text: Gaetano Vignola is an Italian accelerator physicist who works on high energy particle physics. He is the builder of the particle collider of INFN in 1987 in Frascati, Italy, as well as the project leader for the DAFNE particle accelerator project. He has trained many students and researchers in the field of particle accelerator technology and contributed in many giant accelerator projects in the world.

text: Gaetano Vignola is an Italian

entity_name: Accelerator physics

text: accelerator physicist

text: who works on high energy

entity_name: Particle physics

text: particle physics

text: . He is the builder of the

entity_name: Collider

text: particle collider

text: of

entity_name: Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare

text: INFN

text: in 1987 in

entity_name: Frascati

text: Frascati

entity_name: Italy

text: Italy

text: , as well as the project leader for the

entity_name: DAFNE

text: DAFNE

text: particle accelerator project. He has trained many students and researchers in the field of

entity_name: Particle accelerator

text: particle accelerator

text: technology and contributed in many giant

text: accelerator

text: projects in the world.

text: The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the compression heating it until nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun. Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity caused matter to condense around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as runaway accretion, successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets. Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years. The solar wind of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield planets.

text: The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the compression heating it until

entity_name: Nuclear fusion

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction, a

entity_name: T Tauri star

text: T Tauri star

text: ignited and evolved into the

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: . Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity caused

entity_name: Matter

text: matter

text: to condense around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as runaway

entity_name: Accretion (astrophysics)

text: accretion

text: , successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets. Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an

entity_name: Measurement uncertainty

text: uncertainty

text: of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years. The

entity_name: Solar wind

text: solar wind

text: of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce

entity_name: Accretion disk

text: accretion disks

text: around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield

entity_name: Exoplanet

text: planets

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: as the particle tries to lose its energy in the form of EM waves. Also, when the acceleration and velocity are orthogonal the power is reduced by a factor of

text: The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle  in terms of the position  and acceleration  of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector  and angular acceleration vector  of the rigid system of particles as,

text: The

entity_name: Kinematics

text: kinematics

text: of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle  in terms of the position  and acceleration  of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector  and angular acceleration vector  of the rigid system of particles as,

text: In nuclear physics, nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei come close enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons and/or protons). The difference in mass between the products and reactants is manifested as the release of large amounts of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic "binding energy" between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or "main sequence" stars, or other high magnitude stars.

text: In

entity_name: Nuclear physics

text: nuclear physics

text: , nuclear fusion is a

entity_name: Nuclear reaction

text: reaction

text: in which two or more

entity_name: Atomic nucleus

text: atomic nuclei

text: come close enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons and/or protons). The difference in mass between the products and reactants is manifested as the release of large amounts of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic "

entity_name: Binding energy

text: binding energy

text: " between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or "

entity_name: Main sequence

text: main sequence

entity_name: Star

text: star

text: s, or other

entity_name: Absolute magnitude

text: high magnitude

text: stars.

text: The U.S. EPA's Energy Star program has developed energy performance rating systems for several commercial and institutional building types and manufacturing facilities.  These ratings, on a scale of 1 to 100, provide a means for benchmarking the energy efficiency of specific buildings and industrial plants against the energy performance of similar facilities.  The ratings are used by building and energy managers to evaluate the energy performance of existing buildings and industrial plants.  The rating systems are also used by EPA to determine if a building or plant can qualify to earn Energy Star recognition.

text: The U.S. EPA's Energy Star program has developed energy performance rating systems for several commercial and institutional building types and manufacturing facilities.  These ratings, on a scale of 1 to 100, provide a means for

entity_name: Benchmarking

text: benchmarking

text: the energy efficiency of specific buildings and industrial plants against the energy performance of similar facilities.  The ratings are used by building and energy managers to evaluate the energy performance of existing buildings and industrial plants.  The rating systems are also used by EPA to determine if a building or plant can qualify to earn Energy Star recognition.

text: Nowadays, a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is referred to as wind power density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at 50 meters." The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 120.8 gigawatts. Although wind produced only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use in 2009, it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration, accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 10% in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70% wind is attainable at today's power prices by linking wind farms with an HVDC supergrid.Wind power has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. In 2011 wind energy was also used to power the longest journey in a wind powered car which travelled a distance of 5,000 km (3,100 miles) from Perth to Melbourne in Australia.

text: Nowadays, a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is referred to as wind power density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at 50 meters." The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. At the end of 2008, worldwide

entity_name: Nameplate capacity

text: nameplate capacity

text: of wind-powered generators was 120.8

entity_name: Watt

entity_section: Gigawatt

text: gigawatt

text: s. Although wind produced only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use in 2009, it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration, accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in

entity_name: Wind power in Denmark

text: Denmark

text: , 10% in

entity_name: Wind power in Spain

text: Spain

text: and

entity_name: Wind power in Portugal

text: Portugal

text: , and 7% in

entity_name: Wind power in Germany

text: Germany

text: and the

entity_name: Wind power in the Republic of Ireland

text: Republic of Ireland

text: in 2008. One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70% wind is attainable at today's power prices by linking

entity_name: Wind farm

text: wind farm

text: s with an

entity_name: High-voltage direct current

text: HVDC

text: supergrid.

entity_name: Wind power

text: Wind power

text: has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. In 2011 wind energy was also used to power the longest journey in a wind powered car which travelled a distance of 5,000 km (3,100 miles) from Perth to Melbourne in Australia.

method: UNH-ecn

text: approaches c. To an observer who is not accelerating, it appears as though the object's inertia is increasing, so as to produce a smaller acceleration in response to the same force. This behavior is observed in particle accelerators, where each charged particle is accelerated by the electromagnetic force.

text: approaches c. To an observer who is not accelerating, it appears as though the object's inertia is increasing, so as to produce a smaller acceleration in response to the same force. This behavior is observed in

text: particle accelerators

text: , where each charged particle is accelerated by the electromagnetic force.

text: Currently, the majority of the United States’ renewable energy production comes from hydroelectric power, solar power, and wind power. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the cost of wind power doubled between the years of 2002 to 2008. However, since then, the prices of wind power have declined by 1/3, on average. Various factors have been contributing to the decline in the cost of wind power, such as government subsidies, tax breaks, technological advancement, and the cost of  oil and natural gas. 	Hydroelectric power has been the most predominant source of renewable energy for quite some time due to the fact that it has been proven to be reliable and has been in use for quite some time. This source of energy has provided the majority of renewable energy and has been a significant source of overall energy production in the United States.  The problem with traditional hydroelectric power has been the requirement of damming rivers and other sources of water.  The problem created by damming is that the natural environment of the area is disrupted due to the formation of a lake caused by the damming of the water source. This creates uproar by environmentalists and a large obstacle to clear before being able to build a hydroelectric plant. However, new forms of hydroelectric power that harness wave energy from the oceans have been in development in recent years. Although these power sources still need much development before they become economically viable, they do have potential to become significant sources of energy.

text: Currently, the majority of the United States’ renewable energy production comes from hydroelectric power, solar power, and wind power. According to the

entity_name: United States Department of Energy

text: U.S. Department of Energy

text: , the cost of wind power doubled between the years of 2002 to 2008. However, since then, the prices of wind power have declined by 1/3, on average. Various factors have been contributing to the decline in the cost of wind power, such as government subsidies, tax breaks, technological advancement, and the cost of  oil and natural gas.

entity_name: Hydroelectric power in the United States

text: Hydroelectric power

text: has been the most predominant source of renewable energy for quite some time due to the fact that it has been proven to be reliable and has been in use for quite some time. This source of energy has provided the majority of renewable energy and has been a significant source of overall energy production in the United States.  The problem with traditional hydroelectric power has been the requirement of damming rivers and other sources of water.  The problem created by damming is that the natural environment of the area is disrupted due to the formation of a lake caused by the damming of the water source. This creates uproar by environmentalists and a large obstacle to clear before being able to build a

entity_name: Hydroelectricity

text: hydroelectric plant

text: . However, new forms of hydroelectric power that harness wave energy from the oceans have been in development in recent years. Although these power sources still need much development before they become economically viable, they do have potential to become significant sources of energy.

text: RPS multipliers are powerful tools for regulators to direct revenue, investment, and job creation to particular types of renewable energy vs a free market of renewable energy. Since the definition of what is renewable energy isn't clear cut, for example, nuclear power, and whether an RPS program should consider environmental damage of a renewable energy source (for example, hydroelectric dams, bird strikes of wind turbines, geothermal earthquakes, solar thermal water use) affects RPS program implementations. A state can use a multiplier as protectionism to local renewable energy generators from out of state renewable generators. Since RECs are regulated at a state level, their ability to be traded over state lines varies.

text: RPS multipliers are powerful tools for regulators to direct revenue, investment, and job creation to particular types of renewable energy vs a free market of renewable energy. Since the definition of what is renewable energy isn't clear cut, for example,

entity_name: Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy

text: nuclear power

text: , and whether an RPS program should consider environmental damage of a renewable energy source (for example, hydroelectric dams, bird strikes of wind turbines,

entity_name: Enhanced geothermal system

entity_section: Seismicity

text: geothermal earthquakes

text: , solar thermal water use) affects RPS program implementations. A state can use a multiplier as

entity_name: Protectionism

text: protectionism

text: to local renewable energy generators from out of state renewable generators. Since RECs are regulated at a state level, their ability to be traded over state lines varies.

text: The power absorbed by the planet from the star is equal to the power emitted by the planet:

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: Ideally, the primary and secondary currents of a current transformer should be in phase. In practice, this is impossible, but, at normal power frequencies, phase shifts of a few tenths of a degree are achievable, while simpler CTs may have phase shifts up to six degrees.  For current measurement, phase shift is immaterial as ammeters only display the magnitude of the current. However, in wattmeters, energy meters, and power factor meters, phase shift produces errors. For power and energy measurement, the errors are considered to be negligible at unity power factor but become more significant as the power factor approaches zero.  At zero power factor, all the measured power is due to the current transformer's phase error.  The introduction of electronic power and energy meters has allowed current phase error to be calibrated out.

text: Ideally, the primary and secondary currents of a current transformer should be in phase. In practice, this is impossible, but, at normal power frequencies,

entity_name: Phase (waves)

entity_section: Phase shift

text: phase shift

text: s of a few tenths of a degree are achievable, while simpler CTs may have phase shifts up to six degrees.  For current measurement, phase shift is immaterial as

entity_name: Ammeter

text: ammeter

text: s only display the magnitude of the current. However, in

entity_name: Wattmeter

text: wattmeter

text: s,

entity_name: Electricity meter

text: energy meter

text: s, and

entity_name: Power factor

text: power factor

text: meters, phase shift produces errors. For power and energy measurement, the errors are considered to be negligible at unity power factor but become more significant as the power factor approaches zero.  At zero power factor, all the measured power is due to the current transformer's phase error.  The introduction of electronic power and energy meters has allowed current phase error to be calibrated out.

text: The Lord was surrounded by His personal associates Nanda and Sunanda, and the personified Sudarsana disc was also standing by Him. As is stated in the Vedas, the Lord has innumerable energies, and they were also standing there personified. The most important among them were as follows: Pusti, the energy for nourishment, Sri, the energy of beauty, Kirti, the energy of reputation, and Aja, the energy of material creation. All these energies are invested in the administrators of the material world, namely Lord Brahma, Lord Siva and Lord Maha-Vishnu, and in the kings of the heavenly planets, Indra, Chandra, Varuna and Surya,the sun-god. In other words, all these demigods, being empowered by the Lord with certain energies, engage in the transcendental loving service of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. The Maha-Visnu feature is an expansion of Krsna's body. It is also confirmed in the Brahma-samhita that Lord Maha-Vishnu is a portion of a plenary expansion of Krsna. All such expansions are nondifferent from the Personality of Godhead, but since Krsna appeared within this material world to manifest His pastimes as a human being, He and Arjuna immediately offered their respects to Lord Maha-Vishnu by bowing down before Him. It is stated in the Srimad-Bhagavatam that Lord Krsna offered respect to Lord Maha-Vishnu; this means that He offered obeisances unto Him only because Lord Maha-Vishnu is nondifferent from He Himself. This offering of obeisances by Krsna to Maha-Visnu is not, however, the form of worship known as ahangraha-upasana, which is sometimes recommended for persons who are trying to elevate themselves to the spiritual world by performing the sacrifice of knowledge. This is also stated in the Bhagavad-gita: jnana-yajnena capy anye yajanto mam upasate.

text: In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of atomic nuclei that can release energy by the absorption of a proton or neutron. In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine to form helium through the proton-proton chain reaction or by the CNO cycle. When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once iron-56 or nickel-56 nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. The elements then on use up energy instead of giving off energy when fused. Therefore, fusion stops and the star dies. In attempts by humans, fusion is only carried out with hydrogen (isotope of 2 and 3) to form helium-4 as this reaction gives out the most net energy. Electric confinement (ITER), inertial confinement(heating by laser) and heating by strong electric currents are the popular methods used. .

text: In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of

text: atomic nuclei

text: that can release energy by the absorption of a

entity_name: Proton

text: proton

text: or

entity_name: Neutron

text: neutron

text: . In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine to form

entity_name: Helium

text: helium

text: through the

entity_name: Proton–proton chain reaction

text: proton-proton chain reaction

text: or by the

entity_name: CNO cycle

text: CNO cycle

text: . When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once

text: or

entity_name: Isotopes of nickel

text: nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. The elements then on use up energy instead of giving off energy when fused. Therefore, fusion stops and the star dies. In attempts by humans, fusion is only carried out with hydrogen (isotope of 2 and 3) to form helium-4 as this reaction gives out the most net energy. Electric confinement (

entity_name: ITER

text: ITER

entity_name: Inertial confinement fusion

text: inertial confinement

text: (heating by laser) and heating by strong electric currents are the popular methods used. .

text: The player is awarded points for correctly hitting notes, chords and sustains. The player can also increase a score multiplier by playing a series of consecutive notes successfully. A "Rock Meter" tracks the player's performance based on success or failure of hitting notes, and if the meter drops too low the song will prematurely end in failure for the player. The player can also earn "Star Power" by playing a series of glowing notes perfectly and using the whammy bar during sustains. Once the Star Power meter is filled at least halfway, Star Power can then be activated by briefly tilting the guitar controller vertically, or by pressing a specific button on a standard controller. Activating Star Power will double the scoring multiplier and makes it easier to increase the Rock Meter by playing correct notes. Thus, players can strategically use Star Power to play through difficult sections of a song they might have otherwise failed.

text: The player is awarded points for correctly hitting notes,

entity_name: Guitar chord

text: chords

text: and

entity_name: Sustain

text: sustain

text: s. The player can also increase a score multiplier by playing a series of consecutive notes successfully. A "Rock Meter" tracks the player's performance based on success or failure of hitting notes, and if the meter drops too low the song will prematurely end in failure for the player. The player can also earn "Star Power" by playing a series of glowing notes perfectly and using the whammy bar during sustains. Once the Star Power meter is filled at least halfway, Star Power can then be activated by briefly tilting the guitar controller vertically, or by pressing a specific button on a standard controller. Activating Star Power will double the scoring multiplier and makes it easier to increase the Rock Meter by playing correct notes. Thus, players can strategically use Star Power to play through difficult sections of a song they might have otherwise failed.

text: The Ghostbusters proton packs are also called particle throwers or unlicensed particle accelerators.  Particle acceleration is used to lasso the ghosts for easy entrapment.

text: The

entity_name: Ghostbusters (franchise)

text: Ghostbusters

text: proton packs are also called particle throwers or unlicensed particle accelerators.  Particle acceleration is used to lasso the ghosts for easy entrapment.

text: It was already known in the 1920s that a plasma has a limited capacity for current maintenance, Irving Langmuir characterized double layers in the laboratory and called these structures double-sheaths.  In the 1950s a thorough  study of double layers  started in the laboratory (e.g. Schönhuber, 1958). Many groups are still working on this topic theoretically, experimentally and numerically. It was first proposed by Hannes Alfvén (the developer of magnetohydrodynamics from laboratory experiments) that the polar lights or Aurora Borealis are created by electrons accelerated in the magnetosphere of the Earth. He supposed that the electrons were accelerated electrostatically by an electric field localized in a small volume  bounded by two charged regions, and the so-called double layer would accelerate electrons earthwards.   Since then other mechanisms which involve wave-particle interactions have been proposed as being feasible, from extensive spatial and temporal in situ studies of auroral particle characteristics.

text: It was already known in the 1920s that a plasma has a limited capacity for current maintenance,

entity_name: Irving Langmuir

text: Irving Langmuir

text: characterized double layers in the laboratory and called these structures double-sheaths.  In the 1950s a thorough  study of double layers  started in the laboratory (e.g. Schönhuber, 1958). Many groups are still working on this topic theoretically, experimentally and numerically. It was first proposed by

entity_name: Hannes Alfvén

text: Hannes Alfvén

text: (the developer of magnetohydrodynamics from laboratory experiments) that the polar lights or Aurora Borealis are created by electrons accelerated in the magnetosphere of the Earth. He supposed that the electrons were accelerated electrostatically by an electric field localized in a small volume  bounded by two charged regions, and the so-called double layer would accelerate electrons earthwards.   Since then other mechanisms which involve wave-particle interactions have been proposed as being feasible, from extensive spatial and temporal in situ studies of

entity_name: Aurora

text: aurora

text: l particle characteristics.

text: The first cyclotron, an early type of particle accelerator, was built by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1931, with a radius of just a few centimetres and a particle energy of 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV). Since then, accelerators have grown enormously in the quest to produce new particles of greater and greater mass. As accelerators have grown, so too has the list of known particles that they might be used to investigate. The most comprehensive model of particle interactions available today is known as the Standard Model of Particle Physics.

text: The first

entity_name: Cyclotron

text: cyclotron

text: , an early type of particle accelerator, was built by

entity_name: Ernest Lawrence

text: Ernest O. Lawrence

text: in 1931, with a radius of just a few centimetres and a particle

entity_name: Energy

text: energy

text: of 1

entity_name: Electronvolt

entity_section: MeV

text: megaelectronvolt (MeV)

text: . Since then, accelerators have grown enormously in the quest to produce new particles of greater and greater

entity_name: Mass

text: mass

text: . As accelerators have grown, so too has the

entity_name: List of particles

text: list of known particles

text: that they might be used to investigate. The most comprehensive model of particle interactions available today is known as the

entity_name: Standard Model

text: Standard Model of Particle Physics

text: In every published fusion power plant design, the part of the plant that produces the fusion reactions is much more expensive than the part that converts the nuclear power to electricity. In that case, as indeed in most power systems, power density is an important characteristic. Doubling power density at least halves the cost of electricity. In addition, the confinement time required depends on the power density.

text: Pandora's power is called "Star Power Nova." With it, star power triples the player's multiplier rather than doubling it. Once Pandora has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, an elf, her power is upgraded to "Star Power Nova +." With this upgrade, star power now sextuples the player's multiplier.

text: Pandora's power is called "Star Power Nova." With it, star power triples the player's multiplier rather than doubling it. Once Pandora has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, an

entity_name: Elf (Middle-earth)

text: elf

text: , her power is upgraded to "Star Power Nova +." With this upgrade, star power now sextuples the player's multiplier.

text: Certain kinds of particle accelerator experiments involve colliding positrons and electrons at relativistic speeds.  The high impact energy and the mutual annihilation of these matter/antimatter opposites create a fountain of diverse subatomic particles.  Physicists study the results of these collisions to test theoretical predictions and to search for new kinds of particles.

text: Certain kinds of

text: particle accelerator

text: experiments involve colliding positrons and electrons at relativistic speeds.  The high impact energy and the mutual annihilation of these matter/antimatter opposites create a fountain of diverse subatomic particles.  Physicists study the results of these collisions to test theoretical predictions and to search for new kinds of particles.

text: Krating Daeng (, , literally "red bull" or "red gaur") is a sweetened, non-carbonated energy drink developed by Chaleo Yoovidhya. The drink is sold in Southeast Asia, China, and 165 other countries. Chaleo took the name from the gaur (Thai: กระทิง ''krathing'') a large wild bovine of Southeast Asia. The Krating Daeng logo underlies its branding, with two charging bulls representing power, red signifying perseverance, and the backdrop of the sun symbolising energy. Krating Daeng became the basis for the creation of the best selling energy drink in the world, Red Bull. When he died in 2012 at age 88,  Chaleo was a multi-billionaire.

text: Krating Daeng (, , literally "red bull" or "red

text: gaur

text: ") is a sweetened, non-

text: carbonated

text: energy drink

text: developed by

text: Chaleo Yoovidhya

text: . The drink is sold in

text: Southeast Asia

text: , China, and 165 other countries. Chaleo took the name from the

text: gaur

text: (Thai: กระทิง ''krathing'') a large wild

text: bovine

text: of Southeast Asia. The Krating Daeng logo underlies its branding, with two charging bulls representing power, red signifying perseverance, and the backdrop of the sun symbolising energy. Krating Daeng became the basis for the creation of the best selling energy drink in the world,

text: Red Bull

text: . When he died in 2012 at age 88,  Chaleo was a multi-

text: billionaire

text: When two quarks become separated, as happens in particle accelerator collisions, at some point it is more energetically favorable for a new quark–antiquark pair to spontaneously appear, than to allow the tube to extend further. As a result of this, when quarks are produced in particle accelerators, instead of seeing the individual quarks in detectors, scientists see "jets" of many color-neutral particles (mesons and baryons), clustered together. This process is called hadronization, fragmentation, or string breaking, and is one of the least understood processes in particle physics.

text: When two quarks become separated, as happens in

text: particle accelerator

text: collisions, at some point it is more energetically favorable for a new quark–antiquark

text: pair

text: to spontaneously appear, than to allow the tube to extend further. As a result of this, when quarks are produced in particle accelerators, instead of seeing the individual quarks in detectors, scientists see

text: "jets"

text: of many color-neutral particles (

text: meson

text: s and

text: baryon

text: s), clustered together. This process is called

text: hadronization

text: , fragmentation, or string breaking, and is one of the least understood processes in particle physics.

text: With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics. Current Energy Star guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0.9 at 100% of rated output in the PC's power supply. According to a white paper authored by Intel and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5.0 Program Requirements for Computers.

text: With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has become more common in consumer electronics. Current

text: Energy Star

text: guidelines for computers call for a power factor of ≥ 0.9 at 100% of rated output in the

text: PC's power supply

text: . According to a white paper authored by Intel and the

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: , PCs with internal power supplies will require the use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5.0 Program Requirements for Computers.

text: The Philippine nuclear program started in 1958 with the creation of the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) under Republic Act 2067. Under a regime of martial law, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos in July 1973 announced the decision to build a nuclear power plant. A presidential committee was set up to secure funding for two 600 megawatt nuclear reactors for the energy needs of Luzon. This was in response to the 1973 oil crisis, as the Middle East oil embargo had put a heavy strain on the Philippine economy, and Marcos believed nuclear power to be the solution to meeting the country's energy demands and decreasing dependence on imported oil.

text: The Philippine nuclear program started in 1958 with the creation of the

text: Philippine Atomic Energy Commission

text: (PAEC) under Republic Act 2067. Under a regime of martial law, Philippine President

text: Ferdinand Marcos

text: in July 1973 announced the decision to build a nuclear power plant. A presidential committee was set up to secure funding for two 600 megawatt nuclear reactors for the energy needs of Luzon. This was in response to the

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: , as the Middle East oil embargo had put a heavy strain on the Philippine economy, and Marcos believed nuclear power to be the solution to meeting the country's energy demands and decreasing dependence on imported oil.

text: Power Stars was developed and released by the Novomatic company in 2013. Power Stars is a 5-reel and 10-payline slot  machine game.

text: Power Stars was developed and released by the

text: Novomatic

text: company in 2013. Power Stars is a 5-reel and 10-payline slot  machine game.

text: The Solutions Project is an organization first conceived in 2011 by prominent figures in science, business and the entertainment media with the goal of utilizing the combined efforts of individuals in the fields of science, business and culture to accelerate the transition to 100% renewable energy use in the United States. Based on the results of academic research, the organization maintains that America is capable of meeting its entire energy needs through renewable energy sources, and that this goal can be achieved by the year 2050. (The organization defines renewable energy as solar power, wind power, hydroelectric power, geothermal energy and wave/tidal power.) Furthermore, the organization claims that the solutions that will be needed to achieve this goal are primarily social and political, not technical, in nature, as most of the technology necessary to bring about the transition already exists.

text: The Solutions Project is an organization first conceived in 2011 by prominent figures in science, business and the entertainment media with the goal of utilizing the combined efforts of individuals in the fields of science, business and culture to accelerate the transition to

text: 100% renewable energy

text: use in the United States. Based on the results of academic research, the organization maintains that America is capable of meeting its entire energy needs through renewable energy sources, and that this goal can be achieved by the year 2050. (The organization defines renewable energy as

text: solar power

text: wind power

text: hydroelectric power

text: geothermal energy

text: and

text: wave

text: tidal

text: power.) Furthermore, the organization claims that the solutions that will be needed to achieve this goal are primarily social and political, not technical, in nature, as most of the technology necessary to bring about the transition already exists.

text: In August 2009, Taiwan's government has announced that it will invest T$45 billion ($1.4 billion) in the island's domestic renewable energy sector in an attempt to help the sector grow nearly eight-fold by 2015 thereby increasing industry production value to T$1.158 trillion in 2015 compared to T$160.3 billion in mid-2009. Proponents hope that "the green energy sector will help Taiwan become a major power in energy technology and production, as well as provide the creation of green jobs."

text: A charged particle accelerator is a complex machine that takes elementary charged particles and accelerates them tovery high energies.  Accelerator physics is a field of physics encompassing all the aspects required to design and operate the equipment and to understand the resulting dynamics of the charged particles.  There are software packages associated with each such domain. A broader index of existing and historical accelerator simulation codes is located at

text: A charged

text: particle accelerator

text: is a complex machine that takes elementary charged particles and accelerates them tovery high energies.

text: Accelerator physics

text: is a field of physics encompassing all the aspects required to design and operate the equipment and to understand the resulting dynamics of the charged particles.  There are software packages associated with each such domain. A broader index of existing and historical accelerator simulation codes is located at

text: Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce proton-rich medical or research isotopes as opposed to the neutron-rich ones made in fission reactors; however, recent work has shown how to make Mo, usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of hydrogen, although this method still requires a reactor to produce tritium. An example of this type of machine is LANSCE at Los Alamos.

text: Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce proton-rich medical or research

text: isotope

text: s as opposed to the neutron-rich ones made in fission reactors; however, recent work has shown how to make

text: Mo

text: , usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of hydrogen, although this method still requires a reactor to produce

text: tritium

text: . An example of this type of machine is LANSCE at

text: Los Alamos

text: In 1939, in a paper entitled "Energy Production in Stars", Hans Bethe analyzed the different possibilities for reactions by which hydrogen is fused into helium. He defined two processes that he believed to be the sources of energy in stars. The first one, the proton–proton chain reaction, is the dominant energy source in stars with masses up to about the mass of the Sun. The second process, the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle, which was also considered by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker in 1938, is most important in more massive stars. These works concerned the energy generation capable of keeping stars hot. A clear physical description of the proton–proton chain and of the CNO cycle appears in a 1968 textbook. Bethe's two papers did not address the creation of heavier nuclei, however. That theory was begun by Fred Hoyle in 1946 with his argument that a collection of very hot nuclei would assemble into iron. Hoyle followed that in 1954 with a large paper describing how advanced fusion stages within stars would synthesize elements between carbon and iron in mass. This is the dominant work in stellar nucleosynthesis. It provided the roadmap to how the most abundant elements on Earth had been synthesized from initial hydrogen and helium, making clear how those abundant elements increased their galactic abundances as the galaxy aged.

text: In 1939, in a paper entitled "Energy Production in Stars",

text: Hans Bethe

text: analyzed the different possibilities for reactions by which hydrogen is fused into helium. He defined two processes that he believed to be the sources of energy in stars. The first one, the

text: proton–proton chain reaction

text: , is the dominant energy source in stars with masses up to about the mass of the Sun. The second process, the

text: carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle

text: , which was also considered by

text: Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker

text: in 1938, is most important in more massive stars. These works concerned the energy generation capable of keeping stars hot. A clear physical description of the proton–proton chain and of the CNO cycle appears in a 1968 textbook. Bethe's two papers did not address the creation of heavier nuclei, however. That theory was begun by

text: Fred Hoyle

text: in 1946 with his argument that a collection of very hot nuclei would assemble into

text: iron

text: . Hoyle followed that in 1954 with a large paper describing how advanced fusion stages within stars would synthesize elements between carbon and iron in mass. This is the dominant work in stellar nucleosynthesis. It provided the roadmap to how the most abundant elements on Earth had been synthesized from initial hydrogen and helium, making clear how those abundant elements increased their galactic abundances as the galaxy aged.

text: Johnny Napalm's power is called "Speed Freak." The effects of this power keep the multiplier at a minimum of double points. Additionally, maintaining a multiplier of triple points or higher will earn the player up to 2 power stars. Once Johnny has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form, a hobgoblin, his power is upgraded to "Speed Freak +." With this upgrade, the multiplier increases after hitting 5 notes in a row rather than 10. Additionally, the amount of power stars that the player can earn by maintaining a multiplier of triple points or higher is increased to 5.

text: Johnny Napalm's power is called "Speed Freak." The effects of this power keep the multiplier at a minimum of double points. Additionally, maintaining a multiplier of triple points or higher will earn the player up to 2 power stars. Once Johnny has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form, a

text: hobgoblin

text: , his power is upgraded to "Speed Freak +." With this upgrade, the multiplier increases after hitting 5 notes in a row rather than 10. Additionally, the amount of power stars that the player can earn by maintaining a multiplier of triple points or higher is increased to 5.

text: A collider is a type of particle accelerator involving directed beams of particles. Colliders may either be ring accelerators or linear accelerators, and may collide a single beam of particles against a stationary target or two beams head-on.

text: A collider is a type of

text: particle accelerator

text: involving directed beams of

text: particles

text: . Colliders may either be

text: ring accelerator

text: s or

text: linear accelerator

text: s, and may collide a single beam of particles against a stationary target or two beams head-on.

text: In 2013, China led the world in renewable energy production, with a total capacity of 378 GW, mainly from hydroelectric and wind power. As of 2014, China leads the world in the production and use of wind power, solar photovoltaic power and smart grid technologies, generating almost as much water, wind and solar energy as all of France and Germany's power plants combined. China's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its fossil fuels and nuclear power capacity. Since 2005, production of solar cells in China has expanded 100-fold. As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown, the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped. Innovation has helped, but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion.

text: In 2013, China led the world in

text: renewable energy

text: production, with a total capacity of 378

text: GW

text: , mainly from

text: hydroelectric

text: and

text: wind power

text: . As of 2014, China leads the world in the production and use of wind power,

text: solar photovoltaic power

text: and

text: smart grid

text: technologies, generating almost as much water, wind and

text: solar energy

text: as all of France and Germany's power plants combined. China's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its

text: fossil fuels

text: and

text: nuclear power

text: capacity. Since 2005, production of

text: solar cells

text: in China has expanded 100-fold. As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown, the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped. Innovation has helped, but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion.

text: Air jet sieving machines are ideally suited for very fine powders which tend to agglomerate and cannot be separated by vibrational sieving.The reason for the effectiveness of this sieving method is based on two components:A rotating slotted nozzle inside the sieving chamber and a powerful industrial vacuum cleaner which is connected to the chamber. The vacuum cleaner generates a vacuum inside the sieving chamber and sucks in fresh air through the slotted nozzle. When passing the narrow slit of the nozzle the air stream is accelerated and blown against the sieve mesh, dispersing the particles. Above the mesh, the air jet is distributed over the complete sieve surface and is sucked in with low speed through the sieve mesh. Thus the finer particles are transported through the mesh openings into the vacuum cleaner.

text: There are two major differences between the synchrocyclotron and the classical cyclotron. In the synchrocyclotron, only one dee retains its classical shape, while the other pole is open (see patent sketch). Furthermore, the frequency of oscillating electric field in a synchrocyclotron is decreasing continuously instead of kept constant so as to maintain cyclotron resonance for relativistic velocities. One terminal of the oscillating electric potential varying periodically is applied to the dee and the other terminal is on ground potential. The protons or deuterons to be accelerated are made to move in circles of increasing radius. The acceleration of particles takes place as they enter or leave the dee. At the outer edge, the ion beam can be removed with the aid of electrostatic deflector. It was possible to produce 200 MeV deuterons and 400 MeV α-particles with the first synchrocyclotron.

text: There are two major differences between the synchrocyclotron and the classical cyclotron. In the synchrocyclotron, only one dee retains its classical shape, while the other pole is open (see patent sketch). Furthermore, the frequency of oscillating electric field in a synchrocyclotron is decreasing continuously instead of kept constant so as to maintain

text: cyclotron resonance

text: for relativistic velocities. One terminal of the oscillating electric potential varying periodically is applied to the dee and the other terminal is on ground potential. The protons or

text: deuterons

text: to be accelerated are made to move in circles of increasing radius. The acceleration of particles takes place as they enter or leave the dee. At the outer edge, the ion beam can be removed with the aid of electrostatic deflector. It was possible to produce 200 MeV deuterons and 400 MeV

text: α-particles

text: with the first synchrocyclotron.

text:
① Expansion of photovoltaic power generation by citizens through financial support for 40,000 PV panels
② Expansion of buildings’ mandatory generation of renewable and decentralized energy from 12% to 20%
③ Full disclosure of information on energy consumption by buildings and expansion of energy performance diagnosis
④ Replacement of all traditional public light bulbs such as street and security lights with LED bulbs
⑤ Introduction of Driving-Mileage Program to incentivize less driving
⑥ Creation of jobs in the energy service sector through measures like establishing 25 energy hub centers
⑦ Promotion of innovative technologies such as BEMS and smart grids
⑧ Job creation for the elderly and expansion of recycling through community-based recycling
⑨ Eradication of energy poverty through provision of LED bulbs to 120,000 low-income households and support for BRP for 150 welfare facilities
⑩ Establishment local energy governance

text: ① Expansion of

text: photovoltaic power

text:
generation by citizens through financial support for 40,000 PV panels
② Expansion of buildings’ mandatory generation of renewable and decentralized energy from 12% to 20%
③ Full disclosure of information on energy consumption by buildings and expansion of energy performance diagnosis
④ Replacement of all traditional public light bulbs such as street and security lights with

text: LED bulbs

text:
⑤ Introduction of Driving-Mileage Program to incentivize less driving
⑥ Creation of jobs in the energy service sector through measures like establishing 25 energy hub centers
⑦ Promotion of innovative technologies such as BEMS and smart grids
⑧ Job creation for the elderly and expansion of recycling through community-based recycling
⑨ Eradication of energy poverty through provision of LED bulbs to 120,000 low-income households and support for BRP for 150 welfare facilities
⑩ Establishment local energy governance

text: Additionally, the college has completed construction on the Advanced Beam Laboratory, housing both a short-pulse, high-peak-power laser system and a linear particle accelerator for researching and advancing particle acceleration technologies, as well as advanced laser technology.

text: The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, particle accelerators, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.

text: The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between

text: pseudo-sciences

text: , such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as

text: correlation

text: and

text: regression

text: , performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized

text: scientific instrument

text: s such as

text: thermometer

text: s,

text: spectroscopes

text: particle accelerator

text: s, or

text: voltmeter

text: s, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.

text: Not all supernovae are triggered by runaway nuclear fusion. Type Ib, Ic and type II supernovae also undergo core collapse, but because they have exhausted their supply of atomic nuclei capable of undergoing exothermic fusion reactions, they collapse all the way into neutron stars, or in the higher-mass cases, stellar black holes, powering explosions by the release of gravitational potential energy. It is the absence of runaway fusion reactions that allows such supernovae to leave behind compact stellar remnants.

text: Not all supernovae are triggered by runaway nuclear fusion.

text: Type Ib, Ic

text: and

text: type II supernova

text: e also undergo core collapse, but because they have exhausted their supply of atomic nuclei capable of undergoing exothermic fusion reactions, they collapse all the way into

text: neutron star

text: s, or in the higher-mass cases,

text: stellar black hole

text: s, powering explosions by the release of

text: gravitational potential energy

text: . It is the absence of runaway fusion reactions that allows such supernovae to leave behind

text: compact stellar remnants

text: Gone with the West is a 1975 American western film starring James Caan and Stefanie Powers, directed by Bernard Girard.

text: Gone with the West is a 1975 American

text: western film

text: starring

text: James Caan

text: and

text: Stefanie Powers

text: , directed by Bernard Girard.

text: Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the polarity is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of "bunches" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.

text: Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the

text: polarity

text: is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of "bunches" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.

text: Selected special segments of the song will have glowing notes outlined by stars: successfully hitting all notes in this series will fill the "Star Power Meter". The Star Power Meter can also be filled by using the whammy bar during sustained notes within these segments. Once the Star Power Meter is at least half full, the player can activate "Star Power" by pressing the select button or momentarily lifting the guitar into a vertical position. When Star Power is activated, the scoring multiplier is doubled until Star Power is depleted. The Rock Meter also increases more dramatically when Star Power is activated, making it easier for the player to make the Rock Meter stay at a high level. Thus, Star Power can be used strategically to play difficult sections of a song that otherwise might cause the player to fail. In the earlier entries of the series (up until Guitar Hero: Aerosmith), activating Star Power meant that players could not accrue more Star Power until the Star Power meter was fully drained and the effect ended. Starting with Guitar Hero: World Tour, more Star Power can be collected even if the effect is active by completing more Star Power phrases, extending the Star Power's duration by doing so. When playing in cooperative play (with a bassist/rhythm guitarist in Guitar Hero II through Guitar Hero: Aerosmith or as a band in Guitar Hero: World Tour), Star Power is shared between all the players and activation of Star Power is dependent on all players simultaneously activating it.

text: Selected special segments of the song will have glowing notes outlined by stars: successfully hitting all notes in this series will fill the "Star Power Meter". The Star Power Meter can also be filled by using the

text: whammy bar

text: A number of surveys have been performed to explore the connection between star formation and LINER activity.  If a connection can be found between star formation activity and LINER activity, then this strengthens the possibility that LINERs are powered by the hot gas found in star formation regions.  However, if star formation cannot be found in LINERs, then this definitively excludes star formation as powering LINER emission.

text: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion (thermonuclear weapon). Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first test of a fission ("atomic") bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately . The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately .

text: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from

text: nuclear reaction

text: s, either

text: fission

text: fission bomb

text: ) or a combination of fission and

text: fusion

text: thermonuclear weapon

text: ). Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The

text: first test

text: of a

text: fission ("atomic") bomb

text: released the same amount of energy as approximately . The first

text: thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb

text: test

text: released the same amount of energy as approximately .

text: The velocity vector can change in magnitude and in direction or both at once. Hence, the acceleration is the rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity vector plus the rate of change of direction of that vector. The same reasoning used with respect to the position of a particle to define velocity, can be applied to the velocity to define acceleration. The acceleration of a particle is the vector defined by the rate of change of the velocity vector.  The average acceleration of a particle over a time interval is defined as the ratio.

text: The velocity vector can change in magnitude and in direction or both at once. Hence, the acceleration is the rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity vector plus the rate of change of direction of that vector. The same reasoning used with respect to the position of a particle to define velocity, can be applied to the velocity to define acceleration. The

text: acceleration

text: of a particle is the vector defined by the rate of change of the velocity vector.  The average acceleration of a particle over a time interval is defined as the ratio.

text: If the core is largely supported by electron degeneracy pressure, helium fusion will ignite on a timescale of days in a helium flash. In more massive stars, the ignition of helium fusion occurs relatively slowly with no flash. The nuclear power released during the helium flash is very large, on the order of 10 times the luminosity of the Sun for a few days and 10 times the luminosity of the Sun (roughly the luminosity of the Milky Way Galaxy) for a few seconds. However, the energy is absorbed by the stellar envelope and thus cannot be seen from outside the star. The energy released by helium fusion causes the core to expand, so that hydrogen fusion in the overlying layers slows and total energy generation decreases. The star contracts, although not all the way to the main sequence, and it migrates to the horizontal branch on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, gradually shrinking in radius and increasing its surface temperature.

text: If the core is largely supported by

text: electron degeneracy pressure

text: , helium fusion will ignite on a timescale of days in a

text: helium flash

text: . In more massive stars, the ignition of helium fusion occurs relatively slowly with no flash. The nuclear power released during the helium flash is very large, on the order of 10 times the luminosity of the Sun for a few days and 10 times the luminosity of the Sun (roughly the luminosity of the

text: Milky Way Galaxy

text: ) for a few seconds. However, the energy is absorbed by the stellar envelope and thus cannot be seen from outside the star. The energy released by helium fusion causes the core to expand, so that hydrogen fusion in the overlying layers slows and total energy generation decreases. The star contracts, although not all the way to the main sequence, and it migrates to the

text: horizontal branch

text: on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, gradually shrinking in radius and increasing its surface temperature.

text: The inductive output tube (IOT) or klystrode is a variety of high frequency transmitting linear-beam vacuum tube, similar to a klystron, which evolved in the 1980s to meet increasing efficiency requirements for high-power RF amplifiers. The primary commercial use of IOTs is in UHF television transmitters, where they have mostly replaced klystrons because of their higher efficiencies (35% to 40%) and smaller size. IOTs are also used in particle accelerators.  They are capable of producing power output up to about 30 kW continuous and 7 MW pulsed and gains of 20–23 dB at frequencies up to about a gigahertz.

text: The inductive output tube (IOT) or klystrode is a variety of high frequency transmitting linear-beam

text: vacuum tube

text: , similar to a

text: klystron

text: , which evolved in the 1980s to meet increasing efficiency requirements for high-power

text: RF

text: amplifier

text: s. The primary commercial use of IOTs is in

text: UHF

text: television transmitter

text: s, where they have mostly replaced

text: klystron

text: s because of their higher efficiencies (35% to 40%) and smaller size. IOTs are also used in

text: particle accelerator

text: s.  They are capable of producing power output up to about 30 kW continuous and 7 MW pulsed and gains of 20–23 dB at frequencies up to about a

text: gigahertz

text: These stars are large enough to produce gamma rays with enough energy to create electron-positron pairs, but the resulting net reduction in counter-gravitational pressure is insufficient to cause the core-overpressure required for supernova. Instead, the contraction caused by pair-creation provokes increased thermonuclear activity within the star that repulses the inward pressure and returns the star to equilibrium. It is thought that stars of this size undergo a series of these pulses until they shed sufficient mass to drop below 100 solar masses, at which point they are no longer hot enough to support pair-creation. Pulsing of this nature may have been responsible for the variations in brightness experienced by Eta Carinae in 1843, though this explanation is not universally accepted.

text: These stars are large enough to produce gamma rays with enough energy to create electron-positron pairs, but the resulting net reduction in counter-gravitational pressure is insufficient to cause the core-overpressure required for supernova. Instead, the contraction caused by pair-creation provokes increased thermonuclear activity within the star that repulses the inward pressure and returns the star to equilibrium. It is thought that stars of this size undergo a series of these pulses until they shed sufficient mass to drop below 100 solar masses, at which point they are no longer hot enough to support pair-creation. Pulsing of this nature may have been responsible for the variations in brightness experienced by

text: Eta Carinae in 1843

text: , though this explanation is not universally accepted.

text: The  particle is a "doubly strange" baryon containing two strange quarks and a bottom quark. A discovery of this particle was first claimed in September 2008 by physicists working on the DØ experiment at the Tevatron facility of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. However, the reported mass of  was significantly higher than expected in the quark model. The apparent discrepancy from the Standard Model has since been dubbed the " puzzle". In May 2009, the CDF collaboration made public their results on the search for the  based on analysis of a data sample roughly four times the size of the one used by the DØ experiment. CDF measured the mass to be , which was in excellent agreement with the Standard Model prediction. No signal has been observed at the DØ reported value. The two results differ by , which is equivalent to 6.2 standard deviations and are therefore inconsistent. Excellent agreement between the CDF measured mass and theoretical expectations is a strong indication that the particle discovered by CDF is indeed the . In February 2013 the LHCb collaboration published a measurement of the  mass that is consistent with, but more precise than, the CDF result.

text: The  particle is a "doubly

text: strange

text: baryon

text: containing two strange quarks and a

text: bottom quark

text: . A discovery of this particle was first claimed in September 2008 by physicists working on the

text: DØ

text: experiment at the

text: Tevatron

text: facility of the

text: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

text: . However, the reported mass of  was significantly higher than expected in the

text: quark model

text: . The apparent discrepancy from the

text: Standard Model

text: has since been dubbed the " puzzle". In May 2009, the

text: CDF

text: collaboration made public their results on the search for the  based on analysis of a data sample roughly four times the size of the one used by the

text: DØ experiment

text: CDF

text: measured the mass to be , which was in excellent agreement with the Standard Model prediction. No signal has been observed at the DØ reported value. The two results differ by , which is equivalent to 6.2 standard deviations and are therefore inconsistent. Excellent agreement between the CDF measured mass and theoretical expectations is a strong indication that the particle discovered by CDF is indeed the . In February 2013 the

text: LHCb

text: collaboration published a measurement of the  mass that is consistent with, but more precise than, the CDF result.

text: A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube, invented in 1937 by American electrical engineers Russell and Sigurd Varian, which is used as an amplifier for high radio frequencies, from UHF up into the microwave range. Low-power klystrons are used as oscillators in terrestrial microwave relay communications links, while high-power klystrons are used as output tubes in UHF television transmitters, satellite communication, and radar transmitters, and to generate the drive power for modern particle accelerators.

text: A klystron is a specialized linear-beam

text: vacuum tube

text: , invented in 1937 by American electrical engineers

text: Russell and Sigurd Varian

text: , which is used as an

text: amplifier

text: for high

text: radio frequencies

text: , from

text: UHF

text: up into the

text: microwave

text: range. Low-power klystrons are used as oscillators in terrestrial

text: microwave relay

text: communications links, while high-power klystrons are used as output tubes in

text: UHF

text: television transmitter

text: s,

text: satellite communication

text: , and

text: radar

text: transmitter

text: s, and to generate the drive power for modern

text: particle accelerator

text: s.

text: It was later revealed that The Old Man, one of the wielders of the immensely powerful cosmic artifact known as the Star Brand, had attempted to rid himself of his unwanted power by transferring the Star Brand onto an asteroid near Earth. However, the Brand required a living being's will in order to control it, and when placed in an inanimate object, a flood of power was released, infusing many human beings with a fraction of the Star Brand's energies. A similar accident called the Black Event would occur on December 19, 1988 when Star Brand wielder Ken Connell tried to get rid of the Brand by placing it onto a free weight, resulting in a massive blast of energy which totally destroys the city of Pittsburgh.

text: It was later revealed that The Old Man, one of the wielders of the immensely powerful cosmic artifact known as the

text: Star Brand

text: , had attempted to rid himself of his unwanted power by transferring the Star Brand onto an

text: asteroid

text: near Earth. However, the Brand required a living being's will in order to control it, and when placed in an inanimate object, a flood of power was released, infusing many human beings with a fraction of the Star Brand's energies. A similar accident called the

text: Black Event

text: would occur on December 19, 1988 when Star Brand wielder Ken Connell tried to get rid of the Brand by placing it onto a

text: free weight

text: , resulting in a massive blast of energy which totally destroys the city of

text: Pittsburgh

text: A global cataclysm, caused by a fatal accident in Geneva, Switzerland, during the implementation of a particle accelerator, leaves the crew and students of the school-ship Estrella Polar (North Star) isolated in a post-apocalyptic world. The ship becomes their home in this isolated world. However, apart from the isolation, they also discover they are not alone, and must face "the others".

text: A global cataclysm, caused by a fatal accident in

text: Geneva

text: Switzerland

text: , during the implementation of a

text: particle accelerator

text: , leaves the crew and students of the school-ship Estrella Polar (North Star) isolated in a post-apocalyptic world. The ship becomes their home in this isolated world. However, apart from the isolation, they also discover they are not alone, and must face "the others".

text: During the twentieth century, Italy was at the forefront of technological development and the production of energy from renewable sources. In the field of geothermal energy, the first plant dates back to 1904, at Larderello in Tuscany, where in 1913 the first geothermal power plant was also built, and remained the only one in the world until 1958. With regards to hydropower, the first plant in Europe was built in Paderno d'Adda in Lombardy between 1895 and 1898. In the solar energy industry, the first power plant (that could produce steam at 450 °C) was built in Genoa in 1963, and in 1980 the first solar power tower that uses mirrors was built at Adrano in Sicily. As for the production of wind power, the first experimental projects (sponsored by the National Research Council and in collaboration with Enel) were started in the second half of the seventies as part of the restructuring of the entire system of production and supply of energy that followed the 1973 and 1979 energy crisis.

text: During the twentieth century, Italy was at the forefront of technological development and the production of energy from

text: renewable sources

text: . In the field of

text: geothermal energy

text: , the first plant dates back to 1904, at

text: Larderello

text: in

text: Tuscany

text: , where in 1913 the first geothermal power plant was also built, and remained the only one in the world until 1958. With regards to

text: hydropower

text: , the first plant in

text: Europe

text: was built in Paderno d'Adda in

text: Lombardy

text: between 1895 and 1898. In the

text: solar energy

text: industry, the first power plant (that could produce steam at 450 °C) was built in

text: Genoa

text: in 1963, and in 1980 the first

text: solar power tower

text: that uses mirrors was built at

text: Adrano

text: in

text: Sicily

text: . As for the production of

text: wind power

text: , the first experimental projects (sponsored by the

text: National Research Council

text: and in collaboration with

text: Enel

text: ) were started in the second half of the seventies as part of the restructuring of the entire system of production and supply of energy that followed the

text: and

text: energy crisis.

text: When he arrived at the Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear, he started to work in plasmas driven by small transient electrical discharges and small pulsed power devices: z-pinch, capillary discharges and plasma focus. His work has contributed to understand that it is possible to scale the plasma focus in a wide range of energies and sizes, keeping the same value of ion density, magnetic field, plasma sheath velocity, Alfvén speed and the quantity of energy per particle. Therefore, fusion reactions are possible to be obtained in ultra-miniaturized devices (driven by generators of 0.1J for example), as well as they are obtained in bigger devices (driven by generators of 1MJ). However, the stability of the plasma pinch highly depends on the size and energy of the device. A rich plasma phenomenology it has been observed in the table-top plasma focus devices developed by Soto´s group: filamentary structures, toroidal singularities, plasma bursts and plasma jets generations. In addition, possible applications are explored using these kind of small plasma devices: development of portable generator as non-radioactive sources of neutrons and x-rays for field applications, pulsed radiation applied to biological studies, plasma focus as neutron source for nuclear fusion-fission hybrid reactors, and the use of plasma focus devices as plasma accelerators for studies of materials under intense fusion-relevant pulses.

text: The Department of the Navy was the original tenant of the Forrestal Building.  This changed in 1977 after the creation of the Department of Energy (DOE).  The new agency began operations on October 1, 1977.  A large number of federal agencies, bureaus, and other organizations were brought together into a single cabinet-level department.  These included large agencies such as the Federal Energy Administration (which collected data on energy resources and energy use), the Energy Research and Development Administration (which oversaw the development and testing of the nation's nuclear weapons), the Federal Power Commission (which regulated hydroelectric projects, interstate electric utilities, and the natural gas industry), and programs of various other agencies.

text: The Department of the Navy was the original tenant of the Forrestal Building.  This changed in 1977 after the creation of the Department of Energy (DOE).  The new agency began operations on October 1, 1977.  A large number of federal agencies, bureaus, and other organizations were brought together into a single cabinet-level department.  These included large agencies such as the

text: Federal Energy Administration

text: (which collected data on energy resources and energy use), the

entity_name: Energy Research and Development Administration

text: Energy Research and Development Administration

text: (which oversaw the development and testing of the nation's

text: nuclear weapon

text: s), the

text: Federal Power Commission

text: (which regulated

text: hydroelectric projects

text: , interstate

text: electric utilities

text: , and the

text: natural gas

text: industry), and programs of various other agencies.

text: The most practical solution was mentioned by Gujba, Mulugetta and Azapagic, (2011). The authors of this article suggested that a harmonization of different forms of energy take place. In their sustainable development scenario they suggested some reliance on renewable energy sources and a slow change from fossil fuels to the renewable energy sources. Since the rural areas are further from the electricity grid and most currently do not have power, each area would become a little hub where they would produce their own power by whatever resource was closest. For example, in the northern areas the mini-grids would work off of wind and solar power energy. Hydropower development would have to increase in order for this to be successful.  Winkler, Howells and Baumert (2002) talk about envisioning where a country wants to end up before the development of energy resources. This is a great perspective about how to fix the energy crisis because taking the big picture into account before the development of the sector could include things outside of simply fixing the energy crisis such as: poverty eradication, job creation, reducing carbon emissions etc.  Fixing the energy supply will solve many problems such as the over pricing of electricity due to the loss of the electricity within the grid (Winkler, Howells & Baumert, 2002)

text: A type of electric propulsion, spacecraft such as Dawn use an ion engine. In an ion engine, electric power is used to create charged particles of the fuel, usually the gas xenon, and accelerate them to extremely high velocities. The exhaust velocity of conventional rockets is limited by the chemical energy stored in the fuel’s molecular bonds, which limits the thrust to about 5 km/s.  This gives them power (for lift-off from Earth, for example) but limits the top speed. By contrast, ion engines have low force, but the top speed in principle is limited only by the electrical power available on the spacecraft and on the gas ions being accelerated. The exhaust speed of the charged particles range from 15 km/s to 35 km/s.

text: A type of electric propulsion, spacecraft such as

text: Dawn

text: use an

text: ion engine

text: . In an ion engine, electric power is used to create charged particles of the fuel, usually the gas xenon, and accelerate them to extremely high velocities. The exhaust velocity of conventional rockets is limited by the chemical energy stored in the fuel’s molecular bonds, which limits the thrust to about 5 km/s.  This gives them power (for lift-off from Earth, for example) but limits the top speed. By contrast, ion engines have low force, but the top speed in principle is limited only by the electrical power available on the spacecraft and on the gas ions being accelerated. The exhaust speed of the charged particles range from 15 km/s to 35 km/s.

text: Volcanologists use the regular, predictable Earth tide movements to calibrate and test sensitive volcano deformation monitoring instruments. The tides may also trigger volcanic events.Seismologists have determined that microseismic events are correlated to tidal variations in Central Asia (north of the Himalayas).The semidiurnal amplitude of terrestrial tides can reach about 55 cm at the equator which is important in GPS, VLBI, and SLR measurements. Also to make precise astronomical angular measurements requires knowledge of the Earth's rate of rotation (length of day, precession, and nutation), which is influenced by earth tides (so-called pole tide). Terrestrial tides also need to be taken in account in the case of some particle physics experiments.For instance, at the CERN or SLAC, the very large particle accelerators were designed while taking terrestrial tides into account for proper operation. Among the effects that need to be taken into account are circumference deformation for circular accelerators and particle beam energy.

text: Volcanologists use the regular, predictable Earth tide movements to calibrate and test sensitive volcano deformation monitoring instruments. The tides may also trigger volcanic events.Seismologists have determined that microseismic events are correlated to tidal variations in Central Asia (north of the Himalayas).The semidiurnal amplitude of terrestrial tides can reach about 55 cm at the equator which is important in

text: GPS

text: VLBI

text: , and

text: SLR

text: measurements. Also to make precise astronomical angular measurements requires knowledge of the Earth's rate of rotation (

text: length of day

text: precession

text: , and

text: nutation

text: ), which is influenced by earth tides (so-called

text: pole tide

text: ). Terrestrial tides also need to be taken in account in the case of some

text: particle physics

text: experiments.For instance, at the

text: CERN

text: or

text: SLAC

text: , the very large

text: particle accelerator

text: s were designed while taking terrestrial tides into account for proper operation. Among the effects that need to be taken into account are circumference deformation for circular accelerators and particle beam energy.

text: A list of particle accelerators used for particle physics experiments. Some early particle accelerators that more properly did nuclear physics, but existed prior to the separation of particle physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for experiments are listed.

text: A list of

text: particle accelerator

text: s used for

text: particle physics

text: experiments. Some early particle accelerators that more properly did

text: nuclear physics

text: , but existed prior to the separation of particle physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for experiments are listed.

text: As in the East Activity is a task or property of something else and energy does not stand alone (there is no activity, energy by itself (per se). The "being" and "the action(s) of God" without the distinction, then would appear identical, leading to the teaching of Pantheism. This removal of distinction meaning that the universe or material world and God are one and the same. For God's action (creation) and God's being or essence is one and the same in actus purus and not the result of his creating activity. This leads to the denial of the transcendent and apophatic, incomprehensible definition of the essence of God. By stating that God's being and energies are the same thing, one is stating that God in Trinity is the same as man (i.e. created or a creature as part of creation, anthropomorphic in contrast to theanthropic), meaning that humans as finite beings would be able to conceive the infinite, and that humanity could be God in essence (implying pantheism), as humanity is a creation of God, as an activity an act of God.

text: As in the East Activity is a task or property of something else and energy does not stand alone (there is no activity, energy by itself (

text: per se

text: ). The "being" and "the action(s) of God" without the distinction, then would appear identical, leading to the teaching of

text: Pantheism

text: . This removal of distinction meaning that the universe or material world and God are one and the same. For God's action (creation) and God's being or essence is one and the same in

text: actus purus

text: and not the result of his creating activity. This leads to the denial of the transcendent and apophatic, incomprehensible definition of the essence of God. By stating that God's being and energies are the same thing, one is stating that God in Trinity is the same as man (i.e. created or a creature as part of creation,

text: anthropomorphic

text: in contrast to

text: theanthropic

text: ), meaning that humans as finite beings would be able to conceive the infinite, and that humanity could be God in essence (implying pantheism), as humanity is a creation of God, as an activity an act of God.

text: Powers: his powers are called Star Fly.

text: Powers: his powers are called Star Fly.

text: Herod was a fine, bay horse standing 15.3 hands high with a small star and no white on his legs. He was a powerful horse that was especially good at four-mile distances.

text: As a solar energy provider, Island Pacific Energy owns, operates and maintains the photovoltaic systems on the roofs of commercial and non-profit entities and sells the clean renewable energy that is generated to the customer under long term power purchase agreements. This arrangement enables customers who cannot take advantage of the incentives (tax credits) to still reap the economic benefits of solar power. Island Pacific Energy was the first company to execute a power purchase agreement with a non-profit entity in the state of Hawaii.

text: As a solar energy provider, Island Pacific Energy owns, operates and maintains the photovoltaic systems on the roofs of commercial and non-profit entities and sells the clean renewable energy that is generated to the customer under long term

text: power purchase agreement

text: s. This arrangement enables customers who cannot take advantage of the incentives (tax credits) to still reap the economic benefits of solar power. Island Pacific Energy was the first company to execute a

text: power purchase agreement

text: with a non-profit entity in the state of Hawaii.

text: Because colliders can give evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. Despite the fact that most accelerators (but not ion facilities) actually propel subatomic particles, the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general.

text: Because colliders can give evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. Despite the fact that most accelerators (but not

text: ion

text: facilities) actually propel

text: subatomic particles

text: , the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general.

text: While he is handy with any blunt object, Gourry's biggest contribution to a fight is his swordsmanship. Not only does Gourry reveal himself to be a nearly invincible swordsman, he is found to be the owner of the Sword of Light, a legendary weapon which, when not possessing a metal blade, produces a blade of pure energy, which Gourry can activate by voice. The energy blade, which functions like a lightsaber from Star Wars, can cut through almost anything and even absorb, store and then release magic spells against his enemies. When Phibrizzo released the seal on Sword of Light that withheld its full power, it was capable of firing beams of pure energy as well. His swordsmanship is downplayed as the series progresses in favor of the magic, but one occasion when he was placed under a spell and turned against his comrades he proved to be nigh unbeatable. It is explained that the Sword of Light channels and amplifies the willpower of the wielder to create the blade, which would explain his enhanced power when under mind control as his will would have been reinforced by the one controlling him. The sword was later revealed to be not a weapon of light, but a weapon more closely associated with the mazoku, specifically Dark Star.

text: While he is handy with any blunt object, Gourry's biggest contribution to a fight is his swordsmanship. Not only does Gourry reveal himself to be a nearly invincible swordsman, he is found to be the owner of the Sword of Light, a legendary weapon which, when not possessing a metal blade, produces a blade of pure energy, which Gourry can activate by voice. The energy blade, which functions like a

text: lightsaber

text: from

text: Star Wars

text: , can cut through almost anything and even absorb, store and then release magic spells against his enemies. When Phibrizzo released the seal on Sword of Light that withheld its full power, it was capable of firing beams of pure energy as well. His swordsmanship is downplayed as the series progresses in favor of the magic, but one occasion when he was placed under a spell and turned against his comrades he proved to be nigh unbeatable. It is explained that the Sword of Light channels and amplifies the willpower of the wielder to create the blade, which would explain his enhanced power when under mind control as his will would have been reinforced by the one controlling him. The sword was later revealed to be not a weapon of light, but a weapon more closely associated with the

text: mazoku

text: , specifically Dark Star.

text: Chattopadhyay returned to Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1984, where he led and defined the accelerator physics of the Advanced Light Source (ALS) and contributed to the conceptual design of the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC), pioneered the accelerator physics which underpinned the Berkeley-Stanford asymmetric B-factory (PEP-II) for CP-violation studies, and initiated the Berkeley FEL/Femtosecond X-ray Source and Laser-Plasma Acceleration development. He was a Senior Scientist, a Guest Professor, and the Founder/Director of the Center for Beam Physics at Berkeley, until his move to Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in 2001 as the Associate Laboratory Director for Accelerators, after 25 years at the University of California and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.At Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, he made critical advancements in microwave superconducting linear accelerators leading the way to current and future grand instruments of science such as the high precision CEBAF and its 12 GeV upgrade for precision research in hadronic physics, Spallation Neutron Source at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA to advance neutron sciences and novel materials research, and the current superconducting version of the International Linear Collider, to name a few.His research at the Cockcroft Institute in UK included development of sources of “ultra-cold” relativistic free electron beams to advance coherent electron diffraction techniques; production of novel coherent and ultra-short pulses of photons (e.g. x-ray FELs); novel acceleration methods; investigation of photonic crystals and metamaterial structures for charged particle acceleration; novel high energy colliders; cavity search for “dark matter” and laboratory investigation of “dark energy” via atom interferometer techniques. Chattopadhyay is currently working for Fermilab and Northern Illinois University (NIU) acting as a distinctive professor and director of accelerator research.Having contributed to the conception, design, construction, commissioning and operation of numerous accelerators for particle and nuclear physics, photon and neutron sciences around the world, with significant research accomplishments in advanced particle and photon beam physics, and mentoring scientists around the world, in the developing nations in particular, in accelerator developments as a unifying global force among nations, Prof. Chattopadhyay is a frequently invited speaker and advisor at professional societies and government research agencies, serving on numerous editorial, advisory and review committees throughout the world.

text: Chattopadhyay returned to Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1984, where he led and defined the accelerator physics of the

text: Advanced Light Source

text: (ALS) and contributed to the conceptual design of the

text: Superconducting Super Collider

text: (SSC), pioneered the accelerator physics which underpinned the Berkeley-Stanford asymmetric B-factory (PEP-II) for

text: CP-violation

text: studies, and initiated the Berkeley FEL/Femtosecond X-ray Source and

text: Laser-Plasma Acceleration

text: development. He was a Senior Scientist, a

text: Guest Professor

text: , and the Founder/Director of the Center for Beam Physics at Berkeley, until his move to Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in 2001 as the Associate Laboratory Director for Accelerators, after 25 years at the University of California and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.At Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, he made critical advancements in microwave superconducting linear accelerators leading the way to current and future grand instruments of science such as the high precision CEBAF and its 12 GeV upgrade for precision research in

text: hadron

text: ic physics,

text: Spallation Neutron Source

text: at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA to advance

text: neutron

text: sciences and novel materials research, and the current

text: superconducting

text: version of the

text: International Linear Collider

text: , to name a few.His research at the Cockcroft Institute in UK included development of sources of “ultra-cold”

text: relativistic free electron beams

text: to advance coherent

text: electron diffraction

text: techniques; production of novel coherent and ultra-short pulses of

text: photons

text: (e.g. x-ray FELs); novel acceleration methods; investigation of

text: photonic crystals

text: and

text: metamaterial

text: structures for charged particle acceleration; novel high energy colliders; cavity search for “dark matter” and laboratory investigation of “

text: dark energy

text: ” via

text: atom interferometer

text: techniques. Chattopadhyay is currently working for

text: Fermilab

text: and

text: Northern Illinois University

text: (NIU) acting as a distinctive professor and director of accelerator research.Having contributed to the conception, design, construction, commissioning and operation of numerous accelerators for particle and nuclear physics, photon and neutron sciences around the world, with significant research accomplishments in advanced particle and photon beam physics, and mentoring scientists around the world, in the developing nations in particular, in accelerator developments as a unifying global force among nations, Prof. Chattopadhyay is a frequently invited speaker and advisor at professional societies and government research agencies, serving on numerous editorial, advisory and review committees throughout the world.

text: The first large proton synchrotron was the Cosmotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory, which accelerated protons to about 3 GeV (1953–1968). The Bevatron at Berkeley, completed in 1954, was specifically designed to accelerate protons to sufficient energy to create antiprotons, and verify the particle-antiparticle symmetry of nature, then only theorized. The Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) at Brookhaven (1960–) was the first large synchrotron with alternating gradient, "strong focusing" magnets, which greatly reduced the required aperture of the beam, and correspondingly the size and cost of the bending magnets. The Proton Synchrotron, built at CERN (1959–), was the first major European particle accelerator and generally similar to the AGS.

text: The first large proton

text: synchrotron

text: was the

text: Cosmotron

text: at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: , which accelerated

text: protons

text: to about 3

text: GeV

text: (1953–1968). The

text: Bevatron

text: at Berkeley, completed in 1954, was specifically designed to accelerate protons to sufficient energy to create

text: antiprotons

text: , and verify the

text: particle-antiparticle symmetry

text: of nature, then only theorized. The

text: Alternating Gradient Synchrotron

text: (AGS) at Brookhaven (1960–) was the first large synchrotron with alternating gradient, "

text: strong focusing

text: " magnets, which greatly reduced the required aperture of the beam, and correspondingly the size and cost of the bending magnets. The

text: Proton Synchrotron

text: , built at

text: CERN

text: (1959–), was the first major European particle accelerator and generally similar to the AGS.

text: In particle physics, a glueball (also gluonium, gluon-ball) is a hypothetical composite particle. It consists solely of gluon particles, without valence quarks. Such a state is possible because gluons carry color charge and experience the strong interaction between themselves. Glueballs are extremely difficult to identify in particle accelerators, because they mix with ordinary meson states.

text: In

text: particle physics

text: , a glueball (also gluonium, gluon-ball) is a hypothetical composite

text: particle

text: . It consists solely of

text: gluon

text: particles, without valence

text: quark

text: s. Such a state is possible because gluons carry

text: color charge

text: and experience the

text: strong interaction

text: between themselves. Glueballs are extremely difficult to identify in

text: particle accelerator

text: s, because they

text: mix

text: with ordinary

text: meson

text: states.

text: Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies.  These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the Sokolov–Ternov effect. Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles.  Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions, which particle physics studies .

text: Particle accelerator

text: s use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies.  These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the

text: Sokolov–Ternov effect

text: . Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments.

text: Synchrotron

text: radiation can also

text: cool

text: the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles.  Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies;

text: particle detector

text: s observe the resulting energy emissions, which

text: particle physics

text: studies .

text: One suggested source of UHECR particles is their origination from neutron stars.  In young neutron stars with spin periods of <10ms, the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) forces from the quasi-neutral fluid of superconducting protons and electrons existing in a neutron superfluid accelerate iron nuclei to UHECR velocities.  The magnetic field produced by the neutron superfluid in rapidly rotating stars creates a magnetic field of 10–10 tesla, at which point the neutron star is classified as a magnetar.  This magnetic field is the strongest in the observed universe and creates the relativistic MHD wind believed to accelerate iron nuclei remaining from the supernova to the necessary energy.

text: One suggested source of UHECR particles is their origination from

text: neutron star

text: s.  In young neutron stars with spin periods of <10ms, the

text: magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) forces

text: from the quasi-neutral fluid of superconducting protons and electrons existing in a neutron

text: superfluid

text: accelerate iron nuclei to UHECR velocities.  The magnetic field produced by the neutron superfluid in rapidly rotating stars creates a magnetic field of 10–10 tesla, at which point the neutron star is classified as a

text: magnetar

text: .  This magnetic field is the strongest in the observed universe and creates the relativistic MHD wind believed to accelerate iron nuclei remaining from the supernova to the necessary energy.

text: The largest and highest energy particle accelerator used for elementary particle physics is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, operating since 2009.

text: The largest and highest energy particle accelerator used for elementary

text: particle physics

text: is the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC) at

text: CERN

text: , operating since 2009.

text: Nuclear fusion type atomic bombs release energy through the fusion of the light atomic nuclei of deuterium and tritium. With this type of bomb, a thermonuclear detonation is triggered by the detonation of a fission type nuclear bomb contained within a material containing high concentrations of deuterium and tritium. Weapon yield is typically increased with a tamper that increases the duration and intensity of the reaction through inertial confinement and neutron reflection. Nuclear fusion bombs can have arbitrarily high yields making them hundreds or thousands of times more powerful than nuclear fission.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: type atomic bombs release energy through the fusion of the light atomic nuclei of deuterium and tritium. With this type of bomb, a thermonuclear detonation is triggered by the detonation of a fission type nuclear bomb contained within a material containing high concentrations of deuterium and tritium. Weapon yield is typically increased with a tamper that increases the duration and intensity of the reaction through inertial confinement and neutron reflection. Nuclear fusion bombs can have arbitrarily high yields making them hundreds or thousands of times more powerful than nuclear fission.

text: For most of the first film, the 1.21 gigawatts are supplied by a plutonium-powered nuclear fission reactor and, with the absence of plutonium, a bolt of lightning channeled directly into the flux capacitor by a long pole and hook in the film's climactic sequence. At the end of the first film, and for the remainder of the trilogy, the plutonium nuclear reactor is replaced by a "Mr. Fusion Home Energy Reactor" generator possibly acquired in 2015. The "Mr. Fusion" device apparently converts household waste into electrical power; the name suggests nuclear fusion. Due to a "hover conversion" made in 2015, the car also becomes capable of hovering and flight, though it lost this ability at the end of the second film.

text: For most of the first film, the 1.21

text: gigawatts

text: are supplied by a

text: plutonium

text: -powered

text: nuclear fission reactor

text: and, with the absence of plutonium, a bolt of

text: lightning

text: channeled directly into the flux capacitor by a long pole and hook in the film's climactic sequence. At the end of the first film, and for the remainder of the trilogy, the plutonium nuclear reactor is replaced by a "

text: Mr. Fusion Home Energy Reactor

text: generator

text: possibly acquired in 2015. The "Mr. Fusion" device apparently converts household waste into electrical power; the name suggests

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Due to a "hover conversion" made in 2015, the car also becomes

text: capable of hovering and flight

text: , though it lost this ability at the end of the second film.

text: The Farnsworth–Hirsch fusor is an apparatus designed by Farnsworth to create nuclear fusion. Unlike most controlled fusion systems, which slowly heat a magnetically confined plasma, the fusor injects high-temperature ions directly into a reaction chamber, thereby avoiding a considerable amount of complexity.

text: The

text: Farnsworth–Hirsch fusor

text: is an apparatus designed by Farnsworth to create

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Unlike most controlled fusion systems, which slowly heat a magnetically confined

text: plasma

text: , the fusor injects high-temperature

text: ion

text: s directly into a reaction chamber, thereby avoiding a considerable amount of complexity.

text: Initiated as a voluntary labeling program designed to identify and promote energy efficient products, Energy Star began with labels for computer and printer products. In 1995 the program was significantly expanded, introducing labels for residential heating and cooling systems and new homes. As of 2006, more than 40,000 Energy Star products are available in a wide range of items including major appliances, office equipment, lighting, home electronics, and more. In addition, the label can also be found on new homes and commercial and industrial buildings. In 2006, about 12 percent of new housing in the United States was labeled Energy Star. The EPA has estimated it saved about $14 billion in energy costs in 2006 alone. The Energy Star program has helped spread the use of LED traffic lights, efficient fluorescent lighting, power management systems for office equipment, and low standby energy use.

text: Initiated as a voluntary labeling program designed to identify and promote

text: energy efficient

text: products, Energy Star began with labels for computer and printer products. In 1995 the program was significantly expanded, introducing labels for residential heating and cooling systems and new homes. As of 2006, more than 40,000 Energy Star products are available in a wide range of items including major appliances, office equipment, lighting, home electronics, and more. In addition, the label can also be found on new homes and commercial and industrial buildings. In 2006, about 12 percent of new housing in the

text: United States

text: was labeled Energy Star. The EPA has estimated it saved about $14 billion in energy costs in 2006 alone. The Energy Star program has helped spread the use of

text: LED

text: traffic lights

text: , efficient

text: fluorescent lighting

text: power management

text: systems for office equipment, and low

text: standby

text: energy use.

text: More recently, plasma acceleration has emerged as a possibility to accelerate particles in a plasma medium, using the electromagnetic energy of pulsed high-power laser systems or the kinetic energy of other charged particles. This technique is under active development, but cannot provide reliable beams of sufficient quality at present.

text: More recently,

text: plasma acceleration

text: has emerged as a possibility to accelerate particles in a plasma medium, using the electromagnetic energy of pulsed high-power

text: laser

text: systems or the kinetic energy of other charged particles. This technique is under active development, but cannot provide reliable beams of sufficient quality at present.

text: Students of the Ascended Master Teachings believe that there is One God, the "Universal All-Pervading Presence of Life", "The One", Who is the Source of all Life, Light, and Love in existence, and that all forms of existence and consciousness emanate from this "Allness of God" - "The One". The Voice of the I AM states "All Life is One"  and that there is "One Substance, One Energy, One Power, One Intelligence" as the Source of all consciousness and creation. This Divine Being and Mind is considered to be above and distinct from all creation (in the sense of classical theism), transcending all creation yet interpenetrating all existence. Belief in this "One God" stresses the essential unity of the spiritual and material components of the universe. God creates through Individualized Identities that have distinct Self-Consciousness and that make up the Spiritual Hierarchy of Creation, yet remain connected through the flow of the "River of Life" and "Lifestream" to the "One Undivided God" - the "All in All" - the "Good" - the "Source from which all Life, Light, and Love come." There is always an uninterrupted "Oneness" that is maintained with the "Allness" of God. From the "One God" all other realities, including hierarchy, humanity and the material universe, are the result of a process of emanation.

text: Students of the Ascended Master Teachings believe that there is One God, the "Universal All-Pervading Presence of Life", "The One", Who is the Source of all Life, Light, and Love in existence, and that all forms of existence and consciousness emanate from this "Allness of God" - "The One". The Voice of the I AM states "All Life is One"  and that there is "One Substance, One Energy, One Power, One Intelligence" as the Source of all consciousness and creation. This Divine Being and Mind is considered to be above and distinct from all creation (in the sense of classical

text: theism

text: ), transcending all creation yet interpenetrating all existence. Belief in this "One God" stresses the essential unity of the spiritual and material components of the universe. God creates through Individualized Identities that have distinct Self-Consciousness and that make up the Spiritual Hierarchy of Creation, yet remain connected through the flow of the "River of Life" and "Lifestream" to the "One Undivided God" - the "All in All" - the "Good" - the "Source from which all Life, Light, and Love come." There is always an uninterrupted "Oneness" that is maintained with the "Allness" of God. From the "One God" all other realities, including hierarchy, humanity and the material universe, are the result of a process of emanation.

text: Chan has exhibited his artwork in solo and group exhibitions throughout North America and Asia [see exhibitions].  As a multidisciplinary artist, he works in many styles and media including ink painting, watercolor, oil painting, sculpture, and photography.  He is a contemporary master of Chinese painting, poetry and calligraphy.  As observed by Chinese art historian Dr. Chu-tsing Li (李铸晋), Chan Sheng-yao’s art is totally self-motivated, and he has attained his achievements without any teacher. He combines ink and other media together with techniques such as spraying and dripping to create abstract and semi-abstract paintings. His paintings can be viewed and displayed from both sides. He attempts to express the energy of the universe and the eternal state of ultimate harmony between humans and nature as advocated in Buddhism, Daoism and Confucian philosophies. His personal artistic theory and philosophy of “enlightenment power,” is grounded within these classical philosophical concepts of creation and human existence. He coined the term “enlightenment power” to describe the pure inherent nature of all beings to create their universe. He elaborates on this theory in “A Manifesto on the Use of Enlightenment Power in Art Creation” (覺能藝創).

text: Chan has exhibited his artwork in solo and group exhibitions throughout North America and Asia [see exhibitions].  As a multidisciplinary artist, he works in many styles and media including ink painting, watercolor, oil painting, sculpture, and photography.  He is a contemporary master of Chinese painting, poetry and calligraphy.  As observed by Chinese art historian Dr. Chu-tsing Li (

text: 李铸晋

text: ), Chan Sheng-yao’s art is totally self-motivated, and he has attained his achievements without any teacher. He combines ink and other media together with techniques such as spraying and dripping to create abstract and semi-abstract paintings. His paintings can be viewed and displayed from both sides. He attempts to express the energy of the universe and the eternal state of ultimate harmony between humans and nature as advocated in

text: Buddhism

text: Daoism

text: and

text: Confucian

text: philosophies. His personal artistic theory and philosophy of “enlightenment power,” is grounded within these classical philosophical concepts of creation and human existence. He coined the term “enlightenment power” to describe the pure inherent nature of all beings to create their universe. He elaborates on this theory in “A Manifesto on the Use of Enlightenment Power in Art Creation” (覺能藝創).

text: Countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway have no nuclear power reactors and remain opposed to nuclear power. However, by contrast, some countries remain in favor, and financially support nuclear fusion research, including EU wide funding of the ITER project.

text: Countries such as

text: Australia

text: Austria

text: Denmark

text: Greece

text: Ireland

text: Italy

text: , Latvia, Liechtenstein,

text: Luxembourg

text: Malta

text: Portugal

text: Israel

text: Malaysia

text: New Zealand

text: , and

text: Norway

text: have no nuclear power reactors and remain opposed to nuclear power. However, by contrast, some countries remain in favor, and financially support nuclear fusion research, including EU wide funding of the

text: ITER

text: project.

text: The cases decided in those sessions enabled both the very powerful and those without power to seek redress. Thus King Henry VII used the power of Star Chamber to break the power of the landed gentry which had been such a cause of problems in the Wars of the Roses. Yet, when local courts were often clogged or mismanaged, the Court of Star Chamber also became a site of remittance for the common people against the excesses of the nobility.

text: The cases decided in those sessions enabled both the very powerful and those without power to seek redress. Thus

text: King Henry VII

text: used the power of Star Chamber to break the power of the landed gentry which had been such a cause of problems in the

text: Wars of the Roses

text: . Yet, when local courts were often clogged or mismanaged, the Court of Star Chamber also became a site of remittance for the common people against the excesses of the

text: nobility

text: Another type, microscopic particles usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from atoms to molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nanoparticles, and colloidal particles. These particles are studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics. The smallest of particles are the subatomic particles, which refer to particles smaller than atoms. These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms – protons, neutrons, and electrons – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in particle accelerators or cosmic rays. These particles are studied in particle physics.

text: Another type,

text: microscopic particles

text: usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from

text: atom

text: s to

text: molecule

text: s, such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: nanoparticle

text: s, and

text: colloidal particles

text: . These particles are studied in

text: chemistry

text: , as well as

text: atomic

text: and

text: molecular physics

text: . The smallest of particles are the

text: subatomic particle

text: s, which refer to particles smaller than atoms. These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms –

text: proton

text: s,

text: neutron

text: s, and

text: electron

text: s – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in

text: particle accelerator

text: s or

text: cosmic ray

text: s. These particles are studied in

text: particle physics

text: In order to use alternative energy, the construction of hybrid polygon is underway in Maraza settlement of Gobustan. The polygon operates at the expense of not only wind and sunbeam but also biomass. By 2012, 2,7 mWt of energy is produced due to wind power, 2,0 mWt of energy is gained by using sunbeam as well as 1,0 mWt from biomass. The polygon will provide Gobustan region with electricity in the future. The creation of Sea Wind Farm in the Caspian Sea, estimated at € 250 million is to be invested by non-state entities and the government in the future.

text: In order to use alternative energy, the construction of hybrid polygon is underway in Maraza settlement of Gobustan. The polygon operates at the expense of not only wind and sunbeam but also

text: biomass

text: . By 2012, 2,7 mWt of energy is produced due to wind power, 2,0 mWt of energy is gained by using sunbeam as well as 1,0 mWt from biomass. The polygon will provide Gobustan region with electricity in the future. The creation of Sea Wind Farm in the Caspian Sea, estimated at € 250 million is to be invested by non-state entities and the government in the future.

text: In a purely mathematical treatment, regardless of the frame that the coordinate system is associated with (inertial or non-inertial), extra terms appear in the acceleration of an observed particle when using curvilinear coordinates. For example, in polar coordinates the acceleration is given by (see below for details):

text: A light sail or magnetic sail powered by a massive laser or particle accelerator in the home star system could potentially reach even greater speeds than rocket- or pulse propulsion methods, because it would not need to carry its own reaction mass and therefore would only need to accelerate the craft's payload. Robert L. Forward proposed a means for decelerating an interstellar light sail in the destination star system without requiring a laser array to be present in that system. In this scheme, a smaller secondary sail is deployed to the rear of the spacecraft, whereas the large primary sail is detached from the craft to keep moving forward on its own. Light is reflected from the large primary sail to the secondary sail, which is used to decelerate the secondary sail and the spacecraft payload.

text: A

text: light sail

text: or

text: magnetic sail

text: powered by a massive

text: laser

text: or particle accelerator in the home star system could potentially reach even greater speeds than rocket- or pulse propulsion methods, because it would not need to carry its own

text: reaction mass

text: and therefore would only need to accelerate the craft's

text: payload

text: Robert L. Forward

text: proposed a means for decelerating an interstellar light sail in the destination star system without requiring a laser array to be present in that system. In this scheme, a smaller secondary sail is deployed to the rear of the spacecraft, whereas the large primary sail is detached from the craft to keep moving forward on its own. Light is reflected from the large primary sail to the secondary sail, which is used to decelerate the secondary sail and the spacecraft payload.

text: It was also revealed in Green Lantern #46 that Khufu and Chay-ara's bodies were taken from Earth by the Zamarons and placed in the violet central power battery. Their love is the source of the Star Sapphire's powers. The pair receive black rings during the battle on Zamaron. Their escape from the central power battery causes widespread destruction on the planet, enough for the Star Sapphires to abandon the planet, and sets the Predator free; it does not seem to have affected the Star Sapphires' powers.

text: It was also revealed in Green Lantern #46 that Khufu and Chay-ara's bodies were taken from Earth by the

text: Zamaron

text: s and placed in the violet central power battery. Their love is the source of the Star Sapphire's powers. The pair receive black rings during the battle on Zamaron. Their escape from the central power battery causes widespread destruction on the planet, enough for the Star Sapphires to abandon the planet, and sets the Predator free; it does not seem to have affected the Star Sapphires' powers.

text: When he next appears, Fusion had apparently forcibly recruited Doctor Octopus as his lackey, having discovered Octavius working in one of his factories under an assumed name and then "forcing" him to work for him, Octavius apparently convinced that Fusion possessed genuine powers. Having forced Octavius to create detailed cybernetic limbs that are capable of influencing the thoughts of their wearers - the limbs are linked up to the subject's nervous systems to better replace the original limbs, with the receiver capable of becoming a transmitter that sends thoughts back into the brain-, Fusion arranged for various military officials to lose their limbs in accidents with the aid of a corrupt senator, allowing him to gain the necessary contacts to track down the controlling computer of the radiation-tracking satellite "John Hancock"- originally used to identify where nuclear bombs had been detonated, more recently used by General Ryker to track the Hulk- with the intention of using it to track Spider-Man's unique radiation signature and then kill him. However, having acquired the device, Octavius revealed that he had simply pretended to be weak in order to acquire the "John Hancock" device to sell it to the highest bidder, subsequently beating Fusion half to death as he derided the other villain's foolish belief that he could ever be so pathetic. After finding Fusion's mangled body, Spider-Man called an ambulance and subsequently tracked Octavius to a construction site, defeating his old foe (While simultaneously destroying the John Hancock device to prevent it being used to track heroes such as himself and the Hulk in the future).

text: When he next appears, Fusion had apparently forcibly recruited

text: Doctor Octopus

text: as his lackey, having discovered Octavius working in one of his factories under an assumed name and then "forcing" him to work for him, Octavius apparently convinced that Fusion possessed genuine powers. Having forced Octavius to create detailed cybernetic limbs that are capable of influencing the thoughts of their wearers - the limbs are linked up to the subject's nervous systems to better replace the original limbs, with the receiver capable of becoming a transmitter that sends thoughts back into the brain-, Fusion arranged for various military officials to lose their limbs in accidents with the aid of a corrupt senator, allowing him to gain the necessary contacts to track down the controlling computer of the radiation-tracking satellite "John Hancock"- originally used to identify where nuclear bombs had been detonated, more recently used by

text: General Ryker

text: to track the

text: Hulk

text: - with the intention of using it to track Spider-Man's unique radiation signature and then kill him. However, having acquired the device, Octavius revealed that he had simply pretended to be weak in order to acquire the "John Hancock" device to sell it to the highest bidder, subsequently beating Fusion half to death as he derided the other villain's foolish belief that he could ever be so pathetic. After finding Fusion's mangled body, Spider-Man called an ambulance and subsequently tracked Octavius to a construction site, defeating his old foe (While simultaneously destroying the John Hancock device to prevent it being used to track heroes such as himself and the Hulk in the future).

text: Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between cosmic rays and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate, on demand. Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the nuclear chain reactions in fissionable materials that produce induced nuclear fission, and the various nuclear fusion reactions of light elements that power the energy production of the Sun and stars. Both of these types of reactions are employed in nuclear weapons.

text: Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between

text: cosmic ray

text: s and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate, on demand. Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the

text: nuclear chain reaction

text: s in

text: fissionable

text: materials that produce induced

text: nuclear fission

text: , and the various

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions of light elements that power the energy production of the Sun and stars. Both of these types of reactions are employed in

text: nuclear weapon

text: s.

text: Metaphysical philosopher Gurdjieff writes frequently of his "Seven Rays of Creation".   According to Gurdjieff, the Seven Rays of Creation are the seven manifestations of Energy in our Universe. The first Ray contains all things (THE ENTIRE UNIVERSE) and all things obey the laws inherent in the First Ray. The First Ray then manifests itself in the 2nd Realm, the realm of Galaxies. From Galaxies to Solar Systems, Solar Systems to Planets. From Planets to Organisms on the planets, etc.

text: Several mandates and proposals have been called over the years to overlook the energy conservation, such as Neon signs were banned and the official weekend was extended from one to two days in an attempt to conserve electricity (Gillani, 2010) and reducing the electricity load used by industrial units by 25% during peak hours (Aziz, 2007), but no comprehensive long-term energy strategies were implemented. Since 1999, many legislative provisions were adopted for energy conservation including the seeking energy from various renewable energy sources. There is also an intense criticism about the unequal distribution of energy, the irresponsible usage of energy sources, and the country's new plan which is aimed to raise country's dependence on imported oil for power generation to 50% by 2030. After much public criticism, the long-term energy security policy was announced in 2013 through the introduction of equal cutting edge energy transmission network, minimising financial losses across the energy system and aligning the ministries involved in the energy sector as well as improving the governance of energy sources.

text: Several mandates and proposals have been called over the years to overlook the energy conservation, such as

text: Neon signs

text: were banned and the official weekend was extended from one to two days in an attempt to conserve electricity (

text: Gillani

text: , 2010) and reducing the electricity load used by

text: industrial units

text: by 25% during peak hours (

text: Aziz

text: , 2007), but no comprehensive long-term energy strategies were implemented. Since 1999, many legislative provisions were adopted for

text: energy conservation

text: including the seeking energy from various

text: renewable energy sources

text: . There is also an intense criticism about the unequal distribution of energy, the irresponsible usage of energy sources, and the country's new plan which is aimed to raise country's

text: dependence

text: on imported oil for power generation to 50% by 2030. After much public criticism, the long-term energy security policy was announced in 2013 through the introduction of equal cutting edge energy transmission network, minimising financial losses across the energy system and aligning the ministries involved in the energy sector as well as improving the governance of energy sources.

text: A mix of D-T at standard conditions does not undergo fusion; the nuclei must be forced together before the nuclear force can pull them together into stable collections. Even in the hot, dense center of the sun, the average proton will exist for billions of years before it fuses. For practical fusion power systems, the rate must be dramatically increased; heated to tens of millions of degrees, and/or compressed to immense pressures. The temperature and pressure required for any particular fuel to fuse is known as the Lawson criterion. These conditions have been known since the 1950s when the first H-bombs were built. To meet the Lawson Criterion is extremely difficult on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current high state of technical prowess.

text: A mix of D-T at

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: standard conditions

text: does not undergo fusion; the nuclei must be forced together before the nuclear force can pull them together into stable collections. Even in the hot, dense center of the sun, the average proton will exist for billions of years before it fuses. For practical fusion power systems, the rate must be dramatically increased; heated to tens of millions of degrees, and/or compressed to immense pressures. The temperature and pressure required for any particular fuel to fuse is known as the

text: Lawson criterion

text: . These conditions have been known since the 1950s when the first

text: H-bomb

text: s were built. To meet the Lawson Criterion is extremely difficult on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current high state of technical prowess.

text: A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined beams.Large accelerators are used in particle physics as colliders (e.g. the LHC at CERN, KEKB at KEK in Japan, RHIC at Brookhaven National Laboratory, and Tevatron at Fermilab), or as synchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, ion implanters for manufacture of semiconductors, and accelerator mass spectrometers for measurements of rare isotopes such as radiocarbon.  There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world.

text: A particle accelerator is a machine that uses

text: electromagnetic field

text: s to propel

text: charged

text: particle

text: s to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined

text: beams

text: .Large accelerators are used in

text: particle physics

text: as

text: collider

text: s (e.g. the

text: LHC

text: at

text: CERN

text: KEKB

text: at

text: KEK

text: in Japan,

text: RHIC

text: at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: , and

text: Tevatron

text: at

text: Fermilab

text: ), or as

text: synchrotron light source

text: s for the study of

text: condensed matter physics

text: . Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including

text: particle therapy

text: for

text: oncological

text: purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics,

text: ion implanters

text: for manufacture of semiconductors, and

text: accelerator mass spectrometers

text: for measurements of rare isotopes such as

text: radiocarbon

text: .  There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world.

text: The deuterium-tritium fusion reaction generates mono-energetic neutrons with an energy of 14.1 MeV. In fusion power plants, neutrons will be present at fluxes in the order of 10 ms and will interact with the material structures of the reactor by which their spectrum will be broadened and softened. A fusion relevant neutron source is an indispensable step towards the successful development of fusion energy. Safe design, construction and licensing of a fusion power facility by the corresponding Nuclear Regulatory agency will require data on the plasma-facing materials degradation under neutron irradiation during the life-time of a fusion reactor. The main source of materials degradation is structural damage which is typically quantified in terms of displacements per atom (dpa). Whereas in the currently constructed large fusion experiment, ITER, structural damage in the reactor steels will not exceed 2 dpa at the end of its operational life, damage creation in a fusion power plant is expected to amount to 15 dpa per year of operation.

text: The

text: deuterium

text: tritium

text: fusion reaction generates mono-energetic neutrons with an energy of 14.1 MeV. In fusion power plants, neutrons will be present at

text: fluxes

text: in the order of 10 ms and will interact with the material structures of the reactor by which their spectrum will be broadened and softened. A fusion relevant neutron source is an indispensable step towards the successful development of

text: fusion energy

text: . Safe design, construction and licensing of a fusion power facility by the corresponding Nuclear Regulatory agency will require data on the

text: plasma-facing material

text: s degradation under neutron irradiation during the life-time of a fusion reactor. The main source of materials degradation is structural damage which is typically quantified in terms of

text: displacements per atom

text: (dpa). Whereas in the currently constructed large fusion experiment,

text: ITER

text: , structural damage in the reactor steels will not exceed 2 dpa at the end of its operational life, damage creation in a fusion power plant is expected to amount to 15 dpa per year of operation.

text: The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW power plant in Riverside County, California, that uses thin-film CdTe-modules made by First Solar. As of November 2014, the 550 megawatt Topaz Solar Farm was the largest photovoltaic power plant in the world. This was surpassed by the 579 MW Solar Star complex. The current largest photovoltaic power station in the world is Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, in Gonghe County, Qinghai, China.

text: The

text: Desert Sunlight Solar Farm

text: is a 550 MW power plant in

text: Riverside County, California

text: , that uses

text: thin-film

text: CdTe-modules

text: made by

text: First Solar

text: . As of November 2014, the 550 megawatt

text: Topaz Solar Farm

text: was the largest photovoltaic power plant in the world. This was surpassed by the 579 MW

text: Solar Star

text: complex. The current largest photovoltaic power station in the world is

text: Longyangxia Dam

text: Solar Park, in

text: Gonghe County

text: Qinghai

text: China

text: Lesser used powers of the Kings include telekinesis, the creation of realistic three-dimensional holograms, and the ability to fire blasts of psionic energy.

text: Lesser used powers of the Kings include

text: telekinesis

text: , the creation of realistic three-dimensional holograms, and the ability to fire blasts of psionic energy.

text: The Energy Policy Act of 1992 called for new rules to be made for required and voluntary labeling programs.  This spawned the creation of the Energy Guide label and the Energy Star Label?

text: The

text: Energy Policy Act of 1992

text: called for new rules to be made for required and voluntary labeling programs.  This spawned the creation of the Energy Guide label and the

text: Energy Star

text: Label?

text: Originally led by Goodwin,  was an organization of Star Guardians, who are said to bring peace to the world and worship the Crimson Dragon. Their true purpose, however, is to steer the world to change the future, which was destroyed by Dr Fudo's creation of Ener-D (Momentum in Japanese). In the third season, the founding Yliaster members come from the future with the purpose of setting things right. They hope to accomplish this by harnessing energy from Turbo Duels during the WRGP to power the Ark Cradle, which will be used to destroy Ener-D, and ultimately New Domino City and Satellite, and thus undo the calamity Ener-D had caused.

text: The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.

text: The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the

text: coulomb barrier

text: —and fuse together into a single nucleus.

text: Nuclear fission

text: is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.

text: In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by-product of exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the development of quantum field theory and general relativity, it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum can be directly derived from the homogeneity or symmetry of space and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known fundamental forces are considered more accurately to be "fundamental interactions". When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) virtual particle B, a momentum conservation results in recoil of particle A making impression of repulsion or attraction between particles A A' exchanging by B. This description applies to all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the accurate result of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line) traveling through time, which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.

text: In modern

text: particle physics

text: , forces and the acceleration of particles are explained as a mathematical by-product of exchange of momentum-carrying

text: gauge boson

text: s. With the development of

text: quantum field theory

text: and

text: general relativity

text: , it was realized that force is a redundant concept arising from

text: conservation of momentum

text: in relativity and momentum of

text: virtual particle

text: s in

text: quantum electrodynamics

text: ). The conservation of momentum can be directly derived from the homogeneity or

text: symmetry

text: of

text: space

text: and so is usually considered more fundamental than the concept of a force. Thus the currently known

text: fundamental forces

text: are considered more accurately to be "

text: fundamental interactions

text: ". When particle A emits (creates) or absorbs (annihilates) virtual particle B, a momentum conservation results in recoil of particle A making impression of repulsion or attraction between particles A A' exchanging by B. This description applies to all forces arising from fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the accurate result of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see

text: world line

text: ) traveling through time, which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.

text: The nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability, since the two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides. Because of its relative nuclear instability, lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though the nuclei are very light in atomic weight. For related reasons, lithium has important links to nuclear physics. The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932 was the first fully man-made nuclear reaction, and lithium-6 deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons.

text: The

text: nucleus

text: of the lithium atom verges on instability, since the two stable lithium

text: isotope

text: s found in nature have among the lowest

text: binding energies

text: per

text: nucleon

text: of all stable

text: nuclide

text: s. Because of its relative nuclear instability, lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though the nuclei are very light in atomic weight. For related reasons, lithium has important links to

text: nuclear physics

text: . The

text: transmutation

text: of lithium atoms to

text: helium

text: in 1932 was the first fully man-made

text: nuclear reaction

text: , and

text: lithium-6 deuteride

text: serves as a

text: fusion

text: fuel in

text: staged thermonuclear weapons

text: Nuclear reactors create energy through fission, as opposed to burning fuel.  Because of this, no greenhouse gases are produced in the energy creation process.  Nuclear energy is completely self-contained and produces no airborne by-products.  The waste created through nuclear power is contained in the reactor and is disposed of when the vessel is decommissioned or the reactor is replaced.

text: Nuclear reactors create energy through fission, as opposed to burning fuel.  Because of this, no

text: greenhouse gases

text: are produced in the energy creation process.  Nuclear energy is completely self-contained and produces no airborne by-products.  The waste created through nuclear power is contained in the reactor and is disposed of when the vessel is decommissioned or the reactor is replaced.

text: YVR's Vancouver Airport Services created an energy reduction committee in 1999 to create new energy-reducing initiatives. The YVR website describes these different initiatives such as "installing an econo-mode setting on baggage conveyor belts to shut down conveyors when no bags are present; installing carbon dioxide sensors to control heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) according to the number of people in area; and patenting a black box to regulate electrical power to the flight information display monitors when no flights are scheduled." In 2005, the committee introduced "installation of low-energy Light Emitting Diodes (LED) lighting on several taxiways, installation of more efficient, brighter lighting on Levels 2 and 3 of the car parking structure, upgrades to the chilled water distribution system, and replacement of all Airport Authority computer equipment with newer, more efficient models."  The building and lighting system are designed to utilize as much daylight as possible so that it is the primary lighting source. The Committee claims to have saved more than 24 gigawatt hours of electricity and $5.5 million since the team's creation.

text: YVR's

text: Vancouver Airport Services

text: created an energy reduction committee in 1999 to create new energy-reducing initiatives. The YVR website describes these different initiatives such as "installing an econo-mode setting on baggage conveyor belts to shut down conveyors when no bags are present; installing

text: carbon dioxide

text: sensors to control heating, ventilation and air conditioning (

text: HVAC

text: ) according to the number of people in area; and patenting a black box to regulate electrical power to the flight information display monitors when no flights are scheduled." In 2005, the committee introduced "installation of low-energy Light Emitting Diodes (

text: LED

text: ) lighting on several

text: taxiway

text: s, installation of more efficient, brighter lighting on Levels 2 and 3 of the car parking structure, upgrades to the chilled water distribution system, and replacement of all Airport Authority computer equipment with newer, more efficient models."  The building and lighting system are designed to utilize as much daylight as possible so that it is the primary lighting source. The Committee claims to have saved more than 24

text: gigawatt

text: hours of electricity and $5.5 million since the team's creation.

text: Public responsibility for electrical energy in Seattle dates to 1890 with creation of the Department of Lighting and Water Works. In 1902, Seattle voters passed a bond issue to develop hydroelectric power on the Cedar River (Washington) under the administration of the Water Department. Electricity from this development began to serve Seattle in 1905. A City Charter amendment in 1910 created the Lighting Department. Under the leadership of Superintendent James D. Ross, the department developed the Skagit River Hydroelectric Project, which began supplying power in 1924. Both public and private power were supplied to Seattle until 1951 when the City purchased the private electrical power supply operations, making the Lighting Department the sole supplier. The Boundary Project in northern Washington began operation in 1967 and currently supplies over half of City Light's power generation. Approximately ten percent of City Light's income comes from the sale of surplus energy to customers in the Northwest and Southwest. The current name of the agency was adopted in 1978 when the Department was reorganized.

text: Public responsibility for electrical energy in Seattle dates to 1890 with creation of the Department of Lighting and Water Works. In 1902, Seattle voters passed a bond issue to develop hydroelectric power on the

text: Cedar River (Washington)

text: under the administration of the Water Department. Electricity from this development began to serve Seattle in 1905. A City Charter amendment in 1910 created the Lighting Department. Under the leadership of Superintendent James D. Ross, the department developed the

text: Skagit River Hydroelectric Project

text: , which began supplying power in 1924. Both public and private power were supplied to Seattle until 1951 when the City purchased the private electrical power supply operations, making the Lighting Department the sole supplier. The Boundary Project in northern Washington began operation in 1967 and currently supplies over half of City Light's power generation. Approximately ten percent of City Light's income comes from the sale of surplus energy to customers in the Northwest and Southwest. The current name of the agency was adopted in 1978 when the Department was reorganized.

text: In April 2004, Duncan announced the creation of a new body called the Ontario Power Authority to purchase energy for the province and plan its long-term energy strategy.  Duncan argued that the body would "depoliticize" energy debates in Ontario.  Most energy companies supported this decision, while a number of environmental groups criticized it.  The Globe and Mail newspaper raised concerns over the Authority's expanding budget in late 2006, but Duncan argued that its expenses are necessary to create a planning regime for the future.

text: Qulliq Energy was established by the Nunavut Power Utilities Act (now the Qulliq Energy Corporation Act) in 2001, two years after the 1999 creation of Canada's Nunavut Territory, to take over the assets within Nunavut of the Northwest Territories Power Corporation. Its original name was Nunavut Power Corporation and it was renamed Qulliq Energy Corporation in 2002 and the mandate of the corporation expanded to include energy conservation and alternative generation development. The power generation trading name Nunavut Power was adopted in 2003.

text: Qulliq Energy was established by the Nunavut Power Utilities Act (now the Qulliq Energy Corporation Act) in 2001, two years after the 1999 creation of

text: Canada

text: 's Nunavut Territory, to take over the assets within Nunavut of the

text: Northwest Territories Power Corporation

text: . Its original name was Nunavut Power Corporation and it was renamed Qulliq Energy Corporation in 2002 and the mandate of the corporation expanded to include energy conservation and alternative generation development. The power generation trading name Nunavut Power was adopted in 2003.

text: In kinematics, the acceleration of a particle moving along a curve in space is the time derivative of its velocity. In most applications, the acceleration vector is expressed as the sum of its normal and tangential components, which are orthogonal to each other. Siacci’s theorem, formulated by the Italian mathematician Francesco Siacci (1839–1907), is the kinematical decomposition of the acceleration vector into its radial and tangential components. In general, the radial and tangential components are not orthogonal to each other. Siacci’s theorem is particularly useful in motions where the angular momentum is constant.

text: In

text: kinematics

text: , the

text: acceleration

text: of a particle moving along a curve in space is the time derivative of its velocity. In most applications, the acceleration vector is expressed as the sum of its

text: normal and tangential components

text: , which are

text: orthogonal

text: to each other. Siacci’s theorem, formulated by the Italian mathematician

text: Francesco Siacci

text: (1839–1907), is the kinematical decomposition of the acceleration vector into its radial and tangential components. In general, the radial and tangential components are not orthogonal to each other. Siacci’s theorem is particularly useful in motions where the

text: angular momentum

text: is constant.

text: Cybertron was a world created by a device known as the AllSpark. With its power, it created a race of dimensional travelers, the Thirteen Primes, and made Cybertron suitable for their habitation. The Primes soon discovered that while the AllSpark's power was vast, it was also finite, needing to be recharged. The universe soon provided the answer, for a nearby star went nova, recharging the AllSpark. Though the Primes could travel dimensions, they needed help locating stars and harvesting their energy. The AllSpark responded by creating two things to help the Primes. The first gift was the second race of Cybertronians, the Transformers, who could change their forms. The Thirteen Primes ruled over the Transformers with their descendants, forming the Dynasty of Primes, to protect the AllSpark and Cybertron, while seeking out stars to harvest. The Dynasty even shared their dimensional traveling abilities with the Seekers, those tasked with finding stars. Once they found a star, the Dynasty would follow with builders to forge a harvester to drain a star of its energy and send it to the AllSpark to form energon. The second gift the AllSpark gave the Dynasty was the Matrix of Leadership, a key which contained the essence of the AllSpark and powered the harvesters. The Dynasty of Primes recognized the potential for destruction the harvesters presented, so they decreed that any star system which supported life was to be spared.

text: Cybertron was a world created by a device known as the

text: AllSpark

text: . With its power, it created a race of dimensional travelers, the

text: Thirteen Primes

text: , and made Cybertron suitable for their habitation. The Primes soon discovered that while the AllSpark's power was vast, it was also finite, needing to be recharged. The universe soon provided the answer, for a nearby star went nova, recharging the AllSpark. Though the Primes could travel dimensions, they needed help locating stars and harvesting their energy. The AllSpark responded by creating two things to help the Primes. The first gift was the second race of Cybertronians, the

text: Transformers

text: , who could change their forms. The Thirteen Primes ruled over the Transformers with their descendants, forming the

text: Dynasty of Primes

text: , to protect the AllSpark and Cybertron, while seeking out stars to harvest. The Dynasty even shared their dimensional traveling abilities with the

text: Seeker

text: s, those tasked with finding stars. Once they found a star, the Dynasty would follow with

text: builders

text: to forge a

text: harvester

text: to drain a star of its energy and send it to the AllSpark to form

text: energon

text: . The second gift the AllSpark gave the Dynasty was the

text: Matrix of Leadership

text: , a key which contained the essence of the AllSpark and powered the harvesters. The Dynasty of Primes recognized the potential for destruction the harvesters presented, so they decreed that any star system which supported life was to be spared.

text: Popper-Lynkeus's ideas were innovative for his time. In engineering, he thought of the possibility of electric power transmission, the conversion of mechanical energy of waterfalls and rising tides into electrical power (1862). In physics, he thought of the mass-energy relation (1883) and the idea of a quantum of energy (1884), the principle of unavoidable distortion of the parameters of objects under investigation by measuring instruments. In psychology, he thought of the interpretations of dreams based on analysis of the conflict between the social consciousness of an individual and his or her animal instincts (short story Dreaming like Waking, 1889). Several years before Theodor Herzl, in the work Prince Bismarck and anti-Semitism (1886), Popper-Lynkeus came to the conclusion that the Jews could be saved from anti-Semitism only if they possessed their own state. He considered creation of such a state an urgent need, and that the type of regime in the beginning did not matter, that even a monarchy would be satisfactory.

text: Popper-Lynkeus's ideas were innovative for his time. In engineering, he thought of the possibility of

text: electric power transmission

text: , the

text: conversion of mechanical energy of waterfalls and rising tides into electrical power

text: (1862). In physics, he thought of the

text: mass-energy relation

text: (1883) and the idea of a

text: quantum

text: of energy (1884), the principle of unavoidable distortion of the parameters of objects under investigation by measuring instruments. In psychology, he thought of the interpretations of dreams based on analysis of the conflict between the social consciousness of an individual and his or her animal instincts (short story Dreaming like Waking, 1889). Several years before

text: Theodor Herzl

text: , in the work Prince Bismarck and anti-Semitism (1886), Popper-Lynkeus came to the conclusion that the Jews could be saved from

text: anti-Semitism

text: only if they possessed their own state. He considered creation of such a state an urgent need, and that the type of regime in the beginning did not matter, that even a

text: monarchy

text: would be satisfactory.

text: In May 2014, it was announced that Tom Hanks would star as James Donovan, with Mark Rylance co-starring as Abel. Amy Ryan, Alan Alda, Billy Magnussen, and Eve Hewson were reported to star in the film as well. Participant Media co-produced the film. Francis Gary Powers, Jr., founder of The Cold War Museum and the pilot's son, was brought on as a technical consultant and has a cameo in the film.

text: In May 2014, it was announced that

text: Tom Hanks

text: would star as

text: James Donovan

text: , with

text: Mark Rylance

text: co-starring as Abel.

text: Amy Ryan

text: Alan Alda

text: Billy Magnussen

text: , and

text: Eve Hewson

text: were reported to star in the film as well.

text: Participant Media

text: co-produced the film. Francis Gary Powers, Jr., founder of

text: The Cold War Museum

text: and the pilot's son, was brought on as a technical consultant and has a cameo in the film.

text: Axel Steel's power is called "Resurrector." With this power, the player can earn up to 2 ankhs that will revive the player with the rock meter in the yellow section should they fail the song. Additionally, any ankhs left over after the song is complete are converted into 1 power star each. Once Axel has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form, a mummy, his power is upgraded to "Resurrector +." With this upgrade, the maximum number of ankhs the player can earn is increased to 5.

text: Axel Steel's power is called "Resurrector." With this power, the player can earn up to 2

text: ankh

text: s that will revive the player with the rock meter in the yellow section should they fail the song. Additionally, any ankhs left over after the song is complete are converted into 1 power star each. Once Axel has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form, a

text: mummy

text: , his power is upgraded to "Resurrector +." With this upgrade, the maximum number of ankhs the player can earn is increased to 5.

text: Protostars with masses less than roughly  never reach temperatures high enough for nuclear fusion of hydrogen to begin. These are known as brown dwarfs. The International Astronomical Union defines brown dwarfs as stars massive enough to fuse deuterium at some point in their lives (13 Jupiter masses (), 2.5 × 10 kg, or ). Objects smaller than  are classified as sub-brown dwarfs (but if they orbit around another stellar object they are classified as planets). Both types, deuterium-burning and not, shine dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.

text: Protostars with masses less than roughly  never reach temperatures high enough for

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen to begin. These are known as

text: brown dwarf

text: s. The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: defines brown dwarfs as stars massive enough to

text: fuse deuterium

text: at some point in their lives (13

text: Jupiter mass

text: es (), 2.5 × 10 kg, or ). Objects smaller than  are classified as sub-brown dwarfs (but if they orbit around another stellar object they are classified as planets). Both types, deuterium-burning and not, shine dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.

text: A nanoFET works in a fairly straight forward manner. It consists of 3 main parts: a particle storage area, a charging pad, and an acceleration grid. To start, it transports  cylindrical particles to the charging pad which then imposes a charge on the particles. As the particle gains charge, the pulling force from the acceleration grid increases. Eventually, this pulling force overpowers the electro-magnetic and surface adhesion forces between the particles and charging pad. Now the particle begins accelerating towards the acceleration grid until it is shot out of the nanoFET, consequently pushing the nanoFET in the opposite direction.

text: The political position of the American Solidarity Party is socially conservative and economically distributist. Therefore, the ASP holds to socially conservative views such as adhering to a pro-life position with regard to abortion, capital punishment and euthanasia, as well as opposition to same-sex marriage and opposition to pornography. With regard to economics, labor issues and foreign policy, the American Solidarity Party sees the "moderate welfare state as the public expression of every citizen’s responsibility for his poor brother or sister." As such, the American Solidarity Party notably opposes conscription, and favors "equal access to the polls, the courts, housing, education, and credit". In addition, it supports "amnesty and a path to citizenship" for immigrants currently residing in the United States and "oppose[s] the militarization and fortification of our national borders". With regard to healthcare, the ASP advocates the creation of a decentralized ‘single-payer’ system. It supports the dignity of work, as well as stewardship for creation, advocating for "generous funding for research in safe and renewable sources of energy, such as solar and wind-power."

text: The political position of the American Solidarity Party is

entity_name: Social conservatism in the United States

text: socially conservative

text: and

text: economically distributist

text: . Therefore, the ASP holds to socially conservative views such as adhering to a

text: pro-life

text: position with regard to abortion, capital punishment and euthanasia, as well as opposition to

text: same-sex marriage

text: and

text: opposition to pornography

text: . With regard to economics, labor issues and foreign policy, the American Solidarity Party sees the "moderate

text: welfare state

text: as the public expression of every citizen’s responsibility for his poor brother or sister." As such, the American Solidarity Party notably opposes

text: conscription

text: , and favors "equal access to the polls, the courts, housing, education, and credit". In addition, it supports "amnesty and a path to citizenship" for immigrants currently residing in the United States and "oppose[s] the militarization and fortification of our national borders". With regard to healthcare, the ASP advocates the creation of a

text: decentralized ‘single-payer’ system

text: . It supports the

text: dignity of work

text: , as well as

text: stewardship for creation

text: , advocating for "generous funding for research in safe and

text: renewable sources of energy

text: , such as solar and wind-power."

text: In the modern interpretation, the positive frequency operators add a positive energy particle, adding to the energy, while the negative frequency operators annihilate a positive energy particle, and lower the energy. For a Fermionic field, the creation operator

text: Nuclear electric propulsion is a field that is distinct from other space nuclear power areas, such as radioisotope systems (including radioisotope thermoelectric generators, radioisotope heater units, radioisotope piezoelectric generators & the radioisotope rocket - all of which use the heat from a static radioactive source (usually Plutonium-238) for a low level of electric or direct propulsion power), a nuclear thermal rocket (energy is used to heat the liquid hydrogen propellant), direct nuclear (fission products from a nuclear reaction directly propel the rocket), nuclear pulse propulsion (nuclear explosions propel the rocket), or space based nuclear fusion systems, either a fusion rocket, or some as-yet theoretical or unproven experimental fusion technology.

text: Nuclear electric propulsion is a field that is distinct from other space nuclear power areas, such as radioisotope systems (including

text: radioisotope thermoelectric generators

text: radioisotope heater unit

text: s,

text: radioisotope piezoelectric generator

text: s & the

text: radioisotope rocket

text: - all of which use the heat from a static radioactive source (usually

text: ) for a low level of electric or direct propulsion power), a

text: nuclear thermal rocket

text: (energy is used to heat the liquid hydrogen propellant), direct nuclear (fission products from a nuclear reaction directly propel the rocket),

text: nuclear pulse propulsion

text: (nuclear explosions propel the rocket), or space based

text: nuclear fusion

text: systems, either a

text: fusion rocket

text: , or some as-yet theoretical or unproven experimental fusion technology.

text: This means that  acts on    to produce, up to a multiplicative constant,   , and  acts on    to produce . For this reason,  is called a "lowering operator", and  a "raising operator". The two operators together are called ladder operators. In quantum field theory,  and  are alternatively called "annihilation" and "creation" operators because they destroy and create particles, which correspond to our quanta of energy.

text: This means that  acts on    to produce, up to a multiplicative constant,   , and  acts on    to produce . For this reason,  is called a "lowering operator", and  a "raising operator". The two operators together are called

text: ladder operator

text: s. In quantum field theory,  and  are alternatively called "annihilation" and "creation" operators because they destroy and create particles, which correspond to our quanta of energy.

text: De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by 1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was used in incandescent lamp filaments, the first commercial application. This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten, which has a higher melting point. That niobium improves the strength of steel was first discovered in the 1920s, and this application remains its predominant use. In 1961, the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium-tin continues to exhibit superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields, making it the first material to support the high currents and fields necessary for useful high-power magnets and electrical power machinery. This discovery enabled — two decades later — the production of long multi-strand cables wound into coils to create large, powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery, particle accelerators, and particle detectors.

text: De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he

text: reduced

text: niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of

text: hydrogen

text: . Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by 1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was used in

text: incandescent lamp

text: filaments, the first commercial application. This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with

text: tungsten

text: , which has a higher melting point. That niobium improves the

text: strength of steel

text: was first discovered in the 1920s, and this application remains its predominant use. In 1961, the American physicist

text: Eugene Kunzler

text: and coworkers at

text: Bell Labs

text: discovered that

text: niobium-tin

text: continues to exhibit superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields, making it the first material to support the high currents and fields necessary for useful high-power magnets and electrical power

text: machinery

text: . This discovery enabled — two decades later — the production of long multi-strand cables wound into coils to create large, powerful

text: electromagnet

text: s for rotating machinery, particle accelerators, and particle detectors.

text: The retailers are: Contact Energy, Ecotricity, Electra Energy, Electric Kiwi, Energy Direct, Energy Online, Flick Electric, Genesis Energy, Giving Energy, GLOBUG, King Country Energy, megaEnergy, Mercury Energy, Meridian Energy, Nova Energy, Opunake Hydro, Paua to the People, Payless Energy, Powershop, Pulse Energy, Tiny Mighty Power and Trustpower.

text: The retailers are:

text: Contact Energy

text: , Ecotricity, Electra Energy, Electric Kiwi,

text: Energy Direct

text: Energy Online

text: , Flick Electric,

text: Genesis Energy

text: , Giving Energy,

text: GLOBUG

text: King Country Energy

text: , megaEnergy,

text: Mercury Energy

text: Meridian Energy

text: Nova Energy

text: , Opunake Hydro, Paua to the People, Payless Energy,

text: Powershop

text: , Pulse Energy,

text: Tiny Mighty Power

text: and

text: Trustpower

text: In the mid-nineties, Bussard publications prompted the development of a fusors at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.  Madison's machine was first built in 1995 and the group still produces some of the best IEC research in the world. Dr George H. Miley team at Illinois, built a 25 cm fusor which has produced 10 neutrons using deuterium gas  and discovered the "star mode" of fusor operation in 1994.  The following year, the first "US-Japan Workshop on IEC Fusion", was conducted. This is now the premier conference for IEC researchers.  At this time in Europe, an IEC device was developed as a commercial neutron source by Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace under the name FusionStar.  In the late nineties, hobbyist Richard Hull began building the first amateur fusors in his home in Virginia. In March 1999, he achieved a neutron rate of 10 neutrons per second. Hull and Paul Schatzkin, started fusor.net in 1998.  Through this open forum, a community of amateur fusioneers have done nuclear fusion using homemade fusors.

text: In the mid-nineties, Bussard publications prompted the development of a

text: fusor

text: s at the

text: University of Wisconsin–Madison

text: and at the

entity_name: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

text: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

text: .  Madison's machine was first built in 1995 and the group still produces some of the best IEC research in the world. Dr

text: George H. Miley

text: team at Illinois, built a 25 cm fusor which has produced 10 neutrons using deuterium gas  and discovered the "star mode" of fusor operation in 1994.  The following year, the first "US-Japan Workshop on IEC Fusion", was conducted. This is now the premier conference for IEC researchers.  At this time in Europe, an IEC device was developed as a commercial neutron source by

text: Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace

text: under the name FusionStar.  In the late nineties, hobbyist Richard Hull began building the first amateur

text: fusor

text: s in his home in Virginia. In March 1999, he achieved a neutron rate of 10 neutrons per second. Hull and Paul Schatzkin, started fusor.net in 1998.  Through this open forum, a community of amateur fusioneers have done nuclear fusion using homemade

text: fusor

text: s.

text: In a rare positive review, Madhureeta Mukherjee of The Times of India rated it 3.5 of 5 stars and posited that the director "relies on the sheer 3K (read: Kapoors) power to entertain."

text: In a rare positive review, Madhureeta Mukherjee of

text: The Times of India

text: rated it 3.5 of 5 stars and posited that the director "relies on the sheer 3K (read: Kapoors) power to entertain."

text: The original Star Sapphire's powers are vast. She is equipped with an arsenal of weapons, including a replicate Zamaron star sapphire, of unknown origin. She also has a variety of personal powers, though whether they stem from herself or her personal armament is unclear. She is also able to access the memories of the Zamorans regarding the Star Sapphire gem, such as the experiences of other wearers. As with the powers of the woman bearing the title of Star Sapphire, the limitations of the Star Sapphire gem are also unclear. Psychologically, the women serving as Star Sapphire have displayed a bizarre preoccupation with gender, suspected of reflecting a pathological fear of men. They also have had a less than accurate grasp of the variations in physics between dimensions. They are sometimes foiled primarily due to their own overconfidence. The Star Sapphire gems used to power the original incarnations of Star Sapphire were used by the Zamarons to create the main violet Power Battery.

text: Nuclear engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the application of the breakdown (fission) as well as the fusion of atomic nuclei and/or the application of other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics. In the sub-field of nuclear fission, it particularly includes the interaction and maintenance of systems and components like nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants, and/or nuclear weapons. The field also includes the study of medical and other applications of (generally ionizing) radiation, nuclear safety, heat/thermodynamics transport, nuclear fuel and/or other related technology (e.g., radioactive waste disposal), and the problems of nuclear proliferation.

text: Nuclear engineering is the branch of

text: engineering

text: concerned with the application of the breakdown (

text: fission

text: ) as well as the

text: fusion

text: of

text: atomic nuclei

text: and/or the application of other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of

text: nuclear physics

text: . In the sub-field of nuclear fission, it particularly includes the interaction and maintenance of systems and components like

text: nuclear reactor

text: s,

text: nuclear power plant

text: s, and/or

text: nuclear weapon

text: s. The field also includes the study of

text: medical

text: and other applications of (generally

text: ionizing

text: radiation

text: nuclear safety

text: heat/thermodynamics

text: transport,

text: nuclear fuel

text: and/or other related technology (e.g.,

text: radioactive waste

text: disposal), and the problems of

text: nuclear proliferation

text: , which implies that no experiment should be able to measure the absolute potential, without reference to some external standard such as an electrical ground. But the proposed rules E=qV and E=qV for the energies of creation and destruction would allow an experimenter to determine the absolute potential, simply by comparing the energy input required to create the charge q at a particular point in space in the case where the potential is

text: The ISR (standing for "Intersecting Storage Rings") was a particle accelerator at CERN.  It was the world's first hadron collider, and ran from 1971 to 1984, with a maximum center of mass energy of 62 GeV.  From its initial startup, the collider itself had the capability to produce particles like the J/ψ and the upsilon, as well as observable jet structure; however, the particle detector experiments were not configured to observe events with large momentum transverse to the beamline, leaving these discoveries to be made at other experiments in the mid-1970s.  Nevertheless, the construction of the ISR involved many advances in accelerator physics, including the first use of stochastic cooling, and it held the record for luminosity at a hadron collider until surpassed by the Tevatron in 2004.

text: The ISR (standing for "Intersecting Storage Rings") was a

text: particle accelerator

text: at

text: CERN

text: .  It was the world's first

text: hadron

text: collider

text: , and ran from 1971 to 1984, with a maximum

text: center of mass

text: energy

text: of 62

text: GeV

text: .  From its initial startup, the collider itself had the capability to produce particles like the

text: J/ψ

text: and the

text: upsilon

text: , as well as observable

text: jet structure

text: ; however, the

text: particle detector

text: experiments were not configured to observe events with large

text: momentum

text: transverse

text: to the

text: beamline

text: , leaving these discoveries to be made at other experiments in the mid-1970s.  Nevertheless, the construction of the ISR involved many advances in

text: accelerator physics

text: , including the first use of

text: stochastic cooling

text: , and it held the record for

text: luminosity

text: at a hadron collider until surpassed by the

text: Tevatron

text: in 2004.

text: In physics, the term macron is used to describe microscopic particles, dust sized, accelerated to high speeds. The term was first used in the late 1960s, when it was believed that macrons could be accelerated cheaply in small particle accelerators as a way of achieving low-cost fusion power.

text: In

text: physics

text: , the term macron is used to describe microscopic particles, dust sized, accelerated to high speeds. The term was first used in the late 1960s, when it was believed that macrons could be accelerated cheaply in small

text: particle accelerator

text: s as a way of achieving low-cost

text: fusion power

text: Fusion reactions occur when two (or more) atomic nuclei come close enough for long enough that the strong nuclear force pulling them together exceeds the electrostatic force pushing them apart, fusing them into heavier nuclei. For nuclei lighter than iron-56, the reaction is exothermic, releasing energy. For nuclei heavier than iron-56, the reaction is endothermic, requiring an external source of energy. Hence, nuclei smaller than iron-56 are more likely to fuse while those heavier than iron-56 are more likely to break apart.

text: Fusion reactions occur when two (or more) atomic nuclei come close enough for long enough that the

text: strong nuclear force

text: pulling them together exceeds the

text: electrostatic force

text: pushing them apart, fusing them into heavier nuclei. For nuclei lighter than

text: , the reaction is

text: exothermic

text: , releasing energy. For nuclei heavier than iron-56, the reaction is

text: endothermic

text: , requiring an external source of energy. Hence, nuclei smaller than iron-56 are more likely to fuse while those heavier than iron-56 are more likely to break apart.

text: Motor vehicle dynamometers can measure wheel horsepower, which is the effective, true horsepower delivered to the driving wheel(s), representing the actual power available to accelerate the vehicle after all losses in the drive train, and all parasitic losses such as pumps, fans, alternator, muffled exhaust, etc.  The vehicle is generally attached to the dynamometer and accelerates a large roller and Power Absorbing Unit which is driven by the vehicle's drive wheel(s).  The actual power is then computer calculated based on the rotational inertia of the roller, its resultant acceleration rates and power applied by the Power Absorbing Unit. Some motor vehicle (and motorbike) dynamometers can also be purely inertia-based where the power output is calculated from measuring the acceleration of a roller drum with a known rotational inertia and known parasitic frictional losses of the roller drum's bearings.

text: In nuclear fusion power research, the plasma-facing material (or materials) (PFM) is any material used to construct the plasma-facing components (PFC), those components exposed to the plasma within which nuclear fusion occurs, and particularly the material used for the lining or first wall of the reactor vessel.

text: In nuclear

text: fusion power

text: research, the plasma-facing material (or materials) (PFM) is any material used to construct the plasma-facing components (PFC), those components exposed to the

text: plasma

text: within which

text: nuclear fusion

text: occurs, and particularly the material used for the lining or first wall of the

text: reactor vessel

text: Carol is a capable pilot and administrator. As Star Sapphire, she can use her gem of power to fly and to hurl blasts of force nearly equal to the power of a Green Lantern's ring. Moreover, the Sapphire bestows upon her a certain amount of invulnerability and allows her to survive in airless space. During the most recent battle with Star Sapphire, Carol was temporarily empowered by Hal's ring, granting her strength and a certain degree of invulnerability. During this, Carol was clad in a version of her Sapphire uniform, but with Green Lantern design. These powers were provided by exposure to Hal's power ring and were temporary. Carol now wields a less powerful violet power ring as a member of the Star Sapphires, which replicates her original powers as Star Sapphire to a degree as well. Despite being helplessly overwhelmed before, Carol's previous exposures to the Star Sapphire's power are assumed to have given her a certain tolerance to the violet ring's current influence.

text: Fusion power is energy generated by nuclear fusion. Fusion reactions fuse two lighter atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. It is a major area of plasma physics research that attempts to harness such reactions as a source of large scale sustainable energy. Fusion reactions are how stars transmute matter into energy.

text: Fusion power is

text: energy

text: generated by

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Fusion reactions fuse two lighter

text: atomic nuclei

text: to form a heavier nucleus. It is a major area of

text: plasma physics

text: research that attempts to harness such reactions as a source of large scale

text: sustainable energy

text: . Fusion reactions are how

text: star

text: s transmute matter into energy.

text: One of the most significant experiments to occur at AERE was the ZETA fusion power experiment. An early attempt to build a large-scale nuclear fusion reactor, the project was started in 1954, and the first successes were achieved in 1957. In 1958 the project was shut down, as it was believed that no further progress could be made with the kind of design that ZETA represented (see Timeline of nuclear fusion).

text: One of the most significant experiments to occur at AERE was the

text: ZETA

text: fusion power

text: experiment. An early attempt to build a large-scale nuclear fusion reactor, the project was started in 1954, and the first successes were achieved in 1957. In 1958 the project was shut down, as it was believed that no further progress could be made with the kind of design that ZETA represented (see

text: Timeline of nuclear fusion

text: Power cards each consist of a number from 1 to 8 and a type, Energy, Fighting, Strength, Intellect, Multi-Power, or Any-Power. Power cards can be used as an attack of the level of the number, or as a defense of the level of the number. A character can play a power card whenever their grid is high enough. For instance, a character with 6 energy could play any energy power card from 1-6, but couldn't play 7s or 8s. (This requirement is the same on attack or defense.) Multipower power cards can be used in any of the types shown (either all four, or just Energy, Fighting, or Strength); their type may be chosen as they are played.

text: In 2013, the IAEA reported that there were 437 operational civil fission-electric reactors in 31 countries, although not every reactor was producing electricity. In addition, there were approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a net energy gain from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the Sun, remains an ongoing area of international physics and engineering research. With commercial fusion power production remaining unlikely before 2050.

text: In 2013, the

text: IAEA

text: reported that there were 437 operational civil fission-electric reactors in

text: 31 countries

text: , although not every reactor was producing electricity. In addition, there were approximately 140 naval vessels using

text: nuclear propulsion

text: in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a

text: net energy gain

text: from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the

text: Sun

text: , remains an ongoing area of international

text: physics

text: and

entity_name: International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

text: engineering research

text: . With commercial fusion power production remaining

text: unlikely before 2050

text: There are two basic shapes of accelerators. Linear accelerators ("linacs") accelerate elementary particles along a straight path. Circular accelerators ("synchrotrons"), such as the Tevatron, the LEP, and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), use circular paths. Circular geometry has significant advantages at energies up to and including tens of GeV: With a circular design, particles can be effectively accelerated over longer distances. Also, only a fraction of the particles brought onto a collision course actually collide. In a linear accelerator, the remaining particles are lost; in a ring accelerator, they keep circulating and are available for future collisions. The disadvantage of circular accelerators is that charged particles moving along bent paths will necessarily emit electromagnetic radiation known as synchrotron radiation. Energy loss through synchrotron radiation is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the mass of the particles in question. That is why it makes sense to build circular accelerators for heavy particles—hadron colliders such as the LHC for protons or, alternatively, for lead nuclei. An electron–positron collider of the same size would never be able to achieve the same collision energies. In fact, energies at the LEP, which used to occupy the tunnel now given over to the LHC, were limited to 209 GeV by energy loss via synchrotron radiation.

text: There are two basic shapes of accelerators. Linear accelerators ("linacs") accelerate

text: elementary particle

text: s along a straight path. Circular accelerators ("synchrotrons"), such as the

text: Tevatron

text: , the

text: LEP

text: , and the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC), use circular paths. Circular geometry has significant advantages at energies up to and including tens of

text: GeV

text: : With a circular design,

text: particle

text: s can be effectively accelerated over longer distances. Also, only a fraction of the particles brought onto a collision course actually collide. In a linear accelerator, the remaining particles are lost; in a ring accelerator, they keep circulating and are available for future collisions. The disadvantage of circular accelerators is that charged particles moving along bent paths will necessarily emit electromagnetic radiation known as

text: synchrotron radiation

text: . Energy loss through synchrotron radiation is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the

text: mass

text: of the particles in question. That is why it makes sense to build circular accelerators for heavy particles—hadron colliders such as the LHC for

text: proton

text: s or, alternatively, for

text: lead

text: nuclei

text: . An electron–positron collider of the same size would never be able to achieve the same collision energies. In fact, energies at the

text: LEP

text: , which used to occupy the tunnel now given over to the LHC, were limited to 209 GeV by energy loss via synchrotron radiation.

text: The Navy is actively developing a weapon system called the free-electron laser (FEL) to address the cruise missile threat and the swarm-boat threat against Ford-class carriers.  An FEL uses an electron gun to generate a stream of electrons. The electrons are then sent into a linear particle accelerator to boost them to near light speeds. The accelerated electrons are then sent into a device, known informally as a wiggler, that exposes the electrons to a transverse magnetic field, which causes the electrons to “wiggle” from side to side and release some of their energy in the form of light (photons). The photons are then bounced between mirrors and emitted as a coherent beam of laser light. To increase the efficiency of the system some electrons are then recycled to the front of the particle accelerator via an energy recovery loop. The cost to fire one shot from an FEL is about $1 and draws about 10 MW of electrical power.

text: The Navy is actively developing a weapon system called the

text: free-electron laser

text: (FEL) to address the cruise missile threat and the swarm-boat threat against Ford-class carriers.  An FEL uses an electron gun to generate a stream of electrons. The electrons are then sent into a linear particle accelerator to boost them to near light speeds. The accelerated electrons are then sent into a device, known informally as a wiggler, that exposes the electrons to a transverse magnetic field, which causes the electrons to “wiggle” from side to side and release some of their energy in the form of light (photons). The photons are then bounced between mirrors and emitted as a coherent beam of laser light. To increase the efficiency of the system some electrons are then recycled to the front of the particle accelerator via an energy recovery loop. The cost to fire one shot from an FEL is about $1 and draws about 10 MW of electrical power.

text: Judy Nails' power is called "Crowd Hyper." With it, the rock meter starts in the green section rather than the yellow section. Also, hitting notes while the rock meter is at the maximum, or "overflowing" the rock meter, will grant the player up to 2 power stars. Once Judy has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, a demon, her power is upgraded to "Crowd Hyper +." With this upgrade, the rock meter starts at the maximum, and overflowing the rock meter now grants up to 5 power stars.

text: Judy Nails' power is called "Crowd Hyper." With it, the rock meter starts in the green section rather than the yellow section. Also, hitting notes while the rock meter is at the maximum, or "overflowing" the rock meter, will grant the player up to 2 power stars. Once Judy has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, a

text: demon

text: , her power is upgraded to "Crowd Hyper +." With this upgrade, the rock meter starts at the maximum, and overflowing the rock meter now grants up to 5 power stars.

text: A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased explosive power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a hydrogen bomb or H-bomb because it employs fusion of isotopes of hydrogen.

text: A thermonuclear weapon is a

text: nuclear weapon

text: that uses the energy from a primary

text: nuclear fission

text: reaction to compress and ignite a secondary

text: nuclear fusion

text: reaction. The result is greatly increased explosive power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a hydrogen bomb or H-bomb because it employs fusion of

text: isotope

text: s of

text: hydrogen

text: Fred Hoyle authored the first two research papers ever published on the synthesis of the chemical elements heavier than helium by nuclear reactions in stars. The first of these  in 1946 showed that the cores of stars will evolve to temperatures of billions of degrees, much hotter than temperatures considered for thermonuclear origin of stellar power in main sequence stars. Hoyle showed that at such high temperatures the element iron can become much more abundant than other heavy elements owing to thermal equilibrium among nuclear particles, explaining the high natural abundance of iron. This idea would later be called the e Process.  Hoyle's second foundational nucleosynthesis publication showed that the elements between carbon and iron cannot be synthesized by such equilibrium processes. Hoyle attributed those elements to specific nuclear fusion reactions between abundant constituents in concentric shells of evolved massive, pre-supernova stars. This startlingly modern picture is the accepted paradigm today for the supernova nucleosynthesis of these primary elements.  In the mid 1950s, Hoyle became the leader of a group of very talented experimental and theoretical physicists who met in Cambridge:  William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, and Geoffrey Burbidge.  This group systematized basic ideas of how all the chemical elements in our universe were manufactured, with this now being a field called nucleosynthesis.  Famously, in 1957, this group produced the BFH paper (known for the initials of the four authors) in which the field of nucleosynthesis was organized into complementary nuclear processes. They also added much new material on the synthesis of heavy elements by neutron-capture reactions, the so-called s process and the r process. So influential did the BFH paper become that for the remainder of the twentieth century it became the default citation of almost all researchers wishing to cite an accepted origin for nucleosynthesis theory, and as a result the path breaking Hoyle 1954 paper fell into obscurity. Many younger researchers appear to have never read it. Historical research in the 21st century  has brought Hoyle's 1954 paper back to scientific prominence. Those historical arguments were first presented to a gathering of nucleosynthesis experts attending a 2007 conference at Caltech organized after the deaths of both Fowler and Hoyle to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the publication of BFH. Ironically the BFH paper did not review Hoyle's 1954 supernova-shells attribution of the origin of elements between silicon and iron despite Hoyle's co authorship of BFH. Based on his many personal discussions with Hoyle  Donald D. Clayton has attributed this seemingly inexplicable oversight in BFH to the lack of proofreading by Hoyle of the draft composed at Caltech in 1956 by G.R. Burbidge and E.M. Burbidge.

text: Fred Hoyle authored the first two research papers ever published on the synthesis of the chemical elements heavier than helium by nuclear reactions in stars. The first of these  in 1946 showed that the cores of stars will evolve to temperatures of billions of degrees, much hotter than temperatures considered for thermonuclear origin of stellar power in main sequence stars. Hoyle showed that at such high temperatures the element iron can become much more abundant than other heavy elements owing to thermal equilibrium among nuclear particles, explaining the high natural abundance of iron. This idea would later be called the e Process.  Hoyle's second foundational nucleosynthesis publication showed that the elements between carbon and iron cannot be synthesized by such equilibrium processes. Hoyle attributed those elements to specific nuclear fusion reactions between abundant constituents in concentric shells of evolved massive, pre-supernova stars. This startlingly modern picture is the accepted paradigm today for the

text: supernova nucleosynthesis

text: of these primary elements.  In the mid 1950s, Hoyle became the leader of a group of very talented experimental and theoretical physicists who met in Cambridge:

text: William Alfred Fowler

text: Margaret Burbidge

text: , and

text: Geoffrey Burbidge

text: .  This group systematized basic ideas of how all the chemical elements in our universe were manufactured, with this now being a field called

text: nucleosynthesis

text: .  Famously, in 1957, this group produced the

text: BFH paper

text: (known for the initials of the four authors) in which the field of nucleosynthesis was organized into complementary nuclear processes. They also added much new material on the synthesis of heavy elements by neutron-capture reactions, the so-called

text: s process

text: and the

text: r process

text: . So influential did the BFH paper become that for the remainder of the twentieth century it became the default citation of almost all researchers wishing to cite an accepted origin for nucleosynthesis theory, and as a result the path breaking Hoyle 1954 paper fell into obscurity. Many younger researchers appear to have never read it. Historical research in the 21st century  has brought Hoyle's 1954 paper back to scientific prominence. Those historical arguments were first presented to a gathering of nucleosynthesis experts attending a 2007 conference at Caltech organized after the deaths of both Fowler and Hoyle to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the publication of BFH. Ironically the BFH paper did not review Hoyle's 1954 supernova-shells attribution of the origin of elements between silicon and iron despite Hoyle's co authorship of BFH. Based on his many personal discussions with Hoyle

text: Donald D. Clayton

text: has attributed this seemingly inexplicable oversight in BFH to the lack of proofreading by Hoyle of the draft composed at Caltech in 1956 by G.R. Burbidge and E.M. Burbidge.

text: The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e. power from surface waves, and tidal power i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water.The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.

text: The term marine energy encompasses both

text: wave power

text: i.e. power from surface waves, and

text: tidal power

text: i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water.

text: Offshore wind power

text: is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the

text: wind turbine

text: s are placed over water.The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new

text: renewable energy

text: around the world.

text: The precession depends on accelerated motion, and the non-collinearity of the particle's instantaneous velocity and acceleration. No precession occurs if the particle moves with uniform velocity (constant  so  0}}), or accelerates in a straight line (in which case  and  are parallel or antiparallel so their cross product is zero). The particle has to move in a curve, say an arc, spiral, helix, or a circular orbit or elliptical orbit, for its frame to precess. The angular velocity of the precession is a maximum if the velocity and acceleration vectors are perpendicular throughout the motion (a circular orbit), and is large if their magnitudes are large (the magnitude of  is almost ).

text: The precession depends on accelerated motion, and the non-

text: collinear

text: ity of the particle's instantaneous velocity and acceleration. No precession occurs if the particle moves with uniform velocity (constant  so  0}}), or accelerates in a straight line (in which case  and  are parallel or antiparallel so their cross product is zero). The particle has to move in a curve, say an arc,

text: spiral

text: helix

text: , or a

text: circular orbit

text: or

text: elliptical orbit

text: , for its frame to precess. The angular velocity of the precession is a maximum if the velocity and acceleration vectors are perpendicular throughout the motion (a circular orbit), and is large if their magnitudes are large (the magnitude of  is almost ).

text: (i.e. the sum of their rest energy and kinetic energy) is significantly increased to about 1500 MeV each. When those particles collide, other particles such as the J/ψ meson of rest energy of about 3000 MeV were produced.Much higher energies were employed at the Large Electron–Positron Collider in 1989, where electrons and positrons were accelerated up to 45 GeV each, in order to produce W and Z bosons of rest energies between 80 and 91 GeV. Later, the energies were considerably increased to 200 GeV to generate pairs of W bosons.Such bosons were also measured using proton-antiproton annihilation. The combined rest energy of those particles amounts to approximately 0.938 GeV each. The Super Proton Synchrotron accelerated those particle up to relativistic velocities and energies of approximately 270 GeV each, so that the center of mass energy at the collision reaches 540 GeV. Thereby, quarks and antiquarks gained the necessary energy and momentum to annihilate into W and Z bosons.

text: (i.e. the sum of their rest energy and kinetic energy) is significantly increased to about 1500 MeV each. When those particles collide, other particles such as the

text: J/ψ meson

text: of rest energy of about 3000 MeV were produced.Much higher energies were employed at the

text: Large Electron–Positron Collider

text: in 1989, where electrons and positrons were accelerated up to 45 GeV each, in order to produce

text: W and Z bosons

text: of rest energies between 80 and 91 GeV. Later, the energies were considerably increased to 200 GeV to generate pairs of W bosons.Such bosons were also measured using

text: proton

text: antiproton

text: annihilation. The combined rest energy of those particles amounts to approximately 0.938 GeV each. The

text: Super Proton Synchrotron

text: accelerated those particle up to relativistic velocities and energies of approximately 270 GeV each, so that the

text: center of mass

text: energy at the collision reaches 540 GeV. Thereby,

text: quark

text: s and

text: antiquark

text: s gained the necessary energy and momentum to annihilate into

text: W and Z bosons

text: A preon star is a proposed type of compact star made of preons, a group of hypothetical subatomic particles. Preon stars would be expected to have huge densities, exceeding 10 kg/m. They may have greater densities than quark stars and neutron stars although they are smaller and, therefore, less massive than white dwarfs and neutron stars. Preon stars could originate from supernova explosions or the big bang. Such objects could be detected in principle through gravitational lensing of gamma rays. Preon stars are a potential candidate for dark matter. However, current observations from particle accelerators speak against the existence of preons, or at least do not prioritize their investigation, since the only particle detector presently able to explore very high energies (the Large Hadron Collider) is not designed specifically for this, and its research program is directed towards other areas such as the Higgs boson, quark-gluon plasma and evidence related to physics beyond the Standard Model.

text: A preon star is a proposed type of compact star made of

text: preon

text: s, a group of

text: hypothetical subatomic particles

text: . Preon stars would be expected to have huge

text: densities

text: , exceeding 10 kg/m. They may have greater densities than quark stars and neutron stars although they are smaller and, therefore, less massive than white dwarfs and neutron stars. Preon stars could originate from

text: supernova

text: explosions or the

text: big bang

text: . Such objects could be detected in principle through

text: gravitational lensing

text: of

text: gamma ray

text: s. Preon stars are a potential candidate for

text: dark matter

text: . However, current observations from

text: particle accelerator

text: s speak against the existence of preons, or at least do not prioritize their investigation, since the only particle detector presently able to explore very high energies (the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: ) is not designed specifically for this, and its research program is directed towards other areas such as the

text: Higgs boson

text: quark-gluon plasma

text: and evidence related to

text: physics beyond the Standard Model

text: If muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion were able to be realized practically, it would be a much more attractive way of generating power than conventional nuclear fission reactors because muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion (like most other types of nuclear fusion), produces far fewer harmful (and far less long-lived) radioactive wastes.

text: If muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion were able to be realized practically, it would be a much more attractive way of generating power than conventional

text: nuclear fission

text: reactors because muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion (like most other types of

text: nuclear fusion

text: ), produces far fewer harmful (and far less long-lived) radioactive wastes.

text: These injected elements ultimately enrich the molecular clouds that are the sites of star formation. Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life, and may decisively influence the possibility of having planets orbiting it.

text: These injected elements ultimately enrich the

text: molecular cloud

text: s that are the sites of star formation. Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life, and may decisively influence the possibility of having

text: planet

text: s orbiting it.

text: The luminosity of the star is equal to the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, times the area of the star, times the fourth power of the temperature of the star:

text: In a broader sense the energy transition also entails a democratization of energy:  In the traditional energy industry, a few large companies with large centralized power stations dominate the market as an oligopoly and consequently amass a worrisome level of both economic and political power. Renewable energies, in contrast, can as a rule be established in a decentralized manner. Public wind farms and solar parks can involve many citizens directly in energy production. Photovoltaic systems can even be set up by individuals. Municipal utilities can also benefit citizens financially, while the conventional energy industry profits a relatively small number of shareholders. Also significant, the decentralized structure of renewable energies enables creation of value locally and minimizes capital outflows from a region. Renewable energy sources therefore play an increasingly important role in municipal energy policy, and local governments often promote them. There is lots of room for growth with wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass for power, they represented 2% of global final energy consumption in 2012.

text: The Missing Universe. This deals with astronomy and theoretical physics and the ultimate fate of the universe, in particular the search for understanding of dark matter and dark energy and includes discussion of: the work of astronomers Vesto Slipher and then Edwin Hubble in demonstrating the universe is expanding; Vera Rubin's investigation of galaxy rotation curves that suggest something other than gravity is preventing galaxies from spinning apart, which led to the revival of unobserved "dark matter" theory; experimental efforts to discover dark matter, including the search for the hypothetical neutralino and other weakly interacting massive particles); the study of supernovae at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Harvard University (under Robert Kirshner) that point to an accelerating universe powered by "dark energy" possibly Vacuum energy; and finally the assertion that the proposed modified Newtonian dynamics hypothesis and the accelerating universe disproves the dark matter theory.

text: The Missing Universe. This deals with

text: astronomy

text: and

text: theoretical physics

text: and the

text: ultimate fate of the universe

text: , in particular the search for understanding of

text: dark matter

text: and

text: dark energy

text: and includes discussion of: the work of astronomers

text: Vesto Slipher

text: and then

text: Edwin Hubble

text: in demonstrating the universe is expanding;

text: Vera Rubin

text: 's investigation of

text: galaxy rotation curve

text: s that suggest something other than gravity is preventing galaxies from spinning apart, which led to the revival of unobserved "dark matter" theory; experimental efforts to discover dark matter, including the search for the hypothetical

text: neutralino

text: and other

text: weakly interacting massive particles

text: ); the study of

text: supernova

text: e at

text: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

text: and

text: Harvard University

text: (under

text: Robert Kirshner

text: ) that point to an

text: accelerating universe

text: powered by "dark energy" possibly

text: Vacuum energy

text: ; and finally the assertion that the proposed

text: modified Newtonian dynamics

text: hypothesis and the accelerating universe disproves the dark matter theory.

text: Austin Tejas' power is called "Star Power Amplifier." With it, successfully completing a star power sequence fills the star power gauge by 50% rather than 25%, allowing the player to use star power instantly. Once Austin has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form, a headless horseman, his power is upgraded to "Star Power Amplifier +." With this upgrade, successfully completing a star power sequence fills the star power gauge to the maximum.

text: Austin Tejas' power is called "Star Power Amplifier." With it, successfully completing a star power sequence fills the star power gauge by 50% rather than 25%, allowing the player to use star power instantly. Once Austin has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into his warrior form, a

text: headless horseman

text: , his power is upgraded to "Star Power Amplifier +." With this upgrade, successfully completing a star power sequence fills the star power gauge to the maximum.

text: The incentive to use 100% renewable energy has been created by global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns. Mark Z. Jacobson says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power,  and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs. According to a 2011 projection by the (IEA)International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, dramatically reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include Vaclav Smil and James E. Hansen. Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, NIMBYism, and a lack of infrastructure.

text: The incentive to use

text: 100% renewable energy

text: has been created by

text: global warming

text: and other ecological as well as economic concerns.

text: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: says producing all new energy with

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: ,  and

text: hydropower

text: by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs. According to a 2011 projection by the (IEA)

text: International Energy Agency

text: , solar power generators may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, dramatically reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include

text: Vaclav Smil

text: and

text: James E. Hansen

text: . Smil and Hansen are concerned about the

text: variable output

text: of solar and wind power,

text: NIMBY

text: ism, and a lack of infrastructure.

text: In astrophysics, silicon burning is a very brief sequence of nuclear fusion reactions that occur in massive stars with a minimum of about 8-11 solar masses. Silicon burning is the final stage of fusion for massive stars that have run out of the fuels that power them for their long lives in the main sequence on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. It follows the previous stages of  hydrogen, helium, carbon, neon and oxygen burning processes.

text: In

text: astrophysics

text: , silicon burning is a very brief sequence of

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions that occur in massive

text: star

text: s with a minimum of about 8-11 solar masses.

text: Silicon

text: burning is the final stage of fusion for massive stars that have run out of the fuels that power them for their long lives in the

text: main sequence

text: on the

text: Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

text: . It follows the previous stages of

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: carbon

text: neon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: burning processes.

text: Mister M is believed to be an Omega-level mutant. Similar to Owen Reece, Mr. M has complete control over the atomic and subatomic structure of matter, and energy. Thus far, M has displayed: repair of machinery, intangibility, super strength, healing injuries either in himself or others, removal or augmentation of mutant abilities, creation of force fields, telekinesis and creation and evolution of lesser life forms, as well as energy manipulation and generation including lightning, fire and explosions.

text: Mister M is believed to be an

text: Omega-level mutant

text: . Similar to

text: Owen Reece

text: , Mr. M has complete control over the atomic and subatomic structure of matter, and energy. Thus far, M has displayed: repair of machinery, intangibility, super strength, healing injuries either in himself or others, removal or augmentation of mutant abilities, creation of

text: force fields

text: telekinesis

text: and creation and

text: evolution

text: of lesser life forms, as well as

text: energy

text: manipulation and generation including

text: lightning

text: fire

text: and explosions.

text: Nuclear fusion, the combining of the heavy isotopes of hydrogen, also has the potential to produces large quantities of neutrons.  Small scale fusion systems exist for (plasma) research purposes at many universities and laboratories around the world.  A small number of large scale nuclear fusion experiments also exist including the National Ignition Facility in the USA, JET in the UK, and soon the recently started ITER experiment in France. None are yet used as neutron sources.Inertial confinement fusion has the potential to produce orders of magnitude more neutrons than spallation. This could be useful for neutron radiography which can be used to locate hydrogen atoms in structures, resolve atomic thermal motion and study collective excitations of photons more effectively than X-rays.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: , the combining of the heavy isotopes of hydrogen, also has the potential to produces large quantities of neutrons.  Small scale fusion systems exist for (plasma) research purposes at many universities and laboratories around the world.  A small number of large scale nuclear fusion experiments also exist including the

text: National Ignition Facility

text: in the USA,

text: JET

text: in the UK, and soon the recently started

text: ITER

text: experiment in France. None are yet used as neutron sources.

text: Inertial confinement fusion

text: has the potential to produce orders of magnitude more neutrons than

text: spallation

text: . This could be useful for

text: neutron radiography

text: which can be used to locate hydrogen atoms in structures, resolve atomic thermal motion and study collective excitations of photons more effectively than

text: X-rays

text: For space flight, the main advantage of fusion would be the very high specific impulse, and the main disadvantage the (likely) large mass of the reactor. However, a fusion rocket may produce less radiation than a fission rocket, reducing the mass needed for shielding. The surest way of building a fusion rocket with current technology is to use hydrogen bombs as proposed in Project Orion, but such a spacecraft would also be massive and the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty prohibits the use of nuclear bombs. Therefore, the use of nuclear bombs to propel rockets on Earth is problematic, but possible in space in theory. An alternate approach would be electrical (e.g. ion) propulsion with electric power generation via fusion power instead of direct thrust.

text: For space flight, the main advantage of fusion would be the very high

text: specific impulse

text: , and the main disadvantage the (likely) large mass of the reactor. However, a fusion rocket may produce less radiation than a

text: fission

text: rocket, reducing the mass needed for shielding. The surest way of building a fusion rocket with current technology is to use

text: hydrogen bomb

text: s as proposed in

text: Project Orion

text: , but such a spacecraft would also be massive and the

text: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

text: prohibits the use of nuclear bombs. Therefore, the use of nuclear bombs to propel rockets on Earth is problematic, but possible in space in theory. An alternate approach would be electrical (e.g.

text: ion

text: ) propulsion with electric power generation via fusion power instead of direct thrust.

text: Double Down was portrayed by J.R. Bourne in the third episode of Arrow season four. In this series, he gained his powers when he was having his tattoos applied at the same time as the particle accelerator exploded in Central City. He does not appear to control his cards, but he can nevertheless aim them with great precision; Oliver's best efforts to deflect his cards still resulted in him being struck in the arm with one card.

text: Double Down was portrayed by

text: J.R. Bourne

text: in the third episode of

text: Arrow

text: season four. In this series, he gained his powers when he was having his tattoos applied at the same time as the particle accelerator exploded in Central City. He does not appear to control his cards, but he can nevertheless aim them with great precision; Oliver's best efforts to deflect his cards still resulted in him being struck in the arm with one card.

text: Nova was a high-power laser built at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in 1984 which conducted advanced inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments until its dismantling in 1999. Nova was the first ICF experiment built with the intention of reaching "ignition", a chain reaction of nuclear fusion that releases a large amount of energy. Although Nova failed in this goal, the data it generated clearly defined the problem as being mostly a result of magnetohydrodynamic instability, leading to the design of the National Ignition Facility, Nova's successor. Nova also generated considerable amounts of data on high-density matter physics, regardless of the lack of ignition, which is useful both in fusion power and nuclear weapons research.

text: Nova was a high-power

text: laser

text: built at the

text: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

text: (LLNL) in 1984 which conducted advanced

text: inertial confinement fusion

text: (ICF) experiments until its dismantling in 1999. Nova was the first ICF experiment built with the intention of reaching "ignition", a

text: chain reaction

text: of

text: nuclear fusion

text: that releases a large amount of energy. Although Nova failed in this goal, the data it generated clearly defined the problem as being mostly a result of

text: magnetohydrodynamic instability

text: , leading to the design of the

text: National Ignition Facility

text: , Nova's successor. Nova also generated considerable amounts of data on high-density matter physics, regardless of the lack of ignition, which is useful both in

text: fusion power

text: and

text: nuclear weapon

text: s research.

text: Particle accelerators may be powered by S-band RF sources. The frequencies are then standardized at 2.998 GHz (Europe) or 2.856 GHz (US).

text: In discussing God's relationship to his creation a distinction is made within Orthodox theology between God's eternal essence and uncreated energies, though it is understood that this does not compromise the divine simplicity. Energies and essence are both inseparably God. The divine energies are the expressions of divine being in action according to Orthodox doctrine, whereas the persons of the Trinity are divine by nature. Hence, created beings are united to God through participation in the divine energies and not the divine essence or ousia.

text: The Van de Graaff generator was developed as a particle accelerator in physics research, its high potential is used to accelerate subatomic particles to high speeds in an evacuated tube. It was the most powerful type of accelerator in the 1930s until the cyclotron was developed. Today it is still used as an accelerator to generate energetic particle and x-ray beams in fields such as nuclear medicine. In order to double the voltage, two generators are often used together, one generating positive and the other negative potential; this is called a tandem Van de Graaff accelerator. For example, the Brookhaven National Laboratory Tandem Van de Graaff achieves about 30 million volts of potential difference.

text: The Van de Graaff generator was developed as a

text: particle accelerator

text: in physics research, its high potential is used to accelerate

text: subatomic particle

text: s to high speeds in an evacuated tube. It was the most powerful type of accelerator in the 1930s until the

text: cyclotron

text: was developed. Today it is still used as an accelerator to generate energetic particle and

text: x-ray

text: beams in fields such as

text: nuclear medicine

text: . In order to double the voltage, two generators are often used together, one generating positive and the other negative potential; this is called a tandem Van de Graaff accelerator. For example, the Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: Tandem Van de Graaff

text: achieves about 30 million volts of potential difference.

text: GenOn Energy, Inc., based in Houston, Texas, United States, was an energy company that provided electricity to wholesale customers in the United States. The company was one of the largest independent power producers in the nation with more than 14,000 megawatts of power generation capacity across the United States using natural gas, fuel oil and coal. GenOn Energy is headquartered in the Reliant Energy Plaza in Downtown Houston. The company, formerly known as RRI Energy, acquired Mirant on December 3, 2010. The corporate names and logos of both RRI Energy and Mirant were retired.

text: GenOn Energy, Inc., based in

text: Houston

text: Texas

text: , United States, was an energy company that provided electricity to wholesale customers in the United States. The company was one of the largest independent power producers in the nation with more than 14,000 megawatts of power generation capacity across the United States using natural gas, fuel oil and coal. GenOn Energy is headquartered in the

text: Reliant Energy Plaza

text: in

text: Downtown Houston

text: . The company, formerly known as RRI Energy, acquired

text: Mirant

text: on December 3, 2010. The corporate names and logos of both RRI Energy and Mirant were retired.

text: When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost, the star lies along a curve on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (or HR diagram) called the standard main sequence. Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as "zero age main sequence", or ZAMS. The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion. From this point, the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age.

text: When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost, the star lies along a

text: curve

text: on the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: (or HR diagram) called the standard main sequence. Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as "zero age main sequence", or ZAMS. The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion. From this point, the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age.

text: Since the particles are accelerated by the voltage many times, the final energy of the particles is not dependent on the accelerating voltage but on the strength of the magnetic field and the diameter of the accelerating chamber, the dees.  Cyclotrons can only accelerate particles to speeds much slower than the speed of light, nonrelativistic speeds. For nonrelativistic particles, the centripetal force

text: Since the particles are accelerated by the voltage many times, the final energy of the particles is not dependent on the accelerating voltage but on the strength of the magnetic field and the diameter of the accelerating chamber, the dees.  Cyclotrons can only accelerate particles to speeds much slower than the

text: speed of light

text: nonrelativistic

text: speeds. For nonrelativistic particles, the centripetal force

text: Considered a five-star recruit by Rivals.com, Monroe was listed as the No. 1 power forward and the No. 8 player in the nation in 2008.

text: Considered a five-star recruit by

text: Rivals.com

text: , Monroe was listed as the No. 1 power forward and the No. 8 player in the nation in 2008.

text: Energy varies with temperature, density, collision speed and fuel. To reach net power production, reactions must occur rapidly enough to make up for energy losses. Plasma clouds lose energy through conduction and radiation. Conduction is when ions, electrons or neutrals touch a surface and escape. Energy is lost with the particle. Radiation is when energy escapes as light. Radiation increases with temperature. To get net power from fusion, these losses must be overcome. This leads to an equation for power output.

text: Energy varies with temperature, density, collision speed and fuel. To reach net power production, reactions must occur rapidly enough to make up for energy losses. Plasma clouds lose energy through

text: conduction

text: and

text: radiation

text: . Conduction is when

text: ion

text: s,

text: electron

text: s or

text: neutrals

text: touch a surface and escape. Energy is lost with the particle. Radiation is when energy escapes as light. Radiation increases with temperature. To get net power from fusion, these losses must be overcome. This leads to an equation for power output.

text: ZESCO United's traditional rivalries are against fellow title contenders like Zanaco, Nkana, Power Dynamos, and NAPSA Stars.

text: ZESCO United's traditional rivalries are against fellow title contenders like

text: Zanaco

text: Nkana

text: Power Dynamos

text: , and

text: NAPSA Stars

text: Thanks to Wilson's talented leadership, a management style very much adopted from Lawrence, the facility was completed on time and under budget. According to Wilson, he gave Atomic Energy Commission chairman Glenn T. Seaborg his assurance "signed in blood" that he would not exceed the authorized $250 million budget and "would rot in Hell" if he did. The facility centered on a four-mile circumference, 400 GeV accelerator. Wilson subsequently initiated the design of the Tevatron, a 1 TeV  particle accelerator. The National Accelerator Laboratory, was renamed the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in 1974, after Enrico Fermi. It is frequently referred to as "Fermilab".

text: Thanks to Wilson's talented leadership, a management style very much adopted from Lawrence, the facility was completed on time and under budget. According to Wilson, he gave

text: Atomic Energy Commission

text: chairman

text: Glenn T. Seaborg

text: his assurance "signed in blood" that he would not exceed the authorized $250 million budget and "would rot in Hell" if he did. The facility centered on a four-mile circumference, 400 GeV accelerator. Wilson subsequently initiated the design of the

text: Tevatron

text: , a 1 TeV

text: particle accelerator

text: . The National Accelerator Laboratory, was renamed the

text: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

text: in 1974, after

text: Enrico Fermi

text: . It is frequently referred to as "Fermilab".

text: In theory, either high enough energy concentrations or random chance could trigger the tunneling needed to set this event in motion. However an immense number of ultra-high energy particles and events have occurred in the history of our universe, dwarfing by many orders of magnitude any events at human disposal. Hut and Rees note that, because we have observed cosmic ray collisions at much higher energies than those produced in terrestrial particle accelerators, these experiments should not, at least for the foreseeable future, pose a threat to our current vacuum. Particle accelerators have reached energies of only approximately eight tera electron volts (8×10 eV). Cosmic ray collisions have been observed at and beyond energies of 10 eV, a million times more powerful – the so-called Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit – and other cosmic events may be more powerful yet. Against this, John Leslie has argued that if present trends continue, particle accelerators will exceed the energy given off in naturally occurring cosmic ray collisions by the year 2150. Fears of this kind were raised by critics of both the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider and the Large Hadron Collider at the time of their respective proposal, and determined to be unfounded by scientific inquiry.

text: In theory, either high enough energy concentrations or random chance could trigger the tunneling needed to set this event in motion. However an immense number of

text: ultra-high energy particles

text: and events have occurred in the history of our universe, dwarfing by many orders of magnitude any events at human disposal. Hut and Rees note that, because we have observed

text: cosmic ray collisions

text: at much higher energies than those produced in terrestrial particle accelerators, these experiments should not, at least for the foreseeable future, pose a threat to our current vacuum. Particle accelerators have reached energies of only approximately eight

text: tera

text: electron volts

text: (8×10 eV). Cosmic ray collisions have been observed at and beyond energies of 10

text: eV

text: , a million times more powerful – the so-called

text: Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit

text: – and other cosmic events may be more powerful yet. Against this, John Leslie has argued that if present trends continue, particle accelerators will exceed the energy given off in naturally occurring cosmic ray collisions by the year 2150. Fears of this kind were raised by critics of both the

text: Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider

text: and the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: at the time of their respective proposal, and determined to be unfounded by scientific inquiry.

text: Clean Energy Asia LLC (CEA) was established in 2012 as a joint venture between Newcom LLC Newcom LLC and SB Energy Corp., renewable energy arm of Japan’s Softbank Corporation. CEA aims to act as a multifaceted clean energy company encompassing exploration, development and energy company portfolio management. Its main goals are to survey potential renewable energy power generation sites in Mongolia, expanding investment in and development of the renewable energy sector in Mongolia as well as exporting clean energy to other regions thus facilitating the creation of the Asia Super Grid.

text: Clean Energy Asia LLC (CEA) was established in 2012 as a

text: joint venture

text: between Newcom LLC Newcom LLC and SB Energy Corp., renewable energy arm of Japan’s

text: Softbank Corporation

text: . CEA aims to act as a multifaceted clean energy company encompassing exploration, development and energy company portfolio management. Its main goals are to survey potential

text: renewable energy

text: power generation sites in

text: Mongolia

text: , expanding investment in and development of the

text: renewable energy

text: sector in

text: Mongolia

text: as well as exporting clean energy to other regions thus facilitating the creation of the Asia

text: Super Grid

text: Historically, the first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to accelerate charged particles.  The charged particle was accelerated through an evacuated tube with an electrode at either end, with the static potential across it.   Since the particle passed only once through the potential difference, the output energy was limited to the accelerating voltage of the machine.  While this method is still extremely popular today, with the electrostatic accelerators greatly out-numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for air insulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in a tank of pressurized gas with high dielectric strength, such as sulfur hexafluoride.  In a tandem accelerator the potential is used twice to accelerate the particles, by reversing the charge of the particles while they are inside the terminal.  This is possible with the acceleration of atomic nuclei by using anions (negatively charged ions), and then passing the beam through a thin foil to strip electrons off the anions inside the high voltage terminal, converting them to cations (positively charged ions), which are accelerated again as they leave the terminal.

text: Historically, the first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to accelerate charged particles.  The charged particle was accelerated through an evacuated tube with an electrode at either end, with the static potential across it.   Since the particle passed only once through the potential difference, the output energy was limited to the accelerating voltage of the machine.  While this method is still extremely popular today, with the electrostatic accelerators greatly out-numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for air insulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in a tank of pressurized gas with high

text: dielectric strength

text: , such as

text: sulfur hexafluoride

text: .  In a tandem accelerator the potential is used twice to accelerate the particles, by reversing the charge of the particles while they are inside the terminal.  This is possible with the acceleration of

text: atomic nuclei

text: by using

text: anion

text: s (negatively charged

text: ion

text: s), and then passing the beam through a thin foil to strip electrons off the anions inside the high voltage terminal, converting them to cations (positively charged ions), which are accelerated again as they leave the terminal.

text: The Super Proton Synchrotron (an older ring collider) was used to accelerate electrons and positrons to nearly the speed of light. These are then injected into the ring. As in all ring colliders, the LEP's ring consists of many magnets which force the charged particles into a circular trajectory (so that they stay inside the ring), RF accelerators which accelerate the particles with radio frequency waves, and quadrupoles that focus the particle beam (i.e. keep the particles together).  The function of the accelerators is to increase the particles' energies so that heavy particles can be created when the particles collide.  When the particles are accelerated to maximum energy (and focused to so-called bunches), an electron and a positron bunch is made to collide with each other at one of the collision points of the detector. When an electron and a positron collide, they annihilate to a virtual particle, either a photon or a Z boson. The virtual particle almost immediately decays into other elementary particles, which are then detected by huge particle detectors.

text: The

text: Super Proton Synchrotron

text: (an older ring collider) was used to accelerate

text: electron

text: s and

text: positron

text: s to nearly the

text: speed of light

text: . These are then injected into the ring. As in all

text: ring collider

text: s, the LEP's ring consists of many

text: magnet

text: s which force the

text: charged

text: particles into a circular

text: trajectory

text: (so that they stay inside the ring),

text: RF accelerator

text: s which

text: accelerate

text: the particles with

text: radio frequency waves

text: , and

text: quadrupole

text: s that focus the particle beam (i.e. keep the particles together).  The function of the accelerators is to increase the particles' energies so that heavy particles can be created when the particles collide.  When the particles are accelerated to maximum energy (and focused to so-called bunches), an electron and a positron bunch is made to collide with each other at one of the collision points of the detector. When an electron and a positron collide, they

text: annihilate

text: to a

text: virtual particle

text: , either a

text: photon

text: or a

text: Z boson

text: . The virtual particle almost immediately

text: decay

text: s into other elementary particles, which are then detected by huge

text: particle detector

text: s.

text: Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller) investigated it as a method to build a bomb. The project abandoned fusion after concluding that it would require a fission reaction to detonate. It took until 1952 for the first full hydrogen bomb to be detonated, so-called because it used reactions between deuterium and tritium. Fusion reactions are much more energetic per unit mass of fuel than fission reactions, but starting the fusion chain reaction is much more difficult.

text: Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by

text: Edward Teller

text: ) investigated it as a method to build a bomb. The project abandoned fusion after concluding that it would require a fission reaction to detonate. It took until 1952 for the first full

text: hydrogen

text: bomb to be detonated, so-called because it used reactions between

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: . Fusion reactions are much more energetic per unit mass of

text: fuel

text: than fission reactions, but starting the fusion chain reaction is much more difficult.

text: A tantric interpretation sees Shiva as consciousness and Kali as power or energy. Consciousness and energy are dependent upon each other, since Shiva depends on Shakti, or energy, in order to fulfill his role in creation, preservation, and destruction. In this view, without Shakti, Shiva is a corpse — unable to act.

text: For the Eastern Orthodox, the distinction as the tradition and perspective behind this understanding, is that creation is the task of energy. If we deny the real distinction between essence and energy, we can not fix any very clear borderline between the procession of the divine persons (as existences and or realities of God) and the creation of the world: both the one and the other will be equally acts of the divine nature (strictly uncreated from uncreated). The being and the action(s) of God then would appear identical, leading to the teaching of Pantheism.Eastern Orthodox theologians assert that Western Christianity treats God's ousia as energeia and dunamis (Aristotle's Actus et potentia) as part of the scholastic method in theology. Which allows God's incomprehensibility to become comprehensible, by not making a distinction between God's nature and manifestation of things about God's nature. As Aristotle and Pagan philosophy taught that God was the underlying substance, nature, being, essence (ousia) of all things (as the Monad in substance theory). Making the very thing that makes God, God (uncreated, incomprehensible) the same as God's created world and created beings. God's ousia then becomes detectable and experienced as a substance, essence, being or nature. Rather than God's hyper-being (ousia) as, infinite and never comprehensible to a finite mind or consciousness.

text: For the Eastern Orthodox, the distinction as the tradition and perspective behind this understanding, is that creation is the task of energy. If we deny the real distinction between essence and energy, we can not fix any very clear borderline between the procession of the divine persons (as existences and or realities of God) and the creation of the world: both the one and the other will be equally acts of the divine nature (strictly uncreated from uncreated). The being and the action(s) of God then would appear identical, leading to the teaching of

text: Pantheism

text: .Eastern Orthodox theologians assert that Western Christianity treats God's ousia as

text: energeia

text: and

text: dunamis

text: (Aristotle's

text: Actus et potentia

text: ) as part of the

text: scholastic method

text: in theology. Which allows God's incomprehensibility to become

text: comprehensible

text: , by not making a distinction between God's nature and manifestation of things about God's nature. As Aristotle and Pagan philosophy taught that God was the underlying substance, nature, being, essence (ousia) of all things (as the

text: Monad

text: in

text: substance theory

text: ). Making the very thing that makes God, God (uncreated, incomprehensible) the same as God's created world and created beings. God's ousia then becomes detectable and experienced as a substance, essence, being or nature. Rather than God's hyper-being (ousia) as, infinite and never comprehensible to a finite mind or consciousness.

text: Nuclear fusion refers to nuclear reactions that combine lighter nuclei to become heavier nuclei. All chemical elements can be fused, but only for elements with fewer protons than iron, this process changes mass into energy that can potentially be captured to provide fusion power.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: refers to

text: nuclear reaction

text: s that combine lighter

text: nuclei

text: to become heavier nuclei. All

text: chemical element

text: s can be fused, but only for elements with fewer protons than iron, this process changes

text: mass into energy

text: that can potentially be captured to provide

text: fusion power

text: Technologies that promote sustainable energy include renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, solar energy, wind energy, wave power, geothermal energy, bioenergy, tidal power and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency. Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall. Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding. Considerable progress is being made in the energy transition from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support 100% renewable energy.

text: Technologies that promote

text: sustainable

text: energy include

text: renewable energy

text: sources, such as

text: hydroelectricity

text: solar energy

text: wind energy

text: wave power

text: geothermal energy

text: bioenergy

text: tidal power

text: and also technologies designed to improve

text: energy efficiency

text: . Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall. Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding. Considerable progress is being made in the

text: energy transition

text: from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support

text: 100% renewable energy

text: The second step performs a greedy search for possible power edges between candidate power nodes.Power edges abstracting the most edges in the original network are added first to the power graph. Thus bicliques, cliques and stars are incrementally replaced with power edges, until all remaining single edges are also added.Candidate power nodes that are not the end point of any power edge are ignored.

text: At a certain point, the helium at the core of the star will reach a pressure and temperature where it can begin to undergo nuclear fusion through the triple-alpha process. For a star with less than 1.8 times the mass of the Sun, this will occur in a process called the helium flash. The evolutionary track of the star will then carry it toward the left of the HR diagram as the surface temperature increases under the new equilibrium. The result is a sharp discontinuity in the evolutionary track of the star on the HR diagram. This discontinuity is called the tip of the red-giant branch.

text: At a certain point, the helium at the core of the star will reach a pressure and temperature where it can begin to undergo nuclear fusion through the

text: triple-alpha process

text: . For a star with less than 1.8 times the

text: mass of the Sun

text: , this will occur in a process called the

text: helium flash

text: . The

text: evolutionary track

text: of the star will then carry it toward the left of the HR diagram as the surface temperature increases under the new equilibrium. The result is a sharp discontinuity in the evolutionary track of the star on the HR diagram. This discontinuity is called the tip of the red-giant branch.

text: Particle accelerators are a well-developed technology used in scientific research for decades. They use electromagnetic fields to accelerate and direct charged particles along a predetermined path, and electrostatic “lenses” to focus these streams for collisions. The cathode ray tube in many twentieth-century televisions and computer monitors is a very simple type of particle accelerator. More powerful versions include synchrotrons and cyclotrons used in nuclear research. A particle-beam weapon is a weaponized version of this technology. It accelerates charged particles (in most cases electrons, positrons, protons, or ionized atoms, but very advanced versions can use other particles such as mercury nuclei) to near-light speed and then shoots them at a target. These particles have tremendous kinetic energy which they impart to matter in the target’s surface, inducing near-instantaneous and catastrophic superheating.

text: Particle accelerators

text: are a well-developed technology used in scientific research for decades. They use

text: electromagnetic field

text: s to accelerate and direct

text: charged particles

text: along a predetermined path, and

text: electrostatic

text: “lenses” to focus these streams for collisions. The

text: cathode ray tube

text: in many twentieth-century televisions and computer monitors is a very simple type of

text: particle accelerator

text: . More powerful versions include

text: synchrotron

text: s and

text: cyclotron

text: s used in nuclear research. A particle-beam weapon is a weaponized version of this technology. It accelerates

text: charged particles

text: (in most cases

text: electron

text: s,

text: positron

text: s,

text: proton

text: s, or

text: ionized

text: atoms, but very advanced versions can use other particles such as mercury nuclei) to near-light speed and then shoots them at a target. These particles have tremendous

text: kinetic energy

text: which they impart to matter in the target’s surface, inducing near-instantaneous and catastrophic

text: superheating

text: The area of the planet that absorbs the power from the star is

text: The earliest operational circular accelerators were cyclotrons, invented in 1929 by Ernest O. Lawrence at the University of California, Berkeley. Cyclotrons have a single pair of hollow 'D'-shaped plates to accelerate the particles and a single large dipole magnet to bend their path into a circular orbit. It is a characteristic property of charged particles in a uniform and constant magnetic field B that they orbit with a constant period, at a frequency called the cyclotron frequency, so long as their speed is small compared to the speed of light c. This means that the accelerating D's of a cyclotron can be driven at a constant frequency by a radio frequency (RF) accelerating power source, as the beam spirals outwards continuously. The particles are injected in the centre of the magnet and are extracted at the outer edge at their maximum energy.

text: The earliest operational circular accelerators were

text: cyclotron

text: s, invented in 1929 by

text: Ernest O. Lawrence

text: at the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: . Cyclotrons have a single pair of hollow 'D'-shaped plates to accelerate the particles and a single large

text: dipole magnet

text: to bend their path into a circular orbit. It is a characteristic property of charged particles in a uniform and constant magnetic field B that they orbit with a constant period, at a frequency called the

text: cyclotron frequency

text: , so long as their speed is small compared to the speed of light c. This means that the accelerating D's of a cyclotron can be driven at a constant frequency by a radio frequency (RF) accelerating power source, as the beam spirals outwards continuously. The particles are injected in the centre of the magnet and are extracted at the outer edge at their maximum energy.

text: The renewable energy industry supports more than 11,500 jobs in Scotland, according to a 2013 study by Scottish Renewables. However a 2011 study by 4-Consulting calculated that there was probably a small net loss in jobs in Scotland from government support for renewable energy. They estimated that the offshore wind industry might create between 300–2,200 long-term jobs by 2020. With 20 GW of renewable energy projects in the pipeline, the sector has the potential to grow quickly in the years ahead creating more jobs in the region. Glasgow, Fife and Edinburgh are key centres of offshore wind power development, and the emerging wave power and tidal power industries are centred around the Highlands and Islands. Rural job creation is being supported by bioenergy systems in areas such as Lochaber, Moray and Dumfries and Galloway.

text: The renewable energy industry supports more than 11,500 jobs in Scotland, according to a 2013 study by

text: Scottish Renewables

text: . However a 2011 study by 4-Consulting calculated that there was probably a small net loss in jobs in Scotland from government support for renewable energy. They estimated that the offshore wind industry might create between 300–2,200 long-term jobs by 2020. With 20 GW of renewable energy projects in the pipeline, the sector has the potential to grow quickly in the years ahead creating more jobs in the region. Glasgow, Fife and Edinburgh are key centres of

text: offshore wind power

text: development, and the emerging wave power and tidal power industries are centred around the Highlands and Islands. Rural job creation is being supported by

text: bioenergy

text: systems in areas such as

text: Lochaber

text: Moray

text: and

text: Dumfries and Galloway

text: BYD Energy Storage System(BYD ESS) is independently developed by the Chinese company BYD who begun with its battery manufacture business but later expands to diverse fields like new energy, EV etc., including energy type and power type. The energy type system can discharge for a long time, while the power type can supply big power for a short time. BYD Energy Storage System can realize, as the company announced, the function as below:frequency regulation, substation grid support, distributed energy storage system (DESS), PV/Wind integration, commercial energy management etc.

text: BYD

text: Energy Storage System(BYD

text: ESS

text: ) is independently developed by the Chinese company

text: BYD

text: who begun with its battery manufacture business but later expands to diverse fields like

text: new energy

text: EV

text: etc., including

text: energy

text: type and

text: power

text: type. The

text: energy

text: type system can discharge for a long time, while the

text: power

text: type can supply big power for a short time. BYD Energy Storage System can realize, as the company announced, the function as below:frequency regulation, substation grid support, distributed energy storage system (

text: DESS

text: PV

text: Wind

text: integration, commercial

text: energy management

text: etc.

text: Energy can also be harvested to power small autonomous sensors such as those developed using MEMS technology. These systems are often very small and require little power, but their applications are limited by the reliance on battery power.  Scavenging energy from ambient vibrations, wind, heat or light could enable smart sensors to be functional indefinitely. Several academic and commercial groups have been involved in the analysis and development of vibration-powered energy harvesting technology, including the Control and Power Group and Optical and Semiconductor Devices Group at Imperial College London, IMEC and the partnering Holst Centr, AdaptivEnergy, LLC, ARVENI, MIT Boston, Victoria University of Wellington, Georgia Tech, UC Berkeley, Southampton University, University of Bristol, Micro Energy System Lab at The University of Tokyo, Nanyang Technological University, PMG Perpetuum, ReVibe Energy, Vestfold University College, National University of Singapore, NiPS Laboratory at the University of Perugia, Columbia University, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona and USN & Renewable Energy Lab at the University of Ulsan (Ulsan, South Korea). The National Science Foundation also supports an Industry/University Cooperative Research Center led by Virginia Tech and The University of Texas at Dallas called the Center for Energy Harvesting Materials and Systems.

text: Energy can also be harvested to power small autonomous sensors such as those developed using

text: MEMS technology

text: . These systems are often very small and require little power, but their applications are limited by the reliance on battery power.  Scavenging energy from ambient vibrations, wind, heat or light could enable smart sensors to be functional indefinitely. Several academic and commercial groups have been involved in the analysis and development of vibration-powered energy harvesting technology, including the Control and Power Group and Optical and Semiconductor Devices Group at

text: Imperial College London

text: IMEC

text: and the partnering Holst Centr, AdaptivEnergy, LLC, ARVENI,

text: MIT

text: Boston, Victoria University of Wellington,

text: Georgia Tech

text: UC Berkeley

text: Southampton University

text: University of Bristol

text: , Micro Energy System Lab at The University of Tokyo,

text: Nanyang Technological University

text: , PMG Perpetuum, ReVibe Energy,

text: Vestfold University College

text: National University of Singapore

text: , NiPS Laboratory at the University of Perugia,

text: Columbia University

text: Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona

text: and USN & Renewable Energy Lab at the University of Ulsan (Ulsan, South Korea). The

text: National Science Foundation

text: also supports an Industry/University Cooperative Research Center led by

text: Virginia Tech

text: and

text: The University of Texas at Dallas

text: called the Center for Energy Harvesting Materials and Systems.

text: Those selling Energy Star approved luminaries will be required to participate in quality assurance testing, which uses independent, third-party, qualified testing facilities. Third-party testing provides an active system to verify the quality of Energy Star qualified SSL Luminaire products. Qualified products are selected on a random basis as well as through a nomination process. The manufacturer of each selected luminaire will be required to commission third-party testing, each being tested for: total luminous flux, luminaire efficacy, correlated color temperature, color rendering index, steady state package/module/array temperature, and maximum power supply case. If a product fails quality assurance testing, the entire product grouping is de-listed, if two ore more variations of a product qualified under a product grouping fail, the applicant is place on a probationary list. The DOE reserves the right to terminate any partnership agreements with a manufacturer whose products repeatedly violate the ENERGY STAR specifications.

text: Other types of particle accelerator, such as radio frequency linear particle accelerators and laser wakefield plasma accelerators have their own hazards.

text: Other types of particle accelerator, such as radio frequency

text: linear particle accelerator

text: s and laser

text: wakefield plasma accelerator

text: s have their own hazards.

text: Nuclear fusion power is a developing technology still under research. It relies on fusing rather than fissioning (splitting) atomic nuclei, using very different processes compared to current nuclear power plants. Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: power is a developing technology still under research. It relies on fusing rather than fissioning (splitting) atomic nuclei, using very different processes compared to current nuclear power plants. Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.

text: Some work in nuclear transmutation had been done. In 1917, Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p.  This was the first observation of a nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split this nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the atom", although it was not the modern nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements, which is discussed below. Meanwhile, the possibility of combining nuclei—nuclear fusion—had been studied in connection with understanding the processes which power stars. The first artificial fusion reaction had been achieved by Mark Oliphant in 1932, using two accelerated deuterium nuclei (each consisting of a single proton bound to a single neutron) to create a helium-3 nucleus.

text: Some work in

text: nuclear transmutation

text: had been done. In 1917, Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p.  This was the first observation of a

text: nuclear reaction

text: , that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues

text: Ernest Walton

text: and

text: John Cockcroft

text: , who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split this nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the atom", although it was not the modern nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements, which is discussed below. Meanwhile, the possibility of combining nuclei—

text: nuclear fusion

text: —had been studied in connection with understanding the processes which power

text: star

text: s. The first artificial fusion reaction had been achieved by

text: Mark Oliphant

text: in 1932, using two accelerated

text: deuterium

text: nuclei (each consisting of a single proton bound to a single neutron) to create a

text: nucleus.

text: To escape the Shadow World, Olympius began defeating the other occupants of the realm, absorbing their energy and evolving into a more powerful, monstrous form. Meanwhile, Jinxer - still loyal to the demon prince - hypnotized Captain Mitchell, commanding him to place a Star Power link inside the Aquabase generator to provide Olympius with more energy. After breaking free of the Shadow World, Olympius seem unstoppable until Ms. Fairweather broke the link to the Aquabase's energy, weakening Olympius enough for the Rangers to defeat him and destroy his Star Power. He was left under the care of Jinxer for a short time, regaining his strength.

text: The two missions that follow illustrate the revolution in astronomy when astronomer’s blinders were removed after centuries of learning about the universe only through light. Spitzer and Chandra are two of NASA’s Great Observatories, straddling the electromagnetic spectrum and looking at regions of space that are hidden from view. Spitzer penetrates the gas and dust that permeates interstellar space and reveals new worlds being formed. Chandra, by contrast, has revealed the violence of dark objects like neutron stars and black holes, where tiny worlds distort space-time and accelerate particles beyond any capability of the largest accelerators.

text: The two missions that follow illustrate the revolution in astronomy when astronomer’s blinders were removed after centuries of learning about the universe only through light.

text: Spitzer

text: and

text: Chandra

text: are two of NASA’s

text: Great Observatories

text: , straddling the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: and looking at regions of space that are hidden from view. Spitzer penetrates the gas and dust that permeates

text: interstellar space

text: and reveals new worlds being formed. Chandra, by contrast, has revealed the violence of dark objects like

text: neutron stars

text: and

text: black holes

text: , where tiny worlds distort

text: space-time

text: and accelerate particles beyond any capability of the largest

text: accelerators

text: Nuclear fusion occurs when the nuclei of two atoms approach closely enough for the nuclear force to pull them together into a single larger nucleus. The strong force is opposed by the electrostatic force created by the positive charge of the nuclei's protons, pushing the nuclei apart. The amount of energy that is needed to overcome this repulsion is known as the Coulomb barrier. The amount of energy released by the fusion reaction when it occurs may be greater or less than the Coulomb barrier. Generally, lighter nuclei with a smaller number of protons and greater number of neutrons will have the greatest ratio of energy released to energy required, and the majority of fusion power research focusses on the use of deuterium and tritium, two isotopes of hydrogen.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: occurs when the

text: nuclei

text: of two atoms approach closely enough for the

text: nuclear force

text: to pull them together into a single larger nucleus. The strong force is opposed by the

text: electrostatic force

text: created by the positive charge of the nuclei's

text: proton

text: s, pushing the nuclei apart. The amount of energy that is needed to overcome this repulsion is known as the

text: Coulomb barrier

text: . The amount of energy released by the fusion reaction when it occurs may be greater or less than the Coulomb barrier. Generally, lighter nuclei with a smaller number of protons and greater number of

text: neutron

text: s will have the greatest ratio of energy released to energy required, and the majority of

text: fusion power

text: research focusses on the use of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: , two

text: isotope

text: s of

text: hydrogen

text: In 1929, Atkinson collaborated with Fritz Houtermans to apply Gamow's quantum tunnelling theory to the process of nuclear fusion in stars.  They showed that fusing light nuclei could create energy in accordance with Einstein's formula of mass-energy equivalence, and that heavy nuclei could be built up by a successive series of fusions.  Their models were similar to the later CNO cycle.  This theory was not accepted at the time as it depended on the idea that stars were mostly hydrogen.  Atkinson wrote about this theory again in the 1930s, predicting that the most luminous stars should have a short lifetime.  He also proposed that the elements found in the Universe could be built up by fusion in stars, and that white dwarf stars did not need a nuclear source of energy in order to shine.  After World War II, he worked on astronomical instrumentation and positional astronomy.

text: In 1929, Atkinson collaborated with

text: Fritz Houtermans

text: to apply

text: Gamow

text: 's

text: quantum tunnelling

text: theory to the process of

text: nuclear fusion

text: in stars.  They showed that fusing light nuclei could create energy in accordance with Einstein's formula of mass-energy equivalence, and that heavy nuclei could be built up by a successive series of fusions.  Their models were similar to the later

text: CNO cycle

text: .  This theory was not accepted at the time as it depended on the idea that stars were mostly

text: hydrogen

text: .  Atkinson wrote about this theory again in the 1930s, predicting that the most luminous stars should have a short lifetime.  He also proposed that the elements found in the Universe could be

text: built up by fusion

text: in stars, and that

text: white dwarf star

text: s did not need a nuclear source of energy in order to shine.  After

text: World War II

text: , he worked on astronomical instrumentation and positional astronomy.

text: Trilithium is a material used in a star-destroying weapon in Star Trek Generations. This is due to the fact that Trilithium is termed as a "nuclear inhibitor", which is believed to be any substance that interferes with nuclear reactions. In the film, Trilithium is known to be capable, when used to its full potential, of stopping all fusion within a star, thereby collapsing the star and destroying everything within its solar system via a shock wave.  Trilithium resin is a toxic byproduct of warp engines, and can be used as a powerful, and quite unstable, explosive (see "Starship Mine" , the 18th episode of the sixth season).  It is not known whether this is related to the nuclear inhibitor.

text: Trilithium is a material used in a

text: star-destroying weapon

text: in

text: Star Trek Generations

text: . This is due to the fact that Trilithium is termed as a "nuclear inhibitor", which is believed to be any substance that interferes with nuclear reactions. In the film, Trilithium is known to be capable, when used to its full potential, of stopping all fusion within a star, thereby collapsing the star and destroying everything within its solar system via a shock wave.  Trilithium resin is a toxic byproduct of warp engines, and can be used as a powerful, and quite unstable, explosive (see "Starship Mine" , the 18th episode of the

entity_name: Star Trek: The Next Generation (season 6)

text: sixth season

text: ).  It is not known whether this is related to the nuclear inhibitor.

text: Construction of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated. A follow on commercial nuclear fusion power station, DEMO, has been proposed. There is also suggestions for a power plant based upon a different fusion approach, that of a Inertial fusion power plant.

text: Construction of the

text: International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

text: facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and

text: budget overruns

text: . The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated. A follow on commercial nuclear

text: fusion power

text: station,

text: DEMO

text: , has been proposed. There is also suggestions for a power plant based upon a different fusion approach, that of a

text: Inertial fusion power plant

text: Casey Lynch's power is called "Streak Guardian." With this power, the player's note streak is protected by a shield that keeps the player's note streak from resetting should they miss a note; the shield refills quickly. Additionally, maintaining high note streaks will grant the player up to 2 power stars. Once Casey has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, a half human, half snake hybrid, her power is upgraded to "Streak Guardian +." With this upgrade, the player is given 2 shields rather than 1, and maintaining high note streaks grants up to 5 power stars.

text: Casey Lynch's power is called "Streak Guardian." With this power, the player's note streak is protected by a shield that keeps the player's note streak from resetting should they miss a note; the shield refills quickly. Additionally, maintaining high note streaks will grant the player up to 2 power stars. Once Casey has obtained enough power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, a half human, half

text: snake

text: hybrid, her power is upgraded to "Streak Guardian +." With this upgrade, the player is given 2 shields rather than 1, and maintaining high note streaks grants up to 5 power stars.

text: In a town in Utah the morning after SHIELD's conflict with a Paganist hate group, Hannah Hutchins, supervisor of the local particle accelerator, is tormented by the locals for supposedly causing an explosion which killed four people. She has apparently developed telekinetic powers in self-defence, and an incident where a convenience store owner terrorises her results in an explosion destroying the store. Coulson's team leaves Dublin and travels to Utah to interrogate Hutchins, only to find an angry mob at her house. A car spontaneously drives at the mob, riling them still further, so May tranquilises Hutchins.

text: In a town in Utah the morning after

text: SHIELD's conflict with a Paganist hate group

text: , Hannah Hutchins, supervisor of the local particle accelerator, is tormented by the locals for supposedly causing an explosion which killed four people. She has apparently developed telekinetic powers in self-defence, and an incident where a convenience store owner terrorises her results in an explosion destroying the store.

text: Coulson's

text: team leaves Dublin and travels to Utah to interrogate Hutchins, only to find an angry mob at her house. A car spontaneously drives at the mob, riling them still further, so May tranquilises Hutchins.

text: In 1990, PECI managed the Energy Edge program for the Administration. The intent of Energy Edge was to learn how energy-efficient lighting, refrigeration, and HVAC measures performed in commercial buildings. In addition to being PECI’s first commercial energy efficiency program, Energy Edge was a landmark event in the creation of building commissioning processes. PECI’s first energy efficiency program for residential consumers was the ENERGY STAR CFL program, which was launched in 1995 and operated throughout the Pacific Northwest.

text: In 1990, PECI managed the Energy Edge program for the

text: Administration

text: . The intent of Energy Edge was to learn how energy-efficient lighting, refrigeration, and

text: HVAC

text: measures performed in commercial buildings. In addition to being PECI’s first commercial energy efficiency program, Energy Edge was a landmark event in the creation of

text: building commissioning

text: processes. PECI’s first energy efficiency program for residential consumers was the

text: ENERGY STAR

text: CFL

text: program, which was launched in 1995 and operated throughout the

text: Pacific Northwest

text: The coming together of two binary stars when they lose energy and approach each other. Several things can cause the loss of energy including tidal forces, mass transfer, and gravitational radiation.  The stars describe the path of a spiral as they approach each other.  This sometimes results in a merger of the two stars or the creation of a black hole.  The last several revolutions of the stars around each other take only a few seconds in the latter case.

text: The coming together of two

text: binary stars

text: when they lose energy and approach each other. Several things can cause the loss of energy including

text: tidal force

text: s,

text: mass transfer

text: , and

text: gravitational radiation

text: .  The stars describe the path of a

text: spiral

text: as they approach each other.  This sometimes results in a merger of the two stars or the creation of a

text: black hole

text: .  The last several revolutions of the stars around each other take only a few seconds in the latter case.

text: Steyer is responsible for funding the creation of the TomKat Center for Sustainable Energy at Stanford University, part of the Precourt Institute of Energy. In 2008, Steyer and Taylor gave $41 million to create the TomKat Center for Sustainable Energy at Stanford University, focused on the development of affordable renewable energy technologies and promotion of public policies to make renewable energy more accessible. Projects included the creation of lighter, less toxic, and more durable batteries, and an analysis of the then-current the power grids’ ability to support future renewable energy technologies.

text: Steyer is responsible for funding the creation of the TomKat Center for Sustainable Energy at

text: Stanford University

text: , part of the

text: Precourt Institute of Energy

text: . In 2008, Steyer and Taylor gave $41 million to create the TomKat Center for Sustainable Energy at

text: Stanford University

text: , focused on the development of affordable renewable energy technologies and promotion of public policies to make renewable energy more accessible. Projects included the creation of lighter, less toxic, and more durable

text: batteries

text: , and an analysis of the then-current the power grids’ ability to support future

text: renewable energy

text: technologies.

text: Wear is a mechanical material degradation process occurring on rubbing or impacting surfaces, while corrosion involves chemical or electrochemical reactions of the material. Corrosion may accelerate wear and wear may accelerate corrosion. One then speaks of corrosion accelerated wear or wear accelerated corrosion. Both these phenomena, as well as fretting corrosion (which results from small amplitude oscillations between contacting surfaces) fall into the broader category of tribocorrosion. Erosion-corrosion is another tribocorrosion phenomenon involving mechanical and chemical effects: impacting particles or fluids erode a solid surface by abrasion, chipping or fatigue while simultaneously the surface corrodes.

text: Wear is a mechanical material degradation process occurring on rubbing or impacting surfaces, while corrosion involves

text: chemical

text: or

text: electrochemical reaction

text: s of the material. Corrosion may accelerate wear and wear may accelerate corrosion. One then speaks of corrosion accelerated wear or wear accelerated corrosion. Both these phenomena, as well as fretting corrosion (which results from small amplitude oscillations between contacting surfaces) fall into the broader category of tribocorrosion. Erosion-corrosion is another tribocorrosion phenomenon involving mechanical and chemical effects: impacting particles or fluids erode a solid surface by abrasion, chipping or fatigue while simultaneously the surface corrodes.

text: In 1981 the Holifield Heavy Ion Research Facility, a 25 MV particle accelerator, was opened at ORNL. At the time, Holifield had the widest range of ion species and was twice as powerful as other accelerators attracting hundreds of guest researchers each year.

text: Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the nuclear force, and neutrons are required for the stability of nuclei. Neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and fusion. They are a primary contributor to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion, and neutron capture processes.

text: Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the

text: nuclear force

text: , and neutrons are required for the stability of nuclei. Neutrons are produced copiously in

text: nuclear fission

text: and

text: fusion

text: . They are a primary contributor to the

text: nucleosynthesis

text: of chemical elements within

text: star

text: s through fission, fusion, and

text: neutron capture

text: processes.

text: When using superconducting RF cavities in particle accelerators, the field level in the cavity should generally be as high as possible to most efficiently accelerate the beam passing through it.  The Q values described by the above calculations tend to degrade as the fields increase, which is plotted for a given cavity as a "Q vs E" curve, where "E" refers to the accelerating electric field of the TM mode.  Ideally, the cavity Q would remain constant as the accelerating field is increased all the way up to the point of a magnetic quench field, as indicated by the "ideal" dashed line in the plot below.  In reality, though, even a well prepared niobium cavity will have a Q vs E curve that lies beneath the ideal, as shown by the "good cavity" curve in the plot.

text: When using superconducting RF cavities in particle accelerators, the field level in the cavity should generally be as high as possible to most efficiently accelerate the beam passing through it.  The Q values described by the above calculations tend to degrade as the fields increase, which is plotted for a given cavity as a "Q vs E" curve, where "E" refers to the accelerating electric field of the

text: TM

text: mode.  Ideally, the cavity Q would remain constant as the accelerating field is increased all the way up to the point of a magnetic quench field, as indicated by the "ideal" dashed line in the plot below.  In reality, though, even a well prepared niobium cavity will have a Q vs E curve that lies beneath the ideal, as shown by the "good cavity" curve in the plot.

text: In later life, Farnsworth invented a small nuclear fusion device, the Farnsworth–Hirsch fusor, or simply "fusor", employing inertial electrostatic confinement (IEC). Although not a practical device for generating nuclear energy, the fusor serves as a viable source of neutrons.  The design of this device has been the acknowledged inspiration for other fusion approaches including the Polywell reactor concept in terms of a general approach to fusion design.  Farnsworth held 300 patents, mostly in radio and television.

text: In later life, Farnsworth invented a small

text: nuclear fusion

text: device, the

text: Farnsworth–Hirsch fusor

text: , or simply "fusor", employing

text: inertial electrostatic confinement

text: (IEC). Although not a practical device for generating

text: nuclear energy

text: , the fusor serves as a viable source of

text: neutron

text: s.  The design of this device has been the acknowledged inspiration for other fusion approaches including the

text: Polywell

text: reactor concept in terms of a general approach to fusion design.  Farnsworth held 300

text: patent

text: s, mostly in

text: radio

text: and television.

text: The nuclear fusion process works as follows: five billion years ago, the new Sun formed when gravity pulled together a vast cloud of hydrogen and dust, from which the Earth and other planets also arose. The gravitational pull released energy and heated the early Sun, much in the way Helmholtz proposed.

text: The

text: nuclear fusion

text: process works as follows: five billion years ago, the new Sun formed when gravity pulled together a vast cloud of

text: hydrogen

text: and dust, from which the Earth and other planets also arose. The gravitational pull released energy and heated the early Sun, much in the way

text: Helmholtz

text: proposed.

text: The star that exploded as a supernova is referred to as the supernova's progenitor star. Two types of stars explode as supernovae: white dwarfs and massive stars. In the so-called Type Ia supernovae, gases falling onto a 'dead' white dwarf raise its mass until it nears a critical level, the Chandrasekhar limit, resulting in a runaway nuclear fusion explosion that obliterates the star; in Type Ib/c and Type II supernovae, the progenitor star is a massive star whose core runs out of fuel to power its nuclear fusion reactions and collapses in on itself, releasing gravitational potential energy in a form that blows away the star's outer layers. The presence of a pulsar in the Crab Nebula means that it must have formed in a core-collapse supernova; Type Ia supernovae do not produce pulsars.

text: The star that exploded as a supernova is referred to as the supernova's progenitor star. Two types of stars explode as supernovae:

text: white dwarf

text: s and

text: massive stars

text: . In the so-called

text: Type Ia supernova

text: e, gases falling onto a 'dead' white dwarf raise its mass until it nears a critical level, the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: , resulting in a

text: runaway nuclear fusion explosion

text: that obliterates the star; in

text: Type Ib/c

text: and

text: Type II

text: supernovae, the progenitor star is a massive star whose core runs out of fuel to power its

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions and collapses in on itself, releasing

text: gravitational potential energy

text: in a form that blows away the star's outer layers. The presence of a pulsar in the Crab Nebula means that it must have formed in a core-collapse supernova; Type Ia supernovae do not produce pulsars.

text: The Power Star is your secondary weapon. The Power Star, both a shield and a weapon, floats near the Bioship. As a shield, it stops most creatures from hitting your Bioship. More importantly, it uses power from the Energy Seeds to generate weapons. Your Bioship ingests Seeds by passing over them and the energy is transferred to your ship's Power Star.

text: Good's research interests spanned a broad range of topics in particle physics. He did important work on muon-catalyzed fusion, Kaon regeneration, strange particles, diffraction of particle beams, W boson phenomenology, and particle accelerator technology. Outside of particle physics, he also developed a theory of pulsars as rotating neutron stars.

text: Good's research interests spanned a broad range of topics in

text: particle physics

text: . He did important work on

text: muon-catalyzed fusion

text: Kaon

text: regeneration,

text: strange particles

text: diffraction

text: of particle beams,

text: W boson

text: phenomenology

text: , and

text: particle accelerator

text: technology. Outside of particle physics, he also developed a theory of

text: pulsar

text: s as rotating

text: neutron star

text: s.

text: Processes, collectively known as particle acceleration, produce populations of relativistic and non-thermal particles that give rise to synchrotron and inverse-Compton radiation. Fermi acceleration is one plausible particle acceleration process in radio-loud active galaxies.

text: Processes, collectively known as particle acceleration, produce populations of relativistic and non-thermal particles that give rise to synchrotron and inverse-Compton radiation.

text: Fermi acceleration

text: is one plausible particle acceleration process in radio-loud active galaxies.

text: Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between −1 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle.  Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage).

text: Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a

text: dimensionless number

text: between −1 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle.  Capacitive loads are leading (current leads voltage), and inductive loads are lagging (current lags voltage).

text: Svātantrya is the first stage of creation, an undifferentiated energy, or, looking from bottom up, we could also say that it is the force that unifies all the energies of creation The first creation of svātantrya is the energy of will (icchā śakti). Then come the energies of knowledge (jñāna śakti) and action (kriyā śakti) and together with the energy of consciousness (cit śakti) and the energy of bliss (ānanda śakti) they form the supreme pentad of creation, the so-called "pure creation".

text: The nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor is constructing the world's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in the south of France. A collaboration between the European Union (EU), India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and the United States, the project aims to make a transition from experimental studies of plasma physics to electricity-producing fusion power plants. In 2005, Greenpeace International issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups, Sortir du nucléaire (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy deuterium and tritium hydrogen isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream".  The World Nuclear Association says that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges". Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated.

text: The nuclear fusion project

text: is constructing the world's largest and most advanced experimental

text: tokamak

text: nuclear fusion reactor

text: in the south of

text: France

text: . A collaboration between the

text: European Union

text: (EU),

text: India

text: Japan

text: China

text: Russia

text: South Korea

text: and the

text: United States

text: , the project aims to make a transition from experimental studies of

text: plasma

text: physics to electricity-producing

text: fusion power

text: plants. In 2005,

text: Greenpeace International

text: issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups,

text: Sortir du nucléaire

text: (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy deuterium and tritium

text: hydrogen

text: isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream".  The

text: World Nuclear Association

text: says that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges". Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated.

text: Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The only controlled method now practical uses nuclear fission in a fissile fuel (with a small fraction of the power coming from subsequent radioactive decay). Use of the nuclear reaction nuclear fusion for controlled power generation is not yet practical, but is an active area of research.

text: Nuclear power is any

text: nuclear technology

text: designed to extract usable energy from

text: atomic nuclei

text: via controlled

text: nuclear reactions

text: . The only controlled method now practical uses

text: nuclear fission

text: in a

text: fissile

text: fuel (with a small fraction of the power coming from subsequent

text: radioactive decay

text: ). Use of the nuclear reaction

text: nuclear fusion

text: for controlled power generation is not yet practical, but is an active area of research.

text: A nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission, nuclear fusion or a multistage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a pure fusion weapon remains a hypothetical device.

text: A nuclear explosion is an

text: explosion

text: that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed

text: nuclear reaction

text: . The driving reaction may be

text: nuclear fission

text: nuclear fusion

text: or a multistage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a

text: pure fusion weapon

text: remains a hypothetical device.

text: Former president Lee Teng-hui in 2013 stated that Taiwan could not afford to abandon nuclear power in the near future and should enhance its nuclear energy program by developing advanced nuclear technologies, such as nuclear fusion. Lee Teng-hui also stated that wind and solar sources of energy both have limitations and could not fill the void left by nuclear power.

text: Former president

text: Lee Teng-hui

text: in 2013 stated that Taiwan could not afford to abandon nuclear power in the near future and should enhance its nuclear energy program by developing advanced nuclear technologies, such as

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Lee Teng-hui also stated that wind and solar sources of energy both have limitations and could not fill the void left by nuclear power.

text: Thus, light elements undergoing nuclear fusion and heavy elements undergoing nuclear fission release energy as their nucleons bind more tightly, and the resulting nuclei approach the maximum total energy per nucleon, which occurs at Ni. However, during nucleosynthesis in stars the competition between photodisintegration and alpha capturing causes more Ni to be produced than Ni (Fe is produced later in the star's ejection shell as Ni decays). This means that as the Universe ages, more matter is converted into extremely tightly bound nuclei, such as Fe. This progression of matter towards iron and nickel is one of the phenomena responsible for the heat death of the universe.

text: Thus, light elements undergoing

text: nuclear fusion

text: and heavy elements undergoing

text: nuclear fission

text: release energy as their nucleons bind more tightly, and the resulting nuclei approach the maximum total energy per nucleon, which occurs at Ni. However, during

text: nucleosynthesis

text: in stars the competition between

text: photodisintegration

text: and

text: alpha capturing

text: causes more

text: Ni

text: to be produced than Ni (Fe is produced later in the star's ejection shell as Ni decays). This means that as the

text: Universe

text: ages, more matter is converted into extremely tightly bound nuclei, such as Fe. This progression of matter towards iron and nickel is one of the phenomena responsible for the

text: heat death of the universe

text: Danfysik is a Danish developer and manufacturer of particle accelerators for scientific research and medical usage, specialized magnets and particle accelerator power supplies.

text: Danfysik is a

text: Danish

text: developer and manufacturer of particle accelerators for scientific research and medical usage, specialized magnets and particle accelerator power supplies.

text: In particle accelerators an ion source creates a particle beam at the beginning of the machine, the source. The technology to create ion sources for particle accelerators depends strongly on the type of particle that needs to be generated: electrons, protons, H ion or a Heavy ions.

text: In

text: particle accelerator

text: s an ion source creates a

text: particle beam

text: at the beginning of the machine, the source. The technology to create ion sources for particle accelerators depends strongly on the type of particle that needs to be generated:

text: electron

text: s,

text: proton

text: s,

text: H ion

text: or a

text: Heavy ions

text: A pulse transformer is a transformer that is optimised for transmitting rectangular electrical pulses (that is, pulses with fast rise and fall times and a relatively constant amplitude).  Small versions called signal types are used in digital logic and telecommunications circuits, often for matching logic drivers to transmission lines.  Medium-sized power versions are used in power-control circuits such as camera flash controllers.  Larger power versions are used in the electrical power distribution industry to interface low-voltage control circuitry to the high-voltage gates of power semiconductors. Special high voltage pulse transformers are also used to generate high power pulses for radar, particle accelerators, or other high energy pulsed power applications.

text: A pulse transformer is a transformer that is optimised for transmitting rectangular electrical pulses (that is, pulses with fast rise and fall times and a relatively constant

text: amplitude

text: ).  Small versions called signal types are used in

text: digital logic

text: and

text: telecommunications

text: circuits, often for matching logic drivers to

text: transmission line

text: s.  Medium-sized power versions are used in power-control circuits such as

text: camera flash

text: controllers.  Larger power versions are used in the

text: electrical power distribution

text: industry to interface low-voltage control circuitry to the high-voltage gates of

text: power semiconductor

text: s. Special

text: high voltage

text: pulse transformers are also used to generate high power pulses for

text: radar

text: particle accelerators

text: , or other high energy

text: pulsed power

text: applications.

text: On a cosmic scale, the creation of the universe is described in Kashmir Shaivism as an evolution of sound, a descending process originating from the level of logos (pārāvak). Each phoneme represents a stage in the process of evolution, a tattva, a world in itself. Sounds are associated with energies and ultimately with aspects of consciousness. The magical power of sounds and words is derived from this association with energy (śakti) and consciousness (śiva). The study of these energies is an essential part of Kashmir Shaivism.

text: On a cosmic scale, the creation of the universe is described in

text: Kashmir Shaivism

text: as an evolution of sound, a descending process originating from the level of logos (pārāvak). Each phoneme represents a stage in the process of evolution, a tattva, a world in itself. Sounds are associated with energies and ultimately with aspects of consciousness. The magical power of sounds and words is derived from this association with energy (śakti) and consciousness (śiva). The study of these energies is an essential part of

text: Kashmir Shaivism

text: This timeline of nuclear fusion is an incomplete chronological summary of significant events in the study and use of nuclear fusion.

text: This timeline of nuclear fusion is an incomplete chronological summary of significant events in the study and use of

text: nuclear fusion

text: The heaviest particle pairs yet produced by electron–positron annihilation in particle accelerators are – pairs. The heaviest single particle is the Z boson. The driving motivation for constructing the International Linear Collider is to produce the Higgs bosons in this way.

text: The heaviest particle pairs yet produced by electron–positron annihilation in

text: particle accelerator

text: s are

text: pairs. The heaviest single particle is the

text: Z boson

text: . The driving motivation for constructing the

text: International Linear Collider

text: is to produce the

text: Higgs boson

text: s in this way.

text: , Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy, and 60% of its primary energy was imported. In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%). The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021. It also enforces energy conservation, green technologies, emission reduction activities, and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40% renewable sources by 2020. Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, water management, and the renewable energy commercialisation. The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world — at around 65%. Nevertheless, the country's greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU . The German energy transition (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.

text: , Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy, and 60% of its primary energy was imported. In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%). The government and the

text: nuclear power industry

text: agreed to phase out all

text: nuclear power plant

text: s by 2021. It also enforces

text: energy conservation

text: green technologies

text: , emission reduction activities, and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40%

text: renewable sources

text: by 2020. Germany is committed to the

text: Kyoto protocol

text: and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards,

text: water management

text: , and the

text: renewable energy commercialisation

text: . The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world — at around 65%. Nevertheless, the country's

entity_name: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: were the highest in the EU . The

text: German energy transition

text: (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.

text: Superconducting magnets are some of the most powerful electromagnets known. They are used in MRI/NMR machines, mass spectrometers, the beam-steering magnets used in particle accelerators and plasma confining magnets in some tokamaks. They can also be used for magnetic separation, where weakly magnetic particles are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the pigment industries.

text: Superconducting magnet

text: s are some of the most powerful

text: electromagnet

text: s known. They are used in

text: MRI

text: NMR

text: machines,

text: mass spectrometer

text: s, the beam-steering magnets used in

text: particle accelerator

text: s and plasma confining magnets in some

text: tokamaks

text: . They can also be used for magnetic separation, where weakly magnetic particles are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the

text: pigment

text: industries.

text: One notable former player at the club's event is American TV star Stefanie Powers. Professional polo player Jack Kidd, brother of supermodel Jodie, has also turned out for the club.

text: One notable former player at the club's event is American TV star

text: Stefanie Powers

text: . Professional polo player Jack Kidd, brother of supermodel Jodie, has also turned out for the club.

text: The AGS Booster, constructed in 1991, further augments the capabilities of the AGS, enabling it to accelerate more intense proton beams and heavy ions such as Gold.  Brookhaven's linear accelerator (LINAC) provides 200 million electron volt (MeV) protons to the AGS Booster, and the Electron Beam Ion Source (EBIS) and Tandem Van de Graaff accelerators provide other ions to the AGS Booster. The AGS Booster then accelerates these particles for injection into the AGS. The AGS Booster also provides particle beams to the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory.

text: The AGS Booster, constructed in 1991, further augments the capabilities of the AGS, enabling it to accelerate more intense proton beams and heavy ions such as

text: Gold

text: .  Brookhaven's linear accelerator (LINAC) provides 200 million electron volt (MeV) protons to the AGS Booster, and the Electron Beam Ion Source (EBIS) and

text: Tandem Van de Graaff

text: accelerators provide other ions to the AGS Booster. The AGS Booster then accelerates these particles for injection into the AGS. The AGS Booster also provides particle beams to the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory.

text: Paul started his professorship on April 1, 1971. Soon an electrostatic particle accelerator for 700 keV protons was installed (later also a tandem accelerator), und in collaboration with O. Benka, D. Semrad, A. Kropf and others, atomic physics experiments were started. To make the Linz group internationally known, Paul started to organize international workshops: at first three on theories of ionisation of inner atomic shells. A table of cross sections for K shell ionisation by light ions, established together with J. Muhr and O. Bolik, resp., is available in the Internet.Later, Paul's interests turned toward the stopping power of matter for charged particles, a subject on which D. Semrad, P. Bauer, R. Golser and other coworkers had already worked intensively for some time. He initiated again three international workshops on this theme.In Juli 1995,  Paul's group initiated the Sixteenth International Conference on Atomic Collisions in Solids in Linz, with Paul as Chairman; D. Semrad, P. Bauer and O. Benka were editors of the conference volume.The years in Linz were a very successful time for Paul. Apart from teaching and research, Paul's managing qualities were appreciated and asked for. Paul's equilibrated and confidence-inspiring personality contributed to the fact that Paul became a Senator at the University as early as 1972. In 1973 he was elected Dean of the newly established Faculty of natural and technical sciences, and in 1974 there came the election to the office of the Rector of the university for three years until 1977. In 1985, he was again elected Dean for two years.

text: Paul started his professorship on April 1, 1971. Soon an electrostatic

text: particle accelerator

text: for 700 keV protons was installed (later also a

text: tandem accelerator

text: ), und in collaboration with O. Benka, D. Semrad, A. Kropf and others, atomic physics experiments were started. To make the Linz group internationally known, Paul started to organize international workshops: at first three on theories of

text: ionisation

text: of inner

text: atomic shells

text: . A table of cross sections for K shell ionisation by light ions, established together with J. Muhr and O. Bolik, resp., is available in the Internet.Later, Paul's interests turned toward the

text: stopping power

text: of matter for charged particles, a subject on which D. Semrad, P. Bauer, R. Golser and other coworkers had already worked intensively for some time. He initiated again three international workshops on this theme.In Juli 1995,  Paul's group initiated the Sixteenth International Conference on Atomic Collisions in Solids in Linz, with Paul as Chairman; D. Semrad, P. Bauer and O. Benka were editors of the conference volume.The years in Linz were a very successful time for Paul. Apart from teaching and research, Paul's managing qualities were appreciated and asked for. Paul's equilibrated and confidence-inspiring personality contributed to the fact that Paul became a Senator at the University as early as 1972. In 1973 he was elected Dean of the newly established Faculty of natural and technical sciences, and in 1974 there came the election to the office of the Rector of the university for three years until 1977. In 1985, he was again elected Dean for two years.

text: Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated. A follow on commercial nuclear fusion power station, DEMO, has been proposed. There are also suggestions for a power plant based upon a different fusion approach, that of an inertial fusion power plant.

text: Construction of the

text: ITER

text: facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated. A follow on commercial nuclear fusion power station,

text: DEMO

text: , has been proposed. There are also suggestions for a power plant based upon a different fusion approach, that of an

text: inertial fusion power plant

text: When a star in a binary fills its Roche lobe (either due to being very close to its companion or having a relatively large radius), it begins to lose matter, which streams towards its neutron star companion. The star may also undergo mass loss by exceeding its Eddington luminosity, or through strong stellar winds, and some of this material may become gravitationally attracted to the neutron star. In the circumstance of a short orbital period and a massive partner star, both of these processes may contribute to the transfer of material from the companion to the neutron star.  In both cases, the falling material originates from the surface layers of the partner star and is rich in hydrogen and helium.  Because compact stars have high gravitational fields, the material falls with a high velocity towards the neutron star, usually colliding with other accreting material en route, and in so doing forming an accretion disk.  In an X-ray burster, this material accretes onto the surface of the neutron star, where it forms a dense layer. After mere hours of accumulation and gravitational compression, nuclear fusion starts in this matter. Often the increase in temperature (greater than 1 × 10 kelvins) gives rise to a thermonuclear runaway.  This explosive stellar nucleosynthesis begins with the hot CNO cycle which quickly yields to the rp-process. Within seconds most of the accreted material is burned, powering a bright X-ray flash that is observable with X-ray telescopes. Theory suggests that in at least some cases the hydrogen in the accreting material burns continuously, and that it is the accumulation of helium that causes the bursts.

text: When a star in a

text: binary

text: fills its

text: Roche lobe

text: (either due to being very close to its companion or having a relatively large radius), it begins to lose matter, which streams towards its neutron star companion. The star may also undergo

text: mass loss

text: by exceeding its

text: Eddington luminosity

text: , or through strong

text: stellar wind

text: s, and some of this material may become gravitationally attracted to the neutron star. In the circumstance of a short

text: orbital period

text: and a massive partner star, both of these processes may contribute to the transfer of material from the companion to the neutron star.  In both cases, the falling material originates from the surface layers of the partner star and is rich in

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: .  Because compact stars have high

text: gravitational fields

text: , the material falls with a high

text: velocity

text: towards the neutron star, usually colliding with other accreting material en route, and in so doing forming an

text: accretion disk

text: .  In an X-ray burster, this material accretes onto the surface of the neutron star, where it forms a dense layer. After mere hours of accumulation and gravitational compression,

text: nuclear fusion

text: starts in this matter. Often the increase in temperature (greater than 1 × 10

text: kelvin

text: s) gives rise to a

text: thermonuclear runaway

text: .  This explosive

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: begins with the hot

text: CNO cycle

text: which quickly yields to the

text: rp-process

text: . Within seconds most of the accreted material is burned, powering a bright X-ray flash that is observable with X-ray telescopes. Theory suggests that in at least some cases the hydrogen in the accreting material burns continuously, and that it is the accumulation of helium that causes the bursts.

text: Brahma's consort is the goddess Saraswati. She is considered to be "the embodiment of his power, the instrument of creation and the energy that drives his actions".

text: Made up of two terms, the force on this particle is first the proportional to rate of v change, the second is due to the change in direction of this component of velocity as the body moves. The latter terms gives rise to cross products of small quantities (pq, pr,qr), which are later discarded.  In this analysis, they are discarded from the outset for the sake of clarity. In effect, we assume that the direction of the velocity of the particle due to the simultaneous roll and yaw rates does not change significantly throughout the motion.  With this simplifying assumption, the acceleration of the particle becomes:

text: Wanting to avoid a bloody war, Ed and Al return to Table City in an attempt to find the Star and destroy it. Later that night, the Black Bats begin their assault on Table City. Miranda, Ashley, and Julia then venture to the main tower, where, suddenly, Ashleigh fatally injures Miranda and explains to Julia that the use of Miranda's blood activates a three dimensional transmutation circle drawn in blood to create the Sanguine Star. Julia then realizes that he is an impostor, Security Chief Atlas, who was enveloped by alchemy's potential of creation and power and killed Julia's parents for it. He explains that he tore off the real Ashleigh's face and the skin from his lower left side to deceive Julia and create the Star. Ed and Al arrive to rescue Julia and confront Atlas, who escapes to the location of the Star. As Ed, Al, and Julia chase after Atlas, Herschel detonates a Cretan thermal power plant, pouring out a massive amount of lava towards the Valley. Al goes to help save the valley while Ed and Julia go after Atlas. Atlas nearly attempts to retrieve the Star, only to be confronted by Ed and Julia. Julia retrieves the star and decides to save the Valley by swallowing it to use its power.

text: Jefferson "Jax" Jackson appears in live action Arrowverse series, portrayed by Franz Drameh. Making his debut in the second season of The Flash, Jax is a high school football star who got injured during the particle accelerator explosion, and forced to become a mechanic instead of playing college football. He was selected as a potential candidate to replace Ronnie Raymond as the other half of Firestorm due to have been similarly affected by the dark matter. Although reluctant to cooperate, he later accepts the role and teams up with the Flash to defeat Henry Hewitt, another candidate who absorbed some of the Firestorm powers. Jax later appears in series Legends of Tomorrow as one of its principal characters. Drameh reprised his role in the web series Vixen.

text: Jefferson "Jax" Jackson appears in live action Arrowverse series, portrayed by

text: Franz Drameh

text: . Making his debut in the second season of

text: The Flash

text: , Jax is a high school football star who got injured during the particle accelerator explosion, and forced to become a mechanic instead of playing college football. He was selected as a potential candidate to replace Ronnie Raymond as the other half of Firestorm due to have been similarly affected by the dark matter. Although reluctant to cooperate, he later accepts the role and teams up with the Flash to defeat

text: Henry Hewitt

text: , another candidate who absorbed some of the Firestorm powers. Jax later appears in series

text: Legends of Tomorrow

text: as one of its principal characters. Drameh reprised his role in the web series

text: Vixen

text: Since 2002, approximately 85% of commercial and industrial consumers have switched power providers at least once. Approximately 40% of residential consumers in deregulated areas have switched from the former incumbent provider to a competitive REP. REPs providing service in the state include NEC Retail Co-op Electricity, Acacia Energy, Now Power, Snap Energy, Clearview Electric, Green Mountain Energy, Iluminar Energy, Conservice Energy, Ambit Energy, Entrust Energy, Bounce Energy, Champion Energy,  Shnye Energy, Cirro Energy, Direct Energy, Dynowatt, First Texas Energy Corporation, Gexa Energy, Glacial Energy, Just Energy, Kinetic Energy, Mega Energy, APG&E, Adjacent Energy, Spark Energy, StarTex Power, Stream Energy, Tech Electricity, Texas Power,  TXU Energy, XOOM Energy and 4Change Energy.

text: Since 2002, approximately 85% of commercial and industrial consumers have switched power providers at least once. Approximately 40% of residential consumers in deregulated areas have switched from the former incumbent provider to a competitive REP. REPs providing service in the state include NEC Retail Co-op Electricity,

text: Acacia Energy

text: Now Power

text: Snap Energy

text: , Clearview Electric, Green Mountain Energy, Iluminar Energy, Conservice Energy,

text: Ambit Energy

text: , Entrust Energy, Bounce Energy,

text: Champion Energy

text: ,  Shnye Energy, Cirro Energy,

text: Direct Energy

text: Dynowatt

text: First Texas Energy Corporation

text: , Gexa Energy,

text: Glacial Energy

text: Just Energy

text: , Kinetic Energy, Mega Energy, APG&E,

text: Adjacent Energy

text: , Spark Energy, StarTex Power,

text: Stream Energy

text: , Tech Electricity,

text: Texas Power

text: TXU Energy

text: XOOM Energy

text: and

text: 4Change Energy

text: Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost immediately when created, only a very high-energy particle accelerator can observe and record it. Experiments to confirm and determine the nature of the Higgs boson using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN began in early 2010, and were performed at Fermilab's Tevatron until its closure in late 2011. Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of generating the masses of elementary particles becomes visible at energies above ; therefore, the LHC (designed to collide two 7 to 8 TeV proton beams) was built to answer the question of whether the Higgs boson actually exists.

text: Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost immediately when created, only a very high-energy

text: particle accelerator

text: can observe and record it. Experiments to confirm and determine the nature of the Higgs boson using the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC) at

text: CERN

text: began in early 2010, and were performed at

text: Fermilab

text: 's

text: Tevatron

text: until its closure in late 2011. Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of generating the masses of elementary particles becomes visible at energies above ; therefore, the LHC (designed to collide two 7 to 8 TeV proton beams) was built to answer the question of whether the Higgs boson actually exists.

text: The s-process was seen to be needed from the relative abundances of isotopes of heavy elements and from a newly published table of abundances by Hans Suess and Harold Urey in 1956. Among other things, these data showed abundance peaks for strontium, barium, and lead, which, according to quantum mechanics and the nuclear shell model, are particularly stable nuclei, much like the noble gases are chemically inert. This implied that some abundant nuclei must be created by slow neutron capture, and it was only a matter of determining how other nuclei could be accounted for by such a process. A table apportioning the heavy isotopes between s-process and r-process was published in the famous BFH review paper in 1957. There it was also argued that the s-process occurs in red giant stars. In a particularly illustrative case, the element technetium, whose longest half-life is 4.2 million years, had been discovered in S-, M-, and N-type stars in 1952. Since these stars were thought to be billions of years old, the presence of technetium in their outer atmospheres was taken as evidence of its recent creation there, probably unconnected with the nuclear fusion in the deep interior of the star that provides its power.

text: The s-process was seen to be needed from the relative abundances of isotopes of heavy elements and from a newly published table of

text: abundances

text: by

text: Hans Suess

text: and

text: Harold Urey

text: in 1956. Among other things, these data showed abundance peaks for

text: strontium

text: barium

text: , and

text: lead

text: , which, according to

text: quantum mechanics

text: and the

text: nuclear shell model

text: , are particularly stable nuclei, much like the

text: noble gas

text: es are chemically

text: inert

text: . This implied that some abundant nuclei must be created by slow

text: neutron capture

text: , and it was only a matter of determining how other nuclei could be accounted for by such a process. A table apportioning the heavy isotopes between s-process and

text: r-process

text: was published in the famous

text: BFH review paper

text: in 1957. There it was also argued that the s-process occurs in

text: red giant

text: stars. In a particularly illustrative case, the element

text: technetium

text: , whose longest half-life is 4.2 million years, had been discovered in S-, M-, and N-type stars in 1952. Since these stars were thought to be billions of years old, the presence of technetium in their outer atmospheres was taken as evidence of its recent creation there, probably unconnected with the nuclear fusion in the deep interior of the star that provides its power.

text: According to Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi, humans are made of ten Lata'if or components of creation. Five of them pertain to Alam-e-Amr (the divine world) and the remaining five pertain to Alam-e-Khalq (Created world). The five lata'if of Alam-e-Amr are Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi and Akhfa. The five lata'if of Alam-e-Khalq are Nafs, Soil (solid), Water (liquid), Air (gas) and Fire (energy).  The last four (corresponding to earth, water, air and fire) are collectively called lataif qalbia, referring to the physical human body (qalib), also referred to as Sultan al-Azkar in many sufi orders.

text: According to

text: Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi

text: , humans are made of ten

text: Lata'if

text: or components of creation. Five of them pertain to Alam-e-Amr (the divine world) and the remaining five pertain to Alam-e-Khalq (Created world). The five lata'if of Alam-e-Amr are

text: Qalb

text: Ruh

text: , Sirr, Khafi and Akhfa. The five lata'if of Alam-e-Khalq are

text: Nafs

text: Soil

text: (solid),

text: Water

text: (liquid),

text: Air

text: (gas) and

text: Fire

text: (energy).  The last four (corresponding to earth, water, air and fire) are collectively called lataif qalbia, referring to the physical human body (qalib), also referred to as Sultan al-Azkar in many sufi orders.

text: The most important fusion process in nature is the one that powers stars, stellar nucleosynthesis. In the 20th century, it was realized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the Sun and other stars  as a source of heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei as a byproduct of the fusion process. The prime energy producer in the Sun is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium, which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two positrons, two neutrinos (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star. For stars the size of the sun or smaller, the proton-proton chain dominates. In heavier stars, the CNO cycle is more important.

text: The most important fusion process in nature is the one that powers

text: star

text: s,

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: . In the 20th century, it was realized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the

text: Sun

text: and other stars  as a source of heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei as a byproduct of the fusion process. The prime energy producer in the Sun is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium, which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four

text: proton

text: s into one

text: alpha particle

text: , with the release of two

text: positron

text: s, two

text: neutrino

text: s (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star. For stars the size of the sun or smaller, the

text: proton-proton chain

text: dominates. In heavier stars, the

text: CNO cycle

text: is more important.

text: Energy efficiencies of water heaters in residential use can vary greatly, particularly depending on manufacturer and model. However, electric heaters tend to be slightly more efficient (not counting power station losses) with recovery efficiency (how efficiently energy transfers to the water) reaching about 98%. Gas fired heaters have maximum recovery efficiencies of only about 82-94% (the remaining heat is lost with the flue gasses). Overall energy factors can be as low as 80% for electric and 50% for gas systems. Natural gas and propane tank water heaters with energy factors of 62% or greater, as well as electric tank water heaters with energy factors of 93% or greater, are considered high-efficiency units.  Energy Star-qualified natural gas and propane tank water heaters (as of September 2010) have energy factors of 67% or higher, which is usually achieved using an intermittent pilot together with an automatic flue damper, baffle blowers, or power venting. Direct electric resistance tank water heaters are not included in the Energy Star program, however, the Energy Star program does include electric heat pump units with energy factors of 200% or higher.  Tankless gas water heaters (as of 2015) must have an energy factor of 90% or higher for Energy Star qualification.  Since electricity production itself today has efficiency levels ranging from only 15% to slightly over 55% (combined cycle gas turbine), with around 40% typical for thermal power stations, direct resistance electric water heating is typically the least energy efficient option. However, use of a heat pump can make electric water heaters much more energy efficient and lead to a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, even more so if a renewable source of electricity is used.

text: Energy efficiencies of water heaters in residential use can vary greatly, particularly depending on manufacturer and model. However, electric heaters tend to be slightly more efficient (not counting power station losses) with recovery efficiency (how efficiently energy transfers to the water) reaching about 98%. Gas fired heaters have maximum recovery efficiencies of only about 82-94% (the remaining heat is lost with the flue gasses). Overall

text: energy factor

text: s can be as low as 80% for electric and 50% for gas systems. Natural gas and propane tank water heaters with energy factors of 62% or greater, as well as electric tank water heaters with energy factors of 93% or greater, are considered high-efficiency units.

text: Energy Star

text: -qualified natural gas and propane tank water heaters (as of September 2010) have energy factors of 67% or higher, which is usually achieved using an intermittent pilot together with an automatic flue damper, baffle blowers, or power venting. Direct electric resistance tank water heaters are not included in the Energy Star program, however, the Energy Star program does include electric

text: heat pump

text: units with energy factors of 200% or higher.  Tankless gas water heaters (as of 2015) must have an energy factor of 90% or higher for Energy Star qualification.  Since electricity production itself today has efficiency levels ranging from only 15% to slightly over 55% (

text: combined cycle

text: gas turbine), with around 40% typical for thermal power stations, direct resistance electric water heating is typically the least energy efficient option. However, use of a heat pump can make electric water heaters much more energy efficient and lead to a decrease in carbon dioxide emissions, even more so if a renewable source of electricity is used.

text: These neutrons have much more energy than fission energy neutrons and are generated as secondary particles by particle accelerators or in the atmosphere from cosmic rays. These high-energy neutrons are extremely efficient at ionization and far more likely to cause cell death than X-rays or protons.

text: These neutrons have much more energy than fission energy neutrons and are generated as secondary particles by

text: particle accelerator

text: s or in the atmosphere from

text: cosmic ray

text: s. These high-energy neutrons are extremely efficient at

text: ionization

text: and far more likely to cause

text: cell

text: death than

text: X-rays

text: or protons.

text: Hostile Waters takes place in a utopian future where war has been abolished. In the year 2012, a revolution takes place between the corrupt and power-hungry politicians, leaders and bussinessmen (described as the "Old Guard") and the people. The Old Guard were defeated, with only a few of their leaders escaping. By 2032, the world has been rebuilt as a utopia, with the help of nano-technological assemblers, which are used in "creation engines" used to create matter from energy and waste, for free. The newly united world is governed from a capital city known as Central.

text: Ballistic movements are often powered through elastic energy storage and subsequent recovery mechanisms.  The power required to produce the extremely rapid velocities of ballistic movements is made possible through muscle work being stored in elastic elements (such as tendons, aponeuroses, or even muscle).  Muscle work is applied to these elastic elements over a relatively slow period of time, and is released very rapidly. Higher power output is produced because the energy is released in a much shorter amount of time than it is stored.  In this sense the power of the muscles is actually amplified.  When energy is produced by muscle contraction, stored in a tendon, then released to increase mechanical energy of the body (or body segment), muscle power is amplified. It is important to note, however, that the term power ‘amplification’ may be deceptive. In animals, elastic mechanisms never add energy to the system; they amplify power in the sense that the energy is released more rapidly than it is stored.

text: Ballistic movements are often powered through

text: elastic energy

text: storage and subsequent recovery mechanisms.  The

text: power

text: required to produce the extremely rapid velocities of ballistic movements is made possible through muscle work being stored in elastic elements (such as

text: tendons

text: aponeuroses

text: , or even muscle).  Muscle work is applied to these elastic elements over a relatively slow period of time, and is released very rapidly. Higher power output is produced because the energy is released in a much shorter amount of time than it is stored.  In this sense the power of the muscles is actually amplified.  When energy is produced by muscle contraction, stored in a tendon, then released to increase mechanical energy of the body (or body segment), muscle power is amplified. It is important to note, however, that the term power ‘amplification’ may be deceptive. In animals, elastic mechanisms never add energy to the system; they amplify power in the sense that the energy is released more rapidly than it is stored.

text: This game stars Wakko as the protagonist and The Brain as the antagonist. The Brain has once again decided to attempt world domination by creating robots using the Acme Labs. However, his creations eventually turn against him and take him prisoner, planning to use his vast intellect to help them destroy the world. Wakko must stop the robots by unleashing the power of his belches, fueled by the assorted snacks (power-ups) he finds along the way.

text: The fusion process alone currently does not achieve sufficient gain (power output over power input) to be viable as a power source.  By using the excess neutrons from the fusion reaction to in turn cause a high-yield fission reaction (close to 100%) in the surrounding subcritical fissionable blanket, the net yield from the hybrid fusion-fission process can provide a targeted gain of 100 to 300 times the input energy (an increase by a factor of three or four over fusion alone).  Even allowing for high inefficiencies on the input side (i.e. low laser efficiency in ICF and Bremsstrahlung losses in Tokamak designs), this can still yield sufficient heat output for economical electric power generation.  This can be seen as a shortcut to viable fusion power until more efficient pure fusion technologies can be developed, or as an end in itself to generate power, and also consume existing stockpiles of nuclear fissionables and waste products.

text: The fusion process alone currently does not achieve sufficient gain (power output over power input) to be viable as a power source.  By using the excess neutrons from the fusion reaction to in turn cause a high-yield fission reaction (close to 100%) in the surrounding subcritical fissionable blanket, the net yield from the hybrid fusion-fission process can provide a targeted gain of 100 to 300 times the input energy (an increase by a factor of three or four over fusion alone).  Even allowing for high

text: inefficiencies

text: on the input side (i.e. low laser efficiency in ICF and

entity_section: Bremsstrahlung losses in quasineutral, isotropic plasmas

text: Bremsstrahlung losses

text: in Tokamak designs), this can still yield sufficient heat output for economical electric power generation.  This can be seen as a shortcut to viable fusion power until more efficient pure fusion technologies can be developed, or as an end in itself to generate power, and also consume existing stockpiles of nuclear fissionables and waste products.

text: Nuclear fusion is unlike nuclear fission: fusion requires extremely precise and controlled temperature, pressure and magnetic field parameters for any net energy to be produced. If a reactor suffers damage or loses even a small degree of required control, fusion reactions and heat generation would rapidly cease. Additionally, fusion reactors contain relatively small amounts of fuel, enough to "burn" for minutes, or in some cases, microseconds. Unless they are actively refueled, the reactions will quickly end. Therefore, fusion reactors are considered extremely safe.

text: Lucifer can shape the matter of Creation into anything he can imagine, including matter, energy, and more abstract concepts such as time.  However, he does have certain limitations as he is still a creation of God. He cannot create something out of nothing, unlike his Creator. In some ways, this makes him the most disadvantaged, though not the weakest, of the archangelic host. He needs existing matter (and where that is unavailable, the Demiurgic power of the Archangel Michael) to provide the foundation for him to shape. Only his brother, the archangel Michael Demiurgos, is his equal in power and only God, his creator and father Yahweh, is his superior. However, in certain dimensions, he is powerless and his mobility is limited without his angelic wings. He may choose to temporarily abandon his powers, including his immortality. In the story titled "Lilith", it is implied that God could destroy him at His own whim, which makes Lucifer sometimes wonder why He hasn't dealt with him already.He is never without the formidable resources of his brilliant, nigh-omniscient intellect and his unbending will or inner strength, which allowed him to defy and confront his father without fear or doubt. Although Lucifer's overt exercise of power is limited in the books, if he is provoked to violence, his preference seems to be to use fire as a weapon.  His original role was as "God's lamplighter", in which he used his will to condense clouds of hydrogen into star-masses and set them alight. As terrifying as they are brief, battles with Lucifer usually begin (and end) with him drawing down the flames of some superheated star and incinerating to ash anything in the immediate area. However, the true reasons why he favors light and fire are partially explained in the story "Lilith" (from "Lucifer: The Wolf Beneath the Tree").

text: Lucifer can shape the matter of Creation into anything he can imagine, including

text: matter

text: energy

text: , and more abstract concepts such as

text: time

text: .  However, he does have certain limitations as he is still a creation of God. He cannot create something out of nothing, unlike his Creator. In some ways, this makes him the most disadvantaged, though not the weakest, of the archangelic host. He needs existing matter (and where that is unavailable, the Demiurgic power of the Archangel Michael) to provide the foundation for him to shape. Only his brother, the archangel Michael Demiurgos, is his equal in power and only God, his creator and father Yahweh, is his superior. However, in certain dimensions, he is powerless and his mobility is limited without his angelic wings. He may choose to temporarily abandon his powers, including his

text: immortality

text: . In the story titled "Lilith", it is implied that God could destroy him at His own whim, which makes Lucifer sometimes wonder why He hasn't dealt with him already.He is never without the formidable resources of his brilliant, nigh-

text: omniscient

text: intellect and his unbending will or inner strength, which allowed him to defy and confront his father without fear or doubt. Although Lucifer's overt exercise of power is limited in the books, if he is provoked to violence, his preference seems to be to use fire as a weapon.  His original role was as "God's lamplighter", in which he used his will to condense clouds of

text: hydrogen

text: into star-masses and set them alight. As terrifying as they are brief, battles with Lucifer usually begin (and end) with him drawing down the flames of some superheated

text: star

text: and incinerating to ash anything in the immediate area. However, the true reasons why he favors light and fire are partially explained in the story "Lilith" (from "Lucifer: The Wolf Beneath the Tree").

text: Energy must be supplied to remove particles from the surroundings to make space for the creation of the system, assuming that the pressure p remains constant; this is the pV term. The supplied energy must also provide the change in internal energy, U, which includes activation energies, ionization energies, mixing energies, vaporization energies, chemical bond energies, and so forth. Together, these constitute the change in the enthalpy U + pV. For systems at constant pressure, with no external work done other than the pV work, the change in enthalpy is the heat received by the system.

text: Energy

text: must be supplied to remove particles from the surroundings to make space for the creation of the system, assuming that the pressure p remains constant; this is the pV term. The supplied energy must also provide the change in internal energy, U, which includes

text: activation energies

text: , ionization energies, mixing energies, vaporization energies, chemical bond energies, and so forth. Together, these constitute the change in the enthalpy U + pV. For systems at constant pressure, with no external work done other than the pV work, the change in enthalpy is the heat received by the system.

text: There are several types of pulsar (as described in the below section). In one type, the beam originates from the rotational energy of the neutron star, which generates an electrical field from the movement of the very strong magnetic field, resulting in the acceleration of protons and electrons on the star surface and the creation of an electromagnetic beam emanating from the poles of the magnetic field. This rotation slows down over time as electromagnetic power is emitted.  When a pulsar's spin period slows down sufficiently, the radio pulsar mechanism is believed to turn off (the so-called "death line").  This turn-off seems to take place after about 10–100 million years, which means of all the neutron stars born in the 13.6 billion year age of the universe, around 99% no longer pulsate.

text: There are several types of pulsar (as described in the

text: below section

text: ). In one type, the beam originates from the

text: rotational energy

text: of the neutron star, which generates an electrical field from the movement of the very strong magnetic field, resulting in the acceleration of protons and electrons on the star surface and the creation of an electromagnetic beam emanating from the poles of the magnetic field. This rotation slows down over time as

text: electromagnetic

text: power is emitted.  When a pulsar's spin period slows down sufficiently, the radio pulsar mechanism is believed to turn off (the so-called "death line").  This turn-off seems to take place after about 10–100 million years, which means of all the neutron stars born in the 13.6 billion year age of the universe, around 99% no longer pulsate.

text: It is then evident that , in essence, appends a single quantum of energy to the oscillator, while  removes a quantum. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as "creation" and "annihilation" operators.

text: The Climate Savers Computing Initiative operated in a manner similar to the U.S. Government’s Energy Star program. It was intended to promote both the deployment of existing technologies and investment in new energy-efficiency technologies. The Energy Star 4.0 standard for desktops, laptops, and workstations, which took effect in July 2007, requires power supplies to be at least  80 percent efficient for most of their load range. In addition, it puts limits on the energy used by devices when inactive and requires systems to be shipped with power management features enabled.

text: The Climate Savers Computing Initiative operated in a manner similar to the U.S. Government’s

text: Energy Star

text: program. It was intended to promote both the deployment of existing technologies and investment in new energy-efficiency technologies. The Energy Star 4.0 standard for desktops, laptops, and workstations, which took effect in July 2007, requires power supplies to be at least

text: 80 percent efficient

text: for most of their load range. In addition, it puts limits on the energy used by devices when inactive and requires systems to be shipped with power management features enabled.

text: Magnetic sails could also be used with beam-powered propulsion by using a high-power particle accelerator to fire a beam of charged particles at the spacecraft. The magsail would deflect this beam, transferring momentum to the vehicle. This would provide much higher acceleration than a solar sail driven by a laser, but a charged particle beam would disperse in a shorter distance than a laser due to the electrostatic repulsion of its component particles.  This dispersion problem could potentially be resolved by accelerating a stream of sails which then in turn transfer their momentum to a magsail vehicle, as proposed by Jordin Kare.

text: Magnetic sails could also be used with

text: beam-powered propulsion

text: by using a high-power

text: particle accelerator

text: to fire a beam of charged particles at the spacecraft. The magsail would deflect this beam, transferring momentum to the vehicle. This would provide much higher acceleration than a solar sail driven by a

text: laser

text: , but a charged particle beam would disperse in a shorter distance than a laser due to the electrostatic repulsion of its component particles.  This dispersion problem could potentially be resolved by accelerating a stream of sails which then in turn transfer their momentum to a magsail vehicle, as proposed by

text: Jordin Kare

text: Mickey begins the game with two power stars indicating how many hits he can take by enemies. Power stars can be collected throughout the game to give Mickey more health to a maximum of 5. However, there is one power star on every level making 14 in total. Each star collected after collecting 5 gives full health and an extra life. Most of them are in the inaccessible areas which require many of the special items collected throughout the game. Upon completion of the game, the number of stars the player collects is tallied. Collecting all 14 stars gives a special score bonus.

text: Ecological energetics- Electric potential energy- Electrochemical energy conversion- Embodied energy- Encircled energy- Energy- Energy accidents- Energy accounting- Energy amplifier- Energy analyser- Energy applications of nanotechnology- Energy balance (biology)- Energy bar- Energy barrier- Energy being- Energy carrier- Energy Catalyzer- Energy cell- Energy charge- Energy conservation- Energy conversion efficiency- Energy crop- Energy current- Energy density- Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel- Energy development- Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy- Energy distance- Energy drift- Energy drink- Energy efficiency gap- Energy-Efficient Ethernet- Energy-efficient landscaping- Energy elasticity- Energy engineering- Energy (esotericism)- Energy expenditure- Energy factor- Energy field disturbance- Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy- Energy transfer- Energy flow (ecology)- Energy flux- Energy forestry- Energy functional- Energy gel- Energy harvesting- Energy input labeling- Energy landscape- Energy level- Energy level splitting- Energy management software- Energy management system- Energy–maneuverability theory- Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc- Energy medicine- Energy–momentum relation- Energy monitoring and targeting- Energy Probe- Energy profile (chemistry)- Energy quality- Energy recovery ventilation- Energy security- Energy (signal processing)- Energy Slave- Energy Star- Energy statistics- Energy Storage Challenge- Energy storage- Energy system- Energy technology- Energy tower (downdraft)- Energy transfer- Energy transfer upconversion- Energy transformation- Energy value of coal- Energy vortex (stargate)- Enthalpy- Entropy- Equipartition theorem- E-statistic- Exertion

text: Ecological energetics

text: Electric potential energy

text: Electrochemical energy conversion

text: Embodied energy

text: Encircled energy

text: Energy

text: Energy accidents

text: Energy accounting

text: Energy amplifier

text: Energy analyser

text: Energy applications of nanotechnology

text: Energy balance (biology)

text: Energy bar

text: Energy barrier

text: Energy being

text: Energy carrier

text: Energy Catalyzer

text: Energy cell

text: Energy charge

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy conversion efficiency

text: Energy crop

text: Energy current

text: Energy density

entity_name: Energy–depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy development

text: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Energy distance

text: Energy drift

text: Energy drink

text: Energy efficiency gap

text: Energy-Efficient Ethernet

text: Energy-efficient landscaping

text: Energy elasticity

text: Energy engineering

text: Energy (esotericism)

text: Energy expenditure

text: Energy factor

text: Energy field disturbance

entity_name: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Energy flux

text: Energy forestry

text: Energy functional

text: Energy gel

text: Energy harvesting

text: Energy input labeling

text: Energy landscape

text: Energy level

text: Energy level splitting

text: Energy management software

text: Energy management system

text: Energy–maneuverability theory

text: Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc

text: Energy medicine

text: Energy–momentum relation

text: Energy monitoring and targeting

text: Energy Probe

text: Energy profile (chemistry)

text: Energy quality

text: Energy recovery ventilation

text: Energy security

text: Energy (signal processing)

text: Energy Slave

text: Energy Star

text: Energy statistics

text: Energy Storage Challenge

text: Energy storage

text: Energy system

text: Energy technology

text: Energy tower (downdraft)

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy transfer upconversion

text: Energy transformation

text: Energy value of coal

text: Energy vortex (stargate)

text: Enthalpy

text: Entropy

text: Equipartition theorem

text: E-statistic

text: Exertion

text: The craft was to be powered by nuclear fusion, using laser beams to produce pulses of nuclear energy in a generator in the centre of the craft, at a rate of over 1000 Hz to prevent resonance, which could damage the vehicle. The pulses of energy would then have been transferred out of a nozzle into a series of radial electrodes running along the underside of the craft, which would have converted the energy into electricity that would then pass into a ring of powerful electromagnets (the patent describes using superconductors if possible). These magnets would accelerate subatomic particles emitted by the fusion reaction, providing lift and thrust. This general design was used in several fusion rocket studies.

text: The craft was to be powered by

text: nuclear fusion

text: , using

text: laser

text: beams to produce pulses of nuclear energy in a generator in the centre of the craft, at a rate of over 1000

text: Hz

text: to prevent

text: resonance

text: , which could damage the vehicle. The pulses of energy would then have been transferred out of a nozzle into a series of radial

text: electrode

text: s running along the underside of the craft, which would have converted the energy into electricity that would then pass into a ring of powerful

text: electromagnet

text: s (the patent describes using

text: superconductor

text: s if possible). These magnets would accelerate

text: subatomic particle

text: s emitted by the fusion reaction, providing

text: lift

text: and

text: thrust

text: . This general design was used in several

text: fusion rocket

text: studies.

text: The cyclotron was an improvement over the linear accelerators (linacs) that were available when it was invented, being more cost- and space-effective due to the iterated interaction of the particles with the accelerating field. In the 1920s, it was not possible to generate the high power, high-frequency radio waves which are used in modern linacs (generated by klystrons). As such, impractically long linac structures were required for higher-energy particles. The compactness of the cyclotron reduces other costs as well, such as foundations, radiation shielding, and the enclosing building. Cyclotrons have a single electrical driver, which saves both money and power. Furthermore, cyclotrons are able to produce a continuous stream of particles at the target, so the average power passed from a particle beam into a target is relatively high.

text: The cyclotron was an improvement over the

text: linear accelerator

text: s (linacs) that were available when it was invented, being more cost- and space-effective due to the iterated interaction of the particles with the accelerating field. In the 1920s, it was not possible to generate the high power, high-frequency radio waves which are used in modern linacs (generated by

text: klystron

text: s). As such, impractically long linac structures were required for higher-energy particles. The compactness of the cyclotron reduces other costs as well, such as foundations, radiation shielding, and the enclosing building. Cyclotrons have a single electrical driver, which saves both money and power. Furthermore, cyclotrons are able to produce a continuous stream of particles at the target, so the average power passed from a particle beam into a target is relatively high.

text: Nuclear fusion research, in the form of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor is underway. Fusion powered electricity generation was initially believed to be readily achievable, as fission power had been. However, the extreme requirements for continuous reactions and plasma containment led to projections being extended by several decades. In 2010, more than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial power production was still believed to be unlikely before 2050. Although rather than an either, or, issue economical fusion-fission hybrid reactors could be built before any attempt at this more demanding commercial "pure-fusion reactor"/DEMO reactor takes place.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: research, in the form of the

text: is underway. Fusion powered electricity generation was initially believed to be readily achievable, as fission power had been. However, the extreme requirements for continuous reactions and

text: plasma containment

text: led to projections being extended by several decades. In 2010, more than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial power production was still believed to be unlikely before 2050. Although rather than an either, or, issue economical

text: fusion-fission hybrid reactor

text: s could be built before any attempt at this more demanding commercial "

text: pure-fusion reactor

text: DEMO

text: reactor takes place.

text: Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. The term includes nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion. Presently, the nuclear fission of elements in the actinide series of the periodic table produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with nuclear decay processes, primarily in the form of geothermal energy, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators, in niche uses making up the rest.

text: Nuclear power is the use of

text: nuclear reaction

text: s that release

text: nuclear energy

text: to generate heat, which most frequently is then used in

text: steam turbine

text: s to produce electricity in a

text: nuclear power plant

text: . The term includes

text: nuclear fission

text: nuclear decay

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Presently, the nuclear fission of elements in the

text: actinide

text: series of the

text: periodic table

text: produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with nuclear decay processes, primarily in the form of

text: geothermal energy

text: , and

text: radioisotope thermoelectric generator

text: s, in niche uses making up the rest.

text: At the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s, Brazil's energy sector underwent market liberalization. In 1997, the Petroleum Investment Law was adopted, establishing a legal and regulatory framework, and liberalizing oil production. The key objectives of the law were the creation of the CNPE and the ANP, increased use of natural gas, increased competition in the energy market, and investments in power generation. The state monopoly of oil and gas exploration was ended, and energy subsidies were reduced. However, the government retained monopoly control of key energy complexes and administered the price of certain energy products.

text: At the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s, Brazil's energy sector underwent market liberalization. In 1997, the Petroleum Investment Law was adopted, establishing a legal and regulatory framework, and liberalizing oil production. The key objectives of the law were the creation of the CNPE and the ANP, increased use of natural gas, increased competition in the

text: energy market

text: , and investments in power generation. The state monopoly of oil and gas exploration was ended, and

text: energy subsidies

text: were reduced. However, the government retained monopoly control of key energy complexes and administered the price of certain energy products.

text: One process for the creation of a clean and affordable energy supply is the development of photocatalytic water splitting under solar light. This method of sustainable hydrogen production is a key objective in the development of alternative energy systems. It is also predicted to be one of the more, if not the most, efficient ways of obtaining hydrogen from water. The conversion of solar energy into hydrogen via a water-splitting process assisted by photosemiconductor catalysts is one of the most promising technologies in development. This process has the potential for large quantities of hydrogen to be generated in an ecologically sound manner. The conversion of solar energy into a clean fuel (H) under ambient conditions is one of the greatest challenges facing scientists in the twenty-first century.

text: One process for the creation of a clean and affordable energy supply is the development of

text: photocatalytic water splitting

text: under solar light. This method of sustainable hydrogen production is a key objective in the development of

text: alternative energy

text: systems. It is also predicted to be one of the more, if not the most, efficient ways of obtaining hydrogen from water. The conversion of solar energy into hydrogen via a water-splitting process assisted by photosemiconductor catalysts is one of the most promising technologies in development. This process has the potential for large quantities of hydrogen to be generated in an ecologically sound manner. The conversion of solar energy into a clean fuel (H) under ambient conditions is one of the greatest challenges facing scientists in the twenty-first century.

text: There are three types of Force powers; light, dark and neutral. Light Force powers provide nonviolent advantages such as being able to restore health or persuade enemies to ignore the player. Dark Force powers are violent and give the ability to throw objects or choke enemies. Neutral powers enhance athletic abilities such as being able to jump higher or run faster. There are fourteen powers in total, four of each type and a bonus power in each light and dark if the Jedi stays true to that path. Players earn stars to allocate toward Force powers by completing specific levels. By finding all the secrets in a level, players can also gain one bonus star to use. Between levels, the player can choose which Force powers to enhance by allocating stars to that power. Stars cannot be reclaimed from powers later on.

text: There are three types of Force powers; light,

text: dark

text: and neutral. Light Force powers provide nonviolent advantages such as being able to restore health or persuade enemies to ignore the player. Dark Force powers are violent and give the ability to throw objects or choke enemies. Neutral powers enhance athletic abilities such as being able to jump higher or run faster. There are fourteen powers in total, four of each type and a bonus power in each light and dark if the Jedi stays true to that path. Players earn stars to allocate toward Force powers by completing specific levels. By finding all the secrets in a level, players can also gain one bonus star to use. Between levels, the player can choose which Force powers to enhance by allocating stars to that power. Stars cannot be reclaimed from powers later on.

text: Nuclear fusion is normally understood to occur at temperatures in the tens of millions of degrees.  Since the 1920s, there has been speculation that nuclear fusion might be possible at much lower temperatures by catalytically fusing hydrogen absorbed in a metal catalyst. In 1989, a claim by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann (then one of the world's leading electrochemists) that such cold fusion had been observed caused a brief media sensation before the majority of scientists criticized their claim as incorrect after many found they could not replicate the excess heat. Since the initial announcement, cold fusion research has continued by a small community of researchers who believe that such reactions happen and hope to gain wider recognition for their experimental evidence.

text: is the particle acceleration.

text: is the particle acceleration.

text: In particle physics, V was a generic name for heavy, unstable subatomic particles that decay into a pair of particles, thereby producing a characteristic letter V in a bubble chamber or other particle detector. Such particles were first detected in cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere in the late 1940s  and were first produced using the Cosmotron particle accelerator at Brookhaven National Laboratory in the 1950s.  Since all such particles have now been identified and given specific names, such as K meson or Sigma baryon, this term has fallen into disuse.

text: In

text: particle physics

text: , V was a generic name for heavy, unstable

text: subatomic particle

text: s that decay into a pair of particles, thereby producing a characteristic letter

text: V

text: in a

text: bubble chamber

text: or other

text: particle detector

text: . Such particles were first detected in

text: cosmic ray

text: interactions in the atmosphere in the late 1940s  and were first produced using the

text: Cosmotron

text: particle accelerator

text: at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: in the 1950s.  Since all such particles have now been identified and given specific names, such as

text: K meson

text: or

text: Sigma baryon

text: , this term has fallen into disuse.

text: In addition to the larger ones, there are also several smaller particle accelerators which serve mostly as pre-accelerators for PETRA and HERA. Among these are the linear accelerators LINAC I (operated from 1964 to 1991 for electrons), LINAC II (operated since 1969 for positrons) and LINAC III (operated since 1988 as a pre-accelerator for protons for HERA).

text: After World War II, residential overcrowding and an influx of married students prompted Yale to build temporary quonset huts on undeveloped areas of Pierson-Sage Square. The advent of the "atomic age" prompted a second period of laboratory building. University president A. Whitney Griswold relied on modernist architects for these facilities, breaking with pre-war gothic fervor. He commissioned Paul Schweikher to design Gibbs Laboratory, and Eero Saarinen for Ingalls Rink, and Philip Johnson for the Kline Biology Tower, Chemistry Laboratory, and Geology Building. Like Olmsted and Rogers, Saarinen and Johnson were also called upon to improve the site plan; Saarinen's vision contributed modestly to the configuration, while Johnson's buildings gave Science Hill a central courtyard. In 1966, the construction of Wright Nuclear Structure Laboratory allowed Yale to house the first emperor Van de Graff particle accelerator. Once the most powerful accelerator of its type, it was decommissioned in 2011 as other particle research facilities became more useful to the field.At the end of the 20th century, Yale President Rick Levin announced a commitment to substantially increase investment in sciences and medicine. In the years following, the university has launched at least five major building and renovation projects, including new buildings for biology, chemistry, environmental science, and the Forestry School.

text: After

text: World War II

text: , residential overcrowding and an influx of married students prompted Yale to build temporary

text: quonset hut

text: s on undeveloped areas of Pierson-Sage Square. The advent of the "atomic age" prompted a second period of laboratory building. University president

text: A. Whitney Griswold

text: relied on modernist architects for these facilities, breaking with pre-war gothic fervor. He commissioned

text: Paul Schweikher

text: to design Gibbs Laboratory, and

text: Eero Saarinen

text: for

text: Ingalls Rink

text: , and

text: Philip Johnson

text: for the Kline Biology Tower, Chemistry Laboratory, and Geology Building. Like Olmsted and Rogers, Saarinen and Johnson were also called upon to improve the site plan; Saarinen's vision contributed modestly to the configuration, while Johnson's buildings gave Science Hill a central courtyard. In 1966, the construction of Wright Nuclear Structure Laboratory allowed Yale to house the first emperor

text: Van de Graff

text: particle accelerator

text: . Once the most powerful accelerator of its type, it was decommissioned in 2011 as other particle research facilities became more useful to the field.At the end of the 20th century, Yale President

text: Rick Levin

text: announced a commitment to substantially increase investment in sciences and medicine. In the years following, the university has launched at least five major building and renovation projects, including new buildings for biology, chemistry, environmental science, and the Forestry School.

text: The goal of ignition, a plasma which heats itself by fusion energy without any external input, corresponds to infinite Q. Note that ignition is not a necessary condition for a practical reactor. On the other hand, achieving Q = 20 requires quality of confinement almost as good as that required to achieve ignition, so the Lawson criterion is still a useful figure of merit. The condition of Q = 1 is referred to as breakeven. It is somewhat arbitrary, but it does mean that a significant fraction (20%) of the heating power comes from fusion, so that fusion heating can be studied. Above Q = 5 the fusion heating power is greater than the external heating power.

text: The goal of ignition, a plasma which heats itself by fusion energy without any external input, corresponds to infinite Q. Note that ignition is not a necessary condition for a practical reactor. On the other hand, achieving Q = 20 requires quality of confinement almost as good as that required to achieve ignition, so the

text: Lawson criterion

text: is still a useful figure of merit. The condition of Q = 1 is referred to as breakeven. It is somewhat arbitrary, but it does mean that a significant fraction (20%) of the heating power comes from fusion, so that fusion heating can be studied. Above Q = 5 the fusion heating power is greater than the external heating power.

text: The spiral path of the cyclotron beam can only "sync up" with klystron-type (constant frequency) voltage sources if the accelerated particles are approximately obeying Newton's Laws of Motion. If the particles become fast enough that relativistic effects become important, the beam becomes out of phase with the oscillating electric field, and cannot receive any additional acceleration. The classical cyclotron is therefore only capable of accelerating particles up to a few percent of the speed of light. To accommodate increased mass the magnetic field may be modified by appropriately shaping the pole pieces as in the isochronous cyclotrons, operating in a pulsed mode and changing the frequency applied to the dees as in the synchrocyclotrons, either of which is limited by the diminishing cost effectiveness of making larger machines. Cost limitations have been overcome by employing the more complex synchrotron or modern, klystron-driven linear accelerators, both of which have the advantage of scalability, offering more power within an improved cost structure as the machines are made larger.

text: The

text: spiral

text: path of the cyclotron beam can only "sync up" with klystron-type (constant frequency) voltage sources if the accelerated particles are approximately obeying

text: Newton's Laws of Motion

text: . If the particles become fast enough that

text: relativistic

text: effects become important, the beam becomes out of phase with the oscillating electric field, and cannot receive any additional acceleration. The classical cyclotron is therefore only capable of accelerating particles up to a few percent of the speed of light. To accommodate increased mass the magnetic field may be modified by appropriately shaping the pole pieces as in the

text: isochronous cyclotron

text: s, operating in a pulsed mode and changing the frequency applied to the dees as in the

text: synchrocyclotron

text: s, either of which is limited by the diminishing cost effectiveness of making larger machines. Cost limitations have been overcome by employing the more complex

text: synchrotron

text: or modern,

text: klystron

text: -driven

text: linear accelerator

text: s, both of which have the advantage of scalability, offering more power within an improved cost structure as the machines are made larger.

text: In August 2006, Romney unveiled an energy plan calling for improved energy-efficiency requirements for state buildings, increased use of biofuels in the state automobile fleet, the creation of a prize-rewards lottery for consumers who buy energy-efficient equipment, and proposals for wind and biomass power-generation for state facilities. Three months later, in November 2006, Romney cut $7 million from the maintenance budget for the state's parklands (the sixth largest state park system in the country). He also cut hundreds of thousands of dollars from the budget for environmental law enforcement, efforts to promote cleaner water in communities, and hazardous waste cleanup.

text: After a large body of water is collected behind the dam a constant flow of water is then available. The height of the dam allows the water to go at a high velocity through the turbines thus generating electricity. After the fast flowing water exits the dam it is slowed down by a concrete energy dissipator (pictured). Creation of electricity is only part of the usage of the tons of water collected at the dam.

text: Renewable energy encompasses wind, biomass (such as landfill gas and sewage gas), hydropower, solar power (thermal and photovoltaic), geothermal, and ocean power. These renewable sources serve as alternatives to conventional power generation such as coal power, oil power, and natural gas power.Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential, so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel. Energy conservation and improvements in energy efficiency thus play a major role. An example of an effective energy conservation measure is improved insulation for buildings; an example of improved energy efficiency is cogeneration of heat and power. Smart electric meters can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively.

text: Renewable energy encompasses

text: wind

text: biomass

text: (such as landfill gas and sewage gas),

text: hydropower

text: solar power

text: (thermal and photovoltaic),

text: geothermal

text: , and

text: ocean power

text: . These renewable sources serve as alternatives to conventional power generation such as

text: coal power

text: oil power

text: , and

text: natural gas power

text: .Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential, so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel.

text: Energy conservation

text: and improvements in

text: energy efficiency

text: thus play a major role. An example of an effective energy conservation measure is improved

text: insulation

text: for buildings; an example of improved energy efficiency is

text: cogeneration

text: of heat and power.

text: Smart electric meters

text: can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively.

text: Mikaboshi possesses vast supernatural power, which is apparently inherent within him. He can use this mystical energy for a variety of effects, among which are his ability to alter his form and shape; he also often taken on a female form to appear harmless. He is otherwise almost always represented as a being of black, shadowy energy with a mask for a face. He can reshape his limbs into razor-sharp blades, and assume the form of a fire-breathing serpent, which Apollo's fire was unable to affect and which was able to retaliate with a blast of fire powerful enough to harm and strike down even the Olympian sun deity. He has employed powers of flight, teleportation, the projection of mystical energy as force blasts, invisibility, matter manipulation, image projection and the creation of inter-dimensional nexus points among other feats, such as creating "shadow copies" capable of avoiding detection by high-level dark magical entities such as Nightmare in the latter's own realm. His power is of such extent that he can control numerous minor demons, as well as animating and manipulating corpses en masse at will; moreover, even the Kami themselves appear wary and fearful of Mikaboshi whom they consider their primal foe, especially as he himself has slaughtered much of their pantheon. Mikaboshi was able to slay even formidable alien deities having destroyed the Demogorge (an entity who devoured the Elder Gods themselves) with relatively little effort, as well as crippling and slaying Skyfathers such as Zeus by tearing out his heart in seconds.

text: Mikaboshi possesses vast supernatural power, which is apparently inherent within him. He can use this mystical energy for a variety of effects, among which are his ability to alter his form and shape; he also often taken on a female form to appear harmless. He is otherwise almost always represented as a being of black, shadowy energy with a mask for a face. He can reshape his limbs into razor-sharp blades, and assume the form of a fire-breathing serpent, which Apollo's fire was unable to affect and which was able to retaliate with a blast of fire powerful enough to harm and strike down even the Olympian sun deity. He has employed powers of flight, teleportation, the projection of mystical energy as force blasts, invisibility, matter manipulation, image projection and the creation of inter-dimensional nexus points among other feats, such as creating "shadow copies" capable of avoiding detection by high-level dark magical entities such as

text: Nightmare

text: in the latter's own realm. His power is of such extent that he can control numerous minor demons, as well as animating and manipulating corpses en masse at will; moreover, even the Kami themselves appear wary and fearful of Mikaboshi whom they consider their primal foe, especially as he himself has slaughtered much of their pantheon. Mikaboshi was able to slay even formidable alien deities having destroyed the

text: Demogorge

text: (an entity who devoured the

text: Elder Gods

text: themselves) with relatively little effort, as well as crippling and slaying Skyfathers such as Zeus by tearing out his heart in seconds.

text: CERN operates a network of six accelerators and a decelerator. Each machine in the chain increases the energy of particle beams before delivering them to experiments or to the next more powerful accelerator. Currently active machines are:

text: The polywell is a type of nuclear fusion reactor that uses an electric field to heat ions to fusion conditions. It is closely related to the magnetic mirror, the fusor, the biconic cusp and the high beta fusion reactor. A set of electromagnets generates a magnetic field that traps electrons. This creates a negative voltage, which attracts positive ions. As the ions accelerate towards the negative center, their kinetic energy rises. Ions that collide at high enough energies can fuse.

text: The polywell is a type of nuclear

text: fusion reactor

text: that uses an electric field to heat ions to fusion conditions. It is closely related to the

text: magnetic mirror

text: , the

text: fusor

text: , the

text: biconic cusp

text: and the

text: high beta fusion reactor

text: . A set of

text: electromagnets

text: generates a magnetic field that traps

text: electrons

text: . This creates a negative voltage, which attracts positive

text: ions

text: . As the ions accelerate towards the negative center, their

text: kinetic energy

text: rises. Ions that collide at high enough energies can

text: fuse

text: Energy Star 4.0 specifications for computers became effective on July 20, 2007. The requirements are more stringent than the previous specification and existing equipment designs can no longer use the service mark unless re-qualified. They require the use of 80 Plus Bronze level or higher power supplies. Energy Star 5.0 became effective on July 1, 2009.Energy Star 6.1 became effective on September 10, 2014.

text: Energy Star 4.0 specifications for computers became effective on July 20, 2007. The requirements are more stringent than the previous specification and existing equipment designs can no longer use the service mark unless re-qualified. They require the use of

text: 80 Plus

text: Bronze level or higher

text: power supplies

text: . Energy Star 5.0 became effective on July 1, 2009.Energy Star 6.1 became effective on September 10, 2014.

text: Fusion reactions create the light elements that power the stars and produce virtually all elements in a process called nucleosynthesis. The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.7% of the mass is carried away from the system in the form of kinetic energy of an alpha particle or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.

text: Fusion reactions create the light elements that power the

text: star

text: s and produce virtually all elements in a process called

text: nucleosynthesis

text: . The fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy and the mass that always accompanies it. For example, in the fusion of two hydrogen nuclei to form helium, 0.7% of the mass is carried away from the system in the form of kinetic energy of an

text: alpha particle

text: or other forms of energy, such as electromagnetic radiation.

text: Bussard's publications prompted the University of Sydney to start research into electron trapping in polywells in 2010.  The group has explored theory, modeled devices, built devices, measured trapping  and simulated trapping.  These machines were all low power and cost and all had a small beta ratio.  In 2010, Carl Greninger founded the north west nuclear consortium, an organization which teaches nuclear engineering principles to high school students, using a 60 kvolt fusor.  In 2012, Mark Suppes received attention, in Brooklyn for doing fusion with a fusor.  Mark also measured electron trapping inside a polywell.  Mr. Suppes was interviewed on CNN,  and presented at 2012 WIRED conference and 2012 lift conference. In 2013, the first IEC textbook was published by George H. Miley. In 2014, Jamie Edwards, 13, was covered by international press as having fused the atom, however, he has not proved this to the amateur community - fusor.net - at the time of writing. (6/4/2014).  Nonetheless, he received a letter of congratulations from HRH the Duke of York. Jamie also appeared the Late Show with David Letterman, to discuss his device.  In early 2013 NSD-Fusion was acquired by Gradel sárl (LU) and has been enjoying increased sales of its compact sealed tube IEC NSD-Gradel-Fusion neutron generators.

text: Bussard's publications prompted the

text: University of Sydney

text: to start research into electron trapping in

text: polywell

text: s in 2010.  The group has explored theory, modeled devices, built devices, measured trapping  and simulated trapping.  These machines were all low power and cost and all had a small

text: beta

text: ratio.  In 2010, Carl Greninger founded the north west nuclear consortium, an organization which teaches nuclear engineering principles to high school students, using a 60 kvolt

text: fusor

text: .  In 2012, Mark Suppes received attention, in Brooklyn for doing fusion with a fusor.  Mark also measured electron trapping inside a

text: polywell

text: .  Mr. Suppes was interviewed on CNN,  and presented at 2012

text: WIRED

text: conference and 2012

text: lift

text: conference. In 2013, the first IEC textbook was published by

text: George H. Miley

text: . In 2014, Jamie Edwards, 13, was covered by international press as having fused the atom, however, he has not proved this to the amateur community - fusor.net - at the time of writing. (6/4/2014).  Nonetheless, he received a letter of congratulations from HRH the

text: Duke of York

text: . Jamie also appeared the

text: Late Show

text: with

text: David Letterman

text: , to discuss his device.  In early 2013 NSD-Fusion was acquired by Gradel sárl (LU) and has been enjoying increased sales of its compact sealed tube IEC NSD-Gradel-Fusion neutron generators.

text: There are many applications of particle accelerators.  For example, two important applications are elementary particle physics and synchrotron radiation production.  When performing a modeling task for any accelerator operation, the results of charged particle beam dynamics simulations must feed into the associated application.  Thus, for a full simulation, one must include the codes in associated applications.  For particle physics, the simulation may be continued in a detector with a code such as Geant4.

text: There are many applications of particle accelerators.  For example, two important applications are elementary

text: particle physics

text: and

text: synchrotron radiation

text: production.  When performing a modeling task for any accelerator operation, the results of charged particle beam dynamics simulations must feed into the associated application.  Thus, for a full simulation, one must include the codes in associated applications.  For particle physics, the simulation may be continued in a detector with a code such as

text: Research into nuclear fusion started in the early part of the 20th century. In 1920 the British physicist Francis William Aston discovered that the total mass equivalent of four hydrogen atoms (two protons and two neutrons) are heavier than the total mass of one helium atom (He-4), which implied that net energy can be released by combining hydrogen atoms together to form helium, and provided the first hints of a mechanism by which stars could produce energy in the quantities being measured. Through the 1920s, Arthur Stanley Eddington became a major proponent of the proton–proton chain reaction (PP reaction) as the primary system running the Sun.

text: Research into nuclear fusion started in the early part of the 20th century. In 1920 the British physicist

text: Francis William Aston

text: discovered that the total mass equivalent of four

text: hydrogen atom

text: s (two protons and two neutrons) are heavier than the total mass of one

text: helium atom

text: ), which implied that net energy can be released by combining hydrogen atoms together to form helium, and provided the first hints of a mechanism by which stars could produce energy in the quantities being measured. Through the 1920s,

text: Arthur Stanley Eddington

text: became a major proponent of the

text: proton–proton chain reaction

text: (PP reaction) as the primary system running the

text: Sun

text: Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, circular accelerators suffer a disadvantage in that the particles emit synchrotron radiation. When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits electromagnetic radiation and secondary emissions. As a particle traveling in a circle is always accelerating towards the center of the circle, it continuously radiates towards the tangent of the circle. This radiation is called synchrotron light and depends highly on the mass of the accelerating particle. For this reason, many high energy electron accelerators are linacs. Certain accelerators (synchrotrons) are however built specially for producing synchrotron light (X-rays).

text: Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, circular accelerators suffer a disadvantage in that the particles emit

text: synchrotron radiation

text: . When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: and

text: secondary emission

text: s. As a particle traveling in a circle is always accelerating towards the center of the circle, it continuously radiates towards the tangent of the circle. This radiation is called

text: synchrotron light

text: and depends highly on the mass of the accelerating particle. For this reason, many high energy electron accelerators are linacs. Certain accelerators (

text: synchrotron

text: s) are however built specially for producing synchrotron light (

text: X-ray

text: s).

text: Education for Sustainable Development- Effective Cycling- Effective population size- Effects of global warming- Effects of the automobile on societies- Efficient energy use- Effluent- Electric bicycle laws- Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms- Electricity meter- Electromagnetic environment- Electromagnetic interference control- Electromagnetic radiation- Electronic pest control- Electronic Road Pricing- Electronic waste- Electronic Waste Recycling Act- Electronic Waste Recycling Fee- Electrosmog- Electrostatic precipitator- Elephant Sanctuary, Hohenwald- Emission factor- Emission Reduction Unit- Emission standard- Emission trading- Emissions trading- Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential- Endangered Australian fauna- Endangered species- Endangered Species Act- Energy Action Coalition- Energy and Environmental Research Center- Energy conservation- Energy conversion- Energy demand management- Energy economics- Energy-efficient landscaping- Efficient energy use- Energy harvesting- Energy Hog- Energy Information Administration- Energy intensity- Energy management system- Energy Star- Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom- English Nature

text: Education for Sustainable Development

text: Effective Cycling

text: Effective population size

text: Effects of global warming

text: Effects of the automobile on societies

text: Efficient energy use

text: Effluent

text: Electric bicycle laws

entity_name: Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms

text: Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms

text: Electricity meter

text: Electromagnetic environment

text: Electromagnetic interference control

text: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Electronic pest control

text: Electronic Road Pricing

text: Electronic waste

text: Electronic Waste Recycling Act

text: Electronic Waste Recycling Fee

text: Electrosmog

text: Electrostatic precipitator

text: Elephant Sanctuary, Hohenwald

text: Emission factor

text: Emission Reduction Unit

text: Emission standard

text: Emission trading

text: Emissions trading

entity_name: Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential

text: Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential

text: Endangered Australian fauna

text: Endangered species

text: Endangered Species Act

text: Energy Action Coalition

entity_name: Energy and Environmental Research Center

text: Energy and Environmental Research Center

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy conversion

text: Energy demand management

text: Energy economics

text: Energy-efficient landscaping

text: Efficient energy use

text: Energy harvesting

text: Energy Hog

text: Energy Information Administration

text: Energy intensity

text: Energy management system

text: Energy Star

text: Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom

text: English Nature

text: For many years after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster nuclear power was off the policy agenda in most countries, and the anti-nuclear power movement seemed to have won its case. Some anti-nuclear groups disbanded. In the 2000s (decade), however, following public relations activities by the nuclear industry, advances in nuclear reactor designs, and concerns about climate change, nuclear power issues came back into energy policy discussions in some countries. The 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents subsequently undermined the nuclear power industry's proposed renaissance and revived nuclear opposition worldwide, putting governments on the defensive. As of 2016, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power. Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power.Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years.

text: For many years after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster nuclear power was off the policy agenda in most countries, and the anti-nuclear power movement seemed to have won its case. Some anti-nuclear groups disbanded. In the 2000s (decade), however, following

text: public relations

text: activities by the nuclear industry,

text: advances in nuclear reactor designs

text: , and concerns about

text: climate change

text: , nuclear power issues came back into

text: energy policy

text: discussions in some countries. The

text: 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents

text: subsequently undermined the nuclear power industry's proposed

text: renaissance

text: and revived nuclear opposition worldwide, putting governments on the defensive. As of 2016, countries such as

text: Australia

text: Austria

text: Denmark

text: Greece

text: Malaysia

text: New Zealand

text: , and

text: Norway

text: have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power.

text: Germany

text: Italy

text: Spain

text: Sweden

text: and

text: Switzerland

text: are

text: phasing-out nuclear power

text: .Globally, more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years.

text: The third companion C lies much closer to A, presently at a distance of approximately 24 AU. The pair A-C have an estimated orbital period of 61 years.  C's orbit is estimated to have a high eccentricity of around 0.75 and a semi-major axis of 15 AU, giving an aphelion of 26.25 AU and a perihelion of just 3.75 AU. Component C is a relatively minuscule star that lies at the low end of the mass range needed to achieve nuclear fusion.

text: The third companion C lies much closer to A, presently at a distance of approximately 24 AU. The pair A-C have an estimated orbital period of 61 years.  C's orbit is estimated to have a high eccentricity of around 0.75 and a semi-major axis of 15 AU, giving an

text: aphelion

text: of 26.25 AU and a

text: perihelion

text: of just 3.75 AU. Component C is a relatively minuscule star that lies at the low end of the mass range needed to achieve

text: nuclear fusion

text: The Nova Force can grant the recipient (to varying degrees depending upon rank) various abilities including superhuman strength, speed, reflexes, and perception. It also grants flight at faster than light speed, a healing factor, and energy powers. These energy powers include the ability to create an electromagnetic beam or a gravimetric pulse. It can also be used to create Star Gates. The link to the Worldmind allows the wearer to access enemy profiles, analyze an attacker's strengths and weaknesses, interface with computers, analyze energy signatures, create shields against mental attacks and receive transmissions from nearby sources.

text: By firing particle beams at targets, many fusion reactions have been tested, while the fuels considered for power have all been light elements like the isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium. Other reactions like the deuterium and Helium reaction or the Helium and Helium reactions, would require a supply of Helium. This can either come from other nuclear reactions or from extraterrestrial sources. Finally, researchers hope to do the p- reaction, because it does not directly produce neutrons, though side reactions can.

text: By firing particle beams at targets, many fusion reactions have been tested, while the fuels considered for power have all been light elements like the isotopes of hydrogen—

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: . Other reactions like the deuterium and Helium reaction or the Helium and Helium reactions, would require a supply of Helium. This can either come from other nuclear reactions or from extraterrestrial sources. Finally, researchers hope to do the p- reaction, because it does not directly produce neutrons, though side reactions can.

text: A further improvement can be made by removing the energy creation from the spacecraft. If the nuclear reactor is left on the ground and its energy transmitted to the spacecraft, the weight of the reactor is removed as well. The issue then is to get the energy into the spacecraft. This is the idea behind beamed power.

text: Walther Ritz's emission theory (or ballistic theory), was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source. However de Sitter noted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in a spectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown by J. G. Fox that the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due to extinction, but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results. Also terrestrial tests using particle accelerators have been made that were inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. In addition, Emission theory might fail the Ives–Stilwell experiment, but Fox questioned that as well.

text: Walther Ritz

text: 's

text: emission theory

text: (or ballistic theory), was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source. However

text: de Sitter

text: noted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in a

text: spectrometer

text: . If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown by

text: J. G. Fox

text: that the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due to

text: extinction

text: , but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results. Also terrestrial tests using

text: particle accelerator

text: s have been made that were inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. In addition,

text: Emission theory

text: might fail the

text: Ives–Stilwell experiment

text: , but Fox questioned that as well.

text: The Hero Systems biggest innovation was its use of a point-based system for character creation with a tool-kit approach to creating abilities. The rules only define the ability's effects in combat—the player defines what the ability looks like when used.  For example, the ability to project a jet of fire could be bought as "Energy Blast," or any of a number of other abilities.  The player then defines it as a "jet of fire," with all that implies: it has the possibility of starting secondary fires; it looks, smells and sounds like a jet of fire; etc. This Energy Blast could be modified by any number of modifiers such as "Explosion," "Area of Effect" or "No Range."  These affect how the power works as well as its final cost.

text: Marcy Kaptur backed The American Clean Energy and Security Act in the U.S. House after she was able to insert an amendment that would authorize the Secretary of Energy to create power marketing authorities in regions where none exist. One such area would be the Great Lakes region. Kaptur said the St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation could serve as the vehicle for administering up to $3.5 billion in borrowing authority to stimulate economic development through creation of green energy such as solar power and wind power. Kaptur said the $3.5 billion in borrowing authority would promote "regional equity" and serve as a powerful engine for job creation in a region that has suffered from high energy costs, especially expensive electricity.

text: Marcy Kaptur backed The

text: American Clean Energy and Security Act

text: in the U.S. House after she was able to insert an amendment that would authorize the Secretary of Energy to create power marketing authorities in regions where none exist. One such area would be the Great Lakes region. Kaptur said the St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation could serve as the vehicle for administering up to $3.5 billion in borrowing authority to stimulate economic development through creation of green energy such as solar power and wind power. Kaptur said the $3.5 billion in borrowing authority would promote "regional equity" and serve as a powerful engine for job creation in a region that has suffered from high energy costs, especially expensive electricity.

text: The Star Energy Power Corporation () is an independent power producer company in Taiwan.

text: The Star Energy Power Corporation () is an

text: independent power producer

text: company in

text: Taiwan

text: The Synchrocyclotron (SC), built in 1957, was CERN’s first accelerator. It provided beams for CERN's first experiments in particle and nuclear physics, where the accelerated ions could reach energies up to . In 1964, this machine started to concentrate on nuclear physics alone, leaving particle physics to the newer and more powerful Proton Synchrotron.

text: The Synchrocyclotron (SC), built in 1957, was CERN’s first accelerator. It provided beams for CERN's first experiments in particle and nuclear physics, where the accelerated

text: ion

text: s could reach energies up to . In 1964, this machine started to concentrate on

text: nuclear physics

text: alone, leaving particle physics to the newer and more powerful

text: Proton Synchrotron

text: In nuclear fusion, two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other, so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or nuclear forces to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to nickel-62. Stars like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the Joint European Torus (JET) and ITER, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction.Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun.

text: In

text: nuclear fusion

text: , two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other, so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or

text: nuclear force

text: s to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to

text: nickel

text: Star

text: s like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two

text: positron

text: s, and two

text: neutrinos

text: . The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the

text: Joint European Torus

text: (JET) and

text: ITER

text: , is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction.Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun.

text: The pavilions have been recognized for their innovative use of renewable energy and green design. In 2005, the North Pavilions received the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) silver rating from the United States Green Building Council. They received a Technology Award Honorable Mention in the category of "Alternative and/or Renewable Energy Use – New Construction" from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The United States Department of Energy has recognized all the pavilions as part of its Million Solar Roofs Initiative. In 2005 Chicago ranked fourth among U.S. cities in solar installations; the completion of the Exelon Pavilions took the city to a total of  of installed photovoltaic systems. The pavilions together generate  of electricity annually, worth $2,353 per year at 2010 average Illinois electricity prices. According to the City of Chicago, this is enough energy to power the equivalent of 14 Energy Star-rated efficient houses in Chicago.

text: The pavilions have been recognized for their innovative use of renewable energy and green design. In 2005, the North Pavilions received the

entity_name: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

text: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

text: (LEED) silver rating from the

text: United States Green Building Council

text: . They received a Technology Award Honorable Mention in the category of "Alternative and/or Renewable Energy Use – New Construction" from the

text: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

text: (ASHRAE). The

text: United States Department of Energy

text: has recognized all the pavilions as part of its Million Solar Roofs Initiative. In 2005 Chicago ranked fourth among U.S. cities in solar installations; the completion of the Exelon Pavilions took the city to a total of  of installed photovoltaic systems. The pavilions together generate  of electricity annually, worth $2,353 per year at 2010 average Illinois electricity prices. According to the City of Chicago, this is enough energy to power the equivalent of 14

text: Energy Star-rated

text: efficient houses in Chicago.

text: There is a difference between the creation and control of charged particle beams and neutral particle beams, as only the first type can be manipulated to a sufficient extent by devices based on electromagnetism. The manipulation and diagnostics of charged particle beams at high kinetic energies using particle accelerators are main topics of accelerator physics.

text: There is a difference between the creation and control of

text: charged particle beam

text: s and neutral particle beams, as only the first type can be manipulated to a sufficient extent by devices based on

text: electromagnetism

text: . The manipulation and diagnostics of charged particle beams at high kinetic energies using

text: particle accelerator

text: s are main topics of

text: accelerator physics

text: Albert Einstein's development of the theory of relativity in 1905 led to the understanding that nuclear reactions could create new elements from smaller precursors, with the loss of energy. In his treatise Stars and Atoms, Arthur Eddington suggested that pressures and temperatures within stars were great enough for hydrogen nuclei to fuse into helium; a process which could produce the massive amounts of energy required to power the Sun. In 1935, Eddington went further and suggested that other elements might also form within stars. Spectral evidence collected after 1945 showed that the distribution of the commonest chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, neon, iron etc., was fairly uniform across the galaxy. This suggested that these elements had a common origin. A number of anomalies in the proportions hinted at an underlying mechanism for creation. Lead has a higher atomic weight than gold, but is far more common. Hydrogen and helium (elements 1 and 2) are virtually ubiquitous yet lithium and beryllium (elements 3 and 4) are extremely rare.

text: Albert Einstein

text: 's development of the

text: theory of relativity

text: in 1905 led to the understanding that nuclear reactions could create new elements from smaller precursors, with the loss of energy. In his treatise Stars and Atoms,

text: Arthur Eddington

text: suggested that pressures and temperatures within stars were great enough for hydrogen nuclei to fuse into helium; a process which could produce the massive amounts of energy required to power the Sun. In 1935, Eddington went further and suggested that other elements might also form within stars. Spectral evidence collected after 1945 showed that the distribution of the commonest chemical elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, neon, iron etc., was fairly uniform across the galaxy. This suggested that these elements had a common origin. A number of anomalies in the proportions hinted at an underlying mechanism for creation. Lead has a higher atomic weight than gold, but is far more common. Hydrogen and helium (elements 1 and 2) are virtually ubiquitous yet lithium and beryllium (elements 3 and 4) are extremely rare.

text: The feminine aspects of The Almighty (in its manifested and un-manifested forms) are called as Prakriti and the male aspects called as Purusha. The Prakriti is addressed in different names by different Hindus communities as Adi-parashakti, Bhadra, Shakti, Devi, Bhagavathi, Amman, Rajarajeshwari, Shodashi; in different locations.All the material manifested aspects the Nature around us is classified as feminine and is the Prakriti or Mother Goddess and also the un-manifested forms Knowledge, Prosperity and Power is considered as feminine Prakriti and it is source of energy for Creation, Sustain and Control, which is the male aspect (Purusha) of Prabrahma.

text: Magnetic induction accelerators accelerate particles by induction from an increasing magnetic field, as if the particles were the secondary winding in a transformer.  The increasing magnetic field creates a circulating electric field which can be configured to accelerate the particles.  Induction accelerators can be either linear or circular.

text: In nuclear physics, an energy amplifier is a novel type of nuclear power reactor, a subcritical reactor, in which an energetic particle beam is used to stimulate a reaction, which in turn releases enough energy to power the particle accelerator and leave an energy profit for power generation. The concept has more recently been referred to as an accelerator-driven system (ADS) or Accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor.

text: In

text: nuclear physics

text: , an energy amplifier is a novel type of

text: nuclear power

text: reactor, a

text: subcritical reactor

text: , in which an energetic

text: particle beam

text: is used to stimulate a reaction, which in turn releases enough energy to power the

text: particle accelerator

text: and leave an energy profit for power generation. The concept has more recently been referred to as an accelerator-driven system (ADS) or

text: Accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor

text: As a result of the energy crises, the Common Assembly proposed extending the powers of the ECSC to cover other sources of energy. However, Monnet desired a separate community to cover nuclear power, and Louis Armand was put in charge of a study into the prospects of nuclear energy use in Europe. The report concluded further nuclear development was needed to fill the deficit left by the exhaustion of coal deposits and to reduce dependence on oil producers. However, the Benelux states and West Germany were also keen on creating a general common market, but it was opposed by France due to its protectionism and Monnet thought it too large and difficult a task. In the end, Monnet proposed creating both as separate communities to attempt to satisfy all interests. As a result of the Messina Conference of 1955, Paul-Henri Spaak was appointed as chairman of a preparatory committee, the Spaak Committee, charged with the preparation of a report on the creation of a common European market.

text: As a result of the energy crises, the Common Assembly proposed extending the powers of the ECSC to cover other sources of energy. However, Monnet desired a separate community to cover

text: nuclear power

text: , and

text: Louis Armand

text: was put in charge of a study into the prospects of nuclear energy use in Europe. The report concluded further nuclear development was needed to fill the deficit left by the exhaustion of coal deposits and to reduce dependence on oil producers. However, the Benelux states and West Germany were also keen on creating a general

text: common market

text: , but it was opposed by France due to its

text: protectionism

text: and Monnet thought it too large and difficult a task. In the end, Monnet proposed creating both as separate communities to attempt to satisfy all interests. As a result of the

text: Messina Conference

text: of 1955,

text: Paul-Henri Spaak

text: was appointed as chairman of a preparatory committee, the

text: Spaak Committee

text: , charged with the preparation of a report on the creation of a common European market.

text: Before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, and disks that carried charge to a high potential electrode.   The charge was generated using either of two mechanisms: electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect.  Such generators generated very high voltage and low current.    Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines that produced very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power.  Their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators.

text: Before the connection between

text: magnetism

text: and

text: electricity

text: was discovered,

text: electrostatic generator

text: s were invented. They operated on

text: electrostatic

text: principles, by using moving

text: electrically charged

text: belts, plates, and disks that carried charge to a high potential electrode.   The charge was generated using either of two mechanisms:

text: electrostatic induction

text: or the

text: triboelectric effect

text: .  Such generators generated very high

text: voltage

text: and low

text: current

text: .    Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of

text: insulating

text: machines that produced very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power.  Their only practical applications were to power early

text: X-ray tube

text: s, and later in some atomic

text: particle accelerator

text: s.

text: Usually however, renewable energy is derived from the mains electricity grid. This means that energy storage is mostly not used, as the mains electricity grid is organised to produce the exact amount of energy being consumed at that particular moment. Energy production on the mains electricity grid is always set up as a combination of (large-scale) renewable energy plants, as well as other power plants as fossil-fuel power plants and nuclear power. This combination however, which is essential for this type of energy supply (as e.g. wind turbines, solar power plants etc.) can only produce when the wind blows and the sun shines. This is also one of the main drawbacks of the system as fossil fuel powerplants are polluting and are a main cause of global warming (nuclear power being an exception). Although fossil fuel power plants too can be made emissionless (through carbon capture and storage), as well as renewable (if the plants are converted to e.g. biomass) the best solution is still to phase out the latter power plants over time. Nuclear power plants too can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of nuclear reprocessing and newer plants as fast breeder and nuclear fusion plants.

text: Usually however, renewable energy is derived from the mains electricity grid. This means that energy storage is mostly not used, as the mains electricity grid is organised to produce the exact amount of energy being consumed at that particular moment. Energy production on the mains electricity grid is always set up as a combination of (large-scale) renewable energy plants, as well as other power plants as

text: fossil-fuel power plant

text: s and

text: nuclear power

text: . This combination however, which is essential for this type of energy supply (as e.g. wind turbines, solar power plants etc.) can only produce when the wind blows and the sun shines. This is also one of the main drawbacks of the system as fossil fuel powerplants are polluting and are a main cause of

text: global warming

text: (nuclear power being an exception). Although fossil fuel power plants too can be made emissionless (through carbon capture and storage), as well as renewable (if the plants are converted to e.g. biomass) the best solution is still to phase out the latter power plants over time. Nuclear power plants too can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of

text: nuclear reprocessing

text: and newer plants as

text: fast breeder

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: plants.

text: Hybrid nuclear power is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by Hans Bethe during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.

text: Hybrid nuclear power

text: is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by

text: Hans Bethe

text: during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.

text: Nuclear fusion powers a star for most of its life. Initially the energy is generated by the fusion of hydrogen atoms at the core of the main-sequence star. Later, as the preponderance of atoms at the core becomes helium, stars like the Sun begin to fuse hydrogen along a spherical shell surrounding the core. This process causes the star to gradually grow in size, passing through the subgiant stage until it reaches the red giant phase. Stars with at least half the mass of the Sun can also begin to generate energy through the fusion of helium at their core, whereas more-massive stars can fuse heavier elements along a series of concentric shells. Once a star like the Sun has exhausted its nuclear fuel, its core collapses into a dense white dwarf and the outer layers are expelled as a planetary nebula. Stars with around ten or more times the mass of the Sun can explode in a supernova as their inert iron cores collapse into an extremely dense neutron star or black hole. Although the universe is not old enough for any of the smallest red dwarfs to have reached the end of their lives, stellar models suggest they will slowly become brighter and hotter before running out of hydrogen fuel and becoming low-mass white dwarfs.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: powers a star for most of its life. Initially the energy is generated by the fusion of

text: hydrogen atoms

text: at the core of the main-sequence star. Later, as the preponderance of atoms at the core becomes

text: helium

text: , stars like the

text: Sun

text: begin to fuse hydrogen along a spherical shell surrounding the core. This process causes the star to gradually grow in size, passing through the

text: subgiant

text: stage until it reaches the

text: red giant

text: phase. Stars with at least half the mass of the

text: Sun

text: can also begin to generate energy through the fusion of helium at their core, whereas more-massive stars can fuse heavier elements along a series of concentric shells. Once a star like the Sun has exhausted its nuclear fuel, its core collapses into a dense

text: white dwarf

text: and the outer layers are expelled as a

text: planetary nebula

text: . Stars with around ten or more times the mass of the Sun can explode in a

text: supernova

text: as their inert iron cores collapse into an extremely dense

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: . Although the

text: universe

text: is not old enough for any of the smallest

text: red dwarf

text: s to have reached the end of their lives, stellar models suggest they will slowly become brighter and hotter before running out of hydrogen fuel and becoming low-mass white dwarfs.

text: The Mr. Fusion Home Energy Reactor converts household waste to power for the time machine's flux capacitor and time circuits using nuclear fusion, presumably cold fusion. In the film, Mr. Fusion allows the DeLorean time machine to generate the required 1.21 gigawatts needed to travel to any point in time. The energy produced by Mr. Fusion replaces plutonium as the primary power source of the DeLorean's time travel, allowing the characters to bypass the arduous power-generation requirements upon which the plot of the first film hinges. The plutonium fission reactor was most likely left installed underneath Mr. Fusion as a backup power source.

text: The Mr. Fusion Home Energy Reactor converts household waste to power for the time machine's flux capacitor and time circuits using

text: nuclear fusion

text: , presumably

text: cold fusion

text: . In the film, Mr. Fusion allows the DeLorean time machine to generate the required 1.21 gigawatts needed to travel to any point in time. The energy produced by Mr. Fusion replaces

text: plutonium

text: as the primary power source of the DeLorean's time travel, allowing the characters to bypass the arduous power-generation requirements upon which the plot of the first film hinges. The

text: plutonium

text: fission reactor was most likely left installed underneath Mr. Fusion as a backup power source.

text: The deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a processing gas having high speed of sound (helium instead of nitrogen).However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.

text: The deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a processing gas having high

text: speed of sound

text: (helium instead of nitrogen).However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.

text: For example, consider electron–positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its invariant mass) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process – the inverse process is called pair creation – in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons. In this system the matter (electrons and positrons) is destroyed and changed to non-matter energy (the photons). However, the total system mass and energy do not change during this interaction.

text: For example, consider

text: electron

text: positron

text: annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its

text: invariant mass

text: ) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process – the inverse process is called

text: pair creation

text: – in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons. In this system the

text: matter

text: (electrons and positrons) is destroyed and changed to non-matter energy (the photons). However, the total system mass and energy do not change during this interaction.

text: The experiments conducted with particle accelerators are not regarded as part of accelerator physics, but belong (according to the objectives of the experiments) to, e.g., particle physics, nuclear physics, condensed matter physics or materials physics. The types of experiments done at a particular accelerator facility are determined by characteristics of the generated particle beam such as average energy, particle type, intensity, and dimensions.

text: The experiments conducted with particle accelerators are not regarded as part of accelerator physics, but belong (according to the objectives of the experiments) to, e.g.,

text: particle physics

text: nuclear physics

text: condensed matter physics

text: or

text: materials physics

text: . The types of experiments done at a particular accelerator facility are determined by characteristics of the generated

text: particle beam

text: such as average energy, particle type, intensity, and dimensions.

text: While the particle's energy was higher than anything achieved in terrestrial accelerators, it was still about 40,000,000 times lower than the Planck energy. Particles of such energy would be required in order to explore the Planck scale. A proton with that much energy would travel less than 0.0000000000000000000004891% faster than the Oh-My-God particle. It would take about , or  times the current age of the universe, for a photon to gain a 1-centimeter lead over a Planck energy proton.

text: While the particle's energy was higher than anything achieved in terrestrial accelerators, it was still about 40,000,000 times lower than the

text: Planck energy

text: . Particles of such energy would be required in order to explore the

text: Planck scale

text: . A proton with that much energy would travel less than 0.0000000000000000000004891% faster than the Oh-My-God particle. It would take about , or  times the current

text: age of the universe

text: , for a photon to gain a 1-centimeter lead over a Planck energy proton.

text: By far, his most devastating power was the ability to absorb the energies of his surroundings into himself, once he fused with his antimatter universe, he went even as far as absorbing the energies of entire universes. In addition to devouring the energies of untold numbers of universes, he also absorbed the energy of "over one million worlds" in his own anti-matter universe in order to gain the power to travel to the beginning of time, to attempt to stop the creation of the positive matter universe. When Earth's heroes followed him to the beginning of time, he then absorbed all of their power and energy; this made him strong enough to alter the creation of the universe until he was opposed by the Spectre. During his final battle in Crisis on Infinite Earths #12, the Anti-Monitor maintained his power by "feeding on" a nearby star; and when his power was drained and he was reduced to a state of near-death, he absorbed his own anti-matter demons to rejuvenate himself.

text: By far, his most devastating power was the ability to absorb the energies of his surroundings into himself, once he fused with his antimatter universe, he went even as far as absorbing the energies of entire universes. In addition to devouring the energies of untold numbers of universes, he also absorbed the energy of "over one million worlds" in his own anti-matter universe in order to gain the power to travel to the beginning of time, to attempt to stop the creation of the positive matter universe. When Earth's heroes followed him to the beginning of time, he then absorbed all of their power and energy; this made him strong enough to alter the creation of the universe until he was opposed by the

text: Spectre

text: . During his final battle in Crisis on Infinite Earths #12, the Anti-Monitor maintained his power by "feeding on" a nearby star; and when his power was drained and he was reduced to a state of near-death, he absorbed his own anti-matter demons to rejuvenate himself.

text: The best known IEC device is the fusor.  This device typically consists of two wire cages inside a vacuum chamber.  These cages are referred to as grids.  The inner cage is held at a negative voltage against the outer cage.  A small amount of fusion fuel is introduced (deuterium gas being the most common).  The voltage between the grids causes the fuel to ionize.  The positive ions fall down the voltage drop towards the negative inner cage.  As they accelerate, the electric field does work on the ions, heating them to fusion conditions.  If these ions collide, they can fuse.  Fusors can also use ion guns rather than electric grids.  Fusors are popular with amateurs, because they can be easy to construct, can regularly produce fusion and are a practical way to study nuclear physics.  Fusors have also been used as a commercial neutron generator for industrial applications.

text: The best known IEC device is the

text: fusor

text: .  This device typically consists of two wire cages inside a vacuum chamber.  These cages are referred to as grids.  The inner cage is held at a negative voltage against the outer cage.  A small amount of

text: fusion fuel

text: is introduced (

text: deuterium

text: gas being the most common).  The voltage between the grids causes the fuel to ionize.  The positive ions fall down the voltage drop towards the negative inner cage.  As they accelerate, the

text: electric field

text: does

text: work

text: on the ions, heating them to fusion conditions.  If these ions collide, they can fuse.  Fusors can also use

text: ion gun

text: s rather than electric grids.

text: Fusor

text: s are popular with amateurs, because they can be easy to construct, can regularly produce fusion and are a practical way to study

text: nuclear physics

text: Fusor

text: s have also been used as a commercial

text: neutron generator

text: for industrial applications.

text: Considered a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, Dieng was listed as the No. 10 power forward and the No. 44 player in the nation in 2010.

text: Considered a four-star recruit by

text: Rivals.com

text: , Dieng was listed as the No. 10 power forward and the No. 44 player in the nation in 2010.

text: Of course, these natural processes of astrophysics are not examples of nuclear "technology". Because of the very strong repulsion of nuclei, fusion is difficult to achieve in a controlled fashion. Hydrogen bombs obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled. Controlled fusion is achieved in particle accelerators; this is how many synthetic elements are produced. A fusor can also produce controlled fusion and is a useful neutron source. However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss. Controlled, viable fusion power has proven elusive, despite the occasional hoax. Technical and theoretical difficulties have hindered the development of working civilian fusion technology, though research continues to this day around the world.

text: Of course, these natural processes of astrophysics are not examples of nuclear "technology". Because of the very strong repulsion of nuclei, fusion is difficult to achieve in a controlled fashion.

text: Hydrogen bomb

text: s obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled. Controlled fusion is achieved in

text: particle accelerator

text: s; this is how many

text: synthetic element

text: s are produced. A

text: fusor

text: can also produce controlled fusion and is a useful

text: neutron source

text: . However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss. Controlled, viable

text: fusion power

text: has proven elusive, despite the occasional

text: hoax

text: . Technical and theoretical difficulties have hindered the development of working civilian fusion technology, though research continues to this day around the world.

text: Barry Thomas is bored with his job and moons over high-profile scientist Lisa Fredericks, who is working on an particle accelerator that accelerates faster than the speed of light that is about to be shut down over the risks regarding it.

text: Echo Tesla's power is called "Star Power Generator." The effects of this power fill the star power gauge by 5% after hitting 10 notes in a row. Once Echo has obtained the necessary amount of power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, a cyborg, her power is upgraded to "Star Power Generator +." With this upgrade, hitting 10 notes in a row fills the star power gauge by 10% rather than 5%.

text: Echo Tesla's power is called "Star Power Generator." The effects of this power fill the star power gauge by 5% after hitting 10 notes in a row. Once Echo has obtained the necessary amount of power stars and has transformed into her warrior form, a

text: cyborg

text: , her power is upgraded to "Star Power Generator +." With this upgrade, hitting 10 notes in a row fills the star power gauge by 10% rather than 5%.

text: DEMO is the conceptual demonstration fusion power plant using all of the knowledge gained in nuclear fusion to create a viable system. One of the key areas identified to make fusion viable is the time and cost associated with maintenance of the reactor.

text: DEMO

text: is the conceptual demonstration fusion power plant using all of the knowledge gained in nuclear fusion to create a viable system. One of the key areas identified to make fusion viable is the time and cost associated with maintenance of the reactor.

text: The klystron, tube waveguide, is a beam tube including at least two apertured cavity resonators. The beam of charged particles passes through the apertures of the resonators, often tunable wave reflection grids, in succession. A collector electrode is provided to intercept the beam after passing through the resonators. The first resonator causes bunching of the particles passing through it. The bunched particles travel in a field-free region where further bunching occurs, then the bunched particles enter the second resonator giving up their energy to excite it into oscillations. It is a particle accelerator that works in conjunction with a specifically tuned cavity by the configuration of the structures. On the beamline of an accelerator system, there are specific sections that are cavity resonators for RF.

text: The

text: klystron

text: , tube waveguide, is a beam tube including at least two apertured cavity resonators. The beam of charged particles passes through the apertures of the resonators, often tunable wave reflection grids, in succession. A collector electrode is provided to intercept the beam after passing through the resonators. The first resonator causes bunching of the particles passing through it. The bunched particles travel in a field-free region where further bunching occurs, then the bunched particles enter the second resonator giving up their energy to excite it into oscillations. It is a

text: particle accelerator

text: that works in conjunction with a specifically tuned cavity by the configuration of the structures. On the

text: beamline

text: of an accelerator system, there are specific sections that are cavity resonators for

text: RF

text: The sparseness of interstellar and interplanetary space results in some unusual chemistry, since symmetry-forbidden reactions cannot occur except on the longest of timescales. For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on Earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the H ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with astrophysics and nuclear physics in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, the consequences for stellar evolution, as well as stellar 'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions in stars produce every naturally occurring chemical element. As the stellar 'generations' advance, the mass of the newly formed elements increases. A first-generation star uses elemental hydrogen (H) as a fuel source and produces helium (He). Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and it is the basic building block for all other elements as its nucleus has only one proton. Gravitational pull toward the center of a star creates massive amounts of heat and pressure, which cause nuclear fusion. Through this process of merging nuclear mass, heavier elements are formed. Carbon,  oxygen and silicon are examples of elements that form in stellar fusion. After many stellar generations, very heavy elements are formed (e.g. iron and lead).

text: The sparseness of interstellar and interplanetary space results in some unusual chemistry, since

text: symmetry-forbidden

text: reactions cannot occur except on the longest of timescales. For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on Earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the

text: H

text: ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with

text: astrophysics

text: and

text: nuclear physics

text: in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, the consequences for

text: stellar evolution

text: , as well as stellar 'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions in stars produce every naturally occurring chemical element. As the stellar 'generations' advance, the mass of the newly formed elements increases. A first-generation star uses elemental hydrogen (H) as a fuel source and produces

text: helium

text: (He). Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and it is the basic building block for all other elements as its nucleus has only one

text: proton

text: . Gravitational pull toward the center of a star creates massive amounts of heat and pressure, which cause

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Through this process of merging nuclear mass, heavier elements are formed.

text: Carbon

text: oxygen

text: and

text: silicon

text: are examples of elements that form in stellar fusion. After many stellar generations, very heavy elements are formed (e.g.

text: iron

text: and

text: lead

text: Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term counter is often used instead of detector when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy photons or even visible light). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called radiation detectors, but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term particle detector is still correct.

text: Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term

text: counter

text: is often used instead of detector when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy

text: photon

text: s or even visible

text: light

text: ). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called radiation detectors, but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term particle detector is still correct.

text: In the case of an accident (or sabotage), it is expected that a fusion reactor might release far less radioactive pollution than would an ordinary fission nuclear station. Furthermore, ITER's type of fusion power has little in common with nuclear weapons technology, and does not produce the fissile materials necessary for the construction of a weapon. Proponents note that large-scale fusion power would be able to produce reliable electricity on demand, and with virtually zero pollution (no gaseous CO, SO, or NO by-products are produced).

text: Although fusion power uses nuclear technology, the overlap with nuclear weapons would be limited. A huge amount of tritium could be produced by a fusion power station; tritium is used in the trigger of hydrogen bombs and in a modern boosted fission weapon, but it can also be produced by nuclear fission. The energetic neutrons from a fusion reactor could be used to breed weapons-grade plutonium or uranium for an atomic bomb (for example by transmutation of U to Pu, or Th to U).

text: Although fusion power uses nuclear technology, the overlap with nuclear weapons would be limited. A huge amount of

text: tritium

text: could be produced by a fusion power station; tritium is used in the trigger of

text: hydrogen bomb

text: s and in a modern

text: boosted fission weapon

text: , but it can also be produced by nuclear fission. The energetic neutrons from a fusion reactor could be used to breed weapons-grade

text: plutonium

text: or

text: uranium

text: for an atomic bomb (for example by transmutation of U to Pu, or Th to U).

text: According to the Decree of the President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov on July 7, 2012 "On creation of the Ministry of Energy of Turkmenistan" was the successor of the abolished department of the Ministry of Energy and Industry of Turkmenistan. By focusing on the power sector, the ministry will be able to deliver it more effective management and coordination. Before the agency faces the challenges of large-scale modernization of existing power generation capacity, the creation of new ones, to increase electricity export.

text: In other words, "thermal runaway" describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature, in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature. In chemistry (and chemical engineering), it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise. In electrical engineering, thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation, although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too. Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering, notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled.  In astrophysics, runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions, and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars, the "helium flash".

text: In other words, "thermal runaway" describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature, in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature. In

text: chemistry

text: (and

text: chemical engineering

text: ), it is associated with strongly

text: exothermic

text: reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise. In

text: electrical engineering

text: , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation, although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too. Thermal runaway can occur in

text: civil engineering

text: , notably when the heat released by large amounts of

text: curing

text: concrete

text: is not controlled.  In

text: astrophysics

text: , runaway

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions in stars can lead to

text: nova

text: and several types of

text: supernova

text: explosions, and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars, the "

text: helium flash

text: Mass may be added to a black hole power source as fuel during its existence. At the end of the black hole's service life, the energy released may be captured for re-use. A factor limiting power output is the rate at which mass can be moved into the black hole during its short duration of existence. As the fuel mass cannot travel faster than the speed of light, smaller masses of roughly 1 g to 1 kg added to the black hole could not travel fast enough to be absorbed in time (between 10^-25 to 10^-16 seconds) to create a viable energy source.  Larger masses of 1000+ kg for each round of explosion (creation of black hole followed by its destruction) are required instead. When converted to energy (E=mc^2) the explosions have an energy level of 10+ TeraWattHours. The capturing of the explosion energy for re-use would be an engineering challenge.

text: Since the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron (56 nucleons), energy is only released in fusion processes involving smaller atoms than that. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion requires energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called s process) or the rapid, or r process. The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The r process is thought to occur in supernova explosions which provide the necessary conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).

text: Since the binding energy per

text: nucleon

text: peaks around iron (56 nucleons), energy is only released in fusion processes involving smaller atoms than that. Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion requires energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a slow neutron capture process (the so-called s process) or the rapid, or r process. The s process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The r process is thought to occur in

text: supernova explosions

text: which provide the necessary conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers).

text: which is the Larmor result for a non-relativistic accelerated charge. It relates the power radiated by the particle to its acceleration. It clearly shows that the faster the charge accelerates the greater the radiation will be. We would expect this since the radiation field is dependent upon acceleration.

text: The Exelon Pavilions are a set of four solar energy-generating structures in Millennium Park. The pavilions provide sufficient energy to power the equivalent of 14 Energy star-rated energy-efficient houses in Chicago.  The pavilions were designed in January 2001 and construction began in January 2004. The Southeast and Southwest Exelon Pavilions (jointly the South Exelon Pavilions) along Madison Street were completed and opened in July 2004, and flank the Lurie Garden. The Northeast and Northwest Exelon Pavilions (jointly the North Exelon Pavilions) flank the Harris Theater along Randolph Street and were completed in November 2004, with a grand opening on April 30, 2005. Besides producing energy, three of the four pavilions provide access to the park's underground parking garages and the fourth serves as the park's welcome center.  Exelon, a company that generates the electricity transmitted by its subsidiary Commonwealth Edison, donated approximately $6 million for the pavilions.

text: The Exelon Pavilions are a set of four

text: solar energy

text: -generating structures in Millennium Park. The pavilions provide sufficient energy to power the equivalent of 14

text: Energy star

text: -rated energy-efficient houses in Chicago.  The pavilions were designed in January 2001 and construction began in January 2004. The Southeast and Southwest Exelon Pavilions (jointly the South Exelon Pavilions) along Madison Street were completed and opened in July 2004, and flank the Lurie Garden. The Northeast and Northwest Exelon Pavilions (jointly the North Exelon Pavilions) flank the Harris Theater along Randolph Street and were completed in November 2004, with a grand opening on April 30, 2005. Besides producing energy, three of the four pavilions provide access to the park's underground parking garages and the fourth serves as the park's welcome center.

text: Exelon

text: , a company that generates the electricity transmitted by its subsidiary

text: Commonwealth Edison

text: , donated approximately $6 million for the pavilions.

text: A type of symmetry known as supersymmetry has been used to try to make theoretical advances in the standard model. Supersymmetry is based on the idea that there is another physical symmetry beyond those already developed in the standard model, specifically a symmetry between bosons and fermions. Supersymmetry asserts that each type of boson has, as a supersymmetric partner, a fermion, called a superpartner, and vice versa. Supersymmetry has not yet been experimentally verified: no known particle has the correct properties to be a superpartner of any other known particle. If superpartners exist they must have masses greater than current particle accelerators can generate.

text: A type of symmetry known as supersymmetry has been used to try to make theoretical advances in the

text: standard model

text: . Supersymmetry is based on the idea that there is another physical symmetry beyond those already developed in the standard model, specifically a symmetry between

text: boson

text: s and

text: fermion

text: s. Supersymmetry asserts that each type of boson has, as a supersymmetric partner, a fermion, called a superpartner, and vice versa. Supersymmetry has not yet been experimentally verified: no known particle has the correct properties to be a superpartner of any other known particle. If superpartners exist they must have masses greater than current

text: particle accelerator

text: s can generate.

text: In particle physics, a trigger is a system that uses criteria to rapidly decide which events in a particle detector to keep when only a small fraction of the total can be recorded. Trigger systems are necessary due to real-world limitations in computing power, data storage capacity and rates. Since experiments are typically searching for "interesting" events (such as decays of rare particles) that occur at a relatively low rate, trigger systems are used to identify the events that should be recorded for later analysis. Current accelerators have event rates greater than 1 MHz and trigger rates that can be below 10 Hz. The ratio of the trigger rate to the event rate is referred to as the selectivity of the trigger. For example, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has an event rate of 40 MHz (4·10 Hz), and the Higgs boson is expected to be produced there at a rate of roughly 1 Hz. The LHC detectors can manage to permanently store a few hundred events per second. Therefore the minimum selectivity required is 10, with much stricter requirements for the data analysis afterwards.

text: In

text: particle physics

text: , a trigger is a system that uses criteria to rapidly decide which

text: events

text: in a

text: particle detector

text: to keep when only a small fraction of the total can be recorded. Trigger systems are necessary due to real-world limitations in computing power, data storage capacity and rates. Since experiments are typically searching for "interesting" events (such as decays of rare particles) that occur at a relatively low rate, trigger systems are used to identify the events that should be recorded for later analysis. Current accelerators have event rates greater than 1 MHz and trigger rates that can be below 10 Hz. The ratio of the trigger rate to the event rate is referred to as the selectivity of the trigger. For example, the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC) has an event rate of 40 MHz (4·10 Hz), and the

text: Higgs boson

text: is expected to be produced there at a rate of roughly 1 Hz. The LHC detectors can manage to permanently store a few hundred events per second. Therefore the minimum selectivity required is 10, with much stricter requirements for the data analysis afterwards.

text: Lidsky was the advisor to more than 80 graduate students and the founding editor of the Journal of Fusion Energy. In 1983, as assistant director for the MIT Plasma Fusion Center, Lidsky wrote an influential article about the difficulties of making a working nuclear fusion power plant. The ensuing reduction in federal funding for fusion research led him to resign from the center, and caused him to be "drummed out" of the nuclear fusion research community. Because of his concerns with the viability of fusion power, he instead became an advocate for safer nuclear fission reactor designs.  In 1999 he was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science "for outstanding contributions to both nuclear fission and fusion in education, research, system design and analysis, technical publications and federal policy".

text: Lidsky was the advisor to more than 80 graduate students and the founding editor of the Journal of Fusion Energy. In 1983, as assistant director for the MIT Plasma Fusion Center, Lidsky wrote an influential article about the difficulties of making a working

text: nuclear fusion

text: power plant. The ensuing reduction in federal funding for fusion research led him to resign from the center, and caused him to be "drummed out" of the nuclear fusion research community. Because of his concerns with the viability of fusion power, he instead became an advocate for safer

text: nuclear fission

text: reactor designs.  In 1999 he was named a fellow of the

entity_name: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: "for outstanding contributions to both nuclear fission and fusion in education, research, system design and analysis, technical publications and federal policy".

text: Stellar engines are a class of hypothetical megastructures which use a star's radiation to create usable energy. Some variants use this energy to produce thrust, and thus accelerate a star, and anything orbiting it, in a given direction. The creation of such a system would make its builders a Type-II civilization on the Kardashev scale.

text: Stellar engines are a class of hypothetical

text: megastructure

text: s which use a star's radiation to create usable energy. Some variants use this energy to produce thrust, and thus accelerate a

text: star

text: , and anything orbiting it, in a given direction. The creation of such a system would make its builders a Type-II civilization on the

text: Kardashev scale

text: In Chile, at the Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission the plasma focus experiments have been extended to sub-kilojoules devices and the scales rules have been stretched up to region less than one joule . Their studies have contributes to know that is possible to scale the plasma focus in a wide range of energies and sizes keeping the same value of ion density, magnetic field, plasma sheath velocity, Alfvén speed and the quantity of energy per particle. Therefore, fusion reactions are even possible to be obtained in ultraminiature devices (driven by generators of 0.1J for example), as they are in the bigger devices (driven by generators of 1MJ). However, the stability of the plasma pinch highly depends on the size and energy of the device. A rich plasma phenomenology it has been observed in the table-top plasma focus devices developed at the Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission: filamentary structures, toroidal singularities, plasma bursts and plasma jets generations. In addition, possible applications are explored using these kind of small plasma devices: development of portable generator as non-radioactive sources of neutrons and x-rays for field applications, pulsed radiation applied to biological studies, plasma focus as neutron source for nuclear fusion-fission hybrid reactors, and the use of plasma focus devices as plasma accelerators for studies of materials under intense fusion-relevant pulses. In addition, Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission currently operates the facility SPEED-2, the largest Plasma Focus facility of the southern hemisphere.

text: More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous and more powerful microwave cavities. Lighter particles (such as electrons) lose a larger fraction of their energy when deflected. Practically speaking, the energy of electron/positron accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, while this does not play a significant role in the dynamics of proton or ion accelerators. The energy of such accelerators is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.

text: More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous and more powerful microwave cavities. Lighter particles (such as electrons) lose a larger fraction of their energy when deflected. Practically speaking, the energy of

text: electron

text: positron

text: accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, while this does not play a significant role in the dynamics of

text: proton

text: or

text: ion

text: accelerators. The energy of such accelerators is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.

text: Superconducting magnets are some of the most powerful electromagnets known. They are used in MRI and NMR machines, mass spectrometers, Magnetohydrodynamic Power Generation and  beam-steering magnets used in particle accelerators. They can also be used for magnetic separation, where weakly magnetic particles are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the pigment industries.

text: Superconducting magnet

text: s are some of the most powerful

text: electromagnet

text: s known. They are used in

text: MRI

text: and

text: NMR

text: machines,

text: mass spectrometer

text: s, Magnetohydrodynamic Power Generation and  beam-steering magnets used in

text: particle accelerator

text: s. They can also be used for

text: magnetic separation

text: , where weakly magnetic particles are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles, as in the

text: pigment

text: industries.

text: Cultural theorist Cassandra Amesley  states that this episode is "agreed to be one of the worst Star Trek episodes ever shown" by Star Trek fans. Brenton J. Malin sees the episode as a reactionary response to the radical feminism of the late 1960s. Dr. Lester is a "caricature and condemnation of the feminism of the late '60s, evoking a fear of powerful, power-hungry women.... The message seems clear: women want to kill men and take their jobs, but ultimately they can't handle them."

text: Cultural theorist Cassandra Amesley  states that this episode is "agreed to be one of the worst Star Trek episodes ever shown" by

text: Star Trek fans

text: . Brenton J. Malin sees the episode as a reactionary response to the radical feminism of the late 1960s. Dr. Lester is a "caricature and condemnation of the feminism of the late '60s, evoking a fear of

text: powerful

text: , power-hungry women.... The message seems clear: women want to kill men and take their jobs, but ultimately they can't handle them."

text: "Pilot" is the first episode of the The CW series The Flash. The episode was written by Andrew Kreisberg and Geoff Johns from a story by Greg Berlanti, Kreisberg and Johns and directed by David Nutter. It was first broadcast in October 7, 2014 in The CW. The show is itself an spin-off of the show Arrow, where many characters in the series were introduced during the second season. The episode revolves about Barry Allen (Grant Gustin), a CSI forensic scientist working for the Central City Police Department. In the night of the launch of a particle accelerator, a malfunction causes the accelerator to explode during a storm. Barry is hit by a lighting as the accelerator explodes. He is then woken from coma after nine months and discovers that he developed a new power of super speed. He is helped by the personnel of the S.T.A.R. Labs, led by Dr. Harrison Wells (Tom Cavanagh), who are trying to control his speed for the greater good.

text: "Pilot" is the first episode of the

text: The CW

text: series

text: The Flash

text: . The episode was written by

text: Andrew Kreisberg

text: and

text: Geoff Johns

text: from a story by

text: Greg Berlanti

text: , Kreisberg and Johns and directed by

text: David Nutter

text: . It was first broadcast in October 7, 2014 in The CW. The show is itself an spin-off of the show

text: Arrow

text: , where many characters in the series were introduced during the second season. The episode revolves about Barry Allen (

text: Grant Gustin

text: ), a CSI forensic scientist working for the Central City Police Department. In the night of the launch of a particle accelerator, a malfunction causes the accelerator to explode during a storm. Barry is hit by a lighting as the accelerator explodes. He is then woken from coma after nine months and discovers that he developed a new power of super speed. He is helped by the personnel of the S.T.A.R. Labs, led by Dr. Harrison Wells (

text: Tom Cavanagh

text: ), who are trying to control his speed for the greater good.

text: The power input to the planet is equal to the luminosity (i.e. power emitted) of the star, times the ratio absorbed by the planet (1 minus the albedo), times the area of the planet illuminated by the star, divided by the area of the sphere that all of the star's radiation is cast on at the distance of the planet:

text: The power input to the planet is equal to the

text: luminosity

text: (i.e. power emitted) of the star, times the ratio absorbed by the planet (1 minus the

text: albedo

text: ), times the area of the planet illuminated by the star, divided by the area of the sphere that all of the star's radiation is cast on at the distance of the planet:

text: The group’s energy division was expanded in 1997 under the guidance of Antonio Marcegaglia with the establishment of Green Power, for the development of strategies and systems for energy generation through the gasification of waste and biomass. Further expansion came in 1998, with the creation of Boiler Expertise to design and construct the industrial and power boilers.

text: The re-imagined newuniversal has only just begun, as such the powers and abilities of the Star Brand have yet to be fully explained.  Still, as of newuniversal: shockfront #2 the Star brand has granted its wielder the following powers: flight, creation of energy shields, ability to see and sense electrical energy fields and superhuman energy signatures, trace superhuman teleportation, matter disintegration, melt solid steel, and energy blasts.

text: The re-imagined

text: newuniversal

text: has only just begun, as such the powers and abilities of the Star Brand have yet to be fully explained.  Still, as of newuniversal: shockfront #2 the Star brand has granted its wielder the following powers: flight, creation of energy shields, ability to see and sense electrical energy fields and superhuman energy signatures, trace superhuman teleportation, matter disintegration, melt solid steel, and energy blasts.

text: The oxygen-burning process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in massive stars that have used up the lighter elements in their cores. Oxygen-burning is preceded by the neon-burning process and succeeded by the silicon-burning process. As the neon-burning process ends, the core of the star contracts and heats until it reaches the ignition temperature for oxygen burning. Oxygen burning reactions are similar to those of carbon burning; however, they must occur at higher temperatures and densities due to the larger Coulomb barrier of oxygen. Oxygen in the core ignites in the temperature range of (1.5-2.6)×10 K and in the density range of (2.6-6.7)×10g/cm. The principal reactions are given below, where the branching ratios assume that the deuteron channel is open (at high temperatures):

text: The oxygen-burning process is a set of

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions that take place in massive stars that have used up the lighter elements in their cores. Oxygen-burning is preceded by the

text: neon-burning process

text: and succeeded by the

text: silicon-burning process

text: . As the neon-burning process ends, the core of the star contracts and heats until it reaches the ignition temperature for oxygen burning. Oxygen burning reactions are similar to those of carbon burning; however, they must occur at higher temperatures and densities due to the larger

text: Coulomb barrier

text: of oxygen. Oxygen in the core ignites in the temperature range of (1.5-2.6)×10 K and in the density range of (2.6-6.7)×10g/cm. The principal reactions are given below, where the branching ratios assume that the

text: deuteron

text: channel is open (at high temperatures):

text: Galactus wields a type of cosmic energy known as the Power Cosmic and has appointed a number of beings as his heralds, granting each a small fraction of the Power Cosmic. This Power Cosmic replaces the auras (or souls) of its holders, causing each wielder's physical form to adapt to store and manipulate it. Galactus can remove the Power Cosmic from the person to whom he has given it. He can use the Power Cosmic to produce nearly any effect he desires, including size alteration, the transmutation of matter, the teleportation of objects across space, the creation of force fields and interdimensional portals, telepathy, telekinesis, universal cosmic awareness, the creation of life, resurrection, manipulating souls, memories and emotions, recreating dead worlds in every detail (including utterly convincing illusions of their entire populations), and energy projection.

text: Galactus wields a type of

text: cosmic energy

text: known as the Power Cosmic and has appointed a number of beings as his heralds, granting each a small fraction of the Power Cosmic. This Power Cosmic replaces the

text: auras

text: (or

text: soul

text: s) of its holders, causing each wielder's physical form to adapt to store and manipulate it. Galactus can remove the Power Cosmic from the person to whom he has given it. He can use the Power Cosmic to produce nearly any effect he desires, including size alteration, the

text: transmutation

text: of matter, the

text: teleportation

text: of objects across space, the creation of

text: force fields

text: and

text: interdimensional portals

text: , telepathy,

text: telekinesis

text: , universal

text: cosmic awareness

text: , the

text: creation of life

text: resurrection

text: , manipulating souls, memories and emotions, recreating dead worlds in every detail (including utterly convincing illusions of their entire populations), and energy projection.

text: In the mid-1990s, with energy efficiency programs at risk of being stranded by deregulation, the Northwest Power and Conservation Council called for the creation of a regional organization to encourage energy efficiency practices. NEEA was incorporated as a non-profit corporation in the fall of 1996 with funding from all investor-owned utilities in the region and the Bonneville Power Administration, which represented publicly owned utilities. In order to ensure the necessary collaboration would take place, the first Board represented all of the primary stakeholders including regulators from the four states, public and privately owned utilities, energy efficiency businesses, and representatives for the four state governments.

text: In the mid-1990s, with

text: energy efficiency

text: programs at risk of being

text: stranded

text: by

text: deregulation

text: , the

entity_name: Northwest Power and Conservation Council

text: Northwest Power and Conservation Council

text: called for the creation of a regional organization to encourage energy efficiency practices. NEEA was incorporated as a non-profit corporation in the fall of 1996 with funding from all

text: investor-owned utilities

text: in the region and the

text: Bonneville Power Administration

text: , which represented

text: publicly owned utilities

text: . In order to ensure the necessary collaboration would take place, the first

text: Board

text: represented all of the primary stakeholders including regulators from the four states, public and privately owned utilities, energy efficiency businesses, and representatives for the four state governments.

text: Thomas Hamacher takes part frequently in public debates about the German Energy transition in Germany, nuclear power and fusion power as an expert. His main research focus lies on the modeling, analysis, and design of energy systems in the context of disruptive technologies such as nuclear fusion, renewable energy, smart cities, or electromobility.

text: Thomas Hamacher takes part frequently in public debates about the German

text: Energy transition in Germany

text: , nuclear power and fusion power as an expert. His main research focus lies on the modeling, analysis, and design of energy systems in the context of

text: disruptive technologies

text: such as

text: nuclear fusion

text: , renewable energy, smart cities, or electromobility.

text: Negative energy- Nuclear fusion- Nuclear power- Nuclear reactor

text: Negative energy

text: Nuclear fusion

text: Nuclear power

text: Nuclear reactor

text: Hela has vast mystical powers which she can use for various effects like limitless astral projection while retaining many of her powers and abilities, firing deadly bolts of energy from her hands which can kill or age even Asgardians, levitation and the creation of illusions. Her most powerful ability is her Hand of Glory, a technique that uses mystical energy to enhance the strength of her punch to kill even an Asgardian.

text: A quasi-star (also called black hole star) is a hypothetical type of extremely massive star that may have existed very early in the history of the Universe. Unlike modern stars, which are powered by nuclear fusion in their cores, a quasi-star's energy would come from material falling into a central black hole.

text: A quasi-star (also called black hole star) is a hypothetical type of extremely massive

text: star

text: that may have existed very early in the

text: history of the Universe

text: . Unlike modern stars, which are powered by nuclear fusion in their cores, a quasi-star's energy would come from material falling into a central black hole.

text: The Allmusic review by Jason Ankeny awarded the album 4 stars stating "the album is a marvel of instinct and ingenuity. The music crackles with the energy of creation".

text: The

text: Allmusic

text: review by Jason Ankeny awarded the album 4 stars stating "the album is a marvel of instinct and ingenuity. The music crackles with the energy of creation".

text: The kinetic process of destabilisation can be rather long (up to several months or even years for some products) and it is often required for the formulator to use further accelerating methods in order to reach reasonable development time for new product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used and consists in increasing temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more generally interactions forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures enables to simulate real life conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation processes up to 200 times.Mechanical acceleration including vibration, centrifugation and agitation are sometimes used. They subject the product to different forces that pushes the particles / droplets against one another, hence helping in the film drainage. However, some emulsions would never coalesce in normal gravity, while they do under artificial gravity. Moreover, segregation of different populations of particles have been highlighted when using centrifugation and vibration.

text: The kinetic process of destabilisation can be rather long (up to several months or even years for some products) and it is often required for the formulator to use further accelerating methods in order to reach reasonable development time for new product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used and consists in increasing temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more generally interactions forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures enables to simulate real life conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation processes up to 200 times.Mechanical acceleration including vibration,

text: centrifugation

text: and agitation are sometimes used. They subject the product to different forces that pushes the particles / droplets against one another, hence helping in the film drainage. However, some emulsions would never coalesce in normal gravity, while they do under artificial gravity. Moreover, segregation of different populations of particles have been highlighted when using centrifugation and vibration.

text: Experimentally, deuterium is the most common nuclide used in nuclear fusion reactor designs, especially in combination with tritium, because of the large reaction rate (or nuclear cross section) and high energy yield of the D–T reaction. There is an even higher-yield D– fusion reaction, though the breakeven point of D– is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of , this makes it implausible as a practical power source until at least D–T and D–D fusion reactions have been performed on a commercial scale. However, commercial nuclear fusion is not yet an accomplished technology.

text: Experimentally, deuterium is the most common nuclide used in

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactor designs, especially in combination with

text: tritium

text: , because of the large reaction rate (or

text: nuclear cross section

text: ) and high

text: energy

text: yield of the D–T reaction. There is an even higher-yield D–

text: fusion reaction, though the

text: breakeven

text: point of D– is higher than that of most other fusion reactions; together with the scarcity of , this makes it implausible as a practical power source until at least D–T and D–D fusion reactions have been performed on a commercial scale. However, commercial nuclear fusion is not yet an accomplished technology.

text: As a Krylorian, Bereet has a number of traits typical to their avian-mammalian semi-humanoid physique, including highly porous ("hollow") bones; a trilling, musical voice; two fingers and a thumb on each hand; two toes on each foot; red irises; and a deep pink skin color. She uses a number of techno-art creations including her Spatial Distorter (which she always carries over her shoulder like a pocketbook), Banshee Mask, Defendroids, Energy-Eaters, "Flitter," Insula-Sphere, Life Support Spider, "Spindrone," Star Eyes, and "Web-Spider." Bereet demonstrated a number of other techno-art creations in her movie, but it is unrevealed if she used any or all of these in the 616 reality.

text: As a Krylorian, Bereet has a number of traits typical to their avian-mammalian semi-humanoid physique, including highly porous ("hollow") bones; a trilling, musical voice; two fingers and a thumb on each hand; two toes on each foot; red irises; and a deep pink skin color. She uses a number of techno-art creations including her Spatial Distorter (which she always carries over her shoulder like a

text: pocketbook

text: ), Banshee Mask, Defendroids, Energy-Eaters, "Flitter," Insula-Sphere, Life Support Spider, "Spindrone," Star Eyes, and "Web-Spider." Bereet demonstrated a number of other techno-art creations in her movie, but it is unrevealed if she used any or all of these in the 616 reality.

text: Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.

text: Particle physics

text: is the study of the

text: elementary

text: constituents of

text: matter

text: and

text: energy

text: and the

text: interactions

text: between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high energy

text: accelerators

text: detectors

text: , and

text: computer programs

text: necessary for this research. The field is also called "high-energy physics" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy

text: collision

text: s of other particles.

text: is zero. This term does not affect the observed acceleration of particles on the surface of m because with respect to M, m (and everything on its surface) is in free fall. When the force on the far particle is subtracted from the force on the near particle, this first term cancels, as do all other even-order terms. The remaining (residual) terms represent the difference mentioned above and are tidal force (acceleration) terms. When ∆r is small compared to R, the terms after the first residual term are very small and can be neglected, giving the approximate tidal acceleration

text: One morning Palmer awakes to find the ship running on emergency power.  Blum is desperately searching for Virginia.  Steev shows them that a ship's pod has arrived inside the Barrier and all the defense systems have been disabled.  He tells them that Virginia is in the pod, which is approaching the control center on an asteroid.  She is the reason that the systems are down and the defenses have failed.  The plan was to use Virginia's psychic ability, which he calls the "doubt field" to neutralize the "cold fusion" reactors that run both the ship and the Barrier controls.  Virginia's power of disbelief is such that it can affect some nuclear processes. Humiliating the experts was part of the process of preparing her to disbelieve science itself. All the Captain had to do was put her in the pod with materials explaining how the cold fusion process works.  The pod would then arrive at the asteroid, burrow into its surface, and set off a thermonuclear bomb, killing Virginia as well as destroying the Barrier.

text: One morning Palmer awakes to find the ship running on emergency power.  Blum is desperately searching for Virginia.  Steev shows them that a ship's pod has arrived inside the Barrier and all the defense systems have been disabled.  He tells them that Virginia is in the pod, which is approaching the control center on an asteroid.  She is the reason that the systems are down and the defenses have failed.  The plan was to use Virginia's psychic ability, which he calls the "doubt field" to neutralize the "

text: cold fusion

text: " reactors that run both the ship and the Barrier controls.  Virginia's power of disbelief is such that it can affect some nuclear processes. Humiliating the experts was part of the process of preparing her to disbelieve science itself. All the Captain had to do was put her in the pod with materials explaining how the

text: cold fusion

text: process works.  The pod would then arrive at the asteroid, burrow into its surface, and set off a thermonuclear bomb, killing Virginia as well as destroying the Barrier.

text: In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they reach sufficient energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using electromagnets. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators (linacs) is that the ring topology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transit indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator).

text: In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they reach sufficient energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using

text: electromagnet

text: s. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators (linacs) is that the ring topology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transit indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator).

text: An electrostatic nuclear accelerator is one of the two main types of particle accelerators, where charged particles can be accelerated by subjection to a static high voltage potential.  The static high voltage method is contrasted with the dynamic fields used in oscillating field particle accelerators.  Owing to their simpler design, historically these accelerators were developed earlier.  These machines are operated at lower energy than some larger oscillating field accelerators, and to the extent that the energy regime scales with the cost of these machines, in broad terms these machines are less expensive than higher energy machines, and as such they are much more common.  Many universities worldwide have electrostatic accelerators for research purposes.

text: An electrostatic nuclear accelerator is one of the two main types of

text: particle accelerator

text: s, where charged particles can be accelerated by subjection to a static high voltage potential.  The static high voltage method is contrasted with the dynamic fields used in

text: oscillating field particle accelerators

text: .  Owing to their simpler design, historically these accelerators were developed earlier.  These machines are operated at lower energy than some larger oscillating field accelerators, and to the extent that the energy regime scales with the cost of these machines, in broad terms these machines are less expensive than higher energy machines, and as such they are much more common.  Many universities worldwide have electrostatic accelerators for research purposes.

text: As controlled nuclear fusion has proven difficult to use as an energy source, an alternate proposal for producing fusion power has been to detonate nuclear fusion explosives inside very large underground chambers and then using the heat produced, which would be absorbed by a molten salt coolant which would also absorb neutrons.  The 1970s PACER (fusion) project investigated fusion detonation as a power source.

text: As controlled

text: nuclear fusion

text: has proven difficult to use as an energy source, an alternate proposal for producing

text: fusion power

text: has been to detonate nuclear fusion explosives inside very large underground chambers and then using the heat produced, which would be absorbed by a molten salt coolant which would also absorb neutrons.  The 1970s

text: PACER (fusion)

text: project investigated fusion detonation as a power source.

text: In June 2009, CODA announced the creation and funding of LIO Energy Systems, a global joint-venture with Lishen Power Battery. LIO Energy Systems was formed with the purpose of designing, manufacturing, and selling battery systems for electric vehicles and utility applications. LIO Energy Systems will supply battery systems to CODA Automotive for use in the all-electric CODA, to other automotive OEMs globally, and to renewable energy producers, utilities and other power storage customers.  LIO Energy Systems was later renamed CODA Energy.

text: In June 2009, CODA announced the creation and funding of LIO Energy Systems, a global joint-venture with

text: Lishen Power Battery

text: . LIO Energy Systems was formed with the purpose of designing, manufacturing, and selling battery systems for electric vehicles and utility applications. LIO Energy Systems will supply battery systems to CODA Automotive for use in the all-electric CODA, to other automotive OEMs globally, and to renewable energy producers, utilities and other power storage customers.  LIO Energy Systems was later renamed CODA Energy.

text: It was thought that the solution of the Abraham–Lorentz force problem predicts that signals from the future affect the present, thus challenging intuition of cause and effect. For example, there are pathological solutions using the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac equation in which a particle accelerates in advance of the application of a force, so-called pre-acceleration solutions. One resolution of this problem was discussed by Yaghjian and is further discussed by Rohrlich and Medina.

text: It was thought that the solution of the Abraham–Lorentz force problem predicts that signals from the future affect the present, thus challenging intuition of

text: cause and effect

text: . For example, there are pathological solutions using the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac equation in which a particle accelerates in advance of the application of a force, so-called pre-acceleration solutions. One resolution of this problem was discussed by Yaghjian and is further discussed by Rohrlich and Medina.

text: The output of a particle accelerator can generally be directed towards multiple lines of experiments, one at a given time, by means of a deviating electromagnet. This makes it possible to operate multiple experiments without needing to move things around or shutting down the entire accelerator beam. Except for synchrotron radiation sources, the purpose of an accelerator is to generate high-energy particles for interaction with matter.

text: The output of a particle accelerator can generally be directed towards multiple lines of experiments, one at a given time, by means of a deviating

text: electromagnet

text: . This makes it possible to operate multiple experiments without needing to move things around or shutting down the entire accelerator beam. Except for synchrotron radiation sources, the purpose of an accelerator is to generate high-energy particles for interaction with matter.

text: A 2012 study in the United Kingdom, carried out by the Energy Saving Trust, found that the devices using the most power on standby mode included televisions, satellite boxes and other video and audio equipment.  The study concluded that UK households could save up to £86 per year by switching devices off instead of using standby mode. A report from the International Energy Agency in 2014 found that $80 billion of power is wasted globally per year due to inefficiency of electronic devices. Consumers can reduce unwanted use of standby power by unplugging their devices, using power strips with switches, or by buying devices that are standardized for better energy management, particularly Energy Star marked products.

text: A 2012 study in the United Kingdom, carried out by the

text: Energy Saving Trust

text: , found that the devices using the most power on standby mode included televisions, satellite boxes and other video and audio equipment.  The study concluded that UK households could save up to £86 per year by switching devices off instead of using standby mode. A report from the

text: International Energy Agency

text: in 2014 found that $80 billion of power is wasted globally per year due to inefficiency of electronic devices. Consumers can reduce unwanted use of standby power by unplugging their devices, using power strips with switches, or by buying devices that are standardized for better energy management, particularly

text: Energy Star

text: marked products.

text: The Radioactive Isotope Beam Factory is a multistage particle accelerator complex operated by Japan's Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science which is itself a part of the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research. Located in Saitama, the RIBF generates unstable nuclei of all elements up to uranium and studies their properties. According to physicist Robert Janssens, "[it] can produce the most intense beams of primary particles in the world."

text: The Radioactive Isotope Beam Factory is a multistage

text: particle accelerator

text: complex operated by

text: Japan

text: 's

text: Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science

text: which is itself a part of the

text: Institute of Physical and Chemical Research

text: . Located in

text: Saitama

text: , the RIBF generates unstable

text: nuclei

text: of all elements up to

text: uranium

text: and studies their properties. According to physicist Robert Janssens, "[it] can produce the most intense beams of primary particles in the world."

text: Particle accelerators in popular culture is about popular science books, fictional literature, feature films, TV series and other venues which include particle accelerators as part of their content. Particle physics, fictional or scientific, is an inherent part of this topic.

text: Particle accelerators in popular culture is about popular

text: science

text: books,

text: fiction

text: al literature,

text: feature film

text: s,

text: TV series

text: and other venues which include

text: particle accelerator

text: s as part of their content.

text: Particle physics

text: , fictional or scientific, is an inherent part of this topic.

text: The project spans over 50 miles along the Manchester Ship Canal and River Mersey between Liverpool and Manchester and includes plans to invest in renewable energy such as tidal energy, biomass energy and waste-to-energy options. Proposed renewable energy projects have, however, hit snags with concerns as to whether they are economically viable. Examples include a £3.5 billion project to create a tidal power station on the River Mersey which was hoped to power up to 500,000 homes, but which was shelved in 2011. Peel stated that construction would take 10 years and it would be decades before they would make a return on the investment. Other renewable projects have faced opposition and from local residents who would be affected by the developments. In July 2010, Peel Energy proposed the Barton Renewable Energy Plant in Trafford which would be fuelled by biomass. There have been protests about the creation of the plant but Peel claim 80% of the public support the plans which they say would provide energy to 40,000 homes.

text: The project spans over 50 miles along the Manchester Ship Canal and River Mersey between Liverpool and Manchester and includes plans to invest in renewable energy such as

text: tidal energy

text: biomass energy

text: and

text: waste-to-energy

text: options. Proposed renewable energy projects have, however, hit snags with concerns as to whether they are economically viable. Examples include a £3.5 billion project to create a tidal power station on the River Mersey which was hoped to power up to 500,000 homes, but which was shelved in 2011. Peel stated that construction would take 10 years and it would be decades before they would make a return on the investment. Other renewable projects have faced opposition and from local residents who would be affected by the developments. In July 2010, Peel Energy proposed the Barton Renewable Energy Plant in Trafford which would be fuelled by

text: biomass

text: . There have been protests about the creation of the plant but Peel claim 80% of the public support the plans which they say would provide energy to 40,000 homes.

text: Molecular hydrogen is not available on Earth in convenient natural reservoirs. Most hydrogen in the lithosphere is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen does require the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a fossil fuel or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and produces carbon dioxide, but often requires no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.  Decomposing water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (fossil fuel, nuclear power or a renewable energy). Hydrogen can also be produced by refining the effluent from geothermal sources in the lithosphere. Hydrogen produced by zero emission renewable energy sources such as electrolysis of water using wind power, solar power, hydro power, wave power or tidal power is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen produced by non-renewable energy sources may be referred to as brown hydrogen. Hydrogen produced as a waste by-product or industrial by-product is sometimes referred to as grey hydrogen.

text: Molecular hydrogen is not available on Earth in convenient natural reservoirs. Most hydrogen in the

text: lithosphere

text: is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen does require the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a

text: fossil fuel

text: or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and produces carbon dioxide, but often requires no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.

text: Decomposing

text: water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (

text: fossil fuel

text: nuclear power

text: or a

text: renewable energy

text: ). Hydrogen can also be produced by refining the effluent from geothermal sources in the

text: lithosphere

text: . Hydrogen produced by zero emission renewable energy sources such as

text: electrolysis of water

text: using

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: hydro power

text: wave power

text: or

text: tidal power

text: is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen produced by non-renewable energy sources may be referred to as brown hydrogen. Hydrogen produced as a waste by-product or industrial by-product is sometimes referred to as grey hydrogen.

text: Fission-electric power stations are one of the leading low carbon power generation methods of producing electricity, and in terms of total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated, has emission values lower than "renewable energy" when the latter is taken as a single energy source. As all electricity supplying technologies use cement etc., during construction, emissions are yet to be brought to zero. A 2014 analysis of the carbon footprint literature by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that the embodied total life-cycle emission intensity of fission electricity has a median value of 12 g  eq/kWh which is the lowest out of all commercial baseload energy sources, and second lowest out of all commercial electricity technologies known, after wind power which is an Intermittent energy source with embodied greenhouse gas emissions, per unit of energy generated of 11 g eq/kWh. Each result is contrasted with coal & fossil gas at 820 and 490 g  eq/kWh. With this translating into, from the beginning of Fission-electric power station commercialization in the 1970s, having prevented the emission of about 64 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, greenhouse gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of fossil fuels in thermal power stations.

text: Fission-electric

text: power stations

text: are one of the leading

text: low carbon power generation

text: methods of producing

text: electricity

text: , and in terms of

text: total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated

text: , has emission values lower than "

text: renewable energy

text: " when the latter is taken as a single energy source. As all electricity supplying technologies use

text: cement

text: etc., during construction, emissions are yet to be brought to zero. A 2014 analysis of the

text: carbon footprint

text: literature by the

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: (IPCC) reported that the embodied

text: total life-cycle

text: emission intensity

text: of fission electricity has a

text: median

text: value of 12 g

text: eq

text: kWh

text: which is the lowest out of all commercial

text: baseload

text: energy sources, and second lowest out of all commercial electricity technologies known, after

text: wind power

text: which is an

text: Intermittent energy source

text: with embodied greenhouse gas emissions, per unit of energy generated of 11 g eq/kWh. Each result is contrasted with coal &

text: fossil gas

text: at 820 and 490 g  eq/kWh. With this translating into, from the beginning of

text: Fission-electric power station

text: commercialization in the 1970s, having prevented the emission of about 64 billion tonnes of

text: carbon dioxide equivalent

text: , greenhouse gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of fossil fuels in

text: thermal power station

text: s.

text: Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.

text: Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the

text: Big Bang

text: later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as

text: uranium

text: and

text: thorium

text: ), by

text: nucleosynthesis

text: , a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the

text: gravitational collapse

text: of

text: supernova

text: e, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear

text: fission bomb

text: s or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a

text: chemical explosion

text: chemical potential

text: energy is transformed to

text: kinetic energy

text: and

text: thermal energy

text: in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a

text: pendulum

text: . At its highest points the

text: kinetic energy

text: is zero and the

text: gravitational potential energy

text: is at maximum. At its lowest point the

text: kinetic energy

text: is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of

text: potential energy

text: . If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no

text: friction

text: or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the

text: pendulum

text: would continue swinging forever.

text: is Mondo Tatsumi's final mecha creation, which resembles the Max Victory Robo but is colored black. This mecha is powered by mental energy and has a sword that resembles the Victory Robo's Braver Sword, but its hilt has a red color rather than a blue color.

text: When the God of the Covenant began His creation of the Universe He formed two powerful beings to fulfil His desires: one was the archangel Michael who was given the demiurgic (having "an autonomous creative force or decisive power") power to enable the physical creation of the cosmos to occur (Big Bang moment). The other was the archangel Samael (Lucifer) who infused that creation with energy and life (sometimes called Sunmaker, or the Lightbringer). Michael and Samael are said to be twins and the first beings created by God (though it is often implied that Samael is the older brother). God's name is written on every atom of creation by Michael's power and Samael's will: this forms a central part of the series later on.

text: When the God of the Covenant began His creation of the Universe He formed two powerful beings to fulfil His desires: one was the archangel Michael who was given the

text: demiurgic

text: (having "an autonomous creative force or decisive power") power to enable the physical creation of the cosmos to occur (Big Bang moment). The other was the archangel Samael (Lucifer) who infused that creation with energy and life (sometimes called Sunmaker, or the Lightbringer). Michael and Samael are said to be twins and the first beings created by God (though it is often implied that Samael is the older brother). God's name is written on every atom of creation by Michael's power and Samael's will: this forms a central part of the series later on.

text: As temperatures and gamma ray energies increase, more and more gamma ray energy is absorbed in creating electron-positron pairs. This reduction in gamma ray energy density reduces the radiation pressure that supports the outer layers of the star. The star contracts, compressing and heating the core, thereby increasing the proportion of energy absorbed by pair creation. Pressure nonetheless increases, but in a pair-instability collapse, the increase in pressure is not enough to resist the increase in gravitational forces as the star becomes denser.

text: As a star's mass is reduced by star lifting its rate of nuclear fusion will decrease, reducing the amount of energy available to the star lifting process but also reducing the gravity that needs to be overcome. Theoretically, it would be possible to remove an arbitrarily large portion of a star's total mass given sufficient time. In this manner a civilization could control the rate at which its star uses fuel, optimizing the star's power output and lifespan to its needs. The hydrogen and helium extracted in the process could also be used as fusion reactor fuel. Alternatively, the material could be assembled into additional smaller stars, to improve the efficiency of its use. Theoretically all the energy of the matter lifted from a star could be harvested if it is made into small black holes, via the mechanism of Hawking Radiation.

text: As a star's mass is reduced by star lifting its rate of nuclear fusion will decrease, reducing the amount of energy available to the star lifting process but also reducing the gravity that needs to be overcome. Theoretically, it would be possible to remove an arbitrarily large portion of a star's total mass given sufficient time. In this manner a civilization could control the rate at which its star uses fuel, optimizing the star's power output and lifespan to its needs. The hydrogen and helium extracted in the process could also be used as fusion reactor fuel. Alternatively, the material could be assembled into additional smaller stars, to improve the efficiency of its use. Theoretically all the energy of the matter lifted from a star could be harvested if it is made into small

text: black holes

text: , via the mechanism of

text: Hawking Radiation

text: Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the nuclear binding energy curve.  Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the Big Bang, and during the development of the universe thereafter.See the article about nucleosynthesis for the explanation on how certain nuclear fusion processes in stars (such as carbon burning, etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.

text: Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the

text: nuclear binding energy curve

text: .  Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the

text: Big Bang

text: , and during the development of the universe thereafter.See the article about

text: nucleosynthesis

text: for the explanation on how certain

text: nuclear fusion

text: processes in stars (such as

text: carbon burning

text: , etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.

text: Controlled nuclear fusion could in principle be used in fusion power plants to produce power without the complexities of handling actinides, but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but only recently reactors have been able to release more energy than the amount of energy used in the process. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The ITER project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power.

text: Controlled

text: nuclear fusion

text: could in principle be used in

text: fusion power

text: plants to produce power without the complexities of handling

text: actinides

text: , but significant scientific and technical obstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but only recently reactors have been able to release more energy than the amount of energy used in the process. Despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The

text: ITER

text: project is currently leading the effort to harness fusion power.

text: The creation in January 2009 of a Presidential task force (to look at ways to alter the energy direction of the United States energy providers) favors the trend away from coal-fired power plants.

text: 1951 Nobel Prize laureate Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton (1903–1995) lectured in physics for three months in the fall of 1975  The department's Ion Beam and Modification Analysis Laboratory houses four active linear particle accelerators. The lab is among the more sophisticated ion beam facilities in the country. Three of the accelerators are housed in a 450 square-meter, ultra-clean, microbeam, raster-scanning, depth-profiling, Cs-sputtering ion source laboratory, one being a 3 million volt tandem Pelletron accelerator, Model 9-SDH, delveloped by National Electrostatics Corporation, and installed at North Texas in December 1989. It is the workhouse of the laboratory and is used for trace element analysis via accelerator mass spectroscopy.  One of the older accelerators, a 2.5 MV, is used for routine PIXE, RBS, and NRA and for advanced undergraduate and first year graduate student laboratory experiments. A smaller laboratory, 78-square-meters, houses a 200 kilovolt Cockcroft-Walton accelerator and a 2.5 megavolt Van de Graaff. North Texas is the host of the International Conference on the Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry, held every November.

text: 1951 Nobel Prize laureate

text: Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton

text: (1903–1995) lectured in physics for three months in the fall of 1975  The department's

text: Ion Beam

text: and Modification

text: Analysis

text: Laboratory houses four active

text: linear particle accelerator

text: s. The lab is among the more sophisticated ion beam facilities in the country. Three of the

text: accelerators

text: are housed in a 450 square-meter, ultra-clean,

text: microbeam

text: raster-scanning

text: , depth-profiling,

text: Cs

text: sputtering

text: ion source

text: laboratory, one being a 3 million volt tandem

text: Pelletron accelerator

text: , Model 9-SDH, delveloped by

text: National Electrostatics Corporation

text: , and installed at North Texas in December 1989. It is the workhouse of the laboratory and is used for

text: trace element

text: analysis via

text: accelerator mass spectroscopy

text: .  One of the older

text: accelerators

text: , a 2.5 MV, is used for routine

text: PIXE

text: RBS

text: , and

text: NRA

text: and for advanced undergraduate and first year graduate student laboratory experiments. A smaller laboratory, 78-square-meters, houses a 200 kilovolt

text: Cockcroft-Walton accelerator

text: and a 2.5 megavolt

text: Van de Graaff

text: . North Texas is the host of the International Conference on the Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry, held every November.

text: Star Energy Power Corporation was established on 28 August 2000. On 19 August 2004, it was listed in public company.

text: Star Energy Power Corporation was established on 28 August 2000. On 19 August 2004, it was listed in

text: public company

text: In the early 2000s, Researchers at LANL reasoned that a plasma oscillating could be at local thermodynamic equilibrium. This prompted the POPS and Penning trap designs. At this time, researchers at MIT became interested in fusors for space propulsion and powering space vehicles. Specifically, researchers developed fusors with multiple inner cages. Greg Piefer graduated from Madison and founded Phoenix Nuclear Labs, a company that developed the fusor into a neutron source for the mass production of medical isotopes. Robert Bussard began speaking openly about the Polywell in 2006. He attempted to generate interest in the research, before his death. In 2008, Taylor Wilson achieved notoriety for achieving nuclear fusion at 14, with a homemade fusor.

text: In the early 2000s, Researchers at

text: LANL

text: reasoned that a plasma oscillating could be at local thermodynamic equilibrium. This prompted the POPS and

text: Penning trap

text: designs. At this time, researchers at

text: MIT

text: became interested in

text: fusor

text: s for space propulsion and powering space vehicles. Specifically, researchers developed

text: fusor

text: s with multiple inner cages. Greg Piefer graduated from Madison and founded

text: Phoenix Nuclear Labs

text: , a company that developed the

text: fusor

text: into a neutron source for the mass production of medical isotopes.

text: Robert Bussard

text: began speaking openly about the

text: Polywell

text: in 2006. He attempted to generate interest in the research, before his death. In 2008,

text: Taylor Wilson

text: achieved notoriety for achieving nuclear fusion at 14, with a homemade

text: fusor

text: However, the Necrontyr then discovered that a C'tan, a member of a race of enigmatic energy beings who had come into existence not long after the act of Creation itself, was living within their home star, feeding on the sun's radiant power. In a short time, the Necrontyr managed to create a technology based on "living metal" or Necrodermis, that allowed the C'tan to manifest itself physically by enclosing itself within a construct made from Necrodermis. The Necrontyr soon began to view their C'tan and its fellows as gods. With the help of the C'tan, the Necrontyr were able to turn the tide of their war against the Old Ones, largely by transferring their own consciousness into robotic bodies forged of Necrodermis like their C'tan "Star Gods." Unfortunately, the process of conversion dampened the Necrontyr's emotions and intellects, turning them into little more than mindless, eternally anguished slaves for the C'tan, who discovered that feeding on the life energies of other intelligent beings was far more "tasty" than the bland energy given off by stars. After their transformation, the Necrontyr became known as the Necrons and began cleansing the worlds held by the Old Ones and their allied species, feeding whole planetary populations to the foul appetites of their C'tan masters.

text: However, the

text: Necrontyr

text: then discovered that a C'tan, a member of a race of enigmatic energy beings who had come into existence not long after the act of Creation itself, was living within their home star, feeding on the sun's radiant power. In a short time, the Necrontyr managed to create a technology based on "living metal" or Necrodermis, that allowed the

text: C'tan

text: to manifest itself physically by enclosing itself within a construct made from Necrodermis. The Necrontyr soon began to view their C'tan and its fellows as gods. With the help of the C'tan, the Necrontyr were able to turn the tide of their war against the Old Ones, largely by transferring their own consciousness into robotic bodies forged of Necrodermis like their C'tan "Star Gods." Unfortunately, the process of conversion dampened the Necrontyr's emotions and intellects, turning them into little more than mindless, eternally anguished slaves for the C'tan, who discovered that feeding on the life energies of other intelligent beings was far more "tasty" than the bland energy given off by stars. After their transformation, the Necrontyr became known as the Necrons and began cleansing the worlds held by the Old Ones and their allied species, feeding whole planetary populations to the foul appetites of their C'tan masters.

text: Quasars' luminosities are variable, with time scales that range from months to hours. This means that quasars generate and emit their energy from a very small region, since each part of the quasar would have to be in contact with other parts on such a time scale as to allow the coordination of the luminosity variations. This would mean that a quasar varying on a time scale of a few weeks cannot be larger than a few light-weeks across. The emission of large amounts of power from a small region requires a power source far more efficient than the nuclear fusion that powers stars. The release of gravitational energy by matter falling towards a massive black hole is the only process known that can produce such high power continuously. Stellar explosions – supernovas and gamma-ray bursts – can do likewise, but only for a few weeks.  Black holes were considered too exotic by some astronomers in the 1960s. They also suggested that the redshifts arose from some other (unknown) process, so that the quasars were not really so distant as the Hubble law implied. This "redshift controversy" lasted for many years. Many lines of evidence (optical viewing of host galaxies, finding 'intervening' absorption lines, gravitational lensing) now demonstrate that the quasar redshifts are due to the Hubble expansion, and quasars are in fact as powerful as first thought.

text: Quasars' luminosities are variable, with time scales that range from months to hours. This means that quasars generate and emit their energy from a very small region, since each part of the quasar would have to be in contact with other parts on such a time scale as to allow the coordination of the luminosity variations. This would mean that a quasar varying on a time scale of a few weeks cannot be larger than a few light-weeks across. The emission of large amounts of power from a small region requires a power source far more efficient than the nuclear fusion that powers stars. The release of

text: gravitational energy

text: by matter falling towards a massive black hole is the only process known that can produce such high power continuously. Stellar explosions –

text: supernova

text: s and

text: gamma-ray burst

text: s – can do likewise, but only for a few weeks.  Black holes were considered too exotic by some astronomers in the 1960s. They also suggested that the redshifts arose from some other (unknown) process, so that the quasars were not really so distant as the Hubble law implied. This "

text: redshift controversy

text: " lasted for many years. Many lines of evidence (optical viewing of host galaxies, finding 'intervening' absorption lines, gravitational lensing) now demonstrate that the quasar redshifts are due to the Hubble expansion, and quasars are in fact as powerful as first thought.

text: In nuclear fusion, there are two types of reactors stable enough to conduct fusion: magnetic confinement reactors and inertial confinement reactors. The former method of fusion seeks to lengthen the time that ions spend close together in order to fuse them together, while the latter aims to fuse the ions so fast that they do not have time to move apart. Inertial confinement reactors, unlike magnetic confinement reactors, use laser fusion and ion-beam fusion in order to conduct fusion. However, with magnetic confinement reactors you avoid the problem of having to find a material that can withstand the high temperatures of nuclear fusion reactions.The heating current is induced by the changing magnetic fields in central induction coils and exceeds a million amperes. Magnetic fusion devices keep the hot plasma out of contact with the walls of its container by keeping it moving in circular or helical paths by means of the magnetic force on charged particles and by a centripetal force acting on the moving particles.

text: Nuclear fusion refers to reactions in which lighter nuclei are combined to become heavier nuclei. This process changes mass into energy which in turn may be captured to provide fusion power. Many types of atoms can be fused. The easiest to fuse are deuterium and tritium. For fusion to occur the ions must be at a temperature of at least 4 keV (kiloelectronvolts) or about 45 million kelvins. The second easiest reaction is fusing deuterium with itself. Because this gas is cheaper, it is the fuel commonly used by amateurs. The ease of doing a fusion reaction is measured by its cross section.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: refers to reactions in which lighter

text: nuclei

text: are combined to become heavier nuclei. This process changes

text: mass into energy

text: which in turn may be captured to provide

text: fusion power

text: . Many types of atoms can be fused. The easiest to fuse are

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: . For fusion to occur the ions must be at a temperature of at least 4 keV (

text: kiloelectronvolt

text: s) or about 45 million

text: kelvin

text: s. The second easiest reaction is fusing

text: deuterium

text: with itself. Because this gas is cheaper, it is the fuel commonly used by amateurs. The ease of doing a fusion reaction is measured by its

text: cross section

text: The resulting outflow would be collected by using a ring current around the star's equator to generate a powerful toroidal magnetic field with its dipoles over the star's rotational poles. This would deflect the star's solar wind into a pair of jets aligned along its rotational axis passing through a pair of magnetic rocket nozzles. The magnetic nozzles would convert some of the plasma's thermal energy into outward velocity, helping cool the outflow. The ring current required to generate this magnetic field would be generated by a ring of particle accelerator space stations in close orbit around the star's equator. These accelerators would be physically separate from each other but would exchange two counterdirected beams of oppositely charged ions with their neighbor on each side, forming a complete circuit around the star.

text: The resulting outflow would be collected by using a

text: ring current

text: around the star's equator to generate a powerful

text: toroidal

text: magnetic field

text: with its

text: dipole

text: s over the star's rotational poles. This would deflect the star's solar wind into a pair of jets aligned along its rotational axis passing through a pair of magnetic rocket

text: nozzle

text: s. The

text: magnetic nozzle

text: s would convert some of the plasma's thermal energy into outward velocity, helping cool the outflow. The ring current required to generate this magnetic field would be generated by a ring of

text: particle accelerator

text: space station

text: s in close orbit around the star's equator. These accelerators would be physically separate from each other but would exchange two counterdirected beams of oppositely charged

text: ion

text: s with their neighbor on each side, forming a complete circuit around the star.

text: The McNair Gallup Poll showed a significant difference in opinion between ALP, Coalition and Green supporters, and moderate differences by gender. Men were more likely to favour the construction of nuclear power stations (55%), with twice as many males in favour of the construction of nuclear power plants in Australia than women. 41% of men were more likely to oppose the construction of nuclear power plants in Australia.  In contrast, 65% of women were more likely to oppose the construction of nuclear power plants in Australia, while 28% favour the construction of nuclear power plants.

text: The McNair Gallup Poll showed a significant difference in opinion between

text: ALP

text: Coalition

text: and Green supporters, and moderate differences by gender. Men were more likely to favour the construction of nuclear power stations (55%), with twice as many males in favour of the construction of nuclear power plants in Australia than women. 41% of men were more likely to oppose the construction of nuclear power plants in Australia.  In contrast, 65% of women were more likely to oppose the construction of nuclear power plants in Australia, while 28% favour the construction of nuclear power plants.

text: The Migma approach avoided the problem of heating the mass of fuel to these temperatures by accelerating the ions directly in a particle accelerator. Accelerators capable of 100 keV are fairly simple to build, although in order to make up for various losses the energy provided is generally higher. Later Migma testbed devices used accelerators of about 1 MeV, fairly small compared to the large research colliders like Tevatron, which are a million times more powerful.

text: The Migma approach avoided the problem of heating the mass of fuel to these temperatures by accelerating the ions directly in a particle accelerator. Accelerators capable of 100 keV are fairly simple to build, although in order to make up for various losses the energy provided is generally higher. Later Migma testbed devices used accelerators of about 1 MeV, fairly small compared to the large research colliders like

text: Tevatron

text: , which are a million times more powerful.

text: There are a number of astrophysical processes which are believed to be responsible for nucleosynthesis. The majority of these occur in shells within stars, and the chain of those nuclear fusion processes are known as hydrogen burning (via the proton-proton chain or the CNO cycle), helium burning, carbon burning, neon burning, oxygen burning and silicon burning. These processes are able to create elements up to and including iron and nickel. This is the region of nucleosynthesis within which the isotopes with the highest binding energy per nucleon are created. Heavier elements can be assembled within stars by a neutron capture process known as the s-process or in explosive environments, such as supernovae, by a number of other processes. Some of those others include the r-process, which involves rapid neutron captures, the rp-process, and the p-process (sometimes known as the gamma process), which results in the photodisintegration of existing nuclei.

text: There are a number of

text: astrophysical

text: processes which are believed to be responsible for nucleosynthesis. The majority of these occur in shells within stars, and the chain of those

text: nuclear fusion

text: processes are known as hydrogen burning (via the

text: proton-proton chain

text: or the

text: CNO cycle

text: helium burning

text: carbon burning

text: neon burning

text: oxygen burning

text: and

text: silicon burning

text: . These processes are able to create elements up to and including iron and nickel. This is the region of nucleosynthesis within which the isotopes with the highest

text: binding energy

text: per nucleon are created. Heavier elements can be assembled within stars by a neutron capture process known as the

text: s-process

text: or in explosive environments, such as

text: supernova

text: e, by a number of other processes. Some of those others include the

text: r-process

text: , which involves rapid neutron captures, the

text: rp-process

text: , and the

text: p-process

text: (sometimes known as the gamma process), which results in the

text: photodisintegration

text: of existing nuclei.

text: A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1934 in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the centre along a spiral path.   The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying (radio frequency) electric field.   Lawrence was awarded the 1939 Nobel prize in physics for this invention.   Cyclotrons were the most powerful particle accelerator technology until the 1950s when they were superseded by the synchrotron, and are still used to produce particle beams in physics and nuclear medicine.  The largest single-magnet cyclotron was the  synchrocyclotron built between 1940 and 1946 by Lawrence at the University of California at Berkeley, which could accelerate protons to 730 MeV.  The largest cyclotron is the  multimagnet TRIUMF accelerator at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia which can produce 500 MeV protons.

text: A cyclotron is a type of

text: particle accelerator

text: invented by

text: Ernest O. Lawrence

text: in 1934 in which

text: charged particle

text: s accelerate outwards from the centre along a spiral path.   The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying (

text: radio frequency

text: ) electric field.   Lawrence was awarded the 1939

text: Nobel prize in physics

text: for this invention.   Cyclotrons were the most powerful particle accelerator technology until the 1950s when they were superseded by the

text: synchrotron

text: , and are still used to produce particle beams in physics and

text: nuclear medicine

text: .  The largest single-magnet cyclotron was the

text: synchrocyclotron

text: built between 1940 and 1946 by Lawrence at the

text: University of California at Berkeley

text: , which could accelerate protons to 730

text: MeV

text: .  The largest cyclotron is the  multimagnet

text: TRIUMF

text: accelerator at the

text: University of British Columbia

text: in

text: Vancouver, British Columbia

text: which can produce 500 MeV protons.

text: One of KBKhA priority directions was the completion of defense contracts – creation of LREs with high energy characteristics and reliability, with low production costs, without servicing during entire life. In 1957, using extensive experience acquired during the development of engines RD0100, RD0101, RD0102 for interceptors, the Design Bureau started the creation of engines for antiaircraft missiles (SAM) on self-ignited components. The first LRE RD0200 (chief designer A. Golubev) was developed for the second stage of S. Lavochkin 5В11 SAM. The engine was designed as open cycle engine with 1 : 10 throttle capability. The engine passed all types of tests and was serially manufacturedLRE RD0201 (chief designer L. Pozdnyakov) was designed for the third stage of P. Grushin B1100 SAM. The difference of the engine from RD0200 was four swivel combustion chambers due to which flight navigation was performed. In the end of the 50th, the question about the creation of a more powerful rocket R-9 arose, which was to replace rocket 8K72. In 1959-1962 the Design Bureau developed oxygen-kerosene engine RD0106 for LV second stage (block B) (chief designer – Y. Gershkovitz).High energy characteristics, optimum mounting, relatively small height, simple operation, development time (on ground and flight) were the basis for the development of a variety of engines for Korolev’s space rockets, including RD0110 for the third stage (block И) of Soyuz LV. In the beginning of the 60th, long-term and prolific cooperation of KBKhA and Chelomey Design Bureau started, for whose LVs our design bureau developed about 20 LREs.The creation of powerful LVs during these years required considerable increase of energy characteristics and operational features of LREs. And KBKhA was among the first to start the development of such LREs. In 1961-1964 RD0203 and RD0204 LREs (chief designer V. Kozelkov) for the first stage of rocket UR200 and RD0206 and RD0207 LREs (chief designer L. Pozdnyakov) for the second stage of the same rocket were developed.These new engines were of advanced design, operate on storable fuel components and for the first time staged combustion cycle was used. The application of such schematic allowed double combustion chamber pressure (up to 150 kg/cm2 as compared to 70 kg/cm2 for open cycle engines) and excluded Isp losses for TPA turbine drive.Powerful and highly economical engines created in short time, went through ground development and flight tests. The engines were a basis for the creation of new LREs. In 1963, Chelomei Design Bureau started the creation of the new rocket RS-10 for first stage KBKhA developed engines RD0216 and RD0217 were used in 1963-1966 (chief designer V. Koshelnikov). Higher technical and operational requirements to LV defined the necessity of high engine efficiency and reliability, protection of its inner cavities from the environment, etc. All these requirements were fulfilled and confirmed by ground and flight development testing as rocket component.The experience acquired was the basis for development of new generation engines with higher combustion chamber pressures. First engines of this type were RD0233 and RD0234 (chief designer V. Kozelkov, lead designer V. Ezhov), created in 1969-1974 for RS-18 rocket first stage.Further on, two engines were developed: staged combustion RD0235, and open cycle steering engine RD0236 (chief designer V. Kozelkov, lead designer Y. Garmanov) for RS-18 rocket second stage. Engine RD0235 was developed on the basis of RD0216 engine but it is more reliable due to better design and technology possibilitiesThe experience of LRE development was the basis for the engagement of KBKhA in 1967 in the development of engine RD0208 (lead designer Y. Gershkovich) for the second stage of rocket RS-20, designed by general designer M. Yangel. The engine was developed on the basis of a third stage engine RD0212, used in “Proton”, but it was more powerful and was differently applied within the stage.

text: Everyday examples of particle accelerators are cathode ray tubes found in television sets and X-ray generators. These low-energy accelerators use a single pair of electrodes with a DC voltage of a few thousand volts between them. In an X-ray generator, the target itself is one of the electrodes. A low-energy particle accelerator called an ion implanter is used in the manufacture of integrated circuits.

text: Everyday examples of particle accelerators are

text: cathode ray tube

text: s found in television sets and

text: X-ray

text: generators. These low-energy accelerators use a single pair of

text: electrode

text: s with a

text: DC

text: voltage of a few thousand volts between them. In an X-ray generator, the target itself is one of the electrodes. A low-energy particle accelerator called an

text: ion implanter

text: is used in the manufacture of

text: integrated circuit

text: s.

text: Binding energy is the energy required to disassemble a whole system into separate parts. A bound system typically has a lower potential energy than the sum of its constituent parts; this is what keeps the system together. Often this means that energy is released upon the creation of a bound state. This definition corresponds to a positive binding energy.

text: Binding energy is the

text: energy

text: required to disassemble a whole system into separate parts. A

text: bound system

text: typically has a lower

text: potential energy

text: than the sum of its constituent parts; this is what keeps the system together. Often this means that energy is released upon the creation of a bound state. This definition corresponds to a positive binding energy.

text: On 29 April 2016 a beech marten shut down the Large Hadron Collider, the world's most powerful particle accelerator, by chewing through wiring connected to an electrical transformer.

text: On 29 April 2016 a beech marten shut down the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: , the world's most powerful

text: particle accelerator

text: , by chewing through wiring connected to an

text: electrical transformer

text: While training in Generation X, Emma Frost described Jubilee as having the untapped ability to detonate matter at a sub-atomic level, which in theory is the equivalent of a nuclear fusion bomb. Her moral stance on taking a life was observed by Emma during the Phalanx Covenant, when Jubilee explained her fear of killing someone should her powers ever flare up again, as they did during the Acts of Vengeance storyline in Uncanny X-Men (she destroyed Mandarin's mansion in a massive explosion, out of grief after believing that Wolverine had been killed). Emma stated that Jubilee had unlimited potential and was one of the most powerful mutants she had ever encountered. Jubilee's Age of Apocalypse alternate had minimal qualms in regards to using her powers, and made liberal use of her full ability.

text: While training in Generation X, Emma Frost described Jubilee as having the untapped ability to detonate matter at a sub-atomic level, which in theory is the equivalent of a

text: nuclear fusion bomb

text: . Her moral stance on taking a life was observed by Emma during the

text: Phalanx Covenant

text: , when Jubilee explained her fear of killing someone should her powers ever flare up again, as they did during the

text: Acts of Vengeance

text: storyline in

text: Uncanny X-Men

text: (she destroyed

text: Mandarin

text: 's mansion in a massive explosion, out of grief after believing that Wolverine had been killed). Emma stated that Jubilee had unlimited potential and was one of the most powerful mutants she had ever encountered. Jubilee's

text: Age of Apocalypse

text: alternate had minimal qualms in regards to using her powers, and made liberal use of her full ability.

text: The notion of using a fission weapon to ignite a process of nuclear fusion can be dated back to 1942. At the first major theoretical conference on the development of an atomic bomb hosted by J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley, participant Edward Teller directed the majority of the discussion towards Enrico Fermi's idea of a "Super" bomb that would use the same reactions that powered the Sun itself.

text: The notion of using a fission weapon to ignite a process of

text: nuclear fusion

text: can be dated back to 1942. At the first major theoretical conference on the development of an atomic bomb hosted by J. Robert Oppenheimer at the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: , participant

text: Edward Teller

text: directed the majority of the discussion towards Enrico Fermi's idea of a "Super" bomb that would use the same reactions that powered the

text: Sun

text: itself.

text: The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density. Therefore, the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers. This would reduce the fusion rate and correct the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.

text: The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density. Therefore, the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and

text: expand

text: slightly against the

text: weight

text: of the outer layers. This would reduce the fusion rate and correct the

text: perturbation

text: ; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.

text: Particle accelerators, such as a magnetron or cyclotron, implement electromagnetic fields to achieve acceleration of elements. Atoms must be electrically charged (ionized) before they can be accelerated. Ionization involves the removal of electrons from the target atoms. A magnetron can be used to produce H- ions. Van de Graaff generators have also been integrated with particle accelerators, shown in figure 3, for light ion beam generation.

text: Particle accelerators, such as a magnetron or cyclotron, implement electromagnetic fields to achieve acceleration of elements. Atoms must be electrically charged (ionized) before they can be accelerated. Ionization involves the removal of electrons from the target atoms. A magnetron can be used to produce H- ions.

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: s have also been integrated with particle accelerators, shown in figure 3, for light ion beam generation.

text: (a case that arises in circular particle accelerators known as synchrotrons), the total power radiated reduces to

text: (a case that arises in circular particle accelerators known as

text: synchrotron

text: s), the total power radiated reduces to

text: A schematic drawing of a VSI mill is shown at Fig. 1. Raw material particles transports via hopper (1) into the accelerator (2). An accelerator (2) rotates with a high speed and particles increase their speed by a centrifugal force. After leaving channels of the accelerator particles impact with a wear plate (3) in the grinding chamber. A high speed impact leads to destruction of particles into pieces of different size. Big particles (greater than 1 mm) fall down to outlet (5) and later they transport to hopper by an elevator. Other particles (less than 1 mm) lift by air stream into a classifier where blades (4) make rotating dust flow. Middle size particles shift to wall by centrifugal force in a big chamber of a classifier and fall down to cone (6) and later they move into an accelerator (2). Small particles move by air stream to outlet (8). Fine tune of a product size is achieved by changing of blade angle.

text: Due to increasing concerns about air quality, climate change and fossil fuel shortages, nuclear power has been looked into as an alternative to coal power in China. China has two major nuclear power companies, the China National Nuclear Corporation operating mainly in north-east China, and the China General Nuclear Power Group, - formerly known as China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group, - operating mainly in south-east China. The People's Republic of China is also involved in the development of nuclear fusion reactors through its participation in the ITER project, having constructed an experimental nuclear fusion reactor known as EAST located in Hefei, as well as research and development into the thorium fuel cycle as a potential alternative means of nuclear fission.

text: Due to increasing concerns about air quality, climate change and fossil fuel shortages, nuclear power has been looked into as an alternative to

text: coal power in China

text: . China has two major nuclear power companies, the

text: China National Nuclear Corporation

text: operating mainly in north-east China, and the

text: China General Nuclear Power Group

text: , - formerly known as China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group, - operating mainly in south-east China. The

text: People's Republic of China

text: is also involved in the development of

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactors through its participation in the

text: ITER

text: project, having constructed an experimental nuclear fusion reactor known as

entity_name: Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak

text: EAST

text: located in

text: Hefei

text: , as well as research and development into the

text: thorium fuel cycle

text: as a potential alternative means of

text: nuclear fission

text: Klystrons can produce far higher microwave power outputs than solid state microwave devices such as Gunn diodes.  In modern systems, they are used from UHF (hundreds of MHz) up through hundreds of GHz (as in the Extended Interaction Klystrons in the CloudSat satellite).  Klystrons can be found at work in radar, satellite and wideband high-power communication (very common in television broadcasting and EHF satellite terminals), medicine (radiation oncology), and high-energy physics (particle accelerators and experimental reactors). At SLAC, for example, klystrons are routinely employed which have outputs in the range of 50 MW (pulse) and 50 kW (time-averaged) at 2856 MHz.  The Arecibo Planetary Radar uses two klystrons that provide a total power output of 1 MW (continuous) at 2380 MHz.

text: Klystrons can produce far higher microwave power outputs than

text: solid state

text: microwave devices such as

text: Gunn diode

text: s.  In modern systems, they are used from UHF (hundreds of MHz) up through hundreds of GHz (as in the Extended Interaction Klystrons in the

text: CloudSat

text: satellite).  Klystrons can be found at work in

text: radar

text: , satellite and wideband high-power communication (very common in

text: television

text: broadcasting

text: and EHF

text: satellite

text: terminals), medicine (

text: radiation oncology

text: ), and

text: high-energy physics

text: particle accelerator

text: s and experimental reactors). At

text: SLAC

text: , for example, klystrons are routinely employed which have outputs in the range of 50 MW (pulse) and 50 kW (time-averaged) at 2856 MHz.  The

text: Arecibo Planetary Radar

text: uses two klystrons that provide a total power output of 1 MW (continuous) at 2380 MHz.

text: Stochastic cooling is a form of particle beam cooling. It is used in some particle accelerators and storage rings to control the emission of particle beams. This process uses the electrical signals that the individual charged particles generate in a feedback loop to reduce the tendency of individual particles to move away from other particles in the beam. This technique was invented and applied at the Intersecting Storage Rings, and later the Super Proton Synchrotron, at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland by Dutch physicist Simon van der Meer. By increasing the particle density to close to the required energy, this technique improved the beam quality and, inter alia, brought the discovery of W and Z bosons within reach.

text: Stochastic cooling

text: is a form of

text: particle beam cooling

text: . It is used in some

text: particle accelerator

text: s and

text: storage ring

text: s to control the emission of

text: particle beam

text: s. This process uses the electrical signals that the individual

text: charged particle

text: s generate in a feedback loop to reduce the tendency of individual particles to move away from other particles in the beam. This technique was invented and applied at the

text: Intersecting Storage Rings

text: , and later the

text: Super Proton Synchrotron

text: , at

text: CERN

text: in Geneva, Switzerland by Dutch physicist

text: Simon van der Meer

text: . By increasing the particle density to close to the required energy, this technique improved the beam quality and, inter alia, brought the discovery of

text: W and Z bosons

text: within reach.

text: The Cosmotron was a particle accelerator, specifically a proton synchrotron, at Brookhaven National Laboratory.  Its construction was approved by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission in 1948, it reached its full energy in 1953, and it continued running until 1968.  It was the first particle accelerator to impart kinetic energy in the range of GeV to a single particle, accelerating protons to 3.3 GeV.  It was also the first accelerator to allow the extraction of the particle beam for experiments located physically outside the accelerator.  It was used to observe a number of mesons previously seen only in cosmic rays, and to make the first discoveries of heavy, unstable particles (called V particles at the time).

text: The Cosmotron was a

text: particle accelerator

text: , specifically a

text: proton

text: synchrotron

text: , at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: .  Its construction was approved by the

text: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

text: in 1948, it reached its full energy in 1953, and it continued running until 1968.  It was the first particle accelerator to impart

text: kinetic energy

text: in the range of

text: GeV

text: to a single particle, accelerating protons to 3.3 GeV.  It was also the first accelerator to allow the extraction of the

text: particle beam

text: for experiments located physically outside the accelerator.  It was used to observe a number of

text: meson

text: s previously seen only in

text: cosmic ray

text: s, and to make the first discoveries of heavy, unstable particles (called

text: V particle

text: s at the time).

text: At the energies reached in high energy particle accelerators, magnetic deflection is more powerful than electrostatic, and use of the magnetic term of the Lorentz force:

text: At the energies reached in high energy

text: particle accelerator

text: s, magnetic deflection is more powerful than electrostatic, and use of the magnetic term of the

text: Lorentz force

text: Once they have exhausted their supply of hydrogen through nuclear fusion, medium- to low-mass stars shed their outer layers to form a planetary nebula and evolve into white dwarfs. While most clusters become dispersed before a large proportion of their members have reached the white dwarf stage, the number of white dwarfs in open clusters is still generally much lower than would be expected, given the age of the cluster and the expected initial mass distribution of the stars. One possible explanation for the lack of white dwarfs is that when a red giant expels its outer layers to become a planetary nebula, a slight asymmetry in the loss of material could give the star a 'kick' of a few kilometres per second, enough to eject it from the cluster.

text: Once they have exhausted their supply of

text: hydrogen

text: through

text: nuclear fusion

text: , medium- to low-mass stars shed their outer layers to form a

text: planetary nebula

text: and evolve into

text: white dwarf

text: s. While most clusters become dispersed before a large proportion of their members have reached the white dwarf stage, the number of white dwarfs in open clusters is still generally much lower than would be expected, given the age of the cluster and the expected initial mass distribution of the stars. One possible explanation for the lack of white dwarfs is that when a

text: red giant

text: expels its outer layers to become a planetary nebula, a slight asymmetry in the loss of material could give the star a 'kick' of a few

text: kilometres per second

text: , enough to eject it from the cluster.

text: Though particle beams are perhaps most famously employed as weapon systems in science fiction, the U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency started work on particle beam weapons in 1958. The general idea of such weaponry is to hit a target object with a stream of accelerated particles with high kinetic energy, which is then transferred to the molecules of the target. The power needed to project a high-powered beam of this kind surpasses the production capabilities of any standard battlefield powerplant, thus such weapons are not anticipated to be produced in the foreseeable future.

text: Though particle beams are perhaps most famously employed as weapon systems in

text: science fiction

text: , the U.S.

text: Advanced Research Projects Agency

text: started work on

text: particle beam weapon

text: s in 1958. The general idea of such weaponry is to hit a target object with a stream of accelerated particles with high

text: kinetic energy

text: , which is then transferred to the molecules of the target. The power needed to project a high-powered beam of this kind surpasses the production capabilities of any standard battlefield powerplant, thus such weapons are not anticipated to be produced in the foreseeable future.

text: Linacs of appropriate design are capable of accelerating heavy ions to energies exceeding those available in ring-type accelerators, which are limited by the strength of the magnetic fields required to maintain the ions on a curved path. High power linacs are also being developed for production of electrons at relativistic speeds, required since fast electrons traveling in an arc will lose energy through synchrotron radiation; this limits the maximum power that can be imparted to electrons in a synchrotron of given size.Linacs are also capable of prodigious output, producing a nearly continuous stream of particles, whereas a synchrotron will only periodically raise the particles to sufficient energy to merit a "shot" at the target. (The burst can be held or stored in the ring at energy to give the experimental electronics time to work, but the average output current is still limited.) The high density of the output makes the linac particularly attractive for use in loading storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions. The high mass output also makes the device practical for the production of antimatter particles, which are generally difficult to obtain, being only a small fraction of a target's collision products. These may then be stored and further used to study matter-antimatter annihilation.

text: Linacs of appropriate design are capable of accelerating heavy ions to energies exceeding those available in ring-type accelerators, which are limited by the strength of the magnetic fields required to maintain the ions on a curved path. High power linacs are also being developed for production of electrons at relativistic speeds, required since fast electrons traveling in an arc will lose energy through

text: synchrotron radiation

text: ; this limits the maximum power that can be imparted to electrons in a synchrotron of given size.Linacs are also capable of prodigious output, producing a nearly continuous stream of particles, whereas a synchrotron will only periodically raise the particles to sufficient energy to merit a "shot" at the target. (The burst can be held or stored in the ring at energy to give the experimental electronics time to work, but the average output current is still limited.) The high density of the output makes the linac particularly attractive for use in loading storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions. The high mass output also makes the device practical for the production of

text: antimatter

text: particles, which are generally difficult to obtain, being only a small fraction of a target's collision products. These may then be stored and further used to study matter-antimatter annihilation.

text: There have been many Swiss referenda on the topic of nuclear energy, beginning in 1979 with a citizens' initiative for nuclear safety, which was rejected. In 1984, there was a vote on an initiative "for a future without further nuclear power stations" with the result being a 55 to 45% vote against. On September 23, 1990, Switzerland had two more referenda about nuclear power. The initiative "stop the construction of nuclear power stations", which proposed a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants, was passed with 54.5% to 45.5%. The initiative for a phase-out was rejected with by 53% to 47.1%. In 2000, there was a vote on a green tax for support of solar energy. It was rejected by 67–31%. On May 18, 2003, there were two referenda: "Electricity without Nuclear", asking for a decision on a nuclear power phase-out, and "Moratorium Plus", for an extension of the earlier-decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No.

text: There have been many Swiss

text: referenda

text: on the topic of nuclear energy, beginning in 1979 with a

text: citizens' initiative

text: for nuclear safety, which was rejected. In 1984, there was a vote on an initiative "for a future without further nuclear power stations" with the result being a 55 to 45% vote against. On September 23, 1990, Switzerland had two more referenda about nuclear power. The initiative "stop the construction of nuclear power stations", which proposed a ten-year

text: moratorium

text: on the construction of new nuclear power plants, was passed with 54.5% to 45.5%. The initiative for a phase-out was rejected with by 53% to 47.1%. In 2000, there was a vote on a

text: green tax

text: for support of

text: solar energy

text: . It was rejected by 67–31%. On May 18, 2003, there were two referenda: "Electricity without Nuclear", asking for a decision on a nuclear power phase-out, and "Moratorium Plus", for an extension of the earlier-decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No.

text: Decentralised Energy Systems (India) Pvt. Ltd., more commonly known as DESI Power, is an independent rural power producer involved in providing electricity and energy services to reduce endemic rural poverty through local job creation and income generation.

text: Decentralised Energy Systems (India) Pvt. Ltd., more commonly known as DESI Power, is an independent rural power producer involved in providing electricity and energy services to reduce endemic

text: rural poverty

text: through local job creation and income generation.

text: which becomes infinite as . This implies that the point particle would have infinite inertia, making it unable to be accelerated. Incidentally, the value of  that makes

text: which becomes infinite as . This implies that the point particle would have infinite

text: inertia

text: , making it unable to be accelerated. Incidentally, the value of  that makes

text: In an ever-accelerating universe, if two particles are separated by a distance greater than the Hubble radius, they cannot talk to each other from now on (as they are now, not as they have been in the past), However, if they are outside of each other's particle horizon, they could have never communicated. Depending on the form of expansion of the universe, they may be able to exchange information in the future. Today,

text: Guy Gardner was trained to use a Green Lantern power ring, which is only limited by the user's will power. He later acquired Sinestro's Qwardian power ring, which was later revealed to be based on the bearer's control of fear. This early version of a yellow power ring was powered by absorbing plasma radiation that had been expelled from a Green Lantern ring and seemed to make Guy more invulnerable than a normal Green Lantern power-ring. He used both for basic Lantern abilities including constructs, flight, and energy projection, though it also caused him some difficulty on occasion-for example, if he asked it a question he would get an answer in Qwardian, which he didn't speak. In Green Lantern: Rebirth #6 it is mentioned that Guy Gardner's ring is constantly sparking with energy, as if unable to contain the power of his will. Following Kyle Rayner's apparent death, Guy's rage caused a red power ring to latch onto him, bestowing on him the ability to generate napalm like flames that would burn even in space. Unlike most Red Lanterns, Guy retained his intelligence, and, like Hal Jordan when he was under the thrall of a red ring, Guy was able to shape the red flames into solid constructs. Unlike Hal, Guy's green ring remained active, allowing him to combine the two lights and obliterate the Black Lanterns and their rings. Guy was also the first male character seen to wield a love-powered Star Sapphire ring, wearing it in conjunction with the Red Lantern ring (he stated that the result felt like he had blood and sugar in his mouth).

text: Guy Gardner was trained to use a Green Lantern

text: power ring

text: , which is only limited by the user's will power. He later acquired Sinestro's

text: Qwardian power ring

text: A dredge-up is a period in the evolution of a star where a surface convection zone extends down to the layers where material has undergone nuclear fusion. As a result, the fusion products are mixed into the outer layers of the stellar atmosphere where they can appear in the spectrum of the star.

text: A dredge-up is a period in the evolution of a

text: star

text: where a surface

text: convection zone

text: extends down to the layers where material has undergone

text: nuclear fusion

text: . As a result, the fusion products are mixed into the outer layers of the stellar atmosphere where they can appear in the

text: spectrum

text: of the star.

text: In particle accelerators, a common mechanism for accelerating a charged particle beam is via copper resonant cavities in which electric and magnetic fields form a standing wave, the mode of which is designed so that the E field points along the axis of the accelerator, producing forward acceleration of the particles when in the correct phase.

text: In

text: particle accelerators

text: , a common mechanism for accelerating a charged particle beam is via

text: copper

text: resonant cavities

text: in which electric and

text: magnetic field

text: s form a

text: standing wave

text: , the mode of which is designed so that the

text: E field

text: points along the axis of the accelerator, producing forward acceleration of the particles when in the correct phase.

text: In discussing God's relationship to His creation, Orthodox theology distinguishes between God's eternal essence, which is totally transcendent, and His uncreated energies, which is how He reaches us. The God who is transcendent and the God who touches us are one and the same. That is, these energies are not something that proceed from God or that God produces, but rather they are God himself: distinct, yet inseparable from, God's inner being.

text: In discussing God's relationship to His creation, Orthodox theology

text: distinguishes

text: between God's eternal essence, which is totally transcendent, and His uncreated energies, which is how He reaches us. The God who is transcendent and the God who touches us are one and the same. That is, these energies are not something that proceed from God or that God produces, but rather they are God himself: distinct, yet inseparable from, God's inner being.

text: Fusion takes place when atoms come into close proximity and the nuclear strong force pulls their nuclei together. Counteracting this process is the fact that the nuclei are all positively charged, and thus repel each other due to the electrostatic force. In order for fusion to occur, the nuclei must have enough energy to overcome this coulomb barrier. The barrier is lowered for atoms with less positive charge, those with the fewest number of protons, and the strong force is increased with additional nucleons, the total number of protons and neutrons. This means that a combination of deuterium and tritium has the lowest coulomb barrier, at about 100 keV (see requirements for fusion).

text: Fusion takes place when atoms come into close proximity and the nuclear

text: strong force

text: pulls their nuclei together. Counteracting this process is the fact that the nuclei are all positively charged, and thus repel each other due to the

text: electrostatic force

text: . In order for fusion to occur, the nuclei must have enough energy to overcome this

text: coulomb barrier

text: . The barrier is lowered for atoms with less positive charge, those with the fewest number of

text: proton

text: s, and the strong force is increased with additional nucleons, the total number of protons and

text: neutron

text: s. This means that a combination of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: has the lowest coulomb barrier, at about 100 keV (see

text: requirements for fusion

text: When the star exhausts the hydrogen fuel in its core, nuclear reactions can no longer continue and so the core begins to contract due to its own gravity. This brings additional hydrogen into a zone where the temperature and pressure are adequate to cause fusion to resume in a shell around the core. The higher temperatures lead to increasing reaction rates, enough to increase the star's luminosity by a factor of 1,000–10,000. The outer layers of the star then expand greatly, thus beginning the red-giant phase of the star's life. As the star expands, the energy produced in the burning shell of the star is spread over a much larger surface area, resulting in a lower surface temperature and a shift in the star's visible light output towards the red – hence it becomes a red giant. In actuality, though, the color usually is orange. At this time, the star is said to be ascending the red-giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram. The outer layers carry the energy evolved from fusion to the surface by way of convection. This causes material exposed to nuclear "burning" in the star's interior (but not its core) to be brought to the star's surface for the first time in its history, an event called the first dredge-up.

text: When the star exhausts the hydrogen fuel in its core, nuclear reactions can no longer continue and so the core begins to contract due to its own gravity. This brings additional hydrogen into a zone where the temperature and pressure are adequate to cause fusion to resume in a shell around the core. The higher temperatures lead to increasing reaction rates, enough to increase the star's luminosity by a factor of 1,000–10,000. The outer layers of the star then expand greatly, thus beginning the red-giant phase of the star's life. As the star expands, the energy produced in the burning shell of the star is spread over a much larger surface area, resulting in a lower

text: surface temperature

text: and a shift in the star's visible light output towards the red – hence it becomes a red giant. In actuality, though, the color usually is orange. At this time, the star is said to be ascending the red-giant branch of the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram

text: . The outer layers carry the energy evolved from fusion to the surface by way of

text: convection

text: . This causes material exposed to

text: nuclear "burning"

text: in the star's interior (but not its core) to be brought to the star's surface for the first time in its history, an event called the first

text: dredge-up

text: Scattered throughout the castle are paintings and secret walls, which act as portals to other worlds where Bowser and his minions guard the Power Stars. After recovering most of the power stars and defeating Bowser's minions, Yoshi acquires keys that access other areas of the castle, where he finds Mario and his friends captured.

text: Scattered throughout the castle are paintings and secret walls, which act as portals to other worlds where

text: Bowser

text: and his minions guard the Power Stars. After recovering most of the power stars and defeating Bowser's minions, Yoshi acquires keys that access other areas of the castle, where he finds Mario and his friends captured.

text: These interesting objects are born from once-large stars that grew to four to eight times the size of our own sun before exploding in catastrophic supernovae. After such an explosion blows a star's outer layers into space, the core remains—but it no longer produces nuclear fusion. With no outward pressure from fusion to counterbalance gravity's inward pull, the star condenses and collapses in upon itself.

text: The best-known classes of exothermic nuclear transmutations are fission and fusion. Nuclear energy may be liberated by atomic fission, when heavy atomic nuclei (like uranium and plutonium) are broken apart into lighter nuclei. The energy from fission is used to generate electric power in hundreds of locations worldwide. Nuclear energy is also released during atomic fusion, when light nuclei like hydrogen are combined to form heavier nuclei such as helium. The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to generate thermal energy which is later radiated from the surface, a type of stellar nucleosynthesis. In any exothermic nuclear process, nuclear mass might ultimately be converted to thermal energy, given off as heat.

text: The best-known classes of exothermic nuclear transmutations are

text: fission

text: and

text: fusion

text: . Nuclear energy may be liberated by atomic fission, when heavy atomic nuclei (like uranium and plutonium) are broken apart into lighter nuclei. The energy from fission is used to generate electric power in hundreds of locations worldwide. Nuclear energy is also released during atomic fusion, when light

text: nuclei

text: like

text: hydrogen

text: are combined to form heavier nuclei such as helium. The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to generate thermal energy which is later radiated from the surface, a type of stellar nucleosynthesis. In any exothermic nuclear process, nuclear mass might ultimately be converted to thermal energy, given off as heat.

text: The second test, King, fired the largest nuclear weapon to date using only nuclear fission (no fusion nor fusion boosting). This "Super Oralloy Bomb" was intended as a backup if the fusion weapon failed. King yielded 500 kilotons, 25 times more powerful than the Fat Man weapon.

text: The second test,

text: King

text: , fired the largest nuclear weapon to date using only

text: nuclear fission

text: (no fusion nor

text: fusion boosting

text: ). This "Super

text: Oralloy

text: Bomb" was intended as a backup if the fusion weapon failed. King yielded 500 kilotons, 25 times more powerful than the

text: Fat Man

text: weapon.

text: Besides the real accelerators listed above, there are hypothetical accelerators often usedas hypothetical examples or optimistic projects by particle physicists.

text: Fusion rocket starships, powered by nuclear fusion reactions, should conceivably be able to reach speeds of the order of 10% of that of light, based on energy considerations alone. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of light. These would "burn" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, He, B, and Li. Because fusion yields about 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases <0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically 4–10% of c. However, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a large fraction of their energy as high-energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may turn out to be intractable for decades or centuries.

text: Fusion rocket

text: starships, powered by

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions, should conceivably be able to reach speeds of the order of 10% of that of light, based on energy considerations alone. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of light. These would "burn" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, He, B, and Li. Because fusion yields about 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases <0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically 4–10% of c. However, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a large fraction of their energy as high-energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may turn out to be intractable for decades or centuries.

text: The Large Hadron Collider at CERN was designed to prove or disprove the existence of the Higgs boson, an important but elusive piece of knowledge that had been sought by particle physicists for over 40 years. A very powerful particle accelerator was needed, because Higgs bosons might not be seen in lower energy experiments, and because vast numbers of collisions would need to be studied. Such a collider would also produce unprecedented quantities of collision data requiring analysis. Therefore, advanced computing facilities were needed to process the data.

text: The

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: at

text: CERN

text: was designed to prove or disprove the existence of the

text: Higgs boson

text: , an important but elusive piece of knowledge that had been sought by

text: particle physicists

text: for

text: over 40 years

text: . A very powerful

text: particle accelerator

text: was needed, because Higgs bosons might not be seen in lower energy experiments, and because vast numbers of collisions would need to be studied. Such a collider would also produce unprecedented quantities of collision

text: data

text: requiring analysis. Therefore, advanced computing facilities were needed to process the data.

text: Oliphant used electromagnetic separation to separate the isotopes of lithium. He was the first to experimentally demonstrate nuclear fusion. He found that when deuterons reacted with nuclei of Helium-3, tritium or with other deuterons, the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with. Binding energy had been liberated from inside the nucleus. Following  Arthur Eddington's 1920 prediction that energy released by fusing small nuclei together could provide the energy source that powers the stars, Oliphant speculated that nuclear fusion reactions might be what powered the sun. With its higher cross section, the deuterium–tritium nuclear fusion reaction became the basis of a hydrogen bomb. Oliphant had not foreseen this development:

text: Oliphant used

text: electromagnetic separation

text: to separate the isotopes of lithium. He was the first to experimentally demonstrate

text: nuclear fusion

text: . He found that when deuterons reacted with nuclei of Helium-3, tritium or with other deuterons, the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with.

text: Binding energy

text: had been liberated from inside the nucleus. Following

text: Arthur Eddington

text: 's 1920 prediction that energy released by

text: fusing

text: small nuclei together could provide the energy source that powers the stars, Oliphant speculated that nuclear fusion reactions might be what powered the sun. With its higher

text: cross section

text: , the deuterium–tritium nuclear fusion reaction became the basis of a

text: hydrogen bomb

text: . Oliphant had not foreseen this development:

text: A scenario has been presented of the effect of the commercialization of fusion power on the future of human civilization. ITER and later DEMO are envisioned to bring online the first commercial nuclear fusion energy reactor by 2050. Using this as the starting point and the history of the uptake of nuclear fission reactors as a guide, the scenario depicts a rapid take up of nuclear fusion energy starting after the middle of this century.

text: A scenario has been presented of the effect of the commercialization of fusion power on the future of human civilization. ITER and later

text: DEMO

text: are envisioned to bring online the first commercial nuclear fusion energy reactor by 2050. Using this as the starting point and the history of the uptake of nuclear fission reactors as a guide, the scenario depicts a rapid take up of nuclear fusion energy starting after the middle of this century.

text: The production of nuclear energy has been banned in Denmark since 1985. In 2014 and 2015, (imported) nuclear power was 3-4% of electricity consumption in Denmark. An average of 10% of domestic energy consumption comes from imports from neighboring countries Sweden and Germany, which both generate nuclear power. In Sweden, about 40% of the energy is generated by nuclear power and in Germany less than 20% by nuclear power. In 2011, with imports of 2.9 TWh from Germany and 5.2 TWh from Sweden, about 3.5TWh used was from countries that generate nuclear power – nearly 11% of total final consumption. This fluctuates year to year, mainly due to NordPool prices, and Energinet.dk analysis showed 1% from countries that generate nuclear power in 2010, 7% in 2011 and 14% in 2012.

text: The production of nuclear energy has been banned in Denmark since 1985. In 2014 and 2015, (imported) nuclear power was 3-4% of electricity consumption in Denmark. An average of 10% of

text: domestic energy consumption

text: comes from imports from neighboring countries Sweden and Germany, which both generate nuclear power. In Sweden, about 40% of the energy is generated

text: by nuclear power

text: and in Germany less than 20%

text: by nuclear power

text: . In 2011, with imports of 2.9 TWh from Germany and 5.2 TWh from Sweden, about 3.5TWh used was from countries that generate nuclear power – nearly 11% of total final consumption. This fluctuates year to year, mainly due to

text: NordPool

text: prices, and

text: Energinet.dk

text: analysis showed 1% from countries that generate nuclear power in 2010, 7% in 2011 and 14% in 2012.

text: During the photon epoch the temperature of the universe falls to the point where atomic nuclei can begin to form. Protons (hydrogen ions) and neutrons begin to combine into atomic nuclei in the process of nuclear fusion. Free neutrons combine with protons to form deuterium. Deuterium rapidly fuses into helium-4. Nucleosynthesis only lasts for about seventeen minutes, since the temperature and density of the universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue. By this time, all neutrons have been incorporated into helium nuclei. This leaves about three times more hydrogen than helium-4 (by mass) and only trace quantities of other light nuclei.

text: During the photon epoch the temperature of the universe falls to the point where atomic nuclei can begin to form. Protons (hydrogen ions) and neutrons begin to combine into atomic nuclei in the process of

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Free neutrons combine with protons to form deuterium. Deuterium rapidly fuses into helium-4. Nucleosynthesis only lasts for about seventeen minutes, since the temperature and density of the universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue. By this time, all neutrons have been incorporated into helium nuclei. This leaves about three times more hydrogen than helium-4 (by mass) and only trace quantities of other light nuclei.

text: In fusion, lighter atoms are fused to make heavier atoms. The easiest fuel to do this with is isotopes of hydrogen. Generally these reactions take place inside a plasma. A plasma is a heated gas, where all the electrons have been stripped away; the gas has been fully ionized. The ions are positively charged, so they repel each other due to the electrostatic force. Fusion occurs when two ions collide at high energy, allowing the strong force to overcome the electrostatic force at a short distance. The amount of energy that needs to be applied to force the nuclei together is termed the Coulomb barrier or fusion barrier energy. For fusion to occur in bulk plasma, it must be heated to tens of millions of degrees and compressed at high pressures, for a sufficient amount of time. Together, this is known as the "Triple Product". Fusion research focuses on reaching the highest triple product possible.

text: In fusion, lighter atoms are fused to make heavier atoms. The easiest fuel to do this with is isotopes of

text: hydrogen

text: . Generally these reactions take place inside a plasma. A plasma is a heated gas, where all the

text: electron

text: s have been stripped away; the gas has been fully

text: ionized

text: . The ions are positively charged, so they repel each other due to the

text: electrostatic force

text: . Fusion occurs when two ions collide at high energy, allowing the

text: strong force

text: to overcome the

text: electrostatic force

text: at a short distance. The amount of energy that needs to be applied to force the nuclei together is termed the

text: Coulomb barrier

text: or fusion barrier energy. For fusion to occur in bulk plasma, it must be heated to tens of millions of degrees and compressed at high pressures, for a sufficient amount of time. Together, this is known as the "Triple Product". Fusion research focuses on reaching the highest triple product possible.

text: Renewable Energy Business.  Influenced by architect, inventor and philosopher, Buckminster Fuller, who believed in the importance of renewable energy, Osborne began to focus on the renewable energy business in the late 1970s by building passive solar homes and selling energy-saving wood stoves. In 1981 he developed the first wind energy project (consisting of five 25-kilowatt wind turbines) that sold energy to an electric utility in Texas.  in 1983, he signed on as the first distributor in Texas for Solarex, a now-defunct maker of solar cells used then as power sources for such things as ranch gates, railroad signals and other places where stringing power lines was difficult or expensive. In the 1990's he ran the Texas operations for Zond Energy, which is now part of GE Wind Energy, the largest U.S. wind turbine maker. Throughout the 80's and 90s, Osborne documented and leased the wind resource for Texas wind fields. Many of his exploits are documented in the book, The Great Texas Wind Rush.

text: Renewable Energy Business.  Influenced by

text: architect

text: inventor

text: and

text: philosopher

text: Buckminster Fuller

text: , who believed in the importance of

text: renewable energy

text: , Osborne began to focus on the renewable energy business in the late 1970s by building

text: passive solar homes

text: and selling

text: energy-saving

text: wood stoves. In 1981 he developed the first

text: wind energy

text: project (consisting of five 25-kilowatt

text: wind turbine

text: s) that sold energy to an

text: electric utility

text: in Texas.  in 1983, he signed on as the first distributor in Texas for Solarex, a now-defunct maker of

text: solar cell

text: s used then as power sources for such things as ranch gates, railroad signals and other places where stringing power lines was difficult or expensive. In the 1990's he ran the Texas operations for Zond Energy, which is now part of

text: GE Wind Energy

text: , the largest U.S.

text: wind turbine

text: maker. Throughout the 80's and 90s, Osborne documented and leased the wind resource for Texas wind fields. Many of his exploits are documented in the book, The Great Texas Wind Rush.

text: A Power-on/Power-off switch is triggered if the trolleybus is drawing considerable power from the overhead wires, usually by accelerating, at the moment the poles pass over the contacts.  (The contacts are lined up on the wires in this case.) If the trolleybus "coasts" through the switch, the switch will not activate. Some trolleybuses, such as those in Philadelphia and Vancouver, have a manual "power-coast" toggle switch that turns the power on or off. This allows a switch to be triggered in situations that would otherwise be impossible, such as activating a switch while braking or accelerating through a switch without activating it. One variation of the toggle switch will simulate accelerating by causing a larger power draw (through a resistance grid) but will not simulate coasting and prevent activation of the switch by cutting the power.

text: During his eight-year tenure, the ISI became one of the most powerful spy agencies of the world. In 1987 at the princeple of his career, General Akhtar was elevated to the four-star rank and secured the appointment as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, the highest and most prestigious four-star assignment in the Pakistan Armed Forces.

text: During his eight-year tenure, the ISI became one of the most powerful spy agencies of the world. In 1987 at the princeple of his career, General Akhtar was elevated to the

text: four-star

text: rank and secured the appointment as the

entity_name: Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee

text: Chairman

text: of the

text: Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee

text: , the highest and most prestigious four-star assignment in the

text: Pakistan Armed Forces

text: If a charged particle such as an electron is accelerated – this can be acceleration in a straight line or motion in a curved path – electromagnetic radiation is emitted by the particle. Within electron storage rings and circular particle accelerators known as synchrotrons, electrons are bent in a circular path and emit X-rays typically. This radially emitted (

text: If a charged particle such as an electron is accelerated – this can be acceleration in a straight line or motion in a curved path – electromagnetic radiation is emitted by the particle. Within electron storage rings and circular particle accelerators known as

text: synchrotron

text: s, electrons are bent in a circular path and emit X-rays typically. This radially emitted (

text: , then the particle accelerates after the impact.

text: The Standard Model, which is now the prevailing model of particle physics, dramatically simplified this picture by showing that most of the observed particles were mesons, which are combinations of two quarks, or baryons which are combinations of three quarks, plus a handful of other particles. The particles being seen in the ever-more-powerful accelerators were, according to the theory, typically nothing more than combinations of these quarks.

text: The Standard Model, which is now the prevailing model of particle physics, dramatically simplified this picture by showing that most of the observed particles were

text: meson

text: s, which are combinations of two

text: quark

text: s, or

text: baryon

text: s which are combinations of three quarks, plus a handful of other particles. The particles being seen in the ever-more-powerful accelerators were, according to the theory, typically nothing more than combinations of these quarks.

text: From the damping rings the particle bunches will be sent to the superconducting radio frequency main linacs, each 11 km long, where they will be accelerated to 250 GeV.  At this energy each beam will have an average power of about 5.3 megawatts.  Five bunch trains will be produced and accelerated per second.

text: From the damping rings the particle bunches will be sent to the

text: superconducting radio frequency

text: main linacs, each 11 km long, where they will be accelerated to 250 GeV.  At this energy each beam will have an average power of about 5.3

text: megawatts

text: .  Five bunch trains will be produced and accelerated per second.

text: The Van de Graaff generator is a simple mechanical device. Small Van de Graaff generators are built by hobbyists and scientific apparatus companies and are used to demonstrate the effects of high DC potentials. Even small hobby machines produce impressive sparks several centimeters long. The largest air insulated Van de Graaff generator in the world, built by Van de Graaff himself, is operational and is on display at the Boston Museum of Science. Demonstrations throughout the day are a popular attraction. More modern Van de Graaff generators are insulated by pressurized dielectric gas, usually freon or sulfur hexafluoride. In recent years, Van de Graaff generators have been slowly replaced by solid-state DC power supplies without moving parts. The energies produced by Van de Graaff atomic particle accelerators are limited to about 30 MeV, even with tandem generators accelerating doubly charged (for example alpha) particles. More modern particle accelerators using different technology produce much higher energies, thus Van de Graaff particle accelerators have become largely obsolete. They are still used to some extent for graduate student research at colleges and universities and as ion sources for high energy bursts.

text: The Van de Graaff generator is a simple mechanical device. Small Van de Graaff generators are built by hobbyists and scientific apparatus companies and are used to demonstrate the effects of high DC potentials. Even small hobby machines produce impressive sparks several centimeters long. The largest air insulated Van de Graaff generator in the world, built by Van de Graaff himself, is operational and is on display at the

text: Boston Museum of Science

text: . Demonstrations throughout the day are a popular attraction. More modern Van de Graaff generators are insulated by pressurized

text: dielectric gas

text: , usually

text: freon

text: or

text: sulfur hexafluoride

text: . In recent years, Van de Graaff generators have been slowly replaced by solid-state DC power supplies without moving parts. The energies produced by Van de Graaff atomic

text: particle accelerator

text: s are limited to about 30 MeV, even with tandem generators accelerating doubly charged (for example alpha) particles. More modern particle accelerators using different technology produce much higher energies, thus Van de Graaff particle accelerators have become largely obsolete. They are still used to some extent for graduate student research at colleges and universities and as ion sources for high energy bursts.

text: Energy security measures center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy or supplier, exploiting renewable energy resources, and reducing demand by energy conservation. Finland is highly dependent on energy import from Russia: 71% of total energy in 2007: Hard coal 92%, raw oil 75% and natural gas 100%. The support of domestic energy has been mainly based on traditional bioenergy and highly disputed fossil peat energy alternatives.  The new renewable energy alternatives have not been effectively promoted by the end of 2010. This strategy was criticised by the IEA in its country evaluation in 2007. According to the renewable energy statistics of EU countries Finland has low capacities of wind power (19/27), solar power (17/27) and solar heating (23/27) in 2010. Wind power is repeatedly the most favoured power source in Finland with over 90% of support according to the public opinion tests. In this respect the official energy policy of Finland has promoted the market control of traditional energy sources and companies.

text: Energy security

text: measures center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy or supplier, exploiting

text: renewable energy

text: resources, and reducing demand by

text: energy conservation

text: . Finland is highly dependent on energy import from Russia: 71% of total energy in 2007: Hard coal 92%, raw oil 75% and natural gas 100%. The support of domestic energy has been mainly based on traditional bioenergy and highly disputed fossil

text: peat energy

text: alternatives.  The new renewable energy alternatives have not been effectively promoted by the end of 2010. This strategy was criticised by the IEA in its country evaluation in 2007. According to the renewable energy statistics of EU countries Finland has low capacities of

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: (17/27) and

text: solar heating

text: (23/27) in 2010. Wind power is repeatedly the most favoured power source in Finland with over 90% of support according to the public opinion tests. In this respect the official energy policy of Finland has promoted the market control of traditional energy sources and companies.

text: As Omni's master plan came to fruition, Cruger escaped from a cell onboard Gruumm's ship and the two engaged in battle. Although Gruumm was thought to have perished along with the Magnificence, he survived and engaged Cruger (who was unmorphed) one last time, only to get his left horn cut off after being easily defeated. He was then contained. He appears in the Nintendo DS version of Power Rangers: Super Legends as the main villain who has set his sights upon the myth of the Hall of Legends, the resting place of the collected energies of Power Rangers across time. In his twisted mind he envisioned a world where his enemy's power is not only stolen, but used to make him a living god over all creation.

text: As Omni's master plan came to fruition, Cruger escaped from a cell onboard Gruumm's ship and the two engaged in battle. Although Gruumm was thought to have perished along with the Magnificence, he survived and engaged Cruger (who was unmorphed) one last time, only to get his left horn cut off after being easily defeated. He was then contained. He appears in the

text: Nintendo DS

text: version of

text: Power Rangers: Super Legends

text: as the main villain who has set his sights upon the myth of the Hall of Legends, the resting place of the collected energies of Power Rangers across time. In his twisted mind he envisioned a world where his enemy's power is not only stolen, but used to make him a living god over all creation.

text: A related technology is the plasma valve, invented shortly after the plasma window. A plasma valve is a layer of gas in the shell of a particle accelerator. The ring of a particle accelerator contains a vacuum, and ordinarily a breach of this vacuum is disastrous. If, however, an accelerator equipped with plasma valve technology breaches, the gas layer is ionized within a nanosecond, creating a seal that prevents the accelerator's recompression. This gives researchers time to shut off the particle beam in the accelerator and slowly recompress the accelerator ring to avoid damage.

text: A related technology is the plasma valve, invented shortly after the plasma window. A plasma valve is a layer of gas in the shell of a

text: particle accelerator

text: . The ring of a particle accelerator contains a vacuum, and ordinarily a breach of this vacuum is disastrous. If, however, an accelerator equipped with plasma valve technology breaches, the gas layer is ionized within a nanosecond, creating a seal that prevents the accelerator's recompression. This gives researchers time to shut off the particle beam in the accelerator and slowly recompress the accelerator ring to avoid damage.

text: Baldacci's first novel, Absolute Power, tells the story of a fictional American President and his Secret Service agents who are willing to commit murder, in order to cover up the accidental death of a woman with whom the President was having an affair. It was adapted as a film, Absolute Power (1997), starring Clint Eastwood and Gene Hackman.

text: Baldacci's first novel,

text: Absolute Power

text: , tells the story of a fictional American President and his

text: Secret Service

text: agents who are willing to commit murder, in order to cover up the accidental death of a woman with whom the President was having an affair. It was adapted as a film,

text: Absolute Power

text: (1997), starring

text: Clint Eastwood

text: and

text: Gene Hackman

text: Nuclear power, or nuclear energy, is the use of exothermic nuclear processes, to generate useful heat and electricity. The term includes nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion. Presently the nuclear fission of elements in the actinide series of the periodic table produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with nuclear decay processes, primarily in the form of geothermal energy, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators, in niche uses making up the rest. Nuclear (fission) power stations, excluding the contribution from naval nuclear fission reactors, provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012. In 2013, the IAEA report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors, in 31 countries,  although not every reactor is producing electricity. In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a net energy gain from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the Sun, remains an ongoing area of international physics and engineering research. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.

text: Nuclear power, or nuclear

text: energy

text: , is the use of

text: exothermic nuclear processes

text: , to generate useful

text: heat

text: and

text: electricity

text: . The term includes

text: nuclear fission

text: nuclear decay

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Presently the

text: nuclear fission

text: of elements in the

text: actinide

text: series of the

text: periodic table

text: produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with

text: nuclear decay

text: processes, primarily in the form of

text: geothermal energy

text: , and

text: radioisotope thermoelectric generator

text: s, in niche uses making up the rest.

text: Nuclear (fission) power stations

text: , excluding the contribution from

text: naval nuclear fission reactors

text: , provided about 5.7% of the world's

text: energy

text: and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012. In 2013, the

text: IAEA

text: report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors, in

text: 31 countries

text: ,  although not every reactor is producing electricity. In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using

text: nuclear propulsion

text: net energy gain

text: Sun

text: physics

text: and

text: engineering research

text: . More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.

text: Stars are a set of nodes with an edge between every member of that set and a single node outside the set. In a power graph, a star is represented by a power edge between a regular node and a power node.

text: Star

text: s are a set of nodes with an edge between every member of that set and a single node outside the set. In a power graph, a star is represented by a power edge between a regular node and a power node.

text: Unlike the stars in the main-sequence, brown dwarfs are not massive enough to sustain nuclear fusion of ordinary hydrogen (H) to helium in their cores. They are, however, thought to fuse deuterium (H) and to burn lithium (Li) if their mass is above a debated threshold of  and , respectively. It is also debated whether brown dwarfs would be better defined by their formation processes rather than by their supposed nuclear fusion reactions.

text: Unlike the stars in the

text: main-sequence

text: , brown dwarfs are not massive enough to sustain

text: nuclear fusion

text: of ordinary

text: hydrogen

text: H

text: ) to helium in their cores. They are, however, thought to

text: fuse deuterium

text: (H) and to

text: burn lithium

text: (Li) if their mass is above a debated threshold of  and , respectively. It is also debated whether brown dwarfs would be better defined by their formation processes rather than by their supposed nuclear fusion reactions.

text: Particle accelerators routinely accelerate and measure the properties of particles moving at near the speed of light, where their behavior is completely consistent with relativity theory and inconsistent with the earlier Newtonian mechanics. These machines would simply not work if they were not engineered according to relativistic principles. In addition, a considerable number of modern experiments have been conducted to test special relativity. Some examples:

text: Particle accelerator

text: s routinely accelerate and measure the properties of particles moving at near the speed of light, where their behavior is completely consistent with relativity theory and inconsistent with the earlier

text: Newtonian mechanics

text: . These machines would simply not work if they were not engineered according to relativistic principles. In addition, a considerable number of modern experiments have been conducted to test special relativity. Some examples:

text: Electrostatic accelerators are often confused with linear accelerators simply because they can (but do not always) accelerate particles in a line.  As we can see even early in their history, accelerators were named in some way referring to the method or type of acceleration.  Terminal accelerators pre-date both linear accelerator technology and the nomenclature, so it would be confusing and incorrect to categorize them with a newer technology which is quite different.  Linear accelerators use an array of oscillating electric fields, historically arranged in a line, but nothing would prevent a person from using magnets in between the columns of linear accelerators to form some other geometric shape.  Oscillating field accelerators do not actually produce beams of particles, but rather packets of particles, unlike electrostatic accelerators which can have a beam current that is constant in time.  Thus, the naming scheme for accelerators is based on the method of acceleration, or the physics, and not its geometry, which can be a point of confusion.  In fact, it was the oscillating field design of the linear accelerator which inspired Lawrence to construct the cyclotron, which accelerates particles in a spiral, thus taking up a considerably smaller amount of space.  A linear accelerator has more in common with a cyclotron than an electrostatic terminal accelerator.

text: Electrostatic accelerators are often confused with

text: linear accelerator

text: s simply because they can (but do not always) accelerate particles in a line.  As we can see even early in their history,

text: accelerators

text: were named in some way referring to the method or type of acceleration.  Terminal accelerators pre-date both linear accelerator technology and the nomenclature, so it would be confusing and incorrect to categorize them with a newer technology which is quite different.  Linear accelerators use an array of oscillating electric fields, historically arranged in a line, but nothing would prevent a person from using magnets in between the columns of linear accelerators to form some other geometric shape.  Oscillating field accelerators do not actually produce beams of particles, but rather packets of particles, unlike electrostatic accelerators which can have a beam current that is constant in time.  Thus, the naming scheme for accelerators is based on the method of acceleration, or the physics, and not its geometry, which can be a point of confusion.  In fact, it was the oscillating field design of the linear accelerator which inspired

text: Lawrence

text: to construct the

text: cyclotron

text: , which accelerates particles in a spiral, thus taking up a considerably smaller amount of space.  A linear accelerator has more in common with a cyclotron than an electrostatic terminal accelerator.

text: The electron-cloud effect is a phenomenon that occurs in particle accelerators and reduces the quality of the particle beam.

text: The electron-cloud effect is a phenomenon that occurs in

text: particle accelerators

text: and reduces the quality of the

text: particle beam

text: Through the late 1950s, Nuckolls and collaborators at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) ran a number of computer simulations of the ICF concept. In early 1960 this produced a full simulation of the implosion of 1 mg of D-T fuel inside a dense shell. The simulation suggested that a 5 MJ power input to the hohlraum would produce 50 MJ of fusion output, a gain of 10. At the time the laser had not yet been invented, and a wide variety of possible drivers were considered, including pulsed power machines, charged particle accelerators, plasma guns, and hypervelocity pellet guns.

text: Through the late 1950s, Nuckolls and collaborators at the

text: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

text: (LLNL) ran a number of computer simulations of the ICF concept. In early 1960 this produced a full simulation of the implosion of 1 mg of D-T fuel inside a dense shell. The simulation suggested that a 5 MJ power input to the hohlraum would produce 50 MJ of fusion output, a gain of 10. At the time the laser had not yet been invented, and a wide variety of possible drivers were considered, including pulsed power machines, charged particle accelerators, plasma guns, and hypervelocity pellet guns.

text: The fusion energy gain factor, usually expressed with the symbol Q, is the ratio of fusion power produced in a nuclear fusion reactor to the power required to maintain the plasma  in steady state. The condition of Q = 1 is referred to as breakeven.

text: The fusion energy gain factor, usually expressed with the symbol Q, is the ratio of

text: fusion power

text: produced in a

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactor to the power required to maintain the

text: plasma

text: in

text: steady state

text: . The condition of Q = 1 is referred to as breakeven.

text: The AToFMS allows for the determination of mixing state, or distribution of chemical species, within individual particles.  These mixing states are important in the determination of climate and health impact of aerosols.  The schematic of a typical AToFMS is shown to the right.  The overall structure of ATOF instruments is; sampling, sizing, and the mass analyzer region.  The inlet system is similar to the AMS by using the same aerodynamic focusing lens, but it has smaller orifices because of it analysis single particles. In the sizing region particle passes through the first continuous solid state laser that generates an initial pulse of scattered light.  Then the particle passes through the second laser that is orthogonal to the first and produces a pulse of scattered light.  The light is detected by a photomultiplier (PMT) that is matched up to each laser. Using the transit times between the two detected pulses and the fixed distance the velocity and size of each particle is calculated. Next the particles travel through to the mass analyzer region where it is ionized by a pulsed LDI laser, which is timed to hit the particle as it reaches the center of the ion extraction region.  Once ionized, the positive ions are accelerated towards the positive ToF section and the negative ions are accelerated towards the negative ToF section where they are detected.

text: The AToFMS allows for the determination of mixing state, or distribution of chemical species, within individual particles.  These mixing states are important in the determination of climate and health impact of aerosols.  The schematic of a typical AToFMS is shown to the right.  The overall structure of ATOF instruments is; sampling, sizing, and the mass analyzer region.  The inlet system is similar to the AMS by using the same aerodynamic focusing lens, but it has smaller orifices because of it analysis single particles. In the sizing region particle passes through the first continuous solid state laser that generates an initial pulse of scattered light.  Then the particle passes through the second laser that is orthogonal to the first and produces a pulse of scattered light.  The light is detected by a

text: photomultiplier

text: (PMT) that is matched up to each laser. Using the transit times between the two detected pulses and the fixed distance the velocity and size of each particle is calculated. Next the particles travel through to the mass analyzer region where it is ionized by a pulsed LDI laser, which is timed to hit the particle as it reaches the center of the ion extraction region.  Once ionized, the positive ions are accelerated towards the positive ToF section and the negative ions are accelerated towards the negative ToF section where they are detected.

text: LEP was a circular lepton collider – the most powerful such ever built. For context, modern  colliders can be generally categorized based on their shape (circular or linear) and on what types of particles they accelerate and collide (leptons or hadrons).  Leptons are point particles and are relatively light.  Because they are point particles, their collisions are clean and amenable to precise measurements; however, because they are light, the collisions cannot reach the same energy that can be achieved with heavier particles.  Hadrons are composite particles (composed of quarks) and are relatively heavy; protons, for example, have a mass 2000 times greater than electrons.  Because of their higher mass, they can be accelerated to much higher energies, which is the key to directly observing new particles or interactions that are not predicted by currently accepted theories.  However, hadron collisions are very messy (there are often lots of unrelated tracks, for example, and it is not straightforward to determine the energy of the collisions), and therefore more challenging to analyze and less amenable to precision measurements.

text: LEP was a circular lepton collider – the most powerful such ever built. For context, modern  colliders can be generally categorized based on their shape (circular or linear) and on what types of particles they accelerate and collide (leptons or hadrons).

text: Lepton

text: s are point particles and are relatively light.  Because they are point particles, their collisions are clean and amenable to precise measurements; however, because they are light, the collisions cannot reach the same energy that can be achieved with heavier particles.

text: Hadrons

text: are composite particles (composed of quarks) and are relatively heavy; protons, for example, have a mass 2000 times greater than electrons.  Because of their higher mass, they can be accelerated to much higher energies, which is the key to directly observing new particles or interactions that are not predicted by currently accepted theories.  However, hadron collisions are very messy (there are often lots of unrelated tracks, for example, and it is not straightforward to determine the energy of the collisions), and therefore more challenging to analyze and less amenable to precision measurements.

text: The most common application of superconducting RF is in particle accelerators. Accelerators typically use resonant RF cavities formed from or coated with superconducting materials. Electromagnetic fields are excited in the cavity by coupling in an RF source with an antenna.  When the RF frequency fed by the antenna is the same as that of a cavity mode, the resonant fields build to high amplitudes. Charged particles passing through apertures in the cavity are then accelerated by the electric fields and deflected by the magnetic fields.  The resonant frequency driven in SRF cavities typically ranges from 200 MHz to 3 GHz, depending on the particle species to be accelerated.

text: The most common application of superconducting RF is in

text: particle accelerator

text: s. Accelerators typically use

text: resonant RF cavities

text: formed from or coated with superconducting materials. Electromagnetic fields are excited in the cavity by coupling in an RF source with an antenna.  When the RF frequency fed by the antenna is the same as that of a cavity mode, the resonant fields build to high amplitudes. Charged particles passing through apertures in the cavity are then accelerated by the electric fields and deflected by the magnetic fields.  The resonant frequency driven in SRF cavities typically ranges from 200 MHz to 3 GHz, depending on the particle species to be accelerated.

text: Corp members of the Star Sapphires use violet power rings, fueled by the emotion of love. They allow the wearer to fly, generate a protective aura, and create violet light constructs.

text: In 1983, Connors joined Sam Elliott, Cybill Shepherd, Ken Curtis and Noah Beery, Jr. in the short-lived NBC series The Yellow Rose, about a modern Texas ranching family. In 1985, he guest-starred as "King Powers" in the ABC TV series Spenser: For Hire, starring Robert Urich. In 1987, he co-starred in the Fox series Werewolf, as drifter Janos Skorzeny. In 1988, he guest-starred as "Gideon" in the TV series Paradise, starring Lee Horsley.

text: In 1983, Connors joined

text: Sam Elliott

text: Cybill Shepherd

text: Ken Curtis

text: and

text: Noah Beery, Jr.

text: in the short-lived

text: NBC

text: series

text: The Yellow Rose

text: , about a modern

text: Texas

text: ranching family. In 1985, he guest-starred as "King Powers" in the

text: ABC

text: TV series

text: Spenser: For Hire

text: , starring

text: Robert Urich

text: . In 1987, he co-starred in the

text: Fox

text: series

text: Werewolf

text: , as drifter Janos Skorzeny. In 1988, he guest-starred as "Gideon" in the TV series

text: Paradise

text: , starring

text: Lee Horsley

text: For highly relativistic particles, such that velocity becomes nearly constant, the γ term becomes the dominant variable in determining loss rate, which means that the loss scales as the fourth power of the particle energy γmc; and the inverse dependence of synchrotron radiation loss on radius argues for building the accelerator as large as possible.

text: Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which the natural abundances of the chemical elements within stars change due to nuclear fusion reactions in the cores and their overlying mantles. Stars are said to evolve (age) with changes in the abundances of the elements within. Core fusion increases the atomic weight of elements and reduces the number of particles, which would lead to a pressure loss except that gravitation leads to contraction, an increase of temperature, and a balance of forces. A star loses most of its mass when it is ejected late in the star's stellar lifetimes, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to describe the creation of elements during the evolution and explosion of a presupernova star, as Fred Hoyle advocated presciently in 1954. A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in the abundances of elements found in the universe. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens of millions. This suggested a natural process other than random. Such a graph of the abundances can be seen at History of nucleosynthesis theory article. Of the several processes of nucleosynthesis, stellar nucleosynthesis is the dominating contributor to elemental abundances in the universe.

text: Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which the natural abundances of the

text: chemical element

text: s within stars change due to

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions in the cores and their overlying mantles. Stars are said to evolve (age) with changes in the abundances of the elements within. Core fusion increases the atomic weight of elements and reduces the number of particles, which would lead to a pressure loss except that gravitation leads to contraction, an increase of temperature, and a balance of forces. A star loses most of its mass when it is ejected late in the star's stellar lifetimes, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the

text: interstellar medium

text: . The term

text: supernova nucleosynthesis

text: is used to describe the creation of elements during the evolution and explosion of a presupernova star, as

text: Fred Hoyle

text: advocated presciently in 1954. A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in the

text: abundances of elements found in the universe

text: . Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens of millions. This suggested a natural process other than random. Such a graph of the abundances can be seen at

text: History of nucleosynthesis theory

text: article. Of the several processes of

text: nucleosynthesis

text: , stellar nucleosynthesis is the dominating contributor to elemental abundances in the universe.

text: Unlike in a cyclotron, synchrotrons are unable to accelerate particles from zero kinetic energy; one of the obvious reasons for this is that its closed particle path would be cut by a device that emits particles. Thus, schemes were developed to inject pre-accelerated particle beams into a synchrotron. The pre-acceleration can be realized by a chain of other accelerator structures like a linac, a microtron or another synchrotron; all of these in turn need to be fed by a particle source comprising a simple high voltage power supply, typically a Cockcroft-Walton generator.

text: Unlike in a cyclotron, synchrotrons are unable to accelerate particles from zero kinetic energy; one of the obvious reasons for this is that its closed particle path would be cut by a device that emits particles. Thus, schemes were developed to inject pre-accelerated

text: particle beam

text: s into a synchrotron. The pre-acceleration can be realized by a chain of other accelerator structures like a

text: linac

text: , a

text: microtron

text: or another synchrotron; all of these in turn need to be fed by a particle source comprising a simple high voltage power supply, typically a

text: Cockcroft-Walton generator

text: The first HH object was observed in the late 19th century by Sherburne Wesley Burnham, when he observed the star T Tauri with the  refracting telescope at Lick Observatory and noted a small patch of nebulosity nearby. However, it was catalogued merely as an emission nebula, later becoming known as Burnham's Nebula, and was not recognised as a distinct class of object. T Tauri was found to be a very young and variable star, and is the prototype of the class of similar objects known as T Tauri stars which have yet to reach a state of hydrostatic equilibrium between gravitational collapse and energy generation through nuclear fusion at their centres.

text: The first HH object was observed in the late 19th century by Sherburne Wesley Burnham, when he observed the star

text: T Tauri

text: with the

text: refracting telescope

text: at

text: Lick Observatory

text: and noted a small patch of nebulosity nearby. However, it was catalogued merely as an emission nebula, later becoming known as

text: Burnham's Nebula

text: , and was not recognised as a distinct class of object. T Tauri was found to be a very young and variable star, and is the prototype of the class of similar objects known as

text: T Tauri star

text: s which have yet to reach a state of

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: between

text: gravitational collapse

text: and energy generation through

text: nuclear fusion

text: at their centres.

text: An accelerator operator controls the operation of a particle accelerator used in research experiments, reviews an experiment schedule to determine experiment parameters specified by an experimenter (physicist), adjust particle beam parameters such as aspect ratio, current intensity, and position on target, communicates with and assists accelerator maintenance personnel to ensure readiness of support systems, such as vacuum, magnet power supplies and controls, low conductivity water or LCW cooling, and radiofrequency power supplies and controls, and maintains a record of accelerator related events.

text: An accelerator operator controls the operation of a particle accelerator used in research experiments, reviews an experiment schedule to determine experiment parameters specified by an experimenter (

text: physicist

text: ), adjust particle beam parameters such as

text: aspect ratio

text: , current intensity, and position on target, communicates with and assists accelerator maintenance personnel to ensure readiness of support systems, such as

text: vacuum

text: magnet

text: power supplies

text: and controls,

text: low conductivity water

text: or LCW cooling, and

text: radiofrequency

text: power supplies and controls, and maintains a record of accelerator related events.

text: Nebulon's powers are a result of biospheric energy and his alien physiology. He has superhuman strength, durability, and reflexes. Nebulon had the ability to manipulate energy for a variety of effects, including the creation of spheres, shields, or energy bolts, teleportation across the surface of a planet and between dimensions, and shape-shifting. Nebulon's powers were dependent on the biospheric energy of planets. If he were deprived of contact with a planetary biosphere long enough, his power level would be reduced to that of a normal human being. In his true form, Nebulon appears as a  long gigantic six-tentacled cephalopod.

text: Nebulon's powers are a result of

text: biospheric

text: energy and his alien

text: physiology

text: . He has superhuman strength, durability, and reflexes. Nebulon had the ability to manipulate energy for a variety of effects, including the creation of spheres, shields, or energy bolts,

text: teleportation

text: across the surface of a planet and between dimensions, and

text: shape-shifting

text: . Nebulon's powers were dependent on the biospheric energy of planets. If he were deprived of contact with a planetary biosphere long enough, his power level would be reduced to that of a normal human being. In his true form, Nebulon appears as a  long gigantic six-tentacled

text: cephalopod

text: In a fusion power reactor a plasma must be maintained at a high temperature in order that nuclear fusion can occur. Some of this power comes from the fraction f of the fusion power P contained in charged products which remain in the plasma. This power may be designated fP. The rest, designated P comes from external sources required for heating, some of which may also serve additional purposes like current drive and profile control. This power is lost through various processes to the walls of the plasma chamber. In most reactor designs, various constraints result in this heat leaving the reactor chamber at a relatively low temperature, so that little or none of it can be recovered as electrical power. In these reactors, electrical power is produced from the fraction of the fusion power contained in neutrons, (1 − f)P. The neutrons are not contained by the magnetic fields (in magnetic confinement fusion) nor the dense plasma (in inertial confinement fusion) but are absorbed in a surrounding walls (blanket). Due to various exothermic and endothermic reactions, the blanket may have a power gain factor a few percent higher or lower than 100%, but that will be neglected here. The neutron power would be used to heat a working medium such as helium gas or liquid lithium to a high temperature, and the working medium is then used to produce electricity at some efficiency η, so that P = η(1 − f)P. A fraction f of the electrical power is recirculated to run the reactor systems. Power is needed for lighting, pumping, producing magnetic fields, etc., but most is required for plasma heating so we can write P = η  f P, where η is substantially the efficiency with which electrical power is converted to the form of power needed to heat the plasma.

text: In a fusion power reactor a plasma must be maintained at a high temperature in order that nuclear fusion can occur. Some of this power comes from the fraction f of the fusion power P contained in charged products which remain in the plasma. This power may be designated fP. The rest, designated P comes from external sources required for heating, some of which may also serve additional purposes like current drive and profile control. This power is lost through various processes to the walls of the plasma chamber. In most reactor designs, various constraints result in this heat leaving the reactor chamber at a relatively low temperature, so that little or none of it can be recovered as electrical power. In these reactors, electrical power is produced from the fraction of the fusion power contained in neutrons, (1 − f)P. The neutrons are not contained by the magnetic fields (in

text: magnetic confinement fusion

text: ) nor the dense plasma (in

text: inertial confinement fusion

text: ) but are absorbed in a surrounding walls (blanket). Due to various

text: exothermic

text: and

text: endothermic

text: reactions, the blanket may have a power gain factor a few percent higher or lower than 100%, but that will be neglected here. The neutron power would be used to heat a working medium such as helium gas or liquid lithium to a high temperature, and the working medium is then used to produce electricity at some efficiency η, so that P = η(1 − f)P. A fraction f of the electrical power is recirculated to run the reactor systems. Power is needed for lighting, pumping, producing magnetic fields, etc., but most is required for plasma heating so we can write P = η  f P, where η is substantially the efficiency with which electrical power is converted to the form of power needed to heat the plasma.

text: The process allows a nuclear interaction to take place at lower energies than would be expected from a simple calculation of the Coulomb barrier between a deuteron and a target nucleus. This is because, as the deuteron approaches the positively charged target nucleus, it experiences a charge polarization where the "proton-end" faces away from the target and the "neutron-end" faces towards the target. The fusion proceeds when the binding energy of the neutron and the target nucleus exceeds the binding energy of the deuteron and a proton is then repelled from the new, heavier, nucleus.

text: The process allows a nuclear interaction to take place at lower energies than would be expected from a simple calculation of the

text: Coulomb barrier

text: between a deuteron and a target nucleus. This is because, as the deuteron approaches the positively charged target nucleus, it experiences a

text: charge polarization

text: where the "proton-end" faces away from the target and the "neutron-end" faces towards the target. The fusion proceeds when the binding energy of the neutron and the target nucleus exceeds the binding energy of the deuteron and a proton is then

text: repelled

text: from the new, heavier, nucleus.

text: There are potentially two sources of nuclear power. Fission is used in all current nuclear power plants. Fusion is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about radioactive waste disposal, safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.

text: There are potentially two sources of nuclear power.

text: Fission

text: is used in all current nuclear power plants.

text: Fusion

text: is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about

text: radioactive waste disposal

text: , safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.

text: It is estimated that up to the point of possible implementation of electricity generation by nuclear fusion, R&D will need further promotion totalling around  over a period of  or so (of which  within the EU) based on a report from 2002. Nuclear fusion research receives  (excluding ITER funding) from the European Union, compared with  for sustainable energy research, putting research into fusion power well ahead of that of any single rivaling technology. Indeed, the size of the investments and time frame of the expected results mean that fusion research is almost exclusively publicly funded, while research in other forms of energy can be done by the private sector. In spite of that, a number of start-up companies active in the field of fusion power have managed to attract private money.

text: Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power  by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy fast neutrons from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like U-238 or Th-232. Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their nuclear waste.

text: Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating

text: power

text: by use of a combination of

text: nuclear fusion

text: and

text: fission

text: processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy

text: fast neutron

text: s from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like

text: or

text: . Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their

text: nuclear waste

text: A major addition in Warriors of Rock is the use of special powers that come from special "warrior" forms of pre-defined characters that are unlocked through the game's Quest mode. These powers alter certain aspects of the core gameplay; one character allows for the Star Power multiplier to boost up to six times instead of just double, while another earns the player a star for maintaining a scoring multiplier above a certain target for a length of time.  When these powers are active, the players can earn well beyond five stars on a score either due to higher scoring opportunities or stars rewarded by the power, with a maximum of 40 stars available for each song.

text: The major advantage offered by a VFFAG design over a FFAG design is that the path-length is held constant between particles with different energies and therefore relativistic particles travel isochronously. Isochronousity of the revolution period enables continuous beam operation, therefore offering the same advantage in power that isochronous cyclotrons have over synchrocyclotrons. Isochronous accelerators have no longitudinal beam focusing, but this is not a strong limitation in accelerators with rapid ramp rates typically used in FFAG designs.

text: The major advantage offered by a VFFAG design over a FFAG design is that the path-length is held constant between particles with different energies and therefore relativistic particles travel

text: isochronously

text: . Isochronousity of the revolution period enables continuous beam operation, therefore offering the same advantage in power that isochronous cyclotrons have over

text: synchrocyclotron

text: s. Isochronous accelerators have no

text: longitudinal beam focusing

text: , but this is not a strong limitation in accelerators with rapid ramp rates typically used in FFAG designs.

text: The main purpose of the VRA is to generate and supply electricity for Ghana's needs. It is also responsible for managing the environmental impact of the creation of the Volta Lake on the towns and people bordering the lake. The VRA maintains a national energy supply grid and although it started with hydroelectric power, it is now branching into other types of energy such as thermal energy. The company represents Ghana in the West African Power Pool.

text: The main purpose of the VRA is to generate and supply electricity for Ghana's needs. It is also responsible for managing the environmental impact of the creation of the

text: Volta Lake

text: on the towns and people bordering the lake. The VRA maintains a national energy supply grid and although it started with

text: hydroelectric power

text: , it is now branching into other types of energy such as

text: thermal energy

text: . The company represents Ghana in the

text: West African Power Pool

text: A case of interest to nuclear fusion is an equimolar mixture of deuterium and tritium ions (

text: Much of the understanding of plasma has come from the pursuit of controlled nuclear fusion and fusion power, for which plasma physics provides the scientific foundation.

text: Much of the understanding of plasma has come from the pursuit of controlled

text: nuclear fusion

text: and

text: fusion power

text: , for which plasma physics provides the scientific foundation.

text: Given the light weight of these probes, it would take much less energy to accelerate them. With on board solar cells they could continually accelerate using solar power. One can envision a day when a fleet of millions or even billions of these particles swarm to distant stars at nearly the speed of light and relay signals back to Earth through a vast interstellar communication network.

text: Millennia ago a gigantic creation fell to Earth, impacting into a Middle-Eastern desert. An engine capable of unthinkable power, it was later to be called the Creation Wheel, potentially able to provide a user with the power of God. It would lie dormant for centuries, with its power creating a holographic realm of energy-projection to be known as the Hollow Realm, regarded as the gates of Heaven by the artificial beings who lived there.

text: ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS) is one of the seven particle detector experiments (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb, LHCf and MoEDAL) constructed at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle accelerator at CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Switzerland. The experiment is designed to take advantage of the unprecedented energy available at the LHC and observe phenomena that involve highly massive particles which were not observable using earlier lower-energy accelerators. It is hoped that it will shed light on new theories of particle physics beyond the Standard Model.

text: ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS) is one of the seven

text: particle detector

text: experiments (

text: ALICE

text: , ATLAS,

text: CMS

text: TOTEM

text: LHCb

text: LHCf

text: and

text: MoEDAL

text: ) constructed at the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC), a

text: particle accelerator

text: at

text: CERN

text: (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Switzerland. The experiment is designed to take advantage of the unprecedented energy available at the LHC and observe phenomena that involve highly massive

text: particles

text: which were not observable using earlier lower-

text: energy

text: accelerators. It is hoped that it will shed light on new

text: theories

text: of

text: particle physics

text: beyond the

text: Standard Model

text: For very high mass stars, with mass at least 130 and up to perhaps roughly 250 solar masses, a true pair-instability supernova can occur.  In these stars, the first time that conditions support pair creation instability, the situation runs out of control.  The collapse proceeds to efficiently compress the star's core; the overpressure is sufficient to allow runaway nuclear fusion to burn it in several seconds, creating a thermonuclear explosion. With more thermal energy released than the star's gravitational binding energy, it is completely disrupted; no black hole or other remnant is left behind.

text: For very high mass stars, with mass at least 130 and up to perhaps roughly 250 solar masses, a true pair-instability supernova can occur.  In these stars, the first time that conditions support pair creation instability, the situation runs out of control.  The collapse proceeds to efficiently compress the star's core; the overpressure is sufficient to allow runaway nuclear fusion to burn it in several seconds, creating a thermonuclear explosion. With more thermal energy released than the star's

text: gravitational binding energy

text: , it is completely disrupted; no

text: black hole

text: or other remnant is left behind.

text: GlueX is a particle physics experiment located at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (JLab) accelerator. Its primary purpose is to understand the nature of confinement in quantum chromodynamics by mapping the spectrum of exotic mesons generated by the excitation of the gluonic field binding the quarks. If successful, GlueX would be the first experiment to discover such exotic mesons, which have never before been observed. The experiment will be able to probe new areas by using photoproduction (that is, the scattering of a real photon on a nucleon) to produce exotic states. The GlueX detector was installed in the new Hall D (the fourth such hall at JLab) being constructed during the accelerator's upgrade to 12 GeV energy. GlueX began its first commissioning run in 2014, and first received 12 GeV electrons in 2015, the highest energy available at the CEBAF accelerator.

text: GlueX is a

text: particle physics

text: experiment located at the

entity_name: Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility

text: Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility

text: (JLab)

text: accelerator

text: . Its primary purpose is to understand the nature of

text: confinement

text: in

text: quantum chromodynamics

text: by mapping the spectrum of

text: exotic meson

text: s generated by the excitation of the

text: gluon

text: ic field binding the

text: quark

text: s. If successful, GlueX would be the first experiment to discover such exotic mesons, which have never before been observed. The experiment will be able to probe new areas by using photoproduction (that is, the scattering of a real

text: photon

text: on a

text: nucleon

text: ) to produce exotic states. The GlueX detector was installed in the new Hall D (the fourth such hall at JLab) being constructed during the accelerator's upgrade to 12

text: GeV

text: energy. GlueX began its first commissioning run in 2014, and first received 12 GeV electrons in 2015, the highest energy available at the CEBAF accelerator.

text: A white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a stellar companion to raise its core temperature enough to ignite carbon fusion, at which point it undergoes runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. There are three avenues by which this detonation is theorized to happen: stable accretion of material from a companion, the collision of two white dwarfs, or accretion that causes ignition in a shell that then ignites. The dominant mechanism by which Type Ia supernovae are produced remains unclear. Despite this uncertainty in how Type Ia supernovae are produced, Type Ia supernovae have very uniform properties, and are useful standard candles over intergalactic distances. Some calibrations are required to compensate for the gradual change in properties or different frequencies of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high red shift, and for small variations in brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.

text: A white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a

text: stellar companion

text: to raise its core temperature enough to

text: ignite

text: carbon fusion

text: , at which point it undergoes

text: runaway

text: nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. There are three avenues by which this detonation is theorized to happen: stable

text: accretion

text: of material from a companion, the collision of two white dwarfs, or accretion that causes ignition in a shell that then ignites. The dominant mechanism by which Type Ia supernovae are produced remains unclear. Despite this uncertainty in how Type Ia supernovae are produced, Type Ia supernovae have very uniform properties, and are useful standard candles over intergalactic distances. Some calibrations are required to compensate for the gradual change in properties or different frequencies of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high red shift, and for small variations in brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.

text: There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators use static electric fields to accelerate particles.  The most common types are the Cockcroft–Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator.  A small-scale example of this class is the cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television set.  The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating voltage, which is limited by electrical breakdown. Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields (either magnetic induction or oscillating radio frequency fields) to accelerate particles.  Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field.    This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators.

text: There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators.

text: Electrostatic

text: accelerators use static

text: electric field

text: s to accelerate particles.  The most common types are the

text: Cockcroft–Walton generator

text: and the

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: .  A small-scale example of this class is the

text: cathode ray tube

text: in an ordinary old television set.  The achievable

text: kinetic energy

text: for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating

text: voltage

text: , which is limited by

text: electrical breakdown

text: . Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields (either

text: magnetic induction

text: or oscillating

text: radio frequency

text: fields) to accelerate particles.  Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field.    This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators.

text: A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic particle accelerator, descended from the cyclotron, in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path.  The magnetic field which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, being synchronized to the increasing kinetic energy of the particles (see image). The synchrotron is one of the first accelerator concepts to enable the construction of large-scale facilities, since bending, beam focusing and acceleration can be separated into different components.  The most powerful modern particle accelerators use versions of the synchrotron design.  The largest synchrotron-type accelerator is the  Large Hadron Collider (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, built in 2008 by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).

text: A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic

text: particle accelerator

text: , descended from the

text: cyclotron

text: , in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path.  The

text: magnetic field

text: which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, being synchronized to the increasing

text: kinetic energy

text: of the particles (see image). The synchrotron is one of the first accelerator concepts to enable the construction of large-scale facilities, since bending, beam focusing and acceleration can be separated into different components.  The most powerful modern particle accelerators use versions of the synchrotron design.  The largest synchrotron-type accelerator is the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, built in 2008 by the

text: European Organization for Nuclear Research

text: (CERN).

text: Since its creation the power plant has faced several breakdowns. It has been alleged by the Power and Renewable Energy Deputy Minister, Ajith P. Perera, that the Power plant was built with substandard and outdated material and is below international standards.  The government is unable to claim any damages as the Rajapaksa government agreed to use the materials specified in the agreement which are sub-standard.

text: Since its creation the power plant has faced several breakdowns. It has been alleged by the Power and Renewable Energy Deputy Minister, Ajith P. Perera, that the Power plant was built with substandard and outdated material and is below international standards.  The government is unable to claim any damages as the

text: Rajapaksa government

text: agreed to use the materials specified in the agreement which are sub-standard.

text: Currently, nuclear power provides 13% of the world's total electricity. The most notable use of nuclear power within the United States is in U.S. Navy aircraft carriers, cruisers, and submarines, which have been exclusively nuclear-powered for several decades. These classes of ship provide the core of the Navy's power, and as such are the single most noteworthy application of nuclear power in that country.

text: The law of conservation of energy sets a minimum photon energy required for the creation of a pair of fermions: this threshold energy must be greater than the total rest energy of the fermions created. To create an electron-positron pair, the total energy of the photons must be at least 2mc = 2 ×  =  (m is the mass of one electron and c is the speed of light in vacuum), an energy value that corresponds to soft gamma ray photons. The creation of a much more massive pair, like a proton and antiproton, requires photons with energy of more than  (hard gamma ray photons).

text: The

text: law of conservation of energy

text: sets a minimum

text: photon energy

text: required for the creation of a pair of fermions: this

text: threshold energy

text: must be greater than the total

text: rest energy

text: of the fermions created. To create an electron-positron pair, the total energy of the photons must be at least 2mc = 2 ×  =  (m is the mass of one electron and c is the

text: speed of light

text: in vacuum), an energy value that corresponds to

text: soft

text: gamma ray

text: photons. The creation of a much more massive pair, like a

text: proton

text: and

text: antiproton

text: , requires photons with energy of more than  (hard gamma ray photons).

text: Nuclear fusion has many potential attractions. Firstly, its hydrogen isotope fuels are relatively abundant – one of the necessary isotopes, deuterium, can be extracted from seawater, while the other fuel, tritium, would be bred from a lithium blanket using neutrons produced in the fusion reaction itself. Furthermore, a fusion reactor would produce virtually no CO or atmospheric pollutants, and its other radioactive waste products would be very short-lived compared to those produced by conventional nuclear reactors.

text: Nuclear fusion has many potential attractions. Firstly, its

text: hydrogen isotope

text: fuels are relatively abundant – one of the necessary isotopes,

text: deuterium

text: , can be extracted from

text: seawater

text: , while the other fuel,

text: tritium

text: , would be bred from a lithium blanket using neutrons produced in the fusion reaction itself. Furthermore, a fusion reactor would produce virtually no

text: CO

text: or atmospheric pollutants, and its other

text: radioactive waste products

text: would be very short-lived compared to those produced by conventional nuclear reactors.

text: Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power  by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by Hans Bethe during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to the delays in the realization of pure fusion.Project PACER, carried out at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in the mid-1970s, explored the possibility of a fusion power system that would involve exploding small hydrogen bombs (fusion bombs) inside an underground cavity. As an energy source, the system is the only fusion power system that could be demonstrated to work using existing technology. However it would also require a large, continuous supply of nuclear bombs, making the economics of such a system rather questionable.

text: Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission (hybrid nuclear power)

text: is a proposed means of generating

text: power

text: by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and

text: fission

text: processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by

text: Hans Bethe

text: during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to the delays in the realization of pure fusion.

text: Project PACER

text: , carried out at

text: Los Alamos National Laboratory

text: (LANL) in the mid-1970s, explored the possibility of a fusion power system that would involve exploding small

text: hydrogen bomb

text: s (fusion bombs) inside an underground cavity. As an energy source, the system is the only fusion power system that could be demonstrated to work using existing technology. However it would also require a large, continuous supply of nuclear bombs, making the economics of such a system rather questionable.

text: Energy Star qualified televisions use 30% less energy than average.  In November 2008, television specifications were improved to limit on-mode power use, in addition to standby power which is limited by the current specifications.  A wider range of Energy Star qualified televisions will be available.Other qualified home electronics include cordless phones, battery chargers, VCRs and external power adapters, most of which use 90% less energy.

text: Energy Star qualified televisions use 30% less energy than average.  In November 2008, television specifications were improved to limit on-mode power use, in addition to

text: standby power

text: which is limited by the current specifications.  A wider range of Energy Star qualified televisions will be available.Other qualified home electronics include cordless phones, battery chargers, VCRs and external power adapters, most of which use 90% less energy.

text: Now serving as a member of the Star Sapphire Corps, she wears a violet power ring, powered by the emotion of love and built on the planet Zamaron. The capabilities of Star Sapphires appear to be comparable to those of Green Lanterns. They allow the wearer to fly, generate a protective aura (which in the case of Star Sapphires creates distinct feathered and organic shapes), and create violet light constructs. The most notable creation of the violet rings are crystals that encase prisoners from other lantern corps on the Zamaron planet. Over time, the rings of the prisoners trapped in stasis within the crystals are infected with violet energy. After spending enough time inside, the prisoner will emerge as a Star Sapphire.

text: Now serving as a member of the Star Sapphire Corps, she wears a violet

text: power ring

text: , powered by the emotion of love and built on the planet

text: Zamaron

text: . The capabilities of Star Sapphires appear to be comparable to those of Green Lanterns. They allow the wearer to fly, generate a protective aura (which in the case of Star Sapphires creates distinct feathered and organic shapes), and create violet light constructs. The most notable creation of the violet rings are crystals that encase prisoners from other lantern corps on the Zamaron planet. Over time, the rings of the prisoners trapped in stasis within the crystals are infected with violet energy. After spending enough time inside, the prisoner will emerge as a Star Sapphire.

text: In this system the ring of particle accelerators would not be in orbit, instead depending on the outward force of the magnetic field itself for support against the star's gravity. To inject energy into the star's atmosphere the ring current would first be temporarily shut down, allowing the particle accelerator stations to begin falling freely toward the star's surface. Once the stations had developed sufficient inward velocity the ring current would be reactivated and the resulting magnetic field would be used to reverse the stations' fall. This would "squeeze" the star, propelling stellar atmosphere through the polar magnetic nozzles. The ring current would be shut down again before the ring stations achieved enough outward velocity to throw them too far away from the star, and the star's gravity would be allowed to pull them back inward to repeat the cycle.

text: Regardless of the details, the outer surface of a protostar consists at least partially of shocked gas that has fallen from the inner edge of the disk. The surface is thus very different from the relatively quiescent photosphere of a pre-main sequence or main-sequence star. Within its deep interior, the protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center, hydrogen is not yet undergoing nuclear fusion. Theory predicts, however, that the hydrogen isotope deuterium is undergoing fusion, creating helium-3. The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed pre-main-sequence stars.

text: Regardless of the details, the outer surface of a protostar consists at least partially of shocked gas that has fallen from the inner edge of the disk. The surface is thus very different from the relatively quiescent

text: photosphere

text: of a

text: pre-main sequence

text: or

text: main-sequence

text: star. Within its deep interior, the protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center,

text: hydrogen

text: is not yet undergoing

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Theory predicts, however, that the hydrogen isotope

text: deuterium

text: is undergoing fusion, creating

text: . The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed

text: pre-main-sequence

text: stars.

text: A charged particle accelerating in a vacuum radiates power, as described by the Larmor formula and its relativistic generalizations. Although the term, bremsstrahlung, is usually reserved for charged particles accelerating in matter, not vacuum, the formulas are similar. (In this respect, bremsstrahlung differs from Cherenkov radiation, another kind of braking radiation which occurs only in matter, and not in a vacuum.)

text: A charged particle accelerating in a vacuum radiates power, as described by the

text: Larmor formula

text: and its relativistic generalizations. Although the term, bremsstrahlung, is usually reserved for charged particles accelerating in matter, not vacuum, the formulas are similar. (In this respect, bremsstrahlung differs from

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: , another kind of braking radiation which occurs only in matter, and not in a vacuum.)

text: In 1977, she joined movies in Elektrika Kasi, Eh!, Tisoy, Babae!, Iligpit Si Pretty Boy, and Burlesk Queen starring Vilma Santos and Rosemarie Gil, among others.

text: In 1977, she joined movies in Elektrika Kasi, Eh!, Tisoy, Babae!, Iligpit Si Pretty Boy, and Burlesk Queen starring

text: Vilma Santos

text: and

text: Rosemarie Gil

text: , among others.

text: He has a 15 year old daughter Jennifer Hurtado Janina Obregon and 19 year old son David Hurtado Johan Obregon.

text: and the congregation of St. Christopher-at-Cliffe

text: A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of particle accelerator that greatly increases the kinetic energy of charged subatomic particles or ions by subjecting the charged particles to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beamline. The principles for such machines were proposed by Gustav Ising in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by Rolf Widerøe in 1928  at the RWTH Aachen University.Linacs have many applications: they generate X-rays and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in radiation therapy, serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and positrons) for particle physics.

text: A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of

text: particle accelerator

text: that greatly increases the

text: kinetic energy

text: of charged

text: subatomic particle

text: s or

text: ion

text: s by subjecting the

text: charged particle

text: s to a series of

text: oscillating

text: electric potential

text: s along a

text: linear

text: beamline

text: . The principles for such machines were proposed by

text: Gustav Ising

text: in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by

text: Rolf Widerøe

text: in 1928  at the

text: RWTH Aachen University

text: .Linacs have many applications: they generate

text: X-ray

text: s and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in

text: radiation therapy

text: , serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and positrons) for

text: particle physics

text: Overarching all its work in 2011, the Real Parenting Revolution calls for a societal understanding and acknowledgement of the challenges facing parents.Throughout 2011, Netmums will be campaigning for support to be there where and when parents need it.

text: In addition to being a three-time international champion (Wall 2003, p. 112-113)  in semi-contact karate, and a former trainer of world-rated full-contact fighters, Senior Grandmaster Jerry Smith is one of the original founders of the Black Karate Federation (BKF) in Los Angeles California. (Corcoran and Farkas 1993, p. 379)

text: In addition to being a three-time international champion (Wall 2003, p. 112-113)  in semi-contact karate, and a former trainer of world-rated full-contact fighters, Senior Grandmaster Jerry Smith is one of the original founders of the Black Karate Federation (BKF) in Los Angeles California. (

text: Corcoran

text: and Farkas 1993, p. 379)

text: The journal is abstracted and indexed in MathSciNet and Zentralblatt Math.

text: The journal is abstracted and indexed in

text: MathSciNet

text: and

text: Zentralblatt Math

text: Zdravko Lorković (3 January 1900 in Zagreb – 11 November 1998 in Zagreb) was a Croatian biologist, entomologist and geneticist.

text: Zdravko Lorković (3 January 1900 in

text: Zagreb

text: – 11 November 1998 in Zagreb) was a

text: Croatian

text: biologist

text: entomologist

text: and

text: geneticist

text: The applied concept of “configuration” was here different from "system" (→cultural system) (being more static and systematic, and related to the negative term of the non-systematic), from “style” (being more aesthetic and having undertones of taste, subjectivity and stylization), and from “structure” (having undertones of “the functional”, as a heritage from structural functionalism in sociology). In contrast to these terms, configuration denotes a more dynamic pattern in change.

text: The applied concept of “configuration” was here different from "system" (→

text: cultural system

text: ) (being more static and systematic, and related to the negative term of the non-systematic), from “style” (being more

text: aesthetic

text: and having undertones of taste,

text: subjectivity

text: and stylization), and from “

text: structure

text: ” (having undertones of “the functional”, as a heritage from

text: structural functionalism

text: in sociology). In contrast to these terms, configuration denotes a more dynamic pattern in change.

text: - Men Basketball Team

text: - Men Basketball Team

text: In 1995 his first play, Taking Pictures was directed by Gerard Murphy. It starred Kevin Elyot and Rebecca Thorn and was a winner in the New London Radio Playwrights Festival.

text: Location accuracy is a dependent on the certainty of the position of the radar, the radar-pointing accuracy, azimuth resolution, and range resolution. A long antenna or very short wavelength can provide fine azimuth resolution. Short antennas tend to have a larger azimuth error, an error that increases with range to the target because signal-to-noise ratio varies inversely withrange. Location accuracy is vital to tracking performance because it prevents track corruption when there are multiple targets andmakes it possible to determine which road a vehicle is on if it is moving in an area with many roads.

text: The Blue Flag is a trademark owned by FEE which is a not-for-profit, non-governmental organisation consisting of 65 organisations in 60 member countries in Europe, Africa, Oceania, Asia, North America and South America.

text: The Blue Flag is a

text: trademark

text: owned by FEE which is a

text: not-for-profit

text: non-governmental organisation

text: consisting of 65 organisations in 60 member countries in

text: Europe

text: Africa

text: Oceania

text: Asia

text: North America

text: and

text: South America

text: Sociedad Cultural Deportiva Durango is a Spanish football team based in Durango, Biscay, in the autonomous community of Basque Country. Founded in 1919 it plays in Tercera División – Group 4, holding home matches at Estadio Tabira, with a capacity of 3,000 spectators.

text: Sociedad Cultural Deportiva Durango is a

text: Spanish football team

text: based in

text: Durango, Biscay

text: , in the autonomous community of

text: Basque Country

text: . Founded in 1919 it plays in

text: Tercera División – Group 4

text: , holding home matches at

text: Estadio Tabira

text: , with a capacity of 3,000 spectators.

text: Late on 3 May 2012 it was announced that Bailey was to leave her post at Trinity Mirror by the end of the year, but she in fact left in mid June. The General Secretary of the National Union of Journalists, Michelle Stanistreet, said of her at the time: "Finally, Sly Bailey is doing the decent thing and leaving the company she has led into monumental decline." Reportedly, she received a £900,000 payoff.

text: Late on 3 May 2012 it was announced that Bailey was to leave her post at Trinity Mirror by the end of the year, but she in fact left in mid June. The General Secretary of the

text: National Union of Journalists

text: Michelle Stanistreet

text: , said of her at the time: "Finally, Sly Bailey is doing the decent thing and leaving the company she has led into monumental decline." Reportedly, she received a £900,000 payoff.

text: At the speeds reached in high energy particle accelerators, magnetic deflection is more powerful than electrostatic, and use of the magnetic term of the Lorentz force:

text: At the speeds reached in high energy

text: particle accelerator

text: Lorentz force

text: •         In July 2010, Nnoli-Edozien was appointed member of the National Committee on Job Creation by the Federal Ministry of Finance, Nigeria to develop an action plan on job creation in Nigeria.

text: Udea nea is a moth in the Crambidae family. It was described by Strand in 1918. It is found in Taiwan.

text: Udea nea is a

text: moth

text: in the

text: Crambidae

text: family. It was described by

text: Strand

text: in 1918. It is found in

text: Taiwan

text: Village named Cheema

text: Village named Cheema

text: Bud Abbott (1897–1974) was a veteran burlesque entertainer from a show business family. He worked at Coney Island and ran his own burlesque touring companies. He first worked as a straight man with his wife Betty, then with veteran burlesque comedians like Harry Steppe and Harry Evanson. When he met his future partner in comedy, Abbott was performing in Minsky's Burlesque shows, and had been working at least a decade before meeting Lou Costello.

text: Bud Abbott (1897–1974) was a veteran

text: burlesque

text: entertainer from a show business family. He worked at

text: Coney Island

text: and ran his own burlesque touring companies. He first worked as a

text: straight man

text: with his wife Betty, then with veteran burlesque comedians like

text: Harry Steppe

text: and Harry Evanson. When he met his future partner in comedy, Abbott was performing in

text: Minsky's Burlesque

text: shows, and had been working at least a decade before meeting Lou Costello.

text: The interior woodwork is unchanged except for the changes to add bathrooms and steam heat.  There are four rooms on the first floor with an open stairway to the second floor.  There are four large rooms on the second floor, which match those on the first.  A closed stairway leads to the attic.  The basement has a furnace and laundry area with a fruit cellar, and a coal bin.  Two rooms were used as office and recreational area for the sheriff deputies.

text: The interior woodwork is unchanged except for the changes to add bathrooms and steam heat.  There are four rooms on the first floor with an open stairway to the second floor.  There are four large rooms on the second floor, which match those on the first.  A closed stairway leads to the attic.  The basement has a furnace and laundry area with a fruit cellar, and a

text: coal bin

text: .  Two rooms were used as office and recreational area for the sheriff deputies.

text: In 2008-2009 Waltman led the Detroit Ignition to the Championship of the new Xtreme Soccer League. He led in almost all statistical categories, started all 20 games, was Keeper-of-the Month twice, was named to the XSL All-Star team, and was voted MVP of the XSL, the first keeper to win that award in indoor soccer since the legendary Victor Nogueira in 1998.

text: In 2008-2009 Waltman led the Detroit Ignition to the Championship of the new

text: Xtreme Soccer League

text: . He led in almost all statistical categories, started all 20 games, was Keeper-of-the Month twice, was named to the XSL All-Star team, and was voted MVP of the XSL, the first keeper to win that award in indoor soccer since the legendary

text: Victor Nogueira

text: in 1998.

text: Opah specimens are rarely caught by recreational anglers. They are prized trophies for deep-water anglers as their large size and attractive form lend themselves well to taxidermy. Opahs are frequently caught as bycatch in many longline tuna fisheries. Opah is becoming increasingly popular in seafood markets.  It first became popular as a sushi and sashimi in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The meat is lightly flavored and lends itself well to a variety of preparations, principally sauté. Opah flesh has a light-pink to orange color, but turns white when cooked. It is popular in Hawaii, especially in restaurants. An average of 35% of an opah's weight is consumable, with the remaining 65% being bone and thick skin.

text: Opah specimens are rarely caught by recreational anglers. They are prized trophies for deep-water

text: anglers

text: as their large size and attractive form lend themselves well to

text: taxidermy

text: . Opahs are frequently caught as

text: bycatch

text: in many

text: longline

text: tuna

text: fisheries. Opah is becoming increasingly popular in seafood markets.  It first became popular as a sushi and

text: sashimi

text: in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The meat is lightly flavored and lends itself well to a variety of preparations, principally

text: sauté

text: . Opah flesh has a light-pink to orange color, but turns white when cooked. It is popular in

text: Hawaii

text: , especially in restaurants. An average of 35% of an opah's weight is consumable, with the remaining 65% being bone and thick skin.

text: The greatest energy source by far is mass itself.  This energy, E = mc, where m = ρV, ρ is the mass per unit volume, V is the volume of the mass itself and c is the speed of light.  This energy, however, can be released only by the processes of nuclear fission (.1%), nuclear fusion (1%), or the annihilation of some or all of the matter in the volume V by matter-antimatter collisions (100%).  Nuclear reactions cannot be realized by chemical reactions such as combustion.  Although greater matter densities can be achieved, the density of a neutron star would approximate the most dense system capable of matter-antimatter annihilation possible.  A black hole, although denser than a neutron star, does not have an equivalent anti-particle form, but would offer the same 100% conversion rate of mass to energy in the form of Hawking radiation. In the case of relatively small black holes (smaller than astronomical objects) the power output would be tremendous.

text: The greatest energy source by far is mass itself.  This energy, E = mc, where m = ρV, ρ is the mass per unit volume, V is the volume of the mass itself and c is the speed of light.  This energy, however, can be released only by the processes of

text: nuclear fission

text: nuclear fusion

text: (1%), or the annihilation of some or all of the matter in the volume V by matter-

text: antimatter

text: collisions (100%).  Nuclear reactions cannot be realized by chemical reactions such as combustion.  Although greater matter densities can be achieved, the density of a

text: neutron star

text: would approximate the most dense system capable of matter-antimatter annihilation possible.  A

text: black hole

text: , although denser than a neutron star, does not have an equivalent anti-particle form, but would offer the same 100% conversion rate of mass to energy in the form of Hawking radiation. In the case of relatively small black holes (smaller than astronomical objects) the power output would be tremendous.

text: On 2 February 2015, transfer deadline day, Lee signed for Premier League side Crystal Palace for an undisclosed fee with Barry Bannan going the other way on loan. Lee's contract runs to June 2018. He scored his first goal for the club against Shrewsbury Town in the League Cup on 25 August 2015. He scored his first league goal for Palace with a 30-yard volley at the 90th minute to defeat Stoke City 2-1 on 19 December 2015.

text: On 2 February 2015, transfer deadline day, Lee signed for

text: Premier League

text: side

text: Crystal Palace

text: for an undisclosed fee with

text: Barry Bannan

text: going the other way on loan. Lee's contract runs to June 2018. He scored his first goal for the club against

text: Shrewsbury Town

text: in the

text: League Cup

text: on 25 August 2015. He scored his first league goal for Palace with a 30-yard volley at the 90th minute to defeat

text: Stoke City

text: 2-1 on 19 December 2015.

text: Head coach:  József Mészáros

text: Head coach:

text: József Mészáros

text: The 20th edition welcomed over 30,000 visitors on 13 May 2006. The 21st edition of Airexpo took place on 12 May 2007 and attracted over 33,000 people.

text: Hollins won the 2009 series of Strictly Come Dancing with dance partner Ola Jordan, beating Ricky Whittle in the final. He consistently won the public vote throughout, despite losing the judges' vote 190 – 186 in the Final. Chris and Ola were the only pair in the competition never to face the "Dance Off".

text: Hollins won the

text: 2009 series

text: of

text: Strictly Come Dancing

text: with dance partner

text: Ola Jordan

text: , beating

text: Ricky Whittle

text: in the final. He consistently won the public vote throughout, despite losing the judges' vote 190 – 186 in the Final. Chris and Ola were the only pair in the competition never to face the "Dance Off".

text: He returned to England in the 1970s and enjoyed a hugely successful music career, starting a band called “Slam!” (a parody of Wham!). This shot him to fame at once. At the end of the 1970s, the band split up and he started a solo career. His first solo album, "Firelight", went platinum and he won several awards and released the single "Something for the Children" at Christmas time in 1986, with all funds given to charity. Cray campaigned for several issues, including saving the rainforests, ending world debt and banning animal testing. His tireless work for charity earned him a knighthood in 1990. The rich superstar then branched into hotels, television, and even started developing "Gameslayer", the most advanced and realistic games console of its time.

text: He returned to England in the 1970s and enjoyed a hugely successful music career, starting a band called “Slam!” (a parody of

text: Wham!

text: ). This shot him to fame at once. At the end of the 1970s, the band split up and he started a solo career. His first solo album, "Firelight", went platinum and he won several awards and released the single "Something for the Children" at Christmas time in 1986, with all funds given to charity. Cray campaigned for several issues, including saving the rainforests, ending world debt and banning animal testing. His tireless work for charity earned him a knighthood in 1990. The rich superstar then branched into hotels, television, and even started developing "Gameslayer", the most advanced and realistic games console of its time.

text: In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and shutdowns at other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance. Platts has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". In 2011 Siemens exited the nuclear power sector following the Fukushima disaster and subsequent changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's planned energy transition to renewable energy technologies.  China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.

text: In March 2011 the

entity_name: Timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

text: nuclear emergencies

text: at Japan's

text: Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant

text: and shutdowns at

text: other nuclear facilities

text: raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance.

text: Platts

text: has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". In 2011

text: Siemens

text: exited the

text: nuclear power

text: sector following the

text: Fukushima disaster

text: and subsequent changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's planned

text: energy transition

text: to

text: renewable energy

text: technologies.  China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Countries such as

text: Australia

text: Austria

text: Denmark

text: Greece

text: Ireland

text: Latvia

text: Liechtenstein

text: Luxembourg

text: Portugal

text: Israel

text: Malaysia

text: New Zealand

text: , and

text: Norway

text: remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the

text: Fukushima I nuclear accidents

text: , the

text: International Energy Agency

text: halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.

text: Gavric died March 13, 2010 of complications from Parkinson's disease.

text: Grid energy storage (also called large-scale energy storage) is a collection of methods used to store electrical energy on a large scale within an electrical power grid. Electrical energy is stored during times when production (especially from intermittent power plants such as renewable electricity sources such as wind power, tidal power, solar power) exceeds consumption, and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption.

text: Grid energy storage (also called large-scale energy storage) is a collection of methods used to

text: store electrical energy

text: on a large scale within an

text: electrical power grid

text: . Electrical energy is stored during times when production (especially from intermittent power plants such as

text: renewable electricity

text: sources such as

text: wind power

text: tidal power

text: solar power

text: ) exceeds consumption, and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption.

text: During their early years of their band formation, in time to time they tried to record their own compositions in various studios which did not work in a result for a complete album. In the year 2000, Tanzir Tuhin joined Shironamhin as main vocal. He was a classmate of Ziaur in BUET.Farhan and Tushar joined the band in 2003. Farhan used to play sarod, dotara and Tushar played guitar. Kazi Ahmad Shafin joined the band in 2003 as a drummer. The band participated in the final round of the 2nd 'Star Search Competition' arranged by Benson & Hedges. The listeners’ feedback made them feel the urge to frame their creations into an album.They had more than 50 songs which they used to sing on live performance. They compiled 10 out of them for their debut album jahajee.

text: During their early years of their band formation, in time to time they tried to record their own compositions in various studios which did not work in a result for a complete album. In the year 2000, Tanzir Tuhin joined Shironamhin as main vocal. He was a classmate of Ziaur in

entity_name: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

text: BUET

text: .Farhan and Tushar joined the band in 2003. Farhan used to play sarod, dotara and Tushar played guitar. Kazi Ahmad Shafin joined the band in 2003 as a drummer. The band participated in the final round of the 2nd 'Star Search Competition' arranged by

text: Benson & Hedges

text: . The listeners’ feedback made them feel the urge to frame their creations into an album.They had more than 50 songs which they used to sing on live performance. They compiled 10 out of them for their debut album

text: jahajee

text: On behalf of Apple, Aspinall was involved in notable court cases against Allen Klein, EMI and Apple Computer. He supervised the marketing of music, videos and merchandising, as well being a director of Standby Films, which was run from his home in Twickenham, London. On 10 April 2007, Aspinall retired from Apple Corps and died of lung cancer in New York in 2008.

text: On behalf of Apple, Aspinall was involved in notable court cases against

text: Allen Klein

text: EMI

text: and

text: Apple Computer

text: . He supervised the marketing of music,

text: videos

text: and

text: merchandising

text: , as well being a

text: director

text: of Standby Films, which was run from his home in

text: Twickenham

text: , London. On 10 April 2007, Aspinall retired from Apple Corps and died of

text: lung cancer

text: in

text: New York

text: in 2008.

text: El-Erian has served on the Board of Trustee of several educational institutions, including Pegasus, St. Margaret School. Cambridge in America and KAUST. He co-chairs the capital campaign for Cambridge University and its Colleges.

text: Less than two months later and exactly 13 years since he joined the Army, Loraine and his passenger Staff Sergeant R H V Wilson were flying a Nieuport Monoplane out of Larkhill on a routine morning practice sortie. They were executing a tight turn when the aircraft fell towards the ground and crashed. Wilson was killed outright and although Loraine was speedily transported to Bulford Hospital in a horse-drawn ambulance, he succumbed to his wounds only a few minutes after arriving at the Hospital.  Loraine and Wilson were the first Flying Corps personnel to die in an aircraft crash while on duty. Later in the day an order was issued which stated "Flying will continue this evening as usual", thus beginning a tradition.

text: Less than two months later and exactly 13 years since he joined the Army, Loraine and his passenger

text: Staff Sergeant

text: R H V Wilson

text: were flying a

text: Nieuport

text: Monoplane out of Larkhill on a routine morning practice sortie. They were executing a tight turn when the aircraft fell towards the ground and crashed. Wilson was killed outright and although Loraine was speedily transported to

text: Bulford Hospital

text: in a horse-drawn ambulance, he succumbed to his wounds only a few minutes after arriving at the Hospital.  Loraine and Wilson were the first Flying Corps personnel to die in an aircraft crash while on duty. Later in the day an order was issued which stated "Flying will continue this evening as usual", thus beginning a tradition.

text: Sustainable Energy Utility (SEU) is a community-based model of development based on energy conservation and the use of renewables, seeking to permanently decrease the use of source materials, water, and energy. The model prescribes the creation of independent and financially self-sufficient non-profit entities for energy sustainability through conservation, efficiency, and end-user based decentralized renewable energy in an effort to address concerns about climate change, rising energy prices, inequity of energy availability, and a lack of community governance of energy development. The SEU model was developed by Dr. J. Byrne at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy, University of Delaware. The Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment (FREE) is implementing versions of the model.

text: Sustainable Energy Utility (SEU) is a community-based model of development based on

text: energy conservation

text: and the use of renewables, seeking to permanently decrease the use of source materials, water, and energy. The model prescribes the creation of independent and financially self-sufficient non-profit entities for

text: energy sustainability

text: through

text: conservation

text: efficiency

text: , and end-user based

text: decentralized

text: renewable energy

text: in an effort to address concerns about

text: climate change

text: , rising energy prices, inequity of energy availability, and a lack of community governance of energy development. The SEU model was developed by Dr. J. Byrne at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy,

text: University of Delaware

text: . The Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment (FREE) is implementing versions of the model.

text: Despite having previously earned "A" ratings, during the 2006–2007 school year West Boca High earned a "B" from the State of Florida Department of Education.http://schoolgrades.fldoe.org/default.asp

text: If the player successfully matches a number of consecutive notes correctly, they boost their individual scoring multiplier up to a maximum 4x value; missing a note will reset to the multiplier back to 1x. Throughout each song's respective charts for the instruments are special highlighted phrases; completing all the notes in this phrase, and for guitar/bass players, using the whammy bar on marked sustained notes, fills part of a Star Power meter. When this meter is at least half full, the player can activate Star Power by performing special actions on their controllers: either tilting the guitar controller upward briefly or pressing the Star Power activation button for guitar and bass; striking two pads simultaneously on the drums; and either double tapping the microphone or pressing one of the buttons on the game console's regular controllers for vocals. When Star Power is activated, the overall band scoring multiplier is increased for a limited time until the Star Power meter is drained. After completing a song, the band is awarded a number of stars based on the overall score; in normal modes for Warriors of Rock, up to six stars can be earned; the final being achievable only through zero misses and zero extra strums.

text: If the player successfully matches a number of consecutive notes correctly, they boost their individual scoring multiplier up to a maximum 4x value; missing a note will reset to the multiplier back to 1x. Throughout each song's respective charts for the instruments are special highlighted phrases; completing all the notes in this phrase, and for guitar/bass players, using the whammy bar on marked sustained notes, fills part of a Star Power meter. When this meter is at least half full, the player can activate Star Power by performing special actions on their controllers: either tilting the guitar controller upward briefly or pressing the Star Power activation button for guitar and bass; striking two pads simultaneously on the drums; and either double tapping the microphone or pressing one of the buttons on the game console's regular controllers for vocals. When Star Power is activated, the overall band scoring multiplier is increased for a limited time until the Star Power meter is drained. After completing a song, the band is awarded a number of

text: stars

text: based on the overall score; in normal modes for Warriors of Rock, up to six stars can be earned; the final being achievable only through zero misses and zero extra strums.

text: In late summer of 1665, William Darby and two of his friends dared present a play at Cowle's Tavern. Entitled Ye Bear and Ye Cub, this drama is believed to have been the first theater performance in the New World.

text: The svirka (or tsafara, svorche, or little kaval) is a Bulgarian shepherds' flute, consisting of one wooden tube 25 to 50 cm long with six or seven holes for fingers, and a bone lip where it is endblown. It is played much like the kaval.

text: Unlike Daedalus, which used an open-cycle fusion engine, Longshot would use a long-lived nuclear fission reactor for power. Initially, generating 300 kilowatts, the reactor would power a number of lasers in the engine that would be used to ignite inertial confinement fusion similar to that in Daedalus. The main design difference is that Daedalus relied on the fusion reaction to additionally power the ship whereas in the Longshot design the internal reactor would provide this power.

text: Unlike Daedalus, which used an open-cycle

text: fusion engine

text: , Longshot would use a long-lived

text: nuclear fission

text: reactor for power. Initially, generating 300 kilowatts, the reactor would power a number of

text: laser

text: s in the engine that would be used to ignite

text: inertial confinement fusion

text: similar to that in Daedalus. The main design difference is that Daedalus relied on the

text: fusion reaction

text: to additionally power the ship whereas in the Longshot design the internal reactor would provide this power.

text: In the LIFE project at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory LLNL, using technology developed at the National Ignition Facility, the goal is to use fuel pellets of deuterium and tritium surrounded by a fissionable blanket to produce energy sufficiently greater than the input (laser) energy for electrical power generation.  The principle involved is to induce inertial confinement fusion (ICF) in the fuel pellet which acts as a highly concentrated point source of neutrons which in turn converts and fissions the outer fissionable blanket. In parallel with the ICF approach, the University of Texas at Austin is developing a system based on the tokamak fusion reactor, optimising for nuclear waste disposal versus power generation. The principles behind using either ICF or tokamak reactors as a neutron source are essentially the same (the primary difference being that ICF is essentially a point-source of neutrons while Tokamaks are more diffuse toroidal sources).

text: In the LIFE project at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

text: LLNL

text: , using technology developed at the

text: National Ignition Facility

text: , the goal is to use

text: fuel pellet

text: s of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: surrounded by a fissionable blanket to produce energy sufficiently greater than the input (

text: laser

text: ) energy for electrical power generation.  The principle involved is to induce

text: inertial confinement fusion

text: (ICF) in the fuel pellet which acts as a highly concentrated point source of

text: neutron

text: s which in turn converts and fissions the outer fissionable blanket. In parallel with the ICF approach, the

text: University of Texas

text: at Austin is developing a system based on the

text: tokamak

text: fusion reactor, optimising for nuclear waste disposal versus power generation. The principles behind using either ICF or tokamak reactors as a neutron source are essentially the same (the primary difference being that ICF is essentially a point-source of neutrons while Tokamaks are more diffuse toroidal sources).

text: Installed wind power capacity in Lithuania and generation in recent years is shown in the table below: