text: Born Nathaniel Essex in Victorian London, Sinister became a biologist in 1859. He was a contemporary of Charles Darwin and became obsessed with Darwin's theories. However, Essex believed his peers were shackled by too many moral constraints and that their research should be beyond morality. Essex believed that humanity was undergoing increasing mutation, due to what he called “Essex Factors” in the human genome. He dreamed of bringing the perfection of the evolution of the human race to the masses. After the loss of his young son due to birth defects, he delved deeper into his work. Essex's theories were mocked, making him bitter, and his revealing of an unorthodox experiment resulted in his ousting from the Royal Society. Angry, Essex stated that if becoming a monster was what was required for his work to progress, then he would become a monster.

text: Born Nathaniel Essex in Victorian London, Sinister became a biologist in 1859. He was a contemporary of

entity_name: Charles Darwin

text: Charles Darwin

text: and became obsessed with Darwin's theories. However, Essex believed his peers were shackled by too many moral constraints and that their research should be beyond morality. Essex believed that humanity was undergoing increasing mutation, due to what he called “Essex Factors” in the human genome. He dreamed of bringing the perfection of the evolution of the human race to the masses. After the loss of his young son due to birth defects, he delved deeper into his work. Essex's theories were mocked, making him bitter, and his revealing of an unorthodox experiment resulted in his ousting from the Royal Society. Angry, Essex stated that if becoming a monster was what was required for his work to progress, then he would become a monster.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: In the summer of 1831 Henslow was offered a place as naturalist to sail aboard the survey ship HMS Beagle on a two-year voyage to survey South America, but his wife dissuaded him from accepting. Seeing a perfect opportunity for his protégé, Henslow wrote to the ship’s captain  Robert Fitzroy telling him that Darwin was the ideal man to join the expedition team. During the voyage, Darwin corresponded with Henslow, and collected plants with him in mind. In particular, when first arriving at the Galápagos Islands Darwin noted "I certainly recognize S America in Ornithology, would a botanist?", and went on to collect plant specimens carefully labelled by island and date. He also labelled the mockingbirds he caught, and initially thought these were varieties but while arranging these bird specimens on the last lap of the voyage he began wondering if they could be species, a possibility which would "undermine the stability of Species". Henslow's teaching continued to influence Darwin's work on evolution.

text: In the summer of 1831 Henslow was offered a place as naturalist to sail aboard the survey ship

entity_name: HMS Beagle

text: HMS Beagle

text: on a

entity_name: Second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: two-year voyage

text: to survey

entity_name: South America

text: South America

text: , but his wife dissuaded him from accepting. Seeing a perfect opportunity for his protégé, Henslow wrote to the ship’s captain

entity_name: Robert FitzRoy

text: Robert Fitzroy

text: telling him that Darwin was the ideal man to join the expedition team. During the voyage, Darwin corresponded with Henslow, and collected plants with him in mind. In particular, when first arriving at the

entity_name: Galápagos Islands

text: Galápagos Islands

text: Darwin noted "I certainly recognize S America in Ornithology, would a botanist?", and went on to collect plant specimens carefully labelled by island and date. He also labelled the

entity_name: Mockingbird

text: mockingbird

text: s he caught, and initially thought these were varieties but while arranging these bird specimens on the last lap of the voyage he began wondering if they could be species, a possibility which would "undermine the stability of Species". Henslow's teaching continued to influence Darwin's work on evolution.

text: On 29 December 1838, Charles Darwin took the let of the furnished property at 12 Upper Gower Street (later 110 Gower Street), and wrote to tell his fiancée Emma Wedgwood of his delight at being the "possessor of Macaw Cottage". As their daughter Etty later recalled, "He used to laugh over the ugliness of their house in Gower St, and the furniture in the drawing-room, which he said combined all the colours of the macaw in hideous discord", and Darwin had christened the house "Macaw Cottage" in "allusion to the gaudy colours of the walls and furniture." He moved in on 31 December, and with Emma moved in on the day of their marriage, 29 January 1839. The development of Darwin's theory of natural selection made progress in this house, and their children William Erasmus Darwin and Anne Darwin were born there. In 1842 the family moved to Down House in the countryside, and the Gower Street house became part of the warehouse system of Messrs Schoolbred. On 13 December 1904 a London County Council blue plaque was put up, to "Charles Darwin Naturalist".  The house suffered from bomb damage in 1941 during the Blitz, and was not repaired. In 1961 the site became part of the Biological Sciences building of University College London, with a new plaque. The long thin garden which backed on to Gower Mews North (later Malet Place) was incorporated into Foster Court car park in 1978.

text: On 29 December 1838,

text: Charles Darwin

text: took the let of the furnished property at 12 Upper Gower Street (later 110 Gower Street), and wrote to tell his fiancée

entity_name: Emma Darwin

text: Emma Wedgwood

text: of his delight at being the "possessor of Macaw Cottage". As their daughter

entity_name: Henrietta Litchfield

text: Etty

text: later recalled, "He used to laugh over the ugliness of their house in Gower St, and the furniture in the drawing-room, which he said combined all the colours of the macaw in hideous discord", and Darwin had christened the house "Macaw Cottage" in "allusion to the gaudy colours of the walls and furniture." He moved in on 31 December, and with Emma moved in on the day of their marriage, 29 January 1839. The

entity_name: Development of Darwin's theory

text: development of Darwin's theory

text: of

entity_name: Natural selection

text: natural selection

text: made progress in this house, and their children

entity_name: William Erasmus Darwin

text: William Erasmus Darwin

text: and

entity_name: Anne Darwin

text: Anne Darwin

text: were born there. In 1842 the family moved to

entity_name: Down House

text: Down House

text: in the countryside, and the Gower Street house became part of the warehouse system of

text: Messrs Schoolbred

text: . On 13 December 1904 a

entity_name: London County Council

text: London County Council

entity_name: Blue plaque

text: blue plaque

text: was put up, to "Charles Darwin Naturalist".  The house suffered from bomb damage in 1941 during

entity_name: The Blitz

text: the Blitz

text: , and was not repaired. In 1961 the site became part of the Biological Sciences building of

entity_name: University College London

text: University College London

text: , with a new plaque. The long thin garden which backed on to Gower Mews North (later Malet Place) was incorporated into Foster Court car park in 1978.

text: Members of  the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) say that Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is wrong, but they do not necessarily reject evolution altogether. The views of the founder of ISKCON, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, on Darwin and evolution are found in his book Life comes from life.

text: Members of  the

entity_name: International Society for Krishna Consciousness

text: International Society for Krishna Consciousness

text: (ISKCON) say that

text: Charles Darwin's

text: theory of evolution by

text: natural selection

text: is wrong, but they do not necessarily reject evolution altogether. The views of the founder of ISKCON,

entity_name: A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada

text: A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada

text: , on Darwin and evolution are found in his book Life comes from life.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: One of the first popular science books, the intent of The Botanic Garden is to pique readers' interest in science while educating them at the same time. By embracing Linnaeus's sexualized language, which anthropomorphizes plants, Darwin makes botany interesting and relevant to his readers, but his reliance on conventional images of women when describing plants and flowers reinforces traditional gender stereotypes.  Darwin emphasizes the connections between humanity and plants, arguing that they are all part of the same natural world and that sexual reproduction is at the heart of evolution (ideas that his grandson, Charles Darwin, would later turn into a full-fledged theory of evolution). This evolutionary theme continues in The Economy of Vegetation which contends that scientific progress is part of evolution and urges its readers to celebrate inventors and scientific discoveries in a language usually reserved for heroes or artistic geniuses.

text: One of the first popular science books, the intent of The Botanic Garden is to pique readers' interest in science while educating them at the same time. By embracing Linnaeus's sexualized language, which

text: anthropomorphizes

text: plants, Darwin makes

entity_name: Botany

text: botany

text: interesting and relevant to his readers, but his reliance on conventional images of women when describing plants and flowers reinforces traditional gender stereotypes.  Darwin emphasizes the connections between humanity and plants, arguing that they are all part of the same natural world and that sexual reproduction is at the heart of

entity_name: Evolution

text: evolution

text: (ideas that his grandson,

text: Charles Darwin

text: , would later turn into a full-fledged theory of evolution). This evolutionary theme continues in The Economy of Vegetation which contends that scientific progress is part of evolution and urges its readers to celebrate inventors and scientific discoveries in a language usually reserved for heroes or artistic geniuses.

text: After returning from the Beagle survey expedition in October 1836, Darwin was intensively occupied with further establishing his reputation as an innovative geologist, as well as finding suitable experts to describe his natural history collections and arranging for publication of their work as the multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. Near the outset of the voyage he had planned a book on geology, and during it extracts from his letters on geology had been privately published by his tutor John Stevens Henslow. Darwin now published papers on "proofs of recent elevation on the coast of Chili", "deposits containing extinct Mammalia" and "coral formations". He also rewrote his journal to incorporate observations from his notebooks as the book now called The Voyage of the Beagle, and began brainstorming in his notebooks about transmutation of species.

text: After returning from the

text: Beagle survey expedition

text: in October 1836, Darwin was intensively occupied with further establishing his reputation as an innovative geologist, as well as finding suitable experts to describe his

entity_name: Natural history

text: natural history

text: collections and arranging for publication of their work as the multi-volume

entity_name: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: . Near the outset of the voyage he had planned a book on geology, and during it extracts from his letters on geology had been privately published by his tutor

entity_name: John Stevens Henslow

text: John Stevens Henslow

text: . Darwin now published papers on "proofs of recent elevation on the coast of Chili", "deposits containing extinct Mammalia" and "coral formations". He also rewrote his journal to incorporate observations from his notebooks as the book now called

entity_name: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: , and began brainstorming in his notebooks about

entity_name: Transmutation of species

text: transmutation of species

text: Located about 2300 miles (3680 km) from the nearest continental shore, the Hawaiian Islands are the most isolated group of islands on the planet.  The plant and animal life of the Hawaiian archipelago is the result of early, very infrequent colonizations of arriving species and the slow evolution of those species—in isolation from the rest of the world's flora and fauna—over a period of at least 5 millions years. As a consequence, Hawai'i is home to a large number of endemic species.  The radiation of species described by Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands which was critical to the formulation of his Theory of Evolution is far exceeded in the more isolated Hawaiian Islands.

text: Located about 2300 miles (3680 km) from the nearest continental shore, the

entity_name: Hawaiian Islands

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: are the most isolated group of islands on the planet.  The plant and animal life of the Hawaiian archipelago is the result of early, very infrequent colonizations of arriving species and the slow evolution of those species—in isolation from the rest of the world's flora and fauna—over a period of at least 5 millions years. As a consequence, Hawai'i is home to a large number of

entity_name: Endemism

text: endemic

text: species.  The

entity_name: Adaptive radiation

text: radiation

text: of

entity_name: Species

text: species

text: described by

text: Charles Darwin

text: in the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: which was critical to the formulation of his

text: Theory of Evolution

text: is far exceeded in the more isolated Hawaiian Islands.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Upon receiving the 2008 Darwin Evolution/Revolution Award from the NIH, Pollock and his team marked the bicentennial of the birth  of Charles Darwin with a year-long celebration titled "Darwin 2009: A Pittsburgh Partnership".  The life and intellectual impact of Darwin was celebrated in Pittsburgh with  a citywide series of events for children, teachers, students, and the general public.  Unique aspects of Darwin’s accomplishments were highlighted using the distinct abilities and resources of six major cultural institutions throughout Pittsburgh. The key event was the Darwin Synthetic Interview, an interactive display created in partnership with the ETC that allows visitors to ask 199 questions to a virtual re-creation of Darwin. The exhibit is installed as a permanent installation at the Carnegie Science Center, and the software has been used as part of the science curriculum of Pittsburgh Public Schools.

text: Upon receiving the 2008 Darwin Evolution/Revolution Award from the NIH, Pollock and his team marked the bicentennial of the birth  of

text: Charles Darwin

text: with a year-long celebration titled "

entity_name: Darwin 2009: A Pittsburgh Partnership

text: Darwin 2009: A Pittsburgh Partnership

text: ".  The life and intellectual impact of Darwin was celebrated in Pittsburgh with  a citywide series of events for children, teachers, students, and the general public.  Unique aspects of Darwin’s accomplishments were highlighted using the distinct abilities and resources of six major cultural institutions throughout Pittsburgh. The key event was the

text: Darwin Synthetic Interview

text: , an interactive display created in partnership with the ETC that allows visitors to ask 199 questions to a virtual re-creation of Darwin. The exhibit is installed as a permanent installation at the Carnegie Science Center, and the software has been used as part of the science curriculum of

entity_name: Pittsburgh Public Schools

text: Pittsburgh Public Schools

text: Endemic to the Galápagos, the large cactus finch is found only on the islands of Española, Darwin, Wolf and Genovesa.  It is not found on any island where the common cactus finch occurs.

text: Endemic

text: to the Galápagos, the large cactus finch is found only on the islands of Española, Darwin, Wolf and Genovesa.  It is not found on any island where the

entity_name: Common cactus finch

text: common cactus finch

text: occurs.

text: On 29 April 1992 a new £10 note in Series E, with orange rather than brown as the dominant colour, was issued. The reverse featured Charles Dickens and a scene from the Pickwick Papers. This note was withdrawn from circulation on 31 July 2003. A second Series E note was issued on 7 November 2000 featuring Charles Darwin, HMS Beagle, a hummingbird, and flowers under a magnifying glass, illustrating the Origin of Species.  The hummingbird's inclusion has been criticised, since Darwin's ideas were spurred by finches and mockingbirds, not hummingbirds.

text: On 29 April 1992 a new £10 note in Series E, with orange rather than brown as the dominant colour, was issued. The reverse featured

entity_name: Charles Dickens

text: Charles Dickens

text: and a scene from the

entity_name: The Pickwick Papers

text: Pickwick Papers

text: . This note was withdrawn from circulation on 31 July 2003. A second Series E note was issued on 7 November 2000 featuring

text: Charles Darwin

text: HMS Beagle

text: , a hummingbird, and flowers under a magnifying glass, illustrating the

entity_name: On the Origin of Species

text: Origin of Species

text: .  The hummingbird's inclusion has been criticised, since Darwin's ideas were spurred by

entity_name: Darwin's finches

text: finches and mockingbirds

text: , not hummingbirds.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Toward the end of the nineteenth century, E. S. Talbot claimed in Medicine that aposthia among Jews was evidence for the now-discredited Lamarckian theory of evolution. In his work, "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication", Charles Darwin also  mentioned cases of "born circumcised" babies as "conclusive evidence" for the now-discredited blending inheritance.

text: Toward the end of the nineteenth century,

text: E. S. Talbot

text: claimed in

entity_name: Medicine (disambiguation)

entity_section: Publications

text: Medicine

text: that aposthia among

entity_name: Jews

text: Jew

text: s was evidence for the now-discredited

entity_name: Lamarckism

text: Lamarckian

text: theory of

text: evolution

text: . In his work, "

entity_name: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

text: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication

text: Charles Darwin

text: also  mentioned cases of "born circumcised" babies as "conclusive evidence" for the now-discredited

entity_name: Blending inheritance

text: blending inheritance

text: Charles Darwin had been told that the Beagle was expected to sail about the end of September 1831, but fitting out took longer. The Admiralty Instructions were received on 14 November, and on 23 November she was moved to anchorage, ready to depart.  Repeated Westerly gales caused delays, and forced them to turn back after departing on 10 and 21 December. Drunkenness at Christmas lost another day. Finally, on the morning of 27 December, the Beagle left its anchorage in the Barn Pool, under Mount Edgecumbe on the west side of Plymouth Sound and set out on its surveying expedition.

text: Charles Darwin had been told that the Beagle was expected to sail about the end of September 1831, but fitting out took longer. The

entity_name: Admiralty

text: Admiralty

text: Instructions were received on 14 November, and on 23 November she was moved to anchorage, ready to depart.  Repeated Westerly gales caused delays, and forced them to turn back after departing on 10 and 21 December. Drunkenness at Christmas lost another day. Finally, on the morning of 27 December, the Beagle left its anchorage in the Barn Pool, under

entity_name: Mount Edgcumbe Country Park

text: Mount Edgecumbe

text: on the west side of

entity_name: Plymouth Sound

text: Plymouth Sound

text: and set out on its surveying expedition.

text: Lamarckism (or Lamarckian inheritance) is the idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it has acquired during its lifetime to its offspring (also known as heritability of acquired characteristics or soft inheritance). It is named after the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829), who incorporated the action of soft inheritance into his evolutionary theories as a supplement to his concept of an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Lamarck did not originate the idea of soft inheritance, which proposes that individual efforts during the lifetime of the organisms were the main mechanism driving species to adaptation, as they supposedly would acquire adaptive changes and pass them on to offspring.When Charles Darwin published his theory of evolution by natural selection in On the Origin of Species (1859), he continued to give credence to what he called "use and disuse inheritance," but rejected other aspects of Lamarck's theories. Later, Mendelian genetics supplanted the notion of inheritance of acquired traits, eventually leading to the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis, and the general abandonment of the Lamarckian theory of evolution in biology. Despite this abandonment, interest in Lamarckism has continued as studies in the field of epigenetics have highlighted the possible inheritance of behavioral traits acquired by the previous generation. However, this remains controversial as science historians have asserted that it is inaccurate to describe transgenerational epigenetic inheritance as a form of Lamarckism.

text: Lamarckism (or Lamarckian inheritance) is the

entity_name: Idea

text: idea

text: that an

entity_name: Organism

text: organism

text: can pass on characteristics that it has acquired during its lifetime to its

entity_name: Offspring

text: offspring

text: (also known as

entity_name: Inheritance of acquired characteristics

text: heritability of acquired characteristics

text: or

text: soft inheritance

text: ). It is named after the French

entity_name: Biologist

text: biologist

entity_name: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: (1744–1829), who incorporated the action of soft inheritance into his evolutionary theories as a supplement to his concept of an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater

entity_name: Evolution of biological complexity

text: complexity

text: , in parallel but separate lineages with no

entity_name: Extinction

text: extinction

text: . Lamarck did not originate the idea of soft inheritance, which proposes that individual efforts during the lifetime of the organisms were the main mechanism driving

text: species

text: to

entity_name: Adaptation

text: adaptation

text: , as they supposedly would acquire adaptive changes and pass them on to offspring.When

text: Charles Darwin

text: published his

entity_name: Scientific theory

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: (1859), he continued to give credence to what he called "use and disuse inheritance," but rejected other aspects of Lamarck's theories. Later,

entity_name: Mendelian inheritance

text: Mendelian genetics

text: supplanted the notion of inheritance of acquired traits, eventually leading to the development of the

entity_name: Modern evolutionary synthesis

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: , and the general abandonment of the Lamarckian theory of evolution in

entity_name: Biology

text: biology

text: . Despite this abandonment, interest in Lamarckism has continued as studies in the field of

entity_name: Epigenetics

text: epigenetics

text: have highlighted the possible inheritance of behavioral traits acquired by the previous generation. However, this remains controversial as science historians have asserted that it is inaccurate to describe

text: transgenerational epigenetic inheritance

text: as a form of Lamarckism.

text: Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life is a 1995 book by Daniel Dennett, in which Dennett looks at some of the repercussions of Darwinian theory. The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin's theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer. Dennett makes this case on the basis that natural selection is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the evolution of life. Darwin's discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so.

text: Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life is a 1995 book by

entity_name: Daniel Dennett

text: Daniel Dennett

text: , in which Dennett looks at some of the repercussions of

entity_name: Darwinism

text: Darwinian

text: theory. The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin's theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer. Dennett makes this case on the basis that

text: natural selection

text: is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the

text: evolution

text: of

text: life

text: . Darwin's discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so.

text: In the first edition, Darwin remarks in regard to the similarity of Galápagos wildlife to that on the South American continent, "The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area". (This was written in a reference to Charles Lyell's ideas of "centres of creation".) Darwin notes the gradations in size of the beaks of species of finches, suspects that species "are confined to different islands", "But there is not space in this work, to enter into this curious subject."

text: In the first edition, Darwin remarks in regard to the similarity of

text: Galápagos wildlife

text: to that on the South American continent, "The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area". (This was written in a reference to

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's ideas of "centres of creation".) Darwin notes the gradations in size of the beaks of species of finches, suspects that species "are confined to different islands", "But there is not space in this work, to enter into this curious subject."

text: Contrary to the title, the book is not on the Creation–evolution controversy. Gale attempts to explain why Charles Darwin waited twenty years to publish his theory of natural selection and how his theory evolved during this period. The book heavily relies on Darwin's letters, notebooks, essays and papers. Darwin's private correspondences with Asa Gray and Joseph Hooker are cited.

text: Contrary to the title, the book is not on the

text: Creation–evolution controversy

text: . Gale attempts to explain why

text: Charles Darwin

text: waited twenty years to publish his theory of

text: natural selection

text: and how his theory evolved during this period. The book heavily relies on Darwin's letters, notebooks, essays and papers. Darwin's private correspondences with

text: Asa Gray

text: and

text: Joseph Hooker

text: are cited.

text: When Darwin was developing his theory, he investigated selective breeding and was impressed by Sebright's observation that "A severe winter, or a scarcity of food, by destroying the weak and the unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection" so that "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities." Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell's ideas of environmental change causing ecological shifts, leading to what Augustin de Candolle had called a war between competing plant species, competition well described by the botanist William Herbert. Darwin was struck by Thomas Robert Malthus' phrase "struggle for existence" used of warring human tribes.

text: When Darwin was developing his theory, he investigated

text: selective breeding

text: and was impressed by

text: Sebright

text: 's observation that "A severe winter, or a scarcity of food, by destroying the weak and the unhealthy, has all the good effects of the most skilful selection" so that "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities." Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell's ideas of environmental change causing

text: ecological shifts

text: , leading to what

text: Augustin de Candolle

text: had called a war between competing plant species, competition well described by the botanist

text: William Herbert

text: . Darwin was struck by

text: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: ' phrase "struggle for existence" used of warring human tribes.

text: Many other of the endemic species of Rodrigues became extinct after the arrival of man, so the ecosystem of the island is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests covered the island entirely, but very little remains today due to deforestation. The Rodrigues parrot lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the Rodrigues solitaire, the Rodrigues rail, Newton's parakeet, the Rodrigues starling, the Rodrigues owl, the Rodrigues night heron, and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise, the saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise, and the Rodrigues day gecko.

text: Many other of the endemic species of Rodrigues became extinct after the arrival of man, so the

text: ecosystem

text: of the island is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests covered the island entirely, but very little remains today due to deforestation. The Rodrigues parrot lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the

text: Rodrigues solitaire

text: , the

text: Rodrigues rail

text: Newton's parakeet

text: , the Rodrigues starling, the

text: Rodrigues owl

text: , the

text: Rodrigues night heron

text: , and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the

text: domed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , the

text: saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues day gecko

text: Charles Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle. [Foreword by Richard Darwin Keynes] (Cambridge University Press, forthcoming July 2009, with Gordon Chancellor and Kees Rookmaaker).

text: Gatewood (1969) analyzes the transition from the anti-evolution crusade of the 1920s to the creation science movement of the 1960s. Despite some similarities between these two causes, the creation science movement represented a shift from religious to scientific objections to Darwin's theory. Creation science also differed in terms of popular leadership, rhetorical tone, and sectional focus. It lacked a prestigious leader like Bryan, utilized scientific rather than religious rhetoric, and was a product of California and Michigan instead of the South.

text: Gatewood (1969) analyzes the transition from the anti-evolution crusade of the 1920s to the

text: creation science

text: movement of the 1960s. Despite some similarities between these two causes, the creation science movement represented a shift from religious to scientific objections to Darwin's theory. Creation science also differed in terms of popular leadership, rhetorical tone, and sectional focus. It lacked a prestigious leader like Bryan, utilized scientific rather than religious rhetoric, and was a product of California and Michigan instead of the South.

text: In The Guardian, Steven Poole criticises Wolfe's whole approach to Darwin and dismisses his suggestion that Darwin had no evidence for his theory of evolution, saying that Darwin 'adduced a lot of evidence at the time, including the geographical distribution of species, comparative anatomy, fossils and the existence of vestigial organs. Today, of course, evolution is observed in real time in the laboratory, among microbes or insects'.

text: Each cultivar has a different genome owing to mutation, evolution, the ecological niche, and intentional plant-breeding by man.

text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years 1832 to 1836, was published in 1842 as Charles Darwin's first monograph, and set out his theory of the formation of coral reefs and atolls. He conceived of the idea during the voyage of the Beagle while still in South America, before he had seen a coral island, and wrote it out as HMS Beagle crossed the Pacific Ocean, completing his draft by November 1835. At the time there was great scientific interest in the way that coral reefs formed, and Captain Robert FitzRoy's orders from the Admiralty included the investigation of an atoll as an important scientific aim of the voyage. FitzRoy chose to survey the Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean. The results supported Darwin's theory that the various types of coral reefs and atolls could be explained by uplift and subsidence of vast areas of the Earth's crust under the oceans.

text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years 1832 to 1836, was published in 1842 as

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's first

text: monograph

text: , and set out his

text: theory

text: of the formation of

text: coral reef

text: s and

text: atoll

text: s. He conceived of the idea during the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: while still in South America, before he had seen a coral island, and wrote it out as

text: HMS Beagle

text: crossed the Pacific Ocean, completing his draft by November 1835. At the time there was great scientific interest in the way that coral reefs formed, and Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: 's orders from the

text: Admiralty

text: included the investigation of an atoll as an important scientific aim of the voyage. FitzRoy chose to survey the

text: Keeling Islands

text: in the Indian Ocean. The results supported Darwin's theory that the various types of coral reefs and atolls could be explained by

text: uplift

text: and

text: subsidence

text: of vast areas of the Earth's

text: crust

text: under the oceans.

text: Although often considered examples of island gigantism, prior to the arrival of Homo sapiens giant tortoises also occurred in non-island locales, as well as on a number of other, more accessible islands.  During the Pleistocene, and mostly during the last 50,000 years, tortoises of the mainland of southern Asia (Colossochelys atlas), North and South America, Australia (Meiolania), Indonesia, Madagascar (Dipsochelys), and even the island of Malta became extinct. The giant tortoises formerly of Africa died out somewhat earlier, during the late Pliocene. While the timing of the disappearances of various extinct giant tortoise species seems to correlate with the arrival of humans, direct evidence for human involvement in these extinctions is usually lacking; however, such evidence has been obtained in the case of Meiolania damelipi in Vanuatu.One interesting relic is the shell of an extinct giant tortoise found in a submerged sinkhole in Florida with a wooden spear piercing it, carbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Today, only one of the species of the Indian Ocean survives in the wild, the Aldabra giant tortoise (two more are claimed to exist in captive or re-released populations, but some genetic studies have cast doubt on the validity of these as separate species) and 10 extant species in the Galápagos.

text: Although often considered examples of

text: island gigantism

text: , prior to the arrival of Homo sapiens giant tortoises also occurred in non-island locales, as well as on a number of other, more accessible islands.  During the

text: Pleistocene

text: , and mostly during the last 50,000 years, tortoises of the mainland of southern Asia (

text: Colossochelys atlas

text: ), North and South America, Australia (

text: Meiolania

text: Indonesia

text: Madagascar

text: Dipsochelys

text: ), and even the island of

text: Malta

text: became extinct. The giant tortoises formerly of Africa died out somewhat earlier, during the

text: late Pliocene

text: . While the timing of the disappearances of various extinct giant tortoise species seems to correlate with the arrival of humans, direct evidence for human involvement in these extinctions is usually lacking; however, such evidence has been obtained in the case of Meiolania damelipi in

text: Vanuatu

text: .One interesting relic is the shell of an extinct giant tortoise found in a submerged sinkhole in Florida with a wooden spear piercing it, carbon dated to 12,000 years ago. Today, only one of the species of the Indian Ocean survives in the wild, the

text: Aldabra giant tortoise

text: (two more are claimed to exist in captive or re-released populations, but some genetic studies have cast doubt on the validity of these as separate species) and 10

text: extant

text: species in the

text: Galápagos

text: Charles Darwin aspired to be a parson-naturalist until his return from his voyage on the Beagle.

text: Charles Darwin

text: aspired to be a parson-naturalist until his return from his voyage on the

text: Beagle

text: In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution's use of conventional hybridization increased yields by breeding "high-yielding varieties". The replacement of locally indigenous breeds, compounded with unintentional cross-pollination and crossbreeding (genetic mixing), has reduced the gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds resulting in the loss of genetic diversity. Since the indigenous breeds are often well-adapted to local extremes in climate and have immunity to local pathogens, this can be a significant genetic erosion of the gene pool for future breeding. Therefore, commercial plant geneticists strive to breed "widely adapted" cultivars to counteract this tendency.

text: In agriculture and

text: animal husbandry

text: , the

text: Green Revolution

text: 's use of conventional hybridization increased yields by breeding "

text: high-yielding varieties

text: ". The replacement of locally indigenous breeds, compounded with unintentional cross-pollination and crossbreeding (

text: genetic mixing

text: ), has reduced the gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds resulting in the loss of

text: genetic diversity

text: . Since the indigenous breeds are often well-adapted to local extremes in climate and have immunity to local pathogens, this can be a significant

text: genetic erosion

text: of the gene pool for future breeding. Therefore, commercial plant geneticists strive to breed "widely adapted" cultivars to counteract this tendency.

text: Bell was at the heart of the scientific establishment and when Charles Darwin returned to London from the Beagle expedition on 2 December 1836, Bell was quick to take on the task of describing the reptile specimens. He was also entrusted with the specimens of Crustacea collected on the voyage. He was the authority in this field; his book British Stalke-eyed Crustacea is a masterwork. He played a significant part in the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection in March 1837 when he confirmed that the giant Galápagos tortoises were native to the islands, not brought in by buccaneers for food as Darwin had thought. He supported the arrangements for publication of Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, but then was very slow to make progress on the work, and though the first parts of work were published in 1838, Bell's contribution on reptiles (Part 5) was published in two numbers, in 1842 and 1843, and he subsequently failed to take any action on the Crustacea.

text: Bell was at the heart of the scientific establishment and when

text: Charles Darwin

text: returned to London from the

text: Beagle expedition

text: on 2 December 1836, Bell was quick to take on the task of describing the reptile specimens. He was also entrusted with the specimens of

text: Crustacea

text: collected on the voyage. He was the authority in this field; his book British Stalke-eyed Crustacea is a masterwork. He played a significant part in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: in March 1837 when he confirmed that the giant

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s were native to the islands, not brought in by

text: buccaneer

text: s for food as Darwin had thought. He supported the arrangements for publication of

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: , but then was very slow to make progress on the work, and though the first parts of work were published in 1838, Bell's contribution on reptiles (Part 5) was published in two numbers, in 1842 and 1843, and he subsequently failed to take any action on the Crustacea.

text: The third voyage of Beagle, under the command of John Clements Wickham, began in 1837 with a mission to chart the west coast of Australia between the Fitzroy River and the Swan River, and the Bass Strait – the channel separating mainland Australia from Tasmania.  In 1839 Beagle was taken north to explore the Arafura Sea where Port Darwin was discovered and named. The voyage is also notable for the watercolour paintings of fish and other wildlife produced by 1st Lt. James Barker Emery.  In March 1841 Wickham gave up command due to illness and returned to England. Command was then given to John Lort Stokes.

text: The third voyage of Beagle, under the command of

text: John Clements Wickham

text: , began in 1837 with a mission to chart the west coast of Australia between the

text: Fitzroy River

text: and the

text: Swan River

text: , and the

text: Bass Strait

text: – the channel separating mainland Australia from

text: Tasmania

text: .  In 1839 Beagle was taken north to explore the

text: Arafura Sea

text: where

text: Port Darwin

text: was discovered and named. The voyage is also notable for the watercolour paintings of fish and other wildlife produced by 1st Lt.

text: James Barker Emery

text: .  In March 1841 Wickham gave up command due to illness and returned to England. Command was then given to

text: John Lort Stokes

text: The domed Rodrigues tortoise was one of the smallest of the giant tortoises of the Indian Ocean, reaching a length of just over 40 cm and an estimated weight of around 12 kg.

text: His tasks included finding experts to examine and report on his collections from the voyage. Darwin proposed to edit these reports, writing his own forewords and notes, and used his contacts to lobby for government sponsorship of publication of these findings as a large book. When a Treasury grant of £1,000 was allocated at the end of August 1837, Darwin stretched the project to include the geology book that he had conceived in April 1832 at the first landfall in the voyage. He selected Smith, Elder & Co. as the publisher, and gave them unrealistic commitments on the timing of providing the text and illustrations. He assured the Treasury that the work would be good value, as the publisher would only require a small commission profit, and he himself would have no profit. From October he planned what became the multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle on his collections, and began writing about the geology of volcanic islands.

text: His tasks included finding experts to examine and report on his collections from the voyage. Darwin proposed to edit these reports, writing his own forewords and notes, and used his contacts to lobby for government sponsorship of publication of these findings as a large book. When a Treasury grant of

text: 1,000 was allocated at the end of August 1837, Darwin stretched the project to include the geology book that he had conceived in April 1832 at the first landfall in the voyage. He selected

text: Smith, Elder & Co.

text: as the publisher, and gave them unrealistic commitments on the timing of providing the text and illustrations. He assured the Treasury that the work would be good value, as the publisher would only require a small commission profit, and he himself would have no profit. From October he planned what became the multi-volume

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: on his collections, and began writing about the geology of volcanic islands.

text: Mockingbirds are an American group of passerine birds. In the Galápagos they are famous (along with Darwin's finches) for confirming Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.4 species in Galápagos

text: Mockingbirds are an American group of passerine birds. In the Galápagos they are famous (along with Darwin's finches) for confirming

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution.4 species in Galápagos

text: Massey was a believer in spiritual evolution; he opined that Darwin's theory of evolution was incomplete without spiritualism:

text: Massey was a believer in

text: spiritual evolution

text: ; he opined that

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution was incomplete without

text: spiritualism

text: Finch enlisted in the Australian Army on 2 June 1941. He served in the Middle East and was an anti-aircraft gunner during the Bombing of Darwin.

text: Finch enlisted in the

text: Australian Army

text: on 2 June 1941. He served in the

text: Middle East

text: and was an anti-aircraft gunner during the

text: Bombing of Darwin

text: Arriving at Barmouth on the evening of 23 August, Charles met up with a "reading party" of Cambridge friends for a time before he left on the morning of 29 August, to go back to Shrewsbury and on to partridge shooting with his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall. He was grieved to have received a message that Ramsay had died. This upset Darwin's plans for a visit in the following year to Tenerife. He arrived home at The Mount, Shrewsbury, on 29 August, and found a letter from Henslow. The Cambridge Fellow George Peacock had heard from Francis Beaufort of plans for the second survey voyage of HMS Beagle, and had written to Henslow proposing Leonard Jenyns as "a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", or if he was unavailable seeking recommendations for an alternative to take up this "glorious opportunity". When Jenyns decided not to leave his parish, he and Henslow thought of Darwin. Henslow's letter, read by Peacock and forwarded to Darwin, expected him to eagerly catch at the likely offer of a two-year trip to Terra del Fuego & home by the East Indies, not as "a finished Naturalist", but as a gentleman "amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History". The appointment was more as a companion to Captain Robert FitzRoy, than as a mere collector. Henslow wrote "I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of".

text: Arriving at

text: Barmouth

text: on the evening of 23 August, Charles met up with a "reading party" of Cambridge friends for a time before he left on the morning of 29 August, to go back to Shrewsbury and on to partridge shooting with his Wedgwood relatives at

text: Maer Hall

text: . He was grieved to have received a message that Ramsay had died. This upset Darwin's plans for a visit in the following year to Tenerife. He arrived home at

text: The Mount, Shrewsbury

text: , on 29 August, and found a letter from Henslow. The Cambridge Fellow

text: George Peacock

text: had heard from

text: Francis Beaufort

text: of plans for the

text: second survey voyage of

text: HMS Beagle

text: , and had written to Henslow proposing

text: Leonard Jenyns

text: as "a proper person to go out as a naturalist with this expedition", or if he was unavailable seeking recommendations for an alternative to take up this "glorious opportunity". When Jenyns decided not to leave his parish, he and Henslow thought of Darwin. Henslow's letter, read by Peacock and forwarded to Darwin, expected him to eagerly catch at the likely offer of a two-year trip to

text: Terra del Fuego

text: & home by the

text: East Indies

text: , not as "a finished Naturalist", but as a

text: gentleman

text: "amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History". The appointment was more as a companion to Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , than as a mere collector. Henslow wrote "I assure you I think you are the very man they are in search of".

text: Despite the minimization of development in evolutionary theory, early developmental psychology was influenced by evolution. Both Darwin's theory of evolution and Karl Ernst von Baer's developmental principles of ontogeny shaped early thought in developmental psychology. Wilhelm T. Preyer, a pioneer of child psychology, was heavily inspired by Darwin's work and approached the mental development of children from an evolutionary perspective.

text: Despite the minimization of development in evolutionary theory, early developmental psychology was influenced by evolution. Both Darwin's theory of evolution and

text: Karl Ernst von Baer's

text: developmental principles of ontogeny shaped early thought in developmental psychology.

text: Wilhelm T. Preyer

text: , a pioneer of child psychology, was heavily inspired by Darwin's work and approached the mental development of children from an evolutionary perspective.

text: By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "the eclipse of Darwinism" included forms of "saltationism" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of August Weismann, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views.

text: By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "

text: the eclipse of Darwinism

text: " included forms of "

text: saltationism

text: " in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of

text: orthogenesis

text: claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of

text: August Weismann

text: , that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called

text: neo-Darwinism

text: . It was thought that the rediscovery of

text: Mendelian inheritance

text: invalidated Darwin's views.

text: The theory of evolution by natural selection is now scientific orthodoxy, but when it was unveiled it caused a storm of controversy, from fellow scientists as well as religious people. They criticised it for being short on evidence and long on assertion and Darwin, being the honest scientist that he was, agreed with them. He knew that his theory was riddled with 'difficulties', but he entrusted future generations to complete his work and prove the essential truth of his vision, which is what scientists have been doing for the past 150 years.

text: There have been big advances in plant breeding and animal breeding, such as crop hybridization, GMOs (genetically modified organisms) and artificial insemination of livestock. Further down the food chain came innovations in food processing and food distribution (e.g. frozen foods).

text: There have been big advances in

text: plant breeding

text: and

text: animal breeding

text: , such as crop hybridization,

text: GMOs

text: (genetically modified organisms) and artificial insemination of livestock. Further down the food chain came innovations in

text: food processing

text: and

text: food distribution

text: (e.g. frozen foods).

text: Many of Darwin's supporters accepted evolution on the basis that it could be reconciled with design. In particular, Asa Gray considered natural selection to be the main mechanism of evolution and sought to reconcile it with natural theology. He proposed that natural selection could be a mechanism in which the problem of evil of suffering produced the greater good of adaptation, but conceded that this had difficulties and suggested that God might influence the variations on which natural selection acted to guide evolution. For Darwin and Thomas Henry Huxley such pervasive supernatural influence was beyond scientific investigation, and George Frederick Wright, an ordained minister who was Gray's colleague in developing theistic evolution, emphasised the need to look for secondary or known causes rather than invoking supernatural explanations: "If we cease to observe this rule there is an end to all science and all sound science."

text: Many of Darwin's supporters accepted evolution on the basis that it could be reconciled with design. In particular,

text: Asa Gray

text: considered natural selection to be the main mechanism of evolution and sought to reconcile it with natural theology. He proposed that natural selection could be a mechanism in which the

text: problem of evil

text: of suffering produced the greater good of adaptation, but conceded that this had difficulties and suggested that God might influence the variations on which natural selection acted to guide evolution. For Darwin and

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: such pervasive supernatural influence was beyond scientific investigation, and

text: George Frederick Wright

text: , an ordained minister who was Gray's colleague in developing theistic evolution, emphasised the need to look for secondary or known causes rather than invoking supernatural explanations: "If we cease to observe this rule there is an end to all science and all sound science."

text: Herbert Spencer's ideas, like those of evolutionary progressivism, stemmed from his reading of Thomas Malthus, and his later theories were influenced by those of Darwin. However, Spencer's major work, Progress: Its Law and Cause (1857), was released two years before the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, and First Principles was printed in 1860.

text: One of the challenges to Darwin's theory of evolution was explaining how complex structures could evolve gradually, given that their incipient forms may have been inadequate to serve any function. As George Jackson Mivart (a critic of Darwin) pointed out, 5 percent of a bird wing would not be functional. The incipient form of complex traits would not have survived long enough to evolve to a useful form.

text: One of the challenges to Darwin's theory of evolution was explaining how complex structures could evolve gradually, given that their incipient forms may have been inadequate to serve any function. As

text: George Jackson Mivart

text: (a critic of Darwin) pointed out, 5 percent of a bird wing would not be functional. The incipient form of complex traits would not have survived long enough to evolve to a useful form.

text: The Darwin Industry has also stretched to many related figures before, during and after Darwin's time.  Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin has been a subject of great interest, and the broad philosophical currents of Naturphilosophie and Romanticism in science during the 19th century are still being explored.  Studies of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Georges Cuvier, Charles Lyell, Thomas Henry Huxley, Richard Owen, Alfred Russel Wallace and many others have all been influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the work of the Darwin Industry.  Because of the unusual hybrid nature of The Origin of Species as both a popular and scientific work, one major focus of the Darwin Industry has been the role of popularization and education in the spread of Darwin's theory: the popular work of Huxley, Ernst Haeckel, Herbert Spencer, and most dramatically, Robert Chambers (who wrote the 1844 sensation Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation), is increasingly seen as important in its own right in the history of evolutionary thought.

text: The Darwin Industry has also stretched to many related figures before, during and after Darwin's time.  Darwin's grandfather

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: has been a subject of great interest, and the broad philosophical currents of

text: Naturphilosophie

text: and

text: Romanticism in science

text: during the 19th century are still being explored.  Studies of

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: Georges Cuvier

text: Charles Lyell

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: Richard Owen

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: and many others have all been influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the work of the Darwin Industry.  Because of the unusual hybrid nature of

text: The Origin of Species

text: as both a popular and scientific work, one major focus of the Darwin Industry has been the role of popularization and education in the spread of Darwin's theory: the popular work of Huxley,

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: Herbert Spencer

text: , and most dramatically,

text: Robert Chambers

text: (who wrote the 1844 sensation

entity_name: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

text: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

text: ), is increasingly seen as important in its own right in the

text: history of evolutionary thought

text: In addition to its officers and crew, the Beagle carried several supernumeraries, passengers without an official position. FitzRoy employed a mathematical instrument maker to maintain his 22 marine chronometers kept in his cabin, as well as engaging the artist/draughtsman Augustus Earle to go in a private capacity. The three Fuegians taken on the previous voyage were going to be returned to Tierra del Fuego on the Beagle together with the missionary Richard Matthews.

text: In addition to its officers and crew, the Beagle carried several

text: supernumeraries

text: , passengers without an official position. FitzRoy employed a mathematical instrument maker to maintain his

text: 22 marine chronometers kept in his cabin

text: , as well as engaging the artist/draughtsman

text: Augustus Earle

text: to go in a private capacity. The three Fuegians taken on the previous voyage were going to be returned to

text: Tierra del Fuego

text: on the Beagle together with the missionary Richard Matthews.

text: The arguments in Paley's book have been rejected by "virtually all biologists". In its place, the theory of evolution has been widely accepted by scientists from Darwin onwards, and Darwin persuaded "most educated people" that processes such as evolution were governed by natural laws. This has not stopped creationists such as those in the Intelligent Design movement from continuing to use Paley's arguments:

text: The arguments in Paley's book have been rejected by "virtually all biologists". In its place, the theory of

text: evolution

text: has been widely accepted by scientists from Darwin onwards, and Darwin persuaded "most educated people" that processes such as evolution were governed by natural laws. This has not stopped

text: creationist

text: s such as those in the

text: Intelligent Design

text: movement from continuing to use Paley's arguments:

text: Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land: three years and three months on land, 18 months at sea. Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, and he showed a gift for theorising. At Punta Alta he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. He ably collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals, with results that shook his belief that species were fixed and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, and led to his theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land: three years and three months on land, 18 months at sea. Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, and he showed a gift for theorising. At

text: Punta Alta

text: he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. He ably collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals, with results that shook his belief that species were fixed and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, and led to his theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: Despite originally starting out on good terms with Darwin, Owen was highly critical of the Origin in large part because Darwin did not refer much to the previous scientific theories of evolution that had been proposed by people like Chambers and himself, and instead compared the theory of evolution by natural selection with the unscientific theory in the Bible.

text: "Lonesome George" along with other of the tortoises on Pinta Island, belong to a genus of 21 species. Giant tortoises were widespread on most of the continents except for Australia and Antarctica. Not only do the Galapagos tortoises remain the largest living tortoises, but in the Galapagos, distinct populations survived in multiple localities.

text: The current theory of evolution, the modern evolutionary synthesis (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of species occurs through a combination of Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection and Gregor Mendel’s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection).

text: The current theory of evolution, the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of

text: species

text: occurs through a combination of Darwin’s mechanism of natural selection and

text: Gregor Mendel

text: ’s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection).

text: Ibn Miskawayh's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the Brethren of Purity's Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) developed theories on evolution that possibly had an influence on Charles Darwin and his inception of Darwinism, but has at one time been criticized as overenthusiastic.

text: Ibn Miskawayh

text: 's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the

text: Brethren of Purity

text: 's

text: Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity

text: (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) developed theories on evolution that possibly had an influence on

text: Charles Darwin

text: and his inception of

text: Darwinism

text: , but has at one time been criticized as overenthusiastic.

text: Also among the 1638 emigrants were two brothers, Richard and Thomas Wickham. Samuel, a son of Thomas, settled in Rhode Island and became a Freeman of the Colony and a Deputy. Another descendant, Captain John Clements Wickham R.N. served on the Beagle on its voyage with Charles Darwin and was later the first Magistrate and administrator of Queensland.

text: Also among the 1638 emigrants were two brothers, Richard and Thomas Wickham. Samuel, a son of Thomas, settled in

entity_name: Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

text: Rhode Island

text: and became a Freeman of the Colony and a Deputy. Another descendant, Captain

text: John Clements Wickham

text: R.N. served on the

text: Beagle

text: on its voyage with

text: Charles Darwin

text: and was later the first Magistrate and administrator of

text: Queensland

text: Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

text: Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist

text: Joseph Dalton Hooker

text: in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

text: Human settlers colonised the Mascarenes in 1663. These giant tortoises were very large and slow, thus making them easy game. Like many island species they were also reported to have been friendly and unafraid of humans. Most species of this genus were already driven to extinction by 1795 and the last individuals were reputed to have died around 1840 (Arnold 1979, Bour 1980, Cheke and Hume 2008).

text: Human settlers colonised the Mascarenes in 1663. These giant tortoises were very large and slow, thus making them easy game. Like many island species they were also reported to have been friendly and unafraid of humans. Most species of this genus were already driven to

text: extinction

text: by 1795 and the last individuals were reputed to have died around 1840 (Arnold 1979, Bour 1980, Cheke and Hume 2008).

text: This book's subtitle is, "Evolution and the Men Who Discovered It." Eiseley documented that animal variation, extinction, and a lengthy history of the earth were observed from the 1600s onward. Scientists groped towards a theory with increasingly detailed observations. They became aware that evolution had occurred without knowing how. Evolution was "in the air" and part of the intellectual discourse both before and after On the Origin of Species was published. The publisher describes it thus: "At the heart of the account is Charles Darwin, but the story neither begins nor ends with him. Starting with the seventeenth-century notion of the Great Chain of Being, Dr. Eiseley traces the achievements and discoveries of men in many fields of science who paved the way for Darwin; and the book concludes with an extensive discussion of the ways in which Darwin's work has been challenged, improved upon, and occasionally refuted during the past hundred years."

text: This book's subtitle is, "Evolution and the Men Who Discovered It." Eiseley documented that animal variation, extinction, and a lengthy history of the earth were observed from the 1600s onward. Scientists groped towards a theory with increasingly detailed observations. They became aware that evolution had occurred without knowing how. Evolution was "in the air" and part of the intellectual discourse both before and after

text: On the Origin of Species

text: was published. The publisher describes it thus: "At the heart of the account is Charles Darwin, but the story neither begins nor ends with him. Starting with the seventeenth-century notion of the

text: Great Chain of Being

text: , Dr. Eiseley traces the achievements and discoveries of men in many fields of science who paved the way for Darwin; and the book concludes with an extensive discussion of the ways in which Darwin's work has been challenged, improved upon, and occasionally refuted during the past hundred years."

text: Lewis's grand plans were also hampered by the fact that her ideas were seen by publishers as too complicated for a lay audience but not advanced enough for the scientific community. As a product of a devout religious upbringing, Lewis was critical of the Charles Darwin's theory of evolution for much of her life, instead positing that God was responsible for an intricate and well ordered universe. Only in the 1890s did Lewis come to accept some evolutionary ideas, still seeing the process as part and parcel of a grand theist system. Lewis particularly rejected Darwin's idea that random variation was part of the process behind natural selection, arguing instead that evolution was a divinely directed process for the perfection of supernaturally created species.

text: Lewis's grand plans were also hampered by the fact that her ideas were seen by publishers as too complicated for a lay audience but not advanced enough for the scientific community. As a product of a devout religious upbringing, Lewis was critical of the

text: Charles Darwin's

text: theory of evolution for much of her life, instead positing that God was responsible for an intricate and well ordered universe. Only in the 1890s did Lewis come to accept some evolutionary ideas, still seeing the process as part and parcel of a grand theist system. Lewis particularly rejected Darwin's idea that random variation was part of the process behind

text: natural selection

text: , arguing instead that evolution was a divinely directed process for the perfection of supernaturally created species.

text: In 1874, Hodge published What is Darwinism?, claiming that Darwinism, was, in essence, atheism. To Hodge, Darwinism was contrary to the notion of design and was therefore clearly atheistic. Both in the Review and in What is Darwinism?, (1874) Hodge attacked Darwinism. His views determined the position of the Seminary until his death in 1878. While he didn't consider all evolutionary ideas to be in conflict with his religion, he was concerned with its teaching in colleges. Meanwhile, at Princeton University, a totally separate institution, President John Maclean also rejected Darwin's theory of evolution. However, in 1868, upon Maclean's retirement, James McCosh, a philosopher, became president. McCosh believed that much of Darwinism could and would be proved sound, and so he strove to prepare Christians for this event. Instead of conflict between science and religion, McCosh sought reconciliation. Insisting on the principle of design in nature, McCosh interpreted the Darwinian discoveries as more evidence of the prearrangement, skill, and purpose in the universe. He thus argued that Darwinism was not atheistic nor in irreconcilable hostility to the Bible. The Presbyterians in America thus could choose between two schools of thought on evolution, both based in Princeton. The Seminary held to Hodge's position until his supporters were ousted in 1929, and the college (Princeton University) became a world class center of the new science of evolutionary biology.

text: In 1874, Hodge published What is Darwinism?, claiming that

text: Darwinism

text: , was, in essence, atheism. To Hodge, Darwinism was contrary to the notion of design and was therefore clearly atheistic. Both in the Review and in What is Darwinism?, (1874) Hodge attacked Darwinism. His views determined the position of the Seminary until his death in 1878. While he didn't consider all evolutionary ideas to be in conflict with his religion, he was concerned with its teaching in colleges. Meanwhile, at

text: Princeton University

text: , a totally separate institution, President John Maclean also rejected Darwin's theory of evolution. However, in 1868, upon Maclean's retirement,

text: James McCosh

text: , a philosopher, became president. McCosh believed that much of Darwinism could and would be proved sound, and so he strove to prepare Christians for this event. Instead of conflict between science and religion, McCosh sought reconciliation. Insisting on the principle of design in nature, McCosh interpreted the Darwinian discoveries as more evidence of the prearrangement, skill, and purpose in the universe. He thus argued that Darwinism was not atheistic nor in irreconcilable hostility to the Bible. The Presbyterians in America thus could choose between two schools of thought on evolution, both based in Princeton. The Seminary held to Hodge's position until his supporters were ousted in 1929, and the college (

text: Princeton University

text: ) became a world class center of the new science of evolutionary biology.

text: How and Why Species Multiply: The Radiation of Darwin’s Finches-2008

text: The modern understanding of evolution began with the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In addition, Gregor Mendel's work with plants helped to explain the hereditary patterns of genetics. Fossil discoveries in paleontology, advances in population genetics and a global network of scientific research have provided further details into the mechanisms of evolution. Scientists now have a good understanding of the origin of new species (speciation) and have observed the speciation process in the laboratory and in the wild. Evolution is the principal scientific theory that biologists use to understand life and is used in many disciplines, including medicine, psychology, conservation biology, anthropology, forensics, agriculture and other social-cultural applications.

text: The modern understanding of evolution began with the 1859 publication of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: . In addition,

text: Gregor Mendel

text: 's work with plants helped to explain the hereditary patterns of

text: genetics

text: . Fossil discoveries in

text: paleontology

text: , advances in

text: population genetics

text: and a global network of scientific research have provided further details into the mechanisms of evolution. Scientists now have a good understanding of the origin of new species (

text: speciation

text: ) and have observed the speciation process in the laboratory and in the wild. Evolution is the principal

text: scientific theory

text: that

text: biologist

text: s use to understand life and is used in many disciplines, including

text: medicine

text: psychology

text: conservation biology

text: anthropology

text: forensics

text: agriculture

text: and other

text: social-cultural

text: applications.

text: Burrows was also an expert on Charles Darwin and the potent racial theories that Social Darwinism drew from biological versions of the theory of evolution.  His introduction to the Penguin Books edition of The Origin of Species is still an authoritative contribution to the cultural history of Victorian science.

text: Burrows was also an expert on

text: Charles Darwin

text: and the potent racial theories that

text: Social Darwinism

text: drew from biological versions of the theory of evolution.  His introduction to the

text: Penguin Books

text: edition of

text: The Origin of Species

text: is still an authoritative contribution to the cultural history of Victorian science.

text: In 2007 and 2008, Neffe traveled for seven months, recreating Charles Darwin's travels on the Beagle. As a result, he published the book Darwin - Das Abenteuer des Lebens, consisting of a combination of travel writing, science reportage on the development of the theory of evolution, and biographical information about Charles Darwin.

text: In 2007 and 2008, Neffe traveled for seven months, recreating

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's travels on the

text: Beagle

text: . As a result, he published the book Darwin - Das Abenteuer des Lebens, consisting of a combination of travel writing, science reportage on the development of the

text: theory of evolution

text: , and biographical information about Charles Darwin.

text: By the late 1860s, however, Darwin’s theory of evolution had been thought to be compatible with the polygenist thesis (Stepan 1982). Darwin thus used Descent of Man to disprove the polygenist thesis and end the debate between polygeny and monogeny once and for all. Darwin also used it to disprove other hypotheses about racial difference that had persisted since the time of ancient Greece, for example, that differences in skin color and body constitution occurred because of differences of geography and climate.

text: Though easily accessible to most visitors to the Galápagos, the national park service has highly restricted visits to this island, and it is primarily used for scientific research. An intensive study of Darwin's finches was conducted here by biologists Peter and Rosemary Grant over a period of 20 years. They examined the behaviour and life cycles of finches, with the results strongly supporting Darwin's theory of evolution. Their efforts were documented in the Pulitzer Prize–winning book The Beak of the Finch.

text: Though easily accessible to most visitors to the Galápagos, the national park service has highly restricted visits to this island, and it is primarily used for scientific research. An intensive study of

text: Darwin's finches

text: was conducted here by biologists

text: Peter and Rosemary Grant

text: over a period of 20 years. They examined the behaviour and life cycles of finches, with the results strongly supporting

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: . Their efforts were documented in the Pulitzer Prize–winning book

text: The Beak of the Finch

text: Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moas and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although further speciation has led to the loss of flight in flightless birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins, and also members of the duck family, have further evolved for swimming. Birds, specifically Darwin's finches, played an important part in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: Birds have

text: wing

text: s which are more or less developed depending on the species; the only known groups without wings are the

text: extinct

text: moa

text: s and

text: elephant bird

text: s. Wings, which evolved from

text: forelimb

text: s, gave birds the ability to

text: fly

text: , although further

text: speciation

text: has led to the loss of

text: flight

text: in

text: flightless bird

text: s, including

text: ratite

text: s,

text: penguin

text: s, and diverse

text: endemic island species of birds

text: . The

text: digestive

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: s of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins, and also members of the

text: duck family

text: , have further evolved for

text: swimming

text: . Birds, specifically

text: Darwin's finches

text: , played an important part in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: Lyell attended Huxley's continuing working-men's lectures, and was "astonished at the attentiveness and magnitude of the audience...[who would] devour any amount of your anthropoid ape questions". Human origins had been taboo to the scientific élite, but had long been featured in the radical press and the secularist Reasoner was currently running a series about evolution to combat "Theological Theories of the Origin of Man" with information about human fossils and Darwin's book. Huxley was tailoring his lectures to bring Darwinism to this wider constituency, saying that "Brought face to face [with chimpanzees or apes] these blurred copies of himself, the least thoughtful of men is conscious of a certain shock... It is as if Nature herself has foreseen the arrogance of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his intellect by its very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves, admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust." Man might have come from the brutes, but "he is assuredly not of them... [man is not] degraded from his high estate [by descent from a] bestial savage,... [but] once escaped from the blinding influences of traditional prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence Man has sprung, the best evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will discern in his long progress through the Past, a reasonable ground of faith in his attainment of a nobler future." This was Darwinism supporting the creed of working class self-improvement.

text: Lyell attended Huxley's continuing working-men's lectures, and was "astonished at the attentiveness and magnitude of the audience...[who would] devour any amount of your anthropoid ape questions". Human origins had been taboo to the scientific élite, but had long been featured in the

text: radical

text: press and the secularist Reasoner was currently running a series about evolution to combat "Theological Theories of the Origin of Man" with information about human fossils and Darwin's book. Huxley was tailoring his lectures to bring Darwinism to this wider constituency, saying that "Brought face to face [with chimpanzees or apes] these blurred copies of himself, the least thoughtful of men is conscious of a certain shock... It is as if Nature herself has foreseen the arrogance of man, and with Roman severity had provided that his intellect by its very triumphs, should call into prominence the slaves, admonishing the conqueror that he is but dust." Man might have come from the brutes, but "he is assuredly not of them... [man is not] degraded from his high estate [by descent from a] bestial savage,... [but] once escaped from the blinding influences of traditional prejudice, will find in the lowly stock whence Man has sprung, the best evidence of the splendour of his capacities; and will discern in his long progress through the Past, a reasonable ground of faith in his attainment of a nobler future." This was Darwinism supporting the creed of working class self-improvement.

text: Charles Darwin's theory of how evolution works ("By Means of Natural Selection") is explicitly competitive ("survival of the fittest"), Malthusian ("struggle for existence"), even gladiatorial ("nature, red in tooth and claw").  Species are pitted against species for shared resources,similar species with similar needs and niches even more so, and individuals within species most of all.  All this comes down to one factor: out-competing all rivals and predators in producing progeny.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of how

text: evolution

text: works ("By Means of

text: Natural Selection

text: ") is explicitly competitive ("

text: survival of the fittest

text: Malthusian

text: ("struggle for existence"), even gladiatorial ("

text: nature, red in tooth and claw

text: ").  Species are pitted against species for shared resources,similar species with similar needs and niches even more so, and individuals within species most of all.  All this comes down to one factor: out-competing all rivals and predators in producing progeny.

text: When Darwin first collected the species in 1835, he assumed it was a finch.  John Gould, who formally described the vegetarian finch in 1837, agreed and assigned it to the genus Fringilla. By 1841, Gould had changed his mind, and moved the species to the genus Camarhynchus, lumping it with the ground and cactus finches.  Robert Ridgway separated it from the other species in 1896, assigning it to a new genus Platyspiza.  DNA research has now shown that all Darwin's "finches" are actually tanagers.

text: When Darwin first collected the species in 1835, he assumed it was a

text: finch

text: John Gould

text: , who formally described the vegetarian finch in 1837, agreed and assigned it to the genus

text: Fringilla

text: . By 1841, Gould had changed his mind, and moved the species to the genus

text: Camarhynchus

text: , lumping it with the ground and cactus finches.

text: Robert Ridgway

text: separated it from the other species in 1896, assigning it to a new genus Platyspiza.

text: DNA

text: research has now shown that all Darwin's "finches" are actually

text: tanager

text: s.

text: Butler accepted evolution but rejected Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. In his book Evolution, Old and New (1879) he accused Darwin of borrowing heavily from Buffon, Erasmus Darwin and Lamarck, whilst playing down these influences and giving them little credit. In 1912, biologist Vernon Kellogg described Butler's views as follows:

text: Butler accepted evolution but rejected

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: . In his book Evolution, Old and New (1879) he accused Darwin of borrowing heavily from

text: Buffon

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: and

text: Lamarck

text: , whilst playing down these influences and giving them little credit. In 1912, biologist

text: Vernon Kellogg

text: described Butler's views as follows:

text: In a survey of 909 people, 77% of its respondents in India agreed that enough scientific evidence exists to support Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, and 85% of God-believing people said they agree with evolution as well. According to the survey conducted by Pew Forum in the United States, 80% of Hindus agree that evolution is the best explanation for the origin of human life on earth.  However, in India, there were minimal references to Darwinism in the 1800s. Elements of Victorian England opposed the idea of Darwinism. Hindus already had present notion of common ancestry between humans and animals. The Hindu dharma believes that the gods have animal features, showing a theory that humans can be reborn again as animals or with their features.

text: In a survey of 909 people, 77% of its respondents in India agreed that enough scientific evidence exists to support

text: Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

text: , and 85% of God-believing people said they agree with evolution as well. According to the survey conducted by

text: Pew Forum

text: in the

text: United States

text: , 80% of Hindus agree that evolution is the best explanation for the origin of human life on earth.  However, in India, there were minimal references to Darwinism in the 1800s. Elements of Victorian England opposed the idea of Darwinism. Hindus already had present notion of common ancestry between humans and animals. The Hindu dharma believes that the gods have animal features, showing a theory that humans can be reborn again as animals or with their features.

text: During allopatric (from the ancient Greek allos, "other" + Greek patrā, "fatherland") speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin's finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.

text: During allopatric (from the ancient Greek allos, "other" + Greek patrā, "fatherland") speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by

text: habitat fragmentation

text: due to geographical change such as

text: mountain formation

text: ). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or

text: phenotypic

text: divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar

text: selective

text: pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different

text: mutation

text: s arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging

text: gene

text: s.

text: Island genetics

text: is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include

text: insular dwarfism

text: and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on

text: Komodo

text: . The

text: Galápagos Islands

text: are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s could be identified by island, and noticed that

text: finch

text: es differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to

text: England

text: , his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as

text: Darwin's finches

text: to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.

text: The idea of de-evolution is based at least partly on the presumption that "evolution" requires some sort of purposeful direction towards "increasing complexity". Modern evolutionary theory, beginning with Darwin at least, poses no such presumption and the concept of evolutionary change is independent of either any increase in complexity of organisms sharing a gene pool, or any decrease, such as in vestigiality or in loss of genes. Earlier views that species are subject to "cultural decay", "drives to perfection", or "devolution" are practically meaningless in terms of current (neo-)Darwinian theory.  Early scientific theories of transmutation of species such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis perceived species diversity as a result of a purposeful internal drive or tendency to form improved adaptations to the environment. In contrast, Darwinian evolution and its elaboration in the light of subsequent advances in biological research, have shown that adaptation through natural selection comes about when particular heritable attributes in a population happen to give a better chance of successful reproduction in the reigning environment than rival attributes do. By the same process less advantageous attributes are less "successful"; they decrease in frequency or are lost completely. Since Darwin's time it has been shown how these changes in the frequencies of attributes occur according to the mechanisms of genetics and the laws of inheritance originally investigated by Gregor Mendel.  Combined with Darwin's original insights, genetic advances led to what has variously been called the modern evolutionary synthesis or neo-Darwinism. In these terms evolutionary adaptation may occur most obviously through the natural selection of particular alleles. Such alleles may be long established, or they may be new mutations. Selection also might arise from more complex epigenetic or other chromosomal changes, but the fundamental requirement is that any adaptive effect must be heritable.

text: The idea of de-evolution is based at least partly on the presumption that "evolution" requires some sort of

text: purposeful direction

text: towards "

text: increasing complexity

text: ". Modern evolutionary theory, beginning with Darwin at least, poses no such presumption and the concept of evolutionary change is independent of either any increase in complexity of organisms sharing a gene pool, or any decrease, such as in

text: vestigiality

text: or in loss of genes. Earlier views that species are subject to "cultural decay", "drives to perfection", or "devolution" are practically meaningless in terms of current (neo-)Darwinian theory.  Early scientific theories of

text: transmutation of species

text: such as

text: Lamarckism

text: and

text: orthogenesis

text: perceived species diversity as a result of a purposeful internal drive or tendency to form improved adaptations to the environment. In contrast, Darwinian evolution and its elaboration in the light of subsequent advances in biological research, have shown that

text: adaptation

text: through

text: natural selection

text: comes about when particular heritable attributes in a population happen to give a better chance of successful reproduction in the reigning environment than rival attributes do. By the same process less advantageous attributes are less "successful"; they decrease in frequency or are lost completely. Since Darwin's time it has been shown how these changes in the frequencies of attributes occur according to the mechanisms of

text: genetics

text: and the laws of inheritance originally investigated by

text: Gregor Mendel

text: .  Combined with Darwin's original insights, genetic advances led to what has variously been called the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: or neo-Darwinism. In these terms evolutionary adaptation may occur most obviously through the natural selection of particular

text: allele

text: s. Such alleles may be long established, or they may be new

text: mutation

text: s. Selection also might arise from more complex

text: epigenetic

text: or other

text: chromosomal

text: changes, but the fundamental requirement is that any adaptive effect must be

text: heritable

text: In Darwin's theory of natural selection, more organisms are produced than can survive. Some have variations that give them a competitive advantage, and they have the best chance of surviving and procreating. The main element lacking in the theory was any mechanism that would allow organisms to pass on these favorable variations. Lacking such a mechanism, the theory of evolution faced competition from theories such as neo-Lamarckism, in which the environment acted directly on organisms, changing their structures. Darwin did not know that the monk Gregor Mendel was already working on experiments that would explain inheritance in terms of units of heredity that we now call genes.

text: In Darwin's theory of

text: natural selection

text: , more organisms are produced than can survive. Some have variations that give them a competitive advantage, and they have the best chance of surviving and procreating. The main element lacking in the theory was any mechanism that would allow organisms to pass on these favorable variations. Lacking such a mechanism, the theory of evolution faced competition from theories such as

text: neo-Lamarckism

text: , in which the environment acted directly on organisms, changing their structures. Darwin did not know that the monk

text: Gregor Mendel

text: was already working on experiments that would explain inheritance in terms of units of heredity that we now call genes.

text: The philosopher Karl Popper held that any scientific proposition must be falsifiable, in other words it must at least be possible to imagine an experiment whose outcome would disprove the hypothesis. Initially he thought that Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection (often summarized as "the survival of the fittest") was untestable in this sense, and therefore "almost tautological." Popper later changed his view, concluding that the theory of natural selection is falsifiable and that Darwin's own example of the peacock's tail had disproved one extreme variation of it, that all evolution is driven by natural selection. Although in 1978 Popper wrote that his earlier objection had been specifically to the theory of natural selection, in lectures and articles from 1949 to 1974 he had stated that "Darwinism" or "Darwin's theory of evolution" was a "metaphysical research programme" because it was not falsifiable. In fact he continued to express dissatisfaction with contemporary statements of the theory of evolution which focused on population genetics, the study of the relative frequencies of alleles (different forms of the same gene). Unfortunately some of the adjustments he proposed resembled Lamarckianism or saltationism, evolutionary theories that were and still are considered obsolete, and evolutionary biologists therefore disregarded his criticisms. In 1981 Popper complained that he had been misinterpreted as saying that "historical sciences" such as paleontology or the history of evolution of life on Earth were not genuine sciences, when in fact he believed they could make falsifiable predictions.

text: The philosopher

text: Karl Popper

text: held that any scientific proposition must be

text: falsifiable

text: , in other words it must at least be possible to

text: imagine an experiment

text: whose outcome would disprove the hypothesis. Initially he thought that

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: (often summarized as "the survival of the fittest") was untestable in this sense, and therefore "almost

text: tautological

text: ." Popper later changed his view, concluding that the theory of natural selection is falsifiable and that Darwin's own example of the

text: peacock

text: 's tail had disproved one extreme variation of it, that all evolution is driven by natural selection. Although in 1978 Popper wrote that his earlier objection had been specifically to the theory of natural selection, in lectures and articles from 1949 to 1974 he had stated that "

text: Darwinism

text: " or "Darwin's theory of evolution" was a "metaphysical research programme" because it was not falsifiable. In fact he continued to express dissatisfaction with contemporary statements of the theory of evolution which focused on

text: population genetic

text: s, the study of the relative frequencies of

text: allele

text: s (different forms of the same

text: gene

text: ). Unfortunately some of the adjustments he proposed resembled

text: Lamarckianism

text: or

text: saltationism

text: , evolutionary theories that were and still are considered obsolete, and evolutionary biologists therefore disregarded his criticisms. In 1981 Popper complained that he had been misinterpreted as saying that "historical sciences" such as

text: paleontology

text: or the

text: history of evolution of life on Earth

text: were not genuine sciences, when in fact he believed they could make falsifiable predictions.

text: The son of Erasmus Darwin, Robert Darwin was a noted physician from Shrewsbury, whose own income as a physician, together with astute investment of his inherited wealth, enabled him to fund his son Charles Darwin's place on the Voyage of the Beagle and then gave him the private income needed to support Charles' chosen vocation in natural history that led to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution. He married Susannah Wedgwood, daughter of Josiah Wedgwood (see above), and they had the following children.

text: The son of

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: Robert Darwin

text: was a noted physician from

text: Shrewsbury

text: , whose own income as a physician, together with astute investment of his inherited wealth, enabled him to fund his son

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's place on

text: the Voyage of the Beagle

text: and then gave him the private income needed to support Charles' chosen vocation in

text: natural history

text: that led to the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: . He married

text: Susannah Wedgwood

text: , daughter of

text: Josiah Wedgwood

text: see above

text: ), and they had the following children.

text: The sooty grassquit (Tiaris fuliginosus) is a small bird formerly placed with the Emberizidae. It is now recognized as a tanager closely related to Darwins finches.

text: The sooty grassquit (Tiaris fuliginosus) is a small

text: bird

text: formerly placed with the

text: Emberizidae

text: . It is now recognized as a

text: tanager

text: closely related to

text: Darwins finches

text: In a review of Behe's paper 'Design vs. Randomness in Evolution: Where Do the Data Point?', Denis Lamoureux criticised Darwin's Black Box as having become central to fundamentalist and evangelical anti-evolution critiques against biological evolution. Behe supports the historically incorrect misrepresentation that Darwin's views on the origin of life were atheistic, when On the Origin of Species repeatedly refers to a Creator in a positive and supportive context as impressing laws on matter. Though Behe has avoided committing himself to the view that God intervenes directly in nature to create purportedly irreducibly complex structures, Darwin's Black Box briefly speculates that divine intervention might have caused the direct creation of a cell from which all of life evolved, supporting creationist views of miraculous acts of creation, but ironically echoing Darwin's stated "view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one". Behe's claim that the creation of an original first cell represents a "gap" in the laws of nature needing divine intervention appears to be the problematic God of the gaps position which is subject to the gaps being filled by scientific discoveries. Behe's thesis that irreducible structures are created in "one fell swoop" is opposed by other biochemists, including many who are devout Christians, and has, it is claimed by some, no support from the fossil record - something Behe would dispute.

text: In a review of Behe's paper 'Design vs. Randomness in Evolution: Where Do the Data Point?',

text: Denis Lamoureux

text: criticised Darwin's Black Box as having become central to fundamentalist and evangelical anti-evolution critiques against biological evolution. Behe supports the historically incorrect misrepresentation that Darwin's views on the origin of life were atheistic, when

text: On the Origin of Species

text: repeatedly refers to a Creator in a positive and supportive context as impressing laws on matter. Though Behe has avoided committing himself to the view that God intervenes directly in nature to create purportedly irreducibly complex structures, Darwin's Black Box briefly speculates that divine intervention might have caused the direct creation of a cell from which all of life evolved, supporting creationist views of miraculous acts of creation, but ironically echoing Darwin's stated "view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one". Behe's claim that the creation of an original first cell represents a "gap" in the laws of nature needing divine intervention appears to be the problematic

text: God of the gaps

text: position which is subject to the gaps being filled by scientific discoveries. Behe's thesis that irreducible structures are created in "one fell swoop" is opposed by other biochemists, including many who are devout Christians, and has, it is claimed by some, no support from the fossil record - something Behe would dispute.

text: One famous example is Charles Darwin's deathbed conversion in which it was claimed by Lady Hope that Darwin said:"How I wish I had not expressed my theory of evolution as I have done." He went on to say that he would like her to gather a congregation since he "would like to speak to them of Christ Jesus and His salvation, being in a state where he was eagerly savoring the heavenly anticipation of bliss."Lady Hope's story was printed in the Boston Watchman Examiner. The story spread, and the claims were republished as late as October 1955 in the Reformation Review and in the Monthly Record of the Free Church of Scotland in February 1957.

text: One famous example is

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's deathbed conversion in which it was claimed by

text: Lady Hope

text: that Darwin said:"How I wish I had not expressed my theory of

text: evolution

text: as I have done." He went on to say that he would like her to gather a congregation since he "would like to speak to them of Christ Jesus and His salvation, being in a state where he was eagerly savoring the heavenly anticipation of bliss."Lady Hope's story was printed in the Boston Watchman Examiner. The story spread, and the claims were republished as late as October 1955 in the Reformation Review and in the Monthly Record of the

text: Free Church of Scotland

text: in February 1957.

text: His ideas changed in summer 1862 when he returned to study at Jena, where Ernst Haeckel introduced him to Darwin's work and theories. Dohrn became a fervent defender of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: His ideas changed in summer 1862 when he returned to study at

text: Jena

text: , where

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: introduced him to

text: Darwin

text: 's work and theories. Dohrn became a fervent defender of Darwin's

text: theory of evolution

text: by natural selection.

text: Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery.

text: Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as

text: botany

text: and

text: zoology

text: became increasingly professional

text: scientific discipline

text: s.

text: Lavoisier

text: and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for

text: biogeography

text: ecology

text: and

text: ethology

text: . Naturalists began to reject

text: essentialism

text: and consider the importance of

text: extinction

text: and the

text: mutability of species

text: Cell theory

text: provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from

text: embryology

text: and

text: paleontology

text: , were synthesized in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . The end of the 19th century saw the fall of

text: spontaneous generation

text: and the rise of the

text: germ theory of disease

text: , though the mechanism of

text: inheritance

text: remained a mystery.

text: Veja magazine had a cover story about the influence of Charles Darwin, who developed the theory of evolution. In an interview, Crivella said that he is a creationist and rejects this theory. The Senator said "there is no conclusive proofs that

text: Veja

text: magazine had a cover story about the influence of

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who developed the theory of

text: evolution

text: . In an interview, Crivella said that he is a

text: creationist

text: and rejects this theory. The Senator said "there is no conclusive proofs that

text: In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics. The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, and other beliefs about innate "progress" within the largest-scale trends in evolution, became obsolete scientific theories. Scientists continue to study various aspects of evolutionary biology by forming and testing hypotheses, constructing mathematical models of theoretical biology and biological theories, using observational data, and performing experiments in both the field and the laboratory.

text: In the early 20th century the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: integrated

text: classical genetics

text: with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of

text: population genetics

text: . The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of

text: biology

text: . Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as

text: orthogenesis

text: evolutionism

text: , and other beliefs about innate "progress" within the

text: largest-scale trends in evolution

text: , became

text: obsolete scientific theories

text: . Scientists continue to study various aspects of

text: evolutionary biology

text: by forming and testing hypotheses, constructing

text: mathematical models of theoretical biology

text: and biological theories, using

text: observational data

text: , and performing

text: experiment

text: s in both the

text: field

text: and the laboratory.

text: Charles Darwin initially shared the belief that nature was perfect and harmonious: after graduating as a student at the University of Cambridge in 1831, he was convinced by William Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity which saw adaptation as purposeful design and presented population pressure optimistically; "it is a happy world after all". By mid January 1832, early in the Beagle voyage, Darwin saw geology from Charles Lyell's viewpoint. When the second volume of Lyell's Principles of Geology was delivered to the Beagle that November, Darwin accepted its argument that the "struggle for existence" disproved transmutation of species. He was reminded of Malthusianism when his sisters sent him out pamphlets by Harriet Martineau. Lyell had been unable to show the mechanism for introducing new species, and towards the end of the voyage Darwin noted that the distribution of mockingbirds found on the Galápagos Islands raised doubts that species were fixed.

text: Charles Darwin

text: initially shared the belief that nature was perfect and harmonious: after graduating as a student at the

text: University of Cambridge

text: in 1831, he was convinced by

text: William Paley

text: 's

entity_name: Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity

text: Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity

text: which saw

text: adaptation

text: as

text: purposeful design

text: and presented population pressure optimistically; "it is a happy world after all". By mid January 1832, early in the

text: Beagle voyage

text: , Darwin saw geology from

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's viewpoint. When the second volume of Lyell's

text: Principles of Geology

text: was delivered to the Beagle that November, Darwin accepted its argument that the "struggle for existence" disproved

text: transmutation of species

text: . He was reminded of

text: Malthusianism

text: when his sisters sent him out pamphlets by

text: Harriet Martineau

text: . Lyell had been unable to show the mechanism for introducing new species, and towards the end of the voyage Darwin noted that the distribution of

text: mockingbird

text: s found on the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: raised doubts that species were fixed.

text: In his journal of The Voyage of the Beagle, Charles Darwin reports the finding of a nearly perfect fossil Scelidotherium in Punta Alta while travelling overland from Bahía Blanca to Buenos Aires in 1832. He allied it to the Megatherium.  Owen (1840) recognized the true characters of the remains and named them Scelidotherium, which means "femur beast" to reflect the distinctive proportions of that skeletal element. They were  tall and might have weighed up to .

text: In his journal of

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Charles Darwin

text: reports the finding of a nearly perfect fossil Scelidotherium in

text: Punta Alta

text: while travelling overland from

text: Bahía Blanca

text: to

text: Buenos Aires

text: in 1832. He allied it to the

text: Megatherium

text: .  Owen (1840) recognized the true characters of the remains and named them Scelidotherium, which means "femur beast" to reflect the distinctive proportions of that skeletal element. They were  tall and might have weighed up to .

text: If Charles Darwin's Theory of evolution was scientific as applied to animals, the same approach should be applied to "man" as an "animal".

text: If

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: Theory of evolution

text: was scientific as applied to animals, the same approach should be applied to "man" as an "animal".

text: In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Several important 20th century scientists (Fisher, Dobzhansky) whose work confirmed Darwin's theory, were also Christians who saw no incompatibility between their experimental and theoretical confirmations of evolution and their faith. Some religions have adopted a theistic evolution viewpoint, where God provides a divine spark that ignited the process of evolution and (or), where God has guided evolution in one way or another.

text: In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Several important 20th century scientists (

text: Fisher

text: Dobzhansky

text: ) whose work confirmed Darwin's theory, were also

text: Christians

text: who saw no incompatibility between their experimental and theoretical confirmations of evolution and their faith. Some religions have adopted a

text: theistic evolution

text: viewpoint, where

text: God

text: provides a

text: divine spark

text: that ignited the process of evolution and (or), where God has guided evolution in one way or another.

text: The Nesomimus group is endemic to the  Galápagos Islands. These mockingbirds were important in Charles Darwin's development of the theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: The Nesomimus group is

text: endemic

text: to the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: . These mockingbirds were important in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's development of the theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: Alfred Wallace and Darwin independently arrived at the theory of evolution by natural selection. Similar to Darwin, Wallace used Malthus's idea of the struggle for existence to reach this conclusion. In addition, Wallace was influenced by Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology. Lyell discusses a struggle between organisms that causes one species to become extinct; Wallace may have taken the phrase struggle for existence from this example. Additionally, Wallace claimed that it was the collection of chapters 3–12 of the first volume of An Essay on the Principle of Population that helped him develop his theory. "In these chapters are comprised very detailed accounts from all available sources of the various causes which keep down the population of savage and barbarous nations." Then, in 1853, Wallace first used the phrase "struggle for existence" when discussing the issue of slavery. By 1855, Wallace had made connections between the struggle for existence and overall population. Wallace saw in Malthus's writing how there are different ways in which a population can be kept in check:

text: Alfred Wallace

text: and Darwin independently arrived at the theory of evolution by natural selection. Similar to Darwin, Wallace used Malthus's idea of the struggle for existence to reach this conclusion. In addition, Wallace was influenced by

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's

text: Principles of Geology

text: . Lyell discusses a struggle between organisms that causes one species to become extinct; Wallace may have taken the phrase struggle for existence from this example. Additionally, Wallace claimed that it was the collection of chapters 3–12 of the first volume of An Essay on the Principle of Population that helped him develop his theory. "In these chapters are comprised very detailed accounts from all available sources of the various causes which keep down the population of savage and barbarous nations." Then, in 1853, Wallace first used the phrase "struggle for existence" when discussing the issue of slavery. By 1855, Wallace had made connections between the struggle for existence and overall population. Wallace saw in Malthus's writing how there are different ways in which a population can be kept in check:

text: Dismissing the Darwin's Theory of Evolution, Naik said that the theory of evolution is "only a hypothesis, and an unproven conjecture at best". According to Naik, most scientists "support the theory, because it went against the Bible – not because it was true." Naik argues that scientific theories were prophesised by the Quran. For example, he has stated in 2010 that certain verses of the Quran accurately describe embryological development.

text: Dismissing the

text: Darwin's

text: Theory of Evolution

text: , Naik said that the

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: is "only a hypothesis, and an unproven conjecture at best". According to Naik, most scientists "support the theory, because it went against the Bible – not because it was true." Naik argues that scientific theories were prophesised by the Quran. For example, he has stated in 2010 that certain verses of the

text: Quran

text: accurately describe

text: embryological

text: development.

text: By promoting a perception that evolution is the subject of wide controversy and debate within the scientific community, whereas in fact evolution is overwhelmingly supported by scientists, the list is used to lend support to other Discovery Institute campaigns promoting intelligent design, including "Teach the Controversy", "Critical Analysis of Evolution", "Free Speech on Evolution", and "Stand Up For Science". For example, in its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, the Institute claims that "evolution is a theory in crisis" and that many scientists criticize evolution and citing the list as evidence or a resource. The Discovery Institute also asserts that this information is being withheld from students in public high school science classes along with "alternatives" to evolution such as intelligent design. The Institute uses A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism as evidence to support its claim that evolution is disputed widely within the scientific community. In 2002, Stephen C. Meyer, the founder of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture, presented the list as evidence to the Ohio Board of Education to promote Teach the Controversy. He cited it as demonstrating that there was a genuine controversy over Darwinian evolution. In the 2005 Kansas evolution hearings Meyer cited the list in support of his assertion that there was "significant scientific dissent from Darwinism" that students should be informed about.

text: By promoting a perception that evolution is the subject of wide controversy and debate within the scientific community, whereas in fact evolution is overwhelmingly supported by scientists, the list is used to lend support to other

text: Discovery Institute

entity_name: Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns

text: campaigns

text: promoting

text: intelligent design

text: , including "

text: Teach the Controversy

text: Critical Analysis of Evolution

text: Free Speech on Evolution

text: ", and "

text: Stand Up For Science

text: ". For example, in its "Teach the Controversy" campaign, the Institute claims that "evolution is a theory in crisis" and that many scientists criticize evolution and citing the list as evidence or a resource. The Discovery Institute also asserts that this information is being withheld from students in public high school science classes along with "alternatives" to evolution such as intelligent design. The Institute uses A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism as evidence to support its claim that evolution is disputed widely within the scientific community. In 2002,

text: Stephen C. Meyer

text: , the founder of the Discovery Institute's

text: Center for Science and Culture

text: , presented the list as evidence to the

text: Ohio Board of Education

text: to promote

text: Teach the Controversy

text: . He cited it as demonstrating that there was a genuine controversy over Darwinian evolution. In the 2005

text: Kansas evolution hearings

text: Meyer cited the list in support of his assertion that there was "significant scientific dissent from Darwinism" that students should be informed about.

text: The publication of Darwin's theory brought into the open Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection, the culmination of more than twenty years of work.

text: The publication of Darwin's theory brought into the open

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: through

text: natural selection

text: , the culmination of more than twenty years of work.

text: Also in early 2009, the BBC broadcast an Attenborough one-hour special, Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life. In reference to the programme, Attenborough stated that "People write to me that evolution is only a theory. Well, it is not a theory. Evolution is as solid a historical fact as you could conceive. Evidence from every quarter. What is a theory is whether natural selection is the mechanism and the only mechanism. That is a theory. But the historical reality that dinosaurs led to birds and mammals produced whales, that's not theory." He strongly opposes creationism and its offshoot "intelligent design", saying that a survey that found a quarter of science teachers in state schools believe that creationism should be taught alongside evolution in science lessons was "really terrible".

text: Also in early 2009, the BBC broadcast an Attenborough one-hour special,

text: Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life

text: . In reference to the programme, Attenborough stated that "People write to me that evolution is only a theory. Well, it is not a theory. Evolution is as solid a historical fact as you could conceive. Evidence from every quarter. What is a theory is whether natural selection is the mechanism and the only mechanism. That is a theory. But the historical reality that dinosaurs led to birds and mammals produced whales, that's not theory." He strongly opposes

text: creationism

text: and its offshoot "

text: intelligent design

text: ", saying that a survey that found a quarter of science teachers in state schools believe that creationism should be taught alongside evolution in science lessons was "really terrible".

text: The film is inspired by Darwin's theory of evolution and the myths of Narcissus and Prometheus.

text: The film is inspired by

text: Darwin's theory of evolution

text: and the myths of

text: Narcissus

text: and

text: Prometheus

text: John F. Haught is a Distinguished Research Professor at Georgetown University. He specializes in systematic theology, with a particular interest in issues pertaining to science, cosmology, evolution, ecology, and religion. He has authored numerous books and articles, including Science and Faith: A New Introduction (2012), Making Sense of Evolution: Darwin, God, and The Drama of Life ( 2010), God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens (2008), Christianity and Science: Toward a Theology of Nature (2007), Is Nature Enough? Meaning and Truth in the Age of Science (2006), Purpose, Evolution and the Meaning of Life (2004), God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution (2000, 2nd ed. 2007), Science and Religion: From Conflict to Conversation (1995), The Promise of Nature: Ecology and Cosmic Purpose (1993, 2nd ed. 2004), What is Religion? (1990), What is God? (1986), and The Cosmic Adventure: Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose (1984).  In 2002, Haught received the Owen Garrigan Award in Science and Religion, in 2004 the Sophia Award for Theological Excellence, and in 2008 a “Friend of Darwin Award” from the National Center for Science Education.  He also testified for the plaintiffs in Harrisburg, PA “Intelligent Design Trial”(Kitzmiller et al. vs. Dover Board of Education).

text: John F. Haught is a Distinguished Research Professor at Georgetown University. He specializes in

text: systematic theology

text: , with a particular interest in issues pertaining to science, cosmology, evolution, ecology, and religion. He has authored numerous books and articles, including Science and Faith: A New Introduction (2012), Making Sense of Evolution: Darwin, God, and The Drama of Life ( 2010), God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens (2008), Christianity and Science: Toward a Theology of Nature (2007), Is Nature Enough? Meaning and Truth in the Age of Science (2006), Purpose, Evolution and the Meaning of Life (2004), God After Darwin: A Theology of Evolution (2000, 2nd ed. 2007), Science and Religion: From Conflict to Conversation (1995), The Promise of Nature: Ecology and Cosmic Purpose (1993, 2nd ed. 2004), What is Religion? (1990), What is God? (1986), and The Cosmic Adventure: Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose (1984).  In 2002, Haught received the Owen Garrigan Award in Science and Religion, in 2004 the Sophia Award for Theological Excellence, and in 2008 a “Friend of Darwin Award” from the National Center for Science Education.  He also testified for the plaintiffs in Harrisburg, PA “Intelligent Design Trial”(

entity_name: Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District

text: Kitzmiller et al. vs. Dover Board of Education

text: The idea of a modern project of improving the human population through a statistical understanding of heredity used to encourage good breeding was originally developed by Francis Galton and, initially, was closely linked to Darwinism and the theory of natural selection. Galton had read his half-cousin Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, and desired to apply it to humans. Based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. In 1883, one year after Darwin's death, Galton gave his research a name: eugenics. With the introduction of genetics, eugenics relied on an ideology of genetic determinism in which human character was due to genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism. Throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial.

text: The idea of a modern project of improving the human population through a statistical understanding of

text: heredity

text: used to encourage good breeding was originally developed by

text: Francis Galton

text: and, initially, was closely linked to Darwinism and the theory of

text: natural selection

text: . Galton had read his half-cousin

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: , which sought to explain the development of plant and animal species, and desired to apply it to humans. Based on his biographical studies, Galton believed that desirable human qualities were hereditary traits, though Darwin strongly disagreed with this elaboration of his theory. In 1883, one year after Darwin's death, Galton gave his research a name: eugenics. With the introduction of

text: genetics

text: , eugenics relied on an ideology of

text: genetic determinism

text: in which human character was due to genes, unaffected by education or living conditions. Many of the early geneticists were not Darwinians, and evolution theory was not needed for eugenics policies based on genetic determinism. Throughout its recent history, eugenics has remained controversial.

text: Universal Darwinism (also known as generalized Darwinism, universal selection theory,or Darwinian metaphysics) refers to a variety of approaches that extend the theory of Darwinism beyond its original domain of biological evolution on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of variation, selection and heredity proposed by Charles Darwin, so that they can apply to explain evolution in a wide variety of other domains, including psychology, economics, culture, medicine, computer science and physics.

text: Universal Darwinism (also known as generalized Darwinism, universal selection theory,or Darwinian metaphysics) refers to a variety of approaches that extend the theory of

text: Darwinism

text: beyond its original domain of

text: biological evolution

text: on Earth. Universal Darwinism aims to formulate a generalized version of the mechanisms of

text: variation

text: selection

text: and

text: heredity

text: proposed by

text: Charles Darwin

text: , so that they can apply to explain

text: evolution

text: in a wide variety of other domains, including

text: psychology

text: economics

text: culture

text: medicine

text: computer science

text: and

text: physics

text: Løvtrup is most well known for his book Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth (1987). In this controversial work, he claimed that Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was the real founder of evolution and that natural selection was discovered by Erasmus Darwin, Patrick Matthew and other naturalists before Charles Darwin. The book supports the ideas of early evolutionary thinkers such as Karl Ernst von Baer, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and St. George Jackson Mivart. He was a critic of gradualism and the punctuated equilibrium theory of evolution.

text: Løvtrup is most well known for his book Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth (1987). In this controversial work, he claimed that

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: was the real founder of evolution and that

text: natural selection

text: was discovered by

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: Patrick Matthew

text: and other naturalists before

text: Charles Darwin

text: . The book supports the ideas of early evolutionary thinkers such as

text: Karl Ernst von Baer

text: Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

text: and

text: St. George Jackson Mivart

text: . He was a critic of

text: gradualism

text: and the

text: punctuated equilibrium

text: theory of evolution.

text: The 'Beagle' Collection comprises approximately 2000 rocks and a few fossils collected by Charles Darwin during his voyage around the world on HMS Beagle between 1831-1836.

text: The 'Beagle' Collection comprises approximately 2000 rocks and a few fossils collected by

text: Charles Darwin

text: during his voyage around the world on

text: HMS Beagle

text: between 1831-1836.

text: The idea of shaping an organism to fit a specific need isn’t a new science; selective breeding of animals and plants started before recorded history. However, until the late 1900s farmers and scientist could breed new strains of a plant or organism only from closely related species, because the DNA had to be compatible for offspring to be able to reproduce another generation.

text: Colin Patterson reviewed Evolution of Living Organisms for the New Scientist stating that the book was a criticism of neo-Darwinism, with the opinion that paleontology is "the only true science of evolution". Patterson a paleontologist disputed this statement. He also noted that Grassé's own theory of neo-Lamarckism was "hard to disentangle, and there were other places where Grasse's reasoning was difficult to follow." According to Patterson the book did not mention gene duplication, but this has been well-established in evolution.

text: Colin Patterson

text: reviewed Evolution of Living Organisms for the

text: New Scientist

text: stating that the book was a criticism of neo-Darwinism, with the opinion that paleontology is "the only true science of evolution". Patterson a paleontologist disputed this statement. He also noted that Grassé's own theory of neo-Lamarckism was "hard to disentangle, and there were other places where Grasse's reasoning was difficult to follow." According to Patterson the book did not mention

text: gene duplication

text: , but this has been well-established in evolution.

text: The Discovery Institute has created a number of petitions to give the impression that there are widespread doubts about the Theory of Evolution among scientists and scientifically-literate professionals. These petitions include A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism, Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity, Physicians and Surgeons who Dissent from Darwinism, and the now-defunct Stand Up For Science.

text: The Discovery Institute has created a number of petitions to give the impression that there are widespread doubts about the Theory of Evolution among scientists and scientifically-literate professionals. These petitions include

text: A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism

entity_name: Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity

text: Physicians and Surgeons for Scientific Integrity

text: , Physicians and Surgeons who Dissent from Darwinism, and the now-defunct Stand Up For Science.

text: See the development of Darwin's theory for the ensuing developments, in the context of his life, work and outside influences at the time.

text: See the

text: development of Darwin's theory

text: for the ensuing developments, in the context of his life, work and outside influences at the time.

text: Samuel Wilberforce FRS (7 September 1805 – 19 July 1873) was an English bishop in the Church of England, third son of William Wilberforce.  Known as "Soapy Sam", Wilberforce was one of the greatest public speakers of his day. The nickname derives from a comment by Benjamin Disraeli that the bishop's manner was "unctuous, oleaginous, saponaceous".  He is probably best remembered today for his opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution—most notably at a famous debate in 1860.

text: Samuel Wilberforce

text: FRS

text: (7 September 1805 – 19 July 1873) was an English bishop in the

text: Church of England

text: , third son of

text: William Wilberforce

text: .  Known as "Soapy Sam", Wilberforce was one of the greatest public speakers of his day. The nickname derives from a comment by

text: Benjamin Disraeli

text: that the bishop's manner was "unctuous, oleaginous, saponaceous".  He is probably best remembered today for his opposition to

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: —most notably at a

text: famous debate in 1860

text: Between 1868 and 1872, the life and work of Charles Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions continued with aspects of his intended "Big Book" on evolution through natural selection.  He had by then hurriedly published an "abstract" of this work as On the Origin of Species in 1859, and following the immediate reaction to Darwin's theory his earlier work included demonstrating the utility of the flowers of Orchids in directing insect pollination to achieve cross fertilisation, and a summing up of thirteen years of experiments in The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication which went on sale on 30 January 1868. He now published his ideas on human evolution and on how beautiful but apparently impractical features could have evolved in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. After revising The Origin of Species as the definitive 6th edition, his major works on species culminated in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.  This period was followed by extensive work on insectivorous plants and research into worms.

text: Between 1868 and 1872, the life and work of

text: Charles Darwin

text: from Descent of Man to Emotions continued with aspects of his intended "Big Book" on

text: evolution

text: through

text: natural selection

text: .  He had by then hurriedly published an "

text: abstract

text: " of this work as

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859, and following the immediate

text: reaction to Darwin's theory

text: his earlier work

text: included demonstrating the utility of the flowers of

text: Orchid

text: s in directing insect pollination to achieve cross fertilisation, and a summing up of thirteen years of experiments in

text: which went on sale on 30 January 1868. He now published his ideas on human evolution and on how beautiful but apparently impractical features could have evolved in

entity_name: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: . After revising The Origin of Species as the definitive 6th edition, his major works on species culminated in

entity_name: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

text: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

text: .  This period was followed by

entity_name: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms

text: extensive work on insectivorous plants and research into worms

text: The publication in May of Darwin's Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle) brought reviews accusing him of theorising rather than letting the facts speak for themselves. He turned his attention to expanding his investigations and theory of the formation of coral atolls as the first part of his planned book on geology.

text: The publication in May of Darwin's

text: Journal and Remarks (The Voyage of the Beagle)

text: brought reviews accusing him of theorising rather than letting the facts speak for themselves. He turned his attention to expanding his investigations and theory of the formation of

text: coral

text: atoll

text: s as the first part of his planned book on geology.

text: He was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. He first read Fritz Müller's Für Darwin (For Darwin) in Giessen. From this he became a supporter of natural selection and Ernst Haeckel's biogenetic law. His scientific works and theories were inspired by Darwinism.

text: He was greatly influenced by

text: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution

text: . He first read

text: Fritz Müller

text: 's Für Darwin (For Darwin) in Giessen. From this he became a supporter of natural selection and

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: 's

text: biogenetic law

text: . His scientific works and theories were inspired by Darwinism.

text: In the first edition of On The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin used an estimate for the erosion of the chalk, sandstone and clay strata of the Weald in his theory of natural selection. Charles Darwin was a follower of Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism and decided to expand upon Lyell's theory with a quantitative estimate to determine if there was enough time in the history of the Earth to uphold his principles of evolution. He assumed the rate of erosion was around one inch per century and calculated the age of the Weald at around 300 million years. Were that true, he reasoned, the Earth itself must be much older. In 1862, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) published a paper "On the age of the sun's heat" in which, unaware of the process of solar fusion, he calculated the Sun had been burning for less than a million years, and put the outside limit of the age of the Earth at 200 million years. Based on these estimates he denounced Darwin's geological estimates as imprecise. Darwin saw Lord Kelvin's calculation as one of the most serious criticisms to his theory and removed his calculations on the Weald from the third edition of On the Origin of Species.

text: In the first edition of

text: On The Origin of Species

text: Charles Darwin

text: used an estimate for the erosion of the chalk, sandstone and clay strata of the Weald in his

text: theory of natural selection

text: . Charles Darwin was a follower of Lyell's theory of

text: uniformitarianism

text: and decided to expand upon Lyell's theory with a quantitative estimate to determine if there was enough time in the history of the Earth to uphold his principles of evolution. He assumed the rate of erosion was around one inch per century and calculated the age of the Weald at around 300 million years. Were that true, he reasoned, the Earth itself must be much older. In 1862, William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) published a paper "On the age of the sun's heat" in which, unaware of the process of solar fusion, he calculated the Sun had been burning for less than a million years, and put the outside limit of the age of the Earth at 200 million years. Based on these estimates he denounced Darwin's geological estimates as imprecise. Darwin saw Lord Kelvin's calculation as one of the most serious criticisms to his theory and removed his calculations on the Weald from the third edition of

text: On the Origin of Species

text: The level of support for creationism among relevant scientists is minimal. Only 700 out of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists gave credence to creationism in 1987, representing about 0.146% of relevant scientists. In 2007 the Discovery Institute reported that about 600 scientists signed their A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism list, up from 100 in 2001. The actual statement of the Scientific Dissent from Darwinism is a relatively mild one that expresses skepticism about the absoluteness of 'Darwinism' (and is in line with the falsifiability required of scientific theories) to explain all features of life, and does not in any way represent an absolute denial or rejection of evolution. By contrast, a tongue-in-cheek response known as Project Steve, a list of scientists named Steve who agree that evolution is "a vital, well-supported, unifying principle of the biological sciences," has 1,382 signatories . People named Steve make up approximately 1% of the total U.S. population.

text: The level of support for

text: creationism

text: among relevant scientists is minimal. Only 700 out of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists gave credence to creationism in 1987, representing about 0.146% of relevant scientists. In 2007 the

text: Discovery Institute

text: reported that about 600 scientists signed their

text: A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism

text: list, up from 100 in 2001. The actual statement of the Scientific Dissent from Darwinism is a relatively mild one that expresses skepticism about the absoluteness of 'Darwinism' (and is in line with the

text: falsifiability

text: required of

text: scientific theories

text: ) to explain all features of life, and does not in any way represent an absolute denial or rejection of evolution. By contrast, a tongue-in-cheek response known as

text: Project Steve

text: , a list of scientists named Steve who agree that evolution is "a vital, well-supported, unifying principle of the biological sciences," has 1,382 signatories . People named Steve make up approximately 1% of the total U.S. population.

text: One famous example where adaptive radiation is seen is with Darwin's finches.  It has been observed by many evolutionary biologists that fragmented landscapes are often a prime location for adaptive radiation to occur.  The differences in geography throughout disjointed landscapes such as islands are believed to promote such diversification.  Darwin's finches occupy the fragmented landscape of the Galápagos Islands and are diversified into many different species which differ in ecology, song, and morphology, specifically the size and shapes of their beaks.  The first obvious explanation for these differences is allopatric speciation, speciation that occurs when populations of the same species become isolated geographically and evolve separately.  Because the finches are divided amongst the islands, the birds have been evolving separately for several million years.  However, this does not account for the fact that many of the species occur in sympatry, with seven or more species inhabiting the same island.  This raises the question as to why these species split when living in the same environment with all the same resources.  Petren, Grant, Grant, and Keller proposed that the speciation of the finches occurred in two parts: an initial, easily observable allopatric event followed by a less clear sympatric event. This sympatric event which occurred second was adaptive radiation.  This occurred largely to promote specialization upon each island.  One major morphological difference among species sharing one island is beak size and shape.  Adaptive radiation led to the evolution of different beaks which could access different food and resources.  Those with short beaks are better adapted to eating seeds on the ground, those with thin, sharp beaks eat insects, and those with long beaks use their beaks to probe for food inside cacti.  With these specializations, seven or more species of finches are able to inhabit the same environments without competition or lack of resources killing several off.  In other words, these morphological differences in beak size and shape brought about by adaptive radiation allow the island diversification to persist.

text: One famous example where adaptive radiation is seen is with

text: Darwin's finches

text: .  It has been observed by many evolutionary biologists that fragmented landscapes are often a prime location for adaptive radiation to occur.  The differences in geography throughout disjointed landscapes such as islands are believed to promote such diversification.  Darwin's finches occupy the fragmented landscape of the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: and are diversified into many different species which differ in ecology, song, and morphology, specifically the size and shapes of their

text: beak

text: s.  The first obvious explanation for these differences is

text: allopatric speciation

text: , speciation that occurs when populations of the same species become isolated geographically and evolve separately.  Because the finches are divided amongst the islands, the birds have been evolving separately for several million years.  However, this does not account for the fact that many of the species occur in

text: sympatry

text: , with seven or more species inhabiting the same island.  This raises the question as to why these species split when living in the same environment with all the same resources.  Petren, Grant, Grant, and Keller proposed that the speciation of the finches occurred in two parts: an initial, easily observable allopatric event followed by a less clear sympatric event. This sympatric event which occurred second was adaptive radiation.  This occurred largely to promote specialization upon each island.  One major morphological difference among species sharing one island is beak size and shape.  Adaptive radiation led to the evolution of different beaks which could access different food and resources.  Those with short beaks are better adapted to eating seeds on the ground, those with thin, sharp beaks eat insects, and those with long beaks use their beaks to probe for food inside cacti.  With these specializations, seven or more species of finches are able to inhabit the same environments without competition or lack of resources killing several off.  In other words, these morphological differences in beak size and shape brought about by adaptive radiation allow the island diversification to persist.

text: Plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of wild plants into uniform and predictable agricultural cultigens. High-yielding varieties have been particularly important in agriculture.

text: Plant breeding has been used for thousands of years, and began with the domestication of

text: wild

text: plants into uniform and predictable agricultural

text: cultigen

text: s.

text: High-yielding

text: varieties have been particularly important in agriculture.

text: A major influence on plant systematics was the theory of evolution (Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859), resulting in the aim to group plants by their phylogenetic relationships. To this was added the interest in plant anatomy, aided by the use of the light microscope and the rise of chemistry, allowing the analysis of secondary metabolites.

text: A major influence on plant systematics was the theory of

text: evolution

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

text: Origin of Species

text: in 1859), resulting in the aim to group plants by their

text: phylogenetic

text: relationships. To this was added the interest in

text: plant anatomy

text: , aided by the use of the

text: light microscope

text: and the rise of chemistry, allowing the analysis of

text: secondary metabolites

text: Before Darwin published his theory of evolution and common descent in his Origin of Species (1859) scientific theories or models of Polygenism (such as Agassiz's) were strictly creationist. Even after Darwin's book was published, Agassiz still stuck to his scientific form of polygenist creationism and denounced the idea of evolution. However by the late 19th century most scientific polygenists had abandoned Agassiz's creationism and began to embrace polygenist forms of evolution. This even included many students of Agassiz, including Nathaniel Shaler who had studied under Agassiz at Harvard. Shaler continued to believe in polygenism, but believed the different races evolved from different primates. The prominent French anthropologist Paul Broca by 1878 had also converted from creationist polygenism to accepting a form of polygenist evolution.

text: Before Darwin published his theory of evolution and

text: common descent

text: in his Origin of Species (1859) scientific theories or models of Polygenism (such as Agassiz's) were strictly

text: creationist

text: . Even after Darwin's book was published, Agassiz still stuck to his scientific form of polygenist creationism and denounced the idea of evolution. However by the late 19th century most scientific polygenists had abandoned Agassiz's creationism and began to embrace polygenist forms of evolution. This even included many students of Agassiz, including

text: Nathaniel Shaler

text: who had studied under Agassiz at

text: Harvard

text: . Shaler continued to believe in polygenism, but believed the different races evolved from different primates. The prominent French anthropologist

text: Paul Broca

text: by 1878 had also converted from creationist polygenism to accepting a form of polygenist evolution.

text: The voyage took almost five years, and although the Beagle was frequently exposed to lightning and was thought to have been struck by lightning on at least two occasions, "when—at the instant of a vivid flash of lightning, accompanied by a crashing peal of thunder—a hissing sound was heard on the masts; and a strange, though very slightly tremulous, motion in the ship indicated that something unusual had happened", there was never the "slightest damage". Darwin himself reported this effect, and his conviction that "but for the conductor, the results would have been serious." FitzRoy reported that the copper plates stayed firmly in place, even in small spars, and strengthened the spars rather than weakening them. FitzRoy gave the lightning protection high praise:

text: Further extensive modifications were made for the second voyage of HMS Beagle. Darwin noted in his journal in April 1833 that "It blew half a gale of wind; but it was fair & we scudded before it. — Our decks fully deserved their nickname of a "half tide rock"; so constantly did the water flow over them", but John Lort Stokes who was on all three survey expeditions praised the Beagle: "The reader will be surprised to learn that she belongs to that much-abused class, the '10-gun brigs'—coffins, as they are not infrequently designated in the service; notwithstanding which, she has proved herself, under every possible variety of trial, in all kinds of weather, an excellent sea boat.

text: Further extensive modifications were made for the

text: second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: . Darwin noted in his journal in April 1833 that "It blew half a gale of wind; but it was fair & we scudded before it. — Our decks fully deserved their nickname of a "half tide rock"; so constantly did the water flow over them", but

text: John Lort Stokes

text: who was on all three survey expeditions praised the Beagle: "The reader will be surprised to learn that she belongs to that much-abused class, the '10-gun brigs'—coffins, as they are not infrequently designated in the service; notwithstanding which, she has proved herself, under every possible variety of trial, in all kinds of weather, an excellent sea boat.

text: Darwin had kept a diary of his experiences, and rewrote this as the book titled Journal and Remarks, published in 1839 as the third volume of the official account of the expedition. This travelogue and scientific journal was widely popular, and was reprinted many times with various titles, becoming known as The Voyage of the Beagle. This diary is where Darwin drew most of the ideas for his publications. Darwin attributes his first real training in natural history to his voyage on the Beagle.

text: Darwin had kept a diary of his experiences, and rewrote this as the book titled Journal and Remarks, published in 1839 as the third volume of the official account of the expedition. This travelogue and scientific journal was widely popular, and was reprinted many times with various titles, becoming known as

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: . This diary is where Darwin drew most of the ideas for his publications. Darwin attributes his first real training in natural history to his voyage on the Beagle.

text: Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May after more than three years of work, with Part 4: Fish of Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle also going to print. Illness was a continuing problem, and he and Emma left London on 18 May, visiting her parents at Maer Hall before moving on to Shrewsbury on 15 June for rest and quiet. Now Darwin "first allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil in 35 pages", the '"Pencil Sketch"' of his theory. This discussed farmers breeding animals, gave the analogy of overpopulation and competition leading to "Natural Selection" through the "war of nature" and the mechanism of descent. Every living thing was related in a branching pedigree, not ascending a Lamarckian ladder, and this pedigree was the proper basis for classification.<ref>

text: Darwin's book

entity_name: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs

text: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs

text: on his theory of

text: atoll

text: formation was published in May after more than three years of work, with Part 4: Fish of

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: also going to print. Illness was a continuing problem, and he and Emma left London on 18 May, visiting her parents at

text: Maer Hall

text: before moving on to

text: Shrewsbury

text: on 15 June for rest and quiet. Now Darwin "first allowed myself the satisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of my theory in pencil in 35 pages", the '"Pencil Sketch"' of his theory. This discussed farmers breeding animals, gave the analogy of overpopulation and competition leading to "Natural Selection" through the "war of nature" and the mechanism of descent. Every living thing was related in a branching pedigree, not ascending a Lamarckian ladder, and this pedigree was the proper basis for classification.<ref>

text: Ever since 1859, when Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, the biological theory of evolution has been significant. The theory posits that the human species is related to all others, living and extinct, and that natural selection is the primary survival factor. This has provided a basis for new beliefs, e.g. social Darwinism, and for new technology, e.g. antibiotics.

text: Ever since 1859, when

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , the biological

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: has been significant. The theory posits that the human

text: species

text: is related to all others, living and extinct, and that

text: natural selection

text: is the primary survival factor. This has provided a basis for new beliefs, e.g.

text: social Darwinism

text: , and for new

text: technology

text: , e.g.

text: antibiotics

text: When Sir John Lubbock was doing the preliminary work for his 1865 magnum opus, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were jointly publishing their first papers On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. Darwins's On the Origin of Species came out in 1859, but he did not elucidate the theory of evolution as it applies to man until the Descent of Man in 1871. Meanwhile, Wallace read a paper in 1864 to the Anthropological Society of London that was a major influence on Sir John, publishing in the very next year. He quoted Wallace:

text: When Sir John Lubbock was doing the preliminary work for his 1865

text: magnum opus

text: Charles Darwin

text: and

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: were jointly publishing their first papers

entity_name: On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

text: On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection

text: . Darwins's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: came out in 1859, but he did not elucidate the

text: theory of evolution

text: as it applies to man until

text: the Descent of Man

text: in 1871. Meanwhile, Wallace read a paper in 1864 to the

text: Anthropological Society of London

text: that was a major influence on Sir John, publishing in the very next year. He quoted Wallace:

text: While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as Olivia Judson and Eugenie Scott that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel, and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity. He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical  developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift, for example. In the United States, creationists often use the term "Darwinism" as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as scientific materialism, but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations, being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution, and in particular, with evolution by natural selection.

text: While the term Darwinism has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as

text: Olivia Judson

text: and

text: Eugenie Scott

text: that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory. For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the

text: Moravia

text: n scientist and

text: Augustinian

text: friar

text: Gregor Mendel

text: , and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of

text: heredity

text: . He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical  developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of

text: genetic drift

text: , for example. In the United States, creationists often use the term "Darwinism" as a

text: pejorative

text: term in reference to beliefs such as

text: scientific materialism

text: , but in the United Kingdom the term has no negative connotations, being freely used as a shorthand for the body of theory dealing with evolution, and in particular, with evolution by natural selection.

text: Charles Darwin's views on women were based on his view of natural selection. Darwin believed that the difference between males and females were partly due to "sexual selection." Darwin's theory of sexual selection, which can be found in his book The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, states that women, and some men, will choose to mate with someone that is most suitable to culture. This proposition of sexual selection readily tied into his theory of natural selection in the way that evolution will have different outcomes depending on the traits of the suitor the females chooses to reproduce with. This also supports his principle of "survival of the fittest" in the human species.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's views on women were based on his view of natural selection. Darwin believed that the difference between males and females were partly due to "

text: sexual selection

text: ." Darwin's theory of sexual selection, which can be found in his book

text: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: , states that women, and some men, will choose to mate with someone that is most suitable to culture. This proposition of sexual selection readily tied into his theory of

text: natural selection

text: in the way that evolution will have different outcomes depending on the traits of the suitor the females chooses to reproduce with. This also supports his principle of "survival of the fittest" in the human species.

text: Charles Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the "neo-Darwinian synthesis".

text: Charles Darwin

text: gave new direction to

text: morphology

text: and

text: physiology

text: , by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a

text: genealogical

text: basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of

text: spontaneous generation

text: and the rise of the

text: germ theory of disease

text: , though the mechanism of

text: inheritance

text: remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of

text: Mendel's

text: work led to the rapid development of

text: genetics

text: by

text: Thomas Hunt Morgan

text: and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of

text: population genetics

text: and natural selection in the "

text: neo-Darwinian synthesis

text: He distinguished between the scale structures of fishes, living and fossil, by which they are classified and recognized. This is important because different strata may identified by fossil fish scales. Goodrich's attention was always focused on evolution, to which he made notable contributions, firmly adhering to Darwin's theory of natural selection.

text: He distinguished between the scale structures of fishes, living and fossil, by which they are classified and recognized. This is important because different

text: strata

text: may identified by fossil fish scales. Goodrich's attention was always focused on

text: evolution

text: , to which he made notable contributions, firmly adhering to Darwin's theory of

text: natural selection

text: Unlike Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist. By 1855, his biogeographical observations during his field work in South America and the Malay Archipelago made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species. Like Darwin, it was Wallace's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection. In February 1858, Wallace, unaware of Darwin's unpublished ideas, composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin, asking for his opinion. The result was the joint publication in July of an extract from Darwin's 1844 essay along with Wallace's letter. Darwin also began work on a short abstract summarising his theory, which he would publish in 1859 as On the Origin of Species.

text: Unlike Darwin,

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist. By 1855, his biogeographical observations during his field work in

text: South America

text: and the

text: Malay Archipelago

text: made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species. Like Darwin, it was Wallace's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection. In February 1858, Wallace, unaware of Darwin's unpublished ideas, composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin, asking for his opinion. The result was the joint publication in July of

text: an extract from Darwin's 1844 essay along with Wallace's letter

text: . Darwin also began work on a short abstract summarising his theory, which he would publish in 1859 as On the Origin of Species.

text: Gray, considered by Darwin to be his friend and "best advocate", also attempted to convince Darwin in his letters that design was inherent in all forms of life, and to return to his faith. Gray saw nature as filled with "unmistakable and irresistible indications of design" and argued that "God himself is the very last, irreducible causal factor and, hence, the source of all evolutionary change." Darwin agreed that his theories were "not at all necessarily atheistical" but was unable to share Gray's belief. "I feel most deeply that the whole subject is too profound for the human intellect. A dog might as well speculate on the mind of Newton," he wrote. Gray was a Christian, but he was a staunch supporter of Darwin in America. He collected together a number of his own writings to produce an influential book, Darwiniana (1876); these essays argued for a conciliation between Darwinian evolution and the tenets of theism, at a time when many on both sides perceived the two as mutually exclusive. Gray denied that investigation of physical causes stood opposed to the theological view and the study of the harmonies between mind and Nature, and thought it "most presumable that an intellectual conception realized in Nature would be realized through natural agencies". The result of all this is that Gray distanced himself from Social Darwinism. Gray is a critical link in the history of American intellectualism, and his writings that explain how religion and science were not necessarily mutually exclusive have been considered his supreme accomplishment; thereby providing a way for believers in Creationism to consider Darwin's ideas.

text: Gray, considered by Darwin to be his friend and "best advocate", also attempted to convince Darwin in his letters that

text: design was inherent in all forms of life

text: , and to return to his faith. Gray saw nature as filled with "unmistakable and irresistible indications of design" and argued that "God himself is the very last, irreducible causal factor and, hence, the source of all evolutionary change." Darwin agreed that his theories were "not at all necessarily atheistical" but was unable to share Gray's belief. "I feel most deeply that the whole subject is too profound for the human intellect. A dog might as well speculate on the mind of

text: Newton

text: ," he wrote. Gray was a Christian, but he was a staunch supporter of Darwin in America. He collected together a number of his own writings to produce an influential book,

text: Darwiniana

text: (1876); these essays argued for a conciliation between Darwinian evolution and the tenets of

text: theism

text: , at a time when many on both sides perceived the two as mutually exclusive. Gray denied that investigation of physical causes stood opposed to the theological view and the study of the harmonies between mind and Nature, and thought it "most presumable that an intellectual conception realized in Nature would be realized through natural agencies". The result of all this is that Gray distanced himself from

text: Social Darwinism

text: . Gray is a critical link in the history of American intellectualism, and his writings that explain how religion and science were not necessarily mutually exclusive have been considered his supreme accomplishment; thereby providing a way for believers in

text: Creationism

text: to consider Darwin's ideas.

text: What distinguishes most mankind from animals, according to Darwin, is in fact evolution and development of morality. Mankind is a social animal, and has inherited its moral traits through the evolution of morality. As Darwin notes, the moral difference between mankind and animals, however, is "certainly one of degree and not of kind." Emotions such as remorse, regret or shame one may feel, stem from human's incessant reflection on past experiences and preoccupation with the judgement of others.

text: What distinguishes most mankind from animals, according to Darwin, is in fact evolution and development of morality. Mankind is a social animal, and has inherited its moral traits through the

text: evolution of morality

text: . As Darwin notes, the moral difference between mankind and animals, however, is "certainly one of degree and not of kind." Emotions such as remorse, regret or shame one may feel, stem from human's incessant reflection on past experiences and preoccupation with the judgement of others.

text: Charles Darwin read Sir John's 1809 pamphlet, and was impressed with a passage that elaborated on how "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities". These writings, along with Darwin's correspondence via their mutual friend William Yarrell, aided Darwin in the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin's seminal work On the Origin of Species, first published in 1859, cited Sir John's experiments in pigeon breeding, and recalled "That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.'" Darwin also cited Sir John extensively regarding the Sebright bantam, as well as pigeon and dog breeding, in his 1868 work Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, his 1871 The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, and his book on Natural Selection (which was not published in his lifetime).

text: Charles Darwin

text: read Sir John's 1809 pamphlet, and was impressed with a passage that elaborated on how "the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities". These writings, along with

text: Darwin's correspondence

text: via their mutual friend

text: William Yarrell

text: , aided Darwin in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: . Darwin's seminal work

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , first published in 1859, cited Sir John's experiments in pigeon breeding, and recalled "That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.'" Darwin also cited Sir John extensively regarding the Sebright bantam, as well as pigeon and dog breeding, in his 1868 work Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, his 1871

text: , and his book on Natural Selection (which was not published in his lifetime).

text: During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats, and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.

text: During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the

text: Beagle Channel

text: was named

text: Darwin Sound

text: by

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing

text: glacier

text: caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats, and the nearby

text: Mount Darwin

text: in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. When the

text: Beagle

text: was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend

text: John Lort Stokes

text: sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain

text: Wickham

text: named

text: Port Darwin

text: : a nearby settlement was renamed

text: Darwin

text: in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's

text: Northern Territory

text: After a week with student friends at Barmouth, Darwin returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on  with captain Robert FitzRoy, emphasising that this was a position for a gentleman rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood, to agree to (and fund) his son's participation. Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.

text: After a week with student friends at

text: Barmouth

text: , Darwin returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished)

text: naturalist

text: for a self-funded

text: supernumerary

text: place on  with captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , emphasising that this was a position for a

text: gentleman

text: rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.

text: Robert Darwin

text: objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law,

text: Josiah Wedgwood

text: , to agree to (and fund) his son's participation. Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.

text: The school was at the centre of a storm of protests from scientists and educationalists when it was revealed that some members of the management team, including both the principal and the head of science, were sympathetic to Young Earth creationism and had allowed its hall to be rented by Answers in Genesis, an organisation which promotes such views. The school includes evolutionary science in its curriculum, but presents evolution as a theory complemented by the theory of creationism (taught in RE lessons). This led to allegations by Richard Dawkins, John Polkinghorne, and others in 2002 that the school taught creationism in science lessons. In 2002, the Liberal Democrat MP Jenny Tonge asked Prime Minister Tony Blair if he was "happy to allow the teaching of creationism alongside Darwin's theory of evolution in state schools". The Prime Minister replied that he supported a "diverse school system", and praised the teachers at Emmanuel College for their commitments to "deliver[ing] better results for our children".

text: The school was at the centre of a storm of protests from scientists and educationalists when it was revealed that some members of the management team, including both the principal and the head of science, were sympathetic to

text: Young Earth creationism

text: and had allowed its hall to be rented by

text: Answers in Genesis

text: , an organisation which promotes such views. The school includes evolutionary science in its curriculum, but presents evolution as a theory complemented by the theory of creationism (taught in RE lessons). This led to allegations by

text: Richard Dawkins

text: John Polkinghorne

text: , and others in 2002 that the school taught creationism in science lessons. In 2002, the

text: Liberal Democrat

text: MP

text: Jenny Tonge

text: asked Prime Minister

text: Tony Blair

text: if he was "happy to allow the teaching of creationism alongside Darwin's theory of evolution in state schools". The Prime Minister replied that he supported a "diverse school system", and praised the teachers at Emmanuel College for their commitments to "deliver[ing] better results for our children".

text: Now Darwin turned to work on a new edition of The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication incorporating additions from the hundreds of letters and scores of monographs that had been sent to Darwin in the seven years since it had been published. Parts were altered or discarded, and George Romanes set aside work on jellyfish to graft vegetable plants in experiments aimed at finding out about the "gemmules" which Darwin thought formed the mechanism of inheritance of characteristics. Investigations into "pangenesis" by Galton had tried blood transfusions between different breeds of rabbits without success. Darwin continued to look for proof of inheritance of acquired characteristics, amassing evidence of blacksmith's children being muscular and babies born with scars matching those of their parents. He would not follow Huxley in discarding these ideas, and Descent had presented such inheritance as a significant factor in human evolution.

text: Now Darwin turned to work on a new edition of

text: incorporating additions from the hundreds of letters and scores of monographs that had been sent to Darwin in the seven years since it had been published. Parts were altered or discarded, and

text: George Romanes

text: set aside work on jellyfish to graft vegetable plants in experiments aimed at finding out about the "

text: gemmules

text: " which Darwin thought formed the mechanism of inheritance of characteristics. Investigations into "

text: pangenesis

text: " by

text: Galton

text: had tried blood transfusions between different breeds of rabbits without success. Darwin continued to look for proof of inheritance of acquired characteristics, amassing evidence of blacksmith's children being muscular and babies born with scars matching those of their parents. He would not follow Huxley in discarding these ideas, and Descent had presented such inheritance as a significant factor in human evolution.

text: , a British Navy brig-sloop, was converted into an exploration vessel. The most famous of her three trips was the second one under the command of Captain FitzRoy. On board was the young Charles Darwin. HMS Beagle remained in the Magellan región for almost three years. She is famous for being the ship where Darwin started developing his theory of evolution. The construction of the full-size HMS Beagle replica started in November 2012.

text: , a British Navy

text: brig-sloop

text: , was converted into an exploration vessel. The most famous of her three trips was the second one under the command of Captain

text: FitzRoy

text: . On board was the young

text: Charles Darwin

text: . HMS Beagle remained in the

text: Magellan región

text: for almost three years. She is famous for being the ship where Darwin started developing his theory of evolution. The construction of the full-size HMS Beagle replica started in November 2012.

text: Mr. Turpen is a male Galapagos tortoise that lives in the Pitcairn Islands. These animals were known as "turpins", for example Charles Darwin wrote "Met an immense Turpin; took little notice of me."

text: Mr. Turpen is a male

text: Galapagos tortoise

text: that lives in the

text: Pitcairn Islands

text: . These animals were known as "

text: turpins

text: ", for example

text: Charles Darwin

text: wrote "Met an immense Turpin; took little notice of me."

text: Although not the only species in the family the Darwin's finches are the only ones in the family to be found in the archipelago. Famous for inspiring Darwin in his theory of evolution, the finches have astonishingly different beaks.14 species in Galápagos

text: Although not the only species in the family the

text: Darwin's finches

text: are the only ones in the family to be found in the archipelago. Famous for inspiring Darwin in his

text: theory of evolution

text: , the finches have astonishingly different beaks.14 species in Galápagos

text: The domestication of animals is the scientific theory of the mutual relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations.

text: The domestication of animals is the

text: scientific theory

text: of the mutual relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction.

text: Charles Darwin

text: recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious

text: selective breeding

text: in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of

text: natural selection

text: or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or

text: regional populations

text: Developmental systems theory is plainly radically incompatible with both neo-Darwinism and information processing theory. Whereas neo-Darwinism defines evolution in terms of changes in gene distribution, the possibility that an evolutionarily significant change may arise and be sustained without any directly corresponding change in gene frequencies is an elementary assumption of developmental systems theory, just as neo-Darwinism’s ‘explanation’ of phenomena in terms of reproductive fitness is regarded as fundamentally shallow. Even the widespread mechanistic equation of ‘gene’ with a specific DNA sequence has been thrown into question, as have the analogous interpretations of evolution and adaptation.

text: Following Charles Darwin's return from the Beagle voyage, Buckland discussed with him the Galapagos land iguanas and Marine iguanas. He subsequently recommended Darwin's paper on the role of earthworms in soil formation for publication, praising it as "a new & important theory to explain Phenomena of universal occurrence on the surface of the Earth—in fact a new Geological Power", while rightly rejecting Darwin's suggestion that chalkland could have been formed in a similar way.

text: Following

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's return from the

text: Beagle voyage

text: , Buckland discussed with him the

text: Galapagos land iguana

text: s and

text: Marine iguana

text: s. He subsequently recommended Darwin's paper on the role of

text: earthworm

text: s in

text: soil formation

text: for publication, praising it as "a new & important theory to explain Phenomena of universal occurrence on the surface of the Earth—in fact a new Geological Power", while rightly rejecting Darwin's suggestion that chalkland could have been formed in a similar way.

text: The most prominent member of the family, Charles Darwin, proposed the first coherent theory of evolution by means of natural and sexual selection.

text: The most prominent member of the family,

text: Charles Darwin

text: , proposed the first coherent theory of

text: evolution

text: by means of

text: natural

text: and

text: sexual selection

text: Selective breeding of both plants and animals has been practiced since early prehistory; key species such as wheat, rice, and dogs have been significantly different from their wild ancestors for millennia, and maize, which required especially large changes from teosinte, its wild form, was selectively bred in Mesoamerica. Selective breeding was practiced by the Romans. Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, and these ancient works cite still older authorities, such as Mago the Carthaginian. The notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the Persian Muslim polymath Abu Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled India, which included various examples.

text: Selective breeding of both plants and animals has been practiced since early

text: prehistory

text: ; key species such as

text: wheat

text: rice

text: , and

text: dog

text: s have been significantly different from their wild ancestors for millennia, and

text: maize

text: , which required especially large changes from

entity_section: Origin of maize and interaction with teosintes

text: teosinte

text: , its wild form, was selectively bred in

text: Mesoamerica

text: . Selective breeding was practiced by the

text: Romans

text: . Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, and these ancient works cite still older authorities, such as

text: Mago the Carthaginian

text: . The notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the

text: Persian

text: Muslim

text: polymath

text: Abu Rayhan Biruni

text: in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled India, which included various examples.

text: FitzRoy undertook the second voyage of Beagle to return the surviving three Fuegians, at considerable personal expense. He was accompanied by Charles Darwin, who by the end of the voyage had become famous in scientific circles as a result of the discoveries he made during it, and who also collected much of the material that was to underpin his evolutionary theories during these travels. Decades later, following the publication of The Origin of Species, FitzRoy – a committed Christian – regretted that he had facilitated Darwin’s research.

text: FitzRoy undertook the

text: second voyage of Beagle

text: to return the surviving three Fuegians, at considerable personal expense. He was accompanied by

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who by the end of the voyage had become famous in scientific circles as a result of the discoveries he made during it, and who also collected much of the material that was to underpin his evolutionary theories during these travels. Decades later, following the publication of

text: The Origin of Species

text: , FitzRoy – a committed Christian – regretted that he had facilitated Darwin’s research.

text: "Starting in the Middle", Part I of Darwin's Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by Willard Van Orman Quine: "Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race."

text: "Starting in the Middle", Part I of Darwin's Dangerous Idea, gets its name from a quote by

text: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: : "Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle. Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race."

text: Dover co-edited the textbook Genome Evolution with Richard Flavell. He has also written a popular book on evolution, Dear Mr Darwin: Letters on the Evolution of Life and Human Nature, framed as an exchange of letters with Charles Darwin from beyond the grave. The book seeks to refute the selfish gene theory promulgated by Richard Dawkins.

text: Dover co-edited the textbook Genome Evolution with Richard Flavell. He has also written a popular book on evolution, Dear Mr Darwin: Letters on the Evolution of Life and Human Nature, framed as an exchange of letters with

text: Charles Darwin

text: from beyond the grave. The book seeks to refute the

text: selfish gene theory

text: promulgated by

text: Richard Dawkins

text: The ten sketches of "The Encantadas" go back to Melville's whaling years, during which he visited the Galapagos Islands, supplemented with material from his reading in at least six books of Pacific voyages. According to the editors of The Piazza Tales, reliance on personal experience seems most prominent in the first four sketches, yet even here Melville drew upon "a number of other writers", though he only named William Cowley. Neither is the attribution at the end of the fifth sketch--where Cowley, Colnett, and Porter are mentioned--complete, for Melville borrowed from James Burney as well, probably from A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, published from 1803 to 1817. Neither did he mention The Voyage of the Beagle by Charles Darwin, which he used in the first sketch and possibly parodied in sketch four.

text: The ten sketches of "The Encantadas" go back to Melville's whaling years, during which he visited the Galapagos Islands, supplemented with material from his reading in at least six books of Pacific voyages. According to the editors of The Piazza Tales, reliance on personal experience seems most prominent in the first four sketches, yet even here Melville drew upon "a number of other writers", though he only named

text: William Cowley

text: . Neither is the attribution at the end of the fifth sketch--where Cowley, Colnett, and Porter are mentioned--complete, for Melville borrowed from

text: James Burney

text: as well, probably from A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, published from 1803 to 1817. Neither did he mention

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: by

text: Charles Darwin

text: , which he used in the first sketch and possibly parodied in sketch four.

text: From specimens collected in 1888, Ridgway was the first to describe hood mockingbird, large cactus finch, and medium tree finch, all endemic to the Galápagos. The latter two are members of the so-called Darwin's finch group of tanagers, significant for their impact on Charles Darwin's reasoning about evolution and the emergence of new species.

text: From specimens collected in 1888, Ridgway was the first to describe

text: hood mockingbird

text: large cactus finch

text: , and

text: medium tree finch

text: , all

text: endemic

text: to the Galápagos. The latter two are members of the so-called

text: Darwin's finch

text: group of

text: tanager

text: s, significant for their impact on

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's reasoning about

text: evolution

text: and the emergence of new species.

text: Charles Darwin, best known for his theory of evolution, made many significant contributions to the early study of marine biology. He spent much of his time from 1831 to 1836 on the voyage of HMS Beagle collecting and studying specimens from a variety of marine organisms. It was also on this expedition where Darwin began to study coral reefs and their formation. He came up with the theory that the overall growth of corals is a balance between the growth of corals upward and the sinking of the sea floor. He then came up with the idea that wherever coral atolls would be found, the central island where the coral had started to grow would be gradually subsiding

text: Charles Darwin

text: , best known for his

text: theory of evolution

text: , made many significant contributions to the early study of marine biology. He spent much of his time from 1831 to 1836 on the

text: voyage of HMS Beagle

text: collecting and studying specimens from a variety of marine organisms. It was also on this expedition where Darwin began to study

text: coral reefs

text: and their formation. He came up with the theory that the overall growth of corals is a balance between the growth of corals upward and the sinking of the sea floor. He then came up with the idea that wherever coral atolls would be found, the central island where the coral had started to grow would be gradually subsiding

text: Wallace's reaction, delivered in January 1859, was that he was gratified to have spurred Darwin into making the announcement and that it would have caused him "much pain & regret" if his papers had been published on their own, without Darwin's papers.  Darwin was still sensitive on the point, and assured Wallace that he "had absolutely nothing whatever to do with leading Lyell and Hooker to what they thought was a fair course of action". He responded to Wallace's enquiry about what Lyell thought of the theory by saying that "I think he is somewhat staggered, but does not give in and speaks with horror [of] what a job it would be for the next edition of "The Principles" [of Geology] if he were "perverted". But he is most candid and honest, and I think he will end up by being "perverted"." Lyell was still struggling to come to terms with the idea of mankind, with immortal soul, originating from animals, but "Considering his age, his former views and position in society, I think his conduct has been heroic on the subject."

text: In the 19th century, several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography.  Charles Lyell, being one of the first contributors in the 19th century, developed the Theory of Uniformitarianism after studying fossils.  This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations. Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct.  Since he noted that earth’s climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly.  Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting the environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution.

text: In the 19th century, several additional scientists contributed new theories to further develop the concept of biogeography.

text: Charles Lyell

text: , being one of the first contributors in the 19th century, developed the Theory of

text: Uniformitarianism

text: after studying fossils.  This theory explained how the world was not created by one sole catastrophic event, but instead from numerous creation events and locations. Uniformitarianism also introduced the idea that the Earth was actually significantly older than was previously accepted. Using this knowledge, Lyell concluded that it was possible for species to go extinct.  Since he noted that earth’s climate changes, he realized that species distribution must also change accordingly.  Lyell argued that climate changes complemented vegetation changes, thus connecting the environmental surroundings to varying species. This largely influenced Charles Darwin in his development of the theory of evolution.

text: Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories, but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection, of the Weismann barrier or in genetics of the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life, and it has even been applied to concepts of cosmic evolution, both of which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work—in place of other theories, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.

text: Darwinism is a

text: theory

text: of

text: biological

text: evolution

text: developed by the English

text: naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: (1809-1882) and others, stating that all

text: species

text: of

text: organism

text: s arise and develop through the

text: natural selection

text: of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and

text: reproduce

text: . Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of

text: transmutation of species

text: or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories, but subsequently referred to specific concepts of natural selection, of the

text: Weismann barrier

text: or in

text: genetics

text: of the

text: central dogma of molecular biology

text: . Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution,

text: creationists

text: have appropriated it to refer to the

text: origin of life

text: , and it has even been applied to concepts of

text: cosmic evolution

text: , both of which have no connection to Darwin's work. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work—in place of other theories, including

text: divine design

text: and

text: extraterrestrial origins

text: ||12||Tortoises||Aldabra giant tortoise (Geochelone gigantea)||

text: Aldabra giant tortoise

text: (Geochelone gigantea)||

text: During the same time that the stratigraphic column was being completed, imperialism drove several countries in the early to mid 19th century to explore distant lands to expand their empires. This gave naturalists the opportunity to collect data on these voyages. In 1831 Captain Robert FitzRoy, given charge of the coastal survey expedition of HMS Beagle, sought a suitable naturalist to examine the land and give geological advice. This fell to Charles Darwin, who had just completed his BA degree and had accompanied Sedgwick on a two-week Welsh mapping expedition after taking his Spring course on geology. Fitzroy gave Darwin Lyell’s Principles of Geology, and Darwin became Lyell's first disciple, inventively theorising on uniformitarian principles about the geological processes he saw, and challenging some of Lyell's ideas. He speculated about the Earth expanding to explain uplift, then on the basis of the idea that ocean areas sank as land was uplifted, theorised that coral atolls grew from fringing coral reefs round sinking volcanic islands. This idea was confirmed when the Beagle surveyed the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and in 1842 he published his theory on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Darwin's discovery of giant fossils helped to establish his reputation as a geologist, and his theorising about the causes of their extinction led to his theory of evolution by natural selection published in On the Origin of Species in 1859.

text: During the same time that the stratigraphic column was being completed,

text: imperialism

text: drove several countries in the early to mid 19th century to explore distant lands to expand their empires. This gave naturalists the opportunity to collect data on these voyages. In 1831 Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , given charge of the coastal

text: survey expedition of HMS Beagle

text: , sought a suitable naturalist to examine the land and give geological advice. This fell to

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who had just completed his BA degree and had accompanied Sedgwick on a two-week Welsh mapping expedition after taking his Spring course on geology. Fitzroy gave Darwin Lyell’s Principles of Geology, and Darwin became Lyell's first disciple, inventively theorising on

text: uniformitarian

text: principles about the geological processes he saw, and challenging some of Lyell's ideas. He speculated about the Earth expanding to explain uplift, then on the basis of the idea that ocean areas sank as land was uplifted, theorised that

text: coral atoll

text: s grew from fringing

text: coral reef

text: s round sinking volcanic islands. This idea was confirmed when the Beagle surveyed the

text: Cocos (Keeling) Islands

text: , and in 1842 he published his theory on

text: . Darwin's discovery of giant fossils helped to establish his reputation as a geologist, and his theorising about the causes of their extinction led to his theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: published in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859.

text: In response, supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist's claims, including Darwin's, are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years, to form first neo-Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis. The claim that evolution relies on faith, often based on the creationist belief that evolution has never been observed, is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence, and therefore does not require faith.

text: In response, supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist's claims, including Darwin's, are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years, to form first

text: neo-Darwinism

text: and later the modern evolutionary synthesis. The claim that evolution relies on faith, often based on the creationist belief that evolution has never been observed, is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence, and therefore does not require faith.

text: While the birds seemed almost an afterthought the ornithologist John Gould took them on and was quick to notice the significance of specimens from the Galápagos Islands. He startlingly revealed at the next meeting on 10 January that what Darwin had taken to be wrens, blackbirds and slightly differing finches were "a series of ground finches which are so peculiar" as to form "an entirely new group" of 11 species. The story of what we now call "Darwin's finches" was covered by the daily newspapers, though Darwin was in Cambridge and did not get details at this stage. In the minutes of the meeting the number was extended to 12 species.

text: While the birds seemed almost an afterthought the ornithologist

text: John Gould

text: took them on and was quick to notice the significance of specimens from the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: . He startlingly revealed at the next meeting on 10 January that what Darwin had taken to be wrens, blackbirds and slightly differing finches were "a series of ground finches which are so peculiar" as to form "an entirely new group" of 11 species. The story of what we now call "

text: Darwin's finches

text: " was covered by the daily newspapers, though Darwin was in Cambridge and did not get details at this stage. In the minutes of the meeting the number was extended to 12 species.

text: The structure was originally depicted by Tiedemann, and later by Knox in the early 19th century, but it was John Struthers was the first to draw attention to this structure in 1848 as a "peculiar process" that bore curious resemblance to anatomy that he had seen in cats.  This observation was one of many that Struthers made in subsequent investigations of vestigial and rudimentary structures, and in sharing these observations with his contemporary, Charles Darwin, provided significant evidence for the theories of evolution. Charles Darwin took the ligament to mean that humans and other mammals had a common ancestor, and used Struthers' work as evidence in Chapter 1 of his Descent of Man (1871).  Struthers went on to create an museum of Comparative Anatomy filled with zoological specimens to illustrate Darwin's theory of common descent.

text: The structure was originally depicted by Tiedemann, and later by Knox in the early 19th century, but it was

text: John Struthers

text: was the first to draw attention to this structure in 1848 as a "peculiar process" that bore curious resemblance to anatomy that he had seen in cats.  This observation was one of many that Struthers made in subsequent investigations of vestigial and rudimentary structures, and in sharing these observations with his contemporary, Charles Darwin, provided significant evidence for the theories of evolution.

text: Charles Darwin

text: took the ligament to mean that humans and other mammals had a

text: common ancestor

text: , and used Struthers' work as evidence in Chapter 1 of his

text: Descent of Man

text: (1871).  Struthers went on to create an museum of Comparative Anatomy filled with zoological specimens to illustrate Darwin's theory of common descent.

text: Among all living organisms, flowers, which are the reproductive structures of angiosperms, are the most varied physically and show a correspondingly great diversity in methods of reproduction. Plants that are not flowering plants (green algae, mosses, liverworts, hornworts, ferns and gymnosperms such as conifers) also have complex interplays between morphological adaptation and environmental factors in their sexual reproduction. The breeding system, or how the sperm from one plant fertilizes the ovum of another, depends on the reproductive morphology, and is the single most important determinant of the genetic structure of nonclonal plant populations. Christian Konrad Sprengel (1793) studied the reproduction of flowering plants and for the first time it was understood that the pollination process involved both biotic and abiotic interactions. Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection utilized this work to build his theory of evolution, which includes analysis of the coevolution of flowers and their insect pollinators.

text: Among all living organisms,

text: flower

text: s, which are the reproductive structures of

text: angiosperms

text: , are the most varied physically and show a correspondingly great diversity in methods of reproduction. Plants that are not flowering plants (

text: green alga

text: e,

text: moss

text: es,

text: liverwort

text: s,

text: hornworts

text: fern

text: s and

text: gymnosperm

text: s such as

text: conifer

text: s) also have complex interplays between morphological adaptation and environmental factors in their sexual reproduction. The breeding system, or how the sperm from one plant fertilizes the ovum of another, depends on the reproductive morphology, and is the single most important determinant of the genetic structure of nonclonal plant populations.

text: Christian Konrad Sprengel

text: (1793) studied the reproduction of flowering plants and for the first time it was understood that the

text: pollination

text: process involved both

text: biotic

text: and

text: abiotic

text: interactions.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theories of

text: natural selection

text: utilized this work to build his theory of evolution, which includes analysis of the

text: coevolution

text: of flowers and their

text: insect

text: pollinator

text: s.

text: Charles Darwin was one of the first to collect Toxodon fossils, after paying 18 pence for a T. platensis skull from a farmer in Uruguay. In The Voyage of the Beagle Darwin wrote "November 26th - I set out on my return in a direct line for Monte Video. Having heard of some giant's bones at a neighbouring farm-house on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, I rode there accompanied by my host, and purchased for the value of eighteen pence the head of the Toxodon." Since Darwin discovered that the fossils of similar mammals of South America were different from those in Europe, he invoked many debates about the evolution and natural selection of animals.

text: Charles Darwin

text: was one of the first to collect Toxodon fossils, after paying 18 pence for a T. platensis skull from a farmer in Uruguay. In The Voyage of the Beagle Darwin wrote "November 26th - I set out on my return in a direct line for Monte Video. Having heard of some giant's bones at a neighbouring farm-house on the Sarandis, a small stream entering the Rio Negro, I rode there accompanied by my host, and purchased for the value of eighteen pence the head of the Toxodon." Since Darwin discovered that the fossils of similar mammals of South America were different from those in Europe, he invoked many debates about the evolution and natural selection of animals.

text: Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection and artificial selection or selective breeding. Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory.

text: Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of

text: natural selection

text: and

text: artificial selection

text: or

text: selective breeding

text: Genetic drift

text: was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the

text: modern synthesis

text: of the theory.

text: The 1859 publication of Darwin's theory in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life is often considered the central event in the history of modern biology. Darwin's established credibility as a naturalist, the sober tone of the work, and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented, allowed Origin to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous Vestiges of Creation had failed. Most scientists were convinced of evolution and common descent by the end of the 19th century. However, natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into the 20th century, as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation.

text: The 1859 publication of Darwin's theory in

text: On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

text: is often considered the central event in the history of modern biology. Darwin's established credibility as a naturalist, the sober tone of the work, and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented, allowed Origin to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous

text: Vestiges of Creation

text: had failed. Most scientists were convinced of evolution and

text: common descent

text: by the end of the 19th century. However, natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into the 20th century, as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation.

text: Traditional breeding refers to the process of allowing certain chosen plants to sexually reproduce with other plants. Plants are chosen based on favorable characteristics. Simply put, traditional breeding takes plants with favorable characteristics and breeds them. Then the offspring are raised and then judgment is made about which ones have the best traits and the process proceeds to the next generation. This method has been the way that humans have traditionally modified organisms. Not until the 20th century were humans able to influence the genotypes of organisms in any other way.

text: The spiritualist Gerald Massey claimed that Darwin's theory of evolution was incomplete:

text: The spiritualist

text: Gerald Massey

text: claimed that

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution was incomplete:

text: The computing pioneer Charles Babbage published his unofficial Ninth Bridgewater Treatise in 1837, putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with ad hoc miracles each time a new species was required. In 1844 the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers anonymously published an influential and extremely controversial book of popular science entitled Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the solar system and life on earth. It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals with current animals being branches off a main line that leads progressively to humanity. It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that governed the universe. In this sense it was less completely materialistic than the ideas of radicals like Robert Grant, but its implication that humans were just the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers. Both conservatives like Adam Sedgwick, and radical materialists like Thomas Henry Huxley, who disliked Chambers' implications of preordained progress, were able to find scientific inaccuracies in the book that they could disparage. Darwin himself openly deplored the author's "poverty of intellect", and dismissed it as a "literary curiosity." However, the high profile of the public debate over Vestiges, with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process, and its popular success, would greatly influence the perception of Darwin's theory a decade later. It also influenced some younger naturalists, including Alfred Russel Wallace, to take an interest in the idea of transmutation.

text: The computing pioneer

text: Charles Babbage

text: published his unofficial

text: Ninth Bridgewater Treatise

text: in 1837, putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with ad hoc miracles each time a new species was required. In 1844 the Scottish publisher

text: Robert Chambers

text: anonymously published an influential and extremely controversial book of popular science entitled

text: . This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the solar system and life on earth. It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals with current animals being branches off a main line that leads progressively to humanity. It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that governed the universe. In this sense it was less completely

text: materialistic

text: than the ideas of radicals like Robert Grant, but its implication that humans were just the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers. Both conservatives like

text: Adam Sedgwick

text: , and radical materialists like

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: , who disliked Chambers' implications of preordained progress, were able to find scientific inaccuracies in the book that they could disparage. Darwin himself openly deplored the author's "poverty of intellect", and dismissed it as a "literary curiosity." However, the high profile of the public debate over Vestiges, with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process, and its popular success, would greatly influence the perception of Darwin's theory a decade later. It also influenced some younger naturalists, including

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , to take an interest in the idea of transmutation.

text: In the letter, Darwin had expressed agreement with William Graham's claim that natural laws implied purpose and the belief that the universe was "not the result of chance", but again showed his doubts about such beliefs and left the matter as insoluble. Darwin only had this doubt about questions beyond the scope of science, and thought science was well within the scope of an evolved mind. Michael Ruse said that by presenting it as "Darwin's doubt" that evolutionary naturalism is self-defeating, Plantinga failed to note that Darwin at once excused himself from philosophical matters he did not feel competent to consider. Others, such as Evan Fales, agreed that this citation allowed Plantinga to call the source of the problem EAAN addresses Darwin's Doubt. Also, contrary to Ruse's claim, Plantinga gave the name "Darwin's Doubt" not to the idea that the conjunction of naturalism and evolution is self-defeating, but rather to the view that given naturalism and evolution our cognitive faculties are unlikely to be reliable.  Plantinga asserts that "this doubt arises for naturalists or atheists, but not for those who believe in God. That is because if God has created us in his image, then even if he fashioned us by some evolutionary means, he would presumably want us to resemble him in being able to know; but then most of what we believe might be true even if our minds have developed from those of the lower animals."

text: In the letter, Darwin had expressed agreement with William Graham's claim that natural laws implied purpose and the belief that the universe was "not the result of chance", but again showed his doubts about such beliefs and left the matter as insoluble. Darwin only had this doubt about questions beyond the scope of science, and thought science was well within the scope of an evolved mind.

text: Michael Ruse

text: said that by presenting it as "Darwin's doubt" that evolutionary naturalism is self-defeating, Plantinga failed to note that Darwin at once excused himself from philosophical matters he did not feel competent to consider. Others, such as Evan Fales, agreed that this citation allowed Plantinga to call the source of the problem EAAN addresses Darwin's Doubt. Also, contrary to Ruse's claim, Plantinga gave the name "Darwin's Doubt" not to the idea that the conjunction of naturalism and evolution is self-defeating, but rather to the view that given naturalism and evolution our cognitive faculties are unlikely to be reliable.  Plantinga asserts that "this doubt arises for naturalists or atheists, but not for those who believe in God. That is because if God has created us in his image, then even if he fashioned us by some evolutionary means, he would presumably want us to resemble him in being able to know; but then most of what we believe might be true even if our minds have developed from those of the lower animals."

text: His views on evolution are not obvious from his books. At one point he referred to "the wonders of Creation" and he wrote a chapter in the same book on the giant tortoise of the Galapagos Islands, including reference to Charles Darwin, but with no mention of evolution. Religious examples are frequent in his books, for example, quoting Beecher's "Of all man's works of art, a cathedral is greatest; a vast and majestic tree is greater than that", and again, "Thousands see in cathedral aisles the reproduction in stone of the pine-forest or the beech-wood."

text: His views on

text: evolution

text: are not obvious from his books. At one point he referred to "the wonders of Creation" and he wrote a chapter in the same book on the

text: giant tortoise

text: of the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: , including reference to

text: Charles Darwin

text: , but with no mention of evolution. Religious examples are frequent in his books, for example, quoting

text: Beecher's

text: "Of all man's works of art, a cathedral is greatest; a vast and majestic tree is greater than that", and again, "Thousands see in cathedral aisles the reproduction in stone of the pine-forest or the beech-wood."

text: In 2003 he married Sarah Darwin, a great-great-granddaughter of the naturalist Charles Darwin; they have two sons Leo Erasmus Darwin Vogel (born 2003) and Josiah Algy Darwin Vogel (born 2005).  In 2009/10 the family were part of a recreation of Darwin's voyage on the Beagle for the Dutch TV show Beagle: In Darwin's Wake} (Dutch: Beagle: In het kielzog van Darwin) on board of the sailing ship Stad Amsterdam.

text: In 2003 he married

text: Sarah Darwin

text: , a great-great-granddaughter of the naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: ; they have two sons Leo Erasmus Darwin Vogel (born 2003) and Josiah Algy Darwin Vogel (born 2005).  In 2009/10 the family were part of a recreation of

text: Darwin's voyage on the Beagle

text: for the

text: Dutch

text: TV show

text: Beagle: In Darwin's Wake

text: } (Dutch: Beagle: In het kielzog van Darwin) on board of the sailing ship

text: Stad Amsterdam

text: Speaking of the finches with their gradations in size of beaks, he writes "one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."

text: The basic model of emotions finds its roots in Charles Darwin's The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin claimed that the expression of emotions involves many systems: facial expression, behavioral response, and physical responses, which include physiological, postural, and vocal changes. Most importantly, Darwin claimed that emotional expression was consistent with his theories on evolution and thus, the expression of emotion is universal and should therefore be expressed similarly across race or culture. This is known as the universality hypothesis. Lastly, primates and animals exhibit precursors of muscle actions of the facial expressions of humans.

text: The basic model of emotions finds its roots in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals

text: . Darwin claimed that the expression of emotions involves many systems:

text: facial expression

text: , behavioral response, and physical responses, which include

text: physiological

text: postural

text: , and

text: vocal

text: changes. Most importantly, Darwin claimed that emotional expression was consistent with his

text: theories on evolution

text: and thus, the expression of emotion is

text: universal

text: and should therefore be expressed similarly across race or culture. This is known as the universality hypothesis. Lastly,

text: primate

text: s and animals exhibit precursors of muscle actions of the facial expressions of humans.

text: The book was in the library of HMS Beagle for Charles Darwin's voyage. In The Origin of Species (1859), in a chapter on the difficulties facing the theory, Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of natural selection." Darwin continues, reflecting both on Cuvier's emphasis on the conditions of existence, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of acquiring heritable characteristics from those Cuvieran conditions: "For natural selection acts by either now adapting the varying parts of each being to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; or by having adapted them during long-past periods of time: the adaptations being aided in some cases by use and disuse, being slightly affected by the direct action of the external conditions of life, and being in all cases subjected to the several laws of growth. Hence, in fact, the law of the Conditions of Existence is the higher law; as it includes, through the inheritance of former adaptations, that of Unity of Type."

text: The book was in the library of

text: HMS Beagle

text: for

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's voyage. In

text: The Origin of Species

text: (1859), in a chapter on the difficulties facing the theory, Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of

text: natural selection

text: ." Darwin continues, reflecting both on Cuvier's emphasis on the conditions of existence, and

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: 's theory of acquiring heritable characteristics from those Cuvieran conditions: "For natural selection acts by either now adapting the varying parts of each being to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; or by having adapted them during long-past periods of time: the adaptations being aided in some cases by

text: use and disuse

text: , being slightly affected by the direct action of the external conditions of life, and being in all cases subjected to the several laws of growth. Hence, in fact, the law of the Conditions of Existence is the higher law; as it includes, through the inheritance of former adaptations, that of Unity of Type."

text: Hypotheses of social evolution and cultural evolution were common in Europe. The Enlightenment thinkers who preceded Darwin, such as Hegel, often argued that societies progressed through stages of increasing development. Earlier thinkers also emphasized conflict as an inherent feature of social life. Thomas Hobbes's 17th century portrayal of the state of nature seems analogous to the competition for natural resources described by Darwin. Social Darwinism is distinct from other theories of social change because of the way it draws Darwin's distinctive ideas from the field of biology into social studies.

text: Hypotheses of social evolution and

text: cultural evolution

text: were common in Europe. The

text: Enlightenment

text: thinkers who preceded Darwin, such as

text: Hegel

text: , often argued that societies progressed through stages of increasing development. Earlier thinkers also emphasized conflict as an inherent feature of social life.

text: Thomas Hobbes

text: 's 17th century portrayal of the

text: state of nature

text: seems analogous to the competition for natural resources described by Darwin. Social Darwinism is distinct from other theories of social change because of the way it draws Darwin's distinctive ideas from the field of biology into social studies.

text: In animal breeding, crossbreed describes crosses within a single species, while hybrid refers to crosses between different species.  In plant breeding terminology, the term crossbreed is uncommon. No universal term is used to distinguish hybridization or crossing within a population from those between populations, or even those between species.

text: In animal breeding, crossbreed describes crosses within a single species, while

text: hybrid

text: refers to crosses between different species.  In plant breeding terminology, the term crossbreed is uncommon. No universal term is used to distinguish hybridization or crossing within a population from those between populations, or even those between species.

text: It is named after Charles Darwin, who carried out a zoological survey of the Falkland Islands on the Beagle's second voyage. Darwin was said to have spent the night here.

text: It is named after

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who carried out a zoological survey of the

text: Falkland Islands

text: on the

text: Beagle

text: 's

text: second voyage

text: . Darwin was said to have spent the night here.

text: Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.

text: Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: , as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of

text: coral atoll

text: s, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on

text: barnacle

text: s. While

text: On the Origin of Species

text: dominates perceptions of his work,

text: The Descent of Man

text: and

text: had considerable impact, and his books on plants including

text: The Power of Movement in Plants

text: were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on

entity_name: The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms

text: The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms

text: Darwin’s publication of this book occurred within the heated debates between advocates of monogeny, who held that all races came from a common ancestor, and advocates of polygeny, who held that the races were separately created. Darwin, who had come from a family with strong abolitionist ties, had experienced and was disturbed by cultures of slavery during his voyage on the Beagle years earlier. Noted Darwin biographers Adrian Desmond and James Moore argue that Darwin’s writings on evolution were not only influenced by his abolitionist tendencies, but also his belief that non-white races were equal in regard to their intellectual capacity as white races, a belief which had been strongly disputed by scientists such as Morton, Agassiz and Broca, all noted polygenists.

text: Darwin’s publication of this book occurred within the heated debates between advocates of monogeny, who held that all races came from a common ancestor, and advocates of polygeny, who held that the races were separately created. Darwin, who had come from a family with strong abolitionist ties, had experienced and was disturbed by cultures of slavery during his voyage on the Beagle years earlier. Noted Darwin biographers

text: Adrian Desmond

text: and

text: James Moore

text: argue that Darwin’s writings on evolution were not only influenced by his abolitionist tendencies, but also his belief that non-white races were equal in regard to their intellectual capacity as white races, a belief which had been strongly disputed by scientists such as Morton, Agassiz and Broca, all noted polygenists.

text: Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies, early religious objections to Darwin's theory are still used in opposition to evolution. The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the Genesis account of Creation. Believers in Biblical infallibility attacked Darwinism as heretical. The natural theology of the early 19th century was typified by William Paley's watchmaker analogy, an argument from design still used by the creationist movement. Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset, and when Darwin's theory was published, ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation, while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non-specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans. This position has been adopted by denominations of Christianity and Judaism in line with modernist theology which views the Bible and Torah as allegorical, thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion.

text: Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies, early religious objections to Darwin's theory are still used in opposition to evolution. The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the

text: Genesis account of Creation

text: . Believers in

text: Biblical infallibility

text: attacked

text: Darwinism

text: as heretical. The

text: natural theology

text: of the early 19th century was typified by

text: William Paley

text: 's

text: watchmaker analogy

text: , an

text: argument from design

text: still used by the creationist movement. Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset, and when Darwin's theory was published, ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation, while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non-specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans. This position has been adopted by denominations of

text: Christianity

text: and

text: Judaism

text: in line with

text: modernist theology

text: which views the Bible and

text: Torah

text: as allegorical, thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion.

text: Several writers anticipated evolutionary aspects of Darwin's theory, and in the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861 Darwin named those he knew about in an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, which he expanded in later editions.

text: Charles Darwin coined the term 'selective breeding'; he was interested in the process as an illustration of his proposed wider process of natural selection. Darwin noted that many domesticated animals and plants had special properties that were developed by intentional animal and plant breeding from individuals that showed desirable characteristics, and discouraging the breeding of individuals with less desirable characteristics.

text: Charles Darwin

text: coined the term 'selective breeding'; he was interested in the process as an illustration of his proposed wider process of

text: natural selection

text: . Darwin noted that many domesticated animals and plants had special properties that were developed by intentional

text: animal and

text: plant breeding

text: from individuals that showed desirable characteristics, and discouraging the breeding of individuals with less desirable characteristics.

text: By the time the first edition was published, the development of Darwin's theory of natural selection was in progress. For the 1845 second edition of The Voyage (now titled Journal of Researches), Darwin added more detail about the beaks of the birds, and two closing sentences which reflected his changed ideas: "Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."

text: By the time the first edition was published, the

text: development of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: was in progress. For the 1845 second edition of The Voyage (now titled Journal of Researches), Darwin added more detail about the beaks of the birds, and two closing sentences which reflected his changed ideas: "Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends."

text: Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed these as progenitors for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable traits over time.

text: Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture and particularly the domestication of the first

text: agricultural

text: plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially early farmers simply selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics, and employed these as progenitors for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of valuable traits over time.

text: Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

text: Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that

text: species formed in isolated populations only

text: , as on islands, to an emphasis on

text: speciation without isolation

text: ; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new

text: ecological niche

text: s. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in

text: fancy pigeon

text: breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son

text: Francis

text: ) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

text: Each of the words "evolution," "fact" and "theory" has several meanings in different contexts. Evolution means change over time, as in stellar evolution. In biology it refers to observed changes in organisms, to their descent from a common ancestor, and at a technical level to a change in gene frequency over time; it can also refer to explanatory theories (such as Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection) which explain the mechanisms of evolution. To a scientist, fact can describe a repeatable observation that all can agree on; it can refer to something that is so well established that nobody in a community disagrees with it; and it can also refer to the truth or falsity of a proposition. To the public, theory can mean an opinion or conjecture (e.g., "it's only a theory"), but among scientists it has a much stronger connotation of "well-substantiated explanation." With this number of choices, people can often talk past each other, and meanings become the subject of linguistic analysis.

text: Each of the words "evolution," "fact" and "theory" has several meanings in different contexts. Evolution means change over time, as in

text: stellar evolution

text: . In

text: biology

text: it refers to observed changes in organisms, to their descent from a common ancestor, and at a technical level to a change in

text: gene frequency

text: over time; it can also refer to explanatory theories (such as

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: ) which explain the mechanisms of evolution. To a scientist, fact can describe a repeatable observation that all can agree on; it can refer to something that is so well established that nobody in a community disagrees with it; and it can also refer to the truth or falsity of a proposition. To the public, theory can mean an opinion or conjecture (e.g., "it's only a theory"), but among scientists it has a much stronger connotation of "well-substantiated explanation." With this number of choices, people can often talk past each other, and meanings become the subject of

text: linguistic analysis

text: The Creative Evolution in particular attempted to think through the continuous creation of life, and explicitly pitted itself against Herbert Spencer's evolutionary philosophy. Spencer had attempted to transpose Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in philosophy and to construct a cosmology based on this theory (Spencer also coined the expression "survival of the fittest"). Bergson disputed what he saw as Spencer's mechanistic philosophy.

text: The Creative Evolution in particular attempted to think through the continuous creation of life, and explicitly pitted itself against

text: Herbert Spencer

text: 's evolutionary philosophy. Spencer had attempted to transpose

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: in philosophy and to construct a

text: cosmology

text: based on this theory (Spencer also coined the expression "

text: survival of the fittest

text: "). Bergson disputed what he saw as Spencer's mechanistic philosophy.

text: Owing considerable lineage to Get Smart, the plot was always played for laughs and featured Lancelot Link and his female colleague, "Mata Hairi," whose own name in turn was a play on Mata Hari, in secret agent and spy satires. Link worked for A.P.E., the Agency to Prevent Evil, in an ongoing conflict with the evil organization C.H.U.M.P., the Criminal Headquarters for the Underworld's Master Plan. APE's chief Darwin gave Link and Hairi their orders as part of his "theory," a play on the Charles Darwin (after whom the character had been named) theory of evolution. CHUMP's monocled chief Baron von Butcher inevitably hatched the latest plan to endanger the world. The Baron's network of international fiends included his shifty chauffeur Creto, mad scientist Dr. Strangemind, imperious Dragon Woman, drowsy Wang Fu, singing sheikh Ali Assa Seen, and the cultured Duchess. One or more would appear in each episode.

text: Owing considerable lineage to

text: Get Smart

text: , the plot was always played for laughs and featured Lancelot Link and his female colleague, "Mata Hairi," whose own name in turn was a play on

text: Mata Hari

text: , in secret agent and spy satires. Link worked for A.P.E., the Agency to Prevent Evil, in an ongoing conflict with the evil organization C.H.U.M.P., the Criminal Headquarters for the Underworld's Master Plan. APE's chief Darwin gave Link and Hairi their orders as part of his "theory," a play on the

text: Charles Darwin

text: (after whom the character had been named) theory of

text: evolution

text: . CHUMP's

text: monocle

text: d chief Baron von Butcher inevitably hatched the latest plan to endanger the world. The Baron's network of international fiends included his shifty chauffeur Creto, mad scientist Dr. Strangemind, imperious Dragon Woman, drowsy Wang Fu, singing

text: sheikh

text: Ali Assa Seen, and the cultured Duchess. One or more would appear in each episode.

text: The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in animal breeding experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.

text: The American biologist Sewall Wright, who had a background in

text: animal breeding

text: experiments, focused on combinations of interacting genes, and the effects of inbreeding on small, relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift. In 1932, Wright introduced the concept of an

text: adaptive landscape

text: and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small, isolated sub-population away from an adaptive peak, allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics. This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics, which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked.

text: For teaching purpose, plant breeding is presented as four categories: Line breeding (autogamous crops), population breeding (allogamous crops), hybrid breeding (mostly allogamous crops, some autogamous crops), clone breeding (vegetatively propagated crops).

text: For teaching purpose, plant breeding is presented as four categories: Line breeding (autogamous crops), population breeding (

text: allogamous

text: crops),

text: hybrid

text: breeding (mostly allogamous crops, some

text: autogamous

text: crops), clone breeding (vegetatively propagated crops).

text: Darwin was now working hard on an "abstract" trimmed from his Natural Selection, writing much of it from memory. The chapters were sent to Hooker for correcting as they were completed, which led to a minor disaster when a large bundle was put by accident into the drawer Hooker's wife used to keep paper for the children to draw on. Lyell made arrangements with the publisher John Murray, who had brought out the second edition of The Voyage of the Beagle.   Darwin fretted, asking "Does he know all the subject of the book?", and saying that to avoid being more "un-orthodox than the subject makes inevitable" he did not discuss the origin of man, or bring in any discussion about Genesis. Unusually, Murray agreed to publish the manuscript sight unseen, and to pay Darwin two-thirds of the net proceeds. He anticipated printing 500 copies.

text: Darwin was now working hard on an "abstract" trimmed from his Natural Selection, writing much of it from memory. The chapters were sent to Hooker for correcting as they were completed, which led to a minor disaster when a large bundle was put by accident into the drawer Hooker's wife used to keep paper for the children to draw on. Lyell made arrangements with the publisher

text: John Murray

text: , who had brought out the second edition of

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: .   Darwin fretted, asking "Does he know all the subject of the book?", and saying that to avoid being more "un-orthodox than the subject makes inevitable" he did not discuss the origin of man, or bring in any discussion about Genesis. Unusually, Murray agreed to publish the manuscript sight unseen, and to pay Darwin two-thirds of the net proceeds. He anticipated printing 500 copies.

text: The Seychelles giant tortoise (A. g. hololissa) is broad, flattened on the back and with raised scutes, it is usually a brownish-grey color.In comparison, the true Aldabra tortoise (A. g. gigantea) is a roundly-domed, black-colored species.

text: The Seychelles giant tortoise (A. g. hololissa) is broad, flattened on the back and with raised

text: scute

text: s, it is usually a brownish-grey color.In comparison, the true Aldabra tortoise (A. g. gigantea) is a roundly-domed, black-colored species.

text: Next, Henslow called upon Admiral Robert FitzRoy, who had been Darwin's captain and companion on the voyage of the Beagle twenty-five years earlier. FitzRoy denounced Darwin's book and, "lifting an immense Bible first with both hands and afterwards with one hand over his head, solemnly implored the audience to believe God rather than man". He was believed to have said: "I believe that this is the Truth, and had I known then what I know now, I would not have taken him [Darwin] aboard the Beagle."

text: Next, Henslow called upon Admiral

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , who had been Darwin's captain and companion on the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: twenty-five years earlier. FitzRoy denounced Darwin's book and, "lifting an immense Bible first with both hands and afterwards with one hand over his head, solemnly implored the audience to believe God rather than man". He was believed to have said: "I believe that this is the Truth, and had I known then what I know now, I would not have taken him [Darwin] aboard the Beagle."

text: One major technique of plant breeding is selection, the process of selectively propagating plants with desirable characteristics and eliminating or "culling" those with less desirable characteristics.

text: Giant tortoises move very slowly on dry land, at only .The fastest recorded tortoise speed is .

text: The Controversy took its name from Spurgeon's use of the term "Downgrade" to describe certain other Baptists' outlook toward the Bible (i.e., they had "downgraded" the Bible and the principle of sola scriptura). Spurgeon alleged that an incremental creeping of the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and other concepts were weakening the Baptist Union. Spurgeon emphatically decried the doctrine that resulted:   The standoff caused division amongst the Baptists and other non-conformists, and is regarded by many as an important paradigm.

text: The Controversy took its name from Spurgeon's use of the term "Downgrade" to describe certain other Baptists' outlook toward the Bible (i.e., they had "downgraded" the Bible and the principle of

text: sola scriptura

text: ). Spurgeon alleged that an incremental creeping of the

entity_section: The Wellhausen (or Graf–Wellhausen) hypothesis

text: Graf-Wellhausen

text: hypothesis,

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: , and other concepts were weakening the Baptist Union. Spurgeon emphatically decried the doctrine that resulted:   The standoff caused division amongst the Baptists and other non-conformists, and is regarded by many as an important paradigm.

text: The Galápagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón, other Spanish name: Islas Galápagos, ) are an archipelago of volcanic islands distributed on either side of the Equator in the Pacific Ocean surrounding the centre of the Western Hemisphere,  west of continental Ecuador, of which they are a part. The islands are known for their vast number of endemic species and were studied by Charles Darwin during the voyage of the Beagle, as his observations and collections contributed to the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: The Galápagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón, other

text: Spanish

text: name: Islas Galápagos, ) are an

text: archipelago

text: of

text: volcanic islands

text: distributed on either side of the

text: Equator

text: in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: surrounding the centre of the

text: Western Hemisphere

text: ,  west of continental

text: Ecuador

text: , of which they are a part. The islands are known for their vast number of

text: endemic species

text: and were studied by

text: Charles Darwin

text: during

text: the voyage of the Beagle

text: , as his observations and collections contributed to the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: Contrary to often-held belief, the Nesomimus mockingbirds may have played at least as great a role as Darwin's finches in inspiring Darwin's work on his theory of evolution.

text: Contrary to often-held belief, the

text: Nesomimus

text: mockingbirds may have played at least as great a role as

text: Darwin's finches

text: in inspiring

text: Darwin's

text: work on his theory of evolution.

text: Wyman was a theist who attended the Unitarian Church at Harvard and as such leaned toward a belief in a "theistic, morphological form of evolution rather than natural selection." Two historians of science who chronicles Wyman's career, A. Hunter Dupree and Toby Appel, disagreed as to Wyman's reception of Darwin's theories of evolution and natural selection.  Dupree believed that Wyman's religious beliefs caused him to struggle with Darwin's theories, accepting them "only by intense effort both as a scientist and a person."  Appel disagreed with Dupree, believing that Wyman had no difficulty accepting Darwin's theory of evolution but that his work in philosophical anatomy made it "doubtful that he ever accepted natural selection."  In her article, Appel makes a case for Wyman as a proponent of philosophical anatomy at Harvard, along with Louis Agassiz and Asa Gray.  Philosophical anatomy, also known as transcendental anatomy, was the "search for ideal patterns of structure in nature."  This search did not prevent Wyman and Gray in accepting evolution, although Agassiz never did.  However, unlike Gray, Wyman could not accept natural selection as the method of evolution, believing instead in evolution as "directed by the Creator."

text: Wyman was a

text: theist

text: who attended the Unitarian Church at Harvard and as such leaned toward a belief in a "theistic, morphological form of evolution rather than natural selection." Two historians of science who chronicles Wyman's career,

text: A. Hunter Dupree

text: and Toby Appel, disagreed as to Wyman's reception of

text: Darwin's

text: theories of

text: evolution

text: and

text: natural selection

text: .  Dupree believed that Wyman's religious beliefs caused him to struggle with Darwin's theories, accepting them "only by intense effort both as a scientist and a person."  Appel disagreed with Dupree, believing that Wyman had no difficulty accepting Darwin's theory of evolution but that his work in philosophical anatomy made it "doubtful that he ever accepted natural selection."  In her article, Appel makes a case for Wyman as a proponent of philosophical anatomy at Harvard, along with Louis Agassiz and Asa Gray.  Philosophical anatomy, also known as

text: transcendental anatomy

text: , was the "search for ideal patterns of structure in nature."  This search did not prevent Wyman and Gray in accepting evolution, although Agassiz never did.  However, unlike Gray, Wyman could not accept natural selection as the method of evolution, believing instead in evolution as "directed by the Creator."

text: His most important publication was Variation and Evolution in Plants, which combined genetics and Darwin's theory of natural selection to describe plant speciation. It is regarded as one of the main publications which formed the core of the modern evolutionary synthesis and still provides the conceptual framework for research in plant evolutionary biology; according to Ernst Mayr, "Few later works dealing with the evolutionary systematics of plants have not been very deeply affected by Stebbins' work." He also researched and wrote widely on the role of hybridization and polyploidy in speciation and plant evolution; his work in this area has had a lasting influence on research in the field.

text: His most important publication was

text: Variation and Evolution in Plants

text: , which combined

text: genetics

text: and

text: Darwin's

text: theory of

text: natural selection

text: to describe plant

text: speciation

text: . It is regarded as one of the main publications which formed the core of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: and still provides the conceptual framework for research in plant evolutionary biology; according to

text: Ernst Mayr

text: , "Few later works dealing with the evolutionary systematics of plants have not been very deeply affected by Stebbins' work." He also researched and wrote widely on the role of

text: hybridization

text: and

text: polyploidy

text: in speciation and plant evolution; his work in this area has had a lasting influence on research in the field.

text: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is central to the acceptance of a natural morality.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: is central to the acceptance of a natural morality.

text: The term "Darwin's finches" was first applied by Percy Lowe in 1936, and popularised in 1947 by David Lack in his book Darwin's Finches. David Lack based his analysis on the large collection of museum specimens collected by the 1905–06 Galápagos expedition of the California Academy of Sciences, to whom Lack dedicated his 1947 book. The birds vary in size from 10 to 20 cm and weigh between 8 and 38 grams. The smallest are the warbler-finches and the largest is the vegetarian finch. The most important differences between species are in the size and shape of their beaks, and the beaks are highly adapted to different food sources. The birds are all dull-coloured.

text: The term "Darwin's finches" was first applied by

text: Percy Lowe

text: in 1936, and popularised in 1947 by

text: David Lack

text: in his book Darwin's Finches. David Lack based his analysis on the large collection of museum specimens collected by the 1905–06 Galápagos expedition of the California Academy of Sciences, to whom Lack dedicated his 1947 book. The birds vary in size from 10 to 20 cm and weigh between 8 and 38 grams. The smallest are the

text: warbler-finch

text: es and the largest is the

text: vegetarian finch

text: . The most important differences between species are in the size and shape of their beaks, and the beaks are highly

text: adapted

text: to different food sources. The birds are all dull-coloured.

text: Darwin's ideas developed rapidly after returning from the Voyage of the Beagle in 1836. By December 1838, he had developed the basic principles of his theory. At that time, similar ideas brought others disgrace and association with the revolutionary mob. He was conscious of the need to answer all likely objections before publishing.  While he continued with research, he had an immense amount of work in hand analyzing and publishing findings from the Beagle expedition, and was repeatedly delayed by illness.

text: Darwin's ideas developed rapidly after returning from

text: the Voyage of the Beagle

text: in 1836. By December 1838, he had developed the basic principles of his theory. At that time, similar ideas brought others disgrace and association with the revolutionary mob. He was conscious of the need to answer all likely objections before publishing.  While he continued with research, he had an immense amount of work in hand analyzing and publishing findings from the Beagle expedition, and was repeatedly delayed by illness.

text: Darwin visited Grant in 1831 to get advice on storing specimens immediately before setting out on the Voyage of the Beagle. When Darwin returned from his voyage, Grant was one of those to offer to examine his specimens, but was turned down: they do not seem to have had further contact.

text: Darwin visited Grant in 1831 to get advice on storing specimens immediately before setting out on

text: the Voyage of the Beagle

text: . When Darwin returned from his voyage, Grant was one of those to offer to examine his specimens, but was turned down: they do not seem to have had further contact.

text: For the Darwin bicentenary year of 2009  van Wyhe published four books on Darwin: Darwin's shorter publications, Darwin's notebooks from the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin in Cambridge and an accessible biography: Darwin.

text: Since the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species in 1859, the attitude of the Catholic Church on the theory of evolution has slowly been refined. Early contributions to the development of evolutionary theory were made by Catholic scientists such as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel. For nearly a century, the papacy offered no authoritative pronouncement on Darwin's theories. In the 1950 encyclical Humani generis, Pope Pius XII confirmed that there is no intrinsic conflict between Christianity and the theory of evolution, provided that Christians believe that the individual soul is a direct creation by God and not the product of purely material forces. , the Church supports theistic evolution(ism), also known as evolutionary creation, although Catholics are free not to believe in any part of evolutionary theory.

text: Since the publication of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859, the attitude of the

text: Catholic Church

text: on the theory of

text: evolution

text: has slowly been refined. Early contributions to the development of evolutionary theory were made by Catholic scientists such as

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: and the Augustinian monk

text: Gregor Mendel

text: . For nearly a century, the

text: papacy

text: offered no authoritative pronouncement on Darwin's theories. In the 1950

text: encyclical

text: Humani generis

text: Pope Pius XII

text: confirmed that there is no intrinsic conflict between Christianity and the theory of evolution, provided that Christians believe that the individual

text: soul

text: is a direct creation by

text: God

text: and not the product of purely material forces. , the Church supports

text: theistic evolution

text: (ism), also known as evolutionary creation, although Catholics are free not to believe in any part of evolutionary theory.

text: In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's Descent of Man, often in strong disagreement. Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but Wallace and August Weismann were nearly alone among prominent biologists in believing that natural selection was the major driving force behind it. In 1889, Wallace published the book Darwinism as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications.

text: In many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's

text: Descent of Man

text: , often in strong disagreement. Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but Wallace and

text: August Weismann

text: were nearly alone among prominent biologists in believing that natural selection was the major driving force behind it. In 1889, Wallace published the book

text: Darwinism

text: as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications.

text: Precise mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis. In 1865, Gregor Mendel reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the independent assortment and segregation of elements (later known as genes). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory. August Weismann made the important distinction between germ cells that give rise to gametes (such as sperm and egg cells) and the somatic cells of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only. Hugo de Vries connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the cell nucleus and when expressed they could move into the cytoplasm to change the cells structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well-known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as Ronald Fisher, Sewall Wright and J. B. S. Haldane set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and Mendelian inheritance was thus reconciled.

text: Precise mechanisms of reproductive heritability and the origin of new traits remained a mystery. Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of

text: pangenesis

text: . In 1865,

text: Gregor Mendel

text: reported that traits were inherited in a predictable manner through the

entity_section: Law of Independent Assortment (the "Second Law")

text: independent assortment

text: and segregation of elements (later known as

text: gene

text: s). Mendel's laws of inheritance eventually supplanted most of Darwin's pangenesis theory.

text: August Weismann

text: made the important distinction between

text: germ cell

text: s that give rise to

text: gamete

text: s (such as

text: sperm

text: and

text: egg cell

text: s) and the

text: somatic cell

text: s of the body, demonstrating that heredity passes through the germ line only.

text: Hugo de Vries

text: connected Darwin's pangenesis theory to Weismann's germ/soma cell distinction and proposed that Darwin's pangenes were concentrated in the

text: cell nucleus

text: and when expressed they could move into the

text: cytoplasm

text: to change the

text: cell

text: s structure. De Vries was also one of the researchers who made Mendel's work well-known, believing that Mendelian traits corresponded to the transfer of heritable variations along the germline. To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries. In the 1930s, pioneers in the field of population genetics, such as

text: Ronald Fisher

text: Sewall Wright

text: and

text: J. B. S. Haldane

text: set the foundations of evolution onto a robust statistical philosophy. The false contradiction between Darwin's theory, genetic mutations, and

text: Mendelian inheritance

text: was thus reconciled.

text: A 2005 poll reportedly found 26% of Russians accepting evolution and 49% accepting creationism. But a 2003 poll reported that 44% agreed with "Human beings are developed from earlier species of animals," and a 2009 poll reported that 48% of Russians who "know something about Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution" agreed that there was sufficient evidence for the theory. The 2009 poll indicated that 53% of Russians agreed with "Evolutionary theories should be taught in science lessons in schools together with other possible perspectives, such as intelligent design and creationism," with 13% preferring that such perspectives be taught instead of evolution; only 10% agreed with "Evolutionary theories alone should be taught in science lessons in schools."

text: 'Darwin's finches: The evolution of a legend in the history of science', British Society for the History of Science annual conference, Leeds, 15.7.2005.

text: The theory of evolution described by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the nineteenth century, particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of Darwin's theory, and believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process. For example, influential British Quaker scientist Edward Newman stated that this theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator."

text: The

text: theory of evolution

text: described by

text: Charles Darwin

text: in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: (1859) was opposed by many Quakers in the nineteenth century, particularly by older evangelical Quakers who dominated the Religious Society of Friends in Great Britain. These religious leaders were suspicious of

text: Darwin

text: 's theory, and believed that natural selection needed to be supplemented by another process. For example, influential British Quaker scientist

text: Edward Newman

text: stated that this theory was "not compatible with our notions of creation as delivered from the hands of a Creator."

text: Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled  On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

text: Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on

text: Natural Selection

text: , when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the

text: Maluku Islands

text: Ternate

text: and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the

text: Linnean Society

text: , and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled

text: , by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the

text: artificial selection

text: practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to

text: selective breeding

text: , and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing

text: group selection

text: rather than selection acting on individual variation.

text: Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913), sometimes referred to as the "father" of American sociology, rejected many of Spencer's theories regarding the evolution of societies. Ward, who was also a botanist and a paleontologist, believed that the law of evolution functioned much differently in human societies than it did in the plant and animal kingdoms, and theorized that the "law of nature" had been superseded by the "law of the mind". He stressed that humans, driven by emotions, create goals for themselves and strive to realize them (most effectively with the modern scientific method) whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human world. Plants and animals adapt to nature; man shapes nature. While Spencer believed that competition and "survival of the fittest" benefited human society and socio-cultural evolution, Ward regarded competition as a destructive force, pointing out that all human institutions, traditions and laws were tools invented by the mind of man and that that mind designed them, like all tools, to "meet and checkmate" the unrestrained competition of natural forces. Ward agreed with Spencer that authoritarian governments repress the talents of the individual, but he believed that modern democratic societies, which minimized the role of religion and maximized that of science, could effectively support the individual in his or her attempt to fully utilize their talents and achieve happiness. He believed that the evolutionary processes have four stages:

text: Lester Frank Ward (1841–1913), sometimes referred to as the "father" of American sociology, rejected many of Spencer's theories regarding the evolution of societies. Ward, who was also a botanist and a paleontologist, believed that the law of evolution functioned much differently in human societies than it did in the plant and animal kingdoms, and theorized that the "law of nature" had been superseded by the "law of the mind". He stressed that humans, driven by emotions, create goals for themselves and strive to realize them (most effectively with the modern

text: scientific method

text: ) whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human world. Plants and animals adapt to nature; man shapes nature. While Spencer believed that competition and "survival of the fittest" benefited human society and socio-cultural evolution, Ward regarded competition as a destructive force, pointing out that all human institutions, traditions and laws were tools invented by the mind of man and that that mind designed them, like all tools, to "meet and checkmate" the unrestrained competition of natural forces. Ward agreed with Spencer that authoritarian governments repress the talents of the individual, but he believed that modern democratic societies, which minimized the role of religion and maximized that of science, could effectively support the individual in his or her attempt to fully utilize their talents and achieve happiness. He believed that the evolutionary processes have four stages:

text: Among those who had heard of Charles Darwin and knew something about the theory of evolution, 77% of people in India agree that enough scientific evidence exists to support Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. Also, 85% of God believing Indians who know about evolution agree that life on earth evolved over time as a result of natural selection.

text: The Aldabra giant tortoise has an unusually long history of organized conservation. Albert Gunther of the British Museum, who later moved to the Natural History Museum of London (enlisting Charles Darwin and other famous scientists to help him) worked with the government of Mauritius to establish a preserve at the end of the 19th century. The related, but distinct, species of giant tortoise from the Seychelles islands (Seychelles giant tortoise A. g. hololissa and Arnold's giant tortoise A. g. arnoldi) are the subject of a captive-breeding and reintroduction program by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.

text: The Aldabra giant tortoise has an unusually long history of organized conservation. Albert Gunther of the British Museum, who later moved to the Natural History Museum of London (enlisting

text: Charles Darwin

text: and other famous scientists to help him) worked with the government of

text: Mauritius

text: to establish a preserve at the end of the 19th century. The related, but distinct, species of giant tortoise from the Seychelles islands (Seychelles giant tortoise A. g. hololissa and Arnold's giant tortoise A. g. arnoldi) are the subject of a captive-breeding and reintroduction program by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles.

text: The 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection put forward an explanation for complexity and adaptation, which reflects scientific consensus on the origins of biological diversity, and provides a counter-argument to the watchmaker analogy. Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins also referred to the analogy in his 1986 book The Blind Watchmaker giving his explanation of evolution. In the 19th century, deists, who championed the watchmaker analogy, held that Darwin's theory fit with "the principle of uniformitarianism—the idea that all processes in the world occur now as they have in the past" and that deistic evolution "provided an explanatory framework for understanding species variation in a mechanical universe."

text: The 1859 publication of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: put forward an explanation for complexity and

text: adaptation

text: , which reflects scientific consensus on the origins of biological diversity, and provides a counter-argument to the watchmaker analogy. Evolutionary biologist

text: Richard Dawkins

text: also referred to the analogy in his 1986 book

text: The Blind Watchmaker

text: giving his explanation of

text: evolution

text: . In the 19th century,

text: deists

text: , who championed the watchmaker analogy, held that Darwin's theory fit with "the principle of

text: uniformitarianism

text: —the idea that all processes in the world occur now as they have in the past" and that

text: deistic evolution

text: "provided an explanatory framework for understanding species variation in a mechanical universe."

text: By the time that Darwin published his theory, theologians of liberal Christianity were already supporting such ideas, and by the late 19th century, their modernist approach was predominant in theology. In science, evolution theory incorporating Darwin's natural selection became completely accepted.

text: By the time that Darwin published his theory, theologians of

text: liberal Christianity

text: were already supporting such ideas, and by the late 19th century, their modernist approach was predominant in theology. In science,

text: evolution

text: theory incorporating Darwin's natural selection became completely accepted.

text: Charles Darwin grew up with an interest in natural history, and as a student at the University of Cambridge he became a pupil and close friend of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. The year he graduated, Darwin was given a supernumerary position as a gentleman naturalist and geologist on the second voyage of HMS Beagle, a trip that lasted five years. By the time he returned in October 1836, he had doubts about the doctrine that species were fixed and unchanging. Within months, experts informed him that specimens he had collected were separate species, not just varieties, and the patterns he saw inspired the inception of his theory of natural selection in 1838. Darwin began editing and publishing the expert reports, collected in the Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, at the same time as writing a series of books on geology, the first of which was The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. His "species work" was his "prime hobby", a background to this writing, but it evolved into an extensive research programme during the twenty years before he published his theory.

text: Charles Darwin

text: grew up with an interest in

text: natural history

text: , and as a student at the

text: University of Cambridge

text: he became a pupil and close friend of

text: botany

text: professor

text: John Stevens Henslow

text: . The year he graduated, Darwin was given a

text: supernumerary

text: position as a gentleman naturalist and geologist on the

text: second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: , a trip that lasted five years. By the time he returned in October 1836, he had doubts about the doctrine that

text: species

text: were fixed and unchanging. Within months, experts informed him that specimens he had collected were separate species, not just

text: varieties

text: , and the patterns he saw inspired the

text: inception of his theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: in 1838. Darwin began editing and publishing the expert reports, collected in the

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: , at the same time as writing a series of books on geology, the first of which was

text: . His "species work" was his "prime hobby", a background to this writing, but it evolved into an extensive research programme during the twenty years before he

text: published his theory

text: The Mascarene Islands of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues once harboured five species of giant tortoise, comprising two species occurring on Mauritius, another two on Rodrigues, and one on Réunion. The tortoises were unique to these islands and had gained a number of special adaptations in the absence of ground predators. They differed from any other giant tortoise species because of their modified jaws, reduced scales on the legs and shells averaging just 1mm thick. The shells of the giant tortoises were open-ended; the name Cylindraspis actually means cylinder-shaped. This was a specific adaptation in response to the lack of predators, where thick, heavily armored shells were no longer necessary.

text: The

text: Mascarene Islands

text: of

text: Mauritius

text: , Réunion and Rodrigues once harboured five species of giant tortoise, comprising two species occurring on Mauritius, another two on Rodrigues, and one on Réunion. The tortoises were unique to these islands and had gained a number of special adaptations in the absence of ground

text: predator

text: s. They differed from any other giant tortoise species because of their modified jaws, reduced scales on the legs and shells averaging just 1mm thick. The shells of the giant tortoises were open-ended; the name Cylindraspis actually means cylinder-shaped. This was a specific adaptation in response to the lack of predators, where thick, heavily armored shells were no longer necessary.

text: Another interesting dimorphism is for the bills of young finches, which are either "pink" or "yellow". All species of Darwin's finches exhibit this morphism, which lasts for two months. No interpretation of this phenomenon is known.

text: Beagle Rupes is named after HMS Beagle, a ship made famous through association with Charles Darwin.

text: Beagle Rupes is named after

text: HMS Beagle

text: , a ship made famous through association with

text: Charles Darwin

text: From his standpoint as a comparative anatomist Aveling easily accepted Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. As an atheist he eagerly promoted the division between some evolutionists and some Christians. His colourful writings on Darwinism were widely read by the general public. However, some of the arguments that he constructed himself were not widely accepted amongst the scientific community; he says, for example, that "the special creation of a species of animal or plant is not thinkable" because it would contravene the principle that both matter and energy are conserved.

text: Another of these interpretations, later known as eugenics, was put forth by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, in 1865 and 1869. Galton argued that just as physical traits were clearly inherited among generations of people, so could be said for mental qualities (genius and talent). Galton argued that social mores needed to change so that heredity was a conscious decision, to avoid over-breeding by "less fit" members of society and the under-breeding of the "more fit" ones. In Galton's view, social institutions such as welfare and insane asylums were allowing "inferior" humans to survive and reproduce at levels faster than the more "superior" humans in respectable society, and if corrections were not soon taken, society would be awash with "inferiors." Darwin read his cousin's work with interest, and devoted sections of Descent of Man to discussion of Galton's theories. Neither Galton nor Darwin, though, advocated any eugenic policies such as those undertaken in the early 20th century, as government coercion of any form was very much against their political opinions.

text: Another of these interpretations, later known as

text: eugenics

text: , was put forth by Darwin's cousin,

text: Francis Galton

text: , in 1865 and 1869. Galton argued that just as physical traits were clearly inherited among generations of people, so could be said for mental qualities (genius and talent). Galton argued that social mores needed to change so that heredity was a conscious decision, to avoid over-breeding by "less fit" members of society and the under-breeding of the "more fit" ones. In Galton's view, social institutions such as

text: welfare

text: and

text: insane asylums

text: were allowing "inferior" humans to survive and reproduce at levels faster than the more "superior" humans in respectable society, and if corrections were not soon taken, society would be awash with "inferiors." Darwin read his cousin's work with interest, and devoted sections of Descent of Man to discussion of Galton's theories. Neither Galton nor Darwin, though, advocated any eugenic policies such as those undertaken in the early 20th century, as government coercion of any form was very much against their political opinions.

text: As the competition has evolved, more of the events have been tied into a central theme. For example, the 2008–2009 theme was "Latin America with a focus on Mexico". Language and literature was based on six short selections of literature as well as the novel Bless Me, Ultima by Rudolfo Anaya. Art focused on the art of Mexico and featured several pieces of work, ranging from Olmec earthenware to José Guadalupe Posada's La Calavera Catrina. The music event included questions on Latin American music and included works by musicians as varied as Manuel de Zumaya, Silvestre Revueltas, Ástor Piazzolla and Xavier Cugat. Social science and economics focused on the history and economy of Mexico respectively. The Super Quiz covered an introduction to evolutionary biology, the historical development of the theory of evolution, natural selection, speciation, mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and evolutionary developmental biology. Information was also included on Charles Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle.

text: As the competition has evolved, more of the events have been tied into a central theme. For example, the 2008–2009 theme was "

text: Latin America

text: with a focus on

text: Mexico

text: ". Language and literature was based on six short selections of literature as well as the novel

text: Bless Me, Ultima

text: by

text: Rudolfo Anaya

text: . Art focused on the art of Mexico and featured several pieces of work, ranging from

text: Olmec

text: earthenware to

text: José Guadalupe Posada

text: 's

text: La Calavera Catrina

text: . The music event included questions on Latin American music and included works by musicians as varied as

text: Manuel de Zumaya

text: Silvestre Revueltas

text: Ástor Piazzolla

text: and

text: Xavier Cugat

text: . Social science and economics focused on the history and economy of Mexico respectively. The Super Quiz covered an

text: introduction

text: to

text: evolutionary biology

text: , the

text: historical development of the theory of evolution

text: natural selection

text: speciation

text: mutation

text: gene flow

text: genetic drift

text: , and

text: evolutionary developmental biology

text: . Information was also included on

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: voyage on the HMS Beagle

text: The Seychelles giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea hololissa) is a tortoise subspecies in the genus Aldabrachelys.

text: The Seychelles giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea hololissa) is a

text: tortoise

text: subspecies

text: in the genus

text: Aldabrachelys

text: Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals written, in part, as a refutation of Sir Charles Bell's theologically doctrinaire physiognomy, was published in 1872. This book elaborated on Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and concentrated on the genetic aspects of human behaviour. Darwin's text carried illustrations drawn from Duchenne's photographs, and Darwin and Duchenne corresponded briefly. It is noteworthy, also, that Darwin lent his copy of Duchenne's book to the British psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne in 1869, that Crichton-Browne seems to have mislaid the book for a year or so (in the West Riding lunatic asylum in Wakefield, Yorkshire - see the Darwin Correspondence Project, Letter 7220) and that - in 1872 - Crichton-Browne invited Sir David Ferrier to his asylum laboratory to undertake experiments involving the electrical stimulation of motor centres in the brain.

text: Darwin's

text: written, in part, as a refutation of Sir

text: Charles Bell

text: 's theologically doctrinaire

text: physiognomy

text: , was published in 1872. This book elaborated on Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and concentrated on the genetic aspects of human behaviour. Darwin's text carried illustrations drawn from Duchenne's photographs, and Darwin and Duchenne corresponded briefly. It is noteworthy, also, that Darwin lent his copy of Duchenne's book to the British psychiatrist

text: James Crichton-Browne

text: in 1869, that Crichton-Browne seems to have mislaid the book for a year or so (in the West Riding lunatic asylum in

text: Wakefield

text: , Yorkshire - see the Darwin Correspondence Project, Letter 7220) and that - in 1872 - Crichton-Browne invited Sir

text: David Ferrier

text: to his asylum laboratory to undertake experiments involving the electrical stimulation of motor centres in the brain.

text: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication is a book by Charles Darwin that was first published in January 1868.

text: The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication is a book by

text: Charles Darwin

text: that was first published in January 1868.

text: FitzRoy thought of the advantages of having an expert in geology on board, and sought a gentleman naturalist who could be his companion. The young graduate, Charles Darwin, had hoped to see the tropics before becoming a parson, and took this opportunity. The Beagle sailed across the Atlantic Ocean then carried out detailed hydrographic surveys, returning via Tahiti and Australia, having circumnavigated the Earth. Originally planned to last two years, the expedition lasted almost five. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land. Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, and he showed a gift for theorising. By the end of the expedition he had already made his name as a geologist and fossil collector, and the publication of his journal, known as The Voyage of the Beagle, gave him wide renown as a writer. At Punta Alta he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. He ably collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals, with results that shook his belief that species were fixed and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, and led to his theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: FitzRoy thought of the advantages of having an expert in

text: geology

text: on board, and sought a

text: gentleman

text: naturalist

text: who could be his companion. The young graduate,

text: Charles Darwin

text: , had hoped to see the tropics before becoming a

text: parson

text: , and took this opportunity. The Beagle sailed across the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: then carried out detailed hydrographic surveys, returning via

text: Tahiti

text: and

text: Australia

text: , having circumnavigated the Earth. Originally planned to last two years, the expedition lasted almost five. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land. Early in the voyage he decided that he could write a book about geology, and he showed a gift for theorising. By the end of the expedition he had already made his name as a geologist and

text: fossil

text: collector, and the publication of his journal, known as

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: , gave him wide renown as a writer. At

text: Punta Alta

text: he made a major find of gigantic fossils of extinct mammals, then known from only a very few specimens. He ably collected and made detailed observations of plants and animals, with results that shook his belief that

text: species

text: were fixed and provided the basis for ideas which came to him when back in England, and led to his theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: One of the most famous examples of divergent evolution is the case of Darwin's Finches.  During Darwin’s travels to the Galapagos Islands he discovered several different species of finch that shared a common ancestor.  They lived on varying diets and had beaks that differed in shape and size reflecting their diet.  The change in beak shape and size was believed to be a result of the lengths the birds had to go to in order to support their change in diet.  Some Galapagos finches have beaks that are larger and more powerful to crack nuts with.  A different type allows the bird to use cactus spines to spear insects in the bark of trees.

text: One of the most famous examples of divergent evolution is the case of

text: Darwin's Finches

text: .  During Darwin’s travels to the Galapagos Islands he discovered several different species of finch that shared a common ancestor.  They lived on varying diets and had beaks that differed in shape and size reflecting their diet.  The change in beak shape and size was believed to be a result of the lengths the birds had to go to in order to support their change in diet.  Some Galapagos finches have beaks that are larger and more powerful to crack nuts with.  A different type allows the bird to use cactus spines to spear insects in the bark of trees.

text: Darwin explained the evolution of life with his theory of natural selection of inherited variations, but he believed in a theory of blending inheritance that made the propagation of new variations impossible.  He never read Gregor Mendel's studies that showed that the laws of inheritance would become simple when inheritance was considered as a random process.  Though Darwin in 1866 did the same experiment that Mendel had, Darwin did not get comparable results because he failed to appreciate the statistical importance of using very large experimental samples.  Eventually, Mendelian inheritance by random variation would, no thanks to Darwin, provide the raw material for Darwinian selection to work on.

text: Darwin explained the evolution of life with his

text: theory of natural selection

text: of inherited variations, but he believed in a theory of blending inheritance that made the propagation of new variations impossible.  He never read

text: Gregor Mendel

text: 's studies that showed that the laws of inheritance would become simple when inheritance was considered as a random process.  Though Darwin in 1866 did the same experiment that Mendel had, Darwin did not get comparable results because he failed to appreciate the statistical importance of using very large experimental samples.  Eventually,

text: Mendelian inheritance

text: by random variation would, no thanks to Darwin, provide the raw material for Darwinian selection to work on.

text: The game begins with the classic appearance of the original Space Invaders. However, this soon gives way to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, setting the tone for the remainder of the game. At the start of the game, the ship features the general controls of being able to move left and right and shoot. However, by progressing through the game and earning 'genes', the game goes through evolution, introducing new aspects such as being able to move the ship in all directions. As the game progresses, evolutions unlock various features such as new weapon types, an increased life limit, as well as unlockable music and bonus stages. During the game, players can shoot down UFOs to release DNA which, when collected, increases the effectiveness of their selected weapon. The DNA will scatter if the player loses a life. Players can chain enemy kills to increase their score, and also perform 'Nagoya Attacks', in which the player can pass through certain enemy fire the moment it is launched.

text: The game begins with the classic appearance of the original

text: Space Invaders

text: . However, this soon gives way to

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: theory of evolution

text: , setting the tone for the remainder of the game. At the start of the game, the ship features the general controls of being able to move left and right and shoot. However, by progressing through the game and earning 'genes', the game goes through evolution, introducing new aspects such as being able to move the ship in all directions. As the game progresses, evolutions unlock various features such as new weapon types, an increased life limit, as well as unlockable music and bonus stages. During the game, players can shoot down UFOs to release DNA which, when collected, increases the effectiveness of their selected weapon. The DNA will scatter if the player loses a life. Players can chain enemy kills to increase their score, and also perform 'Nagoya Attacks', in which the player can pass through certain enemy fire the moment it is launched.

text: All pochards have similar diets that include both plant and animal materials.  Redheads undergo a niche switch when breeding and when wintering.  During the breeding season, redheads will eat as much animal matter as possible, including gastropods, mollusks and insect larvae.  They will eat the occasional grass and other emergent vegetation.  However, once they fly south, redheads will change their diet to include mostly plant material, including pondweeds, wild rice, wild celery, wigeon grass, bulrushes, muskgrass and shoal grass.

text: All pochards have similar

text: diets

text: that include both plant and animal materials.  Redheads undergo a

text: niche

text: switch when breeding and when wintering.  During the breeding season, redheads will eat as much animal matter as possible, including

text: gastropods

text: mollusks

text: and insect larvae.  They will eat the occasional grass and other

text: emergent vegetation

text: .  However, once they fly south, redheads will change their diet to include mostly plant material, including

text: pondweed

text: s,

text: wild rice

text: wild celery

text: wigeon grass

text: bulrush

text: es,

text: muskgrass

text: and

text: shoal grass

text: Aldabrachelys abrupta is an extinct species of giant tortoise that was endemic to Madagascar.

text: Aldabrachelys abrupta is an

text: extinct

text: species of

text: giant tortoise

text: that was endemic to

text: Madagascar

text: Inspired by Darwin's manifesto, Thomas Henry Huxley emphatically cited embryologic and fossil evidence for the evolution of "higher" invertebrates from "lower" cnidarians, worms and mollusks, thereby elaborating what he concluded was Man's Place in Nature (1863). Another Darwinist, Ernst Haeckel, proposed a Protozoa-Metazoa theory of animal origins, while arguing that embryonic "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" throughout  organic prehistory. Haeckel popularized his paleozoologic ideas with majestic genealogical trees of the Animal Kingdom in his General Morphology of Organisms (1866).

text: Inspired by Darwin's

text: manifesto

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: emphatically cited

text: embryologic

text: and fossil evidence for the

text: evolution

text: of "higher" invertebrates from "lower"

text: cnidarian

text: s,

text: worm

text: s and

text: mollusk

text: s, thereby elaborating what he concluded was

text: Man's Place in Nature

text: (1863). Another

text: Darwinist

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: , proposed a

text: Protozoa

text: Metazoa

text: theory

text: of animal origins, while arguing that

text: embryo

text: nic "

text: ontogeny

text: recapitulates

text: phylogeny

text: " throughout

text: organic

text: prehistory

text: . Haeckel popularized his paleozoologic ideas with majestic

text: genealogical tree

text: s of the

text: Animal Kingdom

text: in his

text: General Morphology of Organisms

text: In other words, according to Rousseau, reason, language and rational community did not arise because of any conscious decision or plan by humans or gods, nor because of any pre-existing human nature. As a result, he claimed, living together in rationally organized communities like modern humans is a development with many negative aspects compared to the original state of man as an ape. If anything is specifically human in this theory, it is the flexibility and adaptability of humans. This view of the animal origins of distinctive human characteristics later received support from Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution.

text: In other words, according to Rousseau, reason, language and rational community did not arise because of any conscious decision or plan by humans or gods, nor because of any pre-existing human nature. As a result, he claimed, living together in rationally organized communities like modern humans is a development with many negative aspects compared to the original state of man as an ape. If anything is specifically human in this theory, it is the flexibility and adaptability of humans. This view of the animal origins of distinctive human characteristics later received support from

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: Theory of Evolution

text: Prior to Charles Darwin most evolutionary scientists had been saltationists. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a gradualist but similar to other scientists of the period had written that saltational evolution was possible. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire endorsed a theory of saltational evolution that "monstrosities could become the founding fathers (or mothers) of new species by instantaneous transition from one form to the next." Geoffroy wrote that environmental pressures could produce sudden transformations to establish new species instantaneously. In 1864 Albert von Kölliker revived Geoffroy's theory that evolution proceeds by large steps, under the name of heterogenesis.

text: Prior to

text: Charles Darwin

text: most evolutionary scientists had been saltationists.

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: was a gradualist but similar to other scientists of the period had written that saltational evolution was possible.

text: Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

text: endorsed a theory of saltational evolution that "monstrosities could become the founding fathers (or mothers) of new species by instantaneous transition from one form to the next." Geoffroy wrote that environmental pressures could produce sudden transformations to establish new

text: species

text: instantaneously. In 1864

text: Albert von Kölliker

text: revived Geoffroy's theory that evolution proceeds by large steps, under the name of

text: heterogenesis

text: Though Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution—"light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history," was all Darwin wrote on the subject—the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers.

text: Shortly after this, the second voyage of HMS Beagle surveyed the island. The names of two settlements on East Falkland, Darwin and Fitzroy, commemorate Charles Darwin and Robert FitzRoy. On 15 March 1833, an unimpressed Darwin wrote

text: Shortly after this, the

text: second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: surveyed the island. The names of two settlements on East Falkland,

text: Darwin

text: and

text: Fitzroy

text: , commemorate

text: Charles Darwin

text: and

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: . On 15 March 1833, an unimpressed Darwin wrote

text: The statement issued in the History of Science Society Newsletter said that the three historians had been misrepresented by the film company's selective reconstruction of Darwin's voyage. They said that they had been led to believe that "the movie was being made to be shown as an educational film on Australian broadcast television and possibly elsewhere", and had only been alerted to the true nature of the movie shortly before its release. They describe the interviews filmed with themselves as having been edited to highlight certain aspects of Darwin's views and character. Browne's description of Darwin's childhood delight in making up stories to impress people was "used to imply that the same motive may have driven his scientific thinking." The film uses the description of Darwin's later views on racial inequality but, the statement says, omits Bowler's account of the thesis that Darwin's work was inspired by his opposition to racism and slavery, as put forward by Adrian Desmond and James Moore. A comment by Sandra Herbert that "Darwin's theory required explanation of many aspects of life" was, the statement said, edited down to imply that his theory required explanation of all aspects of life. They stated that this opportunity to reach out to a wider public had turned out differently from their expectations, and that academics perhaps "do need to be more aware of the fact that the media organisations are not always open about their underlying agendas." While they probably would not have contributed had they known the true origins of Fathom Media, they thought that the producers had a point in that if academic historians refuse to participate when historical information is sought by organisations they disapprove of, they cannot complain if less reputable sources are used instead.

text: The statement issued in the

text: History of Science Society

text: Newsletter said that the three historians had been misrepresented by the film company's selective reconstruction of Darwin's voyage. They said that they had been led to believe that "the movie was being made to be shown as an educational film on Australian broadcast television and possibly elsewhere", and had only been alerted to the true nature of the movie shortly before its release. They describe the interviews filmed with themselves as having been edited to highlight certain aspects of Darwin's views and character. Browne's description of Darwin's childhood delight in making up stories to impress people was "used to imply that the same motive may have driven his scientific thinking." The film uses the description of Darwin's later views on racial inequality but, the statement says, omits Bowler's account of the thesis that Darwin's work was inspired by his opposition to racism and slavery, as put forward by

text: Adrian Desmond

text: and

text: James Moore

text: . A comment by Sandra Herbert that "Darwin's theory required explanation of many aspects of life" was, the statement said, edited down to imply that his theory required explanation of all aspects of life. They stated that this opportunity to reach out to a wider public had turned out differently from their expectations, and that academics perhaps "do need to be more aware of the fact that the media organisations are not always open about their underlying agendas." While they probably would not have contributed had they known the true origins of Fathom Media, they thought that the producers had a point in that if academic historians refuse to participate when historical information is sought by organisations they disapprove of, they cannot complain if less reputable sources are used instead.

text: l evolution” (Shennan, 2008).  Initially cultural evolution focused on human transitions from foragers to horticulturalist, to implementation of agriculture, and eventually rise of civilizations.  In the 19 century, the goal of evolution theory was to explain cultural traits and human history and account for the significant differences between cultural groups and their current state of living. However, this notion of evolution was not as one would define in the biological sciences, and thus “not a coherent theoretical evolutionary framework, and even after Darwin’s publication of On the Origin of Species the 19th- and early 20th-century cultural evolutionists maintained a thoroughly non-Darwinian notion of evolution” (Bettinger 1991).

text: l evolution” (Shennan, 2008).  Initially cultural evolution focused on human transitions from foragers to horticulturalist, to implementation of agriculture, and eventually rise of civilizations.  In the 19 century, the goal of evolution theory was to explain cultural traits and human history and account for the significant differences between cultural groups and their current state of living. However, this notion of evolution was not as one would define in the biological sciences, and thus “not a coherent theoretical evolutionary framework, and even after Darwin’s publication of On the

text: Origin of Species

text: the 19th- and early 20th-century cultural evolutionists maintained a thoroughly non-Darwinian notion of evolution” (Bettinger 1991).

text: Not long after the conclusion of The Reader, a former editor, Norman Lockyer, decided to create a new scientific journal titled Nature, taking its name from a line by William Wordsworth: "To the solid ground of nature trusts the Mind that builds for aye". First owned and published by Alexander Macmillan, Nature was similar to its predecessors in its attempt to "provide cultivated readers with an accessible forum for reading about advances in scientific knowledge." Janet Browne has proposed that "far more than any other science journal of the period, Nature was conceived, born, and raised to serve polemic purpose." Many of the early editions of Nature consisted of articles written by members of a group that called itself the X Club, a group of scientists known for having liberal, progressive, and somewhat controversial scientific beliefs relative to the time period. Initiated by Thomas Henry Huxley, the group consisted of such important scientists as Joseph Dalton Hooker, Herbert Spencer, and John Tyndall, along with another five scientists and mathematicians; these scientists were all avid supporters of Darwin's theory of evolution as common descent, a theory which, during the latter-half of the 19th century, received a great deal of criticism among more conservative groups of scientists. Perhaps it was in part its scientific liberality that made Nature a longer-lasting success than its predecessors. John Maddox, editor of Nature from 1966 to 1973 as well as from 1980 to 1995, suggested at a celebratory dinner for the journal's centennial edition that perhaps it was the journalistic qualities of Nature that drew readers in; "journalism" Maddox states, "is a way of creating a sense of community among people who would otherwise be isolated from each other. This is what Lockyer's journal did from the start." In addition, Maddox mentions that the financial backing of the journal in its first years by the Macmillan family also allowed the journal to flourish and develop more freely than scientific journals before it.

text: Not long after the conclusion of The Reader, a former editor,

text: Norman Lockyer

text: , decided to create a new scientific journal titled Nature, taking its name from a line by

text: William Wordsworth

text: : "To the solid ground of nature trusts the Mind that builds for aye". First owned and published by

text: Alexander Macmillan

text: , Nature was similar to its predecessors in its attempt to "provide cultivated readers with an accessible forum for reading about advances in scientific knowledge." Janet Browne has proposed that "far more than any other science journal of the period, Nature was conceived, born, and raised to serve polemic purpose." Many of the early editions of Nature consisted of articles written by members of a group that called itself the

text: X Club

text: , a group of scientists known for having liberal, progressive, and somewhat controversial scientific beliefs relative to the time period. Initiated by

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: , the group consisted of such important scientists as

text: Joseph Dalton Hooker

text: Herbert Spencer

text: , and

text: John Tyndall

text: , along with another five scientists and mathematicians; these scientists were all avid supporters of Darwin's theory of evolution as

text: common descent

text: , a theory which, during the latter-half of the 19th century, received a great deal of criticism among more conservative groups of scientists. Perhaps it was in part its scientific liberality that made Nature a longer-lasting success than its predecessors.

text: John Maddox

text: , editor of Nature from 1966 to 1973 as well as from 1980 to 1995, suggested at a celebratory dinner for the journal's centennial edition that perhaps it was the journalistic qualities of Nature that drew readers in; "journalism" Maddox states, "is a way of creating a sense of community among people who would otherwise be isolated from each other. This is what Lockyer's journal did from the start." In addition, Maddox mentions that the financial backing of the journal in its first years by the Macmillan family also allowed the journal to flourish and develop more freely than scientific journals before it.

text: Wallace used the butterfly as an example of natural selection in support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.

text: Wallace used the butterfly as an example of

text: natural selection

text: in support of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution.

text: Charles Darwin studied goose breeds as part of his work on the theory of evolution. He noted that the external differences between Chinese geese and breeds descended from the Greylag goose belied a rather close relationship:

text: Charles Darwin

text: studied goose breeds as part of his work on the theory of

text: evolution

text: . He noted that the external differences between Chinese geese and breeds descended from the Greylag goose belied a rather close relationship:

text: On 23 July they set off again longing to reach home, but FitzRoy wanted to ensure the accuracy of his longitude measurements and so took the ship across the Atlantic back to Bahia in Brazil to take check readings. Darwin was glad to see the beauties of the jungle for a last time, but now compared "the stately Mango trees with the Horse Chesnuts of England." The return trip was delayed for a further 11 days when weather forced the Beagle to shelter further up the coast at Pernambuco, where Darwin examined rocks for signs of elevation, noted "Mangroves like rank grass" and investigated marine invertebrates at various depths on the sandbar. The Beagle departed for home on 17 August. After a stormy passage including a stop for supplies at the Azores, the Beagle finally reached Falmouth, Cornwall, England on 2 October 1836. A plaque now commemorates his arrival point in Falmouth, Cornwall.

text: On 23 July they set off again longing to reach home, but FitzRoy wanted to ensure the accuracy of his longitude measurements and so took the ship across the

text: Atlantic

text: back to

text: Bahia

text: in

text: Brazil

text: to take check readings. Darwin was glad to see the beauties of the jungle for a last time, but now compared "the stately Mango trees with the Horse Chesnuts of England." The return trip was delayed for a further 11 days when weather forced the Beagle to shelter further up the coast at

text: Pernambuco

text: , where Darwin examined rocks for signs of elevation, noted "Mangroves like rank grass" and investigated marine invertebrates at various depths on the sandbar. The Beagle departed for home on 17 August. After a stormy passage including a stop for supplies at the

text: Azores

text: , the Beagle finally reached

text: Falmouth, Cornwall

text: England

text: on 2 October 1836. A plaque now commemorates his arrival point in

text: Falmouth, Cornwall

text: Rev. D. James Kennedy of The Center for Reclaiming America for Christ and Coral Ridge Ministries claims that Darwin was responsible for Adolf Hitler's atrocities. In Kennedy's documentary and the accompanying pamphlet with the same title, Darwin's Deadly Legacy, Kennedy states that "To put it simply, no Darwin, no Hitler." In his efforts to expose the "harmful effects that evolution is still having on our nation, our children, and our world," Kennedy also states that, "We have had 150 years of the theory of Darwinian evolution, and what has it brought us? Whether Darwin intended it or not, millions of deaths, the destruction of those deemed inferior, the devaluing of human life, increasing hopelessness." The Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture fellow Richard Weikart has made similar claims, as have other creationists. The claim was central to the documentary film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (2008) promoting intelligent design creationism. The Anti-Defamation League describes such claims as outrageous misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery, and as trivializing the "...many complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry. Hitler did not need Darwin or evolution to devise his heinous plan to exterminate the Jewish people, and Darwin and evolutionary theory cannot explain Hitler's genocidal madness. Moreover, anti-Semitism existed long before Darwin ever wrote a word."

text: Rev.

text: D. James Kennedy

text: of The Center for Reclaiming America for Christ and Coral Ridge Ministries claims that Darwin was responsible for

text: Adolf Hitler

text: 's atrocities. In Kennedy's documentary and the accompanying pamphlet with the same title, Darwin's Deadly Legacy, Kennedy states that "To put it simply, no Darwin, no Hitler." In his efforts to expose the "harmful effects that evolution is still having on our nation, our children, and our world," Kennedy also states that, "We have had 150 years of the theory of Darwinian evolution, and what has it brought us? Whether Darwin intended it or not, millions of deaths, the destruction of those deemed inferior, the devaluing of human life, increasing hopelessness." The Discovery Institute's

text: Center for Science and Culture

text: fellow

text: Richard Weikart

text: has made similar claims, as have other creationists. The claim was central to the documentary film

text: Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed

text: (2008) promoting intelligent design creationism. The

text: Anti-Defamation League

text: describes such claims as outrageous misuse of

text: the Holocaust

text: and its imagery, and as trivializing the "...many complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry. Hitler did not need Darwin or evolution to devise his heinous plan to exterminate the Jewish people, and Darwin and evolutionary theory cannot explain Hitler's genocidal madness. Moreover,

text: anti-Semitism

text: existed long before Darwin ever wrote a word."

text: A Darwinian approach analyzing anthropological phenomena is granted as scientific. The introduction of Darwinian theory of evolution in biology set a foundation that resulted in a change from essentialism to materialism. Prior to Darwin, biologists, such as Linnaeus, tended to see different species as fully” formed, static, essential categories, which the biologist was to discover, collect and classify” (Mesoudi, 2006).  Darwin on the contrary viewed biological development as a continuous process, stating that even within a specific species, there is individual variation. This is important because these microevolutionary processes are fundamental in the development of new species.  This Darwinian paradigm redirected how scientist viewed evolution, thus in many the of hard sciences a “shift from a typological view of biological entities towards what is commonly termed ‘population thinking’ occurred allowing for a scientist explanatory framework to understand of change over time (Hull, 1985).

text: A Darwinian approach analyzing anthropological phenomena is granted as scientific. The introduction of Darwinian theory of evolution in biology set a foundation that resulted in a change from

text: essentialism

text: to

text: materialism

text: . Prior to Darwin, biologists, such as Linnaeus, tended to see different species as fully” formed, static, essential categories, which the biologist was to discover, collect and classify” (Mesoudi, 2006).  Darwin on the contrary viewed biological development as a continuous process, stating that even within a specific species, there is individual variation. This is important because these

text: microevolutionary

text: processes are fundamental in the development of new species.  This Darwinian paradigm redirected how scientist viewed evolution, thus in many the of hard sciences a “shift from a typological view of biological entities towards what is commonly termed ‘population thinking’ occurred allowing for a scientist explanatory framework to understand of change over time (Hull, 1985).

text: Charles Darwin allowed a role for use and disuse as an evolutionary mechanism subsidiary to natural selection, most often in respect of disuse. He praised Lamarck for "the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic... world, being the result of law, not miraculous interposition". Lamarckism is also occasionally used to describe quasi-evolutionary concepts in societal contexts, though not by Lamarck himself. For example, the memetic theory of cultural evolution is sometimes described as a form of Lamarckian inheritance of non-genetic traits.

text: Charles Darwin

text: allowed a role for use and disuse as an evolutionary mechanism subsidiary to natural selection, most often in respect of disuse. He praised Lamarck for "the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic... world, being the result of law, not miraculous interposition". Lamarckism is also occasionally used to describe quasi-evolutionary concepts in societal contexts, though not by Lamarck himself. For example, the

text: memetic

text: theory of

text: cultural evolution

text: is sometimes described as a form of Lamarckian inheritance of non-genetic traits.

text: Wallace throughout his life continued to support and extend the scope of Darwin's theory of evolution via the mechanism of natural selection. One of his works, Darwinism, was often cited in support of Darwin's theory. He also worked to elaborate and extend Darwin and his ideas on natural selection. However, Wallace also realized that the scope and claim of the theory was limited. Darwin himself had limited it.

text: Charles Darwin's publication of the On the Origin of Species in 1859 was a watershed event in all the life sciences, especially paleontology. Fossils had played a role in the development of Darwin's theory. In particular he had been impressed by fossils he had collected in South America during the voyage of the Beagle of giant armadillos, giant sloths, and what at the time he thought were giant llamas that seemed to be related to species still living on the continent in modern times. The scientific debate that started immediately after the publication of Origin led to a concerted effort to look for transitional fossils and other evidence of evolution in the fossil record. There were two areas where early success attracted considerable public attention, the transition between reptiles and birds, and the evolution of the modern single-toed horse. In 1861 the first specimen of Archaeopteryx, an animal with both teeth and feathers and a mix of other reptilian and avian features, was discovered in a limestone quarry in Bavaria and described by Richard Owen. Another would be found in the late 1870s and put on display at a Museum in Berlin in 1881. Other primitive toothed birds were found by Othniel Marsh in Kansas in 1872. Marsh also discovered fossils of several primitive horses in the Western United States that helped trace the evolution of the horse from the small 5-toed Hyracotherium of the Eocene to the much larger single-toed modern horses of the genus Equus. Thomas Huxley would make extensive use of both the horse and bird fossils in his advocacy of evolution. Acceptance of evolution occurred rapidly in scientific circles, but acceptance of Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection as the driving force behind it was much less universal. In particular some paleontologists such as Edward Drinker Cope and Henry Fairfield Osborn preferred alternatives such as neo-Lamarckism, the inheritance of characteristics acquired during life, and orthogenesis, an innate drive to change in a particular direction, to explain what they perceived as linear trends in evolution.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's publication of the

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859 was a watershed event in all the life sciences, especially paleontology. Fossils had played a role in the development of Darwin's theory. In particular he had been impressed by fossils he had collected in

text: South America

text: during the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: of

text: giant armadillo

text: s,

text: giant sloth

text: s, and what at the time he thought were

text: giant llama

text: s that seemed to be related to species still living on the continent in modern times. The scientific debate that started immediately after the publication of Origin led to a concerted effort to look for

text: transitional fossils

text: and other evidence of evolution in the fossil record. There were two areas where early success attracted considerable public attention, the transition between reptiles and birds, and the evolution of the modern single-toed horse. In 1861 the first specimen of

text: Archaeopteryx

text: , an animal with both teeth and feathers and a mix of other reptilian and avian features, was discovered in a limestone quarry in Bavaria and described by

text: Richard Owen

text: . Another would be found in the late 1870s and put on display at a Museum in Berlin in 1881. Other primitive toothed birds were found by

text: Othniel Marsh

text: in Kansas in 1872. Marsh also discovered fossils of several primitive horses in the Western United States that helped trace the

text: evolution of the horse

text: from the small 5-toed

text: Hyracotherium

text: of the

text: Eocene

text: to the much larger single-toed modern horses of the genus Equus.

text: Thomas Huxley

text: would make extensive use of both the horse and bird fossils in his advocacy of evolution. Acceptance of evolution occurred rapidly in scientific circles, but acceptance of Darwin's proposed mechanism of

text: natural selection

text: as the driving force behind it was much less universal. In particular some paleontologists such as

text: Edward Drinker Cope

text: and

text: Henry Fairfield Osborn

text: preferred alternatives such as neo-

text: Lamarckism

text: , the inheritance of characteristics acquired during life, and

text: orthogenesis

text: , an innate drive to change in a particular direction, to explain what they perceived as linear trends in evolution.

text: Many of the scientists in question did some early work on the mechanisms of evolution, e.g., the modern evolutionary synthesis combines Darwin's theory of evolution with Mendel's theories of inheritance and genetics. Though biological evolution of some sort had become the primary mode of discussing speciation within science by the late-19th century, it was not until the mid-20th century that evolutionary theories stabilized into the modern synthesis. Geneticist and evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky, called the Father of the Modern Synthesis, argued that "Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution," and saw no conflict between evolutionary and his religious beliefs. Nevertheless, some of the historical scientists marshalled by creationists were dealing with quite different issues than any are engaged with today: Louis Pasteur, for example, opposed the theory of spontaneous generation with biogenesis, an advocacy some creationists describe as a critique on chemical evolution and abiogenesis. Pasteur accepted that some form of evolution had occurred and that the Earth was millions of years old.

text: Many of the scientists in question did some early work on the mechanisms of evolution, e.g., the modern evolutionary synthesis combines Darwin's theory of evolution with

text: Mendel

text: 's theories of inheritance and genetics. Though biological evolution of some sort had become the primary mode of discussing speciation within science by the late-19th century, it was not until the mid-20th century that evolutionary theories stabilized into the modern synthesis. Geneticist and evolutionary biologist

text: Theodosius Dobzhansky

text: , called the Father of the Modern Synthesis, argued that "

entity_name: Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution

text: Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution

text: ," and saw no conflict between evolutionary and his religious beliefs. Nevertheless, some of the historical scientists marshalled by creationists were dealing with quite different issues than any are engaged with today:

text: Louis Pasteur

text: , for example, opposed the theory of

text: spontaneous generation

text: with

text: biogenesis

text: , an advocacy some creationists describe as a critique on

text: chemical evolution

text: and

text: abiogenesis

text: . Pasteur accepted that some form of evolution had occurred and that the Earth was millions of years old.

text: In 1985 Denton wrote the book Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, presenting a systematic critique of neo-Darwinism ranging from paleontology, fossils, homology, molecular biology, genetics and biochemistry, and argued that evidence of design exists in nature.Book reviews have criticized his arguments. He describes himself as an evolutionist and he has rejected biblical creationism. The book influenced both Phillip E. Johnson, the father of intelligent design, Michael Behe, a proponent of irreducible complexity, and George Gilder, co-founder of the Discovery Institute, the hub of the intelligent design movement.  Since writing the book Denton has changed many of his views on evolution, however he still believes that the existence of life is a matter of design.

text: In 1985 Denton wrote the book Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, presenting a systematic critique of

text: neo-Darwinism

text: ranging from

text: paleontology

text: fossils

text: homology

text: molecular biology

text: genetics

text: and

text: biochemistry

text: , and argued that evidence of design exists in nature.Book reviews have criticized his arguments. He describes himself as an

text: evolutionist

text: and he has rejected biblical

text: creationism

text: . The book influenced both

text: Phillip E. Johnson

text: , the father of intelligent design, Michael Behe, a proponent of irreducible complexity, and

text: George Gilder

text: , co-founder of the

text: Discovery Institute

text: , the hub of the

text: intelligent design movement

text: .  Since writing the book Denton has changed many of his views on evolution, however he still believes that the existence of life is a matter of design.

text: Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.

text: Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: as an

text: abstract

text: of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered

text: human descent

text: from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.

text: HMS Beagle was a Cherokee-class 10-gun brig-sloop of the Royal Navy, one of more than 100 ships of this class. The vessel, constructed at a cost of  £7,803, was launched on 11 May 1820 from the Woolwich Dockyard on the River Thames. In July of that year she took part in a fleet review celebrating the coronation of King George IV of the United Kingdom, and for that occasion is said to have been the first ship to sail completely under the old London Bridge. There was no immediate need for Beagle so she "lay in ordinary", moored afloat but without masts or rigging. She was then adapted as a survey barque and took part in three survey expeditions. On the second voyage a young naturalist named Charles Darwin was on board; the pivotal role this round the world voyage played in forming his scientific theories made Beagle one of the most famous ships in history.

text: HMS Beagle was a

text: Cherokee-class

text: brig-sloop

text: of the

text: Royal Navy

text: , one of more than 100 ships of this class. The vessel, constructed at a cost of  £7,803, was

text: launched

text: on 11 May 1820 from the

text: Woolwich Dockyard

text: on the

text: River Thames

text: . In July of that year she took part in a

text: fleet review

text: celebrating the coronation of King

text: George IV of the United Kingdom

text: , and for that occasion is said to have been the first ship to sail completely under the old

text: London Bridge

text: . There was no immediate need for Beagle so she "

text: lay in ordinary

text: ", moored afloat but without masts or rigging. She was then adapted as a survey

text: barque

text: and took part in three survey expeditions. On the second voyage a young naturalist named

text: Charles Darwin

text: was on board; the pivotal role this round the world voyage played in forming his scientific theories made Beagle one of the most famous ships in history.

text: Peter J. Bowler (born 8 October 1944) is a historian of biology who has written extensively on the history of evolutionary thought, the history of the environmental sciences, and on the history of genetics. His 1984 book, Evolution: The History of an Idea is a standard textbook on the history of evolution, and was substantially revised in 2003 and a 25th anniversary edition came in 2009. His 1983 book The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades Around 1900 describes the scientific and social challenges to Darwinism which led many to abandon the theory in the first part of the twentieth century.

text: Peter J. Bowler (born 8 October 1944) is a

text: historian of biology

text: who has written extensively on the

text: history of evolutionary thought

text: , the history of the

text: environmental sciences

text: , and on the

text: history of genetics

text: . His 1984 book, Evolution: The History of an Idea is a standard textbook on the history of

text: evolution

text: , and was substantially revised in 2003 and a 25th anniversary edition came in 2009. His 1983 book The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti-Darwinian Evolution Theories in the Decades Around 1900 describes the scientific and social challenges to Darwinism which led many to abandon the theory in the first part of the twentieth century.

text: The role of the corolla in plant evolution has been studied extensively since Charles Darwin postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes.

text: The role of the corolla in plant

text: evolution

text: has been studied extensively since

text: Charles Darwin

text: postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes.

text: Modern evolutionary theory posits that all biological systems must have evolved incrementally, through a combination of natural selection and genetic drift. Both Darwin and his early detractors recognized the potential problems that could arise for his theory of natural selection if the lineage of organs and other biological features could not be accounted for by gradual, step-by-step changes over successive generations; if all the intermediary stages between an initial organ and the organ it will become are not all improvements upon the original, it will be impossible for the later organ to develop by the process of natural selection alone. Complex organs such as the eye had been presented by William Paley as exemplifying the need for design by God, and anticipating early criticisms that the evolution of the eye and other complex organs seemed impossible, Darwin noted that:

text: Modern evolutionary theory posits that all biological systems must have evolved incrementally, through a combination of natural selection and

text: genetic drift

text: . Both Darwin and his early detractors recognized the potential problems that could arise for his theory of natural selection if the lineage of organs and other biological features could not be accounted for by gradual, step-by-step changes over successive generations; if all the intermediary stages between an initial organ and the organ it will become are not all improvements upon the original, it will be impossible for the later organ to develop by the process of natural selection alone. Complex organs such as the eye had been presented by William Paley as exemplifying the need for

text: design by God

text: , and anticipating early criticisms that the

text: evolution of the eye

text: and other complex organs seemed impossible, Darwin noted that:

text: Before the time of Charles Darwin's work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.

text: Before the time of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.

text: Evidence from island biogeography has played an important and historic role in the development of evolutionary biology. For purposes of biogeography, islands are divided into two classes. Continental islands are islands like Great Britain, and Japan that have at one time or another been part of a continent. Oceanic islands, like the Hawaiian islands, the Galápagos Islands and St. Helena, on the other hand are islands that have formed in the ocean and never been part of any continent. Oceanic islands have distributions of native plants and animals that are unbalanced in ways that make them distinct from the biotas found on continents or continental islands. Oceanic islands do not have native terrestrial mammals (they do sometimes have bats and seals), amphibians, or fresh water fish. In some cases they have terrestrial reptiles (such as the iguanas and giant tortoises of the Galápagos Islands) but often (for example Hawaii) they do not. This despite the fact that when species such as rats, goats, pigs, cats, mice, and cane toads, are introduced to such islands by humans they often thrive. Starting with Charles Darwin, many scientists have conducted experiments and made observations that have shown that the types of animals and plants found, and not found, on such islands are consistent with the theory that these islands were colonized accidentally by plants and animals that were able to reach them. Such accidental colonization could occur by air, such as plant seeds carried by migratory birds, or bats and insects being blown out over the sea by the wind, or by floating from a continent or other island by sea, as for example by some kinds of plant seeds like coconuts that can survive immersion in salt water, and reptiles that can survive for extended periods on rafts of vegetation carried to sea by storms.

text: Evidence from

text: island biogeography

text: has played an important and historic role in the development of

text: evolutionary biology

text: . For purposes of

text: biogeography

text: , islands are divided into two classes. Continental islands are islands like

text: Great Britain

text: , and

text: Japan

text: that have at one time or another been part of a continent. Oceanic islands, like the

text: Hawaiian islands

text: , the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: and

text: St. Helena

text: , on the other hand are islands that have formed in the ocean and never been part of any continent. Oceanic islands have distributions of native plants and animals that are unbalanced in ways that make them distinct from the

text: biota

text: s found on continents or continental islands. Oceanic islands do not have native terrestrial mammals (they do sometimes have bats and seals), amphibians, or fresh water fish. In some cases they have terrestrial reptiles (such as the iguanas and giant tortoises of the Galápagos Islands) but often (for example Hawaii) they do not. This despite the fact that when species such as rats, goats, pigs, cats, mice, and

text: cane toad

text: s, are introduced to such islands by humans they often thrive. Starting with

text: Charles Darwin

text: , many scientists have conducted experiments and made observations that have shown that the types of animals and plants found, and not found, on such islands are consistent with the theory that these islands were colonized accidentally by plants and animals that were able to reach them. Such accidental colonization could occur by air, such as plant seeds carried by migratory birds, or bats and insects being blown out over the sea by the wind, or by floating from a continent or other island by sea, as for example by some kinds of plant seeds like coconuts that can survive immersion in salt water, and reptiles that can survive for extended periods on rafts of vegetation carried to sea by storms.

text: These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so.

text: These developments, as well as the results from

text: embryology

text: and

text: paleontology

text: , were synthesized in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . In

text: , Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so.

text: Darwin had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. Though few agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured in June 1909 by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species. During this period, which has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Fisher, an English statistician finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection between 1918 and his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, giving the theory a mathematical footing and bringing broad scientific consensus that it was the basic mechanism of evolution, founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.

text: Darwin had convinced most scientists that

text: evolution

text: as

text: descent with modification

text: was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. Though few agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured in June 1909 by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in

text: Cambridge

text: to

text: commemorate his centenary

text: and the fiftieth anniversary of

text: On the Origin of Species

text: . During this period, which has been called "

text: the eclipse of Darwinism

text: ", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable.

text: Ronald Fisher

text: , an English

text: statistician

text: finally united

text: Mendelian genetics

text: with

text: natural selection

text: between 1918 and his 1930 book

entity_name: The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection

text: The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection

text: , giving the theory a

text: mathematical

text: footing and bringing broad scientific consensus that it was the basic mechanism of evolution, founding the basis for

text: population genetics

text: and the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: , with

text: J.B.S. Haldane

text: and

text: Sewall Wright

text: , which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.

text: Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was the first to present a coherent theory of evolution. He posited that evolution was the result of environmental stress on properties of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigorously an organ was used, the more complex and efficient it would become, thus adapting the animal to its environment. Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them. However, it was the British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions. Although it was the subject of controversy (which continues to this day), Darwin's theory quickly spread through the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology.

text: Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: , who was the first to present a coherent theory of evolution. He posited that evolution was the result of environmental stress on properties of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigorously an organ was used, the more complex and efficient it would become, thus adapting the animal to its environment. Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them. However, it was the British naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: , combining the biogeographical approach of

text: Humboldt

text: , the uniformitarian geology of

text: Lyell

text: Malthus's

text: writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on

text: natural selection

text: ; similar reasoning and evidence led

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: to independently reach the same conclusions. Although it was the subject of

text: controversy

text: (which continues to this day), Darwin's theory quickly spread through the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology.

text: Charles Darwin «The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication», 1868 г.:

text: Others basing their studies of reproductive ecology on Darwin's evolutionary approach included Friedrich Hildebrand and Severin Axell in Europe, Asa Gray and Charles Robertson in North America. In Italy, Federigo Delpino adopted the theory of descent but like Sprengel had a teleological approach and explained the mechanisms of flowers by the intervention of a "psychovitalistic intelligence". Delpino classified flowers on the basis of the pollinators they attracted, and coined many of the terms still in use such as pollination syndrome and ornithophily. There was an enormous increase in knowledge during this period. In 1874, Asa Gray paid tribute to Darwin's work on orchids for explaining "all these and other extraordinary structures, as well as of the arrangement of blossoms in general, and even the very meaning and need of sexual propagation". He credited Darwin with establishing the understanding that "Nature abhors close fertilization".

text: Others basing their studies of reproductive ecology on Darwin's evolutionary approach included Friedrich Hildebrand and Severin Axell in Europe,

text: Asa Gray

text: and Charles Robertson in North America. In Italy, Federigo Delpino adopted the theory of descent but like Sprengel had a

text: teleological

text: approach and explained the mechanisms of flowers by the intervention of a "psychovitalistic intelligence". Delpino classified flowers on the basis of the pollinators they attracted, and coined many of the terms still in use such as

text: pollination syndrome

text: and

text: ornithophily

text: . There was an enormous increase in knowledge during this period. In 1874, Asa Gray paid tribute to Darwin's work on orchids for explaining "all these and other extraordinary structures, as well as of the arrangement of blossoms in general, and even the very meaning and need of sexual propagation". He credited Darwin with establishing the understanding that "Nature abhors close fertilization".

text: The Galapagos finches were especially influential in the development of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. His contemporary Alfred Russel Wallace also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of biogeography. Wallace was influenced by the work of Philip Lutley Sclater on the distribution patterns of birds.

text: The

text: Galapagos

text: finch

text: es were especially influential in the development of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution. His contemporary

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of

text: biogeography

text: . Wallace was influenced by the work of

text: Philip Lutley Sclater

text: on the distribution patterns of birds.

text: Following the inception of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection in 1838, the development of Darwin's theory to explain the "mystery of mysteries" of how new species originated was his "prime hobby" in the background to his main occupation of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He was settling into married life, but suffered from bouts of illness and after his first child was born the family moved to rural Down House as a family home away from the pressures of London.

text: Following the

text: inception of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: in 1838, the development of Darwin's theory to explain the "mystery of mysteries" of how new

text: species

text: originated was his "prime hobby" in the background to his main occupation of publishing the scientific results of the

text: Beagle voyage

text: . He was settling into married life, but suffered from bouts of illness and after his first child was born the family moved to rural

text: Down House

text: as a family home away from the pressures of London.

text: The interest in gorillas among Ballantyne's contemporaries is partly explained by what the resemblance between the great apes and men had to say about evolution. Ballantyne had long been interested in various theories of evolution, an interest evident in The Coral Island and other books: natural and Social Darwinism form a scientific and social background for that novel. Ideas published in Darwin's Origin of Species were in broad circulation before the book's 1859 publication, and The Coral Island reflects the then prevalent view of evolutionary theory; the Victorian age based its imperialist ideology in part on the idea that evolution had resulted in "white, English superiority that was anchored in the notion of a civilized nation elected by God to rule inferior peoples." Besides Darwin himself, Ballantyne had been reading books by Darwin's rival Alfred Russel Wallace, and in later publications also acknowledged the naturalist Henry Ogg Forbes.

text: The interest in

text: gorilla

text: s among Ballantyne's contemporaries is partly explained by what the resemblance between the great apes and men had to say about evolution. Ballantyne had long been interested in various theories of evolution, an interest evident in The Coral Island and other books:

text: natural

text: and

text: Social Darwinism

text: form a scientific and social background for that novel. Ideas published in Darwin's

text: Origin of Species

text: were in broad circulation before the book's 1859 publication, and The Coral Island reflects the then prevalent view of evolutionary theory; the Victorian age based its imperialist ideology in part on the idea that evolution had resulted in "white, English superiority that was anchored in the notion of a civilized nation elected by God to rule inferior peoples." Besides Darwin himself, Ballantyne had been reading books by Darwin's rival

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , and in later publications also acknowledged the naturalist

text: Henry Ogg Forbes

text: Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was. Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point, he advanced the theory of electrons travelling in orbits around the atom's nucleus, with the chemical properties of each element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms. He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting a quantum of discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as the old quantum theory.

text: Planetary models of atoms were not new, but Bohr's treatment was. Taking the 1912 paper by Darwin on the role of electrons in the interaction of alpha particles with a nucleus as his starting point, he advanced the theory of electrons travelling in

text: orbit

text: s around the atom's nucleus, with the chemical properties of each element being largely determined by the number of electrons in the outer orbits of its atoms. He introduced the idea that an electron could drop from a higher-energy orbit to a lower one, in the process emitting a

text: quantum

text: of discrete energy. This became a basis for what is now known as the

text: old quantum theory

text: Mr Darwin's Shooter is a 1998 novel by Roger McDonald. It describes the life of Syms Covington, manservant to Charles Darwin on the voyage of the Beagle.

text: Mr Darwin's Shooter is a 1998 novel by

text: Roger McDonald

text: . It describes the life of

text: Syms Covington

text: , manservant to

text: Charles Darwin

text: on the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: Da Jin Men and Sifangcheng. One enters the site through the monumental Great Golden Gates (Da Jin Men), and is soon faced by a giant stone tortoise (bixi), which resides in the Sifangcheng ("Square city") pavilion. The tortoise supports a splendid carved stone stele, crowned by intertwining hornless dragons. The  well-preserved stele is known as the "Shengong Shengde Stele" (神功圣德碑), i.e., literally, "The Stele of Godly Merit and Saintly Virtue". The inscription of the stele, extolling the merits and virtues of the  Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang was written by his fourth son, the Yongle Emperor. The tortoise is 5.15 m long, 2.54 m wide and 2.8 m tall,the stele stands 8.78 m tall (including the tortoise) and is one of the best-known examples of its genre.

text: Da Jin Men and Sifangcheng. One enters the site through the monumental Great Golden Gates (Da Jin Men), and is soon faced by a giant stone tortoise (

text: bixi

text: ), which resides in the Sifangcheng ("Square city") pavilion. The tortoise supports a splendid carved stone

text: stele

text: , crowned by intertwining

text: hornless dragons

text: . The  well-preserved stele is known as the "Shengong Shengde Stele" (神功圣德碑), i.e., literally, "The Stele of Godly Merit and Saintly Virtue". The inscription of the stele, extolling the merits and virtues of the  Hongwu Emperor

text: Zhu Yuanzhang

text: was written by his fourth son, the

text: Yongle Emperor

text: . The tortoise is 5.15 m long, 2.54 m wide and 2.8 m tall,the stele stands 8.78 m tall (including the tortoise) and is one of the best-known examples of its genre.

text: One of the most significant projects of the Darwin Industry has been the systematic publication of all of Darwin's unpublished writings.  Two volumes of the Life and Letters of Charles Darwin were published in 1887 along with The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, edited by Francis Darwin; two volumes of More Letters of Charles Darwin were published in 1902.  Francis Darwin edited 1909 editions of Darwin's notebooks related to the inception of his theory.  Darwin's granddaughter Nora Barlow pieced together the 1930 Diary of the Beagle from Darwin's unpublished notebooks.  A flood of Darwiniana was published in the mid-twentieth century, especially by Darwin's descendants, leading up to the 1959 Darwin Centennial, including an un-redacted edition of Darwin's autobiography edited by Barlow.  However, all this made up only a fraction of Darwin's correspondence and other unpublished writings, and much of what was published was incomplete.  By the 1990s there were two different versions of The Works of Charles Darwin, an 18 volume edition by AMS Press and a more scholarly 29 volume edition by William Pickering, along with an annotated scholarly volume of Charles Darwin 's Notebooks, 1836-1844.

text: One of the most significant projects of the Darwin Industry has been the systematic publication of all of Darwin's unpublished writings.  Two volumes of the

text: Life and Letters of Charles Darwin

text: were published in 1887 along with

text: The Autobiography of Charles Darwin

text: , edited by

text: Francis Darwin

text: ; two volumes of

text: More Letters of Charles Darwin

text: were published in 1902.  Francis Darwin edited 1909 editions of Darwin's notebooks related to the

text: inception of his theory

text: .  Darwin's granddaughter

text: Nora Barlow

text: pieced together the 1930 Diary of the Beagle from Darwin's unpublished notebooks.  A flood of Darwiniana was published in the mid-twentieth century, especially by Darwin's descendants, leading up to the

text: 1959 Darwin Centennial

text: , including an un-redacted edition of Darwin's autobiography edited by Barlow.  However, all this made up only a fraction of Darwin's correspondence and other unpublished writings, and much of what was published was incomplete.  By the 1990s there were two different versions of The Works of Charles Darwin, an 18 volume edition by

text: AMS Press

text: and a more scholarly 29 volume edition by

text: William Pickering

text: , along with an annotated scholarly volume of Charles Darwin 's Notebooks, 1836-1844.

text: Giants of the Galápagos was opened in 2009 to coincide with the 200th birthday of Charles Darwin, and is home to five Galápagos giant tortoises: a male named Dirk and four females named Dolly, Dolores, Polly and Priscilla. The exhibit features a large indoor area, with a heated pond and underfloor heating, while the outdoor paddock has been designed to mimic the tortoise's natural environment and features two heated pools, one of which is a naturalistic clay wallow.

text: Giants of the Galápagos was opened in 2009 to coincide with the 200th birthday of

text: Charles Darwin

text: , and is home to five

text: Galápagos giant tortoise

text: s: a male named Dirk and four females named Dolly, Dolores, Polly and Priscilla. The exhibit features a large indoor area, with a heated pond and

text: underfloor heating

text: , while the outdoor paddock has been designed to mimic the tortoise's natural environment and features two heated pools, one of which is a naturalistic clay wallow.

text: See the publication of Darwin's theory for the resulting developments, in the context of his life, work and outside influences at the time.

text: See the

text: publication of Darwin's theory

text: for the resulting developments, in the context of his life, work and outside influences at the time.

text: Darwin’s theory of organic descent placed primary emphasis on the role of natural selection but there would be nothing to select if not for variation.  Variations that are the result of mutations in the biological sense and variations that are the result of individually acquired modifications in the personal sense are attributed by Smuts to Holism; further it was his opinion that because variations appear in complexes and not singly, evolution is more than the outcome of individual selections, it is holistic.

text: The 5th level of GENETOS or the "Final Generation" changes largely in tone following a story more so than the levels before. the player travels through various stages of evolution such as birth, variation and extinction loosely following the theory of natural selection and Darwin's theory of evolution.

text: The 5th level of GENETOS or the "Final Generation" changes largely in tone following a story more so than the levels before. the player travels through various stages of evolution such as birth, variation and extinction loosely following the theory of

text: natural selection

text: and

text: Darwin

text: 's

text: theory of evolution

text: According to the Guardian newspaper, some British Muslim students have distributed leaflets on campus, advocating against Darwin's theory of evolution. At a conference in the UK in January 2004, entitled Creationism: Science and Faith in Schools, "Dr Khalid Anees, of the Islamic Society of Britain stated that 'Muslims interpret the world through both the Koran and what is tangible and seen. There is no contradiction between what is revealed in the Koran and natural selection and survival of the fittest'." Maurice Bucaille, famous in the Muslim world for his commentary on the Quran and science, attempted to reconcile evolution with the Quran by accepting animal evolution up to early hominid species, and then positing a separate hominid evolution leading to modern humans. However, these ideas differ from the theory of evolution as accepted by biologists.

text: According to

text: the Guardian

text: newspaper, some British Muslim students have distributed leaflets on campus, advocating against Darwin's theory of evolution. At a conference in the UK in January 2004, entitled Creationism: Science and Faith in Schools, "Dr Khalid Anees, of the Islamic Society of Britain stated that 'Muslims interpret the world through both the Koran and what is tangible and seen. There is no contradiction between what is revealed in the Koran and natural selection and survival of the fittest'."

text: Maurice Bucaille

text: , famous in the Muslim world for his commentary on the

text: Quran and science

text: , attempted to reconcile evolution with the Quran by accepting animal evolution up to early hominid species, and then positing a separate hominid evolution leading to modern humans. However, these ideas differ from the theory of evolution as accepted by biologists.

text: Though Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory was set forth in 1859 upon publication of On the Origin of Species, this work was largely absent of explicit reference to Darwin’s theory applied to man. This application by Darwin would not become explicit until the publication of his second great book on evolution, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, in 1871.

text: Though

text: Charles Darwin

text: ’s evolutionary theory was set forth in 1859 upon publication of On the Origin of Species, this work was largely absent of explicit reference to Darwin’s theory applied to man. This application by Darwin would not become explicit until the publication of his second great book on evolution,

text: , in 1871.

text: Patrick Matthew (20 October 1790 – 8 June 1874) was a Scottish landowner and fruit farmer, who contributed to understanding of horticulture, silviculture, and agriculture in general, with a focus on maintaining the British navy and feeding new colonies.  He published the basic concept of natural selection as a mechanism of evolution in an appendix to his 1831 book On Naval Timber and Arboriculture, but failed to develop or publicise his ideas concerning natural selection. Consequently, when Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, he and Alfred Russel Wallace were regarded  by their scientific peers as having originated (independently of each other) the theory of evolution by natural selection; it has been suggested that Darwin and/or Wallace had encountered Matthew's earlier work, but there is no firm evidence of this. After the publication of On the Origin of Species, Matthew contacted Darwin, who in subsequent editions of the book acknowledged that the principle of natural selection had been anticipated by Matthew's brief statement in the appendix of his 1831 work.

text: Patrick Matthew (20 October 1790 – 8 June 1874) was a Scottish landowner and fruit farmer, who contributed to understanding of

text: horticulture

text: silviculture

text: , and

text: agriculture

text: in general, with a focus on maintaining the British navy and feeding new colonies.  He published the basic concept of

text: natural selection

text: as a mechanism of

text: evolution

text: in an appendix to his 1831 book On Naval Timber and Arboriculture, but failed to develop or publicise his ideas concerning natural selection. Consequently, when

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , he and

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: were regarded  by their scientific peers as having originated (independently of each other) the theory of evolution by natural selection; it has been suggested that Darwin and/or Wallace had encountered Matthew's earlier work, but there is no firm evidence of this. After the publication of On the Origin of Species, Matthew contacted Darwin, who in subsequent editions of the book acknowledged that the principle of natural selection had been anticipated by Matthew's brief statement in the appendix of his 1831 work.

text: Darwin named Lawson several times in his notes and diaries. When the Beagle survey expedition arrived at Charles Island (Floreana Island) in September 1835, Darwin noted in his diary: "An Englishman Mr Lawson is now acting as Governor. — By chance he came down to visit a Whaling Vessel & in the morning accompanied us to the Settlement." Lawson described having seen a reduction in the numbers and size of Galápagos tortoises taken for meat by the whalers. In his zoological notes, Darwin recorded that "It is said that slight variations in the form of the shell are constant according to the Island which they inhabit — also the average largest size appears equally to vary according to the locality.— Mr Lawson states he can on seeing a Tortoise pronounce with certainty from which island it has been brought." This was one of the points which Darwin listed later in the voyage, between mid-June and August 1836, as arousing his first suspicion that "such facts would undermine the stability of Species". After the voyage, Darwin developed this idea during his investigations into transmutation of species, resulting in his theory of evolution.

text: Darwin named Lawson several times in his notes and diaries. When the

text: Beagle survey expedition

text: arrived at Charles Island (

text: Floreana Island

text: ) in September 1835, Darwin noted in his diary: "An Englishman Mr Lawson is now acting as Governor. — By chance he came down to visit a Whaling Vessel & in the morning accompanied us to the Settlement." Lawson described having seen a reduction in the numbers and size of

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s taken for meat by the whalers. In his zoological notes, Darwin recorded that "It is said that slight variations in the form of the shell are constant according to the Island which they inhabit — also the average largest size appears equally to vary according to the locality.— Mr Lawson states he can on seeing a Tortoise pronounce with certainty from which island it has been brought." This was one of the points which Darwin listed later in the voyage, between mid-June and August 1836, as arousing his first suspicion that "such facts would undermine the stability of Species". After the voyage, Darwin developed this idea during his investigations into

text: transmutation of species

text: , resulting in his theory of

text: evolution

text: More difficult for Darwin were highly evolved and complicated features that conveyed apparently no adaptive advantage to the organism. Writing to colleague Asa Gray in 1860, Darwin commented that he remembered well a "time when the thought of the eye made me cold all over, but I have got over this stage of the complaint, & now small trifling particulars of structure often make me very uncomfortable. The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!" Why should a bird like the peacock develop such an elaborate tail, which seemed at best to be a hindrance in its "struggle for existence"? To answer the question, Darwin had introduced in the Origin the theory of sexual selection, which outlined how different characteristics could be selected for if they conveyed a reproductive advantage to the individual. In this theory, male animals in particular showed heritable features acquired by sexual selection, such as "weapons" with which to fight over females with other males, or beautiful plumage with which to woo the female animals. Much of Descent is devoted to providing evidence for sexual selection in nature, which he also ties in to the development of aesthetic instincts in human beings, as well as the differences in coloration between the human races.

text: More difficult for Darwin were highly evolved and complicated features that conveyed apparently no adaptive advantage to the organism. Writing to colleague

text: Asa Gray

text: in 1860, Darwin commented that he remembered well a "time when the thought of the eye made me cold all over, but I have got over this stage of the complaint, & now small trifling particulars of structure often make me very uncomfortable. The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!" Why should a bird like the peacock develop such an elaborate tail, which seemed at best to be a hindrance in its "struggle for existence"? To answer the question, Darwin had introduced in the Origin the theory of

text: sexual selection

text: , which outlined how different characteristics could be selected for if they conveyed a reproductive advantage to the individual. In this theory, male animals in particular showed heritable features acquired by sexual selection, such as "weapons" with which to fight over females with other males, or beautiful plumage with which to woo the female animals. Much of Descent is devoted to providing evidence for sexual selection in nature, which he also ties in to the development of aesthetic instincts in human beings, as well as the differences in coloration between the human races.

text: The Beagle 2 is named after , the ship used by Charles Darwin.

text: The Beagle 2 is named after , the ship used by

text: Charles Darwin

text: Contributor James Barham argues that "it is incorrect to simply equate Darwinism with belief in evolution." He distinguishes empirical Darwinism ("the idea that the formation of new species is due to random changes in individual organisms that happen to be 'selected' by the environment") from metaphysical Darwinism (the claim that "the theory of natural selection has successfully reduced all teleological and normative phenomena to the interplay of chance and necessity, thus eliminating purpose and value from our picture of the world").  For Barham, the "real problem with the evolution debate" is not empirical Darwinism, but a sort of "theory creep" in which a "bold but circumscribed scientific claim" (empirical Darwinism) becomes conflated with "a much more sweeping philosophical claim" (metaphysical Darwinism).

text: Contributor James Barham argues that "it is incorrect to simply equate Darwinism with belief in evolution." He distinguishes empirical Darwinism ("the idea that the formation of new species is due to random changes in individual organisms that happen to be 'selected' by the environment") from metaphysical Darwinism (the claim that "the theory of natural selection has successfully reduced all

text: teleological

text: and

text: normative

text: phenomena to the interplay of chance and necessity, thus eliminating purpose and value from our picture of the world").  For Barham, the "real problem with the evolution debate" is not empirical Darwinism, but a sort of "theory creep" in which a "bold but circumscribed scientific claim" (empirical Darwinism) becomes conflated with "a much more sweeping philosophical claim" (metaphysical Darwinism).

text: Influenced by British author Herbert Spencer, Beecher embraced Charles Darwin's theory of evolution in the 1880s, identifying as a "cordial Christian evolutionist". He argued that the theory was in keeping with what Applegate called "the inevitability of progress", seeing a steady march toward perfection as a part of God's plan. In 1885, he wrote Evolution and Religion to expound these views. His sermons and writings helped to gain acceptance for the theory in America.

text: Influenced by British author

text: Herbert Spencer

text: , Beecher embraced

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: theory of evolution

text: in the 1880s, identifying as a "cordial Christian evolutionist". He argued that the theory was in keeping with what Applegate called "the inevitability of progress", seeing a steady march toward perfection as a part of God's plan. In 1885, he wrote Evolution and Religion to expound these views. His sermons and writings helped to gain acceptance for the theory in America.

text: Creation is an adaptation by screenwriter John Collee of Annie's Box: Charles Darwin, His Daughter and Human Evolution, a bestselling biography of Charles Darwin by Darwin's great-great grandson Randal Keynes.

text: Creation is an adaptation by screenwriter

text: John Collee

text: of Annie's Box: Charles Darwin, His Daughter and Human Evolution, a bestselling biography of Charles Darwin by Darwin's great-great grandson

text: Randal Keynes

text: The Beagle reached Ascension Island on 19 July 1836, and Darwin was delighted to receive letters from his sisters with news that Sedgwick had written "He is doing admirably in S. America, & has already sent home a Collection above all praise.— It was the best thing in the world for him that he went out on the Voyage of Discovery— There was some risk of his turning out an idle man: but his character will now be fixed, & if God spare his life, he will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe." Darwin later recalled how he "clambered over the mountains... with a bounding step and made the volcanic rocks resound under my geological hammer!." He agreed with the saying attributed to the people of St Helena that "We know we live on a rock, but the poor people at Ascension live on a cinder", and noted the care taken to sustain "houses, gardens & fields placed near the summit of the central mountain". (In the 1840s Darwin worked with Hooker, who proposed in 1847 that the Royal Navy import tree species, a project started in 1850 which led to the creation of an artificial cloud forest.)

text: The Beagle reached

text: Ascension Island

text: on 19 July 1836, and Darwin was delighted to receive letters from his sisters with news that Sedgwick had written "He is doing admirably in S. America, & has already sent home a Collection above all praise.— It was the best thing in the world for him that he went out on the Voyage of Discovery— There was some risk of his turning out an idle man: but his character will now be fixed, & if God spare his life, he will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe." Darwin later recalled how he "clambered over the mountains... with a bounding step and made the volcanic rocks resound under my geological hammer!." He agreed with the saying attributed to the people of St Helena that "We know we live on a rock, but the poor people at Ascension live on a cinder", and noted the care taken to sustain "houses, gardens & fields placed near the summit of the central mountain". (In the 1840s Darwin worked with Hooker, who proposed in 1847 that the Royal Navy import tree species, a project started in 1850 which led to the creation of an artificial cloud forest.)

text: Darwinism: An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection with Some of Its Applications is an 1889 book on biological evolution by Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of evolution by natural selection together with Charles Darwin.  This was a book Wallace wrote as a defensive response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is cited by scholarly publications the most.

text: Darwinism: An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection with Some of Its Applications is an 1889 book on

text: biological evolution

text: by

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , the co-discoverer of evolution by

text: natural selection

text: together with

text: Charles Darwin

text: .  This was a book Wallace wrote as a defensive response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is cited by scholarly publications the most.

text: Farmers have manipulated plants and animals through selective breeding for tens of thousands of years in order to create desired traits. In the 20th century, a surge in technology resulted in an increase in agricultural biotechnology through the selection of traits like increased yield, pest resistance, drought resistance, and herbicide resistance. The first food product produced through biotechnology was sold in 1990, and by 2003 7 million farmers were utilizing biotech crops. More than 85% of these farmers were located in developing countries.

text: Between 1831 and 1836 chronometer no. 506 was carried on HMS Beagle on a voyage to circumnavigate the globe and establish, for the first time, a chain of points around the world of accurately known longitude.  The ship was commanded by Captain Robert FitzRoy, a future Vice-Admiral and founder of the Meteorological Office.  This was only one of many chronometers carried by the Beagle since great accuracy was required for this task.  This was also the voyage that carried Charles Darwin who was afterwards inspired to write his book about the theory of evolution, On the Origin of Species.  The chronometer is object 91 in the BBC Radio 4 series A History of the World in 100 Objects.

text: Between 1831 and 1836

text: chronometer no. 506

text: was carried on

text: HMS Beagle

text: on a voyage to circumnavigate the globe and establish, for the first time, a chain of points around the world of accurately known longitude.  The ship was commanded by Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , a future Vice-Admiral and founder of the

text: Meteorological Office

text: .  This was only one of many

text: chronometers carried by the Beagle

text: since great accuracy was required for this task.  This was also the voyage that carried

text: Charles Darwin

text: who was afterwards inspired to write his book about the theory of

text: evolution

text: On the Origin of Species

text: .  The chronometer is object 91 in the

text: BBC Radio 4

text: series

text: A History of the World in 100 Objects

text: While the preparations of the Beagle progressed in late October, McCormick met Charles Darwin who had been given an unofficial place on board as a self-funded gentleman naturalist who would be a companion to Captain FitzRoy. Darwin wrote telling his university tutor John Stevens Henslow about McCormick: "My friend the Doctor is an ass, but we jog on very amicably: at present he is in great tribulation, whether his cabin shall be painted French Grey or a dead white— I hear little excepting this subject from him".  When the voyage got under way, their first landfall was at St. Jago in the Cape Verde Islands in January 1832. McCormick and Darwin walked into the countryside together, and Darwin, influenced by Charles Lyell's ideas on geology, found the surgeon's approach old-fashioned: "He was a philosopher of rather an antient date; at St Jago by his own account he made general remarks during the first fortnight & collected particular facts during the last." McCormick became increasingly frustrated as FitzRoy took Darwin onshore, leaving McCormick behind without opportunities for collecting. The last straw came at Rio de Janeiro in April 1832, when FitzRoy arranged for Darwin's collection to be packaged and sent back to England. McCormick was invalided home, and as he recalled in his memoirs of 1884, "Having found myself in a false position on board a small and very uncomfortable vessel, and very much disappointed in my expectations of carrying out my natural history pursuits, every obstacle having been placed in the way of my getting on shore and making collections, I got permission from the admiral in command of the station here to be superseded and allowed a passage home in H.M.S. Tyne.")

text: While the preparations of the

text: Beagle

text: progressed in late October, McCormick met

text: Charles Darwin

text: who had been given an unofficial place on board as a self-funded gentleman naturalist who would be a companion to Captain FitzRoy. Darwin wrote telling his university tutor

text: John Stevens Henslow

text: about McCormick: "My friend the Doctor is an ass, but we jog on very amicably: at present he is in great tribulation, whether his cabin shall be painted French Grey or a dead white— I hear little excepting this subject from him".  When the voyage got under way, their first landfall was at

text: St. Jago

text: in the

text: Cape Verde

text: Islands in January 1832. McCormick and Darwin walked into the countryside together, and Darwin, influenced by

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's ideas on geology, found the surgeon's approach old-fashioned: "He was a philosopher of rather an antient date; at St Jago by his own account he made general remarks during the first fortnight & collected particular facts during the last." McCormick became increasingly frustrated as FitzRoy took Darwin onshore, leaving McCormick behind without opportunities for collecting. The last straw came at

text: Rio de Janeiro

text: in April 1832, when FitzRoy arranged for Darwin's collection to be packaged and sent back to England. McCormick was invalided home, and as he recalled in his memoirs of 1884, "Having found myself in a false position on board a small and very uncomfortable vessel, and very much disappointed in my expectations of carrying out my natural history pursuits, every obstacle having been placed in the way of my getting on shore and making collections, I got permission from the admiral in command of the station here to be superseded and allowed a passage home in

text: H.M.S. Tyne

text: The major sticking point for many in the question of human evolution was whether human mental faculties could have possibly been evolved. The gap between humans and even the smartest ape seemed too large, even for those who were sympathetic to Darwin's basic theory. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of evolution by natural selection, believed that the human mind was too complex to have evolved gradually, and began over time to subscribe to a theory of evolution that took more from Spiritualism than it did the natural world. Darwin was deeply distressed by Wallace's change of heart, and much of the Descent of Man is in response to opinions put forth by Wallace. Darwin focuses less on the question of whether humans evolved than he does on showing that each of the human faculties considered to be so far beyond those of beasts—such as moral reasoning, sympathy for others, beauty, and music—can be seen in kind (if not degree) in other animal species (usually apes and dogs).

text: The major sticking point for many in the question of human evolution was whether human mental faculties could have possibly been evolved. The gap between humans and even the smartest ape seemed too large, even for those who were sympathetic to Darwin's basic theory.

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , the co-discoverer of evolution by

text: natural selection

text: , believed that the human mind was too complex to have evolved gradually, and began over time to subscribe to a theory of evolution that took more from

text: Spiritualism

text: than it did the natural world. Darwin was deeply distressed by Wallace's change of heart, and much of the Descent of Man is in response to opinions put forth by Wallace. Darwin focuses less on the question of whether humans evolved than he does on showing that each of the human faculties considered to be so far beyond those of beasts—such as moral reasoning, sympathy for others, beauty, and music—can be seen in kind (if not degree) in other animal species (usually apes and dogs).

text: On the evening of 30 June 1858, Charles Lyell and Joseph Dalton Hooker passed on to him papers by Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin, titled "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection" respectively. As secretary of the Linnean Society at a meeting on the following evening, 1 July, he read out the papers together with a covering note by Lyell and Hooker. This was the joint publication by Darwin and Wallace of their papers setting out the theory of natural selection, which was received quietly at the time but attracted wide interest when Darwin published On the Origin of Species eighteen months later.

text: On the evening of 30 June 1858,

text: Charles Lyell

text: and

text: Joseph Dalton Hooker

text: passed on to him papers by

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: and

text: Charles Darwin

text: , titled "

text: " respectively. As secretary of the Linnean Society at a meeting on the following evening, 1 July, he read out the papers together with a covering note by Lyell and Hooker. This was the joint publication by Darwin and Wallace of their papers setting out the theory of

text: natural selection

text: , which was received quietly at the time but attracted wide interest when Darwin published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: eighteen months later.

text: The model of the sabre-tooth cat, almost similar to the present day species, is depicted with very long upper canine teeth, used to tear its prey. This animal became extinct about a million years ago; at the same time many species of elephants also became extinct. The hippopotamus model, made life-size similar to its present-day counterpart, has six incisors with a comparatively larger mouth but with a small brain hole, longer lower jaw and legs like the pig. This species, which existed in large numbers about 2.5 million years ago, is now extinct. The model of the giant land tortoise, representing a species found in the Shivalik region, is the largest of all tortoises but its present-day counterpart is much smaller. Models of the giant-sized elephants are of those which roamed 7 to 1.5 million years ago here, had a smaller cranium (bone portion of the skull), unusually long pair of tusks and huge limbs; these species numbering 15 vanished about 1.5 million years ago. The model of a four-horned giraffe, an ancestor of the present species, lived in the region 7 to 1.5 million years ago; it has an unusually large skull but a comparatively short neck. The models were initially within the park, however after the fire in jungle, few of the models were damaged and now the remaining ones are placed outside the museum.

text: Subsequently, on the voyage of the Beagle, Darwin found that nature was not so beneficent, and the distribution of species did not support ideas of divine creation.  In 1838, shortly after his return, Darwin conceived his theory that natural selection, rather than divine design, was the best explanation for gradual change in populations over many generations. He  published the theory in On the Origin of Species in 1859, and in later editions, he noted responses that he had received:

text: Subsequently, on

text: the voyage of the Beagle

text: , Darwin found that nature was not so beneficent, and the distribution of

text: species

text: did not support ideas of divine creation.  In 1838, shortly after his return, Darwin

text: conceived his theory

text: that

text: natural selection

text: , rather than divine design, was the best explanation for gradual change in populations over many generations. He  published the theory in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859, and in later editions, he noted responses that he had received:

text: One of the first and most important naturalists to be convinced by Origin of the reality of evolution was the British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Huxley recognized that unlike the earlier transmutational ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Darwin's theory provided a mechanism for evolution without supernatural involvement, even if Huxley himself was not completely convinced that natural selection was the key evolutionary mechanism. Huxley would make advocacy of evolution a cornerstone of the program of the X Club to reform and professionalise science by displacing natural theology with naturalism and to end the domination of British natural science by the clergy. By the early 1870s in English-speaking countries, thanks partly to these efforts, evolution had become the mainstream scientific explanation for the origin of species. In his campaign for public and scientific acceptance of Darwin's theory, Huxley made extensive use of new evidence for evolution from paleontology. This included evidence that birds had evolved from reptiles, including the discovery of Archaeopteryx in Europe, and a number of fossils of primitive birds with teeth found in North America. Another important line of evidence was the finding of fossils that helped trace the evolution of the horse from its small five-toed ancestors. However, acceptance of evolution among scientists in non-English speaking nations such as France, and the countries of southern Europe and Latin America was slower. An exception to this was Germany, where both August Weismann and Ernst Haeckel championed this idea: Haeckel used evolution to challenge the established tradition of metaphysical idealism in German biology, much as Huxley used it to challenge natural theology in Britain. Haeckel and other German scientists would take the lead in launching an ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life based on morphology and embryology.

text: One of the first and most important naturalists to be convinced by Origin of the reality of evolution was the British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Huxley recognized that unlike the earlier transmutational ideas of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Darwin's theory provided a mechanism for evolution without supernatural involvement, even if Huxley himself was not completely convinced that natural selection was the key evolutionary mechanism. Huxley would make advocacy of evolution a cornerstone of the program of the

text: X Club

text: to reform and professionalise science by displacing natural theology with

text: naturalism

text: and to end the domination of British

text: natural science

text: by the clergy. By the early 1870s in English-speaking countries, thanks partly to these efforts, evolution had become the mainstream scientific explanation for the origin of species. In his campaign for public and scientific acceptance of Darwin's theory, Huxley made extensive use of new evidence for evolution from paleontology. This included evidence that birds had evolved from reptiles, including the discovery of

text: Archaeopteryx

text: in Europe, and a number of fossils of primitive birds with teeth found in

text: North America

text: . Another important line of evidence was the finding of fossils that helped trace the

text: evolution of the horse

text: from its small five-toed ancestors. However, acceptance of evolution among scientists in non-English speaking nations such as

text: France

text: , and the countries of southern Europe and

text: Latin America

text: was slower. An exception to this was

text: Germany

text: , where both

text: August Weismann

text: and

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: championed this idea: Haeckel used evolution to challenge the established tradition of metaphysical idealism in German biology, much as Huxley used it to challenge natural theology in Britain. Haeckel and other German scientists would take the lead in launching an ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life based on morphology and embryology.

text: The work is an examination of naturalist Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution he proposed and marshaled evidence for in The Origin of Species. A brief account of his visit to the Galápagos Islands brings up the issue of human origins, leading into a discussion of early theories on the formation and age of the earth and evolution. A biographical sketch of Darwin follows, covering his youth, his naturalistic studies on the voyage of the Beagle and subsequent life, focusing on his scientific researches and writings. The history of the theory of human evolution as currently understood is then presented, with sections on the work of Mendel, the development of the science of genetics, and the Scopes Trial. It includes a selected bibliography and index.

text: The work is an examination of

text: naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: and the

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: he proposed and marshaled evidence for in

text: The Origin of Species

text: . A brief account of his visit to the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: brings up the issue of

text: human origins

text: , leading into a discussion of early theories on the formation and age of the earth and evolution. A biographical sketch of Darwin follows, covering his youth, his naturalistic studies on the voyage of the

text: Beagle

text: and subsequent life, focusing on his scientific researches and writings. The history of the theory of human evolution as currently understood is then presented, with sections on the work of

text: Mendel

text: , the development of the science of

text: genetics

text: , and the

text: Scopes Trial

text: . It includes a selected bibliography and index.

text: The term Darwinism is often used in the United States by promoters of creationism, notably by leading members of the intelligent design movement, as an epithet to attack evolution as though it were an ideology (an "ism") of philosophical naturalism, or atheism. For example, UC Berkeley law professor and author Phillip E. Johnson makes this accusation of atheism with reference to Charles Hodge's book What Is Darwinism? (1874). However, unlike Johnson, Hodge confined the term to exclude those like American botanist Asa Gray who combined Christian faith with support for Darwin's natural selection theory, before answering the question posed in the book's title by concluding: "It is Atheism." Creationists use the term Darwinism, often pejoratively, to imply that the theory has been held as true only by Darwin and a core group of his followers, whom they cast as dogmatic and inflexible in their belief. In the 2008 documentary film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, which promotes intelligent design (ID), American writer and actor Ben Stein refers to scientists as Darwinists. Reviewing the film for Scientific American, John Rennie says "The term is a curious throwback, because in modern biology almost no one relies solely on Darwin's original ideas... Yet the choice of terminology isn't random: Ben Stein wants you to stop thinking of evolution as an actual science supported by verifiable facts and logical arguments and to start thinking of it as a dogmatic, atheistic ideology akin to Marxism."

text: The term Darwinism is often used in the United States by promoters of

text: creationism

text: , notably by leading members of the

text: intelligent design movement

text: , as an epithet to attack evolution as though it were an ideology (an "ism") of

text: philosophical naturalism

text: , or

text: atheism

text: . For example,

text: UC Berkeley

text: law

text: professor and author

text: Phillip E. Johnson

text: makes this accusation of atheism with reference to

text: Charles Hodge

text: 's book What Is Darwinism? (1874). However, unlike Johnson, Hodge confined the term to exclude those like American

text: botanist

text: Asa Gray

text: who combined Christian faith with support for Darwin's natural selection theory, before answering the question posed in the book's title by concluding: "It is Atheism." Creationists use the term Darwinism, often pejoratively, to imply that the theory has been held as true only by Darwin and a core group of his followers, whom they cast as

text: dogma

text: tic and inflexible in their

text: belief

text: . In the 2008

text: documentary

text: film

text: Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed

text: , which promotes

text: intelligent design

text: (ID), American writer and actor

text: Ben Stein

text: refers to scientists as Darwinists. Reviewing the film for

text: Scientific American

text: John Rennie

text: says "The term is a curious throwback, because in modern biology almost no one relies solely on Darwin's original ideas... Yet the choice of terminology isn't random: Ben Stein wants you to stop thinking of evolution as an actual science supported by verifiable facts and logical arguments and to start thinking of it as a dogmatic, atheistic ideology akin to

text: Marxism

text: In response, supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist's claims, including Darwin's, are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years, to form first neo-Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis.

text: neo-Darwinism

text: and later the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: Since the development of evolutionary theory by Charles Darwin in England, where his portrait appears on the back of the revised Series E £10 note issued in 2000, significant shifts in British public opinion have occurred. A 2006 survey for the BBC showed that "more than a fifth of those polled were convinced by the creationist argument," a massive decrease from the almost total acceptance of creationism before Darwin published his theory. A 2010 Angus Reid poll found that "In Britain, two-thirds of respondents (68%) side with evolution while less than one-in-five (16%) choose creationism. At least seven-in-ten respondents in the South of England (70%) and Scotland (75%) believe human beings evolved from less advanced life forms over millions of years." A subsequent 2010 YouGov poll on the origin of humans found that 9% opted for creationism, 12% intelligent design, 65% evolutionary theory and 13% did not know.

text: Since the development of evolutionary theory by Charles Darwin in England, where his portrait appears on the back of the

text: revised Series E £10 note

text: issued in 2000, significant shifts in British public opinion have occurred. A 2006 survey for the

text: BBC

text: showed that "more than a fifth of those polled were convinced by the creationist argument," a massive decrease from the almost total acceptance of creationism before Darwin published his theory. A 2010

text: Angus Reid

text: poll found that "In Britain, two-thirds of respondents (68%) side with evolution while less than one-in-five (16%) choose creationism. At least seven-in-ten respondents in the South of England (70%) and Scotland (75%) believe human beings evolved from less advanced life forms over millions of years." A subsequent 2010

text: YouGov

text: poll on the origin of humans found that 9% opted for creationism, 12% intelligent design, 65% evolutionary theory and 13% did not know.

text: Finally, the motives they suggested for a forgery are not strong, and are contradictory; one is that Richard Owen wanted to forge evidence in support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, which is unlikely given Owen's views toward Darwin and his theory. The other is that Owen wanted to set a trap for Darwin, hoping the latter would support the fossils so Owen could discredit him with the forgery; this is unlikely because Owen wrote a detailed paper on the London specimen, so such an action would certainly backfire.

text: Finally, the motives they suggested for a forgery are not strong, and are contradictory; one is that

text: Richard Owen

text: wanted to forge evidence in support of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: , which is unlikely given Owen's views toward Darwin and his theory. The other is that Owen wanted to set a trap for Darwin, hoping the latter would support the fossils so Owen could discredit him with the forgery; this is unlikely because Owen wrote a detailed paper on the London specimen, so such an action would certainly backfire.

text: In addition, the list was signed by only about 0.01% of scientists in the relevant fields. According to the National Science Foundation, there were approximately 955,300 biological scientists in the United States in 1999. Only about 1/4 of the approximately 700 Darwin Dissenters in 2007 are biologists, according to Kenneth Chang of the New York Times. Approximately 40% of the Darwin Dissenters are not identified as residing in the United States, so in 2007, there were about 105 US biologists among the Darwin Dissenters, representing about 0.01% of the total number of US biologists that existed in 1999. The theory of evolution is overwhelmingly accepted throughout the scientific community. Professor Brian Alters of McGill University, an expert in the creation-evolution controversy, is quoted in an article published by the NIH as stating that "99.9 percent of scientists accept evolution".

text: In addition, the list was signed by only about 0.01% of scientists in the relevant fields. According to the

text: National Science Foundation

text: , there were approximately 955,300 biological scientists in the United States in 1999. Only about 1/4 of the approximately 700 Darwin Dissenters in 2007 are biologists, according to Kenneth Chang of the

text: New York Times

text: . Approximately 40% of the Darwin Dissenters are not identified as residing in the United States, so in 2007, there were about 105 US biologists among the Darwin Dissenters, representing about 0.01% of the total number of US biologists that existed in 1999. The theory of

text: evolution

text: is

text: overwhelmingly accepted

text: throughout the

text: scientific community

text: . Professor

text: Brian Alters

text: of

text: McGill University

text: , an expert in the

text: creation-evolution controversy

text: , is quoted in an article published by the

text: NIH

text: as stating that "99.9 percent of scientists accept evolution".

text: The letters that Charles Darwin sent to Fox were recognised as an important primary source of information on the life of Charles Darwin by his son Francis Darwin, and by many biographers since.  Some are published in "Life and Letters of Charles Darwin" (Edited by F. Darwin, 1887).  Most of these letters are at Christ's College, Cambridge. Some of the letters of Fox to Darwin are extant.  Darwin used much information given by Fox in his books.Fox also kept a diary from the age of 18 to 1878.  Only one year is missing: for 1828, when he resided at Christ's College, Cambridge with Charles Darwin.  A microfiche copy of the diaries are in the University Library, Cambridge. Fox never fully accepted Darwin's explanation of evolution.

text: The letters that Charles Darwin sent to Fox were recognised as an important primary source of information on the life of Charles Darwin by his son Francis Darwin, and by many biographers since.  Some are published in "Life and Letters of Charles Darwin" (Edited by F. Darwin, 1887).  Most of these letters are at Christ's College, Cambridge. Some of the letters of Fox to Darwin are extant.  Darwin used much information given by Fox in his books.Fox also kept a diary from the age of 18 to 1878.  Only one year is missing: for 1828, when he resided at Christ's College, Cambridge with Charles Darwin.  A microfiche copy of the diaries are in the University Library, Cambridge. Fox never fully accepted Darwin's explanation of

text: evolution

text: As a young man, Cope read Charles Darwin's Voyage of a Naturalist, which had little effect on him. The only comment about Darwin's book recorded by Cope was that Darwin discussed "too much geology" from the account of his voyage. Due to his background in taxonomy and paleontology, Cope focused on evolution in terms of changing structure, rather than emphasizing geography and variation within populations as Darwin had. Over his lifetime, Cope's views on evolution shifted.

text: As a young man, Cope read

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: Voyage of a Naturalist

text: , which had little effect on him. The only comment about Darwin's book recorded by Cope was that Darwin discussed "too much geology" from the account of his voyage. Due to his background in taxonomy and paleontology, Cope focused on evolution in terms of changing structure, rather than emphasizing geography and variation within populations as Darwin had. Over his lifetime, Cope's views on evolution shifted.

text: , popular in the 19th century, which holds that "the survival of the fittest" (a phrase coined in 1851 by Herbert Spencer, 6 years before Darwin published his theory of evolution) explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people. A similar interpretation was one created by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, known as eugenics, which claimed that human civilization was subverting natural selection by allowing the less bright and less healthy to survive and out-breed the more smart and more healthy.

text: , popular in the 19th century, which holds that "the

text: survival of the fittest

text: " (a phrase coined in 1851 by Herbert Spencer, 6 years before Darwin published his theory of evolution) explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people. A similar interpretation was one created by Darwin's cousin,

text: Francis Galton

text: , known as

text: eugenics

text: , which claimed that human civilization was subverting natural selection by allowing the less bright and less healthy to survive and out-breed the more smart and more healthy.

text: In Celebes they tried to solve an open scientific question related to the theory of Evolution of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, about a detail concerned with the geographical distribution of plants and animals called the Wallace Line, that is whether Celebes belonged in this regard more to Asia or to Australia. A network of scientists publishing in English, German, French and Dutch competed for a solution to this problem. Instead of a sharp line the Sarasins proposed a zone of gradual change and asked for research about the kind of connections of land which would explain the existing populations.

text: In Celebes they tried to solve an open scientific question related to the theory of

text: Evolution

text: of

text: Charles Darwin

text: and

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , about a detail concerned with the geographical distribution of plants and animals called the Wallace Line, that is whether Celebes belonged in this regard more to Asia or to Australia. A network of scientists publishing in English, German, French and Dutch competed for a solution to this problem. Instead of a sharp line the Sarasins proposed a zone of gradual change and asked for research about the kind of connections of land which would explain the existing populations.

text: Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work", as his "prime hobby". His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory. For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections.

text: Darwin now had the framework of his theory of

text: natural selection

text: "by which to work", as his "prime hobby". His research included extensive experimental

text: selective breeding

text: of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory. For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections.

text: In 2006, Robert J. Richards, historian of Darwin and eugenics at University of Chicago, wrote "It can only be a tendentious and dogmatically driven assessment that would condemn Darwin for the crimes of the Nazis." Richards more pointedly concluded "Hitler was not a Darwinian" and "calls this all a desperate tactic to undermine evolution." Richards explained, "There's not the slightest shred of evidence that Hitler read Darwin," and "Some of the biggest influences on Hitler's anti-Semitism were opposed to evolution, such as British writer Houston Stewart Chamberlain, whose racial theory became incorporated into Nazi doctrine."

text: In 2006,

text: Robert J. Richards

text: , historian of Darwin and eugenics at

text: University of Chicago

text: , wrote "It can only be a tendentious and dogmatically driven assessment that would condemn Darwin for the crimes of the Nazis." Richards more pointedly concluded "Hitler was not a Darwinian" and "calls this all a desperate tactic to undermine evolution." Richards explained, "There's not the slightest shred of evidence that Hitler read Darwin," and "Some of the biggest influences on Hitler's anti-Semitism were opposed to evolution, such as British writer

text: Houston Stewart Chamberlain

text: , whose racial theory became incorporated into Nazi doctrine."

text: Smith's knowledge and interest in the life and works of Charles Darwin then led to him working on the television documentary series Beagle: In Darwin's wake by the Dutch broadcaster VPRO. This invloved re-sailing Darwin's famous voyage aboard HMS Beagle, using the Dutch tall ship Stad Amsterdam. The voyage began in August 2009 and lasted eight months, with Smith as one of the show's presenters, discussing Darwin as well as the work of HMS Beagle's artist Conrad Martens.

text: Smith's knowledge and interest in the life and works of Charles Darwin then led to him working on the television documentary series

text: Beagle: In Darwin's wake

text: by the Dutch broadcaster

text: VPRO

text: . This invloved re-sailing Darwin's famous voyage aboard

text: HMS Beagle

text: , using the Dutch tall ship

text: Stad Amsterdam

text: . The voyage began in August 2009 and lasted eight months, with Smith as one of the show's presenters, discussing Darwin as well as the work of HMS Beagle's artist

text: Conrad Martens

text: Charles Darwin surveyed the area's wildlife during his now-famous voyage on HMS Beagle.

text: Charles Darwin

text: surveyed the area's

text: wildlife

text: during his now-famous voyage on

text: HMS Beagle

text: The second edition of 1845 incorporated extensive revisions made in the light of interpretation of the field collections and developing ideas on evolution. This edition was commissioned by the publisher John Murray, who actually paid Darwin a fee of £150 for the copyright. The full title was modified to Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world.

text: The second edition of 1845 incorporated extensive revisions made in the light of interpretation of the field collections and developing ideas on evolution. This edition was commissioned by the publisher

text: John Murray

text: , who actually paid Darwin a fee of £150 for the copyright. The full title was modified to Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world.

text: Darwin was clearly worried by the implications of his ideas and desperate to avoid distress to his naturalist friends and to his wife. When first telling his friends, he wrote "it is like confessing a murder", and his writings at the time of the publication of Darwin's theory suggest emotional turmoil. What is unclear is whether this was anxiety about disgrace and damage to his friends, or about his loss of faith in Christianity, or indeed a rational fear of the harsh treatment he had seen meted out to radicals and proponents of evolutionism.

text: Darwin was clearly worried by the implications of his ideas and desperate to avoid distress to his naturalist friends and to his wife. When first telling his friends, he wrote "it is like confessing a murder", and his writings at the time of the

text: publication of Darwin's theory

text: suggest emotional turmoil. What is unclear is whether this was anxiety about disgrace and damage to his friends, or about his loss of faith in Christianity, or indeed a rational fear of the harsh treatment he had seen meted out to radicals and proponents of evolutionism.

text: In October 1836 Charles Darwin returned from the Beagle voyage with fossil collections which the anatomist Richard Owen described, contributing to the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin outlined his theory in an Essay of 1844, and discussed transmutation with his friend Joseph Dalton Hooker. He did not tell Owen, who as the up-and-coming "English Cuvier" held the conventional belief that every species was uniquely created perfectly adapted. Owen's brilliance and political skills made him a leading figure in the scientific establishment, developing ideas of divine archetypes produced by vague secondary laws similar to a form of theistic evolution, while emphasising the differences separating man from ape. At the end of 1844 the anonymous book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide public interest in transmutation of species and the idea that humans were descended from apes, and after a slow initial response, strong condemnation from the scientific establishment.

text: In October 1836

text: Charles Darwin

text: returned from the

text: Beagle voyage

text: with fossil collections which the anatomist

text: Richard Owen

text: described, contributing to the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: natural selection

text: . Darwin outlined his theory in an Essay of 1844, and discussed transmutation with his friend

text: Joseph Dalton Hooker

text: . He did not tell Owen, who as the up-and-coming "English

text: Cuvier

text: " held the conventional belief that every species was uniquely created perfectly adapted. Owen's brilliance and political skills made him a leading figure in the scientific establishment, developing ideas of divine

text: archetype

text: s produced by vague secondary laws similar to a form of

text: theistic evolution

text: , while emphasising the differences separating man from ape. At the end of 1844 the anonymous book

text: brought wide public interest in

text: transmutation of species

text: and the idea that humans were descended from apes, and after a slow initial response, strong condemnation from the scientific establishment.

text: While on the Erebus, Hooker had read proofs of Charles Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle provided by Charles Lyell and had been very impressed by Darwin's skill as a naturalist. They had met once, before the Antarctic voyage embarked. After Hooker's return to England, he was approached by Darwin who invited him to classify the plants that Darwin had collected in South America and the Galápagos Islands. Hooker agreed and the pair began a lifelong friendship. On 11 January 1844 Darwin mentioned to Hooker his early ideas on the transmutation of species and natural selection, and Hooker showed interest. In 1847 he agreed to read Darwin's "Essay" explaining the theory, and responded with notes giving Darwin calm critical feedback. Their correspondence continued throughout the development of Darwin's theory and in 1858 Darwin wrote that Hooker was "the one living soul from whom I have constantly received sympathy".

text: While on the Erebus, Hooker had read proofs of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: Voyage of the Beagle

text: provided by

text: Charles Lyell

text: and had been very impressed by Darwin's skill as a naturalist. They had met once, before the Antarctic voyage embarked. After Hooker's return to England, he was approached by Darwin who invited him to classify the plants that Darwin had collected in South America and the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: . Hooker agreed and the pair began a lifelong friendship. On 11 January 1844 Darwin mentioned to Hooker his early ideas on the

text: transmutation of species

text: and

text: natural selection

text: , and Hooker showed interest. In 1847 he agreed to read Darwin's "Essay" explaining the theory, and responded with notes giving Darwin calm critical feedback. Their correspondence continued throughout the

text: development of Darwin's theory

text: and in 1858 Darwin wrote that Hooker was "the one living soul from whom I have constantly received sympathy".

text: Fodor has co-written a book with the biolinguist Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini called What Darwin Got Wrong (2010) which describes neo-Darwinists as being "distressingly uncritical" and says of Darwin's theory of evolution that "it overestimates the contribution the environment makes in shaping the phenotype of a species and correspondingly underestimates the effects of endogenous variables." Evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne describes this book as "a profoundly misguided critique of natural selection" and "as biologically uninformed as it is strident". Moral philosopher and anti-scientism author Mary Midgley praises What Darwin Got Wrong as "an overdue and valuable onslaught on neo-Darwinist simplicities". The book also received positive review by mathematician and Intelligent Design Theorist William Dembski.

text: Fodor has co-written a book with the biolinguist Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini called

text: What Darwin Got Wrong

text: (2010) which describes neo-Darwinists as being "distressingly uncritical" and says of Darwin's theory of evolution that "it overestimates the contribution the environment makes in shaping the phenotype of a species and correspondingly underestimates the effects of endogenous variables." Evolutionary biologist

text: Jerry Coyne

text: describes this book as "a profoundly misguided critique of natural selection" and "as biologically uninformed as it is strident". Moral philosopher and anti-scientism author

text: Mary Midgley

text: praises What Darwin Got Wrong as "an overdue and valuable onslaught on neo-Darwinist simplicities". The book also received positive review by mathematician and Intelligent Design Theorist

text: William Dembski

text: The main population of the Aldabra giant tortoise resides on the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles. The atoll has been protected from human influence and is home to some 100,000 giant tortoises, the world's largest population of the animal. Smaller populations of A. gigantea in the Seychelles exist in the Sainte Anne Marine National Park (e.g. Moyenne Island). Another isolated population of the species resides on the island of Changuu, near Zanzibar, and other captive populations exist in conservation parks in Mauritius and Rodrigues. The tortoises exploit many different kinds of habitat, including grasslands, low scrub, mangrove swamps, and coastal dunes.

text: The main population of the Aldabra giant tortoise resides on the islands of the

text: Aldabra Atoll

text: in the Seychelles. The atoll has been protected from human influence and is home to some 100,000 giant tortoises, the world's largest population of the animal. Smaller populations of A. gigantea in the Seychelles exist in the

text: Sainte Anne Marine National Park

text: (e.g.

text: Moyenne Island

text: ). Another isolated population of the species resides on the island of

text: Changuu

text: , near

text: Zanzibar

text: , and other captive populations exist in conservation parks in

text: Mauritius

text: and

text: Rodrigues

text: . The tortoises exploit many different kinds of habitat, including

text: grassland

text: s, low

text: scrub

text: mangrove swamps

text: , and coastal dunes.

text: The Voyage of the Beagle is the title most commonly given to the book written by Charles Darwin and published in 1839 as his Journal and Remarks, bringing him considerable fame and respect. This was the third volume of The Narrative of the Voyages of H.M. Ships Adventure and Beagle, the other volumes of which were written or edited by the commanders of the ships. Journal and Remarks covers Darwin's part in the second survey expedition of the ship HMS Beagle. Due to the popularity of Darwin's account, the publisher reissued it later in 1839 as Darwin's Journal of Researches, and the revised second edition published in 1845 used this title. A republication of the book in 1905 introduced the title The Voyage of the "Beagle", by which it is now best known.

text: The Voyage of the Beagle is the title most commonly given to the book written by

text: Charles Darwin

text: and published in 1839 as his Journal and Remarks, bringing him considerable fame and respect. This was the third volume of The Narrative of the Voyages of H.M. Ships Adventure and Beagle, the other volumes of which were written or edited by the commanders of the ships. Journal and Remarks covers Darwin's part in the

text: second survey expedition

text: of the ship

text: HMS Beagle

text: . Due to the popularity of Darwin's account, the publisher reissued it later in 1839 as Darwin's Journal of Researches, and the revised second edition published in 1845 used this title. A republication of the book in 1905 introduced the title The Voyage of the "Beagle", by which it is now best known.

text: According to Girard, just as the theory of natural selection of species is the rational principle that explains the immense diversity of forms of life, the victimization process is the rational principle that explains the origin of the infinite diversity of cultural forms. The analogy with Darwin also extends to the scientific status of the theory, as each of these presents itself as a hypothesis that is not capable of being proven experimentally, given the extreme amounts of time necessary to the production of the phenomena in question, but which imposes itself by its great explanatory power.

text: According to Girard, just as the theory of

text: natural selection

text: of species is the rational principle that explains the immense diversity of forms of life, the victimization process is the rational principle that explains the origin of the infinite diversity of cultural forms. The analogy with

text: Darwin

text: also extends to the scientific status of the theory, as each of these presents itself as a hypothesis that is not capable of being proven experimentally, given the extreme amounts of time necessary to the production of the phenomena in question, but which imposes itself by its great explanatory power.

text: His book The Origins of Adaptations (1963) was an early text that discussed the main themes of the modern evolutionary synthesis such as genetic drift, modes of speciation, natural selection  and population genetics. However, Grant did not describe these mechanisms of evolution as "Neo-Darwinism" or the synthetic theory, instead he referred to these mechanisms as the "causal theory." The book was awarded the 1964 Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science.

text: His book The Origins of Adaptations (1963) was an early text that discussed the main themes of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: such as

text: genetic drift

text: modes of speciation

text: natural selection

text: and

text: population genetics

text: . However, Grant did not describe these mechanisms of evolution as "

text: Neo-Darwinism

text: " or the synthetic theory, instead he referred to these mechanisms as the "causal theory." The book was awarded the 1964

text: Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science

text: Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key facts and the inferences drawn from them, which biologist Ernst Mayr summarised as follows:

text: Darwin's theory of evolution is based on key

text: fact

text: s and the

text: inference

text: s drawn from them, which biologist

text: Ernst Mayr

text: summarised as follows:

text: Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species. By the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.

text: Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of

text: transmutation of species

text: . By the 1870s, the

text: scientific community

text: and much of the general public had accepted

text: evolution as a fact

text: . However, many favoured

text: competing explanations

text: and it was not until the emergence of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution. In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the

text: life sciences

text: , explaining the

text: diversity of life

text: Charles Darwin used the phrase "struggle for existence" in a broader sense, and chose the term as the title to the third chapter of On the Origin of Species published in 1859. Using Malthus’s idea of the struggle for existence, Darwin was able to develop his view of adaptation, which was highly influential in the formulation of the theory of natural selection. In addition, Alfred Wallace independently used the concept of the struggle for existence to help come to the same theory of evolution. Later, T.H. Huxley further developed the idea of the struggle for existence. Huxley did not fully agree with Darwin on natural selection, but he did agree that there was a struggle for existence in nature. Huxley also recognized that a struggle for existence existed between competing ideas within the minds of people engaged in intellectual discussion. This view is an early example of what was later described as meme theory.

text: Charles Darwin

text: used the phrase "struggle for existence" in a broader sense, and chose the term as the title to the third chapter of

text: On the Origin of Species

text: published in 1859. Using Malthus’s idea of the struggle for existence, Darwin was able to develop his view of adaptation, which was highly influential in the formulation of the theory of natural selection. In addition, Alfred Wallace independently used the concept of the struggle for existence to help come to the same theory of evolution. Later,

text: T.H. Huxley

text: further developed the idea of the struggle for existence. Huxley did not fully agree with Darwin on natural selection, but he did agree that there was a struggle for existence in nature. Huxley also recognized that a struggle for existence existed between competing ideas within the minds of people engaged in intellectual discussion. This view is an early example of what was later described as

text: meme

text: theory.

text: In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term "Darwinism," and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context. The ideas had international influence, and Ernst Haeckel developed what was known as Darwinismus in Germany, although, like Spencer's "evolution," Haeckel's "Darwinism" had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centered on natural selection. In 1886, Alfred Russel Wallace went on a lecture tour across the United States, starting in New York and going via Boston, Washington, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska to California, lecturing on what he called "Darwinism" without any problems.

text: In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term "Darwinism," and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context. The ideas had international influence, and

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: developed what was known as Darwinismus in Germany, although, like Spencer's "evolution," Haeckel's "Darwinism" had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centered on natural selection. In 1886,

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: went on a lecture tour across the United States, starting in New York and going via Boston, Washington, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska to California, lecturing on what he called "Darwinism" without any problems.

text: When Charles Darwin presented his mammal and bird specimens collected during the second voyage of HMS Beagle to the Zoological Society of London on 4 January 1837, the bird specimens were given to Gould for identification. He set aside his paying work and at the next meeting on 10 January reported that birds from the Galápagos Islands which Darwin had thought were blackbirds, "gross-bills" and finches were in fact "a series of ground Finches which are so peculiar" as to form "an entirely new group, containing 12 species." This story made the newspapers. In March, Darwin met Gould again, learning that his Galápagos "wren" was another species of finch and the mockingbirds he had labelled by island were separate species rather than just varieties, with relatives on the South American mainland. Subsequently, Gould advised that the smaller southern Rhea  specimen that had been rescued from a Christmas dinner was a separate species which he named Rhea darwinii, whose territory overlapped with the northern rheas.  Darwin had not bothered to label his finches by island, but others on the expedition had taken more care. He now sought specimens collected by captain Robert FitzRoy and crewmen. From them he was able to establish that the species were unique to islands, an important step on the inception of his theory of evolution by natural selection. Gould's work on the birds was published between 1838 and 1842 in five numbers as Part 3 of Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, edited by Charles Darwin.

text: When

text: Charles Darwin

text: presented his mammal and bird specimens collected during the

text: second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: to the

text: Zoological Society of London

text: on 4 January 1837, the bird specimens were given to Gould for identification. He set aside his paying work and at the next meeting on 10 January reported that birds from the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: which Darwin had thought were blackbirds, "gross-bills" and

text: finch

text: es were in fact "a series of ground Finches which are so peculiar" as to form "an entirely new group, containing 12 species." This story made the newspapers. In March, Darwin met Gould again, learning that his Galápagos "wren" was another species of finch and the

text: mockingbird

text: s he had labelled by island were separate species rather than just varieties, with relatives on the South American mainland. Subsequently, Gould advised that the smaller southern

text: Rhea

text: specimen that had been rescued from a Christmas dinner was a separate species which he named Rhea darwinii, whose territory overlapped with the northern rheas.  Darwin had not bothered to label his finches by island, but others on the expedition had taken more care. He now sought specimens collected by captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: and crewmen. From them he was able to establish that the species were unique to islands, an important step on the

text: inception of his theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . Gould's work on the birds was published between 1838 and 1842 in five numbers as Part 3 of

text: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle

text: , edited by Charles Darwin.

text: Although it took many years, polygenism, which required species to be created in specific geographic locations and to remain immutable, has been almost entirely replaced among scientists by Darwin's theory of evolution from a common ancestor.  Persistent antagonism to Darwinian theory is today primarily a matter of religious or political viewpoint.

text: In 2006, a poll conducted by Zogby International commissioned by the Discovery Institute found that more than three to one of voters surveyed chose the option that biology teachers should teach Darwin's theory of evolution, but also "the scientific evidence against it." Approximately seven in ten (69%) sided with this view. In contrast, one in five (21%) chose the other option given, that biology teachers should teach only Darwin's theory of evolution and the scientific evidence that supports it. One in ten was not sure.

text: In 2006, a poll conducted by

text: Zogby International

text: commissioned by the Discovery Institute found that more than three to one of voters surveyed chose the option that biology teachers should teach

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution, but also "the scientific evidence against it." Approximately seven in ten (69%) sided with this view. In contrast, one in five (21%) chose the other option given, that biology teachers should teach only Darwin's theory of evolution and the scientific evidence that supports it. One in ten was not sure.

text: In animal breeding, techniques such as inbreeding, linebreeding, and outcrossing are utilized. In plant breeding, similar methods are used. Charles Darwin discussed how selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time in his 1859 book, On the Origin of Species. Its first chapter discusses selective breeding and domestication of such animals as pigeons, cats, cattle, and dogs. Darwin used artificial selection as a springboard to introduce and support the theory of natural selection.

text: In

text: animal breeding

text: , techniques such as

text: inbreeding

text: linebreeding

text: , and

text: outcrossing

text: are utilized. In

text: plant breeding

text: , similar methods are used.

text: Charles Darwin

text: discussed how selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time in his 1859 book,

text: On the Origin of Species

text: . Its first chapter discusses selective breeding and

text: domestication

text: of such animals as

text: pigeon

text: s,

text: cat

text: s,

text: cattle

text: , and

text: dog

text: s. Darwin used artificial selection as a springboard to introduce and support the theory of

text: natural selection

text: FitzRoy wrote his account of the voyage, including editing the notes of the previous captain of the Beagle. It was published in May 1839 as the Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. Adventure and Beagle, in four volumes, including Darwin's Journal and Remarks, 1832—1836 as the third volume. FitzRoy's account includes a section of Remarks with reference to the Deluge in which he admits that, having read works "by geologists who contradict, by implication, if not in plain terms, the authenticity of the Scriptures" and "while led away by sceptical ideas," he had remarked to a friend that the vast plain of sedimentary material they were crossing "could never have been effected by a forty days' flood." He wrote that in his "turn of mind and ignorance of scripture," he was willing to disbelieve the Biblical account. Concerned that such ideas might "reach the eyes of young sailors," he explains in detail his renewed commitment to a literal reading of the Bible, with arguments that rock layers high in the mountains containing sea shells are proof of Noah's Flood and that the six days of creation could not have extended over aeons because the grass, herbs and trees would have died out during the long nights.

text: FitzRoy wrote his account of the voyage, including editing the notes of the previous captain of the Beagle. It was published in May 1839 as the Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of H.M.S. Adventure and Beagle, in four volumes, including Darwin's Journal and Remarks, 1832—1836 as the third volume. FitzRoy's account includes a section of Remarks with reference to the Deluge in which he admits that, having read works "by geologists who contradict, by implication, if not in plain terms, the authenticity of the Scriptures" and "while led away by sceptical ideas," he had remarked to a friend that the vast plain of sedimentary material they were crossing "could never have been effected by a forty days' flood." He wrote that in his "turn of mind and ignorance of scripture," he was willing to disbelieve the Biblical account. Concerned that such ideas might "reach the eyes of young sailors," he explains in detail his renewed commitment to a literal reading of the Bible, with arguments that rock layers high in the mountains containing sea shells are proof of

text: Noah's Flood

text: and that the six days of creation could not have extended over aeons because the grass, herbs and trees would have died out during the long nights.

text: The biogeographical patterns Charles Darwin observed in places such as the Galápagos Islands during the second voyage of HMS Beagle caused him to doubt the fixity of species, and in 1837 Darwin started the first of a series of secret notebooks on transmutation. Darwin's observations led him to view transmutation as a process of divergence and branching, rather than the ladder-like progression envisioned by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and others. In 1838 he read the new 6th edition of An Essay on the Principle of Population, written in the late 18th century by Thomas Robert Malthus. Malthus' idea of population growth leading to a struggle for survival combined with Darwin's knowledge on how breeders selected traits, led to the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin did not publish his ideas on evolution for 20 years. However, he did share them with certain other naturalists and friends, starting with Joseph Dalton Hooker, with whom he discussed his unpublished 1844 essay on natural selection. During this period he used the time he could spare from his other scientific work to slowly refine his ideas and, aware of the intense controversy around transmutation, amass evidence to support them. In September 1854 he began full-time work on writing his book on natural selection.

text: The biogeographical patterns Charles Darwin observed in places such as the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: during the

text: second voyage of HMS Beagle

text: caused him to doubt the fixity of species, and in 1837 Darwin started the first of a series of secret notebooks on transmutation. Darwin's observations led him to view transmutation as a process of divergence and branching, rather than the ladder-like progression envisioned by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and others. In 1838 he read the new 6th edition of

text: An Essay on the Principle of Population

text: , written in the late 18th century by Thomas Robert Malthus. Malthus' idea of population growth leading to a struggle for survival combined with Darwin's knowledge on how breeders selected traits, led to the inception of Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin did not publish his ideas on evolution for 20 years. However, he did share them with certain other naturalists and friends, starting with

text: Joseph Dalton Hooker

text: , with whom he discussed his unpublished 1844 essay on natural selection. During this period he used the time he could spare from his other scientific work to slowly refine his ideas and, aware of the intense controversy around transmutation, amass evidence to support them. In September 1854 he began full-time work on writing his book on natural selection.

text: In The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication Charles Darwin wrote:

text: In

text: Charles Darwin

text: wrote:

text: Although evolutionary biologists have often been agnostics (most notably Thomas Huxley and Charles Darwin) or atheists (most notably Richard Dawkins), from the outset many have had a belief in some form of theism. These have included Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913), who in a joint paper with Charles Darwin in 1858, proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. Wallace, in his later years, was effectively a deist who believed that "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded to create life as well as consciousness in animals and (separately) in humans. Darwin had a longstanding close friendship with the American botanist Asa Gray who was a leading supporter of Darwin's theory, and a devout Presbyterian. Gray wrote a series of essays on the relationship of natural selection to religious belief and natural theology, and supported the views of theologians who said that design through evolution was inherent in all forms of life.<ref name=Grayreviews>

text: Although

text: evolutionary biologists

text: have often been

text: agnostics

text: (most notably

text: Thomas Huxley

text: and

text: Charles Darwin

text: ) or

text: atheists

text: (most notably

text: Richard Dawkins

text: ), from the outset many have had a belief in some form of theism. These have included

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: (1823–1913), who in a joint paper with

text: Charles Darwin

text: in 1858, proposed the theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . Wallace, in his later years, was effectively a

text: deist

text: who believed that "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded to create life as well as consciousness in animals and (separately) in humans. Darwin had a longstanding close friendship with the American botanist

text: Asa Gray

text: who was a leading supporter of Darwin's theory, and a devout Presbyterian. Gray wrote a series of essays on the relationship of natural selection to religious belief and

text: natural theology

text: , and supported the views of theologians who said that design through evolution was inherent in all forms of life.<ref name=Grayreviews>

text: Charles Darwin was a natural theologist who studied around the world, and most importantly in the Galapagos Islands. Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection, as he theorized against previously accepted ideas that species were static or unchanging. His contributions to biogeography and the theory of evolution were different from those of other explorers of his time, because he developed a mechanism to describe the ways that species changed. His influential ideas include the development of theories regarding the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin’s theories started a biological segment to biogeography and empirical studies, which enabled future scientists to develop ideas about the geographical distribution of organisms around the globe.

text: Charles Darwin

text: was a natural theologist who studied around the world, and most importantly in the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: . Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection, as he theorized against previously accepted ideas that species were static or unchanging. His contributions to biogeography and the theory of evolution were different from those of other explorers of his time, because he developed a mechanism to describe the ways that species changed. His influential ideas include the development of theories regarding the struggle for existence and natural selection. Darwin’s theories started a biological segment to biogeography and empirical studies, which enabled future scientists to develop ideas about the geographical distribution of organisms around the globe.

text: The second important process is the theory of evolution by Darwin in mid-century (which decisively influenced the work of Ratzel, who had academic training as a zoologist and was a follower of Darwin's ideas) which meant an important impetus in the development of Biogeography.

text: The second important process is the theory of evolution by

text: Darwin

text: in mid-century (which decisively influenced the work of

text: Ratzel

text: , who had academic training as a zoologist and was a follower of Darwin's ideas) which meant an important impetus in the development of Biogeography.

text: Macrauchenia was first discovered on 9 February 1834 at Port St Julian in Patagonia (Argentina) by Charles Darwin, when HMS Beagle was surveying the port during the voyage of the Beagle. As a non-expert he tentatively identified the leg bones and fragments of spine he found as "some large animal, I fancy a Mastodon". In 1837, soon after the Beagle's return, the anatomist Richard Owen revealed that the bones including vertebrae from the back and neck were actually from a gigantic creature resembling a llama or camel, which Owen named Macrauchenia patachonica. In naming it, Owen noted the original Greek terms Μακρος (large or long), and αυχην (neck) as used by Illiger as the basis of Auchenia as a generic name for the llama, Vicugna and so on. The find was one of the discoveries leading to the inception of Darwin's theory.  Since then, more Macrauchenia fossils have been found, mainly in Patagonia, but also in Bolivia, Chile and Venezuela.

text: Macrauchenia was first discovered on 9 February 1834 at

text: Port St Julian

text: in

text: Patagonia

text: (Argentina) by

text: Charles Darwin

text: , when

text: HMS Beagle

text: was surveying the port during the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: . As a non-expert he tentatively identified the leg bones and fragments of spine he found as "some large animal, I fancy a

text: Mastodon

text: ". In 1837, soon after the Beagle's return, the anatomist

text: Richard Owen

text: revealed that the bones including vertebrae from the back and neck were actually from a gigantic creature resembling a

text: llama

text: or

text: camel

text: , which Owen named Macrauchenia patachonica. In naming it, Owen noted the original Greek terms Μακρος (large or long), and αυχην (neck) as used by

text: Illiger

text: as the basis of Auchenia as a generic name for the llama,

text: Vicugna

text: and so on. The find was one of the discoveries leading to the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: .  Since then, more Macrauchenia fossils have been found, mainly in Patagonia, but also in

text: Bolivia

text: Chile

text: and

text: Venezuela

text: Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The term was introduced by Darwin in his groundbreaking 1859 book On the Origin of Species, in which natural selection was described by analogy to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction. The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical and molecular genetics is termed the modern evolutionary synthesis. Natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.

text: Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern

text: biology

text: . The term was introduced by Darwin in his groundbreaking 1859 book

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , in which natural selection was described by analogy to

text: artificial selection

text: , a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction. The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of

text: heredity

text: ; at the time of Darwin's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics. The union of traditional

text: Darwinian evolution

text: with subsequent discoveries in

text: classical

text: and

text: molecular genetics

text: is termed the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: . Natural selection remains the primary explanation for

text: adaptive evolution

text: Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred, supporting the idea of branching, adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism. Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines, showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created. The structure of Darwin's argument showed the influence of John Herschel, whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a vera causa (true cause) if three things could be demonstrated: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations.

text: Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred, supporting the idea of branching, adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism. Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines, showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created. The structure of Darwin's argument showed the influence of

text: John Herschel

text: , whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a vera causa (true cause) if three things could be demonstrated: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations.

text: On 20 September 1836, Charles Darwin, the eminent English naturalist, nearing the end of his second voyage aboard the research vessel, HMS Beagle, arrived at the Azores and anchored at Angra. The next day, Darwin hired a horse and some guides and rode to the center of the island where an active volcanic crater was supposed to exist. What he found there was not a "crater" at all; instead, what he found was a series of fissures in the rock with steam issuing from them. To a naturalist, his long day in the saddle was not very illuminating. Biologically speaking, Darwin wrote, he could "find nothing of interest". The next day, Darwin traveled along the coast road and visited the town of Praia da Vitoria on the northeastern end of the island. He returned by way of the northern shore, and he crossed the central part of the island on his way back to the Beagle. He departed on 25 September for the island of São Miguel, to pick up any letters that may have been posted to him there.

text: On 20 September 1836,

text: Charles Darwin

text: , the eminent English naturalist, nearing the end of his second voyage aboard the research vessel, HMS Beagle, arrived at the Azores and anchored at Angra. The next day, Darwin hired a horse and some guides and rode to the center of the island where an active

text: volcanic crater

text: was supposed to exist. What he found there was not a "crater" at all; instead, what he found was a series of fissures in the rock with steam issuing from them. To a naturalist, his long day in the saddle was not very illuminating. Biologically speaking, Darwin wrote, he could "find nothing of interest". The next day, Darwin traveled along the coast road and visited the town of

text: Praia da Vitoria

text: on the northeastern end of the island. He returned by way of the northern shore, and he crossed the central part of the island on his way back to the Beagle. He departed on 25 September for the island of São Miguel, to pick up any letters that may have been posted to him there.

text: Regardless of how scholars of Spencer interpret his relation to Darwin, Spencer became an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the United States. Authors such as Edward L. Youmans, William Graham Sumner, John Fiske, John W. Burgess, Lester Frank Ward, Lewis H. Morgan (1818–1881) and other thinkers of the gilded age all developed theories of social evolutionism as a result of their exposure to Spencer as well as to Darwin.

text: Regardless of how scholars of Spencer interpret his relation to Darwin, Spencer became an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the

text: United States

text: . Authors such as

text: Edward L. Youmans

text: William Graham Sumner

text: John Fiske

text: John W. Burgess

text: Lester Frank Ward

text: Lewis H. Morgan

text: (1818–1881) and other thinkers of the

text: gilded age

text: all developed theories of social evolutionism as a result of their exposure to Spencer as well as to Darwin.

text: In the book, Doctor Temple is captured and the alien leader successfully removes his protective metal plate. The ensuing struggle between the two resembles something more like the Star Trek TOS episode "The Lights of Zetar" or The Exorcist than the kung fu commando battle in the movie. The book also gives us a look at the aliens as they might have been had their ancestors made different choices in the development of their culture. The contrast of the two alternative types of alien is similar to the contrast of the "invading women" daymare with the actual riim creatures of A. E. van Vogt's Voyage of the Space Beagle.

text: In the book, Doctor Temple is captured and the alien leader successfully removes his protective metal plate. The ensuing struggle between the two resembles something more like the Star Trek TOS episode "

text: The Lights of Zetar

text: " or

text: The Exorcist

text: than the kung fu commando battle in the movie. The book also gives us a look at the aliens as they might have been had their ancestors made different choices in the development of their culture. The contrast of the two alternative types of alien is similar to the contrast of the "invading women" daymare with the actual riim creatures of A. E. van Vogt's Voyage of the Space Beagle.

text: While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (resulting in his book, The Central Eskimo, published in 1888). In 1885, Boas went to work with physical anthropologist Rudolf Virchow and ethnologist Adolf Bastian at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier, while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition. At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate over evolution with his former student, Ernst Haeckel. Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species, and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany. However, like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics in 1900 and the development of the modern synthesis, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability. Accordingly, Virchow favored Lamarckian models of evolution. This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates.

text: While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (resulting in his book, The Central Eskimo, published in 1888). In 1885, Boas went to work with physical anthropologist

text: Rudolf Virchow

text: and

text: ethnologist

text: Adolf Bastian

text: at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin. Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier, while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition. At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate over evolution with his former student,

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: . Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's The Origin of Species, and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany. However, like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of

text: Mendelian genetics

text: in 1900 and the development of the

text: modern synthesis

text: , Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability. Accordingly, Virchow favored

text: Lamarckian

text: models of evolution. This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates.

text: These giant tortoises were very slow, curious, and had no fear of man. They were therefore easy prey for the first inhabitants of the island, and were slaughtered in vast numbers - to be burnt for oil, as food for people, and also as food for pigs. Large numbers were also stacked into the holds of passing ships, as food supplies for sea trips.

text: The first recorded visit to the islands happened by chance in 1535, when Fray Tomás de Berlanga, the Bishop of Panamá, was blown off course during a voyage to Peru to arbitrate in a dispute between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro. De Berlanga eventually returned to the Spanish Empire and described the conditions of the islands and the animals that inhabited them. The group of islands was shown and named in Abraham Ortelius's atlas published in 1570. The first crude map of the islands was made in 1684 by the buccaneer Ambrose Cowley, who named the individual islands after some of his fellow pirates or after British royalty and noblemen. These names were used in the authoritative navigation charts of the islands prepared during the Beagle survey under captain Robert Fitzroy, and in Darwin's popular book The Voyage of the Beagle.  The new Republic of Ecuador took the islands from Spanish ownership in 1832, and subsequently gave them official Spanish names. The older names remained in use in English language publications, including Herman Melville's The Encantadas of 1854.

text: The first recorded visit to the islands happened by chance in 1535, when

text: Fray Tomás de Berlanga

text: , the

text: Bishop of Panamá

text: , was blown off course during a voyage to

text: Peru

text: to arbitrate in a dispute between

text: Francisco Pizarro

text: and

text: Diego de Almagro

text: . De Berlanga eventually returned to the Spanish Empire and described the conditions of the islands and the animals that inhabited them. The group of islands was shown and named in

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: 's atlas published in 1570. The first crude map of the islands was made in 1684 by the

text: buccaneer

text: Ambrose Cowley

text: , who named the individual islands after some of his fellow

text: pirate

text: s or after British royalty and noblemen. These names were used in the authoritative

text: navigation charts

text: of the islands prepared during the Beagle survey under captain

text: Robert Fitzroy

text: , and in Darwin's popular book

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: .  The new Republic of Ecuador took the islands from Spanish ownership in 1832, and subsequently gave them official Spanish names. The older names remained in use in English language publications, including

text: Herman Melville

text: 's

text: The Encantadas

text: of 1854.

text: On Mauritius, the giant tortoise disappeared from the mainland by the end of the 17th century and the very last tortoises survived until the 1730s on the islets in the north. Around the late 1800s, large number of tortoises bones were discovered in the Mare aux Songes excavations. These resulted in the description of the two species of giant tortoise endemic to Mauritius, the saddle-backed Mauritius (Cylindraspis inepta) and the domed Mauritius (Cylindraspis triserrata).

text: On Mauritius, the giant tortoise disappeared from the mainland by the end of the 17th century and the very last tortoises survived until the 1730s on the

text: islets

text: in the north. Around the late 1800s, large number of tortoises bones were discovered in the

text: Mare aux Songes

text: excavations. These resulted in the description of the two species of giant tortoise endemic to Mauritius, the

text: saddle-backed Mauritius

text: (Cylindraspis inepta) and the

text: domed Mauritius

text: (Cylindraspis triserrata).

text: Attenborough also covered the various series he presented that brought key scientific theories to a mass audience. His first landmark series for the BBC, Life on Earth, first broadcast in the 1970s, covered the story of evolution by following in the footsteps of Attenborough's hero Charles Darwin, and discussing and illustrating Darwin's theory of natural selection. This episode also dealt with the black smokers, deep sea volcanic vents that were found, unexpectedly, to support abundant life. Also covered were tortoises, lung fish and salamanders, and tiktaalik fossils from Canada. Attenborough talked of being a geology student at Cambridge and how he was interested in the distribution of life on the planet. In The Living Planet series, he filmed in front of an erupting volcano (narrowly avoiding being hit by lava bombs), and discussed the theory of continental drift  - how whole continents are moved around the globe over millions of years - by the action of plate tectonics.  This great scientific mystery was not solved until the 1960s.

text: Attenborough also covered the various series he presented that brought key scientific theories to a mass audience. His first landmark series for the BBC,

text: Life on Earth

text: , first broadcast in the 1970s, covered the story of evolution by following in the footsteps of Attenborough's hero

text: Charles Darwin

text: , and discussing and illustrating Darwin's theory of natural selection. This episode also dealt with the

text: black smokers

text: , deep sea volcanic vents that were found, unexpectedly, to support abundant life. Also covered were tortoises, lung fish and salamanders, and

text: tiktaalik

text: fossils from Canada. Attenborough talked of being a geology student at Cambridge and how he was interested in the distribution of life on the planet. In

text: The Living Planet

text: series, he filmed in front of an erupting volcano (narrowly avoiding being hit by

text: lava bombs

text: ), and discussed the theory of

text: continental drift

text: - how whole continents are moved around the globe over millions of years - by the action of

text: plate tectonics

text: .  This great scientific mystery was not solved until the 1960s.

text: Beagle arrived at Basque Roads on 10 April, having escorted from the Downs the convoy of fireships that were to attack the French anchorage the next day. Beagle was the second ship (after the bomb vessel Aetna) to voluntarily arrive to aid Cochrane's Imperieuse after the successful fireship attack, her crew reportedly giving Cochrane three cheers upon arriving. The prize crew that took possession, and later burnt, the French ship-of-the-line Calcutta, was under the command of a lieutenant from Beagle and a midshipman from Imperieuse. Beagle also took part in the bombardment of the French ships Aquilon and Ville de Varsovie, skilfully manoeuvring to fire, unlike other British ships that were anchoring to engage.

text: Beagle arrived at Basque Roads on 10 April, having escorted from the Downs the convoy of fireships that were to attack the French anchorage the next day. Beagle was the second ship (after the bomb vessel

text: Aetna

text: ) to voluntarily arrive to aid

text: Cochrane's

text: Imperieuse

text: after the successful fireship attack, her crew reportedly giving Cochrane three cheers upon arriving. The prize crew that took possession, and later burnt, the French ship-of-the-line

text: Calcutta

text: , was under the command of a lieutenant from Beagle and a midshipman from Imperieuse. Beagle also took part in the bombardment of the French ships

text: Aquilon

text: and

text: Ville de Varsovie

text: , skilfully manoeuvring to fire, unlike other British ships that were anchoring to engage.

text: In Darwin's finches, inhabiting the Galapagos islands, ALX1 has been linked to the diversity of beak shapes.

text: In

text: Darwin's finches

text: , inhabiting the Galapagos islands, ALX1 has been linked to the diversity of beak shapes.

text: Darwin discusses morphology, including the importance of homologous structures. He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" This made no sense under doctrines of independent creation of species, as even Richard Owen had admitted, but the "explanation is manifest on the theory of the natural selection of successive slight modifications" showing common descent. He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos. Darwin discusses rudimentary organs, such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in baleen whales, are found only in embryonic stages. These factors also supported his theory of descent with modification.

text: Darwin discusses

text: morphology

text: , including the importance of

text: homologous structures

text: . He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" This made no sense under doctrines of independent creation of species, as even

text: Richard Owen

text: had admitted, but the "explanation is manifest on the theory of the natural selection of successive slight modifications" showing

text: common descent

text: . He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar

text: embryos

text: . Darwin discusses rudimentary organs, such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in

text: baleen whales

text: , are found only in embryonic stages. These factors also supported his theory of descent with modification.

text: Near the end of 1831, while the Beagle was still being fitted out at Devonport in preparation for sailing, the recently graduated Charles Darwin arrived in Plymouth to take up the opportunity of sailing on the ship as a self-funded gentleman naturalist who would be a companion to the captain while the ship was at sea, and who would make his own expeditions inland while the ship's crew was surveying the coasts. He told his sister that he had "breakfasted yesterday with a Mr. Harris whom I like more than anybody I have seen.— He has written a great deal on Electricity", and wrote to tell his university tutor John Stevens Henslow about his progress, noting that he had met "one or two pleasant people, foremost of whom is Mr. Thunder & Lightning Harris, whom I daresay you have heard of." In his diary he noted that on the evening of 21 November he attended a "popular lecture from Mr Harris on his lightning conductors" at the Athenaeum. Harris used an "Electric machine" for a thunder cloud and a tub of water for the sea, then with "a toy for a line of battle ship he showed the whole process of it being struck by lightning & most satisfactorily proved how completely his plan protects the vessel from any bad consequences. This plan consists in having plates of Copper folding over each other, let in in the masts & yards & so connected to the water beneath. — The principle, from which these advantages are derived, owes its utility, to the fact that the Electric fluid is weakened by being transmitted over a large surface to such an extent that no effects are perceived, even when the mast is struck by the lightning. — The Beagle is fitted with conductors on this plan; it is very probable, we shall be the means of trying & I hope proving the utility of its effects."

text: Near the end of 1831, while the Beagle was still being fitted out at

text: Devonport

text: in preparation for sailing, the recently graduated

text: Charles Darwin

text: arrived in Plymouth to take up the opportunity of sailing on the ship as a self-funded gentleman naturalist who would be a companion to the captain while the ship was at sea, and who would make his own expeditions inland while the ship's crew was surveying the coasts. He told his sister that he had "breakfasted yesterday with a Mr. Harris whom I like more than anybody I have seen.— He has written a great deal on Electricity", and wrote to tell his university tutor

text: John Stevens Henslow

text: about his progress, noting that he had met "one or two pleasant people, foremost of whom is Mr. Thunder & Lightning Harris, whom I daresay you have heard of." In his diary he noted that on the evening of 21 November he attended a "popular lecture from Mr Harris on his lightning conductors" at the Athenaeum. Harris used an "Electric machine" for a thunder cloud and a tub of water for the sea, then with "a toy for a line of battle ship he showed the whole process of it being struck by lightning & most satisfactorily proved how completely his plan protects the vessel from any bad consequences. This plan consists in having plates of Copper folding over each other, let in in the masts & yards & so connected to the water beneath. — The principle, from which these advantages are derived, owes its utility, to the fact that the Electric fluid is weakened by being transmitted over a large surface to such an extent that no effects are perceived, even when the mast is struck by the lightning. — The Beagle is fitted with conductors on this plan; it is very probable, we shall be the means of trying & I hope proving the utility of its effects."

text: The statement, and its title, refer to evolution as "Darwinism" or "Darwinian theory", can lead to confusion, due to the terms having various meanings, but commonly meaning evolution due to the mechanism of natural selection rather than the broader definition of evolution, the change in a species' inherited traits from generation to generation. The terms have meant different things to different people at different times. In terms of the history of evolutionary thought, both "Darwinism" and "neo-Darwinism" are predecessors of the current evolutionary theory, the modern evolutionary synthesis. However, in the context of the creation-evolution controversy, the term "Darwinism" is commonly used by creationists to describe scientists and science teachers who oppose them, and to claim that scientific disagreements about the specific mechanism can sometimes be equated to rejection of evolution as a whole. Intelligent design proponents use the term in all these ways, including the idea that it is a materialist ideology, and the claim that as it proposes natural processes as an explanation for evolution, Darwinism can be equated with atheism and presented as being incompatible with Christianity.

text: The statement, and its title, refer to

text: evolution

text: as "

text: Darwinism

text: " or "Darwinian theory", can lead to confusion, due to the terms having various meanings, but commonly meaning evolution due to the mechanism of

text: natural selection

text: rather than the broader definition of evolution, the change in a species' inherited traits from generation to generation. The terms have meant different things to different people at different times. In terms of the

text: history of evolutionary thought

text: , both "Darwinism" and "neo-Darwinism" are predecessors of the current evolutionary theory, the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: . However, in the context of the

text: creation-evolution controversy

text: , the term "Darwinism" is commonly used by

text: creationists

text: to describe scientists and science teachers who oppose them, and to claim that scientific disagreements about the specific mechanism can sometimes be equated to rejection of evolution as a whole. Intelligent design proponents use the term in all these ways, including the idea that it is a

text: materialist ideology

text: , and the claim that as it proposes natural processes as an explanation for evolution, Darwinism can be equated with

text: atheism

text: and presented as being incompatible with Christianity.

text: Eight members of the Darwin family are buried in St Mary the Virgin Churchyard, Downe, Kent; nearby is Down House, the home of the Darwin family. The Darwins buried at Downe include: Bernard Darwin and his wife Elinor Monsell, who taught her husband's cousin Gwen Raverat engraving; Charles Waring Darwin; Elizabeth Darwin, "Aunt Bessy"; Emma Darwin, Charles Darwin's wife, "Grandmamma"; Erasmus Alvey Darwin; Mary Eleanor Darwin; Henrietta Etty Darwin, later Litchfield, "Aunt Etty".

text: Eight members of the Darwin family are buried in St Mary the Virgin Churchyard, Downe, Kent; nearby is

text: Down House

text: , the home of the Darwin family. The Darwins buried at Downe include:

text: Bernard Darwin

text: and his wife

text: Elinor Monsell

text: , who taught her husband's cousin Gwen Raverat engraving;

text: Charles Waring Darwin

text: ; Elizabeth Darwin, "Aunt Bessy";

text: Emma Darwin

text: , Charles Darwin's wife, "Grandmamma";

text: Erasmus Alvey Darwin

text: ; Mary Eleanor Darwin; Henrietta

text: Etty Darwin

text: , later Litchfield, "Aunt Etty".

text: James Moore describes how people try to get Darwin on the side of their view of nature. In The Origin of Species nature is seen as being at war, but also likened to a web of complex relations. Here, Darwin gave people a basis for urging humans not to take control of nature but to cooperate with it. In popular imagination, a scientific theory has a single fixed meaning, but in reality it becomes cultural property, and is usable by different interested parties.

text: James Moore describes how people try to get Darwin on the side of their view of nature. In

text: The Origin of Species

text: nature is seen as being at war, but also likened to a web of complex relations. Here, Darwin gave people a basis for urging humans not to take control of nature but to cooperate with it. In popular imagination, a scientific theory has a single fixed meaning, but in reality it becomes cultural property, and is usable by different interested parties.

text: Observations of variations in animals and plants formed the basis of the theory of natural selection. For example, Darwin observed that orchids and insects have a close relationship that allows the pollination of the plants. He noted that orchids have a variety of structures that attract insects, so that pollen from the flowers gets stuck to the insects' bodies. In this way, insects transport the pollen from a male to a female orchid. In spite of the elaborate appearance of orchids, these specialised parts are made from the same basic structures that make up other flowers. In his book, Fertilisation of Orchids (1862), Darwin proposed that the orchid flowers were adapted from pre-existing parts, through natural selection.

text: Observations of variations in

text: animal

text: s and

text: plant

text: s formed the basis of the theory of natural selection. For example, Darwin observed that

text: orchids

text: and

text: insect

text: s have a close relationship that allows the

text: pollination

text: of the plants. He noted that orchids have a variety of structures that attract insects, so that

text: pollen

text: from the

text: flower

text: s gets stuck to the insects' bodies. In this way, insects transport the pollen from a male to a female orchid. In spite of the elaborate appearance of orchids, these specialised parts are made from the same basic structures that make up other flowers. In his book,

text: Fertilisation of Orchids

text: (1862), Darwin proposed that the orchid flowers were adapted from pre-existing parts, through natural selection.

text: Beagle set sail from Plymouth on 22 May 1826 on her first voyage, under the command of Captain Stokes. The mission was to accompany the larger ship HMS Adventure (380 tons) on a hydrographic survey of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, under the overall command of the Australian Captain Phillip Parker King, Commander and Surveyor.

text: Beagle set sail from

text: Plymouth

text: on 22 May 1826 on her first voyage, under the command of Captain Stokes. The mission was to accompany the larger ship

text: HMS Adventure

text: (380 tons) on a

text: hydrographic

text: survey of

text: Patagonia

text: and

text: Tierra del Fuego

text: , under the overall command of the Australian Captain

text: Phillip Parker King

text: Commander

text: and Surveyor.

text: Similarly, Monier Monier-Williams wrote "Indeed, the Hindus were ... Darwinians centuries before the birth of Darwin, and evolutionists centuries before the doctrine of evolution had been accepted by the Huxleys of our time, and before any word like evolution existed in any language of the world." J. B. S. Haldane suggested that Dashavatara gave a "rough idea" of vertebrate evolution: a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a man-lion, a dwarf and then four men (Kalki is not yet born). Nabinchandra Sen explains the Dashavatara with Darwin's evolution in his Raivatak. C. D. Deshmukh also remarked on the "striking" similarity between Darwin's theory and the Dashavatara.

text: Similarly,

text: Monier Monier-Williams

text: wrote "Indeed, the Hindus were ... Darwinians centuries before the birth of Darwin, and evolutionists centuries before the doctrine of evolution had been accepted by the Huxleys of our time, and before any word like evolution existed in any language of the world."

text: J. B. S. Haldane

text: suggested that Dashavatara gave a "rough idea" of vertebrate evolution: a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a man-lion, a dwarf and then four men (Kalki is not yet born).

text: Nabinchandra Sen

text: explains the Dashavatara with Darwin's evolution in his Raivatak.

text: C. D. Deshmukh

text: also remarked on the "striking" similarity between Darwin's theory and the Dashavatara.

text: In his Akhlaq-i-Nasri, Tusi put forward a basic theory for the evolution of species almost 600 years before Charles Darwin, the English naturalist credited with advancing the idea, was born. He begins his theory of evolution with the universe once consisting of equal and similar elements. According to Tusi, internal contradictions began appearing, and as a result, some substances began developing faster and differently from other substances. He then explains how the elements evolved into minerals, then plants, then animals, and then humans. Tusi then goes on to explain how hereditary variability was an important factor for biological evolution of living things:

text: The Cocos finch or Cocos Island finch (Pinaroloxias inornata) is the only one of Darwin's finches not native to the Galápagos Islands, and the only member of the genus Pinaroloxias. Sometimes classified in the family Emberizidae, more recent studies have shown it to belong in the tanager family Thraupidae. It is endemic to Cocos Island, which is approximately 360 miles south of Costa Rica.

text: The Cocos finch or Cocos Island finch (Pinaroloxias inornata) is the only one of

text: Darwin's finches

text: not native to the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: , and the

text: only member

text: of the

text: genus

text: Pinaroloxias. Sometimes classified in the family

text: Emberizidae

text: , more recent studies have shown it to belong in the

text: tanager

text: family

text: Thraupidae

text: . It is

text: endemic

text: to

text: Cocos Island

text: , which is approximately 360 miles south of

text: Costa Rica

text: When bred together, individuals of the same breed pass on these predictable traits to their offspring, and this abilityknown as "breeding true"is a requirement for a breed. Plant breeds are more commonly known as cultivars. The offspring produced as a result of breeding animals of one breed with other animals of another breed are known as crossbreeds or mixed breeds. Crosses between animal or plant variants above the level of breed/cultivar (i.e. between species, subspecies, botanical variety, even different genera) are referred to as hybrids.

text: When bred together, individuals of the same breed pass on these predictable traits to their offspring, and this abilityknown as "

text: breeding true

text: "is a requirement for a breed.

text: Plant

text: breeds are more commonly known as

text: cultivar

text: s. The offspring produced as a result of breeding animals of one breed with other animals of another breed are known as

text: crossbreed

text: s or mixed breeds. Crosses between animal or plant variants above the level of breed/cultivar (i.e. between species,

text: subspecies

text: botanical variety

text: , even different

text: genera

text: ) are referred to as

text: hybrids

text: This article considers the history of zoology since the theory of evolution by natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859.

text: This article considers the history of

text: zoology

text: since the theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: proposed by

text: Charles Darwin

text: in 1859.

text: Although Delbrück's Rockefeller Foundation fellowship expired in 1939, the Foundation matched him up with Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, where from 1940 to 1947 he taught physics, yet had his laboratory in the biology department.  In 1941, Delbrück met Salvador Luria of Indiana University who began visiting Vanderbilt.  In 1942, Delbrück and Luria published on bacterial resistance to virus infection mediated by random mutation.  Alfred Hershey of Washington University began visiting in 1943. The Luria–Delbrück experiment, also called the Fluctuation Test, demonstrated that Darwin's theory of natural selection acting on random mutations applies to bacteria as well as to more complex organisms. The 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to both scientists in part for this work. To put this work in its historical perspective, Lamarck in 1801 first presented his theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics, which stated that if an organism changes during life in order to adapt to its environment (for example stretches its neck to reach for tall trees), those changes are passed on to its offspring. He also said that evolution happens according to a predetermined plan. Darwin published his theory of evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species with compelling evidence contradicting Lamarck. Darwin said that evolution is not predetermined but that there are inherent variations in all organisms, and that those variations that confer increased fitness are selected by the environment and passed on to the offspring. In the feud between Lamarck and Darwin, Darwin talked of pre-existing changes, but the nature of these changes was not known and had to await the science of genetics by Gregor Mendel’s experiments on pea plants published in 1866. Support for Darwin’s theory was provided when Thomas Morgan Hunt discovered that a mutated white-eyed fruit fly among red-eyed flies was able to reproduce true white-eyed offspring. The most elegant and convincing support for Darwin’s ideas, however, was provided by the Luria-Delbruck experiment, which showed that mutations conferring resistance of the bacterium E. coli to T1 bacteriophage (virus) existed in the population prior to exposure to T1 and were not induced by adding T1. In other words, mutations are random events that occur whether or not they prove to be useful, while selection (for T1 resistance upon challenge with T1 in this case) provides the direction in evolution by retaining those mutations that are advantageous, discarding those that are harmful (T1 sensitivity in this case). This experiment dealt a blow to Lamarckian inheritance and set the stage for tremendous advances in genetics and molecular biology, launching a tsunami of research that eventually led to the discovery of DNA as the hereditary material and to cracking the genetic code.

text: Although Delbrück's

text: Rockefeller Foundation

text: fellowship expired in 1939, the Foundation matched him up with

text: Vanderbilt University

text: in

text: Nashville, Tennessee

text: , where from 1940 to 1947 he taught

text: physics

text: , yet had his laboratory in the biology department.  In 1941, Delbrück met

text: Salvador Luria

text: of

text: Indiana University

text: who began visiting Vanderbilt.  In 1942,

text: Delbrück and Luria published

text: on

text: bacteria

text: l resistance to

text: virus

text: infection mediated by random

text: mutation

text: Alfred Hershey

text: of

text: Washington University

text: Creationists have often maintained that social Darwinism—leading to policies designed to reward the most competitive—is a logical consequence of  "Darwinism" (the theory of natural selection in biology).Biologists and historians have stated that this is a fallacy of appeal to nature and should not be taken to imply that this phenomenon ought to be used as a moral guide in human society. While there are historical links between the popularization of Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, social Darwinism is not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution.

text: Creationists

text: have often maintained that social Darwinism—leading to policies designed to reward the most competitive—is a

text: logical consequence

text: of  "Darwinism" (the theory of natural selection in biology).Biologists and historians have stated that this is a fallacy of

text: appeal to nature

text: and should not be taken to imply that this phenomenon ought to be used as a moral guide in human society. While there are historical links between the popularization of Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, social Darwinism is not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution.

text: A breeding program is the planned breeding of a group of animals or plants, usually involving at least several individuals and extending over several generations. There are a couple of breeding methods, such as artificial (which is man made) and natural (it occurs on its own, which is very rare).

text: A breeding program is the planned

text: breeding

text: of a group of

text: animal

text: s or

text: plant

text: s, usually involving at least several individuals and extending over several

text: generation

text: s. There are a couple of breeding methods, such as artificial (which is man made) and natural (it occurs on its own, which is very rare).

text: The Voyage of Charles Darwin was a 1978 BBC television serial depicting the life of Charles Darwin, focusing largely on his voyage on the HMS Beagle. The series encompasses his university days to the 1859 publication of his book On the Origin of Species and his death and is loosely based on Darwin's own letters, diaries, and journals, especially The Voyage of the Beagle and The Autobiography of Charles Darwin. It starred Malcolm Stoddard as Darwin and Andrew Burt as Captain Robert FitzRoy.

text: The Voyage of Charles Darwin was a 1978

text: BBC

text: television serial depicting the life of

text: Charles Darwin

text: , focusing largely on his voyage on the

text: HMS Beagle

text: . The series encompasses his university days to the 1859 publication of his book

text: On the Origin of Species

text: and his death and is loosely based on Darwin's own letters, diaries, and journals, especially

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: and

text: The Autobiography of Charles Darwin

text: . It starred

text: Malcolm Stoddard

text: as Darwin and

text: Andrew Burt

text: as Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: Social Darwinism is an application of the theory of natural selection to social, political, and economic issues. This theory was used to promote the idea that the white race was superior to others, and therefore, destined to rule over them. It gave a scientific justification for white dominance, exploring ideas of head size, eye color, and other traits. At its worst, the implications of Social Darwinism were used as scientific justification for the Holocaust. The Nazis claimed that the murder of Jews in World War II was an example of cleaning out the inferior genetics.  Various other dictators have claimed the cause of Social Darwinism in carrying out other such acts. Even without such actions, Social Darwinism has proven to be a false and dangerous philosophy. However, it was yet another way for whites to defend their claim of being a superior race.  It could potentially be used, as manifest destiny was, as a reason for expansion.

text: Social Darwinism is an application of the theory of natural selection to social, political, and economic issues. This theory was used to promote the idea that the white race was superior to others, and therefore, destined to rule over them. It gave a scientific justification for white dominance, exploring ideas of head size, eye color, and other traits. At its worst, the implications of Social Darwinism were used as scientific justification for the

text: Holocaust

text: . The Nazis claimed that the murder of Jews in

text: World War II

text: was an example of cleaning out the inferior genetics.  Various other dictators have claimed the cause of Social Darwinism in carrying out other such acts. Even without such actions, Social Darwinism has proven to be a false and dangerous philosophy. However, it was yet another way for whites to defend their claim of being a superior race.  It could potentially be used, as manifest destiny was, as a reason for expansion.

text: The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by Charles Darwin in terms of variable populations. Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favorable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism. Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their separate papers were presented together at a 1858 meeting of the Linnean Society of London. At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his "abstract" as On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of concepts of evolution. Thomas Henry Huxley applied Darwin's ideas to humans, using paleontology and comparative anatomy to provide strong evidence that humans and apes shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the universe.

text: The crucial break from the concept of constant typological classes or types in biology came with the theory of evolution through natural selection, which was formulated by Charles Darwin in terms of variable populations. Partly influenced by

text: An Essay on the Principle of Population

text: (1798) by

text: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: , Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a "struggle for existence" in which favorable variations prevailed as others perished. In each generation, many offspring fail to survive to an age of reproduction because of limited resources. This could explain the diversity of plants and animals from a common ancestry through the working of natural laws in the same way for all types of organism. Darwin developed his theory of "natural selection" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his "big book" on the subject when

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858. Their

text: separate papers

text: were presented together at a 1858 meeting of the

text: Linnean Society of London

text: . At the end of 1859, Darwin's publication of his "abstract" as On the Origin of Species explained natural selection in detail and in a way that led to an increasingly wide acceptance of

text: concepts of evolution

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: applied Darwin's ideas to

text: human

text: s, using

text: paleontology

text: and

text: comparative anatomy

text: to provide strong evidence that humans and

text: ape

text: s shared a common ancestry. Some were disturbed by this since it implied that humans did not have a special place in the

text: universe

text: Darwin's visage, particularly his iconic beard, continues to be culturally significant and widely recognisable into the 21st century.  According to historian Janet Browne, Darwin's capacity to commission photographs of himself—and their widespread reproduction as carte de visite and cabinet card photographs—helped to cement the lasting connection between Darwin and the theory of evolution in popular thought (largely to the exclusion of the many others who also contributed to the development of evolutionary theory), especially as these portraits were reinterpreted in caricature.  At that time few could afford to commission portrait photographs, and this gave Darwin an advantage in gaining public recognition.

text: Darwin's visage, particularly his iconic beard, continues to be culturally significant and widely recognisable into the 21st century.  According to historian Janet Browne, Darwin's capacity to commission photographs of himself—and their widespread reproduction as

text: carte de visite

text: and

text: cabinet card

text: photographs—helped to cement the lasting connection between Darwin and the theory of evolution in popular thought (largely to the exclusion of the many others who also contributed to the development of evolutionary theory), especially as these portraits were reinterpreted in caricature.  At that time few could afford to commission portrait photographs, and this gave Darwin an advantage in gaining public recognition.

text: Other examples of predictive power of theories or models include Dmitri Mendeleev's use of his periodic table to predict previously undiscovered chemical elements and their properties (though largely correct, he misjudged the relative atomic masses of tellurium and iodine), and Charles Darwin's use of his knowledge of evolution by natural selection to predict that because there existed a plant (Angraecum) with a long spur in its flowers, a complementary animal with a 30 cm proboscis must also exist to feed on and pollinate it (twenty years after his death Xanthopan morgani, a form of hawk moth, was found which did just that).

text: Other examples of predictive power of theories or models include

text: Dmitri Mendeleev

text: 's use of his

text: periodic table

text: to predict previously undiscovered

text: chemical element

text: s and their properties (though largely correct, he misjudged the relative atomic masses of

text: tellurium

text: and

text: iodine

text: ), and

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's use of his knowledge of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: to predict that because there existed a plant (

text: Angraecum

text: ) with a long spur in its flowers, a complementary animal with a 30 cm

text: proboscis

text: must also exist to feed on and pollinate it (twenty years after his death

text: Xanthopan morgani

text: , a form of

text: hawk moth

text: , was found which did just that).

text: The domed Mauritius giant tortoise (Cylindraspis triserrata) is an extinct species of tortoise. It was endemic to Mauritius.

text: The domed Mauritius

text: giant tortoise

text: (Cylindraspis triserrata) is an

text: extinct

text: species

text: of

text: tortoise

text: . It was

text: endemic

text: to

text: Mauritius

text: Recently a new exhibition opened which shows the current theories on human evolution and physical diversity. One segment of the exhibit depicts Charles Darwin’s round the World voyage on the HMS Beagle where he developed his theory of Natural Selection. Another segment shows the separate development of Apes and Man throughout the last 34 million years.

text: Recently a new exhibition opened which shows the current theories on

text: human evolution

text: and physical diversity. One segment of the exhibit depicts

text: Charles Darwin

text: ’s round the World voyage on the

text: HMS Beagle

text: where he developed his theory of

text: Natural Selection

text: . Another segment shows the separate development of

text: Apes

text: and

text: Man

text: throughout the last 34 million years.

text: At this time, Owen talked of his theories, influenced by Johannes Peter Müller, that living matter had an "organising energy", a life-force that directed the growth of tissues and also determined the lifespan of the individual and of the species. Darwin was reticent about his own thoughts, understandably, when, on 19 December 1838, as secretary of the Geological Society of London, he saw Owen and his allies ridicule the Lamarckian 'heresy' of Darwin's old tutor, Robert Edmund Grant. In 1841, when the recently married Darwin was ill, Owen was one of the few scientific friends to visit; however, Owen's opposition to any hint of transmutation made Darwin keep quiet about his hypothesis.

text: At this time, Owen talked of his theories, influenced by

text: Johannes Peter Müller

text: , that living matter had an "organising energy", a life-force that directed the growth of tissues and also determined the lifespan of the individual and of the species. Darwin was reticent about his own thoughts, understandably, when, on 19 December 1838, as secretary of the

text: Geological Society of London

text: , he saw Owen and his allies ridicule the

text: Lamarckian

text: 'heresy' of Darwin's old tutor,

text: Robert Edmund Grant

text: . In 1841, when the recently married Darwin was ill, Owen was one of the few scientific friends to visit; however, Owen's opposition to any hint of

text: transmutation

text: made Darwin keep quiet about his hypothesis.

text: In science, however, the meaning of theory is more rigorous. A scientific theory is "a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses." Theories are formed from hypotheses that have been subjected repeatedly to tests of evidence which attempt to disprove or falsify them. In the case of evolution through natural selection, Darwin conceived the hypothesis around 1839, and made a first draft of the concept three years later in 1842. He discussed this widely with many of his intellectual companions, and conducted further research in the background to his other writings and work. After years of development, he finally published his evidence and theory in On the Origin of Species in 1859.

text: In science, however, the meaning of theory is more rigorous. A scientific theory is "a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can incorporate facts,

text: law

text: s, inferences, and tested

text: hypotheses

text: ." Theories are formed from hypotheses that have been subjected repeatedly to tests of evidence which attempt to disprove or

text: falsify

text: them. In the case of evolution through natural selection, Darwin conceived the hypothesis around 1839, and made a first draft of the concept three years later in 1842. He discussed this widely with many of his intellectual companions, and conducted further research in the background to his other writings and work. After years of development, he finally published his evidence and theory in

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859.

text: The inception of Darwin's theory occurred during an intensively busy period which began when Charles Darwin returned from the survey voyage of the Beagle, with his reputation as a fossil collector and geologist already established. He was given an allowance from his father to become a gentleman naturalist rather than a clergyman, and his first tasks were to find suitable experts to describe his collections, write out his Journal and Remarks, and present papers on his findings to the Geological Society of London.

text: The inception of Darwin's theory occurred during an intensively busy period which began when

text: Charles Darwin

text: returned from the

text: survey voyage of the Beagle

text: , with his reputation as a

text: fossil

text: collector and

text: geologist

text: already established. He was given an allowance from his father to become a gentleman

text: naturalist

text: rather than a clergyman, and his first tasks were to find suitable experts to describe his collections, write out his

text: Journal and Remarks

text: , and present papers on his findings to the

text: Geological Society of London

text: For some decades, taxonomists have placed these birds in the family Emberizidae along with the New World sparrows and Old World buntings (Sulloway 1982). However, the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy puts Darwin's finches with the tanagers (Monroe and Sibley 1993), and at least one recent work follows that example (Burns and Skutch 2003). The American Ornithologists' Union, in its North American check-list, places the Cocos finch in the Emberizidae but with an asterisk indicating that the placement is probably wrong (AOU 1998–2006); in its tentative South American check-list, the Galápagos species are incertae sedis, of uncertain place (Remsen et al. 2007).

text: For some decades, taxonomists have placed these birds in the family

text: Emberizidae

text: along with the New World sparrows and Old World buntings (Sulloway 1982). However, the

text: Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy

text: puts Darwin's finches with the

text: tanager

text: s (Monroe and Sibley 1993), and at least one recent work follows that example (Burns and Skutch 2003). The

text: American Ornithologists' Union

text: , in its

text: North America

text: n check-list, places the Cocos finch in the Emberizidae but with an asterisk indicating that the placement is probably wrong (AOU 1998–2006); in its tentative

text: South America

text: n check-list, the Galápagos species are incertae sedis, of uncertain place (Remsen et al. 2007).

text: 'Where do Darwin's finches come from? The evolution of the most prolific legend about Charles Darwin 1880-1980'.

text: The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection is a book by Ronald Fisher which combines Mendelian genetics with Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, with Fisher being the first to argue that "Mendelism therefore validates Darwinism" and stating with regard to mutations that "The vast majority of large mutations are deleterious; small mutations are both far more frequent and more likely to be useful", thus refuting orthogenesis. First published in 1930 by The Clarendon Press, it is one of the most important books of the modern evolutionary synthesis, and helped define population genetics. It is commonly cited in biology books, outlining many concepts that are still considered important such as Fisherian runaway, Fisher's principle, reproductive value, Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection, Fisher's geometric model, the sexy son hypothesis, mimicry and the evolution of dominance. It was dictated to his wife in the evenings as he worked at Rothamsted Research in the day.

text: The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection is a book by

text: Ronald Fisher

text: which combines

text: Mendelian genetics

text: with

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: , with Fisher being the first to argue that "Mendelism therefore validates Darwinism" and stating with regard to

text: mutation

text: s that "The vast majority of large mutations are deleterious; small mutations are both far more frequent and more likely to be useful", thus refuting

text: orthogenesis

text: . First published in 1930 by

text: The Clarendon Press

text: , it is one of the most important books of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: , and helped define

text: population genetics

text: . It is commonly cited in biology books, outlining many concepts that are still considered important such as

text: Fisherian runaway

text: Fisher's principle

entity_name: Reproductive value (population genetics)

text: reproductive value

entity_name: Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection

text: Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection

text: Fisher's geometric model

text: , the

text: sexy son hypothesis

text: mimicry

text: and the

text: evolution of dominance

text: . It was dictated to his wife in the evenings as he worked at

text: Rothamsted Research

text: in the day.

text: The Selfish Genius: How Richard Dawkins Rewrote Darwin's Legacy is a 2009 book by Fern Elsdon-Baker about the history of evolutionary theory, published to coincide with the 150th anniversary of the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.  The book provides an overview of the historical and philosophical debates that have continued throughout the history of evolutionary theory, and carry on to this day in debates surrounding the merits of gene-centric selection and group selection models. The book is particularly critical of the popular science author Richard Dawkins, claiming that he presents a brand of evolutionary theory that portrays natural selection as acting at the level of the individual gene to the exclusion of group selection models which state that it could also act at the level of organisms or species. The book also claims Dawkins embraces an outdated and prescriptive conception of evolution that actually restricts debate rather than promoting it.

text: The Selfish Genius: How Richard Dawkins Rewrote Darwin's Legacy is a

text: book by Fern Elsdon-Baker about the history of

text: evolutionary theory

text: , published to coincide with the 150th anniversary of the publication of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: .  The book provides an overview of the

text: historical and philosophical debates

text: that have continued throughout the history of evolutionary theory, and carry on to this day in debates surrounding the merits of gene-centric selection and

text: group selection

text: models. The book is particularly critical of the popular science author

text: Richard Dawkins

text: , claiming that he presents a brand of evolutionary theory that portrays

text: natural selection

text: as acting at the level of the individual

text: gene

text: to the exclusion of

text: group selection

text: models which state that it could also act at the level of

text: organism

text: s or

text: species

text: . The book also claims Dawkins embraces an outdated and prescriptive conception of evolution that actually restricts debate rather than promoting it.

text: "Darwinism" soon came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society. One of the more prominent approaches, summed in the 1864 phrase "survival of the fittest" by Herbert Spencer, later became emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution (as expressed in 1857) was more similar to that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck than to that of Darwin, and predated the publication of Darwin's theory in 1859. What is now called "Social Darwinism" was, in its day, synonymous with "Darwinism"—the application of Darwinian principles of "struggle" to society, usually in support of anti-philanthropic political agenda. Another interpretation, one notably favoured by Darwin's half-cousin Francis Galton, was that "Darwinism" implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on "civilized" people, it was possible for "inferior" strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the gene pool) to overwhelm the "superior" strains, and voluntary corrective measures would be desirable—the foundation of eugenics.

text: "Darwinism" soon came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society. One of the more prominent approaches, summed in the 1864 phrase "

text: survival of the fittest

text: " by Herbert Spencer, later became emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution (as expressed in 1857) was more similar to that of

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: than to that of Darwin, and predated the

text: publication of Darwin's theory

text: in 1859. What is now called "

text: Social Darwinism

text: " was, in its day, synonymous with "Darwinism"—the application of Darwinian principles of "struggle" to society, usually in support of anti-

text: philanthropic

text: political agenda. Another interpretation, one notably favoured by Darwin's half-cousin

text: Francis Galton

text: , was that "Darwinism" implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on "civilized" people, it was possible for "inferior" strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the

text: gene pool

text: ) to overwhelm the "superior" strains, and voluntary corrective measures would be desirable—the foundation of

text: eugenics

text: In 1976, the philosopher Karl Popper said that "Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme." He later changed his mind and argued that Darwin's "theory of natural selection is difficult to test" with respect to other areas of science.

text: In 1976, the philosopher

text: Karl Popper

text: said that "Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme." He later changed his mind and argued that Darwin's "theory of natural selection is difficult to test" with respect to other areas of science.

text: The British naturalist Charles Darwin corresponded with numerous other luminaries of his age and members of his family. These have provided many insights about the nineteenth century, from scientific exploration and travel to religious debate and discussion. The letters also illuminate many aspects of Darwin's work: the development of his scientific ideas; his opinions on issues he did not publish about (his letters to Asa Gray, for example, show his changing opinions on the American Civil War); matters about his character and health; the ways in which he relied upon correspondence for much of his investigations into natural history; and the ways in which he marshalled scientific support for his ideas amongst friends and colleagues. The historian of science Janet Browne has argued in her biography of Darwin that his ability to correspond daily played a crucial role in the development of his theory and his ability to garner support for it from colleagues.

text: The British

text: naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: corresponded with numerous other luminaries of his age and members of

text: his family

text: . These have provided many insights about the nineteenth century, from scientific exploration and travel to religious debate and discussion. The letters also illuminate many aspects of Darwin's work: the development of his scientific ideas; his opinions on issues he did not publish about (his letters to

text: Asa Gray

text: , for example, show his changing opinions on the

text: American Civil War

text: ); matters about his character and health; the ways in which he relied upon correspondence for much of his investigations into natural history; and the ways in which he marshalled scientific support for his ideas amongst friends and colleagues. The historian of science

text: Janet Browne

text: has argued in her biography of Darwin that his ability to correspond daily played a crucial role in the development of his theory and his ability to garner support for it from colleagues.

text: Although Darwin did not publish his Descent of Man until 1871, the general debate on this topic had started years before (there was even a precursor debate in the 18th century between Monboddo and Buffon). Darwin had dropped a hint when, in the conclusion to the Origin, he wrote: "In the distant future... light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history". Not so distant, as it turned out. A key event had already occurred in 1857 when Richard Owen presented (to the Linnean Society) his theory that man was marked off from all other mammals by possessing features of the brain peculiar to the genus Homo. Having reached this opinion, Owen separated man from all other mammals in a subclass of its own. No other biologist held such an extreme view. Darwin reacted "Man...as distinct from a chimpanzee [as] an ape from a platypus... I cannot swallow that!" Neither could Huxley, who was able to demonstrate that Owen's idea was completely wrong.

text: Although Darwin did not publish his Descent of Man until 1871, the general debate on this topic had started years before (there was even a precursor debate in the 18th century between

text: Monboddo

text: and

text: Buffon

text: ). Darwin had dropped a hint when, in the conclusion to the Origin, he wrote: "In the distant future... light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history". Not so distant, as it turned out. A key event had already occurred in 1857 when

text: Richard Owen

text: presented (to the Linnean Society) his theory that man was marked off from all other mammals by possessing features of the brain peculiar to the genus Homo. Having reached this opinion, Owen separated man from all other mammals in a subclass of its own. No other biologist held such an extreme view. Darwin reacted "Man...as distinct from a chimpanzee [as] an ape from a platypus... I cannot swallow that!" Neither could Huxley, who was able to demonstrate that Owen's idea was completely wrong.

text: The Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea), from the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles, is one of the largest tortoises in the world. Historically, giant tortoises were on many of the western Indian Ocean islands, as well as Madagascar, and the fossil record indicates giant tortoises once occurred on every continent and many islands with the exception of Australia and Antarctica. Many of the Indian Ocean species were thought to be driven to extinction by over-exploitation by European sailors, and they were all seemingly extinct by 1840 with the exception of the Aldabran giant tortoise on the island atoll of Aldabra. Although some remnant individuals of A. g. hololissa and A. g. arnoldi may remain in captivity, in recent times, these have all been reduced as subspecies of A. g. gigantea.

text: The Aldabra

text: giant tortoise

text: (Aldabrachelys gigantea), from the islands of the

text: Aldabra

text: Atoll in the

text: Seychelles

text: , is one of the largest

text: tortoise

text: s in the world. Historically, giant tortoises were on many of the western Indian Ocean islands, as well as Madagascar, and the fossil record indicates giant tortoises once occurred on every continent and many islands with the exception of Australia and Antarctica. Many of the Indian Ocean species were thought to be driven to extinction by over-exploitation by European sailors, and they were all seemingly extinct by 1840 with the exception of the Aldabran giant tortoise on the island atoll of Aldabra. Although some remnant individuals of A. g. hololissa and A. g. arnoldi may remain in captivity, in recent times, these have all been reduced as subspecies of A. g. gigantea.

text: Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town arriving there on 5 February 1836 as part of the HMS Beagle expedition. He writes of Hobart Town and the Derwent estuary in his Voyage of the Beagle:

text: Charles Darwin

text: visited Hobart Town arriving there on 5 February 1836 as part of the

text: HMS Beagle

text: expedition. He writes of Hobart Town and the Derwent estuary in his Voyage of the Beagle:

text: In 1836 Darwin used his Red Notebook to record field observations during the last stages of his Beagle voyage, from May to 25 September. Page 113 mentions a meeting with Richard Owen, after the ship's return to England in October. Later notes mention discussions with other experts, including the geographer Sir Woodbine Parish, geologists Charles Lyell and Roderick Murchison, and the conchologist James De Carle Sowerby. Darwin also took brief notes on what he was reading, reminders on planned publications including his Journal of the voyage, and his developing "theories", "conjectures", and "hypotheses". He continued using the notebook until May or June 1837.

text: In 1836 Darwin used his Red Notebook to record field observations during the last stages of his Beagle voyage, from May to 25 September. Page 113 mentions a meeting with

text: Richard Owen

text: , after the ship's return to England in October. Later notes mention discussions with other experts, including the geographer Sir

text: Woodbine Parish

text: , geologists

text: Charles Lyell

text: and

text: Roderick Murchison

text: , and the conchologist

text: James De Carle Sowerby

text: . Darwin also took brief notes on what he was reading, reminders on planned publications including his

text: Journal of the voyage

text: , and his developing "theories", "conjectures", and "hypotheses". He continued using the notebook until May or June 1837.

text: The theory of anthropological criminology was influenced heavily by the ideas of Charles Darwin (1809–1882). However, the influences came mainly from philosophy derived from Darwin's theory of evolution, specifically that some species were morally superior to others. This idea was in fact spawned by Social Darwinism, but nevertheless formed a critical part of anthropological criminology. The work of Cesare Lombroso was continued by Social Darwinists in the United States between 1881 and 1911.

text: The theory of anthropological criminology was influenced heavily by the ideas of

text: Charles Darwin

text: (1809–1882). However, the influences came mainly from philosophy derived from Darwin's

text: theory of evolution

text: , specifically that some species were morally superior to others. This idea was in fact spawned by

text: Social Darwinism

text: , but nevertheless formed a critical part of anthropological criminology. The work of Cesare Lombroso was continued by Social Darwinists in the

text: United States

text: between 1881 and 1911.

text: Related to Darwin's finches

text: Related to Darwin's finches

text: In November 2009 Cameron and others distributed free copies of an altered version of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species on college campuses in the United States. The book consisted of Darwin's text with chapters of the book removed, and with an added introduction by Ray Comfort reiterating common creationist assertions about Darwin and evolution. The book was criticized by scientists and Darwin biographers who criticized the omission of key chapters of the book, and who stated that its introduction contains misinformation about Darwin, and long-refuted creationist arguments about the science of evolution, such as the linking of Nazi racial theories to Darwinist ideas. Comfort later said that the four chapters were chosen at random to be omitted in order to make the book small enough to be affordable as a giveaway, with the absent chapters available for download, but that the missing chapters were included in the second edition, which had a smaller text size that made printing the entire book as a giveaway affordable. The second edition still lacks Darwin's preface and glossary of terms. The National Center for Science Education arranged a campaign to distribute an analysis of the Comfort introduction and a banana bookmark at colleges across the U.S., a reference to Comfort's presentation of the banana as an argument for the existence of God.

text: In November 2009 Cameron and others distributed free copies of an altered version of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: on college campuses in the United States. The book consisted of Darwin's text with chapters of the book removed, and with an added introduction by Ray Comfort reiterating common

text: creationist

text: assertions about Darwin and evolution. The book was criticized by scientists and Darwin biographers who criticized the omission of key chapters of the book, and who stated that its introduction contains misinformation about Darwin, and long-refuted

text: creationist arguments

text: about the science of evolution, such as the linking of

text: Nazi racial theories

text: to Darwinist ideas. Comfort later said that the four chapters were chosen at random to be omitted in order to make the book small enough to be affordable as a giveaway, with the absent chapters available for download, but that the missing chapters were included in the second edition, which had a smaller text size that made printing the entire book as a giveaway affordable. The second edition still lacks Darwin's preface and glossary of terms.

text: The National Center for Science Education

text: arranged a campaign to distribute an analysis of the Comfort introduction and a banana bookmark at colleges across the U.S., a reference to Comfort's presentation of the banana as an argument for the existence of God.

text: Variation and Evolution in Plants was the first book to provide a wide-ranging explanation of how evolutionary mechanisms operated in plants at the genetic level. It brought concepts related to plant evolution into line with animal evolution as it emerged from Dobzhansky's 1937 Genetics and the Origin of Species and provided the conceptual framework to organize a disparate set of disciplines into a new field: plant evolutionary biology. In the book Stebbins argued that evolution needed to be studied as a dynamic problem and that evolution must be considered on three levels: first, that of individual variation within an interbreeding population; second, that of the distribution and frequency of this variation; and third, that of the separation and divergence of populations as the result of the building up of isolating mechanisms leading to the formation of species. He used the work of biosystematists Clausen, Keck, Hiesey, and Turesson to show that it was possible to distinguish between genotypic and phenotypic variation—that is, genetically identical plants could have different phenotypes in different environments. One of the book's most original chapters used the cytogenetics work of C. D. Darlington to show that genetic systems like hybridization and polyploidy were also subject to selection.

text: Variation and Evolution in Plants was the first book to provide a wide-ranging explanation of how evolutionary mechanisms operated in plants at the genetic level. It brought concepts related to plant evolution into line with animal evolution as it emerged from Dobzhansky's 1937

text: Genetics and the Origin of Species

text: and provided the conceptual framework to organize a disparate set of disciplines into a new field: plant evolutionary biology. In the book Stebbins argued that evolution needed to be studied as a dynamic problem and that evolution must be considered on three levels: first, that of individual

text: variation

text: within an interbreeding population; second, that of the

text: distribution and frequency

text: of this variation; and third, that of the separation and divergence of populations as the result of the building up of isolating mechanisms leading to the formation of species. He used the work of biosystematists Clausen, Keck, Hiesey, and

text: Turesson

text: to show that it was possible to distinguish between

text: genotypic

text: and

text: phenotypic

text: variation—that is, genetically identical plants could have different phenotypes in different environments. One of the book's most original chapters used the cytogenetics work of

text: C. D. Darlington

text: to show that genetic systems like hybridization and polyploidy were also subject to selection.

text: Leslie White, author of The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome (1959), attempted to create a theory explaining the entire history of humanity. The most important factor in his theory is technology. Social systems are determined by technological systems, wrote White in his book, echoing the earlier theory of Lewis Henry Morgan. He proposes a society’s energy consumption as a measure of its advancement. He differentiates between five stages of human development. In the first, people use the energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use the energy of domesticated animals. In the third, they use the energy of plants (so White refers to agricultural revolution here). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness nuclear energy. White introduced a formula, P=E*T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilising the energy. This theory is similar to Russian astronomer Nikolai Kardashev’s later theory of the Kardashev scale.

text: Leslie White

text: , author of The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome (1959), attempted to create a theory explaining the entire

text: history of humanity

text: . The most important factor in his theory is technology.

text: Social system

text: s are determined by technological systems, wrote White in his book, echoing the earlier theory of Lewis Henry Morgan. He proposes a society’s

text: energy consumption

text: as a measure of its advancement. He differentiates between five stages of human development. In the first, people use the energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use the energy of domesticated animals. In the third, they use the energy of plants (so White refers to agricultural revolution here). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness

text: nuclear energy

text: . White introduced a formula, P=E*T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilising the energy. This theory is similar to Russian astronomer

text: Nikolai Kardashev

text: ’s later theory of the

text: Kardashev scale

text: Cdc14 is widely distributed, being found in most eukaryote kingdoms.  However, it is not found in all species based on searches of sequenced genomes.  One or more Cdc14 genes are found in alveolates, animals, fungi, trypanosomes, and lower plants.  However, Cdc14 genes have apparently been lost in some lineages, including higher plants, rhodophytes, and slime molds.  There is a fairly tight positive correlation between the presence of Cdc14 in a species and whether that species makes flagella or cilia. This may be related to the ancestral role of Cdc14.  Whether flagella-anchoring basal bodies or centrioles involved in mitosis appeared first during evolution has been debated, but one theory is that flagella evolved first as a motility and sensory organelle, and the basal body was later co-opted into a mitotic role.  The function of Cdc14 may have adapted to different functions during the evolution of those organelles.

text: Cdc14 is widely distributed, being found in most eukaryote kingdoms.  However, it is not found in all species based on searches of sequenced genomes.  One or more Cdc14 genes are found in alveolates, animals, fungi, trypanosomes, and lower plants.  However, Cdc14 genes have apparently been lost in some lineages, including higher plants, rhodophytes, and slime molds.  There is a fairly tight positive correlation between the presence of Cdc14 in a species and whether that species makes

text: flagella

text: or

text: cilia

text: . This may be related to the ancestral role of Cdc14.  Whether flagella-anchoring basal bodies or centrioles involved in mitosis appeared first during evolution has been debated, but one theory is that flagella evolved first as a motility and sensory organelle, and the basal body was later co-opted into a mitotic role.  The function of Cdc14 may have adapted to different functions during the evolution of those organelles.

text: The apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that Charles Darwin called it an "abominable mystery". However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms in the Triassic period (245–202 million years ago). Fossil angiosperm-like pollen from the Middle Triassic (247.2–242.0 Ma) suggests an older date for their origin.  A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.

text: The apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of

text: evolution

text: that

text: Charles Darwin

text: called it an "abominable mystery". However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as

text: Archaefructus

text: , along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular

text: seed fern

text: s, have been proposed as the

text: ancestors

text: of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper

text: Triassic

text: Sanmiguelia

text: , have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms in the

text: Triassic

text: period (245–202 million years ago). Fossil angiosperm-like pollen from the Middle Triassic (247.2–242.0 Ma) suggests an older date for their origin.  A close relationship between angiosperms and

text: gnetophyte

text: s, proposed on the basis of

text: morphological

text: evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of

text: molecular evidence

text: that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other

text: gymnosperm

text: s.

text: Danilevsky is remembered for his opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and for his theory of historical-cultural types.

text: Danilevsky is remembered for his opposition to

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: and for his theory of historical-cultural types.

text: While attempting to maintain a timeline where The Origin was written, the wizards inadvertently take Darwin to the Discworld. There they discover that his line of thought was disrupted by an Auditor-advised visit from the Disc's God of Evolution, leading to Theology. After defeating the Auditors the wizards manage to correct this, by explaining the situation to Darwin. Since Darwin then wishes to forget the whole thing, they are ethically able to grant his request after showing him the culmination of his legacy - the Natural History Museum in London.

text: While attempting to maintain a timeline where The Origin was written, the wizards inadvertently take Darwin to the Discworld. There they discover that his line of thought was disrupted by an Auditor-advised visit from the Disc's

text: God of Evolution

text: , leading to Theology. After defeating the Auditors the wizards manage to correct this, by explaining the situation to Darwin. Since Darwin then wishes to forget the whole thing, they are ethically able to grant his request after showing him the culmination of his legacy - the Natural History Museum in London.

text: The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.

text: The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by

text: T. H. Huxley

text: and his fellow members of the

text: X Club

text: to

text: secularise

text: science by promoting

text: scientific naturalism

text: . Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "

text: the eclipse of Darwinism

text: " from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary

text: adaptation

text: through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the

text: life science

text: s.

text: In the preface to Darwinism, Wallace had used the term pure-Darwinism which proposed a "greater efficacy" for natural selection. The book is notable for defending August Weismann's theory of heredity and rejecting the inheritance of acquired characteristics and the concept of sexual selection which Darwin gave credence to. George Romanes dubbed this view as "Wallaceism", noting that in contrast to Darwin, this position was advocating a "pure theory of natural selection to the exclusion of any supplementary theory." The book is seen as laying the foundation for the neo-Darwinian theory of evolution.

text: In the preface to Darwinism, Wallace had used the term pure-Darwinism which proposed a "greater efficacy" for natural selection. The book is notable for defending

text: August Weismann

text: 's theory of heredity and rejecting the

text: inheritance of acquired characteristics

text: and the concept of

text: sexual selection

text: which Darwin gave credence to.

text: George Romanes

text: dubbed this view as "Wallaceism", noting that in contrast to Darwin, this position was advocating a "pure theory of natural selection to the exclusion of any supplementary theory." The book is seen as laying the foundation for the

text: neo-Darwinian

text: theory of evolution.

text: Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life is a 2009 television documentary about Charles Darwin and his revolutionary theory of evolution through natural selection, produced by the BBC to mark the bicentenary of Darwin's birth. It is part of the BBC Darwin Season. The presenter, David Attenborough, outlines the development of the theory by Darwin through his observations of animals and plants in nature and in the domesticated state, visiting sites important in Darwin's own life, including Down House, Cambridge University and the Natural History Museum, and using archive footage from Attenborough's many nature documentaries for the BBC.  He reviews the development of the theory since its beginnings, and its revolutionary impact on the way in which humans view themselves - not as having dominion over the animals as The Bible says, but as part of the natural world and subject to the same controlling forces that govern all life on Earth.

text: Charles Darwin and the Tree of Life is a 2009 television documentary about

text: Charles Darwin

text: and his revolutionary theory of

text: evolution

text: through

text: natural selection

text: , produced by the

text: BBC

text: to mark the bicentenary of Darwin's birth. It is part of the

text: BBC Darwin Season

text: . The presenter,

text: David Attenborough

text: , outlines the development of the theory by Darwin through his observations of animals and plants in nature and in the domesticated state, visiting sites important in Darwin's own life, including

text: Down House

text: Cambridge University

text: and the

text: Natural History Museum

text: , and using archive footage from Attenborough's many

text: nature documentaries

text: for the BBC.  He reviews the development of the theory since its beginnings, and its revolutionary impact on the way in which humans view themselves - not as having dominion over the animals as

text: The Bible

text: says, but as part of the natural world and subject to the same controlling forces that govern all life on

text: Earth

text: While he did not originate the term, Charles Darwin identified the argument as a possible way to falsify a prediction of the theory of evolution at the outset. In The Origin of Species (1859), he wrote, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case." Darwin's theory of evolution challenges the teleological argument by postulating an alternative explanation to that of an intelligent designer—namely, evolution by natural selection. By showing how simple unintelligent forces can ratchet up designs of extraordinary complexity without invoking outside design, Darwin showed that an intelligent designer was not the necessary conclusion to draw from complexity in nature. The argument from irreducible complexity attempts to demonstrate that certain biological features cannot be purely the product of Darwinian evolution.

text: While he did not originate the term,

text: Charles Darwin

text: identified the argument as a possible way to falsify a prediction of the theory of evolution at the outset. In

text: The Origin of Species

text: (1859), he wrote, "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case." Darwin's theory of evolution challenges the teleological argument by postulating an alternative explanation to that of an intelligent designer—namely, evolution by natural selection. By showing how simple unintelligent forces can ratchet up designs of extraordinary complexity without invoking outside design, Darwin showed that an intelligent designer was not the necessary conclusion to draw from complexity in nature. The argument from irreducible complexity attempts to demonstrate that certain biological features cannot be purely the product of Darwinian evolution.

text: Darwin's original plan was to include his findings about expression of emotions in a chapter of his work, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (Darwin, 1871) but found that he had enough material for a whole book. It was based on observations, both those around him and of people in many parts of the world. One important observation he made was that even in individuals who were born blind, body and facial expressions displayed are similar to those of anyone else. The ideas found in his book on universality of emotions were intended to go against Sir Charles Bell's 1844 claim that human facial muscles were created to give them the unique ability to express emotions. The main purpose of Darwin's work was to support the theory of evolution by demonstrating that emotions in humans and other animals are similar. Most of the similarities he found were between species closely related, but he found some similarities between distantly related species as well. He proposed the idea that emotional states are adaptive, and therefore only those able to express certain emotions passed on their characteristics.

text: Darwin's original plan was to include his findings about expression of emotions in a chapter of his work,

text: (Darwin, 1871) but found that he had enough material for a whole book. It was based on

text: observations

text: , both those around him and of people in many parts of the world. One important observation he made was that even in individuals who were born

text: blind

text: , body and facial expressions displayed are similar to those of anyone else. The ideas found in his book on

text: universality

text: of emotions were intended to go against Sir

text: Charles Bell's

text: 1844 claim that human facial

text: muscles

text: were created to give them the unique ability to express emotions. The main purpose of Darwin's work was to support the theory of evolution by demonstrating that emotions in humans and other animals are similar. Most of the similarities he found were between

text: species

text: closely

text: related

text: , but he found some similarities between distantly related species as well. He proposed the idea that emotional states are adaptive, and therefore only those able to express certain emotions passed on their characteristics.

text: Darwin's position as a naturalist on board was as a self-funded guest with no official appointment, and he could leave the voyage at any suitable stage. At the outset George Peacock had advised that "The Admiralty are not disposed to give a salary, though they will furnish you with an official appointment & every accomodation: if a salary should be required however I am inclined to think that it would be granted". Far from wanting this, Darwin's concern was to maintain control over his collection. He was even reluctant to be on the Admiralty's books for victuals until he got assurances from FitzRoy and Beaufort that this would not affect his rights to assign his specimens. Darwin did not want his collection to go to the British Museum as he had heard that specimens from the first Beagle voyage were still waiting to be described. Beaufort assured him that he "should have no difficulty" as long as he "presented them to some public body" such as the Zoological or Geological societies. Darwin himself thought his new finds should go to the "largest & most central collection", not the  Cambridge Philosophical Society museum that Henslow was setting up at Cambridge, but after getting Henslow's willing agreement to take delivery of the consignments of specimens, Darwin replied that he hoped to give some to the Cambridge museum.

text: Darwin's position as a naturalist on board was as a self-funded guest with no official appointment, and he could leave the voyage at any suitable stage. At the outset

text: George Peacock

text: had advised that "The Admiralty are not disposed to give a salary, though they will furnish you with an official appointment & every accomodation: if a salary should be required however I am inclined to think that it would be granted". Far from wanting this, Darwin's concern was to maintain control over his collection. He was even reluctant to be on the Admiralty's books for

text: victuals

text: until he got assurances from FitzRoy and Beaufort that this would not affect his rights to assign his specimens. Darwin did not want his collection to go to the British Museum as he had heard that specimens from the first Beagle voyage were still waiting to be described. Beaufort assured him that he "should have no difficulty" as long as he "presented them to some public body" such as the

text: Zoological

text: or

text: Geological

text: societies. Darwin himself thought his new finds should go to the "largest & most central collection", not the

text: Cambridge Philosophical Society

text: museum that

text: Henslow

text: was setting up at Cambridge, but after getting Henslow's willing agreement to take delivery of the consignments of specimens, Darwin replied that he hoped to give some to the Cambridge museum.

text: Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". In America, Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design, and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured over natural selection as being more compatible with purpose.

text: Baden Powell

text: praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". In America,

text: Asa Gray

text: argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design, and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of

text: theistic evolution

text: , Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and

text: St. George Jackson Mivart

text: was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as

text: neo-Lamarckism

text: were favoured over

text: natural selection

text: as being more compatible with purpose.

text: Geospiza is a genus of bird in the family Thraupidae. All species in the genus are endemic to the Galápagos Islands; together with related genera, they are collectively known as Darwin's finches. Although in the past, they were classified in the bunting and American sparrow family Emberizidae, more recent studies have shown they belong in the tanager family. The genus contains the following species:

text: Geospiza is a genus of

text: bird

text: in the family

text: Thraupidae

text: . All species in the genus are

text: endemic

text: to the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: ; together with related genera, they are collectively known as

text: Darwin's finches

text: . Although in the past, they were classified in the bunting and American sparrow family

text: Emberizidae

text: , more recent studies have shown they belong in the

text: tanager

text: family. The genus contains the following species:

text: Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.

text: Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly

text: seed fern

text: s, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by

text: Charles Darwin

text: . Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.

text: The Origin is a biographical novel of the life of Charles Darwin written by Irving Stone.  Darwin was a geologist and biologist, and could be considered the father of evolutionary theory.  The novel begins with Darwin at the age of 22 and follows him through the Voyage of the Beagle until his death in 1882.

text: The Origin is a

text: biographical novel

text: of the life of

text: Charles Darwin

text: written by

text: Irving Stone

text: .  Darwin was a geologist and biologist, and could be considered the father of

text: evolutionary

text: theory.  The novel begins with Darwin at the age of 22 and follows him through the

text: Voyage of the Beagle

text: until his death in 1882.

text: Despite the initial popularity of Erewhon, Butler commented in the preface to the second edition that reviewers had "in some cases been inclined to treat the chapters on Machines as an attempt to reduce Mr. Darwin’s theory to an absurdity." He protested that "few things would be more distasteful to me than any attempt to laugh at Mr. Darwin", but also added "I am surprised, however, that the book at which such an example of the specious misuse of analogy would seem most naturally levelled should have occurred to no reviewer; neither shall I mention the name of the book here, though I should fancy that the hint given will suffice", which may suggest that the chapter on Machines was in fact a satire intended to illustrate the "specious misuse of analogy", even if the target was not Darwin; Butler, fearing that he had offended Darwin, wrote him a letter explaining that the actual target was Joseph Butler's 1736 The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature. The Victorian scholar Herbert Sussman has suggested that although Butler's exploration of machine evolution was intended to be whimsical, he may also have been genuinely interested in the notion that living organisms are a type of mechanism and was exploring this notion with his writings on machines, while the philosopher Louis Flaccus called it "a mixture of fun, satire, and thoughtful speculation."

text: Despite the initial popularity of Erewhon, Butler commented in the preface to the second edition that reviewers had "in some cases been inclined to treat the chapters on Machines as an attempt to reduce Mr. Darwin’s theory to an absurdity." He protested that "few things would be more distasteful to me than any attempt to laugh at Mr. Darwin", but also added "I am surprised, however, that the book at which such an example of the specious misuse of analogy would seem most naturally levelled should have occurred to no reviewer; neither shall I mention the name of the book here, though I should fancy that the hint given will suffice", which may suggest that the chapter on Machines was in fact a satire intended to illustrate the "specious misuse of analogy", even if the target was not Darwin; Butler, fearing that he had offended Darwin, wrote him a letter explaining that the actual target was

text: Joseph Butler

text: 's 1736 The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature. The

text: Victorian

text: scholar Herbert Sussman has suggested that although Butler's exploration of machine evolution was intended to be whimsical, he may also have been genuinely interested in the notion that living organisms are a type of mechanism and was exploring this notion with his writings on machines, while the philosopher Louis Flaccus called it "a mixture of fun, satire, and thoughtful speculation."

text: Beaufort trained Robert FitzRoy, who was put in temporary command of the survey ship HMS Beagle after her previous captain committed suicide. When FitzRoy was reappointed as Commander for what became the famous second voyage of the Beagle, he requested of Beaufort "that a well-educated and scientific gentleman be sought" as a companion on the voyage. Beaufort's enquiries led to an invitation to Charles Darwin, who later drew on his discoveries in formulating the theory of evolution he presented in his book The Origin of Species.

text: Beaufort trained

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , who was put in temporary command of the survey ship

text: HMS Beagle

text: after her previous captain committed suicide. When FitzRoy was reappointed as Commander for what became the famous second

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: , he requested of Beaufort "that a well-educated and

text: scientific gentleman

text: be sought" as a companion on the voyage. Beaufort's enquiries led to an invitation to

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who later drew on his discoveries in formulating the

text: theory of evolution

text: he presented in his book

text: The Origin of Species

text: Giant tortoises were very important components of late Cenozoic faunas, occurring in virtually every continent until the arrival of homininans. The largest known terrestrial tortoise was Megalochelys atlas, an animal that probably weighed about 1000 kg.

text: Giant tortoise

text: s were very important components of late

text: Cenozoic

text: faunas, occurring in virtually every continent until the arrival of

text: hominina

text: ns. The largest known terrestrial tortoise was

text: Megalochelys atlas

text: , an animal that probably weighed about 1000 kg.

text: The dull-coloured grassquit (Tiaris obscurus) is a small bird formerly placed with the Emberizidae. It is now recognized as a tanager closely related to Darwin's finches.

text: The dull-coloured grassquit (Tiaris obscurus) is a small

text: bird

text: formerly placed with the

text: Emberizidae

text: . It is now recognized as a

text: tanager

text: closely related to

text: Darwin's finches

text: The appearance of the dodo and the red rail led Peter Mundy to speculate, 230 years before Charles Darwin's theory of evolution:

text: The appearance of the dodo and the red rail led Peter Mundy to speculate, 230 years before

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: More recently, in January 2002 environmental scientists Andy Hector and Rowan Hooper wrote a paper entitled Darwin and the First Ecological Experiment. In On the Origin of Species Darwin wrote, "It has been experimentally proved that if a plot of ground be sown with one species of grass, and a similar plot be sown with several distinct genera of grasses, a greater number of plants and a greater weight of dry herbage can thus be raised." He was in fact referring to the experiments conducted by Sinclair at Woburn Abbey. Despite some limitations Hector and Hooper described the experiments as impressive even by today's standards and believe that they influenced the development of Darwin's "principle of divergence" which preceded his theory of evolution by natural selection. They also believe that Sinclair's research predates all other ecological experiments that they know of.

text: More recently, in January 2002 environmental scientists Andy Hector and Rowan Hooper wrote a paper entitled Darwin and the First Ecological Experiment. In

text: On the Origin of Species

text: Darwin

text: wrote, "It has been experimentally proved that if a plot of ground be sown with one species of grass, and a similar plot be sown with several distinct genera of grasses, a greater number of plants and a greater weight of dry herbage can thus be raised." He was in fact referring to the experiments conducted by Sinclair at Woburn Abbey. Despite some limitations Hector and Hooper described the experiments as impressive even by today's standards and believe that they influenced the development of Darwin's "principle of divergence" which preceded his theory of evolution by

text: natural selection

text: . They also believe that Sinclair's research predates all other ecological experiments that they know of.

text: Other scientists such as Georges Cuvier put forward ideas of past ages, and geologists such as Adam Sedgwick incorporated Werner's ideas into concepts of catastrophism; Sedgwick inspired his university student Charles Darwin to exclaim "What a capital hand is Sedgewick for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!".  In a competing theory, Charles Lyell in his Principles of Geology (1830–1833) developed Hutton's comprehension of endless deep time as a crucial scientific concept  into uniformitarianism.  As a young naturalist and geological theorist, Darwin studied the successive volumes of Lyell's book exhaustively during the Beagle survey voyage in the 1830s, before beginning to theorise about evolution.

text: Other scientists such as

text: Georges Cuvier

text: put forward ideas of past ages, and geologists such as

text: Adam Sedgwick

text: incorporated Werner's ideas into concepts of

text: catastrophism

text: ; Sedgwick inspired his university student

text: Charles Darwin

text: to exclaim "What a capital hand is Sedgewick for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!".  In a competing theory,

text: Charles Lyell

text: in his Principles of Geology (1830–1833) developed Hutton's comprehension of endless deep time as a crucial

text: scientific

text: concept  into

text: uniformitarianism

text: .  As a young

text: naturalist

text: and geological theorist, Darwin studied the successive volumes of Lyell's book exhaustively during the

text: Beagle survey voyage

text: in the 1830s, before beginning to theorise about

text: evolution

text: In Darwin's view, anything that could be expected to have some adaptive feature could be explained easily with his theory of natural selection. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin wrote that to use natural selection to explain something as complicated as a human eye, "with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration" might at first appear "absurd in the highest possible degree," but nevertheless, if "numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist", then it seemed quite possible to account for within his theory.

text: In Darwin's view, anything that could be expected to have some adaptive feature could be explained easily with his theory of natural selection. In

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , Darwin wrote that to use natural selection to explain something as complicated as a

text: human eye

text: , "with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration" might at first appear "absurd in the highest possible degree," but nevertheless, if "numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist", then it seemed quite possible to

text: account for

text: within his theory.

text: __NOTOC__Richard Darwin Keynes, CBE, FRS ( ; 14 August 1919 – 12 June 2010) was a British physiologist. Great-grandson of Charles Darwin, Keynes edited his grandfather's accounts and illustrations of Darwin's famous voyage aboard the HMS Beagle into The Beagle Record: Selections From the Original Pictorial Records and Written Accounts of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle, which won praise from the New York Review of Books and The New York Times Book Review.

text: __NOTOC__Richard Darwin Keynes,

text: CBE

text: FRS

text: ( ; 14 August 1919 – 12 June 2010) was a

text: British

text: physiologist

text: . Great-grandson of

text: Charles Darwin

text: , Keynes edited his grandfather's accounts and illustrations of Darwin's famous voyage aboard the

text: HMS Beagle

text: into The Beagle Record: Selections From the Original Pictorial Records and Written Accounts of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle, which won praise from the

text: New York Review of Books

text: and

text: The New York Times Book Review

text: These studies became Klein’s bridge to evolutionary biology. He crossed this bridge in a series of investigations into the nature of the speciation process in Darwin’s finches and in haplochromine fishes of East Africa. With Akie Sato and collaborators, they provided molecular evidence that the 14 extant species of Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos Islands and the one species on the Cocos Island were all derived from a single ancestral species that arrived on the islands some 5 my ago. They identified the ancestral species as being related to Tiaris obscura, a species now inhabiting Ecuador and other parts of the South American continent. Using DNA markers they were able to determine phylogenetic relationships among the extant Darwin’s finches, except for the group of Ground finches. In the latter, the morphologically poorly distinguishable species were indistinguishable at the molecular level. This result could mean either that the species diverged quite recently and that the polymorphisms of their genomes have not have had enough time to sort themselves out among the species, or that the species continue exchanging genes.

text: Darwin's biological theory was also integrated into the social and political philosophies of English thinker Herbert Spencer and American philosopher William Graham Sumner. Herbert Spencer, who coined the oft-misattributed term "survival of the fittest," believed that societies were in a struggle for survival, and that groups within society are where they are because of some level of fitness. This struggle is beneficial to human kind, as in the long run the weak will be weeded out and only the strong will survive. This position is often referred to as Social Darwinism, though it is distinct from the eugenics movements with which social darwinism is often associated.  The laissez-faire beliefs of Sumner and Spencer do not advocate coercive breeding to achieve a planned outcome.

text: Darwin's biological theory was also integrated into the social and political philosophies of

text: English

text: thinker

text: Herbert Spencer

text: and American philosopher

text: William Graham Sumner

text: . Herbert Spencer, who coined the oft-misattributed term "

text: survival of the fittest

text: ," believed that societies were in a struggle for survival, and that groups within society are where they are because of some level of fitness. This struggle is beneficial to human kind, as in the long run the weak will be weeded out and only the strong will survive. This position is often referred to as

text: Social Darwinism

text: , though it is distinct from the

text: eugenics

text: movements with which social darwinism is often associated.  The

text: laissez-faire

text: beliefs of Sumner and Spencer do not advocate coercive breeding to achieve a planned outcome.

text: Charles Darwin, in The Voyage of the Beagle, wrote:

text: Charles Darwin

text: , in

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: , wrote:

text: Beagle was originally scheduled to leave on 24 October 1831 but because of delays in her preparations the departure was delayed until December. Setting forth on what was to become a ground-breaking scientific expedition she departed from Devonport on 10 December. Due to bad weather her first stop was just a few miles ahead, at Barn Pool, on the west side of Plymouth Sound,. The Beagle left anchorage from Barn Pool on 27 December, passing the nearby town of Plymouth. After completing extensive surveys in South America she returned via New Zealand, Sydney, Hobart Town (6 February 1836), to Falmouth, Cornwall, England on 2 October 1836.

text: Beagle was originally scheduled to leave on 24 October 1831 but because of delays in her preparations the departure was delayed until December. Setting forth on what was to become a ground-breaking scientific expedition she departed from Devonport on 10 December. Due to bad weather her first stop was just a few miles ahead, at Barn Pool, on the west side of

text: Plymouth Sound

text: ,. The Beagle left anchorage from Barn Pool on 27 December, passing the nearby town of Plymouth. After completing extensive surveys in

text: South America

text: she returned via

text: New Zealand

text: , Sydney, Hobart Town (6 February 1836), to

text: Falmouth, Cornwall

text: England

text: on 2 October 1836.

text: Many other species endemic to Rodrigues became extinct after humans arrived, and the island's ecosystem is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests completely covered the island, but very little remains today. The Rodrigues starling lived alongside other recently extinct birds, such as the Rodrigues solitaire, the Rodrigues parrot, Newton's parakeet, the Rodrigues rail, the Rodrigues owl, the Rodrigues night heron, and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise, the saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise, and the Rodrigues day gecko.

text: Many other species endemic to Rodrigues became extinct after humans arrived, and the island's ecosystem is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests completely covered the island, but very little remains today. The Rodrigues starling lived alongside other recently extinct birds, such as the

text: Rodrigues solitaire

text: , the

text: Rodrigues parrot

text: Newton's parakeet

text: , the

text: Rodrigues rail

text: , the

text: Rodrigues owl

text: , the

text: Rodrigues night heron

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues pigeon

text: . Extinct reptiles include the

text: domed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , the

text: saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues day gecko

text: In 1919 the British governor of Seychelles sent a gift of four Aldabra giant tortoises to Changuu from the island of Aldabra.  These tortoises bred quickly and by 1955 they numbered around 200 animals.  However people began to steal the tortoises for sale abroad as pets or for food and their numbers dropped rapidly.  By 1988 there were around 100 tortoises, 50 in 1990 and just seven by 1996.  A further 80 hatchlings were taken to the island in 1996 to increase the numbers but 40 of them vanished.  The Zanzibar government, with assistance from the World Society for the Protection of Animals (Now known as World Animal Protection). built a large compound for the protection of the animals and by 2000 numbers had recovered to 17 adults, 50 juveniles and 90 hatchlings.  The species is now considered vulnerable and has been placed on the IUCN Red List by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.  More tortoises, mainly juveniles, continue to be brought to the island from other locations for conservation.  There is a dedicated foundation on the island which looks after the tortoises' welfare.  Visitors are able to observe and feed the tortoises.

text: In 1919 the British governor of

text: Seychelles

text: sent a gift of four

text: Aldabra giant tortoise

text: s to Changuu from the island of

text: Aldabra

text: .  These tortoises bred quickly and by 1955 they numbered around 200 animals.  However people began to steal the tortoises for sale abroad as pets or for food and their numbers dropped rapidly.  By 1988 there were around 100 tortoises, 50 in 1990 and just seven by 1996.  A further 80 hatchlings were taken to the island in 1996 to increase the numbers but 40 of them vanished.  The Zanzibar government, with assistance from the

text: World Society for the Protection of Animals

text: (Now known as

text: World Animal Protection

text: ). built a large compound for the protection of the animals and by 2000 numbers had recovered to 17 adults, 50 juveniles and 90 hatchlings.  The species is now considered

text: vulnerable

text: and has been placed on the

text: IUCN Red List

text: by the

entity_name: International Union for Conservation of Nature

text: International Union for Conservation of Nature

text: .  More tortoises, mainly juveniles, continue to be brought to the island from other locations for conservation.  There is a dedicated foundation on the island which looks after the tortoises' welfare.  Visitors are able to observe and feed the tortoises.

text: During the survey voyage of HMS Beagle, Darwin was unaware of the significance of the birds of the Galápagos. He had learned how to preserve bird specimens while at the University of Edinburgh and had been keen on shooting, but he had no expertise in ornithology and by this stage of the voyage concentrated mainly on geology. In Galápagos he mostly left bird shooting to his servant Syms Covington. Nonetheless, these birds were to play an important part in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: During

text: the survey voyage of

text: HMS Beagle

text: , Darwin was unaware of the significance of the birds of the Galápagos. He had learned how to preserve bird specimens while at the

text: University of Edinburgh

text: and had been keen on shooting, but he had no expertise in

text: ornithology

text: and by this stage of the voyage concentrated mainly on geology. In Galápagos he mostly left bird shooting to his servant

text: Syms Covington

text: . Nonetheless, these birds were to play an important part in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: Berkeley Sound was visited by Charles Darwin during his voyage on HMS Beagle in 1834. He found it an 'undulating land, with a desolate and wretched aspect...'  ('Darwin and the Beagle', Alan Moorehead)

text: Herbert Spencer had argued that evolution was an inevitable upwards progress driven by the law of the conservation of energy. Peirce rejected this idea, pointing out that energy conservation, like other laws of classical physics, is time-symmetric. Turning to Darwin he points out that the fundamental driver of his theory is accidental variation, noting that "Darwinian evolution is evolution by the operation of chance, and the destruction of bad results." Even the catastrophism of Clarence King and others, which postulates an acceleration in evolutionary change via sudden environmental dislocations, naturally falls under the rubric of tychism.

text: Herbert Spencer

text: had argued that evolution was an inevitable upwards progress driven by the law of the

text: conservation of energy

text: . Peirce rejected this idea, pointing out that energy conservation, like other laws of classical physics, is

text: time-symmetric

text: . Turning to

text: Darwin

text: he points out that the fundamental driver of his theory is accidental variation, noting that "Darwinian evolution is evolution by the operation of chance, and the destruction of bad results." Even the

text: catastrophism

text: of

text: Clarence King

text: and others, which postulates an acceleration in evolutionary change via sudden environmental dislocations, naturally falls under the rubric of tychism.

text: Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).

text: Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: put forward by the British naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: in his book

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both

text: opposition and support

text: from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the

text: Moravia

text: n monk

text: Gregor Mendel

text: in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of

text: genetics

text: , which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953,

text: James D. Watson

text: Francis Crick

text: and

text: Maurice Wilkins

text: clarified the basic structure of DNA, the

text: genetic material

text: for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of

text: genetic engineering

text: became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human

text: genome

text: (the

text: Human Genome Project

text: While some, like Spencer, used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor, others, including Alfred Russel Wallace, argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further. Some political commentaries, including Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism. Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin's scientific theory, and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution, such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel, as they were by Darwin's work. Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.

text: While some, like Spencer, used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor, others, including

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further. Some political commentaries, including

text: Walter Bagehot

text: 's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in

text: anthropology

text: to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of

text: Caucasians

text: over non white races and justify European

text: imperialism

text: . Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin's scientific theory, and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution, such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel, as they were by Darwin's work. Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed

text: polygenism

text: , the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.

text: In the 1990s Loye wrote about Charles Darwin’s case for moral evolution rather than the "survival of the fittest/selfish gene theory" mindset as a higher order prime driver for human evolution. Of his book Darwin’s Lost Theory, internationally eminent scientist Ervin Laszlo has written: "...everyone concerned with our understanding of evolution on this planet owes Loye a deep debt of gratitude...Of urgent importance to the intellectual discourse of our time...has brought his unique erudition to an enormous and critical task, and carried it off with genius...Should cause a revolution in social theory...Dramatically changes our understanding of Darwin and of evolution itself...One of the major books of the early Twenty-First Century"

text: In the 1990s Loye wrote about

text: Charles Darwin

text: ’s case for moral evolution rather than the "survival of the fittest/

text: selfish gene theory

text: " mindset as a higher order prime driver for human evolution. Of his book Darwin’s Lost Theory, internationally eminent scientist

text: Ervin Laszlo

text: has written: "...everyone concerned with our understanding of evolution on this planet owes Loye a deep debt of gratitude...Of urgent importance to the intellectual discourse of our time...has brought his unique erudition to an enormous and critical task, and carried it off with genius...Should cause a revolution in social theory...Dramatically changes our understanding of Darwin and of evolution itself...One of the major books of the early Twenty-First Century"

text: British naturalist Charles Darwin described his ascent of the Sierra de la Ventana range in the sixth chapter of his work The Voyage of the Beagle. The region's breezes and mild climate made it of tourist interest since the early part of the 20th century, and its principal early promoter was Ernesto Tornquist, a prominent rancher, banker and developer. The extension of the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway past the area led to the construction of the Club Hotel de la Ventana, a luxurious casino and hotel, and the outpost of Villa Ventana, a resort community developed by the Sociedad de Compañías de Tierras y Hoteles de Sierra de la Ventana. The hotel closed after President Hipólito Yrigoyen's 1918 edict banning gambling, and development of the area's tourism resources remained below their potential in subsequent decades.

text: British naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: described his ascent of the Sierra de la Ventana range in the sixth chapter of his work

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: . The region's breezes and mild climate made it of tourist interest since the early part of the 20th century, and its principal early promoter was

text: Ernesto Tornquist

text: , a prominent rancher, banker and developer. The extension of the

text: Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway

text: past the area led to the construction of the

text: Club Hotel de la Ventana

text: , a luxurious casino and hotel, and the outpost of Villa Ventana, a resort community developed by the Sociedad de Compañías de Tierras y Hoteles de Sierra de la Ventana. The hotel closed after President

text: Hipólito Yrigoyen

text: 's 1918 edict banning

text: gambling

text: , and development of the area's tourism resources remained below their potential in subsequent decades.

text: The vampire finch is endangered, being a small-island endemic. The Galápagos finch species collectively form a showcase example of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. The 15 species of Galápagos finches are often called "Darwin's finches." They are used as an example of how the descendants of one ancestor can evolve through adaptive radiation into several species as they adapt to different conditions on various islands.

text: The vampire finch is endangered, being a small-island endemic. The Galápagos finch species collectively form a showcase example of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: . The 15 species of Galápagos finches are often called "

text: Darwin's finches

text: ." They are used as an example of how the descendants of one ancestor can evolve through adaptive radiation into several species as they adapt to different conditions on various islands.

text: The recurring shipmates were journalist and presenter Lex Runderkamp, biologists Dirk Draulans and Sarah Darwin (who is the great-great-granddaughter of Charles Darwin), the artist Anthony Smith and the writer Redmond O'Hanlon. Apart from them several other more or less well-known people joined the voyage and some joined for only one or more legs of the voyage, including some other descendants of Charles Darwin.

text: The recurring shipmates were journalist and presenter Lex Runderkamp, biologists Dirk Draulans and

text: Sarah Darwin

text: (who is the great-great-granddaughter of Charles Darwin), the artist

text: Anthony Smith

text: and the writer

text: Redmond O'Hanlon

text: . Apart from them several other more or less well-known people joined the voyage and some joined for only one or more legs of the voyage, including some other descendants of Charles Darwin.

text: Giant tortoises are characteristic reptiles that are found on two groups of tropical islands: the Aldabra Atoll in Seychelles and the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador (a population at the Mascarene Islands was exterminated by the 1900s) . These tortoises can weigh as much as  and can grow to be  long. Giant tortoises originally made their way to islands from the mainland; for example, Aldabra Atoll and Mascarenes giant tortoises are related to Madagascar tortoises while Galapagos giant tortoises are related to Ecuador mainland tortoises. This phenomenon of excessive growth is known as islands gigantism or insular gigantism. It occurs when the size of the animals that are isolated on an islands increases dramatically in comparison to their mainland relatives. This is due to several factors such as relaxed predation pressure, competitive release, or as an adaptation to increased environmental fluctuations on islands. These animals belong to an ancient group of reptiles, appearing about 250 million years ago. By the Upper Cretaceous, 70 or 80 million years ago, some had already become gigantic. About 1 million years ago tortoises reached the Galápagos Islands. Most of the gigantic species began to disappear about 100,000 years ago. Only 250 years ago there were at least 20 species and subspecies in islands of the Indian Ocean and 14 or 15 subspecies in the Galápagos Islands.

text: Giant tortoises are characteristic reptiles that are found on two groups of tropical islands: the

text: Aldabra Atoll

text: in

text: Seychelles

text: and the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: in

text: Ecuador

text: (a population at the

text: Mascarene Islands

text: was exterminated by the 1900s) . These

text: tortoise

text: s can weigh as much as  and can grow to be  long. Giant tortoises originally made their way to islands from the mainland; for example,

text: Aldabra Atoll

text: and

text: Mascarenes

text: giant tortoises are related to Madagascar tortoises while

text: Galapagos giant tortoises

text: are related to Ecuador mainland tortoises. This phenomenon of excessive growth is known as

text: islands gigantism

text: or

text: insular gigantism

text: . It occurs when the size of the animals that are isolated on an islands increases dramatically in comparison to their mainland relatives. This is due to several factors such as relaxed predation pressure, competitive release, or as an adaptation to increased environmental fluctuations on islands. These

text: animal

text: s belong to an ancient group of

text: reptile

text: s, appearing about 250 million years ago. By the

text: Upper Cretaceous

text: , 70 or 80 million years ago, some had already become gigantic. About 1 million years ago tortoises reached the Galápagos Islands. Most of the gigantic species began to disappear about 100,000 years ago. Only 250 years ago there were at least 20 species and subspecies in islands of the

text: Indian Ocean

text: and 14 or 15 subspecies in the Galápagos Islands.

text: The Dutch anatomist Eugène Dubois was fascinated by Darwin's theory of evolution especially as it applied to humankind. In 1886, he set out for Asia—which then was the region accepted as the cradle of human evolution despite Darwin's theory of African origin; see —to find a human ancestor. In 1891, his team discovered a human fossil on the island of Java, Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). Excavated from the bank of the Solo River at Trinil, in East Java, he named the species Pithecanthropus erectus—from the Greek πίθηκος, "ape", and ἄνθρωπος, "man"—based on a skullcap (calotte) and a femur like that of Homo sapiens.

text: The Dutch anatomist

text: Eugène Dubois

text: was fascinated by

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of evolution especially as it applied to humankind. In 1886, he set out for

text: Asia

text: —which then was the region accepted as the cradle of human evolution despite Darwin's theory of African origin; see —to find a human ancestor. In 1891, his team discovered a human fossil on the island of

text: Java

text: Dutch East Indies

text: (now

text: Indonesia

text: ). Excavated from the bank of the

text: Solo River

text: at

text: Trinil

text: , in

text: East Java

text: , he named the species Pithecanthropus erectus—from the Greek πίθηκος, "ape", and ἄνθρωπος, "man"—based on a skullcap (calotte) and a femur like that of Homo sapiens.

text: Philornis downsi is a species of fly (Diptera, Muscidae) that was first recorded in Trinidad and Brazil in the 1990s.  It has been accidentally introduced to the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador). Adult P. downsi feed on fruit.  Eggs are laid in bird nests and hatch into parasitic larvae which reside in the nest material and emerge at night to feed both internally and externally on the blood and flesh of developing nestlings. The parasite is causing significant mortality in Darwin's finch nestlings and threaten the survival of some rarer species such as the mangrove finch (Camarhynchus heliobates) and the medium tree finch (C. pauper). In order to protect the threatened finch populations, insecticide-laced cotton has been supplied as nesting material for the finches, with the results being highly successful in combating P. downsi infestations.

text: Philornis downsi is a

text: species

text: of fly (

text: Diptera

text: Muscidae

text: ) that was first recorded in

text: Trinidad

text: and

text: Brazil

text: in the 1990s.  It has been accidentally

text: introduced

text: to the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: Ecuador

text: ). Adult P. downsi feed on fruit.  Eggs are laid in bird nests and hatch into

text: parasitic

text: larvae which reside in the nest material and emerge at night to feed both internally and externally on the blood and flesh of developing nestlings. The parasite is causing significant mortality in

text: Darwin's finch

text: nestlings and threaten the survival of some rarer species such as the

text: mangrove finch

text: (Camarhynchus heliobates) and the

text: medium tree finch

text: (C. pauper). In order to protect the threatened finch populations, insecticide-laced cotton has been supplied as nesting material for the finches, with the results being highly successful in combating P. downsi infestations.

text: Breeding in a number of animal and plant species has been revolutionized by the emergence of SNP arrays. The method is based on the prediction of genetic merit by incorporating relationships among individuals based on SNP array data. This process is known as genomic selection.

text: In 1859, when Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was first published, the fossil record was poorly known. Darwin described the perceived lack of transitional fossils as, "...the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory," but explained it by relating it to the extreme imperfection of the geological record. He noted the limited collections available at that time, but described the available information as showing patterns that followed from his theory of descent with modification through natural selection. Indeed, Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years later, in 1861, and represents a classic transitional form between dinosaurs and birds. Many more transitional fossils have been discovered since then, and there is now abundant evidence of how all classes of vertebrates are related, much of it in the form of transitional fossils. Specific examples include humans and other primates, tetrapods and fish, and birds and dinosaurs.

text: In 1859, when

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: was first published, the fossil record was poorly known. Darwin described the perceived lack of transitional fossils as, "...the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory," but explained it by relating it to the extreme imperfection of the geological record. He noted the limited collections available at that time, but described the available information as showing patterns that followed from his theory of

text: descent with modification

text: through

text: natural selection

text: . Indeed,

text: Archaeopteryx

text: was discovered just two years later, in 1861, and represents a classic transitional form between

text: dinosaur

text: s and

text: bird

text: s.

text: Many more transitional fossils

text: have been discovered since then, and there is now abundant evidence of how all

text: classes

text: of

text: vertebrate

text: s are related, much of it in the form of transitional fossils. Specific examples include

text: humans and other primates

text: tetrapod

text: s and

text: fish

text: , and

text: birds and dinosaurs

text: Freke argued to have published on evolution before Charles Darwin. In 1851 he wrote a pamphlet that claimed animals and plants had evolved from a single filament. He sent a copy of the pamphlet to Darwin who described the writing style as "ill-written" and "beyond my scope". However, in the Historical Sketch for the 6th Edition of Darwin's On the Origin of Species, Freke is listed an as early evolution proponent.

text: Freke argued to have published on evolution before

text: Charles Darwin

text: . In 1851 he wrote a pamphlet that claimed animals and plants had evolved from a single filament. He sent a copy of the pamphlet to Darwin who described the writing style as "ill-written" and "beyond my scope". However, in the Historical Sketch for the 6th Edition of Darwin's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , Freke is listed an as early evolution proponent.

text: In the context of ethnology and anthropology of the mid-19th century, Agassiz's polygenetic views became explicitly seen as opposing Darwin's views on race, which sought to show the common origin of all human races and the superficiality of racial differences. Darwin's second book on evolution, The Descent of Man, features extensive argumentation addressing the single origin of the races, at times explicitly opposing Agassiz's theories.

text: After two years of stressful and dangerous work, Stokes became increasingly depressed.In June 1828 he wrote in his journal:When the ship returned to Port Famine on 27 July 1828, Stokes had not left his cabin for four weeks.Lieutenant William Skyring, the assistant surveyor, had in effect taken command.On 1 August 1828 Stokes shot himself.The bullet remained within his skull, but Stokes remained conscious and coherent.Gangrene set in, and Stokes finally died on 12 August 1828.William Skyring commanded the Beagle on its voyage to Montevideo for repairs. When it arrived there Robert FitzRoy was given command.FitzRoy was to command the Beagle on its famous second voyage when the young naturalist Charles Darwin made observations that led him to propose his theory of natural selection.  Haunted by his role in this discovery, Fitzroy also committed suicide later in life.

text: After two years of stressful and dangerous work, Stokes became increasingly depressed.In June 1828 he wrote in his journal:When the ship returned to Port Famine on 27 July 1828, Stokes had not left his cabin for four weeks.Lieutenant William Skyring, the assistant surveyor, had in effect taken command.On 1 August 1828 Stokes shot himself.The bullet remained within his skull, but Stokes remained conscious and coherent.Gangrene set in, and Stokes finally died on 12 August 1828.William Skyring commanded the Beagle on its voyage to Montevideo for repairs. When it arrived there Robert FitzRoy was given command.FitzRoy was to command the Beagle on its famous

text: second voyage

text: when the young naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: made observations that led him to propose his theory of

text: natural selection

text: .  Haunted by his role in this discovery, Fitzroy also committed suicide later in life.

text: In 1859, Charles Darwin placed the whole theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so. This changed the attitudes of most exponents of the scientific method. Darwin's discoveries revolutionised the zoological and botanical sciences, by introducing the theory of evolution by natural selection as an explanation for the diversity of all animal and plant life. The subject-matter of this new science, or branch of biological science, had been neglected: it did not form part of the studies of the collector and systematist, nor was it a branch of anatomy, nor of the physiology pursued by medical men, nor again was it included in the field of microscopy and the cell theory. Almost a thousand years before Darwin, the Arab scholar Al-Jahiz (781 – 868) had already developed a rudimentary theory of natural selection , describing the Struggle for existence in his Book of Animals where he speculates on how environmental factors can affect the characteristics of species by forcing them to adapt and then passing on those new traits to future generations. However, his work had largely been forgotten, along with many other early advances of Arab scientists, and there is no evidence that his works were known to Darwin.

text: In 1859,

text: Charles Darwin

text: placed the whole theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so. This changed the attitudes of most exponents of the scientific method. Darwin's discoveries revolutionised the zoological and botanical sciences, by introducing the

text: theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: as an explanation for the diversity of all animal and plant life. The subject-matter of this new science, or branch of biological science, had been neglected: it did not form part of the studies of the collector and systematist, nor was it a branch of anatomy, nor of the physiology pursued by medical men, nor again was it included in the field of microscopy and the cell theory. Almost a thousand years before Darwin, the Arab scholar

text: Al-Jahiz

text: (781 – 868) had already developed a rudimentary theory of natural selection , describing the

text: Struggle for existence

text: in his Book of Animals where he speculates on how environmental factors can affect the characteristics of species by forcing them to adapt and then passing on those new traits to future generations. However, his work had largely been forgotten, along with many other early advances of Arab scientists, and there is no evidence that his works were known to Darwin.

text: 230 years before Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the appearance of the red rail and the dodo led Peter Mundy to speculate:

text: 230 years before

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: theory of evolution

text: , the appearance of the red rail and the dodo led Peter Mundy to speculate:

text: There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries. Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old". Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.

text: There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries. Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor

text: Samuel Haughton

text: of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old". Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by

text: John Murray

text: The publication of Darwin's The Origin of Species in 1859 introduced human evolution. However, it was quickly transposed from its original biological field to the social field, in "social Darwinism" theories. Herbert Spencer, who coined the term "survival of the fittest," or Lewis Henry Morgan in Ancient Society (1877) developed evolutionist theories independent from Darwin's works, which would be later interpreted as social Darwinism. These 19th-century unilineal evolution theories claimed that societies start out in a primitive state and gradually become more civilised over time, and equated the culture and technology of Western civilisation with progress.

text: The publication of

text: Darwin

text: 's

text: The Origin of Species

text: in 1859 introduced

text: human evolution

text: . However, it was quickly transposed from its original biological field to the social field, in "

text: social Darwinism

text: " theories.

text: Herbert Spencer

text: , who coined the term "

text: survival of the fittest

text: ," or

text: Lewis Henry Morgan

text: in

text: Ancient Society

text: (1877) developed evolutionist theories independent from Darwin's works, which would be later interpreted as social Darwinism. These 19th-century

text: unilineal evolution

text: theories claimed that societies start out in a primitive state and gradually become more

text: civilised

text: over time, and equated the culture and technology of Western civilisation with progress.

text: When Charles Darwin died, Romanes defended Darwin’s theories by attempting to rebut criticisms and attacks levied by other psychologists against the Darwinian school of thought. Perhaps most notably, Romanes expanded on Darwin’s theories of evolution and natural selection by advancing a theory of behavior based on comparative psychology. In Animal Intelligence, Romanes demonstrated similarities and dissimilarities between cognitive and physical functions of various animals. In Mental Evolution in Animals, Romanes illustrated the evolution of the cognitive and physical functions associated with animal life. Romanes believed that animal intelligence evolves through behavioral conditioning, or positive reinforcement. Romanes then published Mental Evolution in Man, which focused on the evolution of human cognitive and physical functions.

text: When

text: Charles Darwin

text: died, Romanes defended Darwin’s theories by attempting to rebut criticisms and attacks levied by other psychologists against the Darwinian school of thought. Perhaps most notably, Romanes expanded on Darwin’s theories of

text: evolution

text: and

text: natural selection

text: by advancing a theory of behavior based on

text: comparative psychology

text: . In

text: Animal Intelligence

text: , Romanes demonstrated similarities and dissimilarities between cognitive and physical functions of various animals. In Mental Evolution in Animals, Romanes illustrated the evolution of the cognitive and physical functions associated with animal life. Romanes believed that animal intelligence evolves through behavioral conditioning, or positive reinforcement. Romanes then published Mental Evolution in Man, which focused on the evolution of human cognitive and physical functions.

text: Charles Darwin described the colour-changing abilities of the cuttlefish in The Voyage of the Beagle (1860):

text: Charles Darwin

text: described the colour-changing abilities of the

text: cuttlefish

text: in

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: According to the survey conducted by Pew Forum in the United States, 80% of Hindus agree with the theory of evolution. In India, there were minimal references to Darwinism in the 1800s. Elements of Victorian England opposed the idea of Darwinism. Hindus already had present notion of common ancestry between humans and animals.(see Dashavatara)  British geneticist and evolutionary biologist, J B S Haldane, opined that they are a true sequential depiction of the great unfolding of evolution. Various thinkers and authors like Monier Monier-Williams, Nabinchandra Sen, C. D. Deshmukh have associated the Dashavatara with evolution.

text: According to the survey conducted by

text: Pew Forum

text: in the

text: United States

text: , 80% of Hindus agree with the theory of evolution. In India, there were minimal references to Darwinism in the 1800s. Elements of Victorian England opposed the idea of Darwinism. Hindus already had present notion of common ancestry between humans and animals.(see

text: Dashavatara

text: )  British geneticist and evolutionary biologist,

text: J B S Haldane

text: , opined that they are a true sequential depiction of the great unfolding of evolution. Various thinkers and authors like

text: Monier Monier-Williams

text: Nabinchandra Sen

text: C. D. Deshmukh

text: have associated the

text: Dashavatara

text: with evolution.

text: Aside from the difficulty of explaining how altruism exists in many evolved organisms Darwin was also bothered by a second conundrum – why do a significant number of species have phenotypical attributes that are patently disadvantageous to them with respect to their survival - and should by the process of natural section be selected against – e.g. the massive inconvenient feather structure found in a peacock's tail?  Regarding this issue Darwin wrote to a colleague “ The sight of a feather in a peacocks tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick”.  It is the mathematics of evolutionary game theory, which has not only explained the existence of altruism but also explains the totally counterintuitive existence of the peacock’s tail and other such biological encumbrances.

text: Leidy was an early American supporter of Darwin's theory of evolution, and lobbied successfully for Darwin's election to membership in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

text: Leidy was an early American supporter of

text: Darwin's

text: theory of

text: evolution

text: , and lobbied successfully for Darwin's election to membership in the

entity_name: Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University

text: Academy of Natural Sciences

text: of

text: Philadelphia

text: Le Fanu is an open critic of materialism and Darwinism. He is the author of the controversial book Why Us?: How Science Rediscovered the Mystery of Ourselves, in which he claims that Darwin's theory of evolution is a materialistic theory that  fails to explain consciousness and the experience of the human being. He states that it is not enough to conjure the wonder of the human experience from the study of bones, genes and brains alone. According to a review of his book by the New Scientist, Le Fanu argues for the existence of an immaterial "life force". Le Fanu is not a creationist and does not argue for God, instead he argues for a non-physical cosmic force which he claims could explain where consciousness originates from; he also claims it may explain many of the other mysteries unexplained by material science.

text: Le Fanu is an open critic of

text: materialism

text: and

text: Darwinism

text: . He is the author of the controversial book Why Us?: How Science Rediscovered the Mystery of Ourselves, in which he claims that

text: Darwin's theory of evolution

text: is a materialistic theory that  fails to explain

text: consciousness

text: and the

text: experience

text: of the human being. He states that it is not enough to conjure the wonder of the human experience from the study of bones, genes and brains alone. According to a review of his book by the

text: New Scientist

text: , Le Fanu argues for the existence of an immaterial "life force". Le Fanu is not a

text: creationist

text: and does not argue for

text: God

text: , instead he argues for a non-physical cosmic force which he claims could explain where consciousness originates from; he also claims it may explain many of the other mysteries unexplained by material science.

text: Science philosopher Ross Honeywill highlighted Steele's work by proposing that in finding the mechanism for Lamarckian evolution Steele had simultaneously combined the best of Darwin and Lamarck. He proposed a modern, well-supported Lamarckian theory could be devised, consistent with well-documented parts of modern molecular genetics, able to be articulated with a surviving core of Darwinian natural selection: a kind of Meta-Lamarckism. "Steele identified RNA as the critical transcription vehicle because unlike DNA, it was the medium that was out there in contact with what was going on in the body. It was the obedient servant that knew the secret language, the secret handshake. What a breakthrough it was to discover from Lamarck via Steele that RNA could take vital changes back to the DNA for generational improvements. But imagine what it means if the RNA is capable of carrying its own information through generations; imagine the Meta-Lamarckian consequences and opportunities written all over these discoveries."

text: Science philosopher

text: Ross Honeywill

text: highlighted Steele's work by proposing that in finding the mechanism for Lamarckian evolution Steele had simultaneously combined the best of Darwin and Lamarck. He proposed a modern, well-supported Lamarckian theory could be devised, consistent with well-documented parts of modern molecular genetics, able to be articulated with a surviving core of Darwinian natural selection: a kind of Meta-Lamarckism. "Steele identified RNA as the critical transcription vehicle because unlike DNA, it was the medium that was out there in contact with what was going on in the body. It was the obedient servant that knew the secret language, the secret handshake. What a breakthrough it was to discover from Lamarck via Steele that RNA could take vital changes back to the DNA for generational improvements. But imagine what it means if the RNA is capable of carrying its own information through generations; imagine the Meta-Lamarckian consequences and opportunities written all over these discoveries."

text: These islets were surveyed by  Baron Roussin. As part of the instructions for the second survey voyage of HMS Beagle, the Admiralty noted "the great importance of knowing the true position of the Abrolhos Banks, and the certainty that they extend much further out than the limits assigned to them by Baron Roussin", and asked Captain Robert FitzRoy to take soundings and establish the position of the reefs. The work was carried out from 27 to 30 March 1832, giving Charles Darwin the opportunity to examine the wildlife and geology of the islands.

text: These islets were surveyed by

text: Baron Roussin

text: . As part of the instructions for the

text: second survey voyage of HMS Beagle

text: , the

text: Admiralty

text: noted "the great importance of knowing the true position of the Abrolhos Banks, and the certainty that they extend much further out than the limits assigned to them by Baron Roussin", and asked Captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: to take soundings and establish the position of the reefs. The work was carried out from 27 to 30 March 1832, giving

text: Charles Darwin

text: the opportunity to examine the wildlife and

text: geology

text: of the islands.

text: That the subspecies Harriet represents was not from one of the islands visited by Darwin is not actually problematic. Darwin definitely collected tortoises on San Cristobal, San Salvadore, and Santa Maria; however, the subspecies on Santa Maria (G. n. nigra) was, in fact, already nearing extinction when Darwin visited the islands, having been killed and eaten by prisoners on the prison colony there. Yet Darwin still collected tortoises on Santa Maria: the tortoises he found had been retrieved by the prisoners from other islands for food and Darwin collected some of these before they reached the stewpot. Hence they were a mixture of subspecies from a number of islands. Harriet, as a G. n. porteri, is from Santa Cruz. One of the other tortoises (Tom) is still in the Queensland Museum and has been identified as a G. n. chathamensis (from San Cristobal).

text: That the subspecies Harriet represents was not from one of the islands visited by Darwin is not actually problematic. Darwin definitely collected tortoises on

text: San Cristobal

text: San Salvadore

text: , and

text: Santa Maria

text: ; however, the subspecies on Santa Maria (G. n. nigra) was, in fact, already nearing extinction when Darwin visited the islands, having been killed and eaten by prisoners on the prison colony there. Yet Darwin still collected tortoises on Santa Maria: the tortoises he found had been retrieved by the prisoners from other islands for food and Darwin collected some of these before they reached the stewpot. Hence they were a mixture of subspecies from a number of islands. Harriet, as a G. n. porteri, is from

text: Santa Cruz

text: . One of the other tortoises (Tom) is still in the

text: Queensland Museum

text: and has been identified as a G. n. chathamensis (from San Cristobal).

text: Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea (though their territories overlapped), that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches. Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain these findings, and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, discarding Lamarck's independent lineages progressing to higher forms. Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed.

text: Richard Owen

text: showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist

text: John Gould

text: announced that

text: Darwin's rhea

text: was a separate species from the previously described

text: rhea

text: (though their territories overlapped), that

text: mockingbird

text: s collected on the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: represented three separate species each

text: unique to

text: a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as

text: finches

text: . Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain these findings, and around July sketched a

text: genealogical

text: branching of a single

text: evolutionary tree

text: , discarding Lamarck's independent

text: lineages

text: progressing to higher forms. Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of

text: fancy pigeon

text: and

text: animal breeders

text: as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the

text: orangutan

text: seemed.

text: On the voyage of the Beagle the young Charles Darwin took a break between graduating and starting his career as a clergyman to study the natural history of South America, an interest he had developed at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Cambridge. Influenced by Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, he became an able geologist as well as collecting plant and animal specimens, and fossils of gigantic extinct mammals. By the return journey, he was connecting patterns of geographical and historical distribution, and starting to doubt the stability of Species. In September 1838 he conceived his theory of natural selection as the cause of evolution, then as well as developing his career as a geologist and writer worked privately on finding evidence and answering possible objections, and set out his ideas in an essay written in 1844. He discussed transmutation with his friend Joseph Dalton Hooker, who read the essay in 1847. After turning his attention to biology and completing eight years of work on barnacles, Darwin intensified work on his theory of species in 1854.

text: On the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: the young

text: Charles Darwin

text: took a break between graduating and starting his career as a clergyman to study the

text: natural history

text: of South America, an interest he had developed at the

text: University of Edinburgh

text: and the

text: University of Cambridge

text: . Influenced by

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's Principles of Geology, he became an able geologist as well as collecting plant and animal specimens, and fossils of gigantic extinct mammals. By the return journey, he was connecting patterns of geographical and historical distribution, and starting to doubt the stability of Species. In September 1838 he conceived his theory of

text: natural selection

text: as the cause of

text: evolution

text: , then as well as developing his career as a geologist and writer worked privately on finding evidence and answering possible objections, and set out his ideas in an essay written in 1844. He discussed transmutation with his friend

text: Joseph Dalton Hooker

text: , who read the essay in 1847. After turning his attention to biology and completing eight years of work on barnacles, Darwin intensified work on his theory of species in 1854.

text: Beagle returned to the West Indies sometime in 1824. Late in October, she was at St. Thomas when some pirates from Fajardo, Puerto Rico, stole about 5,000 dollars worth of merchandise from an American-owned store. One of the store's owners requested Lt. Platt—then commanding Beagle—to help in recovering the goods. Platt agreed and quickly set Beagles sails for Fajardo. Late that evening, the schooner entered the outer harbor at Fajardo and anchored for the night.

text: Beagle returned to the West Indies sometime in 1824. Late in October, she was at St. Thomas when some pirates from

text: Fajardo, Puerto Rico

text: , stole about 5,000 dollars worth of merchandise from an American-owned store. One of the store's owners requested Lt. Platt—then commanding Beagle—to help in recovering the goods. Platt agreed and quickly set Beagles sails for Fajardo. Late that evening, the schooner entered the outer harbor at Fajardo and anchored for the night.

text: In his book Evolution and Judaism, Krauskopf accepted the idea that science might “overshadow” religion but that the science needs to be well understood and properly connected to religion.  Krauskopf accepted the scientific legitimacy of evolution and Darwinian theory. He argued, in a chapter titled “Darwinism,” that “Supreme order is the manifestation of supreme intelligence.  If I had no other proof for my belief in the existence and sovereignty of an Intelligent Final Cause, I would derive it from my recognition of the fact that supreme order, uninterrupted harmony, eternal and immutable law, control all nature, heaven and earth, all inorganic and organic, in but one way, and in no other.”  He argues that evolution is simply part of the law of nature and that “this natural law shape matter with design and direct force with a purpose, and design and purpose presuppose intelligence.”  Krauskopf argued that evolution was the same as “Supreme Governing Power, Supreme Will, Supreme Natural Law” and that “by theologians it is called ‘God.’”  With “this conception of the nature of God” he argued that “every difference between science and religion disappears” and “with this conception of God, as manifested in nature, I am prepared to accept even Darwinism.”  Thus, Krauskopf accepted evolution, as set out by Darwin, as consistent with the existence of God, because God provided the “supreme intelligence” to let evolution happen.  Under this analysis, there could be no conflict between religion and science, and “Darwinism, though disagreeing with the Biblical account of creation is with religion, not against it.”  He praised Darwin, declaring that “God has had no better interpreter of the greatness and magnificence of His handiwork.”  He acknowledged that Darwin “opposed” the “Biblical account” of creation,  because modern research proved the Biblical account of creation imperfect,”   But Krauskopf argued that this science, and Darwinian notions such as natural selection, actually supported the idea of a superior being – God – who set into motion evolution through natural selection.   He concluded that “Judaism and ever progressive religion with a conception of God . . . can freely and conscientiously accept the theory of organic evolution.”   Thus, the “sum of Supreme Will, Supreme Power, Supreme Intelligence, evolutionists name ‘The Reign of Natural Law,’  the theologians call it ‘God.’”

text: On October 24, 1824, the second-in-command of Cofresí's fleet, Bibián Hernández Morales, led a group of pirates to the Danish colony of Saint Thomas. There they plundered an establishment named Cabot, Bailey & Company, carrying 5,000 dollars in loot and returning to Puerto Rico. Aware of the incident, Charles T. Platt of the West Indies Squadron left that port aboard the Beagle two days later, accompanied by one of the affected merchants. The vessel first encountered the pirates off Vieques, but was unable to capture any. However, they were able to gather information that led them to Fajardo. Upon arriving there, Platt, who was not wearing a uniform, explained his operation to the port captain through a translator. The crew was then taken before mayor Francisco Caro and handed him a letter (originally intended for an associate of the merchant named Juan Campos) with the details of the robbery, but the functionary ordered a search of his ship and documents. Platt left the vicinity in protest and walked towards the Beagle, but was arrested along with midshipman Robert Ritchie and categorized as a suspect himself, being held prisoner under the supervision of the town's mayor. While this happened, some of the stolen goods were tracked to Naguabo with the help of Campos (who was later uncovered as a double agent and one of Cofresí's cohorts). Hours later, the process to transfer him to a local jail was completed, but Platt offered resistance and threatened to fight back. This was followed by more delays, but the crew of the Beagle was ultimately allowed to leave port without further repercussions.

text: In On the Origin of Species (1859), Darwin interpreted biological evolution in terms of natural selection, but was perplexed by the clustering of organisms into species. Chapter 6 of Darwin's book is entitled "Difficulties of the Theory." In discussing these "difficulties" he noted "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?" This dilemma can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.

text: In

text: On the Origin of Species

text: (1859), Darwin interpreted biological evolution in terms of natural selection, but was perplexed by the clustering of organisms into species. Chapter 6 of Darwin's book is entitled "Difficulties of the Theory." In discussing these "difficulties" he noted "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?"

entity_section: The effect of sexual reproduction on species formation

text: This dilemma

text: can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.

text: Giant tortoises are among the world's longest-living animals, with an average lifespan of 100 years or more. The Madagascar radiated tortoise Tu'i Malila was 188 at death in Tonga in 1965. Harriet (initially thought to be one of the three Galápagos tortoises brought back to England from Charles Darwin's Beagle voyage but later shown to be from an island not even visited by Darwin) was reported by the Australia Zoo to be 176 years old when she died in 2006. Also, on 23 March 2006, an Aldabra giant tortoise named Adwaita died at Alipore Zoological Gardens in Kolkata. He was brought to the zoo in the 1870s from the estate of Lord Clive and is thought to have been around 255 years old when he died. Around the time of its discovery, they were caught for food in such large quantities that they became virtually extinct by 1900. Giant tortoises are now under strict conservation laws and are categorised as threatened species.

text: Giant tortoises are among the world's longest-living animals, with an average lifespan of 100 years or more. The

text: Madagascar

text: radiated tortoise

text: Tu'i Malila

text: was 188 at death in

text: Tonga

text: in 1965.

text: Harriet

text: (initially thought to be one of the three

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s brought back to England from

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: Beagle

text: voyage but later shown to be from an island not even visited by Darwin) was reported by the

text: Australia Zoo

text: to be 176 years old when she died in 2006. Also, on 23 March 2006, an

text: Aldabra giant tortoise

text: named

text: Adwaita

text: died at

text: Alipore Zoological Gardens

text: in

text: Kolkata

text: . He was brought to the zoo in the 1870s from the estate of

text: Lord Clive

text: and is thought to have been around 255 years old when he died. Around the time of its discovery, they were caught for food in such large quantities that they became virtually extinct by 1900. Giant tortoises are now under strict conservation laws and are categorised as threatened species.

text: The finches of the title are the Galapagos or 'Darwin's Finches,' passerine songbirds in the Galapagos Islands. The species are so distinct that when Charles Darwin collected them in the islands he thought they were completely different birds, and it was only when he was back in London in 1837 that the ornithologist John Gould revealed that they were closely allied, reinforcing Darwin's growing view that “species are not immutable.” The adaptations of their numerous species, in three genera, show diverging evolution to exploit several ecological niches in the rugged and dry Galápagos Islands.

text: The finches of the title are the

text: Galapagos or 'Darwin's Finches

text: passerine

text: songbirds in the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: . The species are so distinct that when

text: Charles Darwin

text: collected them in the islands he thought they were completely different birds, and it was only when he was back in London in 1837 that the ornithologist

text: John Gould

text: revealed that they were closely allied, reinforcing Darwin's growing view that “species are not immutable.” The adaptations of their numerous species, in three genera, show diverging evolution to exploit several ecological niches in the rugged and dry Galápagos Islands.

text: Transmutation of species or Transformism are terms often used to describe 19th-century evolutionary ideas for the altering of one species into another that preceded Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection.  The French Transformisme was a term used by Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1809 for his theory, and other 19th century proponents of pre-Darwinian evolutionary ideas included Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Robert Grant, and Robert Chambers who anonymously published the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Opposition in the scientific community to these early theories of evolution, led by influential scientists like the anatomists Georges Cuvier and Richard Owen and the geologist Charles Lyell, was intense. The debate over them was an important stage in the history of evolutionary thought and would influence the subsequent reaction to Darwin's theory.

text: Transmutation of species or Transformism are terms often used to describe 19th-century evolutionary ideas for the altering of one

text: species

text: into another that preceded

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: natural selection

text: .  The French Transformisme was a term used by

text: Jean Baptiste Lamarck

text: in 1809 for his theory, and other 19th century proponents of pre-Darwinian evolutionary ideas included

text: Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

text: Robert Grant

text: , and

text: Robert Chambers

text: who anonymously published the book

text: . Opposition in the scientific community to these early theories of evolution, led by influential scientists like the anatomists

text: Georges Cuvier

text: and

text: Richard Owen

text: and the geologist

text: Charles Lyell

text: , was intense. The debate over them was an important stage in the

text: history of evolutionary thought

text: and would influence the subsequent

text: reaction to Darwin's theory

text: French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by Clémence Royer, but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism. The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the Malthusian aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by Karl Marx and by Leo Tolstoy, who had the character Levin in his novel Anna Karenina voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views.

text: French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by

text: Clémence Royer

text: , but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism. The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the

text: Malthusian

text: aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by

text: Karl Marx

text: and by

text: Leo Tolstoy

text: , who had the character Levin in his novel

text: Anna Karenina

text: voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views.

text: Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding, going back to ancient Egypt. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding. As an illustration of artificial selection, he describes fancy pigeon breeding, noting that "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon. Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution.

text: Chapter I covers

text: animal husbandry

text: and

text: plant breeding

text: , going back to

text: ancient Egypt

text: . Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by

text: selective breeding

text: . As an illustration of

text: artificial selection

text: , he describes

text: fancy pigeon

text: breeding, noting that "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of

text: rock pigeon

text: . Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example:

text: ancon sheep

text: with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution.

text: The Reunion giant tortoise (Cylindraspis indica) is an extinct species of tortoise in the Testudinidae family.  It was endemic to Réunion Island in the Indian Ocean.

text: The Reunion

text: giant tortoise

text: (Cylindraspis indica) is an

text: extinct

text: species of

text: tortoise

text: in the

text: Testudinidae

text: family.  It was

text: endemic

text: to

text: Réunion

text: Island in the

text: Indian Ocean

text: The critical importance of the M notebook has usually been viewed in its relationship to Darwin's conception of natural selection as the central mechanism of evolutionary development, which he probably grasped some time around September 1838. These notes have a tentative and fragmented quality, especially in Darwin's descriptions of conversation with his father (a successful doctor with a special interest in psychiatric problems) about recurring patterns of behaviour in successive generations of his patients' families. Darwin was anxious about the materialistic drift in his thinking – and of the disrepute which this could attract in early Victorian England – at the time, he was mentally preparing for marriage with his cousin Emma Wedgwood who held firm Christian beliefs. On 21 September 1838, after his return to England, Darwin recorded a confused and disturbing dream in which he was involved in a public execution where the corpse came to life and claimed to have faced death like a hero. In summary: Darwin put together the central features of his evolutionary theory at the same time that he was considering a scientific understanding of human behaviour and family life – and he was in some emotional turmoil. A discussion of the significance of Darwin's early notebooks can be found in Paul H. Barrett's Metaphysics, Materialism and the Evolution of Mind – Early Writings of Charles Darwin (1980).

text: The critical importance of the M notebook has usually been viewed in its relationship to Darwin's conception of

text: natural selection

text: as the central mechanism of evolutionary development, which he probably grasped some time around September 1838. These notes have a tentative and fragmented quality, especially in Darwin's descriptions of conversation with his father (a successful doctor with a special interest in psychiatric problems) about recurring patterns of behaviour in successive generations of his patients' families. Darwin was anxious about the materialistic drift in his thinking – and of the disrepute which this could attract in early

text: Victorian England

text: – at the time, he was mentally preparing for marriage with his cousin

text: Emma Wedgwood

text: who held firm Christian beliefs. On 21 September 1838, after his return to England, Darwin recorded a confused and disturbing dream in which he was involved in a public execution where the corpse came to life and claimed to have faced death like a hero. In summary: Darwin put together the central features of his evolutionary theory at the same time that he was considering a scientific understanding of human behaviour and family life – and he was in some emotional turmoil. A discussion of the significance of Darwin's early notebooks can be found in Paul H. Barrett's Metaphysics, Materialism and the Evolution of Mind – Early Writings of Charles Darwin (1980).

text: On 4 November Beagle and Echo recaptured the Mount Royal, of Pool.  On 8 February 1810 Beagle recaptured the brig Resource. Then on 10 October Dollin and Beagle captured the smuggling lugger Ox, for which they received a reward from the Commissioners of His Majesty's Customs. Then on 13 June Beagle captured the smuggling boat Fly, of Bexhill. Three days later she captured several smuggling galleys. Apparently the officers and crew of Beagle purchased the cargo of two of the galleys and sold it.

text: On 4 November Beagle and

text: Echo

text: recaptured the Mount Royal, of Pool.  On 8 February 1810 Beagle recaptured the brig Resource. Then on 10 October Dollin and Beagle captured the smuggling lugger Ox, for which they received a reward from the Commissioners of His Majesty's Customs. Then on 13 June Beagle captured the smuggling boat Fly, of Bexhill. Three days later she captured several smuggling galleys. Apparently the officers and crew of Beagle purchased the cargo of two of the galleys and sold it.

text: Eight members of the Darwin family are buried in St Mary the Virgin Churchyard, Downe, Kent; nearby is Down House, the home of the Darwin family. Darwins buried at Downe include: Bernard Darwin and his wife Elinor Monsell, who taught her husband's cousin Gwen Raverat, author of Period Piece, engraving; Charles Waring Darwin; Elizabeth Darwin, "Aunt Bessy"; Emma Darwin, "Charles Darwin's wife"; Erasmus Alvey Darwin; Mary Eleanor Darwin; Henrietta Etty Darwin, later Litchfield, "Aunt Etty". Charles Darwin is buried in Westminster Abbey.

text: Down House

text: , the home of the Darwin family. Darwins buried at Downe include:

text: Bernard Darwin

text: and his wife

text: Elinor Monsell

text: , who taught her husband's cousin Gwen Raverat, author of

text: Period Piece

text: , engraving;

text: Charles Waring Darwin

text: ; Elizabeth Darwin, "Aunt Bessy"; Emma Darwin, "Charles Darwin's wife";

text: Erasmus Alvey Darwin

text: ; Mary Eleanor Darwin; Henrietta

text: Etty Darwin

text: , later Litchfield, "Aunt Etty".

text: Charles Darwin

text: is buried in

text: Westminster Abbey

text: Evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the early 19th century with the theory of the transmutation of species put forward by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. At first, evolution was opposed on both scientific, notably by Georges Cuvier, and religious grounds. The idea that laws control nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe's The Constitution of Man of 1828 and the anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation of 1844. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arise through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors, but while most scientists accepted that natural selection is a valid and empirically testable hypothesis, Darwin's view that it is the primary mechanism of evolution was generally rejected.

text: Evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the early 19th century with the theory of the

text: transmutation of species

text: put forward by

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: . At first, evolution was opposed on both scientific, notably by

text: Georges Cuvier

text: , and religious grounds. The idea that

text: laws

text: control nature and society gained vast popular audiences with

text: George Combe

text: 's

text: The Constitution of Man

text: of 1828 and the anonymous

text: of 1844. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arise through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from

text: common ancestors

text: , but while most scientists accepted that natural selection is a valid and

text: empirical

text: ly testable

text: hypothesis

text: , Darwin's view that it is the primary mechanism of evolution was generally rejected.

text: Although there is no mention of Darwin in The Communist Manifesto (published 11 years prior to Origin of Species), Marx includes two explicit references to Darwin and evolution in the second edition of Das Kapital, in two footnotes where he relates Darwin's theory to his opinion about production and technology development. In the Volume I, Chapter 14: "The Detail Labourer and his implements", Section 2, he referred to Darwin's Origin as an "epoch-making work", while in Chapter 15, Section I he took on the comparison of organs of plants to animals and tools.

text: Although there is no mention of Darwin in

text: The Communist Manifesto

text: (published 11 years prior to

text: Origin of Species

text: ), Marx includes two explicit references to Darwin and evolution in the second edition of

text: Das Kapital

text: , in two footnotes where he relates Darwin's theory to his opinion about production and technology development. In the Volume I, Chapter 14: "The Detail Labourer and his implements", Section 2, he referred to Darwin's Origin as an "epoch-making work", while in Chapter 15, Section I he took on the comparison of organs of plants to animals and tools.

text: As an agriculturist and horse-breeder, Monboddo was quite aware of the significance of selective breeding and even transferred this breeding theory to communications he had with James Boswell in Boswell's selection of a mate. Monboddo has stated in his own works that degenerative qualities can be inherited by successive generations and that by selective choice of mates, creatures can improve the next generation in a biological sense. This suggests that Monboddo understood the role of natural processes in evolution; artificial selection was the starting-point for many of the proto-evolutionary thinkers, and for Darwin himself.

text: As an agriculturist and horse-breeder, Monboddo was quite aware of the significance of selective breeding and even transferred this

text: breeding

text: theory to communications he had with

text: James Boswell

text: in Boswell's selection of a mate. Monboddo has stated in his own works that degenerative qualities can be inherited by successive generations and that by selective choice of mates, creatures can improve the next generation in a biological sense. This suggests that Monboddo understood the role of natural processes in evolution;

text: artificial selection

text: was the starting-point for many of the proto-evolutionary thinkers, and for Darwin himself.

text: Darwin's ideas developed rapidly from the return in 1836 of The Voyage of the Beagle. By December 1838 he had developed the principles of his theory, but was conscious of the need to answer all likely objections before publishing.  While he continued with research, he had an immense amount of work in hand analysing and publishing findings from the Beagle expedition, and was repeatedly delayed by illness.

text: Darwin's ideas developed rapidly from the return in 1836 of

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: . By December 1838 he had developed the principles of his theory, but was conscious of the need to answer all likely objections before publishing.  While he continued with research, he had an immense amount of work in hand analysing and publishing findings from the Beagle expedition, and was repeatedly delayed by illness.

text: The Crisis of Faith was brought about in 1859 with Charles Darwin's work On the Origin of Species; his theory was (in the basic form) that the Natural World had become what it was through gradual change over eons.  He stated that natural selection and survival of the fittest were the reasons man had survived so long.  His theory of evolution based on empirical evidence would call into question Christian beliefs and Victorian values.  People whose lives became totally uprooted felt the need to find a new system on which to base their values and morality.  Unable to completely lose faith, they combined both their religious beliefs with individual duty—duty to one's God, fellow man, social class, neighbour, the poor and the ill.

text: The Crisis of Faith was brought about in 1859 with

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's work

text: On the Origin of Species

text: ; his theory was (in the basic form) that the Natural World had become what it was through gradual change over eons.  He stated that natural selection and survival of the fittest were the reasons man had survived so long.  His theory of

text: evolution

text: based on empirical evidence would call into question Christian beliefs and Victorian values.  People whose lives became totally uprooted felt the need to find a new system on which to base their values and morality.  Unable to completely lose faith, they combined both their religious beliefs with individual duty—duty to one's God, fellow man, social class, neighbour, the poor and the ill.

text: She has also been apart of genetic testing of animals that can show where an animal was domesticated. Some of the genetics that she has studied show that there are  relations between the cattle from South Asia, Africa, and Europe. It used to be thought that Africa had no unique domesticates of is own but this data has tentatively pointed to an independent domestication process of cattle in Africa. The genetic studies of cattle can show that African and European taurine's lineage diverged somewhere in the 22nd–26th millennia BP. The analyses point to domestication of  European stock around 5000 BP and African stock being around 9000 BP, even if this date of domestication is a point of controversy. The domestication process is sometimes glossed over as an invention by humans and not a process that is biological and evolutionary. But Diane Gifford-Gonzalez imposes that animal domestication is an on-going, dynamic system of interaction with animals that causes lasting changes to that animal. Domestication is more of a co-evolution for the animals because the reproducing animals are usually chosen by the humans and they are now living in a human-structured environment which changes their behavior. Not only do the animals change their behavior, humans also change their behavior to be able to coexist along side the animals. Sometimes the genes inside the humans can actually change; like in Eurasia and East Africa, adult genes changed to accommodate the influx of milk in their diets and to allow them digest it. Through the selective-breeding that these animals are put through throughout the process of domestication, there is also the ‘unconscious selection’ that goes along with it. These 'unconscious selections' usually refer to the physical characteristics of the animal; such as wolves looking more like modern-day dogs after 10 generations of selective-breeding. The reason inherently African animals like gazelles and monkeys were not able to be domesticated was to do with some of the animal's traits. Gazelles for example are prone to getting panicked when they are caged and mortally injure themselves from trying to jump out. Even though there were not many domesticates from Africa, there has been genetic studies that can help prove that there very well may have been a mass domestication in Northern Africa.

text: She has also been apart of

text: genetic testing

text: of animals that can show where an animal was

text: domesticated

text: . Some of the

text: genetics

text: that she has studied show that there are  relations between the

text: cattle

text: from

text: South Asia

text: Africa

text: , and

text: Europe

text: . It used to be thought that

text: Africa

text: had no unique

text: domesticates

text: of is own but this data has tentatively pointed to an

text: independent domestication process

text: of

text: cattle

text: in

text: Africa

text: . The

text: genetic studies

text: of

text: cattle

text: can show that

text: African

text: and

text: European taurine

text: 's lineage diverged somewhere in the 22nd–26th

text: millennia

text: BP

text: . The analyses point to

text: domestication

text: of

text: European stock

text: around 5000 BP and

text: African stock

text: being around 9000 BP, even if this date of

text: domestication

text: is a point of

text: controversy

text: . The

text: domestication process

text: is sometimes glossed over as an invention by humans and not a process that is

text: biological

text: and

text: evolution

text: ary. But Diane Gifford-Gonzalez imposes that

text: animal domestication

text: is an on-going, dynamic system of interaction with animals that causes lasting changes to that animal.

text: Domestication

text: is more of a

text: co-evolution

text: for the animals because the

text: reproducing

text: animals are usually chosen by the humans and they are now living in a human-structured environment which changes their behavior. Not only do the animals change their behavior, humans also change their behavior to be able to coexist along side the animals. Sometimes the

text: gene

text: s inside the humans can actually change; like in

text: Eurasia

text: and

text: East Africa

text: , adult

text: gene

text: s changed to accommodate the influx of milk in their diets and to allow them digest it. Through the

text: selective-breeding

text: that these animals are put through throughout the process of

text: domestication

text: , there is also the ‘unconscious selection’ that goes along with it. These 'unconscious selections' usually refer to the physical characteristics of the animal; such as

text: wolves

text: looking more like modern-day

text: dog

text: s after 10

text: generation

text: s of

text: selective-breeding

text: . The reason inherently

text: Africa

text: n animals like

text: gazelle

text: s and

text: monkey

text: s were not able to be

text: domesticated

text: was to do with some of the animal's traits.

text: Gazelle

text: s for example are prone to getting panicked when they are caged and mortally injure themselves from trying to jump out. Even though there were not many

text: domesticates

text: from

text: Africa

text: , there has been

text: genetic studies

text: that can help prove that there very well may have been a mass

text: domestication

text: in

text: Northern Africa

text: 'Darwin 's Finches' 'Icons of the Galapagos', British Library, 4.2006.

text: The idea of evolution at the molecular level being driven by the random processes of mutation and genetic drift, largely independent from natural selection, was controversial at the time; the provocative title further emphasized the break with mainstream evolutionary thought, which was dominated by the synthetic theory of evolution, often referred to as "Neo-Darwinism".  Although they argued for essentially the same conclusion as Motoo Kimura's earlier paper, King and Jukes criticized one of Kimura's central arguments, an estimate of the rate of amino acid change in proteins that according to Kimura would indicate an impossibly high genetic load if the changes were caused by natural selection.  The paper was initially rejected by its reviewers (one thought it was trivial and the other thought it was totally wrong ), but was published after an appeal. This time, the reviewer was James F. Crow, Motoo Kimura's collaborator. Despite the intentionally inflammatory title and "antiauthoritarian tone"—which according to historian Michael R. Dietrich "undoubtedly struck a nerve", especially since King and Jukes worked at UC Berkeley during that period of political unrest—the paper acknowledges the significance of natural selection; it merely argues against panselectionism (as advocated at the molecular level by G. G. Simpson and Emil L. Smith in particular).  From 1969 until the early 1970s, the concept of neutral mutations driven to fixation by genetic drift was known as "Non-Darwinian Evolution"; it was subsequently termed the "neutral theory of molecular evolution".

text: The idea of evolution at the molecular level being driven by the random processes of mutation and genetic drift, largely independent from

text: natural selection

text: , was controversial at the time; the provocative title further emphasized the break with mainstream evolutionary thought, which was dominated by the

text: synthetic theory of evolution

text: , often referred to as "

text: Neo-Darwinism

text: ".  Although they argued for essentially the same conclusion as Motoo Kimura's earlier paper, King and Jukes criticized one of Kimura's central arguments, an estimate of the rate of amino acid change in proteins that according to Kimura would indicate an impossibly high

text: genetic load

text: if the changes were caused by natural selection.  The paper was initially rejected by its reviewers (one thought it was trivial and the other thought it was totally wrong ), but was published after an appeal. This time, the reviewer was James F. Crow, Motoo Kimura's collaborator. Despite the intentionally inflammatory title and "antiauthoritarian tone"—which according to historian Michael R. Dietrich "undoubtedly struck a nerve", especially since King and Jukes worked at

text: UC Berkeley

text: during that period of political unrest—the paper acknowledges the significance of natural selection; it merely argues against

text: panselectionism

text: (as advocated at the molecular level by

text: G. G. Simpson

text: and

text: Emil L. Smith

text: in particular).  From 1969 until the early 1970s, the concept of neutral mutations driven to

text: fixation

text: by genetic drift was known as "Non-Darwinian Evolution"; it was subsequently termed the "neutral theory of molecular evolution".

text: The film portrays evolution as responsible for communism, fascism, atheism, eugenics and The Holocaust. Richard Weikart, a historian and Discovery Institute fellow, appears in the film asserting that Charles Darwin's work in the 19th century influenced Adolf Hitler. He argues that Darwin's perception of humans not being qualitatively different from animals, with qualities such as morality arising from natural processes, undermines what Weikart calls the "Judeo-Christian conception of the sanctity of human life." Nazi gas chambers and concentration camps figure highly in the narrative of the film. In the film, philosopher and Discovery Institute fellow David Berlinski says that Darwinism was a "necessary though not sufficient" cause for The Holocaust, and Uta George, director of the Hadamar Memorial in Germany, says that "the Nazis, they relied on Darwin. Yes, and German scientists."

text: The film portrays evolution as responsible for communism, fascism, atheism, eugenics and The Holocaust. Richard Weikart, a historian and Discovery Institute fellow, appears in the film asserting that

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's work in the 19th century influenced Adolf Hitler. He argues that Darwin's perception of humans not being qualitatively different from animals, with qualities such as

text: morality

text: arising from natural processes, undermines what Weikart calls the "Judeo-Christian conception of the

text: sanctity of human life

text: ." Nazi

text: gas chamber

text: s and concentration camps figure highly in the narrative of the film. In the film, philosopher and Discovery Institute fellow

text: David Berlinski

text: says that Darwinism was a "

entity_section: Relationship between necessity and sufficiency

text: necessary though not sufficient

text: " cause for The Holocaust, and Uta George, director of the Hadamar Memorial in Germany, says that "the Nazis, they relied on Darwin. Yes, and German scientists."

text: The mountain is referenced by Charles Darwin in Chapter 9 of the Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle and is named after Alexander Burns Usborne, Master's Assistant on , the ship that took Darwin on his famous voyage.

text: The mountain is referenced by

text: Charles Darwin

text: in Chapter 9 of the Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle and is named after Alexander Burns Usborne, Master's Assistant on , the ship that took Darwin on his famous voyage.

text: Many other of the endemic species of Rodrigues became extinct after the arrival of man, so the ecosystem of the island is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests covered the island entirely, but very little remains today due to deforestation. The Rodrigues solitaire lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the Rodrigues rail, the Rodrigues parrot, Newton's parakeet, the Rodrigues starling, the Rodrigues owl, the Rodrigues night heron, and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise, the saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise, and the Rodrigues day gecko.

text: ecosystem

text: of the island is heavily damaged. Before humans arrived, forests covered the island entirely, but very little remains today due to deforestation. The Rodrigues solitaire lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the

text: Rodrigues rail

text: , the

text: Rodrigues parrot

text: Newton's parakeet

text: , the

text: Rodrigues starling

text: , the

text: Rodrigues owl

text: , the

text: Rodrigues night heron

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues pigeon

text: . Extinct reptiles include the

text: domed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , the

text: saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues day gecko

text: The first part of Darwin's planned "big book", The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out human evolution and sexual selection. It sold briskly in 1868 despite its size, and was translated into many languages. Darwin's work on the Descent of Man and Emotions followed after this publication.

text: The first part of Darwin's planned "big book",

text: , grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out

text: human evolution

text: and

text: sexual selection

text: . It sold briskly in 1868 despite its size, and was translated into many languages. Darwin's

text: work on the Descent of Man and Emotions

text: followed after this publication.

text: More than 120 species and nine genera have been named after Darwin. In one example, the group of tanagers related to those Darwin found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as "Darwin's finches" in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.

text: More than 120

text: species

text: and nine

text: genera

text: have been named after Darwin. In one example, the group of

text: tanager

text: s related to those Darwin found in the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: became popularly known as "

text: Darwin's finches

text: " in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.

text: The Beagle was sent in 1831 on a survey mission which involved circumnavigating the globe, a journey described by the naturalist on board the ship, Charles Darwin, in his book The Voyage of the Beagle and which lasted until 1836.  It was on this journey that Darwin began to form the ideas published much later as On the Origin of Species.  The Beagle carried twenty-two chronometers, an unusually large number, but necessary to ensure accuracy of the survey.  Three would have been commonplace on ships of the time, as this is the minimum number required to easily identify one that has gone faulty.  The Admiralty started a general issue of chronometers to H. M. Ships from 1825, but between about 1800 and 1840 the availability of chronometers could not keep up with the demand.  The Admiralty therefore only issued one chronometer to each ship unless the Captain personally owned one.  In those cases the Admiralty would issue a second machine to make the total up to three, reasoning that a ship with two was no better off than with one since in the event of a discrepancy it was not possible to identify the faulty instrument.

text: The Beagle was sent in 1831 on a survey mission which involved circumnavigating the globe, a journey described by the naturalist on board the ship, Charles Darwin, in his book

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: and which lasted until 1836.  It was on this journey that Darwin began to form the ideas published much later as

text: On the Origin of Species

text: .  The Beagle carried

text: twenty-two chronometers

text: , an unusually large number, but necessary to ensure accuracy of the survey.  Three would have been commonplace on ships of the time, as this is the minimum number required to easily identify one that has gone faulty.  The

text: Admiralty

text: started a general issue of chronometers to H. M. Ships from 1825, but between about 1800 and 1840 the availability of chronometers could not keep up with the demand.  The Admiralty therefore only issued one chronometer to each ship unless the Captain personally owned one.  In those cases the Admiralty would issue a second machine to make the total up to three, reasoning that a ship with two was no better off than with one since in the event of a discrepancy it was not possible to identify the faulty instrument.

text: The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: the orthogeneticists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence. Thus, although the Inuit with whom Boas worked at Baffin Island, and the Germans with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage. This echoed a popular misreading of Darwin that suggested that human beings are descended from chimpanzees. In fact, Darwin argued that chimpanzees and humans are equally evolved. What characterizes Darwinian theory is its attention to the processes by which one species transforms into another; "adaptation" as a key principle in explaining the relationship between a species and its environment; and "natural selection" as a mechanism of change. In contrast, Morgan, Spencer, and Tylor had little to say about the process and mechanics of change.

text: The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: the orthogeneticists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence. Thus, although the

text: Inuit

text: with whom Boas worked at

text: Baffin Island

text: , and the

text: Germans

text: with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage. This echoed a popular misreading of Darwin that suggested that human beings are descended from

text: chimpanzee

text: s. In fact, Darwin argued that chimpanzees and humans are equally evolved. What characterizes Darwinian theory is its attention to the processes by which one species transforms into another; "adaptation" as a key principle in explaining the relationship between a species and its environment; and "natural selection" as a mechanism of change. In contrast, Morgan, Spencer, and Tylor had little to say about the process and mechanics of change.

text: The American Breeders Association held its first meeting in 1903 to discuss the “new” science of genetics that arose from Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution and Gregor Mendel’s discoveries of the laws of inheritance. The organization was established “to study the laws of breeding and to promote the improvement of plants and animals by the development of expert methods of breeding.”

text: The American Breeders Association held its first meeting in 1903 to discuss the “new” science of genetics that arose from

text: Charles Darwin

text: ’s theory of evolution and

text: Gregor Mendel

text: ’s discoveries of the laws of inheritance. The organization was established “to study the laws of breeding and to promote the improvement of plants and animals by the development of expert methods of breeding.”

text: Her first book, L'Origine des animaux (1883), was written in response to Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species, which had been published in France in an 1862 translation by Clémence Royer. Renooz described Darwin's theory as unscientific, arguing instead for an evolutionary theory based on embryology. Renooz concluded that humanity's ancestors could be traced to the plant kingdom and specifically to the bean family, a concept possibly influenced by Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory. In Renooz's theory, the human head corresponded to the root ball of a plant, and the body to the stem and branches. Renooz rejected the idea of natural selection in human evolution, saying that humans were inherently cooperative (as she believed plants to be), rather than competitive like other animals. In an article, Renooz reported that her plant-based theory was not derived from research, but had come to her in a flash of intuition as she was leaving the Bibliothèque nationale de France after reading Claude Adrien Helvétius's De l'homme. She later attributed her other theories to the same intuitive power manifesting itself on other occasions.

text: Her first book, L'Origine des animaux (1883), was written in response to

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: The Origin of Species

text: , which had been published in France in an 1862 translation by

text: Clémence Royer

text: . Renooz described Darwin's theory as unscientific, arguing instead for an evolutionary theory based on

text: embryology

text: . Renooz concluded that humanity's ancestors could be traced to the

text: plant kingdom

text: and specifically to the

text: bean

text: family, a concept possibly influenced by

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: 's

text: recapitulation theory

text: . In Renooz's theory, the human head corresponded to the

text: root ball

text: of a plant, and the body to the stem and branches. Renooz rejected the idea of

text: natural selection

text: in human evolution, saying that humans were inherently cooperative (as she believed plants to be), rather than competitive like other animals. In an article, Renooz reported that her plant-based theory was not derived from research, but had come to her in a flash of

text: intuition

text: as she was leaving the

text: Bibliothèque nationale de France

text: after reading

text: Claude Adrien Helvétius

text: 's De l'homme. She later attributed her other theories to the same intuitive power manifesting itself on other occasions.

text: Dent’s chronometers accompanied some of the 19th century’s most influential explorers. Robert FitzRoy took Dent chronometer no. 633 aboard HMS Beagle in 1831 the voyage that eventually led to the publication of The Origin of the Species – Darwin’s revolutionary theory of evolution.

text: Dent’s chronometers accompanied some of the 19th century’s most influential explorers.

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: took Dent chronometer no. 633 aboard

text: HMS Beagle

text: in 1831 the voyage that eventually led to the publication of

text: The Origin of the Species

text: – Darwin’s revolutionary theory of evolution.

text: The second voyage of HMS Beagle, from 27 December 1831 to 2 October 1836, was the second survey expedition of HMS Beagle, under captain Robert FitzRoy who had taken over command of the ship on its first voyage after the previous captain committed suicide. FitzRoy had already thought of the advantages of having an expert in geology on board, and sought a gentleman naturalist to accompany them as a supernumerary. The young graduate Charles Darwin had hoped to see the tropics before becoming a parson, and accepted the opportunity. He was greatly influenced by reading Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology during the voyage. By the end of the expedition, Darwin had already made his name as a geologist and fossil collector, and the publication of his journal which became known as The Voyage of the Beagle gave him wide renown as a writer.

text: The second voyage of HMS Beagle, from 27 December 1831 to 2 October 1836, was the second survey expedition of

text: HMS Beagle

text: , under captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: who had taken over command of the ship on its first voyage after the previous captain committed suicide. FitzRoy had already thought of the advantages of having an expert in

text: geology

text: on board, and sought a gentleman

text: naturalist

text: to accompany them as a

text: supernumerary

text: . The young graduate

text: Charles Darwin

text: had hoped to see the tropics before becoming a

text: parson

text: , and accepted the opportunity. He was greatly influenced by reading

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's

text: Principles of Geology

text: during the voyage. By the end of the expedition, Darwin had already made his name as a geologist and

text: fossil

text: collector, and the publication of his journal which became known as

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: gave him wide renown as a writer.

text: Alfred Russel Wallace, co-founder of the theory of evolution by natural selection, with Darwin, wrote of Reid:

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , co-founder of the theory of evolution by natural selection, with Darwin, wrote of Reid:

text: The book came five years after Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace announced their theory of evolution by means of natural selection, and four years after the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species. In the Origin Darwin had deliberately avoided tackling human evolution, but left a gnomic trailer: "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history". Darwin's sequel came eight years later, with The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871).

text: The book came five years after

text: Charles Darwin

text: and

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: announced their theory of

text: evolution

text: by means of

text: natural selection

text: , and four years after the publication of Darwin's

text: Origin of Species

text: . In the

text: Origin

text: Darwin had deliberately avoided tackling human evolution, but left a gnomic trailer: "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history". Darwin's sequel came eight years later, with

text: Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The concept, published by Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in a joint presentation of papers in 1858, was elaborated in Darwin's influential 1859 book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, which described natural selection as analogous to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the modern evolutionary synthesis of the mid-20th century. The addition of molecular genetics has led to evolutionary developmental biology, which explains evolution at the molecular level. While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift, natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.

text: biology

text: . The concept, published by Darwin and

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: in a

text: joint presentation of papers in 1858

text: , was elaborated in Darwin's influential 1859 book

text: , which described natural selection as analogous to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics. The union of traditional

text: Darwinian evolution

text: with subsequent discoveries in

text: classical genetics

text: formed the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: of the mid-20th century. The addition of

text: molecular genetics

text: has led to

text: evolutionary developmental biology

text: , which explains evolution at the molecular level. While genotypes can slowly change by random

text: genetic drift

text: , natural selection remains the primary explanation for

text: adaptive evolution

text: When the survey voyage of HMS Beagle visited the Galápagos Islands in September to October 1835, the naturalist Charles Darwin noticed that the mockingbirds Mimus thenca differed from island to island, and were closely allied in appearance to mockingbirds on the South American mainland. Nearly a year later when writing up his notes on the return voyage he speculated that this, together with what he had been told about Galápagos tortoises, could undermine the doctrine of stability of species. This was his first recorded expression of his doubts about species being immutable, which led to his being convinced about the transmutation of species and hence evolution.

text: When the

text: survey voyage of HMS Beagle

text: visited the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: in September to October 1835, the naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: noticed that the mockingbirds Mimus thenca differed from island to island, and were closely allied in appearance to mockingbirds on the

text: South America

text: n mainland. Nearly a year later when writing up his notes on the return voyage he speculated that this, together with what he had been told about

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s, could undermine the doctrine of stability of species. This was his first recorded expression of his doubts about species being immutable, which led to his being convinced about the

text: transmutation of species

text: and hence

text: evolution

text: A similar exercise in naming mountains after naturalists and other late nineteenth century proponents of evolution theory was carried out at the West Coast Range in Tasmania, Australia. In contrast, Mount Darwin in Tierra del Fuego was given its name during the voyage of the Beagle by captain Robert FitzRoy to celebrate Darwin's 25th birthday on 12 February 1834.

text: A similar exercise in naming mountains after naturalists and other late nineteenth century proponents of evolution theory was carried out at the

text: West Coast Range

text: in

text: Tasmania

text: Australia

text: . In contrast,

text: Mount Darwin

text: in

text: Tierra del Fuego

text: was given its name during

text: the voyage of the Beagle

text: by captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: to celebrate Darwin's 25th birthday on 12 February 1834.

text: Karl Gegenbaur (21 August 1826 – 14 June 1903) was a German anatomist and professor who demonstrated that the field of comparative anatomy offers important evidence supporting of the theory of evolution.  As a professor of anatomy at the University of Jena (1855–1873) and at the University of Heidelberg (1873–1903), Karl Gegenbaur was a strong supporter of Charles Darwin's theory of organic evolution, having taught and worked, beginning in 1858, with Ernst Haeckel, 8 years his junior.

text: Karl Gegenbaur (21 August 1826 – 14 June 1903) was a

text: German

text: anatomist

text: and

text: professor

text: who demonstrated that the field of

text: comparative anatomy

text: offers important evidence supporting of the

text: theory of evolution

text: .  As a professor of

text: anatomy

text: at the

text: University of Jena

text: (1855–1873) and at the

text: University of Heidelberg

text: (1873–1903), Karl Gegenbaur was a strong supporter of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of organic evolution, having taught and worked, beginning in 1858, with

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: , 8 years his junior.

text: Unwittingly, humans have carried out evolution experiments for as long as they have been domesticating plants and animals. Selective breeding of plants and animals has led to varieties that differ dramatically from their original wild-type ancestors. Examples are the cabbage varieties, maize, or the large number of different dog breeds. The power of human breeding to create varieties with extreme differences from a single species was already recognized by Charles Darwin. In fact, he started out his book The Origin of Species with a chapter on variation in domestic animals. In this chapter, Darwin discussed in particular the pigeon.

text: Unwittingly, humans have carried out evolution experiments for as long as they have been

text: domesticating

text: plants and animals.

text: Selective breeding

text: of plants and animals has led to varieties that differ dramatically from their original wild-type ancestors. Examples are the

text: cabbage

text: varieties,

text: maize

text: , or the large number of different

text: dog

text: breeds. The power of human breeding to create varieties with extreme differences from a single species was already recognized by

text: Charles Darwin

text: . In fact, he started out his book

text: The Origin of Species

text: with a chapter on variation in domestic animals. In this chapter, Darwin discussed in particular the pigeon.

text: Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) was an English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defence of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Mostly a self-educated man, he had an extraordinary influence on the British educated public. He was instrumental in developing scientific education in Britain, and opposed those Christian leaders who tried to stifle scientific debate. He was a member of eight Royal Commissions and two other commissions. A noted unbeliever, he used the term "agnostic" to describe his attitude to theism.

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: (1825–1895) was an English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defence of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's

text: theory of evolution

text: . Mostly a self-educated man, he had an extraordinary influence on the British educated public. He was instrumental in developing scientific education in Britain, and opposed those Christian leaders who tried to stifle scientific debate. He was a member of eight

text: Royal Commission

text: s and two other commissions. A noted

text: unbeliever

text: , he used the term "

text: agnostic

text: " to describe his attitude to

text: theism

text: Later advocates of this theory suggested radical and often coercive social measures in an attempt to "correct" this imbalance. Thomas Huxley spent much time demonstrating through a series of thought experiments that it would not only be immoral, but impossible, Stephen Jay Gould and others have argued that social Darwinism is based on misconceptions of evolutionary theory, and many ethicists regard it as a case of the is-ought problem. After the atrocities of the Holocaust became linked with eugenics, it greatly fell out of favor with public and scientific opinion, though it was never universally accepted by either, and at no point in Nazi literature is Charles Darwin or the scientific theory of evolution mentioned.

text: Later advocates of this theory suggested radical and often coercive social measures in an attempt to "correct" this imbalance.

text: Thomas Huxley

text: spent much time demonstrating through a series of thought experiments that it would not only be immoral, but impossible,

text: Stephen Jay Gould

text: and others have argued that social Darwinism is based on misconceptions of evolutionary theory, and many ethicists regard it as a case of the

text: is-ought problem

text: . After the atrocities of

text: the Holocaust

text: became linked with eugenics, it greatly fell out of favor with public and scientific opinion, though it was never universally accepted by either, and at no point in Nazi literature is Charles Darwin or the scientific theory of evolution mentioned.

text: These different views derive from studies of different genes. A synthesis of all available genetic data indicates Arnold's tortoise is genetically the most distinctive Aldabrachelys tortoise.  This fits with the ecology and morphology of the species, as a highly distinctive tortoise adapted to feeding on low vegetation rather than the grazing habits of the Seychelles giant tortoise and Aldabra giant tortoise.  Due to its unusual 'saddlebacked' shape, this is the only Seychelles tortoise species that regularly basks in the sun.  The other species do so occasionally, but Arnold's tortoises rapidly lose heat from the skin of their exposed necks and need to heat up in the sun in the mornings.

text: The voyage of the Beagle brought the survey ship HMS Beagle, under captain Robert FitzRoy, to the Galápagos on 15 September 1835 to survey approaches to harbours. The captain and others on board, including his companion, the young naturalist Charles Darwin, made observations on the geology and biology on Chatham, Charles, Albemarle and James islands before they left on 20 October to continue on their round-the-world expedition. Primarily a geologist at the time, Darwin was impressed by the quantity of volcanic craters they saw, later referring to the archipelago as "that land of craters." His study of several volcanic formations over the 5 weeks he stayed in the islands, led to several important geological discoveries, including the first, correct explanation for how volcanic tuff is formed. Darwin noticed the mockingbirds differed between islands, though he thought the birds now known as Darwin's finches were unrelated to each other, and did not bother labelling them by island. Nicholas Lawson, acting Governor of Galápagos for the Republic of the Equator, met them on Charles Island, and as they walked to the prison colony, Lawson told Darwin the tortoises differed from island to island. Towards the end of the voyage, Darwin speculated that the distribution of the mockingbirds and the tortoises might "undermine the stability of Species". When specimens of birds were analysed on his return to England, it was found that many apparently different kinds of birds were species of finches, which were unique to islands. These facts were crucial in Darwin's development of his theory of natural selection explaining evolution, which was presented in The Origin of Species.

text: The voyage of the Beagle

text: brought the survey ship

text: HMS Beagle

text: , under captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , to the Galápagos on 15 September 1835 to survey approaches to harbours. The captain and others on board, including his companion, the young naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: , made observations on the geology and biology on Chatham, Charles, Albemarle and James islands before they left on 20 October to continue on their round-the-world expedition. Primarily a geologist at the time, Darwin was impressed by the quantity of volcanic craters they saw, later referring to the archipelago as "that land of craters." His study of several volcanic formations over the 5 weeks he stayed in the islands, led to several important geological discoveries, including the first, correct explanation for how volcanic

text: tuff

text: is formed. Darwin noticed the

text: mockingbird

text: s differed between islands, though he thought the birds now known as

text: Darwin's finches

text: were unrelated to each other, and did not bother labelling them by island.

text: Nicholas Lawson

text: , acting Governor of Galápagos for the Republic of the Equator, met them on Charles Island, and as they walked to the prison colony, Lawson told Darwin the tortoises differed from island to island. Towards the end of the voyage, Darwin speculated that the distribution of the mockingbirds and the tortoises might "undermine the stability of Species". When specimens of birds were analysed on his return to England, it was found that many apparently different kinds of birds were species of

text: finch

text: es, which were unique to islands. These facts were crucial in Darwin's development of his theory of

text: natural selection

text: explaining

text: evolution

text: , which was presented in

text: The Origin of Species

text: Born in Magdeburg to industrialist Johann Gottlob Nathusius, Hermann von Nathusius studied the natural sciences. He took over Schloss Hundisburg from his father and turned it to agriculture, particularly cattle breeding. He introduced cattle breeds from England to Germany, and worked to promote the study of cattle breeding. He collected a large amount of information on his herds, whose breeding he personally oversaw, and amassed a collection of domesticated animal skeletons; his writings became an important reference for the scientific treatment of animal breeding. He was opposed to his contemporary Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, but data from his careful study of breeds was nonetheless used as support for that theory.

text: Born in

text: Magdeburg

text: to industrialist

text: Johann Gottlob Nathusius

text: , Hermann von Nathusius studied the

text: natural science

text: s. He took over

text: Schloss Hundisburg

text: from his father and turned it to agriculture, particularly cattle breeding. He introduced cattle breeds from England to Germany, and worked to promote the study of cattle breeding. He collected a large amount of information on his herds, whose breeding he personally oversaw, and amassed a collection of domesticated animal

text: skeleton

text: s; his writings became an important reference for the scientific treatment of animal breeding. He was opposed to his contemporary

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: , but data from his careful study of breeds was nonetheless used as support for that theory.

text: The title of the book is a reference to The Voyage of the Beagle, Charles Darwin's book about his five-year voyage around the world on the HMS Beagle.

text: The title of the book is a reference to

text: The Voyage of the Beagle

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's book about his five-year voyage around the world on the

text: HMS Beagle

text: During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by HMS Beagle captain Robert FitzRoy after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats, and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. Another Darwin Sound in British Columbia's Queen Charlotte Islands, between Moresby Island and Lyell Island, was named in 1878 by Canada's then-chief geographer George M. Dawson for Darwin. When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin. The settlement of Palmerston founded there in 1869 was officially renamed Darwin in 1911. It became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.

text: Beagle Channel

text: was named

text: Darwin Sound

text: by

text: HMS Beagle

text: captain

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: glacier

text: Mount Darwin

text: in the

text: Andes

text: was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday. Another

text: Darwin Sound

text: in British Columbia's

text: Queen Charlotte Islands

text: , between

text: Moresby Island

text: and

text: Lyell Island

text: , was named in 1878 by Canada's then-chief geographer

text: George M. Dawson

text: for Darwin. When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend

text: John Lort Stokes

text: Wickham

text: named

text: Port Darwin

text: . The settlement of

text: Palmerston

text: founded there in 1869

text: was officially renamed

text: Darwin

text: in 1911. It became the capital city of Australia's

text: Northern Territory

text: Thus Pius acknowledged in 1950, that evolution might accurately describe the biological origins of human life, but at the same time criticized those who use it as a religion, who "imprudently and indiscreetly hold that evolution... explains the origin of all things".   While Humani generis was significant as the first occasion on which a pope explicitly addressed the topic of evolution at length, it did not represent a change in doctrine for the Roman Catholic Church. As early as 1868, Cardinal John Henry Newman wrote, "the theory of Darwin, true or not, is not necessarily atheistic; on the contrary, it may simply be suggesting a larger idea of divine providence and skill."

text: Thus Pius acknowledged in 1950, that

text: evolution

text: might accurately describe the biological origins of human life, but at the same time criticized those who use it as a religion, who "imprudently and indiscreetly hold that evolution... explains the origin of all things".   While Humani generis was significant as the first occasion on which a pope explicitly addressed the topic of evolution at length, it did not represent a change in doctrine for the

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: . As early as 1868, Cardinal

text: John Henry Newman

text: wrote, "the theory of Darwin, true or not, is not necessarily atheistic; on the contrary, it may simply be suggesting a larger idea of divine providence and skill."

text: Angraecum sesquipedale , also known as Darwin's orchid, Christmas orchid, Star of Bethlehem orchid, and King of the Angraecums, is an epiphytic orchid in the genus Angraecum endemic to Madagascar. The orchid was first discovered by the French botanist Louis-Marie Aubert du Petit-Thouars in 1798, but was not described until 1822. It is noteworthy for its long spur and its association with the naturalist Charles Darwin, who surmised that the flower was pollinated by a then undiscovered moth with a proboscis whose length was unprecedented at the time. His prediction had gone unverified until 21 years after his death, when the moth was discovered and his conjecture vindicated. The story of its postulated pollinator has come to be seen as one of the celebrated predictions of the theory of evolution.

text: Angraecum sesquipedale , also known as Darwin's orchid, Christmas orchid, Star of Bethlehem orchid, and King of the Angraecums, is an

text: epiphytic

text: orchid

text: in the genus

text: Angraecum

text: endemic to

text: Madagascar

text: . The orchid was first discovered by the French botanist

text: Louis-Marie Aubert du Petit-Thouars

text: in 1798, but was not described until 1822. It is noteworthy for its long spur and its association with the naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who surmised that the flower was pollinated by a then undiscovered moth with a proboscis whose length was unprecedented at the time. His prediction had gone unverified until 21 years after his death, when the moth was discovered and his conjecture vindicated. The story of its postulated pollinator has come to be seen as one of the celebrated predictions of the theory of

text: evolution

text: Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection, than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at the same rate – some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment. This distanced his theory from Lamarckian laws of inevitable progress. It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis, but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism. He cited Richard Owen's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor. Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and William Clift had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.

text: Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection, than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at

text: the same rate

text: – some organisms such as

text: Lingula

text: were unchanged since the earliest fossils. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment. This distanced his theory from

text: Lamarckian

text: laws of inevitable progress. It has been argued that this anticipated the

text: punctuated equilibrium

text: hypothesis, but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism. He cited

text: Richard Owen

text: 's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor. Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and

text: William Clift

text: had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.

text: The area of biological knowledge which Darwin was the first to subject to scientific method and to render, as it were, contributory to the great stream formed by the union of the various branches, is that which relates to the breeding of animals and plants, their congenital variations, and the transmission and perpetuation of those variations. This branch of biological science may be called thremmatology - the science of breeding. Outside the scientific world, an immense mass of observation and experiment had grown up in relation to this subject. From the earliest times the shepherd, the farmer, the horticulturist, and the fancier had for practical purposes made themselves acquainted with a number of biological laws, and successfully applied them without exciting more than an occasional notice from the academic students of biology. Darwin made use of these observations and formulated their results to a large extent as the laws of variation and heredity. As the breeder selects a congenital variation which suits his requirements, and by breeding from the animals (or plants) exhibiting that variation obtains a new breed specially characterised by that variation, so in nature is there a selection amongst all the congenital variations of each generation of a species. This selection depends on the fact that more young are born than the natural provision of food will support. In consequence of this excess of births there is a struggle for existence and a survival of the fittest, and consequently an ever-present necessarily acting selection, which either maintains accurately the form of the species from generation to generation or leads to its modification in correspondence with changes in the surrounding circumstances which have relation to its fitness for success in the struggle for life, structures to the service of the organisms in which they occur.

text: The area of biological knowledge which Darwin was the first to subject to scientific method and to render, as it were, contributory to the great stream formed by the union of the various branches, is that which relates to the breeding of animals and plants, their congenital variations, and the transmission and perpetuation of those variations. This branch of biological science may be called

text: thremmatology

text: - the science of

text: breeding

text: . Outside the scientific world, an immense mass of observation and experiment had grown up in relation to this subject. From the earliest times the

text: shepherd

text: , the

text: farmer

text: , the

text: horticulturist

text: , and the

text: fancier

text: had for practical purposes made themselves acquainted with a number of biological laws, and successfully applied them without exciting more than an occasional notice from the academic students of biology. Darwin made use of these observations and formulated their results to a large extent as the laws of

text: variation

text: and

text: heredity

text: . As the breeder selects a congenital variation which suits his requirements, and by breeding from the animals (or plants) exhibiting that variation obtains a new breed specially characterised by that variation, so in nature is there a selection amongst all the congenital variations of each generation of a species. This selection depends on the fact that more young are born than the natural provision of food will support. In consequence of this excess of births there is a struggle for existence and a

text: survival of the fittest

text: , and consequently an ever-present necessarily acting selection, which either maintains accurately the form of the species from generation to generation or leads to its modification in correspondence with changes in the surrounding circumstances which have relation to its fitness for success in the struggle for life, structures to the service of the organisms in which they occur.

text: Breeding of animals and plants showed related varieties varying in similar ways, or tending to revert to an ancestral form, and similar patterns of variation in distinct species were explained by Darwin as demonstrating common descent. He recounted how Lord Morton's mare apparently demonstrated telegony, offspring inheriting characteristics of a previous mate of the female parent, and accepted this process as increasing the variation available for natural selection.

text: Breeding of animals and plants showed related varieties varying in similar ways, or tending to revert to an ancestral form, and similar patterns of variation in distinct species were explained by Darwin as demonstrating

text: common descent

text: . He recounted how

text: Lord Morton's mare

text: apparently demonstrated

text: telegony

text: , offspring inheriting characteristics of a previous mate of the female parent, and accepted this process as increasing the variation available for natural selection.

text: The Beagle touched at Madeira for a confirmed position without stopping, Then on 6 January it reached Tenerife in the Canary Islands, but was quarantined there because of cholera in England. Although tantalisingly near to the town of Santa Cruz, to Darwin's intense disappointment, they were denied landing. With improving weather conditions, they sailed on. On 10 January Darwin tried out a plankton net he had devised to be towed behind the ship - only the second recorded use of such a net (after use by John Vaughan Thompson in 1816). Next day, he noted the great number of animals collected far from land and wrote "Many of these creatures so low in the scale of nature are most exquisite in their forms & rich colours. — It creates a feeling of wonder that so much beauty should be apparently created for such little purpose."

text: The Beagle touched at

text: Madeira

text: for a confirmed position without stopping, Then on 6 January it reached

text: Tenerife

text: in the

text: Canary Islands

text: , but was

text: quarantined

text: there because of

text: cholera

text: in England. Although tantalisingly near to the town of

text: Santa Cruz

text: , to Darwin's intense disappointment, they were denied landing. With improving weather conditions, they sailed on. On 10 January Darwin tried out a

text: plankton net

text: he had devised to be towed behind the ship - only the second recorded use of such a net (after use by

text: John Vaughan Thompson

text: in 1816). Next day, he noted the great number of animals collected far from land and wrote "Many of these creatures so low in the scale of nature are most exquisite in their forms & rich colours. — It creates a feeling of wonder that so much beauty should be apparently created for such little purpose."

text: According to some 19th-century western authors, the Chinese tradition of using a tortoise as a pedestal may have a common source with the Indian legend of the world being held up by a giant turtle.

text: The observations made in the first studies of marine biology fueled the age of discovery and exploration that followed. During this time, a vast amount of knowledge was gained about the life that exists in the oceans of the world. Many voyages contributed significantly to this pool of knowledge. Among the most significant were the voyages of the HMS Beagle where Charles Darwin came up with his theories of evolution and on the formation of coral reefs. Another important expedition was undertaken by HMS Challenger, where findings were made of unexpectedly high species diversity among fauna stimulating much theorizing by population ecologists on how such varieties of life could be maintained in what was thought to be such a hostile environment. This era was important for the history of marine biology but naturalists were still limited in their studies because they lacked technology that would allow them to adequately examine species that lived in deep parts of the oceans.

text: The observations made in the first studies of marine biology fueled the

text: age of discovery

text: and exploration that followed. During this time, a vast amount of knowledge was gained about the life that exists in the oceans of the world. Many voyages contributed significantly to this pool of knowledge. Among the most significant were the voyages of the

text: HMS Beagle

text: where

text: Charles Darwin

text: came up with his theories of

text: evolution

text: and on the formation of

text: coral reefs

text: . Another important expedition was undertaken by

text: HMS Challenger

text: , where findings were made of unexpectedly high

text: species diversity

text: among

text: fauna

text: stimulating much theorizing by population ecologists on how such varieties of life could be maintained in what was thought to be such a hostile environment. This era was important for the history of marine biology but naturalists were still limited in their studies because they lacked technology that would allow them to adequately examine species that lived in deep parts of the oceans.

text: Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was also a central theme in the Principles, and a powerful influence on the 22-year-old Charles Darwin, who was given Volume 1 of the first edition by Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS Beagle, just before they set out on the voyage of the Beagle. On their first stop ashore at St Jago, Darwin found rock formations which -seen "through Lyell's eyes"- gave him a revolutionary insight into the geological history of the island, an insight he applied throughout his travels. While in South America, Darwin received Volume 2, which rejected the idea of organic evolution, proposing "Centres of Creation" to explain diversity and territory of species. Darwin's ideas gradually moved beyond this,  but in geology he was very much Lyell's disciple and sent home extensive evidence and theorising supporting Lyell's uniformitarianism, including Darwin's ideas about the formation of atolls.

text: Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was also a central theme in the Principles, and a powerful influence on the 22-year-old

text: Charles Darwin

text: , who was given Volume 1 of the first edition by

text: Robert FitzRoy

text: , captain of

text: HMS Beagle

text: , just before they set out on the

text: voyage of the Beagle

text: . On their first stop ashore at

text: St Jago

text: , Darwin found rock formations which -seen "through Lyell's eyes"- gave him a revolutionary insight into the geological history of the island, an insight he applied throughout his travels. While in South America, Darwin received Volume 2, which rejected the idea of organic

text: evolution

text: , proposing "Centres of Creation" to explain diversity and territory of species. Darwin's ideas gradually moved beyond this,  but in geology he was very much Lyell's disciple and sent home extensive evidence and theorising supporting Lyell's uniformitarianism, including Darwin's ideas about the formation of

text: atoll

text: s.

text: For Darwin and his contemporaries, natural selection was in essence synonymous with evolution by natural selection. After the publication of On the Origin of Species, educated people generally accepted that evolution had occurred in some form. However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its "unguided" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance. However, some thinkers enthusiastically embraced natural selection; after reading Darwin, Herbert Spencer introduced the phrase survival of the fittest, which became a popular summary of the theory. The fifth edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1869 included Spencer's phrase as an alternative to natural selection, with credit given: "But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient." Although the phrase is still often used by non-biologists, modern biologists avoid it because it is tautological if "fittest" is read to mean "functionally superior" and is applied to individuals rather than considered as an averaged quantity over populations.

text: For Darwin and his contemporaries, natural selection was in essence synonymous with evolution by natural selection. After the publication of On the Origin of Species, educated people generally accepted that evolution had occurred in some form. However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its "unguided" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance. However, some thinkers enthusiastically embraced natural selection; after reading Darwin,

text: Herbert Spencer

text: introduced the phrase

text: survival of the fittest

text: , which became a popular summary of the theory. The fifth edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1869 included Spencer's phrase as an alternative to natural selection, with credit given: "But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient." Although the phrase is still often used by non-biologists, modern biologists avoid it because it is

text: tautological

text: if "fittest" is read to mean "functionally superior" and is applied to individuals rather than considered as an averaged quantity over populations.

text: The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism is an intelligent design book by Discovery Institute fellow Michael Behe, published by the Free Press in 2007. Behe argues that while evolution can produce changes within species, there is a limit to the ability of evolution to generate diversity, and this limit (the "edge of evolution") is somewhere between species and orders. On this basis, he says that known evolutionary mechanisms cannot be responsible for all the observed diversification from the last universal ancestor and the intervention of an intelligent designer can adequately account for much of the diversity of life. It is Behe's second intelligent design book, his first being Darwin's Black Box.

text: The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism is an

text: intelligent design

text: book by

text: Discovery Institute

text: fellow

text: Michael Behe

text: , published by the

text: Free Press

text: in 2007. Behe argues that while

text: evolution

text: can produce changes within species, there is a limit to the ability of evolution to generate diversity, and this limit (the "edge of evolution") is somewhere between

text: species

text: and

text: orders

text: . On this basis, he says that known evolutionary mechanisms cannot be responsible for all the observed diversification from the

text: last universal ancestor

text: and the intervention of an

text: intelligent designer

text: can adequately account for much of the diversity of life. It is Behe's second intelligent design book, his first being

text: Darwin's Black Box

text: A common misconception is that evolution cannot be reliably observed because it all happened millions of years ago and the science therefore is not dependent on facts (in the initial sense above). However, both Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-founders of the theory, and all subsequent biologists depend primarily on observations of living organisms; Darwin concentrated largely on the breeding of domesticated animals whereas Wallace started from the biogeographical distribution of species in the Amazon and Malay Archipelago. In the early twentieth century, population genetics had centre stage, and more recently DNA has become the main focus of observation and experimentation.

text: A common misconception is that evolution cannot be reliably observed because it all happened millions of years ago and the science therefore is not dependent on facts (in the initial sense above). However, both Darwin and

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: , the co-founders of the theory, and all subsequent biologists depend primarily on observations of living organisms; Darwin concentrated largely on the breeding of domesticated animals whereas Wallace started from the

text: biogeographical

text: distribution of species in the

text: Amazon

text: and

text: Malay Archipelago

text: . In the early twentieth century,

text: population genetics

text: had centre stage, and more recently

text: DNA

text: has become the main focus of observation and experimentation.

text: It is thought that as many as 40 tortoises were stowed aboard the Beagle.  Some were slaughtered for food, others were kept as souvenirs by crew members, a few as scientific specimens.  Once the Beagle returned to England, the care of these large creatures became burdensome, so they were adopted by a local museum.  There is no evidence that Darwin kept any of them as a pet in his home.

text: Lysenko rejected Mendelian genetic inheritance theory in favor of his own logic. He believed Mendel's theory to be too reactionary or idealist. Lysenko's ideas were for the most part his own and not directly derived from any already established ideas such as Mendelian genetics theory, Lamarckism, or ideas from Darwin. Lysenko shaped his genetic concepts in series to support a simple practical purpose in breeding and improving wheat. His ideas were also shaped with the caution to disprove other claims made by his fellow geneticists at the time. His ideas and genetic claims later began to be coined "Lysenkoism". Lysenko claimed that his ideas were not associated to Lamarckism and that they were all their own, but this is not entirely true. It is possible to see that there are similar ideas between the two groups, such as acquired characteristics. Some of the ideas can seem to be vitalistic, for example, he describes that plants are self-sacrificing. They do not die to a lack of sunlight or moisture, but instead die so that healthy ones may live, and that when they die they will deposit themselves over the other growing roots to help them grow.

text: Naik argues, "What Darwin said was only a theory. There is no book saying 'the Fact of Evolution' – All the books say Theory of Evolution." He further added, "There is not a single statement in the Qur'an, which Science has proved wrong yet. Hypothesis go against the Qur'an – theories go against the Qur'an. There is not a single scientific fact, which is mentioned in the Holy Qur'an which goes against established science – It may go against theory."

text: Then on his voyage on the Beagle Darwin became convinced by Charles Lyell's uniformitarian theory of gradual geological process, and puzzled over how various theories of creation fitted the evidence he saw.

text: Then on

text: his voyage on the Beagle

text: Darwin became convinced by

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's

text: uniformitarian

text: theory of gradual geological process, and puzzled over how various

text: theories of creation

text: fitted the evidence he saw.

text: Regardless of how scholars of Spencer interpret his relation to Darwin, Spencer proved to be an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the United States. Authors such as Edward L. Youmans, William Graham Sumner, John Fiske, John W. Burgess, Lester Frank Ward, Lewis H. Morgan and other thinkers of the gilded age all developed theories of social evolutionism as a result of their exposure to Spencer as well as Darwin.

text: Regardless of how scholars of Spencer interpret his relation to

text: Darwin

text: , Spencer proved to be an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the

text: United States

text: . Authors such as

text: Edward L. Youmans

text: William Graham Sumner

text: John Fiske

text: John W. Burgess

text: Lester Frank Ward

text: Lewis H. Morgan

text: and other thinkers of the

text: gilded age

text: all developed theories of social evolutionism as a result of their exposure to Spencer as well as Darwin.

text: Darwin's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon fossil evidence, and the X Club was formed to defend evolution against the church and wealthy amateurs. However, the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided—natural selection—was actively disputed by scientists in favour of alternative theories such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis. Darwin's gradualistic account was also opposed by saltationism and catastrophism. Lord Kelvin led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations that the Earth was between 24 and 400 million years old, an estimate disputed by geologists. These figures were corrected in 1907 when radioactive dating of rocks showed that the Earth was billions of years old. Kelvin's own views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance. The specific hereditary mechanism Darwin provided, pangenesis, lacked any supporting evidence. Although evolution was unchallenged, uncertainties about the mechanism in the eclipse of Darwinism persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s  inclusion of Mendelian inheritance and the rise of the modern evolutionary synthesis. The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence, such as genetics, which confirmed Darwin's predictions and refuted the competing theories.

text: Darwin's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon

text: fossil

text: evidence, and the

text: X Club

text: was formed to defend evolution against the church and wealthy amateurs. However, the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided—natural selection—was actively disputed by scientists in favour of alternative theories such as

text: Lamarckism

text: and

text: orthogenesis

text: . Darwin's

text: gradualistic

text: account was also opposed by

text: saltationism

text: and

text: catastrophism

text: Lord Kelvin

text: led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations that the

text: Earth

text: was

text: between 24 and 400 million years old

text: , an estimate disputed by geologists. These figures were corrected in 1907 when radioactive dating of rocks showed that the Earth was billions of years old. Kelvin's own views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance. The specific

text: hereditary

text: mechanism Darwin provided,

text: pangenesis

text: , lacked any supporting evidence. Although evolution was unchallenged, uncertainties about the mechanism in

text: the eclipse of Darwinism

text: persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s  inclusion of

text: Mendelian inheritance

text: and the rise of the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: . The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence, such as

text: genetics

text: , which confirmed Darwin's predictions and refuted the competing theories.

text: Charles Darwin also described duck hybrids in The Variation of Animals And Plants Under Domestication:

text: Charles Darwin

text: also described duck hybrids in The Variation of Animals And Plants Under Domestication:

text: World of Reptiles has been an attraction at the zoo since it first opened. The building's first curator was Raymond Lee Ditmars, who had kept 45 snakes in his attic before being hired at the zoo. The exhibit is a long hall with various terrariums situated on both sides. The exhibit also features a nursery area, which exhibits newborn herptiles born at the zoo, as well as a window into the off-show breeding and caring facilities. In the building, the zoo breeds and exhibits a wide range of endangered species, including Cuban crocodile, false gharial, yellow-headed day gecko, Mary River turtle, Fly River turtle, golden coin turtle, yellow-headed box turtle, Volcán Darwin giant tortoise (Chelonoidis nigra microphyes), Egyptian tortoise, pancake tortoise, Panamanian golden frog, and golden poison dart frog. The building also is home to the zoo's breeding population of Kihansi spray toads, which the zoo saved from extinction. Other species held include lace monitor, northern caiman lizard, Taylor's cantil, green anaconda, eyelash palm pitviper, giant snake-necked turtle, Chiapas giant musk turtle, and Solomon Island leaf frog. On March 25, 2011, a cobra escaped from its off-show enclosure, during which time the exhibit was closed to the public. Six days later, the animal was found elsewhere in the building. The zoo named the cobra "MIA" (Missing In Action) and placed it on-exhibit.

text: World of Reptiles has been an attraction at the zoo since it first opened. The building's first curator was

text: Raymond Lee Ditmars

text: , who had kept 45 snakes in his attic before being hired at the zoo. The exhibit is a long hall with various

text: terrarium

text: s situated on both sides. The exhibit also features a nursery area, which exhibits newborn

text: herptile

text: s born at the zoo, as well as a window into the off-show breeding and caring facilities. In the building, the zoo breeds and exhibits a wide range of endangered species, including

text: Cuban crocodile

text: false gharial

text: yellow-headed day gecko

text: Mary River turtle

text: Fly River turtle

text: golden coin turtle

text: yellow-headed box turtle

text: Volcán Darwin giant tortoise

text: (Chelonoidis nigra microphyes),

text: Egyptian tortoise

text: pancake tortoise

text: Panamanian golden frog

text: , and

text: golden poison dart frog

text: . The building also is home to the zoo's breeding population of

text: Kihansi spray toad

text: s, which the zoo saved from extinction. Other species held include

text: lace monitor

text: northern caiman lizard

text: Taylor's cantil

text: green anaconda

text: eyelash palm pitviper

text: giant snake-necked turtle

text: Chiapas giant musk turtle

text: , and

text: Solomon Island leaf frog

text: . On March 25, 2011, a

text: cobra

text: escaped from its off-show enclosure, during which time the exhibit was closed to the public. Six days later, the animal was found elsewhere in the building. The zoo named the cobra "MIA" (Missing In Action) and placed it on-exhibit.

text: Camarhynchus is a genus of bird in the family Thraupidae; all species of Camarhynchus are endemic to the Galápagos Islands, and together with related genera they are collectively known as Darwin's finches. Sometimes classified in the bunting and American sparrow family Emberizidae, more recent studies have shown it to belong in the tanager family.

text: Camarhynchus is a genus of

text: bird

text: in the family

text: Thraupidae

text: ; all species of Camarhynchus are

text: endemic

text: to the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: , and together with related genera they are collectively known as

text: Darwin's finches

text: . Sometimes classified in the bunting and American sparrow family

text: Emberizidae

text: tanager

text: family.

text: Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture, particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially, early human farmers selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics and used these as a seed source for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of characteristics over time. In time however, experiments began with deliberate hybridization, the science and understanding of which was greatly enhanced by the work of Gregor Mendel. Mendel's work ultimately led to the new science of genetics. Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering molecular biology, cytology, systematics, physiology, pathology, entomology, chemistry, and statistics (biometrics). It has also developed its own technology. Plant breeding efforts are divided into a number of different historical landmarks.

text: Plant breeding started with

text: sedentary

text: agriculture

text: , particularly the domestication of the first

text: agricultural

text: plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially, early human farmers selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics and used these as a seed source for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of characteristics over time. In time however, experiments began with deliberate hybridization, the science and understanding of which was greatly enhanced by the work of

text: Gregor Mendel

text: . Mendel's work ultimately led to the new science of

text: genetics

text: . Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering

text: molecular biology

text: cytology

text: systematics

text: physiology

text: pathology

text: entomology

text: chemistry

text: , and

text: statistics

text: biometrics

text: ). It has also developed its own technology. Plant breeding efforts are divided into a number of different historical landmarks.

text: Stephen Jay Gould also points out that "Darwin continually emphasized the difference between his two great and separate accomplishments: establishing the fact of evolution, and proposing a theory—natural selection—to explain the mechanism of evolution." These two aspects are frequently confused. Scientists continue to argue about particular explanations or mechanisms at work in specific instances of evolution – but the fact that evolution has occurred, and is still occurring, is undisputed.

text: Morgan was interested in evolution throughout his life. He wrote his thesis on the phylogeny of sea spiders (pycnogonids) and wrote four books about evolution. In Evolution and Adaptation (1903), he argued the anti-Darwinist position that selection could never produce wholly new species by acting on slight individual differences. He rejected Darwin's theory of sexual selection and the Neo-Lamarckian theory of the inheritance of acquired characters. Morgan was not the only scientist attacking natural selection. The period 1875–1925 has been called 'The eclipse of Darwinism'. After discovering many small stable heritable mutations in Drosophila, Morgan gradually changed his mind. The relevance of mutations for evolution is that only characters that are inherited can have an effect in evolution. Since Morgan (1915) 'solved the problem of heredity', he was in a unique position to examine critically Darwin's theory of natural selection.

text: Morgan was interested in evolution throughout his life. He wrote his thesis on the phylogeny of sea spiders (

text: pycnogonids

text: ) and wrote four books about evolution. In Evolution and Adaptation (1903), he argued the anti-Darwinist position that selection could never produce wholly new species by acting on slight individual differences. He rejected Darwin's theory of sexual selection and the Neo-Lamarckian theory of the inheritance of acquired characters. Morgan was not the only scientist attacking natural selection. The period 1875–1925 has been called '

text: The eclipse of Darwinism

text: '. After discovering many small stable heritable mutations in Drosophila, Morgan gradually changed his mind. The relevance of mutations for evolution is that only characters that are inherited can have an effect in evolution. Since Morgan (1915) 'solved the problem of heredity', he was in a unique position to examine critically Darwin's theory of natural selection.

text: Darwin's research and experiments on plants and animals continued, and his extensive writings countered the arguments against evolution, particularly those put by the Duke of Argyll and St George Mivart.

text: Darwin's research and experiments on plants and animals continued, and his extensive writings countered the arguments against evolution, particularly those put by the

text: Duke of Argyll

text: and

text: St George Mivart

text: Darwin became a keen student of Robert Edmond Grant, a Lamarckian anatomist. Grant had cited Erasmus Darwin in his doctoral thesis and shared the evolutionist ideas of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire on evolution by acquired characteristics. Charles joined Grant in pioneering investigations of the life cycle of marine invertebrates on the shores of the Firth of Forth.  Darwin and Grant collected tiny animals from the rock pools and walked along the rocky shore at Prestonpans, where Grant lived during the winter at Walford House. Grant began taking Darwin as a guest to professor Robert Jameson's Wernerian Natural History Society. There Charles saw John James Audubon lecturing on the habits of North American birds. In the April–October 1826 edition of the quarterly Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal edited by Jameson, an anonymous paper praised "Mr. Lamarck, one of the most sagacious naturalists of our day" for having "expressed himself in the most unambiguous manner. He admits, on the one hand, the existence of the simplest infusory animals; on the other, the existence of the simplest worms, by means of spontaneous generation, that is, by an aggregation process of animal elements; and maintains, that all other animals, by the operation of external circumstances, are evolved from these in a double series, and in a gradual manner." – this was the first use of the word "evolved" in a modern sense. Though some have attributed authorship to Jameson, this is hotly contested and others see Grant as having written it, as the first significant statement to relate Lamarck's concepts to the geological record of living organisms of the past.

text: Darwin became a keen student of

text: Robert Edmond Grant

text: , a

text: Lamarckian

text: anatomist. Grant had cited

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: in his doctoral thesis and shared the

text: evolutionist

text: ideas of

text: Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

text: on evolution by acquired characteristics. Charles joined Grant in pioneering investigations of the life cycle of

text: marine invertebrate

text: s on the shores of the

text: Firth of Forth

text: .  Darwin and Grant collected tiny animals from the rock pools and walked along the rocky shore at

text: Prestonpans

text: , where Grant lived during the winter at

text: Walford House

text: . Grant began taking Darwin as a guest to professor

text: Robert Jameson

text: 's

text: Wernerian Natural History Society

text: . There Charles saw

text: John James Audubon

text: lecturing on the habits of North American birds. In the April–October 1826 edition of the quarterly

text: Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal

text: edited by Jameson, an anonymous paper praised "Mr. Lamarck, one of the most sagacious naturalists of our day" for having "expressed himself in the most unambiguous manner. He admits, on the one hand, the existence of the simplest infusory animals; on the other, the existence of the simplest worms, by means of spontaneous generation, that is, by an aggregation process of animal elements; and maintains, that all other animals, by the operation of external circumstances, are evolved from these in a double series, and in a gradual manner." – this was the first use of the word "evolved" in a modern sense. Though some have attributed authorship to Jameson, this is hotly contested and others see Grant as having written it, as the first significant statement to relate Lamarck's concepts to the geological record of living organisms of the past.

text: Cylindraspis is a genus of recently extinct giant tortoises. All of its species lived in the Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Rodrigues and Réunion) in the Indian Ocean and all are now extinct due to hunting and introduction of non-native predators.

text: Cylindraspis is a

text: genus

text: of recently

text: extinct

text: giant

text: tortoises

text: . All of its

text: species

text: lived in the

text: Mascarene Islands

text: Mauritius

text: Rodrigues

text: and

text: Réunion

text: ) in the

text: Indian Ocean

text: and all are now extinct due to hunting and introduction of non-native

text: predator

text: s.

text: After working as an associate editor on the University of Cambridge Library project to collect, edit, and publish the correspondence of Charles Darwin, she wrote a two volume biography of the naturalist: Charles Darwin: Voyaging (1995), on his youth and years on the Beagle, and Charles Darwin: The Power of Place (2002), covering the years after the publication of his theory of evolution. The latter book has received acclaim for its innovative interpretation of the role of Darwin's correspondence in the formation of his scientific theory and recruitment of scientific support. In 2004, this volume won the History of Science Society's Pfizer Prize, the Society's highest honor awarded to individual works of scholarship. In 2003, it also won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Biography.

text: After working as an associate editor on the

text: University of Cambridge

text: Library project to collect, edit, and publish the correspondence of Charles Darwin, she wrote a two volume biography of the naturalist: Charles Darwin: Voyaging (1995), on his youth and

text: years on the Beagle

text: , and Charles Darwin: The Power of Place (2002), covering the years after the publication of his theory of

text: evolution

text: . The latter book has received acclaim for its innovative interpretation of the role of Darwin's correspondence in the formation of his scientific theory and recruitment of scientific support. In 2004, this volume won the

text: History of Science Society

text: 's Pfizer Prize, the Society's highest honor awarded to individual works of scholarship. In 2003, it also won the

text: James Tait Black Memorial Prize

text: for Biography.

text: The idea that animal and plant species were not constant, but changed over time, was suggested as far back as the 18th century. Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, gave it a firm scientific basis. A weakness of Darwin's work, however, was the lack of palaeontological evidence, as pointed out by Darwin himself. While it is easy to imagine natural selection producing the variation seen within genera and families, the transmutation between the higher categories was harder to imagine. The dramatic find of the London specimen of Archaeopteryx in 1861, only two years after the publication of Darwin's work, offered for the first time a link between the class of the highly derived birds, and that of the more primitive reptiles. In a letter to Darwin, the palaeontologist Hugh Falconer wrote:

text: The idea that animal and plant species were not constant, but changed over time, was suggested as far back as the 18th century. Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, gave it a firm scientific basis. A weakness of Darwin's work, however, was the lack of palaeontological evidence, as pointed out by Darwin himself. While it is easy to imagine

text: natural selection

text: producing the variation seen within

text: genera

text: and families, the transmutation between the higher categories was harder to imagine. The dramatic find of the

text: London specimen

text: of

text: Archaeopteryx

text: in 1861, only two years after the publication of Darwin's work, offered for the first time a link between the

text: class

text: of the highly derived birds, and that of the more primitive

text: reptile

text: s. In a letter to Darwin, the palaeontologist

text: Hugh Falconer

text: wrote:

text: Beagle was not allowed to land at Tenerife through fears that those aboard would bring cholera, but the ship proceeded to Cape Verde, Fernando de Noronha and Rio de Janeiro. She then spent some time surveying the coast of South America south from Rio de Janeiro, around Tierra del Fuego, the coast of Chile and as far north as Peru. Fitz-Roy finally detached Beagle from South America in August 1835. The Admiralty had not precisely specified his itinerary across the Pacific since they could not be sure how far north he would be able to survey in the time available, and hence precisely where he would be leaving from. But they did specify that he should stop at Tahiti, a point of previously well-determined longitude. The Admiralty also required that, like the journey across the Atlantic, it should be done in small stages to frequently rate the chronometers. Fitz-Roy chose to go via the Galápagos Islands. Subsequently Beagle visited Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia and Mauritius.

text: Beagle was not allowed to land at Tenerife through fears that those aboard would bring

text: cholera

text: , but the ship proceeded to Cape Verde,

text: Fernando de Noronha

text: and Rio de Janeiro. She then spent some time surveying the coast of South America south from Rio de Janeiro, around Tierra del Fuego, the coast of Chile and as far north as Peru. Fitz-Roy finally detached Beagle from South America in August 1835. The Admiralty had not precisely specified his itinerary across the Pacific since they could not be sure how far north he would be able to survey in the time available, and hence precisely where he would be leaving from. But they did specify that he should stop at

text: Tahiti

text: , a point of previously well-determined longitude. The Admiralty also required that, like the journey across the Atlantic, it should be done in small stages to frequently rate the chronometers. Fitz-Roy chose to go via the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: . Subsequently Beagle visited Tahiti, New Zealand, Australia and

text: Mauritius

text: Wallace collected more than 126,000 specimens in the Malay Archipelago (more than 80,000 beetles alone). Several thousand of them represented species new to science. One of his better-known species descriptions during this trip is that of the gliding tree frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, known as Wallace's flying frog. While he was exploring the archipelago, he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year.

text: Wallace collected more than 126,000 specimens in the Malay Archipelago (more than 80,000 beetles alone). Several thousand of them represented species new to science. One of his better-known species descriptions during this trip is that of the gliding tree frog

text: Rhacophorus nigropalmatus

text: , known as Wallace's

text: flying frog

text: . While he was exploring the archipelago, he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on

text: natural selection

text: . In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year.

text: Intelligent design, the central idea of the book, is then introduced.  He distinguishes it from theistic evolution and, especially, purely naturalistic evolution.  Explaining a motivation for it, he states, "Darwinism is the totalizing claim that [natural selection] accounts for all the diversity and complexity of life.  The evidence simply does not support this claim....  [There] is always a temptation in science [to] think that one's theory encompasses a far bigger domain than it actually does."  He lists numerous phenomena that he claims have proven to be "utterly intractable" for natural selection, including the origin of life, the origin of the genetic code, and the Cambrian explosion.

text: Intelligent design, the central idea of the book, is then introduced.  He distinguishes it from

text: theistic evolution

text: and, especially, purely naturalistic evolution.  Explaining a motivation for it, he states, "Darwinism is the totalizing claim that [natural selection] accounts for all the diversity and complexity of life.  The evidence simply does not support this claim....  [There] is always a temptation in science [to] think that one's theory encompasses a far bigger domain than it actually does."  He lists numerous phenomena that he claims have proven to be "utterly intractable" for natural selection, including the origin of life, the origin of the

text: genetic code

text: , and the

text: Cambrian explosion

text: Creationism arose during the 20th century as a result of various other historical developments. When the modern evolutionary synthesis overcame the eclipse of Darwinism in the first half of the 20th century, American fundamentalist Christians began opposing the teaching of the theory of evolution in public schools. They introduced numerous laws to this effect, one of which was notoriously upheld by the Scopes Trial.In the second half of the century the Space Race caused a renewed interest in science and worry that the USA was falling behind on the Soviet Union. Stricter science standards were adopted and led to the re-introduction of the theory of evolution in the curriculum. The laws against teaching evolution were now ruled unconstitutional, because they violated the separation of church and state. Attempting to evade this ruling, the Christian fundamentalists produced a supposedly secular alternative to evolution, Creationism. Perhaps the most influential publication of this new pseudoscience was The Genesis Flood by young earth creationists John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris.

text: Creationism

text: arose during the 20th century as a result of various other historical developments. When the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: overcame the

text: eclipse of Darwinism

text: in the first half of the 20th century, American

text: fundamentalist Christians

text: began opposing the teaching of the

text: theory of evolution

text: in public schools. They introduced numerous laws to this effect, one of which was notoriously upheld by the

text: Scopes Trial

text: .In the second half of the century the

text: Space Race

text: caused a renewed interest in science and worry that the USA was falling behind on the Soviet Union. Stricter science standards were adopted and led to the re-introduction of the

text: theory of evolution

text: in the curriculum. The laws against teaching evolution were now ruled unconstitutional, because they violated the

text: separation of church and state

text: . Attempting to evade this ruling, the Christian fundamentalists produced a supposedly secular alternative to evolution, Creationism. Perhaps the most influential publication of this new pseudoscience was

text: The Genesis Flood

text: by

text: young earth creationists

text: John C. Whitcomb

text: and

text: Henry M. Morris

text: Flora Tasmaniae was "the first published case study supporting Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection". It contained a "milestone essay on biogeography", "one of the first major public endorsements of the theory [of evolution by natural selection]". Hooker gradually changed his mind on evolution as he wrote up his findings from the Ross expedition. While he asserted that "my own views on the subjects of the variability of existing species" remain "unaltered from those which I maintained in the 'Flora of New Zealand'", the Flora Tasmaniae is written from a Darwinian perspective that effectively assumes natural selection, or as Hooker named it, the "variation" theory, to be correct.

text: Flora Tasmaniae was "the first published case study supporting

text: Charles Darwin

text: ’s theory of

text: natural selection

text: ". It contained a "milestone essay on

text: biogeography

text: ", "one of the first major public endorsements of the theory [of evolution by natural selection]". Hooker gradually changed his mind on

text: evolution

text: as he wrote up his findings from the Ross expedition. While he asserted that "my own views on the subjects of the

text: variability

text: of existing species" remain "unaltered from those which I maintained in the '

text: Flora of New Zealand

text: '", the Flora Tasmaniae is written from a Darwinian perspective that effectively assumes natural selection, or as Hooker named it, the "variation" theory, to be correct.

text: Evolutionary psychology has its historical roots in Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. In The Origin of Species, Darwin predicted that psychology would develop an evolutionary basis:Two of his later books were devoted to the study of animal emotions and psychology; The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex in 1871 and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in 1872. Darwin's work inspired William James's functionalist approach to psychology. Darwin's theories of evolution, adaptation, and natural selection have provided insight into why brains function the way they do.

text: Evolutionary psychology has its historical roots in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of natural selection. In The Origin of Species, Darwin predicted that psychology would develop an evolutionary basis:Two of his later books were devoted to the study of animal emotions and psychology;

text: in 1871 and

text: in 1872. Darwin's work inspired

text: William James

text: 's functionalist approach to psychology. Darwin's theories of evolution, adaptation, and natural selection have provided insight into why brains function the way they do.

text: Darwin's view of change being mostly driven by traits that provide advantage was widely accepted until the 1960s.  While researching mutations that produce nucleotide substitutions in 1968, Motoo Kimura found that the rate of substitution was so high that if each mutation improved fitness, the gap between the most fit and typical genotype would be implausibly large.  However, Kimura explained this rapid rate of mutation by suggesting that the majority of mutations were neutral, i.e. had little or no effect on the fitness of the organism.  Kimura developed mathematical models of the behavior of neutral mutations subject to random genetic drift in biological populations.  This theory has become known as the neutral theory of molecular evolution.

text: Darwin's view of change being mostly driven by traits that provide advantage was widely accepted until the 1960s.  While researching mutations that produce nucleotide substitutions in 1968,

text: Motoo Kimura

text: found that the rate of substitution was so high that if each mutation improved fitness, the gap between the most fit and typical genotype would be

text: implausibly

text: large.  However, Kimura explained this rapid rate of mutation by suggesting that the majority of mutations were neutral, i.e. had little or no effect on the fitness of the organism.  Kimura developed mathematical models of the behavior of neutral mutations subject to random genetic drift in biological populations.  This theory has become known as the neutral theory of molecular evolution.

text: The small Natural History Museum (Museo de Ciencias Naturales) has a statue of Charles Darwin at the entrance. It is located in the heart of the town to the east of the Parque la Carolina, next to the Franciscan mission. It contains exhibits of many animals, plants and minerals of the Galápagos. Of note is a giant tortoise, which is said to be more than 80 years old; an exhibit of a predecessor species of iguana; the flightless cormorant; and the Galapagos tortoise – three drawings for each of these fauna are on display.

text: The small Natural History Museum (Museo de Ciencias Naturales) has a statue of

text: Charles Darwin

text: at the entrance. It is located in the heart of the town to the east of the Parque la Carolina, next to the Franciscan mission. It contains exhibits of many animals, plants and minerals of the Galápagos. Of note is a giant tortoise, which is said to be more than 80 years old; an exhibit of a predecessor species of

text: iguana

text: ; the

text: flightless cormorant

text: ; and the

text: Galapagos tortoise

text: – three drawings for each of these fauna are on display.

text: Spencer's attempt to explain the evolution of complexity was radically different from that to be found in Darwin's Origin of Species which was published two years later. Spencer is often, quite erroneously, believed to have merely appropriated and generalised Darwin's work on natural selection. But although after reading Darwin's work he coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest' as his own term for Darwin's concept, and is often misrepresented as a thinker who merely applied the Darwinian theory to society, he only grudgingly incorporated natural selection into his preexisting overall system. The primary mechanism of species transformation that he recognised was Lamarckian use-inheritance which posited that organs are developed or are diminished by use or disuse and that the resulting changes may be transmitted to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was also necessary to explain 'higher' evolution, especially the social development of humanity. Moreover, in contrast to Darwin, he held that evolution had a direction and an end-point, the attainment of a final state of equilibrium. He tried to apply the theory of biological evolution to sociology. He proposed that society was the product of change from lower to higher forms, just as in the theory of biological evolution, the lowest forms of life are said to be evolving into higher forms. Spencer claimed that man's mind had evolved in the same way from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in the thinking man. Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: knowledge gained by the individual and knowledge gained by the race. Intuition, or knowledge learned unconsciously, was the inherited experience of the race.

text: Spencer's attempt to explain the

text: evolution of complexity

text: was radically different from that to be found in Darwin's

text: Origin of Species

text: which was published two years later. Spencer is often, quite erroneously, believed to have merely appropriated and generalised Darwin's work on

text: natural selection

text: . But although after reading Darwin's work he coined the phrase '

text: survival of the fittest

text: ' as his own term for Darwin's concept, and is often misrepresented as a thinker who merely applied the Darwinian theory to society, he only grudgingly incorporated natural selection into his preexisting overall system. The primary mechanism of species transformation that he recognised was

text: Lamarckian

text: use-inheritance which posited that organs are developed or are diminished by use or disuse and that the resulting changes may be transmitted to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was also necessary to explain 'higher' evolution, especially the social development of humanity. Moreover, in contrast to Darwin, he held that evolution had a direction and an end-point, the attainment of a final state of equilibrium. He tried to apply the theory of biological evolution to sociology. He proposed that society was the product of change from lower to higher forms, just as in the theory of biological evolution, the lowest forms of life are said to be evolving into higher forms. Spencer claimed that man's mind had evolved in the same way from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in the thinking man. Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: knowledge gained by the individual and knowledge gained by the race. Intuition, or knowledge learned unconsciously, was the inherited experience of the race.

text: The Hood mockingbird (Mimus macdonaldi) also known as the Española mockingbird is a species of bird in the Mimidae family. It is endemic to Española Island in the Galápagos Islands, Ecuador, and it is one of four closely related mockingbird species endemic to the Galápagos archipelago. It is found in dry forests and is omnivorous, though it primarily is a carnivore or scavenger. The species has a highly territorial social structure and has no fear of humans. It is the only species of Galápagos mockingbird that Charles Darwin did not see or collect on the voyage of the Beagle.

text: The Hood mockingbird (Mimus macdonaldi) also known as the Española mockingbird is a species of

text: bird

text: in the

text: Mimidae

text: family. It is

text: endemic

text: to

text: Española Island

text: in the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: Ecuador

text: , and it is one of four closely related mockingbird species

text: endemic

text: to the Galápagos archipelago. It is found in dry forests and is omnivorous, though it primarily is a carnivore or scavenger. The species has a highly territorial social structure and has no fear of humans. It is the only species of Galápagos mockingbird that

text: Charles Darwin

text: did not see or collect on

text: the voyage of the Beagle

text: The mallard is omnivorous and very flexible in its foods choice. Its diet may vary based on several factors, including the stage of the breeding cycle, short-term variations in available food, nutrient availability, and inter and intraspecific competition. The majority of the mallard's diet seems to be made up of gastropods, invertebrates (including beetles, flies, lepidopterans, dragonflies, and caddisflies), crustaceans, worms, many varieties of seeds and plant matter, and roots and tubers. During the breeding season, male birds were recorded to have eaten 37.6% animal matter and 62.4% plant matter, most notably Echinochloa crus-galli, and nonlaying females ate 37.0% animal matter and 63.0% plant matter, while laying females ate 71.9% animal matter and only 28.1% plant matter. Plants generally make up a larger part of the bird's diet, especially during autumn migration and in the winter.

text: The mallard is omnivorous and very flexible in its foods choice. Its diet may vary based on several factors, including the stage of the breeding cycle, short-term variations in available food,

text: nutrient

text: availability, and

text: inter

text: and

text: intraspecific competition

text: . The majority of the mallard's diet seems to be made up of

text: gastropod

text: s,

text: invertebrate

text: s (including

text: beetle

text: s,

text: flies

text: lepidoptera

text: ns,

text: dragonflies

text: , and

text: caddisflies

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: worms

text: , many varieties of seeds and plant matter, and roots and

text: tubers

text: . During the breeding season, male birds were recorded to have eaten 37.6% animal matter and 62.4% plant matter, most notably

text: Echinochloa crus-galli

text: , and nonlaying females ate 37.0% animal matter and 63.0% plant matter, while laying females ate 71.9% animal matter and only 28.1% plant matter. Plants generally make up a larger part of the bird's diet, especially during autumn migration and in the winter.

text: This theory of a musical protolanguage has been revived and re-discovered repeatedly, often without attribution to Darwin.

text: They reached the Swan River (modern Perth, Australia) on 15 November 1837. Their survey started with the western coast between there and the Fitzroy River, Western Australia, then surveyed both shores of the Bass Strait at the southeast corner of the continent. To aid Beagle in her surveying operations in Bass Strait, the Colonial cutter Vansittart, of Van Diemen’s Land, was most liberally lent by His Excellency Sir John Franklin, and placed under the command of Mr Charles Codrington Forsyth, the Senior Mate, assisted by Mr Pasco, another of her Mates. In May 1839 they sailed north to survey the shores of the Arafura Sea opposite Timor. When Wickham fell ill and resigned, the command was taken over in March 1841 by Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who continued the survey. The third voyage was completed in 1843.

text: They reached the

text: Swan River

text: (modern

text: Perth

text: Australia

text: ) on 15 November 1837. Their survey started with the western coast between there and the

text: Fitzroy River, Western Australia

text: , then surveyed both shores of the

text: Bass Strait

text: at the southeast corner of the continent. To aid Beagle in her surveying operations in Bass Strait, the Colonial cutter Vansittart, of Van Diemen’s Land, was most liberally lent by His Excellency Sir John Franklin, and placed under the command of Mr Charles Codrington Forsyth, the Senior Mate, assisted by Mr Pasco, another of her Mates. In May 1839 they sailed north to survey the shores of the

text: Arafura Sea

text: opposite

text: Timor

text: . When Wickham fell ill and resigned, the command was taken over in March 1841 by Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who continued the survey. The third voyage was completed in 1843.

text: Social Darwinism is a social theory which holds that Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is a model, not only for the development of biological traits in a population, but also as an application for human social institutions — the existing social institutions being implicitly declared as normative. Social Darwinism shares its roots with early progressivism, and was most popular from the late nineteenth century to the end of World War II. Proponents of Social Darwinism argue that the theory justifies social inequality as being meritocratic. Darwin only ventured to propound his theories in a biological sense, and it is other thinkers and theorists who have applied Darwin's model to unequal endowments of human ambitions.In his book Meritocratic Education and Social Worthlessness (Palgrave, 2012), the philosopher Khen Lampert, argued that educational-meritocracy is nothing but a post-modern version of Social-Darwinism.

text: Social Darwinism is a

text: social theory

text: which holds that

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: is a model, not only for the development of biological traits in a population, but also as an application for human

text: social institution

text: s — the existing social institutions being implicitly declared as

text: normative

text: . Social Darwinism shares its roots with early

text: progressivism

text: , and was most popular from the late nineteenth century to the end of

text: World War II

text: . Proponents of Social Darwinism argue that the theory justifies

text: social inequality

text: as being meritocratic. Darwin only ventured to propound his theories in a biological sense, and it is other thinkers and theorists who have applied Darwin's model to unequal endowments of human ambitions.In his book Meritocratic Education and Social Worthlessness (Palgrave, 2012), the philosopher

text: Khen Lampert

text: , argued that educational-meritocracy is nothing but a

text: post-modern

text: version of Social-Darwinism.

text: The original "André the Giant has a posse" sticker format has been widely imitated for humorous effect. In these parody stickers, the image of André the Giant has been replaced with a similarly stylized black-and-white photo of some other person or character, along with the new figure's height and weight. For example, the parody sticker "Tattoo the Midget has a bigger posse" features the image of Hervé Villechaize portraying the character "Tattoo" from Fantasy Island.  Colin Purrington's "Charles Darwin has a posse" stickers, featuring a black-and-white photo of Charles Darwin, promote the theory of evolution.  During the 2000 Presidential Campaign "Ralph Nader has a Posse" showed up on college campuses.  Numerous other parody stickers can be found featuring different pop culture figures, including the Homestar Runner character Strong Mad.

text: The original "André the Giant has a posse" sticker format has been widely imitated for humorous effect. In these

text: parody

text: stickers, the image of André the Giant has been replaced with a similarly stylized black-and-white photo of some other person or character, along with the new figure's height and weight. For example, the parody sticker "Tattoo the Midget has a bigger posse" features the image of

text: Hervé Villechaize

text: portraying the character "Tattoo" from

text: Fantasy Island

text: .  Colin Purrington's "

text: Charles Darwin

text: has a posse" stickers, featuring a black-and-white photo of Charles Darwin, promote the theory of evolution.  During the 2000 Presidential Campaign "

text: Ralph Nader

text: has a Posse" showed up on college campuses.  Numerous other parody stickers can be found featuring different pop culture figures, including the

text: Homestar Runner

text: character

text: Strong Mad

text: Over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so.

text: Over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became increasingly professional

text: scientific discipline

text: s. Explorer-naturalists such as

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: biogeography

text: ecology

text: and

text: ethology

text: . Naturalists began to reject

text: essentialism

text: and consider the importance of

text: extinction

text: and the

text: mutability of species

text: Cell theory

text: embryology

text: and

text: paleontology

text: , were synthesized in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur, and provided observational evidence that it had done so.

text: John Gould FRS (; 14 September 1804 – 3 February 1881) was an English ornithologist and bird artist. He published a number of monographs on birds, illustrated by plates that he produced with the assistance of his wife, Elizabeth Gould, and several other artists including Edward Lear, Henry Constantine Richter, Joseph Wolf and William Matthew Hart. He has been considered the father of bird study in Australia and the Gould League in Australia is named after him. His identification of the birds now nicknamed "Darwin's finches" played a role in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Gould's work is referenced in Charles Darwin's book, On the Origin of Species.

text: John Gould

text: FRS

text: (; 14 September 1804 – 3 February 1881) was an English

text: ornithologist

text: and bird artist. He published a number of monographs on birds, illustrated by plates that he produced with the assistance of his wife,

text: Elizabeth Gould

text: , and several other artists including

text: Edward Lear

text: Henry Constantine Richter

text: Joseph Wolf

text: and

text: William Matthew Hart

text: . He has been considered the father of bird study in Australia and the

text: Gould League

text: in Australia is named after him. His identification of the birds now nicknamed "

text: Darwin's finches

text: " played a role in the

text: inception of Darwin's theory

text: of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . Gould's work is referenced in

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's book,

text: On the Origin of Species

text: It is used in the breeding of both plants and animals, but is most commercially important in animal breeding to determine the true breeding value of an animal esp. males which are used extensively for propagation of best germplasm. The extensive use of artificial insemination in domestic animals has helped in increasing the selection intensity on the male animals. This selection tool is usually used for characters that are sex-limited, expressed after death(meat characteristics) and usually with low heritability, for example milk or egg production in females. A bull for example cannot be assessed for milk production, however the performance of its female offsprings can be used to determine the use of the animal for future crosses. A progeny test is performed by mating the male with a number of females to produce many progenies in different environment and over a long time period involving different seasons to nullify the impact of season, management, environment in  breeding value estimation. The average performance of the offspring is then found, giving a measure of the male's respective value to the breeder.

text: It is used in the

text: breeding

text: of both

text: plant

text: s and

text: animal

text: s, but is most commercially important in

text: animal breeding

text: to determine the true breeding value of an animal esp. males which are used extensively for propagation of best germplasm. The extensive use of artificial insemination in domestic animals has helped in increasing the selection intensity on the male animals. This selection tool is usually used for characters that are sex-limited, expressed after death(meat characteristics) and usually with low heritability, for example milk or egg production in females. A bull for example cannot be assessed for milk production, however the performance of its female offsprings can be used to determine the use of the animal for future crosses. A progeny test is performed by mating the male with a number of females to produce many progenies in different environment and over a long time period involving different seasons to nullify the impact of season, management, environment in  breeding value estimation. The average performance of the offspring is then found, giving a measure of the male's respective value to the breeder.

text: English translations of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity were available from 1812, hence this work may have had an influence on Charles Darwin and his inception of Darwinism. However Hamidullah's "Darwin was inspired by the Epistles of the Ihkwan al-Safa" theory sounds unlikely as Charles Darwin comes from an evolutionist family with his well known physician grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, author of the poem The Origin of Sociey on evolution, was one of the leading Enlightenment evolutionists.

text: English

text: translations of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity were available from 1812, hence this work may have had an influence on

text: Charles Darwin

text: and his inception of

text: Darwinism

text: . However Hamidullah's "Darwin was inspired by the Epistles of the Ihkwan al-Safa" theory sounds unlikely as Charles Darwin comes from an evolutionist family with his well known physician grandfather,

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: , author of the poem The Origin of Sociey on evolution, was one of the leading Enlightenment evolutionists.

text: Darwin's finches provide a good example of divergent evolution, where some 15 species diverged from a single species of finch that arrived on the Galapagos islands.

text: Darwin's finches

text: provide a good example of divergent evolution, where some 15 species diverged from a single species of

text: finch

text: that arrived on the

text: Galapagos islands

text: The word evolution is forever associated in the popular mind with Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, which professes, among other things, that man as a species developed diachronically from some ancestor among the Primates who was also ancestor to the Great Apes, as they are popularly termed, and yet this term was not a neologism of Darwin’s. He took it from the cultural milieu, where it meant etymologically “unfolding” of something heterogeneous and complex from something simpler and more homogeneous. Herbert Spencer, a contemporary of Darwin, applied the term to the universe, including philosophy and what Tylor would later call culture. This view of the universe was generally termed evolutionism, while its exponents were evolutionists.

text: The word evolution is forever associated in the popular mind with

text: Charles Darwin

text: ’s

text: Theory of Evolution

text: , which professes, among other things, that man as a species developed diachronically from some ancestor among the

text: Primate

text: s who was also ancestor to the

text: Great Apes

text: , as they are popularly termed, and yet this term was not a

text: neologism

text: of Darwin’s. He took it from the cultural milieu, where it meant etymologically “unfolding” of something heterogeneous and complex from something simpler and more homogeneous.

text: Herbert Spencer

text: , a contemporary of Darwin, applied the term to the universe, including philosophy and what Tylor would later call culture. This view of the universe was generally termed evolutionism, while its exponents were evolutionists.

text: One Avatar of Vishnu is the giant turtle Kurma. The Sri Kurmam Temple in Andhra Pradesh, India, is dedicated to the Kurma avatar. Kurmavatara is also Kasyapa, the northern star, the first living being, forefather of Vishnu the protector. The plastron symbolizes the earthly world and the carapace the heavenly world. The Shatapatha Brahmana identifies the world as the body of Kurmaraja, the "king of tortoises", with the earth its plastron, the atmosphere its body, and the vault of the heavens its carapace. The tortoise holds the elephant, on which rests the earth. The elephant is the masculine symbol and the tortoise the feminine.

text: One

text: Avatar

text: of

text: Vishnu

text: is the giant turtle

text: Kurma

text: . The

text: Sri Kurmam

text: Temple in

text: Andhra Pradesh

text: , India, is dedicated to the Kurma avatar. Kurmavatara is also Kasyapa, the northern star, the first living being, forefather of Vishnu the protector. The plastron symbolizes the earthly world and the carapace the heavenly world. The

text: Shatapatha Brahmana

text: identifies the world as the body of Kurmaraja, the "king of tortoises", with the earth its plastron, the atmosphere its body, and the vault of the heavens its carapace. The tortoise holds the elephant, on which rests the earth. The elephant is the masculine symbol and the tortoise the feminine.

text: Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time. Charles Darwin popularised the term "natural selection", and compared it with  artificial selection.

text: Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in

text: phenotype

text: . It is a key mechanism of

text: evolution

text: , the change in

text: heritable

text: traits

text: of a

text: population

text: over time.

text: Charles Darwin

text: popularised the term "natural selection", and compared it with

text: artificial selection

text: Darwin refers specifically to the distribution of the species rheas, and to that of the Galápagos tortoises and mockingbirds. He mentions his years of work on his theory, and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion, which led him to "publish this Abstract" of his incomplete work. He outlines his ideas, and sets out the essence of his theory:

text: Darwin refers specifically to the distribution of the species

text: rheas

text: , and to that of the

text: Galápagos tortoise

text: s and

text: mockingbird

text: s. He mentions his years of work on his theory, and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion, which led him to "publish this Abstract" of his incomplete work. He outlines his ideas, and sets out the essence of his theory:

text: Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority. He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.

text: Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and

text: fossil

text: s he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority. He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of

text: both of their theories

text: . Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature. In 1871 he examined

text: human evolution

text: and

text: sexual selection

text: in

text: , followed by

text: (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book,

text: The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms

text: (1881), he examined

text: earthworm

text: s and their effect on soil.

text: Charles Darwin visited Bahia in 1832 on his famous voyage on the Beagle. In 1835, Bahia was the site of an urban slave revolt, particularly notable as the only predominately-Muslim slave rebellion in the history of the Americas. Under the Empire, Bahia returned 14 deputies to the general assembly and 7 senators; its own provincial assembly consisted of 36 members. In the 19th century, cotton, coffee, and tobacco plantations joined those for sugarcane and the discovery of diamonds in 1844 led to large influx of "washers" (garimpeiros) until the still-larger deposits in South Africa came to light. A smaller boom hit Catité in 1872 upon the discovery of amethysts there. The cattle industry of the interior led to the development of Feira de Santana before collapsing in a series of droughts.

text: Charles Darwin

text: visited Bahia in 1832 on

text: his famous voyage

text: on the

text: Beagle

text: . In 1835, Bahia was the site of an urban

text: slave revolt

text: , particularly notable as the only predominately-

text: Muslim

text: slave rebellion in the history of the Americas. Under the

text: Empire

text: , Bahia returned 14 deputies to the general assembly and 7 senators; its own provincial assembly consisted of 36 members. In the 19th century,

text: cotton

text: coffee

text: , and

text: tobacco

text: plantations joined those for sugarcane and the discovery of

text: diamond

text: s in 1844 led to large influx of "washers" (garimpeiros) until the still-larger deposits in

text: South Africa

text: came to light. A smaller boom hit

text: Catité

text: in 1872 upon the discovery of

text: amethyst

text: s there. The cattle industry of the interior led to the development of

text: Feira de Santana

text: before collapsing in a series of droughts.

text: In February 1836, Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town and climbed Mount Wellington. In his book "The Voyage of the Beagle", Darwin described the mountain thus;

text: In February 1836,

text: Charles Darwin

text: visited Hobart Town and climbed Mount Wellington. In his book "The Voyage of the Beagle", Darwin described the mountain thus;

text: Gilman called herself a humanist and believed the domestic environment oppressed women through the patriarchal beliefs upheld by society. Gilman embraced the theory of reform Darwinism and argued that Darwin's theories of evolution presented only the male as the given in the process of human evolution, thus overlooking the origins of the female brain in society that rationally chose the best suited mate that they could find.

text: Gilman called herself a

text: humanist

text: and believed the domestic environment oppressed women through the patriarchal beliefs upheld by society. Gilman embraced the theory of reform

text: Darwinism

text: and argued that Darwin's theories of evolution presented only the male as the given in the process of human evolution, thus overlooking the origins of the female brain in society that rationally chose the best suited mate that they could find.

text: When Darwin received Alfred Russel Wallace's paper which described natural selection, Hooker and Charles Lyell arranged for a joint reading of papers by Darwin and Wallace to the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858. Since Darwin had nothing prepared, the reading included excerpts from his 1844 Essay and from a letter he had sent to Asa Gray in July 1857, outlining his theory on the origin of species. By that time Darwin was into writing his book On the Origin of Species. The correspondence with Gray was thus a key piece of evidence in establishing Darwin's intellectual priority with respect to the theory of evolution by natural selection. Neither Darwin nor Wallace attended the meeting. The papers were published by the society as On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. By summer 1859 it was obvious to Gray and others working with Darwin that On the Origin of Species would be a ground-breaking book.

text: When Darwin received

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: 's paper which described

text: natural selection

text: , Hooker and

text: Charles Lyell

text: arranged for a joint reading of papers by Darwin and Wallace to the

text: Linnean Society

text: on July 1, 1858. Since Darwin had nothing prepared, the reading included excerpts from his 1844 Essay and from a letter he had sent to Asa Gray in July 1857, outlining his theory on the origin of species. By that time Darwin was into writing his book

text: On the Origin of Species

text: . The correspondence with Gray was thus a key piece of evidence in establishing Darwin's intellectual priority with respect to the

text: theory of evolution by natural selection

text: . Neither Darwin nor Wallace attended the meeting. The papers were published by the society as

text: . By summer 1859 it was obvious to Gray and others working with Darwin that On the Origin of Species would be a ground-breaking book.

text: Darwin (unit) – Charles Darwin – Darwinism – Darwin's finches – Richard Dawkins – directed mutagenesis - Directed evolution - directional selection – Theodosius Dobzhansky – Dog breeding – Domestication – Domestication of the horse

text: Darwin (unit)

text: Charles Darwin

text: Darwinism

text: Darwin's finches

text: Richard Dawkins

text: directed mutagenesis

text: Directed evolution

text: directional selection

text: Theodosius Dobzhansky

text: Dog breeding

text: Domestication

text: Domestication of the horse

text: The Beagle investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising. FitzRoy began writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account. Darwin's Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.

text: The Beagle investigated how the atolls of the

text: Cocos (Keeling) Islands

text: had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising. FitzRoy began writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account. Darwin's

text: Journal

text: was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.

text: The decades before the start of the 20th century, and the first decades of that century, have been described as the eclipse of Darwinism. Darwin's work had quickly established scientific consensus that evolution occurred, but there was considerable disagreement about the mechanisms involved, and few gave as much significance to natural selection as Darwin himself. Evolution itself was assumed, but the mechanism of how it happened was in considerable debate, and none had anything near to a consensus. Among these theories were neo-Lamarckism (which merged certain aspects of Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics with certain aspects of Darwinian evolution), orthogenesis ("straight-line" evolution, which talked about evolution towards a specific goal by forces within the organism), and the discontinuous variation of Mendelism and Hugo De Vries' mutation theory. Some of these alternative theories, in particular neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis, allowed more easily for an interpretation of the intervention of God, which appealed to many scientists at the time. The term Darwinism had covered a wide range of ideas, many of which differed from Darwin's views, but it became associated with the minority view of August Weismann who went further than Darwin by rejecting inheritance of acquired characters and attributing all evolution to natural selection, a view also called neo-Darwinism. By the first decades of the 20th century, the debate had become generally one between continuous-variation biometricians and discontinuous-variety Mendelians. In the 1930s and 1940s, though, they were combined with natural selection into the modern evolutionary synthesis, which soon became the dominant model in the scientific community. This model has also been called Darwinism and neo-Darwinism.

text: The decades before the start of the 20th century, and the first decades of that century, have been described as

text: the eclipse of Darwinism

text: . Darwin's work had quickly established scientific consensus that evolution occurred, but there was considerable disagreement about the mechanisms involved, and few gave as much significance to natural selection as Darwin himself. Evolution itself was assumed, but the mechanism of how it happened was in considerable debate, and none had anything near to a consensus. Among these theories were

text: neo-Lamarckism

text: (which merged certain aspects of Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics with certain aspects of Darwinian evolution),

text: orthogenesis

text: ("straight-line" evolution, which talked about evolution towards a specific goal by forces within the organism), and the discontinuous variation of

text: Mendelism

text: and

text: Hugo De Vries

text: mutation theory

text: . Some of these alternative theories, in particular neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis, allowed more easily for an interpretation of the intervention of God, which appealed to many scientists at the time. The term

text: Darwinism

text: had covered a wide range of ideas, many of which differed from Darwin's views, but it became associated with the minority view of

text: August Weismann

text: who went further than Darwin by rejecting

text: inheritance of acquired characters

text: and attributing all evolution to natural selection, a view also called

text: neo-Darwinism

text: . By the first decades of the 20th century, the debate had become generally one between continuous-variation biometricians and discontinuous-variety Mendelians. In the 1930s and 1940s, though, they were combined with natural selection into the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: , which soon became the dominant model in the scientific community. This model has also been called Darwinism and neo-Darwinism.

text: Though he had guided the young Charles Darwin in his early study of geology and continued to be on friendly terms, Sedgwick was an opponent of Darwin's theory of evolution by means of natural selection.

text: Though he had guided the young

text: Charles Darwin

text: in his early study of geology and continued to be on friendly terms, Sedgwick was an opponent of Darwin's

text: theory of evolution

text: by means of

text: natural selection

text: The domestication of animals is the scientific theory of the mutual relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. He was also the first to recognize the difference between conscious selective breeding in which humans directly select for desirable traits, and unconscious selection where traits evolve as a by-product of natural selection or from selection on other traits. There is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. There is also such a difference between the domestication traits that researchers believe to have been essential at the early stages of domestication, and the improvement traits that have appeared since the split between wild and domestic populations. Domestication traits are generally fixed within all domesticates, and were selected during the initial episode of domestication of that animal or plant, whereas improvement traits are present only in a proportion of domesticates, though they may be fixed in individual breeds or regional populations. The dog was the first domesticant and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals.

text: The domestication of animals is the

text: scientific theory

text: Charles Darwin

text: selective breeding

text: natural selection

text: regional populations

text: . The dog was the first domesticant and was established across

text: Eurasia

text: before the end of the

text: Late Pleistocene

text: era, well before

text: cultivation

text: and before the domestication of other animals.

text: The study of the evolution of emotions dates back to the 19th century. Evolution and natural selection has been applied to the study of human communication, mainly by Charles Darwin in his 1872 work, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.  Darwin researched the expression of emotions in an effort to support his theory of evolution.  He proposed that much like other traits found in animals, emotions also evolved and were adapted over time. His work looked at not only facial expressions in animals and specifically humans, but attempted to point out parallels between behaviors in humans and other animals.

text: The study of the evolution of emotions dates back to the 19th century.

text: Evolution

text: and

text: natural selection

text: has been applied to the study of

text: human communication

text: , mainly by

text: Charles Darwin

text: in his 1872 work,

text: .  Darwin researched the expression of

text: emotion

text: s in an effort to support his theory of evolution.  He proposed that much like other

text: trait

text: s found in animals, emotions also evolved and were adapted over time. His work looked at not only

text: facial expression

text: s in

text: animals

text: and specifically

text: human

text: s, but attempted to point out parallels between

text: behavior

text: s in humans and other animals.

text: In the chapter on Darwin's finches, Wells argues that Darwin's finches were merely a "speculative afterthought". Wells claims that ornithologist David Lack is more to be credited with the popular finches, and that it was Lack who paraded the finches and claimed that they were instrumental in Darwin's theories. This claim is contradicted by Alan D. Gishlick and Dave Wisker, who state that Darwin was in fact heavily influenced by the finches as early as 1837, with Wisker stating that "Wells seems to be the one doing the speculating". Wells argues that, rather than evolving, the finch species may be "merging", combining from multiple species into a single species rather than diverging from a single species into multiple species. Wells argues that, due to interbreeding between many of the finch "species", the thirteen species may actually be less than previously thought. Contradicting this, Gishlick states that the separation "according to which species are separated by behaviors that lead animals to recognize potential mates" is "widely accepted". Wisker states that hybridization among finch species on the Galápagos Islands is in fact rare. Both agree that even if hybridization did occur, it would be irrelevant because evolution does not specifically require divergence.Wisker concludes:

text: In the chapter on

text: Darwin's finches

text: , Wells argues that Darwin's finches were merely a "speculative afterthought". Wells claims that

text: ornithologist

text: David Lack

text: is more to be credited with the popular finches, and that it was Lack who paraded the finches and claimed that they were instrumental in Darwin's theories. This claim is contradicted by Alan D. Gishlick and Dave Wisker, who state that Darwin was in fact heavily influenced by the finches as early as 1837, with Wisker stating that "Wells seems to be the one doing the speculating". Wells argues that, rather than evolving, the finch species may be "merging", combining from multiple species into a single species rather than diverging from a single species into multiple species. Wells argues that, due to interbreeding between many of the finch "species", the thirteen species may actually be less than previously thought. Contradicting this, Gishlick states that the separation "according to which species are separated by behaviors that lead animals to recognize potential mates" is "widely accepted". Wisker states that

text: hybridization

text: among finch species on the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: is in fact rare. Both agree that even if hybridization did occur, it would be irrelevant because evolution does not specifically require divergence.Wisker concludes:

text: Many other species endemic to Rodrigues became extinct after humans arrived, and the island's ecosystem remains heavilydamaged. Forests covered the entire island before humans arrived, but very little forestation can be seen today. Newton's parakeet lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the Rodrigues solitaire, the Rodrigues parrot, the Rodrigues rail, the Rodrigues starling, the Rodrigues owl, the Rodrigues night heron, and the Rodrigues pigeon. Extinct reptiles include the domed Rodrigues giant tortoise, the saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise, and the Rodrigues day gecko.

text: Many other species endemic to Rodrigues became extinct after humans arrived, and the island's ecosystem remains heavilydamaged. Forests covered the entire island before humans arrived, but very little forestation can be seen today. Newton's parakeet lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the

text: Rodrigues solitaire

text: , the Rodrigues parrot, the

text: Rodrigues rail

text: , the

text: Rodrigues starling

text: , the

text: Rodrigues owl

text: , the

text: Rodrigues night heron

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues pigeon

text: . Extinct reptiles include the

text: domed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , the

text: saddle-backed Rodrigues giant tortoise

text: , and the

text: Rodrigues day gecko

text: Objections to evolution have been raised since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century. When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, his theory of evolution (the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection) initially met opposition from scientists with different theories, but eventually came to receive overwhelming acceptance in the scientific community. The observation of evolutionary processes occurring (as well as the modern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence) has been uncontroversial among mainstream biologists since the 1940s.

text: Objections to evolution have been raised since

text: evolutionary ideas

text: came to prominence in the 19th century. When

text: Charles Darwin

text: published his 1859 book

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , his theory of

text: evolution

text: (the idea that

text: species

text: arose through

text: descent with modification from a single common ancestor

text: in a process driven by

text: natural selection

text: ) initially met opposition from

text: scientist

text: s with different theories, but eventually came to receive

text: overwhelming acceptance

text: in the

text: scientific community

text: . The observation of evolutionary processes occurring (as well as the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: explaining that evidence) has been uncontroversial among mainstream

text: biologist

text: s since the 1940s.

text: There is evidence from letters that Charles Darwin was aware that Wickham had these tortoises, as he sent a letter to Huxley in 1860 informing him that he should speak with Wickham in Paris about the last of the tortoises from the 1835 expedition because he had them. This makes it at least possible that the three tortoises at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens were personally collected by Darwin.

text: There is evidence from letters that

text: Charles Darwin

text: was aware that Wickham had these tortoises, as he sent a letter to Huxley in 1860 informing him that he should speak with Wickham in Paris about the last of the tortoises from the 1835 expedition because he had them. This makes it at least possible that the three tortoises at the Brisbane Botanic Gardens were personally collected by Darwin.

text: The male's oversized jaws are crucial in its objective to secure a mate. It climbs trees, often climbing many meters, searching for a female. As it climbs and searches for females, it also seeks out other males in the vicinity. When two males meet, they fight. Males use their jaws in combat: they hook them under the opposite beetle's wings, pull up and throw their opponent to the ground (from 20 meters above, as they are in great trees most of the time). Charles Darwin collected the species in Chile during the second voyage of HMS Beagle, and, despite the enlarged mandibles of the males, he noted that the jaws were "not so strong as to produce pain to finger".

text: The male's oversized jaws are crucial in its objective to secure a mate. It climbs trees, often climbing many meters, searching for a female. As it climbs and searches for females, it also seeks out other males in the vicinity. When two males meet, they fight. Males use their jaws in combat: they hook them under the opposite beetle's wings, pull up and throw their opponent to the ground (from 20 meters above, as they are in great trees most of the time).

text: Charles Darwin

text: collected the species in

text: Chile

text: during the

text: second voyage

text: of

text: HMS Beagle

text: , and, despite the enlarged

text: mandibles

text: of the males, he noted that the jaws were "not so strong as to produce pain to finger".

text: Darwin's finches (also known as the Galápagos finches) are a group of about fifteen species of passerine birds. They are often classified as the subfamily Geospizinae or tribe Geospizini. They belong to the tanager family and are not closely related to the true finches. The closest known relative of the Galápagos finches is Tiaris obscura. They were first collected by Charles Darwin on the Galápagos Islands during the second voyage of the Beagle. Apart from the Cocos finch, which is from Cocos Island, the others are found only on the Galápagos Islands.

text: Darwin's finches (also known as the Galápagos finches) are a group of about fifteen

text: species

text: of

text: passerine

text: birds. They are often classified as the subfamily Geospizinae or

text: tribe

text: Geospizini. They belong to the

text: tanager

text: family

text: and are not closely related to the

text: true finch

text: es. The closest known relative of the Galápagos finches is

text: Tiaris obscura

text: . They were first collected by

text: Charles Darwin

text: on the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: during

text: the second voyage of the Beagle

text: . Apart from the

text: Cocos finch

text: , which is from

text: Cocos Island

text: , the others are found only on the Galápagos Islands.

text: Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the English philosopher, was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. The early sociology of Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte and Marx; writing before and after the Darwinian revolution in biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms. In fact, his early writings show a coherent theory of general evolution several years before Darwin published anything on the subject. Encouraged by his friend and follower Edward L. Youmans, Spencer published The Study of Sociology in 1874, which was the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. In the 1900 edition of the journal International Monthly, Franklin H. Giddings (1855–1931), the first professor of sociology at Columbia University, described it as the book that "first awakened in England, America, France, Italy and Russia a wide interest general interest" in the then fledgling discipline of sociology. In the United States, Charles Horton Cooley, stated in a 1920 article that The Study of Sociology "probably did more to arouse interest in the subject than any other publication before or since." It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim’s Division of Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest" as a basic mechanism by which more effective socio-cultural forms progressed. Whilst many intellectuals of his day were proponents of socialism as a scientifically informed manner of steering society, Spencer was a critic of socialism and an advocate for a laissez-faire style of government. His ideas were highly observed by conservative political circles, especially in the United States and England. Although Spencer's work is rarely discussed in contemporary sociological theory, his work has been adapted and changed, and resurfaces in various contemporary forms.

text: Herbert Spencer

text: (1820–1903), the English philosopher, was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists. The early sociology of Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte and Marx; writing before and after the

text: Darwinian revolution

text: in biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as

text: socially Darwinistic

text: terms. In fact, his early writings show a coherent theory of general evolution several years before

text: Darwin

text: published anything on the subject. Encouraged by his friend and follower

text: Edward L. Youmans

text: , Spencer published The Study of Sociology in 1874, which was the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. In the 1900 edition of the journal

text: International Monthly

text: Franklin H. Giddings

text: (1855–1931), the first professor of sociology at Columbia University, described it as the book that "first awakened in England, America, France, Italy and Russia a wide interest general interest" in the then fledgling discipline of sociology. In the United States,

text: Charles Horton Cooley

text: , stated in a 1920 article that The Study of Sociology "probably did more to arouse interest in the subject than any other publication before or since." It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th century thinkers, including

text: Émile Durkheim

text: , defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim’s

text: Division of Labour in Society

text: is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also a notable

text: biologist

text: , Spencer coined the term "

text: survival of the fittest

text: " as a basic mechanism by which more effective socio-cultural forms progressed. Whilst many intellectuals of his day were proponents of socialism as a scientifically informed manner of steering society, Spencer was a critic of socialism and an advocate for a

text: laissez-faire

text: style of government. His ideas were highly observed by conservative political circles, especially in the

text: United States

text: and

text: England

text: . Although Spencer's work is rarely discussed in contemporary sociological theory, his work has been adapted and changed, and resurfaces in various contemporary forms.

text: Darwin's finches are  different closely related species which Darwin discovered on the Galapagos Islands. Darwin's voyage on the Beagle, and the finches in particular, are known to have influenced his thinking so that he would later produce a basic theory of evolution by natural selection. Darwin reasoned that there had to be a common ancestor. Later, extensive research was done by Peter and Rosemary Grant. The birds are all about the same size (10–20 cm). They mainly differ in the form of the beak. The beak is adapted to the food they eat. The birds are all brownish or black. They have short rounded wings and a rounded tail that often appears cocked to one side. Most male finch mature to a solid black color, while the females mature to a drab grayish color. Exceptions are made for the Vegetarian and Tree Finches the males never become completely black rather they have a black head, neck and upper breast. Warbler, Woodpecker and Mangrove Finches have more of an olive color.

text: Darwin's finches are  different closely related species which Darwin discovered on the Galapagos Islands. Darwin's

text: voyage on the Beagle

text: , and the finches in particular, are known to have influenced his thinking so that he would later produce a basic

text: . Darwin reasoned that there had to be a common ancestor. Later, extensive research was done by Peter and Rosemary Grant. The birds are all about the same size (10–20 cm). They mainly differ in the form of the beak. The beak is adapted to the food they eat. The birds are all brownish or black. They have short rounded wings and a rounded tail that often appears cocked to one side. Most male finch mature to a solid black color, while the females mature to a drab grayish color. Exceptions are made for the Vegetarian and Tree Finches the males never become completely black rather they have a black head, neck and upper breast. Warbler, Woodpecker and Mangrove Finches have more of an olive color.

text: In the context of anthropology and other sciences which study the past, historicism has a different meaning. Anthropological historicism is associated with the work of Franz Boas. His theory used the diffusionist concept that there were a few "cradles of civilization" which grew outwards, and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances, which is called historical particularism. The school of historicism grew in response to unilinear theories that social development represented adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a continuum. While these theories were espoused by Charles Darwin and many of his students, their application as applied in social Darwinism and general evolution characterized in the theories of Herbert Spencer and Leslie White, historicism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution, as Darwin never attempted nor offered an explanation for cultural evolution. However, it attacked the notion that there was one normative spectrum of development, instead emphasizing how local conditions would create adaptations to the local environment. Julian Steward refuted the viability of globally and universally applicable adaptive standards proposing that culture was honed adaptively in response to the idiosyncrasies of the local environment, the cultural ecology, by specific evolution. What was adaptive for one region might not be so for another. This conclusion has likewise been adopted by modern forms of biological evolutionary theory.

text: In the context of

text: anthropology

text: and other sciences which study the past, historicism has a different meaning. Anthropological historicism is associated with the work of Franz Boas. His theory used the

text: diffusionist

text: concept that there were a few "cradles of civilization" which grew outwards, and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances, which is called

text: historical particularism

text: . The school of historicism grew in response to

text: unilinear theories

text: that social development represented adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a continuum. While these theories were espoused by

text: Charles Darwin

text: and many of his students, their application as applied in

text: social Darwinism

text: and

text: general evolution

text: characterized in the theories of

text: Herbert Spencer

text: and

text: Leslie White

text: , historicism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution, as Darwin never attempted nor offered an explanation for cultural evolution. However, it attacked the notion that there was one normative spectrum of development, instead emphasizing how local conditions would create adaptations to the local environment.

text: Julian Steward

text: refuted the viability of globally and universally applicable adaptive standards proposing that culture was honed adaptively in response to the idiosyncrasies of the local environment, the

text: cultural ecology

text: , by

text: specific evolution

text: . What was adaptive for one region might not be so for another. This conclusion has likewise been adopted by modern forms of biological evolutionary theory.

text: Debate over Darwin's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution, but the specific mechanism he proposed, natural selection, was not widely accepted until it was revived by developments in biology that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s. Before that time most biologists regarded other factors as responsible for evolution. Alternatives to natural selection suggested during "the eclipse of Darwinism" (circa 1880 to 1920) included inheritance of acquired characteristics (neo-Lamarckism), an innate drive for change (orthogenesis), and sudden large mutations (saltationism). Mendelian genetics, a series of 19th Century experiments with pea plant variations rediscovered in 1900, was integrated with natural selection by Ronald Fisher, J. B. S. Haldane, and Sewall Wright during the 1910s to 1930s, and resulted in the founding of the new discipline of population genetics. During the 1930s and 1940s population genetics became integrated with other biological fields, resulting in a widely applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biology—the modern evolutionary synthesis.

text: Debate over Darwin's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution, but the specific mechanism he proposed, natural selection, was not widely accepted until it was revived by developments in

text: biology

text: that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s. Before that time most

text: biologist

text: s regarded other factors as responsible for evolution. Alternatives to natural selection suggested during "

text: the eclipse of Darwinism

text: " (circa 1880 to 1920) included

text: inheritance of acquired characteristics

text: neo-Lamarckism

text: ), an innate drive for change (

text: orthogenesis

text: ), and sudden large

text: mutation

text: s (

text: saltationism

text: Mendelian genetics

text: , a series of 19th Century experiments with

text: pea

text: plant variations rediscovered in 1900, was integrated with natural selection by

text: Ronald Fisher

text: J. B. S. Haldane

text: , and

text: Sewall Wright

text: during the 1910s to 1930s, and resulted in the founding of the new discipline of

text: population genetics

text: . During the 1930s and 1940s population genetics became integrated with other biological fields, resulting in a widely applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biology—the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: Other - binturong, raccoons, meerkats, wallabies, Chilean pudú, giant tortoise, corsac fox, giant anteater, Bactrian camels, two toed sloth and tayra,

text: Other -

text: binturong

text: raccoons

text: meerkats

text: wallabies

text: , Chilean

text: pudú

text: giant tortoise

text: corsac fox

text: giant anteater

text: Bactrian camel

text: s,

text: two toed sloth

text: and

text: tayra

text: More detail was given in Darwin's 1868 book on The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of pangenesis. Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance, he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population. However, inherited variation could be seen, and Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable. It was not until the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation. This modern evolutionary synthesis had been dubbed Neo Darwinian Evolution because it encompasses Charles Darwin's theories of evolution with Gregor Mendel's theories of genetic inheritance.

text: More detail was given in Darwin's 1868 book on

text: , which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of

text: pangenesis

text: . Although Darwin had privately questioned

text: blending inheritance

text: , he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population. However, inherited variation could be seen, and Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable. It was not until the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation. This modern evolutionary synthesis had been dubbed Neo Darwinian Evolution because it encompasses

text: Charles Darwin's

text: theories of evolution with Gregor Mendel's theories of genetic inheritance.

text: Humans have domesticated plants and animals since around 12,000 BCE, using selective breeding or artificial selection (as contrasted with natural selection). The process of selective breeding, in which organisms with desired traits (and thus with the desired genes) are used to breed the next generation and organisms lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification. Various advancements in genetics allowed humans to directly alter the DNA and therefore genes of organisms. In 1972  Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus.

text: Humans have

text: domesticated

text: plants and animals since around 12,000 BCE, using

text: selective breeding

text: or artificial selection (as contrasted with

text: natural selection

text: ). The process of

text: selective breeding

text: , in which organisms with desired

text: traits

text: (and thus with the desired

text: genes

text: ) are used to breed the next generation and organisms lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification. Various advancements in

text: genetics

text: allowed humans to directly alter the

text: DNA

text: and therefore genes of organisms. In 1972

text: Paul Berg

text: created the first

text: recombinant DNA

text: molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the

text: lambda virus

text: The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy for some members of the church. The first official statement on the issue of evolution was in 1909, which marked the centennial of Charles Darwin's birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork, On the Origin of Species. On that year, the First Presidency led by Joseph F. Smith as President, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of creationism, and calling human evolution one of the "theories of men", but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil. "It is held by some", they said, "that Adam was not the first man upon the earth, and that the original human was a development from lower orders of the animal creation. These, however, are the theories of men." Notably, the church did not opine on the evolution of animals other than humans, nor did it endorse a particular theory of creationism.

text: The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy for some members of the church. The first

text: official statement on the issue of evolution

text: was in 1909, which marked the centennial of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork,

text: On the Origin of Species

text: . On that year, the

text: First Presidency

text: led by

text: Joseph F. Smith

text: as President, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of

text: creationism

text: , and calling human evolution one of the "theories of men", but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil. "It is held by some", they said, "that Adam was not the first man upon the earth, and that the original human was a development from lower orders of the animal creation. These, however, are the theories of men." Notably, the church did not opine on the evolution of animals other than humans, nor did it endorse a particular theory of creationism.

text: Darwin even suggested that Chambers' book helped pave the way for the publication of his theory of evolution by natural selection. "In my opinion it has done excellent service in this country in calling attention to the subject, in removing prejudice, and in thus preparing the ground for the reception of analogous views."

text: Darwin even suggested that Chambers' book helped pave the way for the

text: publication of his theory

text: of evolution by

text: natural selection

text: . "In my opinion it has done excellent service in this country in calling attention to the subject, in removing prejudice, and in thus preparing the ground for the reception of analogous views."

text: (from The Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication (1868), Charles Darwin)

text: The most significant evolutionary theory before Darwin's was that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck; based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics (an inheritance mechanism that was widely accepted until the 20th century), it described a chain of development stretching from the lowliest microbe to humans. The British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Thomas Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise, created a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions. Charles Darwin's early interest in nature led him on a five-year voyage on  which established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author. Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin investigated the transmutation of species and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority. He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay which described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, a seminal work of scientific literature, was to be the foundation of evolutionary biology.

text: The most significant evolutionary theory before Darwin's was that of

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: ; based on the

text: inheritance of acquired characteristics

text: (an inheritance mechanism that was widely accepted until the 20th century), it described a chain of development stretching from the lowliest microbe to humans. The British naturalist

text: Charles Darwin

text: , combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell,

text: Thomas Malthus

text: 's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise, created a more successful evolutionary theory based on

text: natural selection

text: ; similar evidence led

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: to independently reach the same conclusions.

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's early interest in nature led him on a

text: five-year voyage

text: on  which established him as an eminent

text: geologist

text: whose observations and theories supported

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's

text: uniformitarian

text: ideas, and publication of his

text: journal of the voyage

text: made him famous as a popular author. Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and

text: fossil

text: s he collected on the voyage, Darwin investigated the

text: transmutation of species

text: and conceived his theory of natural selection in 1838. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority. He was writing up his theory in 1858 when

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: sent him an essay which described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of

text: both of their theories

text: .Darwin's

text: On the Origin of Species

text: , published on 24 November 1859, a seminal work of scientific literature, was to be the foundation of evolutionary biology.

text: Average adult sizes vary by region and gender, and 'giants' are often encountered. Red-footed tortoises average  with males slightly larger overall. Tortoises up to  are fairly common and over  are occasionally discovered. The largest known specimen, from Paraguay, was  long, and weighed over . It is unknown if the 'giants' represent diet availability, genetic issues, longevity, or other possibilities.

text: Selective plant breeding is also used in research to produce transgenic animals that breed "true" (i.e., are homozygous) for artificially inserted or deleted genes.

text: Selective plant breeding is also used in research to produce

text: transgenic

text: animals that breed "true" (i.e., are

text: homozygous

text: ) for artificially inserted or

text: deleted

text: genes.

text: Chemical companies portrayed the human battle against insects as a struggle for existence, and their promotional films in the 1950s invoke Charles Darwin. Darwin's biographer James Moore notes how the battlefield and life and death aspects of Darwin's theories were emphasised to suit the Cold War years. Scientists believed they were seizing power from evolution and redirecting it by controlling the environment.

text: Chemical companies portrayed the human battle against insects as a struggle for existence, and their promotional films in the 1950s invoke

text: Charles Darwin

text: . Darwin's biographer

text: James Moore

text: notes how the battlefield and life and death aspects of Darwin's theories were emphasised to suit the

text: Cold War

text: years. Scientists believed they were seizing power from

text: evolution

text: and redirecting it by controlling the environment.

text: Thomas Henry Huxley  (; 4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist (comparative anatomist), known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.

text: Thomas Henry Huxley  (; 4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English

text: biologist

text: comparative anatomist

text: ), known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's theory of

text: evolution

text: While historians agree on the above generalities, they disagree on the nature of the critique of Darwinism offered by geneticists, their alternative view of evolution, and the Darwinian restoration in the modern evolutionary synthesis. In the classical view, early geneticists, upon the discovery of mutation, mistakenly assume that all mutations are large, exaggerate their importance, reject Darwin's idea of selection, and imagine an entire theory of evolution based on dramatic mutations, in which new species were created in a single step; this view gains popularity and temporarily eclipses Darwin's theory; it takes decades for scientists to come to their senses and see that genetics and selection may be combined in a way that allows gradual evolution consistent with Darwin's original vision.  The classical view, which emerged in Modern Synthesis writings, presents the Modern Synthesis as the received view and mutationism as an obvious error; the decades-long delay in synthesizing genetics and Darwinism is seen as an "inexplicable embarrassment".

text: While historians agree on the above generalities, they disagree on the nature of the critique of Darwinism offered by geneticists, their alternative view of evolution, and the Darwinian restoration in the

text: modern evolutionary synthesis

text: . In the classical view, early geneticists, upon the discovery of mutation, mistakenly assume that all mutations are large, exaggerate their importance, reject Darwin's idea of selection, and imagine an entire theory of evolution based on dramatic mutations, in which new species were created in a single step; this view gains popularity and temporarily eclipses Darwin's theory; it takes decades for scientists to come to their senses and see that genetics and selection may be combined in a way that allows gradual evolution consistent with Darwin's original vision.  The classical view, which emerged in Modern Synthesis writings, presents the Modern Synthesis as the received view and mutationism as an obvious error; the decades-long delay in synthesizing genetics and Darwinism is seen as an "inexplicable embarrassment".

text: In the Galápagos Islands, six different species are found: O. echios, O. galapageia, O. helleri, O. insularis, O. saxicola, and O. megasperma. These species are divided into 14 different varieties; most of these are confined to one or a few islands. For this reason, they have been described as "an excellent example of adaptive radiation". On the whole, islands with tall, trunked varieties have giant tortoises, and islands lacking tortoises have low or prostrate forms of Opuntia. Prickly pears are a prime source of food for the common giant tortoises in the Galápagos islands so they are important in the food web.

text: In the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: , six different species are found: O. echios, O. galapageia, O. helleri, O. insularis, O. saxicola, and O. megasperma. These species are divided into 14 different varieties; most of these are confined to one or a few islands. For this reason, they have been described as "an excellent example of

text: adaptive radiation

text: ". On the whole, islands with tall, trunked varieties have giant tortoises, and islands lacking tortoises have low or prostrate forms of Opuntia. Prickly pears are a prime source of food for the common giant tortoises in the Galápagos islands so they are important in the food web.

text: In 1863, he quoted Darwin again, within his Theories of Surplus Value (2:121), saying that "In his splendid work, Darwin did not realize that by discovering the 'geometrical progression' in the animal and plant kingdom , he overthrew Malthus theory."

text: In 1863, he quoted Darwin again, within his

text: Theories of Surplus Value

text: (2:121), saying that "In his splendid work, Darwin did not realize that by discovering the 'geometrical progression' in the animal and plant kingdom , he overthrew Malthus theory."

text: The popularity of the evolution of cooperation – the reason it is not an obscure technical issue of interest to only a small number of specialists – is in part because it mirrors a larger issue where the realms of political philosophy, ethics, and biology intersect: the ancient issue of individual interests versus group interests.  On one hand, the so-called "Social Darwinians" (roughly, those who would use the "survival of the fittest" of Darwinian evolution to justify the cutthroat competitiveness of laissez-faire capitalism)declaim that the world is an inherently competitive "dog eat dog" jungle, where every individual has to look out for himself. The philosopher Ayn Rand damned "altruism" and declared selfishness a virtue.The Social Darwinists' view is derived from Charles Darwin's interpretation of evolution by natural selection, which is explicitly competitive ("survival of the fittest"), Malthusian ("struggle for existence"), even gladiatorial ("red in tooth and claw"), and permeated by the Victorian laissez-faire ethos of Darwin and his disciples (such as T. H. Huxley and Herbert Spencer).  What they read into the theory was then read out by Social Darwinians as scientific justification for their social and economic views (such as poverty being a natural condition and social reform an unnatural meddling).

text: The popularity of the evolution of cooperation – the reason it is not an obscure technical issue of interest to only a small number of specialists – is in part because it mirrors a larger issue where the realms of political philosophy, ethics, and biology intersect: the ancient issue of individual interests versus group interests.  On one hand, the so-called "

text: Social Darwinians

text: " (roughly, those who would use the "survival of the fittest" of Darwinian evolution to justify the cutthroat competitiveness of

text: laissez-faire

text: capitalism)declaim that the world is an inherently competitive "dog eat dog" jungle, where every individual has to look out for himself. The philosopher

text: Ayn Rand

text: damned "

text: altruism

text: " and declared selfishness a virtue.The Social Darwinists' view is derived from

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's interpretation of evolution by

text: natural selection

text: , which is explicitly competitive ("survival of the fittest"),

text: Malthusian

text: ("struggle for existence"), even gladiatorial ("red in tooth and claw"), and permeated by the Victorian laissez-faire ethos of Darwin and his disciples (such as

text: T. H. Huxley

text: and

text: Herbert Spencer

text: ).  What they read into the theory was then read out by Social Darwinians as scientific justification for their social and economic views (such as poverty being a natural condition and social reform an unnatural meddling).

text: Rafinesque proposed a theory of evolution before Charles Darwin. In a letter in 1832, Rafinesque wrote:

text: Rafinesque proposed a theory of evolution before

text: Charles Darwin

text: . In a letter in 1832, Rafinesque wrote:

text: Thus punctuated equilibrium contradicts some of Darwin's ideas regarding the specific mechanisms of evolution, but generally accords with Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.

text: John Bloomfield may refer to:

text: John Bloomfield may refer to:

text: An unemployed man and his wife decide to go to a concert. It will be their first big night out since having their child. The day before the concert, they go to pick up the tickets and the narrator takes a photo of his wife and child in front of a Rolls Royce.  The couple ask a neighbor, who is a single mother, to watch their child. The couple prepare for the night down to the last detail but the babysitter never shows up.

text: Lilium iridollae and many other related species are pollinated mostly by large swallowtail butterflies.  In addition, this plant is also attractive to bees and/or birds. When pollination occurs, a large seed capsule ultimately develops that can contain many hundreds of seeds.

text: Lilium iridollae and many other related species are

text: pollinated

text: mostly by large

text: swallowtail butterflies

text: .  In addition, this plant is also attractive to

text: bees

text: and/or

text: birds

text: . When pollination occurs, a large seed capsule ultimately develops that can contain many hundreds of seeds.

text: Fortis died on 4 December 1909 in Rome.

text: Fortis died on 4 December 1909 in Rome.

text: It was one of several feeder primary schools to Gloucester School in Hohne about half an hour away.

text: It was one of several feeder primary schools to

text: Gloucester School

text: in

text: Hohne

text: about half an hour away.

text: Although related to American Emberizidae or Tanagers rather than finches, the group of species related to those Darwin found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as "Darwin's finches" following publication of David Lack's book of that name in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.

text: Although related to American

text: Emberizidae

text: or

text: Tanager

text: s rather than

text: finch

text: es, the group of species related to those Darwin found in the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: became popularly known as "

text: Darwin's finches

text: " following publication of

text: David Lack

text: 's book of that name in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.

text: Source:  Winnipeg Free Press, 28-29 October 1965.

text: From his brainstorming about transmutation towards the end of 1838, Darwin conceived of his theory of natural selection "by which to work", as his "prime hobby". His main work on the Beagle collections continued, and in 1842 he published the first of three volumes on geology, The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. He then allowed himself to write out the first "pencil sketch" of his theory. Subsequently, in September 1842, the family moved to rural Down House where he had space for experimental plant and animal breeding, and surroundings to observe nature. In December of that year he had a quantity of broken chalk spread over a part of a long established pasture field near the house, "for the sake of observing at some future period to what depth it would become buried."

text: From his brainstorming about transmutation towards the end of 1838, Darwin conceived of his theory of

text: natural selection

text: "by which to work", as his "prime hobby". His main work on the Beagle collections continued, and in 1842 he published the first of three volumes on geology,

text: . He then allowed himself to write out the first "pencil sketch" of his theory. Subsequently, in September 1842, the family moved to rural

text: Down House

text: where he had space for experimental plant and animal breeding, and surroundings to observe nature. In December of that year he had a quantity of broken chalk spread over a part of a long established pasture field near the house, "for the sake of observing at some future period to what depth it would become buried."

text: __NOTOC__This is a list of postal codes in Canada where the first letter is V. Postal codes beginning with V are located within the Canadian province of British Columbia. Only the first three characters are listed, corresponding to the Forward Sortation Area.

text: __NOTOC__This is a list of

text: postal codes in Canada

text: where the first letter is V. Postal codes beginning with V are located within the Canadian province of

text: British Columbia

text: . Only the first three characters are listed, corresponding to the Forward Sortation Area.

text: Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution. The result was a reconstruction of the classification of animals upon a genealogical basis, fresh investigation of the development of animals, and early attempts to determine their genetic relationships. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease, though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the "neo-Darwinian synthesis".

text: Darwin gave new direction to

text: morphology

text: and

text: physiology

text: genealogical

text: spontaneous generation

text: and the rise of the

text: germ theory of disease

text: , though the mechanism of

text: inheritance

text: Mendel's

text: work led to the rapid development of

text: genetics

text: by

text: Thomas Hunt Morgan

text: population genetics

text: and natural selection in the "

text: neo-Darwinian synthesis

text: The posterior median sulcus is the posterior end of the posterior median septum of neuroglia  of the spinal cord. The septum varies in depth from 4 to 6 mm, but diminishes considerably in the lower part of the spinal cord.

text: The posterior median sulcus is the posterior end of the posterior median septum of

text: neuroglia

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: . The

text: septum

text: varies in depth from 4 to 6 mm, but diminishes considerably in the lower part of the spinal cord.

text: Summit Avenue was named one of 10 "great streets" nationally by the American Planning Association in 2008.

text: The Galápagos Islands are famous for its numerous endemic species and Charles Darwin studies that led him to establish his Theory of Evolution by natural selection. Are called touristically, the «Enchanted Islands» as the flora and fauna found there is virtually unique and it can not be found anywhere else in the world. That is why many people visit them to know and enjoy the animals and unique plants.

text: The Galápagos Islands are famous for its numerous endemic species and

text: Charles Darwin

text: studies that led him to establish his

text: Theory of Evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . Are called touristically, the «Enchanted Islands» as the flora and fauna found there is virtually unique and it can not be found anywhere else in the world. That is why many people visit them to know and enjoy the animals and unique plants.

text: Charles Darwin is the founder of the theory of the evolution of the species. The evolutionary approach to personality psychology is based on this theory. This theory examines how individual personality differences are based on natural selection. Through natural selection organisms change over time through adaptation and selection. Traits are developed and certain genes come into expression based on an organism's environment and how these traits aid in an organism's survival and reproduction.

text: Charles Darwin

text: is the founder of the

text: theory of the evolution of the species

text: . The evolutionary approach to personality psychology is based on this theory. This theory examines how individual personality differences are based on

text: natural selection

text: . Through natural selection organisms change over time through adaptation and selection. Traits are developed and certain genes come into expression based on an organism's environment and how these traits aid in an organism's survival and reproduction.

text: [[File:Lamarck 1815 diagram of animal evolution.png|thumb|Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's 1815 diagram showing branching in the course of invertebrate evolution]]Evolutionary taxonomy arose as a result of the influence of the theory of evolution on Linnaean taxonomy. The idea of translating Linnaean taxonomy into a sort of dendrogram of the Animal and Plant Kingdoms was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species was published. The first to suggest that organisms had common descent was Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis in his 1751 Essai de Cosmologie, Transmutation of species entered wider scientific circles with Erasmus Darwin's 1796 Zoönomia and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's 1809 Philosophie Zoologique.  The idea was popularised in the English-speaking world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844.

text: [[File:Lamarck 1815 diagram of animal evolution.png|thumb|

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: 's 1815 diagram showing branching in the course of invertebrate evolution]]Evolutionary taxonomy arose as a result of the influence of the theory of

text: evolution

text: on

text: Linnaean taxonomy

text: . The idea of translating Linnaean taxonomy into a sort of

text: dendrogram

text: of the

text: Animal

text: and

text: Plant

text: Kingdoms

text: was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before

text: Charles Darwin

text: 's book

text: On the Origin of Species

text: was published. The first to suggest that organisms had

text: common descent

text: was

text: Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis

text: in his 1751 Essai de Cosmologie,

text: Transmutation of species

text: entered wider scientific circles with

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: 's 1796

text: Zoönomia

text: and

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: 's 1809

text: Philosophie Zoologique

text: .  The idea was popularised in the

text: English-speaking world

text: by the speculative but widely read

text: , published anonymously by

text: Robert Chambers

text: in 1844.

text: Swings cause some injuries. The most common injury is due to a fall, either by unintentionally letting go of the ropes or chains or by deliberately jumping out of the swing.  Less commonly, the person using the swing will bump into or kick another person who is walking or playing too near the swing or, especially with improperly located home equipment, will bump into a fence, wall, or other fixed object.  Swings are also associated with strangulation or hanging injuries, usually because the child was wearing a piece of clothing or other item became entangled in the swing.

text: Swings cause some injuries. The most common injury is due to a fall, either by unintentionally letting go of the ropes or chains or by deliberately jumping out of the swing.  Less commonly, the person using the swing will bump into or kick another person who is walking or playing too near the swing or, especially with improperly located home equipment, will bump into a fence, wall, or other fixed object.  Swings are also associated with

text: strangulation

text: or

text: hanging

text: injuries, usually because the child was wearing a piece of clothing or other item became entangled in the swing.

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 855 people, 312 households, and 236 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 332 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 90.3% White, 7.3% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 1.1% from other races, and 0.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.6% of the population.

text: As of the

text: census

text: of 2010, there were 855 people, 312 households, and 236 families residing in the town. The

text: population density

text: was . There were 332 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 90.3%

entity_name: Race and ethnicity in the United States Census

text: White

text: , 7.3%

text: Native American

text: , 0.8%

text: Asian

text: , 1.1% from

text: other races

text: , and 0.6% from two or more races.

text: Hispanic

text: or

text: Latino

text: of any race were 3.6% of the population.

text: The theory of evolution was developed by Darwin in the 19th century.  This essentially eliminated the "God of the gaps" that had come about in the 17th century.  Liberal theologians accepted the theory of evolution, and held the opinion that God works continuously through the evolutionary process.  On the other hand conservatives still insisted on Biblical literalism, and they rejected Darwin's theory.  For the most part theologians began to focus more on the human experience for their basis of theology.

text: The theory of evolution was developed by

text: Darwin

text: in the 19th century.  This essentially eliminated the "God of the gaps" that had come about in the 17th century.  Liberal theologians accepted the theory of evolution, and held the opinion that God works continuously through the evolutionary process.  On the other hand conservatives still insisted on

text: Biblical literalism

text: , and they rejected Darwin's theory.  For the most part theologians began to focus more on the human experience for their basis of theology.

text: The village has an internal justice system.

text: WBGC (1240 AM) is a radio station broadcasting a Variety format. Licensed to Chipley, Florida, USA.  The station is currently owned by Jacquelyn Collier Pembroke.

text: WBGC (1240

text: AM

text: ) is a

text: radio station

text: broadcasting a

text: Variety

text: format. Licensed to

text: Chipley, Florida

text: , USA.  The station is currently owned by Jacquelyn Collier Pembroke.

text: Bishop graduated from Lathrop High School.

text: Bishop graduated from

text: Lathrop High School

text: The inhabitants of the commune are known as Arnétois or Arnétoises

text: In 2010 a Fox News investigation alleged that the CEO and executive director of the Pilsen Wellness Center hired numerous family members to work at the agency. According to internal agency documents and interviews obtained by Fox News, the director’s wife, mother, son, three brothers, four sisters and two nieces all had jobs at the agency. The investigation also revealed that two adult children of Illinois State Senator Martin Sandoval were employed by the agency. Sandoval was one of several lawmakers who "steered state funding" to the center, the news report said.

text: In 2010 a

text: Fox News

text: investigation alleged that the CEO and executive director of the Pilsen Wellness Center hired numerous family members to work at the agency. According to internal agency documents and interviews obtained by Fox News, the director’s wife, mother, son, three brothers, four sisters and two nieces all had jobs at the agency. The investigation also revealed that two adult children of Illinois State Senator

text: Martin Sandoval

text: were employed by the agency. Sandoval was one of several lawmakers who "steered state funding" to the center, the news report said.

text: Born in Bilbao, Biscay, Azkoitia started playing professionally with local Sestao Sport Club in the third division, but eventually helped to the club's promotion to the second level. However, the team was relegated back in 1996, and he signed with Basque neighbours Deportivo Alavés.

text: Born in

text: Bilbao

text: Biscay

text: , Azkoitia started playing professionally with local

text: Sestao Sport Club

text: in the

text: third division

text: , but eventually helped to the club's promotion to the

text: second level

text: . However, the team was relegated back in

text: , and he signed with

text: Basque

text: neighbours

text: Deportivo Alavés

text: Before Charles Darwin and his groundbreaking theory of evolution, primates were mainly used as caricatures of human nature. Although comparisons between man and animal are rather old, it was not until the findings of science that mankind recognised itself as a part of the animal kingdom. Caricatures of Darwin and his evolutionary theory reveal how closely science was intertwined with both the arts and the public during the Victorian era. They display the general perception of Darwin, his “monkey theory” and apes in 19th-century England.

text: Before

text: Charles Darwin

text: and his groundbreaking

text: theory of evolution

text: , primates were mainly used as caricatures of human nature. Although comparisons between man and animal are rather old, it was not until the findings of science that mankind recognised itself as a part of the animal kingdom.

text: Caricatures

text: of Darwin and his evolutionary theory reveal how closely science was intertwined with both the arts and the public during the

text: Victorian era

text: . They display the general perception of Darwin, his “monkey theory” and apes in 19th-century England.

text: A demultiplexer achieves this goal by maintaining frame synchronization.

text: In A Critique of the Theory of Evolution (1916), Morgan discussed questions such as: "Does selection play any role in evolution? How can selection produce anything new? Is selection no more than the elimination of the unfit? Is selection a creative force?" After eliminating some misunderstandings and explaining in detail the new science of Mendelian heredity and its chromosomal basis, Morgan concludes, "the evidence shows clearly that the characters of wild animals and plants, as well as those of domesticated races, are inherited both in the wild and in domesticated forms according to the Mendel's Law". "Evolution has taken place by the incorporation into the race of those mutations that are beneficial to the life and reproduction of the organism". Injurious mutations have practically no chance of becoming established. Far from rejecting evolution, as the title of his 1916 book may suggest, Morgan laid the foundation of the science of genetics. He also laid the theoretical foundation for the mechanism of evolution: natural selection. Heredity was a central plank of Darwin's theory of natural selection, but Darwin could not provide a working theory of heredity. Darwinism could not progress without a correct theory of genetics. By creating that foundation, Morgan contributed to the neo-Darwinian synthesis, despite his criticism of Darwin at the beginning of his career. Much work on the Evolutionary Synthesis remained to be done.

text: In A Critique of the Theory of Evolution (1916), Morgan discussed questions such as: "Does selection play any role in evolution? How can selection produce anything new? Is selection no more than the elimination of the unfit? Is selection a creative force?" After eliminating some misunderstandings and explaining in detail the new science of Mendelian heredity and its chromosomal basis, Morgan concludes, "the evidence shows clearly that the characters of wild animals and plants, as well as those of domesticated races, are inherited both in the wild and in domesticated forms according to the Mendel's Law". "Evolution has taken place by the incorporation into the race of those mutations that are beneficial to the life and reproduction of the organism". Injurious mutations have practically no chance of becoming established. Far from rejecting evolution, as the title of his 1916 book may suggest, Morgan laid the foundation of the science of genetics. He also laid the theoretical foundation for the mechanism of evolution: natural selection. Heredity was a central plank of

text: Darwin

text: 's theory of natural selection, but Darwin could not provide a working theory of heredity.

text: Darwinism

text: could not progress without a correct theory of genetics. By creating that foundation, Morgan contributed to the

text: neo-Darwinian

text: synthesis, despite his criticism of Darwin at the beginning of his career. Much work on the Evolutionary Synthesis remained to be done.

text: According to a 2011 Fox News poll, 45% of Americans believe in Creationism, down from 50% in a similar poll in 1999. 21% believe in 'the theory of evolution as outlined by Darwin and other scientists' (up from 15% in 1999), and 27% answered that both are true (up from 26% in 1999).

text: Allambie Heights Public School,Beacon Hill Public School,Belrose Public School,Wakehurst Public School,Kamaroi Rudolf Steiner School,John Colet School,Yanginanook School,Collaroy Plateau Public School,St Rose Catholic Primary School,Cromer Public School,Kambora Public School,St Martin De Porres Catholic Primary School,Dee Why Public School,St Kevin's Catholic Primary School,AGBU Alexander Primary School,Forestville Public School,Our Lady of Good Counsel Catholic Primary School,Forestville Montessori School,Frenchs Forest Public School,Mimosa Public School,Harbord Public School,St John The Baptist Catholic Primary School,Killarney Heights Public School,Manly Vale Public School,St Kieran's Catholic Primary School,Narrabeen Lakes Public School,Narrabeen North Public School,St Joseph's Catholic Primary School,Narraweena Public School,St John's Catholic Primary School,Terrey Hills Public School,Kinma School,Wheeler Heights Public School,Avalon Public School,Maria Regina Catholic Primary School,St Luke's Grammar School - Bayview Junior Campus,Bilgola Plateau Public School,Elanora Heights Public School,Mona Vale Public School,Sacred Heart Catholic Primary School,Newport Public School,Balgowlah North Public School,Balgowlah Heights Public School,St Cecilia's Catholic Primary School,Manly Village Public School,Manly West Public School,Seaforth Public School

text: Darwin and the Mysterious Mr. X attempts to solve a mystery: "Samuel Butler, a master of acrimonious polemic, confronted Charles Darwin with the sorest of all scientific subjects—a dispute about priority. In Evolution Old and New (1879), Butler accused Darwin of slighting the evolutionary speculations of Buffon, Lamarck, and his own grandfather, Erasmus Darwin." The Kirkus Reviews calls it, "...an essay devoted to resurrecting the name and importance of Edward Blyth, a 19th-century naturalist. Eiseley credits Blyth with the development of the idea, and even the coining of the words "natural selection," which Darwin absorbed and enlarged upon...[and] some thoughts on Darwin's Descent of Man; and a concluding speculation on the meaning of evolution. The last piece is very much Eiseley's poetic from-whence-do-we come/whither-do-we-go vein.

text: Darwin and the Mysterious Mr. X attempts to solve a mystery: "Samuel Butler, a master of acrimonious polemic, confronted

text: Charles Darwin

text: with the sorest of all scientific subjects—a dispute about priority. In

text: Evolution

text: Old and New (1879), Butler accused Darwin of slighting the evolutionary speculations of

text: Buffon

text: Lamarck

text: , and his own grandfather,

text: Erasmus Darwin

text: ." The

text: Kirkus Reviews

text: calls it, "...an essay devoted to resurrecting the name and importance of

text: Edward Blyth

text: , a 19th-century naturalist. Eiseley credits Blyth with the development of the idea, and even the coining of the words "

text: natural selection

text: ," which Darwin absorbed and enlarged upon...[and] some thoughts on Darwin's

text: Descent of Man

text: ; and a concluding speculation on the meaning of evolution. The last piece is very much Eiseley's poetic from-whence-do-we come/whither-do-we-go vein.

text: When Darwin proved unable to persevere at medical studies, his father shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican parson. Darwin was at first uncertain, he later wrote: "from what little I had heard and thought on the subject I had scruples about declaring my belief in all the dogmas of the Church of England; though otherwise I liked the thought of being a country clergyman. Accordingly I read with care 'Pearson on the Creed' and a few other books on divinity; and as I did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible, I soon persuaded myself that our Creed must be fully accepted. It never struck me how illogical it was to say that I believed in what I could not understand and what is in fact unintelligible. I might have said with entire truth that I had no wish to dispute any dogma; but I never was such a fool as to feel and say 'credo quia incredibile'. He was particularly convinced by the reasoning of the Revd. John Bird Sumner's Evidences of Christianity which set out the logic that the unbelief of sceptics gave them the dilemma that if Christianity were untrue, then either "Jesus did not live, or he actually lived, but was not the Son of God, hence an imposter." The Gospels made this highly improbable, as his miracles had convinced unbelievers, hence we had "no right to deny" that such events were probable. Jesus's religion was "wonderfully suitable... to our ideas of happiness in this & the next world" and there was "no other way... of explaining the series of evidence & probability."

text: When Darwin proved unable to persevere at medical studies, his father shrewdly sent him to

text: Christ's College, Cambridge

text: , for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican

text: parson

text: . Darwin was at first uncertain, he later wrote: "from what little I had heard and thought on the subject I had scruples about declaring my belief in all the dogmas of the Church of England; though otherwise I liked the thought of being a country clergyman. Accordingly I read with care '

text: Pearson

text: on the Creed

text: ' and a few other books on

text: divinity

text: ; and as I did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible, I soon persuaded myself that our

text: Creed

text: must be fully accepted. It never struck me how illogical it was to say that I believed in what I could not understand and what is in fact unintelligible. I might have said with entire truth that I had no wish to dispute any dogma; but I never was such a fool as to feel and say '

text: credo quia incredibile

text: '. He was particularly convinced by the reasoning of the Revd.

text: John Bird Sumner

text: 's Evidences of Christianity which set out the logic that the unbelief of

text: sceptics

text: gave them the dilemma that if Christianity were untrue, then either "Jesus did not live, or he actually lived, but was not the Son of God, hence an imposter." The Gospels made this highly improbable, as his miracles had convinced unbelievers, hence we had "no right to deny" that such events were probable. Jesus's religion was "wonderfully suitable... to our ideas of happiness in this & the next world" and there was "no other way... of explaining the series of evidence & probability."

text: Besides actively participating in the current discussions on evolutionary theory and genetics, Mosterín has also tackled issues like the definition of life itself or the ontology of biological organisms and species. Following in Aristotle’s and Schrödinger’s footsteps, he has been asking the simple question: what is life? He has analyzed the main proposed definitions, based on metabolism, reproduction, thermodynamics, complexity and evolution, and found all of them wanting. It is true that all organisms on Earth share many characteristics, from the encoding of genetic information in DNA to the storage of energy in ATP, but these common features merely reflect the inheritance from a common ancestor that possibly acquired them in a random way. From that point of view, our biology is the parochial science of life on Earth, rather than a universal science of life in general. Such a general biology seems impossible, as long as we do not detect and come to know other forms of life in the galaxy (in case they exist). Concerning the ontological thesis of Michael Ghiselin and David Hull on the individuality of biological species, Mosterín shows that they are neither classes nor individuals in the usual meaning of these words. He tries to extend and make more precise the available conceptual framework of the discussion. Specifically, he shows the formal equivalence of the set-theoretical and the mereological (or part and individual) approach, so that everything that can be said about the classes can be translated into the jargon of individuals, and the other way around. All these concerns converge in his recent philosophy of animality, which combines the ontology of animals as paradigmatic individuals with the insights and results of biological research. This general theory of animals provides a solid foundation for the development of anthropology, conceived as the science of human primates.

text: Besides actively participating in the current discussions on evolutionary theory and genetics, Mosterín has also tackled issues like the definition of life itself or the ontology of biological organisms and species. Following in

text: Aristotle

text: ’s and

text: Schrödinger

text: ’s footsteps, he has been asking the simple question: what is life? He has analyzed the main proposed definitions, based on metabolism, reproduction, thermodynamics, complexity and evolution, and found all of them wanting. It is true that all organisms on Earth share many characteristics, from the encoding of genetic information in DNA to the storage of energy in ATP, but these common features merely reflect the inheritance from a common ancestor that possibly acquired them in a random way. From that point of view, our biology is the parochial science of life on Earth, rather than a universal science of life in general. Such a general biology seems impossible, as long as we do not detect and come to know other forms of life in the galaxy (in case they exist). Concerning the ontological thesis of

text: Michael Ghiselin

text: and

text: David Hull

text: on the individuality of biological species, Mosterín shows that they are neither classes nor individuals in the usual meaning of these words. He tries to extend and make more precise the available conceptual framework of the discussion. Specifically, he shows the formal equivalence of the set-theoretical and the mereological (or part and individual) approach, so that everything that can be said about the classes can be translated into the jargon of individuals, and the other way around. All these concerns converge in his recent philosophy of animality, which combines the ontology of animals as paradigmatic individuals with the insights and results of biological research. This general theory of animals provides a solid foundation for the development of anthropology, conceived as the science of human primates.