text: is the normal stress on the slip plane and

text: The second main terrain type—ridged terrain—comprises bands of ridges and troughs hundreds of kilometers in extent. It bounds the cratered terrain and cuts it into polygons. Within each band, which can be up to 25 to 70 km wide, are individual ridges and troughs up to 200 km long and between 10 and 35 km apart. The bands of ridged terrain often form continuations of canyons, suggesting that they may be a modified form of the graben or the result of a different reaction of the crust to the same extensional stresses, such as brittle failure.

text: Further complicating this is a feature of unknown structure and origin, the Olympic-Wallowa Lineament (OWL). This is a seemingly accidental alignment of topographic features that runs roughly east-southeast from the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to the Wallowa Mountains in northeastern Oregon. It aligns with the West Coast fault and Queen Charlotte Fault system of strike-slip fault zones (similar to the San Andreas Fault in California) on the west side of Vancouver Island, but does not itself show any significant or through-going strike-slip movement. It is of interest here because the various strands of the Seattle Fault change orientation where they appear to cross the OWL, and various other features, such as the Rosedale monocline and Olympia structure, and a great many local topographical features, have parallel alignments. It may also be the original location of the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault (the dashed line "X" at the top of the following map). The OWL appears to be a deep-seated structure over which the shallower crust of the Puget Lowland is being pushed, but this remains speculative.

text: Further complicating this is a feature of unknown structure and origin, the

entity_name: Olympic-Wallowa Lineament

text: Olympic-Wallowa Lineament

text: (OWL). This is a seemingly accidental alignment of topographic features that runs roughly east-southeast from the north side of the Olympic Peninsula to the

entity_name: Wallowa Mountains

text: Wallowa Mountains

text: in northeastern Oregon. It aligns with the West Coast fault and Queen Charlotte Fault system of

entity_name: Fault (geology)

entity_section: Strike-slip faults

text: strike-slip

text: fault zones (similar to the

entity_name: San Andreas Fault

text: San Andreas Fault

text: in California) on the west side of

entity_name: Vancouver Island

text: Vancouver Island

text: , but does not itself show any significant or through-going strike-slip movement. It is of interest here because the various strands of the Seattle Fault change orientation where they appear to cross the OWL, and various other features, such as the

entity_name: Puget Sound faults

entity_section: TF

text: Rosedale monocline

text: and Olympia structure, and a great many local topographical features, have parallel alignments. It may also be the original location of the Darrington—Devils Mountain Fault (the dashed line "X" at the top of the following map). The OWL appears to be a deep-seated structure over which the shallower crust of the Puget Lowland is being pushed, but this remains speculative.

text: The second model (Protopangea-Paleopangea) is based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from  until break-up during the Ediacaran Period after . The reconstruction is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25, and  with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction. During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. Because this model shows that exceptional demands on the paleomagnetic data are satisfied by prolonged quasi-integrity, it must be regarded as superseding the first model proposing multiple diverse continents, although the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates Vaalbara and Kenorland of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea-Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that Lid Tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during Precambrian times. Plate Tectonics as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times.

text: The second model (Protopangea-Paleopangea) is based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from  until break-up during the

entity_name: Ediacaran

text: Ediacaran

text: Period after . The

entity_name: Plate reconstruction

text: reconstruction

text: is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25, and  with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction. During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. Because this model shows that exceptional demands on the paleomagnetic data are satisfied by prolonged quasi-integrity, it must be regarded as superseding the first model proposing multiple diverse continents, although the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates

entity_name: Vaalbara

text: Vaalbara

text: and

entity_name: Kenorland

text: Kenorland

text: of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea-Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that Lid Tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during

entity_name: Precambrian

text: Precambrian

text: times. Plate Tectonics as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times.

method: UNH-qee

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: This theory views volcanism as the resultant of lithospheric processes rather than heat from the mantle rising up. Instead of heat coming up from deep in the mantle, volcanic anomalies come from a shallow source. Volcanism thus occurs where the crust is easier to break up because it has been stretched by lithospheric extension, allowing melt to reach the surface. Volcanic anomalies are created by plate tectonics such as spreading plate boundaries or subduction zones. The location of the volcanism is governed by the stress field in the plate and the amount of melt is governed by the fusibility of the mantle beneath. Plate tectonics can explain most of the volcanism on Earth.

text: This theory views volcanism as the resultant of lithospheric processes rather than heat from the mantle rising up. Instead of heat coming up from deep in the mantle, volcanic anomalies come from a shallow source. Volcanism thus occurs where the crust is easier to break up because it has been stretched by lithospheric extension, allowing

entity_name: Magma

text: melt

text: to reach the surface. Volcanic anomalies are created by plate tectonics such as spreading plate boundaries or

entity_name: Subduction

text: subduction zones

text: . The location of the volcanism is governed by the stress field in the plate and the amount of melt is governed by the fusibility of the mantle beneath. Plate tectonics can explain most of the volcanism on Earth.

text: There are several different types of stress balls that originate from many different countries. The most common type of stress ball (in America) is the “bean bag” type (commonly known as a “Hacky Sack” in Australia). The stress ball that is most common in Australia is the foam type, this type prevents stress through resistance from squeezing the ball. The third type of stress ball is the Chinese form. These are not like the others as these are not squeezable, they are solid, they usually come in pairs so you can roll them together to make a soothing a sound and a smooth sensation feeling in your hands.

text: However, nearly all metal prices have been declining over time in inflation adjusted terms, because of a number of false assumptions in the above. Firstly, metal resources are non-renewable, but on a world scale, largely inexhaustible.  This is because they are present throughout the earth's crust on a vast scale, far exceeding human demand on all time scales. Metal ores however, are only extracted in those areas where nature has concentrated the metal in the crust to a level whereby it is locally economic to extract. This also depends on the available technology for both finding the metal ores as well as extracting them, which is constantly changing. If the technology or demand changes, vast amounts of metal previously ignored can become economically extractable. This is why Ricardo's simplistic notion that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time has in fact turned out to be the opposite, nearly all metal ores have decreased in inflation adjusted prices since well before the early 20th century. The main reason he was wrong is that he assumed that metals are exhaustible on a world scale, and he also misunderstood the effect of globally competing markets; in human terms the amount of metal in the earth's crust is essentially limitless. It is only in localized areas that metal ores can become depleted, as these local areas compete with extraction costs of resources elsewhere, which does have ramifications for the sustainability of local economies.

text: The orogeny is commonly attributed to events off the west coast of North America, where the Kula and Farallon Plates were sliding under the North American plate. Most hypotheses propose that oceanic crust was undergoing flat-slab subduction, i.e., with a shallow subduction angle, and as a consequence, no magmatism occurred in the central west of the continent, and the underlying oceanic lithosphere actually caused drag on the root of the overlying continental lithosphere. One cause for shallow subduction may have been an increased rate of plate convergence. Another proposed cause was subduction of thickened oceanic crust.

text: The orogeny is commonly attributed to events off the west coast of North America, where the

entity_name: Kula Plate

text: Kula

text: and

entity_name: Farallon Plate

text: Farallon Plate

text: s were sliding under the

entity_name: North American Plate

text: North American plate

text: . Most hypotheses propose that oceanic crust was undergoing

entity_section: Subduction angle

text: flat-slab subduction

text: , i.e., with a shallow

text: subduction

text: angle, and as a consequence, no

entity_name: Magmatism

text: magmatism

text: occurred in the central west of the continent, and the underlying oceanic

entity_name: Lithosphere

text: lithosphere

text: actually caused drag on the root of the overlying continental lithosphere. One cause for shallow subduction may have been an increased rate of plate convergence. Another proposed cause was subduction of thickened oceanic crust.

text: Arequipa-Antofalla is a basement unit underlying the central Andes in northwestern Argentina, western Bolivia, northern Chile and southern Peru. Geologically it corresponds to a craton, terrane or block of continental crust. Arequipa-Antofalla collided and amalgamated with the Amazonian craton about 1000 Ma ago during the Sunsás orogeny. As a terrane Arequipa-Antofalla was ribbon-shaped during the Paleozoic, a time when it was bounded by the west by the Iapetus Ocean and by the east by the Puncoviscana Ocean.

text: Arequipa-Antofalla is a

entity_name: Basement (geology)

text: basement

text: unit underlying the central

entity_name: Andes

text: Andes

text: in

entity_name: Argentine Northwest

text: northwestern Argentina

text: , western

entity_name: Bolivia

text: Bolivia

entity_name: Norte Grande

text: northern Chile

text: and southern

entity_name: Peru

text: Peru

text: . Geologically it corresponds to a

entity_name: Craton

text: craton

entity_name: Terrane

text: terrane

text: or block of

entity_name: Continental crust

text: continental crust

text: . Arequipa-Antofalla

entity_name: Continental collision

text: collided

text: and

entity_name: Accretion (geology)

text: amalgamated

text: with the

entity_name: Amazonian Craton

text: Amazonian craton

text: about 1000 Ma ago during the

entity_name: Sunsás orogeny

text: Sunsás orogeny

text: . As a terrane Arequipa-Antofalla was ribbon-shaped during the

entity_name: Paleozoic

text: Paleozoic

text: , a time when it was bounded by the west by the

entity_name: Iapetus Ocean

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: and by the east by the

entity_name: Puncoviscana Formation

text: Puncoviscana Ocean

text: Much of Venus' surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Overall, Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it possesses some 167 giant volcanoes that are over  across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. However, this is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years, while Venus' surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old.Venusian craters range from  to  in diameter. There are no craters smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater.

text: Much of Venus' surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Overall, Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it possesses some 167 giant volcanoes that are over  across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the

entity_name: Hawaii (island)

text: Big Island

text: of

entity_name: Hawaii

text: Hawaii

text: . However, this is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's crust is continually recycled by

text: subduction

text: at the boundaries of

entity_name: Plate tectonics

text: tectonic plate

text: s, and has an average age of about 100 million years, while Venus' surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old.Venusian craters range from  to  in diameter. There are no craters smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain

entity_name: Kinetic energy

text: kinetic energy

text: are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Zones of thickened crust, such as those formed during continent-continent collision tend to spread laterally; this spreading occurs even when the collisional event is still in progress. After the collision has finished the zone of thickened crust generally undergoes gravitational collapse, often with the formation of very large extensional faults. Large-scale Devonian extension, for example, followed immediately after the end of the Caledonian orogeny particularly in East Greenland and western Norway.

text: Zones of thickened crust, such as those formed during

text: continent-continent collision

text: tend to spread laterally; this spreading occurs even when the collisional event is still in progress. After the collision has finished the zone of thickened crust generally undergoes

entity_name: Post-orogenic collapse

text: gravitational collapse

text: , often with the formation of very large extensional faults. Large-scale

entity_name: Devonian

text: Devonian

text: extension, for example, followed immediately after the end of the

entity_name: Caledonian orogeny

text: Caledonian orogeny

text: particularly in East

entity_name: Greenland

text: Greenland

text: and western

entity_name: Norway

text: Norway

text: In the Directa, the Pope dealt with the fact that clerics (deacons, priests, and bishops) were still living with their wives and having children, thus contravening the Council of Elvira and the First Ecumenical Council. Priests were justifying this by referring to the traditions of the Levitical priesthood of the Old Testament. Siricius was emphatic that clerical continence belonged to immemorial, even apostolic, tradition. He declared that priests had been under a duty to observe temporary continence when serving in the Temple, but that the coming of Christ had brought the old priesthood to completion, and by this fact the duty of temporary continence had become an obligation to perpetual continence. Fifteen points are studied in the decretal, but the key passage is that

text: In the Directa, the Pope dealt with the fact that clerics (deacons, priests, and bishops) were still living with their wives and having children, thus contravening the

entity_name: Synod of Elvira

text: Council of Elvira

text: and the

entity_name: First Council of Nicaea

text: First Ecumenical Council

text: . Priests were justifying this by referring to the traditions of the

entity_name: Levite

text: Levitical priesthood

text: of the

entity_name: Old Testament

text: Old Testament

text: . Siricius was emphatic that clerical continence belonged to immemorial, even apostolic, tradition. He declared that priests had been under a duty to observe temporary continence when serving in

entity_name: Temple in Jerusalem

text: the Temple

text: , but that the

entity_name: Nativity of Jesus

text: coming of Christ

text: had brought the old priesthood to completion, and by this fact the duty of temporary continence had become an obligation to perpetual continence. Fifteen points are studied in the decretal, but the key passage is that

text: Stress can also result from an apparent lack of direction of the investigation or not knowing when it will end.  The amount of elaborate planning, risk, and expenditure can pressure an agent to succeed, which can cause considerable stress.  The stress that an undercover agent faces is considerably different from his counterparts on regular duties, whose main source of stress is the administration and the bureaucracy.  As the undercover agents are removed from the bureaucracy, it may result in another problem.  The lack of the usual controls of a uniform, badge, constant supervision, a fixed place of work, or (often) a set assignment could, combined with their continual contact with the organized crime, increase the likelihood for corruption.

entity_name: Stress (biology)

text: Stress

text: can also result from an apparent lack of direction of the investigation or not knowing when it will end.  The amount of elaborate planning, risk, and expenditure can pressure an agent to succeed, which can cause considerable stress.  The stress that an undercover agent faces is considerably different from his counterparts on regular duties, whose main source of stress is the administration and the bureaucracy.  As the undercover agents are removed from the bureaucracy, it may result in another problem.  The lack of the usual controls of a uniform, badge, constant supervision, a fixed place of work, or (often) a set assignment could, combined with their continual contact with the

entity_name: Organized crime

text: organized crime

text: , increase the likelihood for

entity_name: Political corruption

text: corruption

text: Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the earth’s crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause earthquakes.

text: Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of

text: plate tectonics

text: Tectonic plate

text: s slide very slowly over the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: 's

entity_name: Mantle (geology)

text: mantle

text: , a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the earth’s crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form

entity_name: Mountain

text: mountain

text: s. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated

entity_name: Rock (geology)

text: rock

text: from the mantle can burst through the

entity_name: Crust (geology)

text: crust

text: to form

entity_name: Volcano

text: volcano

text: es. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause

entity_name: Earthquake

text: earthquake

text: s.

text: In 1961 the United States began Project Mohole, an ambitious attempt to drill through the Earth's crust into the Mohorovičić discontinuity. The project was discontinued due to high cost.

text: In 1961 the United States began

text: Project Mohole

text: , an ambitious attempt to drill through the Earth's

text: crust

text: into the

text: Mohorovičić discontinuity

text: . The project was discontinued due to high cost.

text: Oceanic detachment faults occur at spreading ridges where magmatic activity is not enough to account for the entire plate spreading rate. They are characterized by long domes parallel to the spreading direction (oceanic core complexes of the footwall). Slip on these faults can range from 10s to 100s of km. They cannot be structurally restored, as slip on the fault exceeds the thickness of oceanic crust (~30 km compared to ~6 km, for example).

text: Pat Abbott, a professor emeritus of geology at San Diego State University, said, "Any quake of this size seems to pass some kind of threshold where it’s large enough to disturb or trigger other faults. In cases like this, that often means increasing stress on other faults, which makes them more prone to movement. The energy seems to be moving northward toward the San Andreas Fault. I don’t want to anthropomorphize, but it’s like this quake was goading the San Andreas." It remains to be seen how the  San Andreas Fault was affected by these temblors. The southern section of the San Andreas Fault worries scientists, because it has not ruptured in more than 300 years. The region also includes other faults, including the Imperial Fault Zone.

text: Pat Abbott, a professor emeritus of geology at

text: San Diego State University

text: , said, "Any quake of this size seems to pass some kind of threshold where it’s large enough to disturb or trigger other faults. In cases like this, that often means increasing stress on other faults, which makes them more prone to movement. The energy seems to be moving northward toward the San Andreas Fault. I don’t want to anthropomorphize, but it’s like this quake was goading the San Andreas." It remains to be seen how the  San Andreas Fault was affected by these temblors. The southern section of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: worries scientists, because it has not ruptured in more than 300 years. The region also includes other faults, including the

text: Imperial Fault Zone

text: Folding usually occurs in areas with a very slow strain rate or when the rock being deformed is relatively weak and ductile. As folding occurs the units of rock bend forming anticlines, ridges, and synclines, valleys. While the true thickness of the underlying crust may not be equal to the elevation changes of the resulting mountains and hills, the average crustal thickness is greater than before the deformation occurred. One way in which folding can occur in such a formation is by a small amount of subduction of one plate. One continent may be partially overridden by the other but since the plate is far too light to sink it will uplift the overriding plate creating very large folds that deform the entire crust.

text: The northernmost coastal area is one of California's most seismically active regions and, in a 50-year period, the area including the Mendocino Fracture Zone at the southern flank of the Gorda Plate generated about 25 percent of all seismic energy unleashed in the state. The Mendocino Triple Junction (strike-slip/strike-slip/trench) formed 29–30 mya at 31° N (west of present-day Baja California) when the Pacific-Farallon spreading center initially approached the subduction zone off the coast of western North America. Simultaneously, the Rivera Triple Junction shifted to the southeast to its current position at 23° N. Once the Pacific Plate and North American Plate connected the boundary became that of a transform fault (San Andreas) due to the northwestward motion of the Pacific Plate relative to the North American Plate. The San Andreas Fault continues to lengthen to the northwest and the southeast as the two triple junctions continue their transient motion.

text: The northernmost coastal area is one of California's most seismically active regions and, in a 50-year period, the area including the

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: at the southern flank of the

text: Gorda Plate

text: generated about 25 percent of all seismic energy unleashed in the state. The

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: (strike-slip/strike-slip/

text: trench

text: ) formed 29–30

text: mya

text: at 31° N (west of present-day

text: Baja California

text: ) when the Pacific-Farallon spreading center initially approached the subduction zone off the coast of western North America. Simultaneously, the

text: Rivera Triple Junction

text: shifted to the southeast to its current position at 23° N. Once the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and

text: North American Plate

text: connected the boundary became that of a

text: transform fault

text: (San Andreas) due to the northwestward motion of the Pacific Plate relative to the North American Plate. The

text: San Andreas Fault

text: continues to lengthen to the northwest and the southeast as the two

text: triple junction

text: s continue their transient motion.

text: Motorways of the Sea are a concept in the transport policy of the European Union, stressing the importance of sea transport. The main aim of these Motorways of the Sea is to improve port communications with peripheral regions of the European continent and thus strengthen the networks between the EU candidate countries and those countries already part of the European Union.

text: Motorways of the Sea are a concept in the

text: transport

text: policy of the

text: European Union

text: , stressing the importance of sea transport. The main aim of these Motorways of the Sea is to improve port communications with peripheral regions of the European continent and thus strengthen the networks between the

entity_name: Future enlargement of the European Union

text: EU candidate countries

text: and those countries already part of the European Union.

text: Most languages have at most one degree of stress on the phonemic level. That is, each syllable has stress or it does not. Many languages have rhythmic stress; location of the stress may not be predictable, but when the location of one stressed syllable (which may be the primary stress) is known, certain syllables before or after can be predicted to also be stressed; these may have secondary stress. An example is Dutch, where the rule is that initial and final syllables (word boundaries) take secondary stress, then every alternate syllable before and after the primary stress, as long as two stressed syllables are not adjacent and stress does not fall on  (there are, however, some exceptions to this rule). See . A similar rule applies in Romanian: secondary stress falls on every alternate syllable, starting with the first, as long as it does not fall adjacent to the primary stress. In other languages (including Egyptian Radio Arabic, Bhojpuri, Cayuga, Estonian, Hawaiian, Kaure, Malayalam, and Warrgamay), secondary stress can be predicted to fall on heavy syllables.

text: Most languages have at most one degree of stress on the

text: phonemic

text: level. That is, each

text: syllable

text: has stress or it does not. Many languages have rhythmic stress; location of the stress may not be predictable, but when the location of one stressed syllable (which may be the primary stress) is known, certain syllables before or after can be predicted to also be stressed; these may have secondary stress. An example is

text: Dutch

text: , where the rule is that initial and final syllables (word boundaries) take secondary stress, then every alternate syllable before and after the primary stress, as long as two stressed syllables are not adjacent and stress does not fall on  (there are, however, some exceptions to this rule). See . A similar rule applies in

text: Romanian

text: : secondary stress falls on every alternate syllable, starting with the first, as long as it does not fall adjacent to the primary stress. In other languages (including Egyptian Radio Arabic,

text: Bhojpuri

text: Cayuga

text: Estonian

text: Hawaiian

text: Kaure

text: Malayalam

text: , and

text: Warrgamay

text: ), secondary stress can be predicted to fall on

text: heavy syllable

text: s.

text: Modeling and simulation is used to evaluate the theoretical reliability for large systems. The outcome of this kind of model is used to evaluate different design options. A model of the entire system is created, and the model is stressed by removing components. Redundancy simulation involves the N-x criteria. N represents the total number of components in the system. x is the number of components used to stress the system. N-1 means the model is stressed by evaluating performance with all possible combinations where one component is faulted. N-2 means the model is stressed by evaluating performance with all possible combinations where two component are faulted simultaneously.

text: Modeling and simulation

text: is used to evaluate the theoretical reliability for large systems. The outcome of this kind of model is used to evaluate different design options. A model of the entire system is created, and the model is stressed by removing components. Redundancy simulation involves the N-x criteria. N represents the total number of components in the system. x is the number of components used to stress the system. N-1 means the model is stressed by evaluating performance with all possible combinations where one component is faulted. N-2 means the model is stressed by evaluating performance with all possible combinations where two component are faulted simultaneously.

text: Reconstruction of seismic reflections in the deep interior indicate some major discontinuities in seismic velocities that demarcate the major zones of the Earth: inner core, outer core, mantle, lithosphere and crust. The mantle itself is divided into the upper mantle, transition zone, lower mantle and D′′ layer. Between the crust and the mantle is the Mohorovičić discontinuity.

text: Reconstruction of seismic reflections in the deep interior indicate some major discontinuities in seismic velocities that demarcate the major zones of the Earth:

text: inner core

text: outer core

text: mantle

text: lithosphere

text: and

text: crust

text: . The

text: mantle

text: itself is divided into the upper mantle, transition zone, lower mantle and D′′ layer. Between the crust and the mantle is the

text: Mohorovičić discontinuity

text: In November 1983, the office of the Connecticut state medical examiner issued a report stating that Slee's death may have been related to stress. The report stated: "This 26-year-old male reportedly collapsed during a group meeting described as a self-improvement seminar. A complete autopsy determined no anatomic cause of death. ... Available history indicates that Mr. Slee collapsed in a situation in which high emotional stress could be expected. Such emotional stress may have neural and hormonal effects that are deleterious to cardiac rhythm." The New Haven Register reported that Chief Medical Examiner Catherine Galvin said that "arrhythmia, an electrical malfunction of the heart, is believed to have been the cause of Slee's death, but it couldn't be verified".  Galvin said that stressful situations can cause such an arrhythmia: "In a stress situation you've got adrenalin pumping into the circulation. That can trigger it." According to the Boston Phoenix, the pathologist that had examined Slee's body stated: "I don’t like the word 'fright', but there are recognized entities of sudden death", though it may not be possible to determine the cause, "where emotions come into play" such as an instance where an individual believes that a curse will harm them. On November 19, 1983, the New Haven Register reported that police were "no longer actively investigating the case", and went on to note that therefore "any connection between Slee's death and his experiences at the seminar" were not likely to be confirmed.

text: In November 1983, the office of the Connecticut state

text: medical examiner

text: issued a report stating that Slee's death may have been related to stress. The report stated: "This 26-year-old male reportedly collapsed during a group meeting described as a self-improvement seminar. A complete autopsy determined no anatomic cause of death. ... Available history indicates that Mr. Slee collapsed in a situation in which high emotional stress could be expected. Such emotional stress may have neural and hormonal effects that are deleterious to cardiac rhythm." The

text: New Haven Register

text: reported that Chief Medical Examiner Catherine Galvin said that "arrhythmia, an electrical malfunction of the heart, is believed to have been the cause of Slee's death, but it couldn't be verified".  Galvin said that stressful situations can cause such an arrhythmia: "In a stress situation you've got adrenalin pumping into the circulation. That can trigger it." According to the Boston Phoenix, the

text: pathologist

text: that had examined Slee's body stated: "I don’t like the word 'fright', but there are recognized entities of sudden death", though it may not be possible to determine the cause, "where emotions come into play" such as an instance where an individual believes that a

text: curse

text: will harm them. On November 19, 1983, the New Haven Register reported that police were "no longer actively investigating the case", and went on to note that therefore "any connection between Slee's death and his experiences at the seminar" were not likely to be confirmed.

text: The thickness of the crust beneath the rift is disputed, as the structures of the rift deep beneath the surface are unknown. The difference in thickness of the crust, between the crust under the rift and that under the surrounding areas, has been bounded to be less than . Although some seismic data is evidence for a rise in the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere boundary, other researchers have claimed that there are deep structures which influence seismic activity, and that the lower crusts is intruded by mafic sills. They interpret the extension as a pure shear process.

text: The thickness of the crust beneath the rift is disputed, as the structures of the rift deep beneath the surface are unknown. The difference in thickness of the crust, between the

text: crust

text: under the rift and that under the surrounding areas, has been bounded to be less than . Although some seismic data is evidence for a rise in the

text: Lithosphere

text: Asthenosphere

text: boundary, other researchers have claimed that there are deep structures which influence seismic activity, and that the lower crusts is intruded by

text: mafic

text: sills

text: . They interpret the extension as a

text: pure shear

text: process.

text: Metamorphic core complexes are exposures of deep crust exhumed in association with largely amagmatic extension.  They form, and are exhumed, through relatively fast transport of middle and lower continental crust to the Earth's surface. During this process, high-grade  metamorphic rocks (eclogite-, granulite- to amphibolite- facies) are exposed below  low-angle detachment faults (mylonite shear zones) that show ductile deformation on the lower side  (footwall) with amphibolite- to greenschist-facies  syndeformational metamorphism, and  ductile-brittle to brittle deformation on the upper-side (hanging-wall) with tilted geometries.

text: Metamorphic core complexes are exposures of deep

text: crust

text: exhumed in association with largely amagmatic extension.  They form, and are exhumed, through relatively fast transport of middle and lower

text: continental crust

text: to the

text: Earth

text: 's surface. During this process, high-grade

text: metamorphic rock

text: s (

text: eclogite

text: granulite

text: - to

text: amphibolite

text: facies

text: ) are exposed below  low-angle

text: detachment fault

text: s (

text: mylonite

text: shear zones) that show

text: ductile

text: deformation on the lower side  (footwall) with

text: amphibolite

text: - to

text: greenschist

text: -facies  syndeformational

text: metamorphism

text: , and  ductile-brittle to

text: brittle

text: deformation on the upper-side (hanging-wall) with

text: tilted

text: geometries.

text: It is a member of the Paediatric Continence Forum, which presses for improvements in paediatric continence care.

text: The researchers in the Seismology, Geology and Tectonophysics Division (SGT) study theoretical and observational seismology, solid Earth dynamics, rock mechanics, structural geology and tectonics, and sedimentary geology. They also contribute to understanding of earthquakes; the structure of Earth’s crust, mantle, and core; and the large-scale motions and deformation of the tectonic plates. In addition, the division operates several facilities for the scientific community. In partnership with the U.S. Geological Survey, SGT operates a network of seismographs throughout the northeastern U.S., supports National Science Foundation (NSF) efforts to conduct ocean-bottom seismology research, and provides accurate earthquake source mechanisms to government and academic researchers around the world.

text: The researchers in the Seismology, Geology and Tectonophysics Division (SGT) study theoretical and observational

text: seismology

text: , solid Earth dynamics, rock mechanics, structural geology and tectonics, and sedimentary geology. They also contribute to understanding of

text: earthquakes

text: ; the structure of Earth’s

text: crust

text: , mantle, and core; and the large-scale motions and deformation of the tectonic plates. In addition, the division operates several facilities for the scientific community. In partnership with the

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: , SGT operates a network of seismographs throughout the northeastern U.S., supports

text: National Science Foundation

text: (NSF) efforts to conduct ocean-bottom seismology research, and provides accurate earthquake source mechanisms to government and academic researchers around the world.

text: A subduction zone is formed at a convergent plate boundary when one or both of the tectonic plates is composed of oceanic crust.  The denser plate, made of oceanic crust, is subducted underneath the less dense plate, which can be either continental or oceanic crust. When both of the plates are made of oceanic crust, convergence is associated with island arcs such as the Solomon Islands.

text: A subduction zone is formed at a convergent plate boundary when one or both of the tectonic plates is composed of

text: oceanic crust

text: .  The denser plate, made of oceanic crust, is subducted underneath the less dense plate, which can be either continental or oceanic crust. When both of the plates are made of oceanic crust, convergence is associated with

text: island arcs

text: such as the

text: Solomon Islands

text: Human activities have a major effect on the global sulfur cycle.  The burning of coal, natural gas, and other fossil fuels has greatly increased the amount of S in the atmosphere and ocean and depleted the sedimentary rock sink.  Without human impact sulfur would stay tied up in rocks for millions of years until it was uplifted through tectonic events and then released through erosion and weathering processes.  Instead it is being drilled, pumped and burned at a steadily increasing rate.  Over the most polluted areas there has been a 30-fold increase in sulfate deposition.   	Although the sulfur curve shows shifts between net sulfur oxidation and net sulfur reduction in the geologic past, the magnitude of the current human impact is probably unprecedented in the geologic record.  Human activities greatly increase the flux of sulfur to the atmosphere, some of which is transported globally.  Humans are mining coal and extracting petroleum from the Earth's crust at a rate that mobilizes 150 x 10 gS/yr, which is more than double the rate of 100 years ago.  The result of human impact on these processes is to increase the pool of oxidized sulfur (SO) in the global cycle, at the expense of the storage of reduced sulfur in the Earth's crust.  Therefore, human activities do not cause a major change in the global pools of S, but they do produce massive changes in the annual flux of S through the atmosphere.	When SO is emitted as an air pollutant, it forms sulfuric acid through reactions with water in the atmosphere.  Once the acid is completely dissociated in water the pH can drop to 4.3 or lower causing damage to both man-made and natural systems.  According to the EPA, acid rain is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids.  Distilled water (water without any dissolved constituents), which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7.  Rain naturally has a slightly acidic pH of 5.6, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a very weak acid. Around Washington, D.C., however, the average rain pH is between 4.2 and 4.4.  Since pH is on a log scale dropping by 1 (the difference between normal rain water and acid rain) has a dramatic effect on the strength of the acid.  In the United States, roughly 2/3 of all SO and 1/4 of all NO come from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal.

text: Human activities have a major effect on the global sulfur cycle.  The burning of

text: coal

text: natural gas

text: , and other

text: fossil fuel

text: s has greatly increased the amount of S in the atmosphere and ocean and depleted the sedimentary rock sink.  Without human impact sulfur would stay tied up in rocks for millions of years until it was uplifted through

text: tectonic

text: events and then released through

text: erosion

text: and

text: weathering

text: processes.  Instead it is being drilled, pumped and burned at a steadily increasing rate.  Over the most polluted areas there has been a 30-fold increase in sulfate deposition.   	Although the sulfur curve shows shifts between net sulfur oxidation and net sulfur reduction in the geologic past, the magnitude of the current human impact is probably unprecedented in the geologic record.  Human activities greatly increase the flux of sulfur to the

text: atmosphere

text: , some of which is transported globally.  Humans are mining coal and extracting petroleum from the

text: Earth's crust

text: at a rate that mobilizes 150 x 10 gS/yr, which is more than double the rate of 100 years ago.  The result of human impact on these processes is to increase the pool of oxidized sulfur (SO) in the global cycle, at the expense of the storage of reduced sulfur in the Earth's crust.  Therefore, human activities do not cause a major change in the global pools of S, but they do produce massive changes in the annual flux of S through the atmosphere.	When SO is emitted as an air pollutant, it forms

text: sulfuric acid

text: through reactions with water in the atmosphere.  Once the acid is completely dissociated in water the

text: pH

text: can drop to 4.3 or lower causing damage to both man-made and natural systems.  According to the EPA,

text: acid rain

text: is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids.  Distilled water (water without any dissolved constituents), which contains no

text: carbon dioxide

text: , has a neutral pH of 7.  Rain naturally has a slightly acidic pH of 5.6, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a very weak acid. Around Washington, D.C., however, the average rain pH is between 4.2 and 4.4.  Since pH is on a log scale dropping by 1 (the difference between normal rain water and acid rain) has a dramatic effect on the strength of the acid.  In the United States, roughly 2/3 of all SO and 1/4 of all NO come from electric power generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal.

text: In the quoted section, the stressed syllables have been underlined. (Normally, the stressed syllable must be long if followed by another syllable in a word.  However, by a rule known as syllable resolution, two short syllables in a single word are considered equal to a single long syllable.  Hence, sometimes two syllables have been underlined, as in hige and mægen.) The first three half-lines have the type A pattern "DUM-da-(da-)DUM-da", while the last one has the type C pattern "da-(da-da-)DUM-DUM-da", with parentheses indicating optional unstressed syllables that have been inserted.  Note also the pervasive pattern of alliteration, where the first and/or second stress alliterate with the third, but not with the fourth.

text: In the quoted section, the stressed syllables have been underlined. (Normally, the stressed syllable must be long if followed by another syllable in a word.  However, by a rule known as syllable resolution, two short syllables in a single word are considered equal to a single long syllable.  Hence, sometimes two syllables have been underlined, as in hige and mægen.) The first three half-lines have the

text: type A

text: pattern "DUM-da-(da-)DUM-da", while the last one has the type C pattern "da-(da-da-)DUM-DUM-da", with parentheses indicating optional unstressed syllables that have been inserted.  Note also the pervasive pattern of alliteration, where the first and/or second stress alliterate with the third, but not with the fourth.

text: The formation of the Intermontane Belt is complex. It began forming during the early Jurassic period when an island arc  called the Intermontane Islands collided against a pre-existing continental margin. This island arc is believed to have formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Intermontane Plate about 245 million years ago by subduction of the former Insular Plate during the Triassic period. This subduction zone records another subduction zone called the Intermontane Trench under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the Slide Mountain Ocean. This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual because very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the eastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Intermontane Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Intermontane Plate drifted east to the ancient continental margin of western North America, the Slide Mountain Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean. The subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the volcanic arc on the ancient continental margin of western North America and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming the Intermontane Belt. This collision crushed and folded sedimentary and igneous rocks, creating a mountain range called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern Washington State and British Columbia.

text: The formation of the Intermontane Belt is complex. It began forming during the early

text: Jurassic

text: period when an

text: island arc

text: called the

text: Intermontane Islands

text: collided against a pre-existing

text: continental margin

text: . This island arc is believed to have formed on a pre-existing

text: tectonic plate

text: called the

text: Intermontane Plate

text: about 245 million years ago by

text: subduction

text: of the former

text: Insular Plate

text: during the

text: Triassic

text: period. This subduction zone records another subduction zone called the

text: Intermontane Trench

text: under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the

text: Slide Mountain Ocean

text: . This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual because very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the

text: Philippine Mobile Belt

text: off the eastern coast of

text: Asia

text: is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Intermontane Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing

text: subduction

text: under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America. As the

text: North American Plate

text: drifted west and the Intermontane Plate drifted east to the ancient continental margin of western North America, the Slide Mountain Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean. The subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the volcanic arc on the ancient continental margin of western North America and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming the Intermontane Belt. This collision crushed and

text: fold

text: ed

text: sedimentary

text: and

text: igneous rock

text: s, creating a

text: mountain range

text: called the

text: Kootenay Fold Belt

text: which existed in far eastern

text: Washington

text: State and British Columbia.

text: Earth's crust is composed of 90% silicate minerals and their abundance in the Earth is as follows: plagioclase feldspar (39%), alkali feldspar (12%), quartz (12%), pyroxene (11%), amphiboles (5%), micas (5%), clay minerals (5%); the remaining silicate minerals make up another 3% of Earth's crust.  Only 8% of the Earth is composed of non-silicate minerals such as carbonates, oxides, and sulfides.

text: Earth's crust is composed of 90% silicate minerals and their abundance in the Earth is as follows:

text: plagioclase feldspar

text: alkali feldspar

text: (12%), quartz (12%),

text: pyroxene

text: amphiboles

text: micas

text: clay minerals

text: (5%); the remaining silicate minerals make up another 3% of Earth's crust.  Only 8% of the Earth is composed of non-silicate minerals such as

text: carbonates

text: oxides

text: , and

text: sulfides

text: The main reason for the slowing down of the Earth's rotation is tidal friction, which alone would lengthen the day by 2.3 ms/century. Other contributing factors are the movement of the Earth's crust relative to its core, changes in mantle convection, and any other events or processes that cause a significant redistribution of mass. These processes change the Earth's moment of inertia, affecting the rate of rotation due to conservation of angular momentum, sometimes increasing earth's rotational speed (decreasing the solar day and opposing tidal friction). For example, glacial rebound shortens the solar day by 0.6 ms/century and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have shortened it by 2.68 microseconds.  It is evident from the figure that the Earth has actually sped up since the initiation of the current system in 1971, and the rate of leap second insertions has therefore been decreasing.

text: The main reason for the slowing down of the Earth's rotation is

text: tidal friction

text: , which alone would lengthen the day by 2.3 ms/century. Other contributing factors are the movement of the Earth's

text: crust

text: relative to its

text: core

text: , changes in

text: mantle convection

text: , and any other events or processes that cause a significant redistribution of mass. These processes change the Earth's

text: moment of inertia

text: , affecting the rate of rotation due to conservation of

text: angular momentum

text: , sometimes increasing earth's rotational speed (decreasing the solar day and opposing tidal friction). For example,

text: glacial rebound

text: shortens the solar day by 0.6 ms/century and the

entity_name: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

text: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

text: is thought to have shortened it by 2.68 microseconds.  It is evident from the figure that the Earth has actually sped up since the initiation of the current system in 1971, and the rate of leap second insertions has therefore been decreasing.

text: The Wyoming province can be subdivided into three subprovinces, namely, from oldest to youngest, the Montana metasedimentary province, the Beartooth-Bighorn magmatic zone, and the Southern accreted terranes. Archean rocks of the Montana metasedimentary province and the Beartooth-Bighorn magmatic zone are characterized by (1) their antiquity (rock ages to 3.5 Ga, detrital zircon ages up to 4.0 Ga, and Nd model ages exceeding 4.0 Ga); (2) a distinctly enriched 207Pb/204Pb isotopic signature, which suggests that this part of the province was not produced by the amalgamation of already-formed exotic terranes; and (3) a distinctively thick (15–20 km), mafic lower crust. The Montana metasedimentary province and Beartooth-Bighorn magmatic zone were established as cratons by about 3.0–2.8 Ga. Crustal growth occurred through a combination of continental-arc magmatism resulting from oceanic crust subducted beneath continental crust on an adjacent plate, creating an arc-shaped mountain belt, together with terrane accretion in the Southern accreted terranes along the southern margin of the province at 2.68–2.50 Ga. By the end of the Archean, the three subprovinces were joined as part of what is now the Wyoming craton. Subsequent to amalgamation of the Wyoming crust to Laurentia at ca. 1.8–1.9 Ga, Paleoproterozoic crust (1.7–2.4 Ga) was juxtaposed along the southern and western boundaries of the province. Subsequent tectonism and magmatism in the Wyoming region are concentrated in the areas underlain by these Proterozoic mobile belts.

text: The Wyoming

text: province

text: can be subdivided into three subprovinces, namely, from oldest to youngest, the Montana metasedimentary province, the Beartooth-Bighorn magmatic zone, and the Southern accreted terranes. Archean rocks of the Montana metasedimentary province and the Beartooth-Bighorn magmatic zone are characterized by (1) their antiquity (rock ages to 3.5 Ga,

text: detrital

text: zircon

text: ages up to 4.0 Ga, and

text: Nd model

text: ages exceeding 4.0 Ga); (2) a distinctly enriched 207

text: Pb

text: isotopic

text: signature, which suggests that this part of the province was not produced by the amalgamation of already-formed exotic terranes; and (3) a distinctively thick (15–20 km),

text: mafic

text: lower crust. The Montana metasedimentary province and Beartooth-Bighorn magmatic zone were established as cratons by about 3.0–2.8 Ga. Crustal growth occurred through a combination of

text: continental-arc

text: magmatism resulting from oceanic crust subducted beneath continental crust on an adjacent plate, creating an arc-shaped mountain belt, together with

text: terrane accretion

text: in the Southern accreted terranes along the southern margin of the province at 2.68–2.50 Ga. By the end of the Archean, the three subprovinces were joined as part of what is now the Wyoming craton. Subsequent to amalgamation of the Wyoming crust to Laurentia at ca. 1.8–1.9 Ga, Paleoproterozoic crust (1.7–2.4 Ga) was juxtaposed along the southern and western boundaries of the province. Subsequent tectonism and magmatism in the Wyoming region are concentrated in the areas underlain by these Proterozoic mobile belts.

text: McClelland also recorded the widespread fear and sense of doom that pervaded the area for months, as the earth’s crust continued to heave and settle. The effect was not merely structural, but psychological and religious. Seeded by decades of backcountry revivals and "awakenings," fear of the earthquakes was heightened by apocalyptic foretellings of the coming end of time.

text: The OFZ (also called the Trans-Idaho Discontinuity) is a local segment of a larger structure that has only recently been recognized, the Great Divide Megashear. East of the WISZ this turns to the southeast (much as the OWL may be doing past the Wallula Gap) to follow the Clearwater fault zone down the continental divide near the Idaho—Montana border to the northwestern corner of Wyoming.  From there it seems to connect with the Snake River—Wichita fault zone, which passes through Colorado, and Oklahoma., and possibly further. There is a significant age discrepancy here.  Whereas the OFZ is a mere 90 to 70 Ma old, this megashear is ancient, having been dated to the Mesoproterozoic – about a billion years ago.  The Snake River—Wichita fault zone is of a similar age.  What appears to be happening is exploitation of ancient weaknesses in the crust.  This could explain the Newberry "hotspot track": parallel weaknesses in the crust open as the Brothers, Eugene—Denio, and Mendocino Fault Zones in response to development of the Basin and Range Province; magma from the event that initiated the Yellowstone hotspot (and possibly the Columbia River and other basalt flows) simply exploits the faults of the Brothers Fault Zone.  The other faults do not develop as "hotspot tracks" simply because there is no magma source nearby.  Similarly, it may be that the OWL reflects a similar zone of weakness, but does not develop as a major fault zone because it is too far from the stresses of the Basin and Range Province.

text: The OFZ (also called the Trans-Idaho Discontinuity) is a local segment of a larger structure that has only recently been recognized, the Great Divide Megashear. East of the WISZ this turns to the southeast (much as the OWL may be doing past the Wallula Gap) to follow the Clearwater fault zone down the continental divide near the Idaho—Montana border to the northwestern corner of Wyoming.  From there it seems to connect with the Snake River—Wichita fault zone, which passes through Colorado, and Oklahoma., and possibly further. There is a significant age discrepancy here.  Whereas the OFZ is a mere 90 to 70 Ma old, this megashear is ancient, having been dated to the

text: Mesoproterozoic

text: – about a billion years ago.  The Snake River—Wichita fault zone is of a similar age.  What appears to be happening is exploitation of ancient weaknesses in the crust.  This could explain the Newberry "hotspot track": parallel weaknesses in the crust open as the Brothers, Eugene—Denio, and Mendocino Fault Zones in response to development of the

text: Basin and Range Province

text: ; magma from the event that initiated the Yellowstone hotspot (and possibly the Columbia River and other basalt flows) simply exploits the faults of the Brothers Fault Zone.  The other faults do not develop as "hotspot tracks" simply because there is no magma source nearby.  Similarly, it may be that the OWL reflects a similar zone of weakness, but does not develop as a major fault zone because it is too far from the stresses of the Basin and Range Province.

text: Capitol Reef encompasses the Waterpocket Fold, a warp in the earth's crust that is 65 million years old. It is the largest exposed monocline in North America. In this fold, newer and older layers of earth folded over each other in an S-shape. This warp, probably caused by the same colliding continental plates that created the Rocky Mountains, has weathered and eroded over millennia to expose layers of rock and fossils.  The park is filled with brilliantly colored sandstone cliffs, gleaming white domes, and  contrasting layers of stone and earth.

text: Capitol Reef encompasses the

text: Waterpocket Fold

text: , a warp in the

text: earth's crust

text: that is 65 million years old. It is the largest exposed

text: monocline

text: in North America. In this fold, newer and older layers of earth folded over each other in an S-shape. This warp, probably caused by the same colliding

text: continental plates

text: that created the

text: Rocky Mountains

text: , has weathered and

text: eroded

text: over millennia to expose layers of rock and

text: fossil

text: s.  The park is filled with brilliantly colored

text: sandstone

text: cliffs, gleaming white domes, and  contrasting layers of stone and earth.

text: Beginning about 20 million years ago, during the Miocene Epoch, both the Basin and Range and Colorado Plateau regions were uplifted as much as 3 kilometers. Great tension developed in the crust, probably related to changing plate motions far to the west. As the crust stretched, the Basin and Range Province broke up into a multitude of down-dropped valleys and elongate mountains. Yet for some reason not fully understood, the neighboring Colorado Plateau was able to preserve its structural integrity and remained a single tectonic block. Eventually, the great block of Colorado Plateau crust rose a kilometer higher than the Basin and Range.

text: Beginning about 20 million years ago, during the

text: Miocene

text: Epoch, both the Basin and Range and Colorado Plateau regions were uplifted as much as 3 kilometers. Great tension developed in the crust, probably related to changing plate motions far to the west. As the crust stretched, the Basin and Range Province broke up into a multitude of down-dropped valleys and elongate mountains. Yet for some reason not fully understood, the neighboring Colorado Plateau was able to preserve its structural integrity and remained a single tectonic block. Eventually, the great block of Colorado Plateau crust rose a kilometer higher than the Basin and Range.

text: There are three major psychological types of conflicts that can cause stress.

text: Tension, however, accounts for most of the "opposite directions" pull on the plates.  As the separating oceanic crust cools over time, it becomes more dense and sinks farther and farther away from the ridge axis.  The cooling and sinking ocean crust causes a tensile stress that also helps drive the pulling apart of the plates at the ridge axis.

text: Tension, however, accounts for most of the "opposite directions" pull on the plates.  As the separating oceanic crust cools over time, it becomes more dense and sinks farther and farther away from the

text: ridge

text: axis.  The cooling and sinking ocean crust causes a tensile stress that also helps drive the pulling apart of the plates at the ridge axis.

text: The coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K, is defined as the ratio of the horizontal effective stress, σ’, to the vertical effective stress, σ’. The effective stress is the intergranular stress calculated by subtracting the pore pressure from the total stress as described in soil mechanics. K for a particular soil deposit is a function of the soil properties and the stress history. The minimum stable value of K is called the active earth pressure coefficient, K; the active earth pressure is obtained, for example,when a retaining wall moves away from the soil.  The maximum stable value of K is called the passive earth pressure coefficient, K; the passive earth pressure would develop, for example against a vertical plow that is pushing soil horizontally. For a level ground deposit with zero lateral strain in the soil, the "at-rest" coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K is obtained.

text: The coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K, is defined as the ratio of the horizontal

text: effective stress

text: , σ’, to the vertical effective stress, σ’. The

text: effective stress

text: is the intergranular stress calculated by subtracting the pore pressure from the total stress as described in

text: soil mechanics

text: . K for a particular soil deposit is a function of the

text: soil properties

text: and the stress history. The minimum stable value of K is called the active earth pressure coefficient, K; the active earth pressure is obtained, for example,when a retaining wall moves away from the soil.  The maximum stable value of K is called the passive earth pressure coefficient, K; the passive earth pressure would develop, for example against a vertical plow that is pushing soil horizontally. For a level ground deposit with zero lateral strain in the soil, the "at-rest" coefficient of lateral earth pressure, K is obtained.

text: Subsequently, this definition has been broadened to mean the emplacement of continental lithosphere by oceanic lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary, such as closing of an ocean or a mountain building episode. This process is uncommon because the denser oceanic lithosphere usually subducts underneath the less dense continental plate.Obduction occurs where a fragment of continental crust is caught in a subduction zone with resulting overthrusting of oceanic mafic and ultramafic rocks from the mantle onto the continental crust. Obduction may occur where a small tectonic plate is caught between two larger plates, with the lithosphere (both island arc and oceanic) welding onto an adjacent continent as a new terrane. When two continental plates collide, obduction of the oceanic lithosphere between them is often a part of the resulting orogeny.

text: Subsequently, this definition has been broadened to mean the emplacement of

text: continental lithosphere

text: by

text: oceanic lithosphere

text: at a

text: convergent plate boundary

text: , such as closing of an ocean or a

text: mountain building

text: episode. This process is uncommon because the denser oceanic lithosphere usually subducts underneath the less dense continental plate.Obduction occurs where a fragment of continental

text: crust

text: is caught in a

text: subduction zone

text: with resulting overthrusting of oceanic

text: mafic

text: and ultramafic rocks from the mantle onto the continental crust. Obduction may occur where a small

text: tectonic plate

text: is caught between two larger plates, with the lithosphere (both

text: island arc

text: and oceanic) welding onto an adjacent

text: continent

text: as a new

text: terrane

text: . When two

text: continental plates

text: collide, obduction of the oceanic lithosphere between them is often a part of the resulting orogeny.

text: Savai'i is the largest shield volcano in the South Pacific  and only 3% is above water.It is an active volcano, which last erupted in 1905-1911 with lava flows that destroyed villages on the central north coast. The island is formed by a massive basaltic shield volcano which rises from the seafloor of the western Pacific Ocean. A possible model for the formation of the volcanic Samoa island chain is explained by the Samoa hotspot situated at the east end of the Samoa Islands. In theory, the Samoa hotspot is a result of the Pacific Tectonic Plate moving over a 'fixed' deep and narrow mantle plume spewing up through the Earth's crust. The Samoa islands generally lie in a straight line, east to west, in the same direction the Plate is moving. In the classic hotspot model, primarily based on studies of the Hawaii hotspot, the volcanic islands and seamounts further away from the Samoa hotspot should be progressively older. However, Savai'i, the most western of the Samoa island chain, and Ta'u Island, the most eastern of the Samoa islands, both erupted in the last century, data which is an enigma for scientists. Ta'u last erupted in 1866. Another discrepancy in the data from the Samoa islands is that subaerial rock samples from Savai'i were too young by several million years to fit the classic hotspot model of age progression in an island chain, raising arguments among scientists that the Samoa islands does not have a plume origin. The nearness of Savai'i and the Samoa island chain to the Tonga Trench at the south became a possible explanation for these discrepancies as well as the possibility that the islands were formed by magma seeping through cracks in stressed fracture zones. However, in 2005, an international team gathered further submarine samples from the deep flanks and rifts of Savai'i. Tests on these later samples showed much older ages, about five million years old, that fit the hotspot model. The discovery in 1975 of Vailulu'u Seamount 45 km east of Ta'u in

text: Savai'i is the largest

text: shield volcano

text: in the South Pacific  and only 3% is above water.It is an

text: active volcano

text: , which last erupted in 1905-1911 with

text: lava flow

text: s that destroyed villages on the central north coast. The island is formed by a massive

text: basalt

text: ic shield volcano which rises from the seafloor of the western

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . A possible model for the formation of the volcanic Samoa island chain is explained by the

text: Samoa hotspot

text: situated at the east end of the

text: Samoa Islands

text: . In theory, the Samoa hotspot is a result of the

text: Pacific Tectonic Plate

text: moving over a 'fixed' deep and narrow

text: mantle plume

text: spewing up through the Earth's crust. The Samoa islands generally lie in a straight line, east to west, in the same direction the Plate is moving. In the classic hotspot model, primarily based on studies of the

text: Hawaii hotspot

text: , the volcanic islands and

text: seamount

text: s further away from the Samoa hotspot should be progressively older. However, Savai'i, the most western of the Samoa island chain, and

text: Ta'u Island

text: , the most eastern of the Samoa islands, both erupted in the last century, data which is an enigma for scientists. Ta'u last erupted in 1866. Another discrepancy in the data from the Samoa islands is that

text: subaerial

text: rock samples from Savai'i were too young by several million years to fit the classic hotspot model of age progression in an island chain, raising arguments among scientists that the Samoa islands does not have a plume origin. The nearness of Savai'i and the Samoa island chain to the

text: Tonga Trench

text: at the south became a possible explanation for these discrepancies as well as the possibility that the islands were formed by

text: magma

text: seeping through cracks in stressed

text: fracture zones.

text: However, in 2005, an international team gathered further submarine samples from the deep flanks and

text: rift

text: s of Savai'i. Tests on these later samples showed much older ages, about five million years old, that fit the hotspot model. The discovery in 1975 of

text: Vailulu'u Seamount

text: 45 km east of Ta'u in

text: Transtension is the state in which a rock mass or area of the Earth's crust experiences both extensive and transtensive shear. As such, transtensional regions are characterised by both extensional structures (normal faults, grabens) and wrench structures (strike-slip faults). In general, many tectonic regimes that were previously defined as simple strike-slip shear zones are actually transtensional. It is unlikely that a deforming body will experience 'pure' extension or 'pure' strike-slip.

text: Transtension is the state in which a rock mass or area of the Earth's

text: crust

text: experiences both extensive and transtensive

text: shear

text: . As such, transtensional regions are characterised by both extensional structures (

text: normal faults

text: graben

text: s) and wrench structures (

text: strike-slip fault

text: s). In general, many tectonic regimes that were previously defined as simple strike-slip shear zones are actually transtensional. It is unlikely that a deforming body will experience 'pure' extension or 'pure' strike-slip.

text: The rift is presently nearly tectonically quiescent, but significant deformation and faulting with offsets of many kilometers were responsible for its formation starting about 35 Ma.  The largest-scale manifestation of rifting involves a pure-shear rifting mechanism, in which both sides of the rift pull apart evenly and slowly, with the lower crust and upper mantle (the lithosphere) stretching like taffy.  This extension is associated with very low seismic velocities in the upper mantle above approximately 400 km depth associated with relatively hot mantle and low degrees of partial melting. This intrusion of the asthenosphere into the lithosphere and continental crust is thought to be responsible for nearly all of the volcanism associated with the Rio Grande rift.

text: The rift is presently nearly tectonically quiescent, but significant deformation and faulting with offsets of many kilometers were responsible for its formation starting about 35 Ma.  The largest-scale manifestation of rifting involves a pure-shear rifting mechanism, in which both sides of the rift pull apart evenly and slowly, with the lower crust and upper mantle (the

text: lithosphere

text: ) stretching like

text: taffy

text: .  This extension is associated with very low seismic velocities in the upper mantle above approximately 400 km depth associated with relatively hot mantle and low degrees of partial melting. This intrusion of the

text: asthenosphere

text: into the

text: lithosphere

text: and

text: continental crust

text: is thought to be responsible for nearly all of the volcanism associated with the Rio Grande rift.

text: Mid-Ocean ridges are active volcanic mountain ranges snaking through the depths of the Earth’s oceans. They occur where the edges of the Earth’s tectonic plates are separating, allowing mantle rock to rise to the seafloor and harden, creating new crust. The addition of this crust can cause ocean basins to widen perpendicular to the ridge. This seafloor spreading is the engine of continental drift. At intervals along the mid-ocean ridges super-heated mineral-rich fluids are vented from the seabed. These hydrothermal vents are populated by animal and bacterial species not found elsewhere on Earth.

text: Mid-Ocean ridges are active volcanic mountain ranges snaking through the depths of the Earth’s oceans. They occur where the edges of the Earth’s

text: tectonic plates

text: are separating, allowing

text: mantle

text: rock to rise to the seafloor and harden, creating new

text: crust

text: . The addition of this crust can cause ocean basins to widen perpendicular to the ridge. This

text: seafloor spreading

text: is the engine of

text: continental drift

text: . At intervals along the mid-ocean ridges super-heated mineral-rich fluids are vented from the seabed. These

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s are populated by animal and bacterial species not found elsewhere on Earth.

text: San Jose lies near several active faults, including the Monte Vista Fault, Hayward Fault Zone, Calaveras Fault, Silver Creek Fault, and the San Andreas Fault. Significant events occurred in 1856, 1858, 1864, 1865, 1868, 1881, 1891, 1897, 1898, 1906, 1957, 1989, and 2007.  The 1906 San Francisco earthquake, with its epicenter slightly off the coast of San Francisco near Golden Gate Park, devastated many buildings in San Jose. The city was still primarily rural and the population was much smaller than San Francisco. Houses and businesses were not built as close as they were on the peninsula, and this provided less opportunity for major fires. The all-brick Agnews Asylum (later Agnews State Hospital) was destroyed, killing over 100 people as the walls and roof collapsed. The 8-year-old San Jose High School's three-story stone and brick structure also collapsed, and many other buildings were severely damaged.  There have been many other moderate earthquakes that have been felt in San Jose that caused little or no damage. Most damage from earthquakes are quickly repaired, but some effects may still be seen in the form of cracked sidewalks and raised curbs.

text: San Jose lies near several active

text: faults

text: , including the

text: Monte Vista Fault

text: Hayward Fault Zone

text: Calaveras Fault

text: Silver Creek Fault

text: , and the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: . Significant events occurred in 1856, 1858, 1864, 1865,

text: , 1881, 1891, 1897, 1898,

text: , and

text: .  The 1906 San Francisco earthquake, with its epicenter slightly off the coast of

text: San Francisco

text: near

text: Golden Gate Park

text: , devastated many buildings in San Jose. The city was still primarily rural and the population was much smaller than San Francisco. Houses and businesses were not built as close as they were on the peninsula, and this provided less opportunity for major fires. The all-brick Agnews Asylum (later

text: Agnews State Hospital

text: ) was destroyed, killing over 100 people as the walls and roof collapsed. The 8-year-old

text: San Jose High School

text: 's three-story stone and brick structure also collapsed, and many other buildings were severely damaged.  There have been many other moderate earthquakes that have been felt in San Jose that caused little or no damage. Most damage from earthquakes are quickly repaired, but some effects may still be seen in the form of cracked sidewalks and raised curbs.

text: Mount Ararat lies within a complex, sinistral pull-apart basin that originally was a single, continuous depression. The growth of Mount Ararat partitioned this depression into two smaller basins, the Iğdir and Doğubeyazıt basins. This pull-apart basin is the result of strike-slip movement along two en-echelon fault segments, the Doğubeyazıt–Gürbulak and Iğdir faults, of a sinistral strike–slip fault system. Tension between these faults, not only formed the original pull-apart basin, but created a system of faults, exhibiting a horsetail splay pattern, that control the position of the principal volcanic eruption centers of Mount Ararat and associated linear belt of parasitic volcanic cones. The strike-slip fault system within which Mount Ararat located is the result of north–south convergence and tectonic compression between the Arabian Platform and Laurasia that continued after the Tethys Ocean closed during the Eocene epoch along the Bitlis–Zagros suture.

text: Mount Ararat lies within a complex, sinistral

text: pull-apart basin

text: that originally was a single, continuous depression. The growth of Mount Ararat partitioned this depression into two smaller basins, the Iğdir and Doğubeyazıt basins. This pull-apart basin is the result of

text: strike-slip

text: movement along two en-echelon fault segments, the Doğubeyazıt–Gürbulak and Iğdir faults, of a sinistral strike–slip fault system. Tension between these faults, not only formed the original pull-apart basin, but created a system of faults, exhibiting a horsetail splay pattern, that control the position of the principal volcanic eruption centers of Mount Ararat and associated linear belt of parasitic volcanic cones. The strike-slip fault system within which Mount Ararat located is the result of north–south convergence and

text: tectonic

text: compression between the Arabian Platform and

text: Laurasia

text: that continued after the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: closed during the

text: Eocene

text: epoch

text: along the Bitlis–Zagros

text: suture

text: Other important examples of radiogenic elements are radon and helium, both of which form during the decay of heavier elements in bedrock. Radon is entirely radiogenic, since it has too short a half-life to occur primordially. Helium, however, occurs in the crust of the Earth primordially, since both helium-3 and helium-4 are stable, and small amounts were trapped in the crust of the Earth as it formed. Helium-3 is almost entirely primordial (a small amount is formed by natural nuclear reactions in the crust). The global supply of helium (which occurs in gas wells and well as the atmosphere) is almost entirely (about 90-99%) radiogenic, as shown by its factor of 10 to 100 times enrichment in radiogenic helium-4 relative to the primordial ratio of helium-4 to helium-3. This latter ratio is known from extraterrestrial sources, such as some moon rocks and meteorites, which are relatively free of parental sources for helium-3 and helium-4.

text: Other important examples of radiogenic elements are

text: radon

text: and

text: helium

text: , both of which form during the decay of heavier elements in bedrock. Radon is entirely radiogenic, since it has too short a half-life to occur primordially. Helium, however, occurs in the crust of the Earth primordially, since both helium-3 and helium-4 are stable, and small amounts were trapped in the crust of the Earth as it formed. Helium-3 is almost entirely primordial (a small amount is formed by natural nuclear reactions in the crust). The global supply of helium (which occurs in gas wells and well as the atmosphere) is almost entirely (about 90-99%) radiogenic, as shown by its factor of 10 to 100 times enrichment in radiogenic helium-4 relative to the primordial ratio of helium-4 to helium-3. This latter ratio is known from extraterrestrial sources, such as some moon rocks and meteorites, which are relatively free of parental sources for helium-3 and helium-4.

text: As extension continued in the mid to late Jurassic, multiple pull-apart basins and oblique right-lateral strike-slip faulting in the eastern margin of the Exmouth Plateau continued to dominate. The simple shear stress of the Exmouth detachment fault between the base of the upper crust, and the lower crust had been reduced in the east plateau. This reduction in simple shear was in part caused by the deformation that developed series negative flower structures and half-graben systems in the west plateau. By this time, the lithospheric thinning that had been initiated in during the early Jurassic was now considerably thinner. At this period, a magmatic intrusion between the lower crystalline crest and the lithosphere been introduce, underplating this region.

text: As extension continued in the mid to late Jurassic, multiple

text: pull-apart basin

text: s and oblique right-lateral strike-slip faulting in the eastern margin of the Exmouth Plateau continued to dominate. The simple shear stress of the Exmouth detachment fault between the base of the upper crust, and the lower crust had been reduced in the east plateau. This reduction in simple shear was in part caused by the deformation that developed series negative flower structures and half-graben systems in the west plateau. By this time, the lithospheric thinning that had been initiated in during the early Jurassic was now considerably thinner. At this period, a magmatic intrusion between the lower crystalline crest and the lithosphere been introduce, underplating this region.

text: Oceanic core complex structures form at slow spreading oceanic plate boundaries which have a limited supply of upwelling magma. These zones have low upper mantle temperatures and long transform faults develop. Rift valleys do not develop along the expansion axes of slow spreading boundaries.  Expansion takes place along low-angle detachment faults. The core complex builds on the uplifted side of the fault where most of the gabbroic (or crustal) material is stripped away to expose mantle peridotite.  They comprise peridotites ultramafic rocks of mantle and to a lesser extent gabbroic rocks from the Earth's crust.

text: Oceanic core complex structures form at slow spreading oceanic

text: plate boundaries

text: which have a limited supply of upwelling

text: magma

text: . These zones have low upper

text: mantle

text: temperatures and long

text: transform faults

text: develop.

text: Rift valley

text: s do not develop along the expansion axes of slow spreading boundaries.  Expansion takes place along low-angle

text: detachment fault

text: s. The core complex builds on the uplifted side of the fault where most of the

text: gabbro

text: ic (or crustal) material is stripped away to expose mantle

text: peridotite

text: .  They comprise peridotites

text: ultramafic rock

text: s of

text: mantle

text: and to a lesser extent gabbroic rocks from the Earth's crust.

text: If the body is constrained so that it cannot expand, then internal stress will be caused (or changed) by a change in temperature. This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero, through the stress/strain relationship characterised by the elastic or Young's modulus. In the special case of solid materials, external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the size of an object and so it is not usually necessary to consider the effect of pressure changes.

text: If the body is constrained so that it cannot expand, then internal stress will be caused (or changed) by a change in temperature. This stress can be calculated by considering the strain that would occur if the body were free to expand and the stress required to reduce that strain to zero, through the stress/strain relationship characterised by the elastic or

text: Young's modulus

text: . In the special case of

text: solid

text: materials, external ambient pressure does not usually appreciably affect the size of an object and so it is not usually necessary to consider the effect of pressure changes.

text: An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor, usually found at depths between  and . Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plains are among the flattest, smoothest and least explored regions on Earth. Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills). In addition to these elements, active oceanic basins (those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone. Abyssal plains cover more than 33% of the ocean floor (about 23% of Earth’s surface), but they are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process.

text: An

text: abyssal plain

text: is an underwater

text: plain

text: on the deep

text: ocean floor

text: , usually found at depths between  and . Lying generally between the foot of a

text: continental rise

text: and a

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: , abyssal plains are among the flattest, smoothest and least explored regions on Earth. Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of

text: oceanic basin

text: s (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking

text: abyssal hill

text: s). In addition to these elements, active oceanic basins (those that are associated with a moving

text: plate tectonic

text: boundary) also typically include an

text: oceanic trench

text: and a

text: subduction zone

text: . Abyssal plains cover more than 33% of the ocean floor (about 23% of Earth’s surface), but they are poorly preserved in the

text: sedimentary record

text: because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process.

text: The Hikurangi Trench (also called the Hikurangi Trough) is a linear feature in the bed of the Pacific Ocean off the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, lying between the southern end of the Cook Strait and the Chatham Rise.  Though much shallower, it is the southward continuation of the Kermadec Trench and forms part of the Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone. It represents the part of the subduction zone where the thick oceanic Hikurangi Plateau is subducting beneath continental crust of the Indo-Australian Plate. By contrast, the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches represent the parts of the subduction zone where oceanic crust of the Pacific Plate is subducting beneath oceanic crust of the Indo-Australian Plate.

text: The Hikurangi Trench (also called the Hikurangi Trough) is a linear feature in the bed of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: off the east coast of the

text: North Island

text: of New Zealand, lying between the southern end of the

text: Cook Strait

text: and the

text: Chatham Rise

text: .  Though much shallower, it is the southward continuation of the

text: Kermadec Trench

text: and forms part of the

text: Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone

text: . It represents the part of the

text: subduction

text: zone where the thick oceanic

text: Hikurangi Plateau

text: is subducting beneath

text: continental crust

text: of the

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: . By contrast, the Kermadec and

text: Tonga Trench

text: es represent the parts of the subduction zone where

text: oceanic crust

text: of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: is subducting beneath oceanic crust of the Indo-Australian Plate.

text: The collision between terranes folded the Earth's crust, and produced enough heat and pressure to metamorphose then-existing rock. Repeated continental collisions, compression along a north-south axis, and subduction resulted in the uprising of the Algoman Mountains. This was followed by intrusions of granite plutons and batholithic domes within the gneisses about ; two examples are the Sacred Heart granite of southwestern Minnesota and the Watersmeet Domes metagabbros (metamorphosed gabbros) that straddle the border of Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula. After the intrusions solidified, new stresses on the greenstone belt caused movement horizontally along several faults and moved huge blocks of the crust vertically relative to adjacent blocks. This combination of folding, intrusion and faulting built mountain ranges throughout northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Michigan's Upper Peninsula and southernmost Ontario. Igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks are associated with the orogeny.

text: The collision between terranes folded the Earth's crust, and produced enough heat and pressure to

text: metamorphose

text: then-existing rock. Repeated continental collisions, compression along a north-south axis, and

text: subduction

text: resulted in the uprising of the Algoman Mountains. This was followed by intrusions of

text: granite

text: pluton

text: s and

text: batholithic domes

text: within the gneisses about ; two examples are the

text: Sacred Heart granite

text: of southwestern Minnesota and the Watersmeet Domes metagabbros (metamorphosed

text: gabbro

text: s) that straddle the border of Wisconsin and Michigan's

text: Upper Peninsula

text: . After the intrusions solidified, new stresses on the greenstone belt caused movement horizontally along several faults and moved huge blocks of the crust vertically relative to adjacent blocks. This combination of folding, intrusion and faulting built mountain ranges throughout northern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Michigan's Upper Peninsula and southernmost Ontario. Igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks are associated with the orogeny.

text: At the occasion of his 80th birthday the Swiss Geological Society honoured Ziegler with a symposium on the theme “Deep Earth - from Crust to Core”, held in Lugano, November 23, 2008.

text: Tectonics explains the large-scale structure of the Earth's crust and its constituent rocks in terms of blocks moving along faults, uplifted into horsts or downthrown into grabens.The ACT is positioned on the Australian continent, which was once a part of the supercontinent Gondwana. The ACT is in the Tasmanides, the deformed rocks of the orogen that make up the core of the old mountain range that makes up the Australian continent east of the Tasman Line. These rocks are an addition onto the Proterozoic core of the continent. The Tasmanides are the result of compression, horizontal shortening, and vertical thickening of various "terranes" such as small continental fragments and volcanic island arcs that were plastered against the original continental margin as a result of plate tectonic movements.

text: Tectonics

text: explains the large-scale structure of the Earth's crust and its constituent rocks in terms of blocks moving along

text: fault

text: s, uplifted into

text: horst

text: s or downthrown into

text: graben

text: s.The ACT is positioned on the

text: Australian continent

text: , which was once a part of the supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: . The ACT is in the

text: Tasmanides

text: , the deformed rocks of the

text: orogen

text: that make up the core of the old mountain range that makes up the Australian continent east of the

text: Tasman Line

text: . These rocks are an addition onto the

text: Proterozoic

text: core of the continent. The Tasmanides are the result of compression, horizontal shortening, and vertical thickening of various "terranes" such as small continental fragments and volcanic island arcs that were plastered against the original continental margin as a result of

text: plate tectonic

text: movements.

text: The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth are at the following depths below the surface:

text: The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as

text: rheology

text: , or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into

text: lithosphere

text: asthenosphere

text: mesospheric mantle

text: outer core

text: , and the

text: inner core

text: . Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth are at the following depths below the surface:

text: and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes. The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in Chile, 1960; Alaska, 1957; Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the San Andreas Fault (1857, 1906), the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey (1939) and the Denali Fault in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.

text: and the stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle part of the Earth's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures. Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress; they do not rupture in earthquakes. The maximum observed lengths of ruptures and mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in

text: Chile, 1960

text: Alaska, 1957

text: Sumatra, 2004

text: , all in subduction zones. The longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: (1857, 1906), the

text: North Anatolian Fault

text: in Turkey (1939) and the

text: Denali Fault

text: in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal faults are even shorter.

text: This is a list of pastries, which are small cakes or confections made using pastry — a stiff dough enriched with fat. Some dishes, such as pies, are made of a pastry casing that covers or completely contains a filling of various sweet or savory ingredients. There are five basic types of pastry (a food that combines flour and fat) - these are shortcrust pastry, filo pastry, choux pastry, flaky pastry and puff pastry. Two main types of pastry are nonlaminated, when fat is cut or rubbed into the flour, and laminated, when fat is repeatedly folded into the dough using a technique called lamination. An example of a nonlaminated pastry would be a pie or tart crust and brioche. An example of a laminated pastry would be a croissant, danish, or puff pastry. Many pastries are prepared using shortening, a fat food product that is solid at room temperature, the composition of which lends to creating crumbly, shortcrust-style pastries and pastry crusts.

text: This is a list of pastries, which are small cakes or confections made using

text: pastry

text: — a stiff dough enriched with fat. Some dishes, such as pies, are made of a pastry casing that covers or completely contains a filling of various

text: sweet

text: or

text: savory

text: ingredients. There are five basic types of pastry (a food that combines

text: flour

text: and

text: fat

text: ) - these are

text: shortcrust pastry

text: filo pastry

text: choux pastry

text: flaky pastry

text: and

text: puff pastry

text: . Two main types of pastry are

text: nonlaminated

text: , when fat is cut or rubbed into the flour, and

text: laminated

text: , when fat is repeatedly folded into the dough using a technique called lamination. An example of a nonlaminated pastry would be a

text: pie

text: or

text: tart crust

text: and

text: brioche

text: . An example of a laminated pastry would be a

text: croissant

text: danish

text: , or

text: puff pastry

text: . Many pastries are prepared using

text: shortening

text: , a

text: fat

text: food product that is solid at room temperature, the composition of which lends to creating crumbly,

text: shortcrust

text: -style pastries and

text: pastry crust

text: s.

text: At well-studied plate boundaries like the San Andreas fault system in California, scientists can often make observations that allow them to identify the specific fault on which an earthquake took place. In contrast, east of the Rocky Mountains this is rarely the case. The NYC area  is far from the boundaries of the North American plate, which are in the center of the Atlantic Ocean, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the west coast of North America. The seismicity of the northeastern U.S. is generally considered to be due to ancient zones of weakness that are being reactivated in the present-day stress field. In this model, pre-existing faults that were formed during ancient geological episodes, persist in the intraplate crust, and the earthquakes occur when the present-day stress is released along these zones of weakness. The stress that causes the earthquakes is generally considered to be derived from present-day rifting at the Mid-Atlantic ridge.

text: At well-studied plate boundaries like the

text: San Andreas fault

text: system in California, scientists can often make observations that allow them to identify the specific fault on which an earthquake took place. In contrast, east of the Rocky Mountains this is rarely the case. The NYC area  is far from the boundaries of the North American plate, which are in the center of the Atlantic Ocean, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the west coast of North America. The seismicity of the northeastern U.S. is generally considered to be due to ancient zones of weakness that are being reactivated in the present-day stress field. In this model, pre-existing faults that were formed during ancient geological episodes, persist in the intraplate crust, and the earthquakes occur when the present-day stress is released along these zones of weakness. The stress that causes the earthquakes is generally considered to be derived from present-day rifting at the

text: Mid-Atlantic ridge

text: Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's  crust (plate tectonics).  Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building. The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called tectonic geomorphology, and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called neotectonics.

text: Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of

text: mountain

text: s. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's  crust (

text: plate tectonics

text: Folding

text: faulting

text: volcanic activity

text: igneous intrusion

text: and

text: metamorphism

text: can all be parts of the

text: orogenic process

text: of mountain building. The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called

text: tectonic geomorphology

text: , and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called

text: neotectonics

text: Early Earth's mantle was hotter and it has been proposed that flat slab subduction was the dominant style. Computer modeling has shown that an increase in oceanic plate buoyancy associated with enhanced oceanic crust production would have the been counteracted by decreased mantle viscosity, so flat slab subduction would not have been dominant or non-existent.

text: The 6.4 and 6.3 intraplate earthquakes occurred as a result of oblique strike-slip faulting in the shallow crust about 300 km east of the Eurasia-Arabian Plate boundary. The two earthquakes are separated by 10 km in an east-west direction.

text: The 6.4 and 6.3

text: intraplate earthquake

text: s occurred as a result of oblique strike-slip faulting in the shallow crust about 300 km east of the Eurasia-Arabian Plate boundary. The two earthquakes are separated by 10 km in an east-west direction.

text: Palaeo means past, thus paleostress (or palaeostress) means stresses that acted in the geological past (i.e. thousands to millions of years ago). In Geology paleostress analysis is concerned with deriving the directions along which the stress acted and gave rise to present structural feature in the rocks on earth.

text: Lazarus Pits are composed of a unique unknown green chemical blend that bubbles up somewhere within the Earth's crust to the surface at key points on Earth, typically at the junction of ley lines. The substance possesses the ability to rejuvenate the sick and injured, and even resurrect the dead. The pits also decrease the age of the user depending on how long they stay submerged in the pit. If a healthy person goes into the pits, they will be killed in most instances.

text: Lazarus Pits are composed of a unique unknown green chemical blend that bubbles up somewhere within the Earth's crust to the surface at key points on Earth, typically at the junction of

text: ley line

text: s. The substance possesses the ability to rejuvenate the sick and injured, and even resurrect the dead. The pits also decrease the age of the user depending on how long they stay submerged in the pit. If a healthy person goes into the pits, they will be killed in most instances.

text: The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate. To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins, such as Orinoco, Amazon Basin, Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco, that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.

text: The Andes are a

text: Mesozoic

text: Tertiary

text: orogenic

text: belt of mountains along the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: , a zone of

text: volcanic activity

text: that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the

text: Asia-Pacific

text: region. The Andes are the result of

text: plate tectonics

text: processes, caused by the

text: subduction

text: of

text: oceanic crust

text: beneath the

text: South American plate

text: . The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the

text: South American Plate

text: due to the subduction of the

text: Nazca Plate

text: and the

text: Antarctic Plate

text: . To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several

text: sedimentary basin

text: s, such as

text: Orinoco

text: Amazon Basin

text: Madre de Dios

text: and

text: Gran Chaco

text: , that separate the Andes from the ancient

text: craton

text: s in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former

text: Patagonia Terrane

text: . To the west, the Andes end at the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , although the

text: Peru-Chile trench

text: can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.

text: Transform faults within continental plates include some of the best known examples of strike-slip structures, such as the San Andreas Fault, the Dead Sea Transform, the North Anatolian Fault and the Alpine Fault.

text: Transform faults within continental plates include some of the best known examples of strike-slip structures, such as the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , the

text: Dead Sea Transform

text: , the

text: North Anatolian Fault

text: and the

text: Alpine Fault

text: On September 14, 2016 a doctor in Uruguay stated that Abu Wa'el Dhiab "was unconscious" and had slipped into a coma due to a prolonged hunger strike and that it was hard to tell if "it was reversible".He was given medical treatment, came out of the coma, then continued his hunger strike.

text: Stress can be external and related to the environment, but may also be created by internal perceptions that cause an individual to experience anxiety or other negative emotions surrounding a situation, such as pressure, discomfort, etc., which they then deem stressful.

text: Stress can be external and related to the environment, but may also be created by internal perceptions that cause an individual to experience

text: anxiety

text: or other negative emotions surrounding a situation, such as pressure, discomfort, etc., which they then deem stressful.

text: The Seattle Fault is believed to date from about 40 million years ago (late Eocene).  This is about the time that the strike-slip movement on the north-striking Straight Creek Fault to the east ceased, due to the intrusions of plutons.  It appears that when the Straight Creek Fault became stuck the north–south compressive force that it had accommodated by strike-slip motion was transferred to the crust of the Puget Lowland, which subsequently folded and faulted, and the various blocks jammed over one another.

text: The Seattle Fault is believed to date from about 40 million years ago (late

text: Eocene

text: ).  This is about the time that the strike-slip movement on the north-striking

text: Straight Creek Fault

text: to the east ceased, due to the intrusions of

text: pluton

text: s.  It appears that when the Straight Creek Fault became stuck the north–south compressive force that it had accommodated by strike-slip motion was transferred to the crust of the Puget Lowland, which subsequently folded and faulted, and the various blocks jammed over one another.

text: The fault surface is usually near vertical and the footwall moves either left or right or laterally with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip faults with left-lateral motion are also known as sinistral faults. Those with right-lateral motion are also known as dextral faults. Each is defined by the direction of movement of the ground on the opposite side of the fault from an observer.

text: Active rifting, such as is formed by the Iceland plume, is driven by hotspot or mantle plume activity. From deep within the Earth, hot mantle rises to force doming of the crust.This causes thinning of the crust and lithosphere, then melting and underplating occur.  Finally, there is rifting at the crest of the domed crust and volcanism occurs.  In passive rifting, driven by plate tectonics, the crust and lithosphere extend as a result of plate boundary forces such as slab pull.  Far field stresses thin the crust and lithospheric mantle, and hot asthenospheric mantle passively enters the thinned area.  The upwelling of asthenosphere is not involved in the actual rifting process. The upward flow of the asthenosphere results in decompression melting, magmatic underplating and some volcanism that may occur in the rift area.

text: Active rifting, such as is formed by the

text: Iceland plume

text: , is driven by hotspot or mantle plume activity. From deep within the Earth, hot mantle rises to force doming of the crust.This causes thinning of the crust and lithosphere, then melting and

text: underplating

text: occur.  Finally, there is rifting at the crest of the domed crust and volcanism occurs.  In passive rifting, driven by plate tectonics, the crust and lithosphere extend as a result of plate boundary forces such as

text: slab pull

text: .  Far field stresses thin the crust and lithospheric mantle, and hot asthenospheric mantle passively enters the thinned area.  The upwelling of

text: asthenosphere

text: is not involved in the actual rifting process. The upward flow of the asthenosphere results in decompression melting, magmatic underplating and some volcanism that may occur in the rift area.

text: There are about  of convergent plate margins, mostly around the Pacific Ocean—the reason for the reference “Pacific-type” margin—but they are also in the eastern Indian Ocean, with relatively short convergent margin segments in the Atlantic Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea. Globally, there are over 50 major ocean trenches covering an area of 1.9 million km2 or about 0.5% of the oceans. Trenches that are partially infilled are known as "troughs" and sometimes they are completely buried and lack bathymetric expression, but the fundamental structures that these represent mean that the great name should also be applied here. This applies to Cascadia, Makran, southern Lesser Antilles, and Calabrian trenches.  Trenches along with volcanic arcs and zones of earthquakes that dip under the volcanic arc as deeply as  are diagnostic of convergent plate boundaries and their deeper manifestations, subduction zones. Trenches are related to but distinguished from continental collision zones (like that between India and Asia to form the Himalaya), where continental crust enters the subduction zone. When buoyant continental crust enters a trench, subduction eventually stops and the convergent plate margin becomes a collision zone.  Features analogous to trenches are associated with collisions zones; these are sediment-filled foredeeps referred to as peripheral foreland basins, such as that which the Ganges River and Tigris-Euphrates rivers flow along.

text: There are about  of

text: convergent plate margins

text: , mostly around the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: —the reason for the reference “Pacific-type” margin—but they are also in the eastern

text: Indian Ocean

text: , with relatively short convergent margin segments in the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: and in the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: . Globally, there are over 50 major ocean trenches covering an area of 1.9 million km2 or about 0.5% of the oceans. Trenches that are partially infilled are known as "troughs" and sometimes they are completely buried and lack bathymetric expression, but the fundamental structures that these represent mean that the great name should also be applied here. This applies to

text: Cascadia

text: Makran

text: , southern

text: Lesser Antilles

text: , and

text: Calabrian trenches

text: .  Trenches along with

text: volcanic arc

text: s and zones of

text: earthquake

text: s that dip under the volcanic arc as deeply as  are diagnostic of convergent plate boundaries and their deeper manifestations,

text: subduction zones

text: . Trenches are related to but distinguished from continental collision zones (like that between India and Asia to form the

text: Himalaya

text: ), where

text: continental crust

text: enters the subduction zone. When buoyant continental crust enters a trench, subduction eventually stops and the convergent plate margin becomes a collision zone.  Features analogous to trenches are associated with collisions zones; these are sediment-filled foredeeps referred to as peripheral foreland basins, such as that which the

text: Ganges River

text: and Tigris-Euphrates rivers flow along.

text: Boyko G. E., 1968. The Transformation of Abyssal Petroleum under the Conditions of the Earth's Crust. – Kiev, Naukova Dumka Publ.

text: The difference between singular and plural in these languages is easily explained: the PIE root is *hes-. In the singular, the stem is stressed, so it remains in the e-grade, and it takes the inflection -ti. In the plural, however, the inflection -énti was stressed, causing the stem to reduce to the zero grade: *hes-énti → *hs-énti. See main article: Indo-European copula.

text: The difference between singular and plural in these languages is easily explained: the PIE root is *hes-. In the singular, the stem is stressed, so it remains in the e-grade, and it takes the inflection -ti. In the plural, however, the inflection -énti was stressed, causing the stem to reduce to the zero grade: *hes-énti → *hs-énti. See main article:

text: Indo-European copula

text: Subduction usually occurs at convergent fault lines. The underlying tectonic plate descends, or subducts, into the Earth's mantle. Earthquakes occurring at these faults are very large in magnitude and scale. In this case the disappearing Arabian plate is part of the oceanic crust while the Eurasia plate is part of the continental crust.

text: Subduction usually occurs at convergent fault lines. The underlying tectonic plate descends, or subducts, into the

text: Earth's mantle

text: . Earthquakes occurring at these faults are very large in magnitude and scale. In this case the disappearing Arabian plate is part of the oceanic crust while the Eurasia plate is part of the continental crust.

text: In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault types. Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike slip by intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. This can easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest principal stress, the direction of the force that 'pushes' the rock mass during the faulting. In the case of normal faults, the rock mass is pushed down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatest principal stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself. In the case of thrusting, the rock mass 'escapes' in the direction of the least principal stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the overburden equals the least principal stress. Strike-slip faulting is intermediate between the other two types described above. This difference in stress regime in the three faulting environments can contribute to differences in stress drop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions.

text: It is well known that perceptions of social support availability predict better adjustment to stressful life events. It has been found that the perception of support availability is inherently comforting, and can serve as a psychological safety-net that motivates self-reliant coping efforts in the face of stress. Although the perception of support availability is associated with better adjustment, the knowledge that one has been the recipient of specific supportive acts has often been unhelpful to effectively reduce stress. The knowledge of receiving help may come at a cost with decreased feelings of self-esteem and self-efficacy, because it increases recipients' awareness towards their personal difficulties to manage stressors. People's well-intentioned support attempts may also be miscarried, and their efforts could either fail or even worsen the situation for a person under stress.  Since supportive acts benefit recipients but their actual knowledge of receiving support is sometimes harmful, it has been theorized that the most effective support exchange would involve one in which the provider reports giving support but the recipient does not notice that support has occurred. From a cost-benefit point of view, invisible support would be optimal for the recipient because the benefits of provision are accrued while the costs of receipt are avoided. Using the same idea, it also implies that the least effective type of support would be one in which the provider does not report providing support but the recipient reports receiving it. The first investigation of invisible support involved a couples study in which one member was preparing for the New York State Bar Exam. Support receipt and provision were measured by having both couple members complete daily diary entries. Over the course of one month, stressed individuals who reported low frequency of received support (but whose partner ranked his or her own actions as highly supportive) rated themselves low on anxiety and depression compared to other individuals who reported high frequency of received support.

text: It is well known that perceptions of social support availability predict better adjustment to stressful life events. It has been found that the perception of support availability is inherently comforting, and can serve as a psychological safety-net that motivates self-reliant

text: coping

text: efforts in the face of

text: stress

text: . Although the perception of support availability is associated with better adjustment, the knowledge that one has been the recipient of specific supportive acts has often been unhelpful to effectively reduce stress. The knowledge of receiving help may come at a cost with decreased feelings of

text: self-esteem

text: and

text: self-efficacy

text: , because it increases recipients' awareness towards their personal difficulties to manage stressors. People's well-intentioned support attempts may also be miscarried, and their efforts could either fail or even worsen the situation for a person under stress.  Since supportive acts benefit recipients but their actual knowledge of receiving support is sometimes harmful, it has been theorized that the most effective support exchange would involve one in which the provider reports giving support but the recipient does not notice that support has occurred. From a cost-benefit point of view, invisible support would be optimal for the recipient because the benefits of provision are accrued while the costs of receipt are avoided. Using the same idea, it also implies that the least effective type of support would be one in which the provider does not report providing support but the recipient reports receiving it. The first investigation of invisible support involved a couples study in which one member was preparing for the New York State Bar Exam. Support receipt and provision were measured by having both couple members complete daily diary entries. Over the course of one month, stressed individuals who reported low frequency of received support (but whose partner ranked his or her own actions as highly supportive) rated themselves low on anxiety and depression compared to other individuals who reported high frequency of received support.

text: Based on calculations of Earth's cooling rate, which assumed constant conductivity in the Earth's interior, in 1862 Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) estimated the age of the Earth at 98 million years, in contrast to the age of 4.5 billion years obtained by radiometric dating. As pointed out by John Perry in 1895 a variable conductivity in the Earth's interior could expand the computed age of the Earth to billions of years, as later confirmed by radiometric dating. Contrary to the usual representation of Kelvin's argument, the observed thermal gradient of the Earth's crust would not be explained by the addition of radioactivity as a heat source. More significantly, mantle convection alters how heat is transported within the Earth, invalidating Kelvin's assumption of purely conductive cooling.

text: Based on calculations of Earth's cooling rate, which assumed constant conductivity in the Earth's interior, in 1862

text: Lord Kelvin

text: (William Thomson) estimated the age of the Earth at 98 million years, in contrast to the age of 4.5 billion years obtained by

text: radiometric dating

text: . As pointed out by John Perry in 1895 a variable conductivity in the Earth's interior could expand the computed age of the Earth to billions of years, as later confirmed by radiometric dating. Contrary to the usual representation of Kelvin's argument, the observed thermal gradient of the Earth's crust would not be explained by the addition of radioactivity as a heat source. More significantly,

text: mantle convection

text: alters how heat is transported within the Earth, invalidating Kelvin's assumption of purely conductive cooling.

text: Following total subduction of an oceanic tract, continuing convergence may lead to a further sequence of intra-continental mechanisms of crustal shortening. This mechanism is thought to be responsible for the various ocean basins of the Mediterranean region. The Alpine belt is believed to register a complex history of plate interactions during the general convergence of the Eurasian plate and African plates.

text: The analysis of structures is often accomplished by plotting the orientations of various features onto stereonets. A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are projected as lines and lines are projected as points. These can be used to find the locations of fold axes, relationships between faults, and relationships between other geologic structures.

text: The analysis of structures is often accomplished by plotting the orientations of various features onto

text: stereonets

text: . A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are projected as lines and lines are projected as points. These can be used to find the locations of fold axes, relationships between faults, and relationships between other geologic structures.

text: At a 'typical' subduction zone, an oceanic plate typically sinks at a fairly high angle (see above). A volcanic arc grows above the subducting plate. During the growth of the Rocky Mountains, the angle of the subducting plate may have been significantly flattened, moving the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than is normally expected.

text: Both the continental and oceanic crust "float" on the mantle. Because the continental crust is thicker, it extends both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The slightly lower density of felsic continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, water runs off the continents and collects above the oceanic crust. Because of the change in velocity of seismic waves it is believed that beneath continents at a certain depth continental crust (sial) becomes close in its physical properties to oceanic crust (sima), and the transition zone is referred to as the Conrad discontinuity.

text: Both the continental and oceanic crust

text: "float" on the mantle

text: . Because the continental crust is thicker, it extends both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The slightly lower density of felsic continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, water runs off the continents and collects above the oceanic crust. Because of the change in velocity of

text: seismic wave

text: s it is believed that beneath continents at a certain depth continental crust (

text: sial

text: ) becomes close in its physical properties to oceanic crust (

text: sima

text: ), and the transition zone is referred to as the

text: Conrad discontinuity

text: Radioactive primordial nuclides found in the Earth are residues from ancient supernova explosions which occurred before the formation of the solar system. They are the fraction of radionuclides that survived from that time, through the formation of the primordial solar nebula,  through planet accretion, and up to the present time. The naturally occurring short-lived radiogenic radionuclides found in today's rocks, are the daughters of those radioactive primordial nuclides. Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are cosmogenic nuclides, that are formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth's atmosphere or crust. The decay of the radionuclides in rocks of the Earth's mantle and crust contribute significantly to Earth's internal heat budget.

text: Radioactive

text: primordial nuclide

text: s found in the

text: Earth

text: are residues from ancient

text: supernova

text: explosions which occurred before the formation of the

text: solar system

text: . They are the fraction of radionuclides that survived from that time, through the formation of the primordial solar

text: nebula

text: ,  through planet

text: accretion

text: , and up to the present time. The naturally occurring short-lived

text: radiogenic

text: radionuclide

text: s found in today's

text: rocks

text: , are the daughters of those radioactive

text: primordial nuclide

text: s. Another minor source of naturally occurring radioactive nuclides are

text: cosmogenic nuclide

text: s, that are formed by cosmic ray bombardment of material in the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: or

text: crust

text: . The decay of the radionuclides in rocks of the Earth's

text: mantle

text: and

text: crust

text: contribute significantly to

text: Earth's internal heat budget

text: Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the Earth as part of subduction.

text: Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as

text: transform

text: (or conservative) boundaries

text: Earthquakes

text: result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the Earth as part of subduction.

text: An extensional fault is a fault that vertically thins and horizontally extends portions of the Earth's crust and/or lithosphere. In most cases such a fault is also a normal fault, but may be rotated to have a shallower geometry normally associated with a thrust fault. Extensional faults are generally planar and, so long as the stress field is oriented with the maximum stress direction orthogonal to the Earth's surface initiate with a dip of 60° typically continuing down to the base of the seismogenic layer.

text: An extensional fault is a fault that vertically thins and horizontally extends portions of the

text: Earth's crust

text: and/or

text: lithosphere

text: . In most cases such a fault is also a

text: normal fault

text: , but may be rotated to have a shallower geometry normally associated with a

text: thrust fault

text: . Extensional faults are generally planar and, so long as the

text: stress field

text: is oriented with the maximum stress direction orthogonal to the Earth's surface initiate with a dip of 60° typically continuing down to the base of the

text: seismogenic layer

text: In Superman and Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut, Superman's speed was shown as fast enough to reverse the timestream. In Superman II and Superman IV: The Quest for Peace, he possessed the ability to erase Lois Lane's (Margot Kidder) memory of the knowledge that he is Clark Kent by passionately kissing her. The kiss put her in a trance-like state and when she awoke, she remembered nothing but felt disoriented. Nevertheless, she remained undaunted and was in a sexually invigorated state. Because the three Kryptonian villains of the movie had the ability to shoot beams from their hands, Superman presumably would have the same power. In Superman III, he was able to create a diamond from coal using super strength and raising his heat temperature with a glowing yellow flash from his hand. In Superman IV: The Quest for Peace, he demonstrates the ability to repair damaged structures with a telekinetic beam from his eyes, and to levitate several falling people; he also shows a greater extension of his superhuman strength to draw the moon out of orbit and then return it to normal. In Superman Returns, Superman is shown to possess enough invulnerability to stare unblinkingly as a gun is fired point blank at his eye and receive no damage at all. Kryptonite only visibly exhausts him and makes him more physically vulnerable. By flying above the clouds and into the rays of the sun, he gained enough amplified strength to lift Lex Luthor's kryptonite-based sub-continent beyond the Earth's atmosphere and into space, despite the Kryptonite shard in his body and the Kryptonite pillars coming from the continent, though this severely weakens him and he falls back down to Earth in a coma. (However, the sub-continent was only poisoned with Kryptonite, not actually fully formed from it - the gigantic island was made from the crystal of Superman's homeworld.)

text: In

text: Superman

text: and

text: Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut

text: , Superman's speed was shown as fast enough to reverse the

text: timestream

text: . In

text: Superman II

text: and

text: Superman IV: The Quest for Peace

text: , he possessed the ability to erase

text: Lois Lane

text: 's (

text: Margot Kidder

text: ) memory of the knowledge that he is Clark Kent by passionately kissing her. The kiss put her in a trance-like state and when she awoke, she remembered nothing but felt disoriented. Nevertheless, she remained undaunted and was in a sexually invigorated state. Because the three Kryptonian villains of the movie had the ability to shoot beams from their hands, Superman presumably would have the same power. In

text: Superman III

text: , he was able to create a diamond from coal using super strength and raising his heat temperature with a glowing yellow flash from his hand. In Superman IV: The Quest for Peace, he demonstrates the ability to repair damaged structures with a telekinetic beam from his eyes, and to levitate several falling people; he also shows a greater extension of his superhuman strength to draw the moon out of orbit and then return it to normal. In

text: Superman Returns

text: , Superman is shown to possess enough invulnerability to stare unblinkingly as a gun is fired point blank at his eye and receive no damage at all. Kryptonite only visibly exhausts him and makes him more physically vulnerable. By flying above the clouds and into the rays of the sun, he gained enough amplified strength to lift Lex Luthor's kryptonite-based sub-continent beyond the Earth's atmosphere and into space, despite the Kryptonite shard in his body and the Kryptonite pillars coming from the continent, though this severely weakens him and he falls back down to Earth in a coma. (However, the sub-continent was only poisoned with Kryptonite, not actually fully formed from it - the gigantic island was made from the crystal of Superman's homeworld.)

text: Pangaea has tremendously affected the setup of the world now. We live in a post Pangaea time period where the reconfiguration of continents and oceans has changed the climate of many areas. There is scientific evidence that proves that climate was drastically altered. When the continents separated and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific reasoning behind all of the changes is Continental Drift. The theory of Continental Drift, created by Alfred Wegener, explained how the continents shifted Earth’s surface and how that affected many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and animal fossils. Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of Svalbard, Norway. He determined that such plants were not meant to adapt to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from tropical plants that were meant to adapt and thrive in warmer and tropical climate. Because we would not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place we suspect that Svalbard possibly had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.

text: Pangaea has tremendously affected the setup of the world now. We live in a post Pangaea time period where the reconfiguration of continents and oceans has changed the climate of many areas. There is scientific evidence that proves that climate was drastically altered. When the continents separated and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific reasoning behind all of the changes is

text: Continental Drift

text: . The theory of Continental Drift, created by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: , explained how the continents shifted Earth’s surface and how that affected many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and animal fossils. Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of

text: Svalbard

text: Norway

text: . He determined that such plants were not meant to adapt to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from tropical plants that were meant to adapt and thrive in warmer and tropical climate. Because we would not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place we suspect that Svalbard possibly had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.

text: The Trans-Hudson orogen sutured together the Hearne-Rae, Superior, and Wyoming cratons to form the cratonic core of North America in a network of Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts. These orogenic belts include the margins of at least nine independent microcontinents that were themselves sections of at least three former major supercontinents, including Laurasia, Pangaea and Kenorland (ca. 2.7 Ga), and contain parts of some of the oldest cratonic continental crust on Earth.  These old cratonic blocks, along with accreted island arc terranes and intraoceanic deposits from earlier Proterozoic and Mesozoic oceans and seaways, were sutured together in the Trans-Hudson Orogen (THO) and resulted in extensive folding and thrust faulting along with metamorphism and hundreds of huge granitic intrusions.

text: The Trans-Hudson orogen sutured together the

text: Hearne

text: Rae

text: Superior

text: , and

text: Wyoming

text: cratons

text: to form the cratonic core of North America in a network of Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts. These orogenic belts include the margins of at least nine independent

text: microcontinents

text: that were themselves sections of at least three former major supercontinents, including

text: Laurasia

text: Pangaea

text: and

text: Kenorland

text: (ca. 2.7

text: Ga

text: ), and contain parts of some of the oldest cratonic

text: continental crust

text: on

text: Earth

text: .  These old cratonic blocks, along with accreted

text: island arc

text: terrane

text: s and

text: intraoceanic

text: deposits from earlier Proterozoic and

text: Mesozoic

text: oceans and seaways, were sutured together in the Trans-Hudson Orogen (THO) and resulted in extensive folding and

text: thrust fault

text: ing along with metamorphism and hundreds of huge

text: granitic

text: intrusion

text: s.

text: The San Andreas Fault System has been the subject of a flood of studies. In particular, scientific research performed during the last 23 years has given rise to about 3,400 publications.

text: Within Earth's crust, iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa, though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of iridium. Smaller reserves are found in the United States. Iridium is also found in secondary deposits, combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department of Colombia are still a source for platinum-group metals.  As of 2003, the world reserves had not been estimated.

text: Within Earth's crust, iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the

text: Bushveld igneous complex

text: in

text: South Africa

text: , though the large copper–nickel deposits near

text: Norilsk

text: in

text: Russia

text: , and the

text: Sudbury Basin

text: in

text: Canada

text: are also significant sources of iridium. Smaller reserves are found in the United States. Iridium is also found in secondary deposits, combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in

text: alluvial

text: deposits. The alluvial deposits used by

text: pre-Columbian

text: people in the

text: Chocó Department

text: of

text: Colombia

text: are still a source for platinum-group metals.  As of 2003, the world reserves had not been estimated.

text: Columnar jointing is a geological structure where sets of intersecting closely spaced fractures, referred to as joints, result in the formation of a regular array of polygonal prisms, or columns. Columnar jointing occurs in many types of volcanic rocks and forms as the rock cools and contracts. Columnar jointing can occur in cooling lava flows and ashflow tuffs (ignimbrites), as well as in some shallow intrusions.

text: Columnar jointing is a geological structure where sets of intersecting closely spaced fractures, referred to as

text: joints

text: , result in the formation of a regular array of polygonal

text: prisms

text: , or columns. Columnar jointing occurs in many types of

text: volcanic rock

text: s and forms as the rock cools and contracts. Columnar jointing can occur in cooling

text: lava flows

text: and ashflow

text: tuff

text: s (

text: ignimbrite

text: s), as well as in some shallow

text: intrusion

text: s.

text: The Angoumian forms part of two very open synclines striking NW-SE (the Combiers-Saint-Crépin-de-Richemont syncline in the NE) and WNW-ESE (the Gout-Rossignol-Léguillac synline in the SW) respectively. The group is therefore mainly flat-lying, yet in some places (like near Champeaux it dips 5° to the SW. Only near Beaussac a greater dip (of about 30°) can be found caused by local faulting. Nearby in the Aucors quarry, a  slump overlies the rudist reef, followed by a grain flow. These synsedimentary structures point to a tectonically disturbed setting possibly related to the rising Mareuil Anticline. Small strike-slip faults can be observed near Brantôme which mostly show a horizontal movement direction pointing to the SSE, rarely to the SE. There is also a fairly common occurrence of slickolites (a special kind of stylolite), which indicate the direction of pressure solution in the rock. This direction is mostly vertical, i.e. merely representing the overburden of the overlying strata. Yet significant aberrations from this direction can be observed as well, proving that the group was also under the influence of directional stresses.

text: The Angoumian forms part of two very open

text: syncline

text: s striking NW-SE (the Combiers-Saint-Crépin-de-Richemont syncline in the NE) and WNW-ESE (the Gout-Rossignol-Léguillac synline in the SW) respectively. The group is therefore mainly flat-lying, yet in some places (like near

text: Champeaux

text: it dips 5° to the SW. Only near

text: Beaussac

text: a greater dip (of about 30°) can be found caused by local faulting. Nearby in the Aucors quarry, a

text: slump

text: overlies the rudist reef, followed by a

text: grain flow

text: . These synsedimentary structures point to a tectonically disturbed setting possibly related to the rising

text: Mareuil Anticline

text: . Small

text: strike-slip

text: faults can be observed near Brantôme which mostly show a horizontal movement direction pointing to the SSE, rarely to the SE. There is also a fairly common occurrence of

text: slickolite

text: s (a special kind of

text: stylolite

text: ), which indicate the direction of

text: pressure solution

text: in the rock. This direction is mostly vertical, i.e. merely representing the overburden of the overlying strata. Yet significant aberrations from this direction can be observed as well, proving that the group was also under the influence of directional stresses.

text: The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth's crust is extensive (73% of the Earth's current land surface), but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8% of the total volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding. The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other structures. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels, drinking water or ores.

text: The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the

text: Earth's crust

text: is extensive (73% of the Earth's current land surface), but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8% of the total volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of

text: igneous

text: and

text: metamorphic rock

text: s. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as

text: strata

text: , forming a structure called

text: bedding

text: . The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for

text: civil engineering

text: , for example in the construction of

text: road

text: s,

text: house

text: s,

text: tunnel

text: s,

text: canal

text: s or other structures. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of

text: natural resource

text: s like

text: coal

text: fossil fuel

text: s,

text: drinking water

text: or

text: ore

text: s.

text: The collision of India with Asia is the latest major tectonic event to affect deformation in the Tian Shan. Thrust faulting is the predominant style of Cenozoic deformation in the Tian Shan, which propagated outward and rose progressively as a wedge-shaped block. Dextral NW-SE trending strike slip faults either merge with or crosscut east-west trending thrust systems. The Talas-Fergana Fault is the longest of these structures. Active deformation in the Tian Shan is the result of compressional stresses generated at the Indo-Asia collisional zone, where the Himalayas formed and continue to grow. Active deformation is observed in the Tian Shan, which is within Asia’s continental interior, because Asia is not as internally rigid as the continental crust is expected to be.

text: The collision of

text: India

text: with

text: Asia

text: is the latest major tectonic event to affect deformation in the Tian Shan.

text: Thrust faulting

text: is the predominant style of

text: Cenozoic

text: deformation in the Tian Shan, which propagated outward and rose progressively as a wedge-shaped block.

text: Dextral

text: NW-SE trending

text: strike slip faults

text: either merge with or crosscut east-west trending

text: thrust systems

text: . The

text: Talas-Fergana Fault

text: is the longest of these structures. Active deformation in the Tian Shan is the result of compressional stresses generated at the Indo-Asia collisional zone, where the Himalayas formed and continue to grow. Active deformation is observed in the Tian Shan, which is within Asia’s continental interior, because Asia is not as internally rigid as the continental crust is expected to be.

text: Sites such as the Wopmay Orogen provide evidence for early and ongoing plate tectonics. Traces of old oceanic crust, island arcs, and colliding continents indicate that the same forces at work today have been at work in the early Proterozoic and probably earlier. Alignments of magnetic particles in rocks demonstrate that continents were drifting across the surface of the Earth relative to the magnetic poles then as now, and that the ocean floor was rifting and subducting, all at least 1.5 billion years ago. This crust cycling is referred to as the supercontinent cycle.

text: Sites such as the Wopmay Orogen provide evidence for early and ongoing

text: plate tectonics

text: . Traces of old

text: oceanic crust

text: island arcs

text: , and

text: colliding continents

text: indicate that the same forces at work today have been at work in the early Proterozoic and probably earlier. Alignments of magnetic particles in rocks demonstrate that continents were drifting across the surface of the Earth relative to the magnetic poles then as now, and that the ocean floor was rifting and subducting, all at least 1.5 billion years ago. This crust cycling is referred to as the

text: supercontinent cycle

text: North of U.S. Route 250 west of Durbin, the same structural fold of the Earth's crust that forms Back Allegheny Mountain continues north as Shavers Mountain for an additional .

text: North of

text: U.S. Route 250

text: west of

text: Durbin

text: , the same structural fold of the Earth's crust that forms Back Allegheny Mountain continues north as

text: Shavers Mountain

text: for an additional .

text: Flat slab subduction is characterized by a low subduction angle (<30 degrees to horizontal) beyond the seismogenic zone and a resumption of normal subduction far from the trench. A slab is slang for the subducting lower plate. Although, some would characterize flat slab subduction as any shallowly dipping lower plate as in western Mexico. Flat slab subduction is associated with the pinching out of the asthenosphere, an inland migration of arc magmatism (magmatic sweep), and an eventual cessation of arc magmatism. The coupling of the flat slab to the upper plate is thought to change the style of deformation occurring on the upper plate's surface and form basement-cored uplifts like the Rocky Mountains. The flat slab also may hydrate the lower continental lithosphere and be involved in the formation of economically important ore deposits. The failure of a flat slab is associated with ignimbritic volcanism and the reverse migration of arc volcanism. Multiple working hypotheses about the cause of flat slabs are subduction of thick, buoyant oceanic crust (15–20 km) and  trench rollback accompanying a rapidly overriding upper plate  and enhanced trench suction. The west coast of South America has two of the largest flat slab subduction zones. Flat slab subduction is occurring at 10% of subduction zones.

text: Flat slab

text: subduction

text: is characterized by a low

text: subduction

text: angle (<30 degrees to horizontal) beyond the

text: seismogenic zone

text: and a resumption of normal subduction far from the

text: trench

text: . A slab is slang for the subducting lower

text: plate

text: . Although, some would characterize flat slab

text: subduction

text: as any shallowly dipping lower

text: plate

text: as in western

text: Mexico

text: . Flat slab

text: subduction

text: is associated with the pinching out of the

text: asthenosphere

text: , an inland migration of arc

text: magmatism

text: (magmatic sweep), and an eventual cessation of arc

text: magmatism

text: . The coupling of the flat slab to the upper plate is thought to change the style of

text: deformation

text: occurring on the upper plate's surface and form basement-cored uplifts like the

text: Rocky Mountains

text: . The flat slab also may hydrate the lower continental lithosphere and be involved in the formation of economically important

text: ore

text: deposits. The failure of a flat slab is associated with

text: ignimbritic

text: volcanism and the reverse migration of arc volcanism. Multiple working hypotheses about the cause of flat slabs are subduction of thick, buoyant

text: oceanic crust

text: (15–20 km) and  trench rollback accompanying a rapidly overriding upper plate  and enhanced trench suction. The west coast of South America has two of the largest flat slab subduction zones. Flat slab subduction is occurring at 10% of subduction zones.

text: In breed standards, the term fault does not imply that a dog with a fault cannot be a good companion; it is merely an indication that dogs with faults should not be chosen for breeding unless the dog has desirable qualities that outweigh the fault. Faults may be minor, such as a color the breed club has decided is undesirable, or the fault may be major, such as structural problems that would prevent the dog from doing the work for which it was bred. Fault is used to describe an aspect of appearance or temperament that is considered by the breed club to be detrimental to the breed type of the breed, and dogs with major faults will not finish a kennel club conformation championship.

text: In breed standards, the term fault does not imply that a dog with a fault cannot be a good companion; it is merely an indication that dogs with faults should not be chosen for breeding unless the dog has desirable qualities that outweigh the fault. Faults may be minor, such as a color the breed club has decided is undesirable, or the fault may be major, such as structural problems that would prevent the dog from doing the work for which it was bred. Fault is used to describe an aspect of appearance or temperament that is considered by the breed club to be detrimental to the

text: breed type

text: of the breed, and dogs with major faults will not finish a kennel club conformation

text: championship

text: The shape of the flat slab is constrained through earthquakes within the subducting slab and the interface between the upper plate and the subducting slab. Flat slab zones along the Andean margin release 3-5 times more energy through upper plate earthquakes than adjacent, more steeply dipping subduction zones. Upper plate earthquake focal mechanisms indicate that stress is aligned parallel with motion of the plate, and that stress is transmitted high into the upper plate from the lower. The reason for this enhanced seismicity is more effective coupling of the upper and lower plates. In normal subduction zones the coupling interface, the area in which the two plates are in close proximity, between the two plates is ~100–200 km long, but in flat slab subduction zones the coupling interface is much longer, 400–500 km. Although the lower lithosphere of the upper deforms plastically, numerical modeling has shown stress can be transmitted to crustal regions which behave in a brittle fashion. Along the subducting plate seismicity is more variable, especially intermediate-depth earthquakes. The variability may be controlled by the thickness of the crust and how efficiently it can release water. Thick crust that is not as deeply fractured by trench rise normal faulting may not dehydrate rapidly enough to induce intermediate-depth earthquakes. The Peruvian flat slab lacks significant intermediate-depth earthquakes and is associated with the subduction of the ~17 km thick Nazca Ridge.

text: The shape of the flat slab is constrained through

text: earthquake

text: s within the subducting slab and the interface between the upper plate and the subducting slab. Flat slab zones along the Andean margin release 3-5 times more energy through upper plate earthquakes than adjacent, more steeply dipping subduction zones. Upper plate earthquake focal mechanisms indicate that stress is aligned parallel with motion of the plate, and that stress is transmitted high into the upper plate from the lower. The reason for this enhanced seismicity is more effective coupling of the upper and lower plates. In normal subduction zones the coupling interface, the area in which the two plates are in close proximity, between the two plates is ~100–200 km long, but in flat slab subduction zones the coupling interface is much longer, 400–500 km. Although the lower lithosphere of the upper deforms plastically, numerical modeling has shown stress can be transmitted to crustal regions which behave in a brittle fashion. Along the subducting plate seismicity is more variable, especially intermediate-depth earthquakes. The variability may be controlled by the thickness of the crust and how efficiently it can release water. Thick crust that is not as deeply fractured by trench rise

text: normal fault

text: ing may not dehydrate rapidly enough to induce intermediate-depth earthquakes. The Peruvian flat slab lacks significant intermediate-depth earthquakes and is associated with the subduction of the ~17 km thick Nazca Ridge.

text: The typing speed can be increased gradually and speeds of 60 WPM or higher can be achieved. The rate of speed increase varies between individuals. Many websites and software products are available to learn touch typing and many of these are free. Learning touch typing can be stressful both to the fingers as well as the mind in the beginning, but once it is learned to a decent level, it exerts minimal stress on the fingers. For individuals with past typing experience, learning to touch type is particularly difficult due to motivational reasons: the initial performance level in touch typing is far lower than in visually guided typing; therefore it does not initially seem worthwhile to study touch typing.

text: The Southern Uplands Fault (or occasionally Southern Upland Fault) is a fault in Scotland that runs from Girvan (or more specifically from the Rhins of Galloway) to Dunbar on the East coast. It marks the southern boundary of the Scottish Midland Valley and the northern margin of the Southern Uplands; indeed it is recognised as a boundary between these two terranes. Both sinistral and dextral strike-slip movement is recorded from parts of the fault as are down-north and down-south normal movements suggestive of a complex history.

text: The Southern Uplands Fault (or occasionally Southern Upland Fault) is a

text: fault

text: in

text: Scotland

text: that runs from

text: Girvan

text: (or more specifically from the

text: Rhins of Galloway

text: ) to

text: Dunbar

text: on the East coast. It marks the southern boundary of the Scottish

text: Midland Valley

text: and the northern margin of the

text: Southern Uplands

text: ; indeed it is recognised as a boundary between these two

text: terrane

text: s. Both

text: sinistral

text: and

text: dextral

text: strike-slip

text: movement is recorded from parts of the fault as are down-north and down-south

text: normal movements

text: suggestive of a complex history.

text: Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have differentiated from an aggregate of planetesimals into its core, mantle and crust within about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. The primordial crust was very thin and was probably recycled by much more vigorous plate tectonics and destroyed by significant asteroid impacts, which were much more common in the early stages of the solar system.

text: Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have differentiated from an aggregate of

text: planetesimals

text: into its core, mantle and crust within about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. The

text: primordial

text: crust was very thin and was probably recycled by much more vigorous

text: plate tectonics

text: and destroyed by significant

text: asteroid

text: impacts, which were much more common in the early stages of the solar system.

text: The inhomogeneity and structural complexity of continental crust causes faults to deviate from a straight course and frequently causes bends or step-overs in fault paths.  Bends and step-overs of adjacent faults become favorable locations for extensional and compressional stress or transtension and transpression stress, if the shear motion is oblique.  Pull-apart basins form in extensional to transtensional environments along fault bends or between two adjacent left-lateral faults or two right-lateral faults.  The step-over or bend in the fault must be the same direction as sense of motion on the fault otherwise the area will be subject to transpression.

text: The inhomogeneity and structural complexity of

text: continental crust

text: causes faults to deviate from a straight course and frequently causes bends or step-overs in fault paths.  Bends and step-overs of adjacent faults become favorable locations for extensional and compressional stress or

text: transtension

text: and

text: transpression

text: stress, if the

text: shear

text: motion is oblique.  Pull-apart basins form in extensional to transtensional environments along fault bends or between two adjacent left-lateral faults or two right-lateral faults.  The step-over or bend in the fault must be the same direction as sense of motion on the fault otherwise the area will be subject to transpression.

text: Hardware stress testing and stability are subjective and may vary according to how the system will be used. A stress test for a system running 24/7 or that will perform error sensitive tasks such as distributed computing or 'folding' projects may differ from one that needs to be able to run a single game with reasonably reliability. For example, a comprehensive guide on overclocking Sandy Bridge found that:

text: Hardware stress testing and stability are subjective and may vary according to how the system will be used. A stress test for a system running 24/7 or that will perform error sensitive tasks such as

text: distributed computing

text: or

text: 'folding' projects

text: may differ from one that needs to be able to run a single game with reasonably reliability. For example, a comprehensive guide on overclocking

text: Sandy Bridge

text: found that:

text: North of the DDMFZ (and west of the SCF) is the Chuckanut Formation (part of the "Northwest Cascade System" of rocks shown in green on the map), an Eocene sedimentary formation which formed adjacent to the Swauk, Roslyn and other formations (also in green) south of Mount Stuart; their wide separation is attributed to right-lateral strike-slip movement along the SCF. That the northern part of the DDMFZ shows left-lateral strike-slip movement is not the inconsistency it may initially seem – think of the motion on either side of an arrowhead.

text: North of the DDMFZ (and west of the SCF) is the

text: Chuckanut Formation

text: (part of the "Northwest Cascade System" of rocks shown in green on the map), an

text: Eocene

text: sedimentary formation which formed adjacent to the Swauk, Roslyn and other formations (also in green) south of

text: Mount Stuart

text: ; their wide separation is attributed to right-lateral strike-slip movement along the SCF. That the northern part of the DDMFZ shows left-lateral strike-slip movement is not the inconsistency it may initially seem – think of the motion on either side of an arrowhead.

text: Iran suffers from frequent earthquakes, with minor quakes occurring almost daily. This earthquake occurred as a result of stresses generated by the Arabian plate moving northward against the Eurasian plate at approximately  per year. The Earth's crust deforms in response to the plate motion in a broad zone that spans the width of Iran and extends into Turkmenistan. Earthquakes occur as the result of reverse faulting and strike-slip faulting in the zone of deformation.

text: Iran

text: suffers from frequent earthquakes, with minor quakes occurring almost daily. This earthquake occurred as a result of stresses generated by the

text: Arabian plate

text: moving northward against the

text: Eurasian plate

text: at approximately  per year. The

text: Earth

text: 's crust deforms in response to the plate motion in a broad zone that spans the width of Iran and extends into

text: Turkmenistan

text: . Earthquakes occur as the result of

text: reverse

text: faulting and

text: strike-slip

text: faulting in the zone of deformation.

text: When the San Andreas Fault originally formed, tension on the North American Plate grew. The plate buckled and began uplifting similar to swelling in nearly all portions of the west. Numerous faults were created as a result; geologic blocks that rose and fell over and over again in patterns and in sequences. The extension of surface led to cracks which formed many independent faults. This is the creation of the Basin and Range Province. Sometimes these faults created a pathway, which molten rock could flow up to the surface creating cinder cone volcanoes. The Los Angeles Area has a few volcanoes that formed. Along Route 66 in Amboy, California is the extinct volcano Amboy Crater called that is estimated to be aged at 80,000 years. It's a relatively new speaking in geologic terms, but heavily eroded by wind. While driving along Interstate 40, lava fields are seen that can stretch for miles. Within Death Valley National Park another, much larger cinder cone volcano called Ubehebe Crater. It is extremely young, although many geologist dispute the numbers with some estimates as old as 10,000 years with recent ages such as 800 years. One thing is for sure, that this volcano is still very active and can erupt. Luckily, because of its location, will likely not effect many people. Within Orange County, lava flows and dikes can be seen in El Modena, California although no actual crater can be seen. Likely because either it has been totally eroded or it was formed in a small fissure, which would explain why it's so localized.

text: When the San Andreas Fault originally formed, tension on the North American Plate grew. The plate buckled and began uplifting similar to swelling in nearly all portions of the west. Numerous faults were created as a result; geologic blocks that rose and fell over and over again in patterns and in sequences. The extension of surface led to cracks which formed many independent faults. This is the creation of the

text: Basin and Range Province

text: . Sometimes these faults created a pathway, which molten rock could flow up to the surface creating

text: cinder cone

text: volcanoes. The Los Angeles Area has a few volcanoes that formed. Along

text: Route 66

text: in

text: Amboy, California

text: is the extinct volcano

text: Amboy Crater

text: called that is estimated to be aged at 80,000 years. It's a relatively new speaking in geologic terms, but heavily eroded by wind. While driving along

text: Interstate 40

text: , lava fields are seen that can stretch for miles. Within

text: Death Valley National Park

text: another, much larger cinder cone volcano called

text: Ubehebe Crater

text: . It is extremely young, although many geologist dispute the numbers with some estimates as old as 10,000 years with recent ages such as 800 years. One thing is for sure, that this volcano is still very active and can erupt. Luckily, because of its location, will likely not effect many people. Within Orange County,

text: lava flows

text: and

text: dikes

text: can be seen in

text: El Modena, California

text: although no actual crater can be seen. Likely because either it has been totally eroded or it was formed in a small fissure, which would explain why it's so localized.

text: Many thousand years of dormancy are expected between large explosive eruptions of volcanoes in the Garibaldi Belt. A possible explanation for the lower rates of volcanism in the Garibaldi chain is that the associated terrain is being compressed in contrast to the more southern portions of the Cascade Arc. In continental rift zones, magma is able to push its way up through the Earth's crust rapidly along faults, providing less chance for differentiation. This is likely the case south of Mount Hood to the California border and east-southeast of the massive Newberry shield volcano adjacent to the Cascade Range in central Oregon because the Brothers Fault Zone lies in this region. This rift zone might explain the massive amounts of basaltic lava in this part of the central Cascade Arc. A low convergence rate in a compressional setting with massive stationary bodies of magma under the surface could explain the low volume and differentiated magmas throughout the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. In 1958, Canadian volcanologist Bill Mathews proposed there could be a connection between regional glaciation of the North American continent during glacial periods and higher rates of volcanic activity during regional glacial unload of the continent. However, this is hard to predict due to the infrequent geological record in this region. But there is specific data, including the temporal grouping of eruptions synglacially or just postglacial within the Garibaldi Belt, that suggests this could be probable.

text: Many thousand years of dormancy are expected between large

text: explosive eruption

text: s of volcanoes in the Garibaldi Belt. A possible explanation for the lower rates of volcanism in the Garibaldi chain is that the associated

text: terrain

text: is being compressed in contrast to the more southern portions of the Cascade Arc. In continental

text: rift

text: zones, magma is able to push its way up through the Earth's crust rapidly along faults, providing less chance for differentiation. This is likely the case south of

text: Mount Hood

text: to the

text: California

text: border and east-southeast of the massive

text: Newberry shield volcano

text: adjacent to the

text: Cascade Range

text: in central

text: Oregon

text: because the

text: Brothers Fault Zone

text: lies in this region. This rift zone might explain the massive amounts of basaltic lava in this part of the central Cascade Arc. A low convergence rate in a compressional setting with massive stationary bodies of magma under the surface could explain the low volume and differentiated magmas throughout the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. In 1958, Canadian volcanologist

text: Bill Mathews

text: proposed there could be a connection between regional glaciation of the North American continent during

text: glacial period

text: s and higher rates of volcanic activity during regional glacial unload of the continent. However, this is hard to predict due to the infrequent geological record in this region. But there is specific data, including the temporal grouping of eruptions synglacially or just postglacial within the Garibaldi Belt, that suggests this could be probable.

text: When rock units are placed under horizontal compression, they shorten and become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds, do not significantly change in volume, this is accomplished in two primary ways: through faulting and folding. In the shallow crust, where brittle deformation can occur, thrust faults form, which cause deeper rock to move on top of shallower rock. Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the principle of superposition, this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along faults can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically, and fold instead of faulting. These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating "antiforms", or where it buckles downwards, creating "synforms". If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called anticlines and synclines, respectively. If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms and synforms.

text: When rock units are placed under horizontal

text: compression

text: , they shorten and become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds,

text: do not significantly change in volume

text: , this is accomplished in two primary ways: through

text: faulting

text: and

text: folding

text: . In the shallow crust, where

text: brittle deformation

text: can occur, thrust faults form, which cause deeper rock to move on top of shallower rock. Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the

text: principle of superposition

text: , this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along faults can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically, and fold instead of faulting. These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating "

text: antiform

text: s", or where it buckles downwards, creating "

text: synform

text: s". If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called

text: anticline

text: s and

text: syncline

text: s, respectively. If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms and synforms.

text: The Azores Plateau began to form around 10 Ma, and is characterized by isotopic and elemental variations indicative of large heterogeneities in the mantle beneath it.  There is also evidence of only one magmatic source, and no interaction with other volcanic systems.  Additionally, the presence of thick crust and complex volcano-tectonic fabric implies the plateau developed through the migration of the Terceira Rift towards the NE, causing a constant position over a fixed hotspot. As previously mentioned, the Azores hotspot is thought to be the primary source for the excess magmatism along the Terceira Rift, resulting in the anomalously high relief of along-strike topography, and is considered to be sampling a relatively undegassed, primitive reservoir.  Lines of evidence for the plume-shaped structure in this area include mantle seismic anomalies, bathymetry and gravity anomalies, and plume noble gas signatures associated with the hotspot.  However, there is also a possibility the increased magmatic activity on the Terceira Rift is a partial result of the involvement with the rift-rift-rift triple junction between the Eurasian, African, and North American plates.

text: The Azores Plateau began to form around 10 Ma, and is characterized by isotopic and elemental variations indicative of large heterogeneities in the mantle beneath it.  There is also evidence of only one magmatic source, and no interaction with other volcanic systems.  Additionally, the presence of thick crust and complex volcano-tectonic fabric implies the plateau developed through the migration of the Terceira Rift towards the NE, causing a constant position over a fixed hotspot. As previously mentioned, the Azores hotspot is thought to be the primary source for the excess magmatism along the Terceira Rift, resulting in the anomalously high relief of along-strike topography, and is considered to be sampling a relatively undegassed, primitive reservoir.  Lines of evidence for the plume-shaped structure in this area include mantle seismic anomalies, bathymetry and gravity anomalies, and plume noble gas signatures associated with the hotspot.  However, there is also a possibility the increased magmatic activity on the Terceira Rift is a partial result of the involvement with the rift-rift-rift

text: triple junction

text: between the Eurasian, African, and North American plates.

text: West of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate. This process has formed the Andean Volcanic Belt, which is subdivided into the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone. These belts have different underlying crusts and have thus different typical magma compositions. These volcanic zones are separated from each other by zones where there is no volcanism, associated with a shallow dip of the seismic zone of the subducting plate.

text: West of

text: South America

text: , the

text: Nazca Plate

text: subduct

text: s beneath the

text: South America Plate

text: . This process has formed the

text: Andean Volcanic Belt

text: , which is subdivided into the

text: Northern Volcanic Zone

text: , the Central Volcanic Zone and the

text: Southern Volcanic Zone

text: . These belts have different underlying crusts and have thus different typical magma compositions. These volcanic zones are separated from each other by zones where there is no volcanism, associated with a shallow dip of the seismic zone of the subducting plate.

text: Underplating is the accumulation of partial melts at the base of the crust where an ocean plate is subducting under continental crust. Underplating is the result of partial melts being produced in the mantle wedge above a subducting plate. The partial melting is induced by a lowering of the melting temperature, the solidus, by the input of water and other volatiles supplied by phase transitions in the subducting slab. When the buoyant partial melt rises upwards through the mantle, it will usually stall at the base of the crust and pond there. This is because the crust is usually less dense than the underplating magma, and this is the point at which the ascending magma reaches a level of neutral buoyancy.

text: Underplating is the accumulation of partial melts at the base of the

text: crust

text: where an ocean

text: plate

text: is

text: subducting

text: under continental

text: crust

text: . Underplating is the result of partial melts being produced in the

text: mantle wedge

text: above a

text: subducting

text: plate

text: . The partial melting is induced by a lowering of the melting temperature, the

text: solidus

text: , by the input of water and other volatiles supplied by

text: phase transition

text: s in the subducting

text: slab

text: . When the buoyant partial melt rises upwards through the

text: mantle

text: , it will usually stall at the base of the

text: crust

text: and pond there. This is because the crust is usually less dense than the underplating

text: magma

text: , and this is the point at which the ascending magma reaches a level of neutral buoyancy.

text: Inversion tectonics is recognised to form as a result of: <br>1 Regional temporal variations in stress patterns within plates, resulting from forces caused by changes in plate boundary configuration, the blocking of subduction zones by buoyant crust (collision) and changes in relative motion at nearby plate boundaries.

text: Siletzia corresponds geographically to the Coast Range Volcanic Province (or Coast Range basalts), but is distinguished from slightly younger basalts that erupted after Siletzia accreted to the continent and differ in chemical composition.  The Siletzia basalts are tholeiitic, a characteristic of mantle-derived magma erupted from a spreading ridge between plates of oceanic crust. The younger basalts are alkalic or calc-alkaline, characteristic of magmas derived from a subduction zone. This change of composition reflects a change from marine to continental volcanism that becomes evident around 48 to 42 Ma (millions of years ago), and is attributed to the accretion of Siletzia against the North American continent.

text: Siletzia corresponds geographically to the Coast Range Volcanic Province (or Coast Range basalts), but is distinguished from slightly younger basalts that erupted after Siletzia accreted to the continent and differ in chemical composition.  The Siletzia basalts are

text: tholeiitic

text: , a characteristic of

text: mantle

text: -derived magma erupted from a

text: spreading ridge

text: between plates of oceanic crust. The younger basalts are alkalic or

text: calc-alkaline

text: , characteristic of magmas derived from a

text: subduction zone

text: . This change of composition reflects a change from marine to continental volcanism that becomes evident around 48 to 42

text: Ma

text: (millions of years ago), and is attributed to the accretion of Siletzia against the

text: North America

text: n continent.

text: Epigenetics may play a role in a wide array of vascular complications and in diabetes. The epigenetic variations involved with diabetes can change chromatin structure as well as gene expression. Regardless of whether glycemic control has been achieved through treatment these epigenetic mechanisms are lasting and do not change with the alteration of diet. The most common vascular complication in patients with Type 2 Diabetes is retinopathy which causes many patients to go blind. Studies showed that retinal damage persisted even after the reversal of hyperglycemia in dogs. Studies with streptozotocin injected Type 1 diabetes rats showed that the re-institution of glycemic control after a short period of hyperglycemia had protective effects in the eyes, including reduction in parameters of oxidant stress and inflammation. However, specimens with prolonged diabetes failed to show similar protection. It was then seen with endothelial cells (which line blood vessels) cultured in high glucose that there was a sustained increase in the expression of key extracellular and pro-fibrotic genes and persistently increased oxidant stress, after subsequent glucose normalization. These studies show that the deleterious effects of prior hyperglycemic exposure have long-lasting effects on target organs even after subsequent glycaemic control underscoring the beneficial effects of intensive glycemic control in diabetes. The persistence of these symptoms points to epigenesis as an underlying cause.

text: Epigenetics may play a role in a wide array of

text: vascular complication

text: s and in diabetes. The epigenetic variations involved with diabetes can change

text: chromatin structure

text: as well as gene expression. Regardless of whether glycemic control has been achieved through treatment these epigenetic mechanisms are lasting and do not change with the alteration of diet. The most common vascular complication in patients with Type 2 Diabetes is

text: retinopathy

text: which causes many patients to go blind. Studies showed that retinal damage persisted even after the reversal of

text: hyperglycemia

text: in dogs. Studies with

text: streptozotocin

text: injected

text: Type 1 diabetes

text: rats showed that the re-institution of glycemic control after a short period of hyperglycemia had protective effects in the eyes, including reduction in parameters of

text: oxidant stress

text: and inflammation. However, specimens with prolonged diabetes failed to show similar protection. It was then seen with

text: endothelial cells

text: (which line blood vessels) cultured in high glucose that there was a sustained increase in the expression of key extracellular and

text: pro-fibrotic

text: genes and persistently increased oxidant stress, after subsequent glucose normalization. These studies show that the deleterious effects of prior hyperglycemic exposure have long-lasting effects on target organs even after subsequent glycaemic control underscoring the beneficial effects of intensive glycemic control in diabetes. The persistence of these symptoms points to epigenesis as an underlying cause.

text: New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Indo-Australian and Pacific Plates. In the North Island the displacement is mainly taken up along the Hikurangi Subduction Zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the North Island Fault System (NIFS). Both earthquakes are believed to have occurred along the Hikurangi Subduction Zone, in close proximity to each other. Both earthquakes generated tsunami, caused by the sudden release of energy from the Earth's crust.

text: New Zealand

text: lies along the boundary between the

text: Indo-Australian

text: and

text: Pacific Plate

text: s. In the

text: North Island

text: the displacement is mainly taken up along the Hikurangi Subduction Zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the North Island Fault System (NIFS). Both earthquakes are believed to have occurred along the Hikurangi Subduction Zone, in close proximity to each other. Both earthquakes generated tsunami, caused by the sudden release of energy from the

text: Earth's crust

text: The current mantle plume theory is that material and energy from Earth's interior are exchanged with the surface crust in two distinct modes: the predominant, steady state plate tectonic regime driven by upper mantle convection, and a punctuated, intermittently dominant, mantle overturn regime driven by plume convection. This second regime, while often discontinuous, is periodically significant in mountain building and continental breakup.

text: The Earth's interior radiates heat at a rate of about 47 TW (terawatts), which is less than 0.1% of the incoming solar energy. Part of this heat loss is accounted for by the heat generated upon decay of radioactive isotopes in the Earth interior. The remaining heat loss is due to the secular cooling of the Earth, growth of the Earth’s inner core (gravitational energy and latent heat contributions), and other processes. The most important heat-producing elements are uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K). The debate about their abundances in the Earth has not concluded. Various compositional estimates exist where the total Earth’s internal radiogenic heating rate ranges from as low at ~10 TW to as high as ~30 TW. About 7 TW worth of heat-producing elements reside in the Earth's crust,  the remaining power is distributed in the Earth mantle; the amount of U, Th, and K in the Earth core is probably negligible. Radioactivity in the Earth mantle provides internal heating to power mantle convection, which is the driver of plate tectonics. The amount of mantle radioactivity and its spatial distribution—is the mantle compositionally uniform at large scale or composed of distinct reservoirs?—is of importance to geophysics.

text: The

text: Earth

text: 's interior radiates heat at a rate of about 47 TW (

text: terawatts

text: ), which is less than 0.1% of the incoming solar energy. Part of this heat loss is accounted for by the heat generated upon decay of radioactive isotopes in the Earth interior. The remaining heat loss is due to the secular cooling of the Earth, growth of the Earth’s

text: inner core

text: (gravitational energy and latent heat contributions), and other processes. The most important heat-producing elements are

text: uranium

text: (U),

text: thorium

text: (Th), and

text: potassium

text: (K). The debate about their abundances in the Earth has not concluded. Various compositional estimates exist where the total Earth’s internal radiogenic heating rate ranges from as low at ~10 TW to as high as ~30 TW. About 7 TW worth of heat-producing elements reside in the

text: Earth's crust

text: ,  the remaining power is distributed in the

text: Earth mantle

text: ; the amount of U, Th, and K in the

text: Earth core

text: is probably negligible. Radioactivity in the Earth mantle provides internal heating to power

text: mantle convection

text: , which is the driver of

text: plate tectonics

text: . The amount of mantle radioactivity and its spatial distribution—is the mantle compositionally uniform at large scale or composed of distinct reservoirs?—is of importance to geophysics.

text: Some good examples of shear zones of the strike-slip type are the South Armorican Shear Zone and the North Armorican Shear Zone in Brittany, the North Anatolian Fault Zone in Turkey, and the Dead Sea Fault in Israel. Shear zones of the transform type are the San Andreas Fault in California, and the Alpine Fault in New Zealand. A shear zone of the thrust type is the Moine Thrust in northwestern Scotland. An example for the subduction zone setting is the Japan Median Tectonic Line. Detachment fault related shear zones can be found in southeastern California, e.g. the Whipple Mountain Detachment Fault. An example of a huge anastomosing shear-zone is the Borborema Shear Zone in Brazil.

text: Some good examples of shear zones of the strike-slip type are the

text: South Armorican Shear Zone

text: and the

text: North Armorican Shear Zone

text: in

text: Brittany

text: , the

text: North Anatolian Fault Zone

text: in

text: Turkey

text: , and the

text: Dead Sea Fault

text: in

text: Israel

text: . Shear zones of the transform type are the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: in

text: California

text: , and the

text: Alpine Fault

text: in

text: New Zealand

text: . A shear zone of the thrust type is the

text: Moine Thrust

text: in northwestern

text: Scotland

text: . An example for the subduction zone setting is the

text: Japan Median Tectonic Line

text: . Detachment fault related shear zones can be found in southeastern California, e.g. the

text: Whipple Mountain Detachment Fault

text: . An example of a huge anastomosing shear-zone is the

text: Borborema Shear Zone

text: in

text: Brazil

text: The Management Area includes much of the Tuolumne ultramafic complex, one of the largest exposures of serpentine rocks in the Sierra Nevada metamorphic belt. Nearly the entire area is underlain by dunite, a variety of peridotite consisting of dark green olivine and minor chromite, which has been partly or entirely serpentinized to antigorite magnesite-magnetite. The dunite intruded into andesite pillow breccias and flows of the Peñon Blanco volcanic formation, which crops out near the northeast and southern boundaries of the Management Area. The intrusion of ultramafic material occurred along crustal weaknesses associated with the Bear Mountain fault, a northwestward trending thrust fault that dips steeply to the northeast, and has over 10,000 feet of vertical displacement. The fault zone is on the southwestern boundary of the Management Area, and is believed to have once penetrated the earth's crust down to the mantle, a probable source of the peridotite.

text: The Management Area includes much of the Tuolumne ultramafic complex, one of the largest exposures of

text: serpentine

text: rocks in the Sierra Nevada metamorphic belt. Nearly the entire area is underlain by

text: dunite

text: , a variety of

text: peridotite

text: consisting of dark green

text: olivine

text: and minor

text: chromite

text: , which has been partly or entirely serpentinized to

text: antigorite

text: magnesite

text: magnetite

text: . The dunite intruded into andesite pillow

text: breccia

text: s and flows of the Peñon Blanco volcanic formation, which crops out near the northeast and southern boundaries of the Management Area. The intrusion of

text: ultramafic

text: material occurred along crustal weaknesses associated with the Bear Mountain fault, a northwestward trending

text: thrust fault

text: that dips steeply to the northeast, and has over 10,000 feet of vertical displacement. The fault zone is on the southwestern boundary of the Management Area, and is believed to have once penetrated the earth's crust down to the mantle, a probable source of the peridotite.

text: As tectonic plates converge, the closing of an ocean will result in the convergence of two landmasses, each of which is either an island arc or continental margin. When these two bodies collide, the result is orogenesis, at which time the underthrusting oceanic crust slows down.<ref name="Brown and Spadea 1999">{{cite journal |last=Brown|first=D. |last2=Spadea|first2=P |title = Processes of forearc and accretionary complex formation during arc-continent collision in the southern Ural Mountains |journal = Geology |pages= 649–652|year=2013 |volume=27 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027

text: As tectonic plates converge, the closing of an ocean will result in the convergence of two landmasses, each of which is either an

text: island arc

text: or continental margin. When these two bodies collide, the result is

text: orogenesis

text: , at which time the underthrusting oceanic crust slows down.<ref name="Brown and Spadea 1999">{{cite journal |last=Brown|first=D. |last2=Spadea|first2=P |title = Processes of forearc and accretionary complex formation during arc-continent collision in the southern Ural Mountains |journal = Geology |pages= 649–652|year=2013 |volume=27 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027

text: To fold is to discard one's hand and forfeit interest in the current pot. No further bets are required by the folding player, but the player cannot win.  Folding may be indicated verbally or by discarding one's hand face down into the pile of other discards called the muck, or into the pot (uncommon). For this reason it is also called mucking.  In stud poker played in the United States, it is customary to signal folding by turning all of one's cards face down. Once a person indicates a fold or states  I fold, that person cannot re-enter the hand. In casinos in the United Kingdom, a player folds by giving their hand as is to the "house" dealer, who spreads the cards face up for the other players to see before mucking them.

text: To fold is to discard one's hand and forfeit interest in the current pot. No further bets are required by the folding player, but the player cannot win.  Folding may be indicated verbally or by discarding one's hand face down into the pile of other discards called the muck, or into the pot (uncommon). For this reason it is also called mucking.  In

text: stud poker

text: played in the

text: United States

text: , it is customary to signal folding by turning all of one's cards face down. Once a person indicates a fold or states  I fold, that person cannot re-enter the hand. In

text: casino

text: s in the

text: United Kingdom

text: , a player folds by giving their hand as is to the "house" dealer, who spreads the cards face up for the other players to see before mucking them.

text: The Tibetan Plateau is an area of thickened continental crust, a result of the ongoing collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. The way in which this zone accommodates the collision remains unclear with two end-member models being proposed. The first regards the crust as being made up of a mosaic of strong blocks separated by weak fault zones, the 'microplate' model. The second regards the deformation as being continuous within the mid to lower crust, the 'continuum' model. The change in width of the deformed zone along the collisional belt, with the narrow zone of western Tibet compared to the main part of the Tibetan Plateau, is explained as either lateral escape to the east along the Altyn Tagh and Karakorum faults in the microplate model or as the effect of the rigid Tarim Basin block causing heterogeneous deformation within a generally weaker lithosphere in the continuum model. The rate of displacement along the major fault zones such as the Altyn Tagh and Kunlun faults compared to the degree of distributed deformation of the intervening crust is critical to discriminating between these two models.

text: The Tibetan Plateau is an area of thickened

text: continental crust

text: , a result of the ongoing collision of the

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: with the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: . The way in which this zone accommodates the collision remains unclear with two end-member models being proposed. The first regards the crust as being made up of a mosaic of strong blocks separated by weak fault zones, the 'microplate' model. The second regards the deformation as being continuous within the mid to lower crust, the 'continuum' model. The change in width of the deformed zone along the collisional belt, with the narrow zone of western Tibet compared to the main part of the Tibetan Plateau, is explained as either lateral escape to the east along the Altyn Tagh and Karakorum faults in the microplate model or as the effect of the rigid Tarim Basin block causing heterogeneous deformation within a generally weaker lithosphere in the continuum model. The rate of displacement along the major fault zones such as the Altyn Tagh and

text: Kunlun fault

text: s compared to the degree of distributed deformation of the intervening crust is critical to discriminating between these two models.

text: Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a seam where rocks can move past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range Province of Western North America and the Rhine valley. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the crust is thinned.

text: Block mountains are caused by

text: faults

text: in the crust: a seam where rocks can move past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or

text: horsts

text: . The intervening dropped blocks are termed

text: graben

text: : these can be small or form extensive

text: rift valley

text: systems. This form of

text: landscape

text: can be seen in

text: East Africa

text: , the

text: Vosges

text: , the

text: Basin and Range Province

text: of Western

text: North America

text: and the

text: Rhine

text: valley. These areas often occur when the regional stress is extensional and the

text: crust

text: is thinned.

text: Even the stiffest of rock is not perfectly rigid.  Given a large force (such as between two immense tectonic plates moving past each other) the earth's crust will bend or deform. According to the elastic rebound theory of , eventually the deformation (strain) becomes great enough that something breaks, usually at an existing fault.  Slippage along the break (an earthquake) allows the rock on each side to rebound to a less deformed state. In the process energy is released in various forms, including seismic waves. The cycle of tectonic force being accumulated in elastic deformation and released in a sudden rebound is then repeated. As the displacement from a single earthquake ranges from less than a meter to around 10 meters (for an M 8 quake), the demonstrated existence of large strike-slip displacements of hundreds of miles shows the existence of a long running earthquake cycle.

text: Even the stiffest of rock is not perfectly rigid.  Given a large force (such as between two immense tectonic plates moving past each other) the earth's crust will bend or deform. According to the

text: elastic rebound

text: theory of , eventually the deformation (strain) becomes great enough that something breaks, usually at an existing fault.  Slippage along the break (an earthquake) allows the rock on each side to rebound to a less deformed state. In the process energy is released in various forms, including seismic waves. The cycle of tectonic force being accumulated in elastic deformation and released in a sudden rebound is then repeated. As the displacement from a single earthquake ranges from less than a meter to around 10 meters (for an M 8 quake), the demonstrated existence of large

text: strike-slip

text: displacements of hundreds of miles shows the existence of a long running earthquake cycle.

text: Zealandia is largely made up of two nearly parallel ridges, separated by a failed rift, where the rift breakup of the continent stops and becomes a filled graben. The ridges rise above the sea floor to heights of , with infrequent rocky islands rising above sea level. The ridges are continental rock, but are lower in elevation than normal continents because their crust is thinner than usual, approximately  thick, and consequently they do not float as high above the Earth's mantle.

text: Zealandia is largely made up of two nearly parallel ridges, separated by a

text: failed

text: rift

text: , where the rift breakup of the continent stops and becomes a filled

text: graben

text: . The ridges rise above the

text: sea floor

text: to heights of , with infrequent rocky

text: island

text: s rising above

text: sea level

text: . The ridges are continental rock, but are lower in elevation than normal continents because their crust is thinner than usual, approximately  thick, and consequently they do not float as high above the Earth's

text: mantle

text: In 2004, work began just north of Parkfield on the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD). The goal of SAFOD is to drill a hole nearly 3 km (2 mi) into the Earth's crust and into the San Andreas Fault. An array of sensors will be installed to record earthquakes that happen near this area.

text: In 2004, work began just north of Parkfield on the

text: San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth

text: (SAFOD). The goal of SAFOD is to drill a hole nearly 3 km (2 mi) into the Earth's crust and into the San Andreas Fault. An array of sensors will be installed to record earthquakes that happen near this area.

text: The type of dominating deformation process also has a great impact on the types of rocks and structures found at certain depths within the Earth's crust. As evident from Fig. 1.1, different geological formations and rocks are found in accordance to the dominant deformation process. Gouge and Breccia form in the uppermost, brittle regime while Cataclasite and Pseudotachylite form in the lower parts of the brittle regime, edging upon the transition zone. Mylonite forms in the more ductile regime at greater depths while Blastomylonite forms well past the transition zone and well into the ductile regime, even deeper into the crust.

text: The type of dominating deformation process also has a great impact on the types of rocks and structures found at certain depths within the Earth's crust. As evident from Fig. 1.1, different geological formations and rocks are found in accordance to the dominant deformation process. Gouge and

text: Breccia

text: form in the uppermost, brittle regime while

text: Cataclasite

text: and

text: Pseudotachylite

text: form in the lower parts of the brittle regime, edging upon the transition zone.

text: Mylonite

text: forms in the more ductile regime at greater depths while Blastomylonite forms well past the transition zone and well into the ductile regime, even deeper into the crust.

text: The Pernambuco-Alagoas domain, part of the Borborema Province, is primarily made of rocks aged between 1,600 and 1,000 million years, significantly younger than the areas to the north and south.The Pernambuco fault in this domain is a continuation of the Foumban Shear Zone in Cameroon, itself the western end of the Central African Shear Zone.To the west, the fault splays into numerous faults along a distance of about 50 km, suggesting that the crust was weak at this point, which is on the line where South America separated from Africa around 115 million years ago.

text: The Pernambuco-Alagoas domain, part of the

text: Borborema Province

text: , is primarily made of rocks aged between 1,600 and 1,000 million years, significantly younger than the areas to the north and south.The Pernambuco fault in this domain is a continuation of the

text: Foumban Shear Zone

text: in

text: Cameroon

text: , itself the western end of the

text: Central African Shear Zone

text: .To the west, the fault splays into numerous faults along a distance of about 50 km, suggesting that the crust was weak at this point, which is on the line where

text: South America

text: separated from

text: Africa

text: around 115 million years ago.

text: A special class of strike-slip faults is the transform fault, where such faults form a plate boundary. These are found related to offsets in spreading centers, such as mid-ocean ridges, and less commonly within continental lithosphere, such as the Dead Sea Transform in the Middle East, or the Alpine Fault, New Zealand. Transform faults are also referred to as conservative plate boundaries, as lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed.

text: A special class of strike-slip faults is the

text: transform fault

text: , where such faults form a

text: plate

text: boundary. These are found related to offsets in

text: spreading center

text: s, such as

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s, and less commonly within continental

text: lithosphere

text: , such as the

text: Dead Sea Transform

text: in the

text: Middle East

text: , or the

text: Alpine Fault

text: New Zealand

text: . Transform faults are also referred to as conservative plate boundaries, as lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed.

text: Farther south, the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States is a geological puzzle. Mountain building is normally focused between  inland from a subduction zone boundary.  Geologists continue to gather evidence to explain the rise of the Rockies so much farther inland; the answer most likely lies with the unusual subduction of the Farallon plate, or possibly due to the subduction of an oceanic plateau.

text: Farther south, the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States is a geological puzzle. Mountain building is normally focused between  inland from a

text: subduction zone

text: boundary.  Geologists continue to gather evidence to explain the rise of the Rockies so much farther inland; the answer most likely lies with the unusual subduction of the

text: Farallon plate

text: , or possibly due to the subduction of an

text: oceanic plateau

text: Self-blame is a cognitive process in which an individual attributes the occurrence of a stressful event to oneself. The direction of blame often has implications for individuals’ emotions and behaviors during and following stressful situations. Self-blame is a common reaction to stressful events  and has certain effects on how individuals adapt.  Types of self-blame are hypothesized to contribute to depression, and self-blame is a component of self-directed emotions like guilt and self-disgust. Because of self-blame’s commonality in response to stress and its role in emotion, self-blame should be examined using psychology’s perspectives on stress and coping. This article will attempt to give an overview of the contemporary study on self-blame in psychology.

text: Self-blame is a

text: cognitive process

text: in which an individual attributes the occurrence of a

text: stressful

text: event to oneself. The direction of

text: blame

text: often has implications for individuals’

text: emotion

text: s and

text: behavior

text: s during and following stressful situations. Self-blame is a common reaction to stressful events  and has certain effects on how individuals adapt.  Types of self-blame are hypothesized to contribute to

text: depression

text: , and self-blame is a component of self-directed emotions like guilt and self-disgust. Because of self-blame’s commonality in response to

text: stress

text: and its role in emotion, self-blame should be examined using psychology’s perspectives on stress and

text: coping

text: . This article will attempt to give an overview of the contemporary study on self-blame in

text: psychology

text: As the Jeanne d'Arc rift basin subsided, it was gradually in-filled with sediments eroded from adjacent areas of crustal uplift. Characteristics of the sedimentary basin fill and their relationships to the extensional history of the Jeanne d'Arc Basin have been variably described by numerous authors with general agreement on the applicability of rift concepts to the basin. There are, however, divergent conclusions regarding the number of Mesozoic rift episodes which affected the Jeanne d'Arc Basin (i.e. two or three), their ages of initiation and duration, and the orientations of extensional stresses that created different fault sets active during the rift episodes. Rift episodes were followed by initiation of sea-floor spreading first to the south, then to the east, and finally to the northeast of the Grand Banks area. Widely faulted and moderately rotated Upper Triassic to Lower Cretaceous beds within the rift basin were subsequently buried beneath a relatively unstructured cover of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary strata.  These latter minimally deformed strata were deposited on the newly established passive margin. The current passive margin conditions were established when the last rifted border to the three-sided promontory of continental crust underlying the Grand Banks bathymetric feature formed along its northeast margin near the start of Late Cretaceous times.

text: As the Jeanne d'Arc rift basin subsided, it was gradually in-filled with

text: sediment

text: s eroded from adjacent areas of crustal uplift. Characteristics of the sedimentary basin fill and their relationships to the extensional history of the Jeanne d'Arc Basin have been variably described by numerous authors with general agreement on the applicability of rift concepts to the basin. There are, however, divergent conclusions regarding the number of Mesozoic rift episodes which affected the Jeanne d'Arc Basin (i.e. two or three), their ages of initiation and duration, and the orientations of extensional stresses that created different fault sets active during the rift episodes. Rift episodes were followed by initiation of sea-floor spreading first to the south, then to the east, and finally to the northeast of the Grand Banks area. Widely faulted and moderately rotated Upper

text: Triassic

text: to Lower

text: Cretaceous

text: beds within the rift basin were subsequently buried beneath a relatively unstructured cover of Upper Cretaceous and

text: Tertiary

text: strata.  These latter minimally deformed strata were deposited on the newly established

text: passive margin

text: . The current passive margin conditions were established when the last rifted border to the three-sided promontory of continental crust underlying the Grand Banks bathymetric feature formed along its northeast margin near the start of Late Cretaceous times.

text: In addition, there is a large (but unknown) amount of methane in methane clathrates in the ocean floors as well as the Earth's crust.

text: In addition, there is a large (but unknown) amount of methane in

text: methane clathrates

text: in the ocean floors as well as the Earth's

text: crust

text: In the 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's lithosphere, including the crust and rigid uppermost portion of the upper mantle, is separated into a number of tectonic plates that move across the plastically deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the asthenosphere. This theory is supported by a number of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity.

text: In the 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's

text: lithosphere

text: , including the

text: crust

text: and rigid uppermost portion of the

text: upper mantle

text: , is separated into a number of

text: tectonic plate

text: s that move across the

text: plastically

text: deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the

text: asthenosphere

text: . This theory is supported by a number of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity.

text: In geology the term compression refers to a set of stress directed toward the center of a rock mass. Compressive strength refers to the maximum compressive stress that can be applied to a material before failure occurs. When the maximum compressive stress is in a horizontal orientation, thrust faulting can occur, resulting in the shortening and thickening of that portion of the crust. When the maximum compressive stress is vertical, a section of rock will often fail in normal faults, horizontally extending and vertically thinning a given layer of rock. Compressive stresses can also result in folding of rocks. Because of the large magnitudes of lithostatic stress in tectonic plates, tectonic-scale deformation is always subjected to net compressive stress.

text: In

text: geology

text: the term compression refers to a set of stress directed toward the center of a rock mass.

text: Compressive strength

text: refers to the maximum

text: compressive stress

text: that can be applied to a material before failure occurs. When the maximum compressive stress is in a horizontal orientation,

text: thrust fault

text: ing can occur, resulting in the shortening and thickening of that portion of the

text: crust

text: . When the maximum compressive stress is vertical, a section of rock will often fail in

text: normal fault

text: s, horizontally extending and vertically thinning a given layer of rock. Compressive stresses can also result in

text: folding

text: of rocks. Because of the large magnitudes of

text: lithostatic stress

text: in

text: tectonic plate

text: s, tectonic-scale

text: deformation

text: is always subjected to net compressive stress.

text: Nummer twaalf, variations on a theme40’00”, 4k video. Marshall Chess Club, Mt St Helens & San Andreas Fault USA, 2009

text: A lesion caused by recurrence of a latent herpes simplex infection can occur in the corner of the mouth. Really this is herpes labialis (a cold sore), and is sometimes termed "angular herpes simplex". A cold sore at the corner of the mouth behaves similarly to elsewhere on the lips, and follows a pattern of vesicle (blister) formation followed by rupture leaving a crusted sore which resolves in about 7–10 days, and recurs in the same spot periodically, especially during periods of stress. Rather than utilizing antifungal creams, angular herpes simplex is treated in the same way as a cold sore, with topical antiviral drugs such as aciclovir.

text: A lesion caused by recurrence of a latent

text: herpes simplex

text: infection can occur in the corner of the mouth. Really this is

text: herpes labialis

text: (a cold sore), and is sometimes termed "angular herpes simplex". A cold sore at the corner of the mouth behaves similarly to elsewhere on the lips, and follows a pattern of

text: vesicle

text: (blister) formation followed by rupture leaving a crusted sore which resolves in about 7–10 days, and recurs in the same spot periodically, especially during periods of stress. Rather than utilizing antifungal creams, angular herpes simplex is treated in the same way as a cold sore, with topical

text: antiviral drug

text: s such as

text: aciclovir

text: A number of architecture firms have been experimenting with using the Rift for visualisation and design. With the right software, the Rift allows architects to see exactly what their building will look like, and get an understanding of the scale that is impossible on a traditional monitor.

text: Most rifts consist of a series of separate segments that together form the linear zone characteristic of rifts. The individual rift segments have a dominantly half-graben geometry, controlled by a single basin-bounding fault. Segment lengths vary between rifts, depending on the elastic thickness of the lithosphere. Areas of thick colder lithosphere, such as the Baikal Rift have segment lengths in excess of 80 km, while in areas of warmer thin lithosphere, segment lengths may be less than 30 km. Along the axis of the rift the position, and in some cases the polarity (the dip direction), of the main rift bounding fault changes from segment to segment. Segment boundaries often have a more complex structure and generally cross the rift axis at a high angle. These segment boundary zones accommodate the differences in fault displacement between the segments and are therefore known as accommodation zones.

text: Stress interviews are still in common use. One type of stress interview is where the employer uses a succession of interviewers (one at a time or en masse) whose mission is to intimidate the candidate and keep him/her off-balance. The ostensible purpose of this interview: to find out how the candidate handles stress. Stress interviews might involve testing an applicant's behavior in a busy environment. Questions about handling work overload, dealing with multiple projects, and handling conflict are typical.

text: Before the concept of plate tectonics, global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana, also referred to as the contracting earth theory.  It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state, and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank.  As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank, the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple.  The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges.

text: Before the concept of

text: plate tectonics

text: , global cooling was a

text: geophysical

text: theory by

text: James Dwight Dana

text: , also referred to as the contracting earth theory.  It suggested that the

text: Earth

text: had been in a molten state, and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank.  As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank, the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple.  The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges.

text: What also needs to be taken into account when looking for benefits of abiotic stress, is that one phenomenon may not affect an entire ecosystem in the same way.  While a flood will kill most plants living low on the ground in a certain area, if there is rice there, it will thrive in the wet conditions.Another example of this is in phytoplankton and zooplankton.  The same types of conditions are usually considered stressful for these two types of organisms.  They act very similarly when exposed to ultraviolet light and most toxins, but at elevated temperatures the phytoplankton reacts negatively, while the thermophilic zooplankton reacts positively to the increase in temperature. The two may be living in the same environment, but an increase in temperature of the area would prove stressful only for one of the organisms.

text: What also needs to be taken into account when looking for benefits of abiotic stress, is that one phenomenon may not affect an entire ecosystem in the same way.  While a flood will kill most plants living low on the ground in a certain area, if there is rice there, it will thrive in the wet conditions.Another example of this is in

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: zooplankton

text: .  The same types of conditions are usually considered stressful for these two types of organisms.  They act very similarly when exposed to ultraviolet light and most toxins, but at elevated temperatures the phytoplankton reacts negatively, while the

text: thermophilic

text: zooplankton reacts positively to the increase in temperature. The two may be living in the same environment, but an increase in temperature of the area would prove stressful only for one of the organisms.

text: As it was observed early that although granite existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser basalt, the prevailing concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there were two types of crust, named "sial" (continental type crust) and "sima" (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental rocks.

text: Carrán-Los Venados () is a volcanic group of scoria cones, maars and small stratovolcanoes in southern Chile, southeast of Ranco Lake. The highest cone is Los Guindos (Spanish for "The Cherry Trees), which is a small stratovolcano with an elevation of .  The volcanic group has recorded eruptions from 1955 and 1979. Located south of Maihue Lake and north Puyehue Volcano Carrán-Los Venados group is placed at the intersection of several faults on the thin crust (~30 km) of southern Chile, among them Liquiñe-Ofqui and Futrono Fault.

text: Carrán-Los Venados () is a

text: volcanic group

text: of

text: scoria cone

text: s,

text: maars

text: and small

text: stratovolcano

text: es in

text: southern Chile

text: , southeast of

text: Ranco Lake

text: . The highest cone is Los Guindos (Spanish for "The Cherry Trees), which is a small stratovolcano with an elevation of .  The volcanic group has recorded eruptions from 1955 and 1979. Located south of

text: Maihue Lake

text: and north

text: Puyehue Volcano

text: Carrán-Los Venados group is placed at the intersection of several

text: fault

text: s on the thin

text: crust

text: (~30 km) of southern Chile, among them

text: Liquiñe-Ofqui

text: and

text: Futrono Fault

text: The Pan-African orogeny is equivalent to Asynitic in other parts of the earth. This event was associated with metamorphism, magmatism, folding, and faulting during Late Precambrian–Early Cambrian in Iran (e.g., south of Zanjan–Mahabad in Azerbaijan, Bafq in Central Iran. This tectonic phase started with tension or extension leading to the formation of rifts and generation of oceanic crust (e.g., in Takab and Anarak) and ended with folding, closure, metamorphism, growth of the continental crust, and development of regional faults.

text: The

text: Pan-African orogeny

text: is equivalent to Asynitic in other parts of the earth. This event was associated with

text: metamorphism

text: magmatism

text: , folding, and faulting during Late Precambrian–Early Cambrian in Iran (e.g., south of

text: Zanjan

text: Mahabad

text: in

text: Azerbaijan

text: Bafq

text: in Central Iran. This tectonic phase started with tension or extension leading to the formation of rifts and generation of oceanic crust (e.g., in Takab and Anarak) and ended with folding, closure, metamorphism, growth of the continental crust, and development of regional faults.

text: During rifting, as the crust is thinned, the Earth's surface subsides and the Moho becomes correspondingly raised. At the same time, the mantle lithosphere becomes thinned, causing a rise of the top of the asthenosphere. Once rifting ceases, the mantle beneath the rift cools and this is accompanied by a broad area of post-rift subsidence. The amount of subsidence is directly related to the amount of thinning during the rifting phase calculated as the beta factor (initial crustal thickness divided by final crustal thickness), but is also affected by the degree to which the rift basin is filled at each stage, due to the greater density of sediments in contrast to water. The simple 'McKenzie model' of rifting, which considers the rifting stage to be instantaneous, provides a good first order estimate of the amount of crustal thinning from observations of the amount of post-rift subsidence. This has generally been replaced by the 'flexural cantilever model', which takes into account the geometry of the rift faults and the flexural isostasy of the upper part of the crust.

text: During rifting, as the crust is thinned, the Earth's surface subsides and the

text: Moho

text: becomes correspondingly raised. At the same time, the mantle lithosphere becomes thinned, causing a rise of the top of the

text: asthenosphere

text: . Once rifting ceases, the mantle beneath the rift cools and this is accompanied by a broad area of post-rift subsidence. The amount of subsidence is directly related to the amount of thinning during the rifting phase calculated as the beta factor (initial crustal thickness divided by final crustal thickness), but is also affected by the degree to which the rift basin is filled at each stage, due to the greater density of sediments in contrast to water. The simple 'McKenzie model' of rifting, which considers the rifting stage to be instantaneous, provides a good first order estimate of the amount of crustal thinning from observations of the amount of post-rift subsidence. This has generally been replaced by the 'flexural cantilever model', which takes into account the geometry of the rift faults and the

text: flexural

text: isostasy

text: of the upper part of the crust.

text: The stress field in the crust has not yet been measured.

text: Stressful life experiences may be a cause of memory loss as a person ages. Glucocorticoids that are released during stress damage neurons that are located in the hippocampal region of the brain. Therefore, the more stressful situations that someone encounters, the more susceptible they are to memory loss later on. The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus are destroyed due to glucocorticoids decreasing the release of glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in return kills neurons. Stressful life experiences can also cause repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind. This directly relates to traumatic events in one's past such as kidnappings, being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a child.

text: The Deep Energy Community is dedicated to quantifying the environmental conditions and processes from the molecular to the global scale that control the origins, forms, quantities and movements of reduced carbon compounds derived from deep carbon through deep geologic time.  The Deep Energy Community uses field-based investigations of approximately 25 globally representative terrestrial and marine environments to determine processes controlling the origin, form, quantities and movements of abiotic gases and organic species in Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle. Deep Energy also uses DCO-sponsored instrumentation, especially revolutionary isotopologue measurements, to discriminate between the abiotic and biotic methane gas and organic species sampled from global terrestrial and marine field sites. Another research activity of Deep Energy is to quantify the mechanisms and rates of fluid-rock interactions that produce abiotic hydrogen and organic compounds as a function of temperature, pressure, fluid and solid compositions.

text: An overturned anticline is an asymmetrical anticline with a limb that has been tilted beyond perpendicular so that the beds in that limb have basically flipped over and may dip in the same direction on both sides of the axial plane. If the angle between the limbs is large (70-120 degrees), then the fold is an open fold, but if the angle between the limbs is small (30 degrees or less), then the fold is a tight fold. If an anticline plunges (i.e., the anticline crest is inclined to the Earth's surface), it will form Vs on a geologic map view that point in the direction of plunge. A plunging anticline has a hinge that is not parallel to the earth's surface.  All anticlines and synclines have some degree of plunge. Periclinal folds are a type of anticlines that have a well-defined, but curved hinge line and are doubly plunging and thus elongate domes.

text: An overturned anticline is an asymmetrical anticline with a limb that has been tilted beyond

text: perpendicular

text: so that the beds in that limb have basically flipped over and may dip in the same direction on both sides of the axial plane. If the angle between the limbs is large (70-120 degrees), then the fold is an open fold, but if the angle between the limbs is small (30 degrees or less), then the fold is a tight fold. If an anticline plunges (i.e., the anticline crest is inclined to the Earth's surface), it will form Vs on a

text: geologic map

text: view that point in the direction of

text: plunge

text: . A plunging anticline has a hinge that is not parallel to the earth's surface.  All anticlines and synclines have some degree of plunge. Periclinal folds are a type of anticlines that have a well-defined, but curved hinge line and are doubly plunging and thus elongate

text: domes

text: As the earth's crust was stretched above the mantle hotspot under stress from plate rifting, fissures opened up along a line from Ireland to the Hebrides and plutonic complexes were formed. Hot magma over 1000 °C surfaced as multiple, successive and extensive lava flows covered over the original landscape, burning forests, filling river valleys, burying hills, to eventually form the Thulean Plateau, which contained various volcanic landforms such as lava fields and volcanoes. There was more than one period of volcanic activity during the NAIP, in between which sea levels rose and fell and erosion took place.

text: As the earth's crust was stretched above the

text: mantle

text: hotspot under stress from plate rifting, fissures opened up along a line from Ireland to the

text: Hebrides

text: and

text: plutonic

text: complexes were formed. Hot

text: magma

text: over 1000 °C surfaced as multiple, successive and extensive

text: lava

text: flows covered over the original landscape, burning forests, filling river valleys, burying hills, to eventually form the Thulean Plateau, which contained various volcanic landforms such as

text: lava fields

text: and

text: volcanoes

text: . There was more than one period of volcanic activity during the NAIP, in between which sea levels rose and fell and

text: erosion

text: took place.

text: Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by plate tectonics, weathering and hydrothermal circulation.

text: Most geological samples from Earth are unable to give a direct date of the formation of Earth from the solar nebula because Earth has undergone differentiation into the core, mantle, and crust, and this has then undergone a long history of mixing and unmixing of these sample reservoirs by

text: plate tectonics

text: weathering

text: and

text: hydrothermal circulation

text: Strike slip dulexes are passive structures; they form as a response to displacement of the bounding fault rather than by the stresses from plate motion. Each horse has a length that varies from half to twice the spacing between the bounding fault planes. Depending on the properties of the rocks and the fault, the duplexes will have different length ratios and will develop on either major or subtle offsets, although it is possible to observe duplex structures that develop on nearly straight fault segments.Because the motion of the duplexes may be heterogeneous, the individual horses can experience a rotation with a horizontal axis, which results in the formation of scissor faults. Scissor faults exhibit normal motion at one end of the horse and a thrust motion ant the other end. Because strike slip duplexes structures have more horizontal motion than vertical motion, they are best observed on a map rather than a vertical projection, and are a good indication that the main fault has a strike slip motion.

text: The region is also traversed by six major slip-strike fault systems with hundreds of related faults, many of which are "sister faults" of the infamous San Andreas Fault, all of which are stressed by the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate or by compressive stresses between these plates. The fault systems include the Hayward Fault Zone, Concord-Green Valley Fault, Calaveras Fault, Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault, and the San Gregorio Fault. Significant blind thrust faults (faults with near vertical motion and no surface ruptures) are associated with portions of the Santa Cruz Mountains and the northern reaches of the Diablo Range and Mount Diablo.

text: The region is also traversed by six major slip-strike fault systems with hundreds of related faults, many of which are "sister faults" of the infamous

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , all of which are stressed by the relative motion between the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: or by compressive stresses between these plates. The fault systems include the

text: Hayward Fault Zone

text: Concord-Green Valley Fault

text: Calaveras Fault

text: Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault

text: , and the

text: San Gregorio Fault

text: . Significant blind

text: thrust fault

text: s (faults with near vertical motion and no surface ruptures) are associated with portions of the

text: Santa Cruz Mountains

text: and the northern reaches of the

text: Diablo Range

text: and

text: Mount Diablo

text: Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up-doming of the area and, particularly in the west, the folding of the rock strata along north–south axes. The region was raised in a north–south line which resulted in this dome-like shape and the shale and sandstone were worn away until limestone was exposed. At the end of this period, the Earth's crust sank here which led to the area being covered by sea, depositing a variety of new rocks.

text: Secondary stress occurs when a word contains two or more primary stressed syllables, in which case all but one primary stress is reduced to secondary. There are exceptions in certain syllables that are always secondarily stressed, regardless of the alternating pattern of lightly and heavily stressed syllables following the primarily stressed syllable. This type of secondary stress is included as part of the morpheme. Suffixes that have this type of stress include  'plural habitual', and  'sentence connective'.

text: The continental crust consists of various layers, with a bulk composition that is intermediate to felsic. The average density of continental crust is about 2.7 g/cm, less dense than the ultramafic material that makes up the mantle, which has a density of around 3.3 g/cm. Continental crust is also less dense than oceanic crust, whose density is about 2.9 g/cm. At 25 to 70 km, continental crust is considerably thicker than oceanic crust, which has an average thickness of around 7–10 km. About 40% of Earth's surface is currently occupied by continental crust.It makes up about 70% of the volume of Earth's crust.

text: The continental crust consists of various layers, with a bulk composition that is

text: intermediate

text: to felsic. The average density of continental crust is about 2.7 g/cm, less

text: dense

text: than the ultramafic material that makes up the

text: mantle

text: , which has a density of around 3.3 g/cm. Continental crust is also less dense than oceanic crust, whose density is about 2.9 g/cm. At 25 to 70 km, continental crust is considerably thicker than oceanic crust, which has an average thickness of around 7–10 km. About 40% of Earth's surface is currently occupied by continental crust.It makes up about 70% of the volume of

text: Earth's crust

text: Stress ulcers, as defined by overt bleeding and hemodynamic instability, decreased hemoglobin, and/or need for transfusion, were seen in 1.5% of patients in the 2252 patients in the Canadian Critical Care Trials group study. People with stress ulcers have a longer ICU length of stay (up to 8 days) and a higher mortality (up to 4 fold) than compared to patients who do not have stress ulceration and bleeding. While the bleeding and transfusions associated with the stress ulcerations contribute to the increased mortality, the contribution of factors like hypotension, sepsis, and respiratory failure to the mortality independently of the stress ulceration cannot be ignored.

text: Most of these "faults" are actually zones of complex faulting at the boundaries between sedimentary basins (synclines) and crustal uplifts (anticlines). There is a general pattern where most of these faults partition a series of basins and uplifts, each about 20 km wide. From the north these are (see the map at right):

text: Most of these "faults" are actually zones of complex faulting at the boundaries between sedimentary basins (

text: synclines

text: ) and crustal uplifts (

text: anticlines

text: ). There is a general pattern where most of these faults partition a series of basins and uplifts, each about 20 km wide. From the north these are (see the map at right):

text: The Sea of Marmara is a pull-apart basin formed at a releasing bend in the North Anatolian Fault, a right-lateral strike-slip fault. This local zone of extension occurs where this transform boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Eurasian Plate steps northwards to the west of Izmit from the Izmit Fault to the Ganos Fault. The pattern of faults within the Sea of Marmara basin is complex but near Istanbul there is a single main fault segment with a sharp bend. To the west, the fault trends west-east and is pure strike-slip in type. To the east, the fault is NW-SE trending and shows evidence of both normal and strike-slip motion. Movement on this fault, which bounds the Çınarcık Basin, was the most likely cause of the 1509 event.

text: The

text: Sea of Marmara

text: is a

text: pull-apart basin

text: formed at a

entity_section: Releasing bends along strike-slip faults

text: releasing bend

text: in the

text: North Anatolian Fault

text: , a right-lateral

text: strike-slip fault

text: . This local zone of extension occurs where this

text: transform

text: boundary between the

text: Anatolian Plate

text: and the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: steps northwards to the west of

text: Izmit

text: from the Izmit Fault to the Ganos Fault. The pattern of faults within the Sea of Marmara basin is complex but near

text: Istanbul

text: there is a single main fault segment with a sharp bend. To the west, the fault trends west-east and is pure strike-slip in type. To the east, the fault is NW-SE trending and shows evidence of

text: both normal and strike-slip

text: motion. Movement on this fault, which bounds the Çınarcık Basin, was the most likely cause of the 1509 event.

text: All of the fragments that make up the Armorican terrane are thought to have originally formed part of the northern margin of Gondwana. Rifting initiated in the Cambrian to Ordovician although the terrane was still close enough to Gondwana to be affected by the Andean-Saharan glaciation during the late Ordovician. Complete separation from Gondwana, across the developing Paleotethys Ocean, is thought to have occurred towards the end of the Silurian. At this time Armorica was separated from Laurussia by the Rheic Ocean. One possible model includes Armorica as part of the Hun superterrane, while other show it moving separately. The Rheic Ocean closed during the Devonian and early Carboniferous, as the oceanic crust was subducted. The Variscan orogeny marks the final closure of the Rheic Ocean as the various continental fragments, including Armorica, collided with Laurussia towards the end of the Carboniferous.

text: All of the fragments that make up the Armorican terrane are thought to have originally formed part of the northern margin of Gondwana. Rifting initiated in the

text: Cambrian

text: to

text: Ordovician

text: although the terrane was still close enough to Gondwana to be affected by the

text: Andean-Saharan glaciation

text: during the late Ordovician. Complete separation from Gondwana, across the developing

text: Paleotethys Ocean

text: , is thought to have occurred towards the end of the Silurian. At this time Armorica was separated from Laurussia by the

text: Rheic Ocean

text: . One possible model includes Armorica as part of the Hun superterrane, while other show it moving separately. The Rheic Ocean closed during the Devonian and early Carboniferous, as the

text: oceanic crust

text: was

text: subducted

text: . The Variscan orogeny marks the final closure of the Rheic Ocean as the various continental fragments, including Armorica, collided with Laurussia towards the end of the Carboniferous.

text: Tin is the 49th most abundant element in Earth's crust, representing 2 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead.

text: Tin is the 49th most abundant element in

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: , representing 2

text: ppm

text: compared with 75 ppm for zinc, 50 ppm for copper, and 14 ppm for lead.

text: Some fielding positions are used offensively. That is, players are put there with the main aim being to catch out the batsman rather than to stop or slow down the scoring of runs. These positions include Slip (often there are multiple slips next to each other, designated First slip, Second slip, Third slip, etc., numbered outwards from the wicket-keeper—collectively known as the slips cordon) meant to catch balls that just edge off the bat; Gully; Fly slip; Leg slip; Leg gully; the short and silly positions. Short leg, also known as bat pad, is a position specifically intended to catch balls that unintentionally strike the bat and leg pad, and thus end up only a metre or two to the leg side.

text: Some fielding positions are used offensively. That is, players are put there with the main aim being to

text: catch out

text: the batsman rather than to stop or slow down the scoring of runs. These positions include

text: Slip

text: (often there are multiple slips next to each other, designated First slip, Second slip, Third slip, etc., numbered outwards from the wicket-keeper—collectively known as the slips cordon) meant to catch balls that just

text: edge

text: off the bat; Gully; Fly slip; Leg slip; Leg gully; the short and silly positions. Short leg, also known as bat pad, is a position specifically intended to catch balls that unintentionally strike the bat and leg pad, and thus end up only a metre or two to the leg side.

text: Stresses are indicated by a slash "/" and Stress Maxima by "M". A single underline indicates a violation of (ii)-1; a double underline indicates a violation of (ii)-1 & 2. In addition, the Stress Maximum "lap", since it occurs on a W position, violating (ii)-3, should get a third underline, rendering the line unmetrical. (Because of display limitations, this is here indicated by striking out the "M".)

text: Compressive stresses are produced by offset and converging slip-strike motions between the Calaveras Fault and the Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault which manifest in the Mount Diablo Thrust Fault.

text: Compressive stresses are produced by offset and converging slip-strike motions between the

text: Calaveras Fault

text: and the

text: Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault

text: which manifest in the Mount Diablo Thrust Fault.

text: Rift valleys, such as the Albertine Rift, are formed by the expansion of the Earth's crust due to tectonic activity beneath the Earth's surface.

text: Rift valleys, such as the

text: Albertine Rift

text: , are formed by the expansion of the

text: Earth

text: 's crust due to

text: tectonic

text: activity beneath the Earth's surface.

text: Recent research indicates prolonged chronic stress can contribute to metabolic syndrome by disrupting the hormonal balance of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis).A dysfunctional HPA-axis causes high cortisol levels to circulate, which results in raising glucose and insulin levels, which in turn cause insulin-mediated effects on adipose tissue, ultimately promoting visceral adiposity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia and hypertension, with direct effects on the bone, causing "low turnover" osteoporosis. HPA-axis dysfunction may explain the reported risk indication of abdominal obesity to cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes and stroke. Psychosocial stress is also linked to heart disease.

text: Recent research indicates prolonged chronic

text: stress

text: can contribute to metabolic syndrome by disrupting the hormonal balance of the

text: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

text: (HPA-axis).A dysfunctional HPA-axis causes high

text: cortisol

text: levels to circulate, which results in raising

text: glucose

text: and

text: insulin

text: levels, which in turn cause insulin-mediated effects on adipose tissue, ultimately promoting

text: visceral adiposity

text: , insulin resistance, dyslipidemia and hypertension, with direct effects on the bone, causing "low turnover"

text: osteoporosis

text: . HPA-axis dysfunction may explain the reported risk indication of

text: abdominal obesity

text: to

text: cardiovascular disease

text: (CVD), type 2 diabetes and

text: stroke

text: Psychosocial

text: stress is also linked to

text: heart disease

text: Andreas (his name and the name of the episode, "Andreas' Fault", are a play on the San Andreas Fault) is a large, bulky, yellow, armored alien with jackhammers and drills in his arms and is Armodrillo's genetic donor. He is reckless, as well as oblivious, proven when he repeatedly attempted to wreck a spaceship while still inside it. His intelligence is quite low, and doesn't even know what an asteroid is. However, being dimwitted, he often uses these powers at the inconvenience of allies and enemies alike. His personality and actions are very similar to Rath. On the other hand, Andreas is a little more gullible than hardheaded as he tends to make attachments to pretty much anyone who he thinks is nice or is the strongest (this was proven when he blindly followed P'andor, who had over-powered Bivalvan and taken charge). Andreas has shown him to be a gentle giant, getting easily scared, and thinks most people are his friends.

text: Andreas (his name and the name of the episode, "Andreas' Fault", are a play on the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: ) is a large, bulky, yellow, armored alien with jackhammers and drills in his arms and is Armodrillo's genetic donor. He is reckless, as well as oblivious, proven when he repeatedly attempted to wreck a spaceship while still inside it. His intelligence is quite low, and doesn't even know what an

text: asteroid

text: is. However, being dimwitted, he often uses these powers at the inconvenience of allies and enemies alike. His personality and actions are very similar to Rath. On the other hand, Andreas is a little more gullible than hardheaded as he tends to make attachments to pretty much anyone who he thinks is nice or is the strongest (this was proven when he blindly followed P'andor, who had over-powered Bivalvan and taken charge). Andreas has shown him to be a gentle giant, getting easily scared, and thinks most people are his friends.

text: The Lesser Antilles subduction zone is a convergent plate boundary on the seafloor along the eastern margin of the Lesser Antilles island arc.  In this subduction zone, oceanic crust of the South American Plate is being subducted under the Caribbean Plate.

text: The Lesser Antilles subduction zone is a

text: convergent plate boundary

text: on the seafloor along the eastern margin of the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: island arc.  In this

text: subduction zone

text: oceanic crust

text: of the

text: South American Plate

text: is being subducted under the

text: Caribbean Plate

text: Yusifzadeh is the honorary geologist of the former USSR and the honored engineer of the Republic of Azerbaijan. He was awarded with the Honorary Explorationist of the Earth Crust.

text: Yusifzadeh is the honorary geologist of the former USSR and the honored engineer of the

text: Republic of Azerbaijan

text: . He was awarded with the Honorary Explorationist of the Earth Crust.

text: A future sculptural design for which the artist acquired land and started a non-profit organization to raise funds is his San Andreas Fault Sculpture Project: a proposed  monolith of concrete () meant to straddle both sides of the San Andreas Fault so that over time the Earth's own plate-tectonic forces will crack the block into two golden rectangles that will continue to move past each other in opposite directions. The artist's intent would be to use "the Earth itself, as a tool to make the movement of massive continents visible on a scale that can be understood in human terms".

text: A future sculptural design for which the artist acquired land and started a non-profit organization to raise funds is his San Andreas Fault Sculpture Project: a proposed  monolith of

text: concrete

text: () meant to straddle both sides of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: so that over time the Earth's own

text: plate-tectonic forces

text: will crack the block into two

text: golden rectangle

text: s that will continue to move past each other in opposite directions. The artist's intent would be to use "the Earth itself, as a tool to make the movement of massive continents visible on a scale that can be understood in human terms".

text: Most photos of the Golden Gate Bridge and San Francisco are taken with the photographer standing in Marin County.  In the Pacific Ocean, just beyond the Golden Gate Bridge, is the San Andreas Fault, separating the Pacific and North American Plates of the earth’s crust, creating the Coastal Range of mountains and Mount Tamalpais (Mt. Tam,) rising 2,574 feet a stone’s throw north of the Golden Gate Bridge.  Marin County, just north of San Francisco, is split by the San Andreas Fault and has unique history that gave birth to the sport of mountain biking.  WTB has been mountain biking from the beginning of the mountain bike.

text: Franciscan rocks are thought to have formed prior to creation of the San Andreas Fault when an ancient deep-sea trench existed along the California continental margin. This trench, most of which is no longer evident, resulted from subduction of oceanic crust of the Farallon tectonic plate beneath continental crust of the North American Plate. As oceanic crust descended beneath the continent, volcanic rocks, mainly basalt, making up the lower plate, and marine sediments deposited on top of it were scraped off and accreted (i.e., added) to the leading edge of the overriding plate. This resulted in widespread deformation with development of thrust faults and folding. Ophiolite (which weathers to serpentine), and rocks altered by high-pressure metamorphism (such as blueschist) were emplaced during this episode. Deformation and emplacement continued during subsequent creation of the San Andreas fault to result in a complex chaotic assemblage of diverse rock types that some refer to as a mélange.

text: Franciscan rocks are thought to have formed prior to creation of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: when an ancient

text: deep-sea trench

text: existed along the

text: California

text: continental margin

text: . This trench, most of which is no longer evident, resulted from

text: subduction

text: of

text: oceanic crust

text: of the

text: Farallon tectonic plate

text: beneath

text: continental crust

text: of the

text: North American Plate

text: . As oceanic crust descended beneath the continent,

text: volcanic

text: rocks, mainly

text: basalt

text: , making up the lower plate, and marine sediments deposited on top of it were scraped off and accreted (i.e., added) to the leading edge of the overriding plate. This resulted in widespread deformation with development of

text: thrust faults

text: and

text: folding

text: Ophiolite

text: (which weathers to

text: serpentine

text: ), and rocks altered by high-pressure

text: metamorphism

text: (such as

text: blueschist

text: ) were emplaced during this episode. Deformation and emplacement continued during subsequent creation of the

text: San Andreas fault

text: to result in a complex chaotic assemblage of diverse rock types that some refer to as a

text: mélange

text: It consists of a series of faults and folds which have the effect of bringing old Malvernian rocks to the surface. Being largely hard igneous rocks, the Malverns Complex rocks have resisted erosion better than those of the surrounding countryside and result in a striking line of hills of which the Malvern Hills are the most impressive. The Abberley Hills to their north also form a part of this lineament. This line is considered to mark the edge of two terranes - two once separate fragments of the Earth's crust now joined as one - the Wrekin Terrane to the west and the Charnwood Terrane to the east.

text: It consists of a series of

text: faults

text: and

text: folds

text: which have the effect of bringing old

text: Malvernian

text: rocks to the surface. Being largely hard

text: igneous

text: rocks, the

text: Malverns Complex

text: rocks have resisted

text: erosion

text: better than those of the surrounding countryside and result in a striking line of hills of which the Malvern Hills are the most impressive. The

text: Abberley Hills

text: to their north also form a part of this lineament. This line is considered to mark the edge of two

text: terrane

text: s - two once separate fragments of the Earth's crust now joined as one - the

text: Wrekin Terrane

text: to the west and the

text: Charnwood Terrane

text: to the east.

text: Deformation of the lithosphere in the plane of the earth (i.e. such that faults are vertical) occurs as a result of near horizontal maximum and minimum principal stresses.  The resulting zones of subsidence are known as strike-slip or pull-apart basins.Basins formed through strike-slip action occur where a vertical fault plane curves.  When the curve in the fault plane moves apart, a region of transtension results, creating a basin.  Another term for a transtensional basin is a rhombochasm.  A classic rhombochasm is illustrated by the Dead Sea rift, where northward movement of the Arabian Plate relative to the Anatolian Plate has caused a rhombochasm.

text: Deformation of the lithosphere in the plane of the earth (i.e. such that faults are vertical) occurs as a result of near horizontal maximum and minimum

entity_section: Principal stresses and stress invariants

text: principal stresses

text: .  The resulting zones of subsidence are known as strike-slip or

text: pull-apart basin

text: s.Basins formed through strike-slip action occur where a vertical fault plane curves.  When the curve in the fault plane moves apart, a region of transtension results, creating a basin.  Another term for a transtensional basin is a rhombochasm.  A classic rhombochasm is illustrated by the

text: Dead Sea

text: rift, where northward movement of the

text: Arabian Plate

text: relative to the

text: Anatolian Plate

text: has caused a rhombochasm.

text: The Coastal Batholith of Peru () is a group of hundred if not thousands of individual plutons that crop out near or at the coast of Peru. The batholith runs a length of ca. 1600 km. Most of the plutons of the batholith were intruded in an elongated coast-parallel extensional basin. The magma that formed the batholith's plutons is thought to have originated from the partial melting of hydrated basaltic rocks at the base of the crust during rifting (extension). Subsequently, the rift basin was inverted. During the ascent the magma followed vertical pathways but emplacement was mostly in the form of tabular bodies.

text: The Coastal Batholith of Peru () is a group of hundred if not thousands of individual

text: pluton

text: s that crop out near or at the coast of

text: Peru

text: . The batholith runs a length of ca. 1600 km. Most of the plutons of the batholith were intruded in an elongated coast-parallel

text: extensional

text: basin

text: . The

text: magma

text: that formed the batholith's plutons is thought to have originated from the

text: partial melting

text: of

text: hydrated

text: basaltic rocks

text: at the base of the

text: crust

text: during

text: rift

text: ing (extension). Subsequently, the rift basin was

text: inverted

text: . During the ascent the magma followed vertical pathways but

text: emplacement

text: was mostly in the form of

text: tabular bodies

text: In this region, the geology is dominated by the transition of the tectonic plate boundary from rift to fault. The southernmost strands of the San Andreas Fault connect the northern-most extensions of the East Pacific Rise. Consequently, the region is subject to earthquakes, and the crust is being stretched, resulting in a sinking of the terrain over time.  Related to the active geology are some interesting hydrothermal features.

text: In this region, the

text: geology

text: is dominated by the transition of the

text: tectonic plate

text: boundary from

text: rift

text: to

text: fault

text: . The southernmost strands of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: connect the northern-most extensions of the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: . Consequently, the region is subject to

text: earthquakes

text: , and the crust is being stretched, resulting in a sinking of the terrain over time.  Related to the active geology are some interesting hydrothermal features.

text: The Juan de Fuca plate system has its origins with Panthalassa's oceanic basin and crust. This oceanic crust has primarily been subducted under the North American plate, and the Eurasian Plate. Panthalassa's oceanic plate remnants are understood to be the Juan de Fuca, Gorda, Cocos and the Nazca plates, all four of which were part of the Farallon Plate.

text: The Juan de Fuca plate system has its origins with

text: Panthalassa

text: 's

text: oceanic basin

text: and

text: crust

text: . This oceanic crust has primarily been

text: subducted

text: under the

text: North American plate

text: , and the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: . Panthalassa's oceanic plate remnants are understood to be the Juan de Fuca,

text: Gorda

text: Cocos

text: and the

text: Nazca

text: plates, all four of which were part of the

text: Farallon Plate

text: As the aircraft flies, the magnetometer measures and records the total intensity of the magnetic field at the sensor, which is a combination of the desired magnetic field generated in the Earth as well as tiny variations due to the temporal effects of the constantly varying solar wind and the magnetic field of the survey aircraft. By subtracting the solar, regional, and aircraft effects, the resulting aeromagnetic map shows the spatial distribution and relative abundance of magnetic minerals (most commonly the iron oxide mineral magnetite) in the upper levels of the Earth's crust. Because different rock types differ in their content of magnetic minerals, the magnetic map allows a visualization of the geological structure of the upper crust in the subsurface, particularly the spatial geometry of bodies of rock and the presence of faults and folds. This is particularly useful where bedrock is obscured by surface sand, soil or water. Aeromagnetic data was once presented as contour plots, but now is more commonly expressed as thematic (colored) and shaded computer generated pseudo-topography images. The apparent hills, ridges and valleys are referred to as aeromagnetic anomalies. A geophysicist can use mathematical modeling to infer the shape, depth and properties of the rock bodies responsible for the anomalies.

text: As the aircraft flies, the magnetometer measures and records the total intensity of the

text: magnetic field

text: at the sensor, which is a combination of the desired magnetic field generated in the

text: Earth

text: as well as tiny variations due to the temporal effects of the constantly varying

text: solar wind

text: and the magnetic field of the survey aircraft. By subtracting the solar, regional, and aircraft effects, the resulting aeromagnetic map shows the spatial distribution and relative abundance of magnetic minerals (most commonly the

text: iron oxide

text: mineral

text: magnetite

text: ) in the upper levels of the

text: Earth's crust

text: . Because different rock types differ in their content of magnetic minerals, the magnetic map allows a visualization of the

text: geological structure

text: of the upper crust in the subsurface, particularly the spatial geometry of bodies of rock and the presence of faults and folds. This is particularly useful where bedrock is obscured by surface sand, soil or water. Aeromagnetic data was once presented as contour plots, but now is more commonly expressed as

text: thematic

text: (colored) and shaded computer generated pseudo-topography images. The apparent hills, ridges and valleys are referred to as

text: aeromagnetic anomalies

text: . A

text: geophysicist

text: can use mathematical modeling to infer the shape, depth and properties of the rock bodies responsible for the anomalies.

text: Because the solubility of aluminium in orthopyroxene increases with increasing pressure, many researchers, have suggested that the HAOM crystallized at depth, near the base of the Earth's crust. The maximum amounts of aluminium correspond to a  depth.

text: Near Cape Mendocino, the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The Mendocino Fracture Zone (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the Gorda Ridge) is a transform fault that separates the Pacific and Gorda Plates. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and North American Plate is accommodated by the San Andreas Fault, and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the Cascadia Subduction Zone.

text: Near

text: Cape Mendocino

text: , the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the

text: Gorda Ridge

text: ) is a

text: transform fault

text: that separates the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: Gorda Plate

text: s. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and

text: North American Plate

text: is accommodated by the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the

text: Cascadia Subduction Zone

text: Real life failures in naturally deposited mixed soils are not necessarily circular, but prior to computers, it was far easier to analyse such a simplified geometry.  Nevertheless, failures in 'pure' clay can be quite close to circular.  Such slips often occur after a period of heavy rain, when the pore water pressure at the slip surface increases, reducing the effective normal stress and thus diminishing the restraining friction along the slip line.  This is combined with increased soil weight due to the added groundwater.  A 'shrinkage' crack (formed during prior dry weather) at the top of the slip may also fill with rain water, pushing the slip forward.  At the other extreme, slab-shaped slips on hillsides can remove a layer of soil from the top of the underlying bedrock.  Again, this is usually initiated by heavy rain, sometimes combined with increased loading from new buildings or removal of support at the toe (resulting from road widening or other construction work).  Stability can thus be significantly improved by installing drainage paths to reduce the destabilising forces.  Once the slip has occurred, however, a weakness along the slip circle remains, which may then recur at the next monsoon.

text: Real life failures in naturally deposited mixed soils are not necessarily circular, but prior to computers, it was far easier to analyse such a simplified geometry.  Nevertheless, failures in 'pure' clay can be quite close to circular.  Such slips often occur after a period of heavy rain, when the pore water pressure at the slip surface increases, reducing the effective

text: normal stress

text: and thus diminishing the restraining

text: friction

text: along the slip line.  This is combined with increased soil weight due to the added groundwater.  A 'shrinkage' crack (formed during prior dry weather) at the top of the slip may also fill with rain water, pushing the slip forward.  At the other extreme, slab-shaped slips on hillsides can remove a layer of soil from the top of the underlying bedrock.  Again, this is usually initiated by heavy rain, sometimes combined with increased loading from new buildings or removal of support at the toe (resulting from road widening or other construction work).  Stability can thus be significantly improved by installing drainage paths to reduce the destabilising forces.  Once the slip has occurred, however, a weakness along the slip circle remains, which may then recur at the next monsoon.

text: Deeper in the Earth's crust, where temperatures and pressures are higher, the rocks in the fault zone can still brecciate, but they keep their internal cohesion. The resulting type of rock is called a cataclasite.

text: Deeper in the Earth's

text: crust

text: , where temperatures and pressures are higher, the rocks in the fault zone can still brecciate, but they keep their internal cohesion. The resulting type of rock is called a

text: cataclasite

text: The mantle differs substantially from the crust in its mechanical properties which is the direct consequence of chemical composition change (expressed as different mineralogy). The distinction between crust and mantle is based on chemistry, rock types, rheology and seismic characteristics. The crust is a solidification product of mantle derived melts, expressed as various degrees of partial melting products during geologic time. Partial melting of mantle material is believed to cause incompatible elements to separate from the mantle, with less dense material floating upward through pore spaces, cracks, or fissures, that would subsequently cool and solidify at the surface. Typical mantle rocks have a higher magnesium to iron ratio and a smaller proportion of silicon and aluminium than the crust. This behavior is also predicted by experiments that partly melt rocks thought to be representative of Earth's mantle.

text: The mantle differs substantially from the crust in its mechanical properties which is the direct consequence of chemical composition change (expressed as different mineralogy). The distinction between crust and mantle is based on chemistry, rock types,

text: rheology

text: and

text: seismic

text: characteristics. The crust is a solidification product of mantle derived melts, expressed as various degrees of partial melting products during geologic time. Partial melting of mantle material is believed to cause incompatible elements to separate from the mantle, with less dense material floating upward through pore spaces, cracks, or fissures, that would subsequently cool and solidify at the surface. Typical mantle rocks have a higher magnesium to iron ratio and a smaller proportion of

text: silicon

text: and

text: aluminium

text: than the crust. This behavior is also predicted by experiments that partly melt rocks thought to be representative of Earth's mantle.

text: An RRR junction is always stable using these definitions and therefore very common on earth, though in a geological sense ridge spreading is usually discontinued in one direction leaving failed rift zone. There are many examples of these present both now and in the geological past such as the South Atlantic opening with ridges spreading North and South to form the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and an associated aulacogen in the Niger Delta region of Africa. RRR junctions are also common as rifting along three fractures at 120° is the best way to relieve stresses from uplift at the surface of a sphere; on earth stresses similar to these are believed to be caused by the mantle hotspots thought to initiate rifting in continents.

text: An RRR junction is always stable using these definitions and therefore very common on earth, though in a geological sense ridge spreading is usually discontinued in one direction leaving failed

text: rift

text: zone. There are many examples of these present both now and in the geological past such as the South Atlantic opening with ridges spreading North and South to form the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: , and an associated

text: aulacogen

text: in the

text: Niger Delta

text: region of Africa. RRR junctions are also common as rifting along three fractures at 120° is the best way to relieve stresses from uplift at the surface of a sphere; on earth stresses similar to these are believed to be caused by the mantle

text: hotspots

text: thought to initiate rifting in continents.

text: Author of the book: The Evolution of weathering crusts in the history of the Earth.

text: For circuits operating at or above 2,000 volts between conductors, a conductive shield may surround each insulated conductor. This equalizes electrical stress on the cable insulation. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916; the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield. The individual conductor shields of a cable are connected to earth ground at the ends of the cable, and at locations along the length if voltage rise during faults would be dangerous.

text: For circuits operating at or above 2,000 volts between conductors, a conductive shield may surround each insulated conductor. This equalizes electrical stress on the cable insulation. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916; the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield. The individual conductor shields of a cable are connected to earth ground at the ends of the cable, and at locations along the length if voltage rise during

text: faults

text: would be dangerous.

text: All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth’s crust come under diastrophism. They include: (i) orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth’s crust; (ii) epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth’s crust; (iii) earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements; (iv) plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.

text: The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has been a zone of active volcanism since it began to form 20 million years ago. Unlike other parts of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has its origins in continental rifting—an area where the Earth's crust and lithosphere is being pulled apart. This differs from other portions of the Pacific Ring of Fire as it consists largely of volcanic arcs formed by subducting oceanic crust at oceanic trenches along continental margins circling the Pacific Ocean. The continental crust at the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is being stretched at a rate of about  per year. This incipient rifting formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault, on its way to the Aleutian Trench, which extends along the southern coastline of Alaska and the adjacent waters off the southern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. As a result, volcanism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is also not related to back-arc basin volcanism. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, it can create very large earthquakes, such as the magnitude 8.1 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake of 1949. As these far-field forces stretch the North American crust, the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping faults parallel to the rift zone. Hot magma rises between these fractures to create passive or effusive eruptions. Volcanoes within the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are located along short northerly trending segments which in the northern part of the volcanic province are unmistakenably involved with north-trending rift structures, including synvolcanic grabens and grabens with one major fault line along only one of the boundaries (half-grabens). Grabens are indicative of tensional forces and crustal stretching.

text: The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has been a zone of active

text: volcanism

text: since it began to form 20 million years ago. Unlike other parts of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province has its origins in continental

text: rift

text: ing—an area where the Earth's

text: crust

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: is being pulled apart. This differs from other portions of the Pacific Ring of Fire as it consists largely of

text: volcanic arc

text: s formed by

text: subducting

text: oceanic crust

text: at

text: oceanic trench

text: es along

text: continental margin

text: s circling the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . The

text: continental crust

text: at the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is being stretched at a rate of about  per year. This incipient rifting formed as a result of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: sliding northward along the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: , on its way to the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: , which extends along the southern coastline of Alaska and the adjacent waters off the southern coast of the

text: Kamchatka Peninsula

text: . As a result, volcanism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is also not related to

text: back-arc basin

text: volcanism. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the

text: fault

text: at irregular intervals, it can create very large

text: earthquake

text: s, such as the

text: magnitude

text: Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake of 1949

text: . As these far-field forces stretch the North American crust, the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping faults parallel to the rift zone. Hot magma rises between these fractures to create passive or

text: effusive eruption

text: s. Volcanoes within the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province are located along short northerly trending segments which in the northern part of the volcanic province are unmistakenably involved with north-trending rift structures, including synvolcanic

text: graben

text: s and grabens with one major fault line along only one of the boundaries (

text: half-graben

text: s). Grabens are indicative of tensional forces and crustal stretching.

text: Earth minerals and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's crust, and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by natural geological processes (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through plate tectonics, tectonic subsidence and crustal recycling.

text: Earth

text: minerals and

text: metal

text: ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's

text: crust

text: , and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by

text: natural geological processes

text: (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through

text: plate tectonics

text: tectonic subsidence

text: and

text: crustal recycling

text: Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances (and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth, including most of the minerals that make up the crust, mantle, and core of the Earth, contain many chemical bonds, but are not made of identifiable molecules. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for ionic crystals (salts) and covalent crystals (network solids), although these are often composed of repeating unit cells that extend either in a plane (such as in graphene) or three-dimensionally (such as in diamond, quartz, or sodium chloride). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with metallic bonding, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In glasses (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule, nor any of the regularity of repeating units that characterizes crystals.

text: Molecules as components of matter are common in organic substances (and therefore biochemistry). They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere. However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth, including most of the minerals that make up the

text: crust

text: mantle

text: , and

text: core of the Earth

text: , contain many chemical bonds, but are not made of identifiable molecules. Also, no typical molecule can be defined for

text: ionic crystal

text: s (

text: salts

text: ) and covalent crystals (

text: network solid

text: s), although these are often composed of repeating

text: unit cell

text: s that extend either in a

text: plane

text: (such as in

text: graphene

text: ) or three-dimensionally (such as in

text: diamond

text: quartz

text: , or

text: sodium chloride

text: ). The theme of repeated unit-cellular-structure also holds for most condensed phases with

text: metallic bond

text: ing, which means that solid metals are also not made of molecules. In

text: glass

text: es (solids that exist in a vitreous disordered state), atoms may also be held together by chemical bonds with no presence of any definable molecule, nor any of the regularity of repeating units that characterizes crystals.

text: Crustal strain and deformation is the change in shape and volume of continental and oceanic crust caused by stress applied to rock through tectonic forces. An array of variables including composition, temperature, pressure, etc., determines how the crust will deform.

text: Crustal

text: strain

text: and

text: deformation

text: is the change in shape and volume of continental and oceanic crust caused by stress applied to rock through tectonic forces. An array of variables including composition, temperature, pressure, etc., determines how the crust will deform.

text: Thus there is reason to believe that ophiolites are indeed oceanic mantle and crust; however, certain problems arise when looking closer. Compositional differences regarding silica (SiO) and titania (TiO) contents, for example, place ophiolite basalts in the domain of subduction zones (~55% silica, <1% TiO), whereas mid-ocean ridge basalts typically have ~50% silica and 1.5-2.5% TiO. These chemical differences extend to a range of trace elements as well (that is, chemical elements occurring in amounts of 1000 ppm or less). In particular, trace elements associated with subduction zone (island arc) volcanics tend to be high in ophiolites, whereas trace elements that are high in ocean ridge basalts but low in subduction zone volcanics are also low in ophiolites.

text: Thus there is reason to believe that ophiolites are indeed oceanic mantle and crust; however, certain problems arise when looking closer. Compositional differences regarding

text: silica

text: (SiO) and titania (TiO) contents, for example, place ophiolite basalts in the domain of subduction zones (~55% silica, <1% TiO), whereas mid-ocean ridge basalts typically have ~50% silica and 1.5-2.5% TiO. These chemical differences extend to a range of

text: trace element

text: s as well (that is, chemical elements occurring in amounts of 1000 ppm or less). In particular, trace elements associated with subduction zone (island arc) volcanics tend to be high in ophiolites, whereas trace elements that are high in ocean ridge basalts but low in subduction zone volcanics are also low in ophiolites.

text: According to the Fellowship, the Lemurian Philosophy was revealed to Stelle by highly advanced men and women, called Masters or Elder Brothers. The Philosophy is said to have formed the foundation of the so-called Mukulian civilization on the legendary continent of Mu (also known as Lemuria) now covered by the Pacific Ocean. This lost continent is considered incompatible with the theory of plate tectonics, the standard theory describing movement of the earth's lithosphere accepted by most, but not all, earth scientists. Nonetheless, the Lemurian Philosophy points to various megalithic structures and other features on various Pacific Islands, and in South America and Asia, as indications that the continent and an advanced civilization did at one time exist.

text: According to the Fellowship, the Lemurian Philosophy was revealed to Stelle by highly advanced men and women, called Masters or Elder Brothers. The Philosophy is said to have formed the foundation of the so-called Mukulian

text: civilization

text: on the legendary

text: continent

text: of Mu (also known as

text: Lemuria

text: ) now covered by the Pacific Ocean. This

text: lost continent

text: is considered incompatible with the

text: theory

text: of

text: plate tectonics

text: , the standard theory describing movement of the

text: earth

text: 's

text: lithosphere

text: accepted by most, but not all,

text: earth scientists

text: . Nonetheless, the Lemurian Philosophy points to various

text: megalith

text: ic structures and other features on various

text: Pacific Islands

text: , and in South America and Asia, as indications that the continent and an advanced civilization did at one time exist.

text: Saliva testing also has specific uses in clinical and experimental psychological settings. Due to its ability to provide insight into human behavior, emotions, and development, it has been used to investigate psychological phenomenon such as anxiety, depression, PTSD, and other behavioral disorders. Its primary purpose is to test cortisol and alpha amylase levels, which are indicative of stress levels. Salivary cortisol is a good stress index, with increased levels of cortisol correlating positively with increased levels of stress. Cortisol levels rise slowly over time and take a while to return to base level, indicating that cortisol is more associated with chronic stress levels. Alpha amylase, on the other hand, spikes quickly when confronted with a stressor and returns to baseline soon after the stress has passed, making salivary amylase measurement a powerful tool for psychological research studying acute stress responses. Samples are usually collected from participants by having them drool through a straw into a collection tube while experiencing a stimulus, with samples taken every few minutes to record the gradual change in stress hormone levels. Because the collection of saliva samples is non-invasive, it has the advantage of not introducing further stress on the participant that may otherwise distort results.

text: Saliva testing also has specific uses in clinical and

text: experimental psychological

text: settings. Due to its ability to provide insight into human behavior, emotions, and development, it has been used to investigate psychological phenomenon such as

text: anxiety

text: depression

text: PTSD

text: , and other behavioral disorders. Its primary purpose is to test

text: cortisol

text: and

text: alpha amylase

text: levels, which are indicative of stress levels. Salivary cortisol is a good stress index, with increased levels of cortisol correlating positively with increased levels of stress. Cortisol levels rise slowly over time and take a while to return to base level, indicating that cortisol is more associated with

text: chronic stress

text: levels. Alpha amylase, on the other hand, spikes quickly when confronted with a stressor and returns to baseline soon after the stress has passed, making salivary amylase measurement a powerful tool for psychological research studying acute stress responses. Samples are usually collected from participants by having them drool through a straw into a collection tube while experiencing a stimulus, with samples taken every few minutes to record the gradual change in stress hormone levels. Because the collection of saliva samples is non-invasive, it has the advantage of not introducing further stress on the participant that may otherwise distort results.

text: The Pliocene-Pleistocene changes in Tyrrhenian back-arc extension may have also been influenced by the adjacent Adriatic and Sicilian forelands. These sectors were not thinned by rifting and are characterized by normal continental lithosphere. During its southeastward migration, the passively retreating oceanic slab had to adjust and deform in relation the large and buoyant continental sectors. Post-Pliocene migration was eventually driven through the narrow corridor (250 km) represented by the present Ionian Sea and thus separated the Adriatic and Sicilian sectors. Changes in lithospheric composition may have also contributed to differences in subduction geometry. For instance, during the first episode of subduction, thinned continental lithosphere underlying the Apenninic margin subducted beneath the Eurasian plate. However, in the second episode of subduction, it was instead Ionian oceanic lithosphere that was involved in subduction. A transition from continental to oceanic lithosphere subduction could explain the late onset of arc volcanism (2-1.5 Ma) as well as the lack of arc volcanism in the central Tyrrhenian basin.

text: The last part of the curve, perhaps the most important part, can be filled in by inference. This would come from studying similar geology throughout the world (using analogs to extend time), or by a study of fault mechanics. For example, large-scale studies have been conducted for Stable Continental Regions (SCR's), which are defined "as regions of continental crust that have not experienced any major tectonism, magmatism, basement metamorphism or anorogenic intrusion since the early Cretaceous, and no rifting or major extension or transtension since the Paleogene."

text: The last part of the curve, perhaps the most important part, can be filled in by inference. This would come from studying similar geology throughout the world (using analogs to extend time), or by a study of

text: fault mechanics

text: . For example, large-scale studies have been conducted for Stable Continental Regions (SCR's), which are defined "as regions of continental crust that have not experienced any major tectonism, magmatism, basement metamorphism or anorogenic intrusion since the early Cretaceous, and no rifting or major extension or transtension since the Paleogene."

text: As an ocean is progressively trapped in between two colliding continental lithospheres, the rising wedges of oceanic crust and mantle rise are caught in the jaws of the continent/continent vise and detach and begin to move up the advancing continental rise. Continued convergence may lead to the overthrusting of the arc-trench gap and eventually overthrusting of the metamorphic plutonic and volcanic rocks of the volcanic arc.

text: Volcanoes that occur above subduction zones, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Fuji, lie at approximately one hundred kilometres from the trench in arcuate chains, hence the term volcanic arc. Two kinds of arcs are generally observed on Earth: island arcs that form on oceanic lithosphere (for example, the Mariana and the Tonga island arcs), and continental arcs such as the Cascade Volcanic Arc, that form along the coast of continents. Island arcs are produced by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath another oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean subduction) while continental arcs formed during subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental lithosphere (ocean-continent subduction).  An example of a volcanic arc having both island and continental arc sections is found behind the Aleutian Trench subduction zone in Alaska.

text: Volcano

text: es that occur above subduction zones, such as

text: Mount St. Helens

text: Mount Etna

text: and

text: Mount Fuji

text: , lie at approximately one hundred kilometres from the trench in arcuate chains, hence the term

text: volcanic arc

text: . Two kinds of arcs are generally observed on Earth:

text: island arcs

text: that form on oceanic lithosphere (for example, the

text: Mariana

text: and the

text: Tonga

text: island arcs), and

text: continental arc

text: s such as the

text: Cascade Volcanic Arc

text: , that form along the coast of continents. Island arcs are produced by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath another oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean subduction) while continental arcs formed during subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental lithosphere (ocean-continent subduction).  An example of a volcanic arc having both island and continental arc sections is found behind the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: subduction zone in Alaska.

text: Tallulah Dome is a rock formation caused by the double folding of the Earth's crust during the formation of Pangaea, about 500 to 250 million years ago. The dome is made up of mostly quartzite along with schist.

text: Tallulah Dome is a rock formation caused by the double

text: folding

text: of the Earth's

text: crust

text: during the formation of

text: Pangaea

text: , about 500 to 250 million years ago. The dome is made up of mostly

text: quartzite

text: along with

text: schist

text: In 1953, geologist Thomas Dibblee astounded the scientific establishment with his conclusion that hundreds of miles of lateral movement could occur along the fault. A project called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) near Parkfield, Monterey County, is drilling into the fault to improve prediction and recording of future earthquakes.

text: In 1953, geologist

text: Thomas Dibblee

text: astounded the scientific establishment with his conclusion that hundreds of miles of lateral movement could occur along the fault. A project called the

text: San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD)

text: near

text: Parkfield

text: Monterey County

text: , is drilling into the fault to improve prediction and recording of future earthquakes.

text: Fionavar has many similarities to Tolkien's Middle-earth, and seems to be directly influenced by it (perhaps not surprising, since Kay worked with Christopher Tolkien to edit The Silmarillion and prepare it for publication). The map of Fionavar shows the northwestern part of the continent and its western coasts, bordered by an ocean, like most of the Middle-earth maps drawn by Tolkien, especially of Beleriand. Beyond the western sea lies a place where the Lios Alfar (Elves) go when they want to abandon the world, similar to Tolkien's Valinor.

text: Fionavar has many similarities to Tolkien's

text: Middle-earth

text: , and seems to be directly influenced by it (perhaps not surprising, since Kay worked with

text: Christopher Tolkien

text: to edit

text: The Silmarillion

text: and prepare it for publication). The map of Fionavar shows the northwestern part of the continent and its western coasts, bordered by an ocean, like most of the Middle-earth maps drawn by Tolkien, especially of

text: Beleriand

text: . Beyond the western sea lies a place where the Lios Alfar (Elves) go when they want to abandon the world, similar to Tolkien's

text: Valinor

text: Areas of strike-slip tectonics are associated with:

text: About 50 million years ago the Siletzia terrane, being borne to the northeast by the subducting plate, refused to be subducted. It ran it into the edge of the continent and embayed the overlying crust, bending the section of the Wrangellia—Pacific Rim contact now known as the San Juan fault to its current easterly orientation.  This also initiated the oblique left-lateral Devils Mountain fault, including the section now known as the Leech River fault, and its right-lateral extension, the Darrington fault, that strikes southward from the town of Darrington to converge with the right-lateral strike-slip Straight Creek Fault at the OWL (see map). About 42 million years ago this northeastward force rotated to a northerly direction which, striking the SWIF more obliquely, caused the strike-slip movement that offset the LRF past Victoria.

text: About 50 million years ago the

text: Siletzia

text: terrane, being borne to the northeast by the subducting plate, refused to be subducted. It ran it into the edge of the continent and embayed the overlying crust, bending the section of the Wrangellia—Pacific Rim contact now known as the San Juan fault to its current easterly orientation.  This also initiated the oblique left-lateral Devils Mountain fault, including the section now known as the Leech River fault, and its right-lateral extension, the Darrington fault, that strikes southward from the town of

text: Darrington

text: to converge with the right-lateral strike-slip

text: Straight Creek Fault

text: at the OWL (see map). About 42 million years ago this northeastward force rotated to a northerly direction which, striking the SWIF more obliquely, caused the strike-slip movement that offset the LRF past Victoria.

text: The structure of the Earth is a rigid outer crust that is composed of thicker continental crust and thinner oceanic crust, solid but plastically flowing mantle, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core. The fluidity of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth's internal heat. The mantle convects in response to heat escaping from Earth's interior, with hotter and more buoyant mantle rising and cooler, and therefore denser, mantle sinking. This convective flow of the mantle drives the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates; thus, an additional reservoir of heat in the lower mantle is critical for the operation of plate tectonics and one possible source is an enrichment of radioactive elements in the lower mantle.

text: The

text: structure of the Earth

text: is a rigid outer

text: crust

text: that is composed of thicker

text: continental crust

text: and thinner

text: oceanic crust

text: , solid but plastically flowing

text: mantle

text: , a liquid

text: outer core

text: , and a solid

text: inner core

text: . The

text: fluidity

text: of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth's internal heat. The

text: mantle convects

text: in response to heat escaping from Earth's interior, with hotter and more buoyant mantle rising and cooler, and therefore denser, mantle sinking. This convective flow of the mantle drives the movement of Earth's

text: lithospheric plates

text: ; thus, an additional reservoir of heat in the lower mantle is critical for the operation of plate tectonics and one possible source is an enrichment of radioactive elements in the lower mantle.

text: The Mountain States Telephone Building, also known as Telephone Building is a building in Denver, Colorado, United States that served as the headquarters of the Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, later known as Mountain Bell.  Constructed in a variant of the Gothic Revival style named "Modern American Perpendicular Gothic," the building was designed by local architect William N. Bowman.  The new building, completed in 1929, was built to provide dial telephone service for the first time in Denver.

text: The Mountain States Telephone Building, also known as Telephone Building is a building in

text: Denver

text: Colorado

text: United States

text: that served as the headquarters of the Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, later known as

text: Mountain Bell

text: .  Constructed in a variant of the

text: Gothic Revival

text: style named "Modern American Perpendicular Gothic," the building was designed by local architect

text: William N. Bowman

text: .  The new building, completed in 1929, was built to provide

text: dial telephone service

text: for the first time in Denver.

text: The physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam.  Two types of physical stress are caused by beating them with a whisk, the first of which occurs as the whisk drags the liquid through itself, creating a force that unfolds the protein molecules. This process is called denaturation. The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, which causes the proteins to come out of their natural state.  These denatured proteins gather together where the air and water meet and create multiple bonds with the other unraveled proteins, and thus become a foam, holding the incorporated air in place. This is because the proteins consist of amino acids; some are hydrophilic (attracted to water) and some are hydrophobic (repelled by water). This process is called coagulation.

text: The physical stress of beating egg whites can create a foam.  Two types of physical stress are caused by beating them with a whisk, the first of which occurs as the whisk drags the liquid through itself, creating a force that unfolds the protein molecules. This process is called

text: denaturation

text: . The second stress comes from the mixing of air into the whites, which causes the proteins to come out of their natural state.  These denatured proteins gather together where the air and water meet and create multiple bonds with the other unraveled proteins, and thus become a foam, holding the incorporated air in place. This is because the proteins consist of amino acids; some are hydrophilic (attracted to water) and some are hydrophobic (repelled by water). This process is called

text: coagulation

text: A mountain hut (also known as alpine hut, mountain shelter, mountain refuge, mountain lodge, and mountain hostel) is a building located high in the mountains, generally accessible only by foot, intended to provide food and shelter to mountaineers, climbers and hikers. Mountain huts are usually operated by an Alpine Club or some organisation dedicated to hiking or mountain recreation.

text: A mountain hut (also known as alpine hut, mountain shelter, mountain refuge, mountain lodge, and mountain hostel) is a building located high in the mountains, generally accessible only by foot, intended to provide food and shelter to

text: mountaineers

text: climbers

text: and

text: hiker

text: s. Mountain huts are usually operated by an

text: Alpine Club

text: or some organisation dedicated to hiking or mountain recreation.

text: Strike-slip tectonics is concerned with the structures formed by, and the tectonic processes associated with, zones of lateral displacement within the crust or lithosphere.

text: Strike-slip tectonics is concerned with the structures formed by, and the

text: tectonic

text: processes associated with, zones of lateral displacement within the

text: crust

text: or

text: lithosphere

text: In the middle of the 20th century some geologists formed an idea about existing fault-fold systems in the earth's crust, in sediment cover, and this gave creekology a "scientific base".  Linear forms in earth landscape connect with fault tectonics, and some folds near faults can be reservoirs of hydrocarbons. The non-fold types of traps mark by lineation too (paleo-rivers formed on faults). Now some geologists mark probable gas-oil areas with the help of space image lineation interpreting. This activity can be defined as "new creekology".

text: In the middle of the 20th century some

text: geologist

text: s formed an idea about existing

text: fault-fold

text: systems in the

text: earth's crust

text: , in sediment cover, and this gave creekology a "scientific base".  Linear forms in earth landscape connect with fault

text: tectonics

text: , and some folds near faults can be reservoirs of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s. The non-fold types of traps mark by

text: lineation

text: too (paleo-rivers formed on faults). Now some geologists mark probable gas-oil areas with the help of space image lineation interpreting. This activity can be defined as "new creekology".

text: When two tectonic plates collide, relatively denser oceanic crust will be subducted under relatively lighter continental crust. Because of the subduction process, the relatively cooler oceanic crust, along with water, is subducted to the asthenosphere, where pressures and temperatures are much higher than the surface of earth. Under such conditions, the downgoing plate releases volatiles such as HO and CO, which cause partial melting of the above asthenosphere. This process can create relatively buoyant magma, which subsequently forms a series of volcanoes at the surface along the subduction zone. There are some researchers who argue that refertilization of arc lithospheric mantle may also be an important process associated with arc magmatism. Because the subduction zone (which is also the plate boundary) is generally an arc-shape, geologists named those volcanoes volcanic arcs. A volcanic arc built on continental crust is called a continental arc; when built on oceanic crust the volcanoes form an island arc.

text: When two

text: tectonic plate

text: s collide, relatively denser

text: oceanic crust

text: will be subducted under relatively lighter

text: continental crust

text: . Because of the subduction process, the relatively cooler oceanic crust, along with water, is subducted to the

text: asthenosphere

text: , where pressures and temperatures are much higher than the surface of earth. Under such conditions, the downgoing plate releases

text: volatiles

text: such as HO and CO, which cause

text: partial melting

text: of the above asthenosphere. This process can create relatively buoyant

text: magma

text: , which subsequently forms a series of

text: volcano

text: es at the surface along the

text: subduction zone

text: . There are some researchers who argue that refertilization of arc lithospheric mantle may also be an important process associated with arc magmatism. Because the subduction zone (which is also the plate boundary) is generally an arc-shape, geologists named those volcanoes

text: volcanic arc

text: s. A volcanic arc built on continental crust is called a continental arc; when built on oceanic crust the volcanoes form an

text: island arc

text: The canyon lies between the San Andreas Fault on the north and the San Jacinto Fault to the south.

text: The canyon lies between the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: on the north and the

text: San Jacinto Fault

text: to the south.

text: From 1920 onward Dr. Bucher was noted for his studies in cryptovolcanic structures, significant deformations of the crust of the Earth, and structural geology.

text: The first offshore drillship was the CUSS 1 developed for the Mohole project to drill into the Earth's crust.

text: The first offshore

text: drillship

text: was the CUSS 1 developed for the

text: Mohole

text: project to drill into the Earth's crust.

text: Volcanism in the Chilean Andes is caused by subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic tectonic plates under the South American Plate. Volcanoes in Chile occur in the Central (CVZ), South (SVZ), and Austral Volcanic Zones (AVZ). The gap that separates the Central and South Volcanic Zones is caused by shallow-angle subduction in the Pampean flat-slab segment where the more buoyant Juan Fernández Ridge subducts under the South American continent. This buoyant region prevents the  slab (subducting tectonic plate) from diving deep into the mantle, where the heat and pressure would destabilize the mineral chlorite, releasing water that would in turn cause melting and volcanism. The Patagonian Volcanic Gap, which separates the South and Austral Volcanic Zones, is caused by the subduction of the Chile Ridge, though it is less clear whether this gap also is due to flat-slab subduction; it may instead arise because melting of the subducting slab there produced felsic igneous rocks instead of volcanoes.

text: Volcanism in the Chilean Andes

text: is caused by

text: subduction

text: of the

text: Nazca

text: and

text: Antarctic

text: tectonic plate

text: s under the

text: South American Plate

text: . Volcanoes in Chile occur in the

text: Central

text: (CVZ),

text: South

text: (SVZ), and

text: Austral

text: Volcanic Zones (AVZ). The gap that separates the Central and South Volcanic Zones is caused by shallow-angle subduction in the

text: Pampean flat-slab segment

text: where the more buoyant

text: Juan Fernández Ridge

text: subducts under the South American continent. This buoyant region prevents the

text: slab

text: (subducting tectonic plate) from diving deep into the

text: mantle

text: , where the heat and pressure would destabilize the mineral

text: chlorite

text: , releasing water that would in turn cause

text: melting

text: and

text: volcanism

text: . The

text: Patagonian Volcanic Gap

text: , which separates the South and Austral Volcanic Zones, is caused by the subduction of the

text: Chile Ridge

text: , though it is less clear whether this gap also is due to

text: flat-slab subduction

text: ; it may instead arise because melting of the subducting slab there produced

text: felsic

text: igneous rock

text: s instead of volcanoes.

text: Williamson and Adams first developed the theory in 1923. They concluded that "It is therefore impossible to explain the high density of the Earth on the basis of compression alone. The dense interior cannot consist of ordinary rocks compressed to a small volume; we must therefore fall back on the only reasonable alternative, namely, the presence of a heavier material, presumably some metal, which, to judge from its abundance in the Earth's crust, in meteorites and in the Sun, is probably iron."

text: Uranium is a fairly common element in the Earth's crust. Uranium is approximately as common as tin or germanium in the Earth's crust, and is about 40 times more common than silver. Uranium is present in trace concentrations in most rocks, dirt, and ocean water, but can be economically extracted currently only where it is present in high concentrations. Still, the world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at the arbitrary price ceiling of 130 USD/kg, are enough to last for between 70 and 100 years.

text: Uranium

text: is a fairly common

text: element

text: in the Earth's crust. Uranium is approximately as common as

text: tin

text: or

text: germanium

text: in the Earth's crust, and is about 40 times more common than silver. Uranium is present in trace concentrations in most rocks, dirt, and ocean water, but can be economically extracted currently only where it is present in high concentrations. Still, the world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at the arbitrary price ceiling of 130 USD/kg, are enough to last for between 70 and 100 years.

text: is the height of the mountain and c the thickness of the crust.

text: The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's crust is made up of rigid plates that "float" on top of the mantle and move relative to one another. As the plates move, the crust deforms dominantly along the plate margins. Intraplate deformation differs from that respect by the observation that deformation can occur anywhere the crust is weak and not just at plate margins.

text: New oceanic crust, closest to the mid-oceanic ridges, is mostly basalt at shallow levels and has a rugged topography. The roughness of this topography is a function of the rate at which the mid-ocean ridge is spreading (the spreading rate). Magnitudes of spreading rates vary quite significantly. Typical values for fast-spreading ridges are greater than 100 mm/yr, while slow-spreading ridges are typically less than 20 mm/yr. Studies have shown that the slower the spreading rate, the rougher the new oceanic crust will be, and vice versa. It is thought this phenomenon is due to faulting at the mid-ocean ridge when the new oceanic crust was formed. These faults pervading the oceanic crust, along with their bounding abyssal hills, are the most common tectonic and topographic features on the surface of the Earth. The process of seafloor spreading helps to explain the concept of continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.

text: New oceanic crust, closest to the mid-oceanic ridges, is mostly basalt at shallow levels and has a rugged

text: topography

text: . The roughness of this topography is a function of the rate at which the mid-ocean ridge is spreading (the spreading rate). Magnitudes of spreading rates vary quite significantly. Typical values for fast-spreading ridges are greater than 100 mm/yr, while slow-spreading ridges are typically less than 20 mm/yr. Studies have shown that the slower the spreading rate, the rougher the new oceanic crust will be, and vice versa. It is thought this phenomenon is due to

text: faulting

text: at the mid-ocean ridge when the new oceanic crust was formed. These faults pervading the oceanic crust, along with their bounding abyssal hills, are the most common tectonic and topographic features on the surface of the Earth. The process of seafloor spreading helps to explain the concept of

text: continental drift

text: in the theory of plate tectonics.

text: It was erected on Mount Washington in 1853 to compete with The Summit House, a nearby hotel established in 1852. Built by Samuel F. Spaulding at a cost of $7000, The Tip-Top House was made of rock blasted from the mountain. On clear days, a telescope was placed on its flat roof to create an observatory, although in the early 1860s, the flat roof was replaced with a pitched roof. Beginning in 1877, the building functioned for seven years as a printing office for Among the Clouds, the mountain's newspaper.

text: It was erected on Mount Washington in 1853 to compete with The Summit House, a nearby hotel established in 1852. Built by Samuel F. Spaulding at a cost of $7000, The Tip-Top House was made of rock blasted from the mountain. On clear days, a telescope was placed on its flat roof to create an

text: observatory

text: , although in the early 1860s, the flat roof was replaced with a pitched roof. Beginning in 1877, the building functioned for seven years as a printing office for Among the Clouds, the mountain's newspaper.

text: The D'Entrecasteaux Islands are volcanically active, with a number of areas of historic/geologic volcanism and active geothermal fields. Fergusson island has three volcanic masses over 1,828 m high. There are geothermal areas in the south east area of Goodenough Island and the Bwabwadana and Iamalele on Fergusson Island.  A particularly active hot springs is located at Deidei on Fergusson. Between Fergusson and Normanby Islands the Dawson Straights Group has several volcanic centres that may define a partly submerged caldera; one of the cones on southwestern Fergusson Island may have erupted in 1350.  Geologically the islands are largely made up of rock that probably once belonged to the northern edge of the Australian plate that was thrust deep into the Earth's crust by plate collision. The burial of these rocks to great depths (where they also encountered correspondingly high temperatures) metamorphosed the rocks to eclogite facies: >2GPa and >700˚C. Specifically, these islands play host to the youngest known coesite-eclogite sample; CA-TIMS dating of zircons within this sample dates its formation to ~5Ma, meaning it has been exhumed from a depth of ~100 km at the remarkable rate of ~20mm/yr. The rock at the centre of the tall domes in these islands was thus recently very deep in the Earth. Over a very short time, geologically speaking, these packets of rocks have ascended through the Earth's shallow mantle and pushed through the crust to form the gneiss domes we find today - the vestiges of the crust these massifs have thrust through are still draped as carapaces over the edges of the domes. These islands are thought to be geophysically significant because they lie immediately ahead of the west-most rift tip of the Woodlark spreading centre, which has been propagating westwards into the continent. The D'Entrecasteaux thus represent a stage of continental breakup just preceding fully-fledged volcanic spreading.

text: The D'Entrecasteaux Islands are volcanically active, with a number of areas of historic/geologic volcanism and active

text: geothermal

text: fields. Fergusson island has three volcanic masses over 1,828 m high. There are geothermal areas in the south east area of Goodenough Island and the Bwabwadana and Iamalele on Fergusson Island.  A particularly active hot springs is located at Deidei on Fergusson. Between Fergusson and Normanby Islands the Dawson Straights Group has several volcanic centres that may define a partly submerged

text: caldera

text: ; one of the cones on southwestern Fergusson Island may have erupted in 1350.  Geologically the islands are largely made up of rock that probably once belonged to the northern edge of the Australian

text: plate

text: that was thrust deep into the Earth's crust by plate collision. The burial of these rocks to great depths (where they also encountered correspondingly high temperatures) metamorphosed the rocks to

text: eclogite facies

text: : >2GPa and >700˚C. Specifically, these islands play host to the youngest known coesite-eclogite sample; CA-

text: TIMS

text: dating of zircons within this sample dates its formation to ~5Ma, meaning it has been exhumed from a depth of ~100 km at the remarkable rate of ~20mm/yr. The rock at the centre of the tall domes in these islands was thus recently very deep in the Earth. Over a very short time, geologically speaking, these packets of rocks have ascended through the Earth's shallow mantle and pushed through the crust to form the gneiss domes we find today - the vestiges of the crust these massifs have thrust through are still draped as carapaces over the edges of the domes. These islands are thought to be geophysically significant because they lie immediately ahead of the west-most rift tip of the Woodlark spreading centre, which has been propagating westwards into the continent. The D'Entrecasteaux thus represent a stage of continental breakup just preceding fully-fledged volcanic spreading.

text: The Earth was compared to a cooling ball of iron, or a steam boiler with shifting boiler plates.  By the early 1900s, it was known that temperature increased with increasing depth.  With the thickness of the crust, the "boiler plates", being estimated at ten to fifty miles, the downward pressure would be hundreds of thousands of pounds per square inch.  Although groundwater was expected to turn to steam at a great depth, usually the downward pressure would contain any steam.  Steam's effect upon molten rock was suspected of being a cause of volcanoes and earthquakes, as it had been noticed that most volcanoes are near water.  It was not clear whether the molten rock from volcanoes had its origin in the molten rock under the crust, or if increased heat due to pressure under mountains caused the rock to melt.  One of the reasons for volcanoes was as a way in which "the contracting earth disposes of the matter it can no longer contain."  A relationship between earthquakes and volcanoes had been noted, although the causes were not known.  Fault lines and earthquakes tended to happen along the boundaries of the shifting "boiler plates", but the folding of mountains indicated that sometimes the plates buckled.

text: This is a list of the named geological faults affecting the rocks of Wales. See the main article on faults for a fuller treatment of fault types and nomenclature but in brief, the main types are normal faults, reverse faults, thrusts or thrust faults and strike-slip faults. Many faults may have acted as both normal faults at one time and as reverse or thrust faults at another and may or may not have also incorporated some degree of strike-slip movement too. Fault zones, fault belts and fault complexes typically describe assemblages of faults which have a common origin and history and whose alignments tend to be sub-parallel to one another.

text: This is a list of the named geological faults affecting the rocks of

text: Wales

text: . See the

text: main article on faults

text: for a fuller treatment of fault types and nomenclature but in brief, the main types are normal faults, reverse faults, thrusts or thrust faults and strike-slip faults. Many faults may have acted as both normal faults at one time and as reverse or thrust faults at another and may or may not have also incorporated some degree of strike-slip movement too. Fault zones, fault belts and fault complexes typically describe assemblages of faults which have a common origin and history and whose alignments tend to be sub-parallel to one another.

text: If the Earth's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt–like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches – very deep, narrow canyons – are formed, e.g. along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed" in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled," with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.

text: If the Earth's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt–like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches – very deep, narrow canyons – are formed, e.g. along

text: the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin

text: . The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed" in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled," with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.

text: Pangea started to break up during the Triassic ~225Ma.  Rifting affected regions which became the central Atlantic (between North America and Africa) and the Gulf of Mexico at about the same time.  This rifting created a divergent plate margin that would play an integral role of the future geologic processes to follow.  Rifting which involves the stretching of pre-existing crust and mantle lithosphere was initiated by the existence of sufficient horizontal deviatoric tensional stress that broke the lithosphere. Eventually rifting gave way to sea floor spreading in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico in the mid Jurassic, around ~165 Ma.  Sea floor spreading is where new oceanic lithosphere is being created by upwelling of material, unlike rifting where it only involved the stretching of the crust.  Convection currents in the sub-lithospheric mantle are the driving mechanisms that caused sea floor spreading to occur.  New lithosphere is made when hot material beneath ocean ridges is brought to the surface by these cells.  As the new lithosphere moves horizontally away from the ridges, the new crust added to the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic caused the continents of North America and South America to be moved apart.  Seafloor spreading in the Gulf of Mexico ceased by the beginning of the Cretaceous and spreading shifted to the proto-Caribbean.

text: Pangea started to break up during the

text: Triassic

text: Rifting

text: affected regions which became the central Atlantic (between North America and Africa) and the Gulf of Mexico at about the same time.  This rifting created a

text: divergent plate

text: margin that would play an integral role of the future geologic processes to follow.

text: Rifting

text: which involves the stretching of pre-existing crust and mantle lithosphere was initiated by the existence of sufficient horizontal deviatoric tensional stress that broke the lithosphere. Eventually rifting gave way to

text: sea floor spreading

text: in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico in the mid

text: Jurassic

text: , around ~165 Ma.  Sea floor spreading is where new oceanic lithosphere is being created by

text: upwelling

text: of material, unlike rifting where it only involved the stretching of the crust.

text: Convection

text: currents in the sub-lithospheric mantle are the driving mechanisms that caused sea floor spreading to occur.  New lithosphere is made when hot material beneath ocean ridges is brought to the surface by these cells.  As the new

text: lithosphere

text: moves horizontally away from the ridges, the new crust added to the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic caused the continents of North America and South America to be moved apart.

text: Seafloor spreading

text: in the Gulf of Mexico ceased by the beginning of the Cretaceous and spreading shifted to the proto-Caribbean.

text: The Marlborough Fault System consists of four main dominantly strike-slip fault strands, which together carry almost all of the displacement associated with the plate boundary. Other smaller faults form as splays of these main faults or accommodate deformation of the crust between them, such as the Newton and Hura Faults at the western end of the Hope Fault and the Jordan Thrust that formed the Seaward Kaikoura Range. The dextral strike-slip across this zone has also involved clockwise rotation of the intervening fault blocks of about 20° since the early Pliocene.

text: The Marlborough Fault System consists of four main dominantly strike-slip fault strands, which together carry almost all of the displacement associated with the plate boundary. Other smaller faults form as splays of these main faults or accommodate deformation of the crust between them, such as the Newton and Hura Faults at the western end of the Hope Fault and the Jordan Thrust that formed the

text: Seaward Kaikoura Range

text: . The dextral strike-slip across this zone has also involved clockwise rotation of the intervening fault blocks of about 20° since the early

text: Pliocene

text: Aviation is a high-stress industry, given that it requires a high level of precision at all times.  Chronically high stress levels can ultimately decrease performance and compromise safety.  To be effective, stress measurement tools must be specific to the aviation industry, given its unique working environment and other stressors. Stress measurement in aviation seeks to quantify the psychological stress experienced by aviators, with the goal of making needed improvements to aviators' coping and stress management skills.

text: Aviation is a

text: high-stress industry

text: , given that it requires a high level of precision at all times.  Chronically high stress levels can ultimately decrease performance and compromise safety.  To be effective, stress measurement tools must be specific to the aviation industry, given its unique working environment and other

text: stressor

text: s. Stress measurement in aviation seeks to quantify the

text: psychological stress

text: experienced by

text: aviator

text: s, with the goal of making needed improvements to aviators'

text: coping

text: and stress management skills.

text: About  a fourth tectonic event occurred in the Lake Superior region. A hotspot of magma from the earth’s mantle beneath present-day Lake Superior rose, causing the crust to dome and break apart. This zone of crustal thinning and fracturing is the Midcontinent Rift System; it extends in a boomerang shape for over  from northeastern Kansas northward through Iowa, under the Twin Cities of Minnesota, beneath Lake Superior, and then south through the eastern Upper Peninsula of Michigan and beneath the central Lower Peninsula of Michigan. As the crust was being stretched thin and more magma flowed out from below, the center of the rift was continuously subsiding. The vast quantities of rising magma created a vacuum under the crust, the weight of the solidified magma on the surface caused the crust to subside into that vacuum so the edges of the rift tilted toward the center. The rifting stopped after a few million years; one reason could be that the Grenville orogeny stopped the rift process when that collision occurred. Subsidence continued for several million years after the lava flows had ceased; immense volumes of sediments – sand, gravel and mud – were eroded off the barren landscape into the still-sinking basin along the rift axis. As much as  of sedimentary rocks accumulated in the center before the sinking stopped and the region stabilized. A north-northeast trending branch of the Midcontinent Rift System separated the Animikie Basin into two distinct segments; the present-day Animikie Group and the Marquette Range Supergroup; the historical name for the Marquette Range Supergroup is the Animikie Series.

text: About  a fourth tectonic event occurred in the Lake Superior region. A

text: hotspot

text: of magma from the earth’s mantle beneath present-day Lake Superior rose, causing the crust to dome and break apart. This zone of crustal thinning and fracturing is the

text: Midcontinent Rift System

text: ; it extends in a boomerang shape for over  from northeastern Kansas northward through Iowa, under the Twin Cities of Minnesota, beneath Lake Superior, and then south through the eastern Upper Peninsula of Michigan and beneath the central Lower Peninsula of Michigan. As the crust was being stretched thin and more magma flowed out from below, the center of the rift was continuously

text: subsiding

text: . The vast quantities of rising magma created a vacuum under the crust, the weight of the solidified magma on the surface caused the crust to subside into that vacuum so the edges of the rift tilted toward the center. The rifting stopped after a few million years; one reason could be that the

text: Grenville orogeny

text: stopped the rift process when that collision occurred. Subsidence continued for several million years after the lava flows had ceased; immense volumes of sediments – sand, gravel and mud – were eroded off the barren landscape into the still-sinking basin along the rift axis. As much as  of sedimentary rocks accumulated in the center before the sinking stopped and the region stabilized. A north-northeast trending branch of the Midcontinent Rift System separated the Animikie Basin into two distinct segments; the present-day Animikie Group and the Marquette Range Supergroup; the historical name for the Marquette Range Supergroup is the Animikie Series.

text: The first event began 130 million years ago when a group of active volcanic islands approached a pre-existing continental margin and coastline of North America. These volcanic islands, known as the Insular Islands by geoscientists, were formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Insular Plate by subduction of the former Farallon Plate to the west during the early Paleozoic era. This subduction zone records another subduction zone to the east under an ancient ocean basin between the Insular Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the Bridge River Ocean. This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual in that very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the southeastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Insular Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean, the Insular Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America called the Omineca Arc. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the old continental margin of western North America, the Bridge River Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc and the Insular Islands collided, forming the Insular Belt. Compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and folded rocks along the old continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the pre-existing continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of igneous rock, creating a new continental margin. This large mass of igneous rock is the largest granite outcropping in North America.

text: The first event began 130 million years ago when a group of active volcanic islands approached a pre-existing

text: continental margin

text: and coastline of North America. These volcanic islands, known as the

text: Insular Islands

text: by geoscientists, were formed on a pre-existing

text: tectonic plate

text: called the

text: Insular Plate

text: by

text: subduction

text: of the former

text: Farallon Plate

text: to the west during the early

text: Paleozoic

text: era. This subduction zone records another subduction zone to the east under an ancient

text: ocean basin

text: between the Insular Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the

text: Bridge River Ocean

text: . This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual in that very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the

text: Philippine Mobile Belt

text: off the southeastern coast of

text: Asia

text: is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Insular Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean, the Insular Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America called the

text: Omineca Arc

text: . As the

text: North American Plate

text: drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the old continental margin of western North America, the Bridge River Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc and the Insular Islands collided, forming the

text: Insular Belt

text: . Compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and

text: folded

text: rocks along the old continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the pre-existing continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of

text: igneous rock

text: , creating a new continental margin. This large mass of igneous rock is the largest

text: granite

text: outcropping in North America.

text: The Chuya Steppe in the Siberian Altai Mountains is a depression formed by tectonic movement of major faults in the Earths crust. The name Chuya Steppe comes from the large river which runs through the steppe, the Chuya River.

text: The Chuya Steppe in the

text: Siberian

text: Altai Mountains

text: is a depression formed by

text: tectonic

text: movement of major faults in the Earths crust. The name Chuya Steppe comes from the large river which runs through the

text: steppe

text: , the

text: Chuya River

text: The northern segment of the fault runs from Hollister, through the Santa Cruz Mountains, epicenter of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, then up the San Francisco Peninsula, where it was first identified by Professor Lawson in 1895, then offshore at Daly City near Mussel Rock. This is the approximate location of the epicenter of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The fault returns onshore at Bolinas Lagoon just north of Stinson Beach in Marin County. It returns underwater through the linear trough of Tomales Bay which separates the Point Reyes Peninsula from the mainland, runs just east of the Bodega Heads through Bodega Bay and back underwater, returning onshore at Fort Ross. (In this region around the San Francisco Bay Area several significant "sister faults" run more-or-less parallel, and each of these can create significantly destructive earthquakes.)From Fort Ross the northern segment continues overland, forming in part a linear valley through which the Gualala River flows. It goes back offshore at Point Arena. After that, it runs underwater along the coast until it nears Cape Mendocino, where it begins to bend to the west, terminating at the Mendocino Triple Junction.

text: The northern segment of the fault runs from

text: Hollister

text: , through the

text: Santa Cruz Mountains

text: , epicenter of the

text: 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake

text: , then up the

text: San Francisco Peninsula

text: , where it was first identified by

text: Professor Lawson

text: in 1895, then offshore at

text: Daly City

text: near

text: Mussel Rock

text: . This is the approximate location of the epicenter of the

text: 1906 San Francisco earthquake

text: . The fault returns onshore at

text: Bolinas Lagoon

text: just north of

text: Stinson Beach

text: in

text: Marin County

text: . It returns underwater through the linear trough of

text: Tomales Bay

text: which separates the

text: Point Reyes Peninsula

text: from the mainland, runs just east of the Bodega Heads through Bodega Bay and back underwater, returning onshore at

text: Fort Ross

text: . (In this region around the

text: San Francisco Bay Area

text: several significant "sister faults" run more-or-less parallel, and each of these can create significantly destructive earthquakes.)From Fort Ross the northern segment continues overland, forming in part a linear valley through which the

text: Gualala River

text: flows. It goes back offshore at

text: Point Arena

text: . After that, it runs underwater along the coast until it nears

text: Cape Mendocino

text: , where it begins to bend to the west, terminating at the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: All faults have a measurable thickness, made up of deformed rock characteristic of the level in the crust where the faulting happened, of the rock types affected by the fault and of the presence and nature of any mineralising fluids. Fault rocks are classified by their textures and the implied mechanism of deformation. A fault that passes through different levels of the lithosphere will have many different types of fault rock developed along its surface. Continued dip-slip displacement tends to juxtapose fault rocks characteristic of different crustal levels, with varying degrees of overprinting. This effect is particularly clear in the case of detachment faults and major thrust faults.

text: All faults have a measurable thickness, made up of deformed rock characteristic of the level in the crust where the faulting happened, of the rock types affected by the fault and of the presence and nature of any

text: mineralising fluids

text: . Fault rocks are classified by their

text: textures

text: and the implied mechanism of deformation. A fault that passes through different levels of the

text: lithosphere

text: will have many different types of fault rock developed along its surface. Continued dip-slip displacement tends to juxtapose fault rocks characteristic of different crustal levels, with varying degrees of overprinting. This effect is particularly clear in the case of

text: detachment fault

text: s and major

text: thrust fault

text: s.

text: An essential feature of many cells is their ability to migrate towards certain mechanical (Durotaxis) or chemical (Chemotaxis) stimuli. Cell migration takes place through the concerted action of three Rho family GTPases: Rho, Rac, and Cdc42. When GTP-bound, Rac will cause the formation of lamellipodia, and Cdc42 will cause the formation of filopodia, thus promoting cell migration. In the migrating cell, there are three main types of stress fibers: ventral stress fibers, transverse arcs, and dorsal stress fibers.  Ventral stress fibers are associated with focal adhesions at both ends, are located on the ventral surface of the cell, and function in adhesion and contraction. Transverse arcs are not directly linked to focal adhesions, and typically flow from the leading edge of the cell, back towards the cell centre. Dorsal stress fibers are located at the trailing edge of the cell. They attach to focal adhesions on the ventral surface of the trailing edge, and extend dorsally, towards the cell centre to attach to transverse arcs. During cell migration, actin filaments within stress fibers will be recycled by a process of retrograde actin flow. The mechanism of dissolution of the focal adhesion itself is poorly understood.

text: An essential feature of many cells is their ability to migrate towards certain mechanical (

text: Durotaxis

text: ) or chemical (

text: Chemotaxis

text: ) stimuli. Cell migration takes place through the concerted action of three Rho family GTPases: Rho, Rac, and Cdc42. When GTP-bound, Rac will cause the formation of

text: lamellipodia

text: , and Cdc42 will cause the formation of

text: filopodia

text: , thus promoting cell migration. In the migrating cell, there are three main types of stress fibers: ventral stress fibers, transverse arcs, and dorsal stress fibers.  Ventral stress fibers are associated with focal adhesions at both ends, are located on the ventral surface of the cell, and function in adhesion and contraction. Transverse arcs are not directly linked to focal adhesions, and typically flow from the leading edge of the cell, back towards the cell centre. Dorsal stress fibers are located at the trailing edge of the cell. They attach to focal adhesions on the ventral surface of the trailing edge, and extend dorsally, towards the cell centre to attach to transverse arcs. During cell migration, actin filaments within stress fibers will be recycled by a process of

text: retrograde actin flow

text: . The mechanism of dissolution of the focal adhesion itself is poorly understood.

text: The orogeny affected adjacent regions of northern Minnesota and Ontario in the Superior province as well as the Slave and the eastern part of the Nain province, a far wider region of influence than in subsequent orogenies. It is the earliest datable orogeny in North America and brought the Archean Eon to a close. The end of the Archean Eon marks a major change in the development of the Earth’s crust: the crust was essentially formed and achieved thicknesses of about  under the continents.

text: The orogeny affected adjacent regions of northern Minnesota and Ontario in the

text: Superior province

text: as well as the

text: Slave

text: and the eastern part of the

text: Nain province

text: , a far wider region of influence than in subsequent orogenies. It is the earliest datable orogeny in North America and brought the Archean Eon to a close. The end of the Archean Eon marks a major change in the development of the

text: Earth’s crust

text: : the crust was essentially formed and achieved thicknesses of about  under the continents.

text: In 2004, work began just north of Parkfield on the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD).  The goal of SAFOD is to drill a hole nearly 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) into the Earth's crust, across the San Andreas Fault. The specific target of the probe was a patch of fault known to generate sequences of repeating microearthquakes of around magnitude 1.0. The drilling was completed in the midyear of 2005, and an array of sensors was installed to capture and record earthquakes that happen near this area. It is hoped that SAFOD observations will provide insight into the source mechanisms of these small earthquakes, which can be scaled up in an effort to understand larger events. The drilling discovered a mineral called serpentinite at the site of origin of 2004 earthquake. Serpentinite can transform into talc, a very soft mineral, thus facilitating easy slippage of plates. It has been hypothesized that aseismic creep at Hollister is also due to the presence of serpentinite. No drilling has been done at Hollister to confirm this.

text: San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth

text: (SAFOD).  The goal of SAFOD is to drill a hole nearly 2.5 miles (4 kilometers) into the Earth's crust, across the San Andreas Fault. The specific target of the probe was a patch of fault known to generate sequences of repeating microearthquakes of around magnitude 1.0. The drilling was completed in the midyear of 2005, and an array of sensors was installed to capture and record earthquakes that happen near this area. It is hoped that SAFOD observations will provide insight into the source mechanisms of these small earthquakes, which can be scaled up in an effort to understand larger events. The drilling discovered a mineral called

text: serpentinite

text: at the site of origin of 2004 earthquake.

text: Serpentinite

text: can transform into

text: talc

text: , a very soft mineral, thus facilitating easy slippage of plates. It has been hypothesized that aseismic creep at

text: Hollister

text: is also due to the presence of

text: serpentinite

text: . No drilling has been done at

text: Hollister

text: to confirm this.

text: The fault cut the basin into two pieces and moved the pieces apart. It is found on the east side of the fault in western San Francisco and northern San Mateo County. On the west side of the fault it was carried  north to the Bolinas headlands of western Marin County.

text: The fault cut the basin into two pieces and moved the pieces apart. It is found on the east side of the fault in western

text: San Francisco

text: and northern

text: San Mateo County

text: . On the west side of the fault it was carried  north to the

text: Bolinas

text: headlands of western

text: Marin County

text: The Tsetserleg earthquake is believed to be a strike-slip rupture of a branch of the Bolnai Fault, extending about 190 km. The fault displacement during the earthquake was greater than 5 m, and the duration is estimated at about one minute. However, this interpretation is contested; field surveys after the earthquake show a complex rupture not necessarily characteristic of a strike-slip mechanism.

text: Final Fantasy IX takes place primarily on the four continents of a world named Gaia. Most of Gaia's population reside on the Mist Continent, named so because the entire continent is blanketed in thick Mist. Lands outside the Mist Continent—the Outer, Lost and Forgotten continents—are uncharted territories not explored until midway through the game. Several locations on the parallel world of Terra and the dream land of Memoria round out the game's areas. The Mist Continent features four nations: Alexandria, Lindblum, Burmecia, and Cleyra. Alexandria is a kingdom to the northeast of the Mist Continent ruled by a monarchy located in Alexandria Castle. The technologically advanced Lindblum, ruled by a regent, is nestled on a plateau to the southwest where airships regularly fly by. The Kingdom of Burmecia, whose capital is showered by eternal rain is to the northwest and nearby to the isolated Cleyran civilisation, which is nestled in a giant tree in the desert, protected by a powerful sandstorm. Treno, a large, perpetually dark city, heavily populated by both aristocrats and paupers, is located on the southeast part of the continent. The Mist Continent is extremely mountainous resulting in a natural barrier between many of the ruling nations.

text: In the past several decades, the most popular fault model used in practice is the single stuck-at fault model. In this model, one of the signal lines in a circuit is assumed to be stuck at a fixed logic value, regardless of what inputs are supplied to the circuit. Hence, if a circuit has n signal lines, there are potentially 2n stuck-at faults defined on the circuit, of which some can be viewed as being equivalent to others. The stuck-at fault model is a logical fault model because no delay information is associated with the fault definition. It is also called a permanent fault model because the faulty effect is assumed to be permanent, in contrast to intermittent faults which occur (seemingly) at random and transient faults which occur sporadically, perhaps depending on operating conditions (e.g. temperature, power supply voltage) or on the data values (high or low voltage states) on surrounding signal lines. The single stuck-at fault model is structural because it is defined based on a structural gate-level circuit model.

text: In the past several decades, the most popular fault model used in practice is the single

text: stuck-at fault

text: model. In this model, one of the signal lines in a circuit is assumed to be stuck at a fixed logic value, regardless of what inputs are supplied to the circuit. Hence, if a circuit has n signal lines, there are potentially 2n stuck-at faults defined on the circuit, of which some can be viewed as being equivalent to others. The stuck-at fault model is a logical fault model because no delay information is associated with the fault definition. It is also called a permanent fault model because the faulty effect is assumed to be permanent, in contrast to intermittent faults which occur (seemingly) at random and transient faults which occur sporadically, perhaps depending on operating conditions (e.g. temperature, power supply voltage) or on the data values (high or low voltage states) on surrounding signal lines. The single stuck-at fault model is structural because it is defined based on a structural gate-level circuit model.

text: The oldest rocks in New Zealand date from mid Cambrian times (510 Ma), although there are older rocks in the Auckland Islands.  The lower (basement) rocks are divided into the "Western Province", consisting mainly of granite and gneiss, and an "Eastern Province", consisting mainly of greywacke and schist.  The provinces are further divided into terranes – large slices of crust with different geological histories that have been brought together by tectonic activity (subduction and strike-slip faulting) to form New Zealand.

text: The oldest rocks in New Zealand date from mid

text: Cambrian

text: times (510 Ma), although there are older rocks in the

text: Auckland Islands

text: .  The lower (basement) rocks are divided into the "Western Province", consisting mainly of

text: granite

text: and

text: gneiss

text: , and an "Eastern Province", consisting mainly of

text: greywacke

text: and

text: schist

text: .  The provinces are further divided into

text: terranes

text: – large slices of crust with different geological histories that have been brought together by tectonic activity (

text: subduction

text: and

text: strike-slip faulting

text: ) to form New Zealand.

text: Current genetic research has demonstrated that humans on the African continent are the most genetically diverse. There is more human genetic diversity in Africa than anywhere else on Earth. The genetic structure of Africans was traced to 14 ancestral population clusters. Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa and this is thought to be the result of bottlenecks during human migration. Humans have lived in Africa for the longest time, which has allowed accumulation of a higher diversity of genetic mutations in these populations. Only part of Africa's population migrated out of the continent, bringing just part of the original African genetic variety with them. African populations harbor genetic alleles that are not found in other places of the world. All the common alleles found in populations outside of Africa are found on the African continent.

text: Current genetic research has demonstrated that humans on the

text: African continent

text: are the most genetically diverse. There is more human genetic diversity in Africa than anywhere else on Earth. The genetic structure of Africans was traced to 14 ancestral population clusters. Human genetic diversity decreases in native populations with migratory distance from Africa and this is thought to be the result of

text: bottleneck

text: s during human migration. Humans have lived in Africa for the longest time, which has allowed accumulation of a higher diversity of genetic mutations in these populations. Only part of Africa's population migrated out of the continent, bringing just part of the original African genetic variety with them. African populations harbor genetic alleles that are not found in other places of the world. All the common alleles found in populations outside of Africa are found on the African continent.

text: Where rock units slide past one another, strike-slip faults develop in shallow regions, and become shear zones at deeper depths where the rocks deform ductilely.

text: Where rock units slide past one another,

text: strike-slip fault

text: s develop in shallow regions, and become

text: shear zone

text: s at deeper depths where the rocks deform ductilely.

text: The subducting basalt and sediment are normally rich in hydrous minerals and clays.  Additionally, large quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created as the subducting slab bends downward. During the transition from basalt to eclogite, these hydrous materials break down, producing copious quantities of water, which at such great pressure and temperature exists as a supercritical fluid. The supercritical water, which is hot and more buoyant than the surrounding rock, rises into the overlying mantle where it lowers the pressure in (and thus the melting temperature of) the mantle rock to the point of actual melting, generating magma. The magmas, in turn, rise because they are less dense than the rocks of the mantle. The mantle-derived magmas (which are basaltic in composition) can continue to rise, ultimately to Earth's surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption. The chemical composition of the erupting lava depends upon the degree to which the mantle-derived basalt interacts with (melts) Earth's crust and/or undergoes fractional crystallization.

text: The subducting basalt and sediment are normally rich in

text: hydrous

text: minerals and clays.  Additionally, large quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created as the subducting slab bends downward. During the transition from basalt to eclogite, these hydrous materials break down, producing copious quantities of water, which at such great pressure and temperature exists as a

text: supercritical fluid

text: . The supercritical water, which is hot and more buoyant than the surrounding rock, rises into the overlying mantle where it lowers the pressure in (and thus the melting temperature of) the mantle rock to the point of actual melting, generating

text: magma

text: . The magmas, in turn, rise because they are less dense than the rocks of the mantle. The mantle-derived magmas (which are basaltic in composition) can continue to rise, ultimately to Earth's surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption. The chemical composition of the erupting lava depends upon the degree to which the mantle-derived basalt interacts with (melts) Earth's crust and/or undergoes

text: fractional crystallization

text: The geology of Armenia was shaped by geological upheaval pushed up the Earth's crust to form the Armenian Plateau 25 million years ago. This created the complex topography of Armenia.

text: The geology of Armenia was shaped by geological upheaval pushed up the

text: Earth's crust

text: to form the

text: Armenian Plateau

text: 25 million years ago. This created the complex

text: topography

text: of Armenia.

text: The process by which cratons are formed from early rock is called cratonization. The first large cratonic landmasses formed during the Archean eon. During the early Archean, Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today because of the greater concentration of radioactive isotopes and the residual heat from the Earth's accretion. There was considerably greater tectonic and volcanic activity; the mantle was less viscous and the crust thinner. This resulted in rapid formation of oceanic crust at ridges and hot spots, and rapid recycling of oceanic crust at subduction zones. There are at least three hypotheses of how cratons have been formed:  1) surface crust was thickened by a rising plume of deep molten material, 2) successive subducting plates of oceanic lithosphere became lodged beneath a proto-craton in an under-plating process, 3) accretion from island arcs or continental fragments rafting together to thicken into a craton.

text: The process by which cratons are formed from early rock is called cratonization. The first large cratonic landmasses formed during the

text: Archean

text: eon. During the early Archean, Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today because of the greater concentration of radioactive isotopes and the residual heat from the Earth's

text: accretion

text: . There was considerably greater

text: tectonic

text: and

text: volcanic

text: activity; the

text: mantle

text: was less viscous and the crust thinner. This resulted in rapid formation of

text: oceanic crust

text: at ridges and

text: hot spots

text: , and rapid

text: recycling of oceanic crust

text: at

text: subduction

text: zones. There are at least three hypotheses of how cratons have been formed:  1) surface crust was thickened by a rising plume of deep molten material, 2) successive subducting plates of oceanic lithosphere became lodged beneath a proto-craton in an under-plating process, 3) accretion from island arcs or continental fragments rafting together to thicken into a craton.

text: Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earth's crust. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust (about 28% by mass) after oxygen.

text: Silicon is the eighth most

text: common element

text: in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure element in the Earth's crust. It is most widely distributed in

text: dust

text: s,

text: sand

text: s,

text: planetoids

text: , and

text: planet

text: s as various forms of

text: silicon dioxide

text: (silica) or

text: silicate

text: s. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of

text: silicate minerals

text: , making silicon the

text: second most abundant element

text: in the Earth's crust (about 28% by mass) after

text: oxygen

text: This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.

text: This was immediately followed by a symposium in

text: Tasmania

text: in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an

text: expansion of the global crust

text: . In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.

text: The fault was first identified in 1895 by Professor Andrew Lawson of UC Berkeley, who discovered the northern zone. It is often described as having been named after San Andreas Lake, a small body of water that was formed in a valley between the two plates. However, according to some of his reports from 1895 and 1908, Lawson actually named it after the surrounding San Andreas Valley. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Lawson concluded that the fault extended all the way into southern California.

text: The fault was first identified in 1895 by Professor

text: Andrew Lawson

text: of

text: UC Berkeley

text: , who discovered the northern zone. It is often described as having been named after

text: San Andreas Lake

text: , a small body of water that was formed in a valley between the two plates. However, according to some of his reports from 1895 and 1908, Lawson actually named it after the surrounding San Andreas Valley. Following the

text: 1906 San Francisco earthquake

text: , Lawson concluded that the fault extended all the way into southern California.

text: This involves field-based projects in Africa, aimed at structural and tectonic understanding, and assessing hydrocarbon potential. Part of the Afar rift consortium, this is an inter-disciplinary study of how the Earth’s crust grows at divergent plate boundaries. It is within this field that she, in collaboration with Derek Keir, published her highest cited paper during the 2008-2013 time window relevant for inclusion in the Research Excellence Framework.

text: This involves field-based projects in

text: Africa

text: , aimed at structural and

text: tectonic

text: understanding, and assessing hydrocarbon potential. Part of the Afar rift consortium, this is an inter-disciplinary study of how the

text: Earth’s crust

text: grows at divergent plate boundaries. It is within this field that she, in collaboration with

text: Derek Keir

text: , published her highest cited paper during the 2008-2013 time window relevant for inclusion in the

text: Research Excellence Framework

text: The current Rocky Mountains were raised in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to a rug being pushed on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.

text: The current Rocky Mountains were raised in the

text: Laramide orogeny

text: from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to a rug being pushed on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the

text: Canadian Shield

text: in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.

text: The main quake occurred as a result of strike-slip faulting within the crust of the Pacific plate, near the eastern foothills of the Southern Alps at the western edge of the Canterbury Plains. The earthquake epicentre is located about  to the south and east of the current surface expression of the Australia–Pacific plate boundary through the island (the Alpine and Hope Faults). Though removed from the plate boundary itself, the earthquake likely reflects right-lateral motion on one of a number of regional faults related to the overall relative motion of these plates and may be related to the overall southern propagation of the Marlborough Fault System in recent geologic time. The peak ground acceleration measured near Darfield was 1.26g (12.36 m/s), recorded near Darfield. This was considered by GNS scientists as an "extremely rare seismic recording made near a fault rupture". However, the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake experienced PGA of 2.2 g.

text: The main quake occurred as a result of

text: strike-slip fault

text: ing within the crust of the

text: Pacific plate

text: , near the eastern foothills of the

text: Southern Alps

text: at the western edge of the

text: Canterbury Plains

text: . The earthquake epicentre is located about  to the south and east of the current surface expression of the

text: Australia

text: Pacific plate

text: boundary through the island (the

text: Alpine

text: and

text: Hope Fault

text: s). Though removed from the plate boundary itself, the earthquake likely reflects right-lateral motion on one of a number of regional faults related to the overall relative motion of these plates and may be related to the overall southern propagation of the

text: Marlborough Fault System

text: in recent geologic time. The

text: peak ground acceleration

text: measured near Darfield was 1.26g (12.36 m/s), recorded near Darfield. This was considered by GNS scientists as an "extremely rare seismic recording made near a fault rupture". However, the

text: February 2011 Christchurch earthquake

text: experienced PGA of 2.2 g.

text: In 2004 it was suggested by a team of Penn State geoscientists that a blind thrust fault, like the one that caused the infamous Northridge earthquake, lies beneath Mount Tamalpais. This idea was partly based on the steepness of Mount Tamalpais and of nearby Bolinas Ridge, such steepness on the visible surface often being the result of blind thrust faults. Another reason for the suggestion was that the San Andreas Fault creeps more slowly south of Mount Tamalpais than it does in its sections north of Mount Tamalpais and in the Olema Valley, and that the existence of a blind thrust fault may explain the different creeping velocities. If a blind thrust fault does exist under Mount Tamalpais, and if it ruptures, it could be potentially devastating to the North Bay, San Francisco, and any other nearby locale resting on unstable earth and loose fill.

text: In 2004 it was suggested by a team of Penn State geoscientists that a

text: blind thrust fault

text: , like the one that caused the infamous

text: Northridge earthquake

text: , lies beneath Mount Tamalpais. This idea was partly based on the steepness of Mount Tamalpais and of nearby

text: Bolinas Ridge

text: , such steepness on the visible surface often being the result of blind thrust faults. Another reason for the suggestion was that the San Andreas Fault creeps more slowly south of Mount Tamalpais than it does in its sections north of Mount Tamalpais and in the

text: Olema Valley

text: , and that the existence of a blind thrust fault may explain the different creeping velocities. If a blind thrust fault does exist under Mount Tamalpais, and if it ruptures, it could be potentially devastating to the North Bay, San Francisco, and any other nearby locale resting on unstable earth and loose fill.

text: The active rift model sees rupture driven by hotspot or mantle plume activity.  Upwellings of hot mantle, known as mantle plumes, originate deep in Earth  and rise to heat and thin the lithosphere.  Heated lithosphere thins, weakens, rises, and  finally rifts, Enhanced melting following continental breakup is very important in VPMs, creating thicker than normal oceanic crust of 20 to 40 km thick.  Other melts caused by convection related upwelling form reservoirs of magma from which dike swarms and sills eventually radiate to the surface, creating the characteristic seaward dipping lava flows.  This model is controversial.

text: The active rift model sees rupture driven by hotspot or mantle plume activity.  Upwellings of hot mantle, known as mantle plumes, originate deep in Earth  and rise to heat and thin the lithosphere.  Heated lithosphere thins, weakens, rises, and  finally rifts, Enhanced melting following continental breakup is very important in VPMs, creating thicker than normal oceanic crust of 20 to 40 km thick.  Other melts caused by

text: convection

text: related upwelling form reservoirs of

text: magma

text: from which

text: dike swarm

text: s and

text: sill

text: s eventually radiate to the surface, creating the characteristic seaward dipping lava flows.  This model is controversial.

text: During this era the earliest global-scale continent-continent collisional belts developed.

text: The mainshock was followed by a series of aftershocks that continued for at least 3.75 years, although the total number of large aftershocks was less than would be expected for an earthquake of this size. The four largest aftershocks all had magnitudes greater than 6, although there are large uncertainties in both location and magnitude due to the limited number of data points available. On the night of 9 January there was a large aftershock with an estimated magnitude of about 6.25, with a possible epicenter near the Garlock Fault. The largest aftershock occurred on the afternoon of 16 January with an estimated magnitude of about 6.7, with a possible offshore location, and high felt intensities in Southern California communities. Santa Barbara and San Bernardino reported an MM intensity of V and Los Angeles reported V and VI. Two significant events occurred in the San Bernardino area on 15–16 December 1858, with the latter having an estimated magnitude of about 6. The last recorded major aftershock occurred on 16 April 1860, with an estimated magnitude of about 6.3, with an epicenter close to the Parkfield section of the San Andreas Fault.

text: The mainshock was followed by a series of

text: aftershocks

text: that continued for at least 3.75 years, although the total number of large aftershocks was less than would be expected for an earthquake of this size. The four largest aftershocks all had magnitudes greater than 6, although there are large uncertainties in both location and magnitude due to the limited number of data points available. On the night of 9 January there was a large aftershock with an estimated magnitude of about 6.25, with a possible epicenter near the

text: Garlock Fault

text: . The largest aftershock occurred on the afternoon of 16 January with an estimated magnitude of about 6.7, with a possible offshore location, and high felt intensities in Southern California communities.

text: Santa Barbara

text: and

text: San Bernardino

text: reported an MM intensity of V and Los Angeles reported V and VI. Two significant events occurred in the San Bernardino area on 15–16 December 1858, with the latter having an estimated magnitude of about 6. The last recorded major aftershock occurred on 16 April 1860, with an estimated magnitude of about 6.3, with an epicenter close to the Parkfield section of the San Andreas Fault.

text: In the Palaeozoic (Paleozoic) walked the continental drift a southern continent to continent on a north. This collided intervening dwarf-continent and in the Devonian and Carboniferous period (about 380-320 million years ago), the Variscan Mountains to the Odw counts delayed. was already in the history of Böllsteiner gneiss. He emerged from granitic rocks, which have penetrated about 410 million years ago as molten rock from below into older sedimentary rocks. These were common - sunk into deeper areas of the earth's crust and converted there, at a high temperature pressure to schists and gneisses - a result of the co-thrusts. At the Otzberg column is welded these rocks - in the course of plate collision - with those of the Bergstrasse Odws.

text: Buckling strength is less than elastic buckling strength of a structure, due to non-linear (plastic) behavior of the material. When the compression load is near the buckling load, the structure will bend significantly and the material of the column will diverge from a linear stress-strain behavior. The stress-strain behavior of materials is not strictly linear even below the yield point, and the modulus of elasticity decreases as stress increases, and significantly so as the stresses approach the yield strength. This lower rigidity reduces the buckling strength of the structure and results in a bucking load less than that predicted by the assumption of lineal elastic behavior.

text: Fold is a Unix command used for making a file with long lines more readable on a limited width terminal. Most Unix terminals have a default screen width of 80, and therefore reading files with long lines could get annoying. The fold command puts a line feed every X characters if it does not reach a new line before that point. If the -w argument is set, the fold command allows the user to set the maximum length of a line.

text: Fold is a

text: Unix

text: command used for making a

text: file

text: with long lines more readable on a limited width terminal. Most

text: Unix

text: terminals have a default screen width of 80, and therefore reading files with long lines could get annoying. The fold command puts a

text: line feed

text: every X characters if it does not reach a new line before that point. If the -w argument is set, the fold command allows the user to set the maximum length of a line.

text: A hypothesis based on research conducted on the Bay of Islands complex in Newfoundland suggests that an irregular continental margin colliding with an island arc complex causes ophiolite generation in a back-arc basin and obduction due to compression.  The continental margin, promontories and reentrants along its length, is attached to the subducting oceanic crust, which dips away from it underneath the island arc complex. As subduction takes place, the buoyant continent and island arc complex converge, initially colliding with the promontories. However, oceanic crust is still at the surface between the promontories, not having been subducted beneath the island arc yet. The subducting oceanic crust is thought to split from the continental margin to aid subduction. In the event that the rate of trench retreat is greater than that of the island arc complex’s progression, trench rollback will take place, and by consequence, extension of the overriding plate will occur to allow the island arc complex to match the trench retreat’s speed. The extension, a back-arc basin, generates oceanic crust: ophiolites. Finally, when the oceanic lithosphere is entirely subducted, the island arc complex’s extensional regime becomes compressional. The hot, positively buoyant ocean crust from the extension won’t subduct, instead obducting onto the island arc as an ophiolite. As compression persists, the ophiolite is emplaced onto the continental margin.

text: A hypothesis based on research conducted on the Bay of Islands complex in Newfoundland suggests that an irregular continental margin colliding with an

text: island arc complex

text: causes ophiolite generation in a

text: back-arc basin

text: and

text: obduction

text: due to compression.  The continental margin,

text: promontories

text: and

text: reentrants

text: along its length, is attached to the subducting oceanic crust, which dips away from it underneath the island arc complex. As subduction takes place, the buoyant continent and island arc complex converge, initially colliding with the promontories. However, oceanic crust is still at the surface between the promontories, not having been subducted beneath the island arc yet. The subducting oceanic crust is thought to split from the continental margin to aid subduction. In the event that the rate of trench retreat is greater than that of the island arc complex’s progression,

text: trench rollback

text: will take place, and by consequence, extension of the overriding plate will occur to allow the island arc complex to match the trench retreat’s speed. The extension, a back-arc basin, generates oceanic crust: ophiolites. Finally, when the oceanic lithosphere is entirely subducted, the island arc complex’s extensional regime becomes compressional. The hot, positively buoyant ocean crust from the extension won’t subduct, instead obducting onto the island arc as an ophiolite. As compression persists, the ophiolite is emplaced onto the continental margin.

text: Because most stresses relate to the tectonic activity of moving plates, most motion between blocks is horizontal, that is parallel to the Earth's crust by strike-slip faults.  However vertical movement of blocks produces much more dramatic results.  Landforms (mountains, hills, ridges, lakes, valleys, etc.) are sometimes formed when the faults have a large vertical displacement.  Adjacent raised blocks (horsts) and down-dropped blocks (grabens) can form high escarpments.  Often the movement of these blocks is accompanied by tilting, due to compaction or stretching of the crust at that point.

text: Because most stresses relate to the tectonic activity of moving

text: plates

text: , most motion between blocks is horizontal, that is parallel to the Earth's crust by

text: strike-slip faults

text: .  However vertical movement of blocks produces much more dramatic results.  Landforms (

text: mountain

text: s, hills, ridges, lakes, valleys, etc.) are sometimes formed when the faults have a large vertical displacement.  Adjacent raised blocks (

text: horst

text: s) and down-dropped blocks (

text: graben

text: s) can form high

text: escarpment

text: s.  Often the movement of these blocks is accompanied by tilting, due to compaction or stretching of the crust at that point.

text: The Timor Plate is a microplate in southeast Asia carrying the island of Timor and surrounding islands. The Australian Plate is subducting under the southern edge of the plate, while a small divergent boundary is located on the eastern edge. Another convergent boundary exists with the Banda Sea Plate to the north, and to the west is a transform boundary.

text: The Timor Plate is a microplate in southeast

text: Asia

text: carrying the island of

text: Timor

text: and surrounding islands. The

text: Australian Plate

text: is

text: subducting

text: under the southern edge of the plate, while a small

text: divergent boundary

text: is located on the eastern edge. Another

text: convergent boundary

text: exists with the

text: Banda Sea Plate

text: to the north, and to the west is a

text: transform boundary

text: Mountain ranges are formed by the folding and buckling of a planet's crust. The mountain ranges of Venus, like those of the Earth, are characterized by many parallel folds and faults.

text: The basement rocks of the continental crust tend to be much older than the oceanic crust. The oceanic crust can be from 0-250 million years in age, and is usually thinner (10 miles or so) and composed of basaltic rocks. Continental crust is older because continental crust is light and thick enough so it is not subducted, while oceanic crust is periodically subducted and replaced at subduction and oceanic rifting areas.

text: The basement rocks of the continental crust tend to be much older than the oceanic crust. The oceanic crust can be from 0-250 million years in age, and is usually thinner (10 miles or so) and composed of

text: basalt

text: ic rocks. Continental crust is older because continental crust is light and thick enough so it is not subducted, while oceanic crust is periodically subducted and replaced at

text: subduction

text: and

text: oceanic rifting

text: areas.

text: Finally, in the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (~66 million to ~1.8 million years ago), the mountain chains that today constitute the Atlas were uplifted, as the land masses of Europe and Africa collided at the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. Such convergent tectonic boundaries occur where two plates slide towards each other forming a subduction zone (if one plate moves underneath the other), and/or a continental collision (when the two plates contain continental crust). In the case of the Africa-Europe collision, it is clear that tectonic convergence is partially responsible for the formation of the High Atlas, as well as for the closure of the Strait of Gibraltar and the formation of the Alps and the Pyrenees. However, there is a lack of evidence for the nature of the subduction in the Atlas region, or for the thickening of the Earth's crust generally associated with continental collisions. In fact, one of the most striking features of the Atlas to geologists is the relative small amount of crustal thickening and tectonic shortening despite the important altitude of the mountain range. Recent studies suggest that deep processes rooted in the Earth's mantle may have contributed to the uplift of the High and Middle Atlas.

text: Finally, in the

text: Paleogene

text: and

text: Neogene

text: Periods (~66 million to ~1.8 million years ago), the mountain chains that today constitute the Atlas were uplifted, as the land masses of Europe and Africa collided at the southern end of the

text: Iberian Peninsula

text: . Such

text: convergent tectonic boundaries

text: occur where two plates slide towards each other forming a

text: subduction

text: zone (if one plate moves underneath the other), and/or a

text: continental collision

text: (when the two plates contain

text: continental crust

text: ). In the case of the Africa-Europe collision, it is clear that tectonic convergence is partially responsible for the formation of the

text: High Atlas

text: , as well as for the closure of the

text: Strait of Gibraltar

text: and the formation of the

text: Alps

text: and the

text: Pyrenees

text: . However, there is a lack of evidence for the nature of the subduction in the Atlas region, or for the thickening of the Earth's crust generally associated with continental collisions. In fact, one of the most striking features of the Atlas to geologists is the relative small amount of crustal thickening and tectonic shortening despite the important altitude of the mountain range. Recent studies suggest that deep processes rooted in the Earth's mantle may have contributed to the uplift of the High and Middle Atlas.

text: Heat flows constantly from its sources within the Earth to the surface. Total heat loss from the Earth is estimated at 44.2 TW (). Mean heat flow is 65 mW/m over continental crust and 101 mW/m over oceanic crust. This is 0.087 watt/square meter on average (0.03 percent of solar power absorbed by the Earth ), but is much more concentrated in areas where thermal energy is transported toward the crust by convection such as along mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes.The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) in order to release the heat underneath. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is by conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents.

text: Heat flows constantly from its sources within the Earth to the surface. Total heat loss from the Earth is estimated at 44.2 TW (). Mean heat flow is 65 mW/m over

text: continental crust

text: and 101 mW/m over

text: oceanic crust

text: . This is 0.087 watt/square meter on average (0.03 percent of solar power absorbed by the Earth ), but is much more concentrated in areas where thermal energy is transported toward the crust by convection such as along

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s and

text: mantle plume

text: s.The

text: Earth's crust

text: effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) in order to release the heat underneath. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is by

text: conduction

text: through the

text: lithosphere

text: , the majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents.

text: Taixinan Basin is located on the continental shelf, on the margin of the continental crust. Its tectonic evolution can be divided in three periods. The first peiod was from Paleocene to Oligocene. Starting in the Paleocene, Taixinan Basin had been experiencing the effect of rifting, which eventually caused the formation of the basin. The tensile stress field was in the NE-SW direction. Many normal faults developed at this period. The second period was the end of Oligocene. During this period, the Taixinan Basin experienced the effect of compression. Part of the early normal faults underwent tectonic inversion, and a lot of reverse faults and related folds developed. The third period was the thermal subsidence beginning from Miocene. Since the late Miocene, the South China Sea basin stopped its expansion. During this period, the sediment layers are horizontal and basically not controlled by the effects of faulting.

text: Taixinan Basin is located on the continental shelf, on the margin of the continental crust. Its tectonic evolution can be divided in three periods. The first peiod was from Paleocene to Oligocene. Starting in the Paleocene, Taixinan Basin had been experiencing the effect of rifting, which eventually caused the formation of the basin. The tensile stress field was in the NE-SW direction. Many normal faults developed at this period. The second period was the end of Oligocene. During this period, the Taixinan Basin experienced the effect of compression. Part of the early normal faults underwent tectonic inversion, and a lot of reverse faults and related folds developed. The third period was the thermal subsidence beginning from Miocene. Since the late Miocene, the South China Sea basin stopped its expansion. During this period, the

text: sediment

text: layers are horizontal and basically not controlled by the effects of faulting.

text: The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees. Thus the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become 50 to 100 km (Japan, 2011; Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.

text: The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum available length, but the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very shallow, typically about 10 degrees. Thus the width of the plane within the top brittle crust of the Earth can become 50 to 100 km (

text: Japan, 2011

text: Alaska, 1964

text: ), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.

text: Scientifically the archipelago is defined as a volcanic arc. The origin of the Aeolian Islands is due to movement of the Earth's crust as a result of plate tectonics. The African continental shelf is in constant movement towards Europe. The resulting collision has created a volcanic area with ruptures in the Earth's crust with consequent eruptions of magma. The "Aeolian Arc" extends for more than , but the area of geological instability caused by the collision of Africa and Europe is much larger. It includes Sicily, Calabria, and Campania together with Greece and the Aegean islands.

text: Scientifically the archipelago is defined as a

text: volcanic arc

text: . The origin of the Aeolian Islands is due to movement of the

text: Earth's crust

text: as a result of

text: plate tectonics

text: . The

text: Africa

text: n

text: continental shelf

text: is in constant movement towards Europe. The resulting collision has created a volcanic area with ruptures in the Earth's crust with consequent eruptions of

text: magma

text: . The "Aeolian Arc" extends for more than , but the area of geological instability caused by the collision of Africa and Europe is much larger. It includes Sicily, Calabria, and Campania together with Greece and the Aegean islands.

text: While the San Andreas Fault is the principal transform boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, the Hayward Fault takes up a share of the overall motion between the plates.

text: While the San Andreas Fault is the principal

text: transform boundary

text: between the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: , the Hayward Fault takes up a share of the overall motion between the plates.

text: Contact with India began along the Yarlung-Zangbo suture around 50 Ma during the Eocene, and the two continents continue to converge. Magmatism continued in the Gangdese arc until as late as 40 Ma.There are competing hypotheses about the details of the tectonic processes during the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates.At one extreme, some consider that during the collision the Indian crust was underthrust beneath the southern Asian crust, or injected into this crust. At the other extreme, some consider that the convergence was mostly accommodated by shortening of the Asian crust.

text: Contact with India began along the Yarlung-Zangbo suture around 50 Ma during the

text: Eocene

text: , and the two continents continue to converge. Magmatism continued in the Gangdese arc until as late as 40 Ma.There are competing hypotheses about the details of the

text: tectonic

text: processes during the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates.At one extreme, some consider that during the collision the Indian crust was underthrust beneath the southern Asian crust, or injected into this crust. At the other extreme, some consider that the convergence was mostly accommodated by shortening of the Asian crust.

text: Alison Games (2006) explores the convergence of the multiple strands of scholarly interest that have generated the new field of Atlantic history, which takes as its geographic unit of analysis the Atlantic Ocean and the four continents that surround it. She argues Atlantic history is best approached as a slice of world history. The Atlantic, moreover, is a region that has logic as a unit of historical analysis only within a limited chronology. An Atlantic perspective can help historians understand changes within the region that a more limited geographic framework might obscure. Attempts to write a Braudelian Atlantic history, one that includes and connects the entire region, remain elusive, driven in part by methodological impediments, by the real disjunction that characterized the Atlantic's historical and geographic components, by the disciplinary divisions that discourage historians from speaking to and writing for each other, and by the challenge of finding a vantage point that is not rooted in any single place.

text: Separate ocean bottom seismography and multi-channel seismic studies provide insight into the structure of the northern end of the Ryukyu trench region. Features of note include a thick (7–12 km) low velocity (4–5 km/s) zone on the landward side of the trench, the existence of subducting paleo-arc crust near the top of the trench in contrast to simple oceanic crust located at the middle of the trench, and a zone in which the Philippine Plate subducts beneath low P-wave velocity material (Vp = 5 km/s) that coincides with the location of the Mw 7.5 1968 Hyuganada earthquake.  It has been hypothesized that the above structural heterogeneity, in particular the subducting paleo-arc crust and its associated bathymetric highs, is one reason why earthquakes in this region are not larger i.e. exceeding Mw 8.0.  The exact mechanism by which the subduction of paleo-arc crust prevents sufficient stress build up for a larger earthquake is unknown.

text: Separate

text: ocean bottom seismography

text: and

text: multi-channel seismic

text: studies provide insight into the structure of the northern end of the Ryukyu trench region. Features of note include a thick (7–12 km) low velocity (4–5 km/s) zone on the landward side of the trench, the existence of subducting paleo-arc crust near the top of the trench in contrast to simple oceanic crust located at the middle of the trench, and a zone in which the Philippine Plate subducts beneath low P-wave velocity material (Vp = 5 km/s) that coincides with the location of the Mw 7.5 1968 Hyuganada earthquake.  It has been hypothesized that the above structural heterogeneity, in particular the subducting paleo-arc crust and its associated bathymetric highs, is one reason why earthquakes in this region are not larger i.e. exceeding Mw 8.0.  The exact mechanism by which the subduction of paleo-arc crust prevents sufficient stress build up for a larger earthquake is unknown.

text: ER stress can be activated by a variety of factors. In experimental conditions, excessive lipid (which can happen following obesity, a common condition preceding type 2 diabetes) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (which can occur following an inflammation, a common cause for type 1 diabetes) can activate ER stress in beta cells.

text: ER stress can be activated by a variety of factors. In experimental conditions, excessive

text: lipid

text: (which can happen following

text: obesity

text: , a common condition preceding

text: type 2 diabetes

text: ) and pro-inflammatory

text: cytokines

text: (which can occur following an

text: inflammation

text: , a common cause for

text: type 1 diabetes

text: ) can activate ER stress in beta cells.

text: In 1980, a team of researchers consisting of Nobel prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez, his son, geologist Walter Alvarez, and chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the K–T boundary contain a concentration of iridium many times greater than normal (30 times the average crustal content in Italy and 160 times at Stevns on the Danish island of Zealand). Iridium is extremely rare in the earth's crust because it is a siderophile element, and therefore most of it sank with iron into the earth's core during planetary differentiation. As iridium remains abundant in most asteroids and comets, the Alvarez team suggested that an asteroid struck the earth at the time of the K–T boundary. There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but no evidence had been uncovered at that time.

text: In 1980, a team of researchers consisting of

text: Nobel prize

text: -winning physicist

text: Luis Alvarez

text: , his son, geologist

text: Walter Alvarez

text: , and chemists

text: Frank Asaro

text: and

text: Helen Michel

text: discovered that

text: sedimentary

text: layers found all over the world at the K–T boundary contain a

text: concentration

text: of

text: iridium

text: many times greater than normal (30 times the average crustal content in Italy and 160 times at

text: Stevns

text: on the Danish island of Zealand). Iridium is extremely rare in the

text: earth's crust

text: because it is a

text: siderophile

text: element, and therefore most of it sank with

text: iron

text: into the

text: earth's core

text: during

text: planetary differentiation

text: . As iridium remains abundant in most asteroids and comets, the Alvarez team suggested that an

text: asteroid

text: struck the earth at the time of the K–T boundary. There were other earlier speculations on the possibility of an

text: impact event

text: , but no evidence had been uncovered at that time.

text: Geodynamics is generally concerned with processes that move materials throughout the Earth. In the Earth’s interior, movement happens when rocks melt or deform and flow in response to a stress field.  This deformation may be brittle, elastic, or plastic, depending on the magnitude of the stress and the material’s physical properties, especially the stress relaxation time scale. Rocks are structurally and compositionally heterogeneous and are subjected to variable stresses, so it is common to see different types of deformation in close spatial and temporal proximity. When working with geological timescales and lengths, it is convenient to use the continuous medium approximation and equilibrium stress fields to consider the average response to average stress.

text: Geodynamics is generally concerned with processes that move materials throughout the Earth. In the

text: Earth’s interior

text: , movement happens when rocks

text: melt

text: or

text: deform

text: and flow in response to a

text: stress field

text: .  This deformation may be

text: brittle

text: elastic

text: , or

text: plastic

text: , depending on the magnitude of the stress and the material’s physical properties, especially the stress relaxation time scale. Rocks are structurally and compositionally heterogeneous and are subjected to variable stresses, so it is common to see different types of deformation in close spatial and temporal proximity. When working with geological timescales and lengths, it is convenient to use the continuous medium approximation and equilibrium stress fields to consider the average response to average stress.

text: New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plates. In South Island most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault with a major reverse component, the Alpine Fault. In North Island the displacement is mainly taken up along the Kermadec subduction zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the North Island Fault System (NIFS). A group of dextral strike-slip structures, known as the Marlborough Fault System, transfer displacement between the mainly transform and convergent type plate boundaries in a complex zone at the northern end of South Island.<ref name="Van Dissen & Yeats">{{cite journal | url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/19/4/393.abstract | title=Hope fault, Jordan thrust, and uplift of the Seaward Kaikoura Range, New Zealand |author1=Van Dissen R. |author2=Yeats R.S. | journal=Geology | year=1991 | volume=19 | issue=4 | pages=393–396 | doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019

text: New Zealand lies along the boundary between the

text: Australian

text: and

text: Pacific Plate

text: s. In

text: South Island

text: most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral)

text: strike-slip fault

text: with a major

text: reverse

text: component, the

text: Alpine Fault

text: . In

text: North Island

text: the displacement is mainly taken up along the

text: Kermadec subduction zone

text: , although the remaining dextral strike-slip component of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the

text: North Island Fault System

text: (NIFS). A group of dextral strike-slip structures, known as the

text: Marlborough Fault System

text: , transfer displacement between the mainly

text: transform

text: and

text: convergent type plate boundaries

text: in a complex zone at the northern end of South Island.<ref name="Van Dissen & Yeats">{{cite journal | url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/content/19/4/393.abstract | title=Hope fault, Jordan thrust, and uplift of the Seaward Kaikoura Range, New Zealand |author1=Van Dissen R. |author2=Yeats R.S. | journal=Geology | year=1991 | volume=19 | issue=4 | pages=393–396 | doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019

text: Not all folds are equal on both sides of the axis of the fold. Those with  limbs of relatively equal length are termed symmetrical, and those with highly unequal limbs are asymmetrical. Asymmetrical folds generally have an axis at an angle to the original unfolded surface they formed on.

text: Not all folds are equal on both sides of the axis of the fold. Those with  limbs of relatively equal length are termed

text: symmetrical

text: , and those with highly unequal limbs are

text: asymmetrical

text: . Asymmetrical folds generally have an axis at an angle to the original unfolded surface they formed on.

text: The tectonic activity responsible for the extension in the Basin and Range is a complex and controversial issue among the geoscience community. The most accepted hypothesis suggests that crustal shearing associated with the San Andreas Fault caused spontaneous extensional faulting similar to that seen in the Great Basin. However, plate movement alone does not account for the high elevation of the Basin and Range region.  The western United States is a region of high heat flow which lowers the density of the lithosphere and stimulates isostatic uplift as a consequence. Lithospheric regions characterized by elevated heat flow are weak and extensional deformation can occur over a broad region. Basin and Range extension is therefore thought to be unrelated to the kind of extension produced by mantle upwelling which may cause narrow rift zones, such as the Afar Triple Junction. Geologic processes that elevate heat flow are varied, however some researchers suggest that heat generated at a subduction zone is transferred to the overriding plate as subduction proceeds. Fluids along fault zones then transfer heat vertically through the crust. This model has led to increasing interest in geothermal systems in the Basin and Range, and requires consideration of the continued influence of the fully subducted Farallon plate in the extension responsible for the Basin and Range Province.

text: The tectonic activity responsible for the extension in the Basin and Range is a complex and controversial issue among the geoscience community. The most accepted hypothesis suggests that crustal

text: shearing

text: associated with the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: caused spontaneous extensional faulting similar to that seen in the Great Basin. However, plate movement alone does not account for the high elevation of the Basin and Range region.  The western United States is a region of high

text: heat flow

text: which lowers the density of the lithosphere and stimulates

text: isostatic

text: uplift

text: as a consequence. Lithospheric regions characterized by elevated

text: heat flow

text: are weak and extensional

text: deformation

text: can occur over a broad region. Basin and Range extension is therefore thought to be unrelated to the kind of extension produced by

text: mantle upwelling

text: which may cause narrow rift zones, such as the

text: Afar Triple Junction

text: . Geologic processes that elevate heat flow are varied, however some researchers suggest that heat generated at a subduction zone is transferred to the overriding plate as subduction proceeds. Fluids along fault zones then transfer heat vertically through the crust. This model has led to increasing interest in

text: geothermal systems

text: in the Basin and Range, and requires consideration of the continued influence of the fully subducted Farallon plate in the extension responsible for the Basin and Range Province.

text: By 26 February 2010 the Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment used by the Iceland Meteorological Office at Þorvaldseyri farm in the Eyjafjöll area (around  southeast of the location of the recent eruption) had shown 3 centimetres of displacement of the local crust in a southward direction, of which a 1 centimetre displacement had taken place within four days. (See the GPS Time Series page of the Nordic Volcanological Center's website for detailed information on the degree of movement detected in the Earth's crust in the Eyjafjallajökull locality.)

text: By 26 February 2010 the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) equipment used by the Iceland Meteorological Office at Þorvaldseyri farm in the Eyjafjöll area (around  southeast of the location of the recent eruption) had shown 3 centimetres of displacement of the local

text: crust

text: in a southward direction, of which a 1 centimetre displacement had taken place within four days. (See the GPS Time Series page of the Nordic Volcanological Center's website for detailed information on the degree of movement detected in the Earth's crust in the Eyjafjallajökull locality.)

text: A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault trace  or fault line is the intersection of a fault plane with the ground surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a fault.

text: A fault plane is the

text: plane

text: that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault trace  or fault line is the intersection of a fault plane with the ground surface. A fault trace is also the line commonly plotted on

text: geologic map

text: s to represent a fault.

text: In a one-dimensional relaxation test, the material is subjected to a sudden strain that is kept constant over the duration ofthe test, and the stress is measured over time. The initial stress is due to the elastic response of the material. Then, thestress relaxes over time due to the viscous effects in the material. Typically, either a tensile, compressive, bulkcompression, or shear strain is applied. The resulting stress vs. time data can be fitted with a number of equations, calledmodels. Only the notation changes depending of the type of strain applied: tensile-compressive relaxation is denoted

text: Geologically the district forms part of the vast Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract, of which the origin is attributed to a sag in the earth's crust, formed, in the upper eocene times, between the northwardly drifting Gondwanaland and the rising Himalayan belt, and gradually filled in by sediments so as to constitute a level plane with a very gentle seaward slope. The alluvium formation of the district, comprising sand, silt & clay with occasional gravel, is of the early quaternary to sub-recent age. The older alluvium called bhangar, forms slightly elevated terraces usually above the flood levels. It is rather dark in colour generally rich in concretions and nodules of impure calcium carbonate, locally known as kankar. The newer alluvium, called khandar, forming the lowlands between the Ganga and Bhangar, is light coloured, poor in calcarious contain and composed of lenticular beds of sand, gravel and clays. The economic minerals found in the district are kankar, reh and sand.

text: Geologically

text: the district forms part of the vast Indo-Gangetic alluvial tract, of which the origin is attributed to a sag in the earth's crust, formed, in the upper eocene times, between the northwardly drifting Gondwanaland and the rising Himalayan belt, and gradually filled in by sediments so as to constitute a level plane with a very gentle seaward slope. The alluvium formation of the district, comprising sand, silt & clay with occasional gravel, is of the early quaternary to sub-recent age. The older alluvium called bhangar, forms slightly elevated terraces usually above the flood levels. It is rather dark in colour generally rich in concretions and nodules of impure calcium carbonate, locally known as kankar. The newer alluvium, called khandar, forming the lowlands between the Ganga and Bhangar, is light coloured, poor in calcarious contain and composed of lenticular beds of sand, gravel and clays. The economic minerals found in the district are kankar, reh and sand.

text: The mountain is mostly made up of limestone formations, having risen up gradually from the Earth's crust.

text: The mountain is mostly made up of

text: limestone

text: formations, having risen up gradually from the Earth's

text: crust

text: Several strands of the San Andreas Fault System in the eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area are the Hayward–Rodgers Creek and Calaveras Faults. The Hayward Fault exhibits fault creep, but it also has potential for large earthquakes, like the 1868 M7 Hayward earthquake that occurred on its southern segment. The northern Calaveras Fault meets the Hayward Fault near the Calaveras Reservoir and can also produce large earthquakes. Except for a ~M6.5 shock that occurred in 1911, the central and southern segments might only produce smaller events and fault creep.

text: Several strands of the

text: San Andreas Fault System

text: in the

text: eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area

text: are the

text: Hayward

text: –Rodgers Creek and

text: Calaveras Fault

text: s. The Hayward Fault exhibits

text: fault creep

text: , but it also has potential for large earthquakes, like the

text: 1868 M7 Hayward earthquake

text: that occurred on its southern segment. The northern Calaveras Fault meets the Hayward Fault near the

text: Calaveras Reservoir

text: and can also produce large earthquakes. Except for a ~M6.5 shock that occurred in 1911, the central and southern segments might only produce smaller events and fault creep.

text: The Western Carpathians are from the neotectonic point of view part of the Alcapa block. Main earthquakes in the Alcapa were located in the subduction arc of the Hellenides and Calabrids. Deep focus earthquakes are known only from the zone of Vrancea, where the subduction is still active. No deep focused earthquakes related to subduction were recorded in the Western Carpathians. A period of significant continental collision and shortening of the crust affected the area in the Miocene. Later, primarily extensional and strike-slip movement in the Neogene generated new or reactivated older faults. There are five principal earthquake zones located in the area of the Western Carpathians: the Pezinok-Pernek zone, which is a continuation of the faults responsible for formation of the Vienna Basin, the Dobrá Voda zone with the most intensive and most shallow earthquakes around the Dobrá Voda fault, the Komáro zone of earthquakes, which joins the Rába-Hurbanovo-Darnó fault (also known as Raaba linie), separating the Pelso unit from the Inner Carpathian crystalline basement, the Žilina zone of earthquakes, related to the ongoing collision and strike-slip movement in the Pieniny Klippen Belt, and the Central Slovakia zone, which is probably the result of tectonic activity of the Central Slovak fault.

text: The Western Carpathians are from the

text: neotectonic

text: point of view part of the

text: Alcapa

text: block. Main

text: earthquake

text: s in the

text: Alcapa

text: were located in the

text: subduction

text: arc of the

text: Hellenides

text: and

text: Calabrid

text: s.

text: Deep focus earthquake

text: s are known only from the zone of

text: Vrancea

text: , where the

text: subduction

text: is still active. No deep focused earthquakes related to subduction were recorded in the Western Carpathians. A period of significant

text: continental collision

text: and shortening of the crust affected the area in the

text: Miocene

text: . Later, primarily extensional and

text: strike-slip

text: movement in the Neogene generated new or reactivated older

text: fault

text: s. There are five principal earthquake zones located in the area of the Western Carpathians: the Pezinok-Pernek zone, which is a continuation of the faults responsible for formation of the

text: Vienna Basin

text: , the Dobrá Voda zone with the most intensive and most shallow earthquakes around the

text: Dobrá Voda fault

text: , the Komáro zone of earthquakes, which joins the

text: Rába

text: Hurbanovo

text: Darnó

text: fault (also known as

text: Raaba linie

text: ), separating the

text: Pelso unit

text: from the Inner Carpathian crystalline basement, the Žilina zone of earthquakes, related to the ongoing collision and strike-slip movement in the

text: Pieniny Klippen Belt

text: , and the Central Slovakia zone, which is probably the result of tectonic activity of the

text: Central Slovak fault

text: User-specified folding allows the user to fold sections of text using a generic selection method, but without changing the source code (out-of-band), instead being specified only in the editor. For example, a programmer may select some lines of text and specify that they  should be folded. Folded text might be anonymous or named, and this may be preserved across editing sessions or discarded. Unlike token-based folding, this does not change the source text – it thus is not shared with other editors of the file, and is not visible in the code.

text: A rift valley is a linear-shaped lowland between several highlands or mountain ranges created by the action of a geologic rift or fault. A rift valley is formed on a divergent plate boundary, a crustal extension, a spreading apart of the surface, which is subsequently further deepened by the forces of erosion. When the tensional forces were strong enough to cause the plate to split apart, a center block dropped between the two blocks at its flanks, forming a graben. The drop of the center creates the nearly parallel steeply dipping walls of a rift valley when it is new. That  feature is the beginning of the rift valley, but as the process continues, the valley widens, until it becomes a large basin that fills with sediment from the rift walls and the surrounding area. One of the best known examples of this process is the East African Rift. On Earth, rifts can occur at all elevations, from the sea floor to plateaus and mountain ranges in continental crust or in oceanic crust. They are often associated with a number of adjoining subsidiary or co-extensive valleys, which are typically considered part of the principal rift valley geologically.

text: A rift valley is a linear-shaped lowland between several highlands or mountain ranges created by the action of a geologic

text: rift

text: or

text: fault

text: . A rift valley is formed on a divergent plate boundary, a crustal extension, a spreading apart of the surface, which is subsequently further deepened by the forces of erosion. When the tensional forces were strong enough to cause the plate to split apart, a center block dropped between the two blocks at its flanks, forming a

text: graben

text: . The drop of the center creates the nearly parallel steeply dipping walls of a rift valley when it is new. That  feature is the beginning of the rift valley, but as the process continues, the valley widens, until it becomes a large basin that fills with sediment from the rift walls and the surrounding area. One of the best known examples of this process is the

text: East African Rift

text: . On Earth, rifts can occur at all elevations, from the sea floor to plateaus and mountain ranges in

text: continental crust

text: or in

text: oceanic crust

text: . They are often associated with a number of adjoining subsidiary or co-extensive valleys, which are typically considered part of the principal rift valley geologically.

text: Dacitic magma is formed by the subduction of young oceanic crust under a thick felsic continental plate. Oceanic crust is hydrothermally altered causing addition of quartz and sodium. As the young, hot oceanic plate is subducted under continental crust, the subducted slab partially melts and interacts with the upper mantle through convection and dehydration reactions. The process of subduction creates metamorphism in the subducting slab. When this slab reaches the mantle and initiates the dehydration reactions, minerals such as talc, serpentine, mica and amphiboles break down generating a more sodic melt. The magma then continues to migrate upwards causing differentiation and becomes even more sodic and silicic as it rises. Once at the cold surface, the sodium rich magma crystallizes plagioclase, quartz and hornblende. Accessory minerals like pyroxenes provide insight to the history of the magma.

text: Dacitic magma is formed by the subduction of young oceanic crust under a thick

text: felsic

text: continental plate. Oceanic crust is hydrothermally altered causing addition of quartz and sodium. As the young, hot oceanic plate is subducted under continental crust, the subducted slab

text: partially melts

text: and interacts with the upper mantle through convection and dehydration reactions. The process of subduction creates metamorphism in the subducting slab. When this slab reaches the mantle and initiates the dehydration reactions, minerals such as

text: talc

text: serpentine

text: mica

text: and

text: amphibole

text: s break down generating a more sodic melt. The magma then continues to migrate upwards causing differentiation and becomes even more sodic and silicic as it rises. Once at the cold surface, the sodium rich magma crystallizes plagioclase, quartz and hornblende. Accessory minerals like pyroxenes provide insight to the history of the magma.

text: As one of the requirements for stress corrosion cracking is the presence of stress in the components, one method of control is to eliminate that stress, or at least reduce it below the threshold stress for SCC. This is not usually feasible for working stresses (the stress that the component is intended to support), but it may be possible where the stress causing cracking is a residual stress introduced during welding or forming.Residual stresses can be relieved by stress-relief annealing, and this is widely used for carbon steels. These have the advantage of a relatively high threshold stress for most environments, consequently it is relatively easy to reduce the residual stresses to a low enough level. In contrast austenitic stainless steels have a very low threshold stress for chloride SCC. This, combined with the high annealing temperatures that are necessary to avoid other problems, such as sensitization and sigma phase embrittlement, means that stress relief is rarely successful as a method of controlling SCC for this system.For large structures, for which full stress-relief annealing is difficult or impossible, partial stress relief around welds and other critical areas may be of value. However, this must be done in a controlled way to avoid creating new regions of high residual stress, and expert advice is advisable if this approach is adopted.Stresses can also be relieved mechanically. For example, hydrostatic testing beyond yield will tend to ‘even-out’ the stresses and thereby reduce the peak residual stress. Similarly laser peening, shot-peening, or grit-blasting tend to introduce a surface compressive stress, and are beneficial for the control of SCC. The uniformity with which these processes are applied is important. If, for example, only the weld region is shot-peened, damaging tensile stresses may be created at the border of the peened area.  The compressive residual stresses imparted by laser peening are precisely controlled both in location and intensity, and can be applied to mitigate sharp transitions into tensile regions.  Laser peening imparts deep compressive residual stresses on the order of 10 to 20 times deeper than conventional shot peening making it significantly more beneficial at preventing SCC.  Laser peening is widely used in the aerospace and power generation industries in gas fired turbine engines.

text: As one of the requirements for stress corrosion cracking is the presence of stress in the components, one method of control is to eliminate that stress, or at least reduce it below the threshold stress for SCC. This is not usually feasible for working stresses (the stress that the component is intended to support), but it may be possible where the stress causing cracking is a

text: residual stress

text: introduced during welding or forming.Residual stresses can be relieved by stress-relief annealing, and this is widely used for carbon steels. These have the advantage of a relatively high threshold stress for most environments, consequently it is relatively easy to reduce the residual stresses to a low enough level. In contrast austenitic stainless steels have a very low threshold stress for chloride SCC. This, combined with the high annealing temperatures that are necessary to avoid other problems, such as sensitization and sigma phase embrittlement, means that stress relief is rarely successful as a method of controlling SCC for this system.For large structures, for which full stress-relief annealing is difficult or impossible, partial stress relief around welds and other critical areas may be of value. However, this must be done in a controlled way to avoid creating new regions of high residual stress, and expert advice is advisable if this approach is adopted.Stresses can also be relieved mechanically. For example, hydrostatic testing beyond yield will tend to ‘even-out’ the stresses and thereby reduce the peak residual stress. Similarly

text: laser peening

text: , shot-peening, or grit-blasting tend to introduce a surface compressive stress, and are beneficial for the control of SCC. The uniformity with which these processes are applied is important. If, for example, only the weld region is shot-peened, damaging tensile stresses may be created at the border of the peened area.  The compressive residual stresses imparted by laser peening are precisely controlled both in location and intensity, and can be applied to mitigate sharp transitions into tensile regions.  Laser peening imparts deep compressive residual stresses on the order of 10 to 20 times deeper than conventional shot peening making it significantly more beneficial at preventing SCC.  Laser peening is widely used in the aerospace and power generation industries in gas fired turbine engines.

text: This island is part of the "Kondyor-Feklistov metallogenic belt" (KD) owing to the presence of placers  which include minerals like "blacksand platinum".The "Kondyor-Feklistov metallogenic belt" is one of the major metallogenic belts of Northeast Asia. It is assumed that it formed by an oblique subduction of the oceanic crust of the Mongol-Okhotsk paleoocean under the southern margin of the Siberian continent.

text: This island is part of the "Kondyor-Feklistov

text: metallogenic

text: belt" (KD) owing to the presence of

text: placer

text: s  which include minerals like "blacksand

text: platinum

text: ".The "Kondyor-Feklistov metallogenic belt" is one of the major metallogenic belts of Northeast Asia. It is assumed that it formed by an oblique subduction of the oceanic crust of the Mongol-Okhotsk paleoocean under the southern margin of the Siberian continent.

text: Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years, whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million years old.

text: Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the

text: Big Island

text: of Hawaii. This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's

text: oceanic crust

text: is continually recycled by

text: subduction

text: at the boundaries of

text: tectonic plate

text: s, and has an average age of about 100 million years, whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300–600 million years old.

text: The extreme cases of these two types of back-arc deformation can be found in Chile and at the Marianas arc. The shallow dipping slab subducting beneath Chile at an angle of about 10–15° causes a compressional stress on the back-arc region behind the Andes. On the other extreme, the slab going down into the mantle at the Marianas subduction zone is so steep it is nearly vertical. This is the perfect example of an oceanic back-arc basin experiencing extensional forces. The Oriente in Ecuador (the eastern part of the country covered by rainforest) is also a good example of an extensional back-arc basin, this time in a continental setting. The continental crust in this area east of the Andes has been stretched out and covered by layers of sediments.

text: The extreme cases of these two types of back-arc deformation can be found in Chile and at the

text: Marianas arc

text: . The shallow dipping slab subducting beneath Chile at an angle of about 10–15° causes a compressional stress on the back-arc region behind the Andes. On the other extreme, the slab going down into the mantle at the Marianas subduction zone is so steep it is nearly vertical. This is the perfect example of an oceanic back-arc basin experiencing extensional forces. The Oriente in Ecuador (the eastern part of the country covered by rainforest) is also a good example of an extensional back-arc basin, this time in a continental setting. The continental crust in this area east of the Andes has been stretched out and covered by layers of sediments.

text: Sedimentary structures such as cross bedding, graded bedding and ripple marks are utilized in stratigraphic studies to indicate original position of strata in geologically complex terrains and understand the depositional environment of the sediment.

text: Sedimentary structures such as

text: cross bedding

text: graded bedding

text: and

text: ripple marks

text: are utilized in

text: stratigraphic

text: studies to indicate

text: original position

text: of

text: strata

text: in geologically complex terrains and understand the

text: depositional environment

text: of the sediment.

text: Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth's crust, and more especially to folding and faulting. Diastrophism can be considered part of geotectonics. Diastrophism comes from the Greek word meaning a twisting.

text: Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth's

text: crust

text: , and more especially to

text: folding

text: and

text: faulting

text: . Diastrophism can be considered part of

text: geotectonics

text: . Diastrophism comes from the

text: Greek

text: word meaning a twisting.

text: A tectonostratigraphic terrane is not necessarily an independent microplate in origin, since it may not contain the full thickness of the lithosphere. It is a piece of crust which has been transported laterally, usually as part of a larger plate, and is relatively buoyant due to thickness or low density.  When the plate of which it was a part subducted under another plate, the terrane failed to subduct, detached from its transporting plate, and accreted onto the overriding plate.  Therefore, the terrane transferred from one plate to the other. Typically, accreting terranes are portions of continental crust which have rifted off another continental mass and been transported surrounded by oceanic crust, or old island arcs formed at some distant subduction zone.

text: A tectonostratigraphic terrane is not necessarily an independent

text: microplate

text: in origin, since it may not contain the full thickness of the

text: lithosphere

text: . It is a piece of

text: crust

text: which has been transported laterally, usually as part of a larger plate, and is relatively buoyant due to thickness or low density.  When the plate of which it was a part

text: subduct

text: ed under another plate, the terrane failed to subduct, detached from its transporting plate, and accreted onto the overriding plate.  Therefore, the terrane transferred from one plate to the other. Typically, accreting terranes are portions of

text: continental crust

text: which have

text: rifted off

text: another continental mass and been transported surrounded by oceanic crust, or old

text: island arc

text: s formed at some distant

text: subduction zone

text: Since the Pinnacles were moved to this area, the San Andreas fault has shifted  to the east of the park.  The original location of the San Andreas can be seen in the Chalone Creek fault.  Two other large faults are known to run through the park, the Miner's Gulch and Pinnacles faults.  These faults parallel the San Andreas and were most likely caused by major movements of the main fault. The establishment of the relative movement between the Pinnacles and the Neenach rocks was a significant factor in the acceptance of plate tectonics in geology.

text: Since the Pinnacles were moved to this area, the San Andreas fault has shifted  to the east of the park.  The original location of the San Andreas can be seen in the Chalone Creek fault.  Two other large faults are known to run through the park, the Miner's Gulch and Pinnacles faults.  These faults parallel the San Andreas and were most likely caused by major movements of the main fault. The establishment of the relative movement between the Pinnacles and the Neenach rocks was a significant factor in the acceptance of

text: plate tectonics

text: in geology.

text: During the Mesozoic era (about 250 to 66 million years ago) a large ocean (Tethys Ocean), floored by oceanic lithosphere existed in-between the supercontinents of Gondwana and Laurasia (which lay to the south and north respectively; Robertson & Dixon, 2006). This large oceanic plate was consumed at subduction zones (see subduction zone). At the subduction trenches the sedimentary rock layers that were deposited within the prehistoric Tethys Ocean buckled, were folded, faulted and tectonically mixed with huge blocks of crystalline basement rocks of the oceanic lithosphere. These blocks form a very complex mixture or mélange of rocks that include mainly serpentinite, basalt, dolerite and chert (e.g. Bergougnan, 1975). The Eurasian margin, now preserved in the Pontides (the Pontic Mountains along the Black Sea coast), is thought to have been geologically similar to the Western Pacific region today (e.g. Rice et al., 2006). Volcanic arcs (see volcanic arc) and backarc basins (see back-arc basin) formed and were emplaced onto Eurasia as ophiolites (see ophiolite) as they collided with microcontinents (literally relatively small plates of continental lithosphere; e.g. Ustaomer and Robertson, 1997). These microcontinents had been pulled away from the Gondwanan continent further south. Turkey is therefore made up from several different prehistorical microcontinents.

text: During the

text: Mesozoic

text: era (about 250 to 66 million years ago) a large ocean (

text: Tethys Ocean

text: ), floored by oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: existed in-between the supercontinents of

text: Gondwana

text: and

text: Laurasia

text: (which lay to the south and north respectively; Robertson & Dixon, 2006). This large oceanic plate was consumed at subduction zones (see

text: subduction zone

text: ). At the subduction trenches the

text: sedimentary rock

text: layers that were deposited within the prehistoric

text: Tethys Ocean

text: buckled, were folded, faulted and tectonically mixed with huge blocks of crystalline basement rocks of the oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: . These blocks form a very complex mixture or

text: mélange

text: of rocks that include mainly

text: serpentinite

text: basalt

text: dolerite

text: and

text: chert

text: (e.g. Bergougnan, 1975). The Eurasian margin, now preserved in the Pontides (the

text: Pontic Mountains

text: along the

text: Black Sea

text: coast), is thought to have been geologically similar to the Western Pacific region today (e.g. Rice et al., 2006). Volcanic arcs (see

text: volcanic arc

text: ) and backarc basins (see

text: back-arc basin

text: ) formed and were emplaced onto

text: Eurasia

text: as ophiolites (see

text: ophiolite

text: ) as they collided with microcontinents (literally relatively small plates of continental

text: lithosphere

text: ; e.g. Ustaomer and Robertson, 1997). These microcontinents had been pulled away from the Gondwanan continent further south. Turkey is therefore made up from several different prehistorical microcontinents.

text: The primary methods for dealing with faults include fault avoidance, fault tolerance, and fault detection and recovery. Fault avoidance covers proactive measures taken to minimize the occurrence of faults. These proactive measures can be in the form of transactions, replication and backups. Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to continue operation in the presence of a fault. In the event, the system should detect and recover full functionality. In any event, any actions taken should make every effort to preserve the single system image.

text: The primary methods for dealing with faults include fault avoidance,

text: fault tolerance

text: , and fault detection and recovery. Fault avoidance covers proactive measures taken to minimize the occurrence of faults. These proactive measures can be in the form of

text: transactions

text: replication

text: and

entity_section: Primary-backup and multi-primary replication

text: backups

text: . Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to continue operation in the presence of a fault. In the event, the system should detect and recover full functionality. In any event, any actions taken should make every effort to preserve the single system image.

text: The Frank-Read source is a mechanism based on dislocation multiplication in a slip plane under shear stress.

text: The Frank-Read source is a mechanism based on dislocation multiplication in a slip plane under

text: shear stress

text: In addition to this, the way that an individual responds to stress can influence their health status. Often, individuals responding to chronic stress will develop coping behaviours, some of which have a positive influences on health and others which have a negative influence. People who cope with stress through positive behaviours such as exercise or social connections may not be as affected by the relationship between stress and health, whereas those with a coping style more prone to over consumption (i.e. emotional eating, drinking, smoking or drug use)  are more likely to be see negative health effects of stress. For example, a laboratory study has shown that, while stress did not alter calorie intake or food type eaten when averaged across the sample as a whole, when looking at a subset of the sample who were classed as emotional eaters, high stress levels were associated with eating more high fat and sweet food and a more calorie dense meal overall. Therefore, the authors conclude that stress may compromise the health of certain susceptible individuals (I.e those with an emotional eating coping style).

text: In addition to this, the way that an individual responds to stress can influence their health status. Often, individuals responding to chronic stress will develop coping behaviours, some of which have a positive influences on health and others which have a negative influence. People who cope with stress through positive behaviours such as exercise or social connections may not be as affected by the relationship between stress and health, whereas those with a coping style more prone to over consumption (i.e.

text: emotional eating

text: , drinking, smoking or drug use)  are more likely to be see negative health effects of stress. For example, a laboratory study has shown that, while stress did not alter calorie intake or food type eaten when averaged across the sample as a whole, when looking at a subset of the sample who were classed as emotional eaters, high stress levels were associated with eating more high fat and sweet food and a more calorie dense meal overall. Therefore, the authors conclude that stress may compromise the health of certain susceptible individuals (I.e those with an emotional eating coping style).

text: The presence of second phase particles often causes lattice distortions. These lattice distortions result when the precipitate particles  differ in size and crystallographic structure from the host atoms. Smaller precipitate particles in a host lattice leads to a tensile stress, whereas larger precipitate particles leads to a compressive stress. Dislocation defects also create a stress field. Above the dislocation there is a compressive stress and below there is a tensile stress. Consequently, there is a negative interaction energy between a dislocation and a precipitate that each respectively cause a compressive and a tensile stress or vice versa. In other words, the dislocation will be attracted to the precipitate. In addition, there is a positive interaction energy between a dislocation and a precipitate that  have the same type of stress field. This means that the dislocation will be repulsed by the precipitate.

text: Environments of magma formation and compositions are commonly correlated. Environments include subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Despite being found in such widespread locales, the bulk of the Earth's crust and mantle is not molten. Except for the liquid outer core, most of the Earth takes the form of a rheid, a form of solid that can move or deform under pressure. Magma, as liquid, preferentially forms in high temperature, low pressure environments within several kilometers of the Earth's surface.

text: Environments of magma formation and compositions are commonly correlated. Environments include

text: subduction zone

text: s, continental

text: rift zone

text: s,

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s and

text: hotspots

text: . Despite being found in such widespread locales, the bulk of the

text: Earth's crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: is not molten. Except for the liquid

text: outer core

text: , most of the Earth takes the form of a

text: rheid

text: , a form of solid that can move or deform under pressure. Magma, as liquid, preferentially forms in high temperature, low pressure environments within several kilometers of the Earth's surface.

text: Another theory for the causes of the deep and extremely rapid exhumation of the Petermann Orogen is that it is due to isostatic instabilities caused by thermal events in the deep crust, causing accumulated stress to be released by violent thermal rebound (Sandiford, et al. 2001). This is envisaged as a kind of feedback loop between sedimentation and isostatic orogenic events. However, some authors (Camacho et al.) have called this into question with isotopic models.

text: Another theory for the causes of the deep and extremely rapid exhumation of the Petermann Orogen is that it is due to isostatic instabilities caused by thermal events in the deep crust, causing accumulated stress to be released by violent thermal rebound (Sandiford, et al. 2001). This is envisaged as a kind of feedback loop between sedimentation and

text: isostatic

text: orogenic events. However, some authors (Camacho et al.) have called this into question with

text: isotopic

text: models.

text: All three sections of the system were formed around the same time—about 2 billion years ago—and are remarkably similar. Vast quantities of molten rock from Earth's mantle were brought to the surface through long vertical cracks in Earth's crust—huge arcuate differentiated lopolithic intrusions—creating the geological intrusion known as the Bushveld Igneous Complex.

text: All three sections of the system were formed around the same time—about 2 billion years ago—and are remarkably similar. Vast quantities of molten rock from Earth's

text: mantle

text: were brought to the surface through long vertical cracks in Earth's crust—huge arcuate differentiated

text: lopolith

text: ic intrusions—creating the geological intrusion known as the Bushveld Igneous Complex.

text: The fault was first identified in Northern California by UC Berkeley geology professor Andrew Lawson in 1895 and named by him after the Laguna de San Andreas, a small lake which lies in a linear valley formed by the fault just south of San Francisco. Eleven years later, Lawson discovered that the San Andreas Fault stretched southward into southern California after reviewing the effects of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Large-scale (hundreds of miles) lateral movement along the fault was first proposed in a 1953 paper by geologists Mason Hill and Thomas Dibblee. This idea, which was considered radical at the time, has since been vindicated by modern plate tectonics.

text: The fault was first identified in Northern California by UC Berkeley geology professor

text: Andrew Lawson

text: in 1895 and named by him after the

text: Laguna de San Andreas

text: , a small lake which lies in a linear valley formed by the fault just south of San Francisco. Eleven years later, Lawson discovered that the San Andreas Fault stretched southward into southern California after reviewing the effects of the

text: 1906 San Francisco earthquake

text: . Large-scale (hundreds of miles) lateral movement along the fault was first proposed in a 1953 paper by geologists Mason Hill and

text: Thomas Dibblee

text: . This idea, which was considered radical at the time, has since been vindicated by modern

text: plate tectonics

text: Geophysicists and exploration geologists who look for oil and gas fields classify the subsurface characteristics, or tectonic setting, of geological structures that contain hydrocarbons. Any one oil and gas field may reflect influences from multiple geological periods and events, but geoscientists often attempt to characterize a field based on the dominant geological event that influenced the structure's ability to trap and contain oil and gas in recoverable quantities.

text: Geophysicists

text: and exploration

text: geologists

text: who look for oil and gas fields classify the subsurface characteristics, or tectonic setting, of geological structures that contain hydrocarbons. Any one oil and gas field may reflect influences from multiple geological periods and events, but geoscientists often attempt to characterize a field based on the dominant geological event that influenced the structure's ability to trap and contain oil and gas in recoverable quantities.

text: The Saharan Metacraton is a term used by some geologists to describe a large area of continental crust in the north-central part of Africa. Whereas a craton is an old and stable part of the lithosphere, the term "metacraton" is used to describe a craton that has been remobilized during an orogenic event, but where the characteristics of the original craton are still identifiable. The geology of the continent has only been partially explored, and other names have been used to describe the general area that reflect different views of its nature and extent. These include "Nile Craton", "Sahara Congo Craton", "Eastern Saharan Craton" and "Central Saharan Ghost Craton".This last term is because the older rocks are almost completely covered by recent sediments and desert sands, making geological analysis difficult.

text: The Saharan Metacraton is a term used by some geologists to describe a large area of

text: continental crust

text: in the north-central part of

text: Africa

text: . Whereas a

text: craton

text: is an old and stable part of the

text: lithosphere

text: , the term "metacraton" is used to describe a craton that has been remobilized during an

text: orogenic event

text: , but where the characteristics of the original craton are still identifiable. The geology of the continent has only been partially explored, and other names have been used to describe the general area that reflect different views of its nature and extent. These include "Nile Craton", "Sahara Congo Craton", "Eastern Saharan Craton" and "Central Saharan Ghost Craton".This last term is because the older rocks are almost completely covered by recent sediments and desert sands, making geological analysis difficult.

text: The Dictionary of Occupational Titles lists the following occupations in Geology, which it describes as "concerned with the investigation of the composition, structure, and physical and biological history of the earth's crust and the application of this knowledge in such fields as archeology, mining, construction, and environmental impact":

text: The

text: Dictionary of Occupational Titles

text: lists the following occupations in Geology, which it describes as "concerned with the investigation of the composition, structure, and physical and biological history of the earth's

text: crust

text: and the application of this knowledge in such fields as

text: archeology

text: mining

text: construction

text: , and

text: environmental impact

text: The Apennine orogeny is a type of mountain-building in which two simpler types are combined in an apparently paradoxical configuration. Sometimes this is referred to as "syn-orogenic extension", but the term implies that the two processes occur simultaneously during time. Some scientists imagine that this is relatively rare but not unique in mountain building, whereas others imagine that this is fairly common in all mountain belts.

text: Following the conclusion of the original Doom series, the sole Marine who survived the horrors of Hell returned to Earth, reclaiming it from the invasion that almost eradicated the human race. Demons still lingered within the abandoned halls and complexes of Phobos and Deimos. As a last-ditch effort, the military decided to bombard the moons with extreme radiation in hopes of killing off any remaining demons. It was initially successful, however, something survived the exposure. The radiation blocked the military's sensors, and allowed something to slip past them undetected. This mysterious entity, possessing the ability to resurrect any demon it came across, recreated the entire demonic horde and made it stronger than ever before. A Marine strike force was ordered to contain the advancing armies of Hell, but was mercilessly slaughtered within moments. The player's character is the sole survivor of this group.

text: Vancouver Island is mostly made up of volcanic and sedimentary rock which was formed offshore on the now disappeared Kula oceanic plate.  Around 55 million years ago, a microplate of the Kula Plate subducted below the North American continental margin with great strain.  A volcanic arc on the surface of the Kula Plate was thus accreted and fused onto the western edge of North America.  These terranes were subjected to extreme warping from continued subduction of the Kula plate, leading to the formation of the distorted Insular Mountains.  Much of the central mountainous region around Strathcona Park is part of the Karmutsen Formation, which is a sequence of tholeiitic pillow basalts and breccias.  Since Vancouver Island has become an accretionary wedge on the North American continent, the Kula Plate has fully subducted beneath it and the remnants of the Farallon Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, are now subducting below the island.  This process has led to Vancouver Island being one of the most seismically active regions in Canada.  The subduction zone off the coast of the island forms a section of the Pacific Ring of Fire.  The area has been known to host megathrust earthquakes in the past, the last occurring in 1700.  In 1946, the Forbidden Plateau in the east of the Vancouver Island Ranges was the epicentre of an earthquake that registered 7.3 on the Richter magnitude scale, the strongest ever recorded on land in Canada.

text: Vancouver Island is mostly made up of

text: volcanic

text: and

text: sedimentary rock

text: which was formed offshore on the now disappeared

text: Kula

text: oceanic plate

text: .  Around 55 million years ago, a

text: microplate

text: of the Kula Plate

text: subducted

text: below the

text: North American

text: continental margin

text: with great strain.  A

text: volcanic arc

text: on the surface of the Kula Plate was thus

text: accreted

text: and fused onto the western edge of North America.  These

text: terrane

text: s were subjected to extreme warping from continued subduction of the Kula plate, leading to the formation of the distorted

text: Insular Mountains

text: .  Much of the central mountainous region around

text: Strathcona Park

text: is part of the

text: Karmutsen Formation

text: , which is a sequence of

text: tholeiitic

text: pillow basalt

text: s and

text: breccia

text: s.  Since Vancouver Island has become an

text: accretionary wedge

text: on the North American continent, the Kula Plate has fully subducted beneath it and the remnants of the

text: Farallon Plate

text: , the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: , are now subducting below the island.  This process has led to Vancouver Island being one of the most seismically active regions in Canada.  The subduction zone off the coast of the island forms a section of the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: .  The area has been known to host

text: megathrust

text: earthquakes in the past, the last occurring in

text: .  In

text: , the

text: Forbidden Plateau

text: in the east of the

text: Vancouver Island Ranges

text: was the

text: epicentre

text: of an

text: earthquake

text: that registered 7.3 on the

text: Richter magnitude scale

text: , the strongest ever recorded on land in Canada.

text: As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than  old in age. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and has an estimated age of . By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is .

text: As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is

text: subducted

text: under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the

text: oceanic crust

text: back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than  old in age. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and has an estimated age of . By comparison, the oldest dated

text: continental crust

text: is .

text: Rhodium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust, comprising an estimated 0.0002 parts per million (2 × 10).  Its rarity affects its price and its use in commercial applications.

text: Rhodium is one of the

text: rarest elements in the Earth's crust

text: , comprising an estimated 0.0002

text: parts per million

text: (2 × 10).  Its rarity affects its price and its use in commercial applications.

text: Rift is the fourth official studio album by the American rock band Phish. It is the band's second concept album, the first being  The Man Who Stepped into Yesterday in 1987, which has never been officially released. Rifts songs convey the experience of a man dreaming about the rift in his relationship with his girlfriend. Recorded in September and October 1992 and produced by Muscle Shoals music veteran Barry Beckett, the album was released by Elektra Records on February 2, 1993.

text: Rift is the fourth official studio album by the American rock band

text: Phish

text: . It is the band's second

text: concept album

text: , the first being

text: The Man Who Stepped into Yesterday

text: in 1987, which has never been officially released. Rifts songs convey the experience of a man dreaming about the rift in his relationship with his girlfriend. Recorded in September and October 1992 and produced by

text: Muscle Shoals

text: music veteran

text: Barry Beckett

text: , the album was released by

text: Elektra Records

text: on February 2, 1993.

text: On Earth, a large piece of molten iron is sufficiently denser than continental crust material to force its way down through the crust to the mantle. In the outer Solar System a similar process may take place but with lighter materials: they may be hydrocarbons such as methane, water as liquid or ice, or frozen carbon dioxide.

text: On

text: Earth

text: , a large piece of molten

text: iron

text: is sufficiently denser than

text: continental crust

text: material to force its way down through the crust to the

text: mantle

text: . In the outer Solar System a similar process may take place but with lighter materials: they may be

text: hydrocarbons

text: such as

text: methane

text: water

text: as liquid or ice, or frozen

text: carbon dioxide

text: The land on which San Diego–Tijuana sits is due west of a major transform fault. The transform fault, known as the San Andreas Fault was created during the Cenozoic Era by the movements of the Pacific Plate and North American Plate. The region experiences earthquakes and felt the shocks of the 2009 Gulf of California earthquake and 2010 Baja California earthquake.

text: The land on which San Diego–Tijuana sits is due west of a major

text: transform fault

text: . The transform fault, known as the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: was created during the

text: Cenozoic Era

text: by the movements of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and

text: North American Plate

text: . The region experiences earthquakes and felt the shocks of the

text: 2009 Gulf of California earthquake

text: and

text: 2010 Baja California earthquake

text: The Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago. As it cooled the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle solidified. The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere, which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates, which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100 mm annually, colliding, combining into continents, splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.

text: The Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago. As it cooled the

text: lithosphere

text: , consisting of the

text: crust

text: and the rigid uppermost part of the

text: mantle

text: solidified. The lithosphere rides on the

text: asthenosphere

text: , which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into

text: tectonic plates

text: , which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100 mm annually, colliding, combining into

text: continents

text: , splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.

text: In the same way as the two orogenies that followed, the Nevadan was caused by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere at a subduction zone running along the edge of the North American continent. This resulted in oceanic crust, being more dense than the mantle, descending into the lithosphere very quickly, and steeply beneath the edge of the continent.

text: In the same way as the two orogenies that followed, the Nevadan was caused by the

text: subduction

text: of

text: oceanic lithosphere

text: at a

text: subduction zone

text: running along the edge of the North American continent. This resulted in

text: oceanic crust

text: , being more dense than the mantle, descending into the

text: lithosphere

text: very quickly, and steeply beneath the edge of the

text: continent

text: Normally, as Earth gets colder due to natural climatic fluctuations and changes in incoming solar radiation, the cooling slows these weathering reactions. As a result, less carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and Earth warms as this greenhouse gas accumulates — this 'negative feedback' process limits the magnitude of cooling. During the Cryogenian period, however, Earth's continents were all at tropical latitudes, which made this moderating process less effective, as high weathering rates continued on land even as Earth cooled. This let ice advance beyond the polar regions. Once ice advanced to within 30° of the equator, a positive feedback could ensue such that the increased reflectiveness (albedo) of the ice led to further cooling and the formation of more ice, until the whole Earth is ice-covered.

text: Normally, as Earth gets colder due to natural climatic fluctuations and changes in incoming solar radiation, the cooling slows these weathering reactions. As a result, less carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and Earth warms as this greenhouse gas accumulates — this '

text: negative feedback

text: ' process limits the magnitude of cooling. During the

text: Cryogenian

text: period, however, Earth's continents were all at

text: tropical

text: latitudes, which made this moderating process less effective, as high weathering rates continued on land even as Earth cooled. This let ice advance beyond the polar regions. Once ice advanced to within 30° of the equator, a positive feedback could ensue such that the increased reflectiveness (

text: albedo

text: ) of the ice led to further cooling and the formation of more ice, until the whole Earth is ice-covered.

text: A dike swarm is a large geological structure consisting of a major group of parallel, linear, or radially oriented dikes intruded within continental crust. They consist of several to hundreds of dikes emplaced more or less contemporaneously during a single intrusive event, and are magmatic and stratigraphic. Such dike swarms are the roots of a volcanic province. Examples include:

text: In contrast to epeirogenic movement, orogenic movement is a more complicated deformation of the Earth's crust, associated with crustal thickening, notably associated with the convergence of tectonic plates. Such plate convergence forms orogenic belts that are characterized by "the folding and faulting of layers of rock, by the intrusion of magma, and by volcanism".

text: In contrast to epeirogenic movement,

text: orogenic movement

text: is a more complicated deformation of the Earth's crust, associated with crustal thickening, notably associated with the convergence of

text: tectonic plates

text: . Such plate convergence forms

text: orogenic belts

text: that are characterized by "the folding and faulting of layers of rock, by the intrusion of magma, and by volcanism".

text: Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few tens of millions of years but after this becomes increasingly denser than asthenosphere. This is because the chemically differentiated oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, but thermal contraction of the mantle lithosphere makes it more dense than the asthenosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic lithosphere has the effect that at subduction zones, oceanic lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere, which can be oceanic or continental. New oceanic lithosphere is constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic lithosphere is about 170 million years old, while parts of the continental lithosphere are billions of years old. The oldest parts of continental lithosphere underlie cratons, and the mantle lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to stabilize these regions.

text: Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few tens of millions of years but after this becomes increasingly denser than asthenosphere. This is because the chemically differentiated oceanic crust is lighter than asthenosphere, but

text: thermal contraction

text: of the mantle lithosphere makes it more dense than the asthenosphere. The gravitational instability of mature oceanic lithosphere has the effect that at

text: subduction zone

text: s, oceanic lithosphere invariably sinks underneath the overriding lithosphere, which can be oceanic or continental. New oceanic lithosphere is constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic lithosphere is about 170 million years old, while parts of the continental lithosphere are billions of years old. The oldest parts of continental lithosphere underlie

text: craton

text: s, and the mantle lithosphere there is thicker and less dense than typical; the relatively low density of such mantle "roots of cratons" helps to stabilize these regions.

text: Guangdong Province lies in a tectonically stable part of China, which has relatively low seismicity. The area forms part of the passive margin between the continental crust of China and the oceanic crust of the northern part of the South China Sea. Within the stable South China Block, there are three zones of higher earthquake activity, one of which is the Southeast China Coast seismic zone running through Guangdong and Fujian Provinces. This zone follows the South China Maritime Fold Belt, which was formed by a subduction event during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous epochs. The area is currently in a compressive stress regime with the maximum horizontal stress orientated northwest-southeast. This results from a combination of the continuing collision between the Indian and Eurasian Plates and the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate.

text: Guangdong Province

text: lies in a tectonically stable part of China, which has relatively low seismicity. The area forms part of the

text: passive margin

text: between the continental crust of China and the oceanic crust of the northern part of the

text: South China Sea

text: . Within the stable South China Block, there are three zones of higher earthquake activity, one of which is the Southeast China Coast seismic zone running through Guangdong and

text: Fujian

text: Provinces. This zone follows the South China Maritime Fold Belt, which was formed by a

text: subduction

text: event during the

text: Late Jurassic

text: to

text: Early Cretaceous

text: epochs. The area is currently in a compressive stress regime with the maximum horizontal stress orientated northwest-southeast. This results from a combination of the continuing

text: collision

text: between the

text: Indian

text: and

text: Eurasian Plate

text: s and the subduction of the

text: Philippine Sea Plate

text: Despite always being found in combination with the other rare earth elements in minerals such as monazite and bastnäsite, cerium is easy to extract from its ores, as it can be distinguished among the lanthanides by its unique ability to be oxidised to the +4 state. It is the most common of the lanthanides, followed by neodymium, lanthanum, and praseodymium. It is the 26th most abundant element, making up 66 ppm of the Earth's crust, half as much as chlorine and five times as much as lead.

text: Despite always being found in combination with the other rare earth elements in minerals such as

text: monazite

text: and

text: bastnäsite

text: , cerium is easy to extract from its ores, as it can be distinguished among the lanthanides by its unique ability to be oxidised to the +4 state. It is the most common of the lanthanides, followed by

text: neodymium

text: lanthanum

text: , and

text: praseodymium

text: . It is the 26th most

text: abundant element

text: , making up 66

text: ppm

text: of the Earth's crust, half as much as

text: chlorine

text: and five times as much as

text: lead

text: Some researchers, such as Michael Persinger of Laurentian University, Canada, have speculated that changes in geomagnetic fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or solar activity) could stimulate the brain's temporal lobes and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings. Sound is thought to be another cause of supposed sightings. Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to experience bizarre feelings in a room, such as anxiety, extreme sorrow, a feeling of being watched, or even the chills. Carbon monoxide poisoning, which can cause changes in perception of the visual and auditory systems, was speculated upon as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921.

text: Some researchers, such as

text: Michael Persinger

text: of

text: Laurentian University

text: , Canada, have speculated that changes in

text: geomagnetic

text: fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or

text: solar activity

text: ) could stimulate the brain's

text: temporal lobe

text: s and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings. Sound is thought to be another cause of supposed sightings. Richard Lord and

text: Richard Wiseman

text: have concluded that

text: infrasound

text: can cause humans to experience bizarre feelings in a room, such as anxiety, extreme sorrow, a feeling of being watched, or even the chills.

text: Carbon monoxide poisoning

text: , which can cause changes in perception of the visual and auditory systems, was speculated upon as a possible explanation for

text: haunted house

text: s as early as 1921.

text: Around 35 million years ago, a rift valley of about  long and  wide came into being between the present cities of Basle and Frankfurt.  This was due to tensile stresses in the Earth's crust and mantle, which resulted in lowering the earth's surface.  The moat has been partially filled up again by sedimentation.  On the edges we find mountain ridges, the so-called "rift flanks".  On the eastern side, they are the Black Forest and Odenwald mountains, in the west the Vosges and Palatinate Forest.  During the tertiary, the High Rhine continued west from Basle and flowed via the Doubs and the Saône, into the Rhône.  The rift diverted the Rhine into the newly formed Upper Rhine Valley.

text: Around 35 million years ago, a

text: rift valley

text: of about  long and  wide came into being between the present cities of Basle and

text: Frankfurt

text: .  This was due to tensile stresses in the

text: Earth's crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: , which resulted in lowering the earth's surface.  The moat has been partially filled up again by

text: sedimentation

text: .  On the edges we find mountain ridges, the so-called "rift flanks".  On the eastern side, they are the

text: Black Forest

text: and

text: Odenwald

text: mountains, in the west the

text: Vosges

text: and

text: Palatinate Forest

text: .  During the

text: tertiary

text: , the High Rhine continued west from Basle and flowed via the

text: Doubs

text: and the

text: Saône

text: , into the

text: Rhône

text: .  The rift diverted the Rhine into the newly formed

text: Upper Rhine Valley

text: Folds' personal life has inspired several of his songs; the hit single "Brick", co-written with Darren Jessee, was based on the experience of Folds' girlfriend having an abortion while they were in high school. Folds initially refused to discuss the story behind "Brick," thinking it was too serious for a pop song, but he eventually confirmed the inspiration for the song during a show on his Ben Folds Live tour. His telling of the story is included on the "Brick" track on the album.

text: The SCF offsets the older NNW striking Entiat, Ross Lake, and Chewack-Pasayten faults, but not certain younger features, the period of its strike-slip activity thus being bracketed between 47 and 41 million years ago (in the Eocene epoch), just after the wedge of crust now carrying the Olympic Mountains pushed into the continental margin.  It has been suggested that initiation of the SCF may be due to events on the Kula Plate.

text: The SCF offsets the older NNW striking Entiat, Ross Lake, and Chewack-Pasayten faults, but not certain younger features, the period of its strike-slip activity thus being bracketed between 47 and 41 million years ago (in the

text: Eocene

text: epoch), just after the wedge of crust now carrying the

text: Olympic Mountains

text: pushed into the continental margin.  It has been suggested that initiation of the SCF may be due to events on the

text: Kula Plate

text: The process of Earth's increase in atmospheric oxygen content is theorized to have started with continent-continent collision of huge land masses forming supercontinents, and therefore possibly supercontinent mountain ranges (supermountains). These supermountains would have eroded, and the mass amounts of nutrients, including iron and phosphorus, would have washed into oceans, just as we see happening today. The oceans would then be rich in nutrients essential to photosynthetic organisms, which would then be able to respire mass amounts of oxygen. (1: continents collide, 2: 'supermountains' form, 3: erosion of 'supermountains,' 4: large quantities of minerals and nutrients washed out to open ocean, 5: explosion of marine algae life (partly sourced from noted nutrients), and 6: mass amounts of oxygen produced during photosynthesis. There is an apparent direct relationship between orogeny and the atmospheric oxygen content). There is also evidence for increased sedimentation concurrent with the timing of these mass oxygenation events, meaning that the organic carbon and pyrite at these times were more likely to be buried beneath sediment and therefore unable to react with the free oxygen. This sustained the atmospheric oxygen increases.

text: The process of Earth's increase in atmospheric oxygen content is theorized to have started with continent-continent collision of huge land masses forming supercontinents, and therefore possibly supercontinent mountain ranges (supermountains). These supermountains would have eroded, and the mass amounts of nutrients, including

text: iron

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: , would have washed into oceans, just as we see happening today. The oceans would then be rich in nutrients essential to photosynthetic organisms, which would then be able to respire mass amounts of oxygen. (1: continents collide, 2: 'supermountains' form, 3: erosion of 'supermountains,' 4: large quantities of minerals and nutrients washed out to open ocean, 5: explosion of marine algae life (partly sourced from noted nutrients), and 6: mass amounts of oxygen produced during photosynthesis. There is an apparent direct relationship between orogeny and the atmospheric oxygen content). There is also evidence for increased sedimentation concurrent with the timing of these mass oxygenation events, meaning that the organic carbon and

text: pyrite

text: at these times were more likely to be buried beneath sediment and therefore unable to react with the free oxygen. This sustained the atmospheric oxygen increases.

text: In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the Chinese word for "U.S. national" is  () is derived from a word for the United States, , where  is an abbreviation for Yàměilìjiā ("America") and  is "country". The name for the American continents is , from  plus  ("continent"). Thus, a  is an American in the continent sense, and a  is an American in the U.S. sense.

text: In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the

text: Chinese

text: word for "U.S. national" is  () is derived from a word for the United States, , where  is an abbreviation for Yàměilìjiā ("America") and  is "country". The name for the American continents is , from  plus  ("continent"). Thus, a  is an American in the continent sense, and a  is an American in the U.S. sense.

text: The San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) consists of a main borehole that cuts across the active San Andreas Fault at a depth of approximately 3 km and a pilot hole about 2 km southwest of San Andreas Fault. Data from the instruments installed in the holes, which consist of geophone sensors, data acquisition systems, and GPS clocks, as well as samples collected during drilling, will help to better understand the processes that control the behavior of the San Andreas Fault.

text: The San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) consists of a main borehole that cuts across the active

text: San Andreas Fault

text: at a depth of approximately 3 km and a pilot hole about 2 km southwest of San Andreas Fault. Data from the instruments installed in the holes, which consist of

text: geophone

text: sensors, data acquisition systems, and GPS clocks, as well as samples collected during drilling, will help to better understand the processes that control the behavior of the San Andreas Fault.

text: If however, a large tract of ocean intervenes between the continental margin the subduction zone, a fully developed arc and back arc basin may eventually arrive and collide with the continental margin. Further convergence may lead to overthrusting of the volcanic arc assemblage and may be followed by flipping the subduction polarity.

text: The hippocampus contains high levels of glucocorticoid receptors, which make it more vulnerable to long-term stress than most other brain areas.  Stress-related steroids affect the hippocampus in at least three ways:  first, by reducing the excitability of some hippocampal neurons; second, by inhibiting the formation of new neurons in the dentate gyrus; third, by causing atrophy of dendrites in pyramidal cells of the CA3 region.  There is evidence that humans having experienced severe, long-lasting traumatic stress show atrophy of the hippocampus more than of other parts of the brain. These effects show up in post-traumatic stress disorder, and they may contribute to the hippocampal atrophy reported in schizophrenia and severe depression. A recent study has also revealed atrophy as a result of depression, but this can be stopped with anti-depressants even if they are not effective in relieving other symptoms. Hippocampal atrophy is also frequently seen in Cushing's syndrome, a disorder caused by high levels of cortisol in the bloodstream.  At least some of these effects appear to be reversible if the stress is discontinued.  There is, however, evidence derived mainly from studies using rats that stress occurring shortly after birth can affect hippocampal function in ways that persist throughout life.

text: The hippocampus contains high levels of

text: glucocorticoid receptor

text: s, which make it more vulnerable to long-term

text: stress

text: than most other

text: brain areas

text: Stress-related steroids

text: affect the hippocampus in at least three ways:  first, by reducing the

text: excitability

text: of some hippocampal neurons; second, by inhibiting the formation of new neurons in the dentate gyrus; third, by causing atrophy of dendrites in pyramidal cells of the CA3 region.  There is evidence that humans having experienced severe, long-lasting traumatic stress show atrophy of the hippocampus more than of other parts of the brain. These effects show up in

text: post-traumatic stress disorder

text: , and they may contribute to the hippocampal atrophy reported in

text: schizophrenia

text: and

text: severe depression

text: . A recent study has also revealed atrophy as a result of depression, but this can be stopped with anti-depressants even if they are not effective in relieving other symptoms. Hippocampal atrophy is also frequently seen in

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: , a disorder caused by high levels of

text: cortisol

text: in the bloodstream.  At least some of these effects appear to be reversible if the stress is discontinued.  There is, however, evidence derived mainly from studies using rats that stress occurring shortly after birth can affect hippocampal function in ways that persist throughout life.

text: Isostatic depression is the sinking of large parts of the Earth's crust into the asthenosphere. The sinking is caused by a heavy  weight placed on the Earth's surface. Often this is caused by the heavy weight of glacial ice due to continental glaciation. This is a process in which permanent ice places pressure on the Earth's crust, thereby depressing it with its weight. After continental glaciation has receded,  it is common for isostatic rebound to occur.

text: Isostatic depression is the sinking of large parts of the Earth's

text: crust

text: into the

text: asthenosphere

text: . The sinking is caused by a heavy  weight placed on the Earth's surface. Often this is caused by the heavy weight of

text: glacial ice

text: due to

text: continent

text: al

text: glaciation

text: . This is a process in which permanent ice places pressure on the Earth's crust, thereby depressing it with its weight. After continental glaciation has receded,  it is common for

text: isostatic rebound

text: to occur.

text: The Mohorovičić discontinuity (), usually referred to as the Moho, is the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle. Named after the pioneering Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovičić, the Moho separates both the oceanic crust and continental crust from underlying mantle. The Moho lies almost entirely within the lithosphere; only beneath mid-ocean ridges does it define the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary. The Mohorovičić discontinuity was first identified in 1909 by Mohorovičić, when he observed that seismograms from shallow-focus earthquakes had two sets of P-waves and S-waves, one that followed a direct path near the Earth's surface and the other refracted by a high-velocity medium.

text: The Mohorovičić discontinuity (), usually referred to as the Moho, is the boundary between the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: and the

text: mantle

text: . Named after the pioneering

text: Croatian

text: seismologist

text: Andrija Mohorovičić

text: , the Moho separates both the

text: oceanic crust

text: and

text: continental crust

text: from underlying mantle. The Moho lies almost entirely within the

text: lithosphere

text: ; only beneath

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s does it define the lithosphere–

text: asthenosphere

text: boundary. The Mohorovičić discontinuity was first identified in 1909 by Mohorovičić, when he observed that

text: seismogram

text: s from

text: shallow-focus

text: earthquake

text: s had two sets of

text: P-wave

text: s and

text: S-wave

text: s, one that followed a direct path near the Earth's surface and the other

text: refracted

text: by a high-velocity medium.

text: One method of avoiding stress fractures is to add more stress to the bones. Though this may seem counter-intuitive (because stress fractures are caused by too much stress on the bone), moderate stress applied to the bone in a controlled manner can strengthen the bone and make it less susceptible to a stress fracture. An easy way to do this is to follow the runner's rule of increasing distance by no more than 10 percent per week. This allows the bones to adapt to the added stress so they are able to withstand greater stress in the future.

text: Bombay Beach marks the southern end of the San Andreas fault.

text: Folds form under varied conditions of stress, hydrostatic pressure, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.

text: Folds form under varied conditions of

text: stress

text: hydrostatic pressure

text: pore pressure

text: , and

text: temperature gradient

text: , as evidenced by their presence in soft

text: sediments

text: , the full spectrum of

text: metamorphic rocks

text: , and even as primary flow structures in some

text: igneous rocks

text: . A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of

text: orogenic zones

text: . Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar

text: fault

text: (fault bend fold), at the tip of a propagating fault (fault propagation fold), by differential

text: compaction

text: or due to the effects of a high-level

text: igneous

text: intrusion

text: e.g. above a

text: laccolith

text: Silicon is a naturally occurring mineral and the second most abundant element in the earth's crust. In the soil, silicon attaches to soil colloids, helping to reduce compaction and making tied-up nutrients more available. Silicon also allows for a faster, more efficient movement of calcium and magnesium through the soil and readily ties up toxic elements, like aluminium, reducing metal toxicity. In the plant, silicon stengthens cell walls; improving plant strength, health, and productivity. Although not considered an essential element for plant growth and development, silicon is considered a beneficial element in many countries throughout the world due to its many benefits to numerous plant species when under abiotic or biotic stresses. Silicon is currently under consideration by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO) for elevation to the status of a "plant beneficial substance."

text: Silicon is a naturally occurring

text: mineral

text: and the second most abundant

text: element

text: in the earth's crust. In the

text: soil

text: , silicon attaches to soil

text: colloids

text: , helping to reduce compaction and making tied-up

text: nutrients

text: more available. Silicon also allows for a faster, more efficient movement of calcium and magnesium through the soil and readily ties up toxic elements, like

text: aluminium

text: , reducing metal toxicity. In the plant, silicon stengthens cell walls; improving plant strength, health, and productivity. Although not considered an essential element for plant growth and development, silicon is considered a beneficial element in many countries throughout the world due to its many benefits to numerous plant species when under

text: abiotic

text: or

text: biotic stress

text: es. Silicon is currently under consideration by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO) for elevation to the status of a "plant beneficial substance."

text: See the main article on faults for a fuller treatment of fault types and nomenclature but in brief, the main types are normal faults, reverse faults, thrusts or thrust faults and strike-slip faults.

text: See the

text: main article on faults

text: for a fuller treatment of fault types and nomenclature but in brief, the main types are normal faults, reverse faults, thrusts or thrust faults and strike-slip faults.

text: Physiographically the district, which lies in a region of tectonic or folded and overthrust mountain chains, has strata are structurally marked by complex folds, reverse faults, overthrusts and nappes of great dimensions, all these as well as frequent earthquake of varying intensity give region to believe that the region is still unstable. Although any movement or tremor of the Earth's crust in the district is not produced by volcanic activity, the Chaukhamba peak a pair to be the crater of an extinct volcano.

text: Also, many continents can consist of several continental cratons - blocks of crust built around an initial original core of continents, that gradually grew and expanded as additional newly created terranes were added to their edges. For instance, Pangea consisted of most of the Earth's continents being accreted into one giant supercontinent. Most continents indeed have several continental cratons, in other words they are made up of the accretion of many smaller continents, such as Asia, Africa, and Europe.

text: Also, many continents can consist of several continental

text: craton

text: s - blocks of crust built around an initial original core of continents, that gradually grew and expanded as additional newly created terranes were added to their edges. For instance,

text: Pangea

text: consisted of most of the Earth's continents being accreted into one giant

text: supercontinent

text: . Most continents indeed have several continental cratons, in other words they are made up of the accretion of many smaller continents, such as

text: Asia

text: Africa

text: , and

text: Europe

text: The sedimentary cover in the SE Zagros is deforming above a layer of rock salt (acting as a ductile decollement with a low basal friction) whereas in the NW Zagros the salt layer is missing or is very thin. This different basal friction partly made different topographies in either sides of Kazerun fault. Higher topography and narrower zone of deformation in the NW Zagros is observed whereas in the SE, deformation was spread more and wider zone of deformation with lower topography was formed. Stresses induced in the Earth's crust by the collision caused extensive folding of the preexisting layered sedimentary rocks. Subsequent erosion removed softer rocks, such as mudstone (rock formed by consolidated mud) and siltstone (a slightly coarser-grained mudstone) while leaving harder rocks, such as limestone (calcium-rich rock consisting of the remains of marine organisms) and dolomite (rocks similar to limestone containing calcium and magnesium). This differential erosion formed the linear ridges of the Zagros Mountains.

text: The sedimentary cover in the SE Zagros is deforming above a layer of rock salt (acting as a

text: ductile

text: decollement

text: with a low basal

text: friction

text: ) whereas in the NW Zagros the salt layer is missing or is very thin. This different basal friction partly made different topographies in either sides of Kazerun fault. Higher topography and narrower zone of deformation in the NW Zagros is observed whereas in the SE, deformation was spread more and wider zone of deformation with lower topography was formed. Stresses induced in the Earth's crust by the collision caused extensive folding of the preexisting layered

text: sedimentary rock

text: s. Subsequent erosion removed softer rocks, such as

text: mudstone

text: (rock formed by consolidated mud) and

text: siltstone

text: (a slightly coarser-grained mudstone) while leaving harder rocks, such as

text: limestone

text: (calcium-rich rock consisting of the remains of marine organisms) and

text: dolomite

text: (rocks similar to limestone containing

text: calcium

text: and

text: magnesium

text: ). This differential

text: erosion

text: formed the linear ridges of the Zagros Mountains.

text: In the Just Another Band from L.A. (1972) recording, during the tornado sequence, the song alludes to The Wizard of Oz (1939) and the musical number "Over the Rainbow", which is sung by Howard Kaylan's character, while Mark Volman calls out for "Toto". Towards the middle of the recording, the band breaks out into a parody of the coda of the Crosby, Stills, and Nash song "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes", substituting the original Spanish lyrics with a series of rumors about the life of Studebacher Hoch. The famous "doot doot" backing vocals remain intact. Early in the song, we learn that Billy causes an "O Mein Papa" in the Earth's crust, a reference to Eddie Fisher who was known for his rendition of that well-known German song. The allusion is to be read, then, as "Billy causes a fissure in the Earth's crust."

text: In the

text: Just Another Band from L.A.

text: (1972) recording, during the tornado sequence, the song alludes to

text: The Wizard of Oz

text: (1939) and the musical number "

text: Over the Rainbow

text: ", which is sung by

text: Howard Kaylan

text: 's character, while

text: Mark Volman

text: calls out for "

text: Toto

text: ". Towards the middle of the recording, the band breaks out into a parody of the

text: coda

text: of the

text: Crosby, Stills, and Nash

text: song "

text: Suite: Judy Blue Eyes

text: ", substituting the original Spanish lyrics with a series of rumors about the life of Studebacher Hoch. The famous "doot doot" backing vocals remain intact. Early in the song, we learn that Billy causes an

text: "O Mein Papa"

text: in the Earth's crust, a reference to

text: Eddie Fisher

text: who was known for his rendition of that well-known German song. The allusion is to be read, then, as "Billy causes a fissure in the Earth's crust."

text: According to Rino and co-workers, the sum of the continental crust formed in the Pan-African orogeny and the Grenville orogeny makes the Neoproterozoic the period of Earth's history that has produced most continental crust.

text: According to Rino and co-workers, the sum of the

text: continental crust

text: formed in the

text: Pan-African orogeny

text: and the

text: Grenville orogeny

text: makes the Neoproterozoic the period of Earth's history that has produced most continental crust.

text: Early in the Ordovician, the continents of Laurentia (in present-day North America), Siberia, and Baltica (present-day northern Europe) were still independent continents (since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but Baltica began to move towards Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean between them to shrink. The small continent Avalonia separated from Gondwana and began to move north towards Baltica and Laurentia, opening the Rheic Ocean between Gondwana and Avalonia.

text: Early in the Ordovician, the continents of

text: Laurentia

text: (in present-day

text: North America

text: Siberia

text: , and

text: Baltica

text: (present-day northern Europe) were still independent continents (since the break-up of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pannotia

text: earlier), but Baltica began to move towards Laurentia later in the period, causing the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: between them to shrink. The small continent

text: Avalonia

text: separated from Gondwana and began to move north towards Baltica and Laurentia, opening the

text: Rheic Ocean

text: between Gondwana and Avalonia.

text: In geology, a rift is a linear zone where the Earth's crust and lithosphere are being pulled apart and is an example of extensional tectonics.

text: In

text: geology

text: , a rift is a linear zone where the

text: Earth's

text: crust

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: are being pulled apart and is an example of

text: extensional tectonics

text: The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment. However, it is thought that it was basaltic in composition, like today's oceanic crust, because little crustal differentiation had yet taken place. The first larger pieces of continental crust, which is a product of differentiation of lighter elements during partial melting in the lower crust, appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 Ga. What is left of these first small continents are called cratons. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.

text: The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment. However, it is thought that it was

text: basalt

text: ic in composition, like today's

text: oceanic crust

text: , because little crustal differentiation had yet taken place. The first larger pieces of

text: continental crust

text: , which is a product of differentiation of lighter elements during

text: partial melting

text: in the lower crust, appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 Ga. What is left of these first small continents are called

text: craton

text: s. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.

text: A rift is a region where the lithosphere extends as two parts of the Earth's crust pull apart.Often a rift will form in an area of the crust that is already weakened by earlier geological activity.  Extensional faults form parallel to the axis of the rift.An extensional fault may be seen as a crack in the crust that extends down at an angle to the vertical.  As the two sides pull apart, the hanging wall ("hanging over" the sloping fault) will move downward relative to the footwall.The crust thins and sinks, forming a rift basin.  Warm mantle material wells up, melting the crust and often causing volcanoes to emerge in the rift basin.

text: A rift is a region where the

text: lithosphere

text: extends as two parts of the Earth's

text: crust

text: pull apart.Often a rift will form in an area of the crust that is already weakened by earlier geological activity.

text: Extensional fault

text: s form parallel to the axis of the rift.An extensional fault may be seen as a crack in the crust that extends down at an angle to the vertical.  As the two sides pull apart, the hanging wall ("hanging over" the sloping fault) will move downward relative to the footwall.The crust thins and sinks, forming a rift basin.  Warm mantle material wells up, melting the crust and often causing volcanoes to emerge in the rift basin.

text: During subduction, an oceanic plate is thrust below another tectonic plate, which may be oceanic or continental. Water and other volatiles in the down-going plate cause flux melting in the upper mantle, creating magma that rises and penetrates the overriding plate, forming a volcanic arc. The weight of the down-going slab flexes the down-going plate creating an oceanic trench. The area between the trench and the arc is the forearc region, and the area behind the arc (i.e. on the side away from the trench) is the back-arc region.

text: During

text: subduction

text: , an

text: oceanic

text: plate is thrust below another tectonic plate, which may be oceanic or

text: continental

text: . Water and other volatiles in the down-going plate cause

text: flux melting

text: in the upper mantle, creating magma that rises and penetrates the overriding plate, forming a

text: volcanic arc

text: . The weight of the down-going slab flexes the down-going plate creating an

text: oceanic trench

text: . The area between the trench and the arc is the forearc region, and the area behind the arc (i.e. on the side away from the trench) is the

text: back-arc region

text: In detail many strike-slip faults at surface consist of en echelon and/or braided segments in many cases probably inherited from previously formed Riedel shears. In cross-section the displacements are dominantly reverse or normal in type depending on whether the overall fault geometry is transpressional (i.e. with a small component of shortening) or transtensional (with a small component of extension). As the faults tend to join downwards onto a single strand in basement, the geometry has led to these being termed flower structure. Fault zones with dominantly reverse faulting are known as positive flowers, those with dominantly normal offsets are known as negative flowers. The identification of such structures, particularly where positive and negative flowers are developed on different segments of the same fault, are regarded as reliable indicators of strike-slip.

text: In detail many strike-slip faults at surface consist of en echelon and/or braided segments in many cases probably inherited from previously formed Riedel shears. In cross-section the displacements are dominantly reverse or normal in type depending on whether the overall fault geometry is

text: transpression

text: al (i.e. with a small component of shortening) or

text: transtension

text: al (with a small component of extension). As the faults tend to join downwards onto a single strand in basement, the geometry has led to these being termed flower structure. Fault zones with dominantly reverse faulting are known as positive flowers, those with dominantly normal offsets are known as negative flowers. The identification of such structures, particularly where positive and negative flowers are developed on different segments of the same fault, are regarded as reliable indicators of strike-slip.

text: Workplace bullying is reported to be far more prevalent than perhaps commonly thought. For some reason, workplace bullying seems to be particularly widespread in healthcare organizations; 80% of nurses report experiencing workplace bullying. Similar to the school environment for children, the work environment typically places groups of adult peers together in a shared space on a regular basis. In such a situation, social interactions and relationships are of great importance to the function of the organizational structure and in pursuing goals. The emotional consequences of bullying put an organization at risk of losing victimized employees. Bullying also contributes to a negative work environment, is not conducive to necessary cooperation and can lessen productivity at various levels. Bullying in the workplace is associated with negative responses to stress. The ability to manage emotions, especially emotional stress, seems to be a consistently important factor in different types of bullying. The workplace in general can be a stressful environment, so a negative way of coping with stress or an inability to do so can be particularly damning. Workplace bullies may have high social intelligence and low emotional intelligence (EI). In this context, bullies tend to rank high on the social ladder and are adept at influencing others. The combination of high social intelligence and low empathy is conducive to manipulative behavior, such that Hutchinson (2013) describes workplace bullying to be. In working groups where employees have low EI, workers can be persuaded to engage in unethical behavior. With the bullies' persuasion, the work group is socialized in a way that rationalizes the behavior, and makes the group tolerant or supportive of the bullying. Hutchinson & Hurley (2013) make the case that EI and leadership skills are both necessary to bullying intervention in the workplace, and illustrates the relationship between EI, leadership and reductions in bullying. EI and ethical behavior among other members of the work team have been shown to have a significant impact on ethical behavior of nursing teams. Higher EI is linked to improvements in the work environment and is an important moderator between conflict and reactions to conflict in the workplace. The self-awareness and self-management dimensions of EI have both been illustrated to have strong positive correlations with effective leadership and the specific leadership ability to build healthy work environments and work culture.

text: Workplace bullying is reported to be far more prevalent than perhaps commonly thought. For some reason, workplace bullying seems to be particularly widespread in healthcare organizations; 80% of nurses report experiencing workplace bullying. Similar to the school environment for children, the work environment typically places groups of adult peers together in a shared space on a regular basis. In such a situation, social interactions and relationships are of great importance to the function of the

text: organizational structure

text: and in pursuing

text: goal

text: s. The emotional consequences of bullying put an organization at risk of losing victimized employees. Bullying also contributes to a negative work environment, is not conducive to necessary cooperation and can lessen productivity at various levels. Bullying in the workplace is associated with negative responses to stress. The ability to manage emotions, especially emotional

text: stress

text: , seems to be a consistently important factor in different types of bullying. The workplace in general can be a stressful environment, so a negative way of

text: coping

text: with stress or an inability to do so can be particularly damning. Workplace bullies may have high

text: social intelligence

text: and low

text: emotional intelligence

text: (EI). In this context, bullies tend to rank high on the social ladder and are adept at

text: influencing

text: others. The combination of high social intelligence and low empathy is conducive to

text: manipulative

text: behavior, such that Hutchinson (2013) describes workplace bullying to be. In working groups where employees have low EI, workers can be

text: persuaded

text: to engage in unethical behavior. With the bullies' persuasion, the work group is socialized in a way that

text: rationalizes

text: the behavior, and makes the group tolerant or supportive of the bullying. Hutchinson & Hurley (2013) make the case that EI and

text: leadership

text: skills are both necessary to bullying intervention in the workplace, and illustrates the relationship between EI, leadership and reductions in bullying. EI and ethical behavior among other members of the work team have been shown to have a significant impact on ethical behavior of nursing teams. Higher EI is linked to improvements in the work environment and is an important moderator between conflict and reactions to conflict in the workplace. The

text: self-awareness

text: and self-management dimensions of EI have both been illustrated to have strong positive correlations with effective leadership and the specific leadership ability to build healthy work environments and work culture.

text: Authentic paint craquelure occurs because paint dries and becomes less flexible as it ages and shrinks. In the case of paintings on canvas, the canvas slackens as it ages as it cannot endure the long-term stress of stretching. Paint at the center of a painting is the least cracked, whereas paint at the edges is the most cracked, or stressed. The precise pattern of craquelure depends on where, when, and under what conditions the picture was painted, and subsequently kept.  Cracks caused by stretching or slackening the canvas are quite different from cracks due to other factors, such as drying and ageing of the paint. The paint cracks when the stress upon it is greater than the breaking stress point of the paint layer and the paint will crack approximately at right-angles to the direction of the stress, relieving that stress. The stress at the corners is more than double that of the center.

text: The boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle (the Moho) rises from  between the Agulhas Bank (south of South Africa) and the Agulhas passage (south of the bank), typical for a continent-ocean transition.  The Agulhas Passage consists of 120-160 Ma-old oceanic crust, whereas the 100-80 Ma-old Agulhas Plateau rises  above the surrounding ocean floor while the Moho dips to between  below it.

text: The boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle (the

text: Moho

text: ) rises from  between the

text: Agulhas Bank

text: (south of South Africa) and the Agulhas passage (south of the bank), typical for a

text: continent-ocean transition

text: .  The

text: Agulhas Passage

text: consists of 120-160 Ma-old oceanic crust, whereas the 100-80 Ma-old Agulhas Plateau rises  above the surrounding ocean floor while the Moho dips to between  below it.

text: Although a few mineral grains are known to be Hadean, the oldest rock formations exposed on the surface of the Earth are Archean or slightly older. Archean rocks are found in Greenland, the Canadian Shield, Montana and Wyoming (exposed parts of the Wyoming Craton), the Baltic Shield, Scotland, India, Brazil, western Australia, and southern Africa. Although the first continents formed during this eon, rock of this age makes up only 7% of the present world's cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, evidence suggests that continental crust equivalent to only 5-40% of the amount formed during the Archean.

text: Although a few mineral grains are known to be

text: Hadean

text: , the oldest rock formations exposed on the surface of the

text: Earth

text: are Archean or slightly older. Archean rocks are found in

text: Greenland

text: , the

text: Canadian Shield

text: Montana

text: and

text: Wyoming

text: (exposed parts of the

text: Wyoming Craton

text: ), the

text: Baltic Shield

text: Scotland

text: India

text: Brazil

text: , western

text: Australia

text: , and southern

text: Africa

text: . Although the first

text: continents

text: formed during this eon, rock of this age makes up only 7% of the present world's

text: craton

text: s; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, evidence suggests that continental

text: crust

text: equivalent to only 5-40% of the amount formed during the Archean.

text: As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the African Plate includes the continent and parts of the floor of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea-floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through arc volcanism and accretion of terranes through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain ophiolite sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("mafic") than continental crust ("felsic"). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below sea level (for example most of the Pacific Plate), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page isostasy for explanation of this principle).

text: As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the

text: African Plate

text: includes the continent and parts of the floor of the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Indian

text: Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea-floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through

text: arc volcanism

text: and

text: accretion

text: of

text: terrane

text: s through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain

text: ophiolite

text: sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("

text: mafic

text: ") than continental crust ("

text: felsic

text: "). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below

text: sea level

text: (for example most of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: ), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page

text: isostasy

text: for explanation of this principle).

text: Continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, although South America was approaching the western subduction zone in the Pacific Ocean, causing both the rise of the Andes and a southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula.

text: Continents continued to

text: drift

text: toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between

text: South America

text: and

text: North America

text: was absent, although South America was approaching the western

text: subduction zone

text: in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , causing both the rise of the

text: Andes

text: and a southward extension of the

text: Meso-American

text: peninsula.

text: Much of the Lizard peninsula is known for its botany and geology, and about 375 million years ago the molten rock, which eventually became the Lizard, was about 10 km below the surface of the earth and under immense heat and pressure. One of the rocks (peridotite) is rich in magnesium and iron, and changed through heat and pressure to serpentinite as it pushed upwards from the Moho, the boundary of the earth's crust and mantle. It finally reached the crust's surface, about 30° south of the equator as part of an ocean ridge, in the Rheic Ocean. Over the next 80 million years the Rheic Ocean disappeared and the mass of rock heads north crossing the equator about 250 million years ago. The Tropic of Cancer is passed less than 100 million years ago and the rock, which becomes the Lizard, finally reached 50° north at about the start of the last Ice Age. There are two types of serpentine at Kynance: bastite and tremolite. The rocks at the car park, cliffs to the south and the path to the cove are bastite serpentine, which is the primary serpentine on the Lizard. The rock is coarse-grained with large shiny crystals of bastite which give a flecked appearance. The islands and stacks within the cove and the valley are of tremolite serpentine which is fine-grained and banded. Tremolite is different to the bastite serpentine because it was subject to higher pressure within the crust. Kynance Cove is an important site for geologists because of the exposures of the two types of ophiolitic serpentinite, together with granite and gneiss pods within the serpentine. The area has been designated as a Geological Conservation Review site.

text: Much of the Lizard peninsula is known for its

text: botany

text: and

text: geology

text: , and about 375 million years ago the molten rock, which eventually became the Lizard, was about 10 km below the surface of the earth and under immense heat and pressure. One of the rocks (

text: peridotite

text: ) is rich in

text: magnesium

text: and

text: iron

text: , and changed through heat and pressure to

text: serpentinite

text: as it pushed upwards from the

text: Moho

text: , the boundary of the earth's

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: . It finally reached the crust's surface, about 30° south of the

text: equator

text: as part of an

text: ocean ridge

text: , in the

text: Rheic Ocean

text: . Over the next 80 million years the Rheic Ocean disappeared and the mass of rock heads north crossing the equator about 250 million years ago. The

text: Tropic of Cancer

text: is passed less than 100 million years ago and the rock, which becomes the Lizard, finally reached 50° north at about the start of the last

text: Ice Age

text: . There are two types of serpentine at Kynance: bastite and tremolite. The rocks at the car park, cliffs to the south and the path to the cove are bastite serpentine, which is the primary serpentine on the Lizard. The rock is coarse-grained with large shiny crystals of bastite which give a flecked appearance. The islands and stacks within the cove and the valley are of tremolite serpentine which is fine-grained and banded. Tremolite is different to the bastite serpentine because it was subject to higher pressure within the crust. Kynance Cove is an important site for geologists because of the exposures of the two types of

text: ophiolitic

text: serpentinite, together with granite and gneiss pods within the serpentine. The area has been designated as a

text: Geological Conservation Review

text: site.

text: Near the southeast corner of the quadrangle (37° N, 225° E) lies a southward sloping, semicircular block of ancient, heavily cratered, highland crust that is dissected by numerous, arcuate troughs (Acheron Fossae). The troughs are grabens, structures formed when the crust moves downward between two faults. Grabens form in areas where the crust has undergone extensional stress. The Acheron Fossae region is partially covered by volcanic deposits from Alba Mons in the east, geologically young basaltic lava flows or sediments in the west and southeast, and the jumbled, furrowed terrain of Lycus Sulci in the south.

text: Near the southeast corner of the quadrangle (37° N, 225° E) lies a southward sloping, semicircular block of ancient, heavily cratered, highland crust that is dissected by numerous,

text: arcuate

text: troughs (

text: Acheron Fossae

text: ). The troughs are grabens, structures formed when the crust moves downward between two faults.

text: Graben

text: s form in areas where the crust has undergone extensional stress. The Acheron Fossae region is partially covered by volcanic deposits from Alba Mons in the east, geologically young

text: basalt

text: ic lava flows or sediments in the west and southeast, and the jumbled, furrowed terrain of Lycus Sulci in the south.

text: The Great Glen Fault is a long strike-slip (transcurrent) fault that runs through its namesake the Great Glen (Glen Albyn) in Scotland.

text: The Great Glen Fault is a long

text: strike-slip (transcurrent) fault

text: that runs through its namesake the

text: Great Glen

text: (Glen Albyn) in

text: Scotland

text: In 1966, Jordan published the 182 page work Die Expansion der Erde. Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Gravitationshypothese (The expansion of the Earth. Conclusions from the Dirac gravitation hypothesis) in which he developed his theory that, according to Paul Dirac's hypothesis of a steady weakening of gravitation throughout the history of the universe, the Earth may have swollen to its current size, from an initial ball of a diameter of only about . This theory could explain why the ductile lower sima layer of the Earth's crust is of a comparatively uniform thickness, while the brittle upper sial layer of the Earth's crust had broken apart into the main continental plates. The continents having to adapt to the ever flatter surface of the growing ball, the mountain ranges on the Earth's surface would, in the course of that, have come into being as constricted folds. Despite the energy Jordan invested in the expanding Earth theory, his geological work was never taken seriously by either physicists or geologists.

text: In 1966, Jordan published the 182 page work Die Expansion der Erde. Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Gravitationshypothese (The expansion of the Earth. Conclusions from the Dirac gravitation hypothesis) in which he developed his theory that, according to

text: Paul Dirac's hypothesis

text: of a steady weakening of

text: gravitation

text: throughout the history of the universe, the

text: Earth

text: may have swollen to its current size, from an initial ball of a diameter of only about . This theory could explain why the

text: ductile

text: lower

text: sima

text: layer of the

text: Earth's crust

text: is of a comparatively uniform thickness, while the brittle upper

text: sial

text: layer of the Earth's crust had broken apart into the main

text: continental plates

text: . The continents having to adapt to the ever flatter surface of the growing ball, the mountain ranges on the Earth's surface would, in the course of that, have come into being as constricted folds. Despite the energy Jordan invested in the expanding Earth theory, his geological work was never taken seriously by either physicists or geologists.

text: The Knobs are part of the same structural fold of the earth’s crust that continues to the north as Champe Knobs (with its Champe Rocks and Yellow Rocks) and to the south as River Hill and (in Virginia) Lantz Mountain.

text: The Knobs are part of the same structural fold of the earth’s crust that continues to the north as Champe Knobs (with its

text: Champe Rocks

text: and Yellow Rocks) and to the south as River Hill and (in

text: Virginia

text: Lantz Mountain

text: At the beginning of the Palaeogene period of the Cenozoic era (66 to 23.8 million years ago) the formation of the Alps led to considerable tensions in the earth's crust, which, in their forelands to the north of the Alps, caused a bulge in the mantle and crust. At the apex of the arch so formed, there were considerable tensile stresses, so that the rock layers were stretched and about 35 million years ago, deep cracks and depressions in the earth's crust occurred (passive rifting). At the same time the sides of the newly created lowlands were uplifted, in the case of the Palatinate Forest, to a height of about 1000 metres.

text: At the beginning of the

text: Palaeogene

text: period of the

text: Cenozoic

text: era (66 to 23.8 million years ago) the formation of the

text: Alps

text: led to considerable tensions in the

text: earth's crust

text: , which, in their forelands to the north of the Alps, caused a bulge in the

text: mantle

text: and crust. At the apex of the arch so formed, there were considerable tensile stresses, so that the rock layers were stretched and about 35 million years ago, deep cracks and depressions in the earth's crust occurred (passive

text: rift

text: ing). At the same time the sides of the newly created lowlands were uplifted, in the case of the Palatinate Forest, to a height of about 1000 metres.

text: A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled to form a solid. The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have assembled and broken apart. Roughly  (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart .

text: A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled

text: to form

text: a solid. The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by

text: plate tectonics

text: , a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. On

text: time scales

text: lasting hundreds of millions of years, the

text: supercontinent

text: s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly  (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents,

text: Rodinia

text: , began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form

text: Pannotia

text: , 600–, then finally

text: Pangaea

text: , which also broke apart .

text: San Francisco Bay is thought to represent a down-warping of the Earth's crust between the San Andreas Fault to the west and the Hayward Fault to the east, though the precise nature of this remains under study. During the last ice age, the basin now filled by the bay was a large linear valley with small hills, similar to most of the valleys of the Coast Ranges. The rivers of the Central Valley ran out to sea through a canyon that is now the Golden Gate. As the great ice sheets melted, sea level rose  over 4,000 years, and the valley filled with water from the Pacific, becoming a bay. The small hills became islands.

text: San Francisco Bay is thought to represent a down-warping of the Earth's crust between the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: to the west and the

text: Hayward Fault

text: to the east, though the precise nature of this remains under study. During the

text: last ice age

text: , the basin now filled by the bay was a large linear valley with small hills, similar to most of the valleys of the

text: Coast Ranges

text: . The rivers of the Central Valley ran out to sea through a canyon that is now the Golden Gate. As the great ice sheets melted, sea level rose  over 4,000 years, and the valley filled with water from the Pacific, becoming a bay. The small hills became islands.

text: Dolenko G.N., 1984. Origin of petroleum and its accumulation in the Earth's crust. - Kiev, Naukova Dumka Publ. - 135 p. (in Russian)

text: The station is currently the home base for two permanent monitoring projects: continual geodetic measurement using GPS technology, run by the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, and a seismograph that records movements in the earth’s crust, run by the German Alfred Wegener Institute.

text: The station is currently the home base for two permanent monitoring projects: continual

text: geodetic

text: measurement using

text: GPS technology

text: , run by the

text: Royal Institute of Technology

text: in

text: Stockholm

text: , and a

text: seismograph

text: that records movements in the earth’s crust, run by the

text: German

entity_name: Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research

text: Alfred Wegener Institute

text: Within the Precambrian rocks beneath and just west of the center of the basin lies a generally north to northwest trending linear feature that appears to be an ancient rift in the Earth's crust. This rift appears to be contiguous with the rift zone under Lake Superior. This, the Midcontinent Rift System, turns west under Lake Superior and then southwest through southern Minnesota, central and western Iowa and on through southeastern Nebraska and into eastern Kansas.

text: Within the Precambrian rocks beneath and just west of the center of the basin lies a generally north to northwest trending linear feature that appears to be an ancient

text: rift

text: in the Earth's

text: crust

text: . This rift appears to be contiguous with the rift zone under

text: Lake Superior

text: . This, the

text: Midcontinent Rift System

text: , turns west under Lake Superior and then southwest through southern

text: Minnesota

text: , central and western

text: Iowa

text: and on through southeastern

text: Nebraska

text: and into eastern

text: Kansas

text: However the failure of the strike was not solely from violence, well-organized public relations, or the failing morale of the strikers. Right before the Little Steel strike began, the economy had slipped back into a slight depression, causing less demand for steel. Fewer employees were needed to satisfy the decreased demand. The SWOC was not able to use lost profits as a bargaining tool. It was aggressive strike breaking tactics from Little Steel, lack of organization from SWOC, and demoralized unionists that made the strike end by the end of the summer of 1937 with the companies victorious.

text: A geologic or geomorphic province is a spatial entity with common geologic or geomorphic attributes. A province may include a single dominant structural element such as a basin or a fold belt, or a number of contiguous related elements.  Adjoining provinces may be similar in structure but be considered separate due to differing histories.

text: A geologic or geomorphic province is a spatial entity with common

text: geologic

text: or

text: geomorphic

text: attributes. A province may include a single dominant structural element such as a

text: basin

text: or a

text: fold belt

text: , or a number of contiguous related elements.  Adjoining provinces may be similar in structure but be considered separate due to differing

text: histories

text: In plate tectonics theory during the breakup of a continent, three divergent boundaries form, radiating out from a central point (the triple junction). One of these divergent plate boundaries fails (see aulacogen) and the other two continue spreading to form an ocean. The opening of the south Atlantic Ocean started at the south of the South American and African continents, reaching a triple junction in the present Gulf of Guinea, from where it continued to the west. The NE-trending Benue Trough is the failed arm of this junction.

text: In

text: plate tectonics

text: theory during the breakup of a continent, three divergent boundaries form, radiating out from a central point (the triple junction). One of these divergent plate boundaries fails (see

text: aulacogen

text: ) and the other two continue spreading to form an ocean. The

text: opening

text: of the south

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: started at the south of the

text: South America

text: n and

text: Africa

text: n continents, reaching a triple junction in the present

text: Gulf of Guinea

text: , from where it continued to the west. The NE-trending

text: Benue Trough

text: is the failed arm of this junction.

text: The 1997 Manyi earthquake (玛尼地震) occurred on November 8 at 10:02 UTC. The epicenter was in Nagqu Prefecture (那曲地區) in northern Tibet, China. The focal mechanism indicates a lift-lateral strike-slip movement. This earthquake had a surface rupture of  long with up to  of left-lateral slip along the Manyi fault, a westward continuation of the Kunlun fault, offset about  to the south. Normally, the continental crust is about  thick, but it reaches  thick under the Tibetan Plateau. This earthquake ruptured up to  of the top part of the local continental crust.

text: The 1997 Manyi earthquake (玛尼地震) occurred on November 8 at 10:02 UTC. The epicenter was in

text: Nagqu Prefecture

text: (那曲地區) in northern

text: Tibet

text: China

text: . The focal mechanism indicates a lift-lateral strike-slip movement. This earthquake had a surface rupture of  long with up to  of left-lateral slip along the Manyi fault, a westward continuation of the

text: Kunlun fault

text: , offset about  to the south. Normally, the

text: continental crust

text: is about  thick, but it reaches  thick under the Tibetan Plateau. This earthquake ruptured up to  of the top part of the local continental crust.

text: Tilted block faulting, also called rotational block faulting, is a mode of structural evolution in extensional tectonic events, a result of tectonic plates stretching apart. When the upper lithospheric crust experiences extensional pressures, the brittle crust fractures, creating detachment faults. These normal faults express themselves on a regional scale; upper crust fractures into tilted fault blocks, and ductile lower crust ascends. This results in uplift, cooling, and exhumation of ductily deformed deeper crust. The large unit of tilted blocks and associated crust can help form an integral part of metamorphic core complexes and can occur on both continental and oceanic crust.

text: Tilted block faulting, also called rotational block faulting, is a mode of structural evolution in

text: extensional tectonic

text: events, a result of tectonic plates stretching apart. When the upper

text: lithospheric

text: crust experiences extensional pressures, the brittle crust fractures, creating

text: detachment fault

text: s. These normal

text: fault

text: s express themselves on a regional scale; upper crust fractures into tilted fault blocks, and

text: ductile

text: lower crust ascends. This results in uplift, cooling, and exhumation of ductily deformed deeper crust. The large unit of tilted blocks and associated crust can help form an integral part of

text: metamorphic core complexes

text: and can occur on both continental and oceanic crust.

text: The crust ranges from 5–70 km (~3–44 miles) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense  (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories –  sial and sima (Suess,1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is most commonly known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.

text: The crust ranges from 5–70 km (~3–44 miles) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the

text: oceanic crust

text: , which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense  (

text: mafic

text: ) iron magnesium

text: silicate

text: igneous rock

text: s, like

text: basalt

text: . The thicker crust is

text: continental crust

text: , which is less dense and composed of (

text: felsic

text: sodium

text: potassium

text: aluminium

text: silicate rocks, like

text: granite

text: . The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories –  sial and sima (Suess,1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the

text: Conrad discontinuity

text: (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the

text: lithosphere

text: . The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the

text: seismic

text: velocity, which is most commonly known as the

text: Mohorovičić discontinuity

text: or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing

text: plagioclase feldspar

text: (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a

text: chemical

text: discontinuity between

text: ultramafic

text: cumulates and tectonized

text: harzburgite

text: s, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been

text: obducted

text: onto the continental crust and preserved as

text: ophiolite sequences

text: The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information. During times of stress, the body reacts by secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage.  Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs memory, but in a few cases can enhance it. In particular, the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting memory is the glucocorticoids (GCs), the most notable of which is cortisol. Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through negative feedback because it has many receptors that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.

text: The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity to

text: encode

text: memory

text: and the ability to retrieve information. During times of

text: stress

text: , the body reacts by secreting

text: stress hormone

text: s into the bloodstream. Stress can cause acute and chronic changes in certain brain areas which can cause long-term damage.  Over-secretion of stress hormones most frequently impairs memory, but in a few cases can enhance it. In particular, the

text: hippocampus

text: prefrontal cortex

text: and the amygdala are affected. One class of stress hormone responsible for negatively affecting memory is the

text: glucocorticoids

text: (GCs), the most notable of which is

text: cortisol

text: . Glucocorticoids facilitate and impair the actions of stress in the brain memory process. Cortisol is a known biomarker for stress. Under normal circumstances, the hippocampus regulates the production of cortisol through

text: negative feedback

text: because it has many

text: receptors

text: that are sensitive to these stress hormones. However, an excess of cortisol can impair the ability of the hippocampus to both encode and recall memories. These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to surrounding muscles.

text: This effect is not restricted to astronauts in space; a climber's time is passing slightly faster at the top of a mountain (a high altitude, farther from the Earth's center of gravity) compared to people at sea level. It has also been calculated that due to time dilation, the core of the Earth is 2.5 years younger than the crust.

text: This effect is not restricted to astronauts in space; a climber's time is passing slightly faster at the top of a mountain (a high altitude, farther from the Earth's center of gravity) compared to people at sea level. It has also been calculated that due to time dilation, the

text: core of the Earth

text: is 2.5 years younger than the

text: crust

text: The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "Great Global Rift". This was described in the crucial paper of Bruce Heezen (1960), which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. Therefore, Heezen advocated the so-called "expanding Earth" hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). So, still the question remained: how can new crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the Earth? In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the forties and the fifties, like Arthur Holmes, Vening-Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so-called "subduction" occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early sixties started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place.

text: The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "

text: Great Global Rift

text: ". This was described in the crucial paper of

text: Bruce Heezen

text: (1960), which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. Therefore, Heezen advocated the so-called "

text: expanding Earth

text: " hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). So, still the question remained: how can new crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the Earth? In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the forties and the fifties, like Arthur Holmes, Vening-Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so-called "subduction" occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early sixties started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place.

text: When the body undergoes a stressful situation, the stress hormone cortisol is released. Cortisol helps the body prepare for stressful and dangerous situation. It gives a quick burst of energy, heightened memory and lower sensitivity to pain, among other things. When cortisol is present in the body at high levels and for extended periods of time, however, the body’s immune response may be suppressed. This leaves the developing bodies of children extremely vulnerable to damage and illness.  Cortisol is usually bound to proteins in adults. The protein is called the corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG). In newborn babies, CBGs remain low and increase during the first six months after birth. Therefore, as the amount of CBGs increase, more cortisol becomes bound to the CBGs. Due to this occurrence, plasma and total cortisol levels increase. Although, there are low levels of cortisol at birth, the levels are sufficient to have serious physiological effects. Newborns do not manifest typical adult circadian rhythms in cortisol production. Usually, newborns have peak cortisol levels every 12 hours and this does not depend on the time of day. After 3 months of life, babies begin to experience the adult cortisol production patterns, an early morning cortisol peak and low evening levels of cortisol. These cortisol rhythmic changes occur throughout infancy and early childhood, along with changes in sleep patterns. The activity of the HPA stress system adapts by repeated exposure to stressful stimulation.  As newborns progress through the early months of life, babies experience increased cortisol levels during medical examinations. This is physically characterized by the fussing and crying of babies. After three months of life, babies do not respond to physical examinations with the HPA stress response system. However, babies can still respond to behavioral distress. As another example, if blood is drawn from a baby, the baby experiences an increased cortisol level. When this process is repeated 24 hours later, the same increase in cortisol is observed. In addition, during the first year of life, it becomes difficult to induce cortisol level increases to some mild stressors. These stressors include the approach of a stranger, strange events, few-minute separations from parents, and more. The decreased sensitivity of the HPA stress response may be due to physiological changes that occur in the system during early ages. The physiological changes that may occur include improved negative feedback regulation of the HPA system, and decreased sensitivity of the adrenal cortex to ACTH. Also, the availability of adult support for young children helps safeguard the activity of the HPA stress system. Many experiences can cause structural changes in the HPA system. The effects of repeated increases in cortisol levels have been researched in many animal studies, but these outcomes are also representative of humans, including young children. It has been determined that when glucocorticoids, including cortisol, are placed into various parts of the brain for many days, CRH is produced in increased quantities. In turn, this causes fear behaviors, increased caution, and activation of the SAM system. Eventually, these effects may cause  PTSD or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, in young children. A more serious psychological symptom seen in children, PTSD manifests symptoms such as, heightened fear and anxiety, loss of interests, flashbacks, lacking some emotions, paranoia. Other serious psychological symptoms of stress seen in children are depression, anxiety, low self-confidence and dysregulated aggression.

text: When the body undergoes a stressful situation, the stress hormone

entity_section: Factors generally increasing cortisol le

text: cortisol

text: is released. Cortisol helps the body prepare for stressful and dangerous situation. It gives a quick burst of energy, heightened memory and lower sensitivity to pain, among other things. When cortisol is present in the body at high levels and for extended periods of time, however, the body’s immune response may be suppressed. This leaves the developing bodies of children extremely vulnerable to damage and illness.  Cortisol is usually bound to proteins in adults. The protein is called the

text: corticosteroid-binding globulin

text: PTSD or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

text: , in young children. A more serious psychological symptom seen in children, PTSD manifests symptoms such as, heightened fear and anxiety, loss of interests, flashbacks, lacking some emotions, paranoia. Other serious psychological symptoms of stress seen in children are depression, anxiety, low self-confidence and dysregulated aggression.

text: Santa Clara Valley was created by the sudden growth of the Santa Cruz Mountains and the Diablo Range during the later Cenozoic era. This was a period of intense mountain building in California when the folding and thrusting of the Earth's crust, combined with active volcanism, gave shape to the present state of California. Hence, Santa Clara Valley is a structural valley, created by mountain building as opposed to an erosional valley, or a valley which has undergone the wearing away of the Earth's surface by natural agents. The underlying geology of the Santa Cruz Mountains was also formed by the sediment of the ancient seas, where marine shale points to Miocene origin. Today one can still find evidence of this in the Santa Cruz Mountains, where shark's teeth and the remains of maritime life are still found as high as Scotts Valley, a city nestled in the mountains. The highest peak on the Santa Cruz Mountains side of the valley is Loma Prieta at 3,790 feet. The highest peak in the Diablo Range side of the valley is Mount Hamilton, specifically Copernicus Peak at 4,370 feet elevation. This is the highest peak in Santa Clara County.

text: Santa Clara Valley was created by the sudden growth of the

text: Santa Cruz Mountains

text: and the

text: Diablo Range

text: during the later

text: Cenozoic

text: era. This was a period of intense mountain building in California when the folding and thrusting of the Earth's

text: crust

text: , combined with active

text: volcanism

text: , gave shape to the present state of California. Hence, Santa Clara Valley is a structural valley, created by mountain building as opposed to an erosional valley, or a valley which has undergone the wearing away of the Earth's surface by natural agents. The underlying geology of the Santa Cruz Mountains was also formed by the

text: sediment

text: of the ancient seas, where marine

text: shale

text: points to

text: Miocene

text: origin. Today one can still find evidence of this in the Santa Cruz Mountains, where

text: shark

text: 's teeth and the remains of maritime life are still found as high as

text: Scotts Valley

text: , a city nestled in the mountains. The highest peak on the Santa Cruz Mountains side of the valley is

text: Loma Prieta

text: at 3,790 feet. The highest peak in the

text: Diablo Range

text: side of the valley is

text: Mount Hamilton

text: , specifically Copernicus Peak at 4,370 feet elevation. This is the highest peak in

text: Santa Clara County

text: Earth's lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which constitute the hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth. The lithosphere is subdivided into tectonic plates. The uppermost part of the lithosphere that chemically reacts to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere through the soil forming process is called the pedosphere. The lithosphere is underlain by the asthenosphere which is the weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. The boundary between the lithosphere and the underlying asthenosphere is known as the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere boundary and is defined by a difference in response to stress: the lithosphere remains rigid for very long periods of geologic time in which it deforms elastically and through brittle failure, while the asthenosphere deforms viscously and accommodates strain through plastic deformation. The study of past and current formations of landscapes is called geomorphology.

text: Earth's lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which constitute the hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth. The lithosphere is subdivided into

text: tectonic plates

text: . The uppermost part of the lithosphere that chemically reacts to the

text: atmosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: and

text: biosphere

text: through the

text: soil forming process

text: is called the

text: pedosphere

text: . The lithosphere is underlain by the

text: asthenosphere

text: which is the weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. The boundary between the lithosphere and the underlying asthenosphere is known as the

text: Lithosphere-Asthenosphere boundary

text: and is defined by a difference in response to stress: the lithosphere remains rigid for very long periods of geologic time in which it deforms elastically and through brittle failure, while the asthenosphere deforms viscously and accommodates strain through plastic deformation. The study of past and current formations of landscapes is called

text: geomorphology

text: In the field of civil engineering, geological principles and analyses are used in order to ascertain the mechanical principles of the material on which structures are built. This allows tunnels to be built without collapsing, bridges and skyscrapers to be built with sturdy foundations, and buildings to be built that will not settle in clay and mud.

text: In the field of

text: civil engineering

text: , geological principles and analyses are used in order to ascertain the mechanical principles of the material on which structures are built. This allows tunnels to be built without collapsing, bridges and skyscrapers to be built with sturdy foundations, and buildings to be built that will not settle in clay and mud.

text: Modern soil science offers the following definition: "Primary Minerals: The thickness of the earth's crust varies from 10 km under the ocean to 30 km under the continents. Of the 88 naturally occurring elements on earth, only 8 make [up] most of the crust. The earth's crust and soils are dominated by the silicic acid in combination with Na, Al, K, Ca, Fe and O ions. ...Those elements are components of primary minerals, whereas primary minerals are components of parent rocks. There are almost 3000 known minerals, but only 20 are common and just 10 minerals make up 90 % of the earth's crust. Primary minerals are defined as minerals found in soil but not formed in soil. This definition is different from that of secondary minerals, which are defined as minerals formed in soils." This is further defined by Dr. Broome of North Carolina State:

text: Several known earthquake faults criss-cross the Glendale area and adjacent mountains, as in much of Southern California. Among the more recognized faults are the Sierra Madre and Hollywood faults, situated in the city's northern and southwestern portions, respectively. Additionally, the Verdugo and Raymond faults intersect through the city's central and southeastern areas. The San Gabriel fault, meanwhile, is located northeast of the city. Roughly  northeast of Glendale is a major portion of the San Andreas Fault known as the "Big Bend", where quake-recurrence tracking shows major activity roughly every 140–160 years. The closest portion of the San Andreas is actually  from Glendale. The last major quake along the southern San Andreas was recorded in 1857.

text: Several known earthquake faults criss-cross the Glendale area and adjacent mountains, as in much of Southern California. Among the more recognized faults are the Sierra Madre and Hollywood faults, situated in the city's northern and southwestern portions, respectively. Additionally, the Verdugo and Raymond faults intersect through the city's central and southeastern areas. The San Gabriel fault, meanwhile, is located northeast of the city. Roughly  northeast of Glendale is a major portion of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: known as the "Big Bend", where quake-recurrence tracking shows major activity roughly every 140–160 years. The closest portion of the San Andreas is actually  from Glendale. The last major quake along the southern San Andreas was recorded in 1857.

text: In some situations, a single subduction zone may show both aspects along its length, as part of a plate subducts beneath a continent and part beneath adjacent oceanic crust.

text: Adult-born neurons appear to have a role in the regulation of stress. Studies have linked neurogenesis to the beneficial actions of specific antidepressants, suggesting a connection between decreased hippocampal neurogenesis and depression. In a pioneer study, scientists demonstrated that the behavioral benefits of antidepressant administration in mice is reversed when neurogenesis is prevented with x-irradiation techniques. In fact, newborn neurons are more excitable than older neurons due to a differential expression of GABA receptors. A plausible model, therefore, is that these neurons augment the role of the hippocampus in the negative feedback mechanism of the HPA-axis (physiological stress) and perhaps in inhibiting the amygdala (the region of brain responsible for fearful responses to stimuli). Indeed, suppression of adult neurogenesis can lead to an increased HPA-axis stress response in mildly stressful situations. This is consistent with numerous findings linking stress-relieving activities (learning, exposure to a new yet benign environment, and exercise) to increased levels of neurogenesis, as well as the observation that animals exposed to physiological stress (cortisol) or psychological stress (e.g. isolation) show markedly decreased levels of newborn neurons. Interestingly, under chronic stress conditions, the elevation of newborn neurons by antidepressants improves the hippocampal-dependent control on the stress response; without newborn neurons, antidepressants are unable to restore the regulation of the stress response and recovery becomes impossible.

text: Adult-born neurons appear to have a role in the regulation of

text: stress

text: . Studies have linked neurogenesis to the beneficial actions of specific

text: antidepressant

text: s, suggesting a connection between decreased hippocampal neurogenesis and

text: depression

text: . In a pioneer study, scientists demonstrated that the behavioral benefits of antidepressant administration in

text: mice

text: is reversed when neurogenesis is prevented with

text: x-irradiation

text: techniques. In fact, newborn neurons are more excitable than older neurons due to a differential expression of

text: GABA

text: receptors. A plausible model, therefore, is that these neurons augment the role of the hippocampus in the negative feedback mechanism of the

text: HPA-axis

text: (physiological stress) and perhaps in inhibiting the

text: amygdala

text: (the region of brain responsible for fearful responses to stimuli). Indeed, suppression of adult neurogenesis can lead to an increased

text: HPA-axis

text: stress response in mildly stressful situations. This is consistent with numerous findings linking stress-relieving activities (learning, exposure to a new yet benign environment, and exercise) to increased levels of neurogenesis, as well as the observation that animals exposed to physiological stress (

text: cortisol

text: ) or

text: psychological stress

text: (e.g. isolation) show markedly decreased levels of newborn neurons. Interestingly, under chronic stress conditions, the elevation of newborn neurons by antidepressants improves the hippocampal-dependent control on the stress response; without newborn neurons, antidepressants are unable to restore the regulation of the stress response and recovery becomes impossible.

text: A major shift in the Earth's crust had severed the city from its surrounding landform, leaving it an island with virtually no outside contact. Money-crazed inhabitants soon lashed out for the city's remaining but useless vestiges of power, preaching salvation while hiding their wicked motives.

text: When the theory of plate tectonics became established in the 1960s, it became clear Suess's "sea" had in fact been an ocean. Plate tectonics also provided the mechanism by which the former ocean disappeared: oceanic crust can subduct under continental crust.

text: When the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: became established in the 1960s, it became clear Suess's "sea" had in fact been an

text: ocean

text: . Plate tectonics also provided the mechanism by which the former ocean disappeared:

text: oceanic crust

text: can

text: subduct

text: under

text: continental crust

text: When a plate of oceanic crust is subducted beneath an overriding plate of oceanic crust, as the underthrusting crust melts, it can cause upwelling of magma that can cause volcanism along the subduction front on the overridding plate. This produces an oceanic chain of volcanoes, like Japan. This volcanism causes metamorphosis of rocks, intrusions of magma that produce  rocks such as granite, and thickens the crust by depositing additional layers of rock from volcanoes. This tends to make the crust lighter and thicker, as a result making it immune to subduction.

text: When a plate of oceanic crust is subducted beneath an overriding plate of oceanic crust, as the underthrusting crust melts, it can cause upwelling of magma that can cause

text: volcanism

text: along the subduction front on the overridding plate. This produces an oceanic chain of

text: volcano

text: es, like

text: Japan

text: . This volcanism causes

text: metamorphosis

text: of

text: rocks

text: , intrusions of

text: magma

text: that produce  rocks such as granite, and thickens the crust by depositing additional layers of rock from volcanoes. This tends to make the crust lighter and thicker, as a result making it immune to subduction.

text: The Sumozero-Kenozero greenstone belt displays fragments of unsubductable oceanic crust, represented by the lower mafic-ultramafic volcanic sequence, and also displays the products of subduction-related magmatism. This implies that the  thick plume-derived oceanic crust reached an intraoceanic convergent plate boundary and was intruded and overlain by felsic melts coming from both a subducting slab and an overlying mantle wedge. Later, the oceanic plateau, together with the volcanic arc complex built on top of it, were accreted to and obducted onto the continental crust of the Vodla block. (Hofmann et al., 1999)

text: The Sumozero-Kenozero greenstone belt displays fragments of unsubductable oceanic

text: crust

text: , represented by the lower mafic-ultramafic volcanic sequence, and also displays the products of subduction-related

text: magma

text: tism. This implies that the  thick plume-derived oceanic

text: crust

text: reached an intraoceanic

text: convergent plate boundary

text: and was intruded and overlain by felsic melts coming from both a subducting

text: slab

text: and an overlying mantle wedge. Later, the oceanic

text: plateau

text: , together with the volcanic arc complex built on top of it, were

text: accreted

text: to and obducted onto the continental crust of the Vodla block. (Hofmann et al., 1999)

text: Reluctantly, believing that any other similarly senescent star will offer no better option, the people accede to the new captain's order to land on Earth despite the lack of an atmosphere. However, this is not a haphazard decision by the new captain, who is an astrophysicist. He is convinced that there is a remnant atmosphere frozen on the dark side, and uses the ship's drive to begin to re-spin Earth. (The drive really is powerful enough to achieve this within a reasonable timescale, if only the planet's crust can withstand the seismic stresses without catastrophic earthquakes.) This will, he hopes, convert this frozen gas back to a breathable atmosphere.

text: When copulation is achieved, a male implements a coercive mating strategy known as caudocephalic waving.  The male garter snake strikes his own body against the female in quick repeated intervals.  These strikes drive anoxic air from the non-respiratory lung of the female into her respiratory lungs, causing an increase in her stress level. The increase in stress level causes cloacal gaping, allowing for the courting male to more easily insert his reproductive organ into the female.

text: O’Rourke is a Geotechnical engineer and a subject-matter expert on natural disasters and their impact on the infrastructure supporting civil society.  Geotechnical engineers study the Earth’s near-surface crust and its performance under stress. They analyze how structures buried in the ground behave in an environment of change, structures such as subway systems, water and gas pipelines, etc. They, for instance, study underground spaces such as parking garages, skyscraper foundations and subfloors and they also evaluate how structures made of soil and/or rock behave, structures such as earth dams, highway embankments, and levies.  O’Rourke served on the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) team studying Hurricane Katrina and its effect on the Gulf Coast.  Funded in part by the Charles L. Crandall Fund, O’Rourke reviewed the Armenia earthquake (1988), the Kobe, Japan earthquake (1995), and the Kocaeli, Turkey earthquake (1999).  A specialist in geotechnical engineering including foundations, earth retaining structures, slope stability, soil/structure interaction, underground construction, laboratory testing, and elements of earthquake engineering, O’Rourke has written extensively on geotechnical, underground, and earthquake engineering. O'Rourke was an early specialist in the field of monitoring large construction projects.

text: O’Rourke is a

text: Geotechnical engineer

text: and a subject-matter expert on natural disasters and their impact on the infrastructure supporting civil society.

text: Geotechnical

text: engineers study the Earth’s near-surface crust and its performance under stress. They analyze how structures buried in the ground behave in an environment of change, structures such as subway systems, water and gas pipelines, etc. They, for instance, study underground spaces such as parking garages, skyscraper foundations and subfloors and they also evaluate how structures made of soil and/or rock behave, structures such as earth dams, highway embankments, and levies.  O’Rourke served on the

text: National Academy of Engineering

text: (NAE) team studying

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: and its effect on the Gulf Coast.  Funded in part by the Charles L. Crandall Fund, O’Rourke reviewed the

text: Armenia

text: earthquake (1988), the Kobe, Japan earthquake (1995), and the Kocaeli, Turkey earthquake (1999).  A specialist in

text: geotechnical engineering

text: including foundations, earth retaining structures, slope stability, soil/structure interaction, underground construction, laboratory testing, and elements of earthquake engineering, O’Rourke has written extensively on geotechnical, underground, and earthquake engineering. O'Rourke was an early specialist in the field of monitoring large construction projects.

text: When a strike-slip fault is offset along strike such as to create a gap i.e. a left-stepping bend on a sinistral fault, a zone of extension or transtension is generated. Such bends are known as releasing bends or extensional stepovers and often form pull-apart basins or rhombochasms. Examples of active pull-apart basins include the Dead Sea, formed at a left-stepping offset of the sinistral sense Dead Sea Transform system, and the Sea of Marmara, formed at a right-stepping offset on the dextral sense North Anatolian Fault system.

text: When a

text: strike-slip fault

text: is offset along strike such as to create a gap i.e. a left-stepping bend on a sinistral fault, a zone of extension or

text: transtension

text: is generated. Such bends are known as releasing bends or extensional stepovers and often form

text: pull-apart basin

text: s or rhombochasms. Examples of active pull-apart basins include the

text: Dead Sea

text: , formed at a left-stepping offset of the sinistral sense

text: Dead Sea Transform

text: system, and the

text: Sea of Marmara

text: , formed at a right-stepping offset on the dextral sense

text: North Anatolian Fault

text: system.

text: The main features of passive margins lie underneath the external characters. Beneath passive margins the transition between the continental and oceanic crust is a broad transition known as transitional crust. The subsided continental crust is marked by normal faults that dip seaward. The faulted crust transitions into oceanic crust and may be deeply buried due to thermal subsidence and the mass of sediment that collects above it. The lithosphere beneath passive margins is known as transitional lithosphere. The lithosphere thins seaward as it transitions seaward to oceanic crust. Different kinds of transitional crust form, depending on how fast rifting occurs and how hot the underlying mantle was at the time of rifting. Volcanic passive margins represent one endmember transitional crust type, the other endmember (amagmatic) type is the rifted passive margin. Volcanic passive margins they also are marked by numerous dykes and igneous intrusions within the subsided continental crust. There are typically a lot of dykes formed perpendicular to the seaward-dipping lava flows and sills. Igneous intrusions within the crust cause lava flows along the top the subsided continental crust and form seaward-dipping reflectors.

text: The main features of passive margins lie underneath the external characters. Beneath passive margins the transition between the continental and oceanic crust is a broad transition known as transitional crust. The subsided continental crust is marked by

text: normal fault

text: s that dip seaward. The faulted crust transitions into oceanic crust and may be deeply buried due to

text: thermal subsidence

text: and the mass of sediment that collects above it. The

text: lithosphere

text: beneath passive margins is known as transitional lithosphere. The lithosphere thins seaward as it transitions seaward to oceanic crust. Different kinds of transitional crust form, depending on how fast rifting occurs and how hot the underlying mantle was at the time of rifting. Volcanic passive margins represent one endmember transitional crust type, the other endmember (amagmatic) type is the rifted passive margin. Volcanic passive margins they also are marked by numerous

text: dykes

text: and

text: igneous intrusions

text: within the subsided continental crust. There are typically a lot of dykes formed perpendicular to the seaward-dipping lava flows and sills. Igneous intrusions within the crust cause lava flows along the top the subsided continental crust and form seaward-dipping reflectors.

text: Another way bays form is via glacial and river erosion. A bay formed by a glacier is a fjord. Rias are created by rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Most gulf and bays form by the folding of the earth's crust, and by coastal erosion due to waves and currents. Currents can make waves more constant, and soft rocks speed erosion. Hard rock eroded less quickly, leaving headlands. The Gulf of California is an example of a bay created by the geological process of folding.

text: Another way bays form is via glacial and river erosion. A bay formed by a glacier is a

text: fjord

text: Ria

text: s are created by rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Most gulf and bays form by the

text: folding

text: of the earth's

text: crust

text: , and by coastal erosion due to

text: waves

text: and

text: currents

text: . Currents can make waves more constant, and soft rocks speed erosion. Hard rock eroded less quickly, leaving

text: headland

text: s. The

text: Gulf of California

text: is an example of a bay created by the geological process of folding.

text: Lake Hughes is generally centered on the intersection of Elizabeth Lake Road and Lake Hughes Road, both of which are county highways. Hughes Lake and Munz Lakes are located within the community. In addition, a third lake, Lake Elizabeth is located just to the east within the community of Elizabeth Lake.  Lakes Hughes and Lake Elizabeth are in the canyons along the San Andreas Fault. Both lakes periodically dry up depending on rainfall cycles. Lake Hughes was previously known as West Elizabeth Lake.

text: Lake Hughes is generally centered on the intersection of Elizabeth Lake Road and Lake Hughes Road, both of which are county highways. Hughes Lake and Munz Lakes are located within the community. In addition, a third lake,

entity_name: Elizabeth Lake (Los Angeles County, California)

text: Lake Elizabeth

text: is located just to the east within the community of Elizabeth Lake.  Lakes Hughes and Lake Elizabeth are in the canyons along the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: . Both lakes periodically dry up depending on rainfall cycles. Lake Hughes was previously known as West Elizabeth Lake.

text: Seven pairs of hotspots and LIPs located on opposite sides of the earth have been noted; analyses indicate this coincident antipodal location is highly unlikely to be random. The hotspot pairs include a large igneous province with continental volcanism opposite an oceanic hotspot. Oceanic impacts of large meteorites are expected to have high efficiency in converting energy into seismic waves. These waves would propagate around the world and reconverge close to the antipodal position; small variations are expected as the seismic velocity varies depending upon the route characteristics along which the waves propagate. As the waves focus on the antipodal position, they put the crust at the focal point under significant stress and are proposed to rupture it, creating antipodal pairs. When the meteorite impacts a continent, the lower efficiency of kinetic energy conversion into seismic energy is not expected to create an antipodal hotspot.

text: Gravity data provides information about the subsurface density distribution. The most important gravity feature associated with any continent-ocean transition, including NVPM, is the free-air edge effect anomaly, which consists of a gravity high and a gravity low associated with the contrast between the thick continental and thin oceanic crust. There are also subsurface variations in density that cause significant variations across the continent-ocean transition.  The crust, as well as the entire lithosphere, is thinned due to mechanical extension. The Moho marks a large density contrast between crust and mantle, typically at least 0.35 g/cm3. The highest amplitudes of the gravity anomaly occur seaward of the continent-ocean transition. High-density upper mantle material is elevated relative to the more landward crustal root. The oceanic crust density is then further enhanced with gabbros and basalts and additionally contributes to the regional gravity trend.

text: Gravity data provides information about the subsurface density distribution. The most important

text: gravit

text: y feature associated with any

text: continent-ocean transition

text: , including NVPM, is the free-air edge effect anomaly, which consists of a gravity high and a gravity low associated with the contrast between the thick continental and thin oceanic crust. There are also subsurface variations in density that cause significant variations across the continent-ocean transition.  The crust, as well as the entire

text: lithosphere

text: , is thinned due to mechanical extension. The

text: Moho

text: marks a large density contrast between

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: , typically at least 0.35 g/cm3. The highest amplitudes of the

text: gravity anomaly

text: occur seaward of the continent-ocean transition. High-density upper mantle material is elevated relative to the more landward crustal root. The oceanic crust density is then further enhanced with gabbros and basalts and additionally contributes to the regional gravity trend.

text: Intraplate deformation is the folding, breaking, or flow of the Earth's crust within plates instead of at their margins. This process usually occurs in areas with especially weak crust and upper mantle, such as the Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1). Intraplate deformation brings another aspect to plate tectonic theory.

text: Intraplate deformation is the folding, breaking, or flow of the

text: Earth's crust

text: within plates instead of at their margins. This process usually occurs in areas with especially weak crust and upper

text: mantle

text: , such as the

text: Tibetan Plateau

text: (Figure 1). Intraplate deformation brings another aspect to

text: plate tectonic

text: theory.

text: Rifting is said to have begun in the Late Cretaceous epoch to Paleogene period. At that time the African plate was experiencing far-field stresses caused by portions of the northern boundary of the African plate subducting under the Eurasian plate. Today, the Arabian plate is experiencing a crustal down pull, or slab pull, that has separated from the African plate. At the same time of the subduction in the north there was mantle upwelling causing the crust to down warp and swell into domes. There are many domes throughout the East African Rift System. The plume is thought to have begun under Lake Tana in Ethiopia. The Kenyan dome has been studied extensively.

text: Rifting is said to have begun in the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: epoch to Paleogene period. At that time the African plate was experiencing far-field stresses caused by portions of the northern boundary of the African plate subducting under the Eurasian plate. Today, the Arabian plate is experiencing a crustal down pull, or

text: slab pull

text: , that has separated from the African plate. At the same time of the

text: subduction

text: in the north there was mantle upwelling causing the crust to down warp and swell into

text: domes

text: . There are many domes throughout the East African Rift System. The plume is thought to have begun under

text: Lake Tana

text: in

text: Ethiopia

text: . The Kenyan dome has been studied extensively.

text: V. carteri can reproduce either asexually or sexually. Thus, it is a facultatively sexual organism.  In nature, Volvox reproduces asexually in temporary ponds in spring, but becomes sexual and produces dormant over-wintering zygotes before the ponds dry up in the summer heat.  V. carteri can be induced to reproduce sexually by heat shock treatment.  However, this induction can be inhibited by antioxidants indicating that the induction of sex by heat shock is mediated by oxidative stress.  Nedelcu et al. further found that an inhibitor of the mitochondrial electron transport chain that induces oxidative stress also induced sex in V. carteri.  Nedelcu and Michod and Nedelcu et al. suggested that oxidative DNA damage caused by oxidative stress may be the underlying cause of the induction of sex in their experiments.  Other agents that cause DNA damage (i.e. glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde and UV) also induce sex in V. carteri.  These findings lend support to the general idea that a principal adaptive function of sex is repair of DNA damages.

text: The term cryptoexplosion structure (or cryptovolcanic structure) means an explosion of unknown cause.  The term is now largely obsolete. It was once commonly used to describe sites where there was geological evidence of a large-scale explosion within the Earth's crust, but no definitive evidence for the cause such as normal volcanic rocks. These sites are usually circular with signs of anomalous rock deformation contrasting with the surrounding region, and often showing evidence that crustal material had been uplifted and/or blown outwards. The assumption was that some unusual form of volcanism, or a gas explosion originating within the crust, was the cause. The use of the term went away with the rise of the science of impact crater recognition in the late 20th century. Most structures described as cryptoexplosions turned out to be eroded impact craters, caused by the impact of meteorites. Today geologists discount former cryptoexplosion theories.

text: The term cryptoexplosion structure (or cryptovolcanic structure) means an explosion of unknown cause.  The term is now largely obsolete. It was once commonly used to describe sites where there was geological evidence of a large-scale explosion within the

text: Earth's crust

text: , but no definitive evidence for the cause such as normal

text: volcanic rocks

text: . These sites are usually circular with signs of anomalous rock deformation contrasting with the surrounding region, and often showing evidence that crustal material had been uplifted and/or blown outwards. The assumption was that some unusual form of volcanism, or a gas explosion originating within the crust, was the cause. The use of the term went away with the rise of the science of impact crater recognition in the late 20th century. Most structures described as cryptoexplosions turned out to be eroded

text: impact crater

text: s, caused by the impact of

text: meteorite

text: s. Today geologists discount former cryptoexplosion theories.

text: Carefully Lurking Into Mountainous Building Is Tricky

text: Lake Turkana is an East African Rift feature. A rift is a weak place in the Earth's crust due to the separation of two tectonic plates, often accompanied by a graben, or trough, in which lake water can collect. The rift began when East Africa, impelled by currents in the mantle, began separating from the rest of Africa, moving to the northeast. Currently, the graben is 320 km wide in the north of the lake, 170 km in the south. This rift is one of two, and is called the Great or Eastern Rift. There is another to the west, the Western Rift.

text: Lake Turkana is an

text: East African Rift

text: feature. A

text: rift

text: is a weak place in the Earth's crust due to the separation of two

text: tectonic plate

text: s, often accompanied by a

text: graben

text: , or trough, in which lake water can collect. The rift began when East Africa, impelled by currents in the

text: mantle

text: , began separating from the rest of Africa, moving to the northeast. Currently, the graben is 320 km wide in the north of the lake, 170 km in the south. This rift is one of two, and is called the Great or Eastern Rift. There is another to the west, the Western Rift.

text: Many longitudinal valleys follow the strike of the rock strata or significant geological fault lines. These are formed in conjunction with the tectonic movements during the mountain building, which in turn are due to plate tectonic processes. The faults be structures that reach deep into the lower part of the earth's crust, that are already in place before the actual mountain building phase and are later reactivated as, for example, is the case in the Periadriatic Seam in the Alps. For the formation of longitudinal valleys, however, nappe overthrusts also play a major, if not the most important, role. The nappes that are present in many young fold mountain ranges is responsible to a large extent for the morphological division of a mountain belt into more or less parallel chains. In such cases, longitudinal valleys generally run along the so-called leading edge of the napped (the overthrust front), that are oriented at right angles to the direction of movement of the tectonic nappes, which in turn corresponds to the direction of movement of the colliding continental blocks. From this configuration results a course that runs  with the strike of the geological units, which is an important criterion for the definition of a longitudinal valley. By contrast a transverse valley cuts across the strike.

text: Many longitudinal valleys follow the

text: strike

text: of the

text: rock strata

text: or significant

text: geological fault lines

text: . These are formed in conjunction with the tectonic movements during the

text: mountain building

text: , which in turn are due to

text: plate tectonic

text: processes. The faults be structures that reach deep into the lower part of the

text: earth's crust

text: , that are already in place before the actual mountain building phase and are later reactivated as, for example, is the case in the

text: Periadriatic Seam

text: in the Alps. For the formation of longitudinal valleys, however,

text: nappe

text: overthrust

text: s also play a major, if not the most important, role. The nappes that are present in many young fold mountain ranges is responsible to a large extent for the morphological division of a mountain belt into more or less parallel chains. In such cases, longitudinal valleys generally run along the so-called leading edge of the napped (the overthrust front), that are oriented at right angles to the direction of movement of the tectonic nappes, which in turn corresponds to the direction of movement of the colliding

text: continental blocks

text: . From this configuration results a course that runs  with the

text: strike

text: of the geological units, which is an important criterion for the definition of a longitudinal valley. By contrast a transverse valley cuts across the strike.

text: Tectonic boundaries have been discovered on Mars. Valles Marineris is a horizontally sliding tectonic boundary that divides two major partial or complete plates of Mars. The recent finding suggests that Mars is geologically active with occurrences in the millions of years, and there is additional speculation.There has been previous evidence of Mars' geologic activity. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles. The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone.Because the area with the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life. At that time the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. Younger rock does not show any stripes.When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as hematite (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above the Curie temperature, which is 770 °C for pure iron, but lower for oxides such as hematite (approximately 650 °C) or magnetite (approximately 580 °C). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.

text: Tectonic boundaries have been discovered on Mars. Valles Marineris is a horizontally sliding tectonic boundary that divides two major partial or complete plates of Mars. The recent finding suggests that Mars is geologically active with occurrences in the millions of years, and there is additional speculation.There has been previous evidence of Mars' geologic activity. The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s. The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: . However, there are some differences, between the

text: magnetic stripes

text: on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone.Because the area with the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life. At that time the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. Younger rock does not show any stripes.When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as

text: hematite

text: (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above the Curie temperature, which is 770 °C for pure iron, but lower for oxides such as hematite (approximately 650 °C) or magnetite (approximately 580 °C). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.

text: Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in Earth's crust.

text: Plate tectonics

text: mountain

text: ranges,

text: volcano

text: es, and

text: earthquake

text: s are

text: geological phenomena

text: that can be explained in terms of

text: energy transformation

text: s in

text: Earth's crust

text: In plate tectonics, a convergent boundary, also known as a destructive plate boundary (because of subduction), is an actively deforming  region where two (or more) tectonic plates or fragments of the lithosphere move toward one another and collide.  As a result of pressure, friction, and plate material melting in the mantle, earthquakes and volcanoes are common near convergent boundaries. When two plates move towards one another, they form either a subduction zone or a continental collision. This depends on the nature of the plates involved.  In a subduction zone, the subducting plate, which is normally a plate with oceanic crust, moves beneath the other plate, which can be made of either oceanic or continental crust.  During collisions between two continental plates, large mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas are formed.

text: In

text: plate tectonics

text: , a convergent boundary, also known as a destructive plate boundary (because of

text: subduction

text: ), is an actively deforming  region where two (or more) tectonic plates or fragments of the

text: lithosphere

text: move toward one another and collide.  As a result of pressure, friction, and plate material melting in the

text: mantle

text: earthquake

text: s and

text: volcano

text: es are common near convergent boundaries. When two plates move towards one another, they form either a subduction zone or a

text: continental collision

text: . This depends on the nature of the plates involved.  In a subduction zone, the subducting plate, which is normally a plate with

text: oceanic crust

text: , moves beneath the other plate, which can be made of either oceanic or

text: continental crust

text: .  During collisions between two continental plates, large mountain ranges, such as the

text: Himalayas

text: are formed.

text: About fifty strong motion stations recorded the event, including an array of units along the rupture zone, and instruments at the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory (about  away). The records revealed that strike-slip motion occurred over  on a vertical fault, and that the total amount of slip varied with depth, with more slip occurring in the shallower regions. The two closest stations at Coyote Creek and Gilroy, as well as the Berkeley stations, were used to refine the overall fault length, slip, and depth of faulting.

text: About fifty strong motion stations recorded the event, including an array of units along the rupture zone, and instruments at the

text: Berkeley Seismological Laboratory

text: (about  away). The records revealed that

text: strike-slip

text: motion occurred over  on a vertical fault, and that the total amount of slip varied with depth, with more slip occurring in the shallower regions. The two closest stations at Coyote Creek and Gilroy, as well as the Berkeley stations, were used to refine the overall fault length, slip, and depth of faulting.

text: In geology, transpression is a type of strike-slip deformation that deviates from simple shear because of a simultaneous component of shortening perpendicular to the fault plane. This movement ends up resulting in oblique shear. It is generally very unlikely that a deforming body will experience "pure" shortening or "pure" strike-slip. The relative amounts of shortening and strike-slip can be expressed in the convergence angle alpha which ranges from zero (ideal strike-slip) to 90 degrees (ideal convergence). During shortening, unless material is lost, transpression produces vertical thickening in the crust. Transpression that occurs on a regional scale along plate boundaries is characterized by oblique convergence.  More locally, transpression occurs within restraining bends in strike-slip fault zones.

text: In

text: geology

text: , transpression is a type of

text: strike-slip

text: deformation that deviates from simple shear because of a simultaneous component of shortening perpendicular to the fault plane. This movement ends up resulting in oblique shear. It is generally very unlikely that a deforming body will experience "pure" shortening or "pure" strike-slip. The relative amounts of shortening and strike-slip can be expressed in the convergence angle alpha which ranges from zero (ideal strike-slip) to 90 degrees (ideal convergence). During shortening, unless material is lost, transpression produces vertical thickening in the crust. Transpression that occurs on a regional scale along

text: plate boundaries

text: is characterized by oblique convergence.  More locally, transpression occurs within restraining bends in strike-slip

text: fault zones

text: Vocal fold nodules are thought to be the result of vocal fold tissue trauma caused by excessive mechanical stress. During phonation, the vocal folds undergo many forms of mechanical stress. One example of such stress is the impact stress caused by the collision between the left and right vocal fold surfaces during vibration. This stress is thought to reach its maximum in the mid-membranous region of the vocal folds, a common site of nodule formation. Vocal overuse (speaking for long periods), abuse (yelling), or misuse (hyperfunction) may produce excessive amounts of mechanical stress by increasing the rate and/or force with which the vocal folds collide. This may lead to trauma that is focalized to the mid-membranous vocal fold and subsequent wound formation. Repeated or chronic mechanical stress is thought to lead to the remodeling of the superficial layer of the lamina propria. It is this process of tissue remodeling that results in the formation of benign lesions of the vocal folds such as nodules.

text: Vocal fold nodules are thought to be the result of vocal fold tissue trauma caused by excessive

text: mechanical stress

text: . During phonation, the vocal folds undergo many forms of mechanical stress. One example of such stress is the impact stress caused by the collision between the left and right vocal fold surfaces during vibration. This stress is thought to reach its maximum in the mid-membranous region of the vocal folds, a common site of nodule formation. Vocal overuse (speaking for long periods), abuse (yelling), or misuse (hyperfunction) may produce excessive amounts of mechanical stress by increasing the rate and/or force with which the vocal folds collide. This may lead to trauma that is focalized to the mid-membranous vocal fold and subsequent wound formation. Repeated or chronic mechanical stress is thought to lead to the remodeling of the superficial layer of the

text: lamina propria

text: . It is this process of tissue remodeling that results in the formation of benign lesions of the vocal folds such as nodules.

text: The length of time since occurrence and whether or not it is a positive or negative event are factors in whether or not it causes stress and how much stress it causes. Researchers have found that events that have occurred within the past month generally are not linked to stress or illness, while chronic events that occurred more than several months ago are linked to stress and illness  and personality change. Additionally, positive life events are typically not linked to stress—and if so, generally only trivial stress—while negative life events can be linked to stress and the health problems that accompany it. However, positive experiences and positive life changes can predict decreases in neuroticism.

text: Fictional locations vary greatly in their size. Very small places like a single room are kept out of the umbrella of fictional locations by convention, as are most single buildings. A fictional location can be the size of a university (H.P. Lovecraft's Miskatonic University), a town (Stephen King's Salem's Lot), a county (Raintree County), a state (Winnemac in various Sinclair Lewis stories), a large section of continent (as in north-western Middle-earth, which supposedly represents Europe), a whole planet (Anne McCaffrey's Pern), a whole galaxy (Isaac Asimov's Foundation books), even a multiverse (His Dark Materials). In a larger scale, occasionally the term alternate reality is used, but only if it is considered a variant of Earth rather than an original world. Austin Tappan Wright's Islandia has an invented continent, Karain, on our world.

text: Fictional locations vary greatly in their size. Very small places like a single room are kept out of the umbrella of fictional locations by convention, as are most single buildings. A fictional location can be the size of a university (

text: H.P. Lovecraft

text: 's

text: Miskatonic University

text: ), a town (

text: Stephen King

text: 's

text: Salem's Lot

text: ), a county (

text: Raintree County

text: ), a state (

text: Winnemac

text: in various

text: Sinclair Lewis

text: stories), a large section of continent (as in north-western

text: Middle-earth

text: , which supposedly represents Europe), a whole planet (

text: Anne McCaffrey

text: 's

text: Pern

text: ), a whole galaxy (

text: Isaac Asimov

text: 's

text: Foundation

text: books), even a

text: multiverse

text: His Dark Materials

text: ). In a larger scale, occasionally the term

text: alternate reality

text: is used, but only if it is considered a variant of Earth rather than an original world.

text: Austin Tappan Wright

text: 's

text: Islandia

text: has an invented continent, Karain, on our world.

text: There is no evidence of continued subduction of oceanic crust beneath the Eurasian Plate along this part of the plate boundary, in contrast to the neighbouring segment along the Makran Trench, an active subduction zone, where a dipping slab is well imaged by seismic tomography. The ending of subduction has been linked to evidence that the Main Zagros Reverse Fault is no longer active, suggesting that further deformation is occurring by distributed deformation of the leading edge of the Arabian Plate. This is consistent with observations of recent seismicity.

text: There is no evidence of continued subduction of oceanic crust beneath the Eurasian Plate along this part of the plate boundary, in contrast to the neighbouring segment along the

text: Makran Trench

text: , an active subduction zone, where a dipping slab is well imaged by

text: seismic tomography

text: . The ending of subduction has been linked to evidence that the Main Zagros Reverse Fault is no longer active, suggesting that further deformation is occurring by distributed deformation of the leading edge of the Arabian Plate. This is consistent with observations of recent seismicity.

text: Two common types of forced folds are, namely, fault-bend fold and fault-propagation fold. Folding occurs above the hanging wall of a fold ramp in a fault-bend fold, while folding occurs above the truncation of a thrust fault(fault tip) in a fault-propagation fold. They are usually highly asymmetric with one side of the limb much steeper than the other side, or like monocline. Shortening stress is usually at a high angle to the strata and is concentrated along the slipping plane and in the hanging wall of the thrust fault. A fold acquires higher amplitude, longer wavelength and broader width as rock slips along the fault plane of underlying coeval thrust fault, casting major influence on the three dimensional growth of fold other than stress parameters. Therefore, forced folds are controlled by the fault structure in the basement rocks along planar or listric fault surface and folding of the overlying sedimentary cover only acts as a reaction to underlying fault structure. The amount of fault displacement would control the amplitude of a fold, the lateral growth of fault would implies lateral growth of fold and fault linkage implies fold linkage on the surface. ‘When compared to detachment folds, contrasting competency across strata is not as pronounced and the tectonic environments that they are found in are often more diverse.

text: Two common types of forced folds are, namely,

text: fault-bend fold

text: and

text: fault-propagation fold

text: . Folding occurs above the hanging wall of a fold ramp in a fault-bend fold, while folding occurs above the truncation of a thrust fault(fault tip) in a fault-propagation fold. They are usually highly asymmetric with one side of the limb much steeper than the other side, or like monocline. Shortening stress is usually at a high angle to the strata and is concentrated along the slipping plane and in the hanging wall of the thrust fault. A fold acquires higher amplitude, longer

text: wavelength

text: and broader width as rock slips along the fault plane of underlying coeval thrust fault, casting major influence on the three dimensional growth of fold other than stress parameters. Therefore, forced folds are controlled by the fault structure in the basement rocks along planar or

text: listric fault

text: surface and folding of the overlying sedimentary cover only acts as a reaction to underlying fault structure. The amount of fault displacement would control the amplitude of a fold, the lateral growth of fault would implies lateral growth of fold and fault linkage implies fold linkage on the surface. ‘When compared to detachment folds, contrasting competency across strata is not as pronounced and the tectonic environments that they are found in are often more diverse.

text: The crystallization order of feldspar and pyroxene (clino- and orthopyroxene) in the gabbros is reversed, and ophiolites also appear to have a multi-phase magmatic complexity on par with subduction zones. Indeed, there is increasing evidence that most ophiolites are generated when subduction begins and thus represent fragments of fore-arc lithosphere. This led to introduction of the term "supra-subduction zone" (SSZ) ophiolite in the 1980s to acknowledge that some ophiolites are more closely related to island arcs than ocean ridges. Consequently, some of the classic ophiolite occurrences  thought of as being related to seafloor spreading (Troodos in Cyprus, Semail in Oman) were found to be "SSZ" ophiolites, formed by rapid extension of fore-arc crust during subduction initiation.

text: The crystallization order of

text: feldspar

text: and

text: pyroxene

text: (clino- and orthopyroxene) in the gabbros is reversed, and ophiolites also appear to have a multi-phase magmatic complexity on par with subduction zones. Indeed, there is increasing evidence that most ophiolites are generated when subduction begins and thus represent fragments of

text: fore-arc

text: lithosphere. This led to introduction of the term "supra-subduction zone" (SSZ) ophiolite in the 1980s to acknowledge that some ophiolites are more closely related to island arcs than ocean ridges. Consequently, some of the classic ophiolite occurrences  thought of as being related to seafloor spreading (Troodos in Cyprus, Semail in Oman) were found to be "SSZ" ophiolites, formed by rapid extension of fore-arc crust during subduction initiation.

text: Geologic tension is also found in the tectonic regions of divergent boundaries.  Here, a magma chamber forms underneath oceanic crust and causes sea-floor spreading in the creation of new oceanic crust.<ref>Watson, J. M. "Understanding Plate Motions [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]." Understanding Plate Motions. USGS Publications Warehouse, 5 May 1999. Web.

text: Geologic tension is also found in the tectonic regions of

text: divergent boundaries

text: .  Here, a

text: magma chamber

text: forms underneath

text: oceanic crust

text: and causes sea-floor spreading in the creation of new oceanic crust.<ref>Watson, J. M. "Understanding Plate Motions [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]." Understanding Plate Motions. USGS Publications Warehouse, 5 May 1999. Web.

text: The oldest rocks are hard, grey, often shelly, Carboniferous limestones. These were laid down in a warm, shallow sea during the early part of the Carboniferous Period when Wales lay just south of the equator. Subsequent earth movements have folded and fractured the crust, and during the next 100 million years they suffered extensive erosion. These earth movements left the upfolded Carboniferous limestones as an area of high ground, extending through what is now the Vale of Glamorgan.

text: The oldest rocks are hard, grey, often shelly,

text: Carboniferous limestones

text: . These were laid down in a warm, shallow sea during the early part of the

text: Carboniferous

text: Period when

text: Wales

text: lay just south of the equator. Subsequent earth movements have folded and fractured the crust, and during the next 100 million years they suffered extensive erosion. These earth movements left the upfolded Carboniferous limestones as an area of high ground, extending through what is now the

text: Vale of Glamorgan

text: Major changes came to the conference in 1992. First, Akron left for the Mid-American Conference (MAC) and was replaced by another Ohio school, Youngstown State University. More significantly, the Mid-Continent added women's sports by absorbing the North Star Conference (NSC), a women's-only league whose final seven members had all been in the Mid-Continent. All of the final NSC members except for Akron moved their women's sports into the Mid-Continent. At the same time, Eastern Illinois and Western Illinois moved their women's sports into the Mid-Continent when their former women's sports home, the Gateway Conference, merged into the Missouri Valley Conference. A year later, the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee joined the Mid-Continent.

text: Major changes came to the conference in 1992. First, Akron left for the

text: Mid-American Conference

text: (MAC) and was replaced by another Ohio school,

text: Youngstown State University

text: . More significantly, the Mid-Continent added women's sports by absorbing the

text: North Star Conference

text: (NSC), a women's-only league whose final seven members had all been in the Mid-Continent. All of the final NSC members except for Akron moved their women's sports into the Mid-Continent. At the same time, Eastern Illinois and Western Illinois moved their women's sports into the Mid-Continent when their former women's sports home, the

text: Gateway Conference

text: , merged into the

text: Missouri Valley Conference

text: . A year later, the

text: University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

text: joined the Mid-Continent.

text: Geological structures can be mapped by observing how they affect seismic waves from local and distant earthquakes, a process known as seismic tomography.  The density of the TA network — typical station spacing of about 70 km — provides a level of resolution not previously available in many parts of the country, and is providing finer details of the lithosphere under parts of North America.

text: Geological structures can be mapped by observing how they affect seismic waves from local and distant earthquakes, a process known as

text: seismic tomography

text: .  The density of the TA network — typical station spacing of about 70 km — provides a level of resolution not previously available in many parts of the country, and is providing finer details of the

text: lithosphere

text: under parts of North America.

text: Leaflets that are folded are usually used for advertising or marketing purposes, or for information supplementary to labels. There are many types of folds; only the most popular types are listed here. Although it is difficult to put a date on when some of these folds were first used, it is evident that their popularity boomed when the first mass production printers were introduced.

text: Leaflets that are folded are usually used for advertising or marketing purposes, or for information supplementary to

text: label

text: s. There are many types of folds; only the most popular types are listed here. Although it is difficult to put a date on when some of these folds were first used, it is evident that their popularity boomed when the first mass production printers were introduced.

text: Another area of application for Poisson's effect is in the realm of structural geology. Rocks, like most materials, are subject to Poisson's effect while under stress. In a geological timescale, excessive erosion or sedimentation of Earth's crust can either create or remove large vertical stresses upon the underlying rock. This rock will expand or contract in the vertical direction as a direct result of the applied stress, and it will also deform in the horizontal direction as a result of Poisson's effect. This change in strain in the horizontal direction can affect or form joints and dormant stresses in the rock.

text: Another area of application for Poisson's effect is in the realm of

text: structural geology

text: . Rocks, like most materials, are subject to Poisson's effect while under stress. In a geological timescale, excessive erosion or sedimentation of Earth's crust can either create or remove large vertical stresses upon the underlying rock. This rock will expand or contract in the vertical direction as a direct result of the applied stress, and it will also deform in the horizontal direction as a result of Poisson's effect. This change in strain in the horizontal direction can affect or form joints and dormant stresses in the rock.

text: The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism, although the basic mechanisms are varied. Volcanism  may occur due to processes that add buoyancy to partially melted mantle causing an upward flow due to a decrease in density of the partial melt.

text: The subducted oceanic crust triggers

text: volcanism

text: , although the basic mechanisms are varied. Volcanism  may occur due to processes that add buoyancy to partially melted mantle causing an upward flow due to a decrease in density of the partial melt.

text: As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is therefore colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centres (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 13 cm/yr. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a "textbook" slow-spreading centre, while the East Pacific Rise is used as an example of fast spreading. The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.

text: As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is therefore colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to

text: isostasy

text: . If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at

text: subduction

text: zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the

text: Ring of Fire

text: of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centres (the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: ) with spreading rates of up to 13 cm/yr. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a "

text: textbook

text: " slow-spreading centre, while the East Pacific Rise is used as an example of fast spreading. The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.

text: Asylum decisions in the UK based on particular social groups have stressed the need to make a two-fold case:

text: The geometrical properties of conjugate faults are indicative of the sense of stress, but they may not appear in the actual fault patterns.

text: Stressors have physical, chemical and mental responses inside of the body. Physical stressors produce mechanical stresses on skin, bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles and nerves that cause tissue deformation and in extreme cases tissue failure.  Chemical stresses also produce biomechanical responses associated with metabolism and tissue repair. Physical stressors may produce pain and impair work performance.  Chronic pain and impairment requiring medical attention may result from extreme physical stressors or if there is not sufficient recovery time between successive exposures.

text: Stressors have physical, chemical and mental responses inside of the body. Physical stressors produce mechanical stresses on skin, bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles and nerves that cause tissue deformation and in extreme cases tissue failure.  Chemical stresses also produce biomechanical responses associated with

text: metabolism

text: and tissue repair. Physical stressors may produce pain and impair work performance.  Chronic pain and impairment requiring medical attention may result from extreme physical stressors or if there is not sufficient recovery time between successive exposures.

text: The Rideau Lake Fault (an ancient fracture in the Earth's crust due to tension) explains the large exposure of granite that can be observed on much of Upper Rideau Lake's northern shore.The northern half of Upper Rideau Lake is located in the Algonquin Highlands. Bedrock in this hilly, Precambrian landscape consists mostly of gneisses and marble and is covered in a very thin layer of mixed glacial sediment. The southern half of Upper Rideau Lake is located between the Algonquin Highlands and the Smiths Falls Limestone Plain. Bedrock here consists of Paleozonic quartzose sandstone, dolostone, and conglomerate covered in a variety of sediment; mixed glacial sediment, sandy glacial till, silt and clay, organic deposits, and sand.

text: Biotic stress is stress that occurs as a result of damage done to plants by other living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, beneficial and harmful insects, weeds, and cultivated or native plants. Not to be confused with abiotic stress, which is the negative impact of non-living factors on the organisms in a specific environment such as sunlight, wind, salinity, over watering and drought. The types of biotic stresses imposed on a plant depend on both geography and climate and on the host plant and its ability to resist particular stresses. Although there are many kinds of biotic stress, the majority of plant diseases are caused by fungi. Biotic stress remains a broadly defined term and those who study it face many challenges, such as the greater difficulty in controlling biotic stresses in an experimental context compared to abiotic stress.

text: Biotic stress is

text: stress

text: that occurs as a result of damage done to plants by other living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, beneficial and harmful insects, weeds, and cultivated or

text: native plant

text: s. Not to be confused with

text: abiotic stress

text: , which is the negative impact of non-living factors on the organisms in a specific environment such as sunlight, wind, salinity, over watering and drought. The types of biotic stresses imposed on a plant depend on both geography and climate and on the host plant and its ability to resist particular stresses. Although there are many kinds of biotic stress, the majority of plant diseases are caused by fungi. Biotic stress remains a broadly defined term and those who study it face many challenges, such as the greater difficulty in controlling biotic stresses in an experimental context compared to abiotic stress.

text: Earthquakes in California are common occurrences since the state is traversed by six major strike-slip fault systems with hundreds of related faults, many of which are "sister faults" of the infamous San Andreas Fault that runs nearly the full length of California at the juncture of the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The fault systems include the Hayward Fault Zone, Calaveras Fault, Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault, and the San Gregorio Fault. Significant blind thrust faults (faults with near vertical motion and no surface ruptures) are associated with portions of the Santa Cruz Mountains and the northern reaches of the Diablo Range and Mount Diablo. The California earthquake forecast gives a rough estimate of where the main earthquake zones in California are. Earthquake damage depends on what area is hit, how close to the surface the center of the earthquake is located, and its magnitude. Earthquake damage, for a given magnitude earthquake, to human structures depends on how well the buildings are built and what the structures are located on. Buildings on soft or filled-in soil suffer the most because they feel shock waves most strongly. Buildings on bedrock suffer less damage because the ground is firmer. Sometimes the ensuing fires, floods or tsunamis caused by the earthquake are often where the greatest damage occurs.

text: Earthquake

text: s in California are common occurrences since the state is traversed by six major

text: strike-slip fault

text: systems with hundreds of related faults, many of which are "sister faults" of the infamous

text: San Andreas Fault

text: that runs nearly the full length of California at the juncture of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . The fault systems include the

text: Hayward Fault Zone

text: Calaveras Fault

text: Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault

text: , and the

text: San Gregorio Fault

text: . Significant blind

text: thrust fault

text: Santa Cruz Mountains

text: and the northern reaches of the

text: Diablo Range

text: and

text: Mount Diablo

text: . The

text: California earthquake forecast

text: gives a rough estimate of where the main earthquake zones in California are. Earthquake damage depends on what area is hit, how close to the surface the center of the earthquake is located, and its magnitude. Earthquake damage, for a given magnitude earthquake, to human structures depends on how well the buildings are built and what the structures are located on. Buildings on soft or filled-in soil suffer the most because they feel shock waves most strongly. Buildings on bedrock suffer less damage because the ground is firmer. Sometimes the ensuing fires, floods or

text: tsunami

text: s caused by the earthquake are often where the greatest damage occurs.

text: Post-perovskite has the same crystal structure as the synthetic solid compound CaIrO, and is often referred to as the "CaIrO-type phase of MgSiO" in the literature. The crystal system of post-perovskite is orthorhombic, its space group is Cmcm, and its structure is a stacked SiO-octahedral sheet along the b axis. The name "post-perovskite" derives from silicate perovskite, the stable phase of MgSiO throughout most of Earth's mantle, which has the perovskite structure. The prefix "post-" refers to the fact that it occurs after perovskite structured MgSiO as pressure increases (and historically, the progression of high pressure mineral physics). At upper mantle pressures, nearest Earth's surface, MgSiO persists as the silicate mineral enstatite, a pyroxene rock forming mineral found in igneous and metamorphic rocks of the crust.

text: Post-perovskite has the same crystal structure as the synthetic solid compound CaIrO, and is often referred to as the "CaIrO-type phase of MgSiO" in the literature. The

text: crystal system

text: of post-perovskite is

text: orthorhombic

text: , its

text: space group

text: is Cmcm, and its structure is a stacked SiO-octahedral sheet along the b axis. The name "post-perovskite" derives from

text: silicate perovskite

text: , the stable phase of MgSiO throughout most of Earth's mantle, which has the

text: perovskite structure

text: . The prefix "post-" refers to the fact that it occurs after perovskite structured MgSiO as pressure increases (and historically, the progression of high pressure mineral physics). At upper mantle pressures, nearest Earth's surface, MgSiO persists as the

text: silicate mineral

text: enstatite

text: , a

text: pyroxene

text: rock forming mineral found in

text: igneous

text: and

text: metamorphic rock

text: s of the

text: crust

text: The Afar Depression is the product of a tectonic triple-rifts junction (the Afar Triple Junction), where the spreading ridges forming the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden emerge on land and meet the East African Rift. The conjunction of these three plates of Earth's crust is near Lake Abbe. The Afar Depression is one of two places on Earth where a mid-ocean ridge can be studied on land, the other being Iceland.

text: The Afar Depression is the product of a

text: tectonic

text: triple-rifts junction

text: (the

text: Afar Triple Junction

text: ), where the spreading ridges forming the

text: Red Sea

text: and the

text: Gulf of Aden

text: emerge on land and meet the

text: East African Rift

text: . The conjunction of these three plates of Earth's crust is near

text: Lake Abbe

text: . The Afar Depression is one of two places on Earth where a

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: can be studied on land, the other being

text: Iceland

text: A permanent meteorological station and a laboratory of the Siberian Institute of the Earth's crust are operating in the village.Population:  consists mainly of the staff of meteorological station.

text: The Ceraunius Fossae fractures are extensional features produced when the crust is stretched apart. The fractures are oriented north-south, radial to an early center of volcano-tectonic activity in Syria Planum, a region in southern Tharsis. A large number of extensional structures, including graben and rifts, radiate outward from the center of Tharsis. Mechanical studies indicate that a regional pattern of radiating graben and rifts is consistent with stresses caused by loading of the lithosphere by the enormous weight of the Tharsis bulge. The immense Valles Marineris is probably the best known example of a rift system that lies radial to Tharsis. Several generations of grabens with slightly different orientations are present in Ceraunius Fossae, indicating that stress fields have changed somewhat over time.

text: The Ceraunius Fossae fractures are

text: extensional

text: features produced when the crust is stretched apart. The fractures are oriented north-south, radial to an early center of volcano-tectonic activity in

text: Syria Planum

text: , a region in southern Tharsis. A large number of extensional structures, including

text: graben

text: and

text: rift

text: s, radiate outward from the center of Tharsis.

text: Mechanical

text: studies indicate that a regional pattern of radiating graben and rifts is consistent with stresses caused by loading of the lithosphere by the enormous weight of the Tharsis bulge. The immense

text: Valles Marineris

text: is probably the best known example of a rift system that lies radial to Tharsis. Several generations of grabens with slightly different orientations are present in Ceraunius Fossae, indicating that

text: stress field

text: s have changed somewhat over time.

text: "There are rifts and rifts," wrote Pisarev of the rift between dreams and reality. "My dream may run ahead of the natural march of events or may fly off at a tangent in a direction in which no natural march of events will ever proceed. In the first case my dream will not cause any harm; it may even support and augment the energy of the working men.... There is nothing in such dreams that would distort or paralyse labour-power. On the contrary, if man were completely deprived of the ability to dream in this way, if he could not from time to time run ahead and mentally conceive, in an entire and completed picture, the product to which his hands are only just beginning to lend shape, then I cannot at all imagine what stimulus there would be to induce man to undertake and complete extensive and strenuous work in the sphere of art, science, and practical endeavour....

text: An orogeny is underway when mountains begin to grow in the collision zone. There are other modes of mountain formation and orogeny but certainly continental collision is one of the most important. Rainfall and snowfall increase on the mountains as these rise, perhaps at a rate of a few millimeters per year (at a growth rate of 1 mm/year, a 5,000 m tall mountain can form in 5 million years, a time period that is less than 10% of the life of a typical collision zone). River systems form, and glaciers may grow on the highest peaks. Erosion accelerates as the mountains rise, and great volumes of sediment are shed into the rivers, which carry sediment away from the mountains to be deposited in sedimentary basins in the surrounding lowlands. Crustal rocks are thrust faulted over the sediments and the mountain belt broadens as it rises in height. A crustal root also develops, as required by isostasy; mountains can be high if underlain by thicker crust. Crustal thickening may happen as a result of crustal shortening or when one crust overthrusts the other. Thickening is accompanied by heating, so the crust becomes weaker as it thickens. The lower crust begins to flow and collapse under the growing mountain mass, forming rifts near the crest of the mountain range. The lower crust may partially melt, forming anatectic granites which then rise into the overlying units, forming granite intrusions. Crustal thickening provides one of two negative feedbacks on mountain growth in collision zones, the other being erosion. The popular notion that erosion is responsible for destroying mountains is only half correct - viscous flow of weak lower mantle also reduces relief with time, especially once the collision is complete and  the two continents are completely sutured.  Convergence between the continents continues because the crust is still being pulled down by oceanic lithosphere sinking in the subduction zone to either side of the collision as well as beneath the impinging continent.

text: An

text: orogeny

text: is underway when mountains begin to grow in the collision zone. There are other modes of mountain formation and orogeny but certainly continental collision is one of the most important.

text: Rain

text: fall and

text: snow

text: fall increase on the mountains as these rise, perhaps at a rate of a few millimeters per year (at a growth rate of 1 mm/year, a 5,000 m tall mountain can form in 5 million years, a time period that is less than 10% of the life of a typical collision zone).

text: River

text: systems form, and

text: glaciers

text: may grow on the highest peaks.

text: Erosion

text: accelerates as the mountains rise, and great volumes of

text: sediment

text: are shed into the rivers, which carry sediment away from the mountains to be deposited in

text: sedimentary basins

text: in the surrounding lowlands. Crustal rocks are

text: thrust fault

text: ed over the sediments and the mountain belt broadens as it rises in height. A crustal root also develops, as required by

text: isostasy

text: ; mountains can be high if underlain by thicker crust. Crustal thickening may happen as a result of crustal shortening or when one crust overthrusts the other. Thickening is accompanied by heating, so the crust becomes weaker as it thickens. The lower crust begins to flow and collapse under the growing mountain mass, forming

text: rifts

text: near the crest of the mountain range. The lower crust may partially

text: melt

text: , forming anatectic granites which then rise into the overlying units, forming

text: granite

text: intrusion

text: s. Crustal thickening provides one of two negative feedbacks on mountain growth in collision zones, the other being erosion. The popular notion that erosion is responsible for destroying mountains is only half correct - viscous flow of weak lower mantle also reduces relief with time, especially once the collision is complete and  the two continents are completely sutured.  Convergence between the continents continues because the crust is still being pulled down by oceanic lithosphere sinking in the subduction zone to either side of the collision as well as beneath the impinging continent.

text: The opposite effect is that of transpression, where converging movement of a curved fault plane causes collision of the opposing sides of the fault.  An example is the San Bernardino Mountains north of Los Angeles, which result from convergence along a curve in the San Andreas fault system.  The Northridge earthquake was caused by vertical movement along local thrust and reverse faults bunching up against the bend in the otherwise strike-slip fault environment.In Nigeria, the dominant type of basement rock intersected by wells drilled for hydrocarbons, limestone, or water is granite. The three sedimentary basins in Nigeria are underlain by continental crust except in the Niger delta, where the basement rock is interpreted to be oceanic crust. Most of the wells that penetrated the basement are in the Eastern Dahomey embayment of western Nigeria. A maximum thickness of about 12,000 m of sedimentary rocks is attained in the offshore western Niger delta, but maximum thicknesses of sedimentary rocks are about 2,000 m in the Chad basin and only 500 m in the Sokoto embayment.

text: The opposite effect is that of transpression, where converging movement of a curved fault plane causes collision of the opposing sides of the fault.  An example is the

text: San Bernardino Mountains

text: north of

text: Los Angeles

text: , which result from convergence along a curve in the

text: San Andreas fault

text: system.  The

text: Northridge earthquake

text: was caused by vertical movement along local thrust and reverse faults bunching up against the bend in the otherwise strike-slip fault environment.In Nigeria, the dominant type of basement rock intersected by wells drilled for hydrocarbons, limestone, or water is granite. The three sedimentary basins in Nigeria are underlain by continental crust except in the Niger delta, where the basement rock is interpreted to be oceanic crust. Most of the wells that penetrated the basement are in the Eastern Dahomey embayment of western Nigeria. A maximum thickness of about 12,000 m of sedimentary rocks is attained in the offshore western Niger delta, but maximum thicknesses of sedimentary rocks are about 2,000 m in the

text: Chad basin

text: and only 500 m in the Sokoto embayment.

text: In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock mass movement. Large faults within the Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as subduction zones or transform faults. Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes.

text: In

text: geology

text: , a fault is a

text: planar

text: fracture

text: or discontinuity in a volume of

text: rock

text: , across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock mass movement. Large faults within the Earth's

text: crust

text: result from the action of

text: plate tectonic

text: forces, with the largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as

text: subduction zones

text: or

text: transform fault

text: s. Energy release associated with rapid movement on

text: active fault

text: s is the cause of most

text: earthquake

text: s.

text: The Andean Volcanic Belt consists of three main volcanic zones: the Northern Volcanic Zone (from 2° N to 5° S), the Central Volcanic Zone (16° to 28° S) and the Southern Volcanic Zone (33° to 46° S). Active volcanism occurs where the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate. The plates are separated by shallower  subduction zones, with no present-day volcanism. These shallower zones have been attributed to the high speed of the plate collision, the young age of the subducting oceanic lithosphere and the curvature of the subducting plate. The most plausible theory is that variations in buoyancy of a subducting plate creates a flat subduction zone. The Cocos, Juan Fernandez and Nazca Ridges are associated with such volcanic gaps where they collide with the oceanic trench. The subduction of spreading ridges can also diminish volcanism, as observed in the Chile Rise farther south. The buoyancy of these crustal structures may hinder subduction, reducing water supply to the mantle and inducing the formation of melts.

text: The

text: Andean Volcanic Belt

text: consists of three main volcanic zones: the

text: Northern Volcanic Zone

text: (from 2° N to 5° S), the Central Volcanic Zone (16° to 28° S) and the

text: Southern Volcanic Zone

text: (33° to 46° S). Active volcanism occurs where the

text: Nazca Plate

text: subducts

text: beneath the

text: South American Plate

text: . The plates are separated by shallower  subduction zones, with no present-day volcanism. These shallower zones have been attributed to the high speed of the plate collision, the young age of the subducting oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: and the curvature of the subducting plate. The most plausible theory is that variations in

text: buoyancy

text: of a subducting plate creates a flat subduction zone. The

text: Cocos

text: Juan Fernandez

text: and

text: Nazca Ridge

text: s are associated with such volcanic gaps where they collide with the

text: oceanic trench

text: . The subduction of

text: spreading ridge

text: s can also diminish volcanism, as observed in the

text: Chile Rise

text: farther south. The buoyancy of these crustal structures may hinder subduction, reducing water supply to the

text: mantle

text: and inducing the formation of

text: melts

text: In the 60s and 70s a simple creationist model proposed that, "The Flood split the land mass into the present continents." Steve Austin and other creationists proposed a preliminary model of catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT) in 1994. Their work built on earlier papers by John Baumgardner and Russell Humphreys in 1986. Baumgardner proposed a model of mantel convection that allows for runaway subduction and Humphrey associated mantle convection with rapid magnetic reversals in earth history. Baumgardner's proposal holds that the rapid plunge of former oceanic plates into the mantle (caused by an unknown trigger-mechanism) increased local mantle pressures to the point that its viscosity dropped several magnitudes according to known properties of mantle silicates.  Once initiated, sinking plates caused the spread of low viscosity throughout the mantle resulting in runaway mantle-convection and catastrophic tectonic motion which dragged continents across the surface of the earth. Once the former ocean plates, which are thought to be denser than the mantle, reached the bottom of the mantle an equilibrium resulted.  Pressures dropped, viscosity increased, runaway mantle-convection stopped, leaving the surface of the earth rearranged.  Proponents point to subducted slabs in the mantle which are still relatively cool, which they regard as evidence that they have not been there for millions of years which would result in temperature equilibration.

text: In the 60s and 70s a simple creationist model proposed that, "The Flood split the land mass into the present continents." Steve Austin and other creationists proposed a preliminary model of catastrophic plate tectonics (CPT) in 1994. Their work built on earlier papers by

text: John Baumgardner

text: and

text: Russell Humphreys

text: in 1986. Baumgardner proposed a model of mantel convection that allows for runaway subduction and Humphrey associated mantle convection with rapid magnetic reversals in earth history. Baumgardner's proposal holds that the rapid plunge of former oceanic plates into the

text: mantle

text: (caused by an unknown trigger-mechanism) increased local mantle pressures to the point that its viscosity dropped several magnitudes according to known properties of mantle silicates.  Once initiated, sinking plates caused the spread of low viscosity throughout the mantle resulting in runaway mantle-convection and catastrophic

text: tectonic

text: motion which dragged continents across the surface of the earth. Once the former ocean plates, which are thought to be denser than the mantle, reached the bottom of the mantle an equilibrium resulted.  Pressures dropped, viscosity increased, runaway mantle-convection stopped, leaving the surface of the earth rearranged.  Proponents point to subducted slabs in the mantle which are still relatively cool, which they regard as evidence that they have not been there for millions of years which would result in temperature equilibration.

text: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau, west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean. To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin. Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km, and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water.  It is part of Zealandia, a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged, and so is composed of continental crust.

text: The Lord Howe Rise is a

text: deep sea

text: plateau

text: which extends from south west of

text: New Caledonia

text: to the

text: Challenger Plateau

text: , west of

text: New Zealand

text: in the south west of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . To its west is the

text: Tasman Basin

text: and to the east is the

text: New Caledonia Basin

text: . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km, and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water.  It is part of

text: Zealandia

text: , a much larger

text: continent

text: that is now mostly submerged, and so is composed of

text: continental crust

text: The term 'megalineament' has been used to describe such features on a continental scale. The trace of the San Andreas Fault might be considered an example.The Trans Brazilian Lineament and the Trans-Saharan Belt, taken together, form perhaps the longest coherent shear zone on the Earth, extending for about 4,000 km.

text: The term 'megalineament' has been used to describe such features on a continental scale. The trace of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: might be considered an example.The

text: Trans Brazilian Lineament

text: and the

text: Trans-Saharan Belt

text: , taken together, form perhaps the longest coherent shear zone on the Earth, extending for about 4,000 km.

text: An example of a convergence zone is the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a low pressure area which girdles the Earth at the Equator. Another example is the South Pacific convergence zone that extends from the western Pacific Ocean toward French Polynesia.

text: An example of a convergence zone is the

text: Intertropical Convergence Zone

text: (ITCZ), a

text: low pressure area

text: which girdles the

text: Earth

text: at the

text: Equator

text: . Another example is the

text: South Pacific convergence zone

text: that extends from the western

text: Pacific Ocean

text: toward

text: French Polynesia

text: The stable form of cobalt is produced in supernovas through the r-process. It comprises 0.0029% of the Earth's crust and is one of the first transition metals.

text: The stable form of cobalt is produced in

text: supernova

text: s through the

text: r-process

text: . It comprises

text: 0.0029% of the Earth's crust

text: and is one of the first

text: transition metal

text: s.

text: Some rifts show a complex and prolonged history of rifting, with several distinct phases. The North Sea rift shows evidence of several separate rift phases from the Permian through to the Earliest Cretaceous, a period of over 100 million years.

text: Some rifts show a complex and prolonged history of rifting, with several distinct phases. The North Sea rift shows evidence of several separate rift phases from the

text: Permian

text: through to the Earliest

text: Cretaceous

text: , a period of over 100 million years.

text: Lake Baikal is in a rift valley, created by the Baikal Rift Zone, where the Earth's crust is slowly pulling apart. At  long and  wide, Lake Baikal has the largest surface area of any freshwater lake in Asia, at , and is the deepest lake in the world at . The bottom of the lake is  below sea level, but below this lies some  of sediment, placing the rift floor some  below the surface: the deepest continental rift on Earth. In geological terms, the rift is young and active—it widens about 2 cm (0.79 in) per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; hot springs occur in the area and notable earthquakes happen every few years. The lake is divided into three basins: North, Central, and South, with depths about , , and , respectively. Fault-controlled accommodation zones rising to depths about  separate the basins. The North and Central basins are separated by Academician Ridge, while the area around the Selenga Delta and the Buguldeika Saddle separates the Central and South basins. The lake drains into the Angara tributary of the Yenisei. Notable landforms include Cape Ryty on Baikal's northwest coast.

text: Lake Baikal is in a rift valley, created by the

text: Baikal Rift Zone

text: , where the Earth's crust is slowly pulling apart. At  long and  wide, Lake Baikal has the largest surface area of any freshwater lake in Asia, at , and is the deepest lake in the world at . The bottom of the lake is  below sea level, but below this lies some  of

text: sediment

text: , placing the rift floor some  below the surface: the deepest continental

text: rift

text: on Earth. In geological terms, the rift is young and active—it widens about 2 cm (0.79 in) per year. The fault zone is also seismically active; hot springs occur in the area and notable

text: earthquake

text: s happen every few years. The lake is divided into three basins: North, Central, and South, with depths about , , and , respectively. Fault-controlled accommodation zones rising to depths about  separate the basins. The North and Central basins are separated by

text: Academician Ridge

text: , while the area around the Selenga Delta and the Buguldeika Saddle separates the Central and South basins. The lake drains into the

text: Angara

text: tributary of the

text: Yenisei

text: . Notable landforms include

text: Cape Ryty

text: on Baikal's northwest coast.

text: The North American Plate is a tectonic plate covering most of North America, Greenland, Cuba, the Bahamas, extreme northeastern Russia, and parts of Iceland and the Azores.  It extends eastward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and westward to the Chersky Range in eastern Siberia.  The plate includes both continental and oceanic crust.  The interior of the main continental landmass includes an extensive granitic core called a craton.  Along most of the edges of this craton are fragments of crustal material called  terranes, accreted to the craton by tectonic actions over the long span of geologic time. It is thought that much of North America west of the Rocky Mountains is composed of such terranes.

text: The North American Plate is a

text: tectonic plate

text: covering most of

text: North America

text: Greenland

text: Cuba

text: , the

text: Bahamas

text: , extreme northeastern

text: Russia

text: , and parts of

text: Iceland

text: and

text: the Azores

text: .  It extends eastward to the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: and westward to the

text: Chersky Range

text: in eastern Siberia.  The plate includes both

text: continental

text: and

text: oceanic crust

text: .  The interior of the main continental landmass includes an extensive

text: granitic

text: core called a

text: craton

text: .  Along most of the edges of this craton are fragments of crustal material called

text: terrane

text: s, accreted to the craton by tectonic actions over the long span of geologic time. It is thought that much of North America west of the

text: Rocky Mountains

text: is composed of such terranes.

text: The Earth's crust is made of approximately 5% of heavy metals by weight, with iron comprising 95% of this quantity. Light metals (~20%) and nonmetals (~75%) make up the other 95% of the crust. Despite their overall scarcity, heavy metals can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain building, erosion, or other geological processes.

text: The Earth's crust is made of approximately 5% of heavy metals by weight, with iron comprising 95% of this quantity. Light metals (~20%) and nonmetals (~75%) make up the other 95% of the crust. Despite their overall scarcity, heavy metals can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of

text: mountain building

text: erosion

text: , or other

text: geological processes

text: All of Maria Gordon's geological research was carried out in the South Tyrol, an area of the Italian Alps close to the border with Austria. This area of the Alps is part of the geologically-complex Dolomites. The Dolomites  are a very distinct range of mountains, characterised by high, dramatic peaks, which were thought to have been formed from the remains of coral atolls in an ancient sea. Gordon challenged this idea with her theory of 'crust-torsion', the notion that the mountains had been formed by the pushing, twisting and folding of the earth's crust. Through observation and measurement of the geological structures in the Dolomites, she was able to determine that there were two phases of folding and structural deformation, leading to a new interpretation of the tectonic structure of the Alps.

text: All of Maria Gordon's geological research was carried out in the South Tyrol, an area of the Italian Alps close to the border with Austria. This area of the Alps is part of the geologically-complex

text: Dolomites

text: . The Dolomites  are a very distinct range of mountains, characterised by high, dramatic peaks, which were thought to have been formed from the remains of

text: coral atolls

text: in an ancient sea. Gordon challenged this idea with her theory of 'crust-torsion', the notion that the mountains had been formed by the pushing, twisting and folding of the earth's crust. Through observation and measurement of the geological structures in the Dolomites, she was able to determine that there were two phases of folding and structural deformation, leading to a new interpretation of the tectonic structure of the Alps.

text: The Böllstein gneiss and basalt Otzberg caused by large movements of the earth's crust in two different geological eras:

text: A chiffon pie is a type of pie that consists of a special type of airy mousse-like filling in a crust.  The filling is typically produced by folding meringue and/or whipped cream into a mixture resembling fruit curd (most commonly lemon) that has been thickened with unflavored gelatin.  This filling is then put into a pre-baked pie shell of variable composition.  This same technique can also be used with canned pumpkin to produce pumpkin chiffon pie.

text: A chiffon pie is a type of pie that consists of a special type of airy

text: mousse

text: -like filling in a crust.  The filling is typically produced by folding

text: meringue

text: and/or whipped cream into a mixture resembling

text: fruit curd

text: (most commonly lemon) that has been thickened with unflavored

text: gelatin

text: .  This filling is then put into a pre-baked pie shell of variable composition.  This same technique can also be used with canned pumpkin to produce pumpkin chiffon pie.

text: The mountain is formed by the same structural fold in the Earth's crust which continues north from Laurel as Briery Mountains (north of Cheat River) and south as Rich Mountain (south of the Tygart Valley River). The mountain is characteristic of the long, folded mountains of the Appalachian Valley and Ridge Region and is located at the western edge of that physiographic province.

text: The mountain is formed by the same structural fold in the Earth's crust which continues north from Laurel as

text: Briery Mountains

text: (north of

text: Cheat River

text: ) and south as

text: Rich Mountain

text: (south of the

text: Tygart Valley River

text: ). The mountain is characteristic of the long, folded mountains of the Appalachian

text: Valley and Ridge Region

text: and is located at the western edge of that

text: physiographic province

text: Modern regional structure is being investigated using seismic tomography and seismic reflection in three dimensions, providing unrivaled images of the Earth's interior, its faults and the deep crust. Further information from geophysics such as gravity and airborne magnetics can provide information on the nature of rocks imaged to be in the deep crust.

text: Modern regional structure is being investigated using

text: seismic tomography

text: and

text: seismic

text: reflection in three dimensions, providing unrivaled images of the Earth's interior, its faults and the deep crust. Further information from

text: geophysics

text: such as

text: gravity

text: and airborne magnetics can provide information on the nature of rocks imaged to be in the deep crust.

text: A torsion spring is a spring that works by torsion or twisting; that is, a flexible elastic object that stores mechanical energy when it is twisted.  When it is twisted, it exerts a force (actually torque) in the opposite direction, proportional to the amount (angle) it is twisted.  There are two types.  A torsion bar is a straight bar of metal or rubber that is subjected to twisting (shear stress) about its axis by torque applied at its ends.  A more delicate form used in sensitive instruments, called a torsion fiber consists of a fiber of silk, glass, or quartz under tension, that is twisted about its axis.  The other type, a helical torsion spring, is a metal rod or wire in the shape of a helix (coil) that is subjected to twisting about the axis of the coil by sideways forces (bending moments) applied to its ends, twisting the coil tighter.  This terminology can be confusing because in a helical torsion spring the forces acting on the wire are actually bending stresses, not torsional (shear) stresses.

text: A torsion spring is a

text: spring

text: that works by

text: torsion

text: or twisting; that is, a flexible

text: elastic

text: object that stores

text: mechanical energy

text: when it is twisted.  When it is twisted, it exerts a force (actually

text: torque

text: ) in the opposite direction, proportional to the amount (angle) it is twisted.  There are two types.  A torsion bar is a straight bar of metal or rubber that is subjected to twisting (

text: shear stress

text: ) about its axis by torque applied at its ends.  A more delicate form used in sensitive instruments, called a torsion fiber consists of a

text: fiber

text: of silk, glass, or

text: quartz

text: under tension, that is twisted about its axis.  The other type, a helical torsion spring, is a metal rod or wire in the shape of a

text: helix

text: (coil) that is subjected to twisting about the axis of the coil by sideways forces (

text: bending moment

text: s) applied to its ends, twisting the coil tighter.  This terminology can be confusing because in a helical torsion spring the forces acting on the wire are actually bending stresses, not

text: torsional

text: (shear) stresses.

text: One of the three models for the thinning and rifting of the continental crust of the South China Sea is initiated by Java and Sumatra subduction causing extrusion and slab roll back along the margin. The stresses from these were experienced in the South China Sea and together they caused the southward extension of the South China Sea. This model indicates subduction to the south of Borneo near Java and Sumatra but not subduction of Borneo or beneath Borneo. This is unlikely to have caused South China Sea spreading singlehandedly but probably contributed to the forces involved.

text: One of the three models for the thinning and rifting of the

text: continental crust

text: of the South China Sea is initiated by Java and Sumatra subduction causing extrusion and slab roll back along the margin. The stresses from these were experienced in the South China Sea and together they caused the southward extension of the South China Sea. This model indicates subduction to the south of Borneo near Java and Sumatra but not subduction of Borneo or beneath Borneo. This is unlikely to have caused South China Sea spreading singlehandedly but probably contributed to the forces involved.

text: When one or more salt layers are present during extensional tectonics, a characteristic set of structures are formed. Extensional faults propagate up from the middle part of the crust until they encounter the salt layer. The weakness of the salt prevents the fault from propagating through. However, continuing displacement on the fault offsets the base of the salt and causes bending of the overburden layer. Eventually the stresses caused by this bending will be sufficient to fault the overburden. The types of structures developed depend on the initial salt thickness. In the case of a very thick salt layer there is no direct spatial relationship between the faulting beneath the salt and that in the overburden, such a system is said to be unlinked. For intermediate salt thicknesses, the overburden faults are spatially related to the deeper faults, but offset from them, normally into the footwall; these are known as soft-linked systems. When the salt layer becomes thin enough, the fault that develops in the overburden is closely aligned with that beneath the salt, and forms a continuous fault surface after only a relatively small displacement, forming a hard-linked fault.

text: When one or more salt layers are present during

text: extensional tectonics

text: , a characteristic set of structures are formed. Extensional faults propagate up from the middle part of the crust until they encounter the salt layer. The weakness of the salt prevents the fault from propagating through. However, continuing displacement on the fault offsets the base of the salt and causes bending of the overburden layer. Eventually the stresses caused by this bending will be sufficient to fault the overburden. The types of structures developed depend on the initial salt thickness. In the case of a very thick salt layer there is no direct spatial relationship between the faulting beneath the salt and that in the overburden, such a system is said to be unlinked. For intermediate salt thicknesses, the overburden faults are spatially related to the deeper faults, but offset from them, normally into the footwall; these are known as soft-linked systems. When the salt layer becomes thin enough, the fault that develops in the overburden is closely aligned with that beneath the salt, and forms a continuous fault surface after only a relatively small displacement, forming a hard-linked fault.

text: Fold mountains are mountains that form mainly by the effects of folding on layers within the upper part of the Earth's crust. Before either plate tectonic theory developed, or the internal architecture of thrust belts became well understood, the term was used for most mountain belts, such as the Himalayas. The term is still fairly common in physical geography literature but has otherwise generally fallen out of use except as described below. The forces responsible for formation of fold mountains are called orogenic movements. The term orogenic has derived from a Greek word meaning mountain building. These forces act at tangent to the surface of the earth and are primarily a result of plate tectonics.

text: Fold mountains are

text: mountain

text: s that form mainly by the effects of

text: folding

text: on layers within the upper part of the

text: Earth's crust

text: . Before either

text: plate tectonic

text: theory developed, or the internal architecture of

text: thrust belts

text: became well understood, the term was used for most mountain belts, such as the

text: Himalayas

text: . The term is still fairly common in

text: physical geography

text: literature but has otherwise generally fallen out of use except as described below. The forces responsible for formation of fold mountains are called

text: orogenic

text: movements. The term orogenic has derived from a Greek word meaning mountain building. These forces act at tangent to the surface of the earth and are primarily a result of

text: plate tectonics

text: Discharge's influence can also be seen in the range of cover versions recorded by hardcore punk and metal groups. The Scottish anarcho-punk band Oi Polloi covered the song "State Violence, State Control". During the same period, the Swedish hardcore punk band Mob 47 covered "Never Again" on their Ultimate Attack recording. New York City anarchist crust band Nausea, active from 1985–1992, recorded "Ain't No Feeble Bastard" along with "Hear Nothing, See Nothing, Say Nothing", on The Punk Terrorist Anthology, Vol. 1. Swedish grindcore band Nasum covered "Visions of War" for a tribute compilation. The Southern American punk metal band The Cooters covered "A Hell on Earth/Cries of Help" on their 2005 album Chaos or Bust. D-beat/hardcore punk band From Ashes Rise recorded the nuclear war-themed "Hell on Earth". In 2003, US hardcore band Ensign covered "Protest and Survive" on their album of covers Love the Music, Hate the Kids. In 2009 Peruvian crust punk band Reciklaje cover "The Nightmare Continues" for their album El Declive de las Estructuras

text: Discharge's influence can also be seen in the range of cover versions recorded by hardcore punk and metal groups. The Scottish anarcho-punk band

text: Oi Polloi

text: covered the song "State Violence, State Control". During the same period, the Swedish hardcore punk band

text: Mob 47

text: covered "Never Again" on their Ultimate Attack recording. New York City anarchist crust band

text: Nausea

text: , active from 1985–1992, recorded "Ain't No Feeble Bastard" along with "Hear Nothing, See Nothing, Say Nothing", on The Punk Terrorist Anthology, Vol. 1. Swedish

text: grindcore

text: band

text: Nasum

text: covered "Visions of War" for a tribute compilation. The Southern American

text: punk metal

text: band

text: The Cooters

text: covered "A Hell on Earth/Cries of Help" on their 2005 album Chaos or Bust. D-beat/hardcore punk band

text: From Ashes Rise

text: recorded the nuclear war-themed "Hell on Earth". In 2003, US hardcore band

text: Ensign

text: covered "Protest and Survive" on their album of covers

text: Love the Music, Hate the Kids

text: . In 2009 Peruvian crust punk band

text: Reciklaje

text: cover "The Nightmare Continues" for their album El Declive de las Estructuras

text: The second view (Protopangea-Paleopangea), based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence, is that supercontinent cycles did not occur before about 0.6 Ga (during the Ediacaran Period). Instead, the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from about 2.7 Ga (Gigaanum, or "billion years ago") until it broke up for the first time, somewhere around 0.6 Ga. This reconstruction is based on the observation that if only small peripheral modifications are made to the primary reconstruction, the data show that the palaeomagnetic poles converged to quasi-static positions for long intervals between about 2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25 and 0.75–0.6 Ga. During the intervening periods, the poles appear to have conformed to a unified apparent polar wander path. Thus the paleomagnetic data are adequately explained by the existence of a single Protopangea–Paleopangea supercontinent with prolonged quasi-integrity. The prolonged duration of this supercontinent could be explained by the operation of lid tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) during Precambrian times, as opposed to the plate tectonics seen on the contemporary Earth.

text: The second view (Protopangea-Paleopangea), based on both

text: palaeomagnetic

text: and geological evidence, is that supercontinent cycles did not occur before about 0.6

text: Ga

text: (during the

text: Ediacaran

text: Period). Instead, the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from about 2.7 Ga (Gigaanum, or "billion years ago") until it broke up for the first time, somewhere around 0.6 Ga. This reconstruction is based on the observation that if only small peripheral modifications are made to the primary reconstruction, the data show that the palaeomagnetic poles converged to quasi-static positions for long intervals between about 2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25 and 0.75–0.6 Ga. During the intervening periods, the poles appear to have conformed to a unified

text: apparent polar wander

text: path. Thus the paleomagnetic data are adequately explained by the existence of a single Protopangea–Paleopangea supercontinent with prolonged quasi-integrity. The prolonged duration of this supercontinent could be explained by the operation of lid tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) during

text: Precambrian

text: times, as opposed to the plate tectonics seen on the contemporary Earth.

text: When differential stresses exist in the Earth, these can be accommodated either by geological faulting in the brittle crust, or by ductile flow in the hotter and more fluid mantle.  Where faults occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the hanging wall of normal faults.  In reverse, or thrust, faults, relative subsidence may be measured in the footwall.

text: When differential stresses exist in the Earth, these can be accommodated either by

text: geological faulting

text: in the brittle

text: crust

text: , or by

text: ductile

text: flow in the hotter and more fluid

text: mantle

text: .  Where faults occur, absolute subsidence may occur in the hanging wall of normal faults.  In reverse, or thrust, faults, relative subsidence may be measured in the footwall.

text: When a transverse shear force is applied to a structure, such as a beam, the result is variation in bending normal stresses along the length of the beam. This variation necessitates an internal horizontal shear stress within the beam that varies with position y’ from the neutral axis in the beam. The concept of complementary shear then dictates that a shear stress also exists along the front face of the beam. As described above, in thin-walled structures the variation with thickness can be neglected, and the shear stress along the front face of the structure can be examined as shear flow, or the shear stress multiplied by the thickness of the element.

text: The calc-alkaline magma series is one of two main subdivisions of the subalkaline magma series, the other subalkaline magma series being the tholeiitic. A magma series is a series of compositions that describes the evolution of a mafic magma, which is high in magnesium and iron and produces basalt or gabbro, as it fractionally crystallizes to become a felsic magma, which is low in magnesium and iron and produces rhyolite or granite. Calc-alkaline rocks are rich in alkaline earths (magnesia and calcium oxide) and alkali metals and make up a major part of the crust of the continents.

text: The calc-alkaline magma series is one of two main subdivisions of the subalkaline

text: magma series

text: , the other subalkaline magma series being the

text: tholeiitic

text: . A magma series is a series of compositions that describes the evolution of a

text: mafic

text: magma, which is high in

text: magnesium

text: and

text: iron

text: and produces

text: basalt

text: or

text: gabbro

text: , as it

text: fractionally crystallizes

text: to become a

text: felsic

text: magma, which is low in magnesium and iron and produces

text: rhyolite

text: or

text: granite

text: . Calc-alkaline

text: rocks

text: are rich in

text: alkaline earths

text: magnesia

text: and

text: calcium oxide

text: ) and

text: alkali metal

text: s and make up a major part of the

text: crust of the continents

text: Evidence of both thrust faulting and strike-slip faulting is present in the Plomosa Mountains.

text: Evidence of both

text: thrust fault

text: ing and

text: strike-slip faulting

text: is present in the Plomosa Mountains.

text: Many chaperones are  heat shock proteins, that is, proteins expressed in response to elevated temperatures or other cellular stresses. The reason for this behaviour is that protein folding is severely affected by heat and, therefore, some chaperones act to prevent or correct damage caused by misfolding. Other chaperones are involved in folding newly made proteins as they are extruded from the ribosome. Although most newly synthesized proteins can fold in absence of chaperones, a minority strictly requires them for the same.

text: Many chaperones are

text: heat shock protein

text: s, that is, proteins

text: expressed

text: in response to elevated temperatures or other cellular stresses. The reason for this behaviour is that

text: protein folding

text: is severely affected by heat and, therefore, some chaperones act to prevent or correct damage caused by misfolding. Other chaperones are involved in folding newly made proteins as they are extruded from the ribosome. Although most newly synthesized proteins can fold in absence of chaperones, a minority strictly requires them for the same.

text: The use of reflection seismology in studies of tectonics and the Earth's crust was pioneered in the 1970s by groups such as the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP), who inspired deep seismic exploration in other countries such as BIRPS in Great Britain and ECORS in France. The British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndicate (BIRPS) was started up as a result of oil hydrocarbon exploration in the North Sea.  It became clear that there was a lack of understanding of the tectonic processes that had formed the geological structures and sedimentary basins which were being explored.  The effort produced some significant results and showed that it is possible to profile features such as thrust faults that penetrate through the crust to the upper mantle with marine seismic surveys.

text: The use of reflection seismology in studies of

text: tectonics

text: and the Earth's crust was pioneered in the 1970s by groups such as the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP), who inspired deep seismic exploration in other countries such as BIRPS in Great Britain and ECORS in France. The British Institutions Reflection Profiling Syndicate (BIRPS) was started up as a result of oil hydrocarbon exploration in the North Sea.  It became clear that there was a lack of understanding of the tectonic processes that had formed the geological structures and

text: sedimentary basin

text: s which were being explored.  The effort produced some significant results and showed that it is possible to profile features such as

text: thrust fault

text: s that penetrate through the crust to the

text: upper mantle

text: with marine seismic surveys.

text: The San Gabriel Fault was once part of the San Andreas Fault, and is believed to be the former path of it. It is also believed that the northwestern end of this fault zone meets the current San Andreas Fault zone beneath the Frazier Mountain Thrust, near the juncture of the San Andreas with the Garlock Fault and Big Pine Fault.

text: The San Gabriel Fault was once part of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , and is believed to be the former path of it. It is also believed that the northwestern end of this fault zone meets the current San Andreas Fault zone beneath the Frazier Mountain Thrust, near the juncture of the San Andreas with the

text: Garlock Fault

text: and Big Pine Fault.

text: The second group of younger Early Paleoproterozoic igneous intrusive rocks is quite different in style, age, and significance. These igneous intrusive rocks consist of granitic and pegmatitic dike swarms, i.e. the Cottonwood, Cremation, Sapphire, and Garnet pegmatite complexes, that cut the Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite from east to west. They formed as granite magma, and related pegmatite fluids, filled crack-systems as magma migrated through the crust. The chemical composition of the granite and pegmatite comprising these dike swarms is indicative of the partial melting of the metasedimetary and metavolcanic rocks of the Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite both in-place and at greater depth, in the crust. These dikes exhibit a wide variability in the degree that they have been deformed from straight and nearly undeformed – to varying degrees of folding, stretching, and shearing. The variable degree of the deformation of these structures is interpreted to indicate that these dike swarms were emplaced during a period of significant mountain building and crustal thickening that was possibly associated with continental collision.

text: The second group of younger Early Paleoproterozoic igneous intrusive rocks is quite different in style, age, and significance. These igneous intrusive rocks consist of granitic and pegmatitic dike swarms, i.e. the Cottonwood, Cremation, Sapphire, and Garnet pegmatite complexes, that cut the Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite from east to west. They formed as granite

text: magma

text: , and related pegmatite fluids, filled crack-systems as magma migrated through the crust. The chemical composition of the granite and pegmatite comprising these dike swarms is indicative of the partial melting of the metasedimetary and metavolcanic rocks of the Granite Gorge Metamorphic Suite both in-place and at greater depth, in the crust. These dikes exhibit a wide variability in the degree that they have been deformed from straight and nearly undeformed – to varying degrees of folding, stretching, and shearing. The variable degree of the deformation of these structures is interpreted to indicate that these dike swarms were emplaced during a period of significant mountain building and crustal thickening that was possibly associated with continental collision.

text: Radiogenic isotope tracers are most powerful when used together with other tracers: The more tracers used, the more control on mixing processes. An example of this application is to the evolution of the Earth's crust and Earth's mantle through geological time.

text: Radiogenic isotope tracers are most powerful when used together with other tracers: The more tracers used, the more control on mixing processes. An example of this application is to the evolution of the

text: Earth's crust

text: and

text: Earth's mantle

text: through geological time.

text: This earthquake occurred three hours after the 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake, which was centered  to the east.  The closely timed occurrence of these earthquakes is an often-cited example of a regional earthquake sequence. Both earthquakes had occurred significantly close to the southern portion of the San Andreas Fault, and the Landers event may have reduced the compressional stress in that area.

text: This earthquake occurred three hours after the 7.3 magnitude

text: Landers earthquake

text: , which was centered  to the east.  The closely timed occurrence of these earthquakes is an often-cited example of a regional earthquake sequence. Both earthquakes had occurred significantly close to the southern portion of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , and the Landers event may have reduced the compressional stress in that area.

text: Purdue Pharma makes pain medicines such as hydromorphone, oxycodone, fentanyl, codeine, and hydrocodone. It is widely known for the production of drugs such as MS Contin, Oxycontin, and Ryzolt. In 1972, Contin (a controlled drug-release system) was developed. In 1984, its extended-release formulation of morphine, MS Contin, was released. In 1996 its extended-release formulation of oxycodone, OxyContin, was released.

text: Purdue Pharma makes pain medicines such as

text: hydromorphone

text: oxycodone

text: fentanyl

text: codeine

text: , and

text: hydrocodone

text: . It is widely known for the production of drugs such as MS Contin, Oxycontin, and Ryzolt. In 1972, Contin (a controlled drug-release system) was developed. In 1984, its extended-release formulation of morphine, MS Contin, was released. In 1996 its extended-release formulation of oxycodone, OxyContin, was released.

text: Those who favour non-existent subduction in the Archean point to the well-established model that the Archean Earth was significantly hotter than it is today, which would have affected lithospheric density in such a way as to perhaps prohibit subduction. The higher temperatures of the Archean Earth can be attributed to the release of tremendous amounts of energy from the accretion of solar system material and subsequent differentiation into core and mantle. This energy, coupled with a greater concentration of heat-producing elements, led to the Earth being 200 K hotter in the Archean than it is today. Assuming seafloor spreading generated oceanic lithosphere in the Archean, higher temperatures led to greater melting of mantle material rising at oceanic spreading centres. This in turn produced thicker oceanic crust and thicker regions of underlying depleted lithospheric mantle. As such, the density of the lithosphere was reduced due to both differentiation of the crust from the mantle and the ensuing relative depletion of the residual mantle in Fe and Al. These expected properties have led to suggestions that oceanic lithosphere was so light that it subducted very shallowly or not at all. Scientists who favour this hypothesis argue that felsic material formed from hydrous partial melting of thickened oceanic crust in the root zones of oceanic plateaus, and not from subduction zones as generally believed.

text: Those who favour non-existent subduction in the Archean point to the well-established model that the Archean Earth was significantly hotter than it is today, which would have affected lithospheric

text: density

text: in such a way as to perhaps prohibit subduction. The higher

text: temperatures

text: of the Archean Earth can be attributed to the release of tremendous amounts of

text: energy

text: from the

text: accretion

text: of

text: solar system

text: material and subsequent differentiation into

text: core

text: and

text: mantle

text: . This energy, coupled with a greater concentration of heat-producing

text: elements

text: , led to the Earth being 200 K hotter in the Archean than it is today. Assuming

text: seafloor spreading

text: generated oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: in the Archean, higher temperatures led to greater

text: melting

text: of mantle material rising at oceanic spreading centres. This in turn produced thicker

text: oceanic crust

text: and thicker regions of underlying depleted lithospheric mantle. As such, the density of the lithosphere was reduced due to both differentiation of the crust from the mantle and the ensuing relative depletion of the residual mantle in

text: Fe

text: and

text: Al

text: . These expected properties have led to suggestions that oceanic lithosphere was so light that it subducted very shallowly or not at all. Scientists who favour this hypothesis argue that

text: felsic

text: material formed from hydrous

text: partial melting

text: of thickened oceanic crust in the root zones of

text: oceanic plateau

text: s, and not from subduction zones as generally believed.

text: Several enormous, circular impact basins are present on Mars. The largest one that is readily visible is the Hellas basin located in the southern hemisphere. It is the second largest confirmed impact structure on the planet, centered at about 64°E longitude and 40°S latitude. The central part of the basin (Hellas Planitia) is 1,800 km in diameter and surrounded by a broad, heavily eroded annular rim structure characterized by closely spaced rugged irregular mountains (massifs), which probably represent uplifted, jostled blocks of old pre-basin crust. (See Anseris Mons, for example.) Ancient, low-relief volcanic constructs (highland paterae) are located on the northeastern and southwestern portions of the rim. The basin floor contains thick, structurally complex sedimentary deposits that have a long geologic history of deposition, erosion, and internal deformation. The lowest elevations on the planet are located within the Hellas basin, with some areas of the basin floor lying over 8 km below datum.

text: Several enormous, circular impact basins are present on Mars. The largest one that is readily visible is the

text: Hellas basin

text: located in the southern hemisphere. It is the second largest confirmed impact structure on the planet, centered at about 64°E longitude and 40°S latitude. The central part of the basin (Hellas Planitia) is 1,800 km in diameter and surrounded by a broad, heavily eroded

text: annular

text: rim structure characterized by closely spaced rugged irregular mountains (

text: massif

text: s), which probably represent uplifted, jostled blocks of old pre-basin crust. (See

text: Anseris Mons

text: , for example.) Ancient, low-relief volcanic constructs (highland paterae) are located on the northeastern and southwestern portions of the rim. The basin floor contains thick, structurally complex sedimentary deposits that have a long geologic history of deposition, erosion, and internal deformation. The lowest elevations on the planet are located within the Hellas basin, with some areas of the basin floor lying over 8 km below datum.

text: Psychological and physical stress can induce a variety of alterations in intestinal function. These include changes in gut motility, intestinal permeability, ion flux, fluid balance and mucus secretion. Furthermore, acute and chronic stress in animal models has shown that stress can cause degradation of intestinal barrier function. Psychological stress can influence the clinical outcome of inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome. Long-term stress has been shown to be positively associated with an increased propensity for relapse of ulcerative colitis.

text: Psychological

text: and

text: physical stress

text: can induce a variety of alterations in intestinal function. These include changes in

text: gut motility

text: intestinal permeability

text: , ion flux,

text: fluid balance

text: and mucus secretion. Furthermore, acute and chronic stress in

text: animal models

text: has shown that stress can cause degradation of intestinal barrier function. Psychological stress can influence the clinical outcome of

text: inflammatory bowel disease

text: and

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: . Long-term stress has been shown to be positively associated with an increased propensity for relapse of

text: ulcerative colitis

text: The duo would frequently promise a celebrity guest such as Burt Reynolds, who turned out to be Vic in a bizarre outfit yelling about his book Coping With Stress, Cuban soap star Juan Nelly The Elephant (Vic), who kept intermittently turning into an electrical salesman, and Ian Crust, the Inventor of the Bag (Bob).

text: The duo would frequently promise a celebrity guest such as

text: Burt Reynolds

text: , who turned out to be Vic in a bizarre outfit yelling about his book Coping With Stress, Cuban soap star Juan Nelly The Elephant (Vic), who kept intermittently turning into an electrical salesman, and Ian Crust, the Inventor of the Bag (Bob).

text: A subduction zone is a region of the earth's crust where one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate; oceanic crust gets recycled back into the mantle and continental crust gets created by the formation of arc magmas. Arc magmas account for more than 20% of terrestrially produced magmas and are produced by the dehydration of minerals within the subducting slab as it descends into the mantle and are accreted onto the base of the overriding continental plate. Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.

text: A

text: subduction zone

text: is a region of the earth's crust where one

text: tectonic plate

text: moves under another tectonic plate;

text: oceanic crust

text: gets recycled back into the mantle and

text: continental crust

text: gets created by the formation of arc

text: magma

text: s. Arc magmas account for more than 20% of terrestrially produced magmas and are produced by the dehydration of minerals within the subducting slab as it descends into the mantle and are accreted onto the base of the overriding continental plate. Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.

text: However, when a plate carrying oceanic crust subducts under a plate carrying an igneous oceanic plateau, the volcanism which erupts on the plateau as the oceanic crust heats up on its descent into the mantle erupts material which is more felsic than the material which makes up the plateau.  This represents a step toward creating crust which is increasingly continental in character, being less dense and more buoyant.  If an igneous oceanic plateau is subducted underneath another one, or under existing continental crust, the eruptions produced thereby produce material that is yet more felsic, and so on through geologic time.

text: However, when a

text: plate

text: carrying oceanic crust

text: subducts

text: under a plate carrying an igneous oceanic plateau, the volcanism which erupts on the plateau as the oceanic crust heats up on its descent into the mantle erupts material which is more felsic than the material which makes up the plateau.  This represents a step toward creating crust which is increasingly continental in character, being less dense and more buoyant.  If an igneous oceanic plateau is subducted underneath another one, or under existing continental crust, the eruptions produced thereby produce material that is yet more felsic, and so on through geologic time.

text: Nonetheless, Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life, and fossil evidence from the Earth supplies most studies of abiogenesis. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, and possibly as early as the Eoarchean Era, after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of biogenic substances includes graphite and possibly stromatolites discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in southwestern Greenland, as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to a scientist who commented on the study, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe."

text: Nonetheless, Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life, and fossil evidence from the Earth supplies most studies of abiogenesis. The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, and possibly as early as the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era, after a geological

text: crust

text: started to solidify following the earlier molten

text: Hadean

text: Eon

text: Microbial mat

text: fossil

text: s have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of

text: biogenic substance

text: s includes

text: graphite

text: and possibly

text: stromatolites

text: discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: in southwestern

text: Greenland

text: , as well as "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to a scientist who commented on the study, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: In geology, the sial refers to the composition of the upper layer of the Earth's crust, namely rocks rich in silicates and aluminium minerals.  It is sometimes equated with the continental crust because it is absent in the wide oceanic basins, but "sial" is a geochemical term rather than a plate tectonic term. As these elements are less dense than the majority of the earth's elements, they tend to be concentrated in the upper layer of the crust.

text: In

text: geology

text: , the sial refers to the composition of the upper layer of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: , namely rocks rich in

text: silicate

text: s and

text: aluminium

text: minerals.  It is sometimes equated with the

text: continental crust

text: because it is absent in the wide

text: oceanic basin

text: s, but "sial" is a

text: geochemical

text: term rather than a

text: plate tectonic

text: term. As these elements are less dense than the majority of the earth's elements, they tend to be concentrated in the upper layer of the crust.

text: The Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley, a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley.

text: The Horn of Africa is almost

text: equidistant

text: from the

text: equator

text: and the

text: Tropic of Cancer

text: . It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the

text: Great Rift Valley

text: , a fissure in the Earth's

text: crust

text: extending from

text: Turkey

text: to

text: Mozambique

text: and marking the separation of the African and Arabian

text: tectonic plates

text: . Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley.

text: Tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus from the Greek τεκτονικός, "pertaining to building") is concerned with the processes which control the structure and properties of the Earth's crust, and its evolution through time. In particular, it describes the processes of mountain building, the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents known as cratons, and the ways in which the relatively rigid plates that constitute the Earth's outer shell interact with each other. Tectonics also provides a framework to understand the earthquake and volcanic belts which directly affect much of the global population. Tectonic studies are important for understanding erosion patterns in geomorphology and as guides for the economic geologist searching for petroleum and metallic ores.

text: Tectonics (from the

text: Late Latin

text: tectonicus

text: from the

text: Greek

text: τεκτονικός, "pertaining to

text: building

text: ") is concerned with the processes which control the structure and properties of the Earth's crust, and its evolution through time. In particular, it describes the processes of

text: mountain building

text: , the growth and behavior of the strong, old cores of continents known as

text: craton

text: s, and the ways in which the relatively rigid

text: plates

text: that constitute the Earth's outer shell interact with each other. Tectonics also provides a framework to understand the

text: earthquake

text: and

text: volcanic belt

text: s which directly affect much of the global population. Tectonic studies are important for understanding

text: erosion

text: patterns in

text: geomorphology

text: and as guides for the

text: economic geologist

text: searching for

text: petroleum

text: and

text: metal

text: lic

text: ore

text: s.

text: The Indian plate continues to move north relative to Asia at the rate of approximately  per year. This is approximately twice the speed at which human fingernails grow, which is very fast given the size of the blocks of Earth's crust involved. As the strong Indian continental crust subducts beneath the relatively weak Tibetan crust, it pushes up the Himalayan Mountains. This collision zone has accommodated huge amounts of crustal shortening as the rock sequences slide one over another.

text: Also in 1989, the National Endowment for the Humanities chose him as the winner for the Jefferson Lecture in the Humanities. He read his essay, "The Fateful Rift: The San Andreas Fault in the Modern Mind."

text: Also in 1989, the

text: National Endowment for the Humanities

text: chose him as the winner for the

text: Jefferson Lecture

text: in the Humanities. He read his essay, "The Fateful Rift: The San Andreas Fault in the Modern Mind."

text: The Sawatch Uplift  is a prominent geologic anticline in the Rocky Mountains in central Colorado in the United States. It was formed as a bulge in the North American Plate approximately 70–65 MYA during the Laramide orogeny that created the modern Rocky Mountains. The uplift runs north-south for several hundred miles from central Colorado into northern New Mexico. The Sawatch Range and Mosquito Range were both formed as part of the uplift. Approximately 35 MYA, stresses in the continental plate in the center of the uplift caused the center to collapse, forming a trough between the Sawatch and Mosquito Range that is part of the larger Rio Grande Rift. The trough runs southward from Leadville, CO into New Mexico. The northern part of the rift forms the headwater valley of the Arkansas River.

text: The Sawatch Uplift  is a prominent

text: geologic

text: anticline

text: in the

text: Rocky Mountains

text: in central

text: Colorado

text: in the

text: United States

text: . It was formed as a bulge in the

text: North American Plate

text: approximately 70–65

text: MYA

text: during the

text: Laramide orogeny

text: that created the modern Rocky Mountains. The uplift runs north-south for several hundred miles from central Colorado into northern

text: New Mexico

text: . The

text: Sawatch Range

text: and

text: Mosquito Range

text: were both formed as part of the uplift. Approximately 35 MYA, stresses in the continental plate in the center of the uplift caused the center to collapse, forming a trough between the Sawatch and Mosquito Range that is part of the larger

text: Rio Grande Rift

text: . The trough runs southward from

text: Leadville, CO

text: into New Mexico. The northern part of the rift forms the headwater valley of the

text: Arkansas River

text: Anticlines are usually developed above thrust faults, so any small compression and motion within the inner crust can have large effects on the upper rock stratum.  Stresses developed during mountain building or during other tectonic processes can similarly warp or bend bedding and foliation (or other planar features).  The more the underlying fault is tectonically uplifted, the more the strata will be deformed and must adapt to new shapes.  The shape formed will also be very dependent on the properties and cohesion of the different types of rock within each layer.

text: Anticlines are usually developed above thrust faults, so any small

text: compression

text: and motion within the inner crust can have large effects on the upper rock stratum.  Stresses developed during mountain building or during other tectonic processes can similarly warp or bend bedding and

text: foliation

text: (or other planar features).  The more the underlying fault is tectonically uplifted, the more the strata will be deformed and must adapt to new shapes.  The shape formed will also be very dependent on the properties and cohesion of the different types of rock within each layer.

text: In the simplest example, isostasy is the principle of buoyancy wherein an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed with a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. On a geological scale, isostasy can be observed where Earth's strong crust or lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker mantle or asthenosphere, which, over geological time, flows laterally such that the load is accommodated by height adjustments.

text: In the simplest example, isostasy is the principle of

text: buoyancy

text: wherein an object immersed in a

text: fluid

text: is buoyed with a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. On a geological scale, isostasy can be observed where Earth's strong crust or lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker mantle or asthenosphere, which, over

text: geological time

text: , flows laterally such that the load is accommodated by height adjustments.

text: The early Paleozoic geology of northern England records the convergence and eventual collision of the Avalonia microcontinent with the continent of Laurentia. The underlying Borrowdale Volcanic Group formed in an island arc, caused by the southerly subduction of the crust of the now vanished Iapetus Ocean. At the end of active arc volcanism, the area began to subside, allowing deposition of the shallow marine Dent Group. The final closure of Iapetus occurred during the Devonian Acadian orogeny, with the resulting continental collision causing deformation of the Ordovician rocks, including folding, thrusting and cleavage development.

text: The early

text: Paleozoic

text: geology of northern England records the convergence and eventual collision of the Avalonia microcontinent with the continent of Laurentia. The underlying

text: Borrowdale Volcanic Group

text: formed in an

text: island arc

text: , caused by the southerly

text: subduction

text: of the

text: crust

text: of the now vanished

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: . At the end of active arc volcanism, the area began to subside, allowing deposition of the shallow marine Dent Group. The final closure of Iapetus occurred during the

text: Devonian

text: Acadian orogeny

text: , with the resulting

text: continental collision

text: causing deformation of the Ordovician rocks, including

text: folding

text: thrusting

text: and

text: cleavage

text: development.

text: The town is adjacent to the San Andreas Fault.

text: The town is adjacent to the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: Due to the similarities between Earth and Venus, it is suggested that they have a similar lithospheric elastic thickness of ~30 km. East African Rift is the only rift that can be compared to Devana Chasma.  Both rifts have fault segments length around ~100 km, which makes them stronger than any extensional system on Earth. However, they differ in their half grabens, East African Rifts' half grabens are around 50 km wide while on Venus it is around 150 km. In East African Rift, the higher elastic thickness can explain the wide half grabens. However, on Venus the main force is the high shear stress due to the cold lithosphere, which require the faults to be stronger in order to move. As a result, it has a wider half grabens than the one on Earth. Studying and comparing these two rift systems help us to understand how volcanism and tectonic activities affected the development and formation of the Beta Regio region on Venus.

text: Due to the similarities between Earth and Venus, it is suggested that they have a similar lithospheric elastic thickness of ~30 km.

text: East African Rift

text: is the only rift that can be compared to Devana Chasma.  Both rifts have fault segments length around ~100 km, which makes them stronger than any extensional system on

text: Earth

text: . However, they differ in their

text: half grabens

text: East African Rift

text: s'

text: half grabens

text: are around 50 km wide while on

text: Venus

text: it is around 150 km. In

text: East African Rift

text: , the higher

text: elastic thickness

text: can explain the wide

text: half grabens

text: . However, on

text: Venus

text: the main force is the high

text: shear stress

text: due to the cold lithosphere, which require the faults to be stronger in order to move. As a result, it has a wider

text: half grabens

text: than the one on Earth. Studying and comparing these two rift systems help us to understand how volcanism and tectonic activities affected the development and formation of the

text: Beta Regio

text: region on

text: Venus

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are

text: Phanerozoic

text: in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

text: A counter-intuitive method of reducing one of the worst types of stress concentrations, a crack, is to drill a large hole at the end of the crack.  The drilled hole, with its relatively large diameter, causes a smaller stress concentration than the sharp end of a crack.  This is however, a temporary solution that must be corrected at the first opportune time.

text: A counter-intuitive method of reducing one of the worst types of stress concentrations, a

text: crack

text: , is to

text: drill

text: a large hole at the end of the crack.  The drilled hole, with its relatively large

text: diameter

text: , causes a smaller stress concentration than the sharp end of a crack.  This is however, a temporary solution that must be corrected at the first opportune time.

text: Many existing continental rift valleys are the result of a failed arm (aulacogen) of a triple junction, although there are two, the East African Rift and the Baikal Rift Zone, which are currently active, as well as a third which may be, the West Antarctic Rift.  In these instances, not only the crust, but also entire tectonic plates, are in the process of breaking apart to create new plates.  If they continue, continental rifts will eventually become oceanic rifts.

text: Many existing continental rift valleys are the result of a failed arm (

text: aulacogen

text: ) of a

text: triple junction

text: , although there are two, the

text: East African Rift

text: and the

text: Baikal Rift Zone

text: , which are currently active, as well as a third which may be, the

text: West Antarctic Rift

text: .  In these instances, not only the crust, but also entire

text: tectonic plate

text: s, are in the process of breaking apart to create new plates.  If they continue, continental rifts will eventually become oceanic rifts.

text: The central segment of the San Andreas fault runs in a northwestern direction from Parkfield to Hollister. While the southern section of the fault and the parts through Parkfield experience earthquakes, the rest of the central section of the fault exhibits a phenomenon called aseismic creep, where the fault slips continuously without causing earthquakes.

text: The central segment of the San Andreas fault runs in a northwestern direction from Parkfield to

text: Hollister

text: . While the southern section of the fault and the parts through Parkfield experience earthquakes, the rest of the central section of the fault exhibits a phenomenon called

text: aseismic creep

text: , where the fault slips continuously without causing earthquakes.

text: Georgescu argues that Daly's steady-state economy will provide no ecological salvation for mankind, especially not in the longer run. Due to the geologic fact that mineral ores are deposited and concentrated very unevenly in the crust of the Earth, exploration and extraction of mineral resources will sooner or later be faced with the principle of diminishing returns, whereby extraction activities are pushed to still less accessible sites and still lower grades of ores. In the course of time, then, extraction costs and market prices of the incremental amount of resources will tend to increase. Eventually, all minerals will be exhausted, but the economic exhaustion will manifest itself long before the physical exhaustion provides the ultimate backstop for further activity: There will still be deposits of resources left in the crust, but the geologic concentration of these deposits will remain below the critical cutoff grade; hence, continued extraction will no longer pay off, and the market for these resources will then collapse. This long-term dynamics works itself through any economic (sub-)system, regardless of the system's geographical location, its size and its state of development (whether a progressive, a steady or a declining state). In effect, the arguments advanced by Daly in support of his steady-state economy apply with even greater force in support of a declining-state economy, Georgescu points out: When the overall purpose is to ration and stretch mineral resource use for as long time into the future as possible, zero economic growth is more desirable than growth is, true; but negative growth is better still! In this context, Georgescu also criticises Daly for not specifying at what levels man-made capital and human population are to be kept constant in the steady-state.

text: Georgescu argues that Daly's steady-state economy will provide no ecological salvation for mankind, especially not in the longer run. Due to the geologic fact that

text: mineral ores are deposited and concentrated very unevenly in the crust of the Earth

text: exploration and extraction of mineral resources

text: will sooner or later be faced with the principle of

text: diminishing returns

text: , whereby extraction activities are pushed to

text: still less accessible sites and still lower grades of ores

text: . In the course of time, then, extraction costs and market prices of the incremental amount of resources will tend to increase. Eventually, all minerals will be exhausted, but the economic exhaustion will manifest itself long before the physical exhaustion provides the ultimate backstop for further activity: There will still be deposits of resources left in the crust, but the geologic concentration of these deposits will remain below the critical

text: cutoff grade

text: ; hence, continued extraction will no longer pay off, and the market for these resources will then collapse. This long-term dynamics works itself through any economic (sub-)system, regardless of the system's geographical location, its size and its state of development (whether a progressive, a steady or a declining state). In effect, the arguments advanced by Daly in support of his steady-state economy apply with even greater force in support of a declining-state economy, Georgescu points out: When the overall purpose is to ration and stretch mineral resource use for as long time into the future as possible, zero economic growth is more desirable than growth is, true; but negative growth is better still! In this context, Georgescu also criticises Daly for not specifying at what levels man-made capital and human population are to be kept constant in the steady-state.

text: The St. Elias Mountains is the highest coastal mountain range on Earth. It formed due to the subduction of the Yakutat plate underneath the North American plate. The Yakutat microplate is a wedge shaped oceanic plateau with 20–30 km thickness. Similar to the adjacent Pacific plate (7 km crustal thickness) the Yakutat plate is currently moving northwestward with a rate of ~50 mm/year with respect to stable North America. The Yakutat plate is transported northwards along the active Fairweather Fault, which probably started more than 35 million years ago. Due to its thickness the Yakutat plate is buoyant resulting in surface uplift of the overriding North American plate, which formed the Talkeetna Mountains and the Alaska Range in southcentral Alaska located above the subducted part of the Yakutat plate. The St. Elias Mountains formed at the plate boundary between the Yakutat and North American plate. The up to 12 km thick sediments that have been deposited on top of the Yakutat plate are imbricated and deformed as they became scraped off and compose today the southern (coastal) flanks of the St. Elias Mountains. In contrast the high elevated regions of the drainage divide (Bagley Ice Field, Seward Glacier) and north of it comprise rocks that are part of the North American plate.The highest peaks of the St. Elias Mountains are located in the high ice field region of the Kluane National Park (Mt. Logan, Mt. Vancouver) and north of the Malaspina Glacier (Mt. St. Elias, Mt. Cook), in the region known as the St. Elias syntaxis. At the syntaxis region the tectonic style changes from strike-slip motion along the Fairweather Fault to collision west of Malaspina. This tectonic transition concentrates stress in the crust at the syntaxis that together with efficient glacial erosion results in positive feedback processes that through time forms extreme high mountain peaks and local relief, and rapid exhumation of rocks from up to 10 km depths to the surface.

text: A number of mechanisms have been proposed to interpret the origin of volcanism in the NCVP. This includes slab windows, mantle plumes, crustal extension and deglaciation. The most common and best mechanism used to explain NCVP volcanic activity is incipient rifting of the North American Plate caused by crustal extension. As the continental crust stretches, the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults. Mafic magma rises along these fractures to create passive lava flows, although more viscous felsic magma also makes its way to the surface and can produce explosive eruptions. Two major structural features, the Tintina and Denali-Coast fault systems, run parallel with the NCVP. Both structures have had strike-slip motions since the Cretaceous period and has resulted in several hundred kilometres of crustal displacement.<ref name="SL">{{cite journal|title=Distribution, nature, and origin of Neogene–Quaternary magmatism in the northern Cordilleran volcanic province, Canada|last=Edwards|first=Benjamin R.|last2=Russell|first2=James K.|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|publisher=Geological Society of America|pages=1280, 1281, 1283, 1284, 1286, 1291|volume=112|issue=8|year=2000|issn=0016-7606|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112

text: A number of mechanisms have been proposed to interpret the origin of volcanism in the NCVP. This includes

text: slab window

text: s,

text: mantle plume

text: s,

text: crustal

text: extension and

text: deglaciation

text: . The most common and best mechanism used to explain NCVP volcanic activity is incipient

text: rift

text: ing of the

text: North American Plate

text: caused by crustal extension. As the

text: continental crust

text: stretches, the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as

text: faults

text: Mafic

text: magma rises along these fractures to create passive lava flows, although more viscous

text: felsic

text: magma also makes its way to the surface and can produce explosive eruptions. Two major structural features, the

text: Tintina

text: and

text: Denali

text: -Coast fault systems, run parallel with the NCVP. Both structures have had

text: strike-slip

text: motions since the

text: Cretaceous

text: period

text: and has resulted in several hundred kilometres of crustal displacement.<ref name="SL">{{cite journal|title=Distribution, nature, and origin of Neogene–Quaternary magmatism in the northern Cordilleran volcanic province, Canada|last=Edwards|first=Benjamin R.|last2=Russell|first2=James K.|journal=

text: Geological Society of America Bulletin

text: |publisher=

text: Geological Society of America

text: |pages=1280, 1281, 1283, 1284, 1286, 1291|volume=112|issue=8|year=2000|issn=0016-7606|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112

text: A paper written by Gerya theorizes that the creation of the transform faults between the ridges of the mid-oceanic ridge is attributed to rotated and stretched sections of the mid-oceanic ridge. This occurs over a long period of time with the spreading center or ridge slowly deforming from a straight line to a curved line. Finally, fracturing along these planes forms transform faults. As this takes place, the fault changes from a normal fault with extensional stress to a strike slip fault with lateral stress. In the study done by Bonatti & Crane, peridotite and gabbro rocks were discovered in the edges of the transform ridges.  These rocks are created deep inside the Earth’s mantle and then rapidly exhumed to the surface.  This evidence helps to prove that new seafloor is being created at the mid-oceanic ridges and further supports the theory of plate tectonics.

text: A paper written by Gerya theorizes that the creation of the transform faults between the ridges of the mid-oceanic ridge is attributed to rotated and stretched sections of the mid-oceanic ridge. This occurs over a long period of time with the spreading center or ridge slowly deforming from a straight line to a curved line. Finally, fracturing along these planes forms transform faults. As this takes place, the fault changes from a normal fault with extensional stress to a strike slip fault with lateral stress. In the study done by Bonatti & Crane,

text: peridotite

text: and

text: gabbro

text: rocks were discovered in the edges of the transform ridges.  These rocks are created deep inside the Earth’s mantle and then rapidly exhumed to the surface.  This evidence helps to prove that new seafloor is being created at the mid-oceanic ridges and further supports the theory of plate tectonics.

text: The Cascadia subduction zone runs from triple junctions at its north and south ends.  To the north, just below Haida Gwaii, it intersects the Queen Charlotte Fault and the Explorer Ridge.  To the south, just off of Cape Mendocino in California, it intersects the San Andreas Fault and the Mendocino Fracture Zone at the Mendocino Triple Junction.

text: The Cascadia subduction zone runs from

text: triple junction

text: s at its north and south ends.  To the north, just below

text: Haida Gwaii

text: , it intersects the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: and the

text: Explorer Ridge

text: .  To the south, just off of Cape Mendocino in California, it intersects the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: and the

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: at the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: The game covers five different locations on Rifts Earth from the RPG sourcebooks:

text: Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by either or both of two types of crustal material: oceanic crust (in older texts called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). Average oceanic lithosphere is typically  thick; its thickness is a function of its age: as time passes, it conductively cools and subjacent cooling mantle is added to its base. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about  thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than  at subduction zones; for shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone (and therefore also the mean) thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively. Continental lithosphere is typically ~200 km thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable cratonic interiors of continents. The two types of crust also differ in thickness, with continental crust being considerably thicker than oceanic (35 km vs. 6 km).

text: Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by either or both of two types of crustal material:

text: oceanic crust

text: (in older texts called

text: sima

text: from

text: silicon

text: and

text: magnesium

text: ) and

text: continental crust

text: sial

text: from silicon and

text: aluminium

text: ). Average oceanic lithosphere is typically  thick; its thickness is a function of its age: as time passes, it conductively cools and subjacent cooling mantle is added to its base. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about  thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than  at

text: subduction

text: zones; for shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone (and therefore also the mean) thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively. Continental lithosphere is typically ~200 km thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable

text: craton

text: ic interiors of continents. The two types of crust also differ in thickness, with continental crust being considerably thicker than oceanic (35 km vs. 6 km).

text: The widely accepted explanations for the dynamics and internal evolution of Earth and its neighbors are still based [e.g., for Earth, P. Olson, 2016, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 17, p. 22] on speculations from the 1970s and 1980s. These assume slow net separation of continental crust from mantles that are still mostly unfractionated and are vigorously convecting in similar bottom-driven fashions. But they further assume that this common process yields altogether different surface effects on each planet.

text: The widely accepted explanations for the dynamics and internal evolution of Earth and its neighbors are still based [e.g., for Earth, P. Olson, 2016, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 17, p. 22] on speculations from the 1970s and 1980s. These assume slow net separation of continental crust from mantles that are still mostly un

text: fractionated

text: and are vigorously convecting in similar bottom-driven fashions. But they further assume that this common process yields altogether different surface effects on each planet.

text: In seismology, geophysicists use ray tracing to aid in earthquake location and tomographic reconstruction of the Earth's interior. Seismic wave velocity varies within and beneath Earth's crust, causing these waves to bend and reflect. Ray tracing may be used to compute paths through a geophysical model, following them back to their source, such as an earthquake, or deducing the properties of the intervening material. In particular, the discovery of the seismic shadow zone (illustrated at right) allowed scientists to deduce the presence of Earth's molten core.

text: In

text: seismology

text: , geophysicists use ray tracing to aid in earthquake location and

text: tomographic

text: reconstruction of the

text: Earth's interior

text: Seismic wave

text: velocity varies within and beneath Earth's

text: crust

text: , causing these waves to bend and reflect. Ray tracing may be used to compute paths through a geophysical model, following them back to their source, such as an earthquake, or deducing the properties of the intervening material. In particular, the discovery of the

text: seismic shadow zone

text: (illustrated at right) allowed scientists to deduce the presence of Earth's molten core.

text: Stress has been known to cause both physiological and behavioral chronic issues for captive species including, but not limited to, altered reproductive cycling and behavior, reduced immune responses, disrupted hormone and growth levels, reduced body weight, heightened abnormal activities and aggression, and decreased exploratory behavior with increased hiding behaviors. Such stress reactions could be caused by sounds, light conditions, odors, temperature and humidity conditions, material make-up of enclosures, habitat size constraints, lack of proper hiding areas, forced closeness to humans, routine husbandry and feeding conditions, or abnormal social groups to name a few.

text: Coastal regions of Peru and Chile lie above the convergent boundary, where the Nazca Plate is being subducted beneath the South American Plate along the line of the Peru–Chile Trench. The rate of convergence across this boundary is measured at about  per year. This boundary has been the site of many great megathrust earthquakes, in addition to events caused by faulting within both the subducting and over-riding plates.

text: Coastal regions of Peru and Chile lie above the

text: convergent boundary

text: , where the

text: Nazca Plate

text: is being

text: subducted

text: beneath the

text: South American Plate

text: along the line of the

text: Peru–Chile Trench

text: . The rate of convergence across this boundary is measured at about  per year. This boundary has been the site of many great

text: megathrust earthquake

text: s, in addition to events caused by faulting within both the subducting and over-riding plates.

text: Earthquakes occur as a consequence of gradual stress increases in a region, and once it reaches the maximum stress that the rocks can withstand a rupture generates and the resulting earthquake motion is related to a drop in the shear stress of the system. Earthquakes generate seismic waves when the rupture in the system occurs, the seismic waves consist of different types of waves that are capable of moving through the Earth like ripples over water. The causes that lead to slow earthquakes have only been theoretically investigated, by the formation of longitudinal shear cracks that were analysed using mathematical models. The different distributions of initial stress, sliding frictional stress, and specific fracture energy are all taken into account. If the initial stress minus the sliding frictional stress (with respect to the initial crack) is low, and the specific fracture energy or the strength of the crustal material (relative to the amount of stress) is high then slow earthquakes will occur regularly.In other words, slow earthquakes are caused by a variety of stick-slip and creep processes intermediated between asperity-controlled brittle and ductile fracture.  Asperities are tiny bumps and protrusions along the faces of fractures. They are best documented from intermediate crustal levels of certain subduction zones (especially those that dip shallowly — SW Japan, Cascadia, Chile), but appear to occur on other types of faults as well, notably strike-slip plate boundaries such as the San Andreas fault and "mega-landslide" normal faults on the flanks of volcanos.

text: Earthquakes occur as a consequence of gradual stress increases in a region, and once it reaches the maximum stress that the rocks can withstand a rupture generates and the resulting earthquake motion is related to a drop in the shear stress of the system. Earthquakes generate

text: seismic wave

text: s when the rupture in the system occurs, the seismic waves consist of different types of waves that are capable of moving through the Earth like ripples over water. The causes that lead to slow earthquakes have only been theoretically investigated, by the formation of longitudinal shear cracks that were analysed using mathematical models. The different distributions of

text: initial stress

text: sliding frictional stress

text: , and specific fracture energy are all taken into account. If the initial stress minus the sliding frictional stress (with respect to the initial crack) is low, and the specific fracture energy or the strength of the crustal material (relative to the amount of stress) is high then slow earthquakes will occur regularly.In other words, slow earthquakes are caused by a variety of

text: stick-slip

text: and creep processes intermediated between asperity-controlled

text: brittle and ductile fracture

text: .  Asperities are tiny bumps and protrusions along the faces of fractures. They are best documented from intermediate crustal levels of certain

text: subduction zones

text: (especially those that dip shallowly — SW Japan, Cascadia, Chile), but appear to occur on other types of

text: faults

text: as well, notably

text: strike-slip

text: plate boundaries such as the San Andreas fault and "mega-landslide" normal faults on the flanks of volcanos.

text: Structural geologists study the results of deformation, using observations of rock, especially the mode and geometry of deformation to reconstruct the stress field that affected the rock over time. Structural geology is an important complement to geodynamics because it provides the most direct source of data about the movements of the Earth. Different modes of deformation result in distinct geological structures. Figures 3 shows the appearance of brittle fracture in rocks while figure 4 shows the appearance of ductile folding.

text: Structural geologists study the results of deformation, using observations of rock, especially the mode and geometry of deformation to reconstruct the stress field that affected the rock over time.

text: Structural geology

text: is an important complement to geodynamics because it provides the most direct source of data about the movements of the Earth. Different modes of deformation result in distinct geological structures. Figures 3 shows the appearance of brittle fracture in rocks while figure 4 shows the appearance of ductile folding.

text: Everything on the Pacific plate that enters the IBM trench is subducted.  The next section discusses some modifications of the lithosphere just prior to its descent and the age and composition of oceanic crust and sediments on the Pacific plate adjacent to the trench.  In addition to subducted sediments and crust of the Pacific plate, there is also a very substantial volume of material from the overriding IBM forearc that is lost to the subduction zone by tectonic erosion .

text: Everything on the Pacific plate that enters the IBM trench is subducted.  The next section discusses some modifications of the lithosphere just prior to its descent and the age and composition of oceanic crust and sediments on the Pacific plate adjacent to the trench.  In addition to subducted sediments and crust of the Pacific plate, there is also a very substantial volume of material from the overriding IBM forearc that is lost to the subduction zone by

text: tectonic erosion

text: Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and form 12% of the Earth's current land surface. They are classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage (metamorphic facies). They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth's interior. The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth's surface following erosion and uplift) provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth's crust.Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite.

text: Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: and form 12% of the Earth's current land surface. They are classified by

text: texture

text: and by

text: chemical

text: and

text: mineral

text: assemblage (

text: metamorphic facies

text: ). They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it. They can form from

text: tectonic

text: processes such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated up by the

text: intrusion

text: of hot molten rock called

text: magma

text: from the Earth's interior. The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth's surface following erosion and uplift) provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth's crust.Some examples of metamorphic rocks are

text: gneiss

text: slate

text: marble

text: schist

text: , and

text: quartzite

text: Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize, but its oxides are pervasive and represent the primary ores. While it makes up about 5% of the Earth's crust, both the Earth's inner and outer core are believed to consist largely of an iron-nickel alloy constituting 35% of the mass of the Earth as a whole. Iron is consequently the most abundant element on Earth, but only the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, after oxygen, silicon, and aluminium. Most of the iron in the crust is found combined with oxygen as iron oxide minerals such as hematite (FeO), magnetite (FeO), and siderite (FeCO). Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite.

text: Metallic or

text: native iron

text: is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize, but its oxides are pervasive and represent the primary ores. While it makes up about 5% of the

text: Earth's crust

text: , both the Earth's

text: inner

text: and

text: outer core

text: are believed to consist largely of an iron-

text: nickel

text: alloy constituting 35% of the mass of the Earth as a whole. Iron is consequently the most abundant element on Earth, but only the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, after

text: oxygen

text: silicon

text: , and

text: aluminium

text: . Most of the iron in the crust is found combined with oxygen as

text: iron oxide

text: minerals such as

text: hematite

text: (FeO),

text: magnetite

text: (FeO), and

text: siderite

text: (FeCO). Many

text: igneous rock

text: s also contain the sulfide minerals

text: pyrrhotite

text: and

text: pentlandite

text: Subduction is the density-driven process by which one tectonic plate moves under another and sinks into the mantle at a convergent boundary. Gravitational pull from dense slabs provides approximately 90% of the driving force for plate tectonics, and consequently subduction is crucial in changing the Earth's layout, guiding its thermal evolution and building its compositional structure. In particular, subduction zones are the primary sites of present-day continental crust formation, another process of modern Earth that has a mysterious past. Furthermore, subduction is the main mechanism by which surface materials enter the deep Earth and is also largely responsible for the formation of ores. Considering the importance of subduction in many geological processes, it is clear that studying its past and present nature is essential to developing our understanding of the Earth as a dynamic system.

text: Subduction is the density-driven process by which one tectonic plate moves under another and sinks into the

text: mantle

text: at a

text: convergent boundary

text: . Gravitational pull from dense slabs provides approximately 90% of the driving force for

text: plate tectonics

text: , and consequently subduction is crucial in changing the Earth's layout, guiding its

text: thermal evolution

text: and building its compositional structure. In particular, subduction zones are the primary sites of present-day

text: continental crust

text: formation, another process of modern Earth that has a mysterious past. Furthermore, subduction is the main mechanism by which surface materials enter the deep

text: Earth

text: and is also largely responsible for the formation of

text: ores

text: . Considering the importance of subduction in many

text: geological

text: processes, it is clear that studying its past and present nature is essential to developing our understanding of the Earth as a dynamic system.

text: The Northern Harz Boundary Fault (, Nordharzrandverwerfung or Harznordrandstörung) is a geological fault where the Harz Block, which consists of rocks formed during the Palaeozoic Era and folded in the course of Hercynian mountain building, borders on the Subhercynian Basin or Harz Foreland. The fault is also known in English as the Harz North Rim Fault or Harznordrand Thrust (Fault).

text: The Northern Harz Boundary Fault (, Nordharzrandverwerfung or Harznordrandstörung) is a

text: geological fault

text: where the

text: Harz Block

text: , which consists of rocks formed during the

text: Palaeozoic

text: Era and folded in the course of

text: Hercynian mountain building

text: , borders on the

text: Subhercynian Basin

text: or

text: Harz Foreland

text: . The fault is also known in English as the Harz North Rim Fault or Harznordrand Thrust (Fault).

text: Skin folds or skinfolds are areas of skin where it folds. Many skin folds are distinct, heritable anatomical features, and may be used for identification of animal species, while others are non-specific and may be produced either by individual development of an organism or by arbitrary application of force to skin, either by the actions of the muscles of the body or by external force, e.g., gravity. Anatomical folds can also be found in other structures and tissues besides the skin, such as the ileocecal fold beneath the terminal ileum of the cecum.

text: Skin folds or skinfolds are areas of

text: skin

text: where it folds. Many skin folds are distinct, heritable anatomical features, and may be used for identification of animal

text: species

text: , while others are non-specific and may be produced either by individual development of an organism or by arbitrary application of force to skin, either by the actions of the

text: muscle

text: s of the body or by external force, e.g.,

text: gravity

text: . Anatomical folds can also be found in other structures and tissues besides the skin, such as the

text: ileocecal fold

text: beneath the terminal ileum of the cecum.

text: For a given g-force the stresses are the same, regardless of whether this g-force is caused by mechanical resistance to gravity, or by a coordinate-acceleration (change in velocity) caused by a mechanical force, or by a combination of these. Hence, for people all mechanical forces feels exactly the same whether they cause coordinate acceleration or not. For objects likewise, the question of whether they can withstand the mechanical g-force without damage is the same for any type of g-force. For example, upward acceleration (e.g., increase of speed when going up or decrease of speed when going down) on Earth feels the same as being stationary on a celestial body with a higher surface gravity. Again, one should note that gravitation acting alone does not produce any g-force; g-force is only produced from mechanical pushes and pulls. For a free body (one that is free to move in space) such g-forces only arise as the "inertial" path that is the natural effect of gravitation, or the natural effect of the inertia of mass, is modified. Such modification may only arise from influences other than gravitation.

text: For a given g-force the stresses are the same, regardless of whether this g-force is caused by mechanical resistance to gravity, or by a coordinate-acceleration (change in velocity) caused by a mechanical force, or by a combination of these. Hence, for people all mechanical forces feels exactly the same whether they cause coordinate acceleration or not. For objects likewise, the question of whether they can withstand the mechanical g-force without damage is the same for any type of g-force. For example, upward acceleration (e.g., increase of speed when going up or decrease of speed when going down) on Earth feels the same as being stationary on a celestial body with a higher

text: surface gravity

text: . Again, one should note that gravitation acting alone does not produce any g-force; g-force is only produced from mechanical pushes and pulls. For a free body (one that is free to move in space) such g-forces only arise as the "inertial" path that is the natural effect of gravitation, or the natural effect of the inertia of mass, is modified. Such modification may only arise from influences other than gravitation.

text: Evidence exists in rats that the stress levels of the mother can also have an effect on fetal development. As Ellis & Cole-Harding (2001) outline, the chain of events in prenatal stress affecting brain sex differentiation appears to be that stress causes the mother's adrenal glands to release high levels of stress hormones into the blood system, substantial proportions of which cross the placental barrier and interfere with the fetus' production of sex hormones temporarily, most notably testosterone. These results have been applied to human sexual orientation, although studies of maternal stress often lack generalizability due to small sample sizes and the inherent difficulty of accurately measuring stress levels in pregnancy. Criticisms of this study outline that subprimate mammals are invalid measures of human sexual differentiation, as sex hormones follow a more "on-off" role in sex-typed behavior than is found in primates.

text: Although mutations that cause changes in protein sequences can be harmful to an organism, on occasions the effect may be positive in a given environment. In this case, the mutation may enable the mutant organism to withstand particular environmental stresses better than wild-type organisms, or reproduce more quickly. In these cases a mutation will tend to become more common in a population through natural selection.

text: The geological structure of Great Britain is complex, resulting as it does from a long and varied geological history spanning more than two billion years. This piece of the Earth's crust has experienced several episodes of mountain building or 'orogenies', each of which has added further complexity to the picture.

text: The geological structure of

text: Great Britain

text: is complex, resulting as it does from a long and varied

text: geological history

text: spanning more than two billion years. This piece of the Earth's

text: crust

text: has experienced several episodes of mountain building or '

text: orogenies

text: ', each of which has added further complexity to the picture.

text: The Trans-Hudson orogeny was the culminating event of the Paleoproterozoic Laurentian assembly, which occurred after the Wopmay orogeny (West of Hudson Bay, ca. 2.1-1.9 Ga.).  The Trans-Hudson orogeny resulted from the collision of the Superior Craton of eastern Canada with the Hearne Craton in northern Saskatchewan and the Wyoming Craton of the western United States, with the Archean microcontinent Sask Craton trapped in the THO western interior. Similar to the Himalayas, the Trans-Hudson orogeny was also the result of continent-continent collision along a suture zone.  Only the roots of this mountain chain remain, but these can be seen in northeastern Saskatchewan and in the Black Hills of South Dakota.  The Trans-Hudson orogeny and the consequent upheaval of the continental crust in the middle Proterozoic eon caused the area around the Great Lakes to become a flattened plain, which in turn led to the creation of the intercontinental basin and the interior and central plains of the United States (the Great Plains are the westernmost portion of North America's Interior Plains, which extend east to the Appalachian Plateau).

text: The Trans-Hudson orogeny was the culminating event of the Paleoproterozoic Laurentian assembly, which occurred after the

text: Wopmay orogen

text: y (West of

text: Hudson Bay

text: , ca. 2.1-1.9 Ga.).  The Trans-Hudson orogeny resulted from the collision of the Superior Craton of eastern

text: Canada

text: with the Hearne Craton in northern

text: Saskatchewan

text: and the Wyoming Craton of the western

text: United States

text: , with the

text: Archean

text: microcontinent

text: Sask Craton

text: trapped in the THO western interior. Similar to the Himalayas, the Trans-Hudson orogeny was also the result of continent-continent collision along a suture zone.  Only the roots of this mountain chain remain, but these can be seen in northeastern Saskatchewan and in the Black Hills of South Dakota.  The Trans-Hudson orogeny and the consequent upheaval of the continental crust in the middle Proterozoic eon caused the area around the

text: Great Lakes

text: to become a flattened plain, which in turn led to the creation of the intercontinental basin and the interior and central plains of the

text: United States

text: (the

text: Great Plains

text: are the westernmost portion of North America's

text: Interior Plains

text: , which extend east to the

text: Appalachian Plateau

text: Plates include both oceanic crust and continental crust. Stable subduction zones involve the oceanic lithosphere of one plate sliding beneath the continental or oceanic lithosphere of another plate due to the higher density of the oceanic lithosphere. That is, the subducted lithosphere is always oceanic while the overriding lithosphere may or may not be oceanic. Subduction zones are sites that have a high rate of volcanism, earthquakes, and mountain building.

text: Plates include both

text: oceanic crust

text: and

text: continental crust

text: . Stable subduction zones involve the oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: of one plate sliding beneath the continental or oceanic lithosphere of another plate due to the higher density of the oceanic lithosphere. That is, the subducted lithosphere is always oceanic while the overriding lithosphere may or may not be oceanic. Subduction zones are sites that have a high rate of

text: volcanism

text: earthquake

text: s, and

text: mountain building

text: The Mount Edziza volcanic complex began forming about 7.5 million years ago and has grown steadily since then. Like other volcanoes in northwestern British Columbia, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex has its origins in continental rifting—a long divergent plate boundary where the lithosphere is being pulled apart. Here, the continental crust of the North American Plate is being stretched at a rate of about  per year. This incipient rifting has formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault, on its way to the Aleutian Trench, which extends along the southern coastline of Alaska and the adjacent waters of northeastern Siberia off the coast of Kamchatka Peninsula. As the continental crust stretches, the  near-surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults. Hot basaltic magma rises along these fractures to create passive lava eruptions, known as effusive eruptions.

text: The Mount Edziza volcanic complex began forming about 7.5 million years ago and has grown steadily since then. Like other volcanoes in northwestern British Columbia, the Mount Edziza volcanic complex has its origins in

text: continent

text: al

text: rift

text: ing—a long

text: divergent plate boundary

text: where the

text: lithosphere

text: is being pulled apart. Here, the

text: continental crust

text: of the

text: North American Plate

text: is being stretched at a rate of about  per year. This incipient rifting has formed as a result of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: sliding northward along the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: , on its way to the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: , which extends along the southern coastline of

text: Alaska

text: and the adjacent waters of northeastern

text: Siberia

text: off the coast of

text: Kamchatka Peninsula

text: . As the continental crust stretches, the  near-surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as

text: faults

text: . Hot

text: basalt

text: ic

text: magma

text: rises along these fractures to create passive lava eruptions, known as

text: effusive eruption

text: s.

text: The Farallon Basin has a spreading axis at its center, so the seafloor here is oceanic crust, transitioning into thin, rifted continental crust at the basin's edges. Spreading centers in the Gulf, like this one in Farallon, are different from more well known spreading axes like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise, since they form as deep rift valleys rather than bathymetric highs.

text: The Farallon Basin has a spreading axis at its center, so the seafloor here is

text: oceanic crust

text: , transitioning into thin, rifted continental crust at the basin's edges. Spreading centers in the Gulf, like this one in Farallon, are different from more well known spreading axes like the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: and

text: East Pacific Rise

text: , since they form as deep rift valleys rather than bathymetric highs.

text: Many volcanoes produce deformational structures as they grow. The flanks of volcanoes commonly exhibit shallow gravity slumps, faults and associated folds. Large volcanoes grow not only by adding erupted material to their flanks, but also by spreading laterally at their bases, particularly if they rest on weak or ductile materials. As a volcano grows in size and weight, the stress field underneath the volcano changes from compressional to extensional. A subterranean rift may develop at the base of the volcano where the crust is wrenched apart. This volcanic spreading may initiate further structural deformation in the form of thrust faults along the volcano's distal flanks, pervasive grabens and normal faults across the edifice, and catastrophic flank failure (sector collapse). Mathematical analysis shows that volcanic spreading operates on volcanoes at a wide range of scales and is theoretically similar to the larger-scale rifting that occurs at mid-ocean ridges (divergent plate boundaries). Thus, in this view, the distinction between tectonic plate, spreading volcano, and rift is nebulous, all being part of the same geodynamic system.

text: Many volcanoes produce deformational

text: structures

text: as they grow. The flanks of volcanoes commonly exhibit shallow gravity slumps,

text: fault

text: s and associated

text: folds

text: . Large volcanoes grow not only by adding erupted material to their flanks, but also by spreading laterally at their bases, particularly if they rest on weak or

text: ductile

text: materials. As a volcano grows in size and weight, the

text: stress

text: field underneath the volcano changes from compressional to extensional. A subterranean rift may develop at the base of the volcano where the crust is wrenched apart. This volcanic spreading may initiate further structural deformation in the form of

text: thrust fault

text: s along the volcano's

text: distal

text: flanks, pervasive

text: graben

text: s and normal faults across the edifice, and catastrophic flank failure (sector collapse). Mathematical analysis shows that volcanic spreading operates on volcanoes at a wide range of scales and is theoretically similar to the larger-scale rifting that occurs at

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s (

text: divergent plate boundaries

text: ). Thus, in this view, the distinction between

text: tectonic plate

text: , spreading volcano, and rift is nebulous, all being part of the same geodynamic system.

text: Morton's 1959 paper touched on one of the most intriguing aspects of the geology of Oman: how oceanic crust, known as the Semail Ophiolite, came to occur all around the Hajar mountains and Jebel Akhdar, the "Green Mountain". The theory supported by Morton and others – Tschopp (1967) and Wilson (1969)) – was that these igneous rocks had essentially flowed into position. Lees (1928) had earlier proposed a huge thrust sheet, the Semail Nappe, based on his observations in the Oman Mountains, and on his knowledge of the Alps and of the Zagros. As evidence of plate tectonics grew, a development of Lees' theory (Glennie (1974)) emerged.  This postulated that, as the continents moved together, a slab of ocean crust from the ancient Tethys Ocean had been pushed over the continental margin for hundreds of kilometres about 87-76 million years ago. However, a leading proponent of the ‘in-situ’ theory, Hugh Wilson, observed that the major displacement surfaces were not prominent in the field and that he had seen more evidence of extension than compression in the Oman Mountains. Glennie (2001) remains a spirited critique of most of Wilson’s arguments. Almost all later authors interpret the Semail ophiolite as thrust, or obducted, probably due to a short period of subduction close to the margin of the Arabian plate.

text: Morton's 1959 paper touched on one of the most intriguing aspects of the geology of Oman: how oceanic crust, known as the

text: Semail Ophiolite

text: , came to occur all around the Hajar mountains and Jebel Akhdar, the "Green Mountain". The theory supported by Morton and others – Tschopp (1967) and Wilson (1969)) – was that these igneous rocks had essentially flowed into position. Lees (1928) had earlier proposed a huge thrust sheet, the Semail Nappe, based on his observations in the Oman Mountains, and on his knowledge of the Alps and of the Zagros. As evidence of plate tectonics grew, a development of Lees' theory (Glennie (1974)) emerged.  This postulated that, as the continents moved together, a slab of ocean crust from the ancient Tethys Ocean had been pushed over the continental margin for hundreds of kilometres about 87-76 million years ago. However, a leading proponent of the ‘in-situ’ theory, Hugh Wilson, observed that the major displacement surfaces were not prominent in the field and that he had seen more evidence of extension than compression in the Oman Mountains. Glennie (2001) remains a spirited critique of most of Wilson’s arguments. Almost all later authors interpret the Semail ophiolite as thrust, or obducted, probably due to a short period of subduction close to the margin of the Arabian plate.

text: Subduction orogeny has been occurring in what is now western South America since the break-up of the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic. The Paleozoic Pampean, Famatinian and Gondwanan orogenies are the immediate precursors to the later Andean orogeny. The first phases of Andean orogeny in the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous were characterized by extensional tectonics, rifting, the development of back-arc basins and the emplacement of large batholiths. This development is presumed to have been linked to the subduction of cold oceanic lithosphere. During the mid to Late Cretaceous (ca. 90 million years ago) the Andean orogeny changed significantly in character. Warmer and younger oceanic lithosphere is believed to have started to be subducted beneath South America around this time. Such kind of subduction is held responsible not only for the intense contractional deformation that different lithologies were subject to, but also the uplift and erosion known to have occurred from the Late Cretaceous onward. Plate tectonic reorganization since the mid-Cretaceous might also have been linked to the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. Another change related to mid-Cretaceous plate tectonic changes was the change of subduction direction of the oceanic lithosphere that went from having south-east motion to having a north-east motion at about 90 million years ago. While subduction direction changed it remained oblique (and not perpendicular) to the coast of South America, and the direction change affected several subduction zone-parallel faults including Atacama, Domeyko and Liquiñe-Ofqui.

text: Subduction orogeny has been occurring in what is now western South America since the break-up of the

text: supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: in the

text: Neoproterozoic

text: . The

text: Paleozoic

text: Pampean

text: Famatinian

text: and

text: Gondwanan

text: orogenies are the immediate precursors to the later Andean orogeny. The first phases of Andean orogeny in the

text: Jurassic

text: and

text: Early Cretaceous

text: were characterized by

text: extensional tectonics

text: rift

text: ing, the development of

text: back-arc basin

text: s and the emplacement of large

text: batholith

text: s. This development is presumed to have been linked to the subduction of cold

text: oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: . During the mid to

text: Late Cretaceous

text: (ca. 90 million years ago) the Andean orogeny changed significantly in character. Warmer and younger oceanic lithosphere is believed to have started to be subducted beneath South America around this time. Such kind of subduction is held responsible not only for the intense contractional

text: deformation

text: that different lithologies were subject to, but also the

text: uplift

text: and

text: erosion

text: known to have occurred from the Late Cretaceous onward.

text: Plate tectonic

text: reorganization since the mid-Cretaceous might also have been linked to the

text: opening

text: of the

text: South Atlantic Ocean

text: . Another change related to mid-Cretaceous plate tectonic changes was the change of subduction direction of the oceanic lithosphere that went from having south-east motion to having a north-east motion at about 90 million years ago. While subduction direction changed it remained oblique (and not perpendicular) to the coast of South America, and the direction change affected several

text: subduction zone

text: -parallel faults including

text: Atacama

text: Domeyko

text: and

text: Liquiñe-Ofqui

text: Once the corbelled dome is complete, it can be covered in several different kinds of exterior treatments, usually plaster. Khalili developed a system that used 85% earth and 15% cement plaster and which is then covered by “reptile”, a veneer of grapefruit sized balls of cement and earth.  Reptile is easy to install and because the balls create easy paths for stress, it doesn't crack with time. There are many different possibilities.  Some Superadobe buildings have even been covered by living grass, a kind of green roof but covering the entire structure. Any exterior treatment and building details would need to be adapted to a region’s specific climatic needs.

text: Once the corbelled dome is complete, it can be covered in several different kinds of exterior treatments, usually plaster. Khalili developed a system that used 85% earth and 15% cement plaster and which is then covered by “reptile”, a veneer of grapefruit sized balls of cement and earth.  Reptile is easy to install and because the balls create easy paths for stress, it doesn't crack with time. There are many different possibilities.  Some Superadobe buildings have even been covered by living grass, a kind of

text: green roof

text: but covering the entire structure. Any exterior treatment and building details would need to be adapted to a region’s specific climatic needs.

text: Ruptures along the nearby San Andreas fault caused severe earth movement in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1906 and 1989. San Andreas quakes induces creep (movement occurring on earthquake faults) in the Hayward fault, which runs directly through Oakland, Berkeley, San Jose and other Bay Area cities.

text: Ruptures along the nearby

text: San Andreas fault

text: caused severe earth movement in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1906 and 1989. San Andreas quakes induces creep (movement occurring on earthquake faults) in the Hayward fault, which runs directly through Oakland, Berkeley, San Jose and other Bay Area cities.

text: Mauna Loa has complex interactions with its neighbors, Hualālai to the west, Mauna Kea to the north, and particularly Kīlauea to the east. Lavas from Mauna Kea intersect with Mauna Loa's basal flows as a consequence of Kea's older age, and Mauna Kea's original rift zones were buried beneath post-shield volcanic rocks of Mauna Loa; additionally, Mauna Kea shares Mauna Loa's gravity well, depressing the ocean crust beneath it by .  There are also a series of normal faults on Mauna Loa's northern and western slopes, between its two major rift zones, that are believed to be the result of combined circumferential tension from the two rift zones and from added pressure due to the westward growth of neighboring Kīlauea.

text: Mauna Loa has complex interactions with its neighbors,

text: Hualālai

text: to the west,

text: Mauna Kea

text: to the north, and particularly

text: Kīlauea

text: to the east. Lavas from Mauna Kea intersect with Mauna Loa's basal flows as a consequence of Kea's older age, and Mauna Kea's original

text: rift zone

text: s were buried beneath post-shield volcanic rocks of Mauna Loa; additionally, Mauna Kea shares Mauna Loa's gravity well, depressing the

text: ocean crust

text: beneath it by .  There are also a series of

text: normal fault

text: s on Mauna Loa's northern and western slopes, between its two major rift zones, that are believed to be the result of combined circumferential tension from the two rift zones and from added pressure due to the westward growth of neighboring Kīlauea.

text: An idealized strike-slip fault runs in a straight line with a vertical dip and has only horizontal motion, thus there is no change in topography due to motion of the fault. In reality, as strike slip faults become large and developed,  their behavior changes and becomes more complex. A long strike slip fault follows a staircase-like trajectory consisting of interspaced fault planes that follow the main fault direction. These sub parallel stretches are isolated by offsets at first, but over long periods of time they can become connected by step overs in order to accommodate the strike slip displacement. In long stretches of strike-slip the fault plane can start to curve, giving rise to structures similar to step overs.

text: An idealized

text: strike-slip fault

text: runs in a straight line with a vertical

text: dip

text: and has only horizontal motion, thus there is no change in topography due to motion of the fault. In reality, as strike slip faults become large and developed,  their behavior changes and becomes more complex. A long strike slip fault follows a staircase-like trajectory consisting of interspaced fault planes that follow the main fault direction. These sub parallel stretches are isolated by offsets at first, but over long periods of time they can become connected by step overs in order to accommodate the strike slip displacement. In long stretches of strike-slip the fault plane can start to curve, giving rise to structures similar to step overs.

text: The magnetic poles are relatively stationary in position over time and because of this, researchers often use magnetic minerals, like magnetite, in order to find at what latitude the continent was positioned relative to the magnetic poles of that time. Since the continents have been moving relative to the pole; it is as if they were immobile and the magnetic pole was moving instead. If enough data is collected, it is then possible to reconstruct the motion of the continents relative to the magnetic poles. The apparent polar wander is the path that the magnetic pole appears to take according to the data on a continent. When multiple continents are moving relative to each other, the path their magnetic pole will follow will be different from the others. Conversely, when two continents are moving parallel to each other their path will be the same.

text: The

text: magnetic poles

text: are relatively stationary in position over time and because of this, researchers often use

text: magnetic minerals

text: , like

text: magnetite

text: , in order to find at what latitude the continent was positioned relative to the magnetic poles of that time. Since the continents have been moving relative to the pole; it is as if they were immobile and the magnetic pole was moving instead. If enough data is collected, it is then possible to reconstruct the motion of the continents relative to the magnetic poles. The apparent polar wander is the path that the magnetic pole appears to take according to the data on a continent. When multiple continents are moving relative to each other, the path their magnetic pole will follow will be different from the others. Conversely, when two continents are moving parallel to each other their path will be the same.

text: Offshore of Cape Mendocino lies the Mendocino Triple Junction, a geologic triple junction where three tectonic plates come together. The San Andreas Fault, a transform boundary, runs south from the junction, separating the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. To the north lies the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Gorda Plate is being subducted under the margin of the North American plate.  Running west from the triple junction is the Mendocino Fault, the transform boundary between the Gorda Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: Offshore of Cape Mendocino lies the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: , a geologic

text: triple junction

text: where three

text: tectonic plates

text: come together. The

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , a

text: transform boundary

text: , runs south from the junction, separating the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . To the north lies the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , where the

text: Gorda Plate

text: is being subducted under the margin of the North American plate.  Running west from the triple junction is the

text: Mendocino Fault

text: , the transform boundary between the Gorda Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: The Farallon Islands are outcroppings of the Salinian Block, a vast geologic province of granitic continental crust sharing its origins with the core of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The block was torn off far to the south of its present position and rifted north by the movement of the Pacific Plate on which the islands rest. Other nearby examples of the Salinian Block include the Point Reyes Peninsula and Bodega Head. The San Andreas Fault, marking a boundary zone between the Pacific and North American Plates, passes a few miles east of the islands.

text: The Farallon Islands are outcroppings of the

text: Salinian Block

text: , a vast geologic province of

text: granitic

text: continental crust sharing its origins with the core of the

text: Sierra Nevada Mountains

text: . The block was torn off far to the south of its present position and rifted north by the movement of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: on which the islands rest. Other nearby examples of the Salinian Block include the

text: Point Reyes Peninsula

text: and

text: Bodega Head

text: . The

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , marking a boundary zone between the Pacific and North American Plates, passes a few miles east of the islands.

text: The Hamersley Range is a mountainous region of the Pilbara, Western Australia. The range runs from the Fortescue River in the northeast, 460 km south. The range contains Western Australia's highest point, Mount Meharry, which reaches approximately  AHD. There are many extensively-eroded gorges, such as Wittenoom Gorge. The twenty highest peaks in Western Australia are in the Hamersley Range.Geologically, they are some of the most ancient regions of the earth's crust known as the Pilbara craton.

text: The Hamersley Range is a mountainous region of the

text: Pilbara

text: Western Australia

text: . The range runs from the

text: Fortescue River

text: in the northeast, 460 km south. The range contains Western Australia's highest point,

text: Mount Meharry

text: , which reaches approximately

text: AHD

text: . There are many extensively-eroded gorges, such as

text: Wittenoom Gorge

text: . The twenty highest peaks in Western Australia are in the Hamersley Range.Geologically, they are some of the most ancient regions of the

text: earth's crust

text: known as the

text: Pilbara craton

text: Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable Precambrian "shield", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a craton. The craton itself is an accretionary complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of subduction, continental collision and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed sedimentary rock covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or deltaic sediments. Beyond the margin, there is either a continental shelf and drop off to the basaltic ocean basin or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity.

text: Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of

text: metamorphic

text: and

text: igneous rock

text: , largely of

text: granitic

text: composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable

text: Precambrian

text: "shield", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a

text: craton

text: . The craton itself is an

text: accretionary

text: complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of

text: subduction

text: continental collision

text: and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed

text: sedimentary rock

text: covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or

text: deltaic

text: sediment

text: s. Beyond the margin, there is either a

text: continental shelf

text: and drop off to the

text: basalt

text: ic

text: ocean basin

text: or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity.

text: However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the seafloor spreading proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:

text: However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the

text: seafloor spreading

text: proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:

text: Basalt is generally created as a partial melt of peridotite at 20–120 km depth. Eclogite is denser than the surrounding asthenosphere. Unless the eclogite is created in very young oceanic crust, it is cool at the time of initial subduction and so is carried down into the mantle. If that subducted eclogite is subsequently carried upward with peridotite, as in a mantle plume, it may melt by decompression melting (see discussion in igneous rock) at lower temperature than the accompanying peridotite. Eclogite-derived melts may be common in the mantle, and contribute to volcanic regions where unusually large volumes of magma are erupted.

text: Basalt is generally created as a partial melt of peridotite at 20–120 km depth. Eclogite is denser than the surrounding

text: asthenosphere

text: . Unless the eclogite is created in very young oceanic crust, it is cool at the time of initial subduction and so is carried down into the mantle. If that subducted eclogite is subsequently carried upward with peridotite, as in a mantle plume, it may melt by decompression melting (see discussion in

text: igneous rock

text: ) at lower temperature than the accompanying peridotite. Eclogite-derived melts may be common in the mantle, and contribute to volcanic regions where unusually large volumes of magma are erupted.

text: Volcanic passive margins (VPM) and non-volcanic passive margins are the two forms of transitional crust that lie beneath passive continental margins that occur on Earth as the result of the formation of ocean basins via continental rifting.  Initiation of igneous processes associated with volcanic passive margins occurs before and/or during the rifting process depending on the cause of rifting.  There are two accepted models for VPM formation: hotspots/mantle plumes and slab pull.  Both result in large, quick lava flows over a relatively short period of geologic time (i.e. a couple of million years).  VPM’s progress further as cooling and subsidence begins as the margins give way to formation of normal oceanic crust from the widening rifts.

text: Volcanic

text: passive margin

text: s (VPM) and

text: non-volcanic passive margins

text: are the two forms of transitional

text: crust

text: that lie beneath

text: passive continental margins

text: that occur on Earth as the result of the formation of

text: ocean basin

text: s via continental

text: rifting

text: .  Initiation of

text: igneous

text: processes associated with volcanic passive margins occurs before and/or during the rifting process depending on the cause of rifting.  There are two accepted models for VPM formation:

text: hotspot

text: s/

text: mantle plume

text: s and

text: slab pull

text: .  Both result in large, quick

text: lava

text: flows over a relatively short period of

text: geologic time

text: (i.e. a couple of million years).  VPM’s progress further as cooling and

text: subsidence

text: begins as the margins give way to formation of normal

text: oceanic crust

text: from the widening rifts.

text: Today, the Grenville orogen is marked by northwest verging fold-and-thrust belts and high pressure metamorphic regimes, as well as distinctive AMCG suite magmatism. Metamorphism is commonly of amphibolite and granulite facies, that is, medium to high temperature and pressure alteration. Eclogitized metagabbros (very high pressure ultramafic metamorphic rocks) are found in some localities, and likely represent areas of deepest burial and/or most intense collision. Throughout the orogen, these sequences of high pressure metamorphic rocks are cut by intrusive AMCG suite plutons, generally interpreted as syn- or post-tectonic. AMCG plutonism is generally associated with asthenospheric upwelling under thinned lithosphere. This is derived from the theory that AMCG plutonism is driven by ponding of olivine tholeiite basalt at the base of the continental crust during tectonic extension. The lithosphere may be thinned either convectively or by delamination, in which the bottom portion of the lithosphere is stripped off. Both models have been proposed for the Grenville orogeny.

text: Today, the Grenville orogen is marked by northwest verging

text: fold-and-thrust belts

text: and high pressure metamorphic regimes, as well as distinctive AMCG suite magmatism. Metamorphism is commonly of

text: amphibolite

text: and

text: granulite

text: facies, that is, medium to high temperature and pressure alteration.

text: Eclogitized

text: metagabbros (very high pressure

text: ultramafic

text: metamorphic rocks) are found in some localities, and likely represent areas of deepest burial and/or most intense collision. Throughout the orogen, these sequences of high pressure metamorphic rocks are cut by intrusive AMCG suite plutons, generally interpreted as syn- or post-tectonic. AMCG plutonism is generally associated with

text: asthenospheric

text: upwelling under thinned

text: lithosphere

text: . This is derived from the theory that AMCG plutonism is driven by ponding of

text: olivine

text: tholeiite

text: basalt at the base of the

text: continental crust

text: during tectonic extension. The lithosphere may be thinned either convectively or by

text: delamination

text: , in which the bottom portion of the lithosphere is stripped off. Both models have been proposed for the Grenville orogeny.

text: The Sirian Empire, centred in the Sirius star system, has advanced technology that made their citizens effectively immortal (barring accidents) and sophisticated machines that did almost everything for them. But this technology came at a price: many Sirians became afflicted with "the existentials", a debilitating malady that left them feeling worthless and with no reason to exist. To overcome this problem and give its people "something to do", Sirius embarked on a conquest of space and colonised many planets. But they also encroached on territory of the superior Canopean Empire that led to a costly war, which Canopus won. As a gesture of reconciliation, Canopus returned all the captured Sirian territory and invited Sirius to jointly colonise a new and promising planet called Rohanda (an allegorical Earth). Canopus took the northern continents and gave Sirius the southern continents.

text: The Sirian Empire, centred in the

text: Sirius

text: star system, has advanced technology that made their citizens effectively immortal (barring accidents) and sophisticated machines that did almost everything for them. But this technology came at a price: many Sirians became afflicted with "the existentials", a debilitating malady that left them feeling worthless and with no reason to exist. To overcome this problem and give its people "something to do", Sirius embarked on a conquest of space and

text: colonised

text: many planets. But they also encroached on territory of the superior Canopean Empire that led to a costly war, which

text: Canopus

text: won. As a gesture of reconciliation, Canopus returned all the captured Sirian territory and invited Sirius to jointly colonise a new and promising planet called Rohanda (an allegorical

text: Earth

text: ). Canopus took the northern continents and gave Sirius the southern continents.

text: As data accumulated, a common view developed that one large oceanic plate, the Farallon plate, acted as a conveyor belt, conveying terranes to North America's west coast, where they accreted. As the continent overran the subducting Farallon plate, the denser plate became subducted into the mantle below the continent. When the plates converged, the dense oceanic plate sank into the mantle to form a  slab below the lighter continent.

text: As data accumulated, a common view developed that one large oceanic plate, the Farallon plate, acted as a conveyor belt, conveying

text: terrane

text: s to North America's west coast, where they accreted. As the continent overran the subducting Farallon plate, the denser plate became subducted into the mantle below the continent. When the plates converged, the dense oceanic plate sank into the mantle to form a

text: slab

text: below the lighter continent.

text: Coulomb stress transfer is a seismic-related geological process of stress changes to surrounding material caused by local discrete deformation events. Using mapped displacements of the Earth’s surface during earthquakes, computed Coulomb stress changes have suggested that stress relieved during an earthquake does not only dissipate, but can also move up and down fault segments, concentrating and promoting subsequent tremors. Importantly, Coulomb stress changes have been applied to earthquake-forecasting models that have been used to assess potential hazards related to earthquake activity.

text: Coulomb stress transfer is a

text: seismic

text: -related

text: geological

text: process of

text: stress

text: changes to surrounding material caused by local discrete deformation events. Using mapped displacements of the Earth’s surface during

text: earthquake

text: s, computed Coulomb stress changes have suggested that stress relieved during an earthquake does not only dissipate, but can also move up and down

text: fault

text: segments, concentrating and promoting subsequent tremors. Importantly, Coulomb stress changes have been applied to earthquake-forecasting models that have been used to assess potential

text: hazards

text: related to earthquake activity.

text: This was followed by decompressions which occurred due to uplift related to the gradual stretching and thinning of the crust as rifting continued. Stretching and thinning can take place either according to a symmetrical, pure shear, extension model, or due to an asymmetric, detachment-delamination model. Basaltic dykes are also injected during the stretching and thinning.

text: This was followed by

text: decompressions

text: which occurred due to uplift related to the gradual stretching and thinning of the crust as rifting continued. Stretching and thinning can take place either according to a symmetrical,

text: pure shear

text: , extension model, or due to an asymmetric, detachment-

text: delamination

text: model. Basaltic

text: dykes

text: are also injected during the stretching and thinning.

text: The vastly different harassments imposed on the victims can be categorized into two different types, physical abuse and emotional abuse. Physical abuse refers to sexual assault and violence on body, while emotional abuse refers to imposing stress and bullying.  Anderson and Militello found that often managers exhibiting harassing behavior were allowed to maintain their jobs because their behavior was seen to increase productivity in the short term.  A study done by Kathleen D. Ryan and Daniel K Oestereich, Driving Fear Out of the Workplace, found that many of these behaviors can range from subtle emotional cues to outward physical threats and can include; silence, direct insults and even angry outbursts.  Whether these actions are intentional or brought on by stress, the result can cause the employee to feel humiliated, isolated and may cause them to lash out at others.

text: The vastly different harassments imposed on the victims can be categorized into two different types, physical abuse and emotional abuse. Physical abuse refers to sexual assault and violence on body, while emotional abuse refers to imposing stress and bullying.  Anderson and Militello found that often managers exhibiting

text: harassing behavior

text: were allowed to maintain their jobs because their behavior was seen to increase productivity in the short term.  A study done by Kathleen D. Ryan and Daniel K Oestereich, Driving Fear Out of the Workplace, found that many of these behaviors can range from subtle emotional cues to outward physical threats and can include; silence, direct insults and even angry outbursts.  Whether these actions are intentional or brought on by stress, the result can cause the employee to feel humiliated, isolated and may cause them to lash out at others.

text: This lava field is the largest of several large beds of lava that erupted from the  south-east to north-west trending Great Rift volcanic zone, a line of weakness in the Earth's crust. Together with fields from other fissures they make up the Lava Beds of Idaho, which in turn are in the much larger Snake River Plain volcanic province. The Great Rift extends across almost the entire Snake River Plain.

text: This lava field is the largest of several large beds of lava that erupted from the  south-east to north-west trending Great Rift volcanic zone, a line of weakness in the Earth's crust. Together with fields from other fissures they make up the Lava Beds of Idaho, which in turn are in the much larger

text: Snake River Plain

text: volcanic province. The Great Rift extends across almost the entire Snake River Plain.

text: In the early stages of strike-slip fault formation, displacement within basement rocks produces characteristic fault structures within the overlying cover. This will also be the case where an active strike-slip zone lies within an area of continuing sedimentation. At low levels of strain the overall simple shear causes a set of small faults to form. The dominant set, known as R shears, form at about 15° to the underlying fault with the same shear sense. The R shears are then linked by a second set, the R' shear that form at about 75° to the main fault trace. These two fault orientations can be understood as conjugate fault sets at 30° to the short axis of the instantaneous strain ellipse associated with the simple shear strain field caused by the displacements applied at the base of the cover sequence. With further displacement the Riedel fault segments will tend to become fully linked, often with the development of a further set of shears known as 'P shears', which are roughly symmetrical to the R shears with respect to the overall shear direction, until a throughgoing fault is formed. The somewhat oblique segments will link downwards into the fault at the base of the cover sequence with a helicoidal geometry.

text: In the early stages of

text: strike-slip fault

text: formation, displacement within

text: basement

text: rocks produces characteristic fault structures within the overlying cover. This will also be the case where an active strike-slip zone lies within an area of continuing sedimentation. At low levels of strain the overall

text: simple shear

text: causes a set of small faults to form. The dominant set, known as R shears, form at about 15° to the underlying fault with the same shear sense. The R shears are then linked by a second set, the R' shear that form at about 75° to the main fault trace. These two fault orientations can be understood as conjugate fault sets at 30° to the short axis of the instantaneous strain ellipse associated with the simple shear strain field caused by the displacements applied at the base of the cover sequence. With further displacement the Riedel fault segments will tend to become fully linked, often with the development of a further set of shears known as 'P shears', which are roughly symmetrical to the R shears with respect to the overall shear direction, until a throughgoing fault is formed. The somewhat oblique segments will link downwards into the fault at the base of the cover sequence with a helicoidal geometry.

text: In an area affected by regional stress, most of the faults and folds are aligned along strike. In forced folds, linkage of folds is strongly associated with linkage of the underlying faults. Growth and displacement of faults are affected by not only the far-field stress of the region but also the position of faults relative to each other. This is a result of a reloading positive feedback mechanism, which suggests that the stress build-up in the population of faults that are aligned along strike are much faster than those located in stress shadow (i.e. transverse to the main alignments), and thus the higher frequency of rupture and growth rates in faults that are optimally aligned. Conversely, the faults that are located in stress shadow are relaxed and have a lower frequency of rupture and growth rates. As localization of deformation among faults continues, some faults may concentrate the stress and upon linking with other faults form a main fault that accommodates most of the displacement in the region. On the other hand, the faults that orient in the stress shadow will decrease in growth rates and even become inactive in the long term. As a result, in a region with pervasive compressional stress, two merged fold segments are usually aligned along-strike, as the folds would probably be rendered inactive if they are not aligned in such favorable ways.

text: In an area affected by regional stress, most of the faults and folds are aligned along strike. In forced folds, linkage of folds is strongly associated with linkage of the underlying faults. Growth and displacement of faults are affected by not only the far-field stress of the region but also the position of faults relative to each other. This is a result of a reloading

text: positive feedback

text: mechanism, which suggests that the stress build-up in the population of faults that are aligned along strike are much faster than those located in stress shadow (i.e. transverse to the main alignments), and thus the higher frequency of rupture and growth rates in faults that are optimally aligned. Conversely, the faults that are located in stress shadow are relaxed and have a lower frequency of rupture and growth rates. As localization of deformation among faults continues, some faults may concentrate the stress and upon linking with other faults form a main fault that accommodates most of the displacement in the region. On the other hand, the faults that orient in the stress shadow will decrease in growth rates and even become inactive in the long term. As a result, in a region with pervasive compressional stress, two merged fold segments are usually aligned along-strike, as the folds would probably be rendered inactive if they are not aligned in such favorable ways.

text: While fracture filling as a method to enhance gems has been found in gems over 2,500 years old, the diamond's unique refractive index required a more advanced solution than simple wax and oil treatments. This technology became available roughly 20 years after the time the laser drilling technique was developed. Simply put, "fracture filling" makes tiny natural fractures inside diamonds less visible to the naked eye or even under magnification. Fractures are very common inside diamonds and are created during the diamond's creation in the earth's crust. As the rough diamond travels up from the earth's crust through volcanic pipes it comes under extreme stresses and pressures, and during this travel tiny fractures can form inside the diamond. If these fractures are visible and damaging to the beauty of the diamond, it will have much lower demand and won't be as salable to jewelers and the general public, making them candidates for fracture filling and thus visually improve the appearance of the diamond.

text: Hans Stille served as professor of geology at the University of Göttingen. Working from the University of Göttingen and, later, the University of Berlin, Stille brought together a table of around 50 geosynchronous orogenic phases that occurred during the Phanerozoic Eon.  In the framework developed by Stille, these phases occurred as small pulses during which a portion of the Earth's crust was stabilised, and the continents were enlarged. In 1924 he suggested a tectonic model for the continents that postulated alternating periods of orogenic (mountain building) and epeirogenic (no mountain building) episodes.

text: Hans Stille served as professor of geology at the

text: University of Göttingen

text: . Working from the University of Göttingen and, later, the

text: University of Berlin

text: , Stille brought together a table of around 50

text: geosynchronous

text: orogenic phases

text: that occurred during the Phanerozoic

text: Eon

text: .  In the framework developed by Stille, these phases occurred as small pulses during which a portion of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: was stabilised, and the

text: continent

text: s were enlarged. In 1924 he suggested a tectonic model for the continents that postulated alternating periods of

text: orogenic

text: (mountain building) and epeirogenic (no mountain building) episodes.

text: The peculiar uptilted rock formations found in the area are layers of sedimentary rocks formed long ago by water depositing loose material in horizontal layers. Later they were squeezed into their present, steeply tilted form by ongoing uplift action along the Punchbowl and Pinyon Faults and by pressures along the San Andreas Fault. The Punchbowl Fault is to the south of the rock formation, while the Pinyon and San Andreas Faults are to the north.

text: The peculiar uptilted rock formations found in the area are layers of

text: sedimentary rock

text: s formed long ago by water depositing loose material in horizontal layers. Later they were squeezed into their present, steeply tilted form by ongoing uplift action along the Punchbowl and Pinyon Faults and by pressures along the San Andreas Fault. The Punchbowl Fault is to the south of the rock formation, while the Pinyon and San Andreas Faults are to the north.

text: Unlike typical earthquakes worldwide, the earthquakes of Northern Europe are intraplate earthquakes, meaning they are not close to tectonic plate boundaries. Most intraplate earthquakes in Northern Europe, including the UK, are thought to be driven by distant tectonic stresses – a combination of E–W North Atlantic Ridge and N–S African Plate regional stress fields, and local mantle conditions. Indeed, the motion on the strike-slip fault responsible for the 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake is compatible with a local NW–SE stress field; a product of the E–W and N–S regional stress fields.

text: Unlike typical earthquakes worldwide, the earthquakes of

text: Northern Europe

text: are

text: intraplate earthquake

text: s, meaning they are not close to

text: tectonic plate

text: boundaries. Most intraplate earthquakes in Northern Europe, including the

text: UK

text: , are thought to be driven by distant tectonic stresses – a combination of E–W

text: North Atlantic Ridge

text: and N–S

text: African Plate

text: regional stress fields, and local

text: mantle

text: conditions. Indeed, the motion on the strike-slip fault responsible for the 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake is compatible with a local NW–SE stress field; a product of the E–W and N–S regional stress fields.

text: 100 million years ago the extension of the Tethys Ocean stopped and the Apulian plate broke from Gondwana and moved toward the European continent. This resulted in the closure of the western Tethys by subduction under the Apulian plate (with the Piemont-Liguria Ocean first and Valais Ocean later). The subduction of the oceanic crust left traces still visible today at the base of the Matterhorn (accretionary prism). The orogeny itself began after the end of the oceanic subduction when the European continental crust collided with the Apulian continent, resulting in the formation of nappes.The Matterhorn acquired its characteristic pyramidal shape in much more recent times as it was caused by natural erosion over the past million years. At the beginning of alpine orogeny, the Matterhorn was only a rounded mountain like a hill. Because its height is above the snowline, its flanks are covered by ice, resulting from the accumulation and compaction of snow. During the warmer period of summer, part of the ice melts and seeps into the bedrock. When it freezes again, it fractures pieces of rock because of its dilatation (freeze-thaw), forming a cirque. Four cirques led to the shape of the mountain. Because of its recognizable shape, many other similar mountains around the world were named or nicknamed the 'Matterhorn' of their respective countries or mountain ranges.

text: 100 million years ago the extension of the Tethys Ocean stopped and the Apulian plate broke from Gondwana and moved toward the European continent. This resulted in the closure of the western Tethys by

text: subduction

text: under the Apulian plate (with the

text: Piemont-Liguria Ocean

text: first and

text: Valais Ocean

text: later). The subduction of the oceanic crust left traces still visible today at the base of the Matterhorn (

text: accretionary prism

text: ). The orogeny itself began after the end of the oceanic subduction when the European continental crust collided with the Apulian continent, resulting in the formation of

text: nappe

text: s.The Matterhorn acquired its characteristic pyramidal shape in much more recent times as it was caused by natural erosion over the past million years. At the beginning of alpine orogeny, the Matterhorn was only a rounded mountain like a hill. Because its height is above the

text: snowline

text: , its flanks are covered by ice, resulting from the accumulation and compaction of snow. During the warmer period of summer, part of the ice melts and seeps into the bedrock. When it freezes again, it fractures pieces of rock because of its dilatation (

text: freeze-thaw

text: ), forming a

text: cirque

text: . Four cirques led to the shape of the mountain. Because of its recognizable shape, many other similar mountains around the world were named or nicknamed the 'Matterhorn' of their respective countries or mountain ranges.

text: The earthquake was located close to the northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. This area of thickened crust is a result of the ongoing collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. The way in which this zone accommodates the collision remains unclear with two end-member models being proposed. The first regards the crust as being made up of a mosaic of strong blocks separated by weak fault zones, the microplate model. The second regards the deformation as being continuous within the mid to lower crust, the continuum model. The change in width of the deformed zone along the collisional belt, with the narrow zone of western Tibet compared to the main part of the Tibetan Plateau, is explained as either lateral escape to the east along the Altyn Tagh- and Karakorum faults in the microplate model or as the effect of the rigid Tarim Basin block causing heterogeneous deformation within a generally weaker lithosphere in the continuum model. At its northern end, the Altyn Tagh fault progressively loses displacement by its interaction with a series of WNW-ESE trending structures, mostly with components of reverse displacement and sinistral (left lateral) strike-slip. The Changma fault is one of those structures.

text: The

text: earthquake

text: was located close to the northern margin of the

text: Tibetan Plateau

text: . This area of thickened crust is a result of the ongoing collision of the

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: with the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: . The way in which this zone accommodates the collision remains unclear with two end-member models being proposed. The first regards the crust as being made up of a mosaic of strong blocks separated by weak

text: fault zones

text: , the microplate model. The second regards the deformation as being continuous within the mid to lower crust, the continuum model. The change in width of the deformed zone along the collisional belt, with the narrow zone of western Tibet compared to the main part of the Tibetan Plateau, is explained as either lateral escape to the east along the

text: Altyn Tagh-

text: and

text: Karakorum fault

text: s in the microplate model or as the effect of the rigid Tarim Basin block causing heterogeneous deformation within a generally weaker lithosphere in the continuum model. At its northern end, the Altyn Tagh fault progressively loses displacement by its interaction with a series of WNW-ESE trending structures, mostly with components of reverse displacement and sinistral (left lateral) strike-slip. The Changma fault is one of those structures.

text: However, the report stated that both superheater types had serious drawbacks, with the Schmidt system featuring a damper control on the superheater header that caused hot gases to condense into sulphuric acid, which caused pitting and subsequent weakening of the superheater elements. Leakage of gases was also commonplace between the elements and the header, and maintenance was difficult without removal of the horizontally-arranged assembly. The Robinson version suffered from temperature variations caused by saturated and superheated steam chambers being adjacent, causing material stress, and had similar access problems as the Schmidt type.

text: However, the report stated that both superheater types had serious drawbacks, with the Schmidt system featuring a damper control on the superheater header that caused hot gases to condense into

text: sulphuric acid

text: , which caused pitting and subsequent weakening of the superheater elements. Leakage of gases was also commonplace between the elements and the header, and maintenance was difficult without removal of the horizontally-arranged assembly. The Robinson version suffered from temperature variations caused by saturated and superheated steam chambers being adjacent, causing material stress, and had similar access problems as the Schmidt type.

text: Georgescu points out that Earth is a closed system in the thermodynamic sense of the term: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe. Hence, mainly two sources of 'low entropy' are available to man, namely the stock of mineral resources in the crust of the Earth; and the flow of radiation, received from the Sun. Since the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come, the Earth's mineral stock is the scarcer one of these two main sources of low entropy. Whereas the stock of minerals may be extracted from the crust of the Earth at a rate of our own choosing (practically), the flow of solar radiation arrives at the surface of the Earth at a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control. This natural 'asymmetry' between man's access to the stock of minerals and the flow of solar energy accounts for the historical contrast between urban and rural life: The busy urban life, on the one hand, is associated with industry and the impatient extraction of minerals; the tranquil rural life, on the other hand, is associated with agriculture and the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy. Georgescu points out that this 'asymmetry' helps explaining the historical subjection of the countryside by the town since the dawn of civilisation, and he criticises Karl Marx for not taking this subjection properly into account in his theory of historical materialism.

text: Georgescu points out that Earth is a

text: closed system

text: in the thermodynamic sense of the term: Earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe. Hence, mainly two sources of 'low entropy' are available to man, namely the stock of mineral resources in the crust of the Earth; and the flow of radiation, received from the

text: Sun

text: . Since the Sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come, the Earth's mineral stock is the scarcer one of these two main sources of low entropy. Whereas the stock of minerals may be extracted from the

text: crust of the Earth

text: at a rate of our own choosing (practically), the flow of solar radiation arrives at the surface of the Earth at a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control. This natural 'asymmetry' between man's access to the stock of minerals and the flow of solar energy accounts for the historical contrast between urban and rural life: The busy urban life, on the one hand, is associated with industry and the impatient extraction of minerals; the tranquil rural life, on the other hand, is associated with agriculture and the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy. Georgescu points out that this 'asymmetry' helps explaining the historical subjection of the countryside by the town since the dawn of civilisation, and he criticises

text: Karl Marx

text: for not taking this subjection properly into account in his theory of

text: historical materialism

text: Similarly, Professor Robert T. Hill explained at that time that "the rocks are being folded, fractured and otherwise broken or deformed by the great shrinking and settling of the earth's crust as a whole. The contraction of the earth's sphere is the physical shrinkage of age that is measured in aeons instead of years. The prehistoric convulsions of the earth before man inhabited this planet were terrific, almost inconceivable."  There "was no doubt that earthquakes are diminishing."  The displacement of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was only a few feet, while prehistoric earthquakes made fissures and slides of 20,000 feet.

text: Similarly, Professor

text: Robert T. Hill

text: explained at that time that "the rocks are being folded, fractured and otherwise broken or deformed by the great shrinking and settling of the earth's crust as a whole. The contraction of the earth's sphere is the physical shrinkage of age that is measured in aeons instead of years. The prehistoric convulsions of the earth before man inhabited this planet were terrific, almost inconceivable."  There "was no doubt that earthquakes are diminishing."  The displacement of the

text: 1906 San Francisco earthquake

text: was only a few feet, while prehistoric earthquakes made fissures and slides of 20,000 feet.

text: It has been speculated that the OS might connect with the seismically active Saint Helens Zone (discussed below), which would imply that the OS is both locked and being stressed, raising the possibility of a major earthquake. Alternately, the OS appears to coincide with a gravitational boundary in the upper crust that has been mapped striking southeast to The Dalles on the Columbia River, where there is a swarm of similarly striking faults.

text: It has been speculated that the OS might connect with the seismically active Saint Helens Zone (discussed

text: below

text: ), which would imply that the OS is both locked and being stressed, raising the possibility of a major earthquake. Alternately, the OS appears to coincide with a gravitational boundary in the upper crust that has been mapped striking southeast to

text: The Dalles

text: on the Columbia River, where there is a swarm of similarly striking faults.

text: Fault blocks are very large blocks of rock, sometimes hundreds of kilometres in extent, created by tectonic and localized stresses in the Earth's crust. Large areas of bedrock are broken up into blocks by faults.  Blocks are characterized by relatively uniform lithology.  The largest of these fault blocks are called crustal blocks. Large crustal blocks broken off from tectonic plates are called terranes. Those terranes which are the full thickness of the lithosphere are called microplates. Continent-sized blocks are called variously microcontinents, continental ribbons, H-blocks, extensional allochthons and outer highs.

text: Fault blocks are very large blocks of rock, sometimes hundreds of kilometres in extent, created by

text: tectonic

text: and localized stresses in the

text: Earth's crust

text: . Large areas of bedrock are broken up into blocks by

text: faults

text: .  Blocks are characterized by relatively uniform

text: lithology

text: .  The largest of these fault blocks are called crustal blocks. Large crustal blocks broken off from tectonic plates are called

text: terrane

text: s. Those terranes which are the full thickness of the lithosphere are called microplates. Continent-sized blocks are called variously microcontinents, continental ribbons, H-blocks, extensional allochthons and outer highs.

text: In one study investigating the effects of self-affirmation on stress response, undergraduates participants completed the Trier Social Stress Test, a standardized laboratory paradigm used to induce stress in participants. In the Trier Social Stress task, participants are asked to give a short speech in front of a panel of judges who do not give any comments or positive feedback to the participant. Following the speech, participants must complete a mental arithmetic task, in which they count backwards from 2,083 in increments of 13 while being told by the judges to go faster. Prior to completing the Trier Social Stress Task, half of the participants completed a variation of values list self-affirmation task. Participants who complete the values list had significantly lower stress response than individuals in the control condition, as indicated by a lower cortisol response in affirmed participants compared to participants who did not complete the self-affirmation condition.

text: In one study investigating the effects of self-affirmation on

text: stress response

text: , undergraduates participants completed the

text: Trier Social Stress Test

text: , a standardized laboratory paradigm used to induce stress in participants. In the Trier Social Stress task, participants are asked to give a short speech in front of a panel of judges who do not give any comments or positive feedback to the participant. Following the speech, participants must complete a mental arithmetic task, in which they count backwards from 2,083 in increments of 13 while being told by the judges to go faster. Prior to completing the Trier Social Stress Task, half of the participants completed a variation of values list self-affirmation task. Participants who complete the values list had significantly lower stress response than individuals in the control condition, as indicated by a lower

text: cortisol

text: response in affirmed participants compared to participants who did not complete the self-affirmation condition.

text: Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's , e.g., in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.  Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

text: Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid

text: tectonic plates

text: that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are

text: diverging

text: or

text: converging

text: . For example, a

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: , such as the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's , e.g., in the

text: East African Rift

text: and the

text: Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field

text: and

text: Rio Grande Rift

text: in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as

text: mantle plume

text: s. These so-called "

text: hotspots

text: ", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling

text: diapir

text: s with magma from the

text: core–mantle boundary

text: , 3,000 km deep in the Earth.  Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

text: A study published in 2006 in the journal Nature found that the San Andreas fault has reached a sufficient stress level for an earthquake of magnitude greater than 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale to occur.This study also found that the risk of a large earthquake may be increasing more rapidly than scientists had previously believed. Moreover, the risk is currently concentrated on the southern section of the fault, i.e. the region around Los Angeles, because massive earthquakes have occurred relatively recently on the central (1857) and northern (1906) segments of the fault, while the southern section has not seen any similar rupture for at least 300 years. According to this study, a massive earthquake on that southern section of the San Andreas fault would result in major damage to the Palm Springs-Indio metropolitan area and other cities in San Bernardino, Riverside and Imperial counties in California, and Mexicali Municipality in Baja California. It would be strongly felt (and potentially cause major damage) throughout much of Southern California, including densely populated areas of Los Angeles County, Ventura County, Orange County, San Diego County, Ensenada Municipality and Tijuana Municipality, Baja California, San Luis Rio Colorado in Sonora and Yuma, Arizona. Older buildings would be especially prone to damage or collapse, as would buildings built on unconsolidated gravel or in coastal areas where water tables are high (and thus subject to soil liquefaction). The paper concluded:

text: A study published in 2006 in the journal Nature found that the San Andreas fault has reached a sufficient stress level for an earthquake of magnitude greater than 7.0 on the

text: moment magnitude scale

text: to occur.This study also found that the risk of a large earthquake may be increasing more rapidly than scientists had previously believed. Moreover, the risk is currently concentrated on the southern section of the fault, i.e. the region around Los Angeles, because massive earthquakes have occurred relatively recently on the central (

text: ) and northern (

text: ) segments of the fault, while the southern section has not seen any similar rupture for at least 300 years. According to this study, a massive earthquake on that southern section of the San Andreas fault would result in major damage to the

text: Palm Springs

text: Indio

text: metropolitan area and other cities in

text: San Bernardino

text: Riverside

text: and

text: Imperial

text: counties in California, and

text: Mexicali Municipality

text: in

text: Baja California

text: . It would be strongly felt (and potentially cause major damage) throughout much of

text: Southern California

text: , including densely populated areas of

text: Los Angeles County

text: Ventura County

text: Orange County

text: San Diego County

text: Ensenada Municipality

text: and

text: Tijuana Municipality

text: Baja California

text: San Luis Rio Colorado

text: in

text: Sonora

text: and

text: Yuma

text: Arizona

text: . Older buildings would be especially prone to damage or collapse, as would buildings built on unconsolidated gravel or in coastal areas where water tables are high (and thus subject to

text: soil liquefaction

text: ). The paper concluded:

text: Identifying past (but now inactive) plate boundaries within current plates is generally based on evidence for an ocean that has now closed up. The line where the ocean used to be is normally marked by pieces of the crust from that ocean, included in the collision zone, known as ophiolites. The line across which two plates became joined to form a single larger plate, is known as a suture.

text: Identifying past (but now inactive) plate boundaries within current plates is generally based on evidence for an ocean that has now closed up. The line where the ocean used to be is normally marked by pieces of the crust from that ocean, included in the collision zone, known as

text: ophiolites

text: . The line across which two plates became joined to form a single larger plate, is known as a

text: suture

text: The Laguna Salada Fault is a probable southern continuation of the Elsinore Fault Zone in Southern California.  These faults are considered to be secondary cohorts of the San Andreas Fault, and as such share some of the strike-slip motion between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: The Laguna Salada Fault is a probable southern continuation of the

text: Elsinore Fault Zone

text: in

text: Southern California

text: .  These faults are considered to be secondary cohorts of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , and as such share some of the strike-slip motion between the

text: North American Plate

text: and the

text: Pacific Plate

text: Back-arcs can form on either oceanic crust or continental crust. In the case of oceanic crust, most back-arc regions are subjected to tensional stresses and thus develop a spreading center where new oceanic crust is formed. The composition of this new crust  is similar to MORB, although it contains higher amounts of water.

text: A very much overlooked side of stress is its positive adaptations. Positive psychological stress can lead to motivation and challenge instead of anxiety. The effects of experiencing eustress, which is positive stress, versus distress, which is negative stress, are significant. While colloquially lumped together, the various types of stress should be treated as separate concepts.

text: A very much overlooked side of stress is its positive adaptations. Positive psychological stress can lead to motivation and challenge instead of anxiety. The effects of experiencing

text: eustress

text: , which is positive stress, versus

text: distress

text: , which is negative stress, are significant. While colloquially lumped together, the various types of stress should be treated as separate concepts.

text: Geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, and African plates collided to create it. First, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time, continental crust was stretched and thinned. This thinning created a broad zone of thick transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with block faulting, and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical thickness, 35 kilometers, of normal continental crust. It was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the subsiding basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a restricted basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt and associated anhydrite evaporites. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading and formation of oceanic crust occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased.

text: Geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of

text: rifting

text: within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the

text: Laurentia

text: , South American, and African plates collided to create it. First, there was a Late Triassic-Early

text: Jurassic

text: phase of rifting during which

text: rift valley

text: s formed and filled with continental

text: red beds

text: . Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time, continental crust was stretched and thinned. This thinning created a broad zone of thick transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with block faulting, and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical thickness, 35

text: kilometer

text: s, of normal continental crust. It was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the subsiding basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a restricted basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of

text: Louann Salt

text: and associated

text: anhydrite

text: evaporite

text: s. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that

text: sea-floor spreading

text: and formation of

text: oceanic crust

text: occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased.

text: The origin of igneous rock, or petrogenesis , in continental arcs is more complicated than that in oceanic arcs. The partial melting of the subducting oceanic slab generates primary magma, which would be contaminated by the continental crust materials when it travels through the crust. Because the continental crust is felsic or silica while the juvenile primary magma is typically mafic, the composition of magmas in continental arcs is the product of mixing between igneous differentiation of mafic magmas and felsic or silica crust meltings. The mixing of existing continental crust, lower part of lithosphere or lithospheric mantle under the continental crust, the subducting oceanic crust and sediments, the mantle wedge and the underplates materials together is the main source of continental arc rocks.

text: The origin of

text: igneous rock

text: , or

text: petrogenesis

text: , in continental arcs is more complicated than that in oceanic arcs. The partial melting of the subducting oceanic slab generates primary magma, which would be contaminated by the continental crust materials when it travels through the crust. Because the continental crust is

text: felsic

text: or silica while the juvenile primary magma is typically

text: mafic

text: , the composition of magmas in continental arcs is the product of mixing between

text: igneous differentiation

text: of mafic magmas and felsic or silica crust meltings. The mixing of existing continental crust, lower part of

text: lithosphere

text: or

text: lithospheric mantle

text: under the continental crust, the subducting oceanic crust and sediments, the

text: mantle wedge

text: and the

text: underplate

text: s materials together is the main source of continental arc rocks.

text: The IBM arc system is an excellent example of an intra-oceanic convergent margin (IOCM).  IOCMs are built on oceanic crust and contrast fundamentally with island arc built on continental crust, such as Japan or the Andes.  Because IOCM crust is thinner, denser, and more refractory than that beneath Andean-type margins, study of IOCM melts and fluids allows more confident assessment of mantle-to-crust fluxes and processes than is possible for Andean-type convergent margins.  Because IOCMs are far removed from continents they are not affected by the large volume of alluvial and glacial sediments.  The consequent thin sedimentary cover makes it much easier to study arc infrastructure and determine the mass and composition of subducted sediments. Active hydrothermal systems found on the submarine parts of IOCMs give us a chance to study how many of earth's important ore deposits formed.

text: The IBM arc system is an excellent example of an intra-oceanic convergent margin (IOCM).  IOCMs are built on

text: oceanic crust

text: and contrast fundamentally with

text: island arc

text: built on continental crust, such as Japan or the

text: Andes

text: .  Because IOCM crust is thinner, denser, and more refractory than that beneath Andean-type margins, study of IOCM melts and fluids allows more confident assessment of mantle-to-crust fluxes and processes than is possible for Andean-type convergent margins.  Because IOCMs are far removed from continents they are not affected by the large volume of alluvial and glacial sediments.  The consequent thin sedimentary cover makes it much easier to study arc infrastructure and determine the mass and composition of subducted sediments. Active

text: hydrothermal systems

text: found on the submarine parts of IOCMs give us a chance to study how many of earth's important ore deposits formed.

text: When the spreading ridge of the Pacific Plate ran into the subduction zone along the west coast of the United States, subduction ceased and volcanism diminished. Rising heat led to extreme thinning of the crust and caused it to bulge upward. High-angle normal faults formed to accommodate the extension, creating a vast alternating system of mountains and valleys, or, more specifically, horsts and grabens. These north–south trending structures are the distinguishing characteristic of what is now known as the Basin and Range Province. The Chiricahua Mountains lie within this province and graben blocks are the most common structure found. Extension continues today due to pressure from the San Andreas Fault that runs through the length of California. Extension also led to the formation of more volcanic features. Small amounts of basaltic magma leaked out and formed the San Bernardino volcanic field (San Bernardino Valley) along the southeastern flank of the mountains between Rodeo, New Mexico, and Douglas, Arizona. Cinder cones, lavas, and small explosion craters are still clearly seen today.

text: When the spreading ridge of the Pacific Plate ran into the subduction zone along the west coast of the United States, subduction ceased and volcanism diminished. Rising heat led to extreme thinning of the crust and caused it to bulge upward. High-angle normal faults formed to accommodate the extension, creating a vast alternating system of mountains and valleys, or, more specifically,

text: horsts and grabens

text: . These north–south trending structures are the distinguishing characteristic of what is now known as the Basin and Range Province. The Chiricahua Mountains lie within this province and graben blocks are the most common structure found. Extension continues today due to pressure from the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: that runs through the length of California. Extension also led to the formation of more volcanic features. Small amounts of basaltic magma leaked out and formed the San Bernardino volcanic field (

text: San Bernardino Valley

text: ) along the southeastern flank of the mountains between

text: Rodeo, New Mexico

text: , and

text: Douglas, Arizona

text: Cinder cones

text: , lavas, and small

text: explosion crater

text: s are still clearly seen today.

text: __NOTOC__Earthquake sensitive is a pseudoscientific term defined by Jim Berkland to refer to certain people who claim sensitivity to the precursors of impending earthquakes, manifested in "dreams or visions, psychic impressions, or physiological symptoms", the latter including "ear tones" (ringing in the ears), headaches, and agitation.  It is claimed that "[a] person with a very sensitive body may also have some subtle reaction to whatever animals react to". Proponents have speculated that these may result from: 1) piezoelectric effects due to changes in the stress of the earth's crust, 2) low-frequency electromagnetic signals, or 3) from the emission of radon gas.

text: __NOTOC__Earthquake sensitive is a

text: pseudoscientific

text: term defined by

text: Jim Berkland

text: to refer to certain people who claim sensitivity to the precursors of impending earthquakes, manifested in "dreams or visions, psychic impressions, or physiological symptoms", the latter including "ear tones" (

text: ringing in the ears

text: ), headaches, and agitation.  It is claimed that "[a] person with a very sensitive body may also have some subtle reaction to whatever animals react to". Proponents have speculated that these may result from: 1)

text: piezoelectric effect

text: s due to changes in the stress of the earth's crust, 2) low-frequency electromagnetic signals, or 3) from the emission of

text: radon

text: gas.

text: The western edge of the North American continent was later pushed against the oceanic plate under the adjacent ocean. An area of great compression called a subduction zone was formed in the early-to-mid Mesozoic, which replaced the quiet, sea-covered continental margin with erupting volcanoes and uplifting mountains. A chain of volcanoes pushed through the continental crust parallel to the deep trench, fed by magma rising from the subducting oceanic plate as it entered the Earth's hot interior. Thousands of feet (hundreds of meters) of lavas erupted, pushing the ocean over  to the west.

text: The western edge of the North American continent was later pushed against the oceanic plate under the adjacent ocean. An area of great compression called a

text: subduction zone

text: was formed in the early-to-mid Mesozoic, which replaced the quiet, sea-covered continental margin with erupting volcanoes and uplifting mountains. A chain of volcanoes pushed through the continental crust parallel to the deep

text: trench

text: , fed by magma rising from the subducting oceanic plate as it entered the Earth's hot interior. Thousands of feet (hundreds of meters) of lavas erupted, pushing the ocean over  to the west.

text: A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart, ocean basins, and hotspots. Hydrothermal vents exist because the earth is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Common land types include hot springs, fumaroles and geysers. Under the sea, hydrothermal vents may form features called black smokers. Relative to the majority of the deep sea, the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents are biologically more productive, often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids. Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea form the base of the food chain, supporting diverse organisms, including giant tube worms, clams, limpets and shrimp. Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on Jupiter's moon Europa, and Saturn's moon Enceladus, and it is speculated that ancient hydrothermal vents once existed on Mars.

text: A hydrothermal vent is a

text: fissure

text: in a planet's surface from which

text: geothermally

text: heated

text: water

text: issues. Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near

text: volcanically

text: active places, areas where

text: tectonic plate

text: s are moving apart, ocean basins, and

text: hotspots

text: . Hydrothermal vents exist because the earth is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Common land types include

text: hot spring

text: s,

text: fumarole

text: s and

text: geyser

text: s. Under the sea, hydrothermal vents may form features called black smokers. Relative to the majority of the deep sea, the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents are biologically more productive, often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids.

text: Chemosynthetic

text: bacteria and

text: archaea

text: form the base of the food chain, supporting diverse organisms, including

text: giant tube worm

text: s,

text: clam

text: s,

text: limpet

text: s and

text: shrimp

text: . Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on

text: Jupiter

text: 's moon

text: Europa

text: , and

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Enceladus

text: , and it is speculated that ancient hydrothermal vents once existed on

text: Mars

text: The Devils Marbles constitute a degraded nubbin. The formation is made of granite and are part of the top layer of a formation which penetrates the ground from below, like little geological islands in the desert, surrounded by large amounts of sandstone. The granite was formed millions of years ago as a result of the hardening of magma within the Earth's crust. Thick layers of sandstone on top of the granite exerted extreme downward pressure on the granite. After some time, tectonic forces caused folding of the Earth's crust in the area, which lifted the granite and fractured the sandstone, allowing the granite to come closer to the surface. As the pressure diminished, the granite expanded causing cracks to form, and then the larger formations began to separate into big, square blocks.

text: The Devils Marbles constitute a

text: degraded

text: nubbin

text: . The formation is made of

text: granite

text: and are part of the top layer of a formation which penetrates the ground from below, like little geological islands in the

text: desert

text: , surrounded by large amounts of

text: sandstone

text: . The granite was formed millions of years ago as a result of the hardening of

text: magma

text: within the Earth's crust. Thick layers of sandstone on top of the granite exerted extreme downward pressure on the granite. After some time,

text: tectonic

text: forces caused folding of the Earth's crust in the area, which lifted the granite and fractured the sandstone, allowing the granite to come closer to the surface. As the pressure diminished, the granite expanded causing cracks to form, and then the larger formations began to separate into big, square blocks.

text: The relatively thin crust and short lifespan of the Aegir Ridge is anomalous given its proximity to the Iceland hotspot. Mantle hotspots deliver warm, actively-upwelling material to mid-ocean ridges, increasing mantle melting and crustal production. Likely, the stresses associated with plate tectonics and the mechanical structure of the lithosphere created a situation in which spreading at the Kolbeinsey Ridge was energetically favorable to spreading at the Aegir Ridge. As the Kolbeinsey Ridge began rifting, hotspot material would then draw out of the Aegir Ridge and flow preferentially towards the Kolbeinsey Ridge, leading to the ultimate extinction of the spreading center.

text: The relatively thin crust and short lifespan of the Aegir Ridge is anomalous given its proximity to the

text: Iceland hotspot

text: . Mantle

text: hotspots

text: deliver warm, actively-upwelling material to mid-ocean ridges, increasing mantle melting and crustal production. Likely, the stresses associated with plate tectonics and the mechanical structure of the lithosphere created a situation in which spreading at the Kolbeinsey Ridge was energetically favorable to spreading at the Aegir Ridge. As the Kolbeinsey Ridge began rifting, hotspot material would then draw out of the Aegir Ridge and flow preferentially towards the Kolbeinsey Ridge, leading to the ultimate extinction of the spreading center.

text: The mountain that Dante's View is on is part of the Black Mountains which along with the parallel Panamint Range across the valley from what geologists call a horst and the valley that is called a graben. These structures are created when the surface of the earth is under extensional, or a pulling force. The crust responds to this force by sending a large and long roughly v-shaped block of crust down which forms the bedrock of the valley floor (see Basin and Range).

text: The mountain that Dante's View is on is part of the

text: Black Mountains

text: which along with the parallel

text: Panamint Range

text: across the valley from what geologists call a

text: horst

text: and the valley that is called a

text: graben

text: . These structures are created when the surface of the earth is under extensional, or a pulling force. The crust responds to this force by sending a large and long roughly v-shaped block of crust down which forms the bedrock of the valley floor (see

text: Basin and Range

text: Geode (Greek γεώδης - ge-ōdēs, "earthlike") are geological secondary structures which occur in certain sedimentary and volcanic rocks. They are themselves of sedimentary origin formed by chemical precipitation. Geodes are essentially hollow, vaguely spheroid to oblate masses of mineral matter that form via either of two processes:

text: Geode (

text: Greek

text: γεώδης - ge-ōdēs, "earthlike") are

text: geological

text: secondary structures which occur in certain

text: sedimentary

text: and

text: volcanic rock

text: s. They are themselves of sedimentary origin formed by chemical precipitation. Geodes are essentially hollow, vaguely spheroid to oblate masses of mineral matter that form via either of two processes:

text: The Earth's surface is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Creation (accretion) occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate. This hot added material cools down by conduction and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction at an ocean trench. This subducted material sinks to some depth in the Earth's interior where it is prohibited from sinking further. The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism.

text: The Earth's surface is divided into a number of

text: tectonic

text: plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Creation (

text: accretion

text: ) occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate. This hot added material cools down by conduction and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction at an ocean trench. This subducted material sinks to some depth in the Earth's interior where it is prohibited from sinking further. The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism.

text: Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a large planetoid with the Earth. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. More recent potassium isotopic studies suggest that the Moon was formed by a smaller, high-energy, high-angular-momentum giant impact cleaving off a significant portion of the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.

text: Earth

text: was initially molten due to extreme

text: volcanism

text: and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid

text: crust

text: when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The

text: Moon

text: formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the

text: impact

text: of a large planetoid with the Earth. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. More recent potassium isotopic studies suggest that the Moon was formed by a smaller, high-energy, high-angular-momentum giant impact cleaving off a significant portion of the Earth. Outgassing and

text: volcanic

text: activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing

text: water vapor

text: , augmented by ice delivered from

text: comet

text: s,

text: produced the oceans

text: Sedimentary basins are regions of Earth of long-term subsidence creating accommodation space for infilling by sediments. The subsidence can result from a variety of causes that include: the thinning of underlying crust, sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of adjacent lithosphere. Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually associated with plate tectonic activity. Basins are classified structurally in various ways, with a primary classifications distinguishing among basins formed in various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent, transform, intraplate), the proximity of the basin to the active plate margins, and whether oceanic,  continental or transitional crust underlies the basin. Basins formed in different plate tectonic regimes vary in their preservation potential. On oceanic crust, basins are likely to be subducted, while marginal continental basins may be partially preserved, and intracratonic basins have a high probability of preservation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to increasing pressure and begin the process of lithification. A number of basins formed in extensional settings can undergo inversion which has accounted for a number of the economically viable oil reserves on earth which were formerly basins.

text: Sedimentary basins are regions of

text: Earth

text: of long-term

text: subsidence

text: creating accommodation space for infilling by

text: sediment

text: s. The subsidence can result from a variety of causes that include: the thinning of underlying

text: crust

text: , sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of adjacent

text: lithosphere

text: . Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually associated with

text: plate tectonic

text: activity. Basins are classified structurally in various ways, with a primary classifications distinguishing among basins formed in various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent, transform, intraplate), the proximity of the basin to the active plate margins, and whether

text: oceanic

text: continental

text: or transitional crust underlies the basin. Basins formed in different plate tectonic regimes vary in their preservation potential. On oceanic crust, basins are likely to be subducted, while marginal continental basins may be partially preserved, and intracratonic basins have a high probability of preservation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to increasing

text: pressure

text: and begin the process of

text: lithification

text: . A number of basins formed in extensional settings can undergo

text: inversion

text: which has accounted for a number of the economically viable oil reserves on earth which were formerly basins.

text: The Nankai Trough is actively deforming and marks a region of seismic activity. Deformation is concentrated in the outermost imbricate zone, with a significant amount of "out of sequence" thrusting occurring landward. Based on the work of Operto et al., 2006, several areas of intense tectonic activity in the Nankai Trough were identified using full waveform tomography. The upper portion of the upper accretionary prism and the underlying backstop are currently undergoing a great deal of compressional pressure. Several thrust faults were identified by Operto et al., 2006, of which the thrust faults closest to the subduction zone are active. Furthermore, Pisani et al., 2006, identified protothrusts and decollement surfaces along the Nankai Trough. Recently there has been an increase in interest in the release of water from illite clays in subducting sediments. The conversion of smectite to illite (illitizatation) in subduction zones is likely driven by the higher temperature found in the subduction zone as opposed to non-subducting sediments (Saffer et al., 2005). IODP Expedition 370 will seek to find the temperature limit of the deepest life on Earth by drilling in the Nankai Trough, where heat flow is particularly high near its boundary with the subducting young, hot Philippine Sea tectonic plate. At the targeted site, the geothermal gradient is about four times steeper than elsewhere in the Pacific Ocean. Reaching temperatures of approximately 130 °C in other areas would require collecting cores from approximately 4 kilometers below the seafloor, rather than 1.2 kilometers as planned.

text: The Nankai Trough is actively deforming and marks a region of seismic activity. Deformation is concentrated in the outermost imbricate zone, with a significant amount of "out of sequence" thrusting occurring landward. Based on the work of Operto et al., 2006, several areas of intense tectonic activity in the Nankai Trough were identified using full waveform tomography. The upper portion of the upper accretionary prism and the underlying backstop are currently undergoing a great deal of compressional pressure. Several thrust faults were identified by Operto et al., 2006, of which the thrust faults closest to the subduction zone are active. Furthermore, Pisani et al., 2006, identified protothrusts and

text: decollement

text: surfaces along the Nankai Trough. Recently there has been an increase in interest in the release of water from illite clays in subducting sediments. The conversion of smectite to illite (illitizatation) in subduction zones is likely driven by the higher temperature found in the subduction zone as opposed to non-subducting sediments (Saffer et al., 2005).

text: IODP

text: Expedition 370 will seek to find the temperature limit of the deepest life on Earth by drilling in the Nankai Trough, where heat flow is particularly high near its boundary with the subducting young, hot Philippine Sea tectonic plate. At the targeted site, the geothermal gradient is about four times steeper than elsewhere in the Pacific Ocean. Reaching temperatures of approximately 130 °C in other areas would require collecting cores from approximately 4 kilometers below the seafloor, rather than 1.2 kilometers as planned.

text: His Tatenen form is represented by a young and vigorous man wearing a crown with two tall plumes that surround the solar disk. He thus embodies the underground fire that rumbles and raises the earth. As such, he was particularly revered by metalworkers and blacksmiths, but he was equally feared because it was he who caused earthquakes and tremors of the earth's crust. In this form also, Ptah is the master of ceremonies for Heb Sed, a ceremony traditionally attesting to the first thirty years of the Pharaoh's reign.

text: His Tatenen form is represented by a young and vigorous man wearing a crown with two tall plumes that surround the solar disk. He thus embodies the underground fire that rumbles and raises the earth. As such, he was particularly revered by metalworkers and blacksmiths, but he was equally feared because it was he who caused earthquakes and tremors of the earth's crust. In this form also, Ptah is the master of ceremonies for

text: Heb Sed

text: , a ceremony traditionally attesting to the first thirty years of the Pharaoh's reign.

text: The Tanna Fault is part of the North Izu Fault Zone (or Kita-Izu Fault Zone) (北伊豆断層帯). The North Izu Fault Zone is about 32 km long, lying in the NNE-SSW direction. This fault zone is predominantly of left-lateral strike-slip faulting with an estimated left-lateral slip rate of about 2 m per 1000 years. The 1930 North Izu earthquake was identified with the movement of the Tanna Fault. The focal mechanism was left-lateral strike-slip faulting.

text: The Tanna Fault is part of the North Izu Fault Zone (or Kita-Izu Fault Zone) (北伊豆断層帯). The North Izu Fault Zone is about 32 km long, lying in the NNE-SSW direction. This fault zone is predominantly of left-lateral strike-slip faulting with an estimated left-lateral slip rate of about 2 m per 1000 years. The 1930 North Izu earthquake was identified with the movement of the Tanna Fault. The

text: focal mechanism

text: was left-lateral strike-slip faulting.

text: Several movements of the earth's crust that lead to mountains are associated with faults. These movements actually are amenable to analysis that can predict, for example, the height of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the rheology of the layers and the forces of isostasy. Early bent plate models predicting fractures and fault movements have evolved into today's kinematic and flexural models.

text: Several movements of the earth's crust that lead to mountains are associated with

text: fault

text: s. These movements actually are amenable to analysis that can predict, for example, the height of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the

text: rheology

text: of the layers and the forces of

text: isostasy

text: . Early bent plate models predicting fractures and fault movements have evolved into today's kinematic and flexural models.

text: A dike swarm or dyke swarm is a large geological structure consisting of a major group of parallel, linear, or radially oriented dikes intruded within continental crust. They consist of several to hundreds of dikes emplaced more or less contemporaneously during a single intrusive event, and are magmatic and stratigraphic. Such dike swarms may form a large igneous province and are the roots of a volcanic province.

text: A dike swarm or dyke swarm is a large

text: geological

text: structure consisting of a major group of parallel, linear, or radially oriented

text: dikes

text: intruded

text: within

text: continental crust

text: . They consist of several to hundreds of dikes emplaced more or less contemporaneously during a single intrusive event, and are magmatic and stratigraphic. Such dike swarms may form a

text: large igneous province

text: and are the roots of a volcanic province.

text: Until 12 million years ago, the bountiful waters of the equatorial plateau either flowed west into the Congo River system or east to the Indian Ocean. Creation of the Great Rift Valley changed that. A rift is a weak place in Earth's crust due to the separation of two tectonic plates, often accompanied by a graben, or trough, in which lake water can collect. This rift began when East Africa, impelled by currents in the mantle, began separating from the rest of Africa, moving to the northeast. The basins that resulted from the geological uplifts filled with water that now flowed north.

text: Until 12 million years ago, the bountiful waters of the equatorial plateau either flowed west into the

text: Congo River

text: system or east to the

text: Indian Ocean

text: . Creation of the Great Rift Valley changed that. A

text: rift

text: is a weak place in Earth's crust due to the separation of two

text: tectonic plates

text: , often accompanied by a

text: graben

text: , or trough, in which lake water can collect. This rift began when East Africa, impelled by currents in the

text: mantle

text: , began separating from the rest of Africa, moving to the northeast. The basins that resulted from the geological uplifts filled with water that now flowed north.

text: Paleostress is a subset of mechanical stress within geology. Variations in stress fields within the Earth's crust can result in a variety of mechanical responses:

text: Paleostress is a subset of

text: mechanical stress

text: within geology. Variations in stress fields within the Earth's crust can result in a variety of mechanical responses:

text: The continent didn't split into two because the Grenville province (a microcontinent) was converging with the proto-North American continent to the east. This convergence applied compressional forces to the rift, preventing the complete splitting apart of the proto-North American continent.

text: The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions. Of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as "more or less discrete masses of land". Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no complete separation of these landmasses by water (disregarding the Suez Canal and Panama Canal, which are both narrow and shallow, as well as being artificial). Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk of the landmasses they unite.

text: The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions. Of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as "more or less discrete masses of land". Asia and Africa are joined by the

text: Isthmus of Suez

text: , and North and South America by the

text: Isthmus of Panama

text: . In both cases, there is no complete separation of these landmasses by water (disregarding the

text: Suez Canal

text: and

text: Panama Canal

text: , which are both narrow and shallow, as well as being artificial). Both these

text: isthmus

text: es are very narrow compared to the bulk of the landmasses they unite.

text: Earth's crust, mantle and core are gradually excavated, transported outwards and then transformed to larger strength and reduced density. While the crust is mined from open pits in the continent's centers, magma and the liquid mantle are pumped across transfer hoses. The core is dismantled from the surface.

text: Earth's

text: crust

text: mantle

text: and

text: core

text: are gradually excavated, transported outwards and then transformed to larger strength and reduced density. While the crust is mined from open pits in the continent's centers,

text: magma

text: and the liquid mantle are pumped across transfer hoses. The core is dismantled from the surface.

text: At the end of the Proterozoic, the supercontinent Pannotia had broken apart into the smaller continents Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia and Gondwana. During periods when continents move apart, more oceanic crust is formed by volcanic activity. Because young volcanic crust is relatively hotter and less dense than old oceanic crust, the ocean floors rise during such periods. This causes the sea level to rise. Therefore, in the first half of the Paleozoic, large areas of the continents were below sea level.

text: At the end of the Proterozoic, the supercontinent Pannotia had broken apart into the smaller continents Laurentia,

text: Baltica

text: Siberia

text: and Gondwana. During periods when continents move apart, more oceanic crust is formed by volcanic activity. Because young volcanic crust is relatively hotter and less dense than old oceanic crust, the ocean floors rise during such periods. This causes the

text: sea level

text: to rise. Therefore, in the first half of the Paleozoic, large areas of the continents were below sea level.

text: The collision of two plates, resulting in subduction, have contributed to the emergence of the western Pacific arcs of volcanic islands. A new crust has emerged as the East Pacific Rise. In the northeastern Pacific margin there is a lateral shift, through the San Andreas Fault system, of the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: The collision of two plates, resulting in subduction, have contributed to the emergence of the western Pacific

text: arcs of volcanic islands

text: . A new crust has emerged as the East Pacific Rise. In the northeastern Pacific margin there is a lateral shift, through the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system, of the

text: North American Plate

text: and the

text: Pacific Plate

text: In a few cases, tectonic uplift can be seen in the cases of coral islands. This is evidenced by the presence of various oceanic islands composed entirely of coral, which otherwise appear to be high islands (i.e., islands of volcanic origin).  Examples of such islands are found in the Pacific, notably the three phosphate islets, Nauru, Makatea, and Banaba as well as Maré and Lifou in New-Caledonia, Fatu Huku in the Marquesas Islands and Henderson Island in the Pitcairn Islands. The uplift of these islands is the result of the movement of oceanic tectonic plates. Sunken islands or guyots with their coral reefs are the result of crustal subsidence as the oceanic plate carries the islands to deeper or lower oceanic crust areas.

text: In a few cases, tectonic uplift can be seen in the cases of

text: coral island

text: s. This is evidenced by the presence of various oceanic islands composed entirely of

text: coral

text: , which otherwise appear to be

text: high island

text: s (i.e., islands of

text: volcanic

text: origin).  Examples of such islands are found in the

text: Pacific

text: , notably the three

text: phosphate

text: islet

text: s,

text: Nauru

text: Makatea

text: , and

text: Banaba

text: as well as

text: Maré

text: and

text: Lifou

text: in

text: New-Caledonia

text: Fatu Huku

text: in the

text: Marquesas Islands

text: and

text: Henderson Island

text: in the

text: Pitcairn Islands

text: . The uplift of these islands is the result of the movement of oceanic tectonic plates. Sunken islands or

text: guyot

text: s with their coral reefs are the result of crustal subsidence as the oceanic plate carries the islands to deeper or lower oceanic crust areas.

text: The GCRZ is an incipient rift zone akin to the Red Sea Rift. In the GCRZ  continental crust originally associated with the North American Plate has been pulled apart by tectonic forces and is being replaced by newly formed oceanic crust and seafloor spreading.  The rifting has resulted in the transfer of the Baja California Peninsula to the Pacific Plate.

text: The GCRZ is an incipient rift zone akin to the

text: Red Sea Rift

text: . In the GCRZ

text: continental crust

text: originally associated with the

text: North American Plate

text: has been pulled apart by

text: tectonic

text: forces and is being replaced by newly formed

text: oceanic crust

text: and

text: seafloor spreading

text: .  The rifting has resulted in the transfer of the Baja California Peninsula to the

text: Pacific Plate

text: From these observations is derived the conclusion that the Earth has not been static and that great forces have been at work over long periods of time, further leading to the conclusions of the science of plate tectonics; that movement and collisions of large plates of the Earth's crust is the cause of folded strata.

text: From these observations is derived the conclusion that the Earth has not been static and that great forces have been at work over long periods of time, further leading to the conclusions of the science of

text: plate tectonics

text: ; that movement and

text: collisions

text: of large plates of the Earth's

text: crust

text: is the cause of

text: folded strata

text: Most of Panthalassa's oceanic basin and crust has been subducted under the North American plate, and the Eurasian Plate.

text: Most of Panthalassa's

text: oceanic basin

text: and

text: crust

text: has been

text: subducted

text: under the

text: North American plate

text: , and the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: The Salinian Block or Salinian terrane is a geologic terrane which lies west of the main trace of the San Andreas Fault system in California.  It is bounded on the south by the Big Pine Fault in Ventura County, and on the west by the Nacimiento Fault.  The block was named for the Salinas Valley in Monterey County, California.

text: The Salinian Block or Salinian terrane is a geologic

text: terrane

text: which lies west of the main trace of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system in

text: California

text: .  It is bounded on the south by the Big Pine Fault in

text: Ventura County

text: , and on the west by the Nacimiento Fault.  The block was named for the

text: Salinas Valley

text: in

text: Monterey County

text: , California.

text: All Folds are born with straight, unfolded ears, and those with the Fold gene will begin to show the fold usually within about 21 days. The kittens that do not develop folded ears are known as Straights. The original cats only had one fold in their ears, but due to selective breeding, breeders have increased the fold to a double or triple crease that causes the ear to lie totally flat against the head.

text: Wound, ostomy and continence nursing is a nursing tri-specialty involved with the treatment of patients with acute and chronic wounds,  patients with an ostomy (those who have had some kind of bowel or bladder diversion), and patients with continence conditions (those with bladder and bowel control and associated skin care issues). WOC nurses use evidence-based knowledge and skills to manage these complex patients. Nurses in this specialty are often referred to as wound, ostomy, continence nurses (WOC) nurses. In the United States, certification is available for this specialty from the Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nursing Certification Board. There are additional organizations that offer varying levels of certification in this field (American Board of Wound Management).

text: Wound, ostomy and continence nursing is a

text: nursing

text: tri-specialty involved with the treatment of patients with acute and chronic wounds,  patients with an ostomy (those who have had some kind of

text: bowel

text: or

text: bladder

text: diversion), and patients with continence conditions (those with bladder and bowel control and associated skin care issues). WOC nurses use evidence-based knowledge and skills to manage these complex patients. Nurses in this specialty are often referred to as wound, ostomy, continence nurses (WOC) nurses. In the United States, certification is available for this specialty from the Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nursing Certification Board. There are additional organizations that offer varying levels of certification in this field (American Board of Wound Management).

text: The Salton Sea and surrounding basin sits over the San Andreas Fault, San Jacinto Fault, Imperial Fault Zone, and a "stepover fault" shear zone system. Geologists have determined that previous flooding episodes from the Colorado River have been linked to earthquakes along the San Andreas Fault. Sonar and other instruments were used to map the Salton Sea's underwater faults during the study. During the period when the basin was filled by Lake Cahuilla, a much larger inland sea, earthquakes higher than magnitude 7 occurred roughly every 180 years, the last one occurring within decades of 1700. Computer models suggest the normal faults in the area are most vulnerable to deviatoric stress loading by filling in of water. Currently, a risk still exists for an earthquake of magnitude 7 to 8. Simulations also showed, in the Los Angeles area, shaking and thus damage would be more severe for a San Andreas earthquake that propagated along the fault from the south, rather than from the north. Such an earthquake also raises the risk for soil liquefaction in the Imperial Valley region.

text: The Salton Sea and surrounding basin sits over the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: San Jacinto Fault

text: Imperial Fault Zone

text: , and a "stepover fault"

text: shear zone

text: system. Geologists have determined that previous flooding episodes from the Colorado River have been linked to earthquakes along the San Andreas Fault.

text: Sonar

text: and other instruments were used to map the Salton Sea's underwater faults during the study. During the period when the basin was filled by Lake Cahuilla, a much larger inland sea, earthquakes higher than magnitude 7 occurred roughly every 180 years, the last one occurring within decades of 1700. Computer models suggest the

text: normal fault

text: s in the area are most vulnerable to

text: deviatoric stress

text: loading by filling in of water. Currently, a risk still exists for an earthquake of magnitude 7 to 8. Simulations also showed, in the Los Angeles area, shaking and thus damage would be more severe for a San Andreas earthquake that propagated along the fault from the south, rather than from the north. Such an earthquake also raises the risk for

text: soil liquefaction

text: in the Imperial Valley region.

text: The Semail Ophiolite of the Hajar Mountains of Oman and the United Arab Emirates is a large slab of oceanic crust that is made of volcanic rocks and ultramafic rocks from the Earth's upper mantle that was overthrust onto continental crust as an ophiolite. It is located on the eastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula and covers an area of approximately 100,000 km. Based on uranium-lead dating techniques, the Semail Ophiolite formed in the Late Cretaceous. It is primarily made of silicate rocks with (SiO) content ranging from 45–77 wt%. The Semail Ophiolite is important because it is rich in copper and chromite ore bodies also provides valuable information about the ocean floor and the upper mantle on land. Geologists have studied the area attempting to find the best model explaining the formation of the Semail Ophiolite.

text: The Semail Ophiolite of the

text: Hajar Mountains

text: of

text: Oman

text: and the

text: United Arab Emirates

text: is a large slab of

text: oceanic crust

text: that is made of

text: volcanic rock

text: s and

text: ultramafic rock

text: s from the Earth's

text: upper mantle

text: that was

text: overthrust

text: onto

text: continental crust

text: as an

text: ophiolite

text: . It is located on the eastern corner of the

text: Arabian Peninsula

text: and covers an area of approximately 100,000 km. Based on

text: uranium-lead dating

text: techniques, the Semail Ophiolite formed in the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: . It is primarily made of

text: silicate rocks

text: with (

text: SiO

text: ) content ranging from 45–77 wt%. The Semail Ophiolite is important because it is rich in

text: copper

text: and

text: chromite

text: ore bodies also provides valuable information about the ocean floor and the upper mantle on land. Geologists have studied the area attempting to find the best model explaining the formation of the Semail Ophiolite.

text: The Spratly Islands consist of islands, reefs, banks and shoals that consist of biogenic carbonate. These accumulations of biogenic carbonate lie upon the higher crests of major submarine ridges that are uplifted fault blocks known by geologists as horsts. These horsts are part of a series of parallel and en echelon, half-grabens and rotated fault-blocks. The long axes of the horsts, rotated fault blocks and half-grabens form well-defined linear trends that lie parallel to magnetic anomalies exhibited by the oceanic crust of the adjacent South China Sea. The horsts, rotated fault blocks, and the rock forming the bottoms of associated grabens consist of stretched and subsided continental crust that is composed of Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous strata that include calc-alkalic extrusive igneous rocks, intermediate to acid intrusive igneous rocks, sandstones, siltstones, dark-green claystones, and metamorphic rocks that include biotite–muscovite–feldspar–quartz migmatites and garnet–mica schists.

text: The Spratly Islands consist of islands, reefs, banks and shoals that consist of biogenic

text: carbonate

text: . These accumulations of biogenic carbonate lie upon the higher crests of major submarine ridges that are uplifted

text: fault block

text: s known by geologists as

text: horsts

text: . These horsts are part of a series of parallel and en echelon, half-grabens and rotated fault-blocks. The long axes of the horsts, rotated fault blocks and half-

text: grabens

text: form well-defined linear trends that lie parallel to

text: magnetic anomalies

text: exhibited by the

text: oceanic crust

text: of the adjacent South China Sea. The horsts, rotated fault blocks, and the rock forming the bottoms of associated grabens consist of stretched and subsided

text: continental crust

text: that is composed of

text: Triassic

text: Jurassic

text: , and

text: Cretaceous

text: strata

text: that include

text: calc-alkalic

text: extrusive

text: igneous

text: rocks, intermediate to acid

text: intrusive

text: igneous rocks,

text: sandstones

text: siltstones

text: , dark-green

text: claystone

text: s, and

text: metamorphic rocks

text: that include

text: biotite

text: muscovite

text: feldspar

text: quartz

text: migmatites

text: and

text: garnet

text: mica

text: schists

text: The study of diastrophism encompasses the varying responses of the crust to tectonic stresses. These responses include linear or torsional horizontal movements (such as continental drift) and vertical subsidence and uplift of the lithosphere (strain) in response to natural stresses on Earth’s surface such as the weight of mountains, lakes, and glaciers. Subsurface conditions also cause subsidence or uplift, known as epeirogeny, over large areas of Earth’s surface without deforming rock strata. Such changes include the thickening of the lithosphere by overthrusting, changes in rock density of the lithosphere caused by metamorphism or thermal expansion and contraction, increases in the volume of the asthenosphere (part of the upper mantle supporting the lithosphere) caused by hydration of olivine, and orogenic, or mountain-building, movements.

text: Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other, thus appearing to "drift" across the ocean bed.  The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected by some for lack of a mechanism (though this was supplied later by Arthur Holmes) and others because of prior theoretical commitments. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how the continents move.

text: Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's

text: continent

text: s relative to each other, thus appearing to "drift" across the ocean bed.  The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: in 1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: in 1912, but his theory was rejected by some for lack of a mechanism (though this was supplied later by

text: Arthur Holmes

text: ) and others because of prior theoretical commitments. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: , which explains how the continents move.

text: Outcrops allow direct observation and sampling of the bedrock in situ for geologic analysis and creating geologic maps. In situ measurements are critical for proper analysis of geological history and outcrops are therefore extremely important for understanding the geologic time scale of earth history. Some of the types of information that cannot be obtained except from bedrock outcrops or by precise drilling and coring operations, are structural geology features orientations (e.g. bedding planes, fold axes, foliation), depositional features orientations (e.g. paleo-current directions, grading, facies changes), paleomagnetic orientations. Outcrops are also very important for understanding fossil assemblages, paleo-environment, and evolution as they provide a record of relative changes within geologic strata.

text: Outcrops allow direct observation and sampling of the

text: bedrock

text: in situ

text: for

text: geologic

text: analysis and creating

text: geologic map

text: s. In situ measurements are critical for proper analysis of

text: geological history

text: and outcrops are therefore extremely important for understanding the

text: geologic time scale

text: of earth history. Some of the types of information that cannot be obtained except from bedrock outcrops or by precise drilling and coring operations, are

text: structural geology

text: features orientations (e.g. bedding planes,

text: fold

text: axes,

text: foliation

text: ), depositional features orientations (e.g. paleo-current directions, grading,

text: facies

text: changes),

text: paleomagnetic

text: orientations. Outcrops are also very important for understanding fossil assemblages, paleo-environment, and evolution as they provide a record of relative changes within geologic

text: strata

text: His research is focused on understanding high temperature deformation in the deep crust and upper mantle. He has focused his work on continental orogenic belts in the southwestern United States, western Canada, and the Tibetan plateau. He has recently begun work on the Oman Ophiolite complex which provides access to rocks which once made up the Oceanic crust and upper mantle. He has published in journals including Nature, Tectonics, Terra Nova, and Earth and Planetary Science Letters and has received funding from the National Science Foundation for his research. His work in western Canada has been influential in both understanding magmatic arcs and the paleogeography of North America.

text: His research is focused on understanding high temperature deformation in the deep

text: crust

text: and upper

text: mantle

text: . He has focused his work on continental

text: orogenic belts

text: in the southwestern

text: United States

text: , western

text: Canada

text: , and the

text: Tibetan plateau

text: . He has recently begun work on the

text: Oman

text: Ophiolite

text: complex which provides access to rocks which once made up the

text: Oceanic crust

text: and

text: upper mantle

text: . He has published in journals including Nature, Tectonics, Terra Nova, and

text: Earth and Planetary Science Letters

text: and has received funding from the

text: National Science Foundation

text: for his research. His work in western

text: Canada

text: has been influential in both understanding

text: magmatic arcs

text: and the

text: paleogeography

text: of

text: North America

text: Also with implications for the physical exploration of the Earth's interior is the gravitational field, which can be measured very accurately at the surface and remotely by satellites. True vertical generally does not correspond to theoretical vertical (deflection ranges up to 50") because topography and all geological masses disturb the gravitational field. Therefore, the gross structure of the earth's crust and mantle can be determined by geodetic-geophysical models of the subsurface.

text: Also with implications for the physical exploration of the Earth's interior is the

text: gravitational field

text: , which can be measured very accurately at the surface and remotely by

text: satellite

text: s. True

text: vertical

text: generally does not correspond to theoretical vertical (

text: deflection

text: ranges up to 50") because

text: topography

text: and all geological masses disturb the gravitational field. Therefore, the gross structure of the

text: earth's crust

text: and mantle can be determined by geodetic-geophysical models of the subsurface.

text: About 64.7% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks; making it the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorites and diorites. Only 0.6% are syenites and 0.3% peridotites and dunites. The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granites and similar rocks, known as meta-granitoids, form much of the continental crust. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them having formed beneath the surface of Earth's crust. These have diverse properties, depending on their composition and the temperature and pressure conditions in which they were formed.

text: About 64.7% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks; making it the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and

text: gabbro

text: s, 16% are granite, and 17%

text: granodiorite

text: s and

text: diorite

text: s. Only 0.6% are

text: syenite

text: s and 0.3%

text: peridotite

text: s and

text: dunite

text: s. The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of

text: mafic

text: composition. Granites and similar rocks, known as meta-granitoids, form much of the continental crust. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them having formed beneath the surface of

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: . These have diverse properties, depending on their composition and the temperature and pressure conditions in which they were formed.

text: However, erosion can also affect tectonic processes. The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the lower crust and mantle. Because tectonic processes are driven by gradients in the stress field developed in the crust, this unloading can in turn cause tectonic or isostatic uplift in the region. In some cases, it has been hypothesised that these twin feedbacks can act to localise and enhance zones of very rapid exhumation of deep crustal rocks beneath places on the Earth's surface with extremely high erosion rates, for example, beneath the extremely steep terrain of Nanga Parbat in the western Himalayas. Such a place has been called a "tectonic aneurysm".

text: However, erosion can also affect tectonic processes. The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the

text: lower crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: . Because tectonic processes are driven by gradients in the stress field developed in the crust, this unloading can in turn cause

text: tectonic

text: or

text: isostatic uplift

text: in the region. In some cases, it has been hypothesised that these twin feedbacks can act to localise and enhance zones of very rapid exhumation of deep crustal rocks beneath places on the Earth's surface with extremely high erosion rates, for example, beneath the extremely steep terrain of

text: Nanga Parbat

text: in the western

text: Himalaya

text: s. Such a place has been called a "

text: tectonic aneurysm

text: The basement rocks have experienced metamorphism related to their original depth in the Earth's crust, but in the Austroalpine nappes Alpine metamorphism (i.e. metamorphism related to the formation of the Alps) is fairly low grade to non-existent. The basement rocks can be greenschist facies to amphibolite facies, depending on their original depth. They are Paleozoic schists and (para-)gneisses intruded by granites of Variscan and Tertiary age.

text: The basement rocks have experienced

text: metamorphism

text: related to their original depth in the Earth's

text: crust

text: , but in the Austroalpine nappes

text: Alpine

text: metamorphism (i.e. metamorphism related to the formation of the Alps) is fairly low grade to non-existent. The basement rocks can be

text: greenschist facies

text: to

text: amphibolite facies

text: , depending on their original depth. They are

text: Paleozoic

text: schist

text: s and (para-)

text: gneiss

text: es intruded by

text: granite

text: s of

text: Variscan

text: and

text: Tertiary

text: age.

text: The geology of Duluth demonstrates the Midcontinent Rift, formed as the North American continent (Laurentia) began to split apart about 1.1 billion years ago. Continental rifting is a recurring process in the history of the earth that leads to break-up of continents and the formation of ocean basins. In the Lake Superior region, the upwelling of molten rock may have been the result of a hot spot that produced a dome over the Lake Superior area. As the earth's crust thinned, magma rose toward the surface. When insulated by overlying roof rock, the upwelling magma cooled slowly, and is therefore coarse-grained. These intrusions formed a sill some 16 km thick, primarily of gabbro, which is known as the Duluth Complex. In the areas where the rising magma erupted to the surface and cooled rapidly, basalt, the extrusive equivalent of gabbro, was formed.

text: The geology of Duluth demonstrates the

text: Midcontinent Rift

text: , formed as the North American continent (

text: Laurentia

text: ) began to split apart about 1.1 billion years ago.

text: Continental rifting

text: is a recurring process in the history of the earth that leads to break-up of continents and the formation of ocean basins. In the Lake Superior region, the upwelling of molten rock may have been the result of a

text: hot spot

text: that produced a dome over the Lake Superior area. As the

text: earth's crust

text: thinned,

text: magma

text: rose toward the surface. When insulated by overlying roof rock, the upwelling magma cooled slowly, and is therefore coarse-grained. These intrusions formed a

text: sill

text: some 16 km thick, primarily of

text: gabbro

text: , which is known as the

text: Duluth Complex

text: . In the areas where the rising magma erupted to the surface and cooled rapidly,

text: basalt

text: , the extrusive equivalent of gabbro, was formed.

text: Stone Mountain is a pluton, a type of igneous intrusion. Primarily composed of quartz monzonite, the dome of Stone Mountain was formed during the formation of the Blue Ridge Mountains around 300-350 million years ago (during the Carboniferous period), part of the Appalachian Mountains. It formed as a result of the upwelling of magma from within the Earth's crust.  This magma solidified to form granite within the crust five to ten miles below the surface.

text: Stone Mountain is a

text: pluton

text: , a type of

text: igneous

text: intrusion

text: . Primarily composed of

text: quartz monzonite

text: , the dome of Stone Mountain was formed during the formation of the

text: Blue Ridge Mountains

text: around 300-350 million years ago (during the

text: Carboniferous

text: period), part of the

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: . It formed as a result of the upwelling of

text: magma

text: from within the Earth's

text: crust

text: .  This magma solidified to form granite within the crust five to ten miles below the surface.

text: Acute stress is the most common form of stress among humans worldwide. Acute stress deals with the pressures of the near future or dealing with the very recent past. This type of stress is often misinterpreted for being a negative connotation. While this is the case in some circumstances, it is also a good thing to have some acute stress in life. Running or any other form of exercise is considered an acute stressor. Some exciting or exhilarating experiences such as riding a roller coaster is an acute stress but is usually very enjoyable. Acute stress is a short term stress and as a result, does not have enough time to do the damage that long term stress causes.

text: The tectonic mechanisms responsible for lithospheric extension in the Basin and Range province are controversial, and several competing hypotheses attempt to explain it. Key events preceding Basin and Range extension in the western United States include a long period of compression due to the subduction of the Farallon Plate under the west coast of the North American continental plate which stimulated the thickening of the crust. Most of the pertinent tectonic plate movement associated with the Basin and Range Province occurred in Neogene time and continues to the present. By Early Miocene time, much of the Farallon Plate had been consumed, and the seafloor spreading ridge that separated the Farallon Plate from the Pacific Plate (East Pacific Rise) approached North America. In the Middle Miocene, the East Pacific Rise was subducted beneath North America ending subduction along this part of the Pacific margin; however, the Farallon Plate continued to subduct into the mantle. The movement at this boundary divided the East Pacific Rise and spawned the San Andreas transform fault, generating an oblique strike-slip component. Today, the Pacific Plate moves north-westward relative to North America, a configuration which has given rise to increased shearing along the continental margin.

text: The tectonic mechanisms responsible for lithospheric extension in the Basin and Range province are controversial, and several competing hypotheses attempt to explain it. Key events preceding Basin and Range extension in the western United States include a long period of compression due to the

text: subduction

text: of the

text: Farallon Plate

text: under the west coast of the North American continental plate which stimulated the thickening of the crust. Most of the pertinent tectonic plate movement associated with the Basin and Range Province occurred in

text: Neogene

text: time and continues to the present. By Early

text: Miocene

text: time, much of the Farallon Plate had been consumed, and the

text: seafloor spreading ridge

text: that separated the Farallon Plate from the

text: Pacific Plate

text: East Pacific Rise

text: ) approached North America. In the Middle

text: Miocene

text: , the East Pacific Rise was subducted beneath North America ending

text: subduction

text: along this part of the Pacific margin; however, the Farallon Plate continued to subduct into the

text: mantle

text: . The movement at this boundary divided the East Pacific Rise and spawned the

text: San Andreas

text: transform fault

text: , generating an oblique

text: strike-slip

text: component. Today, the Pacific Plate moves north-westward relative to North America, a configuration which has given rise to increased shearing along the

text: continental margin

text: These reefs and broken shorelines are from a geologic folding of the Earth's crust, which brought many interesting marine fossils to the surface. Some good examples can be found on the southeast arm of Sucia Island.

text: These reefs and broken shorelines are from a geologic

text: folding

text: of the Earth's crust, which brought many interesting marine

text: fossils

text: to the surface. Some good examples can be found on the southeast arm of Sucia Island.

text: He was also a prolific author, publishing at least 10 books in the first half of the 20th century.  Grabau developed various theories during his lifetime, among them the theory of rhythms concerning the growth of the earth's crust and a theory concerning mountain building and creation. The Dorsum Grabau, a wrinkle ridge on the Moon is named after him.

text: He was also a prolific author, publishing at least 10 books in the first half of the 20th century.  Grabau developed various

text: theories

text: during his lifetime, among them the theory of rhythms concerning the growth of the

text: earth's crust

text: and a theory concerning

text: mountain building and creation

text: . The

text: Dorsum Grabau

text: , a

text: wrinkle ridge

text: on the

text: Moon

text: is named after him.

text: These processes may be 1) magma-induced or, conversely, 2) control magma propagation and emplacement. In the first case, the process has a local extent, usually within the volcanic area. Typical examples include the development of calderas and resurgences, pit craters, dikes, sills, laccoliths, magma chambers, eruptive fissures, volcanic rift zones and any type of volcano flank dynamics, including sector collapses. In the second case, the process controlling the magma may have a regional extent, also outside the volcanic area. Typical examples include the activity of regional faults and earthquakes along divergent, convergent and transform plate boundaries, as continental, transitional and oceanic rifts, magmatic arcs and back-arcs, as well as of any intraplate structure possibly controlling volcanism. The study of these processes is not restricted to the Earth's crust. In fact, an increasing number of studies has been considering also the Volcano-Tectonic features of extraterrestrial bodies, including Venus, Mars and Jupiter's moon Io.

text: The geology of Eritrea in east Africa broadly consists of Precambrian rocks in the west, Paleozoic glacial sedimentary rocks in the South and Cenozoic sediments and volcanics along the coastal zone adjoining the Red Sea. The Precambrian rocks been involved with the orogeny process, which is when a section of the Earth's crust is deformed to form a mountain range. Mesozoic sediments in the Danakil and Aysha horsts, which are raised blocks of the Earth's crust that have been lifted, were deformed. The older rocks include meta-sediments and older gneissic basement belonging to different Proterozoic terranes. Mesozoic sediments of marine origin occur in the coastal area along the Red Sea. A number of thin Miocene age basalt flows occur within the sediments of this zone whilst the basalts of the Aden Series date from Pliocene to Holocene times, some being extruded at the time of a major phase of uplift and rifting during the Pleistocene.

text: The geology of Eritrea in east

text: Africa

text: broadly consists of

text: Precambrian

text: rocks in the west,

text: Paleozoic

text: glacial sedimentary rocks in the South and

text: Cenozoic

text: sediments

text: and

text: volcanics

text: along the coastal zone adjoining the

text: Red Sea

text: . The Precambrian rocks been involved with the orogeny process, which is when a section of the Earth's crust is deformed to form a mountain range. Mesozoic sediments in the Danakil and Aysha horsts, which are raised blocks of the Earth's crust that have been lifted, were deformed. The older rocks include

text: meta-sediments

text: and older

text: gneiss

text: ic

text: basement

text: belonging to different

text: Proterozoic

text: terrane

text: s.

text: Mesozoic

text: sediments of marine origin occur in the coastal area along the Red Sea. A number of thin

text: Miocene

text: age

text: basalt

text: flows occur within the sediments of this zone whilst the basalts of the

text: Aden Series

text: date from

text: Pliocene

text: to

text: Holocene

text: times, some being extruded at the time of a major phase of uplift and rifting during the

text: Pleistocene

text: Both faults are active, cause earthquakes every 600 to 900 years, and could cause ground slippage of up to . An earthquake in 1882 caused a regional tsunami. A team of seismologists led by Tom Rockwell of San Diego State University found evidence suggesting both faults slipped simultaneously around 700 CE.

text: Both faults are active, cause earthquakes every 600 to 900 years, and could cause ground slippage of up to . An earthquake in 1882 caused a regional

text: tsunami

text: . A team of seismologists led by Tom Rockwell of

text: San Diego State University

text: found evidence suggesting both faults slipped simultaneously around 700 CE.

text: This demonstrates that the state in the contact interface is not only dependent on the relative positions of the two bodies, but also on their motion history. Another example of this occurs if the sphere is shifted back to its original position. Initially there was no tangential stress in the contact interface. After the initial shift micro-slip has occurred. This micro-slip is not entirely undone by shifting back. So in the final situation tangential stresses remain in the interface, in what looks like an identical configuration as the original one.

text: Areas with a nappe structure often contain two types of geological features:

text: Strike-slip tectonics is associated with the relative lateral movement of parts of the crust or lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found along oceanic and continental transform faults, at lateral offsets in extensional and thrust fault systems, in the over-riding plate in zones of oblique collision and accommodating deformation in the foreland to a collisional belt.

text: Strike-slip tectonics is associated with the relative lateral movement of parts of the crust or lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found along oceanic and continental

text: transform fault

text: s, at lateral offsets in extensional and thrust fault systems, in the over-riding plate in zones of oblique collision and accommodating deformation in the foreland to a collisional belt.

text: In the Lexingtons longitudinal strength was challenged further by the large amount of freeboard required at the forward section of the hull to keep the ships dry and maintain a high speed in various types of weather. Also, while the  of belt armor being considered was not an impressive amount in itself, the belt's running potentially along 80 percent of the waterline and covering the entire side amidships made the amount of armor protection impressive by European standards. Because of the difference in ultimate tensile strength between armor steel and hull steel, severe stresses on the hull were expected. These factors plus the ships' unusual length prompted Naval Constructor R. H. Robinson, who led the design group for the Lexingtons, to make careful analyses of strength, buoyancy and stresses expected in service. For instance, designers assumed customarily that a ship needed to withstand stresses caused by a wave of the ship's length with a ratio of height to length of 1:20. Robinson found a more reasonable ratio at 1:26 for the Lexingtons, which also promised considerable savings in weight.

text: In the Lexingtons longitudinal strength was challenged further by the large amount of

text: freeboard

text: required at the forward section of the hull to keep the ships dry and maintain a high speed in various types of weather. Also, while the  of belt armor being considered was not an impressive amount in itself, the belt's running potentially along 80 percent of the waterline and covering the entire side amidships made the amount of armor protection impressive by European standards. Because of the difference in

text: ultimate tensile strength

text: between armor steel and hull steel, severe stresses on the hull were expected. These factors plus the ships' unusual length prompted Naval Constructor R. H. Robinson, who led the design group for the Lexingtons, to make careful analyses of strength, buoyancy and stresses expected in service. For instance, designers assumed customarily that a ship needed to withstand stresses caused by a wave of the ship's length with a ratio of height to length of 1:20. Robinson found a more reasonable ratio at 1:26 for the Lexingtons, which also promised considerable savings in weight.

text: The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an onion. These layers can be defined by their chemical and their rheological properties.  Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanoes or volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravitational and magnetic fields of the  Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.

text: The interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells, like an

text: onion

text: . These layers can be defined by their

text: chemical

text: and their

text: rheological

text: properties.

text: Earth

text: has an outer

text: silicate

text: solid

text: crust

text: , a highly

text: viscous

text: mantle

text: , a liquid

text: outer core

text: that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid

text: inner core

text: . Scientific understanding of the internal structure of the Earth is based on observations of

text: topography

text: and

text: bathymetry

text: , observations of

text: rock

text: in

text: outcrop

text: , samples brought to the surface from greater depths by

text: volcanoes

text: or

text: volcanic activity

text: , analysis of the

text: seismic wave

text: s that pass through the Earth, measurements of the

text: gravitational

text: and

text: magnetic fields

text: of the  Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.

text: Lake Palmdale is 2,980 feet (908.3 m) above sea level and is ringed by the hills of the San Andreas Fault and Mount Tenhi, except for a small pond on the lake's east side called Una Lake from which it is separated by the Palmdale Dam and Sierra Highway. The lake is 1.05 miles (1.69 km) in diameter at its greatest point (northwest to southeast), by 0.54 miles (0.87 km) in width (southwest to northeast). The lake has a surface area of  and contains 2 small islands.

text: Lake Palmdale is 2,980 feet (908.3 m) above sea level and is ringed by the hills of the San Andreas Fault and Mount Tenhi, except for a small pond on the lake's east side called

text: Una Lake

text: from which it is separated by the Palmdale Dam and

text: Sierra Highway

text: . The lake is 1.05 miles (1.69 km) in diameter at its greatest point (northwest to southeast), by 0.54 miles (0.87 km) in width (southwest to northeast). The lake has a surface area of  and contains 2 small islands.

text: These stresses are called residual stresses, because they reside within the metal workpiece. Residual stresses are caused by rapid, unequal cooling as opposed to the stresses caused by external loading.  This unequal cooling occurs during welding, casting, forging, rough machining or hot rolling.  These stresses often lead to distortion or warping of the structure during machining, assembly, testing, transport, field-use or over time.  In extreme cases, residual stress can cause structural failure.

text: These stresses are called

text: residual stress

text: es, because they reside within the metal workpiece. Residual stresses are caused by rapid, unequal cooling as opposed to the stresses caused by external loading.  This unequal cooling occurs during welding, casting, forging, rough machining or

text: hot rolling

text: .  These stresses often lead to

text: distortion

text: or

text: warping

text: of the structure during machining, assembly, testing, transport, field-use or over time.  In extreme cases, residual stress can cause

text: structural failure

text: In March 2010, Folds became a YouTube phenomenon after a video he created titled "Ode To Merton" went viral. In the video, Folds improvises several songs about people that he sees on the popular social networking site Chatroulette, in the style of "Merton" another YouTube phenomenon who many thought was Folds himself.

text: In March 2010, Folds became a YouTube phenomenon after a video he created titled "Ode To Merton" went

text: viral

text: . In the video, Folds improvises several songs about people that he sees on the popular social networking site

text: Chatroulette

text: , in the style of "

text: Merton

text: " another YouTube phenomenon who many thought was Folds himself.

text: Thermal stress weathering comprises two main types, thermal shock and thermal fatigue. Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in deserts, where there is a large diurnal temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night. The repeated heating and cooling exerts stress on the outer layers of rocks, which can cause their outer layers to peel off in thin sheets. The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation. Although temperature changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance thermal expansion in rock. Forest fires and range fires are also known to cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders exposed along the ground surface. Intense localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.

text: Thermal stress weathering comprises two main types,

text: thermal shock

text: and

text: thermal fatigue

text: . Thermal stress weathering is an important mechanism in

text: deserts

text: , where there is a large

text: diurnal

text: temperature range, hot in the day and cold at night. The repeated heating and cooling exerts

text: stress

text: on the outer layers of rocks, which can cause their outer layers to peel off in thin sheets. The process of peeling off is also called exfoliation. Although temperature changes are the principal driver, moisture can enhance

text: thermal expansion

text: in rock.

text: Forest fires

text: and range fires are also known to cause significant weathering of

text: rocks

text: and boulders exposed along the ground surface. Intense localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.

text: The relation between stress and its effects and causes, including deformation and rate of change of deformation, can be quite complicated (although a linear approximation may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough).  Stress that exceeds certain strength limits of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as plastic flow, fracture, cavitation) or even change its crystal structure  and chemical composition.

text: The relation between stress and its effects and causes, including deformation and rate of change of deformation, can be quite complicated (although a

text: linear approximation

text: may be adequate in practice if the quantities are small enough).  Stress that exceeds certain

text: strength limits

text: of the material will result in permanent deformation (such as

text: plastic flow

text: fracture

text: cavitation

text: ) or even change its

text: crystal structure

text: and

text: chemical composition

text: Mountain Dwellings () is an award-winning building in the Ørestad district of  Copenhagen, Denmark, consisting of apartments above a multi-story car park. The building is designed by Danish architectural practice Bjarke Ingels Group. The apartments are scaling the diagonally sloping roof of the parking garage, from street level to 11th floor, creating an artificial, south facing 'mountainside'. Each apartment has a "backyard" on the roof of the property in front and below it. The resulting courtyard penthouses are an attempt to balance "the splendours of the suburban backyard with the intensity of an urban lifestyle". Throughout the building, it plays on a mountain metaphor as well as the clash between the urban vibe of the interior parking space as well as the surroundings and the peaceful and organic hillside.

text: Mountain Dwellings () is an award-winning building in the

text: Ørestad

text: district of

text: Copenhagen

text: Denmark

text: , consisting of apartments above a

text: multi-story car park

text: . The building is designed by Danish architectural practice

text: Bjarke Ingels Group

text: . The apartments are scaling the diagonally sloping roof of the parking garage, from street level to 11th floor, creating an artificial, south facing 'mountainside'. Each apartment has a "

text: backyard

text: " on the roof of the property in front and below it. The resulting

text: courtyard penthouse

text: s are an attempt to balance "the splendours of the suburban backyard with the intensity of an urban lifestyle". Throughout the building, it plays on a mountain metaphor as well as the clash between the urban vibe of the interior parking space as well as the surroundings and the peaceful and organic hillside.

text: A thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earth's crust across which there has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks above younger. Thrust faults are the result of compressional forces.

text: A thrust fault is a type of

text: fault

text: , or break in the Earth's crust across which there has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower

text: stratigraphic

text: position are pushed up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks above younger. Thrust faults are the result of compressional

text: force

text: s.

text: Earth heat transport occurs by conduction, mantle convection, hydrothermal convection, and volcanic advection. Earth's internal heat flow to the surface is thought to be 80% due to mantle convection, with the remaining heat mostly originating in the Earth's crust, with about 1% due to volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain building. Thus, ~99% of Earth's internal heat loss at the surface is by conduction through the crust, and mantle convection is the dominant control on heat transport from deep within the Earth. Most of the heat flow from the thicker continental crust is attributed to internal radiogenic sources, in contrast the thinner oceanic crust has only 2% internal radiogenic heat. The remaining heat flow at the surface would be due to basal heating of the crust from mantle convection. Heat fluxes are negatively correlated with rock age, with the highest heat fluxes from the youngest rock at mid-ocean ridge spreading centers (zones of mantle upwelling), as observed in the global map of Earth heat flow.

text: Earth heat transport occurs by

text: conduction

text: mantle convection

text: hydrothermal convection

text: , and volcanic

text: advection

text: . Earth's internal heat flow to the surface is thought to be 80% due to mantle convection, with the remaining heat mostly originating in the Earth's crust, with about 1% due to volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain building. Thus, ~99% of Earth's internal heat loss at the surface is by conduction through the crust, and mantle convection is the dominant control on heat transport from deep within the Earth. Most of the heat flow from the thicker continental crust is attributed to internal radiogenic sources, in contrast the thinner oceanic crust has only 2% internal radiogenic heat. The remaining heat flow at the surface would be due to basal heating of the crust from mantle convection. Heat fluxes are negatively correlated with rock age, with the highest heat fluxes from the youngest rock at

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: spreading centers (zones of mantle upwelling), as observed in the

text: global map of Earth heat flow

text: The Altyn Tagh Fault (ATF) is a >1200 km long, active, sinistral (left lateral) strike-slip fault that forms the northwestern boundary of the Tibetan Plateau with the Tarim Basin. It is one of the major sinistral strike-slip structures that together help to accommodate the eastward motion of this zone of thickened crust, relative to the Eurasian Plate. A total displacement of about ~475 km has been estimated for this fault zone since the middle Oligocene,<ref name="Ritts">{{cite journal|last=Ritts|first=B.|author2=Biffi, U.|year=2000|title=Magnitude of post-Middle Jurassic (Bajocian) displacement on the Altyn Tagh fault system, northwest China|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|volume=112|issue=1|pages=61–74|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112

text: The Altyn Tagh Fault (ATF) is a >1200 km long,

text: active

text: , sinistral (left lateral)

text: strike-slip fault

text: that forms the northwestern boundary of the

text: Tibetan Plateau

text: with the

text: Tarim Basin

text: . It is one of the major sinistral strike-slip structures that together help to accommodate the eastward motion of this zone of thickened

text: crust

text: , relative to the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: . A total displacement of about ~475 km has been estimated for this fault zone since the middle

text: Oligocene

text: ,<ref name="Ritts">{{cite journal|last=Ritts|first=B.|author2=Biffi, U.|year=2000|title=Magnitude of post-Middle Jurassic (Bajocian) displacement on the Altyn Tagh fault system, northwest China|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|volume=112|issue=1|pages=61–74|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112

text: Among the most impressive sights along the Jurassic Coast are the sea stacks at Ladram Bay. The sandstones contain numerous vertical fractures and joints that were formed deep in the Earths crust during past mountain building periods. The sea picked out these planes of weakness to form caves and natural arches that have since collapsed to produce sea stacks. The “Otter Sandstone” that forms the cliffs and sea stacks were deposited in a hot dry climates in the Triassic Period about 220 Million years ago. The stacks are composed of the same rock, which is relatively soft, but they have a harder band of sandstone at their base which prevents their rapid erosion by the sea. The striking red colour of the rock is caused by iron oxide, which tells us that the layers were formed in a desert. The presence of ripple marks and channels in the sandstones, together with the remains of the long-extinct plants, insects, fish, amphibians and reptiles, show that the desert was crossed by fertile river valleys.

text: Among the most impressive sights along the Jurassic Coast are the

text: sea stack

text: s at Ladram Bay. The

text: sandstone

text: s contain numerous vertical fractures and joints that were formed deep in the Earths crust during past mountain building periods. The sea picked out these planes of weakness to form caves and natural arches that have since collapsed to produce sea stacks. The “Otter Sandstone” that forms the cliffs and sea stacks were deposited in a hot dry climates in the Triassic Period about 220 Million years ago. The stacks are composed of the same rock, which is relatively soft, but they have a harder band of sandstone at their base which prevents their rapid erosion by the sea. The striking red colour of the rock is caused by iron oxide, which tells us that the layers were formed in a desert. The presence of ripple marks and channels in the sandstones, together with the remains of the long-extinct plants, insects, fish, amphibians and reptiles, show that the desert was crossed by fertile river valleys.

text: Vocal fold nodules are bilaterally symmetrical benign white masses that form at the midpoint of the vocal folds. Although diagnosis involves a physical examination of the head and neck, as well as perceptual voice measures, visualization of the vocal nodules via laryngeal endoscopy remains the primary diagnostic method. Vocal fold nodules interfere with the vibratory characteristics of the vocal folds by increasing the mass of the vocal folds and changing the configuration of the vocal fold closure pattern. Due to these changes, the quality of the voice may be affected. As such, the major perceptual signs of vocal fold nodules include vocal hoarseness and breathiness. Other common symptoms include vocal fatigue, soreness or pain lateral to the larynx, and reduced frequency and intensity range. Airflow levels during speech may also be increased. Vocal fold nodules are thought to be the result of vocal fold tissue trauma caused by excessive mechanical stress, including repeated or chronic vocal overuse, abuse, or misuse. Predisposing factors include profession, gender, dehydration, respiratory infection, and other inflammatory factors.

text: Vocal fold nodules are bilaterally symmetrical

text: benign

text: white masses that form at the midpoint of the vocal folds. Although diagnosis involves a

text: physical examination

text: of the

text: head

text: and

text: neck

text: , as well as perceptual voice measures, visualization of the vocal nodules via laryngeal

text: endoscopy

text: remains the primary diagnostic method. Vocal fold nodules interfere with the vibratory characteristics of the vocal folds by increasing the

text: mass

text: of the vocal folds and changing the configuration of the vocal fold closure pattern. Due to these changes, the quality of the voice may be affected. As such, the major perceptual signs of vocal fold nodules include vocal

text: hoarseness

text: and breathiness. Other common symptoms include vocal fatigue, soreness or pain lateral to the

text: larynx

text: , and reduced frequency and intensity range. Airflow levels during speech may also be increased. Vocal fold nodules are thought to be the result of vocal fold tissue trauma caused by excessive mechanical stress, including repeated or chronic vocal overuse, abuse, or misuse. Predisposing factors include profession, gender, dehydration, respiratory infection, and other inflammatory factors.

text: The supercontinent cycle is the quasi-periodic aggregation and dispersal of Earth's continental crust. There are varying opinions as to whether the amount of continental crust is increasing, decreasing, or staying about the same, but it is agreed that the Earth's crust is constantly being reconfigured. One complete supercontinent cycle is said to take 300 to 500 million years. Continental collision makes fewer and larger continents while rifting makes more and smaller continents.

text: The supercontinent cycle is the quasi-periodic aggregation and dispersal of

text: Earth

text: 's

text: continental crust

text: . There are varying opinions as to whether the amount of continental crust is increasing, decreasing, or staying about the same, but it is agreed that the Earth's crust is constantly being reconfigured. One complete

text: supercontinent

text: cycle is said to take 300 to 500 million years.

text: Continental collision

text: makes fewer and larger continents while

text: rifting

text: makes more and smaller continents.

text: There are two types of dislocations in crystals that can induce slip - edge dislocations and screw dislocations. Edge dislocations have the direction of the burgers vector perpendicular to the dislocation line, while screw dislocations have the direction of the burgers vector parallel to the dislocation line. The type of dislocations generated largely depends on the direction of the applied stress, temperature and other factors. Screw dislocations can easily cross slip from one plane to another if the other slip plane contains the direction of the burgers vector.

text: Earthquakes happen when two blocks of the Earth's crust move relative to one another. The place where the blocks meet is called a fault, and faults tend to show up as relatively straight lines on maps. Any structure built directly on top of the fault will be torn in two when the blocks move. It's not easy to build a building that can withstand this sort of movement (often several feet in a matter of seconds), so it is best to avoid building directly on top of an active fault.

text: Collingwood also lay in the Great Artesian Basin. Nevertheless, there does not seem to be any record of an artesian bore ever being attempted at Collingwood, as was done in many other places in Outback Queensland, even locally (as at Dagworth, 65 km to the northwest, in the 1890s) often with great success. Geologically, the site lies in the Eromanga Basin. More locally, the geology consists of the Cretaceous Winton Formation, and it was at Manfred Station (), 168 km from Collingwood’s former site, where the formation yielded up at least two palaeobotanical fossils to a J. Williams in 1920. More recently, in 2005, Australovenator and Diamantinasaurus matildae Early Cretaceous dinosaur remains were unearthed by palaeontologists at the "Matilda site" not far north of the former town, on Elderslie Station (site’s position roughly ). A "major fault" passes just southeast of the Collingwood site, called the Cork Fault. It runs roughly northeast to southwest. Its downthrow is to the northwest, towards Collingwood. Seismic studies along this fault began in 1960 with the Bureau of Mineral Resources (now Geoscience Australia). In the years that followed, a number of other surveys were conducted by private companies, among which was the Western River Seismic Survey in 1967 by the United Geophysical Corporation, which was "aimed at further defining the Permo-Triassic section on the downthrown (west) side of the Cork Fault indicated by the previous Collingwood survey (Phillips, 1966)." This information is all held in a report that also mentions petroleum exploration in the area, with one exploratory well sunk about 20 km north of the former townsite, at Lovelle Downs (). Drilling was underway late in 1972 by Hematite Petroleum. The Cork Fault might have begun as long ago as the Mesoproterozoic (1.6 to 1.0 billion years ago), when it would have been part of a great network of active normal faults in the land that would eventually come to be known as Australia, although then, the land was part of the supercontinent of Rodinia. The team from Monash University who reached these conclusions and presented them in 2015, namely Giovanni P. T. Spampinato, Laurent Aillères, Peter G. Betts and Robin J. Armit, believed that while the Cork Fault was to be regarded as a fundamental crustal discontinuity, it was not Rodinia’s former eastern margin. This they believe because the Cork Fault is the line in the Earth’s crust where the Proterozoic Mount Isa terrane (the fault’s downthrown side mentioned above) has been thrust under the Phanaerozoic Thomson Orogen (the upthrown side).

text: Collingwood also lay in the

text: Great Artesian Basin

text: . Nevertheless, there does not seem to be any record of an

text: artesian bore

text: ever being attempted at Collingwood, as was done in many other places in Outback Queensland, even locally (as at

text: Dagworth

text: , 65 km to the northwest, in the 1890s) often with great success. Geologically, the site lies in the

text: Eromanga Basin

text: . More locally, the

text: geology

text: consists of the

text: Cretaceous

text: Winton Formation

text: , and it was at Manfred Station (), 168 km from Collingwood’s former site, where the formation yielded up at least two

text: palaeobotanical

text: fossil

text: s to a J. Williams in 1920. More recently, in 2005,

text: Australovenator

text: and

text: Diamantinasaurus matildae

text: Early Cretaceous

text: dinosaur

text: remains were unearthed by

text: palaeontologists

text: at the "Matilda site" not far north of the former town, on

text: Elderslie Station

text: (site’s position roughly ). A "major

text: fault

text: " passes just southeast of the Collingwood site, called the Cork Fault. It runs roughly northeast to southwest. Its

text: downthrow

text: is to the northwest, towards Collingwood.

text: Seismic

text: studies along this fault began in 1960 with the Bureau of Mineral Resources (now Geoscience Australia). In the years that followed, a number of other surveys were conducted by private companies, among which was the Western River Seismic Survey in 1967 by the United Geophysical Corporation, which was "aimed at further defining the

text: Permo

text: Triassic

text: section on the downthrown (west) side of the Cork Fault indicated by the previous Collingwood survey (

text: Phillips

text: , 1966)." This information is all held in a report that also mentions

text: petroleum exploration

text: in the area, with one exploratory

text: well

text: sunk about 20 km north of the former townsite, at Lovelle Downs (). Drilling was underway late in 1972 by Hematite Petroleum. The Cork Fault might have begun as long ago as the

text: Mesoproterozoic

text: (1.6 to 1.0 billion years ago), when it would have been part of a great network of active

text: normal faults

text: in the land that would eventually come to be known as Australia, although then, the land was part of the

text: supercontinent

text: of

text: Rodinia

text: . The team from

text: Monash University

text: who reached these conclusions and presented them in 2015, namely Giovanni P. T. Spampinato, Laurent Aillères, Peter G. Betts and Robin J. Armit, believed that while the Cork Fault was to be regarded as a fundamental crustal discontinuity, it was not Rodinia’s former eastern margin. This they believe because the Cork Fault is the line in the Earth’s crust where the

text: Proterozoic

text: Mount Isa

text: terrane

text: (the fault’s downthrown side mentioned above) has been thrust under the

text: Phanaerozoic

text: Thomson Orogen (the upthrown side).

text: The Pacific Plate is a major section of the Earth's crust, gradually expanding by the eruption of magma along the East Pacific Rise to the southeast. It is also being subducted far to the northwest into the Aleutian Trench under the North American Plate well north of San Francisco. In California, the plate is sliding northwestward along a transform boundary, the San Andreas Fault, toward the subduction zone. At the same time, the North American Plate is moving southwestward, but relatively southeast along the fault. The westward component of the North American Plate's motion results in some compressive force along the San Andreas and its associated faults such as the Calaveras Fault, thus helping lift the Coast Ranges. The Calaveras Fault shares the same relative motions of the San Andreas.

text: The

text: Pacific Plate

text: is a major section of the Earth's crust, gradually expanding by the eruption of magma along the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: to the southeast. It is also being subducted far to the northwest into the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: under the

text: North American Plate

text: well north of San Francisco. In California, the plate is sliding northwestward along a transform boundary, the San Andreas Fault, toward the subduction zone. At the same time, the North American Plate is moving southwestward, but relatively southeast along the fault. The westward component of the North American Plate's motion results in some compressive force along the San Andreas and its associated faults such as the Calaveras Fault, thus helping lift the Coast Ranges. The Calaveras Fault shares the same relative motions of the San Andreas.

text: This branch of structural geology deals mainly with the orientation, deformation and relationships of stratigraphy (bedding), which may have been faulted, folded or given a foliation by some tectonic event. This is mainly a geometric science, from which cross sections and three-dimensional block models of rocks, regions, terranes and parts of the Earth's crust can be generated.

text: This branch of structural geology deals mainly with the orientation, deformation and relationships of stratigraphy (bedding), which may have been faulted,

text: folded

text: or given a foliation by some tectonic event. This is mainly a geometric science, from which cross sections and three-dimensional block models of rocks, regions, terranes and parts of the Earth's crust can be generated.

text: The earthquake occurred on the SSW-dipping reverse Oldham fault that forms the northern edge of the Shillong Plateau within the Indian Plate. There was a minimum displacement on the main fault of 11 m, although up to 16 m has been calculated, one of the greatest for any measured earthquake. The calculated area of slip extended 180 km along strike and from 9–45 km below the surface, indicating that the entire thickness of the crust was involved.

text: The earthquake occurred on the SSW-dipping reverse Oldham fault that forms the northern edge of the

text: Shillong Plateau

text: within the

text: Indian Plate

text: . There was a minimum displacement on the main fault of 11 m, although up to 16 m has been calculated, one of the greatest for any measured earthquake. The calculated area of slip extended 180 km along strike and from 9–45 km below the surface, indicating that the entire thickness of the

text: crust

text: was involved.

text: During the Paleozoic Era, the tectonic plate containing the continent of Laurentia and the plate containing the continent of Gondwanaland were converging, the Iapetus ocean that separated the two continents gradually closed and the resulting collision between the plates formed the Appalachian Mountains. During the early stages of this mountain building known as the Taconic orogeny, a piece of ocean crust from the Iapetus ocean broke off and became incorporated into the collision zone and now forms the oldest bedrock strata of Staten Island, the serpentinite.

text: During the

text: Paleozoic Era

text: , the

text: tectonic plate

text: containing the continent of

text: Laurentia

text: and the plate containing the continent of

text: Gondwanaland

text: were converging, the

text: Iapetus ocean

text: that separated the two continents gradually closed and the resulting collision between the plates formed the Appalachian Mountains. During the early stages of this mountain building known as the

text: Taconic orogeny

text: , a piece of ocean crust from the Iapetus ocean broke off and became incorporated into the collision zone and now forms the oldest bedrock strata of Staten Island, the

text: serpentinite

text: One may be able to determine a priori that, in some parts of the system, the stress will be of a certain type, such as uniaxial tension or compression, simple shear, isotropic compression or tension, torsion, bending, etc.  In those parts, the stress field may then be represented by fewer than six numbers, and possibly just one.

text: One may be able to determine a priori that, in some parts of the system, the stress will be of a certain type, such as uniaxial

text: tension

text: or

text: compression

text: , simple

text: shear

text: , isotropic compression or tension,

text: torsion

text: bending

text: , etc.  In those parts, the stress field may then be represented by fewer than six numbers, and possibly just one.

text: Stress may have an effect on the recall of declarative memories. Lupien, et al. completed a study that had 3 phases for participants to take part in. Phase 1 involved memorizing a series of words, phase 2 entailed either a stressful (public speaking) or non-stressful situation (an attention task), and phase 3 required participants to recall the words they learned in phase 1. There were signs of decreased declarative memory performance in the participants that had to complete the stressful situation after learning the words. Recall performance after the stressful situation was found to be worse overall than after the non-stressful situation, where performance differed based on whether the participant responded to the stressful situation with an increase in measured levels of salivary cortisol.

text: Stress

text: may have an effect on the recall of declarative memories. Lupien, et al. completed a study that had 3 phases for participants to take part in. Phase 1 involved memorizing a series of words, phase 2 entailed either a stressful (public speaking) or non-stressful situation (an attention task), and phase 3 required participants to recall the words they learned in phase 1. There were signs of decreased declarative memory performance in the participants that had to complete the stressful situation after learning the words. Recall performance after the stressful situation was found to be worse overall than after the non-stressful situation, where performance differed based on whether the participant responded to the stressful situation with an increase in measured levels of salivary cortisol.

text: Coping, as a form of response to stressors, describes how individuals handle stressful events.  It is very close to one dimension of adaptive performance by definition (i.e., the Handling Work Stress dimension), and coping has been suggested to be another form of adaptation.  However, they are still different constructions.  Stress coping could be divided into several styles and strategies based on several theories.  One general idea is to divide coping as active coping and avoidant coping.  Active coping means to proactively address and resolve stressful events, like quitting a stressful job and changing into a less overwhelming one.  Avoidant coping means to reduce stress by ignoring it, like involving in problematic drinking.  Another set of coping strategy types includes problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping.  Problem-focused coping involves using skills and knowledge to deal with the cause of their problems.  Emotion-focused coping involves releasing negative emotions by ways like distracting or disclaiming.Adaptive performance involves a mixture of different coping strategies.  Because adaptive performance concerns positive aspects of behaviors, it is more closely related to coping strategies that have positive effects, such as active coping and problem-focused coping.  Therefore, adaptive performance is more likely to contain such behaviors in stressful situations.

text: Coping

text: , as a form of response to

text: stressors

text: , describes how individuals handle stressful events.  It is very close to one dimension of adaptive performance by definition (i.e., the Handling Work Stress dimension), and coping has been suggested to be another form of

text: adaptation

text: .  However, they are still different constructions.

text: Stress coping

text: could be divided into several styles and strategies based on several theories.  One general idea is to divide coping as active coping and avoidant coping.  Active coping means to proactively address and resolve stressful events, like quitting a stressful job and changing into a less overwhelming one.  Avoidant

text: coping

text: means to reduce

text: stress

text: by ignoring it, like involving in problematic drinking.  Another set of coping strategy types includes problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping.  Problem-focused coping involves using skills and knowledge to deal with the cause of their problems.  Emotion-focused coping involves releasing negative emotions by ways like distracting or disclaiming.Adaptive performance involves a mixture of different coping strategies.  Because adaptive performance concerns positive aspects of behaviors, it is more closely related to coping strategies that have positive effects, such as active coping and problem-focused coping.  Therefore, adaptive performance is more likely to contain such behaviors in stressful situations.

text: The denser oceanic plate is subducting beneath the less dense continental plate offshore of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northern California.  The North American Plate moves in a general southwest direction, overriding the oceanic plate.  The Cascadia subduction zone is where the two plates meet.

text: The denser oceanic plate is subducting beneath the less dense continental plate offshore of

text: British Columbia

text: Washington

text: Oregon

text: , and northern

text: California

text: .  The North American Plate moves in a general southwest direction, overriding the oceanic plate.  The Cascadia subduction zone is where the two plates meet.

text: On 8 October 1909 there was an earthquake with its epicentre in the Pokuplje region, 39 km southeast of Zagreb. A number of existing seismographs were installed before and provided invaluable data upon which he made new discoveries. He concluded that when seismic waves strike the boundary between different types of material, they are reflected and refracted, just as light is when striking a prism, and that when earthquakes occur, two waves—longitudinal and transverse—propagate through the soil with different velocities. By analyzing data from more observation posts, Mohorovičić concluded that the Earth has several layers above a core. He was the first to establish, based on the evidence from seismic waves, the discontinuity that separates the Earth's crust from its mantle. This is now called the Mohorovičić discontinuity or (because of the complexity of that name) Moho.  According to Mohorovičić, a layered structure would explain the observation of depths where seismic waves change speed and the difference in chemical composition between rocks from the crust and those from the mantle. From the data, he estimated the thickness of the upper layer (crust) to be 54 km. We know today that the crust is 5–9 km  below the ocean floor and 25–60 km below the continents, which are carried on tectonic plates.Subsequent study of the Earth's interior confirmed the existence of the discontinuity under all continents and oceans.

text: On 8 October 1909 there was an earthquake with its

text: epicentre

text: in the Pokuplje region, 39 km southeast of Zagreb. A number of existing

text: seismograph

text: s were installed before and provided invaluable data upon which he made new discoveries. He concluded that when

text: seismic

text: waves strike the boundary between different types of material, they are reflected and refracted, just as light is when striking a prism, and that when earthquakes occur, two waves—

text: longitudinal

text: and

text: transverse

text: —propagate through the soil with different velocities. By analyzing data from more observation posts, Mohorovičić concluded that the

text: Earth

text: has several layers above a core. He was the first to establish, based on the evidence from seismic waves, the

text: discontinuity

text: that separates the Earth's

text: crust

text: from its

text: mantle

text: . This is now called the

text: Mohorovičić discontinuity

text: or (because of the complexity of that name) Moho.  According to Mohorovičić, a layered structure would explain the observation of depths where seismic waves change speed and the difference in chemical composition between rocks from the crust and those from the mantle. From the data, he estimated the thickness of the upper layer (crust) to be 54 km. We know today that the crust is 5–9 km  below the ocean floor and 25–60 km below the continents, which are carried on

text: tectonic plate

text: s.Subsequent study of the

text: Earth's interior

text: confirmed the existence of the discontinuity under all continents and oceans.

text: Within the Triangle, the Earth's crust is slowly rifting apart at a rate of 1–2 centimetres (0.4–0.8 in) per year along each of the three rift zones forming the "legs" of the triple junction. The immediate consequences are recurring sequences of earthquakes with deep fissures in the terrain hundreds of metres long, and the valley floor sinking broadly across the Depression. During September and October 2005 some 163 earthquakes of magnitudes greater than 3.9 and a volcanic eruption occurred within the Afar rift at the Dabbahu and Erta Ale volcanoes. Some 2.5 cubic kilometers of molten rock was injected from below into the plate along a dyke between depths of 2 and 9 km, forcing open an 8 meter wide gap on the surface, known as the Dabbahu fissure.

text: Within the Triangle, the Earth's crust is slowly rifting apart at a rate of 1–2 centimetres (0.4–0.8 in) per year along each of the three rift zones forming the "legs" of the triple junction. The immediate consequences are recurring sequences of earthquakes with deep fissures in the terrain hundreds of metres long, and the valley floor sinking broadly across the Depression. During September and October 2005 some 163 earthquakes of magnitudes greater than 3.9 and a

text: volcanic eruption

text: occurred within the Afar rift at the

text: Dabbahu

text: and

text: Erta Ale

text: volcanoes. Some 2.5 cubic kilometers of molten rock was injected from below into the plate along a

text: dyke

text: between depths of 2 and 9 km, forcing open an 8 meter wide gap on the surface, known as the

text: Dabbahu fissure

text: As the fault blocks rotate and tip, erosion occurs, filling the basins that are formed with associated sediment from the block into the "down-dropped corners". The basin-fill occurs concurrently with the exhumation. Calculations examining sediment infill suggest that differences in core complexes can be controlled by erosion rates and hanging wall resistance of the fault. Tilted blocks are formed under specific crustal conditions, where the lower crust is relatively warm, not hot. Hotter crust will lead to a type of formation known as a "rolling hinge" complex.  The geometry of the tilted block system can be greatly affected by subsidence and isostasy.

text: As the fault blocks rotate and tip,

text: erosion

text: occurs, filling the

text: basin

text: s that are formed with associated sediment from the block into the "down-dropped corners". The basin-fill occurs concurrently with the exhumation. Calculations examining sediment infill suggest that differences in core complexes can be controlled by erosion rates and hanging wall resistance of the fault. Tilted blocks are formed under specific crustal conditions, where the lower crust is relatively warm, not hot. Hotter crust will lead to a type of formation known as a "rolling hinge" complex.  The geometry of the tilted block system can be greatly affected by

text: subsidence

text: and isostasy.

text: A fault bend, or fault stepover, forms when individual segments of the fault overlap and link together. The type of structures which form along the strike-slip fault depend on the sense of slip relative to the sense of stepping. When a sinistral fault steps to the right or a dextral fault steps to the left, a restraining bend is formed. These are areas of positive relief (topographic uplift), crustal shortening, and exhumation of crystalline basement. As seen in deeply eroded outcrop exposures or from subsurface geophysical surveys, restraining bends commonly define positive flower structures. In plan view we see them form contractional strike-slip duplexs, subparallel reverse or oblique-slip contractional faults that are bounded by two strike-slip segments. Restraining bends are widespread on the Earth's surface, from sub-outcrop-scale examples to large scale mountain ranges. They have been theorized to occur on extraterrestrial bodies, like Jupiter's icy moon Europa and on Venus.

text: A fault bend, or fault stepover, forms when individual segments of the fault overlap and link together. The type of structures which form along the strike-slip fault depend on the sense of slip relative to the sense of stepping. When a

text: sinistral

text: fault steps to the right or a

text: dextral

text: fault steps to the left, a restraining bend is formed. These are areas of positive relief (topographic uplift), crustal shortening, and exhumation of crystalline basement. As seen in deeply eroded outcrop exposures or from subsurface

text: geophysical survey

text: s, restraining bends commonly define

text: positive flower structures

text: . In plan view we see them form contractional

text: strike-slip duplexs

text: , subparallel reverse or oblique-slip contractional faults that are bounded by two strike-slip segments. Restraining bends are widespread on the Earth's surface, from sub-outcrop-scale examples to large scale mountain ranges. They have been theorized to occur on extraterrestrial bodies, like Jupiter's icy moon

text: Europa

text: and on

text: Venus

text: The New York City area is part of the geologically complex structure of the northern Appalachian Mountains. This complex structure was formed during the past half billion years when the Earth's crust underlying the Northern Appalachians was the site of two major geological episodes, each of which has left its imprint on the area's bedrock. Between about 450 million years ago and about 250 million years ago, the Northern Appalachian region was affected by a continental collision, in which the ancient African continent collided with the ancient North American continent to form the supercontinent Pangaea. Beginning about 200 million years ago, the present-day Atlantic Ocean began to form as plate tectonic forces began to rift apart the continent of Pangaea. The last major episode of geological activity to affect the bedrock in the New York area occurred about 100 million years ago, during the Mesozoic era, when continental rifting that led to the opening of the present-day Atlantic Ocean formed the Hartford and Newark Mesozoic rift basins.

text: The New York City area is part of the geologically complex structure of the northern

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: . This complex structure was formed during the past half billion years when the Earth's crust underlying the Northern Appalachians was the site of two major geological episodes, each of which has left its imprint on the area's

text: bedrock

text: . Between about 450 million years ago and about 250 million years ago, the Northern Appalachian region was affected by a

text: continental collision

text: , in which the ancient African continent collided with the ancient North American continent to form the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: . Beginning about 200 million years ago, the present-day Atlantic Ocean began to form as plate tectonic forces began to

text: rift

text: apart the continent of

text: Pangaea

text: . The last major episode of geological activity to affect the

text: bedrock

text: in the New York area occurred about 100 million years ago, during the

text: Mesozoic era

text: , when continental rifting that led to the opening of the present-day

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: formed the Hartford and

text: Newark

text: Mesozoic rift basins.

text: Reflections and refractions of seismic waves at geologic interfaces within the Earth were first observed on recordings of earthquake-generated seismic waves. The basic model of the Earth's deep interior is based on observations of earthquake-generated seismic waves transmitted through the Earth’s interior (e.g., Mohorovičić, 1910). The use of human-generated seismic waves to map in detail the geology of the upper few kilometers of the Earth's crust followed shortly thereafter and has developed mainly due to commercial enterprise, particularly the petroleum industry.

text: Faults may be either major faults (preventing the dog from being shown in the conformation ring or being bred by responsible breeders) or minor faults, such as coat texture, that can easily be corrected by careful breeding of the next generation. A major fault would be a breed type fault "which diminishes the overall look of the breed." Another major fault would be visible structural problems of the dog that prevent the animal from doing the type of work for which it was bred. Dogs that run with great speed use the flexibility of their back; a back that is too arched or too flat will restrict the dog's speed, and would be seen as a fault. Other major faults may involve temperament; "Aggressive behaviour is a serious temperament fault in a Lab."

text: Faults may be either major faults (preventing the dog from being shown in the

text: conformation

text: ring or being bred by responsible breeders) or minor faults, such as coat texture, that can easily be corrected by careful breeding of the next generation. A major fault would be a

text: breed type

text: fault "which diminishes the overall look of the breed." Another major fault would be visible structural problems of the dog that prevent the animal from doing the type of work for which it was bred. Dogs that run with great speed use the flexibility of their back; a back that is too arched or too flat will restrict the dog's speed, and would be seen as a fault. Other major faults may involve temperament; "Aggressive behaviour is a serious temperament fault in a

text: Lab

text: All these types of strainmeters can measure deformation over frequenciesfrom a few Hz to periods of days, months, and years. This allows them to measuresignals at lower frequencies than can be detected with seismometers.Most strainmeter records show signals from the earth tides, and seismic wavesfrom earthquakes.At longer periods, they can also record the gradual accumulation of stress (physics)caused by plate tectonics, the release of this stress in earthquakes,and rapid changes of stress following earthquakes.

text: All these types of strainmeters can measure

text: deformation

text: over frequenciesfrom a few

text: Hz

text: to periods of days, months, and years. This allows them to measuresignals at lower frequencies than can be detected with

text: seismometers

text: .Most strainmeter records show signals from the

text: earth tide

text: s, and

text: seismic wave

text: sfrom

text: earthquake

text: s.At longer periods, they can also record the gradual accumulation of

text: stress (physics)

text: caused by

text: plate tectonics

text: , the release of this stress in

text: earthquake

text: s,and rapid changes of stress following earthquakes.

text: This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around  thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with basaltic rocks ("mafic") dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower density granitic rocks ("felsic"). See also Plate tectonics.

text: This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth.

text: Tectonic plates

text: are pieces of Earth's

text: crust

text: and uppermost

text: mantle

text: , together referred to as the

text: lithosphere

text: . The plates are around  thick and consist of two principal types of material:

text: oceanic crust

text: (also called

text: sima

text: from

text: silicon

text: and

text: magnesium

text: ) and

text: continental crust

text: sial

text: from silicon and

text: aluminium

text: ). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with

text: basalt

text: ic rocks ("

text: mafic

text: ") dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower

text: density

text: granitic

text: rocks ("

text: felsic

text: "). See also

text: Plate tectonics

text: The Massif was formed by the intrusion of magma into the Earth's crust about 130 million years ago.  The surrounding rock eroded away over time, leaving behind the erosion-resistant igneous rock of the Mulanje Massif.  The first European to report seeing the Massif was David Livingstone in 1859, but archeological investigation reveals evidence of human visits to the Massif from the Stone Age onwards. The elevation of the mountain is high enough for it to disturb upper level air flow and induce rain clouds to form around it, making it an important source of rain water at the head of almost every river that runs through this part of Malawi.

text: The Massif was formed by the intrusion of

text: magma

text: into the Earth's crust about 130 million years ago.  The surrounding rock eroded away over time, leaving behind the erosion-resistant

text: igneous

text: rock of the Mulanje Massif.  The first European to report seeing the Massif was

text: David Livingstone

text: in 1859, but archeological investigation reveals evidence of human visits to the Massif from the

text: Stone Age

text: onwards. The elevation of the mountain is high enough for it to disturb upper level air flow and induce rain clouds to form around it, making it an important source of rain water at the head of almost every river that runs through this part of Malawi.

text: Intrusions vary widely, from mountain-range-sized batholiths to thin veinlike fracture fillings of aplite or pegmatite. When exposed by erosion, these cores called batholiths may occupy huge areas of Earth's surface. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons. Plutonic rocks form 7% of the Earth's current land surface.

text: Intrusions vary widely, from mountain-range-sized

text: batholith

text: s to thin

text: vein

text: like

text: fracture

text: fillings of

text: aplite

text: or

text: pegmatite

text: . When exposed by

text: erosion

text: , these cores called batholiths may occupy huge areas of

text: Earth

text: 's surface. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called

text: pluton

text: s. Plutonic rocks form 7% of the Earth's current land surface.

text: Folds are classified by their size, fold shape, tightness, and dip of the axial plane.

text: In common with other geophysical methods, reflection seismology may be seen as a type of inverse problem.  That is, given a set of data collected by experimentation and the physical laws that apply to the experiment, the experimenter wishes to develop an abstract model of the physical system being studied.  In the case of reflection seismology, the experimental data are recorded seismograms, and the desired result is a model of the structure and physical properties of the Earth's crust.  In common with other types of inverse problems, the results obtained from reflection seismology are usually not unique (more than one model adequately fits the data) and may be sensitive to relatively small errors in data collection, processing, or analysis.  For these reasons, great care must be taken when interpreting the results of a reflection seismic survey.

text: In common with other geophysical methods, reflection seismology may be seen as a type of

text: inverse problem

text: .  That is, given a set of data collected by

text: experiment

text: ation and the physical laws that apply to the experiment, the experimenter wishes to develop an

text: abstract model

text: of the physical system being studied.  In the case of reflection seismology, the experimental data are recorded seismograms, and the desired result is a model of the structure and physical properties of the Earth's crust.  In common with other types of inverse problems, the results obtained from reflection seismology are usually not unique (more than one model adequately fits the data) and may be sensitive to relatively small errors in data collection, processing, or analysis.  For these reasons, great care must be taken when interpreting the results of a reflection seismic survey.

text: It is now known that there are two kinds of crust: continental crust and oceanic crust. Continental crust is inherently lighter and its composition is different from oceanic crust, but both kinds reside above a much deeper "plastic" mantle. Oceanic crust is created at spreading centers, and this, along with subduction, drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in continuous orogeny and areas of isostatic imbalance. The theory of plate tectonics explains all this, including the movement of the continents, better than Wegener's theory.

text: It is now known that there are two kinds of crust:

text: continental crust

text: and

text: oceanic crust

text: . Continental crust is inherently lighter and its composition is different from oceanic crust, but both kinds reside above a much deeper "

text: plastic

text: " mantle. Oceanic crust is created at

text: spreading centers

text: , and this, along with

text: subduction

text: , drives the system of plates in a chaotic manner, resulting in continuous

text: orogeny

text: and areas of isostatic imbalance. The theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: explains all this, including the movement of the continents, better than Wegener's theory.

text: Thinning of the Cordilleran has previously been thought to be evidence and reason for flat subduction in the Sevier and Laramide orogenic events.  However, isotopic data suggests that preservation of Cordilleran lithosphere implies Cordilleran thinning is not a sufficient answer for Sevier and Laramide flat subduction.  This implies thinning and shearing of the Cordilleran was confined to the fore-arc region.  Data suggests throughout the Sevier-Laramide thrusting the crust was also uplifted and extended.  The modern Chilean subduction is thought to be a parallel model of the Sevier and Laramide events so there are possibly answers to this question in this modern model.   Explanations may include a combination of plate motion rates increasing, the underriding oceanic plate becoming younger as the older portion subducts, and thus the underriding plate being hotter and more buoyant.

text: Thinning of the Cordilleran has previously been thought to be evidence and reason for flat subduction in the Sevier and Laramide orogenic events.  However,

text: isotopic

text: data suggests that preservation of Cordilleran lithosphere implies Cordilleran thinning is not a sufficient answer for Sevier and Laramide flat subduction.  This implies thinning and shearing of the Cordilleran was confined to the fore-arc region.  Data suggests throughout the Sevier-Laramide thrusting the crust was also uplifted and extended.  The modern Chilean subduction is thought to be a parallel model of the Sevier and Laramide events so there are possibly answers to this question in this modern model.   Explanations may include a combination of plate motion rates increasing, the underriding oceanic plate becoming younger as the older portion subducts, and thus the underriding plate being hotter and more buoyant.

text: Once this appraisal has occurred, actions taken to reduce stress constitute coping processes. Coping can involve changes to the situation-environment relationship (changing the situation or the goals that led to stress appraisal), reducing the emotional consequences of a stress appraisal, or avoiding thinking about the stressful situation. Categorizations of types of coping vary between researchers. Coping strategies differ in their effects on subjective well-being; for example, positive reappraisal is consistently found to be a correlate of higher subjective-well being, while distraction from stressors is typically a negative correlate of well-being. Coping behaviors constitute the moderating factor between events and circumstances on one hand and psychological outcomes, like well-being or mental disorders, on the other. Causal attributions of the event are a way to deal with the stress of an event, and so self-blame is a type of coping. During and after traumatic events, individuals’ appraisals affect how stressful the event is, their beliefs on what caused the event, meanings they may derive from the event, and changes they make in their future behavior.

text: Once this appraisal has occurred, actions taken to reduce stress constitute

text: coping

text: processes. Coping can involve changes to the situation-environment relationship (changing the situation or the goals that led to stress appraisal), reducing the emotional consequences of a stress appraisal, or avoiding thinking about the stressful situation. Categorizations of types of coping vary between researchers. Coping strategies differ in their effects on subjective well-being; for example,

text: positive reappraisal

text: is consistently found to be a

text: correlate

text: of higher

text: subjective-well being

text: , while distraction from stressors is typically a negative correlate of well-being. Coping behaviors constitute the moderating factor between events and circumstances on one hand and psychological outcomes, like well-being or

text: mental disorder

text: s, on the other.

text: Causal

text: attributions of the event are a way to deal with the stress of an event, and so self-blame is a type of coping. During and after traumatic events, individuals’ appraisals affect how stressful the event is, their beliefs on what caused the event, meanings they may derive from the event, and changes they make in their future behavior.

text: The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when Charles Coulomb (a physicist, engineer, and army Captain) developed improved methods to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and he suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion,

text: The application of the principles of mechanics to soils was documented as early as 1773 when

text: Charles Coulomb

text: (a physicist, engineer, and army Captain) developed improved methods to determine the earth pressures against military ramparts. Coulomb observed that, at failure, a distinct slip plane would form behind a sliding retaining wall and he suggested that the maximum shear stress on the slip plane, for design purposes, was the sum of the soil cohesion,

text: The so-called Hunic terranes are divided into the European Hunic (today the crust under parts of Europe – called Armorica – and Iberia) and Asiatic Hunic (today the crust of parts of southern Asia). A large transform fault separated the two terranes.

text: The so-called Hunic terranes are divided into the European Hunic (today the

text: crust

text: under parts of Europe – called

text: Armorica

text: – and

text: Iberia

text: ) and Asiatic Hunic (today the crust of parts of southern Asia). A large

text: transform fault

text: separated the two

text: terrane

text: s.

text: The Tharsis quadrangle is home to large troughs (long narrow depressions) called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars.  This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural. Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks.  The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano.  Studies have shown that the volcanoes of Tharsis caused most of the major fossae on Mars.  The stress that caused the fossae and other tectonic features is centered in Noctis Labyrinthus, at 4 S and 253 E. But the center has moved somewhat over time.  Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.  A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down, leaving steep cliffs along the sides; such a trough is called a graben.  Lake George, in northern New York State, is a lake that sits in a graben. Sometimes, a line of pits form as material collapse into a void that results from the stretching.  Pit craters do not have rims or ejecta around them, like impact craters do.  Studies have found that on Mars a fault may be as deep as 5 km, that is the break in the rock goes down to 5 km.  Moreover, the crack or fault sometimes widens or dilates.  This widening causes a void to form with a relatively high volume.  When material slides into the void, a pit crater or a pit crater chain forms.  On Mars, individual pit craters can join to form chains or even to form troughs that are sometimes scalloped.  Other ideas have been suggested for the formation of fossae and pit craters.  There is evidence that they are associated with dikes of magma.  Magma might move along, under the surface, breaking the rock and more importantly melting ice.  The resulting action would cause a crack to form at the surface.  Dikes caused both by tectonic stretching (extension) and by dikes are found in Iceland. Pit craters are not common on Earth.  Sinkholes, where the ground falls into a hole (sometimes in the middle of a town) resemble pit craters on Mars.  However, on the Earth these holes are caused by limestone being dissolved thereby causing a void.

text: The

text: Tharsis quadrangle

text: is home to large troughs (long narrow depressions) called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars.  This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural. Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks.  The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano.  Studies have shown that the volcanoes of Tharsis caused most of the major fossae on Mars.  The stress that caused the fossae and other tectonic features is centered in

text: Noctis Labyrinthus

text: , at 4 S and 253 E. But the center has moved somewhat over time.  Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.  A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down, leaving steep cliffs along the sides; such a trough is called a graben.

text: Lake George

text: , in northern

text: New York State

text: , is a lake that sits in a graben. Sometimes, a line of pits form as material collapse into a void that results from the stretching.  Pit craters do not have rims or ejecta around them, like impact craters do.  Studies have found that on Mars a fault may be as deep as 5 km, that is the break in the rock goes down to 5 km.  Moreover, the crack or fault sometimes widens or dilates.  This widening causes a void to form with a relatively high volume.  When material slides into the void, a pit crater or a pit crater chain forms.  On Mars, individual pit craters can join to form chains or even to form troughs that are sometimes scalloped.  Other ideas have been suggested for the formation of fossae and pit craters.  There is evidence that they are associated with dikes of magma.  Magma might move along, under the surface, breaking the rock and more importantly melting ice.  The resulting action would cause a crack to form at the surface.  Dikes caused both by tectonic stretching (extension) and by dikes are found in

text: Iceland

text: . Pit craters are not common on Earth.

text: Sinkholes

text: , where the ground falls into a hole (sometimes in the middle of a town) resemble pit craters on Mars.  However, on the Earth these holes are caused by limestone being dissolved thereby causing a void.

text: Geologically, the Rio Grande Gorge is a rift valley, a separation in the earth’s crust caused by faulting and other earth movements when the North American and Pacific plates scraped against each other some twenty-nine million years ago.

text: Geologically, the Rio Grande Gorge is a

text: rift valley

text: , a separation in the earth’s crust caused by faulting and other earth movements when the North American and Pacific plates scraped against each other some twenty-nine million years ago.

text: In plate tectonics the outermost part of the earth – the crust and uppermost mantle – are viewed as acting as a single mechanical layer, the lithosphere. The lithosphere is divided into separate 'plates' that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak asthenosphere in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of sea-floor spreading; transform where plates slide past each other and convergent where plates converge and lithosphere is 'consumed' by the process of subduction. Convergent and transform boundaries form the largest structural discontinuities in the lithosphere and are responsible for most of the world's major (M > 7) earthquakes. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's volcanoes, such as around the Pacific Ring of Fire. Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates, either directly or indirectly.

text: In plate tectonics the outermost part of the earth – the

text: crust

text: and uppermost

text: mantle

text: – are viewed as acting as a single mechanical layer, the

text: lithosphere

text: . The lithosphere is divided into separate 'plates' that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak

text: asthenosphere

text: in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries:

text: divergent

text: where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of

text: sea-floor spreading

text: transform

text: where plates slide past each other and

text: convergent

text: where plates converge and lithosphere is 'consumed' by the process of

text: subduction

text: . Convergent and transform boundaries form the largest structural discontinuities in the lithosphere and are responsible for most of the world's major (

text: M

text: > 7)

text: earthquake

text: s. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's

text: volcano

text: es, such as around the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: . Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates, either directly or indirectly.

text: Drummond and Defant noted that Archean trondhjemites (which make up most of the ancient crust of continents) have similar geochemical characteristics to adakites.  They suggested that the entire Archean crust may have been derived from the partial melting of subducted oceanic crust during the Archean (> 2.5 billion years ago) because during early earth the temperature of the mantle was much hotter and more oceanic crust was generated and subducted younger.  The proposal has been controversial and is still being argued among the scientific community.  The alternative interpretation is that the continental crust was derived from the partial melting of lower crustal basalts.  The same idea has also been postulated for the generation of adakites.  However, this hypothesis does not explain the correlation between subducted young crust and adakite eruptions nor the fact that the lower Yb and Y in adakites suggest that garnet is stable in the source.  Garnet forms only under high pressures within the earth and would not be stable in lower crust below some island arcs that erupt adakites.  See Martin et al. for a more recent summary.

text: Drummond and Defant noted that

text: Archean

text: trondhjemite

text: s (which make up most of the ancient crust of continents) have similar geochemical characteristics to adakites.  They suggested that the entire Archean crust may have been derived from the partial melting of subducted oceanic crust during the Archean (> 2.5 billion years ago) because during early earth the temperature of the mantle was much hotter and more oceanic crust was generated and subducted younger.  The proposal has been controversial and is still being argued among the scientific community.  The alternative interpretation is that the

text: continental crust

text: was derived from the partial melting of lower crustal basalts.  The same idea has also been postulated for the generation of adakites.  However, this hypothesis does not explain the correlation between subducted young crust and adakite eruptions nor the fact that the lower Yb and Y in adakites suggest that

text: garnet

text: is stable in the source.  Garnet forms only under high pressures within the earth and would not be stable in lower crust below some island arcs that erupt adakites.  See Martin et al. for a more recent summary.

text: The northwest of the Murray ridge is a major plate boundary transform fault which formed in the Late Oligocene/Early Miocene in response to plate reorganization following the opening of the Gulf of Aden. Onlap of the Miocene and younger stratigraphy on the southeast side of the ridge confirms the age of the ridge and resultant hanging wall uplift. Motion along the Murray ridge bounding fault has resulted in the development of northwest-southeast-trending faults, folds and shale diapirs in the hanging wall. The Makran accretionary wedge, north of the Murray ridge, developed in response to the subduction of the Gulf of Oman oceanic crust beneath Eurasia from about 14 Ma onwards. The southern boundary of the offshore Indus basin is marked by the Saurashtra Arch. It is a volcanic high which extends eastwards into onshore India, coinciding with large outcrop of Deccan volcanics. In the offshore, the arch is cut by steep vertical faults interpreted as extensional faults associated with strike-slip movement along an east-west-trending transform fault marking the northern edge of the Arabian Sea oceanic crust. Two other features have been identified southeast of the Saurashtra Arch, the Laxmi Ridge and the Laxmi Basin. The Laxmi Ridge is interpreted as continental fragment and the Laxmi Basin is considered to be an area of extended continental crust respectively. The gravity and seismic data suggest that the Laxmi Ridge may represent an area of thinned continental crust which has been subsequently thickened by igneous underplating and the intrusion of thick volcanics similar to the transitional area in the offshore Indus basin.

text: There are two schools of thought concerning the amount of continental crust that was present in the Archean. One school maintains that no large continents existed until late in the Archean: small protocontinents were common, prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity. The other school follows that of Richard Armstrong, who argued that the continents grew to their present volume in the first 500 million years of Earth history and have maintained a near-constant ever since: throughout most of Earth history, recycling of continental material crust back to the mantle in subduction or collision zones balances crustal growth.

text: There are two schools of thought concerning the amount of continental crust that was present in the Archean. One school maintains that no large continents existed until late in the Archean: small protocontinents were common, prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity. The other school follows that of

text: Richard Armstrong

text: , who argued that the continents grew to their present volume in the first 500 million years of Earth history and have maintained a near-constant ever since: throughout most of Earth history, recycling of continental material crust back to the mantle in subduction or collision zones balances crustal growth.

text: KDEL receptors have been implicated in the development of dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). To determine the relationship between KDEL receptor and dilated cardiomyopathy, transgenic mice with a point mutation (D193N) were made. The mice expressing the transport mutant D193N gene grew normally until they reached adulthood. The mutant KDEL receptor did not function after 14 weeks of age, and these mice developed DCM. They were observed to have dilated heart chambers, as well as higher heart-to-body ratios with enlarged hearts, and the cardiac myocytes were larger in size. No difference was observed in arterial blood pressure between wild-type and mutant mice, thus cardiomegaly was not attributed to hypertension. Upon analysis, it was found that KDEL mutant mice had proliferation in their sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and a narrowing in the transverse tubule compared to the wild-type and controls. Moreover, aggregations of degenerative membrane proteins were observed in the expanded SR. This suggests that the mutant KDEL receptor leads to impaired recycling and quality control of the ER, which leads to aggregation of misfolded proteins in the ER. Furthermore, KDEL D193N transgenic mice had defects in the L-type Ca++ channel current in ventricular myocytes. The basal current of these channels was significantly lower than the controls.  L-type channels expression was lower in the plasma membrane of the KDEL D193N heart cells due to the narrowing of transverse tubules.  BiP, a chaperone protein, was unevenly distributed and synthesized in larger proportion in the transgenic mutant mice, which suggests that there was an increase in concentration of misfolded proteins.They also observed aggregates of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (a degradation system); this suggests that there was saturation of the system due to the high levels of misfolded proteins that lead to impaired ER quality control. The researchers concluded that hyperubiquitination and saturation of the proteasome system results due to the accumulation of misfolded protein, which induces stress. The accumulation of misfolded proteins induced by ER stress has also been observed in human DCM. A murine DCM study found an increase in apoptosis due to the high levels of CHOP expression.  CHOP is  a transcription factor that is elevated during ER stress and causes apoptosis of cells during the process of an unfolded protein response. Increase pressure load/mechanical stress in KDEL D193N mice caused an even greater synthesis of BiP, CHOP and other proteins that are biomarkers of cellular stress and ER stress as the capacity of the ER to deal with this is very limited.

text: The Doctor, suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, appears out of the rift in Paris, 1871, as the events of the Paris Commune unfold. He finds himself in the care of Kadiatu Lethbridge-Stewart, whose time travel experiments have created the rift in the first place and now they are both trapped in Paris. The ants, however, have followed them and Kadiatu takes the Doctor to M. Thierry's house for shelter. Despite his confused state of mind, the Doctor still realises that Thierry's young son is not all he seems and suspects Thierry is really in league with the ants. Thierry and Kadiatu have been helping the Doctor recover, playing for time and hoping that he will reveal to them the information that Ship couldn't take from his mind.

text: The Doctor, suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder, appears out of the rift in

text: Paris

text: , 1871, as the events of the

text: Paris Commune

text: unfold. He finds himself in the care of

text: Kadiatu Lethbridge-Stewart

text: , whose time travel experiments have created the rift in the first place and now they are both trapped in Paris. The ants, however, have followed them and Kadiatu takes the Doctor to M. Thierry's house for shelter. Despite his confused state of mind, the Doctor still realises that Thierry's young son is not all he seems and suspects Thierry is really in league with the ants. Thierry and Kadiatu have been helping the Doctor recover, playing for time and hoping that he will reveal to them the information that Ship couldn't take from his mind.

text: Such settlements were established on the better-drained soils of the Weald, the word "fold" being derived from the Old English "falod" meaning  a staked-off pasture area. This indicates that the settlers were probably herders of domesticated animals such as sheep, cattle and pigs rather than arable farmers. The same source suggests that such folds were occupied on a seasonal basis with stock being moved by drove roads between the folds and the coastal grazing areas, permanent occupation of the folds being completed by the end of the 12th century.

text: Such settlements were established on the better-drained soils of the Weald, the word "fold" being derived from the

text: Old English

text: "falod" meaning  a staked-off pasture area. This indicates that the settlers were probably herders of domesticated animals such as sheep, cattle and pigs rather than arable farmers. The same source suggests that such folds were occupied on a seasonal basis with stock being moved by

text: drove road

text: s between the folds and the coastal grazing areas, permanent occupation of the folds being completed by the end of the 12th century.

text: A slice of the Earth from the Pacific Ocean through the Pacific Northwest might look something like the adjacent image. Beneath the Cascades, a dense oceanic plate plunges beneath the North American Plate; a process known as subduction. As the oceanic slab sinks deep into the Earth's interior beneath the continental plate, high temperatures and pressures allow water molecules locked in the minerals of solid rock to escape. The water vapor rises into the pliable mantle above the subducting plate, causing some of the mantle to melt. This newly formed magma rises toward the Earth's surface to erupt, forming a chain of volcanoes (the Cascade Range) above the subduction zone.

text: A slice of the Earth from the Pacific Ocean through the Pacific Northwest might look something like the adjacent image. Beneath the Cascades, a dense oceanic plate plunges beneath the

text: North American Plate

text: ; a process known as

text: subduction

text: . As the oceanic slab sinks deep into the Earth's interior beneath the continental plate, high temperatures and pressures allow water molecules locked in the minerals of solid rock to escape. The water vapor rises into the pliable mantle above the subducting plate, causing some of the mantle to melt. This newly formed

text: magma

text: rises toward the Earth's surface to erupt, forming a chain of volcanoes (the Cascade Range) above the subduction zone.

text: Every year, 1-2 x 10 trillion kilograms of water descend into subduction zones. Approximately 90-95% of that water is contained in hydrous minerals, including mica, phengite, amphibole, lawsonite, chlorite, talc, zoisite, and serpentine. The most significant hydrous minerals are lawsonite (11 wt.% HO), phlogopite (2 wt% H0) and amphibole (2 wt.% HO). Phlogopite does not release water until approximately 200 km depth whereas amphibole releases water at approximately 75 km depth. Serpentine is also an important hydrous phase (13 wt.% H2O) that is only present in oceanic crust created at a slow spreading ridge where ultramafic rocks are emplaced at shallow levels. Lawsonite does not release water until approximately 300 km depth and is the last hydrous mineral to do so. Metamorphic dehydration reactions within the slab of trace element hosting minerals such as phengite, lawsonite and, zoisite create a unique type of magma. Arc magmas and the continental crust formed from arc magmas are enriched in boron, lead, arsenic, and antimony derived from the dehydration within the subducting slab. Hydrothermal fluids released from the slab mobilize these elements and allow them to be incorporated into arc magmas, distinguishing arc magmas from those produced at mid-ocean ridges and hotspots.

text: Every year, 1-2 x 10 trillion kilograms of water descend into subduction zones. Approximately 90-95% of that water is contained in hydrous minerals, including

text: mica

text: phengite

text: amphibole

text: lawsonite

text: chlorite

text: talc

text: zoisite

text: , and

text: serpentine

text: . The most significant hydrous minerals are lawsonite (11 wt.% HO), phlogopite (2 wt% H0) and amphibole (2 wt.% HO). Phlogopite does not release water until approximately 200 km depth whereas amphibole releases water at approximately 75 km depth. Serpentine is also an important hydrous phase (13 wt.% H2O) that is only present in oceanic crust created at a slow spreading ridge where

text: ultramafic rocks

text: are emplaced at shallow levels. Lawsonite does not release water until approximately 300 km depth and is the last hydrous mineral to do so. Metamorphic dehydration reactions within the slab of trace element hosting minerals such as phengite, lawsonite and, zoisite create a unique type of magma. Arc magmas and the continental crust formed from arc magmas are enriched in

text: boron

text: lead

text: arsenic

text: , and

text: antimony

text: derived from the dehydration within the subducting slab.

text: Hydrothermal

text: fluids released from the slab mobilize these elements and allow them to be incorporated into arc magmas, distinguishing arc magmas from those produced at mid-ocean ridges and

text: hotspots

text: The most prevalent geologic feature of the Carrizo Plain is the San Andreas Fault, a right lateral strike-slip fault which runs along the northeast side of the plain, at the base of the Elkhorn Scarp. The San Andreas fault forms the boundary between the Pacific and North American plates, extending ~850 miles (1370 km) along the western coast of California from Cape Mendocino in the north to just south of the Salton Sea near the US-Mexico border. The section of the fault in the Carrizo Plain is the oldest section along the entire fault zone, where cumulative right-lateral offset is ~195 miles (~315 km) since early Miocene time. Displacement on the San Andreas is responsible for the development of distinctive geomorphic features along the fault trace, including shutter ridges, diverted and/or decapitated stream channels, and sag ponds.<ref>"The San Andreas Fault Zone in the Carrizo Plain, California: Review of Quaternary Geologic Investigations, Landforms, and Fault Activity" Arrowsmith, J R., 1995, Appendix C, Coupled tectonic deformation and geomorphic degradation along the San Andreas Fault System, PhD. Dissertation, Stanford University, pp. 312–346. 3 Mar. 2008.

text: The most prevalent geologic feature of the Carrizo Plain is the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , a right lateral strike-slip

text: fault

text: which runs along the northeast side of the plain, at the base of the Elkhorn Scarp. The San Andreas fault forms the boundary between the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: North American plate

text: s, extending ~850 miles (1370 km) along the western coast of California from

text: Cape Mendocino

text: in the north to just south of the

text: Salton Sea

text: near the US-Mexico border. The section of the fault in the Carrizo Plain is the oldest section along the entire fault zone, where cumulative right-lateral offset is ~195 miles (~315 km) since early

text: Miocene

text: time. Displacement on the San Andreas is responsible for the development of distinctive geomorphic features along the fault trace, including

text: shutter ridge

text: s, diverted and/or decapitated stream channels, and sag ponds.<ref>"The San Andreas Fault Zone in the Carrizo Plain, California: Review of Quaternary Geologic Investigations, Landforms, and Fault Activity" Arrowsmith, J R., 1995, Appendix C, Coupled tectonic deformation and geomorphic degradation along the San Andreas Fault System, PhD. Dissertation, Stanford University, pp. 312–346. 3 Mar. 2008.

text: The Algoman orogeny, known as the Kenoran orogeny in Canada, was an episode of mountain-building (orogeny) during the Late Archean Eon that involved repeated episodes of continental collisions, compressions and subductions. The Superior province and the Minnesota River Valley terrane collided about 2,700 to 2,500 million years ago. The collision folded the Earth's crust and produced enough heat and pressure to metamorphose the rock. Blocks were added to the Superior province along a  boundary that stretches from present-day eastern South Dakota into the Lake Huron area. The Algoman orogeny brought the Archaen Eon to a close, about ; it lasted less than 100 million years and marks a major change in the development of the earth’s crust.

text: The Algoman orogeny, known as the Kenoran orogeny in Canada, was an episode of mountain-building (

text: orogeny

text: ) during the Late

text: Archean

text: Eon that involved repeated episodes of

text: continental collision

text: s, compressions and

text: subduction

text: s. The

text: Superior province

text: and the Minnesota River Valley

text: terrane

text: collided about 2,700 to 2,500 million years ago. The collision folded the Earth's crust and produced enough heat and pressure to

text: metamorphose

text: the rock. Blocks were added to the Superior province along a  boundary that stretches from present-day eastern South Dakota into the Lake Huron area. The Algoman orogeny brought the Archaen Eon to a close, about ; it lasted less than 100 million years and marks a major change in the development of the earth’s crust.

text: Gallium does not exist as a free element in the Earth's crust, and the few high-content minerals, such as gallite (CuGaS), are too rare to serve as a primary source.  The abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 16.9 ppm. Gallium is found and extracted as a trace component in bauxite and to a small extent from sphalerite. The amount extracted from coal, diaspore and germanite, in which gallium is also present, is negligible. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates that gallium reserves exceed 1 million tonnes, based on 50 ppm by weight concentration in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores. Some coal flue dusts contain small quantities of gallium, typically less than 1% by weight.

text: Gallium does not exist as a free element in the Earth's crust, and the few high-content minerals, such as gallite (CuGaS), are too rare to serve as a primary source.  The abundance

text: in the Earth's crust

text: is approximately 16.9

text: ppm

text: . Gallium is found and extracted as a trace component in

text: bauxite

text: and to a small extent from

text: sphalerite

text: . The amount extracted from

text: coal

text: diaspore

text: and

text: germanite

text: , in which gallium is also present, is negligible. The

text: United States Geological Survey

text: USGS

text: ) estimates that gallium reserves exceed 1 million

text: tonne

text: s, based on 50 ppm by weight concentration in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores. Some coal

text: flue

text: dust

text: s contain small quantities of gallium, typically less than 1% by weight.

text: The Olympica Fossae are a large set of troughs, called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks along two subparallel failure planes, or faults.  The middle section between the faults moves down, forming the trough and leaving steep cliffs along the sides.  Sometimes, a line of pits form as material collapse into a void that forms from the stretching. Such fault-bounded geological structures are also called graben.

text: The Olympica Fossae are a large set of troughs, called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks along two subparallel failure planes, or

text: faults

text: .  The middle section between the faults moves down, forming the trough and leaving steep cliffs along the sides.  Sometimes, a line of pits form as material collapse into a void that forms from the stretching. Such fault-bounded geological structures are also called

text: graben

text: Although the process of subduction as it occurs today is fairly well understood, its origin remains a matter of discussion and continuing study. Subduction initiation can occur spontaneously if denser oceanic lithosphere is able to founder and sink beneath adjacent oceanic or continental lithosphere; alternatively, existing plate motions can induce new subduction zones by forcing oceanic lithosphere to rupture and sink into the asthenosphere. Both models can eventually yield self-sustaining subduction zones, as oceanic crust is metamorphosed at great depth and becomes denser than the surrounding mantle rocks. Results from numerical models generally favor induced subduction initiation for most modern subduction zones, which is supported by geologic studies, but other analogue modeling shows the possibility of spontaneous subduction from inherent density differences between two plates at passive margins, and observations from the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system are compatible with spontaneous subduction nucleation. Furthermore, subduction is likely to have spontaneously initiated at some point in Earth's history, as induced subduction nucleation requires existing plate motions, though an unorthodox proposal by A. Yin suggests that meteorite impacts may have contributed to subduction initiation on early Earth.

text: Although the process of subduction as it occurs today is fairly well understood, its origin remains a matter of discussion and continuing study. Subduction initiation can occur spontaneously if denser oceanic lithosphere is able to founder and sink beneath adjacent oceanic or continental lithosphere; alternatively, existing plate motions can induce new subduction zones by forcing oceanic lithosphere to rupture and sink into the asthenosphere. Both models can eventually yield self-sustaining subduction zones, as oceanic crust is metamorphosed at great depth and becomes denser than the surrounding mantle rocks. Results from numerical models generally favor induced subduction initiation for most modern subduction zones, which is supported by geologic studies, but other

text: analogue modeling

text: shows the possibility of spontaneous subduction from inherent density differences between two plates at passive margins, and observations from the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system are compatible with spontaneous subduction nucleation. Furthermore, subduction is likely to have spontaneously initiated at some point in Earth's history, as induced subduction nucleation requires existing plate motions, though an unorthodox proposal by A. Yin suggests that meteorite impacts may have contributed to subduction initiation on early Earth.

text: Seismic tomography is a technique that uses seismic waves produced by earthquakes to gather information on the composition of the crust and mantle below a volcanic system. Different layers and structures in the Earth have different propagation speeds of seismic waves and attenuate them differently, resulting in different arrival times and strengths of waves travelling in a certain direction. From various measurements 3D models of the geological structures can be inferred. Results of such research indicate that a highly hydrated slab derived from the Nazca Plate – a major source of melts in a collisional volcanism system – underlies the Western Cordillera. Below the Altiplano, low-velocity zones indicate the presence of large amounts of partial melts that correlate with volcanic zones south of 21° S, whereas north of 21° S thicker lithospheric layers may prevent the formation of melts. Next to the Eastern Cordillera, low-velocity zones extend farther north to 18.5° S. A thermally weakened zone, evidenced by strong attenuation, in the crust is associated with the APVC. This indicates the presence of melts in the crust. A layer of low velocity (shear speed of )  thick is assumed to host the APVC magma body. This body has a volume of about . Other seismological data indicate a partial delamination of the crust under the Puna, resulting in increased volcanic activity and terrain height.

text: Seismic tomography

text: is a technique that uses

text: seismic wave

text: s produced by earthquakes to gather information on the composition of the

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: below a volcanic system. Different layers and structures in the Earth have different propagation speeds of seismic waves and

text: attenuate

text: them differently, resulting in different arrival times and strengths of waves travelling in a certain direction. From various measurements

text: models of the geological structures can be inferred. Results of such research indicate that a highly hydrated

text: slab

text: derived from the

text: Nazca Plate

text: – a major source of melts in a collisional volcanism system – underlies the Western Cordillera. Below the Altiplano, low-velocity zones indicate the presence of large amounts of partial melts that correlate with volcanic zones south of 21° S, whereas north of 21° S thicker lithospheric layers may prevent the formation of melts. Next to the Eastern Cordillera, low-velocity zones extend farther north to 18.5° S. A thermally weakened zone, evidenced by strong attenuation, in the crust is associated with the APVC. This indicates the presence of melts in the crust. A layer of low velocity (shear speed of )  thick is assumed to host the APVC magma body. This body has a volume of about . Other seismological data indicate a partial

text: delamination

text: of the crust under the Puna, resulting in increased volcanic activity and terrain height.

text: On January 1, 1997, almost 40 years after removing itself from the natural gas sector, Hydro-Québec returned to the sector by acquiring a 42% stake in Noverco, the holding company that controls Gaz Métro. As such, Hydro-Québec was once again under the control of André Caillé, who left the position of President and CEO three months later to become the head of the Québec state company. This move was part of Mr. Caillé’s convergence strategy to transform Québec into an energy hub in the northeastern part of the North American continent.

text: On January 1, 1997, almost 40 years after removing itself from the natural gas sector, Hydro-Québec returned to the sector by acquiring a 42% stake in Noverco, the holding company that controls Gaz Métro. As such, Hydro-Québec was once again under the control of

text: André Caillé

text: , who left the position of President and CEO three months later to become the head of the Québec state company. This move was part of Mr. Caillé’s convergence strategy to transform Québec into an energy hub in the northeastern part of the North American continent.

text: Some areas of continental crust are largely covered by the sea and may be considered submerged continents. Notable examples are Zealandia, emerging from the sea primarily in New Zealand and New Caledonia, and the almost completely submerged Kerguelen continent in the southern Indian Ocean.

text: Some areas of

text: continental crust

text: are largely covered by the sea and may be considered

text: submerged continent

text: s. Notable examples are

text: Zealandia

text: , emerging from the sea primarily in

text: New Zealand

text: and

text: New Caledonia

text: , and the almost completely submerged

text: Kerguelen continent

text: in the southern

text: Indian Ocean

text: Another of George White's companies was the Bristol Aeroplane Company. Russell joined the company in May 1925, at age 21, as an assistant in the stress office. He met Miss Lorna Mansfield, a secretary at the company, and they were married for over 50 years. One of his first efforts at the company were stress calculations for the Type 99 Badminton, a biplane racer being built for the 1926 King's Cup. The Badminton crashed a month before the race, which gravely concerned Russell until the reason was revealed to be a seized engine. Another early design was the Type 95 Bagshot, a twin-engine monoplane fighter. Russell was invited to take a flight in the Bagshot, and was alarmed to see the wings twisting during control use, a problem that led to the abandoning of the design. He developed a new method of separately calculating bending and torsional stresses, which later led to a new single-spar monoplane wing design that was granted a patent.

text: Another of George White's companies was the Bristol Aeroplane Company. Russell joined the company in May 1925, at age 21, as an assistant in the stress office. He met Miss Lorna Mansfield, a secretary at the company, and they were married for over 50 years. One of his first efforts at the company were stress calculations for the Type 99 Badminton, a biplane racer being built for the 1926 King's Cup. The Badminton crashed a month before the race, which gravely concerned Russell until the reason was revealed to be a seized engine. Another early design was the Type 95

text: Bagshot

text: , a twin-engine monoplane fighter. Russell was invited to take a flight in the Bagshot, and was alarmed to see the wings twisting during control use, a problem that led to the abandoning of the design. He developed a new method of separately calculating bending and torsional stresses, which later led to a new single-spar monoplane wing design that was granted a patent.

text: An earthquake is a phenomenon that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property. An earthquake is caused by tectonic plates (sections of the Earth's crust) getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground. The strain becomes so great that rocks give way and fault lines occur.

text: An earthquake is a

text: phenomenon

text: that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: that creates

text: seismic wave

text: s. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes cause

text: tsunamis

text: , which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property. An earthquake is caused by tectonic plates (sections of the Earth's crust) getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground. The strain becomes so great that rocks give way and fault lines occur.

text: Like other volcanoes located around the Pacific Ocean, Mayon is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is located on the southeastern side of Luzon, close to the Philippine Trench which is the convergent boundary, where the Philippine Sea Plate is driven under the Philippine Mobile Belt. When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the lighter and thicker continental material overrides the thinner and heavier oceanic plate, forcing it down into the Earth's mantle and melting it. Superheated magma and gases may be forced through weaknesses in the continental crust caused by the subduction of the oceanic plate, and one such exit point is Mayon.

text: Like other volcanoes located around the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , Mayon is a part of the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: . It is located on the southeastern side of

text: Luzon

text: , close to the

text: Philippine Trench

text: which is the

text: convergent boundary

text: , where the

text: Philippine Sea Plate

text: is driven under the

text: Philippine Mobile Belt

text: . When a

text: continental plate

text: meets an

text: oceanic plate

text: , the lighter and thicker continental material overrides the thinner and heavier oceanic plate, forcing it down into the Earth's mantle and melting it. Superheated

text: magma

text: and

text: gases

text: may be forced through weaknesses in the continental crust caused by the

text: subduction

text: of the oceanic plate, and one such exit point is Mayon.

text: Europe and North America are separated by the North Atlantic.In terms of associating islands with either continent, the boundary is usually drawn between Greenland and Iceland. The Norwegian islands of Jan Mayen and Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean are usually associated with Europe. Iceland and the Azores are protrusions of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and are associated with and peopled from Europe, even though they have areas on the North American Plate.  (Definitions of "continents" are a physical and cultural construct dating back centuries, long before the advent or even knowledge of plate tectonics; thus, defining a "continent" falls into the realm of physical and cultural geography, while continental plate definitions fall under plate tectonics in the realm of geology.)

text: Europe and North America are separated by the

text: North Atlantic

text: .In terms of associating islands with either continent, the boundary is usually drawn between

text: Greenland

text: and

text: Iceland

text: . The Norwegian islands of

text: Jan Mayen

text: and

text: Svalbard

text: in the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: are usually associated with Europe. Iceland and the

text: Azores

text: are protrusions of the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: and are associated with and peopled from Europe, even though they have areas on the

text: North American Plate

text: .  (Definitions of "continents" are a physical and

text: cultural construct

text: dating back centuries, long before the advent or even knowledge of

text: plate tectonics

text: ; thus, defining a "continent" falls into the realm of physical and cultural geography, while continental plate definitions fall under plate tectonics in the realm of

text: geology

text: The Pacific Plate is a major section of the Earth's crust, gradually expanding by the eruption of magma along the East Pacific Rise to the southeast. It is also being subducted far to the northwest into the Aleutian Trench.  In California, the plate is sliding northwestward along a transform boundary, the San Andreas Fault, toward the subduction zone. At the same time, the North American Plate is moving southwestward, but relatively southeast along the fault. The westward component of the North American Plate's motion results in some compressive force along the San Andreas and its associated faults, thus helping lift the Pacific Coast Ranges and other parallel inland ranges to the west of the Central Valley, in this region most notably the Diablo Range. The Hayward Fault shares the same relative motions of the San Andreas. As with portions of other faults, a large extent of the Hayward Fault trace is formed from a narrow complex zone of deformation which can span hundreds of feet in width.

text: The

text: Pacific Plate

text: is a major section of the Earth's crust, gradually

text: expanding

text: by the eruption of

text: magma

text: along the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: Aleutian Trench

text: .  In California, the plate is sliding northwestward along a

text: transform boundary

text: , the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , toward the subduction zone. At the same time, the

text: North American Plate

text: is moving southwestward, but relatively southeast along the fault. The westward component of the North American Plate's motion results in some compressive force along the San Andreas and its associated faults, thus helping lift the

text: Pacific Coast Ranges

text: and other parallel inland ranges to the west of the

text: Central Valley

text: , in this region most notably the

text: Diablo Range

text: . The Hayward Fault shares the same relative motions of the San Andreas. As with portions of other faults, a large extent of the Hayward Fault trace is formed from a narrow complex zone of deformation which can span hundreds of feet in width.

text: Some academic literature refers to the arcs by location - so that main arc can be referred to as the 'southern', the 'western'  Situated at the centre of three converging and colliding major tectonic plates, Indo-Australia, Eurasia, Pacific, the Banda arc comprises young oceanic crust enclosed by a volcanic inner arc, outer arc islands and a trough parallel to the Australian continental margin. It is a complex subduction setting (where one plate moves under another, sinking into the Earth's mantle), with possibly the largest fold on Earth, extending to a depth of about , in a subducted plate.

text: Some academic literature refers to the arcs by location - so that main arc can be referred to as the 'southern', the 'western'  Situated at the centre of three converging and colliding major

text: tectonic plates

text: Indo-Australia

text: Eurasia

text: Pacific

text: , the Banda arc comprises young

text: oceanic crust

text: enclosed by a

text: volcanic inner arc

text: , outer arc islands and a trough parallel to the Australian

text: continental margin

text: . It is a complex

text: subduction

text: setting (where one plate moves under another, sinking into the Earth's

text: mantle

text: ), with possibly the largest fold on

text: Earth

text: , extending to a depth of about , in a

text: subducted

text: plate

text: The Kola Superdeep Borehole on the Kola peninsula of Russia reached  and is the deepest penetration of the Earth's solid surface.  The German Continental Deep Drilling Program at  has shown the earth crust to be mostly porous. Drillings as deep as  into the seafloor were achieved at DSDP/ODP/IODP Hole 504B. Because the continental crust is about 45 km thick on average, whereas oceanic crust is 6-7 km thick, deep drillings have penetrated only the upper 25-30% of both crusts.

text: The

text: Kola Superdeep Borehole

text: on the Kola peninsula of Russia reached  and is the deepest penetration of the Earth's solid surface.  The

entity_name: German Continental Deep Drilling Programme

text: German Continental Deep Drilling Program

text: at  has shown the earth crust to be mostly porous. Drillings as deep as  into the seafloor were achieved at

text: DSDP

text: ODP

text: IODP

text: Hole 504B. Because the

text: continental crust

text: is about 45 km thick on average, whereas

text: oceanic crust

text: is 6-7 km thick, deep drillings have penetrated only the upper 25-30% of both crusts.

text: The acceleration due to Earth’s gravity (see Standard gravity) at its surface is 976 to 983 Gal, the variation being due mainly to differences in latitude and elevation.  Mountains and masses of lesser density within the Earth's crust typically cause variations in gravitational acceleration of tens to hundreds of milligals (mGal). The gravity gradient (variation with height) above Earth's surface is about 3.1 µGal per centimeter of height (), resulting in a maximal difference of about 2 Gal (0.02 m/s) from the top of Mount Everest to sea level.

text: The acceleration due to Earth’s gravity (see

text: Standard gravity

text: ) at its surface is 976 to 983 Gal, the variation being due mainly to differences in

text: latitude

text: and

text: elevation

text: .  Mountains and masses of lesser density within the Earth's crust typically cause variations in

text: gravitational acceleration

text: of tens to hundreds of milligals (mGal). The gravity

text: gradient

text: (variation with height) above Earth's surface is about 3.1 µGal per centimeter of height (), resulting in a maximal difference of about 2 Gal (0.02 m/s) from the top of

text: Mount Everest

text: to sea level.

text: Basin and Range-associated stretching of large parts of crust below southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico started around 16 million years ago and the region is still spreading. This stretching began to affect the Death and Panamint valleys area by 3 million years ago. Before this, rocks now in the Panamint Range were on top of rocks that would become the Black Mountains and the Cottonwood Mountains. Lateral and vertical transport of these blocks was accomplished by movement on normal faults. Right-lateral movement along strike-slip faults that run parallel to and at the base of the ranges also helped to develop the area. Torsional forces, probably associated with northwesterly movement of the Pacific Plate along the San Andreas Fault (west of the region), is responsible for the lateral movement.

text: Basin and Range

text: -associated stretching of large parts of crust below southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico started around 16 million years ago and the region is still spreading. This stretching began to affect the Death and Panamint valleys area by 3 million years ago. Before this, rocks now in the Panamint Range were on top of rocks that would become the Black Mountains and the Cottonwood Mountains. Lateral and vertical transport of these blocks was accomplished by movement on normal

text: fault

text: s. Right-lateral movement along strike-slip faults that run parallel to and at the base of the ranges also helped to develop the area. Torsional forces, probably associated with northwesterly movement of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: along the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: (west of the region), is responsible for the lateral movement.

text: This change in nature is interpreted as a response to the maturity of the plate tectonics processes throughout the Earth's geological history. Archaean plate tectonics did not take place on mature crust and as such the presence of thrust-in allochthonous greenstone belts is expected. By the Proterozoic, magmatism was occurring around cratons and with established sedimentary sources, with little recycling of the crust, allowing preservation of more sediments. By the Phanerozoic, extensive continental cover and lower heat flow from the mantle has seen greater preservation of sediments and greater influence of continental masses.

text: This change in nature is interpreted as a response to the maturity of the

text: plate tectonics

text: processes throughout the Earth's geological history. Archaean plate tectonics did not take place on mature crust and as such the presence of thrust-in

text: allochthonous

text: greenstone belts is expected. By the Proterozoic, magmatism was occurring around cratons and with established sedimentary sources, with little

text: recycling of the crust

text: , allowing preservation of more sediments. By the Phanerozoic, extensive continental cover and lower heat flow from the mantle has seen greater preservation of sediments and greater influence of continental masses.

text: The type of geologic feature that will form is caused by stream power and flexural rigidity of the crust.  When stream power increases and flexuaral rigidity decreases, this causes the structure to progress from a transverse anticline to a river anticline, and in extreme cases to a tectonic aneurysm.  Transverse anticlines trend in the direction of and form around small rivers with relatively high crustal strength. River anticlines form around large  highly erosive rivers where crustal strength is relatively low. Tectonic aneurysms will form when erosion is very high and the crust is very weak, to form a structural welt.

text: There is likely a connection between stress and illness. Theories of the stress–illness link suggest that both acute and chronic stress can cause illness, and several studies found such a link. According to these theories, both kinds of stress can lead to changes in behavior and in physiology. Behavioral changes can be smoking and eating habits and physical activity. Physiological changes can be changes in sympathetic activation or hypothalamic pituitary adrenocorticoid activation, and immunological function. However, there is much variability in the link between stress and illness.

text: There is likely a connection between stress and illness. Theories of the stress–illness link suggest that both acute and chronic stress can cause illness, and several studies found such a link. According to these theories, both kinds of stress can lead to changes in behavior and in physiology. Behavioral changes can be smoking and eating habits and physical activity. Physiological changes can be changes in

text: sympathetic

text: activation or

text: hypothalamic pituitary adrenocorticoid

text: activation, and immunological function. However, there is much variability in the link between stress and illness.

text: The first natural occurrence of pure antimony in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783; the type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, Västmanland, Sweden.

text: The first natural occurrence of pure antimony in the

text: Earth's crust

text: was described by the

text: Swedish

text: scientist and local mine district engineer

text: Anton von Swab

text: in 1783; the

text: type-sample

text: was collected from the

text: Sala Silver Mine

text: in the Bergslagen mining district of

text: Sala

text: Västmanland

text: Sweden

text: These are instantaneous links between two places, often on entirely different planets or levels of reality. The Riftwar Saga involved the rift between Midkemia and the world of the Tsurani. They can be created (with difficulty) by proficient users of the Greater Magic, but the Tsurani maintained one using a machine. They are sometimes created by accident and fluke. Most rifts are unstable, and so move about in space. The Tsurani's machine was one of the first known devices to stabilise a rift and to make it fixed in one position. Rifts, whilst a powerful device for travelling, are a risky device as they attract the attention of the Enemy, an evil being of immense power and the foe behind the events in the books Silverthorn and A Darkness At Sethanon.

text: These are instantaneous links between two places, often on entirely different planets or levels of reality. The Riftwar Saga involved the rift between Midkemia and the world of the

text: Tsurani

text: . They can be created (with difficulty) by proficient users of the Greater Magic, but the Tsurani maintained one using a machine. They are sometimes created by accident and fluke. Most rifts are unstable, and so move about in space. The Tsurani's machine was one of the first known devices to stabilise a rift and to make it fixed in one position. Rifts, whilst a powerful device for travelling, are a risky device as they attract the attention of the Enemy, an evil being of immense power and the foe behind the events in the books Silverthorn and A Darkness At Sethanon.

text: The scientific objectives of Chang'e-3 mainly included lunar surface topography and geological survey, lunar surface material composition and resource survey, Sun-Earth-Moon space environment detection, and lunar-based astronomical observation. Chang'e 3 performed the first direct measurement of the structure and depth of the lunar soil down to a depth of , and investigated the lunar crust structure down to several hundred meters deep.

text: The scientific objectives of Chang'e-3 mainly included lunar surface topography and geological survey, lunar surface material composition and resource survey, Sun-Earth-Moon space environment detection, and lunar-based astronomical observation. Chang'e 3 performed the first direct measurement of the structure and depth of the

text: lunar soil

text: down to a depth of , and investigated the

text: lunar crust structure

text: down to several hundred meters deep.

text: The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, and it is no thicker than , which is much thicker than Earth's crust which varies between  and . As a result, Mars' crust does not easily deform, as was shown by the recent radar map of the south polar ice cap which does not deform the crust despite being about 3 km thick.

text: The core is surrounded by a silicate

text: mantle

text: that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, and it is no thicker than , which is much thicker than Earth's crust which varies between  and . As a result, Mars' crust does not easily deform, as was shown by the recent radar map of the south polar ice cap which does not deform the crust despite being about 3 km thick.

text: In 1887 the company moved from the corner of Tremont and Court Streets to Copley Square, into a new building designed by architect S. Edwin Tobey. Architecture critic Robert Campbell has observed of the building: "It's no masterpiece of architecture, but it's great urban design. A heap of dark Romanesque masonry, it anchored a corner of Copley Square as solidly as a mountain." The building was demolished in 1958.

text: In 1887 the company moved from the corner of

text: Tremont

text: and Court Streets to

text: Copley Square

text: , into a new building designed by architect S. Edwin Tobey. Architecture critic

text: Robert Campbell

text: has observed of the building: "It's no masterpiece of architecture, but it's great urban design. A heap of dark Romanesque masonry, it anchored a corner of Copley Square as solidly as a mountain." The building was demolished in 1958.

text: The San Andreas Fault passes through the Cajon Pass (crossing I-15 on the south side of the summit) and is responsible for the unique local geography.

text: The

text: San Andreas Fault

text: passes through the Cajon Pass (crossing I-15 on the south side of the summit) and is responsible for the unique local geography.

text: After we find the alliterative syllables in the two half-lines, we can assign stress according to their position and length of the syllables.  This stress, or arsis, is usually placed on a syllable containing a long vowel.  The stressed syllables are ordered along the same basic hierarchy of the alliteration; it is very rare that a stressed syllable would be a preposition or pronoun.  Words such as God, King, and proper nouns, are very frequently stressed.   	After we apply stresses to the appropriate syllables, we must find the unstressed and secondary-stressed syllables.  The unstressed, or thesis, syllables are usually short, and frequently on the words that are lower in the hierarchy.  Secondary stresses occur in only a few types of lines, and are usually only on the second part of a compound word.

text: There are three main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, and block. All three types are formed from plate tectonics: when portions of the Earth's crust move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity.

text: There are three main types of mountains:

text: volcanic

text: fold

text: , and

text: block

text: . All three types are formed from

text: plate tectonics

text: : when portions of the Earth's crust move, crumple, and dive. Compressional forces,

text: isostatic

text: uplift

text: and intrusion of

text: igneous matter

text: forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, a mountain. Major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity.

text: Orogeny refers to forces and events leading to a large structural deformation of the Earth's lithosphere (crust and uppermost mantle) due to the interaction between tectonic plates. Orogens or orogenic belts develop when a continental plate is crumpled and is pushed upwards to form mountain ranges, and involve a great range of geological processes collectively called orogenesis.

text: Orogeny refers to forces and events leading to a large structural deformation of the Earth's

text: lithosphere

text: crust

text: and uppermost

text: mantle

text: ) due to the interaction between

text: tectonic plate

text: s. Orogens or orogenic belts develop when a continental plate is crumpled and is pushed upwards to form

text: mountain range

text: s, and involve a great range of geological processes collectively called orogenesis.

text: Kelvin rejected this idea as there was no evidence of tidal deformation of the Earth's crust, and in response Perry made a reference to Kelvin's favourite demonstration of the slow deformation of shoemaker's wax to illustrate the supposed qualities of the presumed luminiferous aether thought then to be necessary to transmit light through space. Perry wrote that "the real basis of your calculation is your assumption that the solid earth cannot alter its shape ... even in 1000 million years, under the action of forces constantly tending to alter its shape, and yet we see the gradual closing up of passages in a mine, and we know that wrinkling and faults and other changes of shape are always going on in the earth under the action of long-continued forces. I know that solid rock is not like cobbler's wax, but 10 years is a long time, and the forces are great."

text: Kelvin rejected this idea as there was no evidence of tidal deformation of the Earth's crust, and in response Perry made a reference to Kelvin's favourite demonstration of the slow deformation of shoemaker's wax to illustrate the supposed qualities of the presumed

text: luminiferous aether

text: thought then to be necessary to transmit light through space. Perry wrote that "the real basis of your calculation is your assumption that the solid earth cannot alter its shape ... even in 1000 million years, under the action of forces constantly tending to alter its shape, and yet we see the gradual closing up of passages in a mine, and we know that wrinkling and faults and other changes of shape are always going on in the earth under the action of long-continued forces. I know that solid rock is not like cobbler's wax, but 10 years is a long time, and the forces are great."

text: Stress affects the immune system in many ways. The immune system protects the body from viruses, bacteria, and anything that is different or that the body does not recognize. The immune system sees these as intruders and it sends messages to attack. The white blood cells, leukocytes, are very important to the immune system. White blood cells have several types including B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells. B cells secrete antibodies. T cells attack intruders and natural killer cells attack cells that have been infected by viruses.  These leukocytes produce cytokines which fight infections. But they also are the immune systems communicator in telling the brain that the body is ill. When an individual is stressed or going through a stressful experience the immune system starts to produce natural killer cells and cytokines.  When levels of cytokines are higher they combat infections and therefore the brain gets communicated the body is ill and it produces symptoms as if the individual was ill. These symptoms include fever, sleepiness, lack of energy, no appetite, and basically flu like symptoms. These symptoms mean the body is fighting the illness or virus. This is useful for when the body goes through the stress from an injury. But the body has now evolved to do this process during stressful events such as taking exams, or even going through a life changing event such as a death of a family member or a divorce. That is why many times when individuals are stressed because of life changing events or situations such as those, they get these symptoms and believe they are sick when in reality it can be because the body is under stress.

text: A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus or an event that causes stress to an organism.

text: A stressor is a chemical or

text: biological agent

text: environmental

text: condition,

text: external stimulus

text: or an event that causes

text: stress

text: to an

text: organism

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidences of life include graphite, a biogenic substance, in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."  More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon. There are

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidences of life include

text: graphite

text: , a

text: biogenic substance

text: , in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in western

text: Greenland

text: and, in 2015, "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: ."  More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be

text: extinct

text: . Estimates on the number of Earth's current

text: species

text: range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: Starting around 16 Ma in Miocene time and continuing into the present, a large part of the North American Plate in the region has been under extension by literally being pulled apart. Debate still surrounds the cause of this crustal stretching, but an increasingly popular idea among geologists called the slab gap hypothesis states that the spreading zone of the subducted Farallon Plate is pushing the continent apart. Whatever the cause, the result has been the creation of a large and still-growing region of relatively thin crust; the region grew an average of  per year initially and then slowed to  per year in the last 5 million years. Geologists call this region the Basin and Range Province.

text: Starting around 16 Ma in

text: Miocene

text: time and continuing into the present, a large part of the

text: North American Plate

text: in the region has been under extension by literally being pulled apart. Debate still surrounds the cause of this crustal stretching, but an increasingly popular idea among geologists called the

text: slab gap hypothesis

text: states that the spreading zone of the subducted

text: Farallon Plate

text: is pushing the continent apart. Whatever the cause, the result has been the creation of a large and still-growing region of relatively thin crust; the region grew an average of  per year initially and then slowed to  per year in the last 5 million years. Geologists call this region the

text: Basin and Range Province

text: 3. Earth's internal structure (or geological).

text: Trenches distant from an influx of continental sediments lack an accretionary prism, and the inner slope of such trenches is commonly composed of igneous or metamorphic rocks. Non-accretionary convergent margins are characteristic of (but not limited to) primitive arc systems.  Primitive arc systems are those built on oceanic lithosphere, such as the Izu-Bonin-Mariana, Tonga-Kermadec, and Scotia (South Sandwich) arc systems. The inner trench slope of these convergent margins exposes the crust of the forearc, including basalt, gabbro, and serpentinized mantle peridotite.  These exposures allow easy access to study the lower oceanic crust and upper mantle in place and provide a unique opportunity to study the magmatic products associated with the initiation of subduction zones.   Most ophiolites probably originate in a forearc environment during the initiation of subduction, and this setting favors ophiolite emplacement during collision with blocks of thickened crust.  Not all non-accretionary convergent margins are associated with primitive arcs.  Trenches adjacent to continents where there is little influx of sediments carried by rivers, such as the central part of the Peru–Chile Trench, may also lack an accretionary prism.

text: The process begins as two continents (different bits of continental crust), separated across a tract of ocean (and oceanic crust), approach each other, while the oceanic crust is slowly consumed at a subduction zone. The subduction zone runs along the edge of one of the continents and dips under it, raising volcanic mountain chains at some distance behind it, such as the Andes of South America today. Subduction involves the whole lithosphere, the density of which is largely controlled by the nature of the crust it carries.  Oceanic crust is thin (~6 km thick) and dense (about 3.3 g/cm³), consisting of basalt, gabbro, and peridotite. Consequently, most oceanic crust is subducted easily at an oceanic trench. In contrast, continental crust is thick (~45 km thick) and buoyant, composed mostly of granitic rocks (average density about 2.5 g/cm³). Continental crust is subducted with difficulty, but is subducted to depths of 90-150 km or more, as evidenced by ultra-high pressure (UHP) metamorphic suites. Normal subduction continues as long as the ocean exists, but the subduction system is disrupted as the continent carried by the downgoing plate enters the trench. Because it contains thick continental crust, this lithosphere is less dense than the underlying asthenospheric mantle and normal subduction is disrupted. The volcanic arc on the upper plate is slowly extinguished. Resisting subduction, the crust buckles up and under, raising mountains where a trench used to be. The position of the trench becomes a zone that marks the suture between the two continental terranes. Suture zones are often marked by fragments of the pre-existing oceanic crust and mantle rocks, known as ophiolites.

text: The process begins as two

text: continent

text: s (different bits of

text: continental crust

text: ), separated across a tract of ocean (and

text: oceanic crust

text: ), approach each other, while the oceanic crust is slowly consumed at a

text: subduction zone

text: . The subduction zone runs along the edge of one of the continents and dips under it, raising volcanic mountain chains at some distance behind it, such as the

text: Andes

text: of

text: South America

text: today. Subduction involves the whole

text: lithosphere

text: , the density of which is largely controlled by the nature of the crust it carries.  Oceanic crust is thin (~6 km thick) and dense (about 3.3 g/cm³), consisting of

text: basalt

text: gabbro

text: , and

text: peridotite

text: . Consequently, most oceanic crust is subducted easily at an

text: oceanic trench

text: . In contrast, continental crust is thick (~45 km thick) and buoyant, composed mostly of

text: granitic

text: rocks (average density about 2.5 g/cm³). Continental crust is subducted with difficulty, but is subducted to depths of 90-150 km or more, as evidenced by ultra-

text: high pressure

text: (UHP)

text: metamorphic suites

text: . Normal subduction continues as long as the ocean exists, but the subduction system is disrupted as the continent carried by the downgoing plate enters the trench. Because it contains thick continental crust, this lithosphere is less dense than the underlying

text: asthenospheric mantle

text: and normal subduction is disrupted. The

text: volcanic arc

text: on the upper plate is slowly extinguished. Resisting subduction, the crust buckles up and under, raising mountains where a trench used to be. The position of the trench becomes a zone that marks the suture between the two continental

text: terrane

text: s. Suture zones are often marked by fragments of the pre-existing oceanic crust and mantle rocks, known as

text: ophiolites

text: The central subdivision is approximately 48–53 km long. This area exhibits transpressive and transtensive geomorphological features.  Sag ponds (releasing basins) form when the right lateral fault bends to the left causing the crust to extend (transtensive). Pressure ridges form when the right-lateral fault bends to the right causing the crust to compress (transpressive). A bedrock scarp with an east-facing slope shows vertical displacement along this part of the fault. The scarp has a slope of 18-24° and maximum height of 85 m. Tectonic shortening appears to have changed direction from WSW-ENE to W-E during the Pleistocene, altering the kinematics to the present transpressive/transtensive system from a mainly transcurrent one.

text: The central subdivision is approximately 48–53 km long. This area exhibits

text: transpressive

text: and

text: transtensive

text: geomorphological

text: features.

text: Sag pond

text: s (

text: releasing basin

text: s) form when the right lateral fault bends to the left causing the crust to extend (

text: transtensive

text: Pressure ridge

text: s form when the

text: right-lateral

text: fault bends to the right causing the crust to compress (

text: transpressive

text: ). A bedrock

text: scarp

text: with an east-facing slope shows vertical displacement along this part of the fault. The scarp has a slope of 18-24° and maximum height of 85 m. Tectonic shortening appears to have changed direction from WSW-ENE to W-E during the

text: Pleistocene

text: , altering the kinematics to the present transpressive/transtensive system from a mainly transcurrent one.

text: Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves in reverse to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid outer core (where shear waves were not able to propagate) and a dense solid inner core. These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a crust and lithosphere on top, the mantle below (separated within itself by seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.

text: Seismologists can use the arrival times of

text: seismic wave

text: s in reverse to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid

text: outer core

text: (where

text: shear waves

text: were not able to propagate) and a dense solid

text: inner core

text: . These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a

text: crust

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: on top, the

text: mantle

text: below (separated within itself by

text: seismic discontinuities

text: at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.

text: Extensional tectonics is associated with the stretching and thinning of the crust or lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at divergent plate boundaries, in continental rifts, during and after a period of continental collision caused by the lateral spreading of the thickened crust formed, at releasing bends in strike-slip faults, in back-arc basins and on the continental end of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is present.

text: Extensional tectonics is associated with the stretching and thinning of the crust or lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at divergent plate boundaries, in continental

text: rift

text: s, during and after a period of

text: continental collision

text: caused by the lateral spreading of the thickened crust formed, at releasing bends in

text: strike-slip faults

text: , in

text: back-arc basin

text: s and on the continental end of

text: passive margin

text: sequences where a detachment layer is present.

text: A craton (, , or ; from  kratos "strength") is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere, where the lithosphere consists of the Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle. Having often survived cycles of merging and rifting of continents, cratons are generally found in the interiors of tectonic plates. They are characteristically composed of ancient crystalline basement rock, which may be covered by younger sedimentary rock. They have a thick crust and deep lithospheric roots that extend as much as several hundred kilometres into the Earth's mantle.

text: A craton (, , or ; from  kratos "strength") is an old and stable part of the

text: continental lithosphere

text: , where the lithosphere consists of the Earth's two topmost layers, the

text: crust

text: and the uppermost

text: mantle

text: . Having often survived cycles of merging and

text: rift

text: ing of

text: continent

text: s, cratons are generally found in the interiors of

text: tectonic plates

text: . They are characteristically composed of ancient

text: crystalline

text: basement rock

text: , which may be covered by younger

text: sedimentary rock

text: . They have a thick crust and deep lithospheric roots that extend as much as several hundred kilometres into the Earth's

text: mantle

text: Continental crust is produced and (far less often) destroyed mostly by plate tectonic processes, especially at convergent plate boundaries. Additionally, continental crustal material is transferred to oceanic crust by sedimentation. New material can be added to the continents by the partial melting of oceanic crust at subduction zones, causing the lighter material to rise as magma, forming volcanoes. Also, material can be accreted horizontally when volcanic island arcs, seamounts or similar structures collide with the side of the continent as a result of plate tectonic movements. Continental crust is also lost through erosion and sediment subduction, tectonic erosion of forearcs, delamination, and deep subduction of continental crust in collision zones.Many theories of crustal growth are controversial, including rates of crustal growth and recycling, whether the lower crust is recycled differently from the upper crust, and over how much of Earth history plate tectonics has operated and so could be the dominant mode of continental crust formation and destruction.

text: Continental crust is produced and (far less often) destroyed mostly by

text: plate tectonic

text: processes, especially at

text: convergent plate boundaries

text: . Additionally, continental crustal material is transferred to oceanic crust by sedimentation. New material can be added to the continents by the partial melting of oceanic crust at subduction zones, causing the lighter material to rise as magma, forming volcanoes. Also, material can be accreted horizontally when volcanic

text: island arcs

text: seamount

text: s or similar structures collide with the side of the continent as a result of plate tectonic movements. Continental crust is also lost through erosion and sediment subduction, tectonic erosion of forearcs, delamination, and deep subduction of continental crust in collision zones.Many theories of crustal growth are controversial, including rates of crustal growth and recycling, whether the lower crust is recycled differently from the upper crust, and over how much of Earth history plate tectonics has operated and so could be the dominant mode of continental crust formation and destruction.

text: Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating magma. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high silica content, so it often does not reach the surface but cools at depth.  When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

text: Subduction

text: zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called

text: flux melting

text: , water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, creating

text: magma

text: . This magma tends to be very

text: viscous

text: due to its high

text: silica

text: content, so it often does not reach the surface but cools at depth.  When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed. Typical examples of this kind of volcano are

text: Mount Etna

text: and the volcanoes in the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: The two most commonly used structural metals, iron and aluminium, are also the most abundant metals in the Earth's crust.

text: The two most commonly used structural metals, iron and aluminium, are also the most abundant metals in the

text: Earth's crust

text: The study indicates that the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone is a left-slip transtensional system similar to that of the Dead Sea fault zone on Earth.  The magnitude of displacement across the fault zone is estimated to be 150-160 km, as indicated by the offset rim of an old impact basin (Fig. 7). If normalizing the magnitude of the slip to the surface area of the planet, the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone has a displacement value significantly larger than that of the Dead Sea fault, and slightly larger than that of the San Andreas fault. The lack of significant deformation on both sides of the Ius-Melas-Coprates fault zone over a distance of 500 km suggests that the regions bounded by the fault behave as rigid blocks. This evidence essentially points to a large strike-slip system at a plate boundary, in terrestrial terms known as a transform fault.

text: To the east of the Hayward-Rodgers Creek fault, the Calaveras fault extends , splaying from the San Andreas fault near Hollister and terminating at Danville at its northern end. It runs east of the San Andreas, diverging from it in the vicinity of Hollister, California, and is responsible for the formation of the Calaveras Valley there. Between the San Andreas Fault and the Calaveras Fault lies the Hayward Fault, which diverges from the Calaveras Fault east of San Jose, California. To the east lies the Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault. These four fault structures are some of the major faults in California at the latitude of San Francisco. All are right lateral-moving strike-slip faults.

text: To the east of the Hayward-Rodgers Creek fault, the Calaveras fault extends , splaying from the San Andreas fault near Hollister and terminating at Danville at its northern end. It runs east of the San Andreas, diverging from it in the vicinity of

text: Hollister, California

text: , and is responsible for the formation of the

text: Calaveras Valley

text: there. Between the San Andreas Fault and the Calaveras Fault lies the

text: Hayward Fault

text: , which diverges from the Calaveras Fault east of

text: San Jose, California

text: . To the east lies the

text: Clayton-Marsh Creek-Greenville Fault

text: . These four fault structures are some of the major

text: faults

text: in California at the

text: latitude

text: of

text: San Francisco

text: . All are right lateral-moving strike-slip faults.

text: In contrast to the popular press, there is no evidence of a corresponding controversy in the scientific community. Observations unambiguously show the Antarctic Peninsula to be warming. The trends elsewhere show both warming and cooling but are smaller and dependent on season and the timespan over which the trend is computed. A study released in 2009, combined historical weather station data with satellite measurements to deduce past temperatures over large regions of the continent, and these temperatures indicate an overall warming trend. One of the paper's authors stated "We now see warming is taking place on all seven of the earth's continents in accord with what models predict as a response to greenhouse gases." According to 2011 paper by Ding, et al., "The Pacific sector of Antarctica, including both the Antarctic Peninsula and continental West Antarctica, has experienced substantial warming in the past 30 years."

text: In contrast to the popular press, there is no evidence of a corresponding controversy in the scientific community. Observations unambiguously show the

text: Antarctic Peninsula

text: to be warming. The trends elsewhere show both warming and cooling but are smaller and dependent on season and the timespan over which the trend is computed. A study released in 2009, combined historical weather station data with satellite measurements to deduce past temperatures over large regions of the continent, and these temperatures indicate an overall warming trend. One of the paper's authors stated "We now see warming is taking place on all seven of the earth's continents in accord with what models predict as a response to greenhouse gases." According to 2011 paper by Ding, et al., "The Pacific sector of Antarctica, including both the Antarctic Peninsula and continental West Antarctica, has experienced substantial warming in the past 30 years."

text: Kiln formed glass is usually referred to as warm glass, and can be either made up from a single piece of glass that is slumped into or over a mould or different colours and sheets of glass fused together. The process of hot glass is highly scientific in that the types of glass and temperatures that they must be fired at is quite complicated operation to undertake correctly. Art glass that is kiln formed usually take the form of dishes, plates or tiles. Glass that is fused in a kiln must be of the same co-efficient of expansion (CoE). If glass that does not have the same CoE is used for fusing, the differing rates of contraction will cause minute stress fractures to form and, over time, these fractures will cause a piece to crack. The use of polarizing filters to inspect the work will determine if stress fractures are present.

text: Kiln formed glass is usually referred to as warm glass, and can be either made up from a single piece of glass that is slumped into or over a mould or different colours and sheets of glass fused together. The process of hot glass is highly scientific in that the types of glass and temperatures that they must be fired at is quite complicated operation to undertake correctly. Art glass that is kiln formed usually take the form of dishes, plates or tiles. Glass that is fused in a kiln must be of the same

text: co-efficient of expansion

text: (CoE). If glass that does not have the same CoE is used for fusing, the differing rates of contraction will cause minute stress fractures to form and, over time, these fractures will cause a piece to crack. The use of polarizing filters to inspect the work will determine if stress fractures are present.

text: A principal finding is that "[c]rustal seismicity in the southern Puget Sound region appears to be controlled by a key block of Crescent Formation occurring just south of the Seattle fault."  More particularly, the concentration of seismicity under Puget Sound south of the Seattle Fault is attributed to uplift of that block, bounded by the Seattle, Tacoma, and Dewatto faults on the north, south, and west (the eastern boundary is not determined), creating the Seattle Uplift. And it is suggested that the Great Seattle Quake of approximately 1,100 years ago, and other coseismic events in southern Puget Sound around that time, were a single event that affected this entire block, with a magnitude of around 8, possibly triggered by an earthquake deeper in the crust.

text: A principal finding is that "[c]rustal seismicity in the southern Puget Sound region appears to be controlled by a key block of Crescent Formation occurring just south of the Seattle fault."  More particularly, the concentration of seismicity under Puget Sound south of the Seattle Fault is attributed to uplift of that block, bounded by the Seattle, Tacoma, and Dewatto faults on the north, south, and west (the eastern boundary is not determined), creating the Seattle Uplift. And it is suggested that the

text: Great Seattle Quake

text: of approximately 1,100 years ago, and other coseismic events in southern Puget Sound around that time, were a single event that affected this entire block, with a magnitude of around 8, possibly triggered by an earthquake deeper in the crust.

text: The Cross patent was assigned to Mid-Continent, subject to a prior exclusive license to Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company (Honeywell) in the field of coal stokers. It was agreed that the patent royalty Honeywell would pay would be based on its sales of a combustion stoker control unit: an automatic electric switch responsive to temperatures of combustion gases or boiler water produced by an automatic coal fed stoker. Honeywell granted a sub-license to Detroit Lubricator Co. to make and sell combustion stoker switches and related apparatus for practicing the Cross invention. Mid-Continent, the patent owner, made no heating equipment but derived its revenue from royalties on the combustion stoker switch devices that Honeywell and Detroit Lubricator. Honeywell sent a letter to the trade advising it of the exclusive license, explaining that the patent rights cover a system involving the controls and the stoker in combination and not the controls alone, and offering a license on the entire system to purchasers of one of Honeywell's control units. Later, Mid-Continent sent a letter to the trade advising that it owned the patent rights and that the sale of equipment for practicing the patented invention was infringement unless licensed. Mid-Continent wrote a customer of Mercoid that it had learned that the customer was purchasing controls from a company (i.e., Mercoid) not licensed by Mid-Continent to sell controls; and that Mid-Continent wished to make this a formal notification that it considered the sale and use of controls for this purpose an infringement of its patent.

text: In this region, the geology is dominated by the transition of the tectonic plate boundary from rift to fault. The southernmost strands of the San Andreas Fault connect the northern-most extensions of the East Pacific Rise. Consequently, the region is subject to earthquakes, and the crust is being stretched, resulting in a sinking of the terrain over time.

text: In this region, the geology is dominated by the transition of the

text: tectonic plate

text: boundary from

text: rift

text: to

text: fault

text: . The southernmost strands of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: East Pacific Rise

text: . Consequently, the region is subject to earthquakes, and the crust is being stretched, resulting in a sinking of the terrain over time.

text: Orogeny is the process of mountain building. Subducting plates can lead to orogeny by bringing oceanic islands, oceanic plateaus, and sediments to convergent margins. The material often does not subduct with the rest of the plate but instead is accreted (scraped off) to the continent resulting in exotic terranes. The collision of this oceanic material causes crustal thickening and mountain-building. This accretion process is thought by many geologists to be the reason for the crustal growth of western North America and of the uplift that produced the Rocky Mountains.

text: Orogeny is the process of mountain building. Subducting plates can lead to orogeny by bringing oceanic islands, oceanic plateaus, and sediments to convergent margins. The material often does not subduct with the rest of the plate but instead is accreted (scraped off) to the continent resulting in

text: exotic terrane

text: s. The collision of this oceanic material causes crustal thickening and mountain-building. This accretion process is thought by many geologists to be the reason for the crustal growth of western North America and of the uplift that produced the Rocky Mountains.

text: In the general case, sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System today. The process starts with heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see isostasy). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120 degree angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins.Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge.

text: In the general case, sea floor spreading starts as a

text: rift

text: in a

text: continental land mass

text: , similar to the Red Sea-

text: East Africa Rift

text: System today. The process starts with heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see

text: isostasy

text: ). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120 degree angles. These areas are named

text: triple junction

text: s and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the

text: continent

text: s evolve to form

text: passive margin

text: s.Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge.

text: Right-lateral strike-slip movement of the Tintina Fault on the Tintina-Northern Rocky Mountain Trench may have begun during the middle Jurassic. The fastest rates of slip probably occurred during two pulses in the middle Cretaceous and early Cenozoic, respectively, with the latter probably occurring during the Eocene.  Between 750 km to > 900 km of total right-lateral movement has occurred, of which 450 km of offset has occurred since the mid-Cretaceous.  The end result is that terrains to the west of the fault system have moved toward the north.  In the context of plate tectonics, strike-slip movement of the Tintina Fault on the Tintina-Northern Rocky Mountain Trench is also related to strike-slip movement along the San Andreas Fault, the extension of the Basin and Range Province, and other extensional or strike-slip fault systems in western North America. The Tintina Fault is one of the two major fault zones paralleling the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, the other being the Denali Fault in the Yukon, the U.S. state of Alaska and along the British Columbia Coast.

text: Right-lateral

text: strike-slip

text: movement of the

text: Tintina Fault

text: on the Tintina-Northern Rocky Mountain Trench may have begun during the middle

text: Jurassic

text: . The fastest rates of slip probably occurred during two pulses in the middle

text: Cretaceous

text: and early

text: Cenozoic

text: , respectively, with the latter probably occurring during the

text: Eocene

text: .  Between 750 km to > 900 km of total right-lateral movement has occurred, of which 450 km of offset has occurred since the mid-

text: Cretaceous

text: .  The end result is that terrains to the west of the fault system have moved toward the north.  In the context of

text: plate tectonics

text: , strike-slip movement of the Tintina Fault on the Tintina-Northern Rocky Mountain Trench is also related to strike-slip movement along the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , the extension of the

text: Basin and Range Province

text: , and other

text: extensional

text: or strike-slip fault systems in western North America. The Tintina Fault is one of the two major fault zones paralleling the

text: Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province

text: , the other being the

text: Denali Fault

text: in the

text: Yukon

text: , the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: Alaska

text: and along the

text: British Columbia Coast

text: The islands are part of a submerged microcontinent called the Kerguelen sub-continent. The microcontinent emerged substantially above sea level for three periods between 100 million years ago and 20 million years ago. The so-called Kerguelen sub-continent may have had tropical flora and fauna about 50 million years ago. The Kerguelen sub-continent finally sank 20 million years ago and is now one to two kilometers below sea level. Kerguelen's sedimentary rocks are similar to ones found in Australia and India, indicating they were all once connected. Scientists hope that studying the Kerguelen sub-continent will help them discover how Australia, India, and Antarctica broke apart.

text: The islands are part of a submerged

text: microcontinent

text: called the

text: Kerguelen sub-continent

text: . The microcontinent emerged substantially above sea level for three periods between 100 million years ago and 20 million years ago. The so-called Kerguelen sub-continent may have had tropical

text: flora

text: and

text: fauna

text: about 50 million years ago. The Kerguelen sub-continent finally sank 20 million years ago and is now one to two kilometers below sea level. Kerguelen's

text: sedimentary rock

text: s are similar to ones found in Australia and

text: India

text: , indicating they were all once connected. Scientists hope that studying the Kerguelen sub-continent will help them discover how Australia,

text: India

text: , and

text: Antarctica

text: broke apart.

text: The Earth's crust averages about 35 kilometers thick under the continents, but averages only some 7–10 kilometers beneath the oceans. The continental crust is composed primarily of sedimentary rocks resting on a crystalline basement formed of a great variety of metamorphic and igneous rocks, including granulite and granite. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt and gabbro. Both continental and oceanic crust rest on peridotite of the mantle.

text: The Earth's crust averages about 35 kilometers thick under the

text: continents

text: , but averages only some 7–10 kilometers beneath the

text: oceans

text: . The continental crust is composed primarily of sedimentary rocks resting on a crystalline basement formed of a great variety of metamorphic and igneous rocks, including

text: granulite

text: and granite. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of basalt and

text: gabbro

text: . Both continental and oceanic crust rest on

text: peridotite

text: of the mantle.

text: The structures, designed by Gibbs Gage Architects, have a Rocky Mountain theme, with a western facing pale-green glass wall mimicking mountain waters and glaciers. The rest of the building adopts a dark gray layered appearance representing the shifting tectonic plates that built the mountains. The complex connects to the Plus 15 skywalk system, and contains a six-level underground parkade with 1141 parking stalls.

text: The structures, designed by

text: Gibbs Gage Architects

text: , have a Rocky Mountain theme, with a western facing pale-green glass wall mimicking mountain waters and

text: glacier

text: s. The rest of the building adopts a dark gray layered appearance representing the shifting

text: tectonic plate

text: s that built the mountains. The complex connects to the

text: Plus 15

text: skywalk system, and contains a six-level underground parkade with 1141 parking stalls.

text: When two plates with oceanic crust converge, they typically create an island arc as one plate is subducted below the other. The arc is formed from volcanoes which erupt through the overriding plate as the descending plate melts below it. The arc shape occurs because of the spherical surface of the earth (nick the peel of an orange with a knife and note the arc formed by the straight-edge of the knife). A deep oceanic trench is located in front of such arcs where the descending slab dips downward, such as the Mariana trench near the Mariana Islands.

text: When two plates with oceanic crust converge, they typically create an

text: island arc

text: as one plate is subducted below the other. The arc is formed from volcanoes which erupt through the overriding plate as the descending plate melts below it. The arc shape occurs because of the spherical surface of the earth (nick the peel of an orange with a knife and note the arc formed by the straight-edge of the knife). A deep

text: oceanic trench

text: is located in front of such arcs where the descending slab dips downward, such as the

text: Mariana trench

text: near the

text: Mariana Islands

text: The lithosphere of the earth is broken up into what are called tectonic plates. Underneath the Bay of Bengal is the Indian Plate which is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate and is slowly moving north east. This plate meets the Burma Microplate at the Sunda Trench. The Nicobar Islands, and the Andaman Islands are part of the Burma Microplate. The India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate at the Sunda Trench or Java Trench. Here, the pressure of the two plates on each other increase pressure and temperature resulting in the formation of volcanoes such as the volcanoes in Myanmar, and a volcanic arc called the Sunda Arc. The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and Asian Tsunami was a result of the pressure at this zone causing a submarine earthquake which then resulted in a huge Tsunami.

text: The

text: lithosphere

text: of the earth is broken up into what are called

text: tectonic plates

text: . Underneath the Bay of Bengal is the

text: Indian Plate

text: which is part of the great

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: and is slowly moving north east. This plate meets the

text: Burma Microplate

text: at the

text: Sunda Trench

text: . The

text: Nicobar Islands

text: , and the

text: Andaman Islands

text: are part of the

text: Burma Microplate

text: . The India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate at the

text: Sunda Trench

text: or Java Trench. Here, the pressure of the two plates on each other increase pressure and temperature resulting in the formation of volcanoes such as the

text: volcanoes in Myanmar

text: , and a

text: volcanic arc

text: called the

text: Sunda Arc

text: . The

text: Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and Asian Tsunami

text: was a result of the pressure at this zone causing a

text: submarine earthquake

text: which then resulted in a huge Tsunami.

text: Like other Iskut-Unuk River Cones, The Volcano has its origins in continental rifting—a long rupture in the Earth's crust where the lithosphere is being pulled apart. This incipient rifting has formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault, on its way to the Aleutian Trench. As the continental crust stretches, the near surface rocks fracture along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults. Basaltic magma rises along these fractures to create effusive eruptions. The rift zone has existed for at least 14.9 million years, and has created the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. Several dormant volcanoes in the province are potentially active, with The Volcano being one of the three having erupted in the last few hundred years. Tseax Cone, which last erupted in the 18th century, is the southernmost volcano in the province, while Prindle Volcano in easternmost-central Alaska, which erupted more than 10,000 years ago, is generally considered the northernmost.

text: Like other Iskut-Unuk River Cones, The Volcano has its origins in

text: continent

text: al

text: rift

text: ing—a long rupture in the Earth's

text: crust

text: where the

text: lithosphere

text: is being pulled apart. This incipient rifting has formed as a result of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: sliding northward along the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: , on its way to the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: . As the

text: continental crust

text: faults

text: Basalt

text: ic

text: magma

text: rises along these fractures to create

text: effusive eruption

text: s. The rift zone has existed for at least 14.9 million years, and has created the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. Several dormant volcanoes in the

text: province

text: are potentially active, with The Volcano being one of the three having erupted in the last few hundred years.

text: Tseax Cone

text: , which last erupted in the 18th century, is the southernmost volcano in the province, while

text: Prindle Volcano

text: in easternmost-central Alaska, which erupted more than 10,000 years ago, is generally considered the northernmost.

text: During the 1960s he led three expeditions to the East African Rift to study continental structure and the Earth's mantle.  These trips fuelled his idea that continental crust was transformed to oceanic crust by widespread processes involving basic magmas.

text: During the 1960s he led three expeditions to the

text: East African Rift

text: to study

text: continental

text: structure and the Earth's

text: mantle

text: .  These trips fuelled his idea that

text: continental crust

text: was transformed to

text: oceanic crust

text: by widespread processes involving

text: basic

text: magma

text: s.

text: Unexpected erosion of hard, sound, unweathered granite in the unlined spillway discharge channel was caused by rock failure under high in-situ compressive stress. This type of erosion due to high in-situ stress has not been reported elsewhere in the world.

text: Unexpected erosion of hard, sound, unweathered granite in the unlined spillway discharge channel was caused by rock failure under high in-situ

text: compressive

text: stress. This type of erosion due to high in-situ stress has not been reported elsewhere in the world.

text: The basement consists of folded rocks, some of which are metamorphic rocks, mostly of marine-sedimentary and submarine-volcanic origin, intruded by granitoid plutons. Most of these rocks are of late Carboniferous age or older. Folding and metamorphism of these sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and the emplacement of the granitoids, occurred mainly in two Paleozoic orogenies: the Caledonian Orogeny in the Late Ordovician and the Variscan Orogeny in the early Carboniferous. In the oldest folded Variscan rocks, evidence exists of an older orogeny, the Cadomian Orogeny, which occurred before the accretion of the crustal blocks of Proto-Europe (Baltica) (German: Ur-Europa). The folded basement rocks originated in the Proterozoic, but even older relics of continental crust are found in a paragneiss of the Bavarian Forest, the protolith of which was probably deposited subsequent to the Cadomian Orogeny. A sample of this paragneiss contains a detrital zircon grain, whose core crystallised from a magma during the Archean eon, before about 3.48 billion years ago.

text: The basement consists of folded rocks, some of which are

text: metamorphic rock

text: s, mostly of marine-sedimentary and

text: submarine-volcanic

text: origin,

text: intruded

text: by

text: granitoid

text: pluton

text: s. Most of these rocks are of

text: late Carboniferous

text: age or older. Folding and

text: metamorphism

text: of these sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and the emplacement of the granitoids, occurred mainly in two Paleozoic orogenies: the

text: Caledonian Orogeny

text: in the Late

text: Ordovician

text: and the

text: Variscan Orogeny

text: in the

text: early Carboniferous

text: . In the oldest folded Variscan rocks, evidence exists of an older orogeny, the

text: Cadomian Orogeny

text: , which occurred before the accretion of the crustal blocks of Proto-Europe (Baltica) (German: Ur-Europa). The folded basement rocks originated in the

text: Proterozoic

text: , but even older relics of

text: continental crust

text: are found in a

text: paragneiss

text: of the Bavarian Forest, the

text: protolith

text: of which was probably deposited subsequent to the Cadomian Orogeny. A sample of this paragneiss contains a

text: detrital

text: zircon

text: grain, whose core crystallised from a

text: magma

text: during the

text: Archean

text: eon

text: , before about 3.48 billion years ago.

text: The crust of the Earth is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the mantle is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity. The crust occupies less than 1% of Earth's volume.

text: The crust of the

text: Earth

text: is composed of a great variety of

text: igneous

text: metamorphic

text: , and

text: sedimentary rock

text: s. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the mantle is composed mostly of

text: peridotite

text: , a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the

text: Mohorovičić discontinuity

text: , a boundary defined by a contrast in

text: seismic

text: velocity. The crust occupies less than 1% of Earth's volume.

text: Folding machines exclusively used for folding paper are commonly referred to as paper folders. These machines are typically used for creating letter folds (C Folds) and accordion folds (Z Folds). Other commonly used folds include a half fold, fold-out, double parallel fold, gate (brochure) fold, and right angle fold.

text: Realms are separate locations existing in alternate dimensions.  To travel to another realm, a rift must be opened to it, allowing travel to the other realm.  Only Immortals, or several other powerful beings acting together can create a rift.  A single person with the given power of agelessness, which endows the receiver with some reduced immortal powers, generally cannot force a rift to open by themselves.

text: The Earth, as a system, is open to radiation from the sun and space, but is closed with regard to matter. As all closed systems, it follows the law of conservation of mass which states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, thus, the matter, although transformed and migrated, remains the same as when the Earth was formed. The Earth system contains seven different reservoirs that  are separated into surface reservoirs, which include atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, and lithosphere and the isolated reservoirs that include deep Earth and outer space. Geochemical cycles are concerned with the interactions between deep earth which consists of Earth´s mantle and core, and the lithosphere which consists of the Earth´s crust.

text: The

text: Earth

text: , as a system, is open to radiation from the sun and space, but is closed with regard to

text: matter

text: . As all closed systems, it follows the law of

text: conservation of mass

text: which states that matter cannot be created nor destroyed, thus, the matter, although transformed and migrated, remains the same as when the

text: Earth

text: was formed. The

text: Earth

text: system contains seven different

text: reservoir

text: s that  are separated into surface reservoirs, which include

text: atmosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: biosphere

text: pedosphere

text: , and

text: lithosphere

text: and the isolated reservoirs that include deep Earth and

text: outer space

text: . Geochemical cycles are concerned with the interactions between deep earth which consists of Earth´s

text: mantle

text: and core, and the

text: lithosphere

text: which consists of the Earth´s crust.

text: The group released their first full album, Keep Color, on May 6, 2008. It includes the singles Buildings & Mountains and Fight Song. On the week of September 14, 2008, Buildings And Mountains was featured as the free single of the week on iTunes. In late 2008, they embarked on their first overseas tour with the band Travis.  Most recently, they played at the annual "Buzz Beach Ball" event with Weezer, Blink 182, Matt & Kim, Taking Back Sunday, and others.

text: The group released their first full album, Keep Color, on May 6, 2008. It includes the singles Buildings & Mountains and Fight Song. On the week of September 14, 2008, Buildings And Mountains was featured as the free single of the week on

text: iTunes

text: . In late 2008, they embarked on their first overseas tour with the band

text: Travis

text: .  Most recently, they played at the annual "Buzz Beach Ball" event with

text: Weezer

text: Blink 182

text: Matt & Kim

text: Taking Back Sunday

text: , and others.

text: The San Andreas Fault system is similarly complex as it moves through the San Gorgonio Pass, with associated oblique/reverse faults that are actively uplifting San Gorgonio Mountain, the tallest peak in southern California. The 1986 North Palm Springs earthquake occurred to the west of the 1948 shock, and produced  of surface rupture on the Garnet Hill Fault or the Coachella strand of the Banning Fault. Together, these are the only historical shocks to occur on the portion of the San Andreas Fault System that lies south of the Cajon Pass.

text: The San Andreas Fault system is similarly complex as it moves through the San Gorgonio Pass, with associated oblique/

text: reverse

text: faults that are actively uplifting

text: San Gorgonio Mountain

text: , the tallest peak in southern California. The

text: 1986 North Palm Springs earthquake

text: occurred to the west of the 1948 shock, and produced  of surface rupture on the Garnet Hill Fault or the Coachella strand of the Banning Fault. Together, these are the only historical shocks to occur on the portion of the San Andreas Fault System that lies south of the

text: Cajon Pass

text: Fracture zones are common features in the geology of oceanic basins. Globally most fault zones are located on divergent plate boundaries on oceanic crust. This means that they are located around mid-ocean ridges and trend perpendicular to them. The term fracture zone is used almost exclusively for features on oceanic crust; similar structures on continental crust are instead termed transform or strike slip faults, a denomination active fracture zones also can have. Some fracture zones have been created by mid-ocean ridge segments that have been subducted and may not longer exist.

text: Fracture zone

text: s are common features in the geology of oceanic basins. Globally most fault zones are located on

text: divergent plate boundaries

text: on

text: oceanic crust

text: . This means that they are located around

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s and trend perpendicular to them. The term fracture zone is used almost exclusively for features on

text: oceanic crust

text: ; similar structures on

text: continental crust

text: are instead termed

text: transform or strike slip fault

text: s, a denomination active fracture zones also can have. Some fracture zones have been created by mid-ocean ridge segments that have been

text: subducted

text: and may not longer exist.

text: The Pacific Plate is a major section of the Earth's crust, gradually expanding by the eruption of magma along the East Pacific Rise to the southeast. It is also being subducted far to the northwest into the Aleutian Trench under the North American Plate well north of San Francisco. In California, the plate borders the North American Plate along a transform boundary, the San Andreas Fault.  The westward component of the North American Plate's motion and the irregularity of the San Andreas Fault results in some compressive force along the San Andreas and its associated faults, thus helping lift the Coast Ranges. The Mount Diablo Thrust Fault and the Great Valley Blind Thrust faults are consequences of this compression.

text: The

text: Pacific Plate

text: East Pacific Rise

text: Aleutian Trench

text: under the

text: North American Plate

text: well north of San Francisco. In California, the plate borders the North American Plate along a transform boundary, the San Andreas Fault.  The westward component of the North American Plate's motion and the irregularity of the San Andreas Fault results in some compressive force along the San Andreas and its associated faults, thus helping lift the Coast Ranges. The Mount Diablo Thrust Fault and the

text: Great Valley Blind Thrust faults

text: are consequences of this compression.

text: Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an approximate width of 10 km within the brittle crust, thus earthquakes with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible. Maximum magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6 km.

text: Gregory Beroza, a seismologist with Stanford University, made several distinctions regarding the 1906 and 1989 events. Near Loma Prieta, the 1906 rupture was more shallow, had more strike-slip, and occurred on a fault that was near vertical. The 1989 event's oblique-slip rupture was at 10 km and below on a fault plane that dipped 70° to the southwest. Because much of the slip in 1989 occurred at depth and the rupture propagated up dip, Beroza proposed that the overlying San Andreas Fault actually inhibited further rupture and also maintains that the occurrence of an event at the location that was forecast by the WGCEP in 1988 was coincidental.

text: Gregory Beroza

text: , a seismologist with

text: Stanford University

text: , made several distinctions regarding the 1906 and 1989 events. Near Loma Prieta, the 1906 rupture was more shallow, had more strike-slip, and occurred on a fault that was near vertical. The 1989 event's oblique-slip rupture was at 10 km and below on a fault plane that

text: dipped

text: 70° to the southwest. Because much of the slip in 1989 occurred at depth and the rupture propagated up dip, Beroza proposed that the overlying San Andreas Fault actually inhibited further rupture and also maintains that the occurrence of an event at the location that was forecast by the WGCEP in 1988 was coincidental.

text: Within the Basin and Range Province, the Earth's crust (and upper mantle) has been stretched up to 100% of its original width. The entire region has been subjected to extension that thinned and cracked the crust as it was pulled apart, creating large faults. Along these roughly north-south-trending faults mountains were uplifted and valleys down-dropped, producing the distinctive alternating pattern of linear mountain ranges and valleys of the Basin and Range province.

text: Within the Basin and Range Province, the Earth's

text: crust

text: (and upper

text: mantle

text: ) has been stretched up to 100% of its original width. The entire region has been subjected to

text: extension

text: that thinned and cracked the crust as it was pulled apart, creating large

text: faults

text: . Along these roughly north-south-trending faults mountains were uplifted and valleys down-dropped, producing the distinctive alternating pattern of linear mountain ranges and valleys of the Basin and Range province.

text: All isotopes of radium have half-lives much shorter than the age of the Earth, so that any primordial radium would have decayed long ago. Radium nevertheless still occurs in the environment, as the isotopes Ra, Ra, Ra, and Ra are part of the decay chains of natural thorium and uranium isotopes. Of these four isotopes, the most long-lived is Ra (half-life 1600 years), a decay product of natural uranium. Because of its relative longevity, Ra is the most common isotope of the element, making up about one part per trillion of the Earth's crust; essentially all natural radium is Ra. Thus, radium is found in tiny quantities in the uranium ore uraninite and various other uranium minerals, and in even tinier quantities in thorium minerals. One ton of pitchblende typically yields about one seventh of a gram of radium. One kilogram of the Earth's crust contains about 900 picograms of radium, and one liter of sea water contains about 89 femtograms of radium.

text: All isotopes of radium have half-lives much shorter than the

text: age of the Earth

text: , so that any primordial radium would have decayed long ago. Radium nevertheless still occurs

text: in the environment

text: , as the isotopes Ra, Ra, Ra, and Ra are part of the decay chains of natural thorium and uranium isotopes. Of these four isotopes, the most long-lived is Ra (half-life 1600 years), a decay product of natural uranium. Because of its relative longevity, Ra is the most common isotope of the element, making up about one

text: part per trillion

text: of the Earth's crust; essentially all natural radium is Ra. Thus, radium is found in tiny quantities in the uranium ore

text: uraninite

text: and various other uranium

text: minerals

text: , and in even tinier quantities in thorium minerals. One

text: ton

text: of

text: pitchblende

text: typically yields about one seventh of a

text: gram

text: of radium. One kilogram of the

text: Earth's crust

text: contains about 900

text: picogram

text: s of radium, and one

text: liter

text: of

text: sea water

text: contains about 89

text: femtogram

text: s of radium.

text: Emphasis and contrast may override normal stress. Pronouns frequently take stress because of this. In a simple question like Ĉu vi vídis? ('Did you see?'), the pronoun hardly needs to be said and is unstressed; compare Né, dónu al mí and ('No, give me). Within a word, a prefix that wasn't heard correctly may be stressed upon repetition: Né, ne tíen! Iru máldekstren, mi diris! ('No, not over there! Go left, I said!'). Because stress doesn't distinguish words in Esperanto, shifting it to an unexpected syllable calls attention to that syllable, but doesn't cause confusion as it might in English.

text: Major lateral offsets between large extensional or thrust faults are normally connected by diffuse or discrete zones of strike-slip deformation allowing transfer of the overall displacement between the structures.

text: Besides direct causes the particular characteristics of the Bolivian Orocline–Altiplano region are attributed to a variety of deeper causes. These causes include a local steepening of the subduction angle of Nazca Plate, increased crustal shortening and plate convergence between the Nazca and South American plates, an acceleration in the westward drift of the South American Plate, and a rise in the shear stress between the Nazca and South American plates. This increase in shear stress could in turn be related to the scarcity of sediments in the Atacama trench which is caused by the arid conditions along Atacama Desert. Capitanio et al. attributes the rise of Altiplano and the bending of the Bolivian Orocline to the varying ages of the subducted Nazca Plate with the older parts of the plate subducting at the centre of the orocline. As Andrés Tassara puts it the rigidity of the Bolivian Orocline crust is derivative of the thermal conditions. The crust of the western region (forearc) of the orocline has been cold and rigid, resisting and damming up the westward flow of warmer and weaker ductile crustal material from beneath the Altiplano.

text: Besides direct causes the particular characteristics of the Bolivian Orocline–Altiplano region are attributed to a variety of deeper causes. These causes include a local steepening of the subduction angle of Nazca Plate, increased crustal shortening and plate convergence between the Nazca and South American plates, an acceleration in the westward drift of the South American Plate, and a rise in the

text: shear stress

text: between the Nazca and South American plates. This increase in shear stress could in turn be related to the scarcity of sediments in the

text: Atacama trench

text: which is caused by the arid conditions along

text: Atacama Desert

text: . Capitanio et al. attributes the rise of Altiplano and the bending of the Bolivian Orocline to the varying ages of the subducted Nazca Plate with the older parts of the plate subducting at the centre of the orocline. As Andrés Tassara puts it the

text: rigidity

text: of the Bolivian Orocline

text: crust

text: is derivative of the

text: thermal

text: conditions. The crust of the western region (

text: forearc

text: ) of the orocline has been cold and rigid, resisting and damming up the westward flow of warmer and weaker

text: ductile

text: crustal material from beneath the Altiplano.

text: Modern geological knowledge rules out "lost continents" of any significant size.  According to the theory of plate tectonics, which has been extensively confirmed over the past 40 years, the Earth's crust consists of lighter "sial" rocks (continental crust rich in aluminium silicates) that float on heavier "sima" rocks (oceanic crust richer in magnesium silicates). The sial is generally absent in the ocean floor where the crust is a few kilometers thick, while the continents are huge solid blocks tens of kilometers thick.  Since continents float on the sima much like icebergs float on water, a continent cannot simply "sink" under the ocean.

text: Modern

text: geological

text: knowledge rules out "lost continents" of any significant size.  According to the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: , which has been extensively confirmed over the past 40 years, the

text: Earth's crust

text: consists of lighter "

text: sial

text: " rocks (

text: continental crust

text: rich in

text: aluminium

text: silicates

text: ) that float on heavier "

text: sima

text: " rocks (

text: oceanic crust

text: richer in

text: magnesium

text: silicates). The sial is generally absent in the ocean floor where the

text: crust

text: is a few kilometers thick, while the continents are huge solid blocks tens of kilometers thick.  Since continents float on the sima much like

text: iceberg

text: s float on water, a continent cannot simply "sink" under the ocean.

text: Bathymetry is the mapping and study of the topography of the ocean floor. Methods used for measuring the depth of the sea include single or multibeam echosounders, laser airborne depth sounders and the calculation of depths from satellite remote sensing data. This information is used for determining the routes of undersea cables and pipelines, for choosing suitable locations for siting oil rigs and offshore wind turbines and for identifying possible new fisheries. The Earth is composed of a magnetic central core, a mostly liquid mantle, and a hard rigid outer shell (or lithosphere), which is composed of the Earth's rocky crust and the deeper and mostly solid outer layer of the mantle. The crust below land is known as continental while that under the abyssal sea is called oceanic. The latter is composed of relatively dense basalt and is some five to ten kilometers (three to six miles) thick. The relatively thin lithosphere floats on the weaker and hotter mantle below and is fractured into a number of tectonic plates. In mid-ocean, magma is constantly being thrust through the seabed between adjoining plates to form mid-oceanic ridges and here convection currents within the mantle tend to drive the two plates apart. Parallel to these ridges and nearer the coasts, one oceanic plate may slide beneath another oceanic plate in a process known as subduction. Deep trenches are formed here and the process is accompanied by friction as the plates grind together. The movement proceeds in jerks which cause earthquakes. Heat is also produced and magma is forced up, creating underwater mountains, some of which grow into volcanic islands. Near some boundaries between the land and sea, the slightly denser oceanic plates slide beneath the continental plates and more subduction trenches are formed. As they grate together, the continental plates are deformed and buckle causing mountain building and seismic activity.

text: Bathymetry

text: is the mapping and study of the

text: topography

text: of the ocean floor. Methods used for measuring the depth of the sea include single or multibeam

text: echosounder

text: s,

text: laser airborne depth sounder

text: s and the calculation of depths from satellite remote sensing data. This information is used for determining the routes of undersea cables and pipelines, for choosing suitable locations for siting oil rigs and offshore wind turbines and for identifying possible new fisheries. The Earth is composed of a magnetic central

text: core

text: , a mostly liquid

text: mantle

text: , and a hard rigid outer shell (or

text: lithosphere

text: ), which is composed of the Earth's rocky

text: crust

text: and the deeper and mostly solid outer layer of the mantle. The crust below land is known as

text: continental

text: while that under the abyssal sea is called

text: oceanic

text: . The latter is composed of relatively dense

text: basalt

text: and is some five to ten kilometers (three to six miles) thick. The relatively thin lithosphere floats on the weaker and hotter mantle below and is fractured into a number of

text: tectonic plates

text: . In mid-ocean,

text: magma

text: is constantly being thrust through the seabed between adjoining plates to form

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: s and here

text: convection current

text: s within the mantle tend to drive the two plates apart. Parallel to these ridges and nearer the coasts, one oceanic plate may slide beneath another oceanic plate in a process known as

text: subduction

text: . Deep

text: trenches

text: are formed here and the process is accompanied by friction as the plates grind together. The movement proceeds in jerks which cause earthquakes. Heat is also produced and

text: magma

text: is forced up, creating underwater mountains, some of which grow into volcanic islands. Near some boundaries between the land and sea, the slightly denser oceanic plates slide beneath the continental plates and more subduction trenches are formed. As they grate together, the continental plates are deformed and buckle causing mountain building and seismic activity.

text: With Claus Prodehl of Universität Karlsuhe, Germany, Mooney  wrote Exploring the Earth's Crust - History and Results of Controlled-Source Seismology).

text: Standard plate tectonic theory holds that once a trench is closed by an overriding plate reaching a rift/spreading center, the plate that has just been fully consumed continues to descend beneath the overriding plate for some time, transmitting compressive pressures to the overriding plate above as well as occasional volcanism.  Meanwhile, the descending plate leaves behind it a "window" of inactivity.  In this view, there is no mantle upwelling, so once the crustal rift is overridden, the only residual effects are from the remnant descending plate slab.  However, actual observations of the crust in western North America where the Farallon Plate's trench and rift was snuffed out millions of years ago by the westward movement of the North American Plate, and replaced by the San Andreas Fault, show not compression inland, but extension.  This is most evident in the Great Basin where the continental crust and lithosphere as a whole is becoming increasingly thin.  The crust here is also warming from below.

text: Standard

text: plate tectonic

text: theory holds that once a

text: trench

text: is closed by an overriding

text: plate

text: reaching a

text: rift/spreading center

text: , the plate that has just been fully consumed continues to descend beneath the overriding plate for some time, transmitting compressive pressures to the overriding plate above as well as occasional

text: volcanism

text: .  Meanwhile, the descending plate leaves behind it a "window" of inactivity.  In this view, there is no

text: mantle

text: upwelling, so once the crustal

text: rift

text: is overridden, the only residual effects are from the remnant descending plate slab.  However, actual observations of the crust in western North America where the

text: Farallon Plate

text: 's trench and rift was snuffed out millions of years ago by the westward movement of the

text: North American Plate

text: , and replaced by the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , show not compression inland, but extension.  This is most evident in the

text: Great Basin

text: where the

text: continental crust

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: as a whole is becoming increasingly thin.  The crust here is also warming from below.

text: Quartz is abundant in the crust and contains creep microstructures that are sensitive to deformation conditions in deeper crust. Before starting to infer flow stress magnitude, the mineral has to be calibrated carefully in laboratory. Quartz has been found to exhibit different piezometer relations during different recrystallization mechanisms, which are local grain boundary migration (dislocation creep), subgrain rotation (SGR) and the combination of these two, as well as at different grain size.

text: Quartz

text: is abundant in the crust and contains creep

text: microstructure

text: s that are sensitive to deformation conditions in deeper crust. Before starting to infer

text: flow stress

text: magnitude, the mineral has to be calibrated carefully in laboratory. Quartz has been found to exhibit different piezometer relations during different recrystallization mechanisms, which are local grain boundary migration (

text: dislocation creep

text: subgrain rotation

text: (SGR) and the combination of these two, as well as at different grain size.

text: A rift lake is a lake formed as a result of subsidence related to movement on faults within a rift zone, an area of extensional tectonics in the continental crust. They are often found within rift valleys and may be very deep. Rift lakes may be bounded by large steep cliffs along the fault margins.

text: A rift lake is a

text: lake

text: formed as a result of subsidence related to movement on

text: faults

text: within a

text: rift

text: zone, an area of

text: extensional tectonics

text: in the

text: continental crust

text: . They are often found within

text: rift valley

text: s and may be very deep. Rift lakes may be bounded by large steep

text: cliff

text: s along the fault margins.

text: The current tectonics of northern California are mainly controlled by the San Andreas Fault system, the zone of dextral strike-slip faulting that accommodates displacement between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate along this transform boundary. In addition to the San Andreas Fault itself there are numerous other sub-parallel dextral strike-slip faults that take up some of the plate boundary motion distributed through a zone more than 100 km wide. The 1969 earthquakes and most of their aftershocks occurred along the Healdsburg Fault, which lies between the Maacama Fault and the Rodgers Creek Fault, linked to them by right step-overs. These faults may form a continuation of the Hayward Fault Zone north of San Francisco Bay.

text: The current tectonics of northern California are mainly controlled by the San Andreas Fault system, the zone of dextral strike-slip faulting that accommodates displacement between the

text: North American Plate

text: and the

text: Pacific Plate

text: along this

text: transform boundary

text: . In addition to the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: itself there are numerous other sub-parallel dextral strike-slip faults that take up some of the plate boundary motion distributed through a zone more than 100 km wide. The 1969 earthquakes and most of their aftershocks occurred along the

text: Healdsburg Fault

text: , which lies between the

text: Maacama Fault

text: and the

text: Rodgers Creek Fault

text: , linked to them by right step-overs. These faults may form a continuation of the

text: Hayward Fault Zone

text: north of

text: San Francisco Bay

text: Part of the difference may be that most polygonal rifling is produced by hammer forging the barrel around a mandrel containing a reverse impression of the rifling.  Hammer forging machines are tremendously expensive, far out of the reach of custom gunsmiths (unless they buy pre-rifled blanks), and so are generally only used for production barrels by large companies.  The main advantage of a hammer forging process is that it can rifle, chamber, and contour a bored barrel blank in one step.  First applied to rifling in Germany in 1939, hammer forging has remained popular in Europe, but was only later used by gunmakers in the United States.  The hammer forging process produces large amounts of stress in the barrel that must be relieved by careful heat treatment, a process that is less necessary in a traditionally cut or button rifled barrel.  Due to the potential for residual stress causing accuracy problems, precision shooters tend to avoid hammer forged barrels, and this limits them in the type of available rifling.  From a practical standpoint, any accuracy issues resulting from the residual stresses of hammer forging are extremely unlikely to be an issue in a defense or service pistol, or a typical hunting rifle.

text: Part of the difference may be that most polygonal rifling is produced by hammer

text: forging

text: the barrel around a mandrel containing a reverse impression of the rifling.  Hammer forging machines are tremendously expensive, far out of the reach of custom gunsmiths (unless they buy pre-rifled blanks), and so are generally only used for production barrels by large companies.  The main advantage of a hammer forging process is that it can rifle, chamber, and contour a bored barrel blank in one step.  First applied to rifling in

text: Germany

text: in 1939, hammer forging has remained popular in

text: Europe

text: , but was only later used by gunmakers in the

text: United States

text: .  The hammer forging process produces large amounts of stress in the barrel that must be relieved by careful

text: heat treatment

text: , a process that is less necessary in a traditionally cut or button rifled barrel.  Due to the potential for

text: residual stress

text: causing accuracy problems, precision shooters tend to avoid hammer forged barrels, and this limits them in the type of available rifling.  From a practical standpoint, any accuracy issues resulting from the residual stresses of hammer forging are extremely unlikely to be an issue in a defense or service pistol, or a typical hunting rifle.

text: Boudinage is a geological term for structures formed by extension, where a rigid tabular body such as hornfels, is stretched and deformed amidst less competent surroundings. The competent bed begins to break up, forming sausage-shaped boudins.  Boudinage is common and can occur at any scale, from microscopic to lithospheric, and can be found in all terranes. In lithospheric-scale tectonics, boudinage of strong layers can signify large-scale creep transfer of rock matter.  The study of boudinage can, also, help provide insight to the forces involved in tectonic deformation of rocks and their strength.

text: Boudinage is a geological term for structures formed by extension, where a rigid tabular body such as

text: hornfels

text: , is stretched and deformed amidst less

text: competent

text: surroundings. The competent bed begins to break up, forming sausage-shaped boudins.  Boudinage is common and can occur at any scale, from microscopic to lithospheric, and can be found in all

text: terrane

text: s. In lithospheric-scale tectonics, boudinage of strong layers can signify large-scale creep transfer of rock matter.  The study of boudinage can, also, help provide insight to the forces involved in tectonic deformation of rocks and their strength.

text: A marine seismic reflection study found evidence of faulting at the mouth of Budd Inlet, just north of the Olympia structure, and aligning with faint lineaments seen in the lidar imagery. These faults are not quite aligned with the Olympia structure, striking N75W (285°) rather than N45W (315°). It is uncertain how these faults relate to the structure, and whether they are deep-seated faults, or fractures due to bending of the shallow crust.

text: Much of the basement rock may have originally been oceanic crust, but it was highly metamorphosed and converted into continental crust via a series of events. A typical pattern is as follows. It is possible for oceanic crust to be subducted down into the Earth's mantle, at subduction fronts, where oceanic crust is being pushed down into the mantle by an overridding plate of oceanic or continental crust.

text: Much of the basement rock may have originally been oceanic crust, but it was highly metamorphosed and converted into

text: continental crust

text: via a series of events. A typical pattern is as follows. It is possible for oceanic crust to be subducted down into the

text: Earth's mantle

text: , at subduction fronts, where oceanic crust is being pushed down into the mantle by an overridding plate of oceanic or continental crust.

text: Physiologists define stress as how the body reacts to a stressor, real or imagined, a stimulus that causes stress. Acute stressors affect an organism in the short term; chronic stressors over the longer term. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), developed by Hans Selye, is a profile of how organisms respond to stress; GAS is characterized by three phases: a nonspecific mobilization phase, which promotes sympathetic nervous system activity; a resistance phase, during which the organism makes efforts to cope with the threat; and an exhaustion phase, which occurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat and depletes its physiological resources.

text: The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) () is an active right-lateral strike-slip fault in northern Anatolia which runs along the transform boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the Anatolian Plate.  The fault extends westward from a junction with the East Anatolian Fault at the Karliova Triple Junction in eastern Turkey, across northern Turkey and into the Aegean Sea for a length of 1500 kilometers.  It runs about 20 km south of Istanbul.The North Anatolian Fault is similar in many ways to the San Andreas Fault in California. Both are continental transforms with similar lengths and slip rates. The Sea of Marmara near Istanbul is an extensional basin similar to the Salton Trough in California, where a releasing bend in the strike-slip system creates a pull-apart basin.

text: The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) () is an active right-lateral

text: strike-slip fault

text: in northern

text: Anatolia

text: which runs along the

text: transform

text: boundary between the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: and the

text: Anatolian Plate

text: .  The fault extends westward from a junction with the

text: East Anatolian Fault

text: at the

text: Karliova Triple Junction

text: in eastern

text: Turkey

text: , across northern Turkey and into the

text: Aegean Sea

text: for a length of 1500 kilometers.  It runs about 20 km south of

text: Istanbul

text: .The North Anatolian Fault is similar in many ways to the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: in California. Both are continental

text: transforms

text: with similar lengths and slip rates. The

text: Sea of Marmara

text: near

text: Istanbul

text: is an extensional basin similar to the

text: Salton Trough

text: in California, where a

text: releasing bend

text: in the strike-slip system creates a

text: pull-apart basin

text: The height of mountain ranges is usually related to the thickness of crust. This results from the isostasy associated with orogeny (mountain formation). The crust is thickened by the compressive forces related to subduction or continental collision. The buoyancy of the crust forces it upwards, the forces of the collisional stress balanced by gravity and erosion. This forms a keel or mountain root beneath the mountain range, which is where the thickest crust is found.The thinnest continental crust is found in rift zones, where the crust is thinned by detachment faulting and eventually severed, replaced by oceanic crust. The edges of continental fragments formed this way (both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, for example) are termed passive margins.

text: The height of mountain ranges is usually related to the thickness of crust. This results from the

text: isostasy

text: associated with

text: orogeny

text: (mountain formation). The crust is thickened by the compressive forces related to subduction or continental collision. The buoyancy of the crust forces it upwards, the forces of the collisional stress balanced by gravity and erosion. This forms a keel or mountain root beneath the mountain range, which is where the thickest crust is found.The thinnest continental crust is found in

text: rift

text: zones, where the crust is thinned by

text: detachment fault

text: ing and eventually severed, replaced by oceanic crust. The edges of continental fragments formed this way (both sides of the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , for example) are termed

text: passive margin

text: s.

text: An ophiolite is a suite of geological formations which represent a slice through a section of ocean crust (including the upper level of the mantle) thrust onto the continental crust.

text: An ophiolite is a suite of geological formations which represent a slice through a section of

text: ocean crust

text: (including the upper level of the

text: mantle

text: ) thrust onto the

text: continental crust

text: Successful rifting creates a spreading center like a mid-ocean ridge, which moves progressively further from coastlines as oceanic lithosphere is produced. Due to this initial phase of rifting, the crust in a passive margin is thinner than adjacent crust and subsides to create an accommodation space. Accumulation of non-marine sediment forms alluvial fans in the accommodation space. As rifting proceeds, listric fault systems form and further subsidence occurs, resulting in the creation of an ocean basin. After the cessation of rifting, cooling causes the crust to further subside, and loading with sediment will cause further tectonic subsidence.

text: Successful rifting creates a spreading center like a mid-ocean ridge, which moves progressively further from coastlines as oceanic lithosphere is produced. Due to this initial phase of rifting, the crust in a

text: passive margin

text: is thinner than adjacent crust and subsides to create an accommodation space. Accumulation of non-marine sediment forms alluvial fans in the accommodation space. As rifting proceeds, listric fault systems form and further subsidence occurs, resulting in the creation of an ocean basin. After the cessation of rifting, cooling causes the crust to further subside, and loading with sediment will cause further tectonic subsidence.

text: In the summer of 2004, Folds co-headlined an American tour with fellow singer-songwriters Rufus Wainwright and Guster. Folds again performed with Wainwright and Lee in the summer of 2005 as part of the "Odd Men Out" tour. In addition, Folds has performed with many other notable musical names, including Weezer and Tori Amos. After seeing The Fray perform with Weezer, Folds asked the band to join him for twelve performances in 2005.

text: In the summer of 2004, Folds co-headlined an American tour with fellow singer-songwriters

text: Rufus Wainwright

text: and

text: Guster

text: . Folds again performed with Wainwright and Lee in the summer of 2005 as part of the "Odd Men Out" tour. In addition, Folds has performed with many other notable musical names, including

text: Weezer

text: and

text: Tori Amos

text: . After seeing

text: The Fray

text: perform with Weezer, Folds asked the band to join him for twelve performances in 2005.

text: Stress can be caused by environmental, physiological, or psychological factors. Environmental stress can be caused by loud noise, small cockpit space, temperature, or any factors affecting one physically via one's current surroundings. Unpleasant environments can raise one's stress level. Physiological stress is a physical change due to influence of fatigue, anxiety, hunger, or any factors that may change a pilot's biological rhythms. Lastly, psychological factors include personal issues, including experiences, mental health, relationships and any other emotional issues a pilot may face. All these stressors interfere with cognitive activity and limit a pilot's ability to achieve peak performance. It is important to minimize these possible sources of stress to maximize pilots' cognitive loads, which affects their perception, memory, and logical reasoning.

text: Stress can be caused by

text: environmental

text: physiological

text: , or

text: psychological

text: factors. Environmental stress can be caused by loud noise, small cockpit space, temperature, or any factors affecting one physically via one's current surroundings. Unpleasant environments can raise one's stress level. Physiological stress is a physical change due to influence of fatigue, anxiety, hunger, or any factors that may change a pilot's biological rhythms. Lastly, psychological factors include personal issues, including experiences, mental health, relationships and any other emotional issues a pilot may face. All these stressors interfere with cognitive activity and limit a pilot's ability to achieve peak performance. It is important to minimize these possible sources of stress to maximize pilots' cognitive loads, which affects their perception, memory, and logical reasoning.

text: A wide range of geological structures occur across Britain and include examples at a variety of scales of:

text: Induced seismicity refers to typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are caused by human activity that alters the stresses and strains on the Earth's crust. Most induced seismicity is of a low magnitude. A few sites regularly have larger quakes, such as The Geysers geothermal plant in California which averaged two M4 events and 15 M3 events every year from 2004 to 2009. Results of ongoing multi-year research on induced earthquakes by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) published in 2015 suggested that most of the significant earthquakes in Oklahoma, such as the 1952 magnitude 5.7 El Reno earthquake may have been induced by deep injection of waste water by the oil industry. "Earthquake rates have recently increased markedly in multiple areas of the Central and Eastern United States (CEUS), especially since 2010, and scientific studies have linked the majority of this increased activity to wastewater injection in deep disposal wells."

text: Induced seismicity refers to typically minor

text: earthquake

text: s and tremors that are caused by

text: human

text: activity that alters the stresses and strains on the Earth's

text: crust

text: . Most induced seismicity is of a low magnitude. A few sites regularly have larger quakes, such as

text: The Geysers

text: geothermal plant in California which averaged two M4 events and 15 M3 events every year from 2004 to 2009. Results of ongoing multi-year research on induced earthquakes by the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) published in 2015 suggested that most of the significant earthquakes in Oklahoma, such as the 1952 magnitude 5.7 El Reno earthquake may have been induced by deep injection of waste water by the oil industry. "Earthquake rates have recently increased markedly in multiple areas of the Central and Eastern United States (CEUS), especially since 2010, and scientific studies have linked the majority of this increased activity to wastewater injection in deep disposal wells."

text: When the Piemont-Liguria oceanic crust had completely subducted beneath the Apulian plate in the Paleocene, the Briançonnais microcontinent, according to some a piece of the Iberian plate, arrived at the subduction zone. The Briançonnais microcontinent and Valais Ocean (with island arcs) subducted beneath the Apulian plate. They stayed at around 70 km (45 mi) below the surface during the Eocene, reaching the eclogite facies and becoming intruded by migmatites. This material would later become the Penninic nappes, but a large part of the Briançonnais terrane subducted further into the mantle and was lost. Meanwhile, at the surface the upper crust of the Apulian plate (the later Austroalpine nappes) was thrusted over the European crust. This was the main collisional phase in the formation of the Alps.

text: When the Piemont-Liguria oceanic crust had completely subducted beneath the

text: Apulian plate

text: in the

text: Paleocene

text: , the

text: Briançonnais microcontinent

text: , according to some a piece of the

text: Iberian plate

text: , arrived at the subduction zone. The Briançonnais microcontinent and Valais Ocean (with island arcs) subducted beneath the Apulian plate. They stayed at around 70 km (45 mi) below the surface during the

text: Eocene

text: , reaching the

text: eclogite facies

text: and becoming intruded by

text: migmatite

text: s. This material would later become the Penninic nappes, but a large part of the Briançonnais terrane subducted further into the mantle and was lost. Meanwhile, at the surface the upper crust of the Apulian plate (the later Austroalpine nappes) was thrusted over the European crust. This was the main collisional phase in the formation of the Alps.

text: Architectural sculpture has been employed by builders throughout history, and in virtually every continent on earth save pre-colonial Australia.

text: Blind thrust faults generally exist near tectonic plate margins, in the broad disturbance zone.  They form when a section of the Earth's crust is under high compressive stresses, due to plate margin collision, or the general geometry of how the plates are sliding past each other.

text: Blind thrust faults generally exist near

text: tectonic plate

text: margins, in the broad disturbance zone.  They form when a section of the Earth's crust is under high compressive stresses, due to plate margin collision, or the general geometry of how the plates are sliding past each other.

text: Deformation in geology refers to any alterations to the size or shape of a rock formation since the time of its creation. There are many different ways deformation can occur but it is always the result of some amount of stress within a formation. This stress leads to the formation of many structures that can either extend or shorten the length of the crust in the area. Some of the most common structures are faults and folds. Thick-skinned deformation is a specific type of deformation that can take the form of either faults or folds. The term thick-skinned specifically applies type of deformation which affects not only the sedimentary and metamorphic cover rocks near the surface but also affects the much deeper crystalline rock of the basement and may extend even deeper into the lower crust. Thin-skinned deformation is the counterpart to thick-skinned deformation and can frequently be found in similar areas. As the term implies, thin-skinned deformation is deformation that only affects the upper layers of the cover rocks and does not continue into the deeper basement. There is also one other term which may be used as an intermediary between these two extremes. The term basement-involved thin-skinned deformation can be applied to deformation that affects the cover rocks and may cut some into the basement then level off before going too deep.

text: Deformation

text: in geology refers to any alterations to the size or shape of a rock formation since the time of its creation. There are many different ways deformation can occur but it is always the result of some amount of

text: stress

text: within a formation. This stress leads to the formation of many structures that can either extend or shorten the length of the crust in the area. Some of the most common structures are

text: faults

text: and

text: folds

text: . Thick-skinned deformation is a specific type of deformation that can take the form of either faults or folds. The term thick-skinned specifically applies type of deformation which affects not only the sedimentary and metamorphic cover rocks near the surface but also affects the much deeper crystalline rock of the basement and may extend even deeper into the lower crust.

text: Thin-skinned deformation

text: is the counterpart to thick-skinned deformation and can frequently be found in similar areas. As the term implies, thin-skinned deformation is deformation that only affects the upper layers of the cover rocks and does not continue into the deeper basement. There is also one other term which may be used as an intermediary between these two extremes. The term basement-involved thin-skinned deformation can be applied to deformation that affects the cover rocks and may cut some into the basement then level off before going too deep.

text: Blueschists and other high-pressure subduction zone rocks are thought to be exhumed rapidly by flow and/or faulting in accretionary wedges or the upper parts of subducted crust, or may return to the Earth's surface in part owing to buoyancy if the metabasaltic rocks are associated with low-density continental crust (marble, metapelite, and other rocks of continental margins).

text: Blueschists and other high-pressure subduction zone rocks are thought to be exhumed rapidly by flow and/or faulting in

text: accretionary wedge

text: s or the upper parts of subducted crust, or may return to the Earth's surface in part owing to buoyancy if the metabasaltic rocks are associated with low-density continental crust (marble, metapelite, and other rocks of continental margins).

text: Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten most common elements in Earth's crust; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include halite, amphibole, cryolite, nitratine, and zeolite. Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as Utah's Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.

text: Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten

text: most common elements in Earth's crust

text: ; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the

text: Earth

text: 's crust measured by weight, making it the

text: sixth most abundant element

text: overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include

text: halite

text: amphibole

text: cryolite

text: nitratine

text: , and

text: zeolite

text: . Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as

text: Utah

text: 's

text: Great Salt Lake

text: and the

text: Dead Sea

text: . Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.

text: The interior of Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core. Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of . The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, which makes up about 15% of Earth's volume. Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface. Information about the structure and composition of the mantle has been obtained from geophysical investigation and from direct geoscientific analyses of Earth mantle-derived xenoliths and mantle that has been exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.

text: The interior of Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a layer between the

text: crust

text: and the

text: outer core

text: . Earth's mantle is a

text: silicate

text: rocky shell with an average thickness of . The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but in

text: geological time

text: it behaves as a very

text: viscous

text: fluid

text: . The mantle encloses the hot

text: core

text: rich in

text: iron

text: and

text: nickel

text: , which makes up about 15% of Earth's volume. Past episodes of melting and

text: volcanism

text: at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface. Information about the structure and composition of the mantle has been obtained from geophysical investigation and from direct geoscientific analyses of Earth mantle-derived

text: xenolith

text: s and mantle that has been exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.

text: The mean heat loss from Earth is , for a global heat loss of . A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.

text: The mean heat loss from Earth is , for a global heat loss of . A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by

text: mantle plume

text: s, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce

text: hotspots

text: and

text: flood basalt

text: s. More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.

text: Sark is made up mainly of amphibolite and granite gneiss rocks, intruded by igneous magma sheets called quartz diorite. Recent (1990–2000) geological studies and rock age dating by geologists from Oxford Brookes University shows that the gneisses probably formed around 620–600 million years ago during the Late Pre-Cambrian Age Cadomian Orogeny. The quartz diorite sheets were intruded during this Cadomian deformation and metamorphic event. All the Sark rocks (and those of the nearby Channel Islands of Guernsey and Alderney) formed during geological activity in the continental crust above an ancient subduction zone. This geological setting would have been analogous to the modern-day subduction zone of the Pacific Ocean plate colliding and subducting beneath the North and South American continental plate.

text: Sark is made up mainly of

text: amphibolite

text: and

text: granite

text: gneiss

text: rocks, intruded by igneous magma sheets called

text: quartz diorite

text: . Recent (1990–2000) geological studies and rock age dating by geologists from

text: Oxford Brookes University

text: shows that the gneisses probably formed around 620–600 million years ago during the Late Pre-Cambrian Age

text: Cadomian Orogeny

text: . The quartz diorite sheets were intruded during this Cadomian deformation and metamorphic event. All the Sark rocks (and those of the nearby Channel Islands of

text: Guernsey

text: and

text: Alderney

text: ) formed during geological activity in the continental crust above an ancient

text: subduction

text: zone. This geological setting would have been analogous to the modern-day subduction zone of the Pacific Ocean plate colliding and subducting beneath the North and South American continental plate.

text: The effect of stress in the continuum flow is represented by the  and  terms; these are gradients of surface forces, analogous to stresses in a solid. Here  is called the pressure gradient and arises from the isotropic part of the Cauchy stress tensor, which has order two. This part is given by normal stresses that turn up in almost all situations, dynamic or not. The anisotropic part of the stress tensor gives rise to , which conventionally describes viscous forces; for incompressible flow, this is only a shear effect. Thus,  is the deviatoric stress tensor, and the stress tensor is equal to:

text: The effect of stress in the continuum flow is represented by the  and  terms; these are

text: gradient

text: s of surface forces, analogous to stresses in a solid. Here  is called the pressure gradient and arises from the isotropic part of the

text: Cauchy stress tensor

text: , which has order two. This part is given by

text: normal stress

text: es that turn up in almost all situations, dynamic or not. The anisotropic part of the stress tensor gives rise to , which conventionally describes viscous forces; for incompressible flow, this is only a shear effect. Thus,  is the

text: deviatoric stress tensor

text: , and the stress tensor is equal to:

text: Also called "vertical tectonics" because structures move vertically due to gravity-driven instabilities. The deformation that occurs within the greenstone belts represents a dome-and-keel structure or the rise of diapiric plutons. This model provides an explanation for the dome-and-keel structure associated with greenstone belts. When dense basaltic lavas erupt on top of ductile, less dense TTGs they become weighed down by the overburden and squeeze out from areas with less stress. Partial convective overturn is a related idea stating that a thick, dense, cool greenstone cover in the upper crust acts as an insulator to the underlying hot granitic middle crust. Previously metamorphosed dense amphibolites at the base of the overlying greenstone layer sank down into a partially melted granitic middle crust. These sinking greenstones forced the granitic partial melts sideways and upwards, emplacing them into the margins of the belt and later folding them. The greenstone cover allows the granitic layer to remobilize and form the dome structure. This two stage event is dated between 3.26 and 3.22 Ga.

text: Also called "vertical tectonics" because structures move vertically due to gravity-driven instabilities. The deformation that occurs within the greenstone belts represents a dome-and-keel structure or the rise of diapiric plutons. This model provides an explanation for the dome-and-keel structure associated with greenstone belts. When dense basaltic lavas erupt on top of ductile, less dense TTGs they become weighed down by the

text: overburden

text: and squeeze out from areas with less stress. Partial convective overturn is a related idea stating that a thick, dense, cool greenstone cover in the upper crust acts as an insulator to the underlying hot granitic middle crust. Previously metamorphosed dense

text: amphibolite

text: s at the base of the overlying greenstone layer sank down into a partially melted granitic middle crust. These sinking greenstones forced the granitic partial melts sideways and upwards, emplacing them into the margins of the belt and later folding them. The greenstone cover allows the granitic layer to remobilize and form the dome structure. This two stage event is dated between 3.26 and 3.22 Ga.

text: The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their atomic numbers increase. Helium is the most common element in the universe after hydrogen, with a mass fraction of about 24%. Most of the helium in the universe was formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the fusion of hydrogen in stellar nucleosynthesis (and, to a very slight degree, the alpha decay of heavy elements). Abundances on Earth follow different trends; for example, helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere. The reason is that there is no primordial helium in the atmosphere; due to the small mass of the atom, helium cannot be retained by the Earth's gravitational field. Helium on Earth comes from the alpha decay of heavy elements such as uranium and thorium found in the Earth's crust, and tends to accumulate in natural gas deposits. The abundance of argon, on the other hand, is increased as a result of the beta decay of potassium-40, also found in the Earth's crust, to form argon-40, which is the most abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the Solar System. This process is the basis for the potassium-argon dating method. Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere, in what has been called the missing xenon problem; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth's crust. After the discovery of xenon dioxide, a research showed that Xe can substitute for Si in the quartz. Radon is formed in the lithosphere as from the alpha decay of radium. It can seep into buildings through cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated. Due to its high radioactivity, radon presents a significant health hazard; it is implicated in an estimated 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States alone.

text: The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their

text: atomic number

text: s increase. Helium is the most common element in the

text: universe

text: after hydrogen, with a mass fraction of about 24%. Most of the helium in the universe was formed during

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis

text: , but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the fusion of hydrogen in

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: (and, to a very slight degree, the

text: alpha decay

text: of heavy elements). Abundances on Earth follow different trends; for example, helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere. The reason is that there is no

text: primordial

text: helium in the atmosphere; due to the small mass of the atom, helium cannot be retained by the Earth's

text: gravitational field

text: . Helium on Earth comes from the

text: alpha decay

text: of heavy elements such as

text: uranium

text: and

text: thorium

text: found in the Earth's

text: crust

text: , and tends to accumulate in

text: natural gas deposit

text: s. The abundance of argon, on the other hand, is increased as a result of the

text: beta decay

text: of

text: , also found in the Earth's crust, to form

text: , which is the most abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the

text: Solar System

text: . This process is the basis for the

text: potassium-argon dating

text: method. Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere, in what has been called the missing xenon problem; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth's crust. After the discovery of

text: xenon dioxide

text: , a research showed that Xe can substitute for Si in the

text: quartz

text: . Radon is formed in the

text: lithosphere

text: as from the

text: alpha decay

text: of radium. It can seep into buildings through cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated. Due to its high radioactivity, radon presents a significant health hazard; it is implicated in an estimated 21,000

text: lung cancer

text: deaths per year in the United States alone.

text: Chronic stress is seen to affect the parts of the brain where memories are processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stress hormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion is made up of glucocorticoids, including cortisol, which are steroid hormones that the adrenal gland releases, although this can increase storage of flashbulb memories it decreases long-term potentation (LTP).Prolonged Stress can also be harmful to our body. That is because stress releases cortisol, and cortisol causes metabolic activity throughout the body. Metabolic activity is raised in the hippocampus. Overstimulation and toxins then are more likely to kill or damage neurons in the hippocampus. The hippocampus is important in the brain for storing certain kinds of memories and damage to the hippocampus can cause trouble in storing new memories but old memories, memories stored before the damage, are not lost. Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many older adults start to experience with age.

text: Chronic stress is seen to affect the parts of the brain where

text: memories

text: are processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stress hormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion is made up of

text: glucocorticoids

text: , including

text: cortisol

text: , which are

text: steroid hormones

text: that the

text: adrenal gland

text: releases, although this can increase storage of flashbulb memories it decreases long-term potentation (LTP).Prolonged Stress can also be harmful to our body. That is because stress releases cortisol, and cortisol causes metabolic activity throughout the body. Metabolic activity is raised in the hippocampus. Overstimulation and toxins then are more likely to kill or damage neurons in the hippocampus. The hippocampus is important in the brain for storing certain kinds of memories and damage to the hippocampus can cause trouble in storing new memories but old memories, memories stored before the damage, are not lost. Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many older adults start to experience with age.

text: The 1906 earthquake preceded the development of the Richter magnitude scale by three decades. The most widely accepted estimate for the magnitude of the quake on the modern moment magnitude scale is 7.8; values from 7.7 to as high as 8.3 have been proposed. According to findings published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, severe deformations in the earth's crust took place both before and after the earthquake's impact. Accumulated strain on the faults in the system was relieved during the earthquake, which is the supposed cause of the damage along the 450-kilometer-long segment of the San Andreas plate boundary. The main shock epicenter occurred offshore about  from the city, near Mussel Rock. Shaking was felt from Oregon to Los Angeles, and inland as far as central Nevada.

text: The 1906 earthquake preceded the development of the

text: Richter magnitude scale

text: by three decades. The most widely accepted estimate for the magnitude of the quake on the modern

text: moment magnitude scale

text: is 7.8; values from 7.7 to as high as 8.3 have been proposed. According to findings published in the

text: Journal of Geophysical Research

text: , severe deformations in the earth's crust took place both before and after the earthquake's impact. Accumulated strain on the faults in the system was relieved during the earthquake, which is the supposed cause of the damage along the 450-kilometer-long segment of the San Andreas plate boundary. The

text: main shock

text: epicenter

text: occurred offshore about  from the city, near

text: Mussel Rock

text: . Shaking was felt from

text: Oregon

text: to Los Angeles, and inland as far as central

text: Nevada

text: Medina talks about how all types of stress are not equal.  He describes that some types of stress are actually useful because they boost learning.  It’s hard to differentiate whether someone is experiencing stress by their physiological responses.  When you are aroused the physiological state resembles both stress and pleasure.  So, Jeansok Kim and David Diamond came up with a three part measurement and definition that helps identify if someone is stressed.  There must be an aroused physiological response that others can recognize and measure.  The second part is that the stressor must be seen as unpleasant.  The third part is that the person must feel out of control, when it comes to the stressor.  The types of stress that contain these components, are measurable in a lab setting are the type of stress Medina refers to.

text: Medina talks about how all types of stress are not equal.  He describes that some types of stress are actually useful because they boost learning.  It’s hard to differentiate whether someone is experiencing stress by their

text: physiological

text: responses.  When you are aroused the physiological state resembles both stress and pleasure.  So, Jeansok Kim and David Diamond came up with a three part measurement and definition that helps identify if someone is stressed.  There must be an aroused physiological response that others can recognize and measure.  The second part is that the stressor must be seen as unpleasant.  The third part is that the person must feel out of control, when it comes to the stressor.  The types of stress that contain these components, are measurable in a lab setting are the type of stress Medina refers to.

text: In physical geography and geology, a horst is the raised fault block bounded by normal faults or graben. A horst is a raised block of the Earth's crust that has lifted, or has remained stationary, while the land on either side has subsided. Horst is Dutch and German for heap.

text: In physical

text: geography

text: and

text: geology

text: , a horst is the raised fault block bounded by normal

text: fault

text: s or

text: graben

text: . A horst is a raised block of the Earth's

text: crust

text: that has lifted, or has remained stationary, while the land on either side has subsided. Horst is

text: Dutch

text: and

text: German

text: for heap.

text: New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plates. In the South Island most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault with a major reverse component, the Alpine Fault. In the North Island, the displacement is mainly taken up along the Kermadec subduction zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component  of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the North Island Fault System (NIFS). A group of dextral strike-slip structures, known as the Marlborough Fault System, transfer displacement between the mainly transform and convergent type plate boundaries in a complex zone at the northern end of South Island.

text: Australian

text: and

text: Pacific Plate

text: s. In the

text: South Island

text: most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single

text: dextral (right lateral)

text: strike-slip fault

text: with a major

text: reverse

text: component, the

text: Alpine Fault

text: . In the

text: North Island

text: , the displacement is mainly taken up along the

text: Kermadec subduction zone

text: , although the remaining dextral strike-slip component  of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the

text: North Island Fault System

text: Marlborough Fault System

text: transform

text: and

text: convergent type plate boundaries

text: in a complex zone at the northern end of South Island.

text: At a typical subduction zone, an oceanic plate typically sinks at a fairly steep angle, and a volcanic arc grows above the subducting plate.  During the growth of the Rocky Mountains, the angle of the subducting plate may have been significantly flattened, moving the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than is normally expected. It is postulated that the shallow angle of the subducting plate greatly increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the extraordinarily broad, high Rocky Mountain range.

text: At a typical subduction zone, an oceanic plate typically sinks at a fairly steep angle, and a

text: volcanic arc

text: grows above the subducting plate.  During the growth of the Rocky Mountains, the angle of the subducting plate may have been significantly flattened, moving the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than is normally expected. It is postulated that the shallow angle of the subducting plate greatly increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous

text: thrusts

text: piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the extraordinarily broad, high Rocky Mountain range.

text: The Nazca Plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru–Chile Trench, of the Nazca Plate under the South American Plate is largely responsible for the Andean orogeny. The Nazca Plate is bounded on the west by the Pacific Plate and to the south by the Antarctic Plate through the East Pacific Rise and the Chile Rise respectively. The movement of the Nazca Plate over several hotspots has created some volcanic islands as well as east-west running seamount chains that subduct under South America. Nazca is a relatively young plate both in terms of the age of its rocks and its existence as an independent plate having been formed from the break-up of the Farallon Plate about 23 million years ago. The oldest rocks of the plate are about 50 million years old.

text: The Nazca Plate, named after the

text: Nazca

text: region of southern

text: Peru

text: , is an oceanic

text: tectonic plate

text: in the eastern

text: Pacific Ocean

text: basin off the west coast of

text: South America

text: . The ongoing

text: subduction

text: , along the

text: Peru–Chile Trench

text: , of the Nazca Plate under the

text: South American Plate

text: is largely responsible for the

text: Andean orogeny

text: . The Nazca Plate is bounded on the west by the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and to the south by the

text: Antarctic Plate

text: through the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: and the

text: Chile Rise

text: respectively. The movement of the Nazca Plate over several

text: hotspots

text: has created some

text: volcanic islands

text: as well as east-west running

text: seamount

text: chains that subduct under

text: South America

text: . Nazca is a relatively young plate both in terms of the age of its rocks and its existence as an independent plate having been formed from the break-up of the

text: Farallon Plate

text: about 23 million years ago. The oldest rocks of the plate are about 50 million years old.

text: In contrast to the persistence of continental crust, the size, shape, and number of continents are constantly changing through geologic time. Different tracts rift apart, collide and recoalesce as part of a grand supercontinent cycle.There are currently about 7 billion cubic kilometers of continental crust, but this quantity varies because of the nature of the forces involved. The relative permanence of continental crust contrasts with the short life of oceanic crust. Because continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust, when active margins of the two meet in subduction zones, the oceanic crust is typically subducted back into the mantle. Continental crust is rarely subducted (this may occur where continental crustal blocks collide and overthicken, causing deep melting under mountain belts such as the Himalayas or the Alps). For this reason the oldest rocks on Earth are within the cratons or cores of the continents, rather than in repeatedly recycled oceanic crust; the oldest intact crustal fragment is the Acasta Gneiss at 4.01 Ga, whereas the oldest oceanic crust (located on the Pacific Plate offshore of Kamchatka) is from the Jurassic (~180 Ma). Continental crust and the rock layers that lie on and within it are thus the best archive of Earth's history.

text: In contrast to the persistence of continental crust, the size, shape, and number of continents are constantly changing through geologic time. Different tracts rift apart, collide and recoalesce as part of a grand

text: supercontinent cycle

text: .There are currently about 7 billion cubic kilometers of continental crust, but this quantity varies because of the nature of the forces involved. The relative permanence of continental crust contrasts with the short life of oceanic crust. Because continental crust is less dense than oceanic crust, when active margins of the two meet in

text: subduction zone

text: s, the oceanic crust is typically subducted back into the mantle. Continental crust is rarely subducted (this may occur where continental crustal blocks collide and overthicken, causing deep melting under mountain belts such as the

text: Himalayas

text: or the

text: Alps

text: ). For this reason the oldest rocks on Earth are within the

text: craton

text: s or cores of the continents, rather than in repeatedly

text: recycled oceanic crust

text: ; the oldest intact crustal fragment is the

text: Acasta Gneiss

text: at 4.01

text: Ga

text: , whereas the oldest oceanic crust (located on the

text: Pacific Plate

text: offshore of

text: Kamchatka

text: ) is from the

text: Jurassic

text: Ma

text: ). Continental crust and the rock layers that lie on and within it are thus the best archive of Earth's history.

text: Foreland basins form because as the mountain belt grows, it exerts a significant mass on the Earth’s crust, which causes it to bend, or flex, downwards.  This occurs so that the weight of the mountain belt can be compensated by isostasy at the upflex of the forebulge.

text: Foreland basins form because as the mountain belt grows, it exerts a significant mass on the Earth’s crust, which causes it to bend, or flex, downwards.  This occurs so that the weight of the mountain belt can be compensated by

text: isostasy

text: at the upflex of the forebulge.

text: The ultimate purpose of any analysis is to allow the comparison of the developed stresses, strains, and deflections with those that are allowed by the design criteria. All structures, and components thereof, must obviously be designed to have a capacity greater than what is expected to develop during the structure's use to obviate failure. The stress that is calculated to develop in a member is compared to the strength of the material from which the member is made by calculating the ratio of the strength of the material to the calculated stress. The ratio must obviously be greater than 1.0 if the member is to not fail. However, the ratio of the allowable stress to the developed stress must be greater than 1.0 as a factor of safety (design factor) will be specified in the design requirement for the structure. All structures are designed to exceed the load those structures are expected to experience during their use. The design factor (a number greater than 1.0) represents the degree of uncertainty in the value of the loads, material strength, and consequences of failure. The stress (or load, or deflection) the structure is expected to experience are known as the working, the design or limit stress. The limit stress, for example, is chosen to be some fraction of the yield strength of the material from which the structure is made. The ratio of the ultimate strength of the material to the allowable stress is defined as the factor of safety against ultimate failure.

text: The ultimate purpose of any analysis is to allow the comparison of the developed stresses, strains, and deflections with those that are allowed by the design criteria. All structures, and components thereof, must obviously be designed to have a capacity greater than what is expected to develop during the structure's use to obviate failure. The stress that is calculated to develop in a member is compared to the strength of the material from which the member is made by calculating the ratio of the strength of the material to the calculated stress. The ratio must obviously be greater than 1.0 if the member is to not fail. However, the ratio of the allowable stress to the developed stress must be greater than 1.0 as a factor of safety (design factor) will be specified in the design requirement for the structure. All structures are designed to exceed the load those structures are expected to experience during their use. The design factor (a number greater than 1.0) represents the degree of uncertainty in the value of the loads, material strength, and consequences of failure. The stress (or load, or deflection) the structure is expected to experience are known as the working, the design or limit stress. The limit stress, for example, is chosen to be some fraction of the

text: yield strength

text: of the material from which the structure is made. The ratio of the ultimate strength of the material to the allowable stress is defined as the factor of safety against ultimate failure.

text: In terms of ophiolite emplacement, there was a problem of how to uplift dense oceanic lithosphere through 5–6 km of water and onto continents. This process, however it happened, was coined obduction. The processes could possibly vary depending on the active or passive type of margin encountered, such as Tethyan or Cordilleran margins. In Tethyan passive margins gravity sliding over accretionary terranes via low angle thrust faults was proposed. On the Cordilleran margin, lithospheric fragments are incorporated into accretionary terranes. In the Troodos, gravity surveys have implied that the ophiolite is underlain by continental crust whose relative buoyancy uplifted the ocean crust, which in some circumstances could eventually lead to sliding onto the accretionary wedge (or now Eratostines seamount subducted for Troodos).

text: In terms of ophiolite emplacement, there was a problem of how to uplift dense oceanic lithosphere through 5–6 km of water and onto continents. This process, however it happened, was coined obduction. The processes could possibly vary depending on the active or passive type of margin encountered, such as

text: Tethyan

text: or

text: Cordilleran

text: margins. In Tethyan passive margins gravity sliding over

text: accretionary terranes

text: via low angle thrust faults was proposed. On the Cordilleran margin, lithospheric fragments are incorporated into accretionary terranes. In the Troodos,

text: gravity surveys

text: have implied that the ophiolite is underlain by continental crust whose relative buoyancy uplifted the ocean crust, which in some circumstances could eventually lead to sliding onto the accretionary wedge (or now Eratostines seamount subducted for Troodos).

text: Both the initial earthquake and the magnitude 8.2 aftershock were classified (based on their focal mechanisms) as strike-slip earthquakes, meaning that the crust on either side shifted against each other horizontally, rather than vertically. Since 2006 there have been three other earthquakes in the area with a similar faulting style. All these earthquakes were consistent with either left-lateral slip on SSW–NNE orientated strike-slip faults, or right-lateral slip on WNW–ESE orientated strike-slip faults, both compatible with the direction of convergence. A back projection analysis of data collected by Hi-net, an observation network in Japan, found a complex pattern of four conjugate faults. There was a strong correlation between the fault rupture pattern and the distribution of the aftershocks.

text: Both the initial earthquake and the magnitude 8.2 aftershock were classified (based on their

text: focal mechanism

text: s) as

text: strike-slip

text: earthquakes, meaning that the crust on either side shifted against each other horizontally, rather than vertically. Since 2006 there have been three other earthquakes in the area with a similar faulting style. All these earthquakes were consistent with either left-lateral slip on SSW–NNE orientated strike-slip faults, or right-lateral slip on WNW–ESE orientated strike-slip faults, both compatible with the direction of convergence. A back projection analysis of data collected by Hi-net, an observation network in Japan, found a complex pattern of four conjugate faults. There was a strong correlation between the fault rupture pattern and the distribution of the aftershocks.

text: A fully denatured protein lacks both tertiary and secondary structure, and exists as a so-called random coil. Under certain conditions some proteins can refold; however, in many cases, denaturation is irreversible. Cells sometimes protect their proteins against the denaturing influence of heat with enzymes known as heat shock proteins (a type of chaperone), which assist other proteins both in folding and in remaining folded. Some proteins never fold in cells at all except with the assistance of chaperones which either isolate individual proteins so that their folding is not interrupted by interactions with other proteins or help to unfold misfolded proteins, allowing them to refold into the correct native structure. This function is crucial to prevent the risk of precipitation into insoluble amorphous aggregates. The external factors involved in protein denaturation or disruption of the native state include temperature, external fields (electric, magnetic), molecular crowding, and even the limitation of space, which can have a big influence on the folding of proteins. High concentrations of solutes, extremes of pH, mechanical forces, and the presence of chemical denaturants can contribute to protein denaturation, as well. These individual factors are categorized together as stresses. Chaperones are shown to exist in increasing concentrations during times of cellular stress and help the proper folding of emerging proteins as well as denatured or misfolded ones.

text: A fully denatured protein lacks both tertiary and secondary structure, and exists as a so-called

text: random coil

text: . Under certain conditions some proteins can refold; however, in many cases, denaturation is irreversible. Cells sometimes protect their proteins against the denaturing influence of heat with

text: enzyme

text: s known as

text: heat shock protein

text: s (a type of chaperone), which assist other proteins both in folding and in remaining folded. Some proteins never fold in cells at all except with the assistance of chaperones which either isolate individual proteins so that their folding is not interrupted by interactions with other proteins or help to unfold misfolded proteins, allowing them to refold into the correct native structure. This function is crucial to prevent the risk of

text: precipitation

text: into

text: insoluble

text: amorphous aggregates. The external factors involved in protein denaturation or disruption of the native state include temperature, external fields (electric, magnetic), molecular crowding, and even the limitation of space, which can have a big influence on the folding of proteins. High concentrations of

text: solutes

text: , extremes of

text: pH

text: , mechanical forces, and the presence of chemical denaturants can contribute to protein denaturation, as well. These individual factors are categorized together as stresses. Chaperones are shown to exist in increasing concentrations during times of cellular stress and help the proper folding of emerging proteins as well as denatured or misfolded ones.

text: The Salton Trough is part of the complex plate boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate where it undergoes a transition from the continental transform of the San Andreas Fault system to the series of short spreading centers of the East Pacific Rise linked by oceanic transforms in the Gulf of California. The two main right lateral strike-slip fault strands that extend across the southern part of the trough are the Elsinore Fault Zone/Laguna Salada Fault to the western side of the trough and the Imperial Fault to the east.<ref name="Mueller">{{cite journal|last=Mueller|first=K.J.|author2=Rockwell T.K.|year=1995|title=Late quaternary activity of the Laguna Salada fault in northern Baja California, Mexico|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|publisher=Geological Society of America|volume=107|issue=1|pages=8–18|url=http://gsabulletin.gsapubs.org/content/107/1/8.full.pdf|doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1995)107

text: The

text: Salton Trough

text: is part of the complex plate boundary between the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: where it undergoes a transition from the

text: continental transform

text: of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system to the series of short

text: spreading center

text: s of the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: linked by oceanic transforms in the

text: Gulf of California

text: . The two main right lateral

text: strike-slip fault

text: strands that extend across the southern part of the trough are the

text: Elsinore Fault Zone

text: Laguna Salada Fault

text: to the western side of the trough and the

text: Imperial Fault

text: to the east.<ref name="Mueller">{{cite journal|last=Mueller|first=K.J.|author2=Rockwell T.K.|year=1995|title=Late quaternary activity of the Laguna Salada fault in northern Baja California, Mexico|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|publisher=

text: Geological Society of America

text: Basin formation was initiated in the middle Eocene as extension related to the opening of the Makassar straits and Celebes Sea rifted the crust of Eastern Borneo.  This rifting created a broad system of half grabens that reverse polarity along NNE-SSW and N-S trending normal faults. Thermal subsidence in the late Eocene and early Oligocene induced minor reactivation along the existing faults. During the late Oligocene there was a brief renewal of extension and rifting along the northern margin of the basin, while the other basin margins experienced uplift.  Inversion of the basin began in the Late Oligocene.  Tectonic uplift of Borneo in the earliest Miocene inverted the Upper Kutai basin above sea level.  Inversion continued in a punctuated fashion through the Miocene and Pliocene. A compressional regime is implied for the later inversion events with stresses transmitted from regional plate collisions.  The high angle normal faults were reactivated as thrust faults, inverting the half-grabens.    The locus of inversion shifted east with each event.

text: Basin formation was initiated in the middle Eocene as extension related to the opening of the Makassar straits and

text: Celebes Sea

text: rifted the crust of Eastern Borneo.  This rifting created a broad system of

text: half grabens

text: that reverse polarity along NNE-SSW and N-S trending

text: normal fault

text: s.

text: Thermal subsidence

text: in the late Eocene and early Oligocene induced minor reactivation along the existing faults. During the late

text: Oligocene

text: there was a brief renewal of extension and rifting along the northern margin of the basin, while the other basin margins experienced uplift.  Inversion of the basin began in the Late Oligocene.  Tectonic uplift of Borneo in the earliest Miocene inverted the Upper Kutai basin above sea level.  Inversion continued in a punctuated fashion through the Miocene and Pliocene. A compressional regime is implied for the later inversion events with stresses transmitted from regional plate collisions.  The high angle

text: normal fault

text: s were reactivated as

text: thrust faults

text: , inverting the half-grabens.    The locus of inversion shifted east with each event.

text: The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken up into tectonic plates. The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

text: The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken up into

text: tectonic plates

text: . The Earth's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary:

text: convergent

text: divergent

text: , or

text: transform

text: Earthquake

text: s,

text: volcanic activity

text: mountain

text: -building, and

text: oceanic trench

text: formation occur along these

text: plate boundaries

text: . The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

text: One particular technique that uses music as a coping strategy is choosing and listening to music genres that have been shown to correlate with lower levels of stress. For example, it has been suggested that listening to classical music or self-selected music can lower stress levels in adult individuals. Music that is fast, heavy or even dark in nature may produce an increase in these same stress levels, however many people also find the cathartic effects of music to be intensified with the listening of music that is intense in such a way. Ambient music is a genre of music that is often associated with feelings of calmness or introspectiveness. While listening to self-selected genres, an individual is provided with a sense of control after choosing the type of music he or she would like to listen to. In certain situations, this choice can be one of the few moments where stressed and depressed individuals feel a locus of control over their respective lives. Introducing the feeling of control can be a valuable asset as the individual attempts to cope with his or her stress.

text: A rift is a pathway between worlds, often created by magicians.  The Black Robes of Tsuranuanni have discovered a method to create rifts, but only Milamber (Pug as he is called on Midkemia), his son Magnus and Macros the Black have thus far mastered the ability to control the size and destination of rifts. The first rift to appear on Midkemia came from Kelewan, which led to the Riftwar.

text: A rift is a pathway between worlds, often created by magicians.  The Black Robes of Tsuranuanni have discovered a method to create rifts, but only Milamber (Pug as he is called on Midkemia), his son Magnus and Macros the Black have thus far mastered the ability to control the size and destination of rifts. The first rift to appear on Midkemia came from Kelewan, which led to the

text: Riftwar

text: The primary cause of change in the composition of a magma is cooling, which is an inevitable consequence of the magma being created and migrating from the site of partial melting into an area of lower stress - generally a cooler volume of the crust.

text: The hornblende schist, found in contact with the serpentine mass directly to the North (at Ogo Dour) and to the South (at Pentreath and Church Cove) is the metamorphic remnant of basaltic intrusives into the upper crust. It is typified by a schistose texture and visible crystals of black or dark green hornblende. Structural studies of the hornblende schist indicate that it has been subject to at least three stages of deformation. Folding of the schist at Housel Bay indicates that the formation was also subject to more than one subsequent stage of shear stress.

text: The hornblende schist, found in contact with the serpentine mass directly to the North (at Ogo Dour) and to the South (at

text: Pentreath

text: and

text: Church Cove

text: ) is the metamorphic remnant of basaltic intrusives into the

text: upper crust

text: . It is typified by a schistose texture and visible crystals of black or dark green hornblende. Structural studies of the hornblende schist indicate that it has been subject to at least three stages of deformation.

text: Folding

text: of the schist at Housel Bay indicates that the formation was also subject to more than one subsequent stage of

text: shear stress

text: The effect of a fault is to relieve strain, which can be caused by compression, extension, or lateral stress in the rock layers at the surface or deep in the Earth’s subsurface.  Transform faults specifically relieve strain by transporting the strain between ridges or subduction zones. Transform faults also act as the plane of weakness allowing for the splitting in rift zones.

text: The effect of a fault is to relieve

text: strain

text: , which can be caused by

text: compression

text: , extension, or

text: lateral stress

text: in the rock layers at the surface or deep in the Earth’s subsurface.  Transform faults specifically relieve strain by transporting the strain between ridges or subduction zones. Transform faults also act as the plane of weakness allowing for the splitting in

text: rift zone

text: s.

text: Where the thickness of the crust and lithosphere varies, equilibrium must be reached. Isostatic compensation and gravity anomalies result from balance between mass excess of the extra mantle beneath the thinned lithosphere and the overlying low-density crust. Positive gravity anomalies result from the relatively low flexural strength of the lithosphere during the beginning of rifting.  As the passive margin matures, the crust and uppermost mantle become colder and stronger, so that the compensating deflection in the base of the lithosphere is broader than the actual rift. Higher flexural strength results in a broadening of the gravity anomaly with time.

text: Where the thickness of the crust and lithosphere varies, equilibrium must be reached.

text: Isostatic

text: compensation and gravity anomalies result from balance between mass excess of the extra mantle beneath the thinned lithosphere and the overlying low-density crust. Positive gravity anomalies result from the relatively low flexural strength of the lithosphere during the beginning of rifting.  As the passive margin matures, the crust and uppermost mantle become colder and stronger, so that the compensating deflection in the base of the lithosphere is broader than the actual rift. Higher flexural strength results in a broadening of the gravity anomaly with time.

text: Hollister is well-known among geologists because it portrays one of the best examples of aseismic creep anywhere in the world. The Calaveras Fault (a branch of the San Andreas Fault system) bisects the city north and south, roughly along Locust Ave. and Powell St. The streets running east/west across the fault have significant visible offsets. The fault runs directly under several houses. Even though they are visibly contorted the houses are still habitable as the owners have reinforced them to withstand the dislocation of their foundations. Although there was extensive damage in the town after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, and the governor of California came to visit, this was due to a slip of the San Andreas Fault and was not related to the aseismic creep on the Calaveras Fault.

text: Hollister is well-known among geologists because it portrays one of the best examples of

text: aseismic creep

text: anywhere in the world. The

text: Calaveras Fault

text: (a branch of the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system) bisects the city north and south, roughly along Locust Ave. and Powell St. The streets running east/west across the fault have significant visible offsets. The fault runs directly under several houses. Even though they are visibly contorted the houses are still habitable as the owners have reinforced them to withstand the dislocation of their foundations. Although there was extensive damage in the town after the

text: 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake

text: , and the governor of California came to visit, this was due to a slip of the San Andreas Fault and was not related to the aseismic creep on the Calaveras Fault.

text: The adding of weight by sedimentation from erosion or orogenic processes, or loading, causes crustal depression and subsidence. Sediments accumulate at the lowest elevation possible, in accommodation spaces. The rate and magnitude of sedimentation controls the rate at which subsidence occurs. By contrast, in orogenic processes, mountain building creates a large load on the Earth's crust, causing flexural depressions in adjacent lithospheric crust.

text: The adding of weight by

text: sedimentation

text: from

text: erosion

text: or orogenic processes, or loading, causes crustal depression and subsidence. Sediments accumulate at the lowest elevation possible, in accommodation spaces. The rate and magnitude of sedimentation controls the rate at which subsidence occurs. By contrast, in

text: orogenic

text: processes, mountain building creates a large load on the Earth's crust, causing flexural depressions in adjacent

text: lithospheric

text: crust.

text: When the subduction zone ceased about 55 million years ago, the Farallon Plate was split into two distinctive plates which can still be observed today as the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Cocos Plate. Both were part of the same plate, but were discovered independently before this connection was made. At the time of this break off, the Pacific Plate had a general north west movement while the North American Plate had a general south east movement. This created a new fault zone when a weak point gave way between these two plates. This is the beginnings of the infamous San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas Fault is a right-lateral strike strip transverse fault. When this fault was just created, a volcano from the ancient subduction zone was situated about 3/4th on the Pacific Plate and 1/4th on the North American plate somewhere in what is today Central California. Nearly 55 million years later, this volcano was offset by about 250 miles. It is the largest known offset of the San Andreas Fault and it help geologist determine important information such as average slip movement and the age of the fault. The northern part of this offset is now called Pinnacles National Park near Soledad, California. The other half of Pinnacles is located in Three Points, California which is in Los Angeles County.

text: When the subduction zone ceased about 55 million years ago, the Farallon Plate was split into two distinctive plates which can still be observed today as the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: and the

text: Cocos Plate

text: . Both were part of the same plate, but were discovered independently before this connection was made. At the time of this break off, the Pacific Plate had a general north west movement while the North American Plate had a general south east movement. This created a new fault zone when a weak point gave way between these two plates. This is the beginnings of the infamous

text: San Andreas Fault

text: . The San Andreas Fault is a right-lateral strike strip

text: transverse fault

text: . When this fault was just created, a volcano from the ancient subduction zone was situated about 3/4th on the Pacific Plate and 1/4th on the North American plate somewhere in what is today

text: Central California

text: . Nearly 55 million years later, this volcano was offset by about 250 miles. It is the largest known offset of the San Andreas Fault and it help geologist determine important information such as average slip movement and the age of the fault. The northern part of this offset is now called

text: Pinnacles National Park

text: near

text: Soledad, California

text: . The other half of Pinnacles is located in

text: Three Points, California

text: which is in

text: Los Angeles County

text: The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that forms part of the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The strike-slip fault is characterized by mainly lateral motion in a dextral sense, where the western (Pacific) plate moves northward relative to the eastern (North American) plate. The 1906 rupture propagated both northward and southward for a total of . This fault runs the length of California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, a distance of about . The maximum observed surface displacement was about 20 feet (6 m); geodetic measurements show displacements of up to 28 feet (8.5 m).

text: The

text: San Andreas Fault

text: is a continental

text: transform fault

text: that forms part of the tectonic boundary between the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . The

text: strike-slip

text: fault is characterized by mainly lateral motion in a

text: dextral

text: sense, where the western (Pacific) plate moves northward relative to the eastern (North American) plate. The 1906 rupture propagated both northward and southward for a total of . This

text: fault

text: runs the length of California from the

text: Salton Sea

text: in the south to

text: Cape Mendocino

text: in the north, a distance of about . The maximum observed surface displacement was about 20 feet (6 m);

text: geodetic

text: measurements show displacements of up to 28 feet (8.5 m).

text: Isostasy (Greek ísos "equal", stásis "standstill") is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density.

text: Isostasy (Greek

text: ísos

text: "equal",

text: stásis

text: "standstill") is the state of

text: gravitational

text: equilibrium between

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: such that the

text: crust

text: "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density.

text: The village is especially rich in the number of 'Folds' formed in the 17th century. The title usually indicates the enclosure of a farmstead and associated cottages. Isherwood Fold, off Blackburn Road is a good example. Other examples are Horrocks Fold, Thomasson Fold and Brandwood Fold.

text: In the Earth's crust, bismuth is about twice as abundant as gold. The most important ores of bismuth are bismuthinite and bismite. Native bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia, and China.

text: In the Earth's crust, bismuth is about

text: twice as abundant as gold

text: . The most important

text: ore

text: s of bismuth are

text: bismuthinite

text: and

text: bismite

text: . Native bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia, and China.

text: Potential energy is stored in the crust in the form of built-up stress. During an earthquake, this stored energy is transformed and results in

text: Potential energy is stored in the crust in the form of built-up

text: stress

text: . During an earthquake, this stored energy is transformed and results in

text: According to the BBC, the "global map shows the variation in strength of the magnetic field after the Earth's dipole field has been removed (Earth's dipole field varies from 35,000 nano-Tesla (nT) at the Equator to 70,000 nT at the poles). After removal of the dipole field, the remaining variations in the field (few hundreds of nT) are due to changes in the magnetic properties of the crustal rocks." The map is graphically represented by illustrating those landmarks of high magnetism in red to yellow hues and those of lower or negative magnetism in blue hues. It can pick up numerous aspects of the earth composition, including the sea floor spreading under the oceans, and reserve deposits like iron ore at Kursk. It identifies some prominent magnetic anomalies on the African continent. The dominant factors for magnetic anomalies picked up on the map are "the thickness of the magnetised layer and the composition of the crust". Younger crust is typically thinner, and naturally has a lower number of magnetic materials.

text: According to the BBC, the "global map shows the variation in strength of the magnetic field after the

text: Earth's dipole field

text: has been removed (Earth's dipole field varies from 35,000

text: nano-

text: Tesla

text: (nT) at the Equator to 70,000 nT at the poles). After removal of the dipole field, the remaining variations in the field (few hundreds of nT) are due to changes in the magnetic properties of the crustal rocks." The map is graphically represented by illustrating those landmarks of high magnetism in red to yellow hues and those of lower or negative magnetism in blue hues. It can pick up numerous aspects of the earth composition, including the sea floor spreading under the oceans, and reserve deposits like iron ore at

text: Kursk

text: . It identifies some prominent magnetic anomalies on the African continent. The dominant factors for magnetic anomalies picked up on the map are "the thickness of the magnetised layer and the composition of the crust". Younger crust is typically thinner, and naturally has a lower number of magnetic materials.

text: Large troughs (long narrow depressions) are called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae are plural. These troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks.  The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano.  Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.  A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down, leaving steep cliffs along the sides; such a trough is called a graben.  Lake George, in northern New York State, is a lake that sits in a graben. Pit craters are often associated with graben. Pit craters do not have rims or ejecta around them, like impact craters do.  Studies have found that on Mars a fault may be as deep as 5 km, that is the break in the rock goes down to 5 km.  Moreover, the crack or fault sometimes widens or dilates.  This widening causes a void to form with a relatively high volume.  When surface material slides into the void, a pit crater or a pit crater chain forms.  On Mars, individual pit craters can join to form chains or even to form troughs that are sometimes scalloped.  Other ideas have been suggested for the formation of fossae and pit craters.  There is evidence that they are associated with dikes of magma.  Magma might move along, under the surface, breaking the rock and more importantly melting ice.  The resulting action would cause a crack to form at the surface.  Pit craters are not common on Earth.  Sinkholes, where the ground falls into a hole (sometimes in the middle of a town) resemble pit craters on Mars.  However, on the Earth these holes are caused by limestone being dissolved thereby causing a void.

text: Large troughs (long narrow depressions) are called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae are plural. These troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks.  The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano.  Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.  A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down, leaving steep cliffs along the sides; such a trough is called a graben.

text: Lake George

text: , in northern

text: New York State

text: , is a lake that sits in a graben. Pit craters are often associated with graben. Pit craters do not have rims or ejecta around them, like impact craters do.  Studies have found that on Mars a fault may be as deep as 5 km, that is the break in the rock goes down to 5 km.  Moreover, the crack or fault sometimes widens or dilates.  This widening causes a void to form with a relatively high volume.  When surface material slides into the void, a pit crater or a pit crater chain forms.  On Mars, individual pit craters can join to form chains or even to form troughs that are sometimes scalloped.  Other ideas have been suggested for the formation of fossae and pit craters.  There is evidence that they are associated with dikes of magma.  Magma might move along, under the surface, breaking the rock and more importantly melting ice.  The resulting action would cause a crack to form at the surface.  Pit craters are not common on Earth.

text: Sinkholes

text: , where the ground falls into a hole (sometimes in the middle of a town) resemble pit craters on Mars.  However, on the Earth these holes are caused by

text: limestone

text: being dissolved thereby causing a void.

text: In some languages stress influences tone, for example in Pame only stressed syllables have a tonal contrast. In Chatino where stress falls predictably on the last syllable of polysyllables, tone is also only distinguished on the last syllable. In Mazahua the opposite occurs and all syllables except the final stressed one distinguishes tone. In Tlapanec stress is determined by the tonal contour of the words. Most languages have systems of sandhi where the tones of a word or syllable are influenced by other tones in other syllables or words. Chinantec has no Sandhi rules but Mixtec and Zapotec have elaborate systems. For Mazatec some dialects has elaborate Sandhi systems (e.g. Soyaltepec) and others have not (e.g. Huautla Mazatec). Some languages (particularly Mixtecan) also have terrace systems where some tones are "upstep" or "downstep", causing a raise or drop in pitch level for the entire tonal register in subsequent syllables.

text: In some languages stress influences tone, for example in Pame only stressed syllables have a tonal contrast. In Chatino where stress falls predictably on the last syllable of polysyllables, tone is also only distinguished on the last syllable. In Mazahua the opposite occurs and all syllables except the final stressed one distinguishes tone. In Tlapanec stress is determined by the tonal contour of the words. Most languages have systems of

text: sandhi

text: where the tones of a word or syllable are influenced by other tones in other syllables or words. Chinantec has no Sandhi rules but Mixtec and Zapotec have elaborate systems. For Mazatec some dialects has elaborate Sandhi systems (e.g. Soyaltepec) and others have not (e.g. Huautla Mazatec). Some languages (particularly Mixtecan) also have

text: terrace systems

text: where some tones are "

text: upstep

text: " or "

text: downstep

text: ", causing a raise or drop in pitch level for the entire tonal register in subsequent syllables.

text: The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics: the movement and collisions of lithospheric plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the westward-moving South American Plate. The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate, in Central America. A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate. Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the Kamchatka Peninsula arcs on south past Japan. The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the Mariana Islands, the Philippines, Bougainville, Tonga, and New Zealand; this portion excludes Australia, since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate. Indonesia lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor. The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of California is a transform fault which offsets a portion of the East Pacific Rise under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a magnitude 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.

text: The Ring of Fire is a direct result of

text: plate tectonics

text: : the movement and collisions of

text: lithospheric

text: plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the

text: Nazca Plate

text: and the

text: Cocos Plate

text: being

text: subducted

text: beneath the westward-moving

text: South American Plate

text: . The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the

text: Caribbean Plate

text: , in

text: Central America

text: . A portion of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the small

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: are being subducted beneath the

text: North American Plate

text: . Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the

text: Aleutian Islands

text: arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the

text: Kamchatka Peninsula

text: arcs on south past

text: Japan

text: . The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the

text: Mariana Islands

text: , the

text: Philippines

text: Bougainville

text: Tonga

text: , and

text: New Zealand

text: ; this portion excludes

text: Australia

text: , since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate.

text: Indonesia

text: lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including

text: New Guinea

text: and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java,

text: Bali

text: Flores

text: , and

text: Timor

text: . The famous and very active

text: San Andreas Fault

text: zone of

text: California

text: is a

text: transform fault

text: which offsets a portion of the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: on the west coast of the

text: Haida Gwaii

text: British Columbia

text: , has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a

text: magnitude

text: 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.

text: These listric faults were a product from the development of a major low angle detachment fault between a sedimentary base of Permian-Triassic upper crust and the mid-crustal horizon. As a result, brittle deformation and crustal thinning in the upper crust of the eastern Exmouth Plateau occurred, while in the west, the lower crystalline crust and lithosphere experienced shear stress and thinning. The formation of the fault system closer to the coast caused the initial development of the Exmouth, Barrow, and Dampier sub-basins of the Northern Carnarvon Basin. Carbonate marine sediment, primarily marls, continued to be deposited at this time on the central and western portions of the plateau. Closer to the shoreline siliciclastic mud and silt were deposited from marine and deltaic environments.

text: On a geologic map, synclines are recognized by a sequence of rock layers that grow progressively younger, followed by the youngest layer at the fold's center or hinge, and by a reverse sequence of the same rock layers on the opposite side of the hinge.  If the fold pattern is circular or elongate circular the structure is a basin.  Folds typically form during crustal deformation as the result of compression that accompanies orogenic mountain building.

text: On a geologic map, synclines are recognized by a sequence of

text: rock

text: layers

text: that grow progressively younger, followed by the youngest layer at the fold's center or hinge, and by a reverse sequence of the same rock layers on the opposite side of the hinge.  If the fold pattern is circular or elongate circular the structure is a

text: basin

text: .  Folds typically form during crustal deformation as the result of compression that accompanies

text: orogenic

text: mountain building.

text: In diurnal animals, it is typical for blood levels of the hormone cortisol—which is used to increase blood sugar and aid metabolism and is also produced in response to stress—to be most stable in the afternoon after decreasing throughout the morning. However, cortisol levels are also the most reactive to environmental changes unrelated to sleep and daylight during the afternoon. As a result, this time of day is considered optimal for researchers studying stress and hormone levels. Plants generally have their highest photosynthetic levels of the day at noon and in the early afternoon, owing to the sun's high angle in the sky. The large proliferation of maize crops across Earth has caused tiny, harmless fluctuations in the normal pattern of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, since these crops photosynthesize large amounts of carbon dioxide during these times and this process sharply drops down during the late afternoon and evening.

text: In

text: diurnal

text: animals, it is typical for blood levels of the hormone

text: cortisol

text: —which is used to increase

text: blood sugar

text: and aid

text: metabolism

text: and is also produced in response to

text: stress

text: —to be most stable in the afternoon after decreasing throughout the morning. However, cortisol levels are also the most reactive to environmental changes unrelated to sleep and daylight during the afternoon. As a result, this time of day is considered optimal for researchers studying stress and hormone levels. Plants generally have their highest

text: photosynthetic

text: levels of the day at noon and in the early afternoon, owing to the sun's high angle in the sky. The large proliferation of

text: maize

text: crops across Earth has caused tiny, harmless fluctuations in the normal pattern of atmospheric

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels, since these crops photosynthesize large amounts of carbon dioxide during these times and this process sharply drops down during the late afternoon and evening.

text: Another distinguishing feature of the Moon's shape is that the elevations are on average about 1.9 km higher on the far side than the near side. If it is assumed that the crust is in isostatic equilibrium, and that the density of the crust is everywhere the same, then the higher elevations would be associated with a thicker crust. Using gravity, topography and seismic data, the crust is thought to be on average about  thick, with the far-side crust being on average thicker than the near side by about 15 km.

text: Another distinguishing feature of the Moon's shape is that the elevations are on average about 1.9

text: km

text: higher on the far side than the near side. If it is assumed that the

text: crust

text: is in

text: isostatic equilibrium

text: , and that the density of the crust is everywhere the same, then the higher elevations would be associated with a thicker crust. Using gravity, topography and

text: seismic

text: data, the crust is thought to be on average about  thick, with the far-side crust being on average thicker than the near side by about 15 km.

text: The earthquake was caused by a rupture along the Abiz Fault, part of the Sistan suture zone of eastern Iran. Located northeast of the main collision zone between the Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates, the Sistan zone marks the eastern boundary of the Iranian microplate where it intersects with the Afghan crustal block. Most of Iran is contained on one microplate, causing seismic activity mainly along its borders. Both the 1968 Dasht-e-Bayez earthquake (magnitude 7.3, resulting in 12,000–20,000 deaths) and the Qayen earthquake were the results of strike-slip faults, meaning that the crustal blocks on either side of the faults shifted against each other horizontally. The Qayen earthquake was caused by right lateral movement along the Abiz Fault. In addition to the dominant strike-slip displacement, there was also local evidence of reverse faulting. The average displacement of about 2 m indicates a low static stress drop, more consistent with an interplate earthquake than an intraplate event. The maximum horizontal acceleration during the quake was approximately 6.9 meters per second—nearly three-quarters of the acceleration an object would have in free fall—and occurred near the earthquake's epicenter. The crustal layer involved in the rupture was  thick. The surface fault that caused the earthquake extended for , which was longer than would be expected given the earthquake's magnitude. There were at least 155 aftershocks, reaching a magnitude of up to 5.5 on the Richter magnitude scale. Many of the aftershocks occurred along the rupture up to  below the surface.

text: The earthquake was caused by a rupture along the

text: Abiz Fault

text: , part of the Sistan

text: suture zone

text: of eastern Iran. Located northeast of the main collision zone between the

text: Arabian

text: and

text: Eurasian

text: tectonic plate

text: s, the Sistan zone marks the eastern boundary of the

text: Iranian microplate

text: where it intersects with the Afghan

text: crustal block

text: . Most of Iran is contained on one microplate, causing seismic activity mainly along its borders. Both the

entity_name: 1968 Dasht-e Bayaz and Ferdows earthquakes

text: 1968 Dasht-e-Bayez earthquake

text: (magnitude 7.3, resulting in 12,000–20,000 deaths) and the Qayen earthquake were the results of

text: strike-slip faults

text: , meaning that the crustal blocks on either side of the faults shifted against each other horizontally. The Qayen earthquake was caused by

text: right lateral

text: movement along the Abiz Fault. In addition to the dominant strike-slip displacement, there was also local evidence of

text: reverse faulting

text: . The average displacement of about 2 m indicates a low static stress drop, more consistent with an

text: interplate earthquake

text: than an

text: intraplate event

text: . The maximum horizontal acceleration during the quake was approximately 6.9 meters per second—nearly three-quarters of the acceleration an object would have in

text: free fall

text: —and occurred near the earthquake's epicenter. The

text: crustal layer

text: involved in the rupture was  thick. The

text: surface fault

text: that caused the earthquake extended for , which was longer than would be expected given the earthquake's magnitude. There were at least 155

text: aftershock

text: s, reaching a magnitude of up to 5.5 on the Richter magnitude scale. Many of the aftershocks occurred along the rupture up to  below the surface.

text: Earth's continents are compositionally distinct from the oceanic crust. The continents record four billion years of geologic history, while the oceanic crust gets recycled about every 180 million years. Because of the age of continental crusts, the ancient structural evolution of the continents can be studied. Data from EarthScope will be used to find the mean seismic structure of the continental crust, associated mantle, and crust-mantle transition. Variability in that structure will also be studied. EarthScope will attempt to define continental lithosphere formation and continent structure and to identify the relationship between continental structure and deformation.

text: The typical, present-day, escarpments have emerged since the Neogene geological period, after the Upper Rhine Rift Valley was formed as a result of plate tectonic processes about 30 million years ago. The regions either side of the rift valley were violently uplifted, producing the Black Forest on the German side and the  Vosges on the French side. This uplifting had the consequence that in the entire South German scarpland region the strata no longer lay horizontally, but were tilted away from the Rhine rift descending from west to east. As a result of the lifting and tilting of these sedimentary layers, weathering set in, which the more resistant layers of rock withstood for longer than the softer layers. For example, the clays were relatively easily eroded and formed gentler gradients, whilst the harder sandstones or limestones were less susceptible to weathering and formed the steeper scarps. The resulting geological structures brought the various geological strata to the earth's surface where they could be easily observed and assessed.

text: The typical, present-day, escarpments have emerged since the

text: Neogene

text: geological period, after the

text: Upper Rhine Rift Valley

text: was formed as a result of plate tectonic processes about 30 million years ago. The regions either side of the rift valley were violently uplifted, producing the

text: Black Forest

text: on the German side and the

text: Vosges

text: on the French side. This uplifting had the consequence that in the entire South German scarpland region the strata no longer lay horizontally, but were tilted away from the Rhine rift descending from west to east. As a result of the lifting and tilting of these sedimentary layers, weathering set in, which the more resistant layers of rock withstood for longer than the softer layers. For example, the clays were relatively easily eroded and formed gentler gradients, whilst the harder sandstones or limestones were less susceptible to weathering and formed the steeper scarps. The resulting geological structures brought the various geological strata to the earth's surface where they could be easily observed and assessed.

text: Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift had never gained much scientific support due to its lack of any satisfactory mechanism to drive the process. During the 1950s, however, extensive surveys of the ocean floor revealed a global, linked system of mid-ocean ridges, all of which exhibited high thermal flow and considerable seismic activity. Hess hypothesized that new ocean crust was being formed at the ocean ridges by extrusions of magma from the Earth's mantle, and that convection currents within the mantle were continuously carrying the newly formed crust away from the ridge, widening the ocean basin and pushing the continents apart.

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: had never gained much scientific support due to its lack of any satisfactory mechanism to drive the process. During the 1950s, however, extensive surveys of the ocean floor revealed a global, linked system of mid-ocean ridges, all of which exhibited high thermal flow and considerable seismic activity. Hess hypothesized that new ocean crust was being formed at the ocean ridges by extrusions of magma from the Earth's mantle, and that convection currents within the mantle were continuously carrying the newly formed crust away from the ridge, widening the ocean basin and pushing the continents apart.

text: Rare Earth proponents argue that simple life may be common, though complex life requires specific environmental conditions to arise. Critics consider life could arise on a moon of a gas giant, however the requirements and their complexity increase rather, if volcanicity is absolutely required for life. The moon must have stresses to induce tidal heating, but not so dramatic as seen on Jupiter's Io. The paradox here is the moon is within the gas giant's intense radiation belts, sterilizing any biodiversity before it can get established. Dirk Schulze-Makuch argues that there is no evidence to support this conclusion, hypothesizing alternative biochemistries as a method for complex life to arise in completely alien conditions. While Rare Earth proponents argue that only microbial extremophiles could exist in subsurface habitats beyond Earth, some argue that complex life can also arise in these environments. Examples of extremophile animals such as the Hesiocaeca methanicola, an animal that inhabits ocean floor methane clathrates substances more commonly found in the outer Solar System, the Tardigrade which can survive in the vacuum of space or Halicephalobus mephisto which exists in crushing pressure, scorching temperatures and extremely low oxygen levels 3.6 kilometres deep in the Earth's crust, are sometimes cited by critics as complex life capable of thriving in "alien" environments. Jill Tarter counters the classic counterargument that these species adapted to these environments rather than arose in them, by suggesting that we cannot assume conditions for life to emerge which are not actually known. There are suggestions that complex life could arise in sub-surface conditions which may be similar to those where life may have arisen on Earth, such as the tidally heated subsurfaces of Europa or Enceladus. Ancient circumvental ecosystems such as these support complex life on Earth such as Riftia pachyptila that exist completely independent of the surface biosphere.

text: Rare Earth proponents argue that simple life may be common, though complex life requires specific environmental conditions to arise. Critics consider life could arise on a

text: moon

text: of a gas giant, however the requirements and their complexity increase rather, if volcanicity is absolutely required for life. The moon must have stresses to induce tidal heating, but not so dramatic as seen on Jupiter's Io. The paradox here is the moon is within the gas giant's intense radiation belts, sterilizing any biodiversity before it can get established.

text: Dirk Schulze-Makuch

text: argues that there is no evidence to support this conclusion, hypothesizing alternative biochemistries as a method for complex life to arise in completely alien conditions. While Rare Earth proponents argue that only microbial extremophiles could exist in subsurface habitats beyond Earth, some argue that complex life can also arise in these environments. Examples of extremophile animals such as the

text: Hesiocaeca methanicola

text: , an animal that inhabits ocean floor

text: methane clathrate

text: s substances more commonly found in the outer Solar System, the

text: Tardigrade

text: which can survive in the vacuum of space or

text: Halicephalobus mephisto

text: which exists in crushing pressure, scorching temperatures and extremely low oxygen levels 3.6 kilometres deep in the Earth's crust, are sometimes cited by critics as complex life capable of thriving in "alien" environments.

text: Jill Tarter

text: counters the classic counterargument that these species adapted to these environments rather than arose in them, by suggesting that we cannot assume conditions for life to emerge which are not actually known. There are suggestions that complex life could arise in sub-surface conditions which may be similar to those where life may have arisen on Earth, such as the

text: tidally heated

text: subsurfaces of Europa or Enceladus. Ancient circumvental ecosystems such as these support complex life on Earth such as

text: Riftia pachyptila

text: that exist completely independent of the surface biosphere.

text: In 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. The researchers found lesion like those caused by stress fractures on a dromaeosaurid hand claw, one of only two such claw lesions discovered in the course of the study. Stress fractures in the hands have special behavioral significance compared to those found in the feet since stress fractures there can be obtained while running or during migration. Hand injuries, by contrast, are more likely to be obtained while in contact with struggling prey.

text: In 2001,

text: Bruce Rothschild

text: and others published a study examining evidence for

text: stress fractures

text: and

text: tendon avulsions

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. The researchers found lesion like those caused by stress fractures on a dromaeosaurid hand claw, one of only two such claw lesions discovered in the course of the study. Stress fractures in the hands have special behavioral significance compared to those found in the feet since stress fractures there can be obtained while running or during migration. Hand injuries, by contrast, are more likely to be obtained while in contact with struggling prey.

text: The quake reportedly occurred within the subducting Arabian Plate below the overriding Eurasian Plate.  The Strait of Hormuz separates two forms of plate collision.  To the northwest, continental crust portions of the Arabian and Eurasian Plates are colliding, resulting in compressive faulting.  To the southeast, dense oceanic crust of the Arabian Plate is subducting underneath the Eurasian Plate at the Makran Trench.

text: The quake reportedly occurred within the subducting

text: Arabian Plate

text: below the overriding

text: Eurasian Plate

text: .  The

text: Strait of Hormuz

text: separates two forms of plate collision.  To the northwest, continental crust portions of the Arabian and Eurasian Plates are colliding, resulting in

text: compressive faulting

text: .  To the southeast, dense oceanic crust of the Arabian Plate is

text: subducting

text: underneath the Eurasian Plate at the

text: Makran Trench

text: The processes described above allow subduction to continue while mountain building happens progressively, which is in contrast to continent-continent collision orogeny, which often leads to the termination of subduction.

text: When the amount of strain (deformation) is proportional to the stress being applied, ice will act as an elastic solid. Ice will not flow until it has reached a thickness of 30 meters (98 ft), but after 50 meters (164 ft), small amounts of stress can result in a large amount of strain, causing the deformation to become a plastic flow rather than elastic. At this point the glacier will begin to deform under its own weight and flow across the landscape. According to the Glen–Nye Flow law, the relationship between stress and strain, and thus the rate of internal flow, can be modeled as follows:

text: When the amount of strain (deformation) is proportional to the stress being applied, ice will act as an elastic solid. Ice will not flow until it has reached a thickness of 30 meters (98 ft), but after 50 meters (164 ft), small amounts of stress can result in a large amount of strain, causing the deformation to become a

text: plastic flow

text: rather than elastic. At this point the glacier will begin to deform under its own weight and flow across the landscape. According to the

text: Glen–Nye Flow law

text: , the relationship between stress and strain, and thus the rate of internal flow, can be modeled as follows:

text: Transform faults are not limited to oceanic crust and spreading centers; many transform faults are located on continental margins.  The best example is the San Andreas Fault on the Pacific coast of the United States.  The San Andreas Fault links the  East Pacific Rise off of the West coast of Mexico (Gulf of California) to the Mendocino Triple Junction (Part of the Juan de Fuca plate) located off the coast of the North Western United States making it a ridge-to-transform style transform fault.  The formation of the San Andreas Fault system occurred fairly recently during the Oligocene Period between 34 million and 24 million years ago. During this period, the Farallon plate, followed by the Pacific plate, collided into the North American plate.  The collision led to the subduction of the Farallon plate underneath the North American plate.  Once the spreading center separating the Pacific and Farallon plate was subducted underneath the North American plate, the San Andreas Continental Transform Fault system was created.

text: Transform faults are not limited to oceanic crust and spreading centers; many transform faults are located on

text: continental margin

text: s.  The best example is the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: on the Pacific coast of the United States.  The San Andreas Fault links the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: off of the West coast of Mexico (Gulf of California) to the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: (Part of the

text: Juan de Fuca plate

text: ) located off the coast of the North Western United States making it a ridge-to-transform style transform fault.  The formation of the San Andreas Fault system occurred fairly recently during the

text: Oligocene

text: Period between 34 million and 24 million years ago. During this period, the

text: Farallon plate

text: , followed by the Pacific plate, collided into the

text: North American plate

text: .  The collision led to the subduction of the Farallon plate underneath the North American plate.  Once the spreading center separating the Pacific and Farallon plate was subducted underneath the North American plate, the San Andreas Continental Transform Fault system was created.

text: At present, the Apulian and European plates are still converging.  The process of mountain building continues to this day. Measurements in the road and railway tunnels show that the Alps continue to rise somewhere between a millimeter and a centimeter each year. This is held in an overall balance by weathering effects. Also, there are many active seismic areas under the mountains that show that stresses continue to be released along deep fault lines. In the process, the core of the Alps, with the terranes that were subducted in the Paleocene and Eocene, still moves upward. Northward thrusting takes place along a line called the Penninic thrustfront. The formation of the foreland basins (Po basin and Bavarian basin) goes on with the crust subsiding in these areas.

text: At present, the Apulian and European plates are still converging.  The process of mountain building continues to this day. Measurements in the road and railway tunnels show that the Alps continue to rise somewhere between a millimeter and a centimeter each year. This is held in an overall balance by

text: weathering

text: effects. Also, there are many active

text: seismic

text: areas under the mountains that show that stresses continue to be released along deep fault lines. In the process, the core of the Alps, with the terranes that were subducted in the Paleocene and Eocene, still moves upward. Northward thrusting takes place along a line called the

text: Penninic thrustfront

text: . The formation of the

text: foreland basin

text: s (Po basin and Bavarian basin) goes on with the crust subsiding in these areas.

text: The lowest point on the Earth's crust, the Mariana Trench, is near the islands and is named after them.

text: The lowest point on the Earth's crust, the

text: Mariana Trench

text: , is near the islands and is named after them.

text: The Indian Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 centimetres per year ( inches per year). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc.

text: The

text: Indian Plate

text: is part of the great

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: , which underlies the Indian Ocean and

text: Bay of Bengal

text: , and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 centimetres per year ( inches per year). The India Plate meets the

text: Burma Plate

text: (which is considered a portion of the great

text: Eurasian Plate

text: ) at the

text: Sunda Trench

text: . At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the

text: Nicobar Islands

text: , the

text: Andaman Islands

text: , and northern

text: Sumatra

text: . The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive

text: volatiles

text: out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate causing

text: partial melting

text: and the formation of

text: magma

text: . The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the

text: Earth

text: 's crust through

text: volcano

text: es in the form of a

text: volcanic arc

text: . The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: has created the

text: Sunda Arc

text: The Proterozoic Eon was a very tectonically active period in the Earth’s history. The late Archean Eon to Early Proterozoic Eon corresponds to a period of increasing crustal recycling, suggesting subduction. Evidence for this increased subduction activity comes from the abundance of old granites originating mostly after 2.6 Ga.  The appearance of eclogites, which metamorphic rocks created by high pressure (>1 GPa), are explained using a model that incorporates subduction. The lack of eclogites that date to the Archean Eon suggests that conditions at that time did not favor the formation of high grade metamorphism and therefore did not achieve the same levels of subduction as was occurring in the Proterozoic Eon. As a result of remelting of basaltic oceanic crust due to subduction, the cores of the first continents grew large enough to withstand the crustal recycling processes. The long-term tectonic stability of those cratons is why we find continental crust ranging up to a few billion years in age.  It is believed that 43% of modern continental crust was formed in the Proterozoic, 39% formed in the Archean, and only 18% in the Phanerozoic.  Studies by Condie 2000 and Rino et al. 2004 suggest that crust production happened episodically. By isotopically calculating the ages of Proterozoic granitoids it was determined that there were several episodes of rapid increase in continental crust production. The reason for these pulses is unknown, but they seemed to have decreased in magnitude after every period.

text: The Proterozoic Eon was a very tectonically active period in the Earth’s history. The late Archean Eon to Early Proterozoic Eon corresponds to a period of increasing crustal recycling, suggesting

text: subduction

text: . Evidence for this increased subduction activity comes from the abundance of old granites originating mostly after 2.6 Ga.  The appearance of

text: eclogite

text: s, which

text: metamorphic rocks

text: created by high pressure (>1 GPa), are explained using a model that incorporates subduction. The lack of eclogites that date to the Archean Eon suggests that conditions at that time did not favor the formation of high grade metamorphism and therefore did not achieve the same levels of subduction as was occurring in the Proterozoic Eon. As a result of remelting of

text: basalt

text: ic

text: oceanic crust

text: due to subduction, the cores of the first continents grew large enough to withstand the crustal recycling processes. The long-term tectonic stability of those

text: craton

text: s is why we find

text: continental crust

text: ranging up to a few billion years in age.  It is believed that 43% of modern continental crust was formed in the Proterozoic, 39% formed in the Archean, and only 18% in the

text: Phanerozoic

text: .  Studies by Condie 2000 and Rino et al. 2004 suggest that crust production happened episodically. By isotopically calculating the ages of Proterozoic granitoids it was determined that there were several episodes of rapid increase in continental crust production. The reason for these pulses is unknown, but they seemed to have decreased in magnitude after every period.

text: When two oceanic plates migrate towards each other, one plate overrides another forming subduction system. Later, a light and buoyant passive continental margin being introduced into this system will therefore cause the cessation of subduction system. On one hand, the buoyant plate resists subduction beneath the overriding plate. On the other hand, the dense oceanic slab at the subducting plate prefers to move downward. These opposite forces will generate a tensile force or gravitational instability on the downward slab and lead to the break-off of the slab. The space where the break-off  slab creates will form mantle window. Subsequently, the less dense continental margin forms the overriding plate, while the oceanic plate becomes the subducting slab. The direction of subduction system changes since the break-off of slab creates the space, which is the major parameter of this model.

text: When two

text: oceanic plates

text: migrate towards each other, one plate overrides another forming

text: subduction system

text: . Later, a light and buoyant

text: passive continental margin

text: being introduced into this system will therefore cause the cessation of

text: subduction system

text: . On one hand, the buoyant plate resists subduction beneath the overriding plate. On the other hand, the dense oceanic

text: slab

text: at the subducting plate prefers to move downward. These opposite forces will generate a

text: tensile force

text: or gravitational instability on the downward

text: slab

text: and lead to the break-off of the

text: slab

text: . The space where the break-off

text: slab

text: creates will form mantle window. Subsequently, the less dense continental margin forms the overriding plate, while the oceanic plate becomes the subducting slab. The direction of subduction system changes since the break-off of

text: slab

text: creates the space, which is the major parameter of this model.

text: The BGB provides an area that contains some of the oldest known rocks available to study. The importance of this geological setting lies in the ability to study and obtain a better understanding of geologic history. Using information from this area has provided direct geologic evidence on the nature and evolution of the Earth before 3.0 Ga. Evidence of early crust, ocean chemistry, biota and atmosphere can be derived from the BGB. Despite the large quantity and the variable explanations of the models, they are necessary to the development of scientific understanding.

text: The simplest form of this type of obduction may follow from the development of a subduction zone near the continental margin. Above and behind the subduction zone, a welt of oceanic crust and mantle rides up over the descending plate. The ocean, intervening between the continental margin and the subduction zone is progressively swallowed until the continental margin arrives at the subduction zone and a giant wedge or slice (nappe) of oceanic crust and mantle is pushed across the continental margin. Because the buoyancy of the relatively light continental crust is likely to prohibit its extensive subduction, a flip in subduction polarity will occur yielding an ophiolite sheet lying above a descending plate.

text: Volcanic margins form part of large igneous provinces, which are characterised by massive emplacements of mafic extrusives and intrusive rocks over very short time periods.Volcanic margins form when rifting is accompanied by significant mantle melting, with volcanism occurring before and/or during continental breakup. The transitional crust of volcanic margins is composed of basaltic igneous rocks, including lava flows, sills, dykes, and gabbro.

text: Volcanic margins

text: form part of large igneous provinces, which are characterised by massive emplacements of mafic extrusives and intrusive rocks over very short time periods.Volcanic margins form when rifting is accompanied by significant mantle melting, with volcanism occurring before and/or during continental breakup. The transitional crust of volcanic margins is composed of

text: basalt

text: ic

text: igneous rock

text: s, including

text: lava

text: flows,

text: sills

text: dykes

text: , and

text: gabbro

text: A possible model for the formation of the volcanic Samoa island chain is explained by the Samoa hotspot situated at the east end of the Samoa Islands. In theory, the Samoa hotspot is a result of the Pacific Tectonic Plate moving over a 'fixed' deep and narrow mantle plume spewing up through the Earth's crust. The Samoa islands generally lie in a straight line, east to west, in the same direction the Plate is moving. In the classic hotspot model, primarily based on studies of the Hawaii hotspot, the volcanic islands and seamounts further away from the Samoa hotspot should be progressively older. However, Savai'i, the most western of the Samoa island chain, and Ta'u Island, the most eastern of the Samoa islands, both erupted in the last century, data which is an enigma for scientists. Another discrepancy in the data from the Samoa islands is that subaerial rock samples from Savai'i, the most western of the islands, were too young by several million years to fit the classic hotspot model of age progression in an island chain, raising arguments among scientists that the Samoa islands does not have a plume origin. The nearness of the island chain to the Tonga Trench at the south became a possible explanation for these discrepancies as well as the possibility that the islands were formed by magma seeping through cracks in stressed fracture zones. However, in 2005, an international team gathered further submarine samples from the deep flanks and rifts of Savai'i. Tests on these later samples showed much older ages, about five million years old, that fit the hotspot model.

text: A possible model for the formation of the

text: volcanic

text: Samoa island chain is explained by the

text: Samoa hotspot

text: situated at the east end of the Samoa Islands. In theory, the Samoa hotspot is a result of the

text: Pacific Tectonic Plate

text: moving over a 'fixed' deep and narrow

text: mantle plume

text: Hawaii hotspot

text: , the volcanic islands and

text: seamount

text: s further away from the Samoa hotspot should be progressively older. However,

text: Savai'i

text: , the most western of the Samoa island chain, and

text: Ta'u Island

text: , the most eastern of the Samoa islands, both erupted in the last century, data which is an enigma for scientists. Another discrepancy in the data from the Samoa islands is that

text: subaerial

text: rock samples from Savai'i, the most western of the islands, were too young by several million years to fit the classic hotspot model of age progression in an island chain, raising arguments among scientists that the Samoa islands does not have a plume origin. The nearness of the island chain to the

text: Tonga Trench

text: magma

text: seeping through cracks in stressed

text: fracture zones.

text: rift

text: s of Savai'i. Tests on these later samples showed much older ages, about five million years old, that fit the hotspot model.

text: An unstable surface could represent another potential problem. It has been shown that the moon is geologically active, with an outer crust with plate tectonics that resembles that on Earth. The reconstruction of the geological activity over a few years of an area the size of the state Alabama showed that a piece of the surface as big as Massachusetts had moved down underneath the crust and disappeared.

text: An unstable surface could represent another potential problem. It has been shown that the moon is geologically active, with an outer crust with

text: plate tectonics

text: that resembles that on Earth. The reconstruction of the geological activity over a few years of an area the size of the state

text: Alabama

text: showed that a piece of the surface as big as

text: Massachusetts

text: had moved down underneath the crust and disappeared.

text: Mucous retention cysts are most commonly seen in individuals that endure high vocal stress in their daily lives, while epidermoid cysts are usually congenital or second to vocal trauma (see lead section for more information on different types of cysts). The two types of vocal fold cysts can be differentiated from other vocal fold growths in several ways. Both types show decreased amplitude of vibrations and reduced or absent mucosal wave. Mucous retention cysts show a translucent mass of mucous usually below the free margin of the glottis, while epidermoid cysts are yellow masses under the first epithelial layer of the vocal folds. Epidermoid cysts generally appear in the superior and medial regions of the midmusculomembranous region of the folds, as opposed to mucous cysts appearing in the inferior region. Vocal fold cysts are differentiated from other vocal fold masses in that they are unilateral and subepithelial.

text: In 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. Of the 81 Tyrannosaurus foot bones examined in the study one was found to have a stress fracture, while none of the 10 hand bones were found to have stress fractures. The researchers found tendon avulsions only among Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus. An avulsion injury left a divot on the humerus of Sue the T. rex, apparently located at the origin of the deltoid or teres major muscles. The presence of avulsion injuries being limited to the forelimb and shoulder in both Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus suggests that theropods may have had a musculature more complex than and functionally different from those of birds. The researchers concluded that Sue's tendon avulsion was probably obtained from struggling prey. The presence of stress fractures and tendon avulsions in general provides evidence for a "very active" predation-based diet rather than obligate scavenging.

text: In 2001,

text: Bruce Rothschild

text: stress fractures

text: and

text: tendon avulsions

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. Of the 81 Tyrannosaurus foot bones examined in the study one was found to have a stress fracture, while none of the 10 hand bones were found to have stress fractures. The researchers found tendon avulsions only among Tyrannosaurus and

text: Allosaurus

text: . An avulsion injury left a divot on the humerus of Sue the T. rex, apparently located at the origin of the

text: deltoid

text: or

text: teres major

text: muscles. The presence of avulsion injuries being limited to the forelimb and shoulder in both Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus suggests that theropods may have had a musculature more complex than and functionally different from those of birds. The researchers concluded that Sue's tendon avulsion was probably obtained from struggling prey. The presence of stress fractures and tendon avulsions in general provides evidence for a "very active" predation-based diet rather than obligate scavenging.

text: This type of stressor is unforeseen and unpredictable and, as such, is completely out of the control of the individual. Examples of crises and catastrophes include: devastating natural disasters, such as major floods or earthquakes, wars, etc. Though rare in occurrence, this type of stressor typically causes a great deal of stress in a person's life.  A study conducted by Stanford University found that after natural disasters, those affected experienced a significant increase in stress level. Combat stress is a widespread acute and chronic problem. With the rapid pace and the urgency of firing first, tragic episodes of accidentally killing friendly forces (“brother” killing “brother” or fratricide) may happen. Prevention requires stress reduction, emphasis on vehicle and other identification training, awareness of the tactical situation, and continual risk analysis by leaders at all echelons.

text: This type of stressor is unforeseen and unpredictable and, as such, is completely out of the control of the individual. Examples of

text: crises

text: and catastrophes include: devastating

text: natural disaster

text: s, such as major

text: flood

text: s or

text: earthquake

text: s,

text: war

text: s, etc. Though rare in occurrence, this type of stressor typically causes a great deal of stress in a person's life.  A study conducted by Stanford University found that after natural disasters, those affected experienced a significant increase in stress level. Combat stress is a widespread acute and chronic problem. With the rapid pace and the urgency of firing first, tragic episodes of accidentally killing friendly forces (“brother” killing “brother” or fratricide) may happen. Prevention requires stress reduction, emphasis on vehicle and other identification training, awareness of the tactical situation, and continual risk analysis by leaders at all echelons.

text: The earthquakes occurred within the Cocos-Caribbean subduction zone. El Salvador sits atop the western part of the Caribbean plate, where it is overriding (subducting) the Cocos plate. Subduction zones such as this are geologically very complex and produce numerous earthquakes from multiple sources. Shallow intraplate (crustal) earthquakes occur within the crust of the overriding Caribbean plate. Deeper intraplate earthquakes occur within the subducting Cocos plate. The earthquake sequence in the El Salvador region has involved intraplate faulting in both the Cocos and Caribbean plates, with the largest earthquake in the sequence (January 13) occurring in the lower (Cocos) plate. The February 13 earthquake was a strong, shallow intraplate earthquake, occurring within the crust of the overlying Caribbean plate. This earthquake was a strike-slip faulting earthquake, which likely occurred in response to the complicated stresses in the Caribbean plate as it overrides the Cocos plate. It was about 85 km away from the 13 January earthquake and about 30 km shallower.

text: The earthquakes occurred within the Cocos-Caribbean

text: subduction zone

text: . El Salvador sits atop the western part of the

text: Caribbean plate

text: , where it is overriding (subducting) the

text: Cocos plate

text: . Subduction zones such as this are geologically very complex and produce numerous earthquakes from multiple sources. Shallow intraplate (crustal) earthquakes occur within the crust of the overriding Caribbean plate. Deeper intraplate earthquakes occur within the subducting Cocos plate. The earthquake sequence in the El Salvador region has involved intraplate faulting in both the Cocos and Caribbean plates, with the largest earthquake in the sequence (January 13) occurring in the lower (Cocos) plate. The February 13 earthquake was a strong, shallow intraplate earthquake, occurring within the crust of the overlying Caribbean plate. This earthquake was a

text: strike-slip faulting

text: earthquake, which likely occurred in response to the complicated stresses in the Caribbean plate as it overrides the Cocos plate. It was about 85 km away from the 13 January earthquake and about 30 km shallower.

text: Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate beneath the South America Plate. The Nazca Plate subducts at a speed of  and the Antarctic Plate at a speed of . Volcanism does not occur along a continuous chain; there are four separate regions named the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone. The formation of magma depends on the release of water and other material from the subducting plate, which is injected into the abovelying mantle wedge and causes the formation of magma. The volcanic zones are separated by areas where the angle of the subducting plate is flatter and volcanism is absent; the Peruvian flat-slab between the Northern and the Central Volcanic Zones is associated with the subduction of the Nazca Ridge, the Pampean flat-slab between the Central and the Southern Volcanic Zone is associated with the subduction of the Juan Fernandez Ridge and the Patagonian volcanic gap between the Southern and the Austral Volcanic Zone is associated with the Chile Triple Junction.

text: Volcanism in the Andes is caused by the

text: subduction

text: of the

text: Nazca Plate

text: and the

text: Antarctic Plate

text: beneath the

text: South America Plate

text: . The Nazca Plate subducts at a speed of  and the Antarctic Plate at a speed of . Volcanism does not occur along a continuous chain; there are four separate regions named the

text: Northern Volcanic Zone

text: , the

text: Central Volcanic Zone

text: , the

text: Southern Volcanic Zone

text: and the

text: Austral Volcanic Zone

text: . The formation of magma depends on the release of

text: water

text: and other material from the subducting plate, which is injected into the abovelying

text: mantle wedge

text: and causes the formation of

text: magma

text: . The volcanic zones are separated by areas where the angle of the subducting plate is flatter and volcanism is absent; the Peruvian flat-slab between the Northern and the Central Volcanic Zones is associated with the subduction of the

text: Nazca Ridge

text: , the Pampean flat-slab between the Central and the Southern Volcanic Zone is associated with the subduction of the

text: Juan Fernandez Ridge

text: and the Patagonian volcanic gap between the Southern and the Austral Volcanic Zone is associated with the

text: Chile Triple Junction

text: Where the lithosphere undergoes horizontal extension at a normal fault or rifting center, the crust will stretch until faulting occurs, either by a system of normal faults (which creates horsts and grabens) or by a system of listric faults. These fault systems allow the region to stretch, while also decreasing its thickness. A thinner crust subsides relative to thicker, undeformed crust.

text: Where the lithosphere undergoes horizontal extension at a normal fault or

text: rifting center

text: , the crust will stretch until faulting occurs, either by a system of

text: normal faults

text: (which creates

text: horst

text: s and

text: graben

text: s) or by a system of

text: listric faults.

text: These fault systems allow the region to stretch, while also decreasing its thickness. A thinner crust subsides relative to thicker, undeformed crust.

text: The island of Jamaica lies on the boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the Gonâve Microplate. The Gonâve microplate is a  long strip of mainly oceanic crust formed by the Cayman spreading ridge within a strike-slip pull-apart basin on the northern transform margin of the Caribbean Plate with the North American Plate. Jamaica was formed by uplift associated with a restraining bend along this strike-slip structure. The focal mechanisms of earthquakes around Jamaica are primarily sinistral strike-slip along WSW-ENE trending faults and minor reverse or thrust motion on NW-SE trending faults. The 1692 event is thought to have occurred on one of these strike-slip faults.

text: The island of Jamaica lies on the boundary between the

text: Caribbean Plate

text: and the

text: Gonâve Microplate

text: . The Gonâve microplate is a  long strip of mainly

text: oceanic crust

text: formed by the Cayman

text: spreading ridge

text: within a

text: strike-slip

text: pull-apart basin

text: on the northern

text: transform

text: margin of the Caribbean Plate with the

text: North American Plate

text: . Jamaica was formed by uplift associated with a

text: restraining bend

text: along this strike-slip structure. The

text: focal mechanism

text: s of earthquakes around Jamaica are primarily sinistral strike-slip along WSW-ENE trending faults and minor reverse or thrust motion on NW-SE trending faults. The 1692 event is thought to have occurred on one of these strike-slip faults.

text: A multicoloured glowing crystal which is the natural form of the Xylok; owing to a spaceship crash the entire Xylok race has been trapped under the Earth's crust for most of the planet's existence. It is capable of interfacing with Earth computers, and eventually gives Sarah Jane the instructions to build Mr Smith.

text: A multicoloured glowing crystal which is the natural form of the Xylok; owing to a spaceship crash the entire Xylok race has been trapped under the Earth's crust for most of the planet's existence. It is capable of interfacing with Earth computers, and eventually gives Sarah Jane the instructions to build

text: Mr Smith

text: Anderson was the first to utilize conjugate fault systems in interpreting paleostress, including all kinds of conjugate faults (normal, reverse, strike-slip and oblique, which is the combination of strike-slip and normal or reverse faults). Regional conjugate fault can be better understood by comparison to a familiar rock mechanics experiment, i.e. the Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) Test. Basics of their mechanisms are similar except the principal stress orientation applied is rotated from perpendicular to parallel to the ground. The conjugate fault model is a simple way to obtain approximate orientations of stress axes, due to the abundance of such structure in the upper brittle crust.  Therefore, a number of studies have been carried out by other researchers in assorted structural settings and by correlating with other deformation structures.

text: The result of the 2007-2009 study has found that the Gamburtsev  are very old, first forming around a billion years ago when continental drift pushed two plates together to form the super-continent of Rodinia. This early range was eroded above the surface but left a deep cold root reaching down into the Earth's mantle. About 250-100 million years ago,  the crust started to pull apart in a series of rifting events close to the east of this old root. A forked rift valley runs along the northern side of the mountains containing lakes Sovetskaya and 90East within it. This rifting warmed and rejuvenated the root, giving it the buoyancy to be lifted up  to re-establish the mountains as an 800 km long massif.Further uplift still was achieved as deep valleys were later cut erosion lightening the overall  mass of the system. Around 35 million years ago, the glaciers merged to form the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, burying the Gamburtsev Range in the process.

text: The result of the 2007-2009 study has found that the Gamburtsev  are very old, first forming around a billion years ago when continental drift pushed two plates together to form the super-continent of

text: Rodinia

text: . This early range was eroded above the surface but left a deep cold root reaching down into the Earth's mantle. About 250-100 million years ago,  the crust started to pull apart in a series of rifting events close to the east of this old root. A forked

text: rift valley

text: runs along the northern side of the mountains containing lakes

text: Sovetskaya

text: and

text: within it. This rifting warmed and rejuvenated the root, giving it the buoyancy to be lifted up  to re-establish the mountains as an 800 km long

text: massif

text: .Further uplift still was achieved as deep valleys were later cut erosion lightening the overall  mass of the system. Around 35 million years ago, the glaciers merged to form the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, burying the Gamburtsev Range in the process.

text: The brivla which constitute the lexical core of the language are called gismu. They are invariably five-letter, which distinguishes it from the other types of brivla, and are in a form of either CVCCV or CCVCV (C stands for a consonant and V for a vowel). Being two syllables means that the general rule of gismu to be stressed penultimately will always cause the first syllable to be stressed.

text: At the beginning of the Mackenzie magmatic event, the Mackenzie hotspot collided with lithosphere that was already in an extensional regime that allowed rifting to occur. Passive rifting has been interpreted as the mechanism that produced the opening of the former Poseidon Ocean, the geometry of which would have been partly controlled by dike swarm geometry. Fahrig (1987) proposed that the Mackenzie plume impact resulted in the emplacement of a triple junction that had a large mafic dike swarm on every rift arm. Two of the first arms formed the Poseidon Ocean basin and the third arm failed thus forming an aulacogen. This tectonic setting suggestion can be comparable with the early volcano-tectonic evolution of the Yellowstone hotspot, which developed two arms instead of three, followed by failure of both arms. At the Mackenzie hotspot, rifting is considered to have been passive and to have taken place in the crust above the hotspot that should have been weakened by the Mackenzie plume. Crustal uplift may have also provided stresses contributing to rifting.

text: At the beginning of the Mackenzie magmatic event, the Mackenzie hotspot collided with lithosphere that was already in an extensional regime that allowed rifting to occur. Passive rifting has been interpreted as the mechanism that produced the opening of the former

text: Poseidon Ocean

text: , the geometry of which would have been partly controlled by dike swarm geometry. Fahrig (1987) proposed that the Mackenzie plume impact resulted in the emplacement of a

text: triple junction

text: that had a large mafic dike swarm on every rift arm. Two of the first arms formed the Poseidon Ocean basin and the third arm failed thus forming an

text: aulacogen

text: . This tectonic setting suggestion can be comparable with the early volcano-tectonic evolution of the Yellowstone hotspot, which developed two arms instead of three, followed by failure of both arms. At the Mackenzie hotspot, rifting is considered to have been passive and to have taken place in the crust above the hotspot that should have been weakened by the Mackenzie plume. Crustal uplift may have also provided stresses contributing to rifting.

text: Only in the extreme northeast of Franconia and in the Spessart are there Variscan outcrops of the crystalline basement, which were uplifted from below the surface when the Alps exerted a northwards-oriented pressure. These are rocks of pre-Permian vintage, which were folded during various stages of Variscan orogeny in the Late Palaeozoic - before about 380 to 300 million years ago - and, in places, were metamorphosed under high pressure and temperature or were crystallized by ascending magma in the Earth's crust. Rocks which were unchanged or only lightly metamorphosed, because they had been deformed at shallow crustal depths, include the Lower Carboniferous shale and greywacke of Franconian Forest. The Fichtel mountains, the Münchberg Plateau and the Spessart, by contrast, have more metamorphic rocks (phyllite, schist, amphibolite, gneiss). The Fichtel mountains are also characterized by large granite bodies, called post-kinematic plutons which, in the late phase of Variscan orogeny, intruded into the metamorphic rocks. In most cases these are S-type granites whose melting was caused by heated-up sedimentary rocks sunk deep into the Earth's crust. While the Fichtel and Franconian Forest can be assigned to the Saxo-Thuringian Zone of Central European Variscan orogeny, the Spessart belongs to the Central German Crystalline Zone. The Münchberg mass is variously attributed to the Saxo-Thuringian or Moldanubian Zones.

text: Only in the extreme northeast of Franconia and in the Spessart are there

text: Variscan

text: outcrop

text: s of the crystalline

text: basement

text: , which were uplifted from below the surface when the

text: Alps

text: exerted a northwards-oriented pressure. These are rocks of pre-

text: Permian

text: vintage, which were folded during various stages of

text: Variscan orogeny

text: in the

text: Late Palaeozoic

text: - before about 380 to 300 million years ago - and, in places, were

text: metamorphosed

text: under high pressure and temperature or were crystallized by ascending

text: magma

text: in the

text: Earth's crust

text: . Rocks which were unchanged or only lightly metamorphosed, because they had been deformed at shallow crustal depths, include the

text: Lower Carboniferous

text: shale and greywacke of Franconian Forest. The Fichtel mountains, the Münchberg Plateau and the Spessart, by contrast, have more metamorphic rocks (

text: phyllite

text: schist

text: amphibolite

text: gneiss

text: ). The Fichtel mountains are also characterized by large

text: granite

text: bodies, called post-kinematic

text: plutons

text: which, in the late phase of Variscan orogeny, intruded into the metamorphic rocks. In most cases these are S-type granites whose melting was caused by heated-up sedimentary rocks sunk deep into the Earth's crust. While the Fichtel and Franconian Forest can be assigned to the Saxo-Thuringian Zone of Central European Variscan orogeny, the Spessart belongs to the Central German Crystalline Zone. The Münchberg mass is variously attributed to the Saxo-Thuringian or Moldanubian Zones.

text: In structural geology, a homocline or homoclinal structure, (from old  = same, cline = inclination) is a geological structure in which the bedding of a sequence of rock strata, either sedimentary or igneous, dips uniformly in a single direction having the same general inclination in terms of direction and angle. A homocline can be associated with either one limb of a fold, the edges of a dome, the coast-ward tilted strata underlying a coastal plain, slice of thrust fault, or a tilted fault block. When the homoclinal strata consists of alternating beds of rock that vary hardness and resistance to erosion, their erosion produces either cuestas, homoclinal ridges, or hogbacks depending on the angle of dip of the strata. On a topographic map, the landfroms associated with homoclines exhibit nearly parallel elevation contour lines that show a steady change in elevation in a given direction. In the subsurface, they characterize by parallel structural contour lines.

text: In

text: structural geology

text: , a homocline or homoclinal structure, (from old  = same, cline = inclination) is a geological structure in which the

text: bedding

text: of a sequence of rock

text: strata

text: , either

text: sedimentary

text: or

text: igneous

text: dips

text: uniformly in a single direction having the same general inclination in terms of direction and angle. A homocline can be associated with either one limb of a

text: fold

text: , the edges of a

text: dome

text: , the coast-ward tilted strata underlying a coastal plain, slice of

text: thrust fault

text: , or a tilted

text: fault block

text: . When the homoclinal strata consists of alternating beds of rock that vary hardness and resistance to

text: erosion

text: , their erosion produces either

text: cuesta

text: s,

text: homoclinal ridge

text: s, or

text: hogback

text: s depending on the angle of dip of the strata. On a

text: topographic map

text: , the landfroms associated with homoclines exhibit nearly parallel elevation contour lines that show a steady change in elevation in a given direction. In the subsurface, they characterize by parallel structural contour lines.

text: Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles, including carbon, are transferred from the Earth’s interior to the surface environment. An additional, though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth’s crust, often referred to as tectonic degassing. When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65  to 540 Mt/yr, and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown. The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible. In particular, one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth’s interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth’s mantle lithosphere, crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing, or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle. Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism, if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance, then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget, with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth’s deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere, crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth’s history, which has significant implications for climate change.

text: Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced

text: volatiles

text: , including carbon, are transferred from the Earth’s interior to the surface environment. An additional, though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth’s crust, often referred to as tectonic degassing. When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65  to 540 Mt/yr, and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown. The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible. In particular, one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth’s interior via

text: subduction

text: is efficiently recycled back to the Earth’s mantle

text: lithosphere

text: , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing, or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle. Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through

text: Mid-Ocean Ridge

text: volcanism, if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance, then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget, with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth’s deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle

text: lithosphere

text: , crust,

text: hydrosphere

text: and

text: atmosphere

text: . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth’s history, which has significant implications for climate change.

text: Martin intentionally avoids most overt fantasy elements in Ice and Fire, preferring to instead have "carefully rationed magic". He set the Ice and Fire story in an alternate version of Earth or a "secondary world". The story takes place primarily on a continent called Westeros, but also on another continent to the east, known as Essos. The style varies to fit each character and their setting; Daenerys's exotic realm may appear more colorful and fanciful than Westeros, which is more closely based on the familiar medieval history of Europe. Martin was intentionally vague with the size of the Ice and Fire world, omitting a scale on the maps to discourage prediction of travel lengths based on measured distances, though the continent of Westeros may be considered of the size of South America. Complete world maps are deliberately not made available so that readers may better identify with people of the real Middle Ages who were unaware of distant places. As each new book has added one or two maps, readers may be able to piece together a world map by the end of the series.

text: Martin intentionally avoids most overt fantasy elements in Ice and Fire, preferring to instead have "carefully rationed magic". He set the Ice and Fire story in an alternate version of Earth or a "secondary world". The story takes place primarily on a continent called

text: Westeros

text: , but also on another continent to the east, known as

text: Essos

text: . The style varies to fit each character and their setting; Daenerys's exotic realm may appear more colorful and fanciful than Westeros, which is more closely based on the familiar

text: medieval history

text: of Europe. Martin was intentionally vague with the size of the Ice and Fire world, omitting a scale on the maps to discourage prediction of travel lengths based on measured distances, though the continent of Westeros may be considered of the size of South America. Complete world maps are deliberately not made available so that readers may better identify with people of the real Middle Ages who were unaware of distant places. As each new book has added one or two maps, readers may be able to piece together a world map by the end of the series.

text: A starquake is an astrophysical phenomenon that occurs when the crust of a neutron star undergoes a sudden adjustment, analogous to an earthquake on Earth. A paper published in 2003 in Scientific American by Kouveliotou, Duncan & Thompson suggests these starquakes to be the source of the giant gamma ray flares that are produced approximately once per decade from soft gamma repeaters. Starquakes are thought to result from two different mechanisms. One is the huge stresses exerted on the surface of the neutron star produced by twists in the ultra-strong interior magnetic fields. A second cause is a result of spindown. As the neutron star loses angular velocity due to frame-dragging and by the bleeding off of energy due to it being a rotating magnetic dipole, the crust develops an enormous amount of stress. Once that exceeds a certain amount, the shape adjusts itself to a shape closer to non-rotating equilibrium: a perfect sphere. The actual change is believed to be on the order of micrometers or less, and occurs in less than a millionth of a second.

text: A starquake is an

text: astrophysical

text: phenomenon that occurs when the crust of a

text: neutron star

text: undergoes a sudden adjustment, analogous to an earthquake on Earth. A paper published in 2003 in Scientific American by Kouveliotou, Duncan & Thompson suggests these starquakes to be the source of the giant

text: gamma ray

text: flares that are produced approximately once per decade from

text: soft gamma repeater

text: s. Starquakes are thought to result from two different mechanisms. One is the huge stresses exerted on the surface of the neutron star produced by twists in the ultra-strong interior

text: magnetic field

text: s. A second cause is a result of

text: spindown

text: . As the neutron star loses angular velocity due to

text: frame-dragging

text: and by the bleeding off of energy due to it being a rotating magnetic dipole, the crust develops an enormous amount of stress. Once that exceeds a certain amount, the shape adjusts itself to a shape closer to non-rotating equilibrium: a perfect sphere. The actual change is believed to be on the order of micrometers or less, and occurs in less than a millionth of a second.

text: Earth is the only known planet in the solar system where hypsography is characterized by different kinds of crust, oceanic crust and continental crust. Oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface. Because oceans lie lower than continents, the former serve as sedimentary basins that collect sediment eroded from the continents, known as clastic sediments, as well as precipitation sediments. Ocean basins also serve as repositories for the skeletons of carbonate- and silica-secreting organisms such as coral reefs, diatoms, radiolarians, and foraminifera.

text: Earth is the only known

text: planet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: where

text: hypsography

text: is characterized by different kinds of crust,

text: oceanic crust

text: and

text: continental crust

text: . Oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface. Because oceans lie lower than continents, the former serve as

text: sedimentary basin

text: s that collect sediment eroded from the continents, known as

text: clastic

text: sediments, as well as precipitation sediments. Ocean basins also serve as repositories for the skeletons of

text: carbonate

text: - and

text: silica

text: -secreting

text: organism

text: s such as

text: coral reefs

text: diatoms

text: radiolarian

text: s, and

text: foraminifera

text: The lithosphere, which rides atop the asthenosphere, is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Oceanic crust and tectonic plates are formed and move apart at mid-ocean ridges. Abyssal hills are formed by stretching of the oceanic lithosphere. Consumption or destruction of the oceanic lithosphere occurs at oceanic trenches (a type of convergent boundary, also known as a destructive plate boundary) by a process known as subduction. Oceanic trenches are found at places where the oceanic lithospheric slabs of two different plates meet, and the denser (older) slab begins to descend back into the mantle. At the consumption edge of the plate (the oceanic trench), the oceanic lithosphere has thermally contracted to become quite dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old. The overall process of repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the Supercontinent cycle, first proposed by Canadian geophysicist and geologist John Tuzo Wilson.

text: The

text: lithosphere

text: , which rides atop the

text: asthenosphere

text: , is divided into a number of tectonic plates that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite

text: plate boundaries

text: . Oceanic crust and tectonic plates are formed and move apart at mid-ocean ridges. Abyssal hills are formed by stretching of the oceanic lithosphere. Consumption or destruction of the oceanic lithosphere occurs at

text: oceanic trenches

text: (a type of

text: convergent boundary

text: , also known as a destructive plate boundary) by a process known as

text: subduction

text: . Oceanic trenches are found at places where the oceanic lithospheric slabs of two different plates meet, and the denser (older) slab begins to descend back into the mantle. At the consumption edge of the plate (the oceanic trench), the oceanic lithosphere has thermally contracted to become quite dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old. The overall process of repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the

text: Supercontinent cycle

text: , first proposed by

text: Canadian

text: geophysicist

text: and

text: geologist

text: John Tuzo Wilson

text: Microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) are primary sedimentary structures formed by the interaction of microbes with sediment and physical agents of erosion, deposition, and transportation.  The structures commonly form when microbial mats (which may comprise bacteria, fungi, protozoans, archaea or algae) are preserved in the sedimentary geological record.  There are 17 main types of macroscopic and microscopic MISS.  Of those, wrinkle structures  and microbial mat chips are the most abundant in the fossil record.  Other MISS include sinoidal structures, polygonal oscillation cracks, multidirected ripple marks, erosional remnants and pockets, or gas domes.

text: Microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) are primary

text: sedimentary structures

text: formed by the interaction of

text: microbes

text: with sediment and physical agents of erosion, deposition, and transportation.  The structures commonly form when

text: microbial mat

text: s (which may comprise

text: bacteria

text: fungi

text: protozoa

text: ns,

text: archaea

text: or

text: algae

text: ) are preserved in the sedimentary geological record.  There are 17 main types of macroscopic and microscopic MISS.  Of those, wrinkle structures  and microbial mat chips are the most abundant in the fossil record.  Other MISS include sinoidal structures, polygonal oscillation cracks, multidirected ripple marks, erosional remnants and pockets, or gas domes.

text: Stress can make the individual more susceptible to physical illnesses like the common cold. Stressful events, such as job changes, may result in insomnia, impaired sleeping, and health complaints. Research indicates the type of stressor (whether it's acute or chronic) and individual characteristics such as age and physical well-being before the onset of the stressor can combine to determine the effect of stress on an individual. An individual's personality characteristics (such as level of neuroticism), genetics, and childhood experiences with major stressors and traumas  may also dictate their response to stressors.

text: The phenomenon of subduction polarity reversal has been identified in the collision of an intra-oceanic subduction system, which is the collision of two oceanic plates. When two oceanic plates migrate towards each other, one subducts below the other. Generally, the oceanic plate with higher density subducts beneath and the other one overrides the down-going slab. The process continues until a buoyant continental margin sitting on the top of subducting plate is introduced into the down-going slab. The subduction of the slab becomes slower and may even cease. Geologists propose various possible models to predict what will be the next step for the intra-oceanic subduction system with the involvement of buoyant continental crust. One of the possible results is subduction polarity reversal.

text: The phenomenon of subduction polarity reversal has been identified in the collision of an intra-oceanic subduction system, which is the collision of two

text: oceanic plates

text: . When two oceanic plates migrate towards each other, one subducts below the other. Generally, the oceanic plate with higher density subducts beneath and the other one overrides the down-going slab. The process continues until a buoyant

text: continental margin

text: sitting on the top of subducting plate is introduced into the down-going slab. The subduction of the slab becomes slower and may even cease. Geologists propose various possible models to predict what will be the next step for the intra-oceanic subduction system with the involvement of buoyant

text: continental crust

text: . One of the possible results is subduction polarity reversal.

text: Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes: either by differential erosion of sedimentary rocks, or by vertical movement of the Earth's crust along a geologic fault. Most commonly, an escarpment is a transition from one series of sedimentary rocks to another series of a different age and composition.

text: Scarps are generally formed by one of two processes: either by differential

text: erosion

text: of

text: sedimentary rock

text: s, or by vertical movement of the

text: Earth's crust

text: along a

text: geologic fault

text: . Most commonly, an escarpment is a transition from one series of

text: sedimentary rock

text: s to another series of a different age and composition.

text: In 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. None of the eighteen Tarbosaurus foot bones examined in the study was found to have a stress fracture, but one of the ten examined hand bones was found to have one. Stress fractures in the hands have special behavioral significance compared to those found in the feet since stress fractures there can be obtained while running or during migration. Hand injuries, by contrast, are more likely to be obtained while in contact with struggling prey. The presence of stress fractures and tendon avulsions in general provide evidence for a "very active" predation-based diet rather than obligate scavenging.

text: In 2001,

text: Bruce Rothschild

text: stress fractures

text: and

text: tendon avulsions

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries. None of the eighteen Tarbosaurus foot bones examined in the study was found to have a stress fracture, but one of the ten examined hand bones was found to have one. Stress fractures in the hands have special behavioral significance compared to those found in the feet since stress fractures there can be obtained while running or during migration. Hand injuries, by contrast, are more likely to be obtained while in contact with struggling prey. The presence of stress fractures and tendon avulsions in general provide evidence for a "very active" predation-based diet rather than obligate scavenging.

text: The Andes of Bolivia began to rise about 200 million years ago (mya) during the Jurassic. The western margin of what is now South America had been the place of several other orogenies before the Andes rose. It has been hypothesized that the central Andes gained its great height 26 to 14 mya as result of a compressive failure of the lithosphere beneath Bolivia and neighboring areas. The great heights of the Altiplano, Codillera Occidental and Cordillera Oriental are isostatically compensated  by an up to 70 km deep crust. Climate has responded to the formation of this important topographic barrier. It is not clear, however, if the rise of the Andes simply caused the extreme aridity of Atacama Desert and adjacent parts of Bolivia or if a preexisting desert climate and associated low erosion rates allowed the mountains to build up to their current heights. A hypothesis holds that scarce sediment supply to the Atacama Trench caused by arid climate induced high shear stresses in the subduction process that enhanced the Andean mountain building.

text: The Andes of Bolivia began to rise about 200 million years ago (mya) during the

text: Jurassic

text: . The western margin of what is now South America had been the place of several other

text: orogenies

text: before the Andes rose. It has been hypothesized that the central Andes gained its great height 26 to 14 mya as result of a compressive

text: failure

text: of the

text: lithosphere

text: beneath Bolivia and neighboring areas. The great heights of the Altiplano, Codillera Occidental and Cordillera Oriental are

text: isostatically

text: compensated  by an up to 70 km deep

text: crust

text: . Climate has responded to the formation of this important topographic barrier. It is not clear, however, if the rise of the Andes simply caused the extreme aridity of

text: Atacama Desert

text: and adjacent parts of Bolivia or if a preexisting

text: desert climate

text: and associated low erosion rates allowed the mountains to build up to their current heights. A hypothesis holds that scarce sediment supply to the

text: Atacama Trench

text: caused by arid climate induced high

text: shear stress

text: es in the

text: subduction

text: process that enhanced the Andean mountain building.

text: Originally, the Old World and New World lineages of army ants were thought to have evolved independently, in an example of convergent evolution. In 2003, though, genetic analysis of various species suggests that they all evolved from a single common ancestor, which lived approximately 100 million years ago at the time of the separation of the continents of Africa and South America. Army ant taxonomy remains in flux, and genetic analysis will likely continue to provide more information about the relatedness of the various taxa.

text: Originally, the Old World and New World lineages of army ants were thought to have evolved independently, in an example of

text: convergent evolution

text: . In 2003, though, genetic analysis of various species suggests that they all evolved from a single common ancestor, which lived approximately 100 million years ago at the time of the separation of

text: the continents of Africa and South America

text: . Army ant taxonomy remains in flux, and genetic analysis will likely continue to provide more information about the relatedness of the various taxa.

text: On a large scale, structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional interaction and relationships of stratigraphic units within terranes of rock or geological regions.

text: On a large scale, structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional interaction and relationships of stratigraphic units within

text: terrane

text: s of rock or geological regions.

text: The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology. Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids such as petroleum and natural gas. Similarly, faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids, resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal ore deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with intrusive igneous rocks. They often also occur around geologic reef complexes and collapse features such as ancient sinkholes. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead,  zinc, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.

text: The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in

text: economic geology

text: , both

text: petroleum geology

text: and

text: mining geology

text: . Folded and faulted rock

text: strata

text: commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids such as

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: . Similarly, faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for

text: hydrothermal

text: fluids, resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal

text: ore

text: deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with

text: intrusive

text: igneous rock

text: s. They often also occur around geologic

text: reef

text: complexes and collapse features such as ancient

text: sinkhole

text: s. Deposits of

text: gold

text: silver

text: copper

text: lead

text: zinc

text: , and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.

text: At convergent plate boundaries two plates move towards each other as one is subducted downwards beneath the other but when the crust of two continents meet at a convergent zone neither one of them will be subducted due to their low density. As the two continents are pushed together by tectonic processes a large amount of strain is put on the rock. Eventually deformation will occur in one or multiple ways in order to relieve the strain.

text: The 1983 paper also suggested that passage of a hot spot weakens the continental crust, leaving it vulnerable to rifting.  But might the relation actually run the other way: do some of these "hotspots" accumulate in zones where the crust is already weakened (by means as yet unknown)?  The supposed Newberry hotspot track may exemplify this (see Megashears, below), but application of this concept more generally is not yet accepted.  Application to the OWL would require resolving some other questions, such as how traces of a ca. 150 Ma event resisted being swept north into Alaska to influence a structure believed to be no older than 41 Ma (see Straight Creek Fault). Possibly there is some explanation, but geology has not yet found it.

text: The 1983 paper also suggested that passage of a hot spot weakens the continental crust, leaving it vulnerable to rifting.  But might the relation actually run the other way: do some of these "hotspots" accumulate in zones where the crust is already weakened (by means as yet unknown)?  The supposed Newberry hotspot track may exemplify this (see Megashears, below), but application of this concept more generally is not yet accepted.  Application to the OWL would require resolving some other questions, such as how traces of a ca. 150 Ma event resisted being swept north into Alaska to influence a structure believed to be no older than 41 Ma (see

text: Straight Creek Fault

text: ). Possibly there is some explanation, but geology has not yet found it.

text: The Transverse Ranges represent a complex of tectonic forces and faulting stemming from the interaction of the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate along the San Andreas Fault system.  Their orientation along an east–west axis as opposed to the general southeast-northwest trend of most California ranges results from a pronounced step in the San Andreas Fault, the cause of which is a subject of intensive ongoing study. The San Andreas Fault is a dextral strike-slip fault with a right step, causing the mountains. Their elevation is somewhat better understood as a consequence of this step.  The crust atop the Pacific Plate south of the ranges does not easily make the turn westward as the entire plate moves northwestward, forcing pieces of the crust to compress and lift.

text: The Transverse Ranges represent a complex of tectonic forces and

text: faulting

text: stemming from the interaction of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: along the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system.  Their orientation along an east–west axis as opposed to the general southeast-northwest trend of most California ranges results from a pronounced step in the San Andreas Fault, the cause of which is a subject of intensive ongoing study. The San Andreas Fault is a

text: dextral

text: strike-slip fault with a right step, causing the mountains. Their elevation is somewhat better understood as a consequence of this step.  The crust atop the Pacific Plate south of the ranges does not easily make the turn westward as the entire plate moves northwestward, forcing pieces of the crust to compress and lift.

text: Granite has been intruded into the crust of the Earth during all geologic periods, although much of it is of Precambrian age. Granitic rock is widely distributed throughout the continental crust and is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin sedimentary veneer of the continents.

text: Granite has been intruded into the

text: crust

text: of the

text: Earth

text: during all

text: geologic periods

text: , although much of it is of

text: Precambrian

text: age. Granitic rock is widely distributed throughout the continental crust and is the most abundant

text: basement rock

text: that underlies the relatively thin

text: sedimentary

text: veneer of the continents.

text: Stress is built up during the spreading movements at the plate boundary. The accumulated stress in transform fault zones is released during strike-slip earthquakes. The transform fault is induced by strike-slip motion that is transverse to the fault zone. The blocks between the faults are slightly rotated afterwards. A diagram (fig.2) is shown to illustrate this phenomenon. Since the rotation of the blocks is similar to a line of books leaning on a bookshelf, it is termed "bookshelf faulting".

text: The Continent-ocean boundary (COB) or continent-ocean transition is the boundary between continental crust and oceanic crust on a passive margin. The identification of continent-ocean boundaries is important in the definition of plate boundaries at the time of break-up when trying to reconstruct the geometry and position of ancient continents e.g. in the reconstruction of Pangaea.

text: The Continent-ocean boundary (COB) or continent-ocean transition is the boundary between

text: continental crust

text: and

text: oceanic crust

text: on a

text: passive margin

text: . The identification of continent-ocean boundaries is important in the definition of plate boundaries at the time of break-up when trying to reconstruct the geometry and position of ancient continents e.g. in the reconstruction of

text: Pangaea

text: The history of earthquake investigations in California has been largely focused on the San Andreas Fault System, due to its strong influence in the state as the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate; it is the most studied fault on Earth. Andrew Lawson, a geologist from the University of California, Berkeley, had named the fault after the San Andreas Lake (prior to the occurrence of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake) and later led an investigation into that event. The San Andreas Fault ruptured for a length of  during the 1906 shock, both to the north of San Francisco and to the south in the Santa Cruz Mountains region. Several long term forecasts for a large shock along the San Andreas Fault in that area had been made public prior to 1989 (the event and its aftershocks occurred within a recognized seismic gap) but the earthquake that transpired was not what had been anticipated. The 1989 Loma Prieta event originated on an undiscovered oblique-slip reverse fault that is located adjacent to the San Andreas Fault.

text: The history of earthquake investigations in California has been largely focused on the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: System, due to its strong influence in the state as the boundary between the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: ; it is the most studied fault on Earth.

text: Andrew Lawson

text: , a geologist from the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: , had named the fault after the

text: San Andreas Lake

text: (prior to the occurrence of the

text: 1906 San Francisco earthquake

text: ) and later led an investigation into that event. The San Andreas Fault ruptured for a length of  during the 1906 shock, both to the north of San Francisco and to the south in the Santa Cruz Mountains region. Several long term forecasts for a large shock along the San Andreas Fault in that area had been made public prior to 1989 (the event and its

text: aftershock

text: s occurred within a recognized

text: seismic gap

text: ) but the earthquake that transpired was not what had been anticipated. The 1989 Loma Prieta event originated on an undiscovered

text: oblique-slip

text: reverse fault that is located adjacent to the San Andreas Fault.

text: Plate tectonics is the idea that the rigid outer layers of the Earth (crust and part of the upper mantle), the lithosphere, are broken up into numerous pieces or "plates" that move independently over the weaker asthenosphere. Wilson maintained that the Hawaiian Islands were created as a tectonic plate (extending across much of the Pacific Ocean) shifted to the northwest over a fixed hotspot, spawning a long series of volcanoes. He also conceived of the transform fault, a major plate boundary where two plates move past each other horizontally (e.g., the San Andreas Fault). His name was given to two young Canadian submarine volcanoes called the Tuzo Wilson Seamounts. The Wilson cycle of seabed expansion and contraction (also called the Supercontinent cycle) bears his name.

text: Plate tectonics is the idea that the rigid outer layers of the Earth (

text: crust

text: and part of the

text: upper mantle

text: ), the

text: lithosphere

text: , are broken up into numerous pieces or "plates" that move independently over the weaker

text: asthenosphere

text: . Wilson maintained that the

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: were created as a tectonic plate (extending across much of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: ) shifted to the northwest over a fixed

text: hotspot

text: , spawning a long series of

text: volcano

text: es. He also conceived of the

text: transform fault

text: , a major plate boundary where two plates move past each other horizontally (e.g., the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: ). His name was given to two young Canadian

text: submarine volcano

text: es called the

text: Tuzo Wilson Seamounts

text: . The

text: Wilson cycle

text: of seabed expansion and contraction (also called the

text: Supercontinent cycle

text: ) bears his name.

text: The stresses can be the result of the crevice loads due to stress concentration, or can be caused by the type of assembly or residual stresses from fabrication (e.g. cold working); the residual stresses can be relieved by annealing or other surface treatments.

text: The stresses can be the result of the crevice loads due to

text: stress concentration

text: , or can be caused by the type of assembly or

text: residual stress

text: es from fabrication (e.g. cold working); the residual stresses can be relieved by

text: annealing

text: or other surface treatments.

text: Like other Northern Cordilleran volcanoes, Maitland Volcano had its origins in continental rifting—a long rupture in the Earth's crust where the lithosphere is being pulled apart. This incipient rifting formed as a result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault, on its way to the Aleutian Trench. As the continental crust stretched, the near surface rocks fractured along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as faults. Basaltic magma rose along these fractures to create effusive eruptions. The rift zone has existed for at least 14.9 million years and has created the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. This geologic province forms part of the Ring of Fire, an area where large numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur along the Pacific Ocean.

text: Like other

text: Northern Cordilleran volcanoes

text: , Maitland Volcano had its origins in

text: continent

text: al

text: rift

text: ing—a long rupture in the Earth's

text: crust

text: where the

text: lithosphere

text: is being pulled apart. This incipient rifting formed as a result of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: sliding northward along the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: , on its way to the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: . As the

text: continental crust

text: stretched, the near surface rocks fractured along steeply dipping cracks parallel to the rift known as

text: faults

text: . Basaltic magma rose along these fractures to create

text: effusive eruption

text: s. The rift zone has existed for at least 14.9 million years and has created the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province. This

text: geologic province

text: forms part of the Ring of Fire, an area where large numbers of

text: earthquake

text: s and volcanic eruptions occur along the Pacific Ocean.

text: An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. Tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they can get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge of a tectonic plate overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust and cause the shaking that is felt. For example, in California, there are two plates, the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The Pacific Plate consists of most of the Pacific Ocean floor, and also includes Baja California and the California coastline. The North American Plate comprises most of the North American continent, including the inland parts of California, as well as parts of the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans' floors. The primary boundary between these two plates is the San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas Fault is more than 800 miles long and extends to depths of at least 10 miles. Many other smaller faults like the Hayward (San Francisco Bay Area) and the San Jacinto (Southern California) join with the San Andreas to form the San Andreas Fault Zone. The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year.

text: An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a

text: fault

text: Tectonic plates

text: are always slowly moving, but they can get stuck at their edges due to

text: friction

text: . When the stress on the edge of a tectonic plate overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases

text: energy

text: in waves that travel through the earth's

text: crust

text: and cause the shaking that is felt. For example, in

text: California

text: , there are two plates, the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . The Pacific Plate consists of most of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: floor, and also includes

text: Baja California

text: and the

text: California coastline

text: . The North American Plate comprises most of the

text: North American

text: continent, including the inland parts of California, as well as parts of the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Arctic Ocean

text: s' floors. The primary boundary between these two plates is the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: . The San Andreas Fault is more than 800 miles long and extends to depths of at least 10 miles. Many other smaller faults like the

text: Hayward

text: (San Francisco Bay Area) and the

text: San Jacinto

text: (Southern California) join with the San Andreas to form the San Andreas Fault Zone. The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year.

text: Synthetic and antithetic faults are terms used to describe minor faults associated with a major fault. Synthetic faults dip in the same direction as the major fault while the antithetic faults dip in the opposite direction. These faults may be accompanied by rollover anticlines (e.g. the Niger Delta Structural Style).

text: Synthetic and antithetic faults are terms used to describe minor faults associated with a major fault. Synthetic faults dip in the same direction as the major fault while the antithetic faults dip in the opposite direction. These faults may be accompanied by

text: rollover anticlines

text: (e.g. the

text: Niger Delta

text: Structural Style).

text: Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the Taupo Volcanic Zone may be as little as 16 kilometres thick.  A film of magma 50 kilometres (30 mi) wide and 160 kilometres (100 mi) long lies 10 kilometres under the surface. The geological record indicates that some of the volcanoes in the area erupt infrequently but have large, violent and destructive eruptions when they do. There is also some possible rifting in the Taupo Volcanic Zone.

text: Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the Taupo Volcanic Zone may be as little as 16 kilometres thick.  A film of

text: magma

text: 50 kilometres (30 mi) wide and 160 kilometres (100 mi) long lies 10 kilometres under the surface. The geological record indicates that some of the volcanoes in the area erupt infrequently but have large, violent and destructive eruptions when they do. There is also some possible

text: rift

text: ing in the Taupo Volcanic Zone.

text: One major function of chaperones is to prevent both newly synthesised polypeptide chains and assembled subunits from aggregating into nonfunctional structures. It is for this reason that many chaperones, but by no means all, are heat shock proteins because the tendency to aggregate increases as proteins are denatured by stress. In this case, chaperones do not convey any additional steric information required for proteins to fold. However, some highly specific 'steric chaperones' do convey unique structural (steric) information onto proteins, which cannot be folded spontaneously. Such proteins violate Anfinsen's dogma, requiring protein dynamics to fold correctly.

text: One major function of chaperones is to prevent both newly synthesised polypeptide chains and assembled subunits from aggregating into nonfunctional structures. It is for this reason that many chaperones, but by no means all, are

text: heat shock protein

text: s because the tendency to aggregate increases as proteins are denatured by stress. In this case, chaperones do not convey any additional

text: steric

text: information required for proteins to fold. However, some highly specific 'steric chaperones' do convey unique structural (steric) information onto proteins, which cannot be folded spontaneously. Such proteins violate

text: Anfinsen's dogma

text: , requiring

text: protein dynamics

text: to fold correctly.

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth .. then it could be common in the universe."

text: The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of

text: life on Earth

text: dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon. There are

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of a

text: biogenic substance

text: is

text: graphite

text: in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: meta-sedimentary rocks

text: discovered in

text: Western Greenland

text: . More recently, in 2015, "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth .. then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: It is true that continental drift and seafloor spreading can change the shape and position of continents and occasionally break a continent into two or more pieces (as happened to Pangaea). However, these are very slow processes that occur in geological time scales (hundreds of millions of years). Over the scale of history (tens of thousands of years), the sima under the continental crust can be considered solid, and the continents are basically anchored on it. It is almost certain that the continents and ocean floors have retained their present position and shape for the whole span of human existence.

text: It is true that

text: continental drift

text: and

text: seafloor spreading

text: can change the shape and position of continents and occasionally break a continent into two or more pieces (as happened to

text: Pangaea

text: ). However, these are very slow processes that occur in

text: geological time scale

text: s (hundreds of millions of years). Over the scale of history (tens of thousands of years), the sima under the continental crust can be considered solid, and the continents are basically anchored on it. It is almost certain that the continents and ocean floors have retained their present position and shape for the whole span of human existence.

text: The Sea of Marmara is a pull-apart basin formed at a releasing bend in the North Anatolian Fault, a right-lateral strike-slip fault. This local zone of extension occurs where this transform boundary between the Anatolian Plate and the Eurasian Plate steps northwards to the west of Izmit from the Izmit Fault to the Ganos Fault. The pattern of faults within the Sea of Marmara basin is complex but near Istanbul there is a single main fault segment with a sharp bend. To the west, the fault trends west-east and is pure strike-slip in type. To the east, the fault is NW-SE trending and show evidence of both normal and strike-slip motion. Movement on the Gulf of Izmit section of the fault, which bounds the Çınarcık Basin, is the most likely cause of the 1894 event. Other possible causes are movement on the Prince's Islands segment of the fault (to the west of the Gulf of Izmit), and movement on a normal fault in the Çinarcik basin, separate from the North Anatolian Fault.

text: The

text: Sea of Marmara

text: is a

text: pull-apart basin

text: formed at a

text: releasing bend

text: in the

text: North Anatolian Fault

text: , a right-lateral

text: strike-slip fault

text: transform

text: boundary between the

text: Anatolian Plate

text: and the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: steps northwards to the west of

text: Izmit

text: from the Izmit Fault to the Ganos Fault. The pattern of faults within the Sea of Marmara basin is complex but near Istanbul there is a single main fault segment with a sharp bend. To the west, the fault trends west-east and is pure strike-slip in type. To the east, the fault is NW-SE trending and show evidence of

text: both normal and strike-slip

text: motion. Movement on the Gulf of Izmit section of the fault, which bounds the Çınarcık Basin, is the most likely cause of the 1894 event. Other possible causes are movement on the Prince's Islands segment of the fault (to the west of the Gulf of Izmit), and movement on a

text: normal fault

text: in the Çinarcik basin, separate from the North Anatolian Fault.

text: This category includes daily annoyances and minor hassles. Examples include: making decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes conflicts with other people. Daily stressors, however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful. For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, nevertheless, a seasoned politician most likely will not.

text: This category includes daily

text: annoyance

text: s and minor hassles. Examples include: making decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes

text: conflict

text: s with other people. Daily stressors, however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful. For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, nevertheless, a seasoned politician most likely will not.

text: The pace of mountain building associated with the collision is measured by radiometric dating of igneous rocks or units that have been metamorphosed during the collision and by examining the record of sediments shed from the rising mountains into the surrounding basins.  The pace of ancient convergence can be determined with paleomagnetic measurements, while the present rate of convergence can be measured with GPS.

text: The pace of mountain building associated with the collision is measured by

text: radiometric dating

text: of

text: igneous

text: rocks or units that have been metamorphosed during the collision and by examining the record of sediments shed from the rising mountains into the surrounding basins.  The pace of ancient convergence can be determined with

text: paleomagnetic

text: measurements, while the present rate of convergence can be measured with

text: GPS

text: A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. In geology, areas of continental crust include regions covered with water.

text: A continent is one of several very large

text: landmass

text: es on

text: Earth

text: . Generally identified by

text: convention

text: rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are:

text: Asia

text: Africa

text: North America

text: South America

text: Antarctica

text: Europe

text: , and

text: Australia

text: . In

text: geology

text: , areas of

text: continental crust

text: include

text: regions covered with water

text: Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous plate tectonics due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. However, other studies determine that strong convection currents in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of magma to break the crust into plates.

text: Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous

text: plate tectonics

text: due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. However, other studies determine that strong

text: convection currents

text: in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of

text: magma

text: to break the crust into plates.

text: Deformation is the folding, breaking, or flow of rocks. There are many different types of crustal deformation depending on whether the rocks are brittle or ductile. The aspects that determine these properties are due to certain temperatures and pressures that rocks experience within the Earth. Therefore, temperature and pressure control deformation processes. Ductile rocks tend to bend, fold, stretch, or flow due to compressional or extensional forces. Brittle rocks, on the other hand, tend to break. The zone where the crust breaks is termed a fault. There are three main types of faults:normal faults, reverse faults, and strike slip (transform) faults.All of these are ways the crust can deform is due to the different types of plate margins, which are:divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and transform boundaries.

text: Deformation is the folding, breaking, or flow of rocks. There are many different types of crustal deformation depending on whether the rocks are brittle or

text: ductile

text: . The aspects that determine these properties are due to certain temperatures and pressures that rocks experience within the Earth. Therefore, temperature and pressure control deformation processes. Ductile rocks tend to bend, fold, stretch, or flow due to compressional or extensional forces. Brittle rocks, on the other hand, tend to break. The zone where the crust breaks is termed a

text: fault

text: . There are three main types of faults:

text: normal fault

text: s,

text: reverse fault

text: s, and

text: strike slip (transform) faults

text: .All of these are ways the crust can deform is due to the different types of plate margins, which are:

text: divergent boundaries

text: convergent boundaries

text: , and

text: transform boundaries

text: A defect is an error caused in a device during the manufacturing process. A fault model is a mathematical description of how a defect alters design behavior. The logic values observed at the device's primary outputs, while applying a test pattern to some device under test (DUT), are called the output of that test pattern. The output of a test pattern, when testing a fault-free device that works exactly as designed, is called the expected output of that test pattern. A fault is said to be detected by a test pattern if the output of that test pattern, when testing a device that has only that one fault, is different than the expected output. The ATPG process for a targeted fault consists of two phases: fault activation and fault propagation. Fault activation establishes a signal value at the fault model site that is opposite of the value produced by the fault model. Fault propagation moves the resulting signal value, or fault effect, forward by sensitizing a path from the fault site to a primary output.

text: In the UK, well-known structures such as the Blackpool Tower (), are commonly used by British newspapers or reference books to give the comparative heights of buildings or, occasionally, mountains.

text: In the UK, well-known structures such as the

text: Blackpool Tower

text: (), are commonly used by British newspapers or reference books to give the comparative heights of buildings or, occasionally, mountains.

text: 5-Oxo-ETE is some 30- to 100-fold more potent than 5(S)-HETE and therefore may be a critical product among the products formed from 5(S)-HETE. Note that this conversion reaction is bidirectional: 5-oxo-ETE is rapidly converted back to 5(S)-HETE by 5-NEDH + NADPH. Indeed, the 5(S)-HETE-to-5-oxo-ETE transformation is regulated, making 5-oxo-ETE only in neutrophils undergoing severe oxidative stress or when near to 5-NEDH-containing cell types in tissues undergoing inflammatory, allergic, cancerous transformation, or other stress reactions. Thus, a) neutrophils make 5-(S)-HETE but little or no 5-oxo-ETE unless undergoing severe oxidative stresses that causes them to greatly increase their levels of NADP and b) neutrophils can release 5(S)-HETE to, e.g. epithelial, endothelial, dendritic, and certain (e.g. prostate, breast, and lung) cancer cells which display little or no 5-LO activity but have high levels of 5-NEDH activity and thereby metabolize the released 5(S)-HETE to 5-oxo-ETE.

text: 5-Oxo-ETE is some 30- to 100-fold more potent than 5(S)-HETE and therefore may be a critical product among the products formed from 5(S)-HETE. Note that this conversion reaction is bidirectional: 5-oxo-ETE is rapidly converted back to 5(S)-HETE by 5-NEDH +

entity_name: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

text: NADPH

text: . Indeed, the 5(S)-HETE-to-5-oxo-ETE transformation is regulated, making 5-oxo-ETE only in neutrophils undergoing severe oxidative stress or when near to 5-NEDH-containing cell types in tissues undergoing inflammatory, allergic, cancerous transformation, or other stress reactions. Thus, a) neutrophils make 5-(S)-HETE but little or no 5-oxo-ETE unless undergoing severe oxidative stresses that causes them to greatly increase their levels of NADP and b) neutrophils can release 5(S)-HETE to, e.g. epithelial, endothelial, dendritic, and certain (e.g. prostate, breast, and lung) cancer cells which display little or no 5-LO activity but have high levels of 5-NEDH activity and thereby metabolize the released 5(S)-HETE to 5-oxo-ETE.

text: Geologic modelling,  Geological modelling or Geomodelling is the applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crust based on geophysical and geological observations made on and below the Earth surface. A Geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-dimensional geological map complemented by a description of physical quantities in the domain of interest.Geomodelling is related to the concept of Shared Earth Model; which is a multidisciplinary, interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface.

text: Geologic modelling,  Geological modelling or Geomodelling is the

text: applied science

text: of creating

text: computerized

text: representations of portions of the Earth's

text: crust

text: based on

text: geophysical

text: and

text: geological

text: observations made on and below the Earth surface. A Geomodel is the numerical equivalent of a three-dimensional

text: geological map

text: complemented by a description of

text: physical quantities

text: in the domain of interest.Geomodelling is related to the concept of Shared Earth Model; which is a multidisciplinary, interoperable and updatable knowledge base about the subsurface.

text: In geology, sima is the name for the lower layer of the Earth's crust. This layer is made of rocks rich in magnesium silicate minerals.  Typically when the sima comes to the surface it is basalt, so sometimes this layer is called the 'basalt layer' of the crust. The sima layer is also called the 'basal crust' or 'basal layer' because it is the lowest layer of the crust.  Because the ocean floors are mainly sima, it is also sometimes called the 'oceanic crust'.

text: In

text: geology

text: , sima is the name for the lower layer of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: . This layer is made of rocks rich in

text: magnesium

text: silicate mineral

text: s.  Typically when the sima comes to the surface it is

text: basalt

text: , so sometimes this layer is called the 'basalt layer' of the crust. The sima layer is also called the 'basal crust' or 'basal layer' because it is the lowest layer of the crust.  Because the ocean floors are mainly sima, it is also sometimes called the '

text: oceanic crust

text: Interplate earthquakes differ from intraplate earthquake in the intensity of stress drop which occurs after the quake.  Intraplate earthquake have, on average, more stress drop than that of the interplate earthquake. Interplate earthquakes also differ fundamentally from intraplate earthquakes in the way stress is released and recovered. An interplate earthquake results in an immediate stress drop along the fault. Following this is a period of postseismic stress restoration. This restoration occurs quickly within the first few decades following the rupture and is due to tectonic loading and viscous relaxation in the lower crust. This results in a transfer of stress to the upper crust. Later on, a period of steady stress increase occurs due to tectonic loading.

text: Interplate earthquakes differ from

text: intraplate earthquake

text: in the intensity of stress drop which occurs after the quake.

text: Intraplate earthquake

text: have, on average, more stress drop than that of the interplate earthquake. Interplate earthquakes also differ fundamentally from intraplate earthquakes in the way stress is released and recovered. An interplate earthquake results in an immediate stress drop along the fault. Following this is a period of postseismic stress restoration. This restoration occurs quickly within the first few decades following the rupture and is due to tectonic loading and viscous relaxation in the lower crust. This results in a transfer of stress to the upper crust. Later on, a period of steady stress increase occurs due to tectonic loading.

text: Twin Sisters Mountain is composed of relatively unaltered dunite, an ultramafic rock that is mostly olivine. The Twin Sisters Range is a massive slab of relatively dense rock that was uplifted from major thrust fault activity in the form of a nappe. The magnesium and iron rich rock was forced upwards from the tectonic collision between the Bell Pass Mélange and the Chilliwack River terrane during the Mesozoic era. The reddish color of the mountain range may be due to the oxidation of  iron and magnesium in the dunite that is exposed to chemical weathering. Petrology of the Twin Sisters dunite consists of Enstatite rich rocks that contain, along with olivine, significant amounts of chromite, clinopyroxene, and serpentinite. These minerals are commonly associated with ultramafic rocks that crystallize below the Earth's crust within the mantle (geology). The serpentinized minerals are thought to have formed during later stages of the uplift where water could penetrate through fault fractures and initiate metamorphism.

text: Twin Sisters Mountain is composed of relatively unaltered

text: dunite

text: , an

text: ultramafic

text: rock that is mostly

text: olivine

text: . The Twin Sisters Range is a massive slab of relatively dense rock that was

text: uplifted

text: from major

text: thrust fault

text: activity in the form of a

text: nappe

text: . The magnesium and iron rich rock was forced upwards from the

text: tectonic

text: collision between the Bell Pass

text: Mélange

text: and the Chilliwack River

text: terrane

text: during the

text: Mesozoic

text: era. The reddish color of the mountain range may be due to the oxidation of  iron and magnesium in the dunite that is exposed to chemical

text: weathering

text: Petrology

text: of the Twin Sisters dunite consists of

text: Enstatite

text: rich rocks that contain, along with olivine, significant amounts of

text: chromite

text: clinopyroxene

text: , and

text: serpentinite

text: . These minerals are commonly associated with ultramafic rocks that crystallize below the Earth's crust within the

text: mantle (geology)

text: . The

text: serpentinized

text: minerals are thought to have formed during later stages of the uplift where water could penetrate through fault fractures and initiate

text: metamorphism

text: When continents collide, the continental crust may thicken at their edges in the collision. If this happens, much of the thickened crust may move downwards rather than up as with the iceberg analogy. The idea of continental collisions building mountains "up" is therefore rather a simplification. Instead, the crust thickens and the upper part of the thickened crust may become a mountain range.

text: In an electric power system, a fault  or fault current is any abnormal electric current. For example, a short circuit is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. In three-phase systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", current flows into the earth. The prospective short circuit current of a predictable fault can be calculated for most situations. In power systems, protective devices can detect fault conditions and operate circuit breakers and other devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure.

text: In an

text: electric power system

text: , a fault  or fault current is any abnormal

text: electric current

text: . For example, a

text: short circuit

text: is a fault in which current bypasses the normal load. An open-circuit fault occurs if a circuit is interrupted by some failure. In

text: three-phase

text: systems, a fault may involve one or more phases and ground, or may occur only between phases. In a "ground fault" or "earth fault", current flows into the earth. The

text: prospective short circuit current

text: of a predictable fault can be calculated for most situations. In power systems, protective devices can detect fault conditions and operate

text: circuit breaker

text: s and other devices to limit the loss of service due to a failure.

text: Rifts are areas of elemental instability that represent the intrusion of elemental planes into the land of Telara. Once opened, these rifts begin to spawn monsters that proceed to march towards important points on the map. It is up to players to defeat these monsters and to close the rifts. If rifts are left unchecked, the invading monsters will eventually conquer large portions of the map, inflicting casualties and significantly hampering the operations in that area. Entering the area around a rift triggers a prompt for the player to join a public group, rather than forcing the player to manually create a group. After sealing a rift, players are rewarded based on their contribution to the fight, such as healing, dealing damage, or buffing other players. The severity and locations of rifts are entirely dynamic. Rifts of six different types (earth, fire, air, water, life, and death) are possible, and rifts of different types will oppose each other. In addition, Non-player characters hostile to the player may engage rift invaders. With the addition of Storm Legion, Hunt Rifts can be summoned by players creating a "survival" style of combat where players defend conduits from waves of invaders culminating in a boss battle.  Hunt Rifts have varying degrees of difficulty and as the difficulty increases the player rewards also increase.

text: Rifts are areas of elemental instability that represent the intrusion of elemental planes into the land of Telara. Once opened, these rifts begin to spawn monsters that proceed to march towards important points on the map. It is up to players to defeat these monsters and to close the rifts. If rifts are left unchecked, the invading monsters will eventually conquer large portions of the map, inflicting casualties and significantly hampering the operations in that area. Entering the area around a rift triggers a prompt for the player to join a public group, rather than forcing the player to manually create a group. After sealing a rift, players are rewarded based on their contribution to the fight, such as healing, dealing damage, or buffing other players. The severity and locations of rifts are entirely dynamic. Rifts of six different types (earth, fire, air, water, life, and death) are possible, and rifts of different types will oppose each other. In addition,

text: Non-player characters

text: hostile to the player may engage rift invaders. With the addition of Storm Legion, Hunt Rifts can be summoned by players creating a "survival" style of combat where players defend conduits from waves of invaders culminating in a boss battle.  Hunt Rifts have varying degrees of difficulty and as the difficulty increases the player rewards also increase.

text: Several novels, a MUD, several mush/muxs and large amounts of fan fiction have been based on the world of Rifts. A licensed Rifts video game (Rifts: Promise of Power), was released in November 2005 for the Nokia N-Gage, as was Rifts Collectible Card Game, a short-lived collectible card game.

text: Several

text: novel

text: s, a

text: MUD

text: , several mush/muxs and large amounts of

text: fan fiction

text: have been based on the world of Rifts. A licensed Rifts

text: video game

text: Rifts: Promise of Power

text: ), was released in November 2005 for the

text: Nokia

text: N-Gage

text: , as was Rifts Collectible Card Game, a short-lived

text: collectible card game

text: The Gorringe Bank was eventually renamed Gorringe Ridge owing to its extensive length and the determination that it is the result of two tectonic plates which are sliding into and past each other.  The plate boundaries here are converging at 4 mm/y, as well as sliding past each other.  Upper mantle and oceanic crust are exposed along this ridge.  Ferrogabbro dated at 77 Mya has been intruded,  Also at 66 Mya the Canary hotspot mantle plume passed by and caused alkaline magma to intrude.  Where there is crust, it is very thin, so that the Moho comes up to the sea floor.  Sediment overlies the mantle, so this could be considered as crust.  Since the Miocene Era there has been shortening of the ocean crust absorbed by folding, and thrusting.

text: The Gorringe Bank was eventually renamed Gorringe Ridge owing to its extensive length and the determination that it is the result of two

text: tectonic plate

text: s which are sliding into and past each other.  The plate boundaries here are converging at 4 mm/y, as well as sliding past each other.

text: Upper mantle

text: and

text: oceanic crust

text: are exposed along this ridge.

text: Ferrogabbro

text: dated at 77 Mya has been intruded,  Also at 66 Mya the

text: Canary hotspot

text: mantle plume

text: passed by and caused alkaline magma to intrude.  Where there is crust, it is very thin, so that the

text: Moho

text: comes up to the sea floor.

text: Sediment

text: overlies the mantle, so this could be considered as crust.  Since the

text: Miocene

text: Era there has been shortening of the ocean crust absorbed by folding, and thrusting.

text: Bone is constantly being created and replaced in a process known as remodeling. This ongoing turnover of bone is a process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape. This is accomplished through osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Cells are stimulated by a variety of signals, and together referred to as a remodeling unit. Approximately 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodelled each year. The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair microdamaged bones from everyday stress, and also to shape and sculpt the skeleton during growth.. Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff's law). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress.

text: Bone is constantly being created and replaced in a process known as

text: remodeling

text: . This ongoing turnover of bone is a process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape. This is accomplished through osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Cells are stimulated by a variety of

text: signals

text: , and together referred to as a remodeling unit. Approximately 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodelled each year. The purpose of remodeling is to regulate

text: calcium homeostasis

text: , repair

text: microdamaged bones

text: from everyday stress, and also to shape and sculpt the skeleton during growth.. Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing

text: exercise

text: or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (

text: Wolff's law

text: ). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's

text: piezoelectric

text: properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress.

text: The average age of the current Earth's continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years. Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth and so are not readily destroyed by subduction. Formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny; these periods coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The crust forms in part by aggregation of island arcs including granite and metamorphic fold belts, and it is preserved in part by depletion of the underlying mantle to form buoyant lithospheric mantle.

text: The average age of the current Earth's continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years. Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in

text: craton

text: s. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth and so are not readily destroyed by

text: subduction

text: . Formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense

text: orogeny

text: ; these periods coincide with the formation of the

text: supercontinent

text: s such as

text: Rodinia

text: Pangaea

text: and

text: Gondwana

text: . The crust forms in part by aggregation of

text: island arc

text: s including granite and metamorphic fold belts, and it is preserved in part by depletion of the underlying mantle to form buoyant lithospheric mantle.

text: When two plates containing continental crust collide, both are too light to subduct. In this case, a continent-continent collision occurs, creating especially large mountain ranges. The most spectacular example of this is the Himalayas.

text: When two plates containing continental crust collide, both are too light to subduct. In this case, a continent-continent collision occurs, creating especially large mountain ranges. The most spectacular example of this is the

text: Himalayas

text: The Manihiki Plateau was originally described as a subsided microcontinent in 1966, but has been known to be made of oceanic crust since DSDP drillings were made in the 1970s.  The formation of the plateau is related to the intense volcanism of the Early Cretaceous and mid-ocean ridge jumps.  A hotspot and several mantle sources were involved in the formation of the Manihiki large igneous province (LIP).  121–119 Ma it was the largest oceanic plateau on Earth, twice its present size, when a triple junction originated in its north-western corner, splitting it into three parts.  The modern Manihiki Plateau rifted from the Hikurangi Plateau, now located adjacent to New Zealand, in the Early Cretaceous.

text: The Manihiki Plateau was originally described as a subsided microcontinent in 1966, but has been known to be made of oceanic crust since

text: DSDP

text: drillings were made in the 1970s.  The formation of the plateau is related to the intense volcanism of the Early Cretaceous and

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: jumps.  A

text: hotspot

text: and several mantle sources were involved in the formation of the Manihiki

text: large igneous province

text: (LIP).  121–119 Ma it was the largest oceanic plateau on Earth, twice its present size, when a triple junction originated in its north-western corner, splitting it into three parts.  The modern Manihiki Plateau rifted from the Hikurangi Plateau, now located adjacent to New Zealand, in the Early Cretaceous.

text: The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates. New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent. About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north.

text: The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: s. New Zealand is part of

text: Zealandia

text: , a

text: microcontinent

text: nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the

text: Gondwana

text: n supercontinent. About 25 million years ago, a shift in

text: plate tectonic

text: movements began to

text: contort and crumple

text: the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by

text: compression of the crust

text: beside the

text: Alpine Fault

text: . Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the

text: subduction

text: of one plate under the other, producing the

text: Puysegur Trench

text: to the south, the

text: Hikurangi Trench

text: east of the North Island, and the

text: Kermadec

text: and

text: Tonga Trench

text: es further north.

text: The range is mountainous with large limestone massifs (formations resulting from movement of the earth's crust into faults and flexures). This is typical of the Basque region. The range has a karstic lithological appearance, i.e. parts of the calcareous (calcium carbonate, limestone) rock outcrops have been dissolved away in water. Left behind are limestone pavements—areas where the limestone has formed etched, pitted or fluted rock pinnacles and ridges between which are deep grooves, sinkholes or dolinas, caves, underground rivers, and gullies. An example, now open to the public, is the cavern of Mendukillo in the village of Astitz. This cracked, permeable geologic milieu has provided the perfect grounds for a wide range of mythological accounts and characters.

text: The range is mountainous with large

text: limestone

text: massif

text: s (formations resulting from

text: movement of the earth's crust

text: into

text: fault

text: s and flexures). This is typical of the

entity_name: Physical geography of the Basque Country

text: Basque region

text: . The range has a

text: karst

text: ic

text: lithological

text: appearance, i.e. parts of the

text: calcareous

text: calcium carbonate

text: , limestone) rock outcrops have been dissolved away in water. Left behind are limestone pavements—areas where the limestone has formed etched, pitted or fluted rock pinnacles and ridges between which are deep grooves,

text: sinkhole

text: s or dolinas, caves, underground rivers, and gullies. An example, now open to the public, is the cavern of Mendukillo in the village of

text: Astitz

text: . This cracked, permeable geologic milieu has provided the perfect grounds for a wide range of mythological accounts and characters.

text: Berkland has been predicting earthquakes since the 1970s, but his method has not been described in the scientific literature (he claims because of censorship and a conspiracy of prejudicial reviewers), nor in any detail in any media. In 1990 he described the "Seismic Window Theory" as "correlating gravitational stresses with earthquakes" - referring to the tidal stresses in the Earth resulting from the gravitational pull of the moon, especially at lunar perigee, when the moon is closest to the Earth. He said there are three main processes: (1) the solid earth tide that deforms the Earth's crust (up to three feet), (2) oceanic tides, and (3) ground water pore-pressure.  Since 1979 he has also subscribed to a theory that "pets often react prior to earthquakes by running away", which he measures by monitoring the lost-and-found ads in several newspapers. He claims that ads for missing animals "increase dramatically by up to 300-400 per cent" prior to earthquakes.

text: Berkland has been predicting earthquakes since the 1970s, but his method has not been described in the scientific literature (he claims because of censorship and a conspiracy of prejudicial reviewers), nor in any detail in any media. In 1990 he described the "Seismic Window Theory" as "correlating gravitational stresses with earthquakes" - referring to the tidal stresses in the Earth resulting from the gravitational pull of the moon, especially at lunar

text: perigee

text: , when the moon is closest to the Earth. He said there are three main processes: (1) the solid earth tide that deforms the Earth's crust (up to three feet), (2) oceanic tides, and (3) ground water pore-pressure.  Since 1979 he has also subscribed to a theory that "pets often react prior to earthquakes by running away", which he measures by monitoring the lost-and-found ads in several newspapers. He claims that ads for missing animals "increase dramatically by up to 300-400 per cent" prior to earthquakes.

text: The San Jacinto Fault Zone (SJFZ) is a major strike-slip fault zone that runs through San Bernardino, Riverside, San Diego, and Imperial Counties in Southern California. The SJFZ is a component of the larger San Andreas transform system and is considered to be the most seismically active fault zone in the area. Together they relieve the majority of the stress between the Pacific and North American tectonic plates.

text: The San Jacinto Fault Zone (SJFZ) is a major strike-slip

text: fault

text: zone that runs through

text: San Bernardino

text: Riverside

text: San Diego

text: , and

text: Imperial

text: Counties in

text: Southern California

text: . The SJFZ is a component of the larger

text: San Andreas

text: transform system and is considered to be the most seismically active fault zone in the area. Together they relieve the majority of the stress between the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: North American

text: tectonic plates.

text: The main building, commonly referred to as the White Mountain Building, remains an iconic structure within the City of Elliot Lake, as it is one of its very few professional purpose buildings. Originally housing a nuclear research laboratory, the building features three naturally lit floors with several rooms from each floor, centred upon a massive arboretum, spanning the steps from the first to second floors. After the school's closure, the building was subsequently leased by the city, and served primarily as a storage depot for municipal equipment.

text: Michell’s essay not only provided insights on earthquakes but also, more broadly, represented an advance in the understanding of the geology of the Earth’s crust. He recognized that the Earth is composed "of regular and uniform strata", some of which have been interrupted by upheavals. "The most important part of Michell's Earthquake paper", in the view of one commentator, "is the account which it contains of what is now known as 'the crust of the Earth.'" Exhibiting a remarkable knowledge of the geological strata in various parts of England and abroad, he drew on his own observations to advance the understanding of sedimentary stratigraphy and was the first to define the Mesozoic stratigraphy in the U.K.

text: Back-arc basins are geologic basins, submarine features associated with island arcs and subduction zones. They are found at some convergent plate boundaries, presently concentrated in the western Pacific Ocean. Most of them result from tensional forces caused by oceanic trench rollback (the oceanic trench is wandering in the seafloor direction) and the collapse of the edge of the continent. The arc crust is under extension or rifting as a result of the sinking of the subducting slab. Back-arc basins were initially a surprising result for plate tectonics theorists, who expected convergent boundaries to be zones of compression, rather than major extension. However, they are now recognized as consistent with this model in explaining how the interior of Earth loses heat.

text: Back-arc basins are geologic

text: basins

text: , submarine features associated with

text: island arc

text: s and

text: subduction zones

text: . They are found at some

text: convergent plate boundaries

text: , presently concentrated in the western

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . Most of them result from

text: tensional forces

text: caused by

text: oceanic trench

text: rollback (the oceanic trench is wandering in the seafloor direction) and the collapse of the edge of the continent. The arc crust is under

text: extension

text: or rifting as a result of the sinking of the subducting slab. Back-arc basins were initially a surprising result for

text: plate tectonics

text: theorists, who expected convergent boundaries to be zones of compression, rather than major extension. However, they are now recognized as consistent with this model in explaining how the interior of

text: Earth

text: loses heat.

text: Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted, and this issue, known as "cometary fading", has yet to be resolved. No known dynamical process can explain this undercount of observed comets. Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses, impact or heating; the loss of all volatiles, rendering some comets invisible, or the formation of a non-volatile crust on the surface. Dynamical studies of Oort cloud comets have shown that their occurrence in the outer-planet region is several times higher than in the inner-planet region. This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of Jupiter, which acts as a kind of barrier, trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it, just as it did with Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 in 1994.

text: Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted, and this issue, known as "cometary fading", has yet to be resolved. No known dynamical process can explain this undercount of observed comets. Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses, impact or heating; the loss of all

text: volatiles

text: , rendering some comets invisible, or the formation of a non-volatile crust on the surface. Dynamical studies of Oort cloud comets have shown that their occurrence in the

text: outer-planet

text: region is several times higher than in the inner-planet region. This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of

text: Jupiter

text: , which acts as a kind of barrier, trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it, just as it did with

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: in 1994.

text: Tectonophysics is concerned with movements in the Earth's crust and deformations over scales from meters to thousands of kilometers. Examples of such processes include mountain building, the formation of sedimentary basins, postglacial rebound of regions such as Fennoscandia, plate tectonics, volcanoes and earthquakes. This involves the measurement of a hierarchy of strains in rocks and plates as well as deformation rates; the study of laboratory analogues of natural systems; and the construction of models for the history of deformation.

text: Tectonophysics is concerned with movements in the Earth's crust and deformations over scales from meters to thousands of kilometers. Examples of such processes include

text: mountain building

text: , the formation of

text: sedimentary basins

text: postglacial rebound

text: of regions such as

text: Fennoscandia

text: plate tectonics

text: volcanoes

text: and

text: earthquakes

text: . This involves the measurement of a hierarchy of

text: strain

text: s in rocks and plates as well as deformation rates; the study of laboratory analogues of natural systems; and the construction of models for the history of deformation.

text: The 13th-century Dominican scholar Albert the Great posited that, as erosion was known to occur, there must be some process whereby new mountains and other land-forms were thrust up, or else there would eventually be no land; he suggested that marine fossils in mountainsides must once have been at the sea-floor. Orogeny was used by Amanz Gressly (1840) and Jules Thurmann (1854) as orogenic in terms of the creation of mountain elevations, as the term mountain building was still used to describe the processes.Elie de Beaumont (1852) used the evocative "Jaws of a Vise" theory to explain orogeny, but was more concerned with the height rather than the implicit structures created by and contained in orogenic belts. His theory essentially held that mountains were created by the squeezing of certain rocks. Eduard Suess (1875) recognised the importance of horizontal movement of rocks. The concept of a precursor geosyncline or initial downward warping of the solid earth (Hall, 1859) prompted James Dwight Dana (1873) to include the concept of compression in the theories surrounding mountain-building. With hindsight, we can discount Dana's conjecture that this contraction was due to the cooling of the Earth (aka the cooling Earth theory). The cooling Earth theory was the chief paradigm for most geologists until the 1960s. It was, in the context of orogeny, fiercely contested by proponents of vertical movements in the crust (similar to tephrotectonics), or convection within the asthenosphere or mantle.

text: The 13th-century

text: Dominican

text: scholar

text: Albert the Great

text: posited that, as erosion was known to occur, there must be some process whereby new mountains and other land-forms were thrust up, or else there would eventually be no land; he suggested that marine fossils in mountainsides must once have been at the sea-floor. Orogeny was used by

text: Amanz Gressly

text: (1840) and

text: Jules Thurmann

text: (1854) as orogenic in terms of the creation of mountain elevations, as the term mountain building was still used to describe the processes.

text: Elie de Beaumont

text: (1852) used the evocative "Jaws of a Vise" theory to explain orogeny, but was more concerned with the height rather than the implicit structures created by and contained in orogenic belts. His theory essentially held that mountains were created by the squeezing of certain rocks.

text: Eduard Suess

text: (1875) recognised the importance of horizontal movement of rocks. The concept of a precursor

text: geosyncline

text: or initial downward warping of the solid earth (Hall, 1859) prompted

text: James Dwight Dana

text: (1873) to include the concept of compression in the theories surrounding mountain-building. With hindsight, we can discount Dana's conjecture that this contraction was due to the cooling of the Earth (aka the

text: cooling Earth

text: theory). The cooling Earth theory was the chief paradigm for most geologists until the 1960s. It was, in the context of orogeny, fiercely contested by proponents of vertical movements in the crust (similar to

text: tephrotectonics

text: ), or convection within the

text: asthenosphere

text: or

text: mantle

text: The Woodlark Basin originally began to open as a sphenochasm with a pole near the tip of eastern Papua about 20 million years ago. A sphenochasm is a triangular gap of oceanic crust separating two continental blocks and converging to a point.  This was caused by left-lateral shear in the region induced by a change in the relative motion pole of the Indo-Australian plate and Pacific Plate. The basin opened only a few degrees at this time, then stopped for a period of time. Then the rifting resumed in the entire basin about 3 million years ago, based on magnetic anomaly data. Then about 1 million years ago, the spreading center in the western basin shifted to the Woodlark Rise. The Woodlark Rise is the northern section of the Woodlark Basin that separates the basin from the bordering Soloman sea to the north. This spreading rift marks the southern boundary of the Solomons Plate which is bounded by subduction zones in the north and east (the New Britain and northern Solomons Trenches, respectively) and in the west by a combination strike-slip rifting (dip-slip) boundary in eastern Papua (New Guinea). A vector triangle solution near the Solomons Trench-Woodlark Rift triple point gives underthrusting of the Solomons Plate beneath the northern Solomon Trench in a northeasterly direction at about 11 centimeters per year. Figure 2 shows each of the tectonic plates surrounding the Woodlark Basin along with the relative plate motion and direction that each plate is moving.

text: The Woodlark Basin originally began to open as a sphenochasm with a pole near the tip of eastern Papua about 20 million years ago. A sphenochasm is a triangular gap of oceanic crust separating two continental blocks and converging to a point.  This was caused by left-lateral shear in the region induced by a change in the relative motion pole of the

text: Indo-Australian plate

text: and

text: Pacific Plate

text: . The basin opened only a few degrees at this time, then stopped for a period of time. Then the rifting resumed in the entire basin about 3 million years ago, based on magnetic anomaly data. Then about 1 million years ago, the spreading center in the western basin shifted to the Woodlark Rise. The Woodlark Rise is the northern section of the Woodlark Basin that separates the basin from the bordering Soloman sea to the north. This spreading rift marks the southern boundary of the Solomons Plate which is bounded by subduction zones in the north and east (the New Britain and northern Solomons Trenches, respectively) and in the west by a combination strike-slip rifting (dip-slip) boundary in eastern Papua (New Guinea). A vector triangle solution near the Solomons Trench-Woodlark Rift triple point gives underthrusting of the Solomons Plate beneath the northern Solomon Trench in a northeasterly direction at about 11 centimeters per year. Figure 2 shows each of the

text: tectonic plates

text: surrounding the Woodlark Basin along with the relative plate motion and direction that each plate is moving.

text: On a larger scale, a zone between offset strike slip faults may have minor en echelon fault strands that accommodate the shearing motion induced in the region. On rock undergoing these shearing stresses en echelon veins may occur as fracture fillings.

text: On a larger scale, a zone between offset

text: strike slip fault

text: s may have minor en echelon fault strands that accommodate the shearing motion induced in the region. On rock undergoing these shearing stresses

text: en echelon veins

text: may occur as

text: fracture

text: fillings.

text: The main southern section of the San Andreas Fault proper has only existed for about 5 million years. The first known incarnation of the southern part of the fault was Clemens Well-Fenner-San Francisquito fault zone around 22–13 Ma. This system added the San Gabriel Fault as a primary focus of movement between 10–5 Ma. Currently, it is believed that the modern San Andreas will eventually transfer its motion toward a fault within the Eastern California Shear Zone. This complicated evolution, especially along the southern segment, is mostly caused by either the "Big Bend" and/or a difference in the motion vector between the plates and the trend of the fault and it surrounding branches.

text: The main southern section of the San Andreas Fault proper has only existed for about 5 million years. The first known incarnation of the southern part of the fault was Clemens Well-Fenner-

text: San Francisquito

text: fault zone around 22–13 Ma. This system added the

text: San Gabriel Fault

text: as a primary focus of movement between 10–5 Ma. Currently, it is believed that the modern San Andreas will eventually transfer its motion toward a fault within the

text: Eastern California Shear Zone

text: . This complicated evolution, especially along the southern segment, is mostly caused by either the "Big Bend" and/or a difference in the motion vector between the plates and the trend of the fault and it surrounding branches.

text: A geological fold occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation. Synsedimentary folds are those due to slumping of sedimentary material before it is lithified. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different sizes, on a variety of scales.

text: A

text: geological

text: fold occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as

text: sedimentary

text: strata

text: , are bent or curved as a result of permanent

text: deformation

text: Synsedimentary

text: folds are those due to slumping of sedimentary material before it is

text: lithified

text: . Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different sizes, on a variety of scales.

text: The current Rocky Mountains were raised in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to a rug being pushed on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the subduction of the Kula plate and the terranes smashing into the continent are the feet pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.

text: Laramide orogeny

text: from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to a rug being pushed on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the subduction of the

text: Kula plate

text: and the terranes smashing into the continent are the feet pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the

text: Canadian Shield

text: The subduction seems to be driven primarily by the excess weight of the cold/old oceanic plate entering the hot mantle of the Earth.

text: At the start of Torchwood: Children of Earth (2009), the Hub is destroyed and Torchwood relocate to London as fugitives. Torchwood itself is later destroyed by the end of the serial. Fans were left asking the fate of, among other things, the Rift. The subsequent 2011 series of Torchwood relocates primarily to the United States. When asked in an interview with SFX magazine, Davies stated "I like to think that when [subsequent Doctor Who executive producer] Steven Moffat so thoughtfully closed all those cracks in the universe, the Rift in Cardiff closed up at the same time. I used to wonder what the hell happened to that Rift and now it's all solved. When I watched those cracks seal up I was like, 'Oh, thank you.'" This refers to the events of the 2010 Doctor Who episode "The Big Bang", which was written by Steven Moffat. However, Torchwood media in 2011 since provided a direct explanation for the Rift. In the radio drama "The House of the Dead", Jack visits a haunted location where the Rift allows ghosts, including the deceased Ianto Jones, to enter into the living world. To close the Rift forever and seal an ancient evil on the other side of it, Jack creates a device designed to seal the Rift. The device will also provide Jack an end to his cycle of resurrections. However, Ianto's spirit tricks Jack into leaving, and detonates the device himself, closing the Rift "forever" and with it the barrier between the living and the dead.

text: At the start of

text: Torchwood: Children of Earth

text: (2009), the Hub is destroyed and Torchwood relocate to London as fugitives. Torchwood itself is later destroyed by the end of the serial. Fans were left asking the fate of, among other things, the Rift. The

text: subsequent 2011 series

text: of Torchwood relocates primarily to the United States. When asked in an interview with

text: SFX

text: magazine, Davies stated "I like to think that when [subsequent Doctor Who executive producer]

text: Steven Moffat

text: so thoughtfully closed all those cracks in the universe, the Rift in Cardiff closed up at the same time. I used to wonder what the hell happened to that Rift and now it's all solved. When I watched those cracks seal up I was like, 'Oh, thank you.'" This refers to the events of the 2010 Doctor Who episode "

text: The Big Bang

text: ", which was written by Steven Moffat. However, Torchwood media in 2011 since provided a direct explanation for the Rift. In the radio drama "The House of the Dead", Jack visits a haunted location where the Rift allows ghosts, including the deceased

text: Ianto Jones

text: , to enter into the living world. To close the Rift forever and seal an ancient evil on the other side of it, Jack creates a device designed to seal the Rift. The device will also provide Jack an end to his cycle of resurrections. However, Ianto's spirit tricks Jack into leaving, and detonates the device himself, closing the Rift "forever" and with it the barrier between the living and the dead.

text: The region around Mount Kailash and the  Indus headwaters area is typified by wide scale faulting of  metamorphosed late Cretaceous to mid Cenozoic sedimentary rocks which have been intruded by igneous  Cenozoic granitic rocks. Mt. Kailash appears to be a metasedimentary roof pendant supported by a massive granite base. The Cenozoic rocks represent offshore marine limestones deposited before subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust. These sediments were deposited on the southern margin of the Asia block during subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust  prior to the collision between the Indian and Asian continents.

text: The region around Mount Kailash and the  Indus headwaters area is typified by wide scale

text: faulting

text: of

text: metamorphosed

text: late

text: Cretaceous

text: to mid

text: Cenozoic

text: sedimentary rocks

text: which have been

text: intruded

text: by

text: igneous

text: Cenozoic

text: granitic

text: rocks. Mt. Kailash appears to be a

text: metasedimentary

text: roof pendant

text: supported by a massive

text: granite

text: base. The

text: Cenozoic

text: rocks represent offshore marine

text: limestone

text: s deposited before

text: subduction

text: of the

text: Tethys oceanic

text: crust

text: . These sediments were deposited on the southern margin of the Asia block during subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust  prior to the

text: collision between the Indian and Asian continents

text: Paleomagnetic studies show Kenorland was in generally low latitudes until tectonic magma-plume rifting began to occur between 2.48 Ga and 2.45 Ga. At 2.45 Ga the Baltic Shield was over the equator and was joined to Laurentia (the Canadian Shield), and formed a unity with both the Kola and Karelia cratons.  The protracted breakup of Kenorland during the Late Neoarchaean and early Paleoproterozoic Era 2.48 to 2.10 Ga, during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods, is manifested by mafic dikes and sedimentary rift-basins and rift-margins on many continents. On early Earth, this type of bimodal deep mantle plume rifting was common in Archaean and Neoarchaean crust and continent formation.

text: Paleomagnetic studies show Kenorland was in generally low

text: latitude

text: s until tectonic

text: magma

text: -plume

text: rift

text: ing began to occur between 2.48 Ga and 2.45 Ga. At 2.45 Ga the Baltic Shield was over the equator and was joined to Laurentia (the Canadian Shield), and formed a unity with both the

text: Kola

text: and

text: Karelia

text: cratons.  The protracted breakup of Kenorland during the Late

text: Neoarchaean

text: and early

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: Era 2.48 to 2.10 Ga, during the

text: Siderian

text: and

text: Rhyacian

text: periods, is manifested by

text: mafic

text: dikes and

text: sedimentary

text: rift-basins and rift-margins on many continents. On early Earth, this type of bimodal deep

text: mantle plume

text: rifting was common in Archaean and Neoarchaean crust and continent formation.

text: The surface of the Earth is made up of seven primary and eight secondary tectonic plates, plus dozens of tertiary microplates. The large plates move very slowly, owing to convection currents within the mantle below the crust. Because they do not all move in the same direction, plates often directly collide or move laterally along each other, a tectonic environment that makes earthquakes frequent. Relatively few earthquakes occur in intraplate environments; most occur on faults near plate margins. By definition, intraplate earthquakes do not occur near plate boundaries, but along faults in the normally stable interior of plates. These earthquakes often occur at the location of ancient failed rifts, because such old structures may present a weakness in the crust where it can easily slip to accommodate regional tectonic strain.

text: The surface of the Earth is made up of seven primary and eight secondary

text: tectonic plate

text: s, plus dozens of tertiary microplates. The large plates move very slowly, owing to

text: convection currents

text: within the

text: mantle

text: below the

text: crust

text: . Because they do not all move in the same direction, plates often directly

text: collide

text: or move laterally along each other, a tectonic environment that makes earthquakes frequent. Relatively few earthquakes occur in intraplate environments; most occur on

text: faults

text: near plate margins. By definition, intraplate earthquakes do not occur near plate boundaries, but along faults in the normally stable interior of plates. These earthquakes often occur at the location of ancient failed

text: rift

text: s, because such old structures may present a weakness in the crust where it can easily slip to accommodate regional tectonic strain.

text: The ultimate driver of the stresses that cause earthquakes are the motions of the tectonic plates: material from the Earth's mantle rises at spreading centers, and moves out as plates of oceanic crust which eventually are subducted under the more buoyant plates of continental crust. Western Washington lies over the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Juan de Fuca Plate is subducting towards the east (see diagram, right). This is being obliquely overridden by the North American plate coming out of the northeast, which has formed a bend in the subducting plate and in the forearc basin above it. This bend has distorted the subducting slab into an arch that has lifted the Olympic Mountains and prevented them from subducting. For the past 50 million years or so (since the early Eocene epoch) these have been thrust by subduction up against the North Cascades ("fixed block" in the diagram), which sit on the North American Plate. This forms a pocket or trough – what one local geologist calls the "big hole between the mountains" – between the Cascades on the east and the Olympic Mountains and Willapa Hills on the west. This pocket is catching a stream of terranes (crustal blocks about 20 to 30 km thick) which the Pacific plate is pushing up the western edge of North America, and in the process imparting a bit of clockwise rotation to southwestern Washington and most of Oregon; the result has been characterized as a train wreck. These terranes were covered by the basalts of the Crescent Formation (part of Siletzia). Folding and faulting has exposed these basalts in some places (black areas in diagram); the intervening basins have been filled by various sedimentary formations, some of which have been subsequently uplifted. Glacially deposited and shaped fill covers most of the lower elevations of Puget Sound. This is the Puget Lowland. The principal effects of this complex interplay of forces on the near-surface crust underlying the Puget Lowland are:

text: The ultimate driver of the stresses that cause earthquakes are the motions of the

text: tectonic plates

text: : material from the Earth's

text: mantle

text: rises at

text: spreading centers

text: , and moves out as plates of

text: oceanic crust

text: which eventually are subducted under the more buoyant plates of

text: continental crust

text: . Western Washington lies over the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , where the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: is subducting towards the east (see diagram, right). This is being obliquely overridden by the

text: North American plate

text: coming out of the northeast, which has formed a bend in the subducting plate and in the

text: forearc

text: basin above it. This bend has distorted the subducting slab into an arch that has lifted the

text: Olympic Mountains

text: and prevented them from subducting. For the past 50 million years or so (since the early

text: Eocene

text: epoch) these have been thrust by subduction up against the

text: North Cascades

text: ("fixed block" in the diagram), which sit on the North American Plate. This forms a pocket or trough – what one local geologist calls the "big hole between the mountains" – between the

text: Cascades

text: on the east and the

text: Olympic Mountains

text: and

text: Willapa Hills

text: on the west. This pocket is catching a stream of

text: terranes

text: (crustal blocks about 20 to 30 km thick) which the

text: Pacific plate

text: is pushing up the western edge of North America, and in the process imparting a bit of clockwise rotation to southwestern Washington and most of Oregon; the result has been characterized as a train wreck. These terranes were covered by the

text: basalts

text: of the Crescent Formation (part of

text: Siletzia

text: ). Folding and faulting has exposed these basalts in some places (black areas in diagram); the intervening basins have been filled by various sedimentary formations, some of which have been subsequently uplifted. Glacially deposited and shaped fill covers most of the lower elevations of

text: Puget Sound

text: . This is the Puget Lowland. The principal effects of this complex interplay of forces on the near-surface crust underlying the Puget Lowland are:

text: Oceanic crust can be subducted, while continental crust cannot.  Eventually, the subduction of the underthrusting oceanic crust can bring the volcano chain close to a continent, and collide with it. When the overriding plate collides with the continent, instead of being subducted, it is accreted to the edge of the continent and becomes a part of that continent. Thin strips or fragments of the underthrusting plate may also remain attached to the edge of the continent causing those fragments of oceanic crust to be wedged and tilted between the converging plates. In this manner, continents can grow over time as new terranes are accreted to their edges, and so continents can be composed of a complex quilt of terranes of varying ages.

text: Oceanic crust can be subducted, while continental crust cannot.  Eventually, the subduction of the underthrusting oceanic crust can bring the volcano chain close to a continent, and collide with it. When the overriding plate collides with the continent, instead of being subducted, it is

text: accreted

text: to the edge of the continent and becomes a part of that continent. Thin strips or fragments of the underthrusting plate may also remain attached to the edge of the continent causing those fragments of oceanic crust to be wedged and tilted between the converging plates. In this manner, continents can grow over time as new terranes are accreted to their edges, and so continents can be composed of a complex quilt of terranes of varying ages.

text: Most of the seismicity near the MTJ is offshore, concentrated along the Mendocino Transform Fault. That having been said, seismicity is also distributed within the Gorda plate itself, owing to its small size, young age, and relatively thin lithosphere. Oblique convergence of the Gorda plate towards the Pacific plate causes intense north-south compression, and induces anomalously strong internal deformation in the former, giving rise to the Gorda Deformation Zone (GDZ) and resulting in abundant seismicity. Motion along the Mendocino Transform Fault (MTF) is right-lateral on E-W oriented, vertically dipping planes. Within the portion of North American crust overlying the Gorda slab, motion on faults is reverse, and in April 1992, a M = 7.1 earthquake ruptured the southern portion of the Cascadia subduction zone. Similar to the general seismicity patterns in the region, the majority of the aftershocks for this event had vertical strike-slip motions and were located within the Gorda plate, or on the MTF at depths between 23–35 km. None of the aftershocks were consistent with northeast underthrusting of the Gorda plate beneath North America, as was the case in the main event. This set of earthquake geometries implies a  stress field characterized by N-NW, horizontal principal compressive stress; this is consistent with the orientation of compression in the GDZ northwest of the MTJ.

text: Most of the seismicity near the MTJ is offshore, concentrated along the Mendocino Transform Fault. That having been said, seismicity is also distributed within the Gorda plate itself, owing to its small size, young age, and relatively thin lithosphere. Oblique convergence of the Gorda plate towards the Pacific plate causes intense north-south compression, and induces anomalously strong internal deformation in the former, giving rise to the

text: Gorda Deformation Zone

text: (GDZ) and resulting in abundant seismicity. Motion along the Mendocino Transform Fault (MTF) is

text: right-lateral

text: on E-W oriented, vertically dipping planes. Within the portion of North American crust overlying the Gorda slab, motion on faults is reverse, and in

text: April 1992, a M = 7.1 earthquake

text: ruptured the southern portion of the Cascadia subduction zone. Similar to the general seismicity patterns in the region, the majority of the aftershocks for this event had vertical strike-slip motions and were located within the Gorda plate, or on the MTF at depths between 23–35 km. None of the aftershocks were consistent with northeast underthrusting of the Gorda plate beneath North America, as was the case in the main event. This set of earthquake geometries implies a  stress field characterized by N-NW, horizontal principal compressive stress; this is consistent with the orientation of compression in the GDZ northwest of the MTJ.

text: Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior. Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior.

text: Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a

text: fault plane

text: . The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly and

text: aseismically

text: only if there are no irregularities or

text: asperities

text: along the fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of

text: stick-slip behavior

text: . Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the

text: stored energy

text: . This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic

text: strain

text: seismic waves

text: , frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the

text: elastic-rebound theory

text: . It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake

text: fracture

text: growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available

text: elastic potential energy

text: and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the

text: Earth's deep interior.

text: The San Andreas Fault (SAF) spans nearly the length of California, where much of its length the fault is clearly identifiable, especially from San Francisco to near Cajon Pass. There, the fault splays into several branches. Several unusual characteristics are displayed further to the southeast in the area of the San Gorgonio Pass. There are no lateral stream offsets (that are associated with strike-slip faulting) near the pass like there are along other segments (one researcher indicated that thrust faulting was the dominant type of fault displacement at the pass). There are no great earthquakes that are known to have occurred at the pass, where the main trace of the SAF is marked by numerous sag ponds and north-facing scarps. The Banning Fault lies about two miles to the south of these features.

text: The San Andreas Fault (SAF) spans nearly the length of California, where much of its length the fault is clearly identifiable, especially from San Francisco to near

text: Cajon Pass

text: . There, the fault splays into several branches. Several unusual characteristics are displayed further to the southeast in the area of the

text: San Gorgonio Pass

text: . There are no lateral stream offsets (that are associated with

text: strike-slip

text: faulting) near the pass like there are along other segments (one researcher indicated that

text: thrust fault

text: ing was the dominant type of fault displacement at the pass). There are no great earthquakes that are known to have occurred at the pass, where the main trace of the SAF is marked by numerous

text: sag pond

text: s and north-facing

text: scarps

text: . The Banning Fault lies about two miles to the south of these features.

text: Understanding the principle of isostasy is a key element to understanding the interactions and feedbacks shared between erosion and tectonics. The principle of isostasy states that when free to move vertically, lithosphere floats at an appropriate level in the asthenosphere so that the pressure at a depth of compensation in the asthenosphere well below the base of the lithosphere is the same. Isostatic uplift is both a cause and an effect of erosion. When deformation occurs in the form of crustal thickening an isostatic response is induced causing the thickened crust to sink, and surrounding thinner crust to uplift. The resulting surface uplift leads to enhanced elevations, which in turn induces erosion. Alternatively, when a large amount of material is eroded away from the Earth's surface uplift occurs in order to maintain isostatic equilibrium. Because of isostasy, high erosion rates over significant horizontal areas can effectively suck up material from the lower crust and/or upper mantle. This process is known as isostatic rebound and is analogous to Earth's response following the removal of large glacial ice sheets.

text: Understanding the principle of

text: isostasy

text: is a key element to understanding the interactions and feedbacks shared between erosion and tectonics. The principle of isostasy states that when free to move vertically, lithosphere floats at an appropriate level in the asthenosphere so that the pressure at a depth of compensation in the asthenosphere well below the base of the lithosphere is the same. Isostatic uplift is both a cause and an effect of erosion. When deformation occurs in the form of crustal thickening an isostatic response is induced causing the thickened crust to sink, and surrounding thinner crust to uplift. The resulting surface uplift leads to enhanced elevations, which in turn induces erosion. Alternatively, when a large amount of material is eroded away from the Earth's surface uplift occurs in order to maintain isostatic equilibrium. Because of isostasy, high erosion rates over significant horizontal areas can effectively suck up material from the lower crust and/or upper mantle. This process is known as isostatic rebound and is analogous to Earth's response following the removal of large glacial ice sheets.

text: The Verdugo Fault, which can reach a maximum estimated 6.5 magnitude earthquake on the Richter Scale, is about  from the city of Burbank's civic center. This fault extends throughout the city, and is located in the alluvium just south of the Verdugo Mountains. The fault is mapped on surface in northeastern Glendale, and at various locations in Burbank. Other nearby faults include the Northridge Hills Fault ( northwest of Burbank), the Newport-Inglewood Fault (), Whittier Fault (), and lastly the San Andreas Fault () with its 8.25 magnitude potential on the Richter Scale.

text: The Verdugo Fault, which can reach a maximum estimated 6.5 magnitude earthquake on the

text: Richter Scale

text: , is about  from the city of Burbank's civic center. This fault extends throughout the city, and is located in the alluvium just south of the Verdugo Mountains. The fault is mapped on surface in northeastern Glendale, and at various locations in Burbank. Other nearby faults include the Northridge Hills Fault ( northwest of Burbank), the Newport-Inglewood Fault (), Whittier Fault (), and lastly the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: () with its 8.25 magnitude potential on the Richter Scale.

text: The processing of oceanic crust, lithosphere, and sediment through a subduction zone decouples the water-soluble trace elements (e.g., K, Rb, Th) from the immobile trace elements (e.g., Ti, Nb, Ta), concentrating the immobile elements in the oceanic slab (the water-soluble elements are added to the crust in island arc volcanoes). Seismic tomography shows that subducted oceanic slabs sink as far as the bottom of the mantle transition zone at 650 km depth. Subduction to greater depths is less certain, but there is evidence that they may sink to mid-lower-mantle depths at about 1,500 km depth.

text: The processing of oceanic crust, lithosphere, and sediment through a subduction zone decouples the water-soluble trace elements (e.g., K, Rb, Th) from the immobile trace elements (e.g., Ti, Nb, Ta), concentrating the immobile elements in the oceanic slab (the water-soluble elements are added to the crust in island arc volcanoes).

text: Seismic tomography

text: shows that

text: subducted

text: oceanic slabs sink as far as the bottom of the

text: mantle transition zone

text: at 650 km depth. Subduction to greater depths is less certain, but there is evidence that they may sink to mid-lower-mantle depths at about 1,500 km depth.

text: The Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben (also known as the Ottawa Graben) is a seismically active structure that coincides with a  wide topographic depression extending from near Montréal through Ottawa. It is part of the St. Lawrence rift system that also includes the seismically active Saguenay graben. This rift valley was formed when the Earth's crust moved downward about a kilometre between two major fault zones known as the Mattawa and Petawawa faults. These ancient faults are still active and occasionally release stress in the form of earthquakes, such as the 1935 Timiskaming earthquake and the 2000 Kipawa earthquake. The length of the graben is about .

text: The Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben (also known as the Ottawa Graben) is a seismically active structure that coincides with a  wide topographic depression extending from near Montréal through Ottawa. It is part of the St. Lawrence rift system that also includes the seismically active Saguenay graben. This rift valley was formed when the Earth's

text: crust

text: moved downward about a kilometre between two major

text: fault zone

text: s known as the Mattawa and Petawawa faults. These ancient faults are still active and occasionally release stress in the form of

text: earthquake

text: s, such as the

text: 1935 Timiskaming earthquake

text: and the

text: 2000 Kipawa earthquake

text: . The length of the graben is about .

text: The Geology of Azerbaijan forms a constituent geological part of the Alpine fold belt. Sedimentary deposits embracing the southwestern parts of the Major and Minor Caucasus, including the intermountain Kur River trough, as well as the Mid- and South Caspian basins consist of diversity fold systems. The Earth's crust thickness in Azerbaijan varies in the range from 38 to 55 km. Its maximum thickness is observed in the Minor Caucasus area, while its minimum thickness is typical for the Talysh foothills. Geological setting of the area consists of sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, volcanic and terrestrial deposits embracing almost entire stratigraphic range beginning from Pre-Cambrian through Holocene time.

text: The Geology of

text: Azerbaijan

text: forms a constituent geological part of the

text: Alpine fold belt

text: . Sedimentary deposits embracing the southwestern parts of the Major and Minor

text: Caucasus

text: , including the intermountain

text: Kur River

text: trough, as well as the Mid- and South

text: Caspian

text: basins consist of diversity fold systems. The

text: Earth's crust

text: thickness in Azerbaijan varies in the range from 38 to 55 km. Its maximum thickness is observed in the Minor Caucasus area, while its minimum thickness is typical for the Talysh foothills. Geological setting of the area consists of sedimentary, volcanic-sedimentary, volcanic and terrestrial deposits embracing almost entire stratigraphic range beginning from

text: Pre-Cambrian

text: through

text: Holocene

text: time.

text: He would introduce the term craton into the geologic vocabulary in 1933 that was used to describe those portions of the continental crust that were old and stable. The Geotectonic Research journal was founded in 1937 by Hans Stille and Franz Lotze.

text: He would introduce the term

text: craton

text: into the geologic vocabulary in 1933 that was used to describe those portions of the continental crust that were old and stable. The

text: Geotectonic

text: Research journal was founded in 1937 by Hans Stille and

text: Franz Lotze

text: It is documented in many cases that faulting may develop from detachment folding or through the kinematic mechanisms involved with folding.  In general, faulting may occur during fault slip and detachment folding in two ways. Firstly, faulting may be induced when progressive folding or tightening of a folded limb reaches its maximum fold geometry resulting in a transition from folding to shearing. Secondly, it has been suggested a fault may propagate into the anticlinal core if material flow and accommodation space are not at equilibrium. The idea of insufficient material flow may not be as well addressed as faulting due to continued folding and rotation, but the grounds for such an argument lay within a strongly held belief of area conservation; without conservation faulting will likely compensate. The basic geometries of detachment faulting of a symmetric detachment fold are shown in figure 4. Refer to Mitra for an evolutionary model of faulted detachment folds in the asymmetric and symmetric settings.

text: Dr. Lane and Boomer chase just behind the expanding crack in the Earth's crust, developing a plan to stop the next quake. They decide to use a satellite orbiting above the continent which can trigger earthquakes. They fire it off when they reach the Grand Canyon, thinking that when the new fault hits the canyon it will be forced to turn south into the Gulf of Mexico. When the fault crosses with the canyon, the plan goes wrong. Instead of heading south it travels north, towards the Yellowstone Caldera.

text: Dr. Lane and Boomer chase just behind the expanding crack in the Earth's crust, developing a plan to stop the next quake. They decide to use a satellite orbiting above the continent which can trigger earthquakes. They fire it off when they reach the Grand Canyon, thinking that when the new fault hits the canyon it will be forced to turn south into the Gulf of Mexico. When the fault crosses with the canyon, the plan goes wrong. Instead of heading south it travels north, towards the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: The first describes the relationship between rift orientation and plate motion, the second describes the nature of transitional crust, and the third describes post-rift sedimentation. All three perspectives need to be considered in describing a passive margin. In fact, passive margins are extremely long, and vary along their length in rift geometry, nature of transitional crust, and sediment supply; it is more appropriate to subdivide individual passive margins into segments on this basis and apply the threefold classification to each segment.

text: Rifts is a multi-genre role-playing game created by Kevin Siembieda in August 1990 and published continuously by Palladium Books since then. Rifts takes place in a post-apocalyptic future, deriving elements from cyberpunk, science fiction, fantasy, horror, western, mythology and many other genres.

text: Rifts is a

text: multi-genre

text: role-playing game

text: created by

text: Kevin Siembieda

text: in August 1990 and published continuously by

text: Palladium Books

text: since then. Rifts takes place in a post-apocalyptic future, deriving elements from

text: cyberpunk

text: science fiction

text: fantasy

text: horror

text: western

text: mythology

text: and many other genres.

text: Negative emotions at work can be formed by “work overload, lack of rewards, and social relations which appear to be the most stressful work-related factors”. “Cynicism is a negative affective reaction to the organization. Cynics feel contempt, distress, shame, and even disgust when they reflect upon their organizations” (Abraham, 1999). Negative emotions are caused by “a range of workplace issues, including aggression, verbal abuse, sexual harassment, computer flaming, blogging, assertiveness training, grapevines, and non verbal behavior”. “Stress is the problem of each person feeling it. [Negative emotions] can be caused by “poor leadership, lack of guidance, lack of support and backup. Employees lack of confidence in their abilities to deal with work demands… and their lack of confidence in coworkers… can also create prolonged negative stress”. Showing stress reveals weakness, therefore, employees suppress their negative emotions at work and home. “People who continually inhibit their emotions have been found to be more prone to disease than those who are emotionally expressive”.Negative emotions can be seen as a disease in the workplace. Those who exhibit it negatively affect those around them and can change the entire environment. A co-working might de-motivate those around them, a manager might cause his employees to feel contempt. Recognizing the negative emotions and learning how to handle them can be a tool for personal success as well as the success of your team. Managing your emotions in a way that does not show negativity will cause you to be seen more favorably in the workplace and can help with your personal productivity and development.

text: Negative emotions at work can be formed by “work overload, lack of rewards, and

text: social relation

text: s which appear to be the most stressful work-related factors”. “Cynicism is a negative affective reaction to the organization. Cynics feel

text: contempt

text: , distress,

text: shame

text: , and even

text: disgust

text: when they reflect upon their organizations” (Abraham, 1999). Negative emotions are caused by “a range of workplace issues, including aggression,

text: verbal abuse

text: sexual harassment

text: computer flaming

text: blogging

text: assertiveness

text: training, grapevines, and non verbal behavior”. “Stress is the problem of each person feeling it. [Negative emotions] can be caused by “poor

text: leadership

text: , lack of guidance, lack of support and backup. Employees lack of confidence in their abilities to deal with work demands… and their lack of confidence in coworkers… can also create prolonged negative stress”. Showing stress reveals weakness, therefore, employees suppress their negative emotions at work and home. “People who continually inhibit their emotions have been found to be more prone to

text: disease

text: than those who are emotionally expressive”.Negative emotions can be seen as a disease in the workplace. Those who exhibit it negatively affect those around them and can change the entire environment. A co-working might de-motivate those around them, a manager might cause his employees to feel contempt. Recognizing the negative emotions and learning how to handle them can be a tool for personal success as well as the success of your team. Managing your emotions in a way that does not show negativity will cause you to be seen more favorably in the workplace and can help with your personal productivity and development.

text: At Lebec, California, just south of the epicenter of the July mainshock, the San Andreas Fault comes together with the Garlock Fault, which is positioned at the northern border of the Mojave Desert. The San Andreas has been responsible for considerable seismic activity at its northern and southern sections, and traverses the area near the Transverse Ranges. The Kern Canyon Fault mirrors the path of the Kern River, and was thought to have a connection with the White Wolf Fault, but indicators observed following the July 21 earthquake demonstrated that the two are offset. The Owens Valley Fault, on the east side of the Sierran block, has been mapped and may possibly extend into area that was affected by the 1952 shocks. Other fault zones are present in the region, and have been of interest because they may have been responsible for minor earthquakes, but they are considered not as significant as the Kern Canyon, Owens Valley, and San Andreas Faults.

text: At

text: Lebec, California

text: , just south of the epicenter of the July mainshock, the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: comes together with the

text: Garlock Fault

text: , which is positioned at the northern border of the

text: Mojave Desert

text: . The San Andreas has been responsible for considerable seismic activity at its northern and southern sections, and traverses the area near the

text: Transverse Ranges

text: . The

text: Kern Canyon Fault

text: mirrors the path of the

text: Kern River

text: , and was thought to have a connection with the

text: White Wolf Fault

text: , but indicators observed following the July 21 earthquake demonstrated that the two are offset. The Owens Valley Fault, on the east side of the Sierran

text: block

text: , has been mapped and may possibly extend into area that was affected by the 1952 shocks. Other fault zones are present in the region, and have been of interest because they may have been responsible for minor earthquakes, but they are considered not as significant as the Kern Canyon, Owens Valley, and San Andreas Faults.

text: Rifts are linear zones of localized crustal extension. They range in width from somewhat less than 100 km up to several hundred km, consisting of one or more normal faults and related fault blocks. In individual rift segments one polarity (i.e. dip direction) normally dominates giving a half-graben geometry. Other common geometries include metamorphic core complexes and tilted blocks.  Examples of active continental rifts are the Baikal Rift Zone and the East African Rift.

text: Rifts are linear zones of localized crustal extension. They range in width from somewhat less than 100 km up to several hundred km, consisting of one or more normal faults and related fault blocks. In individual rift segments one polarity (i.e. dip direction) normally dominates giving a

text: half-graben

text: geometry. Other common geometries include

text: metamorphic core complex

text: es and

text: tilted blocks

text: .  Examples of active continental rifts are the

text: Baikal Rift Zone

text: and the

text: East African Rift

text: Nevado del Ruiz, which lies about  west of Bogotá, is part of the Andes mountain range. The volcano is part of the Ruiz–Tolima volcanic massif (or Cordillera Central), a group of five ice-capped volcanoes which includes the Tolima, Santa Isabel, Quindio and Machin volcanoes. The massif is located at the intersection of four faults, some of which still are active.Nevado del Ruiz lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire, a region that encircles the Pacific Ocean and contains some of the world's most active volcanoes. It is the third most northerly of the volcanoes lying in the North Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt, which contains 75 of the 204 Holocene-age volcanoes in South America. The Andean Volcanic Belt is produced by the eastward subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate beneath the South American continental plate. As is the case for many subduction-zone volcanoes, Nevado del Ruiz can generate explosive Plinian eruptions with associated pyroclastic flows that can melt snow and glaciers near the summit, producing large and sometimes devastating lahars (mud and debris flows).

text: Nevado del Ruiz, which lies about  west of Bogotá, is part of the

text: Andes

text: mountain range. The volcano is part of the

text: Ruiz–Tolima volcanic massif

text: (or Cordillera Central), a group of five ice-capped volcanoes which includes the

text: Tolima

text: Santa Isabel

text: Quindio

text: and

text: Machin

text: volcanoes. The massif is located at the intersection of four

text: fault

text: s, some of which still are active.Nevado del Ruiz lies within the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: , a region that encircles the Pacific Ocean and contains some of the world's most active volcanoes. It is the third most northerly of the volcanoes lying in the

text: North Volcanic Zone

text: of the

text: Andean Volcanic Belt

text: , which contains 75 of the 204

text: Holocene-age

text: volcanoes in South America. The Andean Volcanic Belt is produced by the eastward

text: subduction

text: of the oceanic

text: Nazca Plate

text: beneath the

text: South American continental plate

text: . As is the case for many subduction-zone volcanoes, Nevado del Ruiz can generate explosive

text: Plinian eruption

text: s with associated

text: pyroclastic flow

text: s that can melt snow and glaciers near the summit, producing large and sometimes devastating

text: lahar

text: s (mud and debris flows).

text: Healy and his colleagues found that variations in seismicity correlated with the amount of fluid pressure in the seismically active zone.  It is here that he started studying deep scientific drilling in fault zones.  Mark D. Zoback was hired by the USGS in 1975 and he and Healy began to revolutionize deep drilling by making in situ stress measurements along the San Andreas fault.  The results of their research and paper led to the development of a project called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth.

text: Healy and his colleagues found that variations in seismicity correlated with the amount of fluid pressure in the seismically active zone.  It is here that he started studying deep scientific drilling in fault zones.  Mark D. Zoback was hired by the USGS in 1975 and he and Healy began to revolutionize deep drilling by making in situ stress measurements along the San Andreas fault.  The results of their research and paper led to the development of a project called the

text: San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth

text: The Kunlun fault is one of the major sinistral strike-slip structures that accommodate the eastward motion of the Tibetan plateau relative to the Eurasian plate.  This motion is caused by the lateral spreading of the zone of thickened crust associated with the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates.

text: The

text: Kunlun fault

text: is one of the major sinistral

text: strike-slip

text: structures that accommodate the eastward motion of the

text: Tibetan plateau

text: relative to the

text: Eurasian plate

text: .  This motion is caused by the lateral spreading of the zone of thickened

text: crust

text: associated with the collision between the

text: Indian

text: and Eurasian plates.

text: An undercut crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack, is a crack that forms a short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in low alloy and high alloy steel. The exact causes of this type of crack are not completely understood, but it is known that dissolved hydrogen must be present. The other factor that affects this type of crack is internal stresses resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal and the weld metal, restraint of the base metal, stresses from the formation of martensite, and stresses from the precipitation of hydrogen out of the metal.

text: An undercut crack, also known as a heat-affected zone (HAZ) crack, is a crack that forms a short distance away from the fusion line; it occurs in

text: low alloy

text: and

text: high alloy steel

text: . The exact causes of this type of crack are not completely understood, but it is known that dissolved

text: hydrogen

text: must be present. The other factor that affects this type of crack is

text: internal stress

text: es resulting from: unequal contraction between the base metal and the weld metal, restraint of the base metal, stresses from the formation of martensite, and stresses from the

text: precipitation

text: of hydrogen out of the metal.

text: Chalcophile elements are those that remain on or close to the surface because they combine readily with chalcogens other than oxygen, forming compounds which do not sink into the core. Chalcophile ("chalcogen-loving") elements in this context are those metals and heavier nonmetals that have a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with the heavier chalcogen sulfur as sulfides. Because sulfide minerals are much denser than the silicate minerals formed by lithophile elements, chalcophile elements separated below the lithophiles at the time of the first crystallisation of the Earth's crust. This has led to their depletion in the Earth's crust relative to their solar abundances, though this depletion has not reached the levels found with siderophile elements.

text: Chalcophile elements are those that remain on or close to the surface because they combine readily with chalcogens other than oxygen, forming compounds which do not sink into the core. Chalcophile ("chalcogen-loving") elements in this context are those metals and heavier nonmetals that have a low affinity for oxygen and prefer to bond with the heavier chalcogen sulfur as sulfides. Because sulfide minerals are much denser than the silicate minerals formed by

text: lithophile element

text: s, chalcophile elements separated below the lithophiles at the time of the first crystallisation of the Earth's crust. This has led to their depletion in the Earth's crust relative to their solar abundances, though this depletion has not reached the levels found with siderophile elements.

text: The Caja del Rio plateau is a monogenetic volcanic field, which includes approximately 60 cinder cones, spatter cones, and basalt outflows. The volcanism can be explained by the field's location, which is very close to the intersection of the Rio Grande Rift and the Jemez Lineament. The Rio Grande Rift is a result of extensional, (or divergent) tectonic forces exerted upon the American Southwest. This feature runs southward from the vicinity of Leadville, Colorado, through the entire state of New Mexico, through the vicinity of El Paso, Texas, and into Chihuahua, Mexico. The Rift began forming approximately 30 million years ago during the late Oligocene Epoch. The Jemez Lineament is another, older feature, which also represents a linear weakness in the crust. The Lineament trends southwest to northeast, and underlies a string of volcanic features across Arizona and New Mexico. Those features include the San Carlos volcanic field, Springerville volcanic field, Zuni-Bandera volcanic field, Mount Taylor volcanic field and the Raton-Clayton volcanic field. These structural weaknesses create a thinned crust, and pathways for intrusion by magma originating in the mantle. The result has been a series of intercontinental basaltic eruptions.

text: The Caja del Rio plateau is a

text: monogenetic

text: volcanic field

text: , which includes approximately 60

text: cinder cones

text: spatter cones

text: , and

text: basalt

text: outflows. The volcanism can be explained by the field's location, which is very close to the intersection of the

text: Rio Grande Rift

text: and the

text: Jemez Lineament

text: . The Rio Grande Rift is a result of

text: extensional

text: , (or divergent)

text: tectonic

text: forces exerted upon the American Southwest. This feature runs southward from the vicinity of

text: Leadville

text: Colorado

text: , through the entire state of New Mexico, through the vicinity of

text: El Paso

text: Texas

text: , and into

text: Chihuahua

text: Mexico

text: . The Rift began forming approximately 30 million years ago during the late

text: Oligocene

text: Epoch. The

text: Jemez Lineament

text: is another, older feature, which also represents a linear weakness in the crust. The Lineament trends southwest to northeast, and underlies a string of volcanic features across Arizona and New Mexico. Those features include the

text: San Carlos volcanic field

text: Springerville volcanic field

text: Zuni-Bandera volcanic field

text: Mount Taylor

text: volcanic field and the

text: Raton-Clayton volcanic field

text: . These structural weaknesses create a thinned crust, and pathways for intrusion by magma originating in the

text: mantle

text: . The result has been a series of intercontinental basaltic eruptions.

text: Greenland is the world's largest island, with an area of over 2.1 million km², while Australia, the world's smallest continent, has an area of 7.6 million km², but there is no standard of size which distinguishes islands from continents, or from islets. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology. Continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earth's mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, so it floats low on the mantle. Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust (e.g. volcanic islands) or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere (e.g. Greenland). This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere and tectonic plate.

text: Greenland

text: is the world's largest island, with an area of over 2.1 million km², while

text: Australia

text: , the world's smallest continent, has an area of 7.6 million km², but there is no standard of size which distinguishes islands from

text: continent

text: s, or from

text: islets

text: . There is a difference between islands and

text: continent

text: s in terms of

text: geology

text: . Continents sit on continental

text: lithosphere

text: which is part of

text: tectonic plate

text: s floating high on Earth's

text: mantle

text: Oceanic crust

text: is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, so it floats low on the mantle. Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust (e.g. volcanic islands) or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere (e.g.

text: Greenland

text: ). This holds true for

text: Australia

text: , which sits on its own continental lithosphere and tectonic plate.

text: The first eon in Earth's history, the Hadean,  begins with the Earth's formation and is followed by the Archean eon at 3.8 Ga. The oldest rocks found on Earth date to about 4.0 Ga, and the oldest detrital zircon crystals in rocks to about 4.4 Ga, soon after the formation of the Earth's crust and the Earth itself. The giant impact hypothesis for the Moon's formation states that shortly after formation of an initial crust, the proto-Earth was impacted by a smaller protoplanet, which ejected part of the mantle and crust into space and created the Moon.

text: The first

text: eon

text: in Earth's history, the Hadean,  begins with the Earth's formation and is followed by the Archean eon at 3.8 Ga. The oldest rocks found on Earth date to about 4.0 Ga, and the oldest

text: detrital

text: zircon

text: crystals in rocks to about 4.4 Ga, soon after the formation of the Earth's

text: crust

text: and the Earth itself. The

text: giant impact hypothesis

text: for the Moon's formation states that shortly after formation of an initial crust, the proto-Earth was impacted by a smaller protoplanet, which ejected part of the

text: mantle

text: and crust into space and created the Moon.

text: Between the Agulhas Bank and the Agulhas Passage the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle (the Moho) ascend from  over  which is normal for a continent-ocean boundary.  The crustal thickness under the Agulhas Passage varies from  which is equally normal for oceanic crust.  It is possible, however, that volcanic flows from the Agulhas Plateau large igneous province (LIP) added crustal material to the Agulhas Passage (which is 160-120 Ma) during the LIP formation (100-80 Ma) and that the crust under the passage was originally thinner.

text: Between the Agulhas Bank and the Agulhas Passage the boundary between the Earth's crust and the mantle (the

text: Moho

text: ) ascend from  over  which is normal for a

text: continent-ocean boundary

text: .  The crustal thickness under the Agulhas Passage varies from  which is equally normal for

text: oceanic crust

text: .  It is possible, however, that volcanic flows from the

text: Agulhas Plateau

text: large igneous province

text: (LIP) added crustal material to the Agulhas Passage (which is 160-120 Ma) during the LIP formation (100-80 Ma) and that the crust under the passage was originally thinner.

text: Oceanic crust is the result of erupted mantle material originating from below the plate, cooled and in most instances, modified chemically by seawater.  This occurs mostly at mid-ocean ridges, but also at scattered hotspots, and also in rare but powerful occurrences known as flood basalt eruptions.  It is primarily composed of mafic rocks, or sima, which is rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than continental crust, or sial, generally less than 10 kilometers thick; however it is denser, having a mean density of about 2.9 grams per cubic centimeter as opposed to continental crust which has a density of about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter.

text: Oceanic crust is the result of erupted mantle material originating from below the plate, cooled and in most instances, modified chemically by seawater.  This occurs mostly at mid-ocean ridges, but also at scattered hotspots, and also in rare but powerful occurrences known as

text: flood basalt

text: eruptions.  It is primarily composed of

text: mafic

text: rocks, or

text: sima

text: , which is rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than

text: continental crust

text: , or

text: sial

text: , generally less than 10 kilometers thick; however it is denser, having a mean density of about 2.9

text: grams

text: per cubic centimeter as opposed to continental crust which has a density of about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter.

text: The pattern is further complicated when the first foot begins on a syllable that has a long vowel, as in di:c’- "tell". If the following syllable is closed, the stress shifts to the foot that contains that syllable: (di:)(c’áh)(qaw) "cause to bring a message out here". If the long vowel is followed by a CV syllable, i.e. if the initial sequence to be footed is CV:CV, the length moves rightward to create CVCV: and the stress similarly shifts to the next foot: (dic’a:)(qoc’í) "bring a message out!".  Combined with extrametricality, this can lead to stress as far in as the fifth syllable: mu(naci:)(ducé:)du "always be too shy" from the root /muna:c/ "be shy"; this verb forms a minimal pair with /munac/ "gather", which lacks stress shift in mu(nací:)(duce:)du "always gather".

text: Volcanism at the Tseax Cone is caused by the rifting of the Earth's crust where two parts of the North American Plate are breaking apart. The rifting is the result of the Pacific Plate sliding northward along the transform Queen Charlotte Fault, on its way to the Aleutian Trench.

text: Volcanism at the Tseax Cone is caused by the

text: rift

text: ing of the Earth's

text: crust

text: where two parts of the

text: North American Plate

text: are breaking apart. The rifting is the result of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: sliding northward along the

text: transform

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: , on its way to the

text: Aleutian Trench

text: The transform boundary defined by the San Andreas Fault is not perfectly straight, and the stresses between the Pacific and North American Plates are diffused over a wide region of the West, extending as far as the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The Hayward Fault is one of the secondary faults in this diffuse zone, along with the Calaveras Fault to the east and the San Gregorio Fault, west of the San Andreas.

text: The transform boundary defined by the San Andreas Fault is not perfectly straight, and the stresses between the Pacific and North American Plates are diffused over a wide region of the West, extending as far as the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The Hayward Fault is one of the secondary faults in this diffuse zone, along with the

text: Calaveras Fault

text: to the east and the

text: San Gregorio Fault

text: , west of the San Andreas.

text: The islands are part of a geologic structure known as the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc system, and range in age from 5 million years old in the north to 30 million years old in the south (Guam). The island chain arises as a result of the western edge of the Pacific Plate moving westward and plunging downward below the Mariana plate, a region which is the most volcanically active convergent plate boundary on Earth. This subduction region, just east of the island chain, forms the noted Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the Earth's oceans and lowest part of the surface of the Earth's crust. In this region, according to geologic theory, water trapped in the extensive faulting of the Pacific Plate as serpentinite, is heated by the higher temperatures of depth during its subduction, the pressure from the expanding steam results in the hydrothermal activity in the area and the volcanic activity which formed the Mariana Islands.

text: The islands are part of a

text: geologic structure

text: known as the

text: Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc

text: system, and range in age from 5 million years old in the north to 30 million years old in the south (Guam). The island chain arises as a result of the western edge of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: moving westward and plunging downward below the

text: Mariana plate

text: , a region which is the most volcanically active convergent plate boundary on Earth. This

text: subduction

text: region, just east of the island chain, forms the noted

text: Mariana Trench

text: , the deepest part of the Earth's oceans and lowest part of the surface of the Earth's crust. In this region, according to geologic theory, water trapped in the extensive faulting of the Pacific Plate as

text: serpentinite

text: , is heated by the higher temperatures of depth during its subduction, the pressure from the expanding steam results in the hydrothermal activity in the area and the volcanic activity which formed the Mariana Islands.

text: The frequency of a major rupture in the Puente Hills Fault is on the order of once per several thousand years. This frequency of occurrence is relatively rare compared to the San Andreas Fault, which is a transform fault. More specifically, geologists have determined that the fault has ruptured at least four times in the past 11,000 years. The magnitudes of such earthquakes are considered to have been 7.2 - 7.5 M. The highest magnitude in that range would be about fifteen times stronger than the 1994 Northridge earthquake in terms of energy release. That event was the strongest in recorded history for the Los Angeles metropolitan area.

text: The frequency of a major rupture in the Puente Hills Fault is on the order of once per several thousand years. This frequency of occurrence is relatively rare compared to the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , which is a

text: transform fault

text: . More specifically, geologists have determined that the fault has ruptured at least four times in the past 11,000 years. The magnitudes of such earthquakes are considered to have been 7.2 - 7.5 M. The highest magnitude in that range would be about fifteen times stronger than the

text: 1994 Northridge earthquake

text: in terms of energy release. That event was the strongest in recorded history for the

text: Los Angeles metropolitan area

text: Folds that may experience prolonged 3D growth can be divided into two groups according to their causes, namely detachment fold and forced fold. They are mainly differentiated by the presence of major fault control on fold structure in one(forced folds), and the absence of it in the other(detachment folds). Here we are excluding fold causes that do not contribute to significant fold growth in all three dimensions, such as en-echelon folds, drag folds and rollover anticline.

text: Folds that may experience prolonged 3D growth can be divided into two groups according to their causes, namely detachment fold and forced fold. They are mainly differentiated by the presence of major fault control on fold structure in one(forced folds), and the absence of it in the other(detachment folds). Here we are excluding fold causes that do not contribute to significant fold growth in all three dimensions, such as

text: en-echelon folds

text: drag folds

text: and

text: rollover anticline

text: When cyclic stresses are applied to a material, even though the stresses do not cause plastic deformation, the material may fail due to fatigue. Fatigue failure is typically modeled by decomposing cyclic stresses into mean and alternating components. Mean stress is the time average of the principal stress. The definition of alternating stress varies between different sources. It is either defined as the difference between the minimum and the maximum stress, or the difference between the mean and maximum stress. Engineers try to design mechanisms whose parts are subjected to a single type (bending, axial, or torsional) of cyclic stress because this more closely matches experiments used to characterize fatigue failure in different materials.

text: When cyclic stresses are applied to a material, even though the stresses do not cause

text: plastic deformation

text: , the material may fail due to

text: fatigue

text: . Fatigue failure is typically modeled by decomposing cyclic stresses into mean and alternating components. Mean stress is the time average of the principal stress. The definition of alternating stress varies between different sources. It is either defined as the difference between the minimum and the maximum stress, or the difference between the mean and maximum stress. Engineers try to design mechanisms whose parts are subjected to a single type (bending, axial, or torsional) of cyclic stress because this more closely matches experiments used to characterize fatigue failure in different materials.

text: The , also called Nansei-Shotō Trench, is a 1398 km (868 mi) long oceanic trench located along the southeastern edge of Japan's Ryukyu Islands in the Philippine Sea in the Pacific Ocean, between northeastern Taiwan and southern Japan. The trench has a maximum depth of 7460 m (24,476 ft). The trench is the result of oceanic crust of the Philippine Plate obliquely subducting beneath the continental crust of the Eurasian Plate at a rate of approximately 52 mm/yr . In conjunction with the adjacent Nankai Trough to the northeast, subduction of the Philippine plate has produced 34 volcanoes.The largest earthquake to have been recorded along the Ryukyu Trench, the 1968 Hyūga-nada earthquake,was magnitude 7.5 and occurred along the northernmost part of the trench  on April 1, 1968. This earthquake also produced a tsunami.

text: The , also called Nansei-Shotō Trench, is a 1398 km (868 mi) long oceanic trench located along the southeastern edge of

text: Japan

text: 's

text: Ryukyu Islands

text: in the

text: Philippine Sea

text: in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , between northeastern

text: Taiwan

text: and southern Japan. The trench has a maximum depth of 7460 m (24,476 ft). The trench is the result of oceanic crust of the

text: Philippine Plate

text: obliquely subducting beneath the continental crust of the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: at a rate of approximately 52 mm/yr . In conjunction with the adjacent

text: Nankai Trough

text: to the northeast, subduction of the Philippine plate has produced 34 volcanoes.The largest earthquake to have been recorded along the Ryukyu Trench, the

text: 1968 Hyūga-nada earthquake

text: ,was magnitude 7.5 and occurred along the northernmost part of the trench  on April 1, 1968. This earthquake also produced a

text: tsunami

text: Continents, in particular large or supercontinents, will affect the climate of the planet drastically. In general the interaction of supercontinents and climate is similar to the interaction between present-day continents and climate, just on a different scale. Supercontinents have a larger effect on climate than do continents. The configuration and placement of the continents has a larger influence on climate. Continents modify global wind patterns, control ocean current paths and have a higher albedo than the oceans. Because continents are higher in the elevation, the temperature decreases with altitude. The wind is redirected by mountains. The albedo difference causes a shift in climate by onshore winds. "Continentality" occurs because the center of large continents are generally higher in elevations and are therefore cooler and dryer. This is seen today with Eurasia, and evidence is present in the rock record that this is true for the middle of Pangaea.

text: Continents, in particular large or supercontinents, will affect the climate of the planet drastically. In general the interaction of supercontinents and climate is similar to the interaction between present-day continents and climate, just on a different scale. Supercontinents have a larger effect on climate than do continents. The configuration and placement of the continents has a larger influence on climate. Continents modify global wind patterns, control ocean current paths and have a higher albedo than the oceans. Because continents are higher in the elevation, the temperature decreases with altitude. The wind is redirected by mountains. The albedo difference causes a shift in climate by onshore winds. "

text: Continentality

text: " occurs because the center of large continents are generally higher in elevations and are therefore cooler and dryer. This is seen today with

text: Eurasia

text: , and evidence is present in the rock record that this is true for the middle of Pangaea.

text: Related concepts to force include: thrust, which increases the velocity of an object; drag, which decreases the velocity of an object; and torque, which produces changes in rotational speed of an object. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces through the body is the so-called mechanical stress. Pressure is a simple type of stress. Stress usually causes deformation of solid materials, or flow in fluids.

text: Related concepts to force include:

text: thrust

text: , which increases the velocity of an object;

text: drag

text: , which decreases the velocity of an object; and

text: torque

text: , which produces

text: changes in rotational speed

text: of an object. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces through the body is the so-called

text: mechanical stress

text: Pressure

text: is a simple type of stress. Stress usually causes

text: deformation

text: of solid materials, or flow in

text: fluid

text: s.

text: The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe."

text: The

text: Earth

text: life on Earth

text: dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon.

text: Microbial mat

text: fossils

text: have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of a

text: biogenic substance

text: is

text: graphite

text: in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in

text: Western Greenland

text: as well as "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: Tesla invented a steam-powered mechanical oscillator—Tesla's oscillator. While experimenting with mechanical oscillators at his Houston Street lab, Tesla allegedly generated a resonance of several buildings. As the speed grew, it is said that the machine oscillated at the resonance frequency of his own building and, belatedly realizing the danger, he was forced to use a sledge hammer to terminate the experiment, just as the police arrived. In February 1912, an article—"Nikola Tesla, Dreamer" by Allan L. Benson—was published in World Today, in which an artist's illustration appears showing the entire earth cracking in half with the caption, "Tesla claims that in a few weeks he could set the earth's crust into such a state of vibration that it would rise and fall hundreds of feet and practically destroy civilization. A continuation of this process would, he says, eventually split the earth in two."

text: Tesla invented a steam-powered mechanical oscillator—

text: Tesla's oscillator

text: . While experimenting with mechanical oscillators at his Houston Street lab, Tesla allegedly generated a resonance of several buildings. As the speed grew, it is said that the machine oscillated at the resonance frequency of his own building and, belatedly realizing the danger, he was forced to use a sledge hammer to terminate the experiment, just as the police arrived. In February 1912, an article—"Nikola Tesla, Dreamer" by Allan L. Benson—was published in World Today, in which an artist's illustration appears showing the entire earth cracking in half with the caption, "Tesla claims that in a few weeks he could set the earth's crust into such a state of vibration that it would rise and fall hundreds of feet and practically destroy civilization. A continuation of this process would, he says, eventually split the earth in two."

text: In 1980, a team of researchers consisting of Nobel Prize–winning physicist Luis Alvarez, his son geologist Walter Alvarez, and chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary contain a concentration of iridium many times greater than normal (30, 160 and 20 times in three sections originally studied). Iridium is extremely rare in Earth's crust because it is a siderophile element, and therefore most of it traveled with the iron as it sank into Earth's core during planetary differentiation. As iridium remains abundant in most asteroids and comets, the Alvarez team suggested that an asteroid struck the Earth at the time of the K–Pg boundary. There were earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event, but this was the first hard evidence of an impact.

text: Nobel Prize

text: –winning physicist

text: Luis Alvarez

text: , his son geologist

text: Walter Alvarez

text: , and chemists

text: Frank Asaro

text: and

text: Helen Michel

text: discovered that

text: sedimentary

text: layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary contain a

text: concentration

text: of

text: iridium

text: many times greater than normal (30, 160 and 20 times in three sections originally studied). Iridium is extremely rare in

text: Earth's crust

text: because it is a

text: siderophile element

text: , and therefore most of it traveled with the

text: iron

text: as it sank into

text: Earth's core

text: during

text: planetary differentiation

text: . As iridium remains abundant in most

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s, the Alvarez team suggested that an asteroid struck the Earth at the time of the K–Pg boundary. There were earlier speculations on the possibility of an

text: impact event

text: , but this was the first hard evidence of an impact.

text: A diapir (; French, from Greek diapeirein, to pierce through) is a type of geologic intrusion in which a more mobile and ductily deformable material is forced into brittle overlying rocks. Depending on the tectonic environment, diapirs can range from idealized mushroom-shaped Rayleigh–Taylor-instability-type structures in regions with low tectonic stress such as in the Gulf of Mexico to narrow dikes of material that move along tectonically induced fractures in surrounding rock. The term was introduced by the Romanian geologist Ludovic Mrazek, who was the first to understand the principle of salt intrusion and plasticity. The term "diapir" may be applied to igneous structures, but it is more commonly applied to non-igneous, relatively cold materials, such as salt domes and mud diapirs.

text: A diapir (;

text: French

text: , from

text: Greek

text: diapeirein, to pierce through) is a type of geologic

text: intrusion

text: in which a more mobile and ductily deformable material is forced into brittle overlying rocks. Depending on the tectonic environment, diapirs can range from idealized mushroom-shaped

text: Rayleigh–Taylor-instability

text: -type structures in regions with low tectonic stress such as in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: to narrow

text: dike

text: s of material that move along tectonically induced fractures in surrounding rock. The term was introduced by the

text: Romanian

text: geologist

text: Ludovic Mrazek

text: , who was the first to understand the principle of

text: salt intrusion

text: and

text: plasticity

text: . The term "diapir" may be applied to

text: igneous

text: structures, but it is more commonly applied to non-igneous, relatively cold materials, such as

text: salt dome

text: s and

text: mud

text: diapirs.

text: Tectonophysics was defined as a field in 1954 when Mikhail Vladimirovich Gzovskii published three papers in the journal Izvestiya Akad. Nauk SSSR, Sireya Geofizicheskaya: "On the tasks and content of tectonophysics", "Tectonic stress fields", and "Modeling of tectonic stress fields". He defined the main goals of tectonophysical research to be study of the mechanisms of folding and faulting as well as large structural units of the Earth's crust. He later created the Laboratory of Tectonophysics at the Institute of Physics of the Earth, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow.<ref name=GzovskiiTribute></ref>

text: Tectonophysics was defined as a field in 1954 when Mikhail Vladimirovich Gzovskii published three papers in the journal Izvestiya Akad. Nauk SSSR, Sireya Geofizicheskaya: "On the tasks and content of tectonophysics", "Tectonic stress fields", and "Modeling of tectonic stress fields". He defined the main goals of tectonophysical research to be study of the mechanisms of

text: folding

text: and

text: faulting

text: as well as large structural units of the

text: Earth's crust

text: . He later created the Laboratory of Tectonophysics at the Institute of Physics of the Earth,

text: Academy of Sciences of the USSR

text: , Moscow.<ref name=GzovskiiTribute></ref>

text: The justification of Russian claim is confirmed by the continuity of the sedimentary magnitude, elements of basal complex, as well as the overall continuity and consistency of the deep layers of the earth's crust and the absence of strike-slip transverse faults at the junction of the Lomonosov ridge and the Eurasian continent.

text: Convection within Earth's mantle is the driving force for plate tectonics. Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of lithosphere drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the core-mantle boundary. Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection.

text: Convection within

text: Earth's mantle

text: is the driving force for

text: plate tectonics

text: . Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of

text: lithosphere

text: drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the

text: core-mantle boundary

text: . Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection.

text: The San Andreas Fault System is an active plate boundary comprising right-lateral strike-slip faults that runs nearly the length of California. This network of faults trends north-northwest in the area of the West Napa Fault, where it is  wide from west to east. The West Napa Fault transfers slip between a group of related faults (including the Concord Fault and the Calaveras Fault) called the Contra Costa Shear Zone, which was assigned a maximum slip rate of 1mm/yr in the third Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast. The authors of a separate study that focused on Global Positioning System data gave an estimated slip rate of 4±3mm/yr for the West Napa Fault.

text: The

text: San Andreas Fault System

text: is an active plate boundary comprising

text: right-lateral

text: strike-slip

text: faults that runs nearly the length of California. This network of faults trends north-northwest in the area of the

text: West Napa Fault

text: , where it is  wide from west to east. The West Napa Fault transfers slip between a group of related faults (including the

text: Concord Fault

text: and the

text: Calaveras Fault

text: ) called the Contra Costa Shear Zone, which was assigned a maximum slip rate of 1mm/yr in the third Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast. The authors of a separate study that focused on

text: Global Positioning System

text: data gave an estimated slip rate of 4±3mm/yr for the West Napa Fault.

text: Despite the extensive volcanism that gives Io its distinctive appearance, nearly all its mountains are tectonic structures, and are not produced by volcanoes. Instead, most Ionian mountains form as the result of compressive stresses on the base of the lithosphere, which uplift and often tilt chunks of Io's crust through thrust faulting. The compressive stresses leading to mountain formation are the result of subsidence from the continuous burial of volcanic materials. The global distribution of mountains appears to be opposite that of volcanic structures; mountains dominate areas with fewer volcanoes and vice versa.<ref name="McKinnon2001">{{cite journal |last=McKinnon |first=W. B. |display-authors=etal |title=Chaos on Io: A model for formation of mountain blocks by crustal heating, melting, and tilting |journal=Geology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=103–106 |date=2001 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029

text: Despite the extensive volcanism that gives Io its distinctive appearance, nearly all its mountains are tectonic structures, and are not produced by volcanoes. Instead, most Ionian mountains form as the result of compressive stresses on the base of the lithosphere, which uplift and often tilt chunks of Io's crust through

text: thrust fault

text: ing. The compressive stresses leading to mountain formation are the result of

text: subsidence

text: from the continuous burial of volcanic materials. The global distribution of mountains appears to be opposite that of volcanic structures; mountains dominate areas with fewer volcanoes and vice versa.<ref name="McKinnon2001">{{cite journal |last=McKinnon |first=W. B. |display-authors=etal |title=Chaos on Io: A model for formation of mountain blocks by crustal heating, melting, and tilting |journal=Geology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=103–106 |date=2001 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029

text: Most monsters, and even some races, in the world of Ave Molech have come through tears in ley lines and planar travel, as seen in Lore Volume 1, is a dangerous, but not uncommon occurrence. The books are careful to avoid using the term "rift", as Palladium Books is the publisher of the Rifts role-playing game. Rifts is not related to the Rift MMORPG from Trion Worlds, though both games share similar many elements. Some of these elements have also been compared to those found in Iron Kingdoms.

text: Most monsters, and even some races, in the world of Ave Molech have come through tears in ley lines and planar travel, as seen in Lore Volume 1, is a dangerous, but not uncommon occurrence. The books are careful to avoid using the term "rift", as

text: Palladium Books

text: is the publisher of the

text: Rifts

text: role-playing game. Rifts is not related to the

text: Rift

entity_name: Massively multiplayer online role-playing game

text: MMORPG

text: from

text: Trion Worlds

text: , though both games share similar many elements. Some of these elements have also been compared to those found in

text: Iron Kingdoms

text: A group is killing Santas and replacing them with their own people so that the sound of their bells can open a rift in space-time and allow a demon to eat the Earth.

text: A group is killing

text: Santa

text: s and replacing them with their own people so that the sound of their bells can open a rift in

text: space-time

text: and allow a demon to eat the Earth.

text: As mentioned above, surface stress is caused by charge density redistribution of surface atoms due to lacking of nearest neighbor atoms. In case of introduction of adsorbates (atoms that land on surface), charge density would be then modified around these adsorbates, resulting different surface stress state. There are many types of reaction between adsorbates and the surface that cause different stress behavior. Here, two most common behaviors are shown:

text: In the geologic record the Chaotian eon (named after Chaos, the primeval void in Greek mythology) is unofficially proposed to denote the time preceding the solidification of the Earth's crust and the formation of Earth's moon. As proposed, it precedes the Hadean eon and is the earliest eon in Earth's history as a planet.

text: In the

text: geologic record

text: the Chaotian

text: eon

text: (named after

text: Chaos

text: , the primeval void in

text: Greek mythology

text: ) is unofficially proposed to denote the time preceding the solidification of the Earth's crust and the formation of Earth's moon. As proposed, it precedes the

text: Hadean

text: eon and is the earliest eon in Earth's history as a planet.

text: The causes of ORS are unknown. It is thought that significant negative experiences may trigger the development of ORS. These have been considered as two types: key traumatic experiences related to smell, and life stressors present when the condition developed but which were unrelated to smell. In one review, 85% of reported cases had traumatic, smell-related experiences, and 17% of cases had stress factors unrelated to smell. Reported smell-related experiences usually revolve around family members, friends, co-workers, peers or other people making comments about an odor from the person, which causes embarrassment and shame. Examples include accusation of flatulence during a religious ceremony, or being bullied for flatulence such at school, accidental urination in class, announcements about a passenger needing to use deodorant over speaker by a driver on public transport, sinusitis which caused a bad taste in the mouth, mockery about a fish odor from a finger which had been inserted into the person's vagina in the context of a sexual assault, and revulsion about menarche and brother's sexual intimacy. It has been suggested that a proportion of such reported experiences may not have been real, but rather early symptom of ORS (i.e. referential thoughts). Examples of non smell-related stressful periods include guilt due to a romantic affair, being left by a partner, violence in school, family illness when growing up (e.g. cancer), and bullying.

text: The causes of ORS are unknown. It is thought that significant negative experiences may trigger the development of ORS. These have been considered as two types: key traumatic experiences related to smell, and life

text: stressor

text: s present when the condition developed but which were unrelated to smell. In one review, 85% of reported cases had traumatic, smell-related experiences, and 17% of cases had stress factors unrelated to smell. Reported smell-related experiences usually revolve around family members, friends, co-workers, peers or other people making comments about an odor from the person, which causes embarrassment and shame. Examples include accusation of flatulence during a religious ceremony, or being

text: bullied

text: for flatulence such at school, accidental urination in class, announcements about a passenger needing to use deodorant over speaker by a driver on public transport,

text: sinusitis

text: which caused a bad taste in the mouth, mockery about a fish odor from a finger which had been inserted into the person's vagina in the context of a sexual assault, and revulsion about

text: menarche

text: and brother's sexual intimacy. It has been suggested that a proportion of such reported experiences may not have been real, but rather early symptom of ORS (i.e. referential thoughts). Examples of non smell-related stressful periods include guilt due to a romantic affair, being left by a partner, violence in school, family illness when growing up (e.g. cancer), and bullying.

text: The magnitude of fault currents differ widely depending on the type of earthing system used, the installation's supply type and earthing system, and its proximity to the supply. For example, for a domestic UK 230 V, 60 A TN-S   or USA 120 V/240 V supply, fault currents may be a few thousand amperes. Large low-voltage networks with multiple sources may have fault levels of 300,000 amperes. A high-resistance-grounded system may restrict line to ground fault current to only 5 amperes. Prior to selecting protective devices, prospective fault current must be measured reliably at the origin of the installation and at the furthest point of each circuit, and this information applied properly to the application of the circuits.

text: The Triodetic System was developed and patented in Canada in 1955 by F. Fentiman and Sons of Ottawa. This system was originally made from aluminum components. It uses extruded cylindrical solid aluminum hubs (nodes) with slots, and tubular aluminum or steel members with matching crimped ends. Triodetic joints resist tension, compression and combined cross loading. Triodetic domes are designed as double curved shells which allow increased structural advantages for the span:rise ratio. The use of triangles makes the structure rigid and very strong, and similar to the geodesic design, stresses are transmitted throughout the structure. Even with light structural components, triodetic domes are able to withstand extremes of wind and even earth quakes. This enables a large interior volume to be enclosed without the need for internal supporting columns.

text: In route, Ray's helicopter fails, forcing him to make an emergency landing at a shopping mall in Bakersfield. Amid the chaos of looting, he steals a truck and he and Emma escape. They come across an older couple broken down on the side of the road where the San Andreas Fault has opened up, blocking the road and the couple, who happen to own an airplane, agree to give it up in exchange for Ray's vehicle.

text: In route, Ray's helicopter fails, forcing him to make an emergency landing at a shopping mall in

text: Bakersfield

text: . Amid the chaos of looting, he steals a truck and he and Emma escape. They come across an older couple broken down on the side of the road where the San Andreas Fault has opened up, blocking the road and the couple, who happen to own an airplane, agree to give it up in exchange for Ray's vehicle.

text: The African Plate is a major tectonic plate straddling the equator as well as the prime meridian. It includes much of the continent of Africa, as well as oceanic crust which lies between the continent and various surrounding ocean ridges. Between  and , the Somali Plate began rifting from the African Plate along the East African Rift. Since the continent of Africa consists of crust from both the African and the Somali plates, some literature refers to the African Plate as the Nubian Plate to distinguish it from the continent as a whole.

text: The African Plate is a major

text: tectonic plate

text: straddling the

text: equator

text: as well as the

text: prime meridian

text: . It includes much of the

text: continent

text: of

text: Africa

text: , as well as oceanic crust which lies between the continent and various surrounding ocean ridges. Between  and , the

text: Somali Plate

text: began

text: rifting

text: from the African Plate along the

text: East African Rift

text: . Since the continent of Africa consists of crust from both the African and the Somali plates, some literature refers to the African Plate as the Nubian Plate to distinguish it from the continent as a whole.

text: Folds are also known for sleeping on their backs. Scottish Folds typically have soft voices and display a complex repertoire of meows and purrs not found in better-known breeds. Folds are also known for sitting with their legs stretched out and their paws on their belly. This is called the "Buddha Position".

text: The Guacha caldera forms a structure with the neighbouring Cerro Panizos, Coranzulí and Vilama calderas associated with a fault named the Lípez lineament. Activity along this lineament commenced with the Abra Granada volcanic complex 10 mya ago and dramatically increased more than a million years later. Volcanic activity is linked to this fault zone and to the thermal maturation of the underlying crust. After 4 million years ago activity waned again in the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex.

text: The Guacha caldera forms a structure with the neighbouring

text: Cerro Panizos

text: Coranzulí

text: and

text: Vilama

text: calderas associated with a

text: fault

text: named the Lípez lineament. Activity along this lineament commenced with the

text: Abra Granada

text: volcanic complex 10

text: mya

text: ago and dramatically increased more than a million years later. Volcanic activity is linked to this fault zone and to the thermal maturation of the underlying crust. After 4 million years ago activity waned again in the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex.

text: There is the argument that collision between two continents should slow down because of continental buoyancy, and that for convergence to continue, it should do so at a new subduction zone where oceanic crust can be consumed.  Certain areas such as the Alps, Zagros, and Himalayas (where continental collisions have continued for tens of millions of years, in the middle of land, creating mountain ranges) contradict this argument, and have led geologists to propose a continental undertow that continues subduction.  This continental undertow is explained by the slab pull concept.  Slab pull is the concept that plate motion is driven by the weight of cool, dense plates and that heavier plates will begin to subduct.  Once a descending slab is disconnected there must be a force that continues subduction.  Eclogitization is the mechanism for continuing subduction after slab detachment in a subduction zone.

text: There is the argument that collision between two continents should slow down because of continental buoyancy, and that for convergence to continue, it should do so at a new subduction zone where oceanic crust can be consumed.  Certain areas such as the

text: Alps

text: Zagros

text: , and

text: Himalayas

text: (where continental collisions have continued for tens of millions of years, in the middle of land, creating mountain ranges) contradict this argument, and have led geologists to propose a continental undertow that continues subduction.  This continental undertow is explained by the slab pull concept.  Slab pull is the concept that plate motion is driven by the weight of cool, dense plates and that heavier plates will begin to subduct.  Once a descending slab is disconnected there must be a force that continues subduction.  Eclogitization is the mechanism for continuing subduction after slab detachment in a subduction zone.

text: In connection with earthquakes, syzygy refers to the idea that the combined tidal effects of the sun and moon – either directly as earth tides in the crust itself, or indirectly by hydrostatic loading due to ocean tides – should be able to trigger earthquakes in rock that is already stressed to the point of fracturing, and therefore  more earthquakes should occur at times of maximal tidal stress, such as at the new and full moons.  Indeed, recent work has concluded that "large earthquakes are more probable during periods of high tidal stress".

text: In connection with earthquakes,

text: syzygy

text: refers to the idea that the combined tidal effects of the sun and moon – either directly as

text: earth tide

text: s in the crust itself, or indirectly by

text: hydrostatic loading

text: due to

text: ocean tides

text: – should be able to trigger earthquakes in rock that is already

text: stressed

text: to the point of fracturing, and therefore  more earthquakes should occur at times of maximal

text: tidal stress

text: , such as at the new and full moons.  Indeed, recent work has concluded that "large earthquakes are more probable during periods of high tidal stress".

text: When a strike-slip fault is offset along strike such that the resulting bend in the fault hinders easy movement, e.g. a right stepping bend on a sinistral (left-lateral) fault, this will cause local shortening or transpression. Examples include the 'Big Bend' region of the San Andreas fault, and parts of the Dead Sea Transform.

text: When a

text: strike-slip fault

text: is offset along strike such that the resulting bend in the fault hinders easy movement, e.g. a right stepping bend on a sinistral (left-lateral) fault, this will cause local shortening or

text: transpression

text: . Examples include the 'Big Bend' region of the

text: San Andreas fault

text: , and parts of the

text: Dead Sea Transform

text: The Cenozoic plate tectonics of the Indonesian region have generated a complex assemblage of micro-continental blocks and marginal ocean basins surrounded by extensional margins, subduction zones and major transcurrent faults. The island of Borneo and the Kutai basin are located on the Sunda micro-plate, which is bounded to the north and west by the Eurasian plate, to the south by the Indo-Australian plate and to the west by the Philippine and Pacific oceanic plates.  In the Cenozoic, the Indo-Australian plate has been moving north and subducting under Eurasia.  The collision of the Indian continent with Eurasia halted subduction and uplifted the Himalayas.  In between the continents of India and Australia, the oceanic crust is still subducting under the Sunda plate, forming the Sunda trench and Sunda Arc. Australia and Australian derived micro-plates collided with the Sunda plate and Pacific plate in the Pliocene, creating a complex of subduction zones and island arcs.  The Philippine plate has been obliquely subducting the Sunda plate for most of the Cenozoic.

text: The Cenozoic plate tectonics of the Indonesian region have generated a complex assemblage of micro-continental blocks and marginal

text: ocean basin

text: s surrounded by extensional margins,

text: subduction zones

text: and major transcurrent faults. The island of Borneo and the Kutai basin are located on the

text: Sunda micro-plate

text: , which is bounded to the north and west by the

text: Eurasian plate

text: , to the south by the

text: Indo-Australian plate

text: and to the west by the

text: Philippine

text: and

text: Pacific oceanic plate

text: s.  In the Cenozoic, the Indo-Australian plate has been moving north and subducting under Eurasia.  The collision of the

text: Indian continent

text: with Eurasia halted subduction and uplifted the

text: Himalayas

text: .  In between the continents of India and Australia, the oceanic crust is still subducting under the

text: Sunda plate

text: , forming the

text: Sunda trench

text: and

text: Sunda Arc

text: . Australia and Australian derived micro-plates collided with the Sunda plate and Pacific plate in the

text: Pliocene

text: , creating a complex of

text: subduction zone

text: s and

text: island arcs

text: .  The Philippine plate has been obliquely subducting the Sunda plate for most of the Cenozoic.

text: The Earth's crust, or lithosphere, is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying mantle. It has been generated greatly by igneous processes in which magma  cools and solidifies to form solid rock. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of radioactive elements. The mantle though solid is in a state of rheic convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material or of rising mantle at mid-ocean ridges and mantle plumes.

text: The Earth's

text: crust

text: , or

text: lithosphere

text: , is the outermost solid surface of the planet and is chemically and mechanically different from underlying

text: mantle

text: . It has been generated greatly by

text: igneous

text: processes in which

text: magma

text: cools and solidifies to form solid rock. Beneath the lithosphere lies the mantle which is heated by the

text: decay

text: of

text: radioactive element

text: s. The mantle though solid is in a state of

text: rheic

text: convection

text: . This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as

text: plate tectonics

text: Volcanoes

text: result primarily from the melting of

text: subducted

text: crust material or of rising mantle at

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s and

text: mantle plume

text: s.

text: Most fracture zones in the Pacific Ocean originate from large mid-ocean ridges (also called "rises") such as the East Pacific Rise, Chile Rise and Juan de Fuca Ridge. The plates that host the fractures are Nazca, Pacific, Antarctic, Juan de Fuca and Cocos among others. Fracture zones being subducted under Southern and Central America are generally southwest-northeast oriented reflecting the relative motion of Cocos, Nazca and the Antarctic Plates.

text: Most fracture zones in the Pacific Ocean originate from large mid-ocean ridges (also called "rises") such as the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: Chile Rise

text: and

text: Juan de Fuca Ridge

text: . The plates that host the fractures are

text: Nazca

text: Pacific

text: Antarctic

text: Juan de Fuca

text: and

text: Cocos

text: among others. Fracture zones being

text: subducted

text: under Southern and Central America are generally southwest-northeast oriented reflecting the relative motion of Cocos, Nazca and the Antarctic Plates.

text: During subduction, the subducted oceanic crust is submitted to increasing pressure and temperature, leading to metamorphism. Hydrous minerals such as amphibole, zeolites, chlorite etc. (which are present in the oceanic lithosphere) dehydrate as they change to more stable, anhydrous forms, releasing water and soluble elements into the overlying wedge of mantle. Fluxing water into the wedge lowers the solidus of the mantle material and causes partial melting.  Due to the lower density of the partially molten material, it rises through the wedge until it reaches the lower boundary of the overriding plate. Melts generated in the mantle wedge are of basaltic composition, but they have a distinctive enrichment of soluble elements (e.g. potassium (K), barium (Ba), and lead (Pb)) which are contributed from sediment that lies at the top of the subducting plate. Although there is evidence to suggest that the subducting oceanic crust may also melt during this process, the relative contribution of the three components (crust, sediment, and wedge) to the generated basalts is still a matter of debate.

text: During subduction, the subducted

text: oceanic crust

text: is submitted to increasing pressure and temperature, leading to

text: metamorphism

text: Hydrous

text: minerals such as

text: amphibole

text: zeolite

text: s,

text: chlorite

text: etc. (which are present in the

text: oceanic lithosphere

text: ) dehydrate as they change to more stable, anhydrous forms, releasing water and soluble elements into the overlying wedge of mantle. Fluxing water into the wedge lowers the

text: solidus

text: of the

text: mantle

text: material and causes partial melting.  Due to the lower density of the partially molten material, it rises through the wedge until it reaches the lower boundary of the overriding plate. Melts generated in the mantle wedge are of basaltic composition, but they have a distinctive enrichment of soluble elements (e.g.

text: potassium

text: (K),

text: barium

text: (Ba), and

text: lead

text: (Pb)) which are contributed from sediment that lies at the top of the subducting plate. Although there is evidence to suggest that the subducting oceanic crust may also melt during this process, the relative contribution of the three components (crust, sediment, and wedge) to the generated basalts is still a matter of debate.

text: Ocean island basalts are also relatively enriched in immobile elements relative to the water-mobile elements. This, and other observations, have been interpreted as indicating that the distinct geochemical signature of ocean island basalts results from inclusion of a component of subducted slab material. This must have been recycled in the mantle, then re-melted and incorporated in the lavas erupted. In the context of the plume hypothesis, subducted slabs are postulated to have been subducted down as far as the core-mantle boundary, and transported back up to the surface in rising plumes. In the plate hypothesis, the slabs are postulated to have been recycled at shallower depths – in the upper few hundred kilometers that make up the upper mantle. However, the plate hypothesis is inconsistent with both the geochemistry of shallow asthenosphere melts (i.e., Mid-ocean ridge basalts) and with the isotopic compositions of ocean island basalts.

text: Ocean island basalts are also relatively enriched in immobile elements relative to the water-mobile elements. This, and other observations, have been interpreted as indicating that the distinct geochemical signature of ocean island basalts results from inclusion of a component of subducted slab material. This must have been recycled in the mantle, then re-melted and incorporated in the lavas erupted. In the context of the plume hypothesis, subducted slabs are postulated to have been subducted down as far as the core-mantle boundary, and transported back up to the surface in rising plumes. In the plate hypothesis, the slabs are postulated to have been recycled at shallower depths – in the upper few hundred kilometers that make up the

text: upper mantle

text: . However, the plate hypothesis is inconsistent with both the geochemistry of shallow asthenosphere melts (i.e., Mid-ocean ridge basalts) and with the isotopic compositions of ocean island basalts.

text: Topographic rises are domal-shaped areas of high topography that result from both volcanic and tectonic processes. These areas range from 1–4 km above the datum and 1000–3000 km across. These rises are associated with high-density anomalies, which indicate a source from mantle plumes beneath the crust that warp and uplift the region. Of the topographic rises on Venus, three types have been identified based on their dominating tectonic or volcanic morphology: volcano dominated, rift dominated, and corona dominated. Volcano-dominated rises, such as the Bell Regio, have volcanoes atop the topographic rise. Rift-dominated rises are uplifted by rifting and thinning of the lithosphere and include the Beta Regio and the overlying Theia Mons. In a coronae-dominated rise, uplift is caused by the gravitational collapse and extension of a magma chamber, and include the Themis Regio.

text: Topographic rises are domal-shaped areas of high topography that result from both volcanic and tectonic processes. These areas range from 1–4 km above the datum and 1000–3000 km across. These rises are associated with high-density anomalies, which indicate a source from mantle plumes beneath the crust that warp and uplift the region. Of the topographic rises on Venus, three types have been identified based on their dominating tectonic or volcanic morphology: volcano dominated, rift dominated, and corona dominated. Volcano-dominated rises, such as the

text: Bell Regio

text: , have volcanoes atop the topographic rise. Rift-dominated rises are uplifted by rifting and thinning of the lithosphere and include the

text: Beta Regio

text: and the overlying

text: Theia Mons

text: . In a coronae-dominated rise, uplift is caused by the gravitational collapse and extension of a magma chamber, and include the

text: Themis Regio

text: Near Dover is geological feature called the Dover Fault, a major break in the Earth's crust. It is the dividing line for Gondwana and Laurentia that was formed by the Iapetus Ocean.

text: Near Dover is geological feature called the

text: Dover Fault

text: , a major break in the Earth's crust. It is the dividing line for

text: Gondwana

text: and

text: Laurentia

text: that was formed by the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: There is geological evidence for impact events having taken place on Earth on certain specific occasions, which should have formed craters, but for which no impact craters have been found. In some cases this is because of erosion and Earth's crust having been recycled through plate tectonics, in others likely because exploration of the Earth's surface is incomplete. Typically the ages are already known and the diameters can be estimated.

text: A major left-lateral strike-slip fault zone, the Trans-Alboran Shear Zone, crosscuts the Gibraltar Arc with a NE trend from the eastern Betics to the western Rif. It was active during the Neogene, contributing to the westward advance of the Gibraltar Arc. Some of the previous fault segments are active, with left-lateral transpressive faulting and moderate to significant clockwise stress rotations. Oblique to this shear zone, there are two major right-lateral strike-slip fault systems, the Maro-Nerja and Yusuf systems. These trend NW and have transtensive deformation. The present-day stress pattern is probably the consequence of the interference between two stress sources: ongoing continent convergence and secondary stress sources from variations in crustal thickness, sedimentary accumulations causing loading, and the active strike-slip fault.

text: A major left-lateral

text: strike-slip

text: fault zone, the

text: Trans-Alboran Shear Zone

text: , crosscuts the Gibraltar Arc with a NE trend from the eastern Betics to the western Rif. It was active during the Neogene, contributing to the westward advance of the Gibraltar Arc. Some of the previous fault segments are active, with left-lateral

text: transpressive

text: faulting and moderate to significant clockwise stress rotations. Oblique to this shear zone, there are two major right-lateral strike-slip fault systems, the Maro-Nerja and Yusuf systems. These trend NW and have

text: transtensive

text: deformation. The present-day stress pattern is probably the consequence of the interference between two stress sources: ongoing continent convergence and secondary stress sources from variations in crustal thickness, sedimentary accumulations causing loading, and the active strike-slip fault.

text: The chain-like arrangement of summits and the formation of long, jagged mountain crests – known in Spanish as sierras ("saws") – is a consequence of their collective formation by mountain building forces. The often linear structure is linked to the direction of these thrust forces and the resulting mountain folding which in turn relates to the fault lines in the upper part of the earth's crust, that run between the individual mountain chains. In these fault zones, the rock, which has sometimes been pulverised, is easily eroded, so that large river valleys are carved out. These, so called longitudinal valleys reinforce the trend, during the early mountain building phase, towards the formation of parallel chains of mountains.

text: The chain-like arrangement of summits and the formation of long, jagged

text: mountain crest

text: s – known in Spanish as

text: sierras

text: ("saws") – is a consequence of their collective formation by

text: mountain building forces

text: . The often linear structure is linked to the direction of these thrust forces and the resulting

text: mountain folding

text: which in turn relates to the

text: fault line

text: s in the upper part of the

text: earth's crust

text: , that run between the individual mountain chains. In these

text: fault zone

text: s, the rock, which has sometimes been pulverised, is easily eroded, so that large

text: river

text: valleys are carved out. These, so called

text: longitudinal valley

text: s reinforce the trend, during the early mountain building phase, towards the formation of parallel chains of mountains.

text: Burchfiel and Davis presented a detailed model relating the Sonoma orogeny to convergent plate tectonic processes.  They postulated an east-dipping subduction zone beneath a magmatic arc to the west of the continent.  In this scheme, a back-arc basin floored by oceanic crust lay between the arc and the continent.   The Sonoma orogeny involved closure of this basin and a process by which the blanket of oceanic sedimentary rocks (the Havallah sequence) was obducted onto the continental shelf via the Golconda thrust.  To account for the absence of oceanic crust in the obducted rocks, Davis later proposed the unique concept that the Havallah was separated from the underlying oceanic crust by a process of subduction and obduction. Silberling presented a model similar to that of Burchfiel and Davis

text: Burchfiel and Davis presented a detailed model relating the Sonoma orogeny to

text: convergent plate

text: tectonic processes.  They postulated an east-dipping

text: subduction zone

text: beneath a

text: magmatic arc

text: to the west of the continent.  In this scheme, a back-arc basin floored by

text: oceanic crust

text: lay between the arc and the continent.   The Sonoma orogeny involved closure of this basin and a process by which the blanket of oceanic sedimentary rocks (the Havallah sequence) was

text: obducted

text: onto the continental shelf via the Golconda thrust.  To account for the absence of oceanic crust in the obducted rocks, Davis later proposed the unique concept that the Havallah was separated from the underlying oceanic crust by a process of subduction and obduction. Silberling presented a model similar to that of Burchfiel and Davis

text: Magmas are the starting point for the creation of a volcano. In order to understand volcanism, it is critical to understand the processes that form volcanoes. Magmas are created by keeping temperature, pressure, and composition (known as P-T-X) in the realm of melt conditions. The pressure and temperature for melts are understood by knowing the chemistry of the melt. To keep magma in a melt condition, a change in one variable will result in the change of another variable in order to maintain equilibrium (i.e. Le Chatlier's Principle). The production of magma is accomplished in multiple ways: 1) subduction of oceanic crust, 2) creation of a hot spot from a mantle plume, and 3) divergence of oceanic or continental plates. The subduction of oceanic crust produces a magmatic melt usually at great depth. Yellowstone National Park is a hot spot located within the center of a continent. Divergence of continental plates (i.e. the Atlantic Mid-Ocean ridge complex) creates magmas very near the surface of the Earth. A plume of heat from the mantle will melt rocks, creating a hot spot, which can be located at any depth in the crust. Hot spots in oceanic crust develop different magmatic plumbing systems based on plate velocities. Hawaii and the Madeira Archipelago (off the West coast of Africa) are examples of volcanic complexes with two different plumbing systems. Because islands such as Hawaii move more quickly than Madeira, the layered rocks at Hawaii have a different chemistry than those at Madeira. The layers beneath Hawaii and Madeira are different because the magma produced underground at these locations rests for different amounts of time. The longer the amount of time magma will rest underground, the warmer the host rocks become. Fractionation of crystals from melt is partially driven by heat; therefore, the igneous rock produced will vary from an insulated host to a non-insulated host. Each of these avenues of magmatic creation develops different igneous rocks and, thus, various P-T-X histories. Definitions and other geologic explanations of igneous systems are explained in Loren A. Raymond's Petrology text.

text: The Gorringe Bank is part of the ridge along the Azores-Gibraltar fault zone.  It is about 60 km wide and 180 km long in the northeast direction.  Two high seamounts exist:  The Gettysburg Seamount  has a depth of 25m, and the Ormonde Seamount is 65m below the surface.  The plate boundaries here are converging at 4 mm/y, as well as sliding past each other.  Upper mantle and oceanic crust are exposed along this bank.  Ferrogabbro dated at 77 Ma has been intruded,  Also at 66 Ma the Canary hotspot mantle plume passed by and caused alkaline magma to intrude.  Where there is crust, it is very thin, so that the moho comes up to the sea floor.  Sediment overlies the mantle, so this could be considered as crust.  Since the Miocene there has been shortening of the ocean crust absorbed by folding, and thrusting.

text: The

text: Gorringe Bank

text: is part of the ridge along the

text: Azores-Gibraltar fault zone

text: .  It is about 60 km wide and 180 km long in the northeast direction.  Two high

text: seamount

text: s exist:  The Gettysburg Seamount  has a depth of 25m, and the Ormonde Seamount is 65m below the surface.  The plate boundaries here are converging at 4 mm/y, as well as sliding past each other.  Upper mantle and oceanic crust are exposed along this bank.  Ferrogabbro dated at 77 Ma has been intruded,  Also at 66 Ma the

text: Canary hotspot

text: mantle plume

text: moho

text: comes up to the sea floor.  Sediment overlies the mantle, so this could be considered as crust.  Since the

text: Miocene

text: there has been shortening of the ocean crust absorbed by folding, and thrusting.

text: The location of the fault zone may be related to the Ouachita Mountains, formed 300 million years ago during a continental collision. Although long since eroded away in Texas, the roots of these ancient mountains still exist, buried beneath thousands of feet of sediment.  These buried Ouachita Mountains may still be an area of weakness that becomes a preferred site for faulting when stress exists in the Earth's crust.

text: The location of the fault zone may be related to the

text: Ouachita Mountains

text: , formed 300 million years ago during a continental collision. Although long since eroded away in Texas, the roots of these ancient mountains still exist, buried beneath thousands of feet of

text: sediment

text: .  These buried Ouachita Mountains may still be an area of weakness that becomes a preferred site for faulting when stress exists in the Earth's

text: crust

text: The oceanic lithosphere subducts at what are known as convergent boundaries. These boundaries can exist between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and oceanic lithosphere on another, or between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and continental lithosphere on another. In the second situation, the oceanic lithosphere always subducts because the continental lithosphere is less dense. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old.The process of super-continent formation and destruction via repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the Wilson cycle.

text: The oceanic lithosphere

text: subducts

text: at what are known as

text: convergent boundaries

text: . These boundaries can exist between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and oceanic lithosphere on another, or between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and continental lithosphere on another. In the second situation, the oceanic lithosphere always subducts because the continental lithosphere is less dense. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old.The process of super-continent formation and destruction via repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the

text: Wilson cycle

text: Distress is the most commonly referred to type of stress, having negative implications, whereas eustress is usually related to desirable events in a person's life. Selye first differentiated the two in an article he wrote in 1975. In this article Selye argued that persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation should be known as distress, and may lead to anxiety, withdrawal, and depressive behavior. In contrast, if stress enhances one's functioning it may be considered eustress. Both can be equally taxing on the body, and are cumulative in nature, depending on a person's way of adapting to the stressor that caused it. The body itself cannot physically discern between distress or eustress. Differentiation between the two is dependent on one's perception of the stress, but it is believed that the same stressor may cause both eustress and distress. One context that this may occur in is societal trauma (e.g. the black death, World War II) which may cause great distress, but also eustress in the form of hardiness, coping, and fostering a sense of community.  The Yerkes–Dodson model demonstrates the optimum balance of stress with a bell curve (shown in the image in the top right). This model is supported by research demonstrating emotional-coping and behavioral-coping strategies are related to changes in perceived stress level on the Yerkes–Dodson Curve.

text: Distress is the most commonly referred to type of stress, having negative implications, whereas eustress is usually related to desirable events in a person's life. Selye first differentiated the two in an article he wrote in 1975. In this article Selye argued that persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation should be known as distress, and may lead to anxiety, withdrawal, and depressive behavior. In contrast, if stress enhances one's functioning it may be considered eustress. Both can be equally taxing on the body, and are cumulative in nature, depending on a person's way of adapting to the stressor that caused it. The body itself cannot physically discern between distress or eustress. Differentiation between the two is dependent on one's perception of the stress, but it is believed that the same stressor may cause both eustress and distress. One context that this may occur in is societal trauma (e.g.

text: the black death

text: World War II

text: ) which may cause great distress, but also eustress in the form of

text: hardiness

text: coping

text: , and fostering a sense of

text: community

text: .  The

text: Yerkes–Dodson model

text: demonstrates the optimum balance of stress with a bell curve (shown in the image in the top right). This model is supported by research demonstrating emotional-coping and behavioral-coping strategies are related to changes in perceived stress level on the Yerkes–Dodson Curve.

text: The Ainsworth's Magazine edition of St. James's included 14 illustrations by Cruikshank. However, only seven appeared in the 3-volume edition of the work. Two of the illustrations not carried over in the book edition were of Cruikshank's best depictions: one titled "The Double Duel" and another titled "Sergeant Scales's Drum". A rift developed between Cruikshank and Ainsworth, and St. James's was the last work of Ainsworth that Cruikshank illustrated. It is possible that the rift came as Ainsworth was giving up his ownership of the Ainsworth's Magazine, but the cause is unknown. It is also possible that the dropping of illustrations from the three volume edition was either a cause or an effect of the rift.

text: A fold surface seen in profile can be divided into hinge and limb portions. The limbs are the flanks of the fold and the hinge is where the flanks join together. The hinge point is the point of minimum radius of curvature (maximum curvature) for a fold. The crest of the fold is the highest point of the fold surface, and the trough is the lowest point. The inflection point of a fold is the point on a limb at which the concavity reverses; on regular folds, this is the midpoint of the limb.

text: A fold surface seen in profile can be divided into hinge and limb portions. The limbs are the flanks of the fold and the hinge is where the flanks join together. The hinge point is the point of minimum radius of

text: curvature

text: (maximum curvature) for a fold. The

text: crest

text: of the fold is the highest point of the fold surface, and the

text: trough

text: is the lowest point. The

text: inflection point

text: of a fold is the point on a limb at which the

text: concavity

text: reverses; on regular folds, this is the midpoint of the limb.

text: The 1992 Cape Mendocino earthquakes (or 1992 Petrolia earthquakes) occurred along the Lost Coast of Northern California on April 25 and 26. The three largest events were the M7.2 thrust mainshock that struck near the unincorporated community of Petrolia midday on April 25 and two primary strike-slip aftershocks measuring 6.5 and 6.6 that followed early the next morning. The sequence encompassed both interplate and intraplate activity that was associated with the Mendocino Triple Junction, a complex system of three major faults (including the Cascadia subduction zone, San Andreas Fault, and Mendocino Fracture Zone) that converge near Cape Mendocino. The total number of aftershocks that followed the events exceeded 2,000.

text: The 1992 Cape Mendocino earthquakes (or 1992 Petrolia earthquakes) occurred along the

text: Lost Coast

text: of

text: Northern California

text: on April 25 and 26. The three largest events were the M7.2

text: thrust

text: mainshock that struck near the unincorporated community of

text: Petrolia

text: midday on April 25 and two primary

text: strike-slip

text: aftershocks measuring 6.5 and 6.6 that followed early the next morning. The sequence encompassed both

text: interplate

text: and

text: intraplate

text: activity that was associated with the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: , a complex system of three major faults (including the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , and

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: ) that converge near

text: Cape Mendocino

text: . The total number of aftershocks that followed the events exceeded 2,000.

text: The reworked crust can be attributed to the burial, most likely through subduction, of hydrated materials, such as basalt, that were formed in the Hadean. Additionally, the source for tested rock samples came from a mantle depleted in titanium and niobium and enriched in lead, strontium, barium, rubidium, and light rare earth elements, which, taken together, are indicative of arc-related basalts.  The diorites found in the area are high in magnesium and REE (rare earth elements), which suggest further that the rocks were formed from a mixture of the mantle and remelted basaltic crust.  Overall, the presence of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorites, as well as the iron present for the  banded iron formations (BIFs), are determined to have been caused by hydrothermal alteration at high temperatures.  BIFs are typically found in intra-oceanic, arc or forearc settings, which are associated with convergent boundaries. The intrusions were formed when upwelling asthenosphere partially melted thick overlying oceanic crust.  It is thought that the melting and reworking of oceanic crust formed the early Archean continental crust. In addition, the eclogite residues, formed by the partial melting of the oceanic crust, subsequently became a part of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle. By using uranium-lead dating on zircons, scientists were able to determine that the process of creating the Isua Greenstone Belt took approximately 300 million years.

text: The reworked crust can be attributed to the burial, most likely through

text: subduction

text: , of hydrated materials, such as

text: basalt

text: , that were formed in the

text: Hadean

text: . Additionally, the source for tested rock samples came from a

text: mantle

text: depleted in

text: titanium

text: and

text: niobium

text: and enriched in

text: lead

text: strontium

text: barium

text: rubidium

text: , and light

text: rare earth element

text: s, which, taken together, are indicative of arc-related

text: basalt

text: s.  The

text: diorite

text: s found in the area are high in magnesium and REE (

text: rare earth elements

text: ), which suggest further that the rocks were formed from a mixture of the mantle and remelted basaltic crust.  Overall, the presence of

text: tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite

text: s, as well as the iron present for the

text: banded iron formation

text: s (BIFs), are determined to have been caused by hydrothermal alteration at high temperatures.  BIFs are typically found in intra-oceanic, arc or

text: forearc

text: settings, which are associated with

text: convergent boundaries

text: . The intrusions were formed when upwelling

text: asthenosphere

text: partially melted thick overlying

text: oceanic crust

text: .  It is thought that the melting and reworking of oceanic crust formed the early

text: Archean

text: continental crust

text: . In addition, the

text: eclogite

text: residues, formed by the

text: partial melting

text: of the oceanic crust, subsequently became a part of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle. By using

text: uranium-lead dating

text: on

text: zircon

text: s, scientists were able to determine that the process of creating the Isua Greenstone Belt took approximately 300 million years.

text: Evidence of rupture propagation at velocities greater than S-wave velocities expected for the surrounding crust have been observed for several large earthquakes associated with strike-slip faults. During strike-slip, the main component of rupture propagation will be horizontal, in the direction of displacement, as a Mode II (in-plane) shear crack. This contrasts with a dip-slip rupture where the main direction of rupture propagation will be perpendicular to the displacement, like a Mode III (anti-plane) shear crack. Theoretical studies have shown that Mode III cracks are limited to the shear wave velocity but that Mode II cracks can propagate between the S and P-wave velocities  and this may explain why supershear earthquakes have not been observed on dip-slip faults.

text: Evidence of rupture propagation at velocities greater than S-wave velocities expected for the surrounding crust have been observed for several large earthquakes associated with

text: strike-slip faults

text: . During strike-slip, the main component of rupture propagation will be horizontal, in the direction of displacement, as a

text: Mode II

text: (in-plane) shear crack. This contrasts with a dip-slip rupture where the main direction of rupture propagation will be perpendicular to the displacement, like a

text: Mode III

text: (anti-plane) shear crack. Theoretical studies have shown that Mode III cracks are limited to the shear wave velocity but that Mode II cracks can propagate between the S and P-wave velocities  and this may explain why supershear earthquakes have not been observed on dip-slip faults.

text: The Rift does not appear to the user's operating system as a monitor. Instead, custom Oculus drivers and a runtime service are used to allow applications to output directly to the Rift, bypassing the operating system and allowing for high refresh rates and low latency regardless of the user's setup.

text: The Rift does not appear to the user's operating system as a monitor. Instead, custom Oculus

text: drivers

text: and a

text: runtime

text: service are used to allow applications to output directly to the Rift, bypassing the operating system and allowing for high refresh rates and low latency regardless of the user's setup.

text: An ophilotie is a sequence of oceanic lithosphere that has been thrust on top of continental lithosphere and therefore has peridotites, gabbros and basaltic units overlain by cherts and submarine volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Ophiolites originate as oceanic crust, they are ultramafic or mafic in composition and have a high concentration of pyroxene and amphibole minerals. Surface exposures of the ophiolite basement can be seen in the Segama Valley, Darvel Bay, Telupid and Kudat. K-Ar dating of the ophiolites has indicated that they are Cretaceous in age supporting subduction beneath Borneo at this time.

text: An ophilotie is a sequence of oceanic lithosphere that has been thrust on top of continental lithosphere and therefore has

text: peridotite

text: s,

text: gabbro

text: s and

text: basalt

text: ic units overlain by

text: chert

text: s and submarine volcanic and

text: sedimentary rock

text: s. Ophiolites originate as

text: oceanic crust

text: , they are

text: ultramafic

text: or

text: mafic

text: in composition and have a high concentration of

text: pyroxene

text: and

text: amphibole

text: minerals. Surface exposures of the ophiolite basement can be seen in the

text: Segama Valley

text: Darvel Bay

text: Telupid

text: and

text: Kudat

text: K-Ar dating

text: of the ophiolites has indicated that they are Cretaceous in age supporting subduction beneath Borneo at this time.

text: The mass-abundance of the nine most abundant elements in the Earth's crust is approximately: oxygen 46%, silicon 28%, aluminum 8.2%, iron 5.6%, calcium 4.2%, sodium 2.5%, magnesium 2.4%, potassium 2.0%, and titanium 0.61%. Other elements occur at less than 0.15%. For a complete list, see abundance of elements in Earth's crust.

text: The mass-abundance of the nine most abundant elements in the Earth's crust is approximately: oxygen 46%, silicon 28%, aluminum 8.2%, iron 5.6%, calcium 4.2%, sodium 2.5%, magnesium 2.4%, potassium 2.0%, and titanium 0.61%. Other elements occur at less than 0.15%. For a complete list, see

text: abundance of elements in Earth's crust

text: From 1929 to 1984 the Mountain Bell headquarters was located at 931 14th Street in Denver, Colorado. As part of a company wide real estate savings effort, areas of the building interior was remodeled in 2009 and 2010, along with the adjoining 930 building to accommodate employees vacating leased space in the Qwest headquarters building at 1801 California St.

text: From 1929 to 1984 the

text: Mountain Bell headquarters

text: was located at 931 14th Street in

text: Denver

text: , Colorado. As part of a company wide real estate savings effort, areas of the building interior was remodeled in 2009 and 2010, along with the adjoining 930 building to accommodate employees vacating leased space in the Qwest headquarters building at 1801 California St.

text: The Makran Trench is the physiographic expression of a subduction zone along the northeastern margin of the Gulf of Oman adjacent to the southwestern coast of Balochistan of Pakistan and the southeastern coast of Iran. In this region the oceanic crust of the Arabian Plate is being subducted beneath the continental crust of the Eurasian Plate.

text: The Makran Trench is the physiographic expression of a

text: subduction zone

text: along the northeastern margin of the

text: Gulf of Oman

text: adjacent to the southwestern coast of

text: Balochistan

text: of

text: Pakistan

text: and the southeastern coast of

text: Iran

text: . In this region the

text: oceanic crust

text: of the

text: Arabian Plate

text: is being subducted beneath the

text: continental crust

text: of the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus. Correct folding of newly made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins, including protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), ERp29, the Hsp70 family member BiP/Grp78, calnexin, calreticulin, and the peptidylpropyl isomerase family. Only properly folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus – unfolded proteins cause an unfolded protein response as a stress response in the ER. Disturbances in redox regulation, calcium regulation, glucose deprivation, and viral infection or the over-expression of proteins can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress response (ER stress), a state in which the folding of proteins slows, leading to an increase in unfolded proteins. This stress is emerging as a potential cause of damage in hypoxia/ischemia, insulin resistance, and other disorders.

text: The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called

text: cisterna

text: e and the transport of synthesized proteins in

text: vesicles

text: to the

text: Golgi apparatus

text: . Correct folding of newly made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum

text: chaperone

text: proteins, including

text: protein disulfide isomerase

text: (PDI), ERp29, the

text: family member

text: calnexin

text: calreticulin

text: , and the peptidylpropyl isomerase family. Only properly folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus – unfolded proteins cause an

text: unfolded protein response

text: as a stress response in the ER. Disturbances in

text: redox

text: regulation, calcium regulation, glucose deprivation, and viral infection or the over-expression of proteins can lead to

text: endoplasmic reticulum stress response

text: (ER stress), a state in which the folding of proteins slows, leading to an increase in

text: unfolded proteins

text: . This stress is emerging as a potential cause of damage in hypoxia/ischemia, insulin resistance, and other disorders.

text: As the 74th most abundant element in Earth's crust, ruthenium is relatively rare, found in about 100 parts per trillion. This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa. The native form of ruthenium is a very rare mineral (Ir replaces part of Ru in its structure).

text: As the 74th

text: most abundant element in Earth's crust

text: , ruthenium is relatively rare, found in about 100

text: parts per trillion

text: . This element is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the

text: Ural Mountains

text: and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in

text: pentlandite

text: extracted from

text: Sudbury

text: Ontario

text: Canada

text: , and in

text: pyroxenite

text: deposits in

text: South Africa

text: . The native form of ruthenium is a very rare mineral (Ir replaces part of Ru in its structure).

text: Toxic Stress can occur when experiences are long in duration and intensity. Children need caring and supportive adults to help them because it is difficult for children to handle this type of stress on their own. Therefore the stress response may be activated from weeks to months or even years.Prolonged stress leads to adverse effects such as permanent emotional or developmental damage.If the sufficient support is not available, the results of this type of stress can lead to permanent changes in brain development. Research has found that children experiencing severe and long-term abuse have smaller brain sizes. If the situation is not as severe, toxic stress will still alter the stress response system.  The changes in the system will cause children to react to a wider variety of stressors.  However, with sufficient care and support from adults, children can return their stress levels to tolerable or good. Examples of toxic stress are abuse, neglect, violence and overall hardships without adult support. Toxic stress can have a cumulative effect on physical and mental health.

text: In Canada, pizza is served on a variety of crust types, including a traditional-style pan crust, a thin crust, multi-grain crust, whole-grain crust, and a gluten-free crust. Stuffed-crust pizza is also a popular pizza alternative for Canadian customers. It contains pizza toppings of the customer’s choice on a mozzarella-filled crust.

text: There are three main types of fault, all of which may cause an interplate earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip.

text: There are three main types of fault, all of which may cause an

text: interplate earthquake

text: : normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of

text: dip

text: and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being

text: extended

text: such as a

text: divergent boundary

text: . Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being

text: shortened

text: such as at a convergent boundary.

text: Strike-slip fault

text: s are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip.

text: The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly  through California. It forms the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and its motion is right-lateral strike-slip (horizontal). The fault divides into three segments, each with different characteristics and a different degree of earthquake risk, the most significant being the southern segment, which passes within about 35 miles (56 km) of Los Angeles.

text: The San Andreas Fault is a continental

text: transform fault

text: that extends roughly  through

text: California

text: . It forms the

text: tectonic

text: boundary between the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: , and its motion is

text: right-lateral

text: strike-slip

text: (horizontal). The fault divides into three segments, each with different characteristics and a different degree of earthquake risk, the most significant being the southern segment, which passes within about 35 miles (56 km) of Los Angeles.

text: Depending on the type of material, size and geometry of the object, and the forces applied, various types of deformation may result. The image to the right shows the engineering stress vs. strain diagram for a typical ductile material such as steel. Different deformation modes may occur under different conditions, as can be depicted using a deformation mechanism map.

text: Depending on the type of material, size and geometry of the object, and the forces applied, various types of deformation may result. The image to the right shows the engineering stress vs. strain diagram for a typical ductile material such as steel. Different deformation modes may occur under different conditions, as can be depicted using a

text: deformation mechanism map

text: Strain occurs accumulatively or instantaneously, depending on the rheology of the rock; the ductile lower crust and mantle accumulates deformation gradually via shearing, whereas the brittle upper crust reacts by fracture - instantaneous stress release - to cause motion along the fault. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the strain rate is too great. The energy released by instantaneous strain-release causes earthquakes, a common phenomenon along transform boundaries.

text: Strain occurs accumulatively or instantaneously, depending on the

text: rheology

text: of the rock; the

text: ductile

text: lower crust and

text: mantle

text: accumulates deformation gradually via

text: shearing

text: , whereas the brittle upper crust reacts by fracture - instantaneous stress release - to cause motion along the fault. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when the strain rate is too great. The energy released by instantaneous strain-release causes

text: earthquake

text: s, a common phenomenon along transform boundaries.

text: The lands surrounding the lake are part of the Canadian Shield, one of the largest single exposure of Precambrian rocks in the world which were formed after the Earth's crust cooled. Part of Lake Temagami lies in the Temagami Magnetic Anomaly, an egg shaped geologic structure stretching from Lake Wanapitei in the west to Bear Island. It has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin, which is one of the richest mining camps in the world. The hills in the Temagami area are remnants of the oldest mountain ranges in North America, that date back during the Precambrian era. These enormous mountains were taller than any that exist today. The uplifting was accomplished as enormous pressure caused the earth to buckle in a process called folding. Other processes, such as volcanic activity and geologic faulting in which the earth cracks open also contributed to the formation of these mountains. Over millions of years, these enormous mountains were gradually eroded to the land as we know it today in Temagami.

text: The lands surrounding the lake are part of the

text: Canadian Shield

text: , one of the largest single exposure of

text: Precambrian

text: rocks in the world which were formed after the Earth's crust cooled. Part of Lake Temagami lies in the

text: Temagami Magnetic Anomaly

text: , an egg shaped geologic structure stretching from

text: Lake Wanapitei

text: in the west to

text: Bear Island

text: . It has striking similarities to the

text: Sudbury Basin

text: , which is one of the richest mining camps in the world. The hills in the Temagami area are remnants of the oldest

text: mountain range

text: s in

text: North America

text: , that date back during the

text: Precambrian

text: era. These enormous mountains were taller than any that exist today. The uplifting was accomplished as enormous pressure caused the earth to buckle in a process called

text: folding

text: . Other processes, such as

text: volcanic activity

text: and

text: geologic fault

text: ing in which the earth cracks open also contributed to the formation of these mountains. Over millions of years, these enormous mountains were gradually eroded to the land as we know it today in Temagami.

text: In the Earth's crust, anisotropy may be caused by preferentially aligned joints or microcracks, by layered bedding in sedimentary formations, or by highly foliated metamorphic rocks. Crustal anisotropy resulting from aligned cracks can be used to determine the state of stress in the crust, since in many cases, cracks are preferentially aligned with their flat faces oriented in the direction of minimum compressive stress. In active tectonic areas, such as near faults and volcanoes, anisotropy can be used to look for changes in preferred orientation of cracks that may indicate a rotation of the stress field.

text: Right lateral motion of a strike slip fault at a right step over (or overstep) gives rise to extensional bends characterised by zones of subsidence, local normal faults, and pull apart basins. On extensional duplexes, normal faults will accommodate the vertical motion, creating negative relief. Similarly, left stepping at a dextral fault generates contractional bends; shortening the step overs which is displayed by local reverse faults, push-up zones, and folds. On contractional duplex structures, thrust faults will accommodate vertical displacement rather than being folded, as the uplifting process is more energy efficient.

text: Right lateral

text: motion of a strike slip fault at a right step over (or overstep) gives rise to

text: extensional

text: bends characterised by zones of

text: subsidence

text: , local normal faults, and pull apart basins. On extensional duplexes, normal faults will accommodate the vertical motion, creating negative relief. Similarly, left stepping at a dextral fault generates contractional bends; shortening the step overs which is displayed by local

text: reverse faults

text: , push-up zones, and

text: folds

text: . On contractional duplex structures, thrust faults will accommodate vertical displacement rather than being folded, as the uplifting process is more energy efficient.

text: The Arabian-Nubian Shield is the northern half of a great collision zone called the East African Orogen. This collision zone formed near the end of Neoproterozoic time when East and West Gondwana collided to form the supercontinent Gondwana. The most intense part of the collision occurred in what is today southern Africa, where older crust in Tanzania. Mozambique, and Madagascar was remobilized to form the Mozambique Belt. This great collision was responsible for the Pan-African orogeny near the end of Neoproterozoic time. The crust of the Mozambique Belt is quite different from that of the Arabian-Nubian Shield, which is predominantly 'juvenile' crust, that is, crust that formed from partial melting of Earth's mantle, although much older Archean and Paleoproterozoic crustal materials is exposed west of the Nile in Egypt, in the SE part of the shield in Arabia, in eastern Ethiopia, and in Yemen.

text: The Arabian-Nubian Shield is the northern half of a great collision zone called the East African Orogen. This collision zone formed near the end of Neoproterozoic time when East and West Gondwana collided to form the

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: . The most intense part of the collision occurred in what is today southern Africa, where older crust in

text: Tanzania

text: Mozambique

text: , and

text: Madagascar

text: was remobilized to form the

text: Mozambique Belt

text: . This great collision was responsible for the

text: Pan-African orogeny

text: near the end of Neoproterozoic time. The crust of the Mozambique Belt is quite different from that of the Arabian-Nubian Shield, which is predominantly 'juvenile' crust, that is, crust that formed from partial melting of Earth's mantle, although much older

text: Archean

text: and

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: crustal materials is exposed west of the Nile in Egypt, in the SE part of the shield in Arabia, in eastern Ethiopia, and in Yemen.

text: The geologic record becomes spotty prior to about 542 million years ago. This is because the Earth's crust in geological time scales is constantly being recycled by tectonic and weathering forces, and older rocks and especially readily accessible exposed strata that can act as a time calibration are rare.

text: The

text: geologic record

text: becomes spotty prior to about 542 million years ago. This is because the Earth's crust in geological time scales is constantly being recycled by

text: tectonic

text: and weathering forces, and older rocks and especially readily accessible exposed

text: strata

text: that can act as a time calibration are rare.

text: Tectonic uplift is the portion of the total geologic uplift of the mean Earth surface that is not attributable to an isostatic response to unloading. While isostatic response is important, an increase in the mean elevation of a region can only occur in response to tectonic processes of crustal thickening (such as mountain building events), changes in the density distribution of the crust and underlying mantle, and flexural support due to the bending of rigid lithosphere.

text: Tectonic uplift is the portion of the total geologic uplift of the mean Earth surface that is not attributable to an

text: isostatic

text: response to

text: unloading

text: . While isostatic response is important, an increase in the mean elevation of a region can only occur in response to tectonic processes of

text: crustal thickening

text: (such as

text: mountain building

text: events), changes in the density distribution of the crust and underlying

text: mantle

text: , and flexural support due to the bending of rigid

text: lithosphere

text: Heaton is particularly interested in understanding the origins of spatially heterogeneous slip in earthquakes.  There is compelling evidence that slip in earthquakes and stress in the earth’s crust are spatially heterogeneous, and perhaps fractal. Several approaches are being pursued in his group to understand the dynamic properties of this system. One of the approaches is the 3D finite element modeling for regions in the crust with ruptures occurring on fault planes controlled by dynamic friction and looking for conditions that are required to sustain the observed heterogeneous characteristics of stress and slip in cycles of earthquakes. On the other hand, Heaton was among the first to recognize that the heterogeneity in the crust could be modeled by 3D fractal tensors models for stress. With Deborah E. Smith, they generated those fractal stress tensors and used them to produce catalogs of earthquake locations and focal mechanisms. They could explain several field observations with this model. Also the model predicts that the strength of the crust should be a scale dependent property, a topic which is currently being further investigated in Heaton's group.

text: The San Andreas Fault is a northwest-striking transform fault that accommodates motion between the Pacific and North American Plates. The Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of high seismicity, and marks its northern extremity at the Gorda Plate, which is subducting beneath the North American Plate. Three moderate events in the San Francisco Bay Area occurred on or near the San Andreas Fault in the early nineteenth-century.

text: The San Andreas Fault is a northwest-

text: striking

text: transform fault

text: that accommodates motion between the Pacific and North American Plates. The

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: is an area of high seismicity, and marks its northern extremity at the

text: Gorda Plate

text: , which is subducting beneath the North American Plate. Three moderate events in the San Francisco Bay Area occurred on or near the San Andreas Fault in the early nineteenth-century.

text: Many seismologists believe that the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which occurred on the San Andreas fault, reduced the stress on many faults in the Bay Area including the Hayward fault, creating an "earthquake shadow": a quiescent period following a major earthquake. Since the 1906 San Andreas event there have been no moderately strong earthquakes on the Hayward fault as were seen before that earthquake. It also appears likely that this quiet period in the earthquake shadow is ending, as projected by the rate of plate motion and the stress state of other faults in the region.

text: Many seismologists believe that the

text: 1906 San Francisco earthquake

text: , which occurred on the San Andreas fault, reduced the stress on many faults in the Bay Area including the Hayward fault, creating an "earthquake shadow": a quiescent period following a major earthquake. Since the 1906 San Andreas event there have been no moderately strong earthquakes on the Hayward fault as were seen before that earthquake. It also appears likely that this quiet period in the earthquake shadow is ending, as projected by the rate of plate motion and the stress state of other faults in the region.

text: Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Homes accepted Wegener’s theory and provided a mechanism: mantle convection, to cause the continents to move.  However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 extremely exciting years where the Theory of Continental Drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern Geology. Beginning in 1947 research  found new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960 Bruce C. Heezen published the concept of mid-ocean ridges.Soon after this, Robert S. Dietz and Harry H. Hess proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in seafloor spreading. This was seen as confirmation of mantle convection and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that oceanic crust is younger than continental crust. This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of paleomagnetism, the record of the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist S. K. Runcorn suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth’s magnetic poles. Tuzo Wilson, who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of transform faults to the model, completing the classes of fault types necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift  was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965  must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community.The abstracts from the symposium are issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn;1965.In this symposium, Edward Bullard and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw Continental Drift as the generally accepted theory.

text: Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Homes accepted Wegener’s theory and provided a mechanism:

text: mantle convection

text: , to cause the continents to move.  However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 extremely exciting years where the Theory of Continental Drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern Geology. Beginning in 1947 research  found new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960

text: Bruce C. Heezen

text: published the concept of

text: mid-ocean ridges.

text: Soon after this,

text: Robert S. Dietz

text: and

text: Harry H. Hess

text: proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in

text: seafloor spreading

text: . This was seen as confirmation of

text: mantle convection

text: and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that

text: oceanic crust

text: is younger than

text: continental crust

text: . This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of

text: paleomagnetism

text: , the record of the orientation of the

text: Earth’s magnetic field

text: recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist

text: S. K. Runcorn

text: suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth’s magnetic poles.

text: Tuzo Wilson,

text: who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of

text: transform faults

text: to the model, completing the classes of

text: fault types

text: necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift  was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965  must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community.The abstracts from the symposium are issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn;1965.In this symposium,

text: Edward Bullard

text: and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw Continental Drift as the generally accepted theory.

text: Alpha decay of heavy elements in the Earth's crust is the source of most naturally occurring helium-4 on Earth. While it is also produced by nuclear fusion in stars, most helium-4 in the Sun and in the universe is thought to have been produced by the Big Bang, and is referred to as "primordial helium". However, primordial helium-4 is largely absent from the Earth, having escaped during the high-temperature phase of Earth's formation. Radioactive decay from other elements is the source of most of the helium-4 found on Earth, produced after the planet cooled and solidified.

text: Alpha decay

text: of heavy elements in the Earth's crust is the source of most naturally occurring helium-4 on Earth. While it is also produced by

text: nuclear fusion

text: in

text: star

text: s, most helium-4 in the Sun and in the universe is thought to have been produced by the

text: Big Bang

text: , and is referred to as "

text: primordial

text: helium". However, primordial helium-4 is largely absent from the Earth, having escaped during the high-temperature phase of Earth's formation. Radioactive decay from other elements is the source of most of the helium-4 found on Earth, produced after the planet cooled and solidified.

text: Transitional crust, separating true oceanic and continental crusts, is the foundation of any passive margin. This forms during the rifting stage and consists of two endmembers: Volcanic and Non-Volcanic. This classification scheme only applies to rifted and transtensional margin; transitional crust of sheared margins is very poorly known.

text: Due to their sparse distribution in the earth's crust and low aqueous solubility, the lanthanides have a low availability in the biosphere, and are not known to naturally form part of any biological molecules. Compared to most other nondietary elements, non-radioactive lanthanides are classified as having low toxicity.

text: Due to their sparse distribution in the earth's crust and low aqueous solubility, the lanthanides have a low availability in the biosphere, and are not known to naturally form part of any biological molecules. Compared to most other

text: nondietary elements

text: , non-radioactive lanthanides are classified as having low toxicity.

text: Within Earth's crust, osmium, like iridium, is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below), impact craters, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa, though the large copper–nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia, and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of osmium. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States. The alluvial deposits used by pre-Columbian people in the Chocó Department, Colombia are still a source for platinum group metals. The second large alluvial deposit was found in the Ural Mountains, Russia, which is still mined.

text: Within Earth's crust, osmium, like iridium, is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure: igneous deposits (crustal intrusions from below),

text: impact crater

text: s, and deposits reworked from one of the former structures. The largest known primary reserves are in the

text: Bushveld igneous complex

text: in

text: South Africa

text: Norilsk

text: in

text: Russia

text: , and the

text: Sudbury Basin

text: in

text: Canada

text: are also significant sources of osmium. Smaller reserves can be found in the United States. The

text: alluvial

text: deposits used by

text: pre-Columbian

text: people in the

text: Chocó Department

text: Colombia

text: are still a source for platinum group metals. The second large alluvial deposit was found in the

text: Ural Mountains

text: , Russia, which is still mined.

text: The effects of the collision are felt far beyond the immediate site of collision and mountain-building. As convergence between the two continents continues, the region of crustal thickening and elevation will become broader. If there is an oceanic free face, the adjacent crustal blocks may move towards it. As an example of this, the collision of India with Asia forced large regions of crust to move south to form modern Southeast Asia. Another example is the collision of Arabia with Asia, which is squeezing the Anatolian Plate (present day Turkey). As a result, Turkey is moving west and south into the Mediterranean Sea and away from the collision zone. These far-field effects may result in the formation of rifts, and rift valleys such as that occupied by Lake Baikal, the deepest lake on Earth.

text: The effects of the collision are felt far beyond the immediate site of collision and mountain-building. As convergence between the two continents continues, the region of crustal thickening and elevation will become broader. If there is an oceanic free face, the adjacent crustal blocks may move towards it. As an example of this, the collision of India with Asia forced large regions of crust to move south to form modern

text: Southeast Asia

text: . Another example is the collision of

text: Arabia

text: with

text: Asia

text: , which is squeezing the

text: Anatolian Plate

text: (present day

text: Turkey

text: ). As a result, Turkey is moving west and south into the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: and away from the collision zone. These far-field effects may result in the formation of rifts, and

text: rift valley

text: s such as that occupied by

text: Lake Baikal

text: , the deepest lake on Earth.

text: Shields are normally the nucleus of continents and most are bordered by belts of folded Cambrian rocks. Because of their stability, erosion has flattened the topography of most of the continental shields; however, they commonly do have a very gently convex surface. They are also surrounded by a sediment-covered platform. By contrast, in a platform, the shield (more accurately referred to then as the crystalline "basement") is overlain by horizontal or subhorizontal sediment. Together, the shield, platform and basement are the parts that comprise the stable interior portion of the continental crust known as the craton.

text: Shields are normally the nucleus of continents and most are bordered by belts of folded

text: Cambrian

text: rocks. Because of their stability,

text: erosion

text: has flattened the

text: topography

text: of most of the continental shields; however, they commonly do have a very gently convex surface. They are also surrounded by a

text: sediment

text: -covered platform. By contrast, in a

text: platform

text: , the shield (more accurately referred to then as the

text: crystalline

text: "basement"

text: ) is overlain by horizontal or subhorizontal

text: sediment

text: . Together, the shield, platform and basement are the parts that comprise the stable interior portion of the continental crust known as the

text: craton

text: Overhead power lines are often equipped with a ground conductor (shield wire or overhead earth wire). The ground conductor is usually grounded (earthed) at the top of the supporting structure, to minimize the likelihood of direct lightning strikes to the phase conductors. In circuits with earthed neutral, it also serves as a parallel path with the earth for fault currents. Very high-voltage transmission lines may have two ground conductors. These are either at the outermost ends of the highest cross beam, at two V-shaped mast points, or at a separate cross arm. Older lines may use surge arresters every few spans in place of a shield wire; this configuration is typically found in the more rural areas of the United States. By protecting the line from lightning, the design of apparatus in substations is simplified due to lower stress on insulation. Shield wires on transmission lines may include optical fibers (optical ground wires/OPGW), used for communication and control of the power system.

text: Overhead power lines are often equipped with a ground conductor (shield wire or overhead earth wire). The ground conductor is usually grounded (earthed) at the top of the supporting structure, to minimize the likelihood of direct lightning strikes to the phase conductors. In circuits with

text: earthed neutral

text: , it also serves as a parallel path with the earth for fault currents. Very high-voltage transmission lines may have two ground conductors. These are either at the outermost ends of the highest cross beam, at two V-shaped mast points, or at a separate cross arm. Older lines may use

text: surge arrester

text: s every few spans in place of a shield wire; this configuration is typically found in the more rural areas of the United States. By protecting the line from lightning, the design of apparatus in substations is simplified due to lower stress on insulation. Shield wires on transmission lines may include optical fibers (

text: optical ground wire

text: s/OPGW), used for communication and control of the power system.

text: The Tharsis quadrangle is also home to large troughs (long narrow depressions) called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. Fossae in this area are Ulysses Fossae, Olympica Fossae, Ceraunius Fossae, and Tractus Fossae. These troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks. The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano. Studies have shown that the volcanoes of Tharsis caused most of the major fossae on Mars. The stress that caused the fossae and other tectonic features is centered in Noctis Labyrinthus, at 4 S and 253 E. But the center has moved somewhat over time.   Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.  A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down, leaving steep cliffs along the sides; such a trough is called a graben.  Studies have found that on Mars a fault may be as deep as 5 km, that is the break in the rock goes down to 5 km. Moreover, the crack or fault sometimes widens or dilates. This widening causes a void to form with a relatively high volume. When material slides into the void, a pit crater or a pit crater chain forms. Pit craters do not have rims or ejecta around them, like impact craters do. On Mars, individual pit craters can join to form chains or even to form troughs that are sometimes scalloped.  Other ideas have been suggested for the formation of fossae and pit craters. There is evidence that they are associated with dikes of magma. Magma might move along, under the surface, breaking the rock and, more importantly, melting ice. The resulting action would cause a crack to form at the surface. Pit craters are not common on Earth.  Sinkholes, where the ground falls into a hole (sometimes in the middle of a town) resemble pit craters on Mars. However, on the Earth these holes are caused by limestone being dissolved thereby causing a void.

text: The Tharsis quadrangle is also home to large troughs (long narrow depressions) called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. Fossae in this area are

text: Ulysses Fossae

text: Olympica Fossae

text: Ceraunius Fossae

text: , and

text: Tractus Fossae

text: . These troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks. The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano. Studies have shown that the volcanoes of Tharsis caused most of the major fossae on Mars. The stress that caused the fossae and other tectonic features is centered in

text: Noctis Labyrinthus

text: , at 4 S and 253 E. But the center has moved somewhat over time.   Fossae/pit craters are common near volcanoes in the Tharsis and Elysium system of volcanoes.  A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down, leaving steep cliffs along the sides; such a trough is called a

text: graben

text: .  Studies have found that on Mars a

text: fault

text: may be as deep as 5 km, that is the break in the rock goes down to 5 km. Moreover, the crack or fault sometimes widens or dilates. This widening causes a void to form with a relatively high volume. When material slides into the void, a pit crater or a pit crater chain forms. Pit craters do not have rims or ejecta around them, like impact craters do. On Mars, individual pit craters can join to form chains or even to form troughs that are sometimes scalloped.  Other ideas have been suggested for the formation of fossae and pit craters. There is evidence that they are associated with dikes of magma. Magma might move along, under the surface, breaking the rock and, more importantly, melting ice. The resulting action would cause a crack to form at the surface. Pit craters are not common on Earth.

text: Sinkholes

text: , where the ground falls into a hole (sometimes in the middle of a town) resemble pit craters on Mars. However, on the Earth these holes are caused by

text: limestone

text: being dissolved thereby causing a void.

text: There is varying and sometimes inconsistent nomenclature differentiating substances, which include truly non-stoichiometric examples, from chemical compounds, which require the fixed ratios. Many solid chemical substances—for example many silicate minerals—are chemical substances, but do not have simple formulae reflecting chemically bonding of elements to one another in fixed ratios; even so, these crystalline substances are often called "non-stoichiometric compounds".  It may be argued that they are related to, rather than being chemical compounds, insofar as the variability in their compositions is often due to either the presence of foreign elements trapped within the crystal structure of an otherwise known true chemical compound, or due to perturbations in structure relative to the known compound that arise because of an excess of deficit of the constituent elements at places in its structure; such non-stoichiometric substances form most of the crust and mantle of the Earth.  Other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light isotopes of the constituent elements, which changes the ratio of elements by mass slightly.

text: There is varying and sometimes inconsistent nomenclature differentiating substances, which include truly non-stoichiometric examples, from chemical compounds, which require the fixed ratios. Many solid chemical substances—for example many

text: silicate mineral

text: s—are chemical substances, but do not have simple formulae reflecting chemically bonding of elements to one another in fixed ratios; even so, these

text: crystalline

text: substances are often called "

text: non-stoichiometric compound

text: s".  It may be argued that they are related to, rather than being chemical compounds, insofar as the variability in their compositions is often due to either the presence of foreign elements trapped within the crystal structure of an otherwise known true chemical compound, or due to perturbations in structure relative to the known compound that arise because of an excess of deficit of the constituent elements at places in its structure; such non-stoichiometric substances form most of the

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: of the Earth.  Other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light

text: isotope

text: s of the constituent elements, which changes the ratio of elements by mass slightly.

text: Japan has had a long history of earthquake catastrophe and seismic activity. Earthquakes are the vibrations caused by rocks breaking under stress. The underground surface along which the rock breaks and moves is called a fault plane. Over time, stresses build beneath the earth’s surface. Occasionally, stress is released resulting in the sudden, and sometime disastrous shaking we call an earthquake. Earthquakes can cause shaking that could last seconds or minutes. Besides that, there may be several earthquakes over a period ranging from hours to weeks called aftershocks, and the magnitude of the following tremors will decrease with time. It is important to know the earthquake magnitude because it can be the clue if there will be any aftershocks. Because of that, magnitude can be measured on the Richter scale, invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934. The Richter magnitude is calculated from the amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded for the earthquake. In the past twenty years, the most severe earthquake that occurred was in 2011 off the coast of Tohoku.

text: Japan has had a long history of earthquake catastrophe and seismic activity. Earthquakes are the vibrations caused by rocks breaking under stress. The underground surface along which the rock breaks and moves is called a fault plane. Over time, stresses build beneath the earth’s surface. Occasionally, stress is released resulting in the sudden, and sometime disastrous shaking we call an earthquake. Earthquakes can cause shaking that could last seconds or minutes. Besides that, there may be several earthquakes over a period ranging from hours to weeks called aftershocks, and the magnitude of the following tremors will decrease with time. It is important to know the earthquake magnitude because it can be the clue if there will be any aftershocks. Because of that, magnitude can be measured on the

text: Richter scale

text: , invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934. The Richter magnitude is calculated from the amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded for the earthquake. In the past twenty years, the most severe earthquake that occurred was in

text: 2011 off the coast of Tohoku

text: Subduction may also cause orogeny without bringing in oceanic material that collides with the overriding continent. When the subducting plate subducts at a shallow angle underneath a continent (something called "flat-slab subduction"), the subducting plate may have enough traction on the bottom of the continental plate to cause the upper plate to contract leading to folding, faulting, crustal thickening and mountain building. This flat-slab subduction process is thought to be one of the main causes of mountain building and deformation in South America.

text: Neotectonics is the study of the motions and deformations of the Earth's crust (geological and geomorphological processes) that are current or recent in geological time. The term may also refer to the motions/deformations in question themselves. The corresponding time frame is referred to as the neotectonic period. Accordingly, the preceding time is referred to as palaeotectonic period.

text: Neotectonics is the study of the motions and deformations of the

text: Earth's crust

text: geological

text: and

text: geomorphological

text: processes) that are current or recent in

text: geological time

text: . The term may also refer to the motions/deformations in question themselves. The corresponding time frame is referred to as the neotectonic period. Accordingly, the preceding time is referred to as palaeotectonic period.

text: The Rift has been featured in episodes of Doctor Who and is central to the spin-off series Torchwood, which concerns a branch of the Torchwood Institute created to monitor activity around the Rift. The Rift acts as a plot generator, providing a wide and potentially unlimited array of possible plots for the series, much like the Hellmouth in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and the Bajoran wormhole in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.

text: The Rift has been featured in episodes of

text: Doctor Who

text: and is central to the spin-off series

text: Torchwood

text: , which concerns a branch of the

text: Torchwood Institute

text: created to monitor activity around the Rift. The Rift acts as a

text: plot generator

text: , providing a wide and potentially unlimited array of possible plots for the series, much like the

text: Hellmouth

text: in

text: Buffy the Vampire Slayer

text: and the

text: Bajoran wormhole

text: in

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Subduction zones are sites of convective downwelling of Earth's lithosphere (the crust plus the top non-convecting portion of the upper mantle). Subduction zones exist at convergent plate boundaries where one plate of oceanic lithosphere converges with another plate. The descending slab, the subducting plate, is over-ridden by the leading edge of the other plate. The slab sinks at an angle of approximately twenty-five to forty-five degrees to Earth's surface. This sinking is driven by the temperature difference between the subducting oceanic lithosphere and the surrounding mantle asthenosphere, as the colder oceanic lithosphere is, on average, denser. At a depth of approximately 80–120 kilometers, the basalt of the oceanic crust is converted to a metamorphic rock called eclogite. At that point, the density of the oceanic crust increases and provides additional negative buoyancy (downwards force). It is at subduction zones that Earth's lithosphere, oceanic crust, sedimentary layers and some trapped water are recycled into the deep mantle.

text: Subduction zones are sites of convective

text: downwelling

text: of Earth's

text: lithosphere

text: (the

text: crust

text: plus the top non-convecting portion of the upper mantle). Subduction zones exist at convergent plate boundaries where one plate of

text: oceanic lithosphere

text: converges with another plate. The descending

text: slab

text: , the subducting plate, is over-ridden by the leading edge of the other plate. The slab sinks at an angle of approximately twenty-five to forty-five degrees to Earth's surface. This sinking is driven by the temperature difference between the subducting oceanic lithosphere and the surrounding mantle

text: asthenosphere

text: , as the colder oceanic lithosphere is, on average, denser. At a depth of approximately 80–120 kilometers, the

text: basalt

text: of the oceanic crust is converted to a metamorphic rock called

text: eclogite

text: . At that point, the density of the oceanic crust increases and provides additional negative

text: buoyancy

text: (downwards force). It is at subduction zones that Earth's lithosphere,

text: oceanic crust

text: sedimentary

text: layers and some trapped water are

text: recycled

text: into the deep mantle.

text: Thrust tectonics is associated with the shortening and thickening of the crust or lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at zones of continental collision, at restraining bends in strike-slip faults and at the oceanward part of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is present.

text: Thrust tectonics is associated with the shortening and thickening of the crust or lithosphere. This type of tectonics is found at zones of

text: continental collision

text: , at restraining bends in strike-slip faults and at the oceanward part of passive margin sequences where a detachment layer is present.

text: Some legends of St. Thomas were created during Portuguese times. The Portuguese imagined that Namboothiris and Kingdom of Cochin actually supported by the Portuguese in 1503, founding a new dynasty existed in the Jesus Christ's time too. Portuguese imagined that the Syrian immigrants from Babylon at the 9th century AD practising Nestorianism were actually Namboothiri Brahmins converted by St. Thomas himself. Ancient Tamilakam including the presentday Tamil Nadu and Kerala was actually ruled by the Tamil Chera Dynasty not the Kingdom of Cochin. Namboothiris first appeared in the 7th century AD after the invasions of Chalukya dynasty when they migrated from Tulunadu. The Namboothiris migrated to Karnataka during the rule of Kadamba king Mayuravarma from Ahichatra in 345 AD not earlier.Sangam Literature written during the early first millennia never mentioned Christianity.Christianity was not a Known religion in ancient Tamilakam while Jainism and Dravidian Hinduism. Numerous Sangam Literature never mentions Syrian Christians in ancient Kerala.Tharisapalli plates at 825 AD was the first instance when Syrian immigrants signing in Hebrew, Pahlavi and Kufic. Very few Christians existed in Kerala prior to Fr Jordanus a French Dominican monk converted Hindus to Christianity at Quilon increasing the population to thousands.

text: Some legends of St. Thomas were created during

text: Portuguese

text: times. The Portuguese imagined that

text: Namboothiri

text: s and

text: Kingdom of Cochin

text: actually supported by the Portuguese in 1503, founding a new dynasty existed in the Jesus Christ's time too. Portuguese imagined that the Syrian immigrants from

text: Babylon

text: at the 9th century AD practising

text: Nestorianism

text: were actually

text: Namboothiri

text: Brahmins converted by St. Thomas himself. Ancient

text: Tamilakam

text: including the presentday

text: Tamil Nadu

text: and

text: Kerala

text: was actually ruled by the

text: Tamil

text: Chera Dynasty

text: not the

text: Kingdom of Cochin

text: Namboothiri

text: s first appeared in the 7th century AD after the invasions of

text: Chalukya dynasty

text: when they migrated from

text: Tulunadu

text: . The Namboothiris migrated to

text: Karnataka

text: during the rule of Kadamba king

text: Mayuravarma

text: from

text: Ahichatra

text: in 345 AD not earlier.

text: Sangam Literature

text: written during the early first millennia never mentioned Christianity.Christianity was not a Known religion in ancient

text: Tamilakam

text: while

text: Jainism

text: and

text: Dravidian

text: Hinduism

text: . Numerous

text: Sangam Literature

text: never mentions Syrian Christians in ancient Kerala.

text: Tharisapalli plates

text: at 825 AD was the first instance when Syrian immigrants signing in

text: Hebrew

text: Pahlavi

text: and

text: Kufic

text: . Very few Christians existed in Kerala prior to Fr

text: Jordanus

text: a French

text: Dominican

text: monk converted Hindus to Christianity at Quilon increasing the population to thousands.

text: The Garlock Fault is believed to have developed to accommodate the strain differential between the extensional tectonics of the Great Basin crust and the right lateral strike-slip faulting of the Mojave Desert crust.

text: The Garlock Fault is believed to have developed to accommodate the strain differential between the

text: extensional tectonics

text: of the

text: Great Basin

text: crust and the right lateral strike-slip faulting of the

text: Mojave Desert

text: crust.

text: Gandab-e Sofla (, also Romanized as Gandāb-e Soflá and Gandab Sofla; also known as Gandāb-e Pā’īn and Kandāb Pāin) is a village in Chaharduli-ye Sharqi Rural District, Chaharduli District, Qorveh County, Kurdistan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 203, in 59 families.

text: Gandab-e Sofla (, also

text: Romanize

text: d as Gandāb-e Soflá and Gandab Sofla; also known as Gandāb-e Pā’īn and Kandāb Pāin) is a village in

text: Chaharduli-ye Sharqi Rural District

text: Chaharduli District

text: Qorveh County

text: Kurdistan Province

text: Iran

text: . At the 2006 census, its population was 203, in 59 families.

text: On 13 July 1956, she was sold to Companhia Nacional de Navegacao Costerira, Patrimonio Nacional, of Brazil, for $693,682, under the condition that she be used for coastal shipping. She was delivered on 2 February 1957. Her final disposition is unknown.

text: On 13 July 1956, she was sold to

text: Companhia Nacional de Navegacao Costerira, Patrimonio Nacional

text: , of

text: Brazil

text: , for $693,682, under the condition that she be used for coastal shipping. She was delivered on 2 February 1957. Her final disposition is unknown.

text: The Landsgemeinde has  been the sovereign institution of the Swiss rural Cantons since the later Middle Ages, while in the city-Cantons such as  Lucerne, Schaffhausen, or Bern, a general assembly of all citizens had never been established.

text: The Landsgemeinde has  been the sovereign institution of the Swiss rural Cantons since the later Middle Ages, while in the city-Cantons such as

text: Lucerne

text: Schaffhausen

text: , or

text: Bern

text: , a general assembly of all citizens had never been established.

text: Strike slip duplexes occur at the step over regions of faults, forming a lens shaped near parallel arrays of horses. These occur between two or more large bounding faults which usually have large displacement.

text: Strike slip duplexes occur at the step over regions of faults, forming a lens shaped near parallel arrays of

text: horses

text: . These occur between two or more large bounding faults which usually have large displacement.

text: Another simple type of stress occurs when a uniformly thick layer of elastic material like glue or rubber is firmly attached to two stiff bodies that are pulled in opposite directions by forces parallel to the layer; or a section of a soft metal bar that is being cut by the jaws of a scissors-like tool.  Let F be the magnitude of those forces, and M be the midplane of that layer.  Just as in the normal stress case, the part of the layer on one side of M must pull the other part with the same force F.  Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across M can be expressed by the single number

text: Another simple type of stress occurs when a uniformly thick layer of elastic material like glue or rubber is firmly attached to two stiff bodies that are pulled in opposite directions by forces parallel to the layer; or a section of a soft metal bar that is being cut by the jaws of a

text: scissors-like tool

text: .  Let F be the magnitude of those forces, and M be the midplane of that layer.  Just as in the normal stress case, the part of the layer on one side of M must pull the other part with the same force F.  Assuming that the direction of the forces is known, the stress across M can be expressed by the single number

text: The idea for the tool was conceived in 1979 by two researchers at IFE, Norway: Dag Malnes and Kjell Bendiksen. The first version of OLGA was financed by Statoil and was ready in 1980. The tool was developed further by IFE in collaboration with SINTEF in the 1980s.

text: The idea for the tool was conceived in 1979 by two researchers at

text: IFE

text: , Norway: Dag Malnes and Kjell Bendiksen. The first version of OLGA was financed by

text: Statoil

text: and was ready in 1980. The tool was developed further by IFE in collaboration with

text: SINTEF

text: in the 1980s.

text: His film Hungry Hearts was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 71st Venice International Film Festival.

text: His film

text: Hungry Hearts

text: was selected to compete for the

text: Golden Lion

text: at the

text: 71st Venice International Film Festival

text: Isakhel Tehsil  (), is an administrative subdivision (tehsil) of Mianwali District in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The city of Isakhel is the headquarters of the tehsil which is administratively subdivided into 14 Union Councils. It is located between 32° 30′ and 33° 14′ N. and 71° 7′ and 71° 44′ E., with an area of  and contains the towns of Isakhel, Kammar Mushani  and Kalabagh

text: Isakhel Tehsil  (), is an administrative subdivision (

text: tehsil

text: ) of

text: Mianwali District

text: in the

text: Punjab

text: province of

text: Pakistan

text: . The city of

text: Isakhel

text: is the headquarters of the tehsil which is administratively subdivided into 14

text: Union Councils

text: . It is located between 32° 30′ and 33° 14′ N. and 71° 7′ and 71° 44′ E., with an area of  and contains the towns of Isakhel, Kammar Mushani  and

text: Kalabagh

text: Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no deep oceanic trench present along the continental margin in Cascadia. The mouth of the Columbia River empties directly into the subduction zone and deposits silt at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, burying this large depression. Massive floods from prehistoric Glacial Lake Missoula during the  also deposited large amounts of sediment into the trench. However, as with other subduction zones the outer margin is slowly being compressed like a giant spring. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create enormous earthquakes such as the magnitude 9.0 Cascadia earthquake on January 26, 1700. However earthquakes along the Cascadia subduction zone are uncommon, and there is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the last few million years. The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. These two tectonic plates converge  to  per year, about half the rate of convergence from seven million years ago.

text: Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no deep

text: oceanic trench

text: present along the

text: continental margin

text: in Cascadia. The mouth of the

text: Columbia River

text: empties directly into the subduction zone and deposits silt at the bottom of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , burying this large

text: depression

text: . Massive floods from prehistoric

text: Glacial Lake Missoula

text: during the  also deposited large amounts of

text: sediment

text: into the trench. However, as with other subduction zones the outer margin is slowly being compressed like a giant spring. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create enormous earthquakes such as the magnitude 9.0

text: Cascadia earthquake on January 26, 1700

text: . However earthquakes along the Cascadia subduction zone are uncommon, and there is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the last few million years. The probable explanation lies in the rate of

text: convergence

text: between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. These two tectonic plates converge  to  per year, about half the rate of convergence from seven million years ago.

text: Gökçeyazı, Kaş is a village in the District of Kaş, Antalya Province, Turkey.

text: Gökçeyazı, Kaş is a village in the

text: District of Kaş

text: Antalya Province

text: Turkey

text: On the final track, "Desperate," Vincent Walker replaces Chris Batstone's vocal track, making it another duet between him and Brian Klemm. Even though Brian Klemm also sung half of the original song, he re-recorded his vocal track for this release. During live performances of the song, Vincent Walker takes over the guitar from Brian Klemm in the second half of the song. When Tim Maurer was still the band's vocalist, he would sometimes take over Vincent's vocals of the second half.

text: On the final track, "Desperate,"

text: Vincent Walker

text: replaces Chris Batstone's vocal track, making it another duet between him and

text: Brian Klemm

text: . Even though Brian Klemm also sung half of the original song, he re-recorded his vocal track for this release. During live performances of the song, Vincent Walker takes over the guitar from Brian Klemm in the second half of the song. When Tim Maurer was still the band's vocalist, he would sometimes take over Vincent's vocals of the second half.

text: Eddie, Watson and Nicole learn the location of Snakehead's castle lair and go to finish him once and for all. The operation runs smoothly at first, but Snakehead kills Nicole and becomes immortal. He and Eddie engage in a vicious fight, until Eddie uses the medallion to take away the life it gave, which leads to the two dragons from the medallion appearing and taking Snakehead, which traps him in the medallion. Jai allows Eddie to use the medallion to resurrect Nicole, who also gains super-strength and immortality. The two then run at superhuman speed into the distance as Jai enters another dimension through a portal, frightening Watson.

text: Fernández Ochoa died of lymphatic cancer at age 56 in Cercedilla, Community of Madrid in November 2006. Less than two weeks before his death, a statue of him was erected in Cercedilla.  He was survived by his wife María Jesús Vargas (m. 1973) and their three children: Bárbara, Paula, and Francisco.

text: Fernández Ochoa died of lymphatic

text: cancer

text: at age 56 in

text: Cercedilla

text: Community of Madrid

text: in November 2006. Less than two weeks before his death, a statue of him was erected in Cercedilla.  He was survived by his wife María Jesús Vargas (m. 1973) and their three children: Bárbara, Paula, and Francisco.

text: The Grapes dates back to the 19th Century and was originally known as The Letters Inn because it provided postal services before the arrival of the village post office and later The Pudding Inn. The pub is now owned by Chef and Brewer.

text: The Grapes dates back to the 19th Century and was originally known as The Letters Inn because it provided postal services before the arrival of the village post office and later The Pudding Inn. The pub is now owned by

text: Chef and Brewer

text: Coach:  Jürgen Klinsmann

text: Coach:

text: Jürgen Klinsmann

text: The draw for the pool stages took place on 17 June 2008 in Dublin.

text: The Canadian Army used the Matador during the Second World War.

text: The

text: Canadian Army

text: used the Matador during the

text: Second World War

text: Before the construction of this stadium, there was another one on the same place, wooden made, which first opened in 1940. Since it was small and unsafe, it was left apart in the early 1980s, and the football team moved its basis to the nearer Arquitecto Ricardo Etcheverri stadium, in the neighbourhood of Caballito. The idea was to build a modern and bigger stadium with the 5,800,000 dollars that the club received from the transfer of Diego Armando Maradona to the FC Barcelona but finally that money was invested in constructing other venues at the multisport complex Las Malvinas, owned by the same club, and in bringing some first level footballers in order to succeed at the national championship. The project of the new stadium had to wait until the next decade.

text: Before the construction of this stadium, there was another one on the same place, wooden made, which first opened in 1940. Since it was small and unsafe, it was left apart in the early 1980s, and the football team moved its basis to the nearer

text: Arquitecto Ricardo Etcheverri stadium

text: , in the neighbourhood of Caballito. The idea was to build a modern and bigger stadium with the 5,800,000 dollars that the club received from the transfer of Diego Armando Maradona to the

text: FC Barcelona

text: but finally that money was invested in constructing other venues at the multisport complex Las Malvinas, owned by the same club, and in bringing some first level footballers in order to succeed at the national championship. The project of the new stadium had to wait until the next decade.

text: Meadows in a restful reverie

text: Meadows in a restful reverie

text: With the development of plate tectonic theory, geologists thought that convergent plate margins were zones of compression, thus zones of strong extension above subduction zones (back-arc basins) were not expected. The hypothesis that some convergent plate margins were actively spreading was developed by Dan Karig (1970) while a graduate student at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. This resulted from several marine geologic expeditions to the Western Pacific.

text: With the development of

text: plate tectonic

text: theory, geologists thought that convergent plate margins were zones of compression, thus zones of strong extension above subduction zones (back-arc basins) were not expected. The hypothesis that some convergent plate margins were actively spreading was developed by Dan Karig (1970) while a graduate student at the

text: Scripps Institution of Oceanography

text: . This resulted from several marine geologic expeditions to the Western Pacific.

text: Peridotite is the dominant rock of the Earth's mantle above a depth of about 400 km; below that depth, olivine is converted to the higher-pressure mineral wadsleyite. Oceanic plates consist of up to about 100 km of peridotite covered by a thin crust; the crust, commonly about 6 km thick, consists of basalt, gabbro, and minor sediments. The peridotite below the ocean crust, "abyssal peridotite," is found on the walls of rifts in the deep sea floor. Oceanic plates are usually subducted back into the mantle in subduction zones. However, pieces can be emplaced into or overthrust on continental crust by a process called obduction, rather than carried down into the mantle; the emplacement may occur during orogenies, as during collisions of one continent with another or with an island arc. The pieces of oceanic plates emplaced within continental crust are referred to as ophiolites; typical ophiolites consist mostly of peridotite plus associated rocks such as gabbro, pillow basalt, diabase sill-and-dike complexes, and red chert. Other masses of peridotite have been emplaced into mountain belts as solid masses but do not appear to be related to ophiolites, and they have been called "orogenic peridotite massifs" and "alpine peridotites." Peridotites also occur as fragments (xenoliths) carried up by magmas from the mantle. Among the rocks that commonly include peridotite xenoliths are basalt and kimberlite. Certain volcanic rocks, sometimes called komatiites, are so rich in olivine and pyroxene that they also can be termed peridotite. Small pieces of peridotite have even been found in lunar breccias.

text: Peridotite is the dominant rock of the Earth's mantle above a depth of about 400 km; below that depth, olivine is converted to the higher-pressure mineral

text: wadsleyite

text: . Oceanic plates consist of up to about 100 km of peridotite covered by a thin crust; the crust, commonly about 6 km thick, consists of basalt, gabbro, and minor sediments. The peridotite below the ocean crust, "abyssal peridotite," is found on the walls of rifts in the deep sea floor. Oceanic plates are usually subducted back into the mantle in

text: subduction zone

text: s. However, pieces can be emplaced into or overthrust on

text: continental crust

text: by a process called

text: obduction

text: , rather than carried down into the mantle; the emplacement may occur during

text: orogenies

text: , as during collisions of one continent with another or with an

text: island arc

text: . The pieces of oceanic plates emplaced within continental crust are referred to as

text: ophiolites

text: ; typical ophiolites consist mostly of peridotite plus associated rocks such as

text: gabbro

text: pillow basalt

text: , diabase sill-and-dike complexes, and red chert. Other masses of peridotite have been emplaced into mountain belts as solid masses but do not appear to be related to ophiolites, and they have been called "orogenic peridotite

text: massif

text: s" and "alpine peridotites." Peridotites also occur as fragments (

text: xenolith

text: s) carried up by magmas from the mantle. Among the rocks that commonly include peridotite xenoliths are

text: basalt

text: and

text: kimberlite

text: . Certain volcanic rocks, sometimes called komatiites, are so rich in olivine and pyroxene that they also can be termed peridotite. Small pieces of peridotite have even been found in lunar breccias.

text: Souichi Yakumo is second in command at TERRA, with the rank of Major. He often takes command when Kunugi is not present. Souichi is fond of Ayato and believes that regardless of whether or not Ayato is a Mulian, he is still himself and thus, should be looked at as an individual. Souichi is kind and friendly to everyone, and Megumi misinterprets this as a chance for a relationship. Soichi is oblivious to Megumi's feelings and starts seeing Kim. Despite being softspoken and friendly, Souichi is an able commanding officer.

text: The goal of physical and occupational therapy in Duchenne muscular dystrophyis to obtain a clear understanding of the individual, of their social circumstances and of their environment in order to develop a treatment plan that will improve their quality of life. Individuals with DMD often experience difficulties in areas of self-care, productivity and leisure. This is related to the effects of the disorder, such as decreased mobility; decreased strength and postural stability; progressive deterioration of upper-limb function; and contractures. Occupational and physical therapists address an individual's limitations using meaningful occupations and by grading the activity, by using different assessments and resources such as splinting, bracing, manual muscle testing (MMT), ROM, postural intervention and equipment prescription.

text: The goal of

text: physical

text: and

text: occupational therapy

text: in

text: Duchenne muscular dystrophy

text: is to obtain a clear understanding of the individual, of their social circumstances and of their environment in order to develop a treatment plan that will improve their quality of life. Individuals with DMD often experience difficulties in areas of self-care, productivity and leisure. This is related to the effects of the disorder, such as decreased mobility; decreased strength and postural stability; progressive deterioration of upper-limb function; and contractures. Occupational and physical therapists address an individual's limitations using meaningful occupations and by grading the activity, by using different assessments and resources such as splinting, bracing, manual muscle testing (MMT), ROM, postural intervention and equipment prescription.

text: With the arrival of the Elves in the world and later in Valinor, a new phase of the regency of the Valar began. Summoned by the Valar, many Elves abandoned Middle-earth and the eastern continent for the West, where the Valar concentrated their creativity.  There they made the Two Trees, their greatest joy because it gave light to the beauty of Valinor and pleased the Elves.

text: With the arrival of the Elves in the world and later in Valinor, a new phase of the regency of the Valar began. Summoned by the Valar, many Elves abandoned

text: Middle-earth

text: and the eastern continent for the West, where the Valar concentrated their creativity.  There they made the

text: Two Trees

text: , their greatest joy because it gave light to the beauty of Valinor and pleased the Elves.