text: 1) Starts from "Fluctuations of wind" (O. M.Phillips) : the wind wave formation on water surface by wind is started by a random distribution of normal pressure acting on the water from the wind. By the mechanism developed by O. M. Phillips (in 1957), the water surface is initially at rest and wave generation is started by adding turbulent wind flows and then, by the fluctuations of the wind, normal pressure acting on the water surface. From this pressure fluctuation arise normal and tangential stresses to the surface water, which generates wave behavior on the water surface. It is assumed that:

text: Internal tides are generated as the surface tides move stratified water up and down sloping topography, which produces a wave in the ocean interior.  So internal tides are internal waves at a tidal frequency.  The other major source of internal waves is the wind which produces internal waves near the inertial frequency.  When a small water parcel is displaced from its equilibrium position, it will return either downwards due to gravity or upwards due to buoyancy.  The water parcel will overshoot its original equilibrium position and this disturbance will set off an internal gravity wave.  Munk (1981) notes, "Gravity waves in the ocean's interior are as common as waves at the sea surface-perhaps even more so, for no one has ever reported an interior calm."

text: Internal tides are generated as the surface

entity_name: Tide

text: tides

text: move stratified water up and down sloping topography, which produces a wave in the ocean interior.  So internal tides are

entity_name: Internal wave

text: internal waves

text: at a tidal frequency.  The other major source of internal waves is the wind which produces internal waves near the inertial frequency.  When a small water parcel is displaced from its equilibrium position, it will return either downwards due to gravity or upwards due to buoyancy.  The water parcel will overshoot its original equilibrium position and this disturbance will set off an internal gravity wave.  Munk (1981) notes, "Gravity waves in the ocean's interior are as common as waves at the sea surface-perhaps even more so, for no one has ever reported an interior calm."

text: With the proceeds of the loan, Loomis was able to pay off Kamm. Sheriff Sears of Multnomah County, released the lien.  With the lien gone, the lease of Ocean Wave to the CR&PSN went through.  Ocean Wave began running on July 18, 1895.  Thereafter Ocean Wave was operated on the Columbia River, and advertised, as one of the steamboats of the White Collar Line.

text: With the proceeds of the loan, Loomis was able to pay off Kamm. Sheriff Sears of

entity_name: Multnomah County, Oregon

text: Multnomah County

text: , released the lien.  With the lien gone, the lease of Ocean Wave to the CR&PSN went through.  Ocean Wave began running on July 18, 1895.  Thereafter Ocean Wave was operated on the Columbia River, and advertised, as one of the steamboats of the White Collar Line.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: A beach break takes place where waves break on a usually sandy seabed.  An example of a classic beach break is Hossegor in Southern France, which is famous for waves of up to .

text: A

text: beach break

text: takes place where waves break on a usually sandy seabed.  An example of a classic beach break is

entity_name: Soorts-Hossegor

text: Hossegor

text: in

entity_name: Southern France

text: Southern France

text: , which is famous for waves of up to .

text: When directly generated and affected by local winds, a wind wave system is called a wind sea. After the wind ceases to blow, wind waves are called swells. More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not significantly affected by the local wind at that time. They have been generated elsewhere or some time ago. Wind waves in the ocean are called ocean surface waves.

text: When directly generated and affected by local winds, a wind wave system is called a wind sea. After the wind ceases to blow, wind waves are called

entity_name: Swell (ocean)

text: swells

text: . More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not significantly affected by the local wind at that time. They have been generated elsewhere or some time ago. Wind waves in the ocean are called ocean surface waves.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a tournament to determine the inaugural Wave Single Champion and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the 2013 Catch the Wave, Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal submission match by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the 2014 Catch the Wave tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a

entity_name: Wave Single Championship

entity_section: Regina di Wave tournament

text: tournament

text: to determine the inaugural

text: Wave Single Champion

text: and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the

entity_name: Catch the Wave

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: , Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the

entity_name: Dual Shock Wave

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal

entity_name: Professional wrestling match types

entity_section: Variations of singles matches

text: submission match

text: by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the

text: 2014 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

method: UNH-ecn

text: P-waves are a type of elastic wave, and are one of the two main types of elastic body waves, called seismic waves in seismology, that travel through a continuum and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The continuum is made up of gases (as sound waves), liquids, or solids, including the Earth. P-waves can be produced by earthquakes and recorded by seismographs. The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating compressions and rarefactions or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

text: P-waves are a type of

entity_name: Linear elasticity

entity_section: Elastic wave

text: elastic wave

text: , and are one of the two main types of elastic

entity_name: Seismic wave

text: body waves

text: , called

text: seismic waves

text: in seismology, that travel through a

entity_name: Continuum mechanics

text: continuum

text: and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The

entity_name: Continuum (measurement)

text: continuum

text: is made up of

entity_name: Gas

text: gas

text: es (as

entity_name: Sound

text: sound

text: waves), liquids, or solids, including the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: . P-waves can be produced by

entity_name: Earthquake

text: earthquakes

text: and recorded by

entity_name: Seismometer

text: seismographs

text: . The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating

entity_name: Compression (physics)

text: compression

text: s and

entity_name: Rarefaction

text: rarefaction

text: s or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

text: The presence of coastal regions both in the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans increases the risk of hurricanes and tropical storms. Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.  Some of the events of this type that have affected the country are:

text: The presence of coastal regions both in the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans increases the risk of

entity_name: Tropical cyclone

text: hurricane

text: s and

entity_section: Tropical storm

text: tropical storm

text: s. Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the

entity_name: Atmosphere

text: atmosphere

text: that may lead to the formation of

text: hurricanes

text: .  Some of the events of this type that have affected the country are:

text: Toward the end of September 2001, a poorly defined tropical wave moved westward across the tropical Atlantic Ocean through an area of hostile wind shear, which was caused by a large upper-level low within a trough to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles. A few days later, the upper-level low detached from the trough and moved southwestward over the Caribbean Sea, allowing for an upper-level ridge, or high-pressure area, to form over the tropical wave. The change provided a favorable environment for tropical development, and an area of convection soon blossomed along the wave's axis. As the tropical wave approached the Lesser Antilles, a mid-level wind circulation formed within the deepest part of the convection, and a low-level circulation became gradually more pronounced on satellite imagery. Although its low-level circulation was small and poorly defined, the system increased in organization enough to be classified as Tropical Depression Eleven at 12:00 UTC on October 4, located about 100 mi (160 km) southeast of Barbados. Operationally, however, Hurricane Hunters did not confirm the depression's formation until nine hours later.

text: Toward the end of September 2001, a poorly defined

entity_name: Tropical wave

text: tropical wave

text: moved westward across the tropical Atlantic Ocean through an area of hostile

entity_name: Wind shear

text: wind shear

text: , which was caused by a large

entity_name: Cold-core low

text: upper-level low

text: within a

entity_name: Trough (meteorology)

text: trough

text: to the northeast of the

entity_name: Lesser Antilles

text: Lesser Antilles

text: . A few days later, the upper-level low detached from the trough and moved southwestward over the Caribbean Sea, allowing for an upper-level

entity_name: Ridge (meteorology)

text: ridge

text: , or high-pressure area, to form over the tropical wave. The change provided a favorable environment for

entity_name: Tropical cyclogenesis

text: tropical development

text: , and an area of

entity_name: Atmospheric convection

text: convection

text: soon blossomed along the wave's axis. As the tropical wave approached the Lesser Antilles, a mid-level

entity_section: physical structure

text: wind circulation

text: formed within the deepest part of the convection, and a low-level circulation became gradually more pronounced on satellite imagery. Although its low-level circulation was small and poorly defined, the system increased in organization enough to be classified as Tropical Depression Eleven at 12:00

entity_name: Coordinated Universal Time

text: UTC

text: on October 4, located about 100 mi (160 km) southeast of

entity_name: Barbados

text: Barbados

text: . Operationally, however,

entity_name: Hurricane Hunters

text: Hurricane Hunters

text: did not confirm the depression's formation until nine hours later.

text: The storm moved ashore with a high storm surge, estimated at  in Bharuch. Winds reached 85 km/h (53 mph) in Veraval, while heavy rainfall spread across the region, totaling over  in some parts of Gujarat. South of the landfall point, high winds and waves washed 10 boats ashore near Mumbai, forcing the crews to be rescued by helicopters. The storm disrupted wheat production and port operations in western India. In Gujarat, the storm uprooted trees and damaged  of crop fields, with 2,113 cattle killed between Gujarat and neighboring Maharashtra to the south. The storm damaged 41,134 houses in the two states, and overall damage was estimated at RS$196 million (US$5.6 million). There were 47 deaths related to the cyclone.

text: The storm moved ashore with a high

entity_name: Storm surge

text: storm surge

text: , estimated at  in

entity_name: Bharuch

text: Bharuch

text: . Winds reached 85 km/h (53 mph) in

entity_name: Veraval

text: Veraval

text: , while heavy rainfall spread across the region, totaling over  in some parts of Gujarat. South of the landfall point, high winds and waves washed 10 boats ashore near Mumbai, forcing the crews to be rescued by helicopters. The storm disrupted wheat production and port operations in western India. In Gujarat, the storm uprooted trees and damaged  of crop fields, with 2,113 cattle killed between Gujarat and neighboring

entity_name: Maharashtra

text: Maharashtra

text: to the south. The storm damaged 41,134 houses in the two states, and overall damage was estimated at RS$196 million (US$5.6 million). There were 47 deaths related to the cyclone.

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The

text: spectral wave transport equation

text: is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid),

entity_name: Wave shoaling

text: wave shoaling

entity_name: Refraction

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through

entity_name: Wind wave

text: whitecaps

text: and

entity_name: Resonance

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=

entity_name: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: In physics, a surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the interface between differing media, usually as a gravity wave between two fluids with different densities.  A surface wave can also be an elastic (or a seismic) wave, such as with a Rayleigh or Love wave. It can also be an electromagnetic wave guided by a refractive index gradient, or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In radio transmission, a ground wave is a surface wave that propagates close to the surface of the Earth.

text: In

entity_name: Physics

text: physics

text: , a surface wave is a

entity_name: Mechanical wave

text: mechanical wave

text: that propagates along the

entity_name: Interface (matter)

text: interface

text: between differing media, usually as a

entity_name: Gravity wave

text: gravity wave

text: between two

entity_name: Fluid

text: fluid

text: s with different densities.  A surface wave can also be an elastic (or a

text: seismic

text: ) wave, such as with a

entity_name: Rayleigh wave

text: Rayleigh

text: or

entity_name: Love wave

text: Love

text: wave. It can also be an

entity_name: Electromagnetic radiation

text: electromagnetic wave

text: guided by a

entity_name: Refractive index

text: refractive index

entity_name: Gradient

text: gradient

text: , or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In

entity_name: Radio

text: radio

entity_name: Transmission (telecommunications)

text: transmission

text: , a ground wave is a surface wave that propagates close to the surface of the

text: Earth

text: Al Gal is a beach area located on the west coast of Israel near the city of Bat Yam. It is an exposed beach break and reef break that has fairly consistent surf, specially during the months of summer when most of the surf comes in the form of wind waves.

text: Al Gal is a beach area located on the west coast of

entity_name: Israel

text: Israel

text: near the city of

entity_name: Bat Yam

text: Bat Yam

text: . It is an exposed

text: beach break

text: and

text: reef break

text: that has fairly consistent surf, specially during the months of summer when most of the surf comes in the form of

text: wind waves

text: Although Hurricane Katrina made landfall well to the west, Alabama and the Florida Panhandle were both affected by tropical-storm force winds and a storm surge varying from  around Mobile Bay, with higher waves on top. Sustained winds of  were recorded in Mobile, Alabama, and the storm surge there was approximately . The surge caused significant flooding several miles inland along Mobile Bay. Four tornadoes were also reported in Alabama. Ships, oil rigs, boats and fishing piers were washed ashore along Mobile Bay: the cargo ship M/V Caribbean Clipper and many fishing boats were grounded at Bayou La Batre.

text: Although Hurricane Katrina made landfall well to the west, Alabama and the Florida Panhandle were both affected by tropical-storm force winds and a storm surge varying from  around

text: Mobile Bay

text: , with higher waves on top. Sustained winds of  were recorded in

text: Mobile, Alabama

text: , and the storm surge there was approximately . The surge caused significant flooding several miles inland along Mobile Bay. Four tornadoes were also reported in Alabama. Ships, oil rigs, boats and fishing

text: pier

text: s were washed ashore along Mobile Bay: the cargo ship M/V Caribbean Clipper and many fishing boats were grounded at

text: Bayou La Batre

text: Due to advance warning, there was minimal damage to shipping in the region. However, high waves damaged the steamer Madison with 90 people on board and caused it to drift off Cape Charles, which necessitated rescue from the Coast Guard. Inland flooding occurred along the James River as far west as Richmond, where damage was limited to downed trees and broken windows. The pier of the Jamestown Ferry was washed out in Surry  and a marina at Jordan Point near Hopewell was wrecked after the river reached the highest level on record. A powerful storm surge moved up the Chesapeake Bay and flooded waterfront locations. At Colonial Beach along the Potomac River, the surge flooded the town with  of water and wrecked a local amusement park. The Potomac in Alexandria was at its highest level since 1899, causing floods  deep along U.S. Route 1, and flooding the Old Town section. High winds in the city caused power outages, and flooding along the Cameron Run washed out a bridge. The combination of rain and winds damaged crops in Fairfax and Loudoun counties, mainly to corn and peaches. Statewide, the storm caused $5.25 million in crop damage, largely to corn and tobacco. Damage in the state was estimated at $17.5 million, and there were 15 deaths. After the storm, about 350 people helped clear debris from the streets of Norfolk.

text: Due to advance warning, there was minimal damage to shipping in the region. However, high waves damaged the steamer Madison with 90 people on board and caused it to drift off Cape Charles, which necessitated rescue from the Coast Guard. Inland flooding occurred along the

text: James River

text: as far west as

text: Richmond

text: , where damage was limited to downed trees and broken windows. The pier of the

text: Jamestown Ferry

text: was washed out in

text: Surry

text: and a marina at

text: Jordan Point

text: near

text: Hopewell

text: was wrecked after the river reached the highest level on record. A powerful storm surge moved up the Chesapeake Bay and flooded waterfront locations. At

text: Colonial Beach

text: along the

text: Potomac River

text: , the surge flooded the town with  of water and wrecked a local amusement park. The Potomac in

text: Alexandria

text: was at its highest level since 1899, causing floods  deep along

text: U.S. Route 1

text: , and flooding the

entity_name: List of neighborhoods in Alexandria, Virginia

text: Old Town section

text: . High winds in the city caused power outages, and flooding along the

text: Cameron Run

text: washed out a bridge. The combination of rain and winds damaged crops in

text: Fairfax

text: and

text: Loudoun

text: counties, mainly to corn and peaches. Statewide, the storm caused $5.25 million in crop damage, largely to corn and tobacco. Damage in the state was estimated at $17.5 million, and there were 15 deaths. After the storm, about 350 people helped clear debris from the streets of Norfolk.

text: Olaf formed from a tropical wave that left the coast of Africa on September 17. Over the next two weeks it moved westbound into the East Pacific Ocean. Initially, the wave was not in an environment conductive for further development. However, on October 2, a low-level circulation was noted on satellite imagery. This circulation quickly became better defined over the next several hours while located 400 miles (645 km) south of Acapulco, Mexico. The next day, Dvorak Classifications, a tool that estimates a tropical cyclone intensity, were placed at 1.5. This is equivalent to winds of around 30 mph (50 km/h). In addition, a ship nearby reported winds of 35 mph (45 km/h). Microwave imagery also indicated that the center was near the associated convection. Based on this, the system was upgraded into a tropical depression.

text: Olaf formed from a tropical wave that left the coast of Africa on September 17. Over the next two weeks it moved westbound into the East Pacific Ocean. Initially, the wave was not in an environment conductive for further development. However, on October 2, a low-level circulation was noted on

text: satellite imagery

text: . This circulation quickly became better defined over the next several hours while located 400 miles (645 km) south of

text: Acapulco

text: , Mexico. The next day, Dvorak Classifications, a tool that estimates a tropical cyclone intensity, were placed at 1.5. This is equivalent to winds of around 30 mph (50 km/h). In addition, a ship nearby reported winds of 35 mph (45 km/h). Microwave imagery also indicated that the center was near the associated convection. Based on this, the system was upgraded into a tropical depression.

text: Rough seas killed a person on a Navy Destroyer the USS Goldsborough DDG-20 in Pearl Harbor when the seaman hit a stanchion, with four others injured on the ship. One of the four injured was swept overboard two miles (three kilometers) from the harbor. Before the arrival of the hurricane, around 1,000 evacuated the low-lying coastline to shelters.Rough waves destroyed four and damaged two deep-water communication cables between Oahu and Kauai. In Oahu, damage from wind and surf was heaviest on the southwest coast between Nānākuli and Mākaha. The storm surge washed sand into streets in Waikīkī and flooded cars in areas of basement parking. Wind damage was greatest in areas where winds blew from southerly directions off of mountains. The winds damaged several small aircraft and a Douglas DC-3 plane in Honolulu. Gusty winds shattered glass windows in the Honolulu International Airport, injuring several passengers. Some flights in and out of the Honolulu airport were delayed, while other domestic airports were temporarily closed. The passage of the hurricane damaged at least 6,391 homes, 21 hotels, and two condominium buildings on the island. Additionally, 418 buildings, including 30 businesses, were destroyed on Oahu.

text: Rough seas killed a person on a Navy Destroyer the USS Goldsborough DDG-20 in

text: Pearl Harbor

text: when the seaman hit a

text: stanchion

text: , with four others injured on the ship. One of the four injured was swept overboard two miles (three kilometers) from the harbor. Before the arrival of the hurricane, around 1,000 evacuated the low-lying coastline to shelters.Rough waves destroyed four and damaged two

text: deep-water communication cables

text: between Oahu and Kauai. In

text: Oahu

text: , damage from wind and surf was heaviest on the southwest coast between

text: Nānākuli

text: and

text: Mākaha

text: . The storm surge washed sand into streets in

text: Waikīkī

text: and flooded cars in areas of basement parking. Wind damage was greatest in areas where winds blew from southerly directions off of mountains. The winds damaged several small aircraft and a

text: Douglas DC-3

text: plane in

text: Honolulu

text: . Gusty winds shattered glass windows in the

text: Honolulu International Airport

text: , injuring several passengers. Some flights in and out of the Honolulu airport were delayed, while other domestic airports were temporarily closed. The passage of the hurricane damaged at least 6,391 homes, 21 hotels, and two condominium buildings on the island. Additionally, 418 buildings, including 30 businesses, were destroyed on Oahu.

text: Erris has considerable potential for ocean energy in terms of its location next to the Atlantic Ocean and constant winds from the sea. These resources have been earmarked for development. There are opportunities for the development of ocean wave power projects, tidal power, hydroelectric schemes, and, wind farms amongst other clean, alternative energy generation opportunities for which the area is eminently suitable.

text: Erris has considerable potential for ocean energy in terms of its location next to the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: and constant winds from the sea. These resources have been earmarked for development. There are opportunities for the development of ocean

text: wave power

text: projects,

text: tidal power

text: hydroelectric

text: schemes, and,

text: wind farms

text: amongst other clean, alternative energy generation opportunities for which the area is eminently suitable.

text: In Surigao City,  of rainfall was recorded, much of which fell in under 12 hours. Storm surges were also recorded in many places. In the island of Leyte and Samar, PAGASA measured 5–6 meter (15–19 ft) waves. In Tacloban, Leyte, the terminal building of Tacloban Airport was destroyed by a  storm surge up to the height of the second story. Along the airport, a storm surge of  was estimated. Waves of  were also estimated. On the western coast of Samar, the storm surge was not as significant.

text: In

text: Surigao City

text: ,  of rainfall was recorded, much of which fell in under 12 hours.

text: Storm surge

text: s were also recorded in many places. In the island of

text: Leyte

text: and

text: Samar

text: PAGASA

text: measured 5–6 meter (15–19 ft) waves. In

text: Tacloban

text: Leyte

text: , the terminal building of

text: Tacloban Airport

text: was destroyed by a  storm surge up to the height of the second story. Along the airport, a storm surge of  was estimated. Waves of  were also estimated. On the western coast of Samar, the storm surge was not as significant.

text: The storm caused flooding in seven counties within the state as a result of  of rainfall. Winds peaked at  which downed trees and power lines, and left 65,000 homes without power. A storm surge of  to  was reported, along with moderate waves that caused minor beach erosion. No deaths are attributed to the storm.

text: In South Florida, Sandy lashed the area with rough surf, strong winds, and brief squalls. Along the coast of Miami-Dade County, waves reached , but may have been as high as  in Palm Beach County. In the former county, minor pounding occurred on  few coastal roads. Further north in Broward County, State Road A1A was inundated with sand and water, causing more than a  stretch of the road to be closed for the entire weekend. Additionally, coastal flooding extended inland up to 2 blocks in some locations and a few houses in the area suffered water damage. In Manalapan, which is located in southern Palm Beach County, several beachfront homes were threatened by erosion. The Lake Worth Pier was also damaged by rough seas. In Palm Beach County alone, losses reached $14 million. Sandy caused closures and cancellations of some activities at schools in Palm Beach, Broward and Miami-Dade counties. Storm surge from Sandy also caused flooding and beach erosion along coastal areas in South Florida. Gusty winds also impacted South Florida, peaking at  in Jupiter and Fowey Rocks Light, which is near Key Biscayne. The storm left power outages across the region, which left many traffic lights out of order.

text: In South Florida, Sandy lashed the area with rough surf, strong winds, and brief squalls. Along the coast of

text: Miami-Dade County

text: , waves reached , but may have been as high as  in

text: Palm Beach County

text: . In the former county, minor pounding occurred on  few coastal roads. Further north in

text: Broward County

text: State Road A1A

text: was inundated with sand and water, causing more than a  stretch of the road to be closed for the entire weekend. Additionally, coastal flooding extended inland up to 2 blocks in some locations and a few houses in the area suffered water damage. In

text: Manalapan

text: , which is located in southern Palm Beach County, several beachfront homes were threatened by erosion. The

text: Lake Worth

text: Pier was also damaged by rough seas. In Palm Beach County alone, losses reached $14 million. Sandy caused closures and cancellations of some activities at schools in

text: Palm Beach

text: Broward

text: and

text: Miami-Dade

text: counties. Storm surge from Sandy also caused flooding and beach erosion along coastal areas in South Florida. Gusty winds also impacted South Florida, peaking at  in

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Fowey Rocks Light

text: , which is near

text: Key Biscayne

text: . The storm left power outages across the region, which left many traffic lights out of order.

text: At the onset of the design process is a detailed analysis of the existing data of natural weather conditions of the site location, optimizing the use of natural elements to shape the design of the building—the same “thinking model” used by nature. In the same manner that a sailboat is designed to take advantage of the wind and waves, Nati espouses the idea that a building should adhere to the same concept, by optimizing the natural elements to create an efficient and high performing building design.

text: The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite, jointly operated by NASA and JAXA, estimated that Bijli produced a maximum of  of rain over coastal Bangladesh, with rainfall rates reaching nearly 50 mm/h (2 in/h). High winds downed several trees; numerous homes sustained damage and several ships on offshore islands were reportedly caught in the storm. High winds and heavy rains have also knocked out power to some communities. A storm surge of  was recorded in the Cox's Bazar District with reports higher amounts in localized areas. At least 12 huts, 50 betel beef fields, and a large amount of salt have been damaged by the storm. Later reports indicated that thousands of homes have been damaged or destroyed by the storm. The first fatality caused by Bijli occurred when a tree knocked down by high winds fell on a 9-year-old boy, killing him on impact and injuring his sister. In the Cox's Bazar District, a school teacher and two students were killed. One of the two children was trampled to death during the evacuation. The other child was killed when his home collapsed on top of him.

text: The

text: Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

text: satellite, jointly operated by

text: NASA

text: and

text: JAXA

text: , estimated that Bijli produced a maximum of  of rain over coastal Bangladesh, with rainfall rates reaching nearly 50 mm/h (2 in/h). High winds downed several trees; numerous homes sustained damage and several ships on offshore islands were reportedly caught in the storm. High winds and heavy rains have also knocked out power to some communities. A storm surge of  was recorded in the Cox's Bazar District with reports higher amounts in localized areas. At least 12 huts, 50 betel beef fields, and a large amount of salt have been damaged by the storm. Later reports indicated that thousands of homes have been damaged or destroyed by the storm. The first fatality caused by Bijli occurred when a tree knocked down by high winds fell on a 9-year-old boy, killing him on impact and injuring his sister. In the Cox's Bazar District, a school teacher and two students were killed. One of the two children was trampled to death during the evacuation. The other child was killed when his home collapsed on top of him.

text: Breaking of water surface waves may occur anywhere that the amplitude is sufficient, including in mid-ocean.  However, it is particularly common on beaches because wave heights are amplified in the region of shallower water (because the group velocity is lower there).  See also waves and shallow water.

text: Breaking of water surface waves may occur anywhere that the amplitude is sufficient, including in mid-ocean.  However, it is particularly common on beaches because wave heights are amplified in the region of shallower water (because the group velocity is lower there).  See also

text: waves and shallow water

text: Upon making landfall on Cape May, New Jersey, the cyclone produced a 5 foot (1.5 m) storm surge on the Delaware Bay side of the city. Lasting for several hours, the hurricane-force winds were described as "[blowing] with great violence", causing widespread devastation across the region. In Little Egg Harbor, its passage caused damage to the port. Strong winds reached as far inland as Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where winds of over 40 mph (60 km/h) downed trees and chimneys; in the city, precipitation accrued to 3.92 inches (99.6 mm). Further to the north, the hurricane destroyed a windmill at Bergen Point, New Jersey. Though the hurricane struck at low tide, it produced a storm surge of over 29 feet (9 m) along several portions of the New Jersey coastline, causing significant overwash.

text: Upon making landfall on

text: Cape May, New Jersey

text: , the cyclone produced a 5 foot (1.5 m) storm surge on the

text: Delaware Bay

text: side of the city. Lasting for several hours, the hurricane-force winds were described as "[blowing] with great violence", causing widespread devastation across the region. In

text: Little Egg Harbor

text: , its passage caused damage to the port. Strong winds reached as far inland as

text: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

text: , where winds of over 40 mph (60 km/h) downed trees and chimneys; in the city, precipitation accrued to 3.92 inches (99.6 mm). Further to the north, the hurricane destroyed a windmill at

text: Bergen Point, New Jersey

text: . Though the hurricane struck at low tide, it produced a storm surge of over 29 feet (9 m) along several portions of the New Jersey coastline, causing significant

text: overwash

text: Hurricane Iris moved ashore in Belize with winds of , although the highest measured winds were  at a station in Big Creek. Because of its small diameter, Iris produced heavy damage only in a  area of southern Belize. In that region, the hurricane produced a storm surge of up to , with waves of over  in height, causing street flooding and some damage to the offshore cayes.

text: Hurricane Iris moved ashore in Belize with winds of , although the highest measured winds were  at a station in Big Creek. Because of its small diameter, Iris produced heavy damage only in a  area of southern Belize. In that region, the hurricane produced a

text: storm surge

text: of up to , with waves of over  in height, causing street flooding and some damage to the offshore cayes.

text: The sea off Cape Agulhas is notorious for winter storms and mammoth rogue waves, which can range up to 30 metres (100 ft) high and can sink even large ships. Over the past few hundred years it has been believed that around 150 ships have sunk around Agulhas. These conditions are caused by a number of factors. The naturally strong winds of the roaring forties, which blow from west to east, and the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current flowing in the same direction, come up against the warmer Agulhas Current in the region of the cape. These conflicting currents of water of different densities, and the west winds blowing against the Agulhas Current, can create extremely hazardous wave conditions; these are further exacerbated by the shallow waters of the Agulhas Bank, a broad, shallow part of the continental shelf which juts 250 kilometres (155 mi) south from the cape, after which it falls steeply away to the abyssal plain.

text: The sea off Cape Agulhas is notorious for winter storms and mammoth

text: rogue wave

text: s, which can range up to 30 metres (100 ft) high and can sink even large ships. Over the past few hundred years it has been believed that around 150 ships have sunk around Agulhas. These conditions are caused by a number of factors. The naturally strong winds of the

text: roaring forties

text: , which blow from west to east, and the cold

text: Antarctic Circumpolar Current

text: flowing in the same direction, come up against the warmer

text: Agulhas Current

text: in the region of the cape. These conflicting currents of water of different densities, and the west winds blowing against the Agulhas Current, can create extremely hazardous wave conditions; these are further exacerbated by the shallow waters of the

text: Agulhas Bank

text: , a broad, shallow part of the

text: continental shelf

text: which juts 250 kilometres (155 mi) south from the cape, after which it falls steeply away to the

text: abyssal plain

text: The powerful cyclone brought intense winds, heavy rainfall, and high waves to Andhra Pradesh in eastern India. Hurricane-force winds – at least 120 km/h (75 mi) – penetrated 100 km (60 mi) inland. Peak gusts were estimated at 200 km/h (124 mph), based on anemometers that were blown away in Yanam. The highest recorded sustained wind was 111 km/h (69 mph) by a ship at the Kakinada Port, only 50 km (30 mi) from the landfall location. The storm dropped heavy rainfall near the coast, peaking at  in Amalapuram. Rainfall rates of over  occurred over 3 hours in a 40 km (25 mi) stretch of land. Along a 60 km (37 mi) portion of the coast,  waves accompanied a  storm surge, spreading 5 km (3 mi) inland. The storm struck just three weeks after another storm killed 350 people. Storm damage extended 130 km (80 mi) inland. Widespread areas of crop fields were inundated with floodwaters, washing away tons of rice, coconuts, and bananas. The winds knocked down about 5 million coconut trees. It was estimated that the storm destroyed  of rice paddy, along with  of other crops. About 13,500 livestock and 1 million chickens were killed by the storm; many of them rotted on arable fields after the waters receded.

text: The powerful cyclone brought intense winds, heavy rainfall, and high waves to Andhra Pradesh in eastern India. Hurricane-force winds – at least 120 km/h (75 mi) – penetrated 100 km (60 mi) inland. Peak gusts were estimated at 200 km/h (124 mph), based on

text: anemometer

text: s that were blown away in

text: Yanam

text: . The highest recorded sustained wind was 111 km/h (69 mph) by a ship at the

text: Kakinada Port

text: , only 50 km (30 mi) from the landfall location. The storm dropped heavy rainfall near the coast, peaking at  in

text: Amalapuram

text: . Rainfall rates of over  occurred over 3 hours in a 40 km (25 mi) stretch of land. Along a 60 km (37 mi) portion of the coast,  waves accompanied a

text: storm surge

text: , spreading 5 km (3 mi) inland. The storm struck just three weeks after another storm killed 350 people. Storm damage extended 130 km (80 mi) inland. Widespread areas of crop fields were inundated with floodwaters, washing away tons of rice, coconuts, and bananas. The winds knocked down about 5 million coconut trees. It was estimated that the storm destroyed  of rice paddy, along with  of other crops. About 13,500 livestock and 1 million chickens were killed by the storm; many of them rotted on arable fields after the waters receded.

text: 2) starts from "wind shear forces" on the water surface (J.W.Miles, applied to mainly 2D deep water gravity waves) ; John W. Miles suggested a surface wave generation mechanism which is initiated by turbulent wind shear flows Ua(y), based on the inviscid Orr-Sommerfeld equation in 1957. He found the energy transfer from wind to water surface as a wave speed, c is proportional to the curvature of the velocity profile of wind Ua’’(y) at point where the mean wind speed is equal to the wave speed (Ua=c, where, Ua is the Mean turbulent wind speed). Since the wind profile Ua(y) is logarithmic to the water surface, the curvature Ua’’(y) have negative sign at the point of Ua=c. This relations show the wind flow transferring its kinetic energy to the water surface at their interface, and arises wave speed, c.

text: The origins of Hurricane Otis are believed to have been in a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on September 9. The wave moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean, spawning Tropical Depression Seventeen on September 17. The southern portion of the wave continued westward, crossing into the eastern Pacific Ocean on September 22. As the wave entered a monsoon-like environment, convection increased on September 23. An associated area of disorganized clouds and thunderstorms persisted off the coast of Mexico for several days, although due to wind shear and its proximity to land, short-term tropical cyclone development—if any—was expected to occur slowly. On September 27, it began to show signs of organization; the National Hurricane Center (NHC) remarked upon the potential for a tropical cyclone to develop within the next day. It is estimated that the system became a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 28, while located about  to the south of Manzanillo, Mexico.

text: The origins of Hurricane Otis are believed to have been in a

text: tropical wave

text: that emerged from the west coast of

text: Africa

text: on September 9. The wave moved westward across the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , spawning

text: Tropical Depression Seventeen

text: on September 17. The southern portion of the wave continued westward, crossing into the eastern

text: Pacific Ocean

text: on September 22. As the wave entered a monsoon-like environment,

text: convection

text: increased on September 23. An associated area of disorganized clouds and thunderstorms persisted off the coast of

text: Mexico

text: for several days, although due to

text: wind shear

text: and its proximity to land, short-term tropical cyclone development—if any—was expected to occur slowly. On September 27, it began to show signs of organization; the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) remarked upon the potential for a tropical cyclone to develop within the next day. It is estimated that the system became a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 28, while located about  to the south of

text: Manzanillo, Mexico

text: After surviving many storms, the Nueces was at last badly damaged by Hurricane Celia on 3 August 1970. Celia was more of a wind storm, with gusts over 200 mph, and did comparatively little damage by tidal surge. The storm knocked down brick walls and flung signs, pieces of metal, wooden timbers, and other debris through the air and sometimes through buildings. Downtown was piled with rubble. The Nueces Hotel was deemed too badly damaged to be worth saving.

text: After surviving many storms, the Nueces was at last badly damaged by

text: Hurricane Celia

text: on 3 August 1970. Celia was more of a

text: wind storm

text: , with gusts over 200 mph, and did comparatively little damage by tidal surge. The storm knocked down brick walls and flung signs, pieces of metal, wooden timbers, and other debris through the air and sometimes through buildings. Downtown was piled with rubble. The Nueces Hotel was deemed too badly damaged to be worth saving.

text: Wind causes waves which result in other difficulties. Waves make navigation difficult and dangerous near shallow water. Also, waves create buoyancy stresses on the structure of a hull. The weight of breaking waves on the fabric of the ship force the crew to reduce speed or even travel in the same direction as the waves to prevent damage. Also, wind stresses the rigging of sailing ships.

text: Wind causes

text: wave

text: s which result in other difficulties. Waves make navigation difficult and dangerous near shallow water. Also, waves create buoyancy stresses on the structure of a hull. The weight of breaking waves on the fabric of the ship force the crew to reduce speed or even travel in the same direction as the waves to prevent damage. Also, wind stresses the rigging of sailing ships.

text: Although the hurricane never made landfall on Cuba, the storm's close proximity to the northern stretches of the island led to considerable impacts. A strong storm surge combined with wind-swept waves topped the Havana seawall, flooding areas of the city as far as six blocks inland and prompting the evacuation of homes at risk. The inundation also disabled some of Havana's tram systems and halted automotive traffic.

text: Although the hurricane never made landfall on Cuba, the storm's close proximity to the northern stretches of the island led to considerable impacts. A strong

text: storm surge

text: combined with wind-swept waves topped the

text: Havana

text: seawall

text: , flooding areas of the city as far as six blocks inland and prompting the evacuation of homes at risk. The inundation also disabled some of Havana's

text: tram

text: systems and halted automotive traffic.

text: The lifeboat has a maximum speed of  and a cruising speed of . Cape-class lifeboats have fuel capacities of  and ranges of  when cruising. Cape Dauphin is capable of operating at wind speeds of  and wave heights of . It can tow ships with displacements of up to  and can withstand  winds and -high breaking waves.

text: The lifeboat has a maximum speed of  and a cruising speed of . Cape-class lifeboats have fuel capacities of  and ranges of  when cruising. Cape Dauphin is capable of operating at wind speeds of  and wave heights of . It can tow ships with

text: displacements

text: of up to  and can withstand  winds and -high breaking waves.

text: Throughout Cuba, Hurricane Georges produced torrential rainfall, peaking at 24.41 inches (620 mm) in Limonar in the province of Guantánamo. Several other locations reported over a foot (300 mm) of precipitation as well. Storm surge of 4–6 feet (1–2 m) was expected along the eastern coastline, along with dangerous waves on top of the surge. Though winds were reduced by the time Georges hit Cuba, it still retained winds of 75 mph (120 km/h), along with stronger gusts in squalls. Waves exceeding 16 ft (4.8 m) impacted coastal regions of the county, with some areas reporting that waves were topping the sea wall.

text: Throughout Cuba, Hurricane Georges produced torrential rainfall, peaking at 24.41 inches (620 mm) in Limonar in the province of

text: Guantánamo

text: . Several other locations reported over a foot (300 mm) of precipitation as well. Storm surge of 4–6 feet (1–2 m) was expected along the eastern coastline, along with dangerous waves on top of the surge. Though winds were reduced by the time Georges hit Cuba, it still retained winds of 75 mph (120 km/h), along with stronger gusts in squalls. Waves exceeding 16 ft (4.8 m) impacted coastal regions of the county, with some areas reporting that waves were topping the sea wall.

text: A curved phasefront may be synthesized from an infinite number of these "natural modes" i.e., from plane wave phasefronts oriented in different directions in space.  Far from its sources, an expanding spherical wave is locally tangent to a planar phase front (a single plane wave out of the infinite spectrum), which is transverse to the radial direction of propagation.  In this case, a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is created, which emanates from a single spherical wave phase center.  In the near field, no single well-defined spherical wave phase center exists, so the wavefront isn't locally tangent to a spherical ball.  In this case, a Fresnel diffraction pattern would be created, which emanates from an extended source, consisting of a distribution of (physically identifiable) spherical wave sources in space.  In the near field, a full spectrum of plane waves is necessary to represent the Fresnel near-field wave, even locally.  A "wide" wave moving forward (like an expanding ocean wave coming toward the shore) can be regarded as an infinite number of "plane wave modes", all of which could (when they collide with something in the way) scatter independently of one other. These mathematical simplifications and calculations are the realm of Fourier analysis and synthesis – together, they can describe what happens when light passes through various slits, lenses or mirrors curved one way or the other, or is fully or partially reflected. Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind image processing techniques, as well as finding applications where information needs to be extracted from optical sources such as in quantum optics. To put it in a slightly more complex way, similar to the concept of frequency and time used in traditional  Fourier transform theory, Fourier optics makes use of the spatial frequency domain (k, k) as the conjugate of the spatial (x, y) domain. Terms and concepts such as transform theory, spectrum, bandwidth, window functions and sampling from one-dimensional signal processing are commonly used.

text: A curved phasefront may be synthesized from an infinite number of these "natural modes" i.e., from plane wave phasefronts oriented in different directions in space.  Far from its sources, an expanding spherical wave is locally tangent to a planar phase front (a single plane wave out of the infinite spectrum), which is transverse to the radial direction of propagation.  In this case, a

text: Fraunhofer diffraction

text: pattern is created, which emanates from a single spherical wave phase center.  In the near field, no single well-defined spherical wave phase center exists, so the wavefront isn't locally tangent to a spherical ball.  In this case, a

text: Fresnel diffraction

text: pattern would be created, which emanates from an extended source, consisting of a distribution of (physically identifiable) spherical wave sources in space.  In the near field, a full spectrum of plane waves is necessary to represent the Fresnel near-field wave, even locally.  A "wide"

text: wave

text: moving forward (like an expanding ocean wave coming toward the shore) can be regarded as an infinite number of "

text: plane wave modes

text: ", all of which could (when they collide with something in the way) scatter independently of one other. These mathematical simplifications and calculations are the realm of

text: Fourier analysis and synthesis

text: – together, they can describe what happens when light passes through various slits, lenses or mirrors curved one way or the other, or is fully or partially reflected. Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind

text: image processing techniques

text: , as well as finding applications where information needs to be extracted from optical sources such as in

text: quantum optics

text: . To put it in a slightly more complex way, similar to the concept of

text: frequency

text: and

text: time

text: used in traditional

text: Fourier transform theory

text: , Fourier optics makes use of the

text: spatial frequency

text: domain (k, k) as the conjugate of the spatial (x, y) domain. Terms and concepts such as transform theory, spectrum, bandwidth, window functions and sampling from one-dimensional

text: signal processing

text: are commonly used.

text: As the strong wind passed over the North Sea, a storm surge was recorded all along the east coast of the United Kingdom on 3 January, advancing from the northern North Sea, water levels in the north of England rose higher than those of the North Sea flood of 1953, although they were lower in the south. The storm surge was far more severe on the north German coast reaching levels never previously recorded, reaching 6.45 m above mean sea level at Hamburg (4.5 m above mean high water levels). Fortunately dykes had been raised after the devastating North Sea flood of 1962 which was 0.85m lower.

text: As the strong wind passed over the North Sea, a storm surge was recorded all along the east coast of the United Kingdom on 3 January, advancing from the northern North Sea, water levels in the north of England rose higher than those of the

text: North Sea flood of 1953

text: , although they were lower in the south. The storm surge was far more severe on the north German coast reaching levels never previously recorded, reaching 6.45 m above mean sea level at Hamburg (4.5 m above mean high water levels). Fortunately dykes had been raised after the devastating

text: North Sea flood of 1962

text: which was 0.85m lower.

text: This wave pattern occurs often in nature, including ocean waves, sound waves, and light waves.

text: This

text: wave

text: pattern occurs often in nature, including

text: ocean waves

text: sound

text: waves, and

text: light

text: waves.

text: In fluid dynamics, wind waves, or wind-generated waves, are surface waves that occur on the free surface of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and canals or even on small puddles and ponds. They result from the wind blowing over an area of fluid surface. Waves in the oceans can travel thousands of miles before reaching land. Wind waves range in size from small ripples, to waves over  high.

text: In

text: fluid dynamics

text: , wind waves, or wind-generated waves, are

text: surface wave

text: s that occur on the

text: free surface

text: of

text: ocean

text: s,

text: sea

text: s,

text: lake

text: s,

text: river

text: s, and

text: canal

text: s or even on small

text: puddle

text: s and

text: pond

text: s. They result from the

text: wind

text: blowing over an area of fluid surface. Waves in the oceans can travel thousands of miles before reaching land. Wind waves range in size from small

text: ripples

text: , to waves over  high.

text: Research on the origin of seismic noise indicates that the low frequency part of the spectrum (below 1 Hz) is due to natural causes, chiefly ocean waves. In particular the peak between 0.1 and 0.3 Hz is clearly associated with the interaction of water waves of nearly equal frequencies but opposite directions. At high frequency (above 1 Hz), seismic noise is mainly produced by human activities such as road traffic and industrial work; but there are also natural sources, like rivers. Around 1 Hz, wind and other atmospheric phenomena are also a major source of ground vibrations.

text: Research on the origin of seismic noise indicates that the low frequency part of the

text: spectrum

text: (below 1 Hz) is due to natural causes, chiefly

text: ocean wave

text: s. In particular the peak between 0.1 and 0.3 Hz is clearly associated with the interaction of water waves of nearly equal frequencies but opposite directions. At high frequency (above 1 Hz), seismic noise is mainly produced by human activities such as road traffic and industrial work; but there are also natural sources, like rivers. Around 1 Hz, wind and other atmospheric phenomena are also a major source of ground vibrations.

text: The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina, estimated at almost 44 ft (13 metres) at Bathurst Bay, Australia, but research published in 2000 saw the majority of this was likely wave run-up, due to the steep coastal topography. In the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by 2005's Hurricane Katrina, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 ft (8 metres) in the communities of Waveland (41.5 ft), Bay St. Louis (38 ft), Diamondhead (30 ft) and Pass Christian (35 ft) in Mississippi. Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from Hurricane Camille in August 1969, with the highest storm tide of record noted from a high water mark as 24.6 ft (7.5 m), also found in Pass Christian (the back side of St. Louis Bay got up to 35 ft). A high storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012, with a high tide of 14 ft (4.2 m).

text: The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899

text: Cyclone Mahina

text: , estimated at almost 44 ft (13 metres) at

text: Bathurst Bay

text: Australia

text: , but research published in 2000 saw the majority of this was likely wave run-up, due to the steep coastal topography. In the

text: United States

text: , one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by 2005's

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: , which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 ft (8 metres) in the communities of

text: Waveland

text: (41.5 ft),

text: Bay St. Louis

text: (38 ft),

text: Diamondhead

text: (30 ft) and

text: Pass Christian

text: (35 ft) in

text: Mississippi

text: . Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from

text: Hurricane Camille

text: in August 1969, with the highest storm tide of record noted from a high water mark as 24.6 ft (7.5 m), also found in Pass Christian (the back side of

text: St. Louis Bay

text: got up to 35 ft). A high storm surge occurred in

text: New York City

text: from

text: Hurricane Sandy

text: in October 2012, with a high tide of 14 ft (4.2 m).

text: A prophylactic method introduced after the North Sea Flood of 1953 is the construction of dams and floodgates (storm surge barriers). They are open and allow free passage but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge. Major storm surge barriers are the Oosterscheldekering and Maeslantkering in the Netherlands which are part of the Delta Works project, the Thames Barrier protecting London and the Saint Petersburg Dam in Russia.

text: A prophylactic method introduced after the

text: North Sea Flood of 1953

text: is the construction of dams and

text: floodgate

text: s (storm surge barriers). They are open and allow free passage but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge. Major storm surge barriers are the

text: Oosterscheldekering

text: and

text: Maeslantkering

text: in the Netherlands which are part of the

text: Delta Works

text: project, the

text: Thames Barrier

text: protecting

text: London

text: and the

text: Saint Petersburg Dam

text: in Russia.

text: Certain basic factors he pointed out are still relevant today. A point winding is almost two dimensional, rather like the spring of a watch spiral. A root winding is three-dimensional rather like a spiral staircase, more properly a helix. Thus point winding tends to produce more of a curl, but both produce waved hair when pulled slightly. Point produces a thicker winding and so heat takes longer to penetrate the core of the winding. Root winding is heated over a greater length and the thickness of the winding will depend on the overlap between turns.

text: Certain basic factors he pointed out are still relevant today. A point winding is almost two dimensional, rather like the spring of a watch

text: spiral

text: . A root winding is three-dimensional rather like a spiral staircase, more properly a

text: helix

text: . Thus point winding tends to produce more of a curl, but both produce waved hair when pulled slightly. Point produces a thicker winding and so heat takes longer to penetrate the core of the winding. Root winding is heated over a greater length and the thickness of the winding will depend on the overlap between turns.

text: Ocean waves are defined as a collection of dislocated water parcels that undergo a cycle of being forced past their normal position and being restored back to their normal position. Wind caused ripples and eddies form waves that gradually gain speed and distance (fetch). Waves increase in energy and speed, and then become longer and stronger. The fully developed sea has the strongest wave action that experiences storms lasting 10-hours and creates 15 meter wave heights  in the open ocean.

text: Ocean wave

text: s are defined as a collection of dislocated water parcels that undergo a cycle of being forced past their normal position and being restored back to their normal position. Wind caused ripples and eddies form waves that gradually gain speed and distance (fetch). Waves increase in energy and speed, and then become longer and stronger. The fully developed sea has the strongest wave action that experiences storms lasting 10-hours and creates 15 meter wave heights  in the open ocean.

text: Wave power involves converting the energy in ocean surface waves into electricity using devices either fixed to the shore, the seabed or floating out at sea. Wave energy varies with time, depending on when and where the winds and storms that drive the waves occur. Tidal energy is more regular and predictable.

text: Wave power

text: involves converting the energy in

text: ocean surface wave

text: s into electricity using devices either fixed to the shore, the seabed or floating out at sea. Wave energy varies with time, depending on when and where the winds and storms that drive the waves occur. Tidal energy is more regular and predictable.

text: The island is a low, flat, sandy cay, 240m by 90m, and is subject to erosion. It changes its shape seasonally. The sand build up depends largely on the direction of prevailing winds and waves; it has taken an elongated shape for some years, the shape of a crescent moon for a few years, and the shape of a letter "S". Like Lankiam Cay, it is also barren of any vegetation. No underground water source has been found in the area.

text: The island is a low, flat, sandy

text: cay

text: , 240m by 90m, and is subject to erosion. It changes its shape seasonally. The sand build up depends largely on the direction of prevailing winds and waves; it has taken an elongated shape for some years, the shape of a crescent moon for a few years, and the shape of a letter "S". Like

text: Lankiam Cay

text: , it is also barren of any vegetation. No underground water source has been found in the area.

text: Strong winds from Isabel extended from North Carolina to New England and westward to West Virginia. The winds, combined with previous rainfall which moistened the soil, downed many trees and power lines across its path, leaving about 6 million electricity customers without power at some point. Coastal areas suffered from waves and its powerful storm surge, with areas in eastern North Carolina and southeast Virginia reporting severe damage from both winds and the storm surge. Throughout its path, Isabel resulted in $3.6 billion in damage (2003 USD; $

text: Strong winds from Isabel extended from

text: North Carolina

text: to

text: New England

text: and westward to

text: West Virginia

text: . The winds, combined with previous rainfall which moistened the soil, downed many trees and power lines across its path, leaving about 6 million electricity customers without power at some point. Coastal areas suffered from waves and its powerful storm surge, with areas in eastern North Carolina and southeast

text: Virginia

text: reporting severe damage from both winds and the storm surge. Throughout its path, Isabel resulted in $3.6 billion in damage (2003 USD; $

text: A tropical wave that is associated with the formation of Hillary, moved off Western Africa on August 4. The wave initially had a large area of deep convention, but the convention quickly diminished as the system moved across the eastern portion of the tropical Atlantic Ocean. The wave continued westward without much development or organization, and crossed northern South America and then entered the northern Pacific Ocean on August 17. Mid-level circulation and convention organized with the wave, as it was south of Guatemala on August 18. The system's organization persisted, but without defining a well-established center of circulation, at the surface.Tropical Depression Eight-E finally formed from the area of disturbed weather south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec,  south of Puerto Angel, Mexico, on August 19. It strengthened to a tropical storm late that evening, and reached hurricane strength 24 hours later. Moving parallel to the Mexican coast and about  off-shore, it reached Category 2 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale late on August 21. Tropical storm  winds affected the coast and a tropical storm warning was issued for a while. Hilary dissipated not long after weakening to a tropical storm on August 25.

text: A tropical wave that is associated with the formation of Hillary, moved off Western Africa on August 4. The wave initially had a large area of deep convention, but the convention quickly diminished as the system moved across the eastern portion of the tropical Atlantic Ocean. The wave continued westward without much development or organization, and crossed northern South America and then entered the northern Pacific Ocean on August 17. Mid-level circulation and convention organized with the wave, as it was south of

text: Guatemala

text: on August 18. The system's organization persisted, but without defining a well-established center of circulation, at the surface.Tropical Depression Eight-E finally formed from the area of disturbed weather south of the

text: Gulf of Tehuantepec

text: ,  south of

text: Puerto Angel

text: , Mexico, on August 19. It strengthened to a tropical storm late that evening, and reached hurricane strength 24 hours later. Moving parallel to the

text: Mexican

text: coast and about  off-shore, it reached Category 2 on the

text: Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale

text: late on August 21. Tropical storm  winds affected the coast and a

text: tropical storm warning

text: was issued for a while. Hilary dissipated not long after weakening to a tropical storm on August 25.

text: In fluid dynamics, the wave height of a surface wave is the difference between the elevations of a crest and a neighbouring trough. Wave height is a term used by mariners, as well as in coastal, ocean and naval engineering.

text: In

text: fluid dynamics

text: , the wave height of a

text: surface wave

text: is the difference between the

text: elevation

text: s of a

text: crest

text: and a neighbouring

text: trough

text: . Wave height is a term used by

text: mariner

text: s, as well as in

text: coastal

text: ocean

text: and

text: naval engineering

text: without being actively constraint by the boundary conditions at the two extremes of the string. The shape of the wave is constant, i.e. the curve is indeed of the form f(x−ct).

text: Wind waves, as their name suggests, are generated by wind transferring energy from the atmosphere to the ocean's surface, and capillary-gravity waves play an essential role in this effect. There are two distinct mechanisms involved, called after their proponents, Phillips and Miles.

text: Wind waves, as their name suggests, are generated by wind transferring energy from the atmosphere to the ocean's surface, and

text: capillary-gravity waves

text: play an essential role in this effect. There are two distinct mechanisms involved, called after their proponents, Phillips and Miles.

text: Why couldn’t we just use a shorter runner so the delay is not so great? The answer lies at the end of the cycle when that big long runner now continues to flow at full speed disregarding the rising pressure in the cylinder and providing pressure to the cylinder when it is needed most. The runner length also controls the timing of the returning waves and cannot be altered. A shorter runner would flow earlier but also would die earlier while returning the positive waves much too quickly and those waves would be weaker. The key is to find the optimum balance of all the factors for the engine requirements.

text: In Nova Scotia, the high storm surge flooded the Cabot Trail in several locations, and in two cities coastal roads were washed out. Several days of persistent rainfall resulted in house flooding, sinkholes, and sewer backups. In neighboring New Brunswick, high winds left about 7,000 people without power along a 60 mi (100 km) portion of the coastline. High seas damaged wharves in Miramichi Bay. In Escuminac, New Brunswick, the surge reached 7.94 ft (2.43 m), just shy of the record set in November 1988. The nor'easter occurred ten months after a similarly powerful storm struck the region. The October storm produced record river flooding from the combination of strong waves and winds, and likewise damaged coastal structures. The provincial government paid about $2.4 million in insurance claims due to the storm.

text: In Nova Scotia, the high storm surge flooded the

text: Cabot Trail

text: in several locations, and in two cities coastal roads were washed out. Several days of persistent rainfall resulted in house flooding, sinkholes, and sewer backups. In neighboring New Brunswick, high winds left about 7,000 people without power along a 60 mi (100 km) portion of the coastline. High seas damaged wharves in

text: Miramichi Bay

text: . In

text: Escuminac, New Brunswick

text: , the surge reached 7.94 ft (2.43 m), just shy of the record set in November 1988. The nor'easter occurred ten months after a similarly powerful storm struck the region. The October storm produced record river flooding from the combination of strong waves and winds, and likewise damaged coastal structures. The provincial government paid about $2.4 million in insurance claims due to the storm.

text: The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as « drift currents »). These currents can decompose in one quasi permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (at the echelon of a couple of seconds).). The quasi permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface.

text: The

text: wind

text: and

text: wave

text: s create surface currents (designated as « drift currents »). These currents can decompose in one quasi permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of

text: Stokes drift

text: under the effect of rapid waves movement (at the echelon of a couple of seconds).). The quasi permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface.

text: This effect operates similarly to the patterns made by sunlight on the bottom of a pool, the difference is that the light is bent at the contact point with the water while the shock wave is distorted by density variations (e.g. due to temperature variations) in the atmosphere. Variations of wind can cause a similar effect. This will disperse the shock wave at some places and focus it at others. For powerful shock waves this can cause damage farther than expected; the shock wave energy density will decrease beyond expected values based on uniform geometry  falloff for weak shock or acoustic waves, as expected at large distances).

text: This effect operates similarly to the patterns made by sunlight on the bottom of a pool, the difference is that the light is bent at the contact point with the water while the shock wave is distorted by

text: density

text: variations (e.g. due to temperature variations) in the atmosphere. Variations of

text: wind

text: can cause a similar effect. This will disperse the shock wave at some places and focus it at others. For powerful shock waves this can cause damage farther than expected; the shock wave energy density will decrease beyond expected values

text: based on uniform geometry

text: falloff for weak shock or acoustic waves, as expected at large distances).

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave

text: crest

text: is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

text: In Washington, D.C., the storm produced wind gusts of up to 45 mph (75 km/h) which, in combination with heavy rainfall, resulted in a few downed tree branches and power lines. High tides left moderate damage in St. Mary's County, Maryland of about $4.4 million (2006 USD), with the damage to trees and power lines considered worse than the impact in Hurricane Isabel in 2003. In neighboring Charles County, storm surge flooding forced the evacuations of houses along the waterfront. The interaction between Ernesto and a high pressure area over eastern Canada produced high winds, heavy rainfall, tidal flooding, and high waves across the Mid-Atlantic and New England. In Delaware, the winds left 151,000 people without power, and the adverse conditions canceled several Labor Day Weekend events. A buoy in the Delaware Bay recorded a record-high wave height of . In southern New Jersey,  winds left over 200,000 buildings without power, while high waves flooded or closed several roads and bridges. Further north, between 2-4 inches (50–100 mm) of rain fell across Pennsylvania and New York. In Pennsylvania, there were two deaths. A seven-year-old boy died at a hospital, after a tree limb fell on him. A man was trying to rescue his golden retriever from a drainage steam, while he was sucked into an outflow pipe, and was found dead after being pulled out of a manhole. The rain in New York caused delays in the play at the 2006 US Open, and washed out a whole day's play.

text: In Washington, D.C., the storm produced wind gusts of up to 45 mph (75 km/h) which, in combination with heavy rainfall, resulted in a few downed tree branches and power lines. High tides left moderate damage in

text: St. Mary's County, Maryland

text: of about $4.4 million (2006 USD), with the damage to trees and power lines considered worse than the

entity_name: Effects of Hurricane Isabel in Maryland and Washington, D.C.

text: impact in Hurricane Isabel

text: in 2003. In neighboring

text: Charles County

text: , storm surge flooding forced the evacuations of houses along the waterfront. The interaction between Ernesto and a high pressure area over eastern Canada produced high winds, heavy rainfall, tidal flooding, and high waves across the Mid-Atlantic and New England. In Delaware, the winds left 151,000 people without power, and the adverse conditions canceled several

text: Labor Day Weekend

text: events. A buoy in the

text: Delaware Bay

text: recorded a record-high wave height of . In southern New Jersey,  winds left over 200,000 buildings without power, while high waves flooded or closed several roads and bridges. Further north, between 2-4 inches (50–100 mm) of rain fell across Pennsylvania and

text: New York

text: . In Pennsylvania, there were two deaths. A seven-year-old boy died at a hospital, after a tree limb fell on him. A man was trying to rescue his

text: golden retriever

text: from a drainage steam, while he was sucked into an outflow pipe, and was found dead after being pulled out of a manhole. The rain in New York caused delays in the play at the

text: 2006 US Open

text: , and washed out a whole day's play.

text: In a wave pool water is pushed out of an opening with enough force to create a wave-like shape.  Riders can ride this type of wave on a regular surfboard.

text: In a

text: wave pool

text: water is pushed out of an opening with enough force to create a wave-like shape.  Riders can ride this type of wave on a regular

text: surfboard

text: Three Willie action figures were created by Playmates Toys for the World of Springfield series: Willie depicted in his usual appearance, released in 2001 in wave 4; "Ripped Willie", released in 2002 as part of wave 8; and "Kilted Willie", released in 2003 in wave 14.

text: Three Willie action figures were created by

text: Playmates Toys

text: for the

text: World of Springfield

text: series: Willie depicted in his usual appearance, released in 2001 in wave 4; "Ripped Willie", released in 2002 as part of wave 8; and "Kilted Willie", released in 2003 in wave 14.

text: Beginning with the Big Bang he believes creation has continued through a series of waves, each one a factor of 20 times shorter in duration than the one preceding it. Each wave has driven the structure of the universe to a higher level.The first wave drove the creation of physical matter, the second living cells, the third multicellular life, the fourth organisms living in family groups, the fifth, saw humans in tribal groups, and the sixth in national groups. The seventh wave encompasses human awareness of the whole planet, and the eighth awareness of our place in the galactic structure. The final wave, the ninth and shortest of all, began on 8 March 2011 and will complete along with all the others on 28 October 2011 sees awareness of the whole of the cosmos achieved. Rather than the series ending with an Apocalypse he describes it as the completion of the creation process of the Universe. The way will then be open to the full realisation of consciousness at its highest level which he terms "Unity consciousness".

text: Beginning with the

text: Big Bang

text: he believes creation has continued through a series of waves, each one a factor of 20 times shorter in duration than the one preceding it. Each wave has driven the structure of the universe to a higher level.The first wave drove the creation of physical matter, the second living cells, the third multicellular life, the fourth organisms living in family groups, the fifth, saw humans in tribal groups, and the sixth in national groups. The seventh wave encompasses human awareness of the whole planet, and the eighth awareness of our place in the galactic structure. The final wave, the ninth and shortest of all, began on 8 March 2011 and will complete along with all the others on 28 October 2011 sees awareness of the whole of the cosmos achieved. Rather than the series ending with an Apocalypse he describes it as the completion of the creation process of the Universe. The way will then be open to the full realisation of consciousness at its highest level which he terms "Unity consciousness".

text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.

text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid),

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through

text: whitecaps

text: and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.

text: Around one mile north of Shek O beach, after passing the Shek O Country Club, is Big Wave Bay.  As its name suggests, big waves roll on to the beach, propelled by the wind, making it a popular destination for surfers. Wind surfers can be found in the sea off Big Wave Bay and Shek O beaches. The Dragon's Back above Shek O is home to Hong Kong Island's only paragliding site. Paragliders can be seen riding the lift and landing at the nearby Rocky Bay. Big Wave Bay Beach is also the site of prehistoric rock carving similar to those found on Cheung Chau Island.

text: Around one mile north of Shek O beach, after passing the Shek O Country Club, is

text: Big Wave Bay

text: .  As its name suggests, big waves roll on to the beach, propelled by the wind, making it a popular destination for surfers. Wind surfers can be found in the sea off Big Wave Bay and Shek O beaches. The Dragon's Back above Shek O is home to Hong Kong Island's only paragliding site. Paragliders can be seen riding the lift and landing at the nearby Rocky Bay. Big Wave Bay Beach is also the site of prehistoric

text: rock carving

text: similar to those found on

text: Cheung Chau

text: Island.

text: Due to the weak and disorganized structure of the storm, its effects upon landfall in Florida were minimal. Gusty winds damaged newly planted trees, and some power lines were downed; throughout the state, roughly 14,000 people lost power. A storm surge of  was measured at Virginia Key. Tropical storm-force winds were recorded in several areas, although sustained winds of over 40 mph (65 km/h) were confined to Virginia Key. Rainfall was also minimal, with a maximum of  falling in northern Miami-Dade County. Overall, monetary losses as a result of the storm in Florida amounted to $2,000 (2010 USD). In Pinellas County, one person was hospitalized after being struck by lightning at Fred Howard Park on July 24.

text: Due to the weak and disorganized structure of the storm, its effects upon landfall in Florida were minimal. Gusty winds damaged newly planted trees, and some power lines were downed; throughout the state, roughly 14,000 people lost power. A storm surge of  was measured at

text: Virginia Key

text: . Tropical storm-force winds were recorded in several areas, although sustained winds of over 40 mph (65 km/h) were confined to Virginia Key. Rainfall was also minimal, with a maximum of  falling in northern

text: Miami-Dade County

text: . Overall, monetary losses as a result of the storm in Florida amounted to $2,000 (2010 USD). In

text: Pinellas County

text: , one person was hospitalized after being struck by lightning at Fred Howard Park on July 24.

text: He examined wind and wave effects, and his analysis  is the first quantitative discussion of wave height as a (square root) function of fetch. His paper  is one of the first quantitative studies of windspeeds in the planetary boundary layer. Motivated by practical applications, these are fundamental contributions. He designed the Stevenson screen as a shelter to shield meteorological instruments, and this has been widely adopted.

text: He examined wind and wave effects, and his analysis  is the first quantitative discussion of wave height as a (square root) function of fetch. His paper  is one of the first quantitative studies of windspeeds in the planetary boundary layer. Motivated by practical applications, these are fundamental contributions. He designed the

text: Stevenson screen

text: as a shelter to shield

text: meteorological

text: instruments, and this has been widely adopted.

text: Sea-floor maps released by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in 2007 revealed the mechanisms behind Mavericks' waves. A long, sloping ramp leads to the surface. The ramp slows the propagation of the wave over it. The wave over the deep troughs on each side of the ramp continues at full speed forming two angles in the wavefront centered over the boundaries between the ramp and the troughs.  The result of this is a U-shaped or V-shaped wavefront on the ramp that contains the wave energy from the full width of the ramp.  This U-shaped or V-shaped wave then collapses into a small area at the top center of the ramp with tremendous force.

text: In his 1966 account of the incident, The Wreck of the Memphis, Captain Beachs son, Edward L. Beach, Jr., ascribed her loss to an unexpected tsunami exceeding  in height, and this explanation has been carried forward by most sources discussing her loss. More recent research, however, has called this explanation into question. No record of any seismic event in the Caribbean on 29 August 1916 that could have triggered a tsunami has been found, and the rate of advance of the large wave Memphis reported — about an hour to cross the distance from the horizon to the ship — matches that of a wind-generated ocean wave (possibly a rogue wave); a tsunami, in contrast, would have covered the distance in only a few minutes. The periods of the three large waves that struck Memphis also are characteristic of large wind-generated waves rather than tsunamis.

text: In his 1966 account of the incident, The Wreck of the Memphis, Captain Beachs son,

text: Edward L. Beach, Jr.

text: , ascribed her loss to an unexpected

text: tsunami

text: exceeding  in height, and this explanation has been carried forward by most sources discussing her loss. More recent research, however, has called this explanation into question. No record of any seismic event in the Caribbean on 29 August 1916 that could have triggered a tsunami has been found, and the rate of advance of the large wave Memphis reported — about an hour to cross the distance from the horizon to the ship — matches that of a wind-generated ocean wave (possibly a

text: rogue wave

text: ); a tsunami, in contrast, would have covered the distance in only a few minutes. The periods of the three large waves that struck Memphis also are characteristic of large wind-generated waves rather than tsunamis.

text: Strong winds from Isabel extended from North Carolina to New England and westward to West Virginia. The winds, combined with previous rainfall which moistened the soil, downed many trees and power lines across its path, leaving about 6 million electricity customers without power at some point. Parts of coastal Virginia, especially in the Hampton Roads and Northeast North Carolina areas, were without electricity for almost a month. Coastal areas suffered from waves and its powerful storm surge, with areas in eastern North Carolina and southeast Virginia reporting severe damage from both winds and the storm surge. Throughout its path, Isabel resulted in $3.6 billion in damage (2003 USD, $

text: Strong winds from Isabel extended from

text: North Carolina

text: to

text: New England

text: and westward to

text: West Virginia

text: . The winds, combined with previous rainfall which moistened the soil, downed many trees and power lines across its path, leaving about 6 million electricity customers without power at some point. Parts of coastal

text: Virginia

text: , especially in the

text: Hampton Roads

text: and Northeast

text: North Carolina

text: areas, were without

text: electricity

text: for almost a month. Coastal areas suffered from waves and its powerful storm surge, with areas in eastern North Carolina and southeast

text: Virginia

text: reporting severe damage from both winds and the storm surge. Throughout its path, Isabel resulted in $3.6 billion in damage (2003 USD, $

text: A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa near Dakar, Senegal on September 22. The wave traveled westward with minimal tropical cyclogenesis and reached the Lesser Antilles about a week later. While passing through the islands, heavy rainfall and strong winds were reported. Eventually, the system developed into a broad area of low pressure and acquired a low-level circulation. However, upper-level wind shear resulted in no immediate further organization. After crossing Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, wind shear decreased, since the low was moving in the same direction as the upper-level winds.

text: A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa near

text: Dakar, Senegal

text: on September 22. The wave traveled westward with minimal

text: tropical cyclogenesis

text: and reached the Lesser Antilles about a week later. While passing through the islands, heavy rainfall and strong winds were reported. Eventually, the system developed into a broad area of low pressure and acquired a low-level circulation. However, upper-level wind shear resulted in no immediate further organization. After crossing Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, wind shear decreased, since the low was moving in the same direction as the upper-level winds.

text: Hurricane Gonzalo originated in a tropical wave that emerged from the western coast of Africa on October 4 and trekked across the Atlantic. Despite an attendant expanse of clouds and thunderstorms, hostile winds from an upper-level trough hindered cyclogenesis. On October 10, after encountering an eastward-propagating Kelvin wave, the system developed more concentrated convection. With conditions increasingly favorable for further development, the disturbance gradually became better organized, forming a small low pressure area by October 11. In turn, a tropical depression formed at 00:00 UTC on October 12, located approximately 390 mi (630 km) east of the Leeward Islands. Continued maturation amid warm waters and low wind shear yielded Tropical Storm Gonzalo 12 hours later. Operationally, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) did not begin issuing advisories on the cyclone until midday on October 12, after a Hurricane Hunter flight into the system reported surface winds of 40 mph (65 km/h).

text: Hurricane Gonzalo originated in a

text: tropical wave

text: that emerged from the western coast of Africa on October 4 and trekked across the Atlantic. Despite an attendant expanse of clouds and thunderstorms, hostile winds from an

text: upper-level trough

text: hindered

text: cyclogenesis

text: . On October 10, after encountering an eastward-propagating

text: Kelvin wave

text: , the system developed more concentrated

text: convection

text: . With conditions increasingly favorable for further development, the disturbance gradually became better organized, forming a small

text: low pressure area

text: by October 11. In turn, a tropical depression formed at 00:00

text: UTC

text: on October 12, located approximately 390 mi (630 km) east of the

text: Leeward Islands

text: . Continued maturation amid warm waters and low

text: wind shear

text: yielded Tropical Storm Gonzalo 12 hours later. Operationally, the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) did not begin issuing advisories on the cyclone until midday on October 12, after a

text: Hurricane Hunter

text: flight into the system reported

text: surface winds

text: of 40 mph (65 km/h).

text: The high pressure gas exiting the cylinder initially flows in the form of a "wavefront" as all disturbances in fluids do. The exhaust gas pushes its way into the pipe which is already occupied by gas from previous cycles, pushing that gas ahead and causing a wave front. Once the gas flow stops, the wave continues, passing the energy to the next gas down stream and so on to the end of the pipe. If this wave encounters any change in cross section or temperature it will reflect a portion of its strength in the opposite direction to its travel. For example, a strong acoustic wave encountering an increase in area will reflect a weaker acoustic wave in the opposite direction. A strong acoustic wave encountering a decrease in area will reflect a strong acoustic wave in the opposite direction. The basic principle is described in wave dynamics.An expansion chamber makes use of this phenomenon by varying its diameter (cross section) and length to cause these reflections to arrive back at the cylinder at the desired time in the cycle.

text: The high

text: pressure

text: gas exiting the cylinder initially flows in the form of a "

text: wave

text: front" as all disturbances in fluids do. The exhaust gas pushes its way into the pipe which is already occupied by gas from previous cycles, pushing that gas ahead and causing a wave front. Once the gas flow stops, the wave continues, passing the energy to the next gas down stream and so on to the end of the pipe. If this wave encounters any change in

text: cross section

text: or

text: temperature

text: it will reflect a portion of its strength in the opposite direction to its travel. For example, a strong acoustic wave encountering an increase in area will reflect a weaker acoustic wave in the opposite direction. A strong acoustic wave encountering a decrease in area will reflect a strong acoustic wave in the opposite direction. The basic principle is described in

text: wave dynamics

text: .An expansion chamber makes use of this phenomenon by varying its diameter (cross section) and length to cause these reflections to arrive back at the cylinder at the desired time in the cycle.

text: In a big wave wipeout, a breaking wave can push surfers down 20 to 50 feet (6.2 m to 15.5 m) below the surface. Once they stop spinning around, they have to quickly regain their equilibrium and figure out which way is up. Surfers may have less than 20 seconds to get to the surface before the next wave hits them. Additionally, the water pressure at a depth of 20 to 50 feet can be strong enough to rupture one's eardrums. Strong currents and water action at those depths can also slam a surfer into a reef or the ocean floor, which can result in severe injuries or even death.

text: A European windstorm crosses over Scotland and plunges into the mouth of the North Sea, to the west of Norway, where its strong winds push large bodies of water Southeast, towards coastal regions in England and the Netherlands. The tidal surge puts both nations on red alert as the English evacuate some coastal villages and close the Thames Barrier. The Dutch close the Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier and the enormous Maeslant barrier in order to prevent massive flooding as the storm mimics the situation that caused the devastating North Sea flood of 1953. For the first time since 1976, the entire Dutch coastline is put on alert and is closely monitored by officials. The tidal surge turned out to be too weak to cause any significant damage to the strong Dutch coastal defenses. In England, only minor flooding occurred.

text: A

text: European windstorm

text: crosses over Scotland and plunges into the mouth of the

text: North Sea

text: , to the west of Norway, where its strong winds push large bodies of water Southeast, towards coastal regions in England and the Netherlands. The tidal surge puts both nations on red alert as the English evacuate some coastal villages and close the

text: Thames Barrier

text: . The Dutch close the

text: Eastern Scheldt storm surge barrier

text: and the enormous

text: Maeslant barrier

text: in order to prevent massive flooding as the storm mimics the situation that caused the devastating

text: North Sea flood of 1953

text: . For the first time since 1976, the entire Dutch coastline is put on alert and is closely monitored by officials. The tidal surge turned out to be too weak to cause any significant damage to the strong Dutch coastal defenses. In England, only minor flooding occurred.

text: In advance of the storm, tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for coastal areas, while rescue teams and the U.S. Coast Guard were put on standby. The storm dropped heavy rainfall near its immediate landfall location but little precipitation elsewhere. Along the coast of North Carolina, high waves, rip currents, and storm surge were reported. Slight localized flooding was reported. Gusty winds also occurred, though no wind damage was reported. Along the coast of Florida, rough surf drowned one person. Overall damage was minor.

text: In advance of the storm,

text: tropical cyclone watches and warnings

text: were issued for coastal areas, while rescue teams and the U.S. Coast Guard were put on standby. The storm dropped heavy rainfall near its immediate landfall location but little precipitation elsewhere. Along the coast of North Carolina, high waves,

text: rip current

text: s, and

text: storm surge

text: were reported. Slight localized flooding was reported. Gusty winds also occurred, though no wind damage was reported. Along the coast of Florida, rough surf drowned one person. Overall damage was minor.

text: Almost periodic function – Amplitude modulation – Amplitude – Beat – Chaos theory – Cyclic group – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Fibonacci sequence – Fourier series – Frequency domain – Frequency spectrum – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – Harmonic oscillator – Huygens–Fresnel principle – Longitudinal wave – Mechanical wave – Navier–Stokes equations – Partial differential equation – Periodic function – Permutation – Phase (waves) – Physics of music – Power spectrum – Signal – Sine wave – Spectrum of an operator – Translational symmetry – Transverse wave – Wave equation – Wave–particle duality – Wave – Waveform

text: Almost periodic function

text: Amplitude modulation

text: Amplitude

text: Beat

text: Chaos theory

text: Cyclic group

text: Diffraction

text: Doppler effect

text: Eigenstate

text: Eigenvalue

text: Fibonacci sequence

text: Fourier series

text: Frequency domain

text: Frequency spectrum

text: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Harmonic oscillator

text: Huygens–Fresnel principle

text: Longitudinal wave

text: Mechanical wave

text: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Partial differential equation

text: Periodic function

text: Permutation

text: Phase (waves)

text: Physics of music

text: Power spectrum

text: Signal

text: Sine wave

text: Spectrum of an operator

text: Translational symmetry

text: Transverse wave

text: Wave equation

text: Wave–particle duality

text: Wave

text: Waveform

text: Artificial reefs can also be placed into natural wave environments to enhance the quality of the incoming breaking wave for surfing. Wave focusing areas can build up wave power and height prior to breaking, and breaking surfaces then trip the wave up to make it break; the surfing surface then carries the breaking wave along an angle that maximises its value for surfing.

text: Artificial reef

text: s can also be placed into natural wave environments to enhance the quality of the incoming

text: breaking wave

text: for

text: surfing

text: . Wave focusing areas can build up wave power and height prior to

text: breaking

text: , and breaking surfaces then trip the wave up to make it break; the surfing surface then carries the breaking wave along an angle that maximises its value for surfing.

text: ) have contributed to solve the riddles of wave breaking behaviors, unfortunately there hasn’t been a clear understanding for exact theories of the wind wave dissipation process still yet because of its non-linear behaviors. By past and present observations and derived theories, the physics of the ocean-wave dissipation can be categorized by its passing regions along to water depth. In deep water, wave dissipation occurs by the actions of friction or drag forces such as opposite-directed winds or viscous forces generated by turbulent flows—usually nonlinear forces. In shallow water, the behaviors of wave dissipations are mostly types of shore wave breaking (see Types of wave breaking). Some of simple general descriptions of wind-wave dissipation (defined by Luigi Cavaleri et al. ) were proposed when we consider only ocean surface waves such as wind waves. By means of the simple, the interactions of waves with the vertical structure of the upper layers of the ocean are ignored for simplified theory in many proposed mechanisms.

text: There are similarities to descriptions of the 1953 floods in East Anglia which were caused by a storm surge. Some of the original sources frequently referred to the high spring tide and strong winds from the southwest, classic conditions for a storm surge. Horsburgh and Horritt have shown that the tide and probable weather at the time were capable of generating a surge that is consistent with the observed inundation.

text: There are similarities to descriptions of the

text: 1953 floods in East Anglia

text: which were caused by a storm surge. Some of the original sources frequently referred to the high

text: spring tide

text: and strong winds from the southwest, classic conditions for a storm surge. Horsburgh and Horritt have shown that the tide and probable weather at the time were capable of generating a surge that is consistent with the observed inundation.

text: In contrast to Delaware and Maryland, the strong northeast portion of the nor'easter affected New Jersey for several days, producing strong winds and record high tides. Wind gusts reached  in Cape May, which were the strongest winds in association with the storm. Sustained winds were around  in the region. High winds in Atlantic City destroyed the windows of storefronts. Along the Jersey coast, the nor'easter produced waves of up to  in height. About  offshore Long Branch, waves reached heights of . In South Jersey, the storm surge struck the coast near low tide, which restricted flooding. The highest tide in South Jersey was  in Ocean City, which broke the previous record of  set in 1984. Further north, the surge coincided with several days of high tides and a lunar tide, causing significant flooding and beach erosion. The highest tide was  in Perth Amboy along the Raritan River, which broke the record set in 1960. In many locations, the storm produced the highest tides since the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962. The storm also dropped rainfall across the state, peaking at  in Morristown, along with gusts peaking at 58 mph (93 kph) at Morristown Municipal Airport. The rainfall caused higher discharge rates along rivers. The storm also produced high snowfall totals, including  in Sussex County. Throughout the coastline, the cost to replace the lost beach from erosion was estimated at $300 million (1992 USD).

text: In contrast to Delaware and Maryland, the strong northeast portion of the nor'easter affected New Jersey for several days, producing strong winds and record high tides. Wind gusts reached  in

text: Cape May

text: , which were the strongest winds in association with the storm.

text: Sustained

text: winds were around  in the region. High winds in Atlantic City destroyed the windows of storefronts. Along the Jersey coast, the nor'easter produced waves of up to  in height. About  offshore

text: Long Branch

text: , waves reached heights of . In

text: South Jersey

text: , the

text: storm surge

text: struck the coast near low tide, which restricted flooding. The highest tide in South Jersey was  in

text: Ocean City

text: , which broke the previous record of  set in 1984. Further north, the surge coincided with several days of high tides and a

text: lunar tide

text: , causing significant flooding and beach erosion. The highest tide was  in

text: Perth Amboy

text: along the

text: Raritan River

text: , which broke the record set in 1960. In many locations, the storm produced the highest tides since the

text: Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962

text: . The storm also dropped rainfall across the state, peaking at  in

text: Morristown

text: , along with gusts peaking at 58 mph (93 kph) at Morristown Municipal Airport. The rainfall caused higher discharge rates along rivers. The storm also produced high snowfall totals, including  in

text: Sussex County

text: . Throughout the coastline, the cost to replace the lost beach from erosion was estimated at $300 million (1992 USD).

text: Sidi Kaouki is fast becoming one of the most popular surf and wind surfing destinations in Morocco. There a number of surf sports including beach breaks and reef breaks that produce punchy peaks and nice shaped waves. It is also a great spot for kite surfing as the wind is stronger than some other nearby spots including Essaouira.

text: East coasts also receive heavy winter swells when low-pressure cells form in the sub-tropics, where slow moving highs inhibit their movement. These lows produce a shorter fetch than polar fronts, however they can still generate heavy swells, since their slower movement increases the duration of a particular wind direction. The variables of fetch and duration both influence how long wind acts over a wave as it travels, since a wave reaching the end of a fetch behaves as if the wind died.

text: East coasts also receive heavy winter swells when low-pressure cells form in the sub-tropics, where slow moving

text: highs

text: inhibit their movement. These lows produce a shorter fetch than polar fronts, however they can still generate heavy swells, since their slower movement increases the duration of a particular wind direction. The variables of fetch and duration both influence how long wind acts over a wave as it travels, since a wave reaching the end of a fetch behaves as if the wind died.

text: Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by. Wind waves are surface waves that create the chaotic patterns of the sea. As they pass over sand, such waves create patterns of ripples; similarly, as the wind passes over sand, it creates patterns of dunes.

text: Wave

text: s are disturbances that carry energy as they move.

text: Mechanical wave

text: s propagate through a medium – air or water, making it

text: oscillate

text: as they pass by.

text: Wind wave

text: s are

text: surface wave

text: s that create the chaotic patterns of the sea. As they pass over sand, such waves create patterns of ripples; similarly, as the wind passes over sand, it creates patterns of

text: dune

text: s.

text: Wind power is affected by air temperature because colder air is more dense and therefore more effective at producing wind power.  As a result, wind power is affected seasonally (more output in winter than summer) and by daily temperature variations. During the 2006 California heat wave output from wind power in California significantly decreased to an average of 4% of capacity for seven days.  A similar result was seen during the 2003 European heat wave, when the output of wind power in France, Germany, and Spain fell below 10% during peak demand times.

text: Wind power is affected by air temperature because colder air is more dense and therefore more effective at producing wind power.  As a result, wind power is affected seasonally (more output in winter than summer) and by daily temperature variations. During the

text: 2006 California heat wave

text: output from

text: wind power in California

text: significantly decreased to an average of 4% of capacity for seven days.  A similar result was seen during the

text: 2003 European heat wave

text: , when the output of wind power in France, Germany, and Spain fell below 10% during peak demand times.

text: On August 30, 2010, the eye of Hurricane Earl passed just 15 to 20 miles north of Anegada at category 4, with winds in excess of 135 mph. The close passage led to significant damage on the island, with major flooding on the south side from the storm surge and breaking waves. The north side of the island experienced no storm surge, and Horseshoe Reef protected the north side of the island from breaking waves. 24 hours before the storm arrived, the forecast was for the storm to pass well to the north. By the time that it was apparent that the hurricane was going to have major impact, all transportation service from Anegada (air and ferry) had been suspended. Fortunately, there were no serious injuries to anyone on the island.

text: On August 30, 2010, the eye of

text: Hurricane Earl

text: passed just 15 to 20 miles north of Anegada at category 4, with winds in excess of 135 mph. The close passage led to significant damage on the island, with major flooding on the south side from the

text: storm surge

text: and breaking waves. The north side of the island experienced no storm surge, and Horseshoe Reef protected the north side of the island from breaking waves. 24 hours before the storm arrived, the forecast was for the storm to pass well to the north. By the time that it was apparent that the hurricane was going to have major impact, all transportation service from Anegada (air and ferry) had been suspended. Fortunately, there were no serious injuries to anyone on the island.

text: A retrospective analysis, or reanalysis, combines all available observations with a physical model to describe the state of a system over a time period of decades.  Wind waves are a part of both the NCEP Reanalysis and the ERA-40 from the ECMWF. Such resources permit the creation of monthly wave climatologies, and can track the variation of wave activity on interannual and multi-decadal time scales.  During the northern hemisphere winter, the most intense wave activity is located in the central North Pacific south of the Aleutians, and in the central North Atlantic south of Iceland. During the southern hemisphere winter, intense wave activity circumscribes the pole at around 50°S, with 5 m significant wave heights typical in the southern Indian Ocean.

text: A retrospective analysis, or reanalysis, combines all available observations with a physical model to describe the state of a system over a time period of decades.  Wind waves are a part of both the NCEP Reanalysis and the

text: from the ECMWF. Such resources permit the creation of monthly wave climatologies, and can track the variation of wave activity on interannual and multi-decadal time scales.  During the northern hemisphere winter, the most intense wave activity is located in the central North Pacific south of the Aleutians, and in the central North Atlantic south of Iceland. During the southern hemisphere winter, intense wave activity circumscribes the pole at around 50°S, with 5 m significant wave heights typical in the southern Indian Ocean.

text: ACE focuses upon the most intense winds concentrated in a storm's center. Whereas, the actual destructive power of a storm depends upon the total area impacted with damaging winds, waves, and storm surge. The metric Integrated Kinetic Energy (IKE), developed in 2007, more accurately reflects the destructive potential.  It examines the kinetic energy that forces a storm surge and creates high waves as well as the horizontal wind loads over the full storm. This metric yields a time specific value for a storm and doesn't account for the destruction caused by a storm over its entire life.  Therefore, in 2013 the researchers at the University of Florida created a metric called Track Integrated Kinetic Energy (TIKE). TIKE expands the concept by accumulating IKE over the lifespan of an individual tropical cyclone and a total value for all named tropical cyclones in the season.

text: 3. The interactions between the waves on the surface generate longer waves (Hasselmann et al., 1973) and the interaction will transfer wave energy from the shorter waves generated by the Miles mechanism to the waves have slightly lower frequencies than the frequency at the peak wave magnitudes, then finally the waves will be faster than the cross wind speed (Pierson & Moskowitz).

text: The great majority of large breakers seen on a beach result from distant winds. Five factors influence the formation of the flow structures in wind waves:

text: His research areas included both pure mathematics (projective geometry, polytopes, random functions and surfaces) and applied mathematics (fluid dynamics, microseisms, the generation of ocean waves by wind, the dynamics of bubbles, sonoluminescence, wave breaking, steep waves, and the exchange of heat and gases at the ocean surface).

text: His research areas included both

text: pure mathematics

text: projective geometry

text: polytopes

text: , random functions and surfaces) and applied mathematics (

text: fluid dynamics

text: , microseisms, the generation of ocean waves by wind, the dynamics of

text: bubbles

text: sonoluminescence

text: wave breaking

text: , steep waves, and the exchange of heat and gases at the ocean surface).

text: In the Tahitian story of Rata 'Aremata-Popoto ("tidal wave") and 'Aremata-Roroa ("long wave") are two ocean-dwelling monsters that Rata must overcome.

text: In the Tahitian story of

text: Rata

text: 'Aremata-Popoto ("tidal wave") and 'Aremata-Roroa ("long wave") are two ocean-dwelling monsters that Rata must overcome.

text: equations, as well as custom shapes and custom waves.

text: A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on October 21, briefly developing two weak low pressure areas before the wave crossed into the Pacific Ocean on November 1. Thunderstorm activity slowly increased as the wave interacted within the Intertropical Convergence Zone. After a curved band of convection developed, it is estimated the system formed into Tropical Depression Twenty-E around 0000 UTC on November 11, about 550 mi (1,050 km) southwest of Manzanillo. Throughout its duration, the depression never completely separated from the Intertropical Convergence Zone. When the NHC issued its first advisory on the depression, the agency predicted slight intensification to tropical storm status and for the depression to last at least two days. This was due to a forecast of gradually increasing wind shear after the first 24 hours. Instead, the circulation became very elongated; it is estimated the cyclone degenerated into a trough by late on November 11.

text: Note that h is the depth of the fluid (similar to the equivalent depth and analoguous to H in the primitive equations listed above for Rossby-gravity and Kelvin waves), K is temperature diffusion, K is eddy diffusivity, and τ is the wind stress in either the x or y directions.

text: Kruskal's most widely known work was the discovery in the 1960s of the integrability of certain nonlinear partial differential equations involving functions of one spatial variable as well as time.  These developments began with a pioneering computer simulation by Kruskal and Norman Zabusky (with some assistance from Gary Deem) of a nonlinear equation known as the Korteweg–de Vries equation (KdV).  The KdV equation is an asymptotic model of the propagation of nonlinear dispersive waves. But Kruskal and Zabusky  made the startling discovery of a  "solitary wave" solution of the KdV equation that propagates nondispersively and even regains its shape after a collision with other such waves.  Because of the particle-like properties of such a wave, they named it a "soliton," a term that caught on almost immediately.

text: Kruskal's most widely known work was the discovery in the 1960s of the integrability of certain nonlinear partial differential equations involving functions of one spatial variable as well as time.  These developments began with a pioneering computer simulation by Kruskal and

text: Norman Zabusky

text: (with some assistance from Gary Deem) of a nonlinear equation known as the

text: Korteweg–de Vries equation

text: (KdV).  The KdV equation is an asymptotic model of the propagation of nonlinear

text: dispersive

text: waves. But Kruskal and Zabusky  made the startling discovery of a  "solitary wave" solution of the KdV equation that propagates nondispersively and even regains its shape after a collision with other such waves.  Because of the particle-like properties of such a wave, they named it a "

text: soliton

text: ," a term that caught on almost immediately.

text: The local surfers have forced the wave to break more cleanly, with increased height, by attaching ropes to the bridge which trail submerged planks, creating two large "U"-shapes. Such a shape makes the wave easier to surf for river surfers (playboating makes fewer demands of the wave shape).

text: The storm affected Marshall Islands around November 28, producing winds as high as . The storm impacted islands of Kwajalein, Majuro, Lae, Wotho, and Eniwetok. Kwajalein Missile Range caught stronger winds than expected from the storm, and operations in the missile range were affected severely. Zelda also produced a pressure of , which was the lowest pressure ever recorded on Kwajalein. Later, In Ebeye, 60 percent of homes were destroyed, and 6,000 people were left homeless. Food and water supplies were contaminated from salt in surge waves, and the water desalination plant became inoperable. Fresh water production records since 1989 were lost during the storm. The local hospital was still intact, but a few power lines were cut. There were no deaths or significant injuries. Other islands in the nation had their water contaminated by saltwater, and 95 percent of the crops were destroyed by the storm surge.  Coral reefs were also damaged when the storm came nearby.

text: The storm affected Marshall Islands around November 28, producing winds as high as . The storm impacted islands of Kwajalein,

text: Majuro

text: Lae

text: Wotho

text: , and

text: Eniwetok

entity_name: Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site

text: Kwajalein Missile Range

text: caught stronger winds than expected from the storm, and operations in the missile range were affected severely. Zelda also produced a pressure of , which was the lowest pressure ever recorded on Kwajalein. Later, In

text: Ebeye

text: , 60 percent of homes were destroyed, and 6,000 people were left homeless. Food and water supplies were contaminated from salt in

text: surge waves

text: , and the water desalination plant became inoperable. Fresh water production records since 1989 were lost during the storm. The local hospital was still intact, but a few power lines were cut. There were no deaths or significant injuries. Other islands in the nation had their water contaminated by saltwater, and 95 percent of the crops were destroyed by the storm surge.

text: Coral reefs

text: were also damaged when the storm came nearby.

text: The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune.

text: The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a

text: dune

text: Cape Fear experienced minor beach erosion. The erosion, combined with high waves, washed out a portion of a roadway. The heavy rainfall in the Outer Banks disabled over 200 cars and flooded nearly 500. Strong wind gusts left around 10,000 buildings without power. Many places were not restored for two to three days after the storm. Wind and storm surge damaged over 100 houses and buildings. Damage amounted to about $7.5 million (2004 USD). Two days after the storm passed, a man drowned off of Nags Head from strong rip currents and waves. This was the only direct casualty from the storm.

text: Cape Fear

text: experienced minor beach erosion. The erosion, combined with high waves, washed out a portion of a roadway. The heavy rainfall in the Outer Banks disabled over 200 cars and flooded nearly 500. Strong wind gusts left around 10,000 buildings without power. Many places were not restored for two to three days after the storm. Wind and storm surge damaged over 100 houses and buildings. Damage amounted to about $7.5 million (2004 USD). Two days after the storm passed, a man drowned off of

text: Nags Head

text: from strong rip currents and waves. This was the only direct casualty from the storm.

text: According to the superposition principle of quantum mechanics, wave functions can be added together and multiplied by complex numbers to form new wave functions and form a Hilbert space. The inner product between two wave functions is a measure of the overlap between the corresponding physical states and is used in the foundational probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the Born rule, relating transition probabilities to inner products.   The Schrödinger equation determines how wave functions evolve over time. A wave function behaves qualitatively like other waves, such as water waves or waves on a string, because the Schrödinger equation is mathematically a type of wave equation. This explains the name "wave function", and gives rise to wave–particle duality. However, the wave function in quantum mechanics describes a kind of physical phenomenon, still open to different interpretations, which fundamentally differs from that of classic mechanical waves.

text: According to the

text: superposition principle

text: of quantum mechanics, wave functions can be added together and multiplied by complex numbers to form new wave functions and form a

text: Hilbert space

text: . The inner product between two wave functions is a measure of the overlap between the corresponding physical states and is used in the foundational probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the

text: Born rule

text: , relating transition probabilities to inner products.   The Schrödinger equation determines how wave functions evolve over time. A wave function behaves qualitatively like other

text: wave

text: s, such as

text: water wave

text: s or waves on a string, because the Schrödinger equation is mathematically a type of

text: wave equation

text: . This explains the name "wave function", and gives rise to

text: wave–particle duality

text: . However, the wave function in quantum mechanics describes a kind of physical phenomenon, still open to different

text: interpretations

text: , which fundamentally differs from that of classic mechanical waves.

text: The rules of right-a-way vary slightly with the type of break. Point Breaks will always have a consistent direct of what is inside, that is the person further up the line will have right-away. In a single peak situation where there is both a left and a right two people are able to be on the wave at the same time provided that one goes left and one goes right and that neither crosses the path of the other to go one direction. If this does happen then the surfer who stood up first will get the right-a-way. On a multi peaked wave where the wave eventually comes together both peaks can be surfed until the surfers come together, when they do the surfer who stood up first has right-a-way and the other must maneuver to get off the wave without interrupting the other surfer.

text: To produce a shock wave, an object in a given medium (such as air or water) must travel faster than the local speed of sound. In the case of an aircraft travelling at high subsonic speed, regions of air around the aircraft may be travelling at exactly the speed of sound, so that the sound waves leaving the aircraft pile up on one another, similar to a traffic jam on a motorway. When a shock wave forms, the local air pressure increases and then spreads out sideways. Because of this amplification effect, a shock wave can be very intense, more like an explosion when heard at a distance (not coincidentally, since explosions create shock waves).

text: A storm surge is an onshore gush of water associated with a low pressure weather system—storms.  Storm surges can cause beach accretion and erosion. Historically notable storm surges occurred during the North Sea Flood of 1953, Hurricane Katrina, and the 1970 Bhola cyclone.

text: A

text: storm surge

text: is an onshore gush of water associated with a

text: low pressure

text: weather system—storms.  Storm surges can cause

text: beach accretion

text: and erosion. Historically notable storm surges occurred during the

text: North Sea Flood of 1953

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: , and the

text: 1970 Bhola cyclone

text: Even before Chaba passed over the Pacific islands, the typhoon generated rough surf. On August 21 on Marpi Point Field in Saipan, a large wave resulted in a fatality and caused another person to become hospitalized. As the typhoon moved through the Northern Mariana Islands, tropical storm conditions were felt in Saipan while typhoon-force winds were felt in Rota and Tinian. Rota was positioned beneath Chaba's eyewall for several hours, resulting in extremely heavy rain and strong winds. The highest recorded wind gust there peaked at 219 km/h (136 mph), and gusts in excess of 160 km/h (100 mph) were documented for ten consecutive hours. Total rainfall measurements at Rota International Airport reached 528 mm (20.80 in). Extensive damage resulted on Rota, with the complete destruction of 50 homes. An additional 175 homes sustained minor damage. At the coast, the storm surge from Chaba caused coastal inundation up to 3.4 m (11 ft) inland, resulting in beach erosion. The toppling of electrical infrastructure resulted in island-wide power outages. Similar effects occurred on Tinian and Saipan, which also experienced widespread power outages and coastal inundation. Across both islands 270 homes were destroyed and 700 others were at least partially damaged. Telephone services were also cut in Tinian. Overall, 13 people were injured and damage costs totaled to approximately US$18 million in the Northern Mariana Islands.

text: Even before Chaba passed over the Pacific islands, the typhoon generated rough surf. On August 21 on

text: Marpi Point Field

text: in

text: Saipan

text: , a large wave resulted in a fatality and caused another person to become hospitalized. As the typhoon moved through the Northern Mariana Islands, tropical storm conditions were felt in Saipan while typhoon-force winds were felt in Rota and

text: Tinian

text: . Rota was positioned beneath Chaba's eyewall for several hours, resulting in extremely heavy rain and strong winds. The highest recorded wind gust there peaked at 219 km/h (136 mph), and gusts in excess of 160 km/h (100 mph) were documented for ten consecutive hours. Total rainfall measurements at

text: Rota International Airport

text: reached 528 mm (20.80 in). Extensive damage resulted on Rota, with the complete destruction of 50 homes. An additional 175 homes sustained minor damage. At the coast, the

text: storm surge

text: from Chaba caused coastal inundation up to 3.4 m (11 ft) inland, resulting in

text: beach erosion

text: . The toppling of electrical infrastructure resulted in island-wide

text: power outage

text: s. Similar effects occurred on Tinian and Saipan, which also experienced widespread power outages and coastal inundation. Across both islands 270 homes were destroyed and 700 others were at least partially damaged. Telephone services were also cut in Tinian. Overall, 13 people were injured and damage costs totaled to approximately

text: US

text: $18 million in the Northern Mariana Islands.

text: Storm tides threaten, in particular, the coasts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark and low lying areas of eastern England particularly around The Wash and Fens.Storm surges are caused by changes in barometric pressure combined with strong wind created wave action.

text: Storm tide

text: s threaten, in particular, the coasts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark and low lying areas of eastern England particularly around

text: The Wash

text: and

text: Fens

text: .Storm surges are caused by changes in

text: barometric pressure

text: combined with strong wind created

text: wave action

text: Roughly paralleling the North Carolina coast beginning on September 26, Helene's slow movement and strong intensity resulted in moderate to heavy impacts in coastal areas of the state. Despite the hurricane's Category 4 hurricane intensity, due to its closest approach to land remaining offshore, its storm surge remained less than initially forecast. The hurricane's track also placed its strongest storm surge in the eastern hemisphere of the storm, away from any landmasses. Surge heights peaked at 6 ft (1.8 m) near Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point. In Wilmington, Helene produced ocean swells at the coast 2.5 – 3 times per minute, indicative of a strong hurricane. There, the cumulative sea level was roughly 9 ft (2.7 m) above normal. However, as a result of the storm striking at low tide, damage caused by storm surge was mostly mitigated. Despite this, sand dunes in southern areas of Fort Fisher, were mostly destroyed by waves. On Cedar Island, strong winds produced by the hurricane pushed waves inland, inundating homes. Elsewhere, minor beach erosion occurred.

text: Roughly paralleling the North Carolina coast beginning on September 26, Helene's slow movement and strong intensity resulted in moderate to heavy impacts in coastal areas of the state. Despite the hurricane's Category 4 hurricane intensity, due to its closest approach to land remaining offshore, its

text: storm surge

text: remained less than initially forecast. The hurricane's track also placed its strongest storm surge in the eastern hemisphere of the storm, away from any landmasses. Surge heights peaked at 6 ft (1.8 m) near

text: Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point

text: . In

text: Wilmington

text: , Helene produced

text: ocean swells

text: at the coast 2.5 – 3 times per minute, indicative of a strong hurricane. There, the cumulative sea level was roughly 9 ft (2.7 m) above normal. However, as a result of the storm striking at

text: low tide

text: , damage caused by storm surge was mostly mitigated. Despite this,

text: sand dune

text: s in southern areas of

text: Fort Fisher

text: , were mostly destroyed by waves. On

text: Cedar Island

text: , strong winds produced by the hurricane pushed waves inland, inundating homes. Elsewhere, minor

text: beach erosion

text: occurred.

text: However, further offshore several breaking seas hit the lifeboat as the swell became larger and the wind increased to a severe gale force 9. At one point, the lifeboat fell 10m from the crest of a wave. Soon afterwards, another huge wave knocked her on her side, but she was able to self right.

text: Winds blowing in an onshore direction (from the sea towards the land) can cause the water to 'pile up' against the coast. This is known as wind set up. Low atmospheric pressure is associated with storm systems and this tends to increase the surface sea level, this is barometric set up. Finally increased wave break height results in a higher water level in the surf zone which is wave set up. Theses three processes interact to create waves that can overtop natural and engineered coastal protection structures thus penetrating seawater further inland than normal.

text: Winds blowing in an onshore direction (from the sea towards the land) can cause the water to 'pile up' against the coast. This is known as wind set up. Low

text: atmospheric pressure

text: is associated with storm systems and this tends to increase the surface sea level, this is barometric set up. Finally increased

text: wave

text: break height results in a higher water level in the

text: surf zone

text: which is wave set up. Theses three processes interact to create waves that can overtop natural and engineered coastal protection structures thus penetrating seawater further inland than normal.

text: In a similar way, a surface nepheloid layer may be created, due to particle flotation, while intermediate nepheloid layers may be formed at the slopes of the ocean bed due to the dynamics of internal waves.

text: In a similar way, a surface nepheloid layer may be created, due to particle flotation, while intermediate nepheloid layers may be formed at the slopes of the ocean bed due to the dynamics of

text: internal wave

text: s.

text: Upon making landfall, Tropical Storm Grace produced a light storm surge of 3.5 feet (1 m) in Matagorda and North Jetty, Texas. Wind gusts peaked at 53 mph (85 km/h) with sustained winds of 40 mph (64 km/h) at Sea Rim State Park. Locations closer to where the storm made landfall reported below tropical storm force winds, with the exception of Galveston which recorded a 40 mph (64 km/h) wind gust. Rainfall was moderate to heavy across eastern Texas, peaking at 10.36 inches (263 mm) in Spindletop Bayou. The outer bands of Grace spawned a waterspout just south of the western tip of Galveston Island, prompting the issuance of a tornado warning. The waterspout dissipated before moving onshore. The storm also caused light beach erosion, though little occurred beyond the erosion caused by Hurricane Claudette one month prior. Near the coast, high tides from the storm flooded piers, bulkheads, and low-lying areas. Further inland, heavy rainfall lead to flash flooding, covering roads and entering a few houses. Overall, damage was minor, and totaled to $113,000 (2003 USD, $132,400 2008 USD).

text: Upon making landfall, Tropical Storm Grace produced a light storm surge of 3.5 feet (1 m) in

text: Matagorda

text: and

text: North Jetty

text: Texas

text: . Wind gusts peaked at 53 mph (85 km/h) with sustained winds of 40 mph (64 km/h) at

text: Sea Rim State Park

text: . Locations closer to where the storm made landfall reported below tropical storm force winds, with the exception of

text: Galveston

text: which recorded a 40 mph (64 km/h) wind gust. Rainfall was moderate to heavy across eastern

text: Texas

text: , peaking at 10.36 inches (263 mm) in

text: Spindletop Bayou

text: . The outer bands of Grace spawned a

text: waterspout

text: just south of the western tip of

text: Galveston Island

text: , prompting the issuance of a

text: tornado warning

text: . The waterspout dissipated before moving onshore. The storm also caused light beach erosion, though little occurred beyond the erosion caused by

text: Hurricane Claudette

text: one month prior. Near the coast, high tides from the storm flooded piers, bulkheads, and low-lying areas. Further inland, heavy rainfall lead to flash flooding, covering roads and entering a few houses. Overall, damage was minor, and totaled to $113,000 (2003 USD, $132,400 2008 USD).

text: A reef break happens when a wave breaks over a coral reef or a rocky seabed. Examples are Cloudbreak in Fiji and Jaws in Maui.

text: A

text: reef break

text: happens when a wave breaks over a

text: coral reef

text: or a rocky seabed. Examples are

text: Cloudbreak

text: in

text: Fiji

text: and

text: Jaws

text: in Maui.

text: The "Waving Song" is one of the fight songs for Oklahoma State. At Oklahoma State football games, the song is played by the Cowboy Marching Band during the pregame traditions, following touchdowns, and after victories against the Cowboys' opponents. For other athletic events, the Waving Song is played after an OSU victory as the start of the fight song trilogy.  While the song is played, fans wave their right arms in the air; the effect is similar to wheat waving in the wind.

text: The "Waving Song" is one of the

text: fight songs

text: for Oklahoma State. At Oklahoma State football games, the song is played by the

entity_name: Oklahoma State University Cowboy Marching Band

text: Cowboy Marching Band

text: during the pregame traditions, following touchdowns, and after victories against the Cowboys' opponents. For other athletic events, the Waving Song is played after an OSU victory as the start of the fight song trilogy.  While the song is played, fans wave their right arms in the air; the effect is similar to wheat waving in the wind.

text: Waves are frequently found at Pampa Grande, primarily on ceramics/pottery. The waves have two different interpretations. Often waves appear in conjunction with right triangles or “stairs”. These geometric shapes would have served as an abbreviated version of earlier and more complex motifs. The first way this geometric motif has been interpreted is symbolizing marine life and its importance. Expert, Ilana Johnson, explains one way the waves can be interpreted. They “…could have been an abbreviated version of the stylized catfish or double-headed serpent motif found in panels on the murals at Huaca de la Luna and Huaca El Brujo [other Moche sites]”. The second way these wave motifs are interpreted are as the Temple of the Stairway and Wave. This is said to have been a ceremonial place where ritual human sacrifice took place. The wave motif is often found in several places on one piece of pottery.

text: General: The effects of a hurricane can be scattered across a large area, because hurricanes are large complex storms which spawn smaller thunderstorms, tornadoes, storm surges, and sea waves.  Wind speeds east of the eye can be 40-50 mph (64–80 km/h) higher than winds west of the eye. Wind gusts can be scattered, so boats or debris can ram one house but not another.  One building can seem untouched, while others nearby are flattened; also trees can be partly weakened: tree limbs can fall months later, crashing onto a roof, automobile, fence, etc.

text: A low-pressure area developed within the monsoon trough on February 1, while located about 250 km (155 mi) south of the Indonesian island of Bali. The low formed due to a surge of energy within the monsoon that had crossed the equator from the northwest. Associated convection was initially sparse, and over the subsequent few days the system tracked west-southwestward without much development, moving around a large ridge over northwestern Australia. There was initially moderate wind shear in the region, although an anticyclone was developing aloft, which allowed the convection was able to persist over the center and gradually develop outflow. Late on February 3, the Perth Tropical Cyclone Warning Center (PTCWC) upgraded the tropical low to a Category 1 on the Australian tropical cyclone scale, estimating 10 minute sustained winds of 65 km/h (40 mph). At 04:00 UTC the next day, the PTCWC named the storm Tropical Cyclone Leon. An hour prior, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 11S, while the storm was located about 215 km (130 mi) south-southeast of Christmas Island.

text: A

text: low-pressure area

text: developed within the

text: monsoon trough

text: on February 1, while located about 250 km (155 mi) south of the

text: Indonesia

text: n island of

text: Bali

text: . The low formed due to a surge of energy within the monsoon that had crossed the

text: equator

text: from the northwest. Associated convection was initially sparse, and over the subsequent few days the system tracked west-southwestward without much development, moving around a large

text: ridge

text: over northwestern Australia. There was initially moderate

text: wind shear

text: in the region, although an

text: anticyclone

text: was developing aloft, which allowed the convection was able to persist over the center and gradually develop

text: outflow

text: . Late on February 3, the Perth Tropical Cyclone Warning Center (PTCWC) upgraded the tropical low to a Category 1 on the

text: Australian tropical cyclone scale

text: , estimating 10 minute

text: sustained winds

text: of 65 km/h (40 mph). At 04:00 UTC the next day, the PTCWC

text: named

text: the storm Tropical Cyclone Leon. An hour prior, the

text: Joint Typhoon Warning Center

text: (JTWC) initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 11S, while the storm was located about 215 km (130 mi) south-southeast of

text: Christmas Island

text: Other phasing adjustments can increase the downward radiation in the far field without tilting the main lobe, creating null fill to compensate for extremely high mountaintop locations, or decrease it in the near field, to prevent excessive exposure to those workers or even nearby homeowners on the ground.  The latter effect is also achieved by half-wave spacing – inserting additional elements halfway between existing elements with full-wave spacing.  This phasing achieves roughly the same horizontal gain as the full-wave spacing; that is, a five-element full-wave-spaced array equals a nine- or ten-element half-wave-spaced array.

text: Other phasing adjustments can increase the downward radiation in the

text: far field

text: without tilting the main

text: lobe

text: , creating

text: null fill

text: to compensate for extremely high

text: mountain

text: top locations, or decrease it in the

text: near field

text: , to prevent excessive exposure to those workers or even nearby homeowners on the ground.  The latter effect is also achieved by half-wave spacing – inserting additional elements halfway between existing elements with full-wave spacing.  This phasing achieves roughly the same horizontal gain as the full-wave spacing; that is, a five-element full-wave-spaced array equals a nine- or ten-element half-wave-spaced array.

text: Nelscott Reef is an ocean reef near Lincoln City, Oregon, United States, that creates a reef break (a surf-break created by the presence of a rock or coral reef) that is known as the only place on the Oregon Coast with the right conditions for big wave surfing. It is named for the former community of Nelscott, which is now a part of Lincoln City. After watching the perfect big wave a half mile offshore since ’89 and knowing there was no way of paddling a conventional big wave gun through the huge beachbreak to get to it, in 1995 Nelscott Reef pioneer John Forse took an underpowered zodiac out in the 17 feet at 20 second swell and after several tries was able to penetrate the Siletz rivermouth and got outside. Feeling insignificant and vulnerable floating around in the huge open ocean swells he was able to work his way to the channel on the north side of the reef, unpack his gun and paddle to where he thought the take off zone was. With no bearings or landmarks with which to triangulate the wide ranging take off zone he was lucky enough to be in the spot and paddle for his life for the set wave headed his way. The speed of the wave combined with the wind keeping him on the peak prevented him from getting down the face and felt like the “Jay Moriarty stuck in the lip at Mavericks” famous wipeout and got blown out the back only to find the wave’s “big brother” bearing down on him. Scrambling for his life he was able to claw up and over the north shoulder and get out of the impact zone. After that “up close and personal” experience John realized that this was a different kind of wave, and was Great for towsurfing and SUP Surfing.

text: Nelscott Reef is an ocean

text: reef

text: near

text: Lincoln City, Oregon

text: United States

text: , that creates a reef break (a surf-break created by the presence of a rock or coral reef) that is known as the only place on the

text: Oregon Coast

text: with the right conditions for

text: big wave surfing

text: . It is named for the former community of

text: Nelscott

text: Satellite experiments have found evidence of positrons and a few antiprotons in primary cosmic rays, amounting to less than 1% of the particles in primary cosmic rays. This antimatter cannot all have been created in the Big Bang, but is instead attributed to have been produced by cyclic processes at high energies.  For instance, electron-positron pairs may be formed in pulsars, as a magnetized neutron star rotation cycle shears electron-positron pairs from the star surface.  Therein the antimatter forms a wind which crashes upon the ejecta of the progenitor supernovae.  This weathering takes place as "the cold, magnetized relativistic wind launched by the star hits the non-relativistically expanding ejecta, a shock wave system forms in the impact: the outer one propagates in the ejecta, while a reverse shock propagates back towards the star." The former ejection of matter in the outer shock wave and the latter production of antimatter in the reverse shock wave are steps in a space weather cycle.

text: Satellite experiments have found evidence of

text: positron

text: s and a few antiprotons in primary cosmic rays, amounting to less than 1% of the particles in primary cosmic rays. This antimatter cannot all have been created in the Big Bang, but is instead attributed to have been produced by cyclic processes at high energies.  For instance, electron-positron pairs may be formed in

text: pulsar

text: s, as a magnetized neutron star rotation cycle shears electron-positron pairs from the star surface.  Therein the antimatter forms a wind which crashes upon the ejecta of the progenitor supernovae.  This weathering takes place as "the cold, magnetized relativistic wind launched by the star hits the non-relativistically expanding ejecta, a shock wave system forms in the impact: the outer one propagates in the ejecta, while a reverse shock propagates back towards the star." The former ejection of matter in the outer shock wave and the latter production of antimatter in the reverse shock wave are steps in a space weather cycle.

text: Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave’s property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction.

text: A series of surface waves can be generated due to large-scale displacement of the ocean water. These can be caused by sub-marine landslides, seafloor deformations due to earthquakes, or the impact of a large meteorite.

text: A series of surface waves can be generated due to large-scale displacement of the ocean water. These can be caused by sub-marine

text: landslide

text: s, seafloor deformations due to

text: earthquake

text: s, or the impact of a large

text: meteorite

text: The Billabong Pro Teahupo'o's reputation for wave riding is partly due to its unique form. An extremely shallow coral reef which ranges up to 20 inches beneath the waters surface is responsible for a very hollow-breaking wave. The wave's unique shape, with an effect of almost breaking below sea level, is due to the specific shape of the reef beneath the wave. Its semi circular nature which drops down sharply creates a 'below water' effect and the extreme angles in descent create an instant instability to the wave. A steep wall of reef causes the entire mass to fold onto a scalloped semi circle breaking arc. The wave bends and races along into a dry reef closeout and the lip of the wave is often as thick as it is tall. Therefore, resulting in the "Billabong Pro Teahupo’o being one of the deadliest big wave competitions in the world to this present date".

text: The primary food sources of the waved albatross are fish, squid, and crustaceans, as well as smaller birds. But they have also been observed to scavenge for other food sources, including the regurgitated food of other birds. When foraging, the waved albatross finds places in the ocean where prey will be near this surface; this is the most effective way for the albatross to get its food. The waved albatrosses will forage  away from the place where the chicks are nesting to get food for them.

text: The primary food sources of the waved albatross are

text: fish

text: squid

text: , and

text: crustacean

text: s, as well as smaller birds. But they have also been observed to scavenge for other food sources, including the regurgitated food of other birds. When foraging, the waved albatross finds places in the ocean where prey will be near this surface; this is the most effective way for the albatross to get its food. The waved albatrosses will forage  away from the place where the chicks are nesting to get food for them.

text: A lineatus uses the shape of the waveform to determine distance by analyzing how much the waveform has changed since it was generated; this amount of change is extremely predictable and regular. The surface waveform has high frequencies near source, and lower frequencies farther away due to the dampening effect of the water surface; the amount of decrease diminishes with distance. A lineatus’ possible use of the wavefront’s curvature can be excluded since fish are still able to judge the distance of a wave’s source with only a single functioning neuromast when all others have been ablated. When presented with single-frequency or upward frequency-modulated waves, fish underestimate the distance of the wave source; this suggests the normal downward FM of capillary waves, which arises almost immediately in wave dispersion, is necessary for A lineatus to judge distance.  This was confirmed in 1982 by presenting fish with waves  with an artificially generated waveform so that at 7 cm the wave had the downward FM sweep of a wave 15 cm away, and fish responded to these by swimming 15 cm.

text: These waves break along or near a jetty. They are also called 'groynes' in some places. Examples include Long Beach in New York,  The Wedge in California, and Duranbah Groyne in Australia.

text: These waves break along or near a jetty. They are also called 'groynes' in some places. Examples include Long Beach in New York,

text: The Wedge

text: in California, and Duranbah Groyne in Australia.

text: An implosion shock wave might be of such short duration that only part of the pit is compressed at any instant as the wave passes through it. To prevent this, a pusher shell may be needed. The pusher is located between the explosive lens and the tamper. It works by reflecting some of the shock wave backwards, thereby having the effect of lengthening its duration. It is made out of a low density metal—such as aluminium, beryllium, or an alloy of the two metals (aluminium being easier and safer to shape, and is two orders of magnitude cheaper; beryllium for its high-neutron-reflective capability). Fat Man used an aluminium pusher.

text: An implosion shock wave might be of such short duration that only part of the pit is compressed at any instant as the wave passes through it. To prevent this, a pusher shell may be needed. The pusher is located between the explosive lens and the tamper. It works by reflecting some of the shock wave backwards, thereby having the effect of lengthening its duration. It is made out of a low

text: density

text: metal

text: —such as

text: aluminium

text: beryllium

text: , or an

text: alloy

text: of the two metals (aluminium being easier and safer to shape, and is two orders of magnitude cheaper; beryllium for its high-neutron-reflective capability). Fat Man used an aluminium pusher.

text: The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement. Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.

text: The first ocean wave models were developed in the 1960s and 1970s.  These models had the tendency to overestimate the role of wind in wave development and underplayed wave interactions.  A lack of knowledge concerning how waves interacted among each other, assumptions regarding a maximum wave height, and deficiencies in computer power limited the performance of the models.  After experiments were performed in 1968, 1969, and 1973, wind input from the Earth's atmosphere was weighted more accurately in the predictions.  A second generation of models was developed in the 1980s, but they could not realistically model swell nor depict wind-driven waves (also known as wind waves) caused by rapidly changing wind fields, such as those within tropical cyclones.  This caused the development of a third generation of wave models from 1988 onward.

text: The first

text: ocean wave models

text: were developed in the 1960s and 1970s.  These models had the tendency to overestimate the role of wind in wave development and underplayed wave interactions.  A lack of knowledge concerning how waves interacted among each other, assumptions regarding a maximum wave height, and deficiencies in computer power limited the performance of the models.  After experiments were performed in 1968, 1969, and 1973, wind input from the Earth's atmosphere was weighted more accurately in the predictions.  A second generation of models was developed in the 1980s, but they could not realistically model

text: swell

text: nor depict

text: wind-driven waves

text: (also known as wind waves) caused by rapidly changing wind fields, such as those within tropical cyclones.  This caused the development of a third generation of wave models from 1988 onward.

text: Breaking the Waves was received as mainstream cinema, but in reality it was a kind of high budget experimental film. It had elaborated the chapter shots and used handheld camera in a sketchy raw style that followed the actors closely. Breaking the Waves marked an important change in focus. In von Trier's early films, the protagonist is a man, typically a disillusioned idealist whose downfall is furthered by a deceitful, fatal woman.  In this film, for the first time the protagonist is a woman, emotional and naive. This will continues in the following films: with the only exception of the comedy, The Boss of It All, all Trier's subsequent films have a female protagonist. Breaking the Waves controversially connects religion with eroticism. The film focuses on sexual perversity and female martyrdom, issues that will continue in Trier's later work and that have challenged critics and commentators, who see the self-sacrificing submissive heroine as basically a misogynist cliche.

text: Breaking the Waves was received as mainstream cinema, but in reality it was a kind of high budget experimental film. It had elaborated the chapter shots and used handheld camera in a sketchy raw style that followed the actors closely. Breaking the Waves marked an important change in focus. In von Trier's early films, the protagonist is a man, typically a disillusioned idealist whose downfall is furthered by a deceitful, fatal woman.  In this film, for the first time the protagonist is a woman, emotional and naive. This will continues in the following films: with the only exception of the comedy,

text: The Boss of It All

text: , all Trier's subsequent films have a female protagonist. Breaking the Waves controversially connects religion with eroticism. The film focuses on sexual perversity and female martyrdom, issues that will continue in Trier's later work and that have challenged critics and commentators, who see the self-sacrificing submissive heroine as basically a misogynist cliche.

text: A shore break is a wave that breaks directly on, or very close to the shore. This happens when the beach is very steep at the shoreline. These waves are really just a form of beach or reef break, but breaking very close to the shore.

text: A shore break is a wave that breaks directly on, or very close to the

text: shore

text: . This happens when the beach is very steep at the shoreline. These waves are really just a form of beach or reef break, but breaking very close to the shore.

text: Many wind instruments have some kind of flaring bell shape. These are generally not exponential in configuration, and are used to modify the standing wave patterns of the instrument, and thereby the musical notes which can be produced.

text: Many wind instruments have some kind of flaring bell shape. These are generally not exponential in configuration, and are used to modify the

text: standing wave

text: patterns of the instrument, and thereby the

text: musical note

text: s which can be produced.

text: Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances, but discontinuities are common. The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders themselves propagate eastward, at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow. Each large meander, or wave, within the jet stream is known as a Rossby wave (planetary wave). Rossby waves are caused by changes in the Coriolis effect with latitude. Shortwave troughs, are smaller scale waves superimposed on the Rossby waves, with a scale of  long, that move along through the flow pattern around large scale, or longwave, "ridges" and "troughs" within Rossby waves. Jet streams can split into two when it encounters an upper-level low, that diverts a portion of the jet stream under its base, while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north.

text: Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances, but discontinuities are common. The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders themselves propagate eastward, at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow. Each large meander, or wave, within the jet stream is known as a

text: Rossby wave

text: (planetary wave). Rossby waves are caused by changes in the

text: Coriolis effect

text: with latitude.

text: Shortwave troughs

text: , are smaller scale waves superimposed on the Rossby waves, with a scale of  long, that move along through the flow pattern around large scale, or longwave, "ridges" and "troughs" within Rossby waves. Jet streams can split into two when it encounters an upper-level low, that diverts a portion of the jet stream under its base, while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north.

text: When generated by light wind in open water, a nautical name for them is cat's paw waves, since they may resemble paw prints. Light breezes which stir up such small ripples are also sometimes referred to as cat's paws. On the open ocean, much larger ocean surface waves (seas and swells) may result from coalescence of smaller wind-caused ripple-waves.

text: When generated by light wind in open water, a nautical name for them is cat's paw waves, since they may resemble paw prints. Light breezes which stir up such small ripples are also sometimes referred to as cat's paws. On the open ocean, much larger

text: ocean surface wave

text: s (

text: seas

text: and

text: swell

text: s) may result from coalescence of smaller wind-caused ripple-waves.

text: Storm surges caused by extratropical cyclones have been recorded along the coastal areas. These storm surges are formed from strong winds that blow towards the land. They are formed due to the interaction between the semi-permanent South Pacific High and a low pressure system over the Atlantic, southeast of Argentina, creating strong winds from the south or southwest. The sudestada, which brings the worst storm surges, occurs when there is a high pressure system over southern Argentina in the Atlantic Ocean that interacts with a low pressure over Uruguay and southern Brazil, causing strong winds from the southeast. Storm surges have caused flooding of coastal areas, leading to extensive property loss and other damage. It is also the main natural factor in the erosion of coastlines. The flooding as a result of storm surges are particularly destructive in flat coastal areas such as the Rio de La Plata shores, and the Salado Basin.

text: Storm surges caused by

text: extratropical cyclones

text: have been recorded along the coastal areas. These storm surges are formed from strong winds that blow towards the land. They are formed due to the interaction between the semi-permanent South Pacific High and a low pressure system over the Atlantic, southeast of Argentina, creating strong winds from the south or southwest. The sudestada, which brings the worst storm surges, occurs when there is a high pressure system over southern Argentina in the Atlantic Ocean that interacts with a low pressure over

text: Uruguay

text: and southern Brazil, causing strong winds from the southeast. Storm surges have caused flooding of coastal areas, leading to extensive property loss and other damage. It is also the main natural factor in the

text: erosion of coastlines

text: . The flooding as a result of storm surges are particularly destructive in flat coastal areas such as the

text: Rio de La Plata

text: shores, and the

text: Salado Basin

text: In mid-June a change in the jet stream over a large part of the Pacific Ocean caused an increase in tropical wave frequency. One of these waves would become the precursor to Olga. The wave was first noticed near the Marshall Islands, particularly the Island of Majuro on June 24. As it moved west weather satellites depicted the wave had begun to organize with considerable convection and spiraling storm bands as it neared the Central Caroline Islands. Due to the waves close proximity to a high pressure area to the north, strong easterlies accelerated it to the west. The increased forward speed inhibited the establishment of a circulation until it was south of Guam early on June 29, though the JMA had classified it a tropical depression two days earlier. Later that day reconnaissance had detected a closed center and gale force winds and the low was upgraded to a tropical storm and was given the name Olga. As it entered the Philippine Sea the ridge that had kept it to the south began to weaken allowing Olga to move in a northwestward direction. Moving into an increasingly favorable environment, the storm slowed in its forward speed, and strengthened into a typhoon late on June 29. Rapid intensification followed as the system bottomed out at a pressure of  and winds of 160 mph (260 km/h) on July 1. The strengthening happened within a little over a day brought it to a super typhoon, the first of the season. The 62 millibar drop with the day of June 30 and July 1 caused a very high wind profile around the six mile radius eye. The storm followed a break in the ridge and moved northward while weakening gradually. While passing to the east of Taiwan a short wave from the Chinese mainland caused a sharp direction change in Olga's path. A low developed in the wake of the short wave, dominated Olga causing the typhoon to greatly weaken. Dry air soon entered the circulation caused a shallowing in the systems overall convection. By July 5 Olga made landfall on the Kansai region, south of Osaka, as a tropical storm. The system continued into the Sea of Japan, and became merged within a cold front. The remaining low tracked over South Korea before completely dissipating on July 7.

text: In mid-June a change in the jet stream over a large part of the Pacific Ocean caused an increase in tropical wave frequency. One of these waves would become the precursor to Olga. The wave was first noticed near the

text: Marshall Islands

text: , particularly the Island of

text: Majuro

text: Kansai region

text: , south of

text: Osaka

text: , as a tropical storm. The system continued into the Sea of Japan, and became merged within a cold front. The remaining low tracked over South Korea before completely dissipating on July 7.

text: As Ike crossed Cuba on September 8 it weakened to Category 1 and emerged into the Caribbean Sea, where it moved along the southern coast.  Ike killed 7 people in Cuba, having traversed nearly the entirety of the island nation.  It crossed into the Gulf of Mexico on September 9 and ballooned in size. Ike maintained a double eyewall structure across most of the Gulf of Mexico and continued to expand in size. It made landfall on Galveston Island on September 13 as a strong Category 2 hurricane, but its large size brought a storm surge of over  from Galveston Island eastward into southern Louisiana. The Bolivar Peninsula was worst affected by the surge, while Galveston Island (where waves topped the seawall) and the Port Arthur areas also saw extensive damage. Power was knocked out to most of the Houston area and windows were blown out of skyscrapers in downtown Houston. As Ike moved inland, it brought extensive flooding and wind damage throughout the Midwest and as far north as Pennsylvania. Ike was categorized extratropical on September 14.

text: As Ike crossed Cuba on September 8 it weakened to Category 1 and emerged into the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: , where it moved along the southern coast.  Ike killed 7 people in Cuba, having traversed nearly the entirety of the island nation.  It crossed into the Gulf of Mexico on September 9 and ballooned in size. Ike maintained a double

text: eyewall

text: structure across most of the Gulf of Mexico and continued to expand in size. It made landfall on

text: Galveston Island

text: on September 13 as a strong Category 2 hurricane, but its large size brought a storm surge of over  from Galveston Island eastward into southern

text: Louisiana

text: . The

text: Bolivar Peninsula

text: was worst affected by the surge, while Galveston Island (where waves topped the

text: seawall

text: ) and the

text: Port Arthur

text: areas also saw extensive damage. Power was knocked out to most of the

text: Houston

text: area and windows were blown out of skyscrapers in

text: downtown Houston

text: . As Ike moved inland, it brought extensive flooding and wind damage throughout the

text: Midwest

text: and as far north as

text: Pennsylvania

text: . Ike was categorized extratropical on September 14.

text: A swell, in the context of an ocean, sea or lake, is a series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air and so they are often referred to as surface gravity waves. These series of surface gravity waves are not generated by the immediate local wind, instead by distant weather systems, where wind blows for a duration of time over a fetch of water. This is the primary definition of a swell as opposed to a locally generated wind wave, which is still under the influence of the mechanisms that created it e.g. wind blowing over a puddle. More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not—or are hardly—affected by the local wind at that time. Swell waves often have a long wavelength but this varies due to the size,  strength and duration of the weather system responsible for the swell and the size of the water body e.g. wavelengths are rarely more than 150 m in the Mediterranean . Swell wavelength, also, varies from event to event. Occasionally, swells which are longer than 700 m occur as a result of the most severe storms. Swells have a narrower range of  frequencies and directions than locally generated wind waves, because swell waves have dispersed from their generation area, have dissipated and therefore lost an amount of randomness, taking on a more defined shape and direction. Swell direction is the direction from which the swell is coming. It is measured in degrees (as on a compass), and often referred to in general directions, such as a NNW or SW swell.

text: A swell, in the context of an ocean, sea or lake, is a series of

text: mechanical waves

text: that propagate along the interface between water and air and so they are often referred to as

text: surface gravity waves

text: . These series of surface gravity waves are not generated by the immediate

text: local wind

text: , instead by distant weather systems, where wind blows for a duration of time over a

text: fetch

text: of water. This is the primary definition of a swell as opposed to a locally generated wind wave, which is still under the influence of the mechanisms that created it e.g. wind blowing over a puddle. More generally, a swell consists of wind-generated waves that are not—or are hardly—affected by the local wind at that time. Swell waves often have a long

text: wavelength

text: but this varies due to the size,  strength and duration of the weather system responsible for the swell and the size of the water body e.g. wavelengths are rarely more than 150 m in the Mediterranean . Swell wavelength, also, varies from event to event. Occasionally, swells which are longer than 700 m occur as a result of the most severe storms. Swells have a narrower range of

text: frequencies

text: and directions than locally generated wind waves, because swell waves have dispersed from their generation area, have

text: dissipated

text: and therefore lost an amount of randomness, taking on a more defined shape and direction. Swell direction is the direction from which the swell is coming. It is measured in degrees (as on a compass), and often referred to in general directions, such as a NNW or SW swell.

text: It doesn't break often, requiring huge swells from the Southern Ocean, but these can produce very large waves often in excess of 40 ft with some contending for the biggest wave in Australia at over 60 ft.

text: It doesn't break often, requiring huge swells from the

text: Southern Ocean

text: , but these can produce very large waves often in excess of 40 ft with some contending for the biggest wave in Australia at over 60 ft.

text: The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths.  The relatively quick surge in sea level can move miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes and cutting off escape routes.  The storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish breeding locales.

text: The

text: storm surge

text: , or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths.  The relatively quick surge in sea level can move miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes and cutting off escape routes.  The storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish breeding locales.

text: On August 15, 2011, a tropical wave exited the west African coast, and emerged into the Atlantic, characterized by distinct low-level cyclonic rotation and deep tropical humidity. It remained well-defined while moving steadily westward for several days to the south of the Cape Verde Islands, although at the time any notable convection occurred well to the southwest of its axis. As the wave distanced itself from the islands, development of thunderstorms and showers in its proximity continued to remain scarce, and it became rather broad in appearance. On August 19, the convective structure began to show signs of organization as the associated atmospheric pressure lowered, and with a progressively favorable environment situated ahead of the wave its chances of undergoing tropical cyclogenesis markedly increased. The strong thunderstorm activity continued to become more pronounced around the main low-pressure feature. By August 20, the National Hurricane Center noted that tropical cyclone formation was imminent as the wave neared the Lesser Antilles, and a reconnaissance aircraft confirmed the presence of a small surface circulation center just southwest of a burst of vigorous convection and unusually high sustained winds, indicating sufficient organization for the cyclone to be upgraded into Tropical Storm Irene at 23:00 UTC that day.

text: On August 15, 2011, a

text: tropical wave

text: exited the west African coast, and emerged into the

text: Atlantic

text: , characterized by distinct low-level

text: cyclonic rotation

text: and deep tropical humidity. It remained well-defined while moving steadily westward for several days to the south of the

text: Cape Verde Islands

text: , although at the time any notable

text: convection

text: occurred well to the southwest of its axis. As the wave distanced itself from the islands, development of thunderstorms and showers in its proximity continued to remain scarce, and it became rather broad in appearance. On August 19, the convective structure began to show signs of organization as the associated

text: atmospheric pressure

text: lowered, and with a progressively favorable environment situated ahead of the wave its chances of undergoing

text: tropical cyclogenesis

text: markedly increased. The strong thunderstorm activity continued to become more pronounced around the main

text: low-pressure feature

text: . By August 20, the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: noted that

text: tropical cyclone

text: formation was imminent as the wave neared the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: , and a

text: reconnaissance aircraft

text: confirmed the presence of a small surface circulation center just southwest of a burst of vigorous convection and unusually high

text: sustained winds

text: , indicating sufficient organization for the cyclone to be upgraded into Tropical Storm Irene at 23:00

text: UTC

text: that day.

text: Surfing waves break along a sand bank that extends from Snapper Rocks through Rainbow Bay, past Greenmount point and Coolangatta, then to Kirra. This region has been called the Superbank.

text: Surfing waves break along a sand bank that extends from

text: Snapper Rocks

text: through

text: Rainbow Bay

text: , past Greenmount point and

text: Coolangatta

text: , then to Kirra. This region has been called the Superbank.

text: Dolphins sometimes ride on the bow waves created by boats or surf on naturally breaking waves.

text: Dolphins sometimes ride on the

text: bow wave

text: s created by boats or surf on naturally breaking waves.

text: In continuum mechanics, wave turbulence is a set of nonlinear waves deviated far from thermal equilibrium. Such a state is usually accompanied by dissipation. It is either decaying turbulence or requires an external source of energy to sustain it. Examples are waves on a fluid surface excited by winds or ships, and waves in plasma excited by electromagnetic waves etc.

text: In

text: continuum mechanics

text: , wave turbulence is a set of

text: nonlinear

text: wave

text: s deviated far from

text: thermal equilibrium

text: . Such a state is usually accompanied by

text: dissipation

text: . It is either

text: decaying turbulence

text: or requires an external source of

text: energy

text: to sustain it. Examples are waves on a

text: fluid surface

text: excited by

text: wind

text: s or

text: ship

text: s, and waves in

text: plasma

text: excited by

text: electromagnetic waves

text: etc.

text: Since the late 1960s when Gordon Clark found the optimum formulation of urethane foam, many of the surfboards in common use have been of the shortboard variety between 6 feet and 7 feet in length with a pointed nose and a rounded or squarish tail, typically with three "skegs" (fins) but sometimes with two or as many as five. Surfers generally find a shortboard quick to maneuver compared with other types of surfboards, but because of a lack of flotation due to the smaller size, the shortboard is harder to catch waves with, often requiring steeper, larger and more powerful waves and very late takeoffs, where the surfer catches the wave at the critical moment before it breaks.

text: When waves travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the ocean bottom.  The free orbital motion of the water is disrupted, and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position.  As the water becomes shallower, the swell becomes higher and steeper, ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape.  After the wave breaks, it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies.

text: When

text: waves

text: travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the

text: ocean

text: bottom.  The free

text: orbital motion

text: of the water is disrupted, and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position.  As the water becomes shallower, the swell becomes higher and steeper, ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape.  After the

text: wave breaks

text: , it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies.

text: The Wave-dancers are a tribe of elves who took refuge in the oceans of the World of Two Moons.  Thanks to elfin flesh-shaping magic, the Wave-dancers have in some cases undergone physical alterations such as fins and fish-like tails to help them adapt to an aquatic life.

text: In physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats, and thus the inverse of the spatial frequency. It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests, troughs, or zero crossings and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and standing waves, as well as other spatial wave patterns. Wavelength is commonly designated by the Greek letter lambda (λ). The concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal shape. The term wavelength is also sometimes applied to modulated waves, and to the sinusoidal envelopes of modulated waves or waves formed by interference of several sinusoids.

text: In

text: physics

text: , the wavelength of a

text: sinusoidal wave

text: is the spatial period of the wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats, and thus the

text: inverse

text: of the

text: spatial frequency

text: . It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same

text: phase

text: , such as crests, troughs, or

text: zero crossing

text: s and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and

text: standing wave

text: s, as well as other spatial wave patterns. Wavelength is commonly designated by the

text: Greek letter

text: lambda

text: (λ). The concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal shape. The term wavelength is also sometimes applied to

text: modulated

text: waves, and to the sinusoidal

text: envelopes

text: of modulated waves or waves formed by

text: interference

text: of several sinusoids.

text: Kelvin waves have been connected to El Niño (beginning in the Northern Hemisphere winter months) in recent years in terms of precursors to this atmospheric and oceanic phenomenon.  Many scientists have utilized coupled atmosphere–ocean models to simulate an El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event and have stated that the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) can trigger oceanic Kelvin waves throughout its 30- to 60-day cycle or the latent heat of condensation can be released (from intense convection) resulting in Kelvin waves as well; this process can then signal the onset of an El Niño event.  The weak low pressure in the Indian Ocean (due to the MJO) typically propagates eastward into the North Pacific Ocean and can produce easterly winds.  These easterly winds can transfer West Pacific warm water toward the east, thereby exciting a Kelvin wave, which in this sense can be thought of as a warm-water anomaly that travels under the ocean’s surface at a depth of about 150 meters.  This wave can be observed at the surface by a slight rise in sea surface height of about 8 cm (associated with  a depression of the thermocline) and an SST increase that covers hundreds of square miles across the surface of the ocean.

text: Kelvin waves have been connected to El Niño (beginning in the Northern Hemisphere winter months) in recent years in terms of precursors to this atmospheric and oceanic phenomenon.  Many scientists have utilized coupled atmosphere–ocean models to simulate an

text: El Niño Southern Oscillation

text: (ENSO) event and have stated that the

text: Madden–Julian oscillation

text: (MJO) can trigger oceanic Kelvin waves throughout its 30- to 60-day cycle or the latent heat of condensation can be released (from intense convection) resulting in Kelvin waves as well; this process can then signal the onset of an El Niño event.  The weak low pressure in the

text: Indian Ocean

text: (due to the MJO) typically propagates eastward into the

text: North Pacific Ocean

text: and can produce easterly winds.  These easterly winds can transfer

text: West Pacific

text: warm water toward the east, thereby exciting a Kelvin wave, which in this sense can be thought of as a warm-water anomaly that travels under the ocean’s surface at a depth of about 150 meters.  This wave can be observed at the surface by a slight rise in sea surface height of about 8 cm (associated with  a depression of the thermocline) and an

text: SST

text: increase that covers hundreds of square miles across the surface of the ocean.

text: Ocean swells form from the longer term amalgamation of wind-generated waves on the surface. The stronger the wind and the longer the area over which it blows, generally the larger the swell.

text: The wave characteristics of "the Point" have long been considered world-class, and include: a remarkably easy paddle out; a machine-like, jacking, perfect almond-shaped tube (particularly when >4 feet) and which has reportedly held waves up to 15 feet (Hawaiian scale-that's ~30 feet wave faces) since the earthquake; and a sculptured wave face which is partially smoothed out by a weak 'reverse current'- which sucks water from the bay into the wave and acts to 'smooths out' the breaking wave face, even under light onshore wind conditions.

text: About 2.6 million Cubans, a fourth of the population was evacuated ahead of Ike. In Baracoa, 200 homes were reported to be destroyed and waves were running  high and peaked at  in different areas of Cuba. The Category 4 hurricane made landfall on September 8 on the north coast of eastern Cuba in the province of Holguín near Puerto de Sama, with sustained winds of about , causing widespread flooding and damage to the eastern provinces. It passed across the central provinces of Holguín, Las Tunas, and Camagüey, emerging over the sea to the south of Cuba during the day. Ike dropped to Category One intensity by the time it crossed the island. It then followed the southern coast of Cuba and crossed the western end of the island in Pinar del Río Province, close to the path taken by Hurricane Gustav ten days previously. The western areas of Cuba, already devastated by just 10 days before Ike hit, suffered additional major flooding from the rain and storm surge. The sugar cane crop was devastated, with over  destroyed. The banana, yucca, coffee and corn crop also suffered significant damage. Alongside Gustav, they were described as the "worst ever" storms by Cuban officials.

text: About 2.6 million Cubans, a fourth of the population was evacuated ahead of Ike. In

text: Baracoa

text: , 200 homes were reported to be destroyed and waves were running  high and peaked at  in different areas of Cuba. The Category 4 hurricane made landfall on September 8 on the north coast of eastern Cuba in the province of

text: Holguín

text: near Puerto de Sama, with sustained winds of about , causing widespread flooding and damage to the eastern provinces. It passed across the central provinces of Holguín, Las Tunas, and Camagüey, emerging over the sea to the south of Cuba during the day. Ike dropped to Category One intensity by the time it crossed the island. It then followed the southern coast of Cuba and crossed the western end of the island in

text: Pinar del Río Province

text: , close to the path taken by

text: Hurricane Gustav

text: ten days previously. The western areas of Cuba, already devastated by just 10 days before Ike hit, suffered additional major flooding from the rain and storm surge. The

text: sugar cane

text: crop was devastated, with over  destroyed. The

text: banana

text: yucca

text: coffee

text: and

text: corn

text: crop also suffered significant damage. Alongside Gustav, they were described as the "worst ever" storms by Cuban officials.

text: For the specific case of predicting wind wave statistics on the ocean, the term ocean surface wave model is used.

text: In many cases the medium in which the wave propagates does not permit a direct observation of the true form. In these cases, the term "waveform" refers to the shape of a graph of the varying quantity against time. An instrument called an oscilloscope can be used to pictorially represent a wave as a repeating image on a screen.

text: In many cases the medium in which the wave propagates does not permit a direct

text: observation

text: of the true form. In these cases, the term "waveform" refers to the shape of a graph of the varying quantity against time. An instrument called an

text: oscilloscope

text: can be used to pictorially represent a wave as a repeating image on a

text: screen

text: A Kelvin wave is any progressive wave that is channeled between two boundaries or opposing forces (usually between the Coriolis force and a coastline or the equator). There are two types, coastal and equatorial. Kelvin waves are gravity driven and non-dispersive. This means that Kelvin waves can retain their shape and direction over long periods of time. They are usually created by a sudden shift in the wind, such as the change of the trade winds at the beginning of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.

text: A

text: Kelvin wave

text: is any

text: progressive wave

text: that is channeled between two boundaries or opposing forces (usually between the

text: Coriolis force

text: and a

text: coastline

text: or the

text: equator

text: ). There are two types, coastal and equatorial. Kelvin waves are

text: gravity

text: driven and

text: non-dispersive

text: . This means that Kelvin waves can retain their shape and direction over long periods of time. They are usually created by a sudden shift in the wind, such as the change of the

text: trade wind

text: s at the beginning of the

text: El Niño-Southern Oscillation

text: The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e. power from surface waves, and tidal power i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water.The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.

text: The term marine energy encompasses both

text: wave power

text: i.e. power from surface waves, and

text: tidal power

text: i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water.

text: Offshore wind power

text: is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the

text: wind turbine

text: s are placed over water.The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new

text: renewable energy

text: around the world.

text: The interaction of two trains of surface waves of different frequencies and directions generates wave groups. For wave propagating almost in the same direction, this gives the usual sets of waves that travel at the group speed, which is slower than phase speed of water waves (see animation). For typical ocean waves with a period around 10 seconds, this group speed is close to 10 m/s.

text: The interaction of two trains of

text: surface waves

text: of different frequencies and directions generates

text: wave group

text: s. For wave propagating almost in the same direction, this gives the usual sets of waves that travel at the group speed, which is slower than phase speed of water waves (see animation). For typical ocean waves with a period around 10 seconds, this

text: group speed

text: is close to 10 m/s.

text: Wind-wave dissipation or "swell dissipation" is process in which a wave generated via a weather system loses its mechanical energy transferred from the atmosphere via wind. Wind waves, as their name suggests, are generated by wind transferring energy from the atmosphere to the ocean's surface, capillary gravity waves play an essential role in this effect, "wind waves" or "swell" are also known as surface gravity waves.

text: Wind-wave dissipation or "

text: swell dissipation

text: " is process in which a wave generated via a weather system loses its

text: mechanical

text: energy transferred from the atmosphere via wind. Wind waves, as their name suggests, are generated by wind transferring energy from the atmosphere to the ocean's surface,

text: capillary gravity waves

text: play an essential role in this effect, "wind waves" or "swell" are also known as

text: surface gravity wave

text: s.

text: The Storm of the Century, also known as the Great Blizzard of 1993, was a large cyclonic storm that formed over the Gulf of Mexico on March 12, 1993, and dissipated in the North Atlantic Ocean on March 15. It is unique for its intensity, massive size and wide-reaching effect. At its height, the storm stretched from Canada towards Central America, but its main impact was on the Eastern United States and Cuba. The cyclone moved through the Gulf of Mexico, and then through the Eastern United States before moving into Canada. Areas as far south as central Alabama and Georgia received  of snow and areas such as Birmingham, Alabama, received up to  with isolated reports of . Even the Florida Panhandle reported up to , with hurricane-force wind gusts and record low barometric pressures. Between Louisiana and Cuba, hurricane-force winds produced high storm surges across northwestern Florida, which along with scattered tornadoes killed dozens of people. Record cold temperatures were seen across portions of the South and East in the wake of this storm. In the United States, the storm was responsible for the loss of electric power to over 10 million customers. It is purported to have been directly experienced by nearly 40 percent of the country's population at that time. A total of 310 people, including 10 from Cuba, perished during this storm.

text: The

text: Storm of the Century

text: , also known as the Great Blizzard of 1993, was a large

text: cyclonic

text: storm that formed over the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: on March 12, 1993, and dissipated in the North Atlantic Ocean on March 15. It is unique for its intensity, massive size and wide-reaching effect. At its height, the storm stretched from Canada towards Central America, but its main impact was on the Eastern United States and Cuba. The cyclone moved through the Gulf of Mexico, and then through the Eastern United States before moving into Canada. Areas as far south as central Alabama and Georgia received  of snow and areas such as

text: Birmingham, Alabama

text: , received up to  with isolated reports of . Even the

text: Florida Panhandle

text: reported up to , with

text: hurricane-force

text: wind gusts and record low

text: barometric pressure

text: s. Between Louisiana and Cuba, hurricane-force winds produced high storm surges across northwestern Florida, which along with scattered

text: tornado

text: es killed dozens of people. Record cold temperatures were seen across portions of the South and East in the wake of this storm. In the United States, the storm was responsible for the loss of

text: electric power

text: to over 10 million customers. It is purported to have been directly experienced by nearly 40 percent of the country's population at that time. A total of 310 people, including 10 from Cuba, perished during this storm.

text: Most people think of waves as a surface phenomenon, which acts between water (as in lakes or oceans) and the air. Where low density water overlies high density water in the ocean, internal waves propagate along the boundary. They are especially common over the continental shelf regions of the world oceans and where brackish water overlies salt water at the outlet of large rivers. There is typically little surface expression of the waves, aside from slick bands that can form over the trough of the waves.

text: Most people think of waves as a surface phenomenon, which acts between water (as in lakes or oceans) and the air. Where low density water overlies high density water in the

text: ocean

text: , internal waves propagate along the boundary. They are especially common over the

text: continental shelf

text: regions of the world oceans and where

text: brackish

text: water overlies salt water at the outlet of large rivers. There is typically little surface expression of the waves, aside from slick bands that can form over the trough of the waves.

text: While everyday wind waves have a wavelength (from crest to crest) of about  and a height of roughly , a tsunami in the deep ocean has a much larger wavelength of up to . Such a wave travels at well over , but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about . This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable to feel their passage.

text: While everyday

text: wind wave

text: s have a

text: wavelength

text: (from crest to crest) of about  and a height of roughly , a tsunami in the deep ocean has a much larger wavelength of up to . Such a wave travels at well over , but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about . This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable to feel their passage.

text: Once every five or six years, a tropical storm, accompanied by very high and potentially damaging winds and heavy rain, will strike the region. About once every 11 or 12 years a hurricane brings damaging winds and storm surges to the region. Several Category 3 storms have struck Cape Cod since record-keeping began, such as the Long Island Express of 1938 and the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane. Strong Category 2 storms, such as Hurricane Carol of 1954 and Hurricane Bob of 1991 also caused considerable damage. Notable Category 1 storms include Hurricane Edna of 1954 (shortly following Hurricane Carol) and Hurricane Donna of 1960, also Hurricane Irene in 2011, and Hurricane Sandy in 2012. Other notable storms include the Gale of 1815, which would likely have been rated a strong hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale, and the so-called "Perfect Storm" of October 31, 1991. The February 2013 nor'easter produced winds in excess of  and dropped over  of snow on some parts of Cape Cod. The storm knocked out power to tens of thousands of Cape Cod residents, some for up to two weeks.

text: Once every five or six years, a

text: tropical storm

text: , accompanied by very high and potentially damaging winds and heavy rain, will strike the region. About once every 11 or 12 years a

text: hurricane

text: brings damaging winds and

text: storm surge

text: s to the region. Several

text: Category 3

text: storms have struck Cape Cod since record-keeping began, such as the

text: Long Island Express

text: of 1938 and the

text: 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane

text: . Strong

text: Category 2

text: storms, such as

text: Hurricane Carol

text: of 1954 and

text: Hurricane Bob

text: of 1991 also caused considerable damage. Notable

text: Category 1

text: storms include

text: Hurricane Edna

text: of 1954 (shortly following

text: Hurricane Carol

text: ) and

text: Hurricane Donna

text: of 1960, also

text: Hurricane Irene

text: in 2011, and

text: Hurricane Sandy

text: in 2012. Other notable storms include the

text: Gale of 1815

text: , which would likely have been rated a strong hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale, and the so-called "

text: Perfect Storm

text: " of October 31, 1991. The

text: February 2013 nor'easter

text: produced winds in excess of  and dropped over  of snow on some parts of Cape Cod. The storm knocked out power to tens of thousands of Cape Cod residents, some for up to two weeks.

text: The surf zone is place of convergence of multiple waves types creating complex wave patterns. A wave suitable for surfing results from maximum speeds of 5 meters per second. This speed is relative because local onshore winds can cause waves to break. In the surf zone, shallow water waves are carried by global winds to the beach and interact with local winds to make surfing waves.

text: Since the demonstrations of wave-like properties in photons and electrons, similar experiments have been conducted with neutrons and protons. Among the most famous experiments are those of Estermann and Otto Stern in 1929.Authors of similar recent experiments with atoms and molecules, described below, claim that these larger particles also act like waves. A wave is basically a group of particles which moves in a particular form of motion, i.e. to and fro. If we break that flow by an object it will convert into radiants.

text: Since the demonstrations of wave-like properties in

text: photon

text: s and

text: electron

text: s, similar experiments have been conducted with

text: neutron

text: s and

text: proton

text: s. Among the most famous experiments are those of

text: Estermann

text: and

text: Otto Stern

text: in 1929.Authors of similar recent experiments with atoms and molecules, described below, claim that these larger particles also act like waves. A wave is basically a group of particles which moves in a particular form of motion, i.e. to and fro. If we break that flow by an object it will convert into radiants.

text: Surfing waves can be analyzed using the following parameters: breaking wave height, wave peel angle (α), wave breaking intensity, and wave section length. The breaking wave height has two measurements, the relative heights estimated by surfers and the exact measurements done by physical oceanographers. Measurements done by surfers were 1.36 to 2.58 times higher than the measurements done by scientists. The scientifically concluded wave heights that are physically possible to surf are 1 to 20 meters.

text: Three main types of breaking waves are identified by surfers or surf lifesavers. Their varying characteristics make them more or less suitable for surfing, and present different dangers.

text: Three main types of breaking waves are identified by

text: surfer

text: s or

text: surf lifesavers

text: . Their varying characteristics make them more or less suitable for surfing, and present different dangers.

text: The Blizzard of ‘88 was one of the worst storm to ever strike the eastern seaboard. It started on Sunday morning, March 11, 1888 and the storm continued to rage until Monday midnight. Although there was only about two or three feet of snow, gale force winds that reached 60 MPH left snowdrifts as high as 10’ to 20’. During the storm, a rare “blowout tide,” (extreme ebbs caused by strong offshore winds which drain inshore shallows - the opposite of a storm-surge), drained the Rondout Creek enough that boats were grounded on the creek bottom. The ferry boat was hard aground and the Norwich was keeled over to one side. The stage to Ellenville left the Rondout at the usual time but nothing was heard from the stage the next day. The only thing authorities could do was assume that the stage was stuck in the snow someplace and that the passengers were safe. The stage from Ellenville reached Hurley that Monday and stayed until the next day when the driver returned to Rondout with only one sleigh bob.

text: In the Atlantic, a tropical wave spawned Tropical Depression Six. Twenty four hours later, wind shear degenerated the depression back into a wave. The wave continued westward, and in the southern Caribbean Sea, split in two on August 21. The southern part crossed Central America and emerged into the Pacific Ocean. Banding and convection steadily organized, and Tropical Depression Fifteen-E formed on August 27. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Lorena the next day. At this time, three systems were active and in close proximity. Lorena and a weakening Kiko started a Fujiwhara interaction. Lorena eventually became the dominate system, and absorbed the remnants of Kiko on August 29. Moving slowly out to sea, Lorena reached minimal hurricane strength on the September 1 as the convection became more concentrated. Lorena was a hurricane for less than a day. It weakened quickly to a depression on September 3. The cyclone was devoid of convection by September 7, and was thus declared a remnant low. The system never affected land.

text: In the

text: Atlantic

text: , a

text: tropical wave

text: spawned Tropical Depression Six. Twenty four hours later,

text: wind shear

text: degenerated the depression back into a wave. The wave continued westward, and in the southern

text: Caribbean Sea

text: , split in two on August 21. The southern part crossed Central America and emerged into the Pacific Ocean. Banding and convection steadily organized, and Tropical Depression Fifteen-E formed on August 27. It strengthened into Tropical Storm Lorena the next day. At this time, three systems were active and in close proximity. Lorena and a weakening Kiko started a

text: Fujiwhara interaction

text: . Lorena eventually became the dominate system, and absorbed the remnants of Kiko on August 29. Moving slowly out to sea, Lorena reached minimal hurricane strength on the September 1 as the convection became more concentrated. Lorena was a hurricane for less than a day. It weakened quickly to a depression on September 3. The cyclone was devoid of convection by September 7, and was thus declared a remnant low. The system never affected land.

text: Hurricane Howard began as a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 18. The wave moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea with little associated convection. By August 26, the wave produced disorganized convection as it moved through the western Caribbean, across Central America, and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean. Paralleling the southern coast of Mexico, the wave became increasingly organized and it was estimated that the tropical wave spawned a tropical depression around 1200 UTC on August 30 about 400 mi (645 km) south-southwest of Acapulco, Mexico. Classified as Tropical Depression Eleven-E, the system tracked west-northwestward under the steering currents of a weak mid-level ridge. In the hours after formation, the depression lacked a concentration of deep convection near the center. However, conditions favored eventual development, including warm sea surface temperatures and low amounts of wind shear.

text: Hurricane Howard began as a

text: tropical wave

text: that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 18. The wave moved across the Atlantic Ocean and

text: Caribbean Sea

text: with little associated

text: convection

text: . By August 26, the wave produced disorganized convection as it moved through the western Caribbean, across Central America, and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean. Paralleling the southern coast of Mexico, the wave became increasingly organized and it was estimated that the tropical wave spawned a

text: tropical depression

text: around 1200

text: UTC

text: on August 30 about 400 mi (645 km) south-southwest of

text: Acapulco

text: , Mexico. Classified as Tropical Depression Eleven-E, the system tracked west-northwestward under the steering currents of a weak mid-level

text: ridge

text: . In the hours after formation, the depression lacked a concentration of deep convection near the center. However, conditions favored eventual

text: development

text: , including warm

text: sea surface temperatures

text: and low amounts of

text: wind shear

text: Wind speed is affected by a number of factors and situations, operating on varying scales (from micro to macro scales). These include the pressure gradient, Rossby waves and jet streams, and local weather conditions. There are also links to be found between wind speed and wind direction, notably with the pressure gradient and terrain conditions.

text: Wind speed is affected by a number of factors and situations, operating on varying scales (from micro to macro scales). These include the pressure gradient, Rossby waves and

text: jet stream

text: s, and local weather conditions. There are also links to be found between wind speed and

text: wind direction

text: , notably with the pressure gradient and terrain conditions.

text: This type of structure can be used to create a metamaterial surface with the intended application of artificial magnetic conductors or applications for boundary conditions. Another application is as stop band device for surface wave propagation along the interface. This is because surface waves are a created as a consequence of an interface between two media having dissimilar refractive indices. Depending on the application of the system that includes the two media, there may be a need to attenuate surface waves or utilize them.

text: This type of structure can be used to create a metamaterial surface with the intended application of artificial magnetic conductors or applications for

text: boundary conditions

text: . Another application is as

text: stop band

text: device for

text: surface wave

text: propagation along the interface. This is because surface waves are a created as a consequence of an interface between two media having dissimilar

text: refractive indices

text: . Depending on the application of the system that includes the two media, there may be a need to attenuate surface waves or utilize them.

text: Most surfboards intended for larger waves are longer (to increase hull speed for paddling, wave-catching, and surfing), and as most shapers orient the rail fins toward the nose of the board, a longer board inherently results in reduced toe-in of rail fins, therefore less negative angle of attack, less oscillation, greater stability, and higher speeds. Rail fins also typically have some degree of "cant," that is, are tilted out toward the rail they are adjacent to. This is a significant additional factor in lift at various attitudes, drag, and performance, as are the variables of other foils - including flexibility, thickness, and planform.  Rail fins evolved into being and surged into popularity as riders (Simon Anderson, most famously) sought a solution to two major performance issues of a central "single" fin - both related to engagement of the foil: For one, a centrally-mounted fin is tilted up out of the water as the board is leaned over, and thus it loses more and more of its lift as the lean angle increases - if the lean angle is acute enough, the fin's tip can be the only area left in the water; the tip may then rapidly stall and, having lost its lift, become disengaged from the water, leaving the board's bottom as the only control surface still operating. Before rail fins became (extremely) popular, this tendency of "single fins" led to riders "nursing" turns - this tendency was a significant limiting factor on performance. The enhanced hold offered by rail fins during turning led to more types of maneuvers being possible. The other major issue leading to rail fins' use is the fact that a rider can use the lift near the rail to increase speed and performance on smaller waves due to the above effects and abilities of these foils.

text: Most surfboards intended for larger waves are longer (to increase hull speed for paddling, wave-catching, and surfing), and as most shapers orient the rail fins toward the nose of the board, a longer board inherently results in reduced toe-in of rail fins, therefore less negative

text: angle of attack

text: , less oscillation, greater stability, and higher speeds. Rail fins also typically have some degree of "cant," that is, are tilted out toward the rail they are adjacent to. This is a significant additional factor in lift at various attitudes, drag, and performance, as are the variables of other foils - including flexibility, thickness, and

text: planform

text: .  Rail fins evolved into being and surged into popularity as riders (

text: Simon Anderson

text: , most famously) sought a solution to two major performance issues of a central "single" fin - both related to engagement of the foil: For one, a centrally-mounted fin is tilted up out of the water as the board is leaned over, and thus it loses more and more of its lift as the lean angle increases - if the lean angle is acute enough, the fin's tip can be the only area left in the water; the tip may then rapidly

text: stall

text: and, having lost its lift, become disengaged from the water, leaving the board's bottom as the only control surface still operating. Before rail fins became (extremely) popular, this tendency of "single fins" led to riders "nursing" turns - this tendency was a significant limiting factor on performance. The enhanced hold offered by rail fins during turning led to more types of maneuvers being possible. The other major issue leading to rail fins' use is the fact that a rider can use the lift near the rail to increase speed and performance on smaller waves due to the above effects and abilities of these foils.

text: Ride the Winds, Break the Waves (Chinese: 乘风破浪) is a 2017 Chinese drama film directed by Han Han and starring Deng Chao, Eddie Peng, Zhao Liying and Dong Zijian.

text: Ride the Winds, Break the Waves (

text: Chinese

text: : 乘风破浪) is a 2017 Chinese

text: drama film

text: directed by

text: Han Han

text: and starring

text: Deng Chao

text: Eddie Peng

text: Zhao Liying

text: and Dong Zijian.

text: where the atomic scattering factor in a partial wave expansion with partial wave phase-shifts δ is given by

text: Ombak Tujuh (meaning "Seven Waves") is a "big-wave" spot. It is more closely related to Western Australia's Margaret River than other machine-like Indonesian waves. It's left-hand reef with a feathering, shifting, barreling take-off and a long reeling wall. It's considered to be the best wave along the Ujung Genteng peninsula, primarily because it's a wave magnet. Local geography cycles predominant winds around to blow offshore, too. But the wave's raw exposure to several swell directions makes for shifty conditions. Bigger boards are recommended just to ease yourself into these things. One of the most difficult aspects of the wave is reaching it, either by boat or by a long and winding road.

text: Ombak Tujuh (meaning "Seven Waves") is a "big-wave" spot. It is more closely related to

text: Western Australia

text: 's

text: Margaret River

text: than other machine-like Indonesian waves. It's left-hand

text: reef

text: with a feathering, shifting, barreling take-off and a long reeling wall. It's considered to be the best wave along the Ujung Genteng

text: peninsula

text: , primarily because it's a wave magnet. Local geography cycles predominant winds around to blow offshore, too. But the wave's raw exposure to several swell directions makes for shifty conditions. Bigger boards are recommended just to ease yourself into these things. One of the most difficult aspects of the wave is reaching it, either by boat or by a long and winding road.

text: Last in the series of break, the Peak is found. It is located right at the base of the cave, making this the entry and exit point of Uluwatu. The Peak operates well at every tide stage. Coming in best at high tide this wave makes for many hallow barreling waves. Unlike high tide, low tide at the Peak is known for closing out. The peak has a reef break. Winds from the southeast make the most ideal waves. It is key to have a board the size of 6’8-7’4 while surfing this wave.

text: Bombie is the first of the five breaks in the Uluwatu series, located on the outer reef. Well known for breaking boards and snapping leashes, Bombie is an extremely powerful wave. On bigger swell days the wave can reach up to 20 feet. With fairly consistent surf year round, the best time is from May to October. This is the dry season with southeast winds. The typical surf arises from groundswells, coming in with a southwest swell direction. Bombie has a left breaking reef.

text: Bombie is the first of the five breaks in the Uluwatu series, located on the outer

text: reef

text: . Well known for breaking boards and snapping leashes, Bombie is an extremely powerful wave. On bigger swell days the wave can reach up to 20 feet. With fairly consistent surf year round, the best time is from May to October. This is the

text: dry season

text: with southeast winds. The typical surf arises from groundswells, coming in with a southwest swell direction. Bombie has a left breaking reef.

text: Three different types of wind waves develop over time:

text: The atmosphere and ocean are continuously stratified: potential density generally increases steadily downward. Internal waves in a continuously stratified medium may propagate vertically as well as horizontally. The dispersion relation for such waves is curious: For a freely-propagating internal wave packet, the direction of propagation of energy (group velocity) is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave crests and troughs (phase velocity). An internal wave may also become confined to a finite region of altitude or depth, as a result of varying stratification or wind. Here, the wave is said to be ducted or trapped, and a vertically standing wave may form, where the vertical component of group velocity approaches zero. A ducted internal wave mode may propagate horizontally, with parallel group and phase velocity vectors, analogous to propagation within a waveguide.

text: The atmosphere and ocean are continuously stratified:

text: potential density

text: generally increases steadily downward. Internal waves in a continuously stratified medium may propagate vertically as well as horizontally. The

text: dispersion relation

text: for such waves is curious: For a freely-propagating internal wave

text: packet

text: , the direction of propagation of energy (

text: group velocity

text: ) is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave crests and troughs (

text: phase velocity

text: ). An internal wave may also become confined to a finite region of

text: altitude

text: or depth, as a result of varying stratification or

text: wind

text: . Here, the wave is said to be ducted or trapped, and a vertically

text: standing wave

text: may form, where the vertical component of

text: group velocity

text: approaches zero. A ducted internal wave mode may

text: propagate

text: horizontally, with parallel

text: group

text: and

text: phase velocity

text: vectors

text: , analogous to

text: propagation

text: within a

text: waveguide

text: There is now general agreement that the annual component of polar motion is a forced motion excited predominantly by atmospheric dynamics. There exist two external forces to excite polar motion: atmospheric winds, and pressure loading. The main component is pressure forcing, which is a standing wave of the form:

text: The cold wave that merged with Hurricane Sandy at the end of October, 2012 brought strong winds and high waves across the Great Lakes. Lake Michigan recorded wave heights of 20 to 22 feet and wind gusts of 60 to 70 mph. The southern end of Lake Michigan experienced a lake level rise of 15 inches as the winds pushed water down the lake.  Lake Huron experienced 23-foot waves and a wind gust of 74 mph was recorded at Fort Gratiot at the southern end of the lake. Most freighters stayed in harbor instead of trying to run through the storm.

text: The cold wave that merged with

text: Hurricane Sandy

text: at the end of October, 2012 brought strong winds and high waves across the Great Lakes. Lake Michigan recorded wave heights of 20 to 22 feet and wind gusts of 60 to 70 mph. The southern end of Lake Michigan experienced a lake level rise of 15 inches as the winds pushed water down the lake.  Lake Huron experienced 23-foot waves and a wind gust of 74 mph was recorded at Fort Gratiot at the southern end of the lake. Most freighters stayed in harbor instead of trying to run through the storm.

text: Hawaiians would carefully select one of three types of trees. The trees included the koa (Acacia koa), ulu (Artocarpus altilis), and wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis) trees. Once selected, the surfer would dig the tree out and place fish in the hole as an offering to the gods. Selected craftsmen of the community were then hired to shape, stain, and prepare the board for the surfer. There were three primary shapes: the olo, kikoo, and the alaia. The olo is thick in the middle and gradually gets thinner towards the edges. The kikoo ranges in length from  and requires great skill to maneuver. The alaia board is around  long and requires great skill to ride and master. Aside from the preparatory stages prior to entering the water, the most skilled surfers were and pastors,[please clarify] including chiefs and warriors that surfed amongst the best waves on the island. These upper class Hawaiians gained respect through their enduring ability to master the waves and this art the Hawaiians referred to as surfing.Some ancient sites still popular today include Kahaluu Bay and Holualoa Bay.

text: Hawaiians would carefully select one of three types of trees. The trees included the koa (

text: Acacia koa

text: ), ulu (

text: Artocarpus altilis

text: ), and

text: wiliwili

text: (Erythrina sandwicensis) trees. Once selected, the surfer would dig the tree out and place fish in the hole as an offering to the gods. Selected craftsmen of the community were then hired to shape, stain, and prepare the board for the surfer. There were three primary shapes: the olo, kikoo, and the

text: alaia

text: . The olo is thick in the middle and gradually gets thinner towards the edges. The kikoo ranges in length from  and requires great skill to maneuver. The alaia board is around  long and requires great skill to ride and master. Aside from the preparatory stages prior to entering the water, the most skilled surfers were and pastors,[please clarify] including chiefs and warriors that surfed amongst the best waves on the island. These upper class Hawaiians gained respect through their enduring ability to master the waves and this art the Hawaiians referred to as surfing.Some ancient sites still popular today include

text: Kahaluu Bay

text: and

text: Holualoa Bay

text: Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum (NGVD 29 or NAVD 88). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement due to tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal bench mark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level (MSL) at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.

text: Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a

text: geodetic

text: vertical datum (

text: NGVD 29

text: or

text: NAVD 88

text: ). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement due to tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal bench mark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to

text: mean sea level (MSL)

text: at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.

text: The Bolivar Peninsula was just to the right of landfall, placing it on the strong side of the hurricane. H Wind reconstructions (Powell et al., 1998) show winds blowing strongly from offshore-to-onshore for most of the storm, which acted to increase both surge and waves. Surge is extremely important for the particular case of the Bolivar Peninsula, as it allowed large waves to penetrate inland into areas they could not otherwise have reached. Shoreline erosion was around 75 m, which undermined the piled foundations of oceanfront buildings. Most other houses in this area were reduced to either piles or slabs by large waves riding on surge, with only a very few remaining more or less intact. Peak coastal surges reached . Water depths of at least  covered all of the Bolivar Peninsula, with most areas covered by at least  of water (not including wave action). Much of the southern part of Chambers County was also inundated by at least  of water. According to post-storm analyses by both the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Hurricane Research Division and Applied Research Associates (ARA), a research and engineering company, the best estimates of 3-second peak wind gusts along the eastern portion of the peninsula were between 110 mph and 115 mph. Research observations also suggest most of eastern and southeastern Texas was subjected to tropical storm and hurricane-force winds for ten hours, and possibly longer.

text: The Bolivar Peninsula was just to the right of landfall, placing it on the strong side of the hurricane. H Wind reconstructions (Powell et al., 1998) show winds blowing strongly from offshore-to-onshore for most of the

text: storm

text: , which acted to increase both

text: surge

text: and

text: wave

text: s. Surge is extremely important for the particular case of the Bolivar Peninsula, as it allowed large waves to penetrate inland into areas they could not otherwise have reached. Shoreline erosion was around 75 m, which undermined the piled foundations of oceanfront buildings. Most other houses in this area were reduced to either piles or slabs by large waves riding on surge, with only a very few remaining more or less intact. Peak coastal surges reached . Water depths of at least  covered all of the Bolivar Peninsula, with most areas covered by at least  of water (not including wave action). Much of the southern part of Chambers County was also inundated by at least  of water. According to post-storm analyses by both the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Hurricane Research Division and Applied Research Associates (ARA), a research and engineering company, the best estimates of 3-second peak wind gusts along the eastern portion of the peninsula were between 110 mph and 115 mph. Research observations also suggest most of eastern and southeastern Texas was subjected to tropical storm and hurricane-force winds for ten hours, and possibly longer.

text: When the rail line to Point Richmond was complete, Ocean Wave began service as a ferry.  The first trip occurred on July 6, 1900, when Ocean Wave departed from the Ferry Building in San Francisco, and reached Point Richmond 40 minutes later, where passengers and baggage were transferred to an eastbound Santa Fe train, which would be the first ever to reachnChicago over an entirely Santa Fe-owned right of way.  In charge of Ocean Wave on this trip were Capt. John Lauritzen as master and Chief Engineer Ed Mahoney.

text: When the rail line to Point Richmond was complete, Ocean Wave began service as a ferry.  The first trip occurred on July 6, 1900, when Ocean Wave departed from the

text: Ferry Building

text: in San Francisco, and reached Point Richmond 40 minutes later, where passengers and baggage were transferred to an eastbound Santa Fe train, which would be the first ever to reachn

text: Chicago

text: over an entirely Santa Fe-owned right of way.  In charge of Ocean Wave on this trip were Capt. John Lauritzen as master and Chief Engineer Ed Mahoney.

text: On the offshore Guanaja island, waters rose about  during the storm. The combination of storm surge and high winds severely damaged offshore islands. High waves eroded northern coastlines and damaged lagoons. Most of the Bay Islands had damage to their water facilities. Two days of winds exceeding  destroyed nearly all of the plants and trees on Guanaja, uprooting or knocking down almost the entire mangrove forest. Most mangrove trees were an average of  in height before they fell. Those remaining standing were damaged internally and unable to regrow. All trees lost their leaves on the island, and 70% of conifer trees were knocked down. Montane trees likewise experienced severe damage, although they made a recovery within a year. However, no mangrove trees had regrown there by three years after the storm struck, indicating the level of destruction. Tree damage also occurred on nearby Roatán island, although to a much lesser degree, and occurring on the eastern end. Winds there were generally less than 185 km/h (115 mph), and the tree damage was more random.

text: On the offshore Guanaja island, waters rose about  during the storm. The combination of

text: storm surge

text: and high winds severely damaged offshore islands. High waves eroded northern coastlines and damaged lagoons. Most of the

text: Bay Islands

text: had damage to their water facilities. Two days of winds exceeding  destroyed nearly all of the plants and trees on Guanaja, uprooting or knocking down almost the entire

text: mangrove

text: forest. Most mangrove trees were an average of  in height before they fell. Those remaining standing were damaged internally and unable to regrow. All trees lost their leaves on the island, and 70% of

text: conifer

text: trees were knocked down.

text: Montane trees

text: likewise experienced severe damage, although they made a recovery within a year. However, no mangrove trees had regrown there by three years after the storm struck, indicating the level of destruction. Tree damage also occurred on nearby

text: Roatán

text: island, although to a much lesser degree, and occurring on the eastern end. Winds there were generally less than 185 km/h (115 mph), and the tree damage was more random.

text: On August 19, 2014, a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa. The system traversed the Atlantic over the next week with no signs of development. Convection finally increased once the wave entered the Caribbean Sea on August 27; however, it was not until August 30 when interaction with a Kelvin wave spurred organization. An area of low pressure consolidated within the system as it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula on August 31. Formation of a banding feature along the southeastern portion of the circulation on September 1 marked the system's transition into a tropical depression by 18:00 UTC while over the Bay of Campeche. Although situated over warm waters of , strong wind shear created an unfavorable environment and hindered intensification. During this formative stage, the depression tracked northward as its center relocated before turning to the northwest and later west. It was uncertain if a closed circulation truly existed due to conflicting data and the depression could have remained a trough until the afternoon of September 2.

text: On August 19, 2014, a

text: tropical wave

text: emerged off the west coast of Africa. The system traversed the Atlantic over the next week with no signs of

text: development

text: Convection

text: finally increased once the wave entered the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: on August 27; however, it was not until August 30 when interaction with a

text: Kelvin wave

text: spurred organization. An

text: area of low pressure

text: consolidated within the system as it crossed the

text: Yucatán Peninsula

text: on August 31. Formation of a

text: banding feature

text: along the southeastern portion of the circulation on September 1 marked the system's transition into a tropical depression by 18:00

text: UTC

text: while over the

text: Bay of Campeche

text: . Although situated over warm waters of , strong

text: wind shear

text: created an unfavorable environment and hindered intensification. During this formative stage, the depression tracked northward as its center relocated before turning to the northwest and later west. It was uncertain if a closed circulation truly existed due to conflicting data and the depression could have remained a

text: trough

text: until the afternoon of September 2.

text: In physics, a wave packet (or wave train) is a short "burst" or "envelope" of localized wave action that travels as a unit.  A wave packet can be analyzed into, or can be synthesized from, an infinite set of component sinusoidal waves of different wavenumbers, with phases and amplitudes such that they interfere constructively only over a small region of space, and destructively elsewhere. Each component wave function, and hence the wave packet, are solutions of a wave equation. Depending on the wave equation, the wave packet's profile may remain constant (no dispersion, see figure) or it may change (dispersion) while propagating.

text: In physics, a wave packet (or wave train) is a short "burst" or "

text: envelope

text: " of localized wave action that travels as a unit.  A wave packet can be analyzed into, or can be synthesized from, an infinite set of component

text: sinusoidal wave

text: s of different

text: wavenumber

text: s, with phases and amplitudes such that they interfere constructively only over a small region of space, and destructively elsewhere. Each component

text: wave function

text: , and hence the wave packet, are solutions of a

text: wave equation

text: . Depending on the wave equation, the wave packet's profile may remain constant (no

text: dispersion

text: , see figure) or it may change (dispersion) while propagating.

text: The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm's center.

text: The two main

text: meteorological

text: factors contributing to a storm surge are a long

text: fetch

text: of winds spiraling inward toward the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm's center.

text: Second-wave development strategies have their roots in the increase of worldwide competition, the descent of American manufacturing, and the critical evaluations of first-wave techniques of the late 1960s. These critiques labeled first-wave development as a zero-sum game between elites that instead of creating jobs merely transferred opportunities from one area to another at the benefit of "land-based" elites. The first use of second-wave strategies was in the late 1960s and early 70s. In second-wave economic development, practitioners began to use strategies to retain and expand existing firms. They also included a focus on small business development through entrepreneurial tools like loans and enterprise zones.

text: Second-wave development strategies have their roots in the increase of worldwide competition, the descent of American manufacturing, and the critical evaluations of first-wave techniques of the late 1960s. These critiques labeled first-wave development as a

text: zero-sum

text: game between elites that instead of creating jobs merely transferred opportunities from one area to another at the benefit of "land-based" elites. The first use of second-wave strategies was in the late 1960s and early 70s. In second-wave economic development, practitioners began to use strategies to retain and expand existing firms. They also included a focus on small business development through entrepreneurial tools like loans and enterprise zones.

text: There are a few other, smaller waves further down and within the bay, which include "Chickens," "20/20," "Tiger Tracks" and a few unnamed others. These waves generally only work on larger swells, but are surprisingly good alternatives when the main point is big. All of these waves can barrel in the right conditions, which generally require higher tides. There are also some right hand waves on the other side of the peninsula at G-Land, but they are fickle, requiring large swells, and no wind or off-season winds.

text: On 24 November 1824 strong winds and a storm surge caused waves to breach Chesil Beach, and many of the buildings in the village were destroyed. Seventy-three years later an old man of the village described the events he had witnessed on that day as a boy:

text: Hurricane Emily originated from an African tropical wave that passed through the Cape Verde Islands on August 17, 1993. The wave traversed the tropical Atlantic and developed a closed cyclonic circulation five days later about  east-northeast of Puerto Rico, when the National Hurricane Center (NHC) classified it as a tropical depression. Moving northwestward, the depression remained poorly organized for several days, with an ill-defined circulation center and sporadic thunderstorms, in part due to unfavorable wind shear from an upper-level low to its north. On August 25, the depression became nearly stationary in response to weakening steering currents. As the upper environment turned less hostile to development, a reconnaissance aircraft found unusually high sustained winds—an indication that the cyclone had quickly strengthened into a strong tropical storm. The NHC named the storm Emily and upgraded it to a hurricane the following day, based on reports of 75 mph (120 km/h) winds from a second reconnaissance mission.

text: Hurricane Emily originated from an African

text: tropical wave

text: that passed through the

text: Cape Verde Islands

text: on August 17, 1993. The wave traversed the

text: tropical Atlantic

text: and

text: developed

text: a closed cyclonic circulation five days later about  east-northeast of

text: Puerto Rico

text: , when the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) classified it as a

text: tropical depression

text: . Moving northwestward, the depression remained poorly organized for several days, with an ill-defined circulation center and sporadic thunderstorms, in part due to unfavorable

text: wind shear

text: from an

text: upper-level low

text: to its north. On August 25, the depression became nearly stationary in response to weakening

text: steering currents

text: . As the upper environment turned less hostile to development, a

text: reconnaissance aircraft

text: found unusually high

text: sustained winds

text: —an indication that the cyclone had quickly strengthened into a strong

text: tropical storm

text: . The NHC named the storm Emily and upgraded it to a hurricane the following day, based on reports of 75 mph (120 km/h) winds from a second reconnaissance mission.

text: The eye of the storm passed near Key West about midday on September 24. Upon making landfall, Hurricane Georges brought a storm surge of up to 12 feet (3.6 m) in Tavernier, Florida, with similar but lesser amounts along the Florida Keys. Wind gusts near the center of the storm reached 125 mph (205 km/h). The islands, some only 7 feet (2 m) high and 300 yards (275 m) wide, are easily flooded, and with up to 10 foot (3 m) waves many parts of the Overseas Highway were under water. Strong winds downed palm trees and power lines, leaving all of the Keys without power. Georges's waves overturned 2 boats in Key West, damaged 1,536 houses, and destroyed 173 homes, many of which were mobile homes. Rainfall amounts amounted to a maximum of 8.41 inches (210 mm) in Tavernier, while other locations reported lesser amounts. Damage in the Florida Keys amounted to $200 million (1998 USD, $250 million 2009 USD). A long-tracked F0 tornado, originally forming as a waterspout, caused moderate damage from Key Biscayne to Cutler Ridge. Another F0 tornado briefly touched down near Miami, damaging cars and trees before lifting. In Charlotte County another F0 tornado tracked for , uprooting several trees along its path before dissipating. On September 25, a waterspout moved onshore near Sebastian and severely damaged a factory; the tornado was rated F1 and caused $700,000 in damages.

text: The eye of the storm passed near Key West about midday on September 24. Upon making landfall, Hurricane Georges brought a storm surge of up to 12 feet (3.6 m) in

text: Tavernier, Florida

text: , with similar but lesser amounts along the Florida Keys. Wind gusts near the center of the storm reached 125 mph (205 km/h). The islands, some only 7 feet (2 m) high and 300 yards (275 m) wide, are easily flooded, and with up to 10 foot (3 m) waves many parts of the

text: Overseas Highway

text: were under water. Strong winds downed palm trees and power lines, leaving all of the Keys without power. Georges's waves overturned 2 boats in Key West, damaged 1,536 houses, and destroyed 173 homes, many of which were mobile homes. Rainfall amounts amounted to a maximum of 8.41 inches (210 mm) in

text: Tavernier

text: , while other locations reported lesser amounts. Damage in the Florida Keys amounted to $200 million (1998 USD, $250 million 2009 USD). A long-tracked

text: tornado, originally forming as a

text: waterspout

text: , caused moderate damage from

text: Key Biscayne

text: to

text: Cutler Ridge

text: . Another F0 tornado briefly touched down near

text: Miami

text: , damaging cars and trees before lifting. In

text: Charlotte County

text: another F0 tornado tracked for , uprooting several trees along its path before dissipating. On September 25, a waterspout moved onshore near

text: Sebastian

text: and severely damaged a factory; the tornado was rated F1 and caused $700,000 in damages.

text: All of these factors work together to determine the size of wind waves:

text: In the Bahamas, Dennis produced moderate winds, rain, and storm surge on San Salvador, Crooked Island, Eleuthera, and Abaco Islands, resulting in damage to roofs and coastal properties. Dennis brought  waves to the east coast of Florida, causing minor erosion and four drowning deaths. The waves left severe erosion and coastal flooding along the Outer Banks of North Carolina. An  deep channel created along Highway 12 isolated three towns on Hatteras Island. In Carteret, Craven, and Dare counties, the storm damaged at least 2,025 homes and businesses to some degree. Heavy rainfall, peaking at  at Ocracoke, fell in eastern North Carolina. Although the precipitation was generally beneficial due to drought conditions, it also damaged crops. Two indirect deaths occurred in Richlands during a weather-related car accident. Similar inland flooding occurred in northern and eastern Virginia, with precipitation reaching  near Lawrenceville. A tornado in Hampton severely damaged five apartment complexes, three of which were condemned completely, as well an assisted living facility; about 460 people were forced to evacuate from the buildings, and as many as 800 vehicles may have been damaged. Overall damage in North Carolina and Virginia totaled about $157 million. Generally minor flooding occurred in the Mid-Atlantic and New England.

text: In the Bahamas, Dennis produced moderate winds, rain, and storm surge on

text: San Salvador

text: Crooked Island

text: Eleuthera

text: , and

text: Abaco Islands

text: , resulting in damage to roofs and coastal properties. Dennis brought  waves to the east coast of Florida, causing minor erosion and four drowning deaths. The waves left severe erosion and coastal flooding along the

text: Outer Banks

text: of North Carolina. An  deep channel created along

text: Highway 12

text: isolated three towns on

text: Hatteras Island

text: . In

text: Carteret

text: Craven

text: , and

text: Dare

text: counties, the storm damaged at least 2,025 homes and businesses to some degree. Heavy rainfall, peaking at  at

text: Ocracoke

text: , fell in eastern North Carolina. Although the precipitation was generally beneficial due to drought conditions, it also damaged crops. Two indirect deaths occurred in

text: Richlands

text: during a weather-related car accident. Similar inland flooding occurred in northern and eastern Virginia, with precipitation reaching  near

text: Lawrenceville

text: . A tornado in

text: Hampton

text: severely damaged five apartment complexes, three of which were condemned completely, as well an assisted living facility; about 460 people were forced to evacuate from the buildings, and as many as 800 vehicles may have been damaged. Overall damage in North Carolina and Virginia totaled about $157 million. Generally minor flooding occurred in the

text: Mid-Atlantic

text: and

text: New England

text: In Texas upon landfall, an  to  storm surge inundated lower Padre Island.  The force of the storm tide made 31 cuts completely through the barrier island.  Padre Island suffered significant devastation, and the island's sensitive ecosystem was altered by the storm.  The highest sustained wind was reported as , recorded in the town of South Padre Island, across the Laguna Madre from Port Isabel.  Winds as high as  were measured at the Brownsville National Weather Service office at landfall.  Since the hurricane bent the anemometer 30 degrees from the vertical, it is possible the winds at Brownsville were underestimated.  Gusts of over  were recorded as far inland as the towns of McAllen, Edinburg, Mission, and Pharr, some  from the gulf coast.  Beulah spawned a record 115 tornadoes which destroyed homes, commercial property, and inflicted serious damage on the region's agricultural industry.  The tornado record from Beulah would survive until Hurricane Ivan set a new record in 2004.  The Rio Grande Valley's citrus industry, based on cultivation of the famous "Ruby Red" grapefruit, was particularly hard hit.

text: In Texas upon landfall, an  to  storm surge inundated lower Padre Island.  The force of the storm tide made 31 cuts completely through the barrier island.

text: Padre Island

text: suffered significant devastation, and the island's sensitive ecosystem was altered by the storm.  The highest sustained wind was reported as , recorded in the town of

text: South Padre Island

text: , across the Laguna Madre from

text: Port Isabel

text: .  Winds as high as  were measured at the Brownsville National Weather Service office at landfall.  Since the hurricane bent the

text: anemometer

text: 30 degrees from the vertical, it is possible the winds at Brownsville were underestimated.  Gusts of over  were recorded as far inland as the towns of

text: McAllen

text: Edinburg

text: Mission

text: , and

text: Pharr

text: , some  from the gulf coast.  Beulah spawned a record 115

text: tornado

text: es which destroyed homes, commercial property, and inflicted serious damage on the region's agricultural industry.  The tornado record from Beulah would survive until

text: Hurricane Ivan

text: set a new record in 2004.  The

text: Rio Grande Valley

text: 's citrus industry, based on cultivation of the famous "Ruby Red"

text: grapefruit

text: , was particularly hard hit.

text: While internal waves of higher magnitudes will often break after crossing over the shelf break, smaller trains will proceed across the shelf unbroken. At low wind speeds these internal waves are evidenced by the formation of wide surface slicks, oriented parallel to the bottom topography, which progress shoreward with the internal waves. Waters above an internal wave converge and sink in its trough and upwell and diverge over its crest. The convergence zones associated with internal wave troughs often accumulate oils and flotsam that occasionally progress shoreward with the slicks. These rafts of flotsam can also harbor high concentrations of larvae of invertebrates and fish an order of magnitude higher than the surrounding waters.

text: While internal waves of higher magnitudes will often break after crossing over the shelf break, smaller trains will proceed across the shelf unbroken. At low wind speeds these internal waves are evidenced by the formation of wide surface slicks, oriented parallel to the bottom topography, which progress shoreward with the internal waves. Waters above an internal wave converge and sink in its trough and upwell and diverge over its crest. The convergence zones associated with internal wave troughs often accumulate oils and

text: flotsam

text: that occasionally progress shoreward with the slicks. These rafts of flotsam can also harbor high concentrations of larvae of

text: invertebrates

text: and fish an order of magnitude higher than the surrounding waters.

text: Another possible initiation pattern tested in rats suggested the thalamocortical (TC) loop is involved in the initiation of spike-and-wave oscillations under certain conditions. In this study, relay and reticular thalamic neurons of epileptic and non-epileptic rats were dual extracellularly recorded and juxtacellularly labeled. Medium oscillations (5–9 Hz) in both types of rats were noted to occur randomly in an unsynchronized pattern in relay and reticular neurons. However, spontaneous spike-and-wave discharges were observed in epileptic rats when the medium oscillations became synchronized, suggesting a dependence of the two. However, since medium ranged oscillations only developed into spike-and-wave discharges spontaneously, genetic factors also seem to contribute to the initiation of synchronized oscillations. These genetic factors may contribute to spike-and-wave oscillations by decreasing the action potential threshold in reticular cells, making them more excitable and potentially easier to initiate synchronized firing. Another study has shown that these medium oscillations have led to spike-and-wave discharges.  The activity of the primary and secondary cortical regions, as well as the adjacent insular cortex were recorded using an EEG and where applied with electrical stimulation. The findings here showed that the onset of spike-and-wave discharged were followed by 5–9 Hz oscillations in these cortical regions as well.

text: Another possible initiation pattern tested in rats suggested the thalamocortical (TC) loop is involved in the initiation of spike-and-wave oscillations under certain conditions. In this study, relay and reticular thalamic neurons of epileptic and non-epileptic rats were dual extracellularly recorded and juxtacellularly labeled. Medium oscillations (5–9 Hz) in both types of rats were noted to occur randomly in an unsynchronized pattern in relay and reticular neurons. However, spontaneous spike-and-wave discharges were observed in epileptic rats when the medium oscillations became synchronized, suggesting a dependence of the two. However, since medium ranged oscillations only developed into spike-and-wave discharges spontaneously, genetic factors also seem to contribute to the initiation of synchronized oscillations. These genetic factors may contribute to spike-and-wave oscillations by decreasing the action potential threshold in reticular cells, making them more excitable and potentially easier to initiate synchronized firing. Another study has shown that these medium oscillations have led to spike-and-wave discharges.  The activity of the primary and secondary cortical regions, as well as the adjacent

text: insular cortex

text: were recorded using an EEG and where applied with electrical stimulation. The findings here showed that the onset of spike-and-wave discharged were followed by 5–9 Hz oscillations in these cortical regions as well.

text: On July 27, the precursor to Ernesto moved off the west coast of Africa as a tropical wave. At the time, the wave was associated with a disorganized area of convection. On July 29, a broad low pressure area developed in association with the tropical wave. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) first monitored the tropical wave in its tropical weather outlook on July 30, noting that the system had an accompanying low pressure area and was showing signs of development. The convection slowly organized due to generally favorable environmental conditions. After the circulation became better defined, the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Five at 2100 UTC on August 1. At the time, the depression was located about 810 mi (1305 km) east of the Lesser Antilles, moving west-northwestward due to an anticyclone to its north. In the 12 hours after its formation, the system's convection became disorganized due to westerly wind shear and dry air, and the NHC remarked the potential for degeneration into a tropical wave. However, the depression's rainbands began to strengthen and become more organized. A Hurricane Hunters flight on August 2 observed tropical storm force winds, and accordingly the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Ernesto at 2100 UTC.

text: On July 27, the precursor to Ernesto moved off the west coast of Africa as a

text: tropical wave

text: . At the time, the wave was associated with a disorganized area of

text: convection

text: . On July 29, a broad

text: low pressure area

text: developed in association with the tropical wave. The

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) first monitored the tropical wave in its tropical weather outlook on July 30, noting that the system had an accompanying low pressure area and was showing signs of

text: development

text: . The convection slowly organized due to generally favorable environmental conditions. After the circulation became better defined, the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Five at 2100 UTC on August 1. At the time, the depression was located about 810 mi (1305 km) east of the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: , moving west-northwestward due to an

text: anticyclone

text: to its north. In the 12 hours after its formation, the system's convection became disorganized due to westerly

text: wind shear

text: and dry air, and the NHC remarked the potential for degeneration into a tropical wave. However, the depression's

text: rainband

text: s began to strengthen and become more organized. A

text: Hurricane Hunter

text: s flight on August 2 observed tropical storm force winds, and accordingly the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Ernesto at 2100 UTC.

text: In late September, a large area of disturbed weather associated with two tropical waves formed just east of the Lesser Antilles. The disturbance drifted very slowly west-northwestward, inhibited by strong wind shear that eventually caused the westernmost wave to dissipate. Albeit weak, an elongated remnant trough, or area of low pressure, persisted for several days, stalling over the extreme eastern Caribbean Sea as a nearby upper-level cyclonic vortex retrograded to its north. By October 5, the trough had drifted northward into a more favorable atmospheric environment over the Virgin Islands, which allowed the lowest pressures to extend to the surface. The low became well defined, interacting with the adjacent upper vortex to produce a wide convective band—a concentrated region in which strong showers and thunderstorms can form—over the northeastern Caribbean. Over the next day, the system continued to acquire a prominent subtropical structure: it developed a markedly larger wind radius than typically seen in pure tropical cyclones. Satellite observations also revealed that although the lower wind circulation was distinct, it had become intertwined with the cyclonic vortex aloft to its southwest, confirming the hybrid nature of the system. The National Hurricane Center (NHC) thus classified the system as a subtropical depression at 06:00 UTC on October 6, when it was 265 mi (425 km) north-northwest of San Juan, Puerto Rico.

text: In late September, a large area of disturbed weather associated with two

text: tropical waves

text: formed just east of the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: . The disturbance drifted very slowly west-northwestward, inhibited by strong

text: wind shear

text: that eventually caused the westernmost wave to dissipate. Albeit weak, an elongated remnant

text: trough

text: , or

text: area of low pressure

text: , persisted for several days, stalling over the extreme eastern

text: Caribbean Sea

text: as a nearby

text: upper-level cyclonic vortex

text: retrograded to its north. By October 5, the trough had drifted northward into a more favorable atmospheric environment over the

text: Virgin Islands

text: , which allowed the lowest pressures to extend to the surface. The low became well defined, interacting with the adjacent upper vortex to produce a wide

text: convective

text: band

text: —a concentrated region in which strong showers and thunderstorms can form—over the northeastern Caribbean. Over the next day, the system continued to acquire a prominent

text: subtropical structure

text: : it developed a markedly larger

text: wind radius

text: than typically seen in pure tropical cyclones. Satellite observations also revealed that although the lower wind circulation was distinct, it had become intertwined with the cyclonic vortex aloft to its southwest, confirming the hybrid nature of the system. The

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) thus classified the system as a

text: subtropical depression

text: at 06:00 UTC on October 6, when it was 265 mi (425 km) north-northwest of

text: San Juan, Puerto Rico

text: Though the eye is by far the calmest part of the storm, with no wind at the center and typically clear skies, over the ocean it is possibly the most hazardous area. In the eyewall, wind-driven waves all travel in the same direction. In the center of the eye, however, the waves converge from all directions, creating erratic crests that can build on each other to become rogue waves. The maximum height of hurricane waves is unknown, but measurements during Hurricane Ivan when it was a Category 4 hurricane estimated that waves near the eyewall exceeded 40 m (130 ft) from peak to trough.

text: Though the eye is by far the calmest part of the storm, with no wind at the center and typically clear skies, over the ocean it is possibly the most hazardous area. In the eyewall, wind-driven waves all travel in the same direction. In the center of the eye, however, the waves converge from all directions, creating erratic crests that can build on each other to become

text: rogue wave

text: s. The maximum height of hurricane waves is unknown, but measurements during

text: Hurricane Ivan

text: when it was a Category 4 hurricane estimated that waves near the eyewall exceeded 40 m (130 ft) from peak to trough.

text: In fluid dynamics, a breaking wave is a wave whose amplitude reaches a critical level at which some process can suddenly start to occur that causes large amounts of wave energy to be transformed into turbulent kinetic energy.  At this point, simple physical models that describe wave dynamics often become invalid, particularly those that assume linear behaviour.

text: In

text: fluid dynamics

text: , a breaking wave is a

text: wave

text: whose

text: amplitude

text: reaches a critical level at which some process can suddenly start to occur that causes large amounts of wave energy to be transformed into

text: turbulent

text: kinetic energy

text: .  At this point, simple physical models that describe wave dynamics often become invalid, particularly those that assume

text: linear

text: behaviour.

text: Crystal Beach, a populous community located roughly at the midpoint of the peninsula, was submerged and destroyed; waves and wind pounded houses, and even some houses elevated on 14-ft (4.3–m) stilts rolled into the waters. The tiny beachfront community of Gilchrist, which sat astride the north-facing Rollover Bay on Bolivar, was completely swept away, save for only a few homes. One of these homes, the only one in its neighborhood to remain intact (although it was rendered uninhabitable), attracted widespread media interest after images of it began to appear in newspapers and on television. At least six bodies were found in an extensive search.	Two flood water sensors in Chambers County, Texas survived Ike's storm surge, while those on eastern Bolivar Peninsula were left inoperable during the hurricane. Along the Eastern shores of Galveston Bay surge heights were measured at 16.9 feet (5.15 m) and a measurement along SH126 measured 17.0 feet (5.18 m). Massive amounts of surge carried debris, largely from Bolivar Peninsula and southern Chambers County were left along the northern coast of Rollover bay Chambers county.

text: Crystal Beach

text: , a populous community located roughly at the midpoint of the peninsula, was submerged and destroyed; waves and wind pounded houses, and even some houses elevated on 14-ft (4.3–m) stilts rolled into the waters. The tiny beachfront community of

text: Gilchrist

text: , which sat astride the north-facing Rollover Bay on Bolivar, was completely swept away, save for only a few homes. One of these homes, the only one in its neighborhood to remain intact (although it was rendered uninhabitable), attracted widespread media interest after images of it began to appear in newspapers and on television. At least six bodies were found in an extensive search.	Two flood water sensors in

text: Chambers County, Texas

text: survived Ike's storm surge, while those on eastern Bolivar Peninsula were left inoperable during the hurricane. Along the Eastern shores of Galveston Bay surge heights were measured at 16.9 feet (5.15 m) and a measurement along SH126 measured 17.0 feet (5.18 m). Massive amounts of surge carried debris, largely from Bolivar Peninsula and southern Chambers County were left along the northern coast of Rollover bay Chambers county.

text: Hurricane Juan's maximum sustained wind speed at landfall in Nova Scotia was measured at 100 mph (160 km/h). The urban concentration surrounding Halifax Harbour bore the brunt of the highest sustained winds and strongest wind gusts during the storm; some unofficial estimates have placed gusts as high as 145 mph (230 km/h). Wave-rider weather buoys off the entrance of Halifax Harbour snapped their moorings after reportedly recording waves in excess of 65 ft (20 m). Significant erosion occurred on the populated shores of the harbour, particularly in the Bedford Basin where residential properties and railway tracks received most of the wave action. Storm surges of 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2 m) were reported in the harbour; it was the highest surge ever recorded in Halifax Harbour. Rainfall was fairly light due to the fast movement and dry air on the southern side of the storm. There were no rainfall reports greater than 2 inches (52 mm).

text: Hurricane Juan's maximum sustained wind speed at landfall in Nova Scotia was measured at 100 mph (160 km/h). The urban concentration surrounding

text: Halifax Harbour

text: bore the brunt of the highest sustained winds and strongest wind gusts during the storm; some unofficial estimates have placed gusts as high as 145 mph (230 km/h). Wave-rider

text: weather buoy

text: s off the entrance of Halifax Harbour snapped their moorings after reportedly recording waves in excess of 65 ft (20 m). Significant erosion occurred on the populated shores of the harbour, particularly in the

text: Bedford Basin

text: where residential properties and railway tracks received most of the wave action. Storm surges of 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2 m) were reported in the harbour; it was the highest surge ever recorded in Halifax Harbour. Rainfall was fairly light due to the fast movement and dry air on the southern side of the storm. There were no rainfall reports greater than 2 inches (52 mm).

text: In July 1895 the board of directors of the Ilwaco Railway and Navigation Company, known as the IR&N, voted to lease Ocean Wave to the Columbia River and Puget Sound Transportation Company, also known as the CR & PSN and commonly referred to as the White Collar Line. At that time the CR & PSN had on the Columbia River two fast and well-known sternwheelers Telephone and the Bailey Gatzert.  One of the IR&N company directors, Jacob Kamm, did not agree with this decision, and he placed a maritime lien (called a “libel”) on Ocean Wave for $17,851 for services provided by Kamm’s firm, the Vancouver Transportation Company.  While Kamm and Loomis were both on the board of directors of the IR&N, a disagreement between them had arisen, reportedly because Ocean Wave, designed by Kamm, had proven to be a slower boat than Loomis had wanted.

text: In July 1895 the board of directors of the

text: Ilwaco Railway and Navigation Company

text: , known as the IR&N, voted to lease Ocean Wave to the Columbia River and Puget Sound Transportation Company, also known as the CR & PSN and commonly referred to as the White Collar Line. At that time the CR & PSN had on the Columbia River two fast and well-known sternwheelers

text: Telephone

text: and the

text: Bailey Gatzert

text: .  One of the IR&N company directors,

text: Jacob Kamm

text: , did not agree with this decision, and he placed a maritime

text: lien

text: (called a “libel”) on Ocean Wave for $17,851 for services provided by Kamm’s firm, the Vancouver Transportation Company.  While Kamm and Loomis were both on the board of directors of the IR&N, a disagreement between them had arisen, reportedly because Ocean Wave, designed by Kamm, had proven to be a slower boat than Loomis had wanted.

text: Weather satellites take advantage of this instability to measure wind speeds over large bodies of water. Waves are generated by the wind, which shears the water at the interface between it and the surrounding air. The computers on board the satellites determine the roughness of the ocean by measuring the wave height. This is done by using radar, where a radio signal is transmitted to the surface and the delay from the reflected signal is recorded, known as the "time of flight". From this meteorologists are able to understand the movement of clouds and the expected air turbulence near them.

text: Weather satellites take advantage of this instability to measure wind speeds over large bodies of water. Waves are generated by the wind, which shears the water at the interface between it and the surrounding air. The computers on board the satellites determine the roughness of the ocean by measuring the wave height. This is done by using

text: radar

text: , where a radio signal is transmitted to the surface and the delay from the reflected signal is recorded, known as the "time of flight". From this meteorologists are able to understand the movement of clouds and the expected air turbulence near them.

text: A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 7. As it moved across the Atlantic Ocean, it failed to organize. On reaching the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 17, however, an area of convection developed along the wave axis. Dvorak classifications began the next day, and a broad center of circulation gradually formed. Convection was intermittent at first, though it gradually organized and persisted near the center, and on August 20, the disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Nine-E about  south of Puerto Angel, Mexico. It tracked generally west-northwestward, developing more pronounced banding features, and on August 21, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Howard. The center of Howard became embedded within the deep convection, and the storm quickly strengthened to attain hurricane status late on the 21st. An eye developed as outflow organized further, and Howard began to rapidly intensify to reach peak winds of 150 mph (240 km/h) about 600 miles (965 km) south-southeast of the southern tip of Baja California. At the time of its peak intensity, the eye was small and located within a very cold central dense overcast.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: moved off the coast of Africa on August 7. As it moved across the Atlantic Ocean, it failed to organize. On reaching the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 17, however, an area of

text: convection

text: developed along the wave axis.

text: Dvorak classifications

text: began the next day, and a broad center of circulation gradually formed. Convection was intermittent at first, though it gradually organized and persisted near the center, and on August 20, the disturbance developed into Tropical Depression Nine-E about  south of

text: Puerto Angel, Mexico

text: . It tracked generally west-northwestward, developing more pronounced

text: banding features

text: , and on August 21, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Howard. The center of Howard became embedded within the deep convection, and the storm quickly strengthened to attain hurricane status late on the 21st. An

text: eye

text: developed as

text: outflow

text: organized further, and Howard began to

text: rapidly intensify

text: to reach peak winds of 150 mph (240 km/h) about 600 miles (965 km) south-southeast of the southern tip of

text: Baja California

text: . At the time of its peak intensity, the eye was small and located within a very cold

text: central dense overcast

text: Airy wave theory is often applied in ocean engineering and coastal engineering for the modelling of random sea states – giving a description of the wave kinematics and dynamics of high-enough accuracy for many purposes. Further, several second-order nonlinear properties of surface gravity waves, and their propagation, can be estimated from its results. Airy wave theory is also a good approximation for tsunami waves in the ocean, before they steepen near the coast.

text: Airy wave theory is often applied in

text: ocean engineering

text: and

text: coastal engineering

text: for the modelling of

text: random

text: sea state

text: s – giving a description of the wave

text: kinematics

text: and

text: dynamics

text: of high-enough accuracy for many purposes. Further, several

text: second-order

text: nonlinear

text: properties of surface gravity waves, and their propagation, can be estimated from its results. Airy wave theory is also a good approximation for

text: tsunami

text: waves in the ocean, before they steepen near the coast.

text: Equatorial waves are ocean waves trapped close to the equator, meaning that they decay rapidly away from the equator, but can propagate in the longitudinal and vertical directions. Wave trapping is the result of the Earth's rotation and its spherical shape which combine to cause the magnitude of the Coriolis force to increase rapidly away from the equator. Equatorial waves are present in both the tropical atmosphere and ocean and play an important role in the evolution of many climate phenomena such as El Niño. Many physical processes may excite equatorial waves including, in the case of the atmosphere, diabatic heat release associated with cloud formation, and in the case of the ocean, anomalous changes in the strength or direction of the trade winds.

text: Equatorial waves are ocean waves trapped close to the

text: equator

text: , meaning that they decay rapidly away from the equator, but can propagate in the

text: longitudinal

text: and vertical directions. Wave trapping is the result of the Earth's rotation and its spherical shape which combine to cause the magnitude of the

text: Coriolis force

text: to increase rapidly away from the equator. Equatorial waves are present in both the tropical atmosphere and ocean and play an important role in the evolution of many climate phenomena such as

text: El Niño

text: . Many physical processes may excite equatorial waves including, in the case of the atmosphere,

text: diabatic

text: heat release associated with cloud formation, and in the case of the ocean, anomalous changes in the strength or direction of the trade winds.

text: Hundreds of factors are involved in the lunitidal interval, especially near shorelines. However, if you are far enough away from the coast, the dominating consideration is the speed of gravity waves, which increases with the depth of the ocean. (It is proportional to the square root of the depth, for the extremely long gravity waves that transport the water that is following the moon around the earth. The oceans are about 4 km deep and would have to be at least 22 km deep for these waves to keep up with the moon. As mentioned above, a similar time lag accompanies the solar tides, a complicating factor that varies with the phases of the moon.) By observing the age of leap tides, it becomes clear that the delay can actually exceed 24 hours in some locations.

text: Hundreds of factors are involved in the lunitidal interval, especially near shorelines. However, if you are far enough away from the coast, the dominating consideration is the speed of

text: gravity waves

text: , which increases with the depth of the ocean. (It is proportional to the square root of the depth, for the extremely long gravity waves that transport the water that is following the moon around the earth. The oceans are about 4 km deep and would have to be at least 22 km deep for these waves to keep up with the moon. As mentioned above, a similar time lag accompanies the solar tides, a complicating factor that varies with the phases of the moon.) By observing the age of leap tides, it becomes clear that the delay can actually exceed 24 hours in some locations.

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators, oscillating water columns, and overtopping devices.

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches:

text: point absorber buoy

text: s,

text: surface attenuator

text: s,

text: oscillating water column

text: s, and

text: overtopping devices

text: In North America, extra-tropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts, and north of 31°N on the Atlantic Coast. Extra-tropical storm surges may be possible for the Gulf coast mostly during the wintertime, when extra-tropical cyclones affect the coast, such as in the March 1993 Storm of the Century.

text: In North America, extra-tropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts, and north of 31°N on the Atlantic Coast. Extra-tropical storm surges may be possible for the

text: Gulf coast

text: mostly during the wintertime, when extra-tropical cyclones affect the coast, such as in the

text: March 1993 Storm of the Century

text: Similar to Alison, Bella originated on January 18 from a surge in the monsoon trough to the southwest of Sumatra. For several days, the system remained weak as it moved generally west-southwestward. On January 25, it intensified to tropical storm status, but Bella took three more days to intensify to tropical cyclone status, or with 10‑minute maximum sustained winds of 120 km/h (75 mph). The cyclone attained peak intensity on January 29, officially reaching winds of 155 km/h (100 mph). The JTWC unofficially estimated winds of 240 km/h (150 mph), the highest the agency estimated for any storm in the Southern Hemisphere in the year. Bella later turned to the southeast and weakened, passing about 50 km (30 mi) west of Rodrigues on January 31. The storm turned to the south-southwest and back to the southeast again, becoming extratropical on February 4.

text: Similar to Alison, Bella originated on January 18 from a surge in the

text: monsoon trough

text: to the southwest of

text: Sumatra

text: . For several days, the system remained weak as it moved generally west-southwestward. On January 25, it intensified to tropical storm status, but Bella took three more days to intensify to

text: tropical cyclone status

text: , or with 10‑minute maximum sustained winds of 120 km/h (75 mph). The cyclone attained peak intensity on January 29, officially reaching winds of 155 km/h (100 mph). The JTWC unofficially estimated winds of 240 km/h (150 mph), the highest the agency estimated for any storm in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: in the year. Bella later turned to the southeast and weakened, passing about 50 km (30 mi) west of

text: Rodrigues

text: on January 31. The storm turned to the south-southwest and back to the southeast again, becoming

text: extratropical

text: on February 4.

text: On September 1 a tropical wave exited the African coast, and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean. A trough of low pressure moved southeastward through the tropics, and brought the wave more towards the north. Generally favorable conditions for development allowed the wave to organize into a tropical depression on September 5, and two days later it attained tropical storm status. Cindy continued northward, and peaked at  winds on September 8 before turning to the northeast. Strong upper-level shear weakened the storm, and after two days of struggling as a tropical storm, Cindy became extratropical on September 10 to the northwest of the Azores. Cindy did not affect any landmasses.

text: On September 1 a

text: tropical wave

text: exited the African coast, and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean. A trough of low pressure moved southeastward through the tropics, and brought the wave more towards the north. Generally favorable conditions for development allowed the wave to organize into a tropical depression on September 5, and two days later it attained tropical storm status. Cindy continued northward, and peaked at  winds on September 8 before turning to the northeast. Strong upper-level shear weakened the storm, and after two days of struggling as a tropical storm, Cindy became

text: extratropical

text: on September 10 to the northwest of the

text: Azores

text: . Cindy did not affect any landmasses.

text: Prior to making landfall, Audrey severely disrupted offshore drilling operations in the Gulf of Mexico. Damages from offshore oil facilities alone was estimated at $16 million. Audrey caused much of its destruction near the border between Texas and Louisiana upon its first and only landfall. The hurricane's strong winds resulted in widespread property and infrastructural damage. Power outages also resulted from the strong winds. However, as typical with most landfalling tropical cyclones, most of the destruction at the coast was the result of the hurricane's strong storm surge, which was amplified by Audrey's rapid deepening just prior to landfall. The hurricane's storm surge was reported to have peaked as high as 12 ft (3.7 m), helping to inundate coastal areas. Damage from the surge alone extended 25 mi (40 km) inland. The rough seas killed nine people offshore after capsizing the boat they were in. Further inland in Louisiana, the storm spawned two tornadoes, causing additional damage. The hurricane also dropped heavy rainfall, peaking at 10.63 in (270 mm) near Basile, Louisiana. In Louisiana and Texas, where Audrey first impacted, damages totaled $128 million.

text: Prior to making landfall, Audrey severely disrupted

text: offshore drilling

text: operations in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . Damages from offshore oil facilities alone was estimated at $16 million. Audrey caused much of its destruction near the border between

text: Texas

text: and Louisiana upon its first and only landfall. The hurricane's strong winds resulted in widespread property and infrastructural damage.

text: Power outage

text: s also resulted from the strong winds. However, as typical with most landfalling tropical cyclones, most of the destruction at the coast was the result of the hurricane's strong

text: storm surge

text: , which was amplified by Audrey's rapid deepening just prior to landfall. The hurricane's storm surge was reported to have peaked as high as 12 ft (3.7 m), helping to inundate coastal areas. Damage from the surge alone extended 25 mi (40 km) inland. The rough seas killed nine people offshore after capsizing the boat they were in. Further inland in Louisiana, the storm spawned two

text: tornado

text: es, causing additional damage. The hurricane also dropped heavy rainfall, peaking at 10.63 in (270 mm) near

text: Basile, Louisiana

text: . In Louisiana and Texas, where Audrey first impacted, damages totaled $128 million.

text: Wave height is determined by wind speed, the duration of time the wind has been blowing, fetch (the distance over which the wind excites the waves) and by the depth and topography of the seafloor (which can focus or disperse the energy of the waves). A given wind speed has a matching practical limit over which time or distance will not produce larger waves. When this limit has been reached the sea is said to be "fully developed".

text: Wave height

text: is determined by wind speed, the duration of time the wind has been blowing, fetch (the distance over which the wind excites the waves) and by the depth and topography of the seafloor (which can focus or disperse the energy of the waves). A given wind speed has a matching practical limit over which time or distance will not produce larger waves. When this limit has been reached the sea is said to be "fully developed".

text: Wind wave forecasts are issued regionally by Environment Canada.

text: Wind wave forecasts are issued regionally by

text: Environment Canada

text: The Frisians immigrated into North Frisia from the South in two waves. During the 8th century A.D. they mostly settled on the islands Heligoland, Sylt, Föhr, Amrum and presumably also in parts of the Eiderstedt peninsula. The coastal marshlands of the mainland were settled in a second wave and after a series of storm surges the Frisians also used to settle on the higher inland geest. While the marshland and its bogs had to be drained, the higher geestland cores of the islands were in turn mostly barren and needed fertilisation before a proper agriculture could be established.

text: The

text: Frisians

text: immigrated into North Frisia from the South in two waves. During the 8th century A.D. they mostly settled on the islands

text: Heligoland

text: , Sylt,

text: Föhr

text: Amrum

text: and presumably also in parts of the

text: Eiderstedt

text: peninsula. The coastal marshlands of the mainland were settled in a second wave and after a series of storm surges the Frisians also used to settle on the higher inland

text: geest

text: . While the marshland and its bogs had to be drained, the higher geestland cores of the islands were in turn mostly barren and needed

text: fertilisation

text: before a proper agriculture could be established.

text: In physics, droplet-shaped waves are casual localized solutions of the wave equation closely related to the X-shaped waves, but, in contrast, possessing a finite support.

text: In

text: physics

text: , droplet-shaped waves are casual localized solutions of the

text: wave equation

text: closely related to the

text: X-shaped waves

text: , but, in contrast, possessing a finite

text: support

text: Foo helped elevate the popularity of the sport, with his talent, courage, and enthusiasm, and was certainly recognized as one of the greatest big-wave surfers to ever ride the waves. Mark was a favorite subject of photographers, and he had his own cable television surfing program. "If you want to ride the ultimate wave, you have to be willing to pay the ultimate price" was Foo's philosophy, which he certainly lived until the day of his final ride.

text: The Cribbar is best known for creating annual big waves, popular with experienced big wave surfers from across the world. Wave faces can be in excess of . The Zorba is a reef  further off the coast and can create even higher waves.

text: The Cribbar is best known for creating annual

text: big waves

text: , popular with experienced big wave surfers from across the world. Wave faces can be in excess of . The Zorba is a reef  further off the coast and can create even higher waves.

text: Whereas the sea state in the storm has a frequency spectrum with more or less always the same shape (i.e. a well defined peak with dominant frequencies within plus or minus 7% of the peak), the swell spectra are more and more narrow, sometimes as 2% or less, as waves disperse further and further away. The result is that wave groups (called sets by surfers) can have a large number of waves.  From about seven waves per group in the storm, this rises to 20 and more in swells from very distant storms.

text: Whereas the sea state in the storm has a

text: frequency spectrum

text: with more or less always the same shape (i.e. a well defined peak with dominant frequencies within plus or minus 7% of the peak), the swell spectra are more and more narrow, sometimes as 2% or less, as waves disperse further and further away. The result is that wave groups (called sets by surfers) can have a large number of waves.  From about seven waves per group in the storm, this rises to 20 and more in swells from very distant storms.

text: After surge from a cyclone has receded, teams of surveyors map high-water marks (HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photos and written descriptions of the marks. HWMs denote the location and elevation of flood waters from a storm event. When HWMs are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWMs on land are referenced to a vertical datum (a reference coordinate system). During evaluation, HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; only HWMs evaluated as "excellent" are used by NHC in post storm analysis of the surge.

text: After surge from a

text: cyclone

text: has receded, teams of surveyors map high-water marks (HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photos and written descriptions of the marks. HWMs denote the location and elevation of flood waters from a storm event. When HWMs are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWMs on land are referenced to a vertical datum (a reference coordinate system). During evaluation, HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; only HWMs evaluated as "excellent" are used by NHC in post storm analysis of the surge.

text: In New Brunswick, the storm complex produced high winds with gusts of up to 84 mph (135 km/h). The winds downed several trees and power lines which resulted in power outages, with Fredericton being the hardest hit. About 16,000 were without power on the day after the storm struck. The storm produced sustained winds of 76 mph (123 km/h) and gusts to 96 mph (155 km/h) at the Confederation Bridge. There, the wind gust was the highest ever recorded, resulting in the bridge being closed for five hours, the first time the bridge was closed in its history. Waves of up to 30 ft (nine m) in height with a storm surge of over 3.3 ft (one m) hit the northern coastline of Prince Edward Island. Every wharf and many coastal roads from Rustico to East Point were under water from the high waves and storm surge. The winds left much of eastern Prince Edward Island without power.

text: In

text: New Brunswick

text: , the storm complex produced high winds with gusts of up to 84 mph (135 km/h). The winds downed several trees and power lines which resulted in power outages, with

text: Fredericton

text: being the hardest hit. About 16,000 were without power on the day after the storm struck. The storm produced sustained winds of 76 mph (123 km/h) and gusts to 96 mph (155 km/h) at the

text: Confederation Bridge

text: . There, the wind gust was the highest ever recorded, resulting in the bridge being closed for five hours, the first time the bridge was closed in its history. Waves of up to 30 ft (nine m) in height with a storm surge of over 3.3 ft (one m) hit the northern coastline of

text: Prince Edward Island

text: . Every wharf and many coastal roads from

text: Rustico

text: to

text: East Point

text: were under water from the high waves and storm surge. The winds left much of eastern Prince Edward Island without power.

text: Another factor that contributed to the capsizing was the "squat effect". When a vessel is under way, the movement under it creates low pressure, which has the effect of increasing the vessel's draught. In deep water the effect is small but in shallow water it is greater, because as the water passes underneath it moves faster and causes the draught to increase. This reduced the clearance between the bow doors and water line to 1.5 metres. Although the bow doors were open and 1.5 metres above the water, it was still not enough to cause the ship to capsize, so the investigators looked at the height and volume of water produced by the bow wave. After extensive tests, the investigators found that when the ship travelled at a speed of , the wave was enough to engulf the bow doors. This caused a "step change": if the ship had been sailing at less than 18 knots and not in shallow water, people on the car deck would probably have had time to notice the bow doors were open and close them.

text: Another factor that contributed to the capsizing was the "

text: squat effect

text: ". When a vessel is under way, the movement under it creates low pressure, which has the effect of increasing the vessel's

text: draught

text: . In deep water the effect is small but in shallow water it is greater, because as the water passes underneath it moves faster and causes the draught to increase. This reduced the clearance between the bow doors and water line to 1.5 metres. Although the bow doors were open and 1.5 metres above the water, it was still not enough to cause the ship to capsize, so the investigators looked at the height and volume of water produced by the bow wave. After extensive tests, the investigators found that when the ship travelled at a speed of , the wave was enough to engulf the bow doors. This caused a "step change": if the ship had been sailing at less than 18 knots and not in shallow water, people on the car deck would probably have had time to notice the bow doors were open and close them.

text: Another surge from the easterlies, combined with the forty-fourth tropical wave of the season, began to develop off the east coast of Luzon in the Philippines on the morning of July 18. At the time, the tropical wave had winds of 15 mph (25 km/h) on its surface. The wave rapidly intensified during the morning and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center upped the system to a tropical depression the same afternoon. The next morning the system was upgraded to a tropical storm and received the name Kate. The new storm had a small, open eyewall which expanded during the day as the storm slowly intensified through and by the late morning of July 20, the storm became a typhoon with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). That morning, the eye had only a  diameter and had similar surface winds. During the afternoon, the storm made a curve to the southwest from its track and looped back northward. By the morning of July 21, the storm began a northeastern turn towards Taiwan.

text: Another surge from the easterlies, combined with the forty-fourth tropical wave of the season, began to develop off the east coast of

text: Luzon

text: in the Philippines on the morning of July 18. At the time, the tropical wave had winds of 15 mph (25 km/h) on its surface. The wave rapidly intensified during the morning and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center upped the system to a tropical depression the same afternoon. The next morning the system was upgraded to a tropical storm and received the name Kate. The new storm had a small, open eyewall which expanded during the day as the storm slowly intensified through and by the late morning of July 20, the storm became a typhoon with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). That morning, the eye had only a  diameter and had similar surface winds. During the afternoon, the storm made a curve to the southwest from its track and looped back northward. By the morning of July 21, the storm began a northeastern turn towards Taiwan.

text: The precursor to Hurricane Bud exited the West Africa coast on May 5 as a tropical wave. The wave slowly intensified as it moved towards the west as an area of thunderstorms, producing showers of the Windward Islands.  On May 12, a low pressure system formed from the tropical wave just south of eastern Panama. Under favorable conditions, it slowly began to organize while east of Tropical Storm Aletta, and after a burst in convection on May 15, the National Hurricane Center began monitoring the system. By early on May 18, the system became nearly stationary while just offshore of Mexico. After wind shear caused it to become less organized later that day, the system began showing signs of development starting on May 19. Although it was re-organizing, the system initially lacked a well-defined surface circulation. On May 20, the system started to rapidly organize while tracking slowly west-northwestward. Later that day, the National Hurricane Center noted that "conditions appear favorable for a tropical depression to form tonight or Monday." It is estimated that Tropical Depression Two-E developed at 1800 UTC on May 20, while located about  south of Acapulco, Guerrero. Although geostationary and microwave satellite imagery indicated moderate easterly wind shear, the National Hurricane Center predicted quick intensification into a hurricane.

text: The precursor to Hurricane Bud exited the

text: West Africa

text: coast on May 5 as a

text: tropical wave

text: . The wave slowly intensified as it moved towards the west as an area of

text: thunderstorm

text: s, producing showers of the

text: Windward Islands

text: .  On May 12, a

text: low pressure system

text: formed from the tropical wave just south of eastern

text: Panama

text: . Under favorable conditions, it slowly began to organize while east of Tropical Storm Aletta, and after a burst in convection on May 15, the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: began monitoring the system. By early on May 18, the system became nearly stationary while just offshore of Mexico. After wind shear caused it to become less organized later that day, the system began showing signs of development starting on May 19. Although it was re-organizing, the system initially lacked a well-defined surface circulation. On May 20, the system started to rapidly organize while tracking slowly west-northwestward. Later that day, the National Hurricane Center noted that "conditions appear favorable for a tropical depression to form tonight or Monday." It is estimated that Tropical Depression Two-E developed at 1800 UTC on May 20, while located about  south of

text: Acapulco

text: Guerrero

text: . Although geostationary and microwave satellite imagery indicated moderate easterly wind shear, the National Hurricane Center predicted quick intensification into a hurricane.

text: Reaching may, however, put the boat on a course parallel with the crests of the waves.  When the waves are steep, it may be necessary to sail closer to the wind to avoid waves directly on the beam, which create the danger of capsizing.

text: The time is announced by three strokes. While the man fights, he is accompanied by sounds of breaking waves, rumbling earth or the sound of wind, depending on the animal chosen.

text: For a given topography and bathymetry the surge height is not solely affected by peak wind speed; the size of the storm also affects the peak surge. With any storm the piled up water has an exit path to the sides and this escape mechanism is reduced in proportion to the surge force (for the same peak wind speed) as the storm covers more area.

text: An atmospheric wave is a periodic disturbance in the fields of atmospheric variables (like surface pressure or geopotential height, temperature, or wind velocity) which may either propagate (traveling wave) or not (standing wave). Atmospheric waves range in spatial and temporal scale from large-scale planetary waves (Rossby waves) to minute sound waves. Atmospheric waves with periods which are harmonics of 1 solar day (e.g. 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours... etc.) are known as atmospheric tides.

text: An atmospheric wave is a periodic disturbance in the fields of

text: atmospheric

text: variables (like

text: surface pressure

text: or

text: geopotential height

text: temperature

text: , or

text: wind velocity

text: ) which may either propagate (

text: traveling wave

text: ) or not (

text: standing wave

text: ). Atmospheric waves range in

text: spatial

text: and

text: temporal

text: scale from large-scale planetary waves (

text: Rossby wave

text: s) to minute

text: sound wave

text: s. Atmospheric waves with periods which are

text: harmonics

text: of 1

text: solar day

text: (e.g. 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours... etc.) are known as

text: atmospheric tide

text: s.

text: As far as seismic and acoustic waves are concerned, the motion of ocean waves in deep water is, to the leading order, equivalent to a pressure applied at the sea surface. This pressure is nearly equal to the water density times the wave orbital velocity squared. Because of this square, it is not the amplitude of the individual wave trains that matter (red and black lines in the figures) but the amplitude of the sum, the wave groups (blue line in figures).

text: As far as seismic and acoustic waves are concerned, the motion of ocean waves in deep water is, to the

text: leading order

text: , equivalent to a pressure applied at the sea surface. This pressure is nearly equal to the water density times the wave

text: orbital velocity

text: squared. Because of this square, it is not the amplitude of the individual wave trains that matter (red and black lines in the figures) but the amplitude of the sum, the wave groups (blue line in figures).

text: Alberta's electrical demand varies throughout the day and across the seasons. When individuals are fixing supper and using home appliances, demand for power goes up, as it does during heat waves and cold snaps. It tapers off during spring and fall. Like other mechanical devices, generators fail from time to time. If they are wind-powered, their output varies with the wind.

text: The storm caused an estimated $1.5 billion (1991 US dollars) in damage. The high velocity wind and the storm surge devastated the coastline. Although a concrete levee was in place near the mouth of the Karnaphuli River in Patenga, it was washed away by the storm surge. The cyclone uprooted a 100-ton crane from the Port of Chittagong, and smashed it on the Karnaphuli River Bridge, effectively breaking it into two partitions. A large number of boats and smaller ships ran aground. Bangladesh Navy and Bangladesh Air Force, both of which had bases in Chittagong, were also heavily hit. The Isha Khan Naval Base at Patenga was flooded, with heavy damages to the ships. Most of the fighter planes belonging to the air force were damaged.  Approximately 1 million homes were destroyed, leaving about 10 million people (a substantial portion of Bangladesh's population) homeless. The extensive damage caused the price of building materials to greatly increase.

text: The storm caused an estimated $1.5 billion (1991

text: US dollars

text: ) in damage. The high velocity wind and the

text: storm surge

text: devastated the coastline. Although a concrete levee was in place near the mouth of the

text: Karnaphuli River

text: in

text: Patenga

text: , it was washed away by the storm surge. The cyclone uprooted a 100-ton crane from the

text: Port of Chittagong

text: , and smashed it on the

text: Karnaphuli River Bridge

text: , effectively breaking it into two partitions. A large number of boats and smaller ships ran aground.

text: Bangladesh Navy

text: and

text: Bangladesh Air Force

text: , both of which had bases in Chittagong, were also heavily hit. The Isha Khan Naval Base at Patenga was flooded, with heavy damages to the ships. Most of the fighter planes belonging to the air force were damaged.  Approximately 1 million homes were destroyed, leaving about 10 million people (a substantial portion of Bangladesh's population) homeless. The extensive damage caused the price of building materials to greatly increase.

text: A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air.  Tropical cyclones may produce torrential rain, high waves, and damaging storm surge.  Heavy rains produce significant inland flooding. Storm surges may produce extensive coastal flooding up to  from the coastline.

text: A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a

text: low pressure

text: center and numerous

text: thunderstorms

text: that produce strong winds and flooding

text: rain

text: . A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in

text: condensation

text: of

text: water vapor

text: contained in the moist air.  Tropical cyclones may produce torrential rain, high waves, and damaging

text: storm surge

text: .  Heavy rains produce significant inland flooding. Storm surges may produce extensive coastal

text: flood

text: ing up to  from the coastline.

text: According to one source, when the bottom fell out of the Klondike market, Ocean Wave was left with nothing to do.  In December 1898, Ocean Wave was taken from Tacoma to the Fraser River in British Columbia to be placed in lay up for an indefinite time.  The owners were reported to have been afraid to keep the vessel in the “teredo-invested water” of Puget Sound.

text: According to one source, when the bottom fell out of the Klondike market, Ocean Wave was left with nothing to do.  In December 1898, Ocean Wave was taken from Tacoma to the

text: Fraser River

text: in

text: British Columbia

text: to be placed in lay up for an indefinite time.  The owners were reported to have been afraid to keep the vessel in the “

text: teredo

text: -invested water” of Puget Sound.

text: On many of the southern shores there isn’t much wave action, as there aren’t long stretches of sea, where they can grow big before washing ashore creating beaches. Small waves make narrow beaches. Big waves make wide beaches.

text: In Texas, strong winds were recorded in Harlingen where sustained winds reached  and gusted to . Elsewhere in Texas, large portions of the state east of where Hermine's center tracked recorded gale-force-winds. Along the coast, the system also brought a storm surge, peaking at  in Port Aransas. Damage over the lower Rio Grande Valley was generally minor. Some trees and power lines were knocked down as a result of the high winds, resulting in power outages over the area. About 30,000 customers lost power at one time or another during the storm in the region. The hardest hit were in Cameron and Willacy Counties. In central Texas, an estimated 100,000 residences were left without power, mainly in Bexar County, due to downed trees. According to surveys of the region, roughly 300 trees were downed by the storm. In Georgetown, where the heaviest rain fell, RV parks and nearby Interstate 35 were flooded, prompting a few evacuations.

text: In Texas, strong winds were recorded in

text: Harlingen

text: where sustained winds reached  and gusted to . Elsewhere in Texas, large portions of the state east of where Hermine's center tracked recorded gale-force-winds. Along the coast, the system also brought a

text: storm surge

text: , peaking at  in

text: Port Aransas

text: . Damage over the lower

text: Rio Grande Valley

text: was generally minor. Some trees and power lines were knocked down as a result of the high winds, resulting in power outages over the area. About 30,000 customers lost power at one time or another during the storm in the region. The hardest hit were in

text: Cameron

text: and

text: Willacy

text: Counties. In central Texas, an estimated 100,000 residences were left without power, mainly in

text: Bexar County

text: , due to downed trees. According to surveys of the region, roughly 300 trees were downed by the storm. In Georgetown, where the heaviest rain fell,

text: RV

text: parks and nearby

text: Interstate 35

text: were flooded, prompting a few evacuations.

text: The western side of the hurricane caused sustained tropical storm-force winds, high waves, and storm surge along much of the New Jersey coast.  In Atlantic City, the surge destroyed much of the boardwalk, and the bridge between Atlantic City and Brigantine collapsed, stranding at least 2,000.  Additionally, the surge inundated several coastal communities; Wildwood was under  of water at the height of the storm, and in Bay Head, the boardwalk was destroyed and dozens of cottages washed into the ocean.  Crops sustained wind damage.  The maximum recorded wind gust was 70 mph at Sandy Hook.

text: The western side of the hurricane caused sustained tropical storm-force winds, high waves, and storm surge along much of the New Jersey coast.  In

text: Atlantic City

text: , the surge destroyed much of the boardwalk, and the bridge between Atlantic City and

text: Brigantine

text: collapsed, stranding at least 2,000.  Additionally, the surge inundated several coastal communities;

text: Wildwood

text: was under  of water at the height of the storm, and in

text: Bay Head

text: , the boardwalk was destroyed and dozens of cottages washed into the ocean.  Crops sustained wind damage.  The maximum recorded wind gust was 70 mph at

text: Sandy Hook

text: During breaking, a deformation (usually a bulge) forms at the wave crest, either leading side of which is known as the "toe." Parasitic capillary waves are formed, with short wavelengths. Those above the "toe" tend to have much longer wavelengths. This theory is anything but perfect, however, as it is linear. There have been a couple non-linear theories of motion (regarding waves). One put forth uses a perturbation method to expand the description all the way to the third order, and better solutions have been found since then. As for wave deformation, methods much like the boundary integral method and the Boussinesq model have been created.

text: During breaking, a deformation (usually a bulge) forms at the wave crest, either leading side of which is known as the "toe." Parasitic capillary waves are formed, with short wavelengths. Those above the "toe" tend to have much longer wavelengths. This theory is anything but perfect, however, as it is linear. There have been a couple non-linear theories of motion (regarding waves). One put forth uses a

text: perturbation method

text: to expand the description all the way to the third order, and better solutions have been found since then. As for wave deformation, methods much like the

text: boundary integral method

text: and the

text: Boussinesq model

text: have been created.

text: Through the wind stress, the wind generates ocean surface waves; the longer waves have a phase velocity tending towards the wind speed. Momentum of the surface winds is transferred into the energy flux by the ocean surface waves. The increased roughness of the ocean surface, by the presence of the waves, changes the wind near the surface.

text: Through the wind stress, the wind generates

text: ocean surface wave

text: s; the longer waves have a

text: phase velocity

text: tending towards the

text: wind speed

text: Momentum

text: of the surface winds is transferred into the energy

text: flux

text: by the ocean surface waves. The increased

text: roughness

text: of the ocean surface, by the presence of the waves, changes the wind near the surface.

text: It was the usual practice for power transformers to have a 5 volt insulated winding for rectifier filaments, and a 6.3 volt winding for all the other heaters; virtually all valves with 5V filament are rectifiers with cathode connected to heater, in practice full-wave (usable as half-wave by strapping both anodes together), e.g. GZ34. For lower-voltage lower-power requirements, rectifiers with 6.3V heaters and insulated cathodes such as the EZ80 were used, connected to the common filament supply. There is no special nomenclature for EHT rectifiers for cathode-ray tubes; the EY51 and EY86 were rated at 17kV with an average current of 350 microamps. The GY501 is another example (31kV at 1.7mA and used the rare B9D base). In practice most "xY" half-wave rectifiers are EHT types; but there are plenty of exceptions.

text: It was the usual practice for power transformers to have a 5 volt insulated winding for rectifier filaments, and a 6.3 volt winding for all the other heaters; virtually all valves with 5V filament are rectifiers with cathode connected to heater, in practice full-wave (usable as half-wave by strapping both anodes together), e.g. GZ34. For lower-voltage lower-power requirements, rectifiers with 6.3V heaters and insulated cathodes such as the EZ80 were used, connected to the common filament supply. There is no special nomenclature for

text: EHT

text: rectifiers for

text: cathode-ray tube

text: s; the EY51 and EY86 were rated at 17kV with an average current of 350 microamps. The GY501 is another example (31kV at 1.7mA and used the rare B9D base). In practice most "xY" half-wave rectifiers are EHT types; but there are plenty of exceptions.

text: Infragravity waves are surface gravity waves with frequencies lower than the wind waves – consisting of both wind sea and swell – thus corresponding with the part of the wave spectrum lower than the frequencies directly generated by forcing through the wind.

text: Infragravity waves are

text: surface gravity wave

text: s with

text: frequencies

text: lower than the

text: wind wave

text: s – consisting of both

text: wind sea

text: and

text: swell

text: – thus corresponding with the part of the

text: wave spectrum

text: lower than the frequencies directly generated by

text: forcing

text: through the wind.

text: • Sources of wind wave generation: Sea water wave is generated by many kinds of disturbances such as Seismic events, gravity, and crossing wind. The generation of wind wave is initiated by the disturbances of cross wind field on the surface of the sea water. Two major Mechanisms of surface wave formation by winds (a.k.a.‘The Miles-Phillips Mechanism’) and other sources (ex. earthquakes) of wave formation can explain the generation of wind waves.

text: After returning to Japan from the United States in 2011, Hamada began working for Pro Wrestling Wave, where she aligned herself with the villainous Black Dahlia stable. On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and Shuu Shibutani) to win the Wave Tag Team Championship, Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to Yankii Nichokenju (Isami Kodaka and Yuko Miyamoto) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated Hikaru Shida for the Wave Single Championship. On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated Kayoko Haruyama and Tsubasa Kuragaki in the finals of the 2015 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

text: After returning to Japan from the

text: United States

text: in 2011, Hamada began working for

text: Pro Wrestling Wave

text: , where she aligned herself with the

text: villainous

text: Black Dahlia

entity_name: Glossary of professional wrestling terms

text: stable

text: . On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and

text: Shuu Shibutani

text: ) to win the

text: Wave Tag Team Championship

text: , Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to

text: Yankii Nichokenju

text: Isami Kodaka

text: and

text: Yuko Miyamoto

text: ) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (

text: Kyoko Kimura

text: and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated

text: Hikaru Shida

text: for the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: . On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated

text: Kayoko Haruyama

text: and

text: Tsubasa Kuragaki

text: in the finals of the

text: 2015 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

text: By August 26, the possibility of unprecedented cataclysm was already being considered. Many of the computer models had shifted the potential path of Katrina  westward from the Florida Panhandle, putting the city of New Orleans directly in the center of their track probabilities; the chances of a direct hit were forecast at 17%, with strike probability rising to 29% by August 28. This scenario was considered a potential catastrophe because some parts of New Orleans and the metro area are below sea level. Since the storm surge produced by the hurricane's right-front quadrant (containing the strongest winds) was forecast to be , emergency management officials in New Orleans feared that the storm surge could go over the tops of levees protecting the city, causing major flooding.

text: In full-wave rectification both halves of the AC waveform are utilised.  The cathode is connected to the + side of the DC load, the other side being connected to the center tap of the transformer secondary winding, which always remains at zero potential with respect to ground or earth. For each AC phase, a wire from each end of that phase winding is connected to a separate anode "arm" on the mercury-arc rectifier. When the voltage at each anode becomes positive, it will begin to conduct through the mercury vapor from the cathode.  As the anodes of each AC phase are fed from opposite ends of the centre tapped transformer winding, one will always be positive with respect to the center tap and both halves of the AC Waveform will cause current to flow in one direction only through the load. This rectification of the whole AC waveform is thus called full-wave rectification.

text: In full-wave rectification both halves of the AC waveform are utilised.  The

text: cathode

text: is connected to the + side of the DC load, the other side being connected to the

text: center tap

text: of the

text: transformer

text: secondary winding, which always remains at zero potential with respect to ground or earth. For each AC phase, a wire from each end of that phase winding is connected to a separate

text: anode

text: "arm" on the mercury-arc rectifier. When the voltage at each anode becomes positive, it will begin to conduct through the mercury vapor from the cathode.  As the anodes of each AC phase are fed from opposite ends of the centre tapped transformer winding, one will always be positive with respect to the center tap and both halves of the AC Waveform will cause current to flow in one direction only through the load. This rectification of the whole AC waveform is thus called full-wave rectification.

text: OPC began to produce experimental gridded significant wave height forecasts in 2006, a first step toward digital marine service for high seas and offshore areas. Additional gridded products such as surface pressure and winds are under development. Recently, OPC began to use the NWS operational extratropical storm surge model output to provide experimental extratropical storm surge guidance for coastal weather forecast offices to assist them in coastal flood warning and forecast operations.

text: OPC began to produce experimental gridded significant wave height forecasts in 2006, a first step toward digital marine service for high seas and offshore areas. Additional gridded products such as surface pressure and winds are under development. Recently, OPC began to use the NWS operational extratropical

text: storm surge

text: model output to provide experimental

text: extratropical storm

text: surge guidance for coastal weather forecast offices to assist them in

text: coastal flood warning

text: and forecast operations.

text: The origins of Tropical Depression Eighteen-E were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on October 7. It briefly spawned a low-pressure area as the wave continued westward without development. On October 20, the wave entered the Pacific Ocean, developing an area of thunderstorms about four days later. By 1200 UTC on October 26, a tropical depression formed about 155 mi (260 km) south of Manzanillo. Initially, Tropical Depression Eighteen-E was located in an area of light wind shear, and the NHC anticipated further organization and strengthening to near hurricane status. The tropical depression initially maintained a steady westward motion away from the Mexican coastline, due to a ridge north of the cyclone. By October 17, convection had decreased, and the depression was not forecast to intensify as much. Possibly due to intrusion of dry air, the circulation became exposed from the thunderstorms, and having weakened, it turned to a southward drift. By 0000 UTC on October 28, the system had weakened to a non-convective remnant low, which dissipated the following day.

text: The strain wave gearing theory is based on elastic dynamics and utilizes the flexibility of metal. The mechanism has three basic components: a wave generator, a flexspline, and a circular spline. More complex versions have a fourth component normally used to shorten the overall length or to increase the gear reduction within a smaller diameter, but still follow the same basic principles.The wave generator is made up of two separate parts: an elliptical disk called a wave generator plug and an outer ball bearing. The gear plug is inserted into the bearing, giving the bearing an elliptical shape as well.The flexspline is like a shallow cup. The sides of the spline are very thin, but the bottom is thick and rigid. This results in significant flexibility of the walls at the open end due to the thin wall, but in the closed side being quite rigid and able to be tightly secured (to a shaft, for example). Teeth are positioned radially around the outside of the open end of the flexspline. The flexspline fits tightly over the wave generator, so that when the wave generator plug is rotated, the flexspline deforms to the shape of a rotating ellipse but does not rotate with the wave generator.The circular spline is a rigid circular ring with teeth on the inside. The flexspline and wave generator are placed inside the circular spline, meshing the teeth of the flexspline and the circular spline. Because the flexspline has an elliptical shape, its teeth only actually mesh with the teeth of the circular spline in two regions on opposite sides of the flexspline, along the major axis of the ellipse.Assume that the wave generator is the input rotation. As the wave generator plug rotates, the flexspline teeth which are meshed with those of the circular spline change. The major axis of the flexspline actually rotates with wave generator, so the points where the teeth mesh revolve around the center point at the same rate as the wave generator. The key to the design of the strain wave gear is that there are fewer teeth (for example two fewer) on the flexspline than there are on the circular spline. This means that for every full rotation of the wave generator, the flexspline would be required to rotate a slight amount (two teeth, for example) backward relative to the circular spline. Thus the rotation action of the wave generator results in a much slower rotation of the flexspline in the opposite direction.For a strain wave gearing mechanism, the gearing reduction ratio can be calculated from the number of teeth on each gear:

text: Battered by wind, rain and storm surge, some beachfront neighborhoods were completely leveled. Preliminary estimates by Mississippi officials calculated that 90% of the structures within half a mile of the coastline were completely destroyed, and that storm surges traveled as much as  inland in portions of the state's coast. One apartment complex with approximately thirty residents seeking shelter inside collapsed. More than half of the 13 casinos in the state, which were floated on barges to comply with Mississippi land-based gambling laws, were washed hundreds of yards inland by waves.

text: Two main processes can explain the transfer of energy from the short wind waves to the long infragravity waves, and both are important in shallow water and for steep wind waves. The most common process is the subharmonic interaction of trains of wind waves which was first observed by Munk and Tucker and explained by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart. Because wind waves are not monochromatic they form groups. The Stokes drift induced by these groupy waves transports more water where the waves are highest. The waves also push the water around in a way that can be interpreted as a force: the divergence of the radiation stresses. Combining mass and momentum conservation, Longuet-Higgins and Stewart give, with three different methods, the now well-known result. Namely, the mean sea level oscillates with a wavelength that is equal to the length of the group, with a low level where the wind waves are highest and a high level where these waves are lowest. This oscillation of the sea surface is proportional to the square of the short wave amplitude and becomes very large when the group speed approaches the speed of shallow water waves. The details of this process are modified when the bottom is sloping, which is generally the case near the shore, but the theory captures the important effect, observed in most conditions, that the high water of this 'surf beat' arrives with the waves of lowest amplitude.

text: Two main processes can explain the transfer of energy from the short wind waves to the long infragravity waves, and both are important in shallow water and for steep wind waves. The most common process is the

text: subharmonic

text: interaction of trains of wind waves which was first observed by Munk and Tucker and explained by Longuet-Higgins and Stewart. Because wind waves are not

text: monochromatic

text: they form groups. The

text: Stokes drift

text: induced by these groupy waves transports more water where the waves are highest. The waves also push the water around in a way that can be interpreted as a force: the divergence of the radiation stresses. Combining mass and momentum conservation, Longuet-Higgins and Stewart give, with three different methods, the now well-known result. Namely, the mean sea level oscillates with a wavelength that is equal to the length of the group, with a low level where the wind waves are highest and a high level where these waves are lowest. This oscillation of the sea surface is proportional to the square of the short wave amplitude and becomes very large when the

text: group speed

text: approaches the speed of shallow water waves. The details of this process are modified when the bottom is sloping, which is generally the case near the shore, but the theory captures the important effect, observed in most conditions, that the high water of this 'surf beat' arrives with the waves of lowest amplitude.

text: Individually, each of these waves travels at the speed of light in vacuum, not at the (slower) speed of light in glass. Yet when the waves are added up, they surprisingly create only a wave that travels at the slower speed.

text: Waves are formed in a similar manner to hydraulics and are sometimes also considered hydraulics as well.  Waves are noted by the large smooth face on the water rushing down. Sometimes a particularly large wave will also be followed by a "wave train", a long series of waves. These standing waves can be smooth or, particularly the larger ones, can be breaking waves (also called "whitecaps" or "haystacks").

text: Wave

text: s are formed in a similar manner to hydraulics and are sometimes also considered hydraulics as well.  Waves are noted by the large smooth face on the water rushing down. Sometimes a particularly large wave will also be followed by a "wave train", a long series of waves. These

text: standing wave

text: s can be smooth or, particularly the larger ones, can be breaking waves (also called "whitecaps" or "haystacks").

text: Waves are disturbances that carry energy as they move. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium – air or water, making it oscillate as they pass by. Wind waves are sea surface waves that create the characteristic chaotic pattern of any large body of water, though their statistical behaviour can be predicted with wind wave models. As waves in water or wind pass over sand, they create patterns of ripples. When winds blow over large bodies of sand, they create dunes, sometimes in extensive dune fields as in the Taklamakan desert. Dunes may form a range of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes, parabolas, and longitudinal or Seif ('sword') shapes.

text: Wave

text: Mechanical wave

text: oscillate

text: as they pass by.

text: Wind wave

text: s are sea

text: surface wave

text: s that create the characteristic chaotic pattern of any large body of water, though their statistical behaviour can be predicted with wind wave models. As waves in water or wind pass over sand, they create patterns of ripples. When winds blow over large bodies of sand, they create

text: dune

text: s, sometimes in extensive dune fields as in the

text: Taklamakan

text: desert. Dunes may form a range of patterns including crescents, very long straight lines, stars, domes, parabolas, and longitudinal or Seif ('sword') shapes.

text: The origins of Hurricane Jeanne were from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 7. Containing a scattered area of moderate convection, the wave tracked westward at 12–17 mph (19–28 km/h), located to the south of a large ridge. The system initially showed no signs of development, with unfavorably dry air persisting across the region. On September 11, convection became slightly better organized, and the next day broad cyclonic turning became evident. However, overall development was hindered by upper-level wind shear from Hurricane Ivan in the Caribbean Sea, as well as from an upper-level low to the north of the wave.

text: The origins of Hurricane Jeanne were from a

text: tropical wave

text: that moved off the coast of Africa on September 7. Containing a scattered area of moderate

text: convection

text: , the wave tracked westward at 12–17 mph (19–28 km/h), located to the south of a large

text: ridge

text: . The system initially showed no signs of development, with unfavorably dry air persisting across the region. On September 11, convection became slightly better organized, and the next day broad cyclonic turning became evident. However, overall development was hindered by upper-level

text: wind shear

text: from

text: Hurricane Ivan

text: in the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: , as well as from an upper-level low to the north of the wave.

text: This hurricane could perhaps generate enormous waves in the ocean and the waves would migrate outwards. Oceanographers should test how high these waves would be in the postulated nearby swamps and delta area. They would be wind driven waves and would not reach from the top of an ocean to the bottom like a tsunami. Nonetheless, waves as big and as devastating as those that humans call freak waves might be regular.  Simple bacterial and algal life would not be threatened.

text: This hurricane could perhaps generate enormous waves in the ocean and the waves would migrate outwards.

text: Oceanographers

text: should test how high these waves would be in the postulated nearby swamps and delta area. They would be wind driven waves and would not reach from the top of an ocean to the bottom like a

text: tsunami

text: . Nonetheless, waves as big and as devastating as those that humans call

text: freak waves

text: might be regular.  Simple bacterial and algal life would not be threatened.

text: A tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa on August 30 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean, maintaining a vigorous area of convection along the wave axis. By September 1 most of the  deep convection had been stripped away by southwesterly wind shear.  Despite this, the wave remained well-defined as it continued west-northwest. The wave split into two pieces; the northern portion passed between the Leeward Islands and Hurricane Maria on September 3, while the southern portion moved into the Caribbean Sea. On September 4, the northern portion of the wave began to interact with an upper-level low pressure system and an elongated trough that was located between Bermuda and the Leeward Islands—the same trough which contributed to the development of Hurricane Ophelia. As a result of the low wind shear, convection redeveloped and organized along the wave axis. Convective banding formed around a broad surface low. It is estimated that the system developed into a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 5. At the time it was located approximately  to the south-southwest of Bermuda.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: emerged from the west coast of Africa on August 30 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean, maintaining a vigorous area of

text: convection

text: along the wave axis. By September 1 most of the  deep convection had been stripped away by southwesterly wind shear.  Despite this, the wave remained well-defined as it continued west-northwest. The wave split into two pieces; the northern portion passed between the

text: Leeward Islands

text: and

text: Hurricane Maria

text: on September 3, while the southern portion moved into the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: . On September 4, the northern portion of the wave began to interact with an upper-level

text: low pressure system

text: and an elongated

text: trough

text: that was located between

text: Bermuda

text: and the Leeward Islands—the same trough which contributed to the development of

text: Hurricane Ophelia

text: . As a result of the low wind shear, convection redeveloped and organized along the wave axis.

text: Convective banding

text: formed around a broad

text: surface low

text: . It is estimated that the system developed into a tropical depression at 1800

text: UTC

text: on September 5. At the time it was located approximately  to the south-southwest of Bermuda.

text: While the storm was moving east across the Gulf of Mexico, Gabrielle produced rip currents along the coast of Alabama, killing one man in Orange Beach. High surf along the Florida Panhandle destroyed a retaining wall in Pensacola Beach. In the Florida Keys, there was an indirect drowning death of a man who fell off his boat; this was due to a combination of high seas, engine failure, and intoxication. Upon making landfall, Gabrielle produced moderate winds along coastal areas of western Florida, with sustained winds of  at Venice. The same station reported a wind gust of . High tides from rough waves and the storm surge reached , the highest tide since 1926. The tide flooded the northern shoreline of Charlotte Harbor and at the entrance to the Peace River, while further to the south a surge of greater than  inundated the barrier island at Fort Myers Beach and flooded some cars. Beach erosion was common in the areas where the storm surge was greatest.

text: While the storm was moving east across the Gulf of Mexico, Gabrielle produced

text: rip current

text: s along the coast of Alabama, killing one man in

text: Orange Beach

text: . High surf along the

text: Florida Panhandle

text: destroyed a retaining wall in

text: Pensacola Beach

text: . In the Florida Keys, there was an indirect drowning death of a man who fell off his boat; this was due to a combination of high seas, engine failure, and intoxication. Upon making landfall, Gabrielle produced moderate winds along coastal areas of western Florida, with sustained winds of  at Venice. The same station reported a wind gust of . High tides from rough waves and the

text: storm surge

text: reached , the highest tide since 1926. The tide flooded the northern shoreline of

text: Charlotte Harbor

text: and at the entrance to the

text: Peace River

text: , while further to the south a surge of greater than  inundated the

text: barrier island

text: at

text: Fort Myers Beach

text: and flooded some cars. Beach erosion was common in the areas where the storm surge was greatest.

text: A very long, fast, tubing right hand point break breaks along the west side of the bay. The break is regarded as one of the best right hand point breaks in the entire world, in both consistency and quality, in season. It has been divided up into several sections, including, from the top of the point, Kitchen Windows, Magna tubes, Boneyards, Supertubes, Impossibles, Tubes, the Point, and Albatross. "Supertubes", which itself breaks for about 300m or more, is regarded as the best part of the wave. On rare occasions (large wave sizes, wide-breaking waves, and even swells), Boneyards can link up all the way to the Point for a ride over one kilometre long. Optimal size is considered to be from about 4 to 10 feet (Hawaiian scale), or about 8 to 20 feet wave faces. The most consistent waves occur between about May to mid September, also often coinciding with offshore winds, although good waves can occasionally occur at other times of the year.

text: Individual waves in deep water break when the wave steepness—the ratio of the wave height H to the wavelength λ—exceeds about 0.07, so for H > 0.07 λ. In shallow water, with the water depth small compared to the wavelength, the individual waves break when their wave height H is larger than 0.8 times the water depth h, that is H > 0.8 h. Waves can also break if the wind grows strong enough to blow the crest off the base of the wave.

text: Individual waves in deep water break when the wave steepness—the

text: ratio

text: of the

text: wave height

text: H to the

text: wavelength

text: λ—exceeds about 0.07, so for H > 0.07 λ. In shallow water, with the water depth small compared to the wavelength, the individual waves break when their wave height H is larger than 0.8 times the water depth h, that is H > 0.8 h. Waves can also break if the wind grows strong enough to blow the crest off the base of the wave.

text: Local wind conditions affect wave quality, since the surface of a wave can become choppy in blustery conditions. Ideal conditions include a light to moderate "offshore" wind, because it blows into the front of the wave, making it a "barrel" or "tube" wave. Waves are Left handed and Right Handed depending upon the breaking formation of the wave.

text: Local wind conditions affect wave quality, since the surface of a wave can become choppy in blustery conditions. Ideal conditions include a light to moderate "offshore" wind, because it blows into the front of the wave, making it a

text: "barrel"

text: or "tube" wave. Waves are Left handed and Right Handed depending upon the breaking formation of the wave.

text: The break is regarded as one of the best right-hand point breaks in the entire world, in both consistency and quality, in season. It has been divided up into several sections, including, from the top of the point, Kitchen Windows, Magna tubes, Boneyards, Supertubes, Impossibles, Tubes, the Point, and Albatross. "Supertubes", which itself breaks for about 300m or more, is regarded as the best part of the wave. On rare occasions (large wave sizes, wide-breaking waves, and even swells), Boneyards can link up all the way to the Point for a ride over one kilometer long. The most consistent waves occur between about May to mid September, also often coinciding with offshore winds, although good waves can occasionally occur at other times of the year.

text: Isaac's large wind field contributed to a strong storm surge peaking at  at a buoy offshore of Shell Beach. The strong waves inundated large areas of the state's coastal regions, particularly in Plaquemines Parish. The hurricane also brought heavy rainfall, leading to severe inland flooding. Rainfall amounts peaked statewide at  in Hammond. Including adjacent states, the storm surge and inland flooding alone caused $407 million in insured losses. Isaac's strong winds caused infrastructural and crop damage, in addition to storm surge and heavy rains. A WeatherBug weather station in Poydras reported a 97 mph (156 km/h) wind gust, the fastest measured in association with the storm. The strong winds also caused a widespread power outage, with 901,000 electricity customers losing power. In the aftermath of the hurricane, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) granted $204.8 million in public assistance funds and $129.3 million in individual assistance funding.

text: Isaac's large wind field contributed to a strong

text: storm surge

text: peaking at  at a

text: buoy

text: offshore of Shell Beach. The strong waves inundated large areas of the state's coastal regions, particularly in

text: Plaquemines Parish

text: . The hurricane also brought heavy rainfall, leading to severe inland

text: flooding

text: . Rainfall amounts peaked statewide at  in

text: Hammond

text: . Including adjacent states, the storm surge and inland flooding alone caused $407 million in insured losses. Isaac's strong winds caused infrastructural and crop damage, in addition to storm surge and heavy rains. A

text: WeatherBug

text: weather station in

text: Poydras

text: reported a 97 mph (156 km/h) wind gust, the fastest measured in association with the storm. The strong winds also caused a widespread

text: power outage

text: , with 901,000 electricity customers losing power. In the aftermath of the hurricane, the

text: Federal Emergency Management Agency

text: (FEMA) granted $204.8 million in public assistance funds and $129.3 million in individual assistance funding.

text: Ripples appear on smooth water when the wind blows, but will die quickly if the wind stops. The restoring force that allows them to propagate is surface tension. Sea waves are larger-scale, often irregular motions that form under sustained winds. These waves tend to last much longer, even after the wind has died, and the restoring force that allows them to propagate is gravity. As waves propagate away from their area of origin, they naturally separate into groups of common direction and wavelength. The sets of waves formed in this way are known as swells.

text: Ripples appear on smooth water when the wind blows, but will die quickly if the wind stops. The restoring force that allows them to propagate is

text: surface tension

text: . Sea waves are larger-scale, often irregular motions that form under sustained winds. These waves tend to last much longer, even after the wind has died, and the restoring force that allows them to propagate is gravity. As waves propagate away from their area of origin, they naturally separate into groups of common direction and wavelength. The sets of waves formed in this way are known as swells.

text: The Green Weenie was a green plastic rattle in the shape of a hot dog, which when waved at opposing players, purportedly put a jinx on them. Conversely, when waved at Pirate players it allegedly bestowed good luck.

text: The Green Weenie was a green plastic rattle in the shape of a

text: hot dog

text: , which when waved at opposing players, purportedly put a

text: jinx

text: on them. Conversely, when waved at Pirate players it allegedly bestowed good luck.

text: In life’s winds and waves.

text: In life’s winds and waves.

text: Images taken with the Spitzer Space Telescope uncovered a cloud of hot dust in the vicinity of the Pillars of Creation that Nicolas Flagey accounted to be a shock wave produced by a supernova. The appearance of the cloud suggests the supernova shockwave would have destroyed the Pillars of Creation 6,000 years ago. Given the distance of roughly 7,000 light years to the Pillars of Creation, this would mean that they have actually already been destroyed, but because light travels at a finite speed, this destruction should be visible on Earth in about 1,000 years. However, this interpretation of the hot dust has been disputed by an astronomer uninvolved in the Spitzer observations, who argues that a supernova should have resulted in stronger radio and x-ray radiation than has been observed, and that winds from massive stars could instead have heated the dust. If this is the case, the Pillars of Creation will undergo a more gradual erosion.

text: Images taken with the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: uncovered a cloud of hot dust in the vicinity of the Pillars of Creation that Nicolas Flagey accounted to be a shock wave produced by a

text: supernova

text: . The appearance of the cloud suggests the supernova shockwave would have destroyed the Pillars of Creation 6,000 years ago. Given the distance of roughly 7,000 light years to the Pillars of Creation, this would mean that they have actually already been destroyed, but because light

text: travels at a finite speed

text: , this destruction should be visible on Earth in about 1,000 years. However, this interpretation of the hot dust has been disputed by an astronomer uninvolved in the Spitzer observations, who argues that a supernova should have resulted in stronger

text: radio

text: and

text: x-ray

text: radiation than has been observed, and that winds from massive stars could instead have heated the dust. If this is the case, the Pillars of Creation will undergo a more gradual erosion.

text: Early on July 22, a tropical wave and associated low-pressure area emerged off the western coast of Africa. Based on satellite data, the wave was upgraded to a tropical depression at 18:00 UTC on July 23 while located about 175 mi (280 km) south of the Cape Verde Islands, and further intensified into Tropical Storm Dorian by 06:00 UTC the following day. The storm tracked swiftly west-northwest over warm ocean temperatures and within an environment of low wind shear initially, allowing it to attain peak winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) by July 25. However, the entrainment of drier mid-level air and cooler ocean waters caused a weakening trend.

text: Cape Espenberg, located 40 km east of a pronounced easterly deflection in the coast, is the depositional sink of a 200 km long littoral transport system fostered by a dominant west to northwest wind regime. Due to an abundant offshore source, sandy barrier islands front most of the northwest facing Seward Peninsula from Bering Strait into Kotzebue Sound, enclosing several extensive lagoons. The Chukchi Sea is microtidal < 50 cm, and the prevailing westerly currents maintain a series of widely spaced offshore bars that typically damp onshore wave energy. Storm surges occur with some regularity in the fall, with the extreme events, attaining a maximum elevation of 3 to 4 meter.

text: Much of the damage inflicted in the state was caused by an unusually strong storm surge, which inundated the coastal and low-lying areas of Florida. Although the strongest storm surge was positioned north of the eye, away from the more densely populated regions of Greater Miami, an abnormally high storm tide still prevailed and caused extensive damage along the southern coast of the peninsula. Northerly winds well in advance of Betsy's landfall forced water from Florida Bay onto the Florida Keys, and the resulting damage was then further exacerbated when southerly winds during and after the hurricane's approach forced water from the Atlantic onto the isolated Keys. Though storm surge was estimated to have peaked along the coast of North Key Largo at , a measurement of  in Tavernier was the highest measured total. However, a high water mark of  on a highway west of Sugarloaf Key indicated that such estimations in North Key Largo were valid. The strong storm surge caused severe beach erosion, mostly to areas south of Clearwater on the state's western coast while Betsy was traversing the Gulf of Mexico. In Fort Pierce, the waves washed away up to  of beach.

text: Much of the damage inflicted in the state was caused by an unusually strong storm surge, which inundated the coastal and low-lying areas of Florida. Although the strongest storm surge was positioned north of the eye, away from the more densely populated regions of

text: Greater Miami

text: , an abnormally high storm tide still prevailed and caused extensive damage along the southern coast of the peninsula. Northerly winds well in advance of Betsy's landfall forced water from Florida Bay onto the

text: Florida Keys

text: , and the resulting damage was then further exacerbated when southerly winds during and after the hurricane's approach forced water from the Atlantic onto the isolated Keys. Though storm surge was estimated to have peaked along the coast of North Key Largo at , a measurement of  in Tavernier was the highest measured total. However, a

text: high water mark

text: of  on a highway west of

text: Sugarloaf Key

text: indicated that such estimations in North Key Largo were valid. The strong storm surge caused severe

text: beach erosion

text: , mostly to areas south of

text: Clearwater

text: on the state's western coast while Betsy was traversing the Gulf of Mexico. In Fort Pierce, the waves washed away up to  of beach.

text: Before the storm's circulation passed the New York area, its associated trough produced sustained easterly winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) along Long Island. Wind gusts reached 77 mph (124 km/h) at LaGuardia Airport. The strong easterly winds produced high tides in the region that increased gradually after three consecutive tidal cycles; this was due to the nor'easter's slow movement. There was a storm surge of about 3 ft (1 m) at Battery Park at the southern end of Manhattan. The same station reported a high tide of  above sea level, which was high enough to surpass the sea walls for a few hours. The ensuing flooding submerged portions of Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive to about 4 ft (1.5 m) deep. At least 50 cars were stuck, and some drivers required rescue. Low-lying neighborhoods of New York City were also flooded. High waves canceled ferry service to Staten Island. A power outage closed the New York City subway system for about five hours. The highest tide in Long Island was  at Willets Point, Queens. The tides and flooding decreased after the winds shifted to the north, ending on December 14. High tides canceled ferry service to Fire Island, and the only bridge onto the island was closed to all but emergency personnel and homeowners. High waves washed away dunes and severely eroded beaches along the island, destroying over 100 summer homes. On nearby Westhampton Beach, 30 homes were destroyed, and about 100 houses were isolated due to two new inlets created during the storm. Flooding closed all three bridges connecting Long Beach Island to the mainland. Flooding up to  forced about 3,000 people to evacuate from one village on northern Long Island. About 700 homes were damaged in Bayville along the north coast. High winds downed trees and power lines, leaving more than 454,000 Long Island Lighting Company customers without power. In Mamaroneck to the northeast of New York City, a man drowned after being swept away by floodwaters. In the Albany area, where the storm was known as the Downslope Nor'easter, there was little snow accumulation during the storm's closest approach due to above freezing temperatures. After the storm moved by the region and the winds shifted to the north, about  fell in the city. To the west of Albany in the Helderberg Escarpment and the Catskill Mountains, snowfall totals reached . Heavy snowfall spread across the state, including a total of  in Niagara Falls.

text: Before the storm's circulation passed the New York area, its associated trough produced sustained easterly winds of 50 mph (80 km/h) along Long Island. Wind gusts reached 77 mph (124 km/h) at

text: LaGuardia Airport

text: . The strong easterly winds produced high tides in the region that increased gradually after three consecutive tidal cycles; this was due to the nor'easter's slow movement. There was a storm surge of about 3 ft (1 m) at

text: Battery Park

text: at the southern end of

text: Manhattan

text: . The same station reported a high tide of  above sea level, which was high enough to surpass the sea walls for a few hours. The ensuing flooding submerged portions of

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive

text: to about 4 ft (1.5 m) deep. At least 50 cars were stuck, and some drivers required rescue. Low-lying neighborhoods of New York City were also flooded. High waves canceled ferry service to

text: Staten Island

text: . A power outage closed the New York City subway system for about five hours. The highest tide in Long Island was  at

text: Willets Point, Queens

text: . The tides and flooding decreased after the winds shifted to the north, ending on December 14. High tides canceled ferry service to

text: Fire Island

text: , and the only bridge onto the island was closed to all but emergency personnel and homeowners. High waves washed away dunes and severely eroded beaches along the island, destroying over 100 summer homes. On nearby

text: Westhampton Beach

text: , 30 homes were destroyed, and about 100 houses were isolated due to two new inlets created during the storm. Flooding closed all three bridges connecting

text: Long Beach Island

text: to the mainland. Flooding up to  forced about 3,000 people to evacuate from one village on northern Long Island. About 700 homes were damaged in

text: Bayville

text: along the north coast. High winds downed trees and power lines, leaving more than 454,000

text: Long Island Lighting Company

text: customers without power. In

text: Mamaroneck

text: to the northeast of New York City, a man drowned after being swept away by floodwaters. In the

text: Albany

text: area, where the storm was known as the Downslope Nor'easter, there was little snow accumulation during the storm's closest approach due to above freezing temperatures. After the storm moved by the region and the winds shifted to the north, about  fell in the city. To the west of Albany in the

text: Helderberg Escarpment

text: and the

text: Catskill Mountains

text: , snowfall totals reached . Heavy snowfall spread across the state, including a total of  in

text: Niagara Falls

text: While situated about  south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of up to . The nor'easter reached peak intensity at approximately 12:00 UTC on October 30 with its lowest pressure of 972 millibars. The interaction between the extratropical storm and the high pressure system to its north created a significant pressure gradient, which created large waves and strong winds. Between the southern New England coast and the storm's center, the gradient was . A buoy located  south of Halifax reported a wave height of  on October 30. This became the highest recorded wave height on the Scotian Shelf, which is the oceanic shelf off the coast of Nova Scotia. East of Cape Cod, a NOAA buoy located at  reported maximum sustained winds of  with gusts to , and a significant wave height (average height of the highest one-third of all waves) of  around 15:00 UTC on October 30. Another buoy, located at , reported maximum sustained winds of  with gusts to  and a significant wave height of  near 00:00 UTC on October 31.

text: While situated about  south of

text: Halifax, Nova Scotia

text: , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of up to . The nor'easter reached peak intensity at approximately 12:00

text: UTC

text: on October 30 with its lowest pressure of 972

text: millibar

text: s. The interaction between the extratropical storm and the high pressure system to its north created a significant pressure gradient, which created large waves and strong winds. Between the southern New England coast and the storm's center, the gradient was . A buoy located  south of

text: Halifax

text: reported a wave height of  on October 30. This became the highest recorded wave height on the

text: Scotian Shelf

text: , which is the oceanic

text: shelf

text: off the coast of Nova Scotia. East of Cape Cod, a NOAA buoy located at  reported maximum sustained winds of  with gusts to , and a

text: significant wave height

text: (average height of the highest one-third of all waves) of  around 15:00 UTC on October 30. Another buoy, located at , reported maximum sustained winds of  with gusts to  and a significant wave height of  near 00:00 UTC on October 31.

text: The little fishing town of Peniche is probably the most renowned surfing area in Portugal. Originally an island, Peniche became one with the mainland due to the silting up of the shallow channel that divided it from the rest of the country. Today that short and narrow spit of land contains an obscene amount of wave variety that can provide the goods in almost any conditions. Most famous is Supertubos, regarded by many as one of Europe’s best beach breaks, but there are plenty of other barrels to pull into around Peniche. Peniche is a year round destination with swell exposure on the north side of the town and shelter on the south. The town also sits at the dividing point between the cooler and wetter north and the dry, sunny south meaning that summers are long but tempered by cool sea breezes and the winters mild though occasionally stormy. Supertubos is considered the best wave in Portugal and one of the best in Europe. It is a fast and tubular wave which breaks on a hollow sand bank. It works best with SW swells and N, NE or NW winds. Andy Irons, Kelly Slater and Mick Fanning made frequent appearances in the WSL Supertubos surf competitions.

text: The little fishing town of Peniche is probably the most renowned surfing area in Portugal. Originally an island,

text: Peniche

text: became one with the mainland due to the silting up of the shallow channel that divided it from the rest of the country. Today that short and narrow spit of land contains an obscene amount of wave variety that can provide the goods in almost any conditions. Most famous is

text: Supertubos

text: , regarded by many as one of Europe’s best beach breaks, but there are plenty of other barrels to pull into around Peniche. Peniche is a year round destination with swell exposure on the north side of the town and shelter on the south. The town also sits at the dividing point between the cooler and wetter north and the dry, sunny south meaning that summers are long but tempered by cool sea breezes and the winters mild though occasionally stormy. Supertubos is considered the best wave in

text: Portugal

text: and one of the best in

text: Europe

text: . It is a fast and tubular wave which breaks on a hollow sand bank. It works best with SW swells and N, NE or NW winds.

text: Andy Irons

text: Kelly Slater

text: and

text: Mick Fanning

text: made frequent appearances in the

text: WSL

text: Supertubos surf competitions.

text: A fully developed sea has the maximum wave size theoretically possible for a wind of a specific strength, duration, and fetch. Further exposure to that specific wind could only cause a loss of energy due to the breaking of wave tops and formation of "whitecaps". Waves in a given area typically have a range of heights. For weather reporting and for scientific analysis of wind wave statistics, their characteristic height over a period of time is usually expressed as significant wave height. This figure represents an average height of the highest one-third of the waves in a given time period (usually chosen somewhere in the range from 20 minutes to twelve hours), or in a specific wave or storm system. The significant wave height is also the value a "trained observer" (e.g. from a ship's crew) would estimate from visual observation of a sea state. Given the variability of wave height, the largest individual waves are likely to be somewhat less than twice the reported significant wave height for a particular day or storm.

text: A fully developed sea has the maximum wave size theoretically possible for a wind of a specific strength, duration, and fetch. Further exposure to that specific wind could only cause a loss of energy due to the breaking of wave tops and formation of "whitecaps". Waves in a given area typically have a range of heights. For weather reporting and for scientific analysis of wind wave statistics, their characteristic height over a period of time is usually expressed as

text: significant wave height

text: . This figure represents an

text: average

text: height of the highest one-third of the waves in a given time period (usually chosen somewhere in the range from 20 minutes to twelve hours), or in a specific wave or storm system. The significant wave height is also the value a "trained observer" (e.g. from a ship's crew) would estimate from visual observation of a sea state. Given the variability of wave height, the largest individual waves are likely to be somewhat less than twice the reported significant wave height for a particular day or storm.

text: These two equations can be considered as the defining properties of boson creation and annihilation operators in the second-quantization formalism. The complicated symmetrization of the underlying first-quantized wave function is automatically taken care of by the creation and annihilation operators (when acting on the first-quantized wave function), so that the complexity is not revealed on the second-quantized level, and the second-quantization formulae are simple and neat.

text: As waves approach land and move into shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend or wrap rocks and headlands. When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillating molecules contact the seabed, friction begins to slow the wave down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves' height. When the ratio of a wave's height to its wavelength exceeds 1:7, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water. This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the sea under the influence of gravity.

text: As waves approach land and

text: move into shallow water

text: , they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend or wrap rocks and headlands. When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillating molecules contact the

text: seabed

text: , friction begins to slow the wave down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves'

text: height

text: . When the ratio of a wave's height to its wavelength exceeds 1:7, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water. This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the sea under the influence of gravity.

text: Shape waves are excitations propagating along Josephson vortices or fluxons. In the case of two-dimensional Josephson junctions (thick long Josephson junctions with an extra dimension) described by the 2D sine-Gordon equation, shape waves are distortions of a Josephson vortex line of an arbitrary profile. Shape waves have remarkable properties exhibiting Lorentz contraction and time dilation similar to that in special relativity. Position of the shape wave excitation on a Josephson vortex acts like a “minute-hand” showing the time in the rest-frame associated with the vortex. At some conditions, a moving vortex with the shape excitation can have less energy than the same vortex without it.

text: Shape waves are excitations propagating along

text: Josephson vortices

text: or

text: fluxons

text: . In the case of two-dimensional

text: Josephson junctions

text: (thick

text: long Josephson junction

text: s with an extra dimension) described by the 2D

text: sine-Gordon equation

text: , shape waves are distortions of a

text: Josephson vortex

text: line of an arbitrary profile. Shape waves have remarkable properties exhibiting

text: Lorentz contraction

text: and

text: time dilation

text: similar to that in

text: special relativity

text: . Position of the shape wave excitation on a

text: Josephson vortex

text: acts like a “minute-hand” showing the time in the rest-frame associated with the vortex. At some conditions, a moving vortex with the shape excitation can have less energy than the same vortex without it.

text: There are many other factors that affect the wave quality at a specific surf break, including wind conditions and tides. In general, wave quality for surfing is usually better with less wind. If there is wind, wave quality is better if the wind is blowing gently offshore (away from the coast, towards the water.) This offshore airflow helps to hold up the face of breaking waves slightly longer, allowing a surfer to have more time to maneuver on the face of the wave.

text: "The ocean is the same ocean as it has been of old; The events of today are its waves and its rivers."

text: The strong winds of the Southern Ocean give rise to correspondingly large waves; these waves can attain great height as they roll around the Southern Ocean, free of any interruption from land. At the Horn, however, these waves encounter an area of shallow water to the south of the Horn, which has the effect of making the waves shorter and steeper, greatly increasing the hazard to ships.  If the strong eastward current through the Drake Passage encounters an opposing east wind, this can have the effect of further building up the waves. In addition to these "normal" waves, the area west of the Horn is particularly notorious for rogue waves, which can attain heights of up to .

text: The strong winds of the Southern Ocean give rise to correspondingly large waves; these waves can attain great height as they roll around the Southern Ocean, free of any interruption from land. At the Horn, however, these waves encounter an area of shallow water to the south of the Horn, which has the effect of making the waves shorter and steeper, greatly increasing the hazard to ships.  If the strong eastward current through the Drake Passage encounters an opposing east wind, this can have the effect of further building up the waves. In addition to these "normal" waves, the area west of the Horn is particularly notorious for

text: rogue wave

text: s, which can attain heights of up to .

text: The most important influence on wave shape is the topography of the seabed directly behind and immediately beneath the breaking wave. The contours of the reef or bar front becomes stretched by diffraction. Each break is different, since each location's underwater topography is unique. At beach breaks, sandbanks change shape from week to week. Surf forecasting is aided by advances in information technology. Mathematical modeling graphically depicts the size and direction of swells around the globe.

text: The most important influence on wave shape is the

text: topography of the seabed

text: directly behind and immediately beneath the breaking wave. The contours of the

text: reef

text: or bar front becomes stretched by

text: diffraction

text: . Each break is different, since each location's underwater topography is unique. At beach breaks, sandbanks change shape from week to week.

text: Surf forecasting

text: is aided by advances in information technology. Mathematical modeling graphically depicts the size and direction of swells around the globe.

text: Water can be moved through coral reefs in various ways, including current rings, surface waves, internal waves and tidal changes.  Movement is generally created by tides and wind. As tides interact with varying bathymetry and wind mixes with surface water, internal waves are created. An internal wave is a gravity wave that moves along density stratification within the ocean. When a water parcel encounters a different density it will oscillate and create internal waves. While internal waves generally have a lower frequency than surface waves, they often form as a single wave that breaks into multiple waves as it hits a slope and moves upward. This vertical break up of internal waves causes significant diapycnal mixing and turbulence. Internal waves can act as nutrient pumps, bringing plankton and cool nutrient-rich water up to the surface.

text: The primary application of spaceborne scatterometry has been measurements of near-surface winds over the ocean. Such instruments are known as wind scatterometers. By combining sigma-0 measurements from different azimuth angles, the near-surface wind vector over the ocean's surface can be determined using a geophysical model function (GMF) which relates wind and backscatter.  Over the ocean, the radar backscatter results from scattering from wind-generated capillary-gravity waves, which are generally in equilibrium with the near-surface wind over the ocean. The scattering mechanism is known as Bragg scattering, which occurs from the waves that are in resonance with the microwaves.

text: The primary application of

text: space

text: borne scatterometry has been measurements of near-surface

text: wind

text: s over the

text: ocean

text: . Such instruments are known as wind scatterometers. By combining sigma-0 measurements from different

text: azimuth

text: angles, the near-surface wind

text: vector

text: over the ocean's surface can be determined using a

text: geophysical

text: model function (GMF) which relates wind and backscatter.  Over the ocean, the radar backscatter results from scattering from wind-generated capillary-gravity waves, which are generally in equilibrium with the near-surface wind over the ocean. The scattering mechanism is known as

text: Bragg scattering

text: , which occurs from the waves that are in resonance with the microwaves.

text: Known in Santa Cruz as the “Condor” for his extreme wingspan (A nickname Mel was less than fond of), Peter was a shoo-in to claim the $50,000 Billabong XXL Big-Wave Challenge, for paddling into the winter’s biggest wave, but this was not to be and Peter ended up just short of the honor that year. Mel finished eighth in the 1998 Surfer Magazine Reader’s Poll Awards and established himself as California’s premier big-wave rider. Interestingly enough, Peter also appeared on the big screen opposite Gerard Butler in "Chasing Mavericks".  Today, Peter Mel is broadcaster for the World Surf League http://www.worldsurfleague.com/ , continues to Surf as an endorsed Athlete and help run the family business in Santa Cruz. Most notably Peter has conquered a dream of his being crowned the Big Wave World Champion 2011/2012 The Big Wave World Tour concluded its third successful season crowning Mel as Big Wave World Tour Champion. The season started out strong at the extremely consistent big wave spot Punta de Lobos, Chile, home of the Quiksilver Ceremonial. The contest was held under sunny skies, perfect offshore winds and flawless 40+ft waves. The second stop on the tour, Billabong Pico Alto Invitational, was held at the famed Peruvian Big Wave Spot, in clean and consistent 35–40 ft waves. Mel won the final. Immediately following his victory, fellow Quiksilver rider, Kelly Slater tweeted, ”It’s about time Pete.”Mel cemented his legacy as one of the best big wave surfers to come out of Santa Cruz long before he surfed at Pico Alto in Peru."For obvious reasons, I'm very excited about it. Any time you throw a world title in front of anything, it's what it says. It's an achievement," said Mel, who accepted the award on April 29. "It's not something I thought I would achieve in my dreams."Following the end of the 2013 season, Peter Mel entered retirement from the pro surfing circuit, and, subsequently, becoming the World Surf League's (WSL) first Big Wave World Tour (BWWT) commissioner for the WSL's inaugural 2014-5 season.

text: Kelly Slater

text: tweeted, ”It’s about time Pete.”Mel cemented his legacy as one of the best big wave surfers to come out of Santa Cruz long before he surfed at Pico Alto in Peru."For obvious reasons, I'm very excited about it. Any time you throw a world title in front of anything, it's what it says. It's an achievement," said Mel, who accepted the award on April 29. "It's not something I thought I would achieve in my dreams."Following the end of the 2013 season, Peter Mel entered retirement from the pro surfing circuit, and, subsequently, becoming the World Surf League's (WSL) first Big Wave World Tour (BWWT) commissioner for the WSL's inaugural 2014-5 season.

text: The entirety of the Jersey Shore region was significantly affected by Hurricane Sandy in October 2012. The devastating effect of the storm surge on property adjacent to the beach resulted in substantial cost to the reinsurance industry which has since advocated avoidance of rebuilding closely packed middle-class residences or flimsy commercial structures adjacent to the beach. It is felt insuring property in the area may be impossible if a configuration of buildings is constructed which have a high probability of suffering massive damage in future storms. The hurricane reached up to 74 mph. Hurricane Sandy's pure kinetic energy for storm surge and wave destruction potential reached a 5.8 out of 6 on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's scale. Storm surges reached 14 ft above average low tide. The storm left an estimated 7.5 million people without power. However, many citizens in NJ did not expect the storm to be as bad as it was. Most of the people who were affected by the storm expected it to be like the previous storm, Hurricane Irene. The Barrier Islands were especially damaged, leaving dozens of homes completely washed away. Many iconic places from "The Shore" were also damaged due to Hurricane Sandy, such as: the Belmar boardwalk, Casino Pier and Funtown Pier. The night of the hurricane, families were told to evacuate the Barrier Island and to leave behind their homes, little did they know, some of them would be losing their entire home and even some loved ones. Even though its only been four years since the hurricane hit, many neighborhoods will never be rebuilt .

text: The entirety of the Jersey Shore region was significantly affected by

text: Hurricane Sandy

text: in October 2012. The devastating effect of the

text: storm surge

text: on property adjacent to the beach resulted in substantial cost to the

text: reinsurance industry

text: Ultrasound computer tomographs use ultrasound waves for creating images. In the first measurement step a defined ultrasound wave is generated with typically Piezoelectric ultrasound transducers, transmitted in direction of the measurement object and received with other or the same ultrasound transducers. While traversing and interacting with the object the ultrasound wave is changed by the object and carries now information about the object. After being recorded the information from the modulated waves can be extracted and used to create an image of the object in a second step. Unlike X-ray or other physical properties which provide typically only one information, ultrasound provides multiple information of the object for imaging: the attenuation the wave's sound pressure experiences indicate on the object's attenuation coefficient, the time-of-flight of the wave gives speed of sound information, and the scattered wave indicates on the echogenicity of the object (e.g. refraction index, surface morphology, etc.). Unlike conventional ultrasound sonography, which uses phased array technology for beamforming, most USCT systems utilize unfocused spherical waves for imaging. Most USCT systems aiming for 3D-imaging, either by synthesizing ("stacking") 2D images or by full 3D aperture setups. Another aim is quantitative imaging instead of only qualitative imaging.

text: Ultrasound computer tomographs use

text: ultrasound

text: wave

text: s for creating images. In the first measurement step a defined ultrasound wave is generated with typically

text: Piezoelectric

text: ultrasound transducer

text: s, transmitted in direction of the measurement object and received with other or the same ultrasound transducers. While traversing and interacting with the object the ultrasound wave is changed by the object and carries now information about the object. After being recorded the information from the modulated waves can be extracted and used to create an image of the object in a second step. Unlike

text: X-ray

text: or other physical properties which provide typically only one information, ultrasound provides multiple information of the object for imaging: the

text: attenuation

text: the wave's

text: sound pressure

text: experiences indicate on the object's

text: attenuation coefficient

text: , the

text: time-of-flight

text: of the wave gives

text: speed of sound

text: information, and the

text: scattered wave

text: indicates on the

text: echogenicity

text: of the object (e.g.

text: refraction index

text: , surface morphology, etc.). Unlike conventional ultrasound

text: sonography

text: , which uses

text: phased array

text: technology for

text: beamforming

text: , most USCT systems utilize unfocused

text: spherical wave

text: s for imaging. Most USCT systems aiming for 3D-imaging, either by synthesizing ("stacking") 2D images or by full 3D aperture setups. Another aim is

text: quantitative

text: imaging

text: instead of only

text: qualitative

text: imaging.

text: In Florida, Bonnie produced up to 4.1 inches (104 mm) of rainfall in Pace, with peak wind gusts of 42 mph (68 km/h). Bonnie was accompanied by a  storm surge; moderate wave action caused slight beach erosion. Rainfall and storm surge flooded roads, forcing the evacuation of 2,000 residents in Taylor County. The winds downed trees and caused scattered power outages. A tornado in Jacksonville damaged several businesses and houses.

text: In Florida, Bonnie produced up to 4.1 inches (104 mm) of rainfall in

text: Pace

text: , with peak wind gusts of 42 mph (68 km/h). Bonnie was accompanied by a

text: storm surge

text: ; moderate wave action caused slight

text: beach erosion

text: . Rainfall and storm surge flooded roads, forcing the evacuation of 2,000 residents in

text: Taylor County

text: . The winds downed trees and caused scattered power outages. A

text: tornado

text: in

text: Jacksonville

text: damaged several businesses and houses.

text: The western Bohai Bay is a relatively calm body of water. The frequency of waves below 1.0 m height is 87.6%, of waves of height above 1.0 m is 12.4%, waves above 2.0 m is 1.9% and waves above 3.0 m is 0.4%. The proportion of pure wind waves is 74.2%, of pure swell waves is 0.9%, and of mixed swell/wind is 24.9%. Predominant wave directions are NNE-E (9.68% frequency), ENE-E (9.53%) S (9.27%), SSE (8.91%) and SE (8.30%). Waves are strongest in spring and weakest in fall. Summers are very calm, unless typhoons wander off far enough north. Strongest average waves are ENE and NNW waves.

text: The western Bohai Bay is a relatively calm body of water. The frequency of waves below 1.0 m height is 87.6%, of waves of height above 1.0 m is 12.4%, waves above 2.0 m is 1.9% and waves above 3.0 m is 0.4%. The proportion of pure

text: wind waves

text: is 74.2%, of pure

text: swell

text: waves is 0.9%, and of mixed swell/wind is 24.9%. Predominant wave directions are NNE-E (9.68% frequency), ENE-E (9.53%) S (9.27%), SSE (8.91%) and SE (8.30%). Waves are strongest in spring and weakest in fall. Summers are very calm, unless typhoons wander off far enough north. Strongest average waves are ENE and NNW waves.

text: Typhoon Hagupit, also known as Typhoon Ruby, entered the area late on December 3, in the same time it was upgraded into a Category 5 super typhoon. With this, the NDRRMC reported that schools were suspended in the areas: Samar, Biliran and Tacloban during December 4–5. On December 5, the NDRRMC had put up Signal Warnings No. 1 and 2 from the lower part of Luzon to the upper part of Mindanao. Rough seas and gale force winds were warned over the seaboards over the eastern part of the country. The Department of Health will be under Code Red alert at DOH-retained hospitals in regions expected to be hit by the typhoon starting on December 6. In the same time, PAGASA has put up a Signal No. 3 warnings over Samar and they are expecting a storm surge up to 4 metres high. Residents in at least 42 areas in Bicol and Visayas may have to take precautionary measures against possible storm surges due to Ruby. As of 7:30 a.m. Project NOAH said three of the 42 are under Storm Surge Advisory (SSA) 3, 11 are under SSA 2, and the rest are under SSA 1. SSA 3 involves waves of up to four meters above sea level; SSA 2 three meters; and SSA 1 two meters. It was also reported that schools and businesses were closed from December 5–6 in places in Visayas and southern Luzon.

text: Typhoon Hagupit, also known as Typhoon Ruby, entered the area late on December 3, in the same time it was upgraded into a Category 5 super typhoon. With this, the NDRRMC reported that schools were suspended in the areas:

text: Samar

text: Biliran

text: and

text: Tacloban

text: during December 4–5. On December 5, the NDRRMC had put up Signal Warnings No. 1 and 2 from the lower part of

text: Luzon

text: to the upper part of

text: Mindanao

text: . Rough seas and gale force winds were warned over the seaboards over the eastern part of the country. The Department of Health will be under Code Red alert at DOH-retained hospitals in regions expected to be hit by the typhoon starting on December 6. In the same time, PAGASA has put up a Signal No. 3 warnings over

text: Samar

text: and they are expecting a

text: storm surge

text: up to 4 metres high. Residents in at least 42 areas in Bicol and Visayas may have to take precautionary measures against possible storm surges due to Ruby. As of 7:30 a.m. Project NOAH said three of the 42 are under Storm Surge Advisory (SSA) 3, 11 are under SSA 2, and the rest are under SSA 1. SSA 3 involves waves of up to four meters above sea level; SSA 2 three meters; and SSA 1 two meters. It was also reported that schools and businesses were closed from December 5–6 in places in

text: Visayas

text: and southern Luzon.

text: In addition to affecting Vanuatu, Ivy produced heavy rainfall in Tikopia and Anuta, two small islands in the southeastern Solomon Islands. Later, intense rainbands spread across the Loyalty Islands in New Caledonia. Along the Bay of Plenty in New Zealand, the extratropical remnants of Ivy produced high waves that killed two people in Whakatane. The storm produced a 1 in 10 year storm surge as it passed the country that peaked at  at Omaio. The surge, in combination with waves, reached about  at Papamoa, based on the position of debris on the beach. Wind gusts reached  at the Whakatane Airport, and the combination of winds and waves produced beach erosion along the coast.

text: In addition to affecting Vanuatu, Ivy produced heavy rainfall in

text: Tikopia

text: and

text: Anuta

text: , two small islands in the southeastern

text: Solomon Islands

text: . Later, intense rainbands spread across the

text: Loyalty Islands

text: in

text: New Caledonia

text: . Along the

text: Bay of Plenty

text: in New Zealand, the extratropical remnants of Ivy produced high waves that killed two people in

text: Whakatane

text: . The storm produced a

text: 1 in 10 year

text: storm surge

text: as it passed the country that peaked at  at

text: Omaio

text: . The surge, in combination with waves, reached about  at

text: Papamoa

text: , based on the position of debris on the beach. Wind gusts reached  at the

text: Whakatane Airport

text: , and the combination of winds and waves produced beach erosion along the coast.

text: Wave action in Indonesian waters is largely generated by local winds, gentle in the equatorial zone but stronger on the northern and southern coasts subject to northeast and southeast trade winds, respectively. Ocean swell moves into the southern coast from the Indian Ocean and to the northern coast from the southwest Pacific, are creating particularly large waves in this area.

text: Wave action in Indonesian waters is largely generated by local winds, gentle in the equatorial zone but stronger on the northern and southern coasts subject to northeast and southeast trade winds, respectively. Ocean swell moves into the southern coast from the

text: Indian Ocean

text: and to the northern coast from the

text: southwest Pacific

text: , are creating particularly large waves in this area.

text: The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.

text: The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In

text: fluid

text: s, sound propagates primarily as a

text: pressure wave

text: . In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including

text: longitudinal waves

text: transverse waves

text: and

text: surface waves

text: The 1898 Georgia hurricane was a major hurricane that hit the U.S. state of Georgia, as well as the strongest on record in the state. It was first known to exist on September 29, although modern researchers estimated that it developed four days earlier to the east of the Lesser Antilles. The hurricane maintained a general northwest track throughout its duration, and it reached peak winds of 135 mph (215 km/h) on October 2. That day, it made landfall on Cumberland Island in Camden County, Georgia, causing record storm surge flooding. The hurricane caused heavy damage throughout the region, and killed at least 179 people. Impact was most severe in Brunswick, where a  storm surge was recorded. Overall damage was estimated at $1.5 million (1898 USD), most of which occurred in Georgia. In extreme northeastern Florida, strong winds nearly destroyed the city of Fernandina, while light crop damage was reported in southern South Carolina. After moving ashore, the hurricane quickly weakened and traversed much of North America; it continued northwestward until reaching the Ohio Valley and turning northeastward, and it was last observed on October 6 near Newfoundland.

text: The 1898 Georgia hurricane was a

text: major hurricane

text: that hit the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: Georgia

text: , as well as the strongest on record in the state. It was first known to exist on September 29, although modern researchers estimated that it developed four days earlier to the east of the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: . The hurricane maintained a general northwest track throughout its duration, and it reached peak winds of 135 mph (215 km/h) on October 2. That day, it made

text: landfall

text: on

text: Cumberland Island

text: in

text: Camden County, Georgia

text: , causing record

text: storm surge

text: flooding. The hurricane caused heavy damage throughout the region, and killed at least 179 people. Impact was most severe in

text: Brunswick

text: , where a  storm surge was recorded. Overall damage was estimated at $1.5 million (1898 USD), most of which occurred in Georgia. In extreme northeastern Florida, strong winds nearly destroyed the city of

text: Fernandina

text: , while light crop damage was reported in southern South Carolina. After moving ashore, the hurricane quickly weakened and traversed much of North America; it continued northwestward until reaching the Ohio Valley and turning northeastward, and it was last observed on October 6 near

text: Newfoundland

text: Isolated traveling, ocean surface gravity waves radiate only evanescent acoustic waves,and don't generate microbaroms.Microbaroms are generated by nonlinear interactions of ocean surface waves traveling in nearly opposite directions with similar frequencies in the lee of a storm,which produce the required standing wave conditions, also known as the clapotis. When the ocean storm is a tropical cyclone, the microbaroms are not produced near the eye wall where wind speeds are greatest, but originate from the trailing edge of the storm where the storm generated waves interact with the ambient ocean swells.

text: Isolated traveling, ocean surface

text: gravity wave

text: s radiate only

text: evanescent

text: acoustic waves,and don't generate microbaroms.Microbaroms are generated by nonlinear interactions of ocean surface waves traveling in nearly opposite directions with similar frequencies in the lee of a storm,which produce the required

text: standing wave

text: conditions, also known as the

text: clapotis

text: . When the ocean storm is a

text: tropical cyclone

text: , the microbaroms are not produced near the

text: eye wall

text: where wind speeds are greatest, but originate from the trailing edge of the storm where the storm generated waves interact with the ambient ocean

text: swells

text: Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of the sea. As long as the waves propagate slower than the wind speed just above the waves, there is an energy transfer from the wind to the waves. Both air pressure differences between the upwind and the lee side of a wave crest, as well as friction on the water surface by the wind, making the water to go into the shear stress causes the growth of the waves.

text: Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of the sea. As long as the waves propagate slower than the wind speed just above the waves, there is an energy transfer from the wind to the waves. Both air pressure differences between the upwind and the lee side of a wave

text: crest

text: , as well as friction on the water surface by the wind, making the water to go into the

text: shear stress

text: causes the growth of the waves.

text: Katrina's storm surge inundated all parishes surrounding Lake Pontchartrain, including St. Tammany, Tangipahoa, St. John the Baptist, and St. Charles Parishes. St. Tammany Parish received a two-part storm surge.  The first surge came as Lake Pontchartrain rose and the storm blew water from the Gulf of Mexico into the lake. The second came as the eye of Katrina passed, westerly winds pushed water into a bottleneck at the Rigolets Pass, forcing it farther inland. The range of surge levels in eastern St. Tammany Parish is estimated at , not including wave action.

text: Katrina's storm surge inundated all parishes surrounding Lake Pontchartrain, including

text: St. Tammany

text: , Tangipahoa,

text: St. John the Baptist

text: , and

text: St. Charles

text: Parishes. St. Tammany Parish received a two-part storm surge.  The first surge came as Lake Pontchartrain rose and the storm blew water from the Gulf of Mexico into the lake. The second came as the eye of Katrina passed, westerly winds pushed water into a bottleneck at the Rigolets Pass, forcing it farther inland. The range of surge levels in eastern St. Tammany Parish is estimated at , not including wave action.

text: Santa Fe planned for Ocean Wave to meet its passenger trains at Point Richmond, then transported the passengers and their associated luggage and freight across San Francisco Bay to the Market Street ferry terminal.  However, difficulties in completing the rail line to Point Richmond prevented Ocean Wave from being immediately placed into this service.  Instead the boat was used at first to haul supplies from San Francisco to Point Richmond.

text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: whitecaps

text: and

text: resonance

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: In Apia, Samoa, the heavy rains brought by Heta caused isolated reports of flooding. Heta's storm surge also closed down or washed out several roads. In Savai'i, the cyclones winds damaged powerlines, which made communications with the city difficult. In American Samoa, two weather stations reported winds of 75 mph (120 km/h) with gusts of 115 mph (185 km/h). The high winds destroyed over 600 homes and damaged 4,000 others. Offshore, the storm brought waves up to  high along the north and western part of the island. The combination of rough surf and storm surge damaged or destroyed many boats near Swains Island. Although no deaths were reported in Samoa, the storm managed to injure 20 people and leave between $50–150 million (2005 USD) in damage.

text: In

text: Apia, Samoa

text: , the heavy rains brought by Heta caused isolated reports of flooding. Heta's storm surge also closed down or washed out several roads. In

text: Savai'i

text: , the cyclones winds damaged powerlines, which made communications with the city difficult. In

text: American Samoa

text: , two weather stations reported winds of 75 mph (120 km/h) with gusts of 115 mph (185 km/h). The high winds destroyed over 600 homes and damaged 4,000 others. Offshore, the storm brought waves up to  high along the north and western part of the island. The combination of rough surf and storm surge damaged or destroyed many boats near

text: Swains Island

text: . Although no deaths were reported in Samoa, the storm managed to injure 20 people and leave between $50–150 million (2005 USD) in damage.

text: As waves travel from deep to shallow water, their shape alters (wave height increases, speed decreases, and length decreases as wave orbits become asymmetrical). This process is called shoaling.

text: As waves travel from deep to shallow water, their shape alters (wave height increases, speed decreases, and length decreases as wave orbits become asymmetrical). This process is called

text: shoaling

text: Wave was announced as CNBLUE's third studio album on August 5, 2014, with a release date of September 17. Describing a wave as having various shapes of "top, middle, and bottom", the title is meant to represent varying songs included on the album. Frontman Jung Yong-hwa explained that the band sought for "people who hear our songs to feel our music like they ride a wave", while also desiring "our music to spread" on a global scale.

text: Wave was announced as CNBLUE's third studio album on August 5, 2014, with a release date of September 17. Describing a

text: wave

text: as having various shapes of "top, middle, and bottom", the title is meant to represent varying songs included on the album. Frontman

text: Jung Yong-hwa

text: explained that the band sought for "people who hear our songs to feel our music like they ride a wave", while also desiring "our music to spread" on a global scale.

text: When the wind and the race current flow in opposite directions, the sea becomes particularly chaotic: wave heights can reach four metres have wavelengths smaller than 50 metres. The waves break with violence, thus making shipping conditions particularly dangerous. On the contrary, when the wind and the stream flow in the same direction, the sea becomes calm, provided that the tidal coefficient is not too great.

text: The delta of the Iponan River protruding to the sea broke down strong waves and during stormy weather and typhoons fishermen sought refuge on the Iponan riverbanks where logs and various typhoon debris also sprawls along the river. This served as a barrier from the turbulent waves and gusty winds, hence, the old folks named this place as Barra.

text: The delta of the Iponan River protruding to the sea broke down strong waves and during stormy weather and

text: typhoon

text: s fishermen sought refuge on the Iponan riverbanks where logs and various typhoon debris also sprawls along the river. This served as a barrier from the turbulent waves and gusty winds, hence, the old folks named this place as Barra.

text: When two waves having the same amplitude and frequency, and traveling in opposite directions, superpose each other, then a standing wave pattern is created. Note that, on a plucked string, the interfering waves are the waves reflected from the fixed end points of the string. Therefore, standing waves occur only at certain frequencies, which are referred to as resonant frequencies and are composed of a fundamental frequency and its higher harmonics. The resonant frequencies of a string are determined by the length between the fixed ends and the tension of the string.

text: When two waves having the same amplitude and frequency, and traveling in opposite directions,

text: superpose

text: each other, then a

text: standing wave

text: pattern is created. Note that, on a plucked string, the interfering waves are the waves reflected from the fixed end points of the string. Therefore, standing waves occur only at certain frequencies, which are referred to as resonant frequencies and are composed of a fundamental frequency and its higher harmonics. The resonant frequencies of a string are determined by the length between the fixed ends and the

text: tension

text: of the string.

text: On the afternoon of June 13, 1893, Ocean Wave came downriver from Portland, Oregon to Astoria, and then crossed across the Columbia to Ilwaco, Washington.  Later, Ocean Wave made its first trip of the summer from Portland direct to Ilwaco on July 3, 1893.  The steamer was “crowded with Portlanders who intend spending the summer at the North Beach.”  On July 21, 1893, the Oregon City Transportation Company, a steamboat concern, announced that through September 30, it would sell tickets to all points on North Beach, traveling on Ocean Wave with baggage being checked and transferred at no extra charge.  On August 4, 1893, it was advertised that tickets on the steamers Telephone, Lurline, Ocean Wave and the tug Illwaco were interchangeable.

text: On the afternoon of June 13, 1893, Ocean Wave came downriver from

text: Portland, Oregon

text: to Astoria, and then crossed across the Columbia to

text: Ilwaco, Washington

text: .  Later, Ocean Wave made its first trip of the summer from Portland direct to Ilwaco on July 3, 1893.  The steamer was “crowded with Portlanders who intend spending the summer at the North Beach.”  On July 21, 1893, the Oregon City Transportation Company, a steamboat concern, announced that through September 30, it would sell tickets to all points on North Beach, traveling on Ocean Wave with baggage being checked and transferred at no extra charge.  On August 4, 1893, it was advertised that tickets on the steamers Telephone,

text: Lurline

text: , Ocean Wave and the tug

text: Illwaco

text: were interchangeable.

text: The Big Bend Coast is the marshy coast extending about  from the mouth of the Ocklockonee River around Apalachee Bay and down the west coast of peninsular Florida to Anclote Key. This stretch of coast includes the coasts of Wakulla, Jefferson, Taylor, Dixie, Levy, Citrus, Hernando and Pasco counties. The Big Bend Coast is a drowned karst region, covered with salt marsh. It includes freshwater springs, oyster reefs, and the delta of the Suwannee River. There are barrier islands west of the Oklockonee River and south starting with Anclote Key, but there are no barrier islands between those places. The Big Bend Coast has little or no sand or mud. The karst topography has produced an irregular, frequently exposed, bedrock surface. Due to the width of the adjacent continental shelf (over ), low gradient slope of the coast (1:5000), and shelter from the usual wind direction of storms, the Big Bend Coast is generally subject to low wave energy. The coast is subject to storm surges.

text: The Big Bend Coast is the marshy coast extending about  from the mouth of the Ocklockonee River around

text: Apalachee Bay

text: and down the west coast of peninsular Florida to Anclote Key. This stretch of coast includes the coasts of Wakulla, Jefferson, Taylor,

text: Dixie

text: Levy

text: Citrus

text: Hernando

text: and

text: Pasco

text: counties. The Big Bend Coast is a drowned

text: karst

text: region, covered with

text: salt marsh

text: . It includes freshwater

text: springs

text: oyster

text: reef

text: s, and the

text: delta

text: of the

text: Suwannee River

text: . There are barrier islands west of the Oklockonee River and south starting with Anclote Key, but there are no barrier islands between those places. The Big Bend Coast has little or no

text: sand

text: or

text: mud

text: . The karst

text: topography

text: has produced an irregular, frequently exposed,

text: bedrock

text: surface. Due to the width of the adjacent

text: continental shelf

text: (over ), low

text: gradient slope

text: of the coast (1:5000), and shelter from the usual wind direction of storms, the Big Bend Coast is generally subject to low

text: wave energy

text: . The coast is subject to

text: storm surges

text: A tropical wave exited Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on August 18, and the northern portion split to become Tropical Storm Danny. The wave continued westward without development, crossing Central America into the Pacific Ocean on August 28. Convection remained minimal until September 3, when the system became better organized. A Low-pressure area developed on September 6, and deep convection consolidated around the circulation. Early on September 7, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) designated the low as Tropical Depression Fifteen-E about 1,130 miles (1,820 kilometres) west-southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula. Moving over warm water temperatures and modest wind shear, gradual intensification was anticipated. The depression moved slowly to the west due to a weakening subtropical ridge to its north. Shortly after developing, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Linda. By September 9, a new ridge developed east of Linda, causing the storm to turn northwestward. Despite intensifying into a strong tropical storm, Linda's low-level circulation was misaligned from its upper circulations, although the system developed expansive outflow to the south and east.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: exited Africa into the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: on August 18, and the northern portion split to become

text: Tropical Storm Danny

text: . The wave continued westward without development, crossing

text: Central America

text: into the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: on August 28.

text: Convection

text: remained minimal until September 3, when the system became better organized. A

text: Low-pressure area

text: developed on September 6, and deep convection consolidated around the

text: circulation

text: . Early on September 7, the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) designated the low as Tropical Depression Fifteen-E about 1,130 miles (1,820 kilometres) west-southwest of the southern tip of the

text: Baja California Peninsula

text: . Moving over warm

text: water temperatures

text: and modest

text: wind shear

text: , gradual intensification was anticipated. The depression moved slowly to the west due to a weakening

text: subtropical ridge

text: to its north. Shortly after developing, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Linda. By September 9, a new ridge developed east of Linda, causing the storm to turn northwestward. Despite intensifying into a strong tropical storm, Linda's low-level circulation was misaligned from its upper circulations, although the system developed expansive

text: outflow

text: to the south and east.

text: Many professional shapers outsource the highly specialized task of lamination to specialized "glassers", who laminate fiberglass to the foam core of the surfboard using thermosetting resins like polyester or epoxy. Fins and assorted plugs are usually installed after this process and the final product is fine sanded and often glossed with buffing compound and special glossing resin. When shaping, the shaper often takes into account the specifications of the client surfer, and molds his medium to best accommodate the user's personal surfing style and wave of choice.

text: Many professional shapers outsource the highly specialized task of lamination to specialized "glassers", who laminate

text: fiberglass

text: to the foam core of the surfboard using

text: thermosetting resins

text: like

text: polyester

text: or

text: epoxy

text: . Fins and assorted plugs are usually installed after this process and the final product is fine sanded and often glossed with buffing compound and special glossing resin. When shaping, the shaper often takes into account the specifications of the client surfer, and molds his medium to best accommodate the user's personal surfing style and wave of choice.

text: The system affected the Northern Vanuatu Islands between January 10 – 11 and was the fourth major tropical cyclone to affect the island nation since 1985, after Severe Tropical Cyclones Eric, Nigel and Uma. Ahead of Anne affecting Vanuatu, various alerts and warnings were issued including a hurricane warning. During January 10, the cyclone directly passed over the Torres Islands and came within 65 km (40 mi) of the Banks Islands, although it missed Vanuatu's most populated districts around Port Vila and the rest of Espiritu Santo. Within Vanuatu, over 1600 people were made homeless while wind gusts of up to  were recorded. Torrential rain, flooding and storm surge caused damage to houses, crops and property while triggering a landslide on the island of Epi. The hardest hit area was Torba Province with severe damage recorded on the islands of Ureparapara and the Torres Islands, while extensive damage was recorded on the islands of Vanua Lava and Gaua. Within the province, virtually the whole population lost their houses, as well as their cash crops. There were reports of  tidal waves, washing away houses on the west coast of Ureparapara, while significant wave heights of over  were recorded. Within the province of Sanma, severe damage was recorded on Espiritu Santo after Anne flooded huts, unroofed school buildings, uprooted coconut trees and destroyed the main wharf. Overall the total damages from Anne in Vanuatu, were estimated at .

text: The system affected the Northern Vanuatu Islands between January 10 – 11 and was the fourth major tropical cyclone to affect the island nation since 1985, after

text: Severe Tropical Cyclones

text: Eric

text: Nigel

text: and

text: Uma

text: . Ahead of Anne affecting Vanuatu, various

text: alerts and warnings

text: were issued including a hurricane warning. During January 10, the cyclone directly passed over the Torres Islands and came within 65 km (40 mi) of the Banks Islands, although it missed Vanuatu's most populated districts around

text: Port Vila

text: and the rest of

text: Espiritu Santo

text: . Within Vanuatu, over 1600 people were made homeless while wind gusts of up to  were recorded. Torrential rain, flooding and storm surge caused damage to houses, crops and property while triggering a landslide on the island of

text: Epi

text: . The hardest hit area was

text: Torba Province

text: with severe damage recorded on the islands of

text: Ureparapara

text: and the

text: Torres Islands

text: , while extensive damage was recorded on the islands of

text: Vanua Lava

text: and

text: Gaua

text: . Within the province, virtually the whole population lost their houses, as well as their cash crops. There were reports of  tidal waves, washing away houses on the west coast of Ureparapara, while significant wave heights of over  were recorded. Within the province of Sanma, severe damage was recorded on Espiritu Santo after Anne flooded huts, unroofed school buildings, uprooted coconut trees and destroyed the main wharf. Overall the total damages from Anne in Vanuatu, were estimated at .

text: It was eventually decided that the attack would take place in four waves, with about one minute separation in between: the first waves would carry regular bombs to blast the buildings containing the Gestapo offices open, while the last waves would attack with incendiary bombs to maximize the damage to the Gestapo archives. The bombs were set to explode with a delay of eleven seconds after being dropped, to minimise the risk of them damaging subsequent waves of bombers. It was also decided that it would take place on a workday, between 11:30 and 12:00 a.m., since few Danish prisoners would be held in the offices at this time, as most of them would have been escorted back to their cells elsewhere on campus for lunch, while the majority of the Gestapo staff would be present and preparing for the lunch break at 12:00 a.m.

text: There are two types of body waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves (P-waves) and Shear or Secondary waves (S-waves). P-waves are longitudinal waves that involve compression and expansion in the direction that the wave is moving and are always the first waves to appear on a seismogram as they are the fastest moving waves through solids. S-waves are transverse waves that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S-waves are slower than P-waves. Therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids.

text: There are two types of body waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves (

text: P-wave

text: s) and

text: Shear

text: or Secondary waves (

text: S-wave

text: s).

text: P-wave

text: s are

text: longitudinal wave

text: s that involve

text: compression

text: and

text: expansion

text: in the direction that the wave is moving and are always the first waves to appear on a

text: seismogram

text: as they are the fastest moving waves through solids.

text: S-waves

text: are

text: transverse wave

text: s that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S-waves are slower than P-waves. Therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids.

text: In the Cayman Islands, Gustav's heavy rains and storm surge flooded the streets of Cayman Brac and Little Cayman, the smaller easternmost "Sister Islands" in the chain. More than 1,100 people spent the night in government shelters in the three islands as high waves and heavy winds battered the chain, the National Emergency Operations Center said in a statement. Most people waited out the storm in private homes or hotels.

text: In the Cayman Islands, Gustav's heavy rains and storm surge flooded the streets of

text: Cayman Brac

text: and

text: Little Cayman

text: , the smaller easternmost "Sister Islands" in the chain. More than 1,100 people spent the night in government shelters in the three islands as high waves and heavy winds battered the chain, the National Emergency Operations Center said in a statement. Most people waited out the storm in private homes or hotels.

text: The wave-cut terraces on the south side of the ring mark former lake levels of this now-dry lakebed. Southerly winds, which are still predominant in this region, apparently drove waves against the south side of the ring, eroding the soft ash layers, breaching it, and creating a large opening on the south side.

text: Polarization (also polarisation) is a parameter applying to waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillation. Electromagnetic waves such as light exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as gravitational waves and sound waves in solids. On the other hand, sound waves in a gas or liquid only oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation, and the oscillation of ocean waves is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: Polarization (

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: also

text: polarisation) is a parameter applying to

text: wave

text: s that specifies the geometrical orientation of the

text: oscillation

text: Electromagnetic wave

text: s such as

text: light

text: exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as

text: gravitational wave

text: s and sound waves in solids. On the other hand,

text: sound wave

text: s in a gas or liquid only

text: oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation

text: , and the oscillation of

text: ocean waves

text: is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: Storm surge from Andrew caused more than $500 million in losses to boats and a hotel, which had its lobby flooded with  of water. Almost all the damage in Florida was caused by strong winds. Although effects from Andrew were catastrophic, the extent of damage was limited mainly from Kendall to Key Largo due to the small wind field of the storm. At the height of the storm, more than 1.4 million people lost electricity and another 150,000 were without telephone service. It is estimated that throughout Florida some 63,000 homes were destroyed, leaving at least 175,000 people homeless. In addition to homes, the storm damaged or destroyed 82,000 businesses, 32,900 acres of farmland, 31 public schools, 59 health facilities/hospitals, 9,500 traffic signals,  of power lines, and 3,000 watermains. At the Homestead Air Force Base, re-opened two years later as Homestead Air Reserve Base, most of the 2,000 buildings on the base became "severely damaged or unusable". The Cutler Ridge Mall suffered severe wind and water damage; after the storm, significant looting was reported at that location. In Everglades National Park and Biscayne National Park, more than 25% of trees were damaged or destroyed, including one-fourth of the royal palms and one-third of the pine trees in the former.

text: Storm surge from Andrew caused more than $500 million in losses to boats and a hotel, which had its lobby flooded with  of water. Almost all the damage in Florida was caused by strong winds. Although effects from Andrew were catastrophic, the extent of damage was limited mainly from

text: Kendall

text: to

text: Key Largo

text: due to the small wind field of the storm. At the height of the storm, more than 1.4 million people lost electricity and another 150,000 were without telephone service. It is estimated that throughout Florida some 63,000 homes were destroyed, leaving at least 175,000 people homeless. In addition to homes, the storm damaged or destroyed 82,000 businesses, 32,900 acres of farmland, 31 public schools, 59 health facilities/hospitals, 9,500 traffic signals,  of power lines, and 3,000 watermains. At the Homestead Air Force Base, re-opened two years later as

text: Homestead Air Reserve Base

text: , most of the 2,000 buildings on the base became "severely damaged or unusable". The

text: Cutler Ridge Mall

text: suffered severe wind and water damage; after the storm, significant looting was reported at that location. In

text: Everglades National Park

text: and

text: Biscayne National Park

text: , more than 25% of trees were damaged or destroyed, including one-fourth of the

text: royal palm

text: s and one-third of the pine trees in the former.

text: Along coastal areas, especially for the Outer Banks, storm surge can be a threat to life and property. As a hurricane makes landfall the ocean surface rises by the force of the storms's winds. Storm surges produced by hurricanes can reach heights up to twenty feet. The total height of a storm surge during a hurricane is constructed by the barometric of the storm (the lower the pressure, the higher the surge) and the hurricane's intensity (the higher intensity the higher the surge). The tidal stage also contributes to the storm surge height as well. If an area is at high tide the greater amount of storm surge will the beach receive. When a storm surge pushes through the Outer Banks the sounds and bays fill with water and in time the water recedes from these areas back through the beach outwards to the ocean causing flooding and erosion. Storm surge enhances the frequency of waves and strengthens currents which can severely damage marinas, destroy building structures, wash away coastal highways and erode beaches.

text: Along coastal areas, especially for the Outer Banks,

text: storm surge

text: can be a threat to life and property. As a hurricane makes landfall the ocean surface rises by the force of the storms's winds. Storm surges produced by hurricanes can reach heights up to twenty feet. The total height of a storm surge during a hurricane is constructed by the barometric of the storm (the lower the pressure, the higher the surge) and the hurricane's intensity (the higher intensity the higher the surge). The tidal stage also contributes to the storm surge height as well. If an area is at high tide the greater amount of storm surge will the beach receive. When a storm surge pushes through the Outer Banks the sounds and bays fill with water and in time the water recedes from these areas back through the beach outwards to the ocean causing flooding and erosion. Storm surge enhances the frequency of waves and strengthens currents which can severely damage marinas, destroy building structures, wash away coastal highways and erode beaches.

text: The Great Storm of 1824 (or Great Gale) was a hurricane force wind and storm surge that affected the south coast of England from 22 November 1924.

text: The Great Storm of 1824 (or Great Gale) was a

text: hurricane

text: force wind and

text: storm surge

text: that affected the south coast of

text: England

text: from 22 November 1924.

text: Wind-generated gravity waves on the free surface of the Earth's ponds, lakes, seas and oceans have a period of between 0.3 and 30 seconds (3 Hz to 0.03 Hz). Shorter waves are also affected by surface tension and are called gravity–capillary waves and (if hardly influenced by gravity) capillary waves. Alternatively, so-called infragravity waves, which are due to subharmonic nonlinear wave interaction with the wind waves, have periods longer than the accompanying wind-generated waves.

text: Wind-generated gravity waves on the

text: free surface

text: of the Earth's ponds, lakes, seas and oceans have a period of between 0.3 and 30 seconds (3 Hz to 0.03 Hz). Shorter waves are also affected by

text: surface tension

text: and are called

text: gravity–capillary wave

text: s and (if hardly influenced by gravity)

text: capillary wave

text: s. Alternatively, so-called

text: infragravity wave

text: s, which are due to

text: subharmonic

text: nonlinear

text: wave interaction with the wind waves, have periods longer than the accompanying wind-generated waves.

text: In all sail plans, the architect attempts to balance the force of the sails against the drag of the underwater keel in such a way that the vessel naturally points into the wind. In this way, if control is lost, the vessel will avoid broaching (turning edge-to-the wind), and being beaten by breaking waves. Broaching always causes uncomfortable motion, and in a storm, the breaking waves can destroy a lightly built boat. The architect also tries to balance the wind force on each sail plan against a range of loads and ballast. The calculation assures that the sail will not knock the vessel sideways with its mast in the water, capsizing and perhaps sinking it.

text: In all sail plans, the architect attempts to balance the force of the sails against the drag of the underwater

text: keel

text: in such a way that the vessel naturally points into the wind. In this way, if control is lost, the vessel will avoid

text: broaching

text: (turning edge-to-the wind), and being beaten by breaking waves. Broaching always causes uncomfortable motion, and in a storm, the breaking waves can destroy a lightly built boat. The architect also tries to balance the wind force on each sail plan against a range of loads and ballast. The calculation assures that the sail will not knock the vessel sideways with its

text: mast

text: in the water,

text: capsizing

text: and perhaps sinking it.

text: According to the American government's Climate Change Science Program, "With continued global warming, heat waves and heavy downpours are very likely to further increase in frequency and intensity. Substantial areas of North America are likely to have more frequent droughts of greater severity. Hurricane wind speeds, rainfall intensity, and storm surge levels are likely to increase. The strongest cold season storms are likely to become more frequent, with stronger winds and more extreme wave heights."

text: According to the American government's

text: Climate Change Science Program

text: , "With continued global warming, heat waves and heavy downpours are very likely to further increase in frequency and intensity. Substantial areas of North America are likely to have more frequent droughts of greater severity. Hurricane wind speeds, rainfall intensity, and storm surge levels are likely to increase. The strongest cold season storms are likely to become more frequent, with stronger winds and more extreme wave heights."

text: The lifeboats have maximum speeds of  and cruising speeds of . Cape-class lifeboats have fuel capacities of  and ranges of  when cruising. They are capable of operating at wind speeds of  and wave heights of . They can tow ships with displacements of up to  and can withstand  winds and -high breaking waves.

text: The lifeboats have maximum speeds of  and cruising speeds of . Cape-class lifeboats have fuel capacities of  and ranges of  when cruising. They are capable of operating at wind speeds of  and wave heights of . They can tow ships with

text: displacements

text: For example, consider a free particle. In quantum mechanics, there is wave–particle duality, so the properties of the particle can be described as the properties of a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave of arbitrary shape and extending over space as a wave function. The position and momentum of the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle states that both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be measured with complete precision. However, one can measure the position (alone) of a moving free particle, creating an eigenstate of position with a wave function that is very large (a Dirac delta) at a particular position x, and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such a wave function, the resultant x will be obtained with 100% probability (i.e., with full certainty, or complete precision). This is called an eigenstate of position—or, stated in mathematical terms, a generalized position eigenstate (eigendistribution). If the particle is in an eigenstate of position, then its momentum is completely unknown. On the other hand, if the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum, then its position is completely unknown.In an eigenstate of momentum having a plane wave form, it can be shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the eigenstate.

text: For example, consider a

text: free particle

text: . In quantum mechanics, there is

text: wave–particle duality

text: , so the properties of the particle can be described as the properties of a wave. Therefore, its

text: quantum state

text: can be represented as a

text: wave

text: of arbitrary shape and extending over space as a

text: wave function

text: . The position and momentum of the particle are

text: observables

text: . The

text: Uncertainty Principle

text: states that both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be measured with complete precision. However, one can measure the position (alone) of a moving free particle, creating an eigenstate of position with a wave function that is very large (a

text: Dirac delta

text: ) at a particular position x, and zero everywhere else. If one performs a position measurement on such a wave function, the resultant x will be obtained with 100% probability (i.e., with full certainty, or complete precision). This is called an eigenstate of position—or, stated in mathematical terms, a generalized position eigenstate (

text: eigendistribution

text: ). If the particle is in an eigenstate of position, then its momentum is completely unknown. On the other hand, if the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum, then its position is completely unknown.In an eigenstate of momentum having a

text: plane wave

text: form, it can be shown that the

text: wavelength

text: is equal to h/p, where h is

text: Planck's constant

text: and p is the momentum of the

text: eigenstate

text: Storm Surge is a 'Spinning Rapids' water ride at Thorpe Park, Surrey, United Kingdom manufactured by WhiteWater West. It is located in the Amity Beach area of the park, in the vicinity of the park's Tidal Wave-themed ride. Storm Surge, which opened in March 2011 with a fairground ride theme, makes use of the Tidal Wave water which has washed into Amity Cove, as the town enters the 1970s. The ride was relocated from the transforming "Cypress Gardens Florida, which was acquired by Merlin Entertainments to be turned into Legoland Florida.

text: Storm Surge is a 'Spinning Rapids' water ride at

text: Thorpe Park

text: Surrey

text: United Kingdom

text: manufactured by

text: WhiteWater West

text: . It is located in the Amity Beach area of the park, in the vicinity of the park's

text: Tidal Wave

text: -themed ride. Storm Surge, which opened in March 2011 with a fairground ride theme, makes use of the Tidal Wave water which has washed into Amity Cove, as the town enters the 1970s. The ride was relocated from the transforming "

text: Cypress Gardens

text: Florida, which was acquired by

text: Merlin Entertainments

text: to be turned into

text: Legoland Florida

text: In pre-European times, Māori knew the Brooklyn hills as Turanga-rere, translated as "the waving plumes of a war-party".  One interpretation suggests this may refer to "all trees on the hills waving in the wind like hair adornments on warriors dancing the haka".

text: In pre-European times,

text: Māori

text: knew the Brooklyn hills as Turanga-rere, translated as "the waving plumes of a war-party".  One interpretation suggests this may refer to "all trees on the hills waving in the wind like hair adornments on warriors dancing the

text: haka

text: The tropical wave that would become future Hurricane Trudy became identifiable on satellite imagery as early as September 30, emerging near the African coast off Cape Verde. However, the wave did not show any signs of development until October 16, when the wave developed into a tropical depression several hundred kilometers south of Acapulco. The tropical depression intensified significantly. The ship Maple Ace reported tropical storm-force winds about  from the center at 1800 UTC on October 18. In less than 36 hours, at 1200 UTC on October 20, Trudy became a powerful hurricane with Category Four equivalent maximum winds of  and a minimum pressure of  according to satellite estimates. The hurricane was at least as intense as Hurricane Max three years earlier and Hurricane Hernan earlier in the year. Estimates state that Trudy may have been the strongest eastern Pacific hurricane since wind estimates have been available from satellite images.<ref name="PHS1990">{{cite journal|journal=Monthly Weather Review|publisher=National Hurricane Center|author=Avila, Lixion|year=1990|title=Eastern North Pacific Season of 1990|accessdate=2013-05-26|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/1520-0493%281991%29119%3C2034%3AENPHSO%3E2.0.CO%3B2|format=PDF|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1991)119

text: The

text: tropical wave

text: that would become future Hurricane Trudy became identifiable on

text: satellite

text: imagery as early as September 30, emerging near the

text: Africa

text: n coast off

text: Cape Verde

text: . However, the wave did not show any signs of development until October 16, when the wave developed into a tropical depression several hundred kilometers south of

text: Acapulco

text: . The tropical depression

text: intensified significantly

text: . The ship Maple Ace reported

text: tropical storm-force

text: winds about  from the center at 1800 UTC on October 18. In less than 36 hours, at 1200 UTC on October 20, Trudy became a powerful hurricane with

text: Category Four

text: equivalent

text: maximum winds

text: of  and a minimum

text: pressure

text: of  according to satellite estimates. The hurricane was at least as intense as

text: Hurricane Max

text: three years earlier and

text: Hurricane Hernan

text: earlier in the year. Estimates state that Trudy may have been the strongest eastern

text: Pacific hurricane

text: since wind estimates have been available from satellite images.<ref name="PHS1990">{{cite journal|journal=

text: Monthly Weather Review

text: |publisher=National Hurricane Center|author=Avila, Lixion|year=1990|title=Eastern North Pacific Season of 1990|accessdate=2013-05-26|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/1520-0493%281991%29119%3C2034%3AENPHSO%3E2.0.CO%3B2|format=PDF|doi=10.1175/1520-0493(1991)119

text: On September 14, 2008, Hurricane Ike again leveled Cameron with a  storm surge just as the town was recovering from Rita in 2005. Ike destroyed over 90 percent of the homes in the parish seat and caused catastrophic flooding in every part of the parish. Damage due to storm surge and winds was far worse than what was seen with Hurricane Rita. A 2010 report on the damage sustained from the effects of Rita and Ike stated that few people returned to the town after the hurricanes, due to stricter building codes and high insurance costs that increased the cost of living dramatically. None of the stores have been rebuilt; only a gas station, bank, post office, and a restaurant remain (the latter two of which are still housed in trailers). Most of the residents still live in mobile homes. The First Baptist Church in the community was rebuilt in 2010.

text: On September 14, 2008,

text: Hurricane Ike

text: again leveled Cameron with a  storm surge just as the town was recovering from Rita in 2005. Ike destroyed over 90 percent of the homes in the parish seat and caused catastrophic flooding in every part of the parish. Damage due to storm surge and winds was far worse than what was seen with Hurricane Rita. A 2010 report on the damage sustained from the effects of Rita and Ike stated that few people returned to the town after the hurricanes, due to stricter building codes and high insurance costs that increased the cost of living dramatically. None of the stores have been rebuilt; only a gas station, bank, post office, and a restaurant remain (the latter two of which are still housed in trailers). Most of the residents still live in mobile homes. The First Baptist Church in the community was rebuilt in 2010.

text: When wind waves approach to coast area from deep water, the waves change their heights and lengths. The wave height becomes higher and the wavelength becomes shorter as the wave velocity is slowed when ocean waves approach to the shore. If the water depth is sufficiently shallow, the wave crest become steeper and the trough gets broader and shallower; finally, the ocean waves break at the shore. The motions of wave breaking are different with along to the steepness of shores and waves, and can be categorized by below three types.

text: The Outer Banks are susceptible to reoccurring hurricanes that pummel their fragile coastline. Hurricanes are a name for intense tropical cyclones that develop in the Atlantic Basin. A tropical cyclone is a non-frontal low-pressure system that forms over tropical or sub-tropical waters with organized thunderstorm activity and established surface wind circulation. A tropical cyclone begins as a tropical wave that commonly forms of the west coast of Africa. Tropical waves are areas of unsettled weather consisting of vertical air movement. Water vapor is drawn upward from warm surface waters and large amounts of heat energy are released when water vapor rises and condenses. Warm ocean temperatures of eighty degrees or higher to a depth of one hundred and fifty feet are needed to strengthen tropical cyclones. This is why the official hurricane season is from June 1 to November 30 (The summer–autumn peak). To determine the strength of a storm, the process of a developing hurricane is sectioned by four stages. First an organized area of thunderstorms that maintains structure for twenty-four hours or more is recognized as a tropical disturbance. If the develops a surface circulation and sustained maximum wind speeds of 38 mph, the storm advances to a tropical depression. Later, if the storm increases its maximum sustained wind speeds to 39–73 mph, the storm is referred as a tropical storm and at that point is given a name. For the storm to become a hurricane, the organized area of intense thunderstorms will have to developed a well defined area of surface circulation and maximum sustained winds speeds that measure over 74 mph. Hurricanes are classified into five different categories measured by the Saffir-Simpson scale, which categorizes these storms based on their wind speeds, barometric pressure, and storm surge.

text: All of these factors work together to determine the size of wind waves and the structures of the flows within:

text: A surge from the easterlies came in contact with a polar trough on May 13, creating an easterly wave which began developing in the afternoon near the island of Koror. The wave progressed northwestward away from the island and continued developing over the next few days. On May 16, the wave was upgraded to a tropical storm, the third of the season off the coast of the Philippines with winds of 45 mph (75 km/h). The storm, named Hope, continued northwestward, peaking first at 60 mph (90 km/h) before striking several islands over the Philippines. While over land, Tropical Storm Hope weakened to a minimal tropical storm on May 17 and into a tropical depression with no circulation later that day. The storm remained a tropical depression over the day, crossing the eastern island of the Philippines. Tropical Depression Hope left the island and began to strengthen back into a minimal tropical storm by May 18. However, the storm interacted with land once more and weakened back into a tropical depression on May 18.

text: A surge from the easterlies came in contact with a polar trough on May 13, creating an easterly wave which began developing in the afternoon near the island of

text: Koror

text: . The wave progressed northwestward away from the island and continued developing over the next few days. On May 16, the wave was upgraded to a tropical storm, the third of the season off the coast of the Philippines with winds of 45 mph (75 km/h). The storm, named Hope, continued northwestward, peaking first at 60 mph (90 km/h) before striking several islands over the Philippines. While over land, Tropical Storm Hope weakened to a minimal tropical storm on May 17 and into a tropical depression with no circulation later that day. The storm remained a tropical depression over the day, crossing the eastern island of the Philippines. Tropical Depression Hope left the island and began to strengthen back into a minimal tropical storm by May 18. However, the storm interacted with land once more and weakened back into a tropical depression on May 18.

text: On September 18, a tropical wave exited Africa and later crossed into the eastern Pacific on September 29 without development. Convection increased in the Pacific along the wave axis, spawning a broad low pressure area on October 5. Despite the presence of wind shear, it organized enough for the NHC to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression Sixteen-E on October 9 about  to the west-southwest of the southern tip of Baja California. Influenced by a high pressure system, the depression drifted northward. Six hours after being upgraded to a tropical storm, Olivia attained peak winds of 45 mph (75 km/h), although the convection was limited to its northern side due to wind shear. On October 11, the convective activity diminished and Olivia weakened to tropical depression status. Olivia deteriorated into a remnant low on October 13. It moved towards the east-southeast, and on October 15 was absorbed into the remnants of Tropical Storm Norman. Olivia never affected land.

text: On September 18, a

text: tropical wave

text: exited

text: Africa

text: and later crossed into the eastern

text: Pacific

text: on September 29 without development. Convection increased in the Pacific along the wave axis, spawning a broad

text: low pressure area

text: on October 5. Despite the presence of

text: wind shear

text: , it organized enough for the NHC to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression Sixteen-E on October 9 about  to the west-southwest of the southern tip of

text: Baja California

text: . Influenced by a

text: high pressure system

text: , the depression drifted northward. Six hours after being upgraded to a tropical storm, Olivia attained peak winds of 45 mph (75 km/h), although the convection was limited to its northern side due to wind shear. On October 11, the convective activity diminished and Olivia weakened to tropical depression status. Olivia deteriorated into a remnant low on October 13. It moved towards the east-southeast, and on October 15 was absorbed into the remnants of

text: Tropical Storm Norman

text: . Olivia never affected land.

text: Amazed at the ease with which he shapes the iron, as if shaping mud with waves and straight lines. The smoothness of the curves and the lightness of the forms denote an absolute master at manipulating the wrought iron.

text: Amazed at the ease with which he shapes the iron, as if shaping mud with waves and straight lines. The smoothness of the curves and the lightness of the forms denote an absolute master at manipulating the

text: wrought iron

text: During a severe wind storm on February 25, 1902, Ocean Wave was blown off its moorings at Point Richmond and drifted about one-half mile into shallow water where it was grounded.  A tug as well as the ferry San Pablo tried to pull Ocean Wave back into deeper water, but were unsuccessful.  Finally it was decided to put a crew aboard the stranded ferry, and they started a fire in the boiler.  With steam up, Ocean Wave was able to get clear under its own power.  The ferry then went to San Francisco for repairs, but the damage was not very great.

text: During a severe wind storm on February 25, 1902, Ocean Wave was blown off its moorings at Point Richmond and drifted about one-half mile into shallow water where it was grounded.  A tug as well as the ferry

text: San Pablo

text: tried to pull Ocean Wave back into deeper water, but were unsuccessful.  Finally it was decided to put a crew aboard the stranded ferry, and they started a fire in the boiler.  With steam up, Ocean Wave was able to get clear under its own power.  The ferry then went to San Francisco for repairs, but the damage was not very great.

text: The ride is set in a 1950s New England fishing village which has been hit by a tidal wave, named "Amity Beach". The surrounding area has a high level of detail to carry this theme. The ride's queueline is host to a number of partially ruined buildings, including a bathroom with a leaking shower, a toilet and a house with a boat stuck in its roof. The station is built at an angle to give the impression that the building has been damaged by the wave. The area's New England setting is only rough, as Storm Surge is set in Virginia.

text: The ride is set in a 1950s

text: New England

text: fishing village which has been hit by a

text: tidal wave

text: , named "Amity Beach". The surrounding area has a high level of detail to carry this theme. The ride's queueline is host to a number of partially ruined buildings, including a bathroom with a leaking shower, a toilet and a house with a boat stuck in its roof. The station is built at an angle to give the impression that the building has been damaged by the wave. The area's New England setting is only rough, as

text: Storm Surge

text: is set in

text: Virginia

text: Marine weather warnings and forecasts in print and prognostic chart formats are produced for up five days into the future.  Forecasts in printed form include the High Seas Forecast, Offshore Marine Forecasts, and Coastal Waters Forecasts.  To help shorten the length of the forecast products, single words and phrases are used to describe areas out at sea.  Experimental gridded significant wave height forecasts began being produced by the Ocean Prediction Center in 2006, a first step toward digital marine service for high seas and offshore areas.  Additional gridded products such as surface pressure and winds are under development.  Recently, National Weather Service operational extratropical storm surge model output to provide experimental extratropical storm surge guidance for coastal weather forecast offices to assist them in coastal flood warning and forecast operations.

text: Marine weather warnings and forecasts in print and

text: prognostic chart

text: formats are produced for up five days into the future.  Forecasts in printed form include the High Seas Forecast, Offshore Marine Forecasts, and Coastal Waters Forecasts.  To help shorten the length of the forecast products, single words and phrases are used to describe areas out at sea.  Experimental gridded significant wave height forecasts began being produced by the Ocean Prediction Center in 2006, a first step toward digital marine service for high seas and offshore areas.  Additional gridded products such as surface pressure and winds are under development.  Recently, National Weather Service operational extratropical storm surge model output to provide experimental extratropical storm surge guidance for coastal weather forecast offices to assist them in

text: coastal flood warning

text: and forecast operations.

text: So soft was the wind and the waves on the corn.

text: In addition to this primary compression wave, other waves, known as harmonics, are created. Harmonics are caused by factors including: the imperfect wobbling and shaking of the clarinet reed, the reed sealing the mouthpiece opening for part of the wave cycle (which creates a flattened section of the sound wave) and imperfections (bumps and holes) in the clarinet bore. A wide variety of compression waves are created, but only some (primarily the odd harmonics) are reinforced. These extra waves are what gives the clarinet its characteristic tone.

text: In addition to this primary compression wave, other waves, known as

text: harmonics

text: , are created. Harmonics are caused by factors including: the imperfect wobbling and shaking of the clarinet reed, the reed sealing the mouthpiece opening for part of the wave cycle (which creates a flattened section of the sound wave) and imperfections (bumps and holes) in the clarinet bore. A wide variety of compression waves are created, but only some (primarily the odd harmonics) are reinforced. These extra waves are what gives the clarinet its characteristic tone.

text: A gravity wave results when fluid is displaced from a position of equilibrium. The restoration of the fluid to equilibrium will produce a movement of the fluid back and forth, called a wave orbit. Gravity waves on an air–sea interface of the ocean are called surface gravity waves or surface waves, while gravity waves that are within the body of the water (such as between parts of different densities) are called internal waves.  Wind-generated waves on the water surface are examples of gravity waves, as are tsunamis and ocean tides.

text: A gravity wave results when fluid is displaced from a position of

text: equilibrium

text: . The restoration of the fluid to equilibrium will produce a movement of the fluid back and forth, called a wave orbit. Gravity waves on an air–sea interface of the ocean are called surface gravity waves or

text: surface wave

text: s, while gravity waves that are within the body of the water (such as between parts of different densities) are called

text: internal wave

text: s.

text: Wind-generated waves

text: on the water surface are examples of gravity waves, as are

text: tsunami

text: s and ocean

text: tide

text: s.

text: Conversely, coastlines along North America such as those along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Texas to Florida, and Asia such as the Bay of Bengal, have long, gently sloping shelves and shallow water depths. On the Gulf side of Florida, the edge of the Floridian Plateau lies more than  offshore of Marco Island in Collier County. Florida Bay, lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland, is also very shallow; depths typically vary between  and . These areas are subject to higher storm surges, but smaller waves. This difference is because in deeper water, a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane. However, upon entering a shallow, gently sloping shelf, the surge cannot be dispersed, but is driven ashore by the wind stresses of the hurricane. Topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent. Areas where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level are at particular risk from storm surge inundation.

text: Conversely, coastlines along

text: North America

text: such as those along the Gulf of Mexico coast from Texas to Florida, and

text: Asia

text: such as the Bay of Bengal, have long, gently sloping shelves and shallow water depths. On the Gulf side of

text: Florida

text: , the edge of the Floridian Plateau lies more than  offshore of Marco Island in

text: Collier County

text: Florida Bay

text: , lying between the

text: Florida Keys

text: and the mainland, is also very shallow; depths typically vary between  and . These areas are subject to higher storm surges, but smaller waves. This difference is because in deeper water, a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane. However, upon entering a shallow, gently sloping shelf, the surge cannot be dispersed, but is driven ashore by the wind stresses of the hurricane. Topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent. Areas where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level are at particular risk from storm surge inundation.

text: Along the east coast of the United States, a nor'easter involving the remnants of Ida resulted in widespread damage along coastal areas. In North Carolina strong winds downed several trees loosened in saturated soil. In Rockingham County, one person was killed after being struck by a branch while driving. Four homes were destroyed along the Outer Banks, and over 500 others were damaged, leaving at least $5.8 million in losses. Widespread coastal damage and flooding took place in Virginia, as rainfall exceeding  fell in many places and large waves battered beaches. In some areas, roads were closed multiple times due to flooding. Minor damage was also reported as a few homes were inundated with up to  of water. Some areas reported a storm surge comparable to that of Hurricanes Gloria in 1985 and Isabel in 2003. Damage from the storm in Virginia was estimated to be at least $38.8 million, of which $25 million was in Norfolk alone. In New York, one person drowned after being caught in rough seas off Rockaway Beach. Total beach losses in the state reached $8.2 million.

text: Along the east coast of the United States, a

text: nor'easter

text: involving the remnants of Ida resulted in widespread damage along coastal areas. In

text: North Carolina

text: strong winds downed several trees loosened in saturated soil. In

text: Rockingham County

text: , one person was killed after being struck by a branch while driving. Four homes were destroyed along the

text: Outer Banks

text: , and over 500 others were damaged, leaving at least $5.8 million in losses. Widespread coastal damage and flooding took place in Virginia, as rainfall exceeding  fell in many places and large waves battered beaches. In some areas, roads were closed multiple times due to flooding. Minor damage was also reported as a few homes were inundated with up to  of water. Some areas reported a storm surge comparable to that of Hurricanes

text: Gloria

text: in

text: and

text: Isabel

text: in

text: . Damage from the storm in Virginia was estimated to be at least $38.8 million, of which $25 million was in

text: Norfolk

text: alone. In New York, one person drowned after being caught in rough seas off Rockaway Beach. Total beach losses in the state reached $8.2 million.

text: If the free surface of a liquid is disturbed, waves are produced on the surface. These waves are not elastic waves due to any elastic force; they are gravity waves caused by the force of gravity tending to bring the surface of the disturbed liquid back to its horizontal level. Momentum causes the wave to overshoot, thus oscillating and spreading the disturbance to the neighboring portions of the surface. The velocity of the surface waves varies as the square root of the wavelength if the liquid is deep; therefore long waves on the sea go faster than short ones. Very minute waves or ripples are not due to gravity but to capillary action, and have properties different from those of the longer ocean surface waves,because the surface is increased in area by the ripples and the capillary forces are in this case large compared with the gravitational forces.Capillary ripples are damped both by sub-surface viscosity and by surface rheology.

text: If the free surface of a liquid is disturbed,

text: wave

text: s are produced on the surface. These waves are not

text: elastic waves

text: due to any

text: elastic force

text: ; they are

text: gravity wave

text: s caused by the force of gravity tending to bring the surface of the disturbed liquid back to its horizontal level.

text: Momentum

text: causes the wave to

text: overshoot

text: , thus oscillating and spreading the disturbance to the neighboring portions of the surface. The velocity of the surface waves varies as the square root of the

text: wavelength

text: if the liquid is deep; therefore

text: long waves

text: on the sea go faster than short ones. Very minute waves or ripples are not due to gravity but to

text: capillary action

text: , and have properties different from those of the longer

text: ocean surface waves

text: ,because the surface is increased in area by the ripples and the capillary forces are in this case large compared with the gravitational forces.Capillary ripples are damped both by sub-surface

text: viscosity

text: and by

text: surface rheology

text: Includes wind, wave, hydro, microgeneration, smart grids, and grid integration of renewables

text: Includes wind, wave, hydro,

text: microgeneration

text: , smart grids, and grid integration of renewables

text: As opposed to permanent or semi permanent obstructions which cause waves to break, surfable waves are sometimes defined by the nature of their generation.

text: A cross swell is generated when the wave systems are longer period swell, rather than short period wind generated waves.

text: A cross swell is generated when the wave systems are longer period

text: swell

text: , rather than short period wind generated waves.

text: On October 2, the hurricane continued toward the west-northwest, approaching the southeastern United States. That day, it made landfall on Cumberland Island in Camden County, Georgia, and initially was thought to have done so as a Category 2 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. A storm surge of  was observed in Brunswick, Georgia, suggesting a central pressure of 938 mbar based on the SLOSH model. Such intensity ranked the hurricane tied for the 16th strongest United States landfall, as well as the strongest in the state of Georgia. It is also the most recent major hurricane to hit the state as of 2011. Additionally, its radius of maximum wind was estimated at 20 miles (33 km). Almost a century after the hurricane, researchers estimated the hurricane made landfall with winds of 135 mph (215 km/h), a Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. After making landfall, the hurricane quickly weakened, deteriorating to tropical storm status within 12 hours. After moving across Georgia, the storm weakened further to tropical depression status over northeastern Alabama on October 3. It continued northwestward through the Ohio Valley before recurving northeastward, accelerating through southeastern Canada and later dissipating over Newfoundland on October 6.

text: On October 2, the hurricane continued toward the west-northwest, approaching the southeastern United States. That day, it made

text: landfall

text: on

text: Cumberland Island

text: in

text: Camden County, Georgia

text: , and initially was thought to have done so as a Category 2 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. A

text: storm surge

text: of  was observed in

text: Brunswick, Georgia

text: , suggesting a central pressure of 938 mbar based on the

entity_name: Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge from Hurricanes

text: SLOSH model

text: . Such intensity ranked the hurricane tied for the 16th strongest

text: United States

text: landfall, as well as the strongest in the state of Georgia. It is also the most recent major hurricane to hit the state as of 2011. Additionally, its

text: radius of maximum wind

text: was estimated at 20 miles (33 km). Almost a century after the hurricane, researchers estimated the hurricane made landfall with winds of 135 mph (215 km/h), a Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson scale. After making landfall, the hurricane quickly weakened, deteriorating to tropical storm status within 12 hours. After moving across Georgia, the storm weakened further to tropical depression status over northeastern Alabama on October 3. It continued northwestward through the

text: Ohio Valley

text: before recurving northeastward, accelerating through southeastern Canada and later dissipating over

text: Newfoundland

text: on October 6.

text: Internal waves can form at the boundary between water layers of different densities. These sub-surface waves are called internal waves. As is the case with ocean waves at the air-ocean interface, internal waves possess troughs, crests, wavelength, and period. Internal waves move very slowly because the density difference between the joined media is very small. Internal waves occur in the ocean at the base of the pycnocline, especially at the bottom edge of a steep thermocline. The wave height of internal waves may be greater than , causing the pycnocline to undulate slowly through a considerable depth. Their wavelength often exceeds  and their periods are typically 5 to 8 minutes. Internal waves are generated by wind energy, tidal energy, and ocean currents. Surface manifestations of internal waves have been photographed from space.

text: Internal waves can form at the boundary between water layers of different densities. These sub-surface waves are called internal waves. As is the case with ocean waves at the air-ocean interface, internal waves possess troughs, crests, wavelength, and period. Internal waves move very slowly because the density difference between the joined media is very small. Internal waves occur in the ocean at the base of the

text: pycnocline

text: , especially at the bottom edge of a steep

text: thermocline

text: . The wave height of internal waves may be greater than , causing the pycnocline to undulate slowly through a considerable depth. Their wavelength often exceeds  and their periods are typically 5 to 8 minutes. Internal waves are generated by wind energy, tidal energy, and ocean currents. Surface manifestations of internal waves have been photographed from space.

text: representing waves of permanent shape f that propagate at constant speed c. These waves are called solitary waves if they are localized disturbances, that is, if the wave profile f decays at infinity. If the solitary waves retain their shape and speed after interacting with other waves of the same type, we say that the solitary waves are solitons. There is a close connection between integrability and solitons.In the limiting case when κ = 0 the solitons become peaked (shaped like the graph of the function f(x) = e), and they are then called peakons. It is possible to provide explicit formulas for the peakon interactions, visualizing thus the fact that they are solitons. For the smooth solitons the soliton interactions are less elegant. This is due in part to the fact that, unlike the peakons, the smooth solitons are relatively easy to describe qualitatively — they are smooth, decaying exponentially fast at infinity, symmetric with respect to the crest, and with two inflection points — but explicit formulas are not available. Notice also that the solitary waves are orbitally stable i.e. their shape is stable under small perturbations, both for the smooth solitons and for the peakons.

text: representing waves of permanent shape f that propagate at constant speed c. These waves are called solitary waves if they are localized disturbances, that is, if the wave profile f decays at infinity. If the solitary waves retain their shape and speed after interacting with other waves of the same type, we say that the solitary waves are solitons. There is a close connection between integrability and solitons.In the limiting case when κ = 0 the solitons become peaked (shaped like the graph of the function f(x) = e), and they are then called

text: peakon

text: s. It is possible to provide explicit formulas for the peakon interactions, visualizing thus the fact that they are solitons. For the smooth solitons the soliton interactions are less elegant. This is due in part to the fact that, unlike the peakons, the smooth solitons are relatively easy to describe qualitatively — they are smooth, decaying exponentially fast at infinity, symmetric with respect to the crest, and with two inflection points — but explicit formulas are not available. Notice also that the solitary waves are orbitally stable i.e. their shape is stable under small perturbations, both for the smooth solitons and for the peakons.

text: Documented cases of vibrational communication are almost exclusively restricted to Rayleigh waves or bending waves. Seismic energy in the form of Rayleigh waves transmits most efficiently between 10 and 40 Hz. This is the range in which elephants may communicate seismically. In areas with little to no human-generated seismic noise, frequencies around 20 Hz are relatively noise-free, other than vibrations associated with thunder or earth tremors, making it a reasonably quiet communication channel. Both airborne and vibrational waves are subject to interference and alteration from environmental factors. Factors such as wind and temperature influence airborne sound propagation, whereas propagation of seismic signals are affected by the substrate type and heterogeneity. Airborne sound waves spread spherically rather than cylindrically, attenuate more rapidly (losing 6 dB for every doubling of distance) than ground surface waves such as Rayleigh waves (3 dB loss for every doubling of distance), and thus ground surface waves maintain integrity longer.  Vibrational signals are probably not very costly to produce for small animals, whereas the generation of air-borne sound is limited by body size.

text: Documented cases of vibrational communication are almost exclusively restricted to Rayleigh waves or bending waves. Seismic energy in the form of Rayleigh waves transmits most efficiently between 10 and 40

text: Hz

text: . This is the range in which elephants may communicate seismically. In areas with little to no human-generated seismic noise, frequencies around 20 Hz are relatively noise-free, other than vibrations associated with thunder or earth tremors, making it a reasonably quiet communication channel. Both airborne and vibrational waves are subject to interference and alteration from environmental factors. Factors such as wind and temperature influence airborne sound propagation, whereas propagation of seismic signals are affected by the substrate type and heterogeneity. Airborne sound waves spread spherically rather than cylindrically, attenuate more rapidly (losing 6

text: dB

text: for every doubling of distance) than ground surface waves such as Rayleigh waves (3 dB loss for every doubling of distance), and thus ground surface waves maintain integrity longer.  Vibrational signals are probably not very costly to produce for small animals, whereas the generation of air-borne sound is limited by body size.

text: As the hurricane passed into the Gulf of Mexico, high tides and strong winds affected the northern U.S. Gulf Coast, beginning in the Big Bend and the Florida Panhandle. The town of Cedar Key experienced light rain as the storm passed well to its southwest. The town also witnessed peak winds of  that led to reports of yachts capsizing. The Florida Panhandle, closer to the center of the storm, experienced much higher winds and sustained heavier damages. Winds of  affected the town of Pensacola, causing significant damage to property in the area. Farther west, other communities reported even more severe damage due to high tides and storm surge. For instance, the city of Mobile, Alabama, experienced one of its worst floods on record as a storm surge caused the Mobile River to overflow, submerging the Mobile waterfront to a depth of  and spreading floodwater two to three blocks inland. Strong winds that peaked at  in the city topped trees, blew down fences, and unroofed some homes. Some damage occurred along the Mississippi coast as waves washed out some coastal structures and winds prostrated trees. However, the worst damage occurred in the Mississippi River Delta, just to the east of the center, where severe flooding left large sections of countryside underwater. Severe damage occurred to crops in the area, particularly rice and sugarcane: entire rice fields were flooded to a depth of several feet, and much of the sugarcane crop was flattened by strong winds. In the Bayou Teche country, the hurricane blew down numerous outbuildings, unroofed numerous homes, and destroyed some large dwellings and churches. After the storm, growers estimated that 30–60% of the rice crop sustained damage. In many areas at least one-third of the timber was downed.

text: As the hurricane passed into the Gulf of Mexico, high tides and strong winds affected the northern U.S. Gulf Coast, beginning in the

text: Big Bend

text: and the

text: Florida Panhandle

text: . The town of

text: Cedar Key

text: experienced light rain as the storm passed well to its southwest. The town also witnessed peak winds of  that led to reports of yachts capsizing. The Florida Panhandle, closer to the center of the storm, experienced much higher winds and sustained heavier damages. Winds of  affected the town of

text: Pensacola

text: , causing significant damage to property in the area. Farther west, other communities reported even more severe damage due to high tides and storm surge. For instance, the city of

text: Mobile, Alabama

text: , experienced one of its worst floods on record as a storm surge caused the

text: Mobile River

text: to overflow, submerging the Mobile waterfront to a depth of  and spreading floodwater two to three blocks inland. Strong winds that peaked at  in the city topped trees, blew down fences, and unroofed some homes. Some damage occurred along the Mississippi coast as waves washed out some coastal structures and winds prostrated trees. However, the worst damage occurred in the

text: Mississippi River Delta

text: , just to the east of the center, where severe flooding left large sections of countryside underwater. Severe damage occurred to crops in the area, particularly rice and sugarcane: entire rice fields were flooded to a depth of several feet, and much of the sugarcane crop was flattened by strong winds. In the

text: Bayou Teche

text: country, the hurricane blew down numerous outbuildings, unroofed numerous homes, and destroyed some large dwellings and

text: churches

text: . After the storm, growers estimated that 30–60% of the rice crop sustained damage. In many areas at least one-third of the

text: timber

text: was downed.

text: Winds at Chicama are consistently offshore, but the swell is notoriously inconsistent.  It needs a good swell to break properly, and days above head high are relatively rare.  As a guide, wave sizes at the main point are around half the size of open ocean swell charts, and waves less than about 4 feet on the point (i.e. 8 feet on the swell charts) tend to be quite weak and slow. Best surfing is from around Easter Week (Semana Santa) and through the winter months in the southern hemisphere to about September when great storms in the Roaring Forties direct their wave energy toward Peru.  The water is cool (17–22 °C), like much of Peru, due to cold currents from the south.  Climate is warm and springlike (15–28 °C), however wind chill is a factor, created by the venturi effects from the headland.  A 2–3 mm wetsuit is recommended as well as booties for walking up the beach.

text: Winds at Chicama are consistently offshore, but the swell is notoriously inconsistent.  It needs a good swell to break properly, and days above head high are relatively rare.  As a guide, wave sizes at the main point are around half the size of open ocean swell charts, and waves less than about 4 feet on the point (i.e. 8 feet on the swell charts) tend to be quite weak and slow. Best surfing is from around

text: Easter Week

text: Semana Santa

text: ) and through the winter months in the

text: southern hemisphere

text: to about September when great storms in the

text: Roaring Forties

text: direct their wave energy toward Peru.  The water is cool (17–22 °C), like much of Peru, due to cold currents from the south.  Climate is warm and springlike (15–28 °C), however

text: wind chill

text: is a factor, created by the

text: venturi effect

text: s from the headland.  A 2–3 mm

text: wetsuit

text: is recommended as well as

text: boot

text: ies for walking up the beach.

text: into the Gulf, where it weakened, then strengthenedinto a massive Category 5 with 175 mph (280 km/h) sustained winds. Slowly turning north along the eastern coast of Louisiana, at 4 a.m. August 29, sustained winds were 132 mph (211 km/h), 90 miles (114 km) SSE of New Orleans.As Katrina came ashore near Buras, LA at 6:10 CDT, withreported  winds (Category 3), it passed  east of New Orleans and headed to the Mississippi state line (mouth of Pearl River, 10 a.m. CDT),with hurricane-force winds travelling up central Mississippi until weakening at Meridian,and entering Tennessee as a tropical storm.  Despite the hurricane force centered on Mississippi, neighboring areas were also affected: when New Orleans began slowly flooding with high east/north winds, a 28-foot (9 m) storm surge eastward from Bay St. Louis devastated coastal areas with 30–55 foot (17 m) sea waves, flooding 12 miles (19 km) inland.  The waves pushed barges, oil rigs, ships, and debris into submerged towns to flatten many coastal buildings across to Pascagoula with 20-foot (6 m) surge,  and into Alabama with 15-foot (5 m) surge and 24-foot (7 m) waves battering beach houses inside Mobile Bay and tilting the battleship .  (See extensive details below).

text: into the

text: Gulf

text: , where it weakened, then strengthenedinto a massive Category 5 with 175 mph (280 km/h) sustained winds. Slowly turning north along the eastern coast of Louisiana, at 4 a.m. August 29, sustained winds were 132 mph (211 km/h), 90 miles (114 km)

text: SSE

text: of New Orleans.As Katrina came ashore near

text: Buras, LA

text: at 6:10 CDT, withreported  winds (Category 3), it passed  east of New Orleans and headed to the Mississippi state line (mouth of

text: Pearl River

text: , 10 a.m. CDT),with hurricane-force winds travelling up central Mississippi until weakening at

text: Meridian

text: ,and entering

text: Tennessee

text: as a tropical storm.  Despite the hurricane force centered on Mississippi, neighboring areas were also affected: when New Orleans began slowly flooding with high east/north winds, a 28-foot (9 m) storm surge eastward from

text: Bay St. Louis

text: devastated coastal areas with 30–55 foot (17 m) sea waves, flooding 12 miles (19 km) inland.  The waves pushed barges, oil rigs, ships, and debris into submerged towns to flatten many coastal buildings across to

text: Pascagoula

text: with 20-foot (6 m) surge,  and into

text: Alabama

text: with 15-foot (5 m) surge and 24-foot (7 m) waves battering beach houses inside

text: Mobile Bay

text: and tilting the battleship .  (See extensive details below).

text: The central white dwarf, the remaining compact core of the original star, produces a powerful and hot (≈10,000 K) wind blowing with a speed of 300 kilometers per second, which has generated waves 100 billion kilometres high. The waves are generated by supersonic shocks formed when the local gas is compressed and heated in front of the rapidly expanding lobes. Atoms caught in the shocks radiate a visible light. These winds are what give this nebula its unique 'spider' shape and also contribute to the expansion of the nebula.

text: The central

text: white dwarf

text: , the remaining compact core of the original star, produces a powerful and hot (≈10,000 K) wind blowing with a speed of 300 kilometers per second, which has generated waves 100 billion kilometres high. The waves are generated by supersonic shocks formed when the local gas is compressed and heated in front of the rapidly expanding lobes. Atoms caught in the shocks radiate a visible light. These winds are what give this nebula its unique 'spider' shape and also contribute to the expansion of the nebula.

text: Wind waves are mechanical waves that propagate. along the interface between water and air; the restoring force is provided by gravity, and so they are often referred to as surface gravity waves. As the wind blows, pressure and friction perturb the equilibrium of the water surface and transfer energy from the air to the water, forming waves. The initial formation of waves by the wind is described in the theory of Phillips from 1957, and the subsequent growth of the small waves has been modeled by Miles, also in 1957.

text: Wind waves are mechanical

text: wave

text: s that propagate. along the interface between

text: water

text: and

text: air

text: ; the restoring force is provided by gravity, and so they are often referred to as

text: surface gravity waves

text: . As the

text: wind

text: blows, pressure and friction perturb the equilibrium of the water surface and transfer energy from the air to the water, forming waves. The initial formation of waves by the wind is described in the theory of Phillips from 1957, and the subsequent growth of the small waves has been modeled by

text: Miles

text: , also in 1957.

text: A combined floating wave and wind power plant was installed at Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm in 2010.

text: A combined floating

text: wave

text: and wind power plant was installed at

text: Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm

text: in 2010.

text: Another way to arrive at this result is to note that the wave equation may be "factored":

text: In general groundswell produces waves that are much better for surfing. Wind swell is usually smaller, and almost always choppier and harder to surf than groundswell. Although both are present at most surf spots, groundswell creates much better breaking waves and dominates the lineup. This distinct separation occurs because groundswell originates far from the shore and has more time to separate into organized patterns, which are much easier to surf.

text: In the Florida Keys, Arlene produced wind gusts of up to 60 mph (95 km/h), causing wind damage to four homes in Lower Matecumbe Key. The storm caused a storm surge of 1.25 feet (0.38 m) above normal. Waves on top of the surge caused flooding on roads in Key West. Damage in the Florida Keys totaled to $90,000 (2005 USD).

text: In the

text: Florida Keys

text: , Arlene produced wind gusts of up to 60 mph (95 km/h), causing wind damage to four homes in

text: Lower Matecumbe Key

text: . The storm caused a storm surge of 1.25 feet (0.38 m) above normal. Waves on top of the surge caused flooding on roads in

text: Key West

text: . Damage in the Florida Keys totaled to $90,000 (2005 USD).

text: Like in seismology, ground vibrations are associated with different types of elastic waves propagating through the ground. These are surface waves, mostly Rayleigh waves, and bulk longitudinal waves and transverse waves (or shear waves) propagating into the ground depth. Typical frequency range for environmental ground vibrations is 1 – 200 Hz. Waves of lower frequencies (below 1 Hz) are usually called microseisms, and they are normally associated with natural phenomenae, e.g. water waves in the oceans. Environmental ground vibrations generated by rail and road traffic may cause annoyance to residents of nearby buildings both directly and via generated structure-borne interior noise. Very strong ground vibrations, e.g. generated by heavy lorries on bumped roads, may even cause structural damage to very close buildings. Magnitudes of ground vibrations are usually described in terms of particle vibration velocity (in mm/s or m/s). Sometimes they are also described in decibels (relative to the reference particle velocity of 10 m/s). Typical values of ground vibration particle velocity associated with vehicles passing over traffic calming road humps are in the range of 0.1 – 2 mm/s. Magnitudes of ground vibrations that are considered to be able to cause structural damage to buildings are above 10–20 mm/s.

text: Like in seismology, ground vibrations are associated with different types of

text: elastic waves

text: propagating through the ground. These are

text: surface waves

text: , mostly

text: Rayleigh waves

text: , and bulk

text: longitudinal waves

text: and

text: transverse waves

text: (or shear waves) propagating into the ground depth. Typical frequency range for environmental ground vibrations is 1 – 200 Hz. Waves of lower frequencies (below 1 Hz) are usually called

text: microseism

text: s, and they are normally associated with natural phenomenae, e.g.

text: water waves

text: in the oceans. Environmental ground vibrations generated by rail and road traffic may cause annoyance to residents of nearby buildings both directly and via generated structure-borne interior noise. Very strong ground vibrations, e.g. generated by heavy lorries on bumped roads, may even cause structural damage to very close buildings. Magnitudes of ground vibrations are usually described in terms of particle vibration velocity (in mm/s or m/s). Sometimes they are also described in

text: decibel

text: s (relative to the reference particle velocity of 10 m/s). Typical values of ground vibration particle velocity associated with vehicles passing over traffic calming road humps are in the range of 0.1 – 2 mm/s. Magnitudes of ground vibrations that are considered to be able to cause structural damage to buildings are above 10–20 mm/s.

text: Ocean waves can be classified based on: the disturbing force(s) that create(s) them; the extent to which the disturbing force(s) continue(s) to influence them after formation; the extent to which the restoring force(s) weaken(s) (or flatten) them; and their wavelength or period. Seismic Sea waves have a period of ~20 minutes, and speeds of . Wind waves (deep-water waves) have a period of about 20 seconds.

text: All waves and wavelets (child waves) are identified by a globally unique wave id, which is a domain name and an id string. The domain name identifies the wave provider where the wave originated. Waves and wavelets are hosted by the wave provider of the creator. Wavelets in the same wave can be hosted by different wave providers. However, user data is not federated; i.e., not shared with other wave providers. Private reply wavelets are also possible, of which other participants have no knowledge or access. If a private wavelet is sent between users on the same wave provider, it's not federated regardless of where the parent wave is hosted.

text: Important basic characteristics of waves are wavelength, amplitude, period, and frequency. Wavelength is the length of the repeating wave shape. Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium, which is determined by the energy of the wave. A period (measured in seconds) is the time for one wave to pass a given point. Frequency of the wave is the number of waves passing a given point in a unit of time. Frequency is measured in hertz (hz); (Hz cycles per second) and is the perceived as pitch. Each complete vibration of a sound wave is called a cycle. Two other physical properties of sound are intensity and duration. Intensity is measured in decibels (dB) and is perceived as loudness.

text: Important basic characteristics of waves are wavelength, amplitude, period, and frequency.

text: Wavelength

text: is the length of the repeating wave shape.

text: Amplitude

text: is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium, which is determined by the energy of the wave. A period (measured in seconds) is the time for one wave to pass a given point.

text: Frequency

text: of the wave is the number of waves passing a given point in a unit of time. Frequency is measured in

text: hertz (hz)

text: ; (Hz cycles per second) and is the

text: perceived

text: as

text: pitch

text: . Each complete vibration of a sound wave is called a cycle. Two other physical properties of sound are intensity and duration. Intensity is measured in

text: decibels (dB)

text: and is perceived as loudness.

text: Since the objective is the description of waves over mildly sloping beds, the shape function

text: The MiniBrute's LFO can be routed to wave shape modulation, filter cutoff, pitch, and amplitude. Various wave shapes are available for the LFO. It can also be synced to the MiniBrute's arpeggiator. The audio output can be reprocessed through the synthesizer using the Brute Factor to achieve an overdrive effect.

text: The MiniBrute's

text: LFO

text: can be routed to wave shape modulation, filter cutoff, pitch, and amplitude. Various wave shapes are available for the LFO. It can also be synced to the MiniBrute's arpeggiator. The audio output can be reprocessed through the synthesizer using the Brute Factor to achieve an

text: overdrive

text: effect.

text: Newquay is also home to the reef known as the Cribbar. With waves breaking at up to , the Cribbar was until recently rarely surfed as it requires no wind and huge swell to break. It was first surfed in September 1965 by Rodney Sumpter Bob Head and Jack Lydgate then again in 1966 by Pete Russell, Ric Friar and Johnny McElroy and American Jack Lydgate. The recent explosion in interest in surfing large waves has seen it surfed more frequently by South African born Chris Bertish, who during a succession of huge clean swells in 2004 surfed the biggest wave ever seen there.

text: Newquay is also home to the reef known as the

text: Cribbar

text: . With waves breaking at up to , the Cribbar was until recently rarely surfed as it requires no wind and huge swell to break. It was first surfed in September 1965 by Rodney Sumpter Bob Head and Jack Lydgate then again in 1966 by Pete Russell,

text: Ric Friar

text: and Johnny McElroy and American Jack Lydgate. The recent explosion in interest in surfing large waves has seen it surfed more frequently by South African born Chris Bertish, who during a succession of huge clean swells in 2004 surfed the biggest wave ever seen there.

text: Coastal sediment transport (a subset of sediment transport) is the interaction of coastal land forms to various complex interactions of physical processes. The primary agent in coastal sediment transport is wave activity (see Wind wave), followed by tides and storm surge (see Tide and Storm surge), and near shore currents (see Sea) . Wind-generated waves play a key role in the transfer of energy from the open ocean to the coastlines. In addition to the physical processes acting upon the shore, the size distribution of the sediment is a critical determination for how the beach will change (see Grain size determination). These various interactions generate a wide variety of beaches. (see Beach). Other than the interactions between coastal land forms and physical processes there is also the addition of modification of these landforms through anthropogenic sources (see human modifications). Some of the anthropogenic sources of modification have been put in place to halt erosion or prevent harbors from filling up with sediment. In order to assist community planners, local governments, and national governments a variety of models have been developed to predict the changes of beach sediment transport at coastal locations. Typically, during large wave events, the sediment gets transported off the beach face a deposited offshore generating a sandbar. Once the significant wave event has diminished, the sediment then gets slowly transported back onshore.

text: Coastal sediment transport (a subset of

text: sediment transport

text: ) is the interaction of coastal land forms to various complex interactions of physical processes. The primary agent in coastal sediment transport is wave activity (see

text: Wind wave

text: ), followed by tides and storm surge (see

text: Tide

text: and

text: Storm surge

text: ), and near shore currents (see

text: Sea

text: ) . Wind-generated waves play a key role in the transfer of energy from the open ocean to the coastlines. In addition to the physical processes acting upon the shore, the size distribution of the sediment is a critical determination for how the beach will change (see Grain size determination). These various interactions generate a wide variety of beaches. (see

text: Beach

text: ). Other than the interactions between coastal land forms and physical processes there is also the addition of modification of these landforms through anthropogenic sources (see human modifications). Some of the anthropogenic sources of modification have been put in place to halt erosion or prevent harbors from filling up with sediment. In order to assist community planners, local governments, and national governments a variety of models have been developed to predict the changes of beach sediment transport at coastal locations. Typically, during large wave events, the sediment gets transported off the beach face a deposited offshore generating a sandbar. Once the significant wave event has diminished, the sediment then gets slowly transported back onshore.

text: In the special case of dispersion-free and uniform media, waves other than sinusoids propagate with unchanging shape and constant velocity. In certain circumstances, waves of unchanging shape also can occur in nonlinear media; for example, the figure shows ocean waves in shallow water that have sharper crests and flatter troughs than those of a sinusoid, typical of a cnoidal wave, a traveling wave so named because it is described by the Jacobi elliptic function of m-th order, usually denoted as .  Large-amplitude ocean waves with certain shapes can propagate unchanged, because of properties of the nonlinear surface-wave medium.

text: In the special case of dispersion-free and uniform media, waves other than sinusoids propagate with unchanging shape and constant velocity. In certain circumstances, waves of unchanging shape also can occur in nonlinear media; for example, the figure shows ocean waves in shallow water that have sharper crests and flatter troughs than those of a sinusoid, typical of a

text: cnoidal wave

text: , a traveling wave so named because it is described by the

text: Jacobi elliptic function

text: of m-th order, usually denoted as .  Large-amplitude

text: ocean wave

text: s with certain shapes can propagate unchanged, because of properties of the nonlinear surface-wave medium.

text: The hurricane's high storm surge swept into Miami and Miami Beach, flooding city streets with knee-deep water. Yachts and large vessels were carried by the intense wind and waves onto shore. The MacArthur Causeway connecting Miami and Miami Beach was submerged under  of water, and communication between the two locales as well as the rest of the United States was cut after all local telecommunications and power lines were blown down. Due to their susceptibility to strong winds, most wooden buildings in Miami were either blown down or lost their roofs. Concrete and steel buildings were warped at their bases. While skyscrapers mostly sustained minor damage, the 18-story Meyer-Kiser Building bore considerable damage. The structure reportedly swayed and vibrated precipitously during the storm; eyewitnesses likened it to the Charleston dance. Many of the injuries in the city were due to ballistic fragments of broken roofing including iron sheeting.

text: The hurricane's high

text: storm surge

text: swept into Miami and

text: Miami Beach

text: , flooding city streets with knee-deep water. Yachts and large vessels were carried by the intense wind and waves onto shore. The

text: MacArthur Causeway

text: connecting Miami and Miami Beach was submerged under  of water, and communication between the two locales as well as the rest of the United States was cut after all local telecommunications and power lines were blown down. Due to their susceptibility to strong winds, most wooden buildings in Miami were either blown down or lost their roofs. Concrete and steel buildings were warped at their bases. While

text: skyscrapers

text: mostly sustained minor damage, the 18-story

text: Meyer-Kiser Building

text: bore considerable damage. The structure reportedly swayed and vibrated precipitously during the storm; eyewitnesses likened it to the

text: Charleston dance

text: . Many of the injuries in the city were due to ballistic fragments of broken roofing including iron sheeting.

text: Hurricane Charley passed directly over Captiva Island near Cayo Costa with peak winds of 150 mph (240 km/h). The Category 4 hurricane produced an estimated storm surge of up to 6.5 ft (2 m) on the island, which is lower than expected for a storm of its intensity. The decrease in the height of the surge was due to the hurricane's small size and its rapid intensification just prior to landfall. Furthermore, the storm surge, combined with the strong pressure gradient, produced a ¼ mi (450 m) inlet on North Captiva Island, known as Charley's Cut. Strong waves and storm surge caused severe beach erosion and dune damage at various locations. The storm severely damaged five houses, lightly damaged many others, and downed many trees on Gasparilla Island. At least half of the 300 homes on North Captiva Island were substantially damaged, including ten that were destroyed. On Captiva Island, the strong winds severely damaged most houses, as well as several recreational buildings.

text: Hurricane Charley passed directly over

text: Captiva Island

text: near

text: Cayo Costa

text: with peak winds of 150 mph (240 km/h). The Category 4 hurricane produced an estimated storm surge of up to 6.5 ft (2 m) on the island, which is lower than expected for a storm of its intensity. The decrease in the height of the surge was due to the hurricane's small size and its rapid intensification just prior to landfall. Furthermore, the storm surge, combined with the strong pressure gradient, produced a ¼ mi (450 m) inlet on

text: North Captiva Island

text: , known as Charley's Cut. Strong waves and storm surge caused severe beach erosion and dune damage at various locations. The storm severely damaged five houses, lightly damaged many others, and downed many trees on

text: Gasparilla Island

text: . At least half of the 300 homes on North Captiva Island were substantially damaged, including ten that were destroyed. On Captiva Island, the strong winds severely damaged most houses, as well as several recreational buildings.

text: The biggest difference between other perms and a digital perm is the shape and the texture of the wave created by the digital process. A normal perm, or "cold perm," makes the wave most prominent when the hair is wet, and loose when it is dry. The hair tends to look moist and as locks. A digital perm makes the wave most prominent when the hair is dry, and loose when it is wet. Therefore you can create the dry and curly look of the curl iron or the hot curler.

text: Notonecta glauca can discriminate between prey and non-prey, like other backswimmers, by surface waves. Lang (1979), completed an experiment that showed that waves that were created by other backswimmers swimming, emerging, turning and paddling were of a lower frequency (below 40 Hz) compared to waves created by their prey items, who had a frequency between 70–140 Hz. Larval backswimmers were found to create different waves that differed from adult backswimmers, but their frequency were similar to that of adult swimming produced waves (up to 70 Hz).

text: Notonecta glauca can discriminate between

text: prey

text: and non-prey, like other backswimmers, by

text: surface wave

text: s. Lang (1979), completed an experiment that showed that

text: wave

text: s that were created by other backswimmers

text: swimming

text: , emerging, turning and

text: paddling

text: were of a lower

text: frequency

text: (below 40 Hz) compared to

text: wave

text: s created by their

text: prey

text: items, who had a

text: frequency

text: between 70–140 Hz.

text: Larva

text: l backswimmers were found to create different

text: wave

text: s that differed from adult backswimmers, but their

text: frequency

text: were similar to that of adult swimming produced waves (up to 70 Hz).

text: Surfers are towed out to a breaking wave via a PWC (personal watercraft, such as a Jet Ski) or a helicopter. The surfer holds a line attached to the motorized vehicle. He or she is then set into place, at which point he or she drops the line and surfs the wave. Prior to the development of the tow-in method, surfers were generally unable, on their own, to catch waves topping much more than 20'. With the advent of the tow-in method, surfers were able to catch waves two and three times that height, or even taller. Driver and surfer generally trade roles during a surfing session, which helps to build both rapport and trust in a situation which can quickly turn dangerous for both. Tow-in is generally thought to have revolutionized big wave surfing. Kerbox and other professional surfers were featured in Susan Casey's 2011 non-fiction volume The Wave.

text: Surfers are towed out to a breaking wave via a

text: PWC

text: (personal watercraft, such as a

text: Jet Ski

text: ) or a

text: helicopter

text: . The surfer holds a line attached to the motorized vehicle. He or she is then set into place, at which point he or she drops the line and surfs the wave. Prior to the development of the tow-in method, surfers were generally unable, on their own, to catch waves topping much more than 20'. With the advent of the tow-in method, surfers were able to catch waves two and three times that height, or even taller. Driver and surfer generally trade roles during a surfing session, which helps to build both rapport and trust in a situation which can quickly turn dangerous for both. Tow-in is generally thought to have revolutionized big wave surfing. Kerbox and other professional surfers were featured in Susan Casey's 2011 non-fiction volume The Wave.

text: Generally these wave formation mechanisms occur together on the ocean surface and arise wind waves and grows up to the fully developed waves.

text: A Kelvin wave is a wave in the ocean or atmosphere that balances the Earth's Coriolis force against a topographic boundary such as a coastline, or a waveguide such as the equator.  A feature of a Kelvin wave is that it is non-dispersive, i.e., the phase speed of the wave crests is equal to the group speed of the wave energy for all frequencies. This means that it retains its shape as it moves in the alongshore direction over time.

text: A Kelvin wave is a

text: wave

text: in the ocean or atmosphere that balances the Earth's

text: Coriolis force

text: against a

text: topographic

text: boundary such as a coastline, or a

text: waveguide

text: such as the equator.  A feature of a Kelvin wave is that it is

text: non-dispersive

text: , i.e., the

text: phase speed

text: of the wave crests is equal to the

text: group speed

text: of the

text: wave energy

text: for all frequencies. This means that it retains its shape as it moves in the alongshore direction over time.

text: Coastal areas may be flooded by storm events at sea, resulting in waves over-topping defenses or in severe cases by tsunami or tropical cyclones. A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category. Research from the NHC (National Hurricane Center) explains: "Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tides. Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide, which is defined as the water level rise due to the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide. This rise in water level can cause extreme flooding in coastal areas particularly when storm surge coincides with normal high tide, resulting in storm tides reaching up to 20 feet or more in some cases."

text: Coastal areas may be flooded by storm events at sea, resulting in waves over-topping defenses or in severe cases by

text: tsunami

text: or tropical cyclones. A

text: storm surge

text: , from either a

text: tropical cyclone

text: or an

text: extratropical cyclone

text: , falls within this category. Research from the NHC (National Hurricane Center) explains: "Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tides. Storm surge should not be confused with storm tide, which is defined as the water level rise due to the combination of storm surge and the astronomical tide. This rise in water level can cause extreme flooding in coastal areas particularly when storm surge coincides with normal high tide, resulting in storm tides reaching up to 20 feet or more in some cases."

text: Ocean surface waves are oscillations caused by the friction from air moving across the surface of the water. This friction transfers energy and forms surface waves in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The top of a wave is known as its crest and its foot as its trough; the distance between two crests is the wavelength. These waves are mechanical: as they approach, the water molecules at a given point rise up and, as they pass, the water molecules go down, tracing a roughly circular path. The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself. The sea state of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves, which—on the open ocean—depends upon the wind speed and the fetch, the distance over which the wind blows upon the water. The smallest waves are called ripples. As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples' raised crests, larger and more irregular waves form, which known as seas. These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and, over time, they naturally separate into long, powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength. These swells are particularly common in the Roaring Forties of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously. When the wind dies down, ripples easily disappear owing to water's surface tension, but seas and swells are only slowly reduced by gravity and destructive interference from other waves. Constructive interference, however, can also cause individual rogue waves much higher than normal. Most waves are less than  high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height; offshore construction such as wind farms and oil platforms use these measurements in computing the hundred-year wave they are designed against. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .

text: Ocean surface waves

text: are oscillations caused by the

text: friction

text: from

text: air

text: moving across the surface of the water. This friction transfers

text: energy

text: and forms

text: surface wave

text: s in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The top of a wave is known as its

text: crest

text: and its foot as its

text: trough

text: ; the distance between two crests is the

text: wavelength

text: . These waves are

text: mechanical

text: : as they approach, the water molecules at a given point rise up and, as they pass, the water molecules go down, tracing a roughly circular path. The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself. The

text: sea state

text: of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves, which—on the

text: open ocean

text: —depends upon the

text: wind speed

text: and the

text: fetch

text: , the distance over which the wind blows upon the water. The smallest waves are called

text: ripples

text: . As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples' raised crests, larger and more irregular waves form, which known as

text: seas

text: . These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and, over time, they naturally separate into long, powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength. These

text: swells

text: are particularly common in the

text: Roaring Forties

text: of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously. When the wind dies down, ripples easily disappear owing to water's

text: surface tension

text: , but seas and swells are only slowly

text: reduced by gravity

text: and

text: destructive interference

text: from other waves.

text: Constructive interference

text: , however, can also cause individual

text: rogue wave

text: s much higher than normal. Most waves are less than  high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height;

text: offshore construction

text: such as

text: wind farms

text: and

text: oil platform

text: s use these measurements in computing the

text: hundred-year wave

text: they are designed against. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .

text: A fractured portion of a surge from the westerlies became a tropical wave on August 20, just to the northeast of Saipan at the 150th meridian. The wave proceeded northwest, gaining strength and became a tropical storm on the morning of August 21. Named Thelma, the storm rapidly intensified north of Saipan, reaching winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). Operationally, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center found winds of 75 mp/h (120 km/h) and originally declared it a typhoon on the afternoon of August 21. The storm quickly weakened back to winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) before strengthening as Thelma neared the island of Iwo Jima. On the evening of August 22, south of Iwo Jima, the storm intensified into a typhoon, boasting winds of 90 mph (150 km/h).

text: A fractured portion of a surge from the westerlies became a tropical wave on August 20, just to the northeast of

text: Saipan

text: at the 150th meridian. The wave proceeded northwest, gaining strength and became a tropical storm on the morning of August 21. Named Thelma, the storm rapidly intensified north of Saipan, reaching winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). Operationally, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center found winds of 75 mp/h (120 km/h) and originally declared it a typhoon on the afternoon of August 21. The storm quickly weakened back to winds of 50 mph (85 km/h) before strengthening as Thelma neared the island of

text: Iwo Jima

text: . On the evening of August 22, south of Iwo Jima, the storm intensified into a typhoon, boasting winds of 90 mph (150 km/h).

text: Waves are generally recognized by the surfaces over which they break. For example, there are Beach breaks, Reef breaks and Point breaks.

text: In this game, the player is a toothpaste tube, and there are eight teeth to defend. Various types of food, such as hamburgers and french fries try to take out the teeth. The player fires toothpaste at food intent on destroying the teeth.  If the food is allowed to touch a tooth, it begins breaking down the tooth. If the player is fast enough to shoot the piece of food as soon as it starts breaking down the tooth the player will be able to save the tooth. If not, the tooth will be broken down. The food comes in waves, and the movements become more complicated. Destroying the food scores points, as does the number of teeth left at the end of each wave, and the amount of toothpaste

text: In this game, the player is a

text: toothpaste

text: tube, and there are eight teeth to defend. Various types of food, such as hamburgers and

text: french fries

text: try to take out the teeth. The player fires toothpaste at

text: food

text: intent on destroying the teeth.  If the food is allowed to touch a tooth, it begins breaking down the tooth. If the player is fast enough to shoot the piece of food as soon as it starts breaking down the tooth the player will be able to save the tooth. If not, the tooth will be broken down. The food comes in waves, and the movements become more complicated. Destroying the food scores points, as does the number of teeth left at the end of each wave, and the amount of toothpaste

text: The wave shape for a given wave speed is unique.  The travelling-wave solutions are stable against near-field perturbations, but not to far-field perturbations which can thicken the tail.  One can prove using the comparison principle and super-solution theory that all solutions with compact initial data converge to waves with the minimum speed.

text: ) began to monitor the system six hours later. The JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm on its scale at 00:00 UTC August 25, and by the time twelve hours had passed, a strong surge in the monsoon westerlies had started to develop to the south of the storm's convective area, slowing its westward movement. After enhanced convection associated with the surge on the east side of Abe's main convective cloud mass wrapped around the north, the storm's center of circulation reorganized to the north between the competing convective masses. At 06:00 UTC August 27, the JMA upgraded Abe to a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km/h (60 mph), and as a ragged eye developed in the storm, the JTWC upgraded Abe to typhoon status six hours later. Late on August 28, the JMA upgraded Abe to a typhoon on its scale, with ten-minute sustained winds of .

text: ) began to monitor the system six hours later. The JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm on

text: its scale

text: at 00:00 UTC August 25, and by the time twelve hours had passed, a strong surge in the monsoon westerlies had started to develop to the south of the storm's convective area, slowing its westward movement. After enhanced convection associated with the surge on the east side of Abe's main convective cloud mass wrapped around the north, the storm's center of circulation reorganized to the north between the competing convective masses. At 06:00 UTC August 27, the JMA upgraded Abe to a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km/h (60 mph), and as a ragged eye developed in the storm, the JTWC upgraded Abe to typhoon status six hours later. Late on August 28, the JMA upgraded Abe to a typhoon on its scale, with ten-minute sustained winds of .

text: Landfall is distinct from a direct hit. A direct hit is where the core of high winds (or eyewall) comes onshore but the center of the storm may stay offshore.  The effects of this are quite similar to a landfall, as this term is used when the radius of maximum wind within a tropical cyclone moves ashore.  These effects are high surf, heavy rains that may cause flooding, water buildup along the coast with minor storm surge, coastal beach erosion, high winds, and possibly severe thunderstorms with tornadoes around the periphery.

text: A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 10 and gradually developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on September 15, while located more than  east of the Leeward Islands. It did not intensify and degenerated to a tropical wave on the following day. The remnants continued westward and crossed the Leeward Islands on September 17. Late on September 19, the remnants redeveloped into Tropical Depression Twelve near Grand Cayman. Around 1200 UTC on September 20, the depression crossed near the western tip of Cuba. Entering the Gulf of Mexico, the depression began strengthening, and became Tropical Storm Helene at early on September 21, while tracking northward. Later that day, Helene peaked with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h), though due to increasing wind shear, the storm soon began to weaken. At 1200 UTC on September 22, Helene made landfall near Fort Walton Beach, Florida with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h). Although the storm weakened slightly inland, it later began re-strengthening and became a tropical storm over North Carolina late on September 23. After re-emerging into the Atlantic Ocean, Helene re-intensified to near hurricane status, though the storm was absorbed by a cold front on September 26, while east-southeast of Newfoundland.

text: A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 10 and gradually developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on September 15, while located more than  east of the Leeward Islands. It did not intensify and degenerated to a tropical wave on the following day. The remnants continued westward and crossed the Leeward Islands on September 17. Late on September 19, the remnants redeveloped into Tropical Depression Twelve near

text: Grand Cayman

text: . Around 1200 UTC on September 20, the depression crossed near the western tip of Cuba. Entering the Gulf of Mexico, the depression began strengthening, and became Tropical Storm Helene at early on September 21, while tracking northward. Later that day, Helene peaked with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h), though due to increasing wind shear, the storm soon began to weaken. At 1200 UTC on September 22, Helene made landfall near

text: Fort Walton Beach, Florida

text: with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h). Although the storm weakened slightly inland, it later began re-strengthening and became a tropical storm over North Carolina late on September 23. After re-emerging into the Atlantic Ocean, Helene re-intensified to near hurricane status, though the storm was absorbed by a cold front on September 26, while east-southeast of Newfoundland.

text: Any kind of fluid can support inertial waves: water, oil, liquid metals, air, and other gases. Inertial waves are observed most commonly in planetary atmospheres (Rossby waves, geostrophic winds) and in oceans and lakes (geostrophic currents), where they are responsible for much of the mixing that takes place. Inertial waves affected by the slope of the ocean floor are often called Rossby waves. Inertial waves can be observed in laboratory experiments or in industrial flows where a fluid is rotating. Inertial waves are also likely to exist in the liquid outer core of the Earth, and at least one group  has claimed evidence of them. Similarly, inertial waves are likely in rotating astronomical flows like accretion disks, planetary rings, and galaxies.

text: Any kind of fluid can support inertial waves: water, oil, liquid metals, air, and other gases. Inertial waves are observed most commonly in planetary atmospheres (

text: Rossby waves

text: geostrophic wind

text: s) and in oceans and lakes (

text: geostrophic currents

text: ), where they are responsible for much of the mixing that takes place. Inertial waves affected by the slope of the ocean floor are often called

text: Rossby waves

text: . Inertial waves can be observed in laboratory experiments or in industrial flows where a fluid is rotating. Inertial waves are also likely to exist in the liquid outer core of the Earth, and at least one group  has claimed evidence of them. Similarly, inertial waves are likely in rotating astronomical flows like

text: accretion disks

text: planetary rings

text: , and

text: galaxies

text: Cyclone Ofa affected Western Samoa between February 1–4, with heavy rain, huge waves, sea spray, storm surge and wind gusts exceeding .

text: Cyclone Ofa affected

text: Western Samoa

text: between February 1–4, with heavy rain, huge waves,

text: sea spray

text: storm surge

text: and wind gusts exceeding .

text: The model identifies a difference between the information carried by the wave at its signal velocity c, and the information about the wave front's apparent rate of change of position. If you envisage a light pulse in a wave guide (glass tube) moving across an observer's field of view, the pulse can only move at c through the guide. If that pulse is also directed towards the observer they will receive that wave information, at c.  If the wave guide is moved in the same direction as the pulse the information on its position, passed to the observer as lateral emissions from the pulse, changes.  They may see the rate of change of position as apparently representing motion faster than c when calculated, like the edge of a shadow across a curved surface.  This is a different signal, containing different information, to the pulse and does not break the 2nd postulate of special relativity. c is strictly maintained in all local fields.

text: The Sierra Wave is a type of lenticular cloud created by winds that lift off the Sierra Nevada mountain range of California.  Known as lee waves, Sierra Waves form as winds hit the Sierra Nevada and are forced to rise, causing water vapor to condense as it cools and forming lenticular clouds on the leeward side of the mountain range. These clouds can remain stationary for many hours. The formation of a Sierra Wave is dependent upon many factors, including wind speed and direction, leeward wind patterns, and water vapor. Given that Sierra Waves are dependent upon many variables their formation is unpredictable.

text: The Sierra Wave is a type of

text: lenticular cloud

text: created by winds that lift off the

text: Sierra Nevada

text: mountain range of

text: California

text: .  Known as

text: lee waves

text: , Sierra Waves form as winds hit the Sierra Nevada and are forced to rise, causing

text: water vapor

text: to

text: condense

text: as it cools and forming lenticular clouds on the

text: leeward

text: side of the mountain range. These clouds can remain stationary for many hours. The formation of a Sierra Wave is dependent upon many factors, including wind speed and direction, leeward wind patterns, and water vapor. Given that Sierra Waves are dependent upon many variables their formation is unpredictable.

text: Hurricane Katrina was a category 3 cyclone on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale indicating that it was only a moderate level storm. However the catastrophic damage caused by the extensive flooding (Fig. 4) was the result of the highest recorded storm surges in North America. For several days prior to landfall of Katrina, wave set up was generated by the persistent winds of the cyclonic rotation of the system. This prolonged wave set up coupled with the very low central pressure level meant massive storm surges were generated. Storm surges overtopped and breached the levees and flood walls intended to protect the city from inundation. Unfortunately New Orleans is inherently prone to coastal flooding for a number of factors. Firstly, much of New Orleans is below sea level and is bordered by the Mississippi River therefore protection against flooding from both the sea and the river has become dependent on engineered structures. Land use change and modification to natural systems in the Mississippi River have rendered the natural defences for the city less effective. Wetland loss has been calculated to be around  since 1930. This is a significant amount as four miles of wetland are estimated to reduce the height of a storm surge by one foot (30 centimetres).

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: was a category 3

text: cyclone

text: on the

text: Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale

text: indicating that it was only a moderate level storm. However the catastrophic damage caused by the extensive flooding (Fig. 4) was the result of the highest recorded storm surges in

text: North America

text: . For several days prior to landfall of Katrina, wave set up was generated by the persistent winds of the

text: cyclonic rotation

text: of the system. This prolonged wave set up coupled with the very low central pressure level meant massive storm surges were generated. Storm surges overtopped and breached the

text: levees

text: and flood walls intended to protect the city from inundation. Unfortunately

text: New Orleans

text: is inherently prone to coastal flooding for a number of factors. Firstly, much of New Orleans is below sea level and is bordered by the

text: Mississippi River

text: therefore protection against flooding from both the sea and the river has become dependent on engineered structures. Land use change and modification to natural systems in the Mississippi River have rendered the natural defences for the city less effective.

text: Wetland

text: loss has been calculated to be around  since 1930. This is a significant amount as four miles of wetland are estimated to reduce the height of a

text: storm surge

text: by one foot (30 centimetres).

text: The wind generates ocean surface waves, which have a large impact on offshore structures, ships, coastal erosion and sedimentation, as well as harbours. After their generation by the wind, ocean surface waves can travel (as swell) over long distances.

text: The wind generates ocean surface waves, which have a large impact on

text: offshore structures

text: ships

text: coastal

text: erosion

text: and

text: sedimentation

text: , as well as

text: harbour

text: s. After their generation by the wind, ocean surface waves can travel (as

text: swell

text: ) over long distances.

text: The Wave consists of intersecting U-shaped troughs that have been eroded into Navajo Sandstone of Jurassic age. The two major troughs which comprise this rock formation are  wide by  long and  wide by  long. Initially, infrequent runoff eroded these troughs along joints within the Navajo Sandstone. After their formation, the drainage basin, which fed rainwater to these troughs, shrank to the point that the runoff became insufficient to contribute to the cutting of these troughs. As a result, the troughs are now almost exclusively eroded by wind, as indicated by the orientation of erosional steps and risers cut into the sandstone along their steep walls. These erosional steps and risers are oriented relative to the predominant direction of the wind as it is now naturally funneled into and through these troughs.

text: The Wave consists of intersecting U-shaped troughs that have been eroded into

text: Navajo Sandstone

text: of

text: Jurassic

text: age. The two major troughs which comprise this rock formation are  wide by  long and  wide by  long. Initially, infrequent runoff eroded these troughs along joints within the Navajo Sandstone. After their formation, the drainage basin, which fed rainwater to these troughs, shrank to the point that the runoff became insufficient to contribute to the cutting of these troughs. As a result, the troughs are now almost exclusively eroded by wind, as indicated by the orientation of erosional steps and risers cut into the sandstone along their steep walls. These erosional steps and risers are oriented relative to the predominant direction of the wind as it is now naturally funneled into and through these troughs.

text: These active hurricane seasons predated satellite coverage of the Atlantic basin. Before the satellite era began in 1960, tropical storms or hurricanes went undetected unless a reconnaissance aircraft encountered one, a ship reported a voyage through the storm, or a storm hit land in a populated area. The official record, therefore, could miss storms in which no ship experienced gale-force winds, recognized it as a tropical storm (as opposed to a high-latitude extra-tropical cyclone, a tropical wave, or a brief squall), returned to port, and reported the experience.

text: The album cover features a copy of Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai's best known woodblock print, The Great Wave off Kanagawa. It was first published in 1832 (Edo Period) and is Hokusai's most famous work. It depicts an enormous wave threatening boats near the Japanese prefecture of Kanagawa; Mount Fuji can be seen in the background. The wave is probably not intended to be a tsunami, but a normal ocean wave created by the wind.

text: The album cover features a copy of

text: Japan

text: ese artist

text: Katsushika Hokusai

text: 's best known

text: woodblock print

text: The Great Wave off Kanagawa

text: . It was first published in 1832 (

text: Edo Period

text: ) and is Hokusai's most famous work. It depicts an enormous

text: wave

text: threatening boats near the

text: Japanese prefecture

text: of

text: Kanagawa

text: Mount Fuji

text: can be seen in the background. The wave is probably not intended to be a

text: tsunami

text: , but a normal ocean wave created by the wind.

text: Large breakers one observes on a beach may result from distant weather systems over a fetch of ocean. Five factors influence the formation of wind waves which will go on to become ocean swell:

text: If the aperture with area A is the start of a pipe and a plane wave is sent into the pipe, the wave passing through the aperture is a progressive plane wave in the absence of reflections. There are usually reflections from the other end of the pipe, whether open or closed, so there is a sum of waves travelling from one end to the other. The reflections and resultant standing waves are very important in musical wind instruments. It is possible to have no reflections when the pipe is very long, because it then takes a long time for the reflected waves to return and, when it does, they are much attenuated by losses at the wall.

text: Throughout the Lesser Antilles and in Venezuela, Ivan caused 44 deaths and slightly more than $1.15 billion in losses, with nearly all of the damage and fatalities in Grenada. While Ivan was passing south of Hispaniola, the outer bands of the storm caused four deaths in the Dominican Republic. In Jamaica, high winds and heavy rainfall left $360 million in damage and killed 17 people. The storm brought strong winds to the Cayman Islands, resulting in two deaths and $3.5 billion in damage. In Cuba, a combination of rainfall, storm surge, and winds resulted in $1.2 billion in damage, but no fatalities. Heavy damage was reported along the Gulf Coast of the United States. Along the waterfront of Escambia and Santa Rosa counties in Florida, nearly every structure was impacted. In the former, 10,000 roofs were damaged or destroyed. About 4,600 homes were demolished in the county. Similar impact occurred in Alabama. Property damage was major along Perdido Bay, Big Lagoon, Bayou Grande, Pensacola Bay and Escambia Bay. A number of homes were completely washed away by the high surge. Further inland, thousands of other houses were damaged or destroyed in many counties. Ivan produced a record tornado outbreak, with at least 119 twisters spawned collectively in nine states. Throughout the United States, the hurricane left 54 fatalities and slightly more than $18.8 billion in damage. Six deaths were also reported in Atlantic Canada.

text: Throughout the Lesser Antilles and in Venezuela, Ivan caused 44 deaths and slightly more than $1.15 billion in losses, with nearly all of the damage and fatalities in Grenada. While Ivan was passing south of

text: Hispaniola

text: , the outer bands of the storm caused four deaths in the Dominican Republic. In Jamaica, high winds and heavy rainfall left $360 million in damage and killed 17 people. The storm brought strong winds to the Cayman Islands, resulting in two deaths and $3.5 billion in damage. In Cuba, a combination of rainfall, storm surge, and winds resulted in $1.2 billion in damage, but no fatalities. Heavy damage was reported along the

text: Gulf Coast of the United States

text: . Along the waterfront of

text: Escambia

text: and

text: Santa Rosa

text: counties in Florida, nearly every structure was impacted. In the former, 10,000 roofs were damaged or destroyed. About 4,600 homes were demolished in the county. Similar impact occurred in Alabama. Property damage was major along Perdido Bay, Big Lagoon, Bayou Grande, Pensacola Bay and Escambia Bay. A number of homes were completely washed away by the high surge. Further inland, thousands of other houses were damaged or destroyed in many counties. Ivan produced a record

text: tornado outbreak

text: , with at least 119 twisters spawned collectively in nine states. Throughout the United States, the hurricane left 54 fatalities and slightly more than $18.8 billion in damage. Six deaths were also reported in Atlantic Canada.

text: • The mechanism of the surface wave generation by winds

text: As the center of Hurricane Katrina passed southeast of New Orleans on August 29, 2005, winds downtown were in the Category 1 range with frequent intense gusts and tidal surge. Hurricane-force winds were experienced throughout the city, although the most severe portion of Katrina missed the city, hitting nearby St. Bernard and Plaquemines parishes. Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall in eastern St. Tammany Parish.  The western eye wall passed directly over St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane at about 9:45 am CST, August 29, 2005.  The communities of Slidell, Avery Estates, Lakeshore Estates, Oak Harbor, Eden Isles and Northshore Beach were inundated by the storm surge that extended over six miles inland.  The storm surge affected all  of St. Tammany Parish’s coastline, including Lacombe, Mandeville and Madisonville. The storm surge in the area of the Rigolets Pass was estimated to be 16 feet, not including wave action, declining to  at Madisonville. The surge had a second peak in eastern St. Tammany as the westerly winds from the southern eye wall pushed the surge to the east, backing up at the bottleneck of the Rigolets Pass.

text: As the center of

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: passed southeast of

text: New Orleans

text: on August 29, 2005, winds downtown were in the Category 1 range with frequent intense gusts and tidal surge. Hurricane-force winds were experienced throughout the city, although the most severe portion of Katrina missed the city, hitting nearby

text: St. Bernard

text: and

text: Plaquemines

text: parishes.

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: made its final landfall in eastern St. Tammany Parish.  The western eye wall passed directly over St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane at about 9:45 am CST, August 29, 2005.  The communities of

text: Slidell

text: , Avery Estates, Lakeshore Estates, Oak Harbor, Eden Isles and Northshore Beach were inundated by the

text: storm surge

text: that extended over six miles inland.  The storm surge affected all  of St. Tammany Parish’s coastline, including Lacombe,

text: Mandeville

text: and

text: Madisonville

text: . The storm surge in the area of the Rigolets Pass was estimated to be 16 feet, not including wave action, declining to  at

text: Madisonville

text: . The surge had a second peak in eastern St. Tammany as the westerly winds from the southern eye wall pushed the surge to the east, backing up at the bottleneck of the Rigolets Pass.

text: A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 14. Under the influence of a ridge of high pressure to its north, the wave tracked quickly westward. An area of convection developed along the wave axis to the south of the Cape Verde islands, and on August 15, meteorologists began classifying the system with the Dvorak technique. The thunderstorm activity became more concentrated, and narrow spiral rainbands developed around a developing center of circulation. Based on a Dvorak T-number of 2.0, it is estimated that Tropical Depression Three developed late on August 16, while about  east-southeast of Barbados. Embedded within the deep easterlies, the depression tracked west-northwestward at . Initially, moderate wind shear prevented strengthening, until a decrease in shear allowed the depression to intensify into Tropical Storm Andrew at 1200 UTC on August 17.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: moved off the coast of Africa on August 14. Under the influence of a

text: ridge

text: of high pressure to its north, the wave tracked quickly westward. An area of

text: convection

text: developed along the wave axis to the south of the

text: Cape Verde

text: islands, and on August 15, meteorologists began classifying the system with the

text: Dvorak technique

text: . The thunderstorm activity became more concentrated, and narrow spiral

text: rainbands

text: developed around a developing

text: center of circulation

text: . Based on a Dvorak T-number of 2.0, it is estimated that Tropical Depression Three developed late on August 16, while about  east-southeast of

text: Barbados

text: . Embedded within the deep easterlies, the depression tracked west-northwestward at . Initially, moderate wind shear prevented strengthening, until a decrease in shear allowed the depression to intensify into Tropical Storm Andrew at 1200

text: UTC

text: on August 17.

text: The worst weather conditions are usually encountered in the Southern Ocean where waves sometimes top  and winds can reach .

text: The worst weather conditions are usually encountered in the

text: Southern Ocean

text: where waves sometimes top  and winds can reach .

text: During summer there is normally a constant strong wind which is ideal for kite and windsurfers. Big waves are a result of the wind on the sea side and is so also attractive for wave surfers. Kite and windsurfers can pick spots around the island according to their skill and what conditions they prefer.

text: Many different forms of anemometer exist on the current market.  Unfortunately, the majority of the anemometers can only measure wind velocity in one plane and require a certain start-up wind speed.  Sonic anemometers are solid state devices that measure the wind speed by passing ultrasonic sound waves through the moving air.  As wind speed changes, so does the air density and when the density changes, so does the speed of sound.  By measuring the change in time it takes for the ultrasonic sound wave to make its way from the emitter to the sensor, the sonic anemometer can measure the total air speed as well as its direction.

text: Many different forms of anemometer exist on the current market.  Unfortunately, the majority of the anemometers can only measure

text: wind

text: velocity in one

text: plane

text: and require a certain start-up wind speed.  Sonic anemometers are

text: solid state

text: devices that measure the wind speed by passing ultrasonic

text: sound waves

text: through the moving air.  As wind speed changes, so does the air

text: density

text: and when the density changes, so does the

text: speed of sound

text: .  By measuring the change in time it takes for the

text: ultrasonic

text: sound wave to make its way from the

text: emitter

text: to the

text: sensor

text: , the sonic anemometer can measure the total air speed as well as its direction.

text: Wind wave models are also an important part of examining the impact of shore protection and beach nourishment proposals. For many beach areas there is only patchy information about the wave climate, therefore estimating the effect of wind waves is important for managing littoral environments.

text: Wind wave models are also an important part of examining the impact of

text: shore protection

text: and

text: beach nourishment

text: proposals. For many beach areas there is only patchy information about the wave climate, therefore estimating the effect of wind waves is important for managing

text: littoral

text: environments.

text: A tropical wave entered the Atlantic Ocean from Africa on July 10, and the wave developed into an area of low pressure while passing over Cape Verde. Despite the organization, the low failed to develop into a tropical cyclone due to cool waters on the sea surface and wind shear. However, those unfavorable conditions did not completely destroy the wave, as it continued traveling westward through the Lesser Antilles until July 18. That day, while south of Puerto Rico, the wave split in two; the northern half moved northwest and developed into Tropical Storm Franklin over the Bahamas, and the southern half continued westward, with its associated thunderstorm activity increasing.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: entered the Atlantic Ocean from Africa on July 10, and the wave developed into an

text: area of low pressure

text: while passing over

text: Cape Verde

text: . Despite the organization, the low failed to develop into a tropical cyclone due to cool waters on the sea surface and

text: wind shear

text: . However, those unfavorable conditions did not completely destroy the wave, as it continued traveling westward through the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: until July 18. That day, while south of

text: Puerto Rico

text: , the wave split in two; the northern half moved northwest and developed into

text: Tropical Storm Franklin

text: over the

text: Bahamas

text: , and the southern half continued westward, with its associated thunderstorm activity increasing.

text: The rules of right of way vary slightly with the type of break. Point Breaks will always have a consistent direct of what is inside, that is, the person further up the line will have right of way. In a single peak situation where there is both a left and a right two people are able to be on the wave at the same time, provided that one goes left and one goes right and that neither crosses the path of the other to go one direction. If this does happen then, the surfer who stood up first will get the right of way. On a multi-peaked wave where the wave eventually comes together, both peaks can be surfed until the surfers come together. When they do the surfer who stood up first has right of way, and the other must maneuver to get off the wave without interrupting the other surfer.

text: The rules of right of way vary slightly with the type of break.

text: Point Breaks

text: will always have a consistent direct of what is inside, that is, the person further up the line will have right of way. In a single peak situation where there is both a left and a right two people are able to be on the wave at the same time, provided that one goes left and one goes right and that neither crosses the path of the other to go one direction. If this does happen then, the surfer who stood up first will get the right of way. On a multi-peaked wave where the wave eventually comes together, both peaks can be surfed until the surfers come together. When they do the surfer who stood up first has right of way, and the other must maneuver to get off the wave without interrupting the other surfer.

text: Even before making landfall, the hurricane caused extensive damage in Louisiana, due in part to the hurricane's slow speed and close proximity to the state coast. Winds as high as 60 mph (100 km/h) brushed the coastline, causing extensive damage. Storm surge pushed coastal waters to near-record heights, inundating low-lying areas. Near Morgan City, Louisiana, 19 people went missing after going on a fishing trip; they were later found marooned at Atchafalaya Basin. The schooner J.W. Clise was abandoned during the storm 135 mi (215 km) south of the Mississippi River Delta, though its crew was also later rescued. Storm surge peaked at 6.4 ft (1.95 m) above-average in western portions of Lake Pontchartrain. A bridge crossing Thunder Bayou, which extended west of the lake, was washed out by the waves. Similarly, a station at Calcasieu Pass reported a storm surge 4.8 ft (1.46 m) high. Conservation officials feared the disturbance would disrupt the seafood and muskrat production. After the storm, it was estimated 75,000 muskrats were killed by the storm's effects. Offshore, Grand Isle was inundated by the strong waves. Around Houma, sugar cane crops were damaged. The hurricane was the strongest to impact Cameron since the tenth hurricane of the 1886 Atlantic hurricane season; strong gusts peaked at 70 mph (115 km/h), disrupting communication lines, thus isolating the city from other locations in the state. The high tides inundated town streets under 2 ft (0.6 m). Other areas extending from western Louisiana to Mobile, Alabama reported communication disruptions. In New Orleans, strong winds uprooted signboards and blew debris across the city streets. Several houses in Shell Beach and Delacroix Island were leveled by strong winds.

text: Even before making landfall, the hurricane caused extensive damage in

text: Louisiana

text: , due in part to the hurricane's slow speed and close proximity to the state coast. Winds as high as 60 mph (100 km/h) brushed the coastline, causing extensive damage.

text: Storm surge

text: pushed coastal waters to near-record heights, inundating low-lying areas. Near

text: Morgan City, Louisiana

text: , 19 people went missing after going on a fishing trip; they were later found marooned at

text: Atchafalaya Basin

text: . The schooner

text: J.W. Clise

text: was abandoned during the storm 135 mi (215 km) south of the

text: Mississippi River Delta

text: , though its crew was also later rescued. Storm surge peaked at 6.4 ft (1.95 m) above-average in western portions of

text: Lake Pontchartrain

text: . A bridge crossing Thunder Bayou, which extended west of the lake, was washed out by the waves. Similarly, a station at Calcasieu Pass reported a storm surge 4.8 ft (1.46 m) high. Conservation officials feared the disturbance would disrupt the seafood and

text: muskrat

text: production. After the storm, it was estimated 75,000 muskrats were killed by the storm's effects. Offshore, Grand Isle was inundated by the strong waves. Around

text: Houma

text: sugar cane

text: crops were damaged. The hurricane was the strongest to impact

text: Cameron

text: since the tenth hurricane of the

text: 1886 Atlantic hurricane season

text: ; strong gusts peaked at 70 mph (115 km/h), disrupting communication lines, thus isolating the city from other locations in the state. The high tides inundated town streets under 2 ft (0.6 m). Other areas extending from western Louisiana to

text: Mobile, Alabama

text: reported communication disruptions. In New Orleans, strong winds uprooted signboards and blew debris across the city streets. Several houses in

text: Shell Beach

text: and Delacroix Island were leveled by strong winds.

text: A surf break is an area with an obstruction or an object that causes a wave to break. Surf breaks entail multiple scale phenomena. Wave section creation has microscale factors of peel angle and wave breaking intensity. The microscale components influence wave height and variations on wave crests. The mesoscale components of surf breaks are the ramp, platform, wedge, or ledge that may be present at a surf break. Macroscale processes are the global winds that initially produce offshore waves. Types of surf breaks are headlands (point break), beach break, river/estuary entrance bar, reef breaks, and ledge breaks.

text: A

text: surf break

text: is an area with an obstruction or an object that causes a wave to break. Surf breaks entail multiple scale phenomena. Wave section creation has microscale factors of peel angle and wave breaking intensity. The microscale components influence wave height and variations on wave crests. The mesoscale components of surf breaks are the ramp, platform, wedge, or ledge that may be present at a surf break. Macroscale processes are the global winds that initially produce offshore waves. Types of surf breaks are headlands (point break), beach break, river/estuary entrance bar, reef breaks, and ledge breaks.

text: In 2013, Storm Surge received a number of accolades, including three of the "Best Fan Signs in College Basketball" by USA Today and was featured on national programs such as PTI, SportsCenter, and CBS's documentary "March Madness Fandemonium". In addition, it was recognized as one of the toughest ACC venues by ESPN during numerous broadcasts throughout the season.  On January 24, 2013, Storm Surge was featured on the front page of The Miami Herald following Miami's win over Duke. On February 9, 2013, Storm Surge was featured on the landing page of ESPN.com following Miami's blowout home win over UNC.

text: In 2013, Storm Surge received a number of accolades, including three of the "Best Fan Signs in College Basketball" by USA Today and was featured on national programs such as

text: PTI

text: SportsCenter

text: , and

text: CBS

text: 's documentary "March Madness Fandemonium". In addition, it was recognized as one of the toughest

text: ACC

text: venues by

text: ESPN

text: during numerous broadcasts throughout the season.  On January 24, 2013, Storm Surge was featured on the front page of

text: The Miami Herald

text: following Miami's win over Duke. On February 9, 2013, Storm Surge was featured on the landing page of ESPN.com following Miami's blowout home win over UNC.

text: Chapter 1 - The Wave: The Shape of the Wave lays the foundation for some of the themes that occur throughout the book.  These include the universal nature of mobile devices, and how mobile and cloud computing technologies will continue to disrupt established industries and the old ways of doing business.  This chapter also introduces the ongoing Information Revolution as the third great revolution to transform society, after the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions.

text: Wind waves have a certain amount of randomness: subsequent waves differ in height, duration, and shape with limited predictability. They can be described as a stochastic process, in combination with the physics governing their generation, growth, propagation and decay—as well as governing the interdependence between flow quantities such as: the water surface movements, flow velocities and water pressure. The key statistics of wind waves (both seas and swells) in evolving sea states can be predicted with wind wave models.

text: Wind waves have a certain amount of

text: randomness

text: : subsequent waves differ in height, duration, and shape with limited predictability. They can be described as a

text: stochastic process

text: , in combination with the physics governing their generation, growth, propagation and decay—as well as governing the interdependence between flow quantities such as: the

text: water surface

text: movements,

text: flow velocities

text: and water

text: pressure

text: . The key

text: statistic

text: s of wind waves (both seas and swells) in evolving

text: sea state

text: s can be predicted with

text: wind wave model

text: s.

text: Long term variations are due to the passage of transient waves in the atmosphere, with a characteristic time scale of several days. The transient waves that influence wind in the Central U.S. are large scale and this results in the power output from wind farms in the region being somewhat correlated and not entirely independent. Large scale distribution of wind farms significantly reduce short term variability, limiting the relative standard deviation of the capacity factor to about 45%. The correlation is highest in summer and lowest in winter.

text: Long term variations are due to the passage of

text: transient waves

text: in the atmosphere, with a characteristic time scale of several days. The transient waves that influence wind in the Central U.S. are large scale and this results in the power output from wind farms in the region being somewhat correlated and not entirely independent. Large scale distribution of wind farms significantly reduce short term variability, limiting the

text: relative standard deviation

text: of the capacity factor to about 45%. The correlation is highest in summer and lowest in winter.

text: Esther mainly produced heavy rainfall and gale-force wind gusts along the coasts of Maryland and Delaware. These areas also experienced storm surges of  above normal. Wind gusts to  were observed at Ocean City, Maryland, and storm surge flooding caused damage to the city's sea wall and boardwalk. Minor to moderate damage was reported along the New Jersey coast. A wind gust of  was observed in Atlantic City. Winds downed trees and power lines and damaged apple crops. Storm surge resulted in minor beach erosion and wrecked some boats. Damage totaled less than $1 million.

text: Esther mainly produced heavy rainfall and gale-force wind gusts along the coasts of

text: Maryland

text: and

text: Delaware

text: . These areas also experienced

text: storm surge

text: s of  above normal. Wind gusts to  were observed at

text: Ocean City, Maryland

text: , and storm surge flooding caused damage to the city's sea wall and boardwalk. Minor to moderate damage was reported along the

text: New Jersey

text: coast. A wind gust of  was observed in

text: Atlantic City

text: . Winds downed trees and power lines and damaged apple crops. Storm surge resulted in minor beach erosion and wrecked some boats. Damage totaled less than $1 million.

text: Waveform is a description of the general shape of the sound wave.  Waveforms are sometimes described by the sum of sinusoids, via Fourier analysis.

text: Waveform is a description of the general shape of the sound wave.  Waveforms are sometimes described by the sum of

text: sinusoid

text: s, via

text: Fourier analysis

text: By the afternoon of August 28, the storm was large enough that some areas of the Gulf Coast were already experiencing tropical storm-force winds. The center of Katrina was about 180 statute miles (290 km) from the mouth of the Mississippi River, but tropical storm-force winds extended  from the center of the storm, and hurricane-force winds extended about 105 miles (170 km) away. Overnight on August 29, and into the morning of the next day, Katrina quickly weakened (in terms of maximum sustained winds) as it began to enter another eyewall replacement cycle. The inner eyewall deteriorated before an outer eyewall had fully formed, playing an important role in the weakening. In 18 hours, the hurricane's maximum sustained winds decreased from  to . However, storm surge remained high at landfall because large waves greater than  in height were generated beforehand (with a buoy recording a  wave at sea), when Katrina was at Categories 4 and 5 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale. The waves then combined with the storm surge of the large Category 3 hurricane.

text: By the afternoon of August 28, the storm was large enough that some areas of the

text: Gulf Coast

text: were already experiencing tropical storm-force winds. The center of Katrina was about 180 statute miles (290 km) from the mouth of the

text: Mississippi River

text: , but tropical storm-force winds extended  from the center of the storm, and hurricane-force winds extended about 105 miles (170 km) away. Overnight on August 29, and into the morning of the next day, Katrina quickly weakened (in terms of maximum sustained winds) as it began to enter another eyewall replacement cycle. The inner eyewall deteriorated before an outer eyewall had fully formed, playing an important role in the weakening. In 18 hours, the hurricane's maximum sustained winds decreased from  to . However, storm surge remained high at landfall because large waves greater than  in height were generated beforehand (with a

text: buoy

text: recording a  wave at sea), when Katrina was at Categories 4 and 5 on the

text: Saffir–Simpson hurricane scale

text: . The waves then combined with the storm surge of the large Category 3 hurricane.

text: On September 22, a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean. Two days later, the wave passed south of Cape Verde, and was assessed as having a high probability of tropical cyclogenesis within five days by the National Hurricane Center (NHC). With environmental conditions favoring slow development, thunderstorm activity increased along the wave on September 25, which organized more during the subsequent days while approaching the Lesser Antilles. By September 27, the wave was producing sustained tropical storm-force winds – over 40 mph (65 km/h) – as reported by the Hurricane Hunters, although the system lacked the closed circulation to be classified a tropical cyclone. While the system was passing near Barbados, radar imagery in the Lesser Antilles indicated that the circulation was becoming better organized. Another Hurricane Hunters flight on September 28 confirmed that a closed circulation developed, which was the basis for the NHC initiating advisories on Tropical Storm Matthew at 15:00 UTC that day. The flight also recorded surface winds of 58 mph (93 km/h), along with hurricane-force gusts at the plane's level.

text: On September 22, a

text: tropical wave

text: exited the west coast of Africa and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean. Two days later, the wave passed south of

text: Cape Verde

text: , and was assessed as having a high probability of

text: tropical cyclogenesis

text: within five days by the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC). With environmental conditions favoring slow development,

text: thunderstorm

text: activity increased along the wave on September 25, which organized more during the subsequent days while approaching the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: . By September 27, the wave was producing

text: sustained

text: tropical storm-force winds – over 40 mph (65 km/h) – as reported by the

text: Hurricane Hunters

text: , although the system lacked the closed circulation to be classified a tropical cyclone. While the system was passing near

text: Barbados

text: , radar imagery in the Lesser Antilles indicated that the circulation was becoming better organized. Another Hurricane Hunters flight on September 28 confirmed that a closed circulation developed, which was the basis for the NHC initiating advisories on Tropical Storm Matthew at 15:00

text: UTC

text: that day. The flight also recorded surface winds of 58 mph (93 km/h), along with hurricane-force gusts at the plane's level.

text: Stokes' wave theory, when using a low order of the perturbation expansion (e.g. up to second, third or fifth order), is valid for non-linear waves on intermediate and deep water, that is for wavelengths (λ) not large as compared with the mean depth (h). In shallow water, the low-order Stokes expansion breaks down (gives unrealistic results) for appreciable wave amplitude (as compared to the depth). Then, Boussinesq approximations are more appropriate. Further approximations on Boussinesq-type (multi-directional) wave equations lead – for one-way wave propagation – to the Korteweg–de Vries equation or the Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation. Like (near) exact Stokes-wave solutions, these two equations have solitary wave (soliton) solutions, besides periodic-wave solutions known as cnoidal waves.

text: Stokes' wave theory, when using a low order of the perturbation expansion (e.g. up to second, third or fifth order), is valid for non-linear waves on intermediate and deep water, that is for

text: wavelength

text: s (λ) not large as compared with the mean depth (h). In

text: shallow water

text: , the low-order Stokes expansion breaks down (gives unrealistic results) for appreciable wave amplitude (as compared to the depth). Then,

text: Boussinesq approximation

text: s are more appropriate. Further approximations on Boussinesq-type (multi-directional) wave equations lead – for one-way wave propagation – to the

text: Korteweg–de Vries equation

text: or the

text: Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation

text: . Like (near) exact Stokes-wave solutions, these two equations have

text: solitary wave

text: soliton

text: ) solutions, besides periodic-wave solutions known as

text: cnoidal wave

text: s.

text: Kana had made some appearances for Pro Wrestling Wave in 2008, but did not start working regularly for the promotion until the end of 2010, when NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling folded. On July 24, 2011, Kana defeated Ayumi Kurihara in the finals to win the 2011 Catch the Wave tournament. On October 30, Kana and Kurihara defeated Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu to win the Dual Shock Wave 2011 tournament and become the first ever Wave Tag Team Champions. While a tag team champion with Kurihara, Kana also regularly teamed with Mio Shirai as Triple Tails.S and on February 1, 2012, Kurihara, Mika Iida and Shuu Shibutani were made official members of Triple Tails. Four days later, Kana and Kurihara lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu. On March 6, the new incarnation of Triple Tails was named White Tails, in reference to Wave's top villainous alliance, Black Dahlia. On November 27, Kana defeated Yumi Ohka in a singles match, after which she declared herself the new "ace" of Wave. On February 17, Kana, as the 2011 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into the Wave Single Championship tournament, defeating Mio Shirai in her semifinal match. On March 17, Kana was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Yumi Ohka.

text: Kana had made some appearances for Pro Wrestling Wave in 2008, but did not start working regularly for the promotion until the end of 2010, when NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling folded. On July 24, 2011, Kana defeated Ayumi Kurihara in the finals to win the

text: 2011 Catch the Wave

text: tournament. On October 30, Kana and Kurihara defeated

text: Ran Yu-Yu

text: and

text: Toshie Uematsu

text: to win the

text: Dual Shock Wave 2011

text: tournament and become the first ever

text: Wave Tag Team Champions

text: . While a tag team champion with Kurihara, Kana also regularly teamed with

text: Mio Shirai

text: as Triple Tails.S and on February 1, 2012, Kurihara, Mika Iida and

text: Shuu Shibutani

text: were made official members of Triple Tails. Four days later, Kana and Kurihara lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu. On March 6, the new incarnation of Triple Tails was named White Tails, in reference to Wave's top

text: villainous

text: alliance, Black Dahlia. On November 27, Kana defeated

text: Yumi Ohka

text: in a singles match, after which she declared herself the new "

text: ace

text: " of Wave. On February 17, Kana, as the 2011 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: tournament

text: , defeating Mio Shirai in her semifinal match. On March 17, Kana was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Yumi Ohka.

text: There have been several proposed mechanisms for the development of gulf surges including gravity currents, ageostrophic flows, Kelvin waves, or Rossby waves. However, due to a lack of observations in the area, the exact cause is uncertain. The best data currently available that indicates moisture in the gulf is from the NEXRAD radar in Yuma, Arizona. This instrument has the capability of wind speed and velocity at several altitudes in the atmosphere in what is known as a vertical wind profile. The first indication of a gulf surge is a change in the surface wind direction at Yuma, Arizona, with the winds switching from westerly to south-easterly. This flow tends to get wider and deeper as the surge progresses. During the monsoon, there is a pressure difference between the heat low that is present over the Southwestern United States and the relative high pressure over the northern portion of the gulf. Winds will blow from the south due to the pressure gradient force. Typically during a traditional surge, a large mesoscale convective system is located off the southern tip of the Baja peninsula. Flow around such a low pressure system is cyclonic, which corresponds to counter-clockwise. Some of this circulation will make its way into the gulf and get funneled northward towards the southwestern United States like a waveguide. As this moist air travels northward, it encounters the already present southerly winds and gets pushed into southern Arizona. The high pressure area over the northern gulf tends to push the moisture surge to the east towards the Tucson area.

text: There have been several proposed mechanisms for the development of gulf surges including

text: gravity current

text: s,

text: ageostrophic

text: flows,

text: Kelvin waves

text: , or

text: Rossby waves

text: . However, due to a lack of observations in the area, the exact cause is uncertain. The best data currently available that indicates moisture in the gulf is from the

text: NEXRAD

text: radar in

text: Yuma, Arizona

text: . This instrument has the capability of wind speed and velocity at several altitudes in the atmosphere in what is known as a vertical wind profile. The first indication of a gulf surge is a change in the surface wind direction at Yuma, Arizona, with the winds switching from westerly to south-easterly. This flow tends to get wider and deeper as the surge progresses. During the monsoon, there is a

text: pressure

text: difference between the

text: heat low

text: that is present over the Southwestern United States and the relative high pressure over the northern portion of the gulf. Winds will blow from the south due to the

text: pressure gradient force

text: . Typically during a traditional surge, a large mesoscale convective system is located off the southern tip of the Baja peninsula. Flow around such a

text: low pressure system

text: is

text: cyclonic

text: , which corresponds to counter-clockwise. Some of this circulation will make its way into the gulf and get funneled northward towards the southwestern United States like a

text: waveguide

text: . As this moist air travels northward, it encounters the already present southerly winds and gets pushed into southern Arizona. The high pressure area over the northern gulf tends to push the moisture surge to the east towards the

text: Tucson

text: area.

text: In advance of the storm, tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for coastal areas, while rescue teams and the U.S. Coast Guard were put on standby. The storm dropped heavy rainfall near its immediate landfall location but little precipitation elsewhere. Along the coast, high waves, rip currents, and storm surge were reported. Slight localized flooding was reported. Gusty winds also occurred, though no wind damage was reported. Overall damage was minor, and there were no fatalities.

text: In advance of the storm,

text: tropical cyclone watches and warnings

text: were issued for coastal areas, while rescue teams and the U.S. Coast Guard were put on standby. The storm dropped heavy rainfall near its immediate landfall location but little precipitation elsewhere. Along the coast, high waves,

text: rip current

text: s, and

text: storm surge

text: were reported. Slight localized flooding was reported. Gusty winds also occurred, though no wind damage was reported. Overall damage was minor, and there were no fatalities.

text: Spontaneously breaking of a continuous symmetry is inevitably accompanied by gapless (meaning that these modes do not cost any energy to excite) Nambu–Goldstone modes associated with slow long-wavelength fluctuations of the order parameter. For example, vibrational modes in a crystal, known as phonons, are associated with slow density fluctuations of the crystal's atoms. The associated Goldstone mode for magnets are oscillating waves of spin known as spin-waves. For symmetry-breaking  states, whose order parameter is not a conserved quantity, Nambu–Goldstone modes are typically massless and propagate at a constant velocity.

text: A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on August 8, while located about 125 miles (200 km) east of easternmost islands of Cape Verde. While approaching the Lesser Antilles, a tropical storm watch was issued. However, an upper-level low increased wind shear on the system. As a result, the depression degenerated into a tropical wave on August 17. The wave eventually split in two, with the southern part eventually becoming Hurricane Lorena in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

text: A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six on August 8, while located about 125 miles (200 km) east of easternmost islands of

text: Cape Verde

text: . While approaching the Lesser Antilles, a tropical storm watch was issued. However, an upper-level low increased wind shear on the system. As a result, the depression degenerated into a tropical wave on August 17. The wave eventually split in two, with the southern part eventually becoming

text: Hurricane Lorena

text: in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

text: Because the Olson 30 is so light for its length and has a relatively overpowered (for its design's age) sail profile, the Olson 30 excels at light-air sailing. In moderate conditions the sailing performance is unremarkable. In heavy conditions upwind the Olson 30 suffers from the lack of weight to drive the bow and the boat through waves, however downwind in a breeze the Olson 30 surfs and planes readily, and it was for these conditions the boat was ultimately designed. The stock rudder tends to be underpowered in heavy air, leading to difficult driving downwind especially in short waves and big wind.

text: The future plans of MPSE mirror those of Aquamarine Power - a tidal/wave power company - which is planning to utilise the UK wave resource. The hydroelectric resource, just like the offshore-wind equivalent, could provide a large proportion of Britain's energy needs. It has been estimated that this is between 15-25 per cent of the current UK demand.

text: The future plans of MPSE mirror those of

text: Aquamarine Power

text: - a

text: tidal

text: wave

text: power company - which is planning to utilise the UK wave resource. The hydroelectric resource, just like the offshore-wind equivalent, could provide a large proportion of Britain's energy needs. It has been estimated that this is between 15-25 per cent of the current UK demand.

text: French Polynesia is famous for its reef break waves. Teahupo'o is probably the most renowned, regularly ranked in the best waves of the world. This site hosts the annual Billabong Pro Tahiti surf competition, the 7th stop of the World Championship Tour.

text: French Polynesia is famous for its

text: reef break

text: waves.

text: Teahupo'o

text: is probably the most renowned, regularly ranked in the best waves of the world. This site hosts the annual

text: Billabong Pro Tahiti

text: surf competition, the 7th stop of the

text: World Championship Tour

text: A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 21. By four days later, the system spawned Tropical Storm Erika over the eastern Atlantic. The southern portion of the wave persisted westward and moved over Central America on August 30. Shower and thunderstorm activity associated with the wave began to increase over the next few days as it crossed the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Convection was enhanced further on September 2 as a Kelvin wave interacted with the tropical wave, eventually resulting in the development of a broad low pressure area. Early the following day, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) issued a Tropical Weather Outlook (TWO) for a cluster of clouds that showed signs of organizing into a tropical system. Wind shear was forecast to become more conducive for tropical cyclogenesis over the next few days. Although the shear remained moderately strong, the low acquired a well-defined center of circulation by September 4. Following further organization of deep convection, Tropical Depression Fifteen-E developed at 18:00 UTC on September 5 while located about  southwest of Manzanillo, Colima.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 21. By four days later, the system spawned

text: Tropical Storm Erika

text: over the eastern Atlantic. The southern portion of the wave persisted westward and moved over Central America on August 30. Shower and thunderstorm activity associated with the wave began to increase over the next few days as it crossed the

text: Gulf of Tehuantepec

text: . Convection was enhanced further on September 2 as a

text: Kelvin wave

text: interacted with the tropical wave, eventually resulting in the development of a broad

text: low pressure area

text: . Early the following day, the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) issued a Tropical Weather Outlook (TWO) for a cluster of clouds that showed signs of organizing into a tropical system.

text: Wind shear

text: was forecast to become more conducive for

text: tropical cyclogenesis

text: over the next few days. Although the shear remained moderately strong, the low acquired a well-defined center of circulation by September 4. Following further organization of deep convection, Tropical Depression Fifteen-E developed at 18:00

text: UTC

text: on September 5 while located about  southwest of

text: Manzanillo, Colima

text: Premature junctional contractions (PJCs), also called atrioventricular junctional premature complexes or junctional extrasystole, are premature cardiac electrical impulses originating from the atrioventricular node of the heart or "junction." This area is not the normal but only a secondary source of cardiac electrical impulse formation. These premature beats can be found occasionally in healthy people and more commonly in some pathologic conditions, typically in the case of drug cardiotoxicity, electrolyte imbalance, mitral valve surgery, and cold water immersion. If more than two such beats are seen, then the condition is termed junctional rhythm. On the surface ECG, premature junctional contractions will appear as a normally shaped ventricular complex or QRS complex, not preceded by any atrial complex or P wave or preceded by an abnormal P wave with a shorter distance or interval between the P wave and the QRS. Rarely, the abnormal P wave can follow the QRS.

text: Premature junctional contractions (PJCs), also called atrioventricular junctional premature complexes or junctional extrasystole, are premature cardiac electrical impulses originating from the

text: atrioventricular node

text: of the heart or "junction." This area is

text: not the normal

text: but only a secondary source of

text: cardiac electrical impulse formation

text: . These premature beats can be found occasionally in healthy people and more commonly in some

text: pathologic conditions

text: , typically in the case of drug

text: cardiotoxicity

text: electrolyte imbalance

text: mitral valve

text: surgery, and

text: cold water immersion

text: . If more than two such beats are seen, then the condition is termed

text: junctional rhythm

text: . On the surface

text: ECG

text: , premature junctional contractions will appear as a normally shaped ventricular complex or

text: QRS complex

text: , not preceded by any atrial complex or

text: P wave

text: or preceded by an abnormal P wave with a shorter distance or interval between the P wave and the QRS. Rarely, the abnormal P wave can follow the QRS.

text: Lake surfing is surfing on any lake with sufficient surface area for wind to produce suitable waves. As with ocean surfing, ideal wave conditions are when the wind switches offshore. However, when this occurs over a lake the waves generated by previous onshore wind subside relatively quickly. This means lake surfers have a shorter window of opportunity to surf ideal waves. Lake surfers are often out during and experiencing the same storm that creates the waves whereas ocean surfers are more often surfing on swell produced by storms hundreds of miles away and that may have taken days to reach shore. In addition to making it more difficult to manage surfboards, high winds can make the face of a wave and water surface rough. Increased wave frequency due to shorter fetch results in less rest between waves and sets of waves. This can make it necessary to paddle out through waves because there may not be a long enough pause between sets to paddle out between them. Though not significant enough to necessitate surfboard design changes, the reduced buoyancy of freshwater results in increased drag when paddling. Lake surfers enjoy water that is fresh ("sweet" as opposed to salty) and do not have to worry about the dangers from marine life (e.g. sharks, jellyfish, etc.) that ocean surfers may have to contend with.

text: Lake surfing is

text: surfing

text: on any

text: lake

text: with sufficient surface area for wind to produce suitable waves. As with ocean surfing, ideal wave conditions are when the wind switches offshore. However, when this occurs over a lake the waves generated by previous onshore wind subside relatively quickly. This means lake surfers have a shorter window of opportunity to surf ideal waves. Lake surfers are often out during and experiencing the same storm that creates the waves whereas ocean surfers are more often surfing on

text: swell

text: produced by storms hundreds of miles away and that may have taken days to reach shore. In addition to making it more difficult to manage surfboards, high winds can make the face of a wave and water surface rough. Increased wave frequency due to shorter

text: fetch

text: results in less rest between waves and sets of waves. This can make it necessary to paddle out through waves because there may not be a long enough pause between sets to paddle out between them. Though not significant enough to necessitate surfboard design changes, the reduced

text: buoyancy

text: of freshwater results in increased drag when paddling. Lake surfers enjoy water that is fresh ("sweet" as opposed to salty) and do not have to worry about the dangers from marine life (e.g. sharks, jellyfish, etc.) that ocean surfers may have to contend with.

text: Out from the stony shores of the east coast it often gets deeper than two meters just 5 – 10 meters from the shore. This east coast is relatively current rich with open unrestricted water all the way across the Kattegat Sea to Sweden. This generates big waves under onshore wind conditions (from the east) with a tendency to wide beaches created by waves washing up onto the shores.

text: Roxanne caused 14 deaths, with five of them coming from the sinking of a petroleum work barge with 245 people on board. There was massive damage in Mexico across numerous Mexican states. Over forty thousand homes were damaged in the States of Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco Veracruz and Yucatán. Crops were destroyed, cattle drowned, and roads were either washed out or blocked by mudslides. The road between the City of Carmen and Campeche was completely destroyed. There are unconfirmed reports that many hotel lobbies in Cancun and Cozumel were damaged from pounding waves. Rainfall and storm surge combined with overflowing rivers caused the worst flooding in Campeche since 1927. Rainfall in some areas was over 20 inches, with the highest rainfall reported as 26.61 inches/676 mm at Silvituc/Champoton. The storm surge also pounded the Mexican coastline for days and the Gulf waters surged inland hundreds of yards.

text: Reconnaissance Aircraft and surface reports confirmed the existence of a circulation. Dean moved northwestward at 22 mph (35 km/h), under the influence of the Bermuda High to its northeast. The storm strengthened slightly to reach winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) later on August 22, though the circulation was exposed on the western edge of the convection due to the storm's quick forward motion and persistent wind shear. Initial forecasts predicted the shear to decrease, allowing Dean to attain hurricane status with winds of over 80 mph (130 km/h). However, an upper-level trough produced an increase of shear over the storm, and by August 23 Dean weakened to a tropical depression. Hours later, the circulation dissipated, and Dean degenerated into a tropical wave to the east of the Bahamas. Regeneration was considered unlikely at the time.

text: Reconnaissance Aircraft and surface reports confirmed the existence of a circulation. Dean moved northwestward at 22 mph (35 km/h), under the influence of the

text: Bermuda High

text: to its northeast. The storm strengthened slightly to reach winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) later on August 22, though the circulation was exposed on the western edge of the convection due to the storm's quick forward motion and persistent

text: wind shear

text: . Initial forecasts predicted the shear to decrease, allowing Dean to attain hurricane status with winds of over 80 mph (130 km/h). However, an upper-level

text: trough

text: produced an increase of shear over the storm, and by August 23 Dean weakened to a tropical depression. Hours later, the circulation dissipated, and Dean degenerated into a tropical wave to the east of the

text: Bahamas

text: . Regeneration was considered unlikely at the time.

text: Similarly to surface waves, internal waves change as they approach the shore. As the ratio of wave amplitude to water depth becomes such that the wave “feels the bottom,” water at the base of the wave slows down due to friction with the sea floor. This causes the wave to become asymmetrical and the face of the wave to steepen, and finally the wave will break, propagating forward as an internal bore. Internal waves are often formed as tides pass over a shelf break. The largest of these waves are generated during springtides and those of sufficient magnitude break and progress across the shelf as bores. These bores are evidenced by rapid, step-like changes in temperature and salinity with depth, the abrupt onset of upslope flows near the bottom and packets of high frequency internal waves following the fronts of the bores.

text: Similarly to surface waves, internal waves change as they approach the shore. As the ratio of wave amplitude to water depth becomes such that the wave “feels the bottom,” water at the base of the wave slows down due to friction with the sea floor. This causes the wave to become asymmetrical and the face of the wave to steepen, and finally the wave will break, propagating forward as an internal bore. Internal waves are often formed as tides pass over a shelf break. The largest of these waves are generated during

text: springtides

text: and those of sufficient magnitude break and progress across the shelf as bores. These bores are evidenced by rapid, step-like changes in temperature and salinity with depth, the abrupt onset of upslope flows near the bottom and packets of high frequency internal waves following the fronts of the bores.

text: The process of wind-wave dissipation can be explained by applying energy spectrum theory in a similar manner as for the formation of wind-waves (generally assuming spectral dissipation is a function of wave spectrum). However, although even some of recent innovative improvements for field observations (such as Banner & Babanin et al.<ref name=[2]>{{cite journal|last=Banner|first=M.L.|title=Breaking probability for dominant waves on the sea surface|journal=Journal of Physical Oceanography|year=2000|volume=30|pages=3145–3160|doi=10.1175/1520-0485(2000)030

text: TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 made clear the importance of planetary-scale waves, such as Rossby and Kalvin waves. No one had realized how widespread these waves are. Thousands of kilometers wide, these waves are driven by wind under the influence of Earth’s rotation and are important mechanisms for transmitting climate signals across the large ocean basins. At high latitudes, they travel twice as fast as scientists believed previously, showing the ocean responds much more quickly to climate changes than was known before these missions.

text: TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 made clear the importance of planetary-scale waves, such as

text: Rossby

text: and

text: Kalvin

text: waves. No one had realized how widespread these waves are. Thousands of kilometers wide, these waves are driven by wind under the influence of Earth’s rotation and are important mechanisms for transmitting climate signals across the large ocean basins. At high latitudes, they travel twice as fast as scientists believed previously, showing the ocean responds much more quickly to climate changes than was known before these missions.

text: The main storm surge forecast model in the Atlantic basin is SLOSH, which stands for Sea, Lake, Overland, Surge from Hurricanes.  It uses the size of a storm, its intensity, its forward motion, and the topography of the coastal plain to estimate the depth of a storm surge at any individual grid point across the United States.  An accurate forecast track is required in order to produce accurate storm surge forecasts.  However, if the landfall point is uncertain, a maximum envelope of water (MEOW) map can be generated based on the direction of approach.  If the forecast track itself is also uncertain, a maximum of maximums (MoM) map can be generated which will show the worst possible scenario for a hurricane of a specific strength.

text: The main storm surge forecast model in the Atlantic basin is SLOSH, which stands for Sea, Lake, Overland, Surge from Hurricanes.  It uses the size of a storm, its intensity, its forward motion, and the topography of the coastal plain to estimate the depth of a storm surge at any individual grid point across the

text: United States

text: .  An accurate forecast track is required in order to produce accurate storm surge forecasts.  However, if the landfall point is uncertain, a maximum envelope of water (MEOW) map can be generated based on the direction of approach.  If the forecast track itself is also uncertain, a maximum of maximums (MoM) map can be generated which will show the worst possible scenario for a hurricane of a specific strength.

text: The storm produced estimated storm surge of  to , along with waves of up to  in height. However, there were isolated reports of  surge, particularly along the beaches of Brunswick County. This produced minor beach erosion along the coastline. Winds gusted from 60–70 miles per hour (95–110 km/h), causing minor wind damage. The hurricane spawned five weak tornadoes across the state, including an F1 in Nags Head that damaged twenty structures. Charley destroyed 40 houses and damaged 2,231, 231 severely, including 221 damaged beach homes in Sunset Beach. Damage was the greatest in Brunswick County, where wind gusts peaked at 85 miles per hour  (137 km/h). The winds blew down chimneys and damaged a roof on one building, and ripped the siding off another. Crop damage was also heavy in Brunswick County, with 50% of the tobacco crop lost and 30% of the corn and vegetable fields destroyed. Strong winds downed trees and power lines, leaving 65,000 homes without power. Damage in North Carolina totaled to $25 million (2004 USD).

text: The storm produced estimated storm surge of  to , along with waves of up to  in height. However, there were isolated reports of  surge, particularly along the beaches of Brunswick County. This produced minor

text: beach erosion

text: along the coastline. Winds gusted from 60–70 miles per hour (95–110 km/h), causing minor wind damage. The hurricane spawned five weak tornadoes across the state, including an

text: in

text: Nags Head

text: that damaged twenty structures. Charley destroyed 40 houses and damaged 2,231, 231 severely, including 221 damaged beach homes in

text: Sunset Beach

text: . Damage was the greatest in

text: Brunswick County

text: , where wind gusts peaked at 85 miles per hour  (137 km/h). The winds blew down chimneys and damaged a roof on one building, and ripped the siding off another. Crop damage was also heavy in Brunswick County, with 50% of the tobacco crop lost and 30% of the corn and vegetable fields destroyed. Strong winds downed trees and power lines, leaving 65,000 homes without power. Damage in North Carolina totaled to $25 million (2004 USD).

text: The combination of storm surge and waves severely eroded beaches along Charlotte Harbor and Estero Bay. In Naples, strong waves destroyed the western end of the Naples Pier where several boats were washed ashore. Heavy precipitation fell to the north of the center, peaking at 10.27 inches (260 mm) in Saint Leo. Sustained winds peaked at 63 mph (101 km/h) at the MacDill Air Force Base, with stronger gusts. Inland from the immediate coastline, damage was mostly limited to isolated fresh-water flooding, downed trees, and power outages; overall damage was widespread but fairly light, and six structures were destroyed across the state. Before moving ashore, Keith spawned two tornadoes, one of which damaged approximately 30 mobile homes in Clermont. In Lakeland, a washed out track derailed a 34-car train, which broke a natural gas line and forced 450 people to evacuate. In Lee County, damage totaled $1.5 million (1988 USD; $

text: The combination of storm surge and waves severely

text: eroded beaches

text: along

text: Charlotte Harbor

text: and

text: Estero Bay

text: . In

text: Naples

text: , strong waves destroyed the western end of the Naples Pier where several boats were washed ashore. Heavy precipitation fell to the north of the center, peaking at 10.27 inches (260 mm) in

text: Saint Leo

text: . Sustained winds peaked at 63 mph (101 km/h) at the

text: MacDill Air Force Base

text: , with stronger gusts. Inland from the immediate coastline, damage was mostly limited to isolated fresh-water flooding, downed trees, and power outages; overall damage was widespread but fairly light, and six structures were destroyed across the state. Before moving ashore, Keith spawned two

text: tornado

text: es, one of which damaged approximately 30 mobile homes in

text: Clermont

text: . In

text: Lakeland

text: , a washed out track derailed a 34-car train, which broke a natural gas line and forced 450 people to evacuate. In

text: Lee County

text: , damage totaled $1.5 million (1988 USD; $

text: Wave drag presents itself as part of pressure drag due to compressibility effects. It is caused by the formation of shock waves around a body. Shock waves create a considerable amount of drag, which can result in extreme drag  on the body. Although shock waves are typically associated with supersonic flow, they can form at subsonic aircraft speeds on areas of the body where local airflow accelerates to supersonic speed. The effect is typically seen on aircraft at transonic speeds (about Mach 0.8), but it is possible to notice the problem at any speed over that of the critical Mach of that aircraft. It is so pronounced that, prior to 1947, it was thought that aircraft engines would not be powerful enough to overcome the enhanced drag, or that the forces would be so great that aircraft would be at risk of breaking up in midflight. It led to the concept of a sound barrier.

text: Wave drag presents itself as part of

text: pressure drag

text: due to

text: compressibility

text: effects. It is caused by the formation of

text: shock wave

text: s around a body. Shock waves create a considerable amount of drag, which can result in extreme drag  on the body. Although shock waves are typically associated with supersonic flow, they can form at

text: subsonic

text: aircraft speeds on areas of the body where local airflow accelerates to supersonic speed. The effect is typically seen on aircraft at

text: transonic

text: speeds (about

text: Mach 0.8

text: ), but it is possible to notice the problem at any speed over that of the

text: critical Mach

text: of that aircraft. It is so pronounced that, prior to 1947, it was thought that aircraft engines would not be powerful enough to overcome the enhanced drag, or that the forces would be so great that aircraft would be at risk of breaking up in midflight. It led to the concept of a

text: sound barrier

text: As with any coastal zone, there are inherent hazards present. Particularly in the Pacific Northwest, coastlines are impacted with large waves, storm surge, strong currents, wind, and rain. Yaquina Bay is seasonally affected by these impacts, with winter typically the most intense period. Storms and rain increase, which leads to more land runoff and also causes waves and currents to reshape the coastline.

text: On September 17, a tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the western coast of Africa. The disturbance followed another tropical wave which became Hurricane Faye several days later, before turning west near the 11th parallel. Based on estimates from the Dvorak Technique, the wave was designated a tropical depression at 18:00 UTC on September 22. Due to favorable conditions such as low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Gladys by the National Hurricane Center (NHC) on September 24. After becoming a tropical storm, Gladys slowly intensified as winds increased to 50 mph (80 km/h). The storm then moved west-northwest, and on September 25, Gladys strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS). Despite strong wind shear, the storm maintained minimal hurricane status. However, early on September 28, the barometric pressure increased to ; the NHC notes that Gladys may have briefly weakened into a tropical storm at this time.

text: On September 17, a

text: tropical wave

text: emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the western coast of Africa. The disturbance followed another tropical wave which became

text: Hurricane Faye

text: several days later, before turning west near the

text: 11th parallel

text: . Based on estimates from the

text: Dvorak Technique

text: , the wave was designated a tropical depression at 18:00

text: UTC

text: on September 22. Due to favorable conditions such as low

text: wind shear

text: and warm

text: sea surface temperature

text: s, the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Gladys by the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) on September 24. After becoming a tropical storm, Gladys slowly intensified as winds increased to 50 mph (80 km/h). The storm then moved west-northwest, and on September 25, Gladys strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the

text: Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale

text: (SSHWS). Despite strong

text: wind shear

text: , the storm maintained minimal hurricane status. However, early on September 28, the

text: barometric pressure

text: increased to ; the NHC notes that Gladys may have briefly weakened into a tropical storm at this time.

text: A storm surge is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low pressure weather systems (such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones), the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, and the timing of tides.  Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges.

text: A storm surge is a

text: coastal flood

text: or

text: tsunami

text: -like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with

text: low pressure

text: weather systems (such as

text: tropical cyclone

text: s and strong

text: extratropical cyclone

text: s), the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path, and the timing of

text: tide

text: s.  Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges.

text: Striking East Pakistan as a powerful storm, the system produced a storm tide of  that moved 16 km (10 mi) inland, devastating many communities. A storm surge of  was measured in Halishahar. In addition to the surge, there was a series of tidal waves that followed the storm, causing additional damage. Offshore, these waves were estimated at ; though they significantly decreased before impacting land. Cittagong and surrounding communities were regarded as the hardest hit, with most being submerged in  of water. The city's port was largely destroyed, with almost every vessel washed ashore. Some were found 16 km (10 mi) away and one even at another port. The storm's intense winds, estimated as high as 240 km/h (150 mph) on Sandwip Island, leveled buildings and scattered debris over large distances. Crops were flattened by the storm and in some instances had been "burnt" by the sheer force of the wind. A total of 14,174 people perished in the storm while another 200,000 were left homeless. Following the mass casualties from the two storms, the Government of Pakistan requested the assistance of former National Hurricane Center director, Gordon E. Dunn, to improve the warning system.<ref name="Deadliest">{{cite journal|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|publisher=American Meteorological Society|author =Neil L. Frank|author2=S. A. Husain|author3=National Hurricane Center, Pakistan Meteorological Department|title=The Deadliest Tropical Cyclone in History?|date=June 1971|accessdate=May 10, 2013|pages=438–444|volume=52|issue=6|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/1520-0477%281971%29052%3C0438%3ATDTCIH%3E2.0.CO%3B2|format=PDF|doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1971)052

text: Striking East Pakistan as a powerful storm, the system produced a storm tide of  that moved 16 km (10 mi) inland, devastating many communities. A

text: storm surge

text: of  was measured in

text: Halishahar

text: . In addition to the surge, there was a series of tidal waves that followed the storm, causing additional damage. Offshore, these waves were estimated at ; though they significantly decreased before impacting land.

text: Cittagong

text: and surrounding communities were regarded as the hardest hit, with most being submerged in  of water. The city's port was largely destroyed, with almost every vessel washed ashore. Some were found 16 km (10 mi) away and one even at another port. The storm's intense winds, estimated as high as 240 km/h (150 mph) on Sandwip Island, leveled buildings and scattered debris over large distances. Crops were flattened by the storm and in some instances had been "burnt" by the sheer force of the wind. A total of 14,174 people perished in the storm while another 200,000 were left homeless. Following the mass casualties from the two storms, the

text: Government of Pakistan

text: requested the assistance of former

text: National Hurricane Center

text: director, Gordon E. Dunn, to improve the warning system.<ref name="Deadliest">{{cite journal|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|publisher=

text: American Meteorological Society

text: |author =Neil L. Frank|author2=S. A. Husain|author3=National Hurricane Center, Pakistan Meteorological Department|title=The Deadliest Tropical Cyclone in History?|date=June 1971|accessdate=May 10, 2013|pages=438–444|volume=52|issue=6|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/1520-0477%281971%29052%3C0438%3ATDTCIH%3E2.0.CO%3B2|format=PDF|doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1971)052

text: Once the craft is within 10 metres of the patient, the driver will back the speed off slightly while the crew person leans out across the port side pontoon, preparing his or her left arm to form a solid hook. In preparation for pick-up, the patient links both hands in a loop above his or her head. Precision positioning by the driver is required to ensure the craft comes up just next to the patient so that the crew person may hook the patient and pull him or her into the boat. The driver then turns sharply around the buoy and the entire team prepares for a quick dash back to the shore by ducking down into the boat as far as possible to reduce their wind resistance. During the return to shore, the driver will usually travel at top speed, popping over breaking waves and driving down the face of spilling waves. As the craft hits the beach, the driver must 'kill', or stop, the motor, exit the boat and make a final dash to the finish line to complete the race.

text: Katrina made its second landfall at 6:10 a.m. CDT on August 29 as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of  near Buras-Triumph, Louisiana. Because Katrina had just weakened from Category 4 and due to the shape of the coastline, sustained Category 4 winds likely existed on land while the eye was over water. At landfall, hurricane-force winds extended  from the center, the storm's pressure was , and its forward speed was . As it made its way up the eastern Louisiana coastline, most communities in Plaquemines, St. Bernard Parish, and Slidell in St. Tammany Parish were severely damaged by storm surge and the strong winds of the eyewall, which also grazed eastern New Orleans, causing in excess of $1 billion worth of damage to the city (see Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans).

text: Katrina made its second landfall at 6:10 a.m. CDT on August 29 as a Category 3 hurricane with sustained winds of  near

text: Buras-Triumph, Louisiana

text: . Because Katrina had just weakened from Category 4 and due to the shape of the coastline, sustained Category 4 winds likely existed on land while the eye was over water. At landfall, hurricane-force winds extended  from the center, the storm's pressure was , and its forward speed was . As it made its way up the eastern Louisiana coastline, most communities in

text: Plaquemines

text: St. Bernard Parish

text: , and

text: Slidell

text: in

text: St. Tammany Parish

text: were severely damaged by storm surge and the strong winds of the eyewall, which also grazed eastern New Orleans, causing in excess of $1 billion worth of damage to the city (see

entity_name: Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans

text: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans

text: Meteotsunami should not be confused with storm surges, which are local increases in sea level associated with the low barometric pressure of passing tropical cyclones, nor should they be confused with setup, the temporary local raising of sea level caused by strong on-shore winds. Storm surges and setup are also dangerous causes of coastal flooding in severe weather but their dynamics are completely unrelated to tsunami waves. They are unable to propagate beyond their sources, as waves do.

text: Meteotsunami should not be confused with

text: storm surges

text: , which are local increases in sea level associated with the low barometric pressure of passing tropical cyclones, nor should they be confused with setup, the temporary local raising of sea level caused by strong on-shore winds. Storm surges and setup are also dangerous causes of coastal flooding in severe weather but their dynamics are completely unrelated to tsunami waves. They are unable to propagate beyond their sources, as waves do.

text: On June 30, 1896, Ocean Wave arrived with the first group of vacationers for the season on the beaches.  On the same day, the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company and the White Collar Line reached an agreement whereby there would be two steamers, Ocean Wave and T.J. Potter, running twice daily between Astoria and Portland.  A rail link between Portland and Astoria was under construction at the time, but had not yet reached Astoria.  Completion of the rail link was expected to be soon, if the steel for the rails were to be delivered.  Passengers for Gearhart and Seaside, Oregon would be landed at Flavel rather than a landing known as “the old bridge” until trains ran into Astoria.  The roundtrip fare from Portland to Ilwaco would be $3.50 during the 1896 summer season.

text: On June 30, 1896, Ocean Wave arrived with the first group of vacationers for the season on the beaches.  On the same day, the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company and the White Collar Line reached an agreement whereby there would be two steamers, Ocean Wave and

text: T.J. Potter

text: , running twice daily between Astoria and Portland.  A rail link between Portland and Astoria was under construction at the time, but had not yet reached Astoria.  Completion of the rail link was expected to be soon, if the steel for the rails were to be delivered.  Passengers for

text: Gearhart

text: and

text: Seaside, Oregon

text: would be landed at Flavel rather than a landing known as “the old bridge” until trains ran into Astoria.  The roundtrip fare from Portland to Ilwaco would be $3.50 during the 1896 summer season.

text: The speed of all ocean waves is controlled by gravity, wavelength, and water depth. Most characteristics of ocean waves depend on the relationship between their wavelength and water depth. Wavelength determines the size of the orbits of water molecules within a wave, but water depth determines the shape of the orbits. The paths of water molecules in a wind wave are circular only when the wave is traveling in deep water. A wave cannot "feel" the bottom when it moves through water deeper than half its wavelength because too little wave energy is contained in the small circles below that depth. Waves moving through water deeper than half their wavelength are known as deep-water waves. On the other hand, the orbits of water molecules in waves moving through shallow water are flattened by the proximity of the sea surface bottom. Waves in water shallower than 1/20 their original wavelength are known as shallow-water waves. Transitional waves travel through water deeper than 1/20 their original wavelength but shallower than half their original wavelength.

text: Internal waves, also called internal gravity waves, go by many other names depending upon the fluid stratification, generation mechanism, amplitude, and influence of external forces. If propagating horizontally along an interface where the density rapidly decreases with height, they are specifically called interfacial (internal) waves. If the interfacial waves are large amplitude they are called internal solitary waves or internal solitons. If moving vertically through the atmosphere where substantial changes in air density influences their dynamics, they are called anelastic (internal) waves. If generated by flow over topography, they are called Lee waves or mountain waves. If the mountain waves break aloft, they can result in strong warm winds at the ground known as Chinook winds (in North America) or Foehn winds (in Europe). If generated in the ocean by tidal flow over submarine ridges or the continental shelf, they are called internal tides. If they evolve slowly compared to the Earth's rotational frequency so that their dynamics are influenced by the Coriolis effect, they are called inertia gravity waves or, simply, inertial waves. Internal waves are usually distinguished from Rossby waves, which are influenced by the change of Coriolis frequency with latitude.

text: Internal waves, also called internal gravity waves, go by many other names depending upon the fluid stratification, generation mechanism, amplitude, and influence of external forces. If propagating horizontally along an interface where the density rapidly decreases with height, they are specifically called interfacial (internal) waves. If the interfacial waves are large amplitude they are called internal solitary waves or internal

text: soliton

text: s. If moving vertically through the atmosphere where substantial changes in air density influences their dynamics, they are called anelastic (internal) waves. If generated by flow over topography, they are called

text: Lee waves

text: or

text: mountain waves

text: . If the mountain waves break aloft, they can result in strong warm winds at the ground known as

text: Chinook winds

text: (in North America) or

text: Foehn

text: winds (in Europe). If generated in the ocean by tidal flow over submarine ridges or the continental shelf, they are called internal tides. If they evolve slowly compared to the Earth's rotational frequency so that their dynamics are influenced by the

text: Coriolis effect

text: , they are called

text: inertia gravity waves

text: or, simply,

text: inertial waves

text: . Internal waves are usually distinguished from

text: Rossby wave

text: s, which are influenced by the change of

text: Coriolis frequency

text: with latitude.

text: Wave breaking intensity measures the force of the wave as it breaks, spills, or plunges (a plunging wave is termed by surfers as a “barrel wave”). Wave section length is the distance between two breaking crests in a wave set. Wave section length can be hard to measure because local winds, non-linear wave interactions, island sheltering, and swell interactions can cause multifarious wave configurations in the surf zone.

text: The highest storm surge is normally coincident with the radius of maximum wind.  Because the strongest winds within a tropical cyclone lie at the RMW, this is the region of a tropical cyclone which generates the dominant waves near the storm, and ultimately ocean swell away from the cyclone.  Tropical cyclones mix the ocean water within a radius three times that of the RMW, which lowers sea surface temperatures due to upwelling.<ref name="Wil"/>

text: The highest storm surge is normally coincident with the radius of maximum wind.  Because the strongest winds within a tropical cyclone lie at the RMW, this is the region of a tropical cyclone which generates the dominant waves near the storm, and ultimately

text: ocean swell

text: away from the cyclone.  Tropical cyclones mix the ocean water within a radius three times that of the RMW, which lowers sea surface temperatures due to

text: upwelling

text: .<ref name="Wil"/>

text: On October 11, a level one warning signal was raised for Hong Kong, indicating that a tropical cyclone was approaching the region. This was soon raised to level three as strong winds were expected to affect the area. Although the center of Bess passed roughly 305 km (190 mi) south of Hong Kong, the pressure gradient between the tropical storm and high pressure to the north resulted in strong winds across the region. On the Pratas Islands, ten-minute sustained winds of 95 km/h (60 mph) were reported. In Hong Kong itself, winds reached 45 km/h (30 mph) and gusted to 85 km/h (50 mph). Gusts up to 113 km/h (71 mph) occurred on Tate's Cairn. In contrast to the unusually strong winds, Bess produced virtually no rainfall as it passed by, with only a trace of precipitation measured between October 11 and 14 in Hong Kong. Along the coast, abnormally high tides combined with storm surge flooded low-lying areas of the city. Tides at Tai Po Kau reached  with a surge of . Sea water leaked into the city's underground sewage system and caused minor flooding in the area's western district. Some property damage was reported.

text: On October 11, a

entity_name: Hong Kong tropical cyclone warning signals

text: level one warning signal

text: was raised for Hong Kong, indicating that a tropical cyclone was approaching the region. This was soon raised to level three as strong winds were expected to affect the area. Although the center of Bess passed roughly 305 km (190 mi) south of Hong Kong, the

text: pressure gradient

text: between the tropical storm and high pressure to the north resulted in strong winds across the region. On the

text: Pratas Islands

text: , ten-minute sustained winds of 95 km/h (60 mph) were reported. In Hong Kong itself, winds reached 45 km/h (30 mph) and gusted to 85 km/h (50 mph). Gusts up to 113 km/h (71 mph) occurred on

text: Tate's Cairn

text: . In contrast to the unusually strong winds, Bess produced virtually no rainfall as it passed by, with only a trace of precipitation measured between October 11 and 14 in Hong Kong. Along the coast, abnormally high tides combined with

text: storm surge

text: flooded low-lying areas of the city. Tides at

text: Tai Po Kau

text: reached  with a surge of . Sea water leaked into the city's underground sewage system and caused minor flooding in the area's western district. Some property damage was reported.

text: The bar is where the river's current dissipates into the Pacific Ocean, often as large standing waves.  The waves are partially caused by the deposition of sediment as the river slows, as well as mixing with ocean waves.  The waves, wind, and current are hazardous for vessels of all sizes. The Columbia current varies from 4 to 7 knots westward, and therefore into the predominantly westerly winds and ocean swells, creating significant surface conditions.Unlike other major rivers, the current is focused "like a fire hose" without the benefit of a river delta.Conditions can change from calm to life-threatening in as little as five minutes due to changes of direction of wind and ocean swell.Since 1792, approximately 2,000 large ships have sunk in and around the Columbia Bar, and because of the danger and the numerous shipwrecks the mouth of the Columbia River acquired a reputation worldwide as the Graveyard of the Pacific.

text: The bar is where the river's current dissipates into the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , often as large standing waves.  The waves are partially caused by the deposition of sediment as the river slows, as well as mixing with ocean waves.  The waves, wind, and current are hazardous for vessels of all sizes. The Columbia current varies from 4 to 7

text: knots

text: westward, and therefore into the predominantly westerly winds and ocean swells, creating significant surface conditions.Unlike other major rivers, the current is focused "like a fire hose" without the benefit of a

text: river delta

text: .Conditions can change from calm to life-threatening in as little as five minutes due to changes of direction of wind and ocean swell.Since 1792, approximately 2,000 large ships have sunk in and around the Columbia Bar, and because of the danger and the numerous shipwrecks the mouth of the Columbia River acquired a reputation worldwide as the

text: Graveyard of the Pacific

text: Later the steamer was sent to Hay and Wright’s shipyard at Oakland Creek. When complete, Ocean Wave would be a “single ender” ferry, like the San Rafael which was then operating on the bay.  Once in service, Ocean Wave and San Rafael would be the only single-ender ferries running on the bay, with all the rest being double-enders.

text: Later the steamer was sent to Hay and Wright’s shipyard at Oakland Creek. When complete, Ocean Wave would be a “single ender” ferry, like the

text: San Rafael

text: which was then operating on the bay.  Once in service, Ocean Wave and San Rafael would be the only single-ender ferries running on the bay, with all the rest being double-enders.

text: The term "surface wave" can describe waves over an ocean, even when they are approximated by Airy functions and are more properly called creeping waves. Examples are the waves at the surface of water and air (ocean surface waves), or ripples in the sand at the interface with water or air.  Another example is internal waves, which can be transmitted along the interface of two water masses of different densities.

text: The term "surface wave" can describe waves over an ocean, even when they are approximated by

text: Airy function

text: s and are more properly called

text: creeping wave

text: s. Examples are the

text: wave

text: s at the surface of

text: water

text: and

text: air

text: ocean surface wave

text: s), or ripples in the

text: sand

text: at the interface with water or air.  Another example is

text: internal wave

text: s, which can be transmitted along the interface of two water masses of different densities.

text: A beach break happens where waves break from offshore waves, and onshore sandbars and rips. Wave breaks happen successively at beach breaks. Example locations are Tairua and Aramoana Beach (New Zealand) and the Gold Coast (Australia).

text: Wave setup is particularly of concern during storm events, when the effects of big waves generated by wind from the storm are able to increase the mean sea level (by wave setup), enhancing the risks of damage to coastal infrastructure.

text: Peak rainfall in Hong Kong was  at Kwai Chung, only a day after Tropical Storm Koni dropped rainfall in the territory, and the highest storm surge was  at Tsim Bei Tsui. As the storm passed to the south, Imbudo produced winds of  on Cheung Chau, the highest in the Hong Kong territory, although a gust of  was observed at Tai Mo Shan. High winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform. The winds knocked down 83 trees, injuring 11 people. Rough waves injured 34 people traveling by boat near Lantau Island. In the territory, ten boats were damaged or sank, and one fishing pier was damaged.

text: Peak rainfall in Hong Kong was  at

text: Kwai Chung

text: , only a day after

text: Tropical Storm Koni

text: dropped rainfall in the territory, and the highest

text: storm surge

text: was  at Tsim Bei Tsui. As the storm passed to the south, Imbudo produced winds of  on

text: Cheung Chau

text: , the highest in the Hong Kong territory, although a gust of  was observed at

text: Tai Mo Shan

text: . High winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform. The winds knocked down 83 trees, injuring 11 people. Rough waves injured 34 people traveling by boat near

text: Lantau Island

text: . In the territory, ten boats were damaged or sank, and one fishing pier was damaged.

text: The most generally familiar sort of breaking wave is the breaking of water surface waves on a coastline. Wave breaking generally occurs where the amplitude reaches the point that the crest of the wave actually overturns—though the types of breaking water surface waves are discussed in more detail below.  Certain other effects in fluid dynamics have also been termed "breaking waves," partly by analogy with water surface waves.  In meteorology, atmospheric gravity waves are said to break when the wave produces regions where the potential temperature decreases with height, leading to energy dissipation through convective instability; likewise Rossby waves are said to break when the potential vorticity gradient is overturned.  Wave breaking also occurs in plasmas, when the particle velocities exceed the wave's phase speed.

text: The most generally familiar sort of breaking wave is the breaking of

text: water surface waves

text: on a coastline. Wave breaking generally occurs where the amplitude reaches the point that the crest of the wave actually overturns—though the types of breaking water surface waves are discussed in more detail below.  Certain other effects in fluid dynamics have also been termed "breaking waves," partly by analogy with water surface waves.  In

text: meteorology

text: , atmospheric

text: gravity wave

text: s are said to break when the wave produces regions where the

text: potential temperature

text: decreases with height, leading to energy dissipation through

text: convective instability

text: ; likewise

text: Rossby waves

text: are said to break when the

text: potential vorticity

text: gradient is overturned.  Wave breaking also occurs in

text: plasma

text: s, when the particle velocities exceed the wave's

text: phase speed

text: Waves are created as wind blows over the ocean, transferring its energy into the water. The size of the swell is affected by three variables: the velocity of the wind, its duration, and its fetch, or distance the wind blows over.

text: Prodigious precipitation fell during its transit of northern Florida, with 16.36 inches (415 mm) near of Panama City. In Gulf County, 300 homes were damaged by high winds and floodwaters. At Port St. Joe, storm surge inundated 14 businesses. Storm surge in Franklin County damaged 136 homes and 15 businesses and led to a brief closure of the St. George Causeway. In Wakulla County, 216 homes and businesses were damaged by high winds and flooding. Severe flooding in coastal Taylor County caused significant damage in nine communities, with 66 structures impacted. Five homes were destroyed and 39 others were damaged by flooding in Dixie County. On September 3, the strongest tornado spawned by Earl in Florida touched down in Citrus County, where it destroyed 8 homes and damaged 24 others. There were 3 fatalities and about $76 million in damage in Florida.  In other states, heavy rainfall and tornadoes resulted in severe localized damage, particularly in Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. A third storm-related fatality occurred in Saint Helena, South Carolina caused by a tornado. Overall, Earl caused 3 deaths and about $79 million in damage.

text: Prodigious precipitation fell during its transit of northern Florida, with 16.36 inches (415 mm) near of

text: Panama City

text: . In

text: Gulf County

text: , 300 homes were damaged by high winds and floodwaters. At

text: Port St. Joe

text: , storm surge inundated 14 businesses. Storm surge in

text: Franklin County

text: damaged 136 homes and 15 businesses and led to a brief closure of the St. George Causeway. In

text: Wakulla County

text: , 216 homes and businesses were damaged by high winds and flooding. Severe flooding in coastal

text: Taylor County

text: caused significant damage in nine communities, with 66 structures impacted. Five homes were destroyed and 39 others were damaged by flooding in

text: Dixie County

text: . On September 3, the strongest tornado spawned by Earl in Florida touched down in

text: Citrus County

text: , where it destroyed 8 homes and damaged 24 others. There were 3 fatalities and about $76 million in damage in Florida.  In other states, heavy rainfall and tornadoes resulted in severe localized damage, particularly in

text: Alabama

text: , Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. A third storm-related fatality occurred in

text: Saint Helena, South Carolina

text: caused by a tornado. Overall, Earl caused 3 deaths and about $79 million in damage.

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example, TREC has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example,

text: TREC

text: has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: Immediately after Sandy made landfall, forecasters were already discussing the possibility of a nor'easter directly impacting New Jersey during the following week. In preparation for the storm, some residents of the state's coastal areas were evacuated once again due to the threat of high winds, flooding, and storm surge of up to three feet; although these conditions were not expected to be anywhere near as intense as Sandy. The storm hit New Jersey on November 7, a little more than a week after Sandy's landfall. Much of the state experienced wet snow which weighed down power lines and caused tree limbs to snap, significantly adding on to the existing power outages throughout the state. Additionally, some areas experienced 60 mph wind gusts, although storm surge turned out to be minimal.

text: Immediately after Sandy made landfall, forecasters were already discussing the possibility of a

text: nor'easter

text: directly impacting New Jersey during the following week. In preparation for the storm, some residents of the state's coastal areas were evacuated once again due to the threat of high winds, flooding, and storm surge of up to three feet; although these conditions were not expected to be anywhere near as intense as Sandy. The storm hit New Jersey on November 7, a little more than a week after Sandy's landfall. Much of the state experienced wet snow which weighed down power lines and caused tree limbs to snap, significantly adding on to the existing power outages throughout the state. Additionally, some areas experienced 60 mph wind gusts, although storm surge turned out to be minimal.

text: Theodore Yaotsu Wu (; born 20 March 1924) is an American engineer. He is a Professor Emeritus of Engineering Science at the California Institute of Technology. His research contribution includes compressible fluid flow, free-streamline theory of cavities, jets and wakes, water waves and free-surface flows, mechanics of fish swimming and bird/insect flight, wind and ocean-current energy, and internal waves in the ocean.

text: Theodore Yaotsu Wu (; born 20 March 1924) is an American engineer. He is a Professor Emeritus of

text: Engineering Science

text: at the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: . His research contribution includes

text: compressible fluid

text: flow, free-streamline theory of cavities, jets and wakes,

text: water waves

text: and free-surface flows, mechanics of fish swimming and bird/insect flight, wind and ocean-current energy, and

text: internal waves

text: in the ocean.

text: During a show where film personalities listed their top movies of the 1990s, Breaking the Waves was named one of the ten best films of the decade by both critic Roger Ebert and director Martin Scorsese.

text: During a show where film personalities listed their top movies of the 1990s, Breaking the Waves was named one of the ten best films of the decade by both critic

text: Roger Ebert

text: and director

text: Martin Scorsese

text: When the ocean  floor has a gradual slope, the wave will steepen until the crest becomes unstable, resulting in turbulent whitewater spilling down the face of the wave.  This continues as the wave approaches the shore, and the wave's energy is slowly dissipated in the whitewater.  Because of this, spilling waves break for a longer time than other waves, and create a relatively gentle wave.  Onshore wind conditions make spillers more likely.

text: Waves are primarily created by wind, so the power available from waves tends to follow that available from wind, but due to the mass of the water is less variable than wind power. Wind power is proportional to the cube of the wind speed, while wave power is proportional to the square of the wave height.

text: As air flows along the surface of the Earth, it encounters obstructions. These are human-made objects, such as buildings and bridges, and natural features, like hills, valleys, and mountains. All of them disrupt the flow of air into eddies. The strength of the eddies depends on the size of the object and the speed of the wind. It results in turbulence classified as ‘mechanical’ because it is formed through the “mechanical disruption of the ambient wind flow”.Where stable moist air flows over a mountain or a range of mountains, a series of large-scale standing waves may form on the downwind side. If the temperature at the crest of the wave drops to the dew point, moisture in the air may condense to form lenticular clouds. As the moist air moves back down into the trough of the wave, the cloud may evaporate back into vapour. Under certain conditions, long strings of lenticular clouds can form near the crest of each successive wave, creating a formation known as a "wave cloud." The wave systems cause large vertical air movement, enough that water vapour may condense to produce precipitation. The clouds have been mistaken for UFOs (or "visual cover" for UFOs), particularly the round "flying saucer"-type, because these clouds have a characteristic lens appearance and smooth saucer-like shape; also, because lenticular clouds generally do not form over low-lying or flat terrain, many people have never seen one and are not aware clouds with that shape can exist. Bright colours (called irisation) are sometimes seen along the edge of lenticular clouds. These clouds have also been known to form in cases where a mountain does not exist, but rather as the result of shear winds created by a front.

text: As air flows along the surface of the Earth, it encounters obstructions. These are human-made objects, such as buildings and bridges, and natural features, like hills, valleys, and mountains. All of them disrupt the flow of air into eddies. The strength of the eddies depends on the size of the object and the speed of the wind. It results in turbulence classified as ‘mechanical’ because it is formed through the “mechanical disruption of the ambient wind flow”.Where stable moist air flows over a

text: mountain

text: or a range of mountains, a series of large-scale

text: standing waves

text: may form on the downwind side. If the temperature at the crest of the wave drops to the

text: dew point

text: , moisture in the air may condense to form lenticular clouds. As the moist air moves back down into the trough of the wave, the cloud may evaporate back into vapour. Under certain conditions, long strings of lenticular clouds can form near the crest of each successive wave, creating a formation known as a "

text: wave cloud

text: ." The wave systems cause large vertical air movement, enough that water vapour may condense to produce precipitation. The clouds have been mistaken for UFOs (or "visual cover" for UFOs), particularly the round "flying saucer"-type, because these clouds have a characteristic lens appearance and smooth saucer-like shape; also, because lenticular clouds generally do not form over low-lying or flat terrain, many people have never seen one and are not aware clouds with that shape can exist. Bright colours (called

text: irisation

text: ) are sometimes seen along the edge of lenticular clouds. These clouds have also been known to form in cases where a mountain does not exist, but rather as the result of shear winds created by a front.

text: A family of the droplet-shaped waves was obtained by extension of the "toy model" of X-wave generation by a superluminal point electric charge (tachyon) at infinite rectilinear motion to the case of a line source pulse started at time  0}}. The pulse front is supposed to propagatewith a constant superluminal velocity  βc}} (here  is the speed of light,so ).

text: A family of the droplet-shaped waves was obtained by extension of the "toy model" of

text: X-wave

text: generation by a superluminal point electric charge (

text: tachyon

text: ) at infinite rectilinear motion to the case of a line source pulse started at time  0}}. The pulse front is supposed to propagatewith a constant superluminal velocity  βc}} (here  is the speed of light,so ).

text: Lee waves occur when a wind of  blows over a mountain. Provided that there is a steady increase in wind strength with altitude without a significant change in direction, standing waves may be created. They were discovered by a glider pilot, Wolf Hirth, in 1933.These waves reach heights much greater than the original obstruction and so can permit gliders to climb to the stratosphere. Pilots use supplementary oxygen to avoid hypoxia because gliders do not have pressurized cockpits. This lift is often marked by long, stationary lenticular (lens-shaped) clouds lying perpendicular to the wind.A mountain wave was used to set the record for highest altitude by a glider when Steve Fossett and Einar Enevoldson, wearing pressure suits, soared to an altitude of  on August 29, 2006 over El Calafate, Argentina in their modified DG-505. The current world distance record of 3,008 km (1,869 statute miles) by Klaus Ohlmann (set on 21 January 2003) was also flown using mountain waves in South America.

text: Lee waves

text: occur when a wind of  blows over a mountain. Provided that there is a steady increase in wind strength with altitude without a significant change in direction, standing waves may be created. They were discovered by a glider pilot,

text: Wolf Hirth

text: , in 1933.These waves reach heights much greater than the original obstruction and so can permit gliders to climb to the stratosphere. Pilots use supplementary

text: oxygen

text: to avoid

text: hypoxia

text: because gliders do not have pressurized cockpits. This lift is often marked by long, stationary

text: lenticular

text: (lens-shaped) clouds lying perpendicular to the wind.A mountain wave was used to set the record for highest altitude by a glider when

text: Steve Fossett

text: and Einar Enevoldson, wearing pressure suits, soared to an altitude of  on August 29, 2006 over

text: El Calafate

text: , Argentina in their modified

text: . The current world distance record of 3,008 km (1,869 statute miles) by

text: Klaus Ohlmann

text: (set on 21 January 2003) was also flown using mountain waves in

text: South America

text: Although the center of Hurricane Earl passed roughly  off the coast of North Carolina, its large size brought just under hurricane-force winds and a significant storm surge. Heavy rains accompanied the storm, peaking at  in Cape Hatteras. The highest winds were recorded in Cape Hatteras at  and gusts reached ; however, there were few reports of damage in relation to the winds. A storm surge of  came ashore on Hatteras Island, inundating nearby areas. Minor flooding took place along several roads, including North Carolina Highway 12 which was shut down on Hatteras Island. A pier at Atlantic Beach was also damaged by rough seas. Numerous homes along the coast were flooded by rising waters, reaching  in places. An estimated 6,600 residences were left without power due to Hurricane Earl. Waves just offshore were measured between , likely resulting in beach erosion. In Manteo, a gas station lost its canopy and some homes lost roofing shingles due to high winds. Damage in Dare County totaled over $500,000 (2010 USD), with 79 houses in the county sustaining minor damage and another six receiving major damage, mainly due to storm surge. In neighboring Hyde County, strong winds caused about $2 million in crop damage. Several homes were also damaged by fallen trees in the Fairfield and Swan Quarter areas. Throughout the state, damage from Earl amounted to $3.88 million, mainly from losses sustained by national parks and agriculture. Nearly two weeks after Earl's passage, the North Carolina Department of Transportation began to pick up debris left alongside roads in the wake of the storm.

text: Although the center of Hurricane Earl passed roughly  off the coast of North Carolina, its large size brought just under hurricane-force winds and a significant storm surge. Heavy rains accompanied the storm, peaking at  in Cape Hatteras. The highest winds were recorded in Cape Hatteras at  and gusts reached ; however, there were few reports of damage in relation to the winds. A

text: storm surge

text: of  came ashore on Hatteras Island, inundating nearby areas. Minor flooding took place along several roads, including

text: North Carolina Highway 12

text: which was shut down on Hatteras Island. A pier at Atlantic Beach was also damaged by rough seas. Numerous homes along the coast were flooded by rising waters, reaching  in places. An estimated 6,600 residences were left without power due to Hurricane Earl. Waves just offshore were measured between , likely resulting in beach erosion. In

text: Manteo

text: , a gas station lost its canopy and some homes lost roofing shingles due to high winds. Damage in Dare County totaled over $500,000 (2010 USD), with 79 houses in the county sustaining minor damage and another six receiving major damage, mainly due to storm surge. In neighboring

text: Hyde County

text: , strong winds caused about $2 million in crop damage. Several homes were also damaged by fallen trees in the Fairfield and Swan Quarter areas. Throughout the state, damage from Earl amounted to $3.88 million, mainly from losses sustained by national parks and agriculture. Nearly two weeks after Earl's passage, the North Carolina Department of Transportation began to pick up debris left alongside roads in the wake of the storm.

text: Some waves undergo a phenomenon called "breaking". A breaking wave is one whose base can no longer support its top, causing it to collapse. A wave breaks when it runs into shallow water, or when two wave systems oppose and combine forces. When the slope, or steepness ratio, of a wave is too great, breaking is inevitable.

text: Some waves undergo a

text: phenomenon

text: called "breaking". A

text: breaking wave

text: is one whose base can no longer support its top, causing it to collapse. A wave breaks when it runs into

text: shallow water

text: , or when two wave systems oppose and combine forces. When the slope, or steepness ratio, of a wave is too great, breaking is inevitable.

text: In her long career Conner has created many notable large scale kinetic sculptures which are entirely powered by natural forces. Conner's 129 ft water and wind sculpture 'Wave' at Park West Dublin is possibly the tallest kinetic water and wind sculpture in Europe.

text: In her long career Conner has created many notable large scale

text: kinetic sculpture

text: s which are entirely powered by natural forces. Conner's 129 ft water and wind sculpture 'Wave' at

text: Park West Dublin

text: is possibly the tallest kinetic water and wind sculpture in Europe.

text: It is oriented toward the northeast, which means the direction of longshore drift, a constructive geomorphologic process, is northeasterly.  Longshore drift through the Strait of Georgia, therefore, tends to be northeasterly.  Because waves are mainly powered by wind, the waves approaching Semiahmoo hit the shore obliquely, at an angle of approximately 30 to 45 degrees to the northeast, and thus the prevailing wind through the Strait of Georgia must also be northeasterly.  Because of longshore drift, sediments are picked up from the headland and deposited according to size and based on wave energy.  High energy wave action can carry large sediment, such as cobbles and gravel, but only as long as the energy exists.  Since the waves repeatedly hit the shore, energy is lost, and so larger, denser sediments are quickly deposited near the headland.  Smaller, less dense sediment, such as gravel, sand, mud, and clay, can be carried and deposited farther away from the headland because they do not require as much energy for transport.  One mile to the north of the tip of the spit is the border between the United States and Canada.  Approximately four miles to the northeast of the tip of the spit is the city of White Rock, British Columbia.  The spit is approximately  long and contains approximately  of land.

text: It is oriented toward the northeast, which means the direction of

text: longshore drift

text: , a constructive geomorphologic process, is northeasterly.  Longshore drift through the

text: Strait of Georgia

text: , therefore, tends to be northeasterly.  Because waves are mainly powered by wind, the waves approaching Semiahmoo hit the shore obliquely, at an angle of approximately 30 to 45 degrees to the northeast, and thus the prevailing wind through the Strait of Georgia must also be northeasterly.  Because of longshore drift, sediments are picked up from the

text: headland

text: and deposited according to size and based on wave energy.  High energy wave action can carry large sediment, such as cobbles and gravel, but only as long as the energy exists.  Since the waves repeatedly hit the shore, energy is lost, and so larger, denser sediments are quickly deposited near the headland.  Smaller, less dense sediment, such as gravel, sand, mud, and clay, can be carried and deposited farther away from the headland because they do not require as much energy for transport.  One mile to the north of the tip of the spit is the border between the United States and Canada.  Approximately four miles to the northeast of the tip of the spit is the city of

text: White Rock, British Columbia

text: .  The spit is approximately  long and contains approximately  of land.

text: A tropical wave, or elongated low-pressure area, exited the western coast of Africa on October 24. It moved hastily westward across the tropical Atlantic at a comparatively low latitude, becoming embedded within the Intertropical Convergence Zone. During this time the wave's structure retained a vigorous appearance; the western portion contained scattered convection, with strong thunderstorms, as well as a broad area of rotating winds. On October 27, when the system was about 1,200 miles (1,940 km) east-southeast of the Windward Islands, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) noted favorable atmospheric conditions for tropical cyclogenesis, namely light wind shear. The wave and its expansive convection amplified over the next two days, featuring hints of spiraling rainbands. A Hurricane Hunters aircraft investigating the disturbance on October 29 observed a developing circulation with storm-force winds at sea level. In light of those features, the NHC estimated that the system became a tropical depression by 06:00 UTC that day, about 460 mi (740 km) southeast of Barbados, and further upgraded it to Tropical Storm Tomas six hours later.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: , or elongated

text: low-pressure area

text: , exited the western coast of Africa on October 24. It moved hastily westward across the

text: tropical Atlantic

text: at a comparatively low latitude, becoming embedded within the

text: Intertropical Convergence Zone

text: . During this time the wave's structure retained a vigorous appearance; the western portion contained scattered

text: convection

text: , with strong thunderstorms, as well as a broad area of rotating winds. On October 27, when the system was about 1,200 miles (1,940 km) east-southeast of the

text: Windward Islands

text: , the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) noted favorable atmospheric conditions for

text: tropical cyclogenesis

text: , namely light

text: wind shear

text: . The wave and its expansive convection amplified over the next two days, featuring hints of spiraling

text: rainband

text: s. A

text: Hurricane Hunters

text: aircraft investigating the disturbance on October 29 observed a developing circulation with storm-force winds at sea level. In light of those features, the NHC estimated that the system became a

text: tropical depression

text: by 06:00

text: UTC

text: that day, about 460 mi (740 km) southeast of

text: Barbados

text: , and further upgraded it to Tropical Storm Tomas six hours later.

text: After being sidelined for over a year, Shibutani returned to Pro Wrestling Wave on August 28, 2011, losing to Akino in her return match. On September 4, Shibutani and Cherry entered the 2011 Dual Shock Wave tournament as the "Classic Gals", but were eliminated in their first round match by Ayumi Kurihara and Kana, who went on to win the entire tournament. On October 27, Shibutani represented Wave in Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling's Joshi Puroresu Dantai Taikou Flash tournament, a single-elimination tournament, where different joshi promotions battled each other. In their first round match, Team Wave, which also Gami, Moeka Haruhi, Toshie Uematsu and Yumi Ohka, was defeated by Team JWP of Command Bolshoi, Hanako Nakamori, Kaori Yoneyama, Kayoko Haruyama and Leon. Shibutani finished off 2011 with a big singles win over Yumi Ohka on December 11 with her new finishing maneuver, later named Time Machine ni Notte ("Ride the Time Machine"). On January 4 at Wave's first event of 2012, Shibutani picked up another big singles win over Wave Tag Team Champion Ayumi Kurihara. On February 1, Shibutani, Kurihara and Mika Iida came together with Kana and Mio Shirai to form the White Tails stable, named in reference to Wave's top villainous alliance, Black Dahlia. On April 30, Shibutani took part in Toshie Uematsu's retirement match, a tag team match, where she and Moeka Haruhi were defeated by Uematsu and Ran Yu-Yu. On May 16, Shibutani entered the 2012 Catch the Wave tournament, taking part in a round-robin block made up members of White Tails. In her opening match of the tournament, Shibutani was defeated by Ayumi Kurihara. In her second match on May 29, Shibutani wrestled Kana to a fifteen-minute time limit draw. On June 17, Shibutani wrestled her second time limit draw of the tournament with guest White Tails member, Wrestling New Classic (WNC) representative Syuri. Shibutani finished her tournament on July 1 with a win over Mio Shirai, failing to advance from the block. On July 16, Shibutani and Shirai unsuccessfully challenged Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa for the Wave Tag Team Championship in a three-way elimination match, which also included the team of Moeka Haruhi and Yuu Yamagata. On September 1, Shibutani made her first appearance for Ice Ribbon in four and a half years, defeating Miyako Matsumoto in a singles match. On September 23 at Ribbon no Kishitachi 2012, Shibutani took part in a three-way match, where Hailey Hatred defeated Neko Nitta to capture the Triangle Ribbon Championship. Two days later, Shibutani entered the 2012 Dual Shock Wave tournament alongside Syuri. After wins over Shidarezakura (Hikaru Shida and Yumi Ohka) and 1st Impact (Makoto and Moeka Haruhi), and a loss against Kurigohan (Ayumi Kurihara and Mika Iida), Shibutani and Syuri finished tied at the top of their block with Shida and Ohka. On November 16, Shibutani and Syuri defeated Shida and Ohka in a playoff match to advance to the finals of the tournament, where, later that same day, they were defeated by Makkurokorosuke (Misaki Ohata and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On June 10, Shibutani made her debut for Wrestling New Classic, teaming with Yuu Yamagata in a "Wave offer match", where they were defeated by Gami and Moeka Haruhi. From May to July 2013, Shibutani took part in the 2013 Catch the Wave tournament, where she finished her round-robin block with a record of three wins and three losses, advancing to the knockout stage after defeating Cherry, Hikaru Shida and Mio Shirai in a playoff match on June 28. On July 15, Shibutani was defeated in the first round of the knockout stage by JWP Joshi Puroresu representative Arisa Nakajima. She, however, claimed third spot in the tournament by defeating Syuri, Tomoka Nakagawa and Yuu Yamagata in a four-way elimination match later that same event.

text: After being sidelined for over a year, Shibutani returned to Pro Wrestling Wave on August 28, 2011, losing to Akino in her return match. On September 4, Shibutani and Cherry entered the

text: 2011 Dual Shock Wave tournament

text: as the "Classic Gals", but were eliminated in their first round match by Ayumi Kurihara and Kana, who went on to win the entire tournament. On October 27, Shibutani represented Wave in

text: Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling

text: 's Joshi Puroresu Dantai Taikou Flash tournament, a single-elimination tournament, where different

text: joshi

text: promotions battled each other. In their first round match, Team Wave, which also Gami, Moeka Haruhi,

text: Toshie Uematsu

text: and Yumi Ohka, was defeated by Team JWP of Command Bolshoi, Hanako Nakamori,

text: Kaori Yoneyama

text: Kayoko Haruyama

text: and

text: Leon

text: . Shibutani finished off 2011 with a big singles win over Yumi Ohka on December 11 with her new finishing maneuver, later named Time Machine ni Notte ("Ride the Time Machine"). On January 4 at Wave's first event of 2012, Shibutani picked up another big singles win over

text: Wave Tag Team Champion

text: Ayumi Kurihara. On February 1, Shibutani, Kurihara and Mika Iida came together with Kana and Mio Shirai to form the White Tails

text: stable

text: , named in reference to Wave's top

text: villainous

text: alliance, Black Dahlia. On April 30, Shibutani took part in Toshie Uematsu's retirement match, a tag team match, where she and Moeka Haruhi were defeated by Uematsu and

text: Ran Yu-Yu

text: . On May 16, Shibutani entered the

text: 2012 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, taking part in a round-robin block made up members of White Tails. In her opening match of the tournament, Shibutani was defeated by Ayumi Kurihara. In her second match on May 29, Shibutani wrestled Kana to a fifteen-minute time limit draw. On June 17, Shibutani wrestled her second time limit draw of the tournament with guest White Tails member,

text: Wrestling New Classic

text: (WNC) representative

text: Syuri

text: . Shibutani finished her tournament on July 1 with a win over Mio Shirai, failing to advance from the block. On July 16, Shibutani and Shirai unsuccessfully challenged Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa for the Wave Tag Team Championship in a three-way elimination match, which also included the team of Moeka Haruhi and Yuu Yamagata. On September 1, Shibutani made her first appearance for Ice Ribbon in four and a half years, defeating

text: Miyako Matsumoto

text: in a singles match. On September 23 at Ribbon no Kishitachi 2012, Shibutani took part in a three-way match, where

text: Hailey Hatred

text: defeated Neko Nitta to capture the

text: Triangle Ribbon Championship

text: . Two days later, Shibutani entered the

text: 2012 Dual Shock Wave tournament

text: alongside Syuri. After wins over Shidarezakura (

text: Hikaru Shida

text: and Yumi Ohka) and 1st Impact (Makoto and Moeka Haruhi), and a loss against Kurigohan (Ayumi Kurihara and Mika Iida), Shibutani and Syuri finished tied at the top of their block with Shida and Ohka. On November 16, Shibutani and Syuri defeated Shida and Ohka in a playoff match to advance to the finals of the tournament, where, later that same day, they were defeated by Makkurokorosuke (Misaki Ohata and

text: Tsukasa Fujimoto

text: ). On June 10, Shibutani made her debut for Wrestling New Classic, teaming with Yuu Yamagata in a "Wave offer match", where they were defeated by Gami and Moeka Haruhi. From May to July 2013, Shibutani took part in the

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, where she finished her round-robin block with a record of three wins and three losses, advancing to the knockout stage after defeating Cherry, Hikaru Shida and Mio Shirai in a playoff match on June 28. On July 15, Shibutani was defeated in the first round of the knockout stage by JWP Joshi Puroresu representative Arisa Nakajima. She, however, claimed third spot in the tournament by defeating Syuri, Tomoka Nakagawa and Yuu Yamagata in a four-way elimination match later that same event.

text: A plunging wave occurs when the ocean floor is steep or has sudden depth changes, such as from a reef or sandbar.  The crest of the wave becomes much steeper than a spilling wave, becomes vertical, then curls over and drops onto the trough of the wave, releasing most of its energy at once in a relatively violent impact.   A plunging wave breaks with more energy than a significantly larger spilling wave.  The wave can trap and compress the air under the lip, which creates the "crashing" sound associated with waves.  With large waves, this crash can be felt by beachgoers on land.  Offshore wind conditions can make plungers more likely.

text: The Euler equations are quasilinear hyperbolic equations and their general solutions are waves. Under certain assumptions they can be simplified leading to Burgers equation. Much like the familiar oceanic waves, waves described by the Euler Equations 'break' and so-called shock waves are formed; this is a nonlinear effect and represents the solution becoming multi-valued. Physically this represents a breakdown of the assumptions that led to the formulation of the differential equations, and to extract further information from the equations we must go back to the more fundamental integral form. Then, weak solutions are formulated by working in 'jumps' (discontinuities) into the flow quantities – density, velocity, pressure, entropy – using the Rankine–Hugoniot equations. Physical quantities are rarely discontinuous; in real flows, these discontinuities are smoothed out by viscosity and by heat transfer. (See Navier–Stokes equations)

text: The Euler equations are

text: quasilinear

entity_name: Hyperbolic partial differential equation

text: hyperbolic

text: equations and their general solutions are

text: wave

text: s. Under certain assumptions they can be simplified leading to

text: Burgers equation

text: . Much like the familiar oceanic

text: waves

text: , waves described by the Euler Equations

text: 'break'

text: and so-called

text: shock waves

text: are formed; this is a nonlinear effect and represents the solution becoming

text: multi-valued

text: . Physically this represents a breakdown of the assumptions that led to the formulation of the differential equations, and to extract further information from the equations we must go back to the more fundamental integral form. Then,

text: weak solution

text: s are formulated by working in 'jumps' (discontinuities) into the flow quantities – density, velocity, pressure, entropy – using the

text: Rankine–Hugoniot equations

text: . Physical quantities are rarely discontinuous; in real flows, these discontinuities are smoothed out by

text: viscosity

text: and by

text: heat transfer

text: . (See

text: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Although there are various setups and techniques currently in use for the Split-Hopkinson pressure bar, the underlying principles for the test and measurement are the same. The specimen is placed between the ends of two straight bars, called the incident bar and the transmitted bar. At the end of the incident bar (some distance away from the specimen, typically at the far end), a stress wave is created which propagates through the bar toward the specimen. This wave is referred to as the incident wave, and upon reaching the specimen, splits into two smaller waves. One of which, the transmitted wave, travels through the specimen and into the transmitted bar, causing plastic deformation in the specimen. The other wave, called the reflected wave, is reflected away from the specimen and travels back down the incident bar.

text: Although there are various setups and techniques currently in use for the Split-Hopkinson pressure bar, the underlying principles for the test and measurement are the same. The specimen is placed between the ends of two straight bars, called the incident bar and the transmitted bar. At the end of the incident bar (some distance away from the specimen, typically at the far end), a

text: stress wave

text: is created which propagates through the bar toward the specimen. This wave is referred to as the incident wave, and upon reaching the specimen, splits into two smaller waves. One of which, the transmitted wave, travels through the specimen and into the transmitted bar, causing

text: plastic deformation

text: in the specimen. The other wave, called the reflected wave, is reflected away from the specimen and travels back down the incident bar.

text: A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 8, which subsequently tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean with minimal convection. The wave crossed into the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 16, at which time convection increased along the wave axis. Three days later, a weak low pressure area formed along the wave, and early on August 20 some broad cyclonic turning was evident within the cloud pattern. Gradually, banding features developed around the area of deep convection, and the system was expect to develop further as it moved into an increasingly favorable environment. Convection increased late on August 20, although it initially remained disorganized; however, the thunderstorms consolidated near the low, and it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression by 1200 UTC on August 21, about 350 mi (560 km) south-southwest of Acapulco, Mexico.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: moved off the coast of Africa on August 8, which subsequently tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean with minimal

text: convection

text: . The wave crossed into the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 16, at which time convection increased along the wave axis. Three days later, a weak

text: low pressure area

text: formed along the wave, and early on August 20 some broad cyclonic turning was evident within the cloud pattern. Gradually,

text: banding features

text: developed around the area of deep convection, and the system was expect to

text: develop

text: further as it moved into an increasingly favorable environment. Convection increased late on August 20, although it initially remained disorganized; however, the thunderstorms consolidated near the low, and it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression by 1200

text: UTC

text: on August 21, about 350 mi (560 km) south-southwest of Acapulco, Mexico.

text: Oceanic Rossby waves are large-scale waves within an ocean basin. They have a low amplitude, on the order of centimetres (at the surface) to metres (at the thermocline), compared to a very long wavelength, on the order of hundreds of kilometres of atmospheric Rossby waves. They may take months to cross an ocean basin. They gain momentum from wind stress at the ocean surface layer and are thought to communicate climatic changes due to variability in forcing, due to both the wind and buoyancy. Both barotropic and baroclinic waves cause variations of the sea surface height, although the length of the waves made them difficult to detect until the advent of satellite altimetry. Satellite observations have confirmed the existence of oceanic Rossby waves.

text: Oceanic Rossby waves are large-scale waves within an ocean basin. They have a low amplitude, on the order of centimetres (at the surface) to metres (at the thermocline), compared to a very long wavelength, on the order of hundreds of kilometres of atmospheric Rossby waves. They may take months to cross an ocean basin. They gain

text: momentum

text: from

text: wind stress

text: at the ocean surface layer and are thought to communicate climatic changes due to variability in

text: forcing

text: , due to both the

text: wind

text: and

text: buoyancy

text: . Both barotropic and baroclinic waves cause variations of the sea surface height, although the length of the waves made them difficult to detect until the advent of

text: satellite

text: altimetry

text: Satellite

text: observations have confirmed the existence of oceanic Rossby waves.

text: Weather fronts are boundaries between two masses of air of different densities, or different temperature and moisture properties, which normally are convergence zones in the wind field and are the principal cause of significant weather. Within surface weather analyses, they are depicted using various colored lines and symbols. The air masses usually differ in temperature and may also differ in humidity. Wind shear in the horizontal occurs near these boundaries.Cold fronts feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may be preceded by squall lines and dry lines. Cold fronts are sharper surface boundaries with more significant horizontal wind shear than warm fronts. When a front becomes stationary, it can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind speed, known as a shear line, though the wind direction across the front normally remains constant. In the tropics, tropical waves move from east to west across the Atlantic and eastern Pacific basins. Directional and speed shear can occur across the axis of stronger tropical waves, as northerly winds precede the wave axis and southeast winds are seen behind the wave axis. Horizontal wind shear can also occur along local land breeze and sea breeze boundaries.

text: Weather fronts are boundaries between two masses of air of different

text: densities

text: , or different temperature and moisture properties, which normally are

text: convergence zone

text: s in the wind field and are the principal cause of significant weather. Within surface weather analyses, they are depicted using various colored lines and symbols. The air masses usually differ in

text: temperature

text: and may also differ in

text: humidity

text: . Wind shear in the horizontal occurs near these boundaries.

text: Cold front

text: s feature narrow bands of

text: thunderstorm

text: s and

text: severe weather

text: , and may be preceded by

text: squall line

text: s and

text: dry line

text: s. Cold fronts are sharper surface boundaries with more significant horizontal wind shear than warm fronts. When a front becomes

text: stationary

text: , it can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind speed, known as a

text: shear line

text: , though the wind direction across the front normally remains constant. In the

text: tropics

text: tropical wave

text: s move from east to west across the

text: Atlantic

text: and eastern

text: Pacific basin

text: s. Directional and speed shear can occur across the axis of stronger tropical waves, as northerly winds precede the wave axis and southeast winds are seen behind the wave axis. Horizontal wind shear can also occur along local land breeze and

text: sea breeze

text: boundaries.

text: factor) for the particular medium in which the wave is propagating.

text: The major factor determining how much slow-wave sleep is observed in a given sleep period is the duration of preceding wakefulness, likely related to accumulation of sleep-promoting substances in the brain. Some of the factors known to increase slow-wave sleep in the sleep period that follows them include body heating (as by immersion in a hot tub or sauna) and intense prolonged exercise. Studies have shown that slow-wave sleep is enabled when brain temperature surpasses a certain threshold. It is hypothesized that the threshold is regulated by circadian and homeostatic processes. In healthy sleepers, a very low carbohydrate diet over the short-term promotes increases in the percentage of SWS (deep sleep stage four, now often called stage three) and a reduction in the percentage of REM sleep (dreaming sleep) compared to the control with a mixed diet - the sleep changes may be linked to the metabolism of the fat content of the very low carbohydrate diet.

text: can be handled systematically. Terms can be classified by the number of annihilated constituents and the net increase in particle number. For example, in QCD the lowest-order contributions annihilate one particle and increase the total by one. These are one-gluon emission from a quark, quark pair creation from one gluon, and gluon pair creation from one gluon. Each involves a function of relative momentum for the transition from one to two particles. Higher order terms annihilate more particles and/or increase the total by more than one. These provide additional contributions to higher-order wave functions and even to low-order wave functions for more complicated valence states. For example, the wave function for the

text: Greenfield High School is located in Greenfield, Massachusetts. The mascot for Greenfield High School is the "Green Wave" represented by a green ocean wave.

text: Greenfield High School is located in

text: Greenfield, Massachusetts

text: . The mascot for Greenfield High School is the "Green Wave" represented by a green ocean wave.

text: Storm Surge is the official student section of Miami Hurricanes men's and women's basketball. It was founded in 2011 by students Tyler Franz and Alex Achorn. Prior to Storm Surge's creation, Miami had been victim to years of inconsistent student attendance and a lack of student interest in the basketball program, and prior attempts to create a lasting student section such as "UBeach" and "Haith's Faithful" were largely unsuccessful. Storm Surge works directly with Miami's athletic department to enhance the game day experience and encourage greater involvement from the student body. Storm Surge began with 500 members, but saw average student attendance jump to over 1,100 for ACC games in 2012–2013, its second season. As student capacity at the BUC is limited, students are admitted on a first-come, first-served basis, with students often arriving hours beforehand or camping out to get the best seats.

text: Storm Surge is the official student section of Miami Hurricanes men's and women's basketball. It was founded in 2011 by students Tyler Franz and Alex Achorn. Prior to Storm Surge's creation, Miami had been victim to years of inconsistent student attendance and a lack of student interest in the basketball program, and prior attempts to create a lasting student section such as "UBeach" and "Haith's Faithful" were largely unsuccessful. Storm Surge works directly with Miami's athletic department to enhance the game day experience and encourage greater involvement from the student body. Storm Surge began with 500 members, but saw average student attendance jump to over 1,100 for

text: ACC

text: games in

entity_name: 2012–13 Miami Hurricanes men's basketball team

text: , its second season. As student capacity at the

text: BUC

text: is limited, students are admitted on a first-come, first-served basis, with students often arriving hours beforehand or camping out to get the best seats.

text: The turbulent wind flows and viscous eddies inside waves can both affect wave dissipation. In the very early understandings, the viscosity can barely affect on the wind waves so that the dissipation of the swells by viscosity also barely considered.  However, recent weather forecasting models begin considering “wave-turbulence interaction” for the wave modeling.<ref name=[8]>{{cite journal|last=Tolman|first=H.L.|author2=D.Chalikov |title=Source terms in a third-generation wind wave model|journal=Journal of Physical Oceanography|year=1996|volume=26|pages=2497–2518|doi=10.1175/1520-0485(1996)026

text: Such high and fast waves arising from the epicentre by a megathrust earthquake were later found to be due to splay faults, secondary faults arising due to cracking of the sea floor to jut upwards in seconds, causing waves' speed and height to increase. A large slip of 30 m (98.4 ft) was estimated on the subfault located off the west coast of Aceh province. Another factor is subsidence at Banda Aceh (20–60 cm), Peukan Bada (>20 cm), Lhok Nga and Leupung (>1.5 m).

text: Such high and fast waves arising from the

text: epicentre

text: by a

text: megathrust earthquake

text: were later found to be due to splay faults, secondary faults arising due to cracking of the sea floor to jut upwards in seconds, causing waves'

text: speed

text: and height to increase. A large slip of 30 m (98.4 ft) was estimated on the subfault located off the west coast of Aceh province. Another factor is subsidence at Banda Aceh (20–60 cm), Peukan Bada (>20 cm), Lhok Nga and

text: Leupung

text: (>1.5 m).

text: Completed in the centennial year 1876, the painting was first exhibited at the National Academy of Design that year, then at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. By 1879, it had come to be known as Breezing Up, a title that was not the artist's but one which he did not seem to object to. A contemporary critic described the painting: "It is painted in [Homer's] customary coarse and negligé style, but suggests with unmistakable force the life and motion of a breezy summer day off the coast. The fishing boat, bending to the wind, seems actually to cleave the waves. There is no truer or heartier work in the exhibition." Another wrote, "Much has already been said in praise of the easy, elastic motion of the figures of the party in the sailboat, which is scudding along through blue water under 'a fair wind.' They sway with the rolling boat, and relax or grow rigid as the light keel rises or sinks upon the waves. Every person who has been similarly situated can recall how, involuntarily, his back stiffened or his knees bent as he felt the roll of the waves beneath him."

text: Completed in the centennial year 1876, the painting was first exhibited at the

text: National Academy of Design

text: that year, then at the

text: Centennial Exposition

text: in Philadelphia. By 1879, it had come to be known as Breezing Up, a title that was not the artist's but one which he did not seem to object to. A contemporary critic described the painting: "It is painted in [Homer's] customary coarse and negligé style, but suggests with unmistakable force the life and motion of a breezy summer day off the coast. The fishing boat, bending to the wind, seems actually to cleave the waves. There is no truer or heartier work in the exhibition." Another wrote, "Much has already been said in praise of the easy, elastic motion of the figures of the party in the sailboat, which is scudding along through blue water under 'a fair wind.' They sway with the rolling boat, and relax or grow rigid as the light keel rises or sinks upon the waves. Every person who has been similarly situated can recall how, involuntarily, his back stiffened or his knees bent as he felt the roll of the waves beneath him."

text: The backshore is always above the highest water level point.  The berm is also found here which marks the boundary between the foreshore and backshore.  Wind is the important factor here, not water.  During strong storms high waves and wind can deliver and erode sediment from the backshore.

text: The

text: backshore

text: is always above the highest water level point.  The

text: berm

text: is also found here which marks the boundary between the foreshore and backshore.  Wind is the important factor here, not water.  During strong storms high waves and wind can deliver and erode sediment from the backshore.

text: In recent years, attention has been drawn to using SAWs to drive microfluidic actuation and a variety of processes. Owing to the mismatch of sound velocities in the SAW substrate and fluid, SAWs can be efficiently transferred into the fluid, to create significant inertial force and fluid velocities. This mechanism can be exploited to drive fluid actions such as pumping, mixing, jetting, as well as others. To drive these processes there is a change of mode of the wave at the liquid substrate interface. In the substrate the SAW wave is a transverse wave and inside the droplet the wave becomes a longitudinal wave. It is this longitudinal wave that creates the flow of fluid within the microfluidic droplet.

text: In recent years, attention has been drawn to using SAWs to drive microfluidic actuation and a variety of processes. Owing to the mismatch of sound velocities in the SAW substrate and fluid, SAWs can be efficiently transferred into the fluid, to create significant inertial force and fluid velocities. This mechanism can be exploited to drive fluid actions such as

text: pump

text: ing,

text: mixing

text: jet

text: ting, as well as others. To drive these processes there is a change of mode of the wave at the liquid substrate interface. In the substrate the SAW wave is a

text: transverse wave

text: and inside the droplet the wave becomes a

text: longitudinal wave

text: . It is this longitudinal wave that creates the flow of fluid within the microfluidic droplet.

text: Tollmien (1931) and Schlichting (1929) proposed that friction (viscosity) along a smooth flat boundary, created SH boundary layer (BL) oscillations that gradually increased in amplitude until turbulence erupted. Although contemporary wind tunnels failed to confirm the theory, Schubauer and Skramstad (1943) created a refined wind tunnel that deadened the vibrations and sounds that might impinge on the wind tunnel flat plate flow studies. They confirmed the development of SH long-crested BL oscillations, the dynamic shear waves of transition to turbulence. They showed that specific SH fluttering vibrations induced electromagnetically into a BL ferromagnetic ribbon could amplify similar flow-induced SH BL flutter (BLF) waves, precipitating turbulence at much lower flow rates. Furthermore, certain other specific frequencies interfered with the development of the SH BLF waves, preserving laminar flow to higher flow rates.

text: Two Amphicars crossed the English Channel in 1968 enduring  waves and gale-force winds.

text: Two Amphicars crossed the

text: English Channel

text: in 1968 enduring  waves and gale-force winds.

text: Lee shores are dangerous to watercraft because, if left to drift, they will be pushed into shore by the wind, possibly running aground.  Sailboats are particularly susceptible to this, as even under sail they are limited to the angle they can travel into the wind; Square rigged craft, for instance, can point only slightly to windward.  It is possible for a sailing vessel to become trapped along a lee shore, with the only recourse being to use an engine, or use anchors to kedge out.  The beach of a lee shore in a storm is also at a significantly higher risk due to the undiminished effects of the wind and waves.  Because of this, it is always preferable to travel along a windward shore, especially in inclement weather.  A windward shore will have significantly lower waves and slower winds, because they will have been slowed by passage over the land, but a windward shore does have its dangers, being subject to storm surge.

text: Lee shores are dangerous to watercraft because, if left to drift, they will be pushed into shore by the wind, possibly running aground.

text: Sailboat

text: s are particularly susceptible to this, as even under sail they are limited to the angle they can travel into the wind;

text: Square rig

text: ged craft, for instance, can point only slightly to windward.  It is possible for a sailing vessel to become trapped along a lee shore, with the only recourse being to use an engine, or use

text: anchor

text: s to

text: kedge

text: out.  The beach of a lee shore in a storm is also at a significantly higher risk due to the undiminished effects of the wind and waves.  Because of this, it is always preferable to travel along a windward shore, especially in inclement weather.  A windward shore will have significantly lower waves and slower winds, because they will have been slowed by passage over the land, but a windward shore does have its dangers, being subject to

text: storm surge

text: A point break refers to the place where waves hit a point of land or rocks jutting out from the coastline.  Bells Beach in Australia and Jardim do Mar in Madeira, Portugal are examples of point breaks.

text: A

text: point break

text: refers to the place where waves hit a point of land or rocks jutting out from the

text: coastline

text: Bells Beach

text: in

text: Australia

text: and

text: Jardim do Mar

text: in

text: Madeira

text: Portugal

text: are examples of point breaks.

text: Most coastal areas under 10 feet (3 m) above sea level experienced severe wave damage. The Maryland Geological Survey estimates the waves removed  of sand along the coastline, based on an estimate of losses in Baltimore County. The  of lost in single day represent about 15% of the total beach loss in an average year. The average location lost about 5 feet (1.5 m) of beach, and throughout the Chesapeake Bay the erosion deposited about 81,000 tons (73,500 t) of sediment into the bay. The erosion was irregular, however; some locations were unaffected, while others experienced greater losses, despite that the two locations were similar. The erosion and storm surge damaged many bulkheads, and after the storm surge retreated into the bay it washed away freestanding structures. The passage of Isabel resulted in an unusual increase in phytoplankton in the middle portion of the Chesapeake Bay, followed by an abrupt return to normal conditions by early October.

text: Most coastal areas under 10 feet (3 m) above sea level experienced severe wave damage. The Maryland Geological Survey estimates the waves removed  of sand along the coastline, based on an estimate of losses in Baltimore County. The  of lost in single day represent about 15% of the total beach loss in an average year. The average location lost about 5 feet (1.5 m) of beach, and throughout the Chesapeake Bay the erosion deposited about 81,000 tons (73,500 t) of sediment into the bay. The erosion was irregular, however; some locations were unaffected, while others experienced greater losses, despite that the two locations were similar. The erosion and storm surge damaged many bulkheads, and after the storm surge retreated into the bay it washed away freestanding structures. The passage of Isabel resulted in an unusual increase in

text: phytoplankton

text: in the middle portion of the Chesapeake Bay, followed by an abrupt return to normal conditions by early October.

text: Once formed, the stars within the nebula emit a stream of charged particles known as a stellar wind. Massive stars and young stars have much stronger stellar winds than the Sun. The wind forms shock waves or hydrodynamical instabilities when it encounters the gas in the nebula, which then shapes the gas clouds. The shock waves from stellar wind also play a large part in stellar formation by compacting the gas clouds, creating density inhomogeneities that lead to gravitational collapse of the cloud.

text: Once formed, the stars within the nebula emit a stream of charged particles known as a

text: stellar wind

text: Massive stars

text: and

text: young stars

text: have much stronger stellar winds than the

text: Sun

text: . The wind forms shock waves or hydrodynamical instabilities when it encounters the gas in the nebula, which then shapes the gas clouds. The shock waves from stellar wind also play a large part in stellar formation by compacting the gas clouds, creating density inhomogeneities that lead to gravitational collapse of the cloud.

text: A whole gale is a wind of force 10 on the Beaufort Scale, ranging in strength from 48 to 55 knots. Trees are broken off or uprooted, saplings bent and deformed. Poorly attached asphalt shingles and shingles in poor condition peel off roofs. A whole gale creates very high waves with overhanging crests. Large patches of foam from wave crests give the sea a white appearance. Considerable tumbling of waves with heavy impact. Large amounts of airborne spray reduce visibility. Winds of this strength prompt the issuance of a storm warning on the ocean, and a high wind warning on land.

text: A whole gale is a

text: wind

text: of force 10 on the

text: Beaufort Scale

text: , ranging in strength from 48 to 55

text: knots

text: . Trees are broken off or uprooted, saplings bent and deformed. Poorly attached asphalt shingles and shingles in poor condition peel off roofs. A whole gale creates very high waves with overhanging crests. Large patches of foam from wave crests give the sea a white appearance. Considerable tumbling of waves with heavy impact. Large amounts of airborne spray reduce visibility. Winds of this strength prompt the issuance of a

text: storm warning

text: on the ocean, and a high wind warning on land.

text: Emerson admired and praised the natural spontaneity and wildness of his aunt’s prose, writing in an 1841 journal entry,  "What liberal, joyful architecture, liberal & manifold as the vegetation from the earth’s bosom, or the creations of frost work on the window! Nothing can excel the freedom & felicity of her letters,—such  nobility is in this self rule, this absence of all reference to style or standard: it is the march of the mountain winds, the waving of flowers, or the flight of birds" (Emerson Lectures 442).

text: Today Waves is counted among the top 10 Cultural festivals in India. Celebrities like Vishal–Shekhar, Priyanka Chopra, Kalki Koechlin, Kailash Kher, DJ NYK, Shafqat Amanat Ali, Karsh Kale and bands like Indian Ocean, Agam, Parikrama, Raeth, Dead Letter Circus, Thermal and a Quarter, Blackstratblues, Salim-Sulaiman, Dj Paroma, Lost Stories have performed at Waves in recent years. Popular comedy houses like All India Bakchod, TVF, Being Indian and others have also performed at Waves. Popular events like Sunburn and Femina Miss India eliminations have been hosted by Waves.

text: Today Waves is counted among the top 10 Cultural festivals in India. Celebrities like

text: Vishal–Shekhar

text: Priyanka Chopra

text: Kalki Koechlin

text: Kailash Kher

text: , DJ NYK,

text: Shafqat Amanat Ali

text: Karsh Kale

text: and bands like

text: Indian Ocean

text: Agam

text: Parikrama

text: Raeth

text: Dead Letter Circus

text: Thermal and a Quarter

text: Blackstratblues

text: Salim-Sulaiman

text: , Dj Paroma,

text: Lost Stories

text: have performed at Waves in recent years. Popular comedy houses like All India Bakchod, TVF, Being Indian and others have also performed at Waves. Popular events like Sunburn and Femina Miss India eliminations have been hosted by Waves.

text: On December 7, 1897, President Loomis of the IR&N handed over Ocean Wave to Capt. Charles Clancy, who was to take the steamer down the Columbia River and around the Olympic Peninsula to Puget Sound.   According to one non-contemporaneous source, the reason for the sale was that Ocean Wave was not in the same speed class as the primary competition, T.J. Potter.  The boat was reported to have been under powered and therefore somewhat slow in actual service.

text: On December 7, 1897, President Loomis of the IR&N handed over Ocean Wave to Capt. Charles Clancy, who was to take the steamer down the Columbia River and around the

text: Olympic Peninsula

text: to Puget Sound.   According to one non-contemporaneous source, the reason for the sale was that Ocean Wave was not in the same speed class as the primary competition, T.J. Potter.  The boat was reported to have been under powered and therefore somewhat slow in actual service.

text: The first pilot of Ocean Wave was Capt. Lester A. Bailey (b.1850), who had previously commanded the large sidewheeler Olympian on the route from Portland to Ilwaco.  Others who served on Ocean Wave on the Ilwaco route were Charles T. Kamm, as master, and Joseph Hayes, as chief engineer.

text: The first

text: pilot

text: of Ocean Wave was Capt. Lester A. Bailey (b.1850), who had previously commanded the large sidewheeler

text: Olympian

text: on the route from Portland to Ilwaco.  Others who served on Ocean Wave on the Ilwaco route were Charles T. Kamm, as master, and Joseph Hayes, as chief engineer.

text: Winds in Nova Scotia from the storm complex reached 50 mph (80 km/h) in inland areas, while areas near the coast experienced gusts of over 62 mph (100 km/h). The peak wind gust in the province was 93 mph (150 km/h) along Cape George. Strong winds persisted across the province for 19 hours. The storm complex produced 26 to 30-ft (nine to ten m) waves along the eastern and northern coasts of Nova Scotia. The storm surge, which occurred at high tide, reached two ft (0.6 m), eroding a section of the Canso Causeway. The causeway was closed when a trailer overturned from the high winds. Around 1.6 inches (40 mm) of precipitation fell, causing flooding and downed trees. Overall, about 70,000 people in Nova Scotia were left without power.

text: Winds in

text: Nova Scotia

text: from the storm complex reached 50 mph (80 km/h) in inland areas, while areas near the coast experienced gusts of over 62 mph (100 km/h). The peak wind gust in the province was 93 mph (150 km/h) along

text: Cape George

text: . Strong winds persisted across the province for 19 hours. The storm complex produced 26 to 30-ft (nine to ten m) waves along the eastern and northern coasts of Nova Scotia. The storm surge, which occurred at high tide, reached two ft (0.6 m), eroding a section of the

text: Canso Causeway

text: . The causeway was closed when a trailer overturned from the high winds. Around 1.6 inches (40 mm) of precipitation fell, causing flooding and downed trees. Overall, about 70,000 people in Nova Scotia were left without power.

text: One of the largest surf breaks in the world is the Jaws surf break in Maui, Hawaii, with waves that reach a maximum height of . However waves which break off Nazare in Portugal have been recorded to exceed 80 feet, with estimates of waves ridden up to over 100 feet, from trough to peak. The peculiar ocean bathymetry off Nazare is largely responsible for the very large wave faces.

text: One of the largest surf breaks in the world is the

text: Jaws surf break

text: in

text: Maui

text: Hawaii

text: , with waves that reach a maximum height of . However waves which break off Nazare in Portugal have been recorded to exceed 80 feet, with estimates of waves ridden up to over 100 feet, from trough to peak. The peculiar ocean bathymetry off Nazare is largely responsible for the very large wave faces.

text: In the 1980s, a few intrepid wind surfers (Mark Pedersen, Dave Kalama, Brett Lickle) surfed the break from Hookipa.The wave sizes at Jaws (which can exceed  during the months of December to March) attract big wave surfers such as Laird Hamilton and Dave Kalama using the tow-in surfing method of big wave surf riding they co-invented (with Darrick Doerner and Buzzy Kerbox).To avoid a steep climb, rocky beach and fast-moving waves, many surfers are towed by personal water craft launched from nearby areas such as the boat ramp at Māliko Bay.

text: In the 1980s, a few intrepid

text: wind surfers

text: (Mark Pedersen, Dave Kalama, Brett Lickle) surfed the break from

text: Hookipa

text: .The wave sizes at Jaws (which can exceed  during the months of December to March) attract big wave surfers such as

text: Laird Hamilton

text: and

text: Dave Kalama

text: using the

text: tow-in surfing

text: method of big wave surf riding they co-invented (with

text: Darrick Doerner

text: and

text: Buzzy Kerbox

text: ).To avoid a steep climb, rocky beach and fast-moving waves, many surfers are towed by

text: personal water craft

text: launched from nearby areas such as the boat ramp at Māliko Bay.

text: Individual "rogue waves" (also called "freak waves", "monster waves", "killer waves", and "king waves") much higher than the other waves in the sea state can occur. In the case of the Draupner wave, its  height was 2.2 times the significant wave height. Such waves are distinct from tides, caused by the Moon and Sun's gravitational pull, tsunamis that are caused by underwater earthquakes or landslides, and waves generated by underwater explosions or the fall of meteorites—all having far longer wavelengths than wind waves.

text: Individual "

text: rogue wave

text: s" (also called "freak waves", "monster waves", "killer waves", and "king waves") much higher than the other waves in the

text: sea state

text: can occur. In the case of the

text: Draupner wave

text: , its  height was 2.2 times the

text: significant wave height

text: . Such waves are distinct from

text: tide

text: s, caused by the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Sun

text: 's

text: gravitational pull

text: tsunami

text: s that are caused by underwater

text: earthquake

text: s or

text: landslide

text: s, and waves generated by

text: underwater explosion

text: s or the fall of

text: meteorite

text: s—all having far longer

text: wavelength

text: s than wind waves.

text: Wind waves also act to modify atmospheric properties through frictional drag of near-surface winds and heat fluxes.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal | last1 = Bender | first1 = L.C. | year = 1996 | title = Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model | url = | journal = J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol | volume = 13 | issue = | pages = 726–750 | doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: The term wave is often intuitively understood as referring to a transport of spatial disturbances that are generally not accompanied by a motion of the medium occupying this space as a whole.  In a wave, the energy of a vibration is moving away from the source in the form of a disturbance within the surrounding medium . However, this motion is problematic for a standing wave (for example, a wave on a string), where energy is moving in both directions equally, or for electromagnetic (e.g., light) waves in a vacuum, where the concept of medium does not apply and interaction with a target is the key to wave detection and practical applications. There are water waves on the ocean surface; gamma waves and light waves emitted by the Sun; microwaves used in microwave ovens and in radar equipment; radio waves broadcast by radio stations; and sound waves generated by radio receivers, telephone handsets and living creatures (as voices), to mention only a few wave phenomena.

text: The term wave is often intuitively understood as referring to a transport of spatial disturbances that are generally not accompanied by a motion of the medium occupying this space as a whole.  In a wave, the

text: energy

text: of a

text: vibration

text: is moving away from the source in the form of a disturbance within the surrounding medium . However, this motion is problematic for a

text: standing wave

text: (for example, a wave on a string), where

text: energy

text: is moving in both directions equally, or for electromagnetic (e.g., light) waves in a

text: vacuum

text: , where the concept of medium does not apply and interaction with a target is the key to wave detection and practical applications. There are

text: water waves

text: on the ocean surface;

text: gamma waves

text: and

text: light waves

text: emitted by the Sun;

text: microwaves

text: used in microwave ovens and in

text: radar

text: equipment;

text: radio waves

text: broadcast by radio stations; and

text: sound waves

text: generated by radio receivers, telephone handsets and living creatures (as voices), to mention only a few wave phenomena.

text: Size plays an important role in modulating damage caused by a storm. All else equal, a larger storm will impact a larger area for a longer period of time. Additionally, a larger near-surface wind field can generate higher storm surge due to the combination of longer wind fetch, longer duration, and enhanced wave setup.

text: Size plays an important role in modulating damage caused by a storm. All else equal, a larger storm will impact a larger area for a longer period of time. Additionally, a larger near-surface wind field can generate higher

text: storm surge

text: due to the combination of longer wind

text: fetch

text: , longer duration, and enhanced

text: wave setup

text: The eye of Hurricane Katrina was forecast to pass through the city of New Orleans. In that event, the wind was predicted to come from the north as the storm passed, forcing large volumes of water from Lake Pontchartrain against the levees and possibly into the city. It was also forecast that the storm surge in Lake Pontchartrain would reach , with waves reaching 7 feet (2 m) above the storm surge.

text: The eye of Hurricane Katrina was forecast to pass through the city of New Orleans. In that event, the wind was predicted to come from the north as the storm passed, forcing large volumes of water from

text: Lake Pontchartrain

text: against the levees and possibly into the city. It was also forecast that the storm surge in Lake Pontchartrain would reach , with waves reaching 7 feet (2 m) above the storm surge.

text: Fir waves form by the ecological process of wave-regeneration. When a tree falls, a gap in the canopy is formed. This exposes trees at the leeward edge of the gap to greater wind. These trees are thus more likely to die from damage and desiccation than windward trees. These leeward trees eventually die, gradually expanding the gap downwind. At the same time, young trees start to grow in the wind shadow in the windward portion of the gap, protected from the high winds by the surviving trees. The combination of dying trees at the leeward edge and regenerating trees at the windward edge results in the propagation of the fir waves in the direction of the predominant prevailing wind. The period of the waves is variable, typically about 60 years in Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea).  One can view these from the Appalachian Trail as it ascends the Hunt Spur of Mount Katahdin in Maine.  "Looking out to the Owl" and "The Brothers" are extensive areas of this phenomenon.

text: Fir waves form by the

text: ecological

text: process of wave-regeneration. When a tree falls, a

text: gap

text: in the canopy is formed. This exposes trees at the

text: leeward

text: edge of the gap to greater wind. These trees are thus more likely to die from damage and desiccation than

text: windward

text: trees. These leeward trees eventually die, gradually expanding the gap downwind. At the same time, young trees start to grow in the wind shadow in the windward portion of the gap, protected from the high winds by the surviving trees. The combination of dying trees at the leeward edge and regenerating trees at the windward edge results in the propagation of the fir waves in the direction of the predominant prevailing wind. The period of the waves is variable, typically about 60 years in

text: Balsam Fir

text: (Abies balsamea).  One can view these from the Appalachian Trail as it ascends the Hunt Spur of

text: Mount Katahdin

text: in

text: Maine

text: .  "Looking out to the Owl" and "The Brothers" are extensive areas of this phenomenon.

text: Cool has designed and develop unique automation software that can predict wind and wave height information worldwide. Utilizing various buoy data and raw modeling input parameters, Cool's software has assisted in the creation of various swell models.

text: A tropical wave exited the western coast of Africa on September 26, quickly spawning an area of low pressure. Upon the formation of the low, the wave split into two pieces and a second area of low pressure developed along the southern portion of the wave as it traveled west. The northern low quickly developed, spawning Tropical Depression Fourteen on September 28. The southern low attached to the wave failed to develop and moved away from the intensifying tropical depression. It continued through the Atlantic, entering the Pacific Ocean, after crossing Central America, on October 8. A broad area of low pressure accompanied by showers and thunderstorms developed along the wave around 275 miles (440 kilometres) south of Acapulco, Mexico. However, the low remained disorganized because of strong upper-level winds. On October 13, the low became better organized due to a relaxation in the shear. The low developed enough convection late on October 14 to be declared Tropical Depression Fifteen-E while located about 435 mi (705 km) southwest of Colima, Mexico.

text: A

text: tropical wave

text: exited the western coast of Africa on September 26, quickly spawning an

text: area of low pressure

text: . Upon the formation of the low, the wave split into two pieces and a second area of low pressure developed along the southern portion of the wave as it traveled west. The northern low quickly developed, spawning

text: Tropical Depression Fourteen

text: on September 28. The southern low attached to the wave failed to develop and moved away from the intensifying

text: tropical depression

text: . It continued through the

text: Atlantic

text: , entering the Pacific Ocean, after crossing

text: Central America

text: , on October 8. A broad area of low pressure accompanied by showers and thunderstorms developed along the wave around 275 miles (440 kilometres) south of

text: Acapulco, Mexico

text: . However, the low remained disorganized because of strong

text: upper-level winds

text: . On October 13, the low became better organized due to a relaxation in the shear. The low developed enough

text: convection

text: late on October 14 to be declared Tropical Depression Fifteen-E while located about 435 mi (705 km) southwest of

text: Colima, Mexico

text: The ESA Cluster mission has enabled to find the first direct evidence of cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves, explaining why Earth's magnetic environment is so hot. A Nature Physics paper reveals. The Earth's internal magnetic field creates a giant protective bubble called the magnetosphere, necessary for life to develop. This magnetic bubble helps deflecting more than 99% of the incoming solar wind expelled by the Sun. Due to this interaction, the magnetosphere has a bullet-like shape (see left panel of Figure 1). At its border, the magnetopause, the matter, called plasma, is 50 times hotter inside the Earth's magnetic environment than just outside; a problem that has puzzled scientists since the beginning of the space age. Why is Earth's environment so hot? How plasma gets heated in a medium where no particles collides? One of the few physical processes enabling solar wind plasma to enter the magnetosphere is called the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. This instability is ubiquitous in space and on Earth. Such K-H waves have been detected in various media including the surface of oceans, in clouds (see bottom right panel of Image 1), in the solar corona (see top right panel) or in the atmosphere of giant planets. Kelvin–Helmholtz (K-H) waves can form at Earth's magnetopause, mainly due to the velocity difference between the plasma flowing outside at higher speed than inside the magnetosphere. Back in 2004, the multi-spacecraft Cluster mission revealed that these waves can roll-up, turning into giant vortices of about 36,000 km size, i.e. about 6 times the Earth's radius (Hasegawa et al., 2004). A new article, published in Nature Physics this month, presents a detailed study of small-scale (ion-scale) wave packets captured by Cluster within such a macroscopic (fluid-scale) Kelvin-Helmholtz vortex. This study reveals for the first time that these wave packets in the eye of the vortex are magnetosonic waves with sufficient energy to account for the observed level of ion heating. In other words, these waves can heat the cooler ions of magnetosheath origin; magnetosheath is the boundary layer located just outside the magnetopause. These observations may be evidence for cross-scale energy transport in space plasmas. It may have universal consequences in understanding the energy transport from fluid to ion scales, and can play a role in a variety of plasma systems with a velocity shear.

text: Widespread coastal damage and major flooding took place in Virginia as rainfall exceeding  fell in many places and large waves affected beaches. A maximum rainfall of  fell in Hampton during the storm. In some areas, roads were closed multiple times due to flooding. Minor damage was also reported as a few homes were inundated with up to  of water. Some areas reported a storm surge comparable to that of Hurricanes Gloria in 1985 and Isabel in 2003. Damage from the storm in Virginia was estimated to be at least $38.8 million, of which $25 million was in Norfolk alone. According to the National Weather Service,  of rain fell in Norfolk between November 11 and 13, nearly three times the monthly average for November; in those three days alone, the total rainfall surpassed the monthly record of  set in 1951. Hurricane-force winds also affected the state, with a peak gust of  occurring in Oceana.

text: Widespread coastal damage and major flooding took place in Virginia as rainfall exceeding  fell in many places and large waves affected beaches. A maximum rainfall of  fell in

text: Hampton

text: during the storm. In some areas, roads were closed multiple times due to flooding. Minor damage was also reported as a few homes were inundated with up to  of water. Some areas reported a storm surge comparable to that of Hurricanes

text: Gloria

text: in

text: and

text: Isabel

text: in

text: Norfolk

text: alone. According to the

text: National Weather Service

text: ,  of rain fell in Norfolk between November 11 and 13, nearly three times the monthly average for November; in those three days alone, the total rainfall surpassed the monthly record of  set in 1951. Hurricane-force winds also affected the state, with a peak gust of  occurring in

text: Oceana

text: The waves of different strengths that constantly hit against the shoreline are the primary movers and shapers of the coastline. Despite the simplicity of this process, the differences between waves and the rocks they hit result in hugely varying shapes.

text: Breaking the Waves, Denmark

text: Breaking the Waves

text: , Denmark

text: In the tourist town of Biloxi, widespread damage was reported as several of the city's attractions were destroyed.  The lower 3 floors of many high-rise casino-hotels were gutted, as in the former Grand Casino of Gulfport, or the Imperial Palace (IP Hotel and Casino) or Beau Rivage in Biloxi.  Many restaurants were destroyed and several casino barges had been washed out of the water and onto land. Residents that survived Hurricane Camille stated that Katrina was "much worse," with a storm surge reportedly reaching further inland than the previous catastrophic storm. Katrina's wind estimates were lighter than Camille's, and the central air pressure was slightly higher, but Camille was also a much smaller storm so the greater impact of the storm surge may be due to the size. Keesler Air Force Base, also located in Biloxi, reported extensive damage to its facilities. Gulfport authorities reported to news station CNN that up to ten feet of water covered downtown streets. The Biloxi-Ocean Springs Bridge was also totally destroyed (see Figure BB), and US 90 had heavy debris and severe damage to the roadbed.

text: In the tourist town of Biloxi, widespread damage was reported as several of the city's attractions were destroyed.  The lower 3 floors of many high-rise casino-hotels were gutted, as in the former

text: Grand Casino

text: of Gulfport, or the

text: Imperial Palace

text: (IP Hotel and Casino) or

text: Beau Rivage

text: in Biloxi.  Many restaurants were destroyed and several casino barges had been washed out of the water and onto land. Residents that survived Hurricane Camille stated that Katrina was "much worse," with a storm surge reportedly reaching further inland than the previous catastrophic storm. Katrina's wind estimates were lighter than Camille's, and the central air pressure was slightly higher, but Camille was also a much smaller storm so the greater impact of the storm surge may be due to the size.

text: Keesler Air Force Base

text: , also located in Biloxi, reported extensive damage to its facilities. Gulfport authorities reported to news station CNN that up to ten feet of water covered downtown streets. The Biloxi-Ocean Springs Bridge was also totally destroyed (see Figure BB), and

text: US 90

text: had heavy debris and severe damage to the roadbed.

text: In oceanography, rogue waves are more precisely defined as waves whose height is more than twice the significant wave height (H or SWH), which is itself defined as the mean of the largest third of waves in a wave record. Therefore, rogue waves are not necessarily the biggest waves found on the water; they are, rather, unusually large waves for a given sea state. Rogue waves seem not to have a single distinct cause, but occur where physical factors such as high winds and strong currents cause waves to merge to create a single exceptionally large wave.

text: In

text: oceanography

text: , rogue waves are more precisely defined as waves whose

text: height

text: is more than twice the

text: significant wave height

text: (H or SWH), which is itself defined as the mean of the largest third of waves in a wave record. Therefore, rogue waves are not necessarily the biggest waves found on the water; they are, rather, unusually large waves for a given

text: sea state

text: . Rogue waves seem not to have a single distinct cause, but occur where physical factors such as high winds and strong currents cause waves to merge to create a single exceptionally large wave.

text: The SSHS was originally created using both wind speed and storm surge, but since the relationship between wind speed and storm surge is not necessarily definite, the scale was changed to the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (SSHWS), based entirely on wind speed.

text: The SSHS was originally created using both wind speed and storm surge, but since the relationship between wind speed and storm surge is not necessarily definite, the scale was changed to the

text: Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

text: (SSHWS), based entirely on wind speed.

text: The waves created in the open ocean are classified as deep-water waves. Deep-water waves have no bottom interaction and the orbits of these water molecules are circular; their wavelength is short relative to water depth and the velocity decays before the reaching the bottom of the water basin. Deep waves have depths greater than ½ their wavelengths. Wind forces waves to break in the deep sea.

text: The storm surge assailed much of southeastern Virginia causing the worst flooding seen in the area since the 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane, peaking at an estimated 9 feet (2.7 m) in Richmond along the James River.  The surge caused significant damage to homes along river ways, especially along the middle reaches of the James River basin. The strong storm surge surpassed the floodgate to the Midtown Tunnel while workers attempted to close the gate; about  of water flooded the tunnel entirely in just 40 minutes, with the workers barely able to escape. The damage to the electrical grid and flooding kept Old Dominion University, Norfolk State University, Virginia Commonwealth University and many of the region's other major educational institutions closed for almost a week. Further inland, heavy rainfall was reported, peaking at 20.2 inches (513 mm) in Sherando, Virginia, causing damage and severe flash flooding. Winds from the hurricane destroyed over 1,000 houses and damaged 9,000 more; damage in the state totaled about $1.85 billion (2003 USD, $

text: The

text: storm surge

text: assailed much of southeastern Virginia causing the worst flooding seen in the area since the

text: 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane

text: , peaking at an estimated 9 feet (2.7 m) in

text: Richmond

text: along the

text: James River

text: .  The surge caused significant damage to homes along river ways, especially along the middle reaches of the James River basin. The strong storm surge surpassed the floodgate to the

text: Midtown Tunnel

text: while workers attempted to close the gate; about  of water flooded the tunnel entirely in just 40 minutes, with the workers barely able to escape. The damage to the electrical grid and flooding kept

text: Old Dominion University

text: Norfolk State University

text: Virginia Commonwealth University

text: and many of the region's other major educational institutions closed for almost a week. Further inland, heavy rainfall was reported, peaking at 20.2 inches (513 mm) in

text: Sherando, Virginia

text: , causing damage and severe

text: flash flood

text: ing. Winds from the hurricane destroyed over 1,000 houses and damaged 9,000 more; damage in the state totaled about $1.85 billion (2003 USD, $

text: In gymnotiforms, electrocytes differ between wave-type and pulse-type electric fishes. In wave-type fishes, electrocytes are in a tubular form. In pulse fish the electrocytes tend to be flattened disks. The electocytes also form columns, but unlike the shorter size of electric organ in mormyrids, gymnotiforms have long electric organs that extend throughout almost the entire longitudinal body length. Also different from the stalk system in mormyrids, stalks in gymnotiforms only make one type of innervation at the posterior side of electrocyte. Pulse-type gymnotifoms generally show a higher complexity than the wave-type fishes. For instance, their electrocytes can be either cylindrical or drum-shaped with stalks innervating from either posterior or anterior side. Another important difference is that, unlike mormyrids or wave-type gymnotiforms, electrocytes of pulse-type gymnotiforms are not homogenous along the long electric organ that traverses the fish body. Different parts of the electric organs of some gymnotoiforms are innervated differently or may have different cellular firing properties.

text: In his 1966 account of the incident, The Wreck of the Memphis, Captain Edward L. Beach, Jr., son of Memphiss commanding officer Captain Edward L. Beach, Sr., described the heroic efforts of Castine to assist crewmen of Memphis who had been swamped in the motor launch. He also ascribed the events in the harbor to an unexpected tsunami exceeding  in height, and this explanation has been carried forward by most sources discussing the incident. More recent research, however, has called this explanation into question. No record of any seismic event in the Caribbean on 29 August 1916 that could have triggered a tsunami has been found, and the rate of advance of the large wave Castine and Memphis reported—about an hour to cross the distance from the horizon to the ships—matches that of a wind-generated ocean wave (possibly a rogue wave); a tsunami, in contrast, would have covered the distance in only a few minutes. The periods of the three large waves that struck Castine and Memphis also are characteristic of large wind-generated waves rather than tsunamis.

text: In his 1966 account of the incident, The Wreck of the Memphis,

text: Captain

text: Edward L. Beach, Jr.

text: , son of Memphiss commanding officer Captain

text: Edward L. Beach, Sr.

text: , described the heroic efforts of Castine to assist crewmen of Memphis who had been swamped in the motor launch. He also ascribed the events in the harbor to an unexpected

text: tsunami

text: exceeding  in height, and this explanation has been carried forward by most sources discussing the incident. More recent research, however, has called this explanation into question. No record of any seismic event in the Caribbean on 29 August 1916 that could have triggered a tsunami has been found, and the rate of advance of the large wave Castine and Memphis reported—about an hour to cross the distance from the horizon to the ships—matches that of a wind-generated ocean wave (possibly a

text: rogue wave

text: ); a tsunami, in contrast, would have covered the distance in only a few minutes. The periods of the three large waves that struck Castine and Memphis also are characteristic of large wind-generated waves rather than tsunamis.

text: Now suppose that the axial tilt decreases. The absolute maximum and minimum values of the declination would decrease, to equal the axial tilt. Also, the shapes of the maxima and minima on the graph would become less acute ("pointy"), being curved to resemble the maxima and minima of a sine wave. However, even when the axial tilt equals that of the real Earth, the maxima and minima remain more acute than those of a sine wave.

text: Wind shear can also create wave. This occurs when an atmospheric inversion separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by thermals coming up from below, it will create significant shear waves that can be used for soaring.

text: Wind shear can also create

text: wave

text: . This occurs when an

text: atmospheric inversion

text: separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by

text: thermal

text: s coming up from below, it will create significant shear waves that can be used for soaring.

text: Some US lawmakers and local officials claimed that the booms didn't work as intended, saying there is more shoreline to protect than lengths of boom to protect it and that inexperienced operators didn't lay the boom correctly. Billy Nungesser, president of Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, said the boom "washes up on the shore with the oil, and then we have oil in the marsh, and we have an oily boom. So we have two problems". According to Naomi Klein, writing for the Guardian, "the ocean's winds and currents have made a mockery of the lightweight booms BP has laid out to absorb the oil." Byron Encalade, president of the Louisiana Oysters Association, told BP that the "oil's gonna go over the booms or underneath the bottom", and according to Klein, he was right. Rick Steiner, a marine biologist who closely followed the clean-up operations, estimated that "70% or 80% of the booms are doing absolutely nothing at all".  Local officials along the gulf maintained that there was a scarcity of boom, especially the heavier "ocean boom". BP, in its regional plan, says that boom is not effective in waters with waves more than three to four feet high; waves in the gulf often exceed that height.

text: Some US lawmakers and local officials claimed that the booms didn't work as intended, saying there is more shoreline to protect than lengths of boom to protect it and that inexperienced operators didn't lay the boom correctly. Billy Nungesser, president of Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, said the boom "washes up on the shore with the oil, and then we have oil in the marsh, and we have an oily boom. So we have two problems". According to

text: Naomi Klein

text: , writing for the Guardian, "the ocean's winds and currents have made a mockery of the lightweight booms BP has laid out to absorb the oil." Byron Encalade, president of the Louisiana Oysters Association, told BP that the "oil's gonna go over the booms or underneath the bottom", and according to Klein, he was right.

text: Rick Steiner

text: , a marine biologist who closely followed the clean-up operations, estimated that "70% or 80% of the booms are doing absolutely nothing at all".  Local officials along the gulf maintained that there was a scarcity of boom, especially the heavier "ocean boom". BP, in its regional plan, says that boom is not effective in waters with waves more than three to four feet high; waves in the gulf often exceed that height.

text: Surfers are very interested in the wave forecasts. There are many websites that provide predictions of the surf quality for the upcoming days and weeks. Wind wave models are driven by more general weather models that predict the winds and pressures over the oceans, seas and lakes.

text: Surfers are very interested in the

text: wave forecasts

text: . There are many websites that provide predictions of the surf quality for the upcoming days and weeks. Wind wave models are driven by more general

text: weather models

text: that predict the winds and pressures over the oceans, seas and lakes.

text: Unlike Kondratieff and Schumpeter, Šmihula believed that each new cycle is shorter than its predecessor. His main stress is put on technological progress and new technologies as decisive factors of any long-time economic development. Each of these waves has its innovation phase, which is described as a technological revolution and an application phase in which the number of revolutionary innovations falls and attention focuses on exploiting and extending existing innovations. As soon as an innovation or a series of innovations becomes available, it becomes more efficient to invest in its adoption, extension and use than in creating new innovations. Each wave of technological innovations can be characterized by the area in which the most revolutionary changes took place ("leading sectors").

text: Barnes, born to parents from St. Kitts, was an electrician by trade and worked on the Bermuda Railroad as an electrician until the railroad closed in 1948.  He then became a bus driver. Barnes was fond of waving to people while driving the bus, and would occasionally sit and wave to people on his breaks or when coming to work.

text: Barnes, born to parents from

text: St. Kitts

text: , was an electrician by trade and worked on the Bermuda Railroad as an electrician until the railroad closed in 1948.  He then became a bus driver. Barnes was fond of waving to people while driving the bus, and would occasionally sit and wave to people on his breaks or when coming to work.

text: There is a rise in pressure at the nose, decreasing steadily to a negative pressure at the tail, followed by a sudden return to normal pressure after the object passes. This "overpressure profile" is known as an N-wave because of its shape. The "boom" is experienced when there is a sudden change in pressure; therefore, an N-wave causes two booms – one when the initial pressure-rise reaches an observer, and another when the pressure returns to normal. This leads to a distinctive "double boom" from a supersonic aircraft. When the aircraft is maneuvering, the pressure distribution changes into different forms, with a characteristic U-wave shape.

text: There is a rise in pressure at the nose, decreasing steadily to a negative pressure at the tail, followed by a sudden return to normal pressure after the object passes. This "

text: overpressure

text: profile" is known as an N-wave because of its shape. The "boom" is experienced when there is a sudden change in pressure; therefore, an N-wave causes two booms – one when the initial pressure-rise reaches an observer, and another when the pressure returns to normal. This leads to a distinctive "double boom" from a supersonic aircraft. When the aircraft is maneuvering, the pressure distribution changes into different forms, with a characteristic U-wave shape.

text: Infragravity waves are ocean surface gravity waves generated by ocean waves of shorter periods. The amplitude of infragravity waves is most important in shallow water, in particular along coastlines hit by high amplitude and long period wind waves and ocean swells. Wind waves and ocean swells are shorter, with typical dominant periods of 1 to 25 s. In contrast, the dominant period of infragravity waves is typically 80 to 300 s, which is close to the typical periods of tsunamis, with which they share similar propagation properties including very fast celerities in deep water. As a result, infragravity waves differ from normal oceanic gravity waves, which are created by wind acting on the surface of the sea, and are slower than the generating wind.

text: Infragravity waves are ocean surface

text: gravity wave

text: s generated by ocean waves of shorter periods. The amplitude of infragravity waves is most important in shallow water, in particular along coastlines hit by high amplitude and long period wind waves and

text: ocean swells

text: . Wind waves and

text: ocean swells

text: are shorter, with typical dominant periods of 1 to 25 s. In contrast, the dominant period of infragravity waves is typically 80 to 300 s, which is close to the typical periods of

text: tsunami

text: s, with which they share similar propagation properties including very fast

text: celerities

text: in deep water. As a result, infragravity waves differ from normal oceanic

text: gravity wave

text: s, which are created by wind acting on the surface of the sea, and are slower than the generating wind.

text: Storms can cause flooding through storm surges which are waves significantly larger than normal  and if a storm event corresponds with the high astronomical tide extensive flooding can occur. Storm surges occur during storm events, including hurricanes and tropical cyclones due to three processes:

text: Storms can cause flooding through

text: storm surges

text: which are waves significantly larger than normal  and if a storm event corresponds with the high astronomical tide extensive flooding can occur.

text: Storm surges

text: occur during storm events, including

text: hurricanes

text: and

text: tropical cyclones

text: due to three processes:

text: Sarakiniko is a beach on Milos Island, Greece. It is situated on the north shore of the island.  The waves from the northwind brings greyish-white rocks that can have amazing shapes often compared to a moonscape. The local people often refer to the scenic landscape of Sarakiniko as Lunar. The bone white beach derives from its unusual characteristics from volcanic rocks shaped by wind and wave. Sarakiniko is one of the most photographed landscapes in the Aegean.

text: Sarakiniko is a beach on

text: Milos Island

text: Greece

text: . It is situated on the north shore of the island.  The waves from the northwind brings greyish-white rocks that can have amazing shapes often compared to a moonscape. The local people often refer to the scenic landscape of Sarakiniko as Lunar. The bone white beach derives from its unusual characteristics from volcanic rocks shaped by wind and wave. Sarakiniko is one of the most photographed landscapes in the

text: Aegean

text: While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high waves and a damaging storm surge. Their winds increase the wave size, and in so doing they draw more heat and moisture into their system, thereby increasing their strength. They develop over large bodies of warm water, and hence lose their strength if they move over land. This is the reason coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding inland. Storm surges are rises in sea level caused by the reduced pressure of the core that in effect "sucks" the water upward and from winds that in effect "pile" the water up. Storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to  from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere.

text: While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential

text: rain

text: , they are also able to produce high waves and a damaging

text: storm surge

text: . Their winds increase the wave size, and in so doing they draw more heat and moisture into their system, thereby increasing their strength. They develop over large bodies of warm water, and hence lose their strength if they move over land. This is the reason coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding inland. Storm surges are rises in sea level caused by the reduced pressure of the core that in effect "sucks" the water upward and from winds that in effect "pile" the water up. Storm surges can produce extensive coastal

text: flood

text: ing up to  from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve

text: drought

text: conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward

text: temperate

text: latitudes

text: , which makes them an important part of the global

text: atmospheric circulation

text: mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's

text: troposphere

text: On arrival in San Francisco, Ocean Wave was tied up to the Washington Street wharf.  Modifications had to be made to refit Ocean Wave for ferry service. Within one-half hour, carpenters had begun to work on the vessel.  There were fifty staterooms on the main deck and over one hundred on the upper deck, all of which had to be removed, to convert the upper deck into a single large passenger lounge (called a “saloon”) and the lower deck into a freight area.   The bow had to be reconfigured to allow boarding over the front of the vessel at the ferry landing slips in the bay.

text: In 1964 a Russian scientist proposed that a shaped charge originally developed for piercing thick steel armor be adapted to the task of accelerating shock waves. The resulting device, looking a little like a wind tunnel, is called a Voitenko compressor. The Voitenko compressor initially separates a test gas from a shaped charge with a malleable steel plate. When the shaped charge detonates, most of its energy is focused on the steel plate, driving it forward and pushing the test gas ahead of it. Ames translated this idea into a self-destroying shock tube. A 66-pound shaped charge accelerated the gas in a 3-cm glass-walled tube 2 meters in length. The velocity of the resulting shock wave was 220,000 feet per second (67 km/s). The apparatus exposed to the detonation was completely destroyed, but not before useful data was extracted. In a typical Voitenko compressor, a shaped charge accelerates hydrogen gas which in turn accelerates a thin disk up to about 40 km/s. A slight modification to the Voitenko compressor concept is a super-compressed detonation, a device that uses a compressible liquid or solid fuel in the steel compression chamber instead of a traditional gas mixture. A further extension of this technology is the explosive diamond anvil cell, utilizing multiple opposed shaped charge jets projected at a single steel encapsulated fuel, such as hydrogen. The fuels used in these devices, along with the secondary combustion reactions and long blast impulse, produce similar conditions to those encountered in fuel-air and thermobaric explosives.

text: In 1964 a Russian scientist proposed that a shaped charge originally developed for piercing thick steel armor be adapted to the task of accelerating shock waves. The resulting device, looking a little like a wind tunnel, is called a Voitenko compressor. The Voitenko compressor initially separates a test gas from a shaped charge with a malleable

text: steel

text: plate. When the shaped charge detonates, most of its energy is focused on the steel plate, driving it forward and pushing the test gas ahead of it. Ames translated this idea into a self-destroying shock tube. A 66-pound shaped charge accelerated the gas in a 3-cm glass-walled tube 2 meters in length. The velocity of the resulting shock wave was 220,000 feet per second (67 km/s). The apparatus exposed to the detonation was completely destroyed, but not before useful data was extracted. In a typical Voitenko compressor, a shaped charge accelerates

text: hydrogen

text: gas which in turn accelerates a thin disk up to about 40 km/s. A slight modification to the Voitenko compressor concept is a super-compressed detonation, a device that uses a compressible liquid or solid fuel in the steel compression chamber instead of a traditional gas mixture. A further extension of this technology is the explosive

text: diamond anvil cell

text: , utilizing multiple opposed shaped charge jets projected at a single steel encapsulated fuel, such as hydrogen. The fuels used in these devices, along with the secondary combustion reactions and long blast impulse, produce similar conditions to those encountered in fuel-air and

text: thermobaric

text: explosives.

text: An important decision a homeowner should make is to locate the building outside of range from the coast that is exposed to storm surge. Regardless of protection from the effects of wind, a building can be flooded or destroyed by storm surge waters.

text: An important decision a homeowner should make is to locate the building outside of range from the coast that is exposed to

text: storm surge

text: . Regardless of protection from the effects of wind, a building can be flooded or destroyed by storm surge waters.

text: Cyclone Bella was a destructive tropical cyclone that passed near the Mauritius outer island of Rodrigues. The second named storm of the season, Bella originated in the middle of January 1991 from a surge in the monsoon trough to the southwest of Sumatra. For several days, the system remained weak as it moved generally west-southwestward. On January 25, it intensified to tropical storm status, but Bella took three more days to intensify to tropical cyclone status, with 10 minute maximum sustained winds of 120 kilometres per hour (75 miles per hour). The cyclone attained peak intensity on January 29, officially reaching winds of 155 km/h (100 mph). The Joint Typhoon Warning Center unofficially estimated winds of 240 km/h (150 mph), the highest the agency estimated for any storm in the Southern Hemisphere in the year. Bella later turned to the southeast and weakened, passing about 50 km (30 mi) west of Rodrigues on January 31. The storm turned to the south-southwest and back to the southeast again, becoming extratropical on February 4.

text: Cyclone Bella was a destructive

text: tropical cyclone

text: that passed near the

text: Mauritius

text: outer island

text: of

text: Rodrigues

text: . The second

text: named storm

text: of the

entity_name: 1990–91 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season

text: season

text: , Bella originated in the middle of January 1991 from a surge in the

text: monsoon trough

text: to the southwest of

text: Sumatra

text: tropical cyclone status

text: , with 10 minute

text: maximum sustained wind

text: s of 120

text: kilometres per hour

text: miles per hour

text: ). The cyclone attained peak intensity on January 29, officially reaching winds of 155 km/h (100 mph). The

text: Joint Typhoon Warning Center

text: unofficially estimated winds of 240 km/h (150 mph), the highest the agency estimated for any storm in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: Rodrigues

text: extratropical

text: on February 4.

text: Thus acknowledgement of the existence of rogue waves (despite the fact that they cannot plausibly be explained by even state-of-the-art wave statistics) is a very modern scientific paradigm. It is now well accepted that rogue waves are a common phenomenon. Professor Akhmediev of the Australian National University, one of the world's leading researchers in this field, has stated that there are about 10 rogue waves in the world's oceans at any moment. Some researchers have speculated that approximately three of every 10,000 waves on the oceans achieve rogue status, yet in certain spots—like coastal inlets and river mouths—these extreme waves can make up three out of every 1,000 waves because wave energy can be focussed.

text: Thus acknowledgement of the existence of rogue waves (despite the fact that they cannot plausibly be explained by even state-of-the-art wave statistics) is a very modern scientific paradigm. It is now well accepted that rogue waves are a common phenomenon. Professor Akhmediev of the

text: Australian National University

text: , one of the world's leading researchers in this field, has stated that there are about 10 rogue waves in the world's oceans at any moment. Some researchers have speculated that approximately three of every 10,000 waves on the oceans achieve rogue status, yet in certain spots—like coastal inlets and river mouths—these extreme waves can make up three out of every 1,000 waves because wave energy can be focussed.

text: As opposed to analysis of P-wave to P-wave (P-P) reflection, c-wave (P-S) analysis is more complex.  C-wave analysis requires at least three times as many measurement channels per station.  Variations in reflection depths can cause significant analytic problems.  Gathering, mapping, and binning c-wave data is also more difficult than P-P data.  However, c-wave analysis can provide additional information needed to create a three-dimensional depth image of rock type, structure, and saturant.  For example, changes in V with respect to V suggest changing lithology and pore geometry.

text: As opposed to analysis of P-wave to P-wave (P-P) reflection, c-wave (P-S) analysis is more complex.  C-wave analysis requires at least three times as many measurement channels per station.  Variations in reflection depths can cause significant analytic problems.  Gathering, mapping, and

text: binning

text: c-wave data is also more difficult than P-P data.  However, c-wave analysis can provide additional information needed to create a three-dimensional depth image of rock type, structure, and saturant.  For example, changes in V with respect to V suggest changing

text: lithology

text: and

text: pore geometry

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal|author=Leslie C. Bender|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|page=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: spectral wave transport equation

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal|author=Leslie C. Bender|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|page=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: Farrar settled on the preliminary look of the wave, and graphics supervisor Jay Riddle used Adobe Photoshop on a Macintosh to establish the final color scheme. Initially the team thought they would be able to use the same methods to create the wave that hits the Excelsior, but found that it did not convey the scale of the wave—in Riddle's words, "this thing had to look really enormous." The shot was created by manipulating two curved pieces of computer geometry, expanding them as they approached the camera's view. Textures that changed every frame were added to the main wave body and over the top of it to give the impression of great speed. Motion control footage of the Excelsior was then scanned into the computer system and made to interact with the digital wave. ILM's "Praxis effect" shockwave became a common feature in science fiction films depicting the destruction of large objects.

text: Farrar settled on the preliminary look of the wave, and graphics supervisor Jay Riddle used

text: Adobe Photoshop

text: on a

text: Macintosh

text: to establish the final color scheme. Initially the team thought they would be able to use the same methods to create the wave that hits the Excelsior, but found that it did not convey the scale of the wave—in Riddle's words, "this thing had to look really enormous." The shot was created by manipulating two curved pieces of computer geometry, expanding them as they approached the camera's view. Textures that changed every frame were added to the main wave body and over the top of it to give the impression of great speed. Motion control footage of the Excelsior was then scanned into the computer system and made to interact with the digital wave. ILM's "

text: Praxis effect

text: " shockwave became a common feature in science fiction films depicting the destruction of large objects.

text: Hurricane Cosme caused minor, but widespread, damage on main land Mexico as it moved westward. Unstable structures, such as those made of wood and coconut, suffered the most damage as a result of the storm.  Flooding was also a major cause of storm damage while multiple landslides caused road blockages.  Most of the injuries as a result of the storm came from automobile accidents that were operating during the inclement weathers, causing at least one death and 19 injuries.  As early as the 25th of June Hurricane Cosme was causing inclement weather on mainland Mexico.  Heavy rains were reported in southwest and south central Mexico, becoming particularly severe in Michoacan.  High waves were reported along the pacific coast from Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco to Acapulco, Guerrero. Hurricane Cosme made landfall on Socorro Island (largest of the Revillagigedo Islands) in the late afternoon on the 25th, causing waves, strong winds, and gust of up to 67 kph.  However, the small population located on the island cause damage to be minimal.  In Guerrero, Rain Caused by the Hurricane created at least 24 landslides black blocked state highways in several locations.  Rains as a result of the storm system also resulted in flooding in the port city of Acapulco.  According to the Guerrero Civil Protection, 50 homes were damaged because of the storm as a result of flooding, specifically the overflow of streams in Tlapa River. In Colima, flooding and strong tides caused by a storm surge attributed to Hurricane Cosme resulted in damage to 34 tourist facilities, according to the Secretary of State Economic Development, and possibly one death.  Most of these facilities were located in the municipalities of Tecomny and Armory.  During the storm the port of Manzanillo  and Mazatlan closed down for small craft operation

text: Hurricane Cosme caused minor, but widespread, damage on main land Mexico as it moved westward. Unstable structures, such as those made of wood and coconut, suffered the most damage as a result of the storm.  Flooding was also a major cause of storm damage while multiple landslides caused road blockages.  Most of the injuries as a result of the storm came from automobile accidents that were operating during the inclement weathers, causing at least one death and 19 injuries.  As early as the 25th of June Hurricane Cosme was causing inclement weather on mainland Mexico.  Heavy rains were reported in southwest and south central Mexico, becoming particularly severe in Michoacan.  High waves were reported along the pacific coast from Cabo Corrientes, Jalisco to Acapulco, Guerrero. Hurricane Cosme made landfall on

text: Socorro Island

text: (largest of the Revillagigedo Islands) in the late afternoon on the 25th, causing waves, strong winds, and gust of up to 67 kph.  However, the small population located on the island cause damage to be minimal.  In Guerrero, Rain Caused by the Hurricane created at least 24 landslides black blocked state highways in several locations.  Rains as a result of the storm system also resulted in flooding in the port city of

text: Acapulco

text: .  According to the Guerrero Civil Protection, 50 homes were damaged because of the storm as a result of flooding, specifically the overflow of streams in Tlapa River. In Colima, flooding and strong tides caused by a storm surge attributed to Hurricane Cosme resulted in damage to 34 tourist facilities, according to the Secretary of State Economic Development, and possibly one death.  Most of these facilities were located in the municipalities of Tecomny and Armory.  During the storm the port of Manzanillo  and Mazatlan closed down for small craft operation

text: The waves are most often generated with a mechanical wavemaker, although there are also wind–wave flumes with (additional) wave generation by an air flow over the water – with the flume closed above by a roof above the free surface. The wavemaker frequently consists of a translating or rotating rigid wave board. Modern wavemakers are computer controlled, and can generate besides periodic waves also random waves, solitary waves, wave groups or even tsunami-like wave motion. The wavemaker is at one end of the wave flume, and at the other end is the construction being tested, or a wave absorber (a beach or special wave absorbing constructions).

text: The waves are most often generated with a mechanical wavemaker, although there are also wind–wave flumes with (additional) wave generation by an air flow over the water – with the flume closed above by a roof above the free surface. The wavemaker frequently consists of a translating or rotating rigid wave board. Modern wavemakers are computer controlled, and can generate besides

text: periodic

text: waves also

text: random wave

text: s,

text: solitary wave

text: s,

text: wave group

text: s or even

text: tsunami

text: -like wave motion. The wavemaker is at one end of the wave flume, and at the other end is the construction being tested, or a wave absorber (a beach or special wave absorbing constructions).

text: Viewed from the outside there are three parts: the main body of the six-story blocks with winding stone floors both floors of a block back with a change of pace in waves similar to waves, with a texture more smooth and white, with small holes that seem gunboats, and finally the body of the roof.

text: Viewed from the outside there are three parts: the main body of the six-story blocks with winding stone floors both floors of a block back with a change of pace in waves similar to waves, with a texture more smooth and white, with small holes that seem

text: gunboats

text: , and finally the body of the roof.

text: Technically infragravity waves are simply a subcategory of gravity waves and refer to all gravity waves with periods greater than 30 s.  This could include phenomena such as tides and oceanic Rossby waves, but the common scientific usage is limited to gravity waves that are generated by groups of wind waves.

text: Technically infragravity waves are simply a subcategory of gravity waves and refer to all gravity waves with periods greater than 30 s.  This could include phenomena such as

text: tide

text: s and

text: oceanic Rossby waves

text: , but the common scientific usage is limited to gravity waves that are generated by groups of wind waves.

text: Following the monsoon surge, Abe returned to its original west-northwestward track, further intensifying to become a Category 2-equivalent typhoon at 12:00 UTC on August 29. A weakness appeared in the subtropical ridge in association with a short-wave trough, and Typhoon Abe recurved through this weakness, taking it along the coast of China. Prior to making landfall, Abe attained a minimum atmospheric pressure of 955 millibars (hPa; 28.20 inHg) on August 29 at 18:00 UTC as determined by the JMA. It was found by the JTWC that Abe's one-minute sustained winds peaked at 165 km/h (105 mph) at 00:00 UTC August 30, and the JMA determined that its ten-minute sustained winds peaked at 140 km/h (85 mph) at 18:00 UTC on August 29. As a direct result of this interaction with land, Abe weakened to a tropical storm at 12:00 UTC on August 31, entering the Yellow Sea and crossing South Korea in the 30 hours that followed. It was determined at 18:00 UTC on September 1 that the storm had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone. The JTWC ceased tracking the system at 06:00 UTC September 2, and the JMA followed suit 36 hours later.

text: Different onshore and off shore wind patterns in the surf zone create different types of waves. Onshore winds cause random wave breaking patterns and are more suitable for experienced surfers. Light offshore winds create smoother waves, while strong direct offshore winds cause plunging or large barrel waves. Barrel waves are large because the water depth is small when the wave breaks. Thus, the breaker intensity (or force) increases, and the wave speed and height increase. Off shore winds produce non-surfable conditions by flattening a weak swell. Weak swell is made from surface gravity forces and has long wavelengths.

text: Wind-wave breaking at coastal area is a major source of the wind-wave dissipation. The wind waves lose their energy to the shore or sometimes back to the ocean when those break at the shore. (see more explains -> “Ocean surface wave breaking”)

text: Waved albatross are spectacular flyers, perhaps even the most famous. They can fly for hours without stalling and they do this by dynamic soaring. The wind speed near the surface of the sea is much lower than about  in the air. The waved albatross uses this to its advantage by gliding at speed into the wind. As the waved albatross glides higher it loses most of its ground speed because it is gliding into a wind of a higher speed. However, its air speed does not fall, enabling it to glide continuously. However, waved albatrosses do have difficulty in landing due to their high stalling speed, and in taking off due to the challenge of beating their massive wings. To make it easier they sometimes take off from cliffs that are somewhat inland rather than beside the coast.

text: Waved albatross are spectacular flyers, perhaps even the most famous. They can fly for hours without stalling and they do this by

text: dynamic soaring

text: . The wind speed near the surface of the sea is much lower than about  in the air. The waved albatross uses this to its advantage by gliding at speed into the wind. As the waved albatross glides higher it loses most of its ground speed because it is gliding into a wind of a higher speed. However, its air speed does not fall, enabling it to glide continuously. However, waved albatrosses do have difficulty in landing due to their high stalling speed, and in taking off due to the challenge of beating their massive wings. To make it easier they sometimes take off from cliffs that are somewhat inland rather than beside the coast.

text: At its landfall in Velasco, the hurricane caused a wide swath of damage along the Texas coast and areas further inland. Despite previously issued warnings, rough seas produced by the hurricane still caused several ship accidents. Strong waves forced several ships near Galveston to either become grounded or sunk. The derrick barge Miller and other craft were grounded along Galveston's West Bay. A large dredge was swept into the Galveston Causeway, snapping telegraph cables that ran along the length of the causeway. The Miriam was sunken by a submerged log, while the schooner Ed Gibbs was broken into pieces near La Porte. The steamboat El Siglo (The Century) remained stranded offshore for twelve hours in winds estimated at . Off of Mobile, Alabama, the high waves prevented ships from entering the Port of Mobile. Closer to the coast, the hurricane produced a storm surge of  in Galveston and Velasco. However, due to the Galveston Seawall, much of the potential storm surge-related damage in Galveston was mitigated, though the seawall forced spray to rise  in the air. Areas outside the seawall on the Galveston beach, including two fishing piers and pavilions were destroyed. On Galveston's Tarpon Pier, ten members of a fishing party perished after the pier collapsed, though six were rescued by the yacht Mayflower. In western areas of Galveston, where there was no seawall, inland areas were inundated under  of water. However, Galveston's primary streets were submerged to a lesser extent, under  of water. In Velasco, the tide was reported to have been  higher than during the 1900 Galveston hurricane, which inundated the city under  of water. Areas of Sabine Pass were also inundated by the high waves, and the Southern Pacific Railroad was submerged in water.

text: At its landfall in Velasco, the hurricane caused a wide swath of damage along the Texas coast and areas further inland. Despite previously issued warnings, rough seas produced by the hurricane still caused several ship accidents. Strong waves forced several ships near

text: Galveston

text: to either become grounded or sunk. The

text: derrick barge

text: Miller and other craft were grounded along Galveston's

text: West Bay

text: . A large

text: dredge

text: was swept into the

text: Galveston Causeway

text: , snapping

text: telegraph

text: cables that ran along the length of the causeway. The Miriam was sunken by a submerged log, while the

text: schooner

text: Ed Gibbs was broken into pieces near

text: La Porte

text: . The

text: steamboat

text: El Siglo (The Century) remained stranded offshore for twelve hours in winds estimated at . Off of

text: Mobile, Alabama

text: , the high waves prevented ships from entering the

text: Port of Mobile

text: . Closer to the coast, the hurricane produced a

text: storm surge

text: of  in Galveston and Velasco. However, due to the

text: Galveston Seawall

text: , much of the potential storm surge-related damage in Galveston was mitigated, though the seawall forced spray to rise  in the air. Areas outside the seawall on the Galveston beach, including two

text: fishing pier

text: s and

text: pavilion

text: s were destroyed. On Galveston's Tarpon Pier, ten members of a

text: fishing

text: party perished after the pier collapsed, though six were rescued by the

text: yacht

text: Mayflower. In western areas of Galveston, where there was no seawall, inland areas were inundated under  of water. However, Galveston's primary streets were submerged to a lesser extent, under  of water. In Velasco, the tide was reported to have been  higher than during the

text: 1900 Galveston hurricane

text: , which inundated the city under  of water. Areas of

text: Sabine Pass

text: were also inundated by the high waves, and the

text: Southern Pacific Railroad

text: was submerged in water.

text: Ocean Wave’s engines were too light to handle the heavy traffic on the Point Richmond run.  The new ferry that had been building at Union Works, was launched and named San Pablo.  When San Pablo was placed into service in December 1900, Ocean Wave was switched from the primary boat on the line to the spare or "relief" boat, used when the principal vessel was under repair or otherwise unavailable.  Santa Fe operated the two boats together for about ten years.

text: Ocean Wave’s engines were too light to handle the heavy traffic on the Point Richmond run.  The new ferry that had been building at Union Works, was launched and named

text: San Pablo

text: .  When San Pablo was placed into service in December 1900, Ocean Wave was switched from the primary boat on the line to the spare or "relief" boat, used when the principal vessel was under repair or otherwise unavailable.  Santa Fe operated the two boats together for about ten years.

text: This design also allows us to increase the output voltage by modifying the shape of the armature. We can add more rectangular loops to the armature as seen on the picture on the right. The additional loops at the armature arm are connected in series, which are actually additional windings of the same conductor wire to form a coil in rectangular shape. In this example, there are 4 windings in the coil. Since the shapes of all windings are the same, the amount of the lines of force will be cut at the same amount in the same direction at the same time in all windings. This creates in phase AC output for these 4 windings. As a result, the output voltage is increased 4 time as shown in the sine wave in the diagram.

text: This design also allows us to increase the output voltage by modifying the shape of the armature. We can add more rectangular loops to the armature as seen on the picture on the right. The additional loops at the armature arm are connected in series, which are actually additional windings of the same conductor wire to form a coil in rectangular shape. In this example, there are 4 windings in the coil. Since the shapes of all windings are the same, the amount of the lines of force will be cut at the same amount in the same direction at the same time in all windings. This creates

text: in phase

text: AC output for these 4 windings. As a result, the output voltage is increased 4 time as shown in the sine wave in the diagram.

text: A surge from an outdraft in the Southern Hemisphere entered the western Pacific on the afternoon of April 13. This surge began to come together near the island of Woleai and progressed northwestward through the Pacific. After crossing over Woleai, the system neared the island of Yap and began forming into the second tropical depression of the 1962 season. On the afternoon of April 16, the system was declared a tropical depression. The depression made a curve to the south during the north and early on April 17 reconnaissance aircraft found surface winds of 65 mph (105 km/h). The storm was upgraded to Tropical Storm Georgia on April 17 as the system continued curving, turning to the east. An eye began to form during the afternoon, it got to be  wide. The developing cyclone was declared a typhoon on the afternoon with winds of 85 mph (135 km/h). By the morning of April 18, Georgia had curved again, now to the north, gaining strength and developing an elliptical eye. Through the afternoon of April 18, Georgia continued to strengthen, reaching Category 2 status during the morning. Rapid strengthening and development continued through the afternoon, with minimum pressures of 952 millibars on the surface reported.

text: A surge from an outdraft in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: entered the western Pacific on the afternoon of April 13. This surge began to come together near the island of

text: Woleai

text: and progressed northwestward through the Pacific. After crossing over Woleai, the system neared the island of

text: Yap

text: and began forming into the second tropical depression of the 1962 season. On the afternoon of April 16, the system was declared a tropical depression. The depression made a curve to the south during the north and early on April 17 reconnaissance aircraft found surface winds of 65 mph (105 km/h). The storm was upgraded to Tropical Storm Georgia on April 17 as the system continued curving, turning to the east. An eye began to form during the afternoon, it got to be  wide. The developing cyclone was declared a typhoon on the afternoon with winds of 85 mph (135 km/h). By the morning of April 18, Georgia had curved again, now to the north, gaining strength and developing an elliptical eye. Through the afternoon of April 18, Georgia continued to strengthen, reaching Category 2 status during the morning. Rapid strengthening and development continued through the afternoon, with minimum pressures of 952 millibars on the surface reported.

text: Optical rogue waves are rare pulses of light analogous to rogue or freak ocean waves. The term optical rogue waves was coined to describe rare pulses of broadband light arising during the process of supercontinuum generation—a noise-sensitive nonlinear process in which extremely broadband radiation is generated from a narrowband input waveform—in nonlinear optical fiber. In this context, optical rogue waves are characterized by an anomalous surplus in energy at particular wavelengths (e.g., those shifted to the red of the input waveform) and/or an unexpected peak power. These anomalous events have been shown to follow heavy-tailed statistics, also known as L-shaped statistics, fat-tailed statistics, or extreme-value statistics. These probability distributions are characterized by long tails: large outliers occur rarely, yet much more frequently than expected from Gaussian statistics and intuition. Such distributions also describe the probabilities of freak ocean waves and various phenomena in both the man-made and natural worlds. Despite their infrequency, rare events wield significant influence in many systems. Aside from the statistical similarities, light waves traveling in optical fibers are known to obey the similar mathematics as water waves traveling in the open ocean (the nonlinear Schrödinger equation), supporting the analogy between oceanic rogue waves and their optical counterparts. More generally, research has exposed a number of different analogies between extreme events in optics and hydrodynamic systems. A key practical difference is that most optical experiments can be done with a table-top apparatus, offer a high degree of experimental control, and allow data to be acquired extremely rapidly. Consequently, optical rogue waves are attractive for experimental and theoretical research and have become a highly studied phenomenon. The particulars of the analogy between extreme waves in optics and hydrodynamics may vary depending on the context, but the existence of rare events and extreme statistics in wave-related phenomena are common ground.

text: Optical rogue waves are rare pulses of light analogous to

text: rogue or freak ocean waves

text: . The term optical rogue waves was coined to describe rare

text: pulses

text: of broadband light arising during the process of

text: supercontinuum

text: generation—a noise-sensitive

text: nonlinear

text: process in which extremely broadband

text: radiation

text: is generated from a narrowband input waveform—in nonlinear optical fiber. In this context, optical rogue waves are characterized by an anomalous surplus in energy at particular

text: wavelength

text: s (e.g., those shifted to the red of the input waveform) and/or an unexpected peak power. These anomalous events have been shown to follow

text: heavy-tailed statistics

text: , also known as L-shaped statistics, fat-tailed statistics, or extreme-value statistics. These probability distributions are characterized by

text: long tail

text: s: large outliers occur rarely, yet much more frequently than expected from Gaussian statistics and intuition. Such distributions also describe the probabilities of freak ocean waves and various phenomena in both the man-made and natural worlds. Despite their infrequency, rare events wield significant influence in many systems. Aside from the statistical similarities, light waves traveling in optical fibers are known to obey the similar mathematics as

text: water waves

text: traveling in the open ocean (the

text: nonlinear Schrödinger equation

text: ), supporting the analogy between oceanic rogue waves and their optical counterparts. More generally, research has exposed a number of different analogies between extreme events in optics and hydrodynamic systems. A key practical difference is that most optical experiments can be done with a table-top apparatus, offer a high degree of experimental control, and allow data to be acquired extremely rapidly. Consequently, optical rogue waves are attractive for experimental and theoretical research and have become a highly studied phenomenon. The particulars of the analogy between extreme waves in

text: optics

text: and

text: hydrodynamics

text: may vary depending on the context, but the existence of

text: rare events

text: and extreme statistics in

text: wave

text: -related phenomena are common ground.

text: When paddling in following seas in open ocean swell, it is possible to surf a kayak, thereby increasing one's speed. Ocean swell, having a longer distance between crests than wind waves, allows sea kayaks and other longer boats to surf down the front of the wave. This technique, especially when used on extended expedition trips, can add miles to a day trip.

text: When paddling in following seas in open ocean swell, it is possible to surf a kayak, thereby increasing one's speed. Ocean swell, having a longer distance between crests than wind waves, allows

text: sea kayak

text: s and other longer boats to surf down the front of the wave. This technique, especially when used on extended expedition trips, can add miles to a day trip.

text: Upon making landfall, Hurricane Georges produced torrential rainfall, amounting to a maximum of 24.41 inches (620 mm) at Limonar in the province of Guantánamo. Several other locations reported over a foot (300 mm) of precipitation as well. Storm surge of 4 – 6 feet (1 – 2 m) was expected along the eastern coastline, along with dangerous waves on top of the surge. Though winds were reduced by the time Georges hit Cuba, it still retained winds of , along with stronger gusts in squalls.

text: Upon making landfall, Hurricane Georges produced torrential rainfall, amounting to a maximum of 24.41 inches (620 mm) at Limonar in the province of

text: Guantánamo

text: . Several other locations reported over a foot (300 mm) of precipitation as well. Storm surge of 4 – 6 feet (1 – 2 m) was expected along the eastern coastline, along with dangerous waves on top of the surge. Though winds were reduced by the time Georges hit Cuba, it still retained winds of , along with stronger gusts in squalls.

text: In elastodynamics, Love waves, named after Augustus Edward Hough Love, are horizontally polarized surface waves. The Love wave is a result of the interference of many shear waves (S–waves) guided by an elastic layer, which is welded to an elastic half space on one side while bordering a vacuum on the other side. In seismology, Love waves (also known as Q waves (Quer: German for lateral)) are surface seismic waves that cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an earthquake. Augustus Edward Hough Love predicted the existence of Love waves mathematically in 1911.  They form a distinct class, different from other types of seismic waves, such as P-waves and S-waves (both body waves), or Rayleigh waves (another type of surface wave).  Love waves travel with a lower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. These waves are observed only when there is a low velocity layer overlying a high velocity layer/ sub–layers.

text: In

text: elastodynamics

text: , Love waves, named after

text: Augustus Edward Hough Love

text: , are horizontally

text: polarized

text: surface wave

text: s. The Love wave is a result of the

text: interference

text: of many

text: shear wave

text: s (S–waves) guided by an elastic layer, which is welded to an elastic half space on one side while bordering a vacuum on the other side. In

text: seismology

text: , Love waves (also known as Q waves (Quer: German for lateral)) are

text: surface

text: seismic wave

text: s that cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an

text: earthquake

text: . Augustus Edward Hough Love predicted the existence of Love waves mathematically in 1911.  They form a distinct class, different from other types of

text: seismic wave

text: s, such as

text: P-wave

text: s and

text: S-wave

text: s (both

text: body wave

text: s), or

text: Rayleigh waves

text: (another type of surface wave).  Love waves travel with a lower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. These waves are observed only when there is a low velocity layer overlying a high velocity layer/ sub–layers.

text: A waveform is the shape and form of a signal such as a wave moving in a physical medium or an abstract representation.

text: A waveform is the shape and form of a

text: signal

text: such as a

text: wave

text: moving in a physical medium or an abstract representation.

text: A periodic leaky-wave antenna structure is one that consists of a uniform structure that supports a slow (non radiating) wave that has been periodically modulated in some fashion. Since a slow wave radiates at discontinuities, the periodic modulations (discontinuities) cause the wave to radiate continuously along the length of the structure. From a more sophisticated point of view, the periodic modulation creates a guided wave that consists of an infinite number of space harmonics (Floquetmodes). Although the main (n = 0) space harmonic is a slow wave, one of the space harmonics (usually the n= -1) is designed to be a fast wave, and this harmonic wave is the radiating wave.

text: The length and type of the line, or rode, used to attach the sea anchor to the bow is also important.  In addition to connecting the sea anchor to the hull, the rode also acts as a shock absorber.  The stretching of the rode under load will smooth out the changes in loading caused by the changing force of the waves interacting with the hull of the vessel.  Because a high degree of stretch is desirable in this application, a material with a low elastic modulus is preferred, such as nylon.  If there is no concern about breaking waves and the only reason the sea anchor is being used is to reduce drift from the wind, then you can use a short rode.  If short rode is used on large ocean swells, its length should be tuned to the wavelength of the waves; either under 1/3 of the wavelength, or an even multiple of the wavelength.  A line significantly shorter than the wavelength means the anchor and hull will ride over the crests together, while a line equal to the wavelength will keep the hull and anchor from ending up out of phase, which can result in severe loading on the anchor.  In stormy seas, and when breaking waves are a concern, it is important not to tune the rode length to the waves, so that the anchor and boat are not rolled by the same wave or by adjacent waves.  The ability to absorb shock is even more important.  Under these conditions, a rode as much as 10 to 15 times the length of the hull should be used to provide a high degree of shock absorption.

text: The length and type of the line, or rode, used to attach the sea anchor to the bow is also important.  In addition to connecting the sea anchor to the hull, the rode also acts as a

text: shock absorber

text: .  The stretching of the rode under load will smooth out the changes in loading caused by the changing force of the waves interacting with the hull of the vessel.  Because a high degree of stretch is desirable in this application, a material with a low

text: elastic modulus

text: is preferred, such as

text: nylon

text: .  If there is no concern about breaking waves and the only reason the sea anchor is being used is to reduce drift from the wind, then you can use a short rode.  If short rode is used on large ocean swells, its length should be tuned to the

text: wavelength

text: of the waves; either under 1/3 of the wavelength, or an even multiple of the wavelength.  A line significantly shorter than the wavelength means the anchor and hull will ride over the crests together, while a line equal to the wavelength will keep the hull and anchor from ending up out of

text: phase

text: , which can result in severe loading on the anchor.  In stormy seas, and when breaking waves are a concern, it is important not to tune the rode length to the waves, so that the anchor and boat are not rolled by the same wave or by adjacent waves.  The ability to absorb shock is even more important.  Under these conditions, a rode as much as 10 to 15 times the length of the hull should be used to provide a high degree of shock absorption.

text: Somerset Cricket Club and its football team Somerset Trojans play at the Somerset Cricket Club Field.

text: Somerset Cricket Club and its football team

text: Somerset Trojans

text: play at the

text: Somerset Cricket Club Field

text: The Minister of Housing and Community Development is a cabinet minister in the province of Manitoba, Canada.  The position was created in 2009 following the separation of the Family Services and Housing portfolio. The incumbent of the position is Gord Mackintosh.

text: The Minister of Housing and Community Development is a

text: cabinet minister

text: in the province of

text: Manitoba

text: Canada

text: .  The position was created in 2009 following the separation of the

entity_name: Minister of Family Services and Housing (Manitoba)

text: Family Services and Housing

text: portfolio. The incumbent of the position is

text: Gord Mackintosh

text: In response, Octavian increased the personal attacks against Antony, but the Senate and people of Rome were not convinced. Octavian’s chance came when Antony married Cleopatra in 32 BC before he divorced Octavia. That action combined with information that Antony was planning to establish a second Senate in Alexandria created the perfect environment for Octavian to strip Antony of his power.

text: In response, Octavian increased the personal attacks against Antony, but the

text: Senate and people of Rome

text: were not convinced. Octavian’s chance came when Antony married Cleopatra in 32 BC before he divorced Octavia. That action combined with information that Antony was planning to establish a second Senate in Alexandria created the perfect environment for Octavian to strip Antony of his power.

text: Vaupel’s work also focuses on the nascent field of evolutionary demography.  His research activities here strive to understand age-specific mortality in terms of the evolutionary processes that shape it.

text: Puerto Chicama also called Puerto Malabrigo, is a port and small coastal town in northwestern Peru, located in La Libertad Region, some 70 km north of Trujillo city. (Google Earth also confirms these distances. In comparison, Tracks magazine has stated that a wave has been ridden at the "Superbank" on the Gold Coast in Australia for "1.97km"). The distance from 'the point' to 'the pier' at Chicama is about 2.2 km, which locals confirm has been ridden on a single wave, although the whole cape upon which the waves break, to their most westernmost end, is 4 km long. Although other waves break further up the cape from the main section of "the point", (including "Malpaso" (up to a few hundred metres) and "Keys" (up to 600m or so) apparently nobody has ridden a single wave the length of the whole 4 km cape at Chicama, as deep water does not allow a single ride along the length of the first 1.8 km or so.

text: Puerto Chicama also called Puerto Malabrigo, is a port and small coastal town in northwestern

text: Peru

text: , located in

text: La Libertad Region

text: , some 70 km north of

text: Trujillo

text: city. (Google Earth also confirms these distances. In comparison, Tracks magazine has stated that a wave has been ridden at the "Superbank" on the Gold Coast in Australia for "1.97km"). The distance from 'the point' to 'the pier' at Chicama is about 2.2 km, which locals confirm has been ridden on a single wave, although the whole cape upon which the waves break, to their most westernmost end, is 4 km long. Although other waves break further up the cape from the main section of "the point", (including "Malpaso" (up to a few hundred metres) and "Keys" (up to 600m or so) apparently nobody has ridden a single wave the length of the whole 4 km cape at Chicama, as deep water does not allow a single ride along the length of the first 1.8 km or so.

text: Elton was a candidate to become Lord Speaker in the elections that took place at the end of June 2006, but he was defeated, with Baroness Hayman ultimately winning.

text: Elton was a candidate to become

text: Lord Speaker

text: in the elections that took place at the end of June 2006, but he was defeated, with

text: Baroness Hayman

text: ultimately winning.

text: Miller appeared in two Mariah Carey music videos, "It's Like That" as a party guest and "We Belong Together" as her love interest. Director Brett Ratner, who directed the pilot episode of Prison Break, was also signed on to direct the two Carey videos. Ratner decided to use Miller in the videos as well.

text: Miller appeared in two

text: Mariah Carey

text: music video

text: s, "

text: It's Like That

text: " as a party guest and "

text: We Belong Together

text: " as her love interest. Director

text: Brett Ratner

text: , who directed the pilot episode of Prison Break, was also signed on to direct the two Carey videos. Ratner decided to use Miller in the videos as well.

text: In 1967, the first girl was admitted for tutorials, and by 1969 the School had started encouraging female applicants to study full-time. Enrolment increased over the next 35 years to create a balanced co-educational environment, with almost equal numbers of boys and girls.

text: Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and to address the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. However, the fundamental rights and programs gained by feminist activists of the second wave – including the creation of domestic-abuse shelters for women and children and the acknowledgment of abuse and rape of women on a public level, access to contraception and other reproductive services (including the legalization of abortion), the creation and enforcement of sexual-harassment policies for women in the workplace, child-care services, equal or greater educational and extracurricular funding for young women, women's studies programs, and much more – have also served as a foundation and a tool for third-wave feminists.Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like Gloria Anzaldúa, bell hooks, Kerry Ann Kane, Cherríe Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, Reena Walker and many other feminists of color, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of subjects related to race.

text: Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and to address the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. However, the fundamental rights and programs gained by feminist activists of the second wave – including the creation of domestic-abuse shelters for women and children and the acknowledgment of abuse and rape of women on a public level, access to contraception and other reproductive services (including the legalization of abortion), the creation and enforcement of sexual-harassment policies for women in the workplace, child-care services, equal or greater educational and extracurricular funding for young women,

text: women's studies

text: programs, and much more – have also served as a foundation and a tool for third-wave feminists.Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like

text: Gloria Anzaldúa

text: bell hooks

text: , Kerry Ann Kane,

text: Cherríe Moraga

text: Audre Lorde

text: Maxine Hong Kingston

text: Reena Walker

text: and many other feminists of color, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of subjects related to race.

text: While weakening, Tropical Depression Joyce passed close to Tobago, causing sustained winds of . Barbados experienced the highest sustained winds Joyce brought to any land area. There, the winds were , gusting to . Neither Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, nor Grenada reported serious effects from Joyce. Joyce caused storm surge of  on southeast Trinidadian shores. After degenerating into an open wave, Joyce's remnants passed over the ABC Islands, where locally heavy thunderstorms and light winds were reported on October 2. A tropical wave related to Joyce's decay was blamed for flooding in the Dominican Republic, where rain caused the Mao, Amina, and Yaque del Norte Rivers to burst their banks, flooding thousands of hectares of banana and rice crops. Damage was reported in communities in the northeastern part of the country. No other impact was reported, and no deaths were blamed on Joyce.

text: While weakening, Tropical Depression Joyce passed close to

text: Tobago

text: , causing sustained

text: wind

text: s of . Barbados experienced the highest sustained winds Joyce brought to any land area. There, the winds were , gusting to . Neither Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, nor Grenada reported serious effects from Joyce. Joyce caused

text: storm surge

text: of  on southeast Trinidadian shores. After degenerating into an open wave, Joyce's remnants passed over the

text: ABC Islands

text: , where locally heavy

text: thunderstorms

text: and light winds were reported on October 2. A

text: tropical wave

text: related to Joyce's decay was blamed for flooding in the

text: Dominican Republic

text: , where rain caused the

text: Mao

text: Amina

text: , and

text: Yaque del Norte River

text: s to burst their banks, flooding thousands of hectares of

text: banana

text: and

text: rice

text: crops. Damage was reported in communities in the northeastern part of the country. No other impact was reported, and no deaths were blamed on Joyce.

text: BNE Energy is cleared to build three wind turbines in Colebrook

text: In surface navigation, a cross sea is a sea state with two wave systems traveling at oblique angles. This may occur when water waves from one weather system continue despite a shift in wind. Waves generated by the new wind run at an angle to the old, creating a shifting, dangerous pattern. Two weather systems that are far from each other may create a cross sea when the waves from the systems meet, usually at a place far from either weather system. Until the older waves have dissipated, they create a sea hazard among the most perilous. This sea state is fairly common and a larger percentage of ship accidents were found to have occurred in this state.

text: In surface

text: navigation

text: , a cross sea is a

text: sea state

text: with two

text: wave system

text: s traveling at

text: oblique angle

text: s. This may occur when

text: water waves

text: from one

text: weather system

text: continue despite a shift in

text: wind

text: . Waves generated by the new wind run at an angle to the old, creating a shifting, dangerous pattern. Two weather systems that are far from each other may create a cross sea when the waves from the systems meet, usually at a place far from either weather system. Until the older waves have dissipated, they create a sea hazard among the most perilous. This sea state is fairly common and a larger percentage of ship accidents were found to have occurred in this state.

text: A native of Riverhead, New York, Anne C. Richard is a graduate of Georgetown University (B.S. in Foreign Service) and the University of Chicago (M.A. in Public Policy Studies).

text: A native of Riverhead, New York, Anne C. Richard is a graduate of

text: Georgetown University

text: B.S.

text: in

text: Foreign Service

text: ) and the

text: University of Chicago

text: M.A.

text: in Public Policy Studies).

text: Tropical Storm Blanca originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on June 19. Traveling westward, the wave existed in a region of strong wind shear, preventing convective activity from developing. By June 29, the wave had crossed Central America and moved into the eastern Pacific basin. Several days later, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) began monitoring the system as a disorganized area of shower and thunderstorm activity off the southwest coast of Mexico. Early the next day, a trough of low pressure developed within the system; wind shear in the path of the storm were expected to be low enough to allow tropical cyclone development. On July 4, curved banding-features developed along the periphery of the wave, indicating that an area of low pressure had developed. Gradual organization took place over the follow days. Early on July 6, the low had become sufficiently organized to attain tropical depression strength roughly 435 miles (700 kilometres) south of Cabo San Lucas, Mexico. However, the system was not operationally declared a depression; instead, the first advisory by the NHC was issued several hours later and immediately declared the cyclone as Tropical Storm Blanca.

text: Tropical Storm Blanca originated from a

text: tropical wave

text: that moved off the western coast of Africa into the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: on June 19. Traveling westward, the wave existed in a region of strong

text: wind shear

text: , preventing

text: convective activity

text: from developing. By June 29, the wave had crossed

text: Central America

text: and moved into the

text: eastern Pacific basin

text: . Several days later, the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) began monitoring the system as a disorganized area of

text: shower and thunderstorm activity

text: off the southwest coast of Mexico. Early the next day, a

text: trough

text: of

text: low pressure

text: developed within the system;

text: wind shear

text: in the path of the storm were expected to be low enough to allow

text: tropical cyclone

text: development. On July 4,

text: curved banding-features

text: developed along the periphery of the wave, indicating that an

text: area of low pressure

text: had developed. Gradual organization took place over the follow days. Early on July 6, the low had become sufficiently organized to attain tropical depression strength roughly 435 miles (700 kilometres) south of

text: Cabo San Lucas, Mexico

text: . However, the system was not operationally declared a depression; instead, the first advisory by the NHC was issued several hours later and immediately declared the cyclone as Tropical Storm Blanca.

text: Offshore, the rough seas brought by the hurricane caused heavy damage to shipping as the storm surge caused two boats to run aground near Ceiba. In San Juan, two more boats sustained severe damage. The storm surge and high winds also damaged or destroyed several warehouses. Elsewhere in Puerto Rico, the damage was even more severe as the hurricane's high winds destroyed many homes in outlying villages killing 109 people. The highest death toll came from the town of Rio Piedras which was directly in the path of the hurricane and many of the homes were in poor condition to withstand the hurricane's winds. Damage to roads, power lines, and roads disrupted communications and access to the interior portion of Puerto Rico. Heavy rainfall from the hurricane caused significant flooding that left many homes and buildings under 1.5 feet (0.4 meter) of water.

text: Offshore, the rough seas brought by the hurricane caused heavy damage to shipping as the

text: storm surge

text: caused two boats to run aground near

text: Ceiba

text: . In San Juan, two more boats sustained severe damage. The storm surge and high winds also damaged or destroyed several warehouses. Elsewhere in

text: Puerto Rico

text: , the damage was even more severe as the hurricane's high winds destroyed many homes in outlying villages killing 109 people. The highest death toll came from the town of

text: Rio Piedras

text: which was directly in the path of the hurricane and many of the homes were in poor condition to withstand the hurricane's winds. Damage to roads, power lines, and roads disrupted communications and access to the interior portion of

text: Puerto Rico

text: . Heavy rainfall from the hurricane caused significant flooding that left many homes and buildings under 1.5 feet (0.4 meter) of water.

text: A Deaf American is defined as a member of the American Sign Language linguistic minority. Though they are medically deaf, children of Deaf people and a few hearing people who learn ASL can become adopted into the wider Deaf community. Inversely, "Deaf American" is not inclusive to all people with hearing loss but only those who use ASL as their primary language.

text: A Deaf American is defined as a member of the

text: American Sign Language

text: linguistic minority

text: . Though they are

text: medically deaf

text: children of Deaf people

text: and a few

text: hearing

text: people who learn ASL can become adopted into the wider Deaf community. Inversely, "Deaf American" is not inclusive to all people with

text: hearing loss

text: but only those who use ASL as their primary language.

text: Superior Court is a dramatized court show that aired in syndication from 1986 to 1990, and featuring fictionalized re-enactments of actual court cases.

text: Superior Court is a

text: dramatized court show

text: that aired in

text: syndication

text: from 1986 to 1990, and featuring fictionalized re-enactments of actual court cases.

text: The composition of the lake waters has changed due to the district's proximity to the oil shale industry in Estonia.

text: The composition of the lake waters has changed due to the district's proximity to the

text: oil shale industry in Estonia

text: Unlike other Commonwealth Realms, the Cook Islands Cabinet has a formal legislative basis in the Cook Islands Constitution.  Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister and up to six other ministers.  Members are appointed by the Queen's Representative on advice of the Prime Minister, and must be Members of Parliament.

text: Unlike other Commonwealth Realms, the Cook Islands Cabinet has a formal legislative basis in the

text: Cook Islands Constitution

text: .  Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister and up to six other ministers.  Members are appointed by the

text: Queen's Representative

text: on advice of the Prime Minister, and must be Members of Parliament.

text: where ∗ stands for the periodic convolution and

text: where ∗ stands for the periodic

text: convolution

text: and

text: Surface waves can be created by any moving object displacing fluid:  turbine blades, paddles, a hand, a flung stone, etc.  Each pulse of water (or crest) pushed outward from the disturbance leaves a space (or trough) behind it which causes another, smaller pulse to follow:  thus a thrown stone's single impact causes a series of ripples.  Larger waves can be built up if a series of movements are timed to reinforce waves' motion, much like a person sliding back and forth in a bathtub.  Boundaries and obstacles also shape waves by concentrating or dissipating some of the wave's energy.

text: Surface wave

text: s can be created by any moving object displacing fluid:

text: turbine

text: blades, paddles, a hand, a flung stone, etc.  Each pulse of water (or

text: crest

text: ) pushed outward from the disturbance leaves a space (or trough) behind it which causes another, smaller pulse to follow:  thus a thrown stone's single impact causes a series of ripples.  Larger waves can be built up if a series of movements are timed to reinforce waves' motion, much like a person sliding back and forth in a bathtub.  Boundaries and obstacles also shape waves by concentrating or dissipating some of the wave's energy.

text: The standing waves can form stable acoustic potential energy field, so they are able to create stable acoustic radiation force distribution, which is desirable for many acoustic tweezers applications. For 1-D planar standing waves, the acoustic fields are given by:

text: Wave Monkey

text: Wave Monkey

text: Veals was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He went to Istrouma High School. Veals enrolled in Tulane University and played football for the Tulane Green Wave.

text: Veals was born in

text: Baton Rouge, Louisiana

text: . He went to

text: Istrouma High School

text: . Veals enrolled in

text: Tulane University

text: and played football for the

text: Tulane Green Wave

text: are the mass densities of the fluid and the particle, respectively,

text: The wave equation for particle velocity has the same shape and is given by

text: The wave equation for

text: particle velocity

text: has the same shape and is given by