between the thermal boundary layer ( at the rheological transition) and the mantle is achieved, a superplume is generated.

text: Used by the Wambas on Planet Wamba, a tropical type planet.<br> The source of this flux is radiation from the Ibo Moon. It gives the Wambas superior agility. It is visually similar to the Breath but reddish orange in color.

text: Used by the Wambas on Planet Wamba, a

text: tropical

text: type planet.<br> The source of this flux is radiation from the Ibo Moon. It gives the Wambas superior agility. It is visually similar to the Breath but reddish orange in color.

text: The refractory group includes elements and compounds like metals and silicates (commonly termed rocks) which make up the bulk of the mass of the terrestrial planets and asteroids in the inner belt. A fraction of the mass of other asteroids, giant planets, their moons and trans-Neptunian objects is also made of refractory materials.

text: The refractory group includes elements and compounds like metals and

text: silicates

text: (commonly termed rocks) which make up the bulk of the mass of the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s and asteroids in the inner belt. A fraction of the mass of other

text: asteroids

text: , giant planets, their moons and

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s is also made of refractory materials.

text: In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: Kepler

text: 's laws of planetary motion are three

text: scientific law

text: s describing the motion of

text: planet

text: s around the

text: Sun

text: For complex parts it can be difficult to get all of the core liquid to drain out in either melt-out process. In order to overcome this the parts may be rotated for up to an hour. Liquid core metal collects on the bottom of the heated bath and is usable for a new core.

text: The tectonic features on Mercury were not studied in precise detail until the MESSENGER spacecraft was sent to Mercury; by 2009 the MESSENGER spacecraft had mapped 98% of the planet's surface.  By 2013, Messenger mapped 100% of the planet's surface. Mercury Dual Imaging System cameras and Mercury Laser Altimeter equipment on the messenger spacecraft allowed for researchers to obtain high-resolution images of the planet's surface for analyzing Mercury's tectonics.

text: The tectonic features on Mercury were not studied in precise detail until the

text: MESSENGER spacecraft

text: was sent to Mercury; by 2009 the MESSENGER spacecraft had mapped 98% of the planet's surface.  By 2013, Messenger mapped 100% of the planet's surface. Mercury Dual Imaging System cameras and Mercury Laser Altimeter equipment on the messenger spacecraft allowed for researchers to obtain high-resolution images of the planet's surface for analyzing Mercury's tectonics.

text: An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by a current that flows around a soft iron core. Earth has a solid iron inner core surrounded by semi-liquid materials of the outer core that move in continuous currents around the inner core; therefore, the Earth is an electromagnet. This is referred to as the dynamo theory of Earth's magnetism.

text: An

text: electromagnet

text: is a magnet that is created by a current that flows around a soft

text: iron

text: core. Earth has a solid iron

text: inner core

text: surrounded by semi-liquid materials of the

text: outer core

text: that move in continuous currents around the inner core; therefore, the Earth is an

text: electromagnet

text: . This is referred to as the

text: dynamo theory

text: of Earth's magnetism.

text: Star Light is set several decades after the events of Mission of Gravity. It takes place mostly on the supergiant planet Dhrawn, which some suspect of being a failed star. The planet has an ammonia/water atmosphere with some oxygen, at temperatures ranging from 70 Kelvins to almost the freezing point of water. The planet rotates extremely slowly, taking around two months for one revolution. It also has a long eccentric orbit around its star, which is a red dwarf, Lalande 21185. Much of the planet's heat seems to come from within. The gravity at the surface is 40 times the Earth's. Almost everything about the planet defies scientific theory, including its size, lack of hydrogen, its temperature, and the presence of free oxygen in its atmosphere.

text: Star Light is set several decades after the events of Mission of Gravity. It takes place mostly on the supergiant planet Dhrawn, which some suspect of being a

text: failed star

text: . The planet has an ammonia/water atmosphere with some oxygen, at temperatures ranging from 70 Kelvins to almost the freezing point of water. The planet rotates extremely slowly, taking around two months for one revolution. It also has a long eccentric orbit around its star, which is a

text: red dwarf

text: Lalande 21185

text: . Much of the planet's heat seems to come from within. The gravity at the surface is 40 times the Earth's. Almost everything about the planet defies scientific theory, including its size, lack of hydrogen, its temperature, and the presence of free oxygen in its atmosphere.

text: Kepler-62e (also known by its Kepler Object of Interest designation KOI-701.03) is a super-Earth exoplanet (extrasolar planet) discovered orbiting within the habitable zone of Kepler-62, the second outermost of five such planets discovered by NASA's Kepler spacecraft.  Kepler-62e is located about  from Earth in the constellation of Lyra.  The exoplanet was found using the transit method, in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. Kepler-62e may be a terrestrial or ocean-covered planet; it lies in the inner part of its host star's habitable zone.

text: Kepler-62e (also known by its Kepler Object of Interest designation KOI-701.03) is a

text: super-Earth

text: exoplanet

text: (extrasolar planet) discovered orbiting within the

text: habitable zone

text: of

text: , the second outermost of five such planets discovered by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Kepler spacecraft

text: .  Kepler-62e is located about  from

text: Earth

text: in the constellation of

text: Lyra

text: .  The exoplanet was found using the

text: transit method

text: , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. Kepler-62e may be a

text: terrestrial

text: or

text: ocean-covered

text: planet; it lies in the inner part of its host star's habitable zone.

text: The bald eagle  in the official seal holds a shield that carries a lamp, a cogwheel and; a volcano and tree (sometimes rendered erroneously as a star and the planet Saturn). These symbols represent science and medicine, engineering and agriculture respectively. Until today, the University takes pride in these three areas of knowledge as these degree programs in U.P. are acknowledged as Centers of Excellence in the Philippines by the Commission on Higher Education. A myth persists that the bird in the seal is in fact, a parrot, as stated in some Freshmen orientation materials. The University's varsity team was also once called the Parrots, adding to the confusion about the species of the bird in question. An explanation for the use of the eagle in the seal is that it was derived from the coat of arms of the City of Manila and the Great Seal of the United States of America.

text: The

text: bald eagle

text: in the official seal holds a shield that carries a lamp, a cogwheel and; a volcano and tree (sometimes rendered erroneously as a star and the planet

text: Saturn

text: ). These symbols represent

text: science

text: and

text: medicine

text: engineering

text: and

text: agriculture

text: respectively. Until today, the University takes pride in these three areas of knowledge as these degree programs in U.P. are acknowledged as Centers of Excellence in the Philippines by the

entity_name: Commission on Higher Education (Philippines)

text: Commission on Higher Education

text: . A myth persists that the bird in the seal is in fact, a parrot, as stated in some Freshmen orientation materials. The University's varsity team was also once called the Parrots, adding to the confusion about the species of the bird in question. An explanation for the use of the eagle in the seal is that it was derived from the coat of arms of the City of

text: Manila

text: and the

text: Great Seal of the United States of America

text: The currents in the world’s oceans are a result of varying temperatures associated with the changing latitudes of our planet. As the atmosphere is warmed nearest the equator, the hot air at the surface of our planet is heated, causing it to rise and draw in cooler air to take its place, creating what is known as circulation cells. This ultimately causes the air to be significantly colder near the poles than at the equator.

text: The

text: currents

text: in the world’s oceans are a result of varying temperatures associated with the changing latitudes of our planet. As the atmosphere is warmed nearest the equator, the hot air at the surface of our planet is heated, causing it to rise and draw in cooler air to take its place, creating what is known as circulation cells. This ultimately causes the air to be significantly colder near the poles than at the equator.

text: Venera 4 ( meaning Venus 4), also designated 1V (V-67) s/n 310 was a probe in the Soviet Venera program for the exploration of Venus. It was the first successful probe to perform in-place analysis of the environment of another planet. It may also have been the first probe to land on another planet, with the fate of its predecessor Venera 3 being unclear. Venera 4 provided the first chemical analysis of the Venusian atmosphere, showing it to be primarily carbon dioxide with a few percent of nitrogen and below one percent of oxygen and water vapors. The station detected a weak magnetic field and no radiation field. The outer atmospheric layer contained very little hydrogen and no atomic oxygen. The probe sent the first direct measurements proving that Venus was extremely hot, that its atmosphere was far denser than expected, and that it had lost most of its water long ago.

text: Venera 4 ( meaning Venus 4), also designated 1V (V-67) s/n 310 was a probe in the

text: Soviet

text: Venera program

text: for the exploration of

text: Venus

text: . It was the first successful probe to perform in-place analysis of the environment of another

text: planet

text: . It may also have been the first probe to land on another planet, with the fate of its predecessor

text: Venera 3

text: being unclear. Venera 4 provided the first chemical analysis of the Venusian atmosphere, showing it to be primarily

text: carbon dioxide

text: with a few percent of

text: nitrogen

text: and below one percent of

text: oxygen

text: and water vapors. The station detected a weak magnetic field and no radiation field. The outer atmospheric layer contained very little hydrogen and no atomic oxygen. The probe sent the first direct measurements proving that Venus was extremely hot, that its atmosphere was far denser than expected, and that it had lost most of its water long ago.

text: Hot Jupiters, due to their extreme proximities to their host stars, have been shown to be losing their atmospheres into space due to stellar radiation, much like the tails of comets. These planets may have vast differences in temperature between their day and night sides that produce supersonic winds, although the day and night sides of HD 189733 b appear to have very similar temperatures, indicating that that planet's atmosphere effectively redistributes the star's energy around the planet.

text: NASA continued the Mariner program with another pair of Mars flyby probes, Mariner 6 and 7. They were sent at the next launch window, and reached the planet in 1969. During the following launch window the Mariner program again suffered the loss of one of a pair of probes. Mariner 9 successfully entered orbit about Mars, the first spacecraft ever to do so, after the launch time failure of its sister ship, Mariner 8.  When Mariner 9 reached Mars in 1971, it and two Soviet orbiters (Mars 2 and Mars 3, see Mars probe program below) found that a planet-wide dust storm was in progress.  The mission controllers used the time spent waiting for the storm to clear to have the probe rendezvous with, and photograph, Phobos.  When the storm cleared sufficiently for Mars' surface to be photographed by Mariner 9, the pictures returned represented a substantial advance over previous missions.  These pictures were the first to offer more detailed evidence that liquid water might at one time have flowed on the planetary surface. They also finally discerned the true nature of many Martian albedo features. For example, Nix Olympica was one of only a few features that could be seen during the planetary duststorm, revealing it to be the highest mountain (volcano, to be exact) on any planet in the entire Solar System, and leading to its reclassification as Olympus Mons.

text: NASA continued the Mariner program with another pair of Mars flyby probes,

text: Mariner 6 and 7

text: . They were sent at the next launch window, and reached the planet in 1969. During the following launch window the Mariner program again suffered the loss of one of a pair of probes.

text: Mariner 9

text: successfully entered orbit about Mars, the first spacecraft ever to do so, after the launch time failure of its sister ship,

text: Mariner 8

text: .  When Mariner 9 reached Mars in 1971, it and two Soviet orbiters (

text: Mars 2

text: and

text: Mars 3

text: , see Mars probe program below) found that a planet-wide dust storm was in progress.  The mission controllers used the time spent waiting for the storm to clear to have the probe rendezvous with, and photograph,

text: Phobos

text: .  When the storm cleared sufficiently for Mars' surface to be photographed by Mariner 9, the pictures returned represented a substantial advance over previous missions.  These pictures were the first to offer more detailed evidence that liquid water might at one time have flowed on the planetary surface. They also finally discerned the true nature of many Martian albedo features. For example, Nix Olympica was one of only a few features that could be seen during the planetary duststorm, revealing it to be the

entity_name: List of tallest mountains in the Solar System

text: highest mountain

text: volcano

text: , to be exact) on any planet in the entire

text: Solar System

text: , and leading to its reclassification as

text: Olympus Mons

text: Because seismic waves commonly propagate efficiently as they interact with the internal structure of the Earth, they provide high-resolution noninvasive methods for studying the planet's interior.  One of the earliest important discoveries (suggested by Richard Dixon Oldham in 1906 and definitively shown by Harold Jeffreys in 1926) was that the outer core of the earth is liquid.  Since S-waves do not pass through liquids, the liquid core causes a "shadow" on the side of the planet opposite the earthquake where no direct S-waves are observed.  In addition, P-waves travel much slower through the outer core than the mantle.

text: Because seismic waves commonly propagate efficiently as they interact with the internal structure of the Earth, they provide high-resolution noninvasive methods for studying the planet's interior.  One of the earliest important discoveries (suggested by

text: Richard Dixon Oldham

text: in 1906 and definitively shown by

text: Harold Jeffreys

text: in 1926) was that the

text: outer core

text: of the earth is liquid.  Since S-waves do not pass through liquids, the liquid core causes a "shadow" on the side of the planet opposite the earthquake where no direct S-waves are observed.  In addition, P-waves travel much slower through the outer core than the mantle.

text: So the varying positions of the Laplace plane at varying distances from the primary planet can be pictured as putting together a warped or non-planar surface, which may be pictured as a series of concentric rings whose orientation in space is variable: the innermost rings are near the equatorial plane of rotation and oblateness of the planet, and the outermost rings near its solar orbital plane.  Also, in some cases, larger satellites of a planet (such as Neptune's Triton) can affect the Laplace planes of smaller satellites orbiting the same planet.

text: So the varying positions of the Laplace plane at varying distances from the primary planet can be pictured as putting together a warped or non-planar surface, which may be pictured as a series of concentric rings whose orientation in space is variable: the innermost rings are near the equatorial

text: plane of rotation

text: and oblateness of the planet, and the outermost rings near its solar orbital plane.  Also, in some cases, larger satellites of a planet (such as Neptune's

text: Triton

text: ) can affect the Laplace planes of smaller satellites orbiting the same planet.

text: Chlorides contain the anion Cl and are soluble in water, meaning they provide evidence of past aqueous processes, which helps to constrain the type of environment at a particular region. On Earth, two main processes form chlorides: efflorescence and precipitation. Whereas on Earth these minerals are formed in more alkaline environments, the minerals on Mars form from more acidic fluids and the processes are connected to basaltic weathering.  The key similarity between the formation of chlorides on the two planets is the presence of water. This is important because water is essential to life on Earth, and therefore drives the search for evidence of life on other planets. Chlorides are of particular interest because of their potential to preserve a biological signature through chemical sedimentation. In addition, their presence throughout the entire southern hemisphere of Mars suggests their formation have been an important process to the early history of Mars.

text: Chlorides

text: contain the anion Cl and are soluble in water, meaning they provide evidence of past aqueous processes, which helps to constrain the type of environment at a particular region. On Earth, two main processes form chlorides:

text: efflorescence

text: and

text: precipitation

text: . Whereas on Earth these minerals are formed in more alkaline environments, the minerals on Mars form from more acidic fluids and the processes are connected to basaltic weathering.  The key similarity between the formation of chlorides on the two planets is the presence of water. This is important because water is essential to life on Earth, and therefore drives the search for evidence of life on other planets. Chlorides are of particular interest because of their potential to preserve a biological signature through chemical sedimentation. In addition, their presence throughout the entire southern hemisphere of Mars suggests their formation have been an important process to the early history of Mars.

text: The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year. This is expected to continue, causing the plates to relocate and collide. Continental drift is facilitated by two factors: the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a hydrosphere. With the loss of either of these, continental drift will come to a halt. The production of heat through radiogenic processes is sufficient to maintain mantle convection and plate subduction for at least the next 1.1 billion years.

text: The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year. This is expected to continue, causing the plates to relocate and collide.

text: Continental drift

text: is facilitated by two factors: the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a

text: hydrosphere

text: . With the loss of either of these, continental drift will come to a halt. The production of

text: heat through radiogenic processes

text: is sufficient to maintain

text: mantle convection

text: and plate

text: subduction

text: for at least the next 1.1 billion years.

text: Comets can loosely be divided into two categories: short-period and long-period—the latter being thought to originate in the Oort cloud. The two major categories of short-period comets are Jupiter-family comets (JFCs) and Halley-type comets. Halley-type comets, which are named after their prototype, Halley's Comet, are thought to have originated in the Oort cloud but to have been drawn into the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, whereas the JFCs are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. The centaurs are thought to be a dynamically intermediate stage between the scattered disc and the Jupiter family.

text: Comets can loosely be divided into two categories: short-period and long-period—the latter being thought to originate in the

text: Oort cloud

text: . The two major categories of short-period comets are

text: Jupiter-family comet

text: s (JFCs) and Halley-type comets. Halley-type comets, which are named after their prototype,

text: Halley's Comet

text: , are thought to have originated in the Oort cloud but to have been drawn into the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, whereas the JFCs are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. The

text: centaurs

text: are thought to be a dynamically intermediate stage between the scattered disc and the Jupiter family.

text: Teething has not been shown to cause fever or diarrhea; however the belief that teething causes fever is extremely common among parents. Whilst there is some evidence that teething can cause an elevated temperature, it does not cause fever (temperature over . One small 1992 study found a significant rise in temperature on the day of eruption of the first tooth. Another study in 2000 found "mild temperature elevation" but not fever over .

text: Erasmas and several companions, including Fraa Jad, decide to seek out Orolo. After a dangerous journey over the planet's frozen pole, Erasmas and his comrades eventually arrive at a concent-like establishment called Orithena, and reunite with Fraa Orolo. Orolo holds discussions with Erasmas about the nature of the cosmos and consciousness, and how he believes that the aliens are not simply from another planet, but from another cosmos that is influenced by Arbre. During the discussions between Orolo and Erasmas, a small spacecraft lands on Orithena. A female alien is on board, but dead of a recent gunshot wound. She brings with her four vials of blood – presumably that of the aliens – and much evidence about their technology. Shortly thereafter, the aliens propel a massive metal rod at a nearby volcano, triggering an eruption that destroys Orithena. Orolo sacrifices his life to ensure the safety of the dead alien's remains, an event that leads to his canonization as Saunt Orolo.

text: Erasmas and several companions, including Fraa Jad, decide to seek out Orolo. After a dangerous journey over the planet's frozen pole, Erasmas and his comrades eventually arrive at a concent-like establishment called Orithena, and reunite with Fraa Orolo. Orolo holds discussions with Erasmas about the nature of the cosmos and consciousness, and how he believes that the aliens are not simply from another planet, but from another cosmos that is influenced by Arbre. During the discussions between Orolo and Erasmas, a small spacecraft lands on Orithena. A female alien is on board, but dead of a recent gunshot wound. She brings with her four vials of blood – presumably that of the aliens – and much evidence about their technology. Shortly thereafter, the aliens

text: propel a massive metal rod

text: at a nearby volcano, triggering an eruption that destroys Orithena. Orolo sacrifices his life to ensure the safety of the dead alien's remains, an event that leads to his

text: canonization

text: as Saunt Orolo.

text: Martha Jones' year long journey across a Master-controlled planet Earth is detailed in the short story collection The Story of Martha, which was released on 26 December 2008.

text: Martha Jones

text: ' year long journey across a Master-controlled planet Earth is detailed in the short story collection

text: The Story of Martha

text: , which was released on 26 December 2008.

text: The outer planet orbits inside a dusty disk like the Solar Kuiper belt. It is one of the most massive disks known around any star within 300 light years of Earth, and there is room in the inner system for terrestrial planets. There is an additional debris disk just inside the orbit of the innermost planet.

text: The outer planet orbits inside a dusty disk like the Solar

text: Kuiper belt

text: . It is one of the most massive disks known around any star within 300 light years of Earth, and there is room in the inner system for

text: terrestrial planet

text: s. There is an additional debris disk just inside the orbit of the innermost planet.

text: The Trisolaran world is a stellar system with three suns (namely, the alpha Centauri System), whose trajectories are entirely unpredictable (based on the famous physics question of three-body problem).  The gravitational forces between the suns and the planets are extremely chaotic, and have caused 11 of the original 12 planets to be consumed by the suns.  The living environment on the sole remaining planet, Trisolaris, is also extremely harsh: when the planet is within the orbit range of one sun, it enters a short era of stable day-night cycle, which the native Trisolarans term as Stable Era; when the planet is trapped between the orbits of multiple suns, its day-night cycle becomes distorted, and the days may become extremely hot should the planet be too close to any of the suns, or extremely cold if otherwise, and this period is termed as a Chaotic Era.

text: The Trisolaran world is a

text: stellar system

text: with three suns (namely, the

text: alpha Centauri

text: System), whose trajectories are entirely unpredictable (based on the famous physics question of

text: three-body problem

text: ).  The gravitational forces between the suns and the planets are extremely

text: chaotic

text: , and have caused 11 of the original 12 planets to be consumed by the suns.  The living environment on the sole remaining planet, Trisolaris, is also extremely harsh: when the planet is within the orbit range of one sun, it enters a short era of stable day-night cycle, which the native Trisolarans term as Stable Era; when the planet is trapped between the orbits of multiple suns, its day-night cycle becomes distorted, and the days may become extremely hot should the planet be too close to any of the suns, or extremely cold if otherwise, and this period is termed as a Chaotic Era.

text: The Nazca Plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru–Chile Trench, of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate is largely responsible for the Andean orogeny. The Nazca Plate is bounded on the west by the Pacific Plate and to the south by the Antarctic Plate through the East Pacific Rise and the Chile Rise respectively. The movement of the Nazca Plate over several hotspots has created some volcanic islands as well as east-west running seamount chains that subduct under South America. Nazca is a relatively young plate both in terms of the age of its rocks and its existence as an independent plate having been formed from the break-up of the Farallon Plate about 23 million years ago. The oldest rocks of the plate are about 50 million years old.

text: The Nazca Plate, named after the

text: Nazca

text: region of southern

text: Peru

text: , is an oceanic

text: tectonic plate

text: in the eastern

text: Pacific Ocean

text: basin off the west coast of

text: South America

text: . The ongoing

text: subduction

text: , along the

text: Peru–Chile Trench

text: , of the Nazca Plate under the

text: South American Plate

text: is largely responsible for the

text: Andean orogeny

text: . The Nazca Plate is bounded on the west by the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and to the south by the

text: Antarctic Plate

text: through the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: and the

text: Chile Rise

text: respectively. The movement of the Nazca Plate over several

text: hotspots

text: has created some

text: volcanic islands

text: as well as east-west running

text: seamount

text: chains that subduct under

text: South America

text: . Nazca is a relatively young plate both in terms of the age of its rocks and its existence as an independent plate having been formed from the break-up of the

text: Farallon Plate

text: about 23 million years ago. The oldest rocks of the plate are about 50 million years old.

text: In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Inner Light", Captain Picard suggests building "atmospheric condensers" for a planet experiencing prolonged drought.

text: In the

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: episode "

entity_name: The Inner Light (Star Trek: The Next Generation)

text: The Inner Light

text: ", Captain Picard suggests building "atmospheric condensers" for a planet experiencing prolonged drought.

text: Discovery of active volcanic activity on the moon Io was probably the greatest surprise. It was the first time active volcanoes had been seen on another body in the Solar System. It appears that activity on Io affects the entire Jovian system. Io appears to be the primary source of matter that pervades the Jovian magnetosphere – the region of space that surrounds the planet influenced by the planet's strong magnetic field. Sulfur, oxygen, and sodium, apparently erupted by Io's volcanoes and sputtered off the surface by impact of high-energy particles, were detected at the outer edge of the magnetosphere of Jupiter.

text: Discovery of active volcanic activity on the moon

text: Io

text: was probably the greatest surprise. It was the first time active volcanoes had been seen on another body in the

text: Solar System

text: . It appears that activity on Io affects the entire

text: Jovian system

text: . Io appears to be the primary source of matter that pervades the Jovian magnetosphere – the region of space that surrounds the planet influenced by the planet's strong

text: magnetic field

text: Sulfur

text: oxygen

text: , and

text: sodium

text: , apparently erupted by Io's volcanoes and sputtered off the surface by impact of high-energy particles, were detected at the outer edge of the

text: magnetosphere of Jupiter

text: Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high as it can easily reach  or more. A sand temperature of 83.5 °C (182.3 °F) has been recorded in Port Sudan. Ground temperatures of  have been recorded in the Adrar of Mauritania and a value of 75 °C (167 °F) has been measured in Borkou, northern Chad.

text: Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high as it can easily reach  or more. A sand temperature of 83.5 °C (182.3 °F) has been recorded in

text: Port Sudan

text: . Ground temperatures of  have been recorded in the

text: Adrar of Mauritania

text: and a value of 75 °C (167 °F) has been measured in

text: Borkou

text: , northern Chad.

text: Lamuella is the idyllic planet on which Arthur Dent lives and works as The Sandwich Maker at the start of . The planet is mostly made up of villages, though there is only one significant settlement on the planet. It intersects a plural zone, allowing for teleportation to the Domain of the King. The primary species of the planet are humanoids, Perfectly Normal Beasts – named thus by Old Thrashbarg, and Pikka Birds. The residents of Lamuella worship a deity by the name of Almighty Bob. Among the many things Arthur likes about Lamuella are the number of suns and moons (one of each), the number of hours in a day (25, giving him an extra hour in bed and a few minutes every day adjusting his watch, a task he greatly enjoys) and the number of days in a year (about 300, so the year doesn't drag on). The planet is mostly unknown, so few space travelers ever taste the superbly made sandwiches that would be the planet's claim to fame.

text: Lamuella is the idyllic planet on which

text: Arthur Dent

text: lives and works as The Sandwich Maker at the start of . The planet is mostly made up of villages, though there is only one significant settlement on the planet. It intersects a plural zone, allowing for teleportation to the

entity_name: Places in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy

text: Domain of the King

text: . The primary species of the planet are humanoids,

entity_name: List of races and species in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy

text: Perfectly Normal Beasts

text: – named thus by

entity_name: List of minor The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy characters

text: Old Thrashbarg

text: , and

text: Pikka Bird

text: s. The residents of Lamuella worship a deity by the name of

text: Almighty Bob

text: . Among the many things Arthur likes about Lamuella are the number of suns and moons (one of each), the number of hours in a day (25, giving him an extra hour in bed and a few minutes every day adjusting his watch, a task he greatly enjoys) and the number of days in a year (about 300, so the year doesn't drag on). The planet is mostly unknown, so few space travelers ever taste the superbly made sandwiches that would be the planet's claim to fame.

text: The Ceraunius Fossae are tectonic features indicating stresses in the planet's lithosphere. The fractures form when the stresses exceed the yield strength of rock, resulting in deformation of surface materials. Typically, this deformation is manifested as slip on faults that are recognizable in images from orbit. Most of the tectonic features in the western hemisphere of Mars are explained by crustal deformation from the Tharsis bulge (a huge volcanic mass up to 7 km high that covers nearly a quarter of the planet’s surface). Among the processes proposed to explain the tectonic features associated with Tharsis are domal uplifting, magmatic intrusion, and volcanic loading (deformation due to the large, sagging weight of the volcanic mass).

text: The Ceraunius Fossae are

text: tectonic

text: features indicating

text: stresses

text: in the planet's

text: lithosphere

text: . The fractures form when the stresses exceed the

text: yield strength

text: of rock, resulting in deformation of surface materials. Typically, this deformation is manifested as slip on faults that are recognizable in images from orbit. Most of the tectonic features in the western hemisphere of Mars are explained by crustal deformation from the

text: Tharsis bulge

text: (a huge volcanic mass up to 7 km high that covers nearly a quarter of the planet’s surface). Among the processes proposed to explain the tectonic features associated with Tharsis are domal uplifting,

text: magma

text: tic

text: intrusion

text: , and volcanic loading (deformation due to the large, sagging weight of the volcanic mass).

text: At the ocean-atmosphere interface, the ocean and atmosphere exchange fluxes of heat, moisture and momentum.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of Kepler-90h, this would be practically the same to have a stable orbit.

text: orbital period

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of Kepler-90h, this would be practically the same to have a stable orbit.

text: It is essentially a geocentric model; the Earth is at the center of the universe. The Sun and Moon and the stars revolve around the Earth, and the other five planets revolve around the Sun. It can be shown that the motions of the planets and the Sun relative to the Earth in Brahe's system are mathematically equivalent to the motions in Copernicus' heliocentric system.

text: It is essentially a

text: geocentric model

text: ; the

text: Earth

text: is at the center of the universe. The

text: Sun

text: and

text: Moon

text: and the stars revolve around the Earth, and the other five

text: planet

text: s revolve around the Sun. It can be shown that the motions of the planets and the Sun relative to the Earth in Brahe's system are mathematically equivalent to the motions in Copernicus'

text: heliocentric

text: system.

text: The ice giants represent one of two fundamentally different categories of giant planets present in the Solar System, the other group being the more-familiar gas giants, which are composed of more than 90% hydrogen and helium (by mass). Their hydrogen is thought to extend all the way down to their small rocky cores, where hydrogen molecular ion transitions to metallic hydrogen under the extreme pressures of hundreds of gigapascals (GPa).

text: The ice giants represent one of two fundamentally different categories of

text: giant planet

text: s present in the

text: Solar System

text: , the other group being the more-familiar

text: gas giant

text: s, which are composed of more than 90%

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: (by mass). Their hydrogen is thought to extend all the way down to their small rocky cores, where

text: hydrogen molecular ion

text: transitions to

text: metallic hydrogen

text: under the extreme pressures of hundreds of

text: gigapascal

text: s (GPa).

text: They may be composed primarily of silicate rocks and/or metals. Within the Solar System, the terrestrial planets are the inner planets closest to the Sun.

text: They may be composed primarily of

text: silicate

text: rock

text: s and/or

text: metal

text: s. Within the

text: Solar System

text: , the terrestrial planets are the

text: inner planets

text: closest to the

text: Sun

text: The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken up into tectonic plates. The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

text: The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken up into

text: tectonic plates

text: . The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary:

text: convergent

text: divergent

text: , or

text: transform

text: Earthquake

text: s,

text: volcanic activity

text: mountain

text: -building, and

text: oceanic trench

text: formation occur along these

text: plate boundaries

text: . The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

text: Having thus discovered the lack of potassium in Destiny's biosphere, the crew of the Cavorite landing craft took the ship to search for a volcano from which to harvest potassium. However, Destiny is a far, far older planet than Earth, and is much less tectonically active: They could find only a single major volcano. But on that volcano - the future site of the Windfarm - they had an astounding stroke of luck. They found speckles, an indigenous plant that had adapted to concentrate potassium as a defence against predation, making complex extraction of the element unnecessary.

text: From ancient times until the 16th and 17th centuries, the motions of the planets were believed to follow perfectly circular geocentric paths as taught by the ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy. Variations in the motions of the planets were explained by smaller circular paths overlaid on the larger path (see epicycle). As measurements of the planets became increasingly accurate, revisions to the theory were proposed. In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus published a heliocentric model of the solar system, although he still believed that the planets traveled in perfectly circular paths centered on the sun.

text: From ancient times until the 16th and 17th centuries, the motions of the planets were believed to follow perfectly circular

text: geocentric

text: paths as taught by the ancient Greek philosophers

text: Aristotle

text: and

text: Ptolemy

text: . Variations in the motions of the planets were explained by smaller circular paths overlaid on the larger path (see

text: epicycle)

text: . As measurements of the planets became increasingly accurate, revisions to the theory were proposed. In 1543,

text: Nicolaus Copernicus

text: published a

text: heliocentric

text: model of the solar system, although he still believed that the planets traveled in perfectly circular paths centered on the sun.

text: In the following tables, planetary satellites are indicated in bold type (e.g. Moon) while planets and dwarf planets, which directly circle the Sun, are in italic type (e.g. Earth). The tables are sorted by publication/announcement date. Dates are annotated with the following symbols:

text: In the Solar System both Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing comets into the inner Solar System. Here, the comets provided the inner planets with their own source of water and various other ices. In the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri may have influenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri system was forming, enriching the area around Alpha Centauri A and B with volatile materials. This would be discounted if, for example, Alpha Centauri B happened to have gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A (or conversely, Alpha Centauri A for Alpha Centauri B), or if the stars B and A themselves were able to perturb comets into each other's inner system as Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done in the Solar System. Such icy bodies probably also reside in Oort clouds of other planetary systems, when they are influenced gravitationally by either the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars many of these icy bodies then travel starwards. There is no direct evidence yet of the existence of such an Oort cloud around Alpha Centauri AB, and theoretically this may have been totally destroyed during the system's formation.

text: In the Solar System both Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing

text: comet

text: s into the inner Solar System. Here, the comets provided the inner planets with their own source of water and various other ices. In the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri may have influenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri system was forming, enriching the area around Alpha Centauri A and B with volatile materials. This would be discounted if, for example, Alpha Centauri B happened to have gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A (or conversely, Alpha Centauri A for Alpha Centauri B), or if the stars B and A themselves were able to perturb comets into each other's inner system as Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done in the Solar System. Such icy bodies probably also reside in

text: Oort cloud

text: s of other planetary systems, when they are influenced gravitationally by either the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars many of these icy bodies then travel starwards. There is no direct evidence yet of the existence of such an Oort cloud around Alpha Centauri AB, and theoretically this may have been totally destroyed during the system's formation.

text: Outside of special cases, the surface of a molten metal is covered with a thin, solid layer of oxide. If the surface of the liquid happens to fold in on itself, or if a separate droplet falls into it, there will be a solid-on-solid interface between the two films. This can happen as a consequence of any kind of turbulence during the processing of the molten metal. Once solidified, this interface become functionally indistinguishable from a crack.

text: The device consists of two constituent parts, a gamma radiation sensitive inner core which fits inside the spherical tungsten outer collimation sheath. The outside diameter of the device is 140 mm (approx 5 ½ inch) which allows deployment in to hard to reach areas whilst providing a 360 degree view of the area. The inner core is made up of material which changes colour when it is exposed to gamma radiation. Therefore, when the device is deployed inside a radioactive environment the collimation device preferentially allows gamma radiation to pass through the collimation holes which deposits tracks within the inner core. These tracks can then be analysed to provide a 3D visualisation of the radioactive environment predicting both source location and intensity.

text: The device consists of two constituent parts, a

text: gamma radiation

text: sensitive inner core which fits inside the spherical

text: tungsten

text: outer

text: collimation

text: sheath. The outside diameter of the device is 140 mm (approx 5 ½ inch) which allows deployment in to hard to reach areas whilst providing a 360 degree view of the area. The inner core is made up of material which changes colour when it is exposed to gamma radiation. Therefore, when the device is deployed inside a

text: radioactive

text: environment the collimation device preferentially allows gamma radiation to pass through the collimation holes which deposits tracks within the inner core. These tracks can then be analysed to provide a

text: 3D visualisation

text: of the radioactive environment predicting both source location and intensity.

text: The discovery of five planets orbiting the star was announced October 2012. The planets are unusual in that they orbit near the parent star. The semi-major axis of the outermost planet is 1/12 the distance from Earth to the Sun. Radial velocity method could not be used to confirm the existence of planets due to star's faintness. Outermost two planets were confirmed through transit-timing variation method while it was not possible with inner planets due to relatively low signal-to-noise ratio. Two of the three other candidates were validated in February 2014. The remaining candidate was expected to be a real planet although its period was too short to validate through criteria given to confirm the planet. The innermost planet was validated in 2016.

text: The discovery of five planets orbiting the star was announced October 2012. The planets are unusual in that they orbit near the parent star. The

text: semi-major axis

text: of the outermost planet is 1/12 the distance from Earth to the Sun. Radial velocity method could not be used to confirm the existence of planets due to star's faintness. Outermost two planets were confirmed through transit-timing variation method while it was not possible with inner planets due to relatively low signal-to-noise ratio. Two of the three other candidates were validated in February 2014. The remaining candidate was expected to be a real planet although its period was too short to validate through criteria given to confirm the planet. The innermost planet was validated in 2016.

text: The Juan de Fuca Plate is a tectonic plate generated from the Juan de Fuca Ridge and is subducting under the northerly portion of the western side of the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone. It is named after the explorer of the same name. One of the smallest of Earth's tectonic plates, the Juan de Fuca Plate is a remnant part of the once-vast Farallon Plate, which is now largely subducted underneath the North American Plate.

text: The Juan de Fuca Plate is a

text: tectonic plate

text: generated from the

text: Juan de Fuca Ridge

text: and is

text: subducting

text: under the northerly portion of the western side of the

text: North American Plate

text: at the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: . It is named after the

text: explorer of the same name

text: . One of the smallest of Earth's tectonic plates, the Juan de Fuca Plate is a remnant part of the once-vast

text: Farallon Plate

text: , which is now largely subducted underneath the North American Plate.

text: Snowshoeing, Nordic skiing, and inner tubing activities are also available.

text: The discovery of extrasolar Earth-sized planets has spurred inquiry regarding their potential for habitability. One of the generally agreed-upon (Noack and Breuer and references within) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile, fractured lithosphere cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting mantle, commonly known as plate tectonics. Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates, as well as sequestration of carbon. This prevents “runaway greenhouse” scenarios that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water. There is not a clear academic consensus on whether Earth-like exoplanets have plate tectonics, but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius, initial temperature upon coalescence, insolation, and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water.

text: The discovery of

text: extrasolar

text: Earth-sized planets has spurred inquiry regarding their potential for

text: habitability

text: . One of the generally agreed-upon (Noack and Breuer and references within) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile, fractured

text: lithosphere

text: cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting

text: mantle

text: , commonly known as

text: plate tectonics

text: . Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates, as well as sequestration of carbon. This prevents “runaway greenhouse” scenarios that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water. There is not a clear academic consensus on whether Earth-like

text: exoplanets

text: have plate tectonics, but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius, initial temperature upon coalescence,

text: insolation

text: , and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water.

text: Thus, while there is reason to suspect that the four "life elements" ought to be readily available elsewhere, a habitable system probably also requires a supply of long-term orbiting bodies to seed inner planets. Without comets there is a possibility that life as we know it would not exist on Earth.

text: HAT-P-33b is a planet in the orbit of HAT-P-33, which lies 1,367 light years away from Earth. Its discovery was reported in June 2011, although it was suspected to be a planet as early as 2004. The planet is about three-fourths the mass of Jupiter, but is almost eighty percent larger than Jupiter is; this inflation has, as with the discovery of similar planets WASP-17b and HAT-P-32b, raised the question of what (other than temperature) causes these planets to become so large.

text: HAT-P-33b is a planet in the orbit of

text: , which lies 1,367 light years away from Earth. Its discovery was reported in June 2011, although it was suspected to be a planet as early as 2004. The planet is about three-fourths the mass of Jupiter, but is almost eighty percent larger than Jupiter is; this inflation has, as with the discovery of similar planets

text: and

text: , raised the question of what (other than temperature) causes these planets to become so large.

text: On 19 July 2009 at approximately 13:30, Wesley found fame after discovering a scar near Jupiter's south pole the size of the Pacific Ocean. Wesley discovered the impact at approximately 13:30 UTC on On 19 July 2009 (almost exactly 15 years after the Jupiter impact of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, or SL9), Wesley discovered an impact on Jupiter that caused a black spot in the planet's atmosphere. He was at his home observatory just outside Murrumbateman, New South Wales, Australia, using stacked images on a  diameter reflecting telescope equipped with a low light machine vision video camera attached to the telescope.

text: On 19 July 2009 at approximately 13:30, Wesley found fame after discovering a scar near Jupiter's south pole the size of the Pacific Ocean. Wesley discovered the impact at approximately 13:30

text: UTC

text: on On 19 July 2009 (almost exactly 15 years after the Jupiter impact of

text: comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

text: , or SL9), Wesley discovered an impact on Jupiter that caused a black spot in the planet's atmosphere. He was at his home

text: observatory

text: just outside

text: Murrumbateman

text: New South Wales

text: Australia

text: , using stacked images on a  diameter

text: reflecting telescope

text: equipped with a low light machine vision video camera attached to the telescope.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of HD 69830 d, this would be around 22 days in order to have a stable orbit.

text: orbital period

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of HD 69830 d, this would be around 22 days in order to have a stable orbit.

text: The star hosts one confirmed exoplanet, Kepler-452b, discovered in July 2015 by the Kepler spacecraft. This planet is mostly known for its characteristics similar to Earth, most notably its size, orbit and stellar flux. It is the first potentially rocky super-Earth planet discovered orbiting within the habitable zone of a star very similar to the Sun. It may even have a surface temperature similar to that of Earth (the planet has a equilibrium temperature of ~, and Earth's equilibrium temperature is only 10 K cooler than this). However its star is 6 billion years old (roughly 1.5 billion years older than the Sun). Due to this, Kepler-452b is receiving roughly 10% more stellar radiation than the Earth does today. If Kepler-452b is a rocky planet, it may be subject to a runaway greenhouse effect. However, because of its mass (estimated to be about 5 ), it may be able to prevent succumbing to the runaway greenhouse for a limited amount of time (at most about 500 million years). Nevertheless, the planet is one of the most Earth-like planets discovered so far by the Kepler team.

text: The star hosts one confirmed

text: exoplanet

text: , discovered in July 2015 by the

text: Kepler

text: spacecraft. This planet is mostly known for its characteristics similar to Earth, most notably its size, orbit and stellar flux. It is the first potentially rocky

text: super-Earth

text: planet discovered orbiting within the

text: habitable zone

text: of a star very similar to the

text: Sun

text: . It may even have a surface temperature similar to that of Earth (the planet has a

text: equilibrium temperature

text: of ~, and Earth's equilibrium temperature is only 10

text: K

text: cooler than this). However its star is 6 billion years old (roughly 1.5 billion years older than the Sun). Due to this, Kepler-452b is receiving roughly 10% more stellar radiation than the Earth does today. If Kepler-452b is a rocky planet, it may be subject to a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: . However, because of its mass (estimated to be about 5 ), it may be able to prevent succumbing to the runaway greenhouse for a limited amount of time (at most about 500 million years). Nevertheless, the planet is one of the most Earth-like planets discovered so far by the Kepler team.

text: New York City, 150,000 years later: humanity has reached the early 21st century, and the development of robotics and computerization continues unabated.  Inner Baltar and Inner Six (no longer tied to the long-deceased Gaius Baltar and Caprica Six) comment on the recent discovery of what is believed to be "mitochondrial Eve" in Tanzania... the remains of Hera Agathon, progenitor of modern-day humanity.  Inner Six disagrees with her counterpart about humanity's next future: when a complex system repeats, something new is bound to happen, and this Earth - descendants of devastated planets Kobol, the Twelve Colonies, and the original Earth - may escape the vicious cycle of technology, surmising it to be a part of God's plan.  Inner Baltar reminds her "He doesn't like that name," as the two stroll away.   The episode and series end with a montage showing the progress of robotics in modern society indicating that it all had happened before... and still might happen again.

text: New York City

text: , 150,000 years later: humanity has reached the early 21st century, and the development of robotics and computerization continues unabated.  Inner Baltar and Inner Six (no longer tied to the long-deceased Gaius Baltar and Caprica Six) comment on the recent discovery of what is believed to be "

text: mitochondrial Eve

text: " in

text: Tanzania

text: ... the remains of Hera Agathon, progenitor of modern-day humanity.  Inner Six disagrees with her counterpart about humanity's next future: when a complex system repeats, something new is bound to happen, and this Earth - descendants of devastated planets

text: Kobol

text: , the

text: Twelve Colonies

text: , and the

text: original Earth

text: - may escape the vicious cycle of technology, surmising it to be a part of God's plan.  Inner Baltar reminds her "He doesn't like that name," as the two stroll away.   The episode and series end with a montage showing the progress of robotics in modern society indicating that it all had happened before... and still might happen again.

text: When Paris and Kim fail to return to Voyager after some time, Janeway orders the ship to land on the surface to send out teams to find them. Chakotay and Seven discover the two alive, but out of the suits and apparently able to withstand the harsh conditions. With a supply of deuterium to continue their journey home, they return to Voyager but Kim and Paris start to suffocate once aboard until the Doctor can contain a supply of the planet's atmosphere. The Doctor discovers both men have a large quantity of the metallic liquid in their blood, and explains that because the planet's atmosphere is impossible to recreate, should Voyager leave, they would have to leave the two behind. Soon, a pool of the liquid forms beneath the ship, and before they can lift off, the ship is partially sunk, trapping them. Torres discovers the liquid has the ability to take on the form of organic material.

text: When Paris and Kim fail to return to Voyager after some time, Janeway orders the ship to land on the surface to send out teams to find them.

text: Chakotay

text: and

text: Seven

text: discover the two alive, but out of the suits and apparently able to withstand the harsh conditions. With a supply of deuterium to continue their journey home, they return to Voyager but Kim and Paris start to suffocate once aboard until the

text: Doctor

text: can contain a supply of the planet's atmosphere. The Doctor discovers both men have a large quantity of the metallic liquid in their blood, and explains that because the planet's atmosphere is impossible to recreate, should Voyager leave, they would have to leave the two behind. Soon, a pool of the liquid forms beneath the ship, and before they can lift off, the ship is partially sunk, trapping them. Torres discovers the liquid has the ability to take on the form of organic material.

text: PH1b (standing for "Planet Hunters 1"), or by its NASA designation Kepler-64b, is an extrasolar planet found in a circumbinary orbit in the quadruple star system Kepler-64. The planet was discovered by two amateur astronomers from the Planet Hunters project of amateur astronomers using data from the Kepler space telescope with assistance of a Yale University team of international astronomers. The discovery was announced on 15 October 2012. It is the first known transiting planet in a quadruple star system, first known circumbinary planet in a quadruple star system, and the first planet in a quadruple star system found. It was the first confirmed planet discovered by PlanetHunters.org. An independent and nearly simultaneous detection was also reported from a revision of Kepler space telescope data using a transit detection algorithm.

text: PH1b (standing for "Planet Hunters 1"), or by its NASA designation Kepler-64b, is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: found in a

text: circumbinary orbit

text: in the

text: quadruple star system

text: Kepler-64. The planet was discovered by two amateur astronomers from the

text: Planet Hunters

text: project of

text: amateur astronomer

text: s using data from the

text: Kepler space telescope

text: with assistance of a

text: Yale University

text: team of international

text: astronomer

text: s. The discovery was announced on 15 October 2012. It is the first known

text: transiting planet

text: in a quadruple star system, first known circumbinary planet in a quadruple star system, and the first planet in a quadruple star system found. It was the first confirmed planet discovered by PlanetHunters.org. An independent and nearly simultaneous detection was also reported from a revision of Kepler space telescope data using a transit detection algorithm.

text: The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics: the movement and collisions of lithospheric plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the westward-moving South American Plate. The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate, in Central America. A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate. Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the Kamchatka Peninsula arcs on south past Japan. The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the Mariana Islands, the Philippines, Bougainville, Tonga, and New Zealand; this portion excludes Australia, since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate. Indonesia lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor. The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of California is a transform fault which offsets a portion of the East Pacific Rise under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a magnitude 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.

text: The Ring of Fire is a direct result of

text: plate tectonics

text: : the movement and collisions of

text: lithospheric

text: plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the

text: Nazca Plate

text: and the

text: Cocos Plate

text: being

text: subducted

text: beneath the westward-moving

text: South American Plate

text: . The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the

text: Caribbean Plate

text: , in

text: Central America

text: . A portion of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the small

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: are being subducted beneath the

text: North American Plate

text: . Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the

text: Aleutian Islands

text: arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the

text: Kamchatka Peninsula

text: arcs on south past

text: Japan

text: . The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the

text: Mariana Islands

text: , the

text: Philippines

text: Bougainville

text: Tonga

text: , and

text: New Zealand

text: ; this portion excludes

text: Australia

text: , since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate.

text: Indonesia

text: lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including

text: New Guinea

text: and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java,

text: Bali

text: Flores

text: , and

text: Timor

text: . The famous and very active

text: San Andreas Fault

text: zone of

text: California

text: is a

text: transform fault

text: which offsets a portion of the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: on the west coast of the

text: Haida Gwaii

text: British Columbia

text: , has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a

text: magnitude

text: 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.

text: With little time left, Max, Sharkboy, and Lavagirl reach the Ice Princess, the Planet Drool incarnation of Marissa Electricidad (Sasha Pieterse), after an encounter with the Ice Guardian (voiced by George Lopez). She hands over the Crystal Heart, but they find they are too late to stop the corruption since the ice princess is the only one who can use the Crystal Heart's power, and she cannot leave her home. Mr. Electric fools Sharkboy into jumping into water filled with electric eels, seemingly killing him. Lavagirl jumps into the water to retrieve Sharkboy, but dies moments later. Tobor's face appears, and convinces Max to dream a better and unselfish dream, which in turn revives Sharkboy, who then races Lavagirl to a volcano, where she too is revived. Max witnesses her revival, and concludes that her purpose is as a light against the dark clouds which have slowly engulfed Planet Drool's skies. Max gains reality warping as the Daydreamer, and battles Linus/Minus, defeating him, and offering to make a better dreamworld between the two of them, which Minus agrees to.

text: With little time left, Max, Sharkboy, and Lavagirl reach the Ice Princess, the Planet Drool incarnation of Marissa Electricidad (

text: Sasha Pieterse

text: ), after an encounter with the Ice Guardian (voiced by

text: George Lopez

text: ). She hands over the Crystal Heart, but they find they are too late to stop the corruption since the ice princess is the only one who can use the Crystal Heart's power, and she cannot leave her home. Mr. Electric fools Sharkboy into jumping into water filled with electric eels, seemingly killing him. Lavagirl jumps into the water to retrieve Sharkboy, but dies moments later. Tobor's face appears, and convinces Max to dream a better and unselfish dream, which in turn revives Sharkboy, who then races Lavagirl to a volcano, where she too is revived. Max witnesses her revival, and concludes that her purpose is as a light against the dark clouds which have slowly engulfed Planet Drool's skies. Max gains

entity_name: List of superhuman features and abilities in fiction

text: reality warping

text: as the Daydreamer, and battles Linus/Minus, defeating him, and offering to make a better dreamworld between the two of them, which Minus agrees to.

text: The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas.

text: Secondly, smaller planets have smaller diameters and thus higher surface-to-volume ratios than their larger cousins. Such bodies tend to lose the energy left over from their formation quickly and end up geologically dead, lacking the volcanoes, earthquakes and tectonic activity which supply the surface with life-sustaining material and the atmosphere with temperature moderators like carbon dioxide. Plate tectonics appear particularly crucial, at least on Earth: not only does the process recycle important chemicals and minerals, it also fosters bio-diversity through continent creation and increased environmental complexity and helps create the convective cells necessary to generate Earth's magnetic field.

text: Secondly, smaller planets have smaller

text: diameter

text: s and thus higher surface-to-volume ratios than their larger cousins. Such bodies tend to lose the energy left over from their formation quickly and end up

text: geologically

text: dead, lacking the

text: volcano

text: es,

text: earthquake

text: s and

text: tectonic activity

text: which supply the surface with life-sustaining material and the atmosphere with temperature moderators like

text: carbon dioxide

text: . Plate tectonics appear particularly crucial, at least on Earth: not only does the process recycle important chemicals and minerals, it also fosters

text: bio-diversity

text: through continent creation and increased environmental complexity and helps create the convective cells necessary to generate

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: All terrestrial planets may have the same basic type of structure; such as a central metallic core, mostly iron, with a surrounding silicate mantle. The Moon is similar, but has a much smaller iron core. Io and Europa are also satellites that have internal structures similar to that of terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets can have canyons, craters, mountains, volcanoes, and other surface structures, depending on the presence of water and tectonic activity. Terrestrial planets have secondary atmospheres, generated through volcanism or comet impacts, in contrast to the giant planets, whose atmospheres are primary, captured directly from the original solar nebula.

text: All terrestrial planets may have the same basic type of structure; such as a central metallic

text: core

text: , mostly

text: iron

text: , with a surrounding silicate

text: mantle

text: . The

text: Moon

text: is similar, but has a much smaller iron core.

text: Io

text: and

text: Europa

text: are also satellites that have internal structures similar to that of terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets can have

text: canyon

text: s,

text: craters

text: mountain

text: s,

text: volcano

text: es, and other surface structures, depending on the presence of water and tectonic activity. Terrestrial planets have

text: secondary atmosphere

text: s, generated through volcanism or comet impacts, in contrast to the giant planets, whose atmospheres are

text: primary

text: , captured directly from the original

text: solar nebula

text: The Galapagos hotspot has a very complicated tectonic setting. It is located very close to the spreading ridge between the Cocos and Nazca plates; the hotspot interacts with both plates and the spreading ridge over the last twenty million years as the relative location of the hotspot in relation to the plates has varied. Based on similar seismic velocity gradients of the lavas of the Carnegie, Cocos and Malpelos Ridges there is evidence that the hotspot activity has been the result of a single long mantle melt rather than multiple periods of activity and dormancy.

text: The Galapagos hotspot has a very complicated tectonic setting. It is located very close to the spreading ridge between the

text: Cocos

text: and

text: Nazca

text: plates

text: ; the hotspot interacts with both plates and the spreading ridge over the last twenty million years as the relative location of the hotspot in relation to the plates has varied. Based on similar seismic velocity gradients of the lavas of the Carnegie, Cocos and Malpelos Ridges there is evidence that the hotspot activity has been the result of a single long mantle melt rather than multiple periods of activity and dormancy.

text: HD 205739 is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F7V that is around 1.22 times as massive and 2.3 times as luminous as the Sun. It has a Jupiter-sized planet with an orbital period of 280 days that was discovered by the radial velocity method. WASP-7 is a star of spectral type F5V with an apparent magnitude of 9.54, about 1.28 times as massive as the Sun. Its hot Jupiter planet—WASP-7b—was discovered by transit method and found to orbit the star every 4.95 days. HD 202628 is a sunlike star of spectral type G2V with a debris disk that ranges from 158 to 220 AU distant. Its inner edge is sharply defined, indicating a probable planet orbiting between 86 and 158 AU from the star.

text: HD 205739

text: is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F7V that is around 1.22 times as massive and 2.3 times as luminous as the Sun. It has a Jupiter-sized planet with an orbital period of 280 days that was discovered by the

text: radial velocity

text: method.

text: is a star of spectral type F5V with an apparent magnitude of 9.54, about 1.28 times as massive as the Sun. Its

text: hot Jupiter

text: planet—

text: —was discovered by

text: transit method

text: and found to orbit the star every 4.95 days.

text: HD 202628

text: is a sunlike star of spectral type G2V with a debris disk that ranges from 158 to 220 AU distant. Its inner edge is sharply defined, indicating a probable planet orbiting between 86 and 158 AU from the star.

text: These objects are near the upper mass limit for classification as planets; if they exceeded 13 Jupiter masses, they would be capable of deuterium fusion in their interiors and thus qualify as brown dwarfs under the definition of these terms used by the IAU's Working Group on Extrasolar Planets. If the mass estimates are correct, the HR 8799 system is the first multiple-planet extrasolar system to be directly imaged. The orbital motion of the planets is in an anticlockwise direction and was confirmed via multiple observations dating back to 1998. The system is more likely to be stable if the planets "e", "d" and "c" are in a 4:2:1 resonance, which would imply that the orbit the planet d has an eccentricity exceeding 0.04 in order to match the observational constraints. Planetary systems with the best-fit masses from evolutionary models would be stable if the outer three planets are in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance (similar to the Laplace resonance between Jupiter's inner three Galilean satellites: Io, Europa and Ganymede as well as three of the planets in the Gliese 876 system).  However, it is now believed that planet b is not in resonance with the other 3 planets.  If confirmed, the HR 8799 planetary system would be the second extrasolar system to be observed with multiple resonances. The 4 planets are still glowing red hot due to their young age and are larger than Jupiter and over time they will cool and shrink to the size of 0.8 to 1.0 Jupiter radii.

text: These objects are near the upper mass limit for classification as planets; if they exceeded 13

text: Jupiter mass

text: es, they would be capable of

text: deuterium

text: fusion

text: in their interiors and thus qualify as

text: brown dwarf

text: s under the definition of these terms used by the

text: IAU

text: 's Working Group on Extrasolar Planets. If the mass estimates are correct, the HR 8799 system is the first multiple-planet extrasolar system to be directly imaged. The orbital motion of the planets is in an anticlockwise direction and was confirmed via multiple observations dating back to 1998. The system is more likely to be stable if the planets "e", "d" and "c" are in a 4:2:1 resonance, which would imply that the orbit the planet d has an eccentricity exceeding 0.04 in order to match the observational constraints. Planetary systems with the best-fit masses from evolutionary models would be stable if the outer three planets are in a 1:2:4

text: orbital resonance

text: (similar to the

text: Laplace resonance

text: between Jupiter's inner three

text: Galilean satellites

text: Io

text: Europa

text: and

text: Ganymede

text: as well as three of the planets in the

text: Gliese 876

text: system).  However, it is now believed that planet b is not in resonance with the other 3 planets.  If confirmed, the HR 8799 planetary system would be the second extrasolar system to be observed with multiple resonances. The 4 planets are still glowing red hot due to their young age and are larger than Jupiter and over time they will cool and shrink to the size of 0.8 to 1.0 Jupiter radii.

text: The inner planets reflect an evolutionary progression, the planets nearest to the sun being younger than those farther out. All planets have Extraterrestrial life, and most bear native sentient species. Mercury is primeval, tide locked and possesses only rudimentary lifeforms. Venus is a vast swamp world dominated by hulking reptiles and lizard men. The Moon is an airless dead world, but with mysteries hidden deep beneath the surface. Mars is an ancient desert planet in decline, divided into warring decadent city-states clinging to a failing system of canals. Vulcan has died and become the asteroid belt. Due to limitations in technology the outer worlds remain unreachable and unexplored. There are also hints that some worlds may have terrain hidden beneath their surface.

text: The

text: inner planets

text: reflect an evolutionary progression, the planets nearest to the sun being younger than those farther out. All planets have

text: Extraterrestrial life

text: , and most bear native sentient species. Mercury is primeval,

text: tide locked

text: and possesses only rudimentary lifeforms.

text: Venus

text: is a vast swamp world dominated by hulking reptiles and lizard men. The

text: Moon

text: is an airless dead world, but with mysteries hidden deep beneath the surface.

text: Mars

text: is an ancient desert planet in decline, divided into warring decadent city-states clinging to a failing system of canals.

text: Vulcan

text: has died and become the

text: asteroid belt

text: . Due to limitations in technology the

text: outer worlds

text: remain unreachable and unexplored. There are also hints that some worlds may have terrain hidden beneath their surface.

text: The modelled temperature as a single star is 79,000 K, but this is an arbitrary temperature.  A Wolf-Rayet star consists of a dense "core", with its surface defined as the sonic point, and a surrounding optically dense wind.  The observed radiation from the star is entirely generated at different layers within the wind.  The properties of a Wolf Rayet star are typically reported at an "inner boundary" of the wind, arbitrarily set at an optical depth of 20.  The radius of this inner boundary in WR 114 is .  The sonic point of WR 114 lies at about optical depth 60.  At this level the temperature is much hotter.  Another common definition for the surface of a star is at optical depth 2/3.  For WR 114, this is at about  and the corresponding temperature is around 65,000 K.  The luminosity is around  due to the extreme temperature, with most of this emitted as ultraviolet radiation.

text: From 1930 to 2006, the ninth planet was Pluto, with both Eris and Haumea later laying claim to being a tenth planet. Today, if counting the "dwarf planets" as planets, the eleventh planet from the Sun would be Haumea. However in 2006 the term "planet" was redefined to exclude the new category of dwarf planets (just as some planets had earlier been recategorised as asteroids). In 2006 Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, and (in the inner Solar System) the asteroid Ceres were reclassified as dwarf planets.

text: From 1930 to 2006, the ninth planet was Pluto, with both Eris and

text: Haumea

text: later laying claim to being a

text: tenth planet

text: . Today, if counting the "

text: dwarf planet

text: s" as planets, the eleventh planet from the Sun would be Haumea. However in 2006 the term "planet" was redefined to exclude the new category of dwarf planets (just as some planets had earlier been recategorised as asteroids). In 2006 Pluto, Eris, Haumea,

text: Makemake

text: , and (in the inner Solar System) the asteroid Ceres were reclassified as dwarf planets.

text: Atmospheric sciences is an umbrella term for the study of the Earth's atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. Meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting. Climatology is the study of atmospheric changes (both long and short-term) that define average climates and their change over time, due to both natural and anthropogenic climate variability. Aeronomy is the study of the upper layers of the atmosphere, where dissociation and ionization are important. Atmospheric science has been extended to the field of planetary science and the study of the atmospheres of the planets of the solar system.

text: Atmospheric sciences is an

text: umbrella term

text: for the study of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.

text: Meteorology

text: includes

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: and

text: atmospheric physics

text: with a major focus on

text: weather forecasting

text: Climatology

text: is the study of atmospheric changes (both long and short-term) that define average climates and their change over time, due to both natural and anthropogenic

text: climate variability

text: Aeronomy

text: is the study of the upper layers of the atmosphere, where

text: dissociation

text: and

text: ionization

text: are important. Atmospheric science has been extended to the field of

text: planetary science

text: and the study of the atmospheres of the

text: planet

text: s of the

text: solar system

text: During The Gauntlet storyline, Spider-Man finds the Juggernaut unconscious. The government comes along and transports the Juggernaut to a secure facility. Spider-Man sneaks into the facility to ask the Juggernaut who did this to him. Then, a new Captain Universe breaks into the room and claims he's there to slay the Juggernaut. Spider-Man learns that Captain Universe is a man named William Nguyen who wants revenge on Juggernaut for ruining his life during his previous fight with Spider-Man over Madame Web. When he insists on trying to kill Juggernaut instead of fixing the tectonic plates beneath New York City, the Uni-Power leaves Nguyen and enters the Juggernaut. The Juggernaut, as Captain Universe, repairs the damage to the tectonic plates that was caused by him during the same rampage that ruined Nguyen's life.

text: During

text: The Gauntlet

text: storyline, Spider-Man finds the

text: Juggernaut unconscious

text: . The government comes along and transports the Juggernaut to a secure facility. Spider-Man sneaks into the facility to ask the Juggernaut who did this to him. Then, a new

text: Captain Universe

text: breaks into the room and claims he's there to slay the Juggernaut. Spider-Man learns that Captain Universe is a man named William Nguyen who wants revenge on Juggernaut for ruining his life during

text: his previous fight with Spider-Man

text: over Madame Web. When he insists on trying to kill Juggernaut instead of fixing the tectonic plates beneath New York City, the Uni-Power leaves Nguyen and enters the Juggernaut. The Juggernaut, as Captain Universe, repairs the damage to the tectonic plates that was caused by him during the same rampage that ruined Nguyen's life.

text: The parallel between Gallwey's Inner Game method and the GROW method can be illustrated by the example of players who do not keep their eyes on the ball. Some coaches might give instructions such as: 'Keep your eye on the ball' to try to correct this. The problem with this sort of instruction is that a player will be able to follow it for a short while but may be unable to keep it in mind in the long term. So one day, instead of giving an instruction, Gallwey asked players to say 'bounce' out loud when the ball bounced and 'hit' out loud when they hit the ball.

text: Episodic tectonics is a general term for a geodynamic regime that possesses aspects of both plate tectonics and stagnant lid dynamics. Planets with episodic tectonic regimes will have immobile surface lids for geologically long spans of time, until a shift in equilibrium conditions is precipitated by either weakening lithosphere or increasing mantle driving forces. When this occurs, the shift to plate tectonics is usually catastrophic in nature and can involve resurfacing of the entire planet. After such a resurfacing event (or period of resurfacing events), stagnant lid equilibrium conditions are regained, resulting in a quiescent, immobile lid.

text: In 2008, a second planet, designated "Gliese 436 c" was claimed to have been discovered, with an orbital period of 5.2 days and an orbital semimajor axis of 0.045 AU. The planet was thought to have a mass of roughly 5 Earth masses and have a radius about 1.5 times larger than the Earth's. Due to its size, the planet was thought to be a rocky, terrestrial planet. It was announced by Spanish scientists in April 2008 by analyzing its influence on the orbit of Gliese 436 b. Further analysis showed that the transit length of the inner planet is not changing, a situation which rules out most possible configurations for this system. Also, if it did orbit at these parameters, the system would be the only "unstable" orbit on UA's Extrasolar Planet Interactions chart. The existence of this "Gliese 436 c" was thus regarded as unlikely, and the discovery was eventually retracted at the Transiting Planets conference in Boston, 2008.

text: In 2008, a second planet, designated "Gliese 436 c" was claimed to have been discovered, with an orbital period of 5.2 days and an orbital semimajor axis of 0.045 AU. The planet was thought to have a mass of roughly 5

text: Earth mass

text: es and have a radius about 1.5 times larger than the Earth's. Due to its size, the planet was thought to be a rocky,

text: terrestrial planet

text: . It was announced by Spanish scientists in April 2008 by analyzing its influence on the orbit of Gliese 436 b. Further analysis showed that the transit length of the inner planet is not changing, a situation which rules out most possible configurations for this system. Also, if it did orbit at these parameters, the system would be the only "unstable" orbit on UA's Extrasolar Planet Interactions chart. The existence of this "Gliese 436 c" was thus regarded as unlikely, and the discovery was eventually retracted at the Transiting Planets conference in Boston, 2008.

text: Fresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.

text: In 1963, Berkner, with L.C. Marshall, advanced a theory to describe the way in which the atmospheres of the solar system's inner planets had evolved.

text: In 1963, Berkner, with L.C. Marshall, advanced a theory to describe the way in which the atmospheres of the

text: solar system

text: 's inner planets had evolved.

text: On Earth, volcanoes are mainly of two types: shield volcanoes and composite or stratovolcanoes.  The shield volcanoes, for example those in Hawaii, eject magma from the depths of the Earth in zones called hot spots.  The lava from these volcanos is relatively fluid and permits the escape of gases.  Composite volcanos, such as Mount Saint Helens and Mount Pinatubo, are associated with tectonic plates.  In this type of volcano, the oceanic crust of one plate is sliding underneath the other in a subduction zone, together with an inflow of seawater, producing a gummier lava that restricts the exit of the gases, and for that reason, composite volcanoes tend to erupt more violently.

text: On Earth, volcanoes are mainly of two types:

text: shield volcano

text: es and composite or

text: stratovolcano

text: es.  The shield volcanoes, for example those in

text: Hawaii

text: , eject

text: magma

text: from the depths of the Earth in zones called

text: hot spot

text: s.  The lava from these volcanos is relatively fluid and permits the escape of gases.  Composite volcanos, such as

text: Mount Saint Helens

text: and

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: , are associated with tectonic plates.  In this type of volcano, the

text: oceanic crust

text: of one plate is sliding underneath the other in a

text: subduction zone

text: , together with an inflow of seawater, producing a gummier lava that restricts the exit of the gases, and for that reason, composite volcanoes tend to erupt more violently.

text: The interior atmospheres of the solar system's gas giant planets are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium at temperatures well above their critical points. The gaseous outer atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn transition smoothly into the dense liquid interior, while the nature of the transition zones of Neptune and Uranus is unknown. Theoretical models of extrasolar planets 55 Cancri e and Gliese 876 d have posited an ocean of pressurized, supercritical fluid water with a sheet of solid high pressure water ice at the bottom.

text: The interior atmospheres of the solar system's

text: gas giant

text: planets are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium at temperatures well above their critical points. The gaseous outer atmospheres of

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: transition smoothly into the dense liquid interior, while the nature of the transition zones of

text: Neptune

text: and

text: Uranus

text: is unknown. Theoretical models of

text: extrasolar planet

text: s

text: 55 Cancri e

text: and

text: Gliese 876 d

text: have posited an ocean of pressurized, supercritical fluid water with a sheet of solid high pressure water ice at the bottom.

text: The planet orbits on the edge of the inner (empirical) habitable zone, a region where, with the proper atmospheric properties and pressure, liquid water may exist on the surface of the planet. However, it is very likely tidally locked to its star, with one side facing towards its star in scorching heat, and the opposite side in bitter darkness. Despite this, there is an area – the terminator line – where the surface temperatures may be comfortable enough to support liquid water. However, given that most models of the habitable zone parameters put K2-3d slightly beyond the inner edge of the habitable zone, it is likely to be too hot even at the terminator line and thus not habitable at all. Plus, the high gravity caused by the density of K2-3d would further hinder its habitability. Also, the stellar flux for the planet is an abnormally high 1.4 times that of Earth, which could result in surface temperatures of up to  because of a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: The planet orbits on the edge of the inner (empirical)

text: habitable zone

text: , a region where, with the proper atmospheric properties and pressure, liquid water may exist on the surface of the planet. However, it is very likely tidally locked to its star, with one side facing towards its star in scorching heat, and the opposite side in bitter darkness. Despite this, there is an area – the

text: terminator line

text: – where the surface temperatures may be comfortable enough to support liquid water. However, given that most models of the habitable zone parameters put K2-3d slightly beyond the inner edge of the habitable zone, it is likely to be too hot even at the terminator line and thus not habitable at all. Plus, the high gravity caused by the density of K2-3d would further hinder its habitability. Also, the stellar flux for the planet is an abnormally high 1.4 times that of Earth, which could result in surface temperatures of up to  because of a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: The planet orbits inside the inner magnetosphere of its star. The quoted temperature of 450 K is a "thermal equilibrium" temperature.

text: Central to the hunt for florigen is an understanding of how plants use seasonal changes in day length to mediate flowering—a mechanism known as photoperiodism. Plants which exhibit photoperiodism may be either 'short day' or 'long day' plants, which in order to flower require short days or long days respectively. Although plants in fact distinguish day length from night length.<ref name="Garner1920">{{cite journal|author1=Garner W.W. |author2=Allard H.A. |year= 1920 |title=Effect of the relative length of day and night and other factors of the environment on growth and reproduction in plants |journal=Journal of Agricultural Research |volume=18 |pages=553–606 |doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1920)48

text: Central to the hunt for florigen is an understanding of how plants use seasonal changes in day length to mediate flowering—a mechanism known as

text: photoperiodism

text: . Plants which exhibit photoperiodism may be either 'short day' or 'long day' plants, which in order to flower require short days or long days respectively. Although plants in fact distinguish day length from night length.<ref name="Garner1920">{{cite journal|author1=Garner W.W. |author2=Allard H.A. |year= 1920 |title=Effect of the relative length of day and night and other factors of the environment on growth and reproduction in plants |journal=Journal of Agricultural Research |volume=18 |pages=553–606 |doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1920)48

text: Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively-cycled carbon in the world and are second only to the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts of dissolved organic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon is about 15 percent higher than that of the surface layer and it remains there for much longer periods of time. Thermohaline circulation exchanges carbon between these two layers.

text: Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively-cycled carbon in the world and are second only to the

text: lithosphere

text: in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts of

text: dissolved organic carbon

text: that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of

text: dissolved inorganic carbon

text: is about 15 percent higher than that of the surface layer and it remains there for much longer periods of time.

text: Thermohaline circulation

text: exchanges carbon between these two layers.

text: Historically, the apparent motions of the planets were described by European and Arabic philosophers using the idea of celestial spheres. This model posited the existence of perfect moving spheres or rings to which the stars and planets were attached. It assumed the heavens were fixed apart from the motion of the spheres, and was developed without any understanding of gravity.  After the planets' motions were more accurately measured, theoretical mechanisms such as deferent and epicycles were added. Although the model was capable of reasonably accurately predicting the planets' positions in the sky, more and more epicycles were required as the measurements became more accurate, hence the model became increasingly unwieldy. Originally geocentric  it was modified by Copernicus to place the sun at the centre to help simplify the model. The model was further challenged during the 16th century, as comets were observed traversing the spheres.

text: Historically, the apparent motions of the planets were described by European and Arabic philosophers using the idea of

text: celestial spheres

text: . This model posited the existence of perfect moving spheres or rings to which the stars and planets were attached. It assumed the heavens were fixed apart from the motion of the spheres, and was developed without any understanding of gravity.  After the planets' motions were more accurately measured, theoretical mechanisms such as

text: deferent and epicycle

text: s were added. Although the model was capable of reasonably accurately predicting the planets' positions in the sky, more and more epicycles were required as the measurements became more accurate, hence the model became increasingly unwieldy. Originally

text: geocentric

text: it was modified by

text: Copernicus

text: to place the sun at the centre to help simplify the model. The model was further challenged during the 16th century, as comets were observed traversing the spheres.

text: The atmosphere of Uranus, like those of the larger gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium. At depth it is significantly enriched in volatiles (dubbed "ices") such as water, ammonia and methane. The opposite is true for the upper atmosphere, which contains very few gases heavier than hydrogen and helium due to its low temperature. Uranus's atmosphere is the coldest of all the planets, with its temperature reaching as low as 49 K.

text: The atmosphere of

text: Uranus

text: , like those of the larger

text: gas giants

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: , is composed primarily of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: . At depth it is significantly enriched in volatiles (dubbed "ices") such as

text: water

text: ammonia

text: and

text: methane

text: . The opposite is true for the upper atmosphere, which contains very few gases heavier than hydrogen and helium due to its low temperature. Uranus's atmosphere is the coldest of all the planets, with its temperature reaching as low as 49

text: K

text: This is a list of geological features on Venus. Venus is the second planet from the Sun. Venus is classified as a terrestrial planet and it is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" owing to their similar size, gravity, and bulk composition (Venus is both the closest planet to Earth and the planet closest in size to Earth). The surface of Venus is covered by a dense atmosphere and presents clear evidence of former violent volcanic activity. It has shield and composite volcanoes similar to those found on Earth.

text: This is a list of

text: geological features

text: on

text: Venus

text: . Venus is the second planet from the Sun. Venus is classified as a

text: terrestrial planet

text: and it is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" owing to their similar size, gravity, and bulk composition (Venus is both the closest planet to Earth and the planet closest in size to Earth). The surface of Venus is covered by a dense atmosphere and presents clear evidence of former violent volcanic activity. It has shield and composite volcanoes similar to those found on Earth.

text: Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data fail a "magnetic reversal test", which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field.

text: Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data fail a "magnetic reversal test", which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field.

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000

text: exajoules

text: (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

text: The inner edge of the HZ is the distance where runaway greenhouse effect vaporize the whole water reservoir and, as a second effect, induce the photodissociationof water vapor and the loss of hydrogen to space. The outer edge of the HZ is the distance from the star where a maximum greenhouse effect fails to keep the surface of the planet above the freezing point.

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: vaporize the whole water reservoir and, as a second effect, induce the photodissociationof water vapor and the loss of hydrogen to space. The outer edge of the HZ is the distance from the star where a maximum greenhouse effect fails to keep the surface of the planet above the freezing point.

text: The society of this distant planet is labelled by Efremov as "an amalgamation of a Capitalism in its worst form and of a Chinese pseudo-socialism" and a part of "Inferno" (a deep philosophical concept of Efremov's relating to the Nature and the natural way of things, always as he claims infernal towards the living thinking sentient beings), a society in which ordinary workers' lives are limited to 26 local years ("short-living", KJI, or КЖИ for ) while scientists, engineers and other selected qualified professionals live out their natural lives ("long-living", DJI, or ДЖИ for ), with artists, sportspeople and "models" given somewhat longer life-spans than that of KJI (up to about 34 years). Both KJI and DJI are under the ruthless totalitarian control of the ruling class of government bureaucracy ("snake-carriers", similar to the prototypical "inner-party members" of Orwell's 1984) and the police forces ("the lilac"), which in turn are under the direct command of the Council of Four and its Chairman, the actual Ruler of the planet. The most shocking aspect of its civilization for the Earthians is its total control of information, maintaining separate information systems for separate social strata, with full and true information available ultimately only to the Supreme Leader (who, for example, is the only one on the whole planet knowing that Tormance people are, in fact, from Earth).

text: The society of this distant planet is labelled by Efremov as "an amalgamation of a

text: Capitalism

text: in its worst form and of a

text: Chinese

text: pseudo-

text: socialism

text: " and a part of "Inferno" (a deep philosophical concept of Efremov's relating to the Nature and the natural way of things, always as he claims infernal towards the living thinking sentient beings), a society in which ordinary workers' lives are limited to 26 local years ("short-living", KJI, or КЖИ for ) while scientists, engineers and other selected qualified professionals live out their natural lives ("long-living", DJI, or ДЖИ for ), with artists, sportspeople and "models" given somewhat longer life-spans than that of KJI (up to about 34 years). Both KJI and DJI are under the ruthless totalitarian control of the ruling class of government bureaucracy ("snake-carriers", similar to the prototypical "inner-party members" of

text: Orwell

text: 's

text: ) and the police forces ("the lilac"), which in turn are under the direct command of the Council of Four and its Chairman, the actual Ruler of the planet. The most shocking aspect of its civilization for the Earthians is its total control of information, maintaining separate information systems for separate social strata, with full and true information available ultimately only to the Supreme Leader (who, for example, is the only one on the whole planet knowing that Tormance people are, in fact, from Earth).

text: She published work in the changing surface features of Mars, the Great Red Spot on Jupiter, and observations of other planets, minor planets and variable stars.

text: She published work in the changing surface features of

text: Mars

text: , the

text: Great Red Spot

text: on

text: Jupiter

text: , and observations of other

text: planet

text: s,

text: minor planet

text: s and

text: variable star

text: s.

text: "To seek, teach, and communicate scientific understanding of the oceans, atmosphere, Earth, and other planets for the benefit of society and the environment."

text: "To seek, teach, and communicate scientific understanding of the

text: oceans

text: atmosphere

text: Earth

text: , and other planets for the benefit of society and the

text: environment

text: The only parameters of the planet's orbit that are currently available are its orbital period, which is about , and its inclination, which is approximately 90°. From Earth, the planet appears to make a transit across the disk of its host star. It has an eccentricity of 0, meaning its orbit is circular.In order to obtain further information about the details of the planet's orbit, other methods of planetary detection, such as the radial velocity method, need to be used. While such methods have been performed on the planet since its discovery, these methods have not yet detected an accurate value  for the eccentricity of the planet and so (as of March 2012) only an upper limit for the mass of the planet has been set by astronomers.

text: The only parameters of the planet's

text: orbit

text: that are currently available are its

text: orbital period

text: , which is about , and its

text: inclination

text: , which is approximately 90°. From Earth, the planet appears to make a transit across the disk of its host star. It has an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0, meaning its orbit is circular.In order to obtain further information about the details of the planet's orbit, other methods of planetary detection, such as the radial velocity method, need to be used. While such methods have been performed on the planet since its discovery, these methods have not yet detected an accurate value  for the eccentricity of the planet and so (as of March 2012) only an upper limit for the mass of the planet has been set by astronomers.

text: Geoforecasting is the science of predicting the movement of tectonic plates and the future climate, shape, and other geological elements of the planet.

text: Geoforecasting is the science of predicting the movement of

text: tectonic plate

text: s and the future

text: climate

text: , shape, and other geological elements of the planet.

text: One of the main types of habitats of the Culture, an orbital is a ring structure orbiting a star as would a planet. Unlike a Ringworld or a Dyson Sphere, an orbital does not enclose the star (being much too small). Like a ringworld, the orbital rotates to provide an analog of gravity on the inner surface. A Culture orbital rotates about once every 24 hours and has gravity-like effect about the same as the gravity of Earth, making the diameter of the ring about , and ensuring that the inhabitants experience night and day. Orbitals feature prominently in many Culture stories.

text: One of the main types of habitats of the Culture, an orbital is a ring structure orbiting a star as would a planet. Unlike a

text: Ringworld

text: or a

text: Dyson Sphere

text: , an orbital does not enclose the star (being much too small). Like a ringworld, the orbital rotates to provide an analog of gravity on the inner surface. A Culture orbital rotates about once every 24 hours and has gravity-like effect about the same as the gravity of Earth, making the diameter of the ring about , and ensuring that the inhabitants experience night and day. Orbitals feature prominently in many Culture stories.

text: Gliese 832 c has a mass of approximately 5.2 times that of Earth. If it had the same density of Earth it would have a radius of around 1.75  or possibly the planet could have a higher density with a smaller radius.  Its temperature is predicted to be relatively similar to Earth's, but is subject to significant swings as it orbits its star. The planet has a relatively high eccentricity, taking it very near to the predicted inner edge of the habitable zone. The planet's average equilibrium temperature is predicted to be , but is estimated to vary from  at apoastron to  at periastron. However, because of its large mass, it may have a dense atmosphere, which could make it much hotter and more like the planet Venus.

text: Gliese 832 c has a mass of approximately 5.2 times that of

text: Earth

text: . If it had the same density of Earth it would have a radius of around 1.75  or possibly the planet could have a higher density with a smaller radius.  Its temperature is predicted to be relatively similar to Earth's, but is subject to significant swings as it orbits its star. The planet has a relatively high

text: eccentricity

text: , taking it very near to the predicted inner edge of the habitable zone. The planet's average equilibrium temperature is predicted to be , but is estimated to vary from  at apoastron to  at periastron. However, because of its large mass, it may have a dense atmosphere, which could make it much hotter and more like the planet

text: Venus

text: These terms are different from the terms inner planet and outer planet, which designate those planets which lie inside the asteroid belt and those that lie outside it, respectively. Inferior planet is also different from minor planet or dwarf planet. Superior planet is also different from gas giant.

text: These terms are different from the terms

text: inner planet

text: and

text: outer planet

text: , which designate those planets which lie inside the

text: asteroid belt

text: and those that lie outside it, respectively. Inferior planet is also different from

text: minor planet

text: or

text: dwarf planet

text: . Superior planet is also different from

text: gas giant

text: This is a list of articles related to plate tectonics and tectonic plates.

text: This is a list of articles related to

text: plate tectonics

text: and

text: tectonic plate

text: s.

text: is a minor planet (centaur) from the scattered disk/Inner Oort cloud. Using an epoch of December 2014, it is the minor planet with the third-largest heliocentric semi-major axis in the Solar system (after  and ).  has a barycentric semi-major axis of ~964 AU,

text: is a

text: minor planet

text: centaur

text: ) from the

text: scattered disk

text: Inner Oort cloud

text: . Using an

text: epoch

text: of December 2014, it is the minor planet with the third-largest heliocentric

text: semi-major axis

text: in the

text: Solar system

text: (after  and ).  has a

text: barycentric

text: semi-major axis of ~964

text: AU

text: Writing for the BBC, Raziq Rauf wrote that "This is as flawless an extreme metal album as you'll hear, in 2012 or any other year", adding that "Gojira is one of the finest bands of our generation, and with L'Enfant Sauvage they’ve created another album to suit such a reputation." In his review of the album for The Guardian, Dom Lawson gave the album a perfect rating, writing that "Their fifth studio album sustains their trademark blend of unfathomable heaviness, structural invention and ecological-cum-existential poetry while subtly enhancing its dramatic and emotional impact", concluding that "overall this is a ferociously original piece of work that reaches its electrifying zenith on The Gift of Guilt: six minutes of sledgehammer sorrow built from riffs that sound like warning shots fired from the planet's doomed and turbulent core. This is metal taken to a higher plane of brilliance."

text: Writing for the

text: BBC

text: , Raziq Rauf wrote that "This is as flawless an extreme metal album as you'll hear, in 2012 or any other year", adding that "Gojira is one of the finest bands of our generation, and with L'Enfant Sauvage they’ve created another album to suit such a reputation." In his review of the album for

text: The Guardian

text: , Dom Lawson gave the album a perfect rating, writing that "Their fifth studio album sustains their trademark blend of unfathomable heaviness, structural invention and ecological-cum-existential poetry while subtly enhancing its dramatic and emotional impact", concluding that "overall this is a ferociously original piece of work that reaches its electrifying zenith on The Gift of Guilt: six minutes of sledgehammer sorrow built from riffs that sound like warning shots fired from the planet's doomed and turbulent core. This is metal taken to a higher plane of brilliance."

text: Some scientists maintain that the great mass of the Tharsis volcanoes has had a major influence on the climate of Mars. Erupting volcanoes give off great amounts of gas, mainly water vapor and CO. Enough gas may have been released by volcanoes to have made the earlier Martian atmosphere thicker than Earth's. The volcanoes could also have emitted enough HO to cover the whole Martian surface to a depth of . CO is a greenhouse gas that raises the temperature of a planet: it traps heat by absorbing infrared radiation. So Tharsis volcanoes, by giving off CO, could have made Mars more Earth-like in the past. Mars may have once had a much thicker and warmer atmosphere, and oceans and/or lakes may have been present. It has, however, proven extremely difficult to construct convincing global climate models for Mars which produce temperatures above 0 °C at any point in its history, although this may simply reflect problems in accurately calibrating such models.

text: Some scientists maintain that the great mass of the

text: Tharsis

text: volcanoes has had a major influence on the climate of Mars. Erupting volcanoes give off great amounts of gas, mainly water vapor and CO. Enough gas may have been released by volcanoes to have made the earlier Martian atmosphere thicker than Earth's. The volcanoes could also have emitted enough HO to cover the whole Martian surface to a depth of . CO is a

text: greenhouse gas

text: that raises the temperature of a planet: it traps heat by absorbing

text: infrared radiation

text: . So Tharsis volcanoes, by giving off CO, could have made Mars more Earth-like in the past. Mars may have once had a much thicker and warmer atmosphere, and oceans and/or lakes may have been present. It has, however, proven extremely difficult to construct convincing

text: global climate models

text: for Mars which produce temperatures above 0 °C at any point in its history, although this may simply reflect problems in accurately calibrating such models.

text: In J. Marvin Herndon's model,inner (large-core) planets form by condensation and raining-out from within giant gaseous protoplanets at high pressures and high temperatures. Earth's complete condensation included a c. 300 Earth-mass gas/ice shell that compressed the rocky kernel to about 66% of Earth's present diameter (Jupiter equates to about 300 Earth masses, which equals c. 2000 trillion trillion kg; Earth is at about 6 trillion trillion kg). T Tauri (see T Tauri type stars) eruptions of the Sun stripped the gases away from the inner planets. Mercury was incompletely condensed and a portion of its gases were stripped away and transported to the region between Mars and Jupiter, where it fused with in-falling oxidized condensate from the outer reaches of the Solar System and formed the parent material for ordinary chondrite meteorites, the Main-Belt asteroids, and veneer for the inner planets, especially Mars.  The differences between the inner planets are primarily the consequence of different degrees of protoplanetary compression. There are two types of responses to decompression-driven planetary volume increases: cracks, which form to increase surface area, and folding, creating mountain ranges,  to accommodate changes in curvature.

text: In

text: J. Marvin Herndon

text: 's model,inner (large-core) planets form by condensation and raining-out from within giant gaseous protoplanets at high pressures and high temperatures. Earth's complete condensation included a c. 300 Earth-mass gas/ice shell that compressed the rocky kernel to about 66% of Earth's present diameter (Jupiter equates to about 300 Earth masses, which equals c. 2000 trillion trillion kg; Earth is at about 6 trillion trillion kg). T Tauri (see

text: T Tauri type stars

text: ) eruptions of the Sun stripped the gases away from the inner planets. Mercury was incompletely condensed and a portion of its gases were stripped away and transported to the region between Mars and Jupiter, where it fused with in-falling oxidized condensate from the outer reaches of the Solar System and formed the parent material for ordinary chondrite meteorites, the Main-Belt asteroids, and veneer for the inner planets, especially Mars.  The differences between the inner planets are primarily the consequence of different degrees of protoplanetary compression. There are two types of responses to decompression-driven planetary volume increases: cracks, which form to increase surface area, and folding, creating mountain ranges,  to accommodate changes in curvature.

text: This game is essentially a computer version of the book The Magic School Bus Lost in the Solar System and the cartoon episode "The Magic School Bus Gets Lost in Space," except that Ms. Frizzle is lost as soon as the bus flies away from Earth. The user can fly the bus to any planet he or she chooses and play experiments and click on things there. To win the game, the user has to discover the whereabouts of the Friz. To do so they have to play a "whatsit" game to earn a token which gives them a clue as to which planet Ms. Frizzle is on. Once Ms. Frizzle is found, the bus will return to the classroom and the game begins again. All nine planets, plus the moon can be visited. When the gas giants are visited, the bus lands on one of their moons. This game is also one of the few in the series in which Liz can talk.

text: The Danakil Depression is the northern part of the Afar Triangle or Afar Depression in Ethiopia, a geological depression that has resulted from the presence of three tectonic plates in the Horn of Africa.

text: The Danakil Depression is the northern part of the

text: Afar Triangle

text: or Afar Depression in

text: Ethiopia

text: , a geological depression that has resulted from the presence of three tectonic plates in the

text: Horn of Africa

text: Until recently the NPSG was considered to be a static part of a vast global marine desert. Recent discoveries have proved that this system is dynamic and contains physical, chemical, and biological variability on a variety of time scales. With the current changing climate, patterns in the atmosphere are shifting and causing changes in primary production in the NPSG. Variations in primary productivity can affect the ocean carbon cycle and potentially atmospheric  and climate, because such variations can change the amount of carbon that is stored in the subsurface layers of the oceans. Because the NPSG is the largest contiguous biome on earth, it is not only important to a community of organisms, but also the rest of the planet.

text: Until recently the NPSG was considered to be a static part of a vast global marine desert. Recent discoveries have proved that this system is dynamic and contains physical, chemical, and biological variability on a variety of time scales. With the current changing climate, patterns in the atmosphere are shifting and causing changes in primary production in the NPSG. Variations in primary productivity can affect the ocean

text: carbon cycle

text: and potentially atmospheric  and climate, because such variations can change the amount of carbon that is stored in the subsurface layers of the oceans. Because the NPSG is the largest contiguous biome on earth, it is not only important to a community of organisms, but also the rest of the planet.

text: Hermes threatens to cut Bender's salary since Bender has no official duties at Planet Express. Inspired by the Neptunian TV chef Elzar, Bender decides to become the ship's cook. Professor Farnsworth then sends the crew, accompanied by Amy and Dr. Zoidberg, on a delivery to the planet Trisol. After the ship lands, Fry is assigned the task of making the delivery across the desert under the heat of the planet's three suns. When he arrives at the Trisolian palace, he finds it empty. After eating a slug and drinking salt water provided by Bender, he becomes thirsty and drinks from a bottle containing a clear liquid that is sitting on the throne. Armed Trisolians, who are revealed to be liquid-based organisms, storm the throne room, revealing that the bottle Fry drank actually contained their emperor.

text: Hermes

text: threatens to cut

text: Bender's

text: salary since Bender has no official duties at Planet Express. Inspired by the Neptunian TV chef

text: Elzar

text: , Bender decides to become the ship's cook.

text: Professor Farnsworth

text: then sends the crew, accompanied by

text: Amy

text: and

text: Dr. Zoidberg

text: , on a delivery to the planet Trisol. After the ship lands, Fry is assigned the task of making the delivery across the desert under the heat of the planet's three suns. When he arrives at the Trisolian palace, he finds it empty. After eating a slug and drinking salt water provided by Bender, he becomes thirsty and drinks from a bottle containing a clear liquid that is sitting on the throne. Armed Trisolians, who are revealed to be liquid-based organisms, storm the throne room, revealing that the bottle Fry drank actually contained their emperor.

text: The Mu Arae system consists of an inner Uranus-mass planet in a tight 9-day orbit and three massive planets, probably gas giants, on wide, near-circular orbits, which contrasts with the high-eccentricity orbits typically observed for long-period extrasolar planets. The Uranus-mass planet may be a chthonian planet, the core of a gas giant which has had its outer layers stripped away by stellar radiation. Alternatively it may have formed in the inner regions of the Mu Arae system as a rocky "super-Earth". The inner gas giants "d" and "b" are located close to the 2:1 orbital resonance which causes them to undergo strong interactions. The best-fit solution to the system is actually unstable: simulations suggest the system is destroyed after 78 million years, which is significantly shorter than the estimated age of the star system. More stable solutions, including ones in which the two planets are actually in the resonance (similar to the situation in the Gliese 876 system) can be found which give only a slightly worse fit to the data. Searches for circumstellar discs show no evidence for a debris disc similar to the Kuiper belt around Mu Arae. If Mu Arae does have a Kuiper belt, it is too faint to be detected with current instruments.

text: The Mu Arae system consists of an inner Uranus-mass planet in a tight 9-day orbit and three massive planets, probably gas giants, on wide, near-circular orbits, which contrasts with the high-eccentricity orbits typically observed for long-period extrasolar planets. The Uranus-mass planet may be a

text: chthonian planet

text: , the

text: core

text: of a gas giant which has had its outer layers stripped away by stellar radiation. Alternatively it may have formed in the inner regions of the Mu Arae system as a rocky "super-Earth". The inner gas giants "d" and "b" are located close to the 2:1

text: orbital resonance

text: which causes them to undergo strong interactions. The best-fit solution to the system is actually unstable: simulations suggest the system is destroyed after 78 million years, which is significantly shorter than the estimated age of the star system. More stable solutions, including ones in which the two planets are actually in the resonance (similar to the situation in the

text: Gliese 876

text: system) can be found which give only a slightly worse fit to the data. Searches for

text: circumstellar disc

text: s show no evidence for a debris disc similar to the

text: Kuiper belt

text: around Mu Arae. If Mu Arae does have a Kuiper belt, it is too faint to be detected with current instruments.

text: Plate tectonics is a theory developed during the 1960s which describes the movement of continents by way of the separation and collision of crustal plates. It is in a sense  structural geology on a planet scale, and is used throughout structural geology as a framework to analyze and understand global, regional, and local scale features.

text: Plate tectonic

text: s is a theory developed during the 1960s which describes the movement of continents by way of the separation and collision of crustal plates. It is in a sense  structural geology on a planet scale, and is used throughout structural geology as a framework to analyze and understand global, regional, and local scale features.

text: Normally, gas giants are considered to not have a surface, although they might have a solid core of rock or various types of ice, or a liquid core of metallic hydrogen. However, the core, if it exists, does not include enough of the planet's mass to be actually considered a surface. Some scientists consider the point at which the atmospheric pressure is equal to 1 bar, equivalent to the atmospheric pressure at Earth’s surface, to be the surface of the planet.

text: Normally,

text: gas giant

text: s are considered to not have a surface, although they might have a solid core of rock or various types of ice, or a liquid core of

text: metallic hydrogen

text: . However, the core, if it exists, does not include enough of the planet's mass to be actually considered a surface. Some scientists consider the point at which the atmospheric pressure is equal to 1

text: bar

text: , equivalent to the atmospheric pressure at Earth’s surface, to be the surface of the planet.

text: In about one billion years, the solar luminosity will be 10% higher than at present. This will cause the atmosphere to become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans. As a likely consequence, plate tectonics will come to an end, and with them the entire carbon cycle. Following this event, in about 2−3 billion years, the planet's magnetic dynamo may cease, causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere. Four billion years from now, the increase in the Earth's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect, heating the surface enough to melt it. By that point, all life on the Earth will be extinct. The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years, after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet's current orbit.

text: In about one billion years, the solar luminosity will be 10% higher than at present. This will cause the atmosphere to become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a

text: runaway

text: evaporation of the oceans. As a likely consequence, plate tectonics will come to an end, and with them the entire

text: carbon cycle

text: . Following this event, in about 2−3 billion years, the planet's

text: magnetic dynamo

text: may cease, causing the

text: magnetosphere

text: to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of

text: volatiles

text: from the outer atmosphere. Four billion years from now, the increase in the Earth's surface temperature will cause a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: , heating the surface enough to melt it. By that point, all life on the Earth will be extinct. The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years, after the star has entered the

text: red giant

text: phase and expanded to cross the planet's current orbit.

text: The aspects of size, feature details and surface finish, as well as print through error in the Z axis may be factors that should be considered prior to the use of the technology.  However, by planning the build in the machine where most features are built in the x and y axis as the material is laid down, the feature tolerances can be managed well. Surfaces usually have to be polished to achieve mirror or extremely smooth finishes.

text: The Prince's home asteroid also possesses three tiny volcanoes, likely inspired by Consuelo's home country El Salvador, i.e. by the three volcanoes in the Cordillera de Apaneca volcanic range complex, Cerro verde, Santa Ana Volcano and Izalco (volcano), which are directly visible from Consuelo's home town. The two active volcanoes were inspired by Santa Ana Volcano and the famous conical shaped Izalco (volcano), which at the time was active spewing ash and lava when Antoine visited Consuelo's small town in El Salvador, the dormant volcano is Cerro Verde.

text: The Prince's home asteroid also possesses three tiny

text: volcanoes

text: , likely inspired by Consuelo's home country

text: El Salvador

text: , i.e. by the three volcanoes in the

text: Cordillera de Apaneca

text: volcanic range complex, Cerro verde,

text: Santa Ana Volcano

text: and

text: Izalco (volcano)

text: , which are directly visible from Consuelo's home town. The two active volcanoes were inspired by

text: Santa Ana Volcano

text: and the famous conical shaped

text: Izalco (volcano)

text: , which at the time was active spewing ash and lava when Antoine visited Consuelo's small town in El Salvador, the dormant volcano is Cerro Verde.

text: Tharsis is a land of great volcanoes.  Olympus Mons is the tallest known volcano in the Solar System; it is 100 times larger than any volcano on Earth. Ascraeus Mons and Pavonis Mons are at least 200 miles across and are over six miles above the plateau that they sit on—and, the plateau is three to four miles above the zero altitude of Mars.  Pavonis Mons, the middle in a line of three volcanoes, sits at just about dead center on the equator. Mons is a term used for a large raised feature. Tholus is about the same, but smaller. A patera is flatter and like a volcano with a super large opening. Actually, a patera is formed when the top of a volcano collapses because its magma chamber is empty.  Crater Lake Oregon was formed that way. Several volcanoes form a straight line in the Tharsis Uplift. Two major ones are in the Tharsus quadrangle: Ascraeus Mons and Pavonis Mons. It has been proposed that these are the result of plate motion which on Earth makes volcanic arc islands.

text: Tharsis is a land of great

text: volcanoes

text: Olympus Mons

text: is the tallest known volcano in the Solar System; it is 100 times larger than any volcano on Earth.

text: Ascraeus Mons

text: and

text: Pavonis Mons

text: are at least 200 miles across and are over six miles above the

text: plateau

text: that they sit on—and, the plateau is three to four miles above the zero altitude of Mars.  Pavonis Mons, the middle in a line of three volcanoes, sits at just about dead center on the equator. Mons is a term used for a large raised feature. Tholus is about the same, but smaller. A patera is flatter and like a volcano with a super large opening. Actually, a patera is formed when the top of a volcano collapses because its magma chamber is empty.

text: Crater Lake

text: Oregon

text: was formed that way. Several volcanoes form a straight line in the Tharsis Uplift. Two major ones are in the Tharsus quadrangle: Ascraeus Mons and Pavonis Mons. It has been proposed that these are the result of plate motion which on Earth makes volcanic arc islands.

text: Removal of atmospheric gas in a more controlled manner could also prove difficult. Venus's extremely slow rotation means that space elevators would be very difficult to construct because the planet's geostationary orbit lies an impractical distance above the surface; and the very thick atmosphere to be removed makes mass drivers useless for removing payloads from the planet's surface. Possible workarounds include placing mass drivers on high-altitude balloons or balloon-supported towers extending above the bulk of the atmosphere, using space fountains, or rotovators.

text: Removal of atmospheric gas in a more controlled manner could also prove difficult. Venus's extremely slow rotation means that

text: space elevator

text: s would be very difficult to construct because the planet's

text: geostationary orbit

text: lies an impractical distance above the surface; and the very thick atmosphere to be removed makes

text: mass driver

text: s useless for removing payloads from the planet's surface. Possible workarounds include placing

text: mass driver

text: s on high-altitude balloons or balloon-supported towers extending above the bulk of the atmosphere, using

text: space fountain

text: s, or

text: rotovators

text: The total amount of water locked up in the mantle has been calculated based on the total area of polygonal ground and an estimated depth of 10 meters.  This volume is equal to a layer 2.5 meters deep spread over the entire planet.  This compares to a 30-meter depth over the whole planet for the water locked up in the north and south polar caps.

text: Hindu astrology considers the 3rd, the 6th, the 8th and the 12th bhavas counted from the Lagna (Birth Ascendant) or from the Chandra- lagna (Natal Moon), as Dushtasthanas or evil bhavas, more importantly the latter three bhavas. Parashara has deemed the lord of the 3rd along with the lord of the 11th bhavas to be the Papa or Papi grahas (Source: Laghu Parashari). The lords of the 6th, the 8th and the 12th generally act as functional malefics and give adverse results during the course of their respective dashas and transits even if they happen to be natural benefics or simultaneously own an auspicious bhava. Parashara has termed the situation of the lord of the 6th, the 8th or the 12th, in the 6th, the 8th or the 12th other than their own as giving rise to Arishta yogas and has assigned bad results only. Auspicious yogas such as the Raja yogas and the Dhana yogas can co-exist with Arishta yogas, but then the native availing the benefits of Rajya and also riches, will remain unhappy at personal level. Janardan Harji in the Second Chapter titled Bhavesha-phala nirupana of his treatise on predictive astrology Mansagari states that the lord of the 6th in 8th causes physical ailments according to the characteristic and nature of that planet; in the 12th loss of wealth, earning after immense hardship and dependence on past works and deeds. The lord of the 8th in the 6th gives great variety of problems affecting wealth, health and conduct, and in the 12th makes one insincere, dishonest, a liar, a thief or a cheat. The lord of the 12th in the 6th makes one a miser, causes Balarishta and gives weak eyesight or an eye-disease, in the 8th if a papagraha makes one aimless and unenterprising, if a benefic planet then an accumulator and a  hoarder of wealth. All planets are rendered weak when the Moon is devoid of strength. The Moon is easily influenced by other planets and therefore, the ava-yogas (evil yogas) caused by planets involving the Moon are generally found to be more effective which so is because of its proximity to the Earth and rapid orbital motion; a weak and ill-placed Moon can create havoc in one’s life.

text: Hindu astrology

text: considers the 3rd, the 6th, the 8th and the 12th bhavas counted from the Lagna (Birth Ascendant) or from the Chandra- lagna (Natal Moon), as Dushtasthanas or evil bhavas, more importantly the latter three bhavas.

text: Parashara

text: has deemed the lord of the 3rd along with the lord of the 11th bhavas to be the Papa or Papi grahas (Source:

text: Laghu Parashari

text: ). The lords of the 6th, the 8th and the 12th generally act as functional malefics and give adverse results during the course of their respective dashas and transits even if they happen to be natural benefics or simultaneously own an auspicious bhava.

text: Parashara

text: has termed the situation of the lord of the 6th, the 8th or the 12th, in the 6th, the 8th or the 12th other than their own as giving rise to Arishta yogas and has assigned bad results only. Auspicious yogas such as the

text: Raja yogas

text: and the

text: Dhana yoga

text: s can co-exist with Arishta yogas, but then the native availing the benefits of Rajya and also riches, will remain unhappy at personal level. Janardan Harji in the Second Chapter titled Bhavesha-phala nirupana of his treatise on predictive astrology

text: Mansagari

text: states that the lord of the 6th in 8th causes physical ailments according to the characteristic and nature of that planet; in the 12th loss of wealth, earning after immense hardship and dependence on past works and deeds. The lord of the 8th in the 6th gives great variety of problems affecting wealth, health and conduct, and in the 12th makes one insincere, dishonest, a liar, a thief or a cheat. The lord of the 12th in the 6th makes one a miser, causes

text: Balarishta

text: and gives weak eyesight or an eye-disease, in the 8th if a papagraha makes one aimless and unenterprising, if a benefic planet then an accumulator and a  hoarder of wealth. All planets are rendered weak when the

text: Moon

text: is devoid of strength. The Moon is easily influenced by other planets and therefore, the ava-yogas (evil yogas) caused by planets involving the Moon are generally found to be more effective which so is because of its proximity to the Earth and rapid orbital motion; a weak and ill-placed Moon can create havoc in one’s life.

text: An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. Tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they can get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge of a tectonic plate overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust and cause the shaking that is felt. For example, in California, there are two plates, the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The Pacific Plate consists of most of the Pacific Ocean floor, and also includes Baja California and the California coastline. The North American Plate comprises most of the North American continent, including the inland parts of California, as well as parts of the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans' floors. The primary boundary between these two plates is the San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas Fault is more than 800 miles long and extends to depths of at least 10 miles. Many other smaller faults like the Hayward (San Francisco Bay Area) and the San Jacinto (Southern California) join with the San Andreas to form the San Andreas Fault Zone. The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year.

text: An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a

text: fault

text: Tectonic plates

text: are always slowly moving, but they can get stuck at their edges due to

text: friction

text: . When the stress on the edge of a tectonic plate overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases

text: energy

text: in waves that travel through the earth's

text: crust

text: and cause the shaking that is felt. For example, in

text: California

text: , there are two plates, the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . The Pacific Plate consists of most of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: floor, and also includes

text: Baja California

text: and the

text: California coastline

text: . The North American Plate comprises most of the

text: North American

text: continent, including the inland parts of California, as well as parts of the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Arctic Ocean

text: s' floors. The primary boundary between these two plates is the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: . The San Andreas Fault is more than 800 miles long and extends to depths of at least 10 miles. Many other smaller faults like the

text: Hayward

text: (San Francisco Bay Area) and the

text: San Jacinto

text: (Southern California) join with the San Andreas to form the San Andreas Fault Zone. The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year.

text: Velocitron (known as Speedia in Galaxy Force and Speed Planet in promotional materials) is a fictional planet featured in Transformers: Cybertron and is the location of one of four ancient Transformer colonies that lost contact with the home world of Cybertron long ago, along with Earth, Jungle Planet, and Gigantion. Each of these colonies possess a Cyber Planet Key, containing a fragment of the power of Primus. The name Velocitron is used infrequently. The planet is more commonly referred to as "the Speed Planet" or simply "Speed Planet." The planet's full, formal name appears to be "Velocitron, the Speed Planet."

text: Velocitron (known as Speedia in Galaxy Force and Speed Planet in promotional materials) is a

text: fiction

text: al planet featured in

text: Transformers: Cybertron

text: and is the location of one of four ancient Transformer colonies that lost contact with the home world of

text: Cybertron

text: long ago, along with

text: Earth

text: , Jungle Planet, and Gigantion. Each of these colonies possess a

text: Cyber Planet Key

text: , containing a fragment of the power of

text: Primus

text: . The name Velocitron is used infrequently. The planet is more commonly referred to as "the Speed Planet" or simply "Speed Planet." The planet's full, formal name appears to be "Velocitron, the Speed Planet."

text: Planetary habitability of red dwarf systems is subject to some debate. In spite of their great numbers and long lifespans, there are several factors which may make life difficult on planets around a red dwarf. First, planets in the habitable zone of a red dwarf would be so close to the parent star that they would likely be tidally locked. This would mean that one side would be in perpetual daylight and the other in eternal night. This could create enormous temperature variations from one side of the planet to the other. Such conditions would appear to make it difficult for forms of life similar to those on Earth to evolve. And it appears there is a great problem with the atmosphere of such tidally locked planets: the perpetual night zone would be cold enough to freeze the main gases of their atmospheres, leaving the daylight zone nude and dry. On the other hand, recent theories propose that either a thick atmosphere or planetary ocean could potentially circulate heat around such a planet. Alternatively, a moon in orbit around a gas giant may be habitable. It would circumvent the tidal lock problem with its star by becoming tidally locked to its planet. In this manner there would be a day/night cycle as the moon orbited its primary, and hence a more uniform distribution of heat.

text: Planetary habitability

text: of red dwarf systems is subject to some debate. In spite of their great numbers and long lifespans, there are several factors which may make life difficult on planets around a red dwarf. First, planets in the habitable zone of a red dwarf would be so close to the parent star that they would likely be

text: tidally locked

text: . This would mean that one side would be in perpetual daylight and the other in eternal night. This could create enormous temperature variations from one side of the planet to the other. Such conditions would appear to make it difficult for forms of life similar to those on Earth to evolve. And it appears there is a great problem with the atmosphere of such tidally locked planets: the perpetual night zone would be cold enough to freeze the main gases of their atmospheres, leaving the daylight zone nude and dry. On the other hand, recent theories propose that either a thick atmosphere or planetary ocean could potentially circulate heat around such a planet. Alternatively, a moon in orbit around a gas giant may be habitable. It would circumvent the tidal lock problem with its star by becoming tidally locked to its planet. In this manner there would be a day/night cycle as the moon orbited its primary, and hence a more uniform distribution of heat.

text: Phoebe orbits the planet at a distance ranging from 180 to 250 radii. The ring has a thickness of about 40 radii. Because the ring's particles are presumed to have originated from impacts (micrometeoroid and larger) on Phoebe, they should share its retrograde orbit, which is opposite to the orbital motion of the next inner moon, Iapetus. This ring lies in the plane of Saturn's orbit, or roughly the ecliptic, and thus is tilted 27 degrees from Saturn's equatorial plane and the other rings. Phoebe is inclined by 5° with respect to Saturn's orbit plane (often written as 175°, due to Phoebe's retrograde orbital motion), and its resulting vertical excursions above and below the ring plane agree closely with the ring's observed thickness of 40 Saturn radii.

text: Phoebe orbits the planet at a distance ranging from 180 to 250 radii. The ring has a thickness of about 40 radii. Because the ring's particles are presumed to have originated from impacts (

text: micrometeoroid

text: and larger) on Phoebe, they should share its

text: retrograde orbit

text: , which is opposite to the orbital motion of the next inner moon,

text: Iapetus

text: . This ring lies in the plane of Saturn's orbit, or roughly the

text: ecliptic

text: , and thus is tilted 27 degrees from Saturn's

text: equatorial plane

text: and the other rings. Phoebe is

text: inclined

text: by 5° with respect to Saturn's orbit plane (often written as 175°, due to Phoebe's retrograde orbital motion), and its resulting vertical excursions above and below the ring plane agree closely with the ring's observed thickness of 40 Saturn radii.

text: The absence of inner super-Earths and the small mass of Mercury may be due to the formation of Jupiter's core close to the Sun and its outward migration across the inner Solar System. During its outward migration this core could push material outward in its resonances leaving the region inside Venus's orbit depleted. In a protoplanetary disk that is evolving via a disk wind planetary embryos may migrate outward in a leaving the Solar System without planets inside Mercury. An instability that led to catastrophic collisions between an early generational of inner planets may have resulted in the debris being ground small enough to be lost due to Poynting-Robertson drag. If planetesimal formation was limited to early in the gas disk epoch an inner edge of the planetesimal disk might be located at the silicate condensation line of this time. The magnetic field of some stars may have been aligned with the rotation of the disk, causing the gas in the inner regions of their disks to be depleted faster. This would enable the solid to gas ratio to reach values high enough for the formation of planetesimals via streaming instabilities closer than Mercury's orbit in these systems.

text: The absence of inner super-Earths and the small mass of Mercury may be due to the formation of Jupiter's core close to the Sun and its outward migration across the inner Solar System. During its outward migration this core could push material outward in its resonances leaving the region inside Venus's orbit depleted. In a protoplanetary disk that is evolving via a disk wind planetary embryos may migrate outward in a leaving the Solar System without planets inside Mercury. An instability that led to catastrophic collisions between an early generational of inner planets may have resulted in the debris being ground small enough to be lost due to Poynting-Robertson drag. If planetesimal formation was limited to early in the gas disk epoch an inner edge of the planetesimal disk might be located at the silicate condensation line of this time. The magnetic field of some stars may have been aligned with the rotation of the disk, causing the gas in the inner regions of their disks to be depleted faster. This would enable the solid to gas ratio to reach values high enough for the formation of planetesimals via

text: streaming instabilities

text: closer than Mercury's orbit in these systems.

text: During the Dark Reign storyline, Morgan Stark (posing as his renegade cousin "Tony Stark") turns up alive where he was the CEO of Stark Solutions. Morgan (accidentally) converted Ultimo into an "Ultimo Virus" capable of bestowing enhanced strength, speed, regeneration, and optic blast abilities to its victims. It is revealed that the virus was engineered from Ultimo himself by the Human Engineering Life Laboratories, which was acting on the commission of the Stark Solutions corporation, which itself had been contracted by H.A.M.M.E.R. to study Ultimo's potential as a weapon. Having destroyed Ultimo's body, War Machine sets out to destroy the brain, which had been split up into three discrete units, stored at separate locations. Two of the units are destroyed by War Machine's allies, but the third is ingested (in the form of a crystalline liquid) turns out to be Morgan Stark. Stark is transformed by the liquid into a giant, humanoid robot, a quicksilver-like attempt at being Ultimo, and possessed of the Doomsday Machine's programming to destroy all life, and fights War Machine. However, the third component is destroyed when Rhodes uses Ultimo's own weapons technology - which he obtained when he destroyed the robot's body - against it. Stark then self-destructs, scattering Ultimo's liquid body all over the landscape, where it soon merges with the plant life. It was Ultimo's/Morgan's plan to convert all vegetation on Earth into metal, which would suffocate all life within two weeks. Rhodes was able to render Ultimo docile by forcing the Iron Patriot into showing his memories of his happiest moments. However, Norman Osborn (who was operating as Iron Patriot at the time) then took advantage of this to take Ultimo for himself. Ultimo, having had his core programming erased, turned into a giant, floating ball of liquid metal that was essentially awaiting instructions. Morgan was ejected from the Ultimosphere and hasn't been found after the Ultimosphere was defeated.

text: During the

text: Dark Reign

text: storyline, Morgan Stark (posing as his renegade cousin "Tony Stark") turns up alive where he was the CEO of

text: Stark Solutions

text: . Morgan (accidentally) converted

text: Ultimo

text: into an "Ultimo Virus" capable of bestowing enhanced strength, speed, regeneration, and optic blast abilities to its victims. It is revealed that the virus was engineered from Ultimo himself by the Human Engineering Life Laboratories, which was acting on the commission of the Stark Solutions corporation, which itself had been contracted by

text: H.A.M.M.E.R.

text: to study Ultimo's potential as a weapon. Having destroyed Ultimo's body,

text: War Machine

text: sets out to destroy the brain, which had been split up into three discrete units, stored at separate locations. Two of the units are destroyed by War Machine's allies, but the third is ingested (in the form of a crystalline liquid) turns out to be Morgan Stark. Stark is transformed by the liquid into a giant, humanoid robot, a quicksilver-like attempt at being Ultimo, and possessed of the Doomsday Machine's programming to destroy all life, and fights War Machine. However, the third component is destroyed when Rhodes uses Ultimo's own weapons technology - which he obtained when he destroyed the robot's body - against it. Stark then self-destructs, scattering Ultimo's liquid body all over the landscape, where it soon merges with the plant life. It was Ultimo's/Morgan's plan to convert all vegetation on Earth into metal, which would suffocate all life within two weeks. Rhodes was able to render Ultimo docile by forcing the Iron Patriot into showing his memories of his happiest moments. However,

text: Norman Osborn

text: (who was operating as

text: Iron Patriot

text: at the time) then took advantage of this to take Ultimo for himself. Ultimo, having had his core programming erased, turned into a giant, floating ball of liquid metal that was essentially awaiting instructions. Morgan was ejected from the Ultimosphere and hasn't been found after the Ultimosphere was defeated.

text: Perhaps one of the most recent adverse effects of climate change to be explored is that of ocean acidification. Our oceans cover approximately 71 percent of the Earth's surface and support a diverse range of ecosystems, which are home to over 50 percent of all the species on the planet. Oceans regulate climate and weather as well as providing nutrition for a vast variety of species, humans included. Covering such an extensive part of the planet has allowed the oceans to absorb a large portion of the carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere. This process is part of the carbon cycle in which the fluxes of carbon dioxide () in Earth's atmosphere, biosphere and lithosphere are described. Humans have drastically added to the amount of carbon dioxide () in the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels and the process of deforestation. Oceans work as a sink absorbing excess anthropogenic carbon dioxide (). As the oceans absorb anthropogenic carbon dioxide () it breaks down into carbonic acid, a mild acid, this neutralizes the normally alkaline ocean water. As a result, the pH in the oceans is declining. In the research surrounding global climate change we are only just beginning to realize that our oceans can sequester a finite amount of  before we start seeing impacts on marine life that could lead to devastating losses. Acidification of our oceans has the potential to drastically alter life as we know it - from extreme weather patterns and food scarcity to a loss of millions of species from the planet - all of these consequences hold the potential to directly affect human health.

text: Perhaps one of the most recent adverse

text: effects of climate change

text: to be explored is that of

text: ocean acidification

text: . Our

text: oceans

text: cover approximately 71 percent of the

text: Earth

text: 's surface and support a diverse range of

text: ecosystems

text: , which are home to over 50 percent of all the

text: species

text: on the planet. Oceans regulate

text: climate

text: and

text: weather

text: as well as providing

text: nutrition

text: for a vast variety of species, humans included. Covering such an extensive part of the planet has allowed the oceans to absorb a large portion of the

text: carbon dioxide ()

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: . This process is part of the

text: carbon cycle

text: in which the fluxes of

text: carbon dioxide ()

text: in Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: biosphere

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: are described. Humans have drastically added to the amount of

text: carbon dioxide ()

text: in the atmosphere through the burning of

text: fossil fuels

text: and the process of

text: deforestation

text: . Oceans work as a sink absorbing excess

text: anthropogenic

text: carbon dioxide

text: (). As the oceans absorb

text: anthropogenic

text: carbon dioxide

text: () it breaks down into

text: carbonic acid

text: , a mild acid, this neutralizes the normally

text: alkaline

text: ocean water. As a result, the pH in the oceans is declining. In the research surrounding global climate change we are only just beginning to realize that our oceans can sequester a finite amount of  before we start seeing impacts on marine life that could lead to devastating losses. Acidification of our oceans has the potential to drastically alter life as we know it - from

text: extreme weather

text: patterns and

text: food scarcity

text: to a loss of millions of species from the planet - all of these consequences hold the potential to directly affect

text: human health

text: Based on the orbits of the planets and the luminosity and effective temperature of the host star, the equilibrium temperatures of the planets can be calculated. Assuming an extremely high albedo of 0.9 and absence of greenhouse effect, the outer planet Kepler-42 d would have an equilibrium temperature of about , similar to Earth's . Estimates for the known planets are in the tables below:

text: Based on the orbits of the planets and the luminosity and effective temperature of the host star, the

text: equilibrium temperatures

text: of the planets can be calculated. Assuming an extremely high

text: albedo

text: of 0.9 and absence of

text: greenhouse effect

text: , the outer planet

text: Kepler-42 d

text: would have an equilibrium temperature of about , similar to

text: Earth

text: 's . Estimates for the known planets are in the tables below:

text: During the summer season there is usually a large inflow of river water in the inner areas. This freshwater gets mixed with saltwater creating a layer of brackish water with a slightly higher surface than the ocean which in turn sets up a current from the river mouths towards the ocean. This current is gradually more salty towards the coast and right under the surface current there is a reverse current of saltier water from the coast. In the deeper parts of the fjord the cold water remaining from winter is still and separated from the atmosphere by the brackish top layer. Fjords with a shallow threshold this deep water is not replaced every year and low oxygen concentration makes the deep water unsuitable for fish and animals. In the most extreme cases there is a constant barrier of freshwater on the surface and the fjord freezes over such that there is no oxygen below the surface. Drammensfjorden is one example.

text: During the summer season there is usually a large inflow of river water in the inner areas. This freshwater gets mixed with saltwater creating a layer of brackish water with a slightly higher surface than the ocean which in turn sets up a current from the river mouths towards the ocean. This current is gradually more salty towards the coast and right under the surface current there is a reverse current of saltier water from the coast. In the deeper parts of the fjord the cold water remaining from winter is still and separated from the atmosphere by the brackish top layer. Fjords with a shallow threshold this deep water is not replaced every year and low oxygen concentration makes the deep water unsuitable for fish and animals. In the most extreme cases there is a constant barrier of freshwater on the surface and the fjord freezes over such that there is no oxygen below the surface.

text: Drammensfjorden

text: is one example.

text: Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous plate tectonics due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. However, other studies determine that strong convection currents in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of magma to break the crust into plates.

text: Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous

text: plate tectonics

text: due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. However, other studies determine that strong

text: convection currents

text: in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of

text: magma

text: to break the crust into plates.

text: The atmosphere is an important transitional zone between the solid planetary surface and the higher rarefied ionizing and radiation belts. Not all planets have atmospheres: their existence depends on the mass of the planet, and the planet's distance from the Sun — too distant and frozen atmospheres occur. Besides the four gas giant planets, almost all of the terrestrial planets (Earth, Venus, and Mars) have significant atmospheres. Two moons have significant atmospheres: Saturn's moon Titan and Neptune's moon Triton. A tenuous atmosphere exists around Mercury.

text: The

text: atmosphere

text: is an important transitional zone between the solid planetary surface and the higher rarefied

text: ionizing

text: and radiation belts. Not all planets have atmospheres: their existence depends on the mass of the planet, and the planet's distance from the Sun — too distant and frozen atmospheres occur. Besides the four

text: gas giant

text: planets, almost all of the

text: terrestrial planets

text: Earth

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Mars

text: ) have significant atmospheres. Two moons have significant atmospheres:

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Titan

text: and

text: Neptune

text: 's moon

text: Triton

text: . A tenuous atmosphere exists around

text: Mercury

text: Although Kepler-62f may be an ocean-covered planet possessing rock and water at the surface, it is the farthest out from its star,  so without a supplementary amount of carbon dioxide (), it may be a planet covered entirely in ice. In order for Kepler-62f to sustain an Earth-like climate (with an average temperature of around , at least  of carbon dioxide would have to be present in the planet's atmosphere.

text: Although Kepler-62f may be an ocean-covered planet possessing rock and water at the surface, it is the farthest out from its star,  so without a supplementary amount of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (), it may be a planet covered entirely in ice. In order for Kepler-62f to sustain an Earth-like climate (with an average temperature of around , at least  of carbon dioxide would have to be present in the planet's atmosphere.

text: Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the planet; however, more recent studies in 2011 found this hypothesis to be inconclusive. Options remain for the core which may be oscillatory in nature or a chaotic system. In August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the surface.

text: Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the planet; however, more recent studies in 2011 found this hypothesis to be inconclusive. Options remain for the core which may be oscillatory in nature or a chaotic system. In August 2005 a team of

text: geophysicist

text: s announced in the journal

text: Science

text: that, according to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the surface.

text: There is a minor dispute about the proper nomenclature rules to use for this unusual star system.  One side regards the A/B convention of naming binary stars as having priority, so that the pulsar is PSR B1620-26 A, the white dwarf companion is PSR B1620-26 B and the planet is PSR B1620-26 c.  The other side considers PSR to apply only to stars which are pulsars, not their companions, so the white dwarf should be named using the WD convention, making the pulsar PSR B1620-26, the white dwarf "WD J1623-266", and the planet "PSR B1620-26 b."  Early articles used the first convention, but star catalogs have been using the second. The most recent proposal provides a nomenclature like PSR B1620-26 (AB)b, including capital letters A and B in parentheses to identify inner stellar components of binary system, followed by italic letter b referred to outer planetary companion. In practice, context makes it clear whether the pulsar, the white dwarf, the planet, or the system as a whole is being referred to.

text: There is a minor dispute about the proper nomenclature rules to use for this unusual star system.  One side regards the A/B convention of naming binary stars as having priority, so that the pulsar is PSR B1620-26 A, the white dwarf companion is PSR B1620-26 B and the planet is

text: PSR B1620-26 c

text: .  The other side considers PSR to apply only to stars which are pulsars, not their companions, so the white dwarf should be named using the WD convention, making the pulsar PSR B1620-26, the white dwarf "WD J1623-266", and the planet "PSR B1620-26 b."  Early articles used the first convention, but star catalogs have been using the second. The most recent proposal provides a nomenclature like PSR B1620-26 (AB)b, including capital letters A and B in parentheses to identify inner stellar components of binary system, followed by italic letter b referred to outer planetary companion. In practice, context makes it clear whether the pulsar, the white dwarf, the planet, or the system as a whole is being referred to.

text: There is no single standard definition for a volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edifices or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanoes are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active, dormant or extinct, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, potassium-argon dating, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.

text: magma chamber

text: as a separate volcano. Many contemporary volcanoes rise as young

text: parasitic cone

text: s from flank vents or at a central

text: crater

text: . Some volcanoes are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either

text: active

text: dormant

text: or

text: extinct

text: potassium-argon dating

text: radiocarbon dating

text: , or

text: geothermal

text: activities.

text: Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013. Gliese 876, one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years, was the first red dwarf star to be found to possess a planetary system. It is orbited by four planets, including one terrestrial planet 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days. 91 Aquarii is an orange giant star orbited by one planet, 91 Aquarii b. The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days. Gliese 849 is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet, Gliese 849 b. The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days.

text: Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013.

text: Gliese 876

text: , one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years, was the first

text: red dwarf

text: star to be found to possess a

text: planetary system

text: . It is orbited by four planets, including one

text: terrestrial planet

text: 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days.

text: 91 Aquarii

text: is an

text: orange giant

text: star orbited by one planet,

text: 91 Aquarii b

text: . The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days.

text: Gliese 849

text: is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet,

text: Gliese 849 b

text: . The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days.

text: Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It is radically different from Earth in other respects. It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96% carbon dioxide. The atmospheric pressure at the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found  underwater on Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a mean surface temperature of , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid, preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light. It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect. The water has probably photodissociated, and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field. Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism.

text: Venus is a

text: terrestrial planet

text: and is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It is radically different from Earth in other respects. It has the densest

text: atmosphere

text: of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96%

text: carbon dioxide

text: . The

text: atmospheric pressure

text: at the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found  underwater on Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a mean surface temperature of , even though

text: Mercury

text: is closer to the Sun. Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of

text: sulfuric acid

text: , preventing its surface from being seen from space in

text: visible light

text: . It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: . The water has probably

text: photodissociated

text: , and the free hydrogen has been

text: swept into interplanetary space

text: by the

text: solar wind

text: because of the lack of a

text: planetary magnetic field

text: . Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by

text: volcanism

text: There are at least 55 regular satellites of the eight planets: one at Earth, eight at Jupiter, 22 named regular moons at Saturn (not counting hundreds or thousands of moonlets), 18 known at Uranus, and 6 small regular moons at Neptune. (Large Triton appears to have been captured.) It is thought that Pluto's five moons and Haumea's two were formed in orbit about those dwarf planets out of debris created in giant collisions.

text: There are at least

text: 55 regular satellites of the eight planets

text: one at Earth

text: eight at Jupiter

text: 22 named regular moons at Saturn

text: (not counting hundreds or thousands of

text: moonlet

text: s),

text: 18 known at Uranus

text: , and

text: 6 small regular moons at Neptune

text: . (Large Triton appears to have been captured.) It is thought that

text: Pluto's five moons

text: and

text: Haumea's two

text: were formed in orbit about those

text: dwarf planet

text: s out of

text: debris created in giant collisions

text: During the game, the player takes control of one of three available robot forms. Each form represents one of the three inhabited worlds in the system: Alcedes, from the Desert Planet; Triton, from the Water Planet, and Panthera, from the Jungle Planet.

text: Volcanoes represent powerful images and forces on Earth's landscape. Generation of a volcano depends on its location and magmatic origin. Magmas will remain a melt until pressure and temperature allow crystallization and outgassing. During outgassing, the magma chamber will rise and meet Earth's surface causing a volcano. Depending on the composition of the melted material, this volcano could contain a variety of gases. Most of the gases emitted via volcanic eruption are greenhouse gases and cause atmospheric alterations. These atmospheric alterations then force the climate, both regionally and locally, to reach a new equilibrium with the new atmosphere. These changes can reflect as cooling, warming, higher precipitation rates and many others.

text: Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.

text: Dynamo theory

text: suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the

text: Coriolis effect

text: , gives rise to

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: . The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see

text: Curie temperature

text: ) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.

text: In 2005, the first planets around main-sequence stars that may be terrestrial were found: Gliese 876 d, has a mass 7 to 9 times that of Earth and an orbital period of just two Earth days. It orbits the red dwarf Gliese 876, 15 light years from Earth. OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb, about 5.5 times the mass of Earth, orbits a star about 21,000 light years away in the constellation Scorpius.From 2007 to 2010, three (possibly four) potential terrestrial planets were found orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 581. The smallest, Gliese 581 e, is only about 1.9 Earth mass, but orbits very close to the star. An ideal terrestrial planet would be 2 Earth masses with a 25-day orbital period around a red dwarf. Two others, Gliese 581 c and Gliese 581 d, as well as a disputed planet, Gliese 581 g, are more-massive super-Earths orbiting in or close to the habitable zone of the star, so they could  potentially be habitable, with Earth-like temperatures.

text: In 2005, the first planets around main-sequence stars that may be terrestrial were found:

text: Gliese 876 d

text: , has a mass 7 to 9 times that of Earth and an orbital period of just two Earth days. It orbits the red dwarf

text: Gliese 876

text: , 15

text: light year

text: s from Earth.

text: , about 5.5 times the mass of Earth, orbits a star about 21,000 light years away in the constellation Scorpius.From 2007 to 2010, three (possibly four) potential terrestrial planets were found orbiting the red dwarf

text: Gliese 581

text: . The smallest,

text: Gliese 581 e

text: , is only about 1.9 Earth mass, but orbits very close to the star. An ideal terrestrial planet would be 2 Earth masses with a 25-day orbital period around a red dwarf. Two others,

text: Gliese 581 c

text: and

text: Gliese 581 d

text: , as well as a disputed planet,

text: Gliese 581 g

text: , are more-massive super-Earths orbiting in or close to the habitable zone of the star, so they could  potentially be habitable, with Earth-like temperatures.

text: The American flamingo has adapted to its shallow water environment in several ways. It has evolved long legs and large webbed feet in order to wade and stir up the bottom of the water bed to bring up their food source to then be retrieved. In order to feed, it has evolved a specialized beak which is hooked downward and features marginal lamellae on the upper mandible, and inner and outer lamellae on both the upper and lower mandibles. These are adapted for filtering out different sized food from water. Depending on the food source in their area, will depend on the exact morphology of their beaks on what can and cannot be strained out of them. It submerges its head under water to retrieve its food, and may have its head under water for large amounts of time, which requires it to hold its breath. Factors which affect the habitat choice of American flamingos are environmental temperatures, water depth, food source, accessibility of an area and the presence of vegetation beds in feeding areas. If available food items don't meet the needs of the flamingo or the temperature is not appropriate to their requirements, they will move to a better feeding or more temperate area.

text: The American flamingo has adapted to its shallow water environment in several ways. It has evolved long legs and large webbed feet in order to wade and stir up the bottom of the water bed to bring up their food source to then be retrieved. In order to feed, it has evolved a specialized beak which is hooked downward and features marginal

text: lamella

text: e on the upper mandible, and inner and outer lamellae on both the upper and lower mandibles. These are adapted for filtering out different sized food from water. Depending on the food source in their area, will depend on the exact

text: morphology

text: of their beaks on what can and cannot be strained out of them. It submerges its head under water to retrieve its food, and may have its head under water for large amounts of time, which requires it to hold its breath. Factors which affect the habitat choice of American flamingos are environmental temperatures, water depth, food source, accessibility of an area and the presence of vegetation beds in feeding areas. If available food items don't meet the needs of the flamingo or the temperature is not appropriate to their requirements, they will move to a better feeding or more temperate area.

text: Further measurements which led to the discovery of the inner planet 55 Cancri e in 2004 lent support to the planet hypothesis. Photometric measurements of the star over 11 years show no activity with the same period as 55 Cancri c's radial velocity variations, and furthermore the period is stable over long timescales, which is inconsistent with the hypothesis of stellar activity causing the radial velocity variations. The amplitude of the radial velocity signal is inconsistent with stellar variations on stars with 55 Cancri A's low level of chromospheric activity.

text: Further measurements which led to the discovery of the inner planet

text: 55 Cancri e

text: in 2004 lent support to the planet hypothesis.

text: Photometric

text: measurements of the star over 11 years show no activity with the same period as 55 Cancri c's radial velocity variations, and furthermore the period is stable over long timescales, which is inconsistent with the hypothesis of stellar activity causing the radial velocity variations. The amplitude of the radial velocity signal is inconsistent with stellar variations on stars with 55 Cancri A's low level of

text: chromospheric

text: activity.

text: Planets also have varying degrees of axial tilt; they lie at an angle to the plane of their stars' equators. This causes the amount of light received by each hemisphere to vary over the course of its year; when the northern hemisphere points away from its star, the southern hemisphere points towards it, and vice versa. Each planet therefore has seasons, changes to the climate over the course of its year. The time at which each hemisphere points farthest or nearest from its star is known as its solstice. Each planet has two in the course of its orbit; when one hemisphere has its summer solstice, when its day is longest, the other has its winter solstice, when its day is shortest. The varying amount of light and heat received by each hemisphere creates annual changes in weather patterns for each half of the planet. Jupiter's axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimal; Uranus, on the other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time of its solstices. Among extrasolar planets, axial tilts are not known for certain, though most hot Jupiters are believed to have negligible to no axial tilt as a result of their proximity to their stars.

text: Planets also have varying degrees of axial tilt; they lie at an angle to the

text: plane

text: of their

text: stars' equators

text: . This causes the amount of light received by each hemisphere to vary over the course of its year; when the northern hemisphere points away from its star, the southern hemisphere points towards it, and vice versa. Each planet therefore has seasons, changes to the climate over the course of its year. The time at which each hemisphere points farthest or nearest from its star is known as its

text: solstice

text: . Each planet has two in the course of its orbit; when one hemisphere has its summer solstice, when its day is longest, the other has its winter solstice, when its day is shortest. The varying amount of light and heat received by each hemisphere creates annual changes in weather patterns for each half of the planet. Jupiter's axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimal; Uranus, on the other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time of its solstices. Among extrasolar planets, axial tilts are not known for certain, though most hot Jupiters are believed to have negligible to no axial tilt as a result of their proximity to their stars.

text: The process also happens on the surface of Mars and other terrestrial planets.  Features resembling pit craters have been observed on Mercury.

text: The process also happens on the surface of

text: Mars

text: and other terrestrial planets.  Features resembling pit craters have been observed on

text: Mercury

text: An Earthlike planet on which Arthur Dent lived for a short time, Bartledan is inhabited by Bartledanians, a race that appears human but only physically. The major difference, aside from not needing to breathe, is a near-total state of apathy, expressing no emotion whatsoever. They are so uncaring that if a source of drinking water is not available, they will simply accept it and forgot the drink altogether, even if it results in their eventual death from extreme thirst. Otherwise, Bartledanians generally occupy their time by playing netball (with no particular intent to actually win) and writing literature that, rather than following conventional narrative structures, simply stop at 100,000 words.

text: An Earthlike planet on which

text: Arthur Dent

text: lived for a short time, Bartledan is inhabited by

text: Bartledanians

text: , a race that appears human but only physically. The major difference, aside from not needing to breathe, is a near-total state of apathy, expressing no emotion whatsoever. They are so uncaring that if a source of drinking water is not available, they will simply accept it and forgot the drink altogether, even if it results in their eventual death from extreme thirst. Otherwise, Bartledanians generally occupy their time by playing netball (with no particular intent to actually win) and writing literature that, rather than following conventional narrative structures, simply stop at 100,000 words.

text: Like other irises, it has 2 pairs of petals, 3 large sepals (outer petals), known as the 'falls' and 3 inner, smaller petals (or tepals), known as the 'standards'.The falls are obovate and very recurved, and they measure  long and  wide. The colour and thickness of the veining or speckling can vary. In the centre of the petal is a signal patch, which is orbicular (round), purple-brown, or almost black, and 1.2 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. Also in the middle of the falls, a row of short hairs called the 'beard', which is sparse and has purple brown,  or almost black hairs. The standards are sub-orbicular and they measure  long and  wide. They are paler than the falls.

text: sepals

text: tepals

text: ), known as the 'standards'.The falls are obovate and very recurved, and they measure  long and  wide. The colour and thickness of the veining or speckling can vary. In the centre of the petal is a signal patch, which is orbicular (round), purple-brown, or almost black, and 1.2 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. Also in the middle of the falls, a row of short hairs called the 'beard', which is sparse and has purple brown,  or almost black hairs. The standards are sub-orbicular and they measure  long and  wide. They are paler than the falls.

text: Per the usual exoplanet nomenclature, the first planet discovered to be orbiting Kepler-10 is called Kepler-10b.  Announced in 2011, it was the first rocky planet identified outside the Solar system.  The planet has a mass that is 3.33±0.49 times that of Earth's and a radius that is 1.47 times that of Earth. The planet orbits Kepler-10 at a distance of 0.01684 AU every 0.8375 days; this can be compared to the orbit and orbital period of planet Mercury, which circles the Sun at a distance of 0.3871 AU every 87.97 days. Because the planet orbits so closely to its star, its eccentricity is virtually zero. It, thus, has an extremely circular orbit.

text: Per the usual

text: exoplanet nomenclature

text: , the first planet discovered to be orbiting Kepler-10 is called

text: .  Announced in 2011, it was the first

text: rocky planet

text: identified outside the Solar system.  The planet has a mass that is 3.33±0.49 times that of Earth's and a radius that is 1.47 times that of Earth. The planet orbits Kepler-10 at a distance of 0.01684

text: AU

text: every 0.8375 days; this can be compared to the orbit and

text: orbital period

text: of planet

text: Mercury

text: , which circles the Sun at a distance of 0.3871 AU every 87.97 days. Because the planet orbits so closely to its star, its

text: eccentricity

text: is virtually zero. It, thus, has an extremely circular orbit.

text: HD 45350 b is an extrasolar planet located approximately 160 light-years away in the constellation of Auriga. It has a minimum mass about 1.79 times that of Jupiter. The mean distance of the planet from the star is more than the distance between Mars and the Sun, but the eccentricity of the orbit is nothing short of remarkable; at periastron the planet is as close to the star as Mercury is from the Sun, but at apastron it is 8 times further. No doubt seasons on the planet would be extreme.

text: HD 45350 b is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: located approximately 160

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Auriga

text: . It has a

text: minimum mass

text: about 1.79 times that of

text: Jupiter

text: . The mean distance of the planet from the star is more than the distance between

text: Mars

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , but the

text: eccentricity

text: of the orbit is nothing short of remarkable; at

text: periastron

text: the planet is as close to the star as

text: Mercury

text: is from the Sun, but at

text: apastron

text: it is 8 times further. No doubt

text: season

text: s on the planet would be extreme.

text: The planet receives 19 times more stellar radiation than Earth.<ref name='Zachory 2015'/>  The temperature of the top of its atmosphere is estimated at .  The planet is estimated to be hotter than Venus, as higher temperatures may prevail near the surface.  (cf. Atmosphere of Venus, Colonization of Venus)  It is possible that one side of the planet is cooler, because it is presumed to be tidally locked due to its proximity to its star; however, under most circumstances where an atmosphere is thick, it would be able to transfer heat to the far side.

text: The planet receives 19 times more

text: stellar radiation

text: than

text: Earth

text: .<ref name='Zachory 2015'/>  The temperature of the top of its atmosphere is estimated at .  The planet is estimated to be hotter than Venus, as higher temperatures may prevail near the surface.  (cf.

text: Atmosphere of Venus

text: Colonization of Venus

text: )  It is possible that one side of the planet is cooler, because it is presumed to be

text: tidally locked

text: due to its proximity to its star; however, under most circumstances where an atmosphere is thick, it would be able to transfer heat to the far side.

text: Parasara states that the Moon in mutual aspect with Venus gives rise to Raja yoga; the person born with the Moon in Vargottma navamsa or in Goparamsa aspected by all strong planets will be a ruler even if lowly-born, three planets aspecting such Moon will make a person born in a royal family a king. A Raja yoga arises if the birth ascendant or hora-lagna or ghati-lagna is occupied by one or more planets occupying their exaltation, own or moola-trikona rasi, navamsa or drekkena; a person will certainly become a ruler if the concerned lagna equipped with unobstructed argala is occupied by Jupiter, Venus or the Moon (Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra XXXV.14-16, 37). If the lord of a kendrasthana and a trikonabhava combining having gained favourable vargas give rise to Raja yoga; having gained Uttamamsa they will make a person a very wealthy ruler, if in Gopuramsa that person will be honoured by other rulers and if in Simhasanamsa the person will be a great ever-victorious ruling a large kingdom (Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra XXXVI.18-20).

text: Parasara states that the Moon in mutual aspect with Venus gives rise to Raja yoga; the person born with the Moon in Vargottma navamsa or in Goparamsa aspected by all strong planets will be a ruler even if lowly-born, three planets aspecting such Moon will make a person born in a royal family a king. A

text: Raja yoga

text: arises if the birth ascendant or hora-lagna or ghati-lagna is occupied by one or more planets occupying their exaltation, own or moola-trikona rasi, navamsa or drekkena; a person will certainly become a ruler if the concerned lagna equipped with unobstructed argala is occupied by Jupiter, Venus or the Moon (Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra XXXV.14-16, 37). If the lord of a kendrasthana and a trikonabhava combining having gained favourable vargas give rise to Raja yoga; having gained Uttamamsa they will make a person a very wealthy ruler, if in Gopuramsa that person will be honoured by other rulers and if in Simhasanamsa the person will be a great ever-victorious ruling a large kingdom (Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra XXXVI.18-20).

text: Planets closer than 0.5 astronomical units from their star are likely to be tidally locked; these planets are expected to have drastically different temperature regimes on their “day” and “night” sides. When this scenario is modeled, the day side displays mobile lid convection with diffuse surface deformation flowing toward the night side, while the night side has a plate tectonic regime of downwelling plates and a deep mantle return flow in the direction of the night side. A temperature contrast of 400 K between day and night sides is required to create such a stable system.

text: Planets closer than 0.5

text: astronomical units

text: from their star are likely to be tidally locked; these planets are expected to have drastically different temperature regimes on their “day” and “night” sides. When this scenario is modeled, the day side displays mobile lid convection with diffuse surface deformation flowing toward the night side, while the night side has a plate tectonic regime of downwelling plates and a deep mantle return flow in the direction of the night side. A temperature contrast of 400 K between day and night sides is required to create such a stable system.

text: Drach'nam appear in the short story "Jade Solitare" in the compilation Tales of The New Republic. They are a very brutal and violent race employing neuronic whips (a whip with a conductive lash which sends hundreds of volts through the victim's body), and long (15") serrated knives. Their home planet is very diverse on the surface ranging from very hot to extremely cold. The planet rotates extremely slowly - one day is about two hundred earth years - so as a result all of the Drach'nam cities are dark and dank tunnels underground.

text: Drach'nam appear in the short story "Jade Solitare" in the compilation

text: Tales of The New Republic

text: . They are a very brutal and violent race employing neuronic whips (a whip with a conductive lash which sends hundreds of volts through the victim's body), and long (15") serrated knives. Their home planet is very diverse on the surface ranging from very hot to extremely cold. The planet rotates extremely slowly - one day is about two hundred earth years - so as a result all of the Drach'nam cities are dark and dank tunnels underground.

text: The system has a Neptune-mass planet "b", discovered in 2010. A second planet "c" was found in this system in 2011 by the HARPS GTO program, along with HD 85512 b and the planets of 82 G. Eridani. The uncertainty in the mass of the second planet is much higher than for the first because of the lack of coverage around the full orbit. Both planets may be similar in composition to Neptune. They are orbiting along the inner and outer edges of the habitable zone for this star.

text: The system has a

text: Neptune

text: -mass planet "

text: b

text: ", discovered in 2010. A second planet "

text: c

text: " was found in this system in 2011 by the HARPS GTO program, along with

text: HD 85512 b

text: and the planets of

text: 82 G. Eridani

text: . The uncertainty in the mass of the second planet is much higher than for the first because of the lack of coverage around the full orbit. Both planets may be similar in composition to Neptune. They are orbiting along the inner and outer edges of the

text: habitable zone

text: for this star.

text: Bradley describes Cottman's Star as a red giant, around which seven planets orbit.  Cottman IV, known to its inhabitants as Darkover, is the only habitable planet.  The three inner planets and two outer planets are not habitable. Cottman V is an ice planet that while not toxic to humans, cannot naturally support a self-sustaining human population.

text: Bradley describes Cottman's Star as a

text: red giant

text: , around which seven planets orbit.  Cottman IV, known to its inhabitants as Darkover, is the only habitable planet.  The three inner planets and two outer planets are not habitable. Cottman V is an ice planet that while not toxic to humans, cannot naturally support a self-sustaining human population.

text: Tharsis is a vast volcanic plateau centered near the equator in the western hemisphere of Mars. The region is home to the largest volcanoes in the Solar System, including the three enormous shield volcanoes Arsia Mons, Pavonis Mons, and Ascraeus Mons, which are collectively known as the Tharsis Montes. The tallest volcano on the planet, Olympus Mons, is often associated with the Tharsis region but is actually located off the western edge of the plateau. The name Tharsis is the Greco-Latin transliteration of the biblical Tarshish, the land at the western extremity of the known world.

text: Tharsis is a vast

text: volcanic plateau

text: centered near the equator in the western hemisphere of

text: Mars

text: . The region is home to the largest volcanoes in the

text: Solar System

text: , including the three enormous

text: shield volcano

text: es

text: Arsia Mons

text: Pavonis Mons

text: , and

text: Ascraeus Mons

text: , which are collectively known as the

text: Tharsis Montes

text: . The tallest volcano on the planet,

text: Olympus Mons

text: , is often associated with the Tharsis region but is actually located off the western edge of the plateau. The name Tharsis is the Greco-Latin

text: transliteration

text: of the biblical

text: Tarshish

text: , the land at the western extremity of the known world.

text: Venus has no natural satellites. It has several trojan asteroids: the quasi-satellite  and two other temporary trojans,  and . In the 17th century, Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following , but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and David Stevenson's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago. About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin direction and caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus. If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets.

text: Venus has no natural satellites. It has several

text: trojan asteroid

text: s: the

text: quasi-satellite

text: and two other temporary trojans,  and . In the 17th century,

text: Giovanni Cassini

text: reported a moon orbiting Venus, which was named

text: Neith

text: and numerous sightings were reported over the following , but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity. Alex Alemi's and

text: David Stevenson

text: 's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge

text: impact event

text: billions of years ago. About 10 million years later, according to the study, another impact reversed the planet's spin direction and caused the Venusian moon gradually to

text: spiral inward

text: until it collided with Venus. If later impacts created moons, these were removed in the same way. An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides, which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets.

text: As of 2011, three extrasolar planets have been found to orbit the star. Announced in 1999, the first planet (HD 37124 b) was discovered orbiting its parent star around the inner edge of the habitable zone, causing the planet to have a somewhat similar insolation to that of Venus. A second planet became apparent by 2003, thought to orbit in a 1940 days on an eccentric orbit, but this was subsequently found to be unstable. Solving this, a three-planet solution was announced in 2005: this contained a second planet (HD 37124 c) orbiting at the outer edge of the habitable zone with an insolation similar to that of Mars, and a third planet, (HD 37124 d). While not obviously in any orbital resonances in 2005, an updated solution announced in 2011 found planets c and d to likely be in a 2:1 resonance.

text: As of 2011, three

text: extrasolar planet

text: s have been found to orbit the star. Announced in 1999, the first planet (

text: HD 37124 b

text: ) was discovered orbiting its parent star around the inner edge of the habitable zone, causing the planet to have a somewhat similar

text: insolation

text: to that of

text: Venus

text: . A second planet became apparent by 2003, thought to orbit in a 1940 days on an eccentric orbit, but this was subsequently found to be unstable. Solving this, a three-planet solution was announced in 2005: this contained a second planet (

text: HD 37124 c

text: ) orbiting at the outer edge of the habitable zone with an insolation similar to that of

text: Mars

text: , and a third planet, (

text: HD 37124 d

text: ). While not obviously in any

text: orbital resonance

text: s in 2005, an updated solution announced in 2011 found planets c and d to likely be in a 2:1 resonance.

text: There are two main forms of progression: Secondary progression or 'a-day-for-a-year' progression ; and Solar arc progression or 'a-degree-for-a-year' progression. In both systems, the planets, Ascendant, and Midheaven are all seen to have changed position in the progressed chart, and these changes are noted. Particular attention is paid to changes of zodiac signs and houses, and to the angles or aspects the progressed planets form with the original natal chart.

text: There are two main forms of progression: Secondary progression or 'a-day-for-a-year' progression ; and Solar arc progression or 'a-degree-for-a-year' progression. In both systems, the

text: planets

text: Ascendant

text: , and

text: Midheaven

text: are all seen to have changed position in the progressed chart, and these changes are noted. Particular attention is paid to changes of

text: zodiac signs

text: and

text: houses

text: , and to the angles or

text: aspects

text: the progressed planets form with the original natal chart.

text: Of the eight planets in the solar system, Mercury is the smallest and closest to the Sun. The surface of this planet is similar to the Moon in that it shows characteristics of heavy cratering and plains formed through volcanic eruptions on the surface. These features indicate that Mercury has been geologically inactive for billions of years. Knowledge of Mercury's geology was initially quite limited because observations have only been through the Mariner 10 flyby in 1975 and observations from Earth. The MESSENGER (an acronym of MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging) mission of 2004 is a robotic NASA spacecraft orbiting the planet, the first spacecraft ever to do so. MESSENGER has given additional data which has revealed that Mercury is geologically complex.

text: Of the eight

text: planet

text: s in the

text: solar system

text: Mercury

text: is the smallest and closest to the

text: Sun

text: . The surface of this planet is similar to the

text: Moon

text: in that it shows characteristics of heavy cratering and plains formed through

text: volcanic eruption

text: s on the surface. These features indicate that Mercury has been

text: geologically

text: inactive for billions of years. Knowledge of

text: Mercury's geology

text: was initially quite limited because observations have only been through the

text: Mariner 10

text: flyby in 1975 and observations from

text: Earth

text: . The

text: MESSENGER

text: (an acronym of MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging) mission of 2004 is a robotic

text: NASA

text: spacecraft orbiting the planet, the first spacecraft ever to do so. MESSENGER has given additional data which has revealed that Mercury is geologically complex.

text: An October 2011 report published in Nature states that Herschel measurements of deuterium levels in the comet Hartley 2 suggests that much of Earth's water could have initially come from cometary impacts. On 20 October 2011, it was reported that oceans-worth of cold water vapor had been discovered in the accretion disc of a young star. Unlike warm water vapor, previously detected near forming stars, cold water vapor would be capable of forming comets which then could bring water to inner planets, as is theorized for the origin of water on Earth.

text: An October 2011 report published in Nature states that Herschel measurements of deuterium levels in the comet

text: Hartley 2

text: suggests that much of Earth's water could have initially come from cometary impacts. On 20 October 2011, it was reported that oceans-worth of cold water vapor had been discovered in the accretion disc of a young star. Unlike warm water vapor, previously detected near forming stars, cold water vapor would be capable of forming comets which then could bring water to inner planets, as is theorized for the

text: origin of water on Earth

text: Zeon – "Outer" planet of its system, whose apparently peaceful inhabitants, the Zeons, were attacked by the "inner" planet, Ekos.

text: Liquid metal embrittlement, also known as liquid metal induced embrittlement, is a phenomenon of practical importance, where certain ductile metals experience drastic loss in tensile ductility or undergo brittle fracture when exposed to specific liquid metals. Generally, a tensile stress, either externally applied or internally present, is needed to induce embrittlement. Exceptions to this rule have been observed, as in the case of aluminium in the presence of liquid gallium. This phenomenon has been studied since the beginning of the 20th century. Many of its phenomenological characteristics are known and several mechanisms have been proposed to explain it. The practical significance of liquid metal embrittlement is revealed by the observation that several steels experience ductility losses and cracking during hot-dip galvanizing or during subsequent fabrication. Cracking can occur catastrophically and very high crack growth rates have been measured.

text: Liquid metal embrittlement, also known as liquid metal induced

text: embrittlement

text: , is a phenomenon of practical importance, where certain

text: ductile

text: metal

text: s experience drastic loss in

text: tensile

text: ductility or undergo

text: brittle fracture

text: when exposed to specific liquid metals. Generally, a

text: tensile stress

text: , either externally applied or internally present, is needed to induce embrittlement. Exceptions to this rule have been observed, as in the case of

text: aluminium

text: in the presence of liquid

text: gallium

text: . This phenomenon has been studied since the beginning of the 20th century. Many of its phenomenological characteristics are known and several mechanisms have been proposed to explain it. The practical significance of liquid metal embrittlement is revealed by the observation that several

text: steel

text: s experience ductility losses and cracking during

text: hot-dip galvanizing

text: or during subsequent fabrication. Cracking can occur catastrophically and very high crack growth rates have been measured.

text: The Harbor is protected by two breakwaters, 1890 and 590 long respectively. Inside the basin, a 255 meters long ore loading quay is located adjacent to the deeper section of the harbor basin, providing a water depth of 12.95m below chart datum. Adjacent to the loading quay, a waiting berth for ore carriers is available. On the inner side of secondary breakwater, a commercial quay, 334 meters long is located with available water depth of 9.5 m.

text: The Harbor is protected by two breakwaters, 1890 and 590 long respectively. Inside the basin, a 255 meters long ore loading quay is located adjacent to the deeper section of the harbor basin, providing a water depth of 12.95m below chart datum. Adjacent to the loading quay, a waiting berth for ore carriers is available. On the inner side of secondary breakwater, a commercial

text: quay

text: , 334 meters long is located with available water depth of 9.5 m.

text: However, Sedna cannot be considered a Kuiper belt object because its path does not bring it into the region of the Kuiper belt. It is one of those bodies not belonging to any model, which is called a detached object. Most of these objects are also in resonance with Neptune. Sedna never approaches closer than 75 AU and does not resonate with the gaseous planet. Therefore, consider Sedna as an object of the inner Oort cloud may be a possibility.

text: However, Sedna cannot be considered a Kuiper belt object because its path does not bring it into the region of the Kuiper belt. It is one of those bodies not belonging to any model, which is called a

text: detached object

text: . Most of these objects are also in resonance with Neptune. Sedna never approaches closer than 75 AU and does not resonate with the gaseous planet. Therefore, consider Sedna as an object of the inner Oort cloud may be a possibility.

text: The effective temperature of a planet can be calculated by equating the power received by the planet with the power emitted by a blackbody of temperature

text: The effective temperature of a

text: planet

text: can be calculated by equating the power received by the planet with the power emitted by a blackbody of temperature

text: The climate of the upper highlands is characterized by very cold winters and warm summers. Winters of the lower highlands vary from extremely cold in the northern districts to mild conditions closer to the Makran coast. Summers are hot and dry. The arid zones of Chaghi and Kharan districts are extremely hot in summer. The plain areas are also very hot in summer with temperatures rising as high as 120 degrees F (50 degrees C). Winters are mild on the plains with the temperature, never falling below the freezing point. The desert climate is characterized by hot and very arid conditions. Occasionally strong windstorms make these areas very inhospitable.The climate of the upper highlands is characterized by very cold winters and warm summers. Winters of the lower highlands vary from extremely cold in the northern districts to mild conditions closer to the Makran coast. Summers are hot and dry. The arid zones of Chaghi and Kharan districts are extremely hot in summer. The plain areas are also very hot in summer with temperatures rising as high as 120 degrees F (50 degrees C). Winters are mild on the plains with the temperature, never falling below the freezing point. The desert climate is characterized by hot and very arid conditions. Occasionally strong windstorms make these areas very inhospitable.

text: Plotinus argued that since the fixed stars are much more distant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine the planets' effect on mankind should depend on their position with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that the interpretation of the moon's conjunction with a planet as good when the moon is full, but bad when the moon is waning, is clearly wrong, as from the moon's point of view, half of her surface is always in sunlight; and from the planet's point of view, waning should be better, as then the planet sees some light from the moon, but when the moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on the side facing the planet.

text: Plotinus

text: argued that since the fixed stars are much more distant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine the planets' effect on mankind should depend on their position with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that the interpretation of the moon's conjunction with a planet as good when the moon is full, but bad when the moon is waning, is clearly wrong, as from the moon's point of view, half of her surface is always in sunlight; and from the planet's point of view, waning should be better, as then the planet sees some light from the moon, but when the moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on the side facing the planet.

text: Mali is one of the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent Late June to early December is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta. The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The little southern band possesses a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw) very high temperatures year-round with a dry season and a rainy season. During the hottest season of the year, temperatures are high throughout the country. Timbuktu, Taoudenni, Araouane, Gao, Kidal, Tessalit are some of the hottest spots on Earth during their warmest months. Kayes, with an average high temperature of about 44° (111.2°) in April is nicknamed "the pressure cooker of Africa" due to his extreme heat year-round. The heat is more extreme to the north in the Sahara Desert; the maximum average high temperature of the year reaches 46 °C (114.8 °F) in Araouane in June and comes close to 48° (118.4°) in the Taoudenni region during July sunshine duration is high in Mali, reaching the highest levels in the northern arid zone with about 3,600 - 3,700 h a year. Mali has overall a hot, sunny and dry climate dominated by the subtropical ridge.

text: Mali is one of the hottest countries in the world. The

text: thermal equator

text: , which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and

text: drought

text: s are very frequent Late June to early December is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the

text: Inner Niger Delta

text: . The vast northern desert part of Mali has a

text: hot desert climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a

text: hot semi-arid climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The little southern band possesses a

text: tropical wet and dry climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Aw) very high temperatures year-round with a dry season and a rainy season. During the hottest season of the year, temperatures are high throughout the country.

text: Timbuktu

text: Taoudenni

text: Araouane

text: Gao

text: Kidal

text: Tessalit

text: are some of the hottest spots on Earth during their warmest months. Kayes, with an average high temperature of about 44° (111.2°) in April is nicknamed "the pressure cooker of Africa" due to his extreme heat year-round. The heat is more extreme to the north in the

text: Sahara Desert

text: ; the maximum average high temperature of the year reaches 46 °C (114.8 °F) in Araouane in June and comes close to 48° (118.4°) in the Taoudenni region during July

text: sunshine duration

text: is high in Mali, reaching the highest levels in the northern arid zone with about 3,600 - 3,700 h a year. Mali has overall a hot, sunny and dry climate dominated by the

text: subtropical ridge

text: Planetary migration occurs when a planet or other stellar satellite interacts with a disk of gas or planetesimals, resulting in the alteration of the satellite's orbital parameters, especially its semi-major axis.  Planetary migration is the most likely explanation for hot Jupiters, extrasolar planets with jovian masses, but orbits of only a few days.  The generally accepted theory of planet formation from a protoplanetary disk predicts such planets cannot form so close to their stars, as there is insufficient mass at such small radii and the temperature is too high to allow the formation of rocky or icy planetesimals.  It has also become clear that terrestrial-mass planets may be subject to rapid inward migration if they form while the gas disk is still present. This may affect the formation of the cores of the giant planets (which have masses of the order of 10 Earth masses), if those planets form via the core accretion mechanism.

text: Planetary migration occurs when a

text: planet

text: or other stellar satellite interacts with a disk of gas or

text: planetesimal

text: s, resulting in the alteration of the satellite's orbital parameters, especially its

text: semi-major axis

text: .  Planetary migration is the most likely explanation for

text: hot Jupiter

text: s,

text: extrasolar planets

text: with

text: jovian

text: masses, but orbits of only a few days.  The generally accepted

text: theory of planet formation

text: from a

text: protoplanetary disk

text: predicts such planets cannot form so close to their stars, as there is insufficient mass at such small radii and the temperature is too high to allow the formation of rocky or icy planetesimals.  It has also become clear that

text: terrestrial-mass planet

text: s may be subject to rapid inward migration if they form while the gas disk is still present. This may affect the formation of the cores of the giant planets (which have masses of the order of 10 Earth masses), if those planets form via the core accretion mechanism.

text: A body of water or waterbody (often spelled water body) is any significant accumulation of water, generally on a planet's surface. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of water does not have to be still or contained; Rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water.

text: A body of water or waterbody (often spelled water body) is any significant accumulation of

text: water

text: , generally on a planet's surface. The term most often refers to

text: ocean

text: s,

text: sea

text: s, and

text: lake

text: s, but it includes smaller pools of water such as

text: pond

text: s,

text: wetland

text: s, or more rarely,

text: puddle

text: s. A body of water does not have to be still or contained;

text: River

text: s,

text: stream

text: s,

text: canal

text: s, and other

text: geographical features

text: where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water.

text: One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core, or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulfur, which is unknown at present.

text: One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core, or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of

text: sulfur

text: , which is unknown at present.

text: The ultimate driver of the stresses that cause earthquakes are the motions of the tectonic plates: material from the Earth's mantle rises at spreading centers, and moves out as plates of oceanic crust which eventually are subducted under the more buoyant plates of continental crust. Western Washington lies over the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Juan de Fuca Plate is subducting towards the east (see diagram, right). This is being obliquely overridden by the North American plate coming out of the northeast, which has formed a bend in the subducting plate and in the forearc basin above it. This bend has distorted the subducting slab into an arch that has lifted the Olympic Mountains and prevented them from subducting. For the past 50 million years or so (since the early Eocene epoch) these have been thrust by subduction up against the North Cascades ("fixed block" in the diagram), which sit on the North American Plate. This forms a pocket or trough – what one local geologist calls the "big hole between the mountains" – between the Cascades on the east and the Olympic Mountains and Willapa Hills on the west. This pocket is catching a stream of terranes (crustal blocks about 20 to 30 km thick) which the Pacific plate is pushing up the western edge of North America, and in the process imparting a bit of clockwise rotation to southwestern Washington and most of Oregon; the result has been characterized as a train wreck. These terranes were covered by the basalts of the Crescent Formation (part of Siletzia). Folding and faulting has exposed these basalts in some places (black areas in diagram); the intervening basins have been filled by various sedimentary formations, some of which have been subsequently uplifted. Glacially deposited and shaped fill covers most of the lower elevations of Puget Sound. This is the Puget Lowland. The principal effects of this complex interplay of forces on the near-surface crust underlying the Puget Lowland are:

text: The ultimate driver of the stresses that cause earthquakes are the motions of the

text: tectonic plates

text: : material from the Earth's

text: mantle

text: rises at

text: spreading centers

text: , and moves out as plates of

text: oceanic crust

text: which eventually are subducted under the more buoyant plates of

text: continental crust

text: . Western Washington lies over the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , where the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: is subducting towards the east (see diagram, right). This is being obliquely overridden by the

text: North American plate

text: coming out of the northeast, which has formed a bend in the subducting plate and in the

text: forearc

text: basin above it. This bend has distorted the subducting slab into an arch that has lifted the

text: Olympic Mountains

text: and prevented them from subducting. For the past 50 million years or so (since the early

text: Eocene

text: epoch) these have been thrust by subduction up against the

text: North Cascades

text: ("fixed block" in the diagram), which sit on the North American Plate. This forms a pocket or trough – what one local geologist calls the "big hole between the mountains" – between the

text: Cascades

text: on the east and the

text: Olympic Mountains

text: and

text: Willapa Hills

text: on the west. This pocket is catching a stream of

text: terranes

text: (crustal blocks about 20 to 30 km thick) which the

text: Pacific plate

text: is pushing up the western edge of North America, and in the process imparting a bit of clockwise rotation to southwestern Washington and most of Oregon; the result has been characterized as a train wreck. These terranes were covered by the

text: basalts

text: of the Crescent Formation (part of

text: Siletzia

text: ). Folding and faulting has exposed these basalts in some places (black areas in diagram); the intervening basins have been filled by various sedimentary formations, some of which have been subsequently uplifted. Glacially deposited and shaped fill covers most of the lower elevations of

text: Puget Sound

text: . This is the Puget Lowland. The principal effects of this complex interplay of forces on the near-surface crust underlying the Puget Lowland are:

text: The planet is about 16 million years old. It has a mass of 4 (± 1)  (Jupiter masses), and a temperature of  (± 50°K), making it one of the coldest and least massive directly imaged exoplanets. Its atmosphere was shown to contain both water and methane through the use of near-infrared spectroscopy (1.4-1.6 μm).  Scientists believe it is unlikely that the planet harbors life due to it being gaseous. The planet is said to have "no liquid water, extremely powerful winds, and no surface; just below the uppermost layer of the atmosphere it rains liquid iron droplets."

text: The planet is about 16 million years old. It has a mass of 4 (± 1)  (

text: Jupiter

text: masses), and a temperature of  (± 50°K), making it one of the coldest and least massive directly imaged exoplanets. Its atmosphere was shown to contain both water and methane through the use of

text: near-infrared spectroscopy

text: (1.4-1.6 μm).  Scientists believe it is unlikely that the planet harbors life due to it being gaseous. The planet is said to have "no liquid water, extremely powerful winds, and no surface; just below the uppermost layer of the atmosphere it rains liquid iron droplets."

text: The Surface Pro 3 is one of the first 64-bit Windows devices that features InstantGo (formerly Connected Standby), allowing for smartphone-type power management capabilities. This allows for Windows Store apps to update info (such as email) while the device appears off, and for the operating system to run automatic maintenance when connected to AC. The Surface will enter hibernation state after four hours of no activity, to further conserve battery power.

text: The Surface Pro 3 is one of the first 64-bit Windows devices that features

text: InstantGo

text: (formerly Connected Standby), allowing for smartphone-type power management capabilities. This allows for

text: Windows Store

text: apps to update info (such as email) while the device appears off, and for the operating system to run automatic maintenance when connected to AC. The Surface will enter

text: hibernation state

text: after four hours of no activity, to further conserve battery power.

text: Following are the marakas in their descending order of strength –a)	The malefic planet (as per Parasari qualification) in sambandha (association) with the lord of a marakasthana,b)	The malefic planet in sambandha with lord of the 7th situated in the 2nd or the 7th housec)	Lord of the 2nd housed)	Lord of the 7th housee)	Malefic planet in the 2nd housef)	Malefic planet in the 7th houseg)	Natural benefic planet owning two kendras associated and with a marakah)	Rahu or Ketu in the 2nd or the 7th house combining with a maraka or situated in the 7th from a marakai)	Lord of the 12th housej)	Malefic planet in sambandha with the lord of the 12th or situated in the 12th housek)	Lord of the 3rd or the 8th weak and afflictedl)	Lord of the 6th or the 11th housem)	Any malefic planet as per Parasari qualification.The lord of the 8th house associated with a malefic planet, combining with Saturn or with the lord of the 10th house becomes a maraka if it is not situated in the 8th house; but if it also happens to be the lagna-lord then it will not act as a maraka if it occupies the 8th or the lagna. If Saturn is a functional malefic and also associates with a maraka then it becomes a very strong maraka, it will then supersede all other marakas and cause death during its own period or adverse transit.Planets associated with the lord of the 6th, the 8th, the 12th or a marakasthana cause suffering, misery and financial strain. Planets associated with the lord of a trikabhava and also simultaneously with marakas bereft of influence of the lords of the 5th and 9th bhavas, or the lagna-lord occupying the 12th house and the lord of the 12th situated in the lagna influenced by marakas, or the lord of the lagna in the 6th house and the lord of the 6th in the lagna influenced by marakas, or the lagna or the Moon afflicted by marakas, or the lagna occupied by Ketu and the lord of the lagna situated in the 8th, or the lord of the 5th is in the 6th and the lord of the 9th is situated in the 12th house influenced by marakas, or malefic planets, other than the lords of the 9th and the 10th house, are in the lagna influenced by marakas, or the lord of the navamsa occupied by Moon or the lagna-lord is located in a trikabhava associated with a maraka, they produce poverty and intense misery, and indicate loss or destruction of wealth, and troublesome period during the course of their antra-dasha or dasha.

text: In May 1988, Professor Nonweiler came to Glasgow for a two-day conference with Jim Randolph. By that time Waverider was a serious contender to be the carrier vehicle for the NASA/JPL Starprobe mission to send an unmanned vehicle to within four solar radii (2.782 million kilometers) of the surface of the Sun. In theory, the mission could be accomplished by a Jupiter slingshot, but the radiation hazards and the very long flight time made such a method impractical. Aerogravity manoeuvres in the atmospheres of the inner planets could put the probe into a trajectory providing solar encounters every two to three months, but would require a carrier with a very high lift-to-drag ratio at high Mach numbers — for which Waverider seemed the best candidate, as Jim Randolph confirmed on his third visit to Scotland in April 1990.

text: In May 1988, Professor Nonweiler came to Glasgow for a two-day conference with Jim Randolph. By that time Waverider was a serious contender to be the carrier vehicle for the NASA/

text: JPL

text: Starprobe mission

text: to send an unmanned vehicle to within four

text: solar radii

text: (2.782 million kilometers) of the surface of the Sun. In theory, the mission could be accomplished by a

text: Jupiter slingshot

text: , but the radiation hazards and the very long flight time made such a method impractical. Aerogravity manoeuvres in the atmospheres of the inner planets could put the probe into a trajectory providing solar encounters every two to three months, but would require a carrier with a very high lift-to-drag ratio at high Mach numbers — for which Waverider seemed the best candidate, as Jim Randolph confirmed on his third visit to Scotland in April 1990.

text: Because Tenebra's atmosphere contains large quantities of sulphur, the planet's lakes and small oceans are filled with sulphuric acid.  Throughout the day-night cycle the lakes and oceans rise and fall like tides in the Bay of Fundy, due to the heavy nightly rainfall and the easy evaporation of the liquid water (its heat of vaporization stands close to zero under Tenebran conditions).  The constant ebb and flow of hot, pressurized sulphuric acid weakens the planet's crust, resulting in frequent earthquakes and minor rearrangements of the landscape.

text: Because Tenebra's atmosphere contains large quantities of sulphur, the planet's lakes and small oceans are filled with sulphuric acid.  Throughout the day-night cycle the lakes and oceans rise and fall like tides in the

text: Bay of Fundy

text: , due to the heavy nightly rainfall and the easy evaporation of the liquid water (its heat of vaporization stands close to zero under Tenebran conditions).  The constant ebb and flow of hot, pressurized sulphuric acid weakens the planet's crust, resulting in frequent earthquakes and minor rearrangements of the landscape.

text: Pern is the third of five planets in the  Rukbat system (the Pernese star is also known as Alpha Sagittarius). In a departure from reality, Rukbat is a class G (yellow) star in the series; the real Rukbat is a blue, class B star—although it could be that the star Pern orbits is simply a solar-type star that is near the real Rukbat which was given the brighter star's name for convenience. (See spectral classification for more information.) Pern has two moons, Belior and Timor (in order of distance). The Rukbat system in the novel also contains two asteroid belts and an Oort cloud. The Oort cloud and a rogue "sixth" planet, the Red Star (a Sedna-class inner Oort cloud object), plays a major role in the series, as it is the source of Thread.

text: Pern is the third of five planets in the

text: Rukbat

text: system (the Pernese star is also known as

text: Alpha Sagittarius

text: ). In a departure from reality, Rukbat is a class G (yellow) star in the series; the real Rukbat is a blue, class B star—although it could be that the star Pern orbits is simply a solar-type star that is near the real Rukbat which was given the brighter star's name for convenience. (See

text: spectral classification

text: for more information.) Pern has two moons, Belior and Timor (in order of distance). The Rukbat system in the novel also contains two asteroid belts and an

text: Oort cloud

text: . The Oort cloud and a rogue "sixth" planet, the Red Star (a

text: Sedna

text: -class inner Oort cloud object), plays a major role in the series, as it is the source of Thread.

text: Approximation is also used to analyze the motion of several planets orbiting a star. This is extremely difficult due to the complex interactions of the planets' gravitational effects on each other. An approximate solution is effected by performing iterations. In the first iteration, the planets' gravitational interactions are ignored, and the star is assumed to be fixed. If a more precise solution is desired, another iteration is then performed, using the positions and motions of the planets as identified in the first iteration, but adding a first-order gravity interaction from each planet on the others. This process may be repeated until a satisfactorily precise solution is obtained.

text: Approximation is also used to analyze the motion of several planets orbiting a star. This is extremely difficult due to the complex interactions of the planets' gravitational effects on each other. An approximate solution is effected by performing

text: iteration

text: s. In the first iteration, the planets' gravitational interactions are ignored, and the star is assumed to be fixed. If a more precise solution is desired, another iteration is then performed, using the positions and motions of the planets as identified in the first iteration, but adding a first-order gravity interaction from each planet on the others. This process may be repeated until a satisfactorily precise solution is obtained.

text: For impact-generated moons of terrestrial planets not too far from their star, with a large planet–moon distance, it is expected that the orbital planes of moons will tend to be aligned with the planet's orbit around the star due to tides from the star, but if the planet–moon distance is small it may be inclined. For gas giants, the orbits of moons will tend to be aligned with the giant planet's equator because these formed in circumplanetary disks.

text: For impact-generated moons of

text: terrestrial planet

text: s not too far from their star, with a large planet–moon distance, it is expected that the orbital planes of moons will tend to be aligned with the planet's orbit around the star due to tides from the star, but if the planet–moon distance is small it may be inclined. For

text: gas giant

text: s, the orbits of moons will tend to be aligned with the giant planet's equator because these formed in circumplanetary disks.

text: "Volcano" was written and directed by series co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone. The episode was inspired by volcano-related Hollywood disaster films, such as Dante's Peak (1997) and Volcano (1997), which came out around the time they were writing the script; Parker and Stone considered the films two of the worst ever made. Stone said, "If you watch this episode and then go watch Volcano, this makes more sense than Volcano does." Debbie Liebling, who served as a South Park producer at the time of the episode's broadcast, said the volcano erupting in South Park helped establish the setting as a place where "anything can happen". Although Stone and Parker acknowledged that a volcano could not actually erupt in this Colorado town, they felt they were entitled to create the episode anyway because the Volcano film was set in Los Angeles; Stone said, "If they could do it, we could." Similarly, the duo acknowledge the tunnel built in the episode would not really divert the lava, but they included it because Parker said, "Any movie today, that's basically how dumb they are."

text: "Volcano" was written and directed by series co-creators

text: Trey Parker

text: and

text: Matt Stone

text: . The episode was inspired by volcano-related

text: Hollywood

text: disaster films

text: , such as

text: Dante's Peak

text: (1997) and

text: Volcano

text: (1997), which came out around the time they were writing the script; Parker and Stone considered the films two of the worst ever made. Stone said, "If you watch this episode and then go watch Volcano, this makes more sense than Volcano does."

text: Debbie Liebling

text: , who served as a South Park producer at the time of the episode's broadcast, said the volcano erupting in South Park helped establish the setting as a place where "anything can happen". Although Stone and Parker acknowledged that a volcano could not actually erupt in this Colorado town, they felt they were entitled to create the episode anyway because the Volcano film was set in

text: Los Angeles

text: ; Stone said, "If they could do it, we could." Similarly, the duo acknowledge the tunnel built in the episode would not really divert the lava, but they included it because Parker said, "Any movie today, that's basically how dumb they are."

text: The misalignment may indicate that in the past an encounter with another planet altered its orbit, kicking it out of the plane of the planetary system. Another planetary system that may have also undergone such planet-planet interactions is Upsilon Andromedae.

text: The misalignment may indicate that in the past an encounter with another planet altered its orbit, kicking it out of the plane of the planetary system. Another planetary system that may have also undergone such planet-planet interactions is

text: Upsilon Andromedae

text: Given the planet's high mass, it is likely that Gliese 876 b is a gas giant with no solid surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through its gravitational effects on the star, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to Jupiter and an environment close to chemical equilibrium, it is predicted that the atmosphere of Gliese 876 b is cloudless, though cooler regions of the planet may be able to form water clouds.

text: Given the planet's high mass, it is likely that Gliese 876 b is a

text: gas giant

text: with no

text: solid

text: surface. Since the planet has only been detected indirectly through its gravitational effects on the star, properties such as its

text: radius

text: , composition, and

text: temperature

text: are unknown. Assuming a composition similar to

text: Jupiter

text: and an environment close to

text: chemical equilibrium

text: , it is predicted that the atmosphere of Gliese 876 b is

text: cloud

text: less, though cooler regions of the planet may be able to form

text: water

text: clouds.

text: The Lineweaver team also analyzed the evolution of the galactic habitable zone with respect to time, finding, for example, that stars close to the galactic bulge had to form within a time window of about two billion years in order to have habitable planets. Before that window, galactic-bulge stars would be prevented from having life-sustaining planets from frequent supernova events. After the supernova threat had subsided, though, the increasing metallicity of the galactic core would eventually mean that stars there would have a high number of giant planets, with the potential to destabilize star systems and radically alter the orbit of any planet located in a star's circumstellar habitable zone. Simulations conducted in 2005 at the University of Washington, however, show that even in the presence of hot Jupiters, terrestrial planets may remain stable over long timescales.

text: The Lineweaver team also analyzed the evolution of the galactic habitable zone with respect to time, finding, for example, that stars close to the galactic bulge had to form within a time window of about two billion years in order to have habitable planets. Before that window, galactic-bulge stars would be prevented from having life-sustaining planets from frequent supernova events. After the supernova threat had subsided, though, the increasing metallicity of the galactic core would eventually mean that stars there would have a high number of giant planets, with the potential to destabilize star systems and radically alter the orbit of any planet located in a star's circumstellar habitable zone. Simulations conducted in 2005 at the

text: University of Washington

text: , however, show that even in the presence of hot Jupiters, terrestrial planets may remain stable over long timescales.

text: ), so that the sequence of planets repeats every seven hours. Therefore, the twenty-fifth hour, which is the first hour of the following day, is dominated by the Sun; the forty-ninth hour, which is the first hour of the next day, by the Moon. Thus, if a day is labelled by the planet which dominates its first hour, then Saturn's day is followed by the Sun's day, which is followed by the Moon's day, and so forth, as shown below.

text: Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts of dissolved inorganic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15% higher than that of the surface layer. DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time. Thermohaline circulation exchanges carbon between these two layers.

text: Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to the

text: lithosphere

text: in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans'

text: surface layer

text: holds large amounts of dissolved inorganic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15% higher than that of the surface layer. DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time.

text: Thermohaline circulation

text: Wackernagel has said that "Overshoot will ultimately liquidate the planet's ecological assets."

text: Wackernagel has said that "

text: Overshoot

text: will ultimately liquidate the planet's ecological assets."

text: On July 26, 2010 the California and Carnegie Planet Search team announced the discovery of two planets around HD 200964 along with two planets around 24 Sextantis. The inner planet is nearly twice as massive as Jupiter and takes 614 days to orbit the star in a circular orbit at the average distance of 1.60 AU (240 Gm). The outer planet is / the mass of Jupiter and takes 825 days to orbit eccentrically around the star at the average distance of 1.95 AU (292 Gm).

text: On July 26, 2010 the

text: California and Carnegie Planet Search

text: team announced the discovery of two planets around HD 200964 along with two planets around

text: 24 Sextantis

text: . The inner planet is nearly twice as massive as Jupiter and takes 614 days to orbit the star in a circular orbit at the average distance of 1.60 AU (240 Gm). The outer planet is / the mass of Jupiter and takes 825 days to orbit eccentrically around the star at the average distance of 1.95 AU (292 Gm).

text: In the case that Gliese 832 c possess a Venusian-like atmosphere, which it could have due to its eccentric orbit (and the stellar flux reaching 1.45 S, high enough to boil any oceans on its surface), the planet would be inhospitable because of a runaway greenhouse effect on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would've boiled away due to the dense, and as this occurred, the temperature would've risen to around . The water vapor would've accumulated in the atmosphere to the point where the surface temperature would rise to around  as the planet would've been overwhelmed by water vapor (it is a powerful greenhouse gas). Little amounts of carbon dioxide would've been present, as Gliese 832 c was/is probably an ocean planet. The surface pressure would've also increased to around 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100 kilopascals, 100 atm.) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. The net result would be that Gliese 832 c being a desert planet, rather than an ocean planet.

text: In the case that Gliese 832 c possess a Venusian-like atmosphere, which it could have due to its eccentric orbit (and the stellar flux reaching 1.45 S, high enough to boil any oceans on its surface), the planet would be inhospitable because of a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: on its surface. Any oceans on its surface would've boiled away due to the dense, and as this occurred, the temperature would've risen to around . The

text: water vapor

text: carbon dioxide

text: would've been present, as Gliese 832 c was/is probably an

text: ocean planet

text: . The surface pressure would've also increased to around 100 times Earth's surface pressure (100

text: kilopascal

text: s, 100

text: atm.

text: ) because of the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. The net result would be that Gliese 832 c being a

text: desert planet

text: , rather than an ocean planet.

text: A detailed study of the extreme properties of COROT-7b has been published, concluding that, despite the mass uncertainty, the planet is Earth-like in composition. The extreme proximity to the star should prevent the formation of a significant atmosphere, with the dayside hemisphere as hot as the tungsten filament of an incandescent bulb, resulting in the formation of a lava ocean. The researchers propose to name this new class of planets, COROT-7b being the first of them, "lava-ocean planets".

text: A detailed study of the extreme properties of COROT-7b has been published, concluding that, despite the mass uncertainty, the planet is Earth-like in composition. The extreme proximity to the star should prevent the formation of a significant

text: atmosphere

text: , with the dayside hemisphere as hot as the tungsten filament of an incandescent bulb, resulting in the formation of a

text: lava

text: ocean. The researchers propose to name this new class of planets, COROT-7b being the first of them, "

text: lava-ocean planets

text: Water is a basic necessity of life. Since 2/3 of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet. Hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became our present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in to rain water. In turn this further caused the water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when cyanobacteria evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, our atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of the other planets; it is a fundamental requirement for life on Earth.

text: Water is a basic necessity of life. Since 2/3 of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet. Hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became our present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in to rain water. In turn this further caused the water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when

text: cyanobacteria

text: evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, our atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of the other planets; it is a fundamental requirement for life on Earth.

text: Lorenzo A. Richards remarked that the concept of availability is oversimplified. He viewed that: the term availability involves two notions: (a) the ability of plant root to absorb and use the water with which it is in contact and (b) the readiness or velocity with which the soil water moves in to replace that which has been used by the plant.

text: Lorenzo A. Richards

text: remarked that the concept of availability is oversimplified. He viewed that: the term availability involves two notions: (a) the ability of plant root to absorb and use the water with which it is in contact and (b) the readiness or velocity with which the soil water moves in to replace that which has been used by the plant.

text: For a stable orbit the ratio between the moon's orbital period P around its primary and that of the primary around its star P must be < 1/9, e.g. if a planet takes 90 days to orbit its star, the maximum stable orbit for a moon of that planet is less than 10 days. Simulations suggest that a moon with an orbital period less than about 45 to 60 days will remain safely bound to a massive giant planet or brown dwarf that orbits 1 AU from a Sun-like star. In the case of Gliese 876 b, the orbital period would have to be no greater than a week (7 days) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: orbital period

text: brown dwarf

text: that orbits 1

text: AU

text: from a Sun-like star. In the case of Gliese 876 b, the orbital period would have to be no greater than a week (7 days) in order to have a stable orbit.

text: By chance, James Holden, executive officer of an outer planets ice freighter, and his crew – his second-in command Naomi Nagata, the pilot Alex Kamal and the mechanic Amos Burton – witness the destruction of their ship, and on Ceres, police detective Miller is searching for the runaway Earther Julie Mao. Both of them eventually find themselves entangled in a conspiracy by an Earth-based corporation to weaponize an alien replicator molecule, which is released on Eros Station to disastrous effect as war breaks out between the inner planets and the outer settlements.

text: By chance, James Holden, executive officer of an outer planets ice freighter, and his crew – his second-in command Naomi Nagata, the pilot Alex Kamal and the mechanic Amos Burton – witness the destruction of their ship, and on

text: Ceres

text: , police detective Miller is searching for the runaway Earther Julie Mao. Both of them eventually find themselves entangled in a conspiracy by an Earth-based corporation to weaponize an alien

text: replicator

text: molecule, which is released on

text: Eros

text: Station to disastrous effect as war breaks out between the inner planets and the outer settlements.

text: The Mariner 10 mission (1974) mapped about half the surface of Mercury. On the basis of that data, scientists have a first-order understanding of the geology and history of the planet. Mercury's surface shows intercrater plains, basins, smooth plains, craters, and tectonic features.

text: The Mariner 10 mission (1974) mapped about half the surface of Mercury. On the basis of that data, scientists have a first-order understanding of the geology and history of the planet. Mercury's surface shows intercrater plains,

text: basins

text: , smooth

text: plain

text: s,

text: craters

text: , and

text: tectonic

text: features.

text: Planetary nomenclature, like terrestrial nomenclature, is a system of uniquely identifying features on the surface of a planet or natural satellite so that the features can be easily located, described, and discussed. Since the invention of the telescope, astronomers have given names to the surface features they have discerned, especially on the Moon and Mars. To standardize planetary nomenclature, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) was assigned in 1919 the task of selecting official names for features on solar system bodies.

text: Planetary nomenclature, like terrestrial nomenclature, is a system of uniquely identifying features on the surface of a

text: planet

text: or

text: natural satellite

text: so that the features can be easily located, described, and discussed. Since the invention of the

text: telescope

text: , astronomers have given names to the surface features they have discerned, especially on the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Mars

text: . To standardize planetary nomenclature, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) was assigned in 1919 the task of selecting official names for features on solar system bodies.

text: Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt if it is currently erupting, or showing signs of unrest such as unusual earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions. Most scientists consider a volcano active if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years (Holocene times) – the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program uses this definition of active. Most volcanoes are situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire. An estimated 500 million people live near active volcanoes.

text: Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt if it is currently erupting, or showing signs of unrest such as unusual earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions. Most scientists consider a volcano active if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years (

text: Holocene

text: times) – the Smithsonian

text: Global Volcanism Program

text: uses this definition of active. Most volcanoes are situated on the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: . An estimated 500 million people live near active volcanoes.

text: Gradius Advance is a horizontally scrolling shooter handheld video game developed by Mobile21 and published by Konami in 2001. It was released later in the same month in the United States as Gradius Galaxies and in 2002 in Japan as . It is the only Gradius title available for the Game Boy Advance. The game's plot is set between Gradius III: From Legend to Myth and Gradius Gaiden. Bacterion was developing a powerful weapon to use against the planet Gradius, but it was destroyed. A few years later it crashes on a planet and the planet gradually changes into a mechanical fortress, and the planet Gradius then sends the Vic Viper to stop it.

text: Gradius Advance is a horizontally

text: scrolling shooter

text: handheld video game

text: developed by

text: and published by

text: Konami

text: in 2001. It was released later in the same month in the

text: United States

text: as Gradius Galaxies and in 2002 in

text: Japan

text: as . It is the only

text: Gradius

text: title available for the

text: Game Boy Advance

text: . The game's plot is set between

text: Gradius III: From Legend to Myth

text: and

text: Gradius Gaiden

text: . Bacterion was developing a powerful weapon to use against the planet Gradius, but it was destroyed. A few years later it crashes on a planet and the planet gradually changes into a mechanical fortress, and the planet Gradius then sends the

text: Vic Viper

text: to stop it.

text: In the second, the planet accretes from both water-rich and iron metal-rich material. However, the metal iron reacts with water to form iron oxide and release hydrogen before differentiation of a metal core has taken place. Provided the iron droplets are well mixed and small enough (<1 centimeter), the predicted end result is that the iron is oxidized and trapped in the mantle, unable to form a core.

text: Tharsis Tholus is an intermediate-sized shield volcano located in the eastern Tharsis region of the planet Mars. The volcano was discovered by the Mariner 9 spacecraft in 1972 and originally given the informal name Volcano 7. In 1973, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially designated it Tharsis Tholus. In planetary geology, tholus (pl. tholi) is the term for a small domical mountain, usually a volcano.

text: Tharsis Tholus is an intermediate-sized

text: shield volcano

text: located in the eastern

text: Tharsis

text: region of the planet

text: Mars

text: . The volcano was discovered by the Mariner 9 spacecraft in 1972 and originally given the informal name Volcano 7. In 1973, the International Astronomical Union (

text: IAU

text: ) officially designated it Tharsis Tholus. In

text: planetary geology

text: tholus

text: (pl. tholi) is the term for a small

text: domical

text: mountain

text: , usually a volcano.

text: In 1999, two teams working independently (one team consisted of astronomers at the Geneva Observatory, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, and the Wise Observatory; the second group was the California and Carnegie Planet Search team) discovered an extrasolar planet orbiting the star by using the radial velocity planet search method. Soon after the discovery, separate teams led by David Charbonneau and Gregory W. Henry were able to detect a transit of the planet across the surface of the star making it the first known transiting extrasolar planet. The planet received the designation HD 209458 b.

text: In 1999, two teams working independently (one team consisted of astronomers at the

text: Geneva Observatory

text: , the

text: , and the

text: Wise Observatory

text: ; the second group was the

text: California and Carnegie Planet Search

text: team) discovered an

text: extrasolar planet

text: orbiting the star by using the

text: radial velocity

text: planet

text: search method

text: . Soon after the discovery, separate teams led by

text: David Charbonneau

text: and

text: Gregory W. Henry

text: were able to detect a

text: transit

text: of the planet across the surface of the star making it the first known transiting extrasolar planet. The planet received the designation

text: HD 209458 b

text: Since the planets are very remote from each other, and since their mass is small as compared to the mass of the Sun, the gravitational forces between the planets can be neglected, and the planetary motion is considered, to a first approximation, as taking place along Kepler's orbits, which are defined by the equations of the two-body problem, the two bodies being the planet and the Sun.

text: Since the planets are very remote from each other, and since their mass is small as compared to the mass of the Sun, the gravitational forces between the planets can be neglected, and the planetary motion is considered, to a first approximation, as taking place along Kepler's orbits, which are defined by the equations of the

text: two-body problem

text: , the two bodies being the planet and the Sun.

text: In general climate models show that with climate change, the planet will experience more extreme weather.  In particular temperature record highs outpace record lows and some types of extreme weather such as extreme heat, intense precipitation, and drought have become more frequent and severe in recent decades. Some studies assert a connection between rapidly warming arctic temperatures and thus a vanishing cryosphere to extreme weather in mid-latitudes.

text: In general climate models show that with climate change, the planet will experience more extreme weather.  In particular temperature record highs outpace record lows and some types of extreme weather such as extreme heat, intense precipitation, and drought have become more frequent and severe in recent decades. Some studies assert a connection between rapidly warming arctic temperatures and thus a vanishing

text: cryosphere

text: to extreme weather in mid-latitudes.

text: Surface launched with two accessories, the Type cover and the Touch Cover. The Touch Cover came in white, black, magenta, red and cyan, while the Type Cover came in black. Limited edition Touch Covers were released featuring laser-etched artwork on the back. The Touch and Type Covers double as keyboards and magnetically attach to the Surface's "accessory spine".

text: Megathrust earthquakes occur at subduction zones at destructive convergent plate boundaries, where one tectonic plate is forced underneath another. These interplate earthquakes are the planet's most powerful, with moment magnitudes (M) that can exceed 9.0.  Since 1900, all earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes. No other type of known terrestrial source of tectonic activity has produced earthquakes of this scale.

text: Megathrust earthquakes occur at

text: subduction zone

text: s at destructive

text: convergent plate boundaries

text: , where one

text: tectonic plate

text: is forced underneath another. These

text: interplate earthquake

text: s are the planet's most powerful, with

text: moment magnitude

text: s (M) that can exceed 9.0.  Since 1900, all

text: earthquake

text: s of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes. No other type of known terrestrial source of tectonic activity has produced earthquakes of this scale.

text: Like most planets found by the transit method, it is a roughly Jupiter sized planet that orbits very close to its host star; in this case, it has a surface temperature of about 1200 K, so it belongs to a group of exoplanets known as hot Jupiters. The planet takes 2.6 days to orbit the star at the average distance of 0.0369 AU. The planet has mass of 57% of Jupiter and radius of 97% of Jupiter. The radius is relatively large for its mass, probably due to its intense heating from its nearby star that bloats the planet’s atmosphere. The large radius for its mass gives a low density of 820 kg/m.

text: Like most planets found by the transit method, it is a roughly

text: Jupiter

text: sized planet that orbits very close to its host star; in this case, it has a surface

text: temperature

text: of about 1200

text: K

text: , so it belongs to a group of exoplanets known as

text: hot Jupiter

text: s. The planet takes 2.6 days to orbit the star at the average distance of 0.0369 AU. The planet has mass of 57% of Jupiter and radius of 97% of Jupiter. The radius is relatively large for its mass, probably due to its intense heating from its nearby star that bloats the planet’s

text: atmosphere

text: . The large radius for its mass gives a low density of 820 kg/m.

text: In the case of a planet's moon, the synodic period usually means the Sun-synodic period, namely, the time it takes the moon to complete its illumination phases, completing the solar phases for an astronomer on the planet's surface. The Earth's motion does not determine this value for other planets because an Earth observer is not orbited by the moons in question. For example, Deimos's synodic period is 1.2648 days, 0.18% longer than Deimos's sidereal period of 1.2624 d.

text: In the case of a planet's

text: moon

text: , the synodic period usually means the Sun-synodic period, namely, the time it takes the moon to complete its illumination phases, completing the solar phases for an astronomer on the planet's surface. The Earth's motion does not determine this value for other planets because an Earth observer is not orbited by the moons in question. For example,

text: Deimos

text: 's synodic period is 1.2648 days, 0.18% longer than Deimos's sidereal period of 1.2624 d.

text: Since November 2014, China agreed to issue L Tourist visas, M Business visas, Q2 Family Visit visas, and S2 Short-term Private Visit visas to citizens of  with a validity for a maximum of 10 years; while validity of X1 Long-term Study visa is elongated to five years. The duration of stay is 60 days per entry for L and M visas, 90 days for S2 visas, and 120 days for Q2 visas. Visa applicants can enjoy a 180-day duration of stay when applying for Q2 visas if they have "special needs". The application fee for a Chinese visa is US$140 for regular processing (4 business days) and US$160 for expedited processing (2-3 business days), while 1-business-day rush processing is US$170 and only at the discretion of the consulate or embassy. Rush and expedited services are not provided by the Los Angeles consulate.

text: Since November 2014, China agreed to issue L Tourist visas, M Business visas, Q2 Family Visit visas, and S2 Short-term Private Visit visas to citizens of  with a validity for a maximum of 10 years; while validity of X1 Long-term Study visa is elongated to five years. The duration of stay is 60 days per entry for L and M visas, 90 days for S2 visas, and 120 days for Q2 visas. Visa applicants can enjoy a 180-day duration of stay when applying for Q2 visas if they have "special needs". The application fee for a Chinese visa is

text: US$

text: 140 for regular processing (4 business days) and US$160 for expedited processing (2-3 business days), while 1-business-day rush processing is US$170 and only at the discretion of the consulate or embassy. Rush and expedited services are not provided by the Los Angeles consulate.

text: This planet orbits in the most eccentric orbit known (as of November 2012), with a semi-major axis of 1.36 AU, and eccentricity e=0.97+/-0.01. As a result, it also has one of the most extreme temperature swings.

text: This planet orbits in the most

text: eccentric

text: orbit known (as of November 2012), with a

text: semi-major axis

text: of 1.36

text: AU

text: , and eccentricity e=0.97+/-0.01. As a result, it also has one of the most extreme temperature swings.

text: On Earth-sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water; however, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.

text: On Earth-sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water; however, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger

text: super-earth

text: s with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.

text: In addition there are over 300 short period comets which pass near larger planets, such as Saturn and Jupiter, which can change the trajectory and could potentially put them into an Earth-crossing orbit. This could happen for long period comets also but the chance is highest for short period comets. The chance of these directly impacting Earth is far lower than an NEO impact. Victor Clube and Bill Napier support a controversial theory that a short period comet in an Earth crossing orbit doesn't need to impact to be hazardous, as it could disintegrate and cause a dust veil with possibilities of a "nuclear winter" scenario with long term global cooling lasting for thousands of years (which they consider to be similar in probability to a 1 km impact).

text: In addition there are over 300 short period

text: comets

text: which pass near larger planets, such as

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: , which can change the trajectory and could potentially put them into an Earth-crossing orbit. This could happen for long period comets also but the chance is highest for short period comets. The chance of these directly impacting Earth is far lower than an NEO impact.

text: Victor Clube

text: and

text: Bill Napier

text: support a controversial theory that a short period comet in an Earth crossing orbit doesn't need to impact to be hazardous, as it could disintegrate and cause a dust veil with possibilities of a "nuclear winter" scenario with long term global cooling lasting for thousands of years (which they consider to be similar in probability to a 1 km impact).

text: The project provides an interface for users to assist in identification, mapping and characterization of surface features using visual data provided by NASA missions. Crater counting is described as "a valuable exercise, but it's hard to automate." Surface features, such as the size and degradation of craters, are identified by individual users and submitted back to the project, where they are collected alongside the contributions of other citizen scientists. CosmoQuest projects have included Planet Mappers, Moon Mappers, Asteroid Mappers, and a future project, Planet Investigators. A mobile application is available as part of the Moon Mappers project, Moon Mappers Crater Decay.

text: One unusual feature of the planet’s surface is the numerous compression folds which crisscross the plains. It is thought that as the planet’s interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform. The folds can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smoother plains, indicating that they are more recent. Mercury’s surface is also flexed by significant tidal bulges raised by the Sun—the Sun’s tides on Mercury are about 17% stronger than the Moon’s on Earth.

text: One unusual feature of the planet’s surface is the numerous compression folds which crisscross the plains. It is thought that as the planet’s interior cooled, it contracted and its surface began to deform. The folds can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smoother plains, indicating that they are more recent. Mercury’s surface is also flexed by significant

text: tidal bulge

text: s raised by the

text: Sun

text: —the Sun’s tides on Mercury are about 17% stronger than the Moon’s on Earth.

text: Another hypothesis involves ocean venting of hydrogen sulfide gas. Portions of the deep ocean will periodically lose all of its dissolved oxygen allowing bacteria that live without oxygen to flourish and produce hydrogen sulfide gas. If enough hydrogen sulfide accumulates in an anoxic zone, the gas can rise into the atmosphere. Oxidizing gases in the atmosphere would destroy the toxic gas, but the hydrogen sulfide would soon consume all of the atmospheric gas available. Hydrogen sulfide levels might have increased dramatically over a few hundred years. Models of such an event indicate that the gas would destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere allowing ultraviolet radiation to kill off species that had survived the toxic gas. Of course, there are species that can metabolize hydrogen sulfide.

text: Another hypothesis involves ocean venting of

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: gas. Portions of the

text: deep ocean

text: will periodically lose all of its dissolved oxygen allowing bacteria that live without oxygen to flourish and produce hydrogen sulfide gas. If enough hydrogen sulfide accumulates in an

text: anoxic zone

text: , the gas can rise into the atmosphere. Oxidizing gases in the atmosphere would destroy the toxic gas, but the hydrogen sulfide would soon consume all of the atmospheric gas available. Hydrogen sulfide levels might have increased dramatically over a few hundred years. Models of such an event indicate that the gas would destroy

text: ozone

text: in the upper atmosphere allowing

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation to kill off species that had survived the toxic gas. Of course,

text: there are species

text: that can metabolize hydrogen sulfide.

text: The original astronomical observatory is located on the island Tenerife in the Canary Islands on the volcano called Teide. The site is at the  elevation and situated away from city light pollution. This (Canary Islands) site includes 2 domes, each with 2 telescopes. Each dome has a high magnification telescope and a wide field telescope. One dome is optimized for planetary views (e.g., more magnification and a different CCD), and the other is optimized for deep sky objects (e.g., less magnification, more light sensitive CCD).  Each dome offers 2 telescopic views: one high magnification (narrow field) view through a  Celestron Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope; and a wide view through either a telephoto lens or an APO refractor.  On September 23, 2012, the Slooh.com Canary Islands Observatory was assigned observatory code G40 by the Minor Planet Center for the reporting of asteroids, comets and other solar system small-bodies.

text: The original

text: astronomical

text: observatory

text: is located on the island

text: Tenerife

text: in the

text: Canary Islands

text: on the

text: volcano

text: called

text: Teide

text: . The site is at the

text: elevation

text: and situated away from city

text: light pollution

text: . This (Canary Islands) site includes 2

text: domes

text: , each with 2 telescopes. Each dome has a high

text: magnification

text: telescope and a

text: wide field

text: telescope. One dome is optimized for

text: planet

text: ary views (e.g., more magnification and a different

text: CCD

text: ), and the other is optimized for

text: deep sky objects

text: (e.g., less magnification, more light sensitive CCD).  Each dome offers 2

text: telescopic

text: views: one high magnification (narrow field) view through a

text: Celestron

text: Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope

text: ; and a wide view through either a

text: telephoto lens

text: or an

text: APO

text: refractor

text: .  On September 23, 2012, the Slooh.com Canary Islands Observatory was assigned observatory code G40 by the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: for the reporting of asteroids, comets and other solar system small-bodies.

text: The Zeiss-Planetarium in Jena, Germany is the oldest continuously operating planetarium in the world. It was opened on July 18, 1926. The Zeiss-Planetarium is a projection planetarium. The planets and fixed stars are projected onto the inner surface of a white cupola.

text: The Zeiss-Planetarium in

text: Jena

text: Germany

text: is the oldest continuously operating

text: planetarium

text: in the world. It was opened on July 18, 1926. The Zeiss-Planetarium is a projection planetarium. The planets and fixed stars are projected onto the inner surface of a white cupola.

text: A coreless planet is a theoretical type of terrestrial planet that has no metallic core, i.e. the planet is effectively a giant rocky mantle. Despite the name this is not the same as a hollow earth.

text: A coreless planet is a theoretical type of

text: terrestrial planet

text: that has no metallic core, i.e. the planet is effectively a giant rocky

text: mantle

text: . Despite the name this is not the same as a

text: hollow earth

text: Not included in the list above is Planet of the Dogs, Medina's homage/parody to Planet of the Apes. This story arc (which appeared in Disi-Sais!) is relatively short at only nine strips long. Since that arc, it took Medina three years before he came up with Benigno Ramos: Bounty Hunter, and then another three with Bodyguard.

text: Not included in the list above is Planet of the Dogs, Medina's homage/parody to

text: Planet of the Apes

text: . This story arc (which appeared in Disi-Sais!) is relatively short at only nine strips long. Since that arc, it took Medina three years before he came up with Benigno Ramos: Bounty Hunter, and then another three with Bodyguard.

text: Smaller ocean planets would have less dense atmospheres and lower gravity; thus, liquid could evaporate much more easily than on more massive ocean planets. Theoretically, such planets could have higher waves than their more massive counterparts due to their lower gravity.

text: The volcanic eruption drew worldwide attention. The volcano was featured in a segment of the television program Angry Planet in 2009.

text: The volcanic eruption drew worldwide attention. The volcano was featured in a segment of the television program

text: Angry Planet

text: in 2009.

text: The Explorer Ridge is a mid-ocean ridge, a divergent tectonic plate boundary located about  west of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. It lies at the northern extremity of the Pacific spreading axis. To its east is the Explorer Plate, which together with the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Gorda Plate to its south, is what remains of the once-vast Farallon Plate which has been largely subducted under the North American Plate. The Explorer Ridge consists of one major segment, the Southern Explorer Ridge, and several smaller segments. It runs northward from the Sovanco Fracture Zone to the Queen Charlotte Triple Junction, a point where it meets the Queen Charlotte Fault and the northern Cascadia subduction zone.

text: The Explorer Ridge is a

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: , a

text: divergent

text: tectonic plate

text: boundary located about  west of

text: Vancouver Island

text: British Columbia

text: Canada

text: . It lies at the northern extremity of the Pacific spreading axis. To its east is the

text: Explorer Plate

text: , which together with the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: and the

text: Gorda Plate

text: to its south, is what remains of the once-vast

text: Farallon Plate

text: which has been largely

text: subducted

text: under the

text: North American Plate

text: . The Explorer Ridge consists of one major segment, the Southern Explorer Ridge, and several smaller segments. It runs northward from the

text: Sovanco Fracture Zone

text: to the

text: Queen Charlotte Triple Junction

text: , a point where it meets the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: and the northern

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: The outer core was determined to be liquid from observations showing that compressional waves pass through it, but elastic shear waves do not – or do so only very weakly. The solidity of the inner core had been difficult to establish because the elastic shear waves that are expected to pass through a solid mass are very weak and difficult for seismographs on the Earth's surface to detect, since they become so attenuated on their way from the inner core to the surface by their passage through the liquid outer core. Dziewonski and Gilbert established that measurements of  normal modes of vibration of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core. Recent claims that shear waves have been detected passing through the inner core were initially controversial, but are now gaining acceptance.

text: The

text: outer core

text: was determined to be liquid from observations showing that

text: compressional wave

text: s pass through it, but elastic

text: shear

text: waves do not – or do so only very weakly. The solidity of the inner core had been difficult to establish because the elastic

text: shear wave

text: s that are expected to pass through a solid mass are very weak and difficult for seismographs on the Earth's surface to detect, since they become so attenuated on their way from the inner core to the surface by their passage through the liquid outer core. Dziewonski and Gilbert established that measurements of

text: normal modes of vibration

text: of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core. Recent claims that shear waves have been detected passing through the inner core were initially controversial, but are now gaining acceptance.

text: Although the orbital speed of an inner planet is greater than that of the Earth, a spacecraft traveling to an inner planet, even at the minimum speed needed to reach it, is still accelerated by the Sun's gravity to a speed notably greater than the orbital speed of that destination planet. If the spacecraft's purpose is only to fly by the inner planet, then there is typically no need to slow the spacecraft. However, if the spacecraft is to be inserted into orbit about that inner planet, then there must be some way to slow down the spacecraft.

text: Although the orbital speed of an inner planet is greater than that of the Earth, a spacecraft traveling to an inner planet, even at the minimum speed needed to reach it, is still accelerated by the Sun's gravity to a speed notably greater than the orbital speed of that destination planet. If the spacecraft's purpose is only to fly by the inner planet, then there is typically no need to slow the spacecraft. However, if the spacecraft is to be inserted into

text: orbit

text: about that inner planet, then there must be some way to slow down the spacecraft.

text: Kashyyyk ( ,   or  ), also known as Wookiee Planet C, is a planet in the Star Wars universe. It is the tropical, forested home world of the Wookiees.  According to interviews given by Star Wars creator George Lucas, the original home planet of the Wookiees was the moon of Endor which plays a key role in the plot of the sixth film of the series, Return of the Jedi.  However, Lucas decided that since the Wookiee Chewbacca was clearly proficient with advanced technology (i.e. he was pilot and mechanic of the spaceship the Millennium Falcon and he repaired the damaged droid C-3PO), it would be confusing to show the Wookiees with a primitive, "stone age" culture on Endor.  The Ewoks were created instead to populate the moon and to help fight the Imperial garrison stationed there. Kashyyyk made appearances in the Star Wars Holiday Special and Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith.

text: Kashyyyk ( ,   or  ), also known as Wookiee Planet C, is a planet in the

text: Star Wars

text: universe

text: . It is the tropical, forested home world of the

text: Wookiee

text: s.  According to interviews given by Star Wars creator

text: George Lucas

text: , the original home planet of the Wookiees was the moon of

text: Endor

text: which plays a key role in the plot of the sixth film of the series,

text: Return of the Jedi

text: .  However, Lucas decided that since the Wookiee

text: Chewbacca

text: was clearly proficient with advanced technology (i.e. he was pilot and mechanic of the spaceship the

text: Millennium Falcon

text: and he repaired the damaged droid

text: ), it would be confusing to show the Wookiees with a primitive,

text: "stone age"

text: culture on Endor.  The

text: Ewoks

text: were created instead to populate the moon and to help fight the Imperial garrison stationed there. Kashyyyk made appearances in the

text: Star Wars Holiday Special

text: and

entity_name: Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith

text: Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith

text: Kepler-78b orbits around the parent star in an 8.5-hour orbit. It reflects 20% to 60% of the starlight it receives. Due to its extremely close solar orbit, about 40 times closer to its star than Mercury is to the Sun, the planet's surface is estimated to be at a temperature of  to . This temperature is high enough to have stripped the planet of any stable atmosphere, but the liquid and solid portions of the planet should be stable. According to Francesco Pepe, one of the astronomers involved with the discovery, the planet may be Earth-sized but "it can be imagined like a lava planet rather than an Earth-like planet."

text: Kepler-78b orbits around the parent star in an 8.5-hour orbit. It reflects 20% to 60% of the starlight it receives. Due to its extremely close solar orbit, about 40 times closer to its star than

text: Mercury

text: is to the Sun, the planet's surface is estimated to be at a temperature of  to . This temperature is high enough to have stripped the planet of any stable

text: atmosphere

text: , but the liquid and solid portions of the planet should be stable. According to Francesco Pepe, one of the astronomers involved with the discovery, the planet may be Earth-sized but "it can be imagined like a lava planet rather than an Earth-like planet."

text: Clangers is a British stop-motion animated children's television series of short stories about a family of murine creatures who live on, and inside, a small moon-like planet. They speak only in whistles, and eat green soup supplied by the Soup Dragon and blue string pudding. The programmes were originally broadcast by BBC1 between 1969 and 1972, followed by the first of three special episodes that was broadcast in 1974.

text: Clangers is a British

text: stop-motion

text: animated

text: children's television series

text: of short stories about a family of

text: murine

text: creatures who live on, and inside, a small moon-like planet. They speak only in whistles, and eat green soup supplied by the Soup Dragon and blue string pudding. The programmes were originally broadcast by

text: between 1969 and 1972, followed by the first of three special episodes that was broadcast in 1974.

text: The wingspan is 8–16 mm. The forewings are reddish-ferruginous, with black and golden-metallic markings and a small black basal patch, the outer edge moderately straight, indented in the middle, where there are a few golden-metallic scales. There is a narrow outwardly oblique golden-metallic fascia, from the costa at one-fourth to beyond the inner margin at one-third, sometimes hardly reaching the inner margin. An irregular black quadrate spot is found on the costa immediately beyond, reaching more than half across the wing and there is a second, similar to first, golden-metallic fascia, not so oblique as the first, immediately beyond the quadrate spot, sometimes broken, from the middle of the costa to the middle of the inner margin. A small roundish ochreous-white spot is found on the costa at three-fourths, the lower half reddish-tinged, reaching nearly half across the wing and a golden-metallic patch of scales is found beneath, but slightly anterior. There is also a blackish elongate spot on the costa between the second fascia and a whitish spot and the hindmarginal area beyond is black. The hindwings are pale fuscous.

text: The

text: wingspan

text: is 8–16 mm. The forewings are reddish-ferruginous, with black and golden-metallic markings and a small black basal patch, the outer edge moderately straight, indented in the middle, where there are a few golden-metallic scales. There is a narrow outwardly oblique golden-metallic fascia, from the costa at one-fourth to beyond the inner margin at one-third, sometimes hardly reaching the inner margin. An irregular black quadrate spot is found on the costa immediately beyond, reaching more than half across the wing and there is a second, similar to first, golden-metallic fascia, not so oblique as the first, immediately beyond the quadrate spot, sometimes broken, from the middle of the costa to the middle of the inner margin. A small roundish ochreous-white spot is found on the costa at three-fourths, the lower half reddish-tinged, reaching nearly half across the wing and a golden-metallic patch of scales is found beneath, but slightly anterior. There is also a blackish elongate spot on the costa between the second fascia and a whitish spot and the hindmarginal area beyond is black. The hindwings are pale fuscous.

text: The combination of temperatures and pressures typically reached in a combustion chamber is usually extreme by any standards. Unlike in airbreathing jet engines, no atmospheric nitrogen is present to dilute and cool the combustion, and the temperature can reach true stoichiometric ratios. This, in combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of heat conduction through the walls is very high.

text: The combination of temperatures and pressures typically reached in a combustion chamber is usually extreme by any standards. Unlike in

text: airbreathing jet engine

text: s, no atmospheric nitrogen is present to dilute and cool the combustion, and the temperature can reach true

text: stoichiometric

text: ratios. This, in combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of heat conduction through the walls is very high.

text: In mathematics, the slow manifold of an equilibrium point of a dynamical system occurs as the most common example of a center manifold.  One of the main methods of simplifying dynamical systems, is to reduce the dimension of the system to that of the slow manifold—center manifold theory rigorously justifies the modelling.  For example, some global and regional models of the atmosphere or oceans resolve the so-called quasi-geostrophic flow dynamics on the slow manifold of the atmosphere/oceanic dynamics,and is thus crucial to forecasting with a climate model.

text: In

text: mathematics

text: , the slow manifold of an

text: equilibrium point

text: of a

text: dynamical system

text: occurs as the most common example of a

text: center manifold

text: .  One of the main methods of simplifying

text: dynamical systems

text: , is to reduce the dimension of the system to that of the slow manifold—

text: center manifold

text: theory rigorously justifies the modelling.  For example, some global and regional models of the atmosphere or oceans resolve the so-called quasi-

text: geostrophic flow

text: dynamics on the slow manifold of the atmosphere/oceanic dynamics,and is thus crucial to forecasting with a

text: climate model

text: Johannes Kepler published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe. Kepler's third law was published in 1619. The first law was "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci."

text: Johannes Kepler

text: published his first two laws about planetary motion in 1609, having found them by analyzing the astronomical observations of

text: Tycho Brahe

text: . Kepler's third law was published in 1619. The first law was "The

text: orbit

text: of every

text: planet

text: is an

text: ellipse

text: with the Sun at one of the two

text: foci

text: Except average temperature values, thermal characteristics of Kosovo will be better understood in the analyze of extreme values. Maximal values in all meteorological stations are higher than , while the absolute lowest value was registered on June 6, 1963 in Gnjilane with a value of . Based on the summary, the amplitude of the average of the average values in Kosovo is  and the extreme value is . Movements of air temperature from year to year are pretty much noticeable. In lower parts of Kosovo, tropic days usually last for 30 days.

text: Except average temperature values, thermal characteristics of Kosovo will be better understood in the analyze of extreme values. Maximal values in all meteorological stations are higher than , while the absolute lowest value was registered on June 6, 1963 in

text: Gnjilane

text: with a value of . Based on the summary, the amplitude of the average of the average values in Kosovo is  and the extreme value is . Movements of air temperature from year to year are pretty much noticeable. In lower parts of Kosovo, tropic days usually last for 30 days.

text: SIM Lite would have been the most powerful extrasolar planet hunting space telescope ever built. Through the technique of interferometry the spacecraft would be able to detect Earth-sized planets. SIM Lite was to perform its search for nearby, Earth-like planets by looking for the "wobble" in the parent star's apparent motion as the planet orbits. The spacecraft will accomplish this task to an accuracy of one millionth of an arcsecond, or the thickness of a nickel viewed at the distance from Earth to the Moon. Titled the Deep Search, the planet hunting program is intended to search approximately 60 nearby stars for terrestrial planets (like Earth and Venus) in the habitable zone (where liquid water can exist throughout a full revolution (one "year") of the planet around its star). The Deep Search is the most demanding in terms of astrometric accuracy, hence the name, Deep Search. This program will use the full capability of the SIM Lite spacecraft to make its measurements.

text: SIM Lite would have been the most powerful

text: extrasolar planet

text: hunting

text: space telescope

text: ever built. Through the technique of

text: interferometry

text: the spacecraft would be able to detect Earth-sized planets. SIM Lite was to perform its search for nearby, Earth-like planets by looking for the "

text: wobble

text: " in the parent star's apparent motion as the planet orbits. The spacecraft will accomplish this task to an accuracy of one millionth of an

text: arcsecond

text: , or the thickness of a

text: nickel

text: viewed at the distance from Earth to the

text: Moon

text: . Titled the Deep Search, the planet hunting program is intended to search approximately 60 nearby stars for

text: terrestrial planets

text: (like

text: Earth

text: and

text: Venus

text: ) in the habitable zone (where liquid water can exist throughout a full revolution (one "year") of the planet around its star). The Deep Search is the most demanding in terms of

text: astrometric

text: accuracy, hence the name, Deep Search. This program will use the full capability of the SIM Lite spacecraft to make its measurements.

text: After a period in radar research during the World War II, he joined the Physics Department at the University of Manchester where he did research on aspects of the Earth's magnetic field, taking his Ph.D. under Patrick Blackett in 1949. This led to his interest in palaeomagnetism, the study of the magnetism of rocks, which he pursued first at the Geophysics Department at the University of Cambridge and later at Newcastle University, where he was appointed to the chair of Physics in 1956. At Newcastle Runcorn developed a strong research group in geophysics, and made substantial contributions to various fields, including convection in the Earth and Moon, the shape and magnetic fields of the Moon and planets, magnetohydrodynamics of the Earth's core, changes in the length of the day, polar wandering, continental drift and plate tectonics.

text: After a period in

text: radar

text: research during the World War II, he joined the Physics Department at the

text: University of Manchester

text: where he did research on aspects of the Earth's

text: magnetic field

text: , taking his

text: Ph.D.

text: under

text: Patrick Blackett

text: in 1949. This led to his interest in

text: palaeomagnetism

text: , the study of the magnetism of rocks, which he pursued first at the Geophysics Department at the

text: University of Cambridge

text: and later at

text: Newcastle University

text: , where he was appointed to the chair of Physics in 1956. At Newcastle Runcorn developed a strong research group in

text: geophysics

text: , and made substantial contributions to various fields, including convection in the Earth and Moon, the shape and magnetic fields of the Moon and planets,

text: magnetohydrodynamics

text: of the

text: Earth's core

text: , changes in the length of the day,

text: polar wandering

text: continental drift

text: and

text: plate tectonics

text: Of the inner planets, Mercury and Venus have no natural satellites; Earth has one large natural satellite, known as the Moon; and Mars has two tiny natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos.The giant planets have extensive systems of natural satellites, including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth's Moon: the four Galilean moons, Saturn's Titan, and Neptune's Triton. Saturn has an additional six mid-sized natural satellites massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium, and Uranus has five. It has been suggested that some satellites may potentially harbour life.

text: Of the inner planets,

text: Mercury

text: and

text: Venus

text: have no natural satellites; Earth has one large natural satellite, known as the Moon; and

text: Mars

text: has two tiny natural satellites,

text: Phobos

text: and

text: Deimos

text: .The

text: giant planet

text: s have extensive systems of natural satellites, including half a dozen comparable in size to Earth's Moon: the four

text: Galilean moon

text: s,

text: Saturn

text: 's

text: Titan

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: 's

text: Triton

text: . Saturn has an additional six mid-sized natural satellites massive enough to have achieved

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: , and

text: Uranus

text: has five. It has been suggested that some

text: satellites may potentially harbour life

text: Kepler-419b is a hot Jupiter, an exoplanet that has a radius and mass near that of the planet Jupiter, but with an extremely high temperature. It has a temperature of . It has a mass of 2.5  and a radius of 0.96 .

text: Kepler-419b is a

text: hot Jupiter

text: , an exoplanet that has a radius and mass near that of the planet

text: Jupiter

text: , but with an extremely high temperature. It has a temperature of . It has a mass of 2.5  and a radius of 0.96 .

text: Mercury has an observed magnetic field, which is believed to be generated within its metallic core. Mercury's core occupies 85% of the planet's radius, making it the largest core relative to the size of the planet in the Solar System; this indicates that much of Mercury's surface may have been lost early in the Solar System's history. Mercury has a solid silicate crust and mantle overlying a solid iron sulfide outer core layer, followed by a deeper liquid core layer, and then a possible solid inner core making a third layer.

text: Three confirmed planets and two possible planets are possibly known to orbit Gliese 581, together with a debris disc. Most of the planets are located close to the star and have near-circular orbits. In order of distance from the star, the planets are designated Gliese 581 e, Gliese 581 b and Gliese 581 c and possibly Gliese 581 g and Gliese 581 d. The letters represent the discovery order, with b being the first planet to be discovered around the star (the letter d was used for a planet that was once no longer thought to be real and was an artifact caused by stellar activity, but reanalysis led to the conclusion that d might exist). The planets were all discovered with the radial velocity method which gives only lower limits on the planetary masses and no information about their radii. The minimum mass of the middle planet b is comparable to the solar system ice giants Uranus and Neptune, while the inner and outer planets have minimum masses a few times that of the Earth. The first three planets orbit closer to the star than the inner edge of the habitable zone, with the possibly reconfirmed planets Gliese 581 g and Gliese 581 d orbiting within the habitable zone.

text: Three confirmed planets and two possible planets are possibly known to orbit Gliese 581, together with a debris disc. Most of the planets are located close to the star and have near-circular orbits. In order of distance from the star, the planets are designated

text: Gliese 581 e

text: Gliese 581 b

text: and

text: Gliese 581 c

text: and possibly

text: Gliese 581 g

text: and

text: Gliese 581 d

text: . The letters represent the discovery order, with b being the first planet to be discovered around the star (the letter d was used for a planet that was once no longer thought to be real and was an artifact caused by stellar activity, but reanalysis led to the conclusion that

text: d

text: might exist). The planets were all discovered with the radial velocity method which gives only lower limits on the planetary masses and no information about their radii. The minimum mass of the middle planet b is comparable to the solar system ice giants

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: , while the inner and outer planets have minimum masses a few times that of the Earth. The first three planets orbit closer to the star than the inner edge of the habitable zone, with the possibly reconfirmed planets

text: Gliese 581 g

text: and

text: Gliese 581 d

text: orbiting within the habitable zone.

text: Dallol features an extreme version of hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh) typical of the Danakil Desert. Dallol is the hottest place year-round on the planet and currently holds the record high average temperature for an inhabited location on Earth, where an average annual temperature of 34.6 °C (94.3 °F) was recorded between the years 1960 and 1966. The annual average high temperature is 41 °C (105 °F) and the hottest month has an average high of 46.7 °C (116.1 °F). In addition to being extremely hot year-round, the climate of the lowlands of the Danakil Depression is also extremely dry and hyper-arid in terms of annual average rainy days as only a few days record measurable precipitation. The hot desert climate of Dallol is particularly due to the proximity with the equator and the Red Sea, the very low seasonality impact, the constants of the extreme heat and the lack of efficient nighttime cooling.

text: Dallol features an extreme version of

text: hot desert climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: BWh) typical of the

text: Danakil Desert

text: . Dallol is the hottest place year-round on the planet and currently holds the record high average temperature for an inhabited location on Earth, where an average annual temperature of 34.6 °C (94.3 °F) was recorded between the years 1960 and 1966. The annual average high temperature is 41 °C (105 °F) and the hottest month has an average high of 46.7 °C (116.1 °F). In addition to being extremely hot year-round, the climate of the lowlands of the

text: Danakil Depression

text: is also extremely dry and hyper-arid in terms of annual average rainy days as only a few days record measurable precipitation. The hot desert climate of Dallol is particularly due to the proximity with the equator and the Red Sea, the very low seasonality impact, the constants of the extreme heat and the lack of efficient nighttime cooling.

text: The crater record on the Moon and on the terrestrial planets is part of the main evidence for the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB): an intensification in the number of impactors, at about 600 million years after the Solar System's formation. In the initial Nice model icy planetesimals are scattered onto planet-crossing orbits when the outer disc is disrupted by Uranus and Neptune causing a sharp spike of impacts by icy objects. The migration of outer planets also causes mean-motion and secular resonances to sweep through the inner Solar System. In the asteroid belt these excite the eccentricities of the asteroids driving them onto orbits that intersect those of the terrestrial planets causing a more extended period of impacts by stony objects and removing roughly 90% of its mass.

text: The crater record on the

text: Moon

text: and on the terrestrial planets is part of the main evidence for the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB): an intensification in the number of impactors, at about 600 million years after the Solar System's formation. In the initial Nice model icy planetesimals are scattered onto planet-crossing orbits when the outer disc is disrupted by Uranus and Neptune causing a sharp spike of impacts by icy objects. The migration of outer planets also causes mean-motion and secular resonances to sweep through the inner Solar System. In the asteroid belt these excite the eccentricities of the asteroids driving them onto orbits that intersect those of the terrestrial planets causing a more extended period of impacts by stony objects and removing roughly 90% of its mass.

text: Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the gas phase, because hydrogen becomes a non-ideal liquid when the density is above 0.01 g/cm, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to transition into a metal in the deeper layers.

text: Despite consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, most of Saturn's mass is not in the

text: gas

text: phase

text: , because hydrogen becomes a

text: non-ideal liquid

text: when the density is above 0.01 g/cm, which is reached at a radius containing 99.9% of Saturn's mass. The temperature, pressure, and density inside Saturn all rise steadily toward the core, which causes hydrogen to transition into a metal in the deeper layers.

text: As of 2013, there are 549 stars with one confirmed planet, and only 129 stars with two or more confirmed transiting planets; that is, only 17% of all exoplanetary host stars have two or more confirmed transiting planets.  The star with the most confirmed planets is HD 10180, containing 7 confirmed planets, plus two more unconfirmed planets. The most massive exoplanetary host star is Epsilon Tauri (), while the least massive is 2M J044144 (). The most metal-rich star is 1RXS 1609 (0.616 dex, 4.13 × Sun), while the most metal-poor is HIP 13044 (−2.086, 0.0082 × Sun). The nearest exoplanetary host star is Alpha Centauri B (4.36 ly), while the most distant is MOA-2008-BLG-310L (23807 ly). Visually, the brightest exoplanetary host star seen from Earth is Pollux (1.15), while the faintest is OGLE-2005-BLG-390L (27.98).

text: As of 2013, there are 549 stars with one confirmed planet, and only 129 stars with two or more confirmed transiting planets; that is, only 17% of all exoplanetary host stars have two or more confirmed transiting planets.  The star with the most confirmed planets is

text: HD 10180

text: , containing 7 confirmed planets, plus two more unconfirmed planets. The most massive exoplanetary host star is

text: Epsilon Tauri

text: (), while the least massive is

text: 2M J044144

text: (). The most metal-rich star is

text: 1RXS 1609

text: (0.616 dex, 4.13 × Sun), while the most metal-poor is

text: HIP 13044

text: (−2.086, 0.0082 × Sun). The nearest exoplanetary host star is

text: Alpha Centauri B

text: (4.36 ly), while the most distant is

text: (23807 ly). Visually, the brightest exoplanetary host star seen from Earth is

text: Pollux

text: (1.15), while the faintest is

text: In the Field of Arbol, the outer planets are older, the inner planets newer.

text: Natural formation of MgH happens in stars, brown dwarfs, and large planets, where the temperature is high enough.  The reaction that produces it is either 2Mg + H → 2MgH or Mg + H → MgH.  Decomposition is by the reverse process. Formation requires the presence of magnesium gas. The amount of magnesium gas is greatly reduced in cool stars by its extraction in clouds of enstatite, a magnesium silicate. Otherwise in these stars, below any magnesium silicate clouds where the temperature is hotter, the concentration of MgH is proportional to the square root of the pressure, and concentration of magnesium, and 10. MgH is the second most abundant magnesium containing gas (after atomic magnesium) in the deeper hotter parts of planets and brown dwarfs.

text: Natural formation of MgH happens in stars,

text: brown dwarfs

text: , and large planets, where the temperature is high enough.  The reaction that produces it is either 2Mg + H → 2MgH or Mg + H → MgH.  Decomposition is by the reverse process. Formation requires the presence of magnesium gas. The amount of magnesium gas is greatly reduced in cool stars by its extraction in clouds of

text: enstatite

text: , a magnesium silicate. Otherwise in these stars, below any magnesium silicate clouds where the temperature is hotter, the concentration of MgH is proportional to the square root of the pressure, and concentration of magnesium, and 10. MgH is the second most abundant magnesium containing gas (after atomic magnesium) in the deeper hotter parts of planets and brown dwarfs.

text: The coldest temperatures ever recorded on the planet outside Antarctica occurred in the basin of the Yana River to the northeast of Yakutsk, making it the coldest inhabited place on earth. Although winters are extremely cold and long – Yakutsk has never reported a temperature above freezing between 10 November and 14 March inclusive – summers are warm (though rather short), with daily maximum temperatures occasionally exceeding , making the seasonal temperature differences for the region the greatest in the world. The lowest temperature recorded in Yakutsk was  on 5 February 1891 and the highest temperatures  on 17 July 2011 and  on 15 July 1943. The hottest month in records going back to 1834 has been July 1894 with a mean of  and the coldest January 1900 which averaged .

text: The coldest temperatures ever recorded on the planet outside

text: Antarctica

text: occurred in the basin of the

text: Yana River

text: to the northeast of Yakutsk, making it the coldest inhabited place on earth. Although winters are extremely cold and long – Yakutsk has never reported a temperature above freezing between 10 November and 14 March inclusive – summers are warm (though rather short), with daily maximum temperatures occasionally exceeding , making the seasonal temperature differences for the region the greatest in the world. The lowest temperature recorded in Yakutsk was  on 5 February 1891 and the highest temperatures  on 17 July 2011 and  on 15 July 1943. The hottest month in records going back to 1834 has been July 1894 with a mean of  and the coldest January 1900 which averaged .

text: Surface features relatable to map features occurred so frequently in the images that the edges of all image swaths could be traced nearly continuously on the maps. Besides boldly map-identified large features such as urban development, highway patterns, canals, bridges, and airports, the images showed other viewer-identifiable cultural and natural mapped and unmapped items such as agricultural field patterns, drainage patterns, forested versus open areas (usually revealed by bright returns from near-range sides of wooded areas and shadows along their far-range sides), qualitative relief patterns (revealed by variations of slope tones), large surface-mining operations, and well-defined shorelines bordering no-return areas representing smooth water surfaces. In high-relief (mountain) areas, the obliquity effects produced irregular swath-edge lines on maps and similar “layover” of images of elevated surface features onto nearer-range and lower-elevation “map” locations.

text: Most of these island arcs are formed as one oceanic tectonic plate subducts another one and, in most cases, produces magma at depth below the over-riding plate. However, this is only true for those island arcs that are part of the group of mountain belts which are called volcanic arcs, a term which is used when all the elements of the arc-shaped mountain belt are composed of volcanoes. For example, large parts of the Andes/Central American/Canadian mountain chain may be known as a volcanic arc, but they are not islands (being situated upon and along a continental area) and are thus not classified as an island arc. On the other hand, the Aegean or Hellenic arc in the Mediterranean area, composed of numerous islands such as Crete, is an island arc, but is not volcanic. Parallel to it is the South Aegean Volcanic Arc, which is the volcanic island arc of the same tectonic system.

text: Most of these island arcs are formed as one oceanic tectonic plate

text: subducts

text: another one and, in most cases, produces

text: magma

text: at depth below the over-riding plate. However, this is only true for those island arcs that are part of the group of mountain belts which are called

text: volcanic arc

text: s, a term which is used when all the elements of the arc-shaped mountain belt are composed of volcanoes. For example, large parts of the Andes/Central American/Canadian mountain chain may be known as a volcanic arc, but they are not islands (being situated upon and along a continental area) and are thus not classified as an island arc. On the other hand, the Aegean or

text: Hellenic arc

text: in the

text: Mediterranean

text: area, composed of numerous islands such as

text: Crete

text: , is an island arc, but is not volcanic. Parallel to it is the

text: South Aegean Volcanic Arc

text: , which is the volcanic island arc of the same tectonic system.

text: Surface features in a material produce variations in the CTR intensity, which can be measured and used to evaluate what surface structures may be present. Two examples of this are shown in Fig. 3. In the case of a miscut at an angle

text: A spacecraft traveling from Earth to an inner planet will increase speed because it is falling toward the Sun, and a spacecraft traveling from Earth to an outer planet will decrease speed because it is leaving the vicinity of the Sun.

text: On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually.  The range of climates and latitudes across the planet can offer extremes of temperature outside this range.  The coldest air temperature ever recorded on Earth is , at Vostok Station, Antarctica on 21 July 1983.  The hottest air temperature ever recorded was   at 'Aziziya, Libya, on 13 September 1922, but that reading is queried.  The highest recorded average annual temperature was  at Dallol, Ethiopia.  The coldest recorded average annual temperature was  at Vostok Station, Antarctica.

text: On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually.  The range of climates and latitudes across the planet can offer extremes of temperature outside this range.  The coldest air temperature ever recorded on Earth is , at

text: Vostok Station

text: Antarctica

text: on 21 July 1983.  The hottest air temperature ever recorded was   at

text: 'Aziziya

text: , Libya, on 13 September 1922, but

text: that reading is queried

text: .  The highest recorded average annual temperature was  at

text: Dallol

text: , Ethiopia.  The coldest recorded average annual temperature was  at

text: Vostok Station

text: Antarctica

text: Ceres is a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt, comprising about one third the mass of the whole belt and being the sixth largest body in the inner Solar System by mass and volume. Ceres has a surface area somewhat larger than Argentina. Being the largest body in the asteroid belt, Ceres could become the main base and transport hub for future asteroid mining infrastructure, allowing mineral resources to be transported further to Mars, the Moon and Earth. See further: Main-Belt Asteroids. It may be possible to paraterraform Ceres, making life easier for the colonists. Given its low gravity and fast rotation, a space elevator would also be practical.

text: Ceres

text: is a

text: dwarf planet

text: in the

text: asteroid belt

text: , comprising about one third the mass of the whole belt and being the sixth largest body in the inner Solar System by mass and volume. Ceres has a surface area somewhat larger than

text: Argentina

text: . Being the largest body in the asteroid belt, Ceres could become the main base and transport hub for future asteroid mining infrastructure, allowing mineral resources to be transported further to Mars, the Moon and Earth. See further:

text: Main-Belt Asteroids

text: . It may be possible to

text: paraterraform

text: Ceres, making life easier for the colonists. Given its low gravity and fast rotation, a

text: space elevator

text: would also be practical.

text: Outer-grazer and inner-grazer are schemes of Sun Orbits. All six diagrams show the Sun in the middle (the orange dot) and a putative planet's orbital band (in yellow). The latter is a ring whose inner radius is the planet's perihelion and its outer radius the aphelion.

text: Outer-grazer and inner-grazer are schemes of

text: Sun

text: Orbit

text: s. All six diagrams show the Sun in the middle (the orange dot) and a putative

text: planet

text: 's orbital band (in yellow). The latter is a ring whose inner radius is the planet's

text: perihelion

text: and its outer radius the

text: aphelion

text: From the surface of a theoretical Earth-like planet at 0.55 AU distance from Gliese 105 A, near the inner edge of that star's habitable zone, component C at perihelion would only ever get about half as bright as the full moon does, despite it being a star, and at aphelion it would appear about as bright as Venus becoming barely even visible to the naked eye in the daytime.

text: Reception refers to how each planet in a horary question chart "view" or "receive'" each other, either favourably, unfavourably, or somewhere in between. If Mars is in Taurus, and Venus is in Scorpio, then each of the planets is in the sign the other planet rules. (Venus is ruler of Taurus, Mars of Scorpio). This is called mutual reception by rulership, and although each planet is in its detriment, it nevertheless receives the other planet favourably. In some horary questions, a thorough understanding of receptions (and the above example skims the surface of this topic) is required to delineate the interplay of how the various significators view each other what sort of attitudes are taking place in the area of the question.

text: Reception

text: refers to how each planet in a horary question chart "view" or "receive'" each other, either favourably, unfavourably, or somewhere in between. If Mars is in

text: Taurus

text: , and

text: Venus

text: is in

text: Scorpio

text: , then each of the planets is in the sign the other planet rules. (Venus is ruler of Taurus, Mars of Scorpio). This is called

text: mutual reception

text: by rulership, and although each planet is in its detriment, it nevertheless receives the other planet favourably. In some horary questions, a thorough understanding of receptions (and the above example skims the surface of this topic) is required to delineate the interplay of how the various significators view each other what sort of attitudes are taking place in the area of the question.

text: The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance. Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.

text: The

text: habitable zone

text: around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet:

text: desert planet

text: s (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance. Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.

text: Several terrestrial bodies have been subject of lander and/or impactor exploration: among them Earth's Moon, the planets Venus and Mars, the Saturn moon Titan, the asteroids and comets. Of the inner Solar System planets, Mercury is the only one that is yet to be visited by a lander.

text: Several

text: terrestrial bodies

text: have been subject of lander and/or impactor exploration: among them Earth's

text: Moon

text: , the planets

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mars

text: , the Saturn moon

text: Titan

text: , the

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s. Of the inner Solar System planets,

text: Mercury

text: is the only one that is yet to be visited by a lander.

text: Inner satellites are all tidally locked, that is, their orbit is synchronous with their rotation so that they only show one face toward their parent planet. Their long axes are typically aligned to point towards their planet.

text: Inner satellites are all

text: tidally locked

text: , that is, their orbit is

text: synchronous

text: with their rotation so that they only show one face toward their parent planet. Their long axes are typically aligned to point towards their planet.

text: Planets close to their stars on circular orbits will tend to despin and become tidally locked. As the planet's rotation slows down the radius of a synchronous orbit of the planet moves outwards  from the planet. For planets tidally locked to their stars, the distance from the planet at which the moon will be in a synchronous orbit around the planet is outside the Hill sphere of the planet. The Hill sphere of the planet is the region where its gravity dominates that of the star so it can hold on to its moons. Moons inside the synchronous orbit radius of a planet will spiral into the planet. Therefore, if the synchronous orbit is outside the Hill sphere, then all moons will spiral into the planet. If the synchronous orbit is not three-body stable then moons outside this radius will escape orbit before they reach the synchronous orbit.

text: Planets close to their stars on circular orbits will tend to despin and become

text: tidally locked

text: . As the planet's rotation slows down the radius of a

text: synchronous orbit

text: of the planet moves outwards  from the planet. For planets tidally locked to their stars, the distance from the planet at which the moon will be in a synchronous orbit around the planet is outside the

text: Hill sphere

text: of the planet. The Hill sphere of the planet is the region where its gravity dominates that of the star so it can hold on to its moons. Moons inside the synchronous orbit radius of a planet will spiral into the planet. Therefore, if the synchronous orbit is outside the Hill sphere, then all moons will spiral into the planet. If the synchronous orbit is not

text: three-body stable

text: then moons outside this radius will escape orbit before they reach the synchronous orbit.

text: Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Fire), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are composite cones or stratovolcanoes (Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro and Mount Fuji are examples) and shield volcanoes (such as Mauna Loa on Hawaii, a hotspot volcano).

text: Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: ), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are composite cones or stratovolcanoes (

text: Vesuvius

text: Kilimanjaro

text: and

text: Mount Fuji

text: are examples) and shield volcanoes (such as

text: Mauna Loa

text: on Hawaii, a

text: hotspot

text: volcano).

text: The gas giants have much greater internal heating than terrestrial planets, due to their greater mass and greater compressibility making more energy available from gravitational contraction. Jupiter, the most massive planet in the Solar System, has the most internal heating, with core temperature estimated to be 36,000 K. For the outer planets of the Solar System, internal heating powers the weather and wind instead of sunlight that powers the weather for terrestrial planets. The internal heating within gas giant planets raise temperatures higher than effective temperatures, as in the case of Jupiter, this makes 40 K warmer than given effective temperature. A combination of external and internal heating (which may be a combination of tidal heating and electromagnetic heating) is thought to make giant planets that orbit very close to their stars (hot Jupiters) into "puffy planets" (external heating is not thought to be sufficient by itself).

text: The

text: gas giant

text: s have much greater internal heating than terrestrial planets, due to their greater mass and greater compressibility making more energy available from gravitational contraction.

text: Jupiter

text: , the most massive planet in the Solar System, has the most internal heating, with core temperature estimated to be 36,000 K. For the outer planets of the Solar System, internal heating powers the

text: weather

text: and

text: wind

text: instead of

text: sunlight

text: that powers the weather for terrestrial planets. The internal heating within gas giant planets raise temperatures higher than

text: effective temperature

text: s, as in the case of Jupiter, this makes 40 K warmer than given effective temperature. A combination of external and internal heating (which may be a combination of tidal heating and electromagnetic heating) is thought to make giant planets that orbit very close to their stars (

text: hot Jupiter

text: s) into "

text: puffy planet

text: s" (external heating is not thought to be sufficient by itself).

text: In September 2011, the detection of secondary transit and phases were announced. This allowed to determine the temperature and albedo of the planet. This is the first terrestrial exoplanet with observed phases. Detection of phases was possible due to extreme day/night side temperature variations and the amount of starlight the planet receives due to its proximity to the host star.

text: While very little is known about GJ 1214 b, that does not prevent wild speculation in the press.  On the basis of planetary models  it has been suggested that GJ 1214 b has a relatively thick gaseous envelope. It is possible to propose structures by assuming different compositions, guided by scenarios for the formation and evolution of the planet. GJ 1214 b could be a rocky planet with an outgassed hydrogen-rich atmosphere, a mini-Neptune, or an ocean planet. If it is a water world, it could possibly be thought of as a bigger and hotter version of Jupiter's Galilean moons.  While no scientist has stated to believe GJ 1214 b is an ocean planet, if GJ 1214 b is assumed to be an ocean planet, i.e. the interior is assumed to be composed primarily of a water core surrounded by more water, proportions of the total mass consistent with the mass and radius are ~25% rock and ~75% water, covered by a thick envelope of gases such as hydrogen and helium (~0.05%). Water planets could result from inward planetary migration and originate as protoplanets that formed from volatile ice-rich material beyond the snow-line but that never attained masses sufficient to accrete large amounts of H/He nebular gas. Because of the varying pressure at depth, models of a water world include "steam, liquid, superfluid, high-pressure ices, and plasma phases" of water. Some of the solid-phase water could be in the form of ice VII.

text: While very little is known about GJ 1214 b, that does not prevent wild speculation in the press.  On the basis of planetary models  it has been suggested that GJ 1214 b has a relatively thick gaseous envelope. It is possible to propose structures by assuming different compositions, guided by scenarios for the formation and evolution of the planet. GJ 1214 b could be a rocky planet with an

text: outgassed

text: hydrogen-rich atmosphere, a

text: mini-Neptune

text: , or an

text: ocean planet

text: . If it is a water world, it could possibly be thought of as a bigger and hotter version of Jupiter's

text: Galilean moons

text: .  While no scientist has stated to believe GJ 1214 b is an ocean planet, if GJ 1214 b is assumed to be an ocean planet, i.e. the interior is assumed to be composed primarily of a water core surrounded by more

text: water

text: , proportions of the total mass consistent with the mass and radius are ~25% rock and ~75% water, covered by a thick envelope of gases such as

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: (~0.05%). Water planets could result from inward

text: planetary migration

text: and originate as

text: protoplanet

text: s that formed from

text: volatile

text: ice-rich material beyond the

text: snow-line

text: but that never attained masses sufficient to accrete large amounts of H/He

text: nebular gas

text: . Because of the varying

text: pressure

text: at depth, models of a water world include "steam, liquid, superfluid, high-pressure ices, and plasma phases" of water. Some of the solid-phase water could be in the form of

text: ice VII

text: In 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model which could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere, which became the first successful climate model. Following Phillips's work, several groups began working to create general circulation models. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.  By the early 1980s, the United States' National Center for Atmospheric Research had developed the Community Atmosphere Model; this model has been continuously refined into the 2000s.  In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, which led to more realistic forecasts.  For example, the Center for Ocean-Land Atmosphere Studies (COLA) model showed a warm temperature bias of 2-4 °C (4-7 °F) and a low precipitation bias due to incorrect parameterization of crop and vegetation type across the central United States.  Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models such as the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research's HadCM3 model are currently being used as inputs for climate change studies.  The importance of gravity waves was neglected within these models until the mid-1980s.  Now, gravity waves are required within global climate models in order to properly simulate regional and global scale circulations, though their broad spectrum makes their incorporation complicated.  The Climate System Model (CSM) was developed at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in January 1994.

text: In 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model which could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere, which became the first successful

text: climate model

text: . Following Phillips's work, several groups began working to create

text: general circulation model

text: s. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the

text: NOAA

text: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

text: .  By the early 1980s, the United States'

entity_name: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: had developed the Community Atmosphere Model; this model has been continuously refined into the 2000s.  In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, which led to more realistic forecasts.  For example, the Center for Ocean-Land Atmosphere Studies (COLA) model showed a warm temperature bias of 2-4 °C (4-7 °F) and a low precipitation bias due to incorrect parameterization of crop and vegetation type across the central United States.  Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models such as the

entity_name: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research

text: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research

text: 's

text: model are currently being used as inputs for

text: climate change

text: studies.  The importance of

text: gravity wave

text: s was neglected within these models until the mid-1980s.  Now, gravity waves are required within

text: global climate model

text: s in order to properly simulate regional and global scale circulations, though their

text: broad spectrum

text: makes their incorporation complicated.  The

text: Climate System Model (CSM)

text: was developed at the

text: in January 1994.

text: They first travel to the Puppeteer home world, where they learn that the expedition's goal is to explore a ringworld: an artificial ring about  wide and approximately the diameter of Earth's orbit (which makes it about  in circumference), encircling a sunlike star. It rotates, providing artificial gravity that is 99.2% as strong as Earth's gravity through the action of centrifugal force. The ringworld has a habitable, flat inner surface equivalent in area to approximately three million Earth-sized planets. Night is provided by an inner ring of shadow squares which are connected to each other by thin, ultra-strong wire (shadow-square wire).

text: They first travel to the Puppeteer home world, where they learn that the expedition's goal is to explore a ringworld: an artificial ring about  wide and approximately the diameter of Earth's orbit (which makes it about  in circumference), encircling a sunlike star. It rotates, providing artificial gravity that is 99.2% as strong as Earth's gravity through the action of

text: centrifugal force

text: . The ringworld has a habitable, flat inner surface equivalent in area to approximately three million Earth-sized planets. Night is provided by an inner ring of shadow squares which are connected to each other by thin, ultra-strong wire (shadow-square wire).

text: The incremental effect of gravitational perturbations between the planets causes the inner Solar System as a whole to behave chaotically over long time periods. This does not significantly affect the stability of the Solar System over intervals of a few million years or less, but over billions of years the orbits of the planets become unpredictable. Computer simulations of the Solar System's evolution over the next five billion years suggest that there is a small (less than 1%) chance that a collision could occur between Earth and either Mercury, Venus, or Mars. During the same interval, the odds that the Earth will be scattered out of the Solar System by a passing star are on the order of one part in 10. In such a scenario, the oceans would freeze solid within several million years, leaving only a few pockets of liquid water about  underground. There is a remote chance that the Earth will instead be captured by a passing binary star system, allowing the planet's biosphere to remain intact. The odds of this happening are about one chance in three million.

text: The incremental effect of

text: gravitational perturbation

text: s between the planets causes the inner Solar System as a whole to behave

text: chaotically

text: over long time periods. This does not significantly affect the

text: stability of the Solar System

text: over intervals of a few million years or less, but over billions of years the orbits of the planets become unpredictable. Computer simulations of the Solar System's evolution over the next five billion years suggest that there is a small (less than 1%) chance that a collision could occur between Earth and either Mercury, Venus, or Mars. During the same interval, the odds that the Earth will be scattered out of the Solar System by a passing star are on the order of one part in 10. In such a scenario, the oceans would freeze solid within several million years, leaving only a few pockets of liquid water about  underground. There is a remote chance that the Earth will instead be captured by a passing binary star system, allowing the planet's biosphere to remain intact. The odds of this happening are about one chance in three million.

text: The accretion disk was found to have parts rotating in opposite directions, the first time such a discovery has been made, and means that when planets form, the inner planets will orbit the opposite direction to the outer planets.

text: The

text: accretion disk

text: was found to have parts rotating in

text: opposite directions

text: , the first time such a discovery has been made, and means that when planets form, the inner planets will orbit the opposite direction to the outer planets.

text: The themes of the game are "human bonds" and "the inner surface of the heart". On a fictional planet named Ra Ciela, humans and a spiritual lifeform known as Genoms previously co-existed, but after the planet was destroyed, humans began to travel through space in a colony ship called Soreil, searching for other planets they could inhabit. After 5000 years of travel, they were suddenly attacked by a hostile life-form known as the Sharls, which abducted the people living in the residential areas of Soreil, Orei; and the human were powerless to stop the Sharls due to them possessing the power of Song Magic. However, the Felion Wall suddenly opened and from inside emerged the Ancients, people with the ability to use the same Song Magic as the Sharl and knowledge about technologies that were long lost, as they lived from the time Ra Ciela was destroyed.

text: Kepler-298d is an exoplanet orbiting Kepler-298, 473.69 parsecs away (1545 ly). Kepler-298d, which was discovered in 2014, it orbits its star in the Habitable zone. Kepler-298d was thought to be an Earth-like planet, further research shows that its atmosphere is +2.11 on the HZA scale, this means the planet may be an ocean planet with a thick gas dwarf-giant like atmosphere.

text: Kepler-298d is an

text: exoplanet

text: orbiting Kepler-298, 473.69

text: parsecs

text: away (1545

text: ly

text: ). Kepler-298d, which was discovered in 2014, it orbits its star in the

text: Habitable zone

text: . Kepler-298d was thought to be an

text: Earth-like planet

text: , further research shows that its atmosphere is +2.11 on the

text: HZA scale

text: , this means the planet may be an ocean planet with a thick gas dwarf-giant like atmosphere.

text: The evolution of moon systems is driven by tidal forces. A moon will raise a tidal bulge in the object it orbits (the primary) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary. If a moon is revolving in the same direction as the planet's rotation and the planet is rotating faster than the orbital period of the moon, the bulge will constantly be pulled ahead of the moon. In this situation, angular momentum is transferred from the rotation of the primary to the revolution of the satellite. The moon gains energy and gradually spirals outward, while the primary rotates more slowly over time.

text: The evolution of moon systems is driven by

text: tidal forces

text: . A moon will raise a

text: tidal bulge

text: in the object it orbits (the primary) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary. If a moon is revolving in the same direction as the planet's rotation and the planet is rotating faster than the orbital period of the moon, the bulge will constantly be pulled ahead of the moon. In this situation,

text: angular momentum

text: is transferred from the rotation of the primary to the revolution of the satellite. The moon gains energy and gradually spirals outward, while the primary rotates more slowly over time.

text: Huygens wrote that availability of water in liquid form was essential for life and that the properties of water must vary from planet to planet to suit the temperature range. He took his observations of dark and bright spots on the surfaces of Mars and Jupiter to be evidence of water and ice on those planets. He argued that extraterrestrial life is neither confirmed nor denied by the Bible, and questioned why God would create the other planets if they were not to serve a greater purpose than that of being admired from Earth. Huygens postulated that the great distance between the planets signified that God had not intended for beings on one to know about the beings on the others, and had not foreseen how much humans would advance in scientific knowledge.

text: Eventually Atwood ventured into the world of costume design for theater and film, initially coming to fame through her work on Sting's Bring on the Night World Tour, also made into a documentary by the same name. An important turning point in her career came when, through the production designer (Bo Welch) with whom she had worked in Joe Versus the Volcano, she met director Tim Burton.  Atwood and Burton worked together on over seven films in the next two decades, starting with Edward Scissorhands and including Sleepy Hollow, Ed Wood, Big Fish, Planet of the Apes, and Sweeney Todd. She moved to Los Angeles in 1990.

text: Eventually Atwood ventured into the world of costume design for theater and film, initially coming to fame through her work on

text: Sting

text: 's

text: Bring on the Night

text: World Tour, also made into a documentary

text: by the same name

text: . An important turning point in her career came when, through the production designer (Bo Welch) with whom she had worked in

text: Joe Versus the Volcano

text: , she met director Tim Burton.  Atwood and Burton worked together on over seven films in the next two decades, starting with

text: Edward Scissorhands

text: and including Sleepy Hollow, Ed Wood, Big Fish, Planet of the Apes, and Sweeney Todd. She moved to Los Angeles in 1990.

text: Blowout Comb is the second studio album by American hip hop group Digable Planets, released October 18, 1994, on Pendulum/EMI Records. The album was written and recorded in Brooklyn, New York, where the group moved, with recording sessions beginning in 1993 and finishing in 1994. On Blowout Comb, Digable Planets abandoned the radio friendly style of their debut album and worked with a more stripped-down sound. The album features a diverse range of samples and live instruments, and contains lyrical themes of the inner city and Black nationalism. It also features guest appearances from Guru of Gang Starr, Jeru the Damaja, and DJ Jazzy Joyce.

text: Blowout Comb is the second

text: studio album

text: by American

text: hip hop

text: group

text: Digable Planets

text: , released October 18, 1994, on Pendulum/EMI Records. The album was written and recorded in

text: Brooklyn, New York

text: , where the group moved, with recording sessions beginning in 1993 and finishing in 1994. On Blowout Comb, Digable Planets abandoned the radio friendly style of their debut album and worked with a more stripped-down sound. The album features a diverse range of samples and live instruments, and contains lyrical themes of the

text: inner city

text: and

text: Black nationalism

text: . It also features guest appearances from

text: Guru

text: of

text: Gang Starr

text: Jeru the Damaja

text: , and

text: DJ Jazzy Joyce

text: The Solar System is subdivided into the inner planets, the asteroid belt, and the outer planets. The inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The outer gas giant planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt, and finally the Oort Cloud, which may extend as far as a light-year.

text: The Solar System is subdivided into the inner planets, the

text: asteroid belt

text: , and the outer planets. The inner

text: terrestrial planet

text: s consist of

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: , and

text: Mars

text: . The outer

text: gas giant

text: planets are

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: . Beyond Neptune lies the

text: Kuiper Belt

text: , and finally the

text: Oort Cloud

text: , which may extend as far as a light-year.

text: In statistical mechanics, one sometimes uses negative temperatures to describe systems with population inversion, which can be considered to have a temperature greater than positive infinity, because the coefficient of energy in the population distribution function is −1/Temperature. In this context, a temperature of −0 is a (theoretical) temperature larger than any other negative temperature, corresponding to the (theoretical) maximum conceivable extent of population inversion, the opposite extreme to +0.

text: In statistical mechanics, one sometimes uses

text: negative temperature

text: s to describe systems with

text: population inversion

text: , which can be considered to have a temperature greater than positive infinity, because the coefficient of energy in the population distribution function is −1/Temperature. In this context, a temperature of −0 is a (theoretical) temperature larger than any other negative temperature, corresponding to the (theoretical) maximum conceivable extent of population inversion, the opposite extreme to +0.

text: To represent this double-sided aspect of Cosmos, Humboldt divided his book into two parts, with the first painting a general “portrait of nature.” Humboldt first examines outer space – the Milky Way, cosmic nebulae, and planets – and then proceeds to the earth and its physical geography; climate; volcanoes; relationships among plants, animals, and mankind; evolution; and the beauty of nature. In the second part, on the history of science, Humboldt aims to take the reader on an inner or “subjective” journey through the mind.  Humboldt is concerned with “the difference of feeling excited by the contemplation of nature at different epochs,” that is, the attitudes toward natural phenomena among poets, painters, and students of nature through the ages. The final three volumes are devoted to a more detailed account of scientific studies in astronomy, the earth’s physical properties, and geological formations. On the whole, the final work followed the scheme of the Berlin lectures reasonably faithfully.

text: To produce cavities within the casting—such as for liquid cooling in engine blocks and cylinder heads—negative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-molded, cores are inserted into the casting box after removal of the pattern. Whenever possible, designs are made that avoid the use of cores, due to the additional set-up time and thus greater cost.

text: To produce cavities within the casting—such as for liquid cooling in

text: engine

text: blocks and

text: cylinder head

text: s—negative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-molded, cores are inserted into the casting box after removal of the pattern. Whenever possible, designs are made that avoid the use of cores, due to the additional set-up time and thus greater cost.

text: Some simulations show that the eccentricity of the system's planets may have arisen from a close encounter between the outer planet and a fourth planet, with the result that the fourth planet was ejected from the system or destroyed. If so, the rogue planet would have had to eject immediately; it is unclear how likely this situation might be. Other models are possible. However, a fourth planet (Upsilon Andromedae e) was discovered in 2010. This planet is in a 3:1 resonance with Upsilon Andromedae d.

text: Some simulations show that the eccentricity of the system's planets may have arisen from a close encounter between the outer planet and a fourth planet, with the result that the fourth planet was ejected from the system or destroyed. If so, the rogue planet would have had to eject immediately; it is unclear how likely this situation might be. Other models are possible. However, a fourth planet (

text: Upsilon Andromedae e

text: ) was discovered in 2010. This planet is in a 3:1 resonance with Upsilon Andromedae d.

text: If the Pioneer anomaly had been a gravitational effect due to some long-range modifications of the known laws of gravity, it did not affect the orbital motions of the major natural bodies in the same way (in particular those moving in the regions in which the Pioneer anomaly manifested itself in its presently known form). Hence a gravitational explanation would need toviolate the equivalence principle, which states that all objects are affected the same way by gravity. It was therefore argued that increasingly accurate measurements and modelling of the motions of the outer planets and their satellites undermined the possibility that the Pioneer anomaly is a phenomenon of gravitational origin. However, others believed that our knowledge of the motions of the outer planets and dwarf planet Pluto was still insufficient to disprove the gravitational nature of the Pioneer anomaly. The same authors ruled out the existence of a gravitational Pioneer-type extra-acceleration in the outskirts of the Solar System by using a sample of Trans-Neptunian objects.

text: If the Pioneer anomaly had been a gravitational effect due to some long-range modifications of the known laws of gravity, it did not affect the orbital motions of the major natural bodies in the same way (in particular those moving in the regions in which the Pioneer anomaly manifested itself in its presently known form). Hence a gravitational explanation would need toviolate the

text: equivalence principle

text: , which states that all objects are affected the same way by gravity. It was therefore argued that increasingly accurate measurements and

text: modelling of the motions of the outer planets

text: and their satellites undermined the possibility that the Pioneer anomaly is a phenomenon of gravitational origin. However, others believed that our knowledge of the motions of the outer planets and dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: was still insufficient to disprove the gravitational nature of the Pioneer anomaly. The same authors ruled out the existence of a gravitational Pioneer-type extra-acceleration in the outskirts of the

text: Solar System

text: by using a sample of

text: Trans-Neptunian object

text: s.

text: The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit Earth in deferent and epicycle motions. Although the idea that the planets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times, it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first telescopic astronomical observations, performed by Galileo Galilei. At about the same time, by careful analysis of pre-telescopic observation data collected by Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler found the planets' orbits were not circular but elliptical. As observational tools improved, astronomers saw that, like Earth, the planets rotated around tilted axes, and some shared such features as ice caps and seasons. Since the dawn of the Space Age, close observation by space probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as volcanism, hurricanes, tectonics, and even hydrology.

text: The planets were thought by

text: Ptolemy

text: to orbit

text: Earth

text: in

text: deferent and epicycle

text: motions. Although the idea that the

text: planets orbited the Sun

text: had been suggested many times, it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first

text: telescopic

text: astronomical observations

text: , performed by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: . At about the same time, by careful analysis of pre-telescopic observation data collected by

text: Tycho Brahe

text: Johannes Kepler

text: found the planets' orbits were not circular but

text: elliptical

text: . As observational tools improved,

text: astronomer

text: s saw that, like Earth, the planets rotated around tilted axes, and some shared such features as

text: ice cap

text: s and seasons. Since the dawn of the

text: Space Age

text: , close observation by

text: space probe

text: s has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as

text: volcanism

text: hurricane

text: s,

text: tectonics

text: , and even

text: hydrology

text: The Tharsis Montes are three large shield volcanoes in the Tharsis region of the planet Mars. From north to south, the volcanoes are Ascraeus Mons, Pavonis Mons and Arsia Mons. Mons (plural montes) is the Latin word for mountain. It is a descriptor term used in astrogeology for mountainous features in the Solar System.

text: The Tharsis Montes are three large

text: shield volcano

text: es in the

text: Tharsis

text: region of the planet

text: Mars

text: . From north to south, the volcanoes are

text: Ascraeus Mons

text: Pavonis Mons

text: and

text: Arsia Mons

text: Mons

text: (plural montes) is the Latin word for mountain. It is a descriptor term used in

text: astrogeology

text: for mountainous features in the

text: Solar System

text: Very little is known about the composition of Earth’s inner core. The only parameters that are known with confidence are the speed of the pressure and shear sound waves (the existence of the latter implying that it is a solid). The pressure at the boundary between the inner core and the liquid outer core is estimated at 330 GPa, still somewhat beyond the range of laboratory experiments. The density of the outer and inner cores can only be estimated by indirect means.  The inner core was at first thought to be 10% less dense than pure iron at the predicted conditions, but this presumed “density deficit” has later been revised downwards: 2 to 5% by some estimates or 1 to 2% by others.

text: Very little is known about the composition of Earth’s

text: inner core

text: . The only parameters that are known with confidence are the speed of the

text: pressure

text: and

text: shear

text: sound waves (the existence of the latter implying that it is a solid). The pressure at the boundary between the inner core and the liquid

text: outer core

text: is estimated at 330 GPa, still somewhat beyond the range of laboratory experiments. The density of the outer and inner cores can only be estimated by indirect means.  The inner core was at first thought to be 10% less dense than pure iron at the predicted conditions, but this presumed “density deficit” has later been revised downwards: 2 to 5% by some estimates or 1 to 2% by others.

text: In some designs the core of a fast breeder reactor is immersed into a pool of liquid metal. If the reactor overheats, thermal expansion of the metallic fuel and cladding causes more neutrons to escape the core, and the nuclear chain reaction can no longer be sustained. The large mass of liquid metal also acts as a heatsink capable of absorbing the decay heat from the core, even if the normal cooling systems would fail.

text: In some designs the core of a

text: fast breeder reactor

text: is immersed into a

text: pool of liquid metal

text: . If the reactor overheats, thermal expansion of the metallic fuel and cladding causes more neutrons to escape the core, and the nuclear chain reaction can no longer be sustained. The large mass of liquid metal also acts as a heatsink capable of absorbing the decay heat from the core, even if the normal cooling systems would fail.

text: Simulations suggest that the inner part of the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris could host a terrestrial planet in a stable orbit, though the outer regions of the habitable zone would be disrupted by the gravitational influence of the planet 47 UMa b. However, the presence of a giant planet within 2.5 AU of the star may have disrupted planet formation in the inner system, and reduced the amount of water delivered to inner planets during accretion. This may mean any terrestrial planets orbiting in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry. , there have been two METI messages sent to 47 Ursae Majoris. Both were transmitted from Eurasia's largest radar — 70-meter (230-foot) Eupatoria Planetary Radar. The first message, the Teen Age Message, was sent on September 3, 2001, and it will arrive at 47 Ursae Majoris in July 2047. The second message, Cosmic Call 2, was sent on July 6, 2003, and it will arrive at 47 Ursae Majoris in May 2049.

text: Simulations suggest that the inner part of the

text: habitable zone

text: of 47 Ursae Majoris could host a terrestrial planet in a stable orbit, though the outer regions of the habitable zone would be disrupted by the gravitational influence of the planet 47 UMa b. However, the presence of a giant planet within 2.5

text: AU

text: of the star may have disrupted planet formation in the inner system, and reduced the amount of water delivered to inner planets during

text: accretion

text: . This may mean any

text: terrestrial planet

text: s orbiting in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry. , there have been two

text: METI

text: messages sent to 47 Ursae Majoris. Both were transmitted from

text: Eurasia

text: 's largest

text: radar

text: — 70-meter (230-foot)

text: Eupatoria

text: Planetary Radar. The first message, the

text: Teen Age Message

text: , was sent on September 3, 2001, and it will arrive at 47 Ursae Majoris in July 2047. The second message,

text: Cosmic Call 2

text: , was sent on July 6, 2003, and it will arrive at 47 Ursae Majoris in May 2049.

text: The volcano consists of two, roughly concentric components: 1) an oval-shaped central body with approximate dimensions of  by  across surrounded by 2) a vast, nearly level apron of lava flows that extends an additional  or so outward. The central body is the main topographic edifice of the volcano, marked by pronounced break in slope at the inner boundary of the apron. Extending east and west from the central edifice are two broad fan-shaped lobes (or shoulders), which give the volcano its elongation in the east-west direction. The central edifice has the steepest slopes on the volcano, although they are still only 1°. The crest and upper flanks of the edifice are cut by a partial ring of graben that are part of the Alba and Tantalus Fossae fracture system. Inside the ring of graben is an annulus of very low and in places reversed slopes that forms a plateau on top of which lies a central dome  across capped by a nested caldera complex. Thus, the central edifice of Alba Mons resembles a partially collapsed shield volcano with a smaller, summit dome sitting on top (pictured right). The summit dome has a distinct tilt to the east.

text: The volcano consists of two, roughly concentric components: 1) an oval-shaped central body with approximate dimensions of  by  across surrounded by 2) a vast, nearly level apron of lava flows that extends an additional  or so outward. The central body is the main topographic edifice of the volcano, marked by pronounced break in slope at the inner boundary of the apron. Extending east and west from the central edifice are two broad fan-shaped lobes (or shoulders), which give the volcano its elongation in the east-west direction. The central edifice has the steepest slopes on the volcano, although they are still only 1°. The crest and upper flanks of the edifice are cut by a partial ring of

text: graben

text: that are part of the Alba and

text: Tantalus Fossae

text: fracture system. Inside the ring of graben is an

text: annulus

text: of very low and in places reversed slopes that forms a plateau on top of which lies a central dome  across capped by a nested

text: caldera

text: complex. Thus, the central edifice of Alba Mons resembles a partially collapsed

text: shield volcano

text: with a smaller, summit dome sitting on top (pictured right). The summit dome has a distinct tilt to the east.

text: Wyeomyia smithii is a model organism for the study of photoperiodism, the biotic process of controlling seasonal life history events by measuring day length as a reliable predictor of the seasons. W. smithii enters a state of developmental arrest, larval diapause, that is initiated and maintained by short day lengths and averted or terminated by long day lengths. Because of global warming and shortening of winters, W. smithii has been observed now to require shorter days in order to go dormant. This led to thinking that a microevolutionary selection is happening: mosquitoes that waited more to go dormant and which had a greater fitness have been more selected.

text: Wyeomyia smithii is a model organism for the study of

text: photoperiodism

text: , the biotic process of controlling seasonal

text: life history

text: events by measuring day length as a reliable predictor of the seasons. W. smithii enters a state of developmental arrest, larval

text: diapause

text: , that is initiated and maintained by short day lengths and averted or terminated by long day lengths. Because of

text: global warming

text: and shortening of winters, W. smithii has been observed now to require shorter days in order to go dormant. This led to thinking that a

text: microevolutionary selection

text: is happening: mosquitoes that waited more to go dormant and which had a greater

text: fitness

text: have been more selected.

text: The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m. Because the average density of surface material is only around 3,000 kg/m, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a "solid" inner core with a radius of ~1,220 km and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ~3,400 km. The densities are between 9,900 and 12,200 kg/m in the outer core and 12,600–13,000 kg/m in the inner core.

text: The average density of Earth is 5,515

text: kg/m

text: . Because the average density of surface material is only around 3,000 kg/m, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a "solid"

text: inner core

text: with a

text: radius

text: of ~1,220 km and a liquid

text: outer core

text: extending beyond it to a radius of ~3,400 km. The densities are between 9,900 and 12,200 kg/m in the outer core and 12,600–13,000 kg/m in the inner core.

text: Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune. It was discovered on October 10, 1846, by English astronomer William Lassell. It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit, an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet's rotation. At  in diameter, it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto's, Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt. Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen, a mostly water-ice crust, an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm and is composed of approximately 15–35% water ice.

text: Triton is the largest

text: natural satellite

text: of the

text: planet

text: Neptune

text: . It was discovered on October 10, 1846, by English astronomer

text: William Lassell

text: . It is the only large moon in the

text: Solar System

text: with a

text: retrograde orbit

text: , an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet's rotation. At  in diameter, it is the

text: seventh-largest moon

text: in the Solar System. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to

text: Pluto

text: 's, Triton is thought to have been a

text: dwarf planet

text: captured from the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . Triton has a surface of mostly

text: frozen nitrogen

text: , a mostly

text: water-ice

text: crust, an icy

text: mantle

text: and a substantial

text: core

text: of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm and is composed of approximately 15–35% water ice.

text: Extreme temperatures among inhabited regions have ranged from  in Dras, Jammu and Kashmir to 50.6 °C (123 °F) in Alwar, Rajasthan. Dras is claimed to be the second-coldest inhabited place on the planet (after Siberia), with a recorded low of -60 °C.

text: Extreme temperatures among inhabited regions have ranged from  in

text: Dras

text: , Jammu and Kashmir to 50.6 °C (123 °F) in

text: Alwar

text: , Rajasthan.

text: Dras

text: is claimed to be the second-coldest inhabited place on the planet (after

text: Siberia

text: ), with a recorded low of -60 °C.

text: Metal Gear Solid sees Solid Snake pulled out of retirement by Colonel Roy Campbell in a mission to deal with the "Sons of Big Boss" under Liquid Snake's leadership and seized an isolated American nuclear weapons disposal facility on Shadow Moses Island to retrieve two hostages (Donald Anderson and Kenneth Baker). Despite both Anderson's and Baker's deaths, Snake infiltrates and learns about Metal Gear REX after meeting up with rookie soldier Meryl Silverburgh and REX's engineer Hal Emmerich, and having confrontations with the Cyborg Ninja. As the games progresses, Snake confronts and defeats each member of the corrupt fraction of FOXHOUND (consisting of Revolver Ocelot, Decoy Octopus, Psycho Mantis, Sniper Wolf, Vulcan Raven, and the Genome Soldiers), is able to destroy REX, and personally confronts Liquid. During their fight, it is revealed that Solid and Liquid are twin brothers artificially conceived from Big Boss's genes during the "Les Enfants Terribles" government project designed to create the perfect soldier, in which one brother was genetically modified to be superior over the other. Liquid harbors a strong resentment towards Snake since Solid was given their father's dominant "soldier genes" and Liquid was cast aside. After a grueling series of battles, Liquid dies from the Fox-Die virus that was previously implanted into Snake by Naomi Hunter in order to wipe out FOXHOUND and the Genome soldiers without risking any damage to REX and the Genome soldiers for retrieval. In the end, it is revealed that Liquid got Big Boss's superior "soldier genes" while Solid was actually the inferior one. The game's ending also reveals his real name .

text: Metal Gear Solid

text: sees Solid Snake pulled out of retirement by Colonel

text: Roy Campbell

text: in a mission to deal with the "

text: Sons of Big Boss

text: " under

text: Liquid Snake

text: 's leadership and seized an isolated American nuclear weapons disposal facility on Shadow Moses Island to retrieve two hostages (

text: Donald Anderson

text: and

text: Kenneth Baker

text: ). Despite both Anderson's and Baker's deaths, Snake infiltrates and learns about

text: Metal Gear REX

text: after meeting up with rookie soldier

text: Meryl Silverburgh

text: and REX's engineer

text: Hal Emmerich

text: , and having confrontations with the Cyborg Ninja. As the games progresses, Snake confronts and defeats each member of the corrupt fraction of FOXHOUND (consisting of

text: Revolver Ocelot

text: Decoy Octopus

text: Psycho Mantis

text: Sniper Wolf

text: Vulcan Raven

text: , and the Genome Soldiers), is able to destroy REX, and personally confronts Liquid. During their fight, it is revealed that Solid and Liquid are twin brothers artificially conceived from Big Boss's genes during the "Les Enfants Terribles" government project designed to create the perfect soldier, in which one brother was genetically modified to be superior over the other. Liquid harbors a strong resentment towards Snake since Solid was given their father's dominant "soldier genes" and Liquid was cast aside. After a grueling series of battles, Liquid dies from the Fox-Die virus that was previously implanted into Snake by

text: Naomi Hunter

text: in order to wipe out FOXHOUND and the Genome soldiers without risking any damage to REX and the Genome soldiers for retrieval. In the end, it is revealed that Liquid got Big Boss's superior "soldier genes" while Solid was actually the inferior one. The game's ending also reveals his real name .

text: Attila Grandpierre describes the incision of an axe socket found in the plains of Campagna, near Rome, that was made around 1000 BC.

text: Attila Grandpierre

text: describes the incision of an axe socket found in the plains of

text: Campagna

text: , near

text: Rome

text: , that was made around 1000 BC.

text: In that capacity, he was an early eyewitness to the horrors of the Holocaust, and his research and subsequent report alerted many organizations in the United States to the forgotten people of World War II – the displaced Jews. Upon completion of his report, Fleishman made a 60-city U.S. lecture tour, discussing these refugees’ relief and rehabilitation needs. The trip influenced his life as he became deeply involved in various Jewish causes and with minority affairs. A longtime member of the Assembly of the Jewish Agency in Israel, Fleishman made 57 visits to Israel between 1955 and 1997, becoming a personal friend of many of the founders and leaders of the state.

text: In that capacity, he was an early eyewitness to the horrors of the

text: Holocaust

text: , and his research and subsequent report alerted many organizations in the United States to the forgotten people of World War II – the displaced

text: Jews

text: . Upon completion of his report, Fleishman made a 60-city U.S. lecture tour, discussing these refugees’ relief and rehabilitation needs. The trip influenced his life as he became deeply involved in various Jewish causes and with minority affairs. A longtime member of the Assembly of the Jewish Agency in Israel, Fleishman made 57 visits to Israel between 1955 and 1997, becoming a personal friend of many of the founders and leaders of the state.

text: Access into the region at first was difficult, which discouraged settlement. The first effort to develop routes into the area was in 1862 when a supply train with cattle crossed the Scott Trail. This was also the first group of non-natives to spend the winter in central Oregon. The discovery and development of the Santiam Pass in the 1860s improved access into the area.

text: Access into the region at first was difficult, which discouraged settlement. The first effort to develop routes into the area was in 1862 when a supply train with cattle crossed the

text: Scott Trail

text: . This was also the first group of non-natives to spend the winter in central Oregon. The discovery and development of the

text: Santiam Pass

text: in the 1860s improved access into the area.

text: Paleomagnetism is used to create tectonic plate reconstructions by finding the paleolatitude of a particular site. This paleolatitude is affected both by true polar wander and by plate tectonics.  To reconstruct plate tectonic histories, geologists must obtain a number of dated paleomagnetic samples. Because true polar wander is a global phenomenon but tectonic motions are specific to each plate, multiple dates allow them to separate the tectonic and true polar wander signals.

text: Paleomagnetism

text: is used to create tectonic

text: plate reconstruction

text: s by finding the paleolatitude of a particular site. This paleolatitude is affected both by true polar wander and by

text: plate tectonics

text: .  To reconstruct plate tectonic histories, geologists must obtain a number of dated paleomagnetic samples. Because true polar wander is a global phenomenon but tectonic motions are specific to each plate, multiple dates allow them to separate the tectonic and true polar wander signals.

text: John Alfred "Johnny" Morrison (26 March 1911 – 1984) was a professional footballer who played for Bostall Heath, Callender's Athletic, Tottenham Hotspur and Northfleet United.

text: John Alfred "Johnny" Morrison (26 March 1911 – 1984) was a professional footballer who played for

text: Bostall Heath

text: Callender's Athletic

text: Tottenham Hotspur

text: and

text: Northfleet United

text: Image morphing is a technique to synthesize a fluid transformation from one image (source image) to another (destination image). Source image can be one or more than one images. There are two parts in the image morphing implementation. The first part is warping and the second part is cross-dissolving.

text: Image morphing

text: is a technique to synthesize a fluid transformation from one image (source image) to another (destination image). Source image can be one or more than one images. There are two parts in the image morphing implementation. The first part is warping and the second part is cross-dissolving.

text: During the Ghent uprising of 1382, Wervik was an outpost of the army of Philip van Artevelde during the Battle of Westrozebeke. The rebellion failed, and the city was plundered by the Bretons and reduced to ashes. The Saint Medardus church had to be rebuilt completely. Wervik had not yet fully recovered when a major fire in 1400 destroyed the whole town again. Of the 820 dwellings there only 20 remained. Jan Zonder Vrees gave Wervik a market hall in 1401, as an incentive for recovery and revival. In 1436 part of the garrison of Calais invaded Wervik and again burnt the town to ashes, in 1440 the town was burnt again. The many successive fires were mainly because most houses were built of wood and straw, and that the town had no protection against attacks as it was never walled. After the succession of fires the town was attacked by the plague. In the years 1436 and 1468 the population was decimated by the epidemic.

text: During the Ghent uprising of 1382, Wervik was an outpost of the army of

text: Philip van Artevelde

text: during the

text: Battle of Westrozebeke

text: . The rebellion failed, and the city was plundered by the

text: Bretons

text: and reduced to ashes. The Saint Medardus church had to be rebuilt completely. Wervik had not yet fully recovered when a major fire in 1400 destroyed the whole town again. Of the 820 dwellings there only 20 remained.

text: Jan Zonder Vrees

text: gave Wervik a market hall in 1401, as an incentive for recovery and revival. In 1436 part of the garrison of Calais invaded Wervik and again burnt the town to ashes, in 1440 the town was burnt again. The many successive fires were mainly because most houses were built of wood and straw, and that the town had no protection against attacks as it was never walled. After the succession of fires the town was attacked by the plague. In the years 1436 and 1468 the population was decimated by the epidemic.

text: Krewinkel is the easternmost place in Belgium.

text: Sancho carried out a theoretical analysis of Popper's experiment, using the path-integral approach, and found a similar kind of narrowing in the momentum spread of particle 2, as was observed by Kim and Shih. Although this calculation did not give them any deep insight, it indicated that the experimental result of Kim-Shih agreed with quantum mechanics. It did not say anything about what bearing it has on the Copenhagen interpretation, if any.

text: Sancho carried out a theoretical analysis of Popper's experiment, using the

text: path-integral approach

text: , and found a similar kind of narrowing in the momentum spread of particle 2, as was observed by Kim and Shih. Although this calculation did not give them any deep insight, it indicated that the experimental result of Kim-Shih agreed with quantum mechanics. It did not say anything about what bearing it has on the Copenhagen interpretation, if any.

text: Mali lies in the torrid zone and is among the hottest countries in the world. The thermal equator, which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country. Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent. Late June to early December is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta. The vast northern desert part of Mali has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification (BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification (BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The little southern band possesses a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen climate classification (Aw) very high temperatures year-round with a dry season and a rainy season.

text: Mali lies in the

text: torrid zone

text: and is among the hottest countries in the world. The

text: thermal equator

text: , which matches the hottest spots year-round on the planet based on the mean daily annual temperature, crosses the country. Most of Mali receives negligible rainfall and droughts are very frequent. Late June to early December is the rainy season in the southernmost area. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the

text: Inner Niger Delta

text: hot desert climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: (BWh) with long, extremely hot summers and scarce rainfall which decreases northwards. The central area has a

text: hot semi-arid climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: (BSh) with very high temperatures year-round, a long, intense dry season and a brief, irregular rainy season. The little southern band possesses a

text: tropical wet and dry climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: (Aw) very high temperatures year-round with a dry season and a rainy season.

text: All species of sturgeon leap out of the water at times.  The Gulf sturgeon tends to jump during July and August, and again early during the offshore feeding period.  They are thought to jump to communicate and maintain group cohesion.<ref | name=Solved /> Due to their heavy body armor, large leaping sturgeon can inflict serious injuries to humans who are in the way. On July 2, 2015, a leaping sturgeon on the Suwannee River in Florida struck and killed a 5-year-old girl.

text: Stormsewer fees vary. In 2014, the county charged $36 annually per household. Cities and towns charged from $36 to $77.52 per household annually.

text: Both libraries are free software released under the 3-clause BSD license.

text: Both libraries are

text: free software

text: released under the 3-clause

text: BSD license

text: Opossums are usually solitary and nomadic, staying in one area as long as food and water are easily available. Some families will group together in ready-made burrows or even under houses. Though they will temporarily occupy abandoned burrows, they do not dig or put much effort into building their own. As nocturnal animals, they favor dark, secure areas. These areas may be below ground or above.

text: Arsia Mons is the southernmost of three volcanos (collectively known as Tharsis Montes) on the Tharsis bulge near the equator of the planet Mars. To its north is Pavonis Mons, and north of that is Ascraeus Mons. The tallest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons, is to its northwest. Its name comes from a corresponding albedo feature on a map by Giovanni Schiaparelli, which he named in turn after the legendary Roman forest of Arsia Silva.

text: Arsia Mons is the southernmost of three

text: volcano

text: s (collectively known as

text: Tharsis Montes

text: ) on the

text: Tharsis

text: bulge near the

text: equator

text: of the

text: planet

text: Mars

text: . To its north is

text: Pavonis Mons

text: , and north of that is

text: Ascraeus Mons

text: . The tallest volcano in the

text: solar system

text: Olympus Mons

text: , is to its northwest. Its name comes from a corresponding

text: albedo feature

text: on a map by

text: Giovanni Schiaparelli

text: , which he named in turn after the legendary Roman forest of

text: Arsia Silva

text: The SPA Dovunque 35 prottetto (intalian for anywhere ad protected) is a wheeled armored troop carrier, produced in Italy and employed by the Black Brigades of the Italian Social Republic during World War II.

text: The SPA Dovunque 35 prottetto (intalian for anywhere ad protected) is a wheeled

text: armored troop carrier

text: , produced in Italy and employed by the

text: Black Brigades

text: of the

text: Italian Social Republic

text: during

text: World War II

text: Janopol may refer to the following places:

text: The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud. The vast majority of the system's mass is in the Sun, with most of the remaining mass contained in Jupiter. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, are terrestrial planets, being primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets are giant planets, being substantially more massive than the terrestrials. The two largest, Jupiter and Saturn, are gas giants, being composed mainly of hydrogen and helium; the two outermost planets, Uranus and Neptune, are ice giants, being composed mostly of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium, called volatiles, such as water, ammonia and methane. All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic.

text: The Solar System

text: formed 4.6 billion years ago

text: from the

text: gravitational collapse

text: of a giant interstellar

text: molecular cloud

text: . The vast majority of the system's

text: mass

text: is in the Sun, with most of the remaining mass contained in

text: Jupiter

text: . The four smaller inner planets,

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: and

text: Mars

text: , are

text: terrestrial planet

text: s, being primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets are

text: giant planet

text: s, being substantially more massive than the terrestrials. The two largest, Jupiter and

text: Saturn

text: , are

text: gas giant

text: s, being composed mainly of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: ; the two outermost planets,

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: , are

text: ice giant

text: s, being composed mostly of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium, called

text: volatiles

text: , such as water,

text: ammonia

text: and

text: methane

text: . All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the

text: ecliptic

text: The first task in the lost wax hollow casting process consists of developing a clay core which is roughly the shape of the final cast image. Next, the clay core is covered by a layer of wax composed of pure beeswax, resin from the tree Damara orientalis, and nut oil. The wax is then shaped and carved in all its finer details of design and decorations. It is then covered with layers of clay, which takes the negative form of the wax on the inside, thus becoming a mould for the metal that will be poured inside it. Drain ducts are left for the wax, which melts away when the clay is cooked. The wax is then replaced by the molten metal, often using brass scrap as basic raw material. The liquid metal poured in hardens between the core and the inner surface of the mould. The metal fills the mould and takes the same shape as the wax. The outer layer of clay is then chipped off and the metal icon is polished and finished as desired.

text: The first task in the lost wax hollow casting process consists of developing a clay core which is roughly the shape of the final cast image. Next, the clay core is covered by a layer of wax composed of pure

text: beeswax

text: resin

text: from the tree Damara orientalis, and

text: nut oil

text: . The wax is then shaped and carved in all its finer details of design and decorations. It is then covered with layers of clay, which takes the negative form of the wax on the inside, thus becoming a mould for the metal that will be poured inside it. Drain ducts are left for the wax, which melts away when the clay is cooked. The wax is then replaced by the molten metal, often using brass scrap as basic raw material. The liquid metal poured in hardens between the core and the inner surface of the mould. The metal fills the mould and takes the same shape as the wax. The outer layer of clay is then chipped off and the metal icon is polished and finished as desired.

text: On 2 March 2013, Sea Shepherd claimed victory and reported that the Japanese whaling fleet had departed the Southern Ocean. However, on 5 March 2013, Sea Shepherd reported the Japanese whaling fleet had turned back to the Southern Ocean to resume its whale hunt and stated that its own vessels had turned around to pursue the fleet. On 10 March 2013, Sea Shepherd announced it was ending the campaign and returning to port as adverse weather conditions were preventing any further whaling.  Sea Shepherd has stated that this campaign was its most successful Antarctic campaign to date in terms of the number of whales saved. The Sea Shepherd Society places the number of whales it saved during Zero Tolerance as 932.

text: The Montreal Holocaust Memorial Centre (MHMC) is a museum in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, dedicated to Holocaust education and awareness. It was founded in 1979 by a group of Holocaust survivors and facilitated by the philanthropy of Steven Cummings. The Centre's mandate is to educate people of all ages and backgrounds about the genocidal murder of six million Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators between 1933-1945.

text: The Montreal Holocaust Memorial Centre (MHMC) is a museum in

text: Montreal

text: Quebec

text: Canada

text: , dedicated to

text: Holocaust

text: education and awareness. It was founded in 1979 by a group of

text: Holocaust survivor

text: s and facilitated by the philanthropy of Steven Cummings. The Centre's mandate is to educate people of all ages and backgrounds about the genocidal murder of six million

text: Jew

text: s by

text: Nazi Germany

text: and its collaborators between 1933-1945.

text: Veterinary Immunology studies all aspects of immune system in animals. It is a branch under biomedical science and related to zoology and veterinary sciences. It investigates the physiological functions of the animal immune system. Interests include malfunctions and disorders, but also health, of the immune system in animals. It is interested in how the immune system works, how vaccines prevent disease and why vaccines sometimes do not work and cause adverse reactions.

text: Veterinary Immunology studies all aspects of

text: immune system

text: in animals. It is a branch under

text: biomedical science

text: and related to

text: zoology

text: and

text: veterinary science

text: s. It investigates the physiological functions of the animal immune system. Interests include malfunctions and disorders, but also health, of the immune system in animals. It is interested in how the immune system works, how vaccines prevent disease and why vaccines sometimes do not work and cause adverse reactions.

text: Immediately after arriving in Budapest, Milanković met the Director of the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Science, Koloman von Szilly who, as a mathematician, eagerly accepted Milanković and enabled him to work undisturbed in the Academy's library and the Central Meteorological Institute. Milanković spent four years in Budapest, almost the entire war. He used mathematical methods to study the current climate of inner planets of the solar system. In 1916 he published a paper entitled "Investigation of the climate of the planet Mars". Milanković calculated that the average temperature in the lower layers the atmosphere on Mars is  and the average surface temperature is . Also, he concluded that: "This large temperature difference between the ground and lower layers of the atmosphere is not unexpected. Great transparency for solar radiation makes that is the climate of Mars very similar to altitudes climate of our Earth." Today it is known that the average temperature is , but that the ground temperatures and air temperatures generally differ. In any case, Milanković theoretically proved that Mars has an extremely harsh climate. In addition to considering Mars, he dealt with the climatic conditions prevailing on Venus and Mercury. His calculations of the temperature conditions on the neighboring Moon are particularly significant. Milanković knew that one day on the Moon lasts 15 Earth days, and this is the amount and length of night. Milanković calculated that the surface temperature on the day side of the moon reaches +100.5 °C. Also, he calculated that the temperature during the early morning on the Moon, or before the rise of the Sun over horizon, was -58 °C. Today it is known that the surface temperature on the day side of the Moon reaches +108 °C and that it falls at night to -153 °C.

text: Immediately after arriving in Budapest, Milanković met the Director of the Library of the

text: Hungarian Academy of Science

text: Koloman von Szilly

text: who, as a mathematician, eagerly accepted Milanković and enabled him to work undisturbed in the Academy's library and the Central Meteorological Institute. Milanković spent four years in Budapest, almost the entire war. He used mathematical methods to study the current climate of inner planets of the solar system. In 1916 he published a paper entitled "Investigation of the climate of the planet Mars". Milanković calculated that the average temperature in the lower layers the atmosphere on

text: Mars

text: is  and the average surface temperature is . Also, he concluded that: "This large temperature difference between the ground and lower layers of the atmosphere is not unexpected. Great transparency for solar radiation makes that is the climate of Mars very similar to altitudes climate of our Earth." Today it is known that the average temperature is , but that the ground temperatures and air temperatures generally differ. In any case, Milanković theoretically proved that Mars has an extremely harsh climate. In addition to considering Mars, he dealt with the climatic conditions prevailing on

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mercury

text: . His calculations of the temperature conditions on the neighboring

text: Moon

text: are particularly significant. Milanković knew that

text: one day on the Moon

text: lasts 15 Earth days, and this is the amount and length of night. Milanković calculated that the surface temperature on the day side of the moon reaches +100.5 °C. Also, he calculated that the temperature during the early morning on the Moon, or before the rise of the Sun over horizon, was -58 °C. Today it is known that the surface temperature on the day side of the Moon reaches +108 °C and that it falls at night to -153 °C.

text: The most extreme cold of the year relative to the normals came in December. Although January 2010 had been slightly colder than what was recorded in the south of the country, December is normally a month that is above freezing during daytime in southern Sweden due to its seasonal lag that a maritime climate brings. Although the month started out quite mild, temperatures plummeted to extreme cold as winter solstice and Christmas neared. Most of the month was solidly below freezing in the entire country, with a few bursts of mild air affecting the deep south. The cold just before Christmas was unprecedented this time of the year in many southern locations. Kalmar saw a record cold  value, Kristianstad another record  value, with Örebro nearly beating its December all-time record cold with , the coldest value for 124 years. During Christmas, the most extreme cold had swept north, with several coastal cities of Norrland recording temperatures around . This, albeit highly unusual, did not break any December records. Temperatures throughout the months in the northern parts of the country were quite far below normals, resulting in the cold wave being felt in the entire country. In the south, the New Year's Eve brought milder air, bringing temperatures just above freezing for that night. This marked the end of the cold wave in the south, with January 2011 being a normal winter month. The cold returned to normal levels further north as well, although winter temperatures there are more extreme than a cold wave in the south regardless. The coldest temperature of the month and year was recorded in Nikkaluokta on December 20, with .

text: The most extreme cold of the year relative to the normals came in December. Although January 2010 had been slightly colder than what was recorded in the south of the country, December is normally a month that is above freezing during daytime in southern Sweden due to its

text: seasonal lag

text: that a maritime climate brings. Although the month started out quite mild, temperatures plummeted to extreme cold as

text: winter solstice

text: and Christmas neared. Most of the month was solidly below freezing in the entire country, with a few bursts of mild air affecting the deep south. The cold just before Christmas was unprecedented this time of the year in many southern locations.

text: Kalmar

text: saw a record cold  value,

text: Kristianstad

text: another record  value, with

text: Örebro

text: nearly beating its December all-time record cold with , the coldest value for 124 years. During Christmas, the most extreme cold had swept north, with several coastal cities of Norrland recording temperatures around . This, albeit highly unusual, did not break any December records. Temperatures throughout the months in the northern parts of the country were quite far below normals, resulting in the cold wave being felt in the entire country. In the south, the New Year's Eve brought milder air, bringing temperatures just above freezing for that night. This marked the end of the cold wave in the south, with January 2011 being a normal winter month. The cold returned to normal levels further north as well, although winter temperatures there are more extreme than a cold wave in the south regardless. The coldest temperature of the month and year was recorded in

text: Nikkaluokta

text: on December 20, with .

text: Born in La Unión, Zacapa, Cordón was named after former England international footballer Kevin Keegan, of whom his father was a fan. In spite of badminton not being popular in Guatemala during his childhood, he became a badminton player as he thought it would give him a better chance of one day becoming an Olympian than if he played a different sport, being the first member of his family to practice the sport. He began playing at the age of 11 and by 1998 he was a part of the Zacapa Department's youth team.

text: Born in

text: La Unión

text: Zacapa

text: , Cordón was named after former England international

text: footballer

text: Kevin Keegan

text: , of whom his father was a fan. In spite of badminton not being popular in Guatemala during his childhood, he became a badminton player as he thought it would give him a better chance of one day becoming an

text: Olympian

text: than if he played a different sport, being the first member of his family to practice the sport. He began playing at the age of 11 and by 1998 he was a part of the Zacapa Department's youth team.

text: In Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he demonstrated that the gravitational force between two mass points is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the points, and he fully solved the corresponding "two-body problem" demonstrating that the radius vector between the two points would describe an ellipse. But no exact closed analytical form could be found for the three body problem.  Instead, mathematical models called "orbital perturbation analysis" have been developed. With these techniques a quite accurate mathematical description of the trajectories of all the planets could be obtained.  Newton recognized that the Moon's perturbations could not entirely be accounted for using just the solution to the three body problem, as the deviations from a pure Kepler orbit around the Earth are much larger than deviations of the orbits of the planets from their own Sun-centered Kepler orbits, caused by the gravitational attraction between the planets. With the availability of digital computers and the ease with which we can now compute orbits, this problem has partly disappeared, as the motion of all celestial bodies including planets, satellites, asteroids and comets can be modeled and predicted with almost perfect accuracy using the method of the numerical propagation of the trajectories. Nevertheless several analytical closed form expressions for the effect of such additional "perturbing forces" are still very useful.

text: In Newton's

text: , he demonstrated that the gravitational force between two mass points is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the points, and he fully solved the corresponding

text: "two-body problem"

text: demonstrating that the radius vector between the two points would describe an ellipse. But no exact closed analytical form could be found for the

text: three body problem

text: .  Instead, mathematical models called "orbital perturbation analysis" have been developed. With these techniques a quite accurate mathematical description of the trajectories of all the planets could be obtained.  Newton recognized that the Moon's perturbations could not entirely be accounted for using just the solution to the three body problem, as the deviations from a pure Kepler orbit around the Earth are much larger than deviations of the orbits of the planets from their own Sun-centered Kepler orbits, caused by the gravitational attraction between the planets. With the availability of digital computers and the ease with which we can now compute orbits, this problem has partly disappeared, as the motion of all celestial bodies including planets, satellites, asteroids and comets can be modeled and predicted with almost perfect accuracy using the method of the numerical propagation of the trajectories. Nevertheless several analytical closed form expressions for the effect of such additional "perturbing forces" are still very useful.

text: Roughly 39,000 Indonesians in Saudi Arabia registered to vote in Indonesia's 2004 presidential election through one of the 27 polling stations set up for them in the kingdom; they represented nearly half of all Indonesian in the Middle East who registered to vote.

text: Roughly 39,000 Indonesians in Saudi Arabia registered to vote in

text: Indonesia's 2004 presidential election

text: through one of the 27 polling stations set up for them in the kingdom; they represented nearly half of all Indonesian in the

text: Middle East

text: who registered to vote.

text: The satellite observes perpendicular to its orbital plane, meaning there will be no Earth occultations, allowing up to 150 days of continuous observation. These observation sessions, called "Long Runs", allow detection of smaller and long-period planets. During the remaining 30 days between the two main observation periods, CoRoT observes other patches of sky for a few weeks long "Short Runs", in order to analyze a larger number of stars for the asteroseismic program. After the loss of half the field of view due to failure of Data Processing Unit No. 1 in March 2009, the observation strategy changed to 3 months observing runs, in order to optimize the number of observed stars and detection efficiency.

text: The satellite observes perpendicular to its orbital plane, meaning there will be no Earth

text: occultation

text: s, allowing up to 150 days of continuous observation. These observation sessions, called "Long Runs", allow detection of smaller and long-period planets. During the remaining 30 days between the two main observation periods, CoRoT observes other patches of sky for a few weeks long "Short Runs", in order to analyze a larger number of stars for the asteroseismic program. After the loss of half the field of view due to

text: failure

text: of Data Processing Unit No. 1 in March 2009, the observation strategy changed to 3 months observing runs, in order to optimize the number of observed stars and detection efficiency.

text: WASP-3b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star WASP-3 located over 727 light-years away in the constellation Lyra. It was discovered via the transit method by SuperWASP, and follow up radial velocity observations confirmed that WASP-3b is a planet. The planet's mass and radius indicate that it is a gas giant with a similar bulk composition to Jupiter. WASP-3b has such an orbital distance around its star to classify it in the class of planets known as hot Jupiters and has an atmospheric temperature of approximately 1983 K.

text: WASP-3b is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: orbiting the

text: star

text: located over 727

text: light-years

text: away in the

text: constellation

text: Lyra

text: . It was discovered via the

text: transit method

text: by

text: SuperWASP

text: , and follow up radial velocity observations confirmed that WASP-3b is a planet. The planet's mass and radius indicate that it is a

text: gas giant

text: with a similar bulk composition to

text: Jupiter

text: . WASP-3b has such an orbital distance around its star to classify it in the class of planets known as

text: hot Jupiters

text: and has an atmospheric temperature of approximately 1983

text: K

text: It is related to the

text: orrery

text: Preferring exclusive contracts, less for financial reasons than to avoid the administrative aspects of his career and a professional milieu with which he couldn't identify, Sandorfi worked with the Beaubourg Gallery from 1974 to 1976, and then for seven years with the Isy Brachot Gallery. From 1984 to 1988 his work was exhibited in various galleries by an interesting patron and collector and then handled by the Prazan-Fitoussi Gallery from 1990 to 1993.

text: The periods of the most important migrations are contested. The Neolithic introduction of farming technologies from Europe is frequently proposed as a period of major population change in the British Isles, such technology could either have been learned by locals from a small number of immigrants or by colonists who significantly changed the population.

text: The periods of the most important migrations are contested. The

text: Neolithic

text: introduction of

text: farming

text: technologies from

text: Europe

text: is frequently proposed as a period of major population change in the British Isles, such technology could either have been learned by locals from a small number of

text: immigrants

text: or by

text: colonists

text: who significantly changed the population.

text: According to the WHO, each human being requires a bare minimum of 20 litres of fresh water per day for basic hygiene; this equals 7.3 cubic metres (about 255 ft) per person, per year.  Based on the availability, access and development of water supplies, the specific usage figures vary widely from country to country, with developed nations having existing systems to treat water for human consumption, and deliver it to every home. At the same time however, some nations across Latin America, parts of Asia, South East Asia, Africa and the Middle East either do not have sufficient water resources or have not developed these or the infrastructure to the levels required.  This occurs for many varied reasons. It has resulted in conflict and often results in a reduced level or quantity of fresh water per capita consumption; this situation leads toward disease, and at times, to starvation and death.

text: According to the

text: WHO

text: , each human being requires a bare minimum of 20

text: litre

text: s of fresh water per day for basic hygiene; this equals 7.3 cubic metres (about 255 ft) per person, per year.  Based on the availability, access and development of water supplies, the specific usage figures vary widely from country to country, with developed nations having existing systems to

text: treat

text: water for human consumption, and deliver it to every home. At the same time however, some nations across

text: Latin America

text: , parts of

text: Asia

text: South East Asia

text: Africa

text: and the

text: Middle East

text: either do not have sufficient water resources or have not developed these or the

text: infrastructure

text: to the levels required.  This occurs for many varied reasons. It has resulted in conflict and often results in a reduced level or quantity of fresh water per capita consumption; this situation leads toward

text: disease

text: , and at times, to

text: starvation

text: and death.

text: Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature. In the Köppen climate classification, Oceanic climates have a mean temperature of   or higher in the coldest month, compared to continental climates where the coldest month has a mean temperature of below . Summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below . Poleward of the latter is a zone of the aforementioned subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc), with long and cold (but not very cold) winters and cool and short summers (average temperatures of at least  for one to three months). Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile and Argentina in the Southern Hemisphere (examples include Ushuaia and Punta Arenas).

text: Overall

text: temperature

text: characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature. In the Köppen climate classification, Oceanic climates have a mean temperature of   or higher in the coldest month, compared to continental climates where the coldest month has a mean temperature of below . Summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below . Poleward of the latter is a zone of the aforementioned subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc), with long and cold (but not very cold) winters and cool and short summers (average temperatures of at least  for one to three months). Examples of this climate include parts of coastal

text: Iceland

text: in the

text: Northern Hemisphere

text: and extreme southern

text: Chile

text: and

text: Argentina

text: in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: (examples include

text: Ushuaia

text: and

text: Punta Arenas

text: 'It's All in the Planets released in September 2016. It is the story of Aniket, whose life revolves around two women, Trisha, his girlfriend  and Nidhi, who is thirty-four and who has quit her corporate job to follow her passion. Nidhi is engaged to Manoj, Mr.Perfect, except for one aspect. Aniket and Nidhi meet on a train a chance encounter and she agrees to become his relationship coach . It’s a decision that sets into motion a chain of events that willhave a profound impact on the lives of everyone involved. The book is available on Kindle.

text: 'It's All in the Planets released in September 2016. It is the story of Aniket, whose life revolves around two women, Trisha, his girlfriend  and Nidhi, who is thirty-four and who has quit her corporate job to follow her passion. Nidhi is engaged to Manoj, Mr.Perfect, except for one aspect. Aniket and Nidhi meet on a train a chance encounter and she agrees to become his relationship coach . It’s a decision that sets into motion a chain of events that willhave a profound impact on the lives of everyone involved. The book is available on

text: Kindle

text: Surface gravity, the force that holds down an atmosphere, differs significantly among the planets. For example, the large gravitational force of the giant planet Jupiter is able to retain light gases such as hydrogen and helium that escape from objects with lower gravity. Secondly, the distance from the Sun determines the energy available to heat atmospheric gas to the point where some fraction of its molecules' thermal motion exceed the planet's escape velocity, allowing those to escape a planet's gravitational grasp. Thus, the distant and cold Titan, Triton, and Pluto are able to retain their atmospheres despite their relatively low gravities. Rogue planets, theoretically, may also retain thick atmospheres.

text: Surface gravity

text: , the force that holds down an atmosphere, differs significantly among the planets. For example, the large gravitational force of the giant planet

text: Jupiter

text: is able to retain light gases such as

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: that escape from objects with lower gravity. Secondly, the distance from the Sun determines the energy available to heat atmospheric gas to the point where some fraction of its molecules'

text: thermal motion

text: exceed the planet's

text: escape velocity

text: , allowing those to escape a planet's gravitational grasp. Thus, the distant and cold

text: Titan

text: Triton

text: , and

text: Pluto

text: are able to retain their atmospheres despite their relatively low gravities.

text: Rogue planet

text: s, theoretically, may also retain thick atmospheres.

text: Mount Apo Natural Park, Panglao Island, and Taal Volcano Protected Landscape were removed from the Tentative List because their original features, as stated in the submissions, do not show their current features due to the massive disturbances in the park. Resubmitting the sites through revision of its features is a possible move to gain back their Tentative status.

text: Mount Apo

text: Natural Park,

text: Panglao Island

text: , and

text: Taal Volcano

text: Protected Landscape were removed from the Tentative List because their original features, as stated in the submissions, do not show their current features due to the massive disturbances in the park. Resubmitting the sites through revision of its features is a possible move to gain back their Tentative status.

text: Mussel Watch uses a combination of national oversight from NOAA with a network of regional and local groups to monitor coastal health throughout the United States. NOAA and it’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) has a staff of scientists throughout the United States and partners with other Federal, State, non-governmental organization, and private sector partners throughout the world to work together towards achieving the goals of the Mussel Watch Program. Contamination in one coastal region can lead to effects in areas thousands of miles away and having a nationwide monitoring program enables NOAA to track these effects.A performance based quality assurance process (QA) is used by the Mussel Watch Program to maintain data quality. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) assist analytic laboratories in exercises to ensure that data collected from all labs have comparable accuracy and precision. The QA process reduces intralaboratory and interlaboratory variation.

text: Mussel Watch uses a combination of national oversight from NOAA with a network of regional and local groups to monitor coastal health throughout the United States. NOAA and it’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) has a staff of scientists throughout the United States and partners with other Federal, State, non-governmental organization, and private sector partners throughout the world to work together towards achieving the goals of the Mussel Watch Program. Contamination in one coastal region can lead to effects in areas thousands of miles away and having a nationwide monitoring program enables NOAA to track these effects.A performance based

text: quality assurance

text: process (QA) is used by the Mussel Watch Program to maintain data quality. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: NIST

text: ) and the National Research Council of Canada (

text: NRC

text: ) assist analytic laboratories in exercises to ensure that data collected from all labs have comparable accuracy and precision. The QA process reduces intralaboratory and interlaboratory variation.

text: In 2005,

text: Jack Wisdom

text: 55 Cancri f

text: c

text: habitable zone

text: moons

text: .  Therefore the map

text: .  Therefore the map

text: we look at the map

text: we look at the map