text: In 1822 the word "paleontology" was invented by the editor of a French scientific journal to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils, and the first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists. This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth, and progress towards definition of the geologic time scale largely based on fossil evidence.  As knowledge of life's history continued to improve, it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species. After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859, much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths, including human evolution, and evolutionary theory.

text: In 1822 the word "paleontology" was invented by the editor of a French scientific journal to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils, and the first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organized with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists. This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth, and progress towards definition of the

entity_name: Geologic time scale

text: geologic time scale

text: largely based on fossil evidence.  As knowledge of life's history continued to improve, it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This would encourage early evolutionary theories on the

entity_name: Transmutation of species

text: transmutation of species

text: . After

entity_name: Charles Darwin

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

entity_name: On the Origin of Species

text: Origin of Species

text: in 1859, much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding

entity_name: Evolution

text: evolution

text: ary paths, including

entity_name: Human evolution

text: human evolution

text: , and evolutionary theory.

text: The  segment of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben west of Ottawa was the first to be recognized as a graben. Since then, it has been traced west to Lake Nipissing, and northwestwards from the confluence of the Mattawa and Ottawa Rivers up the valley of the latter stream to Lake Timiskaming and the Montreal River valley. This latter branch is the Timiskaming Graben.  At the rifts' western termini, the main faults split into divergent smaller faults.  The graben has been interpreted as a Late Proterozoic to Early Paleozoic failed arm of the Iapetus Ocean, the precursor to the Atlantic Ocean.  The main Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben is associated with collapse of the regional carbonate platform and formation of deep water shale basins by ~452 mya (million years ago); similar events formed the Temiskaming Graben ~449-451 mya. These graben were reactivated during the breakup of supercontinent Pangaea some 150 mya.

text: The  segment of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben west of Ottawa was the first to be recognized as a

entity_name: Graben

text: graben

text: . Since then, it has been traced west to Lake Nipissing, and northwestwards from the

entity_name: Confluence

text: confluence

text: of the

entity_name: Mattawa River

text: Mattawa

text: and

entity_name: Ottawa River

text: Ottawa River

text: s up the valley of the latter stream to

entity_name: Lake Timiskaming

text: Lake Timiskaming

text: and the

entity_name: Montreal River (Timiskaming District)

text: Montreal River

text: valley. This latter branch is the Timiskaming Graben.  At the rifts' western termini, the main

entity_name: Fault (geology)

text: fault

text: s split into divergent smaller faults.  The graben has been interpreted as a

entity_name: Proterozoic

text: Late Proterozoic

text: to Early

entity_name: Paleozoic

text: Paleozoic

text: failed arm of the

entity_name: Iapetus Ocean

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: , the precursor to the Atlantic Ocean.  The main Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben is associated with collapse of the regional

entity_name: Carbonate

text: carbonate

text: platform and formation of deep water shale basins by ~452

entity_name: Year

entity_section: mya

text: mya

text: (million years ago); similar events formed the Temiskaming Graben ~449-451 mya. These graben were reactivated during the breakup of

entity_name: Supercontinent

text: supercontinent

entity_name: Pangaea

text: Pangaea

text: some 150 mya.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: The South Polar dinosaurs proliferated during the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Ma) while the continent of Australia was still linked to Antarctica to form East Gondwana, a continent that had rifted from Africa and drifted southward. Much of this southern continent lay inside the Antarctic Circle, and the climate there was unlike any that exists today. This led to fauna and flora that were unique to the time. Much of what is known about the fauna of Polar Australia comes from fossil beds found in Dinosaur Cove and Flat Rocks on the Victorian coast of southeast Australia.

text: The South Polar dinosaurs proliferated during the

entity_name: Early Cretaceous

text: Early Cretaceous

entity_name: Myr

text: Ma

text: ) while the

entity_name: Continent

text: continent

text: of

entity_name: Australia

text: Australia

text: was still linked to

entity_name: Antarctica

text: Antarctica

text: to form East

entity_name: Gondwana

text: Gondwana

text: , a continent that had rifted from

entity_name: Africa

text: Africa

text: and drifted southward. Much of this southern continent lay inside the

entity_name: Antarctic Circle

text: Antarctic Circle

text: , and the

entity_name: Climate

text: climate

text: there was unlike any that exists today. This led to fauna and flora that were unique to the time. Much of what is known about the fauna of Polar Australia comes from fossil beds found in

entity_name: Dinosaur Cove

text: Dinosaur Cove

text: and Flat Rocks on the

entity_name: Victoria (Australia)

text: Victoria

text: n coast of southeast Australia.

method: UNH-ecn

text: Tolkien's cosmology is based on a clear dualism between the spiritual and the material world.While the Ainur, the first created but immaterial angelic beings have the "subcreative" power of imagination, the power to create independent life or physical reality is reserved for Eru Ilúvatar (God); this power of (primary) creation is expressed by the concept of a "Secret Fire" or  "Flame Imperishable". The term for the material universe is Eä, "the World that Is", as distinguished from the purely idealist pre-figuration of creation in the minds of the Ainur.  Eä contains our Earth (and solar system) in a mythical ancient past, of which Middle-earth is the main continent. Eä (Quenya for "let [these things] be!") was the word spoken by Eru Ilúvatar (metaphorically, in the purported Quenya-language account of creation) by which he brought the physical universe into actuality.

text: Tolkien's cosmology is based on a clear

entity_name: Dualism (philosophy of mind)

text: dualism

text: between the spiritual and the material world.While the Ainur, the first created but immaterial angelic beings have the "

entity_name: Mythopoeia

entity_section: Subcreation

text: subcreative

text: " power of imagination, the power to create independent life or physical reality is reserved for

entity_name: Eru Ilúvatar

text: Eru Ilúvatar

entity_name: God

text: God

text: ); this power of (primary) creation is expressed by the concept of a "Secret Fire" or  "Flame Imperishable". The term for the material universe is Eä, "the World that Is", as distinguished from the purely

entity_name: Idealism

text: idealist

text: pre-figuration of creation in the minds of the

entity_name: Ainur (Middle-earth)

text: Ainur

text: .  Eä contains our

entity_name: Arda (Tolkien)

text: Earth

text: (and solar system) in a mythical ancient past, of which

entity_name: Middle-earth

text: Middle-earth

text: is the main continent. Eä (

entity_name: Quenya

text: Quenya

text: for "let [these things] be!") was the

entity_name: Logos (Christianity)

text: word

text: spoken by Eru Ilúvatar (metaphorically, in the purported

text: Quenya

text: -language account of creation) by which he brought the physical universe into actuality.

text: Phenomena from mathematics and computer science such as cellular automata, random graphs, and some instances of evolutionary computation and artificial life exhibit features of self-organization. In swarm robotics, self-organization is used to produce emergent behavior. In particular the theory of random graphs has been used as a justification for self-organization as a general principle of complex systems. In the field of multi-agent systems, understanding how to engineer systems that are capable of presenting self-organized behavior is an active research area. Optimization algorithms can be considered self-organizing because they aim to find the optimal solution to a problem. If the solution is considered as a state of the iterative system, the optimal solution is the selected, converged structure of the system. Self-organizing networks include small-world networks and scale-free networks. These emerge from bottom-up interactions, unlike top-down hierarchical networks within organizations, which are not self-organizing. Cloud computing systems have been argued to be inherently self-organising, but while they have some autonomy, they are not self-managing as they do not have the goal of reducing their own complexity.

text: Phenomena from

entity_name: Mathematics

text: mathematics

text: and

entity_name: Computer science

text: computer science

text: such as

entity_name: Cellular automaton

text: cellular automata

entity_name: Random graph

text: random graph

text: s, and some instances of

entity_name: Evolutionary computation

text: evolutionary computation

text: and

entity_name: Artificial life

text: artificial life

text: exhibit features of self-organization. In

entity_name: Swarm robotics

text: swarm robotics

text: , self-organization is used to produce emergent behavior. In particular the theory of random graphs has been used as a justification for self-organization as a general principle of complex systems. In the field of

entity_name: Multi-agent system

text: multi-agent systems

text: , understanding how to engineer systems that are capable of presenting self-organized behavior is an active research area.

entity_name: Mathematical optimization

entity_section: Computational optimization techniques

text: Optimization algorithm

text: s can be considered self-organizing because they aim to find the optimal solution to a problem. If the solution is considered as a state of the iterative system, the optimal solution is the selected, converged structure of the system.

entity_name: Self-organizing network

text: Self-organizing networks

text: include

entity_name: Small-world network

text: small-world network

text: s and

entity_name: Scale-free network

text: scale-free network

text: s. These emerge from bottom-up interactions, unlike top-down hierarchical networks within organizations, which are not self-organizing. Cloud computing systems have been argued to be inherently self-organising, but while they have some autonomy, they are not self-managing as they do not have the goal of reducing their own complexity.

method: UNH-qee

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: The second model (Protopangea-Paleopangea) is based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from  until break-up during the Ediacaran Period after . The reconstruction is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25, and  with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction. During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. Because this model shows that exceptional demands on the paleomagnetic data are satisfied by prolonged quasi-integrity, it must be regarded as superseding the first model proposing multiple diverse continents, although the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates Vaalbara and Kenorland of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea-Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that Lid Tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during Precambrian times. Plate Tectonics as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times.

text: The second model (Protopangea-Paleopangea) is based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from  until break-up during the

entity_name: Ediacaran

text: Ediacaran

text: Period after . The

entity_name: Plate reconstruction

text: reconstruction

text: is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25, and  with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction. During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. Because this model shows that exceptional demands on the paleomagnetic data are satisfied by prolonged quasi-integrity, it must be regarded as superseding the first model proposing multiple diverse continents, although the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates

entity_name: Vaalbara

text: Vaalbara

text: and

entity_name: Kenorland

text: Kenorland

text: of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea-Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that Lid Tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during

entity_name: Precambrian

text: Precambrian

text: times. Plate Tectonics as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times.

text: Some early models of plate tectonics envisioned the plates riding on top of convection cells like conveyor belts. However, most scientists working today believe that the asthenosphere does not directly cause motion by the friction of such basal forces. The North American Plate is nowhere being subducted, yet it is in motion. Likewise the African, Eurasian and Antarctic Plates. The subducting slabs around the Pacific Ring of Fire cool down the Earth and its Core-mantle boundary, around the African Plate the upwelling mantle plumes from the Core-mantle boundary produce rifting. The overall driving force for plate motion and its energy source remain subjects of ongoing research.

text: Some early models of

entity_name: Plate tectonics

text: plate tectonics

text: envisioned the plates riding on top of convection cells like

entity_name: Conveyor belt

text: conveyor belt

text: s. However, most scientists working today believe that the

entity_name: Asthenosphere

text: asthenosphere

text: does not directly cause motion by the

entity_name: Friction

text: friction

text: of such basal forces. The

entity_name: North American Plate

text: North American Plate

text: is nowhere being

entity_name: Subduction

text: subducted

text: , yet it is in motion. Likewise the

entity_name: African Plate

text: African

entity_name: Eurasian Plate

text: Eurasian

text: and

entity_name: Antarctic Plate

text: Antarctic Plate

text: s. The subducting slabs around the

entity_name: Ring of Fire

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: cool down the Earth and its

entity_name: Core–mantle boundary

text: Core-mantle boundary

text: , around the African Plate the upwelling mantle plumes from the Core-mantle boundary produce

entity_name: Rift

text: rifting

text: . The overall driving force for plate motion and its energy source remain subjects of ongoing research.

text: Earth has an outer shell made of a number of discrete, moving tectonic plates floating on a solid convective mantle above a liquid core. The mantle's flow is driven by the descent of cold tectonic plates during subduction and the complementary ascent of plumes of hot material from lower levels. The surface of the earth reflects stretching, thickening and bending of the tectonic plates as they interact.

text: Hypercyclic morphogenesis refers to the emergence of a higher order of self-reproducing structure or organization or hierarchy within a system, first introduced by J. Barkley Rosser, Jr. in 1991 (Chap. 12).  It involves combining the idea of the hypercycle, an idea due to Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster (1979) with that of morphogenesis, an idea due to D’Arcy W.Thompson (1917).  The hypercycle involves the problem in biochemistry of molecules combining in a self-reacting group that is able to stay together, posited by Eigen and Schuster as the foundation for the emergence of multi-cellular organisms.  Thompson saw morphogenesis as a central part of the development of an organism as cell differentiation led to new organs appearing as it develops and grows.  Alan Turing (1952) would study the chemistry and mathematics involved in such a process, which would also be studied mathematically by René Thom (1972) in his formulation of catastrophe theory.

text: Hypercyclic morphogenesis refers to the emergence of a higher order of self-reproducing structure or organization or hierarchy within a system, first introduced by

entity_name: J. Barkley Rosser, Jr.

text: J. Barkley Rosser, Jr.

text: in 1991 (Chap. 12).  It involves combining the idea of the hypercycle, an idea due to

entity_name: Manfred Eigen

text: Manfred Eigen

text: and

entity_name: Peter Schuster

text: Peter Schuster

text: (1979) with that of

entity_name: Morphogenesis

text: morphogenesis

text: , an idea due to D’Arcy W.Thompson (1917).  The hypercycle involves the problem in biochemistry of molecules combining in a self-reacting group that is able to stay together, posited by Eigen and Schuster as the foundation for the emergence of multi-cellular organisms.  Thompson saw morphogenesis as a central part of the development of an organism as cell differentiation led to new organs appearing as it develops and grows.

entity_name: Alan Turing

text: Alan Turing

text: (1952) would study the chemistry and mathematics involved in such a process, which would also be studied mathematically by

entity_name: René Thom

text: René Thom

text: (1972) in his formulation of

entity_name: Catastrophe theory

text: catastrophe theory

text: In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean zircons from the earth's interior (magma) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas. This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.

text: In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the

entity_name: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

text: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

text: in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean

entity_name: Zircon

text: zircons

text: from the earth's interior (

entity_name: Magma

text: magma

text: ) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas. This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for about 3.7 billion years. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism.

text: Evidence suggests that

entity_name: Life

text: life on Earth

text: has existed for about 3.7

text: billion

text: years. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, and based on these observations, theories on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a primordial single cell organism from which all life originates. There are many different hypotheses regarding the path that might have been taken from simple

entity_name: Organic compound

text: organic molecule

text: s via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism.

text: The Ancients were also called Soarers for their common appearance in the air.When connected to the world life force web, especially the ley lines, talented humans such as Alucius (Scepters) and Mykella (Lady-Protector) could also soar (levitate).

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Much of Venus' surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Overall, Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it possesses some 167 giant volcanoes that are over  across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. However, this is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years, while Venus' surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old.Venusian craters range from  to  in diameter. There are no craters smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater.

text: Much of Venus' surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity. Overall, Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it possesses some 167 giant volcanoes that are over  across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the

entity_name: Hawaii (island)

text: Big Island

text: of

entity_name: Hawaii

text: Hawaii

text: . However, this is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older. Earth's crust is continually recycled by

text: subduction

text: at the boundaries of

text: tectonic plate

text: s, and has an average age of about 100 million years, while Venus' surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old.Venusian craters range from  to  in diameter. There are no craters smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain

entity_name: Kinetic energy

text: kinetic energy

text: are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater.

text: There is an alternate idea that early Earth plate tectonics began by vertical movement of the lithosphere, rather than the modern horizontal tectonics. This theory rejects the idea of subduction and arc accretion in the formation of greenstone belts. It suggests that convective overturn due to density differences between the overlying mafic sequence (greenstone) and partially molten granitic middle crust is responsible for the observed formations.

text: There is an alternate idea that early Earth

text: plate tectonics

text: began by vertical movement of the

text: lithosphere

text: , rather than the modern horizontal tectonics. This theory rejects the idea of subduction and arc accretion in the formation of greenstone belts. It suggests that convective overturn due to density differences between the overlying mafic sequence (greenstone) and partially molten granitic middle crust is responsible for the observed formations.

text: Studying the earliest forms of life on Earth can provide valuable information to help understand how life can evolve on other planets. It has long been hypothesized that life may have existed on Mars due to the similarity of environmental and tectonic conditions during the Archean time. By knowing the environments in which early life evolved on Earth, and the rock types that preserve them, scientists can have a better understanding of where to look for life on Mars.

text: Studying the

text: earliest forms of life

text: on

text: Earth

text: can provide valuable information to help understand how

text: life can evolve on other planets

text: . It has long been hypothesized that

text: life may have existed on Mars

text: due to the similarity of environmental and

text: tectonic

text: conditions during the Archean time. By knowing the environments in which early life evolved on Earth, and the rock types that preserve them, scientists can have a better understanding of where to look for life on Mars.

text: A spike in chromium contained in ancient rock deposits formed underwater shows they had accumulated chromium washed off from continental shelves. Chromium is not easily dissolved and its release from rocks would have required the presence of a powerful acid. One such acid, sulfuric acid, might have been created through bacterial reactions with pyrite.  Mats of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria can produce a thin layer, one or two millimeters thick, of oxygenated water in an otherwise anoxic environment even under thick ice, and before oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere, these organisms would already be adapted to oxygen.  Additionally, the free oxygen would have reacted with atmospheric methane, a greenhouse gas, greatly reducing its concentration and triggering the Huronian glaciation, possibly the longest  episode of glaciation in Earth's history and called snowball Earth.

text: A spike in chromium contained in ancient rock deposits formed underwater shows they had accumulated chromium washed off from continental shelves. Chromium is not easily dissolved and its release from rocks would have required the presence of a powerful acid. One such acid,

text: sulfuric acid

text: , might have been created through bacterial reactions with pyrite.

text: Mats

text: of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria can produce a thin layer, one or two millimeters thick, of oxygenated water in an otherwise anoxic environment even under thick ice, and before oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere, these organisms would already be adapted to oxygen.  Additionally, the free oxygen would have reacted with atmospheric

text: methane

text: , a

text: greenhouse gas

text: , greatly reducing its concentration and triggering the

text: Huronian glaciation

text: , possibly the longest  episode of glaciation in Earth's history and called

text: snowball Earth

text: However, it was still not understood where the huge forces that moved the nappes came from. Only with the arrival of plate tectonic theory in the 1950s an explanation was found. In plate tectonics, the horizontal movement of tectonic plates over the Earth's soft asthenosphere causes horizontal forces within the crust. Presently, geologists believe most mountain chains are formed by convergent movements between tectonic plates.

text: However, it was still not understood where the huge forces that moved the nappes came from. Only with the arrival of

text: plate tectonic theory

text: in the 1950s an explanation was found. In plate tectonics, the horizontal movement of

text: tectonic plate

text: s over the Earth's soft

text: asthenosphere

text: causes horizontal forces within the crust. Presently, geologists believe most mountain chains are formed by convergent movements between tectonic plates.

text: Carbon dioxide concentrations have varied widely over the Earth's 4.54 billion year history. Carbon dioxide is believed to have been present in Earth's first atmosphere, shortly after Earth's formation. Earth's second atmosphere emerged after the lighter gases, hydrogen and helium, escaped to space or like oxygen were bound up in molecules and is thought to have consisted largely of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and inert gases  produced by outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases  produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by asteroids. The production of free oxygen by cyanobacterial photosynthesis eventually led to the oxygen catastrophe that ended Earth's second atmosphere and brought about the Earth's third atmosphere (the modern atmosphere) 2.4 billion years before the present. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped from 7,000 parts per million during the Cambrian period  about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 parts per million during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.

text: Carbon dioxide concentrations have varied widely over the Earth's 4.54 billion year history. Carbon dioxide is believed to have been present in Earth's first atmosphere, shortly after Earth's formation. Earth's second atmosphere emerged after the lighter gases, hydrogen and helium, escaped to space or like oxygen were bound up in molecules and is thought to have consisted largely of

text: nitrogen

text: carbon dioxide

text: and inert gases  produced by outgassing from

text: volcanism

text: , supplemented by gases  produced during the

text: late heavy bombardment

text: of Earth by

text: asteroids

text: . The production of free oxygen by

text: cyanobacteria

text: l photosynthesis eventually led to the

text: oxygen catastrophe

text: that ended Earth's second atmosphere and brought about the Earth's third atmosphere (the modern atmosphere) 2.4 billion years before the present. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped from 7,000 parts per million during the

text: Cambrian period

text: about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 parts per million during the

text: Quaternary glaciation

text: of the last two million years.

text: Saruman first appears in The Fellowship of the Ring (1954), which is the first volume of The Lord of the Rings.  The Lord of the Rings describes a quest to destroy the One Ring, a powerful and evil talisman created by the Dark Lord Sauron to control Middle-earth (the continent on which Tolkien's story takes place; it loosely represents the Old World in a fictional ancient era). Sauron lost the Ring in battle thousands of years before the beginning of the story, and it is now held in secret in the Shire by the hobbit Bilbo Baggins, who passes it on to Frodo Baggins, one of the story's main protagonists. Early in The Fellowship of the Ring, the wizard Gandalf describes Saruman as "the chief of my order" and head of the White Council that forced Sauron from Mirkwood at the end of Tolkien's earlier book The Hobbit. He notes Saruman's great knowledge of the magic rings created by Sauron and by the Elven-smiths. Shortly afterwards, Gandalf breaks an arrangement to meet Frodo and guide him out of the Shire to Rivendell to keep the Ring safe from Sauron's agents.

text: Saruman first appears in

text: The Fellowship of the Ring

text: (1954), which is the first volume of

text: The Lord of the Rings

text: .  The Lord of the Rings describes a quest to destroy the

text: One Ring

text: , a powerful and evil talisman created by the Dark Lord

text: Sauron

text: to control

text: Middle-earth

text: (the continent on which Tolkien's story takes place; it loosely represents the

text: Old World

text: in a fictional ancient era). Sauron lost the Ring in battle thousands of years before the beginning of the story, and it is now held in secret in

text: the Shire

text: by the

text: hobbit

text: Bilbo Baggins

text: , who passes it on to

text: Frodo Baggins

text: , one of the story's main protagonists. Early in The Fellowship of the Ring, the wizard

text: Gandalf

text: describes Saruman as "the chief of my order" and head of the

text: White Council

text: that forced Sauron from

text: Mirkwood

text: at the end of Tolkien's earlier book

text: The Hobbit

text: . He notes Saruman's great knowledge of the

text: magic rings

text: created by Sauron and by the

text: Elven

text: -smiths. Shortly afterwards, Gandalf breaks an arrangement to meet Frodo and guide him out of the Shire to

text: Rivendell

text: to keep the Ring safe from Sauron's agents.

text: The International Hydrographic Organization adopted an early version of the IRM in 1983 for all nautical charts. The IRM was adopted for air navigation by the International Civil Aviation Organization on 3 March 1989. Tectonic plates slowly move over the surface of the Earth, so most countries have adopted for their maps an IRM version fixed relative to their own tectonic plate as it existed at the beginning of a specific year. Examples include the North American Datum 1983 (NAD83), the European Terrestrial Reference Frame 1989 (ETRF89), and the Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 (GDA94). Versions fixed to a tectonic plate differ from the global version by at most a few centimetres.

text: The

text: International Hydrographic Organization

text: adopted an early version of the IRM in 1983 for all nautical charts. The IRM was adopted for air navigation by the

entity_name: International Civil Aviation Organization

text: International Civil Aviation Organization

text: on 3 March 1989.

text: Tectonic plate

text: s slowly move over the surface of the Earth, so most countries have adopted for their maps an IRM version fixed relative to their own tectonic plate as it existed at the beginning of a specific year. Examples include the North American Datum 1983 (NAD83), the European Terrestrial Reference Frame 1989 (ETRF89), and the Geocentric Datum of Australia 1994 (GDA94). Versions fixed to a tectonic plate differ from the global version by at most a few centimetres.

text: Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the earth’s crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause earthquakes.

text: Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of

text: plate tectonics

text: Tectonic plate

text: s slide very slowly over the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: mantle

text: , a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the earth’s crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form

text: mountain

text: s. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated

text: rock

text: from the mantle can burst through the

text: crust

text: to form

text: volcano

text: es. The movement of the plates against one another can also cause

text: earthquake

text: s.

text: American Mercury, Gemini and Apollo spacecraft contained 100% oxygen atmospheres, suitable for short duration missions, to minimize weight and complexity.

text: It was, however, regarded with some veneration by the ancient Romans, and the story most often repeated is that told by Livy: Rome was facing a peril which an oracle had stated would be overcome only when the City threw into the chasm what she held to be most dear. A young horseman named Marcus Curtius (a member of the Curtia Gens), saved the city: He understood that it was the life of a brave Roman youth that the Romans held most dear, and therefore plunged into it in full armour on his horse, whereupon the earth closed over him and Rome was saved.

text: It was, however, regarded with some veneration by the ancient Romans, and the story most often repeated is that told by

text: Livy

text: Rome

text: was facing a peril which an

text: oracle

text: had stated would be overcome only when the City threw into the chasm what she held to be most dear. A young horseman named

text: Marcus Curtius

text: (a member of the

text: Curtia Gens

text: ), saved the city: He understood that it was the life of a brave Roman youth that the Romans held most dear, and therefore plunged into it in full armour on his horse, whereupon the earth closed over him and Rome was saved.

text: The Antarctic Plate is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica and extending outward under the surrounding oceans. After breakup from Gondwana (the southern part of the supercontinent Pangea), the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate. The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional mid-ocean ridge systems. The adjoining plates are the Nazca Plate, the South American Plate, the African Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, the Pacific Plate, and, across a transform boundary, the Scotia Plate.

text: The Antarctic Plate is a

text: tectonic plate

text: containing the

text: continent

text: of

text: Antarctica

text: and extending outward under the surrounding

text: ocean

text: s. After breakup from

text: Gondwana

text: (the southern part of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangea

text: ), the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate. The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: systems. The adjoining plates are the

text: Nazca Plate

text: , the

text: South American Plate

text: , the

text: African Plate

text: , the

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: , the

text: Pacific Plate

text: , and, across a

text: transform boundary

text: , the

text: Scotia Plate

text: The processes of life result in a mixture of chemicals that are not in chemical equilibrium but there are also abiotic disequilibrium processes that need to be considered. The most robust atmospheric biosignature is often considered to be molecular oxygen () and its photochemical byproduct ozone (). The photolysis of water () by UV rays followed by hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen can lead to a build-up of oxygen in planets close to their star undergoing runaway greenhouse effect. For planets in the habitable zone, it was thought that water photolysis would be strongly limited by cold-trapping of water vapour in the lower atmosphere. However, the extent of HO cold-trapping depends strongly on the amount of non-condensible gases in the atmosphere such as nitrogen N and argon. In the absence of such gases, the likelihood of build-up of oxygen also depends in complex ways on the planet's accretion history, internal chemistry, atmospheric dynamics, and orbital state. Therefore, oxygen, on its own, cannot be considered a robust biosignature. The ratio of nitrogen and argon to oxygen could be detected by studying thermal phase curves or by transit transmission spectroscopy measurement of the spectral Rayleigh scattering slope in a clear-sky (i.e. aerosol-free) atmosphere.

text: The processes of life result in a mixture of chemicals that are not in

text: chemical equilibrium

text: but there are also abiotic disequilibrium processes that need to be considered. The most robust atmospheric

text: biosignature

text: is often considered to be molecular

text: oxygen

text: () and its

text: photochemical

text: byproduct

text: ozone

text: (). The

text: photolysis

text: of water () by

text: UV rays

text: followed by

text: hydrodynamic escape

text: of hydrogen can lead to a build-up of oxygen in planets close to their star undergoing

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: . For planets in the

text: habitable zone

text: , it was thought that water photolysis would be strongly limited by

text: cold-trapping

text: of water vapour in the lower atmosphere. However, the extent of HO cold-trapping depends strongly on the amount of non-

text: condensible

text: gases in the atmosphere such as

text: nitrogen

text: N and

text: argon

text: . In the absence of such gases, the likelihood of build-up of oxygen also depends in complex ways on the planet's accretion history, internal chemistry, atmospheric dynamics, and orbital state. Therefore, oxygen, on its own, cannot be considered a robust biosignature. The ratio of nitrogen and argon to oxygen could be detected by studying

text: thermal

text: phase curves

text: or by

text: transit

text: transmission spectroscopy measurement of the spectral

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: slope in a clear-sky (i.e.

text: aerosol

text: -free) atmosphere.

text: Followers of Gaianism state that the term is based both in the felt connection and scientific understanding of the biosphere, which is given the name Gaia.  The namesake titan from Greek mythology is the mother all beings, both god and animal, born from her union with the sky (Uranus) and the sea (Pontus). Gaians believe that naming the biosphere Gaia helps encourage practitioners and others to see the living planet as an organism with an intrinsic personality that expresses itself through evolution. Gaianism's philosophy stems from James Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis, which proposes that organisms interact with their surroundings on earth to form a more complex and self-regulating system that contributes to maintaining the conditions for life on the planet. Gaia can be understood as a super-organism made of organisms, as multi-cellular life can be understood as a super-organism at a smaller level of scale.

text: Followers of Gaianism state that the term is based both in the felt connection and scientific understanding of the biosphere, which is given the name

text: Gaia

text: .  The namesake

text: titan

text: from

text: Greek mythology

text: is the mother all beings, both god and animal, born from her union with the sky (Uranus) and the sea (Pontus). Gaians believe that naming the

text: biosphere

text: Gaia helps encourage practitioners and others to see the living planet as an organism with an intrinsic personality that expresses itself through

text: evolution

text: . Gaianism's philosophy stems from

text: James Lovelock's

text: Gaia hypothesis

text: , which proposes that organisms interact with their surroundings on earth to form a more complex and self-regulating system that contributes to maintaining the conditions for life on the planet. Gaia can be understood as a super-organism made of organisms, as multi-cellular life can be understood as a super-organism at a smaller level of scale.

text: Geologists generally agree that the following tectonic plates currently exist on the Earth's surface with roughly definable boundaries. Tectonic plates are sometimes subdivided into three fairly arbitrary categories: major (or primary) plates, minor (or secondary) plates, and microplates (or tertiary plates).

text: Rocks (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2006)

text: The term "geophysiology" was popularized by James Lovelock in his writings on the Gaia hypothesis. The term was in fact foreshadowed by many others.  James Hutton (1726-1797), the "Father of Geology" in 1789, in a lecture presented on his behalf by Dr. Black, wrote "I consider the Earth to be a super-organism and that its proper study should be by physiology."  This view that the Earth in some ways could be viewed as a superorganism was widely held in the early 19th century, and was supported even by such early biologists as Huxley (1825-1895), but is disputed today.  An analogous alternative geophysiology which views the Earth as a single cell was developed by Lewis Thomas in his The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher (1974).

text: The term "geophysiology" was popularized by

text: James Lovelock

text: in his writings on the

text: Gaia hypothesis

text: . The term was in fact foreshadowed by many others.

text: James Hutton

text: (1726-1797), the "Father of Geology" in 1789, in a lecture presented on his behalf by Dr. Black, wrote "I consider the Earth to be a super-organism and that its proper study should be by physiology."  This view that the Earth in some ways could be viewed as a

text: superorganism

text: was widely held in the early 19th century, and was supported even by such early biologists as

text: Huxley

text: (1825-1895), but is disputed today.  An analogous alternative geophysiology which views the Earth as a single cell was developed by

text: Lewis Thomas

text: in his The Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher (1974).

text: The early Henry Halstead Orchestra during the early 1920s was enormously successful at the St. Francis Hotel in San Francisco for about three years.  This was the early days of radio, and he had the good fortune to broadcast over the very powerful (for those days) KGO in San Francisco.  He was "on" for about an hour a night, six nights a week.  As a consequence, his band became the best known organization in the western United States and Hawaii.

text: The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than Earth expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water  (silica and water form a deep eutectic.)

text: The appearance of plate tectonics on

text: terrestrial planet

text: s is related to planetary mass, with

text: more massive planets than Earth

text: expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water  (silica and water form a deep

text: eutectic

text: The Chaman Fault is a major, active geological fault in Pakistan and Afghanistan that runs for over 850 km.   Tectonically, it is actually a system of related geologic faults that separates the Eurasian Plate from the Indo-Australian Plate. It is a terrestrial, primarily transform, left-lateral strike-slip fault.  The slippage rate along the Chaman fault system as the Indo-Australian Plate moves northward (relative to the Eurasian Plate) has been estimated at 10 mm/yr or more. In addition to its primary transform aspect, the Chaman fault system has a compressional component as the Indian Plate is colliding with the Eurasian Plate.  This type of plate boundary is sometimes called a transpressional boundary.

text: The Chaman Fault is a major, active

text: geological fault

text: in Pakistan and

text: Afghanistan

text: that runs for over 850 km.

text: Tectonically

text: , it is actually a system of related geologic faults that separates the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: from the

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: . It is a terrestrial, primarily

text: transform

text: left-lateral

text: strike-slip fault.  The slippage rate along the Chaman fault system as the Indo-Australian Plate moves northward (relative to the Eurasian Plate) has been estimated at 10 mm/yr or more. In addition to its primary transform aspect, the Chaman fault system has a

text: compressional component

text: as the

text: Indian Plate

text: is colliding with the Eurasian Plate.  This type of plate boundary is sometimes called a transpressional boundary.

text: The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn, which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great air-masses, the Hadley cell and the Ferrel cell. In these near-deserts, the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (hematite) characteristic of drought conditions.

text: The continent

text: Euramerica

text: (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of

text: Laurentia

text: and

text: Baltica

text: , which rotated into the natural dry zone along the

text: Tropic of Capricorn

text: , which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great air-masses, the

text: Hadley cell

text: and the

text: Ferrel cell

text: . In these near-deserts, the

text: Old Red Sandstone

text: sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (

text: hematite

text: ) characteristic of drought conditions.

text: In 1999, NASA was selected to head a new Interagency Digital Earth Working Group (IDEW), due to its reputation for technology innovations and its focus on the study of planetary change.  The new initiative was located in the NASA’s Office of Earth Sciences. This titular focus was considered necessary to help align over 17 government agencies and keep sustainability and Earth oriented applications as a guiding principle for the Digital Earth enterprise. Components for development of 3-D Earth graphic-user-interfaces (GUIs) were placed into various technological sectors to stimulate cooperative development support.  While initially limited to government personnel, industry and academia were early observers attending IDEW workshops to discuss topics such as, visualization, information fusion, standards and interoperability, advanced computational algorithms, digital libraries and museums.  In March 2000, at a special IDEW meeting hosted by Oracle Corporation in Herndon, Virginia, industry representatives demonstrated several promising 3-D visualization prototypes.  Within two years, these were captivating international audiences, including Kofi Annan and Colin Powell, in government, business, science, and mass media who began to purchase the early commercial geo-browsers. Just as the spectacular Apollo photography of Earthrise provided an inspiring Earth-centric image for new generations to appreciate the fragility of our biosphere, the 3-D Digital Earths began inspiring growing numbers of people to the possibility of better understanding and possibly saving our planet.  Introduction of satellite data into commercially accessible spatial toolboxes significantly advanced the capacity to map, monitor, and manage our planet’s resources and provide a unifying perspective on the Digital Earth vision.

text: In 1999, NASA was selected to head a new Interagency Digital Earth Working Group (IDEW), due to its reputation for technology innovations and its focus on the study of planetary change.  The new initiative was located in the NASA’s Office of

text: Earth Sciences

text: . This titular focus was considered necessary to help align over 17 government agencies and keep sustainability and Earth oriented applications as a guiding principle for the Digital Earth enterprise. Components for development of 3-D Earth graphic-user-interfaces (GUIs) were placed into various technological sectors to stimulate cooperative development support.  While initially limited to government personnel, industry and academia were early observers attending IDEW workshops to discuss topics such as, visualization,

text: information fusion

text: , standards and interoperability, advanced computational algorithms,

text: digital libraries

text: and museums.  In March 2000, at a special IDEW meeting hosted by

text: Oracle Corporation

text: in

text: Herndon, Virginia

text: , industry representatives demonstrated several promising 3-D visualization prototypes.  Within two years, these were captivating international audiences, including

text: Kofi Annan

text: and

text: Colin Powell

text: , in government, business, science, and

text: mass media

text: who began to purchase the early commercial geo-browsers. Just as the

text: spectacular Apollo photography of Earthrise

text: provided an inspiring Earth-centric image for new generations to appreciate the fragility of our biosphere, the 3-D Digital Earths began inspiring growing numbers of people to the possibility of better understanding and possibly saving our planet.  Introduction of satellite data into commercially accessible spatial toolboxes significantly advanced the capacity to map, monitor, and manage our planet’s resources and provide a unifying perspective on the Digital Earth vision.

text: More recent results may question these conclusions. The University of Waterloo and University of Colorado conducted simulations in 2005 that indicated that the early atmosphere of Earth could have contained up to 40 percent hydrogen—implying a much more hospitable environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules. The escape of hydrogen from Earth's atmosphere into space may have occurred at only one percent of the rate previously believed based on revised estimates of the upper atmosphere's temperature. One of the authors, Owen Toon notes: "In this new scenario, organics can be produced efficiently in the early atmosphere, leading us back to the organic-rich soup-in-the-ocean concept... I think this study makes the experiments by Miller and others relevant again." Outgassing calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth complement the Waterloo/Colorado results in re-establishing the importance of the Miller–Urey experiment.

text: After his Nobel prize award, Edelman began research into the regulation of primary cellular processes, particularly the control of cell growth and the development of multi-celled organisms, focussing on cell-to-cell interactions in early embryonic development and in the formation and function of the nervous system. These studies led to the discovery of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), which guide the fundamental processes that help an animal achieve its shape and form, and by which nervous systems are built. One of the most significant discoveries made in this research is that the precursor gene for the neural cell adhesion molecule gave rise in evolution to the entire molecular system of adaptive immunity.

text: After his Nobel prize award, Edelman began research into the regulation of primary

text: cellular process

text: es, particularly the control of cell growth and the development of

text: multi-celled organism

text: s, focussing on cell-to-cell interactions in early

text: embryonic development

text: and in the formation and function of the nervous system. These studies led to the discovery of

text: cell adhesion molecules

text: (CAMs), which guide the fundamental processes that help an animal achieve its shape and form, and by which nervous systems are built. One of the most significant discoveries made in this research is that the precursor

text: gene

text: for the neural cell adhesion molecule gave rise in evolution to the entire molecular system of

text: adaptive immunity

text: The lost city of Arkadia (named for Arcadia) resembles a small Alderson Disk, and is home to an ancient civilization which escaped a Great Cataclysm in the ancient past by relocating deep within the Earth's crust. Unaware that life continued on the Earth's surface, and hoping to keep their people safe, the elders sealed all records of their past in the city's Archives.

text: The

text: lost city

text: of Arkadia (named for

text: Arcadia

text: ) resembles a small

text: Alderson Disk

text: , and is home to an ancient civilization which escaped a Great

text: Cataclysm

text: in the ancient past by relocating deep within the Earth's crust. Unaware that life continued on the Earth's surface, and hoping to keep their people safe, the elders sealed all records of their past in the city's Archives.

text: Drag is the space capsule’s resistance to it being pushed though air. Air is a mixture of different molecules, including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Anything falling through air hits these molecules and therefore slows down. The amount of drag on a capsule depends on many things, including the density of the air, and the shape, mass, diameter and roughness of the capsule. The speed of a space craft highly depends on the combined effect of the two forces — gravity, which can speed up a rocket, and drag, which will slow down the rocket. Space capsules entering Earth’s atmosphere will be considerably slowed because our atmosphere is so thick.

text: Drag is the space capsule’s resistance to it being pushed though

text: air

text: . Air is a mixture of different

text: molecules

text: , including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Anything falling through air hits these molecules and therefore slows down. The amount of drag on a capsule depends on many things, including the

text: density

text: of the air, and the shape, mass, diameter and roughness of the capsule. The speed of a space craft highly depends on the combined effect of the two forces — gravity, which can speed up a rocket, and drag, which will slow down the rocket. Space capsules entering Earth’s atmosphere will be considerably slowed because our atmosphere is so thick.

text: True polar wander represents the shift in the geographical poles relative to Earth’s surface, after accounting for the motion of the tectonic plates. This motion is caused by the rearrangement of the mantle and the crust in order to align the maximum inertia with the current rotation axis (fig.1). This is similar to a spinning top; when its rotation is disturbed, it slowly recovers and it will realign its rotation axis to its position of maximum inertia. The difference is that unlike Earth, the spinning top’s mass distribution is constant through its volume over time. Evidence for true polar wander has been observed from the study of large apparent polar wander datasets which, when corrected for the motion of the magnetic pole, display this polar wander. Modern polar wander can be evaluated from precise measurement using stars or satellite measurements, however filtering to remove the wobble of the Earth is required. The formation of supercontinents could initiate a faster polar wander. That is, because the supercontinent creates an extra mass concentration where they are located, the planet tries to re-orient the supercontinent towards the equator.

text: True polar wander represents the shift in the geographical poles relative to Earth’s surface, after accounting for the motion of the tectonic plates. This motion is caused by the rearrangement of the mantle and the crust in order to align the

text: maximum inertia

text: with the current rotation axis (fig.1). This is similar to a spinning top; when its rotation is disturbed, it slowly recovers and it will realign its rotation axis to its position of maximum inertia. The difference is that unlike Earth, the spinning top’s mass distribution is constant through its volume over time. Evidence for true polar wander has been observed from the study of large apparent polar wander datasets which, when corrected for the motion of the magnetic pole, display this polar wander. Modern polar wander can be evaluated from precise measurement using stars or satellite measurements, however filtering to remove the wobble of the Earth is required. The formation of

text: supercontinents

text: could initiate a faster polar wander. That is, because the supercontinent creates an extra mass concentration where they are located, the planet tries to re-orient the supercontinent towards the equator.

text: The time of sunset varies throughout the year, and is determined by the viewer's position on Earth, specified by longitude and latitude, and elevation. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer's latitude (connected with the Earth's slower movement around the aphelion around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth's faster movement near its perihelion, which occurs around January 3).

text: The time of sunset varies throughout the year, and is determined by the viewer's position on Earth, specified by longitude and latitude, and elevation. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the

text: Northern Hemisphere

text: , the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer's latitude (connected with the Earth's slower movement around the

text: aphelion

text: around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth's faster movement near its

text: perihelion

text: , which occurs around January 3).

text: Martin Audio released the MLA (Multi-cellular Loudspeaker Array) series in 2010.

text: The Pearl was previously available with Entel PCS in Chile, Cellcom, Sprint, T-Mobile, AT&T Mobility, Cincinnati Bell Wireless, Verizon Wireless, Alltel, US Cellular, Centennial Wireless, MOSH Mobile, nTelos, Cellular One, Cellular South and BlueGrass Cellular in the United States; TIM, Vodafone and Wind in Italy; Turkcell and Avea in Turkey; Claro, Vivo in Brazil, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico; Airtel, Vodafone and Reliance Communications in India; Iusacell, Telcel and Movistar in Mexico; Rogers Wireless, Telus, SaskTel, MTS, TBayTel, Bell Mobility, Wind Mobile, and Virgin Mobile Canada in Canada; Telstra, Optus and Vodafone in Australia; Indosat in Indonesia; KPN and Vodafone in the Netherlands; Globe Telecom in the Philippines; Grameenphone in Bangladesh; Vodafone in New Zealand; SingTel in Singapore; Mobilink in Pakistan and all networks in the UK; MTN, Globacom and Zain in Nigeria.tigo, Comcel in Colombia; Movistar, Digicel, Claro and Cable & Wireless in Panama

text: The Pearl was previously available with

text: Entel PCS

text: in

text: Chile

text: Cellcom

text: Sprint

text: T-Mobile

text: AT&T Mobility

text: Cincinnati Bell Wireless

text: Verizon Wireless

text: Alltel

text: US Cellular

text: Centennial Wireless

text: MOSH Mobile

text: nTelos

text: Cellular One

text: Cellular South

text: and

text: BlueGrass Cellular

text: in the United States;

text: TIM

text: Vodafone

text: and

text: Wind

text: in Italy;

text: Turkcell

text: and

text: Avea

text: in

text: Turkey

text: Claro

text: Vivo

text: in Brazil, Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico;

text: Airtel

text: Vodafone

text: and

text: Reliance Communications

text: in India;

text: Iusacell

text: Telcel

text: and

text: Movistar

text: in Mexico;

text: Rogers Wireless

text: Telus

text: SaskTel

text: MTS

text: TBayTel

text: Bell Mobility

text: Wind Mobile

text: , and

text: Virgin Mobile Canada

text: in Canada;

text: Telstra

text: Optus

text: and

text: Vodafone

text: in Australia;

text: Indosat

text: in Indonesia;

text: KPN

text: and

text: Vodafone

text: in the Netherlands;

text: Globe Telecom

text: in the Philippines;

text: Grameenphone

text: in Bangladesh;

text: Vodafone

text: in New Zealand;

text: SingTel

text: in Singapore;

text: Mobilink

text: in Pakistan and all networks in the UK;

text: MTN

text: Globacom

text: and

text: Zain

text: in Nigeria.

text: tigo

text: Comcel

text: in

text: Colombia

text: Movistar

text: Digicel

text: Claro

text: and

text: Cable & Wireless

text: in Panama

text: According to the gene ontology database the extracellular space is a cellular component defined as: "That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid. For multicellular organisms, the extracellular space refers to everything outside a cell, but still within the organism (excluding the extracellular matrix). Gene products from a multi-cellular organism that are secreted from a cell into the interstitial fluid or blood can therefore be annotated to this term".

text: According to the

text: gene ontology

text: database the extracellular space is a cellular component defined as: "That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid. For multicellular organisms, the extracellular space refers to everything outside a cell, but still within the organism (excluding the extracellular matrix). Gene products from a multi-cellular organism that are secreted from a cell into the interstitial fluid or blood can therefore be annotated to this term".

text: The first evidence of multicellularity is from cyanobacteria-like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested Grypania spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon.

text: The first evidence of multicellularity is from

text: cyanobacteria

text: -like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested

text: Grypania

text: spiralis and the fossils of the black shales of the

text: Palaeoproterozoic

text: Francevillian Group Fossil

text: B Formation in

text: Gabon

text: Cloning a cell means to derive a population of cells from a single cell. In the case of unicellular organisms such as bacteria and yeast, this process is remarkably simple and essentially only requires the inoculation of the appropriate medium. However, in the case of cell cultures from multi-cellular organisms, cell cloning is an arduous task as these cells will not readily grow in standard media.

text: Cloning a cell means to derive a population of cells from a single cell. In the case of unicellular organisms such as bacteria and yeast, this process is remarkably simple and essentially only requires the

text: inoculation

text: of the appropriate medium. However, in the case of cell cultures from multi-cellular organisms, cell cloning is an arduous task as these cells will not readily grow in standard media.

text: The technologically advanced Ancient race from Stargate SG-1 series voyaged to the Pegasus Galaxy from Earth via a colossal starship to spread new life. The city of Atlantis served as a maneuvering station as well as a base of operations. Their mission was unsuccessful and they met a terrible new enemy called the Wraith, the Ancients lost the war with the Wraith and after a long siege Atlantis was submerged under the ocean.

text: The technologically advanced

text: Ancient

text: race from

text: Stargate SG-1

text: series voyaged to the

text: Pegasus Galaxy

text: from

text: Earth

text: via a colossal starship to spread new life. The city of

text: Atlantis

text: served as a maneuvering station as well as a base of operations. Their mission was unsuccessful and they met a terrible new enemy called the

text: Wraith

text: , the Ancients lost the war with the Wraith and after a long siege Atlantis was submerged under the ocean.

text: Virtual airlines are early examples of online gaming communities, many of the first virtual airlines can be traced back to the early 1990s in flight simulator forums of services such as Prodigy, CompuServe or America Online While at least the early history of virtual airlines is predominantly on the Windows or DOS operating systems, Macintosh users also took part in the mid 1990s, with some of these still in operation today. Since they were first formed, these organizations are often characterized by their highly organized and structured nature when compared with other virtual groups in the gaming community. Such organizations represent some of the earliest examples of organized gaming groups similar to the clans and guilds seen in modern video gaming. It has been proposed that virtual airlines have existed since the creation of the first flight simulators, therefore predating the Internet.

text: Virtual airlines are early examples of online

text: gaming communities

text: , many of the first virtual airlines can be traced back to the early 1990s in

text: flight simulator

text: forums of services such as

text: Prodigy

text: CompuServe

text: or

text: America Online

text: While at least the early history of virtual airlines is predominantly on the

text: Windows

text: or

text: DOS

text: operating systems,

text: Macintosh

text: users also took part in the mid 1990s, with some of these still in operation today. Since they were first formed, these organizations are often characterized by their highly organized and structured nature when compared with other virtual groups in the gaming community. Such organizations represent some of the earliest examples of organized gaming groups similar to the clans and guilds seen in modern video gaming. It has been proposed that virtual airlines have existed since the creation of the first flight simulators, therefore predating the

text: Internet

text: Australia is the lowest, flattest, and oldest continental landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Its highest peak is Mount Kosciuszko at , which is relatively low in comparison to the highest mountains on other continents. Erosion has heavily weathered Australia's surface.

text: Australia is the lowest, flattest, and oldest continental landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as

text: tectonic uplift

text: of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of

text: Gondwana

text: . Its highest peak is

text: Mount Kosciuszko

text: at , which is relatively low in comparison to the highest mountains on other continents.

text: Erosion

text: has heavily weathered Australia's surface.

text: A significant body of water (referred to as the Central American Seaway) once separated the continents of North and South America, allowing the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans to mix freely. Beneath the surface, two plates of the Earth's crust were slowly colliding, forcing the Cocos Plate to slide under the Caribbean Plate. The pressure and heat caused by this collision led to the formation of underwater volcanoes, some of which grew large enough to form islands as early as 15 million years ago. Meanwhile, movement of the two tectonic plates was also pushing up the sea floor, eventually forcing some areas above sea level.

text: A significant body of water (referred to as the

text: Central American Seaway

text: ) once separated the continents of North and South America, allowing the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans to mix freely. Beneath the surface, two

text: plate

text: s of the

text: Earth's crust

text: were slowly colliding, forcing the

text: Cocos Plate

text: to slide under the

text: Caribbean Plate

text: . The pressure and heat caused by this collision led to the formation of underwater

text: volcano

text: es, some of which grew large enough to form

text: island

text: s as early as 15 million years ago. Meanwhile, movement of the two tectonic plates was also pushing up the sea floor, eventually forcing some areas above sea level.

text: A supercontinent cycle is the break-up of one supercontinent and the development of another, which takes place on a global scale. Supercontinent cycles are not the same as the Wilson cycle, which is the opening and closing of an individual oceanic basin. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle. However, supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were both involved in the creation of Pangaea and Rodinia.

text: A

text: supercontinent cycle

text: is the break-up of one supercontinent and the development of another, which takes place on a global scale. Supercontinent cycles are not the same as the

text: Wilson cycle

text: , which is the opening and closing of an individual oceanic basin. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle. However, supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were both involved in the creation of Pangaea and Rodinia.

text: The Isua Greenstone Belt offers up some complications because of the tectonics that have occurred in the area. Subduction and plate tectonics overall, is a means for explaining heat transfer within the Earth, which was an important process in early Earth.  The Isua Greenstone Belt is also an important area on the globe because it in particular contains the only evidence on the Earth that holds record for deformation before 3.2 billion years ago.

text: The Isua Greenstone Belt offers up some complications because of the tectonics that have occurred in the area.

text: Subduction

text: and

text: plate tectonics

text: overall, is a means for explaining

text: heat transfer

text: within the Earth, which was an important process in early Earth.  The Isua Greenstone Belt is also an important area on the globe because it in particular contains the only evidence on the Earth that holds record for deformation before 3.2 billion years ago.

text: The specifics of any ancient age distribution, moreover, would have seen heavy variation under the impact of local conditions. In pre-modern societies, the major cause of death was not the chronic, end-of-life conditions that characterize mortality in industrialized societies, nor primary malnutrition, but acute infectious disease, which has varied effects on age distributions in populations. Pulmonary tuberculosis, for example, characterized much of the Roman region in antiquity; its deaths tend to be concentrated in the early twenties, where model life tables show a mortality trough. Similarly, in pre-modern societies for which evidence is available, such as early modern England and early eighteenth-century China, infant mortality varies independently of adult mortality, to the extent that equal life expectancies at age twenty can be obtained in societies with infant mortality rates of 15% to 35% (life table models omit this; they depend on the assumption that age-specific mortality ratios co-vary in uniform, predictable ratios). No ancient evidence can gauge this effect (the sources have a strong tendency to overlook infant death), and the model life tables might overstate it, but comparative evidence suggests that it is very high: mortality was strongly concentrated in the first years of life.

text: Common ancestry between organisms of different species arises during speciation, in which new species are established from a single ancestral population. Organisms which share a more recent common ancestor are more closely related. The most recent common ancestor of all currently living organisms is the last universal ancestor, which lived about 3.9 billion years ago. The two earliest evidences for life on Earth are graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. All currently living organisms on Earth share a common genetic heritage (universal common descent), with each being the descendant from a single original species, though the suggestion of substantial horizontal gene transfer during early evolution has led to questions about monophyly of life.

text: Common ancestry between organisms of different

text: species

text: arises during

text: speciation

text: , in which new species are established from a single ancestral population. Organisms which share a more recent common ancestor are more closely related. The most recent common ancestor of all currently living organisms is the last universal ancestor, which lived about

entity_name: Timeline of the evolutionary history of life

text: 3.9 billion years ago

text: . The two earliest evidences for life on Earth are

text: graphite

text: found to be

text: biogenic

text: in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in western

text: Greenland

text: and

text: microbial mat

text: fossil

text: s found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . All currently living organisms on Earth share a common

text: genetic

text: heritage (universal common descent), with each being the descendant from a single original species, though the suggestion of substantial

text: horizontal gene transfer

text: during early evolution has led to questions about

text: monophyly

text: of life.

text: The Phanerozoic is the current eon on Earth, which started approximately 542 million years ago. It consists of three eras: The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.

text: The Phanerozoic is the current eon on Earth, which started approximately 542 million years ago. It consists of three eras: The

text: Paleozoic

text: Mesozoic

text: , and

text: Cenozoic

text: , and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.

text: The Saga is interspersed with heroic verse, in the great Aryan tradition. In Volume II, The Advent of Asho Zarathushtra, the story takes up the life of the ancient Indo-European Prophet Zarathushtra, eight thousand years ago. When the Earth-Soul cried out for a Saviour, Zarathushtra was born to redeem the ancient Aryan faith. The glorious birth of the Prophet in Iran is vividly described, followed by the many miraculous events in his early childhood. Volume III onwards continue the story of the youth and manhood of the Prophet Zarathustra, including the Divine Relevations he received from Ahura Mazda, his travels in Iran, and his tribulations in the Royal court of Iran.

text: The Saga is interspersed with heroic verse, in the great Aryan tradition. In Volume II, The Advent of Asho Zarathushtra, the story takes up the life of the ancient Indo-European Prophet

text: Zarathushtra

text: , eight thousand years ago. When the Earth-Soul cried out for a Saviour, Zarathushtra was born to redeem the ancient Aryan faith. The glorious birth of the Prophet in Iran is vividly described, followed by the many miraculous events in his early childhood. Volume III onwards continue the story of the youth and manhood of the Prophet Zarathustra, including the Divine Relevations he received from Ahura Mazda, his travels in Iran, and his tribulations in the Royal court of Iran.

text: On the early Earth, reactive elements, such as iron and uranium, existed in a reduced form that would react with any free oxygen produced by photosynthesising organisms. Oxygen would not be able to build up in the atmosphere until all the iron had rusted (producing banded iron formations), and all the other reactive elements had been oxidised.Donald Canfield detected records of the first significant quantities of atmospheric oxygen just before the first Ediacaran fossils appeared – and the presence of atmospheric oxygen was soon heralded as a possible trigger for the Ediacaran radiation. Oxygen seems to have accumulated in two pulses; the rise of small, sessile (stationary) organisms seems to correlate with an early oxygenation event, with larger and mobile organisms appearing around the second pulse of oxygenation. However, the assumptions underlying the reconstruction of atmospheric composition have attracted some criticism, with widespread anoxia having little effect on life where it occurs in the Early Cambrian and the Cretaceous.

text: On the early Earth, reactive elements, such as

text: iron

text: and

text: uranium

text: , existed in a

text: reduced

text: form that would react with any free oxygen produced by

text: photosynthesis

text: ing organisms. Oxygen would not be able to build up in the

text: atmosphere

text: until all the iron had rusted (producing

text: banded iron formation

text: s), and all the other reactive elements had been oxidised.

text: Donald Canfield

text: detected records of the first significant quantities of atmospheric oxygen just before the first Ediacaran fossils appeared – and the presence of atmospheric oxygen was soon heralded as a possible trigger for the Ediacaran

text: radiation

text: . Oxygen seems to have accumulated in two pulses; the rise of small, sessile (stationary) organisms seems to correlate with an early oxygenation event, with larger and mobile organisms appearing around the second pulse of oxygenation. However, the assumptions underlying the reconstruction of atmospheric composition have attracted some criticism, with widespread anoxia having little effect on life where it occurs in the Early Cambrian and the Cretaceous.

text: The Woodlark Plate is a small tectonic plate located in the eastern half of the island of New Guinea. The Caroline plate subducts along its northern border while the Maoke Plate converges on the west, the Australian plate converges on the south, and on the east an undefined compressive zone which may be a transform fault marking the boundary with the adjoining Solomon Sea Plate.

text: The Woodlark Plate is a small

text: tectonic plate

text: located in the eastern half of the island of

text: New Guinea

text: . The

text: Caroline plate

text: subducts

text: along its northern border while the

text: Maoke Plate

text: converges

text: on the west, the

text: Australian plate

text: converges on the south, and on the east an undefined compressive zone which may be a

text: transform fault

text: marking the boundary with the adjoining

text: Solomon Sea Plate

text: The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth, , is generally known as oxygen, but may be called dioxygen or molecular oxygen to distinguish it from the element itself. Elemental oxygen is most commonly encountered in this form, as about 21% (by volume) of Earth's atmosphere. The ground state of dioxygen is known as triplet oxygen because it has two unpaired electrons. The first excited state, singlet oxygen, has no unpaired electrons and is metastable.

text: The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth, , is generally known as oxygen, but may be called dioxygen or molecular oxygen to distinguish it from the element itself. Elemental oxygen is most commonly encountered in this form, as about 21% (by volume) of Earth's atmosphere. The

text: ground state

text: of dioxygen is known as

text: triplet oxygen

text: because it has two unpaired electrons. The first excited state,

text: singlet oxygen

text: , has no unpaired electrons and is

text: metastable

text: Friends of the Earth U.S. was founded in California in 1969 by prominent environmentalist David Brower after he left the Sierra Club.  The organization was launched with the help of Donald Aitken, Jerry Mander and a $200,000 donation from the personal funds of Robert O. Anderson.  One of its first major campaigns was the protest of nuclear power, particularly in California. Friends of the Earth International was founded in 1971 and today is a network of environmental organizations in 75 countries.  In its early years, Friends of the Earth US was headquartered in San Francisco, but it was a largely decentralized organization, giving significant power and freedom to its local branches.  In 1971, Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned against federal funding for supersonic transport commercial airlines, and overland commercial supersonic flights were banned as well.  In the early 1980s, the organization campaigned against the World Bank, claiming it was financing projects that caused tropical deforestation, among other environmental concerns.  They also pushed for the 1981 moratorium on new offshore oil leasing in California, which remained in effect until 2008, when the United States Congress did not renew it.  The organization merged with the Environmental Policy Center and the Oceanic Society in 1989.  After the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned for the passage of the Oil Pollution Act in 1990.  In 1992, they teamed with the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe in Washington State to help pass a federal law to protect salmon runs.  In 2003 the organization worked to draft and pass the Clean Car Law in California.

text: Friends of the Earth U.S. was founded in

text: California

text: in 1969 by prominent environmentalist

text: David Brower

text: after he left the

text: Sierra Club

text: .  The organization was launched with the help of Donald Aitken, Jerry Mander and a $200,000 donation from the personal funds of

text: Robert O. Anderson

text: .  One of its first major campaigns was the protest of

text: nuclear power

text: , particularly in California.

text: Friends of the Earth International

text: was founded in 1971 and today is a network of

text: environmental organizations

text: in 75 countries.  In its early years, Friends of the Earth US was headquartered in

text: San Francisco

text: , but it was a largely decentralized organization, giving significant power and freedom to its local branches.  In 1971, Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned against

entity_name: Administration of federal assistance in the United States

text: federal funding

text: for

text: supersonic

text: transport

text: commercial airlines

text: , and overland commercial supersonic flights were banned as well.  In the early 1980s, the organization campaigned against the

text: World Bank

text: , claiming it was financing projects that caused

text: tropical deforestation

text: , among other

text: environmental concerns

text: .  They also pushed for the

text: 1981 moratorium

text: on new

text: offshore oil

text: leasing in California, which remained in effect until 2008, when the

text: United States Congress

text: did not renew it.  The organization merged with the Environmental Policy Center and the Oceanic Society in 1989.  After the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned for the passage of the

text: Oil Pollution Act

text: in 1990.  In 1992, they teamed with the

text: Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe

text: in

text: Washington State

text: to help pass a federal law to protect

text: salmon run

text: s.  In 2003 the organization worked to draft and pass the

text: Clean Car Law

text: in California.

text: The Silurian spanned from 443 to 419 million years ago. The Silurian saw the rejuvenation of life as the  Earth recovered from the snowball Earth. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jawless fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved, and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as sea scorpions, were still apex predators. Fully terrestrial life evolved, including early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. The evolution of vascular plants (Cooksonia) allowed plants to gain a foothold on land. These early plants are the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, Siberia), Laurentia (North America), Baltica (Northern Europe), and Avalonia (Western Europe). The recent rise in sea levels allowed many new species to thrive in water.

text: The Silurian spanned from 443 to 419 million years ago. The Silurian saw the rejuvenation of life as the  Earth recovered from the snowball Earth. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jawless fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved, and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as

text: sea scorpions

text: , were still

text: apex predator

text: s. Fully terrestrial life evolved, including early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. The evolution of

text: vascular plants

text: Cooksonia

text: ) allowed plants to gain a foothold on land. These early plants are the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, Siberia), Laurentia (North America), Baltica (Northern Europe), and Avalonia (Western Europe). The recent rise in sea levels allowed many new species to thrive in water.

text: While brachiosaurids were widely dispersed in the Late Jurassic, their geographic distribution narrowed in the Early Cretaceous. So far, brachiosaurid specimens have only been found in the Aptian-Albian region of North America. This reduction in distribution occurs immediately following the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. The brachiosaurid distribution in the Early Cretaceous has been interpreted as a result of regional extinctions in Europe, Africa, and South America. Overall, the Early Cretaceous seems to be a time of reduced sauropod diversity worldwide. It has been argued that this change may be due to an extinction event at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary.  A second hypothesis is that the apparent lack of geographical diversity is due to sampling bias in the generally poor Early Cretaceous fossil record. Recently discovered evidence supports the conclusion that brachiosaurids existed outside of North America in lower latitudes of Gondwana in the Early Cretaceous. In 2013, Mannion et al. reported on the discovery of two isolated teeth found in Lebanon from the Early Cretaceous that possess posteriorly twisted crowns, which are characteristic of the brachiosaurids Giraffititan and Abydosaurus. In addition, a brachiosaurid originally named Padillasaurus leivaensis was discovered in Colombia from the Early Cretaceous and placed in the Brachiosauridae taxon, which suggests that Brachiosauridae survived in northwestern Gondwana after the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary. In the Early Cretaceous, Colombia was located close to the equator in northwestern Gondwana while Lebanon was in the northeast of Gondwana. This suggests that brachiosaurids were in fact present outside of North America in the Early Cretaceous, and supports the theory that the apparent lack of specimens is due to an incomplete record. However, the rarity of these dinosaur specimens may also reflect a decrease in abundance of brachiosaurids acting in combination with the poor fossil record.

text: While brachiosaurids were widely dispersed in the

text: Late Jurassic

text: , their geographic distribution narrowed in the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: . So far, brachiosaurid specimens have only been found in the Aptian-Albian region of

text: North America

text: . This reduction in distribution occurs immediately following the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. The brachiosaurid distribution in the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: has been interpreted as a result of regional extinctions in

text: Europe

text: Africa

text: , and

text: South America

text: . Overall, the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: seems to be a time of reduced

text: sauropod

text: diversity worldwide. It has been argued that this change may be due to an extinction event at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary.  A second hypothesis is that the apparent lack of geographical diversity is due to sampling bias in the generally poor

text: Early Cretaceous

text: fossil

text: record. Recently discovered evidence supports the conclusion that brachiosaurids existed outside of

text: North America

text: in lower latitudes of

text: Gondwana

text: in the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: . In 2013, Mannion et al. reported on the discovery of two isolated teeth found in

text: Lebanon

text: from the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: that possess posteriorly twisted crowns, which are characteristic of the brachiosaurids

text: Giraffititan

text: and

text: Abydosaurus

text: . In addition, a brachiosaurid originally named

text: Padillasaurus leivaensis

text: was discovered in

text: Colombia

text: from the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: and placed in the Brachiosauridae

text: taxon

text: , which suggests that Brachiosauridae survived in northwestern

text: Gondwana

text: after the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary. In the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: Colombia

text: was located close to the equator in northwestern

text: Gondwana

text: while

text: Lebanon

text: was in the northeast of

text: Gondwana

text: . This suggests that brachiosaurids were in fact present outside of

text: North America

text: in the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: , and supports the theory that the apparent lack of specimens is due to an incomplete record. However, the rarity of these

text: dinosaur

text: specimens may also reflect a decrease in abundance of brachiosaurids acting in combination with the poor

text: fossil

text: record.

text: Tectonics explains the large-scale structure of the Earth's crust and its constituent rocks in terms of blocks moving along faults, uplifted into horsts or downthrown into grabens.The ACT is positioned on the Australian continent, which was once a part of the supercontinent Gondwana. The ACT is in the Tasmanides, the deformed rocks of the orogen that make up the core of the old mountain range that makes up the Australian continent east of the Tasman Line. These rocks are an addition onto the Proterozoic core of the continent. The Tasmanides are the result of compression, horizontal shortening, and vertical thickening of various "terranes" such as small continental fragments and volcanic island arcs that were plastered against the original continental margin as a result of plate tectonic movements.

text: Tectonics

text: explains the large-scale structure of the Earth's crust and its constituent rocks in terms of blocks moving along

text: fault

text: s, uplifted into

text: horst

text: s or downthrown into

text: graben

text: s.The ACT is positioned on the

text: Australian continent

text: , which was once a part of the supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: . The ACT is in the

text: Tasmanides

text: , the deformed rocks of the

text: orogen

text: that make up the core of the old mountain range that makes up the Australian continent east of the

text: Tasman Line

text: . These rocks are an addition onto the

text: Proterozoic

text: core of the continent. The Tasmanides are the result of compression, horizontal shortening, and vertical thickening of various "terranes" such as small continental fragments and volcanic island arcs that were plastered against the original continental margin as a result of

text: plate tectonic

text: movements.

text: Major impact events have significantly shaped Earth's history, having been implicated in the formation of the Earth–Moon system, the evolutionary history of life, the origin of water on Earth, and several mass extinctions. Impact structures are the result of impact events on solid objects and, as the dominant landforms on many of the System's solid objects, present the most solid evidence of prehistoric events. Notable impact events include the Late Heavy Bombardment, which occurred early in history of the Earth–Moon system, and the Chicxulub impact, 66 million years ago, believed to be the cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

text: Major impact events have significantly shaped

text: Earth's history

text: , having been implicated in the

text: formation of the Earth–Moon system

text: , the

text: evolutionary history of life

text: , the

text: origin of water on Earth

text: , and several

text: mass extinction

text: s.

text: Impact structure

text: s are the result of impact events on solid objects and, as the dominant landforms on many of the System's solid objects, present the most solid evidence of prehistoric events. Notable impact events include the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: , which occurred early in history of the Earth–Moon system, and the

text: Chicxulub impact

text: , 66 million years ago, believed to be the cause of the

text: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

text: Also, there was a "supercontinent" called Pangaea (some people will spell or "Pangea") which began to break apart about 175 - 200 million years ago and formed where we live today. Years ago, all this land was together. This supports the theory of "Continental Drift" and "Plate Techtonic" which says the Earth's lithospheric plates move about a few centimeter a year (as fast as your fingernails grow)

text: After the People's Republic of China was established, in order to resolve employment problems in the cities, starting in the 1950s youth from urban areas were organized to move to the rural countryside, especially in remote towns to establish farms. As early as 1953, the People's Daily published the editorial "Organize school graduates to participate in agricultural production labor". In 1955, Mao Zedong asserted that "the countryside is a vast expanse of heaven and earth where we can flourish", which would become the slogan for the Down to the Countryside Movement.

text: After the People's Republic of China was established, in order to resolve employment problems in the cities, starting in the 1950s youth from urban areas were organized to move to the rural countryside, especially in remote towns to establish farms. As early as 1953, the

text: People's Daily

text: published the editorial "Organize school graduates to participate in agricultural production labor". In 1955,

text: Mao Zedong

text: asserted that "the countryside is a vast expanse of heaven and earth where we can flourish", which would become the slogan for the

text: Down to the Countryside Movement

text: Most of Smith's weird fiction falls into four series set variously in Hyperborea, Poseidonis, Averoigne and Zothique. Hyperborea, which is a lost continent of the Miocene period, and Poseidonis, which is a remnant of Atlantis, are much the same, with a magical culture characterized by bizarreness, cruelty, death and postmortem horrors. Averoigne is Smith's version of pre-modern France, comparable to James Branch Cabell's Poictesme. Zothique exists millions of years in the future. It is "the last continent of earth, when the sun is dim and tarnished". These tales have been compared to the Dying Earth sequence of Jack Vance.

text: Most of Smith's weird fiction falls into four series set variously in

text: Hyperborea

text: Poseidonis

text: Averoigne

text: and

text: Zothique

text: . Hyperborea, which is a lost continent of the Miocene period, and Poseidonis, which is a remnant of Atlantis, are much the same, with a magical culture characterized by bizarreness, cruelty, death and postmortem horrors. Averoigne is Smith's version of pre-modern France, comparable to

text: James Branch Cabell

text: 's Poictesme. Zothique exists millions of years in the future. It is "the last continent of earth, when the sun is dim and tarnished". These tales have been compared to the Dying Earth sequence of

text: Jack Vance

text: The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the solar terminator.

text: The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes

text: tide

text: s on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its

text: tidal locking

text: : its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the

text: lunar phase

text: s; the dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the

text: solar terminator

text: Through an agreement with Dobson Communications Systems, which provided TDMA and GSM cellular service under the Cellular One brand, GCI formerly sold GSM cellular service under its own name while providing Dobson with the back-end network infrastructure. AT&T's purchase of Dobson, however, resulted in an agreement on December 3, 2007 that released Dobson, now under the AT&T Wireless brand, from its contract to use GCI for its back-end network on July 1, 2008; AT&T Wireless now uses existing AT&T Alascom networks. GCI will continue to contract with AT&T Wireless for the use and resale of its products and services through June 30, 2012 but will also invest $100 million in its own network. It also plans to spend approximately $10 million to complete its acquisition of the remaining 20% of Alaska DigiTel, a competing CDMA-based cellular carrier. On December 4, 2014, GCI agreed to purchase the wireless assets of Alaska Communications for $300 million. The deal is expected to close in the first quarter of 2015.

text: Through an agreement with

text: Dobson Communications Systems

text: , which provided

text: TDMA

text: and

text: GSM

text: cellular service under the

text: Cellular One

text: brand, GCI formerly sold GSM cellular service

text: under its own name

text: while providing Dobson with the back-end network infrastructure.

text: AT&T

text: 's purchase of Dobson, however, resulted in an agreement on December 3, 2007 that released Dobson, now under the

text: AT&T Wireless

text: brand, from its contract to use GCI for its back-end network on July 1, 2008; AT&T Wireless now uses existing AT&T Alascom networks. GCI will continue to contract with AT&T Wireless for the use and resale of its products and services through June 30, 2012 but will also invest $100 million in its own network. It also plans to spend approximately $10 million to complete its acquisition of the remaining 20% of

text: Alaska DigiTel

text: , a competing CDMA-based cellular carrier. On December 4, 2014, GCI agreed to purchase the wireless assets of

text: Alaska Communications

text: for $300 million. The deal is expected to close in the first quarter of 2015.

text: Measurements of the ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 are often used to interpret changes in paleoclimate. The isotopic composition of oxygen atoms in the Earth's atmosphere is 99.759% O, 0.037% O and 0.204% O. Because water molecules containing the lighter isotope are slightly more likely to evaporate and fall as precipitation, fresh water and polar ice on earth contains slightly less (0.1981%) of the heavy isotope O than air (0.204%) or seawater (0.1995%). This disparity allows analysis of temperature patterns via historic ice cores.

text: Measurements of the ratio of oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 are often used to interpret changes in

text: paleoclimate

text: . The isotopic composition of oxygen

text: atom

text: s in the Earth's atmosphere is 99.759% O, 0.037%

text: O

text: and 0.204%

text: O

text: . Because

text: water

text: molecules containing the lighter isotope are slightly more likely to

text: evaporate

text: and fall as

text: precipitation

text: , fresh

text: water

text: and polar ice on earth contains slightly less (0.1981%) of the heavy isotope

text: O

text: than air (0.204%) or

text: seawater

text: (0.1995%). This disparity allows analysis of temperature patterns via historic

text: ice cores

text: The simplest definition is "the study of ancient life". Paleontology seeks information about several aspects of past organisms: "their identity and origin, their environment and evolution, and what they can tell us about the Earth's organic and inorganic past".

text: Those Ancients who stayed on Earth and interbred with humans passed on the Ancient Technology Activation gene marking the humans of Earth as their "Second Evolution" as well as giving civilization to the people. They would also lay cultural foundations by way of the Indo-European languages. Through this cultural and linguistic inheritance many Roman myths were also influenced by the Ancients, such as the myth that the "Ancient ones ascended to the Heavens". According to mythology, the Romans learned how to build roads from gods known as "The Ancient Ones" in mimicry of the "astria porta" constructed by the ancients.  Indeed, Daniel Jackson later determined that the Ancient language vaguely resembles Old Latin.  This was first discovered when Colonel O'Neill had the entire database of an Ancient repository of knowledge downloaded into his brain, after which he became incapable of speaking in anything other than the Ancients' language.  Using this vital insight, Dr. Jackson compared previously indecipherable Ancient writings with Old Latin, factoring in millennia of linguistic drift, and was eventually able to produce functional translations of much of it.  Two years later, Earth and a pocket of surrounding space became trapped in a repeating time loop caused by a malfunctioning Ancient time machine.  Only O'Neill and Teal'c were not affected because they were standing near the device when the loop began.  With Dr. Jackson trapped in the loop and unable to study the time machine's writings thoroughly before his memory was reset, the only choice was for O'Neill and Teal'c to learn the Old Latin/Ancient language from Dr. Jackson in incremental steps, until they learned enough of it to discover the nature of the device.

text: Those Ancients who stayed on Earth and interbred with humans passed on the

text: Ancient Technology Activation gene

text: marking the humans of Earth as their "Second Evolution" as well as giving civilization to the people. They would also lay cultural foundations by way of the Indo-European languages. Through this cultural and linguistic inheritance many Roman myths were also influenced by the Ancients, such as the myth that the "Ancient ones ascended to the Heavens". According to mythology, the Romans learned how to build roads from gods known as "The Ancient Ones" in mimicry of the "astria porta" constructed by the ancients.  Indeed, Daniel Jackson later determined that the Ancient language vaguely resembles

text: Old Latin

text: .  This was first discovered when Colonel O'Neill had the entire database of an Ancient repository of knowledge downloaded into his brain, after which he became incapable of speaking in anything other than the Ancients' language.  Using this vital insight, Dr. Jackson compared previously indecipherable Ancient writings with Old Latin, factoring in millennia of linguistic drift, and was eventually able to produce functional translations of much of it.  Two years later, Earth and a pocket of surrounding space became trapped in a repeating time loop caused by a malfunctioning Ancient time machine.  Only O'Neill and Teal'c were not affected because they were standing near the device when the loop began.  With Dr. Jackson trapped in the loop and unable to study the time machine's writings thoroughly before his memory was reset, the only choice was for O'Neill and Teal'c to learn the Old Latin/Ancient language from Dr. Jackson in incremental steps, until they learned enough of it to discover the nature of the device.

text: Planet Earth explores geoscience and how discoveries of the early and mid-1980s were revolutionizing mankind's understanding of the Earth's past, present, and future. It also highlights scientific discoveries not yet fully understood and still under study in the mid-1980s. The series explores the Earth's origins, history, and structure; the forces that operate continually to alter its surface; its oceans; its climate; its natural resources; its biosphere and the effects of life on the physical world; its relationship to the Sun and other bodies in the solar system; and its possible future in the face of pressures the growing human population places on the natural world.

text: Planet Earth explores

text: geoscience

text: and how discoveries of the early and mid-1980s were revolutionizing mankind's understanding of the Earth's past, present, and future. It also highlights scientific discoveries not yet fully understood and still under study in the mid-1980s. The series explores the Earth's origins, history, and structure; the forces that operate continually to alter its surface; its oceans; its climate; its

text: natural resources

text: ; its

text: biosphere

text: and the effects of life on the physical world; its relationship to the

text: Sun

text: and other bodies in the

text: solar system

text: ; and its possible future in the face of pressures the growing human population places on the natural world.

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on March 29, 2025. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on March 29, 2025. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: The notional tidal bulges are carried ahead of the Earth–Moon axis by the continents as a result of Earth's rotation. The eccentric mass of each bulge exerts a small amount of gravitational attraction on the Moon, with the bulge on the side of Earth closest to the Moon pulling in a direction slightly forward along the Moon's orbit (because Earth's rotation has carried the bulge forward). The bulge on the side furthest from the Moon has the opposite effect, but because the gravitational attraction varies inversely with the square of distance, the effect is stronger for the near-side bulge. As a result, some of Earth's angular (or rotational) momentum is gradually being transferred to the rotation of the Earth–Moon pair around their mutual centre of mass, called the barycentre. This slightly faster rotation causes the Earth–Moon distance to increase at approximately 38 millimetres per year. Conservation of angular momentum means that Earth's axial rotation is gradually slowing, and because of this its day lengthens by approximately 23 microseconds every year (excluding glacial rebound). Both figures are valid only for the current configuration of the continents. Tidal rhythmites from 620 million years ago show that, over hundreds of millions of years, the Moon receded at an average rate of  per year and the day lengthened at an average rate of 12 microseconds per year, both about half of their current values. See tidal acceleration for a more detailed description and references.

text: The notional tidal bulges are carried ahead of the Earth–Moon axis by the continents as a result of Earth's rotation. The eccentric mass of each bulge exerts a small amount of gravitational attraction on the Moon, with the bulge on the side of Earth closest to the Moon pulling in a direction slightly forward along the Moon's orbit (because Earth's rotation has carried the bulge forward). The bulge on the side furthest from the Moon has the opposite effect, but because the gravitational attraction varies inversely with the square of distance, the effect is stronger for the near-side bulge. As a result, some of Earth's angular (or rotational) momentum is gradually being transferred to the rotation of the Earth–Moon pair around their mutual centre of mass, called the barycentre. This slightly faster rotation causes the Earth–Moon distance to increase at approximately 38 millimetres per year.

text: Conservation of angular momentum

text: means that Earth's axial rotation is gradually slowing, and because of this its day lengthens by approximately 23 microseconds every year (excluding

text: glacial rebound

text: ). Both figures are valid only for the current configuration of the continents.

text: Tidal rhythmites

text: from 620 million years ago show that, over hundreds of millions of years, the Moon receded at an average rate of  per year and the day lengthened at an average rate of 12 microseconds per year, both about half of their current values. See

text: tidal acceleration

text: for a more detailed description and references.

text: The Ancients (in their own tongue Anquietas) are a fictional humanoid race in the Stargate franchise. They are called by this name in the Milky Way galaxy, and the Ancestors and Lanteans in the Pegasus galaxy. The Ancients are one of two groups of the Alterans; the other being the Ori, the main antagonists in the later seasons of Stargate SG-1. In the Stargate universe, the Ancients are one of the most technologically advanced species known to have existed. The Ancients evolved tens of millions of years ago and reached advanced level of technology long before humans evolved on Earth. They lived in the Milky Way and Pegasus galaxies prior to their ascension. The Ancients might be best known as the ones who constructed the Stargates; big ring-shaped gates allowing wormhole travel. The Stargates are commonly used by Earth humans, Goa'ulds and Wraiths as seen in the Stargate TV-series to travel and explore Milky Way and Pegasus.

text: The Ancients (in their own tongue Anquietas) are a fictional humanoid

text: race

text: in the

text: Stargate

text: franchise. They are called by this name in the

text: Milky Way galaxy

text: , and the Ancestors and Lanteans in the

text: Pegasus galaxy

text: . The Ancients are one of two groups of the Alterans; the other being the

text: Ori

text: , the main antagonists in the later seasons of

text: Stargate SG-1

text: . In the Stargate universe, the Ancients are one of the most technologically advanced species known to have existed. The Ancients evolved tens of millions of years ago and reached advanced level of

text: technology

text: long before

text: human

text: s evolved on

text: Earth

text: . They lived in the Milky Way and Pegasus galaxies prior to their ascension. The Ancients might be best known as the ones who constructed the

text: Stargates

text: ; big ring-shaped gates allowing

text: wormhole

text: travel. The Stargates are commonly used by Earth humans,

text: Goa'uld

text: s and

text: Wraiths

text: as seen in the Stargate TV-series to travel and explore Milky Way and Pegasus.

text: Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early creation science newsletters associated with the Creation Research Society pointing to some passages in the Bible, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis for example, Joshua 10:12 where the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and Psalms 93:1 where the world is described as immobile. Contemporary advocates for such religious beliefs include Robert Sungenis, co-author of the self-published Galileo Was Wrong: The Church Was Right (2006). These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary creationist organizations reject such perspectives.

text: Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early creation science newsletters associated with the Creation Research Society pointing to some passages in the Bible, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis for example,

text: Joshua

text: 10:12 where the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and

text: Psalms

text: 93:1 where the world is described as immobile. Contemporary advocates for such

text: religious belief

text: s include

text: Robert Sungenis

text: , co-author of the self-published Galileo Was Wrong: The Church Was Right (2006). These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary creationist organizations reject such perspectives.

text: The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives. Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's ecosystem is literally viewed as a single unified organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected emergent property of the ecosystem: as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.

text: The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives. Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's

text: ecosystem

text: is literally viewed as a single unified organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected

text: emergent property

text: of the ecosystem: as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in ice ages. There have been at least five such ice ages in the Earth's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is currently in an ice age, in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in

text: ice ages

text: . There have been at least five such ice ages in the

text: Earth

text: 's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is

text: currently in an ice age

text: , in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Multicellularity may have evolved from colonies of interdependent organisms, from cellularization, or from organisms in symbiotic relationships.

text: Multicellularity may have evolved from

text: colonies

text: of interdependent organisms, from

text: cellularization

text: , or from organisms in

text: symbiotic relationships

text: Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.

text: Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady

text: loss of the atmosphere into space

text: . Because unfixed

text: hydrogen

text: has a low

text: molecular mass

text: , it can achieve

text: escape velocity

text: more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially

text: reducing

text: state to its current

text: oxidizing

text: one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.

text: Evidence of the details of plate motions and other tectonic activity in the Precambrian has been poorly preserved. It is generally believed that small proto-continents existed prior to 3000 Ma, and that most of the Earth's landmasses collected into a single supercontinent around 1000 Ma. The supercontinent, known as Rodinia, broke up around 600 Ma. A number of glacial periods have been identified going as far back as the Huronian epoch, roughly 2200 Ma. One of the best studied is the Sturtian-Varangian glaciation, around 600 Ma, which may have brought glacial conditions all the way to the equator, resulting in a "Snowball Earth".

text: Evidence of the details of

text: plate motions

text: and other

text: tectonic

text: activity in the Precambrian has been poorly preserved. It is generally believed that small proto-continents existed prior to 3000 Ma, and that most of the Earth's landmasses collected into a single

text: supercontinent

text: around 1000 Ma. The supercontinent, known as

text: Rodinia

text: , broke up around 600 Ma. A number of

text: glacial periods

text: have been identified going as far back as the

text: Huronian

text: epoch, roughly 2200 Ma. One of the best studied is the

text: Sturtian-Varangian

text: glaciation, around 600 Ma, which may have brought glacial conditions all the way to the equator, resulting in a "

text: Snowball Earth

text: Each level in the hierarchy can be described by its lower levels. For example, the organism may be described at any of its component levels, including the atomic, molecular, cellular, histological (tissue), organ and organ system levels. Furthermore, at every level of the hierarchy, new functions necessary for the control of life appear. These new roles are not functions that the lower level components are capable of and are thus referred to as emergent properties.

text: Each level in the hierarchy can be described by its lower levels. For example, the organism may be described at any of its component levels, including the atomic, molecular, cellular, histological (tissue), organ and organ system levels. Furthermore, at every level of the hierarchy, new functions necessary for the control of life appear. These new roles are not functions that the lower level components are capable of and are thus referred to as

text: emergent properties

text: The Okhotsk Plate is a minor tectonic plate covering the Sea of Okhotsk, the Kamchatka Peninsula, Sakhalin Island and Tōhoku and Hokkaidō in Japan.  It was formerly considered a part of the North American Plate, but recent studies indicate that it is an independent plate, bounded on the north by the North American Plate. The boundary is a left-lateral moving transform fault, the Ulakhan Fault.  On the east, the plate is bounded by the Pacific Plate at the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench and the Japan Trench, on the south by the Philippine Sea Plate at the Nankai Trough, on the west by the Eurasian Plate, and possibly on the southwest by the Amurian Plate.

text: The Okhotsk Plate is a minor

text: tectonic plate

text: covering the

text: Sea of Okhotsk

text: , the

text: Kamchatka Peninsula

text: Sakhalin Island

text: and

text: Tōhoku

text: and

text: Hokkaidō

text: in

text: Japan

text: .  It was formerly considered a part of the

text: North American Plate

text: , but recent studies indicate that it is an independent plate, bounded on the north by the North American Plate. The boundary is a

text: left-lateral

text: moving

text: transform fault

text: , the

text: Ulakhan Fault

text: .  On the east, the plate is bounded by the

text: Pacific Plate

text: at the

text: Kuril-Kamchatka Trench

text: and the

text: Japan Trench

text: , on the south by the

text: Philippine Sea Plate

text: at the

text: Nankai Trough

text: , on the west by the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: , and possibly on the southwest by the

text: Amurian Plate

text: The plot of Stargate SG-1 picks up a year after the conclusion of the events recounted in the original feature film. It follows the present-day adventures of SG-1, a military team from Earth. SG-1 and a dozen other SG teams venture to distant planets using a fictional alien portal known as a Stargate, which in the series is housed in a top-secret United States Air Force military base known as Stargate Command (SGC) in the underground Cheyenne Mountain Complex in Colorado Springs, Colorado. In the first eight seasons, the mission of the SG teams is to explore the galaxy and search for alien technology and allies to defend Earth against the Goa'uld, a snake-like parasitic alien race that takes humans as unwilling hosts. As explained in the series' backstory, the Goa'uld had transported human slaves from Earth to other habitable planets across the galaxy thousands of years ago and now pose as gods of old Earth mythologies, particularly Ancient Egypt. SG-1 eventually learns that highly evolved human-like beings, known as the Ancients, had originally built the Stargate network millions of years earlier, before ascending to a higher plane of existence, after which they pledged not to  interfere in the lives of other species. The Ori, a faction of the same race as the Ancients who instead use their powers to subjugate other species by religious indoctrination, assume the role of the main antagonists in seasons 9 and 10.

text: The plot of Stargate SG-1 picks up a year after the conclusion of the events recounted in the

text: original feature film

text: . It follows the present-day adventures of SG-1, a military team from Earth. SG-1 and a dozen other SG teams venture to distant planets using a fictional alien portal known as a

text: Stargate

text: , which in the series is housed in a top-secret

text: United States Air Force

text: military base known as

text: Stargate Command

text: (SGC) in the underground

text: Cheyenne Mountain Complex

text: in

text: Colorado Springs, Colorado

text: . In the first eight seasons, the mission of the SG teams is to explore the galaxy and search for alien technology and allies to defend Earth against the

text: Goa'uld

text: , a snake-like parasitic alien race that takes humans as unwilling hosts. As explained in the series' backstory, the Goa'uld had transported human slaves from

text: Earth

text: to other habitable planets across the galaxy thousands of years ago and now pose as gods of old Earth mythologies, particularly

text: Ancient Egypt

text: . SG-1 eventually learns that highly evolved human-like beings, known as the

text: Ancients

text: , had originally built the Stargate network millions of years earlier, before

text: ascending to a higher plane of existence

text: , after which they pledged not to  interfere in the lives of other species. The

text: Ori

text: , a faction of the same race as the Ancients who instead use their powers to subjugate other species by religious indoctrination, assume the role of the main antagonists in seasons

text: and

text: A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor may have occurred on Venus. In this scenario, early Venus may have had a global ocean. As the brightness of the early Sun increased, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increased, increasing the temperature and consequently increasing the evaporation of the ocean, leading eventually to the situation in which the oceans boiled, and all of the water vapor entered the atmosphere. On Venus today there is little water vapor in the atmosphere. If water vapor did contribute to the warmth of Venus at one time, this water is thought to have escaped to space. Some evidence for this scenario comes from the extremely high deuterium to hydrogen ratio in Venus' atmosphere, roughly 150 times that of Earth, since light hydrogen would escape from the atmosphere more readily than its heavier isotope, deuterium.  Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into hydrogen and oxygen by ultraviolet light. The hydrogen can then escape from the atmosphere and the oxygen recombines. Carbon dioxide, the dominant greenhouse gas in the current Venusian atmosphere, owes its larger concentration to the weakness of carbon recycling as compared to Earth, where the carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes is efficiently subducted into the Earth by plate tectonics on geologic time scales.

text: A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor may have occurred on

text: Venus

text: . In this scenario, early Venus may have had a global ocean. As the brightness of the early Sun increased, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increased, increasing the temperature and consequently increasing the evaporation of the ocean, leading eventually to the situation in which the oceans boiled, and all of the water vapor entered the atmosphere. On Venus today there is little water vapor in the atmosphere. If water vapor did contribute to the warmth of Venus at one time, this water is thought to have escaped to space. Some evidence for this scenario comes from the extremely high deuterium to hydrogen ratio in Venus' atmosphere, roughly 150 times that of Earth, since light hydrogen would escape from the atmosphere more readily than its heavier

text: isotope

text: deuterium

text: .  Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: oxygen

text: by ultraviolet light. The hydrogen can then escape from the atmosphere and the oxygen recombines. Carbon dioxide, the dominant greenhouse gas in the current Venusian atmosphere, owes its larger concentration to the weakness of carbon recycling as compared to

text: Earth

text: , where the carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes is efficiently

text: subducted

text: into the Earth by plate tectonics on geologic time scales.

text: Cells within an organism have near identical nucleic acid sequences, but often exhibit different phenotypes. One way in which this individuality occurs is through changes in genome architecture, which can alter the expression of different sets of genes. These alterations can have a downstream effect on cellular functions such as cell cycle facilitation, DNA replication, nuclear transport, and alteration of nuclear structure. DNA packaging within the nucleus results in distinct configurations and regions to promote specific inter- and intra-chromatin, protein, and larger nuclear structure interactions. From DNA looping to formation of higher-order chromatin structures to chromosome territories, nuclear genome organization is essential for proper cellular function.

text: Cells

text: within an organism have near identical

text: nucleic acid sequence

text: s, but often exhibit different

text: phenotype

text: s. One way in which this individuality occurs is through changes in

text: genome

text: architecture, which can alter the

text: expression

text: of different sets of

text: gene

text: s. These alterations can have a downstream effect on cellular functions such as

text: cell cycle

text: facilitation,

text: DNA replication

text: nuclear transport

text: , and alteration of

text: nuclear

text: structure.

text: DNA packaging

text: within the nucleus results in distinct configurations and regions to promote specific inter- and intra-chromatin, protein, and larger nuclear structure interactions. From DNA looping to formation of higher-order

text: chromatin

text: structures to

text: chromosome

text: territories, nuclear genome organization is essential for proper cellular function.

text: When DC made use of its multiverse means of continuity tracking between the early 1960s and mid-1980s, it was declared that the Daily Star was the newspapers name in the Golden Age or "Earth-Two" versions of Clark Kent, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen, while the Daily Planet was used in the Silver Age or "Earth-One" versions. The Clark Kent of Earth-Two eventually became the editor-in-chief of the Daily Star, something his Earth-One counterpart did not achieve.

text: When DC made use of its

text: multiverse

text: means of continuity tracking between the early 1960s and mid-1980s, it was declared that the Daily Star was the newspapers name in the

text: Golden Age

text: or "Earth-Two" versions of Clark Kent, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen, while the Daily Planet was used in the

text: Silver Age

text: or "Earth-One" versions. The

text: Clark Kent of Earth-Two

text: eventually became the editor-in-chief of the Daily Star, something his Earth-One counterpart did not achieve.

text: In 2011, DC Comics rebooted its continuity and relaunched its entire line of comic books under the rubric The New 52, with a new version of Superman as the protagonist of the Superman books. In this new version of events, Clark's parents were killed by a drunk driver when he was a teenager, and he is not married to Lois. In this continity, he first encounters Lex Luthor early in his career as a superhero. Luthor, who is working for the government, tortures him in order to find out the limits of his powers. Superman eventually manages to escape, however. In Superman vol. 2, #43 (October 2015) Superman's identity is exposed to the world. The pre-New 52 version of Superman was re-introduced in the comic book series Superman: Lois and Clark  and for a time Earth had two superheroes each called Superman. The older, more mature Superman remained on Earth after the younger Superman died in Superman vol. 3, #52 (May 25, 2016).

text: In 2011, DC Comics rebooted its continuity and relaunched its entire line of comic books under the rubric

text: The New 52

text: , with a new version of Superman as the protagonist of the Superman books. In this new version of events, Clark's parents were killed by a drunk driver when he was a teenager, and he is not married to Lois. In this continity, he first encounters Lex Luthor early in his career as a superhero. Luthor, who is working for the government, tortures him in order to find out the limits of his powers. Superman eventually manages to escape, however. In Superman vol. 2, #43 (October 2015) Superman's identity is exposed to the world. The pre-New 52 version of Superman was re-introduced in the comic book series Superman: Lois and Clark  and for a time Earth had two superheroes each called Superman. The older, more mature Superman remained on Earth after the younger Superman died in Superman vol. 3, #52 (May 25, 2016).

text: The Tiangong-1 was launched September 2011 with an intended two year service span. After the last crew departed the module in June 2013 it was put into sleep mode and it was intended that it would remain in orbit for some time, allowing China to collect data on the longevity of key components before being commanded to gradually re-enter the atmosphere. On 21 March 2016 the Manned Space Engineering Office announced that they had disabled data service since the space station had operated two and half years longer than its intended two year service plan. According to the office, the space laboratory is under continued and close monitoring until it finally burns up in the earth atmosphere. Its orbit will descend gradually in the coming months, and the space laboratory will eventually be destroyed by heat in Earth's atmosphere around 2016 to 2017.  Harvard astrophysicist Jonathan McDowell, among others, has noted that parts of the craft such as the rocket engines are probably too dense to be burnt up upon re-entry and may result in chunks of debris up 100 kg in weight falling to the Earth's surface, with little possibility of predicting where they may crash.

text: The Tiangong-1 was launched September 2011 with an intended two year service span. After the last crew departed the module in June 2013 it was put into

text: sleep mode

text: and it was intended that it would remain in orbit for some time, allowing China to collect data on the longevity of key components before being commanded to gradually re-enter the atmosphere. On 21 March 2016 the Manned Space Engineering Office announced that they had disabled data service since the space station had operated two and half years longer than its intended two year service plan. According to the office, the space laboratory is under continued and close monitoring until it finally burns up in the earth atmosphere. Its orbit will descend gradually in the coming months, and the space laboratory will eventually be destroyed by heat in Earth's atmosphere around 2016 to 2017.  Harvard astrophysicist Jonathan McDowell, among others, has noted that parts of the craft such as the rocket engines are probably too dense to be burnt up upon re-entry and may result in chunks of debris up 100 kg in weight falling to the Earth's surface, with little possibility of predicting where they may crash.

text: Atomic oxygen, denoted O(P), O(3P) or O((3)P), is very reactive, as the single atoms of oxygen tend to quickly bond with nearby molecules; on Earth's surface it does not exist naturally for very long, though in outer space, the presence of plenty of ultraviolet radiation results in a low Earth orbit atmosphere in which 96% of the oxygen occurs in atomic form.

text: Atomic oxygen, denoted O(P), O(3P) or O((3)P), is very reactive, as the single atoms of oxygen tend to quickly bond with nearby molecules; on Earth's surface it does not exist naturally for very long, though in

text: outer space

text: , the presence of plenty of

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: results in a

text: low Earth orbit

text: atmosphere in which 96% of the oxygen occurs in atomic form.

text: Among the oldest forms of the palmette in ancient Egypt was a  'rosette' or daisy-like lotus flower emerging from a 'V' of foliage or petals resembling the 'akhet' hieroglyph depicting the setting or rising sun at the point where it touches the two mountains of the horizon – 'dying', being 'reborn' and giving life to the earth. A second form, apparently evolved from this, is a  more fully developed palmette similar to the forms found in Ancient Greece.

text: Among the oldest forms of the palmette in ancient Egypt was a  'rosette' or daisy-like lotus flower emerging from a 'V' of foliage or petals resembling the '

text: akhet

text: ' hieroglyph depicting the setting or rising sun at the point where it touches the two mountains of the horizon – 'dying', being 'reborn' and giving life to the earth. A second form, apparently evolved from this, is a  more fully developed palmette similar to the forms found in Ancient Greece.

text: The Llorn tell Fairlie that they know his people come from Earth, are descendants of the ancient Vanryn, and have violated the Llorn's ban on Vanryn space flight. They go on to state the reasons for the ancient war. Llorn do not colonise other planets, because they value the diversity of intelligent life which evolution naturally produces on different worlds. The Vanryn, in their spacefaring days, valued only their own species, set up colonies on other worlds, and thereby prevented evolution from taking its natural course. To show what they mean about evolutionary diversity, the Llorn lift the veil of shadow that surrounds them, revealing their physical forms — they are two-legged, two-armed humanlike beings, but their bodies differ in several visible ways from those of Earth people — for instance, they don't have necks. They tell Fairlie that they have decided not to go to war with Earth, even though Earth people have begun to fly to other stars. They simply want to warn Earth people not to repeat the vainglorious and ultimately self-defeating behaviour of their Vanryn ancestors. The story ends with Fairlie and his companions about to return to Earth, uncertain how the message from the Llorn will be received.

text: Like other early presentations of Lovelock’s idea, the Lovelock-Margulis 1974 paper seemed to give living organisms complete agency in creating planetary self-regulation, whereas later, as the idea matured, this planetary-scale self-regulation was recognized as an emergent property of the Earth system, life and its physical environment taken together (Lovelock, 1988). When climatologist Stephen Schneider convened the 1989 American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference around the issue of Gaia, the idea of “strong Gaia” and “weak Gaia” was introduced by James Kirchner, after which Margulis was sometimes associated with the idea of “weak Gaia,” incorrectly (her essay "Gaia is a Tough Bitch" dates from 1995 – and it stated her own distinction from Lovelock as she saw it, which was primarily that she did not like the metaphor of Earth as a single organism, because, she said, "No organism eats its own waste"). In her 1998 book Symbiotic Planet, Margulis explored the relationship between Gaia and her work on symbiosis.

text: Like other early presentations of Lovelock’s idea, the Lovelock-Margulis 1974 paper seemed to give living organisms complete agency in creating planetary self-regulation, whereas later, as the idea matured, this planetary-scale self-regulation was recognized as an emergent property of the

text: Earth system

text: , life and its physical environment taken together (Lovelock, 1988). When climatologist Stephen Schneider convened the 1989 American Geophysical Union Chapman Conference around the issue of Gaia, the idea of “strong Gaia” and “weak Gaia” was introduced by James Kirchner, after which Margulis was sometimes associated with the idea of “weak Gaia,” incorrectly (her essay "Gaia is a Tough Bitch" dates from 1995 – and it stated her own distinction from Lovelock as she saw it, which was primarily that she did not like the metaphor of Earth as a single organism, because, she said, "No organism eats its own waste"). In her 1998 book Symbiotic Planet, Margulis explored the relationship between Gaia and her work on symbiosis.

text: Nasal cannula used for medical gas delivery are usually limited to delivery of 1–6 liters of flow per minute. The percent oxygen inhaled by the patient (FiO2), usually ranges roughly 24–35% as the pure oxygen delivered from the cannula is diluted by entrainment of ambient air (21% oxygen). Flow rates for delivery of oxygen using typical nasal cannula are limited because medical oxygen is anhydrous, and when delivered from a pressurized source the gas cools as it expands with the drop to atmospheric pressure.  Delivery of cold dry gas is irritating to the respiratory mucosa, can cause drying and bleeding of the nasal mucosa and can increase metabolic demand by cooling the body.

text: Nasal cannula

text: used for medical gas delivery are usually limited to delivery of 1–6 liters of flow per minute. The percent oxygen inhaled by the patient (

text: ), usually ranges roughly 24–35% as the pure oxygen delivered from the cannula is diluted by entrainment of ambient air (21% oxygen). Flow rates for delivery of oxygen using typical nasal cannula are limited because medical oxygen is

text: anhydrous

text: , and when delivered from a pressurized source the gas cools as it expands with the drop to atmospheric pressure.  Delivery of cold dry gas is irritating to the respiratory mucosa, can cause drying and bleeding of the nasal mucosa and can increase metabolic demand by cooling the body.

text: The Ancient Lights were entities that controlled a universe before the Big Bang. Surviving the explosion, they endured and eventually passed their power into the human Martin Trueman, a low-level middle-aged conman, in Secrets of the Stars. The Ancient Lights gave Trueman the power to control all life by way of astrological signs, as well as other powers such as energy blasts. These powers were based on ancient physics from the Light's native universe. Through Trueman, the Lights intended to enslave all life as they had done in their own universe. Luke Smith's artificial birth meant he had no astrological sign and could not be controlled by the Ancient Lights, allowing him to break Trueman's hold over the people of Earth. As the Ancient Lights began to fade, Trueman (who had long believed he would have a special destiny) refused to give up his connection and became one with the Lights.

text: The Ancient Lights were entities that controlled a universe before the

text: Big Bang

text: . Surviving the explosion, they endured and eventually passed their power into the human Martin Trueman, a low-level middle-aged conman, in

text: Secrets of the Stars

text: . The Ancient Lights gave Trueman the power to control all life by way of astrological signs, as well as other powers such as energy blasts. These powers were based on ancient physics from the Light's native universe. Through Trueman, the Lights intended to enslave all life as they had done in their own universe. Luke Smith's artificial birth meant he had no astrological sign and could not be controlled by the Ancient Lights, allowing him to break Trueman's hold over the people of Earth. As the Ancient Lights began to fade, Trueman (who had long believed he would have a special destiny) refused to give up his connection and became one with the Lights.

text: In the natural world, synergistic phenomena are ubiquitous, ranging from physics (for example, the different combinations of quarks that produce protons and neutrons) to chemistry (a popular example is water, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen), to the cooperative interactions among the genes in genomes, the division of labor in bacterial colonies, the synergies of scale in multi-cellular organisms, as well as the many different kinds of synergies produced by socially-organized groups, from honeybee colonies to wolf packs and human societies: compare stigmergy, a mechanism of indirect coordination between agents or actions that results in the self-assembly of complex systems. Even the tools and technologies that are widespread in the natural world represent important sources of synergistic effects. The tools that enabled early hominins to become systematic big-game hunters is a primordial human example.

text: In the natural world, synergistic phenomena are ubiquitous, ranging from physics (for example, the different combinations of quarks that produce protons and neutrons) to chemistry (a popular example is water, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen), to the cooperative interactions among the genes in genomes, the division of labor in bacterial colonies, the synergies of scale in multi-cellular organisms, as well as the many different kinds of synergies produced by socially-organized groups, from honeybee colonies to wolf packs and human societies: compare

text: stigmergy

text: , a mechanism of indirect coordination between agents or actions that results in the

text: self-assembly

text: of

text: complex system

text: s. Even the tools and technologies that are widespread in the natural world represent important sources of synergistic effects. The tools that enabled early

text: hominin

text: s to become systematic big-game hunters is a primordial human example.

text: The movement of Earth's plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a super-continent containing most or all of the landmass. The earliest known super-continent was Vaalbara. It formed from proto-continents and was a super-continent 3.1 billion years ago. Vaalbara broke up c. 2.8 Ga ago. The super-continent Kenorland was formed c. 2.7 Ga ago and then broke sometime after 2.5 Ga into the proto-continent cratons called Laurentia, Baltica, Australia, and Kalahari. The super-continent Columbia or Nuna formed 2.0–1.8 billion years ago and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago. The super-continent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago, to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents and to have broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago.

text: The movement of Earth's

text: plates

text: has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a super-continent containing most or all of the landmass. The earliest known super-continent was

text: Vaalbara

text: . It formed from proto-continents and was a super-continent 3.1 billion years ago.

text: Vaalbara

text: broke up c. 2.8

text: Ga

text: ago. The super-continent

text: Kenorland

text: was formed c. 2.7

text: Ga

text: ago and then broke sometime after 2.5

text: Ga

text: into the proto-continent

text: craton

text: s called

text: Laurentia

text: Baltica

text: Australia

text: , and

text: Kalahari

text: . The super-continent

text: Columbia

text: or Nuna formed 2.0–1.8 billion years ago and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago. The super-continent

text: Rodinia

text: is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago, to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents and to have broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago.

text: Attempts to understand the metabolic rate of a multi-cellular organism (field metabolic rate, that includes the activity of the organism) are couched in terms of the product between average basal metabolic rate, and number of cells.  This, plus capillary terminal size invariance, leaves the equation open to the criticism that it cannot possibly account for spikes in metabolic rate needed for motor activity.  Too much blood would be required.  This intimates that as proposed and popularly handled, the equation does not have the relevance to biology claimed, and is based upon assumptions that are not part of the equation, like fractality.

text: These three domains of life represent the main evolutionary lineages of early cellular life and currently include Bacteria, Archaea (single-celled organisms superficially similar to bacteria), and Eukarya. Eukarya includes only organisms having a well-defined nucleus, such as fungi, protists, and all organisms in the plant and animals kingdoms (see figure).

text: These three domains of life represent the main evolutionary lineages of early cellular life and currently include

text: Bacteria

text: Archaea

text: (single-celled organisms superficially similar to bacteria), and

text: Eukarya

text: . Eukarya includes only organisms having a well-defined nucleus, such as

text: fungi

text: protist

text: s, and all organisms in the plant and animals kingdoms (see figure).

text: The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610 BC-c. 545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern Chinese. The Greeks, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through Cartography, Philosophy, and Literature, or through Mathematics. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.

text: The ideas of

text: Anaximander

text: (c. 610 BC-c. 545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the

text: gnomon

text: , the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of

text: latitude

text: . Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern

text: Chinese

text: . The

text: Greeks

text: , who were the first to explore geography as both

text: art

text: and

text: science

text: , achieved this through

text: Cartography

text: Philosophy

text: , and

text: Literature

text: , or through

text: Mathematics

text: . There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the

text: Earth is spherical

text: in shape, with the credit going either to

text: Parmenides

text: or

text: Pythagoras

text: Anaxagoras

text: was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining

text: eclipse

text: s. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by

text: Eratosthenes

text: Echoes of Life: What Fossil Molecules Reveal about Earth History, published in 2009, is a work of non-fiction that provides an up-to-date survey of the interdisciplinary field of organic geochemistry, using the history of discovery, from early experiments in the 1930s to modern areas of research, to make the material accessible to students and scientists in different fields.

text: Huttonite is dimorphic with thorite. Thorite crystallizes in a higher symmetry and lower density tetragonal form in which the thorium atoms coordinate to one less oxygen atom in an octahedral arrangement. Thorite is stable at lower temperatures than huttonite; at 1 atmosphere, the thorite–huttonite phase transition occurs between 1210 and 1225 °C. With increasing pressure the transition temperature increases. This relatively high transition temperature is thought to explain the relative rarity of huttonite on the Earth's crust. Unlike thorite, huttonite is not affected by metamictization.

text: Huttonite is

text: dimorphic

text: with

text: thorite

text: . Thorite crystallizes in a higher symmetry and lower density

text: tetragonal

text: form in which the thorium atoms coordinate to one less oxygen atom in an octahedral arrangement. Thorite is stable at lower temperatures than huttonite; at 1 atmosphere, the thorite–huttonite phase transition occurs between 1210 and 1225 °C. With increasing pressure the transition temperature increases. This relatively high transition temperature is thought to explain the relative rarity of huttonite on the Earth's crust. Unlike thorite, huttonite is not affected by

text: metamictization

text: The above generic equation starts with two reactants: some piece of organic matter (composed of organic carbon) and an oxidant. Most organic carbon exists in a reduced form which is then oxidized by the oxidant (such as O) into carbon dioxide and energy that can be harnessed by the organism. This process generally produces CO, water and a collection of simple nutrients like nitrate or phosphate that can then be taken up by other organisms. The above general form, when considering O as the oxidant, is the equation for respiration. In this context specifically, the above equation represents bacterial respiration though the reactants and products are essentially analogous to the short-hand equations used for multi-cellular respiration.

text: The above generic equation starts with two reactants: some piece of organic matter (composed of organic carbon) and an oxidant. Most organic carbon exists in a reduced form which is then oxidized by the oxidant (such as O) into

text: carbon

text: dioxide and energy that can be harnessed by the organism. This process generally produces CO, water and a collection of simple nutrients like nitrate or phosphate that can then be taken up by other organisms. The above general form, when considering O as the oxidant, is the equation for respiration. In this context specifically, the above equation represents bacterial

text: respiration

text: though the reactants and products are essentially analogous to the short-hand equations used for multi-cellular respiration.

text: When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice ages, greater areas of continental shelf were exposed as dry land, forming land bridges. At those times Australia–New Guinea was a single, continuous continent. Likewise the Americas and Afro-Eurasia were joined by the Bering land bridge. Other islands such as Great Britain were joined to the mainlands of their continents. At that time there were just three discrete continents: Afro-Eurasia-America, Antarctica, and Australia-New Guinea.

text: When sea levels were lower during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: s, greater areas of continental shelf were exposed as dry land, forming

text: land bridge

text: s. At those times

text: Australia–New Guinea

text: was a single, continuous continent. Likewise the Americas and Afro-Eurasia were joined by the

text: Bering land bridge

text: . Other islands such as Great Britain were joined to the mainlands of their continents. At that time there were just three discrete continents: Afro-Eurasia-America, Antarctica, and Australia-New Guinea.

text: Sites such as the Wopmay Orogen provide evidence for early and ongoing plate tectonics. Traces of old oceanic crust, island arcs, and colliding continents indicate that the same forces at work today have been at work in the early Proterozoic and probably earlier. Alignments of magnetic particles in rocks demonstrate that continents were drifting across the surface of the Earth relative to the magnetic poles then as now, and that the ocean floor was rifting and subducting, all at least 1.5 billion years ago. This crust cycling is referred to as the supercontinent cycle.

text: Sites such as the Wopmay Orogen provide evidence for early and ongoing

text: plate tectonics

text: . Traces of old

text: oceanic crust

text: island arcs

text: , and

text: colliding continents

text: indicate that the same forces at work today have been at work in the early Proterozoic and probably earlier. Alignments of magnetic particles in rocks demonstrate that continents were drifting across the surface of the Earth relative to the magnetic poles then as now, and that the ocean floor was rifting and subducting, all at least 1.5 billion years ago. This crust cycling is referred to as the

text: supercontinent cycle

text: NEPTUNE is an acronym for North-East Pacific Time-series Undersea Networked Experiments.  The North-East Pacific is home to the Juan de Fuca plate—smallest of Earth’s 12 tectonic plates. Its small size and close proximity to the coast gives NEPTUNE Canada a unique opportunity to observe tectonic processes. NEPTUNE Canada is built to provide continuous observations for 25 years. The time-series data gathered will allow scientists to study long-term changes over the life of the project. Instruments comprising the undersea observatory will operate at depths ranging from 17 to 2,660 m. Hundreds of instruments have been connected to the Internet by way of shielded cables carrying both power and fibre-optic communication lines. A database will archive and provide networked access to all archived data. Taking advantage of this platform, scientists collaborating with NEPTUNE are expected to conduct thousands of unique experiments over the life of the project.

text: NEPTUNE is an acronym for North-East Pacific Time-series Undersea Networked Experiments.  The North-East Pacific is home to the

text: Juan de Fuca plate

text: —smallest of Earth’s 12

text: tectonic plates

text: . Its small size and close proximity to the coast gives NEPTUNE Canada a unique opportunity to observe tectonic processes. NEPTUNE Canada is built to provide continuous observations for 25 years. The time-series data gathered will allow scientists to study long-term changes over the life of the project. Instruments comprising the undersea observatory will operate at depths ranging from 17 to 2,660 m. Hundreds of instruments have been connected to the Internet by way of

text: shielded cable

text: s carrying both power and

text: fibre-optic communication

text: lines. A database will archive and provide

text: networked

text: access to all archived data. Taking advantage of this platform, scientists collaborating with NEPTUNE are expected to conduct thousands of unique experiments over the life of the project.

text: Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have differentiated from an aggregate of planetesimals into its core, mantle and crust within about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. The primordial crust was very thin and was probably recycled by much more vigorous plate tectonics and destroyed by significant asteroid impacts, which were much more common in the early stages of the solar system.

text: Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have differentiated from an aggregate of

text: planetesimals

text: into its core, mantle and crust within about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. The

text: primordial

text: crust was very thin and was probably recycled by much more vigorous

text: plate tectonics

text: and destroyed by significant

text: asteroid

text: impacts, which were much more common in the early stages of the solar system.

text: Although most of the Ancients had reached ascension long before the dawn of modern civilization on Earth, the Tau'ri have come in contact with Ancients on several occasions, both in ascended and corporeal form. Most of the corporeal Ancients were encountered in the Pegasus Galaxy, where their empire had collapsed only some 10,000 years ago. Also, some Ancients helped humans on the lower planes of existence ascend, like Oma Desala helped Daniel Jackson.

text: Although most of the Ancients had reached ascension long before the dawn of modern civilization on Earth, the

text: Tau'ri

text: have come in contact with Ancients on several occasions, both in ascended and corporeal form. Most of the corporeal Ancients were encountered in the Pegasus Galaxy, where their empire had collapsed only some 10,000 years ago. Also, some Ancients helped humans on the lower planes of existence ascend, like Oma Desala helped Daniel Jackson.

text: The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" (see image). However, there have been some studies which have shown that the upper mantle (asthenosphere) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough friction to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in the image above, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper , as deduced from seismic tomography and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about . The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the North American Plate are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.

text: The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" (see image). However, there have been some studies which have shown that the upper

text: mantle

text: asthenosphere

text: ) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough

text: friction

text: to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in the image above, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper , as deduced from

text: seismic tomography

text: and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about . The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the

text: North American Plate

text: are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.

text: The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the ecliptic), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses.

text: The Moon and Earth orbit a common

text: barycenter

text: every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the

text: synodic month

text: , from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the

text: celestial north pole

text: , the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all

text: counterclockwise

text: . Viewed from a vantage point above the north poles of both the Sun and Earth, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's

text: axis is tilted

text: some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the

text: ecliptic

text: ), and the Earth–Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between

text: lunar eclipse

text: s and

text: solar eclipse

text: s.

text: The vast amounts of data that his expeditions yielded were analyzed and discussed together with other leading Dutch Earth scientists of the time J.H.F. Umbgrove, B.G. Escher and Ph.H. Kuenen, the results were published in 1948. An important result was the discovery of elongated belts of negative gravity anomalies along the oceanic trenches. The mean gravity force appeared to be the same on land and at sea, which was in agreement with the principle of isostasy. Vening Meinesz was especially intrigued by the oceanic trenches. The coexisitence of active volcanism, large negative gravity anomalies and the sudden difference in terrain elevation could only be explained by assuming the Earth's crust was somehow pushed together at these places. As a geophysicist, he was prejudiced that the crust was too rigid to deform at that scale in such a way. His discoveries could be explained only with the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the '50s.

text: The vast amounts of data that his expeditions yielded were analyzed and discussed together with other leading Dutch

text: Earth scientists

text: of the time

text: J.H.F. Umbgrove

text: B.G. Escher

text: and

text: Ph.H. Kuenen

text: , the results were published in 1948. An important result was the discovery of elongated belts of negative

text: gravity anomalies

text: along the

text: oceanic trench

text: es. The mean gravity force appeared to be the same on land and at sea, which was in agreement with the principle of

text: isostasy

text: . Vening Meinesz was especially intrigued by the oceanic trenches. The coexisitence of active

text: volcanism

text: , large negative gravity anomalies and the sudden difference in terrain elevation could only be explained by assuming the

text: Earth's crust

text: was somehow pushed together at these places. As a geophysicist, he was prejudiced that the crust was too rigid to deform at that scale in such a way. His discoveries could be explained only with the development of the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: in the '50s.

text: It becomes clear that "The Ambassador" was intended explicitly for Mankind. Culture X predicted that intelligent life would develop on Earth and eventually achieve space flight; the statue is a message of greeting and goodwill spanning the gulf of time between its creators' ancient extinction and the arrival of the space travelers from Earth.

text: During the Jurassic period, four tectonic plates developed in the Pacific Basin: the Kula and the Farallon in the north, the large Pacific Plate in the centre and south and the Phoenix Plate in the far south. The Kula Plate was subducted under the eastern and south-eastern Asian landmass. The northern part of the Farallon was subducted under North America while its southern section, together with the Phoenix Plate, was subducted under South America and the Antarctic. During the late Tertiary period, the Farallon plate broke up, leaving the Juan de Fuca Plate in the north, the Cocos Plate off today's Central America, and the Nazca and Phoenix Plates in the southern Pacific.

text: During the

text: Jurassic

text: period, four

text: tectonic plate

text: s developed in the Pacific Basin: the

text: Kula

text: and the

text: Farallon

text: in the north, the large

text: Pacific Plate

text: in the centre and south and the

text: Phoenix Plate

text: in the far south. The Kula Plate was subducted under the eastern and south-eastern Asian landmass. The northern part of the Farallon was subducted under North America while its southern section, together with the Phoenix Plate, was subducted under South America and the Antarctic. During the late

text: Tertiary

text: period, the Farallon plate broke up, leaving the

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: in the north, the

text: Cocos Plate

text: off today's Central America, and the

text: Nazca

text: and

text: Phoenix Plate

text: s in the southern Pacific.

text: On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.

text: On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the

text: Curiosity

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: rovers

text: on Mars will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a

text: biosphere

text: based on

text: autotroph

text: ic,

text: chemotroph

text: ic and/or

text: chemolithoautotrophic

text: microorganism

text: s, as well as ancient water, including

text: fluvio-lacustrine environments

text: plain

text: s related to ancient

text: river

text: s or

text: lake

text: s) that may have been

text: habitable

text: . The search for evidence of

text: habitability

text: , taphonomy (related to

text: fossils

text: ), and

text: organic carbon

text: on the planet

text: Mars

text: is now a primary

text: NASA

text: objective.

text: The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries. Mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another. Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, in which the continents move across the surface of the Earth over geologic time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.

text: The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries.

text: Mid-ocean ridge

text: s, high regions on the seafloor where

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s and volcanoes exist, were explained as

text: divergent boundaries

text: , where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as

text: convergent boundaries

text: , where one plate

text: subducts

text: under another.

text: Transform boundaries

text: , such as the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: , in which the

text: continents

text: move across the surface of the Earth over geologic time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.

text: The Earth's carrying capacity is a central issue in ecological economics. Early economists such as Thomas Malthus pointed out the finite carrying capacity of the earth, which was also central to the MIT study Limits to Growth. Diminishing returns suggest that productivity increases will slow if major technological progress is not made. Food production may become a problem, as erosion, an impending water crisis, and soil salinity (from irrigation) reduce the productivity of agriculture. Ecological economists argue that industrial agriculture, which exacerbates these problems, is not sustainable agriculture, and are generally inclined favorably to organic farming, which also reduces the output of carbon.

text: The Earth's

text: carrying capacity

text: is a central issue in ecological economics. Early economists such as

text: Thomas Malthus

text: pointed out the finite carrying capacity of the earth, which was also central to the MIT study

text: Limits to Growth

text: Diminishing returns

text: suggest that productivity increases will slow if major technological progress is not made. Food production may become a problem, as

text: erosion

text: , an impending

text: water crisis

text: , and

text: soil salinity

text: (from

text: irrigation

text: ) reduce the productivity of agriculture. Ecological economists argue that

text: industrial agriculture

text: , which exacerbates these problems, is not

text: sustainable agriculture

text: , and are generally inclined favorably to

text: organic farming

text: , which also reduces the output of carbon.

text: The Earth's interior radiates heat at a rate of about 47 TW (terawatts), which is less than 0.1% of the incoming solar energy. Part of this heat loss is accounted for by the heat generated upon decay of radioactive isotopes in the Earth interior. The remaining heat loss is due to the secular cooling of the Earth, growth of the Earth’s inner core (gravitational energy and latent heat contributions), and other processes. The most important heat-producing elements are uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K). The debate about their abundances in the Earth has not concluded. Various compositional estimates exist where the total Earth’s internal radiogenic heating rate ranges from as low at ~10 TW to as high as ~30 TW. About 7 TW worth of heat-producing elements reside in the Earth's crust,  the remaining power is distributed in the Earth mantle; the amount of U, Th, and K in the Earth core is probably negligible. Radioactivity in the Earth mantle provides internal heating to power mantle convection, which is the driver of plate tectonics. The amount of mantle radioactivity and its spatial distribution—is the mantle compositionally uniform at large scale or composed of distinct reservoirs?—is of importance to geophysics.

text: The

text: Earth

text: 's interior radiates heat at a rate of about 47 TW (

text: terawatts

text: ), which is less than 0.1% of the incoming solar energy. Part of this heat loss is accounted for by the heat generated upon decay of radioactive isotopes in the Earth interior. The remaining heat loss is due to the secular cooling of the Earth, growth of the Earth’s

text: inner core

text: (gravitational energy and latent heat contributions), and other processes. The most important heat-producing elements are

text: uranium

text: (U),

text: thorium

text: (Th), and

text: potassium

text: (K). The debate about their abundances in the Earth has not concluded. Various compositional estimates exist where the total Earth’s internal radiogenic heating rate ranges from as low at ~10 TW to as high as ~30 TW. About 7 TW worth of heat-producing elements reside in the

text: Earth's crust

text: ,  the remaining power is distributed in the

text: Earth mantle

text: ; the amount of U, Th, and K in the

text: Earth core

text: is probably negligible. Radioactivity in the Earth mantle provides internal heating to power

text: mantle convection

text: , which is the driver of

text: plate tectonics

text: . The amount of mantle radioactivity and its spatial distribution—is the mantle compositionally uniform at large scale or composed of distinct reservoirs?—is of importance to geophysics.

text: The Ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic substance of the universe. Thales, who was portrayed by Aristotle as an astronomer and an engineer, theorized that the earth, which is denser than water, emerged from the water. Thales, a monist, believed further that all things are made from water.  Plato believed the shape of water is an icosahedron which accounts for why it is able to flow easily compared to the cube-shaped earth.

text: The Ancient Greek philosopher

text: Empedocles

text: held that water is one of the four

text: classical elements

text: along with

text: fire

text: , earth and

text: air

text: , and was regarded as the

text: ylem

text: , or basic substance of the universe.

text: Thales

text: , who was portrayed by Aristotle as an astronomer and an engineer, theorized that the earth, which is denser than water, emerged from the water. Thales, a

text: monist

text: , believed further that all things are made from water.  Plato believed the shape of water is an

text: icosahedron

text: which accounts for why it is able to flow easily compared to the cube-shaped earth.

text: By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.

text: By volume, dry air contains 78.09%

text: nitrogen

text: , 20.95%

text: oxygen

text: , 0.93%

text: argon

text: , 0.04%

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of

text: water vapor

text: , on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and

text: atmospheric pressure

text: vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in

text: photosynthesis

text: by

text: terrestrial plant

text: s and

text: breathing

text: of

text: terrestrial animal

text: s is found only in Earth's

text: troposphere

text: and in

text: artificial atmospheres

text: Paralligatorids have a wide geographic and temporal range. The first known paralligatorids, Shamosuchus and Rugosuchus, are both from the Cretaceous of Asia (the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia and the Early Cretaceous of China, respectively), meaning that they were initially thought to have had a restricted distribution. The discovery of Batrachomimus from the Late Jurassic of Brazil extended the fossil record of Paralligatoridae back by 30 million years and gave it a wide distribution across both of the two main supercontinents of the Mesozoic: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. The most likely explanation for why paralligatorids existed in both eastern Laurasia and western Gondwana is that they radiated eastward across both the Tethys Ocean and the Turgai Sea. Another possible explanation is that the first paralligatorids lived before the breakup of Laurasia and Gondwana when both were part of the larger supercontinent Pangaea, and when Pangaea broke apart, two populations of paralligatorids - a western population including Batrachomimus and an eastern population including Shamosuchus and Rugosuchus - were separated. Although the Pangaean breakup hypothesis fits well with the high degree of endemism seen in other crocodyliform groups like Notosuchia, the seaway dispersal hypothesis better fits with the wide and mostly uniform distribution of neosuchians during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.

text: Paralligatorids have a wide geographic and temporal range. The first known paralligatorids, Shamosuchus and Rugosuchus, are both from the Cretaceous of Asia (the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: of Mongolia and the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: of China, respectively), meaning that they were initially thought to have had a restricted distribution. The discovery of Batrachomimus from the

text: Late Jurassic

text: of Brazil extended the fossil record of Paralligatoridae back by 30 million years and gave it a wide distribution across both of the two main supercontinents of the Mesozoic:

text: Laurasia

text: in the north and

text: Gondwana

text: in the south. The most likely explanation for why paralligatorids existed in both eastern

text: Laurasia

text: and western

text: Gondwana

text: is that they radiated eastward across both the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: and the

text: Turgai Sea

text: . Another possible explanation is that the first paralligatorids lived before the breakup of Laurasia and Gondwana when both were part of the larger supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: , and when Pangaea broke apart, two populations of paralligatorids - a western population including Batrachomimus and an eastern population including Shamosuchus and Rugosuchus - were separated. Although the Pangaean breakup hypothesis fits well with the high degree of

text: endemism

text: seen in other crocodyliform groups like

text: Notosuchia

text: , the seaway dispersal hypothesis better fits with the wide and mostly uniform distribution of neosuchians during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.

text: In the ancient past there were varying levels of belief in a flat Earth, with the Mesopotamian culture portraying the world as a flat disk afloat in an ocean. The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early Greek philosophers; a belief espoused by Pythagoras. By the Middle Ages—as evidenced by thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas—European belief in a spherical Earth was widespread.

text: In the ancient past there were varying levels of belief in a

text: flat Earth

text: , with the

text: Mesopotamian

text: culture portraying the world as a flat disk afloat in an ocean. The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early

text: Greek philosophers

text: ; a belief espoused by

text: Pythagoras

text: . By the

text: Middle Ages

text: —as evidenced by thinkers such as

text: Thomas Aquinas

text: —European belief in a

text: spherical Earth

text: was widespread.

text: Because of this early uncontrolled exploitation, much of the reserves in the Mid-continent have been depleted. Oil operators, in addition to continued exploration, use a variety of techniques to increase production, including deep wells, injection wells, etc. Natural gas, which in the early days was vented to the atmosphere or burned off, now accounts for a large percentage of the exploration efforts and profitability of the petroleum industry in the Mid-continent.

text: This page is a timeline of major events in the history of cellular agriculture.  Cellular agriculture refers to the development of agricultural products - especially animal products - from cell cultures rather than the bodies of living organisms.  This includes in vitro or cultured meat, as well as in vitro dairy, eggs, leather, gelatin, and silk.  In recent years a number of cellular animal agriculture companies and non-profits have emerged due to technological advances and increasing concern over the animal welfare and rights, environmental, and public health problems associated with conventional animal agriculture.

text: This page is a timeline of major events in the history of

text: cellular agriculture

text: .  Cellular agriculture refers to the development of agricultural products - especially

text: animal product

text: s - from

text: cell culture

text: s rather than the bodies of living organisms.  This includes

text: in vitro or cultured meat

text: , as well as in vitro dairy, eggs, leather, gelatin, and silk.  In recent years a number of cellular animal agriculture companies and non-profits have emerged due to technological advances and increasing concern over the

text: animal welfare

text: and

text: rights

text: environmental

text: , and

text: public health

text: problems associated with conventional animal agriculture.

text: Krubitzer and her team have decided to focus part of their research on studying the cortical evolution of the neocortex. It is known that the neocortex has the ability to adapt and change over time. This is an important feature that allows the brain function and connectivity to coordinate movements vital for an organism’s survival in a specific environment.  Krubitzer and her team used a variety of different rodents and squirrels to test their hypothesis. They hypothesized that the level of cortical activity organization would be directly correlated with the specific connections in the brain based on the environment that the particular animal was accustomed. Differences were found between the lab animals and wild caught animals as would be expected.Krubitzer varied the amounts of sensory stimuli that each test subject was exposed to early on in development. By doing this, she was able to track the organization of the cortex from early development on. One example of how she did this was altering the vision in an opossum in early development. Research found that when vision is lost early in development, other sensory systems will begin to take over that area and the cortex will re-organize itself to make up for the loss of this sensation.

text: Krubitzer and her team have decided to focus part of their research on studying the cortical evolution of the

text: neocortex

text: . It is known that the

text: neocortex

text: has the ability to adapt and change over time. This is an important feature that allows the brain function and connectivity to coordinate movements vital for an organism’s survival in a specific environment.  Krubitzer and her team used a variety of different

text: rodent

text: s and

text: squirrel

text: s to test their

text: hypothesis

text: . They hypothesized that the level of cortical activity organization would be directly correlated with the specific connections in the brain based on the environment that the particular animal was accustomed. Differences were found between the lab animals and wild caught animals as would be expected.Krubitzer varied the amounts of

text: sensory stimuli

text: that each test subject was exposed to early on in development. By doing this, she was able to track the organization of the cortex from early development on. One example of how she did this was altering the vision in an

text: opossum

text: in early development. Research found that when vision is lost early in development, other sensory systems will begin to take over that area and the cortex will re-organize itself to make up for the loss of this sensation.

text: As liquid N2 is colder than 90.2K, oxygen from the atmosphere can condense. Liquid oxygen can spontaneously and violently react with organic chemicals, including petroleum products like asphalt.

text: Other ancient timekeeping devices include the candle clock, used in ancient China, ancient Japan, England and Mesopotamia; the timestick, widely used in India and Tibet, as well as some parts of Europe; and the hourglass, which functioned similarly to a water clock.  The sundial, another early clock, relies on shadows to provide a good estimate of the hour on a sunny day.  It is not so useful in cloudy weather or at night and requires recalibration as the seasons change (if the gnomon was not aligned with the Earth's axis).

text: Other ancient timekeeping devices include the

text: candle clock

text: , used in

text: ancient China

text: ancient Japan

text: England

text: and Mesopotamia; the

text: timestick

text: , widely used in

text: India

text: and

text: Tibet

text: , as well as some parts of

text: Europe

text: ; and the

text: hourglass

text: , which functioned similarly to a water clock.  The

text: sundial

text: , another early clock, relies on shadows to provide a good estimate of the hour on a sunny day.  It is not so useful in cloudy weather or at night and requires recalibration as the seasons change (if the

text: gnomon

text: was not aligned with the

text: Earth's axis

text: Holding continents is the most common way to increase reinforcements. Players often attempt to gain control of Australia early in the game, since Australia is the only continent that can be successfully defended by heavily fortifying one country (either Siam or Indonesia). Generally, continents with fewer borders are easier to defend as they possess fewer points that can be attacked by other players. South America has 2 access points, North America and Africa each have 3, Europe has 4, and Asia has 5.

text: Holding continents is the most common way to increase reinforcements. Players often attempt to gain control of Australia early in the game, since Australia is the only continent that can be successfully defended by heavily fortifying one country (either

text: Siam

text: or

text: Indonesia

text: ). Generally, continents with fewer borders are easier to defend as they possess fewer points that can be attacked by other players.

text: South America

text: has 2 access points,

text: North America

text: and

text: Africa

text: each have 3,

text: Europe

text: has 4, and

text: Asia

text: has 5.

text: The Asurans emulate their creators, the Ancients, in appearance and lifestyle, and claim themselves to be the last of the Ancients. They are fueled by a rage that they cannot contain, written into their base code. Most Asurans are bitter towards the Ancients for rejecting them, believe them to be arrogant for disregarding their counsel during the war with the Wraith, and hate the humans of Earth for being the Ancients' favored children. They have little regard for human life and are unconcerned by the Wraith, claiming to have a long-term plan in the works for dealing with them.

text: Several systems are currently used on board the ISS to maintain the spacecraft's atmosphere, which is similar to the Earth's. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than the alternative, a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.

text: Several systems are currently used on board the ISS to maintain the spacecraft's atmosphere, which is similar to the

text: Earth's

text: . Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3

text: kPa

text: psi

text: ); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than the alternative, a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the

text: Apollo 1

text: crew.

text: The actual composition of the atmosphere of the early Earth is an area of great debate.  Varying amounts of certain gaseous constituents can greatly impact the overall effect of a particular process, which includes non-biological processes such as the buildup of charge in thunderstorms.  It has been argued that volcano-induced lightning in the early stages of Earth's existence, because the volcanic plume was composed of additional "reducing gases", was more effective at stimulating the oxidation of organic material to accelerate the production of life.  In the case of volcanic lightning, the lightning discharge almost exclusively occurs directly within the volcanic plume.  Since this process occurs fairly close to ground level, it has been suggested that volcanic lightning contributed to the generation of life to a greater extent than lightning produced within clouds that would lower positive or negative charge from a cloud to the ground.  Hill (1992) quantified this enhanced contribution by examining estimated hydrogen cyanide (HCN) concentrations from volcanic lightning and "general lightning".  Results showed that HCN concentrations for volcanic lightning were an order of magnitude larger than "general lightning".  Hydrogen cyanide is yet another compound that has been linked to the generation of life on Earth.  However, given that the intensity and amount of volcanic activity during the early stages of Earth's development is not fully understood, hypotheses regarding past volcanic activity (e.g., Hill, 1992) are usually based on present-day observed volcanic activity.

text: The actual composition of the atmosphere of the

text: early Earth

text: is an area of great debate.  Varying amounts of certain gaseous constituents can greatly impact the overall effect of a particular process, which includes non-biological processes such as the buildup of charge in

text: thunderstorm

text: s.  It has been argued that volcano-induced lightning in the early stages of Earth's existence, because the volcanic plume was composed of additional "reducing gases", was more effective at stimulating the

text: oxidation

text: of organic material to accelerate the production of life.  In the case of volcanic lightning, the lightning discharge almost exclusively occurs directly within the volcanic plume.  Since this process occurs fairly close to ground level, it has been suggested that volcanic lightning contributed to the generation of life to a greater extent than lightning produced within clouds that would lower positive or negative charge from a cloud to the ground.  Hill (1992) quantified this enhanced contribution by examining estimated

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: (HCN) concentrations from volcanic lightning and "general lightning".  Results showed that HCN concentrations for volcanic lightning were an order of magnitude larger than "general lightning".  Hydrogen cyanide is yet another compound that has been linked to the generation of life on Earth.  However, given that the intensity and amount of volcanic activity during the early stages of Earth's development is not fully understood, hypotheses regarding past volcanic activity (e.g., Hill, 1992) are usually based on present-day observed volcanic activity.

text: This may not come as too much of a surprise, since the packaging of DNA with proteins and RNA into chromatin takes place immediately after the DNA is synthesized. Therefore, replication timing dictates the time of assembly of chromatin. Less intuitive is the relationship between replication timing and the three-dimensional positioning of chromatin in the nucleus. It is now well-accepted that chromatin is not randomly organized in the cell nucleus, but the positions of each chromosome domain relative to its neighboring domains is characteristic of different cell types, and after this geography is established in each newly formed cell, the chromosome domains do not move appreciably until the next cell division. In all multi-cellular organisms where it has been measured, early replication takes place in the interior of the nucleus and the chromatin around the periphery is replicated later. Recently developed methods to measure the points where different parts of chromosomes touch each other are almost perfectly aligned to when they replicate. In other words, regions that are replicated early versus late are packaged in such a way as to be spatially segregated in the nucleus, with the intervening DNA containing regions of reduced origin activity. One possibility is that these different compartments within the nucleus, established and maintained without the aid of membranes or physical barriers, set thresholds for the initiation of replication so that the more accessible regions are the first to replicate.

text: This may not come as too much of a surprise, since the packaging of DNA with proteins and RNA into

text: chromatin

text: takes place immediately after the DNA is synthesized. Therefore, replication timing dictates the time of assembly of chromatin. Less intuitive is the relationship between replication timing and the three-dimensional positioning of chromatin in the nucleus. It is now well-accepted that chromatin is not randomly organized in the cell nucleus, but the positions of each chromosome domain relative to its neighboring domains is characteristic of different cell types, and after this geography is established in each newly formed cell, the chromosome domains do not move appreciably until the next cell division. In all multi-cellular organisms where it has been measured, early replication takes place in the interior of the nucleus and the chromatin around the periphery is replicated later. Recently developed methods to measure the points where different parts of chromosomes touch each other are almost perfectly aligned to when they replicate. In other words, regions that are replicated early versus late are packaged in such a way as to be spatially segregated in the nucleus, with the intervening DNA containing regions of reduced origin activity. One possibility is that these different compartments within the nucleus, established and maintained without the aid of membranes or physical barriers, set thresholds for the initiation of replication so that the more accessible regions are the first to replicate.

text: Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time.

text: Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in

text: green

text: and

text: purple sulfur

text: and

text: green

text: and

text: purple nonsulfur bacteria

text: , are thought to have been

text: anoxygenic

text: , and used various other molecules as

text: electron donor

text: s rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: sulfur

text: as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various

text: amino

text: and other

text: organic acid

text: s as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly

text: reducing

text: at

text: that time

text: An embryo is an early stage of development of a multicellular diploid eukaryotic organism.  In general, in organisms that reproduce sexually, an embryo develops from a zygote, the single cell resulting from the fertilization of the female egg cell by the male sperm cell. The zygote possesses half the DNA of each of its two parents.  In plants, animals, and some protists, the zygote will begin to divide by mitosis to produce a multicellular organism. The result of this process is an embryo.

text: An embryo is an early stage of

text: development

text: of a

text: multicellular

text: diploid

text: eukaryotic

text: organism.  In general, in

text: organism

text: s that

text: reproduce sexually

text: , an embryo develops from a

text: zygote

text: , the single cell resulting from the

text: fertilization

text: of the female

text: egg cell

text: by the male

text: sperm

text: cell. The zygote possesses half the

text: DNA

text: of each of its two parents.  In

text: plant

text: s,

text: animal

text: s, and some

text: protist

text: s, the zygote will begin to divide by

text: mitosis

text: to produce a multicellular organism. The result of this process is an embryo.

text: The novel is set in the early 3800s and takes place almost entirely on the faraway oceanic planet of Thalassa. Thalassa has a small human population sent there by way of an embryonic seed pod, one of many sent out from Earth in an attempt to continue the human race before the Earth was destroyed.

text: The novel is set in the early 3800s and takes place almost entirely on the faraway oceanic planet of

text: Thalassa

text: . Thalassa has a small human population sent there by way of an

text: embryonic seed pod

text: , one of many sent out from

text: Earth

text: in an attempt to continue the human race before the Earth was destroyed.

text: In 2008, Frasca sang for Australian rock band Midnight Oil in Sydney, in support of Amnesty International. In early 2009, the band was invited to perform as one of seven artists from seven continents of the planet for International Earth Day in Montreal, Canada.

text: In 2008, Frasca sang for Australian rock band

text: Midnight Oil

text: in Sydney, in support of

text: Amnesty International

text: . In early 2009, the band was invited to perform as one of seven artists from seven continents of the planet for International Earth Day in Montreal, Canada.

text: The crime developed as a response to the Organ Bank Problem, a concept featured prominently in the early Known Space stories, particularly those set in the 21st and 22nd century. The Organ Bank Problem is a central theme in the novel A Gift from Earth, as well as the Gil Hamilton detective stories. As speculative fiction, the concept is a prime example of a Gedankenexperiment. It is an examination of the consequences to society of a new technology (in this case, the perfection of organ transplants) and an existing problem (organ shortage), carried to a logical conclusion.

text: The crime developed as a response to the Organ Bank Problem, a concept featured prominently in the early Known Space stories, particularly those set in the 21st and 22nd century. The Organ Bank Problem is a central theme in the novel

text: A Gift from Earth

text: , as well as the

text: Gil Hamilton

text: detective stories. As

text: speculative fiction

text: , the concept is a prime example of a

text: Gedankenexperiment

text: . It is an examination of the consequences to society of a new technology (in this case, the perfection of organ transplants) and an existing problem (organ shortage), carried to a logical conclusion.

text: Besides having compositional effects on the upper mantle by replenishing the large-ion lithophile elements, volcanism affects the plate movement. The plates will be moved towards a geoidal low perhaps where the slab avalanche occurred and pushed away from the geoidal high that can be caused by the plumes or superplumes. This causes the continents to push together to form supercontinents and was evidently the process that operated to cause the early continental crust to aggregate into Protopangea. Dispersal of supercontinents is caused by the accumulation of heat underneath the crust due to the rising of very large convection cells or plumes, and a massive heat release resulted in the final break-up of Paleopangea. Accretion occurs over geoidal lows that can be caused by avalanche slabs or the downgoing limbs of convection cells. Evidence of the accretion and dispersion of supercontinents is seen in the geological rock record.

text: Besides having compositional effects on the upper mantle by replenishing the

text: large-ion lithophile elements

text: , volcanism affects the plate movement. The plates will be moved towards a geoidal low perhaps where the slab avalanche occurred and pushed away from the geoidal high that can be caused by the plumes or superplumes. This causes the continents to push together to form supercontinents and was evidently the process that operated to cause the early continental crust to aggregate into Protopangea. Dispersal of supercontinents is caused by the accumulation of heat underneath the crust due to the rising of very large

text: convection cell

text: s or plumes, and a massive heat release resulted in the final break-up of Paleopangea. Accretion occurs over geoidal lows that can be caused by avalanche slabs or the downgoing limbs of convection cells. Evidence of the accretion and dispersion of supercontinents is seen in the geological rock record.

text: Most cladistic analyses including  Acrocanthosaurus have found it to be a carcharodontosaurid, usually in a basal position relative to the African Carcharodontosaurus and Giganotosaurus from South America. It has often been considered the sister taxon to the equally basal Eocarcharia, also from Africa. Neovenator, discovered in England, is often considered an even more basal carcharodontosaurid, or as a basal member of a sister group called Neovenatoridae. This suggests that the family originated in Europe and then dispersed into the southern continents (at the time united as the supercontinent Gondwana). If Acrocanthosaurus was a carcharodontosaurid, then dispersal would also have occurred into North America. All known carcharodontosaurids lived during the early-to-middle Cretaceous Period.

text: Most

text: cladistic

text: analyses including  Acrocanthosaurus have found it to be a carcharodontosaurid, usually in a

text: basal

text: position relative to the

text: Africa

text: n Carcharodontosaurus and Giganotosaurus from

text: South America

text: . It has often been considered the sister taxon to the equally basal

text: Eocarcharia

text: , also from Africa.

text: Neovenator

text: , discovered in England, is often considered an even more basal carcharodontosaurid, or as a basal member of a sister group called

text: Neovenatoridae

text: . This suggests that the family originated in

text: Europe

text: and then

text: dispersed

text: into the southern continents (at the time united as the

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: ). If Acrocanthosaurus was a carcharodontosaurid, then dispersal would also have occurred into North America. All known carcharodontosaurids lived during the early-to-middle Cretaceous Period.

text: In the oblique aerial photo at right,  the tan bands are sandstone layers from the Beacon Supergroup, a series of sedimentary rock layers formed at the bottom of a shallow sea between 250 million and 400 million years ago. Throughout that period, Earth’s southern continents were locked into the supercontinent Gondwana.

text: In the oblique aerial photo at right,  the tan bands are sandstone layers from the

text: Beacon Supergroup

text: , a series of sedimentary rock layers formed at the bottom of a shallow sea between 250 million and 400 million years ago. Throughout that period, Earth’s southern continents were locked into the supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: As in Hawaii (and even the earliest rounds of the marriage battle in the 1970s), litigation was central – but it wasn’t enough. Wolfson called for the creation of a campaign that reflected what he called the “4 multi’s”: it would be multi-year (not expected to win overnight), multi-state (not watching as victories were picked off one by one), multi-partner (no one organization could do it all), and multi-methodology (it would combine litigation, lobbying, public education, organization, direct action, fund-raising, and even, eventually, electoral). Wolfson knew that marriage advocates didn’t have to win every state, but they had to win enough states – and not every American had to be persuaded to support the freedom to marry, but enough Americans needed to be supportive before elected officials and judges, including the justices of the Supreme Court, would do the right thing.

text: During the early Jurassic period, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land over either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed.

text: During the early Jurassic period, the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: broke up into the northern supercontinent

text: Laurasia

text: and the southern supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: ; the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: opened in the new rift between

text: North America

text: and what is now Mexico's

text: Yucatan Peninsula

text: . The Jurassic North

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The

text: Tethys Sea

text: closed, and the

text: Neotethys

text: basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of

text: glaciation

text: . As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land over either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed.

text: OpenWorm is an international open science project to simulate the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans at the cellular level as a simulation. Although the long-term goal is to model all 959 cells of the C. elegans, the first stage is to model the worm's locomotion by simulating the 302 neurons and 95 muscle cells. This bottom up simulation  is being pursued by the OpenWorm community. So far the physics engine Sibernetic has been built and models of the neural connectome and a muscle cell have been created in the NeuroML format. A 3D model of the worm anatomy can be accessed through the web via the OpenWorm browser. The OpenWorm project is also contributing to develop Geppetto, a web-based multi-algorithm, multi-scale simulation platform engineered to support the simulation of the whole organism.

text: OpenWorm is an international

text: open science

text: project to simulate the roundworm

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: at the cellular level as a

text: simulation

text: . Although the long-term goal is to model all 959 cells of the C. elegans, the first stage is to model the worm's locomotion by simulating the 302 neurons and 95 muscle cells. This

text: bottom up

text: simulation  is being pursued by the OpenWorm community. So far the physics engine

text: Sibernetic

text: has been built and models of the neural

text: connectome

text: and a muscle cell have been created in the

text: NeuroML

text: format. A 3D model of the worm anatomy can be accessed through the web via the OpenWorm browser. The OpenWorm project is also contributing to develop Geppetto, a web-based multi-algorithm, multi-scale simulation platform engineered to support the simulation of the whole organism.

text: Shackleton published details of his new expedition, grandly titled the "Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition", early in 1914. Two ships would be employed; Endurance would carry the main party into the Weddell Sea, aiming for Vahsel Bay from where a team of six, led by Shackleton, would begin the crossing of the continent. Meanwhile, a second ship, the Aurora, would take a supporting party under Captain Aeneas Mackintosh to McMurdo Sound on the opposite side of the continent. This party would then lay supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier as far as the Beardmore Glacier, these depots holding the food and fuel that would enable Shackleton's party to complete their journey of  across the continent.

text: Shackleton published details of his new expedition, grandly titled the "Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition", early in 1914. Two ships would be employed;

text: Endurance

text: would carry the main party into the Weddell Sea, aiming for Vahsel Bay from where a team of six, led by Shackleton, would begin the crossing of the continent. Meanwhile, a second ship, the

text: Aurora

text: , would take a supporting party under Captain

text: Aeneas Mackintosh

text: to McMurdo Sound on the opposite side of the continent. This party would then lay supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier as far as the Beardmore Glacier, these depots holding the food and fuel that would enable Shackleton's party to complete their journey of  across the continent.

text: There are no solid arguments to explain if Earth's atmosphere has the optimal composition to host life. On Earth, during the period when coal was first formed, atmospheric oxygen () levels were up to 35%, and  coincided with the periods of greatest biodiversity. So, assuming that the presence of a significant amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is essential for exoplanets to develop complex life forms, the percentage of oxygen relative to the total atmosphere appears to limit the maximum size of the planet for optimum superhabitability and ample biodiversity.

text: There are no solid arguments to explain if Earth's atmosphere has the optimal composition to host life. On Earth, during the period when

text: coal

text: was first formed, atmospheric oxygen () levels were up to 35%, and  coincided with the periods of greatest

text: biodiversity

text: . So, assuming that the presence of a significant amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is essential for exoplanets to develop complex life forms, the percentage of oxygen relative to the total atmosphere appears to limit the maximum size of the planet for optimum superhabitability and ample biodiversity.

text: Set in an alternate universe in the year 2007-2010 (2049 in the U.S. dub), giant monsters and conquering aliens start to appear, as was foretold by an apocalyptic prophecy about an uncontrollable chaos over the Earth. Facing the threat, the TPC (Terrestrial Peaceable Consortium) is created along with its branch, GUTS (Global Unlimited Task Squad). Through a holographic message in a capsule found by researchers, the GUTS gets knowledge about a golden pyramid built by an ancient civilization. At the site, three statues of a race of giants who defended early human civilization on Earth about 30,000,000 years ago. GUTS finds the three ancient statues, but two of them are destroyed by the monsters Golza and Melba. The third one gains life from the spiritual energy of officer Daigo, descendant of the ancient race. Daigo and the remaining statue merge into a single being, made of light. Shortly after defeating the two monsters, Daigo is revealed by the hologram of the prophecy that 30 million years in the past, a great evil that not even the giants could stop, destroyed the ancient civilization.

text: Set in an alternate universe in the year 2007-2010 (2049 in the U.S. dub), giant monsters and conquering

text: alien

text: s start to appear, as was foretold by an apocalyptic prophecy about an uncontrollable chaos over the

text: Earth

text: . Facing the threat, the TPC (Terrestrial Peaceable Consortium) is created along with its branch, GUTS (Global Unlimited Task Squad). Through a

text: holographic

text: message in a capsule found by researchers, the GUTS gets knowledge about a golden pyramid built by an ancient civilization. At the site, three statues of a race of giants who defended early human civilization on Earth about 30,000,000 years ago. GUTS finds the three ancient statues, but two of them are destroyed by the monsters Golza and Melba. The third one gains life from the spiritual energy of officer Daigo, descendant of the ancient race. Daigo and the remaining statue merge into a single being, made of light. Shortly after defeating the two monsters, Daigo is revealed by the hologram of the prophecy that 30 million years in the past, a great evil that not even the giants could stop, destroyed the ancient civilization.

text: The excited state of oxygen is somewhat more stable than nitrogen. While deexcitation can occur by emission of photons, more probable mechanism at atmospheric pressure is a chemical reaction with other oxygen molecules, forming ozone:

text: The excited state of oxygen is somewhat more stable than nitrogen. While deexcitation can occur by emission of photons, more probable mechanism at atmospheric pressure is a chemical reaction with other oxygen molecules, forming

text: ozone

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5 billion years, with the oldest physical traces of life dating back 3.7 billion years; however, some theories, such as the Late Heavy Bombardment theory, suggest that life on Earth may have started even earlier, as early as 4.1–4.4 billion years ago, and the chemistry leading to life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during an epoch when the universe was only 10–17 million years old. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, reflecting their common descent; based on these observations, hypotheses on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a universal common ancestor, from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. Models have been divided into "genes-first" and "metabolism-first" categories, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that combine both categories.

text: The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years. Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5

text: billion years

text: , with the oldest physical

text: traces

text: of life dating back 3.7 billion years; however, some theories, such as the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment theory

text: , suggest that life on Earth may have started even earlier, as early as 4.1–4.4 billion years ago, and the

text: chemistry leading to life

text: may have begun shortly after the

text: Big Bang

text: 13.8 billion years ago

text: , during an epoch when the

text: universe

text: was only 10–17 million years old. All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, reflecting their

text: common descent

text: ; based on these observations, hypotheses on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a

text: universal common ancestor

text: , from simple

text: organic molecule

text: s via pre-cellular life to

text: protocell

text: s and metabolism. Models have been divided into "genes-first" and "metabolism-first" categories, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that combine both categories.

text: Running in a rough north–south line on the seabed of the Andaman Sea is the boundary between two tectonic plates, the Burma Plate and the Sunda Plate. These plates (or microplates) are believed to have formerly been part of the larger Eurasian Plate, but were formed when transform fault activity intensified as the Indian Plate began its substantive collision with the Eurasian continent. As a result, a back-arc basin center was created, which began to form the marginal basin which would become the Andaman Sea, the current stages of which commenced approximately 3–4 million years ago (Ma).

text: Running in a rough north–south line on the seabed of the Andaman Sea is the boundary between two

text: tectonic plate

text: s, the

text: Burma Plate

text: and the

text: Sunda Plate

text: . These plates (or microplates) are believed to have formerly been part of the larger

text: Eurasian Plate

text: , but were formed when

text: transform fault

text: activity intensified as the

text: Indian Plate

text: began its substantive collision with the Eurasian

text: continent

text: . As a result, a

text: back-arc basin

text: center was created, which began to form the marginal

text: basin

text: which would become the Andaman Sea, the current stages of which commenced approximately 3–4 million years ago (

text: Ma

text: Controversy over the exact nature of mantle convection makes the linked evolution of Earth's heat budget and the dynamics and structure of the mantle difficult to unravel. There is evidence that the processes of plate tectonics were not active in the Earth before 3.2 billion years ago, and that early Earth's internal heat loss could have been dominated by advection via heat-pipe volcanism. Terrestrial bodies with lower heat flows, such as the Moon and Mars, conduct their internal heat through a single lithospheric plate, and higher heat flows, such as on Jupiter's moon Io, result in advective heat transport via enhanced volcanism, while the active plate tectonics of Earth occur with an intermediate heat flow and a convecting mantle.

text: Controversy over the exact nature of mantle convection makes the linked evolution of Earth's heat budget and the dynamics and structure of the mantle difficult to unravel. There is evidence that the processes of

text: plate tectonics

text: were not active in the Earth before 3.2 billion years ago, and that early Earth's internal heat loss could have been dominated by

text: advection

text: via heat-pipe volcanism. Terrestrial bodies with lower heat flows, such as the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Mars

text: conduct

text: their internal heat through a single lithospheric plate, and higher heat flows, such as on Jupiter's moon

text: Io

text: , result in

text: advective

text: heat transport via enhanced volcanism, while the active plate tectonics of Earth occur with an intermediate heat flow and a

text: convecting mantle

text: Organic cofactors may have been present even earlier in the history of life on Earth. The nucleotide adenosine is present in cofactors that catalyse many basic metabolic reactions such as methyl, acyl, and phosphoryl group transfer, as well as redox reactions. This ubiquitous chemical scaffold has, therefore, been proposed to be a remnant of the RNA world, with early ribozymes evolving to bind a restricted set of nucleotides and related compounds. Adenosine-based cofactors are thought to have acted as interchangeable adaptors that allowed enzymes and ribozymes to bind new cofactors through small modifications in existing adenosine-binding domains, which had originally evolved to bind a different cofactor. This process of adapting a pre-evolved structure for a novel use is referred to as exaptation.

text: Organic cofactors may have been present even earlier in the

text: history of life

text: on Earth. The nucleotide

text: adenosine

text: is present in cofactors that catalyse many basic metabolic reactions such as methyl, acyl, and phosphoryl group transfer, as well as

text: redox

text: reactions. This ubiquitous chemical scaffold has, therefore, been proposed to be a remnant of the

text: RNA world

text: , with early

text: ribozyme

text: s evolving to bind a restricted set of nucleotides and related compounds. Adenosine-based cofactors are thought to have acted as interchangeable adaptors that allowed enzymes and ribozymes to bind new cofactors through small modifications in existing adenosine-binding

text: domain

text: s, which had originally evolved to bind a different cofactor. This process of adapting a pre-evolved structure for a novel use is referred to as

text: exaptation

text: In a cladistic context, transitional organisms can be seen as representing early examples of a branch, where not all of the traits typical of the previously known descendants on that branch have yet evolved. Such early representatives of a group are usually termed "basal taxa" or "sister taxa," depending on whether the fossil organism belongs to the daughter clade or not.

text: In a cladistic context, transitional organisms can be seen as representing early examples of a branch, where not all of the traits typical of the previously known descendants on that branch have yet evolved. Such early representatives of a group are usually termed "

text: basal taxa

text: " or "

text: sister taxa

text: ," depending on whether the fossil organism belongs to the daughter clade or not.

text: Recently, the field of Cellular Microbiology has been expanded to incorporate investigation of the cell biology of microbes themselves. "The field of cellular microbiology is a coalescence of two fields: molecular microbiology and cell biology," said Professor Jacek Hawiger, Chair of Microbiology and Immunology at Vanderbuilt University. Particularly in the case of bacterial cells, new technology is starting to be used to reveal a high level of organization within the bacterial cells themselves. For example, high-resolution fluorescence microscopy  and atomic force microscopy  are both being used to show just how sophisticated bacterial cells are.

text: Recently, the field of Cellular Microbiology has been expanded to incorporate investigation of the

text: cell biology

text: of

text: microbe

text: s themselves. "The field of cellular microbiology is a coalescence of two fields: molecular microbiology and cell biology," said Professor Jacek Hawiger, Chair of Microbiology and Immunology at Vanderbuilt University. Particularly in the case of bacterial cells, new technology is starting to be used to reveal a high level of organization within the bacterial cells themselves. For example,

text: high-resolution fluorescence microscopy

text: and atomic force microscopy  are both being used to show just how sophisticated

text: bacterial cells

text: are.

text: The Liliales are characterised by (synapomorphies) the presence of nectaries at the base of the tepals or stamen filaments, together with extrorse (outward opening) anthers. This distinguishes them from the septal nectaries and introrse anthers that are the features of most other monocots. They are mainly geophytes with elliptical leaves showing fine reticulate venation. The tepals are usually large and pointed. The outer integument epidermis of the seed coat is cellular, and the phytomelanin pigment is lacking. The inner integument is also cellular and these features are plesiomorphic. The Liliales are predominantly perennial erect or twining herbaceous and climbing plants. They also include woody shrubs, which have fleshy stems and underground storage or perennating organs.

text: The Liliales are characterised by (

text: synapomorphies

text: ) the presence of

text: nectaries

text: at the base of the

text: tepals

text: or

text: stamen

text: filaments, together with

text: extrorse

text: (outward opening) anthers. This distinguishes them from the septal nectaries and introrse anthers that are the features of most other monocots. They are mainly

text: geophytes

text: with elliptical

text: leaves

text: showing fine

text: reticulate venation

text: . The tepals are usually large and pointed. The outer

text: integument

text: epidermis of the

text: seed coat

text: is cellular, and the

text: phytomelanin

text: pigment is lacking. The inner integument is also cellular and these features are

text: plesiomorphic

text: . The Liliales are predominantly

text: perennial

text: erect or twining

text: herbaceous

text: and

text: climbing

text: plants. They also include

text: woody

text: shrubs

text: , which have fleshy

text: stems

text: and underground

text: storage

text: or

text: perennating

text: organs.

text: In the field of cellular biology, single-cell analysis refers to the study of individual cells isolated from tissues in multi-cellular organisms. Single cell analysis is a natural step in the reductionist approach to studying organisms. By studying one cell at a time, the results are certain to stem from that particular cell. A cell can for example be monitored as it migrates or divides into two cells, how many divisions that occur over time and the rate of cell division in a specific cell clone. Cell divisions are interesting in for example cancer, due to the uncontrolled rate of cell proliferation of a cancer cell as compared to a normal cell.

text: In the field of

text: cellular biology

text: , single-cell analysis refers to the study of individual cells isolated from tissues in

text: multi-cellular organism

text: s. Single cell analysis is a natural step in the reductionist approach to studying organisms. By studying one cell at a time, the results are certain to stem from that particular cell. A cell can for example be monitored as it migrates or divides into two cells, how many divisions that occur over time and the rate of cell division in a specific cell clone. Cell divisions are interesting in for example cancer, due to the uncontrolled rate of cell proliferation of a cancer cell as compared to a normal cell.

text: While life on Earth is regarded to have spawned relatively early in the planet's history, the evolution from multicellular to intelligent organisms took around 800 million years. Civilizations on Earth have existed for about 10,000 years and radio communication with space is not older than 80 years. Relative to the age of the Solar System (~4.57 Ga) this is a tiny age span, an age span in which extreme climatic variations, super volcanoes or large meteorite impacts were absent. These events would severely harm intelligent life, as well as life in general.  For example, the Permian-Triassic mass extinction, caused by widespread and continuous volcanic eruptions in an area the size of Western Europe, led to the extinction of 95% of known species around 251.2 Ma ago.  About 65 million years ago, the Chicxulub impact at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (~65.5 Ma) on the Yucatán peninsula in Mexico led to a mass extinction of the most advanced species at that time.

text: While life on Earth is regarded to have spawned relatively early in the planet's history, the evolution from multicellular to intelligent organisms took around 800 million years. Civilizations on Earth have existed for about 10,000 years and radio communication with space is not older than 80 years. Relative to the age of the Solar System (~4.57 Ga) this is a tiny age span, an age span in which extreme climatic variations, super volcanoes or large meteorite impacts were absent. These events would severely harm intelligent life, as well as life in general.  For example, the

text: Permian-Triassic mass extinction

text: , caused by widespread and continuous volcanic eruptions in an area the size of Western Europe, led to the extinction of 95% of known species around 251.2

text: Ma

text: ago.  About 65 million years ago, the

text: Chicxulub

text: impact at the

text: Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary

text: (~65.5 Ma) on the

text: Yucatán peninsula

text: in

text: Mexico

text: led to a mass extinction of the most advanced species at that time.

text: One commentator has suggested that the image of the Star Child and Earth has contributed to the rise of the "whole earth" icon as a symbol of the unity of humanity. Writing in The Asia Pacific Journal Robert Jacobs traces the history of this icon from early cartoons and drawings of Earth to photographs of Earth from early space missions, to its historic appearance on the cover of The Whole Earth Catalog. Noting that images of the entire planet recur several times in A Space Odyssey, Jacobs writes

text: One commentator has suggested that the image of the Star Child and Earth has contributed to the rise of the "whole earth" icon as a symbol of the unity of humanity. Writing in The Asia Pacific Journal Robert Jacobs traces the history of this icon from early cartoons and drawings of Earth to photographs of Earth from early space missions, to its historic appearance on the cover of

text: The Whole Earth Catalog

text: . Noting that images of the entire planet recur several times in A Space Odyssey, Jacobs writes

text: The supercontinent Pangaea started to break up in the Early Jurassic, leading to the separation around 160 Ma of Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. Gondwana itself was soon fragmented into West Gondwana (i.e., Africa and South America) and East Gondwana (i.e., Antarctica and Australia plus India and Madagascar).  West Gondwana broke apart during the Cretaceous, as Africa and South America separated between 132 and 90 Ma. Between approximately 80 and 60 Ma, i.e. in the Late Cretaceous and early Paleocene, North America and South America were perhaps connected, at least episodically, by a land bridge, due to the eastward motion of the Caribbean plate between the two continental masses.

text: The supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: started to break up in the Early

text: Jurassic

text: , leading to the separation around 160 Ma of Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. Gondwana itself was soon fragmented into West Gondwana (i.e., Africa and South America) and East Gondwana (i.e., Antarctica and Australia plus India and Madagascar).  West Gondwana broke apart during the

text: Cretaceous

text: , as

text: Africa

text: and

text: South America

text: separated between 132 and 90 Ma. Between approximately 80 and 60 Ma, i.e. in the Late Cretaceous and early

text: Paleocene

text: , North America and South America were perhaps connected, at least episodically, by a land bridge, due to the eastward motion of the Caribbean plate between the two continental masses.

text: DsRNA as well as ssRNA are assumed to be very ancient and presumably originated from the ‘RNA world’ as both types of RNA viruses infect bacteria as well as eukaryotes. Although the origin of viruses is still not well understood, recently presented data which suggest that viruses invaded the emerging ‘supergroups’ of eukaryotes from an ancestral pool in a very early stage of life on earth. According to Koonin, RNA viruses colonized eukaryotes first and subsequently co-evolved with their hosts. This concept fits well with the proposed ‘ancient co-evolution hypothesis’, which also assumes a long co-evolution of viruses and fungi. ‘The ancient coevolution hypothesis’ could contribute some explanation why mycoviruses are so diverse. It has also been suggested that it is very likely that plant viruses containing a movement protein have evolved from mycoviruses by introducing of an extracellular phase into their life cycle, rather than eliminating it. Furthermore, the recent discovery of an ssDNA mycovirus tempted some researchers to suggest that RNA and DNA viruses might have common evolutionary mechanisms. However, there are many cases where mycoviruses are grouped together with plant viruses. For example, CHV1 showed phylogenetic relatedness to the ssRNA genus Potyvirus and some ssRNA viruses, which were assumed to confer hypovirulence or debilitation, were often found to be more closely related to plant viruses than to other mycoviruses. Therefore, another theory arose that these viruses moved from a plant host to plant pathogenic fungal host or vice versa. This ‘plant virus hypothesis’ may not explain how mycoviruses developed originally, but it could help to understand how they evolved further.

text: Using paleomagnetism of rocks from South Africa, Australia, Canada, Brazil, Russia and China, Evans has worked to reassemble the configuration of supercontinents that preceded Pangea. He was a member of drilling projects of the Kaapvaal craton with the Agouron institute for geobiology, and a member of the scientific team to develop a large igneous province global "barcode" record of plume magmatism on Earth. He has also contributed primary data demonstrating that ancient ice ages had continental ice sheets reaching tropical latitudes, which has been incorporated into the Snowball Earth theory of the planet's long term paleoclimate. Evans is involved with the latest efforts at reconstructing the history of supercontinents on Earth through the last three billion years. He is the Director of Undergraduate Studies in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at Yale University; and the current coordinator of field student expeditions to locations including Norway, Queensland, Australia, British Columbia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa, as well as undergraduate excursions to Sicily and Barbados. He has spent sabbatical leaves in Taiwan and Australia, where he studied modern and ancient mountain building processes. Evans is a 2002 honoree of the Packard Fellowship in Science and Engineering, and a finalist for the Blavatnik Awards for young scientists.

text: Using

text: paleomagnetism

text: of rocks from South Africa, Australia, Canada, Brazil, Russia and China, Evans has worked to reassemble the configuration of supercontinents that preceded

text: Pangea

text: . He was a member of drilling projects of the Kaapvaal craton with the Agouron institute for geobiology, and a member of the scientific team to develop a large igneous province global "barcode" record of plume magmatism on Earth. He has also contributed primary data demonstrating that ancient ice ages had continental ice sheets reaching tropical latitudes, which has been incorporated into the Snowball Earth theory of the planet's long term paleoclimate. Evans is involved with the latest efforts at reconstructing the history of supercontinents on Earth through the last three billion years. He is the Director of Undergraduate Studies in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at Yale University; and the current coordinator of field student expeditions to locations including Norway, Queensland, Australia, British Columbia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa, as well as undergraduate excursions to Sicily and Barbados. He has spent sabbatical leaves in Taiwan and Australia, where he studied modern and ancient mountain building processes. Evans is a 2002 honoree of the Packard Fellowship in Science and Engineering, and a finalist for the Blavatnik Awards for young scientists.

text: The much larger eukaryotic genome with its rapid copying gave eukaryotes the capacity to create many different types of cells and assemble them together into large, complex, multicellular life. By 1.2 Ga, meiosis and sexual reproduction are present in single-celled eukaryotes. Bangiomorpha pubescens, a fossil multicellular red algae from the 1.2 Ga Hunting Formation, is the first known sexually reproducing organism. Fossils show differential spore/gamete formation, which is also evidence of cellular differentiation.

text: The much larger eukaryotic genome with its rapid copying gave eukaryotes the capacity to create many different types of cells and assemble them together into large, complex, multicellular life. By 1.2 Ga,

text: meiosis

text: and sexual reproduction are present in single-celled eukaryotes. Bangiomorpha pubescens, a fossil multicellular red algae from the 1.2 Ga Hunting Formation, is the first known sexually reproducing organism. Fossils show differential spore/gamete formation, which is also evidence of

text: cellular differentiation

text: Gathering fossils dates at least to the beginning of recorded history. The fossils themselves are referred to as the fossil record. The fossil record was one of the early sources of data underlying the study of evolution and continues to be relevant to the history of life on Earth. Paleontologists examine the fossil record to understand the process of evolution and the way particular species have evolved.

text: Gathering fossils dates at least to the beginning of recorded history. The fossils themselves are referred to as the fossil record. The fossil record was one of the early sources of data underlying the study of

text: evolution

text: and continues to be relevant to the

text: history of life on Earth

text: Paleontologist

text: s examine the fossil record to understand the process of evolution and the way particular

text: species

text: have evolved.

text: This time is cryptic because very little geological evidence has survived from this time. Most geological landforms and rocks were probably destroyed in the early bombardment phase, or by the continued effects of plate tectonics. The Earth accreted, its interior differentiated and its molten surface solidified during the Cryptic era. The proposed collision that led to formation of the Moon occurred also at this time. The oldest known minerals are from the Cryptic era.

text: This time is cryptic because very little

text: geological

text: evidence has survived from this time. Most geological landforms and rocks were probably destroyed in the

entity_name: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: early bombardment phase

text: , or by the continued effects of plate tectonics. The Earth

text: accreted

text: , its interior

text: differentiated

text: and its molten surface solidified during the Cryptic era. The

text: proposed collision

text: that led to formation of the

text: Moon

text: occurred also at this time. The oldest known minerals are from the Cryptic era.

text: Honduras lies just off the triple-junction of the North American, Cocos, and Caribbean tectonic plates to the north. On the other sides it is surrounded by transform faults and trenches created by the movement of these plates. The most seismic activity occurs along the plate boundary between Caribbean and Cocos in a N–E trending Benioff zone, split into two sections, one with a shallow dip, the other with a far more steep decline. The plates are converging by subduction, Cocos under the Caribbean, at a rate of  to  annually. Within Honduras, there are at least three other major faults–La Ceiba, Guyape, and Aguan–apparently unrelated to plate movement.

text: Honduras lies just off the triple-junction of the

text: North American

text: Cocos

text: , and

text: Caribbean

text: tectonic plates

text: to the north. On the other sides it is surrounded by

text: transform faults

text: and trenches created by the movement of these plates. The most seismic activity occurs along the plate boundary between Caribbean and Cocos in a N–E trending

text: Benioff zone

text: , split into two sections, one with a shallow dip, the other with a far more steep decline. The plates are

text: converging

text: by

text: subduction

text: , Cocos under the Caribbean, at a rate of  to  annually. Within Honduras, there are at least three other major faults–La Ceiba, Guyape, and Aguan–apparently unrelated to plate movement.

text: Among the first 500 residents of Davenport in the late 1830s and early 1840s were 12 people who were Jewish.  There was no attempt to organize a congregation until more substantial numbers immigrated from Germany in the 1850s.  Mount Nebo Cemetery, adjacent to Pine Hill Cemetery, was organized at that time.  By 1860 there were eleven Jewish families in town.  On October 21, 1861 they organized the B'nai Israel congregation, the first Jewish congregation to organize in the state of Iowa.  In 1862 they rented the third floor of the building where the Forrest Block now stands for use as a synagogue.  The constitutions and by-laws were accepted and approved on December 6, 1862.  The congregation floundered somewhat in its early years until it was more fully organized in 1874.

text: Among the first 500 residents of Davenport in the late 1830s and early 1840s were 12 people who were Jewish.  There was no attempt to organize a congregation until more substantial numbers immigrated from

text: Germany

text: in the 1850s.  Mount Nebo Cemetery, adjacent to

text: Pine Hill Cemetery

text: , was organized at that time.  By 1860 there were eleven Jewish families in town.  On October 21, 1861 they organized the B'nai Israel congregation, the first Jewish congregation to organize in the state of Iowa.  In 1862 they rented the third floor of the building where the

text: Forrest Block

text: now stands for use as a synagogue.  The constitutions and by-laws were accepted and approved on December 6, 1862.  The congregation floundered somewhat in its early years until it was more fully organized in 1874.

text: Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be flat (see flat earth), and the heavens a physical dome spanning over it. Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were that lunar eclipses were seen as circular shadows which could only be caused by a spherical Earth, and that Polaris is seen lower in the sky as one travels South.

text: Early ideas about the figure of the Earth held the Earth to be flat (see

text: flat earth

text: ), and the heavens a physical dome spanning over it. Two early arguments for a spherical Earth were that lunar eclipses were seen as circular shadows which could only be caused by a spherical Earth, and that

text: Polaris

text: is seen lower in the sky as one travels South.

text: Single-celled organisms as well as sponges digest their food intracellularly. Other multi-cellular organisms digest their food extracellularly, within a digestive cavity. In this case the digestive enzymes are released into a cavity that is continuous with the animal's external environment. In cnidarians and in flatworms such as planarians, the digestive cavity, called a gastrovascular cavity, has only one opening that serves as both mouth and anus. There is no specialization within this type of digestive system because every cell is exposed to all stages of food digestion.

text: Single-celled organism

text: s as well as

text: sponge

text: s digest their food intracellularly. Other

text: multi-cellular organisms

text: digest their food extracellularly, within a digestive cavity. In this case the

text: digestive enzyme

text: s are released into a cavity that is continuous with the animal's external environment. In cnidarians and in

text: flatworm

text: s such as

text: planarian

text: s, the digestive cavity, called a gastrovascular cavity, has only one opening that serves as both mouth and anus. There is no specialization within this type of digestive system because every cell is exposed to all stages of food digestion.

text: Bioenergetics is a field in biochemistry and cell biology that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic processes that can lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as ATP molecules.

text: Bioenergetics is a field in

text: biochemistry

text: and

text: cell biology

text: that concerns

text: energy

text: flow through living systems. This is an active area of

text: biological

text: research that includes the study of the transformation of energy in living organisms and the study of thousands of different

text: cellular

text: processes such as

text: cellular respiration

text: and the many other

text: metabolic

text: processes that can lead to production and utilization of energy in forms such as

text: ATP

text: molecules.

text: From the earliest times, the Chinese were concerned with the destructive force of earthquakes. It was recorded in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian of 91 BC that in 780 BC an earthquake had been powerful enough to divert the courses of three rivers. It was not known at the time that earthquakes were caused by the shifting of tectonic plates in the Earth's crust; instead, the people of the ancient Zhou Dynasty explained them as disturbances with cosmic yin and yang, along with the heavens' displeasure with acts committed (or the common peoples' grievances ignored) by the current ruling dynasty. These theories were ultimately derived from the ancient text of the Yijing (Book of Changes), in its fifty-first hexagram. There were other early theories about earthquakes, developed by those such as the ancient Greeks. Anaxagoras (c. 500–428 BC) believed that they were caused by excess water near the surface crust of the earth bursting into the Earth's hollows; Democritus (c. 460–370 BC) believed that the saturation of the Earth with water caused them; Anaximenes (c. 585–c. 525 BC) believed they were the result of massive pieces of the Earth falling into the cavernous hollows due to drying; and Aristotle (384–322 BC) believed they were caused by instability of vapor (pneuma) caused by the drying of the moist Earth by the Sun's rays.

text: From the earliest times, the Chinese were concerned with the destructive force of earthquakes. It was recorded in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian of 91 BC that in 780 BC an earthquake had been powerful enough to divert the courses of three rivers. It was not known at the time that earthquakes were caused by the shifting of

text: tectonic plate

text: s in the Earth's crust; instead, the people of the ancient Zhou Dynasty explained them as disturbances with cosmic

text: yin and yang

text: , along with the heavens' displeasure with acts committed (or the common peoples' grievances ignored) by the current ruling dynasty. These theories were ultimately derived from the ancient text of the

text: Yijing

text: (Book of Changes), in its fifty-first hexagram. There were other early theories about earthquakes, developed by those such as the

text: ancient Greeks

text: Anaxagoras

text: (c. 500–428 BC) believed that they were caused by excess water near the surface crust of the earth bursting into the Earth's hollows;

text: Democritus

text: (c. 460–370 BC) believed that the saturation of the Earth with water caused them;

text: Anaximenes

text: (c. 585–c. 525 BC) believed they were the result of massive pieces of the Earth falling into the cavernous hollows due to drying; and

text: Aristotle

text: (384–322 BC) believed they were caused by instability of vapor (pneuma) caused by the drying of the moist Earth by the Sun's rays.

text: The atmosphere of the early Earth is not well understood. Most geologists believe it was composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other relatively inert gases, and was lacking in free oxygen. There is, however, evidence that an oxygen-rich atmosphere existed since the early Archean.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clemmey |first=Harry |first2=Nick |last2=Badham |title=Oxygen in the Precambrian Atmosphere |journal=Geology |date=1982 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=141–146 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10

text: The

text: atmosphere

text: of the early Earth is not well understood. Most geologists believe it was composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other relatively inert gases, and was lacking in free

text: oxygen

text: . There is, however, evidence that an oxygen-rich atmosphere existed since the early Archean.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clemmey |first=Harry |first2=Nick |last2=Badham |title=Oxygen in the Precambrian Atmosphere |journal=

text: Geology

text: |date=1982 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=141–146 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10

text: Despite the Voyager data, evidence for a tenuous oxygen atmosphere (exosphere) on Ganymede, very similar to the one found on Europa, was found by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in 1995. HST actually observed airglow of atomic oxygen in the far-ultraviolet at the wavelengths 130.4 nm and 135.6 nm. Such an airglow is excited when molecular oxygen is dissociated by electron impacts, which is evidence of a significant neutral atmosphere composed predominantly of O molecules. The surface number density probably lies in the  range, corresponding to the surface pressure of . These values are in agreement with the Voyager

text: Despite the Voyager data, evidence for a tenuous

text: oxygen

text: atmosphere (

text: exosphere

text: ) on Ganymede, very similar to the one found on

text: Europa

text: , was found by the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST) in 1995. HST actually observed

text: airglow

text: of

text: atomic oxygen

text: in the far-ultraviolet at the wavelengths 130.4 nm and 135.6 nm. Such an airglow is excited when

text: molecular oxygen

text: is

text: dissociated

text: by electron impacts, which is evidence of a significant neutral atmosphere composed predominantly of O molecules. The surface number density probably lies in the  range, corresponding to the surface pressure of . These values are in agreement with the Voyager

text: Near Cape Mendocino, the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The Mendocino Fracture Zone (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the Gorda Ridge) is a transform fault that separates the Pacific and Gorda Plates. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and North American Plate is accommodated by the San Andreas Fault, and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the Cascadia Subduction Zone.

text: Near

text: Cape Mendocino

text: , the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the

text: Gorda Ridge

text: ) is a

text: transform fault

text: that separates the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: Gorda Plate

text: s. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and

text: North American Plate

text: is accommodated by the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the

text: Cascadia Subduction Zone

text: The Phanerozoic supercontinent Pangaea began to break up  and is still doing so today. Because Pangaea is the most recent of Earth's supercontinents, it is the most well known and understood. Contributing to Pangaea's popularity in the classroom is the fact that its reconstruction is almost as simple as fitting the present continents bordering the Atlantic-type oceans like puzzle pieces.

text: The

text: Phanerozoic

text: supercontinent Pangaea began to break up  and is still doing so today. Because Pangaea is the most recent of Earth's supercontinents, it is the most well known and understood. Contributing to Pangaea's popularity in the classroom is the fact that its reconstruction is almost as simple as fitting the present continents bordering the Atlantic-type oceans like puzzle pieces.

text: Humans who are from Earth are referred to as the Tau'ri by most other life forms in the galaxy, including the Goa'uld. Earth is a relatively important player on account of the radical change it unwittingly brought about when troops under the command of Colonel Jack O'Neill killed Goa'uld Supreme System Lord Ra and started a guerrilla war against the Goa'uld. However, its importance pales in comparison to the power of the System Lords or the Free Jaffa Nation, even though after the extinction of the Asgard and the defeat of the Ori, the Tau'ri became the dominant race of known space — although they were initially at a huge technological disadvantage, they later managed to reverse-engineer Goa'uld technology to the point where they started building their own ships, though much of it was rendered obsolete when the Asgard granted a significant amount of non-weapon technology. The Tau'ri also created remarkable technological feats, such as fighters equipped with hyperdrives powered by an unstable isotope. Their power increased further when they discovered that, due to crossbreeding with Ancients before their extinction, some Earth-born humans actually possessed a unique gene required to operate some of the more advanced Ancient technology. The peak of their power occurred when the Asgard donated their entire technological knowledge to Earth prior to their extinction. With this and some Ancient technology, the Tau'ri actually surpassed their precursors and defeated the Ori.

text: Humans who are from Earth are referred to as the

text: Tau'ri

text: by most other life forms in the galaxy, including the

text: Goa'uld

text: . Earth is a relatively important player on account of the radical change it unwittingly brought about when troops under the command of Colonel

text: Jack O'Neill

text: killed Goa'uld Supreme System Lord

text: Ra

text: and started a guerrilla war against the Goa'uld. However, its importance pales in comparison to the power of the

text: System Lords

text: or the

text: Free Jaffa Nation

text: , even though after the extinction of the Asgard and the defeat of the

text: Ori

text: , the Tau'ri became the dominant race of known space — although they were initially at a huge technological disadvantage, they later managed to reverse-engineer Goa'uld technology to the point where they started building their own ships, though much of it was rendered obsolete when the Asgard granted a significant amount of non-weapon technology. The Tau'ri also created remarkable technological feats, such as fighters equipped with hyperdrives powered by an unstable isotope. Their power increased further when they discovered that, due to crossbreeding with Ancients before their extinction, some Earth-born humans actually possessed a unique gene required to operate some of the more advanced Ancient technology. The peak of their power occurred when the Asgard donated their entire technological knowledge to Earth prior to their extinction. With this and some Ancient technology, the Tau'ri actually surpassed their precursors and defeated the Ori.

text: The role the Paleo-Tethys played in the supercontinent cycle, and especially the break-up of Pangaea, is unresolved.  Some geologists argue that the opening of the North Atlantic was triggered by the subduction of Panthalassa under the western margins of the Americas while other argue that the closure of the Paleo-Tethys and Tethys resulted in the break-up.  In the first scenario, mantle plumes caused the opening of the Atlantic and the break-up of Pangaea and the closure of the Tethyan domain was one of the consequences of this process; in the other scenario, the longitudinal forces that closed the Tethyan domain were transmitted latitudinally in what is today the Mediterranean region, resulting in the initial opening of the Atlantic.

text: The role the Paleo-Tethys played in the

text: supercontinent cycle

text: , and especially the break-up of

text: Pangaea

text: , is unresolved.  Some geologists argue that the opening of the North Atlantic was triggered by the subduction of

text: Panthalassa

text: under the western margins of the Americas while other argue that the closure of the Paleo-Tethys and Tethys resulted in the break-up.  In the first scenario,

text: mantle plume

text: s caused the opening of the Atlantic and the break-up of Pangaea and the closure of the Tethyan domain was one of the consequences of this process; in the other scenario, the longitudinal forces that closed the Tethyan domain were transmitted latitudinally in what is today the Mediterranean region, resulting in the initial opening of the Atlantic.

text: Lipidome is the entire complement of cellular lipids, including the modifications made to a particular set of lipids, produced by an organism or system.

text: Lipidome

text: is the entire complement of cellular

text: lipid

text: s, including the modifications made to a particular set of lipids, produced by an organism or system.

text: With all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions. Eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes. When the Sun becomes 10% brighter in about a billion years, Earth will suffer a moist greenhouse effect resulting in its oceans boiling away, while the Earth's liquid outer core freezes due to the inner core's expansion and causes the Earth's magnetic field to shut down. In the absence of a magnetic field, charged particles from the Sun will deplete the atmosphere and further increase the Earth's temperature to an average of ~420 K (147 °C, 296 °F) in 2.8 billion years, causing the last remaining life on Earth to die out. This is the most extreme instance of a climate-caused extinction event. Since this will only happen late in the Sun's life, such will cause the final mass extinction in Earth's history (albeit a very long extinction event).

text: The PSD has been proposed to concentrate and organize neurotransmitter receptors in the synaptic cleft.  The PSD also serves as a signaling apparatus.  For instance kinases and phosphatases in the PSD are activated and released from the PSD to change the activity of proteins located in the spine or are transported to the nucleus to affect protein synthesis. Some of the features of the PSD are similar to the neuromuscular junction and other cellular junctions, as the PSD has been modeled as a specialized cellular junction that allows for rapid, asymmetrical signaling.

text: The PSD has been proposed to concentrate and organize neurotransmitter receptors in the synaptic cleft.  The PSD also serves as a signaling apparatus.  For instance kinases and phosphatases in the PSD are activated and released from the PSD to change the activity of proteins located in the spine or are transported to the nucleus to affect

text: protein synthesis

text: . Some of the features of the PSD are similar to the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: and other

text: cellular junctions

text: , as the PSD has been modeled as a specialized cellular junction that allows for rapid, asymmetrical signaling.

text: The Jagaroth are an ancient and extinct race of aliens introduced in the Fourth Doctor serial City of Death. The Doctor remarked that the Jagaroth were “a vicious, callous, warlike race whom the universe won't miss.” The story reveals that life on Earth moved from being amino acids in a primordial soup to functioning cells because a Jagaroth space ship exploded on Earth 400 million years ago.

text: The Jagaroth are an ancient and

text: extinct

text: race of

text: aliens

text: introduced in the

text: Fourth Doctor

text: serial

text: City of Death

text: . The Doctor remarked that the Jagaroth were “a vicious, callous, warlike race whom the universe won't miss.” The story reveals that life on Earth moved from being

text: amino acids

text: in a

text: primordial soup

text: to functioning

text: cells

text: because a Jagaroth space ship exploded on Earth 400 million years ago.

text: Latter Day Saints believe that the soul existed before earth life and will exist in the hereafter. Angels are either spirits that have not yet come to earth to experience their mortality, or spirits or resurrected beings that have already passed through mortality and do the will of God. See Job 38:4-7, D&C 93:29. According to LDS Doctrine, Michael the Archangel became the first man on earth, Adam, to experience his mortality. The Angel of Moroni visited the boy, Joseph Smith, after living out his mortal life in ancient America. Later, he received Angelic administrations from the Apostles Peter, James, and John, John the Baptist, and others.

text: In January 2016, Gernon et al. proposed a "shallow-ridge hypothesis" involving the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, linking the eruption and rapid alteration of hyaloclastites along shallow ridges to massive increases in alkalinity in an ocean with thick ice cover. Gernon et al. demonstrated that the increase in alkalinity over the course of glaciation is sufficient to explain the thickness of cap carbonates formed in the aftermath of Snowball Earth events.

text: In January 2016, Gernon et al. proposed a "shallow-ridge hypothesis" involving the breakup of the

text: supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: , linking the eruption and rapid alteration of

text: hyaloclastite

text: s along shallow ridges to massive increases in alkalinity in an ocean with thick ice cover. Gernon et al. demonstrated that the increase in alkalinity over the course of glaciation is sufficient to explain the thickness of cap carbonates formed in the aftermath of Snowball Earth events.

text: The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the oxygen cycle. This biogeochemical cycle describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on Earth: the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for modern Earth's atmosphere. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, while respiration, decay, and combustion remove it from the atmosphere. In the present equilibrium, production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1/2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year.

text: The unusually high concentration of oxygen gas on Earth is the result of the

text: oxygen cycle

text: . This

text: biogeochemical cycle

text: describes the movement of oxygen within and between its three main reservoirs on Earth: the atmosphere, the

text: biosphere

text: , and the

text: lithosphere

text: . The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is

text: photosynthesis

text: , which is responsible for modern Earth's atmosphere. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, while

text: respiration

text: decay

text: , and combustion remove it from the atmosphere. In the present equilibrium, production and consumption occur at the same rate of roughly 1/2000th of the entire atmospheric oxygen per year.

text: The urinary and reproductive organs are developed from the intermediate mesoderm. The permanent organs of the adult are preceded by a set of structures which are purely embryonic, and which with the exception of the ducts disappear almost entirely before the end of fetal life. These embryonic structures are on either side; the pronephros, the mesonephros and the metanephros of the kidney, and the Wolffian and Müllerian ducts of the sex organ. The pronephros disappears very early; the structural elements of the mesonephros mostly degenerate, but the gonad is developed in their place, with which the Wolffian duct remains as the duct in males, and the Müllerian as that of the female. Some of the tubules of the mesonephros form part of the permanent kidney.

text: The urinary and reproductive organs are developed from the

text: intermediate mesoderm

text: . The permanent organs of the adult are preceded by a set of structures which are purely embryonic, and which with the exception of the ducts disappear almost entirely before the end of fetal life. These embryonic structures are on either side; the

text: pronephros

text: , the

text: mesonephros

text: and the

text: metanephros

text: of the

text: kidney

text: , and the

text: Wolffian

text: and

text: Müllerian duct

text: s of the

text: sex organ

text: . The pronephros disappears very early; the structural elements of the mesonephros mostly degenerate, but the

text: gonad

text: is developed in their place, with which the Wolffian duct remains as the duct in males, and the Müllerian as that of the female. Some of the tubules of the mesonephros form part of the permanent kidney.

text: |-| 26301 Hellawillis ||  || 26301 Hellawillis Discovered 1998 Sept. 26 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Hella Willis mentored a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Sheboygan North High School, Sheboygan, Wisconsin.|-id=302| 26302 Zimolzak ||  || 26302 Zimolzak Discovered 1998 Sept. 26 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Matt Zimolzak mentored a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the William Fremd High School, Palatine, Illinois.|-id=307| 26307 Friedafein ||  || 26307 Friedafein Discovered 1998 Sept. 26 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Frieda Rose Fein (b. 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the John Adams High School, South Bend, Indiana.|-id=314| 26314 Škvorecký ||  || Josef Škvorecký, Czech writer † ‡ |-id=319| 26319 Miyauchi ||  || Miyauchi town is situated in the southern part of Nanyo city, Yamagata, Japan. |-id=323| 26323 Wuqijin ||  || 26323 Wuqijin Discovered 1998 Nov. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Wu Qijin (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal-sciences project. She attends the Fuzhou No. 1 Middle School, Fuzhou, Fujian, China.|-id=328| 26328 Litomyšl || 1998 WQ || Litomyšl, Czech Republic † |-id=331| 26331 Kondamuri ||  || 26331 Kondamuri Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Neil Kondamuri (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his animal-sciences project. He attends the Munster High School, Munster, Indiana, U.S.A.|-id=332| 26332 Alyssehrlich ||  || 26332 Alyssehrlich Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Alyssa Chelsea Ehrlich (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal-sciences project. She attends the South Side High School, Rockville Centre, New York, U.S.A.|-id=333| 26333 Joachim ||  || 26333 Joachim Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Gabriel Thailand Joachim (b. 1993) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his animal-sciences project. He attends the Cibola High School, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A.|-id=334| 26334 Melimcdowell ||  || 26334 Melimcdowell Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Melissa Severn McDowell (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal-sciences team project. She attends the Saint Joseph's Academy, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.|-id=336| 26336 Mikemcdowell ||  || 26336 Mikemcdowell Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Michael Charles McDowell (b. 1995) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his animal-sciences team project. He attends the Catholic High School, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.|-id=337| 26337 Matthewagam ||  || 26337 Matthewagam Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Matthew Samuel Agam (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his behavioral- and social-sciences project. He attends the Beaverton High School, Beaverton, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=340| 26340 Evamarková ||  || Eva Marková, Czech astronomer † |-id=345| 26345 Gedankien ||  || 26345 Gedankien Discovered 1998 Dec. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Tamara Gedankien (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral- and social-sciences project. She attends the Escola Brasileira Israelita Chaim Nachman Bialik, Sao Paulo, Brazil.|-id=355| 26355 Grueber ||  || Johannes Grueber, 17th-century Austrian Jesuit priest, missionary, mathematician, astronomer at the Chinese imperial court, and author of the first European travelogue of Tibet †|-id=356| 26356 Aventini ||  || Andrea Aventini, Italian amateur astronomer †|-id=357| 26357 Laguerre ||  || Edmond Nicolas Laguerre, 19th-century French mathematician |-id=368| 26368 Alghunaim ||  || 26368 Alghunaim Discovered 1999 Feb. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Abdulaziz Khalid Alghunaim (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his behavioral- and social-sciences project. He attends the Asrary School, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.|-id=376| 26376 Roborosa ||  || Róbert "Robo" Rosa, 20th-century Slovak amateur astronomer and computer graphic designer |-id=386| 26386 Adelinacozma ||  || 26386 Adelinacozma Discovered 1999 Sept. 9 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Adelina Corina Cozma (b. 1995) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral- and social-sciences project. She attends the Bayview Secondary School, Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada.|-id=389| 26389 Poojarambhia ||  || 26389 Poojarambhia Discovered 1999 Oct. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Pooja Rambhia (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her biochemistry project. She attends the Jericho High School, Jericho, New York, U.S.A.|-id=390| 26390 Rušin ||  || Vojtech Rušin, Slovak solar physicist |-id=393| 26393 Scaffa ||  || 26393 Scaffa Discovered 1999 Nov. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Alejandro Mariano Scaffa (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his biochemistry project. He attends the Escola Americana de Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil.|-id=394| 26394 Kandola ||  || 26394 Kandola Discovered 1999 Nov. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Manjinder Singh Kandola (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his biochemistry project. He attends the Queens High School for the Sciences at York College, Jamaica, New York, U.S.A.|-id=395| 26395 Megkurohara ||  || 26395 Megkurohara Discovered 1999 Nov. 14 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Megan M. Kurohara (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her biochemistry team project. She attends the Hilo High School, Hilo, Hawaii, U.S.A.|-id=396| 26396 Chengjingjie ||  || 26396 Chengjingjie Discovered 1999 Nov. 14 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Cheng Jingjie (b. 1994) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her cellular- and molecular-biology project. She attends the Raffles Girls' School, Singapore.|-id=397| 26397 Carolynsinow ||  || 26397 Carolynsinow Discovered 1999 Nov. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Carolyn Sinow (b. 1992) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her cellular- and molecular-biology project. She attends the Palos Verdes Peninsula High School, Rolling Hills Estates, California, U.S.A.|-id=399| 26399 Rileyennis ||  || 26399 Rileyennis Discovered 1999 Nov. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Riley C. Ennis (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology project. He attends the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, Alexandria, Virginia, U.S.A.|-id=400| 26400 Roshanpalli ||  || 26400 Roshanpalli Discovered 1999 Nov. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Roshan Palli (b. 1994) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology team project. He attends the Paul Laurence Dunbar High School, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.|}

text: 26301 Hellawillis

text: ||  || 26301 Hellawillis Discovered 1998 Sept. 26 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Hella Willis mentored a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. She teaches at the Sheboygan North High School, Sheboygan, Wisconsin.|-id=302|

text: 26302 Zimolzak

text: ||  || 26302 Zimolzak Discovered 1998 Sept. 26 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Matt Zimolzak mentored a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors. He teaches at the William Fremd High School, Palatine, Illinois.|-id=307|

text: 26307 Friedafein

text: ||  || 26307 Friedafein Discovered 1998 Sept. 26 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Frieda Rose Fein (b. 1991) is a finalist in the 2010 Intel Science Talent Search (STS), a science competition for high school seniors, for her behavioral and social sciences project. She attends the John Adams High School, South Bend, Indiana.|-id=314|

text: 26314 Škvorecký

text: Josef Škvorecký

text: , Czech writer † ‡ |-id=319|

text: 26319 Miyauchi

text: Miyauchi town

text: is situated in the southern part of

text: Nanyo city

text: , Yamagata, Japan. |-id=323|

text: 26323 Wuqijin

text: ||  || 26323 Wuqijin Discovered 1998 Nov. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Wu Qijin (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal-sciences project. She attends the Fuzhou No. 1 Middle School, Fuzhou, Fujian, China.|-id=328|

text: 26328 Litomyšl

text: || 1998 WQ ||

text: Litomyšl

text: , Czech Republic † |-id=331|

text: 26331 Kondamuri

text: ||  || 26331 Kondamuri Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Neil Kondamuri (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his animal-sciences project. He attends the Munster High School, Munster, Indiana, U.S.A.|-id=332|

text: 26332 Alyssehrlich

text: ||  || 26332 Alyssehrlich Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Alyssa Chelsea Ehrlich (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal-sciences project. She attends the South Side High School, Rockville Centre, New York, U.S.A.|-id=333|

text: 26333 Joachim

text: ||  || 26333 Joachim Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Gabriel Thailand Joachim (b. 1993) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his animal-sciences project. He attends the Cibola High School, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A.|-id=334|

text: 26334 Melimcdowell

text: ||  || 26334 Melimcdowell Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Melissa Severn McDowell (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her animal-sciences team project. She attends the Saint Joseph's Academy, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.|-id=336|

text: 26336 Mikemcdowell

text: ||  || 26336 Mikemcdowell Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Michael Charles McDowell (b. 1995) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his animal-sciences team project. He attends the Catholic High School, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A.|-id=337|

text: 26337 Matthewagam

text: ||  || 26337 Matthewagam Discovered 1998 Nov. 21 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Matthew Samuel Agam (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his behavioral- and social-sciences project. He attends the Beaverton High School, Beaverton, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=340|

text: 26340 Evamarková

text: Eva Marková

text: , Czech astronomer † |-id=345|

text: 26345 Gedankien

text: ||  || 26345 Gedankien Discovered 1998 Dec. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Tamara Gedankien (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral- and social-sciences project. She attends the Escola Brasileira Israelita Chaim Nachman Bialik, Sao Paulo, Brazil.|-id=355|

text: 26355 Grueber

text: Johannes Grueber

text: , 17th-century Austrian Jesuit priest, missionary, mathematician, astronomer at the Chinese imperial court, and author of the first European travelogue of Tibet †|-id=356|

text: 26356 Aventini

text: Andrea Aventini

text: , Italian amateur astronomer †|-id=357|

text: 26357 Laguerre

text: Edmond Nicolas Laguerre

text: , 19th-century French mathematician |-id=368|

text: 26368 Alghunaim

text: ||  || 26368 Alghunaim Discovered 1999 Feb. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Abdulaziz Khalid Alghunaim (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his behavioral- and social-sciences project. He attends the Asrary School, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.|-id=376|

text: 26376 Roborosa

text: ||  || Róbert "Robo" Rosa, 20th-century Slovak amateur astronomer and computer graphic designer |-id=386|

text: 26386 Adelinacozma

text: ||  || 26386 Adelinacozma Discovered 1999 Sept. 9 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Adelina Corina Cozma (b. 1995) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her behavioral- and social-sciences project. She attends the Bayview Secondary School, Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada.|-id=389|

text: 26389 Poojarambhia

text: ||  || 26389 Poojarambhia Discovered 1999 Oct. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Pooja Rambhia (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her biochemistry project. She attends the Jericho High School, Jericho, New York, U.S.A.|-id=390|

text: 26390 Rušin

text: Vojtech Rušin

text: , Slovak solar physicist |-id=393|

text: 26393 Scaffa

text: ||  || 26393 Scaffa Discovered 1999 Nov. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Alejandro Mariano Scaffa (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his biochemistry project. He attends the Escola Americana de Campinas, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil.|-id=394|

text: 26394 Kandola

text: ||  || 26394 Kandola Discovered 1999 Nov. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Manjinder Singh Kandola (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his biochemistry project. He attends the Queens High School for the Sciences at York College, Jamaica, New York, U.S.A.|-id=395|

text: 26395 Megkurohara

text: ||  || 26395 Megkurohara Discovered 1999 Nov. 14 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Megan M. Kurohara (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her biochemistry team project. She attends the Hilo High School, Hilo, Hawaii, U.S.A.|-id=396|

text: 26396 Chengjingjie

text: ||  || 26396 Chengjingjie Discovered 1999 Nov. 14 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Cheng Jingjie (b. 1994) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her cellular- and molecular-biology project. She attends the Raffles Girls' School, Singapore.|-id=397|

text: 26397 Carolynsinow

text: ||  || 26397 Carolynsinow Discovered 1999 Nov. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Carolyn Sinow (b. 1992) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her cellular- and molecular-biology project. She attends the Palos Verdes Peninsula High School, Rolling Hills Estates, California, U.S.A.|-id=399|

text: 26399 Rileyennis

text: ||  || 26399 Rileyennis Discovered 1999 Nov. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Riley C. Ennis (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology project. He attends the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology, Alexandria, Virginia, U.S.A.|-id=400|

text: 26400 Roshanpalli

text: ||  || 26400 Roshanpalli Discovered 1999 Nov. 15 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Roshan Palli (b. 1994) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology team project. He attends the Paul Laurence Dunbar High School, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.|}

text: In the ancient Mediterranean, Hebrew, Israelite and Middle Eastern worldview, it was a common belief that shrines, important places such as cities or capitals, or other such places of prominence had a position of centrality to the world and hence equated to the child-bearing, life-giving navel of a mother. These domains constituted what could be regarded as important bond that linked the universe. Thus Nippur, the ancient city of the Mesopotamian people, was often described as the "navel". This suggested to the prominence of the location and the way it was seen to function as a place of centrality and as a link between earth and the heavens and the Universe. The Greeks thought that the conical stone Omphalos ("navel") located at Delphi was the center of the earth.

text: In the ancient Mediterranean,

text: Hebrew

text: Israelite

text: and

text: Middle Eastern

text: worldview

text: , it was a common belief that shrines, important places such as cities or capitals, or other such places of prominence had a position of centrality to the world and hence equated to the child-bearing, life-giving navel of a mother. These domains constituted what could be regarded as important

text: bond

text: that linked the universe. Thus

text: Nippur

text: , the ancient city of the

text: Mesopotamian people

text: , was often described as the "navel". This suggested to the prominence of the location and the way it was seen to function as a place of centrality and as a link between earth and the heavens and the Universe. The

text: Greeks

text: thought that the conical stone

text: Omphalos

text: ("navel") located at

text: Delphi

text: was the center of the earth.

text: Information about the early development of life includes input from many different fields, including geology and planetary science. These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. However, a great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time.

text: Information about the early development of life includes input from many different fields, including

text: geology

text: and

text: planetary science

text: . These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. However, a great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time.

text: Primitive cells, often referred to as protocells, are the precursors to today's unicellular organisms. Although the origin of life is largely still a mystery, in the currently prevailing theory, known as the RNA world hypothesis, early RNA molecules would have been the basis for catalyzing organic chemical reactions and self-replication. The RNA world hypothesis assumes that RNA molecules could form in abiotic conditions, which would require nucleic acids and ribose to be present. Theoretical and experimental findings show that nucleic acids and sugars could have been synthesized in early prebiotic conditions.

text: Primitive cells, often referred to as protocells, are the precursors to today's unicellular organisms. Although the

text: origin of life

text: is largely still a mystery, in the currently prevailing theory, known as the

text: RNA world hypothesis

text: , early RNA molecules would have been the basis for catalyzing organic chemical reactions and self-replication. The RNA world hypothesis assumes that RNA molecules could form in abiotic conditions, which would require

text: nucleic acid

text: s and

text: ribose

text: to be present. Theoretical and experimental findings show that nucleic acids and sugars could have been synthesized in early prebiotic conditions.

text: Observations from the Voyager space probes have shown that the Titanean atmosphere is denser than Earth's, with a surface pressure about 1.45 times that of Earth's. Titan's atmosphere is about 1.19 times as massive as Earth's overall, or about 7.3 times more massive on a per surface area basis. It supports opaque haze layers that block most visible light from the Sun and other sources and renders Titan's surface features obscure. The atmosphere is so thick and the gravity so low that humans could fly through it by flapping "wings" attached to their arms. Titan's lower gravity means that its atmosphere is far more extended than Earth's; even at a distance of 975 km, the Cassini spacecraft had to make adjustments to maintain a stable orbit against atmospheric drag. The atmosphere of Titan is opaque at many wavelengths and a complete reflectance spectrum of the surface is impossible to acquire from the outside. It was not until the arrival of Cassini–Huygens in 2004 that the first direct images of Titan's surface were obtained. The Huygens probe was unable to detect the direction of the Sun during its descent, and although it was able to take images from the surface, the Huygens team likened the process to "taking pictures of an asphalt parking lot at dusk".

text: Observations from the

text: Voyager

text: space probes have shown that the Titanean atmosphere is denser than

text: Earth

text: 's, with a surface pressure about 1.45 times that of Earth's. Titan's atmosphere is about 1.19 times as massive as Earth's overall, or about 7.3 times more massive on a per surface area basis. It supports opaque haze layers that block most visible light from the Sun and other sources and renders Titan's surface features obscure. The atmosphere is so thick and the gravity so low that humans could fly through it by flapping "wings" attached to their arms. Titan's lower gravity means that its atmosphere is far more extended than Earth's; even at a

text: distance

text: of 975 km, the Cassini spacecraft had to make adjustments to maintain a stable orbit against atmospheric drag. The atmosphere of Titan is opaque at many

text: wavelengths

text: and a complete reflectance spectrum of the surface is impossible to acquire from the outside. It was not until the arrival of

text: Cassini–Huygens

text: in 2004 that the first direct images of Titan's surface were obtained. The

text: Huygens

text: probe was unable to detect the direction of the Sun during its descent, and although it was able to take images from the surface, the Huygens team likened the process to "taking pictures of an asphalt parking lot at dusk".

text: At the House of Heroes, the assembled super-beings of the Multiverse vow to work together to protect their worlds from future threats to reality. Organized by President Superman of Earth-23, they form a pan-universal superteam called Justice Incarnate. The superheroes offer to reward Nix Uotan for his role in the rescue of multi-trillions of lives. At first, Nix Uotan declines, but then he remembers something and asks for a small favor. The story ends with Nix in his human form, waking from a dream. He now has the $800.00 he owes to his landlord, and he pays in full.

text: The name Digea is a word play in Greek: composed of the words "Digital" and "Gaea" (the Greek name for Gaia, the ancient goddess who was the personification of the Earth), literally translated as "Digital Earth". It symbolizes a union of the digital era and the basis for life in our world.

text: The name Digea is a word play in Greek: composed of the words "Digital" and "Gaea" (the Greek name for

text: Gaia

text: , the ancient goddess who was the personification of the Earth), literally translated as "Digital Earth". It symbolizes a union of the digital era and the basis for life in our world.

text: The Council of Friends was an organization described by Joseph Smith in early 19th century Mormon theology. He viewed the organisation as being part of a world government which would guide and direct the Kingdom of God (Zion) on earth during the end times as a theodemocracy.

text: The Council of Friends was an organization described by

text: Joseph Smith

text: in early 19th century Mormon theology. He viewed the organisation as being part of a

text: world government

text: which would guide and direct the

text: Kingdom of God

text: Zion

text: ) on earth during the

text: end time

text: s as a

text: theodemocracy

text: The five classical planets, being visible to the naked eye, have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on mythology, religious cosmology, and ancient astronomy. In ancient times, astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars. Ancient Greeks called these lights πλάνητες ἀστέρες (, "wandering stars") or simply πλανῆται (, "wanderers"), from which today's word "planet" was derived. In ancient Greece, China, Babylon, and indeed all pre-modern civilizations, it was almost universally believed that Earth was the center of the Universe and that all the "planets" circled Earth. The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around Earth each day and the apparently common-sense perceptions that Earth was solid and stable and that it was not moving but at rest.

text: The five

text: classical planet

text: s, being visible to the naked eye, have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on

text: mythology

text: religious cosmology

text: , and ancient

text: astronomy

text: . In ancient times, astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars. Ancient Greeks called these lights

text: πλάνητες

text: ἀστέρες

text: (, "wandering stars") or simply

text: πλανῆται

text: (, "wanderers"), from which today's word "planet" was derived. In

text: ancient Greece

text: China

text: Babylon

text: , and indeed all pre-modern civilizations, it was almost universally believed that Earth was the

text: center of the Universe

text: and that all the "planets" circled Earth. The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around Earth each day and the apparently

text: common-sense

text: perceptions that Earth was solid and stable and that it was not moving but at rest.

text: Schizosaccharomyces pombe has also become an important organism in studying the cellular responses to DNA damage and the process of DNA replication.

text: Schizosaccharomyces pombe has also become an important organism in studying the cellular responses to

text: DNA damage

text: and the process of

text: DNA replication

text: In multicellular organisms, gene regulation drives cellular differentiation and morphogenesis in the embryo, leading to the creation of different cell types that possess different gene expression profiles from the same genome sequence. This explains how evolution actually works at a molecular level, and is central to the science of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo").

text: In multicellular organisms, gene regulation drives

text: cellular differentiation

text: and

text: morphogenesis

text: in the embryo, leading to the creation of different cell types that possess different gene expression profiles from the same

text: genome

text: sequence. This explains how

text: evolution

text: actually works at a

text: molecular level

text: , and is central to the science of

text: evolutionary developmental biology

text: ("evo-devo").

text: Soil (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2006)

text: Soil (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2006)

text: Cypriniformes include the most primitive of the Ostariophysi in the narrow sense (i.e. excluding Gonorynchiformes). This is evidenced not only by physiological details, but their great distribution, which indicates they had the longest time to spread. The earliest that Cypriniformes might have diverged from Characiphysi (Characiformes and relatives) is thought to be about the Early Triassic, about 250 million years ago (mya). However, their divergence probably occurred only with the splitting-up of Pangaea in the Jurassic, maybe 160 million years ago. By 110 mya, the plate tectonics evidence indicates that the Laurasian Cypriniformes must have been distinct from their Gondwanan relatives.

text: Cypriniformes include the most primitive of the

text: Ostariophysi

text: in the narrow sense (i.e. excluding

text: Gonorynchiformes

text: ). This is evidenced not only by physiological details, but their great distribution, which indicates they had the longest time to spread. The earliest that Cypriniformes might have diverged from

text: Characiphysi

text: Characiformes

text: and relatives) is thought to be about the

text: Early Triassic

text: , about 250 million years ago (

text: mya

text: ). However, their divergence probably occurred only with the splitting-up of

text: Pangaea

text: in the

text: Jurassic

text: , maybe 160 million years ago. By 110 mya, the

text: plate tectonics

text: evidence indicates that the

text: Laurasia

text: n Cypriniformes must have been distinct from their

text: Gondwana

text: n relatives.

text: A cellular automaton is reversible if, for every current configuration of the cellular automaton, there is exactly one past configuration (preimage). If one thinks of a cellular automaton as a function mapping configurations to configurations, reversibility implies that this function is bijective. If a cellular automaton is reversible, its time-reversed behavior can also be described as a cellular automaton; this fact is a consequence of the Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem, a topological characterization of cellular automata. For cellular automata in which not every configuration has a preimage, the configurations without preimages are called Garden of Eden patterns.

text: A cellular automaton is reversible if, for every current configuration of the cellular automaton, there is exactly one past configuration (

text: preimage

text: ). If one thinks of a cellular automaton as a function mapping configurations to configurations, reversibility implies that this function is

text: bijective

text: . If a cellular automaton is reversible, its time-reversed behavior can also be described as a cellular automaton; this fact is a consequence of the

text: Curtis–Hedlund–Lyndon theorem

text: , a topological characterization of cellular automata. For cellular automata in which not every configuration has a preimage, the configurations without preimages are called

text: Garden of Eden

text: patterns.

text: Stem cells are cells found in most, if not all, multi-cellular organisms. A common example of a stem cell is the Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) which are multipotent stem cells that give rise to cells of the blood lineage. In contrast to multipotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells are pluripotent and are thought to be able to give rise to all cells of the body. Embryonic stem cells were isolated in mice in 1981, and in humans in 1998.

text: Stem cell

text: s are cells found in most, if not all, multi-cellular organisms. A common example of a stem cell is the

text: Hematopoietic stem cell

text: (HSC) which are multipotent stem cells that give rise to cells of the blood lineage. In contrast to multipotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells are pluripotent and are thought to be able to give rise to all cells of the body. Embryonic stem cells were isolated in mice in 1981, and in humans in 1998.

text: Improved multi-course crop-rotations began slowly to be introduced on mir arable in the late 19th century.  The early experiments were mainly on the non-Black-earth lands, especially the Central-Industrial, West and North-West regions.  Flax was the first `new' crop to be introduced into the rotation.  But within the three-course system flax exhausted the soil's fertility; peasants learned to replenish it by planting clover.  Multi-course systems with sown fodder grasses and clover (travopolye (Травополье), travoseyanie) allowed more cattle and other livestock to be kept, who in turn provided more manure to increase soil fertility.  This `fodder-crop revolution' had earlier been central to the 18th-century agricultural revolution in Western Europe.  By 1924 multi-crop rotations covered 7.2% of the sown area of the Russian Federation.  But these improvements were largely confined to the Central-Industrial, Western and North-Western regions.  Moscow province was at the forefront; there the three-field system was almost eliminated by the end of 1926.  But, up to the mid-1920s, such progress was largely confined to the Central-Industrial, Western and North-Western regions.  The grain-surplus areas had as yet seen little progress.  In 1924 multi-course systems covered just 3% of arable in the Central Black-Earth region, and the situation was even worse elsewhere.  But thereafter rapid progress was made in the grain-surplus areas.  It also continued in the grain-deficit areas.  By 1927 multi-course rotations covered 17.3% of the sown area in the Russian Federation as a whole.  And `[b]y 1928 grass had almost everywhere replaced fallow, the most important exception being the Central Black-Earth region'.

text: Towards the Partido of Tandil is set the Tandilia System, an ancient mountain range and one of the oldest rock formations on Earth. The small hills are about 1640 ft (500 m) high and are all that remain of this once mighty mountain range. The most known hills are: "San Martín de la Tinta", "Lomadas" and "El Sombrerito". The system is built on two billion year old igneous and metamorphic rock that most likely was a part of the supercontinent Rodinia when its coasts were uplifted during the Paleoproterozoic Era. Layers of stratified sediments built up on this base over a period of hundreds of millions of years. Many of these sediments consist of quartz arenite and claystones containing an abundance of fossils and offer insights into life on Earth after the Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event of 488 million years ago.

text: Towards the Partido of Tandil is set the Tandilia System, an ancient mountain range and one of the oldest rock formations on Earth. The small hills are about 1640 ft (500 m) high and are all that remain of this once mighty mountain range. The most known hills are: "San Martín de la Tinta", "Lomadas" and "El Sombrerito". The system is built on two billion year old igneous and metamorphic rock that most likely was a part of the supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: when its coasts were uplifted during the Paleoproterozoic Era. Layers of stratified sediments built up on this base over a period of hundreds of millions of years. Many of these sediments consist of quartz arenite and claystones containing an abundance of fossils and offer insights into life on Earth after the Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event of 488 million years ago.

text: Directed panspermia concerns the deliberate transport of microorganisms in space, sent to Earth to start life here, or sent from Earth to seed new stellar systems with life.The Nobel prize winner Francis Crick, along with Leslie Orgel proposed that seeds of life may have been purposely spread by an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, but considering an early "RNA world" Crick noted later that life may have originated on Earth.

text: Directed panspermia concerns the deliberate transport of microorganisms in space, sent to Earth to start life here, or sent from Earth to seed new stellar systems with life.The Nobel prize winner

text: Francis Crick

text: , along with

text: Leslie Orgel

text: proposed that seeds of life may have been purposely spread by an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, but considering an early "

text: RNA world

text: " Crick noted later that life may have originated on Earth.

text: Entr'acte Recording Society, is an independent record label, which is also known as Entr'acte Records. It was founded in Chicago in 1974 by John Steven Lasher (born 1943). He produced many recordings for the label, which was later incorporated into Fifth Continent Music Corporation's roster of labels from 1979 onwards. The American-based company was dissolved in 1984, by which time the copyrights were transferred to Fifth Continent Australia Pty Ltd, the new Australian company, which became operational in early 1984.

text: Entr'acte Recording Society, is an

text: independent record label

text: , which is also known as Entr'acte Records. It was founded in

text: Chicago

text: in 1974 by

text: John Steven Lasher

text: (born 1943). He produced many recordings for the label, which was later incorporated into Fifth Continent Music Corporation's roster of labels from 1979 onwards. The American-based company was dissolved in 1984, by which time the copyrights were transferred to Fifth Continent Australia Pty Ltd, the new Australian company, which became operational in early 1984.

text: The Earth of the early Archean () may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to subduct and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of erosion and subsequent tectonic events.

text: The Earth of the early Archean () may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's

text: crust

text: cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the

text: mantle

text: cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to

text: subduct

text: and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of

text: erosion

text: and subsequent

text: tectonic

text: events.

text: The entire story actually takes place approximately 5 million years in Earth's past. At that time the Straits of Gibraltar have closed due to a shift in the Tectonic Plates of Europe and Africa. Without replenishment from the Atlantic Ocean the Mediterranean Sea has evaporated. Gandalara exists on the dry and salty floor of what will become the Mediterranean Sea once the floodgates of Gibraltar open up again. Ricardo Carillo had been traveling on the Mediterranean Sea when he had traveled back to the past.

text: The entire story actually takes place approximately 5 million years in Earth's past. At that time the

text: Straits of Gibraltar

text: have closed due to a shift in the

text: Tectonic Plates

text: of Europe and Africa. Without replenishment from the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: has evaporated. Gandalara exists on the dry and salty floor of what will become the Mediterranean Sea once the floodgates of

text: Gibraltar

text: open up again. Ricardo Carillo had been traveling on the Mediterranean Sea when he had

text: traveled back

text: to the past.

text: Bruni d'Entrecasteaux, Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec, Louis Antoine de Bougainville, Jules Dumont d'Urville, Nicolas Baudin, François Péron and Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne were some of the early European explorers to reach the continent.

text: Bruni d'Entrecasteaux

text: Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec

text: Louis Antoine de Bougainville

text: Jules Dumont d'Urville

text: Nicolas Baudin

text: François Péron

text: and

text: Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne

text: were some of the early European explorers to reach the continent.

text: Early life forms on Earth, starting at least 3.7 billion years ago, were single-celled organisms. Such single-celled organisms (prokaryotes, protozoans, algae) multiply by fissioning into daughter cells, thus do not age and are innately immortal.

text: Nanogeoscience is in a relatively early stage of development. The future directions of nanoscience in the geosciences will include a determination of the identity, distribution, and unusual chemical properties of nanosized particles and/or films in the oceans, on the continents, and in the atmosphere, and how they drive Earth processes in unexpected ways. Further, nanotechnology will be the key to developing the next generation of Earth and environmental sensing systems.

text: Thomas compares the Earth to a living cell, one with its own membrane that allows it to keep out disorder. He shows how the evolution of cells was closely tied to the “breath” of the Earth, the cycling of oxygen concentration in the atmosphere. The atmosphere is “for sheer size and perfection of function, it is far and away the grandest product of collaboration in all of nature.” It gives us the oxygen we need, protection from UV light, and protection from the millions of meteorites.

text: The global network enabled the calculation of a "geodetic date" (the geocentric position of the measurement system) on different continents, within a few meters. By the early 1970s reliable values for nearly 100 coefficients of the Earth's gravity field could be calculated.

text: When two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past each other in the fault of the earth, it is called an earthquake. Energy released in many forms moves in all directions and causes the ground to shake. Sometimes earthquakes may have foreshocks, which are smaller earthquakes that occur in the same region which is followed by a larger earthquake. The larger earthquake, called the mainshock, always has aftershocks that follow it. Aftershocks can continue of hours, weeks, months and sometimes even years depending on how big the mainshock was. Earthquakes usually occur on active faults which define major tectonic plates on the Earth. 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur along plate boundaries. Earthquakes can cause much damage, mainly from the ground shaking and leaving cracks in the ground. Sometimes it can also cause buildings to collapse and cause deaths.

text: Microsomes can be concentrated and separated from other cellular debris by differential centrifugation.  Unbroken cells, nuclei, and mitochondria sediment out at 10,000 g, whereas soluble enzymes and fragmented ER, which contains cytochrome P450 (CYP), remain in solution (g is the Earth's gravitational acceleration).  At 100,000 g, achieved by faster centrifuge rotation, ER sediments out of solution as a pellet but the soluble enzymes remain in the supernatant.  In this way, cytochrome P450 in microsomes is concentrated and isolated. Microsomes have a reddish-brown color, due to the presence of the heme. Because of the need for a multi-part protein-system, microsomes are necessary to analyze the metabolic activity of CYPs. These CYPs are highly abundant in livers of rats, mice and humans, but present in all other organs and organisms as well.

text: Microsomes can be concentrated and separated from other cellular debris by

text: differential centrifugation

text: .  Unbroken cells,

text: nuclei

text: , and

text: mitochondria

text: sediment out at 10,000 g, whereas soluble enzymes and fragmented ER, which contains

text: cytochrome P450

text: (CYP), remain in solution (g is the Earth's gravitational acceleration).  At 100,000 g, achieved by faster centrifuge rotation, ER sediments out of solution as a pellet but the soluble enzymes remain in the

text: supernatant

text: .  In this way, cytochrome P450 in microsomes is concentrated and isolated. Microsomes have a reddish-brown color, due to the presence of the

text: heme

text: . Because of the need for a multi-part protein-system, microsomes are necessary to analyze the metabolic activity of CYPs. These CYPs are highly abundant in livers of rats, mice and humans, but present in all other organs and organisms as well.

text: The cool early Earth (CEE) theory posits that early during its evolutionary history, planet Earth had a calm influx of bolides and a cool climate allowing fluid water, after the planetary accretion but before the occurrence of the Late Heavy Bombardment in the Hadean geological eon. The cool early Earth is believed to have been the state for some hundreds of million years around 4.2 billion years (Ga) ago. This Cool Early Earth theory is supported by supposed water conditions at the creation of  detrital zircon at Jack Hills in Western Australia, dated to about 4.0–4.4 Ga ago, some time after the planetary accretion era of the early Hadean. The Cool Early Earth was immediately followed by the Late Heavy Bombardment.

text: The cool early Earth (CEE) theory posits that early during its evolutionary history, planet

text: Earth

text: had a calm influx of

text: bolide

text: s and a cool climate allowing fluid water, after the

text: planetary accretion

text: but before the occurrence of the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: in the

text: Hadean

text: geological eon. The cool early Earth is believed to have been the state for some hundreds of million years around 4.2

text: billion years

text: (Ga) ago. This Cool Early Earth theory is supported by supposed water conditions at the creation of  detrital

text: zircon

text: at

text: Jack Hills

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: , dated to about 4.0–4.4 Ga ago, some time after the planetary accretion era of the early Hadean. The Cool Early Earth was immediately followed by the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres. These include all the gas giants, as well as Mars, Venus, and Pluto. Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do comets and the Sun. There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect, aerosol and cloud physics, and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics.

text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other

text: astronomical object

text: s in the

text: Solar System

text: have

text: atmosphere

text: s. These include all the

text: gas giants

text: , as well as

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Pluto

text: . Several

text: moons

text: and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do

text: comet

text: s and the

text: Sun

text: . There is evidence that

text: extrasolar planet

text: s can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: aerosol

text: and cloud physics, and

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: and dynamics.

text: Recent studies in the Sarno river (near Pompeii) show other interesting elements of ancient life. The Sarno projects suggests that on the Tyrrhenian shore there were little towns with palafittes, similar to ancient Venice. In the same area, the submerged town of Puteoli (Pozzuoli, close to Naples) contains the "portus Julius" created by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 37 BC, later sunk due to bradyseism.

text: Recent studies in the

text: Sarno

text: river (near

text: Pompeii

text: ) show other interesting elements of ancient life. The Sarno projects suggests that on the Tyrrhenian shore there were little towns with

text: palafitte

text: s, similar to ancient

text: Venice

text: . In the same area, the submerged town of Puteoli (

text: Pozzuoli

text: , close to

text: Naples

text: ) contains the "portus Julius" created by

text: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

text: in 37 BC, later sunk due to

text: bradyseism

text: When two tectonic plates collide, relatively denser oceanic crust will be subducted under relatively lighter continental crust. Because of the subduction process, the relatively cooler oceanic crust, along with water, is subducted to the asthenosphere, where pressures and temperatures are much higher than the surface of earth. Under such conditions, the downgoing plate releases volatiles such as HO and CO, which cause partial melting of the above asthenosphere. This process can create relatively buoyant magma, which subsequently forms a series of volcanoes at the surface along the subduction zone. There are some researchers who argue that refertilization of arc lithospheric mantle may also be an important process associated with arc magmatism. Because the subduction zone (which is also the plate boundary) is generally an arc-shape, geologists named those volcanoes volcanic arcs. A volcanic arc built on continental crust is called a continental arc; when built on oceanic crust the volcanoes form an island arc.

text: When two

text: tectonic plate

text: s collide, relatively denser

text: oceanic crust

text: will be subducted under relatively lighter

text: continental crust

text: . Because of the subduction process, the relatively cooler oceanic crust, along with water, is subducted to the

text: asthenosphere

text: , where pressures and temperatures are much higher than the surface of earth. Under such conditions, the downgoing plate releases

text: volatiles

text: such as HO and CO, which cause

text: partial melting

text: of the above asthenosphere. This process can create relatively buoyant

text: magma

text: , which subsequently forms a series of

text: volcano

text: es at the surface along the

text: subduction zone

text: . There are some researchers who argue that refertilization of arc lithospheric mantle may also be an important process associated with arc magmatism. Because the subduction zone (which is also the plate boundary) is generally an arc-shape, geologists named those volcanoes

text: volcanic arc

text: s. A volcanic arc built on continental crust is called a continental arc; when built on oceanic crust the volcanoes form an

text: island arc

text: According to the Standard Solar Model, stars similar to the Sun should gradually brighten over their main sequence lifetime due to contraction of the stellar core caused by fusion. However, with the predicted solar luminosity  ago and with greenhouse gas concentrations the same as are current for the modern Earth, any liquid water exposed to the surface would freeze. However, the geological record shows a continually relatively warm surface in the full early temperature record of Earth, with the exception of a cold phase, the Huronian glaciation, about 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago. Water-related sediments have been found dating to as early as 3.8 billion years ago. Hints of early life forms have been dated from as early as 3.5 billion years, and the basic carbon isotopy is very much in line with what is found today. A regular alternation between ice ages and warm periods is only found occurring in the period since one billion years ago.

text: According to the

text: Standard Solar Model

text: , stars similar to the Sun should gradually brighten over their

text: main sequence

text: lifetime due to contraction of the stellar core caused by fusion. However, with the predicted

text: solar luminosity

text: ago and with

text: greenhouse gas

text: concentrations the same as are current for the modern Earth, any liquid water exposed to the surface would freeze. However, the geological record shows a continually relatively warm surface in the full early

text: temperature record

text: of Earth, with the exception of a cold phase, the

text: Huronian glaciation

text: , about 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago. Water-related sediments have been found dating to as early as 3.8 billion years ago. Hints of early life forms have been dated from as early as 3.5 billion years, and the basic carbon isotopy is very much in line with what is found today. A regular alternation between ice ages and warm periods is only found occurring in the period since one billion years ago.

text: The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2.0–1.8 billion years and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).

text: The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent

text: Columbia

text: or Nuna formed during a period of 2.0–1.8 billion years and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago. The supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called

text: Pangaea

text: ; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).

text: During the Permian, all the Earth's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

text: During the Permian, all the

text: Earth

text: 's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as

text: Pangaea

text: . Pangaea straddled the

text: equator

text: and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("

text: Panthalassa

text: ", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The

text: Cimmeria

text: continent

text: rift

text: ed away from

text: Gondwana

text: and drifted north to

text: Laurasia

text: , causing the

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: , an ocean that would dominate much of the

text: Mesozoic

text: Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("

text: continental climate

text: ") and

text: monsoon

text: conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns.

text: Desert

text: s seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored

text: gymnosperm

text: s, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as

text: fern

text: s that disperse

text: spore

text: s in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (

text: conifers

text: ginkgo

text: s and

text: cycad

text: s) appeared in the Permian.

text: The program was established in early 1873 during the school's first academic year and played in the Ohio Athletic Conference (OAC) from 1954–1966, the Ohio Valley Conference from 1981 through 1987, and the Mid-Continent Conference for the 1990, 1991, and 1992 seasons. The Zips began competition in the MAC in 1993 and were placed in the East Division when it was created in 2000. The team had one appearance in the NCAA Division I Baseball Championship, which came in 1996 following their only MAC Tournament Championship. Additionally, the Zips won the 1954 OAC championship and the 1991 Mid-Continent Conference title.

text: The program was established in early 1873 during the school's first academic year and played in the

text: Ohio Athletic Conference

text: (OAC) from 1954–1966, the

text: Ohio Valley Conference

text: from 1981 through 1987, and the

text: Mid-Continent Conference

text: for the 1990, 1991, and 1992 seasons. The Zips began competition in the MAC in 1993 and were placed in the East Division when it was created in 2000. The team had one appearance in the

text: NCAA Division I Baseball Championship

text: , which came in

entity_name: 1996 NCAA Division I Baseball Tournament

text: following their only

entity_name: 1996 Mid-American Conference Baseball Tournament

text: MAC Tournament Championship

text: . Additionally, the Zips won the 1954 OAC championship and the 1991 Mid-Continent Conference title.

text: The transition to modern cells (the "Darwinian Threshold") occurred when organisms evolved translation mechanisms with modern levels of fidelity; improved performance allowed cellular organization to reach a level of complexity and connectedness that made genes from other organisms much less able to displace an individual's own genes. Horizontal gene transfer during this era was responsible for the fast early evolution of complex biological structures.

text: The transition to modern cells (the "Darwinian Threshold") occurred when organisms evolved translation mechanisms with modern levels of fidelity; improved performance allowed cellular organization to reach a level of complexity and connectedness that made genes from other organisms much less able to displace an individual's own genes. Horizontal gene transfer during this era was responsible for the fast

text: early evolution

text: of complex biological structures.

text: The Okavango Dyke Swarm is a giant dyke swarm of the Karoo Large Igneous Province in Northeast Botswana, southern Africa. It consists of a group of Proterozoic and Jurassic dykes, trending east-southeast across Botswana, spanning a region nearly 2000 km long and 110 km wide. The Jurassic dykes were formed approximately 179 million years ago, composed of mainly mafic tholeiites. The formation is related to the magmatism at the Karoo triple junction, induced by the plate tectonic break up of the Gondwana supercontinent in the early Jurassic.

text: The Okavango Dyke Swarm is a giant

text: dyke swarm

text: of the

text: Karoo

text: Large Igneous Province

text: in Northeast

text: Botswana

text: southern Africa

text: . It consists of a group of

text: Proterozoic

text: and

text: Jurassic

text: dykes

text: , trending east-southeast across Botswana, spanning a region nearly 2000 km long and 110 km wide. The Jurassic dykes were formed approximately 179 million years ago, composed of mainly

text: mafic

text: tholeiite

text: s. The formation is related to the

text: magmatism

text: at the Karoo triple junction, induced by the plate tectonic break up of the

text: Gondwana

text: supercontinent in the early Jurassic.

text: Daniel Drawbaugh received  for an Earth battery for electric clocks (with several improvements in the art of Earth batteries). Another early patent was obtained by Emil Jahr  Method of utilizing electrical Earth currents). In 1875, James C. Bryan received  for his Earth Battery. In 1885, George Dieckmann, received US patent  for his Electric Earth battery. In 1898, Nathan Stubblefield received  for his electrolytic coil battery, which was a combination of an earth battery and a solenoid. (For more information see US patents , , , , , ,  and .) The Earth battery, in general, generated power for early telegraph transmissions and formed part of a tuned circuit that amplified the signalling voltage over long distances.

text: Daniel Drawbaugh

text: received  for an Earth battery for electric clocks (with several improvements in the art of Earth batteries). Another early patent was obtained by

text: Emil Jahr

text: Method of utilizing electrical Earth currents). In 1875,

text: James C. Bryan

text: received  for his Earth Battery. In 1885,

text: George Dieckmann

text: , received US patent  for his Electric Earth battery. In 1898,

text: Nathan Stubblefield

text: received  for his electrolytic coil battery, which was a combination of an earth battery and a solenoid. (For more information see US patents , , , , , ,  and .) The Earth battery, in general, generated power for early telegraph transmissions and formed part of a

text: tuned circuit

text: that amplified the signalling voltage over long distances.

text: In the area of the evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, Catling is known for a theory explaining how the Earth’s crust accumulated large quantities of oxidized minerals and how the atmosphere became rich in oxygen.  Geological records show that oxygen flooded the atmosphere in a Great Oxidation Event (GOE) about 2.4 billion years ago, even though bacteria that produced oxygen likely evolved hundreds of millions of years earlier. Catling’s theory proposes that biological oxygen was initially used by reactions with chemicals in the environment; gradually, however, Earth’s environment shifted to a tipping point where oxygen flooded the air. Atmospheric methane is the key part of this theory. Before oxygen was abundant, methane gas could reach concentrations hundreds of times greater than today’s 1.8 parts per million. Ultraviolet light decomposes methane molecules in the upper atmosphere, causing hydrogen gas to escape into space. Over time, the irreversible atmospheric escape of hydrogen– a powerful reducing agent -caused Earth to oxidize and reach the GOE tipping point.

text: In the area of the evolution of the Earth’s atmosphere, Catling is known for a theory explaining how the Earth’s crust accumulated large quantities of oxidized minerals and how the atmosphere became rich in oxygen.  Geological records show that oxygen flooded the atmosphere in a

text: Great Oxidation Event

text: (GOE) about 2.4 billion years ago, even though bacteria that produced oxygen likely evolved hundreds of millions of years earlier. Catling’s theory proposes that biological oxygen was initially used by reactions with chemicals in the environment; gradually, however, Earth’s environment shifted to a tipping point where oxygen flooded the air.

text: Atmospheric methane

text: is the key part of this theory. Before oxygen was abundant, methane gas could reach concentrations hundreds of times greater than today’s 1.8 parts per million. Ultraviolet light decomposes methane molecules in the upper atmosphere, causing hydrogen gas to escape into space. Over time, the irreversible

text: atmospheric escape

text: of hydrogen– a powerful reducing agent -caused Earth to oxidize and reach the GOE tipping point.

text: Unlike the oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, Europa's is not of biological origin. The surface-bounded atmosphere forms through radiolysis, the dissociation of molecules through radiation. Solar ultraviolet radiation and charged particles (ions and electrons) from the Jovian magnetospheric environment collide with Europa's icy surface, splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen constituents. These chemical components are then adsorbed and "sputtered" into the atmosphere. The same radiation also creates collisional ejections of these products from the surface, and the balance of these two processes forms an atmosphere. Molecular oxygen is the densest component of the atmosphere because it has a long lifetime; after returning to the surface, it does not stick (freeze) like a water or hydrogen peroxide molecule but rather desorbs from the surface and starts another ballistic arc. Molecular hydrogen never reaches the surface, as it is light enough to escape Europa's surface gravity.

text: Unlike the oxygen in

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , Europa's is not of biological origin. The surface-bounded atmosphere forms through

text: radiolysis

text: , the

text: dissociation

text: of molecules through radiation. Solar ultraviolet radiation and charged particles (ions and electrons) from the Jovian magnetospheric environment collide with Europa's icy surface, splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen constituents. These chemical components are then

text: adsorbed

text: and "

text: sputtered

text: " into the atmosphere. The same radiation also creates collisional ejections of these products from the surface, and the balance of these two processes forms an atmosphere. Molecular oxygen is the densest component of the atmosphere because it has a long lifetime; after returning to the surface, it does not stick (freeze) like a water or

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: molecule but rather desorbs from the surface and starts another

text: ballistic

text: arc. Molecular hydrogen never reaches the surface, as it is light enough to escape Europa's surface gravity.

text: This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth and to progress in the definition of the geologic time scale, largely based on fossil evidence. In 1822 Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blanville, editor of Journal de Physique, coined the word "palaeontology" to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils. As knowledge of life's history continued to improve, it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This encouraged early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species.After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859, much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths, including human evolution, and evolutionary theory.

text: This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth and to progress in the definition of the

text: geologic time scale

text: , largely based on fossil evidence. In 1822 Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blanville, editor of Journal de Physique, coined the word "palaeontology" to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils. As knowledge of life's history continued to improve, it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life. This encouraged early evolutionary theories on the

text: transmutation of species

text: .After

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

text: Origin of Species

text: evolution

text: ary paths, including

text: human evolution

text: , and evolutionary theory.

text: Caves (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2007)

text: There have been three main phases in the observation and exploration of Saturn. The first era was ancient observations (such as with the naked eye), before the invention of the modern telescopes. Starting in the 17th century progressively more advanced telescopic observations from Earth have been made. The other type is visitation by spacecraft, either by orbiting or flyby. In the 21st century observations continue from the Earth (or Earth-orbiting observatories) and from the Cassini orbiter at Saturn.

text: There have been three main phases in the observation and exploration of Saturn. The first era was ancient observations (such as with the

text: naked eye

text: ), before the invention of the modern telescopes. Starting in the 17th century progressively more advanced telescopic observations from Earth have been made. The other type is visitation by spacecraft, either by orbiting or flyby. In the 21st century observations continue from the Earth (or Earth-orbiting observatories) and from the Cassini orbiter at Saturn.

text: Ancient astronauts (or ancient aliens) is a pseudoscientific concept based on the belief that intelligent extraterrestrial beings visited Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity and prehistoric times. Proponents suggest that this contact influenced the development of modern cultures, technologies, and religions. A common claim is that deities from most, if not all, religions are actually extraterrestrial in origin, and that advanced technologies brought to Earth by ancient astronauts were interpreted as evidence of divine status by early humans.

text: Ancient astronauts (or ancient aliens) is a

text: pseudoscientific

text: concept based on the belief that intelligent

text: extraterrestrial beings

text: visited Earth and made contact with humans in

text: antiquity

text: and

text: prehistoric

text: times. Proponents suggest that this contact influenced the development of modern cultures, technologies, and religions. A common claim is that

text: deities

text: from most, if not all, religions are actually extraterrestrial in origin, and that advanced technologies brought to Earth by ancient astronauts were interpreted as evidence of divine status by early humans.

text: [[Image:Hawkwoman1.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Shayera Hol on the cover to Hawkman v2 #6. Art by Richard Howell.]]Together, they captured the Rainbow Robbers in their stronghold found behind a waterfall; while on the case, Shayera saved Katar's life and the two fell deeply in love.  A few weeks later, Katar proposed to Shayera in front of the same waterfall. She accepted and they were married. Ten years later, the couple was sent to Earth in pursuit of the criminal Byth Rok. Upon reaching Earth, they were befriended by Midway City police commissioner George Emmett, who established cover identities for them as Carter and Shiera Hall. After capturing Byth and bringing him back to their planet, Katar and Shayera chose to return to study Earth's crimefighting methods, and they fought against evil as the superheroes Hawkman and Hawkgirl. Shayera renamed herself Hawkwoman in the early 1980s.

text: [[Image:Hawkwoman1.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Shayera Hol on the cover to Hawkman v2 #6. Art by

text: Richard Howell

text: .]]Together, they captured the Rainbow Robbers in their stronghold found behind a waterfall; while on the case, Shayera saved Katar's life and the two fell deeply in love.  A few weeks later, Katar proposed to Shayera in front of the same waterfall. She accepted and they were married. Ten years later, the couple was sent to Earth in pursuit of the criminal

text: Byth

text: Rok. Upon reaching Earth, they were befriended by

text: Midway City

text: police commissioner George Emmett, who established cover identities for them as Carter and Shiera Hall. After capturing Byth and bringing him back to their planet, Katar and Shayera chose to return to study Earth's crimefighting methods, and they fought against evil as the superheroes Hawkman and Hawkgirl. Shayera renamed herself Hawkwoman in the early 1980s.

text: Multi-level selection theory suggests that selection operates on more than one level: for example, it may operate at an atomic and molecular level in cells, at the level of cells in the body, and then again at the whole organism level, and the community level, and the species level. Any level which is not competitive with others of the same level will be eliminated, even if the level below is highly competitive. A classic example is that of genes which prevent cancer. Cancer cells divide uncontrollably, and at the cellular level, they are very successful, because they are (in the short term) reproducing very well and out competing other cells in the body. However, at the whole organism level, cancer is often fatal, and so may prevent reproduction. Therefore, changes to the genome which prevent cancer (for example, by causing damaged cells to act co-operatively by destroying themselves) are favoured. Multi-level selection theory contends that similar effects can occur, for example, to cause individuals to co-operate to avoid behaviours which favour themselves short-term, but destroy the community (and their descendants) long term.

text: Multi-level selection theory suggests that selection operates on more than one level: for example, it may operate at an atomic and molecular level in cells, at the level of cells in the body, and then again at the whole organism level, and the community level, and the species level. Any level which is not competitive with others of the same level will be eliminated, even if the level below is highly competitive. A classic example is that of genes which prevent

text: cancer

text: . Cancer cells divide uncontrollably, and at the cellular level, they are very successful, because they are (in the short term) reproducing very well and out competing other cells in the body. However, at the whole organism level, cancer is often fatal, and so may prevent reproduction. Therefore, changes to the genome which prevent cancer (for example, by causing damaged cells to act co-operatively by destroying themselves) are favoured. Multi-level selection theory contends that similar effects can occur, for example, to cause individuals to co-operate to avoid behaviours which favour themselves short-term, but destroy the community (and their descendants) long term.

text: The Bichons were divided into four categories: the Bichon Maltese, the Bichon Bolognaise, the Bichon Havanese and the Bichon Tenerife (this breed). All originated in the Mediterranean area.Because of their merry disposition, they traveled much and were often used as barter by sailors as they moved from continent to continent. The dogs found early success in Spain and it is generally believed that Spanish seamen introduced the breed to the Canary Island of Tenerife. In the 14th century, Italian sailors rediscovered the little dogs on their voyages and are credited with returning them to the continent, where they became great favorites of Italian nobility. Often, as was the style of the day with dogs in the courts, they were cut "lion style," like a modern-day Portuguese Water Dog.

text: The Bichons were divided into four categories: the Bichon

text: Maltese

text: , the

text: Bichon Bolognaise

text: , the

text: Bichon Havanese

text: and the Bichon Tenerife (this breed). All originated in the Mediterranean area.Because of their merry disposition, they traveled much and were often used as

text: barter

text: by sailors as they moved from continent to continent. The dogs found early success in

text: Spain

text: and it is generally believed that Spanish seamen introduced the breed to the

text: Canary Island

text: of

text: Tenerife

text: . In the 14th century,

text: Italian

text: sailors rediscovered the little dogs on their voyages and are credited with returning them to the continent, where they became great favorites of Italian nobility. Often, as was the style of the day with dogs in the courts, they were cut "lion style," like a modern-day

text: Portuguese Water Dog

text: Many of the ancient peoples of the American continents built semi-permanent houses of poles and brush plastered with mud over a shallow pit in the earth. As these pithouses were very similar to those first built in northeastern Europe 25,000 years ago, pithouse technology may have been carried to the Americas by early nomadic settlers, traveling first through Siberia, and then across the ice bridge between Asia and North America about 12,000 to 14,000 years ago.

text: For millennia, humans have speculated how the physical and living elements on the surface of the Earth combine, with gods and goddesses frequently posited to embody specific elements. The notion that the Earth, itself, is alive was a regular theme of Greek philosophy and religion. Early scientific interpretations of the Earth system began in the field of geology, initially in the Middle East and China, and largely focused on aspects such as the age of the Earth and the large-scale processes involved in mountain and ocean formation. As geology developed as a science, understanding of the interplay of different facets of the Earth system increased, leading to the inclusion of factors such as the Earth's interior, planetary geology and living systems.

text: For millennia, humans have speculated how the physical and living elements on the surface of the Earth combine, with gods and goddesses frequently posited to embody specific elements. The notion that the Earth, itself, is alive was a regular theme of Greek philosophy and religion. Early scientific interpretations of the Earth system began in the field of

text: geology

text: , initially in the Middle East and China, and largely focused on aspects such as the

text: age of the Earth

text: and the large-scale processes involved in

text: mountain

text: and

text: ocean

text: formation. As

text: geology developed as a science

text: , understanding of the interplay of different facets of the Earth system increased, leading to the inclusion of factors such as the

text: Earth's interior

text: planetary geology

text: and

text: living systems

text: Ben-Jacob's bacteria are two pattern forming social bacteria strains, the Paenibacillus dendritiformis and the Paenibacillus vortex discovered in the early 1990s by Eshel Ben-Jacob. These bacteria are widely known for their ability to generate large colonies (with the number of bacteria exceeding many folds the number of people on earth) with highly complex organization.

text: Ben-Jacob's bacteria are two pattern forming social bacteria strains, the

text: Paenibacillus dendritiformis

text: and the

text: Paenibacillus vortex

text: discovered in the early 1990s by

text: Eshel Ben-Jacob

text: . These bacteria are widely known for their ability to generate large colonies (with the number of bacteria exceeding many folds the number of people on earth) with highly complex organization.

text: Early mesoporous organosilicas developed had organic groups attached terminally to the silica surface. They were prepared either by grafting of organic group onto the channel walls or by template-directed co-condensation. For example, by modifying the channels of PMSs with alkanethiol groups that could sequester heavy metals. However, there were some major limitations like, inhomogeneity of the pores compared to PMSs, and limited organic content (around 25% with respect to the silicon wall sites).

text: Early mesoporous organosilicas developed had organic groups attached terminally to the silica surface. They were prepared either by grafting of organic group onto the channel walls or by template-directed co-condensation. For example, by modifying the channels of PMSs with

text: alkanethiol

text: groups that could sequester

text: heavy metals

text: . However, there were some major limitations like, inhomogeneity of the pores compared to PMSs, and limited organic content (around 25% with respect to the

text: silicon

text: wall sites).

text: A partial solar eclipse will occur on February 27, 2036. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: will occur on February 27, 2036. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: After all these considerations, Plate Tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics") became quickly accepted in the scientific world, and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts:

text: The Tetrahedral hypothesis is an obsolete scientific theory attempting to explain the arrangement of the Earth's continents and oceans by referring to the geometry of a tetrahedron. Although it was a historically interesting theory in the late 19th and early 20th century, it was superseded by the concepts of continental drift and modern plate tectonics.

text: The Tetrahedral hypothesis is an

text: obsolete scientific theory

text: attempting to explain the arrangement of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: continent

text: s and

text: ocean

text: s by referring to the geometry of a

text: tetrahedron

text: . Although it was a historically interesting theory in the late 19th and early 20th century, it was superseded by the concepts of

text: continental drift

text: and modern

text: plate tectonics

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Tamil nationalists came to identify Kumari Kandam with Lemuria, a "lost continent" posited in the 19th century to account for discontinuities in biogeography.  In these accounts, Kumari Kandam became the "cradle of civilization",  the origin of human languages in general and the Tamil language in particular. These ideas gained notability in Tamil academic literature over the first decades of the 20th century, and were popularized by the Tanittamil Iyakkam, notably by self-taught Dravidologist Devaneya Pavanar, who held that all languages on earth were merely corrupted Tamil dialects.

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries,

text: Tamil nationalists

text: came to identify Kumari Kandam with

text: Lemuria

text: , a "lost continent" posited in the 19th century to account for discontinuities in

text: biogeography

text: .  In these accounts, Kumari Kandam became the "

text: cradle of civilization

text: ",  the origin of human languages in general and the

text: Tamil language

text: in particular. These ideas gained notability in Tamil academic literature over the first decades of the 20th century, and were popularized by the

text: Tanittamil Iyakkam

text: , notably by

text: self-taught

text: Dravidologist

text: Devaneya Pavanar

text: , who held that all languages on earth were merely corrupted Tamil dialects.

text: The process by which cratons are formed from early rock is called cratonization. The first large cratonic landmasses formed during the Archean eon. During the early Archean, Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today because of the greater concentration of radioactive isotopes and the residual heat from the Earth's accretion. There was considerably greater tectonic and volcanic activity; the mantle was less viscous and the crust thinner. This resulted in rapid formation of oceanic crust at ridges and hot spots, and rapid recycling of oceanic crust at subduction zones. There are at least three hypotheses of how cratons have been formed:  1) surface crust was thickened by a rising plume of deep molten material, 2) successive subducting plates of oceanic lithosphere became lodged beneath a proto-craton in an under-plating process, 3) accretion from island arcs or continental fragments rafting together to thicken into a craton.

text: The process by which cratons are formed from early rock is called cratonization. The first large cratonic landmasses formed during the

text: Archean

text: eon. During the early Archean, Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today because of the greater concentration of radioactive isotopes and the residual heat from the Earth's

text: accretion

text: . There was considerably greater

text: tectonic

text: and

text: volcanic

text: activity; the

text: mantle

text: was less viscous and the crust thinner. This resulted in rapid formation of

text: oceanic crust

text: at ridges and

text: hot spots

text: , and rapid

text: recycling of oceanic crust

text: at

text: subduction

text: zones. There are at least three hypotheses of how cratons have been formed:  1) surface crust was thickened by a rising plume of deep molten material, 2) successive subducting plates of oceanic lithosphere became lodged beneath a proto-craton in an under-plating process, 3) accretion from island arcs or continental fragments rafting together to thicken into a craton.

text: The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid development of animals.

text: The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30% around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants

text: use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

text: , releasing oxygen. Breakdown of

text: pyrite

text: and

text: volcanic eruption

text: s release

text: sulfur

text: into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid development of animals.

text: It is because the mantle can convect that the tectonic plates are able to move around the Earth's surface.

text: It is because the mantle can convect that the

text: tectonic plates

text: are able to move around the Earth's surface.

text: The Kaapvaal Craton (centred on Limpopo Province in South Africa), along with the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia, are the only remaining areas of pristine 3.6–2.5 Ga (billion years ago) crust on Earth. Similarities of rock records from both these cratons, especially of the overlying late Archean sequences, suggest that they were once part of the Vaalbara supercontinent (Zegers et al., 1998).

text: The Kaapvaal Craton (centred on

text: Limpopo Province

text: in South Africa), along with the

text: Pilbara Craton

text: of Western Australia, are the only remaining areas of pristine 3.6–2.5

text: Ga

text: (billion years ago) crust on Earth. Similarities of rock records from both these

text: craton

text: s, especially of the overlying late

text: Archean

text: sequences, suggest that they were once part of the

text: Vaalbara

text: supercontinent

text: (Zegers et al., 1998).

text: The Lotus, or Padma, is, moreover, a very ancient and favourite simile for the Kosmos itself, and also for man.  The popular reasons given are, firstly, the fact just mentioned, that the Lotus-seed contains within itself a perfect miniature of the future plant, which typefies the fact that the spiritual prototypes of all things exist in the immaterial world before those things become materialised on Earth.  Secondly, the fact that the Lotus plant grows up through the water, having its root in the Ilus, or mud, and spreading its flower in the air above.  The Lotus thus typifies the life of man and also that of the Kosmos; for the Secret Doctrine teaches that the elements of both are the same, and that both are developing in the same direction.  The root of the Lotus sunk in the mud represents material life, the stalk passing up through the water typifies existence in the astral world, and the flower floating on the water and opening to the sky is emblematical of spiritual being.

text: The site is one of unparalleled importance in the early colonial history of North America and South Carolina, exemplifying the early competition for control of the region.  Finds at the site also include the only known early Spanish pottery kiln on the continent.  Since the area was never developed agriculturally, even surface-level remains continue to be found.

text: Due to the movement of Earth's tectonic plates, the line of 0° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres; that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map.  With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning.As a result, the International Reference Meridian was established and is commonly used to denote Earth's prime meridian (0° longitude) by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, which defines and maintains the link between longitude and time.  Based on observations to satellites and celestial compact radio sources (quasars) from various coordinated stations around the globe, Airy's transit circle drifts northeast about 2.5 centimetres per year relative to this Earth-centred 0° longitude.Circa 1999 the international reference meridian (IRM) passed 5.31 arcseconds east of Airy's meridian or 102.5 metres (336.3 feet) at the latitude of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London. It is also the reference meridian of the Global Positioning System operated by the United States Department of Defense, and of WGS84 and its two formal versions, the ideal International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) and its realization, the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF). A current convention on the Earth uses the opposite of the IRM as the basis for the International Date Line.

text: Due to the movement of Earth's

text: tectonic plates

text: , the line of 0° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres; that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map.  With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning.As a result, the

text: International Reference Meridian

text: was established and is commonly used to

text: denote

text: Earth's prime meridian (0° longitude) by the

entity_name: International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service

text: International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service

text: , which defines and maintains the link between longitude and time.  Based on observations to satellites and celestial compact radio sources (quasars) from various coordinated stations around the globe, Airy's

text: transit circle

text: drifts northeast about 2.5 centimetres per year relative to this Earth-centred 0° longitude.Circa 1999 the international reference meridian (IRM) passed 5.31

text: arcsecond

text: s east of Airy's meridian or 102.5 metres (336.3 feet) at the

text: latitude

text: of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London. It is also the reference meridian of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: operated by the

text: United States Department of Defense

text: , and of

text: and its two formal versions, the ideal

entity_name: International Terrestrial Reference System

text: International Terrestrial Reference System

text: (ITRS) and its realization, the

text: International Terrestrial Reference Frame

text: (ITRF). A current convention on the Earth uses the opposite of the IRM as the basis for the

text: International Date Line

text: A "snowball earth" is the complete opposite of greenhouse earth, in which the earth's surface is completely frozen over; however, a snowball earth technically does not have continental ice sheets like during the icehouse state. "The Great Infra-Cambrian Ice Age" has been claimed to be the host of such a world, and in 1964, the scientist W. Brian Harland brought forth his discovery of indications of glaciers in low latitudes (Harland and Rudwick). This became a problem for Harland because of the thought of the "Runaway Snowball Paradox" (a kind of Snowball effect) that, once the earth enters the route of becoming a snowball earth, it would never be able to leave that state. However, in 1992 Joe Kirschvink brought up a solution to the paradox. It is believed that since the continents at this time were huddled at the low and mid-latitudes that there was a great cooling event by planetary albedo, or reflection of the earth’s surface. Kirschvink explained that the way to get out of the snowball could be connected to carbon dioxide, since volcanic activity would not halt, and that the buildup and lack of "scrubbing" of this carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, that the earth would return to a greenhouse state. Some scientists believe that the end of the snowball Earth caused an event known as the Cambrian Explosion, which produced the beginnings of multi-cellular life. However some biologists claim that a complete snowball Earth could not have happened since photosynthetic life would not have survived underneath many meters of ice without sunlight. However, it has been observed that, even under meters of thick ice around Antarctica, sunlight shows through. Most scientists today believe that a "hard" Snowball Earth, one completely covered by ice, is probably impossible. However, a "slushball earth", with points of openings near the equator, is also possible.

text: A "

text: snowball earth

text: " is the complete opposite of greenhouse earth, in which the earth's surface is completely frozen over; however, a snowball earth technically does not have continental ice sheets like during the icehouse state. "The Great Infra-

text: Cambrian

text: Ice Age" has been claimed to be the host of such a world, and in 1964, the scientist

text: W. Brian Harland

text: brought forth his discovery of indications of glaciers in

text: low latitudes

text: (Harland and Rudwick). This became a problem for Harland because of the thought of the "Runaway Snowball Paradox" (a kind of

text: Snowball effect

text: ) that, once the earth enters the route of becoming a snowball earth, it would never be able to leave that state. However, in 1992

text: Joe Kirschvink

text: brought up a solution to the paradox. It is believed that since the continents at this time were huddled at the low and mid-latitudes that there was a great cooling event by planetary

text: albedo

text: , or reflection of the earth’s surface. Kirschvink explained that the way to get out of the snowball could be connected to carbon dioxide, since volcanic activity would not halt, and that the buildup and lack of "

text: scrubbing

text: " of this carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, that the earth would return to a greenhouse state. Some scientists believe that the end of the snowball Earth caused an event known as the

text: Cambrian Explosion

text: , which produced the beginnings of

text: multi-cellular

text: life. However some biologists claim that a complete snowball Earth could not have happened since

text: photosynthetic

text: life would not have survived underneath many meters of ice without

text: sunlight

text: . However, it has been observed that, even under meters of thick ice around Antarctica, sunlight shows through. Most scientists today believe that a "hard" Snowball Earth, one completely covered by ice, is probably impossible. However, a "slushball earth", with points of openings near the

text: equator

text: , is also possible.

text: The Plate hypothesis thus attributes all of Earth's volcanism to a single process – plate tectonics – rather than to two independent processes (plumes and plate tectonics), but does not address issues of core–mantle heat and/or material transfer.

text: When first described, R. cratoensis was known from a single fossil adult which is a compression-impression fossil preserved in layers of soft sedimentary rock. Along with other well-preserved insect fossils, the R. cratoensis specimen was collected from layers of the Upper Aptian Crato Formation. The formation is composed of unweathered grey and oxidized yellow limestones, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds and reptiles as a notable lagerstätten. The area is a preserved inland lake or one of a series of lakes, though the nature as a fresh or salt-water body is uncertain. The depth of the basin has been suggested as either shallow or fairly deep. The basin formed near the center of the supercontinent Gondwana during the early part of the diversification of flowering plants.

text: When first described, R. cratoensis was known from a single fossil adult which is a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in layers of soft

text: sedimentary

text: rock. Along with other well-preserved insect fossils, the R. cratoensis specimen was collected from layers of the

text: Upper Aptian

text: Crato Formation

text: . The formation is composed of unweathered grey and oxidized yellow limestones, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds and reptiles as a notable

text: lagerstätten

text: . The area is a preserved inland lake or one of a series of lakes, though the nature as a fresh or salt-water body is uncertain. The depth of the basin has been suggested as either shallow or fairly deep. The basin formed near the center of the

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: during the early part of the diversification of

text: flowering plants

text: In the case of a closed volume, it is easy to compute the amount of water needed. The oxygen (O) in air (21%) is necessary for combustion. Whatever the amount of fuel available (wood, paper, cloth), combustion will stop when the air becomes "thin", i.e., when it contains less than 15% oxygen. If additional air cannot enter, it is possible to calculate the amount of water required to make the atmosphere inert, i.e., to prevent the pyrolysis gases from burning (this is the "volume computation"), and the amount of water required to cool the smoke and the immediate (this is the "thermal computation").

text: In the case of a closed volume, it is easy to compute the amount of water needed. The

text: oxygen

text: (O) in air (21%) is necessary for

text: combustion

text: . Whatever the amount of fuel available (wood, paper, cloth), combustion will stop when the air becomes "thin", i.e., when it contains less than 15% oxygen. If additional

text: air

text: cannot enter, it is possible to calculate the amount of water required to make the atmosphere inert, i.e., to prevent the

text: pyrolysis

text: gases from burning (this is the "volume computation"), and the amount of water required to cool the smoke and the immediate (this is the "thermal computation").

text: John Dunstaple (or Dunstable) (ca. 1390 – 1453) was an English composer of polyphonic music of the late medieval era and early Renaissance periods. He was one of the most famous composers active in the early 15th century, a near-contemporary of Power, and was widely influential, not only in England but on the continent, especially in the developing style of the Burgundian School.Dunstaple's influence on the continent's musical vocabulary was enormous, particularly considering the relative paucity of his (attributable) works. He was recognized for possessing something never heard before in music of the Burgundian School: la contenance angloise ("the English countenance"), a term used by the poet Martin le Franc in his Le Champion des Dames. Le Franc added that the style influenced Dufay and Binchois — high praise indeed. Writing a few decades later in about 1476, the Flemish composer and music theorist Tinctoris reaffirmed the powerful influence Dunstaple had, stressing the "new art" that Dunstaple had inspired. Tinctoris hailed Dunstaple as the fons et origo of the style, its "wellspring and origin."

text: John Dunstaple

text: (or Dunstable) (ca. 1390 – 1453) was an

text: English

text: composer of

text: polyphonic

text: music of the late

text: medieval

text: era and early Renaissance periods. He was one of the most famous composers active in the early 15th century, a near-contemporary of Power, and was widely influential, not only in England but on the continent, especially in the developing style of the

text: Burgundian School

text: .Dunstaple's influence on the continent's musical vocabulary was enormous, particularly considering the relative paucity of his (attributable) works. He was recognized for possessing something never heard before in music of the

text: Burgundian School

text: la contenance angloise

text: ("the English countenance"), a term used by the poet

text: Martin le Franc

text: in his Le Champion des Dames. Le Franc added that the style influenced

text: Dufay

text: and

text: Binchois

text: — high praise indeed. Writing a few decades later in about 1476, the Flemish composer and music theorist

text: Tinctoris

text: reaffirmed the powerful influence Dunstaple had, stressing the "new art" that Dunstaple had inspired. Tinctoris hailed Dunstaple as the fons et origo of the style, its "wellspring and origin."

text: The oldest fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago, during the Quaternary period. The extinct monotremes Teinolophos and Steropodon were once thought to be closely related to the modern platypus, but more recent studies show that platypi are more related to the modern echidnas than to these ancient forms and that at least Teinolophos was a rather different mammal lacking several speciations seen in platypi. However, the last common ancestor between platypi and echidnas probably was aquatic, and echidnas thus secondarily became terrestrial. Monotrematum sudamericanum is currently the oldest aquatic monotreme known. It has been found in Argentina, indicating monotremes were present in the supercontinent of Gondwana when the continents of South America and Australia were joined via Antarctica, or that monotremes existed along the shorelines of Antarctica in the early Cenozoic.

text: The oldest fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago, during the

text: Quaternary

text: period. The extinct monotremes

text: Teinolophos

text: and

text: Steropodon

text: were once thought to be closely related to the modern platypus, but more recent studies show that platypi are more related to the modern

text: echidna

text: s than to these ancient forms and that at least Teinolophos was a rather different mammal lacking several speciations seen in platypi. However, the last common ancestor between platypi and echidnas probably was aquatic, and echidnas thus secondarily became terrestrial.

text: Monotrematum sudamericanum

text: is currently the oldest aquatic monotreme known. It has been found in

text: Argentina

text: , indicating monotremes were present in the supercontinent of

text: Gondwana

text: when the continents of

text: South America

text: and Australia were joined via

text: Antarctica

text: , or that monotremes existed along the shorelines of Antarctica in the early Cenozoic.

text: In geology, a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth's continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass.  However, the definition of a supercontinent can be ambiguous. Many earth scientists, such as P.F. Hoffman (1999), use the term "supercontinent" to mean "a clustering of nearly all continents". This definition leaves room for interpretation when labeling a continental body and is easier to apply to Precambrian times.  Using the first definition provided here, Gondwana (aka Gondwanaland) is not considered a supercontinent, because the landmasses of Baltica, Laurentia and Siberia also existed at the same time but physically separate from each other. The landmass of Pangaea is the collective name describing all of these continental masses when they were in proximity to one another. This would classify Pangaea as a supercontinent. According to the definition by Rogers and Santosh (2004), a supercontinent does not exist today. Supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past (see table). The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early Jurassic. However, beyond , continental positions are much less certain.

text: In

text: geology

text: , a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of

text: Earth

text: 's

text: continental blocks

text: or

text: craton

text: s to form a single large landmass.  However, the definition of a supercontinent can be ambiguous. Many earth scientists, such as P.F. Hoffman (1999), use the term "supercontinent" to mean "a clustering of nearly all continents". This definition leaves room for interpretation when labeling a continental body and is easier to apply to

text: Precambrian

text: times.  Using the first definition provided here,

text: Gondwana

text: (aka Gondwanaland) is not considered a supercontinent, because the landmasses of

text: Baltica

text: Laurentia

text: and

text: Siberia

text: also existed at the same time but physically separate from each other. The landmass of

text: Pangaea

text: is the collective name describing all of these continental masses when they were in proximity to one another. This would classify

text: Pangaea

text: as a supercontinent. According to the definition by Rogers and Santosh (2004), a supercontinent does not exist today. Supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past (see table). The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early

text: Jurassic

text: . However, beyond , continental positions are much less certain.

text: Alternatively, the history of archaeogeography could be rewritten: Richard Lane, program director in NSF's Division of Earth Sciences, said, "The occurrence of this frog in Madagascar and its relatives' existence in South America provides strong evidence that the supercontinent Gondwana 'disassembled' during the latest part of the Cretaceous."

text: Alternatively, the history of archaeogeography could be rewritten: Richard Lane, program director in NSF's Division of Earth Sciences, said, "The occurrence of this frog in Madagascar and its relatives' existence in South America provides strong evidence that the supercontinent Gondwana 'disassembled' during the latest part of the

text: Cretaceous

text: The superseded belief that the Earth is flat, and denial of all of the overwhelming evidence that supports an approximately round globe that rotates around its axis and revolves around the Sun, persists into the 21st century. Modern proponents of flat-Earth cosmology (or flat-earthers) refuse to accept any kind of contrary evidence, dismissing all spaceflights and images from space as hoaxes and accusing all organizations and even private citizens of conspiring to "hide the truth". They claim that no actual satellites are orbiting the Earth, that the International Space Station is fake, and that these are lies from all governments involved in this grand cover-up. Adherents of the modern flat-Earth model propose that the Sun is only 3,000 miles above the Earth and that the Moon and the Sun orbit above, but not around, a flat Earth. Modern flat-earthers believe that Antarctica is not a continent but a massive ice flow, with a wall 150 feet or higher, which circles the perimeter of the Earth, keeps everything from falling off the edge, and contains all the ocean water. Flat-earthers also assert that no one is allowed to explore Antarctica, despite contrary evidence shown. According to them, all photos and videos of ships sinking under the horizon and of the bottoms of city skylines and clouds below the horizon, revealing the curvature of the Earth, have been manipulated, CGI, or somehow faked. Therefore, regardless of any scientific or empirical evidence provided, flat-earthers will stubbornly conclude it is fabricated or altered in some way.

text: The

text: superseded belief

text: that the

text: Earth

text: is

text: flat

text: , and denial of all of the overwhelming evidence that supports an approximately round globe that rotates around its axis and revolves around the

text: Sun

text: , persists into the

text: 21st century

text: . Modern proponents of flat-Earth

text: cosmology

text: (or

text: flat-earther

text: s) refuse to accept any kind of contrary evidence, dismissing all

text: spaceflight

text: s and images from space as

text: hoax

text: es and accusing all organizations and even private citizens of

text: conspiring

text: to "hide the truth". They claim that no actual

text: satellite

text: s are orbiting the Earth, that the

text: International Space Station

text: is fake, and that these are lies from all governments involved in this grand

text: cover-up

text: . Adherents of the modern flat-Earth model propose that the Sun is only 3,000 miles above the Earth and that the

text: Moon

text: and the Sun orbit above, but not around, a flat Earth. Modern flat-earthers believe that

text: Antarctica

text: is not a continent but a massive

text: ice flow

text: , with a wall 150 feet or higher, which circles the perimeter of the Earth, keeps everything from falling off the edge, and contains all the ocean water. Flat-earthers also assert that no one is allowed to explore Antarctica, despite contrary evidence shown. According to them, all photos and videos of ships sinking under the horizon and of the bottoms of city

text: skyline

text: s and clouds below the horizon, revealing the

text: curvature of the Earth

text: , have been

text: manipulated

text: CGI

text: , or somehow faked. Therefore, regardless of any scientific or

text: empirical evidence

text: provided, flat-earthers will stubbornly conclude it is fabricated or altered in some way.

text: The Moon's existence is widely attributed to a huge impact early in Earth's history. Impact events earlier in the history of Earth have been credited with creative as well as destructive events; it has been proposed that impacting comets delivered the Earth's water, and some have suggested that the origins of life may have been influenced by impacting objects by bringing organic chemicals or lifeforms to the Earth's surface, a theory known as exogenesis.

text: The

text: Moon

text: 's existence is widely attributed to a

text: huge impact early in Earth's history

text: . Impact events earlier in the

text: history of Earth

text: have been credited with creative as well as destructive events; it has been proposed that impacting comets delivered the Earth's water, and some have suggested that the

text: origins of life

text: may have been influenced by impacting objects by bringing organic chemicals or lifeforms to the Earth's surface, a theory known as

text: exogenesis

text: J. R. R. Tolkien's novels The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, set in Middle-earth, have been the subject of various film adaptations. There were many early failed attempts to bring the fictional universe to life in screen, some even rejected by the author himself. The first depictions of Middle-earth on film were realized in 1966 as a short cartoon film. In 1978 the first big screen adaptation of the fictional setting was introduced in The Lord of the Rings. The story was more or less completed with the animated television special The Return of the King. In 1985, Middle-earth was depicted in a live-action film for the first time by an adaptation produced in the Soviet Union. In 1993, a live-action television miniseries titled Hobitit was aired by the Finnish broadcaster Yle.

text: J. R. R. Tolkien

text: 's novels

text: The Hobbit

text: and

text: The Lord of the Rings

text: , set in

text: Middle-earth

text: , have been the subject of various film adaptations. There were many early failed attempts to bring the fictional universe to life in screen, some even rejected by the author himself. The first depictions of Middle-earth on film were realized in 1966 as a short cartoon film. In 1978 the first big screen adaptation of the fictional setting was introduced in

text: The Lord of the Rings

text: . The story was more or less completed with the animated television special

text: The Return of the King

text: . In 1985, Middle-earth was depicted in a live-action film for the first time by

text: an adaptation

text: produced in the Soviet Union. In 1993, a live-action television

text: miniseries

text: titled

text: Hobitit

text: was aired by the Finnish broadcaster

text: Yle

text: In early 2011, Soyaworld Inc. was renamed Earth's Own Food Company Inc.

text: Columbia, also known as Nuna and Hudsonland, was one of Earth's ancient supercontinents. It was first proposed by  and is thought to have existed approximately 2.5 to 1.6 billion years (Ga) ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era.  proposed that the assembly of the supercontinent Columbia was completed by global-scale collisional events during 2.1–1.8 Ga.

text: Columbia, also known as Nuna and Hudsonland, was one of Earth's ancient

text: supercontinent

text: s. It was first proposed by  and is thought to have existed approximately 2.5 to 1.6 billion years (

text: Ga

text: ) ago in the

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: Era

text: .  proposed that the assembly of the supercontinent Columbia was completed by global-scale collisional events during 2.1–1.8 Ga.

text: A Map of Middle-earth is the name of two colour posters by different artists, published in the late 1960s and early 1970s by the American and British publishers of J. R. R. Tolkien's book The Lord of the Rings. Both posters were based on cartography by J. R. R. Tolkien and Christopher Tolkien to depict the fictional region of Middle-earth. None of these maps cover the whole continent of Middle-earth; instead they only portray the north-western part of the continent, where the story of The Lord of the Rings takes place.

text: A Map of Middle-earth is the name of two colour posters by different artists, published in the late 1960s and early 1970s by the American and British publishers of

text: J. R. R. Tolkien

text: 's book

text: The Lord of the Rings

text: . Both posters were based on cartography by J. R. R. Tolkien and

text: Christopher Tolkien

text: to depict the fictional region of

text: Middle-earth

text: . None of these maps cover the whole continent of Middle-earth; instead they only portray the north-western part of the continent, where the story of The Lord of the Rings takes place.

text: Data obtained from the studies on complex organics of cometary interest will support the interpretation of the future in-situ data, to be obtained from the Rosetta mission after landing on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014, and samples analyzed by the Curiosity and ExoMars rovers on Mars. Finally the chemical experiments will contribute to the understanding of the chemical processes on Saturn's moon Titan and possible analogies to the prebiotic chemistry on the early Earth.

text: Data obtained from the studies on complex organics of cometary interest will support the interpretation of the future in-situ data, to be obtained from the

text: Rosetta mission

text: after landing on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014, and samples analyzed by the

text: Curiosity

text: and

text: ExoMars

text: rovers on Mars. Finally the chemical experiments will contribute to the understanding of the chemical processes on Saturn's moon

text: Titan

text: and possible analogies to the prebiotic chemistry on the early Earth.

text: Over a period of 22 years numerous reports relating the Antler orogeny and Roberts Mountains thrust to plate convergence were published in various journals, and because their basic tenets have been widely accepted, they are here termed the conventional theories.  The earliest effort to relate plate tectonics specifically to the Antler orogeny was briefly outlined by E.M. Moores: A collision of this continental margin with a subduction zone dipping away from it in late Devonian-early Mississippian time ... resulted in deformation of the pre-existing continental marginal rocks in the Antler Orogeny.

text: These proteins are found in hepatocytes, adipocytes, hematopoietic cells, spleen, kidney, brain, and many other organs. C/EBP proteins are involved in different cellular responses, such as in the control of cellular proliferation, growth and differentiation, in metabolism, and in immunity. Nearly all the members of the C/EBP family can induce transcription through their activation domains by interacting with components of the basal transcription apparatus. (C/EBPγ is an exception that lacks a functional transcriptional activation domain.) Their expression is regulated at multiple levels, including through hormones, mitogens, cytokines, nutrients, and other factors.

text: These proteins are found in

text: hepatocyte

text: s,

text: adipocyte

text: s,

text: hematopoietic cell

text: s,

text: spleen

text: kidney

text: brain

text: , and many other organs. C/EBP proteins are involved in different cellular responses, such as in the control of cellular proliferation, growth and differentiation, in

text: metabolism

text: , and in

text: immunity

text: . Nearly all the members of the C/EBP family can induce transcription through their activation domains by interacting with components of the basal transcription apparatus. (C/EBPγ is an exception that lacks a functional transcriptional activation domain.) Their expression is regulated at multiple levels, including through

text: hormone

text: s,

text: mitogen

text: s,

text: cytokine

text: s,

text: nutrient

text: s, and other factors.

text: Children's Institute Inc. (CII) is a nonprofit organization that provides services to children and families healing from the effects of family and community violence within Los Angeles's most challenged neighborhoods. Founded in 1906 by Minnie Barton, Los Angeles's first female probation officer, the organization (then named the Big Sister League) was first designed to help troubled young women who found themselves adrift in Los Angeles."  The organization has since expanded its services to at-risk youth in Los Angeles who are affected by child abuse, neglect domestic and gang violence as well as poverty.  CII is a multi-service organization that combines evidence-based clinical services, youth development programs and family support services designed to address the whole child and entire family. The organization provides various forms of trauma support—including therapy, intervention services, parenting workshops, early childcare programs and other support services offered in English, Spanish and Korean.

text: Children's Institute Inc. (CII) is a

text: nonprofit organization

text: that provides services to children and families healing from the effects of family and community violence within Los Angeles's most challenged neighborhoods. Founded in 1906 by Minnie Barton, Los Angeles's first female probation officer, the organization (then named the Big Sister League) was first designed to help troubled young women who found themselves adrift in Los Angeles."  The organization has since expanded its services to at-risk youth in Los Angeles who are affected by child abuse, neglect domestic and gang violence as well as poverty.  CII is a multi-service organization that combines evidence-based clinical services, youth development programs and family support services designed to address the whole child and entire family. The organization provides various forms of trauma support—including therapy, intervention services, parenting workshops, early childcare programs and other support services offered in English, Spanish and Korean.

text: Venus is similar to Earth in size and density, and so probably also in bulk composition, but it does not have a significant magnetic field. Earth's magnetic field is produced by what is known as the core dynamo, consisting of an electrically conducting liquid, the nickel-iron outer core that rotates and is convecting. Venus is expected to have an electrically conductive core of similar composition, and although its rotation period is very long (243.7 Earth days), simulations show that this is adequate to produce a dynamo. This implies that Venus lacks convection in its outer core. Convection occurs when there is a large difference in temperature between the inner and outer part of the core, but since Venus has no plate tectonics to let off heat from the mantle, it is possible that outer core convection is being suppressed by a warm mantle. It's also possible that Venus may lack a solid inner core for the same reason, if the core is either too hot or is not under enough pressure to allow molten nickel-iron to freeze there.

text: Venus is similar to Earth in size and density, and so probably also in bulk composition, but it does not have a significant

text: magnetic field

text: . Earth's magnetic field is produced by what is known as the

text: core dynamo

text: , consisting of an electrically conducting liquid, the nickel-iron outer core that rotates and is

text: convecting

text: . Venus is expected to have an electrically conductive core of similar composition, and although its rotation period is very long (243.7 Earth days), simulations show that this is adequate to produce a dynamo. This implies that Venus lacks convection in its outer core. Convection occurs when there is a large difference in temperature between the inner and outer part of the core, but since Venus has no plate tectonics to let off heat from the mantle, it is possible that outer core convection is being suppressed by a warm mantle. It's also possible that Venus may lack a solid inner core for the same reason, if the core is either too hot or is not under enough pressure to allow molten nickel-iron to freeze there.

text: In the story, Organlegging is rampant on Earth in the early 22nd century. In an attempt to alleviate the problem, the UN has just passed the first "Freezer Law", declaring paupers in cryogenic suspension to be dead in law, allowing their organs to be harvested and made available for transplant.

text: In the story,

text: Organlegging

text: is rampant on Earth in the early 22nd century. In an attempt to alleviate the problem, the

text: UN

text: has just passed the first "Freezer Law", declaring

text: pauper

text: s in

text: cryogenic suspension

text: to be dead in law, allowing their organs to be harvested and made available for

text: transplant

text: The flat Earth model is an archaic conception of the Earth's shape as a plane or disk. Many ancient cultures subscribed to a flat Earth cosmography, including Greece until the classical period, the Bronze Age and Iron Age civilizations of the Near East until the Hellenistic period, India until the Gupta period (early centuries AD), and China until the 17th century. That paradigm was also typically held in the aboriginal cultures of the Americas, and the notion of a flat Earth domed by the firmament in the shape of an inverted bowl was common in pre-scientific societies.

text: The flat Earth model is an

text: archaic

text: conception of the

text: Earth

text: 's shape as a

text: plane

text: or

text: disk

text: . Many ancient cultures subscribed to a flat Earth

text: cosmography

text: , including

text: Greece

text: until the

text: classical period

text: , the

text: Bronze Age

text: and

text: Iron Age

text: civilizations of the

text: Near East

text: until the

text: Hellenistic period

text: India

text: until the

text: Gupta period

text: (early centuries AD), and

text: China

text: until the 17th century. That paradigm was also typically held in the aboriginal cultures of the

text: Americas

text: , and the notion of a flat Earth domed by the

text: firmament

text: in the shape of an inverted bowl was common in pre-scientific societies.

text: In the Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic eras, South America and Africa were connected in a landmass called Gondwana, as part of the supercontinent Pangaea. In the Albian, around 110 Ma, South America and Africa began to diverge along the southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, giving rise to a landmass of Antarctica and South America. During the late Eocene, around 35Ma, Antarctica and South America separated and South America became a massive, biologically rich island-continent. During approximately 30 million years, the biodiversity of South America was isolated from the rest of the world, leading to evolution of species within the continent.

text: In the

text: Paleozoic

text: and Early

text: Mesozoic

text: eras,

text: South America

text: and

text: Africa

text: were connected in a landmass called

text: Gondwana

text: , as part of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: . In the

text: Albian

text: , around 110

text: Ma

text: , South America and Africa began to diverge along the southern

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: , giving rise to a landmass of

text: Antarctica

text: and South America. During the late

text: Eocene

text: , around 35Ma, Antarctica and South America separated and South America became a massive, biologically rich island-continent. During approximately 30 million years, the

text: biodiversity

text: of South America was isolated from the rest of the world, leading to evolution of species within the continent.

text: Whether the mixture of gases used in the Miller–Urey experiment truly reflects the atmospheric content of early Earth is controversial. Other less reducing gases produce a lower yield and variety. It was once thought that appreciable amounts of molecular oxygen were present in the prebiotic atmosphere , which would have essentially prevented the formation of organic molecules; however, the current scientific consensus is that such was not the case. (See Oxygen catastrophe).

text: Whether the mixture of gases used in the Miller–Urey experiment truly reflects the atmospheric content of

text: early Earth

text: is controversial. Other less reducing gases produce a lower yield and variety. It was once thought that appreciable amounts of molecular oxygen were present in the prebiotic atmosphere , which would have essentially prevented the formation of organic molecules; however, the current scientific consensus is that such was not the case. (See

text: Oxygen catastrophe

text: West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic.  The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965.  This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up.  Intra-continental rifts and deformations have also been introduced to subdivide both continental plates into sub-plates.

text: In the early 1960s NASA discovered a vast and advanced civilization on the Moon with their first space probes. While this civilization was able to shield itself from all Earth-based visual detection devices, U.S. President John F. Kennedy's speech from 1961 that declared the intent to "Put a man on the Moon and return him safely to the Earth" was not designed as a space race with the Soviet Union, but to secretly establish contact with this newly discovered civilization. This discovery was classified and false images from the Moon were transmitted during all the Apollo missions. When the Earth mission of this new civilization was discovered, political forces demanded that President Richard Nixon end manned missions to the Moon in 1972. First World commences in the year 2018 when the Chinese government announces it is making its first manned mission to the Moon within 24 hours. What does this civilization represent? Why was it covered up? Who knows about its existence? What is their mission? And what lengths will some go to protect Earth and our way of life?

text: In the early 1960s

text: NASA

text: discovered a vast and advanced civilization on the

text: Moon

text: with their first space probes. While this civilization was able to shield itself from all

text: Earth

text: -based visual detection devices, U.S. President

text: John F. Kennedy

text: 's speech from 1961 that declared the intent to "Put a man on the Moon and return him safely to the Earth" was not designed as a space race with the

text: Soviet Union

text: , but to secretly establish contact with this newly discovered civilization. This discovery was classified and false images from the Moon were transmitted during all the

text: Apollo

text: missions. When the Earth mission of this new civilization was discovered, political forces demanded that President

text: Richard Nixon

text: end manned missions to the Moon in 1972. First World commences in the year 2018 when the

text: Chinese

text: government announces it is making its first manned mission to the Moon within 24 hours. What does this civilization represent? Why was it covered up? Who knows about its existence? What is their mission? And what lengths will some go to protect Earth and our way of life?

text: Definition: "e-Constellation of Observation by Recurrent Cellular Environment" combining of three technological "cells"(space, telecom, Grid) to produce a multi-spectral image of the Earth. "e" as intended to feed the new vectors of the mass-based Internet, "Constellation" because relying on a constellation of satellites observing the earth in "saturation" REcurrent "because based on a systematic information delivery high resolution refreshed daily to weekly "Cellular " because using the combined virtues of new technology based on cellular processing (Wide Area Grid) distributed across the full globe.

text: Definition: "e-Constellation of Observation by Recurrent Cellular Environment" combining of three technological "cells"(space, telecom, Grid) to produce a

text: multi-spectral image

text: of the Earth. "e" as intended to feed the new vectors of the mass-based Internet, "Constellation" because relying on a constellation of satellites observing the earth in "saturation"

text: REcurrent

text: "because based on a systematic information delivery high resolution refreshed daily to weekly "Cellular " because using the combined virtues of new technology based on cellular processing (Wide Area Grid) distributed across the full globe.

text: Microbial mats of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early Archean and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them. The evolution of  photosynthesis, around 3.5 Ga, eventually led to a buildup of its waste product, oxygen, in the atmosphere, leading to the great oxygenation event, beginning around 2.4 Ga. The earliest evidence of eukaryotes (complex cells with organelles) dates from 1.85 Ga, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their metabolism. Later, around 1.7 Ga, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions. Sexual reproduction, which involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells (gametes) to create a zygote in a process called fertilization is, in contrast to asexual reproduction, the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms, including almost all eukaryotes (which includes animals and plants). However the origin and evolution of sexual reproduction remain a puzzle for biologists though it did evolve from a common ancestor that was a single celled eukaryotic species.<ref name="Letunic I and Bork P">

text: Microbial mats of coexisting

text: bacteria

text: and

text: archaea

text: were the dominant form of life in the early

text: Archean

text: and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place within them. The evolution of

text: photosynthesis

text: , around 3.5 Ga, eventually led to a buildup of its waste product,

text: oxygen

text: , in the atmosphere, leading to the

text: great oxygenation event

text: , beginning around 2.4 Ga. The earliest evidence of

text: eukaryote

text: s (complex

text: cell

text: s with

text: organelle

text: s) dates from 1.85 Ga, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their

text: metabolism

text: . Later, around 1.7 Ga,

text: multicellular organism

text: s began to appear, with

text: differentiated cell

text: s performing specialised functions.

text: Sexual reproduction

text: , which involves the fusion of male and female reproductive cells (

text: gamete

text: s) to create a

text: zygote

text: in a process called

text: fertilization

text: is, in contrast to

text: asexual reproduction

text: , the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of macroscopic organisms, including almost all

text: eukaryotes

text: (which includes

text: animal

text: s and

text: plant

text: s). However the origin and

text: evolution of sexual reproduction

text: remain a puzzle for biologists though it did evolve from a

text: common ancestor

text: that was a single celled eukaryotic species.<ref name="Letunic I and Bork P">

text: Relatively little is known about their way of life. For example, according to the Iranologist A. D. H. Bivar, the capital of "the ancient Dahae (if indeed they possessed one) is quite unknown."

text: Relatively little is known about their way of life. For example, according to the Iranologist

text: A. D. H. Bivar

text: , the capital of "the ancient Dahae (if indeed they possessed one) is quite unknown."

text: By producing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the early oxygen-poor, reducing atmosphere, into an oxidizing one, causing the "rusting of the Earth" and  the Great Oxygenation Event, that dramatically changed the composition of life forms and led to the near-extinction of anaerobic organisms.

text: By producing

text: oxygen

text: as a byproduct of photosynthesis, cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the early oxygen-poor,

text: reducing atmosphere

text: , into an

text: oxidizing

text: one, causing the "rusting of the Earth" and  the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: , that dramatically changed the composition of life forms and led to the near-extinction of

text: anaerobic organism

text: s.

text: Apart from failed attempts to rescue the team from the past, slowly, something begins to happen. The temporal mechanics are altered in such a way that two time streams emerge. The first focuses on the struggling team in the Mesozoic's Maastrichtian Age, some 65 millions years ago. In the far future, in what will be known as the Telezoic Era, a younger version of Gertrude Salley meets an older version of herself - the one who was responsible for the split in the timeline - now happily living in the center of the new supercontinent of Ultima Pangea. There, they also finally meet the mysterious benefactors known as the Unchanging, who are actually an evolved avian species that inherited the Earth upon the extinction of the human race.

text: Apart from failed attempts to rescue the team from the past, slowly, something begins to happen. The temporal mechanics are altered in such a way that two time streams emerge. The first focuses on the struggling team in the Mesozoic's

text: Maastrichtian

text: Age, some 65 millions years ago. In the far future, in what will be known as the Telezoic Era, a younger version of Gertrude Salley meets an older version of herself - the one who was responsible for the split in the timeline - now happily living in the center of the new

text: supercontinent

text: of

text: Ultima Pangea

text: . There, they also finally meet the mysterious benefactors known as the Unchanging, who are actually an evolved

text: avian

text: species that inherited the Earth upon the extinction of the human race.

text: Ciclosporin is currently in a phase II/III (adaptive) clinical study in Europe to determine its ability to ameliorate neuronal cellular damage and reperfusion injury (phase III) in traumatic brain injury. This multi-center study is being organized by NeuroVive Pharma and the European Brain Injury Consortium using NeuroVive's formulation of ciclosporin called NeuroSTAT (also known by its cardioprotection trade name of CicloMulsion). This formulation uses a lipid emulsion base instead of cremophor and ethanol. NeuroSTAT was recently compared to Sandimmune in a phase I study and found to be bioequivalent. In this study, NeuroSTAT did not exhibit the anaphylactic and hypersensitivity reactions found in cremophor- and ethanol-based products.

text: Thomas Tallis set the first lesson, and second lesson, of Tenebrae on Maundy Thursday between 1560, and 1569: "when the practice of making musical settings of the Holy Week readings from the Book of Jeremiah enjoyed a brief and distinguished flowering in England (the practice had developed on the continent during the early 15th century)".

text: Thomas Tallis

text: set the first lesson, and second lesson, of Tenebrae on

text: Maundy Thursday

text: between 1560, and 1569: "when the practice of making musical settings of the Holy Week readings from the Book of Jeremiah enjoyed a brief and distinguished flowering in England (the practice had developed on the continent during the early 15th century)".

text: The history of south-up map orientation as political statement can be traced back to the early 1900s. Joaquín Torres García, a Uruguayan modernist painter, created one of the first maps to make a political statement related to north-south map positions, an illustration often called "The Upside-down Map" (1943). "Torres-García placed the South Pole at the top of the earth, thereby suggesting a visual affirmation of the importance of the (South American) continent."

text: The history of south-up map orientation as political statement can be traced back to the early 1900s.

text: Joaquín Torres García

text: , a Uruguayan modernist painter, created one of the first maps to make a political statement related to north-south map positions, an illustration often called "The Upside-down Map" (1943). "Torres-García placed the South Pole at the top of the earth, thereby suggesting a visual affirmation of the importance of the (South American) continent."

text: The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle  of oxygen within its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the Earth's crust.  Failures in the oxygen cycle within the hydrosphere (the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of planet Earth) can result in the development of hypoxic zones.  The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life on earth (see the Great Oxygenation Event).

text: The oxygen cycle is the

text: biogeochemical cycle

text: of

text: oxygen

text: within its three main reservoirs: the

text: atmosphere

text: (air), the total content of biological matter within the

text: biosphere

text: (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the

text: Earth's crust

text: .  Failures in the oxygen cycle within the

text: hydrosphere

text: (the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of planet Earth) can result in the development of

text: hypoxic zone

text: s.  The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is

text: photosynthesis

text: , which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and life on earth (see the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: Actually, there were two main "schools of thought" that pushed plate tectonics forward:

text: Actually, there were two main "schools of thought" that pushed

text: plate tectonics

text: forward:

text: During entry into the Venusian atmosphere, the heat shield temperature rose to  and at one point the cabin deceleration reached 300 G. The descent lasted 93 minutes. The capsule deployed its parachute at an altitude of about , and started sending data on pressure, temperature and gas composition back to Earth. The temperature control kept the inside of the capsule at . The temperature at 52 km was recorded as , and the pressure as less than . At the end of the 26-km descent, the temperature reached  and pressure increased to , and the signal transmission terminated. The atmospheric composition was measured as 90–93% carbon dioxide, 0.4–0.8% oxygen, 7% nitrogen and 0.1–1.6% water vapor.

text: During entry into the Venusian atmosphere, the heat shield temperature rose to  and at one point the cabin deceleration reached 300 G. The descent lasted 93 minutes. The capsule deployed its parachute at an altitude of about , and started sending data on pressure, temperature and gas composition back to Earth. The temperature control kept the inside of the capsule at . The temperature at 52 km was recorded as , and the pressure as less than . At the end of the 26-km descent, the temperature reached  and pressure increased to , and the signal transmission terminated. The atmospheric composition was measured as 90–93%

text: carbon dioxide

text: , 0.4–0.8% oxygen, 7% nitrogen and 0.1–1.6% water vapor.

text: Continental collisions are a critical part of the Supercontinent cycle and have happened many times in the past. Ancient collision zones are deeply eroded but may still be recognized because these mark sites of intense deformation, metamorphism, and plutonic activity that separate tracts of continental crust having different geologic histories prior to the collision. Old collision zones are commonly called "suture zones" by geologists, because this is where two previous continents are joined or sutured together.

text: Continental collisions are a critical part of the

text: Supercontinent cycle

text: and have happened many times in the past. Ancient collision zones are deeply eroded but may still be recognized because these mark sites of intense deformation, metamorphism, and plutonic activity that separate tracts of continental crust having different geologic histories prior to the collision. Old collision zones are commonly called "suture zones" by geologists, because this is where two previous continents are joined or sutured together.

text: Current studies on Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers are now searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on Mars is now a primary NASA objective.

text: Current studies

text: on Mars by the Curiosity and

text: Opportunity

text: rovers

text: are now searching for evidence of ancient life, including a

text: biosphere

text: based on

text: autotroph

text: ic,

text: chemotroph

text: ic and/or

text: chemolithoautotrophic

text: microorganism

text: s, as well as ancient water, including

text: fluvio-lacustrine environments

text: plain

text: s related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been

text: habitable

text: . The search for evidence of

text: habitability

text: taphonomy

text: (related to

text: fossils

text: ), and

text: organic carbon

text: on Mars is now a primary

text: NASA

text: objective.

text: On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies on Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.

text: On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that

text: current studies

text: on Mars by the

text: Curiosity

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: rovers

text: will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a

text: biosphere

text: based on

text: autotroph

text: ic,

text: chemotroph

text: ic and/or

text: chemolithoautotrophic

text: microorganism

text: s, as well as ancient water, including

text: fluvio-lacustrine environments

text: plain

text: habitable

text: Current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers are now searching for evidence of ancient life as well as plains related to ancient rivers or lakes that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic molecules on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA and ESA objective on Mars.

text: Current studies

text: on the planet

text: Mars

text: by the

text: Curiosity

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: rovers

text: are now searching for evidence of ancient life as well as plains related to ancient rivers or lakes that may have been

text: habitable

text: . The search for evidence of

text: habitability

text: taphonomy

text: (related to

text: fossils

text: ), and

text: organic molecule

text: s on the planet Mars is now a primary

text: NASA

text: and

text: ESA

text: objective on Mars.

text: Columbia was dominant in the early-mid Proterozoic and not much is known about continental assemblages before then. There are a few plausible models that explain tectonics of the early Earth pre-Columbia, but the current most plausible theory is that prior to Columbia, there were only a few independent craton formations scattered around the Earth (not necessarily a supercontinent formation like Rodinia or Columbia).

text: The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the Earth's. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than the alternative, a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew. Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.

text: The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the

text: Earth's

text: kPa

text: psi

text: Apollo 1

text: crew. Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.

text: For example, the abundance of oxygen in pure water can be measured in two ways: the mass fraction is about 89%, because that is the fraction of water's mass which is oxygen. However, the mole-fraction is 33.3333...%  because only 1 atom of 3 in water, HO, is oxygen. As another example, looking at the mass-fraction abundance of hydrogen and helium in both the Universe as a whole and in the atmospheres of gas-giant planets such as Jupiter, it is 74% for hydrogen and 23–25% for helium; while the (atomic) mole-fraction for hydrogen is 92%, and for helium is 8%, in these environments. Changing the given environment to  Jupiter's outer atmosphere, where hydrogen is diatomic while helium is not, changes the molecular mole-fraction (fraction of total gas molecules), as well as the fraction of atmosphere by volume, of hydrogen to about 86%, and of helium to 13%.

text: For example, the abundance of

text: oxygen

text: in pure

text: water

text: can be measured in two ways: the mass fraction is about 89%, because that is the fraction of water's mass which is oxygen. However, the mole-fraction is 33.3333...%  because only 1

text: atom

text: of 3 in water, HO, is oxygen. As another example, looking at the mass-fraction abundance of hydrogen and helium in both the

text: Universe

text: as a whole and in the

text: atmosphere

text: s of

text: gas-giant planet

text: s such as

text: Jupiter

text: , it is 74% for

text: hydrogen

text: and 23–25% for

text: helium

text: ; while the (atomic) mole-fraction for hydrogen is 92%, and for helium is 8%, in these environments. Changing the given environment to

text: Jupiter's outer atmosphere

text: , where hydrogen is

text: diatomic

text: while helium is not, changes the molecular mole-fraction (fraction of total gas molecules), as well as the fraction of atmosphere by volume, of hydrogen to about 86%, and of helium to 13%.

text: Among them was Pemba who wished to dominate and so he left the egg early, ripping a piece of his placenta.  Pemba fell through space and his torn placenta became the earth.  Because he left the egg prematurely the earth formed from this piece was arid and barren and of no use to Pemba. So Pemba tried to return to the egg, to rejoin his twin and his place in the rest of the placenta.  But it was not to be found-Mangala had changed the remaining placenta into the sun.  So Pemba stole male seeds from Mangala's clavicle, and took them to the barren earth and planted them there.  Only one of them could germinate in the dry earth, a male eleusine seed which grew in the blood of the placenta.  But because Pemba had stolen the seed and it germinated in Pemba's own placenta, the earth became impure and the eleusine seed turned red.

text: Among them was

text: Pemba

text: who wished to dominate and so he left the egg early, ripping a piece of his placenta.  Pemba fell through space and his torn

text: placenta

text: became the earth.  Because he left the egg prematurely the earth formed from this piece was arid and barren and of no use to Pemba. So Pemba tried to return to the egg, to rejoin his twin and his place in the rest of the placenta.  But it was not to be found-Mangala had changed the remaining placenta into the sun.  So Pemba stole male seeds from Mangala's

text: clavicle

text: , and took them to the barren earth and planted them there.  Only one of them could germinate in the dry earth, a male eleusine seed which grew in the blood of the placenta.  But because Pemba had stolen the seed and it germinated in Pemba's own placenta, the earth became impure and the eleusine seed turned red.

text: The stability of the atmosphere in Earth is not a consequence of chemical equilibrium. Oxygen is a reactive compound, and should eventually combine with gases and minerals of the Earth's atmosphere and crust.  Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event. Since the start of the Cambrian period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume. Traces of methane (at an amount of 100,000 tonnes produced per year) should not exist, as methane is combustible in an oxygen atmosphere.

text: The stability of the atmosphere in Earth is not a consequence of

text: chemical equilibrium

text: Oxygen

text: is a reactive compound, and should eventually combine with gases and minerals of the Earth's atmosphere and crust.  Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: . Since the start of the

text: Cambrian

text: period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume. Traces of

text: methane

text: (at an amount of 100,000 tonnes produced per year) should not exist, as methane is combustible in an oxygen atmosphere.

text: A suggestion has been made that in the early stages of the Earth's development when its radioactivity was almost two orders of magnitude higher than at present, radiolysis could have been the principal source of atmospheric oxygen, which ensured the conditions for the origin and development of life. Molecular hydrogen and oxidants produced by the radiolysis of water may also provide a continuous source of energy to subsurface microbial communities (Pedersen, 1999). Such speculation is supported by a discovery in the Mponeng Gold Mine in South Africa, where the researchers found a community dominated by a new phylotype of Desulfotomaculum, feeding on primarily radiolytically produced H.

text: A suggestion has been made that in the early stages of the Earth's development when its

text: radioactivity

text: was almost two orders of magnitude higher than at present, radiolysis could have been the principal source of atmospheric oxygen, which ensured the conditions for the origin and development of

text: life

text: . Molecular hydrogen and oxidants produced by the radiolysis of water may also provide a continuous source of energy to subsurface

text: microbial

text: communities (Pedersen, 1999). Such speculation is supported by a discovery in the

text: Mponeng Gold Mine

text: in

text: South Africa

text: , where the researchers found a community dominated by a new phylotype of

text: Desulfotomaculum

text: , feeding on primarily radiolytically produced

text: H

text: Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate. Across the  wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.

text: Tectonic forces above the

text: subduction zone

text: along the entire west coast of South America where the

text: Nazca Plate

text: and a part of the

text: Antarctic Plate

text: are sliding beneath the

text: South American Plate

text: continue to produce an ongoing

text: orogenic event

text: resulting in minor to major

text: earthquake

text: s and

text: volcanic eruption

text: s to this day. In the extreme south a major

text: transform fault

text: separates

text: Tierra del Fuego

text: from the small

text: Scotia Plate

text: . Across the  wide

text: Drake Passage

text: lie the mountains of the

text: Antarctic Peninsula

text: south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.

text: Pantydraco lived during the Late (Upper) Triassic (Rhaetian) Period and perhaps Early Jurassic of what is now the United Kingdom. Pantydraco was a genus of basal sauropodomorph dinosaur and was originally believed to be a juvenile Thecodontosaurus and described from a partial skeleton including a skull in 2003. However, further analysis led to the conclusion and discovery that Pantydracowarranted its own separate genus after a paper was published in 2007. Together with Thecodontosaurus antiquus, it is the basal most sauropodomorph known from Europe. The Upper Triassic is also known as the Late Triassic period. It is the last and uppermost period from the Triassic group. It comprises three ages (or stages) viz. the Rhaetian, Norian and Carnian in reverse chronological order. The advent of the upper or late Triassic is 237 million years ago and it its end is marked by the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event, roughly 201.1 million years ago. The Jurassic period follows the Triassic period. The Jurassic extends from 201 to 145 mya. The Jurassic branches off into three other periods, namely the Lower, Middle and the Late Jurassic periods. The early Jurassic period extends from 201 to 182 million years old. In the early Jurassic period, the supercontinent Pangaea gradually split into two, thus marking significant geological changes. It consists of four stages: the Toarcian, the Pliensbachian, the Sinemurian and the Hettangian, in descending chronological order. The Hettangian is the first stage of the Lower Jurassic period. It extends from the 201.3 to 199.3 million years ago. The Pantydraco dinosaur lived through the Hettangian age.

text: The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly  (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart .

text: The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by

text: plate tectonics

text: , a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On

text: time scales

text: lasting hundreds of millions of years, the

text: supercontinent

text: s have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly  (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents,

text: Rodinia

text: , began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form

text: Pannotia

text: , 600–, then finally

text: Pangaea

text: , which also broke apart .

text: Monastic life in the Middle Ages was strictly centered around prayer and manual labor.  In the early Middle Ages, there were many attempts to set out an organization and routine for monastic life.  Montalembert cites one such sixth-century document, the Rule of Saint Ferréol, as prescribing that "He who does not turn up the earth with the plough ought to write the parchment with his fingers." As this implies, the labor required of a scribe was comparable to the exertion of agriculture and other outdoor work.  Another of Montalembert's examples is of a scribal note along these lines: "He who does not know how to write imagines it to be no labour, but although these fingers only hold the pen, the whole body grows weary."

text: Monastic life in the

text: Middle Ages

text: was strictly centered around

text: prayer

text: and manual labor.  In the early Middle Ages, there were many attempts to set out an organization and routine for monastic life.

text: Montalembert

text: cites one such sixth-century document, the Rule of

text: Saint Ferréol

text: , as prescribing that "He who does not turn up the earth with the plough ought to write the parchment with his fingers." As this implies, the labor required of a

text: scribe

text: was comparable to the exertion of agriculture and other outdoor work.  Another of Montalembert's examples is of a scribal note along these lines: "He who does not know how to write imagines it to be no labour, but although these fingers only hold the pen, the whole body grows weary."

text: When DC Comics made use of its multiverse means of continuity tracking between the early 1960s and mid-1980s, it was declared that the Daily Star--edited by George Taylor—was the workplace of the Golden Age or "Earth-Two" Clark Kent, Lois Lane and office boy-turned-cub reporter Jimmy Olsen, while the Daily Planet--edited by Perry White—was unique to their Silver Age or "Earth-One" counterparts.

text: When DC Comics made use of its

text: multiverse

text: means of continuity tracking between the early 1960s and mid-1980s, it was declared that the Daily Star--edited by George Taylor—was the workplace of the

text: Golden Age

text: or "

text: Earth-Two

text: " Clark Kent, Lois Lane and office boy-turned-cub reporter

text: Jimmy Olsen

text: , while the Daily Planet--edited by Perry White—was unique to their

text: Silver Age

text: or "Earth-One" counterparts.

text: Dictyostelids are used as examples of cellular communication and differentiation, and may provide insights into how multicellular organisms develop.

text: Dictyostelids are used as examples of cellular communication and differentiation, and may provide insights into how

text: multicellular

text: organisms

text: develop.

text: At present, it is still believed that molecular oxygen was not a significant fraction of Earth's atmosphere until after photosynthetic life forms evolved and began to produce it in large quantities as a byproduct of their metabolism. This radical shift from a chemically inert to an oxidizing atmosphere caused an ecological crisis, sometimes called the oxygen catastrophe. At first, oxygen would have quickly combined with other elements in Earth's crust, primarily iron, removing it from the atmosphere. After the supply of oxidizable surfaces ran out, oxygen would have begun to accumulate in the atmosphere, and the modern high-oxygen atmosphere would have developed. Evidence for this lies in older rocks that contain massive banded iron formations, that were laid down as iron oxides.

text: At present, it is still believed that

text: molecular

text: oxygen

text: was not a significant fraction of Earth's atmosphere until after

text: photosynthetic

text: life forms evolved and began to produce it in large quantities as a byproduct of their metabolism. This radical shift from a chemically inert to an oxidizing atmosphere caused an ecological crisis, sometimes called the

text: oxygen catastrophe

text: . At first, oxygen would have quickly combined with other elements in Earth's crust, primarily iron, removing it from the atmosphere. After the supply of oxidizable surfaces ran out, oxygen would have begun to accumulate in the atmosphere, and the modern high-oxygen atmosphere would have developed. Evidence for this lies in older rocks that contain massive

text: banded iron formation

text: s, that were laid down as iron oxides.

text: P. fusiformis fixes carbon, removing it from the atmosphere. It also produces a large amount of oxygen for the Earth's atmosphere.

text: P. fusiformis fixes

text: carbon

text: , removing it from the atmosphere. It also produces a large amount of oxygen for the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: Since genomes are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico.

text: Since genomes are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multi-cellular organisms (see

text: Developmental biology

text: ). The work is both

text: in vivo

text: and

text: in silico

text: A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a "pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone". Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive "generations", starting with the early "0G" (zeroth generation) services, such as Bell System's Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These "0G" systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

text: A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917,

text: Finnish

text: inventor

text: Eric Tigerstedt

text: filed a patent for a "pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone". Early predecessors of cellular phones included

text: analog

text: radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in

text: mobile telephony

text: have been traced in successive "generations", starting with the early "0G" (

text: zeroth generation

text: ) services, such as

text: Bell System

text: 's

text: Mobile Telephone Service

text: and its successor, the

text: Improved Mobile Telephone Service

text: . These "0G" systems were not

text: cellular

text: , supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

text: Rastas see Marcus Mosiah Garvey as a prophet, with his philosophy fundamentally shaping the movement, and with many of the early Rastas having started out as Garveyites. He is often seen as a second John the Baptist. One of the most famous prophecies attributed to him involving the coronation of Haile Selassie I was the 1927 pronouncement "Look to Africa, for there a black king shall be crowned," although an associate of Garvey's, James Morris Webb, had made very similar public statements as early as 1921. Marcus Garvey promoted Black Nationalism, black separatism, and Pan-Africanism: the belief that all black people of the world should join in brotherhood and work to decolonise the continent of Africa – then still controlled by European colonial powers.

text: Rastas see Marcus Mosiah Garvey as a prophet, with his philosophy fundamentally shaping the movement, and with many of the early Rastas having started out as

text: Garveyites

text: . He is often seen as a second

text: John the Baptist

text: . One of the most famous prophecies attributed to him involving the coronation of Haile Selassie I was the 1927 pronouncement "Look to Africa, for there a black king shall be crowned," although an associate of Garvey's,

text: James Morris Webb

text: , had made very similar public statements as early as 1921. Marcus Garvey promoted

text: Black Nationalism

text: black separatism

text: , and

text: Pan-Africanism

text: : the belief that all black people of the world should join in brotherhood and work to decolonise the continent of Africa – then still controlled by European colonial powers.

text: Evidence of early terrestrial animal life had, until this discovery, been found only in northern Pangaea or Laurasia, currently comprising North America and Asia. Some 416 million years ago at the end of the Silurian period and during the Devonian period, primitive insects of Laurasia were being preyed upon by early scorpions and spiders, whose ancestors had also come from aquatic and marine environments. Initial life on Earth was restricted to marine environments and migration onto land at first was confined to plants, which evolved into relatively complex organisms during the Devonian period. This plant colonisation was followed by plant and detritus feeders such as primitive insects and millipedes. With the Carboniferous period, early vertebrates emerged from the water and were feeding on the invertebrates already there.

text: Evidence of early terrestrial animal life had, until this discovery, been found only in northern

text: Pangaea

text: or Laurasia, currently comprising

text: North America

text: and

text: Asia

text: . Some 416 million years ago at the end of the

text: Silurian

text: period and during the Devonian period, primitive insects of Laurasia were being preyed upon by early scorpions and spiders, whose ancestors had also come from aquatic and marine environments. Initial life on Earth was restricted to marine environments and migration onto land at first was confined to plants, which evolved into relatively complex organisms during the Devonian period. This plant colonisation was followed by plant and detritus feeders such as primitive insects and millipedes. With the

text: Carboniferous period

text: , early vertebrates emerged from the water and were feeding on the invertebrates already there.

text: The first period of tectonic activity was the accretion of an island arc at some point during the Elzevirian Orogeny. Before the accretion of the island arc took place, subduction between a continental plate and presumably an oceanic plate was taking place. Slab pull and far-field drivers such as ridge push were aiding in closing the distance between the island arc and the continent. Depending on the angle of subduction deformation of the continental crust was already taking place and thickening the lithosphere. By 1.19 Ga the Elzevir back arc basin was closing.

text: The Baltic Sea sedimentary basin was formed on top of the East European Craton millions of years after it consolidated.This occurred during the Late Ediacaran and the Early Cambrian when the weakest part of the craton was reactivated. Since then the basin has been deepened mainly through subsidence caused by extensional tectonics. In the northern part of the Baltic Sea basin, including the Gulf of Bothnia and the Bothnian Sea, the depression originated as a series of interconnected rifts that were not active enough to split the East European Craton. Subsidence in the southern parts was most pronounced during a period starting in the Late Ordovician and lasting to Middle Silurian. At this time the Baltic sea basin and the East European Craton were part of a continent and tectonic plate known as Baltica. Baltica collided with the continent Laurentia in the Late Silurian and Early Devonian. This caused compression in the basin in a north-west to south-east direction. This collision further led to the formation of a fold and thrust belt and faults north of the Danish–North German–Polish Caledonides. During the Carboniferous and Permian the basin areas around Rügen and northern Poland were subject to the intrusion of magma. After the Permian there was little tectonic activity in the Baltic for most of the Mesozoic until the Cretaceous. During the Cretaceous a tectonic inversion occurred in the southwestern part of the basin.

text: The Baltic Sea sedimentary basin was formed on top of the

text: East European Craton

text: millions of years after it

text: consolidated

text: .This occurred during the

text: Late Ediacaran

text: and the

text: Early Cambrian

text: when the weakest part of the craton was reactivated. Since then the basin has been deepened mainly through subsidence caused by

text: extensional tectonics

text: . In the northern part of the Baltic Sea basin, including the

text: Gulf of Bothnia

text: and the

text: Bothnian Sea

text: , the depression originated as a series of interconnected

text: rift

text: s that were not active enough to split the East European Craton. Subsidence in the southern parts was most pronounced during a period starting in the

text: Late Ordovician

text: and lasting to

text: Middle Silurian

text: . At this time the Baltic sea basin and the East European Craton were part of a continent and tectonic plate known as

text: Baltica

text: . Baltica collided with the continent

text: Laurentia

text: in the Late Silurian and

text: Early Devonian

text: . This caused compression in the basin in a north-west to south-east direction. This collision further led to the formation of a

text: fold and thrust belt

text: and faults north of the

text: Danish–North German–Polish Caledonides

text: . During the

text: Carboniferous

text: and

text: Permian

text: the basin areas around

text: Rügen

text: and northern

text: Poland

text: were subject to the

text: intrusion of magma

text: . After the

text: Permian

text: there was little tectonic activity in the Baltic for most of the

text: Mesozoic

text: until the Cretaceous. During the Cretaceous a

text: tectonic inversion

text: occurred in the southwestern part of the basin.

text: A superocean is an ocean that surrounds a supercontinent.  It is less commonly defined as any ocean larger than the current Pacific Ocean.  Named global superoceans include Mirovia, which surrounded the supercontinent Rodinia, and Panthalassa, which surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea. Pannotia and Columbia, along with landmasses before Columbia (such as Ur), were also surrounded by superoceans.

text: A superocean is an

text: ocean

text: that surrounds a

text: supercontinent

text: .  It is less commonly defined as any ocean larger than the current

text: Pacific Ocean

text: .  Named global superoceans include

text: Mirovia

text: , which surrounded the supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: , and

text: Panthalassa

text: , which surrounded the supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: Pannotia

text: and

text: Columbia

text: , along with landmasses before Columbia (such as

text: Ur

text: ), were also surrounded by superoceans.

text: At least some may have been early forms of the phyla at the heart of the "Cambrian explosion" debate, having been interpreted as early molluscs (Kimberella), echinoderms (Arkarua); and arthropods (Spriggina, Parvancorina). Still, debate exists about the classification of these specimens, mainly because the diagnostic features that allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms, such as similarities to living organisms, are generally absent in the ediacarans. However, there seems little doubt that Kimberella was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal. These organisms are central to the debate about how abrupt the Cambrian explosion was. If some were early members of the animal phyla seen today, the "explosion" looks a lot less sudden than if all these organisms represent an unrelated "experiment", and were replaced by the animal kingdom fairly soon thereafter (40M years is "soon" by evolutionary and geological standards).

text: At least some may have been early forms of the phyla at the heart of the "Cambrian explosion" debate, having been interpreted as early molluscs (

text: Kimberella

text: ), echinoderms (

text: Arkarua

text: ); and arthropods (

text: Spriggina

text: Parvancorina

text: ). Still, debate exists about the classification of these specimens, mainly because the diagnostic features that allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms, such as similarities to living organisms, are generally absent in the ediacarans. However, there seems little doubt that Kimberella was at least a triploblastic bilaterian animal. These organisms are central to the debate about how abrupt the Cambrian explosion was. If some were early members of the animal phyla seen today, the "explosion" looks a lot less sudden than if all these organisms represent an unrelated "experiment", and were replaced by the animal kingdom fairly soon thereafter (40M years is "soon" by evolutionary and geological standards).

text: Showing the continents as "one island earth" also helped Fuller explain, in his book Critical Path, the journeys of early seafaring people, who were in effect using prevailing winds to circumnavigate this world island.

text: Showing the continents as "one island earth" also helped Fuller explain, in his book

text: Critical Path

text: , the journeys of early seafaring people, who were in effect using

text: prevailing winds

text: to circumnavigate this world island.

text: Continent-collision model is the alternative model explaining the evolution of Precordillera. Dalziel has reconstructed the Paleozoic plate development and proposed a narrow early Paleozoic Iapetus Ocean between Laurentia and Gondwana. Dalziel named the model as Texas Plateau Hypothesis. Texas Plateau is the term describing the Precordillera with its parental Laurentia, suggesting that Precordillera was always attached to Laurentia until the supercontinental collision between Laurentia and Gondwana shut down the Iapetus Ocean. After the collision, the continent rifted away during late Ordovician, so that Precordillera was no longer attached to Laurentia and stuck to the western Gondwana. This model is also called as paired rift margin.

text: Continent-collision model is the alternative model explaining the evolution of Precordillera. Dalziel has reconstructed the Paleozoic plate development and proposed a narrow early Paleozoic Iapetus Ocean between

text: Laurentia

text: and Gondwana. Dalziel named the model as Texas Plateau Hypothesis. Texas Plateau is the term describing the

text: Precordillera

text: with its parental Laurentia, suggesting that

text: Precordillera

text: was always attached to

text: Laurentia

text: until the supercontinental collision between

text: Laurentia

text: and Gondwana shut down the Iapetus Ocean. After the collision, the continent rifted away during late Ordovician, so that

text: Precordillera

text: was no longer attached to

text: Laurentia

text: and stuck to the western Gondwana. This model is also called as paired rift margin.

text: Scientists start the search for fossil evidence of plants with indirect evidence for their presence, the evidence of photosynthesis in the geological record.  The evidence for photosynthesis in the rock record is varied, but primary evidence comes from around 3000 Ma, in rock records and fossil evidence of cyanobacteria, photosynthesizing prokaryotic organisms.  Cyanobacteria use water as a reducing agent, producing atmospheric oxygen as a byproduct, and they thereby profoundly changed the early reducing atmosphere of the earth to one in which modern aerobic organisms eventually evolved.  This oxygen liberated by cyanobacteria then oxidized dissolved iron in the oceans, the iron precipitated out of the sea water, and fell to the ocean floor to form sedimentary layers of oxidized iron called Banded Iron Formations (BIFs).   These BIFs are part of the geological record of evidence for the evolutionary history of plants by identifying when photosynthesis originated.  This also provides deep time constraints upon when enough oxygen could have been available in the atmosphere to produce the ultraviolet blocking stratospheric ozone layer.  The oxygen concentration in the ancient atmosphere subsequently rose, acting as a poison for anaerobic organisms, and resulting in a highly oxidizing atmosphere, and opening up niches on land for occupation by aerobic organisms.

text: Scientists start the search for fossil evidence of plants with indirect evidence for their presence, the evidence of photosynthesis in the geological record.  The evidence for photosynthesis in the rock record is varied, but primary evidence comes from around 3000 Ma, in rock records and fossil evidence of cyanobacteria, photosynthesizing

text: prokaryotic

text: organisms.  Cyanobacteria use water as a

text: reducing agent

text: , producing atmospheric oxygen as a byproduct, and they thereby profoundly changed the early

text: reducing

text: atmosphere of the earth to one in which modern aerobic organisms eventually evolved.  This oxygen liberated by cyanobacteria then

text: oxidized

text: dissolved

text: iron

text: in the oceans, the iron precipitated out of the sea water, and fell to the ocean floor to form sedimentary layers of oxidized iron called

text: Banded Iron Formation

text: s (BIFs).   These BIFs are part of the geological record of evidence for the evolutionary history of plants by identifying when photosynthesis originated.  This also provides deep time constraints upon when enough oxygen could have been available in the atmosphere to produce the

text: ultraviolet

text: blocking

text: stratospheric

text: ozone layer.  The oxygen concentration in the ancient atmosphere subsequently rose, acting as a poison for

text: anaerobic

text: organisms, and resulting in a highly oxidizing atmosphere, and opening up niches on land for occupation by aerobic organisms.

text: Antarctica (US English , UK English  or ) is Earth's southernmost continent. It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At , it is the fifth-largest continent. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages  in thickness, which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula.

text: Antarctica (US English , UK English  or ) is

text: Earth

text: 's southernmost

text: continent

text: . It contains the geographic

text: South Pole

text: and is situated in the

text: Antarctic

text: region of the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: , almost entirely south of the

text: Antarctic Circle

text: , and is surrounded by the

text: Southern Ocean

text: . At , it is the fifth-largest continent. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of

text: Australia

text: . About 98% of Antarctica is covered by

text: ice

text: that averages  in thickness, which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the

text: Antarctic Peninsula

text: Vaalbara was an Archean supercontinent that consisted of the Kaapvaal craton, today located in eastern South Africa, and the Pilbara craton, today found in north-western Western Australia. Vaalbara was named by  who derived the name from the last four letters of each craton's name.  The two cratons are made of 3.6±2.7 Ga-old crust, making Vaalbara the oldest supercontinent on Earth.

text: Vaalbara was an

text: Archean

text: supercontinent

text: that consisted of the

text: Kaapvaal craton

text: , today located in eastern South Africa, and the

text: Pilbara craton

text: , today found in north-western Western Australia. Vaalbara was named by  who derived the name from the last four letters of each craton's name.  The two cratons are made of 3.6±2.7 Ga-old crust, making Vaalbara the oldest supercontinent on Earth.

text: There is, however, a complication that increases the volume of air that needs to be inhaled per minute (respiratory minute volume) to provide the same amount of oxygen to the lungs at altitude as at sea level. During inhalation the air is warmed and saturated with water vapor during its passage through the nose and pharynx. Saturated water vapor pressure is dependent only on temperature. At a body core temperature of 37 °C  it is 6.3 kPa (47.0 mmHg), irrespective of any other influences, including altitude. Thus at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the trachea consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa). In dry air the partial pressure of oxygen at sea level is 21.0 kPa, compared to the 19.7 kPa of oxygen entering the alveolar air. (The tracheal partial pressure of oxygen (19.7 kPa) is 21% of [100 kPa - 6.3 kPa]).  At the summit of Mt. Everest (at an altitude of 8,848 m or 29,029 ft) the total atmospheric pressure is 33.7 kPa, of which 7.1 kPa, or 21%, is oxygen. The air entering the lungs also has a total pressure of 33.7 kPa, of which 6.3 kPa is, unavoidably, water vapor (as it is at sea level). This reduces the partial pressure of oxygen entering the alveoli to 5.8 kPa,  or 21% of [33.7 kPa – 6.3 kPa = 27.4 kPa]. The reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the inhaled air is therefore substantially greater than the reduction of the total atmospheric pressure at altitude would suggest (on Mt Everest: 5.8 kPa vs. 7.1 kPa).

text: There is, however, a complication that increases the volume of air that needs to be inhaled per minute (

text: respiratory minute volume

text: ) to provide the same amount of oxygen to the lungs at altitude as at sea level. During inhalation the air is warmed and saturated with water vapor during its passage through the nose and

text: pharynx

text: Saturated water vapor pressure

text: is dependent only on temperature. At a body core temperature of 37 °C  it is 6.3 kPa (47.0 mmHg), irrespective of any other influences, including altitude. Thus at sea level, where the ambient atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa, the moistened air that flows into the lungs from the

text: trachea

text: consists of water vapor (6.3 kPa), nitrogen (74.0 kPa), oxygen (19.7 kPa) and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases (a total of 100 kPa). In dry air the partial pressure of oxygen at sea level is 21.0 kPa, compared to the 19.7 kPa of oxygen entering the alveolar air. (The tracheal partial pressure of oxygen (19.7 kPa) is 21% of [100 kPa - 6.3 kPa]).  At the summit of

text: Mt. Everest

text: (at an altitude of 8,848 m or 29,029 ft) the total

text: atmospheric pressure is 33.7 kPa, of which 7.1 kPa, or 21%, is oxygen

text: . The air entering the lungs also has a total pressure of 33.7 kPa, of which 6.3 kPa is, unavoidably, water vapor (as it is at sea level). This reduces the partial pressure of oxygen entering the alveoli to 5.8 kPa,  or 21% of [33.7 kPa – 6.3 kPa = 27.4 kPa]. The reduction in the partial pressure of oxygen in the inhaled air is therefore substantially greater than the reduction of the total atmospheric pressure at altitude would suggest (on Mt Everest: 5.8 kPa vs. 7.1 kPa).

text: Erich von Däniken is a controversial Swiss author who wrote books and made documentaries on the influence of extraterrestrials in Earth's ancient past. Von Däniken has written twenty-six books on his extraterrestrial theory and has sold sixty-three million copies worldwide. He is a major proponent of the idea of "ancient astronauts". This theory states that aliens are responsible for most of the ancient civilizations on Earth. Von Däniken explains that myths, arts,and social organizations of ancient cultures were introduced by aliens from another world. He believes that prehistoric humans learned their arts and technologies directly from complex aliens coming to earth from outer space.  A very controversial topic that von Däniken has been questioned about is his idea that ancient humans did not have the memory, culture, and ability to be as civilized as the ancient civilizations in fact were. He believed that in order to come up with the technology and culture that took place in the ancient past, it must be directly attributed to more intelligent alien life-forms coming to earth. He argues that because ancient people did not have the capability to be such complex beings, civilizations learned their ways from extraterrestrials. Erich von Däniken founded the theme park "Mystery Park" in November 2005 with the same extraterrestrial themes he had published in his novels.

text: Erich von Däniken is a controversial Swiss author who wrote books and made documentaries on the influence of extraterrestrials in Earth's ancient past. Von Däniken has written twenty-six books on his extraterrestrial theory and has sold sixty-three million copies worldwide. He is a major proponent of the idea of "

text: ancient astronauts

text: ". This theory states that aliens are responsible for most of the ancient civilizations on Earth. Von Däniken explains that myths, arts,and social organizations of ancient cultures were introduced by aliens from another world. He believes that prehistoric humans learned their arts and technologies directly from complex aliens coming to earth from outer space.  A very controversial topic that von Däniken has been questioned about is his idea that ancient humans did not have the memory, culture, and ability to be as civilized as the ancient civilizations in fact were. He believed that in order to come up with the technology and culture that took place in the ancient past, it must be directly attributed to more intelligent alien life-forms coming to earth. He argues that because ancient people did not have the capability to be such complex beings, civilizations learned their ways from extraterrestrials. Erich von Däniken founded the theme park "Mystery Park" in November 2005 with the same extraterrestrial themes he had published in his novels.

text: A. Cellular Compartments of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: Organization, Dynamics and Functions

text: Yereh (Chuvash: Йерех) is a female spirit in Turkic mythology, which recently came to be regarded as a "Turkic goddess" with a function of "hearth mother", protectoress of the home. It is akin of Yer iyesi. The word originates in the Pre-Christian Chuvash mythology but in the modern usage it has only one meaning. The confusion in the name's Etymology owes to the fact that a Turkic word Yer means land or earth, while the word Yerleşmek is a verb that means to locate. Early in the 20th century Yereh combined a prehistoric Scythian earth-goddess and Mother Earth. Today she is identified as a combination of the "hearth-mother" (associated with the guardianship of the nation itself) and the earth mother.

text: Yereh (Chuvash: Йерех) is a female spirit in

text: Turkic mythology

text: , which recently came to be regarded as a "Turkic goddess" with a function of "hearth mother", protectoress of the home. It is akin of Yer iyesi. The word originates in the Pre-Christian

text: Chuvash

text: mythology but in the modern usage it has only one meaning. The confusion in the name's

text: Etymology

text: owes to the fact that a Turkic word Yer means land or earth, while the word Yerleşmek is a verb that means to locate. Early in the 20th century Yereh combined a prehistoric

text: Scythian

text: earth-goddess and Mother Earth. Today she is identified as a combination of the "hearth-mother" (associated with the guardianship of the nation itself) and the earth mother.

text: UNAVCO operates the Continuously Operating Caribbean GPS Observational Network (COCONet)[1], which consists of 50 planned continuously operating GPS/weather stations integrated with 65 existing GPS stations operated by partner organizations, 15 of which will be upgraded with new equipment. COCONet provides free, high-quality, open-format GPS and meteorological data for these stations via the internet for use by scientists, government agencies, educators, students, and the private sector. These data are used by local and foreign researchers to study solid earth processes such as tectonic plate motions, tectonic plate boundary interaction and deformation, including earthquake cycle processes and risks. They also serve atmospheric scientists and weather forecasting groups by providing more precise estimates of tropospheric water vapor and enabling better forecasting of the dynamics of airborne moisture associated with the yearly Caribbean hurricane cycle.

text: CO line intensities are calibrated using the room-temperature chopper-wheel method and the two-layer atmosphere model of Kutner (1978). At the CO signal frequency the atmospheric opacity is appreciable, mostly due to molecular oxygen and water vapor, and corrections to the observed line intensities for signal attenuation must be applied. Kutner's two-layer model of the atmosphere parameterizes the elevation dependence of the correction factor in terms of only 3 parameters, each of which has a physical interpretation. Because oxygen has a much greater scale height than water vapor, the model assumes they can be considered separate layers, oxygen above water, with different characteristic temperatures and opacities. The temperature and opacity of oxygen in the upper atmosphere do not vary much seasonally and are assumed to be constant at 255 K and 0.378, respectively, at the signal frequency. The remaining parameters in the model, the temperature and opacity of water and the fraction of the received power from the sky, are determined through antenna tippings (measurements of the intensity of the sky signal as a function of elevation) at least once per six-hour observing shift, and more frequently if the weather is changing. Typical zenith water opacities ranged from 0.10 to 0.15, with values as low as about 0.05 in the coldest, driest weather. A 1-second calibration is performed at the start of each scan to correct for short term variations of the receiver gain and atmospheric opacity.

text: Jeong Yim's 張炎 successor Chan Ngau-Sing 陳吽盛,(1864–1926) stated that the author Nim Fut San Yen created a popular fictional story (Wǔxiá) written during the period to increase the awareness of Choy Li Fut and anti-Qing revolutionary activities. This story was called, Fut San Hung Sing Kwoon.  Chan Ngau-Sing 陳吽盛 knew the author Nim Fut San Yen personally. Such stories have no basis in historical fact. Popular Wǔxiá novels like Wan Nian Qing and the mythology of anti-Qing organizations such as the Heaven and Earth Society, were spreading wildly through China since the early 19th century.

text: Jeong Yim's 張炎 successor Chan Ngau-Sing 陳吽盛,(1864–1926) stated that the author Nim Fut San Yen created a popular fictional story (

text: Wǔxiá

text: ) written during the period to increase the awareness of Choy Li Fut and anti-Qing revolutionary activities. This story was called, Fut San Hung Sing Kwoon.  Chan Ngau-Sing 陳吽盛 knew the author Nim Fut San Yen personally. Such stories have no basis in historical fact. Popular

text: Wǔxiá

text: novels like Wan Nian Qing and the mythology of anti-Qing organizations such as the Heaven and Earth Society, were spreading wildly through China since the early 19th century.

text: In the early 1990s, the UNPLUG from Mother Earth Campaign was initiated by three Indigenous-based organizations. These organizations and leaders were Tom B.K. Goldtooth, Indigenous Environmental Network (IEN); Winona LaDuke, Indigenous Women's Network (IWN)and Christopher Peters, 7th Generation Fund (SGF). Nilak Butler (deceased), member of IEN and IWN also assisted in the development of this UNPLUG Campaign during the 1990s in her capacity as an Indigenous staff organizer within the Indigenous Nuclear Free Campaign of U.S. Greenpeace. Periodically throughout the 1990s and 2000s the UNPLUG from Mother Earth Campaign was initiated by these organizations, expanding to include other organizations such as Honor The Earth and White Earth Land Recovery Project. There is no ownership of the concept of this campaign. It is has been the principle of IEN, IWN and SGF for people of the United States, Canada, other industrialized countries and of the world to adopt this campaign.

text: In the early 1990s, the UNPLUG from Mother Earth Campaign was initiated by three Indigenous-based organizations. These organizations and leaders were

text: Tom B.K. Goldtooth

text: Indigenous Environmental Network

text: (IEN);

text: Winona LaDuke

text: , Indigenous Women's Network (IWN)and Christopher Peters, 7th Generation Fund (SGF). Nilak Butler (deceased), member of IEN and IWN also assisted in the development of this UNPLUG Campaign during the 1990s in her capacity as an Indigenous staff organizer within the Indigenous Nuclear Free Campaign of U.S. Greenpeace. Periodically throughout the 1990s and 2000s the UNPLUG from Mother Earth Campaign was initiated by these organizations, expanding to include other organizations such as Honor The Earth and White Earth Land Recovery Project. There is no ownership of the concept of this campaign. It is has been the principle of IEN, IWN and SGF for people of the United States, Canada, other industrialized countries and of the world to adopt this campaign.

text: About 1,100–1,000 Ma Ur joined the continents Nena and Atlantica to form the supercontinent Rodinia.<ref name></ref>  In the reconstruction of  Ur remained the nucleus of East Gondwana until the break-up of Gondwana.  In other reconstruction, however, India and East Antarctica did not collide until Rodinia formed 1,000 Ma.  Furthermore, in the Early Archaean Earth's mantle was 200 °C hotter than today and many characteristics of modern tectonics, such as ophiolites, blueschists, lawsonite-bearing eclogites, and ultra-high-pressure rocks, did not exist or were rare.  This makes most proposed Archaean supercontinents controversial, including Rogers's 3 Ga supercontinent.

text: About 1,100–1,000 Ma Ur joined the continents

text: Nena

text: and

text: Atlantica

text: to form the supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: .<ref name></ref>  In the reconstruction of  Ur remained the nucleus of East

text: Gondwana

text: until the break-up of Gondwana.  In other reconstruction, however, India and East Antarctica did not collide until Rodinia formed 1,000 Ma.  Furthermore, in the Early Archaean Earth's mantle was 200 °C hotter than today and many characteristics of modern tectonics, such as

text: ophiolite

text: s,

text: blueschist

text: s,

text: lawsonite

text: -bearing

text: eclogite

text: s, and

text: ultra-high-pressure rocks

text: , did not exist or were rare.  This makes most proposed Archaean supercontinents controversial, including Rogers's 3 Ga supercontinent.

text: Unlike the other planets in the Solar System, in English, Earth does not directly share a name with an ancient Roman deity. The name Earth derives from the eighth century Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil. It became eorthe later, and then erthe in Middle English. These words are all cognates of Jörð, the name of the giantess of Norse myth. Earth was first used as the name of the sphere of the Earth in the early fifteenth century. The planet's name in Latin, used academically and scientifically in the West during the Renaissance, is the same as that of Terra Mater, the Roman goddess, which translates to English as Mother Earth.

text: Unlike the other planets in the Solar System, in English, Earth does not directly share a name with an ancient Roman deity. The name Earth derives from the eighth century

text: Anglo-Saxon

text: word erda, which means ground or soil. It became eorthe later, and then erthe in

text: Middle English

text: . These words are all

text: cognate

text: s of

text: Jörð

text: , the name of the

text: giantess

text: of Norse myth. Earth was first used as the name of the sphere of the Earth in the early fifteenth century. The planet's name in Latin, used academically and scientifically in the West during the

text: Renaissance

text: , is the same as that of

text: Terra Mater

text: , the Roman goddess, which translates to English as

text: Mother Earth

text: The Miller–Urey experiment (or Miller experiment) was a chemical experiment that simulated the conditions thought at the time to be present on the early Earth, and tested the chemical origin of life under those conditions. The experiment confirmed Alexander Oparin's and J. B. S. Haldane's hypothesis that putative conditions on the primitive Earth favoured chemical reactions that synthesized more complex organic compounds from simpler inorganic precursors. Considered to be the classic experiment investigating abiogenesis, it was conducted in 1952 by Stanley Miller, with assistance from Harold Urey, at the University of Chicago and later the University of California, San Diego and published the following year.

text: The Miller–Urey experiment (or Miller experiment) was a chemical

text: experiment

text: that simulated the conditions thought at the time to be present on the

text: early Earth

text: , and tested the

text: chemical origin of life

text: under those conditions. The experiment confirmed

text: Alexander Oparin

text: 's and

text: J. B. S. Haldane

text: 's hypothesis that putative conditions on the primitive Earth favoured chemical reactions that synthesized more complex

text: organic compound

text: s from simpler inorganic precursors. Considered to be the classic experiment investigating

text: abiogenesis

text: , it was conducted in 1952 by

text: Stanley Miller

text: , with assistance from

text: Harold Urey

text: , at the

text: University of Chicago

text: and later the

text: University of California, San Diego

text: and published the following year.

text: It is considered to be marginally possible to launch a single-stage-to-orbit chemically-fueled spacecraft from Earth. The principal complicating factors for SSTO from Earth are: high orbital velocity of over ; the need to overcome Earth's gravity, especially in the early stages of flight; and flight within Earth's atmosphere, which limits speed in the early stages of flight and influences engine performance.

text: It is considered to be marginally possible to launch a single-stage-to-orbit

text: chemically-fueled

text: spacecraft from Earth. The principal complicating factors for SSTO from Earth are: high orbital velocity of over ; the need to overcome Earth's gravity, especially in the early stages of flight; and flight within

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , which limits speed in the early stages of flight and influences engine performance.

text: In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America, sat on the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus Ocean to the south and the Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of Avalonia – a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become eastern Newfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of Belgium, northern France, Nova Scotia, New England, Iberia and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to Laurentia. Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea.

text: In the

text: Cambrian

text: period, the continent of

text: Laurentia

text: , which would later become

text: North America

text: , sat on the

text: equator

text: , with three bordering oceans: the

text: Panthalassic Ocean

text: to the north and west, the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: to the south and the

text: Khanty Ocean

text: to the east. In the Earliest

text: Ordovician

text: , around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of

text: Avalonia

text: – a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become eastern

text: Newfoundland

text: , the southern

text: British Isles

text: , and parts of

text: Belgium

text: , northern

text: France

text: Nova Scotia

text: New England

text: Iberia

text: and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to

text: Laurentia

text: . Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called

text: Euramerica

text: or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern

text: Appalachians

text: Siberia

text: sat near Euramerica, with the

text: Khanty Ocean

text: between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea.

text: :This article describes techniques; for a history of the movement of tectonic plates, see Geological history of Earth.Plate reconstruction is the process of reconstructing the positions of tectonic plates relative to each other (relative motion) or to other reference frames, such as the earth's magnetic field or groups of hotspots, in the geological past. This helps determine the shape and make-up of ancient supercontinents and provides a basis for paleogeographic reconstructions.

text: :This article describes techniques; for a history of the movement of tectonic plates, see

text: Geological history of Earth

text: .Plate reconstruction is the process of reconstructing the positions of

text: tectonic plates

text: relative to each other (relative motion) or to other reference frames, such as the

text: earth

text: 's

text: magnetic field

text: or groups of

text: hotspots

text: , in the geological past. This helps determine the shape and make-up of ancient

text: supercontinent

text: s and provides a basis for

text: paleogeographic

text: reconstructions.

text: Physiologist Jared Diamond was inspired to write his Pulitzer Prize-winning work Guns, Germs, and Steel by a question posed by Yali, a New Guinean politician: why were Europeans so much wealthier than his people? In this book, Diamond argues that the Europe-Asia land mass is particularly favorable for the transition of societies from hunter-gatherer to farming communities. This continent stretches much further along the same lines of latitude than any of the other continents. Since it is much easier to transfer a domesticated species along the same latitude than it is to move it to a warmer or colder climate, any species developed at a particular latitude will be transferred across the continent in a relatively short amount of time. Thus the inhabitants of the Eurasian continent have had a built-in advantage in terms of earlier development of farming, and a greater range of plants and animals from which to choose.

text: Physiologist

text: Jared Diamond

text: was inspired to write his

text: Pulitzer Prize

text: -winning work

text: Guns, Germs, and Steel

text: by a question posed by

text: Yali

text: , a

text: New Guinea

text: n politician: why were Europeans so much wealthier than his people? In this book, Diamond argues that the

text: Europe

text: Asia

text: land mass is particularly favorable for the transition of societies from

text: hunter-gatherer

text: to farming communities. This continent stretches much further along the same lines of latitude than any of the other continents. Since it is much easier to transfer a domesticated species along the same latitude than it is to move it to a warmer or colder climate, any species developed at a particular latitude will be transferred across the continent in a relatively short amount of time. Thus the inhabitants of the Eurasian continent have had a built-in advantage in terms of earlier development of farming, and a greater range of plants and animals from which to choose.

text: The evolution of Earth’s biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere has long been linked to the supercontinent cycle, through which the Earth’s continental crust undergoes a periodic cycle of aggregation and dispersal. The period of the Boring Billion is characterized by the evolution of two different supercontinents: Columbia and Rodinia. The supercontinent Columbia amalgamated between 2.0 to 1.7 Ga and remained as a quasi-integral continental lid until at least 1.3 Ga. Several breakup attempts were unsuccessful. Geological and paleomagnetic evidence suggest that Columbia underwent only minor changes to form the supercontinent Rodinia during the period from 1.1 to 0.9 Ga. Paleogeographic reconstructions suggest that the supercontinent assemblage was located in equatorial and temperate climate zones throughout the intervening time frame; there is little or no evidence for continental fragments in polar latitudes. A consequence of the limited breakup history is the lack of passive margins during the time period from 1.8 to 0.8 Ga. This stable configuration provides the primary constraint on the environmental stasis that characterizes the oceans, atmosphere, and biosphere. The breakup of Rodinia at approximately 0.75 Ga is considered the end of Earth’s Boring Billion. It should be noted that numerous reconstructions of Columbia’s paleogeography exist and consensus has yet to be reached. Evaluating the evidence of paleo poles and continent location becomes increasingly more difficult as deposits get older and relevant rock units show increasing levels of deformation and fragmentation.

text: The evolution of Earth’s

text: biosphere

text: , atmosphere and

text: hydrosphere

text: has long been linked to the

text: supercontinent cycle

text: , through which the Earth’s

text: continental crust

text: undergoes a periodic cycle of aggregation and dispersal. The period of the Boring Billion is characterized by the evolution of two different supercontinents:

text: Columbia

text: and

text: Rodinia

text: . The supercontinent Columbia

text: amalgamated

text: between 2.0 to 1.7 Ga and remained as a quasi-integral continental lid until at least 1.3 Ga. Several breakup attempts were unsuccessful.

text: Geological

text: and

text: paleomagnetic

text: evidence suggest that Columbia underwent only minor changes to form the supercontinent Rodinia during the period from 1.1 to 0.9 Ga.

text: Paleogeographic

text: reconstructions suggest that the supercontinent assemblage was located in

text: equator

text: ial and

text: temperate

text: climate zones throughout the intervening time frame; there is little or no evidence for continental fragments in

text: polar

text: latitudes. A consequence of the limited breakup history is the lack of

text: passive margin

text: s during the time period from 1.8 to 0.8 Ga. This stable configuration provides the primary constraint on the environmental stasis that characterizes the oceans, atmosphere, and biosphere. The breakup of Rodinia at approximately 0.75 Ga is considered the end of Earth’s Boring Billion. It should be noted that numerous reconstructions of Columbia’s paleogeography exist and consensus has yet to be reached. Evaluating the evidence of paleo poles and continent location becomes increasingly more difficult as deposits get older and relevant rock units show increasing levels of deformation and fragmentation.

text: By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly. Present life forms could not have survived at Earth's surface, because the Archean atmosphere lacked oxygen hence had no ozone layer to block ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, it is believed that primordial life began to evolve by the early Archean, with candidate fossils dated to around 3.5 Ga. Some scientists even speculate that life could have begun during the early Hadean, as far back as 4.4 Ga, surviving the possible Late Heavy Bombardment period in hydrothermal vents below the Earth's surface.

text: By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly. Present life forms could not have survived at Earth's surface, because the Archean atmosphere lacked

text: oxygen

text: hence had no

text: ozone layer

text: to block ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, it is believed that primordial life began to evolve by the early Archean, with candidate

text: fossil

text: s dated to around 3.5 Ga. Some scientists even speculate that life could have begun during the early Hadean, as far back as 4.4 Ga, surviving the possible Late Heavy Bombardment period in

text: hydrothermal vents

text: below the Earth's surface.

text: Oxygen is present as compounds in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of carbon dioxide () and oxides of nitrogen (NO). The earth's crustal rock is composed in large part of oxides of silicon (silica , found in granite and sand), aluminium (aluminium oxide , in bauxite and corundum), iron (iron (III) oxide , in hematite and rust) and other oxides of metals.

text: Oxygen is present as compounds in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of

text: carbon dioxide

text: () and

text: oxides of nitrogen

text: (NO). The

text: earth's crust

text: al

text: rock

text: is composed in large part of oxides of

text: silicon

text: silica

text: , found in

text: granite

text: and

text: sand

text: aluminium

text: aluminium oxide

text: , in

text: bauxite

text: and

text: corundum

text: iron

text: iron (III) oxide

text: , in

text: hematite

text: and

text: rust

text: ) and other oxides of

text: metal

text: s.

text: In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher, while some estimates are lower, suggesting oceans produce ~45% of Earth's atmospheric oxygen each year.

text: In nature, free oxygen is produced by the

text: light-driven splitting

text: of water during oxygenic

text: photosynthesis

text: . According to some estimates,

text: green algae

text: and

text: cyanobacteria

text: in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher, while some estimates are lower, suggesting oceans produce ~45% of Earth's atmospheric oxygen each year.

text: The Acadian orogeny is a long-lasting mountain building event which began in the Middle Devonian, reaching a climax in the early Late Devonian.  It was active for approximately 50 million years, beginning roughly around 375 million years ago, with deformational, plutonic, and metamorphic events extending into the Early Mississippian.  The Acadian orogeny is the third of the four orogenies that created the Appalachian orogen and subsequent basin.  The preceding orogenies consisted of the Potomac and Taconic orogeny, which followed a rift/drift stage in the Late Neoproterozoic.  The Acadian orogeny involved the collision of a series of Avalonian continental fragments with the Laurasian continent.  Geographically, the Acadian orogen extended from the Canadian Maritime provinces migrating in a southwesterly direction toward Alabama.  However, the Northern Appalachian region, from New England northeastern ward into Gaspé region of Canada, was the most greatly affected region by the collision.

text: The Acadian orogeny is a long-lasting

text: mountain

text: building event which began in the Middle

text: Devonian

text: , reaching a climax in the early Late

text: Devonian

text: .  It was active for approximately 50 million years, beginning roughly around 375 million years ago, with deformational,

text: plutonic

text: , and

text: metamorphic

text: events extending into the Early

text: Mississippian

text: .  The Acadian orogeny is the third of the four orogenies that created the

text: Appalachian

text: orogen

text: and subsequent basin.  The preceding orogenies consisted of the Potomac and

text: Taconic orogeny

text: , which followed a rift/drift stage in the Late

text: Neoproterozoic

text: .  The Acadian orogeny involved the collision of a series of

text: Avalonia

text: n continental fragments with the

text: Laurasia

text: n continent.  Geographically, the Acadian orogen extended from the Canadian Maritime provinces migrating in a southwesterly direction toward Alabama.  However, the Northern Appalachian region, from New England northeastern ward into

text: Gaspé

text: region of Canada, was the most greatly affected region by the collision.

text: Originally the Earth (Arda) was flat, the continents were surrounded by a mighty ocean (or perhaps by space), Ekkaia or Vaiya, the Encircling Sea. The central and western continents - respectively Middle-earth and Aman - were separated by Belegaer, also called the Great Sea and the Sundering Seas. In the First Age, the area in the northwest of Middle-earth was occupied by the large region of Beleriand, but this was mostly destroyed and submerged in the War of Wrath at the end of that Age.

text: Originally the Earth (Arda) was flat, the continents were surrounded by a mighty

text: ocean

text: (or perhaps by

text: space

text: Ekkaia

text: or Vaiya, the Encircling Sea. The central and western continents - respectively

text: Middle-earth

text: and

text: Aman

text: - were separated by

text: Belegaer

text: , also called the Great Sea and the Sundering Seas. In the

text: First Age

text: , the area in the northwest of Middle-earth was occupied by the large region of

text: Beleriand

text: , but this was mostly destroyed and submerged in the

text: War of Wrath

text: at the end of that Age.

text: The paleogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south, the continent of Siberia to the north, and the early formation of the small continent of Euramerica in between.

text: The

text: paleogeography

text: was dominated by the

text: supercontinent

text: of

text: Gondwana

text: to the south, the

text: continent

text: of

text: Siberia

text: to the north, and the early formation of the small continent of

text: Euramerica

text: in between.

text: The dragon represented two of the ancient elements, Earth and Water, endowing the creature with powers of illusion and strength. A Yang symbol, the Taoists saw the dragon as a personification of the Tao itself—"the Dragon reveals himself only to vanish". Shaolin Buddhists saw him as a vision of enlightened truth, to be felt, but never to be held. Certain very old men were called dragons, these being well versed in the life-supporting skills of herbal medicine, agriculture, and kung fu. In early China, these skills were surely a matter of life or death, and those so educated were held in high esteem.

text: The dragon represented two of the ancient

text: elements

text: , Earth and Water, endowing the creature with powers of illusion and strength. A

text: Yang

text: symbol, the

text: Taoists

text: saw the dragon as a personification of the Tao itself—"the Dragon reveals himself only to vanish".

text: Shaolin Buddhists

text: saw him as a vision of enlightened truth, to be felt, but never to be held. Certain very old men were called dragons, these being well versed in the life-supporting skills of herbal medicine, agriculture, and kung fu. In early China, these skills were surely a matter of life or death, and those so educated were held in high esteem.

text: Early in the Ordovician, the continents of Laurentia (in present-day North America), Siberia, and Baltica (present-day northern Europe) were still independent continents (since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but Baltica began to move towards Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean between them to shrink. The small continent Avalonia separated from Gondwana and began to move north towards Baltica and Laurentia, opening the Rheic Ocean between Gondwana and Avalonia.

text: Early in the Ordovician, the continents of

text: Laurentia

text: (in present-day

text: North America

text: Siberia

text: , and

text: Baltica

text: (present-day northern Europe) were still independent continents (since the break-up of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pannotia

text: earlier), but Baltica began to move towards Laurentia later in the period, causing the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: between them to shrink. The small continent

text: Avalonia

text: separated from Gondwana and began to move north towards Baltica and Laurentia, opening the

text: Rheic Ocean

text: between Gondwana and Avalonia.

text: The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment. However, it is thought that it was basaltic in composition, like today's oceanic crust, because little crustal differentiation had yet taken place. The first larger pieces of continental crust, which is a product of differentiation of lighter elements during partial melting in the lower crust, appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 Ga. What is left of these first small continents are called cratons. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.

text: The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment. However, it is thought that it was

text: basalt

text: ic in composition, like today's

text: oceanic crust

text: , because little crustal differentiation had yet taken place. The first larger pieces of

text: continental crust

text: , which is a product of differentiation of lighter elements during

text: partial melting

text: in the lower crust, appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 Ga. What is left of these first small continents are called

text: craton

text: s. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.

text: The African Plate includes several cratons, stable blocks of old crust with deep roots in the subcontinental lithospheric mantle, and less stable terranes, which came together to form the African continent during the assembly of the supercontinent Pangea around 550 million years ago. The cratons are, from south to north, the Kalahari craton, Congo craton, Tanzania craton and West African craton. The cratons were widely separated in the past, but came together during the Pan-African orogeny and stayed together when Gondwana split up.The cratons are connected by orogenic belts, regions of highly deformed rock where the tectonic plates have engaged.The Saharan Metacraton has been tentatively identified as the remains of a craton that has become detached from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle, but alternatively may consist of a collection of unrelated crustal fragments swept together during the Pan-African orogeny.

text: The African Plate includes several

text: craton

text: s, stable blocks of old crust with deep roots in the

text: subcontinental lithospheric mantle

text: , and less stable

text: terranes

text: , which came together to form the African continent during the assembly of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangea

text: around 550 million years ago. The cratons are, from south to north, the

text: Kalahari craton

text: Congo craton

text: Tanzania craton

text: and

text: West African craton

text: . The cratons were widely separated in the past, but came together during the

text: Pan-African orogeny

text: and stayed together when Gondwana split up.The cratons are connected by

text: orogenic belts

text: , regions of highly deformed rock where the

text: tectonic plates

text: have engaged.The

text: Saharan Metacraton

text: has been tentatively identified as the remains of a craton that has become detached from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle, but alternatively may consist of a collection of unrelated crustal fragments swept together during the Pan-African orogeny.

text: Cellular Organization of Cortical Circuit Function - Research group leader: James Schummers, PhD

text: Early in his career, Hardie conducted research and experimentation with evaporites, showing that the signal from evaporites provide evidence for seawater chemistry change. He observed that secular changes in the mineralogy of potash evaporites and ooids and cements in marine limestones are synchronous with greenhouse/hothouse climates and global sea level. Hardie's study of evaporites led to the hypothesis, since verified through study of seawater trapped inside crystals of marine halite, that seawater has undergone long-term variations in its major ion composition. He demonstrated that these variations are linked to plate tectonic processes at mid-ocean ridges. These studies improved the understanding of calcifying marine organisms and their role in the global carbon cycle, and also had implications for geochemistry, mineralogy, tectonics, biological evolution (biomineralization), oil/gas resources, and climate change. In recognition, he was awarded the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal for Excellence by the Society for Sedimentary Geology in 2003.

text: Early in his career, Hardie conducted research and experimentation with evaporites, showing that the signal from evaporites provide evidence for seawater chemistry change. He observed that secular changes in the mineralogy of potash evaporites and ooids and cements in marine limestones are synchronous with greenhouse/hothouse climates and global sea level. Hardie's study of evaporites led to the hypothesis, since verified through study of seawater trapped inside crystals of marine halite, that seawater has undergone long-term variations in its major ion composition. He demonstrated that these variations are linked to plate tectonic processes at mid-ocean ridges. These studies improved the understanding of calcifying marine organisms and their role in the global carbon cycle, and also had implications for geochemistry, mineralogy, tectonics, biological evolution (biomineralization), oil/gas resources, and climate change. In recognition, he was awarded the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal for Excellence by the

text: Society for Sedimentary Geology

text: in 2003.

text: These simple organisms, Cyanobacteria ruled the still cooling earth for approximately a thousand million (over a billion) years and gradually transformed the atmosphere to one containing free oxygen. These changes, along with tectonic activity left chemical trails (red bed formation, etc.) and other physical clues (magnetic orientation, layer formation factors) in the rock record, and it is these changes along with the later richer fossil record which specialists use to demarcate times early in planet earth's history in various disciplines.

text: These simple organisms,

text: Cyanobacteria

text: ruled the still cooling earth for approximately a thousand million (over a

text: billion

text: ) years and gradually transformed the atmosphere to one containing free oxygen. These changes, along with

text: tectonic activity

text: left chemical trails (

text: red bed

text: formation, etc.) and other physical clues (magnetic orientation, layer formation factors) in the rock record, and it is these changes along with the later richer

text: fossil record

text: which specialists use to demarcate times early in planet earth's history in various disciplines.

text: Sive was a leader and activist with a number of environmental organizations.  He was a founding member of Natural Resources Defense Council, the nation’s leading public interest law firm in this specialty, and of the Environmental Law Institute. Sive was also among the lawyers representing the Sierra Club when the Internal Revenue Service abruptly ended the Club's tax-exempt status in 1966. That move had the quite unintended effect of turning Sierra Club into the nationally known organization it remains and vastly increasing its membership. Sive subsequently served on the Club's Board of Directors. Sive was a founder of Environmental Advocates of New York, a contributing founder of Friends of the Earth, a member of the board of directors of the Hudson Valley Institute and Scenic Hudson, New York Lawyers for the Public Interest, while serving on the board of directors of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York; and a multi-year chair of the annual ALI-ABA Conference on Environmental Law.

text: Sive was a leader and activist with a number of environmental organizations.  He was a founding member of

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: , the nation’s leading public interest law firm in this specialty, and of the

text: Environmental Law Institute

text: . Sive was also among the lawyers representing the

text: Sierra Club

text: when the Internal Revenue Service abruptly ended the Club's tax-exempt status in 1966. That move had the quite unintended effect of turning Sierra Club into the nationally known organization it remains and vastly increasing its membership. Sive subsequently served on the Club's Board of Directors. Sive was a founder of Environmental Advocates of New York, a contributing founder of

text: Friends of the Earth

text: , a member of the board of directors of the Hudson Valley Institute and Scenic Hudson, New York Lawyers for the Public Interest, while serving on the board of directors of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York; and a multi-year chair of the annual ALI-ABA Conference on Environmental Law.

text: One theory is that periods of increased geomagnetic reversals will weaken Earth's magnetic field long enough to expose the atmosphere to the solar winds, causing oxygen ions to escape the atmosphere in a rate increased by 3-4 orders, resulting in a disastrous drop of oxygen.

text: One theory is that periods of increased

text: geomagnetic reversal

text: s will weaken

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: long enough to expose the atmosphere to the

text: solar wind

text: s, causing oxygen ions to escape the atmosphere in a rate increased by 3-4 orders, resulting in a disastrous drop of oxygen.

text: Over the life of the Earth, the orientation of Earth's magnetic field has reversed many times, with geomagnetic north becoming geomagnetic south and vice versa – an event known as a geomagnetic reversal.  Evidence of geomagnetic reversals can be seen at mid-ocean ridges where tectonic plates move apart. As magma seeps out of the mantle and solidifies to become new ocean floor, the magnetic minerals in it are magnetized in the direction of the magnetic field. Thus, starting at the most recently formed ocean floor, one can read out the direction of the magnetic field in previous times as one moves further away to older ocean floor.

text: Over the life of the Earth, the orientation of Earth's magnetic field has reversed many times, with geomagnetic north becoming geomagnetic south and vice versa – an event known as a

text: geomagnetic reversal

text: .  Evidence of geomagnetic reversals can be seen at

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s where

text: tectonic plate

text: s move apart. As

text: magma

text: seeps out of the

text: mantle

text: and solidifies to become new ocean floor, the magnetic minerals in it are magnetized in the direction of the magnetic field. Thus, starting at the most recently formed ocean floor, one can read out the direction of the magnetic field in previous times as one moves further away to older ocean floor.

text: Pangea refers to the supercontinent from which all current continents eventually separated. It serves as a reminder of the "connectedness" or unitary nature of all people on Planet Earth.

text: Pangea

text: refers to the supercontinent from which all current continents eventually separated. It serves as a reminder of the "connectedness" or unitary nature of all people on Planet

text: Earth

text: Phospholipids are composed of a hydrophilic head on one end, and a hydrophobic tail on the other. They possess an important characteristic for the construction of cell membranes; they can come together to form a bilayer membrane. A lipid monolayer bubble can only contain oil, and is not conducive to harbouring water-soluble organic molecules, but a lipid bilayer bubble  can contain water, and was a likely precursor to the modern cell membrane. If a protein came along that increased the integrity of its parent bubble, then that bubble had an advantage. Primitive reproduction may have occurred when the bubbles burst, releasing the results of the experiment into the surrounding medium. Once enough of the right compounds were released into the medium, the development of the first prokaryotes, eukaryotes, and multi-cellular organisms could be achieved.

text: Phospholipids are composed of a

text: hydrophilic

text: head on one end, and a

text: hydrophobic

text: tail on the other. They possess an important characteristic for the construction of cell membranes; they can come together to form a

text: bilayer

text: membrane. A lipid monolayer bubble can only contain oil, and is not conducive to harbouring water-soluble organic molecules, but a lipid bilayer bubble  can contain water, and was a likely precursor to the modern cell membrane. If a protein came along that increased the integrity of its parent bubble, then that bubble had an advantage. Primitive reproduction may have occurred when the bubbles burst, releasing the results of the experiment into the surrounding medium. Once enough of the right compounds were released into the medium, the development of the first

text: prokaryotes

text: eukaryotes

text: , and multi-cellular organisms could be achieved.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying symptoms apparent on clinical examination. Agenesis of the corpus callosum is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies. The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell organelles that are present in many cellular types throughout the human body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their

text: root cause

text: despite the widely varying

text: symptoms

text: apparent on clinical examination. Agenesis of the corpus callosum is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: . The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s that are present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: , and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled to form a solid. The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have assembled and broken apart. Roughly  (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart .

text: A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled

text: to form

text: a solid. The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by

text: plate tectonics

text: , a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. On

text: time scales

text: supercontinent

text: s have assembled and broken apart. Roughly  (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents,

text: Rodinia

text: Pannotia

text: , 600–, then finally

text: Pangaea

text: , which also broke apart .

text: Gold's atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally in the universe. It is thought to have been produced in supernova nucleosynthesis and from the collision of neutron stars  and to have been present in the dust from which the Solar System formed. Because the Earth was molten when it was just formed, almost all of the gold present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Therefore, most of the gold that is present today in the Earth's crust and mantle is thought to have been delivered to Earth later, by asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment, about 4 billion years ago.

text: Gold's atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally in the

text: universe

text: . It is thought to have been produced in

text: supernova nucleosynthesis

text: and from the

text: collision

text: of

text: neutron star

text: s  and to have been present in the

text: dust

text: from which the

text: Solar System

text: formed. Because the Earth was molten

text: when it was just formed

text: , almost all of the gold present in the

text: early Earth

text: probably sank into the

text: planetary core

text: . Therefore, most of the gold that is present today in the Earth's

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: is thought to have been delivered to Earth later, by

text: asteroid impact

text: s during the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: , about 4 billion years ago.

text: Eurobeat evolved into different genres, while preserving its essence. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Hi-NRG, 70s Euro disco, space disco, Canadian disco, and Italo disco (a.k.a. 80's Euro disco) emerged from electronic music. Although disco music became unpopular in North America, it remained in the limelight in Europe for many more years. In the USA, in the early 80s, disco linked with George Clinton, Earth, Wind & Fire, and the Hi-NRG scene.

text: Eurobeat evolved into different genres, while preserving its essence. In the late 1970s and early 1980s,

text: Hi-NRG

text: , 70s

text: Euro disco

text: space disco

text: , Canadian disco, and Italo disco (a.k.a. 80's Euro disco) emerged from

text: electronic music

text: . Although disco music became unpopular in North America, it remained in the limelight in Europe for many more years. In the USA, in the early 80s, disco linked with

text: George Clinton

text: Earth, Wind & Fire

text: , and the

text: Hi-NRG

text: scene.

text: Many Rare Earth proponents argue that the Earth's plate tectonics would probably not exist if not for the tidal forces of the Moon. The hypothesis that the Moon's tidal influence initiated or sustained Earth's plate tectonics remains unproven, though at least one study implies a temporal correlation to the formation of the Moon. Evidence for the past existence of plate tectonics on planets like Mars  which may never have had a large moon would counter this argument. Kasting argues that a large moon is not required to initiate plate tectonics.

text: Though most scientists conceive of the early atmosphere as reducing, a 2011 article in Nature found that cerium oxidation in zircon—which comprises the oldest rocks on Earth at roughly 4.4 billion years of age—was comparable to that of present-day lava.  This observation implies that Hadean atmospheric oxygen levels were similar to those of today.

text: Though most scientists conceive of the early atmosphere as reducing, a 2011 article in Nature found that

text: cerium

text: oxidation in

text: zircon

text: —which comprises the oldest rocks on Earth at roughly 4.4 billion years of age—was comparable to that of present-day lava.  This observation implies that

text: Hadean

text: atmospheric oxygen levels were similar to those of today.

text: The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of  and broke up about . The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around . The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).

text: The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a

text: supercontinent

text: that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent

text: Columbia

text: or Nuna formed during a period of  and broke up about . The supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around . The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called

text: Pangaea

text: ; Pangaea broke up into

text: Laurasia

text: (which became North America and Eurasia) and

text: Gondwana

text: (which became the remaining continents).

text: According to Herodotus, the ropes were not only used as mooring ropes but also supported the wooden logs forming the bridge deck which is rather unusual method of construction. Sailors carefully prevent ropes from chafing or from being pressed by hard objects and thus try to avoid early deterioration of the ropes. The constant movement of the ships caused by waves and by the marching troops and the heavy loads of the soldiers and of the earth covering the logs putting pressure on the stretched ropes would have led to an early failure of the ropes. In addition, this setup would not have allowed to have a flat and even bridge deck. The ropes in between the ships would have sagged under the load of the earth and of the people which would have caused a constant up and down of the road. On top, the earth would have accumulated in the center of the sags and thus increased the local load on the ropes. There was no necessity for this configuration: the space between the ships being only three meters, the gap could easily have been bridged by the logs put from one ship to the next and parallel to the ropes. This would have been a better basis for the road and would not have had any bad influence on the ropes.

text: Sedimentary rocks preserve remnants of the history of life on Earth in the form of fossils, biomarkers, isotopes, and other traces. The rock record is far from perfect, and the preservation of biosignatures is a rare occurrence. Understanding what factors determine the extent of preservation and the meaning behind what is preserved are important components to detangling the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth. The sedimentary record allows scientists to observe changes in life and Earth in composition over time and sometimes even date major transitions, like extinction events.

text: Sedimentary rock

text: s preserve remnants of the history of life on Earth in the form of

text: fossil

text: s,

text: biomarker

text: s,

text: isotope

text: s, and other traces. The rock record is far from perfect, and the preservation of

text: biosignature

text: s is a rare occurrence. Understanding what factors determine the extent of preservation and the meaning behind what is preserved are important components to detangling the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth. The sedimentary record allows scientists to observe changes in life and Earth in composition over time and sometimes even date major transitions, like extinction events.

text: Since the early 1990s the choir cassocks are of a deep burgundy colour, matching the stencil design hue on the organ pipes. Originally the choir wore traditional black cassocks and white surplices, but with the introduction of An Australian Prayer Book in the late 1970s, new cassocks of a green colour approximating that of the new prayer book cover (and coincidentally, that of the visible organ pipework at the time) were introduced and surplices were discontinued. On a visit to the cathedral in 1985 by the then Archbishop of Canterbury, a somewhat astonished Robert Runcie exclaimed that he had "never seen a cathedral choir wearing green robes before". With the restoration of the organ in the early 1990s, surplices were restored and cassocks of a deep burgundy were introduced matching the new stencil design hue on the organ pipes.

text: Since the early 1990s the choir cassocks are of a deep

text: burgundy

text: colour, matching the stencil design hue on the organ pipes. Originally the choir wore traditional black cassocks and white surplices, but with the introduction of An Australian Prayer Book in the late 1970s, new cassocks of a green colour approximating that of the new prayer book cover (and coincidentally, that of the visible organ pipework at the time) were introduced and surplices were discontinued. On a visit to the cathedral in 1985 by the then Archbishop of Canterbury, a somewhat astonished

text: Robert Runcie

text: exclaimed that he had "never seen a cathedral choir wearing green robes before". With the restoration of the organ in the early 1990s,

text: surplice

text: s were restored and

text: cassock

text: s of a deep burgundy were introduced matching the new stencil design hue on the organ pipes.

text: Colin Wilson borrowed the name for "The Return of the Lloigor" (1969), but his creatures are very different from Derleth's. The Lloigor take the form of invisible vortices of psychic energy, though they may sometimes make themselves manifest as great reptilian beasts, akin to the legendary dragons. In the distant past, the Lloigor came from the Andromeda Galaxy to the continent of Mu and used human slaves as their labor force. When their power dwindled, the Lloigor retreated below ground and left their former slaves to their own devices. Eventually, these early humans migrated from Mu and populated the earth.

text: Colin Wilson

text: borrowed the name for "The Return of the Lloigor" (1969), but his creatures are very different from Derleth's. The Lloigor take the form of invisible

text: vortice

text: s of

text: psychic

text: energy, though they may sometimes make themselves manifest as great

text: reptilian

text: beasts, akin to the legendary

text: dragon

text: s. In the distant past, the Lloigor came from the

text: Andromeda Galaxy

text: to the continent of

text: Mu

text: and used human slaves as their labor force. When their power dwindled, the Lloigor retreated below ground and left their former slaves to their own devices. Eventually, these early humans migrated from Mu and populated the earth.

text: The end of the Proterozoic saw at least two Snowball Earths, so severe that the surface of the oceans may have been completely frozen. This happened about 716.5 and 635 Ma, in the Cryogenian period. The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.Most paleoclimatologists think the cold episodes were linked to the formation of the supercontinent Rodinia. Because Rodinia was centered on the equator, rates of chemical weathering increased and carbon dioxide (CO) was taken from the atmosphere. Because CO is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.In the same way, during the Snowball Earths most of the continental surface was covered with permafrost, which decreased chemical weathering again, leading to the end of the glaciations. An alternative hypothesis is that enough carbon dioxide escaped through volcanic outgassing that the resulting greenhouse effect raised global temperatures. Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.

text: The end of the Proterozoic saw at least two Snowball Earths, so severe that the surface of the oceans may have been completely frozen. This happened about 716.5 and 635 Ma, in the

text: Cryogenian period

text: . The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.Most paleoclimatologists think the cold episodes were linked to the formation of the supercontinent Rodinia. Because Rodinia was centered on the equator, rates of

text: chemical weathering

text: increased and carbon dioxide (CO) was taken from the atmosphere. Because CO is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.In the same way, during the Snowball Earths most of the continental surface was covered with

text: permafrost

text: , which decreased chemical weathering again, leading to the end of the glaciations. An alternative hypothesis is that enough carbon dioxide escaped through volcanic outgassing that the resulting greenhouse effect raised global temperatures. Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.

text: Micro-continent model is suggested by Thomas and Astini. Saying that Precordillera origins from Laurentia as the south-east of Ouachita Embayment. It was detached by Ouachita Rift since Early Cambrian. After that Precordillera acts as an independent continent traveling through the Iapetus Ocean along the Alabama-Oklahoma transform fault. Finally the continent collides to Gondwana continent at middle Ordovician, changing the environment from passive margin to extensive rifting. This model is strongly supported by the thick carbonate complex as well as matching faunas records.

text: Micro-continent model is suggested by Thomas and Astini. Saying that

text: Precordillera

text: origins from

text: Laurentia

text: as the south-east of Ouachita Embayment. It was detached by

text: Ouachita

text: Rift since Early

text: Cambrian

text: . After that

text: Precordillera

text: acts as an independent continent traveling through the Iapetus Ocean along the Alabama-Oklahoma transform fault. Finally the continent collides to

text: Gondwana

text: continent at middle

text: Ordovician

text: , changing the environment from

text: passive margin

text: to extensive

text: rift

text: ing. This model is strongly supported by the thick carbonate complex as well as matching faunas records.

text: A September 2008 study of zircons found that Australian Hadean rock holds minerals pointing to the existence of plate tectonics as early as .If this is true, the time when Earth finished its transition from having a hot, molten surface and atmosphere full of carbon dioxide, to being very much like it is today, can be roughly dated to about 4.0 billion years ago. The actions of plate tectonics and the oceans trapped vast amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby eliminating the greenhouse effect and leading to a much cooler surface temperature and the formation of solid rock, and possibly even life.

text: P. dendritiformis colonies behave much like a multi-cellular organism, with cell differentiation and task distribution. Accomplishing such intricate cooperative ventures requires sophisticated cell-cell communication including semantic and pragmatic aspects of linguistics.

text: The Permian () was a relatively short time period, during which all the Earth's major land masses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. At the end of the Permian, the biggest mass extinction in history occurred, collectively called the Permian–Triassic extinction event: 30% of all insect species became extinct; this is one of three known mass insect extinctions in Earth's history.

text: The

text: Permian

text: () was a relatively short time period, during which all the

text: Earth

text: 's major land masses were collected into a single supercontinent known as

text: Pangaea

text: . Pangaea straddled the

text: equator

text: Panthalassa

text: Cimmeria

text: continent

text: rift

text: ed away from

text: Gondwana

text: and drifted north to

text: Laurasia

text: , causing the

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: to shrink. At the end of the Permian, the biggest mass extinction in history occurred, collectively called the

text: Permian–Triassic extinction event

text: : 30% of all insect species became extinct; this is one of three known mass insect extinctions in Earth's history.

text: The idea that a supercontinent existed in the early Neoproterozoic arose in the 1970s, when geologists determined that orogens of this age exist on virtually all cratons. Examples are the Grenville orogeny in North America and the Dalslandian orogeny in Europe.

text: The idea that a supercontinent existed in the early Neoproterozoic arose in the 1970s, when geologists determined that

text: orogen

text: s of this age exist on virtually all

text: craton

text: s. Examples are the

text: Grenville orogeny

text: in North America and the

text: Dalslandian orogeny

text: in Europe.

text: The RTB model predicts an increase in astronomical evidence that Earth resides at the ideal location in the cosmos for both harboring advanced civilization and technology and making the universe observable. Nontheistic models predict that new astronomical discoveries will show that Earth is unremarkable for both habitability and observation. The RTB model also predicts that as scientists continue to research the causes and effects of plate tectonics, their findings will reveal evidence for the fine-tuning required for long-lasting, stable plate-tectonic activity on a planet with a thin atmosphere. It also predicts that the flood of Noah was a local event. Nontheistic models predict that evidence for fine-tuned, long-lasting plate tectonics will weaken as scientists learn more about plate tectonic phenomena. Young earth models predict that all plate tectonic activity occurred during the past ten thousand years, and that the bulk of that tectonic activity took place between 5,000 and 7,000 years ago.

text: BPM 37093 (V886 Centauri) is a  variable white dwarf star of the DAV, or ZZ Ceti, type, with a hydrogen atmosphere and an unusually high mass of approximately 1.1 times the Sun's.  It is about 50 light-years from Earth, in the constellation Centaurus, and vibrates; these pulsations cause its luminosity to vary.  Like other white dwarfs, BPM 37093 is thought to be composed primarily of carbon and oxygen, which are created by thermonuclear fusion of helium nuclei in the triple-alpha process.

text: BPM 37093 (V886 Centauri) is a

text: variable

text: white dwarf

text: star

text: of the DAV, or

text: ZZ Ceti

text: , type, with a

text: hydrogen

text: atmosphere and an unusually high mass of approximately 1.1 times the

text: Sun

text: 's.  It is about 50

text: light-year

text: s from Earth, in the constellation

text: Centaurus

text: , and vibrates; these pulsations cause its

text: luminosity

text: to

text: vary

text: .  Like other white dwarfs, BPM 37093 is thought to be composed primarily of carbon and oxygen, which are created by

text: thermonuclear

text: fusion of

text: helium

text: nuclei in the

text: triple-alpha process

text: The semi-final eliminations of early favorites Alex Lambert, Katelyn Epperly and Lilly Scott before the Top 12 stunned bloggers and viewers. Michael Slezak of ew.com stated, "So you'd think by season 9 — during the inconsequential semifinals, no less — it would be easy to brush off the bad judgment of speed-texting tweens, to process the way-too-early exits of Lilly Scott, Katelyn Epperly, and Alex Lambert...and move on...(S)o why do the ritual killings of the dreams of (three) indisputably flawed semifinalists feel like they’re part of something bigger, a shifting of the tectonic plates at the core of the Idol universe?"

text: The semi-final eliminations of early favorites

text: Alex Lambert

text: , Katelyn Epperly and Lilly Scott before the Top 12 stunned bloggers and viewers. Michael Slezak of

text: ew.com

text: stated, "So you'd think by season 9 — during the inconsequential semifinals, no less — it would be easy to brush off the bad judgment of speed-texting tweens, to process the way-too-early exits of Lilly Scott, Katelyn Epperly, and Alex Lambert...and move on...(S)o why do the ritual killings of the dreams of (three) indisputably flawed semifinalists feel like they’re part of something bigger, a shifting of the tectonic plates at the core of the Idol universe?"

text: Among the earliest enthusiasts for holy wells in modern times was the Neopagan movement, for whom wells formed part of 'earth mysteries' study along with ley lines and ancient sites; the view that the Christians had ‘stolen’ holy wells from the Pagan religions fitted in well with their position. The magazines Wood and Water and Meyn Mamvro, among others, helped shape this approach. During the early- and mid-1990s this viewpoint was under increasing attack crowned by the publication of Ronald Hutton’s The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles (1991) which argued that the evidence for what constituted pre-Christian British religious practices, certainly outside Romano-British times, was next to nil. As far as wells themselves were concerned, the controversy emerged in the pages of Source, the holy wells journal edited by Roy Fry and former Benedictine monk Tristan Gray-Hulse. A number of articles in the journal challenged long-standing myths about holy well history, and the editors published an exchange between the authors and Cheryl Straffon, editor of Cornish earth mysteries magazine Meyn Mamvro, about the evidence for a particular Cornish well’s supposed association with the Irish goddess Brigid. The eco-pagan movement has largely accepted the new historiographical approach, but occasionally rather more old-fashioned accounts of holy wells are published, for instance Gary Varner’s Sacred Springs (2002).

text: Among the earliest enthusiasts for holy wells in modern times was the

text: Neopagan

text: movement, for whom wells formed part of '

text: earth mysteries

text: ' study along with

text: ley line

text: s and ancient sites; the view that the Christians had ‘stolen’ holy wells from the Pagan religions fitted in well with their position. The magazines Wood and Water and

text: Meyn Mamvro

text: , among others, helped shape this approach. During the early- and mid-1990s this viewpoint was under increasing attack crowned by the publication of

text: Ronald Hutton

text: ’s The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles (1991) which argued that the evidence for what constituted pre-Christian British religious practices, certainly outside Romano-British times, was next to nil. As far as wells themselves were concerned, the controversy emerged in the pages of Source, the holy wells journal edited by Roy Fry and former

text: Benedictine

text: monk

text: Tristan Gray-Hulse. A number of articles in the journal challenged long-standing myths about holy well history, and the editors published an exchange between the authors and Cheryl Straffon, editor of Cornish earth mysteries magazine Meyn Mamvro, about the evidence for a particular Cornish well’s supposed association with the Irish goddess

text: Brigid

text: . The eco-pagan movement has largely accepted the new historiographical approach, but occasionally rather more old-fashioned accounts of holy wells are published, for instance Gary Varner’s Sacred Springs (2002).

text: The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BCE by  Aristarchus of Samos, but had received no support from most other ancient astronomers.

text: The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BCE by

text: Aristarchus of Samos

text: , but had received no support from most other ancient astronomers.

text: Because of the remarkable clarity, dryness, and stillness of the air, and its elevation (with atmospheric pressure of 71 kPa/533 mm Hg), as well as the absence of the lights of major cities, the summit of Haleakalā is one of the most sought-after locations in the world for ground-based telescopes (though to a lesser extent than Mauna Kea on neighboring Hawaii).  As a result of the geographic importance of this observational platform, experts come from all over the world to take part in research at "Science City", an astrophysical complex operated by the U.S. Department of Defense, University of Hawaii, Smithsonian Institution, Air Force, Federal Aviation Administration, and others. Telescopes and lasers are used to measure the earth's plates and the processes of plate tectonics. The location where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches. The majority of the world's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate's Ring of Fire being the most active and widely known today. These boundaries are discussed in further detail below. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation[8] and to mantle plumes.

text: Because of the remarkable clarity, dryness, and stillness of the air, and its elevation (with atmospheric pressure of 71 kPa/533 mm Hg), as well as the absence of the lights of major cities, the summit of Haleakalā is one of the most sought-after locations in the world for ground-based telescopes (though to a lesser extent than

text: Mauna Kea

text: on neighboring

text: Hawaii

text: ).  As a result of the geographic importance of this observational platform, experts come from all over the world to take part in research at "

entity_name: Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory

text: Science City

text: ", an astrophysical complex operated by the

text: U.S. Department of Defense

text: University of Hawaii

text: Smithsonian Institution

text: Air Force

text: Federal Aviation Administration

text: , and others. Telescopes and lasers are used to measure the earth's plates and the processes of plate tectonics. The location where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches. The majority of the world's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate's Ring of Fire being the most active and widely known today. These boundaries are discussed in further detail below. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation[8] and to mantle plumes.

text: Earth's Moon probably formed out of material splashed into orbit by the impact of a large body into the early Earth. Differentiation on Earth had probably already separated many lighter materials toward the surface, so that the impact removed a disproportionate amount of silicate material from Earth, and left the majority of the dense metal behind. The Moon's density is substantially less than that of Earth, due to its lack of a large iron core.

text: Earth

text: 's

text: Moon

text: probably formed out of material splashed into orbit by the impact of a large body into the early Earth. Differentiation on Earth had probably already separated many lighter materials toward the surface, so that the impact removed a disproportionate amount of silicate material from Earth, and left the majority of the dense metal behind. The Moon's density is substantially less than that of Earth, due to its lack of a large iron core.

text: Reefs (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2007)

text: The early Palaeozoic history of Norway is recorded in sequences preserved either as autochthon or at various levels within the allochthon. They relate to the further widening of Iapetus during the Cambrian, the start of closure during the Early Ordovician with the accretion of terranes and ophiolite obduction during the Late Ordovician and continent-continent collision at the end of the Silurian.

text: The early

text: Palaeozoic

text: history of Norway is recorded in sequences preserved either as autochthon or at various levels within the allochthon. They relate to the further widening of Iapetus during the Cambrian, the start of closure during the Early

text: Ordovician

text: with the

text: accretion

text: of

text: terrane

text: s and

text: ophiolite

text: obduction

text: during the Late Ordovician and continent-continent collision at the end of the

text: Silurian

text: Ostariophysian fossils, both anotophysan and otophysian, are known from the early Cretaceous. Ostariophysian fossils are known from every continent except Australia.

text: Ostariophysian fossils, both anotophysan and otophysian, are known from the early

text: Cretaceous

text: . Ostariophysian fossils are known from every continent except

text: Australia

text: The ancient Mesopotamians believed in an afterlife that was a land below our world. It was this land, known alternately as Arallû, Ganzer or Irkallu, the latter of which meant "Great Below", that it was believed everyone went to after death, irrespective of social status or the actions performed during life. Unlike Christian Hell, the Mesopotamians considered the underworld neither a punishment nor a reward. Nevertheless, the condition of the dead was hardly considered the same as the life previously enjoyed on earth: they were considered merely weak and powerless ghosts. The myth of Ishtar's descent into the underworld relates that "dust is their food and clay their nourishment, they see no light, where they dwell in darkness." Stories such as the Adapa myth resignedly relate that, due to a blunder, all men must die and that true everlasting life is the sole property of the gods.

text: The ancient Mesopotamians believed in an

text: afterlife

text: that was a land below our world. It was this land, known alternately as Arallû, Ganzer or Irkallu, the latter of which meant "Great Below", that it was believed everyone went to after death, irrespective of social status or the actions performed during life. Unlike Christian Hell, the Mesopotamians considered the underworld neither a punishment nor a reward. Nevertheless, the condition of the dead was hardly considered the same as the life previously enjoyed on earth: they were considered merely weak and powerless ghosts. The myth of Ishtar's descent into the underworld relates that "dust is their food and clay their nourishment, they see no light, where they dwell in darkness." Stories such as the Adapa myth resignedly relate that, due to a blunder, all men must die and that true everlasting life is the sole property of the gods.

text: The energy needed to break the shield around Cor Hydrae drains the energy that allows the five major islands to float in the sky, and the islands fall toward the Earth below. However, not only has the air become clean over a thousand years, but life has returned to the Earth. The islands' fall is stopped by the spirits of five ancient gods who, while holding up the islands, turn into giant pillars of stone, connecting the islands once again to the Earth.

text: The Paleozoic era began and ended with supercontinents and in between were the rise of mountains along the continental margins, and flooding and draining of shallow seas between. At its start, the supercontinent Pannotia broke up. Paleoclimatic studies and evidence of glaciers indicate that central Africa was most likely in the polar regions during the early Paleozoic. During the early Paleozoic, the huge continent Gondwanaland () formed or was forming. By mid-Paleozoic, the collision of North America and Europe produced the Acadian-Caledonian uplifts, and a subduction plate uplifted eastern Australia. By the late Paleozoic, continental collisions formed the supercontinent of Pangaea and resulted in some of the great mountain chains, including the Appalachians, Urals, and mountains of Tasmania.

text: The Paleozoic era began and ended with supercontinents and in between were the rise of mountains along the continental margins, and flooding and draining of shallow seas between. At its start, the supercontinent

text: Pannotia

text: broke up.

text: Paleoclimatic

text: studies and evidence of

text: glacier

text: s indicate that

text: central Africa

text: was most likely in the polar regions during the early Paleozoic. During the early Paleozoic, the huge continent

text: Gondwanaland

text: () formed or was forming. By mid-Paleozoic, the collision of North America and Europe produced the Acadian-Caledonian uplifts, and a subduction plate uplifted eastern

text: Australia

text: . By the late Paleozoic, continental collisions formed the supercontinent of

text: Pangaea

text: and resulted in some of the great mountain chains, including the Appalachians,

text: Urals

text: , and mountains of

text: Tasmania

text: The Murgon fossil site is a paleontological site of early Eocene age in south-eastern Queensland, Australia.  It lies near the town of Murgon, some 270 km north-west of Brisbane.  The Murgon site is important as the only site on the continent with a diverse range of vertebrate fossils dating from the early Paleogene Period (55 million years ago, only 10 million years after the extinction of the dinosaurs), making it a crucial period in mammal evolution.  It is also important in demonstrating Australia's Gondwanan links with South America in the form of similar fossils from the two continents.

text: The Murgon fossil site is a

text: paleontological

text: site of early

text: Eocene

text: age in south-eastern

text: Queensland

text: Australia

text: .  It lies near the town of

text: Murgon

text: , some 270 km north-west of

text: Brisbane

text: .  The Murgon site is important as the only site on the continent with a diverse range of vertebrate fossils dating from the early

text: Paleogene

text: Period (55 million years ago, only 10 million years after the

text: extinction of the dinosaurs

text: ), making it a crucial period in

text: mammal

text: evolution.  It is also important in demonstrating Australia's

text: Gondwana

text: n links with

text: South America

text: in the form of similar fossils from the two continents.

text: Estimates of the production of organics from these sources suggest that the Late Heavy Bombardment before 3.5 Ga within the early atmosphere made available quantities of organics comparable to those produced by terrestrial sources.

text: Estimates of the production of organics from these sources suggest that the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: before 3.5 Ga within the early atmosphere made available quantities of organics comparable to those produced by terrestrial sources.

text: When first described, Makarkinia was known from a single fossil wing which is a compression-impression fossil preserved in layers of soft sedimentary rock. Along with other well-preserved insect fossils, the Makarkinia specimens were collected from layers of the Upper Aptian Crato Formation. The formation is composed of unweathered grey and oxidized yellow limestones, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds and reptiles as a notable lagerstätten. The area is a preserved inland lake or one of a series of lakes, though the nature as a fresh or salt-water body is uncertain. The depth of the basin has been suggested as either shallow or fairly deep. The basin formed near the center of the supercontinent Gondwana during the early part of the diversification of flowering plants.

text: When first described, Makarkinia was known from a single fossil wing which is a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in layers of soft

text: sedimentary

text: rock. Along with other well-preserved insect fossils, the Makarkinia specimens were collected from layers of the

text: Upper Aptian

text: Crato Formation

text: lagerstätten

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: flowering plants

text: During the late Silurian period Baltica then collided with Laurentia which is named the Scandian phase of the Caledonian Orogeny. Baltica was subducted below Laurentia forming the Caledonian Belt.  The Caledonian Orogeny caused the closure of the Iapetus Ocean when the continents and terranes of Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia collided. The combined mass of the three continents formed a "new" continent: Laurussia or Euramerica. The Caledonian orogeny encompasses events that occurred from the Ordovician to Early Devonian, roughly 490–390 Ma. The basement formations of the North Sea were roughly formed during this Caledonian geosynclinal stage of the Cambrian - Devonian periods.  The Caledonian mountains range helped create the ‘Old Red Sandstone’ continent at the joining of the tectonic plates.  The Rheic Ocean began to open to the south.

text: During the late

text: Silurian

text: period

text: Baltica

text: then collided with

text: Laurentia

text: which is named the Scandian phase of the

text: Caledonian Orogeny

text: . Baltica was subducted below Laurentia forming the Caledonian Belt.  The

text: Caledonian Orogeny

text: caused the closure of the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: when the continents and

text: terrane

text: s of

text: Laurentia

text: Baltica

text: and

text: Avalonia

text: collided. The combined mass of the three continents formed a "new" continent:

text: Laurussia

text: or

text: Euramerica

text: . The Caledonian orogeny encompasses events that occurred from the

text: Ordovician

text: to Early

text: Devonian

text: , roughly 490–390

text: Ma

text: . The basement formations of the North Sea were roughly formed during this Caledonian

text: geosynclinal

text: stage of the

text: Cambrian

text: Devonian

text: periods.  The Caledonian mountains range helped create the ‘

text: Old Red Sandstone

text: ’ continent at the joining of the tectonic plates.  The

text: Rheic Ocean

text: began to open to the south.

text: There is evidence of precession and changes in axial tilt, but this change is on much longer time-scales and does not involve relative motion of the spin axis with respect to the planet. However, in what is known as true polar wander, the solid Earth can rotate with respect to a fixed spin axis. Research shows that during the last 200 million years a total true polar wander of some 30° has occurred, but that no super-rapid shifts in the Earth's pole were found during this period. A characteristic rate of true polar wander is 1° or less per million years. Between approximately 790 and 810 million years ago, when the supercontinent Rodinia existed, two geologically rapid phases of true polar wander may have occurred. In each of these, the magnetic poles of the Earth shifted by ~55°.

text: There is evidence of

text: precession

text: and changes in

text: axial tilt

text: , but this change is on much longer time-scales and does not involve relative motion of the spin axis with respect to the planet. However, in what is known as

text: true polar wander

text: , the solid Earth can rotate with respect to a fixed spin axis. Research shows that during the last 200 million years a total true polar wander of some 30° has occurred, but that no super-rapid shifts in the Earth's pole were found during this period. A characteristic rate of true polar wander is 1° or less per million years. Between approximately 790 and 810 million years ago, when the

text: supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: existed, two geologically rapid phases of true polar wander may have occurred. In each of these, the magnetic poles of the Earth shifted by ~55°.

text: The Earth was generally cold during the early Cambrian, probably due to the ancient continent of Gondwana covering the South Pole and cutting off polar ocean currents. However, average temperatures were 7 degrees Celsius higher than today.  There were likely polar ice caps and a series of glaciations, as the planet was still recovering from an earlier Snowball Earth. It became warmer towards the end of the period; the glaciers receded and eventually disappeared, and sea levels rose dramatically. This trend would continue into the Ordovician period.

text: The Earth was generally cold during the early Cambrian, probably due to the ancient continent of Gondwana covering the

text: South Pole

text: and cutting off polar ocean currents. However, average temperatures were 7 degrees Celsius higher than today.  There were likely polar ice caps and a series of glaciations, as the planet was still recovering from an earlier

text: Snowball Earth

text: . It became warmer towards the end of the period; the glaciers receded and eventually disappeared, and sea levels rose dramatically. This trend would continue into the

text: Ordovician

text: period.

text: During this era, oxygenic photosynthesis first evolved, releasing an abundance of oxygen, that first reacted with minerals and afterward was free to react with greenhouse gases of the atmosphere, leaving the Earth's surface free to radiate its energy to space. This is known as the oxygen catastrophe which was to happen later in the Paleoproterozoic from a poisonous buildup of oxygen in the atmosphere, released by these oxygen producing photoautotrophs, which evolved earlier in the Neoarchean.

text: During this era, oxygenic photosynthesis first evolved, releasing an abundance of oxygen, that first reacted with minerals and afterward was free to react with greenhouse gases of the atmosphere, leaving the Earth's surface free to radiate its energy to space. This is known as the

text: oxygen catastrophe

text: which was to happen later in the

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: from a poisonous buildup of oxygen in the atmosphere, released by these oxygen producing photoautotrophs, which evolved earlier in the Neoarchean.

text: The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles  (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics.  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity.  When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s  (

text: Terra Cimmeria

text: and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: .  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity.  When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The Pacific Ocean evolved from Panthalassa after the breakup of the supercontinent of Pangaea, which in Greek means, "all the earth."

text: The

text: Pacific Ocean

text: evolved from Panthalassa after the breakup of the supercontinent of

text: Pangaea

text: , which in Greek means, "all the earth."

text: Maps prepared by Christopher Tolkien and J.R.R. Tolkien for the world encompassing The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings were published as foldouts or illustrations in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales, as well as in poster format as "A Map of Middle-Earth." (The maps of 'Middle-earth' only show the north-west of the continent, as indicated on the revised map published in Unfinished Tales.) Early conceptions of the maps provided in The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings were included in several volumes, including "The First Silmarillion Map" in The Shaping of Middle-earth, "The First Map of the Lord of the Rings" in The Treason of Isengard, "The Second Map (West)" and "The Second Map (East)" in The War of the Ring, and "The Second Map of Middle-earth west of the Blue Mountains" (also known as "The Second Silmarillion Map") in The War of the Jewels.

text: Maps prepared by Christopher Tolkien and J.R.R. Tolkien for the world encompassing The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings were published as foldouts or illustrations in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and

text: Unfinished Tales

text: , as well as in poster format as "

text: A Map of Middle-Earth

text: ." (The maps of 'Middle-earth' only show the north-west of the continent, as indicated on the revised map published in Unfinished Tales.) Early conceptions of the maps provided in The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings were included in several volumes, including "The First Silmarillion Map" in The Shaping of Middle-earth, "The First Map of the Lord of the Rings" in

text: The Treason of Isengard

text: , "The Second Map (West)" and "The Second Map (East)" in

text: The War of the Ring

text: , and "The Second Map of Middle-earth west of the Blue Mountains" (also known as "The Second Silmarillion Map") in

text: The War of the Jewels

text: Nick Eyles suggest that the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth was in fact no different from any other glaciation in Earth's history, and that efforts to find a single cause are likely to end in failure. The "Zipper rift" hypothesis proposes two pulses of continental "unzipping" — first, the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, forming the proto-Pacific Ocean; then the splitting of the continent Baltica from Laurentia, forming the proto-Atlantic — coincided with the glaciated periods.The associated tectonic uplift would form high plateaus, just as the East African Rift is responsible for high topography; this high ground could then host glaciers.

text: Nick Eyles suggest that the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth was in fact no different from any other glaciation in Earth's history, and that efforts to find a single cause are likely to end in failure. The "Zipper rift" hypothesis proposes two pulses of continental "unzipping" — first, the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, forming the proto-Pacific Ocean; then the splitting of the continent

text: Baltica

text: from

text: Laurentia

text: , forming the proto-Atlantic — coincided with the glaciated periods.The associated tectonic uplift would form high plateaus, just as the

text: East African Rift

text: is responsible for high topography; this high ground could then host glaciers.

text: Kenorland was one of the earliest supercontinents on Earth. It is thought to have formed during the Neoarchaean Era c. 2.7 billion years ago (2.7 Ga) by the accretion of Neoarchaean cratons and the formation of new continental crust. It comprised what later became Laurentia (the core of today's North America and Greenland), Baltica (today's Scandinavia and Baltic), Western Australia and Kalaharia. It also formed a substantial and substantive part of Nena, the supercontinent associated with the Sudbury Basin Impact.

text: Kenorland was one of the earliest

text: supercontinent

text: s on Earth. It is thought to have formed during the

text: Neoarchaean

text: Era

text: c. 2.7 billion years ago (2.7

text: Ga

text: ) by the

text: accretion

text: of Neoarchaean

text: craton

text: s and the formation of new

text: continent

text: al

text: crust

text: . It comprised what later became

text: Laurentia

text: (the core of today's North America and Greenland),

text: Baltica

text: (today's Scandinavia and Baltic),

text: Western Australia

text: and

text: Kalaharia

text: . It also formed a substantial and substantive part of

text: Nena

text: , the supercontinent associated with the

text: Sudbury Basin Impact

text: Philosophical attempts to rationalize why different substances have different properties (color, density, smell), exist in different states (gaseous, liquid, and solid), and react in a different manner when exposed to environments, for example to water or fire or temperature changes, led ancient philosophers to postulate the first theories on nature and chemistry. The history of such philosophical theories that relate to chemistry can probably be traced back to every single ancient civilization. The common aspect in all these theories was the attempt to identify a small number of primary classical element that make up all the various substances in nature. Substances like air, water, and soil/earth, energy forms, such as fire and light, and more abstract concepts such as ideas, aether, and heaven, were common in ancient civilizations even in absence of any cross-fertilization; for example in Greek, Indian, Mayan, and ancient Chinese philosophies all considered air, water, earth and fire as primary elements.

text: Philosophical attempts to rationalize why different substances have different properties (color, density, smell), exist in different states (gaseous, liquid, and solid), and react in a different manner when exposed to environments, for example to water or fire or temperature changes, led ancient philosophers to postulate the first theories on nature and chemistry. The history of such philosophical theories that relate to chemistry can probably be traced back to every single ancient civilization. The common aspect in all these theories was the attempt to identify a small number of primary

text: classical element

text: that make up all the various substances in nature. Substances like air, water, and soil/earth, energy forms, such as fire and light, and more abstract concepts such as ideas, aether, and heaven, were common in ancient civilizations even in absence of any cross-fertilization; for example in Greek, Indian, Mayan, and ancient Chinese philosophies all considered

text: air

text: water

text: earth

text: and

text: fire

text: as primary elements.

text: The Ancient language has a unique writing system that has no analogues with any known Earth alphabet. Ancient letter are squarish and dominated by right angles, and as a full letter, a letter contains 24 squarish dots. There are 25 distinct letters ('F' and 'U' are the same character) and 10 numerals (from 0 to 9) in the Ancient-English conversion. It has been mentioned though that the Ancients have an Octal counting system, meaning based on 8, not like the decimal system of the Tau'ri, based on 10, although the Stargate Universe symbols include symbols for 8 and 9. Exactly how the characters were used by the Ancients is unknown. It has been mentioned that some Ancient characters have different meanings when read upside down. The Ancient writing system has been shown to be learnable with moderate difficulty by humans. However, the pronunciation of Ancient words has fluctuated during the millennia the language was used.

text: The Ancient language has a unique writing system that has no analogues with any known Earth alphabet. Ancient letter are squarish and dominated by right angles, and as a full letter, a letter contains 24 squarish dots. There are 25 distinct letters ('F' and 'U' are the same character) and 10 numerals (from 0 to 9) in the Ancient-English conversion. It has been mentioned though that the Ancients have an

text: Octal

text: counting system, meaning based on 8, not like the

text: decimal

text: system of the

text: Tau'ri

text: , based on 10, although the Stargate Universe symbols include symbols for 8 and 9. Exactly how the characters were used by the Ancients is unknown. It has been mentioned that some Ancient characters have different meanings when read upside down. The Ancient writing system has been shown to be learnable with moderate difficulty by humans. However, the pronunciation of Ancient words has fluctuated during the millennia the language was used.

text: Since a gene duplication occurs in only one cell, either in a single-celled organism or in the germ cell of a multi-cellular organism, its carrier (i.e. the organism) usually has to compete against other organisms that do not carry the duplication. If the duplication disrupts the normal functioning of an organism, the organism has a reduced reproductive success (or low fitness) compared to its competitors and will most likely die out rapidly. If the duplication has no effect on fitness, it might be maintained in a certain proportion of a population. In certain cases, the duplication of a certain gene might be immediately beneficial, providing its carrier with a fitness advantage.

text: Since a gene duplication occurs in only one cell, either in a single-celled organism or in the germ cell of a multi-cellular organism, its carrier (i.e. the organism) usually has to compete against other organisms that do not carry the duplication. If the duplication disrupts the normal functioning of an organism, the organism has a reduced reproductive success (or low

text: fitness

text: ) compared to its competitors and will most likely die out rapidly. If the duplication has no effect on fitness, it might be maintained in a certain proportion of a population. In certain cases, the duplication of a certain gene might be immediately beneficial, providing its carrier with a fitness advantage.

text: A partial solar eclipse occurred on July 21, 1906. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon's shadow misses the Earth.

text: A partial

text: solar eclipse

text: occurred on July 21, 1906. A

text: solar eclipse

text: occurs when the

text: Moon

text: passes between

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: Methylene blue is also a photosensitizer used to create singlet oxygen when exposed to both oxygen and light. It is used in this regard to make organic peroxides by a Diels-Alder reaction which is spin forbidden with normal atmospheric triplet oxygen.

text: Methylene blue is also a

text: photosensitizer

text: used to create

text: singlet oxygen

text: when exposed to both oxygen and light. It is used in this regard to make organic

text: peroxides

text: by a

text: Diels-Alder

text: reaction which is

text: spin forbidden

text: with normal atmospheric

text: triplet oxygen

text: A primary size-limiting factor is the amount of atmospheric oxygen. Without a complex circulatory system, low concentrations of oxygen cannot reach the centre of an organism quickly enough to supply its metabolic demand.

text: A primary size-limiting factor is the amount of atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: . Without a complex

text: circulatory system

text: , low concentrations of oxygen cannot reach the centre of an organism quickly enough to supply its metabolic demand.

text: Tectonic boundaries have been discovered on Mars. Valles Marineris is a horizontally sliding tectonic boundary that divides two major partial or complete plates of Mars. The recent finding suggests that Mars is geologically active with occurrences in the millions of years, and there is additional speculation.There has been previous evidence of Mars' geologic activity. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles. The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone.Because the area with the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life. At that time the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. Younger rock does not show any stripes.When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as hematite (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above the Curie temperature, which is 770 °C for pure iron, but lower for oxides such as hematite (approximately 650 °C) or magnetite (approximately 580 °C). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.

text: Tectonic boundaries have been discovered on Mars. Valles Marineris is a horizontally sliding tectonic boundary that divides two major partial or complete plates of Mars. The recent finding suggests that Mars is geologically active with occurrences in the millions of years, and there is additional speculation.There has been previous evidence of Mars' geologic activity. The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s. The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: . However, there are some differences, between the

text: magnetic stripes

text: on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone.Because the area with the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life. At that time the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo. Younger rock does not show any stripes.When molten rock containing magnetic material, such as

text: hematite

text: (Fe2O3), cools and solidifies in the presence of a magnetic field, it becomes magnetized and takes on the polarity of the background field. This magnetism is lost only if the rock is subsequently heated above the Curie temperature, which is 770 °C for pure iron, but lower for oxides such as hematite (approximately 650 °C) or magnetite (approximately 580 °C). The magnetism left in rocks is a record of the magnetic field when the rock solidified.

text: [[Image:Carter-Hall-knife.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Carter Hall finds the ancient knife connected to his past life. Interior panel of Flash Comics #1 (1940).<br> Art by Dennis Neville.]]The JSA and Hawkman regroup in the early 1960s following the Flash's meeting with his counterpart on the parallel world Earth-1, the JSA being active on Earth-2. Around this time, the Halls, having married, have a son, Hector. Little is known of Hawkman's activities during the 1960s, other than the JSA's annual meeting with Earth-1's Justice League of America.

text: [[Image:Carter-Hall-knife.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Carter Hall finds the ancient knife connected to his past life. Interior panel of Flash Comics #1 (1940).<br> Art by Dennis Neville.]]The JSA and Hawkman regroup in the early 1960s following the Flash's meeting with

text: his counterpart

text: on the

text: parallel world

text: , the JSA being active on

text: . Around this time, the Halls, having married, have a son,

text: Hector

text: . Little is known of Hawkman's activities during the 1960s, other than the JSA's annual meeting with Earth-1's

text: Justice League of America

text: As the earth moves along its orbital path, billions of particles known as meteors enter the earth's atmosphere every day, a small fraction of which have properties useful for point to point communication.  When these meteors begin to burn up, they create a trail of ionized particles in the E layer of the atmosphere that can persist for up to several seconds. The ionization trails can be very dense and thus used to reflect radio waves. The frequencies that can be reflected by any particular ion trail are determined by the intensity of the ionization created by the meteor, often a function of the initial size of the particle, and are generally between 30 MHz and 50 MHz.

text: As the earth moves along its orbital path, billions of particles known as meteors enter the earth's atmosphere every day, a small fraction of which have properties useful for point to point communication.  When these meteors begin to burn up, they create a trail of ionized particles in the

text: E layer

text: of the atmosphere that can persist for up to several seconds. The ionization trails can be very dense and thus used to reflect

text: radio wave

text: s. The frequencies that can be reflected by any particular ion trail are determined by the intensity of the ionization created by the meteor, often a function of the initial size of the particle, and are generally between 30 MHz and 50 MHz.

text: Early sauropods and their prosauropod relatives were found around the world as all of the continents were at the time united into the single supercontinent, Pangaea, which made dispersal across the entire terrestrial world possible.

text: Early sauropods and their

text: prosauropod

text: relatives were found around the world as all of the continents were at the time united into the single supercontinent,

text: Pangaea

text: , which made

text: dispersal

text: across the entire terrestrial world possible.

text: An alternative explanation of these later deposits has undergone much discussion as part of the Snowball Earth hypothesis. Several hypotheses exist for the initiation of the Snowball Earths.  The initiation mechanisms which include the breakup of the early equatorial supercontinent (Rodinia), the first colonization of the land by early lichens and fungi and variations in the Earth's axial tilt  are yet to be convincingly identified. In a Snowball Earth state the earth's continents, and possibly seas at low latitudes, were subject to an ice age.

text: An alternative explanation of these later deposits has undergone much discussion as part of the

text: Snowball Earth

text: hypothesis. Several hypotheses exist for the initiation of the Snowball Earths.  The initiation mechanisms which include the breakup of the early equatorial

text: supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: ), the first colonization of the land by early lichens and fungi and variations in the Earth's axial tilt  are yet to be convincingly identified. In a Snowball Earth state the earth's continents, and possibly seas at low latitudes, were subject to an

text: ice age

text: Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about ancient life, and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils. Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult: sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating, which provides absolute dates that are accurate to within 0.5%, but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the "jigsaw puzzles" of biostratigraphy. Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult, as many do not fit well into the Linnaean taxonomy that is commonly used for classifying living organisms, and paleontologists more often use cladistics to draw up evolutionary "family trees". The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes. Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend.

text: Body fossils and

text: trace fossil

text: s are the principal types of evidence about ancient life, and

text: geochemical

text: evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils. Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult: sometimes adjacent rock layers allow

text: radiometric dating

text: , which provides

text: absolute dates

text: that are accurate to within 0.5%, but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the "

text: jigsaw puzzle

text: s" of

text: biostratigraphy

text: . Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult, as many do not fit well into the

text: Linnaean taxonomy

text: that is commonly used for classifying living organisms, and paleontologists more often use

text: cladistics

text: to draw up evolutionary "family trees". The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of

text: molecular phylogenetics

text: , which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the

text: DNA

text: is in their

text: genome

text: s. Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the

text: molecular clock

text: on which such estimates depend.

text: The idea that planets beyond Earth might host life is an ancient one, though historically it was framed by philosophy as much as physical science. The late 20th century saw two breakthroughs in the field. The observation and robotic spacecraft exploration of other planets and moons within the Solar System has provided critical information on defining habitability criteria and allowed for substantial geophysical comparisons between the Earth and other bodies. The discovery of extrasolar planets, beginning in the early 1990s and accelerating thereafter, has provided further information for the study of possible extraterrestrial life. These findings confirm that the Sun is not unique among stars in hosting planets and expands the habitability research horizon beyond the Solar System.

text: The idea that planets beyond Earth might host life is an ancient one, though historically it was framed by

text: philosophy

text: as much as

text: physical science

text: . The late 20th century saw two breakthroughs in the field. The observation and

text: robotic spacecraft

text: exploration

text: of other planets and moons within the Solar System has provided critical information on defining habitability criteria and allowed for substantial geophysical comparisons between the Earth and other bodies. The discovery of

text: extrasolar planet

text: s, beginning in the early 1990s and accelerating thereafter, has provided further information for the study of possible extraterrestrial life. These findings confirm that the Sun is not unique among

text: star

text: s in hosting planets and expands the habitability research horizon beyond the Solar System.

text: In early 19th century Mormon theology, Joseph Smith taught that a theodemocracy would guide and direct the Kingdom of God (Zion) on the earth during the end times. On March 11, 1844, Smith organized a Council of Fifty, who were to work under the direction of the Priesthood authorities of his church, along with a Council of Friends. This group of three organizations was expected to rule as a world government just prior to the Millennium.

text: In early 19th century

text: Mormon

text: theology,

text: Joseph Smith

text: taught that a

text: theodemocracy

text: would guide and direct the

text: Kingdom of God

text: Zion

text: ) on the earth during the

text: end time

text: s. On March 11, 1844, Smith organized a

text: Council of Fifty

text: , who were to work under the direction of the

text: Priesthood

text: authorities of his church, along with a

text: Council of Friends

text: . This group of three organizations was expected to rule as a world government just prior to the

text: Millennium

text: Geophysicist Don L. Anderson has hypothesized that plate tectonics could not happen without the calcium carbonate laid down by bioforms at the edges of subduction zones. The massive weight of these sediments could be softening the underlying rocks, making them pliable enough to plunge. However, considering that some refractory minerals used for dating early Earth, such as zircon, are typically generated in subduction zones and associated with granites and pegmatites, some of these early dates may have preceded significant biological activity on Earth.

text: Geophysicist

text: Don L. Anderson

text: has hypothesized that plate tectonics could not happen without the

text: calcium carbonate

text: laid down by bioforms at the edges of subduction zones. The massive weight of these sediments could be softening the underlying rocks, making them pliable enough to plunge. However, considering that some refractory minerals used for dating early Earth, such as

text: zircon

text: , are typically generated in subduction zones and associated with

text: granites

text: and

text: pegmatites

text: , some of these early dates may have preceded significant biological activity on Earth.

text: Fictional locations vary greatly in their size. Very small places like a single room are kept out of the umbrella of fictional locations by convention, as are most single buildings. A fictional location can be the size of a university (H.P. Lovecraft's Miskatonic University), a town (Stephen King's Salem's Lot), a county (Raintree County), a state (Winnemac in various Sinclair Lewis stories), a large section of continent (as in north-western Middle-earth, which supposedly represents Europe), a whole planet (Anne McCaffrey's Pern), a whole galaxy (Isaac Asimov's Foundation books), even a multiverse (His Dark Materials). In a larger scale, occasionally the term alternate reality is used, but only if it is considered a variant of Earth rather than an original world. Austin Tappan Wright's Islandia has an invented continent, Karain, on our world.

text: Fictional locations vary greatly in their size. Very small places like a single room are kept out of the umbrella of fictional locations by convention, as are most single buildings. A fictional location can be the size of a university (

text: H.P. Lovecraft

text: 's

text: Miskatonic University

text: ), a town (

text: Stephen King

text: 's

text: Salem's Lot

text: ), a county (

text: Raintree County

text: ), a state (

text: Winnemac

text: in various

text: Sinclair Lewis

text: stories), a large section of continent (as in north-western

text: Middle-earth

text: , which supposedly represents Europe), a whole planet (

text: Anne McCaffrey

text: 's

text: Pern

text: ), a whole galaxy (

text: Isaac Asimov

text: 's

text: Foundation

text: books), even a

text: multiverse

text: His Dark Materials

text: ). In a larger scale, occasionally the term

text: alternate reality

text: is used, but only if it is considered a variant of Earth rather than an original world.

text: Austin Tappan Wright

text: 's

text: Islandia

text: has an invented continent, Karain, on our world.

text: The HTC Merge is a Multi-band device supporting both GSM and CDMA2000 cellular communications.

text: The HTC Merge is a

text: Multi-band device

text: supporting both

text: GSM

text: and

text: cellular communications.

text: The study of abiogenesis involves geophysical, chemical, and biological considerations, with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of all three. Many approaches investigate how self-replicating molecules, or their components, came into existence. It is generally thought that current life on Earth is descended from an RNA world, although RNA-based life may not have been the first life to have existed. The classic Miller–Urey experiment and similar research demonstrated that most amino acids, the basic chemical constituents of the proteins used in all living organisms, can be synthesized from inorganic compounds under conditions intended to replicate those of the early Earth. Various external sources of energy that may have triggered these reactions have been proposed, including lightning and radiation. Other approaches ("metabolism-first" hypotheses) focus on understanding how catalysis in chemical systems on the early Earth might have provided the precursor molecules necessary for self-replication. Complex organic molecules have been found in the Solar System and in interstellar space, and these molecules may have provided starting material for the development of life on Earth.

text: The study of abiogenesis involves

text: geophysical

text: chemical

text: , and

text: biological

text: considerations, with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of all three. Many approaches investigate how

text: self-replicating

text: molecule

text: s, or their components, came into existence. It is generally thought that current life on Earth is descended from an

text: RNA world

text: , although

text: RNA

text: -based life may not have been the first life to have existed. The classic

text: Miller–Urey experiment

text: and similar research demonstrated that most

text: amino acid

text: s, the basic chemical constituents of the

text: protein

text: s used in all living organisms, can be synthesized from inorganic compounds under conditions intended to replicate those of the

text: early Earth

text: . Various external sources of energy that may have triggered these reactions have been proposed, including

text: lightning

text: and

text: radiation

text: . Other approaches ("metabolism-first" hypotheses) focus on understanding how

text: catalysis

text: in chemical systems on the early Earth might have provided the precursor molecules necessary for

text: self-replication

text: . Complex

entity_name: List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules

text: organic molecules

text: have been found in the

text: Solar System

text: and in

text: interstellar space

text: , and these molecules may have provided

text: starting material

text: for the development of life on Earth.

text: There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for extravehicular activity.

text: There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for

text: extravehicular activity

text: Mantle convection, the process that drives plate tectonics today, is a result of heat flow from the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface. It involves the creation of rigid tectonic plates at mid-oceanic ridges. These plates are destroyed by subduction into the mantle at subduction zones. During the early Archean (about 3.0 Ga) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around , so convection in the mantle was faster. Although a process similar to present-day plate tectonics did occur, this would have gone faster too. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction zones were more common, and therefore tectonic plates were smaller.

text: Mantle convection

text: , the process that drives plate tectonics today, is a result of heat flow from the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface. It involves the creation of rigid

text: tectonic plate

text: s at

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: s. These plates are destroyed by

text: subduction

text: into the mantle at

text: subduction zone

text: s. During the early Archean (about 3.0 Ga) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around , so convection in the mantle was faster. Although a process similar to present-day plate tectonics did occur, this would have gone faster too. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction zones were more common, and therefore tectonic plates were smaller.

text: Even so, volcanic outgassing could not have accounted for the amount of water in Earth's oceans. The vast majority of the water —and arguably carbon— necessary for life must have come from the outer Solar System, away from the Sun's heat, where it could remain solid. Comets impacting with the Earth in the Solar System's early years would have deposited vast amounts of water, along with the other volatile compounds life requires onto the early Earth, providing a kick-start to the origin of life.

text: Even so,

text: volcanic

text: outgassing could not have accounted for the amount of water in Earth's oceans. The vast majority of the water —and arguably carbon— necessary for life must have come from the outer Solar System, away from the Sun's heat, where it could remain solid.

text: Comet

text: s impacting with the Earth in the Solar System's early years would have deposited vast amounts of water, along with the other volatile compounds life requires onto the early Earth, providing a kick-start to the

text: origin of life

text: The Americas is the supercontinent comprising North and South America, and associated islands.

text: The Americas

text: is the supercontinent comprising North and South America, and associated islands.

text: There is an exception with cyanobacteria. Marine cyanobacteria are the smallest known photosynthetic organisms; the smallest of all, Prochlorococcus, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across. Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful species on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, there are estimated to be several octillion (~10) individuals. Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for an estimated 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere, and forms part of the base of the ocean food chain.

text: There is an exception with

text: cyanobacteria

text: . Marine cyanobacteria are the smallest known

text: photosynthetic

text: organisms; the smallest of all,

text: Prochlorococcus

text: , is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across. Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful

text: species

text: on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, there are estimated to be several

text: octillion

text: (~10) individuals. Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the

text: oligotroph

text: ic (nutrient poor) regions of the oceans. The bacterium accounts for an estimated 20% of the

text: oxygen

text: in the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: , and forms part of the base of the ocean

text: food chain

text: The ocean formed when Pannotia disintegrated, Proto-Laurasia (Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia) rifted away from a supercontinent that would become Gondwana.  Proto-Tethys formed between these two supercontinents.  The ocean was bordered by Panthalassic Ocean to the north, separating it from Panthalassa by island arcs and Kazakhstania.  The Proto-Tethys expanded during the Cambrian.  The ocean was at its widest during the Late Ordovician to Middle Silurian.  The ocean was situated between the Siberia to the west, and Gondwana to the east.  The ocean began to shrink during the Late Silurian, when North China, and South China moved away from Gondwana and headed north.  In the late Devonian, the microcontinent of Kazakhstania collided with Siberia, shrinking the ocean even more.  The ocean closed when the North China craton collided with Siberia-Kazakstania continent in the Carboniferous, while the Paleo-Tethys Ocean expanded.

text: The ocean formed when

text: Pannotia

text: disintegrated,

text: Proto-Laurasia

text: (Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia) rifted away from a supercontinent that would become

text: Gondwana

text: .  Proto-Tethys formed between these two supercontinents.  The ocean was bordered by

text: Panthalassic Ocean

text: to the north, separating it from Panthalassa by

text: island arcs

text: and

text: Kazakhstania

text: .  The Proto-Tethys expanded during the

text: Cambrian

text: .  The ocean was at its widest during the Late

text: Ordovician

text: to Middle

text: Silurian

text: .  The ocean was situated between the

text: Siberia

text: to the west, and

text: Gondwana

text: to the east.  The ocean began to shrink during the Late Silurian, when

text: North China

text: , and

text: South China

text: moved away from Gondwana and headed north.  In the late

text: Devonian

text: , the microcontinent of

text: Kazakhstania

text: collided with Siberia, shrinking the ocean even more.  The ocean closed when the North China

text: craton

text: collided with Siberia-Kazakstania continent in the

text: Carboniferous

text: , while the Paleo-Tethys Ocean expanded.

text: Whereas the earliest traces of life in fossil record of Africa date back to the earliest times, the formation of African fauna as we know it today, began with the splitting up of the Gondwana supercontinent in the mid-Mesozoic era.

text: Whereas the earliest traces of life in fossil record of Africa date back to the earliest times, the formation of African fauna as we know it today, began with the splitting up of the

text: Gondwana

text: supercontinent in the mid-

text: Mesozoic era

text: By the late 19th century, many of the most conservative Christians accepted an ancient earth, and life on earth before Eden. Victorian Era Creationists were more akin to people who subscribe to theistic evolution today. Even fervent anti-evolutionist Scopes Trial prosecutor William Jennings Bryan interpreted the "days" of Genesis as ages of the earth, and acknowledged that biochemical evolution took place, drawing the line only at the story of Adam and Eve's creation. Prominent pre-World War II creationist Harry Rimmer allowed an Old Earth by slipping millions of years into putative gaps in the Genesis account, and claimed that the Noachian Flood was only a local phenomenon.

text: By the late 19th century, many of the most conservative Christians accepted an ancient earth, and life on earth before Eden.

text: Victorian Era

text: Creationists were more akin to people who subscribe to

text: theistic evolution

text: today. Even fervent anti-evolutionist

text: Scopes Trial

text: prosecutor

text: William Jennings Bryan

text: interpreted the "days" of

text: Genesis

text: as ages of the earth, and acknowledged that biochemical evolution took place, drawing the line only at the story of

text: Adam and Eve

text: 's creation. Prominent pre-World War II creationist

text: Harry Rimmer

text: allowed an

text: Old Earth

text: by slipping millions of years into putative gaps in the Genesis account, and claimed that the

text: Noachian Flood

text: was only a local phenomenon.

text: At the beginning of the period, around  million years ago, the climate was very hot due to high concentration of  (4200 ppm) in the atmosphere, which gave a strong greenhouse effect. By contrast, today the concentration is above 400 ppm.  Marine water temperatures are assumed to have averaged 45 °C (113 °F), which restricted the diversification of complex multi-cellular organisms. But over time, the climate became cooler, and around 460 million years ago, the ocean temperatures became comparable to those of present-day equatorial waters.

text: The main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

text: The main way free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via

text: respiration

text: and

text: decay

text: , mechanisms in which

text: animal

text: life and

text: bacteria

text: consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

text: In the early 1970s, Superman's power levels (particularly his strength and invulnerability) are reduced as the result of a storyline involving an accident that renders most of Earth's Kryptonite inert, as well as creating a sand creature that drains a portion of Superman's powers. This leaves Superman lamenting about the fact that he was reduced to the point where he could not even push around an entire continent.

text: |-| 26401 Sobotište || 1999 WX || Sobotište, a village in southwestern Slovakia, home of an astronomical observatory |-id=411| 26411 Jocorbferg ||  || 26411 Jocorbferg Discovered 1999 Dec. 6 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Joseph Corbett Ferguson (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology team project. He attends the Paul Laurence Dunbar High School, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.|-id=412| 26412 Charlesyu ||  || 26412 Charlesyu Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Charles Cheng Yu (b. 1994) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology team project. He attends the Wheatley School, Old Westbury, New York, U.S.A.|-id=414| 26414 Amychyao ||  || 26414 Amychyao Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Amy Cindy Chyao (b. 1994) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry project. She attends the Williams High School, Plano, Texas, U.S.A.|-id=417| 26417 Michaelgord ||  || 26417 Michaelgord Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Michael Aaron Gord (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry project. He attends the Dayton Christian High School, Miamisburg, Ohio, U.S.A.|-id=422| 26422 Marekbuchman ||  || 26422 Marekbuchman Discovered 1999 Dec. 12 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Marek Buchman (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry project. He attends the School for Extraordinary Gifted Children, Bratislava, Slovakia.|-id=424| 26424 Jacquelihung ||  || 26424 Jacquelihung Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Hung Jacqueline (b. 1991) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry team project. She attends the Taipei Municipal First Girls' Senior High School, Taipei City, Chinese Taipei.|-id=425| 26425 Linchichieh ||  || 26425 Linchichieh Discovered 1999 Dec. 8 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Lin Chi-Chieh (b. 1992) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry team project. She attends the Taipei Municipal First Girls' Senior High School, Taipei City, Chinese Taipei.|-id=426| 26426 Koechl ||  || 26426 Koechl Discovered 1999 Dec. 8 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Juergen Koechl (b. 1990) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry team project. He attends the HTL Braunau am Inn, Braunau am Inn, Austria.|-id=429| 26429 Andiwagner ||  || 26429 Andiwagner Discovered 1999 Dec. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Andreas Wagner (b. 1990) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry team project. He attends the HTL Braunau am Inn, Braunau am Inn, Austria.|-id=430| 26430 Thomwilkason ||  || 26430 Thomwilkason Discovered 1999 Dec. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Thomas Frederick Wilkason (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science project. He attends the Mount de Sales Academy, Macon, Georgia, U.S.A.|-id=433| 26433 Michaelyurko ||  || 26433 Michaelyurko Discovered 1999 Dec. 14 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Michael Christopher Yurko (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science project. He attends the Detroit Catholic Central High School, Novi, Michigan, U.S.A.|-id=441| 26441 Nanayakkara ||  || 26441 Nanayakkara Discovered 2000 Jan. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Ganindu Nanayakkara (b. 1990) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science project. He attends the Ananda College, Colombo, Sri Lanka.|-id=442| 26442 Matfernandez ||  || 26442 Matfernandez Discovered 2000 Jan. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Matthew Fernandez (b. 1993) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science team project. He attends the Oregon Episcopal School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=447| 26447 Akrishnan ||  || 26447 Akrishnan Discovered 2000 Jan. 4 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Akash Krishnan (b. 1994) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science team project. He attends the Oregon Episcopal School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=448| 26448 Tongjili ||  || 26448 Tongjili Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Tongji Li (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science project. She attends the Hershey High School, Hershey, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.|-id=450| 26450 Tanyapetach ||  || 26450 Tanyapetach Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Tanya Nicole Petach (b. 1994) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science project. She attends the Fairview High School, Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A.|-id=451| 26451 Khweis ||  || 26451 Khweis Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Majdolene Ziad Khweis (b. 1993) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science project. She attends the Taos High School, Taos, New Mexico, U.S.A.|-id=455| 26455 Priyamshah ||  || 26455 Priyamshah Discovered 2000 Jan. 4 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Priyam C. Shah (b. 1992) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his earth-science team project. He attends the Sunset High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=457| 26457 Naomishah ||  || 26457 Naomishah Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Naomi C. Shah (b. 1995) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science team project. She attends the Sunset High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=458| 26458 Choihyuna ||  || 26458 Choihyuna Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Choi Hyun-A (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science team project. She attends the Damyang High School, Damyang-gun, Jeollanam-do, South Korea.|-id=459| 26459 Shinsubin ||  || 26459 Shinsubin Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Shin Subin (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science team project. She attends the Damyang High School, Damyang-gun, Jeollanam-do, South Korea.|-id=462| 26462 Albertcui ||  || 26462 Albertcui Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Albert Cui (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering project. He attends the Hillcrest High School, Midvale, Utah, U.S.A.|-id=466| 26466 Zarrin ||  || 26466 Zarrin Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. David Andrew Zarrin (b. 1995) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering project. He attends the Saratoga High School, Saratoga, California, U.S.A.|-id=467| 26467 Jamespopper ||  || 26467 Jamespopper Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. James Sinclair Popper (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering project. He attends the Marlborough College, Marlborough, Wiltshire, United Kingdom.|-id=468| 26468 Ianchan ||  || 26468 Ianchan Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Ian Chan (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Plano East Senior High School, Plano, Texas, U.S.A.|-id=471| 26471 Tracybecker ||  || Tracy Michelle Becker (b. 1986) determined the shapes of the components of asteroid , the first triple-asteroid system discovered in the near-Earth population. She did this work as a student working at the Arecibo Observatory, earning a Ph.D. in 2016. |-id=474| 26474 Davidsimon ||  || 26474 Davidsimon Discovered 2000 Jan. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. David Szabolcs Simon (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Szent Margit Secondary School, Budapest, Hungary.|-id=475| 26475 Krisztisugar ||  || 26475 Krisztisugar Discovered 2000 Jan. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Krisztina Sugar (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. She attends the Szent Margit Secondary School, Budapest, Hungary.|-id=478| 26478 Cristianrosu ||  || 26478 Cristianrosu Discovered 2000 Jan. 8 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Cristian Emilian Rosu (b. 1991) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Emanuil Gojdu National College, Oradea, Bihor, Romania.|-id=488| 26488 Beiser ||  || 26488 Beiser Discovered 2000 Jan. 7 by the Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search at the Anderson Mesa Station. Antoinette S. Beiser (b. 1956), Lowell Observatory's librarian for twenty years, now concentrates on fundraising.|-id=493| 26493 Paulsucala ||  || 26493 Paulsucala Discovered 2000 Jan. 30 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Paul Stelian Sucala (b. 1991) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Silvania National College, Zalau, Rhode Island, U.S.A.|-id=495| 26495 Eichorn ||  || Will Eichorn (b. 1943), an amateur astronomer and retired Dow Chemical optical technician, living in Bay City, Michigan. |-id=498| 26498 Dinotina ||  || Dino and Tina Grifoni, uncle and aunt of Andrea Boattini †|-id=500| 26500 Toshiohino ||  || Toshio Hino, Japanese astronomer |}

text: 26401 Sobotište

text: || 1999 WX ||

text: Sobotište

text: , a village in southwestern Slovakia, home of an astronomical observatory |-id=411|

text: 26411 Jocorbferg

text: ||  || 26411 Jocorbferg Discovered 1999 Dec. 6 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Joseph Corbett Ferguson (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology team project. He attends the Paul Laurence Dunbar High School, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.|-id=412|

text: 26412 Charlesyu

text: ||  || 26412 Charlesyu Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Charles Cheng Yu (b. 1994) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his cellular- and molecular-biology team project. He attends the Wheatley School, Old Westbury, New York, U.S.A.|-id=414|

text: 26414 Amychyao

text: ||  || 26414 Amychyao Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Amy Cindy Chyao (b. 1994) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry project. She attends the Williams High School, Plano, Texas, U.S.A.|-id=417|

text: 26417 Michaelgord

text: ||  || 26417 Michaelgord Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Michael Aaron Gord (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry project. He attends the Dayton Christian High School, Miamisburg, Ohio, U.S.A.|-id=422|

text: 26422 Marekbuchman

text: ||  || 26422 Marekbuchman Discovered 1999 Dec. 12 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Marek Buchman (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry project. He attends the School for Extraordinary Gifted Children, Bratislava, Slovakia.|-id=424|

text: 26424 Jacquelihung

text: ||  || 26424 Jacquelihung Discovered 1999 Dec. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Hung Jacqueline (b. 1991) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry team project. She attends the Taipei Municipal First Girls' Senior High School, Taipei City, Chinese Taipei.|-id=425|

text: 26425 Linchichieh

text: ||  || 26425 Linchichieh Discovered 1999 Dec. 8 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Lin Chi-Chieh (b. 1992) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her chemistry team project. She attends the Taipei Municipal First Girls' Senior High School, Taipei City, Chinese Taipei.|-id=426|

text: 26426 Koechl

text: ||  || 26426 Koechl Discovered 1999 Dec. 8 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Juergen Koechl (b. 1990) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry team project. He attends the HTL Braunau am Inn, Braunau am Inn, Austria.|-id=429|

text: 26429 Andiwagner

text: ||  || 26429 Andiwagner Discovered 1999 Dec. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Andreas Wagner (b. 1990) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his chemistry team project. He attends the HTL Braunau am Inn, Braunau am Inn, Austria.|-id=430|

text: 26430 Thomwilkason

text: ||  || 26430 Thomwilkason Discovered 1999 Dec. 10 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Thomas Frederick Wilkason (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science project. He attends the Mount de Sales Academy, Macon, Georgia, U.S.A.|-id=433|

text: 26433 Michaelyurko

text: ||  || 26433 Michaelyurko Discovered 1999 Dec. 14 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Michael Christopher Yurko (b. 1993) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science project. He attends the Detroit Catholic Central High School, Novi, Michigan, U.S.A.|-id=441|

text: 26441 Nanayakkara

text: ||  || 26441 Nanayakkara Discovered 2000 Jan. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Ganindu Nanayakkara (b. 1990) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science project. He attends the Ananda College, Colombo, Sri Lanka.|-id=442|

text: 26442 Matfernandez

text: ||  || 26442 Matfernandez Discovered 2000 Jan. 3 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Matthew Fernandez (b. 1993) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science team project. He attends the Oregon Episcopal School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=447|

text: 26447 Akrishnan

text: ||  || 26447 Akrishnan Discovered 2000 Jan. 4 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Akash Krishnan (b. 1994) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer-science team project. He attends the Oregon Episcopal School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=448|

text: 26448 Tongjili

text: ||  || 26448 Tongjili Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Tongji Li (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science project. She attends the Hershey High School, Hershey, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.|-id=450|

text: 26450 Tanyapetach

text: ||  || 26450 Tanyapetach Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Tanya Nicole Petach (b. 1994) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science project. She attends the Fairview High School, Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A.|-id=451|

text: 26451 Khweis

text: ||  || 26451 Khweis Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Majdolene Ziad Khweis (b. 1993) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science project. She attends the Taos High School, Taos, New Mexico, U.S.A.|-id=455|

text: 26455 Priyamshah

text: ||  || 26455 Priyamshah Discovered 2000 Jan. 4 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Priyam C. Shah (b. 1992) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his earth-science team project. He attends the Sunset High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=457|

text: 26457 Naomishah

text: ||  || 26457 Naomishah Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Naomi C. Shah (b. 1995) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science team project. She attends the Sunset High School, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.|-id=458|

text: 26458 Choihyuna

text: ||  || 26458 Choihyuna Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Choi Hyun-A (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science team project. She attends the Damyang High School, Damyang-gun, Jeollanam-do, South Korea.|-id=459|

text: 26459 Shinsubin

text: ||  || 26459 Shinsubin Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Shin Subin (b. 1992) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her earth-science team project. She attends the Damyang High School, Damyang-gun, Jeollanam-do, South Korea.|-id=462|

text: 26462 Albertcui

text: ||  || 26462 Albertcui Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Albert Cui (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering project. He attends the Hillcrest High School, Midvale, Utah, U.S.A.|-id=466|

text: 26466 Zarrin

text: ||  || 26466 Zarrin Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. David Andrew Zarrin (b. 1995) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering project. He attends the Saratoga High School, Saratoga, California, U.S.A.|-id=467|

text: 26467 Jamespopper

text: ||  || 26467 Jamespopper Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. James Sinclair Popper (b. 1992) was awarded best of category and first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering project. He attends the Marlborough College, Marlborough, Wiltshire, United Kingdom.|-id=468|

text: 26468 Ianchan

text: ||  || 26468 Ianchan Discovered 2000 Jan. 5 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Ian Chan (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Plano East Senior High School, Plano, Texas, U.S.A.|-id=471|

text: 26471 Tracybecker

text: ||  || Tracy Michelle Becker (b. 1986) determined the shapes of the components of asteroid , the first triple-asteroid system discovered in the near-Earth population. She did this work as a student working at the Arecibo Observatory, earning a Ph.D. in 2016. |-id=474|

text: 26474 Davidsimon

text: ||  || 26474 Davidsimon Discovered 2000 Jan. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. David Szabolcs Simon (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Szent Margit Secondary School, Budapest, Hungary.|-id=475|

text: 26475 Krisztisugar

text: ||  || 26475 Krisztisugar Discovered 2000 Jan. 7 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Krisztina Sugar (b. 1991) was awarded second place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for her electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. She attends the Szent Margit Secondary School, Budapest, Hungary.|-id=478|

text: 26478 Cristianrosu

text: ||  || 26478 Cristianrosu Discovered 2000 Jan. 8 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Cristian Emilian Rosu (b. 1991) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Emanuil Gojdu National College, Oradea, Bihor, Romania.|-id=488|

text: 26488 Beiser

text: ||  || 26488 Beiser Discovered 2000 Jan. 7 by the Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search at the Anderson Mesa Station. Antoinette S. Beiser (b. 1956), Lowell Observatory's librarian for twenty years, now concentrates on fundraising.|-id=493|

text: 26493 Paulsucala

text: ||  || 26493 Paulsucala Discovered 2000 Jan. 30 by the Lincoln Laboratory Near-Earth Asteroid Research Team at Socorro. Paul Stelian Sucala (b. 1991) was awarded first place in the 2010 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his electrical- and mechanical-engineering team project. He attends the Silvania National College, Zalau, Rhode Island, U.S.A.|-id=495|

text: 26495 Eichorn

text: ||  || Will Eichorn (b. 1943), an amateur astronomer and retired Dow Chemical optical technician, living in

text: Bay City, Michigan

text: . |-id=498|

text: 26498 Dinotina

text: ||  || Dino and Tina Grifoni, uncle and aunt of

text: Andrea Boattini

text: 26500 Toshiohino

text: Toshio Hino

text: , Japanese astronomer |}

text: A mechanism put forward to explain low tectonic variability is related to the temperature of the asthenosphere, which may have been too hot to sustain modern plate tectonics in the early stages of the Earth’s evolution. Instead of vigorous plate recycling at subduction zones, plates were linked together for billions of years until the mantle cooled off enough to further sustain plate motions and the subsequent formation of subduction zones. The onset of this component of plate tectonics may have been aided by the thickening of the crust that, once initiated, caused plate subduction to be anomalously strong. This process occurred around 750 Ma ago, when the crust reached a temperature low enough to initiate and sustain plate tectonics in general and subduction processes in particular.

text: A mechanism put forward to explain low tectonic variability is related to the temperature of the

text: asthenosphere

text: , which may have been too hot to sustain modern plate tectonics in the early stages of the Earth’s evolution. Instead of vigorous plate recycling at

text: subduction zones

text: , plates were linked together for billions of years until the mantle cooled off enough to further sustain plate motions and the subsequent formation of subduction zones. The onset of this component of plate tectonics may have been aided by the thickening of the

text: crust

text: that, once initiated, caused plate subduction to be anomalously strong. This process occurred around 750 Ma ago, when the crust reached a temperature low enough to initiate and sustain plate tectonics in general and subduction processes in particular.

text: By 1904, Russell's doctrinal development was almost complete. His sixth and final part of "Studies in the Scriptures", The New Creation, established that Revelation 7 spoke of two heavenly classes of Christians — 144,000 who would serve as a royal priesthood with Christ and a Great Company who would be brought to perfection on a lesser plane, similar to that of angels, serving the 144,000. He believed that 1878 marked the "fall of Babylon", when God officially judged that Christendom had proven unfaithful. He believed the "time of the end" in Daniel 12 ran from 1799 to 1914, that Christ had returned to earth in 1874, began his reign in 1878 and that from that date the anointed had been resurrected to heaven at their death. He initially taught that Armageddon had begun in 1874, which would culminate in worldwide anarchy and the overthrow of all political rulership in 1914 at the conclusion of the "times of the Gentiles", but by 1897 began to teach that Armageddon would instead begin in 1914. The earthly part of God's kingdom would be administered from Jerusalem in a re-established nation of Israel and under the control of the resurrected ancient Jewish prophets. All of mankind would over time be resurrected to earth in reverse order of death, Adam and Eve being the last, and be given the instruction and guidance necessary to prove themselves obedient to God in order to attain eternal life. Early in the resurrection, "ancient worthies" including Abraham, Isaac and Jacob would be raised to occupy positions of overseers and representatives of the invisible heavenly government ruling from Jerusalem. The Millennial Age, which he believed had begun in 1874, would run to 2874 or 2914 AD, when a test of earth's inhabitants would decide their ultimate destinies, to life or everlasting death.

text: By 1904, Russell's doctrinal development was almost complete. His sixth and final part of "Studies in the Scriptures", The New Creation, established that Revelation 7 spoke of two heavenly classes of Christians — 144,000 who would serve as a royal priesthood with Christ and a Great Company who would be brought to perfection on a lesser plane, similar to that of angels, serving the 144,000. He believed that 1878 marked the "fall of Babylon", when God officially judged that Christendom had proven unfaithful. He believed the "time of the end" in

text: Daniel

text: 12 ran from 1799 to 1914, that Christ had returned to earth in 1874, began his reign in 1878 and that from that date the anointed had been resurrected to heaven at their death. He initially taught that Armageddon had begun in 1874, which would culminate in worldwide anarchy and the overthrow of all political rulership in 1914 at the conclusion of the "times of the Gentiles", but by 1897 began to teach that Armageddon would instead begin in 1914. The earthly part of God's kingdom would be administered from

text: Jerusalem

text: in a re-established nation of Israel and under the control of the resurrected ancient Jewish prophets. All of mankind would over time be resurrected to earth in reverse order of death, Adam and Eve being the last, and be given the instruction and guidance necessary to prove themselves obedient to God in order to attain eternal life. Early in the resurrection, "ancient worthies" including

text: Abraham

text: Isaac

text: and

text: Jacob

text: would be raised to occupy positions of overseers and representatives of the invisible heavenly government ruling from Jerusalem. The Millennial Age, which he believed had begun in 1874, would run to 2874 or 2914 AD, when a test of earth's inhabitants would decide their ultimate destinies, to life or everlasting death.

text: Efforts for civilian commercialization of the cellular confinement system by the Presto Products Company, led to the Geoweb®. This cellular confinement system was made from high density polyethylene (HDPE), relatively strong, lightweight and suitable for geosynthetic extruding manufacturing. The cellular confinement system was used for load support, slope erosion control and channel lining and earth retention applications in the United States and Canada in the early 1980s.

text: Another effort in this field is towards engineering multi-cellular systems by designing, e.g., cell-to-cell communication modules used to coordinate living bacterial cell populations.

text: Another effort in this field is towards engineering multi-cellular systems by designing, e.g.,

text: cell-to-cell communication modules

text: used to coordinate living bacterial cell populations.

text: According to Plimer, he wrote Heaven and Earth after being "incensed by increasing public acceptance of the idea that humans have caused global warming" and set out to "knock out every single argument we hear about climate change." Although he does not dispute that climate change is happening, he argues that "It's got nothing to do with the atmosphere, it's about what happens in the galaxy" and that climate is driven by the sun, the Earth's orbit and plate tectonics rather than the levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Plimer says his book is for the "average punter in the street" who can "smell something is wrong in the climate debate but can't put a finger on what."

text: According to Plimer, he wrote Heaven and Earth after being "incensed by increasing public acceptance of the idea that humans have caused global warming" and set out to "knock out every single argument we hear about climate change." Although he does not dispute that climate change is happening, he argues that "It's got nothing to do with the atmosphere, it's about what happens in the galaxy" and that climate is driven by the sun, the Earth's orbit and plate tectonics rather than the levels of atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: . Plimer says his book is for the "average punter in the street" who can "smell something is wrong in the climate debate but can't put a finger on what."

text: The humans of Earth (known as the Tau'ri to the Goa'uld and Jaffa, and the Atlanteans to the Wraith) have developed many futuristic technologies throughout the course of Stargate SG-1 and its spin-offs. One of the primary missions of the Stargate Program is the acquisition of technologies capable of defending Earth and improving the lives of its inhabitants. Most useful alien technologies brought back by SG teams through the Stargate are studied at the SGC or at Area 51, and reverse-engineered when possible. Earth has also benefitted immensely from collaborations and gifts from its various offworld allies, such as the Asgard and the Tok'ra. Since the discovery of Atlantis in the Pegasus galaxy, Earth has gained a significant understanding of Ancient technology.

text: The humans of Earth (known as the

text: Tau'ri

text: to the

text: Goa'uld

text: and

text: Jaffa

text: , and the

text: Atlanteans

text: to the

text: Wraith

text: ) have developed many futuristic technologies throughout the course of Stargate SG-1 and its spin-offs. One of the primary missions of the

text: Stargate Program

text: is the acquisition of technologies capable of defending Earth and improving the lives of its inhabitants. Most useful alien technologies brought back by

text: SG team

text: s through the

text: Stargate

text: are studied at the

text: SGC

text: or at Area 51, and reverse-engineered when possible. Earth has also benefitted immensely from collaborations and gifts from its various offworld allies, such as the

text: Asgard

text: and the

text: Tok'ra

text: . Since the discovery of Atlantis in the Pegasus galaxy, Earth has gained a significant understanding of

text: Ancient

text: technology.

text: The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles  (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered  wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to . These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down.  When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics.  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity. When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface.  The initial data was obtained when MGS traveled close to the planet during aerobraking.  However, later measurements, collected over a 2-year period from an altitude of , revealed that the magnetic features even matched up with known features on the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s  (Terra Cimmeria and

text: Terra Sirenum

text: ). The magnetometer on MGS discovered  wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to . These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down.  When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: .  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity. When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface.  The initial data was obtained when MGS traveled close to the planet during aerobraking.  However, later measurements, collected over a 2-year period from an altitude of , revealed that the magnetic features even matched up with known features on the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The problem in navigation exists because big ships cannot travel in the shallow waters of the Pamban channel. Dredging in this channel would cost more than dredging a channel in the Rama Setu area, where the waters are comparatively deep and lesser earth would have to be dredged. Hence, in 2005, the Government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project that aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Bay cutting across Rama Setu. Various organizations have opposed the project based on religious, economic and environmental grounds and have sought the implementation of one of the alternative alignments considered during the earlier stages of the discussion.

text: Pisgah Phase sites ranged from individual farmsteads to large nucleated villages with platform mounds and palisades, usually with the smaller sites clustering around the larger mound centers. They were invariably located within floodplains; the exceptions being temporary hunting camps. The majority of the sites are located in the Eastern and Central Appalachian Summit area, around the Asheville, Pigeon, and Hendersonville basins. Some Pisgah Phase sites, such as the Garden Creek Mound site, have been found to have earth lodges during early phases of their occupation. At times these earth lodges either collapsed or were destroyed, and a platform mound constructed over them. This is interpreted by archaeologists as a shift in sociopolitical organization and community hierarchy. It is believed the earth lodges  were used as egalitarian council houses and that the superimposition of substructure mounds for temples, chiefly residences and mortuary structures signaled a shift to a more stratified society with hereditary elites.

text: Pisgah Phase sites ranged from individual farmsteads to large nucleated villages with

text: platform mound

text: s and

text: palisade

text: s, usually with the smaller sites clustering around the larger mound centers. They were invariably located within floodplains; the exceptions being temporary hunting camps. The majority of the sites are located in the Eastern and Central Appalachian Summit area, around the

text: Asheville

entity_name: Pigeon River (Tennessee – North Carolina)

text: Pigeon

text: , and

text: Hendersonville

text: basins. Some Pisgah Phase sites, such as the

text: Garden Creek Mound

text: site, have been found to have

text: earth lodge

text: s during early phases of their occupation. At times these earth lodges either collapsed or were destroyed, and a platform mound constructed over them. This is interpreted by archaeologists as a shift in sociopolitical organization and community hierarchy. It is believed the earth lodges  were used as egalitarian council houses and that the superimposition of substructure mounds for temples, chiefly residences and mortuary structures signaled a shift to a more stratified society with hereditary elites.

text: The mantle of a planet with plate tectonics has driving forces that exceed the yield strength of the brittle lithosphere, causing the lithosphere to fracture into plates that move relative to each other. A critical element of the plate tectonic system is these lithospheric plates become negatively buoyant at some point in their evolution, sinking into the mantle. The surface mass deficit is balanced by new plate being formed elsewhere through upwelling mantle plumes. Plate tectonics is an efficient method of heat transfer from the interior of the planet to the surface. Earth is the only planet plate tectonics is known to occur on, although evidence has been presented for Jupiter's moon Europa undergoing a form of plate tectonics analogous to Earth's.

text: The mantle of a planet with plate tectonics has driving forces that exceed the

text: yield strength

text: of the brittle lithosphere, causing the lithosphere to fracture into plates that move relative to each other. A critical element of the plate tectonic system is these lithospheric plates become negatively buoyant at some point in their evolution, sinking into the mantle. The surface mass deficit is balanced by new plate being formed elsewhere through upwelling

text: mantle plumes

text: . Plate tectonics is an efficient method of heat transfer from the interior of the planet to the surface. Earth is the only planet plate tectonics is known to occur on, although evidence has been presented for

text: Jupiter's

text: moon

text: Europa

text: undergoing a form of plate tectonics analogous to Earth's.

text: Different studies have come to different conclusions about the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere during different parts of the Mesozoic, with some concluding oxygen levels were lower than the current level (about 21%) throughout the Mesozoic, some concluding they were lower in the Triassic and part of the Jurassic but higher in the Cretaceous, and some concluding they were higher throughout most or all of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.

text: Despite the harsh conditions on the surface, the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth, making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System, even more so than the surface of Mars. Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air (21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth, the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization.

text: Despite the harsh conditions on the surface, the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth, making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the

text: Solar System

text: , even more so than the surface of

text: Mars

text: . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air (21%

text: oxygen

text: , 78%

text: nitrogen

text: ) is a

text: lifting gas

text: on Venus in the same way that

text: helium

text: is a lifting gas on Earth, the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both

text: exploration

text: and

text: colonization

text: The  are evolved from a race of a reptiles. They arrived at Earth in ancient times, the life-forms being carried along with a meteorite, crashing into the earth, and falling deep into its core. As time went on, the life-forms evolved, becoming the civilized Tailed-People Clan. The Tailed-People are a civilization of advanced science (higher than human's), with the rank of their civilization being determined by the number of tails. Believing Earth to be theirs, for their civilization to rise, they begin invasion. Originally planning to turn humans into their own kind, the experiment failed, and their strategy was changed to simply destroying mankind by reducing the number of human beings as the Tailed-People Clan was outnumbered. Being as the number of tails determines rank, the Emperor's dream is to obtain ten tails, who is said to provide one with eternal life and powers. Their rank and status is determined by the number of tails each member has. The more tails, the greater the status.

text: The Valar left Middle-earth and went to the newly formed continent of Aman in the west, where they created their home called Valinor. To discourage Melkor from assailing Aman, they thrust the continent of Middle-earth to the east, thus widening Belegaer at its middle and raising five major mountain ranges in Middle-earth which adopted a relatively symmetrical distribution, namely the Blue, Red, Grey, Yellow Mountains and the Mountains of the Wind. This act, however, ruined the symmetry of the shape of the continents and their intervening seas.

text: The Valar left Middle-earth and went to the newly formed continent of Aman in the west, where they created their home called

text: Valinor

text: . To discourage Melkor from assailing Aman, they thrust the continent of Middle-earth to the east, thus widening Belegaer at its middle and raising five major mountain ranges in Middle-earth which adopted a relatively symmetrical distribution, namely the Blue, Red, Grey, Yellow Mountains and the Mountains of the Wind. This act, however, ruined the symmetry of the shape of the continents and their intervening seas.

text: The succeeding Devonian period (416-359 million years ago) saw mostly alluvial deposits ("Old Red Sandstone"), which were interrupted by major uplift. Following this, the land subsided again in the Carboniferous period (359-299 million years ago). In the early Carboniferous period, limestones were deposited on a continental shelf, which deepened towards the south where there was a major sea area. During earth movements caused by the approach of a continent from the south, sea shallowing led to thick alluvial and coastal plain sediments (see below) containing economic developments of coal. Carboniferous Limestone outcrops occur in south Pembrokeshire, the Gower Peninsula, the Vale of Glamorgan and around the edge of the coalfield.

text: The succeeding

text: Devonian

text: period (416-359 million years ago) saw mostly alluvial deposits ("

text: Old Red Sandstone

text: "), which were interrupted by major uplift. Following this, the land subsided again in the

text: Carboniferous

text: period (359-299 million years ago). In the early Carboniferous period, limestones were deposited on a

text: continental shelf

text: , which deepened towards the south where there was a major sea area. During earth movements caused by the approach of a continent from the south, sea shallowing led to thick alluvial and coastal plain sediments (see below) containing economic developments of coal.

text: Carboniferous Limestone

text: outcrops occur in

text: south Pembrokeshire

text: , the

text: Gower Peninsula

text: , the

text: Vale of Glamorgan

text: and around the edge of

text: the coalfield

text: The humans of Earth play a central role in the story and mythology of the Stargate fictional universe. According to the Stargate film and Stargate SG-1, the parasitic Goa'uld ruled Earth thousands of years ago, posing as gods of ancient Earth mythologies, and transplanted Earth humans throughout the galaxy via the Stargate. Thus, the Goa'uld and their Jaffa servants know the humans of Earth as the "Tau'ri" ( or ), which means "the first ones" or "those of the first world" in their fictional language. Earth is also known as "Midgard" by offworld humans protected by the Asgard, who masquerade as Norse gods. Stargate SG-1 further extended the backstory of Earth humans by introducing the Ancients, an advanced race of humans from another galaxy. The Ancients regard the humans of Earth as their "second evolution", and some of their number merged with primitive human populations 10,000 years ago after they returned to Earth from Atlantis.

text: The humans of Earth play a central role in the story and mythology of the Stargate fictional universe. According to the

text: Stargate film

text: and

text: Stargate SG-1

text: , the parasitic

text: Goa'uld

text: ruled Earth thousands of years ago, posing as gods of ancient Earth mythologies, and transplanted Earth humans throughout the galaxy via the

text: Stargate

text: . Thus, the Goa'uld and their Jaffa servants know the humans of Earth as the "Tau'ri" ( or ), which means "the first ones" or "those of the first world" in their fictional language. Earth is also known as "

text: Midgard

text: " by offworld humans protected by the

text: Asgard

text: , who masquerade as

text: Norse gods

text: . Stargate SG-1 further extended the backstory of Earth humans by introducing the

text: Ancients

text: , an advanced race of humans from another galaxy. The Ancients regard the humans of Earth as their "second evolution", and some of their number merged with primitive human populations 10,000 years ago after they returned to Earth from

text: Atlantis

text: The first form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi-cellular organisms began to appear. Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. They include Bacteria, Fungi, Archaea, and Protista.

text: The first form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi-cellular organisms began to appear. Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally

text: microscopic

text: , and smaller than the human eye can see. They include Bacteria,

text: Fungi

text: Archaea

text: , and

text: Protista

text: In the Early Carboniferous, an early stage of rifting developed between the Indian continent and the Cimmerian Superterranes. During the Early Permian, this rift developed into the Neotethys ocean (Fig. 2). From that time on, the Cimmerian Superterranes drifted away from Gondwana towards the north. Nowadays, Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet are partly made up of these terranes.

text: In the Early

text: Carboniferous

text: , an early stage of rifting developed between the Indian continent and the Cimmerian Superterranes. During the Early

text: Permian

text: , this

text: rift

text: developed into the

text: Neotethys

text: ocean (Fig. 2). From that time on, the Cimmerian Superterranes drifted away from Gondwana towards the north. Nowadays,

text: Iran

text: Afghanistan

text: and

text: Tibet

text: are partly made up of these terranes.

text: It is suggested that the early hominin evolved in East Africa around 3 million years ago. The dramatic phenotypic change from primate to early hominin is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair – except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head – to allow for more efficient thermoregulation in the early hunter-gatherers. The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early hominins would have most likely been non-pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives. A positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin – those who first expressed the eumelanin-producing MC1R allele – which protected them from harmful epithelium-damaging ultraviolet rays. Over time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent. The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more melanin. The cause of a selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due excess vitamin D formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection.

text: It is suggested that the early

text: hominin

text: evolved in East Africa around 3 million years ago. The dramatic

text: phenotypic

text: change from

text: primate

text: to early hominin is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair – except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head – to allow for more efficient

text: thermoregulation

text: in the early hunter-gatherers. The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early hominins would have most likely been non-pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives. A positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin – those who first expressed the

text: eumelanin

text: -producing

text: allele

text: – which protected them from harmful epithelium-damaging ultraviolet rays. Over time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent. The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more melanin. The cause of a selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due excess

text: vitamin D

text: formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection.

text: Astrobiologist David Grinspoon criticized the dire "blight" situation on Earth portrayed in early scenes, pointing out that even with a voracious blight it would have taken millions of years to draw down the atmosphere's content of oxygen. He also notes that the ice clouds should have been pulled down by gravity.

text: Astrobiologist

text: David Grinspoon

text: criticized the dire "blight" situation on Earth portrayed in early scenes, pointing out that even with a voracious blight it would have taken millions of years to draw down the atmosphere's content of oxygen. He also notes that the ice clouds should have been pulled down by gravity.

text: s Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) provided or controlled atmospheric pressure, fire detection, oxygen levels, waste management and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS was the station's atmosphere, but the system also collected, processed, and stored waste and water produced and used by the crew—a process that recycles fluid from the sink, toilet, and condensation from the air. The Elektron system generated oxygen. Bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a system known as Vika, provided backup. Carbon dioxide was removed from the air by the Vozdukh system. Other byproducts of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, were removed by activated charcoal filters. Similar systems are presently used on the International Space Station.

text: s

text: Environmental Control and Life Support System

text: (ECLSS) provided or controlled

text: atmospheric pressure

text: , fire detection, oxygen levels, waste management and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS was the station's atmosphere, but the system also collected, processed, and stored waste and water produced and used by the crew—a process that recycles fluid from the sink, toilet, and condensation from the air. The

text: Elektron

text: system generated oxygen. Bottled oxygen and

text: Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation

text: (SFOG) canisters, a system known as

text: Vika

text: , provided backup. Carbon dioxide was removed from the air by the

text: Vozdukh

text: system. Other byproducts of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, were removed by

text: activated charcoal

text: filters. Similar systems are presently used on the

text: International Space Station

text: The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early Greek philosophers, a belief espoused by Pythagoras. Contrary to popular belief, most people in the Middle Ages did not believe the Earth was flat: this misconception is often called the "Myth of the Flat Earth". As evidenced by thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, the European belief in a spherical Earth was widespread by this point in time. Prior to circumnavigation of the planet and the introduction of space flight, belief in a spherical Earth was based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels drawn with the shape of other planets.

text: The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early

text: Greek philosophers

text: , a belief espoused by

text: Pythagoras

text: . Contrary to popular belief, most people in the

text: Middle Ages

text: did not believe the Earth was flat: this misconception is often called the "

text: Myth of the Flat Earth

text: ". As evidenced by thinkers such as

text: Thomas Aquinas

text: , the European belief in a

text: spherical Earth

text: was widespread by this point in time. Prior to circumnavigation of the planet and the introduction of

text: space flight

text: , belief in a spherical Earth was based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels drawn with the shape of other planets.

text: By the end of the Archaean c. 2500 Ma (million years ago), plate tectonic activity may have been similar to that of the modern Earth. There are well-preserved sedimentary basins, and evidence of volcanic arcs, intracontinental rifts, continent-continent collisions and widespread globe-spanning orogenic events suggesting the assembly and destruction of one and perhaps several supercontinents. Liquid water was prevalent, and deep oceanic basins are known to have existed attested by the presence of banded iron formations, chert beds, chemical sediments and pillow basalts.

text: By the end of the Archaean c. 2500

text: Ma

text: (million years ago), plate tectonic activity may have been similar to that of the modern Earth. There are well-preserved

text: sedimentary basin

text: s, and evidence of

text: volcanic arc

text: s, intracontinental

text: rift

text: s, continent-continent collisions and widespread globe-spanning

text: orogenic events

text: suggesting the assembly and destruction of one and perhaps several

text: supercontinent

text: s. Liquid water was prevalent, and deep oceanic basins are known to have existed attested by the presence of

text: banded iron formation

text: s,

text: chert

text: beds, chemical sediments and

text: pillow basalt

text: s.

text: In the 1st century A.D., after the idea of a spherical Earth gained more general acceptance, Pomponius Mela, a Latin cosmographer, developed an updated version of the idea, wherein  a spherical Earth must have a more or less balanced distribution of land and water. Mela drew the first map on which the mysterious continent of Earth appears in the unknown half of Earth—our antipodes. This continent he inscribed with the name Antichthones.

text: In the 1st century A.D., after the idea of a spherical Earth gained more general acceptance,

text: Pomponius Mela

text: , a Latin cosmographer, developed an updated version of the idea, wherein  a

text: spherical Earth

text: must have a more or less balanced distribution of land and water. Mela drew the first map on which the mysterious continent of Earth appears in the unknown half of Earth—our antipodes. This continent he inscribed with the name

text: Antichthones

text: Solar System accretion began about 4.56 b.y. ago. Hamilton (2015) summarized data supporting his interpretations. Earth had reached essentially full size by 4.50 b.y., and had already fractionated core and lower and upper mantles at high temperature. The pre-4.50 b.y. high upper-mantle rocks, the dominant rocks now preserved beneath Archean cratons, are not of partially-fractionated mantle as predicted by conventional interpretations, but instead are extremely refractory differentiates, depleted of most silicate materials that could have contributed partial melts of either continental or oceanic crustal rocks. These early-fractionated mantle rocks were originally capped directly by a thick mafic crust that contained the potential subsequent crustal components, including a large proportion of Earth’s major heat-producing elements. At about 4.0 b.y., Earth received, via a barrage of icy bolides initially formed in the outer part of the asteroid belt, the volatile components that evolved into its oceans and atmosphere. Downward cycling of volatiles enabled hydrous partial melting of protocrust to begin, forming a distinctive non-plate-tectonic granitic crust atop residual protocrust. The quite different geologic assemblages of the Archean and Proterozoic eons are explained in terms of variable radiogenic partial melting of the protocrust, after hydration began, to form granitic and volcanic melts that rose from it, and of delamination and sinking of residual protocrust, densified by loss of its lighter components, that began a long-continuing process of re-enriching the upper mantle, and that ultimately enabled plate tectonics.

text: Solar System accretion began about 4.56 b.y. ago. Hamilton (2015) summarized data supporting his interpretations. Earth had reached essentially full size by 4.50 b.y., and had already fractionated core and lower and upper mantles at high temperature. The pre-4.50 b.y. high upper-mantle rocks, the dominant rocks now preserved beneath Archean cratons, are not of partially-fractionated mantle as predicted by conventional interpretations, but instead are extremely refractory differentiates, depleted of most silicate materials that could have contributed partial melts of either continental or oceanic crustal rocks. These early-fractionated mantle rocks were originally capped directly by a thick mafic crust that contained the potential subsequent crustal components, including a large proportion of Earth’s major heat-producing elements. At about 4.0 b.y., Earth received, via a barrage of icy

text: bolides

text: initially formed in the outer part of the asteroid belt, the volatile components that evolved into its oceans and atmosphere. Downward cycling of volatiles enabled hydrous partial melting of protocrust to begin, forming a distinctive non-plate-tectonic granitic crust atop residual protocrust. The quite different geologic assemblages of the Archean and Proterozoic eons are explained in terms of variable radiogenic partial melting of the protocrust, after hydration began, to form granitic and volcanic melts that rose from it, and of delamination and sinking of residual protocrust, densified by loss of its lighter components, that began a long-continuing process of re-enriching the upper mantle, and that ultimately enabled plate tectonics.

text: Paleogeography yields information that is crucial to scientific understanding in a variety of contexts. For example, paleogeographic analysis of sedimentary basins plays a key role in the field of petroleum geology, because the ancient geomorphological environments of the Earth's surface are preserved in the stratigraphic record. Paleogeographers also study the sedimentary environment associated with fossils for clues to the evolutionary development of extinct species. And paleogeographic evidence contributed to the development of continental drift theory, and continues to inform current plate tectonic theories, yielding information about the shape and latitudinal location of supercontinents such as Pangaea and ancient oceans such as Panthalassa, thus enabling the reconstruction of prehistoric continents and oceans.

text: Paleogeography yields information that is crucial to scientific understanding in a variety of contexts. For example, paleogeographic analysis of

text: sedimentary basins

text: plays a key role in the field of

text: petroleum geology

text: , because the ancient

text: geomorphological

text: environments of the

text: Earth

text: 's surface are preserved in the

text: stratigraphic

text: record. Paleogeographers also study the

text: sedimentary environment

text: associated with

text: fossils

text: for clues to the

text: evolution

text: ary development of extinct species. And paleogeographic evidence contributed to the development of

text: continental drift

text: theory, and continues to inform current

text: plate tectonic

text: theories, yielding information about the shape and latitudinal location of

text: supercontinent

text: s such as

text: Pangaea

text: and ancient oceans such as

text: Panthalassa

text: , thus enabling the

text: reconstruction

text: of prehistoric continents and oceans.

text: Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies like cells. These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion. The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specializations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialized cells that form the adult organism. This specialization allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, called GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.

text: Multicellular organism

text: s may have first evolved through the formation of

text: colonies

text: like cells. These cells can form group organisms through

text: cell adhesion

text: . The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specializations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms are formed

text: clonally

text: or from a single

text: germ cell

text: that is capable of forming the various specialized cells that form the adult organism. This specialization allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells. In January 2016, scientists reported that,

text: about 800 million years ago

text: , a

text: minor genetic change

text: in a single

text: molecule

text: , called GK-PID, may have allowed

text: organism

text: s to go from a

text: single cell organism

text: to

text: one of many cells

text: 1	1874/76	The past in the Present		Arthur Mitchell, MD, LLD		2	1876/78	The past in the Present		Arthur Mitchell, MD., LLD		3	1879	Scotland in Early Christian Times		Joseph Anderson		4	1880	Scotland in Early Christian Times 		Joseph Anderson		5	1881	Scotland in Pagan Times: The Iron Age		Joseph Anderson		6	1882	Scotland in Pagan Times: The Bronze and Stone Ages		Joseph Anderson		7	1883	The Roman Occupation of Britain		Rev J Collingwood Bruce, LLD FSA		8	1884	Ogham inscriptions in Ireland and Scotland		Sir Samuel Ferguson, QC., LLD., President of the Royal Irish Academy		9	1885	Early Christian symbolism in Great Britain and Ireland		J Romilly Allen, CE		10	1886	Register of Privy Council of Scotland		David Masson, MA LLD., Professor of Rhetoric & English Literature, University of Edinburgh		11	1887	Greek Antiquities		Alexander S Murray, LLD., Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, London		12	1888	The Lake Dwellings of Europe		Robert Munro, MA MD., Author of Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings		13	1889	Early Ethnology of the British Isles		John Rhys, MA, Professor of Celtic at Oxford		14	1890	Archaeological Aspects of Scottish Zoology		Professor J Duns, DD., New College, Edinburgh		15	1891	The Anthropological History of Europe		John Beddoe, MD LLD FRS, Vice-President of the Anthropolocial Institute of Great Britain and Ireland		16	1892	The Early Christian Monuments of Scotland		Joseph Anderson, LLD., Assistant Secretary and Keeper of the Scottish National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh		17	1893	The Place-names of Scotland		Sir Herbert Eustace Maxwell, Bart., MP		18	1894	Early fortifications in Scotland		David Christison, MD		19	1895	The Origins of Celtic Art		Arthur J Evans, MA., Keeper of the Ashmoleum Museum, Oxford		20	1896	Industrial arts of Scandinavia in pagan times		Dr Hans Hildebrand, Royal Antiquary of Sweden		21	1897	The Evidence for a Roman Occupation of North Britain		James MacDonald, LLD		22	1898	Heraldry		J Balfour Paul, Lyon King-of-Arms		23	1899	Architecture in Scotland		Thomas Ross		24	1900	The Edwards in Scotland, 1296-1377		Joseph Bain, FSA Scot		25	1901	The Constitution, Organisation, and Law of the Mediaeval Church in Scotland		Bishop Dowden		26	1902	Castellated architecture of Scotland 		Thomas Ross		27	1903	Scotland in the Time of Queen Mary		P Hume Brown, MA LLD., Fraser Professor of Ancient (Scottish) History and Palaeography in the University of Edinburgh		28	1904	Roman Scotland		George Macdonald, MA		29	1905	Roman Britain 		Dr F Haverfield, MA LLD		30	1906	The Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscriptions		Professor Sayce		31	1907	Roman Britain		Dr F Haverfield, MA LLD		32	1908	The Roman Station at Newstead		Mr James Curle		33	1909	The Occupation and use of the land in Scotland in Early Times		Dr David Murray		34	1910	Art of the Period of the Teutonic Migrations		Professor Baldwin Brown		35	1911	The Records of Scotland		J Maitland Thomson, LLD		36	1912	The Early Chronicles relating to Scotland		Rt Hon Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., President of the Society		37	1913	Some aspects of Scottish Feudalism		Dr George Neilson		38	1913	The Development of writing and printing in Western Europe		Dr W K Dickson		39	1914	The Liturgy and Ceremonial of The Mediaeval Church in Scotland		Mr F C Eeles		40	1915	Medals of the Renaissance		Mr G F Hill, Keeper of Coins & Medals, British Museum		41	1916	Celtic Place-Names in Scotland		Professor W J Watson, LLD		42	1917	Arms and Armour		Mr Charles J ffoulkes, Curator of Armories, Tower of London		43	1918	The Prehistoric Monuments of Scotland		Mr A O Curle		44	1919	House Furnishing and Domestic Life in Scotland 1488-1688		Mr John Warrack		45	1920	Painting in the Roman Empire (from the last century of the Republic to about 800 AD)		Mrs Strong, British School at Rome		46	1921	Egyptian Science		Professor W M Flinders Petrie		47	1922	Monastic Building in Britain		Mr C R Peers		48	1923	The Civilisation of Greece in the Bronze Age		Dr H R Hall		49	1924	Early Races of Scotland		Professor Thomas H Bryce		50	1925	The Mediaeval Castle in Scotland		Mr W M Mackenzie, Secretary RCAHMS		51	1926	Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance		Mr Eric Maclagan, Director, V & A Museum		52	1927	Roman Britain		Sir George Macdonald, KCB FBA LLD		53	1928	The Ancient Connections between Scotland and Norway		Professor A W Brøgger		54	1929	The History of the Brooch		Mr Reginald A Smith, BA FSA		55	1930	The Hittites		Professor Garstang		56	1931	Monastic Life and its influence on the Civilisation of Scotland		Mr George Gordon Coulton, Litt D DLitt LLD FBA		57	1932	The Megalithic Culture of Northern Europe		Dr C A Nordman, Helsingfors		58	1933	English Illumination from AD 700 to the end of the Fifteenth Century		Mr Eric G Millar, DLitt		59	1934	Augustan Civilisation in Western Europe		Mr Ian A Richmond		60	1935	Early Anglo Saxon Art and Archaeology		Mr E T Leeds, Keeper of the Ashmoleum Museum		61	1936	The Archaeology of the Iberian Peninsula		Professor P Bosch Gimpera		62	1937	Mediaeval Edinburgh		Dr C A Malcolm		63	1938	Excavations at Ras Shamra		Monsieur Claude Shaeffer		64	1939	Early Art of Scandinavia		Professor Haakon Shetelig				1940 Postponed (delivered in April 1942)		65	1941	The Province of Mar		Dr W Douglas Simpson		66	1942	Jurisdictions of Mediaeval Scotland		Dr W C Dickinson		67	1943	The Topography of Roman Scotland		Mr O G S Crawford, FSA		68	1944	The Development of Tribal Society in Scotland		Professor V G Childe, DLitt DSc FBA V-PSA		69	1945	The Scottish Burghs		Dr W Mackay Mackenzie		70	1946 Spring	Scandinavian Art of the Post-Christian Pagan Period		Professor Haakon Shetelig 		71	1946 Oct	Castles and Cannon: A Study of Early Artillery Fortifications in England		Mr Bryan H St John O’Neil				1947 No lecture		72	1948	Early Christian Monuments in the Near East		Professor W M Calder, LLD		73	1949	First: The Mediaeval Stone Carver in Scotland	(Two series of lectures delivered)	Mr James S Richardson, LLD		74		Second: Regional House-Styles: their origins and development: recent studies in South Wales		Sir Cyril Fox, DLitt FSA		75	1950 (Series of seven lectures)	Periods of Highland Civilization		Miss I F Grant LLD		76	1951	Discipline of Field Archaeology		Professor R E Mortimer Wheeler		77	1952	Greek Sculpture: The Century after Pheidias		Mr Bernard Ashmole, MC MA BLitt FBA		78	1953	Architecture in Elizabethan England		Mr John Summerson, CBE FSA ARIBA		79	1954	The Laboratory in the service of Art and Archaeology		Dr H J Plenderleith		80	1955	A Survey of American Archaeology		Dr G H S Bushnell		81	1956	Classical inspiration in Medieval Art		Mr W F Oakenshott				1957 No lecture due to the death of Professor S P O’Riordain		82	1958	The Historical Local Institutions of Scotland		Professor G S Pryde of Glasgow		83	1959	The Role of Constantinople in Byzantine Art		Professor D Talbot Rice		84	1960	Roman Imperial Art		Mr J B Ward Perkins, Director of The British School at Rome		85	1961	The Origins of the Late Celtic Art		Professor Haseloff of Würzburg		86	1962  March	Mounds of the Middle East: their formation and excavation		Mr Seton Lloyd, CBE		87	Nov	The Prehistoric Origins of Europe		Professor Stuart Piggott, BLitt DLitt HUM		88	1964	The Coins of the Ancient Celts		Mr D F Allen, BA FBA FSA		89	1965  March	Anglo-Saxon Pottery and the Settlement of England		Mr J N L Myres, MA LLD FSA		90	Oct	Cultural Structure and Movement in East Asia from the Neolithic Period to the Unification of China		Mr William Watson, MA		91	1966/67	Scottish Architects and English Architecture in the 18th Century		Dr PJ Murray		92	1967/68	Late Medieval Monumental Sculpture in the West Highlands		Dr K A Steer 		93	1968/69	The Roman Frontier in Germany in the Light of New Research		Prof Dr Hans Schonberger   		94	1969/70	The Furnishing of Medieval Churches in Scotland		The Rt Rev Monsigneur D McRoberts S.T.L. 		95	1970/71	Plough and Field shape from Prehistoric Times to c1500 AD		Prof Axel Steensberg		96	1972/73	Byzantine Mosaic and Wall Paintings		D Winfield 		97	1973/74	Aspects of Archaeology in Iran		D B Stronach 		98	1974/75	Scottish Silversmiths and Their Work		Stuart Maxwell		99	1975/76	Interior Decoration in Great Britain		G Beard		100	1976/77	Pictish Art and Society		Dr I Henderson  		101	1977/78	Pre-Roman Celtic Art 		Prof O-H Frey		102	1978/79	The Medieval Cathedrals of Scotland 		Dr R Cant		103	1979/80	The Course of Architecture in Ireland		Dr M Craig		104	1980/81	The Industrial Heritage		Prof S G E Lythe		105	1981/82	Pre-Roman and Native Settlement between the Tyne and Forth		Prof G Jobey		106	1982/83	Aspects of the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in the Netherlands and Britain  		Prof JD van der Waals		107	1983/84	The Danube Frontier of the Roman Empire		Prof J J Wilkes			1985/86	108	1986/87	Culture, Tradition and Artifact		Dr A Gailey		109	1987/88	The Archaeology of Death in Ancient Egypt		Dr A Rosalie Davie		110	1988/89	An Heroic Age: War and Society in Northern Britain AD 450-850		Prof Leslie Alcock		111	1989/90	The Archaeology of the Slavs		Dr Martin Gojda		112	1990/91	The Revival of Medieval and Early Renaissance Architecture in Scotland 1745-1930		Dr D M Walker		113	1991/92	Altering The Earth: The Origins of Monuments in Britain and Continental Europe		Prof R Bradley		114	1992/93	Scottish Monastic life on the Eve of the Reformation		Dr Mark Dilworth		115	1993/94	Oral Narrative in Scotland		Donald A MacDonald		116	1994/95	Enlarging the Past: the contribution of Wetland Archaeology		Professor John and Dr Bryony Coles		117	1995/96	Death and Wealth in Viking Scotland		Professor James Graham Campbell		118	1996/97	The Food of the Scots		Professor Alexander Fenton		119	1997/98	Scottish Royal Palaces: The Architecture of the Royal Residences during the Late Medieval and Early Renaissance Periods		John Dunbar		120	1998/99	The Origins of Insular Monasticism 		Professor Charles Thomas		121	1999-2000	Significant Figures: Anderson, Baldwin-Brown, Childe, AO Curle, J Curle, A McBain, L Mann, WF Skene		Dr D J Breeze; Dr DV Clarke; Professor D Meek; Dr JNG Ritchie; Mr WDH Sellar		122	2000-2001	Art as Archaeology, Archaeology as Art: Transformations through material culture		Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn, University of Cambridge		123	2001-2002	Peoples Between The Oceans		 Barry Cunliffe, University of Oxford		124	2002-2003	Lines from the past: towards an anthropological archaeology of inscription		Tim Ingold, University of Aberdeen		125	2003-2004	Court, Capital and Country: the Emergence of Renaissance Scotland		Michael Lynch (historian), University of Edinburgh		126	2004-2005	Men who turned towards the light: Cult and creativity in the Romans’ world		Professor Greg Woolf, University of St Andrews		127	2006	Rock and Cave Art		Paul Bahn		128	2007	Living in an Age of Stone: Neolithic people and their worlds		Professor Gabriel Cooney, University College Dublin		129	2008	Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain		Professor Ole Crumlin-Pedersen, Denmark		130	2009	New Light on the Dawn: a new perspective on the Neolithic Revolution in Southwest Asia		Emeritus Professor Trevor Watkins, University of Edinburgh		131	2010	Design versus Dogma:  Reflections on Field Archaeology		Martin Carver, University of York		132	2011	Material and spiritual engagements; Britain and Ireland in the first age of metal		Dr Stuart Needham		133	2012	On the windy edge of nothing: Vikings in the North Atlantic world - ecological and social journeys		Professor Kevin Edwards, University of Aberdeen

text: 1	1874/76	The past in the Present		Arthur Mitchell, MD, LLD		2	1876/78	The past in the Present		Arthur Mitchell, MD., LLD		3	1879	Scotland in Early Christian Times		Joseph Anderson		4	1880	Scotland in Early Christian Times 		Joseph Anderson		5	1881	Scotland in Pagan Times: The Iron Age		Joseph Anderson		6	1882	Scotland in Pagan Times: The Bronze and Stone Ages		Joseph Anderson		7	1883	The Roman Occupation of Britain		Rev J Collingwood Bruce, LLD FSA		8	1884	Ogham inscriptions in Ireland and Scotland		Sir Samuel Ferguson, QC., LLD., President of the Royal Irish Academy		9	1885	Early Christian symbolism in Great Britain and Ireland

text: J Romilly Allen

text: Mr Bryan H St John O’Neil

text: Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn

text: , University of Cambridge		123	2001-2002	Peoples Between The Oceans

text: Barry Cunliffe

text: , University of Oxford		124	2002-2003	Lines from the past: towards an anthropological archaeology of inscription

text: Tim Ingold

text: , University of Aberdeen		125	2003-2004	Court, Capital and Country: the Emergence of Renaissance Scotland

text: Michael Lynch (historian)

text: , University of Edinburgh		126	2004-2005	Men who turned towards the light: Cult and creativity in the Romans’ world		Professor

text: Greg Woolf

text: , University of St Andrews		127	2006	Rock and Cave Art

text: Paul Bahn

text: 128	2007	Living in an Age of Stone: Neolithic people and their worlds		Professor Gabriel Cooney, University College Dublin		129	2008	Archaeology and the Sea in Scandinavia and Britain		Professor Ole Crumlin-Pedersen, Denmark		130	2009	New Light on the Dawn: a new perspective on the Neolithic Revolution in Southwest Asia		Emeritus Professor Trevor Watkins, University of Edinburgh		131	2010	Design versus Dogma:  Reflections on Field Archaeology

text: Martin Carver

text: , University of York		132	2011	Material and spiritual engagements; Britain and Ireland in the first age of metal		Dr Stuart Needham		133	2012	On the windy edge of nothing: Vikings in the North Atlantic world - ecological and social journeys		Professor Kevin Edwards, University of Aberdeen

text: Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early creation science newsletters pointing to some passages in the Bible, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis. For example, in , the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and in Psalms the world is described as immobile.  says in part "the world is established, firm and secure".) Contemporary advocates for such religious beliefs include Robert Sungenis (president of Bellarmine Theological Forum and author of the 2006 book Galileo Was Wrong). These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a Geocentric worldview. Most contemporary creationist organizations reject such perspectives.

text: Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early

text: creation science

text: newsletters pointing to some passages in the

text: Bible

text: , which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis. For example, in , the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and in

text: Psalms

text: the world is described as immobile.  says in part "the world is established, firm and secure".) Contemporary advocates for such

text: religious belief

text: s include

text: Robert Sungenis

text: (president of

text: Bellarmine Theological Forum

text: and author of the 2006 book Galileo Was Wrong). These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a Geocentric worldview. Most contemporary

text: creationist

text: organizations reject such perspectives.

text: Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BC, noted that some geographers divided the continents by rivers (the Nile and the Don), thus considering them "islands". Others divided the continents by isthmuses, calling the continents "peninsulas". These latter geographers set the border between Europe and Asia at the isthmus between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and the border between Asia and Africa at the isthmus between the Red Sea and the mouth of Lake Bardawil on the Mediterranean Sea.

text: Eratosthenes

text: , in the 3rd century BC, noted that some geographers divided the continents by rivers (the Nile and the Don), thus considering them "islands". Others divided the continents by

text: isthmus

text: es, calling the continents "peninsulas". These latter geographers set the border between Europe and Asia at the isthmus between the Black Sea and the

text: Caspian Sea

text: , and the border between Asia and Africa at the isthmus between the

text: Red Sea

text: and the mouth of

text: Lake Bardawil

text: on the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: The Earth System Governance Project organizes Task Forces, international networks of senior and early career scholars with a series of working groups focused on particular ideas or idea clusters. There are currently two active Task Forces:

text: The observation and study of space protects Earth, as space hazards can be seen in advance and, if discovered early enough, acted against.

text: The Mark 8 was an early earth-penetrating bomb (see nuclear bunker buster), intended to dig into the earth some distance prior to detonating.  According to one government source, the Mark 8 could penetrate  of reinforced concrete,  of hard sand,  feet of clay, or  of hardened armor-plate steel.

text: The Mark 8 was an early earth-penetrating bomb (see

text: nuclear bunker buster

text: ), intended to dig into the earth some distance prior to detonating.  According to one government source, the Mark 8 could penetrate  of reinforced concrete,  of hard sand,  feet of clay, or  of hardened armor-plate steel.

text: Thick laminated multilayered phototrophic biofilms are usually referred to as microbial mats or phototrophic mats (see also biofilm). Phototrophic biofilms and microbial mats have been described in extreme environments like thermal springs, hyper saline ponds, desert soil crusts, and in lake ice covers in Antarctica. The 3.4-billion-year fossil record of benthic phototrophic communities, such as microbial mats and stromatolites, indicates that these associations represent the Earth's oldest known ecosystems. It is thought that these early ecosystems played a key role in the build-up of oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere.

text: Thick laminated multilayered phototrophic biofilms are usually referred to as

text: microbial mat

text: s or phototrophic mats (see also

text: biofilm

text: ). Phototrophic biofilms and microbial mats have been described in extreme environments like thermal springs, hyper saline ponds, desert soil crusts, and in lake ice covers in Antarctica. The 3.4-billion-year fossil record of

text: benthic

text: phototrophic communities, such as microbial mats and

text: stromatolites

text: , indicates that these associations represent the Earth's oldest known ecosystems. It is thought that these early ecosystems played a key role in the build-up of

text: oxygen

text: in the

text: Earth’s atmosphere

text: There are several multi-target approaches to drug discovery, among them that used by Persomics. Multi-target alternatives to Persomics’ technology include drug repositioning, polypharmacy, high-throughput screening and chemogenomics. While these research approaches have proved effective in helping scientists to learn more about the human genome, the majority of the genome is still not understood. This is because approaches pertaining to phenotypic screening have traditionally been expensive and time-consuming.The company embodies a reverse transfection approach to phenotypic screening; this “is essentially a simplified version of what is currently done in multi-well plates” such as those used in both in vivo and in vitro high-throughput screening. As with this method, visualizing Persomics’ plates is made possible through the use of fluorescent dyes.  In addition, visualization entails fluorescence microscopy, which is a powerful tool used for observing cellular responses and mechanisms.

text: There are several

text: multi-target

text: approaches to drug discovery, among them that used by Persomics.

text: Multi-target

text: alternatives to Persomics’ technology include

text: drug repositioning

text: polypharmacy

text: high-throughput screening

text: and

text: chemogenomics

text: . While these research approaches have proved effective in helping scientists to learn more about the

text: human genome

text: , the majority of the genome is still not understood. This is because approaches pertaining to

text: phenotypic screening

text: have traditionally been expensive and time-consuming.The company embodies a

text: reverse transfection

text: approach to phenotypic screening; this “is essentially a simplified version of what is currently done in

text: multi-well plates

text: ” such as those used in both

text: in vivo

text: and

text: in vitro

text: high-throughput screening

text: . As with this method, visualizing Persomics’ plates is made possible through the use of

text: fluorescent dyes

text: .  In addition, visualization entails

text: fluorescence microscopy

text: , which is a powerful tool used for observing cellular responses and mechanisms.

text: The diagram shown above is a good representation of the life cycle of some multi-cellular algae (e.g. the genus Cladophora) which have sporophytes and gametophytes of almost identical appearance and which do not have different kinds of spores or gametes.

text: The diagram shown above is a good representation of the life cycle of some multi-cellular algae (e.g. the genus

text: Cladophora

text: ) which have sporophytes and gametophytes of almost identical appearance and which do not have different kinds of spores or gametes.

text: After their ship is hit by one of the orbiting "planets", Kin, Marco and Silver are forced to abandon ship and land on the flat Earth with the help of their lift-belt equipped suits. A return from the flat Earth now seems impossible, unless they are able to find its mysterious builders, so they embark on a journey to a structure they have spotted at the hub of the Disc, the only thing which does not match geographically with the Earth they know. En route, they encounter the superstitious Medieval inhabitants of the Disc, who believe the end of the world is near, due to increasingly chaotic climate (caused by the Disc's machinery breaking down), the recent disappearance of one of their planets and the general devastation caused by the ship's crash. They also discover a number of other differences. What Kin Arad knows as Reme is called Rome on the Disc, and there is a strange Christos cult that is completely unfamiliar to Kin Arad. Also, Venus is conspicuously lacking its giant (lunar-sized) moon Adonis, which dominates the sunset sky on the Earth Kin knows, and led humanity to a heliocentric world view early on. Since only the Eastern hemisphere of Earth is represented, the continent of America is completely missing; the travellers rescue a party of Vikings in the process of searching for Vinland, when their ship is about to sail over the edge of the world.

text: After their ship is hit by one of the orbiting "planets", Kin, Marco and Silver are forced to abandon ship and land on the flat Earth with the help of their lift-belt equipped

text: suits

text: . A return from the flat Earth now seems impossible, unless they are able to find its mysterious builders, so they embark on a journey to a structure they have spotted at the hub of the Disc, the only thing which does not match geographically with the Earth they know. En route, they encounter the superstitious

text: Medieval

text: inhabitants of the Disc, who believe the

text: end of the world

text: is near, due to increasingly chaotic climate (caused by the Disc's machinery breaking down), the recent disappearance of one of their planets and the general devastation caused by the ship's crash. They also discover a number of other differences. What Kin Arad knows as

text: Reme

text: is called

text: Rome

text: on the Disc, and there is a strange

text: Christos cult

text: that is completely unfamiliar to Kin Arad. Also,

text: Venus

text: is conspicuously lacking its giant (lunar-sized)

text: moon

text: Adonis, which dominates the sunset sky on the Earth Kin knows, and led humanity to a

text: heliocentric

text: world view

text: early on. Since only the Eastern hemisphere of Earth is represented, the continent of

text: America

text: is completely missing; the travellers rescue a party of

text: Viking

text: s in the process of searching for

text: Vinland

text: , when their ship is about to sail over the edge of the world.

text: His book Confessions of an Eco-Warrior is partly an autobiographical account of RARE II and his disillusionment with the mainstream environmental movement, the early years of Earth First!, the FBI entrapment, and his ultimate disillusionment with what Earth First! became.  It is also partly a statement of his views on wilderness and the state of the environmental movement.

text: Hopanoids are probably the most abundant natural products on earth and are present in the organic matter of all sediments, independent of their age, origin or nature and are useful molecular fossil biomarkers in reconstruction of early evolution and geology.

text: The evolutionary history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms have evolved since life appeared on the planet, until the present day. Earth formed about 4.5 Ga (billion years) ago and there is evidence that life appeared as early as 4.1 Ga. The similarities between all present-day organisms indicate the presence of a common ancestor from which all known species have diverged through the process of evolution. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: The evolutionary history of life on

text: Earth

text: traces the processes by which living and

text: fossil

text: organism

text: s have

text: evolved

text: since

text: life

text: appeared on the planet, until the present day. Earth formed about 4.5

text: Ga

text: (billion years) ago and there is evidence that life appeared as early as 4.1 Ga. The similarities between all present-day organisms indicate the presence of a

text: common ancestor

text: from which all known

text: species

text: have diverged through the process of evolution. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be

text: extinct

text: . Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: The Pais has one of the longest viticultural history in Chile, believed to have been brought to the region by Spanish conquistadors from Peru during their colonization of the continent in the 16th century. Ampelographers believe that along with the Criolla Grande grape of Argentina and Mission grape of California, that the Pais grape is descended by the Spanish "common black grape" brought to Mexico in 1520 by the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés. That early grape was then cultivated by Spanish missionaries and spread throughout the Americas. The Pais remained Chile's primarily wine grape until the emergence of the Bordeaux wine varietal in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

text: The Pais has one of the longest

text: viticultural

text: history in Chile, believed to have been brought to the region by

text: Spanish

text: conquistador

text: s from

text: Peru

text: during their

text: colonization of the continent

text: in the 16th century.

text: Ampelographer

text: s believe that along with the

text: Criolla Grande

text: grape of

text: Argentina

text: and

text: Mission

text: grape of

text: California

text: , that the Pais grape is descended by the Spanish "common black grape" brought to

text: Mexico

text: in 1520 by the Spanish conquistador

text: Hernán Cortés

text: . That early grape was then cultivated by

entity_name: Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery

text: Spanish missionaries

text: and spread throughout the

text: Americas

text: . The Pais remained Chile's primarily wine grape until the emergence of the

text: Bordeaux wine

text: varietal

text: in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

text: About halfway through the Permian (in the Kungurian age of the Permian's Cisuralian epoch), all the continents joined to form the supercontinent Pangaea, surrounded by the superocean Panthalassa, although blocks that are now parts of Asia did not join the supercontinent until very late in the Permian. The configuration severely decreased the extent of shallow aquatic environments, the most productive part of the seas, and it exposed formerly isolated organisms of the rich continental shelves to competition from invaders. Pangaea's formation would also have altered both oceanic circulation and atmospheric weather patterns, creating seasonal monsoons near the coasts and an arid climate in the vast continental interior.

text: About halfway through the Permian (in the

text: Kungurian

text: age of the Permian's

text: Cisuralian

text: epoch

text: ), all the continents joined to form the supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: , surrounded by the

text: superocean

text: Panthalassa

text: , although blocks that are now parts of Asia did not join the supercontinent until very late in the Permian. The configuration severely decreased the extent of shallow aquatic environments, the most productive part of the seas, and it exposed formerly isolated organisms of the rich continental shelves to competition from invaders. Pangaea's formation would also have altered both oceanic circulation and atmospheric weather patterns, creating seasonal

text: monsoon

text: s near the coasts and an arid climate in the vast continental interior.

text: A supercontinent is a landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton.

text: A supercontinent is a

text: landmass

text: comprising more than one

text: continent

text: al core, or

text: craton

text: The hypothesized supercontinent cycle is complemented by the Wilson cycle named after plate tectonics pioneer J. Tuzo Wilson, which describes the periodic opening and closing of ocean basins. Because the oldest seafloor material found today dates to only 170 million years old, whereas the oldest continental crust material found today dates to at least 4 billion years old, it makes sense to emphasize the much longer record of the planetary pulse that is recorded in the continents.

text: The hypothesized supercontinent cycle is complemented by the Wilson cycle named after

text: plate tectonics

text: pioneer

text: J. Tuzo Wilson

text: , which describes the periodic opening and closing of

text: ocean basin

text: s. Because the oldest seafloor material found today dates to only 170 million years old, whereas the oldest continental crust material found today dates to at least 4 billion years old, it makes sense to emphasize the much longer record of the planetary pulse that is recorded in the continents.

text: The second view (Protopangea-Paleopangea), based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence, is that supercontinent cycles did not occur before about 0.6 Ga (during the Ediacaran Period). Instead, the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from about 2.7 Ga (Gigaanum, or "billion years ago") until it broke up for the first time, somewhere around 0.6 Ga. This reconstruction is based on the observation that if only small peripheral modifications are made to the primary reconstruction, the data show that the palaeomagnetic poles converged to quasi-static positions for long intervals between about 2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25 and 0.75–0.6 Ga. During the intervening periods, the poles appear to have conformed to a unified apparent polar wander path. Thus the paleomagnetic data are adequately explained by the existence of a single Protopangea–Paleopangea supercontinent with prolonged quasi-integrity. The prolonged duration of this supercontinent could be explained by the operation of lid tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) during Precambrian times, as opposed to the plate tectonics seen on the contemporary Earth.

text: The second view (Protopangea-Paleopangea), based on both

text: palaeomagnetic

text: and geological evidence, is that supercontinent cycles did not occur before about 0.6

text: Ga

text: (during the

text: Ediacaran

text: Period). Instead, the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from about 2.7 Ga (Gigaanum, or "billion years ago") until it broke up for the first time, somewhere around 0.6 Ga. This reconstruction is based on the observation that if only small peripheral modifications are made to the primary reconstruction, the data show that the palaeomagnetic poles converged to quasi-static positions for long intervals between about 2.7–2.2, 1.5–1.25 and 0.75–0.6 Ga. During the intervening periods, the poles appear to have conformed to a unified

text: apparent polar wander

text: path. Thus the paleomagnetic data are adequately explained by the existence of a single Protopangea–Paleopangea supercontinent with prolonged quasi-integrity. The prolonged duration of this supercontinent could be explained by the operation of lid tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) during

text: Precambrian

text: times, as opposed to the plate tectonics seen on the contemporary Earth.

text: Above Earth, Ba'al's armada arrives. To the displeasure of his subordinates, the other System Lords, Ba'al announces that he will treat the Tau'ri leniently. Suspicious about Ba'al's thorough knowledge of Earth, Qetesh betrays him and forces him to tell her everything. She orders the destruction of McMurdo and the Ancient outpost in Ba'al's name, but she kills Ba'al when Teal'c discovers what she is doing. As Teal'c escapes to an Al'kesh, Qetesh orders the fleet to bombard Earth, while she goes to secure Ba'al's time machine.

text: Above Earth, Ba'al's armada arrives. To the displeasure of his subordinates, the other System Lords, Ba'al announces that he will treat the

text: Tau'ri

text: leniently. Suspicious about Ba'al's thorough knowledge of Earth, Qetesh betrays him and forces him to tell her everything. She orders the destruction of McMurdo and the Ancient outpost in Ba'al's name, but she kills Ba'al when Teal'c discovers what she is doing. As Teal'c escapes to an

text: Al'kesh

text: , Qetesh orders the fleet to bombard Earth, while she goes to secure Ba'al's time machine.

text: The prehistory of the United States comprises the occurrences within regions now part of the United States of America during the interval of time spanning from the formation of the Earth to the documentation of local history in written form. At the start of the Paleozoic era, what is now "North" America was actually in the southern hemisphere. Marine life flourished in the country's many seas, although terrestrial life had not yet evolved. During the latter part of the Paleozoic, seas were largely replaced by swamps home to amphibians and early reptiles. When the continents had assembled into Pangaea drier conditions prevailed. The evolutionary precursors to mammals dominated the country until a mass extinction event ended their reign.

text: The prehistory of the United States comprises the occurrences within regions now part of the

text: United States of America

text: during the interval of time spanning from the

text: formation of the Earth

text: to the documentation of local

text: history

text: in

text: written form

text: . At the start of the

text: Paleozoic era

text: , what is now

text: "North" America

text: was actually in the

text: southern

text: hemisphere

text: . Marine life flourished in the country's many seas, although terrestrial life had not yet evolved. During the latter part of the Paleozoic, seas were largely replaced by

text: swamps

text: home to

text: amphibians

text: and early

text: reptiles

text: . When the continents had assembled into

text: Pangaea

text: drier conditions prevailed. The

text: evolutionary precursors

text: to

text: mammals

text: dominated the country until a mass extinction event ended their reign.

text: Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years, random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere, which can result in mass extinctions. These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of  or more, and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion, called a supernova, within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun, called a Near-Earth supernova. Other large-scale geological events are more predictable. If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded, Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end. These periods are caused by eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit. As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle, plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250–350 million years. Some time in the next 1.5–4.5 billion years, the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations, with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90°.

text: Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years, random celestial events pose a global risk to the

text: biosphere

text: , which can result in

text: mass extinction

text: s. These include impacts by

text: comet

text: s or

text: asteroid

text: s with diameters of  or more, and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion, called a

text: supernova

text: , within a 100-

text: light-year

text: radius of the Sun, called a

text: Near-Earth supernova

text: . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable. If the

text: long-term effects of global warming

text: are disregarded,

text: Milankovitch theory

text: predicts that the planet will continue to undergo

text: glacial period

text: s at least until the

text: Quaternary glaciation

text: comes to an end. These periods are caused by

text: eccentricity

text: axial tilt

text: , and

text: precession

text: of the Earth's orbit. As part of the ongoing

text: supercontinent cycle

text: plate tectonics

text: will probably result in a

text: supercontinent

text: in 250–350 million years. Some time in the next 1.5–4.5 billion years, the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations, with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90°.

text: Theological doubt informed by the flat Earth model implied in the Hebrew Bible inspired some early Christian scholars such as Lactantius, John Chrysostom and Athanasius of Alexandria, but this remained an eccentric current. Learned Christian authors such as Basil of Caesarea, Ambrose and Augustine of Hippo were clearly aware of the sphericity of the Earth. "Flat Earthism" lingered longest in Syriac Christianity, which tradition laid greater importance on a literalist interpretation of the Old Testament. Authors from that tradition, such as Cosmas Indicopleustes, presented the Earth as flat as late as in the 6th century. This last remnant of the ancient model of the cosmos disappeared during the 7th century. From the 8th century and the beginning medieval period, "no cosmographer worthy of note has called into question the sphericity of the Earth."

text: Theological doubt informed by the

text: flat Earth

text: model implied in the

text: Hebrew Bible

text: inspired some early Christian scholars such as

text: Lactantius

text: John Chrysostom

text: and

text: Athanasius of Alexandria

text: , but this remained an eccentric current. Learned Christian authors such as

text: Basil of Caesarea

text: Ambrose

text: and

text: Augustine of Hippo

text: were clearly aware of the sphericity of the Earth. "Flat Earthism" lingered longest in

text: Syriac Christianity

text: , which tradition laid greater importance on a literalist interpretation of the Old Testament. Authors from that tradition, such as

text: Cosmas Indicopleustes

text: , presented the Earth as flat as late as in the 6th century. This last remnant of the ancient model of the cosmos disappeared during the 7th century. From the 8th century and the beginning

text: medieval period

text: , "no cosmographer worthy of note has called into question the sphericity of the Earth."

text: The geological time period surrounding the breakup of Kenorland is thought by many geologists to be the beginning of the transition point from the deep-mantle-plume method of continent formation in the Hadean to Early Archean (before the final formation of the Earth's inner core) to the subsequent two-layer core-mantle plate tectonics convection theory. However, the findings of an earlier continent, Ur, and a  supercontinent of around 3.1 Ga, Vaalbara, indicate this transition period may have occurred much earlier.

text: The geological time period surrounding the breakup of Kenorland is thought by many geologists to be the beginning of the transition point from the deep-mantle-plume method of continent formation in the

text: Hadean

text: to Early

text: Archean

text: (before the final formation of the Earth's inner

text: core

text: ) to the subsequent two-layer core-

text: mantle

text: plate tectonics

text: convection theory. However, the findings of an earlier continent,

text: Ur

text: , and a

text: supercontinent

text: of around 3.1 Ga,

text: Vaalbara

text: , indicate this transition period may have occurred much earlier.

text: Since the breakup of the Pangaea supercontinent in the Jurassic (about 250 million years ago) the main tectonic story here has been the North American Plate's subduction of the Farallon Plate (see below) and its remaining fragments (such as the Kula, Juan de Fuca, Gorda, and Explorer plates).  As the North American plate overrides the last of each remnant it comes into contact with the Pacific Plate, generally forming a transform fault, such as the Queen Charlotte Fault running north of Vancouver Island, and the San Andreas Fault on the coast of California.  Between these is the Cascadia subduction zone, the last portion of a subduction zone that once stretched from Central America to Alaska.

text: Since the breakup of the

text: Pangaea

text: supercontinent in the

text: Jurassic

text: (about 250 million years ago) the main tectonic story here has been the North American Plate's subduction of the

text: Farallon Plate

text: (see below) and its remaining fragments (such as the

text: Kula

text: Juan de Fuca

text: Gorda

text: , and

text: Explorer

text: plates).  As the North American plate overrides the last of each remnant it comes into contact with the Pacific Plate, generally forming a

text: transform fault

text: , such as the

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: running north of

text: Vancouver Island

text: , and the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: on the coast of California.  Between these is the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , the last portion of a subduction zone that once stretched from Central America to Alaska.

text: One hypothesis for the origin of multicellularity is that a group of function-specific cells aggregated into a slug-like mass called a grex, which moved as a multicellular unit. This is essentially what slime molds do. Another hypothesis is that a primitive cell underwent nucleus division, thereby becoming a syncytium. A membrane would then form around each nucleus (and the cellular space and organelles occupied in the space), thereby resulting in a group of connected cells in one organism (this mechanism is observable in Drosophila). A third hypothesis is that as a unicellular organism divided, the daughter cells failed to separate, resulting in a conglomeration of identical cells in one organism, which could later develop specialized tissues. This is what plant and animal embryos do as well as colonial choanoflagellates.

text: One hypothesis for the origin of multicellularity is that a group of function-specific cells aggregated into a slug-like mass called a

text: grex

text: , which moved as a multicellular unit. This is essentially what

text: slime mold

text: s do. Another hypothesis is that a primitive cell underwent nucleus division, thereby becoming a

text: syncytium

text: . A membrane would then form around each nucleus (and the cellular space and organelles occupied in the space), thereby resulting in a group of connected cells in one organism (this mechanism is observable in

text: Drosophila

text: ). A third hypothesis is that as a unicellular organism divided, the daughter cells failed to separate, resulting in a conglomeration of identical cells in one organism, which could later develop specialized tissues. This is what plant and

text: animal embryo

text: s do as well as colonial

text: choanoflagellate

text: s.

text: Glaciers (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2007)

text: At times in the geological past the Earth's atmosphere contained much more than 20% oxygen: e.g. up to 35% in the Upper Carboniferous period. This let animals absorb oxygen more easily and influenced their evolutionary patterns.

text: At times in the geological past the Earth's atmosphere contained much more than 20% oxygen: e.g. up to 35% in the

text: Upper Carboniferous

text: period. This let animals absorb oxygen more easily and influenced their evolutionary patterns.

text: There were no large continents in the early Archean, and small protocontinents were probably the norm in the Mesoarchean because they were prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity. These felsic protocontinents (cratons) probably formed at hot spots from a variety of sources: mafic magma melting more felsic rocks, partial melting of mafic rock, and from the metamorphic alteration of felsic sedimentary rocks. Although the first continents formed during the Archean, rock of this age makes up only 7% of the world's current cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, evidence suggests that only 5 to 40 percent of the present continental crust formed during the Archean.

text: There were no large continents in the early Archean, and small protocontinents were probably the norm in the

text: Mesoarchean

text: because they were prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity. These

text: felsic

text: protocontinents (cratons) probably formed at hot spots from a variety of sources: mafic magma melting more felsic rocks, partial melting of mafic rock, and from the metamorphic alteration of felsic sedimentary rocks. Although the first continents formed during the Archean, rock of this age makes up only 7% of the world's current cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, evidence suggests that only 5 to 40 percent of the present

text: continental crust

text: formed during the Archean.

text: Season eight of Stargate SG-1 sees the final defeat of the System Lords and the Replicators, changing the political face of the galaxy. Dr. Daniel Jackson also discovers the address for the Ancients' Lost City of Atlantis in the Pegasus galaxy, and the international Atlantis Expedition is formed. In Pegasus Earth discovers more enemies, including the life-consuming Wraith and the nanite Asurans. A new enemy, the Ori, is introduced in the ninth season of SG-1. Their story arc is concluded in Stargate: The Ark of Truth with the defeat of the last Ori, the Ascended being Adria, and the turning of her armies.

text: Season eight of Stargate SG-1 sees the final defeat of the System Lords and the Replicators, changing the political face of the galaxy. Dr.

text: Daniel Jackson

text: also discovers the address for the Ancients' Lost City of Atlantis in the Pegasus galaxy, and the international Atlantis Expedition is formed. In Pegasus Earth discovers more enemies, including the life-consuming

text: Wraith

text: and the nanite

text: Asuran

text: s. A new enemy, the

text: Ori

text: , is introduced in the ninth season of SG-1. Their story arc is concluded in

text: Stargate: The Ark of Truth

text: with the defeat of the last Ori, the Ascended being Adria, and the turning of her armies.

text: There is also a legend that links the cotton thread's significance to a successful and happy married life. In Laos, where a traditional way of life is of trust on beliefs and superstitions, a marriage ceremony has a special link to an ancient legend and to the thread tying ceremony of the Baci celebration. According to their legend, marriages are predetermined in heaven by what is termed as nene or "Love Karma" (destiny). In the heavenly garden, each individual has a tree with branches cuddling to the soul of his or her life partner. Eventually such pre-destined intertwined trees move to earth as human beings with their wrists tied together by a cotton thread. In the process of their coming to the earth, the cotton thread binding them is severed by “wind of scissors” and they are born on earth as separate individuals. Once born on the earth, they search for their soul mates and when they find them they marry, and by performing the Baci ceremony they are rejoined by tying the symbolic cotton thread. If the cotton thread so tied remains intact for three days then the marriage is considered fortunate and lucky for the couple.

text: There is also a legend that links the cotton thread's significance to a successful and happy married life. In Laos, where a traditional way of life is of trust on beliefs and superstitions, a marriage ceremony has a special link to an ancient legend and to the thread tying ceremony of the Baci celebration. According to their legend, marriages are predetermined in heaven by what is termed as nene or "Love

text: Karma

text: " (destiny). In the heavenly garden, each individual has a tree with branches cuddling to the soul of his or her life partner. Eventually such pre-destined intertwined trees move to earth as human beings with their wrists tied together by a cotton thread. In the process of their coming to the earth, the cotton thread binding them is severed by “wind of scissors” and they are born on earth as separate individuals. Once born on the earth, they search for their soul mates and when they find them they marry, and by performing the Baci ceremony they are rejoined by tying the symbolic cotton thread. If the cotton thread so tied remains intact for three days then the marriage is considered fortunate and lucky for the couple.

text: Throughout the history of the Earth, there have been times when continents collided and formed a supercontinent, which later broke up into new continents. About 1000 to 830 Ma, most continental mass was united in the supercontinent Rodinia. Rodinia may have been preceded by Early-Middle Proterozoic continents called Nuna and Columbia.

text: Sun–Earth  is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system. Objects here are never shadowed by Earth or the Moon. The first mission of this type was the International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances.  Since June 2015, DSCOVR has orbited the L point.

text: Sun–Earth  is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system. Objects here are never shadowed by Earth or the Moon. The first mission of this type was the

text: International Sun Earth Explorer 3

text: (ISEE-3) mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances.  Since June 2015,

text: DSCOVR

text: has orbited the L point.

text: In the 1960s the tiny bottle city  of Kandor, the miniaturized capital city of the planet Krypton, resided in Superman's Fortress of Solitude. Originally, certain inhabitants resembling Kal-El formed the Superman Emergency Squad and would, on occasion, leave the bottle, enter the Earth's atmosphere and gain super powers in order to aid Superman. As designed by artist Curt Swan, their uniforms were similar to that of Superman save for the 'S' on their chests which resembled the early version, the 'S' and border in red on a yellow field, but in an elongated triangle.

text: In the 1960s the tiny bottle city  of

text: Kandor

text: , the miniaturized capital city of the planet Krypton, resided in Superman's

text: Fortress of Solitude

text: . Originally, certain inhabitants resembling

text: Kal-El

text: formed the

text: Superman Emergency Squad

text: and would, on occasion, leave the bottle, enter the Earth's atmosphere and gain super powers in order to aid Superman. As designed by artist

text: Curt Swan

text: , their uniforms were similar to that of Superman save for the 'S' on their chests which resembled the early version, the 'S' and border in red on a yellow field, but in an elongated triangle.

text: Because its lineage is very old and could have emerged prior to cellular organisms, Mimivirus has added to the debate over the origins of life. Some genes unique to Mimivirus, including those coding for the capsid, have been conserved in a variety of viruses which infect organisms from all domains. This has been used to suggest that Mimivirus is related to a type of DNA virus that emerged before cellular organisms and played a key role in the development of all life on Earth. An alternative hypothesis is that there were three distinct types of DNA viruses that were involved in generating the three known domains of life—eukarya, archaea and bacteria. It has been suggested that Mimivirus and similar kinds are remnants of a "fourth domain" of life, and that other giant virus may represent other ancient domains.

text: Because its lineage is very old and could have emerged prior to cellular organisms, Mimivirus has added to the debate over the

text: origins of life

text: . Some genes unique to Mimivirus, including those coding for the

text: capsid

text: , have been conserved in a variety of viruses which infect organisms from all domains. This has been used to suggest that Mimivirus is related to a type of DNA virus that emerged before cellular organisms and played a key role in the development of all life on Earth. An alternative hypothesis is that there were three distinct types of DNA viruses that were involved in generating the three known

text: domains

text: of life—

text: eukarya

text: archaea

text: and

text: bacteria

text: . It has been suggested that Mimivirus and similar kinds are remnants of a "fourth domain" of life, and that other giant virus may represent other ancient domains.

text: A subduction zone is a region of the earth's crust where one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate; oceanic crust gets recycled back into the mantle and continental crust gets created by the formation of arc magmas. Arc magmas account for more than 20% of terrestrially produced magmas and are produced by the dehydration of minerals within the subducting slab as it descends into the mantle and are accreted onto the base of the overriding continental plate. Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.

text: A

text: subduction zone

text: is a region of the earth's crust where one

text: tectonic plate

text: moves under another tectonic plate;

text: oceanic crust

text: gets recycled back into the mantle and

text: continental crust

text: gets created by the formation of arc

text: magma

text: s. Arc magmas account for more than 20% of terrestrially produced magmas and are produced by the dehydration of minerals within the subducting slab as it descends into the mantle and are accreted onto the base of the overriding continental plate. Subduction zones host a unique variety of rock types created by the high-pressure, low-temperature conditions a subducting slab encounters during its descent. The metamorphic conditions the slab passes through in this process creates and destroys water bearing (hydrous) mineral phases, releasing water into the mantle. This water lowers the melting point of mantle rock, initiating melting. Understanding the timing and conditions in which these dehydration reactions occur, is key to interpreting mantle melting, volcanic arc magmatism, and the formation of continental crust.

text: The television series CSI: Miami introduced both surface and wall multi-touch displays in its sixth season. Another television series, NCIS: Los Angeles, makes use of multi-touch surfaces and wall panels as an initiative to go digital. Another form of a multi-touch computer was seen in the film The Island, where the professor, played by Sean Bean, has a multi-touch desktop to organize files, based on an early version of Microsoft Surface (not be confused with the tablet computers which now bear that name). Multi-touch technology can also be seen in the James Bond film Quantum of Solace, where MI6 uses a touch interface to browse information about the criminal Dominic Greene. In an episode of the television series The Simpsons, Lisa Simpson travels to the underwater headquarters of Mapple to visit Steve Mobbs, who is shown to be performing multiple multi-touch hand gestures on a large touch wall.

text: The television series

text: CSI: Miami

text: introduced both surface and wall multi-touch displays in its sixth season. Another television series,

text: NCIS: Los Angeles

text: , makes use of multi-touch surfaces and wall panels as an initiative to go digital. Another form of a multi-touch computer was seen in the film

text: The Island

text: , where the professor, played by

text: Sean Bean

text: , has a multi-touch desktop to organize files, based on an early version of

text: Microsoft Surface

text: (not be confused with the

text: tablet computers

text: which now bear that name). Multi-touch technology can also be seen in the

text: James Bond

text: film

text: Quantum of Solace

text: , where MI6 uses a touch interface to browse information about the criminal Dominic Greene. In

text: an episode

text: of the television series

text: The Simpsons

text: Lisa Simpson

text: travels to the underwater headquarters of Mapple to visit Steve Mobbs, who is shown to be performing multiple multi-touch hand gestures on a large touch wall.

text: One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.

text: One explanation for Venus's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of

text: shear zone

text: s. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.

text: The Great Oxygenation Event occurred approximately 2.4 Ga (billion years ago) as cyanobacteria induced the presence of dioxygen in earth’s atmosphere.  Biological oxidation leading to oxidative stress and cell damage in animals represents one of these types of reactions which are responsible for many animal diseases. Incorporation of metals perhaps combated this. The central chemistry of all these cells has to be reductive in order that the synthesis of the required chemicals, especially biopolymers, is possible. The different anaerobic, autocatalysed, reductive, metabolic pathways seen in the earliest cells we know about developed in separate energised vesicles, protocells, where they were produced cooperatively with certain bases of the nucleic acids.

text: The

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: occurred approximately 2.4

text: Ga

text: (billion years ago) as cyanobacteria induced the presence of

text: dioxygen

text: in earth’s atmosphere.  Biological oxidation leading to oxidative stress and cell damage in animals represents one of these types of reactions which are responsible for many animal diseases. Incorporation of metals perhaps combated this. The central chemistry of all these cells has to be

text: reductive

text: in order that the synthesis of the required chemicals, especially

text: biopolymers

text: , is possible. The different

text: anaerobic

text: autocatalysed

text: reductive

text: metabolic

text: pathways seen in the earliest cells we know about developed in separate energised vesicles,

text: protocell

text: s, where they were produced cooperatively with certain bases of the

text: nucleic acids

text: Nonetheless, Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life, and fossil evidence from the Earth supplies most studies of abiogenesis. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, and possibly as early as the Eoarchean Era, after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of biogenic substances includes graphite and possibly stromatolites discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in southwestern Greenland, as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to a scientist who commented on the study, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe."

text: Nonetheless, Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life, and fossil evidence from the Earth supplies most studies of abiogenesis. The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, and possibly as early as the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era, after a geological

text: crust

text: started to solidify following the earlier molten

text: Hadean

text: Eon

text: Microbial mat

text: fossil

text: s have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of

text: biogenic substance

text: s includes

text: graphite

text: and possibly

text: stromatolites

text: discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: in southwestern

text: Greenland

text: , as well as "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to a scientist who commented on the study, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: A natural example of rarefaction occurs in the layers of Earth's atmosphere. Because the atmosphere has mass, most atmospheric matter is nearer to the Earth due to the Earth's gravitation.  Therefore, air at higher layers of the atmosphere is less dense, or rarefied, relative to air at lower layers. Thus rarefaction can refer either to a reduction in density over space at a single point of time, or a reduction of density over time for one particular area.

text: A natural example of rarefaction occurs in the layers of

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . Because the atmosphere has

text: mass

text: , most atmospheric

text: matter

text: is nearer to the Earth due to the Earth's

text: gravitation

text: .  Therefore, air at higher layers of the atmosphere is less dense, or rarefied, relative to air at lower layers. Thus rarefaction can refer either to a reduction in density over space at a single point of time, or a reduction of density over time for one particular area.

text: Few modern organisms use this method of photosynthesis, making their water contribution negligible. But on the hydrogen-sulfide-rich and oxygen-poor early Earth, a small but significant portion of Earth's water may have been synthesized biochemically through this pathway.

text: Few modern organisms use this method of photosynthesis, making their water contribution negligible. But on the

text: hydrogen-sulfide

text: -rich and oxygen-poor early Earth, a small but significant portion of Earth's water may have been synthesized biochemically through this pathway.

text: In Ancient Greece, Aristotle (384-322 BCE) observed that fossils of seashells from rocks resembled seashells found on beaches - he inferred that the fossils had once formed part of living animals, and reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) concurred with Aristotle's interpretation that fossils represented the remains of ancient life.

text: In

text: Ancient Greece

text: Aristotle

text: (384-322 BCE) observed that

text: fossils

text: of seashells from rocks resembled seashells found on beaches - he inferred that the fossils had once formed part of living animals, and reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time.

text: Leonardo da Vinci

text: (1452-1519) concurred with Aristotle's interpretation that fossils represented the remains of ancient life.

text: Thus, the moral value of one-celled organisms, as well as some multi-cellular organisms, and natural entities like a river, is only in the benefit they provide to sentient beings. Similarly, utilitarianism places no direct intrinsic value on biodiversity, although the benefits that biodiversity bring to sentient beings may mean that, on utilitarianism, biodiversity ought to be maintained in general.

text: Thus, the moral value of one-celled organisms, as well as some multi-cellular organisms, and natural entities like a river, is only in the benefit they provide to sentient beings. Similarly, utilitarianism places no direct intrinsic value on

text: biodiversity

text: , although the benefits that biodiversity bring to sentient beings may mean that, on utilitarianism, biodiversity ought to be maintained in general.

text: In a later paper he proposed that this occurred by their being dragged towards the equator by tidal forces during the hypothesized capture of the moon, resulting in "general crustal creep" toward the equator.   The initial key to his proposal, the complementary shapes of the continental masses, had been observed as early as  the 16th century by Abraham Ortelius, but had lacked a credible driving force.  His own proposition was that the moon was captured by the Earth's gravity during the Cretaceous period 100 million years ago, and came so close to the earth that its tidal pull dragged the continents toward the Equator.  This lacked evidence, thus undermining the credibility of the continental drift observation. He had proposed that the continents ploughed through the ocean floors towards the equator, wrinkling their Equator-facing fronts to produce the Himalayas and Alps. Although his proposed mechanism was wrong, he was the first to come to the insight that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains due to the collision of continental plates.

text: In a later paper he proposed that this occurred by their being dragged towards the equator by tidal forces during the hypothesized capture of the moon, resulting in "general crustal creep" toward the equator.   The initial key to his proposal, the complementary shapes of the continental masses, had been observed as early as  the 16th century by

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: , but had lacked a credible driving force.  His own proposition was that the moon was captured by the Earth's gravity during the

text: Cretaceous

text: period 100 million years ago, and came so close to the earth that its tidal pull dragged the continents toward the Equator.  This lacked evidence, thus undermining the credibility of the continental drift observation. He had proposed that the continents ploughed through the ocean floors towards the equator, wrinkling their Equator-facing fronts to produce the Himalayas and Alps. Although his proposed mechanism was wrong, he was the first to come to the insight that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains due to the collision of continental plates.

text: The results will contribute to our understanding of photobiological processes in simulated radiation climates of planets (e.g. early Earth, early and present Mars, and the role of the ozone layer in protecting the biosphere from harmful UV-B radiation), as well as studies of the probabilities and limitations for life to be distributed beyond its planet of origin. EXPOSE data support long-term in situ studies of microbes in artificial meteorites, as well as of microbial communities from special ecological niches. Some EXPOSE experiments investigated to what extent particular terrestrial organisms are able to cope with extraterrestrial environmental conditions. Others tested how organic molecules react when subjected for a prolonged period of time to unfiltered solar light.

text: The results will contribute to our understanding of

text: photobiological processes

text: in simulated radiation climates of planets (e.g. early Earth, early and present Mars, and the role of the ozone layer in protecting the biosphere from harmful

text: UV-B radiation

text: ), as well as studies of the probabilities and limitations for

text: life

text: to be distributed beyond its planet of origin. EXPOSE data support long-term in situ studies of

text: microbes

text: in artificial meteorites, as well as of microbial communities from special ecological niches. Some EXPOSE experiments investigated to what extent particular terrestrial

text: organism

text: s are able to cope with extraterrestrial environmental conditions. Others tested how

text: organic molecule

text: s react when subjected for a prolonged period of time to unfiltered

text: solar light

text: The corridor coach was known on the European continent as the American system or American coach in the early 1900s.

text: A softkey or soft key is a button flexibly programmable to invoke any of a number of functions rather than being associated with a single fixed function or a fixed set of functions. A softkey is often located alongside a display device of a portable device such as a cellular phone, where the button invokes a function described by the text at that moment shown adjacent to the button on the display. However, softkeys are also found away from the display device, for example on the sides of cellular phones, where they are typically programmed to invoke functions such as PTT, memo, or volume control. Softkeys are generally found on keyboards (e.g. the F keys), cellular phones, Automated Teller Machines, Primary Flight and Multi-Function Displays, although they are also found elsewhere. Hard key is the contrary term, which means a hard-coded key such as a number key pad or the Send/End key of a mobile phone. Depending on the development company, cellular phone softkeys are often called F1(Left), F2(Right).

text: A softkey or soft key is a button flexibly programmable to invoke any of a number of functions rather than being associated with a single fixed function or a fixed set of functions. A softkey is often located alongside a

text: display device

text: of a portable device such as a cellular phone, where the button invokes a function described by the text at that moment shown adjacent to the button on the display. However, softkeys are also found away from the

text: display device

text: , for example on the sides of cellular phones, where they are typically programmed to invoke functions such as

text: PTT

text: , memo, or volume control. Softkeys are generally found on

text: keyboards

text: (e.g.

text: the F keys

text: cellular phone

text: s,

text: Automated Teller Machine

text: s,

text: Primary Flight

text: and

text: Multi-Function Displays

text: , although they are also found elsewhere. Hard key is the contrary term, which means a hard-coded key such as a number key pad or the Send/End key of a mobile phone. Depending on the development company, cellular phone softkeys are often called F1(Left), F2(Right).

text: Originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from early Middle English, its definite sense as "the globe" was expressed as the earth. By early Modern English, many nouns were capitalized, and the earth became (and often remained) the Earth, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as Earth, by analogy with the names of the other planets. House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"

text: Originally, earth was written in lowercase, and from

text: early Middle English

text: , its

text: definite

text: sense as "the globe" was expressed as

text: the

text: earth. By

text: early Modern English

text: , many nouns were capitalized, and the earth became (and often remained) the Earth, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as Earth, by analogy with the names of the

text: other planets

text: House styles

text: now vary:

text: Oxford spelling

text: recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (e.g. "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the (e.g. "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?"

text: Margolus was one of the organizers of a seminal research meeting on the connections between physics and computation theory, held on Mosquito Island in 1982. He is known for inventing the block cellular automaton and the Margolus neighborhood for block cellular automata, which he used to develop cellular automaton simulations of billiard-ball computers. In the same work, Margolus also showed that the billiard ball model could be simulated by a second order cellular automaton, a different type of cellular automaton invented by his thesis advisor, Edward Fredkin. These two simulations were among the first cellular automata that were both reversible (able to be run backwards as well as forwards for any number of time steps, without ambiguity) and universal (able to simulate the operations of any computer program); this combination of properties is important in low-energy computing, as it has been shown that the energy dissipation of computing devices may be made arbitrarily small if and only if they are reversible. In connection with this issue, Margolus and his co-author  Lev B. Levitin proved the Margolus–Levitin theorem showing that the speed of any computer is limited by the fundamental laws of physics to be at most proportional to its energy use; this implies that ultra-low-energy computers must run more slowly than conventional computers.

text: Margolus was one of the organizers of a seminal research meeting on the connections between physics and computation theory, held on

text: Mosquito Island

text: in 1982. He is known for inventing the

text: block cellular automaton

text: and the Margolus neighborhood for block cellular automata, which he used to develop cellular automaton simulations of

text: billiard-ball computer

text: s. In the same work, Margolus also showed that the billiard ball model could be simulated by a

text: second order cellular automaton

text: , a different type of cellular automaton invented by his thesis advisor,

text: Edward Fredkin

text: . These two simulations were among the first cellular automata that were both reversible (able to be run backwards as well as forwards for any number of time steps, without ambiguity) and

text: universal

text: (able to simulate the operations of any computer program); this combination of properties is important in low-energy computing, as it has been shown that the energy dissipation of computing devices may be made arbitrarily small if and only if they are reversible. In connection with this issue, Margolus and his co-author  Lev B. Levitin proved the

text: Margolus–Levitin theorem

text: showing that the speed of any computer is limited by the fundamental laws of physics to be at most proportional to its energy use; this implies that ultra-low-energy computers must run more slowly than conventional computers.

text: Small bodies, as primitive leftover building blocks of the Solar System formation process, offer clues to the chemical mixture from which the planets formed some 4.6 billion years ago. Current exobiological scenarios for the origin of life invoke an exogenous delivery of organic compounds to the early Earth. It has been proposed that carbonaceous chondrite matter (in the form of planetesimals or dust) could have brought these complex organic molecules capable of triggering the pre-biotic synthesis of biochemical compounds on the early Earth. Moreover, collisions of NEOs with Earth pose a finite hazard to life. For all these reasons, the exploration of such objects is particularly interesting and urgent.

text: Small bodies, as primitive leftover building blocks of the

text: Solar System

text: formation process, offer clues to the chemical mixture from which the planets formed some 4.6 billion years ago. Current

text: exobiological

text: scenarios for the origin of life invoke an exogenous delivery of

text: organic compound

text: s to the early Earth. It has been proposed that

text: carbonaceous chondrite

text: matter (in the form of planetesimals or dust) could have brought these complex organic molecules capable of triggering the pre-biotic synthesis of biochemical compounds on the early Earth. Moreover, collisions of NEOs with Earth pose a finite hazard to life. For all these reasons, the exploration of such objects is particularly interesting and urgent.

text: The field of health advocacy also has deeper roots in the voluntary organization sector of society, where the early health advocates were more typically advocating for a cause, not for an individual.  These health advocates preceded hospital-based patient advocates and are part of a long history of American involvement in social organizations.  They were activists in social movements and voluntary associations including civic organizations, women's associations and labor organizations, and in the early disease-specific non-profits like the American Cancer Society (founded as the American Society for the Control of Cancer in 1913) or the March of Dimes (founded as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis in 1938).  In the early part of the 20th century these advocates came to their work through other professional routes, often as social workers, attorneys, public health nurses or doctors.  They were the Progressive era "new women" of Hull House and the Children's Bureau, the American Association for Labor Legislation leaders of the movement in 1919 for national health insurance, the nurses who worked with Lillian Wald to advocate for indigent health care through Visiting Nurse Services (1893), or with the Maternity Center Association (1918) to advocate for maternal and infant care for poor immigrants.  They obtained their professional education in other disciplines and then applied it to health.

text: The field of health advocacy also has deeper roots in the voluntary organization sector of society, where the early health advocates were more typically advocating for a cause, not for an individual.  These health advocates preceded hospital-based patient advocates and are part of a long history of American involvement in social organizations.  They were activists in social movements and voluntary associations including civic organizations, women's associations and labor organizations, and in the early disease-specific non-profits like the

text: American Cancer Society

text: (founded as the American Society for the Control of Cancer in 1913) or the

text: March of Dimes

text: (founded as the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis in 1938).  In the early part of the 20th century these advocates came to their work through other professional routes, often as social workers, attorneys, public health nurses or doctors.  They were the Progressive era "new women" of

text: Hull House

text: and the Children's Bureau, the

entity_name: American Association for Labor Legislation

text: American Association for Labor Legislation

text: leaders of the movement in 1919 for national health insurance, the nurses who worked with

text: Lillian Wald

text: to advocate for indigent health care through Visiting Nurse Services (1893), or with the

text: Maternity Center Association

text: (1918) to advocate for maternal and infant care for poor immigrants.  They obtained their professional education in other disciplines and then applied it to health.

text: White was one of nine men chosen as part of the second group of astronauts in 1962.  Within an already elite group, White was considered to be a high-flier by the management of NASA. He was chosen as Pilot of Gemini 4, with Command Pilot James McDivitt. White became the first American to make a walk in space, on June 3, 1965.  He found the experience so exhilarating that he was reluctant to terminate the EVA at the allotted time, and had to be ordered back into the spacecraft. While he was outside, a spare thermal glove floated away through the open hatch of the spacecraft, becoming an early piece of space debris in low Earth orbit, until it burned up upon re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. There was a mechanical problem with the hatch mechanism, which made it difficult to open and to relatch, which added to the time constraint of the spacewalk, and could have threatened the lives of both men if McDivitt had been unable to get the hatch latched, as they could not re-enter the atmosphere with an unsealed hatch.

text: White was one of nine men chosen as part of

text: the second group of astronauts

text: in 1962.  Within an already elite group, White was considered to be a high-flier by the management of NASA. He was chosen as Pilot of

text: Gemini 4

text: , with Command Pilot

text: James McDivitt

text: . White became the first American to make a

text: walk in space

text: , on June 3, 1965.  He found the experience so exhilarating that he was reluctant to terminate the EVA at the allotted time, and had to be ordered back into the spacecraft. While he was outside, a spare thermal glove floated away through the open hatch of the spacecraft, becoming an early piece of

text: space debris

text: in

text: low Earth orbit

text: , until it burned up upon

text: re-entry

text: into the Earth's atmosphere. There was a mechanical problem with the hatch mechanism, which made it difficult to open and to relatch, which added to the time constraint of the spacewalk, and could have threatened the lives of both men if McDivitt had been unable to get the hatch latched, as they could not re-enter the atmosphere with an unsealed hatch.

text: Geobiology is a field of scientific research that explores the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere. It is a relatively young field, and its borders are fluid. There is considerable overlap with the fields of ecology, evolutionary biology, microbiology, paleontology, and particularly biogeochemistry. Geobiology applies the principles and methods of biology and geology to the study of the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth as well as the role of life in the modern world. Geobiologic studies tend to be focused on microorganisms, and on the role that life plays in altering the chemical and physical environment of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and/or cryosphere. It differs from biogeochemistry in that the focus is on processes and organisms over space and time rather than on global chemical cycles.

text: Geobiology is a field of

text: scientific research

text: that explores the interactions between the physical

text: Earth

text: and the

text: biosphere

text: . It is a relatively young field, and its borders are fluid. There is considerable overlap with the fields of

text: ecology

text: evolutionary biology

text: microbiology

text: paleontology

text: , and particularly

text: biogeochemistry

text: . Geobiology applies the principles and methods of biology and geology to the study of the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth as well as the role of life in the modern world. Geobiologic studies tend to be focused on

text: microorganism

text: s, and on the role that life plays in altering the chemical and physical environment of the

text: lithosphere

text: atmosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: and/or

text: cryosphere

text: . It differs from biogeochemistry in that the focus is on processes and organisms over space and time rather than on global chemical cycles.

text: The same applies to other more complex biosignatures. Searching for biological remains of the precursors to life, whether ancient or currently existing, would be far easier on an uncontaminated planet. This would similarly apply to searches for DNA sequences on Mars. Life on other planets could have a common origin with Earth life, since in the early Solar System there was much exchange of material between the planets which could have transferred life as well. If so it might be based on DNA too.

text: Minerals (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2006)

text: The presence of sponges before ~540 Ma has profound implications for the evolution of multicellular life and the coupling of the biosphere to Neoproterozoic climate. Climate change before the Cambrian explosion and the subsequent diversification of life are intricately intertwined with understanding the causes of Snowball Earth episodes, the deposition of Banded Iron Formations, and the second step in the rise of atmospheric oxygen. In particular, the presence of sponges raises questions of the minimum dissolved O content of the oceans in the late Neoproterozoic and the transition from a euxinic Canfield ocean to the modern oxygenated deep-ocean. However, sponges appear to require very little O to survive, so their presence in the Precambrian may not provide strong constraints on Proterozoic O levels.

text: The presence of

text: sponge

text: s before ~540 Ma has profound implications for the evolution of multicellular life and the coupling of the

text: biosphere

text: to

text: Neoproterozoic

text: climate. Climate change before the

text: Cambrian explosion

text: and the subsequent diversification of life are intricately intertwined with understanding the causes of

text: Snowball Earth

text: episodes, the deposition of

text: Banded Iron Formations

text: , and the second step in the

text: rise of atmospheric oxygen.

text: In particular, the presence of sponges raises questions of the minimum dissolved O content of the oceans in the late

text: Neoproterozoic

text: and the transition from a

text: euxinic

text: Canfield ocean

text: to the modern oxygenated deep-ocean. However, sponges appear to require very little O to survive, so their presence in the

text: Precambrian

text: may not provide strong constraints on

text: Proterozoic

text: O levels.

text: The Silurian spans from 440 million years to 415 million years. The Silurian saw the transition of the Earth from the Snowball Earth. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jaw-less fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved, and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as sea scorpions, remained the apex predators. Fully terrestrial life evolved, which included early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. Also, the evolution of vascular plants (Cooksonia) allowed plants to gain a foothold on land. These early terrestrial plants are the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, India), Laurentia (North America with parts of Europe), Baltica (the rest of Europe), and Siberia (Northern Asia). The recent rise in sea levels provided new habitats for many new species.

text: The Silurian spans from 440 million years to 415 million years. The Silurian saw the transition of the Earth from the

text: Snowball Earth

text: . This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jaw-less fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved, and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as

text: sea scorpions

text: , remained the apex predators. Fully terrestrial life evolved, which included early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. Also, the evolution of

text: vascular plants

text: Cooksonia

text: ) allowed plants to gain a foothold on land. These early terrestrial plants are the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there were four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, India), Laurentia (North America with parts of Europe), Baltica (the rest of Europe), and Siberia (Northern Asia). The recent rise in sea levels provided new habitats for many new species.

text: As organisms age and cells proliferate, telomeres shorten with each round of replication.  Cells restricted to a specific lineage are capable of division only a set number of times, set by the length of telomeres, before they senesce.  Depletion and uncapping of telomeres has been linked to organ degeneration, failure, and fibrosis due to progenitors' becoming quiescent and unable to differentiate. Using an in vivo TERT deficient mouse model, reactivation of the TERT gene in quiescent populations in multiple organs reactivated telomerase and restored the cells’ abilities to differentiate.  Reactivation of TERT down-regulates DNA damage signals associated with cellular mitotic checkpoints allowing for proliferation and elimination of a degenerative phenotype. In another study, introducing the TERT gene into healthy one-year-old mice using an engineered adeno-associated virus led to a 24% increase in lifespan, without any increase in cancer.

text: As organisms age and cells proliferate, telomeres shorten with each round of replication.  Cells restricted to a specific lineage are capable of division only a set number of times, set by the length of telomeres, before they

text: senesce

text: .  Depletion and uncapping of telomeres has been linked to organ degeneration,

text: failure

text: , and

text: fibrosis

text: due to progenitors' becoming

text: quiescent

text: and unable to

text: differentiate

text: . Using an

text: in vivo

text: TERT deficient

text: mouse model

text: , reactivation of the TERT gene in

text: quiescent

text: populations in multiple organs reactivated telomerase and restored the cells’ abilities to

text: differentiate

text: .  Reactivation of TERT

text: down-regulate

text: s DNA damage signals associated with

text: cellular mitotic checkpoints

text: allowing for proliferation and elimination of a degenerative

text: phenotype

text: . In another study, introducing the TERT gene into healthy one-year-old mice using an engineered

text: adeno-associated virus

text: led to a 24% increase in lifespan, without any increase in cancer.

text: Most of the sandstones in the Pafuri region however probably represent the great age of dinosaurs – the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.  During the early parts of the Jurassic, which lasted from approximately 210 million years ago until about 144 million years ago, the area was almost certainly extremely arid as is evidenced by the great sandstones of the region and the many dune and desert structures – such as desert roses – that are found preserved within the rocks of the region. In these sediments have been found the remains of early dinosaurs - possibly those of a species known as Massospondylus. It was also clearly a period of intense volcanism – with intrusive igneous rocks representing the ejected and intrusive molten  matter from the interior of the Earth scattered about the region. The Jurassic was the age of great plant eating sauropods and smaller, carnivorous dinosaurs.  This was the age of the origin of vertebrate flight with pterosaurs – flying dinosaurs  - and the first birds appearing. The oceans themselves were full of a wide variety of life including many different types of fish, squids and ammonites – fossils of which are plentiful in the slightly younger rocks of the coastal regions to the southeast of the area. This was also a time of global upheaval as the World-continent of Pangea began to break up.

text: Most of the

text: sandstone

text: s in the Pafuri region however probably represent the great age of dinosaurs – the

text: Jurassic

text: and

text: Cretaceous

text: Periods.  During the early parts of the Jurassic, which lasted from approximately 210 million years ago until about 144 million years ago, the area was almost certainly extremely arid as is evidenced by the great sandstones of the region and the many dune and desert structures – such as desert roses – that are found preserved within the rocks of the region. In these sediments have been found the remains of early dinosaurs - possibly those of a species known as

text: Massospondylus

text: . It was also clearly a period of intense

text: volcanism

text: – with intrusive

text: igneous

text: rocks representing the ejected and intrusive molten  matter from the interior of the Earth scattered about the region. The Jurassic was the age of great

text: plant

text: eating

text: sauropods

text: and smaller,

text: carnivorous

text: dinosaurs.  This was the age of the origin of

text: vertebrate

text: flight with

text: pterosaurs

text: – flying dinosaurs  - and the first

text: birds

text: appearing. The oceans themselves were full of a wide variety of life including many different types of

text: fish

text: squids

text: and

text: ammonite

text: s –

text: fossil

text: s of which are plentiful in the slightly younger rocks of the coastal regions to the southeast of the area. This was also a time of global upheaval as the World-continent of

text: Pangea

text: began to break up.

text: The earliest evidence for life on Earth is biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metamorphized sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. A 2015 study found potentially biogenic carbon from 4.1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in Western Australia, but such findings would indicate the existence of different conditions on Earth during that period than are generally assumed today, and point to an earlier origin of life.

text: The earliest evidence for

text: life on Earth

text: is

text: biogenic

text: graphite

text: found in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metamorphized sedimentary rocks

text: discovered in

text: Western Greenland

text: and

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . A 2015 study found potentially biogenic carbon from 4.1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in Western Australia, but such findings would indicate the existence of different conditions on Earth during that period than are generally assumed today, and point to an earlier origin of life.

text: eons, leading to what is known as the faint young Sun paradox. Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of the Sun increased and atmospheric composition changed. The Great Oxygenation Event – oxygenation of the atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a red giant and then a white dwarf will have large effects on climate, with the red giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.

text: eons, leading to what is known as the

text: faint young Sun paradox

text: . Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of the Sun increased and atmospheric composition changed. The

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: – oxygenation of the atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a

text: red giant

text: and then a

text: white dwarf

text: will have large effects on climate, with the red giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.

text: Before the start of the Cryogenian, around 750 Ma, the cratons that made up the supercontinent Rodinia started to rift apart. The superocean Mirovia began to close while the superocean Panthalassa began to form. The cratons (possibly) later assembled into another supercontinent called Pannotia, in the Ediacaran.

text: Before the start of the Cryogenian, around 750 Ma, the cratons that made up the supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: started to rift apart. The superocean

text: Mirovia

text: began to close while the superocean

text: Panthalassa

text: began to form. The cratons (possibly) later assembled into another supercontinent called

text: Pannotia

text: , in the

text: Ediacaran

text: Although the Cassini–Huygens mission was not equipped to provide evidence for biosignatures or complex organic compounds, it showed an environment on Titan that is similar, in some ways, to ones theorized for the primordial Earth. Scientists surmise that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan, with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan.

text: Although the Cassini–Huygens mission was not equipped to provide evidence for

text: biosignature

text: s or complex

text: organic compound

text: s, it showed an environment on Titan that is similar, in some ways, to ones theorized for the primordial Earth. Scientists surmise that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan, with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan.

text: An early report on the circumference of the Earth was given by Aristotle at 400,000 stadia, which exceeds the actual mean value by a factor of ten. The first scientific estimation of the radius of the Earth was given by Eratosthenes about 240 BC. Estimates of the accuracy of Eratosthenes’s measurement range from within 2% to within 15%. As with Aristotle's report, uncertainty in the accuracy of his measurement is due to modern uncertainty over which stadion definition he used.

text: An early report on the circumference of the Earth was given by

text: Aristotle

text: at 400,000

text: stadia

text: , which exceeds the actual mean value by a factor of ten. The first scientific estimation of the radius of the Earth was given by

text: Eratosthenes

text: about 240 BC. Estimates of the accuracy of Eratosthenes’s measurement range from within 2% to within 15%. As with Aristotle's report, uncertainty in the accuracy of his measurement is due to modern uncertainty over which stadion definition he used.

text: Ares, the Greek God of War, was initially depicted as a villain in the Marvel Universe, opposing Thor, Hercules and the The Avengers. Early on his influence on Earth was less direct as he created an organization known as the "Warhawks" and used them to create war on Earth.

text: Ares, the Greek God of War, was initially depicted as a villain in the Marvel Universe, opposing

text: Thor

text: Hercules

text: and the

text: The Avengers

text: . Early on his influence on Earth was less direct as he created an organization known as the "Warhawks" and used them to create war on Earth.

text: Understanding what type of tectonic setting the Xiong'er Volcanic Belt formed in is crucial for the reconstruction of the Supercontinent Columbia and for making models of plate movement in the Earth's past. If the Xiong'er Volcanic belt represents a rift, then that will indicate that the southern edge of the North China craton faced another continent while it was a part of the Supercontinent Columbia, but if it is an Andean type continental margin then that will indicate that the southern edge of the North China craton would have faced the open ocean at this time.

text: Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia which broke apart about 540 million years ago, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart about 180 million years ago.

text: Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a

text: supercontinent

text: . Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest known supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: Pannotia

text: which broke apart about 540 million years ago, then finally

text: Pangaea

text: , which broke apart about 180 million years ago.

text: The same principle applies to planets. Many scientists think the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere, along with Mars and Venus. This would have proven to be a good environment for Cyanobacteria to evolve the first photosynthetic metabolic pathways which gradually increased the oxygen portion of the atmosphere, changing it to what is known as an oxidizing atmosphere. With increased levels of oxygen, the evolution of the more efficient aerobic respiration might have been enabled, allowing animal life to evolve and thrive.

text: The same principle applies to planets. Many scientists think the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere, along with Mars and Venus. This would have proven to be a good environment for

text: Cyanobacteria

text: to evolve the first

text: photosynthetic metabolic pathways

text: which gradually increased the oxygen portion of the atmosphere, changing it to what is known as an oxidizing atmosphere. With increased levels of oxygen, the evolution of the more efficient aerobic respiration might have been enabled, allowing animal life to evolve and thrive.

text: In the early 1950s most refrigerators were white, but from the mid-1950s through present day designers and manufacturers put color onto refrigerators. In the late-1950s/early-1960s, pastel colors like turquoise and pink became popular, brushed chrome-plating (similar to stainless finish) was available on some models from different brands. In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, earth tone colors were  popular, including Harvest Gold, Avocado Green and almond. In the 1980s, black became fashionable. In the late 1990s stainless steel came into vogue, and in 2009, one manufacturer introduced multi-color designs.

text: In the early 1950s most refrigerators were white, but from the mid-1950s through present day designers and manufacturers put color onto refrigerators. In the late-1950s/early-1960s, pastel colors like turquoise and pink became popular, brushed chrome-plating (similar to stainless finish) was available on some models from different brands. In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s,

text: earth tone

text: colors were  popular, including

text: Harvest Gold

text: Avocado Green

text: and almond. In the 1980s, black became fashionable. In the late 1990s

text: stainless steel

text: came into vogue, and in 2009, one manufacturer introduced multi-color designs.

text: The crystal structure of NASICON compounds was characterized in 1968. It is a covalent network consisting of ZrO octahedra and PO/SiO tetrahedra that share common corners. Sodium ions are located at two types of interstitial positions. They move among those sites through bottlenecks, whose size, and thus the NASICON electrical conductivity, depends on the NASICON composition, on the site occupancy, and on the oxygen content in the surrounding atmosphere. The conductivity decreases for x < 2 or when all Si is substituted for P in the crystal lattice (and vice versa); it can be increased by adding a rare-earth compound to NASICON, such as yttria.

text: The crystal structure of NASICON compounds was characterized in 1968. It is a covalent network consisting of ZrO

text: octahedra

text: and PO/SiO

text: tetrahedra

text: that share common corners. Sodium ions are located at two types of interstitial positions. They move among those sites through bottlenecks, whose size, and thus the NASICON

text: electrical conductivity

text: , depends on the NASICON composition, on the site occupancy, and on the oxygen content in the surrounding atmosphere. The conductivity decreases for x < 2 or when all Si is substituted for P in the crystal lattice (and vice versa); it can be increased by adding a rare-earth compound to NASICON, such as

text: yttria

text: The proximity of the Moon in relation to Earth and Earth in relation to the Sun also has an effect on tidal ranges.  The Moon moves around Earth in an elliptic orbit that takes about 29 days to complete.  The gravitational force is greatest when the Moon is at perigee — closest to Earth — and least when it is at apogee — farthest from Earth — about two weeks after perigee.  The Moon has a larger effect on the tides than the Sun, but the Sun’s position also has an influence on the tides.  Earth moves around the Sun in an elliptic orbit that takes a little over 365 days to complete.  Its gravitational force is greatest when the Earth is at perihelion — closest to the Sun in early January — and least when the Earth is at aphelion — farthest from the Sun in early July.

text: The proximity of the Moon in relation to Earth and Earth in relation to the Sun also has an effect on tidal ranges.  The Moon moves around Earth in an elliptic orbit that takes about 29 days to complete.  The gravitational force is greatest when the Moon is at

text: perigee

text: — closest to Earth — and least when it is at

text: apogee

text: — farthest from Earth — about two weeks after perigee.  The Moon has a larger effect on the tides than the Sun, but the Sun’s position also has an influence on the tides.  Earth moves around the Sun in an

text: elliptic orbit

text: that takes a little over 365 days to complete.  Its

text: gravitational force

text: is greatest when the Earth is at perihelion — closest to the Sun in early January — and least when the Earth is at aphelion — farthest from the Sun in early July.

text: Ozone  (systematically named 1λ,3λ-trioxidane and catena-trioxygen), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope , breaking down in the lower atmosphere to normal dioxygen. Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and also atmospheric electrical discharges, and is present in low concentrations throughout the Earth's atmosphere (stratosphere). In total, ozone makes up only  of the atmosphere.

text: Ozone  (systematically named 1λ,3λ-trioxidane and catena-trioxygen), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the

text: chemical formula

text: . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an

text: allotrope

text: of

text: oxygen

text: that is much less stable than the

text: diatomic

text: allotrope , breaking down in the lower atmosphere to normal

text: dioxygen

text: . Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of

text: ultraviolet

text: light and also atmospheric electrical discharges, and is present in low concentrations throughout the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: (stratosphere). In total, ozone makes up only  of the atmosphere.

text: Following John Byrne's revamp of Superman, a new version of Superboy was introduced as a means of patching the Legion of Super-Heroes' continuity, which was undermined by the removal of Kal-El's Superboy career. This Superboy is said to have been created by the Time Trapper, one of the Legion's greatest enemies, when he notices that the great youthful hero they take inspiration from does not start his career until he is an adult. Wishing to preserve this history due to his own history's connection to the Legion's past, the Trapper takes a sliver of time from the ancient universe and uses it to craft a "pocket universe" in which Earth and Krypton are the only inhabited planets. Whenever the Legionnaires travel back in time, they travel to the 20th century of the Pocket Universe, not the main DC Universe. From birth until the Crisis on Infinite Earths, Superboy's life is similar to the life of the original Superboy. When the universe-destroying Crisis strikes, Superboy lacks the power to save his Earth, but the Time Trapper can do so, provided Kal-El helps him capture the Legion. Superboy reluctantly agrees. After a battle with the post-Crisis Superman- during which Superman is drastically overpowered by Superboy's pre-Crisis strength while managing to keep Superboy on his toes due to his superior experience-, Superboy realizes he can't turn on his friends and instead helps the Legionnaires defeat the Trapper. Using a device the Trapper employed to stave off Earth's destruction, Superboy saves his Earth, but only at the cost of his own life. His dying act is to return the Legion to their century (and Earth), where he is later buried. Later editorial mandates that removed Superboy from the history of the Legion led to a story where the Time Trapper is apparently erased from history, wiping the Pocket Universe and that universe's Superboy from existence.

text: Following John Byrne's revamp of Superman, a new version of Superboy was introduced as a means of patching the

text: Legion of Super-Heroes

text: ' continuity, which was undermined by the removal of Kal-El's Superboy career. This Superboy is said to have been created by the

text: Time Trapper

text: , one of the Legion's greatest enemies, when he notices that the great youthful hero they take inspiration from does not start his career until he is an adult. Wishing to preserve this history due to his own history's connection to the Legion's past, the Trapper takes a sliver of time from the ancient universe and uses it to craft a "pocket universe" in which Earth and Krypton are the only inhabited planets. Whenever the Legionnaires travel back in time, they travel to the 20th century of the Pocket Universe, not the main DC Universe. From birth until the

text: Crisis on Infinite Earths

text: , Superboy's life is similar to the life of the original Superboy. When the universe-destroying

text: Crisis

text: strikes, Superboy lacks the power to save his Earth, but the Time Trapper can do so, provided Kal-El helps him capture the Legion. Superboy reluctantly agrees. After a battle with the post-Crisis

text: Superman

text: - during which Superman is drastically overpowered by Superboy's pre-Crisis strength while managing to keep Superboy on his toes due to his superior experience-, Superboy realizes he can't turn on his friends and instead helps the Legionnaires defeat the Trapper. Using a device the Trapper employed to stave off Earth's destruction, Superboy saves his Earth, but only at the cost of his own life. His dying act is to return the Legion to their century (and Earth), where he is later buried. Later editorial mandates that removed Superboy from the history of the Legion led to a story where the Time Trapper is apparently erased from history, wiping the Pocket Universe and that universe's Superboy from existence.

text: Damage theory attempts to address this model flaw by simulating voids created in areas of strain, representing the mechanical pulverization of coarse grains of rock into finer grains. In such models, damage is balanced by “healing”, or the temperature and pressure-driven dynamic recrystallization of smaller grains into larger ones. If the reduction of grain size (damage) is intensely localized in a stagnant lid, an incipient crack in the mantle can turn into a full-blown rift, initiating plate tectonics. Conversely, a high surface temperature will have more efficient lithospheric healing, which is another potential explanation for why Venus has a stagnant lid and Earth does not.

text: The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earth's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.

text: The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earth's atmosphere, are

text: nitrogen

text: oxygen

text: , and

text: argon

text: . Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other

text: chemical compound

text: s. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as

text: aerosol

text: s in an unfiltered air sample, including

text: dust

text: of mineral and organic composition,

text: pollen

text: and

text: spores

text: sea spray

text: , and

text: volcanic ash

text: . Various industrial

text: pollutant

text: s also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as

text: chlorine

text: (elemental or in compounds),

text: fluorine

text: compounds and elemental

text: mercury

text: vapor. Sulfur compounds such as

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: and

text: sulfur dioxide

text: (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial

text: air pollution

text: The Mariana Plate is a small tectonic plate located west of the Mariana Trench and forms the basement of the Mariana Islands. It is separated from the Philippine Sea Plate by a long divergent boundary with numerous transform fault offsets. The boundary between the Mariana and the Pacific Plate to the east is a subduction zone with the Pacific Plate subducting beneath the Mariana. The Mariana Trench forms the southeastern boundary and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench the northeastern boundary.

text: The Mariana Plate is a small

text: tectonic plate

text: located west of the

text: Mariana Trench

text: and forms the basement of the

text: Mariana Islands

text: . It is separated from the

text: Philippine Sea Plate

text: by a long

text: divergent boundary

text: with numerous

text: transform fault

text: offsets. The boundary between the Mariana and the

text: Pacific Plate

text: to the east is a

text: subduction zone

text: with the Pacific Plate subducting beneath the Mariana. The Mariana Trench forms the southeastern boundary and the

text: Izu-Ogasawara Trench

text: the northeastern boundary.

text: For multicellular organisms that develop in a womb, the physical interference or presence of other similarly developing organisms such as twins can result in the two cellular masses being integrated into a larger whole, with the combined cells attempting to continue to develop in a manner that satisfies the intended growth patterns of both cell masses. The two cellular masses can compete with each other, and may either duplicate or merge various structures. This results in conditions such as conjoined twins, and the resulting merged organism may die at birth when it must leave the life-sustaining environment of the womb and must attempt to sustain its biological processes independently.

text: For multicellular organisms that develop in a

text: womb

text: , the physical interference or presence of other similarly developing organisms such as

text: twins

text: can result in the two cellular masses being integrated into a larger whole, with the combined cells attempting to continue to develop in a manner that satisfies the intended growth patterns of both cell masses. The two cellular masses can compete with each other, and may either duplicate or merge various structures. This results in conditions such as

text: conjoined twins

text: , and the resulting merged organism may die at birth when it must leave the life-sustaining environment of the womb and must attempt to sustain its biological processes independently.

text: Within evolutionary computation, the need for artificial development techniques was motivated by the perceived lack of scalability and evolvability of direct solution encodings (Tufte, 2008). Artificial development entails indirect solution encoding. Rather than describing a solution directly, an indirect encoding describes (either explicitly or implicitly) the process by which a solution is constructed. Often, but not always, these indirect encodings are based upon biological principles of development such as morphogen gradients, cell division and cellular differentiation (e.g. Doursat 2008), gene regulatory networks (e.g. Guo et al., 2009),  degeneracy (Whitacre et al., 2010), grammatical evolution (de Salabert et al., 2006), or analogous computational processes such as re-writing, iteration, and time. The influences of interaction with the environment, spatiality and physical constraints on differentiated multi-cellular development have been investigated more recently (e.g. Knabe et al. 2008).

text: Within evolutionary computation, the need for artificial development techniques was motivated by the perceived lack of scalability and evolvability of direct solution encodings (Tufte, 2008). Artificial development entails indirect solution encoding. Rather than describing a solution directly, an indirect encoding describes (either explicitly or implicitly) the process by which a solution is constructed. Often, but not always, these indirect encodings are based upon biological principles of development such as

text: morphogen gradients

text: cell division

text: and

text: cellular differentiation

text: (e.g. Doursat 2008),

text: gene regulatory networks

text: (e.g. Guo et al., 2009),

text: degeneracy

text: (Whitacre et al., 2010),

text: grammatical evolution

text: (de Salabert et al., 2006), or analogous computational processes such as re-writing, iteration, and time. The influences of interaction with the environment, spatiality and physical constraints on differentiated multi-cellular development have been investigated more recently (e.g. Knabe et al. 2008).

text: Terra Nova – also known as Eta Cassiopeia III, was one of the first Earth-colonized planets. Terra Nova was Earth's "great experiment," and was an early human colonization mission, which set its sights on the closest habitable planet from Earth. The world was 20 light-years from Earth, and the early warp drive colony ship heading there took 9 years to reach it. All adults from the original colony were killed after a radioactive asteroid struck the planet. The children survived by going underground and living in caves.

text: Terra Nova – also known as

text: Eta Cassiopeia

text: III, was one of the first Earth-colonized planets. Terra Nova was Earth's "great experiment," and was an early human colonization mission, which set its sights on the closest

text: habitable planet

text: from Earth. The world was 20

text: light-year

text: s from Earth, and the early

text: warp drive

text: colony ship heading there took 9 years to reach it. All adults from the original colony were killed after a radioactive asteroid struck the planet. The children survived by going underground and living in caves.

text: Movement of molten rock in the mantle, caused by thermal convection currents, coupled with gravitational effects of changes on the earth's surface (erosion, deposition, even asteroid impact and patterns of post-glacial rebound) drive plate tectonic motion and ultimately volcanism.

text: Movement of molten rock in the mantle, caused by thermal

text: convection

text: currents, coupled with

text: gravitational effects

text: of changes on the earth's surface (

text: erosion

text: deposition

text: , even

text: asteroid

text: impact and patterns of

text: post-glacial rebound

text: ) drive

text: plate tectonic motion

text: and ultimately volcanism.

text: In a historical perspective, the planetary phase of civilization is viewed by its proponents as the third significant transition in civilization.  Though history is complex and difficult to divide into discrete eras, they argue that a broad panorama reveals two earlier macro-shifts in human society and culture: shifts from the Stone Age to Early Civilization and then from Early Civilization the Modern Era.  Each transition brought a leap in the complexity of society, as seen in changes in social organization, economy, and communications. The Stone Age was characterized by tribes and villages, hunting and gathering economies, and spoken language as the means of communication.  The shift into Early Civilization brought more structured city-states and kingdoms, settled agriculture, and writing.  Correspondingly, the planetary phase sees social organization, the economy, and communications move to the global level. Moreover, unlike prior transitions, the planetary phase is understood to mark a new geologic era, the Anthropocene, in which human activity becomes the primary driver of changes to the Earth system.

text: In a historical perspective, the planetary phase of civilization is viewed by its proponents as the third significant transition in civilization.  Though history is complex and difficult to divide into discrete eras, they argue that a broad panorama reveals two earlier macro-shifts in human society and culture: shifts from the

text: Stone Age

text: to Early Civilization and then from Early Civilization the

text: Modern Era

text: .  Each transition brought a leap in the complexity of society, as seen in changes in social organization, economy, and communications. The Stone Age was characterized by tribes and villages,

text: hunting and gathering

text: economies, and spoken language as the means of communication.  The shift into Early Civilization brought more structured city-states and kingdoms, settled agriculture, and writing.  Correspondingly, the planetary phase sees social organization, the economy, and communications move to the global level. Moreover, unlike prior transitions, the planetary phase is understood to mark a new geologic era, the

text: Anthropocene

text: , in which human activity becomes the primary driver of changes to the Earth system.

text: During the ensuing 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs - from roots to seeds. There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between each organ evolving, and it being fed upon. Hole feeding and skeletonization are recorded in the early Permian, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.

text: In 2000, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) advanced the Digital Earth to enhance decision-makers' access to information for then Secretary-General Kofi Annan and the United Nations Security Council.  UNEP promoted use of web-based geospatial technologies with the ability to access the world’s environmental information, in association with economic and social policy issues.  A reorganization of UNEP’s data and information resources was initiated in 2001, based on the GSDI/DE architecture for a network of distributed and interoperable databases creating a framework of linked servers.  The design concept was based upon using a growing network of internet mapping software and database content with advanced capabilities to link GIS tools and applications.  UNEP.net, launched in February 2001, provided UN staff with an unparalleled facility for accessing authoritative environmental data resources and a visible example to others in the UN community.  However, a universal user interface for UNEP.net, suitable for members of Security Council, that is non-scientists, did not exist.  UNEP began actively testing prototypes for a UNEP geo-browser beginning in mid-2001 with a showcase for the African community displayed at the 5th African GIS Conference in Nairobi, Kenya November 2001.  Keyhole Technology, Inc. (later purchased in 2004 by Google and to become Google Earth) was contracted to develop and demonstrate the first full globe 3-D interactive Digital Earth using web-stream data from a distributed database located on servers around the planet.  A concerted effort within the UN community, via the Geographic Information Working Group (UNGIWG), followed immediately, including purchase of early Keyhole systems by 2002.  UNEP provided further public demonstrations for this early Digital Earth system at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in September, 2002 at Johannesburg, South Africa. In seeking an engineering approach to system-wide development of the Digital Earth model, recommendations were made at the 3rd UNGIWG Meeting, June 2002, Washington, D.C. for creating a document on the Functional User Requirements for geo-browsers.  This proposal was communicated to the ISDE Secretariat in Beijing and the organizing committee for the 3rd International Symposium on Digital Earth and agreement was reached by the Chinese Academy of Sciences-sponsored Secretariat to host the first of the two Digital Earth geo-browser meetings.

text: In 2000, the

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: (UNEP) advanced the Digital Earth to enhance decision-makers' access to information for then Secretary-General

text: Kofi Annan

text: and the

text: United Nations Security Council

text: .  UNEP promoted use of web-based geospatial technologies with the ability to access the world’s environmental information, in association with economic and

text: social policy

text: issues.  A reorganization of UNEP’s data and information resources was initiated in 2001, based on the GSDI/DE architecture for a network of distributed and interoperable databases creating a framework of linked servers.  The design concept was based upon using a growing network of internet mapping software and database content with advanced capabilities to link GIS tools and applications.  UNEP.net, launched in February 2001, provided UN staff with an unparalleled facility for accessing authoritative environmental data resources and a visible example to others in

text: the UN

text: community.  However, a universal

text: user interface

text: for UNEP.net, suitable for members of Security Council, that is non-scientists, did not exist.  UNEP began actively testing prototypes for a UNEP geo-browser beginning in mid-2001 with a showcase for the African community displayed at the 5th African GIS Conference in

text: Nairobi, Kenya

text: November 2001.  Keyhole Technology, Inc. (later purchased in 2004 by

text: Google

text: and to become

text: Google Earth

text: ) was contracted to develop and demonstrate the first full globe 3-D interactive Digital Earth using web-stream data from a

text: distributed database

text: located on servers around the planet.  A concerted effort within the UN community, via the Geographic Information Working Group (UNGIWG), followed immediately, including purchase of early Keyhole systems by 2002.  UNEP provided further public demonstrations for this early Digital Earth system at the

text: World Summit on Sustainable Development

text: in September, 2002 at

text: Johannesburg, South Africa

text: . In seeking an engineering approach to system-wide development of the Digital Earth model, recommendations were made at the 3rd UNGIWG Meeting, June 2002, Washington, D.C. for creating a document on the Functional User Requirements for geo-browsers.  This proposal was communicated to the ISDE Secretariat in Beijing and the organizing committee for the 3rd

entity_section: International Symposia on Digital Earth (ISDE)

text: International Symposium on Digital Earth

text: and agreement was reached by the

text: Chinese Academy of Sciences

text: -sponsored Secretariat to host the first of the two Digital Earth geo-browser meetings.

text: The complexity of the stromatolites found at Isua suggest that life on Earth was already sophisticated and robust by the time of their formation, and that the earliest life on Earth likely evolved over 4 billion years ago. This conclusion is supported in part by the instability of Earth's surface conditions 3.7 billion years ago, which included intense asteroid bombardment. The formation and preservation of fossils from this period indicate that life evolved early and prolifically in Earth's history.

text: To address the concern that a better foundation should be provided for the analysis and composition of software not just in terms of its packaging but in terms of the various concerns these packages addressed,  an explicit organization of the material was developed in terms of a multi-dimensional “matrix” in which concerns are related to the software units that implement them. This organization is called Multi-Dimensional Separation of Concerns, and the paper describing it has been recognized as the most influential paper of the ICSE 1999 Conference

text: Antioxidants are used to terminate the oxidation reactions taking place due to different weathering conditions and reduce the degradation of organic materials. For example, synthetic polymers react with atmospheric oxygen. Organic materials undergo auto-oxidizations due to free radical chain reaction. Oxidatively sensitive substrates will react with atmospheric oxygen directly and produce free radicals. Free radicals are of different forms, consider organic material RH. This material reacts with oxygen to give free radicals such as R•, RO•, ROO•, HO•[1]. These free radicals further react with atmospheric oxygen to produce more and more free radicals. For example, R• + O2 → ROO• ROO•  + RH → ROOH + R•  [1]This can be terminated by using antioxidants. Then this reaction comes to,2R• → R—RROO•  + R•  → ROOR2ROO• → Non-radical products[1]Weathering of polymers is caused by absorption of UV lights, which results in, radical initiated auto-oxidation. This produces cleavage of hydro peroxides and carbonyl compounds. This is because of the weak bond in hydro peroxides which is the main source for the free radicals to initiate from. Homolytic decomposition of hydro peroxide increases the rate of free radicals production[1]. Therefore it is important factor in determining oxidative stability. The conversion of peroxy and alkyl radicals to non-radical species terminates the chain reaction, thereby decreasing the kinetic chain length.

text: Antioxidant

text: s are used to terminate the oxidation reactions taking place due to different weathering conditions and reduce the degradation of organic materials. For example, synthetic polymers react with atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: . Organic materials undergo auto-oxidizations due to

text: free radical

text: chain reaction. Oxidatively sensitive substrates will react with atmospheric oxygen directly and produce free radicals. Free radicals are of different forms, consider organic material RH. This material reacts with oxygen to give free radicals such as R•, RO•, ROO•, HO•[1]. These free radicals further react with atmospheric oxygen to produce more and more free radicals. For example, R• + O2 → ROO• ROO•  + RH → ROOH + R•  [1]This can be terminated by using antioxidants. Then this reaction comes to,2R• → R—RROO•  + R•  → ROOR2ROO• → Non-radical products[1]Weathering of polymers is caused by absorption of UV lights, which results in, radical initiated auto-oxidation. This produces cleavage of hydro peroxides and

text: carbonyl

text: compounds. This is because of the weak bond in hydro peroxides which is the main source for the free radicals to initiate from.

text: Homolytic

text: decomposition of hydro peroxide increases the rate of free radicals production[1]. Therefore it is important factor in determining oxidative stability. The conversion of peroxy and

text: alkyl

text: radicals to non-radical species terminates the chain reaction, thereby decreasing the kinetic chain length.

text: The actual direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m² in early January to 1.321 kW/m² in early July) due to the Earth's varying distance from the Sun, and typically by much less than 0.1% from day to day. Thus, for the whole Earth (which has a cross section of 127,400,000 km²), the power is 1.730×10 W (or 173,000 terawatts), plus or minus 2 W/m. The solar constant does not remain constant over long periods of time (see Solar variation), but over a year the solar constant varies much less than the solar irradiance measured at the top of the atmosphere. This is because the solar constant is evaluated at a fixed distance of 1 Astronomical Unit (AU) while the solar irradiance will be affected by the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit. Its distance to the Sun varies annually between 147.1·10 km at aphelion and 152.1·10 km at perihelion.

text: The actual direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere fluctuates by about 6.9% during a year (from 1.412 kW/m² in early January to 1.321 kW/m² in early July) due to the Earth's varying distance from the Sun, and typically by much less than 0.1% from day to day. Thus, for the whole

text: Earth

text: (which has a

text: cross section

text: of 127,400,000 km²), the power is 1.730×10

text: W

text: (or 173,000

text: terawatt

text: s), plus or minus 2 W/m. The solar constant does not remain constant over long periods of time (see

text: Solar variation

text: ), but over a year the solar constant varies much less than the solar irradiance measured at the top of the atmosphere. This is because the solar constant is evaluated at a fixed distance of 1

text: Astronomical Unit

text: (AU) while the solar irradiance will be affected by the

text: eccentricity

text: of the Earth's orbit. Its distance to the Sun varies annually between 147.1·10 km at

text: aphelion

text: and 152.1·10 km at

text: perihelion

text: Dynion Mwyn teaches the philosophy of reincarnation and immortality of the soul. In this it is believed that the soul is born into the womb upon earth (Abred), transmigrates, dies, and is reborn into the other world where it will rest until its rebirth into the womb on earth. The ancients mourned at both the birth and death of a family member. At birth they mourned for the death of the soul in the other world which gave life to the new soul on earth. Philostratus of Tyana (170-249 CE) observed correctly that the Celts celebrated birth with mourning for the death in the Otherworld, and regarded death with joy for the birth in the Otherworld. It is believed that the soul is reincarnated into the womb upon earth until it has experienced all that there is to experience in life and then it will go to rest with the creator in the Circle of Gwynfyd. With each incarnation the soul growing more spiritually complete. To experience all that there is to experience in life: this means to have been the abusor and the abused, the murdered and the murderer, the healthy and the sick, to have lived in wealth and then in poverty, etc.

text: Audsley's interest in the pipe organ was largely sparked by early experiences hearing W. T. Best at St. George's Hall, Liverpool. Audsley wrote numerous magazine articles on the organ, and as early as the 1880s was envisioning huge instruments with numerous divisions each under separate expression, in imitation of the symphony orchestra.  The Los Angeles Art Organ Co. (successors to the Murray M. Harris Organ Company) had Audsley design the world's largest organ they were building for the St. Louis Exposition of 1904, and included him on the paid staff. This instrument was produced just as his book on The Art of Organ-Building was being published  This great pipe organ eventually was purchased for the John Wanamaker Store in Philadelphia, PA, where it is today known as the Wanamaker Organ.  In 1905, Audsley published the monumental two-volume  The Art of Organ Building as an attempt to position himself as the pre-eminent organ designer in the US. The lavish work includes numerous superb drawings done by Audsley and is still consulted today although organ fashions have evolved in many directions in the ever-fluid, passion-driven world of music. He was an early advocate of console standardization and radiating concave pedal keyboards to accommodate the natural movement of human legs. Unfortunately, his plan to develop the profession of "organ architect" as a consultant to work in consultation with major builders in achieving a high-art product was short-lived. Few commissions for pipe organs or buildings came his way, and few organs were built to high-art standards.  In subsequent years, he wrote several works, one of which was published posthumously, that were essentially shortened forms of his 1905 organ building book, updated to comment on controversies of the day and the rapid advances in applying electro-pneumatic actions and playing aids to the craft. The National Association of Organists (now defunct) bestowed an Audsley medal in his honor.

text: Audsley's interest in the pipe organ was largely sparked by early experiences hearing

text: W. T. Best

text: at

text: St. George's Hall, Liverpool

text: . Audsley wrote numerous magazine articles on the organ, and as early as the 1880s was envisioning huge instruments with numerous divisions each under separate expression, in imitation of the symphony orchestra.  The Los Angeles Art Organ Co. (successors to the Murray M. Harris Organ Company) had Audsley design the world's largest organ they were building for the St. Louis Exposition of 1904, and included him on the paid staff. This instrument was produced just as his book on The Art of Organ-Building was being published  This great pipe organ eventually was purchased for the

text: John Wanamaker

text: Store in Philadelphia, PA, where it is today known as the

text: Wanamaker Organ

text: .  In 1905, Audsley published the monumental two-volume  The Art of Organ Building as an attempt to position himself as the pre-eminent organ designer in the US. The lavish work includes numerous superb drawings done by Audsley and is still consulted today although organ fashions have evolved in many directions in the ever-fluid, passion-driven world of music. He was an early advocate of console standardization and radiating concave pedal keyboards to accommodate the natural movement of human legs. Unfortunately, his plan to develop the profession of "organ architect" as a consultant to work in consultation with major builders in achieving a high-art product was short-lived. Few commissions for pipe organs or buildings came his way, and few organs were built to high-art standards.  In subsequent years, he wrote several works, one of which was published posthumously, that were essentially shortened forms of his 1905 organ building book, updated to comment on controversies of the day and the rapid advances in applying electro-pneumatic actions and playing aids to the craft. The National Association of Organists (now defunct) bestowed an Audsley medal in his honor.

text: The global geography of the Early Permian included massive areas of land and water, with the earths crust plates still being fused together forming a supercontinent known as Pangea. Most continents met in Pangea, accounting for the few number of Cacops specimens found in Russia and China today. Current models indicate that a majority of the supercontinent was extremely dry, with great seasonal fluctuation caused by the surrounding large bodies of water.

text: University President Albert Murphree received $50,000 for the organ from Dr. Andrew Anderson, a St. Augustine physician, philanthropist, and associate of early Florida developer Henry Flagler.  The spacious interior of the University Auditorium, with its elaborate wood-carvings and roomy galleries, offered a congenial home.  Tonal plans for Florida were prepared by William Zeuch of Boston's famous Skinner Organ Company, which built and installed the original instrument in early 1925.  The organ was first played publicly on June 7, 1925, at the annual University Commencement Convocation.  A musical landmark for its day, the organ was designed and voiced at the zenith of orchestral-imitative or "symphonic" organ design in this country, and is mentioned in such reference works as Orpha Ochse's The History of the Organ in the United States and Charles Callahan's The American Classic Organ.  It was heard frequently through the 1930s in recitals by Claude Murphree, University Organist, as well as in early broadcasts over the University's "new" radio station, WRUF.  An elaborate organ façade was also designed by the architect, but was never built.

text: University President

text: Albert Murphree

text: received $50,000 for the organ from Dr. Andrew Anderson, a

text: St. Augustine

text: physician, philanthropist, and associate of early Florida developer

text: Henry Flagler

text: .  The spacious interior of the University Auditorium, with its elaborate wood-carvings and roomy galleries, offered a congenial home.  Tonal plans for Florida were prepared by William Zeuch of Boston's famous

text: Skinner Organ Company

text: , which built and installed the original instrument in early 1925.  The organ was first played publicly on June 7, 1925, at the annual University Commencement Convocation.  A musical landmark for its day, the organ was designed and voiced at the zenith of orchestral-imitative or "symphonic" organ design in this country, and is mentioned in such reference works as Orpha Ochse's The History of the Organ in the United States and Charles Callahan's The American Classic Organ.  It was heard frequently through the 1930s in recitals by Claude Murphree, University Organist, as well as in early broadcasts over the University's "new" radio station,

text: WRUF

text: .  An elaborate organ façade was also designed by the architect, but was never built.

text: At the great Indian eclipse of 1868 that occurred in Guntur, Janssen also demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was to answer the question whether the Sun contains oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of oxygen-absorption in the Earth's atmosphere, and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of Mont Blanc () was prompted by a perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the foundations of which were fixed in the hard ice that appeared to cover the summit to a depth of over ten metres, was built in September 1893, and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent four days taking observations.

text: At the great Indian eclipse of 1868 that occurred in

text: Guntur

text: , Janssen also demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was to answer the question whether the

text: Sun

text: contains

text: oxygen

text: or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of oxygen-absorption in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of

text: Mont Blanc

text: () was prompted by a perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the foundations of which were fixed in the hard ice that appeared to cover the summit to a depth of over ten metres, was built in September 1893, and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent four days taking observations.

text: Offshore of Cape Mendocino lies the Mendocino Triple Junction, a geologic triple junction where three tectonic plates come together. The San Andreas Fault, a transform boundary, runs south from the junction, separating the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. To the north lies the Cascadia subduction zone, where the Gorda Plate is being subducted under the margin of the North American plate.  Running west from the triple junction is the Mendocino Fault, the transform boundary between the Gorda Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: Offshore of Cape Mendocino lies the

text: Mendocino Triple Junction

text: , a geologic

text: triple junction

text: where three

text: tectonic plates

text: come together. The

text: San Andreas Fault

text: , a

text: transform boundary

text: , runs south from the junction, separating the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . To the north lies the

text: Cascadia subduction zone

text: , where the

text: Gorda Plate

text: is being subducted under the margin of the North American plate.  Running west from the triple junction is the

text: Mendocino Fault

text: , the transform boundary between the Gorda Plate and the Pacific Plate.

text: On gigantic arthropods, Charles Q. Choi stated that, if the atmosphere had a higher percentage of oxygen, arthropods would be able to grow quite a bit larger before their trachea became too large and could not grow any more. In fact, in the early years of the earth, when the atmosphere was more oxygen-rich, dragonflies the size of crows were not an uncommon sight.

text: Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface. On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300–600 million years ago, followed by a decay in volcanism. Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust.

text: In the early eighties, a young man who went by the name of Falcon took the Dagorhir game to Cleveland, Ohio. Then in 1983, PM Magazine broadcast the TV episode to a national audience.  The result was the founding of The Realm of Middle~Earth in Illinois.  Dagorhir began to spread throughout the Mid Western U.S, and inspired spin off organizations, including Belegarth Medieval Combat Society.

text: In the early eighties, a young man who went by the name of Falcon took the Dagorhir game to

text: Cleveland, Ohio

text: . Then in 1983,

text: PM Magazine

text: broadcast the TV episode to a national audience.  The result was the founding of The Realm of Middle~Earth in

text: Illinois

text: .  Dagorhir began to spread throughout the Mid Western U.S, and inspired spin off organizations, including

text: Belegarth Medieval Combat Society

text: The Paleogene Epoch began with the K-T extinction event caused by the impact of a metorite in the area of present day Yucatan Peninsula and caused the destruction of 75% of all species on Earth. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of the Earth from that event. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all continents (and India) were separated from each other. Afro-Eurasia was separated by the Tethys Sea, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the Isthmus of Panama had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, and jungles eventually reached the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once ruled became extinct. Archaic mammals, such as creodonts and early primates that evolved during the Mesozoic filled the world. During this time there were no land creatures over 10 kilograms. Mammals were still quite small.

text: The Paleogene Epoch began with the

text: K-T extinction

text: event caused by the impact of a metorite in the area of present day

text: Yucatan Peninsula

text: and caused the destruction of 75% of all species on Earth. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of the Earth from that event. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all continents (and India) were separated from each other.

text: Afro-Eurasia

text: was separated by the

text: Tethys Sea

text: , and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the Isthmus of Panama had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, and jungles eventually reached the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once ruled became extinct. Archaic mammals, such as

text: creodonts

text: and early primates that evolved during the

text: Mesozoic

text: filled the world. During this time there were no land creatures over 10 kilograms. Mammals were still quite small.

text: A glacis (; ) in military engineering is an artificial slope as part of a medieval castle or in early modern fortresses. They may be constructed of earth as a temporary structure or of stone in more permanent structure.

text: A glacis (; ) in

text: military engineering

text: is an artificial slope as part of a medieval castle or in early modern

text: fortresses

text: . They may be constructed of earth as a temporary structure or of stone in more permanent structure.

text: George Willard guessed that La Salle had camped beside Goguac Lake; the story grew to La Salle's committing himself on the beauty of this particular body of water. After slogging through swamps around hundreds of lakes in his hasty escape across southern Michigan. It is doubtful if La Salle had bothered to look at Goguac, much less to comment on its superiority. Of course he had to sleep someplace, Willard figured, so why not beside this lake? Willard also thought the name Goguac meant Ancient Fort and was given to the lake by the Indians. A mound of earth that cut across Waupakisco peninsula was designated Ancient Fort on early maps. Indians seldom gave names to bodies of water and we now know that it was the prairie that was 'undulating' — the meaning of the Indian word Coghwagiak.

text: However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the seafloor spreading proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:

text: However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the

text: seafloor spreading

text: proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:

text: Theia () is a hypothesized ancient planetary-mass object in the early Solar System that, according to the giant impact hypothesis, collided with the early Earth around 4.31 billion years ago. According to the hypothesis, Theia was an Earth trojan about the size of Mars, with diameter of about . Geologist Edward Young of the University of California, Los Angeles, drawing on an analysis of rocks collected by Apollo missions 12, 15, and 17, suggests that Theia collided head-on with Earth, in contrast to the previous theory that suggested a glancing impact. Models of the impact propose that Theia's debris gathered around Earth to form the early Moon. Some scientists think that the material thrown into orbit originally formed two moons that later merged to form the single moon we know today. The Theia hypothesis also explains why Earth's core is larger than would be expected for a body its size: according to the hypothesis, Theia's core and mantle mixed with Earth's.

text: Theia () is a hypothesized ancient

text: planetary-mass object

text: in the

text: early Solar System

text: that, according to the

text: giant impact hypothesis

text: , collided with the

text: early Earth

text: around 4.31 billion years ago. According to the

text: hypothesis

text: , Theia was an

text: Earth trojan

text: about the size of

text: Mars

text: , with diameter of about . Geologist Edward Young of the

text: University of California, Los Angeles

text: , drawing on an analysis of rocks collected by

text: Apollo

text: missions

text: , and

text: , suggests that Theia collided head-on with Earth, in contrast to the previous theory that suggested a glancing impact. Models of the impact propose that Theia's debris gathered around Earth to form the early

text: Moon

text: . Some scientists think that the material thrown into orbit originally formed two moons that later merged to form the single moon we know today. The Theia hypothesis also explains why Earth's core is larger than would be expected for a body its size: according to the hypothesis, Theia's core and mantle mixed with Earth's.

text: Mother goddesses are present in the earliest images discovered among the archaeological finds in Ancient Egypt. An association is drawn to the ancient goddesses of Egypt with animals seen as good mothers—the lioness, cow, hippopotamus, white vulture, cobra, scorpion, and cat—as well as, to the life-giving primordial waters, the sun, the night sky, and the earth herself.

text: Mother goddesses are present in the earliest images discovered among the archaeological finds in

text: Ancient Egypt

text: . An association is drawn to the ancient

text: goddesses

text: of Egypt with animals seen as good mothers—the

text: lion

text: ess,

text: cow

text: hippopotamus

text: white vulture

text: cobra

text: scorpion

text: , and

text: cat

text: —as well as, to the life-giving

text: primordial waters

text: , the

text: sun

text: , the

text: night sky

text: , and the

text: earth

text: herself.

text: The Paleocene ranged from 66 million to 56 million years ago. The Paleocene is a transitional point between the devastation that is the K-T extinction, to the rich jungles environment that is the Early Eocene. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of the earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and subcontinent India were separated from each other. Afro-Eurasia was separated by the Tethys Sea, and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the isthmus had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once ruled became extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such as creodonts and early primates that evolved during the Mesozoic, and as a result, there was nothing over 10 kilograms. Mammals were still quite small.

text: The Paleocene ranged from 66 million to 56 million years ago. The Paleocene is a transitional point between the devastation that is the

text: K-T extinction

text: , to the rich jungles environment that is the Early Eocene. The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of the earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and subcontinent India were separated from each other.

text: Afro-Eurasia

text: was separated by the

text: Tethys Sea

text: , and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as the isthmus had not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks as the large reptiles that had once ruled became extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such as

text: creodonts

text: Mesozoic

text: , and as a result, there was nothing over 10 kilograms. Mammals were still quite small.

text: The Ancients make use of the occasion to explain the realities of life to the young ones, compare artistic images to dolls and to say interest in them will be outgrown. One's own body is the last of many dolls and it will be shed, as well. A man's eventual destiny is to be bodiless, a vortex of energy, immortal, and free to roam among the stars. Tired of their talk with children, the Ancients go their separate ways. As night is falling, the children seek shelter in the temple.

text: has the smallest Earth Minimum orbit intersection distance (MOID) of any known potentially hazardous asteroid. The Earth MOID is . Asteroids with a smaller Earth MOID are less than ~100 meters in diameter such as  and . Earth impactors  and 2014 AA had small Earth MOID values as they were on their impact approach when discovered.

text: has the smallest Earth

text: Minimum orbit intersection distance

text: (MOID) of any known

text: potentially hazardous asteroid

text: . The Earth MOID is . Asteroids with a smaller Earth MOID are less than ~100 meters in diameter such as  and . Earth impactors  and

text: 2014 AA

text: had small Earth MOID values as they were on their impact approach when discovered.

text: Tessema did not inherit a ready made Confederation; peace in the Confederation and total focus on the overall developmental works of the Continent's football, prevailed only after this historic Congress in Yaoundé 1972. This is why he is still viewed by connoisseurs of the Confederation's history, as the most successful African football leader; who had resolved all early detractive problems and directed total focus towards the development of the game, not only for his era, but also, for the future of the continent's most popular sport.

text: Regional metamorphic UHP terrains exposed on Earth's surface provide considerable information that is not available from xenoliths. Integrated study by structural geologists, petrologists, and geochronologists has provided considerable data on how the rocks deformed, the pressures and temperatures of metamorphism, and how the deformation and metamorphism varied as a function of space and time. It has been postulated that small UHP terrains that underwent short periods of metamorphism formed early during continent subduction, whereas giant UHP terrains that underwent long periods of metamorphism formed late during continent collision.

text: Regional metamorphic UHP terrains exposed on Earth's surface provide considerable information that is not available from xenoliths. Integrated study by

text: structural geologists

text: petrologists

text: , and

text: geochronologists

text: has provided considerable data on how the rocks deformed, the pressures and temperatures of metamorphism, and how the deformation and metamorphism varied as a function of space and time. It has been postulated that small UHP terrains that underwent short periods of metamorphism formed early during continent subduction, whereas giant UHP terrains that underwent long periods of metamorphism formed late during continent collision.

text: Geologically, the Paleozoic started shortly after the breakup of the supercontinent  Pannotia. Throughout the early Paleozoic, that landmass was broken into a substantial number of continents. Towards the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area.

text: Geologically, the Paleozoic started shortly after the breakup of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pannotia

text: . Throughout the early Paleozoic, that landmass was broken into a substantial number of continents. Towards the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called

text: Pangaea

text: , which included most of the Earth's land area.

text: Some Ancients apparently attempted to travel back through time to escape the plague, without much success. Many others left the Milky Way to travel to the Pegasus galaxy.  It has been stated that the Ancients who remained in the Milky Way galaxy either ascended or died out. However, according to Anubis, the Ancients had attempted to recreate life after the plague in the Milky Way using the Dakara Superweapon. The evolution of humanity on Earth could be the result of this attempt.

text: Some Ancients apparently attempted to travel back through time to escape the plague, without much success. Many others left the Milky Way to travel to the Pegasus galaxy.  It has been stated that the Ancients who remained in the Milky Way galaxy either ascended or died out. However, according to

text: Anubis

text: , the Ancients had attempted to recreate life after the plague in the Milky Way using the

text: Dakara Superweapon

text: . The evolution of humanity on Earth could be the result of this attempt.

text: Some theories have been stated that presume the Earth had no large moons early in the formation of the Solar System, 4.6 billion years ago, Earth being basically rock and lava. Theia, an early protoplanet the size of Mars, hit Earth in such a way that it ejected a considerable amount of material away from Earth. Some proportion of this ejecta escaped into space, but the rest consolidated into a single body in orbit about Earth, creating the Moon.

text: Some theories have been stated that presume the Earth had no large moons early in the formation of the Solar System, 4.6 billion years ago, Earth being basically rock and lava. Theia, an early

text: protoplanet

text: the size of Mars, hit Earth in such a way that it ejected a considerable amount of material away from Earth. Some proportion of this ejecta

text: escaped

text: into space, but the rest consolidated into a single body in orbit about Earth, creating the Moon.

text: Marshall spent the spring of 2005 on sabbatical in Pistoia, Italy, where she researched early Italian organ music and performed on many historical organs, including those in Roskilde Cathedral (Denmark), the St. Laurenskerk, Alkmaar (Netherlands), the Jacobikirche Hamburg, as well as the famous Zacharias Hildebrandt instrument in Naumburg, Germany, which Bach examined in 1746.  During the summer of 2006, she presented concerts and workshops on early music in Sweden and Israel, and she was a featured artist for the 2007 Early English Organ Project in Oxford and the Festival for Historical Organs in Oaxaca, Mexico.  Important engagements since then include the Lufthansa Festival of Baroque Music in London (2012), inaugural recital series on the Acusticum Organ in Piteå, Sweden (2012), guest artist for the national conference of the Korean Association of Organists in Seoul (2013), and the London Handel Festival (2014).

text: Marshall spent the spring of 2005 on sabbatical in Pistoia, Italy, where she researched early Italian organ music and performed on many historical organs, including those in Roskilde Cathedral (Denmark), the St. Laurenskerk, Alkmaar (Netherlands), the Jacobikirche Hamburg, as well as the famous

text: Zacharias Hildebrandt

text: instrument in Naumburg, Germany, which Bach examined in 1746.  During the summer of 2006, she presented concerts and workshops on early music in Sweden and Israel, and she was a featured artist for the 2007 Early English Organ Project in Oxford and the Festival for Historical Organs in Oaxaca, Mexico.  Important engagements since then include the Lufthansa Festival of Baroque Music in London (2012), inaugural recital series on the Acusticum Organ in Piteå, Sweden (2012), guest artist for the national conference of the Korean Association of Organists in Seoul (2013), and the London Handel Festival (2014).

text: The zircons and various aspects of their geochemistry provide evidence for the existence of continental-type crust on the surface of the earth during the Hadean eon, contrasting with earlier ideas on the earliest phase of Earth's history. Additionally, oxygen isotopic ratios in the zircons provide evidence for the presence of liquid water on the surface, if not a water ocean; also contrasting with earlier ideas on Earth's history. The theory of humid and cool conditions before the Late Heavy Bombardment has been promoted as Cool Early Earth.

text: The zircons and various aspects of their geochemistry provide evidence for the existence of continental-type crust on the surface of the earth during the Hadean eon, contrasting with earlier ideas on the earliest phase of

text: Earth's history

text: . Additionally, oxygen isotopic ratios in the zircons provide evidence for the presence of liquid water on the surface, if not a water ocean; also contrasting with earlier ideas on

text: Earth's history

text: . The theory of humid and cool conditions before the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: has been promoted as

text: Cool Early Earth

text: An estimated 30,000 ± 20,000 tonnes per year (t/yr) of cosmic dust enters the upper atmosphere each year of which less than 10% (2700 ± 1400 t/yr) is estimated to reach the surface as particles. Therefore, the mass of micrometeorites deposited is roughly 50 times higher than that estimated for meteorites, which represent approximately 50 t/yr, and the huge number of particles entering the atmosphere each year (~10 > 10 µm) suggests that large MM collections contain particles from all dust producing objects in the Solar System including asteroids, comets, and fragments from our Moon and Mars. Large MM collections provide information on the size, composition, atmospheric heating effects and types of materials accreting on Earth while detailed studies of individual MMs give insights into their origin, the nature of the carbon, amino acids and pre-solar grains they contain.

text: An estimated 30,000 ± 20,000

text: tonnes

text: per year (t/yr) of cosmic dust enters the upper atmosphere each year of which less than 10% (2700 ± 1400 t/yr) is estimated to reach the surface as particles. Therefore, the mass of micrometeorites deposited is roughly 50 times higher than that estimated for meteorites, which represent approximately 50 t/yr, and the huge number of particles entering the atmosphere each year (~10 > 10 µm) suggests that large MM collections contain particles from all dust producing objects in the Solar System including asteroids, comets, and fragments from our Moon and Mars. Large MM collections provide information on the size, composition, atmospheric heating effects and types of materials accreting on Earth while detailed studies of individual MMs give insights into their origin, the nature of the

text: carbon

text: amino acid

text: s and pre-solar grains they contain.

text: Plate reconstructions suggest a global supercontinent, Pannotia, was in the process of breaking up early in the period, with Laurentia (North America), Baltica, and Siberia having separated from the main supercontinent of Gondwana to form isolated land masses. Most continental land was clustered in the Southern Hemisphere at this time, but was drifting north. Large, high-velocity rotational movement of Gondwana appears to have occurred in the Early Cambrian.

text: Plate reconstruction

text: s suggest a global supercontinent,

text: Pannotia

text: , was in the process of breaking up early in the period, with

text: Laurentia

text: (North America),

text: Baltica

text: , and

text: Siberia

text: having separated from the main supercontinent of

text: Gondwana

text: to form isolated land masses. Most continental land was clustered in the Southern Hemisphere at this time, but was drifting north. Large, high-velocity rotational movement of Gondwana appears to have occurred in the Early Cambrian.

text: The Maoke Plate is a small tectonic plate located in western New Guinea underlying the Sudirman Range from which the highest mountain on the island- Puncak Jaya rises. To its east is a convergent boundary with the Woodlark Plate. To the south lies a transform boundary with the Australian Plate and the Bird's Head Plate lies to the west.

text: The Maoke Plate is a small

text: tectonic plate

text: located in western

text: New Guinea

text: underlying the

text: Sudirman Range

text: from which the highest mountain on the island-

text: Puncak Jaya

text: rises. To its east is a

text: convergent boundary

text: with the

text: Woodlark Plate

text: . To the south lies a

text: transform boundary

text: with the

text: Australian Plate

text: and the

text: Bird's Head Plate

text: lies to the west.

text: Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. For example, a mid-oceanic ridge, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's , e.g., in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called "hotspots", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core–mantle boundary, 3,000 km deep in the Earth.  Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

text: Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid

text: tectonic plates

text: that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle. Therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are

text: diverging

text: or

text: converging

text: . For example, a

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: , such as the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart; the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust's , e.g., in the

text: East African Rift

text: and the

text: Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field

text: and

text: Rio Grande Rift

text: in North America. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of "plate hypothesis" volcanism. Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as

text: mantle plume

text: s. These so-called "

text: hotspots

text: ", for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling

text: diapir

text: s with magma from the

text: core–mantle boundary

text: , 3,000 km deep in the Earth.  Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another.

text: It has been suggested MTB evolved in the early Proterozoic Era, as the increase in atmospheric oxygen reduced the quantity of dissolved iron in the oceans. Organisms began to store iron in some form, and this intracellular iron was later adapted to form magnetosomes for magnetotaxis. These early MTB may have participated in the formation of the first eukaryotic cells. Biogenic magnetite not too different from that found in magnetotactic bacteria has been also found in higher organisms, from Euglenoid algae to trout.  Reports in humans and pigeons are far less advanced.

text: It has been suggested MTB evolved in the early

text: Proterozoic

text: Era, as the increase in atmospheric oxygen reduced the quantity of dissolved iron in the oceans. Organisms began to store iron in some form, and this intracellular iron was later adapted to form magnetosomes for magnetotaxis. These early MTB may have participated in the formation of the first eukaryotic cells. Biogenic magnetite not too different from that found in magnetotactic bacteria has been also found in higher organisms, from

text: Euglenoid

text: algae

text: to

text: trout

text: .  Reports in humans and

text: pigeons

text: are far less advanced.

text: In the late Neoproterozoic (extending into the early Ediacaran period), the Earth suffered massive glaciations in which most of its surface was covered by ice. This may have caused a mass extinction, creating a genetic bottleneck; the resulting diversification may have given rise to the Ediacara biota, which appears soon after the last "Snowball Earth" episode.However, the snowball episodes occurred a long time before the start of the Cambrian, and it is hard to see how so much diversity could have been caused by even a series of bottlenecks; the cold periods may even have delayed the evolution of large size organisms.

text: In the late

text: Neoproterozoic

text: (extending into the early

text: Ediacaran

text: period), the Earth suffered

text: massive glaciations

text: in which most of its surface was covered by ice. This may have caused a mass extinction, creating a genetic bottleneck; the resulting diversification may have given rise to the

text: Ediacara biota

text: , which appears soon after the last "Snowball Earth" episode.However, the snowball episodes occurred a long time before the start of the Cambrian, and it is hard to see how so much diversity could have been caused by even a series of bottlenecks; the cold periods may even have delayed the evolution of large size organisms.

text: It is possible to simulate billiard-ball computers on several types of reversible cellular automaton, including block cellular automata and second-order cellular automata. In these simulations, the balls are only allowed to move at a constant speed in an axis-parallel direction, assumptions that in any case were already present in the use of the billiard ball model to simulate logic circuits. Both the balls and the buffers are simulated by certain patterns of live cells, and the field across which the balls move is simulated by regions of dead cells, in these cellular automaton simulations.

text: It is possible to simulate billiard-ball computers on several types of

text: reversible cellular automaton

text: , including

text: block cellular automata

text: and

text: second-order cellular automata

text: . In these simulations, the balls are only allowed to move at a constant speed in an axis-parallel direction, assumptions that in any case were already present in the use of the billiard ball model to simulate logic circuits. Both the balls and the buffers are simulated by certain patterns of live cells, and the field across which the balls move is simulated by regions of dead cells, in these cellular automaton simulations.

text: This pattern is consistent with what is known about the effects of hypoxia, a shortage but not a total absence of oxygen. However, hypoxia cannot have been the only killing mechanism for marine organisms. Nearly all of the continental shelf waters would have had to become severely hypoxic to account for the magnitude of the extinction, but such a catastrophe would make it difficult to explain the very selective pattern of the extinction. Models of the Late Permian and Early Triassic atmospheres show a significant but protracted decline in atmospheric oxygen levels, with no acceleration near the P–Tr boundary. Minimum atmospheric oxygen levels in the Early Triassic are never less than present day levels—the decline in oxygen levels does not match the temporal pattern of the extinction.

text: This pattern is consistent with what is known about the effects of

text: hypoxia

text: , a shortage but not a total absence of

text: oxygen

text: . However, hypoxia cannot have been the only killing mechanism for marine organisms. Nearly all of the

text: continental shelf

text: waters would have had to become severely

text: hypoxic

text: to account for the magnitude of the extinction, but such a catastrophe would make it difficult to explain the very selective pattern of the extinction.

text: Models

text: of the Late Permian and Early Triassic atmospheres show a significant but protracted decline in atmospheric oxygen levels, with no acceleration near the P–Tr boundary. Minimum atmospheric oxygen levels in the Early Triassic are never less than present day levels—the decline in oxygen levels does not match the temporal pattern of the extinction.

text: Ancient Greeks idealized life in nature using the idea of the pastoral. Much later, Romantic writers such as Wordsworth took their inspiration from nature.

text: Ancient Greek

text: s idealized life in nature using the idea of the

text: pastoral

text: . Much later,

text: Romantic

text: writers such as

text: Wordsworth

text: took their inspiration from nature.

text: Multicellularity allows an organism to exceed the size limits normally imposed by diffusion: single cells with increased size have a decreased surface-to-volume ratio and have difficulty in absorbing sufficient nutrients and transporting them throughout the cell. Multicellular organisms thus have the competitive advantages of an increase in size without its limitations.  It also permits increasing complexity by allowing the differentiation of numerous cellular lineages within an organism. Being multicellular also benefits with having a longer life span, thus still living even when a single-cell dies.

text: Multicellularity allows an organism to exceed the size limits normally imposed by

text: diffusion

text: : single cells with increased size have a decreased surface-to-volume ratio and have difficulty in absorbing sufficient nutrients and transporting them throughout the cell. Multicellular organisms thus have the

text: competitive

text: advantages of an increase in size without its limitations.  It also permits increasing complexity by allowing the

text: differentiation

text: of numerous cellular lineages within an organism. Being multicellular also benefits with having a longer life span, thus still living even when a single-cell dies.

text: During Saxon times the harbour was one of the most important in England as it was easily reached from the continent and boats could enter the harbour and travel up the river Avon all the way to Salisbury. Alfred the Great considered Twynham to be of such strategic importance that at the end of the 9th century, with the threat of invasion by the Danes, he made it a burgh (fortified town). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells how in 901 AD, Aethelwold; a cousin of Alfred the Great, captured the town's ramparts. Although Aethelwold was eventually defeated, Edward the Elder made the decision to fortify the town further.  Parts of the old Saxon town wall were discovered in the early 70s when considerable archaeological excavation was carried out. The wall was found to be of earth faced with stone and probably had a wooden fighting top and palisade. The gate stood at the north end of the town until it was removed in 1744. It was from the burgh's gate that Bargates, the then main road into the town, took its name.

text: During

text: Saxon

text: times the harbour was one of the most important in England as it was easily reached from the continent and boats could enter the harbour and travel up the river Avon all the way to Salisbury.

text: Alfred the Great

text: considered Twynham to be of such strategic importance that at the end of the 9th century, with the threat of invasion by the

text: Danes

text: , he made it a

text: burgh

text: (fortified town). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells how in 901 AD,

text: Aethelwold

text: ; a cousin of Alfred the Great, captured the town's ramparts. Although Aethelwold was eventually defeated,

text: Edward the Elder

text: made the decision to fortify the town further.  Parts of the old

text: Saxon

text: town wall were discovered in the early 70s when considerable archaeological excavation was carried out. The wall was found to be of earth faced with stone and probably had a wooden fighting top and palisade. The gate stood at the north end of the town until it was removed in 1744. It was from the burgh's gate that Bargates, the then main road into the town, took its name.

text: Herschel, who was then Professor of Physics and Experimental Sciences at Durham College of Physical Science in Newcastle upon Tyne, rushed to Middlesbrough on hearing the news to supervise the recovery and examination of the meteorite. By experimentation, replicating the conditions of the impact, he determined the speed of the object at the time was 412 feet per second (281 mph). This result was viewed as partial confirmation of a theory of the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli that meteorites lost most of their cosmic velocity, the velocity they had before entering the Earth's atmosphere, due to air resistance at a high altitude in the atmosphere.

text: Herschel, who was then Professor of Physics and Experimental Sciences at Durham College of Physical Science in

text: Newcastle upon Tyne

text: , rushed to Middlesbrough on hearing the news to supervise the recovery and examination of the meteorite. By experimentation, replicating the conditions of the impact, he determined the speed of the object at the time was 412 feet per second (281 mph). This result was viewed as partial confirmation of a theory of the Italian astronomer

text: Giovanni Schiaparelli

text: that meteorites lost most of their cosmic velocity, the velocity they had before entering the Earth's atmosphere, due to air resistance at a high altitude in the atmosphere.

text: Although North America and South America are presently joined by the Isthmus of Panama, these continents were separated for about 180 million years, and evolved very different plant and animal lineages. When the ancient supercontinent of Pangaea split into two about 180 million years ago, North America remained joined to Eurasia as part of the supercontinent of Laurasia, while South America was part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. North America later split from Eurasia. North America has been joined by land bridges to both Asia and South America since then, which allowed an exchange of plant and animal species between the continents, the Great American Interchange.

text: Although North America and South America are presently joined by the

text: Isthmus of Panama

text: , these continents were separated for about 180 million years, and evolved very different plant and animal lineages. When the ancient supercontinent of

text: Pangaea

text: split into two about 180 million years ago, North America remained joined to

text: Eurasia

text: as part of the supercontinent of

text: Laurasia

text: , while South America was part of the supercontinent of

text: Gondwana

text: . North America later split from Eurasia. North America has been joined by land bridges to both

text: Asia

text: and South America since then, which allowed an exchange of plant and animal

text: species

text: between the continents, the

text: Great American Interchange

text: The Pacific Ocean developed from the Panthalassa, a vast global ocean, following the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea in the Mesozoic Era, gradually forming Gondwana and Laurasia, which in turn divided. There is no firm date for when the changeover occurred, as the replacement of the sea bed is a continuous process, though reconstruction maps often change the name from Panthalassic to Pacific around the time the Atlantic Ocean began to open. The Panthalassic Ocean first opened around 750 million years ago at the breakup of Rodinia, but the oldest Pacific Ocean floor is only around 180 Ma old. Any older Pacific floor crust has been subducted.

text: The Pacific Ocean developed from the

text: Panthalassa

text: , a vast global ocean, following the breakup of the supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: in the

text: Mesozoic Era

text: , gradually forming

text: Gondwana

text: and

text: Laurasia

text: , which in turn divided. There is no firm date for when the changeover occurred, as the replacement of the sea bed is a continuous process, though reconstruction maps often change the name from Panthalassic to Pacific around the time the Atlantic Ocean began to open. The Panthalassic Ocean first opened around 750 million years ago at the breakup of

text: Rodinia

text: , but the oldest Pacific Ocean floor is only around 180

text: Ma

text: old. Any older Pacific floor crust has been

text: subducted

text: With over 200 small earthquakes occurring each year, the Charlevoix Seismic Zone is one of the most active seismic zones in Canada. Since 1663, five damaging earthquakes have occurred in the area, including a magnitude 7.3-7.9 event in 1663, a magnitude 7.0 event in 1791, a magnitude 6.0 event in 1860, a magnitude 6.5 event in 1870 and a magnitude 6.2 event in 1925. Because of these concerns, the Charlevoix Seismic Zone is considered to be a highly hazardous earthquake zone and it is comparable to those in British Columbia where earthquakes are due to movement of the Earth's tectonic plates. In contrast, the Charlevoix Seismic Zone lies in the interior of the North American Plate and its origin is not well known.

text: With over 200 small

text: earthquake

text: s occurring each year, the Charlevoix Seismic Zone is one of the most active seismic zones in Canada. Since 1663, five damaging earthquakes have occurred in the area, including a

text: magnitude 7.3-7.9 event in 1663

text: , a magnitude 7.0 event in 1791, a magnitude 6.0 event in 1860, a magnitude 6.5 event in 1870 and a

text: magnitude 6.2 event in 1925

text: . Because of these concerns, the Charlevoix Seismic Zone is considered to be a highly hazardous earthquake zone and it is comparable to those in

text: British Columbia

text: where earthquakes are due to movement of the Earth's

text: tectonic plates

text: . In contrast, the Charlevoix Seismic Zone lies in the interior of the

text: North American Plate

text: and its origin is not well known.

text: The total inventory of sulfur compounds on the surface of the Earth (nearly  S) represents the total outgassing of sulfur through geologic time. Rocks analyzed for sulfur content are generally organic-rich shales meaning they are likely controlled by biogenic sulfur reduction.  Average seawater curves are generated from evaporites deposited throughout geologic time because again, since they do not discriminate between the heavy and light sulfur isotopes, they should mimic the ocean composition at the time of deposition.  	4.6 billion years ago (Ga) the Earth formed and had a theoretical δS value of 0. Since there was no biologic activity on early Earth there would be no isotopic fractionation.  All sulfur in the atmosphere would be released during volcanic eruptions. When the oceans condensed on Earth, the atmosphere was essentially swept clean of sulfur gases, owing to their high solubility in water. Throughout the majority of the Archean (4.6–2.5 Ga) most systems appeared to be sulfate-limited. Some small Archean evaporite deposits require that at least locally elevated concentrations (possibly due to local volcanic activity) of sulfate existed in order for them to be supersaturated and precipitate out of solution.	3.8–3.6 Ga marks the beginning of the exposed geologic record because this is the age of the oldest rocks on Earth. Metasedimentary rocks from this time still have an isotopic value of 0 because the biosphere was not developed enough (possibly at all) to fractionate sulfur.	3.5 Ga anoxyogenic photosynthesis is established and provides a weak source of sulfate to the global ocean with sulfate concentrations incredibly low the δS is still basically 0. Shortly after, at 3.4 Ga the first evidence for minimal fractionation in evaporitic sulfate in association with magmatically derived sulfides can be seen in the rock record. This fractionation shows possible evidence for anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria.	2.8 Ga marks the first evidence for oxygen production through photosynthesis. This is important because there cannot be sulfur oxidation without oxygen in the atmosphere. This exemplifies the coevolution of the oxygen and sulfur cycles as well as the biosphere.	2.7–2.5 Ga is the age of the oldest sedimentary rocks to have a depleted δ S which provide the first compelling evidence for sulfate reduction. 	2.3 Ga sulfate increases to more than 1 mM; this increase in sulfate is coincident with the "Great Oxygenation Event", when redox conditions on Earth's surface are thought by most workers to have shifted fundamentally from reducing to oxidizing.  This shift would have led to an incredible increase in sulfate weathering which would have led to an increase in sulfate in the oceans. The large isotopic fractionations that would likely be associated with bacteria reduction are produced for the first time. Although there was a distinct rise in seawater sulfate at this time it was likely still only less than 5–15% of present-day levels. 	At 1.8 Ga, Banded iron formations (BIF) are common sedimentary rocks throughout the Archean and Paleoproterozoic; their disappearance marks a distinct shift in the chemistry of ocean water.  BIFs have alternating layers of iron oxides and chert. BIFs only form if the water is be allowed to supersaturate in dissolved iron (Fe) meaning there cannot be free oxygen or sulfur in the water column because it would form Fe (rust) or pyrite and precipitate out of solution. Following this supersaturation, the water must become oxygenated in order for the ferric rich bands to precipitate it must still be sulfur poor otherwise pyrite would form instead of Fe. It has been hypothesized that BIFs formed during to the initial evolution of photosynthetic organisms that had phases of population growth, causing over production of oxygen. Due to this over production they would poison themselves causing a mass die off, which would cut off the source of oxygen and produce a large amount of CO through the decomposition of their bodies, allowing for another bacterial bloom. After 1.8 Ga sulfate concentrations were sufficient to increase rates of sulfate reduction to greater than the delivery flux of iron to the oceans. 	Along with the disappearance of BIF, the end of the Paleoproterozoic also marks the first large scale sedimentary exhalative deposits showing a link between mineralization and a likely increase in the amount of sulfate in sea water.  In the Paleoproterozoic the sulfate in seawater had increased to an amount greater than in the Archean, but was still lower than present day values.  The sulfate levels in the Proterozoic also act as proxies for atmospheric oxygen because sulfate is produced mostly through weathering of the continents in the presence of oxygen.  The low levels in the Proterozoic simply imply that levels of atmospheric oxygen fell between the abundances of the Phanerozoic and the deficiencies of the Archean.	750 million years ago (Ma) there is a renewed deposition of BIF which marks a significant change in ocean chemistry.  This was likely due to snowball earth episodes where the entire globe including the oceans was covered in a layer of ice cutting off oxygenation.  In the late Neoproterozoic high carbon burial rates increased the atmospheric oxygen level to >10% of its present-day value.  In the Latest Neoproterozoic another major oxidizing event occurred on Earth's surface that resulted in an oxic deep ocean and possibly allowed for the appearance of multicellular life.	During the last 600 million years, seawater SO has varied between +10 and +30‰ in δS, with an average value close to that of today.  This coincides with atmospheric O levels reaching something close to modern values around the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary.

text: The total inventory of sulfur compounds on the surface of the Earth (nearly  S) represents the total outgassing of sulfur through geologic time. Rocks analyzed for sulfur content are generally organic-rich shales meaning they are likely controlled by biogenic sulfur reduction.  Average seawater curves are generated from evaporites deposited throughout geologic time because again, since they do not discriminate between the heavy and light sulfur isotopes, they should mimic the ocean composition at the time of deposition.  	4.6 billion years ago (Ga) the Earth formed and had a theoretical δS value of 0. Since there was no biologic activity on early Earth there would be no

text: isotopic fractionation

text: .  All sulfur in the atmosphere would be released during volcanic eruptions. When the oceans condensed on Earth, the atmosphere was essentially swept clean of sulfur gases, owing to their high solubility in water. Throughout the majority of the

text: Archean

text: (4.6–2.5 Ga) most systems appeared to be sulfate-limited. Some small Archean evaporite deposits require that at least locally elevated concentrations (possibly due to local volcanic activity) of sulfate existed in order for them to be supersaturated and precipitate out of solution.	3.8–3.6 Ga marks the beginning of the exposed geologic record because this is the age of the oldest rocks on Earth. Metasedimentary rocks from this time still have an isotopic value of 0 because the biosphere was not developed enough (possibly at all) to fractionate sulfur.	3.5 Ga anoxyogenic

text: photosynthesis

text: is established and provides a weak source of sulfate to the global ocean with sulfate concentrations incredibly low the δS is still basically 0. Shortly after, at 3.4 Ga the first evidence for minimal fractionation in evaporitic sulfate in association with

text: magma

text: tically derived sulfides can be seen in the rock record. This fractionation shows possible evidence for anoxygenic

text: phototroph

text: ic bacteria.	2.8 Ga marks the first evidence for oxygen production through photosynthesis. This is important because there cannot be sulfur oxidation without oxygen in the atmosphere. This exemplifies the coevolution of the oxygen and sulfur cycles as well as the biosphere.	2.7–2.5 Ga is the age of the oldest

text: sedimentary rock

text: s to have a depleted δ S which provide the first compelling evidence for sulfate reduction. 	2.3 Ga sulfate increases to more than 1 mM; this increase in sulfate is coincident with the "

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: ", when redox conditions on Earth's surface are thought by most workers to have shifted fundamentally from reducing to oxidizing.  This shift would have led to an incredible increase in sulfate weathering which would have led to an increase in sulfate in the oceans. The large isotopic fractionations that would likely be associated with bacteria reduction are produced for the first time. Although there was a distinct rise in seawater sulfate at this time it was likely still only less than 5–15% of present-day levels. 	At 1.8 Ga,

text: Banded iron formations

text: (BIF) are common sedimentary rocks throughout the Archean and

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: ; their disappearance marks a distinct shift in the chemistry of ocean water.  BIFs have alternating layers of

text: iron oxide

text: s and

text: chert

text: . BIFs only form if the water is be allowed to supersaturate in dissolved iron (Fe) meaning there cannot be free oxygen or sulfur in the water column because it would form Fe (rust) or pyrite and precipitate out of solution. Following this supersaturation, the water must become oxygenated in order for the ferric rich bands to precipitate it must still be sulfur poor otherwise pyrite would form instead of Fe. It has been hypothesized that BIFs formed during to the initial evolution of photosynthetic organisms that had phases of population growth, causing over production of oxygen. Due to this over production they would poison themselves causing a mass die off, which would cut off the source of oxygen and produce a large amount of CO through the decomposition of their bodies, allowing for another bacterial bloom. After 1.8 Ga sulfate concentrations were sufficient to increase rates of sulfate reduction to greater than the delivery flux of iron to the oceans. 	Along with the disappearance of BIF, the end of the Paleoproterozoic also marks the first large scale sedimentary exhalative deposits showing a link between mineralization and a likely increase in the amount of sulfate in sea water.  In the Paleoproterozoic the sulfate in seawater had increased to an amount greater than in the Archean, but was still lower than present day values.  The sulfate levels in the

text: Proterozoic

text: also act as proxies for atmospheric oxygen because sulfate is produced mostly through weathering of the continents in the presence of oxygen.  The low levels in the Proterozoic simply imply that levels of atmospheric oxygen fell between the abundances of the Phanerozoic and the deficiencies of the Archean.	750 million years ago (Ma) there is a renewed deposition of BIF which marks a significant change in ocean chemistry.  This was likely due to

text: snowball earth

text: episodes where the entire globe including the oceans was covered in a layer of ice cutting off oxygenation.  In the late

text: Neoproterozoic

text: high carbon burial rates increased the atmospheric oxygen level to >10% of its present-day value.  In the Latest Neoproterozoic another major oxidizing event occurred on Earth's surface that resulted in an oxic deep ocean and possibly allowed for the appearance of multicellular life.	During the last 600 million years, seawater SO has varied between +10 and +30‰ in δS, with an average value close to that of today.  This coincides with atmospheric O levels reaching something close to modern values around the

text: Precambrian

text: Cambrian

text: boundary.

text: The Earth's tectonic plates move relative to one another in different directions at speeds on the order of 50 to 100mm per year.  So points on the Earth's surface on different plates are always in motion relative to one another, for example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the Equator in Uganda, on the African Plate, and a point on the Equator in Ecuador, on the South American Plate, is increasing by about 0.0014 arcseconds per year. These tectonic movements likewise affect latitude.

text: The Earth's

text: tectonic plates

text: move relative to one another in different directions at speeds on the order of 50 to 100mm per year.  So points on the Earth's surface on different plates are always in motion relative to one another, for example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the Equator in Uganda, on the

text: African Plate

text: , and a point on the Equator in Ecuador, on the

text: South American Plate

text: , is increasing by about 0.0014

text: arcseconds

text: per year. These tectonic movements likewise affect latitude.

text: A shadow cast by the Earth on the Moon is a lunar eclipse. Conversely, a shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth is a solar eclipse.

text: A shadow cast by the

text: Earth

text: on the

text: Moon

text: is a

text: lunar eclipse

text: . Conversely, a shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth is a

text: solar eclipse

text: For the majority of Earth’s history life has been unicellular. However, unicellular organisms had the ingredients in them for multicellularity to arise. Despite having the ingredients for multicellularity, organisms were restricted due to the lack of hospitable environmental conditions. The rise of oxygen (The Great Oxygenation Event) led organisms to be able to develop more complex body plans.  In order for multicellularity to have occurred, organisms must have been capable of cellular communication, aggregation, and specialized functions. The transition to multicellularity that began the evolution of animals from protozoa is one of the most poorly understood of history’s life events. Understanding choanoflagellates and their relation to sponges is important when positing theories on the origins of multicellularity

text: For the majority of Earth’s history life has been

text: unicellular

text: . However, unicellular organisms had the ingredients in them for multicellularity to arise. Despite having the ingredients for multicellularity, organisms were restricted due to the lack of hospitable environmental conditions. The rise of oxygen (The

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: ) led organisms to be able to develop more complex body plans.  In order for multicellularity to have occurred, organisms must have been capable of

text: cellular communication

text: , aggregation, and specialized functions. The transition to multicellularity that began the evolution of animals from

text: protozoa

text: is one of the most poorly understood of history’s life events. Understanding

text: choanoflagellates

text: and their relation to

text: sponges

text: is important when positing theories on the origins of multicellularity

text: At the time of the Miller–Urey experiment, scientific consensus was that the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere with compounds relatively rich in hydrogen and poor in oxygen (e.g., CH and NH as opposed to CO and nitrogen dioxide (NO)). However, current scientific consensus describes the primitive atmosphere as either weakly reducing or neutral (see also Oxygen Catastrophe). Such an atmosphere would diminish both the amount and variety of amino acids that could be produced, although studies that include iron and carbonate minerals (thought present in early oceans) in the experimental conditions have again produced a diverse array of amino acids. Other scientific research has focused on two other potential reducing environments: outer space and deep-sea thermal vents.

text: At the time of the Miller–Urey experiment, scientific consensus was that the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere with compounds relatively rich in hydrogen and poor in oxygen (e.g., CH and NH as opposed to CO and

text: nitrogen dioxide

text: (NO)). However, current scientific consensus describes the primitive atmosphere as either weakly reducing or neutral (see also

text: Oxygen Catastrophe

text: ). Such an atmosphere would diminish both the amount and variety of amino acids that could be produced, although studies that include

text: iron

text: and

text: carbonate

text: minerals (thought present in early oceans) in the experimental conditions have again produced a diverse array of amino acids. Other scientific research has focused on two other potential reducing environments:

text: outer space

text: and deep-sea thermal vents.

text: With the end of Roman civilization, Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. Most scientific treatises of classical antiquity (in Greek) were unavailable, leaving only simplified summaries and compilations. Still, many textbooks of the Early Middle Ages supported the sphericity of the Earth. For example: some early medieval manuscripts of Macrobius include maps of the Earth, including the antipodes, zonal maps showing the Ptolemaic climates derived from the concept of a spherical Earth and a diagram showing the Earth (labeled as globus terrae, the sphere of the Earth) at the center of the hierarchically ordered planetary spheres. Further examples of such medieval diagrams can be found in medieval manuscripts of the Dream of Scipio. In the Carolingian era, scholars discussed Macrobius's view of the antipodes. One of them, the Irish monk Dungal, asserted that the tropical gap between our habitable region and the other habitable region to the south was smaller than Macrobius had believed.

text: With the end of Roman civilization,

text: Western Europe

text: entered the

text: Middle Ages

text: with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. Most scientific treatises of

text: classical antiquity

text: (in

text: Greek

text: ) were unavailable, leaving only simplified summaries and compilations. Still, many textbooks of the Early Middle Ages supported the sphericity of the Earth. For example: some early medieval manuscripts of

text: Macrobius

text: include maps of the Earth, including the antipodes,

text: zonal maps

text: showing the Ptolemaic climates derived from the concept of a spherical Earth and a diagram showing the Earth (labeled as globus terrae, the sphere of the Earth) at the center of the hierarchically ordered planetary spheres. Further examples of such medieval diagrams can be found in medieval manuscripts of the

text: Dream of Scipio

text: . In the

text: Carolingian era

text: , scholars discussed Macrobius's view of the antipodes. One of them, the Irish monk

text: Dungal

text: , asserted that the tropical gap between our habitable region and the other habitable region to the south was smaller than Macrobius had believed.

text: Toward the end of the tectonic uplift, sedimentation occurred within several deltaic systems in a great system of lakes. Towards the end of the post-uplift phase, from the end of the early Albian or Cenomanian to the beginning of the late Paleocene, the North Falkland basin was characterized by the initial establishment of marginal coastal conditions and finally totally marine conditions, as a marine connection with the basin was formed. In the case of the Falkland basin, the marine conditions began in the early Jurassic and continued in the San Jorge River basin to the northwest, which suggests that marine conditions  spread northwards from the south. The process of uplift in the Paleocene was followed by a process of tectonic subsidence in addition to the marine-deltaic deposition that took place during the rest of the Cenozoic period.

text: Toward the end of the

text: tectonic uplift

text: , sedimentation occurred within several

text: deltaic

text: systems in a great system of lakes. Towards the end of the post-uplift phase, from the end of the early

text: Albian

text: or

text: Cenomanian

text: to the beginning of the late

text: Paleocene

text: , the North Falkland basin was characterized by the initial establishment of marginal coastal conditions and finally totally

text: marine

text: conditions, as a marine connection with the basin was formed. In the case of the Falkland basin, the marine conditions began in the early

text: Jurassic

text: and continued in the

text: San Jorge River basin

text: to the northwest, which suggests that marine conditions  spread northwards from the south. The process of uplift in the Paleocene was followed by a process of tectonic

text: subsidence

text: in addition to the marine-deltaic deposition that took place during the rest of the

text: Cenozoic

text: period.

text: Köhntarkösz tells the story of a modern archaeologist who discovers the location of Ëmëhntëhtt-Rê's tomb. He enters, and as he crosses slowly along the dark passages to the burial chamber, he hears a celestial voice and has visions of Ëmëhntëhtt-Rê's life. When he reaches the burial chamber and touches the tomb, the ancient dust seeps into his pores, and he has a momentary and devastating flash of understanding of the complete attainment of the ancient pharaoh. Waking, his flash of understanding lost in his normative consciousness, he then devotes his own life to recovering the achievements of Ëmëhntëhtt-Rê and carrying them to the final stage (his efforts and teachings, incidentally, may be the link to the remainder of Magma's mythology, the forming of a group of spiritualists who ultimately flee the decrepit Earth for a higher life on the planet Kobaïa).

text: Sedimentary basins are regions of Earth of long-term subsidence creating accommodation space for infilling by sediments. The subsidence can result from a variety of causes that include: the thinning of underlying crust, sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of adjacent lithosphere. Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually associated with plate tectonic activity. Basins are classified structurally in various ways, with a primary classifications distinguishing among basins formed in various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent, transform, intraplate), the proximity of the basin to the active plate margins, and whether oceanic,  continental or transitional crust underlies the basin. Basins formed in different plate tectonic regimes vary in their preservation potential. On oceanic crust, basins are likely to be subducted, while marginal continental basins may be partially preserved, and intracratonic basins have a high probability of preservation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to increasing pressure and begin the process of lithification. A number of basins formed in extensional settings can undergo inversion which has accounted for a number of the economically viable oil reserves on earth which were formerly basins.

text: Sedimentary basins are regions of

text: Earth

text: of long-term

text: subsidence

text: creating accommodation space for infilling by

text: sediment

text: s. The subsidence can result from a variety of causes that include: the thinning of underlying

text: crust

text: , sedimentary, volcanic, and tectonic loading, and changes in the thickness or density of adjacent

text: lithosphere

text: . Sedimentary basins occur in diverse geological settings usually associated with

text: plate tectonic

text: activity. Basins are classified structurally in various ways, with a primary classifications distinguishing among basins formed in various plate tectonic regime (divergent, convergent, transform, intraplate), the proximity of the basin to the active plate margins, and whether

text: oceanic

text: continental

text: or transitional crust underlies the basin. Basins formed in different plate tectonic regimes vary in their preservation potential. On oceanic crust, basins are likely to be subducted, while marginal continental basins may be partially preserved, and intracratonic basins have a high probability of preservation. As the sediments are buried, they are subjected to increasing

text: pressure

text: and begin the process of

text: lithification

text: . A number of basins formed in extensional settings can undergo

text: inversion

text: which has accounted for a number of the economically viable oil reserves on earth which were formerly basins.

text: It is believed that due to tectonic movements in the early 20th century, the earth surface around Alan Nur was rising and around Manas Lake, lowering; besides, the lower course of the Manas River was silting up with the sediment brought by the river. As a result, in 1915 the main stream of the Manas River changed its course, now flowing to the Manas Lake; however, a small branch feeding into the Alan Nur remained. (One can see the bifurcation point of the now-dry river beds at , with the main channel going to the north-east and entering the Manas Lake around , while the old channel enters the former Alan Nur at.)

text: It is believed that due to tectonic movements in the early 20th century, the earth surface around Alan Nur was rising and around Manas Lake, lowering; besides, the lower course of the Manas River was silting up with the sediment brought by the river. As a result, in 1915 the main stream of the Manas River changed its course, now flowing to the Manas Lake; however, a small branch feeding into the Alan Nur remained. (One can see the

text: bifurcation

text: point of the now-dry river beds at , with the main channel going to the north-east and entering the Manas Lake around , while the old channel enters the former Alan Nur at.)

text: : An intelligent space life form, Gargorgon was once responsible for petrifying an ancient human civilization and sank it under the sea. She attacked Planet Gold in search of its energies and returned to Earth after tracking it but met resistance in the form of Ultraman X, Rudian and Earth Defense Force, UNVER and Xio. She petrifies Ultraman X and demands the Earth to give tE-rU to her in 44 minutes or else the Earth population will receive the same fate. However, refusing to obey to her superiority, Xio and UNVER resurrected X and thus, she was defeated by the Ultra in Bemstar Armor and Rudian. As theorized by Guruman, Gargorgon's arrival on Earth in the past may had inspired the Gorgon from Greek mythology.

text: : An intelligent space life form, Gargorgon was once responsible for petrifying an ancient human civilization and

text: sank it under the sea

text: . She attacked Planet Gold in search of its energies and returned to Earth after tracking it but met resistance in the form of Ultraman X, Rudian and Earth Defense Force, UNVER and Xio. She petrifies Ultraman X and demands the Earth to give tE-rU to her in 44 minutes or else the Earth population will receive the same fate. However, refusing to obey to her superiority, Xio and UNVER resurrected X and thus, she was defeated by the Ultra in Bemstar Armor and Rudian. As theorized by Guruman, Gargorgon's arrival on Earth in the past may had inspired the Gorgon from

text: Greek mythology

text: Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche was born Ösel Rangdröl Mukpo in Bodhgaya, India in December 1962. His father, Chögyam Trungpa, was a  Buddhist monk who had left Tibet in 1959 at the head of a large party of refugees. His mother, Könchok Paldrön, was a nun. The two had met during the journey from Tibet to India. Chögyam Trungpa left India in early 1963 to study at Oxford University, and their son spent his early years with his mother in a Tibetan refugee village in northwest India.  At the age of seven, he went to live with his father at Samye Ling in Scotland. Chögyam Trungpa moved to the United States in 1970, and Ösel Mukpo joined him there two years later.In 1979, Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche performed a ceremony officially investing his son Ösel Rangdröl with the title of Sawang ("earth lord"). This confirmed Ösel as his Shambhala heir and the future Sakyong. After his father's death in 1987, the Sawang moved to Nepal and studied with Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche for three years, while Osel Tendzin, the Vajra Regent, succeeded Trungpa Rinpoche as Buddhist lineage holder and head of the various organizations established by Trungpa, including Vajradhatu, Shambhala Training, and Naropa University. When Tendzin died in 1990, the Sawang was acknowledged as Trungpa's successor in the Kagyu, Nyingma and Shambhala lineages and head of the organizations. In May 1995 the Sawang Ösel Rangdröl Mukpo was formally enthroned as Sakyong at a ceremony performed by Penor Rinpoche. Shortly before the enthronement Penor Rinpoche recognized the Sawang as tulku of Mipham the Great.

text: Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche was born Ösel Rangdröl Mukpo in

text: Bodhgaya, India

text: in December 1962. His father,

text: Chögyam Trungpa

text: , was a  Buddhist monk who had left Tibet in 1959 at the head of a large party of refugees. His mother,

text: Könchok Paldrön

text: , was a nun. The two had met during the journey from Tibet to India. Chögyam Trungpa left India in early 1963 to study at Oxford University, and their son spent his early years with his mother in a Tibetan refugee village in northwest India.  At the age of seven, he went to live with his father at

entity_name: Kagyu Samye Ling Monastery and Tibetan Centre

text: Samye Ling

text: in Scotland. Chögyam Trungpa moved to the United States in 1970, and Ösel Mukpo joined him there two years later.In 1979, Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche performed a ceremony officially investing his son Ösel Rangdröl with the title of Sawang ("earth lord"). This confirmed Ösel as his Shambhala heir and the future Sakyong. After his father's death in 1987, the Sawang moved to

text: Nepal

text: and studied with

text: Dilgo Khyentse

text: Rinpoche for three years, while

text: Osel Tendzin

text: , the Vajra Regent, succeeded Trungpa Rinpoche as Buddhist lineage holder and head of the various organizations established by Trungpa, including

text: Vajradhatu

text: Shambhala Training

text: , and

text: Naropa University

text: . When Tendzin died in 1990, the Sawang was acknowledged as Trungpa's successor in the Kagyu, Nyingma and Shambhala lineages and head of the organizations. In May 1995 the Sawang Ösel Rangdröl Mukpo was formally enthroned as Sakyong at a ceremony performed by

text: Penor Rinpoche

text: . Shortly before the enthronement Penor Rinpoche recognized the Sawang as

text: tulku

text: of

text: Mipham the Great

text: Major telecommunications providers have deployed voice and data cellular networks over most of the inhabited land area of the Earth.  This allows mobile phones and mobile computing devices to be connected to the public switched telephone network and public Internet.  Private cellular networks can be used for research or for large organizations and fleets, such as dispatch for local public safety agencies or a taxicab company.

text: Major telecommunications providers have deployed voice and data cellular networks over most of the inhabited land area of the Earth.  This allows

text: mobile phone

text: s and

text: mobile computing

text: devices to be connected to the

text: public switched telephone network

text: and public

text: Internet

text: .  Private cellular networks can be used for research or for large organizations and fleets, such as dispatch for local public safety agencies or a taxicab company.

text: Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, marketplaces, functional sewers, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas.

text: Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on

text: seven hills

text: . The city had a vast number of

text: monument

text: al structures like the

text: Colosseum

text: , the

text: Forum of Trajan

text: and the

text: Pantheon

text: . It had

text: theatres

text: gymnasiums

text: , marketplaces, functional sewers,

text: bath complexes

text: complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water supplied by hundreds of miles of

text: aqueducts

text: . Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to

text: country villas

text: Atmospheric nitrogen has a partial pressure of approximately 0.78 bar at sea level. Air in the alveoli of the lungs is diluted by saturated water vapour (HO) and carbon dioxide (CO), a metabolic product given off by the blood, and contains less oxygen (O) than atmospheric air as some of it is taken up by the blood for metabolic use. The resulting partial pressure of nitrogen is about 0,758 bar.

text: Atmospheric nitrogen has a partial pressure of approximately 0.78 bar at sea level. Air in the

text: alveoli

text: of the lungs is diluted by saturated

text: water vapour

text: (HO) and

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO), a

text: metabolic product

text: given off by the blood, and contains less

text: oxygen

text: (O) than atmospheric air as some of it is taken up by the blood for metabolic use. The resulting partial pressure of nitrogen is about 0,758 bar.

text: Over the last 100 years the Earth's temperature has increased 0.6 degrees Celsius and it is predicted to increase an additional 3.5 degrees over the next century. Tropical wet forests account for only 6% of earth's land surface yet are responsible for 40% of earth’s oxygen production. Any type of change to this system can prove to have significant detrimental effects in terms of global oxygen availability. In addition, due to the sensitivity and fragile interactions between organisms and the atmosphere, ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration rates, will experience even larger adverse effects.

text: The organization was founded in 1893 in Ottoman Thessaloniki by a small band of anti-Ottoman Macedono-Bulgarian revolutionaries, who considered Macedonia an indivisible territory and claimed all of its inhabitants "Macedonians", no matter their religion or ethnicity. In practice, IMRO was established by Bulgarians and most of their followers were Bulgarians. The organization was a secret revolutionary society operating in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the goal of autonomous Macedonia and Adrianople regions. Initially, they were against the aspirations of neighboring states in the area and saw the future autonomous Macedonia and Southern Thrace as a multi-ethnic entity. It appears likely that at the early stages of the struggle, a desired outcome of the autonomy was unification with Bulgaria. This aim was changed later with the idea of transforming the Balkans into a federal state, in which Macedonia and Thrace would enter as equal members. The idea of autonomy was strictly political and did not imply a secession from Bulgarian ethnicity. Even those, who advocated for independent Macedonia and Thrace, never doubted the predominantly Bulgarian character of the Slavic population in both areas. The organization was founded by Hristo Tatarchev, Dame Gruev, Petar Pop-Arsov, Andon Dimitrov, Hristo Batandzhiev and Ivan Hadzhinikolov. Most of them (with the exception of Ivan Hadzhinikolov) were closely connected with the Bulgarian Men's High School of Thessaloniki. According to Hristo Tatarchev's "Memoirs" IMRO was first called simply the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (MRO). Ivan Hadzhinikolov in his memoirs lists the five basic principles of the MRO's foundation:

text: The organization was founded in 1893 in Ottoman

text: Thessaloniki

text: by a small band of anti-Ottoman

text: Macedono-Bulgarian

text: revolutionaries, who considered Macedonia an indivisible territory and claimed all of its inhabitants "Macedonians", no matter their religion or ethnicity. In practice, IMRO was established by Bulgarians and most of their followers were Bulgarians. The organization was a secret revolutionary society operating in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the goal of

text: autonomous

text: Macedonia and

text: Adrianople

text: regions. Initially, they were against the aspirations of neighboring states in the area and saw the future autonomous Macedonia and Southern Thrace as a multi-ethnic entity. It appears likely that at the early stages of the struggle, a desired outcome of the autonomy was unification with Bulgaria. This aim was changed later with the idea of transforming the

text: Balkans

text: into a federal state, in which Macedonia and Thrace would enter as equal members. The idea of autonomy was strictly political and did not imply a secession from Bulgarian ethnicity. Even those, who advocated for independent Macedonia and Thrace, never doubted the predominantly Bulgarian character of the Slavic population in both areas. The organization was founded by

text: Hristo Tatarchev

text: Dame Gruev

text: Petar Pop-Arsov

text: Andon Dimitrov

text: Hristo Batandzhiev

text: and

text: Ivan Hadzhinikolov

text: . Most of them (with the exception of Ivan Hadzhinikolov) were closely connected with the

entity_name: Bulgarian Men's High School of Thessaloniki

text: Bulgarian Men's High School of Thessaloniki

text: . According to Hristo Tatarchev's "Memoirs" IMRO was first called simply the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (MRO). Ivan Hadzhinikolov in his memoirs lists the five basic principles of the MRO's foundation:

text: The increased production of oxygen set Earth's original atmosphere off balance. Free oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobic organisms, and the rising concentrations may have destroyed most such organisms at the time.  Cyanobacteria were therefore responsible for one of the most significant extinction events in Earth's history. Besides marine cyanobacteria, there is also evidence of cyanobacteria on land.

text: The increased production of oxygen set Earth's original atmosphere off balance. Free oxygen is toxic to

text: obligate anaerobic organisms

text: , and the rising concentrations may have destroyed most such organisms at the time.  Cyanobacteria were therefore responsible for one of the most significant

text: extinction events

text: in Earth's history. Besides marine cyanobacteria, there is also evidence of cyanobacteria on land.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Exencephaly is one such  disease that has recently been identified as part of an emerging class of diseases called cilopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their

text: root cause

text: despite the widely varying set of medical

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Exencephaly is one such  disease that has recently been identified as part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: cilopathies

text: .  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s which are present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet–Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alström syndrome

text: Meckel–Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: Early anthropocene -Earth Hour -Earth's atmosphere -Earth's energy budget -EarthLab -Earthshine -East Antarctic Ice Sheet -Eco-efficiency -Ecological Forecasting -Ecotax -Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity -Effects of climate change on marine mammals -Effects of global warming on oceans -Effects of global warming - Effects of global warming on Australia - Effects of global warming on India -Efficient energy use -El Niño (ENSO) -Emission inventory -Emission Reduction Unit -Emission standards -Emissions trading -Energie-Cités -Energy Autonomy -Energy conservation -Energy forestry -Energy poverty -Enteric fermentation -Environmental crime -Environmental impact of aviation -Environmental skepticism -European Climate Forum -Evidence of global warming - Externality

text: Early anthropocene

text: Earth Hour

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: Earth's energy budget

text: EarthLab

text: Earthshine

text: East Antarctic Ice Sheet

text: Eco-efficiency

text: Ecological Forecasting

text: Ecotax

entity_name: Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity

text: Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity

entity_name: Effects of global warming on marine mammals

text: Effects of climate change on marine mammals

text: Effects of global warming on oceans

text: Effects of global warming

text: Effects of global warming on Australia

text: Effects of global warming on India

text: Efficient energy use

text: El Niño

text: (ENSO) -

text: Emission inventory

text: Emission Reduction Unit

text: Emission standards

text: Emissions trading

text: Energie-Cités

entity_name: Energy Autonomy: The Economic, Social & Technological Case for Renewable Energy

text: Energy Autonomy

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy forestry

text: Energy poverty

text: Enteric fermentation

text: Environmental crime

text: Environmental impact of aviation

text: Environmental skepticism

text: European Climate Forum

text: Evidence of global warming

text: Externality

text: William Fairfield Warren, in his book, Paradise Found : The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole presented his belief that humanity originated on a continent in the Arctic called Hyperborea. This influenced some early Hollow Earth proponents. According to Marshall Gardner, both the Eskimo and Mongolian peoples had come from the interior of the Earth through an entrance at the North pole.

text: William Fairfield Warren

text: , in his book,

text: Paradise Found

text: : The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole presented his belief that humanity originated on a continent in the Arctic called

text: Hyperborea

text: . This influenced some early Hollow Earth proponents. According to Marshall Gardner, both the

text: Eskimo

text: and

text: Mongolian peoples

text: had come from the interior of the Earth through an entrance at the

text: North pole

text: Ward and Brownlee argue that tectonics is necessary to support biogeochemical cycles required for complex life to arise and predicted that such geological features would not be found outside of Earth, pointing to a lack of observable orogenic evidence, specifically in the form of mountain ranges and subduction zones. However, recent evidence points to similar activity either having occurred or continuing to occur elsewhere. The geology of Pluto, for example, described by Ward and Brownlee as "without mountains or volcanoes ... devoid of volcanic activity", has since been found to be quite the contrary, with a geologically active surface possessing organic molecules and mountain ranges like Norgay Montes and Hillary Montes comparable in relative size to those of Earth, and observations suggest the involvement of endogenic processes. Plate tectonics has been suggested as a hypothesis for the Martian dichotomy and in 2012 Geologist An Yin put forward evidence for active plate tectonics on Mars. Europa has long suspected to have plate tectonics and in 2014 that NASA announced evidence of active subduction. Kasting suggests that there is nothing unusual about the occurrence of plate tectonics in large rocky planets and liquid water on the surface as most should generate internal heat even without the assistance of radioactive elements. Studies by Valencia and Cowan suggest that plate tectonics may be inevitable for terrestrial planets Earth sized or larger, that is, Super-Earths, which are now known to be more common in planetary systems.

text: Ward and Brownlee argue that

text: tectonics

text: is necessary to support

text: biogeochemical cycles

text: required for complex life to arise and predicted that such geological features would not be found outside of Earth, pointing to a lack of observable

text: orogenic

text: evidence, specifically in the form of mountain ranges and subduction zones. However, recent evidence points to similar activity either having occurred or continuing to occur elsewhere. The

text: geology of Pluto

text: , for example, described by Ward and Brownlee as "without mountains or volcanoes ... devoid of volcanic activity", has since been found to be quite the contrary, with a geologically active surface possessing organic molecules and mountain ranges like

text: Norgay Montes

text: and

text: Hillary Montes

text: comparable in relative size to those of Earth, and observations suggest the involvement of endogenic processes. Plate tectonics has been suggested as a hypothesis for the

text: Martian dichotomy

text: and in 2012 Geologist An Yin put forward evidence for active plate tectonics on Mars. Europa has long suspected to have plate tectonics and in 2014 that NASA announced evidence of active subduction. Kasting suggests that there is nothing unusual about the occurrence of plate tectonics in large rocky planets and liquid water on the surface as most should generate internal heat even without the assistance of radioactive elements. Studies by Valencia and Cowan suggest that plate tectonics may be inevitable for terrestrial planets Earth sized or larger, that is,

text: Super-Earth

text: s, which are now known to be more common in planetary systems.

text: His shop also sold maps, and was the first known shop to market maps commercially. His two most famous maps date from 1506 and 1508. The 1506 Contarini-Rosselli map, his only signed and dated work, was the first printed map showing the New World.  Rosselli's 1508 world map was the first map drawn on an oval projection. This map may have been sold in his shop. His 1508 map also depicted a Southern Continent where Antarctic continent is, vaguely similar in general position to the Southern Continent on the Piri Reis map of 1513, the Lopo Homem map of c. 1519, the Juan Vespucci map of 1524, and other early maps.  However, the Antarctic continent was not discovered until the early 19th century. There are many maps from the 15th to the 18th century showing "Terra Australis Incognita" ("unknown land in the south"), the continent that should have been there, according to the Greek philosophers from Pythagoras onwards. They had worked out that the Earth was spherical, and had even calculated its diameter within a good degree of precision (Eratosthenes, in the 3rd century BCE), and thought that, as there were lands in the northern hemisphere, there should be lands in the southern hemisphere too, lest the world be unbalanced.

text: His shop also sold maps, and was the first known shop to market maps commercially. His two most famous maps date from 1506 and 1508. The 1506 Contarini-Rosselli map, his only signed and dated work, was the first printed map showing the New World.  Rosselli's 1508 world map was the first map drawn on an oval projection. This map may have been sold in his shop. His 1508 map also depicted a

text: Southern Continent

text: where

text: Antarctic continent

text: is, vaguely similar in general position to the Southern Continent on the

text: Piri Reis map

text: of 1513, the Lopo Homem map of c. 1519, the Juan Vespucci map of 1524, and other early maps.  However, the Antarctic continent was not discovered until the early 19th century. There are many maps from the 15th to the 18th century showing "

text: Terra Australis

text: Incognita" ("unknown land in the south"), the continent that should have been there, according to the Greek philosophers from

text: Pythagoras

text: onwards. They had worked out that the Earth was spherical, and had even calculated its diameter within a good degree of precision (

text: Eratosthenes

text: , in the 3rd century BCE), and thought that, as there were lands in the northern hemisphere, there should be lands in the southern hemisphere too, lest the world be unbalanced.

text: An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high-energy ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free H and  escape into space, leaving O in the atmosphere:

text: An additional source of atmospheric free oxygen comes from

text: photolysis

text: , whereby high-energy

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms. The free H and  escape into space, leaving O in the atmosphere:

text: One or more subjects (usually, pilots or crew members, though anyone interested in the effects of high altitude can usually arrange a visit) are placed in the chamber.  Before "ascending" to the desired altitude, subjects breathe oxygen from oxygen masks to purge nitrogen from their bloodstream so decompression sickness (DCS) does not occur. With masks in place, the atmospheric pressure inside the chamber is then reduced to simulate altitudes of up to tens of thousands of feet.  The subjects then remove their oxygen masks and experience the symptoms of hypoxia. An inside safety observer, breathing oxygen by mask, should always be present to place a subject's mask back on in the event a subject passes out unconscious. Outside observers monitor the subjects' condition via closed circuit television and viewing ports.

text: One or more subjects (usually,

text: pilots

text: or crew members, though anyone interested in the effects of high altitude can usually arrange a visit) are placed in the chamber.  Before "ascending" to the desired

text: altitude

text: , subjects breathe oxygen from

text: oxygen mask

text: s to purge

text: nitrogen

text: from their bloodstream so

text: decompression sickness

text: (DCS) does not occur. With masks in place, the

text: atmospheric pressure

text: inside the chamber is then reduced to simulate altitudes of up to tens of thousands of feet.  The subjects then remove their

text: oxygen mask

text: s and experience the symptoms of

text: hypoxia

text: . An inside safety observer, breathing oxygen by mask, should always be present to place a subject's mask back on in the event a subject passes out

text: unconscious

text: . Outside observers monitor the subjects' condition via closed circuit television and viewing ports.

text: The Carboniferous trees made extensive use of lignin. They had bark to wood ratios of 8 to 1, and even as high as 20 to 1. This compares to modern values less than 1 to 4. This bark, which must have been used as support as well as protection, probably had 38% to 58% lignin. Lignin is insoluble, too large to pass through cell walls, too heterogeneous for specific enzymes, and toxic, so that few organisms other than Basidiomycetes fungi can degrade it. To oxidize it requires an atmosphere of greater than 5% oxygen, or compounds such as peroxides. It can linger in soil for thousands of years and its toxic breakdown products inhibit decay of other substances. One possible reason for its high percentages in plants at that time was to provide protection from insects in a world containing very effective insect herbivores (but nothing remotely as effective as modern insectivores) and probably many fewer protective toxins produced naturally by plants than exist today. As a result, undegraded carbon built up, resulting in the extensive burial of biologically fixed carbon, leading to an increase in oxygen levels in the atmosphere; estimates place the peak oxygen content as high as 35%, as compared to 21% today. This oxygen level may have increased wildfire activity. It also may have promoted gigantism of insects and amphibians — creatures that have been constrained in size by respiratory systems that are limited in their physiological ability to transport and distribute oxygen at the lower atmospheric concentrations that have since been available.

text: The Carboniferous trees made extensive use of lignin. They had bark to wood ratios of 8 to 1, and even as high as 20 to 1. This compares to modern values less than 1 to 4. This bark, which must have been used as support as well as protection, probably had 38% to 58% lignin. Lignin is insoluble, too large to pass through cell walls, too heterogeneous for specific enzymes, and toxic, so that few organisms other than

text: Basidiomycetes

text: fungi can degrade it. To oxidize it requires an atmosphere of greater than 5% oxygen, or compounds such as peroxides. It can linger in soil for thousands of years and its toxic breakdown products inhibit decay of other substances. One possible reason for its high percentages in plants at that time was to provide protection from insects in a world containing very effective insect herbivores (but nothing remotely as effective as modern

text: insectivores

text: ) and probably many fewer protective toxins produced naturally by plants than exist today. As a result, undegraded carbon built up, resulting in the extensive burial of biologically fixed

text: carbon

text: , leading to an increase in

text: oxygen

text: levels in the atmosphere; estimates place the peak oxygen content as high as 35%, as compared to 21% today. This oxygen level may have increased

text: wildfire

text: activity. It also may have promoted

text: gigantism

text: of

text: insect

text: s and

text: amphibian

text: s — creatures that have been constrained in size by

text: respiratory

text: systems that are limited in their physiological ability to transport and distribute oxygen at the lower atmospheric concentrations that have since been available.

text: The shape and energy of the land is significantly affected by gravitational forces. On a large scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth is uneven and influences the shape and movement of tectonic plates as well as influencing geomorphic processes such as orogeny and erosion. These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth. On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues for plant and fungal growth (gravitropism), orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the biomechanics and size of animals. Ecological traits, such as allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves. The cardiovascular systems of animals are functionally adapted to overcome pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size, shape), their behaviour (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).

text: The shape and energy of the land is significantly affected by gravitational forces. On a large scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth is uneven and influences the shape and movement of

text: tectonic plates

text: as well as influencing

text: geomorphic

text: processes such as

text: orogeny

text: and

text: erosion

text: . These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth. On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues for plant and fungal growth (

text: gravitropism

text: ), orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the

text: biomechanics

text: and size of animals. Ecological traits, such as allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves. The

text: cardiovascular systems

text: of animals are functionally adapted to overcome pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size, shape), their behaviour (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).

text: Earth & Beyond was set some time around 2575 AD. It featured three races: the Progen, Jenquai and Terran. The Progen were a genetically-altered and advanced race. The Jenquai were philosophers who sought eternal life. The Terrans were the original humans. Each of the three races had descended from the human race on Earth. The game's storyline took place in the Milky Way Galaxy. The Progen, Terran and Jenquai were all uneasy of each other, but still managed to live together in peace. The Terrans were known for their extremely large corporations, such as Infiniti Corp. and GetCo. Infiniti Corp. was the manufacturer of the inter-system and inter-sector warp gates. The warp gates were originally created by the mysterious Ancients, an enigmatic and hyper-advanced race who had all but disappeared.

text: Earth & Beyond was set some time around 2575 AD. It featured three races: the Progen, Jenquai and Terran. The Progen were a genetically-altered and advanced race. The Jenquai were philosophers who sought eternal life. The Terrans were the original humans. Each of the three races had descended from the human race on Earth. The game's storyline took place in the

text: Milky Way Galaxy

text: . The Progen, Terran and Jenquai were all uneasy of each other, but still managed to live together in peace. The Terrans were known for their extremely large corporations, such as Infiniti Corp. and GetCo. Infiniti Corp. was the manufacturer of the inter-system and inter-sector warp gates. The warp gates were originally created by the mysterious Ancients, an enigmatic and hyper-advanced race who had all but disappeared.

text: Because mass concentrations on Earth are expected to dissipate over time, von Frese and coworkers believe the structure must be less than 500 million years old, and also note that it appears to have been disturbed by the rift valley that formed 100 million years ago during the separation of Australia from the Gondwana supercontinent.

text: Because mass concentrations on Earth are expected to dissipate over time, von Frese and coworkers believe the structure must be less than 500 million years old, and also note that it appears to have been disturbed by the

text: rift valley

text: that formed 100 million years ago during the separation of

text: Australia

text: from the

text: Gondwana

text: supercontinent.

text: Some studies indicate that there is a natural limit, set at 1.6R, below which nearly all planets are terrestrial, composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures. Generally, objects with a mass below 6 M are very likely to be of similar composition as Earth. Above this limit, the density of the planets decreases with increasing size, the planet will become a "water world" and finally a gas giant. In addition, most super-Earths' high mass may cause them to lack plate tectonics.  Thus, it is expected that any exoplanet similar to Earth's density and with a radius under 1.6 R may be suitable for life. However, other studies indicate that water worlds represent a transitional stage between mini-Neptunes and the terrestrial planets, especially if they belong to red dwarfs or K dwarfs. Although water planets may be habitable, the average depth of the water and the absence of land area would not make them superhabitable as defied by Heller and Armstrong. From a geological perspective, the optimal mass of a planet is about 2 M, so it must have a radius that keeps the density of the Earth among 1.2 and 1.3R.

text: Some studies indicate that there is a natural limit, set at 1.6R, below which nearly all planets are

text: terrestrial

text: , composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures. Generally, objects with a mass below 6

text: M

text: are very likely to be of similar composition as Earth. Above this limit, the density of the planets decreases with increasing size, the planet will become a

text: "water world"

text: and finally a

text: gas giant

text: . In addition, most

text: super-Earth

text: s' high mass may cause them to lack

text: plate tectonics

text: .  Thus, it is expected that any exoplanet similar to Earth's density and with a radius under 1.6 R may be suitable for life. However, other studies indicate that water worlds represent a transitional stage between

text: mini-Neptune

text: s and the terrestrial planets, especially if they belong to

text: red dwarf

text: s or

text: K dwarfs

text: . Although water planets may be habitable, the average depth of the water and the absence of land area would not make them superhabitable as defied by Heller and Armstrong. From a geological perspective, the optimal mass of a planet is about 2 M, so it must have a

text: radius

text: that keeps the density of the

text: Earth

text: among 1.2 and 1.3R.

text: "Detritus can be broadly defined as any form of non-living organic matter, including different types of plant tissue (e.g. leaf litter, dead wood, aquatic macrophytes, algae), animal tissue (carrion), dead microbes, faeces (manure, dung, faecal pellets, guano, frass), as well as products secreted, excreted or exuded from organisms (e.g. extra-cellular polymers, nectar, root exudates and leachates, dissolved organic matter, extra-cellular matrix, mucilage). The relative importance of these forms of detritus, in terms of origin, size and chemical composition, varies across ecosystems."

text: Study of zircons has found that liquid water must have existed as long ago as , very soon after the formation of the Earth. This requires the presence of an atmosphere. The Cool Early Earth theory covers a range from about .

text: Study of

text: zircon

text: s has found that liquid water must have existed as long ago as , very soon after the formation of the Earth. This requires the presence of an atmosphere. The

text: Cool Early Earth

text: theory covers a range from about .

text: The Gaia hypothesis (, ), also known as Gaia theory or Gaia principle, proposes that organisms interact with their inorganic surroundings on Earth to form a synergistic self-regulating, complex system that helps to maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life on the planet. Topics of interest include how the biosphere and the evolution of life forms affect the stability of global temperature, ocean salinity, oxygen in the atmosphere, the maintenance of a hydrosphere of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the habitability of Earth.

text: The Gaia hypothesis (, ), also known as Gaia theory or Gaia principle, proposes that

text: organism

text: s interact with their

text: inorganic

text: surroundings on

text: Earth

text: to form a

text: synergistic

text: self-regulating

text: complex system

text: that helps to maintain and perpetuate the conditions for

text: life

text: on the planet. Topics of interest include how the

text: biosphere

text: and the

text: evolution

text: of life forms affect the stability of

text: global temperature

text: ocean salinity

text: oxygen in the atmosphere

text: , the maintenance of a

text: hydrosphere

text: of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the

text: habitability

text: of Earth.

text: Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur. Subduction is the driving force behind plate tectonics, and without it, plate tectonics could not occur.

text: Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur. Subduction is the driving force behind

text: plate tectonics

text: , and without it, plate tectonics could not occur.

text: The antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis was first proposed by George C. Williams in 1957 as an evolutionary explanation for senescence. Pleiotropy is the phenomenon where one gene controls for more than one phenotypic trait in an organism. Antagonistic pleiotropy is when one gene controls for more than one trait where at least one of these traits is beneficial to the organism's fitness and at least one is detrimental to the organism's fitness. The theme of G.C. William's idea about antagonistic pleiotropy was that if a gene caused both increased reproduction in early life and aging in later life, then senescence would be adaptive in evolution. For example, one study suggests that since follicular depletion in human females causes both more regular cycles in early life and loss of fertility later in life through menopause, it can be selected for by having its early benefits outweigh its late costs.

text: The antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis was first proposed by

text: George C. Williams

text: in 1957 as an

text: evolution

text: ary explanation for

text: senescence

text: Pleiotropy

text: is the phenomenon where one

text: gene

text: controls for more than one phenotypic trait in an organism. Antagonistic pleiotropy is when one gene controls for more than one trait where at least one of these traits is beneficial to the organism's fitness and at least one is detrimental to the organism's fitness. The theme of G.C. William's idea about antagonistic pleiotropy was that if a gene caused both increased reproduction in early life and aging in later life, then senescence would be adaptive in evolution. For example, one study suggests that since

text: follicular depletion

text: in human females causes both more regular cycles in early life and loss of fertility later in life through menopause, it can be selected for by having its early benefits outweigh its late costs.

text: John Parnell has suggested that such a process could provide part of the "crucible of life" in the early stages of any early wet rocky planet, so long as the planet is large enough to have generated a system of plate tectonics which brings radioactive minerals to the surface. As the early Earth is thought to have had many smaller plates, it might have provided a suitable environment for such processes.

text: Brood War takes place in the StarCraft universe, set around the early 26th century. Terran exiles from Earth have colonized a distant area of the Milky Way galaxy called the Koprulu Sector, having established several governments. Eventually, a civil war breaks out and ends with the formation of the Terran Dominion. However, humanity soon becomes caught in a war between the Protoss and the Zerg, which culminates at the end of StarCraft with the death of the Zerg leader, the Overmind, on the Protoss homeworld of Aiur. Without the Overmind to command, the Zerg rampage mindlessly across Aiur, while the cerebrates—the secondary commanders of the Swarm—attempt to regain control. After the discovery of alien life in the Koprulu Sector, the United Earth Directorate (UED)—the international body governing Earth—decides to send an expeditionary force to secure the sector and prevent the aliens from finding Earth. Brood War begins two days after the conclusion of StarCraft.

text: Brood War takes place in the StarCraft universe, set around the early 26th century. Terran exiles from Earth have colonized a distant area of the

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy called the Koprulu Sector, having established several governments. Eventually, a civil war breaks out and ends with the formation of the

text: Terran Dominion

text: . However, humanity soon becomes caught in a war between the Protoss and the Zerg, which culminates at the end of StarCraft with the death of the Zerg leader, the

text: Overmind

text: , on the Protoss homeworld of

text: Aiur

text: . Without the Overmind to command, the Zerg rampage mindlessly across Aiur, while the

text: cerebrates

text: —the secondary commanders of the Swarm—attempt to regain control. After the discovery of alien life in the Koprulu Sector, the

text: United Earth Directorate

text: (UED)—the international body governing Earth—decides to send an expeditionary force to secure the sector and prevent the aliens from finding Earth. Brood War begins two days after the conclusion of StarCraft.

text: There are records of Franciscan activity on the American continent as early as 1519.  Throughout the early 16th century the mission movement spread from the Caribbean to Mexico, Central America, parts of South America, and the Southwest United States.

text: There are records of

text: Franciscan

text: activity on the

text: American continent

text: as early as 1519.  Throughout the early 16th century the mission movement spread from the

text: Caribbean

text: to

text: Mexico

text: Central America

text: , parts of

text: South America

text: , and the

text: Southwest United States

text: The term Middle-earth is not, however, used in Tolkien's earliest writings about his created world: writings that date from the early 1920s and which were later published in The Book of Lost Tales (1983-4); nor is the term used in The Hobbit (1937). Tolkien began to use the term "Middle-earth" in the latter part of the 1930s, in place of the earlier terms "Great Lands", "Outer Lands", and "Hither Lands" that he had used to describe this region in his stories. The term Middle-earth appears in the drafts of The Lord of the Rings, and the first published appearance of the word "Middle-earth" in Tolkien's works is in the Prologue to that work: "...Hobbits had, in fact, lived quietly in Middle-earth for many long years before other folk even became aware of them."

text: The term Middle-earth is not, however, used in Tolkien's earliest writings about his created world: writings that date from the early 1920s and which were later published in

text: The Book of Lost Tales

text: (1983-4); nor is the term used in

text: The Hobbit

text: (1937). Tolkien began to use the term "Middle-earth" in the latter part of the 1930s, in place of the earlier terms "Great Lands", "Outer Lands", and "Hither Lands" that he had used to describe this region in his stories. The term Middle-earth appears in the drafts of The Lord of the Rings, and the first published appearance of the word "Middle-earth" in Tolkien's works is in the Prologue to that work: "...Hobbits had, in fact, lived quietly in Middle-earth for many long years before other folk even became aware of them."

text: Many masks also have a built-in oxygen intake tube, allowing for administration of 50-60% oxygen. Without being hooked up to an external line, exhaled air from the provider can still provide sufficient oxygen to live, up to 16%. Earth's atmosphere consists of approximately 21% oxygen.

text: Many masks also have a built-in oxygen intake tube, allowing for administration of 50-60% oxygen. Without being hooked up to an external line, exhaled air from the provider can still provide sufficient oxygen to live, up to 16%. Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: consists of approximately 21% oxygen.

text: The Shuttle stack launched vertically like a conventional rocket. It lifted off under the power of its two SRBs and three main engines, which were fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the ET. The Space Shuttle had a two-stage ascent. The SRBs provided additional thrust during liftoff and first-stage flight. About two minutes after liftoff, frangible nuts were fired, releasing the SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by ships for refurbishment and reuse. The orbiter and ET continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal flight path under power from its main engines. Upon reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for low Earth orbit, the main engines were shut down. The ET, attached by two frangible nuts was then jettisoned to burn up in the atmosphere. After jettisoning the external tank, the orbital maneuvering system (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit.The orbiter carried astronauts and payloads such as satellites or space station parts into low Earth orbit, the Earth's upper atmosphere or thermosphere. Usually, five to seven crew members rode in the orbiter. Two crew members, the commander and pilot, were sufficient for a minimal flight, as in the first four "test" flights, STS-1 through STS-4. The typical payload capacity was about  but could be increased depending on the choice of launch configuration. The orbiter carried its payload in a large cargo bay with doors that opened along the length of its top, a feature which made the Space Shuttle unique among spacecraft. This feature made possible the deployment of large satellites such as the Hubble Space Telescope and also the capture and return of large payloads back to Earth.

text: The Shuttle stack launched vertically like a conventional rocket. It lifted off under the power of its two SRBs and three

text: main engines

text: , which were fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the ET. The Space Shuttle had a two-stage ascent. The SRBs provided additional thrust during liftoff and first-stage flight. About two minutes after liftoff, frangible nuts were fired, releasing the SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by

text: ships

text: for refurbishment and reuse. The orbiter and ET continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal flight path under power from its main engines. Upon reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for low Earth orbit, the main engines were shut down. The ET, attached by two frangible nuts was then jettisoned to burn up in the atmosphere. After jettisoning the external tank, the

entity_name: Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System

text: orbital maneuvering system

text: (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit.The orbiter carried

text: astronaut

text: s and payloads such as satellites or space station parts into low Earth orbit, the Earth's upper atmosphere or

text: thermosphere

text: . Usually, five to seven crew members rode in the orbiter. Two crew members, the commander and pilot, were sufficient for a minimal flight, as in the first four "test" flights, STS-1 through STS-4. The typical payload capacity was about  but could be increased depending on the choice of launch configuration. The orbiter carried its payload in a large cargo bay with doors that opened along the length of its top, a feature which made the Space Shuttle unique among spacecraft. This feature made possible the deployment of large satellites such as the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and also the capture and return of large payloads back to Earth.

text: The full functional roles of CtBP proteins in mammals have been difficult to evaluate because of partial redundancy between CtBP1 and CtBP2. Similarly, the early lethality of the CtBP2 knockout and of double knockout mice has precluded detailed analysis of the cellular effects of deleting these proteins. Important results have emerged from model organisms where there is only a single CtBP gene. In Drosophila CtBP is involved in development and in circadian rhythms. In the worm C. elegans CtBP is involved in life span. Both circadian rhythms and life span appear to be linked to metabolism supporting the role for CtBPs in metabolic sensing.

text: The full functional roles of CtBP proteins in mammals have been difficult to evaluate because of partial redundancy between CtBP1 and CtBP2. Similarly, the early lethality of the CtBP2 knockout and of double knockout mice has precluded detailed analysis of the cellular effects of deleting these proteins. Important results have emerged from model organisms where there is only a single CtBP gene. In

text: Drosophila

text: CtBP is involved in development and in

text: circadian rhythm

text: s. In the worm

text: C. elegans

text: CtBP is involved in life span. Both circadian rhythms and life span appear to be linked to metabolism supporting the role for CtBPs in metabolic sensing.

text: The Lützow-Holm Complex experienced regional metamorphism in the early Paleozoic. This metamorphic complex contains metamorphic ages associated with the Pan-African orogeny (520 and 560 Ma). The main regional metamorphism in the LHC is related to continent-continent collision between portions of the Gondwana supercontinent. This area may include remains of a potential suture between East and West Gondwana. The metamorphic grade increases gradually from the Prince Olav Coast (amphibolite facies; eastern part of the LHC) to the Soya Coast (granulite facies; western part of the LHC).

text: The Lützow-Holm Complex experienced regional metamorphism in the early Paleozoic. This metamorphic complex contains metamorphic ages associated with the

text: Pan-African orogeny

text: (520 and 560 Ma). The main regional metamorphism in the LHC is related to continent-continent collision between portions of the Gondwana supercontinent. This area may include remains of a potential suture between East and West Gondwana. The metamorphic grade increases gradually from the Prince Olav Coast (amphibolite facies; eastern part of the LHC) to the Soya Coast (granulite facies; western part of the LHC).

text: During this period, the landmasses were mostly restricted to the southern hemisphere of the Earth, with the supercontinent Gondwana straddling the South Pole. The equator had three continents (Avalonia, Baltica, and Laurentia) which slowly drifted together to form the second supercontinent of Laurussia (also known as Euramerica, not to be confused with Laurasia).

text: During this period, the landmasses were mostly restricted to the

text: southern hemisphere

text: of the Earth, with the

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: straddling the

text: South Pole

text: . The equator had three continents (

text: Avalonia

text: Baltica

text: , and

text: Laurentia

text: ) which slowly drifted together to form the second supercontinent of

text: Laurussia

text: (also known as

text: Euramerica

text: , not to be confused with

text: Laurasia

text: On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the remaining rover Opportunity as well as by the newer Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.

text: On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies by the remaining

text: rover

text: Opportunity

text: as well as by the newer

text: Mars Science Laboratory

text: rover

text: Curiosity

text: biosphere

text: based on

text: autotroph

text: ic,

text: chemotroph

text: ic and/or

text: chemolithoautotrophic

text: microorganism

text: s, as well as ancient water, including

text: fluvio-lacustrine environments

text: plain

text: habitable

text: . The search for evidence of

text: habitability

text: taphonomy

text: (related to

text: fossils

text: ), and

text: organic carbon

text: on the planet

text: Mars

text: is now a primary

text: NASA

text: objective.

text: The Flat Earth model is a belief that the Earth's shape is a plane or disk covered by a firmament contain heavenly bodies. Most pre-scientific cultures have had conceptions of a Flat Earth, including Greece until the classical period, the Bronze Age and Iron Age civilizations of the Near East until the Hellenistic period, India until the Gupta period (early centuries AD) and China until the 17th century. It was also typically held in the aboriginal cultures of the Americas, and a flat Earth domed by the firmament in the shape of an inverted bowl is common in pre-scientific societies.

text: The

text: Flat Earth

text: model is a belief that the

text: Earth

text: 's shape is a

text: plane

text: or

text: disk

text: covered by a

text: firmament

text: contain heavenly bodies. Most pre-scientific cultures have had conceptions of a Flat Earth, including

text: Greece

text: until the

text: classical period

text: , the

text: Bronze Age

text: and

text: Iron Age

text: civilizations of the

text: Near East

text: until the

text: Hellenistic period

text: India

text: until the

text: Gupta period

text: (early centuries AD) and

text: China

text: until the 17th century. It was also typically held in the aboriginal cultures of the

text: Americas

text: , and a flat Earth domed by the

text: firmament

text: in the shape of an inverted bowl is common in pre-scientific societies.

text: The North-South Road was the longest terrestrial road in J. R. R. Tolkien's fictional world of Middle-earth during its Third Age: about 1275 miles. (The longest-ever terrestrial road in Middle-earth had been the full Great East Road in the First Age, but it was much reduced in length when its Beleriand sections were forever drowned in the War of Wrath.) Originally known as the Royal Road, it ran from the realm of Arnor in the north to the capital of Gondor in the south. In the early Third Age, the highway was the main overland linkage between Gondor and Arnor. However, as the Third Age progressed, both kingdoms declined, and the road became neglected, especially its central stretches. After the end of the War of the Ring, there were plans by King Elessar to restore the ancient royal highway.

text: The North-South Road was the longest terrestrial road in

text: J. R. R. Tolkien

text: 's fictional world of

text: Middle-earth

text: during its

text: Third Age

text: : about 1275 miles. (The longest-ever terrestrial road in Middle-earth had been the full

text: Great East Road

text: in the

text: First Age

text: , but it was much reduced in length when its

text: Beleriand

text: sections were forever drowned in the

text: War of Wrath

text: .) Originally known as the

text: Royal Road

text: , it ran from the realm of

text: Arnor

text: in the north to the capital of

text: Gondor

text: in the south. In the early Third Age, the highway was the main overland linkage between Gondor and Arnor. However, as the Third Age progressed, both kingdoms declined, and the road became neglected, especially its central stretches. After the end of the

text: War of the Ring

text: , there were plans by

text: King Elessar

text: to restore the ancient royal highway.

text: Planetary geologists have measured the relative quantities of oxygen isotopes in samples from the Earth, the Moon, Mars, and meteorites, but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the Sun, believed to be the same as those of the primordial solar nebula. Analysis of a silicon wafer exposed to the solar wind in space and returned by the crashed Genesis spacecraft has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion of oxygen-16 than does the Earth. The measurement implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen-16 from the Sun's disk of protoplanetary material prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the Earth.

text: Planetary geologists

text: have measured the relative quantities of oxygen isotopes in samples from the

text: Earth

text: , the

text: Moon

text: Mars

text: , and

text: meteorite

text: s, but were long unable to obtain reference values for the isotope ratios in the

text: Sun

text: , believed to be the same as those of the

text: primordial solar nebula

text: . Analysis of a

text: silicon

text: wafer exposed to the

text: solar wind

text: in space and returned by the crashed

text: Genesis spacecraft

text: has shown that the Sun has a higher proportion of oxygen-16 than does the Earth. The measurement implies that an unknown process depleted oxygen-16 from the Sun's

text: disk of protoplanetary material

text: prior to the coalescence of dust grains that formed the Earth.

text: Geologic research suggests that, thousands of years ago, conditions existed for the formation of a lake. Sedimentary rock in this region, known as the Takutu Basin or the Takutu Formation, dates back to the late Paleozoic, roughly 250 million years ago, and the basin connected with the Atlantic via the Takutu Graben. The geologic history of the Takutu Graben is characterized by one phase of volcanic activity and three depositional phases of sedimentary rocks. Rifting (due to divergent tectonic plate movements) occurred in a lake or delta environment in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic periods, between 200 million and one hundred and fifty million years ago. Starting around 66,000 years ago, sea level rise and more humid conditions created flooded zones north of the confluence of the Rio Negro and the Solimões River, in what is now Roraima.

text: Geologic research suggests that, thousands of years ago, conditions existed for the formation of a lake.

text: Sedimentary rock

text: in this region, known as the Takutu Basin or the

text: Takutu Formation

text: , dates back to the late

text: Paleozoic

text: , roughly 250 million years ago, and the basin connected with the Atlantic via the Takutu

text: Graben

text: . The geologic history of the Takutu Graben is characterized by one phase of volcanic activity and three

text: depositional

text: phases of sedimentary rocks.

text: Rifting

text: (due to divergent

text: tectonic plate

text: movements) occurred in a lake or

text: delta

text: environment in the Late

text: Triassic

text: to Early

text: Jurassic

text: periods, between 200 million and one hundred and fifty million years ago. Starting around 66,000 years ago, sea level rise and more humid conditions created flooded zones north of the confluence of the Rio Negro and the

text: Solimões River

text: , in what is now Roraima.

text: "Low mass" is partly a relative label: the Earth is low mass when compared to the Solar System's gas giants, but it is the largest, by diameter and mass, and the densest of all terrestrial bodies. It is large enough to retain an atmosphere through gravity alone and large enough that its molten core remains a heat engine, driving the diverse geology of the surface (the decay of radioactive elements within a planet's core is the other significant component of planetary heating). Mars, by contrast, is nearly (or perhaps totally) geologically dead and has lost much of its atmosphere. Thus it would be fair to infer that the lower mass limit for habitability lies somewhere between that of Mars and that of Earth or Venus: 0.3 Earth masses has been offered as a rough dividing line for habitable planets. However, a 2008 study by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics suggests that the dividing line may be higher. Earth may in fact lie on the lower boundary of habitability: if it were any smaller, plate tectonics would be impossible. Venus, which has 85% of Earth's mass, shows no signs of tectonic activity. Conversely, "super-Earths", terrestrial planets with higher masses than Earth, would have higher levels of plate tectonics and thus be firmly placed in the habitable range.

text: "Low mass" is partly a relative label: the Earth is low mass when compared to the Solar System's

text: gas giant

text: s, but it is the largest, by diameter and mass, and the densest of all terrestrial bodies. It is large enough to retain an atmosphere through gravity alone and large enough that its molten core remains a heat engine, driving the diverse geology of the surface (the decay of

text: radioactive

text: elements within a planet's core is the other significant component of planetary heating). Mars, by contrast, is nearly (or perhaps totally) geologically dead and has lost much of its atmosphere. Thus it would be fair to infer that the lower mass limit for habitability lies somewhere between that of Mars and that of Earth or Venus: 0.3 Earth masses has been offered as a rough dividing line for habitable planets. However, a 2008 study by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics suggests that the dividing line may be higher. Earth may in fact lie on the lower boundary of habitability: if it were any smaller, plate tectonics would be impossible. Venus, which has 85% of Earth's mass, shows no signs of tectonic activity. Conversely, "

text: super-Earth

text: s", terrestrial planets with higher masses than Earth, would have higher levels of plate tectonics and thus be firmly placed in the habitable range.

text: The experimental microorganism used by François Jacob and Jacques Monod  was the common laboratory bacterium, E. coli, but many of the basic regulatory concepts that were discovered by Jacob and Monod are fundamental to cellular regulation in all organisms. The key idea is that proteins are not synthesized when they are not needed--- E. coli conserves cellular resources and energy by not making the three Lac proteins when there is no need to metabolize lactose, such as when other sugars like glucose are available. The following section discusses how E. coli controls certain genes in response to metabolic needs.

text: The experimental

text: microorganism

text: used by

text: François Jacob

text: and

text: Jacques Monod

text: was the common laboratory bacterium, E. coli, but many of the basic regulatory concepts that were discovered by Jacob and Monod are fundamental to

text: cell

text: ular regulation in all organisms. The key idea is that proteins are not synthesized when they are not needed--- E. coli conserves cellular resources and energy by not making the three Lac proteins when there is no need to metabolize lactose, such as when other sugars like

text: glucose

text: are available. The following section discusses how E. coli controls certain genes in response to metabolic needs.

text: The term glacio-epoch refers to a long episode of glaciation on Earth over millions of years.  Glaciers have major implications on the climate particularly through sea level change.  Changes in the position and elevation of the continents, the paleolatitude and ocean circulation affect the glacio-epochs.  There is an association between the rifting and breakup of continents and supercontinents and glacio-epochs.  According to the first model for Precambrian supercontinents described above the breakup of Kenorland and Rodinia were associated with the Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic glacio-epochs, respectively. In contrast, the second solution described above shows that these glaciations correlated with periods of low continental velocity and it is concluded that a fall in tectonic and corresponding volcanic activity was responsible for these intervals of global frigidity.  During the accumulation of supercontinents with times of regional uplift, glacio-epochs seem to be rare with little supporting evidence. However, the lack of evidence does not allow for the conclusion that glacio-epochs are not associated with collisional assembly of supercontinents.  This could just represent a preservation bias.

text: The term glacio-epoch refers to a long episode of glaciation on Earth over millions of years.  Glaciers have major implications on the climate particularly through

text: sea level change

text: .  Changes in the position and elevation of the continents, the

text: paleolatitude

text: and ocean circulation affect the glacio-epochs.  There is an association between the rifting and breakup of continents and supercontinents and glacio-epochs.  According to the first model for Precambrian supercontinents described above the breakup of

text: Kenorland

text: and

text: Rodinia

text: were associated with the

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: and

text: Neoproterozoic

text: glacio-epochs, respectively. In contrast, the second solution described above shows that these glaciations correlated with periods of low continental velocity and it is concluded that a fall in tectonic and corresponding volcanic activity was responsible for these intervals of global frigidity.  During the accumulation of supercontinents with times of regional uplift, glacio-epochs seem to be rare with little supporting evidence. However, the lack of evidence does not allow for the conclusion that glacio-epochs are not associated with collisional assembly of supercontinents.  This could just represent a preservation bias.

text: Earth is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science.  It was commonly associated with qualities of heaviness, matter and the terrestrial world.  Due to the hero cults, and chthonic underworld deities, the element of earth is also associated with the sensual aspects of both life and death in later occultism.

text: Earth is one of the four

text: classical element

text: s in ancient

text: Greek philosophy

text: and science.  It was commonly associated with qualities of heaviness, matter and the terrestrial world.  Due to the

text: hero cult

text: s, and

text: chthonic

text: underworld deities

text: , the element of earth is also associated with the sensual aspects of both life and death in later

text: occultism

text: In 1963, Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson proposed the "hotspot" theory to explain why although most earthquake and volcanic activity occurs at plate boundaries, some occurs far from plate boundaries. The theory claimed that small, long-lasting, exceptionally "hot" areas of magma are located under certain points on Earth. These places, dubbed "hotspots," provide localized heat and energy systems (thermal plumes) that sustain long-lasting volcanic activity on the surface. This volcanism builds up seamounts that eventually rise above the ocean current, forming volcanic islands.As the islands slowly moved away from the hotspot, by the motion of sliding plates as described by the theory of plate tectonics, the magma supply is cut, and the volcano goes dormant. Meanwhile, the process repeats all over again, this time forming a new island, on and on until the hotspot collapses. The theory was developed to explain the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, where historic islands could be traced to the northwest in the direction that the Pacific Plate is moving. The early theory put these fixed sources of heat for the plumes deep within the Earth; however, recent research has led scientists to believe that hotspots are actually dynamic, and able to move on their own accord.

text: In 1963, Canadian

text: geophysicist

text: J. Tuzo Wilson

text: proposed the "hotspot" theory to explain why although most earthquake and volcanic activity occurs at plate boundaries, some occurs far from plate boundaries. The theory claimed that small, long-lasting, exceptionally "hot" areas of magma are located under certain points on Earth. These places, dubbed "hotspots," provide localized heat and energy systems (thermal plumes) that sustain long-lasting volcanic activity on the surface. This volcanism builds up

text: seamounts

text: that eventually rise above the ocean current, forming volcanic islands.As the islands slowly moved away from the hotspot, by the motion of sliding plates as described by the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: , the magma supply is cut, and the volcano goes dormant. Meanwhile, the process repeats all over again, this time forming a new island, on and on until the hotspot collapses. The theory was developed to explain the

text: Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain

text: , where historic islands could be traced to the northwest in the direction that the Pacific Plate is moving. The early theory put these fixed sources of heat for the plumes deep within the Earth; however, recent research has led scientists to believe that hotspots are actually dynamic, and able to move on their own accord.

text: In turn, a molten core may allow plate tectonics, of which Earth shows major features. Mars, as a smaller body than Earth, shows no current tectonic activity, nor mountain ridges from geologically recent activity.  This is assumed to be due to an interior that has cooled faster than the Earth (see geomagnetism below). An edge case may be Venus, which does not appear to have extant tectonics. However, in its history, it likely has had tectonic activity but lost it. It is possible tectonic activity on Venus may still be sufficient to restart after a long era of accumulation.

text: Northern Minnesota's banded iron formations lie directly underneath a thick layer of material only recently recognized as ejecta from the Sudbury Basin impact. At the time of formation Earth had a single supercontinent called Columbia with substantial continental shelves.

text: Northern Minnesota's banded iron formations lie directly underneath a thick layer of material only recently recognized as ejecta from the

text: Sudbury Basin

text: impact. At the time of formation Earth had a single supercontinent called

text: Columbia

text: with substantial continental shelves.

text: In point-to-point systems, precoding means that multiple data streams are emitted from the transmit antennas with independent and appropriate weightings such that the link throughput is maximized at the receiver output. In multi-user MIMO, the data streams are intended for different users (known as SDMA) and some measure of the total throughput (e.g., the sum performance or max-min fairness) is maximized. In point-to-point systems, some of the benefits of precoding can be realized without requiring channel state information at the transmitter, while such information is essential to handle the inter-user interference in multi-user systems. Precoding in the downlink of cellular networks, known as network MIMO or coordinated multipoint (CoMP), is a generalized form of multi-user MIMO that can be analyzed by the same mathematical techniques.

text: In point-to-point systems, precoding means that multiple data streams are emitted from the transmit antennas with independent and appropriate weightings such that the link throughput is maximized at the receiver output. In

text: multi-user MIMO

text: , the data streams are intended for different users (known as

text: SDMA

text: ) and some measure of the total throughput (e.g., the sum performance or max-min fairness) is maximized. In point-to-point systems, some of the benefits of precoding can be realized without requiring

text: channel state information

text: at the transmitter, while such information is essential to handle the inter-user interference in multi-user systems. Precoding in the downlink of cellular networks, known as network MIMO or coordinated multipoint (CoMP), is a generalized form of multi-user MIMO that can be analyzed by the same mathematical techniques.

text: One of the early explanations for the appearance of the SSFs – and therefore the evolution of mineralized skeletons – suggested a sudden increase in the ocean's concentration of calcium. However, many SSFs are constructed of other minerals, such as silica. Because the first SSFs appear around the same time as organisms first started burrowing to avoid predation, it is more likely that they represent early steps in an evolutionary arms race between predators and increasingly well-defended prey. On the other hand, mineralized skeletons may have evolved simply because they are stronger and cheaper to produce than all-organic skeletons like those of insects. Nevertheless, it is still true that the animals used minerals that were most easily accessible.

text: One of the early explanations for the appearance of the SSFs – and therefore the evolution of mineralized skeletons – suggested a sudden increase in the ocean's concentration of

text: calcium

text: . However, many SSFs are constructed of other minerals, such as

text: silica

text: . Because the first SSFs appear around the same time as organisms first started burrowing to avoid predation, it is more likely that they represent early steps in an

text: evolutionary arms race

text: between predators and increasingly well-defended prey. On the other hand, mineralized skeletons may have evolved simply because they are stronger and cheaper to produce than all-organic skeletons like those of insects. Nevertheless, it is still true that the animals used minerals that were most easily accessible.

text: The supercontinent cycle is the quasi-periodic aggregation and dispersal of Earth's continental crust. There are varying opinions as to whether the amount of continental crust is increasing, decreasing, or staying about the same, but it is agreed that the Earth's crust is constantly being reconfigured. One complete supercontinent cycle is said to take 300 to 500 million years. Continental collision makes fewer and larger continents while rifting makes more and smaller continents.

text: The supercontinent cycle is the quasi-periodic aggregation and dispersal of

text: Earth

text: 's

text: continental crust

text: . There are varying opinions as to whether the amount of continental crust is increasing, decreasing, or staying about the same, but it is agreed that the Earth's crust is constantly being reconfigured. One complete

text: supercontinent

text: cycle is said to take 300 to 500 million years.

text: Continental collision

text: makes fewer and larger continents while

text: rifting

text: makes more and smaller continents.

text: Dinosaurs evolved partway through the Triassic period of the Mesozoic era, around 230 Ma (million years ago).  At that time, the earth had one supercontinental landmass, called Pangaea, of which Europe was a part.  So it remained throughout the Triassic.  By the start of the Jurassic period, some 30 million years later, the supercontinent began to split into Laurasia and Gondwana.  The largest inlet from Panthalassa, the superocean that surrounded Pangaea, was called the Tethys Ocean, and as this inlet cut deeper into the supercontinent, much of Europe was flooded.

text: Dinosaurs

text: evolved partway through the

text: Triassic

text: period of the

text: Mesozoic

text: era, around 230

text: Ma

text: (million years ago).  At that time, the earth had one

text: supercontinent

text: al landmass, called

text: Pangaea

text: , of which

text: Europe

text: was a part.  So it remained throughout the Triassic.  By the start of the

text: Jurassic

text: period, some 30 million years later, the supercontinent began to split into

text: Laurasia

text: and

text: Gondwana

text: .  The largest inlet from

text: Panthalassa

text: , the

text: superocean

text: that surrounded Pangaea, was called the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: , and as this inlet cut deeper into the supercontinent, much of Europe was flooded.

text: The Niger Delta Basin was formed by a failed rift junction during separation of the South American plate and the African plate, as well as the opening of the South Atlantic. Rifting in this basin started in the late Jurassic and ended in the mid Cretaceous. As rifting continued, several faults formed, many of them thrust faults. Also at this time we have the deposition of the syn-rift sands and then shales in the late cretaceous. This shows that there was a regression in the early basin. By this time the basin has been undergoing extension by high angle normal faults and fault block rotation. Then at beginning of the Paleocene there was a large transgression. Then in the Paleocene the Akata formation was deposited. In the Eocene the Agbada formation was deposited. This caused the underlying shale Akata Formation to be squeezed into shale diapirs. Then in the Oligocene the Benin formation was deposited and it still being deposited today. The overall basin is divided into a few different zones due to its tectonic structure. There is an extensional zone, which lies on the continental shelf, that is caused by the thickened crust. There is a transition zone, and then there is a contraction zone, which lies in the deep sea part of the basin.

text: The Niger Delta Basin was formed by a failed rift

text: junction

text: during separation of the

text: South American plate

text: and the

text: African plate

text: , as well as the opening of the South Atlantic. Rifting in this basin started in the late

text: Jurassic

text: and ended in the mid

text: Cretaceous

text: . As rifting continued, several

text: faults

text: formed, many of them

text: thrust faults

text: . Also at this time we have the deposition of the syn-rift sands and then shales in the late cretaceous. This shows that there was a regression in the early basin. By this time the basin has been undergoing extension by high angle normal faults and fault block rotation. Then at beginning of the Paleocene there was a large transgression. Then in the Paleocene the Akata formation was deposited. In the Eocene the Agbada formation was deposited. This caused the underlying shale Akata Formation to be squeezed into shale diapirs. Then in the Oligocene the Benin formation was deposited and it still being deposited today. The overall basin is divided into a few different zones due to its tectonic structure. There is an extensional zone, which lies on the continental shelf, that is caused by the thickened crust. There is a transition zone, and then there is a contraction zone, which lies in the deep sea part of the basin.

text: It is believed that oxidosqualene cyclases (OSCs, the class to which lanosterol cyclase belongs) evolved from bacterial squalene-hopene cyclase (SHC), which is involved with the formation of hopanoids. Phylogenetic trees constructed from the amino acid sequences of OSCs in diverse organisms suggest a single common ancestor, and that the synthesis pathway evolved only once. The discovery of steranes including cholestane in 2.7-billion year-old shales from Pilbara Craton, Australia, suggests that eukaryotes with OSCs and complex steroid machinery were present early in earth’s history.

text: It is believed that oxidosqualene cyclases (OSCs, the class to which lanosterol cyclase belongs) evolved from bacterial squalene-hopene cyclase (SHC), which is involved with the formation of

text: hopanoids

text: Phylogenetic trees

text: constructed from the amino acid sequences of OSCs in diverse organisms suggest a single common ancestor, and that the synthesis pathway evolved only once. The discovery of

text: steranes

text: including

text: cholestane

text: in 2.7-billion year-old shales from

text: Pilbara Craton

text: Australia

text: , suggests that

text: eukaryotes

text: with OSCs and complex steroid machinery were present early in earth’s history.

text: The neurological process of sensory integration is a “particular way of viewing the neural organization of sensory information for functional behavior” (p. 325). It is studied by different professions on diverse levels (e.g., by occupational therapists as a foundation for occupational performance and participation, by psychologists on a cellular level as Multi-Sensory Integration (MSI),).

text: By 2013 the drug discovery market had begun shifting from the single to the multi-target paradigm, of which Persomics’ technology is a part. Prior to that time, popular drug discovery efforts focused on identifying single drugs that fit into specific cellular targets; this came to be known as target-based screening (i.e. reverse pharmacology). The multi-target approach entails the understanding that, although one drug compound might fit into a single target, diseases are associated with complex biological processes, and often multiple cellular targets, which are more difficult to unlock. Today phenotypic screening is enjoying a significant resurgence as part of the portfolio of drug discovery strategies leveraged at most companies. This is because phenotypic screening products (such as those offered by Persomics) offer a potentially revolutionary approach to discerning multiple cellular targets as the basis for genetic disease.	Phenotypic screening can lead to the identification of a molecule that modifies an organism or disease phenotype; it does this by acting on a previously unknown target or by acting simultaneously on more than one target. Phenotypic screening is therefore a method utilized in perceiving gene expression.  This is of importance to human health because eukaryotic cells (e.g. human cells) have many sophisticated ways of controlling gene expression.One of those ways is through the agency of siRNAs. By directing gene silencing, siRNAs act as RNA interference, effectively inhibiting expression of a gene in question. Since the time that the human genome was sequenced, the siRNAs correlating to each gene have been synthesized by various companies. The use of siRNAs therefore facilitates research into the human genome by allowing for selective suppression of specific genes of interest. Persomics produces a ready-made experiment kit in which any of these siRNAs can be contained. The kit contains the company’s plates, which can hold approximately 3,000 spots of sub-millimeter-sized siRNAs; these can be specified by the researcher requesting the kit. The experiment allows investigators to conduct multiple experiments (up to 3,000 per plate) of different libraries. A researcher is therefore able to discern and validate several things: the ways in which genes are regulated, the specific mechanisms of biological signaling pathways, and the multiple cellular targets, and various genes manipulated as a result of disease. The approach used by the company is a variation on the efficiency and scale of phenotypic screening.

text: By 2013 the

text: drug discovery

text: market had begun shifting from the single to the

text: multi-target

text: paradigm, of which Persomics’ technology is a part. Prior to that time, popular

text: drug discovery

text: efforts focused on identifying single drugs that fit into specific cellular targets; this came to be known as target-based screening (i.e.

text: reverse pharmacology

text: ). The

text: multi-target

text: approach entails the understanding that, although one

text: drug compound

text: might fit into a single target, diseases are associated with complex biological processes, and often multiple cellular targets, which are more difficult to unlock. Today

text: phenotypic screening

text: is enjoying a significant resurgence as part of the portfolio of

text: drug discovery

text: strategies leveraged at most companies. This is because

text: phenotypic screening

text: products (such as those offered by Persomics) offer a potentially revolutionary approach to discerning multiple cellular targets as the basis for genetic disease.

text: Phenotypic screening

text: can lead to the identification of a

text: molecule

text: that modifies an organism or disease

text: phenotype

text: ; it does this by acting on a previously unknown target or by acting simultaneously on more than one target. Phenotypic screening is therefore a method utilized in perceiving

text: gene expression

text: .  This is of importance to human health because

text: eukaryotic cells

text: (e.g. human cells) have many sophisticated ways of controlling

text: gene expression

text: .One of those ways is through the agency of

text: siRNA

text: s. By directing

text: gene silencing

text: siRNAs

text: act as

text: RNA interference

text: , effectively inhibiting expression of a gene in question. Since the time that the human genome was sequenced, the

text: siRNA

text: s correlating to each gene have been synthesized by various companies. The use of

text: siRNA

text: s therefore facilitates research into the

text: human genome

text: by allowing for selective suppression of specific genes of interest. Persomics produces a ready-made experiment kit in which any of these

text: siRNA

text: s can be contained. The kit contains the company’s plates, which can hold approximately 3,000 spots of sub-millimeter-sized

text: siRNA

text: s; these can be specified by the researcher requesting the kit. The experiment allows investigators to conduct multiple experiments (up to 3,000 per plate) of different

text: libraries

text: . A researcher is therefore able to discern and validate several things: the ways in which

text: genes

text: are regulated, the specific mechanisms of biological

text: signaling pathways

text: , and the multiple cellular targets, and various

text: genes

text: manipulated as a result of

text: disease

text: . The approach used by the company is a variation on the efficiency and scale of

text: phenotypic screening

text: It is believed that plate tectonic processes could have been active on Mars early in the planet’s history . Large-scale redistribution of lithospheric crustal material is known to be caused by plate tectonic processes on Earth. Even though it is still not entirely clear how mantle processes affect plate tectonics on Earth, mantle convection is believed to be involved as cells or plumes. Since endogenic processes of Earth are still to be completely understood, studying of similar processes on Mars is very difficult. The dichotomy could be created at the time of the creation of the Martian core. The roughly circular shape of the lowland could then be attributed to plume-like first-order overturn which could occur in the process of rapid core formation. There is evidence for internally driven tectonic events in the vicinity of the lowland area that clearly occurred at the end of the early bombardment phase.

text: It is believed that

text: plate tectonic processes

text: could have been active on Mars early in the planet’s history . Large-scale redistribution of lithospheric crustal material is known to be caused by plate tectonic processes on Earth. Even though it is still not entirely clear how mantle processes affect plate tectonics on Earth, mantle convection is believed to be involved as cells or plumes. Since endogenic processes of Earth are still to be completely understood, studying of similar processes on Mars is very difficult. The dichotomy could be created at the time of the creation of the Martian core. The roughly circular shape of the lowland could then be attributed to plume-like first-order overturn which could occur in the process of rapid core formation. There is evidence for internally driven tectonic events in the vicinity of the lowland area that clearly occurred at the end of the

text: early bombardment phase.

text: The northern continent is inhabited by nomads and hunter-gatherers. The southern continent, less affected by the Fire Time, is a more advanced agriculturally based civilization known as the Gathering, with villages along trade routes and shipbuilding is extensive in the southern island arcs.

text: The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have been cyclical through Earth's history. There may have been many others before Pangaea. The fourth-last supercontinent, called Columbia or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.0–1.8 Ga. Columbia/Nuna broke up and the next supercontinent, Rodinia, formed from the accretion and assembly of its fragments. Rodinia lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750 million years ago, but its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not nearly as well understood as those of the later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.

text: The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have been

text: cyclical

text: through Earth's history. There may have been

text: many others

text: before Pangaea. The fourth-last supercontinent, called

text: Columbia

text: or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.0–1.8

text: Ga.

text: Columbia/Nuna broke up and the next supercontinent,

text: Rodinia

text: , formed from the

text: accretion

text: and assembly of its fragments. Rodinia lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750 million years ago, but its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not nearly as well understood as those of the later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.

text: In the early 21st century, the Earth suffers from a giant hurricane spawned by the release of clathrate compounds, as the result of a nuclear explosion. While the hurricane spawns hundreds of progeny, which, by novel's end, kill at least 1 billion people, two massively computer augmented human intelligences, both of whom witness their organic bodies die, race to corral a comet from beyond Pluto's orbit. They use the ice from the comet to reduce the Earth's surface temperatures, and quell the mother of storms.

text: In the early 21st century, the Earth suffers from a giant hurricane spawned by the release of

text: clathrate compound

text: s, as the result of a nuclear explosion. While the hurricane spawns hundreds of progeny, which, by novel's end, kill at least 1 billion people, two massively computer augmented human intelligences, both of whom witness their organic bodies die, race to corral a comet from beyond

text: Pluto

text: 's orbit. They use the ice from the comet to reduce the Earth's surface temperatures, and quell the mother of storms.

text: Oxygen enters the water through diffusion. The amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in water depends on the atmospheric pressure, the water temperature and whether the water is salty. For example, at 20 °C (68 °F) and one atmosphere of pressure, a maximum of 8 mg/l of oxygen can dissolve in sea water (35 mg/l salinity) while a maximum of 9 mg/l of oxygen can dissolve in fresh water. The amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in the water decreases by about 1 mg/l for each 10 °C increase in water temperature above 20 °C.

text: Oxygen enters the water through

text: diffusion

text: . The amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in water depends on the

text: atmospheric pressure

text: , the water temperature and whether the water is salty. For example, at 20 °C (68 °F) and one atmosphere of pressure, a maximum of 8 mg/l of oxygen can dissolve in

text: sea water

text: (35 mg/l

text: salinity

text: ) while a maximum of 9 mg/l of oxygen can dissolve in fresh water. The amount of oxygen that can be dissolved in the water decreases by about 1 mg/l for each 10 °C increase in water temperature above 20 °C.

text: By the late nineteenth century, geologists, physicists and biologists agreed that the age of the earth was well over 20 million years.  Prior to the use of radiometric dating, scientific estimates before 1900 ranged between 20 million and 3 billion years old. Most Christians "readily conceded that the Bible allowed for an ancient earth and pre-Edenic life." With very few exceptions they accommodated the new geological theories either with Day-Age creationism, the belief that the six days of Genesis represented vast ages, or by separating the original creation from a later Edenic creation: the so-called gap theory. The primary promoter of "flood geology" during the early twentieth century was George McCready Price, but he had comparatively little influence among evangelicals because he was a Seventh-day Adventist, a church treated warily by many conservative Protestants.

text: By the late nineteenth century, geologists, physicists and biologists agreed that the

text: age of the earth

text: was well over 20 million years.  Prior to the use of radiometric dating, scientific estimates before 1900 ranged between 20 million and 3 billion years old. Most Christians "readily conceded that the Bible allowed for an ancient earth and pre-Edenic life." With very few exceptions they accommodated the new geological theories either with

text: Day-Age creationism

text: , the belief that the six days of Genesis represented vast ages, or by separating the original creation from a later Edenic creation: the so-called

text: gap theory

text: . The primary promoter of "

text: flood geology

text: " during the early twentieth century was

text: George McCready Price

text: , but he had comparatively little influence among evangelicals because he was a

text: Seventh-day Adventist

text: , a church treated warily by many conservative Protestants.

text: MacDonald's early skepticism regarding plate tectonics stemmed from his detailed study, with Walter Munk, of the rotation of the Earth.  Since small polar motions are readily detectable on human time scales, the possibility of explaining paleomagnetic data by polar wandering seemed, for a time, to be a viable possibility; plate tectonic motions are now considered to be the correct explanation.

text: MacDonald's early skepticism regarding plate tectonics stemmed from his detailed study, with

text: Walter Munk

text: , of the rotation of the Earth.  Since small

text: polar motion

text: s are readily detectable on human time scales, the possibility of explaining

text: paleomagnetic

text: data by

text: polar wandering

text: seemed, for a time, to be a viable possibility;

text: plate tectonic

text: motions are now considered to be the correct explanation.

text: Early in the Earth's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect. The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes. During this time, Earth's earliest life appeared. These first, ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water. Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth's history. With no oxygen, methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today.

text: Early in the

text: Earth's history

text: carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a

text: greenhouse effect

text: . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes. During this time, Earth's earliest life appeared. These first, ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water. Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth's history. With no oxygen, methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today.

text: The most recent supercontinent, Pangaea, formed about 300 million years ago. There are two different views on the history of earlier supercontinents. The first proposes a series of supercontinents: Vaalbara ( 3.6 to c. 2.8 billion years ago); Ur ( 3 billion years ago); Kenorland ( 2.7 to 2.1 billion years ago); Columbia ( 1.8 to 1.5 billion years ago); Rodinia ( 1.25 billion to 750 million years ago); and Pannotia ( 600 million years ago), whose dispersal produced the fragments that ultimately collided to form Pangaea.

text: The most recent supercontinent,

text: Pangaea

text: , formed about 300 million years ago. There are two different views on the history of earlier supercontinents. The first proposes a series of supercontinents:

text: Vaalbara

text: ( 3.6 to c. 2.8 billion years ago);

text: Ur

text: ( 3 billion years ago);

text: Kenorland

text: ( 2.7 to 2.1 billion years ago);

text: Columbia

text: ( 1.8 to 1.5 billion years ago);

text: Rodinia

text: ( 1.25 billion to 750 million years ago); and

text: Pannotia

text: ( 600 million years ago), whose dispersal produced the fragments that ultimately collided to form Pangaea.

text: Other studies about Earth’s atmospheric oxygen have considered its second increase around 600 million years ago that acted as a precursor to the rise of animal life. Catling proposed looking at oxygen-sensitive variations in stable isotopes of selenium to trace atmospheric and seawater oxygen, and the results of such a study showed that Earth's second increase in oxygen occurred in fits and starts spread over about 100 million years.

text: Other studies about Earth’s atmospheric oxygen have considered its second increase around 600 million years ago that acted as a precursor to the

text: rise of animal life

text: . Catling proposed looking at oxygen-sensitive variations in stable

text: isotopes of selenium

text: to trace atmospheric and seawater oxygen, and the results of such a study showed that Earth's second increase in oxygen occurred in fits and starts spread over about 100 million years.

text: It has been suggested that Mars had a much thicker, warmer atmosphere early in its history.  Much of this early atmosphere would have consisted of carbon dioxide.  Such an atmosphere would have raised the temperature, at least in some places, to above the freezing point of water.  With the higher temperature running water could have carved out the many channels and outflow valleys that are common on the planet.  It also may have gathered together to form lakes and maybe an ocean.  Some researchers have suggested that the atmosphere of Mars may have been many times as thick as the Earth's; however research published in September 2015 advanced the idea that perhaps the early Martian atmosphere was not as thick as previously thought.Currently, the atmosphere is very thin.  For many years, it was assumed that as with the Earth, most of the early carbon dioxide was locked up in minerals, called carbonates.  However, despite the use of many orbiting instruments that looked for carbonates, very few carbonate deposits have been found.  Today, it is thought that much of the carbon dioxide in the Martian air was removed by the solar wind.  Researchers have discovered a two-step process that sends the gas into space.  Ultraviolet light from the Sun could strike a carbon dioxide molecule, breaking it into carbon monoxide and oxygen.  A second photon of ultraviolet light could subsequently break the carbon monoxide into oxygen and carbon which would get enough energy to escape the planet.  In this process the light isotope of carbon (C) would be most likely to leave the atmosphere.  Hence, the carbon dioxide left in the atmosphere would be enriched with the heavy isotope (C).   This higher level of the heavy isotope is what was recently found by the Curiosity rover that sits on the surface of Mars.

text: It has been suggested that Mars had a much thicker, warmer atmosphere early in its history.  Much of this early atmosphere would have consisted of carbon dioxide.  Such an atmosphere would have raised the temperature, at least in some places, to above the freezing point of water.  With the higher temperature running water could have carved out the many channels and outflow valleys that are common on the planet.  It also may have gathered together to form lakes and maybe an ocean.  Some researchers have suggested that the atmosphere of Mars may have been many times as thick as the Earth's; however research published in September 2015 advanced the idea that perhaps the early Martian atmosphere was not as thick as previously thought.Currently, the atmosphere is very thin.  For many years, it was assumed that as with the Earth, most of the early carbon dioxide was locked up in minerals, called carbonates.  However, despite the use of many orbiting instruments that looked for carbonates, very few carbonate deposits have been found.  Today, it is thought that much of the carbon dioxide in the Martian air was removed by the

text: solar wind

text: .  Researchers have discovered a two-step process that sends the gas into space.  Ultraviolet light from the Sun could strike a carbon dioxide molecule, breaking it into carbon monoxide and oxygen.  A second photon of ultraviolet light could subsequently break the carbon monoxide into oxygen and carbon which would get enough energy to escape the planet.  In this process the light isotope of carbon (C) would be most likely to leave the atmosphere.  Hence, the carbon dioxide left in the atmosphere would be enriched with the heavy isotope (C).   This higher level of the heavy isotope is what was recently found by the Curiosity rover that sits on the surface of Mars.

text: Our knowledge of the spherical shape of the Earth is central to our understanding of ecology (p. 34). This knowledge probably originated in prehistoric times, was certainly known to the Ancient Greeks, but was then suppressed for centuries by organised religion because it was incompatible with the official story of a Heaven above and a Hell below (p. 43). There has been an evolution of religious ideas from those of the Egyptian pyramid-builders, whose ambition was to deliver a single individual, the pharaoh, into the afterlife, to the modern belief that everybody has a right to enjoy life on Earth (p. 51).

text: Our knowledge of the

text: spherical shape of the Earth

text: is central to our understanding of ecology (p. 34). This knowledge probably originated in prehistoric times, was certainly known to the

text: Ancient Greeks

text: , but was then suppressed for centuries by organised religion because it was incompatible with the official story of a

text: Heaven

text: above and a

text: Hell

text: below (p. 43). There has been an evolution of religious ideas from those of the Egyptian pyramid-builders, whose ambition was to deliver a single individual, the

text: pharaoh

text: , into the afterlife, to the modern belief that everybody has a right to enjoy life on Earth (p. 51).

text: For much of the last quarter century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by Arthur Holmes and some forerunners in the 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of Alfred Wegener in the early years of the century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading ("fixist") theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties.

text: For much of the last quarter century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by

text: Arthur Holmes

text: and some forerunners in the 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: in the early years of the century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading ("fixist") theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties.

text: The formation of a supercontinent can dramatically affect the environment. The collision of plates will result in mountain building, thereby shifting weather patterns. Sea levels may fall because of increased glaciation. The rate of surface weathering can rise, resulting in an increase in the rate that organic material is buried. Supercontinents can cause a drop in global temperatures and an increase in atmospheric oxygen. This, in turn, can affect the climate, further lowering temperatures. All of these changes can result in more rapid biological evolution as new niches emerge.

text: The formation of a supercontinent can dramatically affect the environment. The collision of plates will result in

text: mountain building

text: , thereby shifting weather patterns. Sea levels may fall because of increased glaciation. The rate of surface weathering can rise, resulting in an increase in the rate that organic material is buried. Supercontinents can cause a drop in global temperatures and an increase in atmospheric oxygen. This, in turn, can affect the climate, further lowering temperatures. All of these changes can result in more rapid

text: biological evolution

text: as new

text: niches

text: emerge.

text: The Devonian spanned roughly from 419 to 359 Ma.  The period was a time of great tectonic activity, as Laurasia and Gondwana drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn. In these near-deserts, the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (hematite) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator Pangaea began to consolidate from the plates containing North America and Europe, further raising the northern Appalachian Mountains and forming the Caledonian Mountains in Great Britain and Scandinavia. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent of Gondwana. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo-Tethys, Proto-Tethys, Rheic Ocean and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica).

text: The Devonian spanned roughly from 419 to 359 Ma.  The period was a time of great tectonic activity, as

text: Laurasia

text: and Gondwana drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the

text: Tropic of Capricorn

text: . In these near-deserts, the

text: Old Red Sandstone

text: hematite

text: ) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator Pangaea began to consolidate from the plates containing North America and Europe, further raising the northern

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: and forming the

text: Caledonian Mountains

text: in

text: Great Britain

text: and

text: Scandinavia

text: . The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent of

text: Gondwana

text: . The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo-Tethys, Proto-Tethys, Rheic Ocean and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica).

text: Several plate tectonic reconstructions propose an Archean-Paleoproterozoic connection between the cratonic core of North America, the continent Laurentia, and that of Siberia, the continent Siberia, based on geological connections and paleomagnetic evidence.  For example, in the reconstruction of  Angara in Siberia matches the Wopmay orogen and the GBMZ in Laurentia; and the Aktikan fold belt in Siberia matches the Thelon-Taltson belt in Laurentia.  Several other tectonic models have been proposed, however, and the possible connections between the two early continents remain controversial.

text: Several plate tectonic reconstructions propose an Archean-Paleoproterozoic connection between the cratonic core of North America, the continent

text: Laurentia

text: , and that of Siberia, the continent

text: Siberia

text: , based on geological connections and

text: paleomagnetic

text: evidence.  For example, in the reconstruction of  Angara in Siberia matches the Wopmay orogen and the GBMZ in Laurentia; and the Aktikan fold belt in Siberia matches the Thelon-Taltson belt in Laurentia.  Several other tectonic models have been proposed, however, and the possible connections between the two early continents remain controversial.

text: Some of the child's primary experiences are positive and essential for the physical and mental growth of the child. Others may be traumatic: neglect, parental inadequacy or possible mental illness, physical or psychological violence, child abuse, even of a sexual nature, as well as the constant frustrations and disillusionments that lead the child to organize its defences and boost its phantasies. All these experiences cannot be repressed because the hippocampus, necessary for the explicit memory, which is in turn indispensable for repression, is not mature in early infancy (R. Joseph, 1996; Siegel, 1999). On the contrary, the amygdala, which promotes the organization of the implicit memory, undergoes an earlier maturation (R. Joseph, 1996). Therefore, these early experiences, including those that concern the organization of language, can only be deposited in this latter form of memory and they contribute to the formation of an early unrepressed unconscious nucleus of the self (Mancia, 2003a, in press).

text: Some of the child's primary experiences are positive and essential for the physical and mental growth of the child. Others may be traumatic: neglect, parental inadequacy or possible mental illness, physical or psychological violence, child abuse, even of a sexual nature, as well as the constant frustrations and disillusionments that lead the child to organize its defences and boost its

text: phantasies

text: . All these experiences cannot be repressed because the

text: hippocampus

text: , necessary for the explicit memory, which is in turn indispensable for repression, is not mature in early infancy (R. Joseph, 1996; Siegel, 1999). On the contrary, the

text: amygdala

text: , which promotes the organization of the implicit memory, undergoes an earlier maturation (R. Joseph, 1996). Therefore, these early experiences, including those that concern the organization of language, can only be deposited in this latter form of memory and they contribute to the formation of an early unrepressed unconscious nucleus of the self (Mancia, 2003a, in press).

text: Glycolysis is an oxygen independent metabolic pathway, meaning that it does not use molecular oxygen (i.e. atmospheric oxygen) for any of its reactions. However the products of glycolysis (pyruvate and NADH + H) are sometimes metabolized using atmospheric oxygen. When molecular oxygen is used for the metabolism of the products of glycolysis the process is usually referred to as aerobic, whereas if no oxygen is used the process is said to be anaerobic. Thus, glycolysis occurs, with variations, in nearly all organisms, both aerobic and anaerobic. The wide occurrence of glycolysis indicates that it is one of the most ancient metabolic pathways. Indeed, the reactions that constitute glycolysis and its parallel pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, occur metal-catalyzed under the oxygen-free conditions of the Archean oceans, also in the absence of enzymes. Glycolysis could thus have originated from chemical constraints of the prebiotic world.

text: Glycolysis is an oxygen independent metabolic pathway, meaning that it does not use molecular oxygen (i.e. atmospheric oxygen) for any of its reactions. However the products of glycolysis (

text: pyruvate

text: and

text: NADH

text: + H) are sometimes

text: metabolized

text: using atmospheric oxygen. When molecular oxygen is used for the metabolism of the products of glycolysis the process is usually referred to as

text: aerobic

text: , whereas if no oxygen is used the process is said to be

text: anaerobic

text: . Thus, glycolysis occurs, with variations, in nearly all organisms, both

text: aerobic

text: and

text: anaerobic

text: . The wide occurrence of glycolysis indicates that it is one of the most ancient metabolic pathways. Indeed, the reactions that constitute glycolysis and its parallel pathway, the

text: pentose phosphate pathway

text: , occur metal-catalyzed under the

text: oxygen-free conditions

text: of the

text: Archean

text: oceans, also in the absence of enzymes. Glycolysis could thus have originated from chemical constraints of the prebiotic world.

text: Early in January 1874 Earle called an organizational meeting in Springfield among people he had met there who seemed favorable to his idea for a new workers mutual aid organization. Fifteen people responded to Earle's convention call and they worked for a week drafting a constitution for a new organization — the Order of Sovereigns of Industry. The Order was to be governed by a National Council, headed by Earle as the group's President. A set of rituals was also adopted, with the Sovereigns of Industry choosing to copy the early Grange's structure as a secret society.

text: Early in January 1874 Earle called an organizational meeting in

text: Springfield

text: among people he had met there who seemed favorable to his idea for a new workers mutual aid organization. Fifteen people responded to Earle's convention call and they worked for a week drafting a constitution for a new organization — the Order of Sovereigns of Industry. The Order was to be governed by a National Council, headed by Earle as the group's President. A set of rituals was also adopted, with the Sovereigns of Industry choosing to copy the early Grange's structure as a secret society.

text: In the Early Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville's widely read encyclopedia presented the term "antipodes" as referring to antichthones (people who lived on the opposite side of the Earth), as well as to a geographical place; these people came to play a role in medieval discussions about the shape of the Earth. In 748, in reply to a letter from Saint Boniface, Pope Zachary declared the belief "that beneath the earth there was another world and other men, another sun and moon" to be heretical.  In his letter, Boniface had apparently maintained that Vergilius of Salzburg held such a belief.

text: In the

text: Early Middle Ages

text: Isidore of Seville

text: 's widely read

text: encyclopedia

text: presented the term "antipodes" as referring to

text: antichthones

text: (people who lived on the opposite side of the Earth), as well as to a geographical place; these people came to play a role in medieval discussions about the

text: shape of the Earth

text: . In 748, in reply to a letter from

text: Saint Boniface

text: Pope Zachary

text: declared the belief "that beneath the earth there was another world and other men, another sun and moon" to be heretical.  In his letter, Boniface had apparently maintained that

text: Vergilius of Salzburg

text: held such a belief.

text: Self-assembled vesicles are essential components of primitive cells. The second law of thermodynamics requires that the universe move in a direction in which disorder (or entropy) increases, yet life is distinguished by its great degree of organization. Therefore, a boundary is needed to separate life processes from non-living matter. The cell membrane is the only cellular structure that is found in all of the cells of all of the organisms on Earth.

text: Self-assembled vesicles are essential components of primitive cells. The

text: second law of thermodynamics

text: requires that the universe move in a direction in which disorder (or

text: entropy

text: ) increases, yet life is distinguished by its great degree of organization. Therefore, a boundary is needed to separate

text: life processes

text: from non-living matter. The

text: cell membrane

text: is the only cellular structure that is found in all of the cells of all of the organisms on Earth.

text: A classic example of co-evolution is the evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthetic cyanobacteria which oxygenated Earth's Archean atmosphere. The ancestors of cyanobacteria began using water as an electron source to harness the energy of the sun and expelling oxygen before or during the early Paleoproterozoic. During this time, around 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago, geologic data suggests that atmospheric oxygen began to rise in what is termed the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE). It is unclear for how long cyanobacteria had been doing oxygenic photosynthesis before the GOE. Some evidence suggests there were geochemical "buffers" or sinks suppressing the rise of oxygen such as volcanism though cyanobacteria may have been around producing it before the GOE. Other evidence indicates that the rise of oxygenic photosynthesis was coincident with the GOE.

text: A classic example of co-evolution is the evolution of

text: oxygen

text: -producing

text: photosynthetic

text: cyanobacteria

text: which oxygenated Earth's

text: Archean

text: atmosphere. The ancestors of cyanobacteria began using water as an electron source to harness the energy of the sun and expelling oxygen before or during the early

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: . During this time, around 2.4 to 2.1 billion years ago, geologic data suggests that atmospheric oxygen began to rise in what is termed the

text: Great Oxygenation Event (GOE)

text: . It is unclear for how long cyanobacteria had been doing oxygenic photosynthesis before the GOE. Some evidence suggests there were geochemical "buffers" or sinks suppressing the rise of oxygen such as

text: volcanism

text: though cyanobacteria may have been around producing it before the GOE. Other evidence indicates that the rise of oxygenic photosynthesis was coincident with the GOE.

text: "Mutual Core" is a song recorded by Icelandic singer Björk for her eighth studio album Biophilia (2011). It was written and produced by Björk herself, while programming and beats were made in collaboration with Matthew Herbert and the English dubstep band 16bit. "Mutual Core" is an uptempo experimental song. Its music includes Pipe organ, electronica-tinged sounds and features the Choir Graduale Nobili, the choir featured on Biophilia. The song's lyrics are a metaphor for human relationships, compared to the structure of the Earth and Plate tectonics. The song was well received by contemporary music critics, who praised its production and beats, moreover appreciating Björk's voice on the track.

text: "Mutual Core" is a song recorded by

text: Iceland

text: ic singer

text: Björk

text: for her eighth studio album

text: Biophilia

text: (2011). It was written and produced by Björk herself, while programming and beats were made in collaboration with

text: Matthew Herbert

text: and the English dubstep band

text: . "Mutual Core" is an

text: uptempo

text: experimental

text: song. Its music includes

text: Pipe organ

text: electronica

text: -tinged sounds and features the

text: Choir

text: Graduale Nobili, the choir featured on Biophilia. The song's lyrics are a metaphor for human relationships, compared to the structure of the

text: Earth

text: and

text: Plate tectonics

text: . The song was well received by contemporary

text: music critics

text: , who praised its production and beats, moreover appreciating Björk's voice on the track.

text: This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around  thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with basaltic rocks ("mafic") dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower density granitic rocks ("felsic"). See also Plate tectonics.

text: This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth.

text: Tectonic plates

text: are pieces of Earth's

text: crust

text: and uppermost

text: mantle

text: , together referred to as the

text: lithosphere

text: . The plates are around  thick and consist of two principal types of material:

text: oceanic crust

text: (also called

text: sima

text: from

text: silicon

text: and

text: magnesium

text: ) and

text: continental crust

text: sial

text: from silicon and

text: aluminium

text: ). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with

text: basalt

text: ic rocks ("

text: mafic

text: ") dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower

text: density

text: granitic

text: rocks ("

text: felsic

text: "). See also

text: Plate tectonics

text: Compartmentalization was important in the origins of life. Membranes create enclosed compartments that are separate from the external environment, thus providing the cell with functionally specialized aqueous spaces. Because lipid bilayer of membranes is impermeable to most hydrophilic molecules (dissolved by water), the cell must have membrane transport systems that are in charge of import of  nutritive molecules as well as export of waste. It is very challenging to construct protocells from molecular assemblies. An important step in this challenge is the achievement of vesicle dynamics that are relevant to cellular functions, such as membrane trafficking and self-reproduction, using amphiphilic molecules. On the primitive Earth, numerous chemical reactions of organic compounds produced the ingredients of life. Of these substances, amphiphilic molecules might be the first player in the evolution from molecular assembly to cellular life. A step from vesicle toward protocell might be to develop self-reproducing vesicles coupled with the metabolic system.

text: Compartmentalization was important in the origins of life. Membranes create enclosed compartments that are separate from the external environment, thus providing the cell with functionally specialized aqueous spaces. Because lipid bilayer of membranes is impermeable to most

text: hydrophilic

text: molecules (dissolved by water), the cell must have membrane transport systems that are in charge of import of  nutritive molecules as well as export of waste. It is very challenging to construct protocells from molecular assemblies. An important step in this challenge is the achievement of vesicle dynamics that are relevant to cellular functions, such as membrane trafficking and self-reproduction, using amphiphilic molecules. On the primitive Earth, numerous chemical reactions of organic compounds produced the ingredients of life. Of these substances, amphiphilic molecules might be the first player in the evolution from molecular assembly to cellular life. A step from vesicle toward protocell might be to develop self-reproducing vesicles coupled with the metabolic system.

text: On a mission to find new resources and allies, a Weave scout ship discovers Earth circa late 20th/early 21st century AD and finds that humans are uniquely suited as allies, in that they have the ability to fight. They are adaptable to a wide variety of environments, have few (or sometimes no) compunctions regarding war (humans having been fighting each other for all of their recorded history), and above all seem even more enthusiastic when their aggression is focused on non-humans.  Eventually Weave xenopsychologists determine that Earth's fragmented continents resulted in a species that evolved to fight, compete, and kill for dominance.  They surmise that all humans are born hunters and killers, but that intelligence is starting to drive them toward the abhorrence of violence that other "civilized" species consider normal.

text: On a mission to find new resources and allies, a Weave scout ship discovers

text: Earth

text: circa late 20th/early 21st century AD and finds that

text: humans

text: are uniquely suited as allies, in that they have the ability to fight. They are adaptable to a wide variety of environments, have few (or sometimes no) compunctions regarding war (humans having been fighting each other for all of their recorded history), and above all seem even more enthusiastic when their aggression is focused on non-humans.  Eventually Weave xenopsychologists determine that Earth's fragmented continents resulted in a species that evolved to fight, compete, and kill for dominance.  They surmise that all humans are born hunters and killers, but that intelligence is starting to drive them toward the abhorrence of violence that other "civilized" species consider normal.

text: In 2007 two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.

text: In 2007 two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of

text: plate tectonics

text: on larger

text: super-Earth

text: s with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-Earths even if the planet is dry.

text: Following the final attack on the Terracon, launched from Earth, the Terracon mothership, critically damaged, crash-lands on Earth's moon, preceded by an immense explosion. On Earth, Xed celebrates the destruction of the Terracon with the early hominids, who populate the planet. Xed and the early hominids interbreed to create a new species: modern man.

text: Following the final attack on the Terracon, launched from Earth, the Terracon mothership, critically damaged, crash-lands on Earth's moon, preceded by an immense explosion. On Earth, Xed celebrates the destruction of the Terracon with the early hominids, who populate the planet. Xed and the early hominids interbreed to create a new species:

text: modern man

text: HTT has been shown to occur between species and across continents in both plants () and animals (Ivancevic et al. 2013), though some TEs have been shown to more successfully colonize the genomes of certain species over others (). Both spatial and taxonomic proximity of species has been proposed to favor HTTs in plants and animals (). It is unknown how the density of a population may affect the rate of HTT events within a population, but close proximity due to parasitism and cross contamination due to crowding have been proposed to favor HTT in both plants and animals (). Successful transfer of a transposable element requires delivery of DNA from donor to host cell (and to the germ line for multi-cellular organisms), followed by integration into the recipient host genome (). Though the actual mechanism for the transportation of TEs from donor cells to host cells is unknown, it is established that naked DNA and RNA can circulate in bodily fluid (). Many proposed vectors include arthropods, viruses, freshwater snails (Ivancevic et al. 2013), endosymbiotic bacteria (), and intracellular parasitic bacteria (). In some cases, even TEs facilitate transport for other TEs ().

text: HTT has been shown to occur between species and across continents in both plants () and animals (Ivancevic et al. 2013), though some TEs have been shown to more successfully colonize the genomes of certain species over others (). Both spatial and taxonomic proximity of species has been proposed to favor HTTs in plants and animals (). It is unknown how the density of a population may affect the rate of HTT events within a population, but close proximity due to

text: parasitism

text: and cross contamination due to crowding have been proposed to favor HTT in both plants and animals (). Successful transfer of a transposable element requires delivery of DNA from donor to host cell (and to the germ line for multi-cellular organisms), followed by integration into the recipient host genome (). Though the actual mechanism for the transportation of TEs from donor cells to host cells is unknown, it is established that

text: naked DNA

text: and RNA can circulate in bodily fluid (). Many proposed vectors include arthropods, viruses, freshwater snails (Ivancevic et al. 2013), endosymbiotic bacteria (), and intracellular parasitic bacteria (). In some cases, even TEs facilitate transport for other TEs ().

text: O'Neill returns to the Stargate Program when the Goa'uld Apophis attacks the Earth installation via its stargate. He is given command of SG-1, which consists of Samantha Carter, Teal'c and Jackson. Eventually O'Neill gets the Repository of the Ancients temporarily "downloaded" to his brain and becomes the first modern human to travel to another galaxy, the Asgard home galaxy. A second download of the Ancients' knowledge into his brain during the season 7 finale, allows him to lead SG-1 to an Ancient outpost in Antarctica. O'Neill possesses the ATA gene, and thus is able to operate the Ancient control chair and save Earth from Anubis' fleet. With the Ancient knowledge about to overwhelm his personality and kill him, he is placed into a stasis pod in the outpost until Thor of the Asgard is able to remove the knowledge and save his life. After that event, O'Neill is promoted to brigadier general and is given command of Stargate Command. O'Neill is promoted again off-screen and becomes the new head of the Department of Homeworld Security after the retirement of General Hammond with Major General Hank Landry taking his position as the new commander of Stargate Command.

text: O'Neill returns to the

text: Stargate Program

text: when the

text: Goa'uld

text: Apophis

text: attacks the Earth installation via its stargate. He is given command of SG-1, which consists of

text: Samantha Carter

text: Teal'c

text: and Jackson. Eventually O'Neill gets the

text: Repository of the Ancients

text: temporarily "downloaded" to his brain and becomes the first modern human to travel to another galaxy, the

text: Asgard

text: home galaxy. A second download of the Ancients' knowledge into his brain during the season 7 finale, allows him to lead SG-1 to an Ancient outpost in Antarctica. O'Neill possesses the

text: ATA gene

text: , and thus is able to operate the

text: Ancient control chair

text: and save Earth from Anubis' fleet. With the Ancient knowledge about to overwhelm his personality and kill him, he is placed into a stasis pod in the outpost until

text: Thor

text: of the

text: Asgard

text: is able to remove the knowledge and save his life. After that event, O'Neill is promoted to

text: brigadier general

text: and is given command of

text: Stargate Command

text: . O'Neill is promoted again off-screen and becomes the new head of the

text: Department of Homeworld Security

text: after the retirement of General Hammond with Major General

text: Hank Landry

text: taking his position as the new commander of Stargate Command.

text: In plate tectonics the outermost part of the earth – the crust and uppermost mantle – are viewed as acting as a single mechanical layer, the lithosphere. The lithosphere is divided into separate 'plates' that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak asthenosphere in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of sea-floor spreading; transform where plates slide past each other and convergent where plates converge and lithosphere is 'consumed' by the process of subduction. Convergent and transform boundaries form the largest structural discontinuities in the lithosphere and are responsible for most of the world's major (M > 7) earthquakes. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's volcanoes, such as around the Pacific Ring of Fire. Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates, either directly or indirectly.

text: In plate tectonics the outermost part of the earth – the

text: crust

text: and uppermost

text: mantle

text: – are viewed as acting as a single mechanical layer, the

text: lithosphere

text: . The lithosphere is divided into separate 'plates' that move relative to each other on the underlying, relatively weak

text: asthenosphere

text: in a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the earth's interior. There are three main types of plate boundaries:

text: divergent

text: where plates move apart from each other and new lithosphere is formed in the process of

text: sea-floor spreading

text: transform

text: where plates slide past each other and

text: convergent

text: where plates converge and lithosphere is 'consumed' by the process of

text: subduction

text: . Convergent and transform boundaries form the largest structural discontinuities in the lithosphere and are responsible for most of the world's major (

text: M

text: > 7)

text: earthquake

text: s. Convergent and divergent boundaries are also the site of most of the world's

text: volcano

text: es, such as around the

text: Pacific Ring of Fire

text: . Most of the deformation in the lithosphere is related to the interaction between plates, either directly or indirectly.

text: Not all deformations originate within the Earth. The gravity of the Moon and Sun cause the Earth's surface at a given point to undulate by tenths of meters over a nearly 12-hour period (see Earth tide).

text: Not all deformations originate within the Earth. The gravity of the Moon and Sun cause the Earth's surface at a given point to undulate by tenths of meters over a nearly 12-hour period (see

text: Earth tide

text: Ventus Technologies designs and manufactures cellular routers and other wireless hardware for machine-to-machine and enterprise wireless applications. Ventus' hardware includes dual-carrier, modular, multi-interface embedded wireless 4G LTE/3G routers and multi-band cellular antennas.

text: Ventus Technologies designs and manufactures

text: cellular router

text: s and other wireless hardware for

text: machine-to-machine

text: and enterprise wireless applications. Ventus' hardware includes dual-carrier, modular, multi-interface

text: embedded

text: wireless

text: 4G LTE

text: routers and

text: multi-band

text: cellular

text: antennas

text: Much of this evidence has been used to describe modern day plate tectonics. A problem with this is that Archean plate tectonics could have been vastly different than the processes that are occurring on Earth today.

text: Much of this evidence has been used to describe modern day

text: plate tectonics

text: . A problem with this is that

text: Archean

text: plate tectonics

text: could have been vastly different than the processes that are occurring on Earth today.

text: The speculation that the American continents had once formed a single landmass with Europe and Asia before assuming the present shapes and positions was suggested by several scientists before Alfred Wegener's 1912 paper.Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas:Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890),Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907)and Frank Bursley Taylor (1908). In addition, Eduard Suess had proposed a supercontinent Gondwana in 1885 and the Tethys Ocean in 1893, assuming a land-bridge between the present continents submerged in the form of a geosyncline, and John Perry had written an 1895 paper proposing that the earth's interior was fluid, and disagreeing with Lord Kelvin on the age of the earth.

text: The speculation that the American continents had once formed a single landmass with Europe and Asia before assuming the present shapes and positions was suggested by several scientists before

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's 1912 paper.Although Wegener's theory was formed independently and was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener later credited a number of past authors with similar ideas:Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890),

text: Roberto Mantovani

text: (between 1889 and 1909),

text: William Henry Pickering

text: Frank Bursley Taylor

text: (1908). In addition,

text: Eduard Suess

text: had proposed a supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: in 1885 and the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: in 1893, assuming a

text: land-bridge

text: between the present continents submerged in the form of a

text: geosyncline

text: , and

text: John Perry

text: had written an 1895 paper proposing that the earth's interior was fluid, and disagreeing with

text: Lord Kelvin

text: on the age of the earth.

text: The Paleocene bird Scaniornis was described from fossil bones aged some 60 million years or more, which were found in the Limnhamn limestone; it was apparently a waterbird and might have been an early flamingo relative. At that time, the Limnhamn region was located as far south as central Germany today due to plate tectonics, and as it was warmer and somewhat more humid than today had a climate more comparable to the French Mediterranean or the Black Sea.

text: The

text: Paleocene

text: bird

text: Scaniornis

text: was described from

text: fossil

text: bones aged some 60 million years or more, which were found in the Limnhamn limestone; it was apparently a waterbird and might have been an early

text: flamingo

text: relative. At that time, the Limnhamn region was located as far south as central

text: Germany

text: today due to

text: plate tectonic

text: s, and as it was warmer and somewhat more

text: humid

text: than today had a

text: climate

text: more comparable to the French

text: Mediterranean

text: or the

text: Black Sea

text: The mesosphere (middle atmosphere)  is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located about 50-80/85 km above Earth's surface. The stratosphere (middle atmosphere) is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10 km and 50 km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above the troposphere and directly below the mesosphere. The troposphere (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

text: The

text: mesosphere

text: (middle atmosphere)  is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located about 50-80/85 km above Earth's surface. The

text: stratosphere

text: (middle atmosphere) is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10 km and 50 km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above the troposphere and directly below the mesosphere. The

text: troposphere

text: (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

text: During the group's early years (1979–1986), Earth First! mixed publicity stunts (such as rolling a plastic "crack" down Glen Canyon Dam) with far-reaching wilderness proposals that reportedly went beyond what mainstream environmental groups were willing to advocate (with conservation biology research from a biocentric perspective). The group's proposals were published in a periodical, Earth First! The Radical Environmental Journal, informally known as the Earth First! Journal. Edward Abbey often spoke at early gatherings, and his writings were an inspiration that led him to be revered by the early movement.  An annual gathering of the group was known as the Round River Rendezvous, with the name taken from an Ojibwa myth about a continuous river of life flowing into and out of itself and sustaining all relations. The rendezvous is part celebration with art and music, part activist conference with workshops and accounts of past actions. Another project led by the organization at this time was the creation of a tax-deductible fund, then called Earth First! Foundation, which was established with the aim of providing financial support for research, advocacy and education by Earth First! activists. The fund was later renamed to Fund for Wild Nature in 1991.

text: During the group's early years (1979–1986), Earth First! mixed publicity stunts (such as rolling a plastic "crack" down

text: Glen Canyon Dam

text: ) with far-reaching

text: wilderness

text: proposals that reportedly went beyond what mainstream environmental groups were willing to advocate (with

text: conservation biology

text: research from a

text: biocentric

text: perspective). The group's proposals were published in a periodical, Earth First! The Radical Environmental Journal, informally known as the Earth First! Journal.

text: Edward Abbey

text: often spoke at early gatherings, and his writings were an inspiration that led him to be revered by the early movement.  An annual gathering of the group was known as the Round River Rendezvous, with the name taken from an

text: Ojibwa

text: myth about a continuous river of life flowing into and out of itself and sustaining all relations. The rendezvous is part celebration with art and music, part activist conference with workshops and accounts of past actions. Another project led by the organization at this time was the creation of a tax-deductible fund, then called Earth First! Foundation, which was established with the aim of providing financial support for research, advocacy and education by Earth First! activists. The fund was later renamed to

text: Fund for Wild Nature

text: in 1991.

text: Orthonectida () is a small phylum of poorly known parasites of marine invertebrates that are among the simplest of multi-cellular organisms. Members of this phylum are known as orthonectids.

text: Orthonectida () is a small

text: phylum

text: of poorly known

text: parasite

text: s of marine invertebrates that are among the simplest of multi-cellular organisms. Members of this phylum are known as orthonectids.

text: There are two types of global earth climates: icehouse and greenhouse. Icehouse is characterized by frequent continental glaciations and severe desert environments.  Greenhouse is characterized by warm climates.  Both reflect the supercontinent cycle.  We are now in a little greenhouse phase of an icehouse world.

text: Early on, Earth Island instituted additional protections for sea turtles and sharks with its cooperating tuna companies.  Earth Island first proposed that sea turtles in tuna nets be released in 1996, a provision which has now been adopted by international agreement by all tuna fishing treaty organizations.  Earth Island further banned shark finning on tuna vessels in the Dolphin Safe program, a measure which is also slowly being adopted by treaty organizations.

text: State switching (a.k.a. phenotypic switching) is a fundamental physiological process in which a cell/organism undergoes spontaneous, and potentially reversible, transitions between different phenotypes.  Thus, the ability to switch states/phenotypes (phenotypic plasticity) is a key feature of development and normal function of cells within most multicellular organisms that enables the cell to respond to various intrinsic and extrinsic cues and stimuli in a concerted fashion enabling them to ‘make’ appropriate cellular decisions. Although state switching is essential for normal functioning, the repertoire of phenotypes in a normal cell is albeit limited.

text: State switching (a.k.a. phenotypic switching) is a fundamental physiological process in which a cell/organism undergoes spontaneous, and potentially reversible, transitions between different phenotypes.  Thus, the ability to switch states/phenotypes (

text: phenotypic plasticity

text: ) is a key feature of development and normal function of cells within most multicellular organisms that enables the cell to respond to various intrinsic and extrinsic cues and stimuli in a concerted fashion enabling them to ‘make’ appropriate cellular decisions. Although state switching is essential for normal functioning, the repertoire of phenotypes in a normal cell is albeit limited.

text: There is a progression of tectonic regimes that accompany the supercontinent cycle:

text: Some researchers have speculated that Earth may have been seeded by organic compounds early in its development by tholin-rich comets, providing the raw material necessary for life to develop (see Miller-Urey experiment for discussion related to this issue). Tholins do not exist naturally on present-day Earth due to the oxidizing character of the free oxygen component of its atmosphere ever since the Great Oxygenation Event around 2.4 billion years ago.

text: Some researchers have speculated that Earth may have been seeded by organic compounds early in its development by tholin-rich comets, providing the raw material necessary for life to develop (see

text: Miller-Urey experiment

text: for discussion related to this issue). Tholins do not exist naturally on present-day Earth due to the oxidizing character of the

text: free oxygen

text: component of its atmosphere ever since the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: around 2.4 billion years ago.

text: The Earth of the early Archean may have supported a tectonic regime unlike that of the present. Some scientists argue that, because the Earth was much hotter, tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much faster rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed. Others argue that the oceanic lithosphere was too buoyant to subduct, and that the rarity of Archean rocks is a function of erosion by subsequent tectonic events. The question of whether plate tectonic activity existed in the Archean is an active area of modern research.

text: The Earth of the early Archean may have supported a tectonic regime unlike that of the present. Some scientists argue that, because the Earth was much hotter,

text: tectonic

text: activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much faster rate of

text: recycling of crustal material

text: . This may have prevented

text: craton

text: isation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed. Others argue that the oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: was too buoyant to

text: subduct

text: , and that the rarity of Archean rocks is a function of erosion by subsequent tectonic events. The question of whether plate tectonic activity existed in the Archean is an active area of modern research.

text: Topobiology is Edelman’s theory which asserts that morphogenesis is driven by differential adhesive interactions among heterogeneous cell populations and it explains how a single cell can give rise to a complex multi-cellular organism. As proposed byEdelman in 1988 topobiology is the process that sculpts and maintains differentiated tissues and is acquired by the energetically favored segregation of cells through heterologous cellular interactions.

text: <blockquote>Evolution of Man. – Undoubtedly there once lived upon the earth races of men who were much lower in their mental organization than the present inhabitants. If we follow the early history of man upon the earth, we find that at first he must have been little better than one of the lower animals. He was a nomad, wandering from place to place, feeding upon whatever living things he could kill with his hands. Gradually he must have learned to use weapons, and thus kill his prey, first using rough stone implements for this purpose. As man became more civilized, implements of bronze and of iron were used. About this time the subjugation and domestication of animals began to take place. Man then began to cultivate the fields, and to have a fixed place of abode other than a cave. The beginnings of civilization were long ago, but even to-day the earth is not entirely civilized.

text: Near Cape Mendocino, the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The Mendocino Fracture Zone (also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the Gorda Ridge) is a transform fault that separates the Pacific and Gorda Plates. To the south, the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and North American Plate is accommodated by the San Andreas Fault, and to the north, the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the Cascadia Subduction Zone. Earthquakes within the Gorda Plate are the result of north-south compression at the Mendocino Fault.

text: Near

text: Cape Mendocino

text: , the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together. The

text: Mendocino Fracture Zone

text: Gorda Ridge

text: ) is a

text: transform fault

text: that separates the

text: Pacific

text: and

text: Gorda Plate

text: North American Plate

text: is accommodated by the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: Cascadia Subduction Zone

text: . Earthquakes within the Gorda Plate are the result of north-south compression at the Mendocino Fault.

text: Praenuculidae is an extinct family of prehistoric bivalves in the superfamily Nuculoidea.  Praenuculidae species lived from the early Ordovician, Arenig stage through the Early Devonian Emsian stage.  Praenuculidae fossils are found worldwide, present on every continent except Antarctica.Species in this family are thought to have been sessile, attached to the substrate in shallow infaunal marine water environments, where they formed shells of an aragonite composition.  The family Praenuculidae was named by A. Lee McAlester in 1969.

text: Praenuculidae is an extinct

text: family

text: of prehistoric

text: bivalve

text: s in the

text: superfamily

text: Nuculoidea

text: .  Praenuculidae species lived from the

text: early Ordovician

text: Arenig stage

text: through the

text: Early Devonian

text: Emsian stage

text: .  Praenuculidae fossils are found worldwide, present on every continent except Antarctica.Species in this family are thought to have been

text: sessile

text: , attached to the substrate in shallow infaunal marine water environments, where they formed shells of an

text: aragonite

text: composition.  The family Praenuculidae was named by A. Lee McAlester in 1969.

text: PhEVER is a database of homologous gene families between viral sequences and sequences from cellular organisms.

text: In most stars (such as the Sun), the atmosphere is richer in oxygen than carbon. Ordinary stars not exhibiting the characteristics of carbon stars but cool enough to form carbon monoxide are therefore called oxygen-rich stars.

text: In most stars (such as the

text: Sun

text: ), the atmosphere is richer in oxygen than carbon. Ordinary stars not exhibiting the characteristics of carbon stars but cool enough to form carbon monoxide are therefore called oxygen-rich stars.

text: After the Wraith threat forced the Ancient inhabitants to return to Earth, Myrddin chose to seclude himself in meditation and learned to ascend. When he became convinced that the ascended Ori had become a threat to the humans in the Milky Way and even the Ancients, he chose to become human again while retaining most of the knowledge and powers he had gained through his ascension. Myrddin entrusted his secrets to a small number of noblemen on Earth, among them King Arthur. During this time, Myrddin also carved a tablet with an Ancient cipher leading to Avalon, which set the events of seasons 9 and 10 of SG-1 in motion. The weapon Myrddin sought to construct to defeat the Ori became known as the Sangraal, Blood Stone or Holy Grail. However, the Ancients did not support his research to design weapons that could eventually be used against them, and sent the ascended Ancient Morgan le Fay to watch him. Myrddin therefore constructed a dimension-shifting device known as Arthur's Mantle to conceal his work from them. In this device he hid the address of a planet where he supposedly hid the weapon, Camelot, and left more clues about the location of the Sangraal.

text: After the

text: Wraith

text: threat forced the Ancient inhabitants to return to Earth, Myrddin chose to seclude himself in meditation and learned to

text: ascend

text: . When he became convinced that the ascended

text: Ori

text: had become a threat to the humans in the Milky Way and even the Ancients, he chose to become human again while retaining most of the knowledge and powers he had gained through his ascension. Myrddin entrusted his secrets to a small number of noblemen on Earth, among them

text: King Arthur

text: . During this time, Myrddin also carved a tablet with an Ancient cipher leading to

text: Avalon

text: , which set the events of seasons 9 and 10 of SG-1 in motion. The weapon Myrddin sought to construct to defeat the Ori became known as the

text: Sangraal

text: , Blood Stone or

text: Holy Grail

text: . However, the Ancients did not support his research to design weapons that could eventually be used against them, and sent the ascended Ancient

text: Morgan le Fay

text: to watch him. Myrddin therefore constructed a dimension-shifting device known as

text: Arthur's Mantle

text: to conceal his work from them. In this device he hid the address of a planet where he supposedly hid the weapon,

text: Camelot

text: , and left more clues about the location of the Sangraal.

text: He eventually is pardoned so that the U.S. government can obtain his knowledge of advanced Kalahian technology.  He is made a member of the New Invaders, and begins to contribute his knowledge to the group. Unfortunately, the entire operation was actually a ruse by the ex-Nazi villain the Red Skull, who had disguised himself as the Secretary of Defense. Once this deception is revealed, Dickson forges ahead with the plan to create a new Invaders unit armed with Kahalian technology, specifically to thwart the Red Skull and his organization, the Axis Mundi. Dickson designs the battleship Infiltrator, which can travel through multi-dimensional space, effectively allowing it to teleport long distances; the Infiltrator is sacrificed when it is rammed into a doomsday weapon in order to protect the Earth from another World War II-era supervillain, U-Man.

text: He eventually is pardoned so that the U.S. government can obtain his knowledge of advanced Kalahian technology.  He is made a member of the

text: New Invaders

text: , and begins to contribute his knowledge to the group. Unfortunately, the entire operation was actually a ruse by the ex-Nazi villain the

text: Red Skull

text: , who had disguised himself as the

text: Secretary of Defense

text: . Once this deception is revealed, Dickson forges ahead with the plan to create a new Invaders unit armed with Kahalian technology, specifically to thwart the Red Skull and his organization, the Axis Mundi. Dickson designs the

text: battleship

text: Infiltrator, which can travel through multi-dimensional space, effectively allowing it to

text: teleport

text: long distances; the Infiltrator is sacrificed when it is rammed into a

text: doomsday weapon

text: in order to protect the Earth from another World War II-era supervillain,

text: U-Man

text: The Australian continent is defined as comprising the mainland of Australia and proximate islands on the same continental shelf, including Tasmania and New Guinea.  In the convention of the seven continents, one of the continents is the region of Australasia, which includes for example the mountainous islands of New Zealand. For both the geological and conventional continent, New Guinea's Carstensz Pyramid () is the highest summit. When considering a continent as a continuous landmass surrounded by oceans, mainland Australia would be its own continent, with Mount Kosciuszko () as its highest summit.

text: The

text: Australian continent

text: is defined as comprising the mainland of Australia and proximate islands on the same

text: continental shelf

text: , including

text: Tasmania

text: and

text: New Guinea

text: .  In the convention of the

text: seven continents

text: , one of the continents is the region of

text: Australasia

text: , which includes for example the mountainous islands of

text: New Zealand

text: . For both the geological and conventional continent, New Guinea's

text: Carstensz Pyramid

text: () is the highest summit. When considering a continent as a continuous landmass surrounded by oceans, mainland Australia would be its own continent, with

text: Mount Kosciuszko

text: () as its highest summit.

text: The thrifty phenotype hypothesis suggests that early-life metabolic adaptations help in survival of the organism by selecting an appropriate trajectory of growth in response to environmental cues. Recently, some scientists have proposed that the thrifty phenotype prepares the organism for its likely adult environment in long term.

text: The thrifty phenotype hypothesis suggests that early-life

text: metabolic

text: adaptations help in survival of the organism by selecting an appropriate trajectory of growth in response to environmental cues. Recently, some scientists have proposed that the thrifty phenotype prepares the organism for its likely adult environment in long term.

text: Omid was reported to have successfully completed its mission without any problems. It completed more than 700 orbits over seven weeks. According to U.S. Strategic Command, the Omid satellite reentered Earth's atmosphere on April 25, 2009, during an 8-hour window centered on 0342 UT. The most likely reentry location was over the south Atlantic Ocean approximately east of Buenos Aires, Argentina. No sightings were reported. The rocket body from the launch, which had also entered orbit, reentered the atmosphere May 31, 2009.

text: Omid was reported to have successfully completed its mission without any problems. It completed more than 700 orbits over seven weeks. According to

text: U.S. Strategic Command

text: , the Omid satellite

text: reentered

text: Earth's atmosphere on April 25, 2009, during an 8-hour window centered on 0342 UT. The most likely reentry location was over the south Atlantic Ocean approximately east of Buenos Aires, Argentina. No sightings were reported. The rocket body from the launch, which had also entered orbit, reentered the atmosphere May 31, 2009.

text: During the early Triassic, the super-continent Pangea was formed as the Iapetus Ocean closed up and the proto-North American continent collided with Avalonia, part of modern-day Africa. This caused great uplift and the creation of the Appalachian Mountains, which, at the time, were bigger than modern-day Himalayas. Erosion of the Appalachian Mountains now exposes metamorphic rocks once very deep in the Earth’s mantle and uplifted during this time period.

text: During the early

text: Triassic

text: , the super-continent

text: Pangea

text: was formed as the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: closed up and the

text: proto-North America

text: n continent collided with

text: Avalonia

text: , part of modern-day

text: Africa

text: . This caused great uplift and the creation of the

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: , which, at the time, were bigger than modern-day

text: Himalayas

text: . Erosion of the

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: now exposes

text: metamorphic rocks

text: once very deep in the Earth’s

text: mantle

text: and uplifted during this time period.

text: When cosmic rays enter the Earth's atmosphere they collide with atoms and molecules, mainly oxygen and nitrogen. The interaction produces a cascade of lighter particles, a so-called air shower secondary radiation that rains down, including x-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, and neutrons. All of the produced particles stay within about one degree of the primary particle's path.

text: When cosmic rays enter the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: they collide with

text: atom

text: s and

text: molecule

text: s, mainly oxygen and nitrogen. The interaction produces a cascade of lighter particles, a so-called

text: air shower

text: secondary radiation that rains down, including

text: x-rays

text: muon

text: s, protons,

text: alpha particle

text: s,

text: pion

text: s,

text: electron

text: s, and

text: neutron

text: s. All of the produced particles stay within about one degree of the primary particle's path.

text: Shelby Township was organized in 1858, the year Minnesota achieved statehood.  The township's main inducement to settlement was its rich prairie loam, rendered still more attractive by the availability of wood lots along the Blue Earth River.  By 1860, Shelby Township was the most populous in Blue Earth County.  In addition to its 315 residents, it also sustained a small but thriving village known as Shelbyville, located in Section 35, about two miles south of modern Amboy.  In the early 1860s Shelbyville hosted the county fair.  The town included a hotel, church, schoolhouse, mill, two stores, a blacksmith shop, a wagon shop, and a post office.

text: In response to a government aviation safety initiative in the early 2000s, NASA, in partnership with the FAA, NOAA, and private industry, sponsored the early development and evaluation of a proprietary multi-function in-situ atmospheric sensor for aircraft.  The predecessor to Panasonic Weather Solutions, AirDat (formerly ODS of Rapid City, SD), located in Morrisville, North Carolina and Lakewood, Colorado, was formed in 2003 to develop and deploy the Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) system based on requirements provided by the Global Systems Division (GSD) of NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory, the FAA, and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

text: In response to a government aviation safety initiative in the early 2000s,

text: NASA

text: , in partnership with the

text: FAA

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: NOAA

text: , and private industry, sponsored the early development and evaluation of a proprietary multi-function in-situ atmospheric sensor for aircraft.  The predecessor to Panasonic Weather Solutions, AirDat (formerly ODS of Rapid City, SD), located in

text: Morrisville, North Carolina

text: and

text: Lakewood, Colorado

text: , was formed in 2003 to develop and deploy the Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) system based on requirements provided by the Global Systems Division (GSD) of NOAA's

text: Earth System Research Laboratory

text: , the FAA, and the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: (WMO).

text: Early Greek philosophers alluded to a spherical Earth, though with some ambiguity. Pythagoras (6th century BC) was among those said to have originated the idea, but this may reflect the ancient Greek practice of ascribing every discovery to one or another of their ancient wise men. Some idea of the sphericity of the Earth seems to have been known to both Parmenides and Empedocles in the 5th century BC, and although the idea cannot reliably be ascribed to Pythagoras, it may, nevertheless have been formulated in the Pythagorean school in the 5th century BC although some disagree. After the 5th century BC, no Greek writer of repute thought the world was anything but round.

text: Early Greek philosophers alluded to a spherical Earth, though with some ambiguity.

text: Pythagoras

text: (6th century BC) was among those said to have originated the idea, but this may reflect the ancient Greek practice of ascribing every discovery to one or another of their ancient wise men. Some idea of the sphericity of the Earth seems to have been known to both

text: Parmenides

text: and

text: Empedocles

text: in the 5th century BC, and although the idea cannot reliably be ascribed to Pythagoras, it may, nevertheless have been formulated in the

text: Pythagorean school

text: in the 5th century BC although some disagree. After the 5th century BC, no Greek writer of repute thought the world was anything but round.

text: With the introduction of DC's multiverse, it was retroactively declared that the version of Superman published between 1938 and the early 1950s lived on Earth-Two, while comics featuring Superman published since approximately the mid-1950s took place on Earth-One. This was confirmed by the introduction of the Earth-Two Superman as a distinct character in Justice League of America (volume 1) #73 (August 1969). However, since Superman was one of several DC characters continuously published throughout the 1950s, there isn't a clear dividing line between the Earth-One and Earth-Two versions of Superman. Several stories published before the mid-1950s took place on Earth-One, such as Superman (volume 1) #78 from September–October 1952, the first appearance of the adult Lana Lang in Superman comics. Also, any Superman stories published before the mid-1950s that featured or mentioned Superboy also took place exclusively on Earth-One, as the Earth-Two Superman, per the earliest Superman comics, never had a Superboy career. The Earth-One Superman's first appearance in comics was in Superman (volume 1) #46 (May 1947), the first time Superboy was referenced in a Superman story. The Earth-One Superman's first appearance (in a flash-forward) in a Superboy story was in Superboy (volume 1) #1 (March–April 1949).

text: With the introduction of DC's multiverse, it was

text: retroactively declared

text: that the version of Superman published between 1938 and the early 1950s lived on Earth-Two, while comics featuring Superman published since approximately the mid-1950s took place on Earth-One. This was confirmed by the introduction of the

text: Earth-Two Superman

text: as a distinct character in Justice League of America (volume 1) #73 (August 1969). However, since Superman was one of several DC characters continuously published throughout the 1950s, there isn't a clear dividing line between the Earth-One and Earth-Two versions of Superman. Several stories published before the mid-1950s took place on Earth-One, such as Superman (volume 1) #78 from September–October 1952, the first appearance of the adult

text: Lana Lang

text: in Superman comics. Also, any Superman stories published before the mid-1950s that featured or mentioned

text: Superboy

text: also took place exclusively on Earth-One, as the

text: Earth-Two Superman

text: , per the earliest Superman comics, never had a Superboy career. The Earth-One Superman's first appearance in comics was in Superman (volume 1) #46 (May 1947), the first time Superboy was referenced in a Superman story. The Earth-One Superman's first appearance (in a

text: flash-forward

text: ) in a Superboy story was in Superboy (volume 1) #1 (March–April 1949).

text: Africa is considered by most paleoanthropologists to be the oldest inhabited territory on Earth, with the human species originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century, anthropologists discovered many fossils and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (BP=before present). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have evolved into modern man, such as Australopithecus afarensis (radiometrically dated to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP, Paranthropus boisei (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP) and Homo ergaster (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.

text: Africa is considered by most

text: paleoanthropologists

text: to be the

text: oldest inhabited territory

text: on

text: Earth

text: , with the

text: human species

text: originating from the continent. During the mid-20th century,

text: anthropologists

text: discovered many

text: fossil

text: s and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago (BP=before present). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have

text: evolved

text: into modern man, such as

text: Australopithecus afarensis

text: radiometrically dated

text: to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP,

text: Paranthropus boisei

text: (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP) and

text: Homo ergaster

text: (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.

text: For her groundbreaking work on fossil preservation that has transformed our view of how the history of life is encoded in the rock record. Her studies have revealed the fidelity of the fossil record, and thereby have yielded powerful insights to the evolution and ecology of ancient life on Earth.

text: A multi-sport event is an organized sporting event, often held over multiple days, featuring competition in many different sports between organized teams of athletes from (mostly) nation-states. Events are typically held over a few days to accommodate the large number of events held, often more than those in single-sport competitions. The first major, modern, multi-sport event of international significance was the modern Olympic Games. Some of the most recognised sporting events in the world today are multi-sport events — the World Games, the Commonwealth Games, the Pan American Games and the Mediterranean Games — among others. This article lists all major multi-sport events, whether defunct or functioning, in the modern day. A full listing of all major multi-sport events is provided in the table below.

text: A

text: multi-sport event

text: is an organized sporting event, often held over multiple days, featuring competition in many different sports between organized teams of athletes from (mostly) nation-states. Events are typically held over a few days to accommodate the large number of events held, often more than those in single-sport competitions. The first major, modern, multi-sport event of international significance was the modern

text: Olympic Games

text: . Some of the most recognised sporting events in the world today are multi-sport events — the World Games, the

text: Commonwealth Games

text: , the

text: Pan American Games

text: and the

text: Mediterranean Games

text: — among others. This article lists all major multi-sport events, whether defunct or functioning, in the modern day. A full listing of all major multi-sport events is provided in the table below.

text: At first, the released oxygen was bound up with limestone, iron, and other minerals. The oxidized iron appears as red layers in geological strata called banded iron formations that formed in abundance during the Siderian period (between 2500 Ma and 2300 Ma). When most of the exposed readily reacting minerals were oxidized, oxygen finally began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state. This was Earth's third atmosphere.

text: At first, the released oxygen was bound up with

text: limestone

text: iron

text: , and other minerals. The oxidized iron appears as red layers in geological strata called

text: banded iron formations

text: that formed in abundance during the

text: Siderian

text: period (between 2500 Ma and 2300 Ma). When most of the exposed readily reacting minerals were oxidized, oxygen finally began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state. This was Earth's third atmosphere.

text: In the Earth's atmosphere, water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy, while others are not absorbed. Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb, are like windows in the atmosphere, allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system. Like a window, that allows light to enter and leave.  Originally discovered by John Tyndall, most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked, absorbed by water vapor (and other greenhouse gases)in the Earth's atmosphere. Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface, are coming through what is called 'water vapor windows'.   These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes, called Infrared astronomy. These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet, the SSTs and other important matters.  See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water

text: In the Earth's atmosphere,

text: water vapor

text: absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy, while others are not absorbed. Those sections of the

text: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: that it does not absorb, are like windows in the atmosphere, allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system. Like a window, that allows light to enter and leave.  Originally discovered by

text: John Tyndall

text: , most of the

text: infrared

text: coming from the Universe is blocked, absorbed by water vapor (and other

text: greenhouse gases

text: )in the Earth's atmosphere. Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface, are coming through what is called 'water vapor windows'.   These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes, called

text: Infrared astronomy

text: . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet, the SSTs and other important matters.  See

text: The organic movement began in the early 1900s in response to the shift towards synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides in the early days of industrial agriculture. A relatively small group of farmers  came together in various associations: Demeter International of Germany, which encouraged biodynamic farming and began the first certification program, the Australian Organic Farming and Gardening Society, the Soil Association of the United Kingdom, and Rodale Press in the United States, along with others. In 1972 these organizations joined to form the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM). In recent years, environmental awareness has driven demand and conversion to organic farming. Some governments, including the European Union, have begun to support organic farming through agricultural subsidy reform. Organic production and marketing have grown at a fast pace.

text: The organic movement began in the early 1900s in response to the shift towards synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides in the early days of

text: industrial agriculture

text: . A relatively small group of farmers  came together in various associations:

text: Demeter International

text: of Germany, which encouraged

text: biodynamic farming

text: and began the first certification program, the

entity_name: Australian Organic Farming and Gardening Society

text: Australian Organic Farming and Gardening Society

text: , the

text: Soil Association

text: of the United Kingdom, and

text: Rodale Press

text: in the United States, along with others. In 1972 these organizations joined to form the

entity_name: International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) - Organics International

text: International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements

text: (IFOAM). In recent years, environmental awareness has driven demand and conversion to organic farming. Some governments, including the European Union, have begun to support organic farming through

text: agricultural subsidy

text: reform. Organic production and marketing have grown at a fast pace.

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidences of life include graphite, a biogenic substance, in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."  More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon. There are

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidences of life include

text: graphite

text: , a

text: biogenic substance

text: , in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in western

text: Greenland

text: and, in 2015, "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: ."  More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be

text: extinct

text: . Estimates on the number of Earth's current

text: species

text: range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: In discussing the taxonomic domains of life, the terms "Acytota" or "Aphanobionta" are occasionally used as the name of a viral kingdom, domain, or empire. The corresponding cellular life name would be Cytota. Non-cellular organisms and cellular life would be the two top-level subdivisions of life, whereby life as a whole would be known as organisms, Naturae, or Vitae. The taxon Cytota would include three top-level subdivisions of its own, the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

text: In discussing the

text: taxonomic

text: domains

text: of life, the terms "Acytota" or "Aphanobionta" are occasionally used as the name of a

text: viral

text: kingdom

text: , domain, or

text: empire

text: . The corresponding

text: cellular life

text: name would be

text: Cytota

text: . Non-cellular organisms and cellular life would be the two top-level subdivisions of life, whereby life as a whole would be known as organisms,

text: Naturae

text: , or

entity_name: List of phrases containing the word vitae

text: Vitae

text: . The taxon Cytota would include three top-level subdivisions of its own, the domains

text: Bacteria

text: Archaea

text: , and

text: Eukarya

text: Seismologists can use the arrival times of seismic waves in reverse to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid outer core (where shear waves were not able to propagate) and a dense solid inner core. These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a crust and lithosphere on top, the mantle below (separated within itself by seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.

text: Seismologists can use the arrival times of

text: seismic wave

text: s in reverse to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid

text: outer core

text: (where

text: shear waves

text: were not able to propagate) and a dense solid

text: inner core

text: . These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a

text: crust

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: on top, the

text: mantle

text: below (separated within itself by

text: seismic discontinuities

text: at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a CT scan. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model.

text: Sulfur is strongly siderophile and only moderately volatile and depleted in the silicate earth; thus may account for 1.9 weight % of Earth's core.  By similar argument; phosphorus may be present up to 0.2 weight %. Hydrogen and carbon, however, are highly volatile and thus would have been lost during early accretion and therefore can only account for 0.1 to 0.2 weight % respectively. Silicon and oxygen thus make up the remaining mass deficit of Earth's core; though the abundances of each are still a matter of controversy revolving largely around the pressure and oxidation state of Earth's core during its formation. No geochemical evidence exists to include any radioactive elements in Earth's core.  Despite this, experimental evidence has found potassium to be strongly siderophile given the temperatures associated with core formation, thus there is potential for potassium in planetary cores of planets, and therefore potassium-40 as well.

text: Sulfur

text: is strongly siderophile and only moderately volatile and depleted in the silicate earth; thus may account for 1.9 weight % of Earth's core.  By similar argument;

text: phosphorus

text: may be present up to 0.2 weight %. Hydrogen and carbon, however, are highly volatile and thus would have been lost during early accretion and therefore can only account for 0.1 to 0.2 weight % respectively.

text: Silicon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: thus make up the remaining mass deficit of Earth's core; though the abundances of each are still a matter of controversy revolving largely around the pressure and oxidation state of Earth's core during its formation. No geochemical evidence exists to include any radioactive elements in Earth's core.  Despite this, experimental evidence has found

text: potassium

text: to be strongly siderophile given the temperatures associated with core formation, thus there is potential for potassium in planetary cores of planets, and therefore

text: as well.

text: Reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide ion () and hydrogen peroxide (), are reactive by-products of oxygen use in organisms. Parts of the immune system of higher organisms create peroxide, superoxide, and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the hypersensitive response of plants against pathogen attack. Oxygen is damaging to obligately anaerobic organisms, which were the dominant form of early life on Earth until  began to accumulate in the atmosphere about 2.5 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event, about a billion years after the first appearance of these organisms.

text: Reactive oxygen species

text: , such as

text: superoxide

text: ion () and

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: (), are reactive by-products of oxygen use in organisms. Parts of the

text: immune system

text: of higher organisms create peroxide, superoxide, and singlet oxygen to destroy invading microbes. Reactive oxygen species also play an important role in the

text: hypersensitive response

text: of plants against pathogen attack. Oxygen is damaging to

text: obligately anaerobic organisms

text: , which were the dominant form of

text: early life

text: on Earth until  began to accumulate in the

text: atmosphere

text: about 2.5 billion years ago during the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: , about a billion years after the first appearance of these organisms.

text: The concept of the three continents in the Old World, viz. Asia, Africa, Europe goes back to classical antiquity. Their boundaries as defined by Ptolemy and other geographers of antiquity were drawn along the Nile and Don rivers. This definition remained influential throughout the Middle Ages (see T and O map) and the Early Modern period.

text: The concept of the three

text: continent

text: s in the Old World, viz.

text: Asia

text: Africa

text: Europe

text: goes back to

text: classical antiquity

text: . Their boundaries as defined by

text: Ptolemy

text: and other geographers of antiquity were drawn along the

text: Nile

text: and

text: Don

text: rivers. This definition remained influential throughout the Middle Ages (see

text: T and O map

text: ) and the

text: Early Modern period

text: In Cochinchina, patriotic activity manifested itself in the early years of the century by the creation of underground societies. The most important of which was the Thiên Địa Hội (Heaven and Earth Association) whose branches covered many provinces around Saigon. These associations often took the form of political-religious organizations, one of their main activities was to punish traitors in the pay of the French.

text: In Cochinchina, patriotic activity manifested itself in the early years of the century by the creation of underground societies. The most important of which was the

text: Thiên Địa Hội

text: Heaven and Earth Association

text: ) whose branches covered many provinces around

text: Saigon

text: . These associations often took the form of political-religious organizations, one of their main activities was to punish traitors in the pay of the French.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Ellis–van Creveld syndrome is one such  disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: root cause

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Ellis–van Creveld syndrome is one such  disease, part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: human

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet–Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel–Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: A correlation has been proposed between the episodic formation of UHT granulites and the episodic assembly and disruption of supercontinents or the plume activity during various periods in Earth history. UHT granulites are generally characterized by dry mineral assemblages, the stability of which require low water activities. The direct evidence for the involvement of CO-rich fluids in generating diagnostic UHT assemblages has been recorded from the common occurrence of pure CO fluid inclusions in buffering the water activity and stabilizing the anhydrous mineralogy of UHT rocks have come from the finding of abundant pure CO fluid inclusions in these rocks. UHT metamorphism has been recently evaluated in the plate tectonic context using modern analogues and it has been suggested that both post-collisional extension and rifting play a crucial role. The abundant CO liberated by subsolidus decarbonation along consuming plate boundaries was probably one of the factors that contributed to the greenhouse effect thereby triggering the deglaciation of snowball Earth. Based on the distributions of carbonated subcontinental mantle and crustal domains that have undergone CO-aided dry metamorphism at extreme conditions, Santosh and Omori (2008b) speculated that the UHT rocks might represent windows for the transfer of CO from the mantle into the mid crust and ultimately to the atmosphere.

text: A correlation has been proposed between the episodic formation of UHT granulites and the episodic assembly and disruption of supercontinents or the

text: plume

text: activity during various periods in Earth history. UHT granulites are generally characterized by dry mineral assemblages, the stability of which require low water activities. The direct evidence for the involvement of

text: CO

text: -rich fluids in generating diagnostic UHT assemblages has been recorded from the common occurrence of pure CO

text: fluid inclusions

text: in

text: buffering

text: the water

text: activity

text: and stabilizing the

text: anhydrous

text: mineralogy of UHT rocks have come from the finding of abundant pure CO fluid inclusions in these rocks. UHT metamorphism has been recently evaluated in the

text: plate tectonic

text: context using modern analogues and it has been suggested that both post-collisional extension and

text: rift

text: ing play a crucial role. The abundant CO liberated by

text: subsolidus

text: decarbonation along consuming

text: plate boundaries

text: was probably one of the factors that contributed to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: thereby triggering the de

text: glaciation

text: of

text: snowball Earth

text: . Based on the distributions of carbonated subcontinental

text: mantle

text: and crustal domains that have undergone CO-aided dry metamorphism at extreme conditions, Santosh and Omori (2008b) speculated that the UHT rocks might represent windows for the transfer of CO from the mantle into the mid crust and ultimately to the

text: atmosphere

text: Back on Earth, Kan returned to the life of a priest. Kan deeply regretted aiding Vung in defeating the Wizard Kings and sought to atone by devoting his life and those of his first-born male descendants to the service of mystics who themselves serve the forces of good. Ever since then, the firstborn males of Wong's family have carried on this tradition. For the ten generations preceding Wong's, the first-born males have served the Ancient One, the former sorcerer supreme of the Earth dimension. The last of the members of Wong's family to serve the Ancient One was Wong's own father, Hamir the Hermit, who remained with the Ancient One up to the time of the latter's death.

text: Back on Earth, Kan returned to the life of a priest. Kan deeply regretted aiding Vung in defeating the Wizard Kings and sought to atone by devoting his life and those of his first-born male descendants to the service of mystics who themselves serve the forces of good. Ever since then, the firstborn males of Wong's family have carried on this tradition. For the ten generations preceding Wong's, the first-born males have served the

text: Ancient One

text: , the former sorcerer supreme of the Earth dimension. The last of the members of Wong's family to serve the Ancient One was Wong's own father,

text: Hamir the Hermit

text: , who remained with the Ancient One up to the time of the latter's death.

text: The event brought about the extinction of the Spinosauridae, Pliosauridae, and possibly Ichthyosauria; although coracoids of Maastrichtian age may belong to ichthyosaurs, indicating the survival of the group until the latest Cretaceous. Other animals lost some diversity as well. Although the cause is still uncertain, the result starved the Earth's oceans of oxygen for nearly half a million years, causing the extinction of approximately 27 percent of marine invertebrates. This global environmental disturbance increased atmospheric and oceanic temperatures. Boundary sediments show an enrichment of trace elements, and contain elevated δ13C values.

text: The event brought about the extinction of the

text: Spinosauridae

text: Pliosauridae

text: , and possibly

text: Ichthyosauria

text: ; although

text: coracoid

text: s of

text: Maastrichtian

text: age may belong to ichthyosaurs, indicating the survival of the group until the latest Cretaceous. Other animals lost some diversity as well. Although the cause is still uncertain, the result starved the Earth's oceans of oxygen for nearly half a million years, causing the extinction of approximately 27 percent of

text: marine invertebrates

text: . This global environmental disturbance increased atmospheric and oceanic temperatures. Boundary sediments show an enrichment of trace elements, and contain elevated

text: values.

text: They have been isolated from Earth's surface for several million years because analyses of the water that they live in showed that it is very old and has not been diluted by surface water.As the environment at that depth is so much like the early Earth, it gives a handle on what kind of creatures might have existed before there was an oxygen atmosphere. Billions of years ago, some of the first bacteria on the planet may have thrived in similar conditions. The newly discovered microbes could shed light into the origins of life on Earth.

text: They have been isolated from Earth's surface for several million years because analyses of the water that they live in showed that it is very old and has not been diluted by surface water.As the environment at that depth is so much like the early Earth, it gives a handle on what kind of creatures might have existed before there was an oxygen atmosphere. Billions of years ago, some of the first bacteria on the planet may have thrived in similar conditions. The newly discovered microbes could shed light into the

text: origins of life

text: on Earth.

text: Founded in 1948, the Southern Early Childhood Association (or SECA) serves as a professional organization for members of the early childhood profession in the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia.  It is a separate and distinct organization from NAEYC with its own governing body, its own position statements, and its own scholar journal (Dimensions of Early Childhood).

text: Founded in 1948, the Southern Early Childhood Association (or SECA) serves as a professional organization for members of the

text: early childhood

text: profession in the states of

text: Alabama

text: Arkansas

text: Florida

text: Georgia

text: Kentucky

text: Louisiana

text: Mississippi

text: North Carolina

text: Oklahoma

text: South Carolina

text: Tennessee

text: Texas

text: Virginia

text: , and

text: West Virginia

text: .  It is a separate and distinct organization from

entity_name: National Association for the Education of Young Children

text: NAEYC

text: with its own governing body, its own position statements, and its own scholar journal (Dimensions of Early Childhood).

text: During the Mesozoic era (about 250 to 66 million years ago) a large ocean (Tethys Ocean), floored by oceanic lithosphere existed in-between the supercontinents of Gondwana and Laurasia (which lay to the south and north respectively). This large oceanic plate was consumed at subduction zones. At the subduction trenches the sedimentary rock layers that were deposited within the prehistoric Tethys Ocean buckled, were folded, faulted and tectonically mixed with huge blocks of crystalline basement rocks of the oceanic lithosphere. These blocks form a very complex mixture or mélange of rocks that include mainly serpentinite, basalt, dolerite, and chert. The Eurasian margin, now preserved in the Pontides (the Pontic Mountains along the Black Sea coast), is thought to have been geologically similar to the Western Pacific region today. Volcanic arcs and back-arc basins formed and were emplaced onto Eurasia as ophiolites as they collided with microcontinents (literally relatively small plates of continental lithosphere). These microcontinents had been pulled away from the Gondwanan continent further south. Turkey is therefore made up from several different prehistorical microcontinents.

text: During the

text: Mesozoic era

text: (about 250 to 66 million years ago) a large ocean (

text: Tethys Ocean

text: ), floored by oceanic lithosphere existed in-between the

text: supercontinent

text: s of

text: Gondwana

text: and

text: Laurasia

text: (which lay to the south and north respectively). This large oceanic plate was consumed at

text: subduction zone

text: s. At the subduction trenches the sedimentary rock layers that were deposited within the prehistoric Tethys Ocean buckled, were folded, faulted and tectonically mixed with huge blocks of crystalline basement rocks of the oceanic lithosphere. These blocks form a very complex mixture or

text: mélange

text: of rocks that include mainly

text: serpentinite

text: basalt

text: dolerite

text: , and

text: chert

text: . The Eurasian margin, now preserved in the Pontides (the

text: Pontic Mountains

text: along the Black Sea coast), is thought to have been geologically similar to the Western Pacific region today.

text: Volcanic arc

text: s and

text: back-arc basin

text: s formed and were emplaced onto Eurasia as

text: ophiolite

text: s as they collided with

text: microcontinent

text: s (literally relatively small plates of continental lithosphere). These microcontinents had been pulled away from the Gondwanan continent further south. Turkey is therefore made up from several different prehistorical microcontinents.

text: Perhaps the most profound geobiological event is the introduction of oxygen into the atmosphere by photosynthetic bacteria. This oxygenation of Earth's primoidial atmosphere (the so-called oxygen catastrophe or Great Oxygenation Event) and the oxygenation of the oceans altered surface biogeochemical cycles and the types of organisms that have been evolutionarily selected for.

text: Perhaps the most profound geobiological event is the introduction of

text: oxygen

text: into the atmosphere by

text: photosynthetic

text: bacteria

text: . This

text: oxygenation

text: of

text: Earth

text: 's primoidial atmosphere (the so-called

text: oxygen catastrophe or Great Oxygenation Event

text: ) and the oxygenation of the oceans altered surface biogeochemical cycles and the types of organisms that have been evolutionarily selected for.

text: The concept of a spherical Earth displaced earlier beliefs in a flat Earth: In early Mesopotamian mythology, the world was portrayed as a flat disk floating in the ocean and surrounded by a spherical sky, and this forms the premise for early world maps like those of Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus. Other speculations on the shape of Earth include a seven-layered ziggurat or cosmic mountain, alluded to in the Avesta and ancient Persian writings (see seven climes).

text: The concept of a spherical Earth displaced earlier beliefs in a

text: flat Earth

text: : In early

text: Mesopotamian mythology

text: , the world was portrayed as a flat disk floating in the ocean and surrounded by a spherical sky, and this forms the premise for

text: early world maps

text: like those of

text: Anaximander

text: and

text: Hecataeus of Miletus

text: . Other speculations on the shape of Earth include a seven-layered

text: ziggurat

text: or

text: cosmic mountain

text: , alluded to in the

text: Avesta

text: and ancient

text: Persian

text: writings (see

text: seven climes

text: During the Triassic, almost all the Earth's land mass was concentrated into a single supercontinent centered more or less on the equator and spanning from pole to pole, called Pangaea ("all the land"). From the east, along the equator, the Tethys sea penetrated Pangaea, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to be closed. Later in the mid-Triassic a similar sea penetrated along the equator from the west. The remaining shores were surrounded by the world-ocean known as Panthalassa ("all the sea"). All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through subduction of oceanic plates; thus, very little is known of the Triassic open ocean.

text: During the Triassic, almost all the Earth's land mass was concentrated into a single

text: supercontinent

text: centered more or less on the equator and spanning from pole to pole, called

text: Pangaea

text: ("all the land"). From the east, along the equator, the

text: Tethys sea

text: penetrated Pangaea, causing the

text: Paleo-Tethys Ocean

text: to be closed. Later in the mid-Triassic a similar sea penetrated along the equator from the west. The remaining shores were surrounded by the world-ocean known as

text: Panthalassa

text: ("all the sea"). All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through

text: subduction

text: of oceanic plates; thus, very little is known of the Triassic open ocean.

text: Temperature profiles are obtained by measuring along the oxygen absorption complex at 60 GHz. The emission at any altitude is proportional to local temperature and density of oxygen. Unlike water vapor, oxygen is relatively homogeneously distributed within the atmosphere and around the globe. Thanks to the relatively well known vertical profile of oxygen concentration, the brightness temperature signals can be directly used to derive the unknown temperature profile. Signals at the center of the absorption complex are dominated by the atmosphere closest to the radiometer (only the first hundred meters above the instrument). Moving more into the window region, the signal is a superposition from close and more distant regions of the atmosphere. The combination of several channels contains therefore information about the vertical temperature distribution. A similar approach is used to derive vertical profiles of water vapor utilizing the absorption line at 22.235 GHz.

text: Temperature

text: profiles are obtained by measuring along the oxygen

text: absorption

text: complex at 60 GHz. The

text: emission

text: at any altitude is proportional to local

text: temperature

text: and

text: density

text: of

text: oxygen

text: . Unlike

text: water vapor

text: oxygen

text: is relatively homogeneously distributed within the

text: atmosphere

text: and around the globe. Thanks to the relatively well known vertical profile of

text: oxygen

text: concentration, the brightness temperature signals can be directly used to derive the unknown

text: temperature

text: profile. Signals at the center of the absorption complex are dominated by the atmosphere closest to the radiometer (only the first hundred meters above the instrument). Moving more into the window region, the signal is a superposition from close and more distant regions of the

text: atmosphere

text: . The combination of several channels contains therefore information about the vertical

text: temperature

text: distribution. A similar approach is used to derive vertical profiles of

text: water vapor

text: utilizing the absorption line at 22.235 GHz.

text: Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic follows changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the late Triassic and early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass Pangaea, and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of coelophysoid carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores. Gymnosperm plants (particularly conifers), a potential food source, radiated in the late Triassic. Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract. The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the middle and late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of ceratosaurians, spinosauroids, and carnosaurians, and herbivores consisting of stegosaurian ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the Morrison Formation of North America and Tendaguru Beds of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized sinraptorid theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like Mamenchisaurus. Ankylosaurians and ornithopods were also becoming more common, but prosauropods had become extinct. Conifers and pteridophytes were the most common plants. Sauropods, like the earlier prosauropods, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential cheek-like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food. Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from maniraptoran coelurosaurians.

text: Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic follows changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the late Triassic and early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass

text: Pangaea

text: , and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of

text: coelophysoid

text: carnivore

text: s and early

text: sauropodomorph

text: herbivore

text: s.

text: Gymnosperm

text: plants (particularly

text: conifer

text: s), a potential food source, radiated in the late Triassic. Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract. The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the middle and late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of

text: ceratosauria

text: ns,

text: spinosauroids

text: , and

text: carnosauria

text: ns, and herbivores consisting of

text: stegosauria

text: n ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the

text: Morrison Formation

text: of North America and

text: Tendaguru Beds

text: of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized

text: sinraptorid

text: theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like

text: Mamenchisaurus

text: Ankylosauria

text: ns and

text: ornithopods

text: were also becoming more common, but

text: prosauropods

text: had become extinct. Conifers and

text: pteridophyte

text: s were the most common plants. Sauropods, like the earlier prosauropods, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential

text: cheek

text: -like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food. Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from

text: maniraptora

text: n

text: coelurosauria

text: ns.

text: Some of the satellites of Jupiter have features that may be related to plate-tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate-tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on Europa, a satellite of Jupiter—the first sign of such geological activity on another world other than Earth.

text: Some of the

text: satellites

text: of

text: Jupiter

text: have features that may be related to plate-tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate-tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on

text: Europa

text: , a satellite of Jupiter—the first sign of such geological activity on another world other than Earth.

text: By studying the regulation of the cell cycle, asymmetric cell division, and cellular differentiation, Shapiro's work has led to a much deeper understanding of the genetic and molecular processes that cause identical bacterial cells to split into different cell types. These are basic processes that underlie all life, from single-cell bacteria to multi-cellular organisms.  The process of the Caulobacter cell cycle also show similarities to stem cell division, in which two distinct cells arise, one of which differs from the parent cell while the other does not.

text: Beginning in the latest Middle Pennsylvanian (late Moscovian) a cycle of aridification began. At the time of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, the climate became cooler and drier. This is reflected in the rock record as the Earth entered into a short, intense ice age. Sea levels dropped by 100 m, and glacial ice covered most of the southern continent of Gondwana. The cooler, drier climate conditions were not favourable to the growth of rainforests, and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated patches, the islands of rainforest were mostly confined to wet valleys further and further apart. Little of the original lycopsid rainforest biome survived this initial climate crisis. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere crashed to one of its all time global lows in the Pennsylvanian and early Permian.

text: Beginning in the latest Middle Pennsylvanian (late Moscovian) a cycle of aridification began. At the time of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, the climate became cooler and drier. This is reflected in the rock record as the Earth entered into a short, intense ice age. Sea levels dropped by 100 m, and glacial ice covered most of the southern continent of

text: Gondwana

text: . The cooler, drier climate conditions were not favourable to the growth of rainforests, and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated patches, the islands of rainforest were mostly confined to wet valleys further and further apart. Little of the original lycopsid rainforest biome survived this initial climate crisis. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere crashed to one of its all time global lows in the Pennsylvanian and early Permian.

text: The causes of supercontinent assembly and dispersal are thought to be driven by processes in the mantle. Approximately 660 km into the mantle, a discontinuity occurs, affecting the surface crust through processes like plumes and "superplumes". When a slab of crust that is subducted is denser than the surrounding mantle, it sinks to the discontinuity. Once the slabs build up, they will sink through to the lower mantle in what is known as a "slab avalanche". This displacement at the discontinuity will cause the lower mantle to compensate and rise elsewhere. The rising mantle can form a plume or superplume.

text: The causes of supercontinent assembly and dispersal are thought to be driven by processes in the

text: mantle

text: . Approximately 660 km into the mantle, a discontinuity occurs, affecting the surface crust through processes like

text: plume

text: s and "

text: superplume

text: s". When a slab of crust that is subducted is denser than the surrounding mantle, it sinks to the discontinuity. Once the slabs build up, they will sink through to the lower mantle in what is known as a "slab avalanche". This displacement at the discontinuity will cause the lower mantle to compensate and rise elsewhere. The rising mantle can form a plume or superplume.

text: The Tonga Plate is a small southwest Pacific tectonic plate or microplate. It is centered at approximately 19° S. latitude and 173° E. longitude. The plate is an elongated plate oriented NNE - SSW and is a northward continuation of the Kermadec linear zone north of New Zealand. The plate is bounded on the east and north by the Pacific Plate, on the northwest by the Niuafo’ou Microplate, on the west and south by the Indo-Australian Plate. The Tonga plate is subducting the Pacific plate along the Tonga Trench. This subduction turns into a transform fault boundary north of Tonga. An active rift or spreading center separates the Tonga from the Australian plate and the Niuafo’ou microplate to the west. The Tonga plate is seismically very active and is rotating clockwise.

text: The Tonga Plate is a small southwest Pacific

text: tectonic plate

text: or microplate. It is centered at approximately 19° S. latitude and 173° E. longitude. The plate is an elongated plate oriented NNE - SSW and is a northward continuation of the Kermadec linear zone north of New Zealand. The plate is bounded on the east and north by the

text: Pacific Plate

text: , on the northwest by the

text: Niuafo’ou Microplate

text: , on the west and south by the

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: . The Tonga plate is subducting the Pacific plate along the

text: Tonga Trench

text: . This subduction turns into a

text: transform fault

text: boundary north of Tonga. An active rift or spreading center separates the Tonga from the Australian plate and the Niuafo’ou microplate to the west. The Tonga plate is seismically very active and is rotating clockwise.

text: With Madagascar already geographically isolated by the Paleocene and lemur diversification dating to the same time, an explanation was needed for how lemurs had made it to the island.  In the 19th century, prior to the theory of continental drift, scientists including Philip Sclater, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, and Ernst Haeckel suggested that Madagascar and India were once part of a southern continent—named Lemuria by Sclater—that has since disappeared under the Indian Ocean.  By the early 20th century, oceanic dispersal emerged as the most popular explanation for how lemurs reached the island.  The idea first took shape under the anti-plate tectonics movement of the early 1900s, when renowned paleontologist William Diller Matthew proposed the idea in his influential article "Climate and Evolution" in 1915.  In the article, Matthew could only account for the presence of lemurs in Madagascar by "rafting".  In the 1940s, American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson coined the term "sweepstakes dispersal" for such unlikely events.

text: With Madagascar already geographically isolated by the Paleocene and lemur diversification dating to the same time, an explanation was needed for how lemurs had made it to the island.  In the 19th century, prior to the theory of

text: continental drift

text: , scientists including

text: Philip Sclater

text: Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

text: , and

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: suggested that Madagascar and India were once part of a southern continent—named

text: Lemuria

text: by Sclater—that has since disappeared under the Indian Ocean.  By the early 20th century,

text: oceanic dispersal

text: emerged as the most popular explanation for how lemurs reached the island.  The idea first took shape under the anti-

text: plate tectonics

text: movement of the early 1900s, when renowned

text: paleontologist

text: William Diller Matthew

text: proposed the idea in his influential article "Climate and Evolution" in 1915.  In the article, Matthew could only account for the presence of lemurs in Madagascar by "

text: rafting

text: ".  In the 1940s, American paleontologist

text: George Gaylord Simpson

text: coined the term "sweepstakes dispersal" for such unlikely events.

text: Supercontinents describe the merger of all, or nearly all, of the Earth's landmass into a single contiguous continent.  In the Pangaea Ultima scenario, subduction at the western Atlantic, east of the Americas, leads to the subduction of the Atlantic mid-ocean ridge followed by subduction destroying the Atlantic and Indian basin, causing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans to close, bringing the Americas back together with Africa and Europe.  As with most supercontinents, the interior of Pangaea Proxima would probably become a semi-arid desert prone to extreme temperatures.

text: Supercontinents describe the merger of all, or nearly all, of the

text: Earth

text: 's landmass into a single contiguous

text: continent

text: .  In the Pangaea Ultima scenario,

text: subduction

text: at the western Atlantic, east of the

text: Americas

text: , leads to the subduction of the

text: Atlantic mid-ocean ridge

text: followed by subduction destroying the Atlantic and Indian

text: basin

text: , causing the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Indian Ocean

text: s to close, bringing the

text: Americas

text: back together with

text: Africa

text: and

text: Europe

text: .  As with most supercontinents, the interior of Pangaea Proxima would probably become a semi-arid

text: desert

text: prone to extreme temperatures.

text: A diverse variety of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the biosphere on Earth, and properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon- and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information. Living organisms undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli, reproduce and, through natural selection, adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means.

text: A diverse variety of living organisms (life forms) can be found in the

text: biosphere

text: on

text: Earth

text: , and properties common to these organisms—

text: plant

text: s,

text: animal

text: s,

text: fungi

text: protist

text: s,

text: archaea

text: , and

text: bacteria

text: —are a

text: carbon

text: - and

text: water

text: -based

text: cellular

text: form with complex

text: organization

text: and heritable

text: gene

text: tic information. Living organisms undergo

text: metabolism

text: , maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , possess a capacity to

text: grow

text: , respond to

text: stimuli

text: reproduce

text: and, through

text: natural selection

text: , adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate through various means.

text: As UNIT evacuates the town, a soldier tells the Doctor he has captured one of the Shalka on the surface.  The Shalka was accidentally exposed to raw oxygen when a cylinder near it exploded.  The raw oxygen caused it to pass out.  The Doctor also discovers that Alison is alive, and that none of the survivors from the town have made it to their new destinations.  The Doctor attempts to interrogate the Shalka but it recovers and attacks the soldier.  The Doctor uses more oxygen to subdue it until he can determine what's going on.  He also discovers that the survivors all have sore throats.  The survivors and Alison all march against their will to a warehouse in another town.  The Doctor arrives in his TARDIS with UNIT men inside and they storm the area.  The Doctor removes a living Shalka from Alison's forehead but the effort causes him to pass out.  When he recovers they find that all around the world people are mobilizing against their will to strategic points on Earth.  The Doctor realizes that the reason everyone has a sore throat is that they all have been emitting subsonic screams when under Shalka control.  The Shalka are using the screams to alter the atmosphere of the Earth.  As the slaves begin emitting their screams and the ozone layer of the Earth is being stripped away the Doctor takes Alison and the Master back to the Shalka underground lair.  When asked if the Master is coming with them, the Doctor tells Alison that the Master cannot leave the TARDIS.  The Doctor and Alison confront Prime, who tells them that the Shalka inhabit 80% of the worlds in the universe, living underground off of volcanic energy.  When a species is on the edge of ecological destruction, the Shalka come in and finish destroying the planet.  The rest of the universe assumes that the species that died off did the damage to themselves, and the Shalka live underground in the remains of that world.

text: The mediocrity principle suggests that there is a chance that serendipitous events may have allowed an Earth-like planet to form elsewhere that would allow the emergence of complex, multi-cellular life. In contrast, the Rare Earth hypothesis asserts that if the strictest criteria are applied, such a planet, if it exists, may be so far away that humans may never locate it.

text: The

text: mediocrity principle

text: suggests that there is a chance that serendipitous events may have allowed an Earth-like planet to form elsewhere that would allow the emergence of complex, multi-cellular life. In contrast, the

text: Rare Earth hypothesis

text: asserts that if the strictest criteria are applied, such a planet, if it exists, may be so far away that humans may never locate it.

text: After much time, believed by Daniel Jackson to be thousands of years, the Ancients discovered a "great belt of stars", which they named "Avalon" (Milky Way Galaxy) where they eventually built an impressive empire. The Ancients built Astria Porta (Stargates), which were spread out throughout the Milky Way. Furthermore, the Ancients sent out "seed ships" to spread Stargates to other galaxies, along with Destiny, which was sent out after the "seed ships" to further investigate a pattern discovered in the Cosmic Background Microwave Radiation (Stargate Universe). Among the planets they settled was Earth, which they called Terra. The status of Earth in the Ancients' empire is currently unknown. However, as the planet's original Stargate, eventually discovered by SG-1 in Antarctica, was the oldest gate ever encountered, and being the eventual birthplace of the second evolution of humanity, Earth was probably one of their oldest, if not the first world, they settled upon arriving in this galaxy.  Also the nine-chevron address that dials the ship Destiny must use Earth as the point of origin, no matter what planet the Stargate is dialing from, so Earth must have been very important, possibly the capitol to their empire.  It was also once the location of one of the Ancients City Ships, Atlantis, before it moved to the Pegasus Galaxy, and it was where their descendants returned to after their defeat by the Wraith. Other important planets they have colonized were Praclarush Teonas, Dakara and Valos Cor.

text: After much time, believed by

text: Daniel Jackson

text: to be thousands of years, the Ancients discovered a "great belt of stars", which they named "Avalon" (Milky Way Galaxy) where they eventually built an impressive empire. The Ancients built Astria Porta (Stargates), which were spread out throughout the Milky Way. Furthermore, the Ancients sent out "seed ships" to spread Stargates to other galaxies, along with Destiny, which was sent out after the "seed ships" to further investigate a pattern discovered in the Cosmic Background Microwave Radiation (

text: Stargate Universe

text: ). Among the planets they settled was Earth, which they called Terra. The status of Earth in the Ancients' empire is currently unknown. However, as the planet's original Stargate, eventually discovered by

text: in

text: Antarctica

text: , was the oldest gate ever encountered, and being the eventual birthplace of the second evolution of humanity, Earth was probably one of their oldest, if not the first world, they settled upon arriving in this galaxy.  Also the nine-chevron address that dials the ship Destiny must use Earth as the point of origin, no matter what planet the Stargate is dialing from, so Earth must have been very important, possibly the capitol to their empire.  It was also once the location of one of the

text: Ancients City Ships

text: Atlantis

text: , before it moved to the

text: Pegasus Galaxy

text: , and it was where their descendants returned to after their defeat by the

text: Wraith

text: . Other important planets they have colonized were Praclarush Teonas,

text: Dakara

text: and Valos Cor.

text: The  Adriatic or Apulian Plate is a small tectonic plate carrying primarily continental crust that broke away from the African plate along a large transform fault in the Cretaceous period. The name Adriatic Plate is usually used when referring to the northern part of the plate. This part of the plate was deformed during the Alpine orogeny, when the Adriatic/Apulian Plate collided with the Eurasian plate.

text: The  Adriatic or Apulian Plate is a small

text: tectonic plate

text: carrying primarily

text: continental crust

text: that broke away from the

text: African plate

text: along a large

text: transform fault

text: in the

text: Cretaceous

text: period. The name Adriatic Plate is usually used when referring to the northern part of the plate. This part of the plate was

text: deformed

text: during the

text: Alpine orogeny

text: , when the Adriatic/Apulian Plate

text: collided

text: with the

text: Eurasian plate

text: Timonya is an extinct genus of temnospondyl amphibian represented by the type species Timonya anneae from the Early Permian of Brazil. Timonya is a basal member of a clade or evolutionary grouping of temnospondyls called Dvinosauria. It was named in 2015 on the basis of several specimens from the lower part of the Pedra de Fogo Formation in Parnaíba Basin, which is about 278 million years old. It was likely a small aquatic predator that inhabited lakes and wetland areas. During the Early Permian the center of tetrapod diversity was in the equatorial regions of the supercontinent Pangea, and Timonya was part of this fauna.

text: Timonya is an extinct

text: genus

text: of

text: temnospondyl

text: amphibian represented by the

text: type species

text: Timonya anneae from the

text: Early Permian

text: of Brazil. Timonya is a

text: basal

text: member of a

text: clade

text: or evolutionary grouping of temnospondyls called

text: Dvinosauria

text: . It was named in 2015 on the basis of several specimens from the lower part of the

text: Pedra de Fogo Formation

text: in

text: Parnaíba Basin

text: , which is about 278 million years old. It was likely a small aquatic predator that inhabited lakes and wetland areas. During the Early Permian the center of tetrapod diversity was in the equatorial regions of the supercontinent

text: Pangea

text: , and Timonya was part of this fauna.

text: A pure oxygen atmosphere carries risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of Apollo 1 during a ground test at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure (increased even higher by the fire) prevented removal of the plug door hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three, Gus Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger Chaffee, were killed. This led NASA to use a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.

text: A pure oxygen atmosphere carries risk of fire. The original design of the Apollo spacecraft used pure oxygen at greater than atmospheric pressure prior to launch. An electrical fire started in the cabin of

text: Apollo 1

text: during a ground test at

entity_name: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34

text: Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34

text: on 27 January 1967, and spread rapidly. The high pressure (increased even higher by the fire) prevented removal of the

text: plug door

text: hatch cover in time to rescue the crew. All three,

text: Gus Grissom

text: Edward H. White

text: , and

text: Roger Chaffee

text: , were killed. This led NASA to use a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere before launch, and low pressure pure oxygen only in space.

text: The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of 35% during the Carboniferous period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen and the breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for rapid development of animals.

text: The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of 35% during the

text: Carboniferous

text: period, significantly higher than today's 21%. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: plants

text: use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

text: , releasing oxygen and the breakdown of

text: pyrite

text: and

text: volcanic eruption

text: s release

text: sulfur

text: into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today's atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for rapid development of animals.

text: Asia () is Earth's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres and sharing the continental landmass of Eurasia with the continent of Europe. Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometers, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population, was the site of many of the first civilizations. Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but also dense and large settlements as well as vast barely populated regions within the continent of 4.4 billion people.

text: Asia () is

text: Earth

text: 's largest and most populous

text: continent

text: , located primarily in the

text: eastern

text: and

text: northern

text: hemispheres and sharing the continental landmass of

text: Eurasia

text: with the continent of

text: Europe

text: . Asia covers an area of 44,579,000 square kilometers, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the

text: human population

text: , was the site of many of the

text: first civilizations

text: . Asia is notable for not only its overall large size and population, but also dense and large settlements as well as vast barely populated regions within the continent of 4.4 billion people.

text: A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism that consists of only one cell, unlike a multicellular organism that consists of more than one cell. Historically, the simple single celled organisms have sometimes been referred to as monads, specially the unicellular flagellates. The main groups of unicellular organisms are bacteria, archaea, protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi. Unicellular organisms fall into two general categories: prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early protocells possibly emerging 3.8–4 billion years ago.

text: A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an

text: organism

text: that consists of only one

text: cell

text: , unlike a

text: multicellular organism

text: that consists of more than one cell. Historically, the simple single celled organisms have sometimes been referred to as monads, specially the unicellular

text: flagellate

text: s. The main groups of unicellular organisms are

text: bacteria

text: archaea

text: protozoa

text: , unicellular

text: algae

text: , and unicellular

text: fungi

text: . Unicellular organisms fall into two general categories:

text: prokaryotic

text: organisms and

text: eukaryotic

text: organisms. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early

text: protocell

text: s possibly emerging 3.8–4 billion years ago.

text: During the Precambrian, stromatolite communities of microorganisms grew in most marine and non-marine environments in the photic zone. After the Cambrian explosion of marine animals, grazing on the stromatolite mats by herbivores greatly reduced the occurrence of the stromatolites in marine environments. Since then, they are found mostly in hypersaline conditions where grazing invertebrates cannot live (e.g. Shark Bay, Western Australia). Stromatolites provide ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which might date from more than 3.5 Ga ago, but this is disputed.  the oldest undisputed evidence of cyanobacteria is from 2.1 Ga ago, but there is some evidence for them as far back as 2.7 Ga ago. Oxygen levels in the atmosphere remained around or below 1% of today's level until 2.4 Ga ago (the Great Oxygenation Event). The rise in oxygen may have caused a fall in methane levels, and triggered the Huronian glaciation from around 2.4 to 2.1 Ga ago. In this way, cyanobacteria may have killed off much of the other bacteria of the time.

text: During the

text: Precambrian

text: , stromatolite communities of microorganisms grew in most marine and non-marine environments in the photic zone. After the Cambrian explosion of marine animals, grazing on the stromatolite mats by herbivores greatly reduced the occurrence of the stromatolites in marine environments. Since then, they are found mostly in hypersaline conditions where grazing invertebrates cannot live (e.g.

text: Shark Bay

text: , Western Australia). Stromatolites provide ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which might date from more than 3.5

text: Ga

text: ago, but this is disputed.  the oldest undisputed evidence of cyanobacteria is from 2.1 Ga ago, but there is some evidence for them as far back as 2.7 Ga ago.

text: Oxygen

text: levels in the atmosphere remained around or below 1% of today's level until 2.4 Ga ago (the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: ). The rise in oxygen may have caused a fall in

text: methane

text: levels, and triggered the

text: Huronian glaciation

text: from around 2.4 to 2.1 Ga ago. In this way, cyanobacteria may have killed off much of the other bacteria of the time.

text: During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand and by the High German consonant shift on the continent on the other, resulting in Upper German and Low Saxon, with graded intermediate Central German varieties. By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South to Northern Low Saxon in the North, and, although both extremes are considered German, they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties had completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.

text: During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand and by the

text: High German consonant shift

text: on the continent on the other, resulting in

text: Upper German

text: and

text: Low Saxon

text: , with graded intermediate

text: Central German

text: varieties. By early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from

text: Highest Alemannic

text: in the South to

text: Northern Low Saxon

text: in the North, and, although both extremes are considered German, they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties had completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.

text: Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the  "pertaining to building") is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's lithosphere, over the last hundreds of millions of years. The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

text: Plate tectonics (from the

text: Late Latin

text: tectonicus, from the  "pertaining to building") is a

text: scientific theory

text: describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: lithosphere

text: , over the last hundreds of millions of years. The theoretical model builds on the concept of

text: continental drift

text: developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The

text: geoscientific

text: community accepted plate-tectonic theory after

text: seafloor spreading

text: was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

text: In the continuity of Stargate SG-1, the first Goa'uld faced by Earth is Ra in the Stargate film, although the concept of the Goa'uld had not yet been developed when the movie was released. In the early seasons of the show, SG-1 faces and defeats the powerful Goa'uld Apophis twice, as well as Hathor and Sokar, and gains an alliance with the Tok'ra. The System Lords begin to play a larger role in the show as SG-1's activities draw their attention to Earth, and SG-1 defeats several of their number as well. In season 5, the half-Ascended Goa'uld Anubis becomes the main threat, eventually leading SG-1 on a race to discover Ancient technology capable of defeating him. Anubis is seemingly destroyed at the end of season 7, and Ba'al takes his place as the major villain in season 8. The Goa'uld also establish a foothold on Earth by infiltrating the Trust. Near the end of season 8, SG-1, the Tok'ra, and the Jaffa rebellion finally overthrow the Goa'uld order, and Anubis is defeated once and for all. The Goa'uld have a diminished role in seasons 9 and 10, with Ba'al being the only remaining major Goa'uld character and representing a third major side in the fight between SG-1 and the Ori until he is finally shot and killed by Cameron Mitchell.

text: In the continuity of

text: Stargate SG-1

text: , the first Goa'uld faced by Earth is

text: Ra

text: in the

text: Stargate film

text: , although the concept of the Goa'uld had not yet been developed when the movie was released. In the early seasons of the show,

text: faces and defeats the powerful Goa'uld

text: Apophis

text: twice, as well as

text: Hathor

text: and

text: Sokar

text: , and gains an alliance with the

text: Tok'ra

text: . The

text: System Lords

text: begin to play a larger role in the show as SG-1's activities draw their attention to Earth, and SG-1 defeats several of their number as well. In season 5, the

text: half-Ascended

text: Goa'uld

text: Anubis

text: becomes the main threat, eventually leading SG-1 on a race to discover

text: Ancient

text: technology capable of defeating him. Anubis is seemingly destroyed at the end of season 7, and

text: Ba'al

text: takes his place as the major villain in season 8. The Goa'uld also establish a foothold on Earth by infiltrating the

text: Trust

text: . Near the end of season 8, SG-1, the Tok'ra, and the Jaffa rebellion finally overthrow the Goa'uld order, and Anubis is defeated once and for all. The Goa'uld have a diminished role in seasons 9 and 10, with Ba'al being the only remaining major Goa'uld character and representing a third major side in the fight between SG-1 and the

text: Ori

text: until he is finally shot and killed by Cameron Mitchell.

text: Scientists have established the approximate age that life first appears in the fossil record, but that doesn't necessarily equal the time that life first evolved on Earth. Though fossils have not been found in older rocks, evidence for life can be found in other ways, such as extended carbon isotope data and Raman Spectroscopy. There is also ongoing work within the scientific community to solve the problem of how cellular life evolved in a hostile early earth.

text: Scientists have established the approximate age that life first appears in the fossil record, but that doesn't necessarily equal the time that life first evolved on Earth. Though fossils have not been found in older rocks, evidence for life can be found in other ways, such as extended carbon

text: isotope

text: data and

text: Raman Spectroscopy

text: . There is also ongoing work within the scientific community to solve the problem of how cellular life evolved in a hostile early earth.

text: Early uses of petroleum- Earth Charter- Earth Day- Earth First!- Earth from the Air- Earth house- Earth immune system- Earth in the Balance- Earth observation satellite- Earth Rights Institute- Earth science- Earth sheltering- Earth Simulator- Earth Summit- Earth Summit 2002- Earthen dam- Earthjustice- Earthlife Africa- EarthSave- Earthwatch Institute- Earthweek

text: Early uses of petroleum

text: Earth Charter

text: Earth Day

text: Earth First!

text: Earth from the Air

text: Earth house

text: Earth immune system

text: Earth in the Balance

text: Earth observation satellite

text: Earth Rights Institute

text: Earth science

text: Earth sheltering

text: Earth Simulator

text: Earth Summit

text: Earth Summit 2002

text: Earthen dam

text: Earthjustice

text: Earthlife Africa

text: EarthSave

text: Earthwatch Institute

text: Earthweek

text: miR-598 has been shown to directly target and inhibit the Sir2 homolog, silent information regulator one (SRT1) enzyme, in the senescence of human adipose-tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Increased miR-598 expression during the senescent state is accompanied by a decreased expression of SRT1, meaning an absence of the inhibited p53 acetylation usually observed with increased STR1 levels. miR-598 acts to modulate cellular senescence. More specifically, its overexpression induces senescence in early-passage cells whilst inhibition conversely sees a partial recovery of the ageing phenotype through increased cellular differentiation.

text: miR-598 has been shown to directly target and inhibit the

text: homolog, silent information regulator one (SRT1) enzyme, in the

text: senescence

text: of human

text: adipose-tissue

text: -derived

text: mesenchymal stem cell

text: s. Increased miR-598 expression during the senescent state is accompanied by a decreased expression of SRT1, meaning an absence of the inhibited

text: acetylation

text: usually observed with increased STR1 levels. miR-598 acts to modulate cellular senescence. More specifically, its overexpression induces senescence in early-passage cells whilst inhibition conversely sees a partial recovery of the ageing

text: phenotype

text: through increased

text: cellular differentiation

text: The Ordovician spans from 485 million years to 440 million years. The Ordovician was a time in Earth's history in which many species still prevalent today evolved, such as primitive fish, cephalopods, and coral. The most common forms of life, however, were trilobites, snails and shellfish. More importantly, the first arthropods crept ashore to colonize Gondwana, a continent empty of animal life. By the end of the Ordovican, Gondwana was at the south pole, and early North America had collided with Europe, closing the Atlantic Ocean. Glaciation of Africa resulted in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life that had established life along coastal Gondwana. Glaciation caused a snowball Earth, leading to the Ordovician-Silurian extinction, during which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families became extinct. This is considered the first mass extinction and the second deadliest in the history of Earth.

text: The Ordovician spans from 485 million years to 440 million years. The Ordovician was a time in Earth's history in which many species still prevalent today evolved, such as primitive fish,

text: cephalopods

text: , and coral. The most common forms of life, however, were trilobites, snails and shellfish. More importantly, the first arthropods crept ashore to colonize

text: Gondwana

text: , a continent empty of animal life. By the end of the Ordovican, Gondwana was at the south pole, and early North America had collided with Europe, closing the Atlantic Ocean. Glaciation of Africa resulted in a major drop in sea level, killing off all life that had established life along coastal Gondwana. Glaciation caused a

text: snowball Earth

text: , leading to the

text: Ordovician-Silurian extinction

text: , during which 60% of marine invertebrates and 25% of families became extinct. This is considered the first mass extinction and the second deadliest in the history of Earth.

text: The Early Cretaceous in Africa is known primarily from the northern part of the continent, particularly Niger. Suchomimus, Elrhazosaurus, Spinostropheus, Rebbachisaurus, Nigersaurus,  Kryptops, Nqwebasaurus, and Paranthodon are some of the Early Cretaceous dinosaurs known from Africa. The Early Cretaceous was an important time for the dinosaurs of Africa because it was when Africa finally separated from South America, forming the South Atlantic Ocean. This was an important event because now the dinosaurs of Africa started developing endemism because of isolation.The Late Cretaceous of Africa is known mainly from North Africa. During the early part of the Late Cretaceous, North Africa was home to a rich dinosaur fauna. It includes Spinosaurus, Carcharodontosaurus, Rugops, Bahariasaurus, Deltadromeus, Paralititan, Aegyptosaurus, and Ouranosaurus.

text: The

text: Early Cretaceous

text: in Africa is known primarily from the northern part of the continent, particularly

text: Niger

text: Suchomimus

text: Elrhazosaurus

text: Spinostropheus

text: Rebbachisaurus

text: Nigersaurus

text: Kryptops

text: Nqwebasaurus

text: , and

text: Paranthodon

text: are some of the Early Cretaceous dinosaurs known from Africa. The Early Cretaceous was an important time for the dinosaurs of Africa because it was when Africa finally separated from

text: South America

text: , forming the South Atlantic Ocean. This was an important event because now the dinosaurs of Africa started developing

text: endemism

text: because of isolation.The Late Cretaceous of Africa is known mainly from North Africa. During the early part of the Late Cretaceous, North Africa was home to a rich dinosaur fauna. It includes

text: Spinosaurus

text: Carcharodontosaurus

text: Rugops

text: Bahariasaurus

text: Deltadromeus

text: Paralititan

text: Aegyptosaurus

text: , and

text: Ouranosaurus

text: To understand the pathways that control cell motility, tissue morphogenesis, and neuronal development, Li monitors both physical and biochemical reactions that overlap spatially and change rapidly, but occur only locally within a complex environment. Her broad goal is to understand how eukaryotic cells establish their distinct morphology and organization in order to carry out their specialized functions with applications in development and cancer. Specifically, how eukaryotic cells generate pattern through self-organization with or without environmental cues, accomplish division or motility through coordinated structural rearrangements and force production, and, when challenged with stress and roadblocks, evolve innovative solutions to main vitality and functionality. A key part of her research is exploring how the ability to evolve is built into cellular systems and how that ability gives rise to a cell’s properties. Li has published several seminal papers on the impact of aneuploidy on cellular fitness, gene expression, stress adaptation, and genome instability. As aneuploidy and chromosome instability are hallmarks of cancer, her results on how aneuploidy fuels the evolution of cellular adaptation and drug resistance have direct relevance to the understanding of cancer evolution and disease progression. Li has also studied the molecular mechanisms that lead to oocyte maturation, which can contribute to “advances in the treatment of infertility and the field of regenerative medicine.”

text: To understand the pathways that control

text: cell motility

text: , tissue

text: morphogenesis

text: , and neuronal development, Li monitors both physical and biochemical reactions that overlap spatially and change rapidly, but occur only locally within a complex environment. Her broad goal is to understand how

text: eukaryotic cells

text: establish their distinct

text: morphology

text: and

text: organization

text: in order to carry out their specialized functions with applications in development and

text: cancer

text: . Specifically, how

text: eukaryotic cells

text: generate pattern through self-organization with or without environmental cues, accomplish

text: division

text: or

text: motility

text: through coordinated structural rearrangements and force production, and, when challenged with stress and roadblocks, evolve innovative solutions to main vitality and functionality. A key part of her research is exploring how the ability to

text: evolve

text: is built into cellular systems and how that ability gives rise to a cell’s properties. Li has published several seminal papers on the impact of

text: aneuploidy

text: on cellular fitness,

text: gene expression

text: , stress adaptation, and

text: genome instability

text: . As

text: aneuploidy

text: and

text: chromosome instability

text: are hallmarks of

text: cancer

text: , her results on how

text: aneuploidy

text: fuels the

text: evolution

text: of

text: cellular adaptation

text: and

text: drug resistance

text: have direct relevance to the understanding of

text: cancer

text: evolution and disease progression. Li has also studied the molecular mechanisms that lead to

text: oocyte maturation

text: , which can contribute to “advances in the treatment of infertility and the field of regenerative medicine.”

text: Khanty Ocean was an ancient, small ocean that existed near the end of the Precambrian time to the Silurian. It was between Baltica and the Siberian continent, with the bordering oceans of Panthalassa to the north, Proto-Tethys to the northeast, and Paleo-Tethys to the south and east. The ocean formed when a minor supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia (shortly after the break-up of Pannotia, about 600 mya) rifted and created three separated continents - Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia, the ocean was between Siberia and Baltica. Khanty's sister ocean, Iapetus Ocean also formed, between Laurentia and Baltica. The ocean closed when an island arc called the Sakmarian Arc collided with Baltica. At the northeastern end of the arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.

text: Khanty Ocean was an ancient, small ocean that existed near the end of the

text: Precambrian

text: time to the

text: Silurian

text: . It was between

text: Baltica

text: and the

text: Siberian continent

text: , with the bordering oceans of

text: Panthalassa

text: to the north,

text: Proto-Tethys

text: to the northeast, and

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: to the south and east. The ocean formed when a minor supercontinent of

text: Proto-Laurasia

text: (shortly after the break-up of

text: Pannotia

text: , about 600 mya) rifted and created three separated continents -

text: Laurentia

text: Baltica

text: , and

text: Siberia

text: , the ocean was between Siberia and Baltica. Khanty's sister ocean,

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: also formed, between Laurentia and Baltica. The ocean closed when an

text: island arc

text: called the

text: Sakmarian Arc

text: collided with Baltica. At the northeastern end of the

text: arc

text: was a new

text: ocean

text: , the

text: Ural Ocean

text: Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants. Cyanobacteria, the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells. The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria, changing the ancient oxygen-free, reducing, atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years.

text: Palaeobotanists

text: study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the

text: evolutionary history of plants

text: Cyanobacteria

text: , the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an

text: endosymbiotic

text: relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the

text: chloroplast

text: s in plant cells. The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: started by the

text: cyanobacteria

text: changing

text: the ancient oxygen-free,

text: reducing

text: , atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years.

text: By far the largest reservoir of Earth's oxygen is within the silicate and oxide minerals of the crust and mantle (99.5%). Only a small portion has been released as free oxygen to the biosphere (0.01%) and atmosphere (0.36%). The main source of atmospheric free oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces sugars and free oxygen from carbon dioxide and water:

text: By far the largest reservoir of Earth's oxygen is within the silicate and oxide

text: mineral

text: s of the

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: (99.5%). Only a small portion has been released as free oxygen to the biosphere (0.01%) and atmosphere (0.36%). The main source of atmospheric free oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces sugars and free oxygen from carbon dioxide and water:

text: Due to its extremely hostile conditions, a surface colony on Venus is not possible with current technology. The atmospheric pressure and temperature approximately fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface. In Venus's mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere, Earth's air (nitrogen and oxygen) would act as a lifting gas. This has led to proposals for "floating cities" in the Venusian atmosphere. Aerostats (lighter-than-air balloons) could be used for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent settlements. Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these heights.

text: Due to its extremely hostile conditions, a surface colony on Venus is not possible with current technology. The atmospheric pressure and temperature approximately fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth's surface. In Venus's mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere, Earth's air (nitrogen and oxygen) would act as a lifting gas. This has led to proposals for "floating cities" in the Venusian atmosphere.

text: Aerostat

text: s (lighter-than-air balloons) could be used for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent settlements. Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these heights.

text: Any planetary sized body 180 degrees from Earth should also have been visible to some space probes, such as NASA's STEREO coronagraph probes (two spacecraft launched into orbits around the Sun in 2006, one farther ahead of and one behind the Earth's orbit) which would have seen the Counter-Earth during the first half of 2007.  The separation of the STEREO spacecraft from Earth would give them a view of the L3 point during the early phase of the mission.

text: Any planetary sized body 180 degrees from Earth should also have been visible to some space probes, such as NASA's

text: STEREO

text: coronagraph

text: probes (two spacecraft launched into orbits around the Sun in 2006, one farther ahead of and one behind the Earth's orbit) which would have seen the Counter-Earth during the first half of 2007.  The separation of the STEREO spacecraft from Earth would give them a view of the L3 point during the early phase of the mission.

text: In the early 20th century, famous Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck isolated a microorganism that he named Planosarcina ureae. In an effort to isolate bacteria from urea-containing soil enrichments, he repeatedly came across a motile coccus that clustered in packets and had the ability to form endospores. The isolated organism’s nomenclature changed often as the result of the morphological and biochemical observations done by early researchers. In 1911, Lohnis proposed that the organism should be called Sarcina ureae because of the cluster packets the organism formed in culture. In the 1960s, researchers MacDonald and MacDonald along with Kocur and Martinec moved Sarcina ureae to the genus Sporosarcina (proposed by Orla-Jensen in 1909 and first used by Kluyver and van Neil in 1936). Later in 1973, Pregerson isolated over 50 different strains of S. ureae from numerous soil samples around the world, finding that the organism is most commonly present in soils that reflected high activities of dogs and humans.

text: The Australian continent is defined as comprising the mainland of Australia and proximate islands on the same continental shelf, including Tasmania and New Guinea. In the convention of the seven continents, one of the continents is the region of Australasia, which includes for example the mountainous islands of New Zealand. For both the geological and conventional continent, New Guinea's Puncak Jaya / Carstensz Pyramid () and Puncak Mandala () are the two highest summits. When considering a continent as a continuous landmass surrounded by oceans, mainland Australia would be its own continent, with Mount Kosciuszko () and Mount Townsend () as its two highest summits.

text: The

text: Australian continent

text: continental shelf

text: , including

text: Tasmania

text: and

text: New Guinea

text: . In the convention of the

text: seven continents

text: Australasia

text: New Zealand

text: Puncak Jaya / Carstensz Pyramid

text: () and

text: Puncak Mandala

text: () are the two highest summits. When considering a continent as a continuous landmass surrounded by oceans, mainland Australia would be its own continent, with

text: Mount Kosciuszko

text: () and

text: Mount Townsend

text: () as its two highest summits.

text: The atmospheric composition of early Earth (the first billion years) was drastically different from its current state.  Initially, hydrogen and helium compounds dominated the atmosphere.  However, given the relatively small size of these elements and the warmer temperature of Earth compared to other planets at the time, most of these lighter compounds escaped, leaving behind an atmosphere composed mainly of methane, nitrogen, oxygen and ammonia with small concentrations of hydrogen compounds and other gases.  The atmosphere was transitioning from a reduction atmosphere (an atmosphere that inhibits oxidation) to one of oxidation, similar to our current atmosphere.  The origin of life on Earth has been a matter of speculation for quite some time.  Living things did not spontaneously appear, so some sort of biological or even non-biological process must have been responsible for the generation of life.  Lightning is a non-biological process, and many have speculated that lightning was present on early Earth.  One of the most famous studies that investigated lightning on the early Earth was the Miller–Urey experiment.

text: The atmospheric composition of

text: early Earth

text: (the first billion years) was drastically different from its current state.  Initially,

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: compounds dominated the

text: atmosphere

text: .  However, given the relatively small size of these elements and the warmer temperature of Earth compared to other planets at the time, most of these lighter compounds escaped, leaving behind an atmosphere composed mainly of

text: methane

text: nitrogen

text: oxygen

text: and

text: ammonia

text: with small concentrations of hydrogen compounds and other gases.  The atmosphere was transitioning from a

text: reduction atmosphere

text: (an atmosphere that inhibits oxidation) to one of

text: oxidation

text: , similar to our current atmosphere.  The origin of life on Earth has been a matter of speculation for quite some time.  Living things did not spontaneously appear, so some sort of biological or even non-biological process must have been responsible for the generation of life.  Lightning is a non-biological process, and many have speculated that lightning was present on early Earth.  One of the most famous studies that investigated lightning on the early Earth was the Miller–Urey experiment.

text: Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago (Ma).  After the Great Oxygenation Event, quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of chemically reducing materials, notably dissolved iron. By the beginning of the Cambrian period 541 Ma, free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms. Following the subsequent appearance, rapid evolution and radiation of land plants, which covered much of the Earth's land surface, beginning about 450 Ma, oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early Carboniferous, when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations. This may have contributed to the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse during the Moscovian and Kasimovian ages of the Pennsylvanian subperiod.

text: Appreciable concentrations of free oxygen were probably not present until about 2,500 million years ago (

text: Ma

text: ).  After the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: , quantities of oxygen produced as a by-product of

text: photosynthesis

text: by

text: cyanobacteria

text: or blue-green algae began to exceed the quantities of

text: chemically reducing materials

text: , notably dissolved iron. By the beginning of the

text: Cambrian

text: period 541 Ma, free oxygen concentrations had increased sufficiently to enable the evolution of multicellular organisms. Following the subsequent appearance, rapid evolution and radiation of land plants, which covered much of the Earth's land surface, beginning about 450 Ma, oxygen concentrations reached and later exceeded current values during the early

text: Carboniferous

text: , when atmospheric carbon dioxide was drawn down below current concentrations. This may have contributed to the

text: Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse

text: during the

text: Moscovian

text: and

text: Kasimovian

text: ages of the

text: Pennsylvanian

text: subperiod.

text: The Molucca Sea Plate was theorised to be a small tectonic plate carrying northern Sulawesi, the Molucca Sea and a portion of the Banda Sea in a region littered with numerous small plates. The theory suggested a subduction zone lies along its northern border with the Sunda Plate. A small divergent boundary exists along the Sulawesi part of the border with the Banda Sea Plate and transitions into a convergent boundary as it bisects the Banda Sea; the rest of the borders being transform boundaries.

text: The Molucca Sea Plate was theorised to be a small

text: tectonic plate

text: carrying northern

text: Sulawesi

text: , the

text: Molucca Sea

text: and a portion of the

text: Banda Sea

text: in a region littered with numerous small plates. The theory suggested a

text: subduction zone

text: lies along its northern border with the

text: Sunda Plate

text: . A small

text: divergent boundary

text: exists along the Sulawesi part of the border with the

text: Banda Sea Plate

text: and transitions into a convergent boundary as it bisects the

text: Banda Sea

text: ; the rest of the borders being

text: transform boundaries

text: In the history of Earth many tectonic plates have come into existence and have over the intervening years either accreted onto other plates to form larger plates, rifted into smaller plates, or have been crushed by or subducted under other plates (or have done all three).

text: Finnish surgeon Dr. Nils Kock developed the first intra-abdominal continent ileostomy in 1969. This was the first continent intestinal reservoir. By the early 1970s, several major medical centers in the United States were performing Kock pouch ileostomies on patients with ulcerative colitis and familial polyposis.  One problem with these early Kock pouches was valve slippage, which often resulted in difficulty intubating and an incontinent pouch. As a result, many of these pouches had to be revised or removed to allow a better quality of life.

text: Finnish surgeon Dr.

text: Nils Kock

text: developed the first intra-abdominal continent ileostomy in 1969. This was the first continent intestinal reservoir. By the early 1970s, several major medical centers in the United States were performing Kock pouch ileostomies on patients with ulcerative colitis and familial polyposis.  One problem with these early Kock pouches was valve slippage, which often resulted in difficulty

text: intubating

text: and an

text: incontinent pouch

text: . As a result, many of these pouches had to be revised or removed to allow a better

text: quality of life

text: The Nation of God and Earth has propagated its teachings throughout the United States and abroad. In the early 1980s, this spread was in part due to early adherents teaching when away at college or in the military and, more famously, because of the rise of hip hop music. The main theme of the NGE doctrine spoken on hip hop records were the teachings that black people were the original or first human life to walk the planet, that the Blackman is God, the Black Woman is Earth, and through the inner esoteric powers of the God and Earth, the youth can transform and possess its true potential, which seems to overthrow the overbearing oligarchy by becoming just rulers of themselves. This especially meshed well with conscious themes found in other golden-age hip hop recordings.

text: The Nation of God and Earth has propagated its teachings throughout the

text: United States

text: and abroad. In the early 1980s, this spread was in part due to early adherents teaching when away at college or in the military and, more famously, because of the rise of

text: hip hop music

text: . The main theme of the NGE doctrine spoken on hip hop records were the teachings that black people were the original or first human life to walk the planet, that the Blackman is God, the Black Woman is Earth, and through the inner

text: esoteric

text: powers of the God and Earth, the youth can transform and possess its true

text: potential

text: , which seems to overthrow the overbearing

text: oligarchy

text: by becoming just rulers of themselves. This especially meshed well with conscious themes found in other golden-age hip hop recordings.

text: There are two contrasting models for supercontinent evolution through geological time. The first model theorizes that at least two separate supercontinents existed comprising Vaalbara (from ~3600 to ) and Kenorland (from ~2700 to ). The Neoarchean supercontinent consisted of Superia and Sclavia. These parts of Neoarchean age broke off at ~2300 and  and portions of them later collided to form Nuna (Northern Europe North America) (). Nuna continued to develop during the Mesoproterozoic, primarily by lateral accretion of juvenile arcs, and in  Nuna collided with other land masses, forming Rodinia. Between ~800 and  Rodinia broke apart. However, before completely breaking up, some fragments of Rodinia had already come together to form Gondwana (also known as Gondwanaland) by . Pangaea formed by  through the collision of Gondwana, Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia.

text: There are two contrasting models for supercontinent evolution through geological time. The first model theorizes that at least two separate supercontinents existed comprising

text: Vaalbara

text: (from ~3600 to ) and

text: Kenorland

text: (from ~2700 to ). The

text: Neoarchean

text: supercontinent consisted of Superia and Sclavia. These parts of Neoarchean age broke off at ~2300 and  and portions of them later collided to form

text: Nuna

text: (Northern Europe North America) ().

text: Nuna

text: continued to develop during the

text: Mesoproterozoic

text: , primarily by lateral

text: accretion

text: of juvenile arcs, and in

text: Nuna

text: collided with other land masses, forming

text: Rodinia

text: . Between ~800 and

text: Rodinia

text: broke apart. However, before completely breaking up, some fragments of Rodinia had already come together to form

text: Gondwana

text: (also known as Gondwanaland) by .

text: Pangaea

text: formed by  through the collision of

text: Gondwana

text: Laurentia

text: Baltica

text: , and Siberia.

text: The situation is quite different from that in all animals, where the fundamental process is that a diploid (2n) individual directly produces haploid (n) gametes by meiosis. Spores (i.e. haploid cells which are able to undergo mitosis) are not produced, so neither is a haploid multi-cellular organism. The single-celled gametes are the only entities which are haploid.

text: It is the year 2201 and expanding technologies have given man the power to live anywhere in space. Amidst this backdrop, the story of Target Earth begins with a war between Earth (and its colonies) against a cyborg army returning from the farthest reaches of space. In the game's early stages, the nature or purpose of these cybernetic adversaries, named Chron, is unknown. However, it is later revealed that Chron are the survivors of a failed space expedition (Outer Space Expeditionary Party) sent by Earth a hundred years earlier.

text: It is the year 2201 and expanding technologies have given man the power to live anywhere in space. Amidst this backdrop, the story of Target Earth begins with a war between

text: Earth

text: (and its colonies) against a cyborg army returning from the farthest reaches of space. In the game's early stages, the nature or purpose of these cybernetic adversaries, named Chron, is unknown. However, it is later revealed that Chron are the survivors of a failed space expedition (Outer Space Expeditionary Party) sent by Earth a hundred years earlier.

text: The Ancients are the original builders of the Stargate network. At the time of their introduction in SG-1 "Maternal Instinct" (season 3), they have long Ascended beyond corporeal form into a higher plane of existence. The humans of Earth are the "second evolution" of the Ancients. The Ancients (originally known as the Alterans) colonized the Milky Way galaxy millions of years ago and built a great empire. They also colonized the Pegasus galaxy and seeded human life there, before being driven out by the Wraith. The civilization of the Ancients in the Milky Way was decimated thousands of years ago by a plague, and those who did not learn to ascend died out.With few exceptions, the ascended Ancients respect free will and refuse to interfere in the affairs of the material galaxy.However, their legacy is felt profoundly throughout the Stargate universe, from their technologies (such as Stargates and Atlantis, to the Ancient Technology Activation gene, that they introduced into the human genome through interbreeding) as well as many of the antagonists in the series, having resulted from failures or negligence on the part of the Ancients.

text: The Ancients are the original builders of the Stargate network. At the time of their introduction in SG-1 "

text: Maternal Instinct

text: " (season 3), they have long

text: Ascended

text: beyond corporeal form into a higher plane of existence. The humans of Earth are the "second evolution" of the Ancients. The Ancients (originally known as the Alterans) colonized the Milky Way galaxy millions of years ago and built a great empire. They also colonized the Pegasus galaxy and seeded human life there, before being driven out by the

text: Wraith

text: . The civilization of the Ancients in the Milky Way was decimated thousands of years ago by a plague, and those who did not learn to ascend died out.With few exceptions, the ascended Ancients respect free will and refuse to interfere in the affairs of the material galaxy.However, their legacy is felt profoundly throughout the Stargate universe, from their technologies (such as Stargates and

text: Atlantis

text: , to the

text: Ancient Technology Activation gene

text: , that they introduced into the human genome through interbreeding) as well as many of the antagonists in the series, having resulted from failures or negligence on the part of the Ancients.

text: Pole shift hypotheses are not connected with plate tectonics, the well-accepted geological theory that the Earth's surface consists of solid plates which shift over a viscous, or semifluid asthenosphere; nor with continental drift, the corollary to plate tectonics which maintains that locations of the continents have moved slowly over the face of the Earth, resulting in the gradual emerging and breakup of continents and oceans over hundreds of millions of years.

text: Pole shift hypotheses are not connected with

text: plate tectonics

text: , the well-accepted geological theory that the Earth's surface consists of solid plates which shift over a viscous, or semifluid

text: asthenosphere

text: ; nor with

text: continental drift

text: , the corollary to plate tectonics which maintains that locations of the continents have moved slowly over the face of the Earth, resulting in the gradual emerging and breakup of continents and oceans over hundreds of millions of years.

text: Titanium in zircon geothermometry has so far been used in igneous rocks to estimate cooling temperatures of magma from zircon crystals dated to the Hadean age (>4.0 Ga). Low crystallization temperatures from zircons of this age suggests the Hadean Earth contained liquid water, which reduced the cooling temperature of crustal materials. Potentially, Ti-in-zircon thermometry of Earth's oldest zircons can show the progressive heat loss from a magmatic Hadean Earth to the onset of plate tectonics as the planet's crust began to cool and underwent plastic deformation. This will provide previously unknown evidence for the conditions in early Earth and allow testing of ideas of how the planet evolved through the Hadean and Archean eons.

text: Titanium in zircon geothermometry has so far been used in

text: igneous

text: rocks to estimate cooling temperatures of

text: magma

text: from zircon crystals dated to the

text: Hadean

text: age (>4.0 Ga). Low crystallization temperatures from zircons of this age suggests the Hadean Earth contained liquid water, which reduced the cooling temperature of crustal materials. Potentially, Ti-in-zircon thermometry of Earth's oldest zircons can show the progressive heat loss from a magmatic Hadean Earth to the onset of

text: plate tectonics

text: as the planet's crust began to cool and underwent plastic deformation. This will provide previously unknown evidence for the conditions in early Earth and allow testing of ideas of how the planet evolved through the Hadean and

text: Archean

text: eons.

text: Beginning in earth sciences at Harvard, Betts-LaCroix contributed to the field of long-term regulation of oxygen on Earth over multi-100 Million-year timespans, quantifying the effect of the burial efficiency of organic carbon as a feedback mechanism.

text: Prerequisites for the origin of life – such as energy, catalysists, the synthesis of organic carbon compounds,  and their concentration – can all be seen in both the Late Hadean, as well as Early Archean environments, at different levels and different places on the landscape. This leads to a multi-regional origin of life hypothesis. The microbial life that might have been formed at the time would have been so small that it would have been very easy for it to travel long distances on the Early Earth. These prerequisites allow the Last Universal Common Ancestor of life to have its origin placed in this timeframe.

text: A supplement to the factors that support life's emergence is the notion that life itself, once formed, becomes a habitability factor in its own right. An important Earth example was the production of molecular oxygen gas () by ancient cyanobacteria, and eventually photosynthesizing plants, leading to a radical change in the composition of Earth's atmosphere. This environmental change is called the Great Oxygenation Event. This oxygen proved fundamental to the respiration of later animal species. The Gaia hypothesis, a  scientific model of the geo-biosphere pioneered by James Lovelock in 1975, argues that life as a whole fosters and maintains suitable conditions for itself by helping to create a planetary environment suitable for its continuity. Similarly, David Grinspoon has suggested a "living worlds hypothesis" in which our understanding of what constitutes habitability cannot be separated from life already extant on a planet. Planets that are geologically and meteorologically alive are much more likely to be biologically alive as well and "a planet and its life will co-evolve."  This is the basis of Earth system science.

text: A supplement to the factors that support life's emergence is the notion that life itself, once formed, becomes a habitability factor in its own right. An important Earth example was the production of molecular oxygen gas () by ancient

text: cyanobacteria

text: , and eventually photosynthesizing plants, leading to a radical change in the composition of Earth's atmosphere. This environmental change is called the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: . This oxygen proved fundamental to the

text: respiration

text: of later animal species. The

text: Gaia hypothesis

text: , a  scientific model of the geo-biosphere pioneered by

text: James Lovelock

text: in 1975, argues that life as a whole fosters and maintains suitable conditions for itself by helping to create a planetary environment suitable for its continuity. Similarly,

text: David Grinspoon

text: has suggested a "living worlds hypothesis" in which our understanding of what constitutes habitability cannot be separated from life already extant on a planet. Planets that are geologically and meteorologically alive are much more likely to be biologically alive as well and "a planet and its life will co-evolve."  This is the basis of

text: Earth system science

text: (metazoans / many-celled true animals / multi-cellular creatures that grab and ingest their organic food)

text: metazoan

text: s /

text: many-celled

text: true

text: animal

text: s /

text: multi-cellular

text: creatures that grab and

text: ingest

text: their

text: organic

text: food

text: Earth's earliest atmosphere contained no free oxygen (O); the oxygen that animals breathe today, both in the air and dissolved in water, is the product of billions of years of photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to evolve the ability to photosynthesize, introducing a steady supply of oxygen into the environment. Initially, oxygen levels did not increase substantially in the atmosphere. The oxygen quickly reacted with iron and other minerals in the surrounding rock and ocean water. Once a saturation point was reached for the reactions in rock and water, oxygen was able to exist as a gas in its diatomic form. Oxygen levels in the atmosphere increased substantially afterward. As a general trend, the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere has risen gradually over about the last 2.5 billion years.

text: Earth's earliest atmosphere

text: contained no free

text: oxygen

text: (O); the oxygen that animals breathe today, both in the air and dissolved in water, is the product of billions of years of

text: photosynthesis

text: . Cyanobacteria were the first organisms to evolve the ability to photosynthesize, introducing a steady supply of oxygen into the environment. Initially, oxygen levels did not increase substantially in the atmosphere. The oxygen quickly reacted with iron and other minerals in the surrounding rock and ocean water. Once a saturation point was reached for the reactions in rock and water, oxygen was able to exist as a gas in its diatomic form. Oxygen levels in the atmosphere increased substantially afterward. As a general trend, the

text: concentration

text: of oxygen in the atmosphere has risen gradually over about the last 2.5 billion years.

text: Leonardo da Vinci explained the phenomenon in the early 16th century when he realized that both Earth and the Moon reflect sunlight at the same time.  Light is reflected from the Earth to the Moon and back to the Earth as earthshine.

text: Leonardo da Vinci

text: explained the phenomenon in the early 16th century when he realized that both Earth and the Moon reflect sunlight at the same time.  Light is reflected from the Earth to the Moon and back to the Earth as earthshine.

text: Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.  This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis.

text: Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the

text: solar system

text: , often substituting

text: ultraviolet

text: light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The

text: Murchison meteorite

text: that fell near

text: Murchison, Victoria

text: , Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life.

text: Comet

text: s and other

text: icy outer-solar-system bodies

text: are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as

text: tholin

text: s) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.  This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the

text: panspermia

text: hypothesis.

text: “Mesoplates” is a combination and contraction of two terms: “mesosphere”, as applied to the solid earth, and “tectonic plates”.

text: “Mesoplates” is a combination and contraction of two terms: “mesosphere”, as applied to the solid

text: earth

text: , and “

text: tectonic plates

text: Chlorides contain the anion Cl and are soluble in water, meaning they provide evidence of past aqueous processes, which helps to constrain the type of environment at a particular region. On Earth, two main processes form chlorides: efflorescence and precipitation. Whereas on Earth these minerals are formed in more alkaline environments, the minerals on Mars form from more acidic fluids and the processes are connected to basaltic weathering.  The key similarity between the formation of chlorides on the two planets is the presence of water. This is important because water is essential to life on Earth, and therefore drives the search for evidence of life on other planets. Chlorides are of particular interest because of their potential to preserve a biological signature through chemical sedimentation. In addition, their presence throughout the entire southern hemisphere of Mars suggests their formation have been an important process to the early history of Mars.

text: Chlorides

text: contain the anion Cl and are soluble in water, meaning they provide evidence of past aqueous processes, which helps to constrain the type of environment at a particular region. On Earth, two main processes form chlorides:

text: efflorescence

text: and

text: precipitation

text: . Whereas on Earth these minerals are formed in more alkaline environments, the minerals on Mars form from more acidic fluids and the processes are connected to basaltic weathering.  The key similarity between the formation of chlorides on the two planets is the presence of water. This is important because water is essential to life on Earth, and therefore drives the search for evidence of life on other planets. Chlorides are of particular interest because of their potential to preserve a biological signature through chemical sedimentation. In addition, their presence throughout the entire southern hemisphere of Mars suggests their formation have been an important process to the early history of Mars.

text: A supercontinent is a landmass consisting of multiple continental cores. The following list includes the supercontinents known or speculated to have existed in the Earth's past:

text: A

text: supercontinent

text: is a

text: landmass

text: consisting of multiple

text: continent

text: al cores. The following list includes the supercontinents known or speculated to have existed in the Earth's past:

text: The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year. This is expected to continue, causing the plates to relocate and collide. Continental drift is facilitated by two factors: the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a hydrosphere. With the loss of either of these, continental drift will come to a halt. The production of heat through radiogenic processes is sufficient to maintain mantle convection and plate subduction for at least the next 1.1 billion years.

text: The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year. This is expected to continue, causing the plates to relocate and collide.

text: Continental drift

text: is facilitated by two factors: the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a

text: hydrosphere

text: . With the loss of either of these, continental drift will come to a halt. The production of

text: heat through radiogenic processes

text: is sufficient to maintain

text: mantle convection

text: and plate

text: subduction

text: for at least the next 1.1 billion years.

text: Earth is often described as having had three atmospheres. The first atmosphere, captured from the solar nebula, was composed of light (atmophile) elements from the solar nebula, mostly hydrogen and helium. A combination of the solar wind and Earth's heat would have driven off this atmosphere, as a result of which the atmosphere is now depleted of these elements compared to cosmic abundances. After the impact which created the moon, the molten Earth released volatile gases; and later more gases were released by volcanoes, completing a second atmosphere rich in greenhouse gases but poor in oxygen.  Finally, the third atmosphere, rich in oxygen, emerged when bacteria began to produce oxygen about 2.8 Ga.

text: Earth is often described as having had three atmospheres. The first atmosphere, captured from the solar nebula, was composed of light (

text: atmophile

text: ) elements from the solar nebula, mostly hydrogen and helium. A combination of the solar wind and Earth's heat would have driven off this atmosphere, as a result of which the atmosphere is now depleted of these elements compared to cosmic abundances. After the impact which created the moon, the molten Earth released volatile gases; and later more gases were released by

text: volcano

text: es, completing a second atmosphere rich in

text: greenhouse gas

text: es but poor in oxygen.  Finally, the third atmosphere, rich in oxygen, emerged when bacteria began to produce oxygen about 2.8 Ga.

text: In Steven Spielberg's remake of The War of the Worlds, an early scene shows two kids channel-surfing on their television, and the train-wreck scene from The Greatest Show on Earth is being broadcast.

text: In Steven Spielberg's

text: remake

text: of

text: The War of the Worlds

text: , an early scene shows two kids channel-surfing on their television, and the train-wreck scene from The Greatest Show on Earth is being broadcast.

text: In recent years only villages in South Malaita Island have continued to hunt dolphin. In 2010, the villages of Fanalei, Walende, and Bitamae signed a MoU with the non-governmental organization, Earth Island Institute, to stop hunting dolphin. However, in early 2013 the agreement broke down and some men in Fanalei resumed hunting. The hunting of dolphin continued in early 2014.

text: In recent years only villages in

text: South Malaita Island

text: have continued to hunt dolphin. In 2010, the villages of Fanalei, Walende, and Bitamae signed a MoU with the non-governmental organization, Earth Island Institute, to stop hunting dolphin. However, in early 2013 the agreement broke down and some men in Fanalei resumed hunting. The hunting of dolphin continued in early 2014.

text: Oxygen is present in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of carbon dioxide (). The Earth's crustal rock is composed in large part of oxides of silicon (silica , as found in granite and quartz), aluminium (aluminium oxide , in bauxite and corundum), iron (iron(III) oxide , in hematite and rust), and calcium carbonate (in limestone). The rest of the Earth's crust is also made of oxygen compounds, in particular various complex silicates (in silicate minerals). The Earth's mantle, of much larger mass than the crust, is largely composed of silicates of magnesium and iron.

text: Oxygen is present in the atmosphere in trace quantities in the form of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (). The

text: Earth's crust

text: al

text: rock

text: is composed in large part of oxides of

text: silicon

text: silica

text: , as found in

text: granite

text: and

text: quartz

text: ), aluminium (

text: aluminium oxide

text: , in

text: bauxite

text: and

text: corundum

text: ), iron (

text: iron(III) oxide

text: , in

text: hematite

text: and

text: rust

text: ), and

text: calcium carbonate

text: (in

text: limestone

text: ). The rest of the Earth's crust is also made of oxygen compounds, in particular various complex

text: silicate

text: s (in

text: silicate minerals

text: ). The Earth's mantle, of much larger mass than the crust, is largely composed of silicates of magnesium and iron.

text: The Xiong'er Volcanic Belt () is a 1770 to 1800 million year-old group of volcanic rocks located on the southern edge of the North China craton (Figure 1).  It covers an area of approximately 60,000 km and varies from 3000 m to 7000 m thick. The perimeter of the volcanic belt is composed of three faults: the Jianxian-Lintong fault to the northwest, the Luoyang-Baofeng fault to the northeast, and the Luonan-Luanchan fault to the south (Figure 2). The volcanic belt formed at a time in Earth's history when all of the continents were joined together forming the Supercontinent Columbia, the earliest known supercontinent. The Xiong'er Volcanic Belt is very important because it can provide valuable information to help piece together the formation and breakup of the Supercontinent Columbia and the North China craton by identifying what type of boundary was located on the southern edge of the North China craton.

text: The Xiong'er Volcanic Belt () is a 1770 to 1800 million year-old group of

text: volcanic rock

text: s located on the southern edge of the

text: North China craton

text: (Figure 1).  It covers an area of approximately 60,000 km and varies from 3000 m to 7000 m thick. The perimeter of the

text: volcanic belt

text: is composed of three faults: the Jianxian-Lintong fault to the northwest, the Luoyang-Baofeng fault to the northeast, and the Luonan-Luanchan fault to the south (Figure 2). The volcanic belt formed at a time in Earth's history when all of the continents were joined together forming the

text: Supercontinent Columbia

text: , the earliest known

text: supercontinent

text: . The Xiong'er Volcanic Belt is very important because it can provide valuable information to help piece together the formation and breakup of the Supercontinent Columbia and the North China craton by identifying what type of boundary was located on the southern edge of the North China craton.

text: The Earth reaches aphelion currently in early July, approximately 14 days after the June Solstice. The aphelion distance between the Earth's and Sun's centers is currently about  or .

text: The Earth reaches aphelion currently in early July, approximately 14 days after the

text: June Solstice

text: . The aphelion distance between the Earth's and Sun's centers is currently about  or .

text: There are a lot of reliable signs and evidences of human life in ancient period of this region. The oldest written record is actually a tombstone from the 2nd century AD raised by Elije Pinnes and Temus, parents of Pinniusu the Roman soldier of the 2.Legion Auxiliary. At the nearby Dernek were found many parts of ceramics from the Roman era.From the Early Stone Age there is no evidence of living in Glavatičevo, although there are signs of ancient inhabitants in wider area. Pieces of ceramics from the Late Stone Age period were found in the sites of Gradac, Lonac and Vijenac near Razići, and sites of Šibenik and Kom near Kašići.

text: There are a lot of reliable signs and evidences of human life in ancient period of this region. The oldest written record is actually a

text: tombstone

text: from the 2nd century AD raised by Elije Pinnes and Temus, parents of Pinniusu the

text: Roman soldier of the 2.Legion Auxiliary

text: . At the nearby Dernek were found many parts of ceramics from the Roman era.From the

text: Early Stone Age

text: there is no evidence of living in Glavatičevo, although there are signs of ancient inhabitants in wider area. Pieces of ceramics from the

text: Late Stone Age

text: period were found in the sites of Gradac, Lonac and Vijenac near Razići, and sites of Šibenik and Kom near Kašići.

text: Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation. Of the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the photosphere of the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, thereby warming it. In addition to the absorption of solar and thermal radiation, the atmosphere further gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

text: Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of

text: ultraviolet

text: visible

text: , and

text: near-infrared

text: radiation. Of the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the photosphere of the Sun, it radiates at

text: wavelengths that are much longer

text: than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, thereby warming it. In addition to the absorption of solar and thermal radiation, the atmosphere further gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

text: All life on Earth shares a common ancestor known as the last universal common ancestor (LUCA), which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago, although a study in 2015 found "remains of biotic life" from 4.1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in Western Australia. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all organisms living on Earth.

text: All

text: life

text: on

text: Earth

text: shares a common ancestor

text: known as the

text: last universal common ancestor

text: (LUCA), which lived approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago, although a study in 2015 found "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " from 4.1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in

text: Western Australia

text: . In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355

text: gene

text: s from the LUCA of all

text: organism

text: s living on Earth.

text: Researchers are working towards building a multi-channel 3D microfluidic cell culture system that compartmentalizes microenvironments in which 3D cellular aggregates are cultured to mimic multiple organs in the body. Most organ-on-a-chip models today only culture one cell type, so even though they may be valid models for studying whole organ functions, the systemic effect of a drug on the human body is not verified.

text: There are several known allotropes of oxygen.  The most familiar is molecular oxygen (O), present at significant levels in Earth's atmosphere and also known as dioxygen or triplet oxygen.  Another is the highly reactive ozone (O).  Others include:

text: There are several known

text: allotropes

text: of oxygen.  The most familiar is

text: molecular oxygen

text: (O), present at significant levels in

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: and also known as dioxygen or

text: triplet oxygen

text: .  Another is the highly reactive

text: ozone

text: (O).  Others include:

text: Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell signaling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling between cells can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling, or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine system. In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated nervous system.

text: Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability.

text: Cell signaling

text: coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling between cells can occur through direct cell contact using

text: juxtacrine signalling

text: , or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the

text: endocrine system

text: . In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated

text: nervous system

text: Democritus (460 BC) thought that the essential characteristic of life is having a soul (psyche). Like other ancient writers, he was attempting to explain what makes something a living thing. His explanation was that fiery atoms make a soul in exactly the same way atoms and void account for any other thing. He elaborates on fire because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and because fire moves.

text: Democritus

text: (460 BC) thought that the essential characteristic of life is having a

text: soul

text: (psyche). Like other ancient writers, he was attempting to explain what makes something a living thing. His explanation was that fiery atoms make a soul in exactly the same way atoms and void account for any other thing. He elaborates on fire because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and because fire moves.

text: The Pan-African Ocean is a hypothesized paleo-ocean whose closure created the supercontinent of Pannotia.  The ocean may have existed before the break-up of the supercontinent of Rodinia. The ocean closed before the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon, when the Panthalassa ocean expanded, and was eventually replaced by it.

text: The Pan-African Ocean is a hypothesized paleo-ocean whose closure created the

text: supercontinent

text: of

text: Pannotia

text: .  The ocean may have existed before the break-up of the supercontinent of

text: Rodinia

text: . The ocean closed before the beginning of the

text: Phanerozoic

text: Eon, when the

text: Panthalassa

text: ocean expanded, and was eventually replaced by it.

text: During the Late Devonian, the continents were arranged differently, with a supercontinent, Gondwana, covering much of the Southern Hemisphere. The continent of Siberia occupied the Northern Hemisphere, while an equatorial continent, Laurussia (formed by the collision of Baltica and Laurentia), was drifting towards Gondwana. The Caledonian mountains were also growing across what is now the Scottish Highlands and Scandinavia, while the Appalachians rose over America; these mountain belts were the equivalent of the Himalaya today.

text: During the Late Devonian, the continents were arranged differently, with a supercontinent,

text: Gondwana

text: , covering much of the Southern Hemisphere. The

text: continent

text: of

text: Siberia

text: occupied the Northern Hemisphere, while an equatorial continent,

text: Laurussia

text: (formed by the collision of

text: Baltica

text: and

text: Laurentia

text: ), was

text: drifting

text: towards Gondwana. The Caledonian mountains were also growing across what is now the Scottish Highlands and Scandinavia, while the

text: Appalachians

text: rose over America; these mountain belts were the equivalent of the

text: Himalaya

text: today.

text: When first described, A. seldoni was known from a single fossil adult which is a compression-impression fossil preserved in layers of soft sedimentary rock. Along with other well-preserved insect fossils, the A. seldoni specimens were collected from layers of the Upper Aptian Crato Formation. The formation is composed of unweathered grey and oxidized yellow limestones, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds and reptiles as a notable lagerstätte. The area is a preserved inland lake or one of a series of lakes, though the nature as a fresh or salt-water body is uncertain. The depth of the basin has been suggested as either shallow or fairly deep. The basin formed near the center of the supercontinent Gondwana during the early part of the diversification of flowering plants.

text: When first described, A. seldoni was known from a single fossil adult which is a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in layers of soft

text: sedimentary

text: rock. Along with other well-preserved insect fossils, the A. seldoni specimens were collected from layers of the

text: Upper Aptian

text: Crato Formation

text: lagerstätte

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: flowering plants

text: The Pharusian Ocean is an ancient ocean that existed from 800 to 635 million years ago, between the break-up of the Rodinia supercontinent and the start of formation of the Gondwana supercontinent.

text: The Pharusian Ocean is an ancient ocean that existed from 800 to 635 million years ago, between the break-up of the

text: Rodinia

text: supercontinent

text: and the start of formation of the

text: Gondwana

text: supercontinent.

text: The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150–140 Ma), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at Tethyan Trench probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward, causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean". In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today's South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.

text: The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: (150–140 Ma), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at

text: Tethyan Trench

text: probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward, causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean". In the Early Cretaceous,

text: Atlantica

text: , today's South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.

text: The mountainous Japanese archipelago stretches 3,000 km north to south off the east of the Asian continent at the convergence of four tectonic plates; it has about forty active volcanoes and experiences about 1,000 earthquakes a year. The steep, craggy mountains that cover two-thirds of its surface are prone to quick erosion from fast-flowing rivers and to mudslides.  They thus have hampered internal travel and communication and driven the population to rely on transportation along coastal waters. There is great variety to its regions' geographical features and weather patterns, with a rainy season in most parts in early summer. Volcanic soil that washes along the 13% of the area that makes up the coastal plains provides fertile land and the mainly temperate climate allows long growing seasons, which with the diversity of flora and fauna provide rich resources able to support the density of the population.

text: The mountainous

text: Japanese archipelago

text: stretches 3,000 km north to south off the east of the Asian continent at the convergence of four tectonic plates; it has about forty active volcanoes and experiences about 1,000 earthquakes a year. The steep, craggy mountains that cover two-thirds of its surface are prone to quick erosion from fast-flowing rivers and to mudslides.  They thus have hampered internal travel and communication and driven the population to rely on transportation along coastal waters. There is great variety to its regions' geographical features and weather patterns, with a

text: rainy season

text: in most parts in early summer. Volcanic soil that washes along the 13% of the area that makes up the coastal plains provides fertile land and the mainly temperate climate allows long growing seasons, which with the diversity of flora and fauna provide rich resources able to support the density of the population.

text: The Community Earth System Model (CESM) is a fully coupled numerical simulation of the Earth system consisting of atmospheric, ocean, ice, land surface, carbon cycle, and other components. CESM includes a climate model providing state-of-art simulations of the Earth's past, present, and future. It is the successor of the Community Climate System Model (CCSM), specifically version 4 (CCSMv4), which provided the initial atmospheric component for CESM. Strong ensemble forecasting capabilities, CESM-LE (CESM-Large Scale), were developed at the onset to control for error and biases across different model runs (realizations). Simulations from the Earth's surface through the thermosphere are generated utilizing the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM). CESM1 was released in 2010 with primary development by the Climate and Global Dynamics Division (CGD) of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), and significant funding by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Department of Energy (DoE).

text: The Community Earth System Model (CESM) is a fully coupled

text: numerical

text: simulation

text: of the

text: Earth system

text: consisting of

text: atmospheric

text: , ocean, ice, land surface, carbon cycle, and other components. CESM includes a

text: climate model

text: providing state-of-art simulations of the Earth's past, present, and future. It is the successor of the

text: Community Climate System Model

text: (CCSM), specifically version 4 (CCSMv4), which provided the initial atmospheric component for CESM. Strong

text: ensemble forecasting

text: capabilities, CESM-LE (CESM-Large Scale), were developed at the onset to control for error and biases across different model runs (realizations). Simulations from the

text: Earth's surface

text: through the

text: thermosphere

text: are generated utilizing the

text: Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model

text: (WACCM). CESM1 was released in 2010 with primary development by the Climate and Global Dynamics Division (CGD) of the

entity_name: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: (NCAR), and significant funding by the

text: National Science Foundation

text: (NSF) and the

text: Department of Energy

text: (DoE).

text: Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that produce oxygen during photosynthesis.  Earth's primordial atmosphere was anoxic.  Organisms like cyanobacteria produced our present-day oxygen-containing atmosphere.

text: The discovery of extrasolar Earth-sized planets has spurred inquiry regarding their potential for habitability. One of the generally agreed-upon (Noack and Breuer and references within) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile, fractured lithosphere cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting mantle, commonly known as plate tectonics. Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates, as well as sequestration of carbon. This prevents “runaway greenhouse” scenarios that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water. There is not a clear academic consensus on whether Earth-like exoplanets have plate tectonics, but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius, initial temperature upon coalescence, insolation, and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water.

text: The discovery of

text: extrasolar

text: Earth-sized planets has spurred inquiry regarding their potential for

text: habitability

text: . One of the generally agreed-upon (Noack and Breuer and references within) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile, fractured

text: lithosphere

text: cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting

text: mantle

text: , commonly known as

text: plate tectonics

text: . Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates, as well as sequestration of carbon. This prevents “runaway greenhouse” scenarios that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water. There is not a clear academic consensus on whether Earth-like

text: exoplanets

text: have plate tectonics, but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius, initial temperature upon coalescence,

text: insolation

text: , and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water.

text: The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics: the movement and collisions of lithospheric plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the westward-moving South American Plate. The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate, in Central America. A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate. Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the Kamchatka Peninsula arcs on south past Japan. The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the Mariana Islands, the Philippines, Bougainville, Tonga, and New Zealand; this portion excludes Australia, since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate. Indonesia lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores, and Timor. The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of California is a transform fault which offsets a portion of the East Pacific Rise under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a magnitude 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.

text: The Ring of Fire is a direct result of

text: plate tectonics

text: : the movement and collisions of

text: lithospheric

text: plates. The eastern section of the ring is the result of the

text: Nazca Plate

text: and the

text: Cocos Plate

text: being

text: subducted

text: beneath the westward-moving

text: South American Plate

text: . The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the

text: Caribbean Plate

text: , in

text: Central America

text: . A portion of the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the small

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: are being subducted beneath the

text: North American Plate

text: . Along the northern portion, the northwestward-moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the

text: Aleutian Islands

text: arc. Farther west, the Pacific plate is being subducted along the

text: Kamchatka Peninsula

text: arcs on south past

text: Japan

text: . The southern portion is more complex, with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the

text: Mariana Islands

text: , the

text: Philippines

text: Bougainville

text: Tonga

text: , and

text: New Zealand

text: ; this portion excludes

text: Australia

text: , since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate.

text: Indonesia

text: lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including

text: New Guinea

text: and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra, Java,

text: Bali

text: Flores

text: , and

text: Timor

text: . The famous and very active

text: San Andreas Fault

text: zone of

text: California

text: is a

text: transform fault

text: which offsets a portion of the

text: East Pacific Rise

text: under southwestern United States and Mexico. The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes, at multiple times a day, most of which are too small to be felt. The active

text: Queen Charlotte Fault

text: on the west coast of the

text: Haida Gwaii

text: British Columbia

text: , has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century: a

text: magnitude

text: 7 event in 1929; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 (Canada's largest recorded earthquake); and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970.

text: Apart from catapulting the Dharwar Craton onto the canvas of global Precambrian terranes, Mahmood Naqvi's studies contributed new dimensions and leads toward unraveling several basic problems in Precambrian geology especially the relevance of uniformitarianism and paradigms such as plate tectonics to the early geologic history of the earth. He strongly advocated an early beginning of modern-style plate tectonics as far back in time as the Neo-Archean (2700 million years). He strived relentlessly to obtain critical evidences in the rock record of southern India to demonstrate his crust evolution model. His approach in this journey was holistic encompassing a range of earth processes involving interactions among atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere in space and deep time.

text: Apart from catapulting the Dharwar Craton onto the canvas of global Precambrian terranes, Mahmood Naqvi's studies contributed new dimensions and leads toward unraveling several basic problems in Precambrian geology especially the relevance of

text: uniformitarianism

text: and paradigms such as plate tectonics to the early geologic history of the earth. He strongly advocated an early beginning of modern-style plate tectonics as far back in time as the Neo-Archean (2700 million years). He strived relentlessly to obtain critical evidences in the rock record of southern India to demonstrate his crust evolution model. His approach in this journey was holistic encompassing a range of earth processes involving interactions among

text: atmosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: in space and deep time.

text: Joule Unlimited is the first company to patent a modified organism that continuously secretes hydrocarbon fuel. The organism is a single-celled cyanobacterium, also known as blue-green algae, although it is technically not an algae. It produces the fuel using photosynthesis, the same process that multi-cellular green plants use, to make sugars and other materials from water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight.

text: Joule Unlimited

text: is the first company to patent a modified organism that continuously secretes hydrocarbon fuel. The organism is a

text: single-celled cyanobacterium

text: , also known as blue-green algae, although it is technically not an algae. It produces the fuel using photosynthesis, the same process that

text: multi-cellular green plants

text: use, to make sugars and other materials from water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight.

text: Oxygen is unusual in terms of its return to ground state: it can take three quarters of a second to emit green light and up to two minutes to emit red. Collisions with other atoms or molecules absorb the excitation energy and prevent emission. Because the highest atmosphere has a higher percentage of oxygen and is sparsely distributed such collisions are rare enough to allow time for oxygen to emit red. Collisions become more frequent progressing down into the atmosphere, so that red emissions do not have time to happen, and eventually even green light emissions are prevented.This is why there is a color differential with altitude; at high altitudes oxygen red dominates, then oxygen green and nitrogen blue/red, then finally nitrogen blue/red when collisions prevent oxygen from emitting anything. Green is the most common color. Then comes pink, a mixture of light green and red, followed by pure red, then yellow (a mixture of red and green), and finally, pure blue.

text: Oxygen is unusual in terms of its return to

text: ground state

text: : it can take three quarters of a second to emit green light and up to two minutes to emit red. Collisions with other atoms or molecules absorb the excitation energy and prevent emission. Because the highest atmosphere has a higher percentage of oxygen and is sparsely distributed such collisions are rare enough to allow time for oxygen to emit red. Collisions become more frequent progressing down into the atmosphere, so that red emissions do not have time to happen, and eventually even green light emissions are prevented.This is why there is a color differential with altitude; at high altitudes oxygen red dominates, then oxygen green and nitrogen blue/red, then finally nitrogen blue/red when collisions prevent oxygen from emitting anything. Green is the most common color. Then comes pink, a mixture of light green and red, followed by pure red, then yellow (a mixture of red and green), and finally, pure blue.

text: The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents (Antarctica, Australia, about 90% of South America, the southern third of Africa, and several southern islands off the continental mainland of Asia), four oceans (Indian, South Atlantic, Southern, and South Pacific) and most of the Pacific Islands in Oceania. Its surface is 80.9% water, compared with 60.7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32.7% of Earth's land.

text: The Southern Hemisphere is the half

text: sphere

text: of

text: Earth

text: which is south of the

text: equator

text: . It contains all or parts of five

text: continent

text: s (

text: Antarctica

text: Australia

text: , about 90% of

text: South America

text: , the southern third of

text: Africa

text: , and several southern islands off the continental

text: mainland

text: of

text: Asia

text: ), four

text: ocean

text: s (

text: Indian

text: South Atlantic

text: Southern

text: , and

text: South Pacific

text: ) and most of the

text: Pacific Islands

text: in

text: Oceania

text: . Its surface is 80.9% water, compared with 60.7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32.7% of Earth's land.

text: The novel tells the story of Cory Avalon, an orphan who is lured through an enchanted gateway disguised as a mirror, and ends up in the magical world of Abydonne. Cory meets Prince Taliesin of Caer Dathyl and is adopted by his father King Llewellyn, who makes Cory the apprentice of the royal wizard, Math the Ancient. Early in his apprenticeship, Cory casts a spell to summon and bond with a familiar, and a young golden dragon named Benythonne answers Cory's incantation. The resulting bond grants Cory enormous strength and the ability to fly, as well as amplifying his raw magical power. Math suspects Cory may be the long-prophecised archwizard who will free humanity from the demon threat, and sends Cory to learn from Vainamoinen, another wizard. After several months, the Cory learns that Vainamoinen is his natural grandfather, and Abydonne was the world of his father's birth. Harkening to the ancient prophecy, Cory acknowledges his duty as the prince of wizards, and he sets out to free the captive humans from the demons and destroy their mountain stronghold of Abyolldd. along the way, the young wizard is joined by a group of Math's apprentices, and together they set out for the dark mountain. Cory frees the slaves and has Benythonne and the other apprentices lead the slaves to safety, while Cory battles Asmodeus the Demon Lord alone. During the magical combat, one of Cory's mystic bolts strikes the mirror gateway to Earth, shattering it. The resulting shockwaves bring down the entire mountain, and Cory escapes with his life by teleporting away to his dragon, safely outside Abyolldd.

text: The novel tells the story of Cory Avalon, an orphan who is lured through an enchanted gateway disguised as a mirror, and ends up in the magical world of Abydonne. Cory meets Prince Taliesin of Caer Dathyl and is adopted by his father King Llewellyn, who makes Cory the apprentice of the royal wizard, Math the Ancient. Early in his apprenticeship, Cory casts a spell to summon and bond with a

text: familiar

text: , and a young golden dragon named Benythonne answers Cory's incantation. The resulting bond grants Cory enormous strength and the ability to fly, as well as amplifying his raw magical power. Math suspects Cory may be the long-prophecised archwizard who will free humanity from the demon threat, and sends Cory to learn from Vainamoinen, another wizard. After several months, the Cory learns that Vainamoinen is his natural grandfather, and Abydonne was the world of his father's birth. Harkening to the ancient prophecy, Cory acknowledges his duty as the prince of wizards, and he sets out to free the captive humans from the demons and destroy their mountain stronghold of Abyolldd. along the way, the young wizard is joined by a group of Math's apprentices, and together they set out for the dark mountain. Cory frees the slaves and has Benythonne and the other apprentices lead the slaves to safety, while Cory battles Asmodeus the Demon Lord alone. During the magical combat, one of Cory's mystic bolts strikes the mirror gateway to Earth, shattering it. The resulting shockwaves bring down the entire mountain, and Cory escapes with his life by teleporting away to his dragon, safely outside Abyolldd.

text: New testing platforms are now developed to solve problems related to cellular interactions. These new platforms are much more complex based on multi-compartmental perfused systems. The main objective of these systems is  to reproduce in vivo mechanisms more reliably by providing cell culture environment close to the in vivo situation. Each compartment in the system represent a specific organ of the living organism and thus each compartment has a specific characteristics and criteria. Each compartment in these systems are connected by tubes and pumps through which the fluid flows thus mimicking the blood flow in the in vivo situation. The draw back behind the use of these perfused systems is that, the adverse effects ( influence of both the biological and non-biological components of the system on the fate of the chemical under study) are more compared to the static systems. In order to reduce the effect of non-biological components of the system, all the compartments are made of glass and the connecting tubes are made up of teflon. A number of kinetic models have been proposed to take care of these non-specific bindings taking place in these in vitro systems.

text: These three authors describe hyperdiffusionism as the driving force behind the apparent cultural similarities and population distribution among all civilizations. Hapgood's hypothesis states that one specific civilization is responsible for similar cultural practices in all other civilizations. Smith says that religions are proof of hyperdiffusionism, as similar worship ceremonies and symbols recur in geographically separated societies. Also, Smith believes that the Earth's population is made up of six types of humans, who diffused across the Earth's continents by virtue of their skin color (Smith 1931, 47-48). Finally, Fell asserts that ancient mariners, such as Druids and Phoenicians, traveled from Europe and comprised the early population of ancient America.

text: In Roger's reconstruction Ur is half a billion years older than Arctica and, in the early period of its existence, it was probably the only continent on Earth, and as such can be considered a supercontinent, though it was probably smaller than present-day Australia.  In more recent works geologists often refer to both Ur and other proposed Archaean continental assemblages as supercratons.  Ur can, nevertheless, be half a billion years younger than Vaalbara, but the concepts of these two early cratonic assemblages are incompatible.

text: In Roger's reconstruction Ur is half a billion years older than

text: Arctica

text: and, in the early period of its existence, it was probably the only continent on Earth, and as such can be considered a

text: supercontinent

text: , though it was probably smaller than present-day

text: Australia

text: .  In more recent works geologists often refer to both Ur and other proposed Archaean continental assemblages as supercratons.  Ur can, nevertheless, be half a billion years younger than

text: Vaalbara

text: , but the concepts of these two early cratonic assemblages are incompatible.

text: Evidence of collision and rifting between continents raises the question as to what exactly were the movements of the Archean cratons composing Proterozoic continents. Paleomagnetic and geochronological dating mechanisms have allowed the deciphering of Precambrian Supereon tectonics.  It is known that tectonic processes of the Proterozoic Eon resemble greatly the evidence of tectonic activity, such as orogenic belts or ophiolite complexes, we see today. Hence, most geologists would conclude that the Earth was active at that time. It is also commonly accepted that during the Precambrian, the Earth went through several supercontinent breakup and rebuilding cycles (Wilson cycle).  In the late Proterozoic (most recent), the dominant supercontinent was Rodinia (~1000-~750 Ma). It consisted of a series of continents attached to a central craton that forms the core of the North American Continent called Laurentia. An example of an orogeny (mountain building processes) associated with the construction of Rodinia is the Grenville orogeny located in Eastern North America. Rodinia formed after the breakup of the supercontinent Columbia and prior to the assemblage of the supercontinent Gondwana (~500 Ma). The defining orogenic event associated with the formation of Gondwana was the collision of Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia forming the Pan-African orogeny.

text: Evidence of collision and rifting between continents raises the question as to what exactly were the movements of the Archean cratons composing Proterozoic continents.

text: Paleomagnetic

text: and geochronological dating mechanisms have allowed the deciphering of Precambrian Supereon tectonics.  It is known that tectonic processes of the Proterozoic Eon resemble greatly the evidence of tectonic activity, such as

text: orogenic belt

text: s or

text: ophiolite

text: complexes, we see today. Hence, most geologists would conclude that the Earth was active at that time. It is also commonly accepted that during the Precambrian, the Earth went through several supercontinent breakup and rebuilding cycles (

text: Wilson cycle

text: ).  In the late Proterozoic (most recent), the dominant supercontinent was

text: Rodinia

text: (~1000-~750 Ma). It consisted of a series of continents attached to a central craton that forms the core of the North American Continent called

text: Laurentia

text: . An example of an orogeny (mountain building processes) associated with the construction of Rodinia is the

text: Grenville orogeny

text: located in Eastern North America. Rodinia formed after the breakup of the supercontinent

text: Columbia

text: and prior to the assemblage of the supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: (~500 Ma). The defining orogenic event associated with the formation of Gondwana was the collision of Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia forming the

text: Pan-African orogeny

text: Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth's biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth's crust by mass as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide and is the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. It is also the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 10 tonnes). Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1%  by volume) and Venus have much less. The  surrounding those planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation on oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

text: Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth's biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the

text: Sun

text: 's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the

text: Earth's crust

text: by mass as part of oxide compounds such as

text: silicon dioxide

text: and is the most abundant element by mass in the

text: Earth's crust

text: . It is also the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 10 tonnes). Earth is unusual among the planets of the

text: Solar System

text: in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere:

text: Mars

text: (with 0.1%  by volume) and

text: Venus

text: have much less. The  surrounding those planets is produced solely by ultraviolet radiation on oxygen-containing molecules such as carbon dioxide.

text: Rare Earth proponents argue that simple life may be common, though complex life requires specific environmental conditions to arise. Critics consider life could arise on a moon of a gas giant, however the requirements and their complexity increase rather, if volcanicity is absolutely required for life. The moon must have stresses to induce tidal heating, but not so dramatic as seen on Jupiter's Io. The paradox here is the moon is within the gas giant's intense radiation belts, sterilizing any biodiversity before it can get established. Dirk Schulze-Makuch argues that there is no evidence to support this conclusion, hypothesizing alternative biochemistries as a method for complex life to arise in completely alien conditions. While Rare Earth proponents argue that only microbial extremophiles could exist in subsurface habitats beyond Earth, some argue that complex life can also arise in these environments. Examples of extremophile animals such as the Hesiocaeca methanicola, an animal that inhabits ocean floor methane clathrates substances more commonly found in the outer Solar System, the Tardigrade which can survive in the vacuum of space or Halicephalobus mephisto which exists in crushing pressure, scorching temperatures and extremely low oxygen levels 3.6 kilometres deep in the Earth's crust, are sometimes cited by critics as complex life capable of thriving in "alien" environments. Jill Tarter counters the classic counterargument that these species adapted to these environments rather than arose in them, by suggesting that we cannot assume conditions for life to emerge which are not actually known. There are suggestions that complex life could arise in sub-surface conditions which may be similar to those where life may have arisen on Earth, such as the tidally heated subsurfaces of Europa or Enceladus. Ancient circumvental ecosystems such as these support complex life on Earth such as Riftia pachyptila that exist completely independent of the surface biosphere.

text: Rare Earth proponents argue that simple life may be common, though complex life requires specific environmental conditions to arise. Critics consider life could arise on a

text: moon

text: of a gas giant, however the requirements and their complexity increase rather, if volcanicity is absolutely required for life. The moon must have stresses to induce tidal heating, but not so dramatic as seen on Jupiter's Io. The paradox here is the moon is within the gas giant's intense radiation belts, sterilizing any biodiversity before it can get established.

text: Dirk Schulze-Makuch

text: argues that there is no evidence to support this conclusion, hypothesizing alternative biochemistries as a method for complex life to arise in completely alien conditions. While Rare Earth proponents argue that only microbial extremophiles could exist in subsurface habitats beyond Earth, some argue that complex life can also arise in these environments. Examples of extremophile animals such as the

text: Hesiocaeca methanicola

text: , an animal that inhabits ocean floor

text: methane clathrate

text: s substances more commonly found in the outer Solar System, the

text: Tardigrade

text: which can survive in the vacuum of space or

text: Halicephalobus mephisto

text: which exists in crushing pressure, scorching temperatures and extremely low oxygen levels 3.6 kilometres deep in the Earth's crust, are sometimes cited by critics as complex life capable of thriving in "alien" environments.

text: Jill Tarter

text: counters the classic counterargument that these species adapted to these environments rather than arose in them, by suggesting that we cannot assume conditions for life to emerge which are not actually known. There are suggestions that complex life could arise in sub-surface conditions which may be similar to those where life may have arisen on Earth, such as the

text: tidally heated

text: subsurfaces of Europa or Enceladus. Ancient circumvental ecosystems such as these support complex life on Earth such as

text: Riftia pachyptila

text: that exist completely independent of the surface biosphere.

text: During the next 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs, such as roots and seeds. There is no evidence of any organism being fed upon until the middle-late Mississippian, . There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between the time each organ evolved and the time organisms evolved to feed upon them; this may be due to the low levels of oxygen during this period, which may have suppressed evolution. Further than their arthropod status, the identity of these early herbivores is uncertain.Hole feeding and skeletonisation are recorded in the early Permian, with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.

text: During the next 75 million years, plants evolved a range of more complex organs, such as roots and seeds. There is no evidence of any organism being fed upon until the middle-late

text: Mississippian

text: , . There was a gap of 50 to 100 million years between the time each organ evolved and the time organisms evolved to feed upon them; this may be due to the low levels of oxygen during this period, which may have suppressed evolution. Further than their arthropod status, the identity of these early herbivores is uncertain.Hole feeding and skeletonisation are recorded in the early

text: Permian

text: , with surface fluid feeding evolving by the end of that period.

text: While the evolution of cooperative interactions allowed microbial taxa to increase their fitness, it is hypothesized that cooperation provided a proximate cause to other major evolutionary transitions, including the evolution of multicellularity. This idea, often referred to as the Colonial Theory, was first proposed by Haeckel in 1874, and claims that the symbiosis of many organisms of the same species (unlike the symbiotic theory, which suggests the symbiosis of different species) led to a multicellular organism. In a few instances, multicellularity occurs by cells separating and then rejoining (e.g., cellular slime molds) whereas for the majority of multicellular types, multicellularity occurs as a consequence of cells failing to separate following division. The mechanism of this latter colony formation can be as simple as incomplete cytokinesis, though multicellularity is also typically considered to involve cellular differentiation.

text: While the evolution of cooperative interactions allowed microbial taxa to increase their fitness, it is hypothesized that cooperation provided a

text: proximate

text: cause to other

text: major evolutionary transitions

text: , including the evolution of

text: multicellularity

text: . This idea, often referred to as the Colonial Theory, was first proposed by

text: Haeckel

text: in 1874, and claims that the symbiosis of many organisms of the same species (unlike the symbiotic theory, which suggests the symbiosis of different species) led to a multicellular organism. In a few instances, multicellularity occurs by cells separating and then rejoining (e.g., cellular slime molds) whereas for the majority of multicellular types, multicellularity occurs as a consequence of cells failing to separate following division. The mechanism of this latter colony formation can be as simple as incomplete cytokinesis, though multicellularity is also typically considered to involve cellular differentiation.

text: The Earth revolves around the Sun. As seen from Earth, the Sun appears to revolve once around the Earth through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would culminate every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears to move faster (relative to the background stars) at perihelion (currently around 3 January) and slower at aphelion a half year later. At these extreme points this effect varies the apparent solar day by 7.9 s/day from its mean. Consequently, the smaller daily differences on other days in speed are cumulative until these points, reflecting how the planet accelerates and decelerates compared to the mean. As a result, the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit contributes a sine wave variation with an amplitude of 7.66 min and a period of one year to the equation of time. The zero points are reached at perihelion (at the beginning of January) and aphelion (beginning of July); the extreme values are in early April (negative) and early October (positive).

text: The Earth revolves around the Sun. As seen from Earth, the Sun appears to revolve once around the Earth through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would

text: culminate

text: every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: , and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears to move faster (relative to the background stars) at

text: perihelion

text: (currently around 3 January) and slower at

text: aphelion

text: a half year later. At these extreme points this effect varies the apparent solar day by 7.9 s/day from its mean. Consequently, the smaller daily differences on other days in speed are cumulative until these points, reflecting how the planet accelerates and decelerates compared to the mean. As a result, the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit contributes a sine wave variation with an amplitude of 7.66 min and a period of one year to the equation of time. The zero points are reached at perihelion (at the beginning of January) and aphelion (beginning of July); the extreme values are in early April (negative) and early October (positive).

text: The Monitors agree to eliminate "Bob," the Monitor of New Earth who befriended Jason and Donna. Earth-15's Monitor watches as Donna and Jason leave his Earth, and predicts that when they arrive on the Earth of his overzealous brother, they will be terminated. The overzealous Monitor, who oversees Earth-8, attacks them when they arrive on Earth-8, but succeeds only in killing the Jokester of Earth-3. The Monitor from Earth-8 rallies the others to his cause, listing the threats of Monarch's armies, the deaths of the New Gods, the manipulation of Jimmy Olsen, the virus infecting Karate Kid, and the possibility that a single individual is behind it all as evidence. With the help of a female Monitor named Doctrine, he convinces the others that they must go to war in order to save billions of lives that would otherwise be lost.

text: The Ibálong is an invaluable piece of literature that marks the spontaneous record of the ancient Bikol's early struggle for principle, survival, and growth. It commemorates the Bicolano people's resilience against the typhoons that annually beset their region. It stresses the humble accomplishments and peaceful pursuits of the early Bikolanos, including the implementation of just laws. Among other pursuits is the cultivation of upland and lowland crops, the construction of dwellings on tall trees, the creation of the first boat in the region, the making of utensils, tools, and wares, but most importantly, the invention of writing. The epic depicts the transition of the ancient Bikolanos from the hunting stage to the agricultural stage, from the nomadic state to the settled life.

text: The Ibálong is an invaluable piece of literature that marks the spontaneous record of the ancient Bikol's early struggle for principle, survival, and growth. It commemorates the

text: Bicolano people

text: 's resilience against the typhoons that annually beset their region. It stresses the humble accomplishments and peaceful pursuits of the early Bikolanos, including the implementation of just laws. Among other pursuits is the cultivation of upland and lowland crops, the construction of dwellings on tall trees, the creation of the first boat in the region, the making of utensils, tools, and wares, but most importantly, the invention of writing. The epic depicts the transition of the ancient Bikolanos from the hunting stage to the agricultural stage, from the nomadic state to the settled life.

text: Remains of the house of Bacchus and Ariadne dating back to the early 5th century were excavated in 1925.  Researchers found the town to be a valuable site, as evidence of food preparation in a garden was discovered.  Those and other finds point to what daily life in ancient Rome might have been like.  Mosaics found in the town date to the late 4th century.  These mosaics depict items from nature, like a still life arrangement of food items and a sea filled with fish as young people fish from boats.  Another mosaic represents a nude Venus riding a chariot, with plant life surrounding her to represent well-being and fertility.

text: Remains of the house of

text: Bacchus

text: and

text: Ariadne

text: dating back to the early 5th century were excavated in 1925.  Researchers found the town to be a valuable site, as evidence of food preparation in a garden was discovered.  Those and other finds point to what daily life in ancient Rome might have been like.  Mosaics found in the town date to the late 4th century.  These mosaics depict items from nature, like a

text: still life

text: arrangement of food items and a sea filled with fish as young people fish from boats.  Another mosaic represents a nude Venus riding a chariot, with plant life surrounding her to represent well-being and fertility.

text: Its mineralogy records a time in the early Earth's history when the atmosphere and oceans contained significantly less oxygen than their present day counterparts.

text: Its

text: mineralogy

text: records a time in the early

text: Earth

text: 's history when the

text: atmosphere

text: and

text: ocean

text: s contained significantly less

text: oxygen

text: than their present day counterparts.

text: By 1977, the administration had formally moved from the Wilson campus. The historic buildings from the early century of Minnesota State were sold or donated to private businesses and non-profit organizations. One such former university building is the current Blue Earth County Government Center, another is the site of Blue Earth County History Center and Museum shared with a VINE senior center, and a third is the site of the Southern Minnesota Children's Science Center.

text: By 1977, the administration had formally moved from the Wilson campus. The historic buildings from the early century of Minnesota State were sold or donated to private businesses and non-profit organizations. One such former university building is the current Blue Earth County Government Center, another is the site of

text: Blue Earth County History Center and Museum

text: shared with a VINE senior center, and a third is the site of the

text: Southern Minnesota Children's Science Center

text: Sagan dies of asphyxiation, but Sanchez and Rodrigo stumble upon an artificial tunnel near the bottom of the valley, containing the mummified bodies of humanoid alien beings. They find that the air pressure and oxygen content in some of the tunnels is just like that on Earth. Rodrigo dies when accidentally entering a tunnel with no atmosphere, but Sanchez manages to contact the two astronauts still at the lander, who have meanwhile discovered that they are gradually losing air pressure and have realised that there must be an air leak somewhere. Sanchez urges them to join her, as there is enough oxygen and water in the valley for them to survive until the rescue ship arrives.

text: Sagan dies of asphyxiation, but Sanchez and Rodrigo stumble upon an artificial tunnel near the bottom of the valley, containing the mummified bodies of

text: humanoid

text: alien beings. They find that the air pressure and oxygen content in some of the tunnels is just like that on Earth. Rodrigo dies when accidentally entering a tunnel with no atmosphere, but Sanchez manages to contact the two astronauts still at the lander, who have meanwhile discovered that they are gradually losing air pressure and have realised that there must be an air leak somewhere. Sanchez urges them to join her, as there is enough oxygen and water in the valley for them to survive until the rescue ship arrives.

text: Now more than ever eager to make preparations to subdue and convert earth Metron states that all preparations have been set and that any possible/probable occurrences have been all but accounted for, on his command New Genesis will make way to the Prime Earth universe. Bekka warns that Metron and Highfather might have erred on how much resistance they will encounter once invasion has begun considering the heavy resistance they're suffered at the hands of the mortal ring wielders alone. Highfather says they have nothing to fear now that he withholds the Life Equation save more treachery from the inside reminding everyone of Malhedrons treachery to aid the rogue lanterns, but bekka only affirms that they all should tread carefully as earth had repelled Darkseid with the former doubling his argument saying the conquest of earth was vital to his plans. Goaded by a familiar voice Highfather turns to meet a Parallax empowered Sinestro who vouches the claim that earth's more troublesome than believed, as the two monarchs converse Highfather initially scoffs at whatever consul he could offer him. When sinestro only makes ultimatums Highfather bursts into laughter at such predictions of crushing defeat at the hands of mere mortals, only to be assaulted by the fear masters construct of Darkseid as his adversary goes onto say that while a detailed record was kept on his deranged brother nothing could be said about Highfather who was little more than a side note in his dossier file. Greatly irked by this Highfather attacked Sinestro with great fury, who even backed by the embodiment of fear was monstrously outclassed by Highfather and the Life Equation. Before he could be killed the crafty fear Lantern fled the scene but not before having the Despotelis rewire the Boom tube generator circuitry to redirect the portal generators destination coordinates, confident that Sinestro escapes towards where he intentionally leads his forces, to Earth. In a surprise turn of events from when Hal Jordan and Will Hand were confronted by Orion back at the Source Wall. Where the latter of the group resurrected an army of Old Gods and third world beings trapped within it using the power of the Black Lantern Highfather is informed that the Boom Tube set for earth has been compromised having been instead set towards the source wall. Ordering Metron to recalibrate the coordinates so he can take earth using the Life Equation to further his war plans against his wicked brother. He soon changes his mind and his initial plans after three Lanterns and an army of ancient beings of a time long gone charge through the portal he initially opened, all but stunned at what has come through to his front doorstep.

text: Hal Jordan

text: and

text: Will Hand

text: were confronted by Orion back at the Source Wall. Where the latter of the group resurrected an army of Old Gods and third world beings trapped within it using the power of the

text: Black Lantern

text: Highfather is informed that the Boom Tube set for earth has been compromised having been instead set towards the source wall. Ordering Metron to recalibrate the coordinates so he can take earth using the Life Equation to further his war plans against his wicked brother. He soon changes his mind and his initial plans after three Lanterns and an army of ancient beings of a time long gone charge through the portal he initially opened, all but stunned at what has come through to his front doorstep.

text: In the times of Ancient Greece, the Gods have begun to punish the humans of Earth, resenting their arrogance and defiance among their societies. Zeus, the father of all the Gods, has forced his children to stop giving their gifts of life to the Earth, so that all humans are soon deprived of animals, food, and even daylight. With most of the Earth cast in darkness, man begins to fall prey to the savage destruction of their cities.

text: In the times of

text: Ancient Greece

text: , the Gods have begun to punish the humans of Earth, resenting their arrogance and defiance among their societies.

text: Zeus

text: , the father of all the Gods, has forced his children to stop giving their gifts of life to the Earth, so that all humans are soon deprived of animals, food, and even daylight. With most of the Earth cast in darkness, man begins to fall prey to the savage destruction of their cities.

text: This is a list of supercontinents. The list is written in reverse-chronological order (stratolithic order).

text: This is a list of

text: supercontinents

text: . The list is written in reverse-chronological order (stratolithic order).

text: Wallace speculated that the key to understanding these differences would lie in "now-submerged lands, uniting islands to continents" (1895). We now know that at several intervals during the Pleistocene, the sea surface was 130 metres below the current sea level. At these times New Guinea, Tasmania, the Aru Islands, and some smaller islands were joined to the Australian mainland. Biogeographers call this enlarged Greater Australian continent Sahul (Ballard, 1993) or Meganesia. West of Wallacea, the vast Sunda Shelf was also exposed as dry land, greatly extending the Southeast Asian mainland to include the Greater Sunda Islands of Sundaland. However, the islands of Wallacea (primarily Sulawesi, Ambon, Ceram, Halmahera and the Lesser Sundas) always remained an island world, imposing a barrier to the dispersal of terrestrial vertebrates, including early hominids.

text: Wallace speculated that the key to understanding these differences would lie in "now-submerged lands, uniting islands to continents" (1895). We now know that at several intervals during the

text: Pleistocene

text: , the sea surface was 130 metres below the current

text: sea level

text: . At these times New Guinea,

text: Tasmania

text: , the

text: Aru Islands

text: , and some smaller islands were joined to the Australian mainland. Biogeographers call this enlarged Greater Australian continent

text: Sahul

text: (Ballard, 1993) or

text: Meganesia

text: . West of Wallacea, the vast

text: Sunda Shelf

text: was also exposed as dry land, greatly extending the Southeast Asian mainland to include the

text: Greater Sunda Islands

text: of

text: Sundaland

text: . However, the islands of Wallacea (primarily

text: Sulawesi

text: Ambon

text: Ceram

text: Halmahera

text: and the

text: Lesser Sundas

text: ) always remained an island world, imposing a barrier to the dispersal of terrestrial

text: vertebrate

text: s, including early

text: hominids

text: Chemical fossils are chemicals found in rocks and fossil fuels (petroleum, coal, and natural gas) that provide an organic signature for ancient life. Molecular fossils and isotope ratios represent two types of chemical fossils. The oldest traces of life on Earth are fossils of this type, including carbon isotope anomalies found in zircons that imply the existence of life as early as 4.1 billion years ago.

text: The result of the 2007-2009 study has found that the Gamburtsev  are very old, first forming around a billion years ago when continental drift pushed two plates together to form the super-continent of Rodinia. This early range was eroded above the surface but left a deep cold root reaching down into the Earth's mantle. About 250-100 million years ago,  the crust started to pull apart in a series of rifting events close to the east of this old root. A forked rift valley runs along the northern side of the mountains containing lakes Sovetskaya and 90East within it. This rifting warmed and rejuvenated the root, giving it the buoyancy to be lifted up  to re-establish the mountains as an 800 km long massif.Further uplift still was achieved as deep valleys were later cut erosion lightening the overall  mass of the system. Around 35 million years ago, the glaciers merged to form the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, burying the Gamburtsev Range in the process.

text: The result of the 2007-2009 study has found that the Gamburtsev  are very old, first forming around a billion years ago when continental drift pushed two plates together to form the super-continent of

text: Rodinia

text: . This early range was eroded above the surface but left a deep cold root reaching down into the Earth's mantle. About 250-100 million years ago,  the crust started to pull apart in a series of rifting events close to the east of this old root. A forked

text: rift valley

text: runs along the northern side of the mountains containing lakes

text: Sovetskaya

text: and

text: within it. This rifting warmed and rejuvenated the root, giving it the buoyancy to be lifted up  to re-establish the mountains as an 800 km long

text: massif

text: .Further uplift still was achieved as deep valleys were later cut erosion lightening the overall  mass of the system. Around 35 million years ago, the glaciers merged to form the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, burying the Gamburtsev Range in the process.

text: The Eoarchean (; also spelled Eoarchaean) is the first era of the Archean Eon of the geologic record for which the Earth has a solid crust. It spans 400 million years from the end of the Hadean Eon 4000 million years ago (Mya) to the start of the Paleoarchean Era 3600 Mya.  The abiotic origins of life have been dated to this era and evidence of cyanobacteria date to 3500 Mya, just outside of this era. At that time atmosphere was without oxygen pressure values ranged from 10 to 100 bar (a bit less than 10 to 100 atmospheres).

text: The Eoarchean (; also spelled Eoarchaean) is the first

text: era

text: of the

text: Archean

text: Eon of the

text: geologic record

text: for which the Earth has a solid crust. It spans 400 million years from the end of the Hadean Eon 4000 million years ago (

text: Mya

text: ) to the start of the

text: Paleoarchean

text: Era 3600 Mya.  The

text: abiotic

text: origins of life have been dated to this era and evidence of

text: cyanobacteria

text: date to 3500 Mya, just outside of this era. At that time atmosphere was without oxygen pressure values ranged from 10 to 100

text: bar

text: (a bit less than 10 to 100 atmospheres).

text: Stargate Atlantis follows the present-day adventures of Lt. Colonel John Sheppard and his military team from Earth that, along with two dozen other teams, explore distant planets in the Pegasus Galaxy. They use an alien device known as a Stargate that was built millions of years ago by an advanced race of humans known as the Ancients. The expedition is based in the Lost City of Atlantis on the planet "Lantea". The city was built millions of years ago and abandoned 10,000 years ago by the Ancients. Five to ten million years ago, due to a plague in the Milky Way Galaxy, they were forced to flee to the Pegasus Galaxy, and there they seeded life on hundreds of worlds as they had done to Earth in the Milky Way. After encountering a powerful enemy known as the Wraith and going to war with them for one hundred years, the Ancients ultimately lost and were forced to submerge their city beneath Lantea's ocean, which, in the Stargate universe, is the source of the Greek myth of the Lost City of Atlantis.

text: Stargate Atlantis follows the present-day adventures of

text: Lt. Colonel John Sheppard

text: and his military team from Earth that, along with two dozen other teams, explore distant planets in the Pegasus Galaxy. They use an alien device known as a

text: Stargate

text: that was built millions of years ago by an advanced race of humans known as the

text: Ancients

text: . The expedition is based in the Lost City of

text: Atlantis

text: on the planet "Lantea". The city was built millions of years ago and abandoned 10,000 years ago by the

text: Ancients

text: . Five to ten million years ago, due to a plague in the Milky Way Galaxy, they were forced to flee to the

text: Pegasus Galaxy

text: , and there they seeded life on hundreds of worlds as they had done to Earth in the Milky Way. After encountering a powerful enemy known as the

text: Wraith

text: and going to war with them for one hundred years, the Ancients ultimately lost and were forced to submerge their city beneath Lantea's ocean, which, in the Stargate universe, is the source of the

text: Greek

text: myth

text: of the Lost City of

text: Atlantis

text: Enter Life is an 8-minute animated film from 1982 about the earliest origin of life, or abiogensis on earth. Directed by Faith Hubley of Hubley Studios, the film traces a possible course of development, according to contemporary theory, of organic compounds, amino acids and early cellular organisms.

text: Enter Life is an 8-minute animated film from 1982 about the earliest

text: origin of life

text: , or

text: abiogensis

text: on earth. Directed by

text: Faith Hubley

text: of Hubley Studios, the film traces a possible course of development, according to contemporary theory, of organic compounds, amino acids and early cellular organisms.

text: The broad distribution of Brachiosauridae in both northern and southern continents suggests that the group originated prior to the breakup of Pangaea. In the Early Cretaceous the distribution of the family is dramatically reduced. It is still unclear whether this reduction is due to local extinctions or to the limited nature of the Early Cretaceous fossil record.

text: The broad distribution of Brachiosauridae in both northern and southern continents suggests that the group originated prior to the breakup of

text: Pangaea

text: . In the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: the distribution of the

text: family

text: is dramatically reduced. It is still unclear whether this reduction is due to local extinctions or to the limited nature of the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: fossil record.

text: The Colonial Theory of Haeckel, 1874, proposes that the symbiosis of many organisms of the same species (unlike the symbiotic theory, which suggests the symbiosis of different species) led to a multicellular organism. At least some, it is presumed land-evolved, multicellularity occurs by cells separating and then rejoining (e.g. cellular slime molds) whereas for the majority of multicellular types (those that evolved within aquatic environments), multicellularity occurs as a consequence of cells failing to separate following division. The mechanism of this latter colony formation can be as simple as incomplete cytokinesis, though multicellularity is also typically considered to involve cellular differentiation.

text: The Colonial Theory of

text: Haeckel

text: , 1874, proposes that the symbiosis of many organisms of the same species (unlike the

text: symbiotic theory

text: , which suggests the symbiosis of different species) led to a multicellular organism. At least some, it is presumed land-evolved, multicellularity occurs by cells separating and then rejoining (e.g.

text: cellular slime molds

text: ) whereas for the majority of multicellular types (those that evolved within aquatic environments), multicellularity occurs as a consequence of cells failing to separate following division. The mechanism of this latter colony formation can be as simple as incomplete

text: cytokinesis

text: , though multicellularity is also typically considered to involve

text: cellular differentiation

text: The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis radically changed the composition of the early Earth's atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems. Many animals rely on plants for shelter as well as oxygen and food.

text: The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis radically changed the composition of the early Earth's atmosphere, which as a result is now 21%

text: oxygen

text: . Animals and most other organisms are

text: aerobic

text: , relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare

text: anaerobic environment

text: s. Plants are the

text: primary producers

text: in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the

text: food web

text: in those ecosystems. Many animals rely on plants for shelter as well as oxygen and food.

text: This is a list of articles related to plate tectonics and tectonic plates.

text: This is a list of articles related to

text: plate tectonics

text: and

text: tectonic plate

text: s.

text: The detailed decay mechanism to form the stable daughter nuclide tellurium-125 is a multi-step process that begins with electron capture. This is followed by a cascade of electron relaxation as the core electron hole moves toward the valence orbitals. The cascade involves many Auger transitions, each of which cause the atom to become increasingly ionized. The electron capture produces a tellurium-125 nucleus in an excited state with a half-life of 1.6 ns, which undergoes gamma decay emitting a photon or an internal conversion electron at 35.5 keV. A second electron relaxation cascade follows the gamma decay before the nuclide comes to rest.  Throughout the entire process an average of 13.3 electrons are emitted (10.3 of which are Auger electrons), most with energies less than 400 eV (79% of yield). The internal conversion and Auger electrons from the radioisotope have been found in one study to do little cellular damage, unless the radionuclide is incorporated chemically directly into cellular DNA, which is not the case for present radiopharmaceuticals which use I-125 as the radioactive label nuclide.

text: The detailed decay mechanism to form the stable daughter nuclide tellurium-125 is a multi-step process that begins with

text: electron capture

text: . This is followed by a cascade of electron relaxation as the core electron hole moves toward the valence orbitals. The cascade involves many Auger transitions, each of which cause the atom to become increasingly ionized. The electron capture produces a tellurium-125 nucleus in an excited state with a half-life of 1.6 ns, which undergoes

text: gamma decay

text: emitting a photon or an

text: internal conversion

text: electron at 35.5 keV. A second electron relaxation cascade follows the gamma decay before the nuclide comes to rest.  Throughout the entire process an average of 13.3 electrons are emitted (10.3 of which are

text: Auger electron

text: s), most with energies less than 400 eV (79% of yield). The internal conversion and Auger electrons from the radioisotope have been found in one study to do little cellular damage, unless the radionuclide is incorporated chemically directly into cellular DNA, which is not the case for present radiopharmaceuticals which use I-125 as the radioactive label nuclide.

text: An Earth-One version of Ted Grant existed pre-Crisis and teamed up with Batman, himself a retired world heavyweight champion like his Earth-Two counterpart, on several occasions. This Grant had a relatively minor career, and much of his early years, such as his origin, was left un-chronicled. His origin is likely similar to the golden age Ted Grant. This version of Ted Grant ceased to exist following the events of the Crisis on Infinite Earths, with the Earth-Two version becoming the dominant version on the new unified universe. It was still said, Post-Crisis, that Batman received some training from Ted Grant.

text: An Earth-One version of Ted Grant existed pre-Crisis and teamed up with

text: Batman

text: , himself a retired world heavyweight champion like his Earth-Two counterpart, on several occasions. This Grant had a relatively minor career, and much of his early years, such as his origin, was left un-chronicled. His origin is likely similar to the golden age Ted Grant. This version of Ted Grant ceased to exist following the events of the Crisis on Infinite Earths, with the Earth-Two version becoming the dominant version on the new unified universe. It was still said, Post-Crisis, that Batman received some training from Ted Grant.

text: In the early 1990s, the United States and Canada formed an agreement to develop a plate-scale submarine electro-optically cabled ocean observatory in the northeast Pacific Ocean.  This region is home to the smallest of Earth’s tectonic plates – the Juan de Fuca plate.  The small size and close coastal proximity of the Juan de Fuca plate presents a unique opportunity to observe the dynamic systems in submarine volcano regions.

text: In the early 1990s, the United States and

text: Canada

text: formed an agreement to develop a plate-scale submarine electro-optically cabled ocean observatory in the northeast Pacific Ocean.  This region is home to the smallest of Earth’s tectonic plates – the Juan de Fuca plate.  The small size and close coastal proximity of the Juan de Fuca plate presents a unique opportunity to observe the dynamic systems in submarine volcano regions.

text: The mobile user relays enable distributed MSs to self-organize into a wireless ad hoc network, which complements the cellular network infrastructure using multi-hop transmissions. Studies have shown that mobile user relays have a fundamental advantage in that the total network capacity, measured as the sum of the throughputs of the users, can scale linearly with the number of users given sufficient infrastructure supports. Mobile user relays are therefore a desirable enhancement to future cellular systems. However, mobile user relays face challenges in routing, radio resource management, and interference management.

text: Air is the most common source and reservoir of oxygen, containing 20.8% This concentration is sufficient for many purposes, such as combustion of many fuels, corrosion of many metals, and breathing of animals. Most humans can function at rest with an oxygen level of 15% at one atmosphere pressure; a fuel such as methane is combustable down to 12% oxygen in nitrogen.

text: Air is the most common source and reservoir of oxygen, containing 20.8% This concentration is sufficient for many purposes, such as combustion of many fuels, corrosion of many metals, and breathing of animals. Most humans can function at rest with an oxygen level of 15% at one

text: atmosphere

text: pressure; a fuel such as

text: methane

text: is combustable down to 12% oxygen in nitrogen.

text: The perhaps best example is studies of the amount of oxygen in food packages. Oxygen is naturally present in most food and food packages as it is a major component in air. However, oxygen is also one of the great causes or needs for aging of biological substances, due to its source for increase of chemical and microbiological activity. Today, methods like [Modified atmosphere] (MAP) and [Controlled atmosphere] packaging (CAP) are implemented to reduce and control the oxygen content in food packages to prolong [shelf life] and ensure safe food. To assure the effectiveness of these methods it is important to regularly measure the concentration of oxygen (and other gases) inside these packages. GASMAS provides the possibility of doing this non-intrusively, without destroying any food or packages. The two main advantages of measuring the gas-composition in packages without perforation is that no food is wasted in the controlling process and that the same package can be controlled repeatedly during an extended time period to monitor any time-dependence of the gas composition. The studies can be used to guarantee the tightness of packages but also to study food deterioration processes.

text: In 1983, Wolfram left for the School of Natural Sciences of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, where he conducted research into cellular automata, mainly with computer simulations. He produced a series of papers systematically investigating the class of elementary cellular automata, conceiving the Wolfram code, a naming system for one-dimensional cellular automata, and a classification scheme for the complexity of their behaviour.He conjectured that the Rule 110 cellular automaton might be Turing complete.

text: In 1983, Wolfram left for the School of Natural Sciences of the

text: Institute for Advanced Study

text: in Princeton, where he conducted research into

text: cellular automata

text: , mainly with computer simulations. He produced a series of papers systematically investigating the class of

text: elementary cellular automata

text: , conceiving the

text: Wolfram code

text: , a naming system for one-dimensional cellular automata, and a

text: classification scheme

text: for the complexity of their behaviour.He conjectured that the

text: Rule 110

text: cellular automaton might be

text: Turing complete

text: The 2000 Baku earthquake occurred on November 25 at 22:10 (18:10 GMT) local time, measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale in the epicentre and three minutes later followed by a quake measuring 5.9. It was the strongest for almost 160 years, since 1842 in the Baku suburbs and in addition to the capital affected Sumgayit, Shamakhi and neighboring cities. According to the United States Geological Survey, the epicentre was in the Caspian Sea, 25 km to the south-southeast of Baku. The earthquake was felt as far away as e.g. Tbilisi, 600 km northwest of the epicentre, Makhachkala and the Karabudakh and Isberbas settlements in Dagestan. It is assumed that the earthquake was triggered by active tectonic motion on the border of two major sections of the earth crust – the Turansk plate and the Kopedag-Caucasian folded plate motion area. The earthquake zone gravitates towards Apsheron-Chelekensk deep crust break.

text: The 2000 Baku earthquake occurred on November 25 at 22:10 (18:10

text: GMT

text: ) local time, measuring 7.0 on the

text: Richter scale

text: in the

text: epicentre

text: and three minutes later followed by a quake measuring 5.9. It was the strongest for almost 160 years, since

text: in the Baku suburbs and in addition to the capital affected

text: Sumgayit

text: Shamakhi

text: and neighboring cities. According to the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: , the epicentre was in the

text: Caspian Sea

text: , 25 km to the south-southeast of Baku. The earthquake was felt as far away as e.g.

text: Tbilisi

text: , 600 km northwest of the epicentre,

text: Makhachkala

text: and the Karabudakh and Isberbas settlements in

text: Dagestan

text: . It is assumed that the earthquake was triggered by active

text: tectonic

text: motion on the border of two major sections of the

text: earth crust

text: – the Turansk plate and the Kopedag-Caucasian folded plate motion area. The earthquake zone gravitates towards Apsheron-Chelekensk deep crust break.

text: The broadest and fullest context of the OWL is the global system of plate tectonics, driven by convective flows in the Earth's mantle. The primary story on the western margin of North America is the accretion, subduction, obduction, and translation of plates,micro-plates, terranes, and crustal blocks between the converging Pacific and North American plates.   (For an excellent geological history of Washington, including plate tectonics, see the Burke Museum web site.)

text: The broadest and fullest context of the OWL is the global system of

text: plate tectonics

text: , driven by convective flows in the Earth's mantle. The primary story on the western margin of North America is the accretion, subduction, obduction, and translation of plates,micro-plates, terranes, and crustal blocks between the converging Pacific and North American plates.   (For an excellent geological history of Washington, including plate tectonics, see the Burke Museum web site.)

text: Microbes, especially bacteria, often engage in symbiotic relationships (either positive or negative) with other organisms, and these relationships affect the ecosystem. One example of these fundamental symbioses are chloroplasts, which allow eukaryotes to conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are considered to be endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, a group of bacteria that are thought to be the origins of aerobic photosynthesis. Some theories state that this invention coincides with a major shift in the early earth's atmosphere, from a reducing atmosphere to an oxygen-rich atmosphere. Some theories go as far as saying that this shift in the balance of gases might have triggered a global ice-age known as the Snowball Earth.

text: Microbes, especially bacteria, often engage in

text: symbiotic

text: relationships (either

text: positive

text: or

text: negative

text: ) with other organisms, and these relationships affect the ecosystem. One example of these fundamental symbioses are

text: chloroplasts

text: , which allow eukaryotes to conduct

text: photosynthesis

text: . Chloroplasts are considered to be endosymbiotic

text: cyanobacteria

text: , a group of

text: bacteria

text: that are thought to be the origins of aerobic photosynthesis. Some theories state that this invention coincides with a major shift in the early earth's atmosphere, from a reducing atmosphere to an oxygen-rich atmosphere. Some theories go as far as saying that this shift in the balance of gases might have triggered a global ice-age known as the

text: Snowball Earth

text: Most of the DHA in fish and multi-cellular organisms with access to cold-water oceanic foods originates from photosynthetic and heterotrophic microalgae, and becomes increasingly concentrated in organisms the further they are up the food chain. DHA is also commercially manufactured from microalgae: Crypthecodinium cohnii and another of the genus Schizochytrium.  DHA manufactured using microalgae is vegetarian.

text: Most of the DHA in fish and multi-cellular organisms with access to cold-water oceanic foods originates from photosynthetic and heterotrophic

text: microalgae

text: , and becomes increasingly concentrated in organisms the further they are up the food chain. DHA is also commercially manufactured from microalgae:

text: Crypthecodinium cohnii

text: and another of the genus

text: Schizochytrium

text: .  DHA manufactured using microalgae is

text: vegetarian

text: To supplement the onboard environmental control system, he wore a pressure suit with its own oxygen supply, which would also cool him. A cabin atmosphere of pure oxygen at a low pressure of 5.5 psi (equivalent to an altitude of ) was chosen, rather than one with the same composition as air (nitrogen/oxygen) at sea level. This was easier to control, avoided the risk of decompression sickness (known as "the bends"), and also saved on spacecraft weight. Fires (which never occurred) would have to be extinguished by emptying the cabin of oxygen. In such case, or failure of the cabin pressure for any reason, the astronaut could make an emergency return to Earth, relying on his suit for survival. The astronauts normally flew with their visor up, which meant that the suit was not inflated. With the visor down and the suit inflated, the astronaut could only reach the side and bottom panels, where vital buttons and handles were placed.

text: To supplement the onboard environmental control system, he wore a pressure suit with its own

text: oxygen

text: supply, which would also cool him. A cabin atmosphere of pure oxygen at a low pressure of 5.5 psi (equivalent to an altitude of ) was chosen, rather than one with the same composition as air (

text: nitrogen

text: /oxygen) at sea level. This was easier to control, avoided the risk of

text: decompression sickness

text: (known as "the bends"), and also saved on spacecraft weight. Fires (which never occurred) would have to be extinguished by emptying the cabin of oxygen. In such case, or failure of the cabin pressure for any reason, the astronaut could make an emergency return to Earth, relying on his suit for survival. The astronauts normally flew with their

text: visor

text: up, which meant that the suit was not inflated. With the visor down and the suit inflated, the astronaut could only reach the side and bottom panels, where vital buttons and handles were placed.

text: The giant impact hypothesis states that an impact between a theoretical Mars-sized planet Theia and the early Earth formed the modern Earth and moon. During this impact the majority of the iron from Theia and the Earth became incorporated into the Earth's core.

text: The

text: giant impact hypothesis

text: states that an impact between a theoretical Mars-sized planet

text: Theia

text: and the early Earth formed the modern Earth and moon. During this impact the majority of the iron from Theia and the Earth became incorporated into the Earth's core.

text: Before photosynthesis evolved, Earth's atmosphere had no free oxygen (O).  Photosynthetic prokaryotic organisms that produced O as a waste product lived long before the first build-up of free oxygen in the atmosphere, perhaps as early as 3.5 billion years ago. The oxygen they produced would have been rapidly removed from the atmosphere by weathering of reducing minerals, most notably iron. This "mass rusting" led to the deposition of iron oxide on the ocean floor, forming banded iron formations. Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event. This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen. At current rates of primary production, today's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years. In the absence of plants, the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the Precambrian, and the concentrations of O attained were less than 10% of today's and probably fluctuated greatly; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around  These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life, with mass extinctions not observed until the appearance of complex life around the start of the Cambrian period, . The presence of  provided life with new opportunities. Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways, and the presence of oxygen undoubtedly created new possibilities for life to explore. Since the start of the Cambrian period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume. The maximum of 35% was reached towards the end of the Carboniferous period (about 300 million years ago), a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time. Whilst human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations, their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant.

text: Before

text: photosynthesis

text: evolved,

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: had no free

text: oxygen

text: (O).

text: Photosynthetic

text: prokaryotic

text: organisms that produced O as a waste product lived long before the first build-up of free oxygen in the atmosphere, perhaps as early as 3.5 billion years ago. The oxygen they produced would have been rapidly removed from the atmosphere by weathering of reducing minerals, most notably iron. This "mass rusting" led to the deposition of iron oxide on the ocean floor, forming

text: banded iron formations

text: . Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: . This mass oxygenation of the atmosphere resulted in rapid buildup of free oxygen. At current rates of

text: primary production

text: , today's concentration of oxygen could be produced by photosynthetic organisms in 2,000 years. In the

text: absence of plants

text: , the rate of oxygen production by photosynthesis was slower in the

text: Precambrian

text: , and the concentrations of O attained were less than 10% of today's and probably fluctuated greatly; oxygen may even have disappeared from the atmosphere again around  These fluctuations in oxygen concentration had little direct effect on life, with

text: mass extinction

text: s not observed until the appearance of

text: complex life

text: around the start of the

text: Cambrian

text: period, . The presence of  provided life with new opportunities. Aerobic metabolism is more efficient than anaerobic pathways, and the presence of oxygen undoubtedly created new possibilities for life to explore. Since the start of the

text: Cambrian

text: period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume. The maximum of 35% was reached towards the end of the

text: Carboniferous

text: period (about 300 million years ago), a peak which may have contributed to the large size of insects and amphibians at that time. Whilst human activities, such as the burning of

text: fossil fuel

text: s, affect relative carbon dioxide concentrations, their effect on the much larger concentration of oxygen is less significant.

text: Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth's temperature throughout its 4.7 billion year history. Early in the Earth's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun's output is believed to have only been 70% of what it is today. It has been suggested by scientists that higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth atmosphere might help explain this faint young sun paradox. When Earth first formed, Earth's atmosphere may have contained more greenhouse gases and  concentrations may have been higher, with estimated partial pressure as large as , because there was no bacterial photosynthesis to reduce the gas to carbon compounds and oxygen. Methane, a very active greenhouse gas which reacts with oxygen to produce  and water vapor, may have been more prevalent as well, with a mixing ratio of 10 (100 parts per million by volume).

text: Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth's temperature throughout its 4.7 billion year history. Early in the Earth's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun's output is believed to have only been 70% of what it is today. It has been suggested by scientists that higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth atmosphere might help explain this

text: faint young sun paradox

text: . When Earth first formed,

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: may have contained more greenhouse gases and  concentrations may have been higher, with estimated

text: partial pressure

text: as large as , because there was no bacterial

text: photosynthesis

text: to

text: reduce

text: the gas to carbon compounds and oxygen.

text: Methane

text: , a very active greenhouse gas which reacts with oxygen to produce  and water vapor, may have been more prevalent as well, with a mixing ratio of 10 (100

text: parts per million

text: by volume).

text: Cells require a full and functional cellular machinery to live. When they belong to complex multicellular organisms, they need to communicate among themselves and work for symbiosis in order to give life to the organism. These communications between cells triggers intracellular signaling cascades, termed signal transduction pathways, that regulate specific cellular functions. Each signal transduction occurs with a primary extracellular messenger that binds to a transmembrane or nuclear receptor, initiating intracellular signals. The complex formed produces or releases second messengers that integrate and adapt the signal, amplifying it, by activating molecular targets, which in turn trigger effectors that will lead to the desired cellular response.

text: Cells require a full and functional cellular machinery to live. When they belong to complex multicellular organisms, they need to communicate among themselves and work for symbiosis in order to give life to the organism. These communications between cells triggers intracellular signaling cascades, termed

text: signal transduction

text: pathways, that regulate specific cellular functions. Each signal transduction occurs with a primary extracellular messenger that binds to a transmembrane or nuclear receptor, initiating intracellular signals. The complex formed produces or releases second messengers that integrate and adapt the signal, amplifying it, by activating molecular targets, which in turn trigger effectors that will lead to the desired cellular response.

text: The Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion, heat produced through radioactive decay, and possibly heat from other sources. The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, uranium-235, and thorium-232. At the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa(3.6 million atm). Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists believe that early in Earth history, before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted, Earth's heat production would have been much higher. Heat production was twice that of present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago, resulting in larger temperature gradients within the Earth, larger rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are not formed anymore today.

text: The

text: Earth's internal heat

text: comes from a combination of residual heat from

text: planetary accretion

text: , heat produced through

text: radioactive decay

text: , and possibly heat from other sources. The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are

text: , and

text: . At the center of the planet, the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360

text: GPa

text: (3.6 million atm). Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists believe that early in Earth history, before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted, Earth's heat production would have been much higher. Heat production was twice that of present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago, resulting in larger temperature gradients within the Earth, larger rates of

text: mantle convection

text: and

text: plate tectonics

text: , allowing the production of igneous rocks such as

text: komatiites

text: that are not formed anymore today.

text: An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. Tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they can get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge of a tectonic plate overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust and cause the shaking that is felt. For example, in California, there are two plates, the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The Pacific Plate consists of most of the Pacific Ocean floor, and also includes Baja California and the California coastline. The North American Plate comprises most of the North American continent, including the inland parts of California, as well as parts of the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans' floors. The primary boundary between these two plates is the San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas Fault is more than 800 miles long and extends to depths of at least 10 miles. Many other smaller faults like the Hayward (San Francisco Bay Area) and the San Jacinto (Southern California) join with the San Andreas to form the San Andreas Fault Zone. The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year.

text: An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a

text: fault

text: Tectonic plates

text: are always slowly moving, but they can get stuck at their edges due to

text: friction

text: . When the stress on the edge of a tectonic plate overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases

text: energy

text: in waves that travel through the earth's

text: crust

text: and cause the shaking that is felt. For example, in

text: California

text: , there are two plates, the

text: Pacific Plate

text: and the

text: North American Plate

text: . The Pacific Plate consists of most of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: floor, and also includes

text: Baja California

text: and the

text: California coastline

text: . The North American Plate comprises most of the

text: North American

text: continent, including the inland parts of California, as well as parts of the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Arctic Ocean

text: s' floors. The primary boundary between these two plates is the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: . The San Andreas Fault is more than 800 miles long and extends to depths of at least 10 miles. Many other smaller faults like the

text: Hayward

text: (San Francisco Bay Area) and the

text: San Jacinto

text: (Southern California) join with the San Andreas to form the San Andreas Fault Zone. The Pacific Plate grinds northwestward past the North American Plate at a rate of about two inches per year.

text: Because all clades are represented in the southern hemisphere but many not in the northern hemisphere, it is natural to conjecture that there is a common southern origin to them. Asterales are angiosperms, flowering plants that appeared about 140 million years ago. The Asterales order probably originated in the Cretaceous (145 – 66 Mya) on the supercontinent Gondwana which broke up from 184 – 80 Mya, forming the area that is now Australia, South America, Africa, India and Antarctica.

text: Because all clades are represented in the southern hemisphere but many not in the northern hemisphere, it is natural to conjecture that there is a common southern origin to them. Asterales are

text: angiosperms

text: , flowering plants that appeared about 140 million years ago. The Asterales order probably originated in the

text: Cretaceous

text: (145 – 66

text: Mya

text: ) on the supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: which broke up from 184 – 80 Mya, forming the area that is now Australia, South America, Africa, India and Antarctica.

text: The History of Papua New Guinea can be traced back to about 60,000 years ago when people first migrated towards the Australian continent. The written history began when European navigators first sighted New Guinea in the early part of the 16th century. Portuguese explorers first arrived from the west and later Spanish navigators from the east, after crossing the Pacific. The island was given its name "New Guinea" by Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez who sailed its coast in 1545. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an ice age period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. For an overview of the geological history of the continent of which New Guinea is a part, see Australia – New Guinea. Although the first arrivals were hunter-gatherers, early evidence shows that people managed the forest environment to provide food. The gardens of the New Guinea highlands are ancient, intensive permacultures, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000mm/yr (400in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost.  There are indications that gardening was being practised at the same time that agriculture was developing in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

text: The History of Papua New Guinea can be traced back to about 60,000 years ago when people first migrated towards the

text: Australian continent

text: . The written history began when European navigators first sighted

text: New Guinea

text: in the early part of the 16th century. Portuguese explorers first arrived from the west and later Spanish navigators from the east, after crossing the Pacific. The island was given its name "New Guinea" by Spanish explorer

text: Yñigo Ortiz de Retez

text: who sailed its coast in 1545. Archaeological evidence indicates that humans arrived on New Guinea at least 60,000 years ago, probably by sea from Southeast Asia during an

text: ice age

text: period when the sea was lower and distances between islands shorter. For an overview of the geological history of the continent of which New Guinea is a part, see

text: Australia – New Guinea

text: . Although the first arrivals were

text: hunter-gatherer

text: s, early evidence shows that people managed the forest environment to provide food. The gardens of the New Guinea highlands are ancient, intensive

text: permaculture

text: s, adapted to high population densities, very high rainfalls (as high as 10,000mm/yr (400in/yr)), earthquakes, hilly land, and occasional frost.  There are indications that gardening was being practised at the same time that agriculture was developing in

text: Mesopotamia

text: and

text: Egypt

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth .. then it could be common in the universe."

text: The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of

text: life on Earth

text: dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon. There are

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of a

text: biogenic substance

text: is

text: graphite

text: in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: meta-sedimentary rocks

text: discovered in

text: Western Greenland

text: . More recently, in 2015, "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth .. then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: While the Cassini–Huygens mission was not equipped to provide evidence for biosignatures or complex organics, it showed an environment on Titan that is similar, in some ways, to ones theorized for the primordial Earth. Scientists think that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan, with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan. Many hypotheses have developed that attempt to bridge the step from chemical to biological evolution.

text: While the Cassini–Huygens mission was not equipped to provide evidence for

text: biosignature

text: s or complex organics, it showed an environment on Titan that is similar, in some ways, to ones theorized for the primordial Earth. Scientists think that the atmosphere of early Earth was similar in composition to the current atmosphere on Titan, with the important exception of a lack of water vapor on Titan. Many hypotheses have developed that attempt to bridge the step from chemical to biological evolution.

text: If present on a super-cellular scale, biominerals are usually deposited by a dedicated organ, which is often defined very early in the embryological development.  This organ will contain an organic matrix that facilitates and directs the deposition of crystals.  The matrix may be collagen, as in deuterostomes, or based on chitin or other polysaccharides, as in molluscs.

text: The fossil organisms are up to 12 cm in size. Their bodies were flattened disks with a characteristic morphology, including circular and elongated individuals. A spherical to ellipsoidal central body is bounded by radial structures. The fossils show three-dimensionality and coordinated growth. Cell-cell communication must be assumed as it existed before multi-cellularity arose.

text: A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia. In geology, areas of continental crust include regions covered with water.

text: A continent is one of several very large

text: landmass

text: es on

text: Earth

text: . Generally identified by

text: convention

text: rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are:

text: Asia

text: Africa

text: North America

text: South America

text: Antarctica

text: Europe

text: , and

text: Australia

text: . In

text: geology

text: , areas of

text: continental crust

text: include

text: regions covered with water

text: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere. The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions in the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός (pronounced thermos) meaning heat, the thermosphere begins about  above the Earth. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass (see turbosphere). Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to . Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged (see ionosphere), enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at  above the Earth's surface, the atmosphere turns into space.

text: The thermosphere is the layer of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: directly above the

text: mesosphere

text: . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere,

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: causes

text: photoionization

text: /photodissociation of molecules, creating ions in the

text: ionosphere

text: . Taking its name from the

text: Greek

text: θερμός (pronounced thermos) meaning heat, the thermosphere begins about  above the Earth. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to

text: molecular mass

text: (see

text: turbosphere

text: ). Thermospheric

text: temperature

text: s increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic

text: solar radiation

text: . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to . Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged (see

text: ionosphere

text: ), enabling

text: radio wave

text: s to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at  above the Earth's surface, the atmosphere turns into

text: space

text: Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous plate tectonics due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. However, other studies determine that strong convection currents in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of magma to break the crust into plates.

text: Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous

text: plate tectonics

text: due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. However, other studies determine that strong

text: convection currents

text: in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of

text: magma

text: to break the crust into plates.

text: In the Netherlands they presented and broadcast live a 24hour program 'Live Earth Alert' on 7 July 2007, the day of Live Earth from almost 08:00-08:00hrs including live-streams from all 7 continents and stadiums (in sequential other). <br>All times in W.E.T., it started early Saturday-morning 07/07 and finished Sunday-morning 07/08.

text: In the Netherlands they presented and broadcast live a 24hour program 'Live Earth Alert' on 7 July 2007, the day of

text: Live Earth

text: from almost 08:00-08:00hrs including live-streams from all 7 continents and stadiums (in sequential other). <br>All times in W.E.T., it started early Saturday-morning 07/07 and finished Sunday-morning 07/08.

text: The simplest method for preparing high-T superconductors is a solid-state thermochemical reaction involving mixing, calcination and sintering. The appropriate amounts of precursor powders, usually oxides and carbonates, are mixed thoroughly using a Ball mill. Solution chemistry processes such as coprecipitation, freeze-drying and sol-gel methods are alternative ways for preparing a homogeneous mixture. These powders are calcined in the temperature range from 800 °C to 950 °C for several hours. The powders are cooled, reground and calcined again. This process is repeated several times to get homogeneous material. The powders are subsequently compacted to pellets and sintered. The sintering environment such as temperature, annealing time, atmosphere and cooling rate play a very important role in getting good high-T superconducting materials. The YBaCuO compound is prepared by calcination and sintering of a homogeneous mixture of YO, BaCO and CuO in the appropriate atomic ratio. Calcination is done at 900–950 °C, whereas sintering is done at 950 °C in an oxygen atmosphere. The oxygen stoichiometry in this material is very crucial for obtaining a superconducting YBaCuO compound. At the time of sintering, the semiconducting tetragonal YBaCuO compound is formed, which, on slow cooling in oxygen atmosphere, turns into superconducting YBaCuO. The uptake and loss of oxygen are reversible in YBaCuO. A fully oxygenated orthorhombic YBaCuO sample can be transformed into tetragonal YBaCuO by heating in a vacuum at temperature above 700 °C.

text: The simplest method for preparing high-T superconductors is a solid-state thermochemical reaction involving mixing,

text: calcination

text: and

text: sintering

text: . The appropriate amounts of precursor powders, usually oxides and carbonates, are mixed thoroughly using a

text: Ball mill

text: . Solution chemistry processes such as

text: coprecipitation

text: freeze-drying

text: and

text: sol-gel

text: methods are alternative ways for preparing a homogeneous mixture. These powders are

text: calcined

text: in the temperature range from 800 °C to 950 °C for several hours. The powders are cooled, reground and calcined again. This process is repeated several times to get homogeneous material. The powders are subsequently compacted to pellets and sintered. The sintering environment such as temperature, annealing time, atmosphere and cooling rate play a very important role in getting good high-T superconducting materials. The YBaCuO compound is prepared by calcination and sintering of a homogeneous mixture of YO, BaCO and CuO in the appropriate atomic ratio. Calcination is done at 900–950 °C, whereas sintering is done at 950 °C in an oxygen atmosphere. The oxygen stoichiometry in this material is very crucial for obtaining a superconducting YBaCuO compound. At the time of sintering, the semiconducting tetragonal YBaCuO compound is formed, which, on slow cooling in oxygen atmosphere, turns into superconducting YBaCuO. The uptake and loss of oxygen are reversible in YBaCuO. A fully oxygenated orthorhombic YBaCuO sample can be transformed into tetragonal YBaCuO by heating in a vacuum at temperature above 700 °C.

text: The universe of the ancient Israelites was made up of a flat disc-shaped earth floating on water, heaven above, underworld below. Humans inhabited earth during life and the underworld after death, and the underworld was morally neutral; only in Hellenistic times (after c.330 BC) did Jews begin to adopt the Greek idea that it would be a place of punishment for misdeeds, and that the righteous would enjoy an afterlife in heaven. In this period too the older three-level cosmology was widely replaced by the Greek concept of a spherical earth suspended in space at the centre of a number of concentric heavens.

text: The universe of the ancient Israelites was made up of a

text: flat disc-shaped earth

text: floating on water,

text: heaven

text: above,

text: underworld

text: below. Humans inhabited earth during life and the underworld after death, and the underworld was morally neutral; only in

text: Hellenistic

text: times (after c.330 BC) did Jews begin to adopt the

text: Greek idea

text: that it would be a place of punishment for misdeeds, and that the righteous would enjoy an

text: afterlife

text: in heaven. In this period too the older three-level cosmology was widely replaced by the Greek concept of a

text: spherical earth

text: suspended in

text: space

text: at the

text: centre

text: of a number of

text: concentric heavens

text: The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of significant interest to astrobiology due to the planet's proximity and similarities to Earth. To date no proof has been found of past or present life on Mars. However, cumulative evidence is now building that the ancient surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms. The existence of habitable conditions does not necessarily indicate the presence of life.

text: The possibility of life on

text: Mars

text: is a subject of significant interest to

text: astrobiology

text: due to the planet's proximity and similarities to

text: Earth

text: . To date no proof has been found of past or present life on Mars. However, cumulative evidence is now building that the ancient surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been

text: habitable

text: for microorganisms. The existence of habitable conditions does not necessarily indicate the presence of life.

text: Fossils (Early Bird Earth Science)  (2006)

text: The Paleoarchean (; also spelled Palaeoarchaean  (formerly known as  early Archean)) is a geologic era within the Archaean Eon. It spans the period of time —the era is defined chronometrically and not is referenced to a specific level in a rock section on Earth. The name derives from Greek "Palaios" ancient. The oldest ascertained life form of fossilized bacteria in microbial mats,  old, found in Western Australia, is from this era. The first supercontinent Vaalbara formed during this period.

text: The Paleoarchean (; also spelled Palaeoarchaean  (formerly known as  early Archean)) is a geologic

text: era

text: within the

text: Archaean Eon

text: . It spans the period of time —the era is defined chronometrically and not is referenced to a specific level in a rock section on

text: Earth

text: . The name derives from Greek "Palaios" ancient. The

text: oldest ascertained life form

text: of

text: fossilized

text: bacteria in

text: microbial mat

text: s,  old, found in

text: Western Australia

text: , is from this era. The first supercontinent

text: Vaalbara

text: formed during this period.

text: Sub-disciplines of biology are defined by the scale at which organisms are studied, the kinds of organisms studied, and the methods used to study them: biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex interactions among biological molecules; botany studies the biology of plants; cellular biology examines the basic building-block of all life, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of tissues, organs, and organ systems of an organism; evolutionary biology examines the processes that produced the diversity of life; and ecology examines how organisms interact in their environment.

text: Sub-disciplines of biology are defined by the scale at which organisms are studied, the kinds of organisms studied, and the methods used to study them:

text: biochemistry

text: examines the rudimentary chemistry of life;

text: molecular biology

text: studies the complex interactions among biological

text: molecule

text: s;

text: botany

text: studies the biology of plants;

text: cellular biology

text: examines the basic building-block of all life, the

text: cell

text: physiology

text: examines the physical and chemical functions of

text: tissues

text: organs

text: , and

text: organ system

text: s of an organism;

text: evolutionary biology

text: examines the processes that produced the diversity of life; and

text: ecology

text: examines how organisms interact in their

text: environment

text: is a Japanese molecular biologist, best known for research on apoptosis, the process of programmed cell death occurring in multi-cellular organisms.

text: is a Japanese

text: molecular biologist

text: , best known for research on

text: apoptosis

text: , the process of programmed cell death occurring in multi-cellular organisms.

text: Timothy Naftali  devalues the early postwar cooperation between the CIA and what became West Germany's BND. According to Naftali, Gehlen's organization and its successor, the BND, was of "questionable" value and that "CIA records show that Gehlen was insubordinate, his organization was insecure, and the entire operation provided intelligence of questionable value. Fifty years later, the German government still refuses to declassify its own records on the subject. Until it does, and unless those documents paint a dramatically new picture of the situation, the account of the Gehlen organization in the early Cold War will remain damning."

text: Timothy Naftali  devalues the early postwar cooperation between the CIA and what became West Germany's

text: BND

text: . According to Naftali, Gehlen's organization and its successor, the BND, was of "questionable" value and that "CIA records show that Gehlen was insubordinate, his organization was insecure, and the entire operation provided intelligence of questionable value. Fifty years later, the German government still refuses to declassify its own records on the subject. Until it does, and unless those documents paint a dramatically new picture of the situation, the account of the Gehlen organization in the early Cold War will remain damning."

text: In ancient times the body piercing was considered as sign of manliness and courage. The Egyptian Pharaohs believed the earring at the navel to be a sign of ritual transition from the life at the Earth to the eternity.

text: Kenorland, a proposed supercontinent, is a "one-piece" alternative to three separate supercratons: Superia, Vaalbara, and Sclavia.

text: Kenorland

text: , a proposed supercontinent, is a "one-piece" alternative to three separate supercratons:

text: Superia

text: Vaalbara

text: , and Sclavia.

text: There is a difference between the ways location is determined for different types of calls based upon the type of originating device or network. For each of these categories please see the sections below for the appropriate categories to learn more about location determination for each of the following types of calls. There are hardwired or Wireline enhanced 911 calls which originate from a device connected to a known fixed point of connection to the PSTN. Wireless enhanced 911 are calls that originate for mobile devices such as cellular telephones. VoIP enhanced 911 pertains to communications originating from various commercial services provided by companies that send telephone calls across the commercial internet using specialized devices and software applications. Multi-line Telephone System (MLTS) pertains to the location of callers dialing 9-1-1 from within the private telecommunications networks utilized enterprise style organizations.

text: In the theory of plume tectonics developed during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas, which find their roots in the early 1930s with the so-called "fixistic" ideas of the European and Russian Earth Science Schools, find resonance in the modern theories which envisage hot spots/mantle plumes which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators). Modern theories that continue building on the older mantle doming concepts and see plate movements as a secondary phenomena are beyond the scope of this page and are discussed elsewhere (for example on the plume tectonics page).

text: In the theory of

text: plume tectonics

text: developed during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas, which find their roots in the early 1930s with the so-called "fixistic" ideas of the European and Russian Earth Science Schools, find resonance in the modern theories which envisage

text: hot spots

text: mantle plumes

text: which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators). Modern theories that continue building on the older mantle doming concepts and see plate movements as a secondary phenomena are beyond the scope of this page and are discussed elsewhere (for example on the

text: plume tectonics

text: page).

text: Early South American military history is distinctively different from that in Asia or Europe. Metallurgy influenced warfare in the Americas less than in other parts of the world; in South America the use of stone, wood and bone, backed by limited use of copper, dominated weaponry up until the European invasions. The extinction of horses early on in the human habitation of the Americas meant that early South Americans had no cavalry - five thousand years of using horses in warfare had no parallel on the continent. In naval warfare, early South Americans did not build ships on a size comparable with those on other continents. Politically, state formation also came relatively late to South America, affecting the ability of South America to generate large armies early on in its history.

text: Early South American military history is distinctively different from that in Asia or Europe.

text: Metallurgy

text: influenced warfare in the Americas less than in other parts of the world; in South America the use of stone, wood and bone, backed by limited use of

text: copper

text: , dominated weaponry up until the European invasions. The

text: extinction

text: of horses early on in the human habitation of the Americas meant that early South Americans had no

text: cavalry

text: - five thousand years of using

text: horses in warfare

text: had no parallel on the continent. In

text: naval warfare

text: , early South Americans did not build ships on a size comparable with those on other continents. Politically, state formation also came relatively late to South America, affecting the ability of South America to generate large armies early on in its history.

text: The Alps arose as a result of the collision of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates, in which the Alpine Tethys, which was formerly in between these continents, disappeared. Enormous stress was exerted on sediments of the Alpine Tethys basin and its Mesozoic and early Cenozoic strata were pushed against the stable Eurasian landmass by the northward-moving African landmass. Most of this occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs. The pressure formed great recumbent folds, or nappes, that rose out of what had become the Alpine Tethys and pushed northward, often breaking and sliding one over the other to form gigantic thrust faults. Crystalline basement rocks, which are exposed in the higher central regions, are the rocks forming Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps and Hohe Tauern .

text: The Alps arose as a result of the collision of the

text: African

text: and

text: Eurasian

text: tectonic plate

text: s, in which the

text: Alpine Tethys

text: , which was formerly in between these

text: continent

text: s, disappeared. Enormous

text: stress

text: was exerted on

text: sediment

text: s of the Alpine Tethys basin and its

text: Mesozoic

text: and early

text: Cenozoic

text: strata

text: were pushed against the stable

text: Eurasia

text: n landmass by the northward-moving African landmass. Most of this occurred during the

text: Oligocene

text: and

text: Miocene

text: epochs. The pressure formed great recumbent folds, or

text: nappe

text: s, that rose out of what had become the Alpine Tethys and pushed northward, often breaking and sliding one over the other to form gigantic

text: thrust fault

text: s.

text: Crystalline basement

text: rocks

text: , which are exposed in the higher central regions, are the rocks forming

text: Mont Blanc

text: , the

text: Matterhorn

text: , and high peaks in the

text: Pennine Alps

text: and

text: Hohe Tauern

text: Mudang is used mostly for female shamans, though not exclusively. Male Korean mu are called by a variety of names, such as sana mudang (literally "male mudang") in the Seoul area, or baksu mudang, also shortened baksu ("doctor", "healer") in the Pyongyang area. It is reasonable to believe that baksu is an ancient authentic designation of male shamans, and that locutions like sana mudang or baksu mudang were formed because of the prevalence of female shamans in recent centuries. Baksu may come from a Korean adaptation of siberian names for male shamans, such as baksi, balsi or bahsih. Mudang is not the person of shaman. Mu means "Heaven" and the respect for Heaven. It's a ritual of religious customs from the ancient Korea of Han Nation. Dang is considered as Dangun (King of Dan Nation) or Tangol (Heavenly King from the Heaven, Heavenly King or God), but Dang(堂) is the place where the Heavenly God () landed in the earth at the first time. It is memorized as Big Tree of Wongsang, which is meaning of God coming place and Tree (), that is the meaning of "Life Tree" in Bible. Therefore, Mudang is the respect for the place Heavenly God was landing on the earth. The Dang is the secret place of God and symbol of the Korean traditional belief system for over 6,000 years. It is the God Palace for Trinity God from the Heaven Land.

text: Mudang is used mostly for female shamans, though not exclusively. Male Korean mu are called by a variety of names, such as sana mudang (literally "male mudang") in the

text: Seoul

text: area, or baksu mudang, also shortened baksu ("doctor", "healer") in the

text: Pyongyang

text: area. It is reasonable to believe that baksu is an ancient authentic designation of male shamans, and that locutions like sana mudang or baksu mudang were formed because of the prevalence of female shamans in recent centuries. Baksu may come from a Korean adaptation of siberian names for male shamans, such as baksi, balsi or bahsih. Mudang is not the person of shaman. Mu means "Heaven" and the respect for Heaven. It's a ritual of religious customs from the ancient Korea of Han Nation. Dang is considered as Dangun (King of Dan Nation) or Tangol (Heavenly King from the Heaven, Heavenly King or God), but Dang(堂) is the place where the Heavenly God () landed in the earth at the first time. It is memorized as Big Tree of Wongsang, which is meaning of God coming place and Tree (), that is the meaning of "Life Tree" in Bible. Therefore, Mudang is the respect for the place Heavenly God was landing on the earth. The Dang is the secret place of God and symbol of the Korean traditional belief system for over 6,000 years. It is the God Palace for Trinity God from the Heaven Land.

text: In contemporary times only villages in South Malaita have continued to hunt. In 2010, the villages of Fanalei, Walende, and Bitamae  signed a MoU with the non-governmental organization, Earth Island Institute, to stop hunting dolphin. However, in early 2013 the agreement broke down and some men in Fanalei resumed hunting. The hunting of dolphin continued in early 2014.

text: A few of the early animals appear possibly to be ancestors of modern animals. Most fall into ambiguous groups of frond-like organisms; discoids that might be holdfasts for stalked organisms ("medusoids"); mattress-like forms; small calcareous tubes; and armored animals of unknown provenance.

text: In a similar vein, in the Jewish Midrashim it is stated, "God created the world like an embryo. Just as the embryo begins at the navel and continues to grow from that point, so too the world. The Holy One, blessed be he, began the world from its navel. From there it was stretched hither and yon. Where is its navel? Jerusalem. And its (Jerusalem's) navel itself? The altar." This passage describes how the centrality of the ancient city of Jerusalem and of the altar of the ancient temple of Jerusalem within cosmic framework was equated to the navel of a mother and the source of life. This is also seen in the Book of Jubilees 8:19 and Book of Enoch 26:1 where it is describes Mount Zion as "The center of the navel of the earth". In Samaritan tradition Mount Gerizim is described as the navel of the earth, the only place that was not submerged in the deluge of the story of Noah's ark. The phrase "navel of the earth" is used in (Ezek 38:12; Judg 9:37) Aramaic tibbur ("navel") and is also mentioned in Ezek 16:4. According to Samaritan tradition, Adam was made from the dust of Mount Gerizim. The navel is also celebrated in the belly dancing tradition of Mediterranean, and middle eastern cultures.

text: In a similar vein, in the

text: Jewish

text: Midrashim

text: it is stated, "God created the world like an

text: embryo

text: . Just as the embryo begins at the navel and continues to grow from that point, so too the world. The Holy One, blessed be he, began the world from its navel. From there it was stretched hither and yon. Where is its navel?

text: Jerusalem

text: . And its (Jerusalem's) navel itself? The altar." This passage describes how the centrality of the ancient city of Jerusalem and of the altar of the

text: ancient temple of Jerusalem

text: within cosmic framework was equated to the navel of a mother and the source of life. This is also seen in the

text: Book of Jubilees

text: 8:19 and

text: Book of Enoch

text: 26:1 where it is describes

text: Mount Zion

text: as "The center of the navel of the earth". In

text: Samaritan

text: tradition

text: Mount Gerizim

text: is described as the navel of the earth, the only place that was not submerged in the

text: deluge

text: of the story of

text: Noah's ark

text: . The phrase "navel of the earth" is used in (Ezek 38:12; Judg 9:37)

text: Aramaic

text: tibbur ("navel") and is also mentioned in Ezek 16:4. According to Samaritan tradition, Adam was made from the dust of Mount Gerizim. The navel is also celebrated in the

text: belly dancing

text: tradition of Mediterranean, and middle eastern cultures.

text: Modems which use a mobile telephone system (GPRS, UMTS, HSPA, EVDO, WiMax, etc.), are known as mobile broadband modems (sometimes also called wireless modems). Wireless modems can be embedded inside a laptop or appliance, or be external to it. External wireless modems are connect cards, USB modems for mobile broadband and cellular routers. A connect card is a PC Card or ExpressCard which slides into a PCMCIA/PC card/ExpressCard slot on a computer. USB wireless modems use a USB port on the laptop instead of a PC card or ExpressCard slot. A USB modem used for mobile broadband Internet is also sometimes referred to as a dongle. A cellular router may have an external datacard (AirCard) that slides into it. Most cellular routers do allow such datacards or USB modems. Cellular routers may not be modems by definition, but they contain modems or allow modems to be slid into them. The difference between a cellular router and a wireless modem is that a cellular router normally allows multiple people to connect to it (since it can route data or support multi-point to multi-point connections), while a modem is designed for one connection.

text: Modems which use a mobile telephone system (

text: GPRS

text: UMTS

text: HSPA

text: EVDO

text: WiMax

text: , etc.), are known as

text: mobile broadband modem

text: s (sometimes also called wireless modems). Wireless modems can be embedded inside a

text: laptop

text: or appliance, or be external to it. External wireless modems are

text: connect card

text: s, USB modems for

text: mobile broadband

text: and

text: cellular router

text: s. A

text: connect card

text: is a

text: PC Card

text: or

text: ExpressCard

text: which slides into a

entity_name: Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

text: PCMCIA

text: /PC card/ExpressCard slot on a computer.

text: USB

text: wireless modems use a USB port on the laptop instead of a PC card or ExpressCard slot. A USB modem used for mobile broadband Internet is also sometimes referred to as a dongle. A cellular router may have an external datacard (AirCard) that slides into it. Most cellular routers do allow such datacards or USB modems. Cellular routers may not be modems by definition, but they contain modems or allow modems to be slid into them. The difference between a cellular router and a wireless modem is that a cellular router normally allows multiple people to connect to it (since it can route data or support multi-point to multi-point connections), while a modem is designed for one connection.

text: On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will search for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.

text: On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that

text: current studies

text: on the planet

text: Mars

text: by the

text: Curiosity

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: rovers

text: will search for evidence of ancient life, including a

text: biosphere

text: based on

text: autotroph

text: ic,

text: chemotroph

text: ic and/or

text: chemolithoautotrophic

text: microorganism

text: s, as well as ancient water, including

text: fluvio-lacustrine environments

text: plain

text: s related to ancient

text: river

text: s or

text: lake

text: s) that may have been

text: habitable

text: . The search for evidence of

text: habitability

text: taphonomy

text: (related to

text: fossils

text: ), and

text: organic carbon

text: on the planet

text: Mars

text: is now a primary

text: NASA

text: objective.

text: Evolutionary innovation may sometimes begin in Lamarckian style with epigenetic alterations of gene regulation or phenotype generation, subsequently consolidated by changes at the gene level. Epigenetic changes include modification of DNA by reversible methylation, as well as nonprogrammed remoulding of the organism by physical and other environmental effects due to the inherent plasticity of developmental mechanisms. The biologists Stuart A. Newman and Gerd B. Müller have suggested that organisms early in the history of multicellular life were more susceptible to this second category of epigenetic determination than are modern organisms, providing a basis for early macroevolutionary changes.

text: Evolutionary innovation may sometimes begin

text: in Lamarckian style

text: with

text: epigenetic

text: alterations of gene regulation or

text: phenotype generation

text: , subsequently

text: consolidated by changes at the gene level

text: . Epigenetic changes include modification of DNA by reversible methylation, as well as nonprogrammed remoulding of the organism by physical and other environmental effects due to the inherent

text: plasticity

text: of developmental mechanisms. The biologists

text: Stuart A. Newman

text: and

text: Gerd B. Müller

text: have suggested that organisms early in the history of multicellular life were more susceptible to this second category of epigenetic determination than are modern organisms, providing a basis for early

text: macroevolution

text: ary changes.

text: Ruddiman is best known for his "early anthropocene" hypothesis, the idea that human-induced changes in greenhouse gases did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era but date back to 8,000 years ago, triggered by the intense farming activities of our early agrarian ancestors. It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior, a pattern which is well explained by natural variations in the Earth’s orbit known as Milankovitch cycles.  In his overdue-glaciation hypothesis Ruddiman claims that an incipient ice age would probably have begun several thousand years ago, but the arrival of that scheduled ice age was forestalled by the activities of early farmers. The overdue-glaciation hypothesis has been challenged on the grounds that alternative explanations are sufficient to account for the current warm anomaly without recourse to human activity, but Ruddiman challenges the methodology of his critics (see external links).

text: Ruddiman is best known for his "

text: early anthropocene

text: " hypothesis, the idea that human-induced changes in

text: greenhouse gas

text: es did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the

text: industrial era

text: but date back to 8,000 years ago, triggered by the intense

text: farming

text: activities of our early agrarian ancestors. It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior, a pattern which is well explained by natural variations in the Earth’s orbit known as

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: .  In his overdue-glaciation hypothesis Ruddiman claims that an incipient ice age would probably have begun several thousand years ago, but the arrival of that scheduled ice age was forestalled by the activities of early farmers. The overdue-glaciation hypothesis has been challenged on the grounds that alternative explanations are sufficient to account for the current warm anomaly without recourse to human activity, but Ruddiman challenges the methodology of his critics (see external links).

text: The Devonian () was a relatively warm period, and probably lacked any glaciers with reconstruction of tropical sea surface temperature from conodont apatite implying an average value of  in the Early Devonian.  levels dropped steeply throughout the Devonian period as the burial of the newly evolved forests drew carbon out of the atmosphere into sediments; this may be reflected by a Mid-Devonian cooling of around . The Late Devonian warmed to levels equivalent to the Early Devonian; while there is no corresponding increase in  concentrations, continental weathering increases (as predicted by warmer temperatures); further, a range of evidence, such as plant distribution, points to Late Devonian warming. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn, which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great atmospheric circulations, the Hadley cell and the Ferrel cell.

text: The

text: Devonian

text: () was a relatively warm period, and probably lacked any glaciers with reconstruction of tropical sea surface temperature from

text: conodont

text: apatite

text: implying an average value of  in the Early Devonian.  levels dropped steeply throughout the Devonian period as the burial of the newly evolved forests drew carbon out of the atmosphere into sediments; this may be reflected by a Mid-Devonian cooling of around . The Late Devonian warmed to levels equivalent to the Early Devonian; while there is no corresponding increase in  concentrations, continental weathering increases (as predicted by warmer temperatures); further, a range of evidence, such as plant distribution, points to Late Devonian warming. The continent

text: Euramerica

text: Laurentia

text: and

text: Baltica

text: Tropic of Capricorn

text: , which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great atmospheric circulations, the

text: Hadley cell

text: and the

text: Ferrel cell

text: The climate of the late Precambrian showed some major glaciation events spreading over much of the earth. At this time the continents were bunched up in the Rodinia supercontinent. Massive deposits of tillites are found and anomalous isotopic signatures are found, which gave rise to the Snowball Earth hypothesis. As the Proterozoic Eon drew to a close, the Earth started to warm up. By the dawn of the Cambrian and the Phanerozoic, life forms were abundant in the Cambrian explosion with average global temperatures of about 22 °C.

text: The climate of the late Precambrian showed some major

text: glaciation

text: events spreading over much of the earth. At this time the continents were bunched up in the

text: Rodinia

text: supercontinent. Massive deposits of

text: tillite

text: s are found and anomalous isotopic signatures are found, which gave rise to the

text: Snowball Earth

text: hypothesis. As the Proterozoic Eon drew to a close, the Earth started to warm up. By the dawn of the Cambrian and the Phanerozoic, life forms were abundant in the

text: Cambrian explosion

text: with average global temperatures of about 22 °

text: C

text: The Isua Greenstone Belt, also known as the Isua supracrustal belt since it is composed of supracrustal rock deposited upon basement rock strata, is located in the southwestern portion of Greenland, in the Isukasia terrane, near the Nuuk capital region.  The greenstone belt is made up of metamorphosed mafic volcanic and sedimentary rocks that are usually juxtaposed by mylonites or fault boundaries. By using uranium-lead dating on zircon and titanite, the tectonic history was dated to be approximately 3,700–3,600 million years old. The Isua Greenstone has been studied by Earth scientists due to evidence the area holds for early Earth plate tectonics, since it houses one of the oldest, best-preserved ancient plate tectonic sequences. In addition, the area is large, exposed, and there are areas that have experienced relatively low deformation and alteration to the original rock sequences. The Isua Greenstone is divided into a northern and a southern section by the Ivinnguit Fault, shown on the map below right. The northern area of the Isua Greenstone Belt is mainly composed of amphibolite rocks, volcanic rocks, upper mantle peridotite, and layered gabbros; a suite which suggests crustal shortening.

text: The Isua Greenstone Belt, also known as the Isua supracrustal belt since it is composed of

text: supracrustal rock

text: deposited upon basement rock strata, is located in the southwestern portion of

text: Greenland

text: , in the Isukasia

text: terrane

text: , near the

text: Nuuk

text: capital region.  The

text: greenstone belt

text: is made up of metamorphosed mafic volcanic and sedimentary rocks that are usually juxtaposed by

text: mylonite

text: s or

text: fault

text: boundaries. By using

text: uranium-lead dating

text: on

text: zircon

text: and

text: titanite

text: , the tectonic history was dated to be approximately 3,700–3,600 million years old. The Isua Greenstone has been studied by Earth scientists due to evidence the area holds for early Earth plate tectonics, since it houses one of the oldest, best-preserved ancient plate tectonic sequences. In addition, the area is large, exposed, and there are areas that have experienced relatively low deformation and alteration to the original rock sequences. The Isua Greenstone is divided into a northern and a southern section by the Ivinnguit Fault, shown on the map below right. The northern area of the Isua Greenstone Belt is mainly composed of

text: amphibolite

text: rocks,

text: volcanic rock

text: s, upper mantle

text: peridotite

text: , and layered

text: gabbro

text: s; a suite which suggests

text: crustal shortening

text: The early Earth during the Hadean eon is believed by most scientists to have had a Venus-like atmosphere, with roughly 100 bar of CO and a surface temperature of 230 °C, and possibly even sulfuric acid clouds, until about 4.0 billion years ago, by which time plate tectonics were in full force and together with the early water oceans, removed the CO and sulfur from the atmosphere. Early Venus would thus most likely have had water oceans like the Earth, but any plate tectonics would have ended when Venus lost its oceans. Its surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old, so it would not be expected to show evidence of plate tectonics.

text: The early Earth during the

text: Hadean

text: eon is believed by most scientists to have had a Venus-like atmosphere, with roughly 100 bar of CO and a surface temperature of 230 °C, and possibly even sulfuric acid clouds, until about 4.0 billion years ago, by which time

text: plate tectonics

text: were in full force and together with the early water oceans, removed the CO and sulfur from the atmosphere. Early Venus would thus most likely have had water oceans like the Earth, but any plate tectonics would have ended when Venus lost its oceans. Its surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old, so it would not be expected to show evidence of plate tectonics.

text: Paleomagnetic studies show Kenorland was in generally low latitudes until tectonic magma-plume rifting began to occur between 2.48 Ga and 2.45 Ga. At 2.45 Ga the Baltic Shield was over the equator and was joined to Laurentia (the Canadian Shield), and formed a unity with both the Kola and Karelia cratons.  The protracted breakup of Kenorland during the Late Neoarchaean and early Paleoproterozoic Era 2.48 to 2.10 Ga, during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods, is manifested by mafic dikes and sedimentary rift-basins and rift-margins on many continents. On early Earth, this type of bimodal deep mantle plume rifting was common in Archaean and Neoarchaean crust and continent formation.

text: Paleomagnetic studies show Kenorland was in generally low

text: latitude

text: s until tectonic

text: magma

text: -plume

text: rift

text: ing began to occur between 2.48 Ga and 2.45 Ga. At 2.45 Ga the Baltic Shield was over the equator and was joined to Laurentia (the Canadian Shield), and formed a unity with both the

text: Kola

text: and

text: Karelia

text: cratons.  The protracted breakup of Kenorland during the Late

text: Neoarchaean

text: and early

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: Era 2.48 to 2.10 Ga, during the

text: Siderian

text: and

text: Rhyacian

text: periods, is manifested by

text: mafic

text: dikes and

text: sedimentary

text: rift-basins and rift-margins on many continents. On early Earth, this type of bimodal deep

text: mantle plume

text: rifting was common in Archaean and Neoarchaean crust and continent formation.

text: Culebrasuchus was first described and named by Alexander K. Hastings, Jonathan I. Bloch, Carlos A. Jaramillo, Aldo F. Rincona and Bruce J. Macfadden in 2013 based on a single holotype skull and three neck vertebrae from the Culebra Formation. Culebrasuchus is thought to be the most basal member of Caimaninae, meaning that it represents the earliest radiation of caimans in the Americas. The ancestor of Culebrasuchus likely lived farther north, perhaps in what is now southern Mexico, because before the Miocene most of Panama was underwater. The movement of Culebrasuchus into the Panama Canal Zone was an early part of the Great American Interchange in which animals dispersed between North and South America across the newly formed Isthmus of Panama (although during the Early Miocene it had not yet formed, with 20 km of ocean still separating the continents). However, Culebrasuchus was not the earliest caimanine; Orthogenysuchus and Tsoabichi are known from the Eocene of North America and Eocaiman is known from the Eocene of South America, indicating that caimanines were dispersing between the continents across large expanses of ocean long before the isthmus formed.

text: Culebrasuchus was first described and named by Alexander K. Hastings, Jonathan I. Bloch, Carlos A. Jaramillo, Aldo F. Rincona and Bruce J. Macfadden in

text: based on a single

text: holotype

text: skull and three neck

text: vertebrae

text: from the

text: Culebra Formation

text: . Culebrasuchus is thought to be the most basal member of Caimaninae, meaning that it represents the earliest radiation of caimans in the Americas. The ancestor of Culebrasuchus likely lived farther north, perhaps in what is now southern Mexico, because before the Miocene most of Panama was underwater. The movement of Culebrasuchus into the Panama Canal Zone was an early part of the

text: Great American Interchange

text: in which animals dispersed between North and South America across the newly formed

text: Isthmus

text: of Panama (although during the Early Miocene it had not yet formed, with 20 km of ocean still separating the continents). However, Culebrasuchus was not the earliest caimanine;

text: Orthogenysuchus

text: and

text: Tsoabichi

text: are known from the

text: Eocene

text: of North America and

text: Eocaiman

text: is known from the Eocene of South America, indicating that caimanines were dispersing between the continents across large expanses of ocean long before the isthmus formed.

text: The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the bottom-most layer. The remaining one percent of the atmosphere (all but the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) contains small amounts of other gases including CO and water vapors. Water vapors and CO allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life.

text: The

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: mesosphere

text: thermosphere

text: , and

text: exosphere

text: are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0%

text: nitrogen

text: , 20.9%

text: oxygen

text: , and 0.92%

text: argon

text: . 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the bottom-most layer. The remaining one percent of the atmosphere (all but the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) contains small amounts of other gases including CO and water vapors. Water vapors and CO allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life.

text: Impactite, shown to preserve signs of life on Earth, was discovered on Mars and could contain signs of ancient life, if life ever existed on the planet.

text: Impactite

text: , shown to preserve signs of life on Earth, was discovered on Mars and could contain signs of ancient life, if life ever existed on the planet.

text: Global firestorms may have resulted as incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of fluid inclusions in ancient amber suggest that the oxygen content of the atmosphere was very high (30–35%) during the late Cretaceous. This high  level would have supported intense combustion. The level of atmospheric  plummeted in the early Paleogene Period. If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the  content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust cloud settled, and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable survivors of the "long winter".

text: Global

text: firestorm

text: s may have resulted as incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of

text: fluid inclusions

text: in ancient

text: amber

text: suggest that the

text: oxygen

text: content of the atmosphere was very high (30–35%) during the late Cretaceous. This high  level would have supported intense combustion. The level of atmospheric  plummeted in the early Paleogene Period. If widespread fires occurred, they would have increased the  content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary

text: greenhouse effect

text: once the dust cloud settled, and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable survivors of the "long winter".

text: The guyot was named after the Swiss-American geographer and geologist Arnold Henry Guyot (died 1884). The term was coined by Harry Hammond Hess. Guyots are most commonly found in the Pacific Ocean. Guyots show evidence of having been above the surface with gradual subsidence through stages from fringed reefed mountain, coral atoll, and finally a flat topped submerged mountain. The steepness gradient of most guyots is about 20 degrees.  To technically be considered a guyot or tablemount, they must stand at least  tall.  However, there are many undersea mounts that can range from just less than  to around .  Very large oceanic volcanic constructions, hundreds of km across, are called oceanic plateaus. Seamounts are made by extrusion of lavas piped upward in stages from sources within the Earth's mantle to vents on the seafloor. Seamounts provide data on movements of tectonic plates on which they ride, and on the rheology of the underlying lithosphere. The trend of a seamount chain traces the direction of motion of the lithospheric plate over a more or less fixed heat source in the underlying asthenosphere part of the Earth's mantle. There are thought to be up to an estimated 50,000 seamounts in the Pacific basin. The Emperor Seamounts are an excellent example of an entire volcanic chain undergoing this process and contain many guyots among their other examples.

text: The guyot was named after the Swiss-American geographer and geologist

text: Arnold Henry Guyot

text: (died 1884). The term was coined by

text: Harry Hammond Hess

text: . Guyots are most commonly found in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . Guyots show evidence of having been above the surface with gradual subsidence through stages from fringed

text: reef

text: ed mountain,

text: coral

text: atoll

text: , and finally a flat topped submerged mountain. The steepness gradient of most guyots is about 20 degrees.  To technically be considered a guyot or tablemount, they must stand at least  tall.  However, there are many undersea mounts that can range from just less than  to around .  Very large oceanic volcanic constructions, hundreds of km across, are called

text: oceanic plateau

text: s. Seamounts are made by extrusion of lavas piped upward in stages from sources within the Earth's mantle to vents on the seafloor. Seamounts provide data on movements of tectonic plates on which they ride, and on the

text: rheology

text: of the underlying

text: lithosphere

text: . The trend of a seamount chain traces the direction of motion of the lithospheric plate over a more or less fixed heat source in the underlying

text: asthenosphere

text: part of the Earth's mantle. There are thought to be up to an estimated 50,000 seamounts in the Pacific basin. The

text: Emperor Seamounts

text: are an excellent example of an entire volcanic chain undergoing this process and contain many guyots among their other examples.

text: In the Eocene, most of what is now Europe, the Mediterranean and south-west Asia was submerged under the Tethys Sea. These two continents were separated by the Turgai Strait (an epeiric sea). Due to high humidity and temperatures, most of the European continent was covered in vegetation.

text: In the Eocene, most of what is now

text: Europe

text: , the

text: Mediterranean

text: and south-west

text: Asia

text: was submerged under the

text: Tethys Sea

text: . These two

text: continent

text: s were separated by the

text: Turgai Strait

text: (an

text: epeiric sea

text: ). Due to high humidity and temperatures, most of the European continent was covered in

text: vegetation

text: In a global scale, detrital zircon age abundance can be used as a tool to infer significant tectonic events in the past. In Earth's history, the abundance of magmatic age peaks during periods of supercontinent assembly. This is because supercontinent provides a major crustal envelop selectively preserve the felsic magmatic rocks, resulting from partial melts. Thus, many detrital zircons originate from these igneous provence, resulting similar age peak records. For instance, the peak at about 0.6-0.7 Ga and 2.7 Ga (Figure 6) may correlate the break-up of Rodinia and supercontinent Kenorland respectively.

text: In a global scale, detrital zircon age abundance can be used as a tool to infer significant tectonic events in the past. In Earth's history, the abundance of magmatic age peaks during periods of

text: supercontinent

text: assembly. This is because

text: supercontinent

text: provides a major crustal envelop selectively preserve the felsic magmatic rocks, resulting from partial melts. Thus, many detrital zircons originate from these igneous provence, resulting similar age peak records. For instance, the peak at about 0.6-0.7 Ga and 2.7 Ga (Figure 6) may correlate the break-up of

text: Rodinia

text: and supercontinent

text: Kenorland

text: respectively.

text: A non-biological entity with a cellular organizational structure (also known as a cellular organization, cellular system, nodal organization, nodal structure, et cetera) is set up in such a way that it mimics how natural systems within biology work, with individual 'cells' or 'nodes' working somewhat independently to establish goals and tasks, administer those things, and troubleshoot difficulties. These cells exist in a broader network in which they frequently communicate with each other, exchanging information, in a more of less even organizational playing field. This structure, as applied in areas such as business management, exists in direct contrast to traditional hierarchical leadership that is seen in institutions such as United States government agencies, where one type of boss gives specific orders to another boss and so on down the line.

text: A non-biological entity with a cellular organizational structure (also known as a cellular organization, cellular system, nodal organization, nodal structure, et cetera) is set up in such a way that it mimics how

text: natural systems

text: within

text: biology

text: work, with individual '

text: cells

text: ' or '

text: nodes

text: ' working somewhat independently to establish goals and tasks, administer those things, and

text: troubleshoot

text: difficulties. These cells exist in a broader network in which they frequently communicate with each other, exchanging information, in a more of less even organizational playing field. This structure, as applied in areas such as

text: business management

text: , exists in direct contrast to traditional

text: hierarchical leadership

text: that is seen in institutions such as United States government agencies, where one type of boss gives specific orders to another boss and so on down the line.

text: Cementum is a specialized bone like substance covering the root of a tooth. It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root. The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.

text: Cementum is a specialized bone like substance covering the root of a tooth. It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly

text: hydroxyapatite

text: ), 33% organic material (mainly

text: collagen

text: ) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by

text: cementoblast

text: s within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the

text: periodontal ligament

text: s can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root. The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.

text: Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal fossils are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in Brazil and South Africa, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus in rocks of the same age at locations in Africa, India, and Antarctica. There is also living evidence—the same animals being found on two continents. Some earthworm families (e.g. Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa, for instance.

text: Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal

text: fossil

text: s are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of

text: Mesosaurus

text: , a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in

text: Brazil

text: and

text: South Africa

text: , are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land

text: reptile

text: Lystrosaurus

text: in

text: rock

text: s of the same age at locations in

text: Africa

text: India

text: , and

text: Antarctica

text: . There is also living evidence—the same animals being found on two continents. Some

text: earthworm

text: families (e.g. Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa, for instance.

text: Stromatolites () or stromatoliths (from Greek στρώμα, strōma, mattress, bed, stratum, and λίθος, lithos, rock) are layered bio-chemical accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms (microbial mats) of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria. Fossilized stromatolites provide ancient records of life on Earth by these remains, some of which may date from 3.7 billion years ago. Lichen stromatolites are a proposed mechanism of formation of some kinds of layered rock structure that are formed above water, where rock meets air, by repeated colonization of the rock by endolithic lichens.

text: Stromatolites () or stromatoliths (from Greek στρώμα, strōma, mattress, bed, stratum, and λίθος, lithos, rock) are layered bio-chemical

text: accretion

text: ary

text: structure

text: s formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by

text: biofilm

text: s (

text: microbial mat

text: s) of

text: microorganism

text: s, especially

text: cyanobacteria

text: . Fossilized stromatolites provide ancient records of

text: life

text: on Earth by these remains, some of which may date from 3.7 billion years ago.

text: Lichen stromatolite

text: s are a proposed mechanism of formation of some kinds of layered rock structure that are formed above water, where rock meets air, by repeated colonization of the rock by

text: endolithic

text: lichen

text: s.

text: Based on Earth analogs, hydrothermal systems on Mars would be highly attractive for their potential for preserving organic and inorganic biosignatures.  For this reason, hydrothermal deposits are regarded as important targets in the exploration for fossil evidence of ancient Martian life.

text: Based on Earth analogs,

text: hydrothermal systems

text: on Mars would be highly attractive for their potential for preserving

text: organic

text: and

text: inorganic

text: biosignature

text: s.  For this reason, hydrothermal deposits are regarded as important targets in the exploration for fossil evidence of ancient Martian life.

text: In 1999's Turn A Gundam, the technology on Earth has regressed back to that of early-20th century, and in some cases, even to pre-industrial levels. The Militia, which is Earth's defense against the invading Moonrace, had biplanes and jeeps tanks as its main war vehicles. However, in certain locations of the world, called mountain cycles, ancient mobile suits are buried, protected from deterioration and decay by regenerative nanomachines called nano-skin. These mobile suits are said to be relics from the Dark History, and when the first Militia mobile suit, the Turn A Gundam, is uncovered from a statue called the White Doll, the Militia begins searching through these mountain cycles and discovering more and more mobile suits. These uncovered mobile suits become the backbone of the Militia and allow to produce them in the war between it and the Moonrace, which has never lost its mobile suit technology, to proceed on a more even scale. Later, the Moonrace also begins searching through mountain cycles on both the Earth and the Moon, and a menagerie of both low-tech and high-tech mobile weapons from various ages of the lost past are eventually fielded by both sides.

text: In 1999's

text: Turn A Gundam

text: , the technology on Earth has regressed back to that of early-20th century, and in some cases, even to pre-industrial levels. The

text: Militia

text: , which is Earth's defense against the invading Moonrace, had

text: biplanes

text: and

text: jeeps

text: tanks as its main war vehicles. However, in certain locations of the world, called mountain cycles, ancient mobile suits are buried, protected from deterioration and decay by regenerative

text: nanomachines

text: called nano-skin. These mobile suits are said to be relics from the Dark History, and when the first Militia mobile suit, the Turn A Gundam, is uncovered from a statue called the White Doll, the Militia begins searching through these mountain cycles and discovering more and more mobile suits. These uncovered mobile suits become the backbone of the Militia and allow to produce them in the war between it and the Moonrace, which has never lost its mobile suit technology, to proceed on a more even scale. Later, the Moonrace also begins searching through mountain cycles on both the Earth and the Moon, and a menagerie of both low-tech and high-tech mobile weapons from various ages of the lost past are eventually fielded by both sides.

text: In Philolaus's system, the earth did not rotate. This meant that neither the Counter-Earth or the Central Fire were visible from Earth's surface—or at least not from the hemisphere where Greece was located.  There is "no explicit statement about the shape of the earth in Philolaus' system", so that he may have believed either that the earth was flat or that it was round and orbited the Central Fire as the Moon orbits Earth—always with one hemisphere facing the Fire and one facing away.  A flat Earth facing away from the Central Fire would be consistent with the pre-gravity concept that if all things must fall towards the center of the universe, this force would allow the earth to revolve around the center without spilling everything on the surface into space. Others maintain that by 500 BC most contemporary Greek philosophers considered the Earth to be spherical.

text: Multiple sources of energy were available for chemical reactions on the early Earth. For example, heat (such as from geothermal processes) is a standard energy source for chemistry. Other examples include sunlight and electrical discharges (lightning), among others. Unfavourable reactions can also be driven by highly favourable ones, as in the case of iron-sulfur chemistry. For example, this was probably important for carbon fixation (the conversion of carbon from its inorganic form to an organic one).<ref group=note>The reactions are:

text: Multiple sources of energy were available for chemical reactions on the early Earth. For example, heat (such as from

text: geothermal

text: processes) is a standard energy source for chemistry. Other examples include sunlight and electrical discharges (lightning), among others. Unfavourable reactions can also be driven by highly favourable ones, as in the case of iron-sulfur chemistry. For example, this was probably important for

text: carbon fixation

text: (the conversion of carbon from its inorganic form to an organic one).<ref group=note>The reactions are:

text: James Hutton and Charles Lyell also contributed to early understanding of the Earth's history with their observations at Edinburgh in Scotland concerning angular unconformity in a rock face and it was in fact Lyell that influenced Charles Darwin greatly in his theory of evolution by speculating that  the present is the key to the past. Hutton first proposed the theory of uniformitarianism, which is now a basic principle in all branches of geology. Hutton also supported the idea that the Earth was very old as opposed to the prevailing concept of the time which said the Earth had only been around a few millennia. Uniformitarianism describes an Earth created by the same natural phenomena that are at work today.

text: James Hutton

text: and

text: Charles Lyell

text: also contributed to early understanding of the

text: Earth's history

text: with their observations at

text: Edinburgh

text: in

text: Scotland

text: concerning

text: angular unconformity

text: in a rock face and it was in fact Lyell that influenced

text: Charles Darwin

text: greatly in his

text: theory of evolution

text: by speculating that  the present is the key to the past. Hutton first proposed the theory of

text: uniformitarianism

text: , which is now a basic principle in all branches of geology. Hutton also supported the idea that the

text: Earth was very old

text: as opposed to the prevailing concept of the time which said the Earth had only been around a few

text: millennia

text: . Uniformitarianism describes an

text: Earth

text: created by the same

text: natural phenomena

text: that are at work today.

text: Oxygen levels of the Archaean Eon were negligible and today they are roughly 21 percent. It is thought that the Earth's oxygen content has risen in stages: six or seven steps that are timed very closely to the development of Earth's supercontinents.

text: Oxygen levels of the

text: Archaean

text: Eon were negligible and today they are roughly 21 percent. It is thought that the Earth's oxygen content has risen in stages: six or seven steps that are timed very closely to the development of Earth's supercontinents.

text: This information is graphically displayed in Figure 3. Structure beyond the primary remains predicative. Bioinformatic analysis yields consensus data that is also displayed in Figure 3. The protein is highly conserved throughout Eukaryotes both in multi and single cellular organisms. This includes but is not limited to animals, plants, fungi, and protists.

text: Water is a basic necessity of life. Since 2/3 of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet. Hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became our present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in to rain water. In turn this further caused the water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when cyanobacteria evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, our atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of the other planets; it is a fundamental requirement for life on Earth.

text: Water is a basic necessity of life. Since 2/3 of the Earth is covered by water, the Earth is also called the blue planet and the watery planet. Hydrosphere plays an important role in the existence of the atmosphere in its present form. Oceans are important in this regard. When the Earth was formed it had only a very thin atmosphere rich in hydrogen and helium similar to the present atmosphere of Mercury. Later the gases hydrogen and helium were expelled from the atmosphere. The gases and water vapor released as the Earth cooled became our present atmosphere. Other gases and water vapor released by volcanoes also entered the atmosphere. As the Earth cooled the water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and fell as rain. The atmosphere cooled further as atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in to rain water. In turn this further caused the water vapor to condense and fall as rain. This rain water filled the depressions on the Earth's surface and formed the oceans. It is estimated that this occurred about 4000 million years ago. The first life forms began in the oceans. These organisms did not breathe oxygen. Later, when

text: cyanobacteria

text: evolved, the process of conversion of carbon dioxide into food and oxygen began. As a result, our atmosphere has a distinctly different composition from that of the other planets; it is a fundamental requirement for life on Earth.

text: The following table displays historical supercontinents, using a general definition.

text: In fact, recent studies of zircons (in the fall of 2008) found in Australian Hadean rock hold minerals that point to the existence of plate tectonics as early as 4 billion years ago. If this holds true, the previous beliefs about the Hadean period are far from correct. That is, rather than a hot, molten surface and atmosphere full of carbon dioxide, Earth's surface would be very much like it is today. The action of plate tectonics traps vast amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby eliminating greenhouse effects, and leading to a much cooler surface temperature, and the formation of solid rock, and possibly even life.

text: In fact, recent studies of zircons (in the fall of 2008) found in Australian Hadean rock hold minerals that point to the existence of

text: plate tectonics

text: as early as 4 billion years ago. If this holds true, the previous beliefs about the

text: Hadean period

text: are far from correct. That is, rather than a hot, molten surface and atmosphere full of carbon dioxide, Earth's surface would be very much like it is today. The action of plate tectonics traps vast amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby eliminating

text: greenhouse effect

text: s, and leading to a much cooler surface temperature, and the formation of solid rock, and possibly even life.

text: Purple Earth hypothesis is an astrobiological hypothesis that life forms of early Earth were retinal-based rather than chlorophyll-based thus making Earth appear purple rather than green. An example of a retinal-based organism today is the photosynthetic microbes called halobacteria.

text: Purple Earth hypothesis is an

text: astrobiological

text: hypothesis that life forms of early Earth were

text: retinal

text: -based rather than

text: chlorophyll

text: -based thus making Earth appear purple rather than green. An example of a retinal-based organism today is the photosynthetic microbes called

text: halobacteria

text: Stem cells are cells found in all multi-cellular organisms. They were isolated in mice in 1981, and in humans in 1998. In humans there are many types of stem cells, each with varying levels of potency. Potency is a measure of a cell's differentiation potential, or the number of other cell types that can be made from that stem cell. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst. These stem cells can differentiate into all other cells in the human body and are the subject of much scientific research. However, since they must be derived from early human embryos their production and use in research has been a hotly debated topic as the embryo most likely is destroyed in the process.

text: Stem cell

text: s are cells found in all multi-cellular organisms. They were isolated in mice in 1981, and in humans in 1998. In humans there are many types of stem cells, each with varying levels of potency. Potency is a measure of a cell's differentiation potential, or the number of other cell types that can be made from that stem cell.

text: Embryonic stem cell

text: s are

text: pluripotent

text: stem cells derived from the

text: inner cell mass

text: of the

text: blastocyst

text: . These stem cells can differentiate into all other cells in the human body and are the subject of much scientific research. However, since they must be derived from early human embryos their production and use in research has been a hotly debated topic as the embryo most likely is destroyed in the process.

text: The early Greeks, in their speculation and theorizing, ranged from the flat disc advocated by Homer to the spherical body postulated by Pythagoras. Pythagoras's idea was supported later by Aristotle.  Pythagoras was a mathematician and to him the most perfect figure was a sphere.  He reasoned that the gods would create a perfect figure and therefore the Earth was created to be spherical in shape.  Anaximenes, an early Greek philosopher, believed strongly that the Earth was rectangular in shape.

text: The

text: early Greeks

text: , in their speculation and theorizing, ranged from the flat disc advocated by

text: Homer

text: to the spherical body postulated by

text: Pythagoras

text: . Pythagoras's idea was supported later by

text: Aristotle

text: .  Pythagoras was a mathematician and to him the most perfect figure was a

text: sphere

text: .  He reasoned that the gods would create a perfect figure and therefore the Earth was created to be spherical in shape.

text: Anaximenes

text: , an early Greek philosopher, believed strongly that the Earth was

text: rectangular

text: in shape.

text: The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB, also known as Altaids) is one of the largest accretionary orogens on Earth and evolved over some 800 million years from the latest Mesoproterozoic to the early Triassic. It contains a record of geodynamic processes during one of the most important episodes of continental growth in Phanerozoic time.

text: The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB, also known as Altaids) is one of the largest accretionary

text: orogen

text: s on Earth and evolved over some 800 million years from the latest

text: Mesoproterozoic

text: to the early

text: Triassic

text: . It contains a record of geodynamic processes during one of the most important episodes of

text: continent

text: al growth in

text: Phanerozoic

text: time.

text: The Choctaws believed in a good spirit and an evil spirit, and they may have been sun, or Hushtahli, worshipers. Swanton writes, "the Choctaws anciently regarded the sun as a deity ... the sun was ascribed the power of life and death. He was represented as looking down upon the earth, and as long as he kept his flaming eye fixed on any one, the person was safe ... fire, as the most striking representation of the sun, was considered as possessing intelligence, and as acting in concert with the sun ... [having] constant intercourse with the sun ..." The word nanpisa (the one who sees) expresses the reverence the Choctaw had for the sun.

text: The player controls an armored SJ 107 assault suit through the series of floor levels within a South Pole observation base. Each floor is connected by an elevator, which the player must find in order to proceed to the level below. The suit is equipped with various weapons, some of which require the suits battery power to operate. The story follows an International Peacekeeping Force operative Matt Coda, as he attempts to stop a scientist Dr. Kim from conducting unethical genetic engineering research. As the game progresses, the eponymous "Kileak" is revealed to be an ancient extraterrestrial creature that is the common ancestor of all life on Earth.

text: The player controls an armored SJ 107 assault suit through the series of floor levels within a

text: South Pole

text: observation base. Each floor is connected by an elevator, which the player must find in order to proceed to the level below. The suit is equipped with various weapons, some of which require the suits battery power to operate. The story follows an International Peacekeeping Force operative Matt Coda, as he attempts to stop a scientist Dr. Kim from conducting unethical genetic engineering research. As the game progresses, the eponymous "Kileak" is revealed to be an ancient extraterrestrial creature that is the

text: common ancestor

text: of all life on Earth.

text: On Earth-sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water; however, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.

text: On Earth-sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water; however, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger

text: super-earth

text: s with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.

text: This type of vegetation characterized parts of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana and once covered much of the tropics. Some lauroid species that are found outside laurel forests are relicts of vegetation that covered much of the mainland of Australia, Europe, South America, Antarctica, Africa, and North America when their climate was warmer and more humid. Cloud forests are believed to have retreated and advanced during successive geological eras, and their species adapted to warm and wet conditions were replaced by more cold-tolerant or drought-tolerant sclerophyll plant communities. Many of the late Cretaceous – early Tertiary Gondwanan species of flora became extinct, but some survived as relict species in the milder, moister climate of coastal areas and on islands. Thus Tasmania and New Caledonia share related species extinct on the Australian mainland, and the same case occurs on the Macaronesia islands of the Atlantic and on the Taiwan, Hainan, Jeju, Shikoku, Kyūshū, and Ryūkyū Islands of the Pacific.

text: This type of vegetation characterized parts of the ancient

text: supercontinent

text: of

text: Gondwana

text: and once covered much of the

text: tropics

text: . Some lauroid species that are found outside laurel forests are

text: relict

text: s of vegetation that covered much of the mainland of

text: Australia

text: , Europe, South America, Antarctica, Africa, and North America when their climate was warmer and more humid. Cloud forests are believed to have retreated and advanced during successive geological eras, and their species adapted to warm and wet conditions were replaced by more cold-tolerant or drought-tolerant

text: sclerophyll

text: plant communities. Many of the late Cretaceous – early Tertiary Gondwanan species of flora became extinct, but some survived as relict species in the milder, moister climate of coastal areas and on islands. Thus Tasmania and New Caledonia share related species extinct on the Australian mainland, and the same case occurs on the

text: Macaronesia

text: islands of the Atlantic and on the

text: Taiwan

text: Hainan

text: Jeju

text: Shikoku

text: Kyūshū

text: , and

text: Ryūkyū Islands

text: of the Pacific.

text: Guraya was known to have done pioneering research on genetical divergence of crops with different breeding systems which inaugurated a new school of thought on the subject. His studies dealt with the correlation between the structure and function of reproductive organs and elucidated its evolutionary aspects, with special emphasis on the ovarian and testicular compartments. His findings on the developmental traits of crops was reported to have assisted in crop improvement with regard to disease resistance, productivity and grain quality. He published his research findings in several articles and over 10 books; PubMed, an online article repository has listed 215 of his articles. His body of work includes The Cell and Molecular Biology of Fish Oogenesis, Cellular and Molecular Biology of Gonadal Development and Maturation in Mammals: Fundamentals and Biomedical Implications, Comparative Cellular and Molecular Biology of Ovary in Mammals: Fundamental and Applied Aspects, Comparative Cellular and Molecular Biology of Testis in Vertebrates: Trends in Endocrine, Paracrine, and Autocrine Regulation of Structure and Functions, Cellular And Molecular Biology For Human, (all on Cell and Molecular biology), Biology of Spermatogenesis and Spermatozoa in Mammals, Biology of Spermatogenesis and Spermatozoa in Mammals, Buffalo bull semen: morphology, biochemistry, physiology and nethodology (all on spermatogenesis) and Rodents: ecology, biology and control. He was associated with national and international organizations such as World Health Organization, UNESCO, Indian Council of Medical Research, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and the University Grants Commission and served as the member of the council of Indian National Science Academy (INSA) from 1986 to 1988. He was also a member of the editorial boards of Journal of Biosciences, Himalayan Journal of Environment and Zoology and the journals of the INSA.

text: Guraya was known to have done pioneering research on genetical divergence of crops with different breeding systems which inaugurated a new school of thought on the subject. His studies dealt with the correlation between the structure and function of reproductive organs and elucidated its evolutionary aspects, with special emphasis on the ovarian and testicular compartments. His findings on the developmental traits of crops was reported to have assisted in crop improvement with regard to disease resistance, productivity and grain quality. He published his research findings in several articles and over 10 books;

text: PubMed

text: , an online article repository has listed 215 of his articles. His body of work includes The Cell and Molecular Biology of Fish Oogenesis, Cellular and Molecular Biology of Gonadal Development and Maturation in Mammals: Fundamentals and Biomedical Implications, Comparative Cellular and Molecular Biology of Ovary in Mammals: Fundamental and Applied Aspects, Comparative Cellular and Molecular Biology of Testis in Vertebrates: Trends in Endocrine, Paracrine, and Autocrine Regulation of Structure and Functions, Cellular And Molecular Biology For Human, (all on

text: Cell

text: and

text: Molecular biology

text: ), Biology of Spermatogenesis and Spermatozoa in Mammals, Biology of Spermatogenesis and Spermatozoa in Mammals, Buffalo bull semen: morphology, biochemistry, physiology and nethodology (all on

text: spermatogenesis

text: ) and Rodents: ecology, biology and control. He was associated with national and international organizations such as

text: World Health Organization

text: UNESCO

text: Indian Council of Medical Research

text: Indian Council of Agricultural Research

entity_name: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

text: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

text: and the

text: University Grants Commission

text: and served as the member of the council of

text: Indian National Science Academy

text: (INSA) from 1986 to 1988. He was also a member of the editorial boards of Journal of Biosciences, Himalayan Journal of Environment and Zoology and the journals of the INSA.

text: The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe."

text: The

text: Earth

text: life on Earth

text: dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon.

text: Microbial mat

text: fossils

text: have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of a

text: biogenic substance

text: is

text: graphite

text: in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in

text: Western Greenland

text: as well as "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: Kenos was the first howenh to inhabit the Earth. He is the creator, organizer and civilizing god in Selk'nam mythology, and the most important deity after Temáukel. He was sent by him from the Celestial dome to the early Earth, with the mission of organize it and create the mythological ancestors who would shape the Earth.

text: Kenos was the first howenh to inhabit the Earth. He is the creator, organizer and civilizing god in Selk'nam mythology, and the most important deity after Temáukel. He was sent by him from the

text: Celestial dome

text: to the early Earth, with the mission of organize it and create the mythological ancestors who would shape the Earth.

text: Stenopterygius is known from the lectotype GPIT 43/0219-1, articulated complete skeleton which preserved a very large embryo. The animal is about  in length. It was collected from the Harpoceras elegantulum-exaratum ammonoid subzones (more specifically Lias ε II3-4), Harpoceras falcifer zone, of the famous Posidonien-Schiefer lagerstätte (Posidonia Shale) of Holzmaden, dating to the early Toarcian stage of the Early Jurassic, about 182 million years ago. Maisch referred to the type species 30 additional specimens, all came from Dobbertin of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Holzmaden, Germany and Dudelange, Luxembourg. They were collected from the Harpoceras palum to H. falciferum ammonoid subzones (Lias ε I2-II11, lower-middle early Toarcian), Harpoceras tenuicostatum-falcifer zones, of the Posidonia Shale. S. triscissus is known from the holotype GPIT 12/0224-2, articulated almost complete skeleton. The animal is a young adult about  in length. It was collected from the Harpoceras exaratum-elegans ammonoid subzones (more specifically Lias ε II6), Harpoceras falcifer zone, of the Posidonia Shale, in Ohmden, dating to the middle Early Toarcian stage of the Early Jurassic. Maisch referred to this species 13 additional specimens, all came from various localities in England, France, Germany, Luxembourg and Switzerland. They were collected from the Lias ε II1-III, dating to the middle-late Early Toarcian. S. uniter is known from the holotype SMNS 14216, articulated complete skeleton which was destroyed in World War II. The animal is an adult about  in length. The proposed neotype is GPIT 1491/10, articulated almost complete skeleton. The animal is a young adult about  in length. It was collected from the Harpoceras falcifer ammonoid subzones (more specifically Lias ε II10), Harpoceras falcifer zone, of the Posidonia Shale, in Holzmaden, dating to the middle Early Toarcian stage of the Early Jurassic. Maisch referred to this species 10 additional specimens, all came from Holzmaden. They were collected from the Harpoceras exaratum to H. falciferum ammonoid subzones (Lias ε II6-II11, middle early Toarcian), Harpoceras falcifer zones, of the Posidonia Shale.

text: Stenopterygius is known from the

text: lectotype

text: GPIT

text: 43/0219-1, articulated complete

text: skeleton

text: which preserved a very large embryo. The animal is about  in length. It was collected from the Harpoceras elegantulum-exaratum ammonoid subzones (more specifically Lias ε II3-4), Harpoceras falcifer zone, of the famous Posidonien-Schiefer

text: lagerstätte

text: Posidonia Shale

text: ) of

text: Holzmaden

text: , dating to the early

text: Toarcian

text: stage of the

text: Early Jurassic

text: , about 182

text: million years ago

text: . Maisch referred to the type species 30 additional specimens, all came from Dobbertin of

text: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

text: and

text: Holzmaden

text: , Germany and

text: Dudelange

text: , Luxembourg. They were collected from the Harpoceras palum to H. falciferum ammonoid subzones (Lias ε I2-II11, lower-middle early Toarcian), Harpoceras tenuicostatum-falcifer zones, of the Posidonia Shale. S. triscissus is known from the

text: holotype

text: GPIT

text: articulate

text: d almost complete

text: skeleton

text: . The animal is a young adult about  in length. It was collected from the Harpoceras exaratum-elegans ammonoid subzones (more specifically Lias ε II6), Harpoceras falcifer zone, of the

text: Posidonia Shale

text: , in

text: Ohmden

text: , dating to the middle Early

text: Toarcian

text: stage of the

text: Early Jurassic

text: . Maisch referred to this species 13 additional specimens, all came from various localities in England, France, Germany, Luxembourg and Switzerland. They were collected from the Lias ε II1-III, dating to the middle-late Early Toarcian. S. uniter is known from the

text: holotype

entity_name: State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart

text: SMNS

text: 14216, articulated complete skeleton which was destroyed in World War II. The animal is an adult about  in length. The proposed neotype is

text: GPIT

text: 1491/10, articulated almost complete skeleton. The animal is a young adult about  in length. It was collected from the Harpoceras falcifer ammonoid subzones (more specifically Lias ε II10), Harpoceras falcifer zone, of the

text: Posidonia Shale

text: , in

text: Holzmaden

text: , dating to the middle Early

text: Toarcian

text: stage of the

text: Early Jurassic

text: . Maisch referred to this species 10 additional specimens, all came from Holzmaden. They were collected from the Harpoceras exaratum to H. falciferum ammonoid subzones (Lias ε II6-II11, middle early Toarcian), Harpoceras falcifer zones, of the Posidonia Shale.

text: Convection within Earth's mantle is the driving force for plate tectonics. Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of lithosphere drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the core-mantle boundary. Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection.

text: Convection within

text: Earth's mantle

text: is the driving force for

text: plate tectonics

text: . Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of

text: lithosphere

text: drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the

text: core-mantle boundary

text: . Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection.

text: The theory focuses on the movements of postulated mantle plumes under tectonic plates viewing them as the major driving force of movements of (parts of) the Earth's crust. It tries to reconcile in one single geodynamic model the horizontalistic concept of Plate tectonics, and the verticalistic concepts of mantle plumes and hot spots, together with the existence of various supercontinents in Earth history. This theory has little support in mainstream geology. More plausible is the view that mantle plumes do not make an appreciable contribution to plate motions, or to volcanism on Earth's surface.

text: The theory focuses on the movements of postulated mantle plumes under

text: tectonic plate

text: s viewing them as the major driving force of movements of (parts of) the Earth's crust. It tries to reconcile in one single geodynamic model the horizontalistic concept of Plate tectonics, and the verticalistic concepts of mantle plumes and

text: hot spots

text: , together with the existence of various

text: supercontinent

text: s in Earth history. This theory has little support in mainstream geology. More plausible is the view that mantle plumes do not make an appreciable contribution to plate motions, or to volcanism on Earth's surface.

text: The atmospheric pressure on Earth's surface averages 101.325 kPa, with a scale height of about 8.5 km. It has a composition of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gaseous molecules. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.

text: The

text: atmospheric pressure

text: on Earth's surface averages 101.325

text: kPa

text: , with a

text: scale height

text: of about 8.5 km. It has a composition of 78%

text: nitrogen

text: and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of

text: water vapor

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and other gaseous molecules. The height of the

text: troposphere

text: varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.

text: The WELL was started by Stewart Brand and Larry Brilliant in 1985, and the name (an acronym for Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link) is partially a reference to some of Brand's earlier projects, including the Whole Earth Catalog. The WELL began as a dial-up bulletin board system (BBS) influenced by EIES, became one of the original dial-up ISPs in the early 1990s when commercial traffic was first allowed, and changed into its current form as the Internet and web technology evolved. Its original management team—Matthew McClure, soon joined by Cliff Figallo and John Coate, collaborated with its early users to foster a sense of virtual community.

text: The WELL was started by

text: Stewart Brand

text: and

text: Larry Brilliant

text: in 1985, and the name (an acronym for Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link) is partially a reference to some of Brand's earlier projects, including the

text: Whole Earth Catalog

text: . The WELL began as a

text: dial-up

text: bulletin board system

text: (BBS) influenced by

text: EIES

text: , became one of the original dial-up

text: ISP

text: s in the early 1990s when commercial traffic was first allowed, and changed into its current form as the Internet and web technology evolved. Its original management team—Matthew McClure, soon joined by Cliff Figallo and John Coate, collaborated with its early users to foster a sense of

text: virtual community

text: The Sirena Deep was most probably formed, not through transform fault motion as previously thought, but through a north-south convergence of the Caroline plate and the Pacific plate, in which the Caroline plate is subducting.  A group of scientists have hypothesized that the great depth of the Mariana Trench, the Challenger Deep, and the Sirena Deep is due to a tear in the subducting Caroline plate, causing deformation of the Pacific plate above. This tear would be located to the south of Guam, the same location of the deepest portion of the Mariana Trench. The tear would lead to unusual regional tectonics, another possible reason for the extreme depth. Scientists were alerted to the presence of the tear by the depth of strike-slip earthquakes, which were occurring too deep for them to be in the overriding plate.

text: The Sirena Deep was most probably formed, not through

text: transform fault

text: motion as previously thought, but through a north-south

text: convergence

text: of the

text: Caroline plate

text: and the

text: Pacific plate

text: , in which the Caroline plate is

text: subducting

text: .  A group of scientists have hypothesized that the great depth of the Mariana Trench, the Challenger Deep, and the Sirena Deep is due to a tear in the subducting Caroline plate, causing deformation of the Pacific plate above. This tear would be located to the south of Guam, the same location of the deepest portion of the Mariana Trench. The tear would lead to unusual regional tectonics, another possible reason for the extreme depth. Scientists were alerted to the presence of the tear by the depth of strike-slip earthquakes, which were occurring too deep for them to be in the overriding plate.

text: Whittle serves on the board of EdisonLearning (formerly Edison Schools).the company he founded with Benno C. Schmidt, Jr. in 1992. Edison was an early pioneer in public/private partnerships in K-12 education in America. EdisonLearning now serves 450,000 students on three continents through the schools it operates and a variety of other educational programs. Edison Schools was a public company from 1999 to 2003, with its stock traded on the NASDAQ. After reaching a high of close to USD$40 per share in early 2001, shares fell as low as 14 cents. The company was taken private in 2003, in a buyout which valued the company at $180 million  or $1.76 per share.

text: Whittle serves on the board of EdisonLearning (formerly Edison Schools).the company he founded with

text: Benno C. Schmidt, Jr.

text: in 1992. Edison was an early pioneer in public/private partnerships in K-12 education in America. EdisonLearning now serves 450,000 students on three continents through the schools it operates and a variety of other educational programs. Edison Schools was a public company from 1999 to 2003, with its stock traded on the

text: NASDAQ

text: . After reaching a high of close to

text: USD

text: $40 per share in early 2001, shares fell as low as 14 cents. The company was taken private in 2003, in a buyout which valued the company at $180 million  or $1.76 per share.

text: The Atlantis Expedition, is Earth's international mission to the Ancient city of Atlantis in the Pegasus Galaxy. The impetus for the creation of the expedition was the discovery of the Ancient outpost in Antarctica in the episode "Lost City". The reason that it is international is that it was felt that a project of such importance could not be the exclusive province of one nation, as well as the fact that according to American and international law, Antarctica is international territory and hence it would be technically illegal for the United States to operate any facilities without international participation or at least international knowledge. An international committee, originally called the Atlantis Committee was established, creating the first truly international body for the management of Earth's offworld affairs. It is composed of the representatives of several nations, but the leaders of the committee seem to be the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Russia, and China. However, numerous nations have sent people to Atlantis.

text: The Atlantis Expedition, is Earth's international mission to the

text: Ancient

text: city of

text: Atlantis

text: in the

text: Pegasus Galaxy

text: . The impetus for the creation of the expedition was the discovery of the

text: Ancient outpost

text: in Antarctica in the episode "

text: Lost City

text: ". The reason that it is international is that it was felt that a project of such importance could not be the exclusive province of one nation, as well as the fact that according to

text: American and international law

text: , Antarctica is international territory and hence it would be technically illegal for the United States to operate any facilities without international participation or at least international knowledge. An international committee, originally called the Atlantis Committee was established, creating the first truly international body for the management of Earth's offworld affairs. It is composed of the representatives of several nations, but the leaders of the committee seem to be the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Russia, and China. However, numerous nations have sent people to Atlantis.

text: Localized Molecular Therapy (MT) is the cellular modifications at the molecular level. Take the chemotherapy in oncology for example, it aims to kill the cell by delivering toxic agents to the cell, while MT could aim to terminate the cellular division without necessarily killing the cell, such as aiming to reach senescence whose therapeutic procedure, levels of toxic agents, and tools for delivering the toxicity could all be very different from simply killing the cell.An example of the senescence therapy could be the delivering of 77BrdC to a Herpes specific gene responsible for certain cancer transformation. Helson and Wang applied the radioactive bromide compound that has a K-capture decay mode leading to a mega Gray (Gy) dose with Auger electrons in Situ [1] at the DNA level that terminates the cellular division and drives the cell into a state of senescence. But the mega Gy dose is limited to a dimension of a few nanometers so that while it modifies both of the DNA duplexes, it does not interrupt other cellular apparatus sufficiently to kill the cell. This in Vitro work was carried out at Sloan- Kettering Cancer Center in the 1970s, and the work was not published as it was meant to be the beginning program of an extensive clinical trial. The Auger dose in mega Gy can be found in Wikipedia under Auger Therapy [1].

text: Localized Molecular Therapy (MT) is the cellular modifications at the molecular level. Take the chemotherapy in

text: oncology

text: for example, it aims to kill the

text: cell

text: by delivering toxic agents to the cell, while MT could aim to terminate the cellular division without necessarily killing the cell, such as aiming to reach senescence whose therapeutic procedure, levels of toxic agents, and tools for delivering the

text: toxicity

text: could all be very different from simply killing the cell.An example of the

text: senescence

text: therapy could be the delivering of 77BrdC to a Herpes specific gene responsible for certain

text: cancer

text: transformation. Helson and Wang applied the radioactive bromide compound that has a K-capture decay mode leading to a mega

text: Gray

text: (Gy) dose with

text: Auger electrons

text: in Situ [1] at the DNA level that terminates the cellular division and drives the cell into a state of senescence. But the mega Gy dose is limited to a dimension of a few nanometers so that while it modifies both of the DNA duplexes, it does not interrupt other cellular apparatus sufficiently to kill the cell. This in Vitro work was carried out at Sloan- Kettering Cancer Center in the 1970s, and the work was not published as it was meant to be the beginning program of an extensive clinical trial. The Auger dose in mega Gy can be found in Wikipedia under

text: Auger Therapy

text: A third contact for a connection to earth is intended to protect against insulation failure of the connected device. Early unearthed plug and socket types were revised to include an earthing pin or phased out in favor of new earthed types.

text: A third contact for a connection to

text: earth

text: is intended to protect against insulation failure of the connected device. Early unearthed plug and socket types were revised to include an earthing pin or phased out in favor of new earthed types.

text: Fiorelli and Calvo ran a phylogenetic analysis of their new genus and found it to be allied with Shantungosuchus, Sichuanosuchus, Zosuchus, and an unnamed form from Fruita, Colorado (United States).  This clade of "protosuchians" is near the base of Mesoeucrocodylia, which also contains modern crocodilians.  Neuquensuchus is thus the first basal mesoeucrocodylian known from any Gondwanan continent (Gondwana being an ancient supercontinent composed of the modern Southern Hemisphere continents and India).  With its nearest relatives from Asia, this raises the question of how Neuquensuchus got to South America; the authors postulate an Early Cretaceous dispersal event.

text: Fiorelli and Calvo ran a

text: phylogenetic analysis

text: of their new genus and found it to be allied with Shantungosuchus,

text: Sichuanosuchus

text: Zosuchus

text: , and an unnamed form from

text: Fruita

text: Colorado

text: United States

text: ).  This

text: clade

text: of "protosuchians" is near the base of

text: Mesoeucrocodylia

text: , which also contains modern crocodilians.  Neuquensuchus is thus the first basal mesoeucrocodylian known from any Gondwanan continent (Gondwana being an ancient supercontinent composed of the modern Southern Hemisphere continents and

text: India

text: ).  With its nearest relatives from

text: Asia

text: , this raises the question of how Neuquensuchus got to South America; the authors postulate an Early Cretaceous dispersal event.

text: Terra is a planet wracked by war caused by two large factions, one referred to as the Eastern Alliance, the other the Western Coalition. The planet was similar to the descriptions of Earth in Colonial legends, leading some to believe that Terra was in fact Earth, however the beings from the "Ship of Light" confirmed that Terra is not  Earth. It appears that the planet was settled by a splinter group of the thirteenth tribe. The Terrans use earth like measurements (such as hours and minutes) rather than Colonial measurements of centons and centars. The Terrans (the people of Terra) also use Earth names as compared to Colonial names. "Terra" means "Earth" in Latin and in the Colonial language Gemonese.

text: Terra is a planet wracked by war caused by two large factions, one referred to as the

text: Eastern Alliance

text: , the other the Western Coalition. The planet was similar to the descriptions of Earth in Colonial legends, leading some to believe that Terra was in fact Earth, however the beings from the "

text: Ship of Light

text: " confirmed that Terra is not  Earth. It appears that the planet was settled by a splinter group of the thirteenth tribe. The Terrans use earth like measurements (such as hours and minutes) rather than Colonial measurements of centons and centars. The Terrans (the people of Terra) also use Earth names as compared to Colonial names. "Terra" means "Earth" in

text: Latin

text: and in the Colonial language Gemonese.

text: The Medical Institute of Bioregulation at Kyushu University seeks to facilitate understanding of the essential regulatory mechanisms involved inhuman biology at the cellular and molecular levels, with a long-term goal of curing diseases. At the Institute, we are interested in learning how individual cells regulate each other in the complex multi-cellular environment of the human body. The body is constantly exposed to a variety of threats such as infection, apoptosis, malfunctioning of organelles, and tumorigenesis. Yet, most of the time, homeostasis is maintained, and the body survives. How do our bodies, organs, and cells thwart threats and prevent disasters? We believe that the answers to this question will provide cures to medical conditions ranging from infection, cancer, allergies, and autoimmune diseases to multi-factorial genetic disorders and degenerative diseases of the central nervous system.

text: Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in our view of the planet. In the West, belief in a flat Earth was displaced by the idea of spherical Earth, credited to Pythagoras in the 6th century BC. Earth was further believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century when scientists first theorized that it was a moving object, comparable to the other planets in the Solar System. Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as James Ussher, who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least many millions of years. Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the Apollo program.

text: Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in our view of the planet. In the West, belief in a

text: flat Earth

text: was displaced by the idea of

text: spherical Earth

text: , credited to

text: Pythagoras

text: in the 6th century BC. Earth was further believed to be

text: the center of the universe

text: until the 16th century when scientists first theorized that it was

text: a moving object

text: , comparable to the other planets in the Solar System. Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as

text: James Ussher

text: , who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized

text: Earth's age

text: was at least many millions of years.

text: Lord Kelvin

text: used

text: thermodynamics

text: to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and

text: radioactive dating

text: were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. The perception of Earth shifted again in the 20th century when humans first viewed it from orbit, and especially with photographs of Earth returned by the

text: Apollo program

text: For example, the ability of capnophiles to tolerate (or utilize) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival. Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles, organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present, but at a dramatically reduced concentration. (In the earth's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen, 0.04% and 21% of the total, respectively.) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment, and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration, or fermentation (biochemistry).

text: For example, the ability of capnophiles to tolerate (or utilize) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival. Species of

text: Campylobacter

text: are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also

text: microaerophile

text: s, organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present, but at a dramatically reduced concentration. (In the

text: earth's atmosphere

text: carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen, 0.04% and 21% of the total, respectively.)

text: Obligate anaerobe

text: s are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment, and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration, or

text: fermentation (biochemistry)

text: Sarah Strange played Ganos Lal, an ascended Ancient who gave rise to the Arthurian legend of Morgan le Fay. In the Stargate mythology, she was originally an inhabitant of the Ancient city of Atlantis, where a holographic learning program based on her image taught Lantean children about Ancient technology, history and science. When it became clear that the Ancients had been defeated by the Wraith, she fled back to Earth with the other surviving Ancients and secluded herself in meditation until her ascension. When fellow ascended Ancient Moros (Merlin, Myrddin) descended in order to construct a weapon to fight the Ori that could be used against the Ancients themselves, Morgan le Fay was assigned to watch him and, if necessary, prevent his completion of the weapon.  Morgan eventually found the Sangraal and followed her orders to destroy the weapon. However, over the course of her assignment, she came to agree that Ori could some day become a threat to the Ancients themselves, and so she hid Merlin in stasis, knowing that some day he might be needed to recreate the weapon. She then went about creating the legend of the Sangraal on the planet which would lead to Merlin, whose location was guarded with Ancient riddles and challenges for anyone who went looking for the original weapon.

text: Sarah Strange

text: played Ganos Lal, an

text: ascended

text: Ancient

text: who gave rise to the

text: Arthurian legend

text: of

text: Morgan le Fay

text: . In the Stargate mythology, she was originally an inhabitant of the Ancient city of

text: Atlantis

text: , where a holographic learning program based on her image taught Lantean children about Ancient technology, history and science. When it became clear that the Ancients had been defeated by the

text: Wraith

text: , she fled back to

text: Earth

text: with the other surviving Ancients and secluded herself in meditation until her ascension. When fellow ascended Ancient

text: Moros

text: (Merlin, Myrddin) descended in order to construct a weapon to fight the

text: Ori

text: that could be used against the Ancients themselves, Morgan le Fay was assigned to watch him and, if necessary, prevent his completion of the weapon.  Morgan eventually found the Sangraal and followed her orders to destroy the weapon. However, over the course of her assignment, she came to agree that Ori could some day become a threat to the Ancients themselves, and so she hid Merlin in stasis, knowing that some day he might be needed to recreate the weapon. She then went about creating the legend of the Sangraal on the planet which would lead to Merlin, whose location was guarded with Ancient riddles and challenges for anyone who went looking for the original weapon.

text: The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to ayurveda, ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians and scholars such as Avicenna. During the European Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and Harvey, who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify the diversity of life and the fossil record, as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Microscopy revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the argument from design).

text: The history of biology traces the study of the

text: living world

text: from

text: ancient

text: to

text: modern

text: times. Although the concept of

text: biology

text: as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from

text: traditions of medicine

text: and

text: natural history

text: reaching back to

text: ayurveda

text: ancient Egyptian medicine

text: and the works of

text: Aristotle

text: and

text: Galen

text: in the ancient

text: Greco-Roman world

text: . This ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by

text: Muslim physicians

text: and scholars such as

text: Avicenna

text: . During the European

text: Renaissance

text: and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in

text: empiricism

text: and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were

text: Vesalius

text: and

text: Harvey

text: , who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as

text: Linnaeus

text: and

text: Buffon

text: who began to

text: classify the diversity of life

text: and the

text: fossil record

text: , as well as the development and behavior of organisms.

text: Microscopy

text: revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for

text: cell theory

text: . The growing importance of

text: natural theology

text: , partly a response to the rise of

text: mechanical philosophy

text: , encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched the

text: argument from design

text: Ocean-plate creation at upwellings, spreading and subduction are well accepted fundamentals of plate tectonics, with the upwelling of hot mantle materials and the sinking of the cooler ocean plates driving the mantle convection. In this model, tectonic plates diverge at mid-ocean ridges, where hot mantle rock flows upward to fill the space. Plate-tectonic processes account for the vast majority of Earth's volcanism.

text: During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the understanding of the nature of early Earth went through a transformation from a biblical or deist interpretation to a naturalistic one. Even back in the early 18th century, Plutonists had argued for an ancient Earth, but the full impact of the depth of time involved in the Pre-Adamitic period was not commonly accepted until uniformitarianism as presented in Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology of 1830. While vast aeons of time were involved, the narrative of the pre-Adamitic world was still influenced by the biblical story of creation in this transition. A striking example is a description from "Memoires of Ichtyosauri and Plesiosauri", 1839:

text: During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the understanding of the nature of early Earth went through a

text: transformation

text: from a biblical or

text: deist

text: interpretation to a naturalistic one. Even back in the early 18th century,

text: Plutonists

text: had argued for an ancient Earth, but the full impact of the

text: depth of time

text: involved in the Pre-Adamitic period was not commonly accepted until

text: uniformitarianism

text: as presented in

text: Charles Lyell

text: 's Principles of Geology of 1830. While vast aeons of time were involved, the narrative of the pre-Adamitic world was still influenced by the biblical story of creation in this transition. A striking example is a description from "Memoires of Ichtyosauri and Plesiosauri", 1839:

text:
Other undergraduate programs offered at U of T Mississauga include,   Professional Writing and Communication, Economics, Mathematics, Chemistry, Languages, Physics, Environmental Sciences, Geography, and Earth Sciences (Ex. Geology).
U of T Mississauga also hosts one of the few palaeomagnetism laboratories in Canada. This lab investigated the palaeomagnetic properties of rocks collected from the Apollo missions in the 1970s and was run by now professor emeritus Dr. Henry Halls. U of T Mississauga's best known president was Dr. J. Tuzo Wilson, a geologist and pioneer in plate tectonics. A research wing in the William G. Davis building of U of T Mississauga is named after him.[3]

text: Clark kennels the Malamute with the station's sled dogs; it soon metamorphoses and attacks them. When he hears the commotion, MacReady pulls the fire alarm, and Childs incinerates the creature.  Blair performs another autopsy which leads him to believe the creature perfectly imitates other organisms. The Norwegians' records lead the Americans to a buried flying saucer that the station's geologist, Norris, hypothesizes is likely over 100,000 years old. Blair becomes increasingly paranoid and withdraws, calculating that if the alien escapes to a civilized area, all life on Earth will be assimilated within a few years. Fuchs tells MacReady that he is worried about Blair, and according to Blair's journal, the creature's "dead" remains are still active on a cellular level. The camp enacts safety measures designed to reduce risk of assimilation.

text: Clark kennels the Malamute with the station's sled dogs; it soon metamorphoses and attacks them. When he hears the commotion, MacReady pulls the

text: fire alarm

text: , and Childs incinerates the creature.  Blair performs another autopsy which leads him to believe the creature perfectly imitates other organisms. The Norwegians' records lead the Americans to a buried

text: flying saucer

text: that the station's geologist, Norris, hypothesizes is likely over 100,000 years old. Blair becomes increasingly paranoid and withdraws, calculating that if the alien escapes to a civilized area, all life on Earth will be assimilated within a few years. Fuchs tells MacReady that he is worried about Blair, and according to Blair's journal, the creature's "dead" remains are still active on a cellular level. The camp enacts safety measures designed to reduce risk of assimilation.

text: In early Mormonism, God's Kingdom was thought of as an amalgamation between two distinct yet intimately related parts. The first is the Spiritual Kingdom of God which is represented on earth by the Church of Christ. This, Mormons believe, was described in the Book of Daniel 2:44–45 as the stone "cut out of the mountain without hands" that will roll forth to fill the whole earth. In Daniel, this kingdom was never to "be destroyed; and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand forever." However, in conjunction with this Spiritual Kingdom, Joseph Smith and other early Latter Day Saint leaders believed that Jesus would establish a Political Kingdom of God in the turbulent times leading up to His second coming. God's Political Kingdom was to be centered around the Council of Fifty.

text: In early

text: Mormonism

text: , God's Kingdom was thought of as an amalgamation between two distinct yet intimately related parts. The first is the Spiritual Kingdom of God which is represented on earth by the

text: Church of Christ

text: . This, Mormons believe, was described in the

text: Book of Daniel

text: 2:44–45 as the stone "cut out of the mountain without hands" that will roll forth to fill the whole earth. In Daniel, this kingdom was never to "be destroyed; and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand forever." However, in conjunction with this Spiritual Kingdom,

text: Joseph Smith

text: and other early

text: Latter Day Saint

text: leaders believed that

text: Jesus

text: would establish a Political Kingdom of God in the turbulent times leading up to His

text: second coming

text: . God's Political Kingdom was to be centered around the Council of Fifty.

text: Chapter two entitled Looking to the Rocks: Molecular Clues to the Origin of Life looks at the findings of Sir Robert Robinson and Melvin Calvin discovery's of organic compounds in petrol and the conversion of CO to organic molecules during photosynthesis. Early experiments had shown that organic compounds can form spontaneously under conditions similar to the pre-biotic era of earth. These findings led to speculation on the possible discovery on the origins of life. The chapter ends with the authors saying as a precursor to the next chapter

text: Chapter two entitled Looking to the Rocks: Molecular Clues to the Origin of Life looks at the findings of Sir

text: Robert Robinson

text: and

text: Melvin Calvin

text: discovery's of organic compounds in petrol and the conversion of CO to organic molecules during

text: photosynthesis

text: . Early experiments had shown that organic compounds can form spontaneously under conditions similar to the

text: pre-biotic

text: era of earth. These findings led to speculation on the possible discovery on the origins of life. The chapter ends with the authors saying as a precursor to the next chapter

text: Auroras are a product of the sun's activity; therefore the beautiful colorful lights seen at night are often caused by activities by the sun 150 kilometers away. The sun sends out a constant flow of charged particles known as solar wind, when these winds or eruptions are pointed or directed at the Earth, they can spark up sun-induced auroras. The greater the activity of the sun, the brighter the auroras we see.The colors of the aurora are determined by four elements which are; the density of the atmosphere, the composition of gases in the Earth's atmosphere, the altitude where aurora occurs and the level energy involved. The most common color seem is green, which is caused when the charged particles collide with oxygen at lower altitudes between 100-300kilometers. Occasionally, the ends or tips of the aurora have a pink or crimson fringe, this is caused by the presence of nitrogen molecules. In the upper atmosphere between 300-400kilometers, red instead of green is caused by the collision with atomic oxygen. It takes longer for the lights to be produced at higher altitudes because the atmosphere is less dense so it takes more energy and more time for the red lights to be produced. Blue and purple lights are also produced by the collision with hydrogen and helium but they are difficult for the eyes to see against the night sky.

text: Pangaea or Pangea () was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras. It assembled from earlier continental units approximately 300 million years ago, and it began to break apart about 175 million years ago. In contrast to the present Earth and its distribution of continental mass, much of Pangaea was in the southern hemisphere and surrounded by a superocean, Panthalassa. Pangaea was the last supercontinent to have existed and the first to be reconstructed by geologists.

text: Pangaea or Pangea () was a

text: supercontinent

text: that existed during the late

text: Paleozoic

text: and early

text: Mesozoic

text: eras. It assembled from earlier continental units approximately 300 million years ago, and it began to break apart about 175 million years ago. In contrast to the present

text: Earth

text: and its distribution of continental mass, much of Pangaea was in the

text: southern hemisphere

text: and surrounded by a superocean,

text: Panthalassa

text: . Pangaea was the last supercontinent to have existed and the first to be reconstructed by geologists.

text: Risk assessments were calculated based on a diameter of 130 meters. It was estimated that, if it were ever to impact Earth, it would enter the atmosphere at a speed of 19.2 km/s and would have a kinetic energy equivalent to 150 megatons of TNT. Assuming the target surface is sedimentary rock, the asteroid would impact the ground with the equivalent of 40 megatons of TNT and create a  impact crater. Asteroids of approximately 130 meters in diameter are expected to impact Earth once every 11000 years or so.

text: Risk assessments were calculated based on a diameter of 130 meters. It was estimated that, if it were ever to impact Earth, it would enter the atmosphere at a speed of 19.2 km/s and would have a

text: kinetic energy

text: equivalent to 150

text: megatons of TNT

text: . Assuming the target surface is

text: sedimentary rock

text: , the asteroid would impact the ground with the equivalent of 40 megatons of TNT and create a

text: impact crater

text: . Asteroids of approximately 130 meters in diameter are expected to impact Earth once every 11000 years or so.

text: The style of the sanctuary evokes Khmer architecture, displaying hand-carved wooden sculptures indicative of the imperial setting at Angkor.  It has four gopura, respectively representing images from the Buddhist and Hindu religions and mythologies of Cambodia, China, India and Thailand.  According to the official website, its purpose is to use art and culture as "a reflection of the Ancient Vision of Earth, Ancient Knowledge, and Eastern Philosophy. Within this complex, visitors will understand Ancient Life, Human Responsibility, Basic Thought, Cycle of living, Life Relationship with Universe and Common Goal of Life toward Utopia".

text: The

text: style

text: of the sanctuary evokes

text: Khmer architecture

text: , displaying hand-carved wooden sculptures indicative of the

text: imperial setting

text: at

text: Angkor

text: .  It has four

text: gopura

text: , respectively representing images from the Buddhist and Hindu religions and mythologies of Cambodia, China, India and Thailand.  According to the official website, its purpose is to use art and culture as "a reflection of the Ancient Vision of Earth, Ancient Knowledge, and Eastern Philosophy. Within this complex, visitors will understand Ancient Life, Human Responsibility, Basic Thought, Cycle of living, Life Relationship with Universe and Common Goal of Life toward Utopia".

text: Finally there is the common question of what is the maximum magnitude for the whole world.  Unfortunately, it cannot really be answered, since this earthquake has most likely not happened in the historical record, and we cannot search beyond the earth for analogs. Answers can again be inferred using the finite size of the world's plates (plate tectonics), and the possible limits of the various magnitude scales . The specific value, however, is not directly relevant to most people, since, except for tsunamis, the local shaking effects come to a maximum at about M8, and greater earthquakes simply extend the rupture distance.

text: Finally there is the common question of what is the maximum magnitude for the whole world.  Unfortunately, it cannot really be answered, since this earthquake has most likely not happened in the historical record, and we cannot search beyond the earth for analogs. Answers can again be inferred using the finite size of the world's plates (plate tectonics), and the possible limits of the various magnitude scales . The specific value, however, is not directly relevant to most people, since, except for

text: tsunami

text: s, the local shaking effects come to a maximum at about M8, and greater earthquakes simply extend the rupture distance.

text: The Boring Billion refers to the approximately one billion-year period between 1.8 and 0.8 Ga in Earth's history that is characterized by environmental, evolutionary, and lithospheric stability. It has also been termed the "Barren Billion", "Dullest Time on Earth" and "Earth’s Middle Ages". In the time leading up to the Boring Billion, Earth experienced multiple widespread glaciations, the origin of prokaryotic life, the introduction of oxygen into the atmosphere with the evolution of cyanobacteria, addition of UV-blocking ozone to the atmosphere, and the oxidizing of iron in the oceans. After the Boring Billion, the atmosphere again underwent rapid changes as atmospheric oxygen rose to approximately modern levels, most major animal phyla evolved during the Cambrian explosion, and large animals appeared in the oceans. The Boring Billion was thus termed boring because unlike the rapidly changing environments present on Earth before and after this period, it is characterized by climatic stability, low levels of atmospheric oxygen, lack of biological events, and the absence of extreme changes in the atmospheric and oceanic composition. Stability during the Boring Billion may be attributed to a relatively stable supercontinent that was initiated by 1.7 Ga and persisted until its breakup around 0.75 Ga. The exact timing and duration of the Boring Billion is not agreed upon by scientists and estimates for the beginning and end of the Boring Billion range between 1.8 and 2.4 Ga for initiation and between 0.5 and 0.8 Ga for termination. The Boring Billion occurred during the Proterozoic Eon.

text: The Boring Billion refers to the approximately one billion-year period between 1.8 and 0.8 Ga in Earth's history that is characterized by environmental,

text: evolution

text: ary, and

text: lithospheric

text: stability. It has also been termed the "Barren Billion", "Dullest Time on Earth" and "Earth’s Middle Ages". In the time leading up to the Boring Billion, Earth experienced multiple widespread

text: glaciations

text: , the origin of

text: prokaryotic

text: life, the introduction of

text: oxygen

text: into the atmosphere with the evolution of

text: cyanobacteria

text: , addition of UV-blocking

text: ozone

text: to the atmosphere, and the oxidizing of

text: iron

text: in the oceans. After the Boring Billion, the atmosphere again underwent rapid changes as atmospheric oxygen rose to approximately modern levels, most major animal phyla evolved during the

text: Cambrian explosion

text: , and large animals appeared in the oceans. The Boring Billion was thus termed boring because unlike the rapidly changing environments present on Earth before and after this period, it is characterized by

text: climatic

text: stability, low levels of atmospheric oxygen, lack of

text: biological

text: events, and the absence of extreme changes in the

text: atmospheric

text: and

text: ocean

text: ic composition. Stability during the Boring Billion may be attributed to a relatively stable

text: supercontinent

text: that was initiated by 1.7 Ga and persisted until its breakup around 0.75 Ga. The exact timing and duration of the Boring Billion is not agreed upon by scientists and estimates for the beginning and end of the Boring Billion range between 1.8 and 2.4 Ga for initiation and between 0.5 and 0.8 Ga for termination. The Boring Billion occurred during the

text: Proterozoic

text: Eon.

text: Oxygen forms roughly 21% of the Earth's atmosphere; all of this oxygen is the result of photosynthesis. Pure oxygen has use in medical treatment of people who have respiratory difficulties. Excess oxygen is toxic.

text: Oxygen forms roughly 21% of the Earth's atmosphere; all of this oxygen is the result of photosynthesis. Pure oxygen has use in medical treatment of people who have respiratory difficulties.

text: Excess oxygen is toxic

text: Many different localities have been suggested to be underlain by mantle plumes, and scientists cannot agree on a definitive list. Some scientists suggest that several tens of plumes exist, whereas others suggest that there are none. The theory was really inspired by the Hawaiian volcano system. Hawaii is a large volcanic edifice in the center of the Pacific Ocean, far from any plate boundaries. Its regular, time-progressive chain of islands and seamounts superficially fits the plume theory well. However, it is almost unique on Earth, as nothing as extreme exists anywhere else. The second strongest candidate for a plume location is often quoted to be Iceland, but this lies on a spreading plate boundary, and its massive nature can be equally explained by a combination of plate tectonic forces.

text: The therapeutic consequences of HBOT and recompression result from multiple effects.The increased overall pressure is of therapeutic value in the treatment of decompression sickness and air embolism as it provides a physical means of reducing the volume of inert gas bubbles within the body; Exposure to this increased pressure is maintained for a period long enough to ensure that most of the bubble gas is dissolved back into the tissues, removed by perfusion and eliminated in the lungs.The improved concentration gradient for inert gas elimination (oxygen window) by using a high partial pressure of oxygen increases the rate of inert gas elimination in the treatment of decompression sickness.For many other conditions, the therapeutic principle of HBOT lies in its ability to drastically increase partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues of the body. The oxygen partial pressures achievable using HBOT are much higher than those achievable while breathing pure oxygen under normobaric conditions (i.e. at normal atmospheric pressure);A related effect is the increased oxygen transport capacity of the blood. Under normal atmospheric pressure, oxygen transport is limited by the oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin in red blood cells and very little oxygen is transported by blood plasma. Because the hemoglobin of the red blood cells is almost saturated with oxygen under atmospheric pressure, this route of transport cannot be exploited any further. Oxygen transport by plasma, however is significantly increased using HBOT as the stimulus.Recent evidence suggests that exposure to hyperbaric oxygen (HBOT) mobilizes stem/progenitor cells from the bone marrow by a nitric oxide (NO) -dependent mechanism. This mechanism may account for the patient cases that indicate recovery of damaged organs and tissues with HBOT.

text: The therapeutic consequences of HBOT and recompression result from multiple effects.The increased overall pressure is of therapeutic value in the treatment of

text: decompression sickness

text: and

text: air embolism

text: as it provides a physical means of reducing the volume of inert gas bubbles within the body; Exposure to this increased pressure is maintained for a period long enough to ensure that most of the bubble gas is dissolved back into the tissues, removed by perfusion and eliminated in the lungs.The improved concentration gradient for inert gas elimination (

text: oxygen window

text: ) by using a high partial pressure of oxygen increases the rate of inert gas elimination in the treatment of decompression sickness.For many other conditions, the therapeutic principle of HBOT lies in its ability to drastically increase

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen in the tissues of the body. The oxygen partial pressures achievable using HBOT are much higher than those achievable while breathing pure oxygen under

text: normobaric

text: conditions (i.e. at normal atmospheric pressure);A related effect is the increased oxygen transport capacity of the blood. Under normal atmospheric pressure, oxygen transport is limited by the oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin in

text: red blood cell

text: s and very little oxygen is transported by

text: blood plasma

text: . Because the

text: hemoglobin

text: of the red blood cells is almost saturated with oxygen under atmospheric pressure, this route of transport cannot be exploited any further. Oxygen transport by plasma, however is significantly increased using HBOT as the stimulus.Recent evidence suggests that exposure to hyperbaric oxygen (HBOT) mobilizes stem/progenitor cells from the bone marrow by a

text: nitric oxide

text: (NO) -dependent mechanism. This mechanism may account for the patient cases that indicate recovery of damaged organs and tissues with HBOT.

text: Finally, Inanna relents and changes her decree thereby restoring her husband Dumuzi to life; an arrangement is made by which Geshtinana will take Dumuzid's place in Kur for six months of the year: "You (Dumuzi), half the year. Your sister (Geštinanna), half the year!" This newly recovered final line upset Samuel Noah Kramer's former interpretation, as he allowed: "my conclusion that Dumuzi dies and "stays dead" forever (cf e.g. Mythologies of the Ancient World p. 10) was quite erroneous: Dumuzi according to the Sumerian mythographers rises from the dead annually and, after staying on earth for half the year, descends to the Nether World for the other half".

text: Finally, Inanna relents and changes her decree thereby restoring her husband Dumuzi to life; an arrangement is made by which Geshtinana will take Dumuzid's place in Kur for six months of the year: "You (Dumuzi), half the year. Your sister (Geštinanna), half the year!" This newly recovered final line upset

text: Samuel Noah Kramer

text: 's former interpretation, as he allowed: "my conclusion that Dumuzi dies and "stays dead" forever (cf e.g. Mythologies of the Ancient World p. 10) was quite erroneous: Dumuzi according to the Sumerian mythographers rises from the dead annually and, after staying on earth for half the year, descends to the Nether World for the other half".

text: Starting in the Paleozoic Era the supercontinent Pannotia began to break up, forming smaller continents including Laurentia (North America and Greenland), Gondwana, Baltica, and Siberia. At the same time sea levels were rising, which resulted in the flooding of most of the continents with shallow epicontinental seas. This was followed by three periods of extensive orogeny.

text: Starting in the

text: Paleozoic Era

text: the supercontinent

text: Pannotia

text: began to break up, forming smaller

text: continents

text: including

text: Laurentia

text: North America

text: and

text: Greenland

text: Gondwana

text: Baltica

text: , and

text: Siberia

text: . At the same time sea levels were rising, which resulted in the flooding of most of the continents with shallow

text: epicontinental seas

text: . This was followed by three periods of extensive

text: orogeny

text: The elements sodium and potassium have been detected in the Moon's atmosphere using Earth-based spectroscopic methods, whereas the isotopes radon-222 and polonium-210 have been inferred from data obtained by the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer. Argon-40, helium-4, oxygen and/or methane (), nitrogen () and/or carbon monoxide (), and carbon dioxide ()) were detected by in-situ detectors placed by the Apollo astronauts.

text: The elements sodium and potassium have been detected in the Moon's atmosphere using Earth-based

text: spectroscopic methods

text: , whereas the isotopes

text: radon

text: -222 and

text: polonium

text: -210 have been inferred from data obtained by the

text: Lunar Prospector

text: alpha particle

text: spectrometer

text: Argon

text: helium

text: oxygen

text: and/or

text: methane

text: nitrogen

text: () and/or

text: carbon monoxide

text: (), and

text: carbon dioxide

text: ()) were detected by in-situ detectors placed by the

text: Apollo

text: astronauts.

text: Taking the boat and sailing to northwest about 20 kilometers and arriving to the other end of Weishui Lake, you climb to a mountain very close to the lake and then you find the ancient caves which can bring you back to the early stages in the Earth’s life.

text: The Paleozoic spanned from roughly  (Ma) and is subdivided into six geologic periods; from oldest to youngest they are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area.

text: The Paleozoic spanned from roughly  (Ma) and is subdivided into six

text: geologic periods

text: ; from oldest to youngest they are the

text: Cambrian

text: Ordovician

text: Silurian

text: Devonian

text: Carboniferous

text: and

text: Permian

text: . Geologically, the

text: Paleozoic

text: starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called

text: Pannotia

text: and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called

text: Pangaea

text: As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke apart. They migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, , then finally Pangaea, which broke apart .

text: As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke apart. They

text: migrated across the surface

text: , occasionally combining to form a

text: supercontinent

text: . Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: Pannotia

text: , , then finally

text: Pangaea

text: , which broke apart .

text: As temperatures continue to rise, the last animal life will be driven back toward the poles, and possibly underground. They would become primarily active during the polar night, aestivating during the polar day due to the intense heat. Much of the surface would become a barren desert and life would primarily be found in the oceans. However, due to a decrease of the amount or organic matter coming to the oceans from the land as well as oxygen in the water, life would disappear there too following a similar path to that on Earth's surface. This process would start with the loss of freshwater species and conclude with invertebrates, particularly those that do not depend on living plants such as termites or those near hydrothermal vents such as worms of the genus Riftia. As a result of these processes, multi-cellular lifeforms may be extinct in about 800 million years, and eukaryotes in 1.3 billion years, leaving only the prokaryotes.

text: As temperatures continue to rise, the last animal life will be driven back toward the poles, and possibly underground. They would become primarily active during the

text: polar night

text: aestivating

text: during the

text: polar day

text: due to the intense heat. Much of the surface would become a barren desert and life would primarily be found in the oceans. However, due to a decrease of the amount or organic matter coming to the oceans from the land as well as oxygen in the water, life would disappear there too following a similar path to that on Earth's surface. This process would start with the loss of freshwater species and conclude with invertebrates, particularly those that do not depend on living plants such as

text: termite

text: s or those near

text: hydrothermal vents

text: such as

text: worm

text: s of the genus

text: Riftia

text: . As a result of these processes, multi-cellular lifeforms may be extinct in about 800 million years, and

text: eukaryote

text: s in 1.3 billion years, leaving only the

text: prokaryote

text: s.

text: There is broad absorption from water vapor from several hundred MHz, increasing in frequency to 40 GHz. Beginning at about 40 GHz, even dry atmosphere becomes less transparent to microwaves, at higher frequencies due to absorption from oxygen. A spectral band structure at even higher frequencies causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effect opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.

text: There is broad

text: absorption

text: from water vapor from several hundred MHz, increasing in frequency to 40 GHz. Beginning at about 40 GHz, even dry atmosphere becomes less transparent to microwaves, at higher frequencies due to absorption from oxygen. A spectral band structure at even higher frequencies causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effect

text: opaque

text: , until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called

text: infrared

text: and

text: optical window

text: frequency ranges.

text: In the Stargate fictional universe, the Ancients, also known as the Alterans and Lanteans, are the most advanced race known to have existed, having evolved millions of years prior to the present day and reaching their level of technology long before Human life evolved on Earth.

text: In the

text: Stargate

text: fictional universe

text: , the

text: Ancients

text: , also known as the Alterans and Lanteans, are the most advanced race known to have existed, having evolved millions of years prior to the present day and reaching their level of technology long before Human life evolved on Earth.

text: Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Homes accepted Wegener’s theory and provided a mechanism: mantle convection, to cause the continents to move.  However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 extremely exciting years where the Theory of Continental Drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern Geology. Beginning in 1947 research  found new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960 Bruce C. Heezen published the concept of mid-ocean ridges.Soon after this, Robert S. Dietz and Harry H. Hess proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in seafloor spreading. This was seen as confirmation of mantle convection and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that oceanic crust is younger than continental crust. This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of paleomagnetism, the record of the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist S. K. Runcorn suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth’s magnetic poles. Tuzo Wilson, who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of transform faults to the model, completing the classes of fault types necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift  was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965  must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community.The abstracts from the symposium are issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn;1965.In this symposium, Edward Bullard and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw Continental Drift as the generally accepted theory.

text: Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Homes accepted Wegener’s theory and provided a mechanism:

text: mantle convection

text: , to cause the continents to move.  However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 extremely exciting years where the Theory of Continental Drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern Geology. Beginning in 1947 research  found new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960

text: Bruce C. Heezen

text: published the concept of

text: mid-ocean ridges.

text: Soon after this,

text: Robert S. Dietz

text: and

text: Harry H. Hess

text: proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in

text: seafloor spreading

text: . This was seen as confirmation of

text: mantle convection

text: and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that

text: oceanic crust

text: is younger than

text: continental crust

text: . This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of

text: paleomagnetism

text: , the record of the orientation of the

text: Earth’s magnetic field

text: recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist

text: S. K. Runcorn

text: suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth’s magnetic poles.

text: Tuzo Wilson,

text: who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of

text: transform faults

text: to the model, completing the classes of

text: fault types

text: necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift  was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965  must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community.The abstracts from the symposium are issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn;1965.In this symposium,

text: Edward Bullard

text: and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw Continental Drift as the generally accepted theory.

text: Megatron recruits Orion Pax, who has no memory of the Autobot-Decepticon war, into the Decepticons and manipulates him into believing that the Autobots are evil. Jack and Arcee travel to Cybertron to find the legendary super-computer Vector Sigma, and the Autobots successfully restore Optimus's memories with the information stored inside it. With the departure of Starscream and Airachnid, and the murder of Breakdown, the Decepticons suffer a prolonged period of infighting as Megatron struggles to keep his troops in line. Having been convinced by the events of the first season finale that Megatron is beyond hope of redemption, Optimus has resolved to kill Megatron at any cost, a choice he still struggles with in the season. The main theme for the majority of the second season is the discovery of ancient relics and weaponry from Cybertron buried on Earth, with the Transformers fighting over each new discovery. Among the relics hidden on Earth are the four Omega Keys, which activate the Omega Lock, an ancient machine capable of making Cybertron habitable again. The Decepticons acquire all four keys when Starscream returns to Megatron's command, and plan to terraform Earth into a mechanical planet like Cybertron, which would kill all life on Earth. Optimus Prime destroys the Omega Lock to save Earth, but before its destruction the Lock creates a massive fortress in the Nevada desert, and the Decepticons destroy the Autobot base with Optimus still inside.

text: Megatron recruits Orion Pax, who has no memory of the Autobot-Decepticon war, into the Decepticons and manipulates him into believing that the Autobots are evil. Jack and Arcee travel to Cybertron to find the legendary super-computer Vector Sigma, and the Autobots successfully restore Optimus's memories with the information stored inside it. With the departure of Starscream and Airachnid, and the murder of Breakdown, the Decepticons suffer a prolonged period of infighting as Megatron struggles to keep his troops in line. Having been convinced by the events of the first season finale that Megatron is beyond hope of redemption, Optimus has resolved to kill Megatron at any cost, a choice he still struggles with in the season. The main theme for the majority of the second season is the discovery of

text: ancient relics and weaponry

text: from Cybertron buried on Earth, with the Transformers fighting over each new discovery. Among the relics hidden on Earth are the four Omega Keys, which activate the Omega Lock, an ancient machine capable of making Cybertron habitable again. The Decepticons acquire all four keys when Starscream returns to Megatron's command, and plan to

text: terraform

text: Earth into a mechanical planet like Cybertron, which would kill all life on Earth. Optimus Prime destroys the Omega Lock to save Earth, but before its destruction the Lock creates a massive fortress in the Nevada desert, and the Decepticons destroy the Autobot base with Optimus still inside.

text: From 1870 to 1880 it became clear that cell nuclei are never formed anew but always derived from the substance of another nucleus. In 1882 Flemming observed the longitudinal splitting of chromosomes in the dividing nucleus and concluded that each daughter nucleus received half of each of the chromosomes of the mother nucleus: then by the early 20th century it was found that the number of chromosomes in a given species is constant. With genetic continuity confirmed and the finding by Eduard Strasburger that the nuclei of reproductive cells (in pollen and embryo) have a reducing division (halving of chromosomes, now known as meiosis) the field of heredity was opened up. By 1926 Thomas Morgan was able to outline a theory of the gene and its structure and function. The form and function of plastids received similar attention, the association with starch being noted at an early date. With observation of the cellular structure of all organisms and the process of cell division and continuity of genetic material, the analysis of the structure of protoplasm and the cell wall as well as that of plastids and vacuoles – what is now known as cytology, or cell theory became firmly established.

text: From 1870 to 1880 it became clear that cell nuclei are never formed anew but always derived from the substance of another nucleus. In 1882 Flemming observed the longitudinal splitting of

text: chromosome

text: s in the dividing nucleus and concluded that each daughter nucleus received half of each of the chromosomes of the mother nucleus: then by the early 20th century it was found that the number of chromosomes in a given species is constant. With genetic continuity confirmed and the finding by

text: Eduard Strasburger

text: that the nuclei of reproductive cells (in pollen and embryo) have a reducing division (halving of chromosomes, now known as

text: meiosis

text: ) the field of heredity was opened up. By 1926

text: Thomas Morgan

text: was able to outline a theory of the

text: gene

text: and its structure and function. The form and function of plastids received similar attention, the association with starch being noted at an early date. With observation of the cellular structure of all organisms and the process of cell division and continuity of genetic material, the analysis of the structure of protoplasm and the cell wall as well as that of

text: plastid

text: s and

text: vacuole

text: s – what is now known as

text: cytology

text: , or

text: cell theory

text: became firmly established.

text: In biology organs are defined as confined functional units within an organism. The analogy of bodily organs to microscopic cellular substructures is obvious, as from even early works, authors of respective textbooks rarely elaborate on the distinction between the two.

text: In biology

text: organ

text: s are defined as confined functional units within an

text: organism

text: . The

text: analogy

text: of bodily organs to microscopic cellular substructures is obvious, as from even early works, authors of respective textbooks rarely elaborate on the distinction between the two.

text: DC Comics instituted its multiverse system in the early 1960s for organizing its continuity and introduced the Earth-Two Superman in Justice League of America #73 (August 1969). This retcon declared the Golden Age Superman and Lois Lane stories (i.e. comics published from 1938 through the early 1950s) as having taken place on the parallel world of "Earth-Two" versus the then mainstream (Silver Age) universe of "Earth-One". In Action Comics #484 (June 1978), a flashback story reveals Earth-Two's Lois became infatuated with Clark Kent after the latter lost his memory of his superheroic identity (thanks to a spell cast by the old Justice Society of America enemy, the Wizard), with the result of Clark acting more aggressive and extroverted. Clark and Lois began to date each other and were soon married. During the honeymoon, Lois discovered that Clark was indeed Superman, and after recruiting the aid of the Wizard, restored Clark's memory.

text: DC Comics instituted its

text: multiverse

text: system in the early 1960s for organizing its continuity and introduced the

text: Earth-Two Superman

text: in

text: Justice League of America

text: #73 (August 1969). This

text: retcon

text: declared the Golden Age Superman and Lois Lane stories (i.e. comics published from 1938 through the early 1950s) as having taken place on the parallel world of "

text: Earth-Two

text: " versus the then mainstream (

text: Silver Age

text: ) universe of "Earth-One". In Action Comics #484 (June 1978), a flashback story reveals Earth-Two's Lois became infatuated with Clark Kent after the latter lost his memory of his superheroic identity (thanks to a spell cast by the old

text: Justice Society of America

text: enemy,

text: the Wizard

text: ), with the result of Clark acting more aggressive and extroverted. Clark and Lois began to date each other and were soon married. During the honeymoon, Lois discovered that Clark was indeed Superman, and after recruiting the aid of the Wizard, restored Clark's memory.

text: The Miller–Urey experiment sought to recreate the early Earth atmosphere within a laboratory setting to determine the chemical processes that ultimately led to life on Earth.  The basis of this experiment was leveraged on Oparin's hypothesis, which assumed that some organic matter could be created from inorganic material given a reduction atmosphere.  Using a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen in glass tubes, Miller and Urey replicated the effects of lightning on the mixture using electrodes.  At the conclusion of the experiment, as much as 15 percent of the carbon from the mixture formed organic compounds, while 2 percent of the carbon formed amino acids, a necessary element for the building blocks of living organisms.

text: The Miller–Urey experiment sought to recreate the

text: early Earth

text: atmosphere within a laboratory setting to determine the chemical processes that ultimately led to life on Earth.  The basis of this experiment was leveraged on Oparin's hypothesis, which assumed that some organic matter could be created from inorganic material given a

text: reduction atmosphere

text: .  Using a mixture of water,

text: methane

text: ammonia

text: , and

text: hydrogen

text: in glass tubes, Miller and Urey replicated the effects of lightning on the mixture using

text: electrode

text: s.  At the conclusion of the experiment, as much as 15 percent of the carbon from the mixture formed organic compounds, while 2 percent of the carbon formed

text: amino acid

text: s, a necessary element for the building blocks of living organisms.

text: Paleontology in Maryland refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the U.S. state of Maryland. The invertebrate fossils of Maryland are similar to those of neighboring Delaware.For most of the early Paleozoic era, Maryland was covered by a shallow sea, although it was above sea level for portions of the Ordovician and Devonian. The ancient marine life of Maryland included brachiopods and bryozoans while horsetails and scale trees grew on land. By the end of the era, the sea had left the state completely. In the early Mesozoic, Pangaea was splitting up. The same geologic forces that divided the supercontinent formed massive lakes. Dinosaur footprints were preserved along their shores. During the Cretaceous, the state was home to dinosaurs. During the early part of the Cenozoic era, the state was alternatingly submerged by sea water or exposed. During the Ice Age, mastodons lived in the state.

text: Paleontology in Maryland refers to

text: paleontological

text: research occurring within or conducted by people from the

text: U.S.

text: state of

text: Maryland

text: . The

text: invertebrate

text: fossils of Maryland are similar to those of neighboring

text: Delaware

text: .For most of the early

text: Paleozoic era

text: , Maryland was covered by a shallow

text: sea

text: , although it was above sea level for portions of the

text: Ordovician

text: and

text: Devonian

text: . The ancient marine life of Maryland included

text: brachiopods

text: and

text: bryozoans

text: while

text: horsetails

text: and

text: scale trees

text: grew on land. By the end of the era, the sea had left the state completely. In the early

text: Mesozoic

text: Pangaea

text: was splitting up. The same geologic forces that divided the supercontinent formed massive

text: lake

text: s.

text: Dinosaur

text: footprints

text: were preserved along their shores. During the

text: Cretaceous

text: , the state was home to dinosaurs. During the early part of the

text: Cenozoic era

text: , the state was alternatingly submerged by sea water or exposed. During the

text: Ice Age

text: mastodons

text: lived in the state.

text: Bunostegos ("knobbly [skull] roof") is an extinct genus of pareiasaur parareptile from the Late Permian of the Agadez Region in Niger. The type species, Bunostegos akokanensis, was named from the Moradi Formation in 2003. It was a cow-sized animal with a distinctive skull that had large bony knobs, similar in form to those of other pareiasaurs but far larger. The species appears to have lived in a desert in the centre of the supercontinent of Pangaea.

text: Bunostegos ("knobbly [skull] roof") is an extinct

text: genus

text: of

text: pareiasaur

text: parareptile

text: from the

text: Late Permian

text: of the

text: Agadez Region

text: in

text: Niger

text: . The

text: type species

text: , Bunostegos akokanensis, was named from the

text: Moradi Formation

text: in 2003. It was a cow-sized animal with a distinctive skull that had large bony knobs, similar in form to those of other pareiasaurs but far larger. The species appears to have lived in a desert in the centre of the

text: supercontinent

text: of

text: Pangaea

text: Alness, Contin, Cullicudden, Dingwall, Kilchrist, Kilmuir (Easter), Kiltearn, Kincardine, Kirkmichael, Logie Methet ("Logie Easter"), Roskeen (with Nonakiln) also constituted prebends for the cathedral. By the early 14th century, the abbot of Kinloss was a permanent member of the Fortrose cathedral chapter on account of holding in perpetuity the rectorship of the parish of Avoch.

text: Alness

text: Contin

text: Cullicudden

text: Dingwall

text: Kilchrist

text: , Kilmuir (Easter),

text: Kiltearn

text: Kincardine

text: , Kirkmichael, Logie Methet ("Logie Easter"),

text: Roskeen

text: (with

text: Nonakiln

text: ) also constituted prebends for the cathedral. By the early 14th century, the

text: abbot of Kinloss

text: was a permanent member of the Fortrose cathedral chapter on account of holding in perpetuity the

text: rector

text: ship of the parish of

text: Avoch

text: Oxygenic photosynthesis in microbial mats would also have increased the free oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, both directly by emitting oxygen and because the mats emitted molecular hydrogen (H), some of which would have escaped from the Earth's atmosphere before it could re-combine with free oxygen to form more water. Microbial mats thus played a major role in the evolution of organisms  which could first tolerate free oxygen and then use it as an energy source. Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are not adapted to it, but greatly increases the metabolic efficiency of oxygen-adapted organisms — for example anaerobic fermentation produces a net yield of two molecules of adenosine triphosphate, cells' internal "fuel", per molecule of glucose, while aerobic respiration produces a net yield of 36. The oxygenation of the atmosphere was a prerequisite for the evolution of the more complex eukaryote type  of cell, from which all multicellular organisms are built.

text: Oxygenic photosynthesis in microbial mats would also have increased the free oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, both directly by emitting oxygen and because the mats emitted molecular hydrogen (H), some of which would have escaped from the Earth's atmosphere before it could re-combine with free oxygen to form more water. Microbial mats thus played a major role in the evolution of organisms  which could first tolerate free oxygen and then use it as an energy source. Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are not adapted to it, but greatly increases the metabolic efficiency of oxygen-adapted organisms — for example anaerobic

text: fermentation

text: produces a net yield of two

text: molecule

text: s of

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: , cells' internal "fuel", per molecule of

text: glucose

text: , while

text: aerobic respiration

text: produces a net yield of 36. The

text: oxygenation of the atmosphere

text: was a prerequisite for the evolution of the more complex

text: eukaryote

text: type  of cell, from which all

text: multicellular

text: organisms are built.

text: In the Stargate television series, Earth (designation: P2X-3YZ) is described as one of countless inhabited worlds, and is revealed to be the original home world of humans all over the galaxy. In ancient history many groups of humans were kidnapped and enslaved by powerful alien races, primarily the Goa'uld. Others remained to form present day Earth societies, which interact covertly with other extraterrestrial races and civilizations, many of them human. Earth first became important in the scene after the Alterans occupied it as their new capital (its name was Terra at that point). When they were forced to relocate to Lantea in the Pegasus galaxy (several million years ago), they "seeded" the planet with a less advanced form of themselves. Eventually, the Goa'uld found the planet and determined that the human body is the ultimate host body for their parasitic race. Many humans were kidnapped through the Stargate the Supreme System Lord Ra brought to Earth (Earth already had its own Stargate in Antarctica but it was inoperable) but the leftover population wasn't touched; they eventually rebelled and drove the Goa'uld off the planet in 3000 BC. About 8000 BC, the Lantean remnants returned to the planet but the primitive civilization extinguished their last hope of rebuilding their once great civilization due to the presence of the Goa'uld; as such, the Ancients slowly died out or Ascended since their numbers were too small to survive, even by crossbreeding with regular humans.

text: In the

text: Stargate

text: television series, Earth (designation: P2X-3YZ) is described as one of countless inhabited worlds, and is revealed to be the original home world of humans all over the galaxy. In ancient history many groups of humans were kidnapped and enslaved by powerful alien races, primarily the

text: Goa'uld

text: . Others remained to form present day Earth societies, which interact covertly with other extraterrestrial races and civilizations, many of them human. Earth first became important in the scene after the Alterans occupied it as their new capital (its name was Terra at that point). When they were forced to relocate to Lantea in the Pegasus galaxy (several million years ago), they "seeded" the planet with a less advanced form of themselves. Eventually, the Goa'uld found the planet and determined that the human body is the ultimate host body for their parasitic race. Many humans were kidnapped through the Stargate the Supreme System Lord

text: Ra

text: brought to Earth (Earth already had its own Stargate in Antarctica but it was inoperable) but the leftover population wasn't touched; they eventually rebelled and drove the Goa'uld off the planet in 3000 BC. About 8000 BC, the Lantean remnants returned to the planet but the primitive civilization extinguished their last hope of rebuilding their once great civilization due to the presence of the Goa'uld; as such, the Ancients slowly died out or

text: Ascended

text: since their numbers were too small to survive, even by crossbreeding with regular humans.

text: Venezuela truly opened itself to Russia in the 20th century. In the early years, labor migrants began arriving in the country, and after the 1917 Revolution, political exiles from Russia – both monarchists and Kadets – began to appear. Later on, several families of Russian emigrants from China relocated to Venezuela. Until the middle of the 20th century, however, an organized colony of Russians living in Venezuela did not exist. Despite this lack of organization, the strong Russian footprint on the cultural life of Venezuela in the early 20th century was owed to the Russian artist Nikolai Ferdinandov. El Ruso, as he was called by Venezuelans.

text: Venezuela

text: truly opened itself to

text: Russia

text: in the 20th century. In the early years, labor migrants began arriving in the country, and after the

text: 1917 Revolution

text: , political exiles from Russia – both

text: monarchists

text: and Kadets – began to appear. Later on, several families of Russian emigrants from China relocated to Venezuela. Until the middle of the 20th century, however, an organized colony of Russians living in Venezuela did not exist. Despite this lack of organization, the strong Russian footprint on the cultural life of Venezuela in the early 20th century was owed to the Russian artist

text: Nikolai Ferdinandov

text: . El Ruso, as he was called by Venezuelans.

text: "Nytva" can mean green water in the Komi-Permyak language and silt water in the Mansi language.

text: "Nytva" can mean green water in the

text: Komi-Permyak language

text: and silt water in the

text: Mansi language

text: The corps was a part of the:

text: The corps was a part of the:

text: The purpose of radio resource management is to satisfy the data rates that are requested by the users of a cellular network. The main resources are time intervals, frequency blocks, and transmit powers. Each user has its own objective function that, for example, can represent some combination of the data rate, latency, and energy efficiency. These objectives are conflicting since the frequency resources are very scarce, thus there is a need for tight spatial frequency reuse which causes immense inter-user interference if not properly controlled. Multi-user MIMO techniques are nowadays used to reduce the interference by adaptive precoding. The network operator would like to both bring great coverage and high data rates, thus the operator would like to find a Pareto optimal solution that balance the total network data throughput and the user fairness in an appropriate subjective manner.

text: The purpose of

text: radio resource management

text: is to satisfy the data rates that are requested by the users of a cellular network. The main resources are time intervals, frequency blocks, and transmit powers. Each user has its own objective function that, for example, can represent some combination of the data rate, latency, and energy efficiency. These objectives are conflicting since the frequency resources are very scarce, thus there is a need for tight spatial

text: frequency reuse

text: which causes immense inter-user interference if not properly controlled.

text: Multi-user MIMO

text: techniques are nowadays used to reduce the interference by adaptive

text: precoding

text: . The network operator would like to both bring great coverage and high data rates, thus the operator would like to find a Pareto optimal solution that balance the total network data throughput and the user fairness in an appropriate subjective manner.

text: The Ancients are the original builders of the Stargate network, who by the time of Stargate SG-1 have ascended beyond corporeal form into a higher plane of existence. The humans of Earth are the "second evolution" of the Ancients. The Ancients (originally known as the Alterans) colonized the Milky Way galaxy millions of years ago and built a great empire. They also colonized the Pegasus galaxy and seeded human life there before being driven out by the Wraith. The civilization of the Ancients in the Milky Way was decimated thousands of years ago by a plague and those who did not learn to ascend died out. With few exceptions the ascended Ancients respect free will and refuse to interfere in the affairs of the material galaxy. However their legacy is felt profoundly throughout the Stargate universe, from their technologies such as Stargates and Atlantis to the Ancient Technology Activation gene that they introduced into the human genome through interbreeding.

text: The Ancients are the original builders of the

text: Stargate

text: network, who by the time of Stargate SG-1 have

text: ascended

text: beyond corporeal form into a higher plane of existence. The humans of Earth are the "second evolution" of the Ancients. The Ancients (originally known as the Alterans) colonized the Milky Way galaxy millions of years ago and built a great empire. They also colonized the Pegasus galaxy and seeded human life there before being driven out by the

text: Wraith

text: . The civilization of the Ancients in the Milky Way was decimated thousands of years ago by a plague and those who did not learn to ascend died out. With few exceptions the ascended Ancients respect free will and refuse to interfere in the affairs of the material galaxy. However their legacy is felt profoundly throughout the Stargate universe, from their technologies such as Stargates and

text: Atlantis

text: to the

text: Ancient Technology Activation gene

text: that they introduced into the human genome through interbreeding.

text: After hostilities ceased, Nyanza decommissioned at New Orleans, Louisiana on 21 July 1865 and was sold at public auction to Owen Finnegan 12 August 1865.

text: After hostilities ceased, Nyanza decommissioned at

text: New Orleans, Louisiana

text: on 21 July 1865 and was sold at

text: public auction

text: to Owen Finnegan 12 August 1865.

text: Coaching, mentoring, and self-mentoring have parallel, yet exclusive characteristics. Each system or combination of systems has value for establishments. An organization is a living, breathing, and ever-changing system of interlocked subcultures. Individuals immersed in a new environment require skills to navigate through what can be treacherous waters. (Schein, 2010)  This system is a network of interdependent components that work together to accomplish the goals of an organization (Lezotte & McKee, 2002), and individuals must grasp the system they are surrounded by in order to perform appropriately in it. They must identify explicit or implied expectations from the environment. This can be challenging for even the most experienced. Coaching, mentoring, and self-mentoring support individuals navigating within this environment, while each has a unique approach that must be aligned with the needs of the individual and the organization. Central to all three of these practices is the idea of self-development (Huang & Lynch, 1995). Each practice advocates for the personal and/or professional development of an individual.

text: Coaching

text: mentoring

text: , and self-mentoring have parallel, yet exclusive characteristics. Each system or combination of systems has value for establishments. An organization is a living, breathing, and ever-changing system of interlocked subcultures. Individuals immersed in a new environment require skills to navigate through what can be treacherous waters. (Schein, 2010)  This system is a network of interdependent components that work together to accomplish the goals of an organization (Lezotte & McKee, 2002), and individuals must grasp the system they are surrounded by in order to perform appropriately in it. They must identify explicit or implied expectations from the environment. This can be challenging for even the most experienced. Coaching, mentoring, and self-mentoring support individuals navigating within this environment, while each has a unique approach that must be aligned with the needs of the individual and the organization. Central to all three of these practices is the idea of self-development (Huang & Lynch, 1995). Each practice advocates for the personal and/or professional development of an individual.

text: Endogenic hypotheses include the possibility of a very early plate tectonic phase.  Such a scenario suggests that the northern hemispheric crust is a relic oceanic plate. In the preferred reconstruction, a spreading center extended north of Cimmeria Terra between Daedalia Planum and Isidis Planitia (Fig. 4). As spreading progressed, the Boreal plate broke into the Acidalia plate with south-dipping subducting beneath Arabia Terra, and the Ulysses plate with east-dipping subducting beneath Tempe Terra and Tharsis Montes. According to this reconstruction, the northern plains would have been generated by a single spreading ride, with Tharsis Montes qualifying as an island arc.  However, subsequent investigations of this model show a general lack of evidence for tectonism and volcanism in areas where such activity was initially predicted.

text: Cordemoy is also known for his Histoire de France on which he worked for 18 years without ever seeing the end, so major were the contradictions he came up against while consulting the works of his predecessors. The work was finally finished by his elder son, Louis-Géraud de Cordemoy, and published after his death. Voltaire said of the work of Cordemoy as a historian : “He was the first to be able to disentangle the chaos of the two first races of the kings of France; thanks to the duke of Montausier who charged Cordemoy with the writing of the history of Charlemagne in view of the education of Monseigneur [the Dauphin], that useful work was achieved. He found in ancient authors nothing but absurdities and contradictions. That very difficulty encouraged him, and enabled him to disentangle the two first races”.

text: Cordemoy is also known for his Histoire de France on which he worked for 18 years without ever seeing the end, so major were the contradictions he came up against while consulting the works of his predecessors. The work was finally finished by his elder son, Louis-Géraud de Cordemoy, and published after his death.

text: Voltaire

text: said of the work of Cordemoy as a historian : “He was the first to be able to disentangle the chaos of the two first races of the kings of

text: France

text: ; thanks to the

entity_name: Charles de Sainte-Maure, duc de Montausier

text: duke of Montausier

text: who charged Cordemoy with the writing of the history of

text: Charlemagne

text: in view of the education of Monseigneur [the Dauphin], that useful work was achieved. He found in ancient authors nothing but absurdities and contradictions. That very difficulty encouraged him, and enabled him to disentangle the two first races”.

text: Mirovia or Mirovoi (from Russian мировой, mirovoy, meaning "global") was a hypothesized superocean which may have been a global ocean surrounding the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era, about 1 billion to 750 million years ago. Mirovia may be essentially identical to, or the precursor of, the hypothesized Pan-African Ocean, which followed the rifting of Rodinia. The Panthalassa (proto-Pacific) Ocean developed in the Neoproterozoic Era by subduction at the expense of the global Mirovia ocean.

text: Mirovia or Mirovoi (from

text: Russian

text: мировой, mirovoy, meaning "global") was a

text: hypothesized

text: superocean

text: which may have been a global

text: ocean

text: surrounding the

text: supercontinent

text: Rodinia

text: in the

text: Neoproterozoic Era

text: , about 1 billion to 750 million years ago. Mirovia may be essentially identical to, or the precursor of, the hypothesized

text: Pan-African Ocean

text: , which followed the

text: rift

text: ing of Rodinia. The

text: Panthalassa

text: (proto-

text: Pacific

text: ) Ocean developed in the Neoproterozoic Era by

text: subduction

text: at the expense of the global Mirovia ocean.

text: The Great Spavaldos toured internationally, and currently exists in three languages, with the Dutch version co-produced with DeSpill, Belgium.

text: When completed,

text: When completed,

text: Going Blind is in educational distribution. An evaluation report of the film's effectiveness and an outreach toolkit on how organizations can best use the film can be downloaded from the homepage of the website as well. Going Blind is also available for streaming and downloading at Amazon.com.The film has been financed through grants from The Readers Digest Partners for Sight Foundation, Pfizer Ophthalmics, The National Institutes of Health and others.The film was released to limited theatres on October 8, 2010.

text: Going Blind is in educational distribution. An evaluation report of the film's effectiveness and an outreach toolkit on how organizations can best use the film can be downloaded from the homepage of the website as well. Going Blind is also available for streaming and downloading at Amazon.com.The film has been financed through grants from The

text: Readers Digest

text: Partners for Sight Foundation,

text: Pfizer

text: Ophthalmics, The

text: National Institutes of Health

text: and others.The film was released to limited theatres on October 8, 2010.

text: Glasersfeld considers an "invariant" as a target to be homed in upon, and a pragmatic necessity to allow an initial measure of understanding to be established prior to the updating that a statement aims to achieve. The invariant does not and need not represent an actuality, and Glasersfeld describes it as extremely unlikely that what is desired or feared by an organism will never suffer change as time goes on. This social constructionist theory thus allows for a needful evolutionary adjustment.

text: Glasersfeld considers an "invariant" as a target to be homed in upon, and a pragmatic necessity to allow an initial measure of understanding to be established prior to the updating that a statement aims to achieve. The invariant does not and need not represent an actuality, and Glasersfeld describes it as extremely unlikely that what is desired or

text: fear

text: ed by an organism will never suffer change as time goes on. This

text: social constructionist

text: theory thus allows for a needful evolutionary adjustment.

text: In 1932, Hal Ware was active in the Farmers Holiday Association on behalf of the Communist Party.

text: In 1932, Hal Ware was active in the

text: Farmers Holiday Association

text: on behalf of the Communist Party.

text: Francis Hoyt was born in Lyndon, Vermont, on November 5, 1822. He was the son of Lucinda Hoyt (née Freeman) and Benjamin Ray Hoyt (1789–1872). His father was a minister and a founder of Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. The younger Hoyt's early education came at Newbury Seminary in Vermont before he attended Wesleyan where he graduated in 1844. Hoyt then served as the principal at Newbury. On December 24, 1848, he married Phebe M. Dyar, and they had six children.

text: Francis Hoyt was born in

text: Lyndon, Vermont

text: , on November 5, 1822. He was the son of Lucinda Hoyt (née Freeman) and Benjamin Ray Hoyt (1789–1872). His father was a minister and a founder of

text: Wesleyan University

text: in

text: Middletown, Connecticut

text: . The younger Hoyt's early education came at

text: Newbury Seminary

text: in

text: Vermont

text: before he attended Wesleyan where he graduated in 1844. Hoyt then served as the principal at Newbury. On December 24, 1848, he married Phebe M. Dyar, and they had six children.

text: Per internal Starway sources who have requested anonymity as they are not officially authorized to release information, a new Skippers mobile location will be hitting the road in July 2013.  Starway has not confirmed or denied this and the exact details of "when" and "where" remain to be confirmed.

text: Alpha Librae, called Zubenelgenubi, is a multiple star system divisible into two stars when seen through binoculars, The primary (Alpha Librae) is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.7 and the secondary (Alpha Librae) is a white star of magnitude 5.2 and spectral type F3V that is 74.9 ± 0.7 light-years from Earth.  Its traditional name means "the southern claw". Zubeneschamali (Beta Librae) is the corresponding "northern claw" to Zubenelgenubi. The brightest star in Libra, it is a green-tinged star of magnitude 2.6, 160 light-years from Earth. Gamma Librae is called Zubenelakrab, which means "the scorpion's claw", completing the suite of names referring to Libra's archaic status. It is an orange giant of magnitude 3.9, 152 light-years from Earth.

text: Alpha Librae

text: , called Zubenelgenubi, is a multiple star system divisible into two stars when seen through binoculars, The primary (Alpha Librae) is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.7 and the secondary (Alpha Librae) is a white star of magnitude 5.2 and spectral type F3V that is 74.9 ± 0.7 light-years from Earth.  Its traditional name means "the southern claw". Zubeneschamali (

text: Beta Librae

text: ) is the corresponding "northern claw" to Zubenelgenubi. The brightest star in Libra, it is a green-tinged star of magnitude 2.6, 160 light-years from Earth.

text: Gamma Librae

text: is called Zubenelakrab, which means "the scorpion's claw", completing the suite of names referring to Libra's archaic status. It is an

text: orange giant

text: of magnitude 3.9, 152 light-years from Earth.

text: Peter John Wyllie (b. 8 February 1930, London, England) is a British petrologist who was Professor of Geology at the California Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1999. Prior to this, he held positions at the University of St Andrews (1955–56), Pennsylvania State University (1958–59 and 1961–66), the University of Leeds (1959–61), and the University of Chicago (1965–83). He is well known for his many contributions to the understanding of magmatism, particularly through his work on the experimental petrology of magmas and volatiles. In the early 1970s, Wyllie wrote two widely used textbooks; The Dynamic Earth (1971) and The Way the Earth Works (1976) which integrated the new understanding of magmatism and plate tectonics. He is also famous for his contributions to the coverage of earth sciences in the Encyclopædia Britannica, particularly his outline of the field in Part Two of the Propædia.

text: Peter John Wyllie (b. 8 February 1930, London, England) is a British

text: petrologist

text: who was Professor of Geology at the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: from 1983 until his retirement in 1999. Prior to this, he held positions at the

text: University of St Andrews

text: Pennsylvania State University

text: (1958–59 and 1961–66), the

text: University of Leeds

text: (1959–61), and the

text: University of Chicago

text: (1965–83). He is well known for his many contributions to the understanding of

text: magmatism

text: , particularly through his work on the experimental petrology of

text: magmas

text: and volatiles. In the early 1970s, Wyllie wrote two widely used textbooks; The Dynamic Earth (1971) and The Way the Earth Works (1976) which integrated the new understanding of magmatism and

text: plate tectonics

text: . He is also famous for his contributions to the coverage of

text: earth science

text: s in the

text: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: , particularly his outline of the field in Part Two of the

text: Propædia

text: The MEC application server can be deployed at the macro base station EnodeB that is part of an LTE cellular network, or at the Radio Network Controller (RNC) that is part of a 3G cellular network and at a multi-technology cell aggregation site. The multi-technology cell aggregation site can be located indoors or outdoors.

text: The MEC application server can be deployed at the macro base station

text: EnodeB

text: that is part of an

text: LTE

text: cellular network, or at the

text: Radio Network Controller

text: (RNC) that is part of a

text: cellular network and at a multi-technology cell aggregation site. The multi-technology cell aggregation site can be located indoors or outdoors.

text: Clay Shirky has long been interested in and published works concerning the Internet and its impact on society.  He currently works at New York University, where he "has been making the case that the Internet is an inherently participatory and social medium".

text: Clay Shirky

text: has long been interested in and published works concerning the Internet and its impact on society.  He currently works at

text: New York University

text: , where he "has been making the case that the Internet is an inherently participatory and social medium".

text: This is evidenced by unmixed bootleg videos from two of the Auburn Hills concerts. The band has been very secretive about having side keyboard players on possibly many of their tours through the 1980s and early 1990s. Kiss fans are no stranger to the fact that some of Alive! and Alive II had certain parts doctored in the studio, and that some of the songs are not even recorded live in concert, but rather at Electric Lady Studios with Eddie Kramer.

text: This is evidenced by unmixed bootleg videos from two of the Auburn Hills concerts. The band has been very secretive about having side keyboard players on possibly many of their tours through the 1980s and early 1990s. Kiss fans are no stranger to the fact that some of

text: Alive!

text: and Alive II had certain parts doctored in the studio, and that some of the songs are not even recorded live in concert, but rather at

text: Electric Lady Studios

text: with

text: Eddie Kramer

text: It is narrated by Russ Harris, Later episodes narrated by Greg O'neil and is produced by Bullseye Productions.  Its producer is Phil Ward.  Hot Pursuit's running time is 30 minutes.

text: While most investigations of extraterrestrial life start with the assumption that advanced life-forms must have similar requirements for life as on Earth, the hypothesis of other types of biochemistry suggests the possibility of lifeforms evolving around a different metabolic mechanism. In Evolving the Alien, biologist Jack Cohen and mathematician Ian Stewart argue astrobiology, based on the Rare Earth hypothesis, is restrictive and unimaginative. They suggest that Earth-like planets may be very rare, but non-carbon-based complex life could possibly emerge in other environments. The most frequently mentioned alternative to carbon is silicon-based life, while ammonia and hydrocarbons are sometimes suggested as alternative solvents to water. The astrobiologist Dirk Schulze-Makuch and other scientists have proposed a Planet Habitability Index whose criteria include "potential for holding a liquid solvent" that is not necessarily restricted to water.

text: While most investigations of extraterrestrial life start with the assumption that advanced life-forms must have similar requirements for life as on Earth, the hypothesis of

text: other types of biochemistry

text: suggests the possibility of lifeforms evolving around a different metabolic mechanism. In

text: Evolving the Alien

text: biologist

text: Jack Cohen

text: and

text: mathematician

text: Ian Stewart

text: argue

text: astrobiology

text: , based on the

text: Rare Earth hypothesis

text: , is restrictive and unimaginative. They suggest that

text: Earth-like planets

text: may be very rare, but non-carbon-based complex life could possibly emerge in other environments. The most frequently mentioned alternative to carbon is

text: silicon-based life

text: , while

text: ammonia

text: and

text: hydrocarbons

text: are sometimes suggested as

text: alternative solvents

text: to water. The astrobiologist

text: Dirk Schulze-Makuch

text: and other scientists have proposed a Planet Habitability Index whose criteria include "potential for holding a liquid solvent" that is not necessarily restricted to water.

text: Fishing permits (for salmon fishing) are sold for use on specific rivers, including Årøy-elva.

text: Fishing permit

text: s (for salmon fishing) are sold for use on specific rivers, including Årøy-elva.

text: In 1998 Lesh underwent a liver transplant as a result of chronic hepatitis C infection; since then, he has become an outspoken advocate for organ donor programs and when performing regularly encourages members of the audience to become organ donors (tracks identified as the "donor rap" on the live recordings of his various performances).

text: In 1998 Lesh underwent a

text: liver transplant

text: as a result of chronic

text: hepatitis C

text: infection; since then, he has become an outspoken advocate for

text: organ donor

text: programs and when performing regularly encourages members of the audience to become organ donors (tracks identified as the "donor rap" on the live recordings of his various performances).

text: Given the enormous physical difficulties which the surveyors faced in the task, their survey of the Queensland-South Australian border was impressive. Today, Global Positioning Systems (or GPS) are used pinpoint place by longitude and latitude more accurately, and now it is known that the intended corner between Queensland and South Australia at 26 degrees S 141 degrees E was not completely achieved. However, The Queensland Boundaries Declaratory Act 1982 confirmed "that each land boundary of the State ... as ... defined in the Letters Patent ... by reference to a parallel of latitude or a meridian of longitude is and always has been the boundary ... permanently fixed by marking it upon on the surface of the earth before 1900...". Also the movement of tectonic plates on the earth means that the longitude and latitude of any place on earth may change slowly over time.

text: Given the enormous physical difficulties which the surveyors faced in the task, their survey of the Queensland-South Australian border was impressive. Today,

text: Global Positioning Systems

text: (or GPS) are used pinpoint place by longitude and latitude more accurately, and now it is known that the intended corner between Queensland and South Australia at 26 degrees S 141 degrees E was not completely achieved. However, The Queensland Boundaries Declaratory Act 1982 confirmed "that each land boundary of the State ... as ... defined in the Letters Patent ... by reference to a parallel of latitude or a meridian of longitude is and always has been the boundary ... permanently fixed by marking it upon on the surface of the earth before 1900...". Also the movement of

text: tectonic plates

text: on the earth means that the longitude and latitude of any place on earth may change slowly over time.

text: All cells in multicellular organisms are derived from a pluripotent zygote and contain the same genetic material (with a few exceptions). However, they are capable of recording a history of their development within the organism leading to their specialized functions and limitations. Cells often employ epigenetic processes that affect DNA-protein interactions to record this cellular memory in the form of mitotically stable changes of the genetic material without a change in the DNA sequence itself. This is typically achieved via changes of the chromatin structure. Examples are methylation patterns of the DNA molecule itself and proteins involved in packaging DNA, such as histones (also referred to as "histone code").

text: All cells in multicellular organisms are derived from a

text: pluripotent

text: zygote

text: and contain the same genetic material (with a few exceptions). However, they are capable of recording a history of their development within the organism leading to their specialized functions and limitations. Cells often employ

text: epigenetic

text: processes that affect DNA-protein interactions to record this cellular memory in the form of

text: mitotically

text: stable changes of the genetic material without a change in the

text: DNA

text: sequence itself. This is typically achieved via changes of the

text: chromatin

text: structure. Examples are

text: methylation

text: patterns of the DNA molecule itself and proteins involved in packaging DNA, such as

text: histone

text: s (also referred to as "histone code").

text: Early models of rocky exoplanets scaled different factors (namely mantle viscosity, lithospheric yield strength, and planetary size) up and down to predict the geodynamic regime of an exoplanet with given parameters. Two scaling studies of exoplanet size published in 2007 came to fundamentally different conclusions: O’Neill and Lenardic (2007) showed that a planet of 1.1 Earth mass would have Earth-like lithospheric yield stress but reduced mantle driving stresses, resulting in a stagnant lid regime. Conversely, Valencia et al. (2007) concluded the increase in mantle velocity (driving force) is large compared to the gravitationally-forced increase of plate viscosity as planets increase beyond one Earth mass, increasing the likelihood of plate tectonics with planet size.

text: Early models of rocky exoplanets scaled different factors (namely mantle viscosity, lithospheric yield strength, and planetary size) up and down to predict the geodynamic regime of an exoplanet with given parameters. Two scaling studies of exoplanet size published in 2007 came to fundamentally different conclusions: O’Neill and Lenardic (2007) showed that a planet of 1.1

text: Earth mass

text: would have Earth-like lithospheric yield stress but reduced mantle driving stresses, resulting in a stagnant lid regime. Conversely, Valencia et al. (2007) concluded the increase in mantle velocity (driving force) is large compared to the gravitationally-forced increase of plate viscosity as planets increase beyond one Earth mass, increasing the likelihood of plate tectonics with planet size.

text: SLT voltages : > +2.08V is up, < 0.90 V is down.

text: Described as a "stirring anthem to animism", this song is Pocahontas' exhortation to Captain John Smith about the wonders of the earth and nature, including the spirit within all living things, encouraging him not to think of them as things he can conquer or own, but rather as beings to respect and live with in harmony. She also urges him to accept humans who are different in appearance and culture and to learn from them.

text: Described as a "stirring anthem to

text: animism

text: ", this song is Pocahontas' exhortation to

text: Captain John Smith

text: about the wonders of the earth and nature, including the

text: spirit

text: within all living things, encouraging him not to think of them as things he can conquer or own, but rather as beings to respect and live with in harmony. She also urges him to accept humans who are different in appearance and culture and to learn from them.

text: Article 77 of the Constitution of France and the Organic Law 99-209 confers a unique status of New Caledonia between that of an independent country and a regular collectivité d'outre-mer or overseas collectivité of France. A territorial congress and government have been established, and the 1998 Nouméa Accord organized a devolution of powers. Key areas such as taxation, labor law, health and hygiene and foreign trade are already in the hands of the Congress. Further powers will supposedly be given to the Congress in the near future.

text: Article 77 of the

text: Constitution of France

text: and the

text: Organic Law

text: 99-209 confers a unique status of New Caledonia between that of an independent country and a regular

text: collectivité d'outre-mer

text: or overseas collectivité of France. A territorial congress and government have been established, and the 1998

text: Nouméa Accord

text: organized a devolution of powers. Key areas such as taxation, labor law, health and hygiene and foreign trade are already in the hands of the Congress. Further powers will supposedly be given to the Congress in the near future.

text: 5 Dollars.

text: 5 Dollars.

text: With the development of plate tectonic theory, geologists thought that convergent plate margins were zones of compression, thus zones of strong extension above subduction zones (back-arc basins) were not expected. The hypothesis that some convergent plate margins were actively spreading was developed by Dan Karig (1970) while a graduate student at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. This resulted from several marine geologic expeditions to the Western Pacific.

text: With the development of

text: plate tectonic

text: theory, geologists thought that convergent plate margins were zones of compression, thus zones of strong extension above subduction zones (back-arc basins) were not expected. The hypothesis that some convergent plate margins were actively spreading was developed by Dan Karig (1970) while a graduate student at the

text: Scripps Institution of Oceanography

text: . This resulted from several marine geologic expeditions to the Western Pacific.

text: According to Plebiscito.eu, the self-proclaimed "Venetian Republic" has two "legitimate organs": the "Delegation of Ten", comprising the aforementioned elects, and the "Treasury". The latter was established with the self-styled "Decree 2/2014 of the Venetian Republic", issued by the Delegation of Ten on 22 April, and was initially composed by Cristiano Zanin (treasurer), Stefano Venturato (counselor), Gianfranco Favaro (counselor) and Lodovico Pizzati (consultant).

text: According to Plebiscito.eu, the self-proclaimed "Venetian Republic" has two "legitimate organs": the "Delegation of Ten", comprising the aforementioned elects, and the "Treasury". The latter was established with the self-styled "Decree 2/2014 of the Venetian Republic", issued by the Delegation of Ten on 22 April, and was initially composed by

text: Cristiano Zanin

text: (treasurer),

text: Stefano Venturato

text: (counselor),

text: Gianfranco Favaro

text: (counselor) and

text: Lodovico Pizzati

text: (consultant).

text: Earth's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%). The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232. At the center, the temperature may be up to , and the pressure could reach 360 GPa. Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately , twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today.

text: Earth's

text: internal heat

text: planetary accretion

text: (about 20%) and heat produced through

text: radioactive decay

text: (80%). The major heat-producing

text: isotope

text: s within Earth are

text: , and

text: . At the center, the temperature may be up to , and the pressure could reach 360

text: GPa

text: . Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately , twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of

text: mantle convection

text: and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as

text: komatiites

text: that are rarely formed today.

text: Davies was named CBE in 1996 and created a life peer as Baron Davies of Coity, of Penybont in the County of Mid Glamorgan in 1997.

text: Davies was named

text: CBE

text: in 1996 and created a

text: life peer

text: as Baron Davies of Coity, of Penybont in the County of

text: Mid Glamorgan

text: in 1997.

text: In the United States, the dance shows So You Think You Can Dance and America's Best Dance Crew arguably presented b-boying back to the forefront of America's pop culture, similar to the popularity it had in the 80s. B-boying is widely referenced in TV advertising, as well as news, travelogue, and documentary segments, as an indicator of youth/street culture. From a production point of view the style is visually arresting, instantly recognizable and adducible to fast-editing, while the ethos is multi-ethnic, energetic and edgy, but free from the gangster-laden overtones of much rap-culture imagery. Its usability as a visual cliché benefits sponsorship, despite the relatively small following of the genre itself beyond the circle of its practitioners. In 2005, a Volkswagen Golf GTi commercial featured a partly CGI version of Gene Kelly popping and b-boying to a remix of "Singin' in the Rain", by Mint Royale. The tagline was, "The original, updated."

text: In the United States, the dance shows

text: So You Think You Can Dance

text: and

text: America's Best Dance Crew

text: arguably presented b-boying back to the forefront of America's pop culture, similar to the popularity it had in the 80s. B-boying is widely referenced in TV advertising, as well as news, travelogue, and documentary segments, as an indicator of youth/street culture. From a production point of view the style is visually arresting, instantly recognizable and adducible to fast-editing, while the ethos is multi-ethnic, energetic and edgy, but free from the gangster-laden overtones of much rap-culture imagery. Its usability as a visual cliché benefits sponsorship, despite the relatively small following of the genre itself beyond the circle of its practitioners. In 2005, a

text: Volkswagen Golf GTi

text: commercial featured a partly

text: CGI

text: version of Gene Kelly popping and b-boying to a remix of "

text: Singin' in the Rain

text: ", by

text: Mint Royale

text: . The tagline was, "The original, updated."

text: Tanenbaum studied at the Warsaw University. Since 1935 he was member of the Jewish Socialist Youth organization "Frajhajt" (part of Poale Zion). After the outbreak of World War II and German occupation of Poland Tenenbaum became a member of the Anti-Fascist Bloc. He organized the resistance against the Germans in Wilno and Warsaw. As member of the Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa he was sent in 1943 to Białystok to bolster the resistance.

text: Tanenbaum studied at the

text: Warsaw University

text: . Since 1935 he was member of the Jewish Socialist Youth organization "Frajhajt" (part of

text: Poale Zion

text: ). After the outbreak of

text: World War II

text: and

text: German occupation of Poland

text: Tenenbaum became a member of the

text: Anti-Fascist Bloc

text: . He organized the

text: resistance

text: against the Germans in

text: Wilno

text: and

text: Warsaw

text: . As member of the Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa he was sent in 1943 to Białystok to bolster the resistance.

text: Psilophytites is a form genus of extinct plants; it was created by Høeg for spiny stems (axes) which cannot be assigned to a more precise genus or species, usually because spore-forming organs or sporangia are not present.

text: Psilophytites is a

text: form genus

text: of extinct plants; it was created by Høeg for spiny stems (axes) which cannot be assigned to a more precise genus or species, usually because

text: spore

text: -forming organs or

text: sporangia

text: are not present.

text: Early evolution is defined as beginning with the origin of life and ending with the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). According to the iron–sulfur world theory it covers a coevolution of cellular organization (cellularization), the genetic machinery and enzymatization of the metabolism.

text: Early evolution is defined as beginning with the

text: origin of life

text: and ending with the

text: last universal common ancestor

text: LUCA

text: ). According to the iron–sulfur world theory it covers a

text: coevolution

text: of cellular organization (

text: cellularization

text: ), the genetic machinery and enzymatization of the

text: metabolism

text: Waterhouse was born in Liverpool of Quaker parents. After being articled to P. B. Alley in Manchester, he took a ten-month tour of the Continent, then established his own practice in Manchester. Many of his early commissions came from Quakers and other nonconformist patrons. He came to national recognition when he won success in a competition for the design of Manchester assize courts. His next major public commissions in Manchester were for Strangeways Gaol and Manchester Town Hall. In 1865 he opened an office in London, which was followed by his first major commission in London, the Natural History Museum. Meanwhile, he was also designing country houses. Here his major work was the rebuilding of Eaton Hall in Cheshire for the 1st Duke of Westminster, which was "the most expensive country house of the [19th] century". He also designed educational buildings including schools and works for the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Manchester, and Liverpool. In the commercial field, he designed banks, and offices for insurance and assurance companies, especially the Prudential Assurance Company, for whom he built 27 buildings.

text: Waterhouse was born in

text: Liverpool

text: of

text: Quaker

text: parents. After being articled to P. B. Alley in

text: Manchester

text: , he took a ten-month tour of the Continent, then established his own practice in Manchester. Many of his early commissions came from Quakers and other

text: nonconformist

text: patrons. He came to national recognition when he won success in a competition for the design of Manchester assize courts. His next major public commissions in Manchester were for

text: Strangeways Gaol

text: and

text: Manchester Town Hall

text: . In 1865 he opened an office in London, which was followed by his first major commission in London, the

text: Natural History Museum

text: . Meanwhile, he was also designing

text: country house

text: s. Here his major work was the rebuilding of

text: Eaton Hall

text: in

text: Cheshire

text: for the

text: 1st Duke of Westminster

text: , which was "the most expensive country house of the [19th] century". He also designed educational buildings including schools and works for the universities of

text: Cambridge

text: Oxford

text: Manchester

text: , and

text: Liverpool

text: . In the commercial field, he designed banks, and offices for insurance and assurance companies, especially the

text: Prudential Assurance Company

text: , for whom he built 27 buildings.

text: Asteroids contain traces of amino acids and other organic compounds, and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early Earth with the chemicals necessary to initiate life, or may have even brought life itself to Earth (also see panspermia). In August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules) may have been formed on asteroids and comets in outer space.

text: Asteroids contain traces of

text: amino acid

text: s and other organic compounds, and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early Earth with the chemicals necessary to initiate life, or may have even brought life itself to Earth (also see

text: panspermia

text: ). In August 2011, a report, based on

text: NASA

text: studies with

text: meteorite

text: s found on

text: Earth

text: , was published suggesting

text: DNA

text: and

text: RNA

text: components (

text: adenine

text: guanine

text: and related

text: organic molecules

text: ) may have been formed on asteroids and

text: comet

text: s in

text: outer space

text: Primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription (c. 515 BC) detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an early example of propaganda. The Arthashastra written by Chanakya (c. 350 – 283 BC), a professor of political science at Takshashila University and a prime minister of the Maurya Empire in ancient India, discusses propaganda in detail, such as how to spread propaganda and how to apply it in warfare. His student Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340  – 293 BC), founder of the Maurya Empire, employed these methods during his rise to power. The writings of Romans such as Livy (c. 59 BC – 17 AD) are considered masterpieces of pro-Roman propaganda. The most well-known originator of Roman historiography was Quintus Fabius Pictor (3rd century BCE). His style of writing history defending the Roman state actions and using propaganda heavily eventually became a defining characteristic of Roman historiography. Another example of early propaganda is the 12th-century work, The War of the Irish with the Foreigners, written by the Dál gCais to portray themselves as legitimate rulers of Ireland.

text: Primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The

text: Behistun Inscription

text: (c. 515 BC) detailing the rise of

text: Darius I

text: to the

text: Persian

text: throne is viewed by most historians as an early example of propaganda. The

text: Arthashastra

text: written by

text: Chanakya

text: (c. 350 – 283 BC), a professor of

text: political science

text: at

text: Takshashila University

text: and a prime minister of the

text: Maurya Empire

text: in

text: ancient India

text: , discusses propaganda in detail, such as how to spread propaganda and how to apply it in

text: war

text: fare. His student

text: Chandragupta Maurya

text: (c. 340  – 293 BC), founder of the Maurya Empire, employed these methods during his rise to power. The writings of

text: Romans

text: such as

text: Livy

text: (c. 59 BC – 17 AD) are considered masterpieces of pro-Roman propaganda. The most well-known originator of

text: Roman historiography

text: was

text: Quintus Fabius Pictor

text: (3rd century

text: BCE

text: ). His style of writing history defending the Roman state actions and using propaganda heavily eventually became a defining characteristic of Roman historiography. Another example of early propaganda is the 12th-century work,

text: The War of the Irish with the Foreigners

text: , written by the

text: Dál gCais

text: to portray themselves as legitimate rulers of Ireland.

text: Valiantine was born in Williamsport, Pennsylvania. He worked as a manufacturer before he discovered mediumship. He gave séances in America and Europe. Valiantine predicted in the 1920s that aliens would visit earth. He also claimed contact with spirit guides known as Hawk Chief and Kokum.

text: Valiantine was born in

text: Williamsport, Pennsylvania

text: . He worked as a manufacturer before he discovered mediumship. He gave

text: séances

text: in America and

text: Europe

text: . Valiantine predicted in the 1920s that aliens would visit earth. He also claimed contact with

text: spirit guide

text: s known as Hawk Chief and Kokum.