text: One of the most immediate and lethal problems facing many third world countries is the availability of clean drinking water. Solar powered technologies can help alleviate this problem with minimal cost using a combination of solar powered well pumping, a water tower or other holding tank, and a solar powered water purifier. These technologies require minimal maintenance, have low operational costs, and once set up, will help provide clean water for drinking and agriculture. With large enough reservoirs for the water that has been pumped and purified with solar powered technology, a community will be better able to withstand drought or famine. This reservoir water could be consumed by humans, livestock, or used to irrigate community gardens and fields, thus improving crop yields and community health. A solar powered water purification system can be used to clean many pathogens and germs from groundwater and runoff. A group of these devices, filtering the water from wells or runoff could help with poor sanitation and controlling the spread of waterborne illnesses.

text: One of the most immediate and lethal problems facing many third world countries is the availability of clean

entity_name: Drinking water

text: drinking water

text: . Solar powered technologies can help alleviate this problem with minimal cost using a combination of solar powered well pumping, a

entity_name: Water tower

text: water tower

text: or other holding tank, and a solar powered water purifier. These technologies require minimal maintenance, have low operational costs, and once set up, will help provide clean water for drinking and agriculture. With large enough

entity_name: Reservoir

text: reservoirs

text: for the water that has been pumped and purified with solar powered technology, a community will be better able to withstand drought or famine. This reservoir water could be consumed by humans, livestock, or used to irrigate community gardens and fields, thus improving crop yields and community health. A solar powered water purification system can be used to clean many pathogens and germs from groundwater and runoff. A group of these devices, filtering the water from wells or runoff could help with poor sanitation and controlling the spread of

entity_name: Waterborne diseases

text: waterborne illnesses

text: Croplands are another major anthrome throughout the world. Croplands include most of the cultivated lands of the world, and also about a quarter of global tree cover. Croplands which are locally irrigated have the highest human population density, likely due to the fact that it provides crops with a constant supply on water. This makes harvest time and crop survival more predictable. Croplands that are sustained mainly from the local rainfall are the most extensive of the populated anthromes, with annual precipitation near 1000 mm in certain areas of the globe. In these areas, there is sufficient water supplied by the climate to support all aspects of life without hardly any irrigation. However, in dryer areas, this method of agriculture would not be as productive.

text: Croplands are another major anthrome throughout the world. Croplands include most of the

entity_name: Agriculture

text: cultivated

text: lands of the world, and also about a quarter of global tree cover. Croplands which are locally

entity_name: Irrigation

text: irrigated

text: have the highest human population density, likely due to the fact that it provides crops with a constant supply on water. This makes harvest time and crop survival more predictable. Croplands that are sustained mainly from the local rainfall are the most extensive of the populated anthromes, with annual precipitation near 1000 mm in certain areas of the globe. In these areas, there is sufficient water supplied by the climate to support all aspects of life without hardly any irrigation. However, in dryer areas, this method of agriculture would not be as productive.

text: In May 2009, King Abdullah gave the go-ahead for a new National Water Strategy until 2022, replacing an earlier Water Strategy from 1998. The strategy included investments of Jordanian Dinar 5.86 billion (US$8.24 billion) over a period of 15 years, corresponding to more than 160% of Jordan's GDP. It also foresaw a decreasing reliance on groundwater from 32% in 2007 to 17%, increased use of treated wastewater in agriculture from 10% to 13% and increased use of desalination from 1% to 31%. According to then-Minister of Water, Raed Abu Soud, even after the completion of the Disi Water Conveyance Project, the water deficit in 2022 would be about 500 million cubic metres, highlighting the need to include desalination under the Red Sea-Dead Sea canal in the strategy. The strategy also envisaged institutional reforms such as enacting a new water law, separating operational from administrative functions, as well as production from distribution operations, creating a Water Council with advisory functions and establishing a Water Regulatory Commission. While the legal and institutional reforms were not implemented, the Disi Water Conveyance Project was completed in 2013 by the Turkish firm Gama. The influx of about one million refugees from Syria since 2012 increased the population of Jordan to more than nine million. It also increased water demand substantially. For lack of finaning, the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal is not being pursued any more in its original form for the time being. Instead, a scaled-down, more realistic version is being pursued. This project involves a water swap between Jordan and Israel, with Jordan supplying desalinated water from Aqaba to Southern Israel, while Israel provides additional water from the Sea of Galilee to Northern Jordan. Brine water from the desalination plant is to be supplied to the Dead Sea. As of 2015, the bidding for the desalination plant at Aqaba was under preparation.

text: In May 2009, King Abdullah gave the go-ahead for a new National Water Strategy until 2022, replacing an earlier Water Strategy from 1998. The strategy included investments of Jordanian Dinar 5.86 billion (US$8.24 billion) over a period of 15 years, corresponding to more than 160% of Jordan's GDP. It also foresaw a decreasing reliance on groundwater from 32% in 2007 to 17%, increased use of treated wastewater in agriculture from 10% to 13% and increased use of desalination from 1% to 31%. According to then-Minister of Water,

entity_name: Raed Abu Soud

text: Raed Abu Soud

text: , even after the completion of the

entity_name: Disi Water Conveyance

text: Disi Water Conveyance Project

text: , the water deficit in 2022 would be about 500 million cubic metres, highlighting the need to include desalination under the

entity_name: Red Sea–Dead Sea Canal

text: Red Sea-Dead Sea canal

text: in the strategy. The strategy also envisaged institutional reforms such as enacting a new water law, separating operational from administrative functions, as well as production from distribution operations, creating a Water Council with advisory functions and establishing a Water Regulatory Commission. While the legal and institutional reforms were not implemented, the

text: Disi Water Conveyance Project

text: was completed in 2013 by the Turkish firm

entity_name: GAMA Endustri

text: Gama

text: . The influx of about one million refugees from Syria since 2012 increased the population of Jordan to more than nine million. It also increased water demand substantially. For lack of finaning, the

text: Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal

text: is not being pursued any more in its original form for the time being. Instead, a scaled-down, more realistic version is being pursued. This project involves a water swap between Jordan and Israel, with Jordan supplying desalinated water from Aqaba to Southern Israel, while Israel provides additional water from the Sea of Galilee to Northern Jordan. Brine water from the desalination plant is to be supplied to the Dead Sea. As of 2015, the bidding for the desalination plant at Aqaba was under preparation.

text: The town of Northampton in the Mid-West encountered a water shortage in 2006 where its underground aquifer could not meet demand. Stage 5 watering restrictions were imposed,and the Water Corporation resorted to carting tankers of water to the town to maintain the supply.

text: The town of

entity_name: Northampton, Western Australia

text: Northampton

text: in the Mid-West encountered a water shortage in 2006 where its underground aquifer could not meet demand. Stage 5 watering restrictions were imposed,and the

entity_name: Water Corporation (Western Australia)

text: Water Corporation

text: resorted to carting tankers of water to the town to maintain the supply.

text: Water shortage is a huge predicament for a country like India which still relies on monsoon rains for much of its agricultural practices. As weather patterns become increasingly uncertain with time, most likely due to global warming, being prepared to cope with water shortages in the future is essential. Rural communities as well as huge population which are greatly affected by water scarcity are the people living in drought-prone areas or in semi-arid up-lands. Much of these disadvantaged areas are also inhibited by tribal villages in many parts of India and are also backward in agricultural practices. These tribal villages are mainly self-sustained in their living habits and rely heavily on the paddy crops for endurance. It is becoming progressively more intricate to maintain tribal lifestyle due to uncertain weather patterns resulting in dwindling of agricultural production over time and all the more increasing the burden on state to raise their standard of living in terms of food security, education, and health care. It is also seen, when time gets tough, villagers generally tend to migrate on a seasonal basis to seek other means of livelihood. Such seasonal migration of entire village population also affects their settled life hampering their children’s education as well as their access to other developmental support coming from state.

text: The human rights commission of the District (CDHDF) warned in summer 2009 that water shortage could cause a "spiral of violence" and that low-income families are paying more for water of lower quality and only receive it at certain hours of the day. This situation causes "social unrest". In early August 2009, the head of Conagua, José Luis Luege, had announced an "imminent and indefinite increase in water rationing in the Valley of Mexico and federal district."  Because water from Cutzamala and Lerma systems, supplying together one quarter of the metropolitan area's water, enters the city from the Northwest where wealthier neighborhoods predominate, water supply tends to be more continuous than in the Southeast of the city where most of the poor live.

text: Pakistan faces a major scarcity when it comes to water resources, especially finding clean water supplies. There is only one major river, the Indus River that supplies water through out the agricultural plains in Punjab and in Sindh, while the rest of the country has very little access to other fresh water supplies. The scarcity of water not only threatens Pakistan’s economy but also poses a serious threat to the lives of millions of Pakistanis. The issue of water pollution further worsens this problem for Pakistan. The sources for water pollution include, the over use of chemical fertilizers, the dumping of industrial wastes into lakes and rivers, untreated sewage being dumped into the ocean and contaminated pipelines being used to transport water. The contamination of fresh drinking water makes it harder for people to find clean water supplies and increases the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Consequently, most of the reported health problems in Pakistan are either a direct or indirect result of polluted water. According to a report, 45% of infant deaths are due to diarrhea and 60% to overall water borne diseases.

text: Pakistan faces a major scarcity when it comes to water resources, especially finding clean water supplies. There is only one major river, the

entity_name: Indus River

text: Indus River

text: that supplies water through out the agricultural plains in

entity_name: Punjab (region)

text: Punjab

text: and in

entity_name: Sindh

text: Sindh

text: , while the rest of the country has very little access to other fresh water supplies. The scarcity of water not only threatens Pakistan’s economy but also poses a serious threat to the lives of millions of Pakistanis. The issue of water pollution further worsens this problem for Pakistan. The sources for water pollution include, the over use of chemical fertilizers, the dumping of industrial wastes into lakes and rivers, untreated sewage being dumped into the ocean and contaminated pipelines being used to transport water. The contamination of fresh drinking water makes it harder for people to find clean water supplies and increases the prevalence of

text: waterborne diseases

text: . Consequently, most of the reported health problems in Pakistan are either a direct or indirect result of polluted water. According to a report, 45% of infant deaths are due to diarrhea and 60% to overall water borne diseases.

text: New York City is supplied with drinking water by the protected Catskill Mountains watershed. As a result of the watershed's integrity and undisturbed natural water filtration system, New York is one of only four major cities in the United States the majority of whose drinking water is pure enough not to require purification by water treatment plants. The Croton Watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant to augment New York City's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily, representing a greater than 20% addition to the city's current availability of water. The ongoing expansion of New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, an integral part of the New York City water supply system, is the largest capital construction project in the city's history, with segments serving Manhattan and The Bronx completed, and with segments serving Brooklyn and Queens planned for construction in 2020.

text: New York City is supplied with drinking water by the protected

entity_name: Catskill Mountains

text: Catskill Mountains

entity_name: Drainage basin

text: watershed

text: . As a result of the watershed's integrity and undisturbed

entity_name: Water purification

text: natural water filtration system

text: , New York is one of only four major cities in the United States the majority of whose drinking water is pure enough not to require purification by

entity_name: Water treatment

text: water treatment

text: plants. The

entity_name: Croton Falls Reservoir

text: Croton Watershed

text: north of the city is undergoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant to augment New York City's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily, representing a greater than 20% addition to the city's current availability of water. The ongoing expansion of

entity_name: New York City Water Tunnel No. 3

text: New York City Water Tunnel No. 3

text: , an integral part of the New York City water supply system, is the largest capital construction project in the city's history, with segments serving Manhattan and The Bronx completed, and with segments serving Brooklyn and Queens planned for construction in 2020.

text: Water supply is not uniformly continuous and often fails to meet basic drinking water quality standards. As a result, many consumers are forced to use alternative and more expensive water sources. For example, it is common in the urban ‘barrios’ in central Venezuela for poor consumers to pay the equivalent of approximately US$1.90 m³ – much more than the tariff for water from the network – for water purchased from a tanker.

text: Water supply is not uniformly continuous and often fails to meet basic drinking water quality standards. As a result, many consumers are forced to use alternative and more expensive water sources. For example, it is common in the urban ‘barrios’ in central Venezuela for poor consumers to pay the equivalent of approximately

entity_name: United States dollar

text: US$

text: 1.90 m³ – much more than the tariff for water from the network – for water purchased from a tanker.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is characterized by significant investments in seawater desalination,water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment leading to a substantial increase in access to drinking water and sanitation over thepast decades. About 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater and 10% from surface water,especially in the mountainous southwest of the country. The capital Riyadh, located in the heart of the country, is supplied with desalinated water pumped from the Persian Gulf over a distance of 467 km. Given the substantial oil wealth,water is provided almost for free. Despite improvements service qualityremains poor. For example, in Riyadh water was available only once every 2.5 days in 2011, while in Jeddah it is available only every 9 days. Institutional capacity and governancein the sector are weak, reflecting general characteristics of the public sector in Saudi Arabia. Since 2000, the government has increasingly relied on the private sector to operate water and sanitation infrastructure, beginning with desalination and wastewater treatment plants. Since 2008, the operation of urban water distribution systems is being gradually delegated to private companies as well.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is characterized by significant investments in

entity_name: Desalination

text: seawater desalination

text: ,water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment leading to a substantial increase in access to drinking water and sanitation over thepast decades. About 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater and 10% from surface water,especially in the mountainous southwest of the country. The capital

entity_name: Riyadh

text: Riyadh

text: , located in the heart of the country, is supplied with desalinated water pumped from the

entity_name: Persian Gulf

text: Persian Gulf

text: over a distance of 467 km. Given the substantial

entity_name: Economy of Saudi Arabia

text: oil wealth

text: ,water is provided almost for free. Despite improvements service qualityremains poor. For example, in Riyadh water was available only once every 2.5 days in 2011, while in Jeddah it is available only every 9 days. Institutional capacity and

entity_name: Governance

text: governance

text: in the sector are weak, reflecting general characteristics of the public sector in Saudi Arabia. Since 2000, the government has increasingly relied on the private sector to operate water and sanitation infrastructure, beginning with desalination and wastewater treatment plants. Since 2008, the operation of urban water distribution systems is being gradually delegated to private companies as well.

text: Only a very small share of public water supply is used for drinking. According to one 2002 survey of 1,000 households, an estimated 56% of Americans drank water straight from the tap and an additional 37% drank tap water after filtering it. 74% of Americans said they bought bottled water. According to a non-representative survey conducted among 216 parents (173 Latinos and 43 non-Latinos), 63 (29%) never drank tap water. The share is much higher among Latinos (34%) than among non-Latinos (12%). The study concluded that many Latino families avoid drinking tap water because they fear it causes illness, resulting in greater cost for the purchase of bottled and filtered water. This notion is also repeated among Asians.

text: Only a very small share of public water supply is used for drinking. According to one 2002 survey of 1,000 households, an estimated 56% of Americans drank water straight from the tap and an additional 37% drank tap water after filtering it. 74% of Americans said they bought

entity_name: Bottled water

text: bottled water

text: . According to a non-representative survey conducted among 216 parents (173 Latinos and 43 non-Latinos), 63 (29%) never drank tap water. The share is much higher among Latinos (34%) than among non-Latinos (12%). The study concluded that many Latino families avoid drinking tap water because they fear it causes illness, resulting in greater cost for the purchase of bottled and filtered water. This notion is also repeated among Asians.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: The two principal rivers of the basin, the Murray and Darling, bring water from the high ranges of the east and carry it west then south through long flat and dry in lands. Nevertheless, these waters are subject to major diversions for municipal drinking supplies and irrigated agriculture that began in the 1890s.  Currently, 4 major reservoirs, 14 lock and weir structures, and five coastal barrages interject the water flowing down the Murray-Darling.  Of the approximately  of flow in the basin, which studies have shown to be divertible,  are removed for irrigation, industrial use, and domestic supply. Agricultural irrigation accounts for about 95 percent of the water removed, including for the growing of rice and cotton. This extraction is highly controversial among scientists in Australia, regarding the agriculture industry's high water use in a region extremely short of water (as much due to exceptionally low run-off coefficients as to low rainfall). These extensive irrigation systems require a reliable supply of water, not the unpredictable flows that characterize the Murray-Darling.  These structures and irrigation implements were ideal when there was a steady flow of water. However, during “the Big Dry,” as the drought came to be known, Australian farmers experienced a scarcity unlike every before. The drought was so severe that numerous rivers and streams such as the Murray-Darling stopped flowing. The basin contains more than 30,000 wetlands.  Eleven of these are protected under the Ramsar Convention of Wetlands of International Importance.

text: The two principal rivers of the basin, the Murray and Darling, bring water from the high ranges of the east and carry it west then south through long flat and dry in lands. Nevertheless, these waters are subject to major diversions for municipal drinking supplies and irrigated agriculture that began in the 1890s.  Currently, 4 major reservoirs, 14 lock and weir structures, and five coastal barrages interject the water flowing down the Murray-Darling.  Of the approximately  of flow in the basin, which studies have shown to be divertible,  are removed for irrigation, industrial use, and domestic supply. Agricultural irrigation accounts for about 95 percent of the water removed, including for the growing of

entity_name: Rice

text: rice

text: and

entity_name: Cotton

text: cotton

text: . This extraction is highly controversial among scientists in Australia, regarding the agriculture industry's high water use in a region extremely short of water (as much due to exceptionally low run-off coefficients as to low rainfall). These extensive irrigation systems require a reliable supply of water, not the unpredictable flows that characterize the Murray-Darling.  These structures and irrigation implements were ideal when there was a steady flow of water. However, during “the Big Dry,” as the drought came to be known, Australian farmers experienced a scarcity unlike every before. The drought was so severe that numerous rivers and streams such as the Murray-Darling stopped flowing. The basin contains more than 30,000

entity_name: Wetland

text: wetland

text: s.  Eleven of these are protected under the

entity_name: Ramsar Convention

text: Ramsar Convention

text: of Wetlands of International Importance.

text: A fish screen is designed to prevent fish from swimming or being drawn into an aqueduct, cooling water intake, dam or other diversion on a river, lake or waterway where water is taken for human use. They are intended to supply debris-free water without harming aquatic life. Fish screens are typically installed to protect endangered species of fishes that would otherwise be harmed or killed when passing through industrial facilities such as steam electric power plants, hydroelectric generators, petroleum refineries, chemical plants, farm irrigation water and municipal drinking water treatment plants. However, many fish are killed or injured on screens or elsewhere in the intake structures.

text: A fish screen is designed to prevent

entity_name: Fish

text: fish

text: from swimming or being drawn into an

entity_name: Aqueduct (water supply)

text: aqueduct

entity_name: Water cooling

entity_section: Industrial usage

text: cooling water intake

entity_name: Dam

text: dam

text: or other diversion on a

entity_name: River

text: river

entity_name: Lake

text: lake

text: or waterway where water is taken for human use. They are intended to supply debris-free water without harming aquatic life. Fish screens are typically installed to protect

entity_name: Endangered species

text: endangered species

text: of fishes that would otherwise be harmed or killed when passing through industrial facilities such as

entity_name: Thermal power station

text: steam electric power plant

text: s,

entity_name: Hydroelectricity

text: hydroelectric

entity_name: Electric generator

text: generator

text: s,

entity_name: Oil refinery

text: petroleum refineries

entity_name: Chemical plant

text: chemical plant

text: s, farm

text: irrigation

text: water and municipal

text: drinking water treatment

text: plants. However, many fish are killed or injured on screens or elsewhere in the intake structures.

text: Directly related to maintaining the health of the human population is water supply, and it is one of the resources that experience the biggest strain. With the global population at about 7.5 billion, and each human theoretically needing 2 liters of drinking water, there is a demand for 15 billion liters of water each day to meet the minimum requirement for healthy living (United). Weather patterns, elevation, and climate all contribute to uneven distribution of fresh drinking water. Without clean water, good health is not a viable option. Besides drinking, water is used to create sanitary living conditions and is the basis of creating a healthy environment fit to hold human life. In addition to drinking water, water is also used for bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, a variety of cleaning methods, recreation, watering lawns, and farm irrigation.Irrigation poses one of the largest problems, because without sufficient water to irrigate crops, the crops die and then there is the problem of food rations and starvation. In addition to water needed for crops and food, there is limited land area dedicated to food production, and not much more that is suitable to be added. Arable land, needed to sustain the growing population, is also a factor because land being under or over cultivated easily upsets the delicate balance of nutrition supply. There are also problems with location of arable land with regard to proximity to countries and relative population (Bashford 240). Access to nutrition is an important limiting factor in population sustainability and growth. No increase in arable land added to the still increasing human population will eventually pose a serious conflict. Only 38% of the land area of the globe is dedicated to agriculture, and there is not room for much more. Although plants produce 54 billion metric tons of carbohydrates per year, when the population is expected to grow to 9 billion by 2050, the plants may not be able to keep up (Biello). Food supply is a primary example of how a resource reacts when its carrying capacity is exceeded. By trying to grow more and more crops off of the same amount of land, the soil becomes exhausted. Because the soil is exhausted, it is then unable to produce the same amount of food as before, and is overall less productive. Therefore, by using resources beyond a sustainable level, the resource become nullified and ineffective, which further increases the disparity between the demand for a resource and the availability of a resource. There must be a shift to provide adequate recovery time to each one of the supplies in demand to support contemporary human lifestyles.

text: Monthly rainfall tends to be highest in autumn and early winter and lowest in the summer months, with July often being the driest month. There is less rainfall from summer convective showers and thunderstorms than in inland ares. The county can suffer both from localised flooding caused by heavy rainfall and from water shortages caused by prolonged periods of below average rainfall. Winter rainfall is needed to recharge the chalk aquifers from which much of the water supply is drawn.

text: Water problems around the world are increasing; however, information useful for decision makers within the water sector and related to the water sector seems to be decreasing.  Solving water problems requires information from many disciplines.  The information has to be coherent and harmonized in order to provide an integrated picture useful for the assessment of the problems.

text: Water use in Beijing municipality was about 3.6 billion cubic meter per year in 2010, including 1.5 for residential uses, 1.3 for agriculture, 0.7 for industry, and 0.1 for environmental uses. Water use declined from 4.8 billion cubic meter/year in 1980 to 3.5 in 2002, then increasing slightly to 3.6 in 2010. The reduction was achieved by halving industrial and agricultural water use, while domestic water use increased five-fold from 0.3 to 1.5 billion cubic meters from 1980 to 2010. About 90 percent of domestic water supply is provided by the Beijing Water Bureau as piped water, while the remainder is taken by households directly from wells. Agriculture relies almost entirely on groundwater. When a drought hit the area in the 1980s the government imposed limits on the implantation of water-intensive industries, even relocated some industries and stopped irrigation from the two large reservoirs in the region.

text: Water is the underlying tenuous balance of safe water supply, but controllable factors such as the management and distribution of the water supply itself contribute to further scarcity.

text: Water shortage becomes the primary problem, with not enough water available for drinking or farming. Looting becomes a problem, and martial law is declared in many places. Desalination plants are built to deal with the water shortage. People in countries that lack water and food begin leaving the country in search of resources, prompting an unprecedented human migration. Many people head to the Great Lakes, forming massive tent cities.

text: The water used in the station's boilers was taken from the local water supply, known as 'towns water'. This is the same as the drinking water used to supply households. This water was used as it had already been screened and purified by Scottish Water.

text: The water used in the station's boilers was taken from the local water supply, known as 'towns water'. This is the same as the

text: drinking water

text: used to supply households. This water was used as it had already been screened and purified by

entity_name: Scottish Water

text: Scottish Water

text: The current water crisis is a result of the deteriorated state of the water infrastructure due to underinvestment in the water sector and conflict-related destruction as well as the rapid growth of the population, which was estimated at 4 percent in urban areas and 2.5 percent in rural areas by the World Bank in 2009. Overall, the DRC's water supply and sanitation sector is characterized by several overlapping and conflicting institutional jurisdictions. Therefore, the water crisis in the DRC can be categorized as an economic water scarcity problem, hindering development in the country. Article 48 of the 2006 Constitution of the DRC recognizes the human right to water. The rehabilitation and development of the water sector is a priority to which the national government committed itself in the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategies and to which it agreed as part of the international framework of the UN Millennium Development Goals.

text: The current water crisis is a result of the deteriorated state of the water

entity_name: Infrastructure

text: infrastructure

text: due to underinvestment in the water sector and conflict-related destruction as well as the rapid growth of the

entity_name: Population

text: population

text: , which was estimated at 4 percent in

entity_name: Urban area

text: urban area

text: s and 2.5 percent in

entity_name: Rural area

text: rural area

text: s by the

entity_name: World Bank

text: World Bank

text: in 2009. Overall, the DRC's water supply and sanitation sector is characterized by several overlapping and conflicting institutional

entity_name: Jurisdiction

text: jurisdiction

text: s. Therefore, the water crisis in the DRC can be categorized as an

entity_name: Economic water scarcity

text: economic water scarcity

text: problem, hindering development in the country. Article 48 of the 2006 Constitution of the DRC recognizes the human right to water. The rehabilitation and development of the water sector is a priority to which the national

entity_name: Government

text: government

text: committed itself in the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategies and to which it agreed as part of the international framework of the

entity_name: Millennium Development Goals

text: UN Millennium Development Goals

text: Issues that affect water supply in the United States include droughts in the West, water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows.

text: Issues that affect water supply in the United States include droughts in the West,

entity_name: Water scarcity

text: water scarcity

entity_name: Water pollution in the United States

text: pollution

text: , a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of

text: climate change

text: is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from

text: combined sewer overflow

text: s.

text: Canada Water is the only body of fresh water in London Docklands. The lake is now kept topped up with fresh water using a windpump.  This  arrangement was put in place following research by the Landscape Architect Fraser Borwick, which revealed that ground water had historically been extracted to supply various industrial processes using wind power.  After checking the borehole results of the Jubilee line construction team, it was established that large amounts of potable water were available, and a borehole 80 metres long was sunk into the ground.  The borehole is lined for 60 metres, and the bottom 20 metres is into chalk.  The investigation of how best to keep the lake topped up with fresh water was the result of some damage to the lining of the old dock during construction works in the 1980s.  Another solution considered involved securing a water supply from the flooded tunnels of London Underground, but this was considered too risky.

text: Water management is the principal environmental concern in Antigua and Barbuda. A water shortage due to limited freshwater resources is exacerbated by limited rainfall/water and drought. The existing water supply is threatened by pollution from distilleries, food processing facilities, anddifferent industrial operations. Deforestation resulting from the nation’s energy demands, combined with agricultural development, contributes to soil erosion, as rainfall, which is concentrated in a short season, quickly runs off, compounding the water shortage problem on the islands. The nation’s main city, St. John's, has developed a problem with waste disposal. Untreated sewage from resort hotels travels in open sewage lines across the land and empties into the sea. Construction of a desalination plant in 1970 relieved some of the water shortage.

text: Water management is the principal environmental concern in

text: Antigua and Barbuda

text: . A water shortage due to limited

text: freshwater

text: resources is exacerbated by limited rainfall/water and

text: drought

text: . The existing water supply is threatened by pollution from distilleries, food processing facilities, anddifferent industrial operations.

text: Deforestation

text: resulting from the nation’s energy demands, combined with agricultural development, contributes to

text: soil erosion

text: , as rainfall, which is concentrated in a short season, quickly runs off, compounding the water shortage problem on the islands. The nation’s main city,

text: St. John's

text: , has developed a problem with

text: waste disposal

text: . Untreated sewage from resort hotels travels in open sewage lines across the land and empties into the sea. Construction of a

text: desalination plant

text: in 1970 relieved some of the water shortage.

text: Kerala has been experiencing increasing incidents of drought in the recent past due to the weather anomalies and developmental pressures resulting from the changes in land use, traditional practices, and life style of the people. The increase in population and subsequent expansion in irrigated agriculture, and industrial growth necessitated the exploitation of more water resources. The changes in the land and water management practices affected the fresh water availability during summer months. Although the deviation in the annual rainfall received in Kerala, in any year from the long term average is very small, there is considerable variation in the rainfall availability during the different seasons. About 95 percent of annual rainfall is confined to a six-month monsoon period between June and November, leaving the remaining six months as practically dry. Soman (1988) reported that over major part of the Kerala State, extreme as well as these where the rainfall is more compared to other areas. The changes in rainfall pattern may have association with the environmental modifications due to human interventions on the natural ecosystems. The State of Kerala experiences seasonal drought conditions every year during the summer months. Even in the years of normal rainfall, summer water scarcity problems are severe in the midland and highland regions. Severe drought conditions often result from the anomalies in monsoon rainfall combined with the various anthropogenic pressures. A study on the incidence of droughts based on the aridity index shows that during the period 1871– 2000, the State of Kerala experienced 66 drought years, out of which, twelve each were moderate and severe droughts. The droughts have a large dimension of economic, environmental and social impacts. With the implementation of a number of irrigation projects, the idea of drought in Kerala slowly shifted to unirrigated paddy, and upland crops. The water scarcity in summer is mainly reflected in dry rivers and lowering of water table. This adversely affects the rural and urban drinking water supply. As seen in the majority of drought incidents, even a 20% fall in the northeast monsoon, can make the water scarcity situation worse during the summer. Since the State has more of perennial plantation crops compared to other places of India, the effect of a drought year in Kerala continues to be felt for several more years after it has occurred. Thus, for better planning of the drought management measures, the term drought with reference to plantation crops should be redefined based on rainfall received or available soil moisture during summer months instead of total monsoon rainfall.

text: Kerala has been experiencing increasing incidents of drought in the recent past due to the weather anomalies and developmental pressures resulting from the changes in

text: land use

text: , traditional practices, and life style of the people. The increase in population and subsequent expansion in irrigated agriculture, and industrial growth necessitated the exploitation of more water resources. The changes in the land and

text: water management

text: water table

text: . This adversely affects the rural and urban drinking water supply. As seen in the majority of drought incidents, even a 20% fall in the northeast monsoon, can make the water scarcity situation worse during the summer. Since the State has more of perennial plantation crops compared to other places of India, the effect of a drought year in Kerala continues to be felt for several more years after it has occurred. Thus, for better planning of the drought management measures, the term drought with reference to plantation crops should be redefined based on rainfall received or available

text: soil moisture

text: during summer months instead of total monsoon rainfall.

text: Forests are important in protecting water catchment areas. When large areas of forest are logged, ecosystem services such as water supply may be negatively affected. Kenya has one of the most diverse forests in East Africa,. but these forests are threatened because they are heavily used as a source of fuel or converted to agricultural land. Logging for fuel is one of the main reasons forests are threatened. Out of 22 million tons of wood products used in Kenya, 20 million are used for fuel.

text: In 2012, The Council for Defense of Human Rights and Freedoms considered water shortages on the behalf of the Regional Water Supply Prishtina as an abuse towards human rights. The company's response for not supplying Prishtina neighborhoods with water was the commercial losses (illegal connections) and redundant water wasted for home irrigation, car washes, and others in substantial quantities. Accordingly, it is unfeasible and abusers should be reprimanded.

text: Town water via a water tower was supplied in Home Hill from 27 March 1968. Prior to this many used windmills and electric pumps to extract water from beneath the ground. Sewerage was installed from 1976 to 1979 with most household using septic tanks before then.

text: Town water via a water tower was supplied in Home Hill from 27 March 1968. Prior to this many used windmills and electric pumps to extract water from beneath the ground. Sewerage was installed from 1976 to 1979 with most household using

text: septic tanks

text: before then.

text: Lohardaga, being a very small and unnoticed district, faces a plethora of problems that are an impediment to the progress of this district. The biggest problem that Lohardaga faces is the lack of quality education. With a few private schools imparting satisfactory education, most of the government schools lack even a decent infrastructure, leave apart the quality of teachers. The government schools face many other problems like unavailability of good faculty and irregularities on the part of teachers, lack of good facilities (e.g. good labs and libraries), and lack of competitiveness among schools. The second prominent problem that Lohardaga faces is that of an extremely poor electrical supply. The main reason behind this is the lack of government attention towards Lohardaga's development. Lack of proper electricity supplies also weakens Lohardaga's economic scenario. The third major problem is lack of pure and quality drinking water. This is the main cause of lots of water borne diseases. The fourth major challenge that Lohardaga faces is of lack of opportunities. This has created a massive unemployment in and around the district headquarters and has given rise to problems such as Naxalism and Excessive Politicism. Unemployed youth finding no ways to earn their bread and butter jump into antisocial practices like naxalism or they jump into politics without any specific purpose just to make money. This has led to the factionalisation of Lohardaga. These youths when become politicians and come in power still lack in ethics and values and lead to big scams in all the public works. the roads are  severely damaged at manho village it causes lots of problems in transportation  though it is the nearest village to the town but unfortunately the administration have no time to pay attentio towards the village situation.

text: Point of Use & Small Scale Treatment:For human consumption, various innovations and solutions (both high and low-technology based) exist throughout the developing world to treat water at the ‘point of use’ (PoU) and have been shown to an effective solution to addressing poor quality water supplies. Studies have shown that PoU treatment to reduce diaherrea mortality in children under 5 by 29% However, home water treatment solutions may not be widely considered in development strategies, as they are not recognized under the water supply indicator in the United Nations' Millennium Development Goals . Additionally, various challenges may reduce the effectiveness of home treatment solutions- such as low education, low-dedication to repair and replacement (especially if the treatment was initially free, did not meet expectations or was time intensive), or local repair services or parts are unavailable.

text: Point of Use & Small Scale Treatment:For human consumption, various innovations and solutions (both high and low-technology based) exist throughout the developing world to treat water at the ‘

text: point of use

text: ’ (PoU) and have been shown to an effective solution to addressing poor quality water supplies. Studies have shown that PoU treatment to reduce diaherrea mortality in children under 5 by 29% However, home water treatment solutions may not be widely considered in development strategies, as they are not recognized under the water supply indicator in the

text: United Nations

text: Millennium Development Goals

text: . Additionally, various challenges may reduce the effectiveness of home treatment solutions- such as low education, low-dedication to repair and replacement (especially if the treatment was initially free, did not meet expectations or was time intensive), or local repair services or parts are unavailable.

text: The new route added several locks to the canal, making water supply problems more severe. Because of the way the system of locks work, water is lost from the upper part of a canal each time a vessel passes through. This is a particular issue for the pound between Bradford Lock at Bradford on Avon and the Bath Locks, where a series of locks need to be opened each time the gates are opened. Most lock gates are not watertight, therefore some water leaks from the higher levels of the canal to those lower down. The water has to be replaced, or eventually the upper levels of the canal would not hold enough water to be navigable. Canals are usually fed by diverting water from streams and rivers into the upper parts of the canal, but if no suitable source is available or sufficient, a pumping station, such as the one at Claverton, can be used to maintain the water level. Crofton Pumping Station was built to supply water to the summit pound of the canal, opening in 1810 but, unlike Claverton, was powered by steam.

text: The new route added several

text: locks

text: to the canal, making water supply problems more severe. Because of the way the system of locks work, water is lost from the upper part of a canal each time a vessel passes through. This is a particular issue for the

text: pound

text: between

text: Bradford Lock

text: at

text: Bradford on Avon

text: and the

text: Bath Locks

text: , where a series of locks need to be opened each time the gates are opened. Most lock gates are not watertight, therefore some water leaks from the higher levels of the canal to those lower down. The water has to be replaced, or eventually the upper levels of the canal would not hold enough water to be navigable. Canals are usually fed by diverting water from streams and rivers into the upper parts of the canal, but if no suitable source is available or sufficient, a pumping station, such as the one at Claverton, can be used to maintain the water level.

text: Crofton Pumping Station

text: was built to supply water to the summit pound of the canal, opening in 1810 but, unlike Claverton, was powered by steam.

text: As well as an inability to work in periods of drought, the amount of water available could also vary the power of machinery powered by it. The amount and type of work to be carried out by heavy industries could be influenced by the seasonal availability of water. In 1785 Kirkstall Forge near Leeds wrote to a customer,  'It will be convenient for us just now to roll a few tons because we have a full supply of water—and we cannot manufacture thin plate so well when our water is short.'

text: As well as an inability to work in periods of drought, the amount of water available could also vary the power of machinery powered by it. The amount and type of work to be carried out by heavy industries could be influenced by the seasonal availability of water. In 1785

text: Kirkstall Forge

text: near

text: Leeds

text: wrote to a customer,  'It will be convenient for us just now to roll a few tons because we have a full supply of water—and we cannot manufacture thin plate so well when our water is short.'

text: When rain falls on the land mass, soil absorbs a part of rain water and remaining part of the rain water joins the nearby stream by flowing on the surface of soil. Some of the water absorbed by the soil gets evaporated from the soil, some part of the remaining water in the soil emerges into the surface stream as seepage flows and rest of water collects in the underground aquifer as ground water.  This process also takes place when the land is irrigated by surface water. The surface run off and the subsurface seepage out of the total rainfall is the available water in the river basin after deducting the natural evaporation loss from the naturally formed water bodies (both perennial and non perennial) in the river basin in a water year. The water thus available is called primary water supplies / flows in a river.

text: China Water Affairs Group Limited () () is water supply company headquartered in Hong Kong. It offers raw water supply, tap water supply, sewage treatment, hydroelectric power supply, water piping construction and water meters installation services in China.

text: China Water Affairs Group Limited () () is

text: water supply

text: company

text: headquartered

text: in

text: Hong Kong

text: . It offers

text: raw water

text: supply,

text: tap water

text: supply,

text: sewage treatment

text: hydroelectric power

text: supply,

text: water piping

text: construction and

text: water meters

text: installation services in

text: China

text: Water privatization is used here as a shorthand for private sector participation in the provision of water services and sanitation. Private sector participation in water supply and sanitation is controversial. Proponents of private sector participation argue that it has led to improvements in the efficiency and service quality of utilities. It is argued that it has increased investment and has contributed to expanded access. They cite Manila, Guayaquil in Ecuador, Bucharest, several cities in Colombia and Morocco, as well as Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal as success stories. Critics however, contend that private sector participation led to tariff increases and has turned a public good into a private good. Many believe that the privatization of water is incompatible with ensuring the international human right to water. Aborted privatizations in Cochabamba, Bolivia, and Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, as well as privately managed water systems in Jakarta and Berlin are highlighted as failures. Water privatization in Buenos Aires, Argentina and in England is cited by both supporters and opponents, each emphasizing different aspects of these cases. Statistical studies comparing public and private utilities show little difference in performance between them.

text: Water privatization is used here as a shorthand for private sector participation in the provision of

text: water services

text: and

text: sanitation

text: . Private sector participation in water supply and sanitation is controversial. Proponents of private sector participation argue that it has led to improvements in the efficiency and service quality of utilities. It is argued that it has increased investment and has contributed to expanded access. They cite

text: Manila

text: Guayaquil in Ecuador

text: , Bucharest, several cities in

text: Colombia

text: and

text: Morocco

text: , as well as Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal as success stories. Critics however, contend that private sector participation led to tariff increases and has turned a public good into a private good. Many believe that the privatization of water is incompatible with ensuring the

text: international human

text: right to water

text: . Aborted privatizations in

text: Cochabamba, Bolivia

text: , and

text: Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania

text: , as well as privately managed water systems in

text: Jakarta

text: and Berlin are highlighted as failures. Water privatization in

text: Buenos Aires, Argentina

text: and in

entity_name: Water privatisation in England and Wales

text: England

text: is cited by both supporters and opponents, each emphasizing different aspects of these cases. Statistical studies comparing public and private utilities show little difference in performance between them.

text: There is a substantial increase in the amount of drinking water supplied from reservoirs, long-distance water transfers and desalination at a low price to consumers, thanks to the country's substantial oil and gas revenues. In 2011 the capital Algiers transformed its intermittent water supply into a to continuous one, along with considerable improvements in wastewater treatment. However, there is still poor service quality in many cities outside Algiers with 78% of urban residents suffering from intermittent water supply. Another challenge is the pollution of water resources.

text: There is a substantial increase in the amount of drinking water supplied from reservoirs, long-distance water transfers and

text: desalination

text: at a low price to consumers, thanks to the country's substantial oil and gas revenues. In 2011 the capital Algiers transformed its intermittent

text: water supply

text: into a to continuous one, along with considerable improvements in

text: wastewater treatment

text: . However, there is still poor service quality in many cities outside Algiers with 78% of urban residents suffering from intermittent water supply. Another challenge is the pollution of water resources.

text: Water tariff for irrigation fluctuate between the US$40 ha/year for irrigation systems supplied by surface water and 150-200 US$ ha/year for irrigation systems supplied by groundwater. Water tariffs had to cover both the cost of operation, administration and maintenance at the module level and the module’s share of costs at the main canal and water-source level.

text: Water is one of the most precious and important natural assets in the Okanagan Basin.  Even though the Basin is endowed with several large lakes, the supply of clean, reliable water is inherently limited by the semi-arid to arid climate, which brings minimal precipitation and high evaporation and evapotranspiration rates.  In fact, according to Statistics Canada the Okanagan Basin has the lowest, per capita availability of fresh water in Canada.  Water shortages have already occurred in some areas of the Basin, and are expected to occur more widely and frequently in the future.

text: Water is one of the most precious and important natural assets in the

text: Okanagan Basin

text: .  Even though the Basin is endowed with several large lakes, the supply of clean, reliable water is inherently limited by the

text: semi-arid

text: to

text: arid

text: climate

text: , which brings minimal

text: precipitation

text: and high evaporation and

text: evapotranspiration

text: rates.  In fact, according to

text: Statistics Canada

text: the Okanagan Basin has the lowest, per capita availability of

text: fresh water

text: in Canada.  Water shortages have already occurred in some areas of the Basin, and are expected to occur more widely and frequently in the future.

text: This paper published in the South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage describes the water quality status of Gundolav Lake in Rajasthan, which was once used for drinking water as well as for recreational activities under the tutelage of the princely state of Kishangarh. This has now become a site of waste water disposal and facing a critical threat for its sustenance. Recent years have led to an increasing awareness of the importance of water bodies and the need for conservation of water bodies, especially freshwater wetlands. The Ramsar Convention (2002) identifies wetlands as the starting point for integrated water management strategies. This is because they are the source of fresh water, maintain the health of the water course and water bodies, have the capacity to supply water to meet the human needs and are a key to future water security.The study aims at understanding the present situation and ecology of the lake, which can help in making attempts at restoring the balance between ecosystem and human activities in order to secure a continuous and sustainable improvement in the lake.The physico-chemical and planktonic composition of the lake reveals that it is tending, fast towards 'eutrophism' . The quality of water is deteriorating day by day due to inflow of domestic sewage, municipal waste, agricultural runoff and effluents of organic waste of animal and human origin into the lake. This deterioration of water quality and eutrophication are assuming alarming proportions and can be attributed to the casual attitude of people concerned, with the development of the urban population.The study argues for the urgent need to regularly monitor the water quality of the lake and to make attempts at diverting the city sewage away from the lake to preserve the flora and fauna of this ecosystem.Location

text: Rural areas. According to the CWSA's policy, the water tariff in rural areas should recover the supply cost of the service, including operation, maintenance, major repairs, replacements, and extension to new areas. Tariffs are set by the District Assemblies in rural areas. However, the supply cost should be low enough to not result in a tariff of more than US$1 per m³. A study conducted in five community-managed piped systems in theAshanti region found an average tariff of about US$0.60 per m³ in 2003, which actually covers between 57 and 77% of the full supply cost. Another study which was carried out in 2005 indicates an average monthly expenditure for water of US$0.99 in 97 sample villages in the Volta region and US$0.89 in 103 villages in the Brong Ahafo region per household. However, in nearly 70% of the villages in Volta and only 40% of the villages in Brong Ahafo, at least 90% of the interviewed households actually paid for water. Where water use is charged, it is done through a fixed system or a pay-as-you-fetch system.

text: Rural areas. According to the CWSA's policy, the water tariff in rural areas should recover the supply cost of the service, including operation, maintenance, major repairs, replacements, and extension to new areas. Tariffs are set by the District Assemblies in rural areas. However, the supply cost should be low enough to not result in a tariff of more than US$1 per m³. A study conducted in five community-managed piped systems in the

text: Ashanti region

text: found an average tariff of about US$0.60 per m³ in 2003, which actually covers between 57 and 77% of the full supply cost. Another study which was carried out in 2005 indicates an average monthly expenditure for water of US$0.99 in 97 sample villages in the

text: Volta region

text: and US$0.89 in 103 villages in the

text: Brong Ahafo region

text: per household. However, in nearly 70% of the villages in Volta and only 40% of the villages in Brong Ahafo, at least 90% of the interviewed households actually paid for water. Where water use is charged, it is done through a fixed system or a pay-as-you-fetch system.

text: The water conditions in Faqqu'a are similar to problems seen in other parts in the West Bank. The situation has become even worse since the start of the Al-Aqsa Intifada, since high water price and the economic hardship have aggravated the water shortage even further. Faqqua's only water source is the Abu 'Ahed well in the village of Deir Ghazaleh located about 5 kilometres away. Water is transported via tankers due to the lack of a water network.

text: The water conditions in Faqqu'a are similar to problems seen in other parts in the West Bank. The situation has become even worse since the start of the

text: Al-Aqsa Intifada

text: , since high water price and the economic hardship have aggravated the water shortage even further. Faqqua's only water source is the Abu 'Ahed well in the village of

text: Deir Ghazaleh

text: located about 5 kilometres away. Water is transported via tankers due to the lack of a water network.

text: With the water supply cut off, the emergency water supply reserve system from surrounding ponds was routed to the main water supply.

text: Problems have included water-logging, when the water does not drain quickly enough after heavy rain.

text: Where the local water supply has a high content of dissolved minerals such as limestone, heating the water causes the minerals to precipitate in the tank (scaling) and a tank may develop leaks due to corrosion after only a few years, a problem exacerbated by dissolved oxygen in the water which accelerates corrosion of both tank and fittings.

text: Where the local water supply has a

text: high content of dissolved minerals

text: such as

text: limestone

text: , heating the water causes the minerals to precipitate in the tank (scaling) and a tank may develop leaks due to corrosion after only a few years, a problem exacerbated by dissolved

text: oxygen

text: in the water which accelerates

text: corrosion

text: of both tank and fittings.

text: National overview of water resources. Water resources are scarce in Burkina Faso. Water availability varies greatly between regions and seasons, as well as from year to year. In the South, average rainfall is as high as 1,200mm during a six-month wet season, while in the North the wet season lasts only three months and rainfall is only 300mm. The only rivers in the country that carry water all year around are the Mouhoun River (Black Volta) and the Nakambe River (White Volta), the other rivers carrying water only during the wet season. Building dams has been the most common way of storing water for the dry season, even though evaporation can reach 2,000 mm/year thus causing substantial water losses from open reservoirs. A substantial portion of surface water resources is shared with neighboring countries. For example, the Nakambe River - the main source of supply for the capital, Ouagadougou - and the Mouhoun River are shared with Ghana. Surface water resources vary between 8 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year in an average year and 4 BCM in a dry year. The lower figure corresponds to less than 300 cubic meters per capita and year, which is well below the level of 1,000 cubic meters per capita and year that is considered the threshold for “water stress”.

text: National overview of water resources. Water resources are scarce in Burkina Faso. Water availability varies greatly between regions and seasons, as well as from year to year. In the South, average rainfall is as high as 1,200mm during a six-month wet season, while in the North the wet season lasts only three months and rainfall is only 300mm. The only rivers in the country that carry water all year around are the Mouhoun River (

text: Black Volta

text: ) and the Nakambe River (

text: White Volta

text: ), the other rivers carrying water only during the wet season. Building dams has been the most common way of storing water for the dry season, even though evaporation can reach 2,000 mm/year thus causing substantial water losses from open reservoirs. A substantial portion of surface water resources is shared with neighboring countries. For example, the Nakambe River - the main source of supply for the capital, Ouagadougou - and the Mouhoun River are shared with Ghana. Surface water resources vary between 8 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year in an average year and 4 BCM in a dry year. The lower figure corresponds to less than 300 cubic meters per capita and year, which is well below the level of 1,000 cubic meters per capita and year that is considered the threshold for “water stress”.

text: Singapore has traditionally relied on water from Malaysia. However, this reliance has made Singapore subject to the possibility of price increases and allowed Malaysian officials to use the water reliance as a political leverage by threatening to cut off supply. In order to reduce this problem, Lee decided to experiment with water recycling in 1974. However, the water treatment plant was closed in 1975 due to cost and reliability issues. In 1998, the Public Utilities Board (PUB) and the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) initiated the Singapore Water Reclamation Study (NEWater Study). The aim was to determine if NEWater was a viable source of raw water for Singapore's needs. In 2001, PUB initiated efforts to increase water supplies for non-potable use. Using NEWater for these would help reduce the demand on the reservoirs for potable water.

text: Singapore has traditionally relied on water from Malaysia. However, this reliance has made Singapore subject to the possibility of price increases and allowed Malaysian officials to use the water reliance as a political leverage by

entity_name: Water conflicts between Malaysia and Singapore

text: threatening to cut off supply

text: . In order to reduce this problem, Lee decided to experiment with water recycling in 1974. However, the water treatment plant was closed in 1975 due to cost and reliability issues. In 1998, the Public Utilities Board (PUB) and the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources (MEWR) initiated the Singapore Water Reclamation Study (NEWater Study). The aim was to determine if NEWater was a viable source of raw water for Singapore's needs. In 2001, PUB initiated efforts to increase water supplies for non-potable use. Using NEWater for these would help reduce the demand on the reservoirs for potable water.

text: Copepods are sometimes found in public main water supplies, especially systems where the water is not filtered, such as New York City, Boston, and San Francisco. This is not usually a problem in treated water supplies. In some tropical countries, such as Peru and Bangladesh, a correlation has been found between copepods presence and cholera in untreated water, because the cholera bacteria attach to the surfaces of planktonic animals. The larvae of the guinea worm must develop within a copepod's digestive tract before being transmitted to humans. The risk of infection with these diseases can be reduced by filtering out the copepods (and other matter), for example with a cloth filter.

text: Copepods are sometimes found in public main water supplies, especially systems where the water is not filtered, such as

text: New York City

text: Boston

text: , and

text: San Francisco

text: . This is not usually a problem in treated water supplies. In some tropical countries, such as

text: Peru

text: and

text: Bangladesh

text: , a correlation has been found between copepods presence and

text: cholera

text: in untreated water, because the cholera bacteria attach to the surfaces of planktonic animals. The larvae of the

text: guinea worm

text: must develop within a copepod's digestive tract before being transmitted to humans. The risk of infection with these diseases can be reduced by filtering out the copepods (and other matter), for example with a

text: cloth filter

text: As Minister for Water Utilities, Sartor introduced a number of sweeping changes to the water supply system, and championed water conservation, recycling and innovation in Sydney, the Illawarra and the Blue Mountains.  Sartor's changes in water and energy included: oversighting the introduction of an energy and water sustainability index for new homes; implementing a government energy and water savings fund to support innovative ideas to reduce water and energy consumption; encouraging the uptake of water conservation rebates, household devices and rainwater tanks; and requiring all local councils in the Sydney metropolitan area to develop water savings plans.  Sartor also oversaw the development of water infrastructure projects - including large recycling projects in Sydney.  He also released the Metropolitan Water Plan which first envisaged the potential for a desalination plant to supplement Sydney's water supplies.  After Sartor left the Water portfolio and became Planning Minister, despite an extremely vocal anti-desalination campaign in Kurnell during the 2007 State election, the government was returned.  Desalination was Labor policy established by Sartor, whereas Opposition Liberal policy advocated the human consumption of recycled sewage. Sartor and the NSW Government rejected and ruled out human consumption of recycled effluent in Sydney.

text: There have been considerable improvements in access to water supply in the last several years. A countrywide Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey carried out during the reign of the Taliban in 1997 found that an estimated 7% of the rural population and 17% of the urban population had access to an improved water source at the time. While the survey results represent estimates that have a certain margin of error, the recorded improvements in rural areas match the fact that significant investments were undertaken by NGOs and by the government under the National Solidarity Program initiated in 2003. The improvements in urban areas are somewhat puzzling, since no major investments in water supply systems took place during that period in Kabul and Kandahar. Possibly the 1997 figure does not include the urban population served by public wells. Furthermore, service quality, which is often poor, is not reflected in the above figures. For example, because of poor electrical service, serious voltage fluctuations, poor installation of equipment and lack of preventive maintenance, pump failures are frequent and lead to supply interruptions.

text: There have been considerable improvements in access to water supply in the last several years. A countrywide

text: Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey

text: carried out during the reign of the Taliban in 1997 found that an estimated 7% of the rural population and 17% of the urban population had access to an improved water source at the time. While the survey results represent estimates that have a certain margin of error, the recorded improvements in rural areas match the fact that significant investments were undertaken by

text: NGO

text: s and by the government under the National Solidarity Program initiated in 2003. The improvements in urban areas are somewhat puzzling, since no major investments in water supply systems took place during that period in Kabul and Kandahar. Possibly the 1997 figure does not include the urban population served by public wells. Furthermore, service quality, which is often poor, is not reflected in the above figures. For example, because of poor electrical service, serious voltage fluctuations, poor installation of equipment and lack of preventive maintenance, pump failures are frequent and lead to supply interruptions.

text: In general, water service quality is low in Ecuador. Water supply services are interrupted in 50% of the urban areas. Water pressure is well below standard, particularly in poor outlying areas. In 30% of the urban areas, there is no treatment of drinking water. 92% of wastewater is discharged without any kind of treatment.

text: In general,

text: water service quality

text: is low in Ecuador. Water supply services are interrupted in 50% of the urban areas. Water pressure is well below standard, particularly in poor outlying areas. In 30% of the urban areas, there is no treatment of drinking water. 92% of wastewater is discharged without any kind of treatment.

text: In his book The Ultimate Resource 2, Julian Simon claimed that there is a strong correlation between government corruption and lack of sufficient supplies of safe, clean water. Simon wrote, "there is complete agreement among water economists that all it takes to ensure an adequate supply for agriculture as well as for households in rich countries is that there be a rational structure of water law and market pricing. The problem is not too many people but rather defective laws and bureaucratic interventions; freeing up markets in water would eliminate just about all water problems forever... In poor water-short countries the problem with water supply—as with so many other matters—is lack of wealth to create systems to supply water efficiently enough. As these countries become richer, their water problems will become less difficult". This theoretical argument, however, ignores real-world conditions, including strong barriers to open water markets, the difficulty of moving water from one region to another, water rights laws that prevent redistribution based solely on economic value, inability of some populations to pay for water, and grossly imperfect information on water use. Actual experience with peak water constraints in some wealthy, but water-short countries and regions still suggests serious difficulties in reducing water challenges.

text: In his book

text: The Ultimate Resource 2

text: Julian Simon

text: claimed that there is a strong correlation between

text: government corruption

text: and lack of sufficient supplies of safe, clean water. Simon wrote, "there is complete agreement among water economists that all it takes to ensure an adequate supply for agriculture as well as for households in rich countries is that there be a rational structure of

text: water law

text: and market pricing. The problem is not too many people but rather defective laws and bureaucratic interventions; freeing up markets in water would eliminate just about all water problems forever... In poor water-short countries the problem with water supply—as with so many other matters—is lack of wealth to create systems to supply water efficiently enough. As these countries become richer, their water problems will become less difficult". This theoretical argument, however, ignores real-world conditions, including strong barriers to open water markets, the difficulty of moving water from one region to another, water rights laws that prevent redistribution based solely on economic value, inability of some populations to pay for water, and grossly imperfect information on water use. Actual experience with peak water constraints in some wealthy, but water-short countries and regions still suggests serious difficulties in reducing water challenges.

text: Fifty percent of the world’s fresh water consumption is dependent glacial runoff.  Earth's glaciers are expected to melt within the next forty years, greatly decreasing fresh water flow in the hotter times of the year, causing everyone to depend on rainwater, resulting in large shortages and fluctuations in fresh water availability which largely effects agriculture, power supply, and human health and well-being.  Many power sources and a large portion of agriculture rely on glacial runoff in the late summer.  “In many parts of the world, disappearing mountain glaciers and droughts will make fresh, clean water for drinking, bathing, and other necessary human (and livestock) uses scarce" and a valuable commodity.

text: Fifty percent of the world’s fresh water consumption is dependent glacial runoff.  Earth's glaciers are expected to melt within the next forty years, greatly decreasing fresh water flow in the hotter times of the year, causing everyone to depend on rainwater, resulting in large shortages and fluctuations in fresh water availability which largely effects agriculture, power supply, and human health and well-being.  Many power sources and a large portion of agriculture rely on glacial runoff in the late summer.  “In many parts of the world, disappearing

text: mountain glacier

text: s and droughts will make fresh, clean water for drinking, bathing, and other necessary human (and livestock) uses scarce" and a valuable commodity.

text: This would soon change. Benjamin Franklin already had noted in his will the high elevation and quality of Wissahickon water, proposing that in some future day the stream be dammed to supply a safe and pure water source for Philadelphia’s water supply, and even allocating funds for this purpose. This did not happen, but the quest for pure water affected the Wissahickon’s subsequent history. Seeking to prevent the stream’s industrial discharges from affecting the purity of the water of the Schuylkill River, the Fairmount Park Commission took title of much of the land along the Wissahickon in 1869-1870, and continued to expand its holdings in subsequent decades. The mills were razed; the last active mill was demolished in 1884. Several decades later the Schuylkill River itself became seriously polluted by sources in the coal fields far upstream beyond Philadelphia’s control, but the waters of the Wissahickon had been restored and the beauty of the Wissahickon Valley had been preserved. Most of America became more industrialized, but the Wissahickon valley quietly returned to its original wilderness character.

text: This would soon change.

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: already had noted in his will the high elevation and quality of Wissahickon water, proposing that in some future day the stream be dammed to supply a safe and pure water source for Philadelphia’s water supply, and even allocating funds for this purpose. This did not happen, but the quest for pure water affected the Wissahickon’s subsequent history. Seeking to prevent the stream’s industrial discharges from affecting the purity of the water of the Schuylkill River, the

text: Fairmount Park

text: Commission took title of much of the land along the Wissahickon in 1869-1870, and continued to expand its holdings in subsequent decades. The mills were razed; the last active mill was demolished in 1884. Several decades later the Schuylkill River itself became seriously polluted by sources in the coal fields far upstream beyond Philadelphia’s control, but the waters of the Wissahickon had been restored and the beauty of the Wissahickon Valley had been preserved. Most of America became more industrialized, but the Wissahickon valley quietly returned to its original wilderness character.

text: Lavasa will use the same water resources that currently supply Pune, and it is claimed that this will cause a supply shortage. A 2011 report by the Expert Appraisal Committee of the Union Environment Ministry concluded there will be no impact on Pune's water supply, however.

text: Lavasa will use the same water resources that currently supply

text: Pune

text: , and it is claimed that this will cause a supply shortage. A 2011 report by the Expert Appraisal Committee of the Union Environment Ministry concluded there will be no impact on Pune's water supply, however.

text: Raw water can be used for many purposes, such as cooling water, water for rinsing and chemical production, purified water, and drinking water. However, due to the possible contaminants, raw water must be treated before it is allowed for human consumption or industrial use. There are several steps involved in the treatment of raw water, and different methods in which it can take place.

text: Raw water can be used for many purposes, such as

text: cooling water

text: , water for

text: rinsing

text: and

text: chemical

text: production,

text: purified water

text: , and

text: drinking water

text: . However, due to the possible

text: contaminant

text: s, raw water must be treated before it is allowed for human consumption or industrial use. There are several steps involved in the treatment of raw water, and different methods in which it can take place.

text: Water usage by hydraulic fracturing can be a problem in areas that experience water shortage. Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits, in jurisdictions where these are permitted. Further, ground water can be contaminated if fluid is able to escape during fracking. Produced water, the water that returns to the surface after fracking, is managed by underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment, and reuse in future wells. There is potential for methane to leak into ground water and the air, though escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in those built under more recent legislation.

text: Water usage by hydraulic fracturing can be a problem in areas that experience water shortage.

text: Surface water

text: may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits, in jurisdictions where these are permitted. Further,

text: ground water

text: can be contaminated if fluid is able to escape during fracking. Produced water, the water that returns to the surface after fracking, is managed by

text: underground injection

text: municipal

text: and

text: commercial

text: wastewater treatment

text: , and reuse in future wells. There is potential for methane to leak into ground water and the air, though escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in those built under more recent legislation.

text: Irrigation is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants at regular intervals for agriculture. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming.

text: Irrigation is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants at regular intervals for agriculture. It is used to assist in the growing of

text: agricultural crops

text: , maintenance of

text: landscape

text: s, and

text: revegetation

text: of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing

text: soil consolidation

text: . In contrast,

text: agriculture

text: that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or

text: dry land farming

text: In 2011, the United Nations' Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation estimated that only 55% of the Yemeni population had access to improved water source – including 40% from house connections and 15% from other improved water sources such as standpipes. Only 53% had access to improved sanitation. Access to improved water supply, using a broad definition of access, is estimated to be much higher in urban areas than in rural areas (72% vs. 47%). The urban-rural gap is much higher for improved sanitation (93% vs. 33%). Due to rapid population growth, access to water supply actually declined in relative terms from 66% in 1990 to 55% in 2011 despite a substantial increase in absolute access. However, access to improved sanitation increased from 24% to 53% during the same period, according to the estimates.

text: In 2011, the United Nations'

entity_name: Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

text: Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation

text: estimated that only 55% of the Yemeni population had access to

text: improved water source

text: – including 40% from house connections and 15% from other improved water sources such as standpipes. Only 53% had access to

text: improved sanitation

text: . Access to improved water supply, using a broad definition of access, is estimated to be much higher in urban areas than in rural areas (72% vs. 47%). The urban-rural gap is much higher for improved sanitation (93% vs. 33%). Due to rapid population growth, access to water supply actually declined in relative terms from 66% in 1990 to 55% in 2011 despite a substantial increase in absolute access. However, access to improved sanitation increased from 24% to 53% during the same period, according to the estimates.

text: Despite its growing importance, the issue of water quality has long been nearly absent from water coverage assessments, since few countries could afford regular water quality surveillance. Instead, it is assumed that certain types of water sources categorized as ‘improved’ are likely to deliver drinking water of adequate quality for basic health needs. This assumption appears over-optimistic, and improved technologies are shown not to be providing in all circumstances safe water. Similarly, health-related gains in water interventions are also dependent on service reliability; and it has been seen for example that annual health benefits attributed to the consumption of safe water are almost entirely lost if raw water is consumed over the course of few days. This draws attention to the issue of reliability and seasonality of drinking water sources.

text: Because there are no perennial rivers and rainfall is unreliable, water is a highly precious commodity in Somaliland. Water supply systems throughout the country are, therefore, dependent on underground sources. Cognizant of the recurring droughts and inadequate water supply systems of cities and towns, the Silanyo Administration introduced a water development policy. The central policy of the Administration’s water development program is, inter alia, drilling bore holes and damming dry - river beds that drain water into the sea during the two rainy seasons.

text: In the 1980s, the Urban Council announced a policy of building more "fun pools" with special free-form designs and water toys. A councilor explained, "It is felt that these fun pools will provide more fun, excitement and enjoyment for the public who no longer regard swimming as a mere form of exercise." In 1985, four such pools were planned for Kowloon and a fifth for Hong Kong Island.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Japan is characterized by numerous achievements and some challenges. The country has achieved universal access to water supply and sanitation; has one of the lowest levels of water distribution losses in the world; regularly exceeds its own strict standards for the quality of drinking water and treated waste water; uses an effective national system of performance benchmarking for water and sanitation utilities; makes extensive use of both advanced and appropriate technologies such as the jōkasō on-site sanitation system; and has pioneered the payment for ecosystem services before the term was even coined internationally. Some of the challenges are a decreasing population, declining investment, fiscal constraints, ageing facilities, an ageing workforce, a fragmentation of service provision among thousands of municipal utilities, and the vulnerability of parts of the country to droughts that are expected to become more frequent due to climate change.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Japan is characterized by numerous achievements and some challenges. The country has achieved universal access to water supply and sanitation; has one of the lowest levels of water distribution losses in the world; regularly exceeds its own strict standards for the quality of drinking water and treated waste water; uses an effective national system of performance

text: benchmarking

text: for water and sanitation utilities; makes extensive use of both advanced and appropriate technologies such as the jōkasō on-site sanitation system; and has pioneered the

text: payment for ecosystem services

text: before the term was even coined internationally. Some of the challenges are a decreasing population, declining investment, fiscal constraints, ageing facilities, an ageing workforce, a fragmentation of service provision among thousands of municipal utilities, and the vulnerability of parts of the country to droughts that are expected to become more frequent due to climate change.

text: Historically, Chennai has faced a problem of water supply shortages as no big river flows through it with a resulting over-reliance on annual monsoon rains to replenish water reservoirs. The city's ground water levels have been depleted to very low levels in many areas. Many residents buy their drinking water. An earlier Veeranam project was unsuccessful in solving the city's water supply shortages, but the New Veeranam project which became operational in September 2004 has greatly reduced dependency on distant sources. In recent years however, due to heavy and consistent monsoon rains and the implementation of rainwater harvesting (RWH) techniques by Chennai Metrowater at their Anna Nagar Rain Centre, water shortages have been reduced significantly, and this has led Chennai to be a model of RWH technology for other cities. Moreover, newer projects like the Telugu Ganga canal project that brings water from water-surplus rivers like the Krishna river in Andhra Pradesh have eased water supply shortages. The city is also constructing sea water desalination plants to further ease water supply shortages.

text: Historically, Chennai has faced a problem of water supply shortages as no big river flows through it with a resulting over-reliance on annual

text: monsoon

text: rains to replenish water

text: reservoirs

text: . The city's ground water levels have been depleted to very low levels in many areas. Many residents buy their drinking water. An earlier

text: Veeranam

text: project was unsuccessful in solving the city's water supply shortages, but the New Veeranam project which became operational in September 2004 has greatly reduced dependency on distant sources. In recent years however, due to heavy and consistent monsoon rains and the implementation of

text: rainwater harvesting

text: (RWH) techniques by Chennai Metrowater at their

text: Anna Nagar

text: Rain Centre, water shortages have been reduced significantly, and this has led Chennai to be a model of RWH technology for other cities. Moreover, newer projects like the

text: Telugu Ganga

text: canal project that brings water from water-surplus rivers like the

text: Krishna river

text: in

text: Andhra Pradesh

text: have eased water supply shortages. The city is also constructing sea water

text: desalination

text: plants to further ease water supply shortages.

text: Cameroon is a poor country, with a 2010 GPD per capita of US$2,300, placing it 183 among countries by wealth. Most of the people are engaged in agriculture.After independence the government faced growing demand for rural water supply.The government required that local communities provide labor to build the water facilities between 1964 and 1988, providing water through public taps. However, local councils found that the cost of supplying water to these taps was eating up a large part of their budget. When they failed to pay their bills the National Water Supply Company of Cameroun (SNEC) simply disconnected the supply.Starting in 1993 the SNEC tried privatizing the taps to reduce waste and recover costs, with an individual running the tap and selling the water. The Bakossi women of Tombel made a dramatic protest against these changes. In April 1994, 4,000 women marched on the SNEC offices, led by some old women who marched naked - their final weapon before death - and urinated on the steps. Herbs were thrown on the steps, which were said to be able to turn into poisonous snakes if anyone crossed the threshold. The SNEC employees had fled and refused to return from fear of the people and of the juju the women had placed. The outcome was partial success. Control of the water supply was given to a committee headed by the woman who had organized the protest. But the supply remained uncertain.

text: The SCA's customers then filter the water the SCA supplies and distribute it to households, businesses and other users. More than four and a half million people, about 60 percent of the NSW population, use water supplied by the SCA.

text: The water and sanitation project is a collaboration between the SRCS and German Red Cross which targets the rural population in Somalia. The aim of the project is to increase the availability of safe water for human consumption, livestock and agriculture so as to meet the basic needs of the target population. Shallow wells and piped water systems were constructed to manage water supply while family latrines were built for improved sanitation. Water filters were given to communities using unsafe surface waters to ensure safe consumption. The total number direct and indirect beneficiaries was 3825 and 22,950 respectively.

text: The water and sanitation project is a collaboration between the SRCS and

text: German Red Cross

text: which targets the rural population in Somalia. The aim of the project is to increase the availability of safe water for human consumption, livestock and agriculture so as to meet the basic needs of the target population. Shallow wells and piped water systems were constructed to manage water supply while family latrines were built for improved sanitation. Water filters were given to communities using unsafe surface waters to ensure safe consumption. The total number direct and indirect beneficiaries was 3825 and 22,950 respectively.

text: Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.

text: Water management

text: is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use

text: irrigation

text: to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the

text: Great Plains

text: in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.

text: Water crisis in Iran refers to the problems which due to the water scarcity occur in Iran. Water scarcity can be a result of two mechanisms: physical (absolute) water scarcity and economic water scarcity, where physical water scarcity is a result of inadequate natural water resources to supply a region's demand, and economic water scarcity is a result of poor management of the sufficient available water resources. Iran is encountered to both problems.

text: Water crisis in Iran refers to the problems which due to the

text: water scarcity

text: occur in

text: Iran

text: . Water scarcity can be a result of two mechanisms:

text: physical (absolute) water scarcity

text: and

text: economic water scarcity

text: , where physical water scarcity is a result of inadequate natural water resources to supply a region's demand, and economic water scarcity is a result of poor management of the sufficient available water resources. Iran is encountered to both problems.

text: The intended beneficial uses of these water resources include flood control, aids to navigation, irrigation, supplemental water supply, power generation, municipal and industrial water supplies, stream-pollution abatement, sediment control, preservation and enhancement of fish and wildlife, and creation of recreation opportunities.

text: The intended beneficial uses of these water resources include

text: flood control

text: , aids to navigation,

text: irrigation

text: , supplemental

text: water supply

text: power generation

text: , municipal and industrial water supplies,

text: stream-pollution

text: abatement,

text: sediment control

text: preservation

text: and enhancement of

text: fish

text: and

text: wildlife

text: , and creation of recreation opportunities.

text: Total water resources are not evaluated accurately because existing data is limited and this is particularly true with respect to groundwater supplies. Annual rainfall varies from 1,500 mm in the North to 4,000 mm in the South. A dry season extends from January to May, followed by a rainy season that peaks in July. In November and December near the end of the rainy season agricultural activities are commonly restricted due to high water saturation levels in the soil.

text: Non-revenue water has been estimated at being higher than 65%. Currently, service providers produce 41,720 liters per second (LPS), which is an average of 907 liters per person and day (LPPD) before losses. Even after taking into account losses, water use is much higher than in Europe (220 LPPD) and the United States (300 LPPD). The tourism industry explains this high consumption to a large extent. The hotel industry uses 280% more than what other Caribbean countries use - 1,483 liters per guest and night.

text: Non-revenue water

text: has been estimated at being higher than 65%. Currently, service providers produce 41,720 liters per second (LPS), which is an average of 907 liters per person and day (LPPD) before losses. Even after taking into account losses, water use is much higher than in Europe (220 LPPD) and the United States (300 LPPD). The tourism industry explains this high consumption to a large extent. The hotel industry uses 280% more than what other Caribbean countries use - 1,483 liters per guest and night.

text: Wetlands greatly influence the flow and quality of water, thus providing benefits to humans. They store and slowly release surface water, rain, snowmelt and flood waters, maintaining soil humidity during dry periods. But the most important service is the supply of clean water for drinking but also for agriculture and industries. Scientists have estimated that a 2,500 acre wetland in Georgia saves $1 million in water pollution control costs annually (OTA 1993).

text: Plants showing inducible CAM and CAM-cycling are typically found in conditions where periods of water shortage alternate with periods when water is freely available. Periodic drought – a feature of semi-arid regions – is one cause of water shortage. Plants which grow on trees or rocks (as epiphytes or lithophytes) also experience variations in water availability. Salinity, high light levels and nutrient availability are other factors which have been shown to induce CAM.

text: Plants showing inducible CAM and CAM-cycling are typically found in conditions where periods of water shortage alternate with periods when water is freely available. Periodic drought – a feature of semi-arid regions – is one cause of water shortage. Plants which grow on trees or rocks (as

text: epiphyte

text: s or

text: lithophyte

text: s) also experience variations in water availability. Salinity, high light levels and nutrient availability are other factors which have been shown to induce CAM.

text: Drinking water quality has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension. There are thousands of parameters of water quality. In public water supply systems water should, at a minimum, be disinfected—most commonly through the use of chlorination or the use of ultra violet light—or it may need to undergo treatment, especially in the case of surface water. For more details, please see the separate entries on water quality, water treatment and drinking water.

text: Drinking

text: water quality

text: has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension. There are thousands of parameters of water quality. In public water supply systems water should, at a minimum, be disinfected—most commonly through the use of

text: chlorination

text: or the use of

text: ultra violet

text: light—or it may need to undergo treatment, especially in the case of

text: surface water

text: . For more details, please see the separate entries on

text: water quality

text: water treatment

text: and

text: drinking water

text: Keswick Dam was one of Central Valley Project that was started due to unequal water allocation that left some land owners with no water supply especially during summer season when need of water diversions for irrigation and domestic uses was required due to prolonged hot and dry weather. The water scarcity started in the 19th century in gold mine Era. Discovery of the gold mine in the 1840s attracted flood of immigrants to California. After a few years many immigrants attention shifted to agriculture because it seemed more stable than gold gambling. Central valley had fertile soils, abundant water, and a flat gentle topography suitable for farming. Consequently, dust bowl depression era caused more migration to California resulting to further extension of agriculture and ranching in gold fields. The California Legislature immediately enacted laws to deal with the state's water scarcity issue, so they adopted riparian water rights. This law had limitations where owners of land bordering the water had a right to a reasonable amount of that water but Owners, whose land did not border bodies of water, had no rights to any of the water. Due to the usage restrictions by the riparian rights, the government directed the state engineers to come up with a plan for the entire state to accomplish fair distribution of water for irrigation and domestic uses. Increase in demand for food caused a shift from a small scale farming to large scale intensive farming. Low topography caused flooding in winter rainy season, but later followed severe drought in summer months. Low water flow cause increase in salinity that resulted in intrusion of salt in some parts of the valley especially in the Bay. Primarily, Keswick project was for irrigation purposes,but it become a multipurpose for flood control, improves Sacramento River navigation, supplies domestic and industrial water, generates electric power, conserves fish and wildlife, creates opportunities for recreation, and enhances water quality.

text: Keswick Dam was one of

text: Central Valley Project

text: that was started due to unequal water allocation that left some land owners with no water supply especially during summer season when need of water diversions for irrigation and domestic uses was required due to prolonged hot and dry weather. The water scarcity started in the 19th century in

text: gold mine Era

text: . Discovery of the gold mine in the 1840s attracted flood of immigrants to

text: California

text: . After a few years many immigrants attention shifted to agriculture because it seemed more stable than gold gambling. Central valley had fertile soils, abundant water, and a flat gentle topography suitable for farming. Consequently, dust bowl depression era caused more migration to

text: California

text: resulting to further extension of agriculture and ranching in gold fields. The California Legislature immediately enacted laws to deal with the state's water scarcity issue, so they adopted riparian water rights. This law had limitations where owners of land bordering the water had a right to a reasonable amount of that water but Owners, whose land did not border bodies of water, had no rights to any of the water. Due to the usage restrictions by the riparian rights, the government directed the state engineers to come up with a plan for the entire state to accomplish fair distribution of water for irrigation and domestic uses. Increase in demand for food caused a shift from a small scale farming to large scale intensive farming. Low topography caused flooding in winter rainy season, but later followed severe drought in summer months. Low water flow cause increase in salinity that resulted in intrusion of salt in some parts of the valley especially in the Bay. Primarily, Keswick project was for irrigation purposes,but it become a multipurpose for flood control, improves Sacramento River navigation, supplies domestic and industrial water, generates electric power, conserves fish and wildlife, creates opportunities for recreation, and enhances water quality.

text: The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of the water supply companies in London, including minimum standards of water quality for the first time. The Act "made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of pure and wholesome water", and required that all water be "effectually filtered" from 31 December 1855. This was followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a worldwide precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe. The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was formed at the same time, water filtration was adopted throughout the country, and new water intakes on the Thames were established above Teddington Lock.

text: The

text: Metropolis Water Act

text: introduced the regulation of the

text: water supply

text: companies in

text: London

text: , including minimum standards of water quality for the first time. The Act "made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of pure and wholesome water", and required that all water be "effectually filtered" from 31 December 1855. This was followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a worldwide precedent for similar state public health interventions across

text: Europe

text: . The

text: Metropolitan Commission of Sewers

text: was formed at the same time, water filtration was adopted throughout the country, and new water intakes on the

text: Thames

text: were established above

text: Teddington Lock

text: Among 11 cities participating in performance benchmarking in 2006-07, none provided water continuously to all customers. According to the benchmarking data, the city with the shortest supply per day was Bagerhat with 2 hours and the city with the longest supply was Dhaka with 23 hours, followed by Manikganj and Chandpur with 20 hours. Within cities, the duration of supply often varies, as it does between seasons. Major water shortages in Bangladesh occur during the dry season. As of 2011, however, intermittent supply was common in at least parts of Dhaka, forcing families to purchase drinking water and use pond or river water for their other needs. Regular power cuts, which turn off well pumps, also contribute to the intermittency of supply.

text: Among 11 cities participating in performance benchmarking in 2006-07, none provided water continuously to all customers. According to the benchmarking data, the city with the shortest supply per day was

text: Bagerhat

text: with 2 hours and the city with the longest supply was Dhaka with 23 hours, followed by

text: Manikganj

text: and

text: Chandpur

text: with 20 hours. Within cities, the duration of supply often varies, as it does between seasons. Major water shortages in Bangladesh occur during the dry season. As of 2011, however, intermittent supply was common in at least parts of Dhaka, forcing families to purchase drinking water and use pond or river water for their other needs. Regular power cuts, which turn off well pumps, also contribute to the intermittency of supply.

text: Annual rainfall averages ~600 mm which equates to 1,668 km; however, about 83% of this precipitation is lost through evapotranspiration and evaporation. Subsequently, internal renewable water resources are reduced to about 276 km. Runoff is also significant and is estimated at 814 km/year, of which 538 km comes from contributions originating in basins from Paraguay and Uruguay. These statistics are general for the entire country; however, Argentina is a large country encompassing 2.7 million km with weather patterns and climates that vary greatly. For example, the eastern edges of the Andes mountains are dry and water scarcity and droughts are an ongoing issue. In the greater Buenos Aires which is a lowland area, water pollution from industrial effluents, stormwater and flooding, and groundwater management are the major concerns. Down in the sparsely populated Patagonia region where there is ample quantities of high quality water, water resources management has fewer challenges.

text: Annual rainfall averages ~600 mm which equates to 1,668 km; however, about 83% of this precipitation is lost through

text: evapotranspiration

text: and

text: evaporation

text: . Subsequently, internal renewable water resources are reduced to about 276 km. Runoff is also significant and is estimated at 814 km/year, of which 538 km comes from contributions originating in basins from Paraguay and Uruguay. These statistics are general for the entire country; however, Argentina is a large country encompassing 2.7 million km with weather patterns and climates that vary greatly. For example, the eastern edges of the Andes mountains are dry and water scarcity and droughts are an ongoing issue. In the greater Buenos Aires which is a lowland area, water pollution from industrial effluents, stormwater and flooding, and groundwater management are the major concerns. Down in the sparsely populated Patagonia region where there is ample quantities of high quality water, water resources management has fewer challenges.

text: The proposed amendment to the constitution dealt with the issue of water supply and sanitation, including a statement that access to piped water and sanitation were fundamental human rights, and that

text: The proposed amendment to the

text: constitution

text: dealt with the issue of water supply and sanitation, including a statement that access to piped water and sanitation were fundamental human rights, and that

text: Mekorot bulk water tariffs The prices Mekorot is entitled to charge are the rates set by the Ministers of Energy and Water and Finance, approved by the Knesset's Finance Committee, and updated from time to time according to the changes in the Consumer Price Index, electricity rates and the average wage index. The rates are categorized by the different uses: domestic, consumption and services, industry and agriculture. The rates for industrial and agriculture uses are lower than those for domestic consumption and services.  Water for agriculture is supplied on a less reliable basis and is of poorer quality. Subsidies are provided for agriculture and for remote and elevated localities. The bulk water tariff for a specific use is the same throughout the country, irrespective of the difference in costs of supplying water to a specific locality. Mekorot bulk water tariffs were increased by 25% in January 2010, to a large extent to absorb increases in electricity prices. Energy accounts for an ever larger share of water supply costs because of the increasing share of seawater desalination.

text: Mekorot bulk

text: water tariff

text: s The prices Mekorot is entitled to charge are the rates set by the Ministers of Energy and Water and Finance, approved by the Knesset's Finance Committee, and updated from time to time according to the changes in the Consumer Price Index, electricity rates and the average wage index. The rates are categorized by the different uses: domestic, consumption and services, industry and agriculture. The rates for industrial and agriculture uses are lower than those for domestic consumption and services.  Water for agriculture is supplied on a less reliable basis and is of poorer quality. Subsidies are provided for agriculture and for remote and elevated localities. The bulk water tariff for a specific use is the same throughout the country, irrespective of the difference in costs of supplying water to a specific locality. Mekorot bulk water tariffs were increased by 25% in January 2010, to a large extent to absorb increases in electricity prices. Energy accounts for an ever larger share of water supply costs because of the increasing share of seawater desalination.

text: Drinking water & beverage facilities: Multi Oxidant is a proven disinfectant for improving the quality and safety of drinking water with significant economic savings. For providing clean, safe drinking water ranges from rural communities to large cities. Also providing clean, safe water at food and beverage facilities.  It's Ideally suited for carbonated soft drinks bottling, Brewing, Dairy Farms and Dairy and Food Processing applications.

text: Drinking water & beverage facilities: Multi Oxidant is a proven disinfectant for improving the quality and safety of drinking water with significant economic savings. For providing clean, safe drinking water ranges from rural communities to large cities. Also providing clean, safe water at food and beverage facilities.  It's Ideally suited for carbonated

text: soft drinks

text: bottling,

text: Brewing

text: Dairy

text: Farms and Dairy and

text: Food Processing

text: applications.

text: In an interview on BBC, Dr, Ashitey Trebi-Ollennu noted that he had started a project in his home country of Ghana to make a more likable and fun subject. He worked on the Phoenix (spacecraft) that found water on Mars. He is currently working on robots for the InSight mission.

text: In an interview on BBC, Dr, Ashitey Trebi-Ollennu noted that he had started a project in his home country of Ghana to make a more likable and fun subject. He worked on the

text: Phoenix (spacecraft)

text: that found water on Mars. He is currently working on robots for the

text: InSight

text: mission.

text: Water is not present in the piping until the system operates; instead, the piping is filled with air at a pressure below the water supply pressure. To prevent the larger water supply pressure from prematurely forcing water into the piping, the design of the dry pipe valve (a specialized type of check valve) results in a greater force on top of the check valve clapper by the use of a larger valve clapper area exposed to the piping air pressure, as compared to the higher water pressure but smaller clapper surface area.

text: Water is not present in the piping until the system operates; instead, the piping is filled with air at a pressure below the water supply pressure. To prevent the larger water supply pressure from prematurely forcing water into the piping, the design of the dry pipe valve (a specialized type of

text: check valve

text: ) results in a greater force on top of the check valve clapper by the use of a larger valve clapper area exposed to the piping air pressure, as compared to the higher water pressure but smaller clapper surface area.

text: As global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a world with a fixed water supply, there are efforts under way to learn how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in irrigation  methods  and technologies, agricultural water management, crop types, and water monitoring. Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water.  Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation (see Aral Sea and Pyramid Lake).

text: As global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a world with a fixed water supply, there are efforts under way to learn how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in irrigation  methods  and

text: technologies

text: , agricultural

text: water management

text: , crop types, and water monitoring.

text: Aquaculture

text: is a small but growing agricultural use of water.  Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation (see

text: Aral Sea

text: and

text: Pyramid Lake

text: The accompanying Water Fluoridation Regulation 2008 listed 134 drinking water supplies that were to be fluoridated by 31 December 2012. Of the drinking water supplies listed in the Regulation, 32 comprised the SEQ Water Grid located in Southeast Queensland. The fluoridation of these supplies by the end of 2009 accounted for the largest increase in people currently receiving fluoridated water in Queensland (approximately 2.6 million people in 2006 or 68% of the Queensland population).

text: The accompanying Water Fluoridation Regulation 2008 listed 134 drinking water supplies that were to be fluoridated by 31 December 2012. Of the drinking water supplies listed in the Regulation, 32 comprised the

text: SEQ Water Grid

text: located in

text: Southeast Queensland

text: . The fluoridation of these supplies by the end of 2009 accounted for the largest increase in people currently receiving fluoridated water in Queensland (approximately 2.6 million people in 2006 or 68% of the Queensland population).

text: Aquifers are critically important in human habitation and agriculture. Deep aquifers in arid areas have long been water sources for irrigation (see Ogallala below). Many villages and even large cities draw their water supply from wells in aquifers.

text: Continuity of water supply is poor in most Yemeni cities. For example, in Taiz, the frequency of the public piped water delivery is only once about every 40 days. More and more people have to rely on more costly water provided by private wells supplying water tankers. The quality of this water is questionable because these tankers have often been used for other purposes without appropriate cleaning. According to the Ministry of Water and Environment, 15 of 23 urban water utilities provided water every day for between 12 and 24 hours in 2007. These data do not differentiate between utilities with continuous supply and those with intermittent supply of a “moderate” sort (more than 12 hours daily water supply). The 15 cities thus include Sana’a and Aden that provide intermittent water supply. Four other towns provided water on a daily basis, but less than 12 hours per day. The city of Ibb and the town of Bajil provide water only once a week. And the utilities in Taiz and Mahwit provided water only less than once a week in 2007. However, there are potentially conflicting reports about the continuity of supply. For example, the Ministry reported that water was being provided on a daily basis in Amran in 2007. However, 100% of the respondents to a household survey in the same town in 2008 indicated that they received water only once a week or even once a month.

text: Continuity of water supply is poor in most Yemeni cities. For example, in

text: Taiz

text: , the frequency of the public piped water delivery is only once about every 40 days. More and more people have to rely on more costly water provided by private wells supplying water tankers. The quality of this water is questionable because these tankers have often been used for other purposes without appropriate cleaning. According to the Ministry of Water and Environment, 15 of 23 urban water utilities provided water every day for between 12 and 24 hours in 2007. These data do not differentiate between utilities with continuous supply and those with intermittent supply of a “moderate” sort (more than 12 hours daily water supply). The 15 cities thus include Sana’a and Aden that provide intermittent water supply. Four other towns provided water on a daily basis, but less than 12 hours per day. The city of

text: Ibb

text: and the town of

text: Bajil

text: provide water only once a week. And the utilities in

text: Taiz

text: and

text: Mahwit

text: provided water only less than once a week in 2007. However, there are potentially conflicting reports about the continuity of supply. For example, the Ministry reported that water was being provided on a daily basis in

text: Amran

text: in 2007. However, 100% of the respondents to a household survey in the same town in 2008 indicated that they received water only once a week or even once a month.

text: Federal projects can overrule this state system, and this is true for the Colorado-Big Thompson Project (CBT). The CBT Dam is a Bureau of Reclamation irrigation project where a water market has developed, and is based on a proportional rights system. This market has been in operation since the early 1960s, and has well-developed infrastructure to move water within the area of service. There are market prices, brokers, short term rentals and permanent leases of water in this system, and trades within the agricultural sector and between the agricultural and municipal and industrial sectors.Water rights are homogeneous and trades are in allotments of the use of  (for 1 year) of the  per year of water supplied by the CBT; and each acre-foot is a tradable allotment. Water rights are thus well defined, and understood by traders. Supplies are also reliable, and the delivery of water assured- users know what they are getting. The CBT was developed to supply water that is supplemental to a users main supply (to reduce variability in supplies), so in wet years the quota is cut back proportionally for all shareholders to save for drier years. Similarly, if there is less than  available for a given year, all supplies are cut back proportionally. Additionally, conserved water can be transferred to another use, which is not the case in prior appropriation systems. Water can also be rented to users outside the district through exchanges and replacements and internal ditch companies also trade non-CBT water, though transaction costs are higher for these. Rental prices are less than allotments, because of the higher risk of unavailability, and make up 30% of transactions.

text: Federal projects can overrule this state system, and this is true for the

text: Colorado-Big Thompson Project

text: (CBT). The CBT Dam is a

text: Bureau of Reclamation

text: Fresh water generators (Evaporators) use salinometers on the distillate discharge in order to gauge the quality of the water. Water from the evaporator can be destined for potable water supplies, so salty water is not desirable for human consumption.

text: Fresh water generators (

text: Evaporators

text: ) use salinometers on the distillate discharge in order to gauge the quality of the water. Water from the evaporator can be destined for potable water supplies, so salty water is not desirable for human consumption.

text: Water safety plans are considered by the WHO as the most effective means of maintaining a safe supply of drinking water to the public. Their use should ensure that water is safe for all forms of human consumption and that it meets regulatory water standards relating to human health. ("Consumption" includes not only drinking per se, but also other forms of ordinary contact, such as bathing, dishwashing, and inhaling aerosolised water droplets.) Comprehensive risk assessment and risk management form the backbone of these plans, which aim to steer management of drinking water-related health risks away from end-of-pipe monitoring and response.

text: Water safety plans are considered by the WHO as the most effective means of maintaining a safe supply of

text: drinking water

text: to the public. Their use should ensure that water is safe for all forms of human consumption and that it meets regulatory water standards relating to human health. ("Consumption" includes not only drinking per se, but also other forms of ordinary contact, such as bathing, dishwashing, and inhaling aerosolised water droplets.) Comprehensive

text: risk assessment

text: and

text: risk management

text: form the backbone of these plans, which aim to steer management of drinking water-related health risks away from end-of-pipe monitoring and response.

text: In the early 1800s, there was a thriving woollen industry, supplying garments to South Carolina and other southern states of America, the West Indies, South America, and Russia, but it was a cottage industry. One of Madocks' first projects was to build a factory where wool could be processed on an industrial scale. Although there were a few sites in Wales where the fulling of cloth was powered by water, this was one of the first woollen mills where water power was used for carding and spinning. The building was located close to his home at Tan-yr-Allt, because the high ground behind it provided a good head of water. It had a characteristic shallow-pitched slate roof, and Madocks instructed that the walls should be yellow, and the windows painted dark green. Nearby were a corn mill and a fulling mill. The water was provided by building a dam across a small valley, to form Llyn Cwm Bach, with sluices channelling the water to feed the mill and the factory.

text: In the early 1800s, there was a thriving

text: woollen industry

text: , supplying garments to South Carolina and other southern states of America, the West Indies, South America, and Russia, but it was a cottage industry. One of Madocks' first projects was to build a factory where wool could be processed on an industrial scale. Although there were a few sites in Wales where the

text: fulling

text: of cloth was powered by water, this was one of the first woollen

text: mills

text: where water power was used for

text: carding

text: and

text: spinning

text: . The building was located close to his home at Tan-yr-Allt, because the high ground behind it provided a good head of water. It had a characteristic shallow-pitched slate roof, and Madocks instructed that the walls should be yellow, and the windows painted dark green. Nearby were a corn mill and a fulling mill. The water was provided by building a dam across a small valley, to form Llyn Cwm Bach, with sluices channelling the water to feed the mill and the factory.

text: Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling towers is to prevent the growth of Legionella, including species that cause legionellosis or Legionnaires' disease, most notably L. pneumophila, or Mycobacterium avium. The various Legionella species are the cause of Legionnaires' disease in humans and transmission is via exposure to aerosols—the inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common sources of Legionella include cooling towers used in open recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater ponds and creeks.

text: Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling towers is to prevent the growth of

text: Legionella

text: , including species that cause

text: legionellosis

text: or Legionnaires' disease, most notably L. pneumophila, or

text: Mycobacterium avium

text: . The various Legionella species are the cause of Legionnaires' disease in humans and transmission is via exposure to

text: aerosol

text: s—the inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common sources of Legionella include cooling towers used in open recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater ponds and creeks.

text: In the United States, many water utilities remain publicly owned. Water was supplied by 55,000 separate water systems in 2006.However, US and global companies have business models which involve the privatization of utilities to achieve profitability from economy of scale. Additionally, cash-strapped municipalities see benefit to selling their water supply assets.

text: Water supply According to a 2004 UN report, in some cities and towns drinking water quality is poor. Typical of the majority of surface waters is the increase in the intensity of the bacterial and viral load, the poor functioning of wastewater treatment plants, the virtual absence of purified wastewater, and infringements of the rules governing the use of water in water protection zones. However, the requirements regarding the quality of drinking water have been made stricter. The relevant recommendations of the World Health Organization have been put into effect. New standards now determine the water treatment technology and the policy of organizations monitoring the quality of water at all stages from the time it leaves the water supply point until it reaches the consumer.

text: Some industrial processes, notably in the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries, need large amounts of very pure water. In these situations, feedwater is first processed into purified water and then further processed to produce ultrapure water.

text: Some industrial processes, notably in the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries, need large amounts of very pure water. In these situations, feedwater is first processed into purified water and then further processed to produce

text: ultrapure water

text: Concerning water supply, according to a survey undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1995, 370,000 permanent inhabitants in rural areas (0.5% of the total population) did not have access to piped water supply. They are supplied by 30,000 water points, most of them wells. The government plans to increase the access rate to 100%, improve water quality by establishing protection areas around wells and springs, and to increase the reliability of water supply by increasing production, storage and interconnection of existing networks.

text: Where available, cold water readily available in nearby water bodies might be used directly for cooling, place or supplement cooling towers. The Deep Lake Water Cooling System in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, is an example. It uses cold lake water to cool the chillers, which in turn are used to cool city buildings via a district cooling system.  The return water is used to warm the city's drinking water supply, which is desirable in this cold climate.  Whenever a chiller's heat rejection can be used for a productive purpose, in addition to the cooling function, very high thermal effectiveness is possible.

text: Where available, cold water readily available in nearby water bodies might be used directly for cooling, place or supplement cooling towers. The

text: Deep Lake Water Cooling System

text: in

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: Canada

text: , is an example. It uses cold lake water to cool the chillers, which in turn are used to cool city buildings via a

text: district cooling

text: system.  The return water is used to warm the city's drinking water supply, which is desirable in this cold climate.  Whenever a chiller's heat rejection can be used for a productive purpose, in addition to the cooling function, very high thermal effectiveness is possible.

text: In a water supply system designed for a single use, such as irrigating crops, livestock might damage hardware if they try to access the water, and people needing water for domestic uses might find there is no water provided in months when it is not needed for watering crops. These problems can be overcome when designing water supply systems for multiple uses. For example, steps can be built to provide access for bathing or washing clothes, and access points can be provided to give livestock safe access to water. Sufficient water can be supplied that there is always some available for domestic uses, even at times when the crops do not need water. Other livelihood options can also be considered; for example, using water for fisheries, as well as rearing livestock, growing crops and domestic uses. MUS can benefit women; for example, by reducing the time they have to spend gathering water and by providing water close to their home with which they can grow produce to feed their families and sell on.

text: They decided to defeat the killer cactus using water. But there was shortage of water in the city. At the suggestion of Carolina and Francisca, they decided to use the water of the water supply tank on Chichideka mountain. The Mayor was again opposed to use the water from the tank, but had to give up this time. He let out his anger on Sumaho-chan. Hiroshi's plan was to inject water into a playing balloon called "Sabo-chan", and throw it at the Queen Cactus.

text: Both absolute and relative poverty measures are usually based on a person's yearly income and frequently take no account of total wealth. Some people argue that this ignores a key component of economic well-being. Major developments and research in this area suggest that standard one dimensional measures of poverty, based mainly on wealth or calorie consumption, are seriously deficient. This is because poverty often  involves being deprived on several fronts, which do not necessarily correlate well with wealth. Access to basic needs is an example of a measurement that does not include wealth. Access to basic needs that may be used in the measurement of poverty are clean water, food, shelter and clothing.  It has been established that people may have enough income to satisfy basic needs,but not use it wisely. Similarly, extremely poor people may not be deprived if sufficiently strong social networks, or social service systems exist. For deeper discussion see. See also the Wikipedia article on Multidimensional poverty.

text: The sources of the municipal water supply are various spring fed tanks located around the island. The three island communities supply water within a limited but expanding part of their jurisdictions. Homes outside the municipal water system use wells or cisterns to collect rain water. There are plans to construct an artificial lake in the area of Panormos to supply water to farmers. Private water wells supply some agricultural needs and water from these wells can be transported by lorry to outlying areas to refill cisterns or swimming pools. The municipal water is good quality. As most natural source water in limestone environments the water has a high calcium content.

text: The sources of the municipal water supply are various spring fed tanks located around the island. The three island communities supply water within a limited but expanding part of their jurisdictions. Homes outside the municipal water system use wells or cisterns to collect rain water. There are plans to construct an artificial lake in the area of Panormos to supply water to farmers. Private

text: water well

text: s supply some agricultural needs and water from these wells can be transported by lorry to outlying areas to refill

text: cistern

text: s or swimming pools. The municipal water is good quality. As most natural source water in limestone environments the water has a high

text: calcium

text: content.

text: The supply of desalinated seawater from the Tianjin area to Beijing is another option for the future water supply of Beijing. However, desalinated seawater remains expensive and energy-intensive despite technological improvements. According to one source the desalination cost is about U$0.6-0.9/m3 compared to the cost of U$1.2-1.5/m3 for the South-to-North water transfer project. According to another source, the cost of desalination is 8 yuan (US$1.30) compared to 10 yuan for water provided through the South-North Water Transfer. Tianjin itself suffers from water scarcity and the cost of bringing water from the coast to Beijing has to be added to the cost of desalination. Furthermore, the South-North Water Transfer project will most likely not charge the city of Beijing the full cost of water supply. Therefore, the supply of desalinated water to Beijing may remain elusive despite ambitious national plans to substantially increase the capacity for seawater desalination.

text: Consumptive water use is water removed from available supplies without return to a water resource system (e.g., water used in manufacturing, agriculture, and food preparation that is not returned to a stream, river, or water treatment plant). Evaporation from the surface of the earth into clouds of water in the air which then falls to the ground as "rain" is excluded from this model. Crop consumptive water use is the amount of water transpired during plant growth plus what evaporates from the soil surface and foliage in the crop area.  The portion of water consumed in crop production depends on many factors, especially the irrigation technology.

text: Consumptive water use is water removed from available supplies without return to a

text: water resource

text: system (e.g., water used in manufacturing, agriculture, and

text: food preparation

text: that is not returned to a stream, river, or

text: water treatment

text: plant).

text: Evaporation

text: from the surface of the earth into clouds of water in the air which then falls to the ground as "rain" is excluded from this model. Crop consumptive water use is the amount of water transpired during plant growth plus what evaporates from the soil surface and foliage in the crop area.  The portion of water consumed in crop production depends on many factors, especially the

text: irrigation

text: technology.

text: 80% of the water India receives through its annual rains and surface water flow, happens over a 4-month period – June through September. This spatial and time variance in availability of natural water versus year round demand for irrigation, drinking and industrial water creates a demand-supply gap, that only worsens with India's rising population. Proponents claim the answers to India's water problem is to conserve the abundant monsoon water bounty, store it in reservoirs, and use this water in areas which have occasional inadequate rainfall, or are known to be drought-prone or in those times of the year when water supplies become scarce.

text: Water supply and sanitation:There is pipe line water supply / 10 taps from PHE department which are covering around 150 households of 534.There are 312 families who are having the sanitation materials from GP but many of them are not using / not installed as it was not in priority list of these households. Around 180 families including private are using the sanitation.

text: In early September 2013, the Chinese Mainland government agreed to supply Kinmen with water from Jinjiang City in Fujian due to the ongoing water shortage problem in Kinmen. Kinmen draws more than 8,000 tonnes of groundwater everyday and water from its reservoir is barely enough to support the residence during dry season. The shortage problem will heavily hit the local economy by 2016 if no mitigation plan is enacted. The water supply agreement was officially signed on 20 July 2015 in Kinmen between Kinmen County Waterworks Director Weng Wen-kuei (翁文貴) and Fujian Water Supply Co chairman Zhu Jinliang (朱金良) witnessed by Kinmen County Magistrate Chen Fu-hai and Fujian Province Governor Su Shulin.

text: In early September 2013, the Chinese Mainland government agreed to supply Kinmen with water from

text: Jinjiang City

text: in

text: Fujian

text: due to the ongoing

text: water shortage

text: problem in Kinmen. Kinmen draws more than 8,000 tonnes of

text: groundwater

text: everyday and water from its reservoir is barely enough to support the residence during dry season. The shortage problem will heavily hit the local economy by 2016 if no mitigation plan is enacted. The water supply agreement was officially signed on 20 July 2015 in Kinmen between Kinmen County Waterworks Director Weng Wen-kuei (翁文貴) and Fujian Water Supply Co chairman Zhu Jinliang (朱金良) witnessed by Kinmen County

text: Magistrate

text: Chen Fu-hai

text: and Fujian Province Governor

text: Su Shulin

text: The spinning wheel was a medieval invention that increased thread making productivity by a factor greater than ten.  One of the early developments that preceded the Industrial Revolution was the stocking frame (loom) of c. 1589.  Later in the Industrial Revolution came the flying shuttle, a simple device that doubled the productivity of weaving.  Spinning thread had been a limiting factor in cloth making requiring 10 spinners using the spinning wheel to supply one weaver.  With the spinning jenny a spinner could spin eight threads at once.  The water frame (Ptd. 1768) adapted water power to spinning, but it could only spin one thread at a time. The water frame was easy to operate and many could be located in a single building.  The spinning mule (1779) allowed a large number of threads to be spun by a single machine using water power.  A change in consumer preference for cotton at the time of increased cloth production resulted in the invention of the cotton gin (Ptd. 1794).  Steam power eventually was used as a supplement to water during the Industrial Revolution, and both were used until electrification.  A graph of productivity of spinning technologies can be found in Ayres (1989), along with much other data related this article.

text: The

text: spinning wheel

text: was a medieval invention that increased thread making productivity by a factor greater than ten.  One of the early developments that preceded the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: was the

text: stocking frame

text: (loom) of c. 1589.  Later in the Industrial Revolution came the

text: flying shuttle

text: , a simple device that doubled the productivity of weaving.  Spinning thread had been a limiting factor in cloth making requiring 10 spinners using the

text: spinning wheel

text: to supply one weaver.  With the

text: spinning jenny

text: a spinner could spin eight threads at once.  The

text: water frame

text: (Ptd. 1768) adapted water power to spinning, but it could only spin one thread at a time. The water frame was easy to operate and many could be located in a single building.  The

text: spinning mule

text: (1779) allowed a large number of threads to be spun by a single machine using water power.  A change in consumer preference for cotton at the time of increased cloth production resulted in the invention of the

text: cotton gin

text: (Ptd. 1794).  Steam power eventually was used as a supplement to water during the Industrial Revolution, and both were used until electrification.  A graph of productivity of spinning technologies can be found in Ayres (1989), along with much other data related this article.

text: When river water is used in surface irrigation, the part of water joining the stream is termed as ‘return flows’ and the part of water joining the aquifer is termed as ‘seepage loss’ or manmade ground water charging. The sum of primary water supplies and return (recycled) flows in a river basin is the total water available for use. The total available water for use in a river basin is almost one-and-half times the primary water supplies if net ground water use is also accounted.  If ground water use is intensive or close to ground water mining, the return flows would be during heavy rains period only which are below 10% of primary water supplies in the river basin. There would be negligible base flows into the river streams during the remaining period and  good chance of river turning in to losing stream due to unsustainable ground water exploitation.

text: When river water is used in surface irrigation, the part of water joining the stream is termed as ‘return flows’ and the part of water joining the aquifer is termed as ‘seepage loss’ or manmade ground water charging. The sum of primary water supplies and return (recycled) flows in a river basin is the total water available for use. The total available water for use in a river basin is almost one-and-half times the primary water supplies if net ground water use is also accounted.  If ground water use is intensive or close to ground water mining, the return flows would be during heavy rains period only which are below 10% of primary water supplies in the river basin. There would be negligible base flows into the river streams during the remaining period and  good chance of river turning in to

text: losing stream

text: due to unsustainable ground water exploitation.

text: The legal right to use a designated water supply is known as a water right. There are two major models used for water rights. The first is riparian rights, where the owner of the adjacent land has the right to the water in the stream. The other major model is the prior appropriations model, the first party to make use of a water supply has the first rights to it, regardless of whether the property is near the water source. Riparian systems are generally more common in areas where water is plentiful, while appropriations systems are more common in dry climates. As water resource law is complex, many areas have some combination of the two approaches.

text: The legal right to use a designated water supply is known as a

text: water right

text: . There are two major models used for water rights. The first is

text: riparian rights

text: , where the owner of the adjacent land has the right to the water in the stream. The other major model is the

text: prior appropriations model

text: , the first party to make use of a water supply has the first rights to it, regardless of whether the property is near the water source. Riparian systems are generally more common in areas where water is plentiful, while appropriations systems are more common in dry climates. As water resource law is complex, many areas have some combination of the two approaches.

text: It is estimated that between 50% and 60% of the population of Southern Sudan has access to an improved water source, such as a hand pump, a protected well or – for a small minority - piped water supply. Even those with access to an improved water source often do not receive safe water. Also, they do not receive water throughout the year, because piped water supply is intermittent or wells run dry. Those without access to an improved water source fetch water from rivers, ponds or open wells. This is often done by children and women. Some also buy water from vendors who use donkeys, bicycles or trucks to get water to their customers.

text: It is estimated that between 50% and 60% of the population of Southern Sudan has access to an

text: improved water source

text: , such as a hand pump, a protected well or – for a small minority - piped water supply. Even those with access to an improved water source often do not receive safe water. Also, they do not receive water throughout the year, because piped water supply is intermittent or wells run dry. Those without access to an improved water source fetch water from rivers, ponds or open wells. This is often done by children and women. Some also buy water from vendors who use donkeys, bicycles or trucks to get water to their customers.

text: With the few thousand wells feeding the population of Mumbai tending to go dry during summer, the acute shortage of water resulted in protests by the local residents in June 1845. A two-man committee, appointed by the British rulers of the time, to examine the grievances of the agitators concurred with water shortage problem and stressed the urgent need to solve the water supply problem of Mumbai.

text: Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China or India, if technology is not used. The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) owing to widespread overdrafting beyond sustainable yields. Other countries affected include Pakistan, Iran, and Mexico. This overdrafting is already leading to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even with the overpumping of its aquifers, China has developed a grain deficit. This effect has contributed in driving grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. One suggested solution is for population growth to be slowed quickly by investing heavily in female literacy and family planning services. Desalination is also considered a viable and effective solution to the problem of water shortages.

text: Water deficits

text: , which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China or India, if technology is not used. The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) owing to widespread

text: overdrafting

text: beyond

text: sustainable

text: yields. Other countries affected include Pakistan,

text: Iran

text: , and Mexico. This overdrafting is already leading to

text: water scarcity

text: and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even with the overpumping of its

text: aquifers

text: , China has developed a grain deficit. This effect has contributed in driving grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing

text: water shortages

text: . One suggested solution is for

text: population growth

text: to be slowed quickly by investing heavily in female

text: literacy

text: and

text: family planning

text: services.

text: Desalination

text: is also considered a viable and effective solution to the problem of water shortages.

text: Issues surrounding the provision of water are nothing new; however, the approach to the problematic has changed dramatically during the last century. For the majority of the 20th century water was publicly provisioned in an era of the Keynesian Welfare State. The state incurred high capital costs in building long-lasting infrastructure that could readily supply the population with universal access to water in the pursuit of economic growth and industrialisation.  The emphasis was on social equity, with water resources state owned and centrally regulated through command and control regulation. The emphasis was on providing universal access and supply led solutions. This approach was heavily criticised during the late 20th century and under the prevailing ethos of neoliberal economic globalization, commodification of water was increasingly presented as the answer. The ability of the state to continue provision of water efficiently was questioned in the latter half of the 20th century in parallel with the environmentalist movement which raised awareness of the resulting environmental degradation and ecological disturbances.  The fiscal crisis of the 1970s decreased public spending in most developed nations, leading to further deterioration of state-run infrastructure and further exacerbating problems of provision. Together with critics insistence on state inability to operate efficiently these factors created an impetus for change in water governance. The precipitated change in attitude as to how water should be governed was market-based governance, proposed by neoliberals, and becoming the dominant approach to environmental problems. This shift in attitude led to the intensification of the commodification of water.

text: Issues surrounding the provision of water are nothing new; however, the approach to the problematic has changed dramatically during the last century. For the majority of the 20th century water was publicly provisioned in an era of the

text: Keynesian Welfare State

text: . The state incurred high capital costs in building long-lasting infrastructure that could readily supply the population with universal

text: access to water

text: in the pursuit of

text: economic growth

text: and

text: industrialisation

text: .  The emphasis was on

text: social equity

text: , with water resources state owned and centrally regulated through command and control regulation. The emphasis was on providing universal access and supply led solutions. This approach was heavily criticised during the late 20th century and under the prevailing ethos of

text: neoliberal economic

text: globalization

text: , commodification of water was increasingly presented as the answer. The ability of the state to continue provision of water efficiently was questioned in the latter half of the 20th century in parallel with the

text: environmentalist movement

text: which raised awareness of the resulting environmental degradation and ecological disturbances.  The fiscal crisis of the 1970s decreased public spending in most developed nations, leading to further deterioration of state-run infrastructure and further exacerbating problems of provision. Together with critics insistence on state inability to operate efficiently these factors created an impetus for change in water governance. The precipitated change in attitude as to how water should be governed was market-based governance, proposed by

text: neoliberals

text: , and becoming the dominant approach to environmental problems. This shift in attitude led to the intensification of the commodification of water.

text: The first episode of International Waters was released on March 18, 2012. The show was hosted by public radio producer and Maximum Fun founder Jesse Thorn until September 2013, with guest hosts Jordan Morris and Dave Holmes occasionally filling in. After a break in the show in late 2013, Holmes took over as full-time host on January 15, 2014, with episode 18.

text: The first episode of International Waters was released on March 18, 2012. The show was hosted by

text: public radio

text: producer and Maximum Fun founder

text: Jesse Thorn

text: until September 2013, with guest hosts

text: Jordan Morris

text: and Dave Holmes occasionally filling in. After a break in the show in late 2013, Holmes took over as full-time host on January 15, 2014, with episode 18.

text: Railway dams and reservoirs were used to supply water to an extensive railway system that ventured into low rainfall, and poor water quality areas of the inner regions of Western Australia in the 1890s.

text: Railway dams and reservoirs were used to supply water to an extensive railway system that ventured into low rainfall, and poor water quality areas of the inner regions of

text: Western Australia

text: in the 1890s.

text: Water problems involve stakeholders such as agriculture and industry, urban developers and environmental conservationists competing for the limited and common resource of available water. These problems also cross physical, disciplinary, and jurisdictional boundaries. Because of these competing needs and objectives, it is difficult to find acceptable solutions to water problems.

text: Water problems involve stakeholders such as agriculture and industry,

text: urban developers

text: and

text: environmental conservationists

text: competing for the limited and common resource of available water. These problems also cross physical, disciplinary, and jurisdictional boundaries. Because of these competing needs and objectives, it is difficult to find acceptable solutions to water problems.

text: In the early 1980s, as part of Capitol Records' repackage series of their Beach Boys albums, Shut Down Volume 2 was retitled Fun Fun Fun and had two tracks deleted: ""Cassius" Love vs. "Sonny" Wilson" and "In the Parkin' Lot."

text: In a tank-based system, the storage tank (or cistern) collects between  of water over a period of time. This system is suitable for locations plumbed with  or  water pipes. These small diameter pipes cannot supply water quickly enough to flush the toilet; the tank is needed to supply a large volume of water in a short time. The storage tank is kept full by a tank fill-valve. The storage tank is usually mounted directly upon the bowl, although some tanks are mounted on the wall a few feet above the bowl in an attempt to increase the flush water pressure as it enters the bowl. Tanks near the ceiling are flushed by means of a dangling pull chain, often with a large ornate handle, connected to a flush lever on the cistern itself. "Pulling the chain" remains a British euphemism for flushing the toilet, although this type of tank or cistern is becoming rare. A similar German expression is Wasser ziehen ("to pull water").

text: In a tank-based system, the storage tank (or cistern) collects between  of water over a period of time. This system is suitable for locations plumbed with  or  water pipes. These small diameter pipes cannot supply water quickly enough to flush the toilet; the tank is needed to supply a large volume of water in a short time. The storage tank is kept full by a tank fill-valve. The storage tank is usually mounted directly upon the bowl, although some tanks are mounted on the wall a few feet above the bowl in an attempt to increase the flush water pressure as it enters the bowl. Tanks near the ceiling are flushed by means of a dangling

text: pull chain

text: , often with a large ornate handle, connected to a flush lever on the cistern itself. "Pulling the chain" remains a British euphemism for flushing the toilet, although this type of tank or cistern is becoming rare. A similar

text: German

text: expression is Wasser ziehen ("to pull water").

text: Physical water scarcity is the situation when there is not enough water to meet all demands, such as those required by an ecosystem to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of hydraulic infrastructure, often for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and declining groundwater.

text: Physical water scarcity is the situation when there is not enough water to meet all demands, such as those required by an

text: ecosystem

text: to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of hydraulic infrastructure, often for

text: irrigation

text: . Symptoms of physical

text: water scarcity

text: include

text: environmental degradation

text: and declining

text: groundwater

text: Certain problems have beset the use of groundwater around the world. Just as river waters have been over-used and polluted in many parts of the world, so too have aquifers. The big difference is that aquifers are out of sight. The other major problem is that water management agencies, when calculating the "sustainable yield" of aquifer and river water, have often counted the same water twice, once in the aquifer, and once in its connected river. This problem, although understood for centuries, has persisted, partly through inertia within government agencies. In Australia, for example, prior to the statutory reforms initiated by the Council of Australian Governments water reform framework in the 1990s, many Australian states managed groundwater and surface water through separate government agencies, an approach beset by rivalry and poor communication.

text: Certain problems have beset the use of groundwater around the world. Just as river waters have been over-used and

text: polluted

text: in many parts of the world, so too have aquifers. The big difference is that aquifers are out of sight. The other major problem is that water management agencies, when calculating the "sustainable yield" of aquifer and river water, have often counted the same water twice, once in the aquifer, and once in its connected river. This problem, although understood for centuries, has persisted, partly through inertia within government agencies. In Australia, for example, prior to the statutory reforms initiated by the

text: Council of Australian Governments

text: water reform framework in the 1990s, many Australian states managed groundwater and surface water through separate government agencies, an approach beset by rivalry and poor communication.

text: Drinking Water and Sanitation (DWS) wing of Public Works Department manages the drinking water supply in the district. Schools and Anganwadi Centers have been specifically targeted to improve drinking water supply as well as attendance to these institutions. Most of region suffers from the problem of excessive iron content in the ground water which necessitates installation of Iron Removal Plants (IRPs). 579 habitations still have partial coverage of drinking water supply and 16 habitations have reported drinking water quality problem. Water treatment plant is set up in Kulai near Ambassa. Most of the rural areas get drinking water from Deep Tube Wells, Handpumps, Ring Wells with few exceptions having Overhead Water Tanks. Many villages need drinking water supply by tanker in the dry season and 59 such distressed pockets have been identified. Private contractors and government run tankers supply such services. Many tribal inhabitations still use water from open streams and ponds for drinking and cooking along with washing utensils and clothes and bathing. Water borne disease Diarrhea is quite common due to mixing of human excreta into drinking water source in many villages. Packaged drinking water of brands "Tribeni", "Eco Freshh", "Blue Fina", "Life Drop" and "Aqua Zoom" among others is consumed in government offices, restaurants etc. Filters of many types and brands, in addition to locally manufactured ceramic type filters, are sold in the district although their acceptance in rural areas is less. Halogen tablets are distributed by the administration to reduce microbial content in water, which is sometimes consumed as a medicine directly in some areas or its use discontinued due to the smell it imparts to drinking water.

text: The use of water for industrial purposes include the "utilization of water in factories, industrial plants and mines, and the use of water as an ingredient of a finished product." Industries that are found to be water-intensive are involved in the manufacturing of food and dairy, pulp and chemical products, and textile materials. These industries are usually found in the National Capital Region, CALABARZON, and Region III. In a study by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) in 1999, the intensive use of water in industry is critical in terms of the production of hazardous wastes. Thousands of tons solvent wastes, heavy metals, lubricants, and intractable wastes are improperly disposed of annually in Metro Manila.

text: Water Supply and Sanitation in Iraq is characterized by poor water and service quality. Three decades of war, combined with limited environmental awareness, have destroyed Iraq's water resources management system. Thus, Iraq faces difficulties to realize the target of 91% of households using safe drinking water supply by 2015. Currently, 16% of households report daily problems with supply and 20% use an unsafe drinking water source. Furthermore, leaking sewage pipes and septic tanks pollute the drinking water network.(11)

text: Water Supply and Sanitation in Iraq is characterized by poor

text: water

text: and service quality. Three decades of war, combined with limited environmental awareness, have destroyed

text: Iraq

text: 's

text: water resources management

text: system. Thus, Iraq faces difficulties to realize the target of 91% of households using safe

text: drinking water

text: supply by 2015. Currently, 16% of households report daily problems with supply and 20% use an unsafe drinking water source. Furthermore, leaking sewage pipes and

text: septic tank

text: s pollute the drinking water network.(11)

text: This water body is Harare's main water supply. The water is also used for irrigation purposes and commercial fishing.

text: This water body is

text: Harare

text: 's main water supply. The water is also used for irrigation purposes and commercial fishing.

text: A wealth of river basin-based water heritage is abundant in Sri Lanka. Reservoirs of Sri Lanka are different from the water tanks seen in ancient civilisations or bodies of water collected for purposes such as generation of electricity or supplying water for consumption.

text: The Kuching Water Board (KWB) and the Sibu Water Board (SWB) are responsible for management of the water supply in their respective areas. The state-owned LAKU Management SdnBhd manages the water supply for Miri, Bintulu, and Limbang. The Rural Water Supply Department manages the water supply for the remaining areas. As of 2014, 82 percent of the rural areas have a fresh water supply.

text: Istanbul's first water supply systems date back to the city's early history, when aqueducts (such as the Valens Aqueduct) deposited the water in the city's numerous cisterns. At the behest of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided  of water to  each day. In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the Fountain of Ahmed III, by means of supply lines. Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a sewage treatment system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi, İSKİ).

text: Istanbul's first

text: water supply

text: systems date back to the city's early history, when

text: aqueduct

text: s (such as the

text: Valens Aqueduct

text: ) deposited the water in the city's numerous

text: cistern

text: s. At the behest of

text: Suleiman the Magnificent

text: , the Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided  of water to  each day. In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like the

text: Fountain of Ahmed III

text: , by means of supply lines. Today, Istanbul has a chlorinated and filtered water supply and a

text: sewage treatment

text: system managed by the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi, İSKİ).

text: Members of this order are notable for inhabiting harsh environments, such as saline or very warm waters, water of poor quality, or isolated situations where no other types of fish occur. They are typically omnivores, and often live near the surface, where the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages.

text: Members of this order are notable for inhabiting harsh environments, such as

text: saline

text: or very warm waters, water of poor quality, or isolated situations where no other types of fish occur. They are typically

text: omnivore

text: s, and often live near the surface, where the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages.

text: Farmers were attracted to the Coachella Valley's inexpensive land, year-around growing season and what was initially a plentiful supply of groundwater. They soon realized, however, that the aquifer's water supply was finite and CVWD was voted into existence by Coachella Valley residents and established by the state Legislature on January 9, 1918 with the primary responsibility to protect local water resources. One of the first actions taken by the District was to claim the rights to the Whitewater River (the valley's only source of natural replenishment) to ensure that natural inflows of water to the valley would stay in the valley and benefit the groundwater basin. To better manage the groundwater basin (the only source of water that was then being used for agricultural irrigation) and minimize groundwater pumping, the District looked for alternate sources of water to irrigate agriculturally productive land.

text: With the establishment of the water authorities in April 1974, England and Wales had, for the first time, organisations which were responsible for all aspects of the management of water within a geographical region, defined by a river basin or a series of river basins. As well as the management of water resources, which they inherited from the river authorities, they were also responsible for water supply and the disposal of effluent. Most uses of water are interconnected, since the removal of water from a river for spray irrigation reduces the amount of water available for drinking water supply, and the pollution of a river by sewage prevents such a use. Most drinking water supplies had been managed by local authorities, but the Central Advisory Water Committee, which reported in 1971, had found that this system was inflexible, and the new water authorities took over 157 water supply undertakings from local authorities and joint water boards. Some thirty independent water supply companies remained, but operated under agency agreements with the new bodies.

text: With the establishment of the water authorities in April 1974, England and Wales had, for the first time, organisations which were responsible for all aspects of the management of water within a geographical region, defined by a river basin or a series of river basins. As well as the management of water resources, which they inherited from the river authorities, they were also responsible for water supply and the disposal of effluent. Most uses of water are interconnected, since the removal of water from a river for spray irrigation reduces the amount of water available for drinking water supply, and the pollution of a river by sewage prevents such a use. Most drinking water supplies had been managed by local authorities, but the

text: Central Advisory Water Committee

text: , which reported in 1971, had found that this system was inflexible, and the new water authorities took over 157 water supply undertakings from local authorities and joint water boards. Some thirty independent water supply companies remained, but operated under agency agreements with the new bodies.

text: Supply of water and electricity is sufficient in the existing town. The water supply work was done by Meham Municipal Committee till April, 1993 and later on this work was handed over to the Public Health Department. At present the existing water works is having a capacity of 100 LPCD. The electricity supply in Kalanaur town is provided through 3 Nos. of Sub stations (132KV Sub Station Kalanaur, 33KV Beri and 33KV Kahanor). The water supply in Kalanaur town is canal based. The distance from the source of water is 0.5 km (Dadri Feeder). Present water supply in the town is 70 Lpcd. Total household connections are 2500 and there are three water works/ storage reservoirs exist in the town.

text: He studied rainfall patterns and subterranean water in various parts of England. He also studied impurities in water and effects of softening water supplies. He experimented with various designs of valves for use with water pumps.

text: Human water use in the Antelope Valley depends mainly on pumping of groundwater from the valley's aquifers and on importing additional water from the California Aqueduct. Long-term groundwater pumping has lowered the water table, thereby increasing pumping lifts, reducing well efficiency, and causing land subsidence. While aqueducts supply additional water that meets increasing human demand for agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses, diversion of water from the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta in northern California has caused and causes adverse environmental and social effects in the delta. "Over decades, [the] competing uses for water supply and habitat have jeopardized the Delta’s ability to meet either need. All stakeholders agree the estuary is in trouble and requires long-term solutions to ensure reliable, quality water supplies and a healthy ecosystem."

text: Human water use in the Antelope Valley depends mainly on pumping of groundwater from the valley's

text: aquifer

text: s and on importing additional water from the

text: California Aqueduct

text: . Long-term groundwater pumping has lowered the

text: water table

text: , thereby increasing pumping lifts, reducing well efficiency, and causing land

text: subsidence

text: . While aqueducts supply additional water that meets increasing human demand for agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses, diversion of water from the

text: Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta

text: in northern California has caused and causes adverse environmental and social effects in the delta. "Over decades, [the] competing uses for water supply and habitat have jeopardized the Delta’s ability to meet either need. All stakeholders agree the

text: estuary

text: is in trouble and requires long-term solutions to ensure reliable, quality water supplies and a healthy ecosystem."

text: Melbourne Water is wholly owned by the Victorian State Government. It manages Melbourne's water supply catchments, sewage, rivers and major drainage systems throughout the Port Phillip and Westernport region. Governance of Melbourne Water is by an independent Board of Directors in conjunction with the Minister for Water. Customers include the metropolitan retail water businesses (such as City West Water, South East Water and Yarra Valley Water.), other water authorities, local councils and the land development industry. Melbourne water primarily operates under the Water Industry Act 1994 and the Water Act 1989. Melbourne Water was formed by the merger of Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works and a number of smaller urban water authorities in 1992. The Victorian Water Industry Association (VicWater) is the peak industry association for water companies in Victoria.In 1994, Melbourne Parks and Waterways was separated from Melbourne Water, which became part of Parks Victoria in 1996.

text: Melbourne Water is wholly owned by the

text: Victorian State Government

text: . It manages Melbourne's water supply

text: catchments

text: , sewage, rivers and major drainage systems throughout the

text: Port Phillip

text: and

text: Westernport

text: region. Governance of Melbourne Water is by an independent

text: Board of Directors

text: in conjunction with the

text: Minister

text: for Water. Customers include the metropolitan retail water businesses (such as

text: City West Water

text: South East Water

text: and

text: Yarra Valley Water

text: .), other water authorities,

text: local councils

text: and the land development industry. Melbourne water primarily operates under the

text: Water Industry Act 1994

text: and the Water Act 1989. Melbourne Water was formed by the merger of

entity_name: Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works

text: Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works

text: and a number of smaller urban water authorities in 1992. The Victorian Water Industry Association (VicWater) is the peak industry association for water companies in Victoria.In 1994,

text: Melbourne Parks and Waterways

text: was separated from Melbourne Water, which became part of

text: Parks Victoria

text: in 1996.

text: The current daily water demand for Kinmen is 50,000 tonnes, which are used for households, industries and agriculture sectors. One tonne of water produced for Kinmen costs about NT$50–60 and may surge to NT$70 during summer. In extreme drought condition, water shipment from Taiwan Island may cost as much as NT$200 per tonne. Because Kinmen residents pay only NT$10 for each tonne water they use, the cost of water supply has become a heavy burden for the county government.

text: The current daily water demand for Kinmen is 50,000 tonnes, which are used for households, industries and agriculture sectors. One tonne of water produced for Kinmen costs about NT$50–60 and may surge to NT$70 during summer. In extreme drought condition, water shipment from Taiwan Island may cost as much as NT$200 per tonne. Because Kinmen residents pay only NT$10 for each tonne water they use, the cost of water supply has become a heavy burden for the

text: county government

text: Energy usage is not high; typically 500 - 1500 W of power is used, comparable to an electric iron, but only for a very short time, totaling approximately 3-4 kWh of electricity per household per year. Daily water usage varies, but is typically one gallon of water per person per day, comparable to an additional toilet flush. One survey of these food processing units found a slight increase in household water use.

text: Energy usage is not high; typically 500 - 1500 W of power is used, comparable to an electric

text: iron

text: , but only for a very short time, totaling approximately 3-4 kWh of electricity per household per year. Daily water usage varies, but is typically one gallon of water per person per day, comparable to an additional

text: toilet

text: flush. One survey of these food processing units found a slight increase in household water use.

text: Until recently, Andamooka townsfolk had to rely on water supplies trucked in from Roxby Downs, or above ground cisterns for the limited rainfall of the region.  A pipeline to the township has since been built, although water still has to be trucked to the town's water tanks.

text: Tariffs and cost recovery. In the long run, the Federal Government wants the state operators to achieve full cost recovery and attain financial independence. However, this target is still far from being achieved. In 2009 the average domestic water tariff in Malaysia was Ringgit (MYR) 0.65/m3 (US$0.18/m3). There are 14 different regional water tariffs in Malaysia, each corresponding roughly to one state. The lowest domestic tariff is in Penang (MYR0.31/m3), while the highest is in Johor (MYR0.98/m3). The average industrial water tariff in 2009 was MYR1.32/m3 (US$0.37/m3). Domestic water tariffs are thus only a fraction of domestic water tariffs in neighbouring Singapore (US$1.62/m3) or in Jakarta, Indonesia (US$0.77/m3). Nevertheless, according to the International Benchmarking Network for Water Supply and Sanitation Utilities, Malaysian utilities managed to recover, on average, 115% of their operating costs in 2007. But it has to be kept in mind that operating costs are kept low through various subsidies. The full costs of service provision - operating costs plus capital costs - are not covered through revenues.

text: In 2004, during Jayalalitha's regime, the New Veeranam Project was inaugurated to supply 180 MLD water to Chennai as additional source of water, drawing water from Veeranam Lake. Located about 225 km south of Chennai, the tank is situated in the tail of the Cauvery river system in the state as it gets the supply through the Vadavar channel from the Lower Anicut on the Coleroon (Kollidam) besides rainwater from its own catchment area. The capacity of the lake is 1,465 mcft. According to the Policy Note of the State Municipal Administration and Water Supply Department for 2012-2013, MetroWater supplies about 765 MLD to domestic consumers in the city and about 65 MLD of water to bulk consumers such as adjacent local bodies and industries located in the Chennai Metropolitan Area.

text: In 2004, during Jayalalitha's regime, the New Veeranam Project was inaugurated to supply 180 MLD water to Chennai as additional source of water, drawing water from

text: Veeranam Lake

text: . Located about 225 km south of Chennai, the tank is situated in the tail of the

text: Cauvery river

text: system in the state as it gets the supply through the

text: Vadavar channel

text: from the

text: Lower Anicut

text: on the

text: Coleroon

text: (Kollidam) besides rainwater from its own catchment area. The capacity of the lake is 1,465 mcft. According to the Policy Note of the State Municipal Administration and Water Supply Department for 2012-2013, MetroWater supplies about 765 MLD to domestic consumers in the city and about 65 MLD of water to bulk consumers such as adjacent local bodies and industries located in the Chennai Metropolitan Area.

text: Water is also used in many large scale industrial processes, such as thermoelectric power production, oil refining, fertilizer production and other chemical plant use, and natural gas extraction from shale rock. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and increased water temperature (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge. Most of this pure water is generated on site, either from natural freshwater or from municipal grey water. Industrial consumption of water is generally much lower than withdrawal, due to laws requiring industrial grey water to be treated and returned to the environment. Thermoelectric powerplants using cooling towers have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process. The withdrawal, however, is lower than in once-through cooling systems.

text: Water is also used in many large scale industrial processes, such as thermoelectric power production, oil refining, fertilizer production and other chemical plant use, and natural gas extraction from shale rock. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and increased water temperature (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge. Most of this pure water is generated on site, either from natural freshwater or from municipal

text: grey water

text: . Industrial consumption of water is generally much lower than withdrawal, due to laws requiring industrial grey water to be treated and returned to the environment. Thermoelectric powerplants using

text: cooling towers

text: have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process. The withdrawal, however, is lower than in

text: once-through cooling

text: systems.

text: When rain falls in deserts, as it occasionally does, it is often with great violence. The desert surface is evidence of this with dry stream channels known as arroyos or wadis meandering across its surface. These can experience flash floods, becoming raging torrents with surprising rapidity after a storm that may be many kilometers away. Most deserts are in basins with no drainage to the sea but some are crossed by exotic rivers sourced in mountain ranges or other high rainfall areas beyond their borders. The River Nile, the Colorado River and the Yellow River do this, losing much of their water through evaporation as they pass through the desert and raising groundwater levels nearby. There may also be underground sources of water in deserts in the form of springs, aquifers, underground rivers or lakes. Where these lie close to the surface, wells can be dug and oases may form where plant and animal life can flourish. The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System under the Sahara Desert is the largest known accumulation of fossil water. The Great Man-Made River is a scheme launched by Libya's Colonel Gadaffi to tap this aquifer and supply water to coastal cities. Kharga Oasis in Egypt is  long and is the largest oasis in the Libyan Desert. A lake occupied this depression in ancient times and thick deposits of sandy-clay resulted. Wells are dug to extract water from the porous sandstone that lies underneath. Seepages may occur in the walls of canyons and pools may survive in deep shade near the dried up watercourse below.

text: When rain falls in deserts, as it occasionally does, it is often with great violence. The desert surface is evidence of this with dry stream channels known as

text: arroyos

text: or

text: wadi

text: s meandering across its surface. These can experience

text: flash flood

text: s, becoming raging torrents with surprising rapidity after a storm that may be many kilometers away. Most deserts are in basins with no drainage to the sea but some are crossed by exotic rivers sourced in mountain ranges or other high rainfall areas beyond their borders. The

text: River Nile

text: , the Colorado River and the

text: Yellow River

text: do this, losing much of their water through evaporation as they pass through the desert and raising groundwater levels nearby. There may also be underground sources of water in deserts in the form of

text: springs

text: aquifer

text: s, underground rivers or lakes. Where these lie close to the surface,

text: wells

text: can be dug and

text: oases

text: may form where plant and animal life can flourish. The

text: Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System

text: under the Sahara Desert is the largest known accumulation of

text: fossil water

text: . The

text: Great Man-Made River

text: is a scheme launched by Libya's

text: Colonel Gadaffi

text: to tap this aquifer and supply water to coastal cities.

text: Kharga Oasis

text: in Egypt is  long and is the largest oasis in the Libyan Desert. A lake occupied this depression in ancient times and thick deposits of sandy-clay resulted. Wells are dug to extract water from the porous sandstone that lies underneath. Seepages may occur in the walls of

text: canyon

text: s and pools may survive in deep shade near the dried up watercourse below.

text: I like to _____________ (drink)/(drink water).<br>(Drinking/Drinking water) __________ is fun.

text: Development indicators tend to focus on access and availability of ‘safe water’, which the World Bank defines as ‘treated surface water and untreated but uncontaminated groundwater.’ Safe water is crucial not only for human health (on average,a human needs 20 litres of safe water for his daily ‘metabolic, hygienic and domestic needs’) but also for economic development and environmental health. Yet, more than 1/3 of the world cannot drink their local water supply without additional treatment.

text: Development indicators tend to focus on access and availability of ‘

text: safe water

text: ’, which the

text: World Bank

text: defines as ‘treated surface water and untreated but uncontaminated groundwater.’ Safe water is crucial not only for human health (on average,a human needs 20 litres of safe water for his daily ‘

text: metabolic

text: hygienic

text: and domestic needs’) but also for economic development and environmental health. Yet, more than 1/3 of the world cannot drink their local water supply without additional treatment.

text: Groundwater is used by industries (35% of wells), private homes and apartment buildings (25%) and services (24%). The amount of groundwater recharge and abstraction is not well known, but its recharge is estimated at 15m3/s and extraction at 10m3/s, and it is expected to increase. The increasing use of groundwater is a result of SABESP's pricing policy that is not conducive to conservation and a lack of monitoring and control of groundwater use. In municipalities where water and sanitation is supplied not by Sabesp but by local government, the government's lack of ability in expanding water supply exacerbates the exploitation of groundwater resources. There is a high threat of groundwater contamination, especially in the Eastern part of the Alto Tietê.

text: Groundwater is used by industries (35% of wells), private homes and apartment buildings (25%) and services (24%). The amount of

text: groundwater recharge

text: and abstraction is not well known, but its recharge is estimated at 15m3/s and extraction at 10m3/s, and it is expected to increase. The increasing use of groundwater is a result of SABESP's pricing policy that is not conducive to conservation and a lack of monitoring and control of groundwater use. In municipalities where water and sanitation is supplied not by Sabesp but by local government, the government's lack of ability in expanding water supply exacerbates the exploitation of groundwater resources. There is a high threat of groundwater contamination, especially in the Eastern part of the

text: Alto Tietê

text: The division is responsible towards teaching undergraduate courses such as Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, Hydrology, Water Supply, Wastewater Engineering, Groundwater, Hydraulics Structures, and Coastal Engineering. Inputs from the panel of advisors and industries are strongly referred to, in the development of the undergraduate and postgraduate programs. Ideas from public policy and law, social sciences and humanities are often employed in conjunction with the engineering principles and the practical aspects, to develop a better understanding of the role of engineering in the solution of water and environmental problems. Among the courses offered in the master's degree program are Environmental Management, Water Resources Planning and Management, Flood Management and Mitigation, Advanced Water Supply, Solid Waste Management, Erosion and Sedimentation, Groundwater Engineering, Computational Fluid Dynamic, Hazadous and Industrial Waste, Risk and Hazard Assessment, Environmental Management of Coastal Areas, and Air Pollution.

text: Although the counties are now successfully united under Tampa Bay Water, within the last year there have still been reported water shortages. The region's water supplies have dipped dangerously low and newer stricter precautions have been forced onto citizens for using water. Even with the plans for future water sources, it seems that with the growing population in the region and increasingly dry seasons, water scarcity is still a pressing issue.

text: In the early 1900s, the most significant industries in the watershed of Shamokin Creek were coal mining, foundries, iron works, nail production, agriculture, silk mills, and woolen mills. The creek was also used as water power for several small mills and was used as a water supply for the Pennsylvania Railroad. The Roaring Creek Water Company also used some of its tributaries as water supplies.

text: In the early 1900s, the most significant industries in the watershed of Shamokin Creek were

text: coal mining

text: foundries

text: iron works

text: , nail production,

text: agriculture

text: silk mill

text: s, and

text: woolen mill

text: s. The creek was also used as water power for several small

text: mills

text: and was used as a

text: water supply

text: for the

text: Pennsylvania Railroad

text: . The Roaring Creek Water Company also used some of its tributaries as water supplies.

text: Under the terms of the East Surrey Water Act 1896, there was some interchange of areas of supply between the two companies, particularly in Banstead, Kingswood and Ewell. Two further Acts were obtained in 1903 and 1906, the latter prohibiting the abstraction of water by any other company within Sutton District Water's area of supply, for sale outside of that area. They next applied to the Board of Trade in 1910 for an Order to allow them to extend their area of supply to include Kingswood. Specific mention was made of two existing pipelines supplying the area, and authorisation for the construction of a third, to a new water tower in Kingswood, was obtained. There was also a general provision to enable them to alter some or all of the provisions of the Acts they had obtained in 1871, 1887, 1903 and 1906. The water tower was built on Tower Road, Tadworth, and enabled them to supply Tadworth and the higher parts of Banstead. When it became surplus to requirements, the water tank was removed from the top and it was converted into a house.

text: Under the terms of the East Surrey Water Act 1896, there was some interchange of areas of supply between the two companies, particularly in Banstead,

text: Kingswood

text: and Ewell. Two further Acts were obtained in 1903 and 1906, the latter prohibiting the abstraction of water by any other company within Sutton District Water's area of supply, for sale outside of that area. They next applied to the Board of Trade in 1910 for an Order to allow them to extend their area of supply to include Kingswood. Specific mention was made of two existing pipelines supplying the area, and authorisation for the construction of a third, to a new water tower in Kingswood, was obtained. There was also a general provision to enable them to alter some or all of the provisions of the Acts they had obtained in 1871, 1887, 1903 and 1906. The water tower was built on Tower Road,

text: Tadworth

text: , and enabled them to supply Tadworth and the higher parts of Banstead. When it became surplus to requirements, the water tank was removed from the top and it was converted into a house.

text: Whitefield suffers from water shortages especially during summer months as the whole region relies almost entirely on groundwater. With the increase in housing and office space, the demand has been multiplying over the years, and groundwater depletion has been worsening alarmingly. BWSSB is supplying the region with water under the Cauvery Water Supply Scheme Stage IV, Phase II. BWSSB has been granted Rs.1000 crore for water projects in 2012 including supplying water to areas of Greater Bangalore which includes Whitefield.

text: Whitefield suffers from water shortages especially during summer months as the whole region relies almost entirely on groundwater. With the increase in housing and office space, the demand has been multiplying over the years, and groundwater depletion has been worsening alarmingly.

entity_name: Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board

text: BWSSB

text: is supplying the region with water under the Cauvery Water Supply Scheme Stage IV, Phase II.

text: BWSSB

text: has been granted Rs.1000 crore for water projects in 2012 including supplying water to areas of Greater Bangalore which includes Whitefield.

text: A crisis point was reached in the mid 19th century with biology proving outbreaks of cholera and other disease arose from commercial extraction of water from the Tideway, where the city once had its main filter beds and purification buildings. The Metropolis Water Act 1852 allowed all water extractors three years to find wells or non-tidal sources. London's water businesses (known also as undertakings) nationalised as the Metropolitan Water Board and then re-privatised. The population of Greater London is currently supplied by four private companies: Thames Water, Affinity Water, Essex and Suffolk Water and Sutton and East Surrey Water.

text: A crisis point was reached in the mid 19th century with

text: biology

text: proving outbreaks of

text: cholera and other disease

text: arose from commercial extraction of water from the

text: Tideway

text: , where the city once had its main filter beds and purification buildings. The

text: Metropolis Water Act 1852

text: allowed all water extractors three years to find wells or non-tidal sources. London's water businesses (known also as undertakings) nationalised as the

text: Metropolitan Water Board

text: and then re-privatised. The population of

text: Greater London

text: is currently supplied by four private companies:

text: Thames Water

text: Affinity Water

text: Essex and Suffolk Water

text: and

text: Sutton and East Surrey Water

text: The most common technology options for rural water supply are protected springs, boreholes, protected wells, and gravity flow schemes. Those who do not have access to an improved source of water supply have to rely on unsafe sources such as rivers, lakes, and unprotected wells. One consequence of poor access and/or quality is that water-borne diseases are a main cause of infant mortality. Access to functioning water sources varies considerably among districts, from 12% to 95%.

text: The most common technology options for rural water supply are protected

text: springs

text: boreholes

text: , protected

text: wells

text: , and gravity flow schemes. Those who do not have access to an improved source of water supply have to rely on unsafe sources such as rivers, lakes, and unprotected wells. One consequence of poor access and/or quality is that

text: water-borne diseases

text: are a main cause of

text: infant mortality

text: . Access to functioning water sources varies considerably among districts, from 12% to 95%.

text: In 2006 the Sri Lankan government developed a new plan to supply water to Jaffna peninsula, the Jaffna and Kilinochchi Water Supply and Sanitation Project, which involved drawing water from Iranamadu Tank and transferring via pipeline to the peninsula. However, to ensure that farmers in Kilinochchi District continued to receive adequate supplies of water for irrigation, the tank bund would be repaired and raised by 2 feet to store and extract an additional 27,000m of water a day. A new raw water intake would be constructed near the tank's left bank main channel sluice. The raw water would then flow, under the influence of gravity, from the tank to Paranthan via a new 12 km 800mm diameter ductile iron pipe located alongside the existing left bank irrigation channel. From Paranthan the raw water would flow, under the influence of gravity, to Pallai via a new 20.5 km 600mm diameter high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe located alongside the A9 highway. At Pallai the raw water would be treated at a new water treatment plant before being pumped, via 45 km 600mm diameter ductile iron treated water main running alongside existing roads, to 17 new and 11 refurbished elevated water towers on the peninsula, and ground sumps at Kaddudai and Araliturai. The water towers will supply water, via 520 km 63-300mm diameter unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)/medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) pipes, to Chavakachcheri, Jaffna, Kodikamam, Kopay, Navatkuli and Pallai. The ground sump at Kaddudai will pump water, via transmission mains, to Karaitivu and Velanaitivu. The ground sump at Araliturai on Velanaitivu will then pump water, via transmission mains, onto Pungudutivu, Mandativu, Nainativu, Analativu and Eluvaitivu.

text: In 2006 the Sri Lankan government developed a new plan to supply water to Jaffna peninsula, the Jaffna and Kilinochchi Water Supply and Sanitation Project, which involved drawing water from Iranamadu Tank and transferring via pipeline to the peninsula. However, to ensure that farmers in Kilinochchi District continued to receive adequate supplies of water for irrigation, the tank bund would be repaired and raised by 2 feet to store and extract an additional 27,000m of water a day. A new

text: raw water

text: intake would be constructed near the tank's left bank main channel sluice. The raw water would then flow, under the influence of gravity, from the tank to

text: Paranthan

text: via a new 12 km 800mm diameter

text: ductile iron

text: pipe located alongside the existing left bank irrigation channel. From Paranthan the raw water would flow, under the influence of gravity, to

text: Pallai

text: via a new 20.5 km 600mm diameter

text: high-density polyethylene

text: (HDPE) pipe located alongside the

text: A9 highway

text: . At Pallai the raw water would be

text: treated

text: at a new water treatment plant before being pumped, via 45 km 600mm diameter ductile iron treated water main running alongside existing roads, to 17 new and 11 refurbished elevated

text: water tower

text: s on the peninsula, and ground

text: sump

text: s at Kaddudai and Araliturai. The water towers will supply water, via 520 km 63-300mm diameter unplasticized

text: polyvinyl chloride

text: (uPVC)/

text: medium-density polyethylene

text: (MDPE) pipes, to

text: Chavakachcheri

text: Jaffna

text: , Kodikamam,

text: Kopay

text: , Navatkuli and Pallai. The ground sump at Kaddudai will pump water, via transmission mains, to

text: Karaitivu

text: and

text: Velanaitivu

text: . The ground sump at Araliturai on Velanaitivu will then pump water, via transmission mains, onto

text: Pungudutivu

text: Mandativu

text: Nainativu

text: Analativu

text: and

text: Eluvaitivu

text: Fresh water supply for the region is provided from a number of sources, which are managed by the Hunter Water and State Water Corporations. State Water Corporation's dams supply water for irrigation, industrial use at coal mines and the region's coal-fired power stations and town water to upper Hunter Region towns. Hunter Water Corporation's dams supply the large urban population of more than 500,000 living near the coast and centered on the cities of Newcastle and Lake Macquarie.

text: Although it was becoming evident that water could no longer be considered an infinite resource, as had been the case in the 1950s when there were fewer people on the planet, no one knew just how scarce the resource was. This prompted IWMI to try to find out. Its research culminated in publication of Water for food, Water for life: A comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. A map within the report showed that a third of the world’s population already suffered from ‘water scarcity’. The report defined physical water scarcity, as being where there are insufficient water resources to meet the demands of the population, and economic water scarcity as where water requirements are not satisfied because of a lack of investment in water or human capacity.

text: Although it was becoming evident that water could no longer be considered an infinite resource, as had been the case in the 1950s when there were fewer people on the planet, no one knew just how scarce the resource was. This prompted IWMI to try to find out. Its research culminated in publication of Water for food, Water for life: A comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. A map within the report showed that a third of the world’s population already suffered from ‘water scarcity’. The report defined

text: physical water scarcity

text: , as being where there are insufficient water resources to meet the demands of the population, and

text: economic water scarcity

text: as where water requirements are not satisfied because of a lack of investment in water or human capacity.

text: Levels of productivity, particularly in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, are low due to degraded soils, high levels of evaporation, droughts, floods and a general lack of effective water management. A major study into water use by agriculture, known as the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, coordinated by the International Water Management Institute, noted a close correlation between hunger, poverty and water. However, it concluded that there was much opportunity to raise productivity from rainfed farming.

text: Levels of productivity, particularly in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, are low due to

text: degraded soils

text: , high levels of

text: evaporation

text: drought

text: s,

text: flood

text: s and a general lack of effective

text: water management

text: . A major study into water use by agriculture, known as the

entity_name: Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture

text: Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture

text: , coordinated by the

entity_name: International Water Management Institute

text: International Water Management Institute

text: , noted a close correlation between

text: hunger

text: poverty

text: and

text: water

text: . However, it concluded that there was much opportunity to raise productivity from rainfed farming.

text: Methodologies and data sources. The Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) of WHO and UNICEF, which is the internationally accepted source for the measurement to attain the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for water supply and sanitation, relies on the compilation of various surveys (Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Cluster Indicators Surveys (MCIS)) to establish access rates. These surveys typically assess the availability of infrastructure, not service quality. The 2008 estimates for Burkina Faso thus indicate access rates to an improved water source of 95 percent in urban areas and 72 percent in rural areas. The Government relies on an entirely different approach, based on the concept of "reasonable access". This concept differs from the JMP approach by taking into account aspects of service quality, such as waiting time and water quality. According to the government approach, the water access rates in 2005 were lower than under the JMP approach, standing at 74 percent in urban areas and 60 percent in rural areas. While the “reasonable access” approach is more sophisticated, it also faces greater challenges in terms of availability of data.

text: Methodologies and data sources. The

text: Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation

text: (JMP) of

text: WHO

text: and

text: UNICEF

text: , which is the internationally accepted source for the measurement to attain the

text: Millennium Development Goal

text: s (MDGs) for water supply and sanitation, relies on the compilation of various surveys (

text: Demographic and Health Survey

text: s (DHS), Multiple Cluster Indicators Surveys (MCIS)) to establish access rates. These surveys typically assess the availability of infrastructure, not service quality. The 2008 estimates for Burkina Faso thus indicate access rates to an improved water source of 95 percent in urban areas and 72 percent in rural areas. The Government relies on an entirely different approach, based on the concept of "reasonable access". This concept differs from the JMP approach by taking into account aspects of service quality, such as waiting time and water quality. According to the government approach, the water access rates in 2005 were lower than under the JMP approach, standing at 74 percent in urban areas and 60 percent in rural areas. While the “reasonable access” approach is more sophisticated, it also faces greater challenges in terms of availability of data.

text: Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as China and India. The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread overpumping using powerful diesel and electric pumps. Other countries affected include Pakistan, Iran, and Mexico. This will eventually lead to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even with the overpumping of its aquifers, China is developing a grain deficit. When this happens, it will almost certainly drive grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. Unless population growth can be slowed quickly, it is feared that there may not be a practical non-violent or humane solution to the emerging world water shortage.

text: Water deficits, which are already spurring heavy grain imports in numerous smaller countries, may soon do the same in larger countries, such as

text: China

text: and

text: India

text: . The water tables are falling in scores of countries (including Northern China, the US, and India) due to widespread overpumping using powerful diesel and electric pumps. Other countries affected include

text: Pakistan

text: Iran

text: , and

text: Mexico

text: . This will eventually lead to water scarcity and cutbacks in grain harvest. Even with the overpumping of its

text: aquifers

text: , China is developing a grain deficit. When this happens, it will almost certainly drive grain prices upward. Most of the 3 billion people projected to be added worldwide by mid-century will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. Unless population growth can be slowed quickly, it is feared that there may not be a practical non-violent or humane solution to the emerging world water shortage.

text: Nyala suffers from severe water infrastructure caused by droughts and poor water management. Most of the water used in Nyala is ground water. This ground water is heavily contaminated due to human activity, such as inadequate waste management. The lack of proper sanitation has contaminated ground water in the region. Water resources in the city have tested to contain bacteria levels higher than permissible amounts. The poor water quality in the city creates health issues.

text: In many fire fighting situations, large quantities of water remain after the fire has been extinguished. The water contains materials present in the building and also contains dissolved and particulate materials from combustion processes and materials generated through quenching. Fire water can be particularly polluting when the building or site being extinguished itself contains potentially polluting materials such as pesticides, organic and inorganic chemical reagents, fertilizers, etc. Certain types of premises including farms and the chemical industry pose special risks because of the types of materials present. Premises containing quantities of plastics can also cause severe problems because of the taste and odor imparted to the fire water. Releasing contaminated fire water into a river or other water source subsequently used to supply  drinking water may render the untreated water supply unsuitable for drinking or food preparation.

text: In many fire fighting situations, large quantities of water remain after the fire has been extinguished. The water contains materials present in the building and also contains dissolved and particulate materials from

text: combustion

text: processes and materials generated through quenching. Fire water can be particularly polluting when the building or site being extinguished itself contains potentially polluting materials such as

text: pesticide

text: s,

text: organic

text: and

text: inorganic chemical

text: reagents,

text: fertilizer

text: s, etc. Certain types of premises including

text: farm

text: s and the

text: chemical industry

text: pose special risks because of the types of materials present. Premises containing quantities of

text: plastic

text: s can also cause severe problems because of the taste and odor imparted to the fire water. Releasing contaminated fire water into a river or other water source subsequently used to supply

text: drinking water

text: may render the untreated water supply unsuitable for drinking or food preparation.

text: Until 1932 the settlements in the eastern Lower Galilee were based solely on spring water which existed in proximity to the villages which were only enough for home use and therefore it was not possible to have irrigated agriculture in the Lower Galilee at the time. In 1932 the first Well drilling was done in the Yavne'el Valley which supplied irrigation water to Yavne'el. In 1942 a water pipeline was constructed from the Sea of Galilee to the village which as a result extended its amount of agricultural lands, which were based mainly on the new water sources, despite the relatively high cost of water at that time. During the first decade of the State of Israel the villages of the Lower Galilee were involved in a constant struggle with the government demanding that the government would solve their water problems. After several local Well drilling attempts made during those years failed water pipelines were laid from the Sea of Galilee to all villages in the Lower Galilee.

text: Until 1932 the settlements in the eastern Lower Galilee were based solely on

text: spring water

text: which existed in proximity to the villages which were only enough for home use and therefore it was not possible to have

text: irrigated agriculture

text: in the Lower Galilee at the time. In 1932 the first

text: Well drilling

text: was done in the Yavne'el Valley which supplied

text: irrigation

text: water to

text: Yavne'el

text: . In 1942 a water pipeline was constructed from the

text: Sea of Galilee

text: to the village which as a result extended its amount of agricultural lands, which were based mainly on the new water sources, despite the relatively high cost of water at that time. During the first decade of the State of Israel the villages of the Lower Galilee were involved in a constant struggle with the government demanding that the government would solve their water problems. After several local Well drilling attempts made during those years failed water pipelines were laid from the

text: Sea of Galilee

text: to all villages in the Lower Galilee.

text: The island has no fresh water supply. A small desalination plant on the island uses reverse osmosis technology to supply water for human consumption. Similarly, two diesel generators (and some solar panels) supply electricity to the island.

text: The island has no

text: fresh water

text: supply. A small

text: desalination

text: plant on the island uses

text: reverse osmosis

text: technology to supply water for human consumption. Similarly, two diesel generators (and some

text: solar panel

text: s) supply electricity to the island.

text: The takeoff run of a flying boat was often dependent only on the length of water that was available. The first problem was to gain sufficient speed for the craft to plane, otherwise there would never be enough speed to become airborne. Once planing, the next problem was to break free from the suction (from Bernoulli's principle) of the water on the hull. This was partly helped by the "step" in the hull just behind the craft's centre of buoyancy at planing speed. The pilot could rock the craft about this point to try to break the downward pull of the water on the surface of the hull. Somewhat rough water was a help in freeing the hull, but on calm days it was often necessary to have a high speed launch cross in front of the aircraft to cause a break in the water flow under the aircraft. It was a matter of judgement of the coxswain to get the crossing close enough but not too close. Because it was expected that some takeoffs would be protracted affairs, often the crews were not very careful to keep within maximum all-up weight limitations, and getting airborne just took a little longer.

text: The takeoff run of a flying boat was often dependent only on the length of water that was available. The first problem was to gain sufficient speed for the craft to

text: plane

text: , otherwise there would never be enough speed to become airborne. Once planing, the next problem was to break free from the suction (from

text: Bernoulli's principle

text: ) of the water on the hull. This was partly helped by the "step" in the hull just behind the craft's centre of buoyancy at planing speed. The pilot could rock the craft about this point to try to break the downward pull of the water on the surface of the hull. Somewhat rough water was a help in freeing the hull, but on calm days it was often necessary to have a high speed

text: launch

text: cross in front of the aircraft to cause a break in the water flow under the aircraft. It was a matter of judgement of the

text: coxswain

text: to get the crossing close enough but not too close. Because it was expected that some takeoffs would be protracted affairs, often the crews were not very careful to keep within maximum all-up weight limitations, and getting airborne just took a little longer.

text: Áder said Hungary’s new constitution guarantees constitutional rights and catered for fourth generation human rights in his address of the 67th session of the UN General Assembly in New York City on 25 September 2012. These include Article P, which states that “natural resources, especially the farmland, forests and the drinking water supplies, the biodiversity – in particular native plant and animal species – and the cultural assets shall form part of the nation’s common heritage; the State and every person shall be obliged to protect, sustain and preserve them for future generations”. He mentioned especially the water supply, and how short-sighted and irrational it was the way “we pollute our waters”. Áder also told Hungary has taken active part in the work of the UN’s Friends of Water working group. Hungary will host a conference on water and sanitation in Budapest in 2013.

text: Áder said Hungary’s new constitution guarantees constitutional rights and catered for fourth generation human rights in his address of the

entity_name: Sixty-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly

text: 67th session of the UN General Assembly

text: in

text: New York City

text: on 25 September 2012. These include Article P, which states that “natural resources, especially the farmland, forests and the drinking water supplies, the biodiversity – in particular native plant and animal species – and the cultural assets shall form part of the nation’s common heritage; the State and every person shall be obliged to protect, sustain and preserve them for future generations”. He mentioned especially the water supply, and how short-sighted and irrational it was the way “we pollute our waters”. Áder also told Hungary has taken active part in the work of the UN’s Friends of Water working group. Hungary will host a conference on water and sanitation in Budapest in 2013.

text: One irrigation technique known as partial rootzone drying (or PRD) involves "tricking" the grapevine into thinking it is undergoing water stress when it is actually receiving sufficient water supply. This is accomplished by alternating drip irrigation to where only one side of the grapevine receives water at a time. The roots on the dry side of the vine produce abscisic acid that triggers some of the vine's physiological responses to water stress - reduced shoot growth, smaller berries size, etc. But because the vine is still receiving water on the other side the stress doesn't become so severe to where vital functions such as photosynthesis is compromised.Partial rootzone drying has been shown to significantly increase a vine's water use efficiency. While PRD is shown to slightly reduce leaf area, this is generally not a problem as overall yield is unaffected.

text: One irrigation technique known as partial rootzone drying (or PRD) involves "tricking" the grapevine into thinking it is undergoing water stress when it is actually receiving sufficient water supply. This is accomplished by alternating drip irrigation to where only one side of the grapevine receives water at a time. The roots on the dry side of the vine produce

text: abscisic acid

text: that triggers some of the vine's physiological responses to water stress - reduced shoot growth, smaller berries size, etc. But because the vine is still receiving water on the other side the stress doesn't become so severe to where vital functions such as photosynthesis is compromised.Partial rootzone drying has been shown to significantly increase a vine's water use efficiency. While PRD is shown to slightly reduce leaf area, this is generally not a problem as overall yield is unaffected.

text: Per 2006 Barangay Profile Survey on sources of potable water supply, the following result revealed that out of the total number of households, only about 513 or 5.98% are dependent on owned-use faucet system of potable water, where households get water supply from a faucet inside the house/yard directly connected to a water pipeline from their own water system (electric pump).

text: On occasion, clay slime spills have prevented the Peace River Manasota Water Supply Authority from using river flows for drinking water, forcing municipalities to seek water supplies elsewhere, or rely on stored supplies. On several occasions, the effects of heavy rainfall have created sinkholes beneath the settling ponds.

text: On occasion, clay slime spills have prevented the Peace River Manasota Water Supply Authority from using river flows for drinking water, forcing municipalities to seek water supplies elsewhere, or rely on stored supplies. On several occasions, the effects of heavy rainfall have created

text: sinkhole

text: s beneath the settling ponds.

text: Anthropologist Wade Davis and river advocate Robert F. Kennedy Jr journey down the Colorado River on a two-week expedition to highlight water conservation issues. Traveling by rafts, kayaks and wooden dories, they are accompanied by their daughters and guided by Shana Watahomigie, a Native American National Park ranger. The film explores America's drought and freshwater shortages, the impact on the river of damming, and human water supply needs, such as that of the city of Las Vegas.

text: Anthropologist

text: Wade Davis

text: and river advocate

text: Robert F. Kennedy Jr

text: journey down the

text: Colorado River

text: on a two-week expedition to highlight

text: water conservation

text: issues. Traveling by rafts, kayaks and wooden dories, they are accompanied by their daughters and guided by Shana Watahomigie, a Native American National Park ranger. The film explores America's drought and freshwater shortages, the impact on the river of damming, and human water supply needs, such as that of the city of Las Vegas.

text: The water is a very challenging situation to deal with. With the mass numbers of residents the pressure of the pumps become very low because the way it is being used so much at the same time. With low pressure the water becomes difficult to get and sparse amounts are already available to each household. With each section of the townships is normally one pump per section. The water is used for everything from cleaning clothes, cooking, drinking, bathing, and cleaning the house. Having very little water accessible to each section makes it very hard to get enough water for a day per household.  One way that this could be ameliorated is to make some improvements to the main water supply and to add more pumps in each region in the township but have it coming from a different water system allowing more water in each area but without dealing with lower pressure.

text: Water is a common moderator for practical reasons, but has its disadvantages. From a nuclear standpoint, the primary problem is that water can absorb a neutron and remove it from the reaction. It does this just enough that the amount of U-235 in natural ore is too low to sustain the chain reaction; the neutrons lost through absorption in the water and U-238, along with those lost to the environment, results in too few left in the fuel. The most common solution to this problem is to slightly concentrate the amount of U-235 in the fuel to produce enriched uranium, with the leftover U-238 known as depleted uranium. Other designs use different moderators, like heavy water, that are much less likely to absorb neutrons, allowing them to run on unenriched fuel. In either case, the reactor's neutron economy is based on thermal neutrons.

text: Water is a common moderator for practical reasons, but has its disadvantages. From a nuclear standpoint, the primary problem is that water can absorb a neutron and remove it from the reaction. It does this just enough that the amount of U-235 in natural ore is too low to sustain the chain reaction; the neutrons lost through absorption in the water and U-238, along with those lost to the environment, results in too few left in the fuel. The most common solution to this problem is to slightly concentrate the amount of U-235 in the fuel to produce

text: enriched uranium

text: , with the leftover U-238 known as

text: depleted uranium

text: . Other designs use different moderators, like

text: heavy water

text: , that are much less likely to absorb neutrons, allowing them to run on unenriched fuel. In either case, the reactor's

text: neutron economy

text: is based on

text: thermal neutron

text: s.

text: The quality of drinking water is ensured through a framework of water safety plans that ensures the safe disposal of human waste so that drinking water supplies are not contaminated. Improving the water supply, sanitation, hygiene and management of our water resources could prevent ten percent of total global disease.

text: The projects were not launched for fear of losing too much money and conviction of the human impossibility to dig such a canal. The major problem was how to supply the summit sections with enough water.

text: Where limited space is available, and a fresh water tank cannot be fitted, the machine will still retain its demand tank, but it will be fed from an outdoor "garden" water tap via a separate supply hose reel. This, of course, requires that the property has an external cold water tap, which can be hard to find on some commercial sites. However, by carrying a range of different fittings, a tap key (for taps that have their handle removed to avoid unwanted water usage), and enough hose on the reel, the cleaner will usually be able to handle this situation.

text: Where limited space is available, and a fresh water tank cannot be fitted, the machine will still retain its demand tank, but it will be fed from an outdoor "garden"

text: water tap

text: via a separate supply

text: hose reel

text: . This, of course, requires that the property has an external cold

text: water tap

text: , which can be hard to find on some commercial sites. However, by carrying a range of different fittings, a tap key (for taps that have their handle removed to avoid unwanted water usage), and enough hose on the reel, the cleaner will usually be able to handle this situation.

text: "Specific water availability is the residual (after use) per capita quantity of fresh water." Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed in terms of space and time and can go from floods to water shortages within months in the same area. In 1998 76% of the total population had a specific water availability of less than 5.0 thousand m3 per year per capita. Already by 1998, 35% of the global population suffered "very low or catastrophically low water supplies" and Shiklomanov predicted that the situation would deteriorate in the twenty-first century with "most of the Earth's population will be living under the conditions of low or catastrophically low water supply" by 2025. There is only 2.5% of fresh water in the hydrosphere.

text: There were no independent water supplies at least before 1961. There were public pipes but not enough. The Tai Hom Village Kai-Fong Welfare Association lodged a request for independent water supply in 1984. In 1985, reports showed that wells were still one of the water supplies of the citizens.

text: About 70% of all water produced was non-revenue water and only 30% was billed. Only 70% of these bills were actually paid, so that ultimately only 21% of the water produced was actually paid for. Furthermore, the regional water and sewer companies had about three times more staff per connection than in other Eastern European and Central Asian utilities. Low revenues and high costs led to an average operating cost recovery rate of only 60%. On all these counts, the performance of Albanian water companies was much lower than the performance of utilities in other former communist countries ten years after the beginning of the transition process. Concerning service quality, on average water was available only 3–4 hours per day. Certain areas received water only once in three days, which was partly due to intermittent power supply for pumps. There was no wastewater treatment. Sewers were often clogged causing seepage and cross-contamination with drinking water. Many covers for manholes were missing so that they filled with rubbish.

text: About 70% of all water produced was

text: non-revenue water

text: and only 30% was billed. Only 70% of these bills were actually paid, so that ultimately only 21% of the water produced was actually paid for. Furthermore, the regional water and sewer companies had about three times more staff per connection than in other Eastern European and Central Asian utilities. Low revenues and high costs led to an average operating cost recovery rate of only 60%. On all these counts, the performance of Albanian water companies was much lower than the performance of utilities in other former communist countries ten years after the beginning of the transition process. Concerning service quality, on average water was available only 3–4 hours per day. Certain areas received water only once in three days, which was partly due to intermittent power supply for pumps. There was no wastewater treatment. Sewers were often clogged causing seepage and cross-contamination with drinking water. Many covers for

text: manhole

text: s were missing so that they filled with rubbish.

text: Water quality standards (WQS) are risk-based requirements which set site-specific allowable pollutant levels for individual water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, streams and wetlands.  States set WQS by designating uses for the water body (e.g., recreation, water supply, aquatic life, agriculture) and applying water quality criteria (numeric pollutant concentrations and narrative requirements) to protect the designated uses. An antidegradation policy is also issued by each state to maintain and protect existing uses and high quality waters.

text: Drinking water for 391 households is supplied from a source: greater than elevation of 100 meter - 13, within Elevation of 50-100 meter - 149, within Elevation of less than 50 meters -127, within House - 102.  within an elevation of more than 50 meters. There is a lack of sanitary latrine facilities. Out of a total of 392 homes: 291 use open defection, 44 use a group latrine with regular water supply, 22 use group latrine with regular water supply, 2 use a clean group latrine with regular water supply and a regular sweeper and 33 use a  private latrine.

text: New York City is supplied with drinking water by the protected Catskill Mountains watershed. As a result of the watershed's integrity and undisturbed natural water filtration system, New York is one of only four major cities in the United States the majority of whose drinking water is pure enough not to require purification by water treatment plants. The Croton Watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant to augment New York City's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily, representing a greater than 20% addition to the city's current availability of water. Manhattan, surrounded by two brackish rivers, had a limited supply of fresh water. To satisfy its growing population, the City of New York acquired land in adjacent Westchester County and constructed the old Croton Aqueduct system there, which went into service in 1842 and was superseded by the new Croton Aqueduct, which opened in 1890. This, however, was interrupted in 2008 for the ongoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant that can supply an estimated 290 million gallons daily when completed, representing an almost 20% addition to the city's availability of water, with this addition going to Manhattan and the Bronx. Water comes to Manhattan through New York City Water Tunnel No. 1, Tunnel No. 2, and Tunnel No. 3, completed in 1917, 1936, and (Manhattan's supply) 2013, respectively.

text: Catskill Mountains

text: watershed

text: natural water filtration system

text: water treatment

text: plants. The

text: Croton Watershed

text: north of the city is undergoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant to augment New York City's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily, representing a greater than 20% addition to the city's current availability of water. Manhattan, surrounded by two

text: brackish

text: rivers, had a limited supply of

text: fresh water

text: . To satisfy its growing population, the City of New York acquired land in adjacent

text: Westchester County

text: and constructed the old

text: Croton Aqueduct

text: system there, which went into service in 1842 and was superseded by the

text: new Croton Aqueduct

text: , which opened in 1890. This, however, was interrupted in 2008 for the ongoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant that can supply an estimated 290 million gallons daily when completed, representing an almost 20% addition to the city's availability of water, with this addition going to Manhattan and the Bronx. Water comes to Manhattan through

text: New York City Water Tunnel No. 1

text: Tunnel No. 2

text: , and

text: Tunnel No. 3

text: , completed in 1917, 1936, and (Manhattan's supply) 2013, respectively.

text: There is also a risk of insects carrying feces to food and water supplies, making them unsuitable for human consumption.

text: The “Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development”, mentioned above, is a good example of the new trend to overcome water supply problems. This statement, suggested by advanced economies, has come up with some principles that are of great significance to urban water supply. These are:

text: Lyme brook is still classed as having bad ecological quality under the Water Framework Directive, the lowest rating for any stream in North Staffordshire.  This is the lowest of the bands in the five part framework scale, which ranges from high, good, and moderate, through to poor and finally bad. Problems include poor water quality and low levels of aquatic ecology.

text: Lyme brook is still classed as having bad ecological quality under the

text: Water Framework Directive

text: , the lowest rating for any stream in North Staffordshire.  This is the lowest of the bands in the five part framework scale, which ranges from high, good, and moderate, through to poor and finally bad. Problems include poor water quality and low levels of aquatic ecology.

text: Leaks in the distribution system are a major cause of concern for drinking water quality. When the soil is permeated by sewage from leaking sewers or from other sources, then leaky pipelines will be infiltrated with contaminated water when pressure is low. According to the Federal District's water quality laboratory, neighborhoods that experience more frequent interruptions in service have poorer quality water compared to neighborhoods with a constant supply. The percent of household tap samples in compliance with the residual chlorine standard (0.2 milligrams/liter) ranged from 87 to 100 percent in tests undertaken in 1993 and was notably low among southeastern counties (Iztapalapa, Tláhuac, and Xochimilco).

text: Leaks in the distribution system are a major cause of concern for drinking water quality. When the soil is permeated by sewage from leaking sewers or from other sources, then leaky pipelines will be infiltrated with contaminated water when pressure is low. According to the Federal District's water quality laboratory, neighborhoods that experience more frequent interruptions in service have poorer quality water compared to neighborhoods with a constant supply. The percent of household tap samples in compliance with the residual chlorine standard (0.2 milligrams/liter) ranged from 87 to 100 percent in tests undertaken in 1993 and was notably low among southeastern counties (

text: Iztapalapa

text: Tláhuac

text: , and

text: Xochimilco

text: Byrock relies on rainfall for its non potable water supply that is channeled into a large ground tank, settled and then pumped to the historical railway tank. Water is then gravity fed to dwellings. When the ground tank runs dry, emergency water cartage from Bourke is provided by road tanker, as was the case around 2006.

text: Byrock relies on rainfall for its non potable water supply that is channeled into a large ground tank, settled and then pumped to the historical railway tank. Water is then

text: gravity fed

text: to dwellings. When the ground tank runs dry, emergency water cartage from Bourke is provided by road tanker, as was the case around 2006.

text: A 1,200-U.S.-gallon (4542.49 L) water tank was added to supply the mules with water en route. There were water barrels on the wagons for the teamster and the swamper. Water supplies were refilled at springs along the way, as it was not possible to carry enough water for the entire trip. The tank water was used at dry camps and water stops.

text: A 1,200-U.S.-gallon (4542.49 L) water tank was added to supply the mules with water en route. There were water barrels on the wagons for the

text: teamster

text: and the

text: swamper

text: . Water supplies were refilled at springs along the way, as it was not possible to carry enough water for the entire trip. The tank water was used at dry camps and water stops.

text: The water quality deteriorated fast as the quantity of sewage water and other effluents mixing in the water kept rising. PMC worked towards improving the filtration plant but water quality remained poor. In 1998, Pune Municipal Corporation discontinued providing drinking water from the lake. However, now the lake is being studied for providing potable water again. During the financial year 2004–2005 PMC spent  for de-silting Pashan and Katraj lakes. Reactivation of Pashan purification plant is also under PMC consideration.

text: The water quality deteriorated fast as the quantity of sewage water and other effluents mixing in the water kept rising. PMC worked towards improving the filtration plant but water quality remained poor. In 1998, Pune Municipal Corporation discontinued providing drinking water from the lake. However, now the lake is being studied for providing

text: potable water

text: again. During the financial year 2004–2005 PMC spent  for de-silting Pashan and Katraj lakes. Reactivation of Pashan purification plant is also under PMC consideration.

text: From this point on, there have been varying levels of local, state, and federal government oversight in managing the waterways of the Everglades and surrounding agricultural lands.  In 1948, Congress passed the Flood Control Act creating the Central and Southern Florida Control Project, a multi-faceted project providing flood control; water supply for municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses; prevention of salt water intrusion; water supply for Everglades National Park; and the protection of wildlife. The system comprises 1,000 miles of levees, 720 miles of canals, and nearly 200 water control structures. The Everglades Agricultural Area also was designated via this Act.

text: From this point on, there have been varying levels of local, state, and federal government oversight in managing the waterways of the Everglades and surrounding agricultural lands.  In 1948, Congress passed the

text: Flood Control Act

text: creating the Central and Southern Florida Control Project, a multi-faceted project providing flood control; water supply for municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses; prevention of salt water intrusion; water supply for Everglades National Park; and the protection of wildlife. The system comprises 1,000 miles of levees, 720 miles of canals, and nearly 200 water control structures. The Everglades Agricultural Area also was designated via this Act.

text: Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater (aquifers), surface water (lakes and rivers), and the sea through desalination. The water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection through chlorination and sometimes fluoridation. Treated water then either flows by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs, which can be elevated such as water towers or on the ground (for indicators related to the efficiency of drinking water distribution see non-revenue water). Once water is used, wastewater is typically discharged in a sewer system and treated in a sewage treatment plant before being discharged into a river, lake or the sea or reused for landscaping, irrigation or industrial use (see also sanitation).

text: Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater (

text: aquifer

text: s), surface water (

text: lake

text: s and

text: river

text: s), and the sea through

text: desalination

text: . The

text: water treatment

text: steps include, in most cases,

text: purification

text: , disinfection through

text: chlorination

text: and sometimes

text: fluoridation

text: . Treated water then either flows by gravity or is pumped to

text: reservoirs

text: , which can be elevated such as

text: water tower

text: s or on the ground (for indicators related to the efficiency of drinking water distribution see

text: non-revenue water

text: ). Once water is used,

text: wastewater

text: is typically discharged in a

text: sewer

text: system and treated in a

text: sewage treatment plant

text: before being discharged into a river, lake or the sea or reused for

text: landscaping

text: irrigation

text: or industrial use (see also

text: sanitation

text: New MotiBagh Township consumes 800,000 liters of water every day,   or approximately 1626 liters per household. It  generate about 600,000 liters of sewage per day, which works out to about 605 litres  per household.  The waste  water is treated in a 'waste water treatment facility‘ which has capacity to 'purify' 5,60,000 litres of waste water per day. The surplus  treated water,according to  an official National Buildings Construction Corporation (NBCC),  “will be supplied to NDMC for irrigation and horticulture use". The township generates 4.5 tonnes household and 4 tonnes of horticulture  waste per day. This is treated in  a  solid waste treatment plant, and  an organic waste converter machine, which has a capacity of 1.5 tonnes per shift.

text: ICPRB accomplishes its mission through a variety of actions to conduct, coordinate, and cooperate in studies and programs in the areas of water quality, water supply, living resources, and land resources. The Section for Cooperative Water Supply Operations on the Potomac River (CO-OP), a special section of the Commission, was created as a technical operations center for management and coordination among the regional utilities to avoid water supply shortages in the Washington metropolitan area during droughts.

text: ICPRB accomplishes its mission through a variety of actions to conduct, coordinate, and cooperate in studies and programs in the areas of

text: water quality

text: water supply

text: , living resources, and land resources. The Section for Cooperative Water Supply Operations on the Potomac River (CO-OP), a special section of the Commission, was created as a technical operations center for management and coordination among the regional

text: utilities

text: to avoid water supply shortages in the

text: Washington metropolitan area

text: during droughts.

text: According to a 2008 World Bank study in 10 Indian states, Swajaldhara results in lower capital costs, lower administrative costs and better service quality compared to the supply-driven approach. In particular, the study found that the average full cost of supply-driven schemes is  per cubic meter, while it is only  per cubic meter for demand-driven schemes. These costs include capital, operation and maintenance costs, administrative costs and coping costs incurred by users of malfunctioning systems. Coping costs include travelling long distances to obtain water, standing in long queues, storing water and repairing failed systems. Among the surveyed systems that were built using supply-driven approach system breakdowns were common, the quantity and quality of water supply were less than foreseen in designs, and 30% of households did not get daily supply in summer. The poor functioning of one system sometimes leads to the construction of another system, so that about 30% of households surveyed were served by several systems. As of 2008 only about 10% of rural water schemes built in India used a demand-driven approach. Since water users have to pay lower or no tariffs under the supply-driven approach, this discourages them to opt for a demand-driven approach, even if the likelihood of the systems operating on a sustainable basis is higher under a demand-driven approach.

text: Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for potable use. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticises the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system.

text: Some conflicts of the future may be fought over the availability, quality, and control of water. Water has also been used as a tool in conflicts or as a target during conflicts that start for other reasons. Water shortages may well result in water conflicts over this precious resource.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7959814.stm |publisher=BBC

text: Some conflicts of the future may be fought over the availability, quality, and control of water. Water has also been used as a tool in conflicts or as a target during conflicts that start for other reasons. Water shortages may well result in

text: water conflicts

text: over this precious resource.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7959814.stm |publisher=

text: BBC

text: While quality problems do exist and it has been Belize's experience that acceptable quality water can be located around the country for primary supply systems with sufficient test drilling. Poor quality groundwater can be expected during the dry season when freshwater recharge from precipitation is negligible, particularly in the North where it extends for three to four months. Water quality in urban areas is good and is constantly monitored by the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA). The water quality in rural areas such as the districts of Toledo, Stann Creek and Cayo, is not satisfactory. Full water purification takes place only in the systems that are connected to urban WASA systems or about 30%.

text: While quality problems do exist and it has been Belize's experience that acceptable quality water can be located around the country for primary supply systems with sufficient test drilling. Poor quality groundwater can be expected during the dry season when freshwater recharge from precipitation is negligible, particularly in the North where it extends for three to four months. Water quality in urban areas is good and is constantly monitored by the Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA). The water quality in rural areas such as the districts of Toledo, Stann Creek and Cayo, is not satisfactory. Full

text: water purification

text: takes place only in the systems that are connected to urban WASA systems or about 30%.

text: Canal elevations are referred to using the Precise Level Datum (PLD), which is close to the mean sea level of the Atlantic and Pacific entrances. The maximum operational level of Gatun Lake was raised by approximately  from the previous PLD level of  to a PLD level of . Combined with the widening and deepening of the navigational channels, this has increased Gatun Lake's usable water reserve capacity and allows the canal's water system to supply a daily average of  of additional water. This additional water volume is enough to provide an annual average of approximately 1,100 additional lockages without affecting the water supply for human use, which is also provided from Gatun and Alhajuela Lakes.

text: Canal elevations are referred to using the Precise Level Datum (PLD), which is close to the mean sea level of the Atlantic and Pacific entrances. The maximum operational level of

text: Gatun Lake

text: was raised by approximately  from the previous PLD level of  to a PLD level of . Combined with the widening and deepening of the navigational channels, this has increased Gatun Lake's usable water reserve capacity and allows the canal's water system to supply a daily average of  of additional water. This additional water volume is enough to provide an annual average of approximately 1,100 additional lockages without affecting the water supply for human use, which is also provided from Gatun and Alhajuela Lakes.

text: However, Brookefield suffers from water shortage especially during summer months as the whole region relies almost entirely on groundwater. With increase in housing and office space, the demand has been multiplying over the years and groundwater depletion has been worsening alarmingly. BWSSB is expected to supply the region with the execution of Cauvery Water Supply Scheme Stage IV, Phase II. BWSSB has been granted ₹1000 crore for various water projects in 2012 including supplying water to areas of Greater Bangalore which includes Brooke Field.

text: However, Brookefield suffers from water shortage especially during summer months as the whole region relies almost entirely on groundwater. With increase in housing and office space, the demand has been multiplying over the years and groundwater depletion has been worsening alarmingly.

text: BWSSB

text: is expected to supply the region with the execution of Cauvery Water Supply Scheme Stage IV, Phase II.

text: BWSSB

text: has been granted ₹1000 crore for various water projects in 2012 including supplying water to areas of Greater Bangalore which includes Brooke Field.

text: With a predicted increase in temperature of 3° by 2040, the region's water supply as a whole is expected to decline.  Water supplies come from glaciers and mountain snowpack.  As temperatures rise, the elevation at which snow normally falls will increase, and there will be less water available during run-off seasons. Winter and early spring will produce more water than late spring flows, which will decrease the amount of available water during the summer. A lack of water will be problematic for both humans and the region's wildlife. This issue is also concerning because as water levels decrease, there is an expected increase in population in the Puget Sound region. The municipal water supply problem will affect different regions differently depending on the amount of public served by them and the amount of water supply that they can tap into. Everett for example, has a population of 100,000 and the Sultan river provides it with a vast amount of water compared to its population, so global warming will have a minimal effect on the supply of water to it.

text: Sewage is a major cause of water pollution in Brazil, a major problem that undermines quality of life, health, and economic development in large metropolitan areas and has a disproportionate impact on the poor in the slums surrounding Brazil’s largest cities. According to the 2000 National Survey of Sanitary Conditions (PNSB), less than 10% of the wastewater produced in urban areas is treated. The 2000 PNSB was the latest survey of water supply for human consumption and wastewater collection and treatment conducted nationwide. Water quality management is also undertaken by the states, although the quality of their water monitoring systems and surveys varies widely. In 2006, only nine Brazilian states had water quality monitoring systems that were rated as excellent or very good; five had good or fair systems; and thirteen had weak systems.

text: Water use can mean the amount of water used by a household or a country, or the amount used for a given task or for the production of a given quantity of some product or crop, or the amount allocated for a particular purpose.

text: Water use can mean the amount of

text: water

text: used by a household or a country, or the amount used for a given task or for the production of a given quantity of some product or crop, or the amount allocated for a particular purpose.

text: The deforestation has resulted to siltation on the rivers hence reducing the quantity of water in the rivers. The quarterly flows measures being undertaken by Ministry of Irrigation and Water Development in conjunction with Thyolo District Council through District Coordination Team (DCT) quarterly flow measure report of October to December 2010 revealed that flows are declining. The depletion of natural resources at Mphuka is causing a series of problems which include; poor quality of water supply hence high incidences of water borne diseases within the area and loss of biodiversity.

text: The deforestation has resulted to siltation on the rivers hence reducing the quantity of water in the rivers. The quarterly flows measures being undertaken by Ministry of Irrigation and Water Development in conjunction with Thyolo District Council through District Coordination Team (DCT) quarterly flow measure report of October to December 2010 revealed that flows are declining. The depletion of natural resources at Mphuka is causing a series of problems which include; poor quality of water supply hence high incidences of water borne diseases within the area and loss of

text: biodiversity

text: The Mosul Dam was designed to supply Mosul with hydroelectricity and water supplies. However water supply cuts are common and mobile phone networks have been shut down.

text: The

text: Mosul Dam

text: was designed to supply Mosul with hydroelectricity and water supplies. However water supply cuts are common and mobile phone networks have been shut down.

text: Water scarcity involves water shortage, water stress or deficits, and water crisis. The relatively new concept of water stress is difficulty in obtaining sources of fresh water for use during a period of time; it may result in further depletion and deterioration of available water resources. Water shortages may be caused by climate change, such as altered weather-patterns (including droughts or floods), increased pollution, and increased human demand and overuse of water. The term water crisis labels a situation where the available potable, unpolluted water within a region is less than that region's demand. Two converging phenomena drive water scarcity: growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources.

text: Water scarcity involves water shortage, water stress or deficits, and water crisis. The relatively new concept of water stress is difficulty in obtaining sources of fresh water for use during a period of time; it may result in further depletion and deterioration of available water resources. Water shortages may be caused by

text: climate change

text: , such as altered weather-patterns (including

text: droughts

text: or

text: floods

text: ), increased

text: pollution

text: , and increased human demand and overuse of

text: water

text: . The term water crisis labels a situation where the available

text: potable

text: , unpolluted water within a region is less than that region's demand. Two converging phenomena drive water scarcity: growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources.

text: The water supply system for Victoria, British Columbia, now operated by the Capital Regional District (CRD), served in 2010 over 330,000 people with clean drinking water from a catchment area of  centered on its main reservoir at Sooke Lake. The CRD’s ownership and complete control of its entire watershed assures its customers of a supply that is secure in both quantity and quality. The main reservoir and its subsidiary reservoirs are estimated to contain 93 billion litres of water, enough to meet the needs of its customers for two years without any rainfall. It is the history of this remarkable system that is sketched below.

text: The water supply system for

text: Victoria, British Columbia

text: , now operated by the

text: Capital Regional District

text: (CRD), served in 2010 over 330,000 people with clean drinking water from a catchment area of  centered on its main reservoir at Sooke Lake. The CRD’s ownership and complete control of its entire watershed assures its customers of a supply that is secure in both quantity and quality. The main reservoir and its subsidiary reservoirs are estimated to contain 93 billion litres of water, enough to meet the needs of its customers for two years without any rainfall. It is the history of this remarkable system that is sketched below.

text: Water of the creek is collected in two artifial reservoirs and supplies the areas of St. Nikolaus and Höhenstraße with drinking water. This often causes locally low water levels in the Fallbach.

text: Water resources are abundant in Ireland, with 82% of drinking water supplies in Ireland sourced from surface water (i.e. rivers and lakes) and 18% coming from groundwater – 10.5% from groundwater and 7.6% from springs. This high dependence on surface water is above the EU average. Approximately 2% of Ireland's water resources are abstracted for human use. Unaccounted for water constitutes 41% of total water supply, followed by supply for domestic demand (39%), and non-domestic demand (20%).

text: Efficiency and service quality improved substantially over the following years. The level on non-revenue water decreased from an estimated 36% in 2005 to 10% in 2009; one quarter of residents received continuous water supply (although the average supply remained at only 7 hours per day) in 2009; the share of metered connections increased from 2% in 2007 to 26% in 2009; the number of customers increased; and the company recovered its operating costs plus a portion of capital costs. Identifying and legalising illegal connections was an important element in the reduction of non-revenue water. The utility prides itself today of the good drinking water quality provided and encourages its customers to drink from the tap. The utility also operates a wastewater treatment plant that meets discharge standards. The private utility pays salaries that are higher than civil service salaries and conducts extensive training programs for its staff. It has also installed a modern system to track and resolve customer complaints. Furthermore, it conducts independent annual customer satisfaction surveys. JUSCO’s vision is to be the preferred provider of water supply and other urban services throughout India. Together with Ranhill Malaysia it won a 25-year concession contract for providing the water supply in Haldia City, West Bengal.

text: Efficiency and service quality improved substantially over the following years. The level on

text: non-revenue water

text: decreased from an estimated 36% in 2005 to 10% in 2009; one quarter of residents received continuous water supply (although the average supply remained at only 7 hours per day) in 2009; the share of metered connections increased from 2% in 2007 to 26% in 2009; the number of customers increased; and the company recovered its operating costs plus a portion of capital costs. Identifying and legalising illegal connections was an important element in the reduction of non-revenue water. The utility prides itself today of the good drinking water quality provided and encourages its customers to drink from the tap. The utility also operates a wastewater treatment plant that meets discharge standards. The private utility pays salaries that are higher than civil service salaries and conducts extensive training programs for its staff. It has also installed a modern system to track and resolve customer complaints. Furthermore, it conducts independent annual customer satisfaction surveys. JUSCO’s vision is to be the preferred provider of water supply and other urban services throughout India. Together with Ranhill Malaysia it won a 25-year concession contract for providing the water supply in

text: Haldia

text: City, West Bengal.

text: Melbourne Water has a system of restrictions to manage water supplies into the future. It reports on  storage levels on Thursday each week while an interactive graph compares actual use. Further reviews of restrictions will be needed to counter an ongoing drought, poor rainfall, record low storage levels and rising water use compared with past years. An overview of Australian water restrictions (including Melbourne Water) is found here.

text: Melbourne Water has a system of restrictions to manage water supplies into the future. It reports on  storage levels on Thursday each week while an interactive graph compares actual use. Further reviews of restrictions will be needed to counter an ongoing drought, poor rainfall, record low storage levels and rising water use compared with past years. An overview of Australian water restrictions (including Melbourne Water) is found

text: here

text: The Water Sector Consolidation Project is a US$ 12.3m project approved in 2005 that "aims to support the achievement of sustainable universal access to safe and affordable water for the population of Guyana, especially the poor." The project's main component foresees the construction of water treatment plants and associated transmission and distribution infrastructure, including metering, in three systems: Anna Regina area water supply system in Division 1 of GWI; Parika area water supply system in Division 2; and Rosignol area water supply system in Division 4. These investments are expected to provide a continuous supply of iron-free water under good pressure, as opposed to the current level of supply which consists of intermittent supply of water with a high iron content at mostly low pressure.

text: The Water Sector Consolidation Project is a US$ 12.3m project approved in 2005 that "aims to support the achievement of sustainable universal access to safe and affordable water for the population of Guyana, especially the poor." The project's main component foresees the construction of water treatment plants and associated transmission and distribution infrastructure, including metering, in three systems:

text: Anna Regina

text: area water supply system in Division 1 of GWI;

text: Parika

text: area water supply system in Division 2; and

text: Rosignol

text: area water supply system in Division 4. These investments are expected to provide a continuous supply of iron-free water under good pressure, as opposed to the current level of supply which consists of intermittent supply of water with a high iron content at mostly low pressure.

text: Given that water used for agriculture is not measured as water used in urban and industrial purposes is, the task set for the agricultural providers could prove more expensive and time consuming. This is the reasoning for the cost effective and technically feasible condition placed on many of the requirements set for agricultural providers.

text: In addition to water resources management, the Ministry of Water Resources is also in charge of the construction of some major water infrastructure such as dams, embankments, irrigation infrastructure, and bulk conveyors for municipal and industrial water supply. According to its website, it is also responsible for the “provision of recommendations on economic regulation of water pricing, taxation, credit and financial affairs” as well as “coordination of capital construction of (…) water supply for townships and villages”, although in practice these functions seem to be carried out by other entities.

text: Whatever the ownership structure, water quality standards and environmental standards relating to wastewater are usually set by national bodies, such as (in the UK) the Drinking Water Inspectorate and the Environment Agency. In the United States drinking water standards are set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).  U.S. pollution control standards are developed jointly by EPA and state environmental agencies pursuant to the Clean Water Act.  For countries within the European Union, water-related directives are important for water resource management and environmental and water quality standards. Key directives include the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1992 (requiring most towns and cities to treat their wastewater to specified standards), and the Water Framework Directive 2000, which requires water resource plans based on river basins, including public participation based on Aarhus Convention principles. See Watertime - the international context, Section 2. International Standards (ISO) on water service management and assessment are under preparation within Technical Committee ISO/TC 224.

text: Whatever the ownership structure,

text: water quality

text: standards and environmental standards relating to wastewater are usually set by national bodies, such as (in the UK) the

text: Drinking Water Inspectorate

text: and the

text: Environment Agency

text: . In the

text: United States

text: drinking water standards are set by the U.S.

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA).  U.S. pollution control standards are developed jointly by EPA and state environmental agencies pursuant to the

text: Clean Water Act

text: .  For countries within the

text: European Union

text: , water-related

text: directives

text: are important for

text: water resource

text: management and environmental and

text: water quality

text: standards. Key directives include the

text: Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive

text: 1992 (requiring most towns and cities to treat their wastewater to specified standards), and the

text: Water Framework Directive

text: 2000, which requires water resource plans based on river basins, including public participation based on

text: Aarhus Convention

text: principles. See Watertime - the international context, Section 2. International Standards (

entity_name: International Organization for Standardization

text: ISO

text: ) on water service management and assessment are under preparation within Technical Committee ISO/TC 224.

text: Hard suction hose, also known as a suction hose, is a specific type of rigid fire hose used in drafting operations. When using this technique, the fire engine draws water for fire fighting from an unpressurized supply, such as a portable water tank, pool, or other static water source, instead of drawing water from a pressurized water supply, such as a fire hydrant. Under complete vacuum conditions, a pump would lift water , however pumps on fire apparatus are not capable of producing a high vacuum. Due to this limitation and friction loss, fire services do not recommend attempting to lift water more than .

text: Hard suction hose, also known as a suction hose, is a specific type of rigid

text: fire hose

text: used in

text: drafting

text: operations. When using this technique, the

text: fire engine

text: draws water for fire fighting from an unpressurized supply, such as a

text: portable water tank

text: , pool, or other static water source, instead of drawing water from a pressurized water supply, such as a

text: fire hydrant

text: . Under complete vacuum conditions, a pump would lift water , however pumps on fire apparatus are not capable of producing a high vacuum. Due to this limitation and

text: friction loss

text: , fire services do not recommend attempting to lift water more than .

text: , the Ombla is used as a source of drinking water for the city of Dubrovnik. The water intake plant at Komolac has a water supply capacity of  per second. The Ombla has been used as a part of Dubrovnik's water supply network since 1897, when the first contract to supply  of water per day was made with an owner of watermills operating on the river. The river water becomes opaque, containing increased proportion of suspended particulate matter, three to five times a year for periods of four to five days after increased rainfall. The situation is proposed to be addressed through moving of the intake plant to a higher elevation during construction of a proposed Ombla Hydroelectric Power Plant (HPP). The new water intake is planned to be constructed at  a.s.l. These changes are expected to improve the quality of the drinking water, and to increase the water supply capacity to  per second. Average volume of water diverted to the water supply network varies considerably by month, peaking during summer tourist seasons. In August 2008, daily volume of water taken from Ombla for the water supply network averaged at . In 2008, the annual daily volume of the water diverted averaged .

text: , the Ombla is used as a source of

text: drinking water

text: for the city of Dubrovnik. The water intake plant at Komolac has a water supply capacity of  per second. The Ombla has been used as a part of Dubrovnik's

text: water supply network

text: since 1897, when the first contract to supply  of water per day was made with an owner of

text: watermill

text: s operating on the river. The river water becomes opaque, containing increased proportion of

text: suspended particulate matter

text: , three to five times a year for periods of four to five days after increased rainfall. The situation is proposed to be addressed through moving of the intake plant to a higher elevation during construction of a proposed Ombla

text: Hydroelectric Power Plant

text: (HPP). The new water intake is planned to be constructed at  a.s.l. These changes are expected to improve the quality of the drinking water, and to increase the water supply capacity to  per second. Average volume of water diverted to the water supply network varies considerably by month, peaking during summer tourist seasons. In August 2008, daily volume of water taken from Ombla for the water supply network averaged at . In 2008, the annual daily volume of the water diverted averaged .

text: Challenges. As of 2010, only two cities in India — Trivandrum and Kota — get continuous water supply. In 2005 none of the 35 Indian cities with a population of more than one million distributed water for more than a few hours per day, despite generally sufficient infrastructure. Owing to inadequate pressure people struggle to collect water even when it is available. According to the World Bank, none have performance indicators that compare with average international standards. A 2007 study by the Asian Development Bank showed that in 20 cities the average duration of supply was only 4.3 hours per day. None of the 20 cities had continuous supply. The longest duration of supply was 12 hours per day in Chandigarh, and the lowest was 0.3 hours per day in Rajkot. According to the results of a Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) Program carried out by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) in 2006 in 28 cities, the average duration of supply was 3.3 hours per day, with a range from one hour every three days to 18 hours per day. In Delhi residents receive water only a few hours per day because of inadequate management of the distribution system. This results in contaminated water and forces households to complement a deficient public water service at prohibitive 'coping' costs; the poor suffer most from this situation. For example, according to a 1996 survey households in Delhi spent an average of  per year in time and money to cope with poor service levels. This is more than two times as much as the 2001 water bill of about 18 per year of a Delhi household that uses 20 cubic meters per month.

text: Challenges. As of 2010, only two cities in India —

text: Trivandrum

text: and

text: Kota

text: — get continuous water supply. In 2005 none of the 35 Indian cities with a population of more than one million distributed water for more than a few hours per day, despite generally sufficient infrastructure. Owing to inadequate pressure people struggle to collect water even when it is available. According to the

text: World Bank

text: , none have performance indicators that compare with average international standards. A 2007 study by the Asian Development Bank showed that in 20 cities the average duration of supply was only 4.3 hours per day. None of the 20 cities had continuous supply. The longest duration of supply was 12 hours per day in

text: Chandigarh

text: , and the lowest was 0.3 hours per day in

text: Rajkot

text: . According to the results of a Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) Program carried out by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) in 2006 in 28 cities, the average duration of supply was 3.3 hours per day, with a range from one hour every three days to 18 hours per day. In

text: Delhi

text: residents receive water only a few hours per day because of inadequate management of the distribution system. This results in contaminated water and forces households to complement a deficient public water service at prohibitive 'coping' costs; the poor suffer most from this situation. For example, according to a 1996 survey households in Delhi spent an average of  per year in time and money to cope with poor service levels. This is more than two times as much as the 2001 water bill of about 18 per year of a Delhi household that uses 20 cubic meters per month.

text: Food production is by far the largest consumer of global fresh water supplies. Globally, agriculture is responsible for an average of 70% of fresh water consumption by humans; in some countries that figure jumps to 80%-90%. Agriculture is therefore also responsible for much of fresh water over-exploitation. Food production further impacts the water sector through land degradation, changes in runoff, disruption of groundwater discharge, water quality and availability of water and land for other purposes such as natural habitat. The increased yields that have resulted from mechanization and other modern measures have come at a high energy price, as the full food and supply chain claims approximately 30% of total global energy demand. Energy fuels land preparation, fertilizer production, irrigation and the sowing, harvesting and transportation of crops. The links between food and energy have become quite apparent in recent years as increases in the price of oil lead very quickly to increases in the price of food. The energy sector can have other negative impacts on the food sector when mining for fossil fuels and deforestation for biofuels reduce land for agriculture, ecosystems and other uses.

text: Food production

text: is by far the largest consumer of global

text: fresh water

text: supplies. Globally,

text: agriculture

text: is responsible for an average of 70% of

text: fresh water

text: consumption by humans; in some countries that figure jumps to 80%-90%.

text: Agriculture

text: is therefore also responsible for much of

text: fresh water

text: over-exploitation.

text: Food production

text: further impacts the water sector through

text: land degradation

text: , changes in runoff, disruption of

text: groundwater discharge

text: water quality

text: and availability of water and land for other purposes such as natural habitat. The increased yields that have resulted from mechanization and other modern measures have come at a high energy price, as the full food and

text: supply chain

text: claims approximately 30% of total global

text: energy demand

text: . Energy fuels

text: land preparation

text: fertilizer

text: production,

text: irrigation

text: and the sowing, harvesting and transportation of crops. The links between

text: food

text: and

text: energy

text: have become quite apparent in recent years as increases in the price of

text: oil

text: lead very quickly to increases in the price of

text: food

text: . The energy sector can have other negative impacts on the food sector when

text: mining

text: for

text: fossil fuels

text: and

text: deforestation

text: for

text: biofuels

text: reduce land for

text: agriculture

text: ecosystems

text: and other uses.

text: Seattle's water supply proved to be a major problem in fighting the fire. At that time, water was provided by the privately owned Spring Hill Water Company. Fire hydrants were only located on every other street, the 'pipes' were small, and many were made of hollowed out logs (several of which would burn in the fire). As more hoses were added to fight the fire, water pressure fell to the point that the hoses stopped working. Firemen tried to keep the fire from spreading further by pumping water from Elliott Bay onto the Commercial Mill, but the tide was out, and the hoses were not long enough to reach the side of the building closest to the fire. To add insult to injury, crowds harassed the fire fighters as the water pressure fell. At the same time the water supply was dwindling, the wind rose, helping spread the fire. Soon the mill was on fire, as well as the Colman Building and Opera House.

text: It is enforced by the UK water supply companies. It covers all plumbing systems, water fittings, and equipment supplied, or to be supplied, with water from the public water supply. It is not illegal to install a product such as water fittings in the UK without the WRAS mark but you may have to prove compliance in other ways. It is legal to design, manufacture, import or trade in non-approved items. It is legal to use non-approved fittings but only in certain specific areas, typically where human health could not be compromised.

text: It is enforced by the UK water supply companies. It covers all

text: plumbing

text: systems, water fittings, and equipment supplied, or to be supplied, with water from the public water supply. It is not illegal to install a product such as water fittings in the UK without the WRAS mark but you may have to prove compliance in other ways. It is legal to design, manufacture, import or trade in non-approved items. It is legal to use non-approved fittings but only in certain specific areas, typically where human health could not be compromised.

text: The Municipality of Dumangas is being supplied with adequate potable water by the Dumangas-Barotac Nuevo Water District (DBNWD) with its main office located at P.D. Monfort North, Dumangas, Iloilo. Water sources comes from 5 Pumping Stations located at Barangays Cali, P.D. Monfort North (Lublub), Calao, Sulangan and Pagdugue capacity were turn down due to el niño phenomenon. Before Cali yields 81ps, 11lps, 15lps, 25lps now it’s well yields only 4lps, 6lps, 8lps, 10lps and additional of Pagdugue which 7lps respectively. Based on the capacity of these sources, there is insufficient supply of water due to higher demand, DBNWD put up a water filtration plant to augment the need of residents and future industries rises within the municipality and DBNWD utilized Jalaur River for its another source of potable water and will deliver 5,000 cum/day which is sufficient enough to the Municipality of Dumangas up to year 2021. Presently there is a total of 2,115 concessionaries in the municipality 2,072 of which are residential and institutional, 43 are commercial and industrial.Out of the 45 barangays in the Municipality of Dumangas, 39 Barangays are now being served by the DBNWD and there are still 6 barangays which are not served by DBNWD and are now in the priority plan of the Water District for expansion especially those areas identified for commercial and industrial purposes

text: The company started its operations with PPP-BOT projects in the roads & highways sector and subsequently diversified into Water Supply projects. The company started the first ever 24X7 full city water supply project in India - ‘Nagpur 24X7 Water Supply Scheme’. The scheme is acclaimed both nationally and internationally. Many other cities are replicating the model. The company also advocates that “Sewage” which is a nuance for any town is actually a great resource when treated and can be used by industries to save fresh water for people and agriculture. The company is developing largest PPP project of 200 MLD capacity with reuse of treated water as the basic objective.

text: The company started its operations with PPP-BOT projects in the

text: roads

text: highways

text: sector and subsequently diversified into Water Supply projects. The company started the first ever 24X7 full city water supply project in

text: India

text: - ‘Nagpur 24X7 Water Supply Scheme’. The scheme is acclaimed both nationally and internationally. Many other cities are replicating the model. The company also advocates that “Sewage” which is a nuance for any town is actually a great resource when treated and can be used by industries to save fresh water for people and agriculture. The company is developing largest PPP project of 200 MLD capacity with reuse of treated water as the basic objective.

text: The State Water Board oversees the allocation of the state’s water resources to various entities and for diverse uses, from agricultural irrigation to hydro electrical power generation to municipal water supplies, and for safeguarding the cleanliness and purity of Californians’ water for everything from bubble baths to trout streams to ocean beaches.

text: Wastewater discharge standards in Latin America are made to protect water sources and maintain the quality and quantity of them.  Mostly in all Latin American countries, there is a general norm that rules both drinkable water supply and wastewater discharges. Also, in most cases is specified other different types of water use, as agricultural, industrial and recreational use. To establish a difference among them, the norm specifies the water quality by controlling the physicochemical and bacteriological parameters. By this way, pollutants as substances of sanitary interest are measured and controlled, encouraging the protection of the water sources, water ecosystems as well as human health. The majority Latinoamerican water laws include tariff regulation and fines, the latter apply if these parameters are not accomplished by users.

text: Wastewater discharge standards in Latin America are made to protect water sources and maintain the quality and quantity of them.  Mostly in all

text: Latin America

text: n countries, there is a general norm that rules both drinkable water supply and

text: wastewater

text: discharges. Also, in most cases is specified other different types of water use, as agricultural, industrial and recreational use. To establish a difference among them, the norm specifies the water quality by controlling the

text: physicochemical

text: and

text: bacteriological parameters

text: . By this way, pollutants as substances of sanitary interest are measured and controlled, encouraging the protection of the water sources, water ecosystems as well as human health. The majority Latinoamerican water laws include tariff regulation and fines, the latter apply if these parameters are not accomplished by users.

text: Oral doses of heavy water in the range of several grams, as well as heavy oxygen O, are routinely used in human metabolic experiments. See doubly labeled water testing. Since one in about every 6,400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, a 50 kg human containing 32 kg of body water would normally contain enough deuterium (about 1.1 g) to make 5.5 g of pure heavy water, so roughly this dose is required to double the amount of deuterium in the body.

text: Oral doses of heavy water in the range of several grams, as well as heavy oxygen O, are routinely used in human metabolic experiments. See

text: doubly labeled water

text: testing. Since one in about every 6,400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, a 50 kg human containing 32 kg of body water would normally contain enough deuterium (about 1.1 g) to make 5.5 g of pure heavy water, so roughly this dose is required to double the amount of deuterium in the body.

text: Water is a precious natural resource. At least two-thirds of the United States have experienced or are bracing for local, regional, or statewide water shortages. US population, and in particular California population has constantly increased during the last decades,so using water wisely is crucial in order to provide enough water also for the future generations.

text: Prishtina, the capital city of Kosovo, is one of the municipalities with the most severe water shortages in the country. Citizens of Prishtina have to cope with daily water curbs due to the lack of rainfall and snowfall which has left the city's water supplies in a dreadful condition. The current water resources do not fulfill the needs of the overgrowing population of Prishtina. The water supply comes from the two main reservoirs of Batllava and Badovci. However, there are many problems with the water supply that comes from these two reservoirs which supply 92% of the population in Prishtina. As such, the authorities have increased their efforts to remedy the situation and to make sure that such crises do not hit the city again.

text: Prishtina

text: , the capital city of

text: Kosovo

text: , is one of the municipalities with the most severe water shortages in the country. Citizens of Prishtina have to cope with daily water curbs due to the lack of rainfall and snowfall which has left the city's water supplies in a dreadful condition. The current water resources do not fulfill the needs of the overgrowing population of Prishtina. The water supply comes from the two main reservoirs of

text: Batllava

text: and

text: Badovci

text: . However, there are many problems with the water supply that comes from these two reservoirs which supply 92% of the population in Prishtina. As such, the authorities have increased their efforts to remedy the situation and to make sure that such crises do not hit the city again.

text: Given the fact that water access is a cross-border source of concern and potential conflict in the Middle East, the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of North America amongst other places, some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and scholars argue that the right to water also has a trans-national or extraterritorial aspect. They argue that given the fact that water supplies naturally overlap borders, States also have a legal obligation not to act in a way that might have a negative effect on the enjoyment of human rights in other states. The formal acknowledgement of this further legal obligation could prevent the negative effects of the global "water crunch" (as a future threat and one negative result of humans over-population).Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages present many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another.

text: Given the fact that water access is a cross-border source of concern and potential conflict in the

text: Middle East

text: , the Eastern

text: Mediterranean

text: and parts of

text: North America

text: amongst other places, some non-governmental organizations (

text: NGO

text: s) and scholars argue that the right to water also has a trans-national or extraterritorial aspect. They argue that given the fact that water supplies naturally overlap borders, States also have a legal obligation not to act in a way that might have a negative effect on the enjoyment of human rights in other states. The formal acknowledgement of this further legal obligation could prevent the negative effects of the global "water crunch" (as a future threat and one negative result of humans

text: over-population

text: ).Water shortages and increasing consumption of freshwater make this right incredibly complicated. As the world population rapidly increases, freshwater shortages present many problems. A shortage in the quantity of water brings up the question of whether or not water should be transferred from one country to another.

text: A significant hydrological drought occurred between 1995 and 1998 in the United Kingdom where the warm, dry summers were followed by dry, cool winters. This meant that over the 3 years, the lack of winter precipitation failed to counteract the dry summers, so slowly the water table fell, and reservoir water levels began to fall. Water levels were only replenished after some exceptionally wet years from 1999 to 2002. Similar conditions were felt between 2003 and 2006, with only the record breaking rainfall of 2007 and 2008 replenishing the water levels.

text: A significant hydrological drought occurred between 1995 and 1998 in the United Kingdom where the warm, dry summers were followed by dry, cool winters. This meant that over the 3 years, the lack of winter precipitation failed to counteract the dry summers, so slowly the

text: water table

text: fell, and

text: reservoir

text: water levels began to fall. Water levels were only replenished after some exceptionally wet years from 1999 to 2002. Similar conditions were felt between 2003 and 2006, with only the record breaking rainfall of 2007 and 2008 replenishing the water levels.

text: The game as it is now is played annually and uses the entire school front yards. The goals now comprise two white poles set about 10 ft apart and there is a set at either end of the yards; the tennis ball simply has to pass between the two poles for a team to score a point and whoever has the most points at the end wins the games. The games has two halves of about 10 minutes each. As it is a 'celebrity' (sixth and seventh-year leavers only) game, there is a lot of off-the-ball fun as well. All players wear fancy dress and the use of water pistols and water balloons is not ruled out.

text: Affordability. Based on a tariff of 5 US Cents per m and a consumption of 200 liter per capita and day, which is higher than in Central Europe, the monthly water bill of a family of five amounts only to the equivalent of USD 1.50. According to a study done by the consulting firm Chemonics for the EU in 2009, a household consuming 218 liter per capita per day paid a water and sewer bill equivalent to 0.81% of total household expenditure. Only 11% of households (constituting 7.4% of the population) spent over 1% on water and wastewater.

text: Affordability. Based on a tariff of 5 US Cents per m and a consumption of 200 liter per capita and day, which is higher than in Central Europe, the monthly water bill of a family of five amounts only to the equivalent of USD 1.50. According to a study done by the consulting firm

text: Chemonics

text: for the EU in 2009, a household consuming 218 liter per capita per day paid a water and sewer bill equivalent to 0.81% of total household expenditure. Only 11% of households (constituting 7.4% of the population) spent over 1% on water and wastewater.

text: Even for those having access to water supply, poor quality of service is often experienced, in the form of intermittent supply, low pressure and poor drinking water quality. However, differences in service quality between countries and between cities in Latin America are vast, and some service providers achieve a quality of service on par with developed countries.

text: Even for those having access to water supply, poor

text: quality of service

text: is often experienced, in the form of intermittent supply, low pressure and poor drinking water quality. However, differences in service quality between countries and between cities in Latin America are vast, and some service providers achieve a quality of service on par with developed countries.

text: In the 1840s, the Manchester Corporation Water Works recommended that to the city corporation that an infrastructure to increase water supplies to cope with demand must be built. The obvious choice for this supply would come from areas of high rainfall and there were three choices which were close enough to Manchester. The Lake District, Peak District and Snowdonia are traditionally rainy areas with its numerous valleys, ideal for a large reservoir. This was rejected in favour of John Frederick Bateman's proposal to build a supply chain of six reservoirs in the Longdendale Valley to the east of Manchester.

text: In the 1840s, the Manchester Corporation Water Works recommended that to the city corporation that an infrastructure to increase water supplies to cope with demand must be built. The obvious choice for this supply would come from areas of high rainfall and there were three choices which were close enough to Manchester. The

text: Lake District

text: Peak District

text: and

text: Snowdonia

text: are traditionally rainy areas with its numerous valleys, ideal for a large reservoir. This was rejected in favour of

text: John Frederick Bateman

text: 's proposal to build a supply chain of six reservoirs in the

text: Longdendale Valley

text: to the east of Manchester.

text: Provision and use of sanitation isolates contaminated faeces from the environment, and therefore the consistent use of the facility, not its mere existence, is likely to lead to health and environmental improvements. However and in much the same way as with water supply, care is needed to define an acceptable form of excreta disposal. A wide range of technologies is used, particularly for settings where low-cost solutions are required, and relevant research conducted elsewhere concluded that all types of facility can be operated hygienically. As a result, sanitation technologies are considered as providing adequate access to sanitation as long as they are private (but not shared / public) and hygienically separate human faeces from human contact. Likewise, the addition of hygiene education is required to see health impacts materialize, in particular the basic issues of hand washing, proper disposal of faeces, and protection of drinking water. An integrated water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) approach for data collection would consequently provide decision-makers with greater diagnostic power than focussing separately on each of these three components.

text: Provision and use of sanitation isolates contaminated faeces from the environment, and therefore the consistent use of the facility, not its mere existence, is likely to lead to health and environmental improvements. However and in much the same way as with water supply, care is needed to define an acceptable form of excreta disposal. A wide range of technologies is used, particularly for settings where low-cost solutions are required, and relevant research conducted elsewhere concluded that all types of facility can be operated hygienically. As a result, sanitation technologies are considered as providing adequate access to sanitation as long as they are private (but not shared / public) and hygienically separate human faeces from human contact. Likewise, the addition of hygiene education is required to see health impacts materialize, in particular the basic issues of

text: hand washing

text: , proper disposal of faeces, and protection of drinking water. An integrated

text: water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)

text: approach for data collection would consequently provide decision-makers with greater diagnostic power than focussing separately on each of these three components.

text: Because water is so central to agricultural trade, water disputes may be subtly implicated in WTO cases in the form of virtual water, water used in the production of goods and services but not directly traded between countries. Countries with greater access to water supplies may fare better from an economic standpoint than those facing crisis, which creates the potential for conflict. Outraged by agriculture subsidies that displace domestic produce, countries facing water shortages bring their case to the WTO.

text: Because water is so central to agricultural trade, water disputes may be subtly implicated in WTO cases in the form of

text: virtual water

text: , water used in the production of goods and services but not directly traded between countries. Countries with greater access to water supplies may fare better from an economic standpoint than those facing crisis, which creates the potential for conflict. Outraged by agriculture subsidies that displace domestic produce, countries facing water shortages bring their case to the WTO.

text: The dam supplies drinking water to the towns of Boonah and Ipswich, although the main user is the Swanbank Power Station. It also supplies irrigation water to small crop farms in the Fassifern Valley. SunWater is undertaking a dam spillway capacity upgrade program to ensure the continued safety of the dam. During the 1995 drought dam levels declined to a low of 1% total capacity. The dam reached 100% capacity due to rainfall associated with the 2010–2011 Queensland floods, with water flowing over the spillway for the first time since 1991 on 6 December 2010.

text: The dam supplies drinking water to the towns of Boonah and Ipswich, although the main user is the

text: Swanbank Power Station

text: . It also supplies irrigation water to small crop farms in the Fassifern Valley. SunWater is undertaking a dam

text: spillway

text: capacity upgrade program to ensure the continued safety of the dam. During the 1995 drought dam levels declined to a low of 1% total capacity. The dam reached 100% capacity due to rainfall associated with the

text: 2010–2011 Queensland floods

text: , with water flowing over the spillway for the first time since 1991 on 6 December 2010.

text: Diversion dams are installed to raise the water level of a body of water to allow the water to be redirected. The redirected water can be used to supply irrigation systems, reservoirs, or hydroelectric power generation facilities. The water diverted by the diversion dam to the reservoirs can be used for industrial applications or for municipal water supply.

text: Water supply in the Jordanian highlands, where most of the population lives, is generally intermittent. According to a 2008 study by the University of Michigan, water is delivered once a week in big cities like Amman and once every twelve days in some rural areas. According to a 2007 survey the mean rate of supply per week was 1.5 days in Madaba governorate, 2.9 days in Balqa governorate and 3.2 days in Zarqa governorate. In Amman,  according to the water distribution plan of Miyahuna, 8 out of 44 main distribution zones received continuous water supply "except in emergency cases" in 2012. Most other distribution zones were scheduled to receive water for either once a week for 24 hours or twice a week for a total of 36–48 hours. To what extent actual supply follows the distribution program, especially during summer, is not clear. Since the Disi-Amman Conveyor became operational in summer 2013 the continuity of supply in Amman has increased.

text: Water supply in the Jordanian highlands, where most of the population lives, is generally intermittent. According to a 2008 study by the

text: University of Michigan

text: , water is delivered once a week in big cities like Amman and once every twelve days in some rural areas. According to a 2007 survey the mean rate of supply per week was 1.5 days in Madaba governorate, 2.9 days in Balqa governorate and 3.2 days in Zarqa governorate. In Amman,  according to the water distribution plan of Miyahuna, 8 out of 44 main distribution zones received continuous water supply "except in emergency cases" in 2012. Most other distribution zones were scheduled to receive water for either once a week for 24 hours or twice a week for a total of 36–48 hours. To what extent actual supply follows the distribution program, especially during summer, is not clear. Since the Disi-Amman Conveyor became operational in summer 2013 the continuity of supply in Amman has increased.

text: The National Assessment of Water and Wastewater Systems in First Nation Communities 'suggests many communities remain vulnerable to the health and environmental problems that result from poor water quality and inadequate sanitation. The assessment, which was released in April 2011, looked at the water and sewer systems of 571 First Nations (with a total population of 484,321 and 112,836 "dwellings") and evaluated their water source and how well each system was designed, operated and monitored. It categorized 39 per cent of the water systems as "high risk," meaning they have "major deficiencies" that pose a high risk to water quality and could lead to potential health and safety or environmental concerns. Thirty-four per cent were assessed as posing medium risk to the quality of water and health and having deficiencies that "should be corrected to avoid future problems."

text: An example of the expanding role of the Commonwealth in the management of water resources is the federal takeover of the Murray-Darling Basin. In April 2007, amid a major drought, John Howard, then Prime Minister of Australia, announced that the region was facing an "unprecedentedly dangerous" water shortage and that water might have to be reserved for "critical urban" water supplies. The Federal Government proposed a A$10 billion Commonwealth take-over of the Murray-Darling Basin, arguing that effective management could not be undertaken by competing state governments. While the states of New South Wales, Queensland and South Australia as well as the Australian Capital Territory accepted the proposal, the state of Victoria initially refused to co-operate, arguing that its irrigators would be disadvantaged and that it would challenge the takeover in the High Court. Legislation to create the Murray-Darling Basin Commission was passed in both the House of Representatives and the Senate in August 2007 in the form of the Water Act of 2007. In March 2008, Premier John Brumby indicated that the Victorian government would participate in the program, in return for $1 billion to upgrade irrigation and continue water security for farmers.

text: An example of the expanding role of the Commonwealth in the management of water resources is the federal takeover of the

text: Murray-Darling Basin

text: . In April 2007, amid a major drought,

text: John Howard

text: , then Prime Minister of Australia, announced that the region was facing an "unprecedentedly dangerous" water shortage and that water might have to be reserved for "critical urban" water supplies. The Federal Government proposed a A$10 billion Commonwealth take-over of the

text: Murray-Darling Basin

text: , arguing that effective management could not be undertaken by competing state governments. While the states of

text: New South Wales

text: Queensland

text: and

text: South Australia

text: as well as the

text: Australian Capital Territory

text: accepted the proposal, the state of

text: Victoria

text: initially refused to co-operate, arguing that its irrigators would be disadvantaged and that it would challenge the takeover in the

text: High Court

text: . Legislation to create the

text: Murray-Darling Basin Commission

text: was passed in both the House of Representatives and the Senate in August 2007 in the form of the Water Act of 2007. In March 2008, Premier

text: John Brumby

text: indicated that the

text: Victorian government

text: would participate in the program, in return for $1 billion to upgrade irrigation and continue water security for farmers.

text: The current management strategies outlined in the Yarra Ranges National Park Management Plan regarding the Restricted Access Policy, is efficient at maintaining the parks water resources. By limiting human access to the Designated Water Supply Catchment Area (DWSCA) it prevents some forms of contaminants from entering the supply catchments because the area remains clear of rubbish. If rubbish left behind in the park by people entered the water catchments, it could have a damaging effect on the purity of the water that is supplied to Melbourne. The restriction on people feeding wildlife has also benefited the native species within the park because it allows the ecosystem to function and evolve without human interference.

text: In July 2007 Water Commissioner Uri Shani warned about a decline in rainfall, exacerbating Israel's water crisis. "The drop in water supply derives from atmospheric contamination, which affects cloud composition and causes a drop in rainfall levels. Every year we record less water entering Lake Kinneret in the winter. Another factor in the drop in water supply is contamination of the coastal aquifer, which reduces the amount of water that can be pumped out."

text: In July 2007 Water Commissioner Uri Shani warned about a decline in rainfall, exacerbating Israel's water crisis. "The drop in water supply derives from atmospheric contamination, which affects cloud composition and causes a drop in rainfall levels. Every year we record less water entering

text: Lake Kinneret

text: in the winter. Another factor in the drop in water supply is contamination of the coastal aquifer, which reduces the amount of water that can be pumped out."

text: An unusually extreme case of poor water quality has been The Walkerton Tragedy, a series of events that accompanied the contamination of the water supply of Walkerton, Ontario, by E. coli bacteria in 2000. In 2001 a similar outbreak in North Battleford, Saskatchewan caused by the protozoan Cryptosporidium affected at least 5,800 people.

text: An unusually extreme case of poor water quality has been The

text: Walkerton Tragedy

text: , a series of events that accompanied the contamination of the water supply of

text: Walkerton, Ontario

text: , by

text: E. coli

text: bacteria in 2000. In 2001 a similar outbreak in

text: North Battleford

text: , Saskatchewan caused by the protozoan

text: Cryptosporidium

text: affected at least 5,800 people.

text: The effects of droughts and water shortages can be divided into three groups: environmental, economic and social consequences. In the case of environmental effects: lower surface and subterranean water levels, lower flow levels (with a decrease below the minimum leading to direct danger for amphibian life), increased pollution of surface water, the drying out of wetlands, more and larger fires, higher deflation intensity, losing biodiversity, worse health of trees and the appearance of pests and den droid diseases. Economic losses include lower agricultural, forest, game and fishing output, higher food production costs, lower energy production levels in hydro plants, losses caused by depleted water tourism and transport revenue, problems with water supply for the energy sector and technological processes in metallurgy, mining, the chemical, paper, wood, foodstuff industries etc., disruption of water supplies for municipal economies. Meanwhile, social costs include the negative effect on the health of people directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat waves), possible limitation of water supplies and its increased pollution levels, high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, etc. This is why droughts and fresh water shortages may be considered as a factor which increases the gap between developed and developing countries.

text: Dry periods pronounced water quality problems in both Enoggera Dam and Gold Creek Dam built after the Enoggera reservoir was completed.  The Mount Crosby Weir and pumping station alleviated some concerns but flooding of the Brisbane River was problematic. It was not until 1912 that water from Enoggera Dam was filtered.

text: Dry periods pronounced water quality problems in both Enoggera Dam and

text: Gold Creek Dam

text: built after the Enoggera reservoir was completed.  The

text: Mount Crosby Weir

text: and pumping station alleviated some concerns but flooding of the Brisbane River was problematic. It was not until 1912 that water from Enoggera Dam was filtered.

text: The state-owned National Water Company (Mekorot) is responsible for bulk water supply through the National Water Carrier, transferring water from the Sea of Galilee and other sources mainly to the coastal plain. Mekorot supplies 1.5 billion cubic meters of water in an average year, 70% of Israel's entire  water supply and 80% of its drinking water. It supplies water to about 4,800 intermediary water providers, including municipalities, regional associations, agricultural settlements and industrial consumers. It also operates 31 desalination plants treating nearly a million cubic meters of seawater and brackish water every day. The company's eight wastewater treatment plants, including the Dan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant, treat 40% of all Israel's wastewater. Its nine reclamation plants enable 70% of the treated effluent to be reused for agriculture. In 2007 the structure of Mekorot has been changed. The parent company, "Mekorot Water", continues to produce, transport and supply water. One of its subsidiaries, "Mekorot Ventures and Development", concentrates, among other things, on the desalination of seawater, wastewater treatment, projects for the municipal sector and projects abroad. Another subsidiary focuses on building and maintaining water infrastructures, primarily for the parent company. Mekorot also serves in some cases also as a Regional Water Authority. A Regional Water Authority does not have to be owned or controlled by the Government and may be owned either privately or by municipalities.

text: The state-owned National Water Company (Mekorot) is responsible for bulk water supply through the

text: National Water Carrier

text: , transferring water from the Sea of Galilee and other sources mainly to the coastal plain. Mekorot supplies 1.5 billion cubic meters of water in an average year, 70% of Israel's entire  water supply and 80% of its drinking water. It supplies water to about 4,800 intermediary water providers, including municipalities, regional associations, agricultural settlements and industrial consumers. It also operates 31 desalination plants treating nearly a million cubic meters of seawater and brackish water every day. The company's eight wastewater treatment plants, including the Dan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant, treat 40% of all Israel's wastewater. Its nine reclamation plants enable 70% of the treated effluent to be reused for agriculture. In 2007 the structure of Mekorot has been changed. The parent company, "Mekorot Water", continues to produce, transport and supply water. One of its subsidiaries, "Mekorot Ventures and Development", concentrates, among other things, on the desalination of seawater, wastewater treatment, projects for the municipal sector and projects abroad. Another subsidiary focuses on building and maintaining water infrastructures, primarily for the parent company. Mekorot also serves in some cases also as a Regional Water Authority. A Regional Water Authority does not have to be owned or controlled by the Government and may be owned either privately or by municipalities.

text: Approximately 16 percent of the population of the MRSP is poor. The vast majority of the almost two million residents in the Guarapiranga and Billings river basins are poor. They illegally occupied these areas given their proximity to the city center, notably the industrial and commercial areas along the banks of the Pinheiros River that joins the Tietê river in São Paulo. This expansion of the population to the basins around the reservoirs has occurred for several decades, and various attempts to regulate urban expansion to protect water sources have been unsuccessful. To protect strategic sources for urban water supply, the state headwater protection law, passed in the 1970s, prohibited high-density residential occupation in 53% of the MRSP. The law was not enforced effectively. Industries were prohibited from the protected areas because they were not able to obtain commercial and industrial permits; however, since the informal economy could circumvent the law, and these forms of expansion were the hardest to monitor and regulate, the poor moved into these areas. Uncontrolled and disorderly occupation in the Guarapiranga and Billings reservoirs took place without adequate water and sanitation services in precisely those areas where water source protection was the most important. The informal settlements and slums have become part of the urban landscape and they cause direct pollution of the reservoirs through wastewater and garbage discharge and storm water run-off and silting, thus threatening their future as water bodies for potable supplies and other uses.

text: Approximately 16 percent of the population of the MRSP is poor. The vast majority of the almost two million residents in the

text: Guarapiranga

text: and

text: Billings

text: river basins are poor. They illegally occupied these areas given their proximity to the city center, notably the industrial and commercial areas along the banks of the

text: Pinheiros River

text: that joins the Tietê river in São Paulo. This expansion of the population to the basins around the reservoirs has occurred for several decades, and various attempts to regulate urban expansion to protect water sources have been unsuccessful. To protect strategic sources for urban water supply, the state headwater protection law, passed in the 1970s, prohibited high-density residential occupation in 53% of the MRSP. The law was not enforced effectively. Industries were prohibited from the protected areas because they were not able to obtain commercial and industrial permits; however, since the informal economy could circumvent the law, and these forms of expansion were the hardest to monitor and regulate, the poor moved into these areas. Uncontrolled and disorderly occupation in the

text: Guarapiranga

text: and

text: Billings

text: reservoirs took place without adequate water and sanitation services in precisely those areas where water source protection was the most important. The informal settlements and slums have become part of the urban landscape and they cause direct pollution of the reservoirs through wastewater and garbage discharge and storm water run-off and silting, thus threatening their future as water bodies for potable supplies and other uses.

text: The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to households and industry. Water supply facilities include water wells, cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply networks, and water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators are in development.

text: The

text: water industry

text: provides drinking water and

text: wastewater

text: services (including

text: sewage treatment

text: ) to

text: household

text: s and

text: industry

text: Water supply

text: facilities include

text: water well

text: s,

text: cistern

text: s for

text: rainwater harvesting

text: water supply network

text: s, and

text: water purification

text: facilities,

text: water tank

text: s,

text: water tower

text: s,

text: water pipe

text: s including old

text: aqueducts

text: Atmospheric water generator

text: s are in development.

text: As another downstream user of the ACF River Basin, Florida wants and needs enough freshwater to reach the Apalachicola Bay of Northwestern Florida to maintain shrimping and other seafood industries, which provide significant income for the state. These industries are vital to the Apalachicola Bay area and generate millions of dollars for the region, while providing thousands of jobs. Unlike Georgia, where the issue over the use of freshwater is based on supplying a growing human population with potable water, Florida is faced with economic challenges and severe losses if the water from upriver is diminished.

text: As another downstream user of the ACF River Basin, Florida wants and needs enough freshwater to reach the

text: Apalachicola Bay

text: of Northwestern Florida to maintain shrimping and other seafood industries, which provide significant income for the state. These industries are vital to the Apalachicola Bay area and generate millions of dollars for the region, while providing thousands of jobs. Unlike Georgia, where the issue over the use of freshwater is based on supplying a growing human population with potable water, Florida is faced with economic challenges and severe losses if the water from upriver is diminished.

text: VIL is propgating this twin approach towards sustainable water management which can be replicated for almost all our cities as every city has similar problems like water supply system marred with leakages owing to lack of maintenance, untreated sewage, water shortage and need of water for industrial use that can use treated water.

text: VIL is propgating this twin approach towards sustainable water management which can be replicated for almost all our cities as every city has similar problems like water supply system marred with leakages owing to lack of maintenance, untreated

text: sewage

text: , water shortage and need of water for industrial use that can use treated water.

text: While it is evident that water use affects environmental degradation and economic growth, it is also sparking innovation regarding new irrigation methods. In 2006, the USDA predicted that if the agricultural sector improved water efficiency by just 10 percent farms could annually save upwards of $200 million per year. Many of the practices which cut water use are cost effective. Farmers who use straw, compost, or mulch around their crops will reduce evaporation by about 75 percent. This would also reduce the number of weeds and save a farmer from using herbicides. Mulches or ground covers also allow the soils to absorb more water by reducing compaction. The use of white or pale gravel is also practiced, as it reduces evaporation and keeps soil temperatures low by reflecting sunlight.

text: While it is evident that water use affects

text: environmental degradation

text: and economic growth, it is also sparking innovation regarding new

text: irrigation methods

text: . In 2006, the

text: USDA

text: predicted that if the agricultural sector improved water efficiency by just 10 percent farms could annually save upwards of $200 million per year. Many of the practices which cut water use are cost effective. Farmers who use straw,

text: compost

text: , or mulch around their crops will reduce

text: evaporation

text: by about 75 percent. This would also reduce the number of weeds and save a farmer from using

text: herbicides

text: . Mulches or ground covers also allow the soils to absorb more water by reducing

text: compaction

text: . The use of white or pale gravel is also practiced, as it reduces evaporation and keeps soil temperatures low by reflecting sunlight.

text: Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking water supply, which is replenished in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years), that is a non-renewable resource, and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is scarce, rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since the manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water.

text: Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking

text: water supply

text: , which is replenished in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years), that is a

text: non-renewable resource

text: , and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is scarce, rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since the manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water.

text: This dam also supply large part of drinking water to Nagpur city. Koradi and Khaparkheda power plant also getting water from  the dam and hence lot of time farmer face water shortage for irrigation in those year when rain fall is low.

text: This dam also supply large part of drinking water to

text: Nagpur

text: city. Koradi and Khaparkheda power plant also getting water from  the dam and hence lot of time farmer face water shortage for irrigation in those year when rain fall is low.

text: Argentina is highly dependent on water supplies originating outside its borders, making it highly vulnerable to changes in water supply due to climate change. Droughts are frequent and devastating. Several years of droughts during the last decade have severely affected agricultural production and reduced economic growth. A drought in 2009 was the worst drought in more than 50 years. Many cattle died of hunger, and huge swaths of soy, corn and wheat fields were affected. It was estimated that the country lost more than US$5 billion from the drought. A drought in 2011 affected farming of soy and corn, causing losses of US$2.5 billion.

text: Integrated urban water management in Aracaju, the capital city of the Brazilian State of Sergipe (SSE) has been and still is a challenging prospect. Home to half a million people, Aracaju is located in a tropical coastal zone within a semi-arid state and receives below average rainfall of 1,200 mm/year where average rainfall in Latin America is higher at 1,556 mm/yr. (Source:FAO 2000)  Most of the residents do have access to the potable water supply and non-revenue water losses are nearly 50%.

text: Integrated urban water management

text: in

text: Aracaju

text: , the capital city of the Brazilian State of Sergipe (SSE) has been and still is a challenging prospect. Home to half a million people, Aracaju is located in a tropical coastal zone within a semi-arid state and receives below average rainfall of 1,200 mm/year where average rainfall in Latin America is higher at 1,556 mm/yr. (Source:FAO 2000)  Most of the residents do have access to the potable water supply and

text: non-revenue water

text: losses are nearly 50%.

text: In India, no city yet offers continuous (24/7) water supply. The quality of the water supply service is low, with non-revenue water being as high as 40 percent in most cities. The poor are particularly affected by this situation and end up paying more for a liter of water than their wealthier counterparts. With the objective of widening access to water services and making water services more sustainable, the Government of India promoted PPPs in the water sector in the 1990s. However, this attempt failed as the Government did not manage to create a good enabling environment for private investment and poor project preparation. Furthermore, there was important opposition to private sector involvement in water delivery.

text: Although three rivers flow through the metropolitan region and drain into the Bay of Bengal, Chennai has historically relied on annual monsoon rains to replenish its water reservoirs since the rivers are polluted with sewage. With the population increasing over the decades, the city has faced water supply shortages, and its ground water levels have been depleted. An earlier Veeranam Lake project aimed at augmenting the city's water supply failed. However, the New Veeranam project, which became operational in September 2004, has greatly reduced dependency on distant sources. In recent years, heavy and consistent monsoon rains and rainwater harvesting (RWH) by Chennai Metro Water at its Anna Nagar Rain Centre have significantly reduced water shortages. Moreover, newer projects like the Telugu Ganga project, which brings water from water-surplus rivers such as the Krishna River in Andhra Pradesh, have eased water shortages. The city has constructed a couple of sea water desalination plants to further increase the water supply, with the two functioning since 2010 and 2013, respectively. A third one has been planned. However, Chennai is expected to face a huge deficit of 713 million litres per day (MLD) as the demand is projected at 2,248 MLD and supply estimated at only 1,535 MLD in 2026.

text: Although three rivers flow through the metropolitan region and drain into the

text: Bay of Bengal

text: , Chennai has historically relied on annual monsoon rains to replenish its water reservoirs since the rivers are polluted with sewage. With the population increasing over the decades, the city has faced water supply shortages, and its ground water levels have been depleted. An earlier

text: Veeranam Lake project

text: aimed at augmenting the city's water supply failed. However, the New Veeranam project, which became operational in September 2004, has greatly reduced dependency on distant sources. In recent years, heavy and consistent monsoon rains and

text: rainwater harvesting

text: (RWH) by

entity_name: Chennai MetroWater Supply and Sewage Board

text: Chennai Metro Water

text: at its

text: Anna Nagar

text: Rain Centre have significantly reduced water shortages. Moreover, newer projects like the

text: Telugu Ganga project

text: , which brings water from water-surplus rivers such as the

text: Krishna River

text: in

text: Andhra Pradesh

text: , have eased water shortages. The city has constructed a couple of

text: sea water desalination plants

text: to further increase the water supply, with the two functioning since 2010 and 2013, respectively. A third one has been planned. However, Chennai is expected to face a huge deficit of 713 million litres per day (MLD) as the demand is projected at 2,248 MLD and supply estimated at only 1,535 MLD in 2026.

text: Bores and reservoirs were established at intervals, but the water was often brackish and unsuitable for steam locomotive use, let alone human consumption, so water supplies had to be carried on the train. In the days of steam locomotion, about half the total load was water for the engine.

text: The water supply in Miyakojima involves the history and development of the current water supply on Miyakojima, a small coral island with only one river, which is administered by Okinawa Prefecture of southwestern Japan.

text: The water supply in Miyakojima involves the history and development of the current water supply on

text: Miyakojima

text: , a small coral island with only one river, which is administered by

text: Okinawa Prefecture

text: of southwestern

text: Japan

text: Prior to the 1970s the protection of basic air and water supplies was a matter mainly left to each state. During the 1970s, primary responsibility for clean air and water shifted to the federal government. Growing concerns, both environmental and economic, from cites and towns as well as sportsman and other local groups, and senators such as Maine's Edmund S. Muskie, led to passage of extensive legislation, notably the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. Other legislation included National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), signed into law in 1970, which established a United States Environmental Protection Agency and a Council on Environmental Quality; the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1977, which became known as the Clean Water Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as the Superfund Act (1980). These laws regulated public drinking water systems, toxic substances, pesticides, and ocean dumping; and protected wildlife, wilderness, and wild and scenic rivers. Moreover, the new laws provide for pollution research, standard setting, contaminated site cleanup, monitoring, and enforcement.

text: Prior to the 1970s the protection of basic air and water supplies was a matter mainly left to each state. During the 1970s, primary responsibility for clean air and water shifted to the federal government. Growing concerns, both environmental and economic, from cites and towns as well as sportsman and other local groups, and senators such as Maine's

text: Edmund S. Muskie

text: , led to passage of extensive legislation, notably the

text: Clean Air Act

text: of 1970 and the

text: Water Pollution Control Act

text: Amendments of 1972. Other legislation included

text: National Environmental Policy Act

text: (NEPA), signed into law in 1970, which established a

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: and a

text: Council on Environmental Quality

text: ; the

entity_name: Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

text: Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

text: ; the

text: Endangered Species Act

text: of 1973, the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

text: (1974), the

text: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

text: (1976), the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1977, which became known as the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as the

text: Superfund Act

text: (1980). These laws regulated public drinking water systems, toxic substances, pesticides, and ocean dumping; and protected wildlife, wilderness, and wild and scenic rivers. Moreover, the new laws provide for pollution research, standard setting, contaminated site cleanup, monitoring, and enforcement.

text: To operate these water wheels, a continuous and substantial supply of water was needed. Although the Upper Harz, with an annual precipitation of over 1300 millimetres per year, received copious amounts of water, the mines often lay high up in the mountains close to the watersheds where there were only a few streams of any size. In addition the flow of mountain streams in the rocky terrain was very variable. It often only needed a few weeks of low rainfall for the water supply to the mines to be threatened. This led to several mines having to be closed.

text: To operate these

text: water wheel

text: s, a continuous and substantial supply of water was needed. Although the Upper Harz, with an annual precipitation of over 1300 millimetres per year, received copious amounts of water, the mines often lay high up in the mountains close to the

text: watershed

text: s where there were only a few streams of any size. In addition the flow of mountain streams in the rocky terrain was very variable. It often only needed a few weeks of low rainfall for the water supply to the mines to be threatened. This led to several mines having to be closed.

text: Water supply and sanitation in London is provided by a number of private companies. The regional water strategy for London is produced by the Greater London Authority. Much of the water supply and sewerage system was constructed during the Victorian era. Greater London is located within the Thames River Basin District.

text: Water supply and sanitation in London is provided by a number of private companies. The regional water strategy for London is produced by the

text: Greater London Authority

text: . Much of the

text: water supply

text: and

text: sewerage system

text: was constructed during the Victorian era. Greater London is located within the Thames River Basin District.

text: This village has had a long history of successful human habitation.The first traces of human habitation in the area were recorded by renowned archaeologist Sir John Evans (1823–1908). The village sits on a saucer of clay covered by a layer of gravel, and as a result water supply has never been a problem; records show that in earlier times water could be drawn from a well just 20 ft deep

text: This village has had a long history of successful human habitation.The first traces of human habitation in the area were recorded by renowned archaeologist

text: Sir John Evans

text: (1823–1908). The village sits on a saucer of clay covered by a layer of gravel, and as a result water supply has never been a problem; records show that in earlier times water could be drawn from a well just 20 ft deep

text: Boston, New York City, San Francisco, Denver, and Portland, Oregon are among the large cities in the U.S. that do not need to treat their surface water sources beyond disinfection, because their water sources are located in the upper reaches of protected watersheds and thus are naturally very pure. Boston receives most of its water from the Quabbin and Wachusett Reservoirs and the Ware River in central and western Massachusetts. New York City's water supply is fed by a  watershed in the Catskill Mountains. The watershed is in one of the largest protected wilderness areas in the United States. San Francisco obtains 85% of its drinking water from high Sierra snowmelt through the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir in Yosemite National Park. However, to supplement the imported water supply, and to help maintain delivery of drinking water in the event of a major earthquake, drought or decline in the snowpack, San Francisco considers the use of alternative locally produced, sustainable water sources such as reclaimed water for irrigation, local groundwater and desalination during drought periods, all as part of its Water Supply Diversification Program. The largest source of water supply for Portland, Oregon, is the Bull Run Watershed. Denver receives its water almost entirely from mountain snowmelt in a number of highly protected watersheds in more than 9 counties. Its water is stored in 14 reservoirs, the largest of which is the Dillon Reservoir on the Blue River in the Colorado River. Water is diverted from there through the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel under the Continental Divide into the South Platte River Basin.

text: Boston

text: New York City

entity_name: San Francisco Public Utilities Commission

text: San Francisco

text: , Denver, and

text: Portland, Oregon

text: are among the large cities in the U.S. that do not need to treat their surface water sources beyond disinfection, because their water sources are located in the upper reaches of protected watersheds and thus are naturally very pure. Boston receives most of its water from the

text: Quabbin

text: and

text: Wachusett

text: Reservoirs and the

text: Ware River

text: in central and western Massachusetts. New York City's water supply is fed by a

text: watershed

text: in the

text: Catskill Mountains

text: . The watershed is in one of the largest protected wilderness areas in the United States.

text: San Francisco

text: obtains 85% of its drinking water from high Sierra snowmelt through the

text: Hetch Hetchy Reservoir

text: in Yosemite National Park. However, to supplement the imported water supply, and to help maintain delivery of drinking water in the event of a major earthquake, drought or decline in the snowpack, San Francisco considers the use of alternative locally produced, sustainable water sources such as

text: reclaimed water

text: for irrigation, local groundwater and

text: desalination

text: during drought periods, all as part of its Water Supply Diversification Program. The largest source of water supply for Portland, Oregon, is the

text: Bull Run Watershed

text: Denver

text: receives its water almost entirely from mountain snowmelt in a number of highly protected watersheds in more than 9 counties. Its water is stored in 14 reservoirs, the largest of which is the

text: Dillon Reservoir

text: on the

text: Blue River

text: in the Colorado River. Water is diverted from there through the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel under the

text: Continental Divide

text: into the

text: South Platte River

text: Basin.

text: Approximately 400 First Nation communities in Canada have had, and continue to have serious problems with the quality of their drinking water. The residents of Neskantaga First Nation in Ontario have been forced to boil their water for the past 20 years to make it safe. The newly elected Prime Minister Justin Trudeau promised to solve the drinking water problem within five years, by investing $1.8 billion dollars.

text: Approximately 400 First Nation communities in Canada have had, and continue to have serious problems with the quality of their drinking water. The residents of Neskantaga First Nation in Ontario have been forced to boil their water for the past 20 years to make it safe. The newly elected Prime Minister

text: Justin Trudeau

text: promised to solve the drinking water problem within five years, by investing $1.8 billion dollars.

text: Agriculture is the largest user of the world's freshwater resources, consuming 70 percent. As the world population rises it consumes more food (currently exceeding 6%, it is expected to reach 9% by 2050), the industries and urban developments expand, and the emerging biofuel crops trade also demands a share of freshwater resources, water scarcity is becoming an important issue. An assessment of water resource management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population or not . It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all their demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water.

text: Agriculture

text: is the largest user of the world's freshwater resources, consuming 70 percent. As the

text: world population

text: rises it consumes more food (currently exceeding 6%, it is expected to reach 9% by 2050), the industries and

text: urban development

text: s expand, and the emerging

text: biofuel

text: crops trade also demands a share of freshwater resources,

text: water scarcity

text: is becoming an important issue. An assessment of water resource management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the

text: in

text: Sri Lanka

text: to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population or not . It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of

text: physical water scarcity

text: , where there is not enough water to meet all their demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing

text: economic water scarcity

text: , where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water.

text: PepsiCo's usage of water was the subject of controversy in India in the early and mid-2000s in part because of the company's alleged impact on water usage in a country where water shortages are a perennial issue. In this setting, PepsiCo was perceived by India-based environmental organizations as a company that diverted water to manufacture a discretionary product, making it a target for critics at the time.

text: PepsiCo's usage of water was the subject of controversy in India in the early and mid-2000s in part because of the company's alleged impact on water usage in a country where

text: water shortage

text: s are a perennial issue. In this setting, PepsiCo was perceived by India-based environmental organizations as a company that diverted water to manufacture a discretionary product, making it a target for critics at the time.

text: Around the world, household drinking water purification systems, including a reverse osmosis step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking.

text: Around the world, household

text: drinking water

text: purification

text: systems, including a reverse osmosis step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking.

text: The total water footprint of a typical 3-person household in the U.S. is . By comparison, a typical single family home in the U.S. only uses about  of water per day (2008 estimate). This includes (in decreasing order) toilet use, washing machine use, showers, baths, faucet use, and leaks.

text: The total water footprint of a typical 3-person household in the U.S. is . By comparison, a typical single family home in the U.S. only uses about  of water per day (2008 estimate). This includes (in decreasing order)

text: toilet

text: use,

text: washing machine

text: use,

text: shower

text: s, baths, faucet use, and

text: leaks

text: The community's source of water is a gravity flow chlorinated treated water from Long pond.100% of the households are connected to main water supply. 55 of the households use public sewage system, the remainder have private septic tanks. Garbage is collected once a week. The community's dump is located 2 km from the community.

text: Category 1 Water - Refers to a source of water that does not pose substantial threat to humans and classified as "Clean Water". Examples are broken water supply lines, tub or sink overflows or appliance malfunctions that involves water supply lines.

text: Category 1 Water - Refers to a source of water that does not pose substantial threat to humans and classified as "Clean Water". Examples are broken

text: water supply

text: lines, tub or sink overflows or appliance malfunctions that involves water supply lines.

text: In August 2004, Enwave Energy Corporation, a district energy company based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, started operating a system that uses water from Lake Ontario to cool downtown buildings, including office towers, the Metro Toronto Convention Centre, a small brewery and a telecommunications centre. The process has become known as Deep Lake Water Cooling (DLWC). It will provide for over 40,000 tons (140 MW) of cooling—a significantly larger system than has been installed elsewhere. Another feature of the Enwave system is that it is integrated with Toronto’s drinking water supply. The Toronto drinking water supply required a new intake location that would be further from shore and deeper in the lake. This posed two problems for the utility that managed the city's drinking water supply: 1. the capital cost of moving the water intake location and additionally, the new location would supply water that was so cold it would require heating before it could be distributed. The cooperation of the district cooling agency, Enwave, solved both problems: Enwave paid for the cost of moving the water intake and also supplied the heat to warm the drinking water supply to acceptable levels by effectively extracting the heat from the buildings it served. Contact between drinking water and the Enwave cooling system is restricted to thermal contact in a heat exchanger. Drinking water does not circulate through the Enwave cooling systems.

text: In August 2004, Enwave Energy Corporation, a district energy company based in

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: Canada

text: , started operating a system that uses water from

text: Lake Ontario

text: to cool downtown buildings, including office towers, the Metro Toronto Convention Centre, a small brewery and a telecommunications centre. The process has become known as

text: Deep Lake Water Cooling

text: (DLWC). It will provide for over 40,000

text: tons

text: MW

text: ) of cooling—a significantly larger system than has been installed elsewhere. Another feature of the Enwave system is that it is integrated with Toronto’s drinking water supply. The Toronto drinking water supply required a new intake location that would be further from shore and deeper in the lake. This posed two problems for the utility that managed the city's drinking water supply: 1. the capital cost of moving the water intake location and additionally, the new location would supply water that was so cold it would require heating before it could be distributed. The cooperation of the district cooling agency, Enwave, solved both problems: Enwave paid for the cost of moving the water intake and also supplied the heat to warm the drinking water supply to acceptable levels by effectively extracting the heat from the buildings it served. Contact between drinking water and the Enwave cooling system is restricted to thermal contact in a heat exchanger. Drinking water does not circulate through the Enwave cooling systems.

text: There are many uses of water in industry and,in most cases, the used water also needs treatment to render it fit for re-use or disposal. Raw water entering an industrial plant often needs treatment to meet tight quality specifications to be of use in specific industrial processes. Industrial water treatment encompasses all these aspects which include industrial wastewater treatment, boiler water treatment and cooling water treatment.

text: There are many uses of water in industry and,in most cases, the used water also needs treatment to render it fit for re-use or disposal. Raw water entering an industrial plant often needs treatment to meet tight quality specifications to be of use in specific industrial processes. Industrial water treatment encompasses all these aspects which include

text: industrial wastewater treatment

text: boiler water

text: treatment and

text: cooling water

text: treatment.

text: According to the European Environment and Health Committee the national microbial failure rate (measured against E. coli) among large water supply systems is generally zero. Very occasionally, large water supply plants have microbiological failures during a limited period. The national chemical failure rate (measured against nitrate ion or against other ions of local importance) among large water supply systems is near zero. In some parts of the country nitrate in drinking water is elevated. About 70,000 families depend on small private water supply systems. The majority of these water supply systems face problems with either nitrate pollution due to extensive agriculture production and/or pollution with pesticides or bacterial contamination. All water supplies, including small private supplies, are under regular control by the local authorities and action is taken if the water quality is poor.

text: According to the European Environment and Health Committee the national microbial failure rate (measured against

text: E. coli

text: ) among large water supply systems is generally zero. Very occasionally, large water supply plants have microbiological failures during a limited period. The national chemical failure rate (measured against

text: nitrate

text: ion or against other ions of local importance) among large water supply systems is near zero. In some parts of the country nitrate in drinking water is elevated. About 70,000 families depend on small private water supply systems. The majority of these water supply systems face problems with either nitrate pollution due to extensive agriculture production and/or pollution with pesticides or bacterial contamination. All water supplies, including small private supplies, are under regular control by the local authorities and action is taken if the water quality is poor.

text: In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so. Comprehensive federal regulations for water supply and sanitation were introduced in the 1970s, in reaction to an increase in environmental concerns. In 1970 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created. In 1972, the Clean Water Act was passed, requiring industrial plants to proactively improve their waste procedures in order to limit the effect of contaminants on freshwater sources. In 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act was adopted for the regulation of public water systems. This law specified a number of contaminants that must be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels allowed. From then on, drinking water systems were closely monitored by federal, state, and municipal governments for safety and compliance with existing regulations. The Clean Water Act set the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized massive expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. The funds initially provided an incentive to build centralized wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure instead of decentralized systems. However, the 1977 amendments to the Clean Water Act required communities to consider alternatives to the conventional centralized sewer systems, and financial assistance was made available. In the mid-1990s decentralized systems served approximately 25 percent of the U.S. population, and approximately 37 percent of new housing developments.

text: In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so. Comprehensive federal regulations for water supply and sanitation were introduced in the 1970s, in reaction to an increase in environmental concerns. In 1970 the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) was created. In 1972, the

text: Clean Water Act

text: was passed, requiring industrial plants to proactively improve their waste procedures in order to limit the effect of contaminants on freshwater sources. In 1974, the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

text: was adopted for the regulation of public water systems. This law specified a number of contaminants that must be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the

text: maximum contaminant level

text: s allowed. From then on, drinking water systems were closely monitored by federal, state, and municipal governments for safety and compliance with existing regulations. The Clean Water Act set the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized massive expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. The funds initially provided an incentive to build centralized wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure instead of decentralized systems. However, the 1977 amendments to the Clean Water Act required communities to consider alternatives to the conventional centralized sewer systems, and financial assistance was made available. In the mid-1990s decentralized systems served approximately 25 percent of the U.S. population, and approximately 37 percent of new housing developments.

text: The inherent natural economy plays an essential role in sustaining humanity, including the regulation of global atmospheric chemistry, pollinating crops, pest control, cycling soil nutrients, purifying our water supply, supplying medicines and health benefits, and unquantifiable quality of life improvements. There is a relationship, a correlation, between markets and natural capital, and social income inequity and biodiversity loss. This means that there are greater rates of biodiversity loss in places where the inequity of wealth is greatest

text: The inherent

text: natural economy

text: plays an essential role in sustaining humanity, including the regulation of global

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: pollinating crops

text: pest control

text: cycling soil nutrients

text: , purifying our

text: water supply

text: , supplying medicines and health benefits, and unquantifiable quality of life improvements. There is a relationship, a

text: correlation

text: , between

text: markets

text: and

text: natural capital

text: , and

text: social income inequity

text: and biodiversity loss. This means that there are greater rates of biodiversity loss in places where the inequity of wealth is greatest

text: They evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various uses. Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives for the end uses. In the case of a potable water supply, water is treated to minimize the risk of infectious disease transmission, the risk of non-infectious illness, and to create a palatable water flavor. Water distribution systems are designed and built to provide adequate water pressure and flow rates to meet various end-user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and irrigation.

text: They evaluate the water balance within a

text: watershed

text: and determine the available water supply, the water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various uses. Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives for the end uses. In the case of a

text: potable water

text: supply, water is treated to minimize the risk of

text: infectious disease

text: transmission, the risk of non-infectious illness, and to create a palatable water flavor. Water distribution systems are designed and built to provide adequate water pressure and flow rates to meet various end-user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and

text: irrigation

text: Access to water supply and sanitation in Georgia is high. Based on household surveys and census results, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation estimates that access to an improved water source was universal in 2015. Access to improved sanitation stood at 86% (95% in urban areas, 76% in rural areas). According to these estimates based on census and household survey data access to water improved from 96% in 1990 to 100% in 2010, while access to sanitation declined from 98% in 1990 to 86% in 2015. The decline in access to sanitation was most marked in rural areas, where it declined from 96% estimated during a survey in 1996 to 79% estimated through a survey in 2013. The definition of improved sanitation includes pit latrines with slabs, while it excludes pit latrines without slabs.  It is often difficult for surveyors conducting general household surveys to get reliable responses to the question that refers to the exact type of latrine in a house, so that the above access numbers should be treated with some caution.

text: Access to water supply and sanitation in Georgia is high. Based on household surveys and census results, the

text: estimates that access to an

text: improved water source

text: was universal in 2015. Access to

text: improved sanitation

text: stood at 86% (95% in urban areas, 76% in rural areas). According to these estimates based on census and household survey data access to water improved from 96% in 1990 to 100% in 2010, while access to sanitation declined from 98% in 1990 to 86% in 2015. The decline in access to sanitation was most marked in rural areas, where it declined from 96% estimated during a survey in 1996 to 79% estimated through a survey in 2013. The definition of improved sanitation includes

text: pit latrine

text: s with slabs, while it excludes pit latrines without slabs.  It is often difficult for surveyors conducting general household surveys to get reliable responses to the question that refers to the exact type of latrine in a house, so that the above access numbers should be treated with some caution.

text: Competition occurs naturally between living organisms which co-exist in the same environment. For example, animals compete over water supplies, food, mates, and other biological resources. Humans usually compete for food and mates, though when these needs are met deep rivalries often arise over the pursuit of wealth, power, prestige, and fame.

text: Competition occurs

text: naturally

text: between living organisms which co-exist in the same

text: environment

text: . For example, animals compete over water supplies, food, mates, and other

text: biological resources

text: . Humans usually compete for food and mates, though when these needs are met deep rivalries often arise over the pursuit of

text: wealth

text: , power, prestige, and

text: fame

text: The most important streams are used by towns to ensure water supplies for irrigation and human consumption are: to the east, Rayan, west and south the Camchas the Juitush.

text: One of the most important elements of water security is early and accurate contamination detection.  The EPA has issued advisory material and guidelines for contamination warning systems to be implemented in water utilities and supplies.  The security challenges that utilities frequently revolve around fast detection, accuracy, and the ability to take fast action when there is a water problem.  If contamination is detected early enough, it can be prevented from reaching consumers, and emergency water supplies can be put into effect.

text: One of the most important elements of

text: water security

text: is early and accurate contamination detection.  The EPA has issued advisory material and guidelines for contamination warning systems to be implemented in water utilities and supplies.  The security challenges that utilities frequently revolve around fast detection,

text: accuracy

text: , and the ability to take fast action when there is a water problem.  If contamination is detected early enough, it can be prevented from reaching

text: consumer

text: s, and emergency water supplies can be put into effect.

text: Example:Hai district. In the Hai District in the Kilimanjaro Region 200,000 people in 55 villages are served by gravity systems from sources in the rainforest on the slopes of Mount Kilimandjaro. Until the early 1990s the water systems were in bad shape: Local communities did not maintain the infrastructure, water quality was poor and some systems even failed to provide any water. The national water policies of 1991 and 2002, which emphasized local participation and ownership as well as payment for water and metering, turned the situation around. Together with investments financed as part of development cooperation with Germany the new approach achieved substantial improvements. It benefited from a strong local tradition of self-help. Water systems are now operated and maintained by employees of water supply trusts - the local name for a COWSO. Each trust has ten members, half of which have to by women by law, who are elected by the communities. They set tariffs, manage their own budgets and hire managers for each water system. The managers in turn supervise technicians and accountants employed by the water committee. Water is sold at public taps by tap agents or provided to metered house connections. An evaluation in 2002 showed that the incidence of waterborne diseases had declined substantially compared to the early 1990s and that costs were more than fully recovered. As of 2009, water supply remained continuous and water quality good. The water committees remained financially sustainabile with more than 90% of the customers paying their water bills.

text: Example:Hai district. In the

text: Hai District

text: in the

text: Kilimanjaro Region

text: The ponds or Kunstteiche used to provide water for the mining industry in the Freiberg Mining Field, in order to drive water wheels and stamp mills and to wash the ore. They are connected to one another by around 50 km of ditches (Kunstgräben) and tunnels (Röschen).The Upper RWA supplies drinking water, the Lower RWA industrial water. The RWA system also transfers water from the  Rauschenbach Reservoir to the Saidenbach Reservoir in order to supply the Chemnitz area. In addition, water is transferred from the Oberer Großhartmannsdorfer Teich via the Lichtenberg Reservoir and from there to the Klingenberg Reservoir and into the Dresden area.

text: The ponds or

text: Kunstteich

text: e used to provide water for the mining industry in the

text: Freiberg Mining Field

text: , in order to drive

text: water wheel

text: s and

text: stamp mill

text: s and to wash the ore. They are connected to one another by around 50 km of ditches (

text: Kunstgräben

text: ) and tunnels (

text: Rösche

text: n).The Upper RWA supplies

text: drinking water

text: , the Lower RWA

text: industrial water

text: . The RWA system also transfers water from the

text: Rauschenbach Reservoir

text: to the

text: Saidenbach Reservoir

text: in order to supply the

text: Chemnitz

text: area. In addition, water is transferred from the

text: Oberer Großhartmannsdorfer Teich

text: via the

text: Lichtenberg Reservoir

text: and from there to the

text: Klingenberg Reservoir

text: and into the

text: Dresden

text: area.

text: However, settling basins can introduce new kinds of water contamination, particularly if the water supply is from a well. The basin can catch windblown contaminants, and if the water is retained for a long period, algae grows in the pool, leading to greater filtration problems. Settling ponds may also be ineffective at reducing turbidity caused by small particles with specific gravity low enough to be suspended by Brownian motion. Usually, it can only remove particles ranging from sand (2mm in diameter) to silt (0.002mm in diameter).

text: The Merced River's primary human use is irrigation. The Merced Irrigation District (MID) operates most of the irrigation infrastructure, which supplies water to  of farmland. As a whole, the system includes about 4,000 sets of control gates and  of canals. Irrigation has taken most of the water out of the lower river, which now rarely reaches the sea. Water that does return to the river does so in for form of irrigation return flows, which carry pesticides, fertilizer and other pollutants. The MID is federally required to allow at least  of water annually to flow continually down the river, not including flooding. The water has allowed the San Joaquin River below the Merced River confluence to contain water, while above the confluence all of its water is usually diverted for irrigation.

text: The Merced River's primary human use is

text: irrigation

text: . The Merced Irrigation District (MID) operates most of the irrigation infrastructure, which supplies water to  of farmland. As a whole, the system includes about 4,000 sets of control gates and  of canals. Irrigation has taken most of the water out of the lower river, which now rarely reaches the sea. Water that does return to the river does so in for form of irrigation return flows, which carry

text: pesticide

text: s,

text: fertilizer

text: and other pollutants. The MID is federally required to allow at least  of water annually to flow continually down the river, not including flooding. The water has allowed the San Joaquin River below the Merced River confluence to contain water, while above the confluence all of its water is usually diverted for irrigation.

text: Beyond human health and ecosystem health, water quality is important for various industries (such as power generation, metals, mining, and petroleum) which require high-quality water to operate. Less high quality water (either through contamination or physical water scarcity) could impact and limit the choices of technology available to developing countries. Reductions in water quality have the dual effect of not only increase the water stress to industrial companies in these areas but typically also apply increasing the pressure to improve the quality of the industrial wastewater.

text: Developers originally intended for players to be permanently out of a race when falling far off a track, however they came to realize that it was not fun for players "to be forced to go slow or suffer an instant defeat." An attempt was made to give three "strikes" to a rider.  Once the rider fell for the third time they were out of the race.  However once implemented developers noticed that the number of racers remaining at the end of the race was too random to be deemed any fun.  In the end the decision was made to simply respawn the character on the track. The PC version was ported in large part by John Olsen, who worked on the port as his first task at SingleTrac.  The PC version also features 3Dfx hardware acceleration, which allows for higher resolution gameplay and visual enhancements such as reflective water.  Axiom Design created the user interface shell for the game, which has a comic book-inspired feel. The music for Jet Moto was produced by Big Idea Music Productions.

text: Developers originally intended for players to be permanently out of a race when falling far off a track, however they came to realize that it was not fun for players "to be forced to go slow or suffer an instant defeat." An attempt was made to give three "strikes" to a rider.  Once the rider fell for the third time they were out of the race.  However once implemented developers noticed that the number of racers remaining at the end of the race was too random to be deemed any fun.  In the end the decision was made to simply respawn the character on the track. The PC version was ported in large part by John Olsen, who worked on the port as his first task at SingleTrac.  The PC version also features

text: hardware acceleration, which allows for higher resolution gameplay and visual enhancements such as reflective water.  Axiom Design created the

text: user interface shell

text: for the game, which has a comic book-inspired feel. The music for Jet Moto was produced by Big Idea Music Productions.

text: -	Be'eli was a pan-Arabian junior deity who was responsible for water and underground water springs and the patron god of shepherds and nomads, but the Mehri tribe viewed him as important deity who supplied water to their agricultural land. The pre-Islamic Mehri tribe used to believe that he was the master and the shepherd of the humans

text: -	Be'eli was a pan-Arabian junior deity who was responsible for water and underground water springs and the patron god of shepherds and nomads, but the

text: Mehri

text: tribe viewed him as important deity who supplied water to their agricultural land. The pre-Islamic Mehri tribe used to believe that he was the master and the shepherd of the humans

text: Tariffs for water distribution include irrigation tariffs and drinking water tariffs. These are historically the most important types of tariffs. Drinking water tariffs levied by utilities are approved by the national superintendency for water supply and sanitation, SUNASS. Tariffs are low compared to some neighboring countries, such as Brazil and Chile. Water bills are often not paid. (See water supply and sanitation in Peru). Irrigation tariffs are collected by water user boards. Water is rarely metered and therefore fees are mostly based on area and crop types rather than on volume of water used. Tariffs vary between US$2.2 per ha and US$25.55 per ha, and collection rates vary from 10% in the Amazon and 68% in the Costa region. Farmers contribute in cash through payment of the water tariff and in kind, through labor and materials, following ancestral practices.(See Irrigation in Peru)

text: Tariffs for water distribution include irrigation tariffs and drinking water tariffs. These are historically the most important types of tariffs. Drinking water tariffs levied by utilities are approved by the national superintendency for water supply and sanitation, SUNASS. Tariffs are low compared to some neighboring countries, such as Brazil and Chile. Water bills are often not paid. (See

text: water supply and sanitation in Peru

text: ). Irrigation tariffs are collected by water user boards. Water is rarely metered and therefore fees are mostly based on area and crop types rather than on volume of water used. Tariffs vary between US$2.2 per ha and US$25.55 per ha, and collection rates vary from 10% in the Amazon and 68% in the Costa region. Farmers contribute in cash through payment of the water tariff and in kind, through labor and materials, following ancestral practices.(See

text: Irrigation in Peru

text: Drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water supply, so maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is one of Oman's most pressing environmental problems, with limited renewable water resources. 94% of available water is used in farming and 2% for industrial activity, with the majority sourced from fossil water in the desert areas and spring water in hills and mountains.

text: Drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water supply, so maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is one of Oman's most pressing environmental problems, with limited renewable

text: water resources

text: . 94% of available water is used in farming and 2% for industrial activity, with the majority sourced from

text: fossil water

text: in the desert areas and spring water in hills and mountains.

text: Five reservoirs within the ranges supply water to the Auckland region, including the Waitakere Reservoir and the Lower Nihotupu Reservoir. Combined, the reservoirs supply approximately 26% of Auckland's potable water demand. The ranges receive an average of over 2,000 mm (78.75 inches) of rainfall annually while the corresponding rate in the city is less than half that. As weather systems approach across the Tasman Sea, their path is blocked by the ranges causing a small uplift sufficient to trigger orographic rainfall.

text: Five

text: reservoir

text: s within the ranges supply water to the Auckland region, including the

text: Waitakere Reservoir

text: and the

text: Lower Nihotupu Reservoir

text: . Combined, the reservoirs supply approximately 26% of Auckland's potable water demand. The ranges receive an average of over 2,000 mm (78.75 inches) of rainfall annually while the corresponding rate in the city is less than half that. As weather systems approach across the

text: Tasman Sea

text: , their path is blocked by the ranges causing a small uplift sufficient to trigger

text: orographic rainfall

text: Water shortages have become an increasingly pressing concern recently and with recent predictions of a high probability of the current drought turning into a megadrought occurring in the western United States, technologies involving water treatment and processing need to improve. Carbon nanotubes (CNT) have been the subject of extensive studies because they demonstrate a range of unique properties that existing technologies lack. For example, carbon nanotube membranes can demonstrate higher water flux with lower energy than current membranes. These membranes can also filter out particles that are too small for conventional systems which can lead to better water purification techniques and less waste. The largest obstacle facing CNT is processing as it is difficult to produce them in the large quantities that most of these technologies will require.

text: Water shortages have become an increasingly pressing concern recently and with recent predictions of a high probability of the current drought turning into a

text: megadrought

text: occurring in the western United States, technologies involving water treatment and processing need to improve.

text: Carbon nanotubes

text: (CNT) have been the subject of extensive studies because they demonstrate a range of unique properties that existing technologies lack. For example, carbon

text: nanotube membrane

text: s can demonstrate higher water flux with lower energy than current membranes. These membranes can also filter out particles that are too small for conventional systems which can lead to better water purification techniques and less waste. The largest obstacle facing CNT is processing as it is difficult to produce them in the large quantities that most of these technologies will require.

text: Problems can be seen to have emerged in 1999, when the treaty’s limitations were revealed by events concerning water shortages in the Jordan basin. A reduced supply of water to Israel due to drought meant that, in turn, Israel which is responsible for providing water to Jordan, decreased its water provisions to the country, provoking a diplomatic disagreement between the two and bringing the water component of the treaty back into question.

text: Problems can be seen to have emerged in 1999, when the treaty’s limitations were revealed by events concerning

text: water shortage

text: s in the Jordan basin. A reduced supply of water to Israel due to drought meant that, in turn, Israel which is responsible for providing water to Jordan, decreased its water provisions to the country, provoking a diplomatic disagreement between the two and bringing the water component of the treaty back into question.

text: Before public water was supplied to households it was necessary for someone annually to haul up to 10,000 gallons of water to the average household.

text: The fort that once boasted of 84 water bodies has only 22 of them now. These water bodies are fed by natural catchment and rainfall, and have a combined storage of 4 billion litres that could meet the water needs of an army of 50,000. The supply could last for four years. These water bodies are in the form of ponds, wells and step wells.

text: However, such intensive agriculture in such an arid area has had a significant negative impact of water supplies. Eighty-eight percent of all water taken from above and below the surface is used for agriculture. One third of aquifers are overdrafted, especially in Caborca, Guaymas and the coast near Hermosillo. There have been water disputes in the state, notablely between officials from Hermosillo and the relatively water-rich Ciudad Obregón. The overpumping has drastically lowered water tables and has increased soil salinity in many areas. In some areas, the tables have dropped by as much as one or two meters per year, making fresh water increasing unavailable and forcing the abandonment of croplands. For this reason, in the last quarter of the 20th century area under cultivation in Sonora dropped by more than 24%.

text: However, such intensive agriculture in such an arid area has had a significant negative impact of water supplies. Eighty-eight percent of all water taken from above and below the surface is used for agriculture. One third of

text: aquifer

text: s are overdrafted, especially in

text: Caborca

text: Guaymas

text: and the coast near

text: Hermosillo

text: . There have been water disputes in the state, notablely between officials from Hermosillo and the relatively water-rich Ciudad Obregón. The overpumping has drastically lowered water tables and has increased soil salinity in many areas. In some areas, the tables have dropped by as much as one or two meters per year, making fresh water increasing unavailable and forcing the abandonment of croplands. For this reason, in the last quarter of the 20th century area under cultivation in Sonora dropped by more than 24%.

text: Municipal water supplies are sourced from deep wells, jetmatic pump wells, rivers, and mountain springs. In some areas with insufficient water supply, several families share water from a communal deep well. However, despite its being land locked, residents of Tubungan still are adequately supplied with clean potable water for their household and agricultural needs.

text: Israel does supply water, however, to the West Bank. Israel sells water to the West Bank at a rate of 53 MCM (million cubic meters) of water per year. Palestinians in the West Bank purchase about one third of their total water supply from Mekorot, Israel's national water agency. As is also true for Israel, most water is consumed in the Agricultural sector of the West Bank. Only about 5% of the West Bank is agricultural land. Under the Oslo II Accord, 80% of water from the above named sources goes to Israel, and 20% to the Palestinians living in the West Bank.

text: Israel does supply water, however, to the West Bank. Israel sells water to the West Bank at a rate of 53 MCM (million cubic meters) of water per year. Palestinians in the West Bank purchase about one third of their total water supply from

text: Mekorot

text: , Israel's national water agency. As is also true for Israel, most water is consumed in the Agricultural sector of the West Bank. Only about 5% of the West Bank is agricultural land. Under the

text: Oslo II Accord

text: , 80% of water from the above named sources goes to Israel, and 20% to the Palestinians living in the West Bank.

text: The preferred camping spots for travelers on the trails north and south of the muddy Platte River were along one of the many fresh water streams draining into the Platte or the occasional fresh water spring found along the way. These preferred camping spots became sources of cholera infections during the third cholera pandemic (1852–1860). Many thousands of people used the same camping spots whose water supplies became contaminated by human wastes. Cholera causes vomiting and severe diarrhea, and in places where human wastes contaminate water supplies the causal bacteria, Vibrio cholera, could easily spread among travelers. Once the water supplies became contaminated, because the cholera bacillus is zoophilic (it can infect birds, various mammals, and live in micro-organisms) it could easily spread and remain a threat along much of the Trail. Cholera, when untreated, can result in fatality rates between fifty and ninety percent. Even after the British physician and pioneer of anesthesia, John Snow, had helped demonstrate that cholera was transmitted through water in 1854, it did not become common knowledge until decades later; scientists continued to debate the cause of cholera until the beginning of the twentieth century. Treatments were almost always ineffective and sometimes hastened death. It would have been a terrifying companion while crossing the desolate high plains and passes of the Rocky Mountain West.

text: The preferred camping spots for travelers on the trails north and south of the muddy

text: Platte River

text: were along one of the many fresh water streams draining into the Platte or the occasional fresh water spring found along the way. These preferred camping spots became sources of

text: cholera

text: infections during the third cholera pandemic (1852–1860). Many thousands of people used the same camping spots whose water supplies became contaminated by human wastes. Cholera causes vomiting and severe diarrhea, and in places where human wastes contaminate water supplies the causal bacteria, Vibrio cholera, could easily spread among travelers. Once the water supplies became contaminated, because the cholera bacillus is zoophilic (it can infect birds, various mammals, and live in micro-organisms) it could easily spread and remain a threat along much of the Trail. Cholera, when untreated, can result in fatality rates between fifty and ninety percent. Even after the British physician and pioneer of anesthesia, John Snow, had helped demonstrate that cholera was transmitted through water in 1854, it did not become common knowledge until decades later; scientists continued to debate the cause of cholera until the beginning of the twentieth century. Treatments were almost always ineffective and sometimes hastened death. It would have been a terrifying companion while crossing the desolate high plains and passes of the Rocky Mountain West.

text: Springs have been used for a variety of human needs including drinking water, domestic water supply, irrigation, mills, navigation, and electricity generation.  Other modern uses include recreational activities such as fishing, swimming, and floating; therapy; water for livestock; fish hatcheries; and supply for bottled mineral water.

text: Springs have been used for a variety of human needs including drinking water, domestic water supply, irrigation,

text: mill

text: s, navigation, and

text: electricity generation

text: .  Other modern uses include recreational activities such as fishing, swimming, and floating;

text: therapy

text: ; water for livestock; fish hatcheries; and supply for bottled

text: mineral water

text: According to the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, a major study led by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), managing rainwater and soil moisture more effectively, and using supplemental and small-scale irrigation, hold the key to helping the greatest number of poor people. It has called for a new era of water investments and policies for upgrading rainfed agriculture that would go beyond controlling field-level soil and water to bring new freshwater sources through better local management of rainfall and runoff. Increased agricultural productivity enables farmers to grow more food, which translates into better diets and, under market conditions that offer a level playing field, into higher farm incomes. With more money, farmers are more likely to diversify production and grow higher-value crops, benefiting not only themselves but the economy as a whole."

text: According to the

text: , a major study led by the

text: (IWMI), managing rainwater and soil moisture more effectively, and using supplemental and small-scale irrigation, hold the key to helping the greatest number of poor people. It has called for a new era of water investments and policies for upgrading rainfed agriculture that would go beyond controlling field-level soil and water to bring new freshwater sources through better local management of rainfall and runoff. Increased agricultural productivity enables farmers to grow more food, which translates into better diets and, under market conditions that offer a level playing field, into higher farm incomes. With more money, farmers are more likely to diversify production and grow higher-value crops, benefiting not only themselves but the economy as a whole."

text: Human development services and public services, such as paving, construction of galleries for sanitary sewage, etc., are under the responsibility of the Municipal Department of Infrastructure. Essential services such as piped and treated water and electricity are provided by state-owned companies in Bahia. Embasa is responsible for the provision of sewage and water supply services, and the State Electricity Company of Bahia (Coelba) provides public services for the supply of electricity and maintenance of the electricity grid.

text: The name of the operation derives from the Afghan word for kareez, which is a water management system used to provide a reliable supply of water to human settlements and irrigation in hot, arid and semi-arid climates.

text: The name of the operation derives from the Afghan word for

text: kareez

text: , which is a water management system used to provide a reliable supply of water to human settlements and irrigation in hot, arid and semi-arid climates.

text: While the Water Act 1945 had introduced the concept of a national policy for water, it had not provided the means to achieve one, but this was addressed by the formation of the Water Resources Board. This was a national organisation, which was independent of central government, and was responsible for the collection of data, research, and planning. Although it had no statutory powers over the River Authorities, it influenced their actions through negotiation, and was very successful in this. It produced three major reports on water resources between 1966 and 1971, in which it foresaw the need for transfers of water between rivers, and in some cases, between regions. Its final report, Water Resources in England and Wales, published in early 1974, outlined strategies for ensuring an adequate water supply for the next 25 years. In the consultation leading up to the Water Act 1973, it was argued that the Water Resources Board should be empowered to undertake major projects in its own right, but when the Act was passed, the Board was disbanded and its functions were dispersed among other agencies.

text: While the

text: Water Act 1945

text: had introduced the concept of a national policy for water, it had not provided the means to achieve one, but this was addressed by the formation of the Water Resources Board. This was a national organisation, which was independent of central government, and was responsible for the collection of data, research, and planning. Although it had no statutory powers over the River Authorities, it influenced their actions through negotiation, and was very successful in this. It produced three major reports on water resources between 1966 and 1971, in which it foresaw the need for transfers of water between rivers, and in some cases, between regions. Its final report, Water Resources in England and Wales, published in early 1974, outlined strategies for ensuring an adequate water supply for the next 25 years. In the consultation leading up to the

text: Water Act 1973

text: , it was argued that the Water Resources Board should be empowered to undertake major projects in its own right, but when the Act was passed, the Board was disbanded and its functions were dispersed among other agencies.

text: Africa is a water scarce country and it is currently facing more challenges in water provision, sanitation and supply. The aim of the study was to assess water security and demand in the study area. This was achieved by identifying the sources of water which are mostly used, checking the accessibility and measuring their water quality. Questionnaires were used to get the information from the people who live within the study area. ArcGIS was used to map these water sources. Results from ANOVA single factor tests revealed that there was a significant difference among rural, peri-urban and rural areas in terms of water sources commonly used and distance travelled from a household to a water source. The longest distance travelled was 1.8 km, 0.896 km and 0.005 km in rural, peri-urban and urban area, respectively. There was no significant difference among these three categories with regards to pH, turbidity and dissolved oxygen. There was a significant difference among these categories in terms of electrical conductivity. The highest conductivity in rural, peri-urban and urban areas was 290 μS/cm, 270 μS/cm and 110 μS/cm respectively. It is therefore, because of the above findings, recommended that municipal authorities and the Department of Water and Sanitation should put more effort on making proper and protected water sources available within reasonable distance (less than 200m from the household) to rural people in order to reach the balance between rural and urban areas with regards to water supply and sanitation.

text: Fresh water is accessible to 99% of the citizens in the range of one kilometer. In the urban water supply exists a big difference between large and small cities. Tap water is a readily available water supply in large cities such as Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, covering nearly the entire population, whereas in smaller cities, there is a 60% variability.

text: Fresh water is accessible to 99% of the citizens in the range of one kilometer. In the urban water supply exists a big difference between large and small cities. Tap water is a readily available water supply in large cities such as

text: Ho Chi Minh City

text: and

text: Hanoi

text: , covering nearly the entire population, whereas in smaller cities, there is a 60% variability.

text: In India, there is competition for water resources of all inter state rivers except the main Brahmaputra river among the riparian states of India and also with neighbouring countries which are Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, etc. Vast area of the Indian subcontinent is under tropical climate which is conducive for agriculture due to favourable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of evapotranspiration from the cultivated land. Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the subcontinent, the water supply gaps due to temporal and spatial distribution of water resources among the states and countries in the subcontinent are to be bridged.

text: In India, there is competition for water resources of all inter state rivers except the main

text: Brahmaputra river

text: among the riparian states of India and also with neighbouring countries which are Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, etc. Vast area of the

text: Indian subcontinent

text: is under tropical climate which is conducive for agriculture due to favourable warm and sunny conditions provided perennial water supply is available to cater to the high rate of

text: evapotranspiration

text: from the cultivated land. Though the overall water resources are adequate to meet all the requirements of the subcontinent, the water supply gaps due to temporal and spatial distribution of water resources among the states and countries in the subcontinent are to be bridged.

text: Even after accounting for physical water availability or access, water quality could further reduce the amount of usable water available to a developing country for human consumption, sanitation, agriculture and industrial purposes, in addition to various ecosystem services. The level of water quality depends on its intended purpose: Water that could be unfit for human consumption could be still usable in industrial or agriculture applications. Yet parts of the world are experiencing extensive deterioration of water quality, in some cases even rendering the water unfit for agricultural or even industrial use. For example, in China, 54% of the Hai River basin surface water is so polluted that it is considered un-usable.

text: Even after accounting for physical water availability or access, water quality could further reduce the amount of usable water available to a developing country for human consumption, sanitation, agriculture and industrial purposes, in addition to various ecosystem services. The level of water quality depends on its intended purpose: Water that could be unfit for human consumption could be still usable in industrial or agriculture applications. Yet parts of the world are experiencing extensive deterioration of water quality, in some cases even rendering the water unfit for agricultural or even industrial use. For example, in China, 54% of the

text: Hai River

text: basin surface water is so polluted that it is considered un-usable.

text: Sewers overflow during a significant rainfall because the combined sewer systems fill up beyond their capacity to carry both sewage and storm water, thereby discharging the excess flow into rivers and streams. Since streams also are affected, people should limit stream contact as well.  Runoffs and overflows subside gradually and river water quality usually does not return to normal until 24 to 36 hours after the rainfall ends.

text: A first indicator of the quality of water supply services is the continuity of service. The urban utilities deliver continuous services in Burkina Faso, Senegal and South Africa, but are highly intermittent in Ethiopia and Zambia. In rural areas, continuity is expressed by the ratio of water points out of order, or by the average time per year or per month that a water point is unusable. In low income Sub-Saharan countries, indicatively, over one third of the rural water supply infrastructure is in disuse.

text: A first indicator of the quality of water supply services is the continuity of service. The urban utilities deliver continuous services in

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso

text: Burkina Faso

text: Senegal

text: and

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in South Africa

text: South Africa

text: , but are highly intermittent in

text: Ethiopia

text: and

text: Zambia

text: . In rural areas, continuity is expressed by the ratio of water points out of order, or by the average time per year or per month that a water point is unusable. In low income Sub-Saharan countries, indicatively, over one third of the rural water supply infrastructure is in disuse.

text: Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that is fostering a growing debate. Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of hydraulic infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and declining groundwater. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers for domestic and agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion people currently live in water-scarce areas.

text: Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that is fostering a growing debate.

text: Physical water scarcity

text: is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is overdevelopment of hydraulic infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and declining

text: groundwater

text: . Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. Symptoms of

text: economic water scarcity

text: include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers for domestic and agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion people currently live in water-scarce areas.

text: Rwanda has abundant rainfall and water resources, totalling 5 billion cubic meters per year (177 billion cu ft/yr). However, deforestation and erosion affect the productivity of springs, which are the main source of water supply in rural areas.

text: Gold was found in the river in 1858, and water from the river was used to supply the goldfields cities of Bendigo and . As the population of those cities grew a water supply system consisting of  of tunnels and aqueducts were constructed. Over time, the water supply was extended to , as well as many other smaller towns in the region. Today the system supplies drinking water to a population exceeding 200,000. Coliban Water manages the three major water supply reservoirs, which are part of the Eppalock Proclaimed Water Supply Catchment.

text: Gold

text: was found in the river in 1858, and water from the river was used to supply the goldfields cities of

text: Bendigo

text: and . As the population of those cities grew a water supply system consisting of  of tunnels and

text: aqueducts

text: were constructed. Over time, the water supply was extended to , as well as many other smaller towns in the region. Today the system supplies drinking water to a population exceeding 200,000.

text: Coliban Water

text: manages the three major water supply reservoirs, which are part of the Eppalock Proclaimed Water Supply Catchment.

text: According to the Water Usage & Classification for Fresh Water system used by the Philippines' Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Class D Quality freshwater is suitable for agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering and industrial water supply class II.

text: According to the Water Usage & Classification for Fresh Water system used by the Philippines'

entity_name: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines)

text: Department of Environment and Natural Resources

text: , Class D Quality freshwater is suitable for agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering and industrial water supply class II.

text: The lack of improved water supply and sanitation severely impacts the human capabilities of all Zimbabweans. Without clean water and proper sanitation human beings are more prone to contracting illnesses, and therefore suffer greater rates of morbidity and mortality due to these illnesses. Improved water supply and sanitation sectors are shown to be highly effective at reducing the rates of morbidity and mortality for many illnesses including ascariasis, cholera, diarrhea, dracunculiasis, hookworm infection, schistosomiasis, and trachoma. Diarrhea is an especially serious disease considering it is the largest killer of children under the age of five in Africa. Also, cholera is a very serious sickness in Zimbabwe especially considering the high human toll of the Zimbabwean Cholera Outbreak of 2008 and 2009.

text: The lack of improved water supply and sanitation severely impacts the human capabilities of all Zimbabweans. Without clean water and proper sanitation human beings are more prone to contracting illnesses, and therefore suffer greater rates of morbidity and mortality due to these illnesses. Improved water supply and sanitation sectors are shown to be highly effective at reducing the rates of morbidity and mortality for many illnesses including

text: ascariasis

text: cholera

text: diarrhea

text: dracunculiasis

text: hookworm

text: infection,

text: schistosomiasis

text: , and

text: trachoma

text: . Diarrhea is an especially serious disease considering it is the largest killer of children under the age of five in Africa. Also, cholera is a very serious sickness in Zimbabwe especially considering the high human toll of the Zimbabwean Cholera Outbreak of 2008 and 2009.

text: Appliances were available in small sizes suitable for a country house, pumping about 100 gallons per minute, through to large dockyard models, rated at 2000 gallons per minute. A common size, popular with Borough fire brigades, was the double vertical boiler, that could pump between 250 and 450 gallons per minute. Merryweather also provided hydrants and mains water supplies for highly vulnerable sites such as theatres, where getting a strong enough supply of water could be a problem.

text: Appliances were available in small sizes suitable for a country house, pumping about 100 gallons per minute, through to large

text: dockyard

text: models, rated at 2000 gallons per minute. A common size, popular with Borough

text: fire brigade

text: s, was the double vertical boiler, that could pump between 250 and 450 gallons per minute. Merryweather also provided

text: hydrants

text: and mains water supplies for highly vulnerable sites such as theatres, where getting a strong enough supply of water could be a problem.

text: DevelopDenver Water has plans to expand Gross Reservoir, which will address a looming supply shortage and improve the reliability of Denver Water’s system. Denver Water also is turning gravel pits to water storage sites, which allows it to store and release reusable water to meet downstream water requirements.

text: DevelopDenver Water has plans to expand

text: Gross Reservoir

text: , which will address a looming supply shortage and improve the reliability of Denver Water’s system. Denver Water also is turning gravel pits to water storage sites, which allows it to store and release reusable water to meet downstream water requirements.

text: Supply of reticulated water has been controversial for decades, primarily due to the steepness of the streets. Previously, many allotments within the suburb have no government water supply, instead being serviced by independent water schemes sourced from bores, some being privately owned, some being co-operatives. However SA Water is now taking responsibility for the water supply with all homes expected to be connected to their systems in early 2016.

text: The main cause of schistosomiasis is the dumping of human and animal waste into water supplies. To prevent contact between animals and S.bovis, areas of flowing and standing water, including irrigated land, should be fenced in and animals be supplied with piped, clean water. Hygienic disposal of waste would be sufficient to eliminate the disease.

text: The main cause of schistosomiasis is the dumping of human and

text: animal waste

text: into water supplies. To prevent contact between animals and S.bovis, areas of flowing and standing water, including

text: irrigated land

text: , should be fenced in and animals be supplied with piped, clean water. Hygienic disposal of waste would be sufficient to eliminate the disease.

text: Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water.  Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water, this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems. In Australia,  over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive irrigation activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination. With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.

text: Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water.  Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and

text: soil

text: s changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the

text: human

text: activity that consumes the most fresh water, this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems. In Australia,  over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive

text: irrigation

text: activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination. With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.

text: Since the late 1970s, the New York City Department of Environmental Protection (NYCDEP) has been monitoring two leaks that collectively release between  of water per day.  These leaks have caused many problems with flooding and drinking water contamination, particularly for residents of Wawarsing, New York.  In the town of Newburgh, 35 miles southeast, residents thought that a stream bubbling out of a wetlands was a natural artesian well; in reality, the water was coming out of a 36-square-foot tunnel carved out by the force of water blasting from a crack in the aqueduct buried 650 feet (300m) underground. Combined with the leak in Wawarsing, the NYCDEP admitted in the early 1990s that the aqueduct was leaking at a rate of up to 35 million gallons a day, enough water to supply nearly half a million people.

text: Since the late 1970s, the

entity_name: New York City Department of Environmental Protection

text: New York City Department of Environmental Protection

text: (NYCDEP) has been monitoring two leaks that collectively release between  of water per day.  These leaks have caused many problems with flooding and drinking water contamination, particularly for residents of

text: Wawarsing

text: , New York.  In the town of

text: Newburgh

text: , 35 miles southeast, residents thought that a stream bubbling out of a wetlands was a natural artesian well; in reality, the water was coming out of a 36-square-foot tunnel carved out by the force of water blasting from a crack in the aqueduct buried 650 feet (300m) underground. Combined with the leak in Wawarsing, the NYCDEP admitted in the early 1990s that the aqueduct was leaking at a rate of up to 35 million gallons a day, enough water to supply nearly half a million people.

text: If a hurricane struck Florida and there was a shortage of water, everything else equal, the price of bottled water would increase. Water in Florida, before this shortage, was used for drinking water, cooking, watering plants, and bathing. With the tap off, the price of bottled water has increased to such an extent that bottled water will surely not be purchased for watering plants or bathing. That is, the increase in price reflects the increase in the value we attribute to the last use of the last unit in the supply of the good. To explain, before the hurricane, water was valued according to the fact that it would be used for bathing and watering plants. Now, with a shortage, it is valued according to its ability to quench thirst and cook food. The latter uses importance is "approximated" in the price of the good. The bottled water which now costs, say, $20 a bottle, is an approximation of the value attribute to drinking water, cooking water, and whatever else it might be used for at the higher price—given that previous uses are not considered due to the shortage of supply and its corollary, the increase in price. That is why it is said that a homogeneous stock of goods is valued according to its final utility—according to its last use of a stock of a good.

text: If a hurricane struck Florida and there was a shortage of water, everything else equal, the

text: price

text: of bottled water would increase. Water in Florida, before this

text: shortage

text: , was used for drinking water, cooking, watering plants, and bathing. With the tap off, the price of bottled water has increased to such an extent that bottled water will surely not be purchased for watering plants or bathing. That is, the increase in price reflects the increase in the value we attribute to the last use of the last unit in the

text: supply

text: of the

text: good

text: . To explain, before the hurricane, water was valued according to the fact that it would be used for bathing and watering plants. Now, with a shortage, it is valued according to its ability to quench thirst and cook food. The latter uses importance is "approximated" in the price of the good. The bottled water which now costs, say, $20 a bottle, is an approximation of the

text: value

text: attribute to drinking water, cooking water, and whatever else it might be used for at the higher price—given that previous uses are not considered due to the shortage of supply and its corollary, the increase in price. That is why it is said that a homogeneous stock of goods is valued according to its final utility—according to its last use of a stock of a good.

text: On the liquid side of these heat exchangers, the common fluids are water, a water-glycol solution, steam, or a refrigerant. For heating coils, hot water and steam are the most common, and this heated fluid is supplied by boilers, for example. For cooling coils, chilled water and refrigerant are most common. Chilled water is supplied from a chiller that is potentially located very far away, but refrigerant must come from a nearby condensing unit. When a refrigerant is used, the cooling coil is the evaporator in the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. HVAC coils that use this direct-expansion of refrigerants are commonly called DX coils.  Some DX coils are "microchannel" type.

text: On the liquid side of these heat exchangers, the common fluids are water, a water-glycol solution, steam, or a

text: refrigerant

text: . For heating coils, hot water and steam are the most common, and this heated fluid is supplied by

text: boiler

text: s, for example. For cooling coils, chilled water and refrigerant are most common. Chilled water is supplied from a

text: chiller

text: that is potentially located very far away, but refrigerant must come from a nearby condensing unit. When a refrigerant is used, the cooling coil is the

text: evaporator

text: in the

text: vapor-compression refrigeration

text: cycle. HVAC coils that use this direct-expansion of refrigerants are commonly called DX coils.  Some DX coils are "microchannel" type.

text: Water is an essential natural resource for human existence. It is needed in every industrial and natural process, for example, it is used for oil refining, for liquid-liquid extraction in hydro-metallurgical processes, for cooling, for scrubbing in the iron and the steel industry and for several operations in food processing facilities , etc. It is necessary to adopt a new approach to design urban water supply networks; water shortages are expected in the forthcoming decades and environmental regulations for water utilization and waste-water disposal are  increasingly stringent.

text: Water

text: is an essential

text: natural resource

text: for human existence. It is needed in every industrial and natural process, for example, it is used for

text: oil refining

text: , for

text: liquid-liquid extraction

text: in hydro-metallurgical processes, for cooling, for scrubbing in the iron and the steel industry and for several operations in

text: food processing

text: facilities , etc. It is necessary to adopt a new approach to design urban water supply networks;

text: water shortages

text: are expected in the forthcoming decades and environmental regulations for water utilization and

text: waste-water

text: disposal are  increasingly stringent.

text: For an instance, in India the rainfall over the country is primarily orographic, associated with tropical depressions originating in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The summer monsoon accounts for more than 85 per cent of the precipitation. The uncertainty of occurrence of rainfall marked by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem for the country. Large parts of Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are not only in deficit in rainfall but also subject to large variations, resulting in frequent droughts and causing immense hardship to the population and enormous loss to the nation. The water availability even for drinking purposes becomes critical, particularly in the summer months as the rivers dry up and the ground water recedes. Regional variations in the rainfall lead to situations when some parts of the country do not have enough water even for raising a single crop. On the other hand excess rainfall occurring in some parts of the country create havoc due to floods.

text: Formed in 1950, the United Water Conservation District battles groundwater overdraft through a combination of aquifer recharge and providing alternative surface water supplies. The District owns Lake Piru and key facilities along the Santa Clara River that are used to manage groundwater supplies.  The United Water Conservation District provides wholesale water delivery through three pipelines to various portions of the Oxnard Plain. One is the Oxnard/Hueneme system which serves the City of Oxnard, the Port Hueneme Water Agency (City of Port Hueneme, Channel Islands Beach CSD) and the Naval Base Ventura County (Point Mugu and the Construction Battalion Center). A second pipeline serves agricultural uses in the Oxnard Plain. The third system supplies water to the Pleasant Valley area located between Oxnard and Camarillo. United rates for non-agricultural uses are at least three times more than agricultural users are charged as required by the state water code.

text: Formed in 1950, the United Water Conservation District battles groundwater overdraft through a combination of

text: aquifer recharge

text: and providing alternative surface water supplies. The District owns

text: Lake Piru

text: and key facilities along the Santa Clara River that are used to manage groundwater supplies.  The United Water Conservation District provides wholesale water delivery through three pipelines to various portions of the Oxnard Plain. One is the Oxnard/Hueneme system which serves the City of Oxnard, the Port Hueneme Water Agency (City of Port Hueneme, Channel Islands Beach CSD) and the

text: Naval Base Ventura County

text: Point Mugu

text: and the Construction Battalion Center). A second pipeline serves agricultural uses in the Oxnard Plain. The third system supplies water to the Pleasant Valley area located between Oxnard and Camarillo. United rates for non-agricultural uses are at least three times more than agricultural users are charged as required by the state water code.

text: The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing countries and significant proportions in more economically developed countries (in the United States, 30% of freshwater usage is for irrigation).

text: The most important use of water in

text: agriculture

text: is for

text: irrigation

text: , which is a key component to produce enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing countries and significant proportions in more economically developed countries (in the United States, 30% of freshwater usage is for irrigation).

text: The majority of the DRC's population without access to safe drinking water lives in rural areas. The rural water sector of the DRC has been neglected for many years and is characterized by a deteriorated infrastructure due to lack of maintenance and spare parts. Furthermore, many water systems are of poor construction quality. The major source of rural water supply are springs, accounting for approximately 90 percent of the total rural water supply. Springs have the advantage that they require only minimal investment to install and maintain. However, springs are often exploited without adequate protection and development. Another important source of water supply in rural areas are shallow wells, using hand and machine pumps. Other rural water supply sources include boreholes, small piped distribution systems and rainwater harvesting systems. Generally, charges for rural water systems do not cover operational costs. Furthermore, almost no water quality testing is conducted.

text: The majority of the DRC's population without access to safe drinking water lives in rural areas. The rural water sector of the DRC has been neglected for many years and is characterized by a deteriorated infrastructure due to lack of maintenance and spare parts. Furthermore, many water systems are of poor construction quality. The major source of rural water supply are springs, accounting for approximately 90 percent of the total rural water supply. Springs have the advantage that they require only minimal investment to install and maintain. However, springs are often exploited without adequate protection and development. Another important source of water supply in rural areas are

text: shallow wells

text: , using hand and machine pumps. Other rural water supply sources include boreholes, small piped distribution systems and

text: rainwater harvesting

text: systems. Generally, charges for rural water systems do not cover

text: operational costs

text: . Furthermore, almost no water quality testing is conducted.

text: Mulholland had a vision of a Los Angeles that would become far bigger than the Los Angeles of the start of the 20th century. The limiting factor to the growth of Los Angeles' was its water supply, because it has a semi-arid climate with unreliable rainfall. "If you don't get the water, you won't need it," Mulholland famously remarked.

text: Mulholland had a vision of a Los Angeles that would become far bigger than the Los Angeles of the start of the 20th century. The limiting factor to the growth of Los Angeles' was its water supply, because it has a

text: semi-arid

text: climate with unreliable rainfall. "If you don't get the water, you won't need it," Mulholland famously remarked.

text: In the early 1900s, Falls Run was used as a water supply for the village of Rock Glen, a mining community that had a population of approximately 300 people at the time. The water supply was at one point owned by the Tomhicken Water Company before later being owned by the Wyoming Water Company. It was used as a domestic water supply in Rock Glen. The Pennsylvania Railroad also used the stream as a water supply. The water was supplied to it via gravity.

text: In the early 1900s, Falls Run was used as a

text: water supply

text: for the village of Rock Glen, a mining community that had a population of approximately 300 people at the time. The water supply was at one point owned by the

text: Tomhicken Water Company

text: before later being owned by the

text: Wyoming Water Company

text: . It was used as a domestic water supply in Rock Glen. The

text: Pennsylvania Railroad

text: also used the stream as a water supply. The water was supplied to it via gravity.

text: According to a survey carried out in 2008 in 7 towns 88% of the customers of water utilities said they were satisfied with the service level of their water utility, and only 9% were dissatisfied. Even in the city of Ibb, where water supply is intermittent, 47% of customers declared they were satisfied. In the town of Amran, where the situation was similar, even 74% of customers were satisfied. It may be that customers have become accustomed to poor service quality and have correspondingly lowered their expectations. 77% of households said that they drank tap water.

text: According to a survey carried out in 2008 in 7 towns 88% of the customers of water utilities said they were satisfied with the service level of their water utility, and only 9% were dissatisfied. Even in the city of Ibb, where water supply is intermittent, 47% of customers declared they were satisfied. In the town of Amran, where the situation was similar, even 74% of customers were satisfied. It may be that customers have become accustomed to poor service quality and have correspondingly lowered their expectations. 77% of households said that they drank

text: tap water

text: Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are out of service because of a lack of maintenance. Access to improved sanitation lags significantly behind access to water supply.

text: Water supply and sanitation in

text: Burkina Faso

text: are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to

text: improved water source

text: s in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are out of service because of a lack of maintenance. Access to

text: improved sanitation

text: lags significantly behind access to water supply.

text: Household water use in England and Wales stood at about 145 litres/capita/day in 2008/09. Total water supply for domestic and commercial customers in England and Wales was 14.5 million cubic metres per day in 2009.

text: Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during summer. This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on glacial runoff to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas increasingly vulnerable to water shortages over time; an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water melting from glaciers in the summer, followed by a retreat in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and consequently the water supply every year as the size of these glaciers get smaller and smaller.

text: Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in

text: snowpack

text: , which can result in diminished water resources during summer. This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on glacial runoff to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas increasingly vulnerable to water shortages over time; an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water melting from

text: glaciers

text: in the summer, followed by a retreat in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and consequently the water supply every year as the size of these glaciers get smaller and smaller.

text: The topographical features of the region determine categories of water sources. Topographically, the region can be divided into three distinct topographical zones: plateau (Ogo), Mountainous, and Coastal. Starting from northern part of the region along the sea is the coastal zone which is about 500 to 700 above the sea level. Coastal zone comprises sandy plains that extend from 70 to 90 km from sea. This zone is very hot with temperature of about 40 degree Celsius during the summer season (June- August). People and livestock die for thirsty during the summer if they could not have an ease access to reliable water sources. Hand dug shallow wells in dry riversbeds are the source of water during rainy season but dry up as soon as rains stop or evaporate as the sun gets hotter. And, as a result of this, the only reliable water sources in the coastal zones are strategically placed bore wells both for human and livestock consumptions. Of the eight bore wells in the region, 5 are in coastal zone: El-gal, Karure, Kalowle, Husayn, Zeila, and Gerissa. These were strategically dug in the driest parts of the coastal zone. Next to coastal in the south is the Mountainous Zone. The mountainous zone consist a string of mountains that extend east to west along the coastal zone. The zone has many dry river beds and valleys in between the mountains. The river beds provide permanent water in terms of springs and shallow wells dug in the dry river beds. Besides human and livestock consumption the water sources are used for the irrigation of fruit and vegetable farms. Unlike the other zones of the region, Mountainous zone has a reliable water sources in the region.The third topographical zone is the Ogo Zone. This zone is an upland terrain which runs along mountains zone in the south. It is about 1000 –1300 meters above the sea level. The main water sources of this zone are manmade rain water catchment earth dams ( balleyo), cemented catchments (Berkeds), and bore wells besides some natural rain ponds. Most of Berkads and Balleys are privately owned water sources except 5 communal Balleys dug by World Bank project in 1980s in three sites around Borama and not de-silted since excavation. Most of rain water catchments usually dry up during the dry season and both people and livestock resort to bore wells for water or to communal hand dug shallow wells along the fringes of the mountainous zone.According to regional water officer, 4 bore wells operate in the coastal zone. These are El-gal, and Laanta Morohda, which are in Zeila district; and Karure and Kalowle in Lughaya Districts. Kalowle bore well provides water to pastoralists and Lughaya Town which is about 8 km from the bore well site. UNICEF has drilled a pack up strategic bore well at the site in case the old bore well breaks down. Karure bore well has not a back up yet. These bore wells are strategic in the sense that they are drilled in the most dry areas of coastal zone where water sources are not obtainable. However, the bore wells have no pack ups and if a bore well breaksdown, the live of both livestock and the people are at great risk.Zeila town gets its water from bore well near Tokoshi, a village about 8 km west of Zeila town. The bore well does not provide sufficient water and its water turns salty in the dry season. Since Zeila occurs in the coastal zone, it is very hot during the summer season and life is difficult without adequate water supply. Besides, Zeila is the entry point of people and goods coming from Republic Djibouti and, as a result of this, there is customs office where the Ministry of Finance collects import taxes from goods entering the country. Accordingly, provision of sufficient and drinkable water supply is very crucial for lives of town people and for the movementof people between Somaliland and Republic of Djibouti.Management of bore wells is very poor. The bore wells are practically owned by the operators and fix the price of water for livestock and human consumption. Different water prices are charged by the operators on the different bore wells in coastal areas. The operators are not accountable to any government institution or body including the beneficiaries of bore wells.Unlike the strategic bore wells in the coastal zone, mini- water systems exist in the major towns and villages in Mountainous Zone. The main sources of mini water systems are hand dug shallow wells connected to pumps run by diesel pumps or by solar installations.Mini water systems are for human consumption and funded by international organization with collaboration of local communities and local governments. They are managed by committee and charges affordable rate to beneficiaries. Some of the proceeds are paid to operators for salaries and remainder is used for spare parts and for repairs and maintenance services.

text: Republic Djibouti

text: and, as a result of this, there is customs office where the Ministry of Finance collects import taxes from goods entering the country. Accordingly, provision of sufficient and drinkable water supply is very crucial for lives of town people and for the movementof people between Somaliland and Republic of Djibouti.Management of bore wells is very poor. The bore wells are practically owned by the operators and fix the price of water for livestock and human consumption. Different water prices are charged by the operators on the different bore wells in coastal areas. The operators are not accountable to any government institution or body including the beneficiaries of bore wells.Unlike the strategic bore wells in the coastal zone, mini- water systems exist in the major towns and villages in Mountainous Zone. The main sources of mini water systems are hand dug shallow wells connected to pumps run by diesel pumps or by solar installations.Mini water systems are for human consumption and funded by international organization with collaboration of local communities and local governments. They are managed by committee and charges affordable rate to beneficiaries. Some of the proceeds are paid to operators for salaries and remainder is used for spare parts and for repairs and maintenance services.

text: The large amount of water used was less important because plenty of used water was often available and was very cheap. In addition, in thrifty rural households the water used to drive it was often used for other purposes as well.

text: The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption, industrial use, or in the environment.

text: The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is

text: treated

text: for human consumption, industrial use, or in the environment.

text: The amount of water required from the River Murray varies from about 40 per cent of Adelaide’s water needs in a normal rainfall year to as much as 90 per cent in a dry year. At full capacity the above-mentioned reservoirs hold about 200 million cubic meters of water, or a little less than 1 year's supply for metropolitan Adelaide.

text: Environment - current issues:soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas

text: Environment - current issues:

text: soil erosion

text: air pollution

text: caused by industrial and vehicle emissions;

text: water pollution

text: , especially in coastal areas

text: The water is used for river control and to compensate for the water retained by all three dams, along with supply into the drinking water system and hydroelectricity generation. Drinking water must be pumped to treatment works rather than using gravity flow as in the other two reservoirs, increasing costs. The drinking water is treated at Bamford water treatment works by Severn Trent Water. Treated water flows south down the  long Derwent Valley Aqueduct to a covered service reservoir at Ambergate to supply clean water to the cities of Derby and Leicester in the East Midlands of England. The aqueduct passes through the park of Chatsworth House. The path of the aqueduct is marked by a series of valve houses built of stone and domed steel access chambers. A tunnel carries some of the water from the Derwent Valley eastwards through the hill and into the lower of the two Rivelin Dams to supply Sheffield.

text: The water is used for river control and to compensate for the water retained by all three dams, along with supply into the drinking water system and hydroelectricity generation. Drinking water must be pumped to treatment works rather than using gravity flow as in the other two reservoirs, increasing costs. The drinking water is treated at

text: Bamford

text: water treatment works by

text: Severn Trent Water

text: . Treated water flows south down the  long

text: Derwent Valley Aqueduct

text: to a covered service reservoir at

text: Ambergate

text: to supply clean water to the cities of

text: Derby

text: and

text: Leicester

text: in the

text: East Midlands

text: of England. The aqueduct passes through the park of

text: Chatsworth House

text: . The path of the aqueduct is marked by a series of valve houses built of stone and domed steel access chambers. A tunnel carries some of the water from the Derwent Valley eastwards through the hill and into the lower of the two

text: Rivelin Dams

text: to supply Sheffield.

text: Problems of water supply would affect ironmasters for some time to come. In the 1830s, the young Alfred Krupp was still beset by problems with water shortage in the Berne brook, driving the hammers of his Gusstahlfabrik. Owing to a lack of finance, it was not until 1836 that Alfred was able to build a steam hammer, independent of this water supply.

text: Problems of water supply would affect ironmasters for some time to come. In the 1830s, the young

text: Alfred Krupp

text: was still beset by problems with water shortage in the Berne brook, driving the hammers of his

text: Gusstahlfabrik

text: . Owing to a lack of finance, it was not until 1836 that Alfred was able to build a steam hammer, independent of this water supply.

text: Water and waste-water services an are sre supplied by Grampians-Wimmera-Mallee Water (GWMWater).  The town water supply is fully treated drinking water. Horsham's primary water source is Lake Wartook, with a bore field at Laharum providing a supplementary supply source for the town when water levels are low.

text: Water and waste-water services an are sre supplied by Grampians-Wimmera-Mallee Water (GWMWater).  The town

text: water supply

text: is fully treated drinking water. Horsham's primary water source is Lake Wartook, with a bore field at Laharum providing a supplementary supply source for the town when water levels are low.

text: Home aquarists typically use modified tap water supplied through their local water supply network. Because of the chlorine used to disinfect drinking water supplies for human consumption, tap water cannot be immediately used. In the past, it was possible to "condition" the water by simply letting the water stand for a day or two, which allows the chlorine to dissipate. However, chloramine became popular in water treatment because it stays longer in the water. Additives are available to remove chlorine or chloramine and suffice to make the water ready. Brackish or saltwater aquaria require the addition of a mixture of salts and other minerals.

text: Home aquarists typically use modified tap water supplied through their local

text: water supply network

text: . Because of the

text: chlorine

text: used to

text: disinfect

text: drinking water supplies for human consumption, tap water cannot be immediately used. In the past, it was possible to "condition" the water by simply letting the water stand for a day or two, which allows the

text: chlorine

text: to dissipate. However,

text: chloramine

text: became popular in

text: water treatment

text: because it stays longer in the water. Additives are available to remove chlorine or chloramine and suffice to make the water ready. Brackish or saltwater aquaria require the addition of a mixture of salts and other minerals.

text: In developing countries many governments are corrupt and poor and they respond to these problems with frequently changing policies and non clear agreements. Water demand exceeds supply, and household and industrial water supplies are prioritised over other uses, which leads to water stress. Potable water has a price in the market; water often becomes a business for private companies, which earn a profit by putting a higher price on water, which imposes a barrier for lower-income people. The Millennium Development Goals propose the changes required.

text: In developing countries many governments are corrupt and poor and they respond to these problems with frequently changing policies and non clear agreements. Water demand exceeds supply, and household and industrial water supplies are prioritised over other uses, which leads to

text: water stress

text: . Potable water has a price in the market; water often becomes a

text: business

text: for private companies, which earn a

text: profit

text: by putting a higher price on water, which imposes a barrier for lower-income people. The

text: Millennium Development Goals

text: propose the changes required.

text: Springs, rivers and deep wells are the sources of water supply used for both domestic water supply and irrigation needs. Deep wells and springs are commonly used as potable water supply. Local government, congressional initiative, regional and senatorial funds are used to develop these sources. The municipal government’s ardent thrust to provide basic services to its constituents can be well manifested by its current pursuit to develop a level III type of water system through funding from the World Bank. The municipal government had entered into a loan agreement with the bank to develop a system that will provide for an individual pipe connection for each household within the barangays of Poblacion and Iba. Data shows that Level I and Level II type of systems are the most prevalent type of water supply in the municipality. Level I water system is currently serving 7.17% of the total households. Likewise, Level II is providing water for 47.39% of all households, while Level III only served 3.62% of the total. The rest (41.82%) still remained un-served by a water supply system

text: Till the 1970s there were no any economists on water industry in Uzbekistan. Which caused some serious problems in water consumption and utilization. This problem urgently needed actions. In 1974 in order to solve this problem, new branch was opened under the faculty of "Hydro technical constructions", which was called as "Economy of water industry and its analysis". In 1976, this branch was set as the independent faculty and started working as the one of the biggest parts of institute. From the first years about 50 students were invited to the university and in 1979 first 50 students graduated from this faculty. After the independence of Uzbekistan, from the year of 2015 was renamed to its current name and was called: “Water industry management faculty”. Nowadays, the dean of the faculty is docent Ibragimov Abdimalik Gapparovich. In the campus of the faculty there are 2 language classes, 4 computer classes, more than 20 study classes, which are supplied with the modern education materials and information technologies.There are 7 departments which are located “Water industry management faculty” and they are:

text: Household water treatment and safe storage ensure drinking water is safe for consumption. Drinking water quality remains a significant problem, not only in developing countries but also in developed countries; even in the European region it is estimated that 120 million people do not have access to safe drinking water. Point-of-use water quality interventions can reduce diarrheal disease in communities where water quality is poor, or in emergency situations where there is a breakdown in water supply.Since water can become contaminated during storage at home (e.g. by contact with contaminated hands or using dirty storage vessels), safe storage of water in the home is also important.

text: Household water treatment and safe storage ensure drinking water is safe for consumption.

text: Drinking water quality

text: remains a significant problem, not only in developing countries but also in developed countries; even in the European region it is estimated that 120 million people do not have access to

text: safe drinking water

text: . Point-of-use water quality interventions can reduce diarrheal disease in communities where water quality is poor, or in emergency situations where there is a breakdown in water supply.Since water can become contaminated during storage at home (e.g. by contact with contaminated hands or using dirty storage vessels),

text: safe storage of water

text: in the home is also important.

text: Wastewater reuse is often used synonymously with the terms wastewater recycling and wastewater reclamation and can be defined as the use of reclaimed water for beneficial purposes, such as agricultural, landscape and field irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, fire protection, and replenishing of surface water and groundwater (the latter referred to as groundwater recharge). Water/wastewater reuse is integral to sustainable water management because it allows water to remain in the environment and be preserved for future uses while meeting the water requirements of the present.Water and wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation especially in arid countries. The World Health Organization  has recognized the principal driving forces for global wastewater reuse as the (i) increasing water scarcity and stress, (ii) increasing populations and related food security issues, (iii) increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and (iv) the increasing recognition of the resource value of wastewater, excreta and greywater.Water is a limiting resource, and the pressure exerted on surface and groundwater resources should be reduced or at best maintained, rather than increased, as the human population and industrial development increase. Water recycling and reuse is thus of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Already, groundwater aquifers used by over half of the world population are being over-drafted. As a result, it is no longer advisable to use water once and dispose of it; it is important to identify ways to reuse water. Reuse will continue to increase as the world’s population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local freshwater supplies are limited or are available only with large capital expenditure. Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by wastewater reuse and recycling, lowering costs, reducing environmental pollution and improving carbon footprint; since reuse is a sustainable and cost-effective alternative water supply.

text: Wastewater

text: reuse is often used synonymously with the terms

text: wastewater recycling

text: and

text: wastewater reclamation

text: and can be defined as the use of

text: reclaimed water

text: for beneficial purposes, such as agricultural, landscape and field irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, fire protection, and replenishing of

text: surface water

text: and

text: groundwater

text: (the latter referred to as

text: groundwater recharge

text: ). Water/wastewater reuse is integral to

text: sustainable

text: water management

text: because it allows water to remain in the environment and be preserved for future uses while meeting the water requirements of the present.

text: Water

text: and wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation especially in

text: arid

text: countries. The

text: World Health Organization

text: has recognized the principal driving forces for global wastewater reuse as the (i) increasing water scarcity and stress, (ii) increasing populations and related food security issues, (iii) increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and (iv) the increasing recognition of the resource value of wastewater, excreta and greywater.Water is a limiting resource, and the pressure exerted on surface and groundwater resources should be reduced or at best maintained, rather than increased, as the

text: human population

text: and industrial development increase. Water recycling and reuse is thus of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Already, groundwater

text: aquifers

text: used by over half of the world population are being over-drafted. As a result, it is no longer advisable to use water once and dispose of it; it is important to identify ways to reuse water. Reuse will continue to increase as the world’s population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local

text: freshwater

text: supplies are limited or are available only with large

text: capital expenditure

text: . Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by wastewater reuse and recycling, lowering costs, reducing

text: environmental pollution

text: and improving

text: carbon footprint

text: ; since reuse is a sustainable and cost-effective alternative

text: water supply

text: Some semiconductor manufacturing plants have been using reclaimed water for non-process applications such as chemical aspirators where the discharge water is sent to industrial waste. Water reclamation is also a typical application where spent rinse water from the manufacturing facility may be used in cooling tower supply, exhaust scrubber supply, or point of use abatement systems. UPW Recycling is not as typical and involves collecting the spent manufacturing rinse water, treating it and re-using it back in the wafer rinse process. Some additional water treatment may be required for any of these cases depending on the quality of the spent rinse water and the application of the reclaimed water. These are fairly common practices in many semiconductor facilities worldwide, however there is a limitation to how much water can be reclaimed and recycled if not considering reuse in the manufacturing process.

text: Some semiconductor manufacturing plants have been using

text: reclaimed water

text: for non-process applications such as chemical aspirators where the discharge water is sent to industrial waste.

text: Water reclamation

text: is also a typical application where spent rinse water from the manufacturing facility may be used in cooling tower supply, exhaust scrubber supply, or point of use abatement systems. UPW Recycling is not as typical and involves collecting the spent manufacturing rinse water, treating it and re-using it back in the wafer rinse process. Some additional water treatment may be required for any of these cases depending on the quality of the spent rinse water and the application of the reclaimed water. These are fairly common practices in many semiconductor facilities worldwide, however there is a limitation to how much water can be reclaimed and recycled if not considering reuse in the manufacturing process.

text: The cause of the outbreak is Hepatitis E contamination in Shimla's water supply, stemming from improperly filtered sewage released into the Ashwani Khud river system.  The Hepatitis E virus, commonly contracted from fecal matter, attacks the liver of infected individuals thereby causing jaundice. Contaminated water finds its way into the city's water supply schemes, located downstream from the sewage treatment plants.  The problem is exasperated in winter months, when less rainfall leads to less water volume, and therefore higher concentration of the virus.

text: The cause of the outbreak is

text: Hepatitis E

text: contamination in Shimla's water supply, stemming from improperly filtered sewage released into the Ashwani Khud river system.  The Hepatitis E virus, commonly contracted from fecal matter, attacks the liver of infected individuals thereby causing jaundice. Contaminated water finds its way into the city's water supply schemes, located downstream from the sewage treatment plants.  The problem is exasperated in winter months, when less rainfall leads to less water volume, and therefore higher concentration of the virus.

text: Access problems relating to water involve long walking distance to the source, low water quality, lack of a sufficient quantity of water, high water prices and poor system design. Women often suffer disproportionately from these problems. In Ghana, women and children suffer as the result of failed water supply schemes where women consumed unclean water to save money to feed children. In east Nepal tap stands and tube wells were located along roads, so that women had to travel long distances or wait until nightfall to avoid being seen by men while bathing freely or washing clothes.

text: Access problems relating to water involve long walking distance to the source, low water quality, lack of a sufficient quantity of water, high water prices and poor system design. Women often suffer disproportionately from these problems. In

text: Ghana

text: , women and children suffer as the result of failed water supply schemes where women consumed unclean water to save money to feed children. In east

text: Nepal

text: tap stands and tube wells were located along roads, so that women had to travel long distances or wait until nightfall to avoid being seen by men while bathing freely or washing clothes.

text: It was established in 1933. It was originally the main water supply for the town of Rustenburg. In the sixties it was no longer used for drinking water due to contamination from platinum and chrome mines in the region. Due to water shortages in the nineties it was again used as the main water source for the Boitekong and surrounding townships. The fish in the dam are not fit for human consumption. The water in the dam in so corrosive that the steel sluices had to be replaced by a major rebuilding project in 2009 and 2010 for fear of the dam wall collapsing in a flood. The new dam structure was built from corrosion resistant compounds.

text: It was established in 1933. It was originally the main water supply for the town of Rustenburg. In the sixties it was no longer used for

text: drinking water

text: due to contamination from

text: platinum

text: and

text: chrome

text: mine

text: s in the region. Due to water shortages in the nineties it was again used as the main water source for the

text: Boitekong

text: and surrounding townships. The fish in the dam are not fit for human consumption. The water in the dam in so

text: corrosive

text: that the steel sluices had to be replaced by a major rebuilding project in 2009 and 2010 for fear of the dam wall collapsing in a flood. The new dam structure was built from

text: corrosion resistant

text: compounds.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Pernambuco is characterized by high levels of access to water supply in urban areas, but also by poor service quality (intermittent supply), inadequate access to sanitation, and insufficient access to improved water sources and improved sanitation in rural areas.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Pernambuco is characterized by high levels of access to

text: water supply

text: in urban areas, but also by poor service quality (intermittent supply), inadequate access to

text: sanitation

text: , and insufficient access to

text: improved water source

text: s and

text: improved sanitation

text: in rural areas.

text: This "four tap" strategy aims to reduce reliance on supply from Malaysia by increasing the volume supplied from the three other sources, or "national taps". Since water demand in 2011 was  per day, Singapore could actually already have been water self-sufficient in 2011 except in years of very low rainfall. The official figures downplay the share of reclaimed and desalinated water in water supply, and thus the ability of the country to be self-sufficient. However, the Chairman of PUB admitted in 2012 that water self-sufficiency could be achieved well before the target year of 2061.

text: Even though Croatia has sufficient water resources at its disposal, these are not uniformly distributed and public water supply network losses remain high—estimated at 44%. Between 2004 and 2008, the number of stations monitoring surface water pollution increased by 20%; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period. At the same time organic waste pollution levels decreased slightly, which is attributed to the completion of new sewage treatment plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101. Nearly all of Croatia's groundwater aquifers are top quality, unlike the available surface water; the latter's quality varies in terms of biochemical oxygen demand and bacteriological water analysis results. As of 2008, 80% of the Croatian population are served by the public water supply system, but only 44% of the population have access to the public sewerage network, with septic systems in use. Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good, oligotrophic conditions along most of the coast, while areas of increased eutrophication were identified in the Bay of Bakar, the Bay of Kaštela, the Port of Šibenik and near Ploče; other areas of localized pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities. In the period between 2004 and 2008, the CEA identified 283 cases of marine pollution (including 128 from vessels), which was a drop of 15% relative to the period encompassed by the previous report, 1997 to August 2005.

text: Even though Croatia has sufficient

text: water resources

text: at its disposal, these are not uniformly distributed and public

text: water supply network

text: losses remain high—estimated at 44%. Between 2004 and 2008, the number of stations monitoring surface

text: water pollution

text: increased by 20%; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period. At the same time

text: organic waste

text: pollution levels decreased slightly, which is attributed to the completion of new

text: sewage treatment

text: plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101. Nearly all of Croatia's

text: groundwater

text: aquifer

text: s are top

text: quality

text: , unlike the available surface water; the latter's quality varies in terms of

text: biochemical oxygen demand

text: and

text: bacteriological water analysis

text: results. As of 2008, 80% of the Croatian population are served by the public

text: water supply

text: system, but only 44% of the population have access to the public

text: sewerage

text: network, with

text: septic system

text: s in use. Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good,

text: oligotroph

text: ic conditions along most of the coast, while areas of increased

text: eutrophication

text: were identified in the

text: Bay of Bakar

text: , the Bay of

text: Kaštela

text: , the Port of

text: Šibenik

text: and near

text: Ploče

text: ; other areas of localized pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities. In the period between 2004 and 2008, the CEA identified 283 cases of

text: marine pollution

text: (including 128

text: from vessels

text: ), which was a drop of 15% relative to the period encompassed by the previous report, 1997 to August 2005.

text: High-grade industrial water (produced by reverse osmosis) and potable water are sometimes used in industrial plants requiring high-purity cooling water.

text: High-grade industrial water (produced by

text: reverse osmosis

text: ) and potable water are sometimes used in industrial plants requiring high-purity cooling water.

text: Prices for water sold by tanker trucks in bulk, which is common in cities of some developing countries for households without access to piped water supply, are set in the market. Prices for trucked water vary between about US$1 and US$6 per cubic meter.

text: Prices for water sold by tanker trucks in bulk, which is common in cities of some developing countries for households without access to

text: piped

text: water supply

text: , are set in the market. Prices for trucked water vary between about US$1 and US$6 per cubic meter.

text: Lake Eppalock supplies both stock and domestic water to the Campaspe irrigation district. It also serves as a water supply to Bendigo and Heathcote and in more recent times, Ballarat.

text: Lake Eppalock supplies both stock and domestic water to the Campaspe irrigation district. It also serves as a water supply to Bendigo and Heathcote and in more recent times,

text: Ballarat

text: Main crop Grapes and Sugar cane, nowadays farmers are using a new technology for their agriculture land.Other crops like- Jowar, Wheat, Channa, Sunflower, Ginger, Onion.Fruits:  Banana, Papaya, Grapes etc.Flowers: Rose, Chrysanthemum, Marigold etc.Water Supply: Krishna river is the nearest around 2 km far and supply the water from there. Many schemes are associated to supply the water and Separate water tank for irrigation uses for there land with own cost, drip irrigation system etc.

text: Irrigation of farms and landscapes accounts for the greatest use of recycled water in California, more than 60% with agriculture alone accounting for nearly 40%. Given that agriculture uses 80% of developed water supply in California, this greatly reduces strain on natural freshwater supplies. Water must be treated to at least the secondary level in order to be used in agriculture in California. In cases where the recycled water will not have contact with the edible portion of the plant like orchards or vineyards, secondary treatment is deemed sufficient, but in the case of crops with the edible portion of the plant having contact with the recycled water tertiary treatment is regulated.

text: Chennai is entirely dependent on ground water resources to meet its water needs. Ground water resources in Chennai are replenished by rain water and the city's average rainfall is 1,276 mm. Chennai receives about 985 million liters per day (mld) from various sources against the required amount of 1,200 mld. This demand is expected to rise to 2,100 mld by 2031. Water to the city's residents is being supplied from desalination plants at Nemelli and Minjur; aquifers in Neyveli, Minjur and Panchetty; Cauvery water from Veeranam lake; Krishna river from Andhra Pradesh; Poondi reservoir; and lakes at Red Hills, Chembarambakkam and Cholavaram.

text: Chennai is entirely dependent on ground water resources to meet its water needs. Ground water resources in Chennai are replenished by rain water and the city's average rainfall is 1,276 mm. Chennai receives about 985 million liters per day (mld) from various sources against the required amount of 1,200 mld. This demand is expected to rise to 2,100 mld by 2031. Water to the city's residents is being supplied from desalination plants at Nemelli and Minjur; aquifers in Neyveli, Minjur and Panchetty;

text: Cauvery

text: water from

text: Veeranam lake

text: Krishna river

text: from Andhra Pradesh;

text: Poondi reservoir

text: ; and lakes at

text: Red Hills

text: Chembarambakkam

text: and

text: Cholavaram

text: The man-made Huntspill River was constructed during World War II with sluices at both ends to provide a guaranteed daily supply of  of "process water". It was intended that in the summer, when water supply was lower, it would serve as a reservoir with water pumped from the moors; and in winter serve as a drainage channel, via gravity drainage. Geotechnical problems prevented it from being dug as deep as originally intended and so gravity-drainage of the moors was not possible: thus, water is pumped up into the river throughout the year. The Sowy River between the River Parrett and King's Sedgemoor Drain was completed in 1972. The Levels and Moors are now artificially drained by a network of rhynes which are pumped up into "drains". Water levels are managed by the Levels internal drainage boards (IDBs); the Levels are not as intensively drained or farmed as the East Anglian fens, historically a similar area of low marsh. One of the approaches to reducing the risk of flooding within the catchment area of the Parrett is the planting of new woodlands.

text: The man-made Huntspill River was constructed during

text: World War II

text: with sluices at both ends to provide a guaranteed daily supply of  of "process water". It was intended that in the summer, when water supply was lower, it would serve as a reservoir with water pumped from the moors; and in winter serve as a drainage channel, via gravity drainage.

text: Geotechnical

text: problems prevented it from being dug as deep as originally intended and so gravity-drainage of the moors was not possible: thus, water is pumped up into the river throughout the year. The

text: Sowy River

text: between the River Parrett and King's Sedgemoor Drain was completed in 1972. The Levels and Moors are now artificially drained by a network of rhynes which are pumped up into "drains". Water levels are managed by the Levels

text: internal drainage board

text: s (IDBs); the Levels are not as intensively drained or farmed as the

text: East Anglia

text: n

text: fen

text: s, historically a similar area of low marsh. One of the approaches to reducing the risk of flooding within the catchment area of the Parrett is the planting of new woodlands.

text: As the population of the neighborhoods kept increasing, the demand for a larger supply of water increased. The increase in population throughout Brooklyn and the soon-to-be other boroughs also caused a problem with the water supply, as the wellwater became polluted and there was an insufficient supply of water. This caused many health problems as there was only a few sources of water. In response, the city began to create a system of water pipes that flowed through the city, as well as outsourced fresh water supplies outside the city. The New York City water system is managed by the Department of Environmental Protection and consists of three upstate aqueducts—the Croton, Catskill, and Delaware aqueducts—the latter two of which flow through Brooklyn.

text: As the population of the neighborhoods kept increasing, the demand for a larger supply of water increased. The increase in population throughout Brooklyn and the soon-to-be other boroughs also caused a problem with the water supply, as the wellwater became polluted and there was an insufficient supply of water. This caused many health problems as there was only a few sources of water. In response, the city began to create a system of water pipes that flowed through the city, as well as outsourced fresh water supplies outside the city. The

text: New York City water system

text: is managed by the Department of Environmental Protection and consists of three upstate aqueducts—the

text: Croton

text: Catskill

text: , and

text: Delaware

text: aqueducts—the latter two of which flow through Brooklyn.

text: In 1847 the corporation took over the privately owned waterworks. The main concern of the water undertaking was to secure supplies of water for manufacturing industry, as the existing hard water was damaging boilers. In 1864 they also acquired the Turton and Entwistle Reservoir, contained by the Entwistle Dam for the supply of drinking water. In 1971 the Jumbles Reservoir in the Bradshaw Valley was opened. The County Borough Corporation supplied water to a number of neighbouring authorities including the municipal boroughs of Farnworth, Radcliffe and Swinton and Pendlebury, and the urban districts of Kearsley, Turton, Westhoughton and Worsley Under the Water Act 1973 the undertaking passed to the North West Water Authority.

text: In 1847 the corporation took over the privately owned waterworks. The main concern of the water undertaking was to secure supplies of water for manufacturing industry, as the existing

text: hard water

text: was damaging boilers. In 1864 they also acquired the Turton and Entwistle Reservoir, contained by the

text: Entwistle Dam

text: for the supply of drinking water. In 1971 the

text: Jumbles Reservoir

text: in the

text: Bradshaw Valley

text: was opened. The County Borough Corporation supplied water to a number of neighbouring authorities including the municipal boroughs of

text: Farnworth

text: Radcliffe

text: and

entity_name: Municipal Borough of Swinton and Pendlebury

text: Swinton and Pendlebury

text: , and the urban districts of

text: Kearsley

text: Turton

text: Westhoughton

text: and

text: Worsley

text: Under the

text: Water Act 1973

text: the undertaking passed to the

text: North West Water Authority

text: Poverty in Palomino limits access to quality water services and safe drinking water.  Rivers and springs are often used as open sewers for human waste and garbage disposal.  The shortage of drinking water facilities forces people to drink from these polluted open bodies of water causing malaria, intestinal parasites and diarrhea.  The existing aqueduct serves only 324 people; only 10 percent of the population benefits from a residential water supply which is an eight meter deep well relying on a 5,000 liter water tank with one turbine.  The population increase has caused problems in the distribution of the residential water supply.  In some neighborhoods water is supplied through small reservoirs for rain water, wells or cisterns.

text: Access to water and sanitation remains low in Tanzania. Determining data on access is particularly difficult because different definitions and sources are used, which results in significant discrepancies. According to a report, household surveys regularly return lower rural water supply coverage than estimates by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (which are collected by district water engineers and urban water and sanitation authorities). For urban areas, survey data are consistently higher because they also include households that are not connected to the formal water supply network and access water from neighbours, protected wells or boreholes.

text: Access to water and sanitation remains low in Tanzania. Determining data on access is particularly difficult because different definitions and sources are used, which results in significant discrepancies. According to a report, household surveys regularly return lower rural water supply coverage than estimates by the

text: Ministry of Water and Irrigation

text: (which are collected by district water engineers and urban water and sanitation authorities). For urban areas, survey data are consistently higher because they also include households that are not connected to the formal water supply network and access water from neighbours, protected wells or boreholes.

text: The town is amazingly having its natural spring water right in the heart of the town. Large concrete storage tanks are constructed to store the eternal supply of clean and fresh water. No mechanical device  is needed to extract the rare wealth, it's just flowing free and filled the tanks endlessly throughout the whole town.

text: Conceptually, a water supply system should match the quality of water with the end use.  However, in most of the developed world high quality potable water is used for all end uses.  This approach wastes money and energy and imposes unnecessary impacts to the environment.  Supplying rainwater that has gone through preliminary filtration measures for non-potable water uses, such as toilet flushing, irrigation, and laundry, may be a significant part of a sustainable water management strategy.

text: A water supply line from barrage area supplies safe drinking water.

text: Many of the urban water supply networks in developing countries face problems related to population increase, water scarcity, and environmental pollution.

text: Many of the urban water supply networks in

text: developing countries

text: face problems related to

text: population increase

text: water scarcity

text: , and

text: environmental pollution

text: Much of Thames Water's supply area is classed by the Environment Agency as 'seriously water stressed', with customers in London, Swindon and Oxford particularly at risk of water restrictions during extended periods of dry weather. Building a new treatment plant that treats water from the brackish waters of the River Thames, turning into clean, fresh drinking water, will help reduce the risk of water restrictions and ensure that severe water rationing is never required. The plant will be used to convert brackish water from the River Thames into clean drinking water during times of drought or extended periods of low rainfall, or to maintain supplies in the event of an incident at other water treatment facilities. Architects Broadway Malyan designed the plan to RIBA Stage D and acted as expert witness at public enquiry.

text: In England and Wales the economic regulator of water companies is the Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat). The Environment Agency is responsible for environmental regulation, and the Drinking Water Inspectorate for regulating drinking water quality. The economic water industry regulator in Scotland is the Water Industry Commission for Scotland and the environmental regulator is the Scottish Environment Protection Agency.  Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards in the UK, as in other countries of the European Union, are determined by the EU (see Water supply and sanitation in the European Union).

text: In England and Wales the economic regulator of water companies is the

text: Water Services Regulation Authority

text: (Ofwat). The

text: Environment Agency

text: is responsible for environmental regulation, and the

text: Drinking Water Inspectorate

text: for regulating drinking water quality. The economic water industry regulator in

text: Scotland

text: is the Water Industry Commission for Scotland and the environmental regulator is the

text: Scottish Environment Protection Agency

text: .  Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards in the UK, as in other countries of the

text: European Union

text: , are determined by the EU (see

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in the European Union

text: Water supply and sanitation in the European Union

text: The growing demand and lack of drinkable water on the planet presents an additional challenge to the future of human health. Partly, the problem lies in the success of water suppliers to increase supplies and failure of groups promoting preservation of water resources. While the distribution of clean water increases, in some parts of the world it remains unequal. According to 2008 World Population Data Sheet, only 62% of least developed countries are able to access clean water.

text: Access to an improved water source and improved sanitation has increased significantly in China over the past two decades in parallel with economic growth. Between 1990 and 2008 alone more than 450 million Chinese gained access to an improved water source, based on estimates by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF that are based on household survey data. Access to an improved water source was 89% and access to improved sanitation was 55% in 2008. Having access to an improved water source, however, is not the same as having access to safe water. Many of those who have access to adequate infrastructure suffer from poor water quality due to fecal contamination; high levels of naturally occurring fluoride, arsenic, or salts; and growing industrial and agricultural chemical pollution. Furthermore, seasonal water shortages occur.

text: Access to an

text: improved water source

text: and

text: improved sanitation

text: has increased significantly in

text: China

text: over the past two decades in parallel with economic growth. Between 1990 and 2008 alone more than 450 million Chinese gained access to an improved water source, based on estimates by the

text: of the

text: WHO

text: and

text: UNICEF

text: that are based on household survey data. Access to an improved water source was 89% and access to improved sanitation was 55% in 2008. Having access to an improved water source, however, is not the same as having access to safe water. Many of those who have access to adequate infrastructure suffer from poor water quality due to fecal contamination; high levels of naturally occurring fluoride, arsenic, or salts; and growing industrial and agricultural chemical pollution. Furthermore, seasonal water shortages occur.

text: Although rainfall is low, Sismiut has abundant natural supplies of fresh, drinkable surface water, collected from a reservoir under Alanngorsuaq. Water is also pumped to the waterworks from another lake around 2.5 kilometers away in the mountains. The water mains are preinsulated and electrically anti-freezed so supply the residents during the winter months. The water supply network is capable of producing some 882,000 cubic meters of water per year; two water-supplying lakes by the town have a combined annual minimum capacity of more than 7.2 million cubic meters.

text: There has been no broad assessment about water quality in Benin. Under the framework of a study which analyzed water supply in peri-urban areas of Cotonou, water samples were collected from water kiosks, a water seller, a communal well and Lake Nokoue in  the peri-urban Cotonouan districts of Ladji and Vossa. The study concludes that the samples from the water kiosks and the water seller were of good quality. Private water sellers connected to the SONEB utility network are widespread in urban areas, serving households not yet connected to the grid. The Ministry in charge of water and SONEB have fixed a special ‘pro-poor’ tariff for water resale to regulate this phenomenon, in July 2009. Implementation is ongoing in cooperation with local government.

text: There has been no broad assessment about

text: water quality

text: in Benin. Under the framework of a study which analyzed water supply in peri-urban areas of Cotonou, water samples were collected from water kiosks, a water seller, a communal

text: well

text: and

text: Lake Nokoue

text: in  the peri-urban Cotonouan districts of Ladji and Vossa. The study concludes that the samples from the water kiosks and the water seller were of good quality. Private water sellers connected to the SONEB utility network are widespread in urban areas, serving households not yet connected to the grid. The Ministry in charge of water and SONEB have fixed a special ‘pro-poor’ tariff for water resale to regulate this phenomenon, in July 2009. Implementation is ongoing in cooperation with local government.

text: Water resources management in Syria is confronted with numerous challenges. First, all of the country's major rivers are shared with neighboring countries, and Syria depends to a large extent on the inflow of water from Turkey through the Euphrates and its tributaries. Second, high population growth and urbanisation increase the pressure on water resources, resulting in localized groundwater depletion and pollution, for example in the Ghouta near Damascus. Third, there is no legal framework for integrated water resources management. Finally, the institutions in charge of water resources management are weak, being both highly centralized and fragmented between sectors, and they often lack the power to enforce regulations. Water resources policies have been focused on the construction of dams, the development of irrigated agriculture and occasional interbasin transfers, such as a pipeline to supply drinking water to Aleppo from the Euphrates. There are 165 dams in Syria with a total storage capacity of 19.6 km³. Demand management through metering, higher tariffs, more efficient irrigation technologies and the reduction of non-revenue water in drinking water supply has received less emphasis than supply management. The government implements a large program for the construction of wastewater treatment plants including the use of reclaimed water for irrigation.

text: Water resources management in Syria is confronted with numerous challenges. First, all of the country's major rivers are shared with neighboring countries, and Syria depends to a large extent on the inflow of water from

text: Turkey

text: through the

text: Euphrates

text: and its tributaries. Second, high population growth and urbanisation increase the pressure on water resources, resulting in localized groundwater depletion and pollution, for example in the

text: Ghouta

text: near

text: Damascus

text: . Third, there is no legal framework for

text: integrated water resources management

text: . Finally, the institutions in charge of water resources management are weak, being both highly centralized and fragmented between sectors, and they often lack the power to enforce regulations. Water resources policies have been focused on the construction of dams, the development of irrigated agriculture and occasional interbasin transfers, such as a pipeline to supply drinking water to

text: Aleppo

text: from the Euphrates. There are 165 dams in Syria with a total storage capacity of 19.6 km³. Demand management through

text: metering

text: , higher tariffs, more efficient irrigation technologies and the reduction of

text: non-revenue water

text: in drinking water supply has received less emphasis than supply management. The government implements a large program for the construction of wastewater treatment plants including the use of

text: reclaimed water

text: for irrigation.

text: The Regency is traversed by volcanic chains of Java island, where land naturally grants rich and fertile soil, and provides an abundance of water resources. Tasikmalaya Regency is also lied on a low-cavity mountainside, which supplies the Regency more rainfall catchment and water absorption area. These advantages are supported by the Regency's tropical rainforest climate where the region experiences heavy rainfall.

text: The Regency is traversed by volcanic chains of

text: Java island

text: , where land naturally grants rich and fertile soil, and provides an abundance of water resources. Tasikmalaya Regency is also lied on a low-cavity mountainside, which supplies the Regency more

text: rainfall catchment

text: and

text: water absorption

text: area. These advantages are supported by the Regency's

text: tropical rainforest climate

text: where the region experiences

text: heavy rainfall

text: This is a list of notable wide-scale water shortages.

text: Both of these well types use a down-hole control valve. ASR can also be used to re-inject water used by HVAC systems to maintain the ground water levels and store the thermal differences from summer time cooling for winter time heating. Industry can also capture cold winter waters and store it for summer time use and avoid the need for cooling water in the summer for industrial processes. This may also free up short supplies of summer time water for other beneficial uses. This reinjection process  may also avoid the cost of surface disposal and avoid the increased thermal load to the rivers and streams during the summer air conditioning season.

text: Both of these well types use a down-hole control valve. ASR can also be used to re-inject water used by

text: HVAC

text: systems to maintain the ground water levels and store the thermal differences from summer time cooling for winter time heating. Industry can also capture cold winter waters and store it for summer time use and avoid the need for cooling water in the summer for industrial processes. This may also free up short supplies of summer time water for other beneficial uses. This reinjection process  may also avoid the cost of surface disposal and avoid the increased thermal load to the rivers and streams during the summer air conditioning season.

text: The human population of these regions is low, settled agriculture is only viable in valleys where there is a supply of water, such as dayas, depressions with good quality soil, and the beds of wadis. In these areas it is possible to cultivate fodder and food crops. Such agriculture may not be possible in every year and they farmers shift to follow the rainfall.. Poupulation densities are low and most of the population are somewhat nomadic, however, there are some permanent settlements in coastal towns where the main economic activity is fishing.

text: The human population of these regions is low, settled agriculture is only viable in valleys where there is a supply of water, such as dayas, depressions with good quality soil, and the beds of

text: wadi

text: s. In these areas it is possible to cultivate fodder and food crops. Such agriculture may not be possible in every year and they farmers shift to follow the rainfall.. Poupulation densities are low and most of the population are somewhat nomadic, however, there are some permanent settlements in coastal towns where the main economic activity is fishing.

text: The primary mode of informing the quality of water of rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, estuaries, coastal waters and wetlands of the U.S. is through the National Water Quality Inventory Report. Water quality assessments are conducted pursuant to water quality standards adopted by states and other jurisdictions (territories, interstate commissions and tribes). The report is conveyed to Congress as a means to inform Congress and the public of compliance with quality standards established by states, territories and tribes. The assessments identify water quality problems within the states and jurisdictions, list the impaired and threatened water bodies, and identify non-point sources that contribute to poor water quality. Every two years states must submit reports that describe water quality conditions to EPA with a complete inquiry of social and economic costs and benefits of achieving goals of the Act. The report is organized into two major sections; Section 1 shows national assessment of each type of water body, with causes and sources identified. Section 2 summarizes recommendations on improvement of water resource management.

text: However, the failure to provide a continuous water supply does not appear to be a major bottleneck  for the Lebanese, where water storage tanks are in common use. What matters is the water quality, which is often insuffient, and that households have enough water to keep the tanks supplied, which is not always the case.

text: The 2002 census offers shows a more detailed breakdown of these numbers than the WHO/UNICEF JMP data. The census data are not differentiated by urban or rural areas, but they differentiate by main source of drinking water supply and main source of water supply for non-potable uses. Many households have access to several sources of water supply - such as rainwater harvesting, public supply and bottled water - balancing the availability and quality of the various sources.

text: According to the WHO, "The most effective means of consistently ensuring the safety of a drinking-water supply is through the use of a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach that encompasses all steps in water supply from catchment to consumer. In these Guidelines, such approaches are called water safety plans (WSPs)". A WSP is a plan that will ensure the safety and acceptability of a drinking-water supply. The Water Safety Plan Manual, published in 2009 by the WHO and the International Water Association, offers guidance to water utilities (or similar entities) as they develop WSPs. This manual provides information to help water utilities to: assess their water system, develop monitoring systems and procedures, manage and community their plan, carry out periodic review of the WSP, and to review the WSP following an incident. The WSP manual also includes three case studies drawn from WSP initiatives in three countries/regions.

text: According to the WHO, "The most effective means of consistently ensuring the safety of a drinking-water supply is through the use of a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach that encompasses all steps in water supply from catchment to consumer. In these Guidelines, such approaches are called water safety plans (WSPs)". A WSP is a plan that will ensure the safety and acceptability of a drinking-water supply. The Water Safety Plan Manual, published in 2009 by the WHO and the

text: International Water Association

text: , offers guidance to water utilities (or similar entities) as they develop WSPs. This manual provides information to help water utilities to: assess their water system, develop monitoring systems and procedures, manage and community their plan, carry out periodic review of the WSP, and to review the WSP following an incident. The WSP manual also includes three case studies drawn from WSP initiatives in three countries/regions.

text: The four basins have a different function based on the order of water flow. The first basin is for water to be offered up to the Buddha, the second one supplies water to clean food for the Buddha, the third is for the use by humans, and the fourth basin is for all other purposes.

text: Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source heat pumps that share a common piping water loop. In this type of system, the water circulating inside the water loop removes heat from the condenser of the heat pumps whenever the heat pumps are working in the cooling mode, then the externally mounted cooling tower is used to remove heat from the water loop and reject it to the atmosphere.  By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in heating mode, the condensers draw heat out of the loop water and reject it into the space to be heated.  When the water loop is being used primarily to supply heat to the building, the cooling tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or winterized to prevent freeze damage), and heat is supplied by other means, usually from separate boilers.

text: Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source

text: heat pumps

text: that share a common piping water loop. In this type of system, the water circulating inside the water loop removes heat from the condenser of the heat pumps whenever the heat pumps are working in the cooling mode, then the externally mounted cooling tower is used to remove heat from the water loop and reject it to the

text: atmosphere

text: .  By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in heating mode, the condensers draw heat out of the loop water and reject it into the space to be heated.  When the water loop is being used primarily to supply heat to the building, the cooling tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or winterized to prevent freeze damage), and heat is supplied by other means, usually from separate

text: boiler

text: s.

text: The proposal states the plant will draw its water from the Passur River, taking up to 219, 600 cubic metres of water everyday. Activists worry about the effect on local water supplies as that means the plant will discharge treated waste water back into the river.They argue that the pollutants introduced into the water supply can harm the mangroves, the marine animals living there, and nearby human communities who use the water body for fishing and agriculture. Environmentalists are also fearful of the increased chances of a catastrophic oil spill. There is historical evidence of the damage that can cause in the Sundarbans. In 2014, when an oil tanker spilled 75,000 gallons into the fragile ecosystem, locals communities had no tools or assistance from the government to fight the toxic spill with.

text: According to documents by the Hawaii Department of Health dozens of leaks from Red Hill's 20 underground fuel storage tanks have occurred since the 1940s and have contaminated groundwater directly beneath the tanks with hydrocarbon levels as high as 25 times what the state considers safe. However, according to EPA, the drinking water is safe for human consumption for both Board of Water Supply customers and military communities. The water for Board of Water Supply customers and military communities is being tested every three months to assure the water is safe. Contamination related to the Facility has never been detected in the Honolulu Board of Water Supply drinking water sources.

text: According to documents by the

text: Hawaii Department of Health

text: dozens of leaks from Red Hill's 20 underground fuel storage tanks have occurred since the 1940s and have contaminated groundwater directly beneath the tanks with

text: hydrocarbon

text: levels as high as 25 times what the state considers safe. However, according to EPA, the drinking water is safe for human consumption for both Board of Water Supply customers and military communities. The water for Board of Water Supply customers and military communities is being tested every three months to assure the water is safe. Contamination related to the Facility has never been detected in the Honolulu Board of Water Supply drinking water sources.

text: For many years during the twentieth century, the water supply was rainwater harvested from several large bitumen sealed catchment areas behind Longreach Bay. In the 1970s fresh water was found underground and was used to supplement the rainfall supply. In 1995 the supply was further supplemented with desalinated groundwater, using a reverse osmosis plant producing up to 500 kL per day.

text: For many years during the twentieth century, the water supply was rainwater harvested from several large bitumen sealed catchment areas behind Longreach Bay. In the 1970s fresh water was found underground and was used to supplement the rainfall supply. In 1995 the supply was further supplemented with desalinated groundwater, using a

text: reverse osmosis

text: plant producing up to 500 kL per day.

text: Pumped storage units can also be used as pumping stations to supply river water for upland irrigation, industrial needs, and drinking water. In a tropical country like India, abundant water is needed for agriculture due to a very high annual evaporation rate. The necessary amount of water to meet this demand can be harnessed from India's rivers via pumped storage units. Food security in India is possible with water security, which in turn is possible with energy security to supply the needed electricity for the water pumping.

text: Pumped storage units can also be used as pumping stations to supply river water for upland irrigation, industrial needs, and drinking water. In a tropical country like India, abundant water is needed for agriculture due to a very high annual

text: evaporation rate

text: . The necessary amount of water to meet this demand can be harnessed from India's rivers via pumped storage units.

text: Food security

text: in India is possible with

text: water security

text: , which in turn is possible with

text: energy security

text: to supply the needed electricity for the water pumping.

text: One of the major problems in Malangas is the water system. Water resources are also less abundant. Almost 90 percent of the population get its water supply from a nearby barangay. But this is not abundant for the population. This explains the water scarcity in the area. While some barangays receive enough water, others experience constant water deficiency most especially in the poblacion area. Lack of access to water is a larger problem in the population anywhere else in the town center. The water supply only runs hourly within the different districts/purok. There are recent government efforts to improve the management of water resources in Malangas but all had failed. As of now, the government is trying to solve the problem to help get the people a good and fine water system.

text: Water resources in Malaysia are abundant and available throughout the year. They are estimated at 580 km3/year (average 1977-2001), equivalent to more than 3,000 cubic meters per capita and year. In 1995, total water withdrawal was estimated at 12.5 km3, or less than 3 percent of available resources. 76 percent of water was used for agriculture, 11 percent for municipal water supply and 13 percent for industries. Thus only less than 1% of available water resources is used for drinking water supply.

text: Water resources in

text: Malaysia

text: are abundant and available throughout the year. They are estimated at 580 km3/year (average 1977-2001), equivalent to more than 3,000 cubic meters per capita and year. In 1995, total water withdrawal was estimated at 12.5 km3, or less than 3 percent of available resources. 76 percent of water was used for agriculture, 11 percent for municipal water supply and 13 percent for industries. Thus only less than 1% of available water resources is used for drinking water supply.

text: In general, the demand for water is increasing as supplies become less reliable. Increased urbanization and suburban development in EID's service area places greater demand on water supplies and creates more wastewater and stormwater that must be dealt with. Agriculture, while grazing has become less common, other potentially water intensive crops have become more popular, such as fruit trees and grapes in orchards and vineyards. Agriculture, in addition to the area's naturally scenic qualities, has also increased tourism and recreational use. The population in the area is seasonal and places greater demand on the water system during the time of the year when supplies are most scarce: summer and fall. Climate change has the potential to reduce the water available for storage, and the area has few other water resources, with many areas remote enough to be isolated from the piping required to supply water from the rest of the Central Valley Project.

text: In general, the demand for water is increasing as supplies become less reliable. Increased

text: urbanization

text: and suburban development in EID's service area places greater demand on water supplies and creates more wastewater and stormwater that must be dealt with. Agriculture, while grazing has become less common, other potentially water intensive crops have become more popular, such as fruit trees and grapes in orchards and vineyards. Agriculture, in addition to the area's naturally scenic qualities, has also increased tourism and recreational use. The population in the area is seasonal and places greater demand on the water system during the time of the year when supplies are most scarce: summer and fall.

text: Climate change

text: has the potential to reduce the water available for storage, and the area has few other water resources, with many areas remote enough to be isolated from the piping required to supply water from the rest of the

text: Central Valley Project

text: Given the high water scarcity in Jordan, the average per capita use is lower than in most other countries. Water production before network losses is about 120 liters per person and day while actual consumption is close to 80 liters per capita and day. A survey of water consumption habits by households in Eastern Amman and in 14 villages in the Northern Governorates showed that total consumption per capita lies between 60 and 80 liters per day. About 20-30% of this water is obtained from sources other than the public piped system, including from bottled water, water bought from tankers, rainwater harvesting and springs. In rural areas, 28% of households surveyed harvested rainwater and stored it in cisterns for drinking, since they considered it to be of better quality than piped water. In Eastern Amman, 12% of households bought water in large bottles and 30% bought water from private tankers. Most households have roof storage tanks with a volume of 1–2 m. According to the 2009 Population and Family Health Survey, 31% of households use bottled water, 7% use rainwater, 2% tanker water and 60% tap water as their primary source of drinking water. According to the same survey, 22% of households filter tap water and the majority does not apply any type of treatment. A 2007–08 survey by the German-Jordanian water programme in the middle governorates Zarqa, Balqa and Madaba showed that 79% of households use tap water as their main source of drinking water and that 37% of households treat water before drinking it. Treated water bought in 5-gallon canisters and private water vendors that supply water in trucks are the main source of drinking water for 15% of households.

text: Given the high water scarcity in Jordan, the average per capita use is lower than in most other countries. Water production before network losses is about 120 liters per person and day while actual consumption is close to 80 liters per capita and day. A survey of water consumption habits by households in Eastern Amman and in 14 villages in the Northern Governorates showed that total consumption per capita lies between 60 and 80 liters per day. About 20-30% of this water is obtained from sources other than the public piped system, including from bottled water, water bought from tankers,

text: rainwater harvesting

text: and springs. In rural areas, 28% of households surveyed harvested rainwater and stored it in cisterns for drinking, since they considered it to be of better quality than piped water. In Eastern Amman, 12% of households bought water in large bottles and 30% bought water from private tankers. Most households have roof storage tanks with a volume of 1–2 m. According to the 2009 Population and Family Health Survey, 31% of households use bottled water, 7% use rainwater, 2% tanker water and 60% tap water as their primary source of drinking water. According to the same survey, 22% of households filter tap water and the majority does not apply any type of treatment. A 2007–08 survey by the German-Jordanian water programme in the middle governorates Zarqa, Balqa and Madaba showed that 79% of households use tap water as their main source of drinking water and that 37% of households treat water before drinking it. Treated water bought in 5-gallon canisters and private water vendors that supply water in trucks are the main source of drinking water for 15% of households.

text: Rainfall in the warmer months contributes little or nothing to water resources and agriculture. Autumn and winter rainfall, on which agriculture and water supply generally depend, is somewhat variable from year to year.

text: The Berg River Dam is a  high dam on the Berg River in South Africa. It is the centerpiece of the Berg Water Project (BWP) which is designed to capture the winter rainfall and store it for supply to Cape Town during the dry summer months. The project in turn forms an important part of the Western Cape Water Supply System (WCWSS), an intricate system of dams and bulk water infrastructure that provides water to more than 3 million people. At the inauguration of the dam in 2009, then President of South Africa Kgalema Motlanthe called the project "a good example of how public infrastructure projects can be used to contribute meaningfully to poverty eradication and to foster social empowerment of the people." The Berg River Dam was the first dam in South Africa to be designed and constructed, and is due to be operated, in accordance with the guidelines of the World Commission on Dams. It has been completed on time and within budget. The Berg River basin and the adjacent metropolitan area of Cape Town are of particular importance to the Western Cape region because, although the basin generates only about 3% of the country's water resources, it is home to about 8% of South Africa's population, and produces about 12% of GDP.

text: The Berg River Dam is a  high

text: dam

text: on the

text: Berg River

text: in

text: South Africa

text: . It is the centerpiece of the Berg Water Project (BWP) which is designed to capture the winter rainfall and store it for supply to

text: Cape Town

text: during the dry summer months. The project in turn forms an important part of the

text: Western Cape Water Supply System

text: (WCWSS), an intricate system of dams and bulk water infrastructure that provides water to more than 3 million people. At the inauguration of the dam in 2009, then President of South Africa

text: Kgalema Motlanthe

text: called the project "a good example of how public infrastructure projects can be used to contribute meaningfully to poverty eradication and to foster social empowerment of the people." The Berg River Dam was the first dam in South Africa to be designed and constructed, and is due to be operated, in accordance with the guidelines of the

text: World Commission on Dams

text: . It has been completed on time and within budget. The Berg River basin and the adjacent metropolitan area of Cape Town are of particular importance to the Western Cape region because, although the basin generates only about 3% of the country's water resources, it is home to about 8% of South Africa's population, and produces about 12% of GDP.

text: All of these hazardous chemicals can cause liver damage, reproductive effects, neurobehavioral effects, immunotoxic effects, and developmental effects. Orders for cleanup were issued two years after PCP was first discovered and no serious human effects were reported. Many preventive actions have been implemented from the state and federal districts. From 1984 to 1986, bottled water was supplied to residential areas whose drinking supply was impacted. Thirty-four private residences were also connected with alternate water supply from the Oroville-Wyandotte Irrigation District. As of 2008, of those initial thirty-four residences, seven are still supplied the alternate water supply, compensated by Beazer East Inc. for their annual water bill. Groundwater has been monitored since 1985 for on and off sites. The site has been under surveillance, and federal intervention has kept many further human health risks from escalating.

text: Prices for water sold by tanker trucks. A cubic meter of water supplied by a water tanker may cost as much as 6 Riyals (US$1.50), or about 20 times more than water supplied through the network. Citizens who are not connected to the piped network, who are often poor, pay up to 40 times more for water than connected households. The monthly water bill is about 1 Riyal (US$0.27), compared to an average mobile phone bill of 200 Riyals. The price of a 19 cubic meter tank is 150 SR, and the price of a 30 cubic meter tank is 180 SR. Although price may change during holidays and peak seasons, and not all cities are the same.

text: Drinking water supply and sanitation in Algeria is characterized by achievements and challenges. Among the achievements is a substantial increase in the amount of drinking water supplied from reservoirs, long-distance water transfers and desalination at a low price to consumers, thanks to the country's substantial oil and gas revenues. These measures increased per capita water supply despite a rapidly increasing population. Another achievement is the transition from intermittent to continuous water supply in the capital Algiers in 2011, along with considerable improvements in wastewater treatment resulting in better water quality at beaches. These achievements were made possible through a public-private partnership with a private French water company. The number of wastewater treatment plants throughout the country increased rapidly from only 18 in 2000 to 113 in 2011, with 96 more under construction. However, there are also many challenges. One of them is poor service quality in many cities outside Algiers with 78% of urban residents suffering from intermittent water supply. Another challenge is the pollution of water resources. There has also been insufficient progress concerning reuse of treated water, a government priority in this dry country.

text: Electricity, water and sewerage services to general public were first commissioned in 1925, with the establishment of The City Endowment Board. Rainwater harvesting, water and sewerage services are regulated by the Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (HMWSSB). The HMWSSB sources water supply from multiple dams located in the suburbs of the city. To meet the growing consumption requirement and to provide regular water supply in the city, in 2005 the HMWSSB started operating -long water supply piple-line from Nagarjuna Sagar Dam. The HMWSSB operates a service named "Dial-a-Tanker" to provide water in emergencies to the residents of the city. A registered customer can obtain the water tanker with the payment of minimal charges. The rapid economical growth leading to the rise in the city's population and consequent increased demand of water has further jeopardised the water shortage of the city which receives scanty rainfall. The region's ground water levels are shrinking, and dams are facing water shortages. Inadequately treated effluents from industrial treatment plants are polluting the drinking water sources of the city.

text: Electricity, water and sewerage services to general public were first commissioned in 1925, with the establishment of The City Endowment Board. Rainwater harvesting, water and sewerage services are regulated by the

entity_name: Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board

text: Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board

text: (HMWSSB). The HMWSSB sources water supply from multiple dams located in the suburbs of the city. To meet the growing consumption requirement and to provide regular water supply in the city, in 2005 the HMWSSB started operating -long water supply piple-line from

text: Nagarjuna Sagar Dam

text: . The HMWSSB operates a service named "Dial-a-Tanker" to provide water in emergencies to the residents of the city. A registered customer can obtain the water tanker with the payment of minimal charges. The rapid economical growth leading to the rise in the city's population and consequent increased demand of water has further jeopardised the water shortage of the city which receives scanty rainfall. The region's

text: ground water

text: levels are shrinking, and dams are facing water shortages. Inadequately treated effluents from industrial treatment plants are polluting the drinking water sources of the city.

text: Water is becoming a scarce resource in Lebanon due to climate change, which leads to different rainfall patterns as well as to inefficient methods of distribution within the country. Most of Lebanon’s rainfall is in the four months of winter, but over the last 45 years, the Ministry of Environment (Lebanon) estimates that rainfall has decreased overall between 5 and 20 percent. The coastal strip of Lebanon gets approximately 2,000 mm of rain per year, while the Beqaa Valley to the east gets only one-tenth as much. In 2004, only about 21% of households across Lebanon had constant access to water in the summer months, with most of those households concentrated in or near Beirut. It is predicted that in future years, there will be higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water. According to the Ministry of Environment, several factors that are putting stress on Lebanon’s water resources are unsustainable water management practices, increasing water demand from all sectors, water pollution, and ineffective water governance. Lebanon has struggled with inadequate water and sanitation services for many years. The factors with the greatest effect on quality and quantity of water resources in Lebanon are population growth, urbanization (88% of the population now lives in urban areas), economic growth, and climate change. In recent years, population growth has been increased rapidly with the addition of many Syrian refugees. Some new projects have been proposed to restructure the water sector. Currently, over 48 percent of water supplied by the public system is lost through seepage and wastewater networks are extremely poor, or even non-existent in some areas. One project that is currently being implemented by the Ministry of Environment in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) focusses on harvesting rainwater from agricultural greenhouse tops in order to increase water harvesting and reduce the pressure on pumping groundwater. This project is expected to increase water availability during the especially critical months of late summer and early autumn when there is less precipitation, which would help to reduce the risk of salinity in both soil and water, and to increase the resilience of crops faced with prolonged drought. There are also proposed projects that suggest the agricultural sector use recycled waste water to allow for more fresh and potable water for consumption. This would be a huge improvement, as solid-wast treatment facilities are in short supply, and over 92 percent of Lebanon’s sewage runs untreated directly into water-courses and the sea. If Lebanon does not reform its water sector, it is likely that there will be chronic and critical water shortages by 2020, which would create needs the Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) would be unable to meet. Water is becoming a scarce resource and if Lebanon instates reformed practices, the progression forward into future water scarcity can be slowed.

text: Water

text: is becoming a scarce resource in Lebanon due to climate change, which leads to different rainfall patterns as well as to inefficient methods of distribution within the country. Most of Lebanon’s rainfall is in the four months of winter, but over the last 45 years, the

text: Ministry of Environment (Lebanon)

text: estimates that rainfall has decreased overall between 5 and 20 percent. The coastal strip of Lebanon gets approximately 2,000 mm of rain per year, while the

text: Beqaa Valley

text: to the east gets only one-tenth as much. In 2004, only about 21% of households across Lebanon had constant access to water in the summer months, with most of those households concentrated in or near

text: Beirut

text: . It is predicted that in future years, there will be higher temperatures, lower rainfall, and longer droughts, leading to even less access to water. According to the Ministry of Environment, several factors that are putting stress on Lebanon’s water resources are unsustainable water management practices, increasing water demand from all sectors, water pollution, and ineffective water governance. Lebanon has struggled with inadequate water and sanitation services for many years. The factors with the greatest effect on quality and quantity of water resources in Lebanon are population growth, urbanization (88% of the population now lives in urban areas), economic growth, and climate change. In recent years, population growth has been increased rapidly with the addition of many Syrian refugees. Some new projects have been proposed to restructure the water sector. Currently, over 48 percent of water supplied by the public system is lost through seepage and wastewater networks are extremely poor, or even non-existent in some areas. One project that is currently being implemented by the Ministry of Environment in collaboration with the

text: United Nations Development Programme

text: (UNDP) focusses on harvesting rainwater from agricultural greenhouse tops in order to increase water harvesting and reduce the pressure on pumping groundwater. This project is expected to increase water availability during the especially critical months of late summer and early autumn when there is less precipitation, which would help to reduce the risk of salinity in both soil and water, and to increase the resilience of crops faced with prolonged drought. There are also proposed projects that suggest the agricultural sector use recycled waste water to allow for more fresh and potable water for consumption. This would be a huge improvement, as solid-wast treatment facilities are in short supply, and over 92 percent of Lebanon’s sewage runs untreated directly into water-courses and the sea. If Lebanon does not reform its water sector, it is likely that there will be chronic and critical water shortages by 2020, which would create needs the Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) would be unable to meet. Water is becoming a scarce resource and if Lebanon instates reformed practices, the progression forward into future water scarcity can be slowed.

text: The quality of drinking water is vital for human health. Peak water constraints result in people not having access to safe water for basic personal hygiene. "Infectious waterborne disease

text: The quality of drinking water is vital for human health. Peak water constraints result in people not having access to safe water for basic personal hygiene. "Infectious

text: waterborne disease

text: Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories are characterized by severe water shortage and are highly influenced by the Israeli occupation. The water resources of Palestine are fully controlled by Israel and the division of groundwater is subject to provisions in the Oslo II Accord.

text: Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories are characterized by severe water shortage and are highly influenced by the Israeli occupation. The water resources of

text: Palestine

text: are fully controlled by Israel and the division of groundwater is subject to provisions in the

text: Oslo II Accord

text: The aim of the Greater Beirut Water Supply Project (GBWSP) is to provide water from the Litani River as well as the Awali River, for those who live in the region of Greater Beirut. It aims to get water to those who have a low income within the Greater Beirut area. It is also focused on increasing short-term supply of potable water for those areas as well. About 40% of Lebanon's populations is located in the Greater Beirut region. Over the last forty years, the Lebanese population living in this region have experienced water shortages due to the lack of water distribution and increased demand of water. This shortage in water stems from the political conflicts that Lebanon has been experiencing over the previous years and even still today.

text: The aim of the Greater Beirut Water Supply Project (GBWSP) is to provide water from the

text: Litani River

text: as well as the

text: Awali River

text: , for those who live in the region of Greater Beirut. It aims to get water to those who have a low income within the Greater Beirut area. It is also focused on increasing short-term supply of potable water for those areas as well. About 40% of Lebanon's populations is located in the Greater Beirut region. Over the last forty years, the Lebanese population living in this region have experienced water shortages due to the lack of water distribution and increased demand of water. This shortage in water stems from the political conflicts that Lebanon has been experiencing over the previous years and even still today.

text: An assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population. It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water. The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today's food production and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.

text: An assessment of water management in agriculture was conducted in 2007 by the

text: in

text: Sri Lanka

text: to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population. It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of

text: physical water scarcity

text: , where there is not enough water to meet all demands. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing

text: economic water scarcity

text: , where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water. The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today's food production and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.

text: Karekatte has Fully Covered Water Supply' to every household, Developed under the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) was introduced by the Government of India to accelerate the pace of coverage of drinking water supply.

text: Due to the south west monsoon winds passing through the Palghat gap, elevated regions of the city receive rainfall in the months from June to August. After a warm and humid September, the north east monsoon starts from October lasting till early November. The average annual rainfall is around  with the northeast and the southwest monsoons contributing to 47% and 28% respectively to the total rainfall. This periodic rainfall does not satisfy the water requirements of the city throughout the year and water supply schemes like Siruvani and Pilloor help to sustain the needs of the city during the non-monsoon months.

text: The Ministry of Irrigation (Syria) is responsible for supplying water for agriculture.

text: The

text: Ministry of Irrigation (Syria)

text: is responsible for supplying water for agriculture.

text: "A safe water supply is absolutely critical to the health and safety of the people of Illinois," added Madigan. "The bill passed by the General Assembly strengthens the law and will help to keep our drinking water safe."

text: Pristina is one of the municipalities with the most severe water shortages in the country. Citizens of Pristina have to cope with daily water curbs due to the lack of rainfall and snowfall which has left the city's water supplies in a dreadful condition. The current water resources do not fulfil the needs of the overgrowing population of Pristina. The water supply comes from the two main reservoirs of Batllava and Badovci. However, there are many problems with the water supply that comes from these two reservoirs which supply 92% of the population in Pristina. As such, the authorities have increased their efforts to remedy the situation and to make sure that such crises do not hit the city again.

text: Pristina is one of the municipalities with the most severe water shortages in the country. Citizens of Pristina have to cope with daily water curbs due to the lack of rainfall and snowfall which has left the city's water supplies in a dreadful condition. The current water resources do not fulfil the needs of the overgrowing population of Pristina. The water supply comes from the two main reservoirs of

text: Batllava

text: and

text: Badovci

text: . However, there are many problems with the water supply that comes from these two reservoirs which supply 92% of the population in Pristina. As such, the authorities have increased their efforts to remedy the situation and to make sure that such crises do not hit the city again.

text: Drinking water for 124 households is supplied from a source within an elevation of more than 50 meters, while water for 99 households is from less than 50 meters. There is a lack of sanitary latrine facilities. Out of a total of 124 homes: 67 use open defection, 54 use a group latrine with regular water supply, none use a clean group latrine with regular water supply and a regular sweeper and only 3 use a  private latrine.

text: The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein, and directed by Wes Archer. The writing staff wanted to do an episode where the Simpson family traveled to Australia, because they thought everyone in Australia had a good sense of humor and that they "would get the jokes". The staff had previously poked fun at several American institutions on the show and they thought it would be interesting to poke fun at a whole nation. They designed Australia and the Australian people very inaccurately and many things were completely made up for fun. The animators, however, got two Australian tourist guides to help them out with the design of the Australian landscape and buildings, as well as the US Embassy. The writers did research on the Coriolis effect for this episode. Lisa's explanation of the effect is incorrect; it affects global weather patterns and is caused by the spinning of the globe on its axis. The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it.

text: The episode was written by

text: Bill Oakley

text: and

text: Josh Weinstein

text: , and directed by

text: Wes Archer

text: . The writing staff wanted to do an episode where the Simpson family traveled to Australia, because they thought everyone in Australia had a good sense of humor and that they "would get the jokes". The staff had previously poked fun at several American institutions on the show and they thought it would be interesting to poke fun at a whole nation. They designed Australia and the Australian people very inaccurately and many things were completely made up for fun. The animators, however, got two Australian

text: tourist guide

text: s to help them out with the design of the Australian landscape and buildings, as well as the US Embassy. The writers did research on the

text: Coriolis effect

text: for this episode. Lisa's explanation of the effect is incorrect; it affects global weather patterns and is caused by the spinning of the globe on its axis. The amount of water in a toilet or sink is much too small to be affected by it.

text: A sustainable urban water supply network covers all the activities related to provision of potable water. Sustainable development is of increasing importance for the water supply to urban areas. Incorporating innovative water technologies into water supply systems improves water supply from sustainable perspectives. The development of innovative water technologies provides flexibility to the water supply system, generating a fundamental and effective means of sustainability based on an integrated real options approach.

text: A sustainable urban water supply network covers all the activities related to provision of

text: potable

text: water.

text: Sustainable development

text: is of increasing importance for the water supply to urban areas. Incorporating innovative water technologies into

text: water supply

text: systems improves water supply from sustainable perspectives. The development of innovative water technologies provides

text: flexibility

text: to the water supply system, generating a fundamental and effective means of sustainability based on an integrated

text: real options

text: approach.

text: A dew pond is an artificial pond usually sited on the top of a hill, intended for watering livestock. Dew ponds are used in areas where a natural supply of surface water may not be readily available. The name dew pond (sometimes cloud pond or mist pond) is first found in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1865. Despite the name, their primary source of water is believed to be rainfall rather than dew or mist.

text: A dew pond is an artificial

text: pond

text: usually sited on the top of a hill, intended for watering livestock. Dew ponds are used in areas where a natural supply of surface water may not be readily available. The name dew pond (sometimes cloud pond or mist pond) is first found in the Journal of the

text: Royal Agricultural Society

text: in 1865. Despite the name, their primary source of water is believed to be rainfall rather than

text: dew

text: or

text: mist

text: MFirst time in Maharashtra history water express miraj to latur. Latur has scarcity of water. Hon. Railway Minister Suresh Prabhuji ordered to supply of Railway tankers to give water by railway to Latur but the first idea to supply water from Pandharpur was practically not feasible and taking a long time to supply water. After this news was studied by Railway Kruti Sanmiti, Miraj. Suggested that Miraj Junction having its own 4.5 M.L.D. water supply scheme and nowadays they utilise only 1.25 M.L.D. to supply the water to the Station, Rail Coach & employee quarters and it is suitable to fill up the tankers from existing rail line.  This concept was submitted to Chief Minister Shri. Devendraji Fadanvis by President of Railway Kruti Samiti, Miraj Shri. Makarand Deshpande and the primary information collected by Secretary Sukumar Patil. After putting this concept to Hon. C.M. They instructed to Hon. Collector of Sangli to detail study. After primary feasibility of this Hon. Minister Shri. Ekanathji Khadase & Pankajatai Mundhe visited Miraj and approved this plan to give water to Latur. In this project Shri. Shekhar Gaikwad Hon.Collector of Sangli, Shri. Sadilage Executive Engineer, M.J.P.Sangli. & Contractor Shri. Shashank Jadhav made it on top priority. And this concept take place by 11 April 2016 and first train having 10 wagons run for Latur and from 11 APril till day 10 wagons regularlly going to Latur

text: Urban and industrial use of water consumes about 10.8%, or 8.9 million acre-feet, of total water consumption in an average year. A 2011 study of a sampling of 735 California homes across ten water districts found that the weighted average annual total water use of these homes was  per year or  per household per day. To put that in perspective, the typical office water cooler holds , or about 1.4% of the study's estimated daily average household use. The study found that about 53% of total average household water use, or more than  per household per day, was used for landscaping and other outdoor uses Meanwhile, indoor use accounted for more than  per household per day. The most in-home water consumption is toilet flushes, using 20% of the water. After toilets, 20% is used for showers and 18% goes to leaks inside homes.

text: Historically, Chennai has relied on annual monsoon rains to replenish water reservoirs, as no major rivers flow through the area. Steadily growing in population, the city has faced water supply shortages, and its ground water levels have been depleted. Many residents buy water for drinking as well as other daily uses. An earlier Veeranam Lake project failed to solve the city's water problems, but the New Veeranam project, which became operational in September 2004, has greatly reduced dependency on distant sources. In recent years, heavy and consistent monsoon rains and rainwater harvesting (RWH) by Chennai Metrowater at its Anna Nagar Rain Centre have significantly reduced water shortages. The Metrowater methods have become a model of RWH technology for other cities. Moreover, newer projects like the Telugu Ganga project that bring water from water-surplus rivers like the Krishna River in Andhra Pradesh have eased water shortages. The city is constructing sea water desalination plants to further increase the water supply.

text: Historically, Chennai has relied on annual

text: monsoon

text: rains to replenish water

text: reservoir

text: s, as no major rivers flow through the area. Steadily growing in population, the city has faced

text: water supply

text: shortages

text: , and its ground water levels have been depleted. Many residents buy water for drinking as well as other daily uses. An earlier

text: Veeranam Lake project

text: failed to solve the city's water problems, but the New Veeranam project, which became operational in September 2004, has greatly reduced dependency on distant sources. In recent years, heavy and consistent monsoon rains and

text: rainwater harvesting

text: (RWH) by Chennai Metrowater at its

text: Anna Nagar

text: Rain Centre have significantly reduced water shortages. The Metrowater methods have become a model of RWH technology for other cities. Moreover, newer projects like the

text: Telugu Ganga project

text: that bring water from water-surplus rivers like the

text: Krishna River

text: in

text: Andhra Pradesh

text: have eased water shortages. The city is constructing sea water

text: desalination

text: plants to further increase the water supply.

text: With water use in the United States increasing every year, many regions are starting to feel the pressure. At least 36 states are anticipating local, regional, or statewide water shortages by 2013, even under non-drought conditions.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique is characterized by low levels of access to an improved water source(estimated to be 51% in 2011), low levels of access to adequate sanitation (estimated to be 25% in 2011) and mostly poor service quality. In 2007 the government has defined a strategy for water supply and sanitation in rural areas, where 62% of the population lives. In urban areas, water is supplied by informal small-scale providers and by formal providers.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique is characterized by low levels of access to an

text: improved water source

text: (estimated to be 51% in 2011), low levels of access to adequate sanitation (estimated to be 25% in 2011) and mostly poor service quality. In 2007 the government has defined a strategy for water supply and sanitation in rural areas, where 62% of the population lives. In urban areas, water is supplied by informal small-scale providers and by formal providers.

text: Water pollution is one of the main concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry.  Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, which use water for cooling, ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.

text: Water pollution

text: is one of the main concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry.  Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams,

text: thermoelectric power plants

text: , which use water for cooling,

text: ore

text: and

text: oil

text: refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.

text: On 1 December, there was more torrential rain in the west, with drinking water supplies to 6,000 buildings in Galway reported to have been contaminated by human faeces and water undrinkable in more than 500 homes in Clare and Limerick.

text: According to the Second UN World Water Development Report, if present levels of consumption continue, two-thirds of the global population will live in areas of water stress by 2025. Increasing human demand for water coupled with the effects of climate change mean that the future of our water supply is not secure. As of now, 2.6 billion people do not have safe drinking water. Added to this, are the changes in climate, population growth and lifestyles. The changes in human lifestyle and activities require more water per capita. This tightens the competition for water amongst agricultural, industrial, and human consumption.

text: According to the Second

text: UN World Water Development Report

text: , if present levels of consumption continue, two-thirds of the global population will live in areas of water stress by 2025. Increasing human demand for water coupled with the effects of climate change mean that the future of our water supply is not secure. As of now, 2.6 billion people do not have safe drinking water. Added to this, are the changes in climate, population growth and lifestyles. The changes in human lifestyle and activities require more water per capita. This tightens the competition for water amongst agricultural, industrial, and human consumption.

text: Chemicals are added to the water to facilitate the underground fracturing process that releases natural gas. Fracturing fluid is primarily water and approximately 0.5% chemical additives (friction reducer, agents countering rust, agents killing microorganism). Since (depending on the size of the area) millions of liters of water are used, this means that hundreds of thousands liters of chemicals are often injected into the subsurface. About 50% to 70% of the injected volume of contaminated water is recovered and stored in above-ground ponds to await removal by tanker. The remaining volume remains in the subsurface. Hydraulic fracturing opponents fear that it can lead to contamination of groundwater aquifers, though the industry deems this "highly unlikely". However, foul-smelling odors and heavy metals contaminating the local water supply above-ground have been reported.

text: Chemicals are added to the water to facilitate the underground fracturing process that releases natural gas. Fracturing fluid is primarily water and approximately 0.5% chemical additives (friction reducer, agents countering

text: rust

text: , agents killing microorganism). Since (depending on the size of the area) millions of liters of water are used, this means that hundreds of thousands liters of chemicals are often injected into the subsurface. About 50% to 70% of the injected volume of contaminated water is recovered and stored in above-ground ponds to await removal by tanker. The remaining volume remains in the subsurface. Hydraulic fracturing opponents fear that it can lead to contamination of

text: groundwater aquifer

text: s, though the industry deems this "highly unlikely". However, foul-smelling odors and

text: heavy metals

text: contaminating the local water supply above-ground have been reported.

text: Despite these low tariffs, some states have further reduced water tariffs. Following an election promise, beginning in 2008 Selangor state is subsidising its consumers with RM132 million/year (about US$40m) as a result of giving “free water” (first 20 m3) to about 1.5 million households. The President of Water Watch Penang, Prof. Dr. Chan Ngai Weng has called for the removal of water subsidies to encourage water conservation. In 2009, the Penang State Government subsidised domestic consumers with RM43 million (about US$12m). The Penang State Government is reluctant to review its low water tariffs, despite the fact that market survey studies conducted by the state water utility and the NGO Water Watch Penang indicate that the majority of water consumers are willing to pay for a "reasonable" tariff increase as long as the service is maintained at a high standard. Although water supply in Penang state is privatised, tariffs are the lowest in Malaysia due to the subsidies. Residential water bills are in the order of RM 2.5 per month. Even with the lowest tariffs in the nation, the Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Penang was the lowest in the nation at 18.4% in 2010.

text: Water pollution poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.

text: Water pollution

text: poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.

text: Customers with lower water demand may draw insignificant amounts without becoming a formal member. In cases of water shortage they have to renounce the supply for the benefit of the regular members. The need of service water varies very much – for example annually for a public pool 500 m³/year up to 15 Mio. m³/year for a thermal power station. All together the withdrawal is on the average 60 Mio. m³/year (with downward drift). The technically possible maximum of 400 Mio. m³/year has never been used. The discharge of canal water via the Stever into Halterner Stausee and Talsperre Hullern depends on the annual rainfall, for example the discharge in 1976 was 11.5 Mio. m³ but in “wet years” nothing is discharged.The withdrawal of service water that is used and has to be treated separately and discharged as waste water is invoiced with 0,0353 €/m³ (waste water is invoiced separately by the operator of the wastewater treatment facility). For water that has been removed, warmed-up and discharged again into the canal the invoice value is 3.3% of that amount. The fees cover the costs that appear from operation and maintenance of the pumping stations and other costs related to the water services.

text: Customers with lower water demand may draw insignificant amounts without becoming a formal member. In cases of water shortage they have to renounce the supply for the benefit of the regular members. The need of service water varies very much – for example annually for a public pool 500 m³/year up to 15 Mio. m³/year for a thermal power station. All together the withdrawal is on the average 60 Mio. m³/year (with downward drift). The technically possible maximum of 400 Mio. m³/year has never been used. The discharge of canal water via the Stever into

text: Haltern

text: er Stausee and Talsperre Hullern depends on the annual rainfall, for example the discharge in 1976 was 11.5 Mio. m³ but in “wet years” nothing is discharged.The withdrawal of service water that is used and has to be treated separately and discharged as waste water is invoiced with 0,0353 €/m³ (waste water is invoiced separately by the operator of the

text: wastewater treatment

text: facility). For water that has been removed, warmed-up and discharged again into the canal the invoice value is 3.3% of that amount. The fees cover the costs that appear from operation and maintenance of the pumping stations and other costs related to the water services.

text: Israel uses roughly 850 MCM/Y of groundwater, 400 MCM/Y of which come from the Mountain Aquifer. In 1964, Israel began to withdraw 320 MCM/Y from the Jordan River for the National Water Carrier. By 1967, Israel’s National Water Carrier was extracting almost 70 percent of the Jordan River before it reached the Palestinians in the West Bank. In the 1980s, Israeli settlers consumed seven times more water than Arab farmers. Other sources show a smaller, yet still sizeable difference. Per a September 2000 study, Israel uses 1180 MCM/Y, or 62 percent of its total annual water supply on agriculture. In comparison, Jordan uses 67 MCM/Y, or 74 percent of its total water supply on agriculture. Roughly 48 percent of Israel’s average annual water usage of 1,950 MCM/Y comes from territory captured in 1967. 400 MCM/Y of this comes from ground water in the West Bank, while 450 MCM/Y comes from the upper Jordan River and the Golan Heights. As early as 1981, however, Israel was exploiting 99 percent of its available water resources.

text: Israel uses roughly 850 MCM/Y of groundwater, 400 MCM/Y of which come from the Mountain Aquifer. In 1964, Israel began to withdraw 320 MCM/Y from the Jordan River for the

text: National Water Carrier

text: . By 1967, Israel’s National Water Carrier was extracting almost 70 percent of the Jordan River before it reached the

text: Palestinians

text: in the West Bank. In the 1980s, Israeli settlers consumed seven times more water than Arab farmers. Other sources show a smaller, yet still sizeable difference. Per a September 2000 study, Israel uses 1180 MCM/Y, or 62 percent of its total annual water supply on agriculture. In comparison, Jordan uses 67 MCM/Y, or 74 percent of its total water supply on agriculture. Roughly 48 percent of Israel’s average annual water usage of 1,950 MCM/Y comes from territory captured in 1967. 400 MCM/Y of this comes from ground water in the West Bank, while 450 MCM/Y comes from the upper Jordan River and the

text: Golan Heights

text: . As early as 1981, however, Israel was exploiting 99 percent of its available water resources.

text: Most of the Education in South Africa comes from rural schools. In fact, approximately 79% of black South Africans live in rural communities. However, the government has neglected the quality of education in these rural areas. Issues with rural schooling include poor facilities, lack of clean water, lack of resources, and unmotivated educators. Considering poor facilities, some schools are not structurally stable and are at risk of collapse. Additionally, some schools lack electricity. Most schools with more than 500 children lack proper sanitation for toilets while some schools lack toilets at all. Furthermore, many rural schools are in remote areas without direct access to clean water. Water is generally kilometers away and unclean because animals bathe in and drink it. This lack of water is a particular issue in the daytime when the temperature is highest. The remoteness of these rural schools is also a particular problem because they are quite distant from students' homes. And, many schools do not remedy this issue with transport. Additionally, many schools lack the needed books and supplies for learning. In June 2010, the Government Gazette recognised that these unfavorable learning environments increase rates of absenteeism of educators and dropout of students. Additionally, some students do not have enough food to eat and are hungry during school. This hunger causes a lack on concentration and makes learning environments less favorable.

text: Most of the

text: Education in South Africa

text: comes from rural schools. In fact, approximately 79% of black South Africans live in rural communities. However, the government has neglected the quality of education in these rural areas. Issues with rural schooling include poor facilities, lack of clean water, lack of resources, and unmotivated educators. Considering poor facilities, some schools are not structurally stable and are at risk of collapse. Additionally, some schools lack electricity. Most schools with more than 500 children lack proper sanitation for toilets while some schools lack toilets at all. Furthermore, many rural schools are in remote areas without direct access to clean water. Water is generally kilometers away and unclean because animals bathe in and drink it. This lack of water is a particular issue in the daytime when the temperature is highest. The remoteness of these rural schools is also a particular problem because they are quite distant from students' homes. And, many schools do not remedy this issue with transport. Additionally, many schools lack the needed books and supplies for learning. In June 2010, the Government Gazette recognised that these unfavorable learning environments increase rates of absenteeism of educators and dropout of students. Additionally, some students do not have enough food to eat and are hungry during school. This hunger causes a lack on concentration and makes learning environments less favorable.

text: Information quality of WaSH MP data outputs is defined in terms of its "fitness for use" by the end user. The six dimensions of data quality are relevance, accuracy, timeliness, accessibility, interpretability, and coherence. The information is collected from the field, by means of a standardized questionnaire, and is checked as part of a quality assurance process by Technical Field Monitors (TFMs) who are located in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In order to provide this service the WaSH MP has further refined its data criteria by creating twelve indicators. The twelve indicators currently used are as follows: status of households with year-round access to a water source, per capita water supply, wastewater network coverage, cesspit and septic tank coverage, availability of solid waste collection system, prevalence of water-borne diseases, status of operation and maintenance of water supply facilities, cost recovery for water supply services, unaccounted-for water within the water supply system, monthly household income spent on water supply, monthly household income spent on sanitation, as well as a compilation of major community problems and needs. The commitment on behalf of the WaSH MP to the continuous improvement of data will ensure that international organizations, donors, INGO’s, NGO’s, academics and all interested persons receive WaSH-related data that meets the growing needs of the Palestinian people, as well as the development and humanitarian sectors.

text: Information quality of WaSH MP data outputs is defined in terms of its "fitness for use" by the end user. The six dimensions of data quality are relevance, accuracy, timeliness, accessibility, interpretability, and coherence. The information is collected from the field, by means of a standardized questionnaire, and is checked as part of a quality assurance process by Technical Field Monitors (TFMs) who are located in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In order to provide this service the WaSH MP has further refined its data criteria by creating twelve indicators. The twelve indicators currently used are as follows: status of households with year-round access to a water source, per capita water supply, wastewater network coverage,

text: cesspit

text: and

text: septic tank

text: coverage, availability of

text: solid waste

text: collection system, prevalence of

text: water-borne disease

text: s, status of operation and maintenance of water supply facilities, cost recovery for water supply services, unaccounted-for water within the water supply system, monthly household income spent on water supply, monthly household income spent on sanitation, as well as a compilation of major community problems and needs. The commitment on behalf of the WaSH MP to the continuous improvement of data will ensure that international organizations, donors, INGO’s, NGO’s, academics and all interested persons receive WaSH-related data that meets the growing needs of the Palestinian people, as well as the development and humanitarian sectors.

text: The Veeranam Water Supply Project was implemented as additional source of water to Chennai City.  The Project was commissioned in the year 2004 to supply 180 MLD of water to Chennai City by drawing water from Veeranam Lake.  This lake receives water from Cauvery River system through Kollidam, Lower Anicut and Vadavar Canal besides rainwater from its own catchment area.  The capacity of the lake is 1465 Mcft.  The lake water is treated at Vadakuthu Water Treatment Plant by pumping raw water at a distance of 20 km. from Sethiathope to Vadakuthu through a 1775 mm dia mild steel pipe.  The treated water is then pumped at a distance of 8 km. to Break Pressure Tank at Kadampuliyur through a 1750 mm dia mild steel pipe and from there the water is conveyed to a distance of about 200 km. through the mild steel pipe of 1875 mm and 1500 mm dia by gravity to Porur Water Distribution Station near Chennai.  From this Distribution Station, water is pumped to a distance of 1.2 km. and distributed to Chennai City through Trunk mains and Water Distribution stations.

text: The Veeranam Water Supply Project was implemented as additional source of water to Chennai City.  The Project was commissioned in the year 2004 to supply 180 MLD of water to Chennai City by drawing water from

text: Veeranam Lake

text: .  This lake receives water from

text: Cauvery River

text: system through Kollidam,

text: Lower Anicut

text: and Vadavar Canal besides rainwater from its own catchment area.  The capacity of the lake is 1465 Mcft.  The lake water is treated at Vadakuthu Water Treatment Plant by pumping raw water at a distance of 20 km. from Sethiathope to Vadakuthu through a 1775 mm dia mild steel pipe.  The treated water is then pumped at a distance of 8 km. to Break Pressure Tank at Kadampuliyur through a 1750 mm dia mild steel pipe and from there the water is conveyed to a distance of about 200 km. through the mild steel pipe of 1875 mm and 1500 mm dia by gravity to Porur Water Distribution Station near Chennai.  From this Distribution Station, water is pumped to a distance of 1.2 km. and distributed to Chennai City through Trunk mains and Water Distribution stations.

text: Water to the area is supplied by the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme.

text: Water to the area is supplied by the

text: Goldfields Water Supply Scheme

text: The total water used in an agricultural field includes runoff, drainage and consumptive use. The use of loose mulches will reduce evaporative losses for a period after a field is irrigated, but in the end the total evaporative loss will approach that of an uncovered soil. The benefit from mulch is to keep the moisture available during the seedling stage. Water use efficiency is measured by transpiration ratio, which is the ratio of the total water transpired by a plant to the dry weight of the harvested plant. Transpiration ratios for crops range from 300 to 700. For example, alfalfa may have a transpiration ratio of 500 and as a result 500 kilograms of water will produce one kilogram of dry alfalfa.

text: Since rainfall is highly seasonal, surface water is stored in 72 reservoirs with a total production capacity of 7.4 billion m3 per year in 2009. Most of this water is used for irrigation. Total drinking water supply was about 2.8 billion m3 per year. One of the largest reservoir systems in Algeria is the Beni Haroun complex in Mila Province that supplies water for irrigation and drinking water to 4 million people in six provinces in the East of Algeria. Another large system is the Taksebt complex in Tizi Ouzou in Kabylie. It supplies three provinces, including parts of the capital Algiers, with drinking water. In the Bouira Province, water is supplied from the Koudiat Acerdoune dam. The longest water transfer project in Algeria, dubbed "project of the century", transfers non-renewable groundwater from  In Salah to Tamanrasset in the Sahara over a distance of 750 km. It was completed in 2011 at a cost of USD 2.5 billion.

text: Since rainfall is highly seasonal, surface water is stored in 72 reservoirs with a total production capacity of 7.4 billion m3 per year in 2009. Most of this water is used for irrigation. Total drinking water supply was about 2.8 billion m3 per year. One of the largest reservoir systems in Algeria is the Beni Haroun complex in

text: Mila Province

text: that supplies water for irrigation and drinking water to 4 million people in six provinces in the East of Algeria. Another large system is the Taksebt complex in

text: Tizi Ouzou

text: in Kabylie. It supplies three provinces, including parts of the capital

text: Algiers

text: , with drinking water. In the

text: Bouira Province

text: , water is supplied from the Koudiat Acerdoune dam. The longest water transfer project in Algeria, dubbed "project of the century", transfers non-renewable groundwater from

text: In Salah

text: to

text: Tamanrasset

text: in the Sahara over a distance of 750 km. It was completed in 2011 at a cost of USD 2.5 billion.

text: The Montreal Fire Brigade, or Service de sécurité incendie de Montréal, originated as a service of volunteers which was not the most effective service to combat fires. In the beginning of the brigade, the only way to get water to the homes of civilians was by going to the public water pumps, private wells, or to the nearby river or lakes. While combating fires, it would be incredibly hard for the volunteer firefighters to go from the burning houses, back to the water supply, and back to the place of emergency, taking too much time, and the fire would continue to rage on. One way that they tried to solve this problem was to have carters going from the water supply to the homes in Montreal. These carters would carry buckets of water to the city and try to get there before any other carters could. This was due to the incentive of three dollars extra pay for getting there first. This of course would cause for the carters to rush, not fill the bucket all the way, or spill some of the water on their course over to the house. Spilling the water would have caused major problems while fighting fires because there would not be enough to put out a house fire, and when they ran out of water the fire would rage out of control.

text: The Montreal Fire Brigade, or

entity_name: Service de sécurité incendie de Montréal

text: Service de sécurité incendie de Montréal

text: , originated as a service of volunteers which was not the most effective service to combat fires. In the beginning of the brigade, the only way to get water to the homes of civilians was by going to the public water pumps, private wells, or to the nearby river or lakes. While combating fires, it would be incredibly hard for the volunteer firefighters to go from the burning houses, back to the water supply, and back to the place of emergency, taking too much time, and the fire would continue to rage on. One way that they tried to solve this problem was to have carters going from the water supply to the homes in Montreal. These carters would carry buckets of water to the city and try to get there before any other carters could. This was due to the incentive of three dollars extra pay for getting there first. This of course would cause for the carters to rush, not fill the bucket all the way, or spill some of the water on their course over to the house. Spilling the water would have caused major problems while fighting fires because there would not be enough to put out a house fire, and when they ran out of water the fire would rage out of control.

text: The water supply in Saudi Arabia, and specifically the lack of water has always been the major constraint on agriculture and the determining factor on where cultivation occurred. The kingdom has no lakes or rivers. Rainfall is slight and irregular over most of the country. Only in the southwest, in the mountains of 'Asir, close to the Yemen border and accounting for three percent of the land area, was rainfall sufficient to support regular crops. This region plus the southern Tihamah coastal plains sustained subsistence farming. Cropping in the rest of the country was scattered and dependent on irrigation. Along the western coast and in the western highlands, groundwater from wells and springs provided adequate water for self-supporting farms and, to some extent, for commercial production. Moving east, in the central and northern parts of the interior, Najd and An Nafud, some groundwater allowed limited farming. The Eastern Province supported the most extensive plantation economy. The major oasis centered around Al Qatif, which enjoyed high water tables, natural springs, and relatively good soils.

text: The

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia

text: water supply in Saudi Arabia

text: , and specifically the

text: lack of water

text: has always been the major constraint on agriculture and the determining factor on where cultivation occurred. The kingdom has no lakes or rivers. Rainfall is slight and irregular over most of the country. Only in the southwest, in the mountains of

text: 'Asir

text: , close to the

text: Yemen

text: border and accounting for three percent of the land area, was rainfall sufficient to support regular crops. This region plus the southern

text: Tihamah

text: coastal plains sustained

text: subsistence farming

text: . Cropping in the rest of the country was scattered and dependent on

text: irrigation

text: . Along the western coast and in the western highlands,

text: groundwater

text: from wells and springs provided adequate water for self-supporting farms and, to some extent, for commercial production. Moving east, in the central and northern parts of the interior,

text: Najd

text: and

text: An Nafud

text: , some groundwater allowed limited farming. The

text: Eastern Province

text: supported the most extensive

text: plantation economy

text: . The major

text: oasis

text: centered around

text: Al Qatif

text: , which enjoyed high water tables, natural springs, and relatively good soils.

text: The European Drinking Water Directive (DWD), Council Directive 98/83/EC concerns the quality of water intended for human consumption and forms part of the regulation of Water supply and sanitation in the European Union.

text: The European Drinking Water Directive (DWD),

text: Council Directive 98/83/EC

text: concerns the quality of

text: water intended for human consumption

text: and forms part of the regulation of

text: Water is obtained from a  well on the north side of the island. This supply can serve the island throughout the season if there is sufficient rainfall during the summer. A reverse osmosis system provides fresh water if well water does not meet demand. Shoals is licensed by the State of Maine to provide potable drinking water to island residents and visitors. Conservation measures reduce the volume of freshwater used to 1/5 of expected consumption.

text: Water is obtained from a  well on the north side of the island. This supply can serve the island throughout the season if there is sufficient rainfall during the summer. A

text: reverse osmosis

text: system provides fresh water if well water does not meet demand. Shoals is licensed by the State of Maine to provide potable drinking water to island residents and visitors. Conservation measures reduce the volume of freshwater used to 1/5 of expected consumption.

text: Water generally needs treatment before use, depending on the source and the intended use (with high standards required for drinking water). The quality of water from household connections and community water points in low-income countries is not reliably safe for direct human consumption. Water extracted directly from surface waters and open hand-dug shallow wells nearly always requires treatment.

text: In most of the regions of the country, water production capacity is close to current demand, so the risk of facing water deficits future is high and, in fact, various cities already suffer from water shortages and rationing. For example, a water crisis was generated by tourist and real estate developments in the area of the popular Manuel Antonio National Park: Since the existing water supply systems could not cope with the substantial increase in demand, for morethan a year hotels and real estate developments had to receive water from AyA water tankers.

text: In most of the regions of the country, water production capacity is close to current demand, so the risk of facing water deficits future is high and, in fact, various cities already suffer from water shortages and rationing. For example, a water crisis was generated by tourist and real estate developments in the area of the popular

text: Manuel Antonio National Park

text: : Since the existing water supply systems could not cope with the substantial increase in demand, for morethan a year hotels and real estate developments had to receive water from AyA water tankers.

text: The water resources of China are affected by both severe water quantity shortages and severe water quality pollution. An increasing population and rapid economic growth as well as lax environmental oversight have increased water demand and pollution. China has responded by measures such as rapidly building out the water infrastructure and increased regulation as well as exploring a number of further technological solutions. Water usage by its coal-fired power stations is drying-up Northern China.

text: The water resources of China are affected by both severe water quantity shortages and severe water quality pollution. An increasing population and rapid economic growth as well as lax environmental oversight have increased water demand and pollution. China has responded by measures such as rapidly building out the water infrastructure and increased regulation as well as exploring a number of further technological solutions. Water usage by its

text: coal-fired power station

text: s is drying-up Northern China.

text: The water in the Disi aquifer gathered 30,000 years ago during the Pleistocene era.  It is  long and located  below ground inside of porous sandstone.  The aquifer is classified as a fossil aquifer, meaning that the water is not replenished if it is removed. In fact, the aquifer has a recharge rate of  of water per year. This recharge is dwarfed, however, by the current extraction rate of  for agricultural and domestic needs, including  of water that is supplied to Aqaba, Jordan.  The current extraction rate of , coupled with the future extraction rate of  for the project, is expected to produce a total extraction rate of .  At that rate, the water in the aquifer will last a minimum of 50 years, according to the Disi Water Company.

text: The water in the Disi aquifer gathered 30,000 years ago during the

text: Pleistocene era

text: .  It is  long and located  below ground inside of porous

text: sandstone

text: .  The aquifer is classified as a

text: fossil aquifer

text: , meaning that the water is not

text: replenished

text: if it is removed. In fact, the aquifer has a recharge rate of  of water per year. This recharge is dwarfed, however, by the current extraction rate of  for agricultural and domestic needs, including  of water that is supplied to

text: Aqaba, Jordan

text: .  The current extraction rate of , coupled with the future extraction rate of  for the project, is expected to produce a total extraction rate of .  At that rate, the water in the aquifer will last a minimum of 50 years, according to the Disi Water Company.

text: Because the coastal plain of Judea and Samaria had few water resources, Theodor Herzl already envisioned the transfer of water from the Jordan River to the coast for irrigation and drinking water supply. In 1937 the national water company Mekorot was created, more than a decade before the creation of the state of Israel. Among its achievements was the Shiloach Pipeline along the Burma Road to Jerusalem built during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and a first pipeline to the Negev in 1955. Between 1953 and 1955 the United States Special Representative for Water in the Middle East, Eric Johnston, had negotiated the Jordan Valley Unified Water Plan to jointly develop the water resources of the Jordan River Basin between Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. The Johnston Plan was rejected by the Arab League, but Israel nevertheless abided by its water alloction under the plan. Mekorot began a Rain Enhancement program in 1961, increasing rainfall by 13–18%. A Brackish Water Pipeline to divert brackish ground water from the Sea of Galilee to the Lower Jordan was completed in 1965. The main water resources project at the time, however, was the transfer of water from the Sea of Galilee to the coast through the National Water Carrier in 1965. As a reaction to the construction of the pipeline, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan tried to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River. This was one of the events that increased tensions leading to the Six-Day War of 1967 during which Israel captured the West Bank and the Golan Heights.

text: Because the coastal plain of Judea and Samaria had few

text: water resources

text: Theodor Herzl

text: already envisioned the transfer of water from the

text: Jordan River

text: to the coast for

text: irrigation

text: and

text: drinking water

text: supply. In 1937 the national water company

text: Mekorot

text: was created, more than a decade before the creation of the state of Israel. Among its achievements was the Shiloach Pipeline along the

text: Burma Road

text: to

text: Jerusalem

text: built during the

text: 1948 Arab–Israeli War

text: and a first pipeline to the Negev in 1955. Between 1953 and 1955 the United States Special Representative for Water in the Middle East,

text: Eric Johnston

text: , had negotiated the

text: Jordan Valley Unified Water Plan

text: to jointly develop the water resources of the Jordan River Basin between Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. The Johnston Plan was rejected by the

text: Arab League

text: , but Israel nevertheless abided by its water alloction under the plan. Mekorot began a

text: Rain Enhancement

text: program in 1961, increasing rainfall by 13–18%. A

text: Brackish Water

text: Pipeline to divert brackish ground water from the

text: Sea of Galilee

text: to the Lower Jordan was completed in 1965. The main water resources project at the time, however, was the transfer of water from the

text: Sea of Galilee

text: to the coast through the

text: National Water Carrier

text: in 1965. As a reaction to the construction of the pipeline, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan tried to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River. This was one of the events that increased tensions leading to the

text: Six-Day War

text: of 1967 during which Israel captured the West Bank and the

text: Golan Heights

text: Water scarcity involves water stress, water shortage or deficits, and water crisis. This may be due to both natural and human factors. But, many reports suggest that the scarcity is more due to the human factor than anything – such as industrialization, irrigation, domestic use, etc.

text: Water scarcity

text: involves water stress, water shortage or deficits, and water crisis. This may be due to both natural and human factors. But, many reports suggest that the scarcity is more due to the human factor than anything – such as industrialization, irrigation, domestic use, etc.

text: Bulk water tariffs. ONEE charges tariffs for the supply of bulk water to the private operators and the Régies. These tariffs are reviewed by the government together with the tariffs for the Régies and ONEE's retail water and sewer tariffs. Bulk water tariffs differ from one city to the other taking into account production costs. For example, bulk water tariffs for Casabalanca, where the service provider is private, are twice as high as for the neighboring city Settat. There is a 5% special tax on bulk water sales in order to finance the rural water supply program PAGER  as well as another more important surtax to finance water supply in small towns.

text: In Australia, there are no quantitative performance targets for rainwater tanks, such as on size of tank or targeted reductions in potable water demand, in policies or guidelines. The various guidelines provided by state governments however, do advise that rain water tanks be designed to provide a reliable source of water to supplement mains water supply, and maintain appropriate water quality. The use of rainwater tanks should consider issues such as supply and demand, water quality, stormwater benefits (volume is reduced), cost, available space, maintenance, size, shape and material of the tank. Rainwater tanks must also be installed in accordance with plumbing and drainage standards. An advised suitable configuration may include a water filter or first flush diversion, a mains water top-up supply (dual supply system), maintenance drain, a pump (pressure system), and an on-site retention provision.

text: The water supply in Miyakojima depends mainly on spring water or ground water, since there are almost no rivers. Although the yearly rainfall amounts to , 40% of it evaporates, 10% flows into the ground and 50% penetrates deep into the ground. Thus, there is almost no source of surface water.

text: The water supply in Miyakojima depends mainly on

text: spring water

text: or

text: ground water

text: , since there are almost no rivers. Although the yearly rainfall amounts to , 40% of it evaporates, 10% flows into the ground and 50% penetrates deep into the ground. Thus, there is almost no source of surface water.

text: The scheme was intended both for transport and for a water supply grid, for water distribution is a major problem in London and South East England.

text: The scheme was intended both for transport and for a

text: water supply

text: grid, for water distribution is a major problem in

text: London

text: and

text: South East England

text: Greywater (also spelled graywater, or grey water/gray water) or sullage is all wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e. all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include, e.g. sinks, showers, baths, clothes washing machines or dish washers. As greywater contains fewer pathogens than domestic wastewater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for toilet flushing, landscape or crop irrigation, and other non-potable uses. However, the use of non-toxic and low-sodium soap and personal care products is recommended to protect vegetation when reusing greywater for irrigation purposes. The application of greywater reuse in urban water systems provides substantial benefits for both the water supply subsystem by reducing the demand for fresh clean water as well as the wastewater subsystems by reducing the amount of wastewater required to be conveyed and treated.

text: Greywater (

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: also spelled

text: graywater, or grey water/gray water) or sullage is all

text: wastewater

text: generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e. all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include, e.g.

text: sinks

text: shower

text: s,

text: baths

text: , clothes

text: washing machines

text: or dish washers. As greywater contains fewer

text: pathogens

text: than domestic wastewater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for

text: toilet flushing

text: , landscape or crop

text: irrigation

text: , and other non-potable uses. However, the use of non-toxic and low-sodium soap and personal care products is recommended to protect vegetation when reusing greywater for irrigation purposes. The application of greywater reuse in

text: urban water system

text: s provides substantial benefits for both the

text: water supply

text: subsystem by reducing the demand for fresh

text: clean water

text: as well as the wastewater subsystems by reducing the amount of wastewater required to be conveyed and treated.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Venezuela has been extended to an increasing number of people during the 2000s, although many poor remain without access to piped water. Service quality for those with access is mixed, with water often being supplied only on an intermittent basis and most wastewater not being treated. Non-revenue water is estimated to be high at 62%, compared to the regional average of 40%. Tap water is relatively inexpensive, because of a national tariff freeze imposed in 2003 and a policy not to recover capital costs. Investments are financed primarily by the national government, with little reliance on external financing. The sector remains centralized despite a decentralization process initiated in the 1990s that has now been stalled. Within the executive, sector policies are determined by the Ministry of Environment. The national water company HIDROVEN serves about 80% of the population. The remainder is being served by five state water companies, the Corporación Venezolana de Guayana (CVG), a few municipalities and community-based organizations. Since the early 2000s the government encouraged the creation of about 7,500 Mesas Tecnicas del Agua, which have both a technical function and a political mobilization function. Major investment projects include the restoration of the polluted Valencia Lake and of the Guaire river basin in Caracas (2005–2013).

text: Water supply

text: and

text: sanitation

text: in

text: Venezuela

text: has been extended to an increasing number of people during the 2000s, although many poor remain without access to piped water. Service quality for those with access is mixed, with water often being supplied only on an intermittent basis and most wastewater not being treated.

text: Non-revenue water

text: is estimated to be high at 62%, compared to the regional average of 40%. Tap water is relatively inexpensive, because of a national tariff freeze imposed in 2003 and a policy not to recover capital costs. Investments are financed primarily by the national government, with little reliance on external financing. The sector remains centralized despite a decentralization process initiated in the 1990s that has now been stalled. Within the executive, sector policies are determined by the Ministry of Environment. The national water company HIDROVEN serves about 80% of the population. The remainder is being served by five state water companies, the Corporación Venezolana de Guayana (CVG), a few municipalities and community-based organizations. Since the early 2000s the government encouraged the creation of about 7,500 Mesas Tecnicas del Agua, which have both a technical function and a political mobilization function. Major investment projects include the restoration of the polluted

text: Valencia Lake

text: and of the

text: Guaire river basin

text: in

text: Caracas

text: Water from Jenkinson Lake is used for municipal water supply, irrigation, and recreation. Historically, irrigation water for agriculture was the greatest water user. As the area develops and the population grows, municipal and commercial water users become more important. Municipal users are now the primary water users of water from Jenkinson Lake, though agriculture is still a significant user. Future population growth, climate change, and water reuse technology and conservation will influence water use in the future.

text: Heavy water is not radioactive. In its pure form, it has a density about 11% greater than water, but is otherwise physically and chemically similar. Nevertheless, the various differences in deuterium-containing water (especially affecting the biological properties) are larger than in any other commonly occurring isotope-substituted compound because deuterium is unique among heavy stable isotopes in being twice as heavy as the lightest isotope. This difference increases the strength of water's hydrogen-oxygen bonds, and this in turn is enough to cause differences that are important to some biochemical reactions. The human body naturally contains deuterium equivalent to about five grams of heavy water, which is harmless. When a large fraction of water (> 50%) in higher organisms is replaced by heavy water, the result is cell dysfunction and death.

text: Heavy water is not

text: radioactive

text: . In its pure form, it has a density about 11% greater than water, but is otherwise physically and chemically similar. Nevertheless, the various differences in deuterium-containing water (especially affecting the biological properties) are larger than in any other commonly occurring

text: isotope-substituted compound

text: because deuterium is unique among heavy

text: stable isotope

text: s in being twice as heavy as the lightest isotope. This difference increases the

text: strength

text: of water's hydrogen-oxygen bonds, and this in turn is enough to cause differences that are important to some biochemical reactions. The human body naturally contains deuterium equivalent to about five grams of heavy water, which is harmless. When a large fraction of water (> 50%) in higher organisms is replaced by heavy water, the result is cell dysfunction and death.

text: Water metering is common for residential and commercial drinking water supply in many countries, as well as for industrial self-supply with water. However, it is less common in irrigated agriculture, which is the major water user worldwide. Water metering is also uncommon for piped drinking water supply in rural areas and small towns, although there are examples of successful metering in rural areas in developing countries, such as in El Salvador.

text: Water metering is common for residential and commercial drinking

text: water supply

text: in many countries, as well as for industrial self-supply with water. However, it is less common in

text: irrigated agriculture

text: , which is the major water user worldwide. Water metering is also uncommon for piped drinking water supply in rural areas and small towns, although there are examples of successful metering in rural areas in developing countries, such as in El Salvador.

text: There is a medical clinic in Mannavanur. Drinking water for most households is supplied from a source within an elevation of less than 100 meters. There is a lack of sanitary latrine facilities. Out of a total of  569 homes: 298 use open defection, 4 use a group latrine with irregular water supply, 263 use a group latrine with regular water supply, none use a clean group latrine with regular water supply and a regular sweeper and only 4 use a  private latrine.

text: On August 4, the government of Belize declared a 30 day state of emergency. The government focused their initial disaster response on search and rescue missions, medical care, helping storm victims, cleaning debris from roads, and restoring utilities. The country's Minister of Works sent employees to clear blocked highways, and the government hired residents to help clean the streets from debris. Workers quickly restored 75% of the power outages within a day of the hurricane's passage, which increased to 99% by August 11. All emergency shelters closed on August 12, and the remaining displaced families were provided rent-free lodging for up to three months. The National Relief and Supplies Management Committee provided food, water, cleaning supplies, tarps, and mattresses to affected residents, helping 8,000 people by August 10. Damage to water systems resulted in decreased water pressure in buildings, possibly contaminating the nation's water supply. As a result, the Health Ministry advised residents to treat drinking water, and officials worked to repair water systems in the week after the storm's passage. The Belize Water Service sent a truck to the Old Northern Highway. About 90% of residents in damaged houses enacted their own repairs, with the help of neighbors. To assist with disaster relief, the European Union donated  to Belize through the Disaster Relief Emergency Fund of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Taiwan sent US$100,000 to the country. The Inter-American Development Bank provided US$200,000 to Belize to purchase food, medicine, and supplies to rebuild. Belize Telemedia Limited also donated US$50,000 toward disaster relief, and Norwegian Cruise Line donated BZ$100,000. The Belize government received US$261,073 from the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility, having first bought an excess rainfall policy in June 2016. UNICEF acted as the primary coordinating agency for the United Nations, its first emergency in that capacity. The agency provided the government with $35,000 toward clean-up, 430 family hygiene kits, and emergency SMSs to be distributed by phone.

text: On August 4, the government of Belize declared a 30 day state of emergency. The government focused their initial disaster response on search and rescue missions, medical care, helping storm victims, cleaning debris from roads, and restoring utilities. The country's Minister of Works sent employees to clear blocked highways, and the government hired residents to help clean the streets from debris. Workers quickly restored 75% of the power outages within a day of the hurricane's passage, which increased to 99% by August 11. All emergency shelters closed on August 12, and the remaining displaced families were provided rent-free lodging for up to three months. The National Relief and Supplies Management Committee provided food, water, cleaning supplies, tarps, and mattresses to affected residents, helping 8,000 people by August 10. Damage to water systems resulted in decreased water pressure in buildings, possibly contaminating the nation's water supply. As a result, the Health Ministry advised residents to treat drinking water, and officials worked to repair water systems in the week after the storm's passage. The Belize Water Service sent a truck to the Old Northern Highway. About 90% of residents in damaged houses enacted their own repairs, with the help of neighbors. To assist with disaster relief, the

text: European Union

text: donated  to Belize through the Disaster Relief Emergency Fund of the

entity_name: International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

text: International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

text: . Taiwan sent US$100,000 to the country. The

text: Inter-American Development Bank

text: provided US$200,000 to Belize to purchase food, medicine, and supplies to rebuild.

text: Belize Telemedia Limited

text: also donated US$50,000 toward disaster relief, and

text: Norwegian Cruise Line

text: donated BZ$100,000. The Belize government received US$261,073 from the

entity_name: Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility Segregated Portfolio Company

text: Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility

text: , having first bought an excess rainfall policy in June 2016.

text: UNICEF

text: acted as the primary coordinating agency for the United Nations, its first emergency in that capacity. The agency provided the government with $35,000 toward clean-up, 430 family hygiene kits, and emergency

text: SMS

text: s to be distributed by phone.

text: Lack of access to water supply and sanitation has significant health impacts. In addition, it imposes a significant burden on women and girls who have to carry water. For instance, more than one in five households in Umutara is more than an hour away from its water source. This has implications for the quality of women's and girls' lives, their economic productivity and their access to education. Even where people statistically do have access to an improved water source such as a communal borehole that in some cases is shared by up to 175 families, they sometimes have to wait for more than four hours before they can get water.

text: Lack of access to water supply and sanitation has significant health impacts. In addition, it imposes a significant burden on women and girls who have to carry water. For instance, more than one in five households in

text: Umutara

text: is more than an hour away from its water source. This has implications for the quality of women's and girls' lives, their economic productivity and their access to education. Even where people statistically do have access to an

text: improved water source

text: such as a communal borehole that in some cases is shared by up to 175 families, they sometimes have to wait for more than four hours before they can get water.

text: RecycleRecycled water from Denver Water's recycled water distribution system supplies industrial and irrigation customers with nonpotable water, thereby freeing up drinking water for other purposes and reducing trans-mountain diversions. Once build-out is complete, the project will supply more than five billion gallons of recycled water every year — water for irrigation, for industrial use, for lakes in our parks and for golf courses — water we don’t have to take from a reservoir. There are more than a dozen wastewater recycling programs in Colorado, and Denver Water operates the largest recycled water system in Colorado.

text: Farm water, also known as agricultural water, is water committed for use in the production of food and fiber. On average, 80 percent of the fresh water withdrawn from rivers and groundwater is used to produce food and other agricultural products. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation of crops or the watering of livestock.

text: Farm water, also known as agricultural water, is water committed for use in the production of food and fiber. On average, 80 percent of the fresh water withdrawn from

text: rivers

text: and

text: groundwater

text: is used to produce food and other agricultural products. Farm water may include water used in the

text: irrigation

text: of crops or the watering of livestock.

text: Water supply. Slightly more than half the population of Tanzania is estimated to have access to an improved water source, with stark differences between urban areas (about 79% in 2010) and rural areas (about 44% in 2010). In rural areas, access is defined as meaning that households have to travel less than one kilometre to a protected drinking water source in the dry season. Trends in access to water supply are difficult to discern due to conflicting and unreliable data. However, it seems that access increased during the 1990s, particularly in rural areas, but stagnated during the 2000s. According to data from the Household Budget Surveys 2000/2001 and 2007 access to an improved water source in mainland Tanzania even decreased from 55% in 2000 to 52% in 2007. Using a narrow definition, in 2007 around 34% of households had access to piped water, as opposed to 40% in 2000. However, using a broader definition of access that also includes standpipes and protected springs, there has been a slight increase in the proportion of households reporting a drinking water source within one kilometre. Estimates from the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) show a different trend. They show a slight decline in access from 55% in 1990 to 53% in 2010. According to these figures, access in rural areas stagnated, while in urban areas it decreased from 94% to 79% over the same period. The JMP estimates rely on extrapolations using, among others, data from the Household Budget Survey 2000/2001 and 2007, the Census of 2002 and the Demographic and Health Surveys of 1999, 2005 and 2010.

text: Water supply. Slightly more than half the population of Tanzania is estimated to have access to an

text: improved water source

text: , with stark differences between urban areas (about 79% in 2010) and rural areas (about 44% in 2010). In rural areas, access is defined as meaning that households have to travel less than one kilometre to a protected drinking water source in the dry season. Trends in access to water supply are difficult to discern due to conflicting and unreliable data. However, it seems that access increased during the 1990s, particularly in rural areas, but stagnated during the 2000s. According to data from the Household Budget Surveys 2000/2001 and 2007 access to an

text: improved water source

text: in mainland Tanzania even decreased from 55% in 2000 to 52% in 2007. Using a narrow definition, in 2007 around 34% of households had access to piped water, as opposed to 40% in 2000. However, using a broader definition of access that also includes standpipes and protected springs, there has been a slight increase in the proportion of households reporting a drinking water source within one kilometre. Estimates from the

text: (JMP) show a different trend. They show a slight decline in access from 55% in 1990 to 53% in 2010. According to these figures, access in rural areas stagnated, while in urban areas it decreased from 94% to 79% over the same period. The JMP estimates rely on extrapolations using, among others, data from the Household Budget Survey 2000/2001 and 2007, the Census of 2002 and the Demographic and Health Surveys of 1999, 2005 and 2010.

text: A before-after comparative study by the World Bank analyzes how access, quality of service, operational efficiency and tariffs have evolved under 65 public-private partnerships for urban water utilities in developing countries. The study estimates that "PPP projects have provided access to piped water for more than 24 million people in developing countries since 1990". Interestingly and unlike it was expected by proponents of privatization, private operators contributed little in terms of financing, which was provided to a large extent by tariff revenues and development aid. A study that compared changes under PPPs to changes that occurred in publicly managed utilities during the same period in Argentina, Bolivia and Brazil found that access to water supply and sanitation increased both for utilities under private and under public management to the same extent. The study concludes that "private sector participation, per se, may not have been responsible for those improvements". Others have argued that privatization is often associated with increase in tariffs – which reduces the accessibility of the resource for poor households.Water privatization can hinder the accessibility of water. When for-profit companies invest in the water system, the desire to make returns on the investment can create a top-heavy distribution system. In this scenario, the desire to supply poor districts decreases because the poor are unable to pay the tariffs, however small they may be. On the opposite end of the spectrum, investments are made to improve accessibility in richer districts where the people can pay the tariffs. In this manner, the water company's need to make adequate returns is met by supplying water only to those who can pay.However, water supply privatization may in some cases lead to expansion of services to low-income districts. The urban poor who have no official access to water may have a relatively high willingness to pay because they may suffer from even higher tariffs typically charged by informal water vendors.

text: A before-after comparative study by the

text: World Bank

text: Access to an improved water source in Afghanistan is among the lowest in the world. According to a National Risk and Vulnerability Survey, only 42% of rural dwellers had access to an improved water source as of 2010. About three quarters of Afghans live in rural areas. In urban areas, an estimated 78% had access to an improved water source. Access to an improved water source does not mean that the water is safe to drink. For example, protected shallow wells in urban areas are often contaminated with bacteria. Piped water supply can also be contaminated. Households without access to an improved source take water from streams and rivers, open wells and unprotected springs, all of which are also often polluted. In rural areas women and girls walk long distances to fetch water.

text: Access to an

text: improved water source

text: in

text: Afghanistan

text: is among the lowest in the world. According to a National Risk and Vulnerability Survey, only 42% of rural dwellers had access to an improved water source as of 2010. About three quarters of Afghans live in rural areas. In urban areas, an estimated 78% had access to an improved water source. Access to an improved water source does not mean that the water is safe to drink. For example, protected shallow wells in urban areas are often contaminated with bacteria. Piped water supply can also be contaminated. Households without access to an improved source take water from streams and rivers, open wells and unprotected springs, all of which are also often polluted. In rural areas women and girls walk long distances to fetch water.

text: Municipal, irrigation, and industrial water supplies are provided through large wells. Multiple wells for one water supply source are termed "wellfields", which may withdraw water from confined or unconfined aquifers. Using ground water from deep, confined aquifers provides more protection from surface water contamination. Some wells, termed "collector wells," are specifically designed to induce infiltration of surface (usually river) water.

text: Public sanitation and equitable access to water in very poor countries are grave problems. Living machines could be a low-capital approach to treating and recycling water, but skilled biologists may be a limited resource as well. A brick-pool living machine was built by Americans in Auroville, Indiana.

text: This apparatus has many variations in design and has been used extensively when a constant water pressure is needed, e.g. supplying water at constant head for measuring water infiltration into soil or supplying the mobile phase in chromatography.

text: This apparatus has many variations in design and has been used extensively when a constant water pressure is needed, e.g. supplying water at constant head for measuring

text: water infiltration

text: into

text: soil

text: or supplying the mobile phase in

text: chromatography

text: The centralized drinking water supply infrastructure in the United States consists of dams and reservoirs, well fields, pumping stations, aqueducts for the transport of large quantities of water over long distances, water treatment plants, reservoirs in the distribution system (including water towers), and 1.8 million miles of distribution lines. Depending on the location and quality of the water source, all or some of these elements may be present in a particular water supply system. In addition to this infrastructure for centralized network distribution, 14.5% of Americans rely on their own water sources, usually wells.

text: The centralized drinking water supply infrastructure in the United States consists of

text: dam

text: s and

text: reservoir

text: s,

text: well fields

text: pumping station

text: s,

text: aqueduct

text: s for the transport of large quantities of water over long distances,

text: water treatment plants

text: , reservoirs in the distribution system (including

text: water tower

text: s), and 1.8 million miles of distribution lines. Depending on the location and quality of the water source, all or some of these elements may be present in a particular water supply system. In addition to this infrastructure for centralized network distribution, 14.5% of Americans rely on their own water sources, usually wells.

text: In 2004, Danish scientist Lars Holm Rasmussen released a study showing the chemical can leach from the plant into the water supply, which may explain an increase in the incidence of gastric and oesophageal cancers in humans in bracken-rich areas. In addition, livestock have been known to eat the young shoots and fronds, which can then cause cancer in the animals, especially when untreated. Ptaquiloside has been identified in the milk of cows and groundwater. Humans can be exposed by direct consumption of the plant, contaminated water or milk, and spore inhalation.

text: In 2004, Danish scientist Lars Holm Rasmussen released a study showing the chemical can leach from the plant into the

text: water supply

text: , which may explain an increase in the incidence of

text: gastric

text: and

text: oesophageal cancer

text: s in humans in bracken-rich areas. In addition, livestock have been known to eat the young shoots and fronds, which can then cause

text: cancer

text: in the animals, especially when untreated. Ptaquiloside has been identified in the milk of cows and groundwater. Humans can be exposed by direct consumption of the plant, contaminated water or milk, and spore inhalation.

text: Because of the poor quality of the city's water supply, a reverse-osmosis filtration plant was installed in the mid-1990s. The loss of minerals in the water resulted in the collapse of many water mains, which had been supported by mineral deposits that formed on the insides of the pipes.

text: Because of the poor quality of the city's water supply, a

text: reverse-osmosis

text: filtration plant was installed in the mid-1990s. The loss of minerals in the water resulted in the collapse of many water mains, which had been supported by mineral deposits that formed on the insides of the pipes.

text: The game was invented in 1969 by now retired UC Davis associate athletic director of intramural sports and sport clubs, Gary Colberg.  Noticing how much fun the water polo team was having, Mr. Colberg thought up the idea of using tubes so that people with no experience in water polo could still enjoy the game.

text: The game was invented in 1969 by now retired

text: UC Davis

text: associate athletic director of intramural sports and sport clubs, Gary Colberg.  Noticing how much fun the water polo team was having, Mr. Colberg thought up the idea of using tubes so that people with no experience in water polo could still enjoy the game.

text: In regions with sufficient rainfall, it is often more economical to design a building to use rain, with supplementary water deliveries in a drought. Rain water makes excellent soft washwater, but needs antibacterial treatment.  If used for drinking, mineral supplements or mineralization is necessary.

text: However, gaps in wastewater treatment (the amount of wastewater to be treated is greater than the amount that is actually treated) represent the most significant contribution to water pollution and water quality deterioration. In the majority of the developing world, most of the collected wastewater is returned to surface waters directly without treatment, reducing the water's quality. In China, only 38% of China's urban wastewater is treated and although 91% of China's industrial waste water is treated, it still releases extensive toxins into the water supply.

text: Because of the high initial investments, many less wealthy nations cannot afford to develop or sustain appropriate infrastructure, and as a consequence people in these areas may spend a correspondingly higher fraction of their income on water. 2003 statistics from El Salvador, for example, indicate that the poorest 20% of households spend more than 10% of their total income on water. In the United Kingdom authorities define spending of more than 3% of one's income on water as a hardship.

text: A water microphone or water transmitter is based on Ohm's law that current in a wire varies inversely with the resistance of the circuit. The sound waves from a human voice cause a diaphragm to vibrate which causes a needle or rod to vibrate up and down in water that has been made conductive by a small amount of acid. As the needle or rod vibrates up and down in the water, the resistance of the water fluctuates which causes alternating current in the circuit. For this to work, the resistance of the water must vary substantially over the short distance the needle or rod vibrates. Acidulated water works well because only a small amount of acid is added. If one millimeter of acidulated water has a resistance of 100 ohms, two millimeters would have 200 ohms which would produce enough alternating current to transmit audio signals in thousands of feet of wire. Mercury will not work because the resistance of one millimeter of mercury is less than a tenth of an ohm and vibration of a needle in mercury would produce negligible alternating current.

text: A water microphone or water transmitter is based on

text: Ohm's law

text: that current in a wire varies inversely with the resistance of the circuit. The sound waves from a human voice cause a diaphragm to vibrate which causes a needle or rod to vibrate up and down in water that has been made conductive by a small amount of acid. As the needle or rod vibrates up and down in the water, the resistance of the water fluctuates which causes alternating current in the circuit. For this to work, the resistance of the water must vary substantially over the short distance the needle or rod vibrates. Acidulated water works well because only a small amount of acid is added. If one millimeter of acidulated water has a resistance of 100 ohms, two millimeters would have 200 ohms which would produce enough alternating current to transmit audio signals in thousands of feet of wire. Mercury will not work because the resistance of one millimeter of mercury is less than a tenth of an ohm and vibration of a needle in mercury would produce negligible alternating current.

text: Urban and suburban growth requires a larger and sustainable supply of clean water. While Lake Michigan would appear to be an abundant resource, lower rainfall and population increases are considerations in planning for both the present and future needs served by this freshwater supply.

text: The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.

text: The

text: Earth

text: has a limited though renewable

text: supply of fresh water

text: , stored in

text: aquifer

text: s,

text: surface water

text: s and the

text: atmosphere

text: Ocean

text: s are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert

text: saline water

text: to

text: potable water

text: is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from

text: desalination

text: . However, modern technologies, such as the

text: Seawater Greenhouse

text: , use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.

text: The canal was increasingly affected by water supply problems. The main source of water was the River Tone, although this was not fed into the canal at Firepool, in order to ensure that the mills on the upper section could function. Instead water was pumped out of the river at Creech, by the Charlton Pumping Station, where the river and canal were only  apart. Large volumes of water were discharged from the canal every fortnight, when the Bridgwater Dock was scoured, in order to free it from silt, while the Railway Company was extracting water to supply the station and steam locomotive sheds at Taunton. During the summer months there was often not enough water to go round.

text: The canal was increasingly affected by water supply problems. The main source of water was the River Tone, although this was not fed into the canal at Firepool, in order to ensure that the mills on the upper section could function. Instead water was pumped out of the river at

text: Creech

text: , by the Charlton Pumping Station, where the river and canal were only  apart. Large volumes of water were discharged from the canal every fortnight, when the Bridgwater Dock was scoured, in order to free it from silt, while the Railway Company was extracting water to supply the station and

text: steam locomotive

text: sheds at Taunton. During the summer months there was often not enough water to go round.

text: Agriculture is one of the oldest economic activities since it is the backbone of the food supply and without it the world’s population would experience food insecurity. Changes in agricultural supply result from the combination of changes in yields and changes in crop acreage. Changes in crop yields are the result of climate changes and any human mitigating responses such as increasing fertilizer or water use or adoption of new crop varieties, while changes in acreage are affected by producers’ expectations concerning changes in relative crop prices and per acre returns.

text: Agriculture

text: is one of the oldest economic activities since it is the backbone of the food supply and without it the world’s population would experience food insecurity. Changes in

text: agricultural supply

text: result from the combination of changes in yields and changes in crop acreage. Changes in crop yields are the result of climate changes and any human mitigating responses such as increasing fertilizer or water use or adoption of new crop varieties, while changes in acreage are affected by producers’ expectations concerning changes in relative crop prices and per acre returns.

text: Continuity of supply. Of the twenty Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities (UWSSAs) that operate in Tanzania, three are able to provide continuous water supply (Arusha, Songea and Tanga). In eleven other cities water is supplied for at least 19 hours. In Babati and Mtwara there is water supply for 12 hours per day. The lowest figures (5 hours per day) come from the cities of Kigoma, Lindi and Singida. In Dar es Salaam water is supplied on average for 9 hours per day.

text: Continuity of supply. Of the twenty Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities (UWSSAs) that operate in Tanzania, three are able to provide continuous water supply (

text: Arusha

text: Songea

text: and

text: Tanga

text: ). In eleven other cities water is supplied for at least 19 hours. In

text: Babati

text: and

text: Mtwara

text: there is water supply for 12 hours per day. The lowest figures (5 hours per day) come from the cities of

text: Kigoma

text: Lindi

text: and

text: Singida

text: . In Dar es Salaam water is supplied on average for 9 hours per day.

text: Groundwater is a key water supplier for several users in the arid region or in some cities where groundwater is most of the time the sole water resource available. About 71% of the groundwater is used for agriculture, 20% for water urban supply and 3% for domestic and animal use.

text: In early March news stories began to appear online in China regarding the incident.  On March 9 it was reported that the pig carcasses had not influenced the water supply for human use.  Official sources held that the quality of Shanghai's drinking water remained unchanged.  On March 11 reports emerged that the pigs were infected with disease, but none communicable to humans.

text: Only about 15 km³ annually, or about 1% of total water resources, is being withdrawn for human use. Out of the total withdrawals, 86% is for agriculture, 12% for domestic water supply and 2% for industry. It is predicted that Bangladesh's population will increase from 129 million people in 2000 to 181 million by 2025 and 224 million by 2050, accompanied by an increased demand for water.

text: Waste- Waste (law)- Waste management- Waste vegetable oil- Wastewater- Water conservation- Water contamination- Water dispute- Water Fluoridation controversy- Water pollution- Water privatization- Water purification- Water quality- Water resources- Waterborne disease- Waterway restoration- Water-wise gardening- Wave power- Websites- Weed control- Weedy species- Wetlands- Wetlands conservation- Wetlands International- Whaling- WILD Foundation- Wilderness- Wilderness area- Wildlife corridor- Wildlife garden- Wildlife refuge- Wildlife trade- Wind energy- Wind farm- Wind power- Wind turbine- Wise use- World Climate Change Conference- World Climate Conference- World Climate Programme- World Climate Report- World Day for Water- World population- World solar challenge- World Summit on Sustainable Development- World3- World's Most Livable Cities

text: Waste

text: Waste (law)

text: Waste management

text: Waste vegetable oil

text: Wastewater

text: Water conservation

text: Water contamination

text: Water dispute

text: Water Fluoridation controversy

text: Water pollution

text: Water privatization

text: Water purification

text: Water quality

text: Water resources

text: Waterborne disease

text: Waterway restoration

text: Water-wise gardening

text: Wave power

text: Websites

text: Weed control

text: Weedy species

text: Wetlands

text: Wetlands conservation

text: Wetlands International

text: Whaling

text: WILD Foundation

text: Wilderness

text: Wilderness area

text: Wildlife corridor

text: Wildlife garden

text: Wildlife refuge

text: Wildlife trade

text: Wind energy

text: Wind farm

text: Wind power

text: Wind turbine

text: Wise use

text: World Climate Change Conference

text: World Climate Conference

text: World Climate Programme

text: World Climate Report

text: World Day for Water

text: World population

text: World solar challenge

text: World Summit on Sustainable Development

text: World's Most Livable Cities

text: Water supply and sanitation in Venezuela has been extended to an increasing number of people during the 2000s,although many poor remain without access to piped water. Service quality for those with access is mixed, with water often being supplied only on an intermittent basis and most wastewater not being treated. Non-revenue water is estimated to be high at 62%, compared to the regional average of 40%. Tap water is relatively inexpensive, because of a national tarifffreeze imposed in 2003 and a policy not to recover capital costs.Investments are financed primarily by the national government, withlittle reliance on external financing. The sector remains centralizeddespite a decentralization process initiated in the 1990s that has nowbeen stalled. Within the executive, sector policies are determined bythe Ministry of Environment. The national water company HIDROVEN servesabout 80% of the population. The remainder is being served by five statewater companies, the Corporación Venezolana de Guayana (CVG), a fewmunicipalities and community-based organizations. Since the early 2000sthe government encouraged the creation of about 7,500 Mesas Tecnicas del Agua, which have both a technical function and a political mobilization function. Major investment projects include the restoration of the polluted Valencia Lake and of the Guaire river basin in Caracas (2005–2013).

text: Water supply

text: and

text: sanitation

text: in Venezuela has been extended to an increasing number of people during the 2000s,although many poor remain without access to piped water. Service quality for those with access is mixed, with water often being supplied only on an intermittent basis and most wastewater not being treated.

text: Non-revenue water

text: is estimated to be high at 62%, compared to the regional average of 40%. Tap water is relatively inexpensive, because of a national tarifffreeze imposed in 2003 and a policy not to recover capital costs.Investments are financed primarily by the national government, withlittle reliance on external financing. The sector remains centralizeddespite a decentralization process initiated in the 1990s that has nowbeen stalled. Within the executive, sector policies are determined bythe Ministry of Environment. The national water company HIDROVEN servesabout 80% of the population. The remainder is being served by five statewater companies, the Corporación Venezolana de Guayana (CVG), a fewmunicipalities and community-based organizations. Since the early 2000sthe government encouraged the creation of about 7,500 Mesas Tecnicas del Agua, which have both a technical function and a political mobilization function. Major investment projects include the restoration of the polluted

text: Valencia Lake

text: and of the Guaire river basin in Caracas (2005–2013).

text: In some cases, the use of water is undesirable. This is because some chemical products react with water to produce poisonous gases, or they may even burn when they come into contact with water (e.g., sodium). Another problem is that some products float on water, such as hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, and alcohol, etc.); a burning layer can then be spread by the fire. Ifa pressurized fuel tank is endangered by fire it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank if it is sprayed with cooling water; the resulting decompression might produce a BLEVE. Electrical fires cannot be extinguished with water since the water could act as a conductor.

text: In some cases, the use of water is undesirable. This is because some chemical products

text: react

text: with water to produce poisonous gases, or they may even burn when they come into contact with water (e.g.,

text: sodium

text: ). Another problem is that some products float on water, such as

text: hydrocarbons

text: gasoline

text: oil

text: , and

text: alcohol

text: , etc.); a burning layer can then be spread by the fire. Ifa pressurized fuel tank is endangered by fire it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank if it is sprayed with cooling water; the resulting decompression might produce a

entity_name: Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion

text: BLEVE

text: . Electrical fires cannot be extinguished with water since the water could act as a conductor.

text: There is no pipe borne central water and central gas supply. Underground water from wells is used by the householders and business and other establishments.

text: It excludes service reservoirs used within the water supply network for the storage of drinking water and excludes water bodies on industrial sites used exclusively for industrial purposes (works ponds).

text: As the climate warms, it changes the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow and other factors that affect water supply and quality. Freshwater resources are highly sensitive to variations in weather and climate. Climate change is projected to affect water availability.  In areas where the amount of water in rivers and streams depends on snow melting, warmer temperatures increase the fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than as snow, causing the annual spring peak in water runoff to occur earlier in the year. This can lead to an increased likelihood of winter flooding and reduced late summer river flows. Rising sea levels cause saltwater to enter into fresh underground water and freshwater streams. This reduces the amount of freshwater available for drinking and farming. Warmer water temperatures also affect water quality and accelerate water pollution.

text: As the climate warms, it changes the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow and other factors that affect water supply and quality.

text: Freshwater

text: resources are highly sensitive to variations in weather and climate. Climate change is projected to affect water availability.  In areas where the amount of water in rivers and streams depends on snow melting, warmer temperatures increase the fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than as snow, causing the annual spring peak in water runoff to occur earlier in the year. This can lead to an increased likelihood of winter

text: flood

text: ing and reduced late summer river flows. Rising sea levels cause saltwater to enter into fresh

text: underground water

text: and freshwater streams. This reduces the amount of freshwater available for drinking and farming. Warmer water temperatures also affect water quality and accelerate

text: water pollution

text: Suranga (also Surangam or thurangam) (English: Tunnel well) is a traditional water management system used to provide a reliable supply of water for human settlements and irrigation in Kasargod district of Kerala and Dakshin Kannada district of Karnataka, India.  A suranga is basically a horizontal tunnel dug in the slope of a laterite hill for about  to , which uses gravitational force for extraction of the underground water and collect into a storage tank. As both the areas are covered by uneven and steep laterite hill which makes boring of traditional bore well hard and expensive, surangas are considered as a relatively cheap option.

text: Suranga (also Surangam or thurangam) (English: Tunnel well) is a traditional

text: water management

text: system used to provide a reliable supply of water for human settlements and

text: irrigation

text: in

text: Kasargod district

text: of

text: Kerala

text: and

text: Dakshin Kannada

text: district of

text: Karnataka

text: India

text: .  A suranga is basically a horizontal tunnel dug in the slope of a

text: laterite

text: hill for about  to , which uses

text: gravitational force

text: for extraction of the underground water and collect into a storage tank. As both the areas are covered by uneven and steep laterite hill which makes boring of traditional

text: bore well

text: hard and expensive, surangas are considered as a relatively cheap option.

text: Pristina City has limited quantities of surface and groundwater, which are mainly distributed in the peripheral areas. A small fraction of the available water is found as underground water, such as that in "Pajtimi" field that amounts to 50 liters / sec and "Germia" source that amounts to     15 liters /sec.  Watercourses are scarce. There are small rivers in the urban area, such as Pristina and Vellusha Rivers that collect the water flows of faux pas coming from Lagjia e Spitalit, Mati, Kodra e Trimave, and Shkabaj.Vellusha and Pristina Rivers serve to collect rainwater from all urban areas of Pristina. The main drinking water sources remain Batllava and Badovc Lakes. Batllava Lake – it has a capacity of 38 million m³ of water and supplies the town of Pristina with 65% of drinking water. Batllava represents the main source of drinking water for the municipality of Pristina. It was built in 1960-1963; initially it worked only for technical water supply to the energy complex in Obilic. From 1982 it turned into water resource for drinking water for the Pristina region. Recently, the water treatment plant in Shajkovc was built, which has a maximum capacity of 900 liters/sec. Badovci Lake- has a volume of 27 million m³ and supplies the town of Pristina with 35% of drinking water. It was initially built in 1960 for the supply of drinking water, irrigation, and technical water for Kishnica mine. From1980 this lake is mainly used for drinking water purposes for Pristina region. The water treatment plant has been built in Badovc, which has a maximum capacity 400l/sec.Those two lakes are the main source of water in Pristine. They both supply around 90% of population in Pristina region with drinking water. However, the distribution power has many problems. Most of the pipes used are older than 50 years, which lose around 50% of available water; 35% are technical losses, while 15% are commercial losses.  As a result there are reductions on available water to citizens, with 8-10 hours/day water cuts to each household. Another problem is the water contamination. There is no urban water monitoring in Kosovo. There are only some small regional, water companies that do not have large competencies on water monitoring. Wastewater discharges remain the main pollutants of water in Pristina. Those wastes are dangerous because they contain substances such as soluble compounds of phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, pathogenic bacteria and viruses, nitrogen (eutrophication), and other matters that affect the water quality.   Main carrier of underground waters pollution is Prishtevka River, which at the same time is the main carrier of sewage and rainwater.

text: Every year the fun fair arrived on Mitcham Common and just a few years before the outbreak of the 1914-18 war JDT went along and painted the interesting water colour held at the world-renowned gallery.

text: It is used to supply raw water to Bathurst for the watering of parks and industrial use.

text: Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world. Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is over development of hydraulic infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and declining groundwater. Economic scarcity, meanwhile, is caused by a lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. Symptoms of economic water scarcity include a lack of infrastructure, with people often having to fetch water from rivers for domestic and agricultural uses. Some 2.8 billion people currently live in water-scarce areas.

text: Successful agriculture is dependent upon farmers having sufficient access to water. However, water scarcity is already a critical constraint to farming in many parts of the world.

text: Physical water scarcity

text: is where there is not enough water to meet all demands, including that needed for ecosystems to function effectively. Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity. It also occurs where water seems abundant but where resources are over-committed. This can happen where there is over development of hydraulic infrastructure, usually for irrigation. Symptoms of physical water scarcity include environmental degradation and declining

text: groundwater

text: economic water scarcity

text: Plumbing hardware products are used for supplying water throughout the building using hose, pipes and tubes. These hardware products ensure that water is supplied properly and continuously. Since water runs or remains all the time in these products, it is needed that the materials with which these products are highly corrosion resistant and can withstand extreme temperatures. The most common materials are copper, aluminum, steel and PVC.

text: Plumbing hardware products are used for supplying water throughout the building using hose, pipes and tubes. These hardware products ensure that water is supplied properly and continuously. Since water runs or remains all the time in these products, it is needed that the materials with which these products are highly

text: corrosion

text: resistant and can withstand extreme temperatures. The most common materials are

text: copper

text: aluminum

text: steel

text: and

text: PVC

text: The biggest obstacle to the widespread adoption of WQT markets is lack of supply and demand. In fact, studies of current water quality trading programs indicate that the typical problems associated with inhibition of water quality trading, such as high transaction costs, poor institutional infrastructure, and uncertain criteria, are being overcome. The main problem is that, under existing regulatory conditions, there are simply not enough willing buyers and sellers. Currently, most nonpoint sources of water pollution are unregulated or, assuming detection occurs, have relatively small consequences for violations. Consequently, nonpoint sources do not have incentive to participate in WQT. For WQT markets to be successful, greater demand is needed for pollution credits. For this to happen, water quality standards need to be clear and enforceable.

text: The biggest obstacle to the widespread adoption of WQT markets is lack of

text: supply and demand

text: . In fact, studies of current water quality trading programs indicate that the typical problems associated with inhibition of water quality trading, such as high

text: transaction costs

text: , poor institutional infrastructure, and uncertain criteria, are being overcome. The main problem is that, under existing regulatory conditions, there are simply not enough willing buyers and sellers. Currently, most nonpoint sources of water pollution are unregulated or, assuming detection occurs, have relatively small consequences for violations. Consequently, nonpoint sources do not have incentive to participate in WQT. For WQT markets to be successful, greater demand is needed for pollution credits. For this to happen, water quality standards need to be clear and enforceable.

text: Skills within this field are usually employed for the primary goal of disease prevention within human beings by assuring a supply of healthy drinking water, treatment of waste water, removing garbage from inhabited areas, and so on.

text: Skills within this field are usually employed for the primary goal of

text: disease

text: prevention within

text: human beings

text: by assuring a supply of healthy

text: drinking water

text: , treatment of waste water, removing

text: garbage

text: from inhabited areas, and so on.

text: Multiple Use water Schemes (MUS) are low-cost, equitable water supply systems that provide communities with water for both domestic needs and high-value agricultural production, including rearing livestock. They are designed for use in rural areas, inhabited by smallholder farmers, and generally cover ten to 40 households, although some have served many more households.

text: Intermittent supply. Water supply in many parts of Greater Mexico City is intermittent and pressure is often insufficient.  Users thus have to complement their water supply with water bought from tanker trucks, or pipas. Occasionally water supply is cut for several days, as occurred in January 2009 when the water supply from the Cutzamala system had to be reduced cutting water to 5.5 million people for three days.

text: In May 1938 a shortage of water occurred in Munkkiniemi. Water consumption had been about 90 litres per inhabitant per day during all of the 1930s and the water supply was thought to be enough for new inhabitants. In 1937 1 500 new rooms had been built and the speed of construction  was considerable. During two fires in May that much water had been used that the reserve supplies emptied. When the pumps were reconnected the nervous inhabitants filled buckets and tubs with water which led to that the water supplies emptied again. The consumption was suddenly 150 litres per person per day and the supplies never had time to recover. M.G. Stenius applied to build a water pipe from Helsinki and buy the city’s water. Helsinki already sold water to other nearby municipalities like Oulunkylä. The City of Helsinki was at the same time negotiating to buy the company and refused to give permission to build a water pipe, because this gave them a great bargaining position. After a dry summer and unsuccessful attempts to find more water sources a building ban was issued in Munkkiniemi in October 1938. Tenants refused to pay rents and a witch-hunt against the company and the municipality was pursued. Water consumption had reached 250 litres per person per day in the autumn and the company blamed the inhabitants for wasting water and even sabotage. In November the owners of M.G. Stenius gave up and sold their stocks to the City of Helsinki that gained large areas of land in Munkkiniemi, Haaga, Leppävaara and Laajalahti. Already two weeks after the purchase of M.G. Stenius the city began building a water pipe to Munkkiniemi and in January 1939 the people of Munkkniemi were drinking Helsinki water.

text: In May 1938 a shortage of water occurred in Munkkiniemi. Water consumption had been about 90 litres per inhabitant per day during all of the 1930s and the water supply was thought to be enough for new inhabitants. In 1937 1 500 new rooms had been built and the speed of construction  was considerable. During two fires in May that much water had been used that the reserve supplies emptied. When the pumps were reconnected the nervous inhabitants filled buckets and tubs with water which led to that the water supplies emptied again. The consumption was suddenly 150 litres per person per day and the supplies never had time to recover. M.G. Stenius applied to build a water pipe from Helsinki and buy the city’s water. Helsinki already sold water to other nearby municipalities like

text: Oulunkylä

text: . The City of Helsinki was at the same time negotiating to buy the company and refused to give permission to build a water pipe, because this gave them a great bargaining position. After a dry summer and unsuccessful attempts to find more water sources a building ban was issued in Munkkiniemi in October 1938. Tenants refused to pay rents and a witch-hunt against the company and the municipality was pursued. Water consumption had reached 250 litres per person per day in the autumn and the company blamed the inhabitants for wasting water and even sabotage. In November the owners of M.G. Stenius gave up and sold their stocks to the City of Helsinki that gained large areas of land in Munkkiniemi, Haaga,

text: Leppävaara

text: and

text: Laajalahti

text: . Already two weeks after the purchase of M.G. Stenius the city began building a water pipe to Munkkiniemi and in January 1939 the people of Munkkniemi were drinking Helsinki water.

text: On March 11, 2016 Severn Trent customers in Derbyshire were issued with a 'Do not use' notice due to high levels of chlorine detected in the water supply, leaving thousands of households without a clean reliable water supply.

text: On March 11, 2016 Severn Trent customers in Derbyshire were issued with a 'Do not use' notice due to high levels of

text: chlorine

text: detected in the water supply, leaving thousands of households without a clean reliable water supply.

text: For water business, there are several methods and technologies that are available and are used worldwide for treating raw water into drinking quality or industrial wastewater.

text: In areas with decreasing precipitation as predicted by the climate models, soil moisture may be substantially reduced.  With this in mind, agriculture in most areas needs irrigation already, which depletes fresh water supplies both by the physical use of the water and the degradation agriculture causes to the water. Irrigation increases salt and nutrient content in areas that would not normally be affected, and damages streams and rivers from damming and removal of water. Fertilizer enters both human and livestock waste streams that eventually enter groundwater, while nitrogen, phosphorus, and other chemicals from fertilizer can acidify both soils and water.  Certain agricultural demands may increase more than others with an increasingly wealthier global population, and meat is one commodity expected to double global food demand by 2050, which directly affects the global supply of fresh water.  Cows need water to drink, more if the temperature is high and humidity is low, and more if the production system the cow is in is extensive, since finding food takes more effort.  Water is needed in processing of the meat, and also in the production of feed for the livestock. Manure can contaminate bodies of freshwater, and slaughterhouses, depending on how well they are managed, contribute waste such as blood, fat, hair, and other bodily contents to supplies of fresh water.

text: Process water is water that is used in a variety of manufacturing operations, such as: coating and plating; rinsing and spraying; washing and etc. Municipal and ground water often contain dissolved minerals which make it unsuitable for these processes because it would affect product quality and/or increase manufacturing costs. A proper incoming water treatment system can remedy these issues and create the right water conditions for specific industrial processes.

text: Controlling and manipulating the water supply for human benefit dramatically transformed the landscape where all but 400,000 acres of natural wetlands became farms and towns, a reduction in wetland area of 90%. The elimination of wetland areas concentrated the migrating and resident wildlife onto less land and required their sharing of and dependence on less water. This unhealthy crowding caused bird populations to decline as they suffered from disease and the lack of necessary food, shelter, and water. Compounding the problem, human activity, in some cases, polluted the waters that flowed into the remaining wetlands. The Kesterson Reservoir disaster provided a clear indication that wildlife was suffering in the modified Central Valley and helped inspire actions to mitigate for the CVP's effects to bird and fish populations.

text: Controlling and manipulating the water supply for human benefit dramatically transformed the landscape where all but 400,000 acres of natural wetlands became farms and towns, a reduction in wetland area of 90%. The elimination of wetland areas concentrated the migrating and resident wildlife onto less land and required their sharing of and dependence on less water. This unhealthy crowding caused bird populations to decline as they suffered from disease and the lack of necessary food, shelter, and water. Compounding the problem, human activity, in some cases, polluted the waters that flowed into the remaining wetlands. The

text: Kesterson Reservoir

text: disaster provided a clear indication that wildlife was suffering in the modified Central Valley and helped inspire actions to mitigate for the CVP's effects to bird and fish populations.

text: The water fluoridation controversy arises from political, moral, ethical, economic, and safety concerns regarding the fluoridation of public water supplies.  Those opposed argue that water fluoridation may cause serious health problems, is not effective enough to justify the costs, and has a dosage that cannot be precisely controlled.

text: The water fluoridation controversy arises from political, moral, ethical, economic, and safety concerns regarding the fluoridation of public

text: water supplies

text: .  Those opposed argue that water fluoridation may cause serious health problems, is not effective enough to justify the costs, and has a dosage that cannot be precisely controlled.

text: In addition, a stuck or malfunctioning water supply valve can deliver large amounts of water, causing extensive water damage if undetected for any period of time.  A water alarm, possibly with an automatic water shutoff, can help prevent this malfunction from causing major problems.

text: In addition, a stuck or malfunctioning water supply valve can deliver large amounts of water, causing extensive water damage if undetected for any period of time.  A

text: water alarm

text: , possibly with an automatic water shutoff, can help prevent this malfunction from causing major problems.

text: In 1929, the city opened its consolidated water works plant which replaced two separate plants that were on each side of the Saginaw river. This plant treated water brought in from the Saginaw river and piped it out to the residents as well as corner pumps for people that did not have direct connections to the system. Currently, the City of Saginaw jointly owns with the City of Midland the Saginaw-Midland Municipal Water Supply Corporation. Incorporated in 1946, this water treatment system has supplied drinking and industrial water to both cities and many surrounding areas within the county. Due to brackish water in the aquifers below both cities, a  long pipeline was constructed in 1948 to supply water from Lake Huron at White Stone Point, north of Au Gres to water treatment plants in Saginaw and Midland with a second pipe added by 1996. This system has played a role in the decline of the city. The City of Saginaw, in order to obtain new sources of revenue, sold water to areas outside of the city (especially to the Saginaw Charter Township). This caused numerous businesses inside the city to leave for the surrounding areas and development in the city to stagnate. The City of Midland, however, adopted a policy of "No Annexation, No Water" which has led to the growth of the city as well as the surrounding areas.

text: In 1929, the city opened its consolidated water works plant which replaced two separate plants that were on each side of the Saginaw river. This plant treated water brought in from the Saginaw river and piped it out to the residents as well as corner pumps for people that did not have direct connections to the system. Currently, the City of Saginaw jointly owns with the City of Midland the Saginaw-Midland Municipal Water Supply Corporation. Incorporated in 1946, this

text: water treatment

text: system has supplied drinking and industrial water to both cities and many surrounding areas within the county. Due to brackish water in the aquifers below both cities, a  long pipeline was constructed in 1948 to supply water from

text: Lake Huron

text: at White Stone Point, north of

text: Au Gres

text: to water treatment plants in Saginaw and Midland with a second pipe added by 1996. This system has played a role in the decline of the city. The City of Saginaw, in order to obtain new sources of revenue, sold water to areas outside of the city (especially to the

text: Saginaw Charter Township

text: ). This caused numerous businesses inside the city to leave for the surrounding areas and development in the city to stagnate. The City of Midland, however, adopted a policy of "No Annexation, No Water" which has led to the growth of the city as well as the surrounding areas.

text: Water resources  are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.  The majority of  human uses require fresh water.

text: Water resources  are sources of

text: water

text: that are potentially useful. Uses of water include

text: agricultural

text: industrial

text: household

text: recreational

text: and

text: environmental

text: activities.  The majority of  human uses require

text: fresh water

text: The water quality in the Mahomet Aquifer is high in dissolved minerals and iron, which is typical of all groundwater. Neither of these pose a human health risk. One contaminant that is of concern is naturally occurring arsenic. The arsenic leaches from oxidized pyrite. Concentrations can range from 20 to 70 parts per billion (ppb), which exceeds the new standard adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Panno and Korab, 2000). The new standard is 10 ppb. Water-supply systems must comply with the new standard from January 23, 2006 (EPA, 2004). Fortunately, arsenic can be effectively removed with commercially available water-treatment systems.

text: The water quality in the Mahomet Aquifer is high in dissolved minerals and iron, which is typical of all groundwater. Neither of these pose a human health risk. One

text: contaminant

text: that is of concern is naturally occurring

text: arsenic

text: . The arsenic

text: leach

text: es from

text: oxidized pyrite

text: . Concentrations can range from 20 to 70

text: parts per billion

text: (ppb), which exceeds the new standard adopted by the

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: (Panno and Korab, 2000). The new standard is 10 ppb. Water-supply systems must comply with the new standard from January 23, 2006 (EPA, 2004). Fortunately, arsenic can be effectively removed with commercially available water-treatment systems.

text: Water supply for the city is supplied by the Metropolitan Water Works and Sewerage System (MWSS)' west concessionaire Maynilad Water Services, Inc (MWSI). As of 2006, the city has at least 68% water service coverage as determined by the Regulatory Office of the MWSS. Each customer receives at least 7 psi water pressure, which means supply can reach for up to two floors for residential use. Maynilad is owned and currently operated by DMCI Holdings, Inc.–Metro Pacific Investments Corporation (DMCI-MPIC).

text: Water supply for the city is supplied by the Metropolitan Water Works and Sewerage System (MWSS)' west concessionaire Maynilad Water Services, Inc (MWSI). As of 2006, the city has at least 68% water service coverage as determined by the Regulatory Office of the MWSS. Each customer receives at least 7

text: psi

text: water pressure, which means supply can reach for up to two floors for residential use. Maynilad is owned and currently operated by DMCI Holdings, Inc.–Metro Pacific Investments Corporation (DMCI-MPIC).

text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and migration of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and

text: migration

text: of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

text: About half the population does not have access to an improved water source, defined as a protected well, standpipe or a handpump within 1 km. The few existing piped water supply systems are often not well maintained and the water they provide is often not safe to drink. Displaced people returning home put a huge strain on infrastructure, and the government institutions in charge of the sector are weak. Substantial external funding from numerous government agencies and non-governmental organizations is available to improve water supply.

text: About half the population does not have access to an

text: improved water source

text: , defined as a protected well, standpipe or a handpump within 1 km. The few existing piped water supply systems are often not well maintained and the water they provide is often not safe to drink. Displaced people returning home put a huge strain on infrastructure, and the government institutions in charge of the sector are weak. Substantial external funding from numerous government agencies and non-governmental organizations is available to improve water supply.

text: The song is about a man and woman who have fun on a river in the summertime. Paisley told The Tennesseean that the song idea come from his own upbringing near the Ohio River: "My best memories with my grandfather are on that body of water, and my dad, and learning to ski. It's kind of like a back-to-basics song, which is really an inner tube and a boat and you've got a theme park."

text: The song is about a man and woman who have fun on a river in the summertime. Paisley told

text: The Tennesseean

text: that the song idea come from his own upbringing near the

text: Ohio River

text: : "My best memories with my grandfather are on that body of water, and my dad, and learning to ski. It's kind of like a back-to-basics song, which is really an inner tube and a boat and you've got a theme park."

text: Water supply service quality and cost recovery are low. Water tariffs are low and many water users do not pay their bills. Service providers thus rely mostly on occasional subsidies to cover their operating costs.

text: Water filtration devices are becoming increasingly common in households. Most of these devices do not distill water, though there continues to be an increase in consumer-oriented water distillers and reverse osmosis machines being sold and used. Municipal water supplies often have minerals added or have trace impurities at levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Much of these additional impurities, such as volatile organic compounds, fluoride, and an estimated 75,000+ other chemical compounds are not removed through conventional filtration; however, distillation and reverse osmosis eliminate nearly all of these impurities.

text: Water filtration devices are becoming increasingly common in households. Most of these devices do not distill water, though there continues to be an increase in consumer-oriented water distillers and reverse osmosis machines being sold and used. Municipal water supplies often have minerals added or have trace impurities at levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Much of these additional impurities, such as

text: volatile organic compounds

text: fluoride

text: , and an estimated 75,000+ other chemical compounds are not removed through conventional filtration; however, distillation and reverse osmosis eliminate nearly all of these impurities.

text: This model is designed to assist farmers and other users in rural and non-electrified areas in their agricultural and non-agricultural uses. In addition to being a mean of transportation, the human-powered water pump is used for water pumping purposes.

text: This model is designed to assist farmers and other users in rural and non-electrified areas in their

text: agricultural

text: and non-agricultural uses. In addition to being a mean of

text: transportation

text: , the human-powered water pump is used for water

text: pump

text: ing purposes.

text: Hydrogeological studies reveal the presence of wide and relatively rich aquifers in all the structural zones of the river. The phreatic waters participate in proportion of 30% in supplying with water the surface water resources. Although rainfalls are the main element of water supply for the rivers, in the Vrancea Mountains area the groundwater supply has a great importance.

text: Hydrogeological studies reveal the presence of wide and relatively rich

text: aquifer

text: s in all the structural zones of the river. The

text: phreatic

text: waters participate in proportion of 30% in supplying with water the surface water resources. Although rainfalls are the main element of water supply for the rivers, in the

text: Vrancea Mountains

text: area the groundwater supply has a great importance.

text: According to a survey by the regulatory body in 2007, only 30 percent of those connected to the public water network enjoyed continuous water supply. On average, customers received water 12 hours per day. Tap water quality, at least in some areas and at some times, is poor: For example, residents of Cilincing, North Jakarta, have complained that their tap water has been cloudy for two months and blame skin irritation and diarrhoe on the poor water supply. According to interviews with residents in South and West Jakarta, shown in a 2011 video by the Amrta Institute for Water Literacy, service quality has actually deteriorated since the concessions began. One of the reasons is that, because of low pressure, some customers pump directly from the pipes, therefore sucking dirty groundwater through leakages of the pipes.

text: In the year 1900 just 13% of the global population lived in cities. This percentage has been rising, and in 2005 49% of the global population lived in urban areas. In 2030 it is predicted, that this statistic will rise to 60% . Attempts to expand water supply by governments are costly and often not sufficient. The building of new illegal settlements makes it hard to map, and make connections to, the water supply, and leads to inadequate water management . In 2002, there were 158 million people with inadequate water supply. An increasing number of people live in slums, in inadequate sanitary conditions, and are therefore at risk of disease.

text: In the year 1900 just 13% of the global population lived in cities. This percentage has been rising, and in 2005 49% of the

text: global population

text: lived in urban areas. In 2030 it is predicted, that this statistic will rise to 60% . Attempts to expand water supply by governments are costly and often not sufficient. The building of new illegal settlements makes it hard to map, and make connections to, the water supply, and leads to inadequate water management . In 2002, there were 158 million people with inadequate

text: water supply

text: . An increasing number of people live in

text: slum

text: s, in inadequate sanitary conditions, and are therefore at risk of

text: disease

text: The South End Reservoir is a small service reservoir located to the south of Singapore Changi Airport in Singapore. Rainfall from the runways and surrounding green areas is collected in the reservoir and used for fire-fighting drills and toilet flushing. The reservoir supplies 28–33% of the airport's water and saves the airport around S$390,000 per year. It is linked to the Changi Creek Reservoir to balance flows during incoming tides and high rainfall.

text: The South End Reservoir is a small

text: service reservoir

text: located to the south of

text: Singapore Changi Airport

text: in

text: Singapore

text: . Rainfall from the runways and surrounding green areas is collected in the reservoir and used for fire-fighting drills and toilet flushing. The reservoir supplies 28–33% of the airport's water and saves the airport around S$390,000 per year. It is linked to the

text: Changi Creek Reservoir

text: to balance flows during incoming tides and high rainfall.

text: Environment - current issues:widespread deforestation, mining; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage.

text: Environment - current issues:widespread

text: deforestation

text: mining

text: air pollution

text: from industrial and vehicle emissions;

text: water pollution

text: from raw

text: sewage

text: The oil and fuel to Bermuda's water supply comes with a better defined cost. The majority of Bermuda's potable water is collected by each household, using the roof as a water catchment (treated with lime or non-toxic paint to keep the water as clean as possible) rainwater is funneled in tanks under every house. By law a house must collect 80 percent of the water that falls on its roof. However, residents of apartment buildings must find another source of fresh water on the island. There are no natural rivers, springs, or freshwater ponds, but the peculiar geology of the island had led to the formation of four underground "lenses" of freshwater where rainwater has permeated the limestone island and been caught on the impermeable volcanic rock beneath. These lenses, being the only viable source of water for all commercial and industrial uses and for the domestic use of thousands of residents living in apartment and condominium complexes, are pumped for 1.5 million gallons of fresh water a day. During times of drought when house tanks are running dry this water is sold and delivered at roughly $60 per 1000 gallon truckload, giving it a value of $90,000 per day, and a present value of over $500 million, depending on the long-term interest rate.

text: According to a household survey concerning water use that was carried out in 2005 among 110 poor households in various neighbourhoods, poor households typically rely on a variety of water sources, including foremost network water, vended water and groundwater. Network water and groundwater are usually bought from other households that have a connection or a well, or from public hydrants that are operated by private vendors. Use of different water sources varies over time depending on changes in quality, availability and pressure. Some households also collect rainwater. According to the survey, vendor water was 10 to 32 times more expensive than piped water and 43 percent of surveyed households spent more than 5 percent of their income for water.

text: The human right to water places the main responsibilities upon governments to ensure that people can enjoy "sufficient, safe, accessible and affordable water, without discrimination". Most especially, governments are expected to take reasonable steps to avoid a contaminated water supply and to ensure there are no water access distinctions amongst citizens. Today all States have at least ratified one human rights convention which explicitly or implicitly recognizes the right, and they all have signed at least one political declaration recognizing this right.

text: The human right to water places the main responsibilities upon governments to ensure that people can enjoy "sufficient, safe, accessible and affordable water, without discrimination". Most especially, governments are expected to take reasonable steps to avoid a

text: contaminated water

text: supply and to ensure there are no water access distinctions amongst citizens. Today all States have at least ratified one human rights convention which explicitly or implicitly recognizes the right, and they all have signed at least one political declaration recognizing this right.

text: Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis  depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water.Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected.The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality.Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of water quality, pollution, hydrology and geothermal waters.Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells at very low Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water. Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected. The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality. Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of water quality, pollution, hydrology and geothermal waters. Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells at very low concentrations.

text: Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis  depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water.Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected.The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality.Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of

text: water quality

text: pollution

text: hydrology

text: and

text: geothermal water

text: s.Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as

text: gas chromatography

text: and

text: mass spectrometry

text: . In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised

text: organoleptic

text: methods may be used to detect smells at very low Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water. Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected. The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality. Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of water quality, pollution, hydrology and geothermal waters. Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells at very low concentrations.

text: The Human Development Report reports that human use of water is mainly allocated to irrigation and agriculture. In developing areas, such as those within Africa, agriculture accounts for more than 80% of water consumption. This is due to the fact that it takes about 3,500 liters of water to produce enough food for the daily minimum of 3,000 calories, and food production for a typical family of four takes a daily amount of water equivalent to the amount of water in an olympic-sized swimming pool. Because the majority of Africa remains dependent on an agricultural lifestyle and 80% to 90% of all families in rural Africa rely upon producing their own food, water scarcity translates to a loss of food security. At this point, with less than a third of the continent's potential using irrigation most of rural African communities are not tapping into their irrigation potential, and according to the UN Economic Commission for Africa and New Partnership for Africa's Development, "irrigation is key to achieving increased agricultural production that is important for economic development and for attaining food security". The doubling of Africa's irrigated land is currently high on many political agendas, which can potentially be addressed through markets, commodity selection, ownership, land tenure, reliable water storage, and international agreements.

text: The

text: Human Development Report

text: reports that human use of water is mainly allocated to irrigation and agriculture. In developing areas, such as those within Africa, agriculture accounts for more than 80% of water consumption. This is due to the fact that it takes about 3,500 liters of water to produce enough food for the daily minimum of 3,000 calories, and food production for a typical family of four takes a daily amount of water equivalent to the amount of water in an olympic-sized swimming pool. Because the majority of Africa remains dependent on an agricultural lifestyle and 80% to 90% of all families in rural Africa rely upon producing their own food, water scarcity translates to a loss of

text: food security

text: . At this point, with less than a third of the continent's potential using irrigation most of rural African communities are not tapping into their

text: irrigation

text: potential, and according to the UN Economic Commission for Africa and New Partnership for Africa's Development, "irrigation is key to achieving increased agricultural production that is important for economic development and for attaining food security". The doubling of Africa's irrigated land is currently high on many political agendas, which can potentially be addressed through markets, commodity selection, ownership,

text: land tenure

text: , reliable water storage, and

text: international agreements

text: Data on rainfall patterns in eastern and southwest Australia, where the major cities are located, indicates a decline in the annual rate of rainfall per decade of up to 50 mm since 1950.  This is providing challenges in terms of both availability and the quality of water supplies, particularly when combined with population growth.

text: Australian water resources have always been variable but they are becoming increasingly so with changing climate conditions. Because of how limited water resources are in Australia, there needs to be an effective implementation of environmental governance conducted within the country. Water restrictions are an important policy device used in Australian environmental governance to limit the amount of water used in urban and agricultural environments (Beeton et al. 2006). There is increased pressure on surface water resources in Australia because of the uncontrolled growth in groundwater use and the constant threat of drought. These increased pressures not only affect the quantity and quality of the waterways but they also negatively affect biodiversity. The government needs to create policies that preserve, protect and monitor Australia’s inland water. The most significant environmental governance policy imposed by the Australian government is environmental flow allocations that allocate water to the natural environment. The proper implementation of water trading systems could help to conserve water resources in Australia. Over the years there has been an increase in demand for water, making Australia the third largest per capita user of water in the world (Beeton et al. 2006). If this trend continues, the gap between supply and demand will need to be addressed. The government needs to implement more efficient water allocations and raise water rates (UNEP, 2014). By changing public perception to promote the action of reusing and recycling water some of the stress of water shortages can be alleviated.  More extensive solutions like desalination plants, building more dams and using aquifer storage are all options that could be taken to conserve water levels but all these methods are controversial. With caps on surface water use, both urban and rural consumers are turning to groundwater use; this has caused groundwater levels to decline significantly. Groundwater use is very hard to monitor and regulate. There is not enough research currently being conducted to accurately determine sustainable yields. Some regions are seeing improvement in groundwater levels by applying caps on bores and the amount of water that consumers are allowed to extract. There have been projects in environmental governance aimed at restoring vegetation in the riparian zone. Restoring riparian vegetation helps increase biodiversity, reduce salinity, prevent soil erosion and prevent riverbank collapse. Many rivers and waterways are controlled by weirs and locks that control the flow of rivers and also prevent the movement of fish. The government has funded fish-ways on some weirs and locks to allow for native fish to move upstream. Wetlands have significantly suffered under restricted water resources with water bird numbers dropping and a decrease in species diversity. The allocation of water for bird breeding through environmental flows in Macquarie Marshes has led to an increase in breeding (Beeton et al. 2006). Because of dry land salinity throughout Australia there has been an increase in the levels of salt in Australian waterways. There has been funding in salt interception schemes which help to improve in-stream salinity levels but whether river salinity has improved or not is still unclear because there is not enough data available yet. High salinity levels are dangerous because they can negatively affect larval and juvenile stages of certain fish. The introduction of invasive species into waterways has negatively affected native aquatic species because invasive species compete with native species and alter natural habitats. There has been research in producing daughterless carp to help eradicate carp. Government funding has also gone into building in-stream barriers that trap the carp and prevent them from moving into floodplains and wetlands.  Investment in national and regional programmes like the Living Murray (MDBC), Healthy Waterways Partnership and the Clean Up the Swan Programme are leading to important environmental governance. The Healthy Rivers programme promotes restoration and recovery of environmental flows, riparian re-vegetation and aquatic pest control.  The Living Murray programme has been crucial for the allocation of water to the environment by creating an agreement to recover 500 billion litres of water to the Murray River environment. Environmental governance and water resource management in Australia must be constantly monitored and adapted to suit the changing environmental conditions within the country (Beeton et al. 2006). If environmental programmes are governed with transparency there can be a reduction in policy fragmentation and an increase in policy efficiency (Mclntyre, 2010).<ref>United Nations Environmental Programme, 2014, “UNEP Conference on Strengthening Transboundary Freshwater Governance – The Environmental Sustainability Challenge”, UNEP, viewed on 31/5/14,

text: Australia

text: n

text: water resources

text: have always been variable but they are becoming increasingly so with changing climate conditions. Because of how limited water resources are in Australia, there needs to be an effective implementation of environmental governance conducted within the country. Water restrictions are an important policy device used in Australian environmental governance to limit the amount of water used in urban and agricultural environments (Beeton et al. 2006). There is increased pressure on surface water resources in Australia because of the uncontrolled growth in

text: groundwater

text: Macquarie Marshes

text: has led to an increase in breeding (Beeton et al. 2006). Because of dry land salinity throughout Australia there has been an increase in the levels of salt in Australian waterways. There has been funding in salt interception schemes which help to improve in-stream salinity levels but whether river salinity has improved or not is still unclear because there is not enough data available yet. High salinity levels are dangerous because they can negatively affect larval and juvenile stages of certain fish. The introduction of invasive species into waterways has negatively affected native aquatic species because invasive species compete with native species and alter natural habitats. There has been research in producing

text: daughterless carp

text: to help eradicate carp. Government funding has also gone into building in-stream barriers that trap the carp and prevent them from moving into floodplains and wetlands.  Investment in national and regional programmes like the Living Murray (MDBC), Healthy Waterways Partnership and the Clean Up the Swan Programme are leading to important environmental governance. The Healthy Rivers programme promotes restoration and recovery of environmental flows, riparian re-vegetation and aquatic pest control.  The Living Murray programme has been crucial for the allocation of water to the environment by creating an agreement to recover 500 billion litres of water to the Murray River environment. Environmental governance and water resource management in Australia must be constantly monitored and adapted to suit the changing environmental conditions within the country (Beeton et al. 2006). If environmental programmes are governed with transparency there can be a reduction in policy fragmentation and an increase in policy efficiency (Mclntyre, 2010).<ref>United Nations Environmental Programme, 2014, “UNEP Conference on Strengthening Transboundary Freshwater Governance – The Environmental Sustainability Challenge”, UNEP, viewed on 31/5/14,

text: Tunis, the capital of Tunisia is able to provide 24-hour water with a supply of 110 liters per capita and day. The continuity of supply is very good with respect to regional standards as it ensures good quality water throughout the year and has the lowest percentage of non-revenue water in the region.

text: Tunis

text: , the capital of Tunisia is able to provide 24-hour water with a supply of 110 liters per capita and day. The continuity of supply is very good with respect to regional standards as it ensures good quality water throughout the year and has the lowest percentage of

text: non-revenue water

text: in the region.

text: Overview. In rural areas, water supply and sanitation services are provided by Community Owned Water Supply Organisations (COWSOs). They have been established through the local government framework of village councils following the adoption of the Water Sector Development Strategy. Out of 10,639 villages, 8,394 had a Water Committee dealing with issues in the water and sanitation sector as of 2007. The role of COWSOs is to operate and maintain the water supply systems on behalf of the community. They are expected to meet all the costs of operating and maintaining their water supply systems through charges levied on water consumers, and to contribute to the capital cost of their systems. The main source of capital investment are block grants to local government authorities, disbursed by the Regional Secretariat. There are two main types of COWSOs: Water Consumer Associations (Vikundi vya Huduma ya Maji), who are responsible for drinking water supply, and Water User Associations (Vikundi vya Watumiaji Maji), who are responsible for water resources and for solving conflicts among water users. As of 2006, 121 Water User Associations have been established.

text: The largest single use of potable water in California is water used to irrigate for agriculture. The largest remaining segment of water use is that of public water supplies.

text: Water has unique features that make it difficult to regulate using laws designed mainly for land. Water is mobile, its supply varies by year and season as well as location, and it can be used simultaneously by many users. As with property (land) law, water rights can be described as a "bundle of sticks" containing multiple, separable activities that can have varying levels of regulation. For instance, some uses of water divert it from its natural course but return most or all of it (e.g. hydroelectric plants), while others consume much of what they take (ice, agriculture), and still others use water without diverting it at all (e.g. boating). Each type of activity has its own needs and can in theory be regulated separately. There are several types of conflict likely to arise: absolute shortages; shortages in a particular time or place; diversions of water that reduce the flow available to others; pollutants or other changes (such as temperature or turbidity) that render water unfit for others' use; and the need to maintain "in-stream flows" of water to protect the natural ecosystem.

text: Water has unique features that make it difficult to regulate using laws designed mainly for land. Water is mobile, its supply varies by year and season as well as location, and it can be used simultaneously by many users. As with property (land) law, water rights can be described as a "bundle of sticks" containing multiple, separable activities that can have varying levels of regulation. For instance, some uses of water divert it from its natural course but return most or all of it (e.g.

text: hydroelectric plants

text: ), while others consume much of what they take (ice,

text: agriculture

text: ), and still others use water without diverting it at all (e.g.

text: boating

text: ). Each type of activity has its own needs and can in theory be regulated separately. There are several types of conflict likely to arise: absolute shortages; shortages in a particular time or place; diversions of water that reduce the flow available to others; pollutants or other changes (such as temperature or

text: turbidity

text: ) that render water unfit for others' use; and the need to maintain "in-stream flows" of water to protect the natural

text: ecosystem

text: Tap water is often culturally assumed to be drinking water, especially in developed countries. Usually it is potable, although water quality problems are not rare. Household water purification methods such as water filters, boiling, or distillation can be used when tap water's potability is doubted. The application of technologies (such as water treatment plants) involved in providing clean water to homes, businesses, and public buildings is a major subfield of sanitary engineering. Calling a water supply "tap water" distinguishes it from the other main types of fresh water which may be available; these include water from rainwater-collecting cisterns, water from village pumps or town pumps, or water carried from streams, rivers, or lakes (whose potability may vary).

text: Tap water is often culturally assumed to be

text: drinking water

text: , especially in developed countries. Usually it is potable, although

text: water quality

text: problems are not rare. Household

text: water purification

text: methods such as

text: water filter

text: s,

text: boiling

text: , or

text: distillation

text: can be used when tap water's potability is doubted. The application of technologies (such as

text: water treatment

text: plants) involved in providing clean water to homes, businesses, and public buildings is a major subfield of

text: sanitary engineering

text: . Calling a water supply "tap water" distinguishes it from the other main types of fresh water which may be available; these include water from rainwater-collecting

text: cistern

text: s, water from

text: village pump

text: s or town pumps, or water carried from streams, rivers, or lakes (whose potability may vary).

text: Bangladesh Water Supply Program Project. Another approach has been supported by the World Bank through the Bangladesh Water Supply Program Project (BWSPP), implemented by the Department of Public Health and Engineering (DPHE). This approach, initiated in 2001, has been inspired by the RDA experience, but with two crucial modifications: First, it required sponsors to come up with the entire financing up-front, which was supposed to be recovered through revenues from the sale of water. Second, only drinking water was to be provided and no irrigation water. Finding sponsors willing to put their own capital at risk proved to be difficult.  For this reason, and due to project management difficulties, only two schemes had been built as of January 2008, providing water to 2,000 households. Neither scheme has become financially viable. An NGO built and operates the schemes, since no private company was interested in doing so.

text: Bangladesh Water Supply Program Project. Another approach has been supported by the

text: World Bank

text: through the Bangladesh Water Supply Program Project (BWSPP), implemented by the Department of Public Health and Engineering (DPHE). This approach, initiated in 2001, has been inspired by the RDA experience, but with two crucial modifications: First, it required sponsors to come up with the entire financing up-front, which was supposed to be recovered through revenues from the sale of water. Second, only drinking water was to be provided and no irrigation water. Finding sponsors willing to put their own capital at risk proved to be difficult.  For this reason, and due to project management difficulties, only two schemes had been built as of January 2008, providing water to 2,000 households. Neither scheme has become financially viable. An NGO built and operates the schemes, since no private company was interested in doing so.

text: The incremental difference between the Refuges’ Full Level 4 allocation and its Level 2 allocation defines Incremental Level 4 (IL4) water and represents the quantity of water necessary for Refuges to ideally manage all lands identified in the refuge reports for the benefit of waterfowl. In most cases, this represents an expanded wetland footprint. Like Level 2 water, each refuge has its own Incremental Level 4 quantity identified but unlike Level 2, this water is not dedicated from CVP supply and must be acquired from other sources or from those relinquishing their federal or state supplies. The RWSP manages and funds contracts of varied duration to acquire and convey this water from its source to the refuges’ boundaries. The suppliers, availability and cost of water available as Incremental Level 4 is less predictable than Level 2 supplies because of unpredictable region-wide water needs and usage; the potential lack of sufficient conveyance infrastructure; inconsistent annual natural conditions, specifically rainfall; and occasional water quality concerns.

text: The affordability of water charges can be measured by macro- and micro-affordability. Macro-affordability" indicators relate national average household water and wastewater bills to average net disposable household income. In OECD countries it varies from 0.2% (Italy and Mexico) to 1.4% (Slovak Republic, Poland and Hungary). In the largest OECD countries the share is 0.3% in the United States and Japan, 0.7% in France and 0.9% in Germany. However, micro-affordability is quite different. It measures the share of bills in the income of the poor, defined in an OECD affordability study as the lowest decile of the population. This share varies between 1.1% (Sweden, Netherlands, Italy) and 5.3% in the Slovak Republic, 9.0% in Poland and 10.3% in Turkey. The OECD concludes that in half its member countries (15 out of 30), affordability of water charges for low-income households "is either a significant issue now or might become one in the future, if appropriate policy measures are not put in place." In developing countries the situation is more serious, not only because of lower incomes, but also because the poor are often not connected to the network. They usually pay a higher share of their meager incomes for lower quantities of water at often lower quality supplied by water vendors through trucks. On the other hand, utility bills paid by those fortunate enough to be connected to the network are often relatively low, especially in South Asia. Because of this situation the OECD does not recommend to use uniform "thresholds" for the affordability of water and wastewater bills. These "thresholds" are often quoted in the range of 3-5% of household income.

text: The affordability of water charges can be measured by macro- and micro-affordability. Macro-affordability" indicators relate national average household water and wastewater bills to average net disposable household income. In OECD countries it varies from 0.2% (Italy and Mexico) to 1.4% (Slovak Republic, Poland and Hungary). In the largest OECD countries the share is 0.3% in the

entity_name: Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States

text: United States

text: and Japan, 0.7% in

text: France

text: and 0.9% in

text: Germany

text: . However, micro-affordability is quite different. It measures the share of bills in the income of the poor, defined in an OECD affordability study as the lowest

text: decile

text: of the population. This share varies between 1.1% (Sweden, Netherlands, Italy) and 5.3% in the Slovak Republic, 9.0% in Poland and 10.3% in Turkey. The

entity_name: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: OECD

text: concludes that in half its member countries (15 out of 30), affordability of water charges for low-income households "is either a significant issue now or might become one in the future, if appropriate policy measures are not put in place." In developing countries the situation is more serious, not only because of lower incomes, but also because the poor are often not connected to the network. They usually pay a higher share of their meager incomes for lower quantities of water at often lower quality supplied by water vendors through trucks. On the other hand, utility bills paid by those fortunate enough to be connected to the network are often relatively low, especially in South Asia. Because of this situation the OECD does not recommend to use uniform "thresholds" for the affordability of water and wastewater bills. These "thresholds" are often quoted in the range of 3-5% of household income.

text: With the completion of the Grand Canal in 1671, which served as drainage for the fountains of the garden, water, via a system of windmills, was pumped back to the reservoir on top of the Grotte de Thétys. While this system solved some of the water supply problems, there was never enough water to keep all of the fountains running in the garden in full-play all of the time (Thompson, 2006).

text: The freshwater lens of each atoll is a fragile system. Tropical cyclones and other storm events also result in wave wash over and extreme high water also occurs during spring tides. These events can result in salt water contamination of the fresh groundwater lens.  Periods of low rainfall can also result in contraction of the freshwater lens as the coconut trees and other vegetation draw up the water at a greater than recharge than it can be recharged. The over extraction of ground water to supply human needs has a similar result as drought conditions.

text: The

text: freshwater lens

text: of each atoll is a fragile system.

text: Tropical cyclone

text: s and other storm events also result in wave wash over and extreme high water also occurs during

text: spring tides

text: . These events can result in salt water contamination of the fresh groundwater lens.  Periods of low rainfall can also result in contraction of the freshwater lens as the coconut trees and other vegetation draw up the water at a greater than recharge than it can be recharged. The over extraction of ground water to supply human needs has a similar result as drought conditions.

text: According to an article in the Guardian, in 2005, deputy minister Qiu Baoxing stated that more than 100 out of the 660 cities had extreme water shortages. Pan Yue, deputy director of the state environment protection agency, warned that economic growth was unsustainable due to the water problems. In 2004 the World Bank warned  that the scarcity of the resource would lead to "a fight between rural interests, urban interests and industrial interests on who gets water in China." In April 2005 there were dozens of injuries in Dongyang city, Zhejiang Province, due to clashes over the nearby chemical factories of the Juxi Industrial Park accused of water pollution that harmed crops and led to deformed babies being born. According to the article, a quarter of the population lacked clean drinking water and less than a third of the waste was treated. China is expected to face worsening water shortages until 2030 when the population peaks.

text: According to an article in the Guardian, in 2005, deputy minister Qiu Baoxing stated that more than 100 out of the 660 cities had extreme water shortages. Pan Yue, deputy director of the state environment protection agency, warned that economic growth was unsustainable due to the water problems. In 2004 the

text: World Bank

text: warned  that the scarcity of the resource would lead to "a fight between rural interests, urban interests and industrial interests on who gets water in China." In April 2005 there were dozens of injuries in

text: Dongyang

text: city,

text: Zhejiang Province

text: , due to clashes over the nearby chemical factories of the Juxi Industrial Park accused of water pollution that harmed crops and led to deformed babies being born. According to the article, a quarter of the population lacked clean drinking water and less than a third of the waste was treated. China is expected to face worsening water shortages until 2030 when the population peaks.

text: According to the Prime Minister's office, as the impact of climate change intensifies, Australia faces increasingly acute long-term water shortages with lower rainfall, rivers drying up and dam water levels falling. In most parts of Australia, surface water stored in reservoirs is the main source for municipal water supply, making water supply vulnerable to droughts; only a much smaller share comes from groundwater. Non-conventional water sources, such as seawater desalination, play an increasing role in Australia's water supply, with one desalination plant commissioned to supply Perth and others being built in Sydney, the Gold Coast, Melbourne, Adelaide, and another is planned to be built at Port Augusta.

text: According to the Prime Minister's office, as the impact of climate change intensifies, Australia faces increasingly acute long-term water shortages with lower rainfall, rivers drying up and dam water levels falling. In most parts of Australia, surface water stored in reservoirs is the main source for municipal water supply, making water supply vulnerable to

text: droughts

text: ; only a much smaller share comes from groundwater. Non-conventional water sources, such as seawater desalination, play an increasing role in Australia's water supply, with one desalination plant commissioned to supply

text: Perth

text: and others being built in

text: Sydney

text: , the

text: Gold Coast

text: Melbourne

text: Adelaide

text: , and another is planned to be built at

text: Port Augusta

text: Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s.  Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil") out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.

text: Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of

text: clay

text: lead

text: , bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s.  Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil") out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.

text: Drinking water supply poses a major problem in the state. Because of high altitude terrain and undulating topography drinking water is mainly obtained from streams. The pollution, lack of sanitation and open air defecation, leads to contamination of surface water.Water pollutants create a wide variety of problems by entering into the food chain. Over-exploitation of natural resources and dumping of hazardous wastes further aggravates the problem. Being unhygienic, it results to pollution and can spread diseases like hill dysentery. Since villages are sparsely populated and distantly located, the arrangement of drinking water leds to the problem of high costs. In 1948, except 4 towns, no other habitation in the state had piped water supply. By 1989, drinking water through pipes was made available in about 15,000 villages covering about 75% of the state population. Now alternate sources -underground water has been tapped through handpumps.Under ARWSP, the following norms are being adopted for providing drinking water to rural population in the habitations : 40 litres per capita per day (lpcd) of safe drinking water for human beings. 30 lpcd additional for cattle in the Desert Development Programme Areas. One hand pump or stand post for every 250 persons. The water source should exist within 1.6 km in the plains and within 100 metres elevation in the hilly areas. [Water is defined as safe if it is free from biological contamination (cholera, typhoid, etc.) and chemical contamination (excess arsenic, fluoride, salinity, iron, nitrates, etc.)] Habitations which have a safe drinking water source point (either private or public) within 1.6 km in plains and 100 metre in hill areas but the capacity of the system ranges between 10 lpcd to 40 lpcd, are categorized as Partially Covered (PC) and those having less than 10 lpcd are categorized as Not Covered (NC).

text: Drinking water

text: supply poses a major problem in the state. Because of high altitude terrain and undulating topography drinking water is mainly obtained from

text: stream

text: s. The pollution, lack of sanitation and open air defecation, leads to contamination of surface water.Water pollutants create a wide variety of problems by entering into the food chain.

text: Over-exploitation

text: of natural resources and dumping of hazardous wastes further aggravates the problem. Being unhygienic, it results to pollution and can spread diseases like hill dysentery. Since villages are sparsely populated and distantly located, the arrangement of

text: drinking water

text: leds to the problem of high costs. In 1948, except 4 towns, no other habitation in the state had piped

text: water supply

text: . By 1989,

text: drinking water

text: through pipes was made available in about 15,000

text: village

text: s covering about 75% of the state population. Now alternate sources -underground water has been tapped through handpumps.Under ARWSP, the following norms are being adopted for providing drinking water to rural population in the habitations : 40 litres per capita per day (lpcd) of safe drinking water for human beings. 30 lpcd additional for cattle in the Desert Development Programme Areas. One hand pump or stand post for every 250 persons. The water source should exist within 1.6 km in the plains and within 100 metres elevation in the hilly areas. [Water is defined as safe if it is free from biological contamination (cholera, typhoid, etc.) and chemical contamination (excess arsenic, fluoride, salinity, iron, nitrates, etc.)] Habitations which have a safe drinking water source point (either private or public) within 1.6 km in plains and 100 metre in hill areas but the capacity of the system ranges between 10 lpcd to 40 lpcd, are categorized as Partially Covered (PC) and those having less than 10 lpcd are categorized as Not Covered (NC).

text: Issues that affect drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States include water scarcity, pollution, a backlog of investment, concerns about the affordability of water for the poorest, and a rapidly retiring workforce. Increased variability and intensity of rainfall as a result of climate change is expected to produce both more severe droughts and flooding, with potentially serious consequences for water supply and for pollution from combined sewer overflows. Droughts are likely to particularly affect the 66 percent of Americans whose communities depend on surface water. As for drinking water quality, there are concerns about disinfection by-products, lead, perchlorates and pharmaceutical substances, but generally drinking water quality in the U.S. is good.

text: Issues that affect

text: drinking water

text: supply and sanitation in the United States include

text: water scarcity

text: pollution

text: climate change

text: combined sewer overflow

text: s. Droughts are likely to particularly affect the 66 percent of Americans whose communities depend on surface water. As for drinking water quality, there are concerns about disinfection by-products,

text: lead

text: perchlorates

text: and pharmaceutical substances, but generally drinking water quality in the U.S. is good.

text: While Japan is not a water-stressed country per se, water availability varies substantially between years, seasons and regions leading to regular and serious water shortages. On average over the period 1971-2000, water resources in Japan stood at 420 km3 per year. At 3,300m3 per capita this is below the global average. On the Pacific coast where most Japanese live, 70-80% of rainfall occurs during only four months, i.e. the summer monsoon from June to July and the typhoon season from August to September. On the coast of the Sea of Japan the winter monsoon brings heavy snowfall from December to February. National droughts occur about every 10 years in Japan, in addition to more frequent regional droughts. During the drought in 1994 the piped water supply of 16 million people had to be restricted. It is expected that the severity of droughts will increase because of climate change which will reduce the amount of water stored in the form of snow, increase evaporation from reservoirs and reduce rainfall. Most of the water for domestic use comes from surface water. About 45% of the total comes from reservoirs regulated by dams, while 27% comes directly from rivers, 1% from lakes and 4% from river beds, totaling 77% from surface water. 23% of domestic water supply comes from groundwater, which is over-exploited in parts of the country.

text: While Japan is not a water-stressed country per se, water availability varies substantially between years, seasons and regions leading to regular and serious water shortages. On average over the period 1971-2000, water resources in Japan stood at 420 km3 per year. At 3,300m3 per capita this is below the global average. On the Pacific coast where most Japanese live, 70-80% of rainfall occurs during only four months, i.e. the summer monsoon from June to July and the

text: typhoon

text: season from August to September. On the coast of the

text: Sea of Japan

text: the winter monsoon brings heavy snowfall from December to February. National

text: drought

text: s occur about every 10 years in Japan, in addition to more frequent regional droughts. During the drought in 1994 the piped water supply of 16 million people had to be restricted. It is expected that the severity of droughts will increase because of

text: climate change

text: which will reduce the amount of water stored in the form of snow, increase evaporation from reservoirs and reduce rainfall. Most of the water for domestic use comes from surface water. About 45% of the total comes from reservoirs regulated by dams, while 27% comes directly from rivers, 1% from lakes and 4% from river beds, totaling 77% from surface water. 23% of domestic water supply comes from groundwater, which is over-exploited in parts of the country.

text: . Separation of urine from feces allows human waste to be treated separately and used as a potential resource. Applications are typically found where connection to a sewer-based sanitation system is not available or areas where water supplies are limited.

text: . Separation of urine from feces allows human waste to be treated separately and used as a potential resource. Applications are typically found where connection to a

text: sewer

text: -based sanitation system is not available or areas where water supplies are limited.

text: Without treatment, raw water can be used for farming, construction or cleaning purposes. Farmers use it for watering their crops or give to livestock to drink, storing it in man-made lakes or reservoirs for long periods of time. Construction industries can use raw water for making cement or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising. Raw water can also be used for flushing toilets and washing cars, as well as any other purpose that do not require it to be consumed by humans. Water in this form is considered raw, as opposed to water which has been treated before consumption, such as drinking water or water which has been used in an industrial process, such as waste water. Contaminants usually make raw water unsafe for drinking by humans without treatment. However, millions of people in developing countries rely on untreated raw water for their water supply, sometimes purifying it by boiling.

text: Without treatment, raw water can be used for

text: farming

text: construction

text: or cleaning purposes. Farmers use it for watering their

text: crop

text: s or give to

text: livestock

text: to drink, storing it in man-made lakes or reservoirs for long periods of time. Construction industries can use raw water for making

text: cement

text: or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising. Raw water can also be used for flushing toilets and washing cars, as well as any other purpose that do not require it to be consumed by humans. Water in this form is considered raw, as opposed to water which has been

text: treated

text: before consumption, such as

text: drinking water

text: or water which has been used in an industrial process, such as

text: waste water

text: . Contaminants usually make raw water unsafe for drinking by humans without treatment. However, millions of people in

text: developing countries

text: rely on untreated raw water for their water supply, sometimes purifying it by boiling.

text: Today, the California Aqueduct and the Delta-Mendota Canal, two of the state's largest water conveyance facilities, both draw water from the southern end of the Delta at the Clifton Court Forebay. Built in the mid-twentieth century, the former supplies water to the Los Angeles Basin and coastal central California via the State Water Project; the latter, a part of the CVP, provides supplies of irrigation water in the fertile San Joaquin Valley. Although the vast majority of water supplied by these projects is used for agriculture and urban areas, some water is also provided for wildlife refuges and habitat conservation works. The Contra Costa Canal and North Bay Aqueduct also take Delta water, supplying the nearby San Francisco Bay Area. Locally, the Delta provides water for cities and towns in five counties and for over 1,800 agricultural users.

text: Today, the

text: California Aqueduct

text: and the

text: Delta-Mendota Canal

text: , two of the state's largest water conveyance facilities, both draw water from the southern end of the Delta at the

text: Clifton Court Forebay

text: . Built in the mid-twentieth century, the former supplies water to the

text: Los Angeles Basin

text: and coastal central California via the

text: State Water Project

text: ; the latter, a part of the CVP, provides supplies of irrigation water in the fertile San Joaquin Valley. Although the vast majority of water supplied by these projects is used for agriculture and urban areas, some water is also provided for wildlife refuges and habitat conservation works. The

text: Contra Costa Canal

text: and

text: North Bay Aqueduct

text: also take Delta water, supplying the nearby San Francisco Bay Area. Locally, the Delta provides water for cities and towns in five counties and for over 1,800 agricultural users.

text: Water quality. Water quality varies significantly within the country. In the semi-arid regions (including Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga, and Arusha), colour and turbidity levels become problematic during the rainy season. Rivers in the fluoride belt (including Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Singida, and Shinyanga regions of the Rift Valley, and extending to the Pangani and Internal Drainage basins) have naturally high fluoride concentrations. The waters of Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa have overall good water quality except in the vicinity of urbanareas where effluent and storm water cause local contamination, whereas the water quality of Lake Victoria is poor: high turbidity and nutrient levels lead to frequent blooms of algae and infestations ofwater weeds.

text: Water quality. Water quality varies significantly within the country. In the semi-arid regions (including

text: Dodoma

text: Singida

text: Tabora

text: Shinyanga

text: , and

text: Arusha

text: ), colour and turbidity levels become problematic during the rainy season. Rivers in the fluoride belt (including Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Singida, and Shinyanga regions of the Rift Valley, and extending to the Pangani and Internal Drainage basins) have naturally high

text: fluoride

text: concentrations. The waters of

text: Lakes Tanganyika

text: and

text: Nyasa

text: have overall good water quality except in the vicinity of urbanareas where effluent and storm water cause local contamination, whereas the water quality of

text: Lake Victoria

text: is poor: high turbidity and nutrient levels lead to frequent blooms of algae and infestations ofwater weeds.

text: Use of recycled water in industrial settings is increasing as strained freshwater supplies are decreasing. Among the industrial applications are pulp and paper plants as well as power-generation plants in cooling towers and boiler water. Industrial water reuse is an attractive option to California industries given the cost of freshwater resources. Additionally, water needn't be treated to very high standards to be use in industrial applications, and this makes it an even more cost effective solution. West Basin Municipal Water District, Edward C. Little Water Recycling Facility has been providing recycled water to industrial customers since 1995.

text: Heat is needed to provide enough energy for the molecules of the solvent to leave the solution and move into the air surrounding the solution. The energy needed can be expressed as an excess thermodynamic potential of the water in the solution. Leading to one of the biggest problems in industrial evaporation, the process requires enough energy to remove the water from the solution and to supply the heat of evaporation. When removing the water, more than 99% of the energy needed goes towards supplying the heat of evaporation. The need to overcome the surface tension of the solution also requires energy. The energy requirement of this process is very high because a phase transition must be caused; the water must go from a liquid to a vapor.

text: Heat is needed to provide enough

text: energy

text: for the molecules of the solvent to leave the solution and move into the air surrounding the solution. The energy needed can be expressed as an excess

text: thermodynamic

text: potential of the water in the solution. Leading to one of the biggest problems in industrial evaporation, the process requires enough energy to remove the water from the solution and to supply the heat of evaporation. When removing the water, more than 99% of the energy needed goes towards supplying the heat of evaporation. The need to overcome the

text: surface tension

text: of the solution also requires energy. The energy requirement of this process is very high because a phase transition must be caused; the water must go from a liquid to a vapor.

text: Villagers enjoy good drinking water and electricity supply with few power shortages.The village has good telephone penetration, and most of the houses have televisions and cable supply.

text: The Division of Water Supply Protection manages  of watershed lands and is responsible for the protection of the drinking water supply  for approximately 2.5 million residents of Massachusetts, primarily in Greater Boston.   This division monitors lakes and ponds, well drillers, and rainfall throughout the Commonwealth.

text: An increased population means increased withdrawals from the water supply for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, the largest of these being agriculture, believed to be the major non-climate driver of environmental change and water deterioration.  The next 50 years will likely be the last period of rapid agricultural expansion, but the larger and wealthier population over this time will demand more agriculture.

text: The legal framework in water resources is dispersed and segmented. Certain aspects are taken into consideration and well covered under law while others neglected. The institutional framework faces similar problems. For example, groundwater use and specific management duties are not specifically delegated to any institution. Irrigation is not considered in the Government program at all, perhaps because of its relative small scale.  No comprehensive water-quality monitoring program exists in Belize; however, a number of agencies monitor water quality for their own purposes. The Water and Sewerage Ordinance of 1971 established the Water and Sewage Authority (WASA) discussed below.

text: Silver Lake is a  lake in Pembroke, Kingston, and Plympton, Massachusetts, south of Route 27 and east of Route 36. The Pembroke/Plympton town line is entirely within the lake, and a portion of the western shoreline of the lake is the town line with Halifax. The lake is the principal water supply for the City of Brockton, whose water treatment plant is on Route 36 in Halifax. The inflow of the pond is Tubbs Meadow Brook, and the pond is the headwaters of the Jones River. Occasionally water is diverted into Silver Lake from Monponsett Pond in Halifax and Furnace Pond in Pembroke (through Tubbs Meadow Brook) whenever there is a water shortage. Access to the pond is through Silver Lake Sanctuary, a  property where one can walk, hike and fish, which is located at the end of Barses Lane, off Route 27 in Kingston.

text: Silver Lake is a  lake in

text: Pembroke

text: Kingston

text: , and

text: Plympton

text: Massachusetts

text: , south of

text: Route 27

text: and east of

text: Route 36

text: . The Pembroke/Plympton town line is entirely within the lake, and a portion of the western shoreline of the lake is the town line with

text: Halifax

text: . The lake is the principal

text: water supply

text: for the City of

text: Brockton

text: , whose

text: water treatment

text: plant is on Route 36 in Halifax. The inflow of the pond is Tubbs Meadow Brook, and the pond is the headwaters of the

text: Jones River

text: . Occasionally water is diverted into Silver Lake from

text: Monponsett Pond

text: in Halifax and

text: Furnace Pond

text: in Pembroke (through Tubbs Meadow Brook) whenever there is a water shortage. Access to the pond is through Silver Lake Sanctuary, a  property where one can walk, hike and fish, which is located at the end of Barses Lane, off Route 27 in Kingston.

text: The total investment in the sector consists of investments by Mekorot in bulk water supply (including water supply for domestic uses, industry and agriculture), as well as investments by municipalities in drinking water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment. If half of the Mekorot investments of US$240 million in 2006 can be attributed to domestic water supply (US$120 million), and US$125 million were invested by municipalities in sanitation (see below), total investments in drinking water supply and sanitation stood at least US$245 million per year, excluding investments in desalination plants under BOO schemes and excluding investments in drinking water distribution by municipalities.

text: California has developed a third theory of underground water rights, known as the correlative theory. The correlative theory provides each landowner with an equal right to use underground water for a beneficial purpose. But landowners are not given the prerogative to seriously deplete a neighbor's water supply. In the event of water shortage, courts may apportion an underground supply among landowners. Many states facing acute or chronic shortages have adopted the correlative theory of under-ground water rights.

text: The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi (1,386,000,000 km) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi (1,338,000,000 km) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.

text: The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the

text: hydrosphere

text: . However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi (1,386,000,000 km) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi (1,338,000,000 km) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.

text: Today's appearance of the Hafenlohrtal is due to hundreds of years of human interaction with nature. The water of the stream powered paper and saw mills, supplied glass foundries, meadows and fish ponds, helped create electricity and supplied drinking water for men and beasts.

text: There are 2,299 households or 26.80% that take their drinking water from a tube/pipe well (jetmatic/pitcher pump) for private use of the household, 637 household or 11.87 takes their water from a deep well of another household or establishment or from a deep well constructed for public use.

text: Many of the 3.5 billion people having access to piped water receive a poor or very poor quality of service, especially in developing countries where about 80% of the world population lives. Water supply service quality has many dimensions: continuity; water quality; pressure; and the degree of responsiveness of service providers to customer complaints.

text: Many of the 3.5 billion people having access to piped water receive a poor or very poor quality of service, especially in developing countries where about 80% of the world population lives. Water supply

text: service quality

text: has many dimensions: continuity;

text: water quality

text: ; pressure; and the degree of responsiveness of service providers to customer complaints.

text: The growth in industry and population has put significant pressure on fresh water supplies of the areas as well as water pollution problems. Excess pumping of groundwater has led to subsidence problems with an estimate sinking of over two meters since 1962 and a confirmed loss of about forty cm from 2003 to 2008 Investigators at California Institute of Technology, Institute of Technology zero in on remote sensing The pumping and the exploitation of fresh water springs to send potable water to Mexico City has led to diminishing surface water. There is an estimated yearly deficit of between 56 and 89 million cubic liters of water, which has caused the disappearance of springs in Almoloya del Río, Alta Empresa and Ameyalco and even dry spots in the Lerma River in the dry season. The loss of water has led to the disappearance of the shallow lakes and wetlands that line the Lerma River in areas such as Almoloya del Río with has destroyed entire aquatic ecosystems. Of the 10,705 hectares registered in 1943 only 3,000 today become flooded during the rainy season. The dried lagoon lands have become farmland. In addition the quality of the remaining water has been deteriorating since the 1940s with the influx of urban and industrial wastewater. The Lerma River and other channels have been used as drainage channels so the pollution level is very high, surpassing governmental standards for “water suitable for recreational use, conservation of flora and fauna and industrial uses.” Concentrations of heavy metals are a significant problem in the Lerma River above the Alzate Dam.

text: The growth in industry and population has put significant pressure on fresh water supplies of the areas as well as water pollution problems. Excess pumping of groundwater has led to subsidence problems with an estimate sinking of over two meters since 1962 and a confirmed loss of about forty cm from 2003 to 2008 Investigators at California Institute of Technology, Institute of Technology zero in on remote sensing The pumping and the exploitation of fresh water springs to send potable water to Mexico City has led to diminishing surface water. There is an estimated yearly deficit of between 56 and 89 million cubic liters of water, which has caused the disappearance of springs in

text: Almoloya del Río

text: Alta Empresa and Ameyalco

text: and even dry spots in the Lerma River in the dry season. The loss of water has led to the disappearance of the shallow lakes and wetlands that line the Lerma River in areas such as Almoloya del Río with has destroyed entire aquatic ecosystems. Of the 10,705 hectares registered in 1943 only 3,000 today become flooded during the rainy season. The dried lagoon lands have become farmland. In addition the quality of the remaining water has been deteriorating since the 1940s with the influx of urban and industrial wastewater. The Lerma River and other channels have been used as drainage channels so the pollution level is very high, surpassing governmental standards for “water suitable for recreational use, conservation of flora and fauna and industrial uses.” Concentrations of heavy metals are a significant problem in the Lerma River above the Alzate Dam.

text: Since Singapore lacks natural freshwater rivers and lakes, the primary source of domestic water is rainfall. Demand for fresh water is approximately twice that supplied by rainfall, so Singapore imports much of its fresh water from Malaysia and Indonesia. To lessen its reliance on imports, Singapore has built reservoirs to collect rainwater and recycled water facilities. In addition, Singapore has built a desalination plant on the western coast of Tuas. This plant is expected to at least meet half of Singapore's water demands. Recent plans to produce NEWater-recycled water from treatment by filtration via reverse osmosis have been very successful as the government has opened up three plants around the island to help meet the demand.

text: Since Singapore lacks natural freshwater rivers and lakes, the primary source of domestic water is rainfall. Demand for fresh water is approximately twice that supplied by rainfall, so Singapore imports much of its fresh water from Malaysia and Indonesia. To lessen its reliance on imports, Singapore has built reservoirs to collect rainwater and recycled water facilities. In addition, Singapore has built a desalination plant on the western coast of Tuas. This plant is expected to at least meet half of Singapore's water demands. Recent plans to produce

text: NEWater

text: -recycled water from treatment by filtration via

text: reverse osmosis

text: have been very successful as the government has opened up three plants around the island to help meet the demand.

text: It is reported that the average rainfall at Powai is about , and the lake overflows for about for sixty days each year. The overflow from the lake flows into the Mithi River. Silt studies conducted in 1995 estimates that 4500 lakh cubic metres of silt has been deposited in the lake since its construction. It supplied two million gallons of water to Bombay (now Mumbai) when it was built. Following the construction of the Tansa dam and creation of the reservoir, in 1892, Powai waters were used for irrigation. The lake drains a catchment of 6.61 km (part of the Powai-Kanheri hill ranges which also drain into the adjoining Vihar Lake and Tulsi Lake). The dam, built in stone masonry has a height varying from 3 m to 6m with top level of the dam kept at E.L. 58.5 m (with Town hall datum). Government of Maharashtra reports that due to eutrophication of the lake water from untreated sewage and garbage from nearby residential and slum colonies, the lake water is unfit for drinking water use. Hence, the lake is now used for recreation, gardening, cattle washing and fishing. The water of the lake is also supplied to Aarey colony and Larsen & Toubro for non domestic uses. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) level at the bottom of the lake is reported to be 0.71 mg/litre and at surface 4.11 mg/litre, average value of pH is 7.2 and COD is 42.70 mg/litre on the surface and 119 mg/litre at the bottom of the lake.

text: It is reported that the average rainfall at Powai is about , and the lake overflows for about for sixty days each year. The overflow from the lake flows into the

text: Mithi River

text: . Silt studies conducted in 1995 estimates that 4500 lakh cubic metres of silt has been deposited in the lake since its construction. It supplied two million gallons of water to Bombay (now Mumbai) when it was built. Following the construction of the

text: Tansa dam

text: and creation of the reservoir, in 1892, Powai waters were used for irrigation. The lake drains a catchment of 6.61 km (part of the Powai-Kanheri hill ranges which also drain into the adjoining

text: Vihar Lake

text: and

text: Tulsi Lake

text: ). The dam, built in stone masonry has a height varying from 3 m to 6m with top level of the dam kept at E.L. 58.5 m (with Town hall datum). Government of

text: Maharashtra

text: reports that due to

text: eutrophication

text: of the lake water from untreated sewage and garbage from nearby residential and slum colonies, the lake water is unfit for drinking water use. Hence, the lake is now used for recreation, gardening, cattle washing and fishing. The water of the lake is also supplied to

text: Aarey

text: colony and

text: Larsen & Toubro

text: for non domestic uses.

text: Dissolved Oxygen

text: (DO) level at the bottom of the lake is reported to be 0.71 mg/litre and at surface 4.11 mg/litre, average value of pH is 7.2 and COD is 42.70 mg/litre on the surface and 119 mg/litre at the bottom of the lake.

text: Most importantly, fresh water is a fundamental requirement of all living organisms, crops, livestock and humanity included. The UNDP considers access to it a basic human right and a prerequisite for peace. The Ex-UN Secretary-General  Kofi Annan stated in 2001, "Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity."  With increased development, many industries, including forestry, agriculture, mining, manufacturing and recreation require sizable additional amounts of freshwater to operate.  This, however, has led to increases in air and water pollution, which in turn have reduced the quality of water supply. More sustainable development practices are advantageous and necessary.

text: Most importantly,

text: fresh water

text: is a fundamental requirement of all living organisms,

text: crops

text: livestock

text: and

text: humanity

text: included. The

text: UNDP

text: considers access to it a basic

text: human right

text: and a prerequisite for peace. The Ex-

text: UN Secretary-General

text: Kofi Annan

text: stated in 2001, "Access to safe water is a fundamental human need and, therefore, a basic human right. Contaminated water jeopardizes both the physical and social health of all people. It is an affront to human dignity."  With increased development, many industries, including

text: forestry

text: agriculture

text: mining

text: manufacturing

text: and

text: recreation

text: require sizable additional amounts of freshwater to operate.  This, however, has led to increases in air and water pollution, which in turn have reduced the quality of water supply. More

text: sustainable development

text: practices are advantageous and necessary.

text: The share of non-revenue water (NRW) - water which is produced but not billed - was estimated at approx. 50% nationwide in 2014. This amounts to an estimated physical leakage of 76 billion litres per year, which could meet the needs of 2.6 million people (more than a third of the population.  The main reasons leading to this high rate are leakage, by-passing of meters, illegal connections, unreliable water meters and problems concerning the reading of those meters. Leakages also affect water pressure and quality. Stolen water is used for irrigation or sold through water tankers, which reduces the amount available for official water supply and increases the price. Measures to decrease the rate of NRW can thus contribute to relieve the high pressure on water resources. The Government, in its National Water Strategy, aims at reducing non-revenue water to 25% by 2022, and technical losses to below 15%. The Strategy thus also includes strengthening the criminalization of water theft and illegal wells.  Under a nationwide campaign to end water theft and violations on water networks and resources, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, water companies and security authorities sealed 26 illegal wells in January 2015, seized and confiscated 30 drilling rigs, as well as dismantled 408 illegal fixtures on water mains and pipes across the Kingdom. According to WAJ, hundreds of thousands of stolen and wasted cubic metres of water have been saved since a “serious crackdown” on water theft and violations was initiated in August 2013.

text: The share of

text: non-revenue water (NRW)

text: - water which is produced but not billed - was estimated at approx. 50% nationwide in 2014. This amounts to an estimated physical leakage of 76 billion litres per year, which could meet the needs of 2.6 million people (more than a third of the population.  The main reasons leading to this high rate are leakage, by-passing of meters, illegal connections, unreliable

text: water meter

text: s and problems concerning the reading of those meters. Leakages also affect water pressure and quality. Stolen water is used for irrigation or sold through water tankers, which reduces the amount available for official water supply and increases the price. Measures to decrease the rate of NRW can thus contribute to relieve the high pressure on water resources. The Government, in its National Water Strategy, aims at reducing non-revenue water to 25% by 2022, and technical losses to below 15%. The Strategy thus also includes strengthening the criminalization of water theft and illegal wells.  Under a nationwide campaign to end water theft and violations on water networks and resources, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, water companies and security authorities sealed 26 illegal wells in January 2015, seized and confiscated 30 drilling rigs, as well as dismantled 408 illegal fixtures on water mains and pipes across the Kingdom. According to WAJ, hundreds of thousands of stolen and wasted cubic metres of water have been saved since a “serious crackdown” on water theft and violations was initiated in August 2013.

text: Municipal water supply accounts for 12% of water use in Canada. The other main water users are cooling water for power generation (64%), manufacturing (14%) and agriculture (9%).

text: A part of the industry sector has also recognised the benefits of water efficiency. Such journals as the Water Efficiency Journal from the US, Water Efficient Solutions Journal and Water Energy and Environment Magazine from the UK, all mainly directed towards the industrial and professional sectors, attest to the growing consciousness of the need to develop more water efficient solutions.

text: Bulk water suppliers. There are also a few large bulk water suppliers in the arid Southwest of the United States, which sell water to utilities. The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (MWD) sells treated water from the Colorado River and Northern California to its member utilities in Southern California through the California Aqueduct. Twenty-six cities and water districts serving 18 million people are members of MWD. The Central Arizona Water Conservation district supplies water from the Colorado River to 80 municipal, industrial, agricultural and Indian customers in Central and Southern Arizona through the Central Arizona Project Aqueduct (CAP).

text: Bulk water suppliers. There are also a few large bulk water suppliers in the arid Southwest of the United States, which sell water to utilities. The

entity_name: Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

text: Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

text: (MWD) sells treated water from the Colorado River and Northern California to its member utilities in Southern California through the

text: California Aqueduct

text: . Twenty-six cities and water districts serving 18 million people are members of MWD. The Central Arizona Water Conservation district supplies water from the Colorado River to 80 municipal, industrial, agricultural and Indian customers in Central and Southern Arizona through the

text: Central Arizona Project Aqueduct

text: (CAP).

text: The level of access to water supply in rural areas is low (66% in 2012) compared to relatively high access to an Improved water source in urban areas (94%).Within the government, urban water supply policy is the responsibilityof the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy. Service provision inurban areas is the responsibility of two water utilities in the largestcities, the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA) and the Siem ReapWater Supply Authority (SRWSA), 11 Provincial Water Supply Authorities(known as PWWKs) as well as 147 smaller utilities. The Department ofRural Water Supply (DRWS) and Department of Rural Health Care (DRHC) ofthe Ministry of Rural Development are responsible for rural water supplyfor the smaller towns and villages with less than 1,000 households.

text: The level of access to water supply in rural areas is low (66% in 2012) compared to relatively high access to an

text: Improved water source

text: in urban areas (94%).Within the government, urban water supply policy is the responsibilityof the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy. Service provision inurban areas is the responsibility of two water utilities in the largestcities, the

text: Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority

text: (PPWSA) and the

text: Siem Reap

text: Water Supply Authority (SRWSA), 11 Provincial Water Supply Authorities(known as PWWKs) as well as 147 smaller utilities. The Department ofRural Water Supply (DRWS) and Department of Rural Health Care (DRHC) ofthe Ministry of Rural Development are responsible for rural water supplyfor the smaller towns and villages with less than 1,000 households.

text: In the late 18th century Greenock was a rapidly expanding seaport with industries developing as the industrial revolution gathered pace. Its location on the north slopes of hills sweeping down to the south bank of the Firth of Clyde meant that several fast flowing streams provided supplies, and a number of wells provided clean water for domestic use. This was supplemented in 1773 by a piped water system designed by James Watt supplying some areas, but there was increasing demand for water powered mills.

text: In the late 18th century Greenock was a rapidly expanding seaport with industries developing as the

text: industrial revolution

text: gathered pace. Its location on the north slopes of hills sweeping down to the south bank of the

text: Firth of Clyde

text: meant that several fast flowing streams provided supplies, and a number of wells provided clean water for domestic use. This was supplemented in 1773 by a piped water system designed by

text: James Watt

text: supplying some areas, but there was increasing demand for water powered mills.

text: Fun Dip varies greatly from many other types of candy in that it is meant to be eaten over a considerable amount of time, compared to other candies that are usually bite size or consumed quickly. During the rebranding in the 70's two additional sugar sticks, called "Lik-A-Stix" were added to the packaging. The intended purpose is to wet the sticks, using your own saliva or in some cases, water, and then collect some of the sugar, you can then lick the sugar off the Lik-A-Stix and continue eating it this way.

text: Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these include swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some sports, like ice hockey and ice skating, are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches and water parks are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. Many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and fountains and other water features are popular decorations. Some keep fish and other life in aquariums or ponds for show, fun, and companionship. Humans also use water for snow sports i.e. skiing, sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which require the water to be frozen.

text: Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these include

text: swimming

text: waterskiing

text: boating

text: surfing

text: and

text: diving

text: . In addition, some sports, like

text: ice hockey

text: and

text: ice skating

text: , are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches and

text: water park

text: s are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. Many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and fountains and other water features are popular decorations. Some keep fish and other life in

text: aquarium

text: s or

text: pond

text: s for show, fun, and companionship. Humans also use water for snow sports i.e.

text: skiing

text: sledding

text: snowmobiling

text: or

text: snowboarding

text: , which require the water to be frozen.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many

text: farm

text: s require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a

text: power plant

text: that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is under increasing demand for human activities. The world has an estimated 1.34 billion cubic kilometers of water, but 96.5% of it is salty. Almost 70% of fresh water can be found in the ice cap

text: Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean,

text: fresh water

text: is under increasing demand for human activities. The world has an estimated 1.34 billion cubic kilometers of water, but 96.5% of it is salty. Almost 70% of fresh water can be found in the

text: ice cap

text: The water footprint of a business, the 'corporate water footprint', is defined as the total volume of fresh water that is used directly or indirectly to run and support a business. It is the total volume of water use to be associated with the use of the business outputs. The water footprint of a business consists of water used for producing/manufacturing or for supporting activities and the indirect water use in the producer’s supply chain. Water Credit for conserving water: Nagpur based innovator Shripad Vaidya's idea of giving water credit's, much like carbon credits, to those who save and conserve water is gaining ground. These water credits can be marketed or sold to those in need of surplus water for social,agricultural or industrial ventures.

text: Z and Cody find out that Joe won by default since Tank and Cody were disqualified. However, Cody accepts the loss, having decided he'd rather just have fun instead. Z reveals himself to the spectators and invites all of them to surf at his beach. Cody finishes his interview with a reflection of the past events and then joins the rest of his friends in the water.

text: According to a 2008 national survey by the radio station RPP and the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), 38% of respondents indicate that they "take great care" of water in the household. 89% of respondents indicated that they treat tap water before drinking it, primarily by boiling it, and 48% store water in their house because of intermittent supply or because they have no access to piped drinking water.

text: Water supply to those fortunate enough to be connected was about 100 liter per capita per-day, assuming 15 people per connection and one third of physical water losses in the distribution network. This per capita water use is almost as high as in Germany. However, water quality is poor, supply is intermittent and the great majority who do not have access to the piped network have to get by with much less water. The Kabul water project aimed at tripling the number of house connections to 90,000 and doubling water production from existing well fields as well as from a new well field on the Lower Kabul River aquifer, providing water to more than 600,000 people.

text: After cleaning, the industrial water was pumped into a water tower and drawn from there. These facilities had various designs; there was no standard type. All water towers had several up and down pipes. The water towers supplied all areas with industrial water, including the water cranes used to replenish the water supplies of steam locomotives (whether they had tenders or water tanks). Water cranes were usually located near the inspection pits or at coaling points. They, too, came in various shapes and sizes, although these were gradually replaced by standard types of water crane.

text: After cleaning, the industrial water was pumped into a

text: water tower

text: and drawn from there. These facilities had various designs; there was no standard type. All water towers had several up and down pipes. The water towers supplied all areas with industrial water, including the

text: water cranes

text: used to replenish the water supplies of steam locomotives (whether they had

text: tenders

text: or

text: water tanks

text: ). Water cranes were usually located near the inspection pits or at coaling points. They, too, came in various shapes and sizes, although these were gradually replaced by standard types of water crane.

text: On August 26, 2014, Israel officially stopped adding fluoride to its water supplies. According to a Ministry of Health press release statement, the reasons it ended water fluoridation were: "Only some 1% of the water is used for drinking, while 99% of the water is intended for other uses (industry, agriculture, flushing toilets etc.). There is also scientific evidence that fluoride in large amounts can lead to damage to health. When fluoride is supplied via drinking water, there is no control regarding the amount of fluoride actually consumed, which could lead to excessive consumption. Supply of fluoridated water forces those who do not so wish to also consume water with added fluoride."  Many in the medical and dental communities in Israel criticized the decision as a mistake.

text: On August 26, 2014, Israel officially stopped adding fluoride to its water supplies. According to a

text: Ministry of Health

text: press release statement, the reasons it ended water fluoridation were: "Only some 1% of the water is used for drinking, while 99% of the water is intended for other uses (industry, agriculture, flushing toilets etc.). There is also scientific evidence that fluoride in large amounts can lead to damage to health. When fluoride is supplied via drinking water, there is no control regarding the amount of fluoride actually consumed, which could lead to excessive consumption. Supply of fluoridated water forces those who do not so wish to also consume water with added fluoride."  Many in the medical and dental communities in Israel criticized the decision as a mistake.

text: The consumption of water was estimated at more than 2.4 km in Tunisia in which year?. In 1996, 86% of the water withdrawals were from agriculture. The water sector is also obliged to meet the increasing water demand for all urban and rural areas, the agriculture sector as well as for touristic and industrial needs. Through the management and development of water resources, available water resources increased  from 2.76 km in 1991 to 3.525 km in 2000. It is planned that the supply will reach 4.6 km by 2010. This will mainly be done by developing unconventional resources, including the use of treated sewage water. According to estimations for the year 2030 by the Ministry of Agriculture, the demand of water would be stabilized of 2.7  km per year, even if the supposed population of Tunisia in 2030 will be about 13 million people and given today's regular demand would result in a demand of 3.1  km per year.

text: Water from the Bonriki and Buota reserves is distributed via a reticulated network to South Tarawa households, however the poor condition of the network and the limited water supply mean that water can only be supplied to each village for around 2 hours every two days.  Most schools and community buildings have no water supply at all, and many households rely on polluted groundwater due to the shortage of treated water.

text: The State of New Mexico has entrusted its water rights governing to a State-appointed position, that of the Water Engineer. The role of this position is to not only facilitate the exchanges of water rights that occur, but also monitor the aquifer levels as resources are consumed. In 2003, the state of New Mexico implemented a Water Plan, which sought to protect the allotment of water rights, but also consider the associated water supply and quality, the relationships between sellers and buyers, State requirements, and promotion of future investment in infrastructure.New Mexico must be responsible for the management of its own resource supply, as the inability to do so will require the surrender of authority to the federal level of administration. To ensure effective guidance in sales and trades, many state departments and commissions are engaged in the efforts. Each of these parties is delegated roles and responsibilities aimed towards best planning and management of State and Regional water exchanges.  The New Mexico Interstate Stream Commission and the Office of the State Engineer are two leading parties, but included in this council are the New Mexico Environment Department, the Water Quality Control Commission, the New Mexico Acequia Commission, and the Water Trust Board, among others.  These groups work in conjunction with one another to ensure water right implementation, potential pollutants, developing databases and information systems, and fulfill other roles that lead to efficient use of New Mexico’s water resources.The state of New Mexico honors the system of prior-appropriation water rights. In this "first in time, first in right" system, many of the original recipients of water access rights were Pueblos and Tribes. As sovereign states, these groups are entitled to their senior rights, which are then governed on a federal level rather than state. Because of the uniqueness of these rights, any policy decisions that may affect these Tribes and Pueblos must be presented by the State for discussion with these parties.The state of New Mexico mandates that any rights with a common hydrological source be formally adjudicated through a court proceeding, documenting the full legal and physical quantification of the rights. This is accomplished with the purpose of assisting the State Water Engineer in allocating water allotments across the spread of State demands and those with senior rights. The rights held by Pueblos and Tribes must also be adjudicated to establish the legal parameters of their water access. Under the McCarran Amendment, these rights must be defined and quantified under federal law in order to be evaluated as part of the stream-associated water rights administration.Because of the nearly complete allocation of surface waters in New Mexico, efforts have been made to increase the water supply available to the expanding needs of the State. In order to do this,  groundwater is reserved in aquifers that are connected to rivers throughout the state. Reclaiming these stores would diminish the river flows which would thus reduce the water available to senior rights holders. The solution here is the purchase and retirement of these senior surface rights. This will begin a new emphasis on the groundwater resources that have been stored for future access.The Office of the State Engineer occupies a critical role in New Mexico’s water trading system. This administrator will establish a prior appropriation assessment of water rights in part with a priority administration plan of action The State Engineer is provided with funding for investments in technology, such as water measuring and metering, GIS units, surface and groundwater models, and manuals.To aid in the fulfillment of these and additional requirements of the State Water Engineer, New Mexico has recently implemented an "active resource management" plan. In this platform, a state-appointed staff is assigned roles in identifying, measuring, and metering water rights, facilitating transfers, and appointing district water masters. Water masters operate within established water districts in administering rights as necessary. Each basin team includes a project manager, hydrologist, attorney, communication manager, personnel manager, and technical support staff.The full responsibilities of the active resource management plan along with the Office of the State Water Engineer are diagrammed in the 2003 Water Plan, as well as the 2006 Progress Report and 2008 Review and Proposed Update. The ideals of this proposal are clearly identified and accompanied by methods of execution and public opinion. While comparatively young, this program is aggressively seeking out efficient allocation and use of New Mexico’s water supply.New Mexico considers all water to be public property. Right to use, however, is a possession that may be purchased or leased. Once allocated to a party, failure to put to beneficial use for period of time (commonly 4 years) may lead to rights being reclaimed by the State. Upon reclamation, these rights may then be sold or leased to another interested party. The rights may be obtained through application of a permit through the Office of the State or through a personal water attorney.

text: The State of New Mexico has entrusted its water rights governing to a State-appointed position, that of the Water Engineer. The role of this position is to not only facilitate the exchanges of water rights that occur, but also monitor the aquifer levels as resources are consumed. In 2003, the state of New Mexico implemented a Water Plan, which sought to protect the allotment of water rights, but also consider the associated water supply and quality, the relationships between sellers and buyers, State requirements, and promotion of future investment in infrastructure.New Mexico must be responsible for the management of its own resource supply, as the inability to do so will require the surrender of authority to the federal level of administration. To ensure effective guidance in sales and trades, many state departments and commissions are engaged in the efforts. Each of these parties is delegated roles and responsibilities aimed towards best planning and management of State and Regional water exchanges.  The New Mexico Interstate Stream Commission and the Office of the State Engineer are two leading parties, but included in this council are the

text: New Mexico Environment Department

text: , the Water Quality Control Commission, the New Mexico Acequia Commission, and the Water Trust Board, among others.  These groups work in conjunction with one another to ensure water right implementation, potential pollutants, developing databases and information systems, and fulfill other roles that lead to efficient use of New Mexico’s water resources.The state of New Mexico honors the system of

text: prior-appropriation water rights

text: Volumes of snow output by home snowmakers depend on the air/water mixture, temperature, wind variations, pumping capacity, water supply, air supply, and other factors. Using a household spray bottle will not work unless temperatures are well below the freezing point of water.

text: The quality of water service provision is poor. According to official figures from 2009, the average water availability per day was as follows: 22 hours in the North, 10 hours in the Bekaa, 8 hours in the South, and for Beirut-Mount Lebanon 13 hours in winter, but only 2 hours in summer. There is not a single village or city in Lebanon that receives an uninterrupted residential supply of water. Especially in summer, water shortages are common. For example, in Nabatieh Governorate water reached customers only three times a week in 2007. In Greater Beirut, water supply drops to 3 hours per day during the summer. According to the above-mentioned 2008 survey, the average Lebanese household received 6 hours per day in summer and 9 hours in winter. Only one quarter  of Lebanese households received water every day. The continuity of supply was best in the North where 59% said they received water every day in 2008. It was worst in Beirut where this share was only 10%. Poor water quality and intermittent supply impose high costs on households to cope with these deficiencies. Buying water from trucks and the purchase of bottled water are common. Water is also commonly stored in roof tanks, which imposes both an additional cost and jeopardizes water quality. Many households also use pumps to make sure that water reaches the upper floors of houses, which imposes more costs on households. Low pressure and intermittent water supply are caused, among others, by intermittent electricity supply.

text: The quality of water service provision is poor. According to official figures from 2009, the average water availability per day was as follows: 22 hours in the North, 10 hours in the Bekaa, 8 hours in the South, and for Beirut-Mount Lebanon 13 hours in winter, but only 2 hours in summer. There is not a single village or city in Lebanon that receives an uninterrupted residential supply of water. Especially in summer, water shortages are common. For example, in

text: Nabatieh Governorate

text: water reached customers only three times a week in 2007. In Greater Beirut, water supply drops to 3 hours per day during the summer. According to the above-mentioned 2008 survey, the average Lebanese household received 6 hours per day in summer and 9 hours in winter. Only one quarter  of Lebanese households received water every day. The continuity of supply was best in the North where 59% said they received water every day in 2008. It was worst in Beirut where this share was only 10%. Poor water quality and intermittent supply impose high costs on households to cope with these deficiencies. Buying water from trucks and the purchase of bottled water are common. Water is also commonly stored in roof tanks, which imposes both an additional cost and jeopardizes water quality. Many households also use pumps to make sure that water reaches the upper floors of houses, which imposes more costs on households. Low pressure and intermittent water supply are caused, among others, by intermittent electricity supply.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Italy is characterized by mostly good services at prices that are lower than in other European countries with similar income levels. For example, the average monthly residential water and sewer bill in Italy is 20 Euro compared to 31 Euro in France. According to the OECD, water in Italy has been underpriced for a long time. With about 240 liter per day, per capita water use for residential uses in Italy is higher than in Spain or in France, where it is about 160 liter per day. Water resources in Italy are distributed unevenly, with more abundant resources in the North and scarcer resources in the South. Most water withdrawals are for agriculture and industry, with only 18 percent of water withdrawals made for drinking water supply. About one third of the water withdrawn for municipal supply is not billed to the customers because of leakage, malfunctioning water meters and water theft.

text: Water supply

text: and

text: sanitation

text: in

text: Italy

text: is characterized by mostly good services at prices that are lower than in other European countries with similar income levels. For example, the average monthly residential water and

text: sewer

text: bill in Italy is 20 Euro compared to 31 Euro in France. According to the

text: OECD

text: , water in Italy has been underpriced for a long time. With about 240 liter per day, per capita water use for residential uses in Italy is higher than in Spain or in France, where it is about 160 liter per day. Water resources in Italy are distributed unevenly, with more abundant resources in the North and scarcer resources in the South. Most water withdrawals are for agriculture and industry, with only 18 percent of water withdrawals made for

text: drinking water

text: supply

text: . About one third of the water withdrawn for municipal supply is not billed to the customers because of

text: leakage

text: , malfunctioning

text: water meter

text: s and

text: water theft

text: The water supply for the village and those close to SH8 comes from the Downlands scheme. Most of the district is served by the Albury Rural Water Scheme that supplies water for both stock and homesteads. Prior to these schemes houses would pump water from the rivers, or get it from an open water race that was built for stock and human use. Remnants of the water race supplying Mt Nessing Station (A very large farm or ranch greater than 8000 acres (32 km²)) can be seen on the Mt Nessing Golf Club's course. Water for the Albury Scheme is taken from a tributary branch of the Opawa River. This scheme was built in the late 1960s/early 1970s and uses no pumps - the system is driven by gravity. It was served by one low dam until 2000-2002 when another branch of the river was dammed to increase the water flow to the headworks. This was necessary as water flow was becoming too low in the original branch. Filtering for the scheme is performed by a long, dual channel trough that contains various grade of gravel with the coarsest at the bottom (Sand Filter). Little maintenance is required apart from periodic flushing of the filter by flowing water backwards through it.

text: The water supply for the village and those close to

text: comes from the Downlands scheme. Most of the district is served by the Albury Rural Water Scheme that supplies water for both stock and homesteads. Prior to these schemes houses would pump water from the rivers, or get it from an open water race that was built for stock and human use. Remnants of the water race supplying Mt Nessing

text: Station

text: (A very large farm or ranch greater than 8000 acres (32 km²)) can be seen on the Mt Nessing Golf Club's course. Water for the Albury Scheme is taken from a tributary branch of the Opawa River. This scheme was built in the late 1960s/early 1970s and uses no pumps - the system is driven by gravity. It was served by one low dam until 2000-2002 when another branch of the river was dammed to increase the water flow to the headworks. This was necessary as water flow was becoming too low in the original branch. Filtering for the scheme is performed by a long, dual channel trough that contains various grade of gravel with the coarsest at the bottom (

text: Sand Filter

text: ). Little maintenance is required apart from periodic flushing of the filter by flowing water backwards through it.

text: A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes:

text: A water supply system or water supply network is a system of engineered

text: hydrologic

text: and

text: hydraulic

text: components which provide

text: water supply

text: . A water supply system typically includes:

text: When the water supply is sufficient to the plant, the bulliform cells absorb water and due to the absorption of water, they become turgid  . When they are turgid, the leaf straightens up and it is exposed . The leaf straightening permits the loss of the water . Whereas on the other hand, at the time of insufficient water supply, these cells lose water and become flaccid due to the loss of water . When they are flaccid during the water stress, they make the leaf curled inwards so that leaf is exposed less .The curling minimises water loss . Hence, the bulliform cells minimise the water loss during the unfavourable or stress conditions.

text: Physical water scarcity results from inadequate natural water resources to supply a region's demand, and economic water scarcity results from poor management of the sufficient available water resources. According to the United Nations Development Programme, the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regions experiencing water scarcity, as most countries or regions have enough water to meet household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs, but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner.

text: Physical water scarcity results from inadequate natural water resources to supply a region's demand, and economic water scarcity results from poor management of the sufficient available water resources. According to the

text: United Nations Development Programme

text: , the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regions experiencing water scarcity, as most countries or regions have enough water to meet household, industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs, but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner.

text: Since 5 November, there has been a shortage of chlorine for water treatment due to Israeli blockades, increasing the risk of outbreak of water diseases. On 27 December, Israeli airstrikes extensively damaged two water wells, rendering a population of 30,000 Palestinians without water. On 2 January, airstrikes in the al-Mughraqa area damaged a main drinking water pipe, cutting off water supplies to 30,000 people in the Nuseirat Camp. The UN sums the situation that as of 2 January, 250,000 people in Gaza City and northern Gaza are without water supply; seven water wells were seriously damaged and cannot be repaired due to bombardments. As of 4 January, and as reported by the Palestinian Coastal Municipality Water Utility (CMWU) throughout the UN reports, 70% of the Gaza strip 1.5 million population have no access to water, in particular in Gaza City and northern Gaza. As of 6 January, 800,000 Palestinians have no access to water, and those who still enjoy water access face problems in purifying such water as well as risking additional danger of contamination due to waste water leakage. This situation lasts in the third week of the attacks where 500,000 Palestinians still have no access to running water, another 500,000 receive water for four to six hours only every five to seven days, and the rest receive water for four to six hours every two or three days. Five days after the unilateral lull, one fifth of the Gaza strip 1.5 million population has no direct access to drinking water and currently depends on water purchased from private suppliers. As of  26, 8 January days after the unilateral ceasefire, at least 70% of the water system is functioning, although this does not mean that everyone is receiving water due to localized damage. By 5 February, a month and 8 days since the beginning of the Israeli attacks, the CMWU reports that 50 percent of Gaza's 1.5 million population receives running water for 6–8 hours every second day; 30 percent of the population receives running water every third day; and ten percent of the population receives water every five days. Ten percent of the population does not receive running water and depends on tankered water. As of 9 February, the CMWU reports that 50,000 people do not have access to water and an additional 150,000-200,000 receive water every 5 or 6 days. According to the World Health Organization guidelines, 80% of drinking water in Gaza is not currently safe for human consumption. In light of the poor quality of water, the Ministry of Health and the UNICEF has stated concerns about the increased risk of diarrhea and other water-borne diseases in infants.

text: Since 5 November, there has been a shortage of

text: chlorine

text: for water treatment due to Israeli blockades, increasing the risk of outbreak of water diseases. On 27 December, Israeli airstrikes extensively damaged two water wells, rendering a population of 30,000 Palestinians without water. On 2 January, airstrikes in the

text: al-Mughraqa

text: area damaged a main drinking water pipe, cutting off water supplies to 30,000 people in the

text: Nuseirat Camp

text: . The UN sums the situation that as of 2 January, 250,000 people in Gaza City and northern Gaza are without water supply; seven water wells were seriously damaged and cannot be repaired due to bombardments. As of 4 January, and as reported by the Palestinian Coastal Municipality Water Utility (CMWU) throughout the

text: UN

text: reports, 70% of the Gaza strip 1.5 million population have no access to water, in particular in

text: Gaza City

text: World Health Organization

text: guidelines, 80% of drinking water in Gaza is not currently safe for human consumption. In light of the poor quality of water, the Ministry of Health and the

text: UNICEF

text: has stated concerns about the increased risk of

text: diarrhea

text: and other water-borne diseases in infants.

text: Continuity of supply. The 2015 Impact Report reports an average supply of 18 hours per day, up from 14 hours in 2006-07. Only in nine mostly small WSPs water is provided continuously 24 hours per day. In Nairobi water is provided on average for 18 hours a day and in Mombasa for 6 hours. Nonetheless, instances of water scarcity (defined as more than five days without or with insufficient water supply) still occur in Kenya. In 2006 in Kisumu over 40% of households (both poor and non-poor) connected to water mains reported scarcity. The greatest difference between the poor and non-poor was recorded in Nairobi, where poor households were more than twice as likely to say they experienced scarcity. A higher percentage of kiosk users reported scarcity than households with mains connections, suggesting that in times of scarcity kiosks are less likely to receive water than domestic connections.

text: Continuity of supply. The 2015 Impact Report reports an average supply of 18 hours per day, up from 14 hours in 2006-07. Only in nine mostly small WSPs water is provided continuously 24 hours per day. In

text: Nairobi

text: water is provided on average for 18 hours a day and in

text: Mombasa

text: for 6 hours. Nonetheless, instances of water scarcity (defined as more than five days without or with insufficient water supply) still occur in Kenya. In 2006 in

text: Kisumu

text: over 40% of households (both poor and non-poor) connected to water mains reported scarcity. The greatest difference between the poor and non-poor was recorded in Nairobi, where poor households were more than twice as likely to say they experienced scarcity. A higher percentage of kiosk users reported scarcity than households with mains connections, suggesting that in times of scarcity kiosks are less likely to receive water than domestic connections.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Kenya is characterised by low levels of access, in particular in urban slums and in rural areas, as well as poor service quality in the form of intermittent water supply. Seasonal and regional water scarcity exacerbates the difficulty to improve water supply.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Kenya is characterised by low levels of access, in particular in urban

text: slums

text: and in

text: rural areas

text: , as well as poor service quality in the form of intermittent water supply. Seasonal and regional water scarcity exacerbates the difficulty to improve water supply.

text: Water resources management in the country, in particular water quality, quantity and Watershed management faces major challenges today. Despite of the lack of systematic data limiting an accurate and detailed assessment of the scope of the problems, there is a consensus that: (i) the overall poor quality of surface, groundwater and coastal water resources is the result of a lack of waste water management and agricultural run-off, causing health problems that disproportionally affect the poor; (ii) water scarcity is a regional problem resulting from poor demand management in irrigation, urban water supply and tourist infrastructure in drier regions; (iii) weak watershed management leads to soil erosion and amplifies the damage and frequency of flooding; and (iv) the overall lack of solid waste management pollutes water sources, causes disease and is a nuisance for inhabitants and visitors alike. The DR government is in the process of reducing its role as main investor for water resources infrastructure and services provider decentralizing some responsibilities to local and regional government, water users organizations, and private companies.

text: Water resources management in the country, in particular water quality, quantity and

text: Watershed management

text: faces major challenges today. Despite of the lack of systematic data limiting an accurate and detailed assessment of the scope of the problems, there is a consensus that: (i) the overall poor quality of surface, groundwater and coastal water resources is the result of a lack of waste water management and agricultural run-off, causing health problems that disproportionally affect the poor; (ii) water scarcity is a regional problem resulting from poor demand management in irrigation, urban water supply and tourist infrastructure in drier regions; (iii) weak watershed management leads to soil erosion and amplifies the damage and frequency of flooding; and (iv) the overall lack of solid waste management pollutes water sources, causes disease and is a nuisance for inhabitants and visitors alike. The DR government is in the process of reducing its role as main investor for water resources infrastructure and services provider decentralizing some responsibilities to local and regional government, water users organizations, and private companies.

text: Alipore has two main water works. One is situated in the centre of the village and the other in the Karolia Maholla. There is a further water purification plant using advanced filtration technique, which supplies clean water for both drinking and domestic use to every household in the village.

text: Details about the housing in Almu are as follows. Of the 598 housing units in the town, 481 were permanent and 105 improvised (defined by the CSA as a "makeshift shelter or structure built of waste materials") with an average of 3.2 persons per house; 476 sheltered one household, 104 seven sheltered two and 18 three or more households. Concerning water supply and sanitation, residents of 117 units had running water obtained water from a protected well and 457 obtained it from a shared external tap; 94 had no toilet while 133 had a private flush toilet and 332 used a shared flush toilet. For bathing, 102 reported they had no bathing facilities in their house, 4 had a private bath tub, 125 had a private shower and 363 used shared shower facilities. Lighting for 547 units was by electricity while the lighting in 43 units was furnished by kerosene lanterns. The average rent for housing in Almu was reported to be 22.54 Birr a month, more than the average reported for the Region of 14.78 Birr but less than the average reported for the Zone of 36.19 Birr.

text: Details about the housing in Almu are as follows. Of the 598 housing units in the town, 481 were permanent and 105 improvised (defined by the CSA as a "makeshift shelter or structure built of waste materials") with an average of 3.2 persons per house; 476 sheltered one household, 104 seven sheltered two and 18 three or more households. Concerning

text: water supply and sanitation

text: , residents of 117 units had running water obtained water from a protected well and 457 obtained it from a shared external tap; 94 had no toilet while 133 had a private flush toilet and 332 used a shared flush toilet. For bathing, 102 reported they had no bathing facilities in their house, 4 had a private bath tub, 125 had a private shower and 363 used shared shower facilities. Lighting for 547 units was by electricity while the lighting in 43 units was furnished by

text: kerosene

text: lanterns. The average rent for housing in Almu was reported to be 22.54

text: Birr

text: a month, more than the average reported for the Region of 14.78 Birr but less than the average reported for the Zone of 36.19 Birr.

text: Tulsi Lake was built by damming the River Tasso, and redirecting the flow to the nearby Vihar Lake. Rain water from the catchment area of 676 hectares of Powai-Kanheri hill ranges drains into the lake. During the rainy season the flood flows out flows into the Powai Lake and further down into the Mithi River. The maximum height of hill in the catchment is about 400 m. The southwest monsoon sets in by mid June and lasts till September. The maximum rainfall is normally recorded in the months of July and August. The mean annual rainfall is reported to be 2500 mm.The plan to create the lake was conceived in 1872 A.D and construction completed 1897 A.D. It was designed as a backup for the Vihar Lake. The lake has surface area of 1.35 km² (135 hectares). The  average water depth is reported to be 12 m with a gross storage at Full Supply Level (FSL) of , out of which  per day are supplied to Greater Mumbai.The highest overflow level, recorded at the dam is 139.17 m (456.6 ft).This fresh water lake primarily fulfills the water requirement of the southern part of Mumbai.

text: Tulsi Lake was built by damming the

text: River Tasso

text: , and redirecting the flow to the nearby

text: Vihar Lake

text: . Rain water from the catchment area of 676 hectares of

text: Powai

text: Kanheri

text: hill ranges drains into the lake. During the rainy season the flood flows out flows into the Powai Lake and further down into the

text: Mithi River

text: . The maximum height of hill in the catchment is about 400 m. The southwest monsoon sets in by mid June and lasts till September. The maximum rainfall is normally recorded in the months of July and August. The mean annual rainfall is reported to be 2500 mm.The plan to create the lake was conceived in 1872 A.D and construction completed 1897 A.D. It was designed as a backup for the Vihar Lake. The lake has surface area of 1.35 km² (135 hectares). The  average water depth is reported to be 12 m with a gross storage at Full Supply Level (FSL) of , out of which  per day are supplied to

text: Greater Mumbai

text: .The highest overflow level, recorded at the dam is 139.17 m (456.6 ft).This fresh water lake primarily fulfills the water requirement of the southern part of Mumbai.

text: Directed a periodic review of the water supply problems related to drought which may be experienced at the Bayou Lafourche water supply reservoir in Louisiana, and to respond as appropriate.

text: Directed a periodic review of the water supply problems related to drought which may be experienced at the

text: Bayou Lafourche

text: water supply reservoir in Louisiana, and to respond as appropriate.

text: The Fall River Rural Water Users District Rural Water System Act of 1998 (S. 744 in the 105th Congress, enacted as Public Law 105-352) authorized the Bureau of Reclamation to construct a rural water system in Fall River County of South Dakota.  After years of drought, residents in the southeastern area of that county had been left without a suitable water supply, and many of them were forced to either haul water or use bottled water because of poor water quality.

text: Of the 3 billion growth in population projected worldwide by the mid-21st century, the majority will be born in countries already experiencing water shortages. As the overall climate of the earth warms, changes in the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, and runoff flows will be affected. Safe water sources are essential for survival within a community. Manifestations of the projected water crisis include inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 884 million people as well as inadequate access to water for sanitation and water disposal for 2.5 billion people.

text: Of the 3 billion growth in population projected worldwide by the mid-21st century, the majority will be born in countries already experiencing

text: water shortages

text: . As the overall climate of the earth warms, changes in the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, and runoff flows will be affected. Safe water sources are essential for survival within a community. Manifestations of the projected

text: water crisis

text: include inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 884 million people as well as inadequate access to water for sanitation and water disposal for 2.5 billion people.

text: The dam, described by the Water Corporation as "A strategic source of public drinking water for the Integrated Water Supply System (IWSS)," provides water to Perth, Mandurah, Pinjarra, Harvey, the Goldfields and agricultural supply, and has in the past has counted for 10% of Perth's annual water supply.

text: The dam, described by the

text: Water Corporation

text: as "A strategic source of public drinking water for the Integrated Water Supply System (IWSS)," provides water to Perth,

text: Mandurah

text: Pinjarra

text: Harvey

text: the Goldfields

text: and agricultural supply, and has in the past has counted for 10% of Perth's annual

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in Australia

text: water supply

text: Too much subsurface water can be counterproductive to agriculture by preventing root development, and inhibiting the growth of crops.  Too much water also can limit access to the land, particularly by farm machinery. In terms of access, most modern agriculture depends on the use of large machinery—tractors and implements—to prepare the seedbed, plant the crop, carry out any cultivation and applications during the growing season, and ultimately, to harvest the crop. Operating most machinery in excessively wet conditions may result in soil degradation because of excessive soil compaction.

text: A major boundary which affects effective water management is the highly variable precipitation levels of Australia – Australian rainfall is more variable than rainfall in the rest of the world since it is driven by the Southern Oscillation rather than by seasonal changes. The result is that for the same level of reliability of supply, dams in Australia need to be six times as large as those in Europe and twice as large as the world average to ensure water sources do not run dry during dry seasons.

text: A major boundary which affects effective water management is the highly variable precipitation levels of Australia – Australian rainfall is more variable than rainfall in the rest of the world since it is driven by the

text: Southern Oscillation

text: rather than by seasonal changes. The result is that for the same level of reliability of supply, dams in Australia need to be six times as large as those in Europe and twice as large as the world average to ensure water sources do not run dry during dry seasons.

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was introduced in the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989.  Under this legislation every ship entering United States waters has to prove evidence of its ability to pay for the consequences of oil pollution.

text: The

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: was introduced in the wake of the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: of 1989.  Under this legislation every ship entering United States waters has to prove evidence of its ability to pay for the consequences of

text: oil pollution

text: The state government assured farmers in the Kosal region that irrigation in the Hirakud command area would not be adversely affected by industrialization. However, the government has taken all steps to facilitate use of water for industrial use which was actually meant for farmers. Though the industries have huge financial resources to source their own water supply or to increase the water holding capacity of Hirakud, the government has not taken the necessary steps to improve water supplies to the villages and farms.

text: In the areas surrounding urban centres, agriculture must compete with industry and municipal users for safe water supplies, while traditional water sources are becoming polluted with urban runoff. As cities offer the best opportunities for selling produce, farmers often have no alternative to using polluted water to irrigate their crops. Depending on how developed a city’s wastewater treatment is, there can be significant health hazards related to the use of this water. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of pollutants. There is usually wastewater from kitchens and toilets along with rainwater runoff. This means that the water usually contains excessive levels of nutrients and salts, as well as a wide range of pathogens. Heavy metals may also be present, along with traces of antibiotics and endocrine disruptors, such as oestrogens.

text: In the areas surrounding urban centres,

text: agriculture

text: must compete with industry and municipal users for safe

text: water supplies

text: , while traditional water sources are becoming

text: polluted

text: with

text: urban runoff

text: . As cities offer the best opportunities for selling produce, farmers often have no alternative to using polluted water to

text: irrigate

text: their crops. Depending on how developed a city’s

text: wastewater treatment

text: is, there can be significant health hazards related to the use of this water. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of pollutants. There is usually wastewater from kitchens and toilets along with

text: rainwater runoff

text: . This means that the water usually contains excessive levels of nutrients and salts, as well as a wide range of

text: pathogen

text: s.

text: Heavy metal

text: s may also be present, along with traces of

text: antibiotics

text: and

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s, such as oestrogens.

text: Kalundborg Municipality has approximately 20,000 inhabitants, and its network is the most published example of Industrial Symbiosis. The history of Kalundborg Industrial Symbiosis activities began in 1961 when a project was developed and implemented to use surface water from Lake Tisso for a new oil refinery, to save the limited supplies of ground water. The City of Kalundborg took the responsibility for building the pipeline while the refinery financed it. Starting from this initial collaboration, a number of other collaborative projects were subsequently introduced and the number of partners gradually increased.

text: Kalundborg Municipality has approximately 20,000 inhabitants, and its network is the most published example of

text: Industrial Symbiosis

text: . The history of Kalundborg Industrial Symbiosis activities began in 1961 when a project was developed and implemented to use surface water from Lake Tisso for a new oil refinery, to save the limited supplies of ground water. The City of Kalundborg took the responsibility for building the pipeline while the refinery financed it. Starting from this initial collaboration, a number of other collaborative projects were subsequently introduced and the number of partners gradually increased.

text: Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It isestimated that 96.7% of households are connected to the sewer network. According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 megalitres per day in 2007. In England and Wales the economic regulator of water companies is the Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat). The Environment Agency is responsible for environmental regulation, and the Drinking Water Inspectorate for regulating drinking water quality. The economic water industry regulator in Scotland is the Water Industry Commission for Scotland and the environmental regulator is the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards in the UK, as in other countries of the European Union, are determined by the EU (see Water supply and sanitation in the European Union).

text: Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It isestimated that 96.7% of households are connected to the sewer network. According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406

text: megalitre

text: s per day in 2007. In England and Wales the economic regulator of water companies is the

text: Water Services Regulation Authority

text: (Ofwat). The

text: Environment Agency

text: Drinking Water Inspectorate

text: Scotland

text: Scottish Environment Protection Agency

text: . Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards in the UK, as in other countries of the

text: European Union

text: , are determined by the EU (see

text: The rock and sand layers were to aid drainage of excessive precipitation and were especially important in areas with abundant rainfall. At Machu Picchu, surface drains conveyed excess water to a main drain which supplied water to fountains and a domestic water supply canal.  In arid areas, such as the Colca Valley, where Andenes are still cultivated, water for irrigation is brought down from the snow melt of high peaks and springs via a complex system of canals and reservoirs.  Irrigation water is released from a reservoir onto the top-most anden and the overflow irrigates the lower andenes. If irrigation water is inadequate, agriculture on the lower andenes will fail. As strategies of risk management, farmers in the present day -- and probably in pre-Columbian times -- have up to 30 plots of land at different locations and grow a wide variety of crops.

text: Water quality is quite good in Chile and is recognized for outstanding water supply and sanitation systems. The National Commission of the Environment (CONAMA) set a goal to treat 95% of wastewater by 2010. Point source pollution from mining effluent and nonpoint source agricultural runoff is a problem as untreated water discharges into lakes, rivers, and aquifers. Chile has improved in this area since the 1980 declaration to 'live in a pollution-free environment'.

text: Water quality is quite good in Chile and is recognized for outstanding water supply and sanitation systems. The National Commission of the Environment (CONAMA) set a goal to treat 95% of wastewater by 2010.

text: Point source

text: pollution from mining effluent and

text: nonpoint source

text: agricultural runoff is a problem as untreated water discharges into lakes, rivers, and aquifers. Chile has improved in this area since the 1980 declaration to 'live in a pollution-free environment'.

text: Groundwater is a critical element of the California water supply. During a normal year, 30% of the state's water supply comes from groundwater (underground water). In times of intense drought, groundwater consumption can rise to 60% or more. Over  of water is stored in California's 450 known groundwater reservoirs. However, not all the water is usable. Over half of the groundwater is unavailable due to poor quality and the high cost of pumping the water from the ground. While surface water is concentrated mostly in the northern part of the state, groundwater is more evenly distributed.

text: Groundwater

text: is a critical element of the California water supply. During a normal year, 30% of the state's water supply comes from groundwater (underground water). In times of intense

text: drought

text: , groundwater consumption can rise to 60% or more. Over  of water is stored in California's 450 known groundwater reservoirs. However, not all the water is usable. Over half of the groundwater is unavailable due to poor quality and the high cost of pumping the water from the ground. While surface water is concentrated mostly in the northern part of the state, groundwater is more evenly distributed.

text: Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique is characterized by low levels of access to an improved water source (estimated to be 51% in 2011), low levels of access to adequate sanitation (estimated to be 25% in 2011) and mostly poor service quality. In 2007 the government has defined a strategy for water supply and sanitation in rural areas, where 62% of the population lives. In urban areas, water is supplied by informal small-scale providers and by formal providers.

text: improved water source

text: The source of virtually all freshwater is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain and snow, as part of the water cycle over eons, millennia and in the present day. Freshwater constitutes only 3% of all water on Earth, and of that, slightly over two thirds is stored frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present in the air, or on the ground surface.  Surface water is stored in wetlands or lakes or flows in a stream or river, and is the most commonly utilized resource for water.  In places, surface water can be stored in a reservoir behind a dam, and then used for municipal and industrial water supply, for irrigation and to generate power in the form of hydroelectricity. Sub-surface groundwater, although stored in the pore space of soil and rock; it is utilized most as water flowing within aquifers below the water table. Groundwater can exist both as a renewable water system closely associated with surface water and as a separate, deep sub-surface water system in an aquifer. This latter case is sometimes called "fossil water", and is realistically non-renewable.  Normally, groundwater is utilized where surface sources are unavailable or when surface supply distribution is limited.

text: The source of virtually all

text: freshwater

text: is

text: precipitation

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: , in the form of

text: mist

text: rain

text: and

text: snow

text: , as part of the

text: water cycle

text: over

text: eons

text: millennia

text: and in the present day. Freshwater constitutes only 3% of all water on Earth, and of that, slightly over two thirds is stored frozen in

text: glacier

text: s and

text: polar

text: ice cap

text: s. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly found as

text: groundwater

text: , with only a small fraction present in the air, or on the ground surface.

text: Surface water

text: is stored in

text: wetland

text: s or

text: lake

text: s or flows in a stream or

text: river

text: , and is the most commonly utilized resource for water.  In places, surface water can be stored in a

text: reservoir

text: behind a

text: dam

text: , and then used for municipal and industrial

text: water supply

text: , for

text: irrigation

text: and to generate power in the form of

text: hydroelectricity

text: . Sub-surface groundwater, although stored in the

text: pore

text: space of

text: soil

text: and

text: rock

text: ; it is utilized most as water flowing within

text: aquifer

text: s below the

text: water table

text: . Groundwater can exist both as a renewable water system closely associated with surface water and as a separate, deep sub-surface water system in an aquifer. This latter case is sometimes called "fossil water", and is realistically non-renewable.  Normally, groundwater is utilized where surface sources are unavailable or when surface supply distribution is limited.

text: The Water Splashing ceremony, however, is more than just good-natured fun; it also contains a religious element: water is regarded by the Dai as a symbol, firstly, of religious purity, but also of goodwill among people. Therefore, splashing a fellow human being with water during the Water Splashing Festival, whether a close neighbor or a fellow villager, or even a stranger, is an expression of the desire for good luck and prosperity to that person.

text: The issue regarding the quantity of water to be provided was further discussed in Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg. The case revolved around the distribution of water through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas of Soweto. This case concerned two major issues; the first being whether or not the city's policy regarding the supply of free basic water, 6 kilolitres per month to each account holder in the city was in conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act. The second issue being whether or not the installation of pre-paid water meters was lawful.It was held in the High Court that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply.  The court held the residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day. The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa and the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water.

text: The issue regarding the quantity of water to be provided was further discussed in Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg. The case revolved around the distribution of water through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas of Soweto. This case concerned two major issues; the first being whether or not the city's policy regarding the supply of free basic water, 6 kilolitres per month to each account holder in the city was in conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act. The second issue being whether or not the installation of pre-paid water meters was lawful.It was held in the

text: High Court

text: that the city's by-laws did not provide for the installation of meters and that their installation was unlawful. Further, as the meters halted supply of water to residence once the free basic water supply had ended, this was deemed an unlawful discontinuation of the water supply.  The court held the residents of Phiri should be provided with a free basic water supply of 50 litres per person per day. The work of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of the

text: University of the Witwatersrand

text: in Johannesburg, South Africa and the

text: Pacific Institute

text: in Oakland, California shared a 2008 Business Ethics Network BENNY Award for their work on this case. The Pacific Institute contributed legal testimony based on the work of Dr. Peter Gleick defining a human right to water and quantifying basic human needs for water.

text: Water shortage has always been a problem in Metro Cebu due to deforestation and seawater intrusion of the underground water supply. There was a proposal to acquire water from nearby Bohol island because of the water crisis in the metropolis.

text: Water shortage

text: has always been a problem in Metro Cebu due to deforestation and seawater intrusion of the underground water supply. There was a proposal to acquire water from nearby

text: Bohol

text: island because of the

text: water crisis

text: in the metropolis.

text: Direct experience with common problems of private water management has persuaded many communities and policy makers that the public sector is better placed to provide quality services to citizens and promote the human right to water. These problems with water privatisation include:

text: The Shickshinny Water Company used a stream in the Shickshinny Creek watershed as a water supply in the early 1900s. Little Shickshinny Creek has been used as a water supply for Shickshinny, as well as Mocanaqua. Agriculture has been a significant industry in the watershed in the past. The streams of the watershed also power small mills.

text: The Shickshinny Water Company used a stream in the Shickshinny Creek watershed as a

text: water supply

text: in the early 1900s. Little Shickshinny Creek has been used as a water supply for Shickshinny, as well as

text: Mocanaqua

text: Agriculture

text: has been a significant industry in the watershed in the past. The streams of the watershed also power small

text: mills

text: Generally speaking the more developed countries of North America, Europe and Russia will not see a serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources.  North Africa, the Middle East, South Africa and northern China will face very severe water shortages due to physical scarcity and a condition of overpopulation relative to their carrying capacity with respect to water supply.  Most of South America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern China and India will face water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes of scarcity will be economic constraints to developing safe drinking water, as well as excessive population growth.

text: Generally speaking the more developed countries of

text: North America

text: Europe

text: and Russia will not see a serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources.  North Africa, the Middle East,

text: South Africa

text: and northern China will face very severe water shortages due to physical scarcity and a condition of overpopulation relative to their

text: carrying capacity

text: with respect to water supply.  Most of

text: South America

text: Sub-Saharan

text: Africa, Southern China and India will face water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes of scarcity will be economic constraints to developing safe drinking water, as well as excessive

text: population growth

text: Major challenges of the EU concerning WSS are connected with modern pressures to the system. Climate change, demographic developments, urbanization, economic progress, social changes influence the water sector in many ways. The European Union is said to be very effective concerning water management and policies. However, especially the new member states located in Eastern Europe are in need of enormous investments in the WSS sector . The existing and foreseen problems are the lack of investments in the rural and municipal water supply which led to poor services (e.g. lacking water pipes, insufficient water availability during drought, etc.), the limited availability of water resources and simply a lack of time. Technologies are actually available but most of them are too expensive or far too time consuming to implement simultaneously with ongoing progress and changes. Water supply limitation counts as major concern. Research in this direction shows that water reuse and recycling are solutions for that in a long-term. Furthermore, expert's advices say that water supply and waste water treatment systems should be decentralised.Another challenge within the water sector in Europe is privatisation and lobbyism in the water sector. In France, recent problems emerged regarding the privatising of water supply companies.

text: Major challenges of the EU concerning WSS are connected with modern pressures to the system.

text: Climate change

text: demographic developments

text: , urbanization, economic progress, social changes influence the water sector in many ways. The

text: European Union

text: is said to be very effective concerning water management and policies. However, especially the new member states located in Eastern Europe are in need of enormous investments in the WSS sector . The existing and foreseen problems are the lack of investments in the rural and municipal water supply which led to poor services (e.g. lacking water pipes, insufficient water availability during drought, etc.), the limited availability of water resources and simply a lack of time. Technologies are actually available but most of them are too expensive or far too time consuming to implement simultaneously with ongoing progress and changes. Water supply limitation counts as major concern. Research in this direction shows that water reuse and recycling are solutions for that in a long-term. Furthermore, expert's advices say that water supply and waste water treatment systems should be decentralised.Another challenge within the water sector in Europe is privatisation and lobbyism in the water sector. In France, recent problems emerged regarding the privatising of water supply companies.

text: Although the EPA does not require testing for pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP)s in drinking water, the Portland Water Bureau monitors the Bull Run and groundwater supplies for their presence. PPCPs include prescription and non-prescription drugs for humans, veterinary drugs, vitamins, cosmetics, diagnostic agents, and other personal-care or pharmaceutical chemicals. When the Bull Run water was first tested for PPCPs in August 2006, the water bureau found an extremely low level, 9.2 parts per trillion of caffeine. Regulated contaminants are generally measured in parts per billion, which is a thousand times larger than parts per trillion. Tests of the groundwater in October 2007 found extremely low levels (25 parts per trillion or less) of acetaminophen, caffeine, ibuprofen, and sulfamethoxazole. Testing in April and May 2008 found no PPCPs in the Bull Run supply and trace amounts (18 parts per trillion or less) of estradiol and ethinyl estradiol in the groundwater supply. In August and November 2008, tests found no PPCPs in the groundwater supply.

text: Although the EPA does not require testing for pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP)s in drinking water, the Portland Water Bureau monitors the Bull Run and groundwater supplies for their presence. PPCPs include prescription and non-prescription drugs for humans, veterinary drugs, vitamins, cosmetics, diagnostic agents, and other personal-care or pharmaceutical chemicals. When the Bull Run water was first tested for PPCPs in August 2006, the water bureau found an extremely low level, 9.2 parts per trillion of

text: caffeine

text: . Regulated contaminants are generally measured in parts per billion, which is a thousand times larger than parts per trillion. Tests of the groundwater in October 2007 found extremely low levels (25 parts per trillion or less) of

text: acetaminophen

text: , caffeine,

text: ibuprofen

text: , and

text: sulfamethoxazole

text: . Testing in April and May 2008 found no PPCPs in the Bull Run supply and trace amounts (18 parts per trillion or less) of

text: estradiol

text: and

text: ethinyl estradiol

text: in the groundwater supply. In August and November 2008, tests found no PPCPs in the groundwater supply.

text: The Jordanians in Latrun cut off supplies to western Jerusalem. Though some supplies, mostly munitions, were airdropped into the city, the shortage of food, water, fuel and medicine was acute. The Israeli forces were seriously short of food, water and ammunition.

text: The Jordanians in

text: Latrun

text: cut off supplies to western Jerusalem. Though some supplies, mostly munitions, were airdropped into the city, the shortage of food, water, fuel and medicine was acute. The Israeli forces were seriously short of food, water and ammunition.

text: Where the water supply system cannot reach the slums, people manage to use hand pumps, to reach the pit wells, rivers, canals, swamps and any other source of water. In most cases the water quality is unfit for human consumption. The principal cause of water scarcity is the growth in demand. Water is taken from remote areas to satisfy the needs of urban areas.  Another reason for water scarcity is climate change: precipitation patterns have changed; rivers have decreased their flow; lakes are drying up; and aquifers are being emptied.

text: Where the water supply system cannot reach the slums, people manage to use

text: hand pump

text: s, to reach the pit wells,

text: river

text: s,

text: canal

text: s,

text: swamp

text: s and any other source of water. In most cases the water quality is unfit for human consumption. The principal cause of water scarcity is the growth in demand. Water is taken from remote areas to satisfy the needs of urban areas.  Another reason for water scarcity is

text: climate change

text: precipitation

text: patterns have changed; rivers have decreased their flow;

text: lake

text: s are drying up; and

text: aquifer

text: s are being emptied.

text: The household use is less than the supply, which includes industrial, commercial and public consumption as well as losses. In the Gaza strip, for example, the estimated average per capita supply in 2005 was 152 lpcd, but due to high network losses, the actual water use was only 60% of it, which would be about 91 liter. The minimum quantity for domestic use, recommended by the WHO is 100 lpcd.

text: The household use is less than the supply, which includes industrial, commercial and public consumption as well as losses. In the Gaza strip, for example, the estimated average per capita supply in 2005 was 152 lpcd, but due to high network losses, the actual water use was only 60% of it, which would be about 91 liter. The minimum quantity for domestic use, recommended by the

text: WHO

text: is 100 lpcd.

text: Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately  of water falls as precipitation each year;  of it over the oceans and  over land. Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is , but over land it is only . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.

text: Precipitation is a major component of the

text: water cycle

text: , and is responsible for depositing the

text: fresh water

text: on the

text: planet

text: . Approximately  of water falls as precipitation each year;  of it over the

text: ocean

text: s and  over land. Given the

text: Earth

text: 's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is , but over land it is only .

text: Climate

text: classification systems such as the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.

text: By the 1890s, mining development had increased to the point that there was a severe water shortage and the mines and the people fought for water. Emergency water supplies were shipped by rail from the Darling River. In 1891, the Stephens Creek Reservoir was completed by a private company. The cost of water was high but not excessive and people were willing to pay because the environment was arid. Another reservoir was built at Umberumberka, however variable rainfall meant supplemental supplies by rail and rationing was still needed.

text: By the 1890s, mining development had increased to the point that there was a severe water shortage and the mines and the people fought for water. Emergency water supplies were shipped by rail from the

text: Darling River

text: . In 1891, the

text: Stephens Creek Reservoir

text: was completed by a private company. The cost of water was high but not excessive and people were willing to pay because the environment was arid. Another reservoir was built at Umberumberka, however variable rainfall meant supplemental supplies by rail and rationing was still needed.

text: According to Maxwell Stamp PLC, in Kampala, the capital, those who receive piped water supply were "usually" supplied continuously for 24 hours per day in 2003. However, the National Water and Sewer Company acknowledged that parts of Kampala such as Kyaliwajala, Kulambiro and most places on hilltops suffer from chronic water shortages. In addition, some areas go without water for a week when repairs are undertaken. In other towns, most customers were supplied on more than five days per week. MWE indicated in 2006 that piped water in large towns is usually available for 20–24 hours per day.

text: According to Maxwell Stamp PLC, in

text: Kampala

text: , the capital, those who receive piped water supply were "usually" supplied continuously for 24 hours per day in 2003. However, the National Water and Sewer Company acknowledged that parts of Kampala such as Kyaliwajala, Kulambiro and most places on hilltops suffer from chronic water shortages. In addition, some areas go without water for a week when repairs are undertaken. In other towns, most customers were supplied on more than five days per week. MWE indicated in 2006 that piped water in large towns is usually available for 20–24 hours per day.

text: The forest lies perpendicular to the prevailing trade winds, a characteristic that leads to frequent cloud formation and abundant rainfall. Thus the rain forests carpeting Kohala are vital to the supply of groundwater on the island. The role of Kohala's ecosystem in supporting water flow has long been recognized. As early as 1902, US Forester E. M. Griffith wrote "Forest protection means not only increasing the rainfall, but more important still, conserving the water supply. The future welfare and agricultural prosperity of the Hawaiian Islands depends upon the preservation of the forest."

text: The forest lies perpendicular to the prevailing trade winds, a characteristic that leads to frequent

entity_section: Formation: how the air becomes saturated

text: cloud formation

text: and abundant rainfall. Thus the rain forests carpeting Kohala are vital to the supply of groundwater on the island. The role of Kohala's ecosystem in supporting water flow has long been recognized. As early as 1902,

text: US Forester

text: E. M. Griffith wrote "Forest protection means not only increasing the rainfall, but more important still, conserving the water supply. The future welfare and agricultural prosperity of the Hawaiian Islands depends upon the preservation of the forest."

text: Therefore, any particular unit of water becomes worth less to people as the supply of water increases. On the other hand, diamonds are in much lower supply. They are of such low supply that the usefulness of one additional diamond is greater than the usefulness of one additional glass of water, which is in abundant supply. Thus, diamonds are worth more to people. Therefore, those who want diamonds are willing to pay a higher price for one diamond than for one glass of water, and sellers of diamonds ask a price for one diamond that is higher than for one glass of water.

text: The area hosts three reservoirs: Pedda Cheruvu, de Cheruvu, Shai Kunta, and Kotha Kunta. There is a protected water supply scheme using the Borewell water. The water is supplied to the village households by pipelines.

text: Water shortage has become an increasingly difficult problem to manage. More than 40% of the world's population live in a region where the demand for water exceeds its supply. The imbalance between supply and demand, along with persisting issues such as climate change and exponential population growth, has made water reuse a necessary method for conserving water. There are a variety of methods used in the treatment of waste water to ensure that it safe to use for irrigation of food crops and/or drinking water.

text: Water shortage has become an increasingly difficult problem to manage. More than 40% of the world's population live in a region where the demand for water exceeds its supply. The imbalance between supply and demand, along with persisting issues such as climate change and exponential

text: population growth

text: , has made water reuse a necessary method for conserving water. There are a variety of methods used in the

text: treatment of waste water

text: to ensure that it safe to use for irrigation of food crops and/or drinking water.

text: The term "water" in the acronym WASH is generally understood to refer to water supply only, not e.g. to integrated water resources management (IWRM) or water resource management in agriculture.

text: The term "water" in the acronym WASH is generally understood to refer to water supply only, not e.g. to

text: integrated water resources management

text: (IWRM) or

text: water resource management in agriculture

text: Water restrictions are in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages resulting from drought. Depending upon the location, these can include restrictions on watering lawns, using sprinkler systems, washing vehicles, hosing in paved areas and refilling swimming pools, among others. Water restrictions in Australia are enforced by fines and for repeat offenders by reducing water supply.

text: The investments in the water and sanitation sector increased substantially between 2003 and 2005. In urban water distribution it increased from Dirham 0.9bn to 1.5bn, in rural water supply from Dirham 0.5bn to 0.8bn, in water production from 0.3bn to 0.6bn, and in sanitation from Dirham 1.1bn to 2.8bn. Overall investments doubled from Dirham 2.8bn (US$ 337m) to 5.7bn (US$ 687m). Per capita investment in water supply and sanitation thus stood at US$21 per capita and year, a relatively high level compared to other middle-income countries.

text: It will be important to refrain from irrigation (ground water or surface water) with poor quality water.

text: The poor indicated they were not so much concerned about the tariff charged by the private water companies, since it was much lower than the prices they had to pay to private vendors. They were much more concerned about the high connection fees to the network that were unaffordable for most of them. While wealthier residents use suction pumps and storage tanks to improve supply, poorer residents suffer more from low pressure and intermittent supply. Water vendors are not effectively regulated in terms of service quality and prices charged. Obtaining water from private wells or hydrants involves queuing of up to two hours and costs of 15,000 Rupiahs (US$1.66) per month and family. Bottled water was also frequently bought at a cost of up to 85,000 Rupiahs (US$9.44) per month and family. Water from wells is often polluted with bacteria and salty, with salt levels increasing in the Northern parts of the city closer to the coast. Groundwater in some areas has high iron content and needs to be filtered. According to the Jakarta Environmental Management Body 90 percent of groundwater was contaminated by metal, nitrate and e-coli in 2011. Boiling of water is frequent. Water from the public network, including at public hydrants, is sometimes only available for several hours per day and not always of good quality.

text: The poor indicated they were not so much concerned about the tariff charged by the private water companies, since it was much lower than the prices they had to pay to private vendors. They were much more concerned about the high connection fees to the network that were unaffordable for most of them. While wealthier residents use suction pumps and storage tanks to improve supply, poorer residents suffer more from low pressure and intermittent supply. Water vendors are not effectively regulated in terms of service quality and prices charged. Obtaining water from private wells or hydrants involves queuing of up to two hours and costs of 15,000 Rupiahs (US$1.66) per month and family. Bottled water was also frequently bought at a cost of up to 85,000 Rupiahs (US$9.44) per month and family. Water from wells is often polluted with bacteria and salty, with salt levels increasing in the Northern parts of the city closer to the coast. Groundwater in some areas has high iron content and needs to be filtered. According to the Jakarta Environmental Management Body 90 percent of groundwater was contaminated by metal,

text: nitrate

text: and

text: e-coli

text: in 2011. Boiling of water is frequent. Water from the public network, including at public hydrants, is sometimes only available for several hours per day and not always of good quality.

text: Challenges include poor quality and intermittent water supply (only 40% of those with house connections receive water continuously), the loss of storage capacity in reservoirs behind dams through siltation accelerated by erosion in the Aberdare Range, lack of access to adequate sanitation in slums where half the population of the city lives, blockages of sewers resulting in overflows, and unused capacity in the city's largest wastewater treatment plant in Dandora. Another problem is political infighting and corruption, leading to the firing of the entire Board of the Nairobi Water Company in 2009.

text: Challenges include poor quality and intermittent water supply (only 40% of those with house connections receive water continuously), the loss of storage capacity in reservoirs behind dams through siltation accelerated by erosion in the

text: Aberdare Range

text: , lack of access to adequate sanitation in slums where half the population of the city lives, blockages of sewers resulting in overflows, and unused capacity in the city's largest wastewater treatment plant in Dandora. Another problem is political infighting and corruption, leading to the firing of the entire Board of the Nairobi Water Company in 2009.

text: In April 2016 Deputy Minister of Energy Sattar Mahmoudi said that six major cities - Bandar Abbas, Shiraz, Kerman, Mashhad and Hamadan - faced acute water shortages, and water resources were under strain in another 450. Parts of Iran have faced droughts for the past 15 years.

text: "Way back in the early 90s, Jellyvision decided to test the waters of mainstream interactive entertainment by beginning a partnership with Berkeley Systems, of "Flying Toasters" fame. Berkeley Systems asked us if we could apply the concepts of a game show to an adult trivia game. Since no one at Jellyvision at the time actually liked trivia games, we tried to figure out how to make trivia questions fun and engaging to us. When we realized that it was possible to ask about both Shakespeare and Scooby-Doo in the same question, YOU DON'T KNOW JACK was born."

text: "Way back in the early 90s, Jellyvision decided to test the waters of mainstream interactive entertainment by beginning a partnership with Berkeley Systems, of

text: "Flying Toasters"

text: fame. Berkeley Systems asked us if we could apply the concepts of a game show to an adult trivia game. Since no one at Jellyvision at the time actually liked trivia games, we tried to figure out how to make trivia questions fun and engaging to us. When we realized that it was possible to ask about both

text: Shakespeare

text: and

text: Scooby-Doo

text: in the same question, YOU DON'T KNOW JACK was born."

text: The region is rather dry.  One of the main problems for people living in rural areas in the province is frequent shortages of water. Although there are some local supplies of water from wells and springs, water from these sources often becomes scarce during the long dry seasons.  In some villages local non-government organisations, some supported with international assistance, support small projects to improve village water supplies.

text: Chlorine is usually used (in the form of hypochlorous acid) to kill bacteria and other microbes in drinking water supplies and public swimming pools. In most private swimming pools, chlorine itself is not used, but rather sodium hypochlorite, formed from chlorine and sodium hydroxide, or solid tablets of chlorinated isocyanurates. The drawback of using chlorine in swimming pools is that the chlorine reacts with the proteins in human hair and skin (see Hypochlorous acid), and becomes chemically bonded. Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated.

text: Chlorine is usually used (in the form of

text: hypochlorous acid

text: ) to kill

text: bacteria

text: and other microbes in

text: drinking water

text: supplies and public swimming pools. In most private swimming pools, chlorine itself is not used, but rather

text: sodium hypochlorite

text: , formed from chlorine and

text: sodium hydroxide

text: , or solid tablets of chlorinated isocyanurates. The drawback of using chlorine in swimming pools is that the chlorine reacts with the proteins in human hair and skin (see

text: Hypochlorous acid

text: ), and becomes chemically bonded. Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated.

text: As the climate warms, it changes the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow and other factors that affect water supply and quality. Specific impacts include:

text: Within the government, the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Fisheries is responsible for setting national policies for water supply. Within the Ministry the General Directorate for Water Resources (Direction Générale des Ressources en Eau, DGRE) is responsible for water resources management and the General Directorate of Drinking Water Supply (Direction Générale de l’Approvisionnement en Eau Potable, DGAEP) is in charge of drinking water supply.

text: Oceans of Fun is Worlds of Fun's water park. It opened in 1982 as the world's largest water park. It is included with admission to Worlds of Fun, beginning in the 2013 season.

text: Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time, for example in lakes.At high altitude, during winter, and in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers.Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells.This water storage is important, since clean, fresh water is essential to human and other land-based life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply.

text: Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time, for example in lakes.At high altitude, during winter, and in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers.Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in

text: springs

text: , or more spectacularly in

text: hot spring

text: s and

text: geyser

text: s. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in

text: wells

text: .This water storage is important, since clean, fresh water is essential to human and other land-based life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply.

text: The development of a national water supply policy occurred in parallel with these developments. The Water Act 1945 had recognised the need for central government to supervise the statutory suppliers of water, and to be involved in the difficult issues of water supply. It had also recognised that the supply of water to non-domestic consumers was part of an integrated policy, and had introduced the concept of abstraction licensing. In many areas, pollution of rivers by sewage was a serious problem, resulting from rapid expansion of population, and little incentive to invest in sewage treatment works. The Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 1951 introduced discharge licensing, and with extra powers from a similar Act of 1961, tried to encourage local authorities to invest more in such works, but the Working Party on Sewage Disposal, which reported in 1970, concluded that there were over 3000 sewage treatment works which were performing inadequately.

text: The development of a national water supply policy occurred in parallel with these developments. The

text: Water Act 1945

text: had recognised the need for central government to supervise the statutory suppliers of water, and to be involved in the difficult issues of water supply. It had also recognised that the supply of water to non-domestic consumers was part of an integrated policy, and had introduced the concept of abstraction licensing. In many areas, pollution of rivers by sewage was a serious problem, resulting from rapid expansion of population, and little incentive to invest in

text: sewage treatment

text: works. The Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 1951 introduced discharge licensing, and with extra powers from a similar Act of 1961, tried to encourage local authorities to invest more in such works, but the Working Party on Sewage Disposal, which reported in 1970, concluded that there were over 3000 sewage treatment works which were performing inadequately.

text: More than one in every six people in the world is water stressed, meaning that they do not have access to potable water. Those that are water stressed make up 1.1 billion people in the world and are living in developing countries. According to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator, a country or region is said to experience "water stress" when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cubic metres per person per year. At levels between 1,700 and 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, periodic or limited water shortages can be expected. When a country is below 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, the country then faces water scarcity . In 2006, about 700 million people in 43 countries were living below the 1,700 cubic metres per person threshold. Water stress is ever intensifying in regions such as China, India, and Sub-Saharan Africa, which contains the largest number of water stressed countries of any region with almost one fourth of the population living in a water stressed country. The world's most water stressed region is the Middle East with averages of 1,200 cubic metres of water per person. In China, more than 538 million people are living in a water-stressed region. Much of the water stressed population currently live in river basins where the usage of water resources greatly exceed the renewal of the water source.

text: With modern development, the existing freshwater springs are no longer enough to supply water to the whole island. The water supply now comes mostly from Government wells. The major source of potable water for the island is groundwater, obtained from 14 active wells. Water is pumped from the wells, stored and allowed to flow by gravity to the various locations.

text: The Kenya water crisis is the current struggle that Kenya faces to supply clean water to its population. The human population depends heavily on water resources, not only as a drinking water but also for crops, agriculture and livestock and fishing. For example, wetland grasses are used to feed and keep livestock.

text: The Kenya water crisis is the current struggle that

text: Kenya

text: faces to supply clean water to its population. The human population depends heavily on water resources, not only as a drinking water but also for crops, agriculture and livestock and fishing. For example, wetland grasses are used to feed and keep livestock.

text: As a measure of volume, an acre-foot of water is equal to 325,851 gallons.  One acre-foot of water will, on average, service 2.5 single-family households per year.

text: Water should be used more efficiently in industry, which should use a closed water cycle if possible. Also, industry should prevent polluting water so that it can be returned into the water cycle. Whenever possible, gray wastewater should be used to irrigate trees or lawns. Water drawn from aquifers should be recharged by treating the wastewater and returned to the aquifer.

text: Water should be used more efficiently in industry, which should use a closed

text: water cycle

text: if possible. Also, industry should prevent polluting water so that it can be returned into the water cycle. Whenever possible,

text: gray wastewater

text: should be used to irrigate trees or lawns. Water drawn from aquifers should be recharged by treating the wastewater and returned to the aquifer.

text: In industrial process, the control of the quality of process water can be critical to the quality of the end product. Water is often used as a carrier of reagents  and the loss of reagent to product must be continuously monitored to ensure that correct replacement rate. Parameters measured relate specifically to the process in use and to any of the expected contaminants that may arise as by-products. This may include unwanted organic chemicals appearing in an inorganic chemical process through contamination with oils and greases from machinery. Monitoring the quality of the waste water discharged from industrial premises is a key factor in controlling and minimising pollution of the environment. In this application  monitoring schemes analyse for all possible contaminants arising within the process and in addition contaminants that may have particularly adverse impacts on the environment such as Cyanide and many organic species such as pesticides. In then nuclear industry analysis focuses on specific isotopes or elements of interest. Where the nuclear industry makes waste water discharges  to rivers which have drinking water abstraction on them, radio-isotopes which could potentially be harmful or those with long half-lives such as Tritium will form part of the routine monitoring suite.

text: In industrial process, the control of the quality of process water can be critical to the quality of the end product. Water is often used as a carrier of reagents  and the loss of reagent to product must be continuously monitored to ensure that correct replacement rate. Parameters measured relate specifically to the process in use and to any of the expected contaminants that may arise as by-products. This may include unwanted organic chemicals appearing in an inorganic chemical process through contamination with oils and greases from machinery. Monitoring the quality of the waste water discharged from industrial premises is a key factor in controlling and minimising pollution of the environment. In this application  monitoring schemes analyse for all possible contaminants arising within the process and in addition contaminants that may have particularly adverse impacts on the environment such as

text: Cyanide

text: and many organic species such as

text: pesticide

text: s. In then nuclear industry analysis focuses on specific isotopes or elements of interest. Where the nuclear industry makes waste water discharges  to rivers which have drinking water abstraction on them, radio-isotopes which could potentially be harmful or those with long

text: half-lives

text: such as

text: Tritium

text: will form part of the routine monitoring suite.

text: The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of the water supply companies in London, including minimum standards of water quality for the first time. The Act "made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of pure and wholesome water", and required that all water be "effectually filtered" from 31 December 1855. This was followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a worldwide precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe. The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was formed at the same time, water filtration was adopted throughout the country, and new water intakes on the Thames were established above Teddington Lock. Automatic pressure filters, where the water is forced under pressure through the filtration system, were innovated in 1899 in England.

text: The

text: Metropolis Water Act

text: introduced the regulation of the

text: water supply

text: companies in

text: London

text: Europe

text: . The

text: Metropolitan Commission of Sewers

text: Thames

text: were established above

text: Teddington Lock

text: . Automatic pressure filters, where the water is forced under pressure through the filtration system, were innovated in 1899 in England.

text: Gail Krantzberg, Professor and Director, Dofasco Centre for Engineering and Public Policy, McMaster University and United Nations University (UNU), argued that, "Our water infrastructure is becoming crippled, some would argue is severely crippled, and our institutions are not making the investments that we need in the face of demographic growth and the projections of climate change impacts on the hydrologic cycle." She explains that soft engineering, like reducing the amount of paving is not enough given the fundamental problem of old infrastructure inadequate in the face of storms that caused flooding in Calgary and Toronto in June and July 2013.

text: Gail Krantzberg, Professor and Director, Dofasco Centre for Engineering and Public Policy, McMaster University and

text: United Nations University

text: (UNU), argued that, "Our water infrastructure is becoming crippled, some would argue is severely crippled, and our institutions are not making the investments that we need in the face of demographic growth and the projections of climate change impacts on the hydrologic cycle." She explains that soft engineering, like reducing the amount of paving is not enough given the fundamental problem of old infrastructure inadequate in the face of storms that caused flooding in Calgary and Toronto in June and July 2013.

text: The Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry is in charge of water resources management, drinking water supply and sanitation in Namibia. Within the Ministry the Department for Water Resources Management and the Department for Rural Water and Sanitation Coordination are in charge of water supply and sanitation.NamWater is a state-owned bulk water supplier that operates dams, pipelines and water treatment plants throughout the country. Created in 1997, it provides and sells water to mines, as well as to municipalities which in turn distribute and sell the water to households, businesses and offices in their respective service areas. In rural areas, the Directorate of Rural Water Supply of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry is in charge of water supply and sanitation.

text: The Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry is in charge of water resources management, drinking water supply and sanitation in Namibia. Within the Ministry the Department for Water Resources Management and the Department for Rural Water and Sanitation Coordination are in charge of water supply and sanitation.

text: NamWater

text: is a state-owned bulk water supplier that operates dams, pipelines and water treatment plants throughout the country. Created in 1997, it provides and sells water to mines, as well as to municipalities which in turn distribute and sell the water to households, businesses and offices in their respective service areas. In rural areas, the Directorate of Rural Water Supply of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry is in charge of water supply and sanitation.

text: Only 11% of the surface water and 25% of groundwater of the exploitable water resources were utilized as of 1998. The National Water Commission (NWC) provides water to various supply systems from wells, rivers and springs. A total of 500 water supply facilities are operated by the NWC and supply 78% of total demand. Access to water supply in 1998 was available to 75% of the rural population and to 95% of those residing in urban areas. Access to water supply via house connections was available to approximately 65% of the population.

text: The challenges include poor service quality, in particular intermittent water supply that persists despite the availability of relatively abundant water resources; the slow implementation of the water reform; the separation of responsibilities between various entities such as the Council for Development and Reconstruction, which are de facto in charge of investment, and the Regional Water Establishments, which are in charge of operation and maintenance; limited institutional capacity in the public sector, and in particular the Regional Water Establishments; politicization of decision-making; the absence of an autonomous regulatory agency; poor information about water resources, sector performance and assets; a very low share of metering and the absence of volumetric water tariffs; a high level of water distribution losses; limited cost recovery for water supply; and no cost recovery for sewerage and wastewater treatment. These challenges persist more than two decades after the end of the Civil War.

text: Water, in absolute terms, is not in short supply planet-wide. But, according to the United Nations water organization, UN-Water, the total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is only about 200,000 km3 of water – less than one percent (<1%) of all freshwater resources. Usable fresh water includes water not contaminated or degraded by water-altering chemicals, such as sewage or any other harmful chemicals from continuous previous use. And, water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase in the last century. Specifically, water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50 percent by 2025 in developing countries, and 18 per cent in developed countries. One continent, for example, Africa, has been predicted to have 75 to 250 million lacking access to fresh water. By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions.

text: Section 12 of the Water Act 1973 stated that “where the area of a water authority includes the whole or part of the limits of supply of a statutory water company, the authority shall discharge their duties with respect to the supply of water within those limits through the company.”  The following two private statutory water companies continued to supply water as before within their limits as supply but only as "agents" of the water authority:

text: Section 12 of the

text: Water Act 1973

text: stated that “where the area of a water authority includes the whole or part of the limits of supply of a statutory water company, the authority shall discharge their duties with respect to the supply of water within those limits through the company.”  The following two private statutory water companies continued to supply water as before within their limits as supply but only as "agents" of the water authority:

text: Competition for water has widely increased, and it has become more difficult to conciliate the necessities for water supply for human consumption, food production, ecosystems and other uses. Water administration is frequently involved in contradictory and complex problems. Approximately 10% of the worldwide annual runoff is used for human necessities. Several areas of the world are flooded, while others have such low precipitations that human life is almost impossible. As population and development increase, raising water demand, the possibility of problems inside a certain country or region increases, as it happens with others outside the region.

text: Since the river is used as a municipal water supply, there is no human contact allowed at either of the Otay Reservoirs.

text: Improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the Millennium Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.

text: Improved sanitation

text: and

text: unimproved sanitation

text: refers to the management of human feces at the household level. This terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the

text: Millennium Development Goal

text: on sanitation, by the

text: WHO

text: UNICEF

text: Thailand cycles yearly between drought and flooding. Breaking this cycle was the subject of the "Sustainable Water Management Forum 2016" in Bangkok. The event hosted water management specialists from countries which have dealt with water management challenges such as the Netherlands, Israel, and Singapore. One attendee observed that, "In Thailand, we receive around 754,000 million m of rain per year. That is more than enough for the annual water demand of around 100,000 million m.... However, only 5.7 percent of rainfall, 70,370 million m, empties into the reservoirs."

text: 5.	Management of water resources - demand for water in the country is outstripping supply, leading to serious water shortages and unsustainable drawal of ground water in many parts of the country. Whereas we increase the amount of water that is effectively available, the real solution lies in increasing the efficiency of water use. At present, almost 80% of our water is used in agriculture, and it is used very inefficiently. Water use in agriculture can be cut to half with known technology, e.g., by switching from flood irrigation of paddy to SRI. Water availability can be improved by treating sewage water before it enters our fresh water system. At present, only about 30% of sewage water is treated. There are similar problems with industrial effluents. With urbanisation and industrialisation set to accelerate, these pressures on our fresh water systems will increase. Corrective action in all these areas lies largely in the domain of state governments. The Approach paper called for a comprehensive re-examination of water policy including changes in the laws. It also calls for empowered water regulatory authorities which can ensure effective allocation of water to different uses and also different areas. Some States have introduced innovative schemes for rational use of water by involving farmers actively. Future assistance under AIBP should be linked to moves which ensure more rational use of water.

text: Drinking water quality. Drinking water quality in Ethiopia varies. The most comprehensive picture of drinking water quality are the results of a national statistically representative survey of piped water supply, boreholes, protected dug wells and protected springs carried out by the WHO and UNICEF in 2004-2005. It shows that 72% of samples complied with the values for coliform bacteria in the Ethiopian drinking water standard ES 261:2001 and the WHO guidelines for drinking water. In the case of piped water supply by utilities compliance was highest at 88%. Open wells and unprotected springs were not included in the survey. Besides bacterial contamination, natural contamination with fluoride is an issue in the Rift Valley. The results of the survey confirm the results of routine monitoring undertaken in the laboratories of the Regional Water Bureaus and the Regional Health Bureaus. The latter results are archived at the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute. Interaction and exchange of information between regional health bureaus and regional water bureaus is poor.

text: Drinking water quality. Drinking water quality in Ethiopia varies. The most comprehensive picture of drinking water quality are the results of a national statistically representative survey of piped water supply, boreholes, protected dug wells and protected springs carried out by the

text: WHO

text: and

text: UNICEF

text: in 2004-2005. It shows that 72% of samples complied with the values for

text: coliform bacteria

text: in the Ethiopian drinking water standard ES 261:2001 and the WHO guidelines for drinking water. In the case of piped water supply by utilities compliance was highest at 88%. Open wells and unprotected springs were not included in the survey. Besides bacterial contamination, natural contamination with fluoride is an issue in the Rift Valley. The results of the survey confirm the results of routine monitoring undertaken in the laboratories of the Regional Water Bureaus and the Regional Health Bureaus. The latter results are archived at the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute. Interaction and exchange of information between regional health bureaus and regional water bureaus is poor.

text: The resource rich regions of the world like Australia are very familiar with the use of Grundfos pumps across a wide range of environments and applications in the Mining and Oil and Gas industries.  Proving more than up to the tough conditions of even the most remote locations and exceeding the expectations of the QLD,WA Australia and PNG Resources sector.  SP submersible pumps for dewatering applications, Dosing pumps, end suction, SP, booster sets, wastewater and solar powered solutions for set and forget requirements and many many other pumps for countless mining applications.  Circulator pumps are used for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning in private homes, office buildings, hotels, etc.  In industry, the pumps are used in processes, plant maintenance, and as built-in parts in Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) products. In the water-supply and wastewater sector, Grundfos offers pumps for irrigation, green houses and for municipal, private and industrial water supply as well as for sewage applications.

text: The resource rich regions of the world like Australia are very familiar with the use of Grundfos pumps across a wide range of environments and applications in the Mining and Oil and Gas industries.  Proving more than up to the tough conditions of even the most remote locations and exceeding the expectations of the QLD,WA Australia and PNG Resources sector.  SP submersible pumps for dewatering applications, Dosing pumps, end suction, SP, booster sets, wastewater and solar powered solutions for set and forget requirements and many many other pumps for countless mining applications.  Circulator pumps are used for

text: heating

text: ventilation

text: and

text: air-conditioning

text: in private homes, office buildings, hotels, etc.  In industry, the pumps are used in processes, plant maintenance, and as built-in parts in

text: Original Equipment Manufacturer

text: (OEM) products. In the water-supply and

text: wastewater

text: sector, Grundfos offers pumps for

text: irrigation

text: green house

text: s and for municipal, private and industrial water supply as well as for

text: sewage

text: applications.

text: El Niño, a weather phenomenon occurring about every two to seven years when warm water in the western tropical Pacific Ocean shifts Eastward, causing ocean temperatures to be warm, last developed in the country in late 2014. For the past several decades, it has been observed that its occurrence has increased due to climate change as a result of global warming. Its negative impacts may either be heavy rainfall or drought. El Niño greatly impacts the power supply, water supply, and agricultural sectors of the country. The reduced rainfall leading to drought causes shortage in water supply leading to the rationing of water in some situations, shortage in hydropower supply, and food supply.

text: El Niño

text: , a weather phenomenon occurring about every two to seven years when warm water in the western tropical Pacific Ocean shifts Eastward, causing ocean temperatures to be warm, last developed in the country in late 2014. For the past several decades, it has been observed that its occurrence has increased due to climate change as a result of global warming. Its negative impacts may either be heavy rainfall or drought. El Niño greatly impacts the power supply, water supply, and agricultural sectors of the country. The reduced rainfall leading to drought causes shortage in water supply leading to the rationing of water in some situations, shortage in hydropower supply, and food supply.

text: ***6)	Water Supply: Water is a basic need in human civilization without which human settlements may not function properly. Khawbung village claims itself to be the first village in having public water connection through bamboo-pipe and steel pipe. The first public water connection through bamboo-pipe was used in 1962. When Pu Ch. Saprawnga, the then Chief Executive Member of the Mizo U.T. visited the village in 1972, the village people had a dramatic show about the need of steel pipes. Then, the CM had given them steel pipes for public water connection.  The villagers by their own efforts constructed and got public water connection in 1972 from  Maumit Tui  which was 1.5 kilometres from the Public Water point. The water point was stationed at Zawlbuk the old site of Boys’ Dormitory from which the villagers used to draw water. In 1985 PHE undertaken pipe line for better water supply of the village was augmented for which the source of water was obtained from Samthang Zopui. Since the augmentation of water supply in 1985, public water points were given in different localities. In 2004, the second phase of augmentation was completed getting its source from Tan Tlang. However, due to the deforestation or shifting agriculture, the water resources have been decreased year by year. During dry season, water supply is not sufficient to meet the local needs. This may be also due to the increase in use of modern toilet and washing machines. Provisionally, the village has a separate PHE Sub-Division Officer. The Sub-Division Office was long time functioning at Champhai PHE Complex. Since 2012 S.Khawbung Water Supply Scheme for pumping R.Tuipui has been initiated and the first pumping test was carried on 20 December 2013 but failed due to leakage at Sasaw Kawn. It was a great pleasure that the pumping test was successful and the first water reached the main Reservoir at 11:45 a.m. on 21 December 2013. Then, S.Khawbung Water Supply Scheme has been successfully commissioned since January 2014. To undertake this project, Khawbung PHE Sub-Division Office was started functioning at Khawbung itself on 12th Sept 2012.

text: ***6)	Water Supply: Water is a basic need in human civilization without which human settlements may not function properly. Khawbung village claims itself to be the first village in having public water connection through bamboo-pipe and steel pipe. The first public water connection through bamboo-pipe was used in 1962. When Pu Ch. Saprawnga, the then Chief Executive Member of the Mizo U.T. visited the village in 1972, the village people had a dramatic show about the need of steel pipes. Then, the CM had given them steel pipes for public water connection.  The villagers by their own efforts constructed and got public water connection in 1972 from  Maumit Tui  which was 1.5 kilometres from the Public Water point. The water point was stationed at

text: Zawlbuk

text: the old site of Boys’ Dormitory from which the villagers used to draw water. In 1985 PHE undertaken pipe line for better water supply of the village was augmented for which the source of water was obtained from Samthang Zopui. Since the augmentation of water supply in 1985, public water points were given in different localities. In 2004, the second phase of augmentation was completed getting its source from Tan Tlang. However, due to the deforestation or shifting agriculture, the water resources have been decreased year by year. During dry season, water supply is not sufficient to meet the local needs. This may be also due to the increase in use of modern toilet and washing machines. Provisionally, the village has a separate PHE Sub-Division Officer. The Sub-Division Office was long time functioning at Champhai PHE Complex. Since 2012 S.Khawbung Water Supply Scheme for pumping R.Tuipui has been initiated and the first pumping test was carried on 20 December 2013 but failed due to leakage at Sasaw Kawn. It was a great pleasure that the pumping test was successful and the first water reached the main Reservoir at 11:45 a.m. on 21 December 2013. Then, S.Khawbung Water Supply Scheme has been successfully commissioned since January 2014. To undertake this project, Khawbung PHE Sub-Division Office was started functioning at Khawbung itself on 12th Sept 2012.

text: Poverty, lack of skills and lack of education continue to pose serious problems in Memel-Zamani. The Phumelela Municipality which provides basic municipal services in the area is greatly affected by this and thus it struggles to provide quality, basic services.  Some manifestations of this are; the towns water supply frequently dries up, muddy water regularly pumped into the towns water treatment facility and flowing out through taps in peoples houses, roads crumbling away, culverts being smashed by operators of road-graders, water meters being misread, accounting errors and poor communication with the community.

text: A supply of a good will be applied to most important wants first and least important wants last. When there is a shortage, all else being equal, the price increases. The smaller supply is being used for the most important wants, but is not being used for the least important wants. In this sense, we can say the increase in price represents the increase in value which the last unit of the supply is filling. Before water cost very little and was used for washing and watering plants. Now, since there is not enough for washing and watering plants and it is instead being used exclusively to drink and cook—the value we attribute to those activities is, in a sense, communicated through the higher price. The price reflects that importance of the last use of a supply—and in this case the supply was truncated to only allow for the more important uses.

text: Melbourne's air quality is generally good and has improved significantly since the 1980s. Like many urban environments, the city faces significant environmental issues, many of them relating to the city's large urban footprint and urban sprawl and the demand for infrastructure and services. One such issue is water usage, drought and low rainfall. Drought in Victoria, low rainfalls and high temperatures deplete Melbourne water supplies and climate change may have a long-term impact on the water supplies of Melbourne. In response to low water supplies and low rainfall due to drought, the government implemented water restrictions and a range of other options including: water recycling schemes for the city, incentives for household water tanks, greywater systems, water consumption awareness initiatives, and other water saving and reuse initiatives; also, in June 2007, the Bracks Government announced that a $3.1 billion Wonthaggi desalination plant would be built on Victoria's south-east coast, capable of treating 150 billion litres of water per year, as well as a  pipeline from the Goulburn area in Victoria's north to Melbourne and a new water pipeline linking Melbourne and Geelong. Both projects are being conducted under controversial Public-Private Partnerships and a multitude of independent reports have found that neither project is required to supply water to the city and that Sustainable Water Management is the best solution. In the meantime, the drought must be weathered.

text: Melbourne's

text: air quality

text: is generally good and has improved significantly since the 1980s. Like many urban environments, the city faces significant environmental issues, many of them relating to the city's large urban footprint and urban sprawl and the demand for infrastructure and services. One such issue is water usage,

text: drought

text: and low rainfall. Drought in Victoria, low rainfalls and high temperatures deplete Melbourne water supplies and climate change may have a long-term impact on the water supplies of Melbourne. In response to low water supplies and low rainfall due to drought, the government implemented

text: water restrictions

text: and a range of other options including: water recycling schemes for the city, incentives for household water tanks, greywater systems, water consumption awareness initiatives, and other water saving and reuse initiatives; also, in June 2007, the Bracks Government announced that a $3.1 billion

text: Wonthaggi desalination plant

text: would be built on Victoria's south-east coast, capable of treating 150 billion litres of water per year, as well as a  pipeline from the Goulburn area in Victoria's north to Melbourne and a new water pipeline linking Melbourne and

text: Geelong

text: . Both projects are being conducted under controversial Public-Private Partnerships and a multitude of independent reports have found that neither project is required to supply water to the city and that Sustainable Water Management is the best solution. In the meantime, the drought must be weathered.

text: In the nuclear power industry, water can also be used as a neutron moderator. In most nuclear reactors, water is both a coolant and a moderator. This provides something of a passive safety measure, as removing the water from the reactor also slows the nuclear reaction down. However other methods are favored for stopping a reaction and it is preferred to keep the nuclear core covered with water so as to ensure adequate cooling.

text: In the

text: nuclear power

text: industry, water can also be used as a

text: neutron moderator

text: . In most

text: nuclear reactor

text: s, water is both a coolant and a moderator. This provides something of a passive safety measure, as removing the water from the reactor also

text: slows the nuclear reaction down

text: . However other methods are favored for stopping a reaction and it is preferred to keep the nuclear core covered with water so as to ensure adequate cooling.

text: During the early phases of the Sangam period, people depended heavily on rains as the primary source of water for agriculture. But, increasing demand stemming from a growing population led to the development of better methods of irrigation. Since the rivers of the region were not perennial, the primary goal was to procure an adequate and continuous supply of water. Tanks, lakes and dams were important water storage systems that were developed for this purpose. Sluices and shutters were constructed for regulating water for irrigation. Sometimes, buckets made of reeds were used for watering the lands. In order to control the flooding of rivers, sand mounds were raised so that water could be diverted for irrigation. Direct irrigation from canals was possible on the basins of the Kaveri, the Periyar and the Tamaraparani. Kallanai, a dam built on river Kaveri during this period, is considered the oldest water-regulation structure in the world. Kaveri, Pennai, Palaru, Vaigai and the Tamaraparani were the major rivers spreading their fertilizing water on the fields of Tamilakam. Water stored in tanks and reservoirs was delivered to the fields through channels. There is a considerable amount of spring channel irrigation in the Palar, Kaveri and Vaigai beds. To raise a second crop, well water was very useful. People of this era knew how to divine the spots where there was flow of underground water and dug wells there. Men and oxen were used to irrigate the lands from well water. When water supply was limited and demand was more, it became the duty of the village authorities to distribute the available water in a proper way. Day and night watchmen were employed to guard the tanks and reservoirs and regulate the water supply. Surface irrigation, sprinkler mechanism and drip irrigation methods were followed to prevent wastage of water.

text: During the early phases of the Sangam period, people depended heavily on rains as the primary source of water for agriculture. But, increasing demand stemming from a growing population led to the development of better methods of irrigation. Since the rivers of the region were not perennial, the primary goal was to procure an adequate and continuous supply of water. Tanks, lakes and dams were important water storage systems that were developed for this purpose.

text: Sluice

text: s and shutters were constructed for regulating water for irrigation. Sometimes, buckets made of

text: reed

text: s were used for watering the lands. In order to control the flooding of rivers, sand mounds were raised so that water could be diverted for irrigation. Direct irrigation from canals was possible on the basins of the Kaveri, the Periyar and the Tamaraparani.

text: Kallanai

text: , a dam built on river Kaveri during this period, is considered the oldest water-regulation structure in the world. Kaveri, Pennai, Palaru, Vaigai and the Tamaraparani were the major rivers spreading their fertilizing water on the fields of Tamilakam. Water stored in tanks and reservoirs was delivered to the fields through channels. There is a considerable amount of spring channel irrigation in the Palar, Kaveri and Vaigai beds. To raise a second crop, well water was very useful. People of this era knew how to divine the spots where there was flow of underground water and dug wells there. Men and oxen were used to irrigate the lands from well water. When water supply was limited and demand was more, it became the duty of the village authorities to distribute the available water in a proper way. Day and night watchmen were employed to guard the tanks and reservoirs and regulate the water supply. Surface irrigation, sprinkler mechanism and

text: drip irrigation

text: methods were followed to prevent wastage of water.

text: Water scarcity or lack of safe drinking water is one of the world's leading problems affecting more than 1.1 billion people globally, meaning that one in every six people lacks access to safe drinking water. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation set up by the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) defines safe drinking water as "water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meets WHO guidelines or national standards on drinking water quality." Hydrologists generally assess water scarcity by looking at a population-to-water equation that treats 1,700 cubic meters per person as the national threshold for meeting water requirements for agricultural and industrial production, energy, and the environment. Availability below the threshold of 1,000 cubic meters represents a state of "water scarcity", while anything below 500 cubic meters represents a state of "absolute scarcity".

text: Water scarcity or

text: lack of safe drinking water

text: is one of the world's leading problems affecting more than 1.1 billion people globally, meaning that one in every six people lacks access to safe

text: drinking water

text: . The

text: set up by the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) and

text: United Nations Children's Fund

text: (UNICEF) defines safe drinking water as "water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meets WHO guidelines or national standards on drinking water quality."

text: Hydrologists

text: generally assess water scarcity by looking at a population-to-water equation that treats 1,700 cubic meters per person as the national threshold for meeting water requirements for agricultural and industrial production, energy, and the environment. Availability below the threshold of 1,000 cubic meters represents a state of "

text: water scarcity

text: ", while anything below 500 cubic meters represents a state of "absolute scarcity".

text: govern the release of pollutants into water resources, including surface water, ground water, and stored drinking water. Some water quality laws, such as drinking water regulations, may be designed solely with reference to human health. Many others, including restrictions on the alteration of the chemical, physical, radiological, and biological characteristics of water resources, may also reflect efforts to protect aquatic ecosystems more broadly. Regulatory efforts may include identifying and categorizing water pollutants, dictating acceptable pollutant concentrations in water resources, and limiting pollutant discharges from effluent sources. Regulatory areas include sewage treatment and disposal, industrial and agricultural waste water management, and control of surface runoff from construction sites and urban environments.

text: govern the

text: release of pollutants into water resources

text: , including

text: surface water

text: ground water

text: , and stored

text: drinking water

text: . Some water quality laws, such as drinking water regulations, may be designed solely with reference to human health. Many others, including restrictions on the alteration of the

text: chemical, physical, radiological, and biological characteristics of water resources

text: , may also reflect efforts to protect

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: s more broadly. Regulatory efforts may include identifying and categorizing water pollutants, dictating acceptable pollutant concentrations in water resources, and limiting pollutant discharges from effluent sources. Regulatory areas include

text: sewage treatment and disposal

text: industrial

text: and

text: agricultural

text: waste water management, and control of

text: surface runoff

text: from construction sites and urban environments.

text: Due to widespread illegal well drilling, Gaza’s sole aquifer has been over-pumped for years, resulting in the salinization of much of its water.  A 2009 assessment of a sample of 180 Gazan wells demonstrated that over 90 percent of them possessed chloride concentrations that were four times greater than the maximum amount suggested by the WHO. Gaza’s water supply has further been contaminated by waste water containing nitrate and pesticides, owing to a deficiency in Gazan waste water treatment capacity. A UN Environment Programme assessment of a sampling of Gazan wells demonstrated that nitrate levels in the drinking water exceeded the maximum amount suggested by the WHO by sixfold. Gaza’s waste systems are unable to effectively purify sewerage due to a scarcity of fuel and construction materials engendered by the ongoing embargo. Given their limited options, Gazans resort to drinking water deemed hazardous by the WHO for its high concentrations of salt, nitrate and other pesticides. The PNA’s Water Authority approximates that 25% of illnesses in Gaza are either directly or indirectly caused by unclean water. In the West Bank, only 69% of the towns are reached by a water network. Of these, less than half enjoy a constant supply of water without disruption. As in Gaza, waste water is a key pollutant in the West Bank as roughly 90% of Palestinian waste water their goes unprocessed, leaving much of the water supply contaminated. Human rights groups point to an aging water infrastructure and the inequitable division of water resources between Israeli settlers and Palestinians as the principal causes of water problems.On average, each person in Gaza consumes 91 liters of water per day, which is lower than the 100 liter minimum the WHO regards as necessary to meet baseline health needs. Water consumption in the West Bank averages to only about 73 liters per day per capita, lower than in Gaza because illegal drilling is not as prevalent.

text: Due to widespread illegal well drilling, Gaza’s sole

text: aquifer

text: has been over-pumped for years, resulting in the salinization of much of its water.  A 2009 assessment of a sample of 180 Gazan wells demonstrated that over 90 percent of them possessed chloride concentrations that were four times greater than the maximum amount suggested by the WHO. Gaza’s water supply has further been contaminated by waste water containing nitrate and pesticides, owing to a deficiency in Gazan waste water treatment capacity. A

text: UN Environment Programme

text: assessment of a sampling of Gazan wells demonstrated that nitrate levels in the drinking water exceeded the maximum amount suggested by the WHO by sixfold. Gaza’s waste systems are unable to effectively purify sewerage due to a scarcity of fuel and construction materials engendered by the ongoing embargo. Given their limited options, Gazans resort to drinking water deemed hazardous by the WHO for its high concentrations of salt, nitrate and other pesticides. The PNA’s Water Authority approximates that 25% of illnesses in Gaza are either directly or indirectly caused by unclean water. In the West Bank, only 69% of the towns are reached by a water network. Of these, less than half enjoy a constant supply of water without disruption. As in Gaza, waste water is a key pollutant in the West Bank as roughly 90% of Palestinian waste water their goes unprocessed, leaving much of the water supply contaminated. Human rights groups point to an aging water infrastructure and the inequitable division of water resources between Israeli settlers and Palestinians as the principal causes of water problems.On average, each person in Gaza consumes 91 liters of water per day, which is lower than the 100 liter minimum the WHO regards as necessary to meet baseline health needs. Water consumption in the West Bank averages to only about 73 liters per day per capita, lower than in Gaza because illegal drilling is not as prevalent.

text: Water supply in Cambodia is characterized by a low level of access in rural areas (66% in 2012) compared to relatively high access to an improved water source in urban areas (94%).  Within the government, urban water supply policy is the responsibility of the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy. Service provision in urban areas is the responsibility of two water utilities in the largest cities, the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA) and the Siem Reap Water Supply Authority (SRWSA), 11 Provincial Water Supply Authorities (known as PWWKs) as well as 147 smaller utilities. The Department of Rural Water Supply (DRWS) and Department of Rural Health Care (DRHC) of the Ministry of Rural Development are responsible for rural water supply for the smaller towns and villages with less than 1,000 households.

text: Water supply in Cambodia is characterized by a low level of access in rural areas (66% in 2012) compared to relatively high access to an

text: improved water source

text: in urban areas (94%).  Within the government, urban water supply policy is the responsibility of the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy. Service provision in urban areas is the responsibility of two water utilities in the largest cities, the

text: Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority

text: (PPWSA) and the

text: Siem Reap

text: Water Supply Authority (SRWSA), 11 Provincial Water Supply Authorities (known as PWWKs) as well as 147 smaller utilities. The Department of Rural Water Supply (DRWS) and Department of Rural Health Care (DRHC) of the Ministry of Rural Development are responsible for rural water supply for the smaller towns and villages with less than 1,000 households.

text: In England and Wales acceptable levels for drinking water supply are listed in the "Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2000."

text: The conventional impression is that private water systems, which sources groundwater from rural areas, produce higher water quality compared to public water systems. Studies have demonstrated that groundwater is vulnerable to antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which necessitates frequent water testing. However, critics like Charrois argue that inconvenience and time constraint impede regular testing in private wells and water systems, which poses risk of poor water quality to consumers.

text: The water was originally supplied by the Plenty River however the water quality was poor due to stock crossings and pollution from rural towns. The problem was solved by bypassing the Plenty River and diverting water from Wallaby Creek and Silvern Creek, both originating in the Great Dividing Range feeding the Goulburn River. This mountain water was captured in the Toorourrong Reservoir system, constructed in 1883–1885, and supplies water to Yan Yean via an aqueduct to this day.

text: The water was originally supplied by the Plenty River however the water quality was poor due to stock crossings and pollution from rural towns. The problem was solved by bypassing the Plenty River and diverting water from Wallaby Creek and Silvern Creek, both originating in the

text: Great Dividing Range

text: feeding the

text: Goulburn River

text: . This mountain water was captured in the

text: Toorourrong Reservoir

text: system, constructed in 1883–1885, and supplies water to Yan Yean via an aqueduct to this day.

text: UNICEF also notes that various non-harmful physical qualities of water quality (color, taste and smell) could also render water to be perceived as poor quality and deemed un-usable by its intended users.

text: UNICEF

text: also notes that various non-harmful physical qualities of water quality (color, taste and smell) could also render water to be perceived as poor quality and deemed un-usable by its intended users.

text: Baiganwadi is one of the worst-hit areas by water shortage in Mumbai. There is no proper water supply in the area. There are plenty of illegal water connections.

text: Water Supply and Sanitation in Zimbabwe is managed by a number of different governmental ministries and departments. The overarching organizations that control all water resources are the National Action Committee or NAC, and the Ministry of Water Resources Development and Management (MoWRDM). These groups directly oversee the WASH coalition, a combination of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations), UNICEF, and other private groups, that is chaired by the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, and which finances and builds sanitation and water supply systems in the hope of fulfilling the UN Millennium Development Goal.  In addition, the NAC and MoWRDM also oversee the Zimbabwe National Water Authority (ZINWA) which chiefly deals with water supply and distribution to the industrial, agriculture, and private sectors. ZINWA is subdivided into different areas of water catchment. Additionally, ZINWA oversees the 250 major dams in Zimbabwe. As well as this, the NAC is divided into two subcommittees, the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Committee and the Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Committee, which are composed of many different governmental agencies and are responsible for the planning and infrastructure of water supply and sanitation in rural and urban areas respectively. Local water distribution is overseen by local village or regional governments and sometimes by ZINWA itself.

text: The MetroWest Water Supply Tunnel (MWWST) is an advanced underground aqueduct that supplies potable water to residents of much of Greater Boston. It is part of the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority (MWRA) water supply system.

text: The MetroWest Water Supply Tunnel (MWWST) is an advanced underground aqueduct that supplies potable water to residents of much of

text: Greater Boston

text: . It is part of the

text: Massachusetts Water Resources Authority

text: (MWRA) water supply system.

text: A study of household water expenditures in cities under private and public management in the U.S., however, concludes that "whether water systems are owned by private firms or governments may, on average, simply not matter much."

text: Microcredit for water supply and sanitation is the application of microcredit to provide loans to small enterprises and households in order to increase access to an improved water source and sanitation in developing countries. While most investments in water supply and sanitation infrastructure are financed by the public sector, current investment levels are insufficient to achieve universal access. Commercial credit to public utilities is limited by low tariffs and insufficient cost recovery. Microcredits are a complementary or alternative approach to allow the poor to gain access to water supply and sanitation  Funding is either provided to small-scale independent water providers who generate an income stream from selling water or to households in order to finance house connections, plumbing installations in their houses, or various forms of on-site sanitation such as latrines. Many microfinance institutions still have only limited experience with financing investments in water supply and sanitation. While there have been many pilot projects in both urban and rural areas, just a small number have been scaled up. Individual credits are repaid in part through cost-savings as a result of having a water connection which can significantly lower a family’s average water expenditures, if it previously had to rely on much more expensive water sold by water vendors. Water credits can also generate additional income by spending time for productive purposes that was previously spent fetching water. Investments in sanitation provide health benefits that can also translate into more time available for productive work.

text: Microcredit for water supply and sanitation is the application of

text: microcredit

text: to provide loans to small enterprises and households in order to increase access to an

text: improved water source

text: and

text: sanitation

text: in

text: developing countries

text: . While most investments in water supply and sanitation infrastructure are financed by the public sector, current investment levels are insufficient to achieve universal access. Commercial credit to public utilities is limited by low tariffs and insufficient cost recovery.

text: Microcredits

text: are a complementary or alternative approach to allow the poor to gain access to water supply and sanitation  Funding is either provided to small-scale independent water providers who generate an income stream from selling water or to households in order to finance house connections, plumbing installations in their houses, or various forms of on-site sanitation such as

text: latrine

text: s. Many microfinance institutions still have only limited experience with financing investments in water supply and sanitation. While there have been many

text: pilot project

text: s in both urban and rural areas, just a small number have been scaled up. Individual credits are repaid in part through cost-savings as a result of having a water connection which can significantly lower a family’s average water expenditures, if it previously had to rely on much more expensive water sold by water vendors. Water credits can also generate additional income by spending time for productive purposes that was previously spent fetching water. Investments in sanitation provide health benefits that can also translate into more time available for productive work.

text: Nigeria's largest city Lagos is surrounded by water from the sea and a lagoon. Its clean water supply in the city is about 81.32%. But since the raw water in the lagoon is too polluted, the city gets its water from Ogun River and Owo River. The city's oldest water treatment plant, located in Iju on the Ogun River, was built in 1910. It was expanded in stages to 45m gallons per day. Another smaller plant was built at Ishashi on the Owo River in the 1970s. The biggest plant so far was commissioned in 1991 in Adiyan with a capacity of 70m gallons per day. It also draws from the Owo River. There are also seven mini-waterworks drawing from local sources with a combined capacity of 18m gallons per day. The Lagos Water Corporation states that the water produced in the plant meets the highest standards, and that it supplies "safe drinking water in sufficient and regular quantity to over 12.5 million people in Lagos State". However, water is often contaminated in the distribution network and people distrust tap water quality. Electricity supply interruptions prevent treatment plants from operating continuously. However, a dedicated 12.15 MW power plant was under construction in 2012 to supply power to the Adiyan, Iju and Akute water treatment plants.Households also source water from numerous private shallow wells. Or households rely on street vendors, creating a thriving market for “sachet water”, purified water packaged in polyethylene pouches. Water vendors called Mairuwa sell water from tanks and drums on carts, which is sometimes sold to other vendors that carry water in buckets or gerry cans. Access to water provided by the state Water Corporation is 'metropocentric' i.e., centred around the metropolis.

text: Nigeria's largest city Lagos is surrounded by water from the sea and a lagoon. Its clean water supply in the city is about 81.32%. But since the raw water in the lagoon is too polluted, the city gets its water from

text: Ogun River

text: and

text: Owo River

text: In spite of the fact that Kazakhstan is located northward between latitudes 42 and 55, the potential solar radiation is significant and may produce 1300-1800 kWh per square meter. Due to the continental climate the number of solar hours is about 2200-3000 per year, making solar energy use possible.The main area of solar energy use is the generation of hot water using solar collectors, or ‘suntraps’. According to estimates of local experts it is possible to generate about 13 million Gcal of heat for heating water supplies, allowing savings of more than 1 million tons of petroleum equivalent. The use of solar panels for heating water can be carried out both on boiler systems for a central heat supply and a heat supply for individual buildings. Now, with the support of UNDP and the Canadian Agency for International Development a pilot project is being carried out on the use of solar collectors in one boiler-house in Almaty.In Kazakhstan there is great demand for solar collectors to heat water. However, they have not yet found wide application due to their high cost, at around 200-300 USD per 1 sq. meter. However it is possible to significantly decrease the cost and expand the scale of their application if the solar collectors can be produced locally.The other area of potential solar power use is the generation of electricity with the help of photo¬electric converters. Photo-electric panels can be used to generate electricity in small quantities for such needs as illumination, tele-radio broadcasting on small agricultural farms and shepherd camps. According to estimates from research conducted under the framework of ESMAP, application of small solar photo-electric panels with batteries can work out even more economical than the use of kerosene lamps for lighting. The possible market for 20-watt solar photo-electric panels in Kazakhstan should be about 20,000 units.There are also opportunities for photo-electric panels’ application to operate small electric pumps to raise water from underground wells. A combination of photo-electric panels and wind-driven power plants for water pumps is also possible and will increase the reliability of water-supply. With the UNDP framework it is planned to implement a pilot project on water supply in remote areas in the Aral region, using photo-electric panels and wind-driven power plants which will produce electricity for pumps and a desalinization plant for preparation of potable water. The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, MEP, and the Ministry of Education and Science are jointly developing a Programme on “Energy Saving and Development of Alternative Sources of Energy”.

text: In spite of the fact that

text: Kazakhstan

text: is located northward between latitudes 42 and 55, the potential solar radiation is significant and may produce 1300-1800 kWh per square meter. Due to the continental climate the number of solar hours is about 2200-3000 per year, making

text: solar energy

text: use possible.The main area of solar energy use is the generation of hot water using solar collectors, or ‘suntraps’. According to estimates of local experts it is possible to generate about 13 million Gcal of heat for heating water supplies, allowing savings of more than 1 million tons of petroleum equivalent. The use of solar panels for heating water can be carried out both on boiler systems for a central heat supply and a heat supply for individual buildings. Now, with the support of UNDP and the Canadian Agency for International Development a pilot project is being carried out on the use of solar collectors in one boiler-house in Almaty.In

text: Kazakhstan

text: A 2003 report released by the Federation of Consumer Associations (FCA) found that much of the drinking water in Kolkata was polluted with human waste. According to this report, 87% of reservoirs supplying water to residential buildings were contaminated with human excrement. There were significant traces of faecal matter in 63% of faucets, and 20% of the water samples collected from various city hospitals were also found to be contaminated. The study reported that approximately one-fifth of the deep water wells and hand pumps operated by the Kolkata Municipal Corporation were polluted with human waste. The former director of the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health blamed the ongoing water pollution on a leaky sewer system and water pressure inconsistencies.

text: A 2003 report released by the Federation of Consumer Associations (FCA) found that much of the

text: drinking water

text: in Kolkata was polluted with

text: human waste

text: . According to this report, 87% of reservoirs supplying water to residential buildings were contaminated with human excrement. There were significant traces of faecal matter in 63% of faucets, and 20% of the water samples collected from various city hospitals were also found to be contaminated. The study reported that approximately one-fifth of the

text: deep water wells

text: and

text: hand pump

text: s operated by the

text: Kolkata Municipal Corporation

text: were polluted with human waste. The former director of the

entity_name: All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health

text: All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health

text: blamed the ongoing water pollution on a leaky sewer system and water pressure inconsistencies.

text: Hydronic systems are usually connected to a water supply (such as the public water supply). An automatic valve regulates the amount of water in the system and also prevents backflow of system water (and any water treatment chemicals) into the water supply.

text: Hydronic systems are usually connected to a water supply (such as the public water supply). An automatic valve regulates the amount of water in the system and also prevents

text: backflow

text: of system water (and any water treatment chemicals) into the water supply.

text: Until a few decades ago, Australia met its demands for water by drawing freshwater from dams and water catchments. However, during 2000-2010 a significant lack of rainfall drained water reservoirs. The most affected cities were the capitals, where there is high uncertainty in water supply and demand. In 2007, Sydney, the capital city of New South Wales, experienced a dramatic drop of its main dam Warragamba, where water levels dropped to 33% of normal.

text: Until a few decades ago, Australia met its demands for water by drawing freshwater from

text: dam

text: s and

text: water catchments

text: . However, during 2000-2010 a significant lack of rainfall drained

text: water reservoir

text: s. The most affected cities were the capitals, where there is high uncertainty in water supply and demand. In 2007,

text: Sydney

text: , the capital city of

text: New South Wales

text: , experienced a dramatic drop of its main dam

text: Warragamba

text: , where water levels dropped to 33% of normal.

text: Only 22% of urban residents in Algeria receive water 24 hours per day. 34% receive water only once per day, 24% every second day and 14% only every third day. In some regions water only comes every 10 days, such as in the Bouzeguène District and other districts in the Kabylie region. These shortages are not due to drought or water scarcity, but to poor execution and lack of completion of works, poor maintenance and numerous illegal connections to the network. Residents store water in tanks or jerry cans in their houses, or fill up jerry cans at water towers particularly during the summer. In Setif in Northeastern Algeria water shortages have led to protests and clashes with the police. In contrast, in Algiers continuous water supply was established with the help of a French private company, SUEZ, in 2011.

text: Only 22% of urban residents in Algeria receive water 24 hours per day. 34% receive water only once per day, 24% every second day and 14% only every third day. In some regions water only comes every 10 days, such as in the

text: Bouzeguène District

text: and other districts in the

text: Kabylie

text: region. These shortages are not due to drought or water scarcity, but to poor execution and lack of completion of works, poor maintenance and numerous illegal connections to the network. Residents store water in tanks or jerry cans in their houses, or fill up jerry cans at water towers particularly during the summer. In

text: Setif

text: in Northeastern Algeria water shortages have led to protests and clashes with the police. In contrast, in Algiers continuous water supply was established with the help of a French private company, SUEZ, in 2011.

text: There are some technical challenges in water reuse, among which are making start-up more economical, questions about water quality standards, long-term effects of pharmaceutical and household chemicals leftover in the water after treatment, and a lack of infrastructure to grow water reuse. To date there have been no adverse affects to humans from water reuse contact or consumption, but there remains concern for long-term effects of endocrine disrupters, pharmaceuticals, household chemicals, and personal care products in reused water. Treating water to the level that would be free of these contaminants is expensive, and for recycled water that is introduced into a groundwater aquifer it would include the use of multiple barriers and mediums for removal of the microbiological and chemical contaminants. Furthermore, all wastewater that is added to the groundwater supply must be highly treated just in case it has these potentially dangerous contaminants. Monitoring is a critical step in these processes as well. There is some thought that a better alternative to preemptively highly treating all water in case of contaminants for use in the drinking water supply would be a dual piping system where gray and black water are kept separate from the initial point of disposal to the treatment phase and using the previously black water for non-potable reuses as it is more likely to have higher concentrations of the potentially more harmful contaminants. This however requires new infrastructure which too is costly. The general consensus is that new infrastructure will be required regardless moving into the next few decades.

text: At the 2000 Millennium Summit, the United Nations addressed the effects of economic water scarcity by making increased access to safe drinking water an international development goal. During this time, they drafted the Millennium Development Goals and all 189 UN members agreed on eight goals. MDG 7 sets a target for reducing the proportion of the population without sustainable safe drinking water access by half by 2015. This would mean that more than 600 million people would gain access to a safe source of drinking water. In 2016, the  Sustainable Development Goals replace the Millennium Development Goals.

text: At the 2000

text: Millennium Summit

text: , the United Nations addressed the effects of economic water scarcity by making increased access to safe drinking water an international development goal. During this time, they drafted the Millennium Development Goals and all 189 UN members agreed on eight goals. MDG 7 sets a target for reducing the proportion of the population without sustainable safe drinking water access by half by 2015. This would mean that more than 600 million people would gain access to a safe source of drinking water. In 2016, the

text: Sustainable Development Goals

text: replace the Millennium Development Goals.

text: The course itself, which has changed distance, route, and elevation many times since its inaugural run in 1986, currently consists of a  unmarked loop with no aid stations except water at two points along the route and the runner's parked car at the beginning of the loop. Runners of the 100-mile version run this loop five times, running loops two and four in darkness, taking a counterclockwise direction for loops three and four, followed by each runner alternating direction on loop five, after the  first-placed runner's choice. Runners of the 60-mile "fun run" complete three circuits of the loop.

text: The course itself, which has changed distance, route, and elevation many times since its inaugural run in 1986, currently consists of a  unmarked loop with no

text: aid station

text: s except water at two points along the route and the runner's parked car at the beginning of the loop. Runners of the 100-mile version run this loop five times, running loops two and four in darkness, taking a counterclockwise direction for loops three and four, followed by each runner alternating direction on loop five, after the  first-placed runner's choice. Runners of the 60-mile "fun run" complete three circuits of the loop.

text: Municipal water supply in the Puget Sound metropolitan area is dependent on the rainfall which is in part attributed to the presence of the Chehalis Gap. The unique climate and topography of the Puget Sound region mean that water from weather systems from the Pacific, particularly winter storms, falls preferentially in southwestern facing, elevated areas exposed to moist Pacific air, especially where the gap causes an "anti" rain shadow. Seattle, and Everett and Bremerton all have municipal reservoirs in the hills surrounding each city, sometimes tens of miles (kilometers) away.

text: Municipal water supply

text: in the Puget Sound metropolitan area is dependent on the rainfall which is in part attributed to the presence of the Chehalis Gap. The unique climate and topography of the Puget Sound region mean that water from weather systems from the Pacific, particularly winter storms, falls preferentially in southwestern facing, elevated areas exposed to moist Pacific air, especially where the gap causes an "anti"

text: rain shadow

text: . Seattle, and

text: Everett

text: and

text: Bremerton

text: all have municipal reservoirs in the hills surrounding each city, sometimes tens of miles (kilometers) away.

text: Increases in water-use efficiency are commonly cited as a response mechanism of plants to moderate to severe soil water deficits, and has been the focus of many programs that seek to increase crop tolerance of drought. However, there is some question as to the benefit of increased water-use efficiency of plants in agricultural systems, as the processes of increased yield production and decreased transpirational water loss (that is, the main driver of increases in water-use efficiency) are fundamentally opposed. If there existed a situation where water deficit induced lower transpirational rates without simultaneously decreasing photosynthetic rates and biomass production, then water-use efficiency would be both greatly improved and a desired trait in crop production.

text: Increases in water-use efficiency are commonly cited as a response mechanism of plants to moderate to severe

text: soil

text: water deficits, and has been the focus of many programs that seek to increase

text: crop

text: tolerance of

text: drought

text: . However, there is some question as to the benefit of increased water-use efficiency of plants in

text: agricultural systems

text: , as the processes of increased yield production and decreased transpirational water loss (that is, the main driver of increases in water-use efficiency) are fundamentally opposed. If there existed a situation where water deficit induced lower transpirational rates without simultaneously decreasing photosynthetic rates and biomass production, then water-use efficiency would be both greatly improved and a desired trait in

text: crop production

text: In 2006, emergency plans for placing fully treated recycled water from the Western Corridor Recycled Water Scheme into the dam to supplement supply were made public. Sixty million litres of recycled water were to be pumped into the dam by early 2009. Increasing rainfall from 2008 and a public outcry over water quality issues resulted in the plan for recycled water to enter the region's drinking water supply to be cancelled.

text: In 2006, emergency plans for placing fully treated recycled water from the

text: Western Corridor Recycled Water Scheme

text: into the dam to supplement supply were made public. Sixty million litres of recycled water were to be pumped into the dam by early 2009. Increasing rainfall from 2008 and a public outcry over water quality issues resulted in the plan for recycled water to enter the region's drinking water supply to be cancelled.

text: The organ is supplied with water from three Pentair pumps, supplying water at a rate of , each by way of a  diameter water line, as well as air from three Ingersol Rand four-cylinder air compressors, each having a  motor. Since the instrument runs on both air and water, it may be regarded as a hybrid hydraulophone and pneumatophone, but because it is played by blocking water jets rather than air holes, it is principally a hydraulophone.

text: Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability. Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.

text: Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability. Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the

text: human population

text: as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.

text: Despite the pollution of the Meža and Drava rivers, water supply has never been a problem. Clean water is abundant due to the mountainous terrain with its impermeable rock. Almost every farm in the mountains has its own water supply system, and the settlements in the valleys are connected to municipal water supply systems.

text: The forests of the mountains provide the water catchment areas for the streams and rivers. This water flows mainly from the forest-capped peaks of the Ulugurus with the streams joining to form the Ruvu river, which provides the water supply to the city of Dar es Salaam. Most of the neighboring population, around 3 million people, and the major industries in Tanzania rely on this water supply for their continued survival. The loss of the Uluguru forests and any reduction in water supply potential of the mountains could therefore have a drastic impact on the human well-being and the industrial capacity of Tanzania.

text: The forests of the mountains provide the water catchment areas for the streams and rivers. This water flows mainly from the forest-capped peaks of the Ulugurus with the streams joining to form the

text: Ruvu river

text: , which provides the water supply to the city of

text: Dar es Salaam

text: . Most of the neighboring population, around 3 million people, and the major industries in Tanzania rely on this water supply for their continued survival. The loss of the Uluguru forests and any reduction in water supply potential of the mountains could therefore have a drastic impact on the human well-being and the industrial capacity of Tanzania.

text: The city's water supply and sewage treatment are managed by the Chennai MetroWater Supply and Sewage Board. Water is drawn from Red Hills Lake and Chembarambakkam Lake, the primary water reservoirs of the city, and treated at water treatment plants located at Kilpauk, Puzhal, Chembarambakkam and supplied to the city through 27 water distribution stations. The city receives 530 mld of water from Krishna River through Telugu Ganga project, 180 mld of water from the Veeranam lake project and 100 mld of water from the Minjur desalination plant, the country's largest sea water desalination plant. However, Chennai is predicted to face a huge deficit of 713 million litres per day (MLD) in 2026 as the demand is projected at 2,248 MLD and supply estimated at only 1,535 MLD. The city's sewer system was designed in 1910, with some modifications in 1958. There are 714 public toilets in the city managed by the city corporation, and 2,000 more have been planned by the corporation. The corporation also owns 52 community halls across the city.

text: The city's water supply and sewage treatment are managed by the

text: Chennai MetroWater Supply and Sewage Board

text: . Water is drawn from

text: Red Hills Lake

text: and

text: Chembarambakkam Lake

text: , the primary water reservoirs of the city, and treated at water treatment plants located at Kilpauk, Puzhal, Chembarambakkam and supplied to the city through 27 water distribution stations. The city receives 530 mld of water from

text: Krishna River

text: through

text: Telugu Ganga project

text: , 180 mld of water from the

text: Veeranam

text: lake project and 100 mld of water from the Minjur desalination plant, the country's largest sea water

text: desalination

text: plant. However, Chennai is predicted to face a huge deficit of 713 million litres per day (MLD) in 2026 as the demand is projected at 2,248 MLD and supply estimated at only 1,535 MLD. The city's sewer system was designed in 1910, with some modifications in 1958. There are 714 public toilets in the city managed by the city corporation, and 2,000 more have been planned by the corporation. The corporation also owns 52 community halls across the city.

text: The Kiev Water Museum (official name the Water-Information Centre) is an educational centre that occupies one of the buildings from the early centralised water-supply system in the city which was built at the middle of the 19th century. It is located in Khreshchaty Park. The Water-Information Centre gives information about water resources and their rational consumption. The exhibition demonstrates the history of Kiev's water supply system, water treatment and waste water treatment in contemporary Kiev while also showing water's role in people's activities using interesting and interactive examples.

text: The Kiev Water Museum (official name the Water-Information Centre) is an educational centre that occupies one of the buildings from the early centralised water-supply system in the city which was built at the middle of the 19th century. It is located in

text: Khreshchaty Park

text: . The Water-Information Centre gives information about water resources and their rational consumption. The exhibition demonstrates the history of Kiev's

text: water supply

text: system,

text: water treatment

text: and

text: waste water treatment

text: in contemporary Kiev while also showing water's role in people's activities using interesting and interactive examples.

text: Before the development of aqueduct technology, Romans, like most of their contemporaries in the ancient world, relied on local water sources such as springs and streams, supplemented by groundwater from privately or publicly owned wells, and by seasonal rain-water drained from rooftops into storage jars and cisterns. The reliance of ancient communities upon such water resources restricted their potential growth. Rome's aqueducts were not strictly Roman inventions – their engineers would have been familiar with the water-management technologies of Rome's Etruscan and Greek allies – but they proved conspicuously successful. By the early Imperial era, the city's aqueducts supported a population of over a million, and an extravagant water supply for public amenities had become a fundamental part of Roman life. The run-off of aqueduct water scoured the sewers of cities and towns. Water from aqueducts was also used to supply villas, ornamental urban and suburban gardens, market gardens, farms and agricultural estates, the latter being the core of Rome's economy and wealth.

text: Before the development of aqueduct technology, Romans, like most of their contemporaries in the ancient world, relied on local water sources such as springs and streams, supplemented by

text: groundwater

text: from privately or publicly owned wells, and by seasonal rain-water drained from rooftops into storage jars and cisterns. The reliance of ancient communities upon such water resources restricted their potential growth. Rome's aqueducts were not strictly Roman inventions – their engineers would have been familiar with the water-management technologies of Rome's

text: Etruscan

text: and

text: Greek

text: allies – but they proved conspicuously successful. By the early Imperial era, the city's aqueducts supported a population of over a million, and an extravagant water supply for public amenities had become a fundamental part of Roman life. The run-off of aqueduct water scoured the sewers of cities and towns. Water from aqueducts was also used to supply villas, ornamental urban and suburban gardens, market gardens, farms and agricultural estates, the latter being the core of Rome's economy and wealth.

text: Several types of stakeholders are recognized as potential participants in a water market, including agricultural users, industrial, and urban, as well as those who value in stream uses for recreation, habitat preservation, or other environmental benefits. Water rights holders—particularly agricultural users—can make water available for trade by employing water conservation technology,  through permanent fallowing, seasonal fallowing, shifts in crop choice, or voluntary water conservation (for example, residential water conservation practices). Trades can then be long-term leases, permanent transfers, short-term leases, or a callable transfer, which is the ability of a city to lease water under specified drought conditions. There are other flexible trade tools used by urban areas, such as water leasebacks, wherein the municipality purchases the water right from agricultural users and then can lease it back to those users in non-drought years, as a way to ensure the urban water supply. Banking water is a related tool, wherein water is stored underground in non-drought years to be used in drought years, though this is not to be confused with water banks, which are brokering institutions. Water ranching is a method of accessing unclaimed water rights that are legally bound to land rights. While many areas have detached these two types of rights from one another, some still prohibit the severing of rights and thus continue to promote water ranching. In the event of water ranching, the groundwater removed from the property is often much greater than that which would be used for average agricultural use, which can be harmful to the ecosystems which rely on it. This practice also creates inefficiency in the dispersal of land and water access ownership, as non-agricultural parties, such as municipalities, may purchase a plot of land simply for its water.Water credits: The idea is to have a tradable certificate which notifies the quantity of water saved by an institution, organization or an individual this would help in maximum utilization of every available drop of water. It may be defined as a permit that allows the holder to trade the conserved water in the international market at their current market price.

text: Several types of stakeholders are recognized as potential participants in a water market, including agricultural users, industrial, and urban, as well as those who value in stream uses for recreation, habitat preservation, or other environmental benefits. Water rights holders—particularly agricultural users—can make water available for trade by employing water conservation technology,  through permanent fallowing,

text: seasonal fallowing

text: , shifts in crop choice, or voluntary water conservation (for example, residential water conservation practices). Trades can then be long-term leases, permanent transfers, short-term leases, or a callable transfer, which is the ability of a city to lease water under specified drought conditions. There are other flexible trade tools used by urban areas, such as water leasebacks, wherein the municipality purchases the water right from agricultural users and then can lease it back to those users in non-drought years, as a way to ensure the urban water supply. Banking water is a related tool, wherein water is stored underground in non-drought years to be used in drought years, though this is not to be confused with water banks, which are brokering institutions. Water ranching is a method of accessing unclaimed water rights that are legally bound to land rights. While many areas have detached these two types of rights from one another, some still prohibit the severing of rights and thus continue to promote water ranching. In the event of water ranching, the

text: groundwater

text: removed from the property is often much greater than that which would be used for average agricultural use, which can be harmful to the ecosystems which rely on it. This practice also creates inefficiency in the dispersal of land and water access ownership, as non-agricultural parties, such as municipalities, may purchase a plot of land simply for its water.Water credits: The idea is to have a tradable certificate which notifies the quantity of water saved by an institution, organization or an individual this would help in maximum utilization of every available drop of water. It may be defined as a permit that allows the holder to trade the conserved water in the international market at their current market price.

text: No data is available on the average continuity of water supply in Indonesian cities. However, in Jakarta 92% of users received continuous water supply in 2001. Concerning drinking water quality, about 30% of the water distributed by water companies in the country is contaminated with E. coli or fecal coliforms and other pathogens. The results of drinking water quality tests are not made public. Most Indonesians do not dare drink water directly from the tap and boil water or buy bottled water, if they can afford it.

text: No data is available on the average continuity of water supply in Indonesian cities. However, in

text: Jakarta

text: 92% of users received continuous water supply in 2001. Concerning drinking water quality, about 30% of the water distributed by water companies in the country is contaminated with

text: E. coli

text: or

text: fecal coliform

text: s and other

text: pathogen

text: s. The results of drinking water quality tests are not made public. Most Indonesians do not dare drink water directly from the tap and boil water or buy bottled water, if they can afford it.

text: In addition to the supply of tap water, many local water resources are also being acquired by private companies, most notably Nestlé Waters with its numerous brands, in order to provide commodity for the bottled water industry. This industry, which often bottles common ground water and sells it as spring water, competes with local communities for access to their water supplies, and is accused of reselling the water at drastically higher prices compared to what citizens pay for tap water.

text: In addition to the supply of tap water, many local water resources are also being acquired by private companies, most notably

text: Nestlé Waters

text: with its numerous brands, in order to provide commodity for the

text: bottled water

text: industry. This industry, which often bottles common ground water and sells it as spring water, competes with local communities for access to their water supplies, and is accused of reselling the water at drastically higher prices compared to what citizens pay for tap water.

text: By creating improved water supply and sanitation facilities women’s lives achieve greater agency. It is often women who are responsible for providing the water supply used by the family on a day-to-day basis. As a result of a family having clean bathrooms and a safe water supply within close proximity of its dwelling, women spend less time collecting water and more time pursuing their own ambitions or doing other necessary work. In addition the lack of clean bathrooms in many Zimbabwean schools prevent girls from attending school while menstruating. Thus, eliminating poor sanitation and increasing access to potable water greatly increases human dignity and capabilities.

text: Water treatment is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment.  Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.

text: Water treatment is any process that makes

text: water

text: more acceptable for a specific end-use. The end use may be

text: drinking

text: , industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment.  Water treatment removes

text: contaminant

text: s and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.

text: Water shortages have left some larger urban areas – particularly Dublin – with supply issues during prolonged dry spells. A 2006 feasibility study for the Greater Dublin water supply urged the development of a new water source, pointing out that it would be needed by 2015–2016 to avert water rationing and the curtailment of economic growth. It also noted that it would take at least a decade to build the proposed new source, with a 2007 report suggesting a lengthy pipeline to Dublin from Lough Derg and the Shannon.

text: Water shortages have left some larger urban areas – particularly

text: Dublin

text: – with supply issues during prolonged dry spells. A 2006 feasibility study for the Greater Dublin water supply urged the development of a new water source, pointing out that it would be needed by 2015–2016 to avert water rationing and the curtailment of economic growth. It also noted that it would take at least a decade to build the proposed new source, with a 2007 report suggesting a

text: lengthy pipeline to Dublin

text: from Lough Derg and the Shannon.

text: Electricity in Kathmandu is regulated and distributed by the NEA Nepal Electricity Authority. While water supply and sanitation facilities are provided by the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL).There is a severe shortage of water for household purposes such as drinking, bathing, cooking and washing. People have been using mineral water bottle and mineral water tanks for all the purposes related to water.

text: Electricity in Kathmandu is regulated and distributed by the NEA

text: Nepal Electricity Authority

text: . While water supply and sanitation facilities are provided by the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL).There is a severe shortage of water for household purposes such as drinking, bathing, cooking and washing. People have been using mineral water bottle and mineral water tanks for all the purposes related to water.

text: The Dominican Republic has achieved impressive increases in access to water supply and sanitation over the past two decades. However, the quality of water supply and sanitation services remains poor, despite the country's high economic growth during the 1990s.

text: The

text: Dominican Republic

text: has achieved impressive increases in access to water supply and sanitation over the past two decades. However, the quality of

text: water supply

text: and

text: sanitation

text: services remains poor, despite the country's high economic growth during the 1990s.

text: Sanitation practices in rural Cambodia are often primitive. The water supply is the main problem; rivers and streams are common sources of drinking water and of water for cooking. These water sources are often the same ones used for bathing, washing clothes, and disposing of waste products. Adequate sewage disposal is nonexistent in most rural and suburban areas.

text: Throughout most of human history the primary means of acquiring untainted water was to avoid the problem and bring in water from an outside source that did not require treatment. The Romans did this with their aqueducts. London's New River was constructed, beginning in the early 17th century as a means of bringing in clean water from outside the city. The New River was slow flowing, which helped to increase sedimentation. It also had screens installed every few miles to catch any debris and weeds. These screens required periodic maintenance and workmen were employed to clean them and cut back the weeds. The new river would meet London's needs well enough that there were few complaints before the 19th century, although the water supplied was rarely used for drinking directly, rather it was more likely used for washing or the brewing of beer.

text: Throughout most of human history the primary means of acquiring untainted water was to avoid the problem and bring in water from an outside source that did not require treatment. The

text: Romans

text: did this with their

text: aqueducts

text: London

text: 's New River was constructed, beginning in the early 17th century as a means of bringing in clean water from outside the city. The New River was slow flowing, which helped to increase sedimentation. It also had screens installed every few miles to catch any debris and weeds. These screens required periodic maintenance and workmen were employed to clean them and cut back the weeds. The new river would meet London's needs well enough that there were few complaints before the 19th century, although the water supplied was rarely used for drinking directly, rather it was more likely used for washing or the brewing of beer.

text: The Mallee has no surface drainage: the native vegetation has so high a rooting density that the rainfall of most years is easily absorbed and the porous sandy soils mean that any excess in an exceptionally wet year will recharge groundwater supplies which tend to be highly saline. Flow from the Wimmera River to the south supplies Lake Hindmarsh and, very occasionally (in 1918, 1956 and 1975), overflows to the north. The Murray River is, thus, the only source of fresh water for the region and is consequently overburdened by intensive irrigation.

text: The Mallee has no surface drainage: the native vegetation has so high a rooting density that the rainfall of most years is easily absorbed and the porous sandy soils mean that any excess in an exceptionally wet year will recharge

text: groundwater

text: supplies which tend to be highly saline. Flow from the

text: Wimmera River

text: to the south supplies

text: Lake Hindmarsh

text: and, very occasionally (in 1918, 1956 and 1975), overflows to the north. The

text: Murray River

text: is, thus, the only source of

text: fresh water

text: for the region and is consequently overburdened by intensive

text: irrigation

text: Balah Deh is reportedly home to around 1000 inhabitants. Residents of the village faced acute water shortages in 2005 due to a technical fault in the water supply system.

text: The event of Karbala holds a core concern with water shortage, this is why supply of water is provided without considering race or religion.  Just as a gesture, Organization donated 30, 000 bottles of water to Red Cross in Flint Michigan during the water contamination crisis in early 2016. Similar gesture was also arranged in India at local level with a motive that Hussain stands as a timeless example for all irrespective of their faith or color  Repeating the tradition of water supply, team of volunteers to introduce their campaign distributed the bottles of water tagged with information about Hussain Ibn Ali in Seattle, Washington, US

text: The event of

text: Karbala

text: holds a core concern with water shortage, this is why supply of water is provided without considering race or religion.  Just as a gesture, Organization donated 30, 000 bottles of water to

entity_name: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement

text: Red Cross

text: in

text: Flint Michigan

text: during the water contamination crisis in early 2016. Similar gesture was also arranged in

text: India

text: at local level with a motive that Hussain stands as a timeless example for all irrespective of their faith or color  Repeating the tradition of water supply, team of volunteers to introduce their campaign distributed the bottles of water tagged with information about Hussain Ibn Ali in

text: Seattle

text: , Washington, US

text: The most important river in terms of drinking water supply is the still relatively unpolluted Chaobai River in the East. It is impounded by the Miyun Dam. The Miyun Reservoir provides water to Beijing over a distance of 95 kilometer, initially through an open canal that brings the water to the Huairou Reservoir and then through a ductile iron pipe and three steel pipes to Beijing. The location of industries near the canal is prohibited to prevent accidental pollution. The Miyun Reservoir is the city’s largest single source of water. It also provides water for Beijing’s numerous lakes that used to be fed by springs that now have dried up. The dam used to also provide water for agriculture, but in 1981 the government decided that its water would only be used for domestic water supply. In 1986 the first plant in Beijing to treat surface water, the 9th water treatment plant, was established to treat water from the Miyun reservoir. As of 2009, it was Asia's largest water treatment plant with a capacity of 1.5 million cubic meters per day (0.55 billion cubic meters per year). While the plant was designed as a surface water treatment plant, when surface water is scarce groundwater is also treated in the same plant. Because of the higher salinity of groundwater and the hardness of surface water this leads to problems in the treatment process, causing limescale and the clogging of pipes.

text: The most important river in terms of drinking water supply is the still relatively unpolluted

text: Chaobai River

text: in the East. It is impounded by the Miyun Dam. The Miyun Reservoir provides water to Beijing over a distance of 95 kilometer, initially through an open canal that brings the water to the Huairou Reservoir and then through a ductile iron pipe and three steel pipes to Beijing. The location of industries near the canal is prohibited to prevent accidental pollution. The Miyun Reservoir is the city’s largest single source of water. It also provides water for Beijing’s numerous lakes that used to be fed by springs that now have dried up. The dam used to also provide water for agriculture, but in 1981 the government decided that its water would only be used for domestic water supply. In 1986 the first plant in Beijing to treat surface water, the 9th water treatment plant, was established to treat water from the Miyun reservoir. As of 2009, it was Asia's largest water treatment plant with a capacity of 1.5 million cubic meters per day (0.55 billion cubic meters per year). While the plant was designed as a surface water treatment plant, when surface water is scarce groundwater is also treated in the same plant. Because of the higher salinity of groundwater and the hardness of surface water this leads to problems in the treatment process, causing

text: limescale

text: and the clogging of pipes.

text: According to Callisthenes, the Persians were using water clocks in 328 BC to ensure a just and exact distribution of water from qanats to their shareholders for agricultural irrigation. The use of water clocks in Iran, especially in Zibad, dates back to 500BC. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the Nowruz, Chelah, or Yaldā - the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The water clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for timing the yearly calendar.The water clock, or Fenjaan, was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from a qanat or well for irrigation, until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks. -Persian water clocks were a practical and useful tool for the qanat's shareholders to calculate the length of time they could divert water to their farm. The qanat(Kariz) was the only water source for agriculture and irrigation so a just and fair water distribution was very important. Therefore, a very fair and clever old person was elected to be the manager of the water clock(MirAab), and at least two full-time managers were needed to control and observe the number of fenjaans and announce the exact time during the days and nights.

text: According to

text: Callisthenes

text: , the

text: Persia

text: ns were using water clocks in 328 BC to ensure a just and exact distribution of water from

text: qanat

text: s to their shareholders for agricultural irrigation. The use of water clocks in

text: Iran

text: , especially in

text: Zibad

text: , dates back to 500BC. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the

text: Nowruz

text: , Chelah, or

text: Yaldā

text: - the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The water clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for timing the yearly calendar.The water clock, or Fenjaan, was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from a

text: qanat

text: or well for irrigation, until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks. -Persian water clocks were a practical and useful tool for the qanat's shareholders to calculate the length of time they could divert water to their farm. The qanat(Kariz) was the only water source for agriculture and irrigation so a just and fair water distribution was very important. Therefore, a very fair and clever old person was elected to be the manager of the water clock(MirAab), and at least two full-time managers were needed to control and observe the number of fenjaans and announce the exact time during the days and nights.

text: Issues relating to water supplies, then, affect international and inter-regional affairs, with disputes over countries' rights and access to water resources most often the cause of tensions in this arena. The contended nature of some water provisions has tended to mean that certain waters become more prone to political conflicts (those which are primarily prone to this in the Middle East and northern Africa are the Nile, Jordan and Tigris-Euphrates rivers). In order to secure reliable levels of water access for their populations, states must either have a large water supply in terms of economic availability, or their rights to such supplies must be established.Studies of water in the Middle East have also suggested that, in a sensitive hydrological location, a country's existing surface- and ground-water access should be protected as a first priority if it is to begin to address any water difficulties or shortages. Such measures as these can be seen as being the primary responsibilities of national governments or ruling authorities; and water is therefore closely tied up with statehood and geographical territory in international relations, and with the recognition and rights of nation states as the central actors in this field.

text: Issues relating to water supplies, then, affect international and inter-regional affairs, with disputes over countries' rights and access to water resources most often the cause of tensions in this arena. The contended nature of some water provisions has tended to mean that certain waters become more prone to political conflicts (those which are primarily prone to this in the Middle East and northern Africa are the

text: Nile

text: Jordan

text: and

text: Tigris

text: Euphrates

text: river

text: s). In order to secure reliable levels of water access for their populations, states must either have a large

text: water supply

text: in terms of economic availability, or their rights to such supplies must be established.Studies of water in the Middle East have also suggested that, in a sensitive

text: hydrological

text: location, a country's existing

text: surface

text: - and

text: ground-water

text: access should be protected as a first priority if it is to begin to address any water difficulties or shortages. Such measures as these can be seen as being the primary responsibilities of national governments or ruling authorities; and water is therefore closely tied up with statehood and geographical territory in international relations, and with the recognition and rights of

text: nation states

text: as the central actors in this field.

text: This structure was created to help raise the water level in the lake, for the purpose of retaining fresh water for agricultural use, city water supply, and for navigation. It also serves for regulating flood control water into the Everglades during hurricane season.

text: A water footprint is the amount of water that each of us use in our daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which we cannot use in our food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer’s needs. According to J. Allan, "there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by virtual water trade.

text: A

text: water footprint

text: is the amount of water that each of us use in our daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which we cannot use in our food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much

text: fresh water

text: is needed for each consumer’s needs. According to J. Allan, "there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and

text: groundwater

text: and on flows to which

text: water

text: is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by

text: virtual water

text: trade.

text: There are several ways to reduce the use of water. For example, most irrigation systems waste water; typically, only between 35% and 50% of water withdrawn for irrigated agriculture ever reaches the crops. Most soaks into unlined canals, leaks out of pipes, or evaporates before reaching (or after being applied to) the fields. Swales and cistern

text: There are several ways to reduce the use of water. For example, most irrigation systems waste water; typically, only between 35% and 50% of water withdrawn for irrigated agriculture ever reaches the crops. Most soaks into unlined canals, leaks out of pipes, or evaporates before reaching (or after being applied to) the fields.

text: Swales

text: and

text: cistern

text: Nizampet Village has many colonies that primarily face the problem of water scarcity and residents of these colonies usually complain of dried borewells and poor municipal water supplies. There is no MLA or Government representative in this area to take care of illegal water connections/supplies as it is a huge profitable business for them. People living at Nizampet brought this problem to Govt authorities several times but no action has been taken so far. This scarcity of water has led to migration of families to other nearby localities like Bachupally and Miyapur.

text: A mature sand dam can store millions of litres of water – refilling after each rainfall providing a year round supply of clean water to over 1,000 people.

text: As urban populations grew, so did the demands for water, and the statutory providers sought sources of water outside of their local area, often in more remote upland regions. Each such development required its own Act or Parliament, and the intentions of one statutory supplier often conflicted with local interests in the upland region, or with those of similar statutory suppliers also wanting to develop resources in the same region. Parliament considered each case in isolation, but there was no regional planning to consider the wider implications of any one scheme. There had been calls for a more structured approach to planning in 1869, when the Duke of Richmond had chaired the Royal Commission on Water Supply, and there were further calls in 1920, when the Board of Trade Water Power Resources Committee advocated a Water Commission for England and Wales, but nothing materialised. A little progress was made in 1924, when Regional Advisory Water Committees were set up, as a joint venture between the Ministry of Health and existing statutory suppliers. Their function was to co-ordinate schemes for water supply, which might involve more than one supplier. Government involvement in water supply was, however, limited to the supply of water for domestic consumption only.

text: As urban populations grew, so did the demands for water, and the statutory providers sought sources of water outside of their local area, often in more remote upland regions. Each such development required its own Act or Parliament, and the intentions of one statutory supplier often conflicted with local interests in the upland region, or with those of similar statutory suppliers also wanting to develop resources in the same region. Parliament considered each case in isolation, but there was no regional planning to consider the wider implications of any one scheme. There had been calls for a more structured approach to planning in 1869, when the

entity_name: Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond

text: Duke of Richmond

text: had chaired the

text: Royal Commission

text: on Water Supply, and there were further calls in 1920, when the

text: Board of Trade

text: Water Power Resources Committee advocated a Water Commission for England and Wales, but nothing materialised. A little progress was made in 1924, when Regional Advisory Water Committees were set up, as a joint venture between the Ministry of Health and existing statutory suppliers. Their function was to co-ordinate schemes for water supply, which might involve more than one supplier. Government involvement in water supply was, however, limited to the supply of water for domestic consumption only.

text: Of the  municipal and industrial project water supply, the local water users were only able to use . In Section 203 (g) of the Central Utah Project Completion Act, Congress instructed the Department of the Interior to enter into a contract reducing the municipal and industrial repayment obligation to  and describing the procedure for future marketing of the remaining municipal and industrial water. Congress also doubled the size of the conservation pool in Red Fleet Reservoir to . The expanded conservation pool reduced the yield of the reservoir by  and thereby reduced the unmarketed municipal and industrial supply to .

text: Of the  municipal and industrial project water supply, the local water users were only able to use . In Section 203 (g) of the Central Utah Project Completion Act, Congress instructed the Department of the Interior to enter into a contract reducing the municipal and industrial repayment obligation to  and describing the procedure for future marketing of the remaining municipal and industrial water. Congress also doubled the size of the conservation pool in

text: Red Fleet Reservoir

text: to . The expanded conservation pool reduced the yield of the reservoir by  and thereby reduced the unmarketed municipal and industrial supply to .

text: Total municipal water use in Saudi Arabia has been estimated at 2.28 cubic kilometers per year in 2010, or 13% of total water use. Agriculture accounts for 83% of water use and industry for only 4%. Demand has been growing at the rate of 4.3% per annum (average for the period 1999-2004), in tandem with urban population growth (around 3%). Water supply is usually not metered, neither at the source nor the distribution point. It is tentatively estimated that average water consumption for those connected to the network is about 235 liters per capita per day, a level lower than in the United States.

text: Total municipal water use in Saudi Arabia has been estimated at 2.28 cubic kilometers per year in 2010, or 13% of total water use. Agriculture accounts for 83% of water use and industry for only 4%. Demand has been growing at the rate of 4.3% per annum (average for the period 1999-2004), in tandem with urban population growth (around 3%). Water supply is usually not

text: metered

text: , neither at the source nor the distribution point. It is tentatively estimated that average water consumption for those connected to the network is about 235 liters per capita per day, a level lower than in the

text: United States

text: Dual piping is a system of plumbing installations used to supply both potable and reclaimed water to a home or business.  Under this system, two completely separate water piping systems are used to deliver water to the user.  This system prevents mixing of the two water supplies, which is undesirable, since reclaimed water is usually not intended for human consumption.

text: Dual piping is a system of plumbing installations used to supply both

text: potable

text: and

text: reclaimed water

text: to a home or business.  Under this system, two completely separate water piping systems are used to deliver water to the user.  This system prevents mixing of the two water supplies, which is undesirable, since reclaimed water is usually not intended for human consumption.

text: Although not the only example, no better example can be found than the issue of potable water.  Water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans and is essential to the survival of all known organisms. Over large parts of the world, humans have inadequate access to potable water and use sources contaminated with disease vectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Drinking or using such water in food preparation leads to widespread waterborne diseases, causing acute and chronic illnesses or death and misery in many countries.  While the global water cycle is the subject of advanced scientific study and observation, it is still an incompletely understood process.  If availability of water for human consumption is left solely to market forces, those who are most in need of water for subsistence-level survival are also those least likely to be able to purchase it at a market price. Since the water cycle and the natural flows of fresh water resources do not obey the limits of political boundaries, neither can these water resources be managed solely by local- or national-level public authorities.  Privatization of such resources can be used as a method of avoiding contentious public policy-making processes, but is likely to produce inequities. The history of the development of water supply and sanitation in Ecuador and resulting water conflicts there are an example. Thoughtful design of transnational or international water management authorities over such global common-pool resources will play a large part in possible solutions to peak water problems.

text: Although not the only example, no better example can be found than the issue of

text: potable water

text: .  Water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans and is essential to the survival of all known organisms. Over large parts of the world, humans have inadequate access to potable water and use sources contaminated with

text: disease vector

text: s,

text: pathogen

text: s or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Drinking or using such water in food preparation leads to widespread

text: waterborne diseases

text: , causing acute and chronic illnesses or death and misery in many countries.  While the global

text: water cycle

text: is the subject of advanced scientific study and observation, it is still an incompletely understood process.  If availability of water for human consumption is left solely to market forces, those who are most in need of water for subsistence-level survival are also those least likely to be able to purchase it at a market price. Since the water cycle and the natural flows of

text: fresh water resources

text: do not obey the limits of political boundaries, neither can these water resources be managed solely by local- or national-level public authorities.

text: Privatization

text: of such resources can be used as a method of avoiding contentious public policy-making processes, but is likely to produce inequities. The history of the development of

text: water supply and sanitation in Ecuador

text: and resulting water conflicts there are an example. Thoughtful design of transnational or international

text: water management

text: authorities over such global common-pool resources will play a large part in possible solutions to

text: peak water

text: problems.

text: Distribution of the water depended in a complex way on its height entering the city, the quality of the water, and its rate of discharge. Thus, poor-quality water would be sent for irrigation, gardens, or flushing, while only the best would be reserved for drinking water. Intermediate-quality water would be used for the many baths and fountains. However, Frontinus criticized the practice of mixing supplies from different sources, and one of his first decisions was to separate the waters from each system.

text: Combined water and sewer bills amount, on average, to less than 0.5% of total household expenditures and are thus quite affordable. The intermittent supply leads many to rely on bottled or tanked water, which is about 8 to 10 times higher than piped water, so that total household expenditures are often much higher than the utility bill. Prices paid to water vendors are 4 to 8 JD per m. In 2007 it was estimated that an average poor household with 6 members in the Middle Governorates spends 31-39 JD per year on its water and sewer bill at a consumption of 70 liter/capita/day, corresponding to only 0.4% of household expenditures. However, if other items are added the picture changes substantially: it costs 35 JD per year to depreciate the cost of a 2 m rooftop storage tank over 10 years; 160 JD per year to buy 2 liters/capita/day of bottled water at a price of 0.04 JD per liter (0.80 JD per canister of 5 gallons); and 153 JD per year to buy the equivalent of 28 liters/capita/day at a price of 2.50 JD/m from water vendors. This amounts to 374 JD per year and household, corresponding to 6.3% of expenditures. In addition, for households not connected to the sewer network the cost of emptying septic tanks at a cost between 21 and 40 JD per load needs to be added to calculate total water and sanitation expenditures. In conclusion, the cost of the water bill thus is only a fraction of total water expenditures, and household water expenditures could be lowered significantly if a sufficient quantity of good quality water was supplied on a reliable basis.

text: The sanitation in the city is satisfactory, but although it has a sewage network, the waste is directly thrown into the bed of the Antônio River, which cuts through the city. The Baiana Water and Sanitation Company (Embasa) does not treat the sewage network, and the city has long been channeling the galleries to the Do Antônio River. In 2005, the construction of the Cristalândia dam in the district of the same name began in Rio de Contas after a marked drought between 1998 and 1999. The Brumadian population at that time had the water supply compromised in its totality, being supplied by tank truck. Before the construction of the Cristalândia dam, the city was supplied by the old dam of the Do Antônio River, Which was analyzed belatedly and the water declared as unfit for human consumption, because it contains excess of minerals of various types. Thanks to the attendance of the public power to the appeal of the population, finally the reservoir was built, and the municipality has not suffered any major problems with water supply.

text: A simple method to extend the water availability was to construct a series of ponds high in the valley. These provided a reserve of water to cover short periods of low rainfall, but could not supply an entire summer.

text: Heavy rainfall required terraces and stone chips to drain rain water and prevent mud slides, landslides, erosion and flooding. Terraces were layered with stone chips, sand, dirt and top soil, to absorb water and prevent it from running down the mountain. Similar layering protected the large city center from flooding. Multiple canals and reserves provide water throughout the city that could be supplied to the terraces for irrigation and to prevent erosion and flooding.

text: Another considerable challenge in Costa Rica is the lack of a monitoring and maintenance for potable water and the problem has precipitated a higher incidence of water-born illnesses. In response, the Health Ministry created a system of vigilant monitoring of the quality of  water, illnesses, population migration, environmental sanitation, vulnerability of the aquifers, lakes, and rivers. The Health Ministry also analyzes and approves environmental impact studies as they pertain to the drinking water supply, regulates the quality of water being delivered to citizens.

text: Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

text: Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the

text: steam turbine

text: and

text: heat exchanger

text: , in addition to its use as a chemical

text: solvent

text: . Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is

text: pollution

text: . Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (

text: thermal pollution

text: ). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

text: When the Soviet Union collapsed and Georgia became independent in 1991, its water supply and sanitation infrastructure was in bad shape. Maintenance had been neglected for many years and service quality was poor, with intermittent supply and often poor drinking water quality. After independence there was no clear government commitment to address the deficiencies in water supply and sanitation and service quality deteriorated even further. For example, operation of the wastewater treatment plant of the capital Tbilisi was stopped because the city was unable to afford to pay for its electricity bill after electricity tariffs had been increased. In 2003 a report by the OECD found that the Georgian urban water and sanitation sector was seriously under-financed, given its long neglect. The report noted that the collection rate of water bills was 70% for businesses and only 34% for households. The report recommended increasing collection efficiency and to double the water and sewer tariff in areas outside the capital until they reached the highest affordable level. This was defined as 95% of households spending less than 2.5% of their income on their water and sewer bill. The OECD recommended to leave the tariff in Tbilisi unchanged, because it had already reached the limit of affordability. Furthermore, the government should increase its spending for water supply and sanitation, reform the sector's structure and strengthen human and institutional capacities.

text: When the Soviet Union collapsed and Georgia became independent in 1991, its water supply and sanitation infrastructure was in bad shape. Maintenance had been neglected for many years and service quality was poor, with intermittent supply and often poor drinking water quality. After independence there was no clear government commitment to address the deficiencies in water supply and sanitation and service quality deteriorated even further. For example, operation of the wastewater treatment plant of the capital Tbilisi was stopped because the city was unable to afford to pay for its electricity bill after electricity tariffs had been increased. In 2003 a report by the

text: OECD

text: found that the Georgian urban water and sanitation sector was seriously under-financed, given its long neglect. The report noted that the collection rate of water bills was 70% for businesses and only 34% for households. The report recommended increasing collection efficiency and to double the water and sewer tariff in areas outside the capital until they reached the highest affordable level. This was defined as 95% of households spending less than 2.5% of their income on their water and sewer bill. The OECD recommended to leave the tariff in Tbilisi unchanged, because it had already reached the limit of affordability. Furthermore, the government should increase its spending for water supply and sanitation, reform the sector's structure and strengthen human and institutional capacities.

text: On 28 December, day of the Holy Innocents some Pastusos play with water in what may be considered a prelude to the January holidays, imitating carnival customs of the neighboring country of Ecuador where the Carnival of Quito (February or March) is characterized by the use of water fun. What was initially a day to do tricks, practical jokes, and spread hoaxes on the unwary,  became a questionable game with water based in the desire to tease or surprise the unsuspecting, innocent pedestrians soaking them completely.

text: On 28 December, day of the

text: Holy Innocents

text: some Pastusos play with water in what may be considered a prelude to the January holidays, imitating carnival customs of the neighboring country of

text: Ecuador

text: where the Carnival of

text: Quito

text: (February or March) is characterized by the use of water fun. What was initially a day to do tricks, practical jokes, and spread hoaxes on the unwary,  became a questionable game with water based in the desire to tease or surprise the unsuspecting, innocent pedestrians soaking them completely.

text: Piston pumps (ctesibica machina: Vitruvius X.4?7) supplied the two ships with hot and cold running water via lead pipes. The hot water supplied baths while the cold operated fountains and supplied drinking water. This plumbing technology was later lost and only re-discovered in the Middle Ages.

text: Piston pump

text: s (ctesibica machina:

text: Vitruvius

text: X.4?7) supplied the two ships with hot and cold running water via lead pipes. The hot water supplied baths while the cold operated fountains and supplied drinking water. This plumbing technology was later lost and only re-discovered in the

text: Middle Ages

text: Figures on access are controversial. For example, the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation estimates access to an improved source of water supply at 77% in urban areas and 29% in rural areas as of 2010. These figures are based primarily on data from the 2003 Demographic and Health Survey. However, the Ministry of Public Works uses the water access figures of 38% in urban areas and 40% in rural areas. The numbers for rural access are derived from the number of boreholes and an estimated average number of households using a borehole.

text: Figures on access are controversial. For example, the

text: WHO

text: UNICEF

text: estimates access to an improved source of water supply at 77% in urban areas and 29% in rural areas as of 2010. These figures are based primarily on data from the 2003 Demographic and Health Survey. However, the Ministry of Public Works uses the water access figures of 38% in urban areas and 40% in rural areas. The numbers for rural access are derived from the number of boreholes and an estimated average number of households using a borehole.

text: Despite Jordan's severe water scarcity, more than 97% of Jordanians have access to an improved water source and 93% have access to improved sanitation. This is one of the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa. However, water supply is intermittent and it is common to store water in rooftop tanks. The level of water lost through leakage, underregistration and theft in municipal water supply (non-revenue water) is estimated at about 44%. Water tariffs are subsidized. A National Water Strategy, adopted in 2009, emphasizes desalination and wastewater reuse. The country receives substantial foreign aid for investments in the water sector, accounting for about 30% of water investment financing.

text: Despite Jordan's severe water scarcity, more than 97% of Jordanians have access to an

text: improved water source

text: and 93% have access to

text: improved sanitation

text: . This is one of the highest rates in the Middle East and North Africa. However, water supply is intermittent and it is common to store water in rooftop tanks. The level of water lost through leakage, underregistration and theft in municipal water supply (

text: non-revenue water

text: ) is estimated at about 44%. Water tariffs are subsidized. A National Water Strategy, adopted in 2009, emphasizes desalination and wastewater reuse. The country receives substantial foreign aid for investments in the water sector, accounting for about 30% of water investment financing.

text: In agriculture water storage, water is stored for later use in natural water sources, such as groundwater aquifers, soil water and natural wetlands, and also small artificial ponds, tanks and reservoirs behind major dams.

text: In

text: agriculture

text: water storage, water is stored for later use in natural water sources, such as

text: groundwater aquifers

text: soil water

text: and natural

text: wetlands

text: , and also small artificial

text: ponds, tanks

text: and

text: reservoirs behind major dam

text: s.

text: An assessment of water management in agriculture sector was conducted in 2007 by the International Water Management Institute in Sri Lanka to see if the world had sufficient water to provide food for its growing population. It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and mapped out locations suffering from water scarcity. It found that a fifth of the world's people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all demands. One third of the worlds population does not have access to clean drinking water, which is more than 2.3 billion people. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where the lack of investment in water or insufficient human capacity make it impossible for authorities to satisfy the demand for water. The report found that it would be possible to produce the food required in future, but that continuation of today's food production and environmental trends would lead to crises in many parts of the world. To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry and cities find ways to use water more efficiently.

text: An assessment of water management in agriculture sector was conducted in 2007 by the

text: in

text: Sri Lanka

text: physical water scarcity

text: , where there is not enough water to meet all demands. One third of the worlds population does not have access to clean drinking water, which is more than 2.3 billion people. A further 1.6 billion people live in areas experiencing

text: economic water scarcity

text: Although the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has Africa's largest freshwater resources, it is suffering from an acute drinking water supply crisis. The country has one of the lowest rates of access to drinking water in Sub-Saharan Africa. Only 46 percent of the population had access to an improved drinking water source in 2012. Furthermore, the sanitation coverage was estimated at only 31 percent in 2012. Up to date and accurate information on water supply and sanitation services in the DRC is scarce. As a result of inadequate water supply and sanitation services, many inhabitants are suffering from waterborne diseases, including diarrhea, typhoid, and cholera.

text: Although the

text: Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)

text: has

text: Africa

text: 's largest

text: freshwater resources

text: , it is suffering from an acute

text: drinking water

text: supply crisis. The country has one of the lowest rates of access to drinking water in

text: Sub-Saharan Africa

text: . Only 46 percent of the population had access to an

text: improved drinking water

text: source in 2012. Furthermore, the

text: sanitation

text: coverage was estimated at only 31 percent in 2012. Up to date and accurate information on water supply and sanitation services in the DRC is scarce. As a result of inadequate water supply and sanitation services, many inhabitants are suffering from

text: waterborne diseases

text: , including

text: diarrhea

text: typhoid

text: , and

text: cholera

text: Irrigation and industrial uses also account for water usage.

text: Based in Whitehall, it produces an annual report showing the quality of and problems associated with drinking water. Its remit is to assessing the quality of drinking water in England and Wales, taking enforcement action if standards are not being met, and appropriate action when water is unfit for human consumption.

text: Based in

text: Whitehall

text: , it produces an annual report showing the quality of and problems associated with drinking water. Its remit is to assessing the

text: quality

text: of

text: drinking water

text: in England and Wales, taking enforcement action if standards are not being met, and appropriate action when water is unfit for human consumption.

text: In 2010, about 85% of the global population (6.74 billion people) had access to piped water supply through house connections or to an improved water source through other means than house, including standpipes, water kiosks, spring supplies and protected wells. However, about 14% (884 million people) did not have access to an improved water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals, lakes or rivers for their water needs.

text: In 2010, about 85% of the global population (6.74 billion people) had access to piped water supply through house connections or to an

text: improved water source

text: through other means than house, including

text: standpipe

text: s,

text: water kiosk

text: s,

text: spring supplies

text: and protected

text: wells

text: . However, about 14% (884 million people) did not have access to an improved water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals, lakes or rivers for their water needs.

text: During the serious drought of 1983, the water resources in the adjacent Komati River and Usutu River basins were badly depleted, leading to serious concerns that the water supplies to various power stations could be affected. Any water shortages to the power stations would be disastrous for South Africa since 80% of the country's electricity is dependent on water from the Komati-Usutu-Vaal system. It was estimated that the newly completed (1982) Grootdraai Dam would empty within a matter of months and an emergency scheme was therefore initiated to pump water upstream over a distance of 202 km to Grootdraai Dam from Vaal Dam. The emergency scheme involved constructing 7 weirs, each with numerous pumps capable of pumping a total of 1 million m/day. Although the emergency scheme was never used, it was completed and received an award for the Most Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement of 1983 from the South African Institute of Civil Engineers.

text: During the serious drought of 1983, the water resources in the adjacent

text: Komati River

text: and

text: Usutu River

text: basins were badly depleted, leading to serious concerns that the water supplies to various power stations could be affected. Any water shortages to the power stations would be disastrous for

text: South Africa

text: since 80% of the country's electricity is dependent on water from the Komati-Usutu-Vaal system. It was estimated that the newly completed (1982) Grootdraai Dam would empty within a matter of months and an emergency scheme was therefore initiated to pump water upstream over a distance of 202 km to Grootdraai Dam from

text: Vaal Dam

text: . The emergency scheme involved constructing 7 weirs, each with numerous pumps capable of pumping a total of 1 million m/day. Although the emergency scheme was never used, it was completed and received an award for the Most Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement of 1983 from the South African Institute of Civil Engineers.

text: Similar to the rest of the municipalities in Kosovo, unemployment was considered to be the biggest problem in Vučitrn by 47% of its residents. Poor water supply is ranked the biggest problem by 17% and poor electricity supply by 13%.

text: Belgian authorities were worried about water shortages as a result of both the hot weather and lack of rain. The water authorities in the eastern town of Bullange warned that several water sources have dried up. The Belgian interior ministry said that three other communes in the southeast of the country have also appealed for emergency water supplies.

text: Belgian authorities were worried about water shortages as a result of both the hot weather and lack of rain. The water authorities in the eastern town of

text: Bullange

text: warned that several water sources have dried up. The Belgian interior ministry said that three other communes in the southeast of the country have also appealed for emergency water supplies.

text: Water scarcity plays an important role in shaping life in all parts of Thar. Natural (tobas) or man-made (johads), both types of small, intermittent ponds, are often the only source of water for animals and humans in the true desert areas. The lack of a constant water supply causes much of the local population to live as nomads. Most human settlements are found near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills. Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar desert. Supplies are often sour due to dissolved minerals, and are only available deep underground. Wells that successfully bear sweet water attract nearby settlement, but are difficult to dig, possibly claiming the lives of the well-diggers.

text: Water scarcity plays an important role in shaping life in all parts of Thar. Natural (tobas) or man-made (

text: johad

text: s), both types of small, intermittent ponds, are often the only source of water for animals and humans in the true desert areas. The lack of a constant water supply causes much of the local population to live as

text: nomads

text: . Most human settlements are found near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills. Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar desert. Supplies are often sour due to dissolved minerals, and are only available deep underground. Wells that successfully bear sweet water attract nearby settlement, but are difficult to dig, possibly claiming the lives of the well-diggers.

text: Sanitation continued to be a health problem — not only did many residents still use outdoor toilets, but the water supply was not suitable; water had to be boiled to be drinkable.  Several diseases spread throughout Magnitogorsk, including typhus, malaria, and scarlet fever. The hospital in Magnitogorsk was terribly inadequate to serve the medical needs of its residents — water, sewage, and heating continued to be a problem in the city, including the hospital — and there were never enough beds or doctors to tend to the needs of patients.

text: The extensive drought affected all parts of the country. Again, the effects were felt around mid July, when early harvests were taken in and fires began to break out, along railway tracks in Ascot and gorse around Newbury. By the end of July, the heat and lack of rain had begun to affect agriculture. There was a shortage of grass for cattle as pastures turned brown from drought. This forced farmers to raise the price of milk, to compensate for the lack of production. On 28 July trees and some rare plants had begun to wither and die with the lack of water in the soil, even in shaded areas all around the country. By August, wells, water pumps and water supplies had begun to run completely dry. This led to the stopping of activity in farming and pasture in Essex and the closing of wool mills in Bradford, each an important industry in its area.

text: The extensive drought affected all parts of the country. Again, the effects were felt around mid July, when early harvests were taken in and fires began to break out, along railway tracks in Ascot and

text: gorse

text: around Newbury. By the end of July, the heat and lack of rain had begun to affect agriculture. There was a shortage of grass for cattle as

text: pasture

text: s turned brown from drought. This forced farmers to raise the price of milk, to compensate for the lack of production. On 28 July trees and some rare plants had begun to wither and die with the lack of water in the soil, even in shaded areas all around the country. By August, wells, water pumps and water supplies had begun to run completely dry. This led to the stopping of activity in farming and pasture in

text: Essex

text: and the closing of wool mills in

text: Bradford

text: , each an important industry in its area.

text: A water balance can be used to help manage water supply and predict where there may be water shortages. It is also used in irrigation, runoff assessment (e.g. through the RainOff model ), flood control and pollution control. Further it is used in the design of subsurface drainage systems which may be horizontal (i.e. using pipes, tile drains or ditches) or vertical (drainage by wells). To estimate the drainage requirement, the use of an hydrogeological water balance and a groundwater model (e.g. SahysMod ) may be instrumental.

text: A water balance can be used to help manage water supply and predict where there may be water shortages. It is also used in

text: irrigation

text: runoff assessment

text: (e.g. through the RainOff model ),

text: flood control

text: and

text: pollution control

text: . Further it is used in the design of subsurface

text: drainage systems

text: which may be horizontal (i.e. using pipes,

text: tile drains

text: or ditches) or vertical (

text: drainage by wells

text: ). To estimate the drainage requirement, the use of an

text: hydrogeological

text: water balance and a

text: groundwater model

text: (e.g.

text: SahysMod

text: ) may be instrumental.

text: Ecosystems: To achieve healthy ecosystems that provide groundwater and surface water of sufficient quality and in adequate supply to support abundant and diverse populations of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial organisms, as well as human use.

text: There are two projects extracting and processing drinking water supply for the households. Underground water and brook water from Jay Shree Khola is used processed and supplied through different distribution channels.Jaluke drinking water supply in Ward no. 1 Partly, which is open water. Gaindakot pumping scheme water supply and sanitation user organization it supply under ground water in ward no. 1,2,4,5,6 and 8.

text: Water restrictions have been employed in various Western Australian towns when poor rainfall has led to water shortages. For instance, in the summer of 1977-1978, Perth was subject to a total sprinkler ban.Newman and Nullagine experienced water restrictions from 1991 and 1992 onwards as the result of drought.Similarly, the resort towns of Yallingup and Dunsborough experienced water restrictions in 1997 during a heatwave,and Kalgoorlie-Boulder had temporary water restrictions imposed during 1998 due to shortages in its reservoirs (which contain water pumped through the Goldfields Water Supply Scheme).

text: Water restrictions have been employed in various Western Australian towns when poor rainfall has led to water shortages. For instance, in the summer of 1977-1978,

text: Perth

text: was subject to a total sprinkler ban.

text: Newman

text: and

text: Nullagine

text: experienced water restrictions from 1991 and 1992 onwards as the result of drought.Similarly, the resort towns of

text: Yallingup

text: and

text: Dunsborough

text: experienced water restrictions in 1997 during a heatwave,and

text: Kalgoorlie-Boulder

text: had temporary water restrictions imposed during 1998 due to shortages in its reservoirs (which contain water pumped through the

text: Goldfields Water Supply Scheme

text:
Hughes: Will the honourable minister be good enough now to give us the estimate of the supply of water in the little creek - it is merely a creek - running down there?
Emmerson: The report of the engineer is that there is an ample supply of water.
Kemp: There is not enough water supply for this canal. I do not care what engineer reports on it... there was not enough water in this stream for two or three boys to bathe in - that when they wanted to get a bath they had to make a dam and collect enough water.
Hughes: ... How many cubic feet of water per hour?
Emerson: 30420 cubic feet.
Hughes: How many cubic feet to fill the lock?

text: Beck has argued that older forms of class structure - based mainly on the accumulation of wealth - atrophy in a modern, risk society, in which people occupy social risk positions that are achieved through risk aversion. "In some of their dimensions these follow the inequalities of class and strata positions, but they bring a fundamentally different distribution logic into play". Beck contends that widespread risks contain a 'boomerang effect', in that individuals producing risks will also be exposed to them. This argument suggests that wealthy individuals whose capital is largely responsible for creating pollution will also have to suffer when, for example, the contaminants seep into the water supply. This argument may seem oversimplified, as wealthy people may have the ability to mitigate risk more easily by, for example, buying bottled water. Beck, however, has argued that the distribution of this sort of risk is the result of knowledge, rather than wealth. Whilst the wealthy person may have access to resources that enable him or her to avert risk, this would not even be an option were the person unaware that the risk even existed.

text: Beck

text: has argued that older forms of class structure - based mainly on the accumulation of wealth - atrophy in a modern, risk society, in which people occupy

text: social risk positions

text: that are achieved through risk aversion. "In some of their dimensions these follow the inequalities of class and strata positions, but they bring a fundamentally different distribution logic into play". Beck contends that widespread risks contain a 'boomerang effect', in that individuals producing risks will also be exposed to them. This argument suggests that wealthy individuals whose

text: capital

text: is largely responsible for creating

text: pollution

text: will also have to suffer when, for example, the contaminants seep into the water supply. This argument may seem oversimplified, as wealthy people may have the ability to mitigate risk more easily by, for example, buying bottled water.

text: Beck

text: , however, has argued that the distribution of this sort of risk is the result of

text: knowledge

text: , rather than wealth. Whilst the wealthy person may have access to

text: resources

text: that enable him or her to avert risk, this would not even be an option were the person unaware that the risk even existed.

text: In 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia. By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate sanitation. This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by humans.

text: In 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the

text: Middle East

text: Africa

text: , and parts of

text: Asia

text: . By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate sanitation. This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by humans.

text: The quality of ground water in Parameshwari Nagar is very poor. The water is red in colour and requires a water purification unit to make it usable for homes. Several houses in Parameshwari Nagar use a carbon filter based purification unit to make the water clear. Local residents claim that the ground water problems arrived after the Tsunami of December 2004. Commercially produced water is, however, available for most houses.

text: The quality of

text: ground water

text: in Parameshwari Nagar is very poor. The water is red in colour and requires a

text: water purification

text: unit to make it usable for homes. Several houses in Parameshwari Nagar use a

text: carbon filter

text: based purification unit to make the water clear. Local residents claim that the ground water problems arrived after the

entity_name: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

text: Tsunami of December 2004

text: . Commercially produced water is, however, available for most houses.

text: When lindane is used in agriculture, an estimated 12–30% of it volatilizes into the atmosphere, where it is subject to long-range transport and can be deposited by rainfall. Lindane in soil can leach to surface and even ground water, and can bioaccumulate in the food chain. However, biotransformation and elimination are relatively rapid when exposure is discontinued. Most exposure of the general population to lindane has resulted from agricultural uses and the intake of foods, such as produce, meats and milk, produced from treated agricultural commodities. Human exposure has decreased significantly since the cancellation of agricultural uses in 2006. Even so, the CDC published in 2005 its Third National Report on Human Exposures to Environmental Chemicals, which found no detectable amounts of lindane in human blood taken from a random sampling of about 5,000 people in the US as part of the NHANES study (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/about_nhanes.htm ). The lack of detection of lindane in this large human "biomonitoring" study likely reflects the increasingly limited agricultural uses of lindane over the last two decades.  The cancellation of agricultural uses in the United States will further reduce the amount of lindane introduced into the environment by more than 99%.

text: When lindane is used in agriculture, an estimated 12–30% of it volatilizes into the atmosphere, where it is subject to

text: long-range transport

text: and can be deposited by rainfall. Lindane in soil can leach to surface and even ground water, and can bioaccumulate in the food chain. However, biotransformation and elimination are relatively rapid when exposure is discontinued. Most exposure of the general population to lindane has resulted from agricultural uses and the intake of foods, such as produce, meats and milk, produced from treated agricultural commodities. Human exposure has decreased significantly since the cancellation of agricultural uses in 2006. Even so, the CDC published in 2005 its Third National Report on Human Exposures to Environmental Chemicals, which found no detectable amounts of lindane in human blood taken from a random sampling of about 5,000 people in the US as part of the NHANES study (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/about_nhanes.htm ). The lack of detection of lindane in this large human "biomonitoring" study likely reflects the increasingly limited agricultural uses of lindane over the last two decades.  The cancellation of agricultural uses in the United States will further reduce the amount of lindane introduced into the environment by more than 99%.

text: Tallinn water supply system is a water supply system that provides potable water to Estonia's capital Tallinn.

text: Tallinn water supply system is a

text: water supply system

text: that provides

text: potable water

text: to

text: Estonia

text: 's capital

text: Tallinn

text: Water supply, sanitation and water resources are affected not only by climate change, rising demands for water and increasing pollution of sources but also by weak human and institutional capacity. Developing countries and countries in transition are often ill-equipped to tackle problems and to play their role in international negotiations and sustainable development, which sustains a situation of dependency.

text: The Dominican Republic has achieved impressive increases in access to water supply and sanitation over the past two decades. However, the quality of water supply and sanitation services remains poor, despite the country's high economic growth during the 1990s.Although the coverage of improved water sources and improved sanitation is with 86% respectively 83% relatively high, there are substantial regional differences. Poor households exhibit lower levels of access: only 56% of poor households are connected to water house connections as opposed to 80% of non-poor households. Just 20% of poor households have access to sewers, as opposed to 50% for the non-poor.

text: The Dominican Republic has achieved impressive increases in access to

text: water supply

text: and

text: sanitation

text: over the past two decades. However, the quality of water supply and sanitation services remains poor, despite the country's high economic growth during the 1990s.Although the coverage of

text: improved water source

text: s and

text: improved sanitation

text: is with 86% respectively 83% relatively high, there are substantial regional differences. Poor households exhibit lower levels of access: only 56% of poor households are connected to water house connections as opposed to 80% of non-poor households. Just 20% of poor households have access to sewers, as opposed to 50% for the non-poor.

text: As it was a freeze-dried (dehydrated) ration, it required 1.5 pints (700 ml) of water to cook and reconstitute it. This was normally not a problem in environments where water supplies were generally plentiful.  However, the water sources in Vietnam were usually teeming with parasites (e.g., blood flukes and tapeworms) and viruses, so the water had to be boiled or mixed with iodine pills, the latter leaving a particularly odd taste in a ration. Fresh water could also be collected from rainwater if one was fortunate enough, or in an emergency, a LRP ration could be consumed 'dry', but the soldier doing so had to consume extra water to prevent dehydration. Some soldiers mixed its contents with canned C-Rations to reduce monotony and to supply extra dietary energy, as the ration was insufficient for an active soldier. However, this defeated the purpose of deploying the LRP ration in the first place.

text: As it was a freeze-dried (dehydrated) ration, it required 1.5 pints (700 ml) of water to cook and reconstitute it. This was normally not a problem in environments where water supplies were generally plentiful.  However, the water sources in Vietnam were usually teeming with parasites (e.g., blood flukes and tapeworms) and viruses, so the water had to be boiled or mixed with iodine pills, the latter leaving a particularly odd taste in a ration. Fresh water could also be collected from rainwater if one was fortunate enough, or in an emergency, a LRP ration could be consumed 'dry', but the soldier doing so had to consume extra water to prevent dehydration. Some soldiers mixed its contents with canned

text: C-Rations

text: to reduce monotony and to supply extra dietary energy, as the ration was insufficient for an active soldier. However, this defeated the purpose of deploying the LRP ration in the first place.

text: According to ANA, the dry Pacific basin, with 37.4 km³ available per year, accounts for less than 2% of Peru's renewable water resources. Its 62 rivers flowing west from the Andes supply the bulk of the water to the coastal region. Of these rivers, only about 30% are perennial. From 1984 to 2000, the average water availability decreased to 33 km³ per year and from 2003 to 2004 to 20 km³ per year. Agriculture accounts for the withdrawal of 14 km³ per year (or 80% of total water use) and domestic withdrawals account for 2 km³ per year (12% of total water use). The Atlantic basin holds more than 97% of all available water with nearly 2,000 km³ per year. Agriculture also accounts for 80% of water use, while domestic use accounts for 14%. The Lake Titicaca basin receives 10 BCM per year, less than 1% of the total. In this basin, agriculture accounts for 66% of total water use, while domestic use accounts for 30%.

text: The planned and systematic industrial development in the State of Maharashtra has continuously placed Maharashtra in first position in India for the highest productivity, economics performance, business efficiency, government efficiency, infrastructures and overall competitiveness. As per the World Competitiveness Report 2006, Maharashtra ranked 37, ahead of South Korea, South Africa, Philippines, Greece, Brazil, Italy, Russia and Indonesia.	In the state, MIDC has demarcated 57,650 plots and allotted 48,701 plots to entrepreneurs. There are 28918 industries in production. MIDC has provided the water supply scheme 2240.83 MLD capacity and water consumption is 1314.73 MLD in the MIDC areas in the state. MIDC has provided water supply pipelines of 3238.60 km to cater the demand of the industries in Maharashtra. The annual revenue generated from the water supply is Rs.432.00 crores. 2422.82 km of roads are constructed by MIDC for providing good quality approach to the industries.  The development expenditure of Rs.3096.75 crores is incurred for the infrastructure works by MIDC.

text: Naxos is the most fertile island of the Cyclades. It has a good supply of water in a region where water is usually inadequate. Mount Zeus () is the highest peak in the Cyclades, and tends to trap the clouds, permitting greater rainfall. This has made agriculture an important economic sector with various vegetable and fruit crops as well as cattle breeding, making Naxos the most self-sufficient island in the Cyclades. Naxos is well known within Greece for its cheese, potatoes and Kitron, a local lemon-citrus spirit.

text: Naxos is the most

text: fertile

text: island of the Cyclades. It has a good supply of water in a region where water is usually inadequate. Mount Zeus () is the highest peak in the Cyclades, and tends to trap the clouds, permitting greater rainfall. This has made

text: agriculture

text: an important economic sector with various vegetable and fruit crops as well as cattle breeding, making Naxos the most self-sufficient island in the Cyclades. Naxos is well known within Greece for its cheese, potatoes and Kitron, a local lemon-citrus spirit.

text: The rights to water and sanitation derive from the right to an adequate standard of living, recognised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,  CRC and CEDAW – all of which Kiribati is party to. The government of Kiribati introduced the National Water Resources Policy  in 2008 which was supplemented by the introduction of the National Sanitation Policy (NSP)  in 2010. The NSP acknowledges that water supply and resource issues in Kiribati are some of the most complex in the world due to a combination of factors including the density of population and the impact of climate change. Both policies contain forty priority issues that required short term attention and an additional twenty-seven requiring attention within the next decade.  These policies were criticised by the UN Special Rapporteur in the 2012 Special Report on the human right to drinking water and sanitation in Kiribati.  She considered them to be over ambitious and unfocused, with the need for a clear legal framework to be implemented in the country to give national ownership to the issues.

text: The rights to water and sanitation derive from the right to an adequate standard of living, recognised in the

text: Universal Declaration of Human Rights

text: CRC

text: and

entity_name: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

text: CEDAW

text: – all of which Kiribati is party to. The government of Kiribati introduced the National Water Resources Policy  in 2008 which was supplemented by the introduction of the National Sanitation Policy (NSP)  in 2010. The NSP acknowledges that water supply and resource issues in Kiribati are some of the most complex in the world due to a combination of factors including the density of population and the impact of climate change. Both policies contain forty priority issues that required short term attention and an additional twenty-seven requiring attention within the next decade.  These policies were criticised by the UN Special Rapporteur in the 2012 Special Report on the human right to drinking water and sanitation in Kiribati.  She considered them to be over ambitious and unfocused, with the need for a clear legal framework to be implemented in the country to give national ownership to the issues.

text: Lopez Lake provides drinking water for Arroyo Grande, Grover Beach, Pismo Beach, Oceano and Avila Beach. It also provides groundwater recharge, water for irrigation and flood control. Unlike most municipal water supplies, human contact with the water is permitted. Sailing, wind surfing, water skiing, swimming, fishing and camping are popular activities. There is also a waterslide next to the lake. To prevent contamination of the drinking water, water from the lake is piped  to a terminal reservoir, where it remains to allow particles to settle out and pathogens to die off. The water then goes through flocculation, filtration and chlorination at the Lopez Water Treatment Plant.

text: Lopez Lake provides

text: drinking water

text: for Arroyo Grande, Grover Beach, Pismo Beach, Oceano and Avila Beach. It also provides

text: groundwater

text: recharge, water for

text: irrigation

text: and

text: flood control

text: . Unlike most municipal water supplies, human contact with the water is permitted.

text: Sailing

text: wind surfing

text: water skiing

text: swimming

text: fishing

text: and

text: camping

text: are popular activities. There is also a

text: waterslide

text: next to the lake. To prevent contamination of the drinking water, water from the lake is piped  to a terminal reservoir, where it remains to allow particles to settle out and

text: pathogen

text: s to die off. The water then goes through

text: flocculation

text: filtration

text: and

text: chlorination

text: at the Lopez Water Treatment Plant.

text: The high water loss rates are ascribed to illegal connections, worn out pipe systems in the networks, and utility dysfunction. Especially in the Gaza Strip, high losses are caused by illegal connections. Illegal use of water is often the result of water shortages and insufficient supply. Furthermore, the conditions of water supply utilities suffer from grave deficiencies causing high leakage rates and a weak water pulse in the system,  ascribed to both institutional weakness and the restrictions posed by the occupation on the development of the water and sanitation sectors, including the Gaza blockade.

text: In about half the OECD member countries, affordability of water charges for low-income households is or could become a significant issue, according to the OECD. In developing countries, the poor are often not connected to the network and often pay a higher share of their meager incomes for lower quantities of water supplied by water vendors through trucks. On the other hand, utility bills paid by those fortunate enough to be connected to the network are very low in some developing countries. Different countries have introduced a variety of approaches to protect the poor from high water tariffs.

text: Hydrologists today typically assess water scarcity by looking at the population-water equation. This is done by comparing the amount of total available water resources per year to the population of a country or region. A popular approach to measuring water scarcity has been to rank countries according to the amount of annual water resources available per person. For example, according to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator, a country or region is said to experience "water stress" when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cubic metres per person per year. At levels between 1,700 and 1,000 cubic metres per person per year, periodic or limited water shortages can be expected. When water supplies drop below 1,000 cubic metres per person per year, the country faces "water scarcity". The United Nations' FAO states that by 2025, 1.9 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions. The World Bank adds that climate change could profoundly alter future patterns of both water availability and use,thereby increasing levels of water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on water.

text: Hydrologists today typically assess water scarcity by looking at the population-water equation. This is done by comparing the amount of total available water resources per year to the population of a country or region. A popular approach to measuring water scarcity has been to rank countries according to the amount of annual water resources available per person. For example, according to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator, a country or region is said to experience "water stress" when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cubic metres per person per year. At levels between 1,700 and 1,000 cubic metres per person per year, periodic or limited water shortages can be expected. When water supplies drop below 1,000 cubic metres per person per year, the country faces "water scarcity". The United Nations'

text: FAO

text: states that by 2025, 1.9 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions. The World Bank adds that

text: climate change

text: could profoundly alter future patterns of both water availability and use,thereby increasing levels of water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on water.

text: Belize is fortunate to have ample water resources with many rivers and lakes as well as groundwater supplies although specific details about groundwater is not well known. Average daily water use in Belize is similar to that of industrialized countries at around 160 L in rural areas to 280 L in urban areas. Industrial processes encompass the largest demand where about 73% of the freshwater resources end up being used in this sector. Water quality in Belize is mostly good except where industry is discharging effluents in urban areas. Most of the groundwater used for supply can be expected to be free of major contaminants. Urban water delivery systems that are connected to WASA's infrastructure are treated and safe; however, this only constitutes about 30% of the systems in Belize.

text: Belize is fortunate to have ample water resources with many rivers and lakes as well as groundwater supplies although specific details about groundwater is not well known. Average daily water use in Belize is similar to that of industrialized countries at around 160 L in rural areas to 280 L in urban areas. Industrial processes encompass the largest demand where about 73% of the

text: freshwater

text: resources end up being used in this sector. Water quality in Belize is mostly good except where industry is discharging

text: effluents

text: in urban areas. Most of the groundwater used for supply can be expected to be free of major contaminants. Urban water delivery systems that are connected to WASA's infrastructure are treated and safe; however, this only constitutes about 30% of the systems in Belize.

text: Much of the river's route, with the exception of the city of Derby, is rural. However the river has also seen many human uses, and between Matlock and Derby was one of the cradles of the Industrial Revolution, providing power to the first industrial scale cotton mills. Today it provides a water supply to several surrounding cities, and its steeply sided valley is an important communications corridor through the uplands of the Peak District.

text: Much of the river's route, with the exception of the city of

text: Derby

text: , is rural. However the river has also seen many human uses, and between

text: Matlock

text: and

text: Derby

text: was one of the cradles of the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: , providing power to the first industrial scale cotton

text: mills

text: . Today it provides a water supply to several surrounding cities, and its steeply sided valley is an important communications corridor through the uplands of the Peak District.

text: The low level of water pollution and the relative abundance of rain-fall ensures that water shortages are relatively uncommon. Regional authorities provide abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas. Many municipal systems draw water from deep aquifers thus avoiding the cost of long pipelines. Some of these aquifer fed systems systems such as that serving Christchurch was of sufficiently good quality that no disinfection of final water was practised until the recent earthquake events. Following restoration of the network the water is no longer chlorinated. Water taken from shallower or less secure aquifers are at risk of contamination. An outbreak of Cryptosporidiosis in Hawkes Bay area affecting Hastings and Napier has been attributed to the consequences of intensive agricultural in the area overlying the aquifer.

text: The low level of

text: water pollution

text: and the relative abundance of rain-fall ensures that water shortages are relatively uncommon. Regional authorities provide abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas. Many municipal systems draw water from deep aquifers thus avoiding the cost of long pipelines. Some of these aquifer fed systems systems such as that serving

text: Christchurch

text: was of sufficiently good quality that no disinfection of final water was practised until the recent earthquake events. Following restoration of the network the water is no longer chlorinated. Water taken from shallower or less secure aquifers are at risk of contamination. An outbreak of

text: Cryptosporidiosis

text: in

text: Hawkes Bay

text: area affecting

text: Hastings

text: and

text: Napier

text: has been attributed to the consequences of intensive agricultural in the area overlying the aquifer.

text: A water park or waterpark is an amusement park that features water play areas, such as swimming pools, water slides, splash pads, spraygrounds (water playgrounds), lazy rivers, or other recreational bathing, swimming, and barefooting environments. Water parks in more current states of development may also be equipped with some type of artificial surfing or bodyboarding environment such as a wave pool or FlowRider.

text: A water park or waterpark is an

text: amusement park

text: that features water play areas, such as

text: swimming pool

text: s,

text: water slide

text: s,

text: splash pad

text: s, spraygrounds (water playgrounds),

text: lazy river

text: s, or other recreational

text: bathing

text: swimming

text: , and

text: barefoot

text: ing environments. Water parks in more current states of development may also be equipped with some type of artificial

text: surfing

text: or

text: bodyboarding

text: environment such as a

text: wave pool

text: or

text: FlowRider

text: In 2003, Thailand's Pollution Control Department (PCD) monitored the quality of 49 rivers and four lakes in Thailand. Findings revealed that 68 percent of water bodies surveyed were suitable for agriculture and general consumption. Only less than 40 percent of Thailand's surface waters were in poor or very poor quality. According to the survey of major rivers and lakes by PCD, no surface water was categorized as "very good" quality (clean water suitable for aquatic animals and human consumption after normal treatment).

text: There was public disquiet about Singapore water charges which were the highest of any town in Malaya on account of "the high overhead cost of the Johore supply scheme". For a discussion of the impact of water charges on the poor in Singapore in 1936 (who were considered by one commentator as wasteful in their use of water), a comparison of water charges in other towns and cities in Malaya and a discussion on why the water department should not be a profit-oriented trading department, see extensive footnote.  The exact date when water metering was introduced in Singapore is not known but it had started by 1908.  A flat water meter rental charge of 50 cents per month was being levied on all households in 1935, "a trifling sum to the rich man but a heavy drain on the income of a poor man".

text: An unknown, but large proportion of the population is dependent on supply through water tankers. For example, Riyadh experiences water shortages and intermittent supply, especially during the summer peak demand. To cope with the shortage, 18 million cubic meters of water was distributed during one summer by private contractors. With the commissioning of a new large well field at Al Honai this problem has been reduced.

text: Sylhet has high rates of Electric power shortage and water shortage. According to the Power Development Board, Sylhet is only receiving 50MW, which is half than the demand of 100MW. The city corporation is also supplying only 22,500 gallons of water, far less than the demand of about 65,000. The major sources of water to the city is the tube wells and the Surma River. There are also high levels of arsenic in the water in Sylhet than in most other regions, this is mainly due to the multiple depth screening in the tubewells. According to the World Health Organization in 1997, about 61% are highly contaminated by arsenic, however in 1999, the percentage of boreholes tested where arsenic levels are above 50 micrograms per litre, was under 25%. There are about 331 registered restaurants in the city, only 15% maintain sanitary facilities and 85% have unhygienic conditions that are unsafe for the public.

text: Sylhet has high rates of Electric power shortage and water shortage. According to the Power Development Board, Sylhet is only receiving 50

text: MW

text: , which is half than the demand of 100MW. The city corporation is also supplying only 22,500 gallons of water, far less than the demand of about 65,000. The major sources of water to the city is the tube wells and the Surma River. There are also high levels of

text: arsenic

text: in the water in Sylhet than in most other regions, this is mainly due to the multiple depth screening in the

text: tubewell

text: s. According to the

text: World Health Organization

text: in 1997, about 61% are highly contaminated by arsenic, however in 1999, the percentage of boreholes tested where arsenic levels are above 50 micrograms per litre, was under 25%. There are about 331 registered restaurants in the city, only 15% maintain sanitary facilities and 85% have unhygienic conditions that are unsafe for the public.

text: At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the main source of power for new inventions such as Richard Arkwright's water frame. Although the use of water power gave way to steam power in many of the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the 18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such as driving the bellows in small blast furnaces (e.g. the Dyfi Furnace) and gristmills, such as those built at Saint Anthony Falls, which uses the 50-foot (15 m) drop in the Mississippi River.

text: At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the main source of power for new inventions such as

text: Richard Arkwright

text: 's

text: water frame

text: . Although the use of water power gave way to steam power in many of the larger mills and factories, it was still used during the 18th and 19th centuries for many smaller operations, such as driving the bellows in small

text: blast furnace

text: s (e.g. the

text: Dyfi Furnace

text: ) and

text: gristmill

text: s, such as those built at

text: Saint Anthony Falls

text: , which uses the 50-foot (15 m) drop in the

text: Mississippi River

text: The lake is hypertrophic, leading to eutrophication with corresponding poor water quality. This decline in water quality has been known since the early 1900s. So far, attempts of opening up the lake to the ocean to rectify the problem have had limited success. In 2016, after a spell of dry weather, the water quality deteriorated and recurring algal blooms made the water toxic. Animals, including pets and sheep, died after drinking the water.

text: The lake is

text: hypertrophic

text: , leading to

text: eutrophication

text: with corresponding poor water quality. This decline in water quality has been known since the early 1900s. So far, attempts of opening up the lake to the ocean to rectify the problem have had limited success. In 2016, after a spell of dry weather, the water quality deteriorated and recurring

text: algal bloom

text: s made the water toxic. Animals, including pets and sheep, died after drinking the water.

text: The Green Revolution was possible due to adequate water supply through irrigation. The government undertook a number of minor, major and multipurpose irrigation projects to supply sufficient water to cultivable lands so that the dependence of farmers on rainfall reduced to great extents. The government also made provisions for digging canals, hand pumps, etc., for adequate and increased water supply.

text: One type of meter, the "Gem", was built in sizes up to . The quantity of water that could be delivered by such a meter was nearly . This presented a problem in testing, as that amount of water could never be taken from the water supply of any city. In fact, a single meter of that size would pass enough water to supply a large town. Nash was given the task of devising a testing plant which re-circulated the water. He accomplished this by the use of a vertical screw pump which lifts the water to a reservoir, from which it passes through the meter to be tested and thence over a weir, where it is measured. The device and the meters both proved to be accurate.

text: One type of meter, the "Gem", was built in sizes up to . The quantity of water that could be delivered by such a meter was nearly . This presented a problem in testing, as that amount of water could never be taken from the water supply of any city. In fact, a single meter of that size would pass enough water to supply a large town. Nash was given the task of devising a testing plant which re-circulated the water. He accomplished this by the use of a vertical screw pump which lifts the water to a reservoir, from which it passes through the meter to be tested and thence over a

text: weir

text: , where it is measured. The device and the meters both proved to be accurate.

text: Water shortage and water restrictions have been current local issues, and a few new Gold Coast residential areas have recently included dual reticulation in their planning and development to supply water from a new water recycling plant being built concurrently. This will make available highly treated recycled water for use around the home in addition to potable water. The Gold Coast has received world recognition for this scheme in its Pimpama-Coomera suburbs.

text: When there is not enough potable water for a given population, the threat of a water crisis is realized.The United Nations and other world organizations consider a variety of regions to have water crises of global concern. Other organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization, argue that there are no water crises in such places, but steps must still be taken to avoid one.

text: When there is not enough

text: potable water

text: for a given population, the threat of a water crisis is realized.The

text: United Nations

text: and other world organizations consider a variety of regions to have water crises of global concern. Other organizations, such as the

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: , argue that there are no water crises in such places, but steps must still be taken to avoid one.

text: Congress authorized the construction of Buford Dam in 1946, and the dam was completed in 1957. As Atlanta's population has continued to grow from the time the dam was built, especially since the late 20th century, its consumption and need for water has grown. At the same time, both Alabama and Florida used the waters from Lake Lanier, which were critical to a variety of uses, including important economic industries. In 1989, the Corps of Engineers released a report concluding that some of the water being used for hydroelectric power at Buford Dam should, instead, be used to supply Atlanta with water for human consumption.

text: India receives about 4,000 cubic kilometers of rain annually, or about 1 million gallons of fresh water per person every year. However, the precipitation pattern in India varies dramatically across distance and over calendar months. Much of the precipitation in India, about 85%, is received during summer months through monsoons in the Himalayan catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin. The northeastern region of the country receives heavy precipitation, in comparison with the northwestern, western and southern parts. The uncertainty of start date of monsoons, sometimes marked by prolonged dry spells and fluctuations in seasonal and annual rainfall is a serious problem for the country. The nation sees cycles of drought years and flood years, with large parts of west and south experiencing more deficits and large variations, resulting in immense hardship particularly the poorest farmers and rural populations. Lack of irrigation water regionally leads to crop failures and farmer suicides. Despite abundant rains during July–September, some regions in other seasons see shortages of drinking water. Some years, the problem temporarily becomes too much rainfall, and weeks of havoc from floods. This excess-scarcity regional disparity and flood-drought cycles have created the need for water resources management. Rivers inter-linking is one proposal to address that need.

text: In some states Surface water, lakes, rivers, and springs, are treated differently from ground water underground water that is extracted by drilling wells; however, In other states surface and ground water are managed conjunctively. For example, in New Mexico, surface and ground water have been managed together since the 1950s. This trend comes from a growing scientific understanding of the formerly mysterious behavior of underground water systems. For instance, gradual contamination of some water supplies with salt has been explained with the knowledge that drawing water from a well creates a gradual seepage into the well area, potentially contaminating it and surrounding areas with seawater from a nearby coast. Such knowledge is useful for understanding the effects of human activity on water supplies but can also create new sources of conflict.

text: In some states

text: Surface water

text: , lakes, rivers, and springs, are treated differently from

text: ground water

text: underground water that is extracted by drilling

text: wells

text: ; however, In other states surface and ground water are managed conjunctively. For example, in New Mexico, surface and ground water have been managed together since the 1950s. This trend comes from a growing scientific understanding of the formerly mysterious behavior of underground water systems. For instance, gradual

text: contamination

text: of some water supplies with

text: salt

text: has been explained with the knowledge that drawing water from a well creates a gradual seepage into the well area, potentially contaminating it and surrounding areas with

text: seawater

text: from a nearby coast. Such knowledge is useful for understanding the effects of human activity on water supplies but can also create new sources of conflict.

text: In late 2008, the band reunited to play their first performances since the Schulthise memorial shows, with Stevens again on bass. After two back-to-back warm-up shows in Philadelphia, including one billed under the pseudonym Les Enfants Du Prague, they played the Fun Fun Fun Fest in Austin, Texas.  Following these concerts, they decided to continue as an active group.

text: In late 2008, the band reunited to play their first performances since the Schulthise memorial shows, with Stevens again on bass. After two back-to-back warm-up shows in Philadelphia, including one billed under the pseudonym Les Enfants Du Prague, they played the

text: Fun Fun Fun Fest

text: in

text: Austin

text: Texas

text: .  Following these concerts, they decided to continue as an active group.

text: Water use in California is divided into approximately 51% for environmental uses, 39% agricultural use and 11% urban uses, though that varies considerably between regions and between wet and dry years. Solely relying on these statewide volumes is controversial because they don't consider the fact that most of the volume of water used for environmental purposes includes flows down Wild and Scenic Rivers in the North Coast where there is no practical way to recover it for either agricultural or urban use because it lacks many connections to the statewide water supply system. It also doesn't factor in the amount of water required to keep salty water from the Pacific Ocean from intruding into the Delta beyond a certain small concentration. Otherwise, "reduced water quality resulting from large amounts of salt water drawn into the Delta could shut down the export pumps that supply fresh water to agriculture and cities."

text: The country has water resources for a water potential of 1,542 m/s, but in 2006 only 88.5 m/s (6%) were used for consumption, whereof 75 m/s was used for irrigation and 13.5 m/s for domestic and industrial use. There are high levels of pollution.The 4,300 rural water supply systems extract their water from the following sources:

text: It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry.  Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, which use water for cooling, ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent. Water withdrawal can be very high for certain industries, but consumption is generally much lower than that of agriculture.

text: It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry.  Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams,

text: thermoelectric power plants

text: , which use water for cooling,

text: ore

text: and

text: oil

text: refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent. Water withdrawal can be very high for certain industries, but consumption is generally much lower than that of agriculture.

text: One of the major environmental issues in Lebanon is water supply. The country has greater water resources than many other Middle Eastern countries; however, it is at increasing risk of shortages, particularly during the dry summers. This is due to lack of storage capacity, to increasing demand, and to climate change. Large-scale projects to improve water supply are funded by the government and by foreign agencies, and include the Greater Beirut Water Supply Project and the Litani River Authority.

text: One of the major

text: environmental

text: issues in

text: Lebanon

text: is

text: water supply

text: . The country has greater water resources than many other

text: Middle East

text: ern countries; however, it is at increasing risk of shortages, particularly during the

text: dry summers

text: . This is due to lack of

text: storage capacity

text: , to increasing demand, and to

text: climate change

text: . Large-scale projects to improve water supply are funded by the government and by foreign agencies, and include the

text: Greater Beirut

text: Water Supply Project and the

text: Litani River

text: Authority.

text: Italy has a good and sufficient water supply, yet, especially due to droughts, common in the summer (notably in Southern Italy), water shortages can frequently occur. Italians consume a very high amount of mineral water, the highest compared to equivalent neighbours: in 1992, the average person in Italy drank 116 litres, compared to 105 in Belgium, 93 in Germany and 80 in France. According to studies, 18 million people in Italy annually are confronted with at least one slight water shortage, and 18% of Italian families have been recorded as having irregular distribution patterns. Some water distribution is also uneven, and can be explained by economic factors; for example, people in Lombardy, Italy's richest region, drink nine times more bottled water than Campania, one of the country's poorest.

text: Italy has a good and sufficient water supply, yet, especially due to droughts, common in the summer (notably in

text: Southern Italy

text: ), water shortages can frequently occur. Italians consume a very high amount of mineral water, the highest compared to equivalent neighbours: in 1992, the average person in Italy drank 116 litres, compared to 105 in

text: Belgium

text: , 93 in

text: Germany

text: and 80 in

text: France

text: . According to studies, 18 million people in Italy annually are confronted with at least one slight water shortage, and 18% of Italian families have been recorded as having irregular distribution patterns. Some water distribution is also uneven, and can be explained by economic factors; for example, people in

text: Lombardy

text: , Italy's richest region, drink nine times more bottled water than

text: Campania

text: , one of the country's poorest.

text: The gold in the county coat of arms (see right) symbolises the wealth of the area. Black is for both mining and the Black Mountains. The fountain is a medieval heraldic charge displayed as a roundel barry wavy Argent and Azure. It represents water, and refers to both the water catchment area and the rivers and lakes. Thus, the arms contain references to the hills and mountains, rivers and lakes, water supply and industry.

text: The gold in the county coat of arms (see right) symbolises the wealth of the area. Black is for both mining and the

text: Black Mountains

text: . The

text: fountain

text: is a

text: medieval

text: heraldic

text: charge

text: displayed as a

text: roundel

text: barry wavy Argent and Azure. It represents water, and refers to both the water catchment area and the rivers and lakes. Thus, the arms contain references to the hills and mountains, rivers and lakes, water supply and industry.

text: Water security and food security are inextricably linked. In the decade 1951–60 human water withdrawals were four times greater than the previous decade. This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological developments impacting through the economy – especially the increase in irrigated land, growth in industrial and power sectors, and intensive dam construction on all continents. This altered the water cycle of rivers and lakes, affected their water quality and had a significant impact on the global water cycle. Currently towards 35% of human water use is unsustainable, drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing the flows of major rivers: this percentage is likely to increase if climate change impacts become more severe, populations increase, aquifers become progressively depleted and supplies become polluted and unsanitary. From 1961 to 2001 water demand doubled — agricultural use increased by 75%, industrial use by more than 200%, and domestic use more than 400%. In the 1990s it was estimated that humans were using 40–50% of the globally available freshwater in the approximate proportion of 70% for agriculture, 22% for industry, and 8% for domestic purposes with total use progressively increasing.

text: Water security

text: and

text: food security

text: are inextricably linked. In the decade 1951–60 human water withdrawals were four times greater than the previous decade. This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological developments impacting through the

text: economy

text: – especially the increase in irrigated land, growth in industrial and power sectors, and intensive

text: dam

text: construction on all continents. This altered the water cycle of

text: river

text: s and

text: lake

text: s, affected their

text: water quality

text: and had a significant impact on the global water cycle. Currently towards 35% of human water use is unsustainable, drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing the flows of major rivers: this percentage is likely to increase if

text: climate change

text: impacts become more severe,

text: population

text: s increase, aquifers become progressively depleted and supplies become polluted and unsanitary. From 1961 to 2001 water demand doubled — agricultural use increased by 75%, industrial use by more than 200%, and domestic use more than 400%. In the 1990s it was estimated that humans were using 40–50% of the globally available freshwater in the approximate proportion of 70% for agriculture, 22% for

text: industry

text: , and 8% for domestic purposes with total use progressively increasing.

text: The increasing demand for water and the stress placed on existing systems of water supply necessitated newer measures to increase the water supplied to Versailles. Between 1668 and 1674, a project was undertaken to divert the water of the Bièvre river to Versailles. By damming the river and with a pumping system of five windmills, water was brought to the reservoirs located on the Satory Plateau. This system brought an additional 72,000 m of water to the gardens (Thompson, 2006).

text: The increasing demand for water and the stress placed on existing systems of water supply necessitated newer measures to increase the water supplied to Versailles. Between 1668 and 1674, a project was undertaken to divert the water of the

text: Bièvre

text: river to Versailles. By damming the river and with a pumping system of five windmills, water was brought to the reservoirs located on the Satory Plateau. This system brought an additional 72,000 m of water to the gardens (Thompson, 2006).

text: The quality of the water is generally good, helped by the fact that the groundwater in the chalk aquifer is of very high quality. However, some of the small streams in the upper reaches are polluted by discharges of effluent which are not licensed, and there are areas where the water in the aquifer, and hence the river, has raised levels of nitrates, largely caused by agricultural fertilisers. The Environment Agency has produced improvement plans to address a number of sources of both agricultural and urban pollution. Natural flows in the river are affected by the abstraction of water for the public water supply. There are many locations at which water is abstracted along the course of the river, including a site in the upper reaches where more than  per day is abstacted from the aquifer, and another where the volume exceeds . Just above the junction with the River Arun, the Hardham Water Treatment Works removes more than  per day from the river.

text: The quality of the water is generally good, helped by the fact that the groundwater in the chalk aquifer is of very high quality. However, some of the small streams in the upper reaches are polluted by discharges of effluent which are not licensed, and there are areas where the water in the aquifer, and hence the river, has raised levels of

text: nitrate

text: s, largely caused by agricultural fertilisers. The Environment Agency has produced improvement plans to address a number of sources of both agricultural and urban pollution. Natural flows in the river are affected by the abstraction of water for the public water supply. There are many locations at which water is abstracted along the course of the river, including a site in the upper reaches where more than  per day is abstacted from the aquifer, and another where the volume exceeds . Just above the junction with the River Arun, the Hardham Water Treatment Works removes more than  per day from the river.

text: In many suburban and rural areas households are not connected to sewers, and they rather use on-site sewage facilities or decentralised treatment if they are connected to piped water and use flush toilets. They discharge their wastewater into septic tanks or other types of on-site sanitation systems (e.g. Sequencing batch reactors or constructed wetlands). On-site systems include drain fields, which require significant area of land. This makes septic systems unsuitable for most cities.

text: In many suburban and rural areas households are not connected to sewers, and they rather use

text: on-site sewage facilities

text: or decentralised treatment if they are connected to piped water and use flush toilets. They discharge their wastewater into

text: septic tank

text: s or other types of on-site sanitation systems (e.g.

text: Sequencing batch reactor

text: s or

text: constructed wetland

text: s). On-site systems include

text: drain field

text: s, which require significant area of land. This makes septic systems unsuitable for most cities.

text: Drug pollution or pharmaceutical pollution is pollution of the environment with pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, which reach the marine environment (groundwater, rivers, lakes, and oceans) through wastewater. Drug pollution is therefore mainly a form of water pollution.

text: Drug pollution or pharmaceutical pollution is

text: pollution

text: of the

text: environment

text: with

text: pharmaceutical drug

text: s and their

text: metabolite

text: s, which reach the marine environment (

text: groundwater

text: river

text: s,

text: lake

text: s, and

text: ocean

text: s) through

text: wastewater

text: . Drug pollution is therefore mainly a form of

text: water pollution

text: The WUC supplies bulk treated water to the Department of Water Affairs.The Department of Water Affairs arranges distribution of this water and water from its own sources such as well fields to seventeen major villages.About half of the water delivered to the major villages comes from the WUC. District Councils supply water to more than 200 smaller villages.  Some water users arrange their own supplies of water.As of 2012, there were plans to transfer responsibility for water supply from the Department of Water Affairs to WUC, and to transfer waste water management from the District Councils to the WUC.

text: In February 2014, during a drought that had hit California, Nunes rejected any link between the drought and global warming, saying "Global warming is nonsense." He criticized the federal government for shutting off portions of California’s system of water irrigation and storage and diverting water into a program for freshwater salmon and the delta smelt. “There was plenty of water. This has nothing to do with drought." Nunes elaborated on his climate denialism in an April 2015 National Review article. At the time California farmers were criticized for using most of California's water, making the state's drought worse. The agriculture sector uses at least 80 percent of the state's water, often on water-intensive crops such as almonds. Nunes, a third-generation dairy farmer, challenged media criticism of the agriculture industry. He claimed, "Farmers do not use 80 percent of California’s water. In reality, 50 percent of the water that is captured by the state’s dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, and other infrastructure is diverted for environmental causes. Farmers, in fact, use 40 percent of the water supply. Environmentalists have manufactured the 80 percent statistic by deliberately excluding environmental diversions from their calculations." Nunes added that California's lack of adequate water storage facilities has only made the problem worse. He wrote, "Furthermore, in many years there are additional millions of acre-feet of water that are simply flushed into the ocean due to a lack of storage capacity — a situation partly explained by environmental groups’ opposition to new water-storage projects. Returning to an argument he has made before regarding California's water storage and irrigation system, Nunes added, "The drought is a genuine problem in California, but our irrigation system was designed to withstand five years of drought."

text: In February 2014, during a

text: drought

text: that had hit California, Nunes rejected any link between the drought and

text: global warming

text: , saying "Global warming is nonsense." He criticized the federal government for shutting off portions of California’s system of water irrigation and storage and diverting water into a program for freshwater salmon and the delta smelt. “There was plenty of water. This has nothing to do with drought." Nunes elaborated on his

text: climate denialism

text: in an April 2015

text: National Review

text: article. At the time California farmers were criticized for using most of California's water, making the state's drought worse. The agriculture sector uses at least 80 percent of the state's water, often on water-intensive crops such as almonds. Nunes, a third-generation dairy farmer, challenged media criticism of the agriculture industry. He claimed, "Farmers do not use 80 percent of California’s water. In reality, 50 percent of the water that is captured by the state’s dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, and other infrastructure is diverted for environmental causes. Farmers, in fact, use 40 percent of the water supply. Environmentalists have manufactured the 80 percent statistic by deliberately excluding environmental diversions from their calculations." Nunes added that California's lack of adequate water storage facilities has only made the problem worse. He wrote, "Furthermore, in many years there are additional millions of acre-feet of water that are simply flushed into the ocean due to a lack of storage capacity — a situation partly explained by environmental groups’ opposition to new water-storage projects. Returning to an argument he has made before regarding California's water storage and irrigation system, Nunes added, "The drought is a genuine problem in California, but our irrigation system was designed to withstand five years of drought."

text: Gibraltar's chronic shortage of water had significant negative consequences for all the inhabitants, civilian and military alike. The military took priority but made no effort to ration or apportion it. The British Army and the Royal Navy effectively competed for the same limited supply. Both required large volumes of water, but the arrival of a fleet could result in Gibraltar's supplies of water and food being consumed suddenly with no provision left over for others who might need it. The rapid growth of Gibraltar's population during the 18th and 19th centuries added to the pressure on the territory's water supply. There was a fivefold increase in numbers between 1784 and 1800, with a further tripling to 16,800 inhabitants by 1814. The old Spanish water supply and rainwater catchments in the town had been manageable for a combined military and civilian population of up to about 3,000 people, but above that level the impact of water shortages became increasingly severe.

text: Gibraltar's chronic shortage of water had significant negative consequences for all the inhabitants, civilian and military alike. The military took priority but made no effort to ration or apportion it. The

text: British Army

text: and the

text: Royal Navy

text: effectively competed for the same limited supply. Both required large volumes of water, but the arrival of a fleet could result in Gibraltar's supplies of water and food being consumed suddenly with no provision left over for others who might need it. The rapid growth of Gibraltar's population during the 18th and 19th centuries added to the pressure on the territory's water supply. There was a fivefold increase in numbers between 1784 and 1800, with a further tripling to 16,800 inhabitants by 1814. The old Spanish water supply and rainwater catchments in the town had been manageable for a combined military and civilian population of up to about 3,000 people, but above that level the impact of water shortages became increasingly severe.

text: Increasingly, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water.

text: Increasingly,

text: agriculture

text: is using untreated wastewater for irrigation. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water.

text: The dyke was constructed in the 25 hectare farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur in 2007  to solve the problem of water scarcity. The experience of KVK  indicated that subsurface dyke was an efficient barrier to arrest the subsurface flow of water and conserve ground water. The rate of depletion of drainable water in the catchment area due to the typical undulating topography could be efficiently arrested by the dyke. The dyke resulted in the maintenance of higher water table in the catchment area for a longer period of time.  There is an existing dug out pond with top length of 12 m, width 8m a depth 5m in the upstream side of the dyke.  The pond is the only source of water in the KVK farm. The pond, which  usually gets dried up in the summer is now maintaining a high water table throughout the year as the dyke ensures an incessant supply of water to the pond. Weekly data on the ground water level were recorded using water level recorder. The data showed that significantly higher level of water table was maintained in the catchment  area (upstream area) compared to down stream area. Taking into account the mean depth of soil as 2 m the catchment area as 1.5ha (the actual area is 15 ha) and the drainable porosity as 10%, the total water storage capacity of the dyke would be 3000 m3. The crops cultivated in the catchment area would be benefited by way of constant capillary feeding of the rhizosphere. Kerala receives, on an average, more than 3000mm of rainfall per annum which is concentrated to the months of June to October. Due to the typical undulating topography of the state, the excess rain received is mostly lost through runoff. Immediately on cessation of rains subsurface water drains off along the slope resulting in poor retention of water in the catchment area. In spite of the heavy rainfall received in Kerala, the state experiences severe drought during summer months due to inefficient utilisation of rain water. In a state like Kerala, where the pressure on land is very high surface storage of water in large reservoirs with their adverse ecological impact is not an economic proposition. Alternatively, structures like subsurface dyke are most ideal for in situ conservation of  rainfall received in a watershed.

text: The dyke was constructed in the 25 hectare farm of

text: Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur

text: in 2007  to solve the problem of water scarcity. The experience of KVK  indicated that subsurface dyke was an efficient barrier to arrest the subsurface flow of water and conserve ground water. The rate of depletion of drainable water in the catchment area due to the typical undulating topography could be efficiently arrested by the dyke. The dyke resulted in the maintenance of higher water table in the catchment area for a longer period of time.  There is an existing dug out pond with top length of 12 m, width 8m a depth 5m in the upstream side of the dyke.  The pond is the only source of water in the KVK farm. The pond, which  usually gets dried up in the summer is now maintaining a high water table throughout the year as the dyke ensures an incessant supply of water to the pond. Weekly data on the ground water level were recorded using water level recorder. The data showed that significantly higher level of water table was maintained in the catchment  area (upstream area) compared to down stream area. Taking into account the mean depth of soil as 2 m the catchment area as 1.5

text: ha

text: (the actual area is 15 ha) and the drainable porosity as 10%, the total water storage capacity of the dyke would be 3000 m3. The crops cultivated in the catchment area would be benefited by way of constant capillary feeding of the rhizosphere. Kerala receives, on an average, more than 3000mm of rainfall per annum which is concentrated to the months of June to October. Due to the typical undulating topography of the state, the excess rain received is mostly lost through runoff. Immediately on cessation of rains subsurface water drains off along the slope resulting in poor retention of water in the catchment area. In spite of the heavy rainfall received in Kerala, the state experiences severe drought during summer months due to inefficient utilisation of rain water. In a state like

text: Kerala

text: , where the pressure on land is very high surface storage of water in large reservoirs with their adverse ecological impact is not an economic proposition. Alternatively, structures like subsurface dyke are most ideal for in situ conservation of  rainfall received in a watershed.

text: Islamabad and Rawalpindi Water Supply (1989-2000). In 1989 JBIC had approved two loans to support two Metropolitan Water Supply Projects to transfer bulk water from the Khanpur Dam and the Simly Dam for a total of 18.268 billion Yen. The Khanpur project, implemented between 1994 and 2000, aimed at increasing bulk water supply to Islamabad and Rawalpindi from the Khanpur Dam. An  ex-post evaluation of the project in 2002 judged that "the effect of the project was not necessarily high". The amount of water supplied was only 41% of what had been planned, and there were "various problems with the executing agency (the Capital Development Authority) such as the scarcity of personnel, underdeveloped institutions, and the shortage of active efforts." A Japanese field survey in 2008 re-examined the situation and found that "no noticeable improvements have been made". The total amount spent was US$109 million (12,442 million Yen). Among other things, water purification facilities with a capacity of 281,000 m³ per day, water supply facilities and water storage facilities had been constructed.

text: Islamabad and Rawalpindi Water Supply (1989-2000). In 1989 JBIC had approved two loans to support two Metropolitan Water Supply Projects to transfer bulk water from the

text: Khanpur Dam

text: and the

text: Simly Dam

text: for a total of 18.268 billion Yen. The Khanpur project, implemented between 1994 and 2000, aimed at increasing bulk water supply to

text: Islamabad

text: and

text: Rawalpindi

text: from the Khanpur Dam. An  ex-post evaluation of the project in 2002 judged that "the effect of the project was not necessarily high". The amount of water supplied was only 41% of what had been planned, and there were "various problems with the executing agency (the Capital Development Authority) such as the scarcity of personnel, underdeveloped institutions, and the shortage of active efforts." A Japanese field survey in 2008 re-examined the situation and found that "no noticeable improvements have been made". The total amount spent was US$109 million (12,442 million

text: Yen

text: ). Among other things, water purification facilities with a capacity of 281,000 m³ per day, water supply facilities and water storage facilities had been constructed.

text: Depleting ground water table and deteriorating ground water quality are threatening the sustainability of both urban and rural water supply in many parts of India. The supply of cities that depend on surface water is threatened by pollution, increasing water scarcity and conflicts among users. For example, Bangalore depends to a large extent on water pumped since 1974 from the Kaveri river, whose waters are disputed between the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. As in other Indian cities, the response to water scarcity is to transfer more water over large distances at high costs. In the case of Bangalore, the  Kaveri Stage IV project, Phase II, includes the supply of 500,000 cubic meter of water per day over a distance of 100 km, thus increasing the city's supply by two-thirds.

text: Depleting ground

text: water table

text: and deteriorating ground water quality are threatening the sustainability of both urban and rural water supply in many parts of India. The supply of cities that depend on surface water is threatened by pollution, increasing water scarcity and conflicts among users. For example,

text: Bangalore

text: depends to a large extent on water pumped since 1974 from the

text: Kaveri

text: river, whose waters are disputed between the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. As in other Indian cities, the response to water scarcity is to transfer more water over large distances at high costs. In the case of Bangalore, the  Kaveri Stage IV project, Phase II, includes the supply of 500,000 cubic meter of water per day over a distance of 100 km, thus increasing the city's supply by two-thirds.

text: The water supply is near constant for 10–11 months annually and the month of May has peak shortages. Occasional shut downs are often short enough to be borne through by the overhead water tanks in many apartments and the central water tower system.

text: The caisson lock can however be powered, and the caisson lifted, by buoyancy alone. Pumping ballast water in and out of the caisson is enough to float it up or down the lock chamber. The weight of ballast water is approximately that of the canal barge being lifted. The boat lift though needs a mechanical lift system. In most vertical lift systems, this must also lift or lower the weight of the caisson and its water contents as well. This is substantially more than the barge alone, and the power to lift it is supplied mechanically. At the time of their development, the steam engine was in its infancy. Steam engines had been developed as water pumps, but not yet for the supply of mechanical power (see rotative steam engine). Given the engineering constraints of the time, lifting an enclosed caisson by buoyancy was more practical than driving a boat lift.

text: The caisson lock can however be powered, and the caisson lifted, by buoyancy alone. Pumping ballast water in and out of the caisson is enough to float it up or down the lock chamber. The weight of ballast water is approximately that of the canal barge being lifted. The boat lift though needs a mechanical lift system. In most vertical lift systems, this must also lift or lower the weight of the caisson and its water contents as well. This is substantially more than the barge alone, and the power to lift it is supplied mechanically. At the time of their development, the steam engine was in its infancy. Steam engines had been developed as water pumps, but not yet for the supply of mechanical power (see

text: rotative steam engine

text: ). Given the engineering constraints of the time, lifting an enclosed caisson by buoyancy was more practical than driving a boat lift.

text: There is a paramedical visit once per month and villagers have the opportunity to visit a medical clinic in Mannavanor 7 km away by road. Clean drinking water is supplied by a piping system from a deep underground source with 179 households supplied from the source within an elevation of less than 50 meters and 63 households supplied from the source greater than 50 meters. There is a lack of sanitary latrine facilities.,  Out of a total of  245 homes: 155 use open defection and 90 use a group latrine with regular water supply.

text: The ephemeral wetlands that support this network of populations are remnants of what was formerly a pristine vernal pool ecosystem, which has been converted to primarily agricultural and urban uses. This highly disturbed remnant habitat is imperiled by a variety of human-caused activities, primarily urban development, water supply and flood control projects and conversion of land for agricultural use.

text: Rand Water previously known as the Rand Water Board is a South African water utility that supplies potable water to the Gauteng province and other areas of the country and is the largest water utility in Africa. The water is drawn from numerous sources and is purified and supplied to industry, mining and local municipalities and is also involved in sanitation of waste water.

text: Rand Water previously known as the Rand Water Board is a South African water utility that supplies potable water to the

text: Gauteng

text: province and other areas of the country and is the largest water utility in

text: Africa

text: . The water is drawn from numerous sources and is purified and supplied to industry, mining and local municipalities and is also involved in sanitation of waste water.

text: Springs and underground water sources in Lajat are scarce and most water is supplied by cisterns. Shortages of water are particularly severe during the summer months. While during the Lajat's ancient history, its inhabitants stored water from winter rainfall in reservoirs built near homes, by the early 20th century, these reservoirs had long fallen into disrepair. Thus, by the modern era, every village contained rectangular cisterns to store rainwater, which served as the main water supply.

text: Most households in the city rely groundwater as the only means of water supply, although there's provision of running water provided by the Nepal Water Supply Corporation. Ground water is extracted through handpumps or electric pumps- with most recent household having access to both of these facilities. Each household in the city has access to at least one of the three (running water, handpump and electric pump) facilities.

text: The developers contracted Bonus Energy to supply 11 wind turbines (450 kW each) for the project, placed in shallow waters. The annual power is equivalent to 2-3,000 Danish households. The turbines were modified for offshore use by sealing the towers and controlling the humidity inside, extending the life of the machinery.

text: The developers contracted

text: Bonus Energy

text: to supply 11

text: wind turbine

text: s (450 kW each) for the project, placed in shallow waters. The annual power is equivalent to 2-3,000 Danish households. The turbines were modified for offshore use by sealing the towers and controlling the

text: humidity

text: inside, extending the life of the machinery.

text: On behalf of the German government KfW development bank provides financing for water and sanitation investments in the city of Aden as well as in the towns of Al Shehr/Al Hami in Mukallah governorate, Mokha, Yarim, Amran, Sa'dah, Zabid, Bajil, Mansouria and Beit al-Faqih, the latter four being located in the Al Hudaydah Governorate. An evaluation of an earlier project for the renewal and expansion of drinking water supply systems in eight provincial towns in Yemen (Bajil, Bait al Faqih, Al Mansouria, Zabid, Mokha, Amran, Yarim und Hajjah), and sanitation measures in three towns (Hajjah, Amran and Yarim) showed that the project largely achieved its objectives related to water supply. The quality of the construction work was rated as high and the collection of bills was considered to be "efficient". However, in Yarim the objective was not achieved due to water shortages. Only "modest improvements" were achieved regarding waste water disposal. Another project to reduce water losses in Taiz and Mukalla was considered a partial failure: On the positive side, the evaluation showed that losses in the rehabilitated areas were reduced significantly. In Mukalla, where 40% of the network was rehabilitated, they were reduced from 22% to 8%. In Taiz, where only 12% of the network was rehabilitated, they fell from 45% to 6%. However, overall losses in the cities remained high at 30% in Mukalla and 47% in Taiz, because only parts of the network were rehabilitated. The cost of the measures was higher than expected due to the poorer than expected state of the network. KfW is now in the process of applying robust, quantitative-based evaluation methods to more accurately assess the health impact of the interventions it supported in Yemeni towns based. This will be done through surveys including both beneficiaries and a control group.

text: On behalf of the German government

text: KfW

text: development bank provides financing for water and sanitation investments in the city of

text: Aden

text: as well as in the towns of Al Shehr/Al Hami in Mukallah governorate,

text: Mokha

text: Yarim

text: Amran

text: Sa'dah

text: Zabid

text: Bajil

text: Mansouria

text: and

text: Beit al-Faqih

text: , the latter four being located in the

text: Al Hudaydah Governorate

text: . An evaluation of an earlier project for the renewal and expansion of drinking water supply systems in eight provincial towns in Yemen (Bajil, Bait al Faqih, Al Mansouria, Zabid, Mokha, Amran,

text: Yarim

text: und

text: Hajjah

text: ), and sanitation measures in three towns (Hajjah, Amran and Yarim) showed that the project largely achieved its objectives related to water supply. The quality of the construction work was rated as high and the collection of bills was considered to be "efficient". However, in Yarim the objective was not achieved due to water shortages. Only "modest improvements" were achieved regarding waste water disposal. Another project to reduce water losses in Taiz and Mukalla was considered a partial failure: On the positive side, the evaluation showed that losses in the rehabilitated areas were reduced significantly. In Mukalla, where 40% of the network was rehabilitated, they were reduced from 22% to 8%. In Taiz, where only 12% of the network was rehabilitated, they fell from 45% to 6%. However, overall losses in the cities remained high at 30% in Mukalla and 47% in Taiz, because only parts of the network were rehabilitated. The cost of the measures was higher than expected due to the poorer than expected state of the network. KfW is now in the process of applying robust, quantitative-based evaluation methods to more accurately assess the health impact of the interventions it supported in Yemeni towns based. This will be done through surveys including both beneficiaries and a

text: control group

text: Prior to 1902 only wells formed the main source of water-supply to the town. In 1902, attempts were made to store the water in four small tanks constructed for the purpose and was supplied to the town populace. In 1928 four bores were drilled and three more were drilled subsequently. However, water shortage was always felt. The new Sina scheme was therefore taken up in 1960 from where the town now gets ample water-supply.

text: Won in corresponding 2008 elections by Labour Party, majority 54 over the Liberal Democrats, and in a by-election later that year with a majority of 23.

text: Jellyfish Lake is stratified into two layers, an oxygenated upper layer (mixolimnion) and a lower anoxic layer (monimolimnion). The oxygen concentration in the lake declines from about 5 ppm at the surface to zero at 15 meters (at the chemocline). Stratification is persistent and seasonal mixing does not occur. The lake is one of about 200 saline meromictic lakes that have been identified in the world. However most of these lakes are of freshwater origin. Permanently stratified marine lakes are unusual, but on Eil Malk and on other nearby islands there are eleven other apparently permanent stratified marine lakes.

text: Jellyfish Lake is

text: stratified

text: into two layers, an

text: oxygenated

text: upper layer (mixolimnion) and a lower

text: anoxic

text: layer (monimolimnion). The oxygen concentration in the lake declines from about 5 ppm at the surface to zero at 15 meters (at the

text: chemocline

text: ). Stratification is persistent and seasonal mixing does not occur. The lake is one of about 200 saline

text: meromictic lake

text: s that have been identified in the world. However most of these lakes are of freshwater origin. Permanently stratified marine lakes are unusual, but on Eil Malk and on other nearby islands there are eleven other apparently permanent stratified marine lakes.

text: The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) also established Naval Radio Station Gander at the airfield, using the station as a listening post to detect the transmissions and location of enemy submarines and warships.

text: The

text: Royal Canadian Navy

text: (RCN) also established Naval Radio Station Gander at the airfield, using the station as a listening post to detect the transmissions and location of enemy submarines and warships.

text: Known for his 1971 single, "Borriquito" (Ariola Records), Peret represented Spain at the Eurovision Song Contest in 1974 and performed during the closing ceremony at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. In 2001, Peret recorded and released Rey De La Rumba (King of the Rumba) an album of updated versions of his older songs with guest musicians including Jarabe de Palo, El Gran Silencio, David Byrne of the Talking Heads, and more.

text: Known for his 1971 single, "Borriquito" (

text: Ariola Records

text: ), Peret represented Spain at the

text: Eurovision Song Contest

text: in 1974 and performed during the closing ceremony at the

text: 1992 Summer Olympics

text: in

text: Barcelona, Spain

text: . In 2001, Peret recorded and released Rey De La Rumba (King of the Rumba) an album of updated versions of his older songs with guest musicians including

text: Jarabe de Palo

text: El Gran Silencio

text: David Byrne

text: of the

text: Talking Heads

text: , and more.

text: The region saw the development of some of the earliest human civilizations, which flourished thanks to the water supplies and agricultural resources available in the Fertile Crescent. Technological advances made in the region include the development of writing, glass, the wheel, agriculture, and the use of irrigation.

text: The region saw the development of some of the earliest human civilizations, which flourished thanks to the water supplies and agricultural resources available in the Fertile Crescent. Technological advances made in the region include the development of

text: writing

text: glass

text: , the

text: wheel

text: agriculture

text: , and the use of

text: irrigation

text: Callum Anthony Reilly (born 3 October 1993) is a professional footballer who plays for Championship club Burton Albion.

text: Callum Anthony Reilly (born 3 October 1993) is a professional

text: footballer

text: who plays for

text: Championship

text: club

text: Burton Albion

text: Water supply in the London area was regulated by local acts and royal charters on a piecemeal basis from 1543. Through amalgamation, by 1830 there were six companies supplying water north of the Thames (The New River Co. incorporated in 1619, Hampstead Water Company inc. around 1730, The Chelsea Waterworks Co. inc. 1723, The West Middlesex Water Co. inc. 1806, The East London Waterworks Co. inc. 1807 and The Grand Junction Waterworks Co. inc. 1811), and four to the south of the river (The Lambeth Waterworks Co. inc. 1785, The Kent Waterworks Co. inc. 1809, The Southwark Water Co. inc. around 1760, and The Vauxhall Water Co. inc. 1805). Following complaints, a Royal commission was set up in 1827 to investigate the quality of supply. The commission found that the water was of poor quality and cleanliness, and was in need of improvement. A select committee endorsed this view in 1828 and recommended that a scheme should be devised by Thomas Telford, to supply the whole metropolis with clean water. Telford reported in 1834, and despite several outbreaks of cholera, little action was taken until the Metropolis Water Act 1852 introduced regulation of the supply companies; including minimum standards of water quality for the first time. A further Royal commission reported in 1869 and recommended that the supply should be taken into public management. The Metropolis Water Act 1871 introduced further regulation, but fell short of taking the supply into public control. In the meantime the corporations of major provincial towns such as Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds began operating their own municipal supplies. The Metropolitan Board of Works promoted several unsuccessful bills between 1878 and 1886 which would have allowed them to offer a municipal water supply; with a further eight bills promoted by the London County Council in 1895. During the course of a further series of commissions, set against the backdrop of continuing supply problems, the county councils of Middlesex, Essex, Kent and Surrey indicated they would not accept any scheme which allowed the London County Council authority over their areas in respect of water supply. It was therefore decided that the Metropolitan Water Bill would create an entirely new body to supply water to the greater London area.

text: Water supply in the London area was regulated by

entity_name: Local and personal Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom

text: local act

text: s and

text: royal charter

text: s on a piecemeal basis from 1543. Through amalgamation, by 1830 there were six companies supplying water north of the Thames (The New River Co. incorporated in 1619, Hampstead Water Company inc. around 1730, The Chelsea Waterworks Co. inc. 1723, The West Middlesex Water Co. inc. 1806, The East London Waterworks Co. inc. 1807 and The Grand Junction Waterworks Co. inc. 1811), and four to the south of the river (The Lambeth Waterworks Co. inc. 1785, The Kent Waterworks Co. inc. 1809, The Southwark Water Co. inc. around 1760, and The Vauxhall Water Co. inc. 1805). Following complaints, a Royal commission was set up in 1827 to investigate the quality of supply. The commission found that the water was of poor quality and cleanliness, and was in need of improvement. A select committee endorsed this view in 1828 and recommended that a scheme should be devised by

text: Thomas Telford

text: , to supply the whole metropolis with clean water. Telford reported in 1834, and despite several outbreaks of

text: cholera

text: , little action was taken until the

text: Metropolis Water Act 1852

text: introduced regulation of the supply companies; including minimum standards of water quality for the first time. A further Royal commission reported in 1869 and recommended that the supply should be taken into public management. The

text: Metropolis Water Act 1871

text: introduced further regulation, but fell short of taking the supply into public control. In the meantime the corporations of major provincial towns such as Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds began operating their own municipal supplies. The

text: Metropolitan Board of Works

text: promoted several unsuccessful bills between 1878 and 1886 which would have allowed them to offer a municipal water supply; with a further eight bills promoted by the

text: London County Council

text: in 1895. During the course of a further series of commissions, set against the backdrop of continuing supply problems, the county councils of Middlesex, Essex, Kent and Surrey indicated they would not accept any scheme which allowed the London County Council authority over their areas in respect of water supply. It was therefore decided that the Metropolitan Water Bill would create an entirely new body to supply water to the greater London area.

text: Kikki, Bettan & Lotta was a Swedish-Norwegian super trio, active 2001-2004 and consisting Kikki Danielsson, Elisabeth "Bettan" Andreassen and Lotta Engberg.

text: Kikki, Bettan & Lotta was a

text: Swedish

text: Norwegian

text: super trio

text: , active 2001-2004 and consisting

text: Kikki Danielsson

text: Elisabeth "Bettan" Andreassen

text: and Lotta Engberg.

text: The rot grub and rot grub swarm appeared in third edition in Dungeonscape (2007).

text: The rot grub and rot grub swarm appeared in third edition in

text: Dungeonscape

text: Important centers of research and composition can be found around the world, and there are numerous conferences and festivals which present electroacoustic music, notably the International Computer Music Conference, the International Conference on New interfaces for musical expression, and the Ars Electronica Festival (Linz, Austria).

text: Important centers of research and composition can be found around the world, and there are numerous conferences and festivals which present electroacoustic music, notably the

text: International Computer Music Conference

text: , the International Conference on

text: New interfaces for musical expression

text: , and the

text: Ars Electronica

text: Festival (Linz, Austria).

text: Gan was once a Mediacorp extra doing lots of television dramas. She was being noticed by viewers which promoted her to be a Mediacorp actress. She was being offered a mediacorp contract and she slowly taking up roles on being an actress. She has a fan club named The Luisa Lovers. When she participate in beauty competition she was rejected due to being fat. She lost 20 kg to compete in Miss Universe.

text: Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using water for washing of the cars. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site. Point of use water treatment and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and greywater for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.

text: Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing or by using water for washing of the cars. Waste-water may be minimized by utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site.

text: Point of use water treatment

text: and heating improves both water quality and energy efficiency while reducing the amount of water in circulation. The use of non-sewage and

text: greywater

text: for on-site use such as site-irrigation will minimize demands on the local aquifer.

text: In 1950 Mekorot drilled for water near the amphitheater for the dance festival, and from a depth of 374 meters, a powerful stream of water burst forth, supplying 300 cube per hour. After this success, additional drills followed, supplying the precious liquid to Dalia and the settlements in the area. This water is still used today to improve the quality of the water from the National Water Supply System which passes near the kibbutz. Water has brought about an essential change in the character of the agriculture and outlook of the settlement. Lawns, gardens and groves were planted, and the bare land was gradually covered by veils of greenery. Industrial factories were also established and consolidated, supplying the members with a variety of work. In 1950, "Harei Efraim", the regional educational institute, was also established near kibbutz Ein HaShofet, as a common school for kibbutzim in the region.

text: In 1950

text: Mekorot

text: drilled for water near the amphitheater for the dance festival, and from a depth of 374 meters, a powerful stream of water burst forth, supplying 300 cube per hour. After this success, additional drills followed, supplying the precious liquid to Dalia and the settlements in the area. This water is still used today to improve the quality of the water from the National Water Supply System which passes near the kibbutz. Water has brought about an essential change in the character of the agriculture and outlook of the settlement. Lawns, gardens and groves were planted, and the bare land was gradually covered by veils of greenery. Industrial factories were also established and consolidated, supplying the members with a variety of work. In 1950, "

text: Harei Efraim

text: ", the regional educational institute, was also established near kibbutz

text: Ein HaShofet

text: , as a common school for kibbutzim in the region.

text: It is the story of one of the world's biggest covert operations: Air America was owned by the CIA, started from the scratch of bunch of other agency-owned air assets. Air America—at its peak—became the biggest civil air fleet in the world.

text: The free areas of the center include the art gallery, which contains more than 50 photographs taken during the Games (originally printed in the Games' official commemorative book), and filmed highlights are available for viewing on Interactive kiosks.

text: The free areas of the center include the art gallery, which contains more than 50 photographs taken during the Games (originally printed in the Games' official commemorative book), and filmed highlights are available for viewing on

text: Interactive kiosks

text: In 1995, McMoneagle defended the Stargate program in an interview for the Washington Post.

text: In 1995, McMoneagle defended the Stargate program in an interview for the

text: Washington Post

text: The regimental coat of arms briefly tells part of the history of the unit. The black Moro Kris commemorates more than forty engagements and expeditions in which the 14th participated during the Philippine-American War. The coiled rattlesnake pays tribute to the patrol accomplishments along the Mexican Border during 1912–1918. The blue bend and gold background represent the traditional cavalry color and the uniform of the horse cavalry soldiers.

text: The regimental coat of arms briefly tells part of the history of the unit. The black

text: Moro Kris

text: commemorates more than forty engagements and expeditions in which the 14th participated during the

text: Philippine-American War

text: . The coiled rattlesnake pays tribute to the patrol accomplishments along the Mexican Border during 1912–1918. The blue bend and gold background represent the traditional cavalry color and the uniform of the horse cavalry soldiers.

text: She was christened in time, receiving her new name as Maior Afonso, or Mor Afonso, Mor being short for Maior, a common female name in medieval Portuguese. Afonso was given her in baptism as her new patronymic, meaning "the daughter of" Afonso - and that suggests that her elderly royal lover was also her godfather, that she took his spiritual "fatherhood" when christened. Her father's name was Aloandro Ben Bekar (also known in Portuguese as Aloandro or Aldroando Gil after his christening).

text: She was christened in time, receiving her new name as Maior Afonso, or Mor Afonso, Mor being short for Maior, a common female name in medieval Portuguese. Afonso was given her in baptism as her new patronymic, meaning "the daughter of" Afonso - and that suggests that her elderly royal lover was also her godfather, that she took his spiritual "fatherhood" when christened. Her father's name was

text: Aloandro Ben Bekar

text: (also known in Portuguese as Aloandro or Aldroando Gil after his christening).

text: 's restoration comedy The Double Dealer (1991) opposite Paul Eddington; with the English Shakespeare Company on a European tour as 'Launcelot Gobbo' in The Merchant of Venice (1994). In 2007 Hobbs played 'Lord Elrond', 'Treebeard', and 'Bill Ferny' in the musical adaptation of The Lord of the Rings, directed by Matthew Warchus at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. In 2012 Hobbs played 'Gary Strong' in a UK tour of the Noel Gay musical, Radio Times, opposite Sara Crowe.

text: 's restoration comedy

text: The Double Dealer

text: (1991) opposite

text: Paul Eddington

text: ; with the

text: English Shakespeare Company

text: on a European tour as 'Launcelot Gobbo' in

text: The Merchant of Venice

text: (1994). In 2007 Hobbs played 'Lord Elrond', 'Treebeard', and 'Bill Ferny' in the musical adaptation of

text: The Lord of the Rings

text: , directed by

text: Matthew Warchus

text: at the

text: Theatre Royal, Drury Lane

text: . In 2012 Hobbs played 'Gary Strong' in a UK tour of the

text: Noel Gay

text: musical, Radio Times, opposite

text: Sara Crowe

text: Garp grows up, becoming interested in sex, wrestling, and writing fiction—three topics in which his mother has little interest. After his graduation in 1961, his mother takes him to Vienna, where he writes his first novella. At the same time, his mother begins writing her autobiography, A Sexual Suspect.  After Jenny and Garp return to Steering, Garp marries Helen, the wrestling coach's daughter, and begins his family—he a struggling writer, she a teacher of English. The publication of A Sexual Suspect makes his mother famous.  She becomes a feminist icon, as feminists view her book as a manifesto of a woman who does not care to bind herself to a man, and who chooses to raise a child on her own.  She nurtures and supports women traumatized by men, among them the Ellen Jamesians, a group of women named after an eleven-year-old girl whose tongue was cut off by her rapists to silence her. The members of the group cut off their own tongues in support of the girl.

text: Garp grows up, becoming interested in sex, wrestling, and writing fiction—three topics in which his mother has little interest. After his graduation in 1961, his mother takes him to

text: Vienna

text: , where he writes his first novella. At the same time, his mother begins writing her autobiography, A Sexual Suspect.  After Jenny and Garp return to Steering, Garp marries Helen, the wrestling coach's daughter, and begins his family—he a struggling writer, she a teacher of English. The publication of A Sexual Suspect makes his mother famous.  She becomes a

text: feminist

text: icon, as feminists view her book as a manifesto of a woman who does not care to bind herself to a man, and who chooses to raise a child on her own.  She nurtures and supports women traumatized by men, among them the Ellen Jamesians, a group of women named after an eleven-year-old girl whose tongue was cut off by her rapists to silence her. The members of the group cut off their own tongues in support of the girl.

text: 2002 Publication award, the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland

text: Like vibrating strings and other elastic structures, shafts and beams can vibrate in different mode shapes, with corresponding natural frequencies. The first vibrational mode corresponds to the lowest natural frequency. Higher modes of vibration correspond to higher natural frequencies. Often when considering rotating shafts, only the first natural frequency is needed.

text: Like vibrating

text: strings

text: and other elastic structures, shafts and beams can vibrate in different mode shapes, with corresponding natural frequencies. The first vibrational mode corresponds to the lowest natural frequency. Higher modes of vibration correspond to higher natural frequencies. Often when considering rotating shafts, only the first natural frequency is needed.

text: is a smooth non-parametric function of explanatory variable

text: Westmeath CC: LI

text: Westmeath CC: LI

text: With a history of water shortages, an 84 km underground water supply pipeline was constructed to pump water from the Wingecarribee Reservoir in the Southern Highlands to Goulburn. This pipeline has a capacity of 7.5 ML per day.

text: With a history of water shortages, an 84 km underground water supply pipeline was constructed to pump water from the

text: Wingecarribee Reservoir

text: in the

text: Southern Highlands

text: to Goulburn. This pipeline has a capacity of 7.5 ML per day.

text: These persons are main member of the group:

text: The quadratic polynomial

text: The quadratic polynomial

text: At the beginning of the 1960s, during the period that Moshe Dayan was Minister of Agriculture, the government decided to change the zoning of the Nahalat Yitzhak neighbourhood from agricultural to urban-industrial. Subsequently, the local farmers were forced to move their enterprises elsewhere. The elimination of its main source of milk required Tara to purchase milk from new farmers as well as Tnuva.

text: At the beginning of the 1960s, during the period that

text: Moshe Dayan

text: was

entity_name: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Israel)

text: Minister of Agriculture

text: , the government decided to change the

text: zoning

text: of the Nahalat Yitzhak neighbourhood from agricultural to urban-industrial. Subsequently, the local farmers were forced to move their enterprises elsewhere. The elimination of its main source of milk required Tara to purchase milk from new farmers as well as Tnuva.

text: Adrian Victorovich Prakhov (Russian: Адриан Викторович Прахов; 16 March 1846, Mstislavl - 14 May 1916, Yalta) was a Russian art critic, archaeologist and art historian.

text: Adrian Victorovich Prakhov (Russian: Адриан Викторович Прахов; 16 March 1846,

text: Mstislavl

text: - 14 May 1916,

text: Yalta

text: ) was a Russian art critic, archaeologist and art historian.

text: According to a study by David and Inocencio, the medium of water provision is dependent on the income class of a certain household. Higher income brackets usually rely on private waterworks as a source of water, while lower income brackets usually consume less by depending on vended water (sold by those who have access to private waterworks). Lower income households pay much higher water prices than higher income households because of their lack of access to water service providers.

text: Katif () was an Israeli settlement in the Gush Katif bloc in the Gaza Strip, about 1 km north of the Palestinian refugee camp of Deir al-Balah Camp.

text: Katif () was an

text: Israeli settlement

text: in the

text: Gush Katif

text: bloc in the

text: Gaza Strip

text: , about 1 km north of the

text: Palestinian refugee camp

text: of

text: Deir al-Balah Camp

text: The women's double mini team final was held on November 19.

text: Fede Alvarez and Rodo Sayagues co-wrote the script, which was then doctored by Diablo Cody in an effort to Americanize the dialogue since English was not the writers' first language.  The film was produced by Raimi, Campbell, and Robert G. Tapert, who are the producers of the original trilogy.

text: Fede Alvarez

text: and Rodo Sayagues co-wrote the script, which was then doctored by

text: Diablo Cody

text: in an effort to Americanize the dialogue since English was not the writers' first language.  The film was produced by Raimi, Campbell, and

text: Robert G. Tapert

text: , who are the producers of the original trilogy.

text: Christopher Bono & Anthony Molina (Mercury Rev, White Light Recording) are at work finishing Bono's electro ambient, post- rock project Ghost Against Ghost. Οία, will be released in late 2014, with an accompanying US and European tour.

text: Christopher Bono & Anthony Molina (

text: Mercury Rev

text: , White Light Recording) are at work finishing Bono's electro ambient, post- rock project Ghost Against Ghost. Οία, will be released in late 2014, with an accompanying US and European tour.

text: Long live king Henry

text: Long live king Henry

text: The following table shows the sol of the week on which each month in the quarter begins.  The first quarter corresponds to spring in the Martian northern hemisphere and autumn in the Martian southern hemisphere.

text: At age 19, Treechada won the Miss Tiffany's 2004 and Miss International Queen 2004.

text: At age 19, Treechada won the

text: Miss Tiffany's

text: 2004 and

text: Miss International Queen

text: Alys ferch Owain Glyndŵr was one of the daughters of Margaret Hanmer and Owain Glyndŵr, the disinherited prince of the old Welsh royal house of Powys Fadog, who led a major revolt in Wales between 1400 and ca. 1416 against King Henry IV of England.

text: Alys ferch Owain Glyndŵr was one of the daughters of

text: Margaret Hanmer

text: and

text: Owain Glyndŵr

text: , the disinherited prince of the old

text: Welsh

text: royal house of

text: Powys Fadog

text: , who led a major revolt in

text: Wales

text: between 1400 and ca. 1416 against King

text: Henry IV of England

text: Cellucor also re-launched its anabolic supplement, P6 Black, a re-formulation of the original.

text: The film was shot in Santarém and Lisbon.

text: The film was shot in

text: Santarém

text: and

text: Lisbon

text: Note that the Kristiania Standard is  of Petrograd Standard (), and the London Standard is . The name Petrograd Standard may derive from Petrograd.

text: Note that the

text: Kristiania Standard

text: is  of Petrograd Standard (), and the

text: London Standard

text: is . The name Petrograd Standard may derive from

text: Petrograd

text: Almost nothing is known of her life beyond being the oldest daughter of a powerful (and long-lived) queen. In the last decade of her father's reign, she was promoted to the status of Great Royal Wife. The evidence for this marriage consists of a blue-faience kohl-tube with the cartouches of Amenhotep III and Sitamun, an alabaster bowl found at Amarna with the same cartouches and jar-label inscriptions from Malkata palace. Sitamun's elevation to her role as Great Royal Wife of her father, Amenhotep III, is attested as early as Year 30 of his reign from jar label inscription No.95 which was discovered in the royal palace.

text: Almost nothing is known of her life beyond being the oldest daughter of a powerful (and long-lived) queen. In the last decade of her father's reign, she was promoted to the status of

text: Great Royal Wife

text: . The evidence for this marriage consists of a blue-faience kohl-tube with the cartouches of Amenhotep III and Sitamun, an alabaster bowl found at Amarna with the same cartouches and jar-label inscriptions from

text: Malkata

text: palace. Sitamun's elevation to her role as Great Royal Wife of her father, Amenhotep III, is attested as early as Year 30 of his reign from jar label inscription No.95 which was discovered in the royal palace.

text: World Championships 2013 took place mid-June in Berlin. After winning a bronze medal in mixed doubles in pair with Matjaž Šušteršič, Jasmina Keber secured the title of World Champion in female singles category by winning an incredible final match against Marta Sołtys of Poland, thus achieving the biggest success of her career.

text: In low-rainfall areas, closing gates can cut livestock off from water supplies. For example, most of the land used for grazing in Australia has no natural water supplies, so drinking water for the stock must be supplied by the farmer or landowner, often by using a windmill to pump groundwater. Even visitors who know how a stock water system works may be unaware of breakdowns. During hot weather, cattle require large quantities of water to drink and can die in less than a day if they don't get it. Sheep need less water and can survive longer without it, but will die if cut off from water for several hot days.

text: In low-rainfall areas, closing gates can cut

text: livestock

text: off from water supplies. For example, most of the land used for grazing in

text: Australia

text: has no natural water supplies, so drinking water for the stock must be supplied by the farmer or landowner, often by using a

text: windmill

text: to pump

text: groundwater

text: . Even visitors who know how a stock water system works may be unaware of breakdowns. During hot weather,

text: cattle

text: require large quantities of water to drink and can die in less than a day if they don't get it.

text: Sheep

text: need less water and can survive longer without it, but will die if cut off from water for several hot days.

text:
Songwriting, Singing, Guitar: David-Ivar Herman Düne(aka Ya Ya) & Andre Herman Düne
Drums And Percussion: Néman Herman Düne
Bongo-Drums, Percussion: Doctor Lori Schonberg
Back-Up Female Singing: The Woo-Woos > Featuring Lisa Li-Lund, Angela Carlucci and Crystal Madrilejos (The Babyskins)
Horns And Brass: The Jon Natchez Bourbon Horns featuring Kelly Pratt
Bass, Ukulele, Marimba: David-Ivar Herman Düne
Solo Alto Saxophone: Andre Herman Düne

text: The defense presented Land Registration Authority (LRA) Administrator Eulalio Diaz III; Diaz testified that he provided the Niel Tupas, Jr., the lead prosecutor, the list of 45 properties that the Corona couple and their children were said to own. However, Diaz later said most of the properties on the list either no longer belonged to the Corona couple, or were never registered under the couple's names. The senators then chastised the prosecution panel and Diaz. When asked on how this happened, Diaz replied that the list was "computer-generated". Tupas denied that the prosecution misled the public, saying "We have every reason to believe the authenticity of these documents." Diaz, upon further questions from Loren Legarda, admitted that the LRA also included in the search the names of Corona's wife and children; that's how the LRA came up with a list of 45 properties.

text: The defense presented Land Registration Authority (LRA) Administrator Eulalio Diaz III; Diaz testified that he provided the

text: Niel Tupas, Jr.

text: , the lead prosecutor, the list of 45 properties that the Corona couple and their children were said to own. However, Diaz later said most of the properties on the list either no longer belonged to the Corona couple, or were never registered under the couple's names. The senators then chastised the prosecution panel and Diaz. When asked on how this happened, Diaz replied that the list was "computer-generated". Tupas denied that the prosecution misled the public, saying "We have every reason to believe the authenticity of these documents." Diaz, upon further questions from

text: Loren Legarda

text: , admitted that the LRA also included in the search the names of Corona's wife and children; that's how the LRA came up with a list of 45 properties.

text: Earmarks have often been treated as being synonymous with "pork barrel" legislation. Despite considerable overlap, the two are not the same: what constitutes an earmark is an objective determination, while what is "pork-barrel" spending is subjective. One legislator's "pork" is another's vital project.

text: Earmarks have often been treated as being synonymous with "

text: pork barrel

text: " legislation. Despite considerable overlap, the two are not the same: what constitutes an earmark is an objective determination, while what is "pork-barrel" spending is subjective. One legislator's "pork" is another's vital project.

text: The Sanskrit term, Bhānumati (Sanskrit:भानुमती), meaning – "luminous" or "shining like the Sun", is derived from the word,  Bhānu  (Sanskrit:भानु). In the Rig Vedic parlance, Bhanu is an epithet of the Maruts and means - "variegated colour", "shining with light" or "shining like a serpent" or "causing the motion of the wind". For a very long time in India, Bhānumati was a much preferred name for girls. Bhānumati was the name of a daughter of Angiras. The daughter of Raja Bhoj of Dhara Nagari was named Bhānumati who too like her father was a magician.

text: The Sanskrit term, Bhānumati (

text: Sanskrit

text: :भानुमती), meaning – "luminous" or "shining like the Sun", is derived from the word,

text: Bhānu

text: Sanskrit

text: :भानु). In the

text: Rig Vedic

text: parlance, Bhanu is an epithet of the

text: Maruts

text: and means - "variegated colour", "shining with light" or "shining like a serpent" or "causing the motion of the wind". For a very long time in India, Bhānumati was a much preferred name for girls. Bhānumati was the name of a daughter of

text: Angiras

text: . The daughter of

text: Raja Bhoj

text: of Dhara Nagari was named Bhānumati who too like her father was a magician.

text: The players below had senior international cap(s) for their respective countries. Players whose name is listed represented their countries while playing for Excelsior.

text: The station opened on 1 April 1875 and was sometimes known as Plodder Lane for Farnworth. There was a nearby locomotive shed, also named Plodder Lane. The station was the first one to the south of , the line's northern terminus.

text: The station opened on 1 April 1875 and was sometimes known as Plodder Lane for Farnworth. There was a nearby locomotive shed, also named

text: Plodder Lane

text: . The station was the first one to the south of , the line's northern terminus.

text: . Also, the fact that

text: . Also, the fact that

text: Pedralba is a municipality in the comarca of Los Serranos in the Valencian Community, Spain.

text: Pedralba is a

text: municipality

text: in the

text: comarca

text: of

text: Los Serranos

text: in the

text: Valencian Community

text: , Spain.

text: The median income for a household in the village was $40,109, and the median income for a family was $53,105. Males had a median income of $40,156 versus $27,470 for females. The per capita income for the village was $22,758. About 6.4% of families and 7.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.7% of those under age 18 and 6.6% of those age 65 or over.

text: The median income for a household in the village was $40,109, and the median income for a family was $53,105. Males had a median income of $40,156 versus $27,470 for females. The

text: per capita income

text: for the village was $22,758. About 6.4% of families and 7.5% of the population were below the

text: poverty line

text: , including 8.7% of those under age 18 and 6.6% of those age 65 or over.

text: - Thermal depolymerization- Trashware

text: Thermal depolymerization

text: - Trashware

text: Jiří (Georgo) Mordechai Langer  (19 March 1894 in Prague – 12 March 1943 in Tel Aviv) was a Hebrew poet, scholar and essayist, journalist and teacher.

text: Jiří (Georgo) Mordechai Langer  (19 March 1894 in

text: Prague

text: – 12 March 1943 in

text: Tel Aviv

text: ) was a Hebrew poet, scholar and essayist, journalist and teacher.

text: Vladimir Anatolievich Vorobiev (born November 2, 1972) was a professional ice hockey player.  He was selected in the tenth round of the 1992 NHL Entry Draft, 240th overall, by the New York Rangers. The vast majority of his career was spent in the Russian Super League and its successor, the Kontinental Hockey League. He is currently an assistant coach for Barys Astana.

text: Vladimir Anatolievich Vorobiev (born November 2, 1972) was a professional

text: ice hockey

text: player.  He was selected in the tenth round of the

text: 1992 NHL Entry Draft

text: , 240th overall, by the

text: New York Rangers

text: . The vast majority of his career was spent in the

text: Russian Super League

text: and its successor, the

text: Kontinental Hockey League

text: . He is currently an assistant coach for

text: Barys Astana

text: Water supply is the process of providing water in a systematic way through installed pumps and pipe lines. Before water is provided to a specific area, it undegoes a process called sanitation to ensure that the quality of water received is safe for human consumption. The Philippines’ water supply system dates back to 1946 after the country achieved its independence. Government agencies, local institutions, non-government organizations, and other corporations are primarily in charge in the operation and administration of water supply and sanitation in the country.

text: Water supply

text: is the process of providing water in a systematic way through installed pumps and pipe lines. Before water is provided to a specific area, it undegoes a process called

text: sanitation

text: to ensure that the quality of water received is safe for human consumption. The Philippines’ water supply system dates back to 1946 after the country achieved its independence. Government agencies, local institutions, non-government organizations, and other corporations are primarily in charge in the operation and administration of water supply and sanitation in the country.

text: In one story arc, he and Opus the Penguin were lost at sea (after Oliver Wendell Jones had converted Cutter's wheelchair into a helium balloon) while attempting to cause havoc at the South African embassy in Washington, D.C. (their goal was to turn the South African ambassador black).

text: In one story arc, he and

text: Opus the Penguin

text: were lost at sea (after

text: Oliver Wendell Jones

text: had converted Cutter's wheelchair into a helium balloon) while attempting to cause havoc at the

text: South Africa

text: n embassy in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: (their goal was to turn the South African ambassador black).

text: Mordellistena maculaticeps is a species of beetles is the Mordellidae family.

text: Mordellistena

text: maculaticeps is a species of

text: beetle

text: s is the

text: Mordellidae

text: family.

text: Unknown incidence:

text: Unknown incidence:

text: The hill is named after Suzette Bosque Grymes, widow of the first governor of Louisiana, William Charles Cole Claiborne, who settled on Staten Island in 1836 (she had remarried a prominent New Orleans lawyer, John R. Grymes, after Governor Claiborne died in 1817).

text: The hill is named after Suzette Bosque Grymes, widow of the first

text: governor of Louisiana

text: William Charles Cole Claiborne

text: , who settled on Staten Island in 1836 (she had remarried a prominent

text: New Orleans

text: lawyer, John R. Grymes, after Governor Claiborne died in 1817).

text: Barratt is the author of Human Rights and Foreign Aid: For Love or Money? (2007, Routledge), Public Opinion and International Intervention: Lessons from the Iraq War (coedited with Peter Furia and Richard Sobel (2011, Potomac), The Politics of Harry Potter (2011, Palgrave), and Human Rights Since 9/11: A Sourcebook (Forthcoming, Open Society Foundation), as well as articles in several peer-reviewed journals.

text: In its Infrastructure Report Card the American Society of Civil Engineers gave both the U.S. drinking water and wastewater infrastructure a grade of D- in 2005, down from D in 2001. According to the report, "the nation's drinking water system faces a staggering public investment need to replace aging facilities, comply with safe drinking water regulations and meet future needs." Investment needs are about $19 billion/year for sanitation and $14 billion/year for drinking water, totaling $33 billion/year. State and local governments invested $35.1 billion in water supply and sanitation in 2008, including 16.3 billion for drinking water supply and 18.8 billion for sanitation.

text: In its Infrastructure Report Card the

text: American Society of Civil Engineers

text: gave both the U.S. drinking water and wastewater infrastructure a grade of D- in 2005, down from D in 2001. According to the report, "the nation's drinking water system faces a staggering public investment need to replace aging facilities, comply with safe drinking water regulations and meet future needs." Investment needs are about $19 billion/year for sanitation and $14 billion/year for drinking water, totaling $33 billion/year. State and local governments invested $35.1 billion in water supply and sanitation in 2008, including 16.3 billion for drinking water supply and 18.8 billion for sanitation.

text: Below is scholar David West's paraphrase translated to modern English:

text: In 1916 me married Friederike Mathilde Jopp the daughter of Karl and Marie Jopp (born Schad). Friederike or Elfriede as Kaminski called her, was a singer in Munich.

text: The poor, in particular women and girls, spend a significant amount of time fetching water in both rural and urban areas. For example, the 2007 Citizen Report Card survey showed that users of water kiosks in cities fetch water 4–6 times per day. In Kisumu, this meant that a poor household spent 112 minutes per day to fetch water at normal times, and as much as 200 minutes per day during times of scarcity.

text: From 1882 to 1885, with Benndorf, Felix von Luschan, Karol Lanckoroński and others, he participated in archaeological investigations in Asia Minor, about which, the treatises "Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und Kibyratis" (1889) and "Städte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens" (1890-92) were published. In 1886 he was chosen first secretary of the German Archaeological Institute (DAI) in Athens, and during the following year, succeeded Wilhelm Henzen as manager of the DAI in Rome.

text: From 1882 to 1885, with Benndorf,

text: Felix von Luschan

text: Karol Lanckoroński

text: and others, he participated in archaeological investigations in

text: Asia Minor

text: , about which, the treatises "Reisen in Lykien, Milyas und Kibyratis" (1889) and "Städte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens" (1890-92) were published. In 1886 he was chosen first secretary of the

entity_name: German Archaeological Institute at Athens

text: German Archaeological Institute (DAI) in Athens

text: , and during the following year, succeeded

text: Wilhelm Henzen

text: as manager of the DAI in Rome.

text: The role played by the Iowa Caucuses is viewed with envy by states across the country. Traditionally, Iowa has been first and then followed by the state of New Hampshire, but states such as South Carolina, Nevada, and Florida have been moving up the dates of their presidential primaries to try to capture some of the media and political attention that Iowa and New Hampshire receive.

text: The role played by the Iowa Caucuses is viewed with envy by states across the country. Traditionally, Iowa has been first and then followed by the state of

text: New Hampshire

text: , but states such as

text: South Carolina

text: Nevada

text: , and

text: Florida

text: have been moving up the dates of their presidential primaries to try to capture some of the media and political attention that Iowa and New Hampshire receive.

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 17,056 people, 7,338 households, and 4,659 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,188.0 people per square mile (844.3/km²). There were 7,796 housing units at an average density of 1,000.1 per square mile (385.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.89% White, 0.97% African American, 0.18% Native American, 0.49% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.49% from other races, and 0.93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.33% of the population.

text: As of the

text: census

text: of 2000, there were 17,056 people, 7,338 households, and 4,659 families residing in the city. The

text: population density

text: was 2,188.0 people per square mile (844.3/km²). There were 7,796 housing units at an average density of 1,000.1 per square mile (385.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 96.89%

entity_name: Race and ethnicity in the United States Census

text: White

text: , 0.97%

text: African American

text: , 0.18%

text: Native American

text: , 0.49%

text: Asian

text: , 0.06%

text: Pacific Islander

text: , 0.49% from

text: other races

text: , and 0.93% from two or more races.

text: Hispanic

text: or

text: Latino

text: of any race were 1.33% of the population.

text: It gave the Minister of Housing and Local Government the responsibility "to promote the conservation and proper use of water resources and the provision of water supplies in England and Wales and to secure the effective execution by water undertakers, under his control and direction, of a national policy relating to water." Thus the Minister had functions relating to the conservation of water for supply. This was to be achieved through abstraction licensing and ensuring that sources used for water supply did not become polluted. The other main ministerial function was the supervision of the companies providing a public water supply, and the rationalisation of the areas which they covered. Despite the mention of a national policy, the Act contained little to achieve one, although the amalgamation of water supply undertakers was one strategy that the Minister was given.

text: It gave the

text: Minister of Housing and Local Government

text: the responsibility "to promote the conservation and proper use of water resources and the provision of water supplies in England and Wales and to secure the effective execution by water undertakers, under his control and direction, of a national policy relating to water." Thus the Minister had functions relating to the conservation of water for supply. This was to be achieved through abstraction licensing and ensuring that sources used for water supply did not become polluted. The other main ministerial function was the supervision of the companies providing a public water supply, and the rationalisation of the areas which they covered. Despite the mention of a national policy, the Act contained little to achieve one, although the amalgamation of water supply undertakers was one strategy that the Minister was given.

text: Several of Vichi's Inspector Bordelli novels, set in the 1960s, have recently been published in English (translated by Stephen Sartarelli).

text: Several of Vichi's Inspector Bordelli novels, set in the 1960s, have recently been published in English (translated by

text: Stephen Sartarelli

text: 1915<br>Du skal elske din Naeste (For de Andre; The Samaritan); Giftpilen (The Poisonous Arrow); Hjertestorme; Kaerligheds Laengsel (Den Pukkelryggede; The Cripple Girl); Lotteriseddel No. 22152 (Den blinde Skaebne; Blind Fate); Rovedderkoppen (Den røde Enke); Syndens Datter (Nobody's Daughter); Syndig Kaerlighed (Eremitten; The Hermit); Truet Lykke (Et Skud i Mørket; The Evil Genius); (Flammesvaerdet; The Flaming Sword); For sit Lands Aere (For His Country's Honor)

text: 1915<br>Du skal elske din Naeste (For de Andre; The Samaritan); Giftpilen (The Poisonous Arrow); Hjertestorme; Kaerligheds Laengsel (Den Pukkelryggede; The Cripple Girl); Lotteriseddel No. 22152 (Den blinde Skaebne; Blind Fate);

text: Rovedderkoppen

text: (Den røde Enke); Syndens Datter (Nobody's Daughter); Syndig Kaerlighed (Eremitten; The Hermit); Truet Lykke (Et Skud i Mørket; The Evil Genius); (Flammesvaerdet; The Flaming Sword); For sit Lands Aere (For His Country's Honor)

text: Or using typed time:

text: Or using typed time:

text: In 1912, these forty locomotives were renumbered in the range from 401 to 440 on the South African Railways (SAR) and designated . The rest of the CGR's 6th Class locomotives, together with the Class 6-L2 and 6-L3 locomotives which had been inherited by the CSAR from the OVGS via the IMR, were grouped into thirteen more sub-classes by the SAR. The  locomotives were designated SAR Classes 6A to 6H and 6J to 6L, the  locomotives were designated SAR Class 6Y and the  locomotives were designated Class 6Z.

text: (Karl Vogt and Johann Stockhausen)

text: (Karl Vogt and Johann Stockhausen)

text: Due to its wide dispersal, ash can have a number of impacts on society, including human and animal health, disruption to aviation, disruption to critical infrastructure (e.g., electric power supply systems, telecommunications, water and waste-water networks, transportation), primary industries (e.g., agriculture), buildings and structures.

text: It is worth noting that over the past three decades numerous studies carried out by consultants on behalf of the Government have recommended the reintroduction of some form of local taxation/charging regime, but these were generally seen as politically unacceptable.  However, in 2012 the Local Government Management Agency was established to provide a central data management service to enable the collection of the Home Charge, the Non Principle Private Residence (NPPR) charge and the proposed Water charge.

text: Water tariffs in other municipalities vary. Those municipalities that receive bulk water from NamWater, which includes all large municipalities, have to recover the costs of bulk water supply plus the cost of water distribution to the customers through their own networks. A few smaller municipalities that have their own water sources are not subject to this constraint. For example, the municipality of Oranjemund provides water for free and thus has by far the highest water use in the country with an astonishing 2,667 liters/capita/day. Bulk water tariff charged by NamWater vary slightly across the country depending on the cost of supplying a specific location, but these differences are not fully passed on to municipalities. Thus NamWater effectively cross-subsidizes localities with high supply costs with surpluses from localities with lower supply costs.

text: Water tariffs in other municipalities vary. Those municipalities that receive bulk water from NamWater, which includes all large municipalities, have to recover the costs of bulk water supply plus the cost of water distribution to the customers through their own networks. A few smaller municipalities that have their own water sources are not subject to this constraint. For example, the municipality of

text: Oranjemund

text: provides water for free and thus has by far the highest water use in the country with an astonishing 2,667 liters/capita/day. Bulk water tariff charged by NamWater vary slightly across the country depending on the cost of supplying a specific location, but these differences are not fully passed on to municipalities. Thus NamWater effectively cross-subsidizes localities with high supply costs with surpluses from localities with lower supply costs.

text: Hydropower. An important use of water in Egypt is for the production of hydropower. This use is non-consumptive and is thus available for other uses further downstream. Hydropower plants exist at the Aswan High Dam (2100 MW), the old Aswan Dam (270 MW)and power plants at the Esna (90 MW) and Naga Hammadi weirs (64 MW). Together these plants accounted for 16% of installed electricity generation capacity in 2004. The share of hydropower in power generation declines since the hydropower potential is largely exploited and power demand increases rapidly.

text: Water purity and availability are a lifeline for the economy of Chinese Americans in New York City, particularly in the Chinatowns. New York City is supplied with drinking water by the protected Catskill Mountains watershed. As a result of the watershed's integrity and undisturbed natural water filtration system, New York is one of only four major cities in the United States the majority of whose drinking water is pure enough not to require purification by water treatment plants. The Croton Watershed north of the city is undergoing construction of a US$3.2 billion water purification plant to augment New York City's water supply by an estimated 290 million gallons daily, representing a greater than 20% addition to the city's current availability of water. The ongoing expansion of New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, an integral part of the New York City water supply system, is the largest capital construction project in the city's history, with segments serving Manhattan and The Bronx completed, and with segments serving Brooklyn and Queens planned for construction in 2020. Much of northern and central New Jersey is provided by reservoirs to provide fresh water, but numerous municipal wells exist which accomplish the same purpose.

text: Water purity and availability are a lifeline for the economy of Chinese Americans in New York City, particularly in the Chinatowns. New York City is supplied with drinking water by the protected

text: Catskill Mountains

text: watershed

text: natural water filtration system

text: water treatment

text: plants. The

text: Croton Watershed

text: New York City Water Tunnel No. 3

text: , an integral part of the New York City water supply system, is the largest capital construction project in the city's history, with segments serving Manhattan and The Bronx completed, and with segments serving Brooklyn and Queens planned for construction in 2020. Much of northern and central New Jersey is provided by

text: reservoir

text: s to provide fresh water, but numerous municipal wells exist which accomplish the same purpose.

text: Besides SWDE there are seven intermunicipal water utilities in Wallonia:

text: 84% of the Selangese people believe that politics were the main factor responsible for the escalation of water shortages to crisis-level. Disagreements between Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor (SYABAS) and the state government slowed progress toward a stable water supply.  The deadlines for agreement on a water distribution restructuring deal between the government and water concessionaires were postponed several times, while water supply to many households continued to be intermittent.

text: 84% of the Selangese people believe that politics were the main factor responsible for the escalation of water shortages to crisis-level. Disagreements between

text: Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor

text: (SYABAS) and the state government slowed progress toward a stable water supply.  The deadlines for agreement on a water distribution restructuring deal between the government and water concessionaires were postponed several times, while water supply to many households continued to be intermittent.

text: 1900 the pub closed in the monastery. For wash-house and Wurzgarten in the monastery was a new water supply established, since 1893, ranging in water, dry weather is not enough water provided.

text: About the turn of the 20th century, complaints were mounting among dwellers in the upper village about the water supply’s shortcomings. The spring of the Großer Brunnen (“Great Spring”) on the slope of the Gammelsbach valley gave forth enough water; so the state authorities in the Grand Duchy of Hesse put the Kulturinspektion Darmstadt in charge and they found the solution to the water supply problem by furnishing two water motors, delivered by the Zurich machine factory Schmid. Each of the technically interesting motors drives a three-cylinder pump. One comes from the year 1902 and the other is two years newer. Today the historic pumphouse between Kortelshütte and Rothenberg is run by a circle of technically enthusiastic idealists.

text: About the turn of the 20th century, complaints were mounting among dwellers in the upper village about the water supply’s shortcomings. The spring of the Großer Brunnen (“Great Spring”) on the slope of the Gammelsbach valley gave forth enough water; so the state authorities in the

text: Grand Duchy of Hesse

text: put the Kulturinspektion Darmstadt in charge and they found the solution to the water supply problem by furnishing two water motors, delivered by the

text: Zurich

text: machine factory Schmid. Each of the technically interesting motors drives a three-cylinder pump. One comes from the year 1902 and the other is two years newer. Today the historic pumphouse between Kortelshütte and Rothenberg is run by a circle of technically enthusiastic idealists.

text: South Africa. Numerous Eucalyptus species have been introduced into South Africa, mainly for timber and firewood but also for ornamental purposes. They are popular with beekeepers for the honey they provide. However, in South Africa they are considered invasive, with their water-sucking capabilities threatening water supplies. They also release a chemical into the surrounding soil which kills native competitors.

text: South Africa. Numerous Eucalyptus species have been introduced into

text: South Africa

text: , mainly for

text: timber

text: and

text: firewood

text: but also for ornamental purposes. They are popular with

text: beekeeper

text: s for the

text: honey

text: they provide. However, in South Africa they are considered invasive, with their water-sucking capabilities threatening water supplies. They also release a chemical into the surrounding soil which kills native competitors.

text: The first town to fluoridate the water supply in Australia was Beaconsfield, Tasmania.

text: The first town to

text: fluoridate the water supply

text: in Australia was

text: Beaconsfield, Tasmania