text: The pair is a non-eclipsing binary—that is, as seen from Earth, neither star passes in front of the other.  The two components orbit each other at a distance of around 100 million km and an orbital period of approximately 104 days.  The stars were probably of spectral class A during their main-sequence lifetime, similar to Vega; they are now expanding, cooling, and brightening to become red giants, a process that will take a few million years.  It is thought that the more massive star of the pair has begun fusing helium to carbon and oxygen at its center, a process that has not yet begun for the less massive star.

text: The pair is a non-eclipsing binary—that is, as seen from Earth, neither star passes in front of the other.  The two components orbit each other at a distance of around 100 million km and an orbital period of approximately 104 days.  The stars were probably of

entity_name: Stellar classification

text: spectral class A

text: during their

entity_name: Main sequence

text: main-sequence

text: lifetime, similar to

entity_name: Vega

text: Vega

text: ; they are now expanding, cooling, and brightening to become red giants, a process that will take a few million years.  It is thought that the more massive star of the pair has begun fusing

entity_name: Helium

text: helium

text: to

entity_name: Carbon

text: carbon

text: and

entity_name: Oxygen

text: oxygen

text: at its center, a process that has not yet begun for the less massive star.

text: Gaetano Vignola is an Italian accelerator physicist who works on high energy particle physics. He is the builder of the particle collider of INFN in 1987 in Frascati, Italy, as well as the project leader for the DAFNE particle accelerator project. He has trained many students and researchers in the field of particle accelerator technology and contributed in many giant accelerator projects in the world.

text: Gaetano Vignola is an Italian

entity_name: Accelerator physics

text: accelerator physicist

text: who works on high energy

entity_name: Particle physics

text: particle physics

text: . He is the builder of the

entity_name: Collider

text: particle collider

text: of

entity_name: Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare

text: INFN

text: in 1987 in

entity_name: Frascati

text: Frascati

entity_name: Italy

text: Italy

text: , as well as the project leader for the

entity_name: DAFNE

text: DAFNE

text: particle accelerator project. He has trained many students and researchers in the field of

entity_name: Particle accelerator

text: particle accelerator

text: technology and contributed in many giant

text: accelerator

text: projects in the world.

text: The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the compression heating it until nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun. Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity caused matter to condense around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as runaway accretion, successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets. Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years. The solar wind of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield planets.

text: The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the compression heating it until

entity_name: Nuclear fusion

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction, a

entity_name: T Tauri star

text: T Tauri star

text: ignited and evolved into the

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: . Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity caused

entity_name: Matter

text: matter

text: to condense around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as runaway

entity_name: Accretion (astrophysics)

text: accretion

text: , successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets. Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an

entity_name: Measurement uncertainty

text: uncertainty

text: of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years. The

entity_name: Solar wind

text: solar wind

text: of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce

entity_name: Accretion disk

text: accretion disks

text: around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield

entity_name: Exoplanet

text: planets

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Gliese 408 is a red dwarf star.

text: Gliese 408 is a

entity_name: Red dwarf

text: red dwarf

text: star.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: A subgiant is a star that is brighter than a normal main-sequence star of the same spectral class, but not as bright as true giant stars. The term subgiant is applied both to a particular spectral luminosity class and to a stage in the evolution of a star.

text: A subgiant is a

entity_name: Star

text: star

text: that is brighter than a normal

text: main-sequence

text: star of the same

text: spectral class

text: , but not as bright as true

entity_name: Giant star

text: giant star

text: s. The term subgiant is applied both to a particular spectral

entity_section: Luminosity class

text: luminosity class

text: and to a stage in the

entity_name: Stellar evolution

text: evolution of a star

text: Supergiants develop when massive main-sequence stars run out of hydrogen in their cores.  They then start to expand, just like lower-mass stars, but unlike lower-mass stars, they begin to fuse helium in the core smoothly and not long after exhausting their hydrogen.  This means that they do not increase their luminosity as dramatically as lower-mass stars and they progress nearly horizontally across the HR diagram to become red supergiants.  Also unlike lower-mass stars, red supergiants are massive enough to fuse elements heavier than helium, so they do not puff off their atmospheres as planetary nebulae after a period of hydrogen and helium shell burning.  Instead they continue to burn heavier elements in their cores until they collapse.  They cannot lose enough mass to form a white dwarf, so will leave behind a neutron star or black hole remnant, usually after a core collapse supernova explosion.

text: Mass transfer due to Roche-lobe overflow is responsible for a number of astronomical phenomena, including Algol systems, recurring novae (binary stars consisting of a red giant and a white dwarf that are sufficiently close that material from the red giant dribbles down onto the white dwarf), X-ray binaries and millisecond pulsars.

text: Mass transfer due to Roche-lobe overflow is responsible for a number of astronomical phenomena, including

entity_name: Algol

entity_section: System

text: Algol systems

entity_name: Nova

text: recurring novae

entity_name: Binary star

text: binary star

text: s consisting of a

entity_name: Red giant

text: red giant

text: and a

entity_name: White dwarf

text: white dwarf

text: that are sufficiently close that material from the red giant dribbles down onto the white dwarf),

entity_name: X-ray binary

text: X-ray binaries

text: and

entity_name: Millisecond pulsar

text: millisecond pulsar

text: s.

text: Analyst Alex Epstein states that bankable stars — or, more generally, "bankable elements" — are how "hookless" films (i.e. films without a compelling concept that makes people interested in them in their own right) get made, giving Dances with Wolves as an example of a movie where the involvement of Kevin Costner as the bankable star guaranteed that the movie was made.  Writer Melissa Robbie concurs, stating that some movies are high-concept (i.e. they have what Epstein terms "hooks") whereas others are simply star vehicles for bankable stars.

text: Analyst Alex Epstein states that bankable stars — or, more generally, "bankable elements" — are how "hookless" films (i.e. films without a compelling concept that makes people interested in them in their own right) get made, giving

entity_name: Dances with Wolves

text: Dances with Wolves

text: as an example of a movie where the involvement of

entity_name: Kevin Costner

text: Kevin Costner

text: as the bankable star guaranteed that the movie was made.  Writer Melissa Robbie concurs, stating that some movies are

entity_name: High-concept

text: high-concept

text: (i.e. they have what Epstein terms "hooks") whereas others are simply

entity_name: Star vehicle

text: star vehicle

text: s for bankable stars.

text: Barnard's Star's has 10–32% of the solar metallicity. Metallicity is the proportion of stellar mass made up of elements heavier than helium and helps classify stars relative to the galactic population. Barnard's Star seems to be typical of the old, red dwarf population II stars, yet these are also generally metal-poor halo stars. While sub-solar, Barnard's Star's metallicity is higher than that of a halo star and is in keeping with the low end of the metal-rich disk star range; this, plus its high space motion, have led to the designation "intermediate population II star", between a halo and disk star.

text: Barnard's Star's has 10–32% of the solar

entity_name: Metallicity

text: metallicity

text: . Metallicity is the proportion of stellar mass made up of elements heavier than

text: helium

text: and helps classify stars relative to the galactic population. Barnard's Star seems to be typical of the old, red dwarf

entity_name: Stellar population

entity_section: Population II stars

text: population II star

text: s, yet these are also generally metal-poor

text: halo star

text: s. While sub-solar, Barnard's Star's metallicity is higher than that of a halo star and is in keeping with the low end of the metal-rich

entity_name: Disc (galaxy)

text: disk star

text: range; this, plus its high space motion, have led to the designation "intermediate population II star", between a halo and disk star.

method: UNH-qee

text: All red supergiants will exhaust the helium in their cores within one or two million years and then start to burn carbon.  This continues with fusion of heavier elements until an iron core builds up, which then inevitably collapses to produce a supernova.  The time from the onset of carbon fusion until core collapse is no more than a few thousand years.  In most cases, core collapse occurs while the star is still a red supergiant, the large remaining hydrogen-rich atmosphere is ejected, and this produces a type II supernova spectrum.  The opacity of this ejected hydrogen decreases as it cools and this causes an extended delay to the drop in brightness after the initial supernova peak, the characteristic of a type II-P supernova.

text: All red supergiants will exhaust the helium in their cores within one or two million years and then start to burn carbon.  This continues with fusion of heavier elements until an iron core builds up, which then inevitably collapses to produce a supernova.  The time from the onset of carbon fusion until core collapse is no more than a few thousand years.  In most cases, core collapse occurs while the star is still a red supergiant, the large remaining hydrogen-rich atmosphere is ejected, and this produces a

entity_name: Type II supernova

text: type II supernova

text: spectrum.  The

entity_name: Opacity (optics)

text: opacity

text: of this ejected hydrogen decreases as it cools and this causes an extended delay to the drop in brightness after the initial supernova peak, the characteristic of a type II-P supernova.

text: The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle  in terms of the position  and acceleration  of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector  and angular acceleration vector  of the rigid system of particles as,

text: The

entity_name: Kinematics

text: kinematics

text: of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle  in terms of the position  and acceleration  of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector  and angular acceleration vector  of the rigid system of particles as,

text: In nuclear physics, nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei come close enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons and/or protons). The difference in mass between the products and reactants is manifested as the release of large amounts of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic "binding energy" between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or "main sequence" stars, or other high magnitude stars.

text: In

entity_name: Nuclear physics

text: nuclear physics

text: , nuclear fusion is a

entity_name: Nuclear reaction

text: reaction

text: in which two or more

entity_name: Atomic nucleus

text: atomic nuclei

text: come close enough to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons and/or protons). The difference in mass between the products and reactants is manifested as the release of large amounts of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic "

entity_name: Binding energy

text: binding energy

text: " between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or "

text: main sequence

text: star

text: s, or other

entity_name: Absolute magnitude

text: high magnitude

text: stars.

text: The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence. The values of luminosity (L), radius (R) and mass (M) are relative to the Sun—a dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20–30% from the values listed below.

text: The table below shows typical values for stars along the main sequence. The values of

entity_name: Luminosity

text: luminosity

text: (L),

entity_name: Radius

text: radius

text: (R) and

entity_name: Mass

text: mass

text: (M) are relative to the Sun—a dwarf star with a spectral classification of G2 V. The actual values for a star may vary by as much as 20–30% from the values listed below.

text: TZ Cas is losing mass through a powerful stellar wind at two millionths of a solar mass each year.  It is unclear whether this is sufficient to cause the star to lose its atmosphere and become a blue supergiant before the core exhausts its fuel and collapses as a supernova.  Either as a red or blue supergiant, or a Wolf-Rayet star, it will inevitably end its life violently in a supernova explosion when the core collapse occurs.

text: TZ Cas is losing mass through a powerful

entity_name: Stellar wind

text: stellar wind

text: at two millionths of a solar mass each year.  It is unclear whether this is sufficient to cause the star to lose its atmosphere and become a blue supergiant before the core exhausts its fuel and collapses as a supernova.  Either as a red or blue supergiant, or a

entity_name: Wolf–Rayet star

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: , it will inevitably end its life violently in a supernova explosion when the core collapse occurs.

text: Stellar evolution is not studied by observing the life of a single star, as most stellar changes occur too slowly to be detected, even over many centuries. Instead, astrophysicists come to understand how stars evolve by observing numerous stars at various points in their lifetime, and by simulating stellar structure using computer models.

text: Stellar evolution is not studied by observing the life of a single star, as most stellar changes occur too slowly to be detected, even over many centuries. Instead,

entity_name: Astrophysics

text: astrophysicists

text: come to understand how stars evolve by observing numerous stars at various points in their lifetime, and by simulating

entity_name: Stellar structure

text: stellar structure

text: using

entity_name: Computer simulation

text: computer model

text: s.

text: Michelin stars are a rating system used by the red Michelin guide to grade restaurants on their quality. The guide was originally developed in 1900 to show French drivers where local amenities such as restaurants and mechanics were, the rating system was first introduced in 1926 as a single star, with the second and third stars introduced in 1933. According to the Guide, one star signifies "a very good restaurant", two stars are "excellent cooking that is worth a detour", and three stars mean "exceptional cuisine that is worth a special journey". The listing of starred restaurants is updated once a year.

text: Michelin stars are a rating system used by the red

entity_name: Michelin Guide

text: Michelin guide

text: to grade restaurants on their quality. The guide was originally developed in 1900 to show French drivers where local amenities such as restaurants and mechanics were, the rating system was first introduced in 1926 as a single star, with the second and third stars introduced in 1933. According to the Guide, one star signifies "a very good restaurant", two stars are "excellent cooking that is worth a detour", and three stars mean "exceptional cuisine that is worth a special journey". The listing of starred restaurants is updated once a year.

text: Supergiants can also be defined as a specific phase in the evolutionary history of certain stars. Stars with initial masses above  quickly and smoothly initiate core helium fusion after they have exhausted their hydrogen, continue fusing heavier elements after helium exhaustion until they develop an iron core, and then the core collapses to produce a supernova.  Once these massive stars leave the main sequence their atmospheres inflate and they are described as supergiants.  Stars initially under  will never form an iron core and in evolutionary terms do not become supergiants, although they can reach luminosities thousands of times the sun's. They cannot fuse carbon and heavier elements after their core helium is exhausted, so they eventually just lose their outer layers and become a white dwarf.  The phase where these stars have both hydrogen and helium burning shells is referred to as the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), as stars gradually become more and more luminous class M stars.  Stars of  may fuse sufficient carbon on the AGB to produce an oxygen-neon core and an electron-capture supernova, but astrophysicists categorise these as super-AGB stars rather than supergiants.

text: Supergiants can also be defined as a specific phase in the evolutionary history of certain stars. Stars with initial masses above  quickly and smoothly initiate core helium fusion after they have exhausted their hydrogen, continue fusing heavier elements after helium exhaustion until they develop an iron core, and then the core collapses to produce a supernova.  Once these massive stars leave the main sequence their atmospheres inflate and they are described as supergiants.  Stars initially under  will never form an iron core and in evolutionary terms do not become supergiants, although they can reach luminosities thousands of times the sun's. They cannot fuse carbon and heavier elements after their core helium is exhausted, so they eventually just lose their outer layers and become a

text: white dwarf

text: .  The phase where these stars have both hydrogen and helium burning shells is referred to as the

entity_name: Asymptotic giant branch

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (AGB), as stars gradually become more and more luminous class M stars.  Stars of  may fuse sufficient carbon on the AGB to produce an oxygen-neon core and an

entity_name: Supernova

entity_section: Core collapse

text: electron-capture supernova

text: , but astrophysicists categorise these as super-AGB stars rather than supergiants.

text: The American premiere of Constellations opened on Broadway in January 2015 at Manhattan Theatre Club's Samuel J. Friedman Theatre, starring Academy Award nominee Jake Gyllenhaal and Ruth Wilson. Constellations reunites Gyllenhaal with Payne and Longhurst, who are also making their Broadway debuts with the production. The three previously collaborated on the American premiere of If There Is I Haven't Found It Yet. It will be directed by Michael Longhurst.  In November, 2016, Constellations opened at Canadian Stage in Toronto, under the direction of Peter Hinton.

text: The American premiere of Constellations opened on

entity_name: Broadway theatre

text: Broadway

text: in January 2015 at

entity_name: Manhattan Theatre Club

text: Manhattan Theatre Club

text: 's

entity_name: Samuel J. Friedman Theatre

text: Samuel J. Friedman Theatre

text: , starring Academy Award nominee Jake Gyllenhaal and

entity_name: Ruth Wilson

text: Ruth Wilson

text: . Constellations reunites Gyllenhaal with Payne and Longhurst, who are also making their Broadway debuts with the production. The three previously collaborated on the American premiere of If There Is I Haven't Found It Yet. It will be directed by Michael Longhurst.  In November, 2016, Constellations opened at Canadian Stage in

entity_name: Toronto

text: Toronto

text: , under the direction of Peter Hinton.

text: KELT-4 is a triple star system. KELT-4BC is a binary star system subcomponent of the triple,  away from KELT-4A and the projected separation between KELT-4B and KELT-4C is .

text: KELT-4 is a

entity_name: Star system

entity_section: Triple star systems

text: triple star system

text: . KELT-4BC is a

text: binary star system

text: subcomponent of the triple,  away from KELT-4A and the projected separation between KELT-4B and KELT-4C is .

text: Some kind of supernovas are expected to happen if a white dwarf collides with its nearby partner and consumes the outer matter of this partner. The white dwarf and its nearby partner have very high orbital velocities at this time. The huge mass lost of the white dwarf during the supernova causes the nearby partner to leave at its previous huge orbital speed of several hundred kilometers per second as a hypervelocity star. The supernova remnant of the exploding white dwarf leaves because of its own high orbital speed as a new fast traveling neutron star. This seems to be the most likely origin of most HVSs and fast traveling neutron stars.

text: It has been estimated that there are around 20,000 massive O-type stars in the galaxy. The low-mass sdO and CSPNe O-type stars are probably more common, although less luminous and therefore harder to find. Despite their short lifetimes, they are thought to be normal stages in the evolution of common stars only a little more massive than the Sun.

text: One of the highlights of Gretzky's season was his appearance in the 1979 WHA All-Star Game. The format was a three-game series between the WHA All-Stars and Dynamo Moscow played at Edmonton's Northlands Coliseum. The WHA All-Stars were coached by Jacques Demers, who put Gretzky on a line with his boyhood idol Gordie Howe and Howe's son, Mark. In game one, the line scored seven points, and the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4–2. In game two, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4–2. The line did not score in the final game, but the WHA won by a score of 4–3.

text: One of the highlights of Gretzky's season was his appearance in the 1979 WHA All-Star Game. The format was a three-game series between the WHA All-Stars and

text: Dynamo Moscow

text: played at Edmonton's

text: Northlands Coliseum

text: . The WHA All-Stars were coached by

text: Jacques Demers

text: , who put Gretzky on a line with his boyhood idol Gordie Howe and Howe's son,

text: Mark

text: . In game one, the line scored seven points, and the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4–2. In game two, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4–2. The line did not score in the final game, but the WHA won by a score of 4–3.

text: This star is considered a solar analog—meaning that it is photometrically analogous to the Sun. Like the Sun, it has a magnetic activity cycle. It shares a common proper motion through space with the spectroscopic binary star system HD 122742, and in the past the three may have formed a triple star system. In the Bright Star Catalogue, it was noted as having an infrared excess. This may have been accreted from the HD 122742 system when the three stars were closer to each other.

text: This star is considered a

text: solar analog

text: —meaning that it is

text: photometrically

text: analogous to the Sun. Like the Sun, it has a magnetic activity cycle. It shares a

text: common proper motion

text: through space with the spectroscopic binary star system HD 122742, and in the past the three may have formed a triple star system. In the

text: Bright Star Catalogue

text: , it was noted as having an

text: infrared excess

text: . This may have been accreted from the HD 122742 system when the three stars were closer to each other.

text: Nuclear fusion takes place inside the stars, and we can really see this light redshifted: this is the main source of the cosmic ultraviolet- and visual background.  However, a significant amount of this starlight is not observed directly. Dust in the host galaxies can absorb it and re-emit it in the infrared, contributing to the CIB. Although most of today's galaxies contain little dust (e.g. elliptical galaxies are practically dustless), there are some special stellar systems even in our vicinity which are extremely bright in the infrared and at the same time faint (often almost invisible) in the optical. These ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) are just in a very active star formation period: they are just in a collision or in a merge with another galaxy. In the optical this is hidden by the huge amount of dust, and the galaxy is bright in the infrared due to the same reason. Galaxy collisions and mergers were more frequent in the cosmic past: the global star formation rate of the Universe peaked around redshift z = 1...2, and was 10 to 50 times the average value today. These galaxies in the z = 1...2 redshift range give 50 to 70 percent of the full brightness of the CIB.

text: Nuclear fusion takes place inside the stars, and we can really see this light redshifted: this is the main source of the

text: cosmic ultraviolet- and visual background

text: .  However, a significant amount of this starlight is not observed directly. Dust in the host galaxies can absorb it and re-emit it in the infrared, contributing to the CIB. Although most of today's galaxies contain little dust (e.g.

text: elliptical galaxies

text: are practically dustless), there are some special stellar systems even in our vicinity which are extremely bright in the infrared and at the same time faint (often almost invisible) in the optical. These

text: ultraluminous infrared galaxies

text: (ULIRGs) are just in a very active

text: star formation

text: period: they are just in a collision or in a merge with another galaxy. In the optical this is hidden by the huge amount of dust, and the galaxy is bright in the infrared due to the same reason. Galaxy collisions and mergers were more frequent in the cosmic past: the global

text: star formation rate

text: of the Universe peaked around

text: redshift

text: z = 1...2, and was 10 to 50 times the average value today. These galaxies in the z = 1...2 redshift range give 50 to 70 percent of the full brightness of the CIB.

text: The next All-Star Game will take place in 2017 and will be held in Los Angeles. This will be the third time that an All-Star game is held in Los Angeles. The last two All-Star Games in Nashville, Tennessee and Columbus, Ohio were the first times that the respective cities had hosted the event. The format was changed so that it is no longer a singular all-star game per se; instead, four all-star teams, each representing one of the league's four divisions, will participate in a two-round knockout tournament, with each game being two 10-minute halves in length and played with three skaters on each team.

text: This is a list of extrasolar planets that have been directly observed, sorted by observed separations. This method works best for young planets that emit infrared light and are far from the glare of the star.  Currently, this list includes both directly imaged planets and imaged planetary-mass companions (objects that orbit a star but formed through a binary-star-formation process, not a planet-formation process). This list does not include free-floating planetary-mass objects in star-forming regions or young associations, which are also referred to as rogue planets.

text: This is a list of

text: extrasolar planet

text: s that have been

text: directly observed

text: , sorted by observed separations. This method works best for young planets that emit infrared light and are far from the glare of the star.  Currently, this list includes both directly imaged planets and imaged planetary-mass companions (objects that orbit a star but formed through a binary-star-formation process, not a planet-formation process). This list does not include free-floating planetary-mass objects in star-forming regions or young associations, which are also referred to as

text: rogue planet

text: s.

text: approaches c. To an observer who is not accelerating, it appears as though the object's inertia is increasing, so as to produce a smaller acceleration in response to the same force. This behavior is observed in particle accelerators, where each charged particle is accelerated by the electromagnetic force.

text: approaches c. To an observer who is not accelerating, it appears as though the object's inertia is increasing, so as to produce a smaller acceleration in response to the same force. This behavior is observed in

text: particle accelerators

text: , where each charged particle is accelerated by the electromagnetic force.

text: The nucleus of the Sombrero galaxy is classified as a low ionization nuclear emission region (LINER).  These are nuclear regions where ionized gas is present, but the ions are only weakly ionized (i.e. the atoms are missing relatively few electrons).  The source of energy for ionizing the gas in LINERs has been debated extensively.  Some LINER nuclei may be powered by hot, young stars found in star formation regions, whereas other LINER nuclei may be powered by active galactic nuclei (highly energetic regions that contain supermassive black holes).  Infrared spectroscopy observations have demonstrated that the nucleus of the Sombrero Galaxy is probably devoid of any significant star formation activity.  However, a supermassive black hole has been identified in the nucleus (as discussed in the subsection below), so this active galactic nucleus is probably the energy source that weakly ionizes the gas in the Sombrero Galaxy.

text: The nucleus of the Sombrero galaxy is classified as a

entity_name: Low-ionization nuclear emission-line region

text: low ionization nuclear emission region (LINER)

text: .  These are nuclear regions where

text: ion

text: ized gas is present, but the ions are only weakly ionized (i.e. the atoms are missing relatively few electrons).  The source of energy for ionizing the gas in LINERs has been debated extensively.  Some LINER nuclei may be powered by hot, young stars found in

text: star formation

text: regions, whereas other LINER nuclei may be powered by

text: active galactic nuclei

text: (highly energetic regions that contain supermassive

text: black hole

text: s).

text: Infrared

text: spectroscopy

text: observations have demonstrated that the nucleus of the Sombrero Galaxy is probably devoid of any significant star formation activity.  However, a supermassive black hole has been identified in the nucleus (as discussed in the subsection below), so this

text: active galactic nucleus

text: is probably the energy source that weakly ionizes the gas in the Sombrero Galaxy.

text: In astronomy, the main sequence is a continuous and distinctive band of stars that appears on plots of stellar color versus brightness. These color-magnitude plots are known as Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams after their co-developers, Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell. Stars on this band are known as main-sequence stars or "dwarf" stars.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: , the main sequence is a continuous and distinctive band of

text: star

text: s that appears on plots of stellar

text: color

text: versus

text: brightness

text: . These color-magnitude plots are known as

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: s after their co-developers,

text: Ejnar Hertzsprung

text: and

text: Henry Norris Russell

text: . Stars on this band are known as main-sequence stars or "dwarf" stars.

text: Two of Roberts' novels, Sanctuary and Magic Moments, had previously been made into TV movies. In 2007, Lifetime Television adapted four Nora Roberts novels into TV movies: Angels Fall starring Heather Locklear, Montana Sky starring Ashley Williams, Blue Smoke starring Alicia Witt, and Carolina Moon starring Claire Forlani. This was the first time that Lifetime had adapted multiple works by the same author. Four more films were released on four consecutive Saturdays in March and April 2009. The 2009 collection included Northern Lights starring LeAnn Rimes and Eddie Cibrian, Midnight Bayou starring Jerry O'Connell, High Noon starring Emilie de Ravin, and Tribute starring Brittany Murphy.

text: Two of Roberts' novels, Sanctuary and Magic Moments, had previously been made into TV movies. In 2007,

text: Lifetime Television

text: adapted four Nora Roberts novels into TV movies:

text: Angels Fall

text: starring

text: Heather Locklear

text: Montana Sky

text: starring

text: Ashley Williams

text: Blue Smoke

text: starring

text: Alicia Witt

text: , and

text: Carolina Moon

text: starring

text: Claire Forlani

text: . This was the first time that Lifetime had adapted multiple works by the same author. Four more films were released on four consecutive Saturdays in March and April 2009. The 2009 collection included

text: Northern Lights

text: starring

text: LeAnn Rimes

text: and

text: Eddie Cibrian

text: Midnight Bayou

text: starring

text: Jerry O'Connell

text: High Noon

text: starring

text: Emilie de Ravin

text: , and

text: Tribute

text: starring

text: Brittany Murphy

text: Although Camelopardalis is the 18th largest constellation, it is not a particularly bright constellation, as the brightest stars are only of fourth magnitude. In fact, it only contains four stars below magnitude 5.0.

text: Following Betelgeuse's supernova, a small dense remnant will be left behind, either a neutron star or black hole.  This is predicted to be a neutron star of approximately .  Only more massive stars, or low metallicity stars with lower mass loss, would produce a black hole.

text: Following Betelgeuse's supernova, a small dense remnant will be left behind, either a neutron star or black hole.  This is predicted to be a

text: neutron star

text: of approximately .  Only more massive stars, or low metallicity stars with lower mass loss, would produce a black hole.

text: As far as axial precession is concerned, one scholar of Mithraism, David Ulansey, has interpreted Mithras as a personification of the force  responsible for precession (Ulansey, 1989). He argues that the cult was a religious response to Hipparchus's discovery of precession, which—from the ancient geocentric perspective—amounted to the discovery that the entire cosmos (i.e., the outermost celestial sphere of the fixed stars) was moving in a previously unknown way. His analysis is based on the so-called "tauroctony": the image of Mithras killing a bull that was located in the central place in every Mithraic temple. In the standard tauroctony, Mithras and the bull are accompanied by a dog, a snake, a raven, and a scorpion.  According to Ulansey, the tauroctony is a star chart. The bull is Taurus, a constellation of the zodiac. In the  astrological age that preceded the time of Hipparchus, the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in the constellation of Taurus, and during that previous epoch the constellations of Canis Minor (The Dog), Hydra (The Snake), Corvus (The Raven), and Scorpius (The Scorpion)—i.e., the constellations that correspond to the animals depicted in the tauroctony—all lay on the celestial equator (the location of which is shifted by the precession) and thus had privileged positions in the sky during that epoch. Mithras himself represents the constellation Perseus, which is located directly above Taurus the Bull: the same location occupied by Mithras in the tauroctony image. Mithras' killing of the Bull, by this reasoning, represented the power possessed by this new god to shift the entire cosmic structure, turning the cosmic sphere so that the location of the spring equinox left the constellation of Taurus (a transition symbolized by the killing of the Bull), and the Dog, Snake, Raven, and Scorpion likewise lost their privileged positions on the celestial equator.

text: As far as axial precession is concerned, one scholar of Mithraism, David Ulansey, has interpreted Mithras as a personification of the force  responsible for precession (Ulansey, 1989). He argues that the cult was a religious response to Hipparchus's discovery of precession, which—from the ancient geocentric perspective—amounted to the discovery that the entire cosmos (i.e., the outermost

text: celestial sphere

text: of the fixed stars) was moving in a previously unknown way. His analysis is based on the so-called "

text: tauroctony

text: ": the image of Mithras killing a bull that was located in the central place in every Mithraic temple. In the standard tauroctony, Mithras and the bull are accompanied by a dog, a snake, a raven, and a scorpion.  According to Ulansey, the tauroctony is a

text: star chart

text: . The bull is

text: Taurus

text: , a constellation of the zodiac. In the

text: astrological age

text: that preceded the time of Hipparchus, the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in the constellation of Taurus, and during that previous epoch the constellations of

text: Canis Minor (The Dog)

text: Hydra (The Snake)

text: Corvus (The Raven)

text: , and

text: Scorpius (The Scorpion)

text: —i.e., the constellations that correspond to the animals depicted in the tauroctony—all lay on the celestial equator (the location of which is shifted by the precession) and thus had privileged positions in the sky during that epoch. Mithras himself represents the constellation

text: Perseus

text: , which is located directly above Taurus the Bull: the same location occupied by Mithras in the tauroctony image. Mithras' killing of the Bull, by this reasoning, represented the power possessed by this new god to shift the entire cosmic structure, turning the cosmic sphere so that the location of the spring equinox left the constellation of Taurus (a transition symbolized by the killing of the Bull), and the Dog, Snake, Raven, and Scorpion likewise lost their privileged positions on the celestial equator.

text:
Since the volume of fuzzballs is a function of the Schwarzschild radius (2,954 meters per ), fuzzballs have a variable density that decreases as the inverse square of their mass (twice the mass is twice the diameter, which is eight times the volume, resulting in one‑quarter the density). A typical  fuzzball would have a mean density of . A bit of such a fuzzball the size of a drop of water would have a mass of twenty million metric tons, which is the mass of a granite ball 240 meters in diameter.  Though such densities are almost unimaginably extreme, they are, mathematically speaking, infinitely far from infinite density. Although the densities of typical stellar-mass fuzzballs are quite great—about the same as neutron stars<ref>Neutron stars have a mean density thought to be in the range of  which is equal to median-size fuzzballs ranging from 7.1 to 5.6 . However, the smallest fuzzballs are denser than neutron stars; a small,  fuzzball would be four to seven times denser than a neutron star.
On a “teaspoon” (≈4.929 mL) basis, which is a common measure for conveying density in the popular press to a general-interest readership, comparative mean densities are as follows:
•  fuzzball: 12.45 billion metric tons per teaspoon
•  fuzzball: 1.963 billion metric tons per teaspoon

text: Since the volume of fuzzballs is a function of the Schwarzschild radius (2,954 meters per ), fuzzballs have a variable density that decreases as the inverse square of their mass (twice the mass is twice the diameter, which is eight times the volume, resulting in one‑quarter the density). A typical  fuzzball would have a mean density of . A bit of such a fuzzball the size of a drop of water would have a mass of twenty million metric tons, which is the mass of a granite ball 240 meters in diameter.  Though such densities are almost unimaginably extreme, they are, mathematically speaking, infinitely far from infinite density. Although the densities of typical stellar-mass fuzzballs are quite great—about the same as

text: neutron star

text:
s<ref>Neutron stars have a mean density thought to be in the range of  which is equal to median-size fuzzballs ranging from 7.1 to 5.6 . However, the smallest fuzzballs are denser than neutron stars; a small,  fuzzball would be four to seven times denser than a neutron star.
On a “teaspoon” (≈4.929 mL) basis, which is a common measure for conveying density in the popular press to a general-interest readership, comparative mean densities are as follows:
•  fuzzball: 12.45 billion metric tons per teaspoon
•  fuzzball: 1.963 billion metric tons per teaspoon

text: Published after the death of Johannes, and with support from King Sobieski, the Prodromus Astronomiae consisted of three separate parts: a preface (labeled Prodromus), a star catalog (named Catalogus Stellarum), and an atlas of constellations (named Firmamentum Sobiescianum, sive Uranographia).Prodromus outlines the methodology and technology used in creating the star catalogue. It provides examples of the use of the sextant and quadrant by Johannes, in tandem with known positions of the sun, in calculating each stars' longitude and latitude. The written draft of the Catalogus Stellarum consists of 183 leaves, 145, alphabetized according to constellation, containing star positions. Each star had specific information recorded in columns: the reference number and magnitude found by astronomer Tycho Brahe, Johannes' own magnitude calculation, the star's longitude and latitude by both ecliptic coordinates measured by angular distances and meridian altitudes found using Johannes' quadrant, and the star's equatorial coordinates calculated using spherical trigonometry. The printed version was similar to the written draft, except the two columns describing a star's ecliptic coordinates were combined, and only the single best value for the star's latitude and longitude was given. Also, the printed version held more than 600 new stars and 12 new constellations not documented in the written draft, bringing its total to 1564. Although the observations of the catalog used nothing more than the astronomer's naked eye, the measurements were so precise as to be used in the making of celestial globes into the early 18th Century.Firmamentum Sobiescianum, while technically part of the Prodromus Astronomiae as a well, was likely published separately and in tighter circulation. Housing its own cover page and page-numbering system, the atlas consisted of two hemispheres and 54 double-page plates of 73 constellations. Both the northern and southern hemispheres were centered on an ecliptic pole, and most star locations were all based off Johannes' own observations. Those that were not, the southern polar stars, were based on a catalog and map published in 1679 by Edmond Halley.

text: Published after the death of Johannes, and with support from

text: King Sobieski

text: , the Prodromus Astronomiae consisted of three separate parts: a preface (labeled Prodromus), a star catalog (named Catalogus Stellarum), and an atlas of constellations (named Firmamentum Sobiescianum, sive Uranographia).Prodromus outlines the methodology and technology used in creating the star catalogue. It provides examples of the use of the sextant and quadrant by

text: Johannes

text: , in tandem with known positions of the sun, in calculating each stars' longitude and latitude. The written draft of the Catalogus Stellarum consists of 183 leaves, 145, alphabetized according to constellation, containing star positions. Each star had specific information recorded in columns: the reference number and magnitude found by astronomer

text: Tycho Brahe

text: , Johannes' own magnitude calculation, the star's longitude and latitude by both ecliptic coordinates measured by angular distances and meridian altitudes found using

text: Johannes'

text: quadrant, and the star's equatorial coordinates calculated using spherical trigonometry. The printed version was similar to the written draft, except the two columns describing a star's ecliptic coordinates were combined, and only the single best value for the star's latitude and longitude was given. Also, the printed version held more than 600 new stars and 12 new constellations not documented in the written draft, bringing its total to 1564. Although the observations of the catalog used nothing more than the astronomer's naked eye, the measurements were so precise as to be used in the making of celestial globes into the early 18th Century.Firmamentum Sobiescianum, while technically part of the Prodromus Astronomiae as a well, was likely published separately and in tighter circulation. Housing its own cover page and page-numbering system, the atlas consisted of two hemispheres and 54 double-page plates of 73 constellations. Both the northern and southern hemispheres were centered on an ecliptic pole, and most star locations were all based off

text: Johannes'

text: own observations. Those that were not, the southern polar stars, were based on a catalog and map published in 1679 by

text: Edmond Halley

text: Hindu astrology is primarily based on constellations or nakshatras, the longitudes of constellations differ from place to place but for purposes of predictive astrology each constellation is treated as having a jurisdiction of thirteen degrees twenty minutes i.e. the zodiac divided by twenty-seven nakshatras or 360 degrees divided by 27; the word, sidereal, pertains to the zodiac of the constellations of the fixed stars. All signs are as in the fixed zodiac and the longitudes of planets also refer to their location on the fixed zodiac. According to older Hindu texts, the words signs and houses fall on each other, but the count of the signs is always made from Aries which is the first sign, and the count of the house begins from the lagna; the duration of a sign rising differs from latitude to latitude.

text: Hindu astrology is primarily based on constellations or nakshatras, the longitudes of constellations differ from place to place but for purposes of predictive astrology each constellation is treated as having a jurisdiction of thirteen degrees twenty minutes i.e. the zodiac divided by twenty-seven nakshatras or 360 degrees divided by 27; the word, sidereal, pertains to the zodiac of the constellations of the fixed stars. All signs are as in the fixed zodiac and the longitudes of planets also refer to their location on the fixed zodiac. According to older Hindu texts, the words signs and houses fall on each other, but the count of the signs is always made from Aries which is the first sign, and the count of the house begins from the

text: lagna

text: ; the duration of a sign rising differs from latitude to latitude.

text: 45 Herculis is a main sequence ACV star in the constellation Hercules. The Flamsteed designation for this star comes from the publication Historia Coelestis Britannica by John Flamsteed. It is the 45th star in Flamsteed list of stars in the constellation Hercules.

text: 45 Herculis is a

text: main sequence

text: ACV

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Hercules

text: . The

text: Flamsteed designation

text: for this star comes from the publication Historia Coelestis Britannica by

text: John Flamsteed

text: . It is the 45th star in Flamsteed list of stars in the constellation Hercules.

text: If the accretor in an X-ray binary has a minimum mass that significantly exceeds the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (the maximum possible mass for a neutron star), it is expected to be a black hole. This is the case in Cygnus X-1, for example, where the radial velocity of the companion star has been measured.

text: If the accretor in an

text: X-ray binary

text: has a minimum mass that significantly exceeds the

text: Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit

text: (the maximum possible mass for a

text: neutron star

text: ), it is expected to be a black hole. This is the case in

text: Cygnus X-1

text: , for example, where the radial velocity of the companion star has been measured.

text: Three of constellation's stars are visible to the naked eye: Alpha Comae Berenices, Beta Comae Berenices and Gamma Comae Berenices. They form a 45-degree triangle, from which Berenice's imaginary tresses hang. The constellation's brightest star is Beta Comae Berenices, a 4.26-magnitude main sequence star similar to the Sun. Coma Berenices contains the North Galactic Pole and one of the richest known galaxy clusters, the Coma Cluster, part of the Coma Supercluster. Galaxy Malin 1, in the constellation, is the first known giant low-surface-brightness galaxy. Supernova SN 2005ap discovered in Coma Berenices is the brightest known, and SN 1940B was the first observed example of a type II supernova. The star FK Comae Berenices is the prototype of an eponymous class of variable stars. The constellation is the radiant of one meteor shower, Coma Berenicids, which has one of the fastest meteor speeds: up to 65 km/s (40 mps).

text: Three of constellation's stars are visible to the naked eye:

text: Alpha Comae Berenices

text: Beta Comae Berenices

text: and

text: Gamma Comae Berenices

text: . They form a 45-degree triangle, from which Berenice's imaginary tresses hang. The constellation's brightest star is Beta Comae Berenices, a 4.26-

text: magnitude

text: main sequence

text: star similar to the Sun. Coma Berenices contains the

text: North Galactic Pole

text: and one of the richest known

text: galaxy cluster

text: s, the

text: Coma Cluster

text: , part of the

text: Coma Supercluster

text: . Galaxy

text: Malin 1

text: , in the constellation, is the first known giant

text: low-surface-brightness galaxy

text: Supernova

text: SN 2005ap

text: discovered in Coma Berenices is the brightest known, and

text: SN 1940B

text: was the first observed example of a

text: type II supernova

text: . The star

text: FK Comae Berenices

text: is the prototype of an

text: eponymous class of variable stars

text: . The constellation is the

text: radiant

text: of one

text: meteor shower

text: Coma Berenicids

text: , which has one of the fastest meteor speeds: up to 65 km/s (40 mps).

text: A k-type main-sequence star (K V), also referred to as an orange dwarf orK dwarf, is a main-sequence (hydrogen-burning) star of spectral type K and luminosity class V. These stars are intermediate in size between red M-type main-sequence stars and yellow G-type main-sequence stars. They have masses between 0.45 and 0.8 times the mass of the Sun and surface temperatures between 3,900 and 5,200 K.Better-known examples include Alpha Centauri B (K1 V) and Epsilon Indi. These stars are of particular interest in the search for extraterrestrial life because they are stable on the main sequence for a very long time (15 to 30 billion years, compared to 10 billion for the Sun). This may create an opportunity for life to evolve on terrestrial planets orbiting such stars. K-type stars also emit less ultraviolet radiation (which can damage DNA and thus hamper the emergence of life) than G-type stars like the Sun. K-type main-sequence stars are about three to four times as abundant as G-type main-sequence stars, making planet searches easier.

text: A k-type main-sequence star (K V), also referred to as an orange dwarf orK dwarf, is a

text: main-sequence

text: hydrogen

text: -burning)

text: star

text: of

text: spectral type

text: K and luminosity class V. These stars are intermediate in size between red

text: M-type main-sequence star

text: s and yellow

text: G-type main-sequence star

text: s. They have masses between 0.45 and 0.8 times the

text: mass

text: of the

text: Sun

text: and

text: surface temperature

text: s between 3,900 and 5,200

text: K

text: .Better-known examples include

text: Alpha Centauri B

text: (K1 V) and

text: Epsilon Indi

text: . These stars are of particular interest in the search for

text: extraterrestrial life

text: because they are stable on the main sequence for a very long time (15 to 30 billion years, compared to 10 billion for the Sun). This may create an opportunity for life to evolve on

text: terrestrial planet

text: s orbiting such stars. K-type stars also emit less

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: (which can damage

text: DNA

text: and thus hamper the emergence of life) than G-type stars like the Sun. K-type main-sequence stars are about three to four times as abundant as G-type main-sequence stars, making planet searches easier.

text: Alpha Lyncis (α Lyn, α Lyncis) is the brightest star in the northern constellation of Lynx with an apparent magnitude of +3.13. Unusually, it is the only star in the constellation that has a Bayer designation. Based upon parallax measurements, this star is located about  from the Earth.

text: Alpha Lyncis (α Lyn, α Lyncis) is the brightest

text: star

text: in the northern

text: constellation

text: of

text: Lynx

text: with an apparent magnitude of +3.13. Unusually, it is the only star in the constellation that has a

text: Bayer designation

text: . Based upon

text: parallax

text: measurements, this star is located about  from the Earth.

text: In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of atomic nuclei that can release energy by the absorption of a proton or neutron. In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine to form helium through the proton-proton chain reaction or by the CNO cycle. When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once iron-56 or nickel-56 nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. The elements then on use up energy instead of giving off energy when fused. Therefore, fusion stops and the star dies. In attempts by humans, fusion is only carried out with hydrogen (isotope of 2 and 3) to form helium-4 as this reaction gives out the most net energy. Electric confinement (ITER), inertial confinement(heating by laser) and heating by strong electric currents are the popular methods used. .

text: In stars that undergo nuclear fusion, fuel consists of

text: atomic nuclei

text: that can release energy by the absorption of a

text: proton

text: or

text: neutron

text: . In most stars the fuel is provided by hydrogen, which can combine to form

text: helium

text: through the

text: proton-proton chain reaction

text: or by the

text: CNO cycle

text: . When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted, nuclear fusion can continue with progressively heavier elements, although the net energy released is lower because of the smaller difference in nuclear binding energy. Once

text: or

text: nuclei are produced, no further energy can be obtained by nuclear fusion as these have the highest nuclear binding energies. The elements then on use up energy instead of giving off energy when fused. Therefore, fusion stops and the star dies. In attempts by humans, fusion is only carried out with hydrogen (isotope of 2 and 3) to form helium-4 as this reaction gives out the most net energy. Electric confinement (

text: ITER

text: inertial confinement

text: (heating by laser) and heating by strong electric currents are the popular methods used. .

text: RHIC is an intersecting storage ring particle accelerator. Two independent rings (arbitrarily denoted as "Blue" and "Yellow" rings) circulate heavy ions and/or protons in opposite directions and allow a virtually free choice of colliding positively charged particles (the eRHIC upgrade will allow collisions between positively and negatively charged particles). The RHIC double storage ring is itself hexagonally shaped and  long in circumference, with curved edges in which stored particles are deflected and focused by 1,740 superconducting  magnets using niobium-titanium conductors. The dipole magnets operate at . The six interaction points (between the particles circulating in the two rings) are at the middle of the six relatively straight sections, where the two rings cross, allowing the particles to collide. The interaction points are enumerated by clock positions, with the injection near 6 o'clock. Two large experiments, STAR and PHENIX, are located at 6 and 8 o'clock respectively.

text: RHIC is an intersecting

text: storage ring

text: particle accelerator

text: . Two independent rings (arbitrarily denoted as "Blue" and "Yellow" rings) circulate heavy

text: ion

text: s and/or

text: proton

text: s in opposite directions and allow a virtually free choice of colliding positively

text: charged particle

text: s (the

text: eRHIC

text: upgrade will allow collisions between positively and negatively charged particles). The RHIC double storage ring is itself

text: hexagon

text: ally shaped and  long in circumference, with curved edges in which stored particles are deflected and focused by 1,740

text: superconducting

text: magnet

text: s using

text: niobium-titanium

text: conductors. The

text: dipole magnet

text: s operate at . The six interaction points (between the particles circulating in the two rings) are at the middle of the six relatively straight sections, where the two rings cross, allowing the particles to collide. The interaction points are enumerated by clock positions, with the injection near 6 o'clock. Two large experiments, STAR and PHENIX, are located at 6 and 8 o'clock respectively.

text: The Sun is a G2-type main-sequence star. Hotter main-sequence stars are more luminous. The Sun's temperature is intermediate between that of the hottest stars and that of the coolest stars. Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known as red dwarfs, make up 85% of the stars in the Milky Way.

text: The Sun is a

text: G2-type main-sequence star

text: . Hotter main-sequence stars are more luminous. The Sun's temperature is intermediate between that of the

text: hottest stars

text: and that of the coolest stars. Stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars, known as

text: red dwarf

text: s, make up 85% of the stars in the Milky Way.

text: A microtron is a type of particle accelerator concept originating from the cyclotron in which the accelerating field is not applied through large D-shaped electrodes, but through a linear accelerator structure. The classic microtron was invented by Vladimir Veksler. The kinetic energy of the particles is increased by a constant amount per field change (one half or a whole revolution). Microtrons are designed to operate at constant field frequency and magnetic field in the ultrarelativistic limit. Thus they are especially suited for very light elementary particles, namely electrons.

text: A microtron is a type of

text: particle accelerator

text: concept originating from the

text: cyclotron

text: in which the accelerating field is not applied through large D-shaped electrodes, but through a

text: linear accelerator

text: structure. The classic microtron was invented by

text: Vladimir Veksler

text: . The kinetic energy of the particles is increased by a constant amount per field change (one half or a whole revolution). Microtrons are designed to operate at constant field

text: frequency

text: and

text: magnetic field

text: in the

text: ultrarelativistic limit

text: . Thus they are especially suited for very light elementary particles, namely

text: electrons

text: Omicron Andromedae is a binary star, whose two components are both spectroscopic binaries themselves, making a four-star system.  The system as a whole is classified as a blue-white B-type giant with a mean combined apparent magnitude of +3.62.

text: Omicron Andromedae is a

text: binary star

text: , whose two components are both

text: spectroscopic binaries

text: themselves, making a four-star system.  The system as a whole is classified as a blue-white

text: B-type

text: giant

text: with a mean combined

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +3.62.

text: A supernova is a massive explosion of a star that occurs under two principal scenarios. The first is that a white dwarf star undergoes a nuclear-based explosion after it reaches its Chandrasekhar limit after absorbing mass from a neighboring star (usually a red giant).  The second, and more common, cause is when a massive star, usually a supergiant, reaches nickel-56 in its nuclear fusion (or burning) processes. This isotope undergoes radioactive decay into iron-56, which has one of the highest binding energies of all of the isotopes, and is the last element that produces a net release of energy by nuclear fusion, exothermically.

text: A supernova is a massive explosion of a star that occurs under two principal scenarios. The first is that a

text: white dwarf

text: star

text: undergoes a nuclear-based explosion after it reaches its

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: after absorbing mass from a neighboring star (usually a

text: red giant

text: ).  The second, and more common, cause is when a massive star, usually a

text: supergiant

text: , reaches

text: in its

text: nuclear fusion

text: (or burning) processes. This isotope undergoes radioactive decay into

text: , which has one of the highest

text: binding energies

text: of all of the isotopes, and is the last element that produces a net release of energy by

text: nuclear fusion

text: exothermic

text: ally.

text: Heavy metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a neutron star merger,

text: Heavy metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is

text: ejected

text: late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a

text: neutron star

text: merger,

text: The observed red supergiants with the mass of about 16–20 solar masses are type II supernova progenitors.  Over 200 main sequence stars have been detected with masses over , which allows the distance to be determined from main sequence fitting.  Fourteen red supergiant members have been identified.

text: The observed red supergiants with the mass of about 16–20

text: solar mass

text: es are

text: type II supernova

text: progenitors.  Over 200 main sequence stars have been detected with masses over , which allows the distance to be determined from main sequence fitting.  Fourteen red supergiant members have been identified.

text: The Ghostbusters proton packs are also called particle throwers or unlicensed particle accelerators.  Particle acceleration is used to lasso the ghosts for easy entrapment.

text: The

text: Ghostbusters

text: proton packs are also called particle throwers or unlicensed particle accelerators.  Particle acceleration is used to lasso the ghosts for easy entrapment.

text: With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational. High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak interaction.

text: With modern insights into

text: quantum mechanics

text: and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of light,

text: particle physics

text: has devised a

text: Standard Model

text: to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The

text: Standard Model

text: predicts that exchanged particles called

text: gauge boson

text: s are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are:

text: strong

text: electromagnetic

text: weak

text: , and

text: gravitational

text: High-energy particle physics

text: observation

text: s made during the 1970s and 1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental

text: electroweak

text: interaction.

text: Circinus X-1 is an X-ray binary star system that includes a neutron star. Observation of Circinus X-1 in July 2007 revealed the presence of X-ray jets normally found in black hole systems; it is the first of the sort to be discovered that displays this similarity to black holes. Circinus X-1 may be among the youngest X-ray binaries observed.

text: Circinus X-1 is an

text: X-ray binary

text: star system that includes a

text: neutron star

text: . Observation of Circinus X-1 in July 2007 revealed the presence of X-ray jets normally found in

text: black hole

text: systems; it is the first of the sort to be discovered that displays this similarity to black holes. Circinus X-1 may be among the youngest X-ray binaries observed.

text: When a cluster of stars is formed at about the same time, the life span of these stars will depend on their individual masses. The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first, followed steadily in sequence by stars of ever lower masses. Thus the stars will evolve in order of their position on the main sequence, proceeding from the most massive at the left toward the right of the HR diagram. The current position where stars in this cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the turn-off point. By knowing the main sequence lifespan of stars at this point, it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster.

text: When a

text: cluster of stars

text: is formed at about the same time, the life span of these stars will depend on their individual masses. The most massive stars will leave the main sequence first, followed steadily in sequence by stars of ever lower masses. Thus the stars will evolve in order of their position on the main sequence, proceeding from the most massive at the left toward the right of the HR diagram. The current position where stars in this cluster are leaving the main sequence is known as the

text: turn-off point

text: . By knowing the main sequence lifespan of stars at this point, it becomes possible to estimate the age of the cluster.

text: It was already known in the 1920s that a plasma has a limited capacity for current maintenance, Irving Langmuir characterized double layers in the laboratory and called these structures double-sheaths.  In the 1950s a thorough  study of double layers  started in the laboratory (e.g. Schönhuber, 1958). Many groups are still working on this topic theoretically, experimentally and numerically. It was first proposed by Hannes Alfvén (the developer of magnetohydrodynamics from laboratory experiments) that the polar lights or Aurora Borealis are created by electrons accelerated in the magnetosphere of the Earth. He supposed that the electrons were accelerated electrostatically by an electric field localized in a small volume  bounded by two charged regions, and the so-called double layer would accelerate electrons earthwards.   Since then other mechanisms which involve wave-particle interactions have been proposed as being feasible, from extensive spatial and temporal in situ studies of auroral particle characteristics.

text: It was already known in the 1920s that a plasma has a limited capacity for current maintenance,

text: Irving Langmuir

text: characterized double layers in the laboratory and called these structures double-sheaths.  In the 1950s a thorough  study of double layers  started in the laboratory (e.g. Schönhuber, 1958). Many groups are still working on this topic theoretically, experimentally and numerically. It was first proposed by

text: Hannes Alfvén

text: (the developer of magnetohydrodynamics from laboratory experiments) that the polar lights or Aurora Borealis are created by electrons accelerated in the magnetosphere of the Earth. He supposed that the electrons were accelerated electrostatically by an electric field localized in a small volume  bounded by two charged regions, and the so-called double layer would accelerate electrons earthwards.   Since then other mechanisms which involve wave-particle interactions have been proposed as being feasible, from extensive spatial and temporal in situ studies of

text: aurora

text: l particle characteristics.

text: Until just a few decades ago, hot supergiants were not considered likely to explode, but observations have shown otherwise.  Blue supergiants form an unexpectedly high proportion of confirmed supernova progenitors, partly due to their high luminosity and easy detection, while not a single Wolf-Rayet progenitor has yet been clearly identified.  Models have had difficulty showing how blue supergiants lose enough mass to reach supernova without progressing to a different evolutionary stage.  One study has shown a possible route for low-luminosity post-red supergiant luminous blue variables to collapse, most likely as a type IIn supernova.

text: The first cyclotron, an early type of particle accelerator, was built by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1931, with a radius of just a few centimetres and a particle energy of 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV). Since then, accelerators have grown enormously in the quest to produce new particles of greater and greater mass. As accelerators have grown, so too has the list of known particles that they might be used to investigate. The most comprehensive model of particle interactions available today is known as the Standard Model of Particle Physics.

text: The first

text: cyclotron

text: , an early type of particle accelerator, was built by

text: Ernest O. Lawrence

text: in 1931, with a radius of just a few centimetres and a particle

text: energy

text: of 1

text: megaelectronvolt (MeV)

text: . Since then, accelerators have grown enormously in the quest to produce new particles of greater and greater

text: mass

text: . As accelerators have grown, so too has the

text: list of known particles

text: that they might be used to investigate. The most comprehensive model of particle interactions available today is known as the

text: Standard Model of Particle Physics

text: The primary star of the system is Type-B and Class-IV and sub component of the system is an Algol-type eclipsing binary. The system is also considered a visual double star.

text: The primary star of the system is

text: Type-B and Class-IV

text: and sub component of the system is an

text: Algol-type

text: eclipsing binary

text: . The system is also considered a visual

text: double star

text: The celestial sphere has been divided into 88 constellations. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) constellations are areas of the sky. Each of these contains remarkable X-ray sources. Some of them are have been identified from astrophysical modeling to be galaxies or black holes at the centers of galaxies. Some are pulsars. As with sources already successfully modeled by X-ray astrophysics, striving to understand the generation of X-rays by the apparent source helps to understand the Sun, the universe as a whole, and how these affect us on Earth. Constellations are an astronomical device for handling observation and precision independent of current physical theory or interpretation. Astronomy has been around for a long time. Physical theory changes with time. With respect to celestial X-ray sources, X-ray astrophysics tends to focus on the physical reason for X-ray brightness, whereas X-ray astronomy tends to focus on their classification, order of discovery, variability, resolvability, and their relationship with nearby sources in other constellations.

text: The

text: celestial sphere

text: has been divided into 88 constellations. The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) constellations are areas of the sky. Each of these contains remarkable X-ray sources. Some of them are have been identified from astrophysical modeling to be

text: galaxies

text: or black holes at the centers of galaxies. Some are

text: pulsar

text: s. As with sources already successfully modeled by X-ray astrophysics, striving to understand the generation of X-rays by the apparent source helps to understand the Sun, the

text: universe

text: as a whole, and how these affect us on

text: Earth

text: . Constellations are an astronomical device for handling observation and precision independent of current physical theory or interpretation. Astronomy has been around for a long time. Physical theory changes with time. With respect to celestial X-ray sources, X-ray astrophysics tends to focus on the physical reason for X-ray brightness, whereas X-ray astronomy tends to focus on their classification, order of discovery, variability, resolvability, and their relationship with nearby sources in other constellations.

text: The star system was discovered in 1948 by Willem Jacob Luyten in the course of compiling a catalog of stars of high proper motion; he noted its exceptionally high proper motion of 3.37 arc seconds annually and cataloged it as Luyten 726-8. The two stars are of nearly equal brightness, with visual magnitudes of 12.7 and 13.2 as seen from Earth. They orbit one another every 26.5 years. The distance between the two stars varies from . The Luyten 726-8 system is approximately  from Earth's Solar System, in the constellation Cetus, and is thus the seventh-closest star system to Earth. Its own nearest neighbor is Tau Ceti,  away from it. If

text: The star system was discovered in 1948 by

text: Willem Jacob Luyten

text: in the course of compiling a catalog of stars of high

text: proper motion

text: ; he noted its exceptionally high proper motion of 3.37 arc seconds annually and cataloged it as Luyten 726-8. The two stars are of nearly equal brightness, with visual magnitudes of 12.7 and 13.2 as seen from Earth. They orbit one another every 26.5 years. The distance between the two stars varies from . The Luyten 726-8 system is approximately  from

text: Earth

text: 's

text: Solar System

text: , in the

text: constellation

text: Cetus

text: , and is thus the seventh-closest star system to Earth. Its own nearest neighbor is

text: Tau Ceti

text: ,  away from it. If

text: In various countries, particularly the United States, these may be referred to as "star ranks" for the number of stars worn on some rank insignia: typically one-star for brigadier general or equivalent with the addition of a star for each subsequent rank. In the United States, five stars has been the highest rank regularly attainable (excluding the Marines and Coast Guard, which have traditionally served as branches of the Navy in times of war and thus under the command of a Fleet Admiral).  There also exists the specialty ranks of General of the Armies of the United States and Admiral of the Navy which at their inception were considered senior four star officers but came to be considered six-star rank after the creation of five star officers. To date only one other officer has held a six star rank in their lifetime, John J. Pershing while George Washington was posthumously promoted to the post in 1976. Additionally, Admiral George Dewey was promoted to Admiral of the Navy but died well before statute made it senior to an Admiral of the Fleet upon the latter's inception.

text: In various countries, particularly the United States, these may be referred to as "star ranks" for the number of stars worn on some rank insignia: typically one-star for brigadier general or equivalent with the addition of a star for each subsequent rank. In the United States, five stars has been the highest rank regularly attainable (excluding the

entity_name: United States Marine Corps rank insignia

text: Marines

text: and

text: Coast Guard

text: , which have traditionally served as branches of the Navy in times of war and thus under the command of a Fleet Admiral).  There also exists the specialty ranks of

text: General of the Armies of the United States

text: and

text: Admiral of the Navy

text: which at their inception were considered senior four star officers but came to be considered

text: six-star rank

text: after the creation of five star officers. To date only one other officer has held a six star rank in their lifetime,

text: John J. Pershing

text: while

text: George Washington

text: was posthumously promoted to the post in 1976. Additionally,

text: Admiral George Dewey

text: was promoted to Admiral of the Navy but died well before statute made it senior to an Admiral of the Fleet upon the latter's inception.

text: A neutron star has a mass of at least 1.1 and perhaps up to 3 solar masses (). The maximum observed mass of neutron stars is about . But in general, compact stars of less than  (the Chandrasekhar limit) are white dwarfs, whereas compact stars with a mass between   and  (the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit) should be neutron stars (though there is a regime of a few tenths of a solar mass where the masses of low-mass neutron stars and high-mass white dwarfs can overlap). Between  and , hypothetical intermediate-mass stars such as quark stars and electroweak stars have been proposed, but none have been shown to exist. Beyond  the stellar remnant will overcome the neutron degeneracy pressure and gravitational collapse will usually occur to produce a black hole, though the smallest observed mass of a stellar black hole is about .

text: A neutron star has a

text: mass

text: of at least 1.1 and perhaps up to 3

text: solar mass

text: es (). The maximum observed mass of neutron stars is about

text: . But in general,

text: compact star

text: s of less than  (the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: ) are

text: white dwarf

text: s, whereas compact stars with a mass between   and  (the

text: Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit

text: ) should be neutron stars (though there is a regime of a few tenths of a solar mass where the masses of low-mass neutron stars and high-mass white dwarfs can overlap). Between  and , hypothetical intermediate-mass stars such as

text: quark star

text: s and

text: electroweak star

text: s have been proposed, but none have been shown to exist. Beyond  the stellar remnant will overcome the

text: neutron degeneracy pressure

text: and

text: gravitational collapse

text: will usually occur to produce a

text: black hole

text: , though the smallest observed mass of a

text: stellar black hole

text: is about .

text: Certain kinds of particle accelerator experiments involve colliding positrons and electrons at relativistic speeds.  The high impact energy and the mutual annihilation of these matter/antimatter opposites create a fountain of diverse subatomic particles.  Physicists study the results of these collisions to test theoretical predictions and to search for new kinds of particles.

text: Certain kinds of

text: particle accelerator

text: experiments involve colliding positrons and electrons at relativistic speeds.  The high impact energy and the mutual annihilation of these matter/antimatter opposites create a fountain of diverse subatomic particles.  Physicists study the results of these collisions to test theoretical predictions and to search for new kinds of particles.

text: The formation of globular clusters remains a poorly understood phenomenon and it remains uncertain whether the stars in a globular cluster form in a single generation or are spawned across multiple generations over a period of several hundred million years. In many globular clusters, most of the stars are at approximately the same stage in stellar evolution, suggesting that they formed at about the same time. However, the star formation history varies from cluster to cluster, with some clusters showing distinct populations of stars. An example of this is the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) that exhibit a bimodal population. During their youth, these LMC clusters may have encountered giant molecular clouds that triggered a second round of star formation. This star-forming period is relatively brief, compared to the age of many globular clusters.It has also been proposed that the reason for this multiplicity in stellar populations could have a dynamical origin. In the Antennae galaxy, for example, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed clusters of clusters, regions in the galaxy that span hundreds of parsecs, where many of the clusters will eventually collide and merge. Many of them present a significant range in ages, hence possibly metallicities, and their merger could plausibly lead to clusters with a bimodal or even multiple distribution of populations.

text: The formation of globular clusters remains a poorly understood phenomenon and it remains uncertain whether the stars in a globular cluster form in a single generation or are spawned across multiple generations over a period of several hundred million years. In many globular clusters, most of the stars are at approximately the same stage in

text: stellar evolution

text: , suggesting that they formed at about the same time. However, the star formation history varies from cluster to cluster, with some clusters showing distinct populations of stars. An example of this is the globular clusters in the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: (LMC) that exhibit a bimodal population. During their youth, these LMC clusters may have encountered

text: giant molecular cloud

text: s that triggered a second round of star formation. This star-forming period is relatively brief, compared to the age of many globular clusters.It has also been proposed that the reason for this multiplicity in stellar populations could have a dynamical origin. In the

text: Antennae galaxy

text: , for example, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed clusters of clusters, regions in the galaxy that span hundreds of parsecs, where many of the clusters will eventually collide and merge. Many of them present a significant range in ages, hence possibly

text: metallicities

text: , and their merger could plausibly lead to clusters with a bimodal or even multiple distribution of populations.

text: NGC 4631 contains a central starburst, which is a region of intense star formation.  The strong star formation is evident in the emission from ionized hydrogen and interstellar dust heated by the stars formed in the starburst.  The most massive stars that form in star formation regions only burn hydrogen gas through fusion for a short period of time, after which they explode as supernovae.  So many supernovae have exploded in the center of NGC 4631 that they are blowing gas out of the plane of the galaxy.  This superwind can be seen in X-rays and in spectral line emission.  The gas from this superwind has produced a giant, diffuse corona of hot, X-ray emitting gas around the whole galaxy.

text: NGC 4631 contains a central

text: starburst

text: , which is a region of intense

text: star formation

text: .  The strong star formation is evident in the emission from

text: ion

text: ized

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: interstellar dust

text: heated by the stars formed in the starburst.  The most massive stars that form in star formation regions only burn hydrogen gas through

text: fusion

text: for a short period of time, after which they explode as

text: supernovae

text: .  So many supernovae have exploded in the center of NGC 4631 that they are blowing gas out of the plane of the galaxy.  This

text: superwind

text: can be seen in

text: X-ray

text: s and in

text: spectral line

text: emission.  The gas from this superwind has produced a giant, diffuse corona of hot, X-ray emitting gas around the whole galaxy.

text: Since 1943, this star has been consistently defined as a B0 main sequence star used as a reference for classifying the spectra of other stars on the MK scale, although in other studies it has been classified as O9V and O9.5V. The Galactic O-Star Spectroscopic Survey has defined it as the standard star for the O9.7 V spectral type.

text: Since 1943, this star has been consistently defined as a B0 main sequence star used as a reference for classifying the spectra of other stars on the

text: MK scale

text: , although in other studies it has been classified as O9V and O9.5V. The

text: Galactic O-Star Spectroscopic Survey

text: has defined it as the standard star for the O9.7 V spectral type.

text: This list contains all known stars and brown dwarfs at a distance of up to 5 parsecs (16.3 light-years) from the Solar System. In addition to the Solar System, there are another 56 stellar systems currently known lying within this distance. These systems contain a total of 60 hydrogen-fusing stars (of which 50 are red dwarfs), 13 brown dwarfs, and 4 white dwarfs. Despite the relative proximity of these objects to Earth, only nine of them have an apparent magnitude less than 6.5, which means only about 12% of these objects can be observed with the naked eye. Besides the Sun, only three are first-magnitude stars: Alpha Centauri, Sirius, and Procyon. All of these objects are located in the Local Bubble, a region within the Orion–Cygnus Arm of the Milky Way.

text: This list contains all known stars and

text: brown dwarf

text: s at a distance of up to 5

text: parsec

text: s (16.3

text: light-year

text: s) from the

text: Solar System

text: . In addition to the Solar System, there are another 56

text: stellar systems

text: currently known lying within this distance. These systems contain a total of 60 hydrogen-fusing

text: star

text: s (of which 50 are

text: red dwarf

text: s), 13

text: brown dwarf

text: s, and 4

text: white dwarf

text: s. Despite the relative proximity of these objects to Earth, only nine of them have an

text: apparent magnitude

text: less than 6.5, which means only about 12% of these objects can be observed with the

text: naked eye

text: . Besides the Sun, only three are

text: first-magnitude stars

text: Alpha Centauri

text: Sirius

text: , and

text: Procyon

text: . All of these objects are located in the

text: Local Bubble

text: , a region within the

text: Orion–Cygnus Arm

text: of the

text: Milky Way

text: An intermediate-mass X-ray binary (IMXB) is a binary star system where one of the components is a neutron star or a black hole. The other component is an intermediate-mass star.

text: Some of the more prominent double stars include Gamma Coronae Australis—a pair of yellowish white stars 58 light years away from Earth, which orbit each other every 122 years. Widening since 1990, the two stars can be seen as separate with a 100 mm aperture telescope; they are separated by 1.3 arcseconds at an angle of 61 degrees. They have a combined visual magnitude of 4.2; each component is an F8V dwarf star with a magnitude of 5.01. Epsilon Coronae Australis is an eclipsing binary belonging to a class of stars known as W Ursae Majoris variables. These star systems are known as contact binaries as the component stars are so close together they touch. Varying by a quarter of a magnitude around an average apparent magnitude of 4.83 every seven hours, the star system lies 98 light years away. Its spectral type is F4VFe-0.8+. At the southern end of the crown asterism are the stars Eta¹ and Eta² Coronae Australis, which form an optical double. Of magnitude 5.1 and 5.5, they are separable with the naked eye and are both white. Kappa Coronae Australis is an easily resolved optical double—the components are of apparent magnitudes 6.3 and 5.7 and are 1700 and 490 light years away respectively. They appear at an angle of 359 degrees, separated by 21.6 arcseconds. Kappa² is actually the brighter of the pair and is more bluish white, with a spectral type of B9V, while Kappa¹ is of spectral type A0III. Lying 202 light years away, Lambda Coronae Australis is a double splittable in small telescopes. The primary is a white star of spectral type A2Vn and magnitude of 5.1, while the companion star has a magnitude of 9.7. The two components are separated by 29.2 arcseconds at an angle of 214 degrees.

text: Some of the more prominent double stars include

text: Gamma Coronae Australis

text: —a pair of yellowish white stars 58 light years away from Earth, which orbit each other every 122 years. Widening since 1990, the two stars can be seen as separate with a 100 mm aperture telescope; they are separated by 1.3 arcseconds at an angle of 61 degrees. They have a combined visual magnitude of 4.2; each component is an F8V

text: dwarf star

text: with a magnitude of 5.01.

text: Epsilon Coronae Australis

text: is an

text: eclipsing binary

text: belonging to a class of stars known as

text: W Ursae Majoris variable

text: s. These star systems are known as

text: contact binaries

text: as the component stars are so close together they touch. Varying by a quarter of a magnitude around an average apparent magnitude of 4.83 every seven hours, the star system lies 98 light years away. Its spectral type is F4VFe-0.8+. At the southern end of the crown asterism are the stars

text: and

text: Eta² Coronae Australis

text: , which form an

text: optical double

text: . Of magnitude 5.1 and 5.5, they are separable with the naked eye and are both white.

text: Kappa Coronae Australis

text: is an easily resolved optical double—the components are of apparent magnitudes 6.3 and 5.7 and are 1700 and 490 light years away respectively. They appear at an angle of 359 degrees, separated by 21.6 arcseconds.

text: is actually the brighter of the pair and is more bluish white, with a spectral type of B9V, while

text: is of spectral type A0III. Lying 202 light years away,

text: Lambda Coronae Australis

text: is a double splittable in small telescopes. The primary is a white star of spectral type A2Vn and magnitude of 5.1, while the companion star has a magnitude of 9.7. The two components are separated by 29.2 arcseconds at an angle of 214 degrees.

text: Main-sequence stars, burning hydrogen in their cores, with masses between  will have temperatures between about 25,000K and 32,000K and spectral types of early B, possibly very late O.  They are already very luminous stars of  due to rapid CNO cycle fusion of hydrogen and they have fully convective cores.  In contrast to the Sun, the outer layers of these hot main-sequence stars are not convective.

text: Main-sequence stars, burning hydrogen in their cores, with masses between  will have temperatures between about 25,000K and 32,000K and spectral types of early B, possibly very late O.  They are already very luminous stars of  due to rapid

text: CNO cycle

text: fusion of hydrogen and they have fully convective cores.  In contrast to the Sun, the outer layers of these hot main-sequence stars are not convective.

text: The open cluster NGC 4755, better known as the Jewel Box or  Crucis Cluster, has an overall magnitude of 4.2—to the naked eye it appears to be a fuzzy star—and is about 7600 light-years from Earth. The cluster was given its name by John Herschel. About seven million years old, an age that makes it one of the youngest open clusters in the Milky Way, it appears to have the shape of a letter A. The Jewel Box Clusters is a Shapley class g and Trumpler class I 3 r cluster; it is a very rich, centrally-concentrated cluster detached from the surrounding star field. It has more than 100 stars that range significantly in brightness. The brightest stars are mostly blue supergiants, though the cluster contains a few bright red supergiants. Kappa Crucis is a true member of the cluster that bears its name, and is one of the brighter stars at magnitude 5.9.

text: The

text: open cluster

text: NGC 4755, better known as the

text: Jewel Box

text: or  Crucis Cluster, has an overall magnitude of 4.2—to the naked eye it appears to be a fuzzy star—and is about 7600 light-years from Earth. The cluster was given its name by

text: John Herschel

text: . About seven million years old, an age that makes it one of the youngest open clusters in the Milky Way, it appears to have the shape of a letter A. The Jewel Box Clusters is a Shapley class g and Trumpler class I 3 r cluster; it is a very rich, centrally-concentrated cluster detached from the surrounding star field. It has more than 100 stars that range significantly in brightness. The brightest stars are mostly

text: blue supergiant

text: s, though the cluster contains a few bright

text: red supergiant

text: s.

text: Kappa Crucis

text: is a true member of the cluster that bears its name, and is one of the brighter stars at magnitude 5.9.

text: Beta Lyrae is a semidetached binary system made up of a stellar class B7 main sequence primary star and a secondary that is probably also a B-type star. The fainter, less massive star in the system was once the more massive member of the pair, which caused it to evolve away from the  main sequence first and become a giant star. Because the pair are in a close orbit, as this star expanded into a giant it filled its Roche lobe and transferred most of its mass over to its companion. The secondary, now more massive star is surrounded by an accretion disk from this mass transfer, with bipolar, jet-like features projecting perpendicular to the disk. This accretion disk blocks humans' view of the secondary star, lowering its apparent luminosity and making it difficult for astronomers to pinpoint what its stellar type is. The amount of mass being transferred between the two stars is about solar masses per year, or the equivalent of the Sun's mass every 50,000 years, which results in an increase in orbital period of about 19 seconds each year.  The spectrum of Beta Lyrae shows emission lines produced by the accretion disc.  The disc produces around 20% of the brightness of the system.

text: Beta Lyrae is a

text: semidetached binary

text: system made up of a

text: stellar class

text: B7 main sequence primary star and a secondary that is probably also a B-type star. The fainter, less massive star in the system was once the more massive member of the pair, which caused it to evolve away from the

text: main sequence

text: first and become a

text: giant star

text: . Because the pair are in a close orbit, as this star expanded into a giant it filled its

text: Roche lobe

text: and transferred most of its mass over to its companion. The secondary, now more massive star is surrounded by an

text: accretion disk

text: from this mass transfer, with

text: bipolar, jet-like features

text: projecting perpendicular to the disk. This accretion disk blocks humans' view of the secondary star, lowering its apparent luminosity and making it difficult for astronomers to pinpoint what its stellar type is. The amount of mass being transferred between the two stars is about

text: solar mass

text: es per year, or the equivalent of the Sun's mass every 50,000 years, which results in an increase in orbital period of about 19 seconds each year.  The spectrum of Beta Lyrae shows emission lines produced by the accretion disc.  The disc produces around 20% of the brightness of the system.

text: There were also significant implications into star formation.  COBE observations provide important constraints on the cosmic star formation rate, and help us calculate the EBL spectrum for various star formation histories.  Observation made by COBE require that star formation rate at redshifts of z ≈ 1.5 to be larger than that inferred from UV-optical observations by a factor of 2.  This excess stellar energy must be mainly generated by massive stars in yet-undetected dust enshrouded galaxies or extremely dusty star forming regions in observed galaxies.  The exact star formation history cannot unambiguously be resolved by COBE and further observations must be made in the future.

text: There were also significant implications into

text: star formation

text: .  COBE observations provide important constraints on the cosmic star formation rate, and help us calculate the EBL spectrum for various star formation histories.  Observation made by COBE require that star formation rate at redshifts of z ≈ 1.5 to be larger than that inferred from UV-optical observations by a factor of 2.  This excess stellar energy must be mainly generated by massive stars in yet-undetected dust enshrouded galaxies or extremely dusty star forming regions in observed galaxies.  The exact star formation history cannot unambiguously be resolved by COBE and further observations must be made in the future.

text: 12 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 6.9.

text: 12 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 6.9.

text: Mu Cephei is nearing death. It has begun to fuse helium into carbon, whereas a main sequence star fuses hydrogen into helium.  When a supergiant star has converted elements in its core to iron, the core collapses to produce a supernova and the star is destroyed, leaving behind a vast gaseous cloud and a small, dense remnant.  For a star as massive as Mu Cephei the remnant is likely to be a black hole.  The most massive red supergiants will evolve back to blue supergiants, Luminous blue variables, or Wolf-Rayet stars before their cores collapse, and Mu Cephei appears to be massive enough for this to happen.  A post-red supergiant will produce a type IIn or type II-b supernova, while a Wolf Rayet star will produce a type Ib or Ic supernova.

text: Mu Cephei is nearing death. It has begun to

text: fuse

text: helium

text: into

text: carbon

text: , whereas a

text: main sequence

text: star fuses

text: hydrogen

text: into helium.  When a supergiant star has converted elements in its core to iron, the core collapses to produce a

text: supernova

text: and the star is destroyed, leaving behind a vast gaseous cloud and a small, dense remnant.  For a star as massive as Mu Cephei the remnant is likely to be a

text: black hole

text: .  The most massive red supergiants will evolve back to blue supergiants,

text: Luminous blue variable

text: s, or

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: s before their cores collapse, and Mu Cephei appears to be massive enough for this to happen.  A post-red supergiant will produce a type IIn or type II-b supernova, while a Wolf Rayet star will produce a type Ib or Ic supernova.

text: The mass/luminosity relation is important because it can be used to find the distance to binary systems which are too far for normal parallax measurements, using a technique called "dynamical parallax". In this technique, the masses of the two stars in a binary system are estimated, usually as being the mass of the Sun. Then, using Kepler's laws of celestial mechanics, the distance between the stars is calculated. Once this distance is found, the distance away can be found via the arc subtended in the sky, giving a preliminary distance measurement. From this measurement and the apparent magnitudes of both stars, the luminosities can be found, and by using the mass–luminosity relationship, the masses of each star. These masses are used to re-calculate the separation distance, and the process is repeated. The process is iterated many times, and accuracies as high as 5% can be achieved. The mass/luminosity relationship can also be used to determine the lifetime of stars by noting that lifetime is approximately proportional to M/L. One finds that more massive stars live shorter. A more sophisticated calculation factors in a star's loss of mass over time.

text: The mass/luminosity relation is important because it can be used to find the distance to

text: binary system

text: s which are too far for normal

text: parallax

text: measurements, using a technique called "

text: dynamical parallax

text: ". In this technique, the masses of the two stars in a binary system are estimated, usually as being the mass of the Sun. Then, using

text: Kepler's laws

text: of

text: celestial mechanics

text: , the distance between the stars is calculated. Once this distance is found, the distance away can be found via the arc subtended in the sky, giving a preliminary distance measurement. From this measurement and the

text: apparent magnitude

text: s of both stars, the luminosities can be found, and by using the mass–luminosity relationship, the masses of each star. These masses are used to re-calculate the separation distance, and the process is repeated. The process is iterated many times, and accuracies as high as 5% can be achieved. The mass/luminosity relationship can also be used to determine the lifetime of stars by noting that lifetime is approximately proportional to M/L. One finds that more massive stars live shorter. A more sophisticated calculation factors in a star's loss of mass over time.

text: The true nature of these objects (or even whether the current classification scheme is accurate) remains unknown, although the leading hypothesis is that they originate from the mergers of binary neutron stars or a neutron star with a black hole. Such mergers might also be expected to produce kilonovae, and evidence for a kilonova associated with GRB 130603B has been seen. The mean duration of these events of 0.2 seconds suggests a source of very small physical diameter in stellar terms; less than 0.2 light-seconds (about 60,000 km or 37,000 miles—four times the Earth's diameter). This further suggests a very compact object as the source. The observation of minutes to hours of X-ray flashes after a short gamma-ray burst is consistent with small particles of a primary object like a neutron star initially swallowed by a black hole in less than two seconds, followed by some hours of lesser energy events, as remaining fragments of tidally disrupted neutron star material (no longer neutronium) remain in orbit to spiral into the black hole, over a longer period of time. A small fraction of short gamma-ray bursts are probably produced by giant flares from soft gamma repeaters in nearby galaxies.

text: The true nature of these objects (or even whether the current classification scheme is accurate) remains unknown, although the leading hypothesis is that they originate from the mergers of binary neutron stars or a neutron star with a

text: black hole

text: . Such mergers might also be expected to produce

text: kilonova

text: e, and evidence for a kilonova associated with GRB 130603B has been seen. The mean duration of these events of 0.2 seconds suggests a source of very small physical diameter in stellar terms; less than 0.2 light-seconds (about 60,000 km or 37,000 miles—four times the Earth's diameter). This further suggests a very compact object as the source. The observation of minutes to hours of X-ray flashes after a short gamma-ray burst is consistent with small particles of a primary object like a neutron star initially swallowed by a black hole in less than two seconds, followed by some hours of lesser energy events, as remaining fragments of tidally disrupted neutron star material (no longer

text: neutronium

text: ) remain in orbit to spiral into the black hole, over a longer period of time. A small fraction of short gamma-ray bursts are probably produced by giant flares from

text: soft gamma repeaters

text: in nearby galaxies.

text: Reflection nebulae may also be the site of star formation.

text: Reflection nebulae may also be the site of

text: star formation

text: A Thorne–Żytkow object (TŻO or TZO) is a conjectured type of star wherein a red giant or supergiant contains a neutron star at its core, formed from the collision of the giant with the neutron star. Such objects were hypothesized by Kip Thorne and Anna Żytkow in 1977. In 2014, it was discovered that the star HV 2112 was a strong candidate.

text: A Thorne–Żytkow object (TŻO or TZO) is a conjectured type of

text: star

text: wherein a

text: red giant

text: or

text: supergiant

text: contains a

text: neutron star

text: at its core, formed from the

text: collision

text: of the giant with the neutron star. Such objects were hypothesized by

text: Kip Thorne

text: and

text: Anna Żytkow

text: in 1977. In 2014, it was discovered that the star

text: HV 2112

text: was a strong candidate.

text: This type of star has evolved from an initial mass of around 60 times the Sun to a cool hypergiant and is now shedding its remaining outer layers in a series of dramatic explosions, progressively increasing in temperature.  It may become a blue supergiant or luminous blue variable before declining in luminosity as a late type Wolf–Rayet star, but may explode as a supernova before that point.

text: This type of star has evolved from an initial mass of around 60 times the Sun to a cool

text: hypergiant

text: and is now shedding its remaining outer layers in a series of dramatic explosions, progressively increasing in temperature.  It may become a

text: blue supergiant

text: or

text: luminous blue variable

text: before declining in luminosity as a late type

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: , but may explode as a

text: supernova

text: before that point.

text: In February 2007, GRB 070201, a short gamma-ray burst arrived at Earth from the direction of the Andromeda Galaxy.  The prevailing explanation of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a neutron star with either a neutron star or a black hole. LIGO reported a non-detection for GRB 070201, ruling out a merger at the distance of Andromeda with high confidence. Such a constraint was predicated on LIGO eventually demonstrating a direct detection of gravitational waves.

text: In February 2007, GRB 070201, a short

text: gamma-ray burst

text: arrived at Earth from the direction of the

text: Andromeda Galaxy

text: .  The prevailing explanation of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a neutron star with either a neutron star or a black hole. LIGO reported a non-detection for GRB 070201, ruling out a merger at the distance of Andromeda with high confidence. Such a constraint was predicated on LIGO eventually demonstrating a direct detection of gravitational waves.

text: AA Ceti is a triple star system; the brightest member has a magnitude of 6.2. The primary and secondary are separated by 8.4 arcseconds at an angle of 304 degrees. The tertiary is not visible in telescopes. AA Ceti is an eclipsing variable star; the tertiary star passes in front of the primary and causes the system's apparent magnitude to decrease by 0.5 magnitudes. UV Ceti is an unusual binary variable star. 8.7 light-years from Earth, the system consists of two red dwarfs. both of magnitude 13. One of the stars is a flare star, which are prone to sudden, random outbursts that last several minutes; these increase the pair's apparent brightness significantly - as high as magnitude 7.

text: AA Ceti

text: is a triple star system; the brightest member has a magnitude of 6.2. The primary and secondary are separated by 8.4 arcseconds at an angle of 304 degrees. The tertiary is not visible in telescopes. AA Ceti is an eclipsing variable star; the tertiary star passes in front of the primary and causes the system's apparent magnitude to decrease by 0.5 magnitudes.

text: UV Ceti

text: is an unusual binary variable star. 8.7 light-years from Earth, the system consists of two

text: red dwarfs

text: . both of magnitude 13. One of the stars is a

text: flare star

text: , which are prone to sudden, random outbursts that last several minutes; these increase the pair's apparent brightness significantly - as high as magnitude 7.

text: All stars more massive than about  are expected to end their lives when their core collapses, typically producing a supernova explosion.  Up to about , a type II-P supernova is always produced from the red supergiant stage.  More massive stars can lose mass quickly enough that they evolve towards higher temperatures before their cores can collapse, particularly for rotating stars and models with especially high mass loss rates.  These stars can produce type II-L or type IIb supernovae from yellow or blue supergiants, or type Ib/c supernovae from Wolf-Rayet stars.  Models of rotating  stars predict a peculiar type II supernova similar to SN 1987A from a blue supergiant progenitor.  On the other hand, non-rotating  models predict a type II-P supernova from a red supergiant progenitor.

text: All stars more massive than about  are expected to end their lives when their core collapses, typically producing a supernova explosion.  Up to about , a type II-P supernova is always produced from the red supergiant stage.  More massive stars can lose mass quickly enough that they evolve towards higher temperatures before their cores can collapse, particularly for rotating stars and models with especially high mass loss rates.  These stars can produce type II-L or type IIb supernovae from yellow or blue supergiants, or type Ib/c supernovae from Wolf-Rayet stars.  Models of rotating  stars predict a peculiar type II supernova similar to

text: SN 1987A

text: from a

text: blue supergiant

text: progenitor.  On the other hand, non-rotating  models predict a type II-P supernova from a red supergiant progenitor.

text: In bodies that are not treated as particles a must be replaced by a, the acceleration of the center of mass of the system, meaning

text: In bodies that are not treated as particles a must be replaced by a, the acceleration of the

text: center of mass

text: of the system, meaning

text: Of the red stars observed by Hertzsprung, the dwarf stars also followed the spectra-luminosity relationship discovered by Russell. However, the giant stars are much brighter than dwarfs and so, do not follow the same relationship. Russell proposed that the "giant stars must have low density or great surface-brightness, and the reverse is true of dwarf stars". The same curve also showed that there were very few faint white stars.

text: This star is reported to be a main sequence F type star a little larger and hotter than the Sun.

text: This star is reported to be a

text: main sequence

text: F type

text: star a little larger and hotter than the

text: Sun

text: The common use of "dwarf" to mean main sequence is confusing in another way, because there are dwarf stars which are not main-sequence stars. For example, a white dwarf is the dead core of a star that is left after the star has shed its outer layers, that is much smaller than a main-sequence star, roughly the size of Earth. These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main-sequence stars.

text: The common use of "dwarf" to mean main sequence is confusing in another way, because there are dwarf stars which are not main-sequence stars. For example, a

text: white dwarf

text: is the dead core of a star that is left after the star has shed its outer layers, that is much smaller than a main-sequence star, roughly the size of

text: Earth

text: . These represent the final evolutionary stage of many main-sequence stars.

text: IXO's imaging X-ray polarimeter will be a powerful tool to explore sources such as neutron stars and black holes, measuring their properties and how they impact their surroundings.

text: IXO's imaging X-ray polarimeter will be a powerful tool to explore sources such as

text: neutron stars

text: and

text: black holes

text: , measuring their properties and how they impact their surroundings.

text: Stars are sometimes grouped by mass based upon their evolutionary behavior as they approach the end of their nuclear fusion lifetimes.

text: The system consists of four T Tauri stars that are located within the TW Hydrae association.  Within the system, there are two separate systems of binary stars.  Each system (separately catalogued as "HD 98800 A" and "HD 98800B") consists of two stars.  Although the four stars are gravitationally bound, the distance separating the two binary pairs is about 50 astronomical units (somewhat more than the average distance between the Sun and Pluto).  Not much is known about each individual star, except that they are basically Solar twin stars.

text: The system consists of four

text: T Tauri star

text: s that are located within the

text: TW Hydrae association

text: .  Within the system, there are two separate systems of binary stars.  Each system (separately catalogued as "HD 98800 A" and "HD 98800B") consists of two stars.  Although the four stars are gravitationally bound, the distance separating the two binary pairs is about 50

text: astronomical unit

text: s (somewhat more than the average distance between the

text: Sun

text: and

text: Pluto

text: ).  Not much is known about each individual star, except that they are basically Solar twin stars.

text: Quantum tunnelling is essential for nuclear fusion in stars. Temperature and pressure in the core of stars are insufficient for nuclei to overcome the Coulomb barrier in order to achieve a thermonuclear fusion. However, there is some probability to penetrate the barrier due to quantum tunnelling. Though the probability is very low, the extreme number of nuclei in a star generates a steady fusion reaction over millions or even billions of years - a precondition for the evolution of life in insolation habitable zones.

text: Quantum tunnelling is essential for nuclear fusion in stars. Temperature and pressure in the core of stars are insufficient for nuclei to overcome the

text: Coulomb barrier

text: in order to achieve a thermonuclear fusion. However, there is some probability to penetrate the barrier due to quantum tunnelling. Though the probability is very low, the extreme number of nuclei in a star generates a steady fusion reaction over millions or even billions of years - a precondition for the evolution of life in insolation habitable zones.

text: She was one of the promising young stars promoted by the company in 1999, along with Jun Sena, the current top star for Moon Troupe; Hikaru Asami, the former top star for Snow Troupe; Kei Takashiro, the former top star for Cosmo Troupe; Kei Aran, the current top star for Star Troupe, Natsuki Mizu, the current top star for Snow Troupe and Yūga Yamato, the current top star for Cosmo Troupe.

text: She was one of the promising young stars promoted by the company in 1999, along with

text: Jun Sena

text: , the current top star for Moon Troupe;

text: Hikaru Asami

text: , the former top star for Snow Troupe;

text: Kei Takashiro

text: , the former top star for Cosmo Troupe;

text: Kei Aran

text: , the current top star for Star Troupe,

text: Natsuki Mizu

text: , the current top star for Snow Troupe and

text: Yūga Yamato

text: , the current top star for Cosmo Troupe.

text: A charged particle accelerator is a complex machine that takes elementary charged particles and accelerates them tovery high energies.  Accelerator physics is a field of physics encompassing all the aspects required to design and operate the equipment and to understand the resulting dynamics of the charged particles.  There are software packages associated with each such domain. A broader index of existing and historical accelerator simulation codes is located at

text: A charged

text: particle accelerator

text: is a complex machine that takes elementary charged particles and accelerates them tovery high energies.

text: Accelerator physics

text: is a field of physics encompassing all the aspects required to design and operate the equipment and to understand the resulting dynamics of the charged particles.  There are software packages associated with each such domain. A broader index of existing and historical accelerator simulation codes is located at

text: Pair production is also the mechanism behind the hypothesized pair instability supernova type of stellar explosion, where pair production suddenly lowers the pressure inside a supergiant star, leading to a partial implosion, and then explosive thermonuclear burning. Supernova SN 2006gy is hypothesized to have been a pair production type supernova.

text: Pair production is also the mechanism behind the hypothesized

text: pair instability supernova

text: type of stellar explosion, where pair production suddenly lowers the pressure inside a supergiant star, leading to a partial implosion, and then explosive thermonuclear burning.

text: Supernova

text: SN 2006gy

text: is hypothesized to have been a pair production type supernova.

text: Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce proton-rich medical or research isotopes as opposed to the neutron-rich ones made in fission reactors; however, recent work has shown how to make Mo, usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of hydrogen, although this method still requires a reactor to produce tritium. An example of this type of machine is LANSCE at Los Alamos.

text: Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce proton-rich medical or research

text: isotope

text: s as opposed to the neutron-rich ones made in fission reactors; however, recent work has shown how to make

text: Mo

text: , usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of hydrogen, although this method still requires a reactor to produce

text: tritium

text: . An example of this type of machine is LANSCE at

text: Los Alamos

text: Two of the franchises Demers coached in the WHA were the Chicago Cougars and the Quebec Nordiques. Additionally, he was the exceedingly popular coach of the Indianapolis Racers, which won the Eastern Division championship under his guidance. Demers had the opportunity to coach Wayne Gretzky in the 1979 WHA All-Star Series. The format of the series was a three-game set that pitted the WHA All-Stars against HC Moscow Dynamo. Demers asked Gordie Howe if it was okay to put him on a line with Wayne Gretzky and his son Mark Howe. In Game One, the line scored seven points as the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4–2. In Game Two, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4–2. The line did not score in the final game, but the WHA won by a score of 4–3.

text: Two of the franchises Demers coached in the WHA were the

text: Chicago Cougars

text: and the

text: Quebec Nordiques

text: . Additionally, he was the exceedingly popular coach of the

text: Indianapolis Racers

text: , which won the Eastern Division championship under his guidance. Demers had the opportunity to coach

text: Wayne Gretzky

text: in the 1979 WHA All-Star Series. The format of the series was a three-game set that pitted the WHA All-Stars against

text: HC Moscow Dynamo

text: . Demers asked

text: Gordie Howe

text: if it was okay to put him on a line with Wayne Gretzky and his son

text: Mark Howe

text: . In Game One, the line scored seven points as the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4–2. In Game Two, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4–2. The line did not score in the final game, but the WHA won by a score of 4–3.

text: In Chinese astronomy, the stars corresponding to Canis Minor lie in the The Vermilion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, Nán Fāng Zhū Què). Procyon, Gomeisa and Eta Canis Minoris form an asterism known as Nánhé, the Southern River. With its counterpart, the Northern River Beihe (Castor and Pollux), Nánhé was also associated with a gate or sentry. Along with Zeta and 8 Cancri, 6 Canis Minoris and 11 Canis Minoris formed the asterism Shuiwei, which literally means "water level". Combined with additional stars in Gemini, Shuiwei represented an official who managed floodwaters or a marker of the water level. Neighboring Korea recognized four stars in Canis Minor as part of a different constellation, "the position of the water". This constellation was located in the Red Bird, the southern portion of the sky.

text: In

text: Chinese astronomy

text: , the stars corresponding to Canis Minor lie in the

text: The Vermilion Bird of the South

text: (南方朱雀, Nán Fāng Zhū Què). Procyon, Gomeisa and Eta Canis Minoris form an

text: asterism

text: known as Nánhé, the Southern River. With its counterpart, the Northern River Beihe (

text: Castor

text: and

text: Pollux

text: ), Nánhé was also associated with a gate or sentry. Along with

text: Zeta

text: and

text: 8 Cancri

text: 6 Canis Minoris

text: and

text: 11 Canis Minoris

text: formed the asterism Shuiwei, which literally means "water level". Combined with additional stars in

text: Gemini

text: , Shuiwei represented an official who managed floodwaters or a marker of the water level. Neighboring Korea recognized four stars in Canis Minor as part of a different constellation, "the position of the water". This constellation was located in the Red Bird, the southern portion of the sky.

text: The stars of Auriga were incorporated into several Chinese constellations. Wuche, the five chariots of the celestial emperors and the representation of the grain harvest, was a constellation formed by Alpha Aurigae, Beta Aurigae, Beta Tauri, Theta Aurigae, and Iota Aurigae. Sanzhu or Zhu was one of three constellations which represented poles for horses to be tethered. They were formed by the triplets of Epsilon, Zeta, and Eta Aurigae; Nu, Tau, and Upsilon Aurigae; and Chi and 26 Aurigae, with one other undetermined star. Xianchi, the pond where the sun set and Tianhuang, a pond, bridge, or pier, were other constellations in Auriga, though the stars that composed them are undetermined. Zuoqi, representing chairs for the emperor and other officials, was made up of nine stars in the east of the constellation. Bagu, a constellation mostly formed from stars in Camelopardalis representing different types of crops, included the northern stars of Delta and Xi Aurigae.

text: The stars of Auriga were incorporated into several Chinese constellations. Wuche, the five chariots of the celestial emperors and the representation of the grain harvest, was a constellation formed by Alpha Aurigae, Beta Aurigae, Beta Tauri, Theta Aurigae, and Iota Aurigae. Sanzhu or Zhu was one of three constellations which represented poles for horses to be tethered. They were formed by the triplets of Epsilon, Zeta, and Eta Aurigae; Nu, Tau, and Upsilon Aurigae; and Chi and 26 Aurigae, with one other undetermined star. Xianchi, the pond where the sun set and Tianhuang, a pond, bridge, or pier, were other constellations in Auriga, though the stars that composed them are undetermined. Zuoqi, representing chairs for the emperor and other officials, was made up of nine stars in the east of the constellation. Bagu, a constellation mostly formed from stars in

text: Camelopardalis

text: representing different types of crops, included the northern stars of Delta and Xi Aurigae.

text: In main sequence stars of less than about 10 solar masses, the outer envelope of the star contains a region where partial ionization of hydrogen and helium raises the heat capacity.  The relatively low temperature in this region simultaneously causes the opacity due to heavier elements to be high enough to produce a steep temperature gradient. This combination of circumstances produces an outer convection zone, the top of which is visible in the Sun as solar granulation. Low mass main sequences of stars, such as red dwarfs below 0.35 solar masses, as well as pre-main sequence stars on the Hayashi track, are convective throughout and do not contain a radiation zone.

text: In main sequence stars of less than about 10 solar masses, the outer envelope of the star contains a region where partial

text: ionization

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: raises the heat capacity.  The relatively low temperature in this region simultaneously causes the

text: opacity

text: due to heavier elements to be high enough to produce a steep temperature gradient. This combination of circumstances produces an outer convection zone, the top of which is visible in the Sun as

text: solar granulation.

text: Low mass main sequences of stars, such as

text: red dwarf

text: s below 0.35

text: solar mass

text: es, as well as pre-main sequence stars on the

text: Hayashi track

text: , are convective throughout and do not contain a radiation zone.

text: Tucana is a constellation of stars in the southern sky, named after the toucan, a South American bird. It is one of twelve constellations conceived in the late sixteenth century by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. Tucana first appeared on a  celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer's star atlas Uranometria of 1603. French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille gave its stars Bayer designations in 1756. The constellations Tucana, Grus, Phoenix and Pavo are collectively known as the "Southern Birds".

text: Tucana is a

text: constellation

text: of stars in the

text: southern sky

text: , named after the

text: toucan

text: , a

text: South America

text: n

text: bird

text: . It is one of twelve constellations conceived in the late sixteenth century by

text: Petrus Plancius

text: from the observations of

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: and

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: . Tucana first appeared on a

text: celestial globe

text: published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and

text: Jodocus Hondius

text: and was depicted in

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's star atlas

text: Uranometria

text: of 1603. French explorer and astronomer

text: Nicolas Louis de Lacaille

text: gave its stars

text: Bayer designation

text: s in 1756. The constellations Tucana,

text: Grus

text: Phoenix

text: and

text: Pavo

text: are collectively known as the "Southern Birds".

text: A collider is a type of particle accelerator involving directed beams of particles. Colliders may either be ring accelerators or linear accelerators, and may collide a single beam of particles against a stationary target or two beams head-on.

text: A collider is a type of

text: particle accelerator

text: involving directed beams of

text: particles

text: . Colliders may either be

text: ring accelerator

text: s or

text: linear accelerator

text: s, and may collide a single beam of particles against a stationary target or two beams head-on.

text: RR Caeli is a double star in the constellation Caelum. It is approximately 66 light years from Earth. It was first noted to be a high-proper motion star in 1955 by Jacob Luyten, and given the name LFT 349. Discovered to be an eclipsing binary in 1979, it has a baseline magnitude of 14.36, dimming markedly every 7.2 hours for an interval of around 10 minutes, due to the total eclipse of the brighter star by the fainter one. Its variability in brightness led to its being given the variable star designation RR Caeli in 1984. This star system consists of a red dwarf of spectral type M6 and a white dwarf that orbit each other every seven hours; the former is 18% as massive as the Sun, while the latter has 44% of the Sun's mass. The red dwarf is tidally locked with the white dwarf, meaning it displays the same side to the heavier star. The system is also a post-common-envelope binary, and the red dwarf star is transferring material onto the white dwarf. In approximately 9–20 billion years, RR Caeli will likely become a cataclysmic variable star due to the period's gradual shortening, leading to increasing rates of transfer of hydrogen to the surface of the white dwarf.

text: RR Caeli is a

text: double star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Caelum

text: . It is approximately 66

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: . It was first noted to be a

text: high-proper motion

text: star in 1955 by

text: Jacob Luyten

text: , and given the name LFT 349. Discovered to be an

text: eclipsing binary

text: in 1979, it has a baseline

text: magnitude

text: of 14.36, dimming markedly every 7.2 hours for an interval of around 10 minutes, due to the total eclipse of the brighter star by the fainter one. Its variability in brightness led to its being given the variable star designation RR Caeli in 1984. This star system consists of a

text: red dwarf

text: of

text: spectral type

text: M6 and a

text: white dwarf

text: that orbit each other every seven hours; the former is 18% as massive as the Sun, while the latter has 44% of the Sun's mass. The red dwarf is

text: tidally locked

text: with the white dwarf, meaning it displays the same side to the heavier star. The system is also a post-

text: common-envelope binary

text: , and the red dwarf star is transferring material onto the white dwarf. In approximately 9–20 billion years, RR Caeli will likely become a

text: cataclysmic variable

text: star due to the period's gradual shortening, leading to increasing rates of transfer of hydrogen to the surface of the white dwarf.

text: On the surface of the white dwarf, the accreted gas will become compressed and heated. At some point the accumulated gas can reach the conditions necessary for hydrogen fusion to occur, producing a runaway reaction that will drive a portion of the gas from the surface. This would result in a (recurrent) nova explosion—a cataclysmic variable star—and the luminosity of the white dwarf rapidly would increase by several magnitudes for a period of several days or months. An example of such a star system is RS Ophiuchi, a binary system consisting of a red giant and a white dwarf companion. RS Ophiuchi has flared into a (recurrent) nova on at least six occasions, each time accreting the critical mass of hydrogen needed to produce a runaway explosion.

text: On the surface of the white dwarf, the accreted gas will become compressed and heated. At some point the accumulated gas can reach the conditions necessary for hydrogen fusion to occur, producing a

text: runaway

text: reaction that will drive a portion of the gas from the surface. This would result in a (recurrent)

text: nova

text: explosion—a cataclysmic variable star—and the luminosity of the white dwarf rapidly would increase by several

text: magnitudes

text: for a period of several days or months. An example of such a star system is

text: RS Ophiuchi

text: , a binary system consisting of a red giant and a white dwarf companion. RS Ophiuchi has flared into a (recurrent) nova on at least six occasions, each time accreting the critical mass of hydrogen needed to produce a runaway explosion.

text: The discovery of this massive star also cast some doubt on the prevailing theory that the ULX is generated by a black hole accretion disc. A calculation of the orbits of a binary system with the components detailed above suggests an orbital period of 200–300 hours, depending on the exact masses involved. However, a 2006 study found no evidence of any periodic variations at all in the luminosity of the X-ray source, although the strength does vary randomly over timescales of a few days. As a result, the study advanced an alternative theory that the X-ray source is generated by the supergiant's corona, which would be capable of generating a very powerful X-ray source because of the extreme luminousity of the parent star. Supergiant stars also known to experience large variations in luminosity more or less at random, which would heat the corona to varying degrees and explain the observed changes in X-ray emission strength.

text: The discovery of this massive star also cast some doubt on the prevailing theory that the ULX is generated by a black hole accretion disc. A calculation of the orbits of a binary system with the components detailed above suggests an orbital period of 200–300 hours, depending on the exact masses involved. However, a 2006 study found no evidence of any periodic variations at all in the luminosity of the X-ray source, although the strength does vary randomly over timescales of a few days. As a result, the study advanced an alternative theory that the X-ray source is generated by the supergiant's

text: corona

text: , which would be capable of generating a very powerful X-ray source because of the extreme luminousity of the parent star. Supergiant stars also known to experience large variations in luminosity more or less at random, which would heat the corona to varying degrees and explain the observed changes in X-ray emission strength.

text: Lively appeared as Pink's on-screen boyfriend in her music video "Please Don't Leave Me" in 2009, with stuntman Justin Sundquist serving as his stunt double. In 2012, he guest starred in the Lifetime series The Client List.

text: Lively appeared as

text: Pink

text: 's on-screen boyfriend in her music video "

text: Please Don't Leave Me

text: " in 2009, with stuntman Justin Sundquist serving as his stunt double. In 2012, he guest starred in the

text: Lifetime

text: series

text: The Client List

text: Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan–Keenan (MK) system using the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, a sequence from the hottest (O type) to the coolest (M type). Each letter class is then subdivided using a numeric digit with 0 being hottest and 9 being coolest (e.g. A8, A9, F0, F1 form a sequence from hotter to cooler). The sequence has been expanded with classes for other stars and star-like objects that do not fit in the classical system, such as class D for white dwarfs and class C for carbon stars.

text: Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan–Keenan (MK) system using the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, a sequence from the hottest (O type) to the coolest (M type). Each letter class is then subdivided using a numeric digit with 0 being hottest and 9 being coolest (e.g. A8, A9, F0, F1 form a sequence from hotter to cooler). The sequence has been expanded with classes for other stars and star-like objects that do not fit in the classical system, such as class D for

text: white dwarf

text: s and class C for

text: carbon star

text: s.

text: A-type stars are among the more common naked eye stars, and are white or bluish-white. They have strong hydrogen lines, at a maximum by A0, and also lines of ionized metals (Fe II, Mg II, Si II) at a maximum at A5. The presence of Ca II lines is notably strengthening by this point. About 1 in 160 (0.625%) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are A-type stars.

text: A-type stars are among the more common naked eye stars, and are white or bluish-white. They have strong hydrogen lines, at a maximum by A0, and also lines of ionized metals (

text: Fe

text: II,

text: Mg

text: II,

text: Si

text: II) at a maximum at A5. The presence of

text: Ca

text: II lines is notably strengthening by this point. About 1 in 160 (0.625%) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are A-type stars.

text: Greenhouse Item was an American nuclear test conducted on May 25, 1951, as part of Operation Greenhouse at the Pacific Proving Ground, specifically on the island of Engebi in the Eniwetok Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean. This test explosion was the first test of a boosted fission weapon. In this test deuterium-tritium (D-T) gas was injected into the enriched uranium core of a nuclear fission bomb. The extreme heat of the fissioning bomb produced thermonuclear fusion reactions within the D-T gas, but not enough of them to be considered a full nuclear fusion bomb. This fusion reaction released a large number of free neutrons, which greatly increased the efficiency of the nuclear fission reaction. The explosive yield of this bomb was 45.5 kilotons, about twice the yield of the unboosted bomb.

text: Greenhouse Item was an American

text: nuclear test

text: conducted on May 25, 1951, as part of

text: Operation Greenhouse

text: at the

text: Pacific Proving Ground

text: , specifically on the island of Engebi in the

text: Eniwetok Atoll

text: in the

text: Central Pacific Ocean

text: . This test explosion was the first test of a

text: boosted fission weapon

text: . In this test

text: deuterium

text: tritium

text: (D-T) gas was injected into the

text: enriched uranium

text: core of a

text: nuclear fission bomb

text: . The extreme heat of the fissioning bomb produced

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: reactions within the D-T gas, but not enough of them to be considered a full nuclear fusion bomb. This fusion reaction released a large number of free

text: neutron

text: s, which greatly increased the efficiency of the

text: nuclear fission

text: reaction. The

text: explosive yield

text: of this bomb was 45.5

text: kiloton

text: s, about twice the yield of the unboosted bomb.

text: A few references to Star Wars have been inserted into Star Trek films. For fleeting moments, one can see ships and droids from Star Wars in both Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013). Some Star Trek films and TV episodes also used Industrial Light and Magic, founded to provide effects for Star Wars, for their special effects.

text: A few references to Star Wars have been inserted into Star Trek films. For fleeting moments, one can see ships and droids from Star Wars in both Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013). Some Star Trek films and TV episodes also used

text: Industrial Light and Magic

text: , founded to provide effects for Star Wars, for their special effects.

text: At RPI, a constellation is a multidisciplinary team composed of senior and junior faculty members, research scientists, and postdoc, graduate, and undergraduate students. The faculty of each constellation includes three or more outstanding stars in a particular research field. The three professors at TWC are James Hendler, Deborah McGuinness and Peter Fox. Faculty alumni of TWC includes Heng Ji (Natural Language Processing) .

text: At RPI, a constellation is a multidisciplinary team composed of senior and junior faculty members, research scientists, and postdoc, graduate, and undergraduate students. The faculty of each constellation includes three or more outstanding stars in a particular research field. The three professors at TWC are

text: James Hendler

text: Deborah McGuinness

text: and

text: Peter Fox

text: . Faculty alumni of TWC includes Heng Ji (Natural Language Processing) .

text: The first extrasolar X-ray source was discovered on June 12, 1962. This source is called Scorpius X-1, the first X-ray source found in the constellation of Scorpius, located in the direction of the center of the Milky Way. Scorpius X-1 is some 9,000 ly from Earth and after the Sun is the strongest X-ray source in the sky at energies below 20 keV. Its X-ray output is 2.3 × 10 W, about 60,000 times the total luminosity of the Sun. Scorpius X-1 itself is a neutron star. This system is classified as a low-mass X-ray binary (LMXB); the neutron star is roughly 1.4 solar masses, while the donor star is only 0.42 solar masses.

text: The first extrasolar X-ray source was discovered on June 12, 1962. This source is called

text: Scorpius X-1

text: , the first X-ray source found in the constellation of

text: Scorpius

text: , located in the direction of the center of the

text: Milky Way

text: . Scorpius X-1 is some 9,000

text: ly

text: from Earth and after the Sun is the

text: strongest

text: X-ray source in the sky at energies below 20 keV. Its X-ray output is 2.3 × 10

text: W

text: , about 60,000 times the total luminosity of the Sun. Scorpius X-1 itself is a neutron star. This system is classified as a

text: low-mass X-ray binary

text: (LMXB); the neutron star is roughly 1.4

text: solar masses

text: , while the donor star is only 0.42 solar masses.

text: AR Scorpii is a binary star that contains a rapidly spinning White dwarf and a Red dwarf.

text: AR Scorpii is a

text: binary star

text: that contains a rapidly spinning

text: White dwarf

text: and a

text: Red dwarf

text: Smith has written three other teleplays, all of which have been produced and have aired: Dying to be Perfect: the Ellen Hart Pena Story, on ABC, starring Crystal Bernard and Esai Morales); Another Woman’s Husband, also by Lifetime Television, starring Lisa Rinna and Gail O'Grady; and Love Lessons, on CBS, starring Patty Duke.

text: Smith has written three other teleplays, all of which have been produced and have aired: Dying to be Perfect: the

text: Ellen Hart Pena

text: Story, on ABC, starring

text: Crystal Bernard

text: and

text: Esai Morales

text: ); Another Woman’s Husband, also by Lifetime Television, starring

text: Lisa Rinna

text: and

text: Gail O'Grady

text: ; and Love Lessons, on CBS, starring

text: Patty Duke

text: Gould designations for stars are similar to Flamsteed designations in the way that they number stars within a constellation in increasing order of right ascension. Each star is assigned an integer (starting at 1), followed by " G. " (or occasionally followed directly by a "G" without a space), and then the Latin genitive of the constellation it lies in. See 88 modern constellations for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names.

text: Gould designations for

text: star

text: s are similar to

text: Flamsteed designations

text: in the way that they number stars within a

text: constellation

text: in increasing order of

text: right ascension

text: . Each star is assigned an integer (starting at 1), followed by " G. " (or occasionally followed directly by a "G" without a space), and then the Latin

text: genitive

text: of the

text: constellation

text: it lies in. See

text: 88 modern constellations

text: for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names.

text: The constellations around the South Pole were not observable from north of the equator, by Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese or Arabs. The modern constellations in this region were defined during the Age of Exploration, notably by Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman at the end of sixteenth century. These twelve Dutch-created southern constellations represented flora and fauna of the East Indies and Madagascar. They were depicted by Johann Bayer in his star atlas Uranometria of 1603. Several more were created by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in his star catalogue, published in 1756. By the end of the Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi introduced 23 asterisms of the southern sky based on the knowledge of western star charts. These asterisms have since been incorporated into the traditional Chinese star maps. Among the IAU's 88 modern constellations, there are 15 Dutch-created constellations (including Apus, Camelopardalis, Chamaeleon, Columba, Dorado, Grus, Hydrus, Indus, Monoceros, Musca, Pavo, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe, Tucana and Volans).

text: The constellations around the

text: South Pole

text: were not observable from north of the

text: equator

text: , by Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese or

text: Arabs

text: . The modern constellations in this region were defined during the

text: Age of Exploration

text: , notably by Dutch navigators

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: and

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: at the end of sixteenth century. These twelve Dutch-created

text: southern constellations

text: represented

text: flora

text: and

text: fauna

text: of the

text: East Indies

text: and

text: Madagascar

text: . They were depicted by

text: Johann Bayer

text: in his

text: star atlas

text: Uranometria

text: of 1603. Several more were created by

text: Nicolas Louis de Lacaille

text: in his star catalogue, published in 1756. By the end of the

text: Ming Dynasty

text: Xu Guangqi

text: introduced 23 asterisms of the southern sky based on the knowledge of western star charts. These asterisms have since been incorporated into the traditional Chinese star maps. Among the

text: IAU

text: 's

text: 88 modern constellations

text: , there are 15 Dutch-created

text: constellation

text: s (including

text: Apus

text: Camelopardalis

text: Chamaeleon

text: Columba

text: Dorado

text: Grus

text: Hydrus

text: Indus

text: Monoceros

text: Musca

text: Pavo

text: Phoenix

text: Triangulum Australe

text: Tucana

text: and

text: Volans

text: In 1979, Shklovsky predicted that Cas A had a black hole. In 1999, the Chandra X-Ray Observatory found a "hot point-like source" close to the center of the nebula that is quite likely the neutron star or black hole predicted but not previously found.

text: In 1979,

text: Shklovsky

text: predicted that Cas A had a

text: black hole

text: . In 1999, the

text: Chandra X-Ray Observatory

text: found a "hot point-like source" close to the center of the nebula that is quite likely the

text: neutron star

text: or black hole predicted but not previously found.

text: His directing credits include the Lionsgate release Summoned, starring Cuba Gooding Jr., Ashley Scott, and Bailey Chase; High School Possession, a horror thriller starring Janel Parrish, Jennifer Stone, Ione Skye, Kelly Hu, and William McNamara; Dear Secret Santa starring Tatyana Ali, Jordin Sparks, Lamorne Morris, Ernie Hudson, Bill Cobbs, and Della Reese; Hidden Away, a Lifetime thriller starring Emmanuelle Vaugier, Ivan Sergei, Sean Patrick Flanery, Allie Gonino, and Elisabeth Röhm; the Lifetime original Christmas movie, All About Christmas Eve, starring Haylie Duff, Chris Carmack, Connie Sellecca and Patrick Muldoon and Christmas Twister, starring Casper Van Dien, Victoria Pratt, and Richard Burgi; 12 Wishes of Christmas, starring Elisa Donovan, Fred Willard, Gabrielle Carteris, Michael Gross, Chonda Pierce, Sarah Thompson and David O'Donnell and The Dog Who Saved Halloween, starring Dean Cain, Gary Valentine, Elisa Donovan, Curtis Armstrong, Joey Lawrence, Mayim Bialik and Lance Henriksen, the acclaimed short Stephen King Night Surf, and the comedy web-series Everyone Counts, about the 2010 Census featuring French Stewart. In the summer of 2007, he directed a series of behind-the-scenes segments for the hit web-series In the Motherhood, starring Leah Remini, Chelsea Handler and Lainie Kazan.

text: His directing credits include the Lionsgate release Summoned, starring

text: Cuba Gooding Jr.

text: Ashley Scott

text: , and

text: Bailey Chase

text: ; High School Possession, a horror thriller starring

text: Janel Parrish

text: Jennifer Stone

text: Ione Skye

text: Kelly Hu

text: , and

text: William McNamara

text: Dear Secret Santa

text: starring

text: Tatyana Ali

text: Jordin Sparks

text: Lamorne Morris

text: Ernie Hudson

text: Bill Cobbs

text: , and

text: Della Reese

text: ; Hidden Away, a Lifetime thriller starring

text: Emmanuelle Vaugier

text: Ivan Sergei

text: Sean Patrick Flanery

text: Allie Gonino

text: , and

text: Elisabeth Röhm

text: ; the Lifetime original Christmas movie, All About Christmas Eve, starring

text: Haylie Duff

text: Chris Carmack

text: Connie Sellecca

text: and

text: Patrick Muldoon

text: and Christmas Twister, starring

text: Casper Van Dien

text: Victoria Pratt

text: , and

text: Richard Burgi

text: ; 12 Wishes of Christmas, starring

text: Elisa Donovan

text: Fred Willard

text: Gabrielle Carteris

text: Michael Gross

text: Chonda Pierce

text: Sarah Thompson

text: and

text: David O'Donnell

text: and The Dog Who Saved Halloween, starring

text: Dean Cain

text: Gary Valentine

text: Elisa Donovan

text: Curtis Armstrong

text: Joey Lawrence

text: Mayim Bialik

text: and

text: Lance Henriksen

text: , the acclaimed short

text: Stephen King

text: Night Surf

text: , and the comedy web-series Everyone Counts, about the 2010 Census featuring

text: French Stewart

text: . In the summer of 2007, he directed a series of behind-the-scenes segments for the hit web-series

text: In the Motherhood

text: , starring

text: Leah Remini

text: Chelsea Handler

text: and

text: Lainie Kazan

text: The concept of an all-star game was not revived until June 1950, when the newly christened "Pro Bowl" was approved. The game was sponsored by the Los Angeles Publishers Association. It was decided that the game would feature all-star teams from each of the league's two conferences rather than the league champion versus all-star format which had been used previously. This was done to avoid confusion with the Chicago College All-Star Game, an annual game which featured the league champion against a collegiate all-star team. The teams would be led by the coach of each of the conference champions. Immediately prior to the Pro Bowl, following the 1949 season, the All-America Football Conference, which contributed three teams to the NFL in a partial merger in 1950, held its own all-star game, the Shamrock Bowl.

text: The concept of an all-star game was not revived until June 1950, when the newly christened "Pro Bowl" was approved. The game was sponsored by the

text: Los Angeles Publishers Association

text: . It was decided that the game would feature all-star teams from each of the league's two conferences rather than the league champion versus all-star format which had been used previously. This was done to avoid confusion with the

text: Chicago College All-Star Game

text: , an annual game which featured the league champion against a

text: collegiate

text: all-star team. The teams would be led by the coach of each of the conference champions. Immediately prior to the Pro Bowl, following the 1949 season, the

text: All-America Football Conference

text: , which contributed three teams to the NFL in a partial merger in 1950, held its own all-star game, the

entity_name: All-America Football Conference All-Star Game

text: Shamrock Bowl

text: 66 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.2.

text: 66 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.2.

text: The Nova Bomb is a weapon with the power to destroy a solar system. It utilizes a powerful fictional element called Voltarium. It is then fired into the core of a star where it reverses the gravity in an area larger than that of the star. The internal pressure of the star then creates a nova, destroying everything in the star's vicinity. On a smaller scale, it can destroy a planet, like the planet Samsarra in the episode "Point of the Spear". In episode 2 of season 1 all of the ship's 40 nova bombs are fired into a black hole, unleashing an explosive power equaling 2 million Teratons of TNT and turning the black hole into a white hole or "a miniature version of the Big Bang".

text: The Nova Bomb is a weapon with the power to destroy a solar system. It utilizes a powerful fictional element called Voltarium. It is then fired into the core of a star where it reverses the gravity in an area larger than that of the star. The internal pressure of the star then creates a

text: nova

text: , destroying everything in the star's vicinity. On a smaller scale, it can destroy a planet, like the planet Samsarra in the episode "Point of the Spear". In episode 2 of season 1 all of the ship's 40 nova bombs are fired into a

text: black hole

text: , unleashing an explosive power equaling 2 million

text: Teraton

text: s of

text: TNT

text: and turning the black hole into a

text: white hole

text: or "a miniature version of the Big Bang".

text: Charmed baryons are formed in high-energy particle collisions, such as those produced by particle accelerators. The general method to find them is to detect their decay products, identify what particles they are, and measure their momenta. If all the decay products are found and measured correctly, then the mass of the parent particle may be calculated. As an example, a favored decay of the  is into a proton, a kaon and a pion. The momenta of these (rather stable) particles are measured by the detector and using the usual rules of four-momentum using the correct relativistic equations, this gives a measure of the mass of the parent particle.

text: Charmed baryons are formed in high-energy particle collisions, such as those produced by

text: particle accelerators

text: . The general method to find them is to detect their decay products, identify what particles they are, and measure their

text: momenta

text: . If all the decay products are found and measured correctly, then the mass of the parent particle may be calculated. As an example, a favored decay of the  is into a

text: proton

text: , a

text: kaon

text: and a

text: pion

text: . The momenta of these (rather stable) particles are measured by the detector and using the usual rules of

text: four-momentum

text: using the correct relativistic equations, this gives a measure of the mass of the parent particle.

text: HD 53705, with a spectral type of G0V, is a G-type main-sequence star that is slightly hotter, larger and brighter than our Sun. Meanwhile, HD 53706 and HD 53680 A are both K-type main-sequence stars, with spectral types of K0V and K5V, respectively. Both of these stars are substantially cooler, smaller and dimmer than the Sun.

text: HD 53705, with a spectral type of G0V, is a

text: G-type main-sequence star

text: that is slightly hotter, larger and brighter than our Sun. Meanwhile, HD 53706 and HD 53680 A are both

text: K-type main-sequence star

text: s, with spectral types of K0V and K5V, respectively. Both of these stars are substantially cooler, smaller and dimmer than the Sun.

text: On April 1, 2015, it was revealed that Will Ferrell, Kristen Wiig, and Jessica Lowndes were set to star in the film as a parody of the genre of Lifetime films, with Rachel Lee Goldenberg directing and Andrew Steele writing the screenplay. Adam McKay's production company Gary Sanchez Productions and Ferrell are executive producing. The next day, Ferrell issued a statement regarding the film saying "We are deeply disappointed that our planned top-secret project was made public, Kristen and I have decided it is in the best interest for everyone to forgo the project entirely, and we thank Lifetime and all the people who were ready to help us make this film." shooting down the prospect of the film being released. However, in June 2015, a billboard for the film was spotted with a release date of June 20, 2015.

text: On

text: April 1

text: , 2015, it was revealed that Will Ferrell, Kristen Wiig, and Jessica Lowndes were set to star in the film as a

text: parody

text: of the genre of Lifetime films, with

text: Rachel Lee Goldenberg

text: directing and Andrew Steele writing the screenplay.

text: Adam McKay

text: 's production company

text: Gary Sanchez Productions

text: and Ferrell are executive producing. The next day, Ferrell issued a statement regarding the film saying "We are deeply disappointed that our planned top-secret project was made public, Kristen and I have decided it is in the best interest for everyone to forgo the project entirely, and we thank Lifetime and all the people who were ready to help us make this film." shooting down the prospect of the film being released. However, in June 2015, a billboard for the film was spotted with a release date of June 20, 2015.

text: In the traditional Arabic astrological system, the moon was seen to move through 28 distinct manazil (singular: manzil = house) during the normal solar year, each manzil lasting, therefore, for about 13 days. One or more manazil were then grouped into a nawaa (pluaral anwaa) which were tied to a given weather pattern. In other words, the yearly pattern was divided in the following manner: A year was divided into anwaa, each of which was made up of one more manazil, which were associated with a dominant star or constellation. These stars and constellations were sometimes, but not always, connected in some way to constellations in the Zodiac. Moreover, as the anwaa' repeat on a regular, solar cycle, they can be correlated to fixed points on the Gregorian calendar.

text: In the traditional

text: Arabic astrological system

text: , the moon was seen to move through 28 distinct manazil (singular: manzil = house) during the normal solar year, each manzil lasting, therefore, for about 13 days. One or more manazil were then grouped into a nawaa (pluaral anwaa) which were tied to a given weather pattern. In other words, the yearly pattern was divided in the following manner: A year was divided into anwaa, each of which was made up of one more manazil, which were associated with a dominant star or constellation. These stars and constellations were sometimes, but not always, connected in some way to constellations in the

text: Zodiac

text: . Moreover, as the anwaa' repeat on a regular, solar cycle, they can be correlated to fixed points on the Gregorian calendar.

text: Further types of variable stars, such as RV Tauri variables and PV Telescopii variables, are often described as supergiants.  RV Tau stars are frequently assigned spectral types with a supergiant luminosity class on account of their low surface gravity, and they are amongst the most luminous of the AGB and post-AGB stars, having masses similar to the sun. Likewise the even rarer PV Tel variables are often classified as supergiants, but have lower luminosities than supergiants and peculiar B[e] spectra extremely deficient in hydrogen.  Possibly they are also post-AGB objects, or perhaps "born-again" AGB stars.

text: Further types of variable stars, such as

text: RV Tauri variables

text: and

text: PV Telescopii variable

text: s, are often described as supergiants.  RV Tau stars are frequently assigned spectral types with a supergiant luminosity class on account of their low surface gravity, and they are amongst the most luminous of the AGB and post-AGB stars, having masses similar to the sun. Likewise the even rarer PV Tel variables are often classified as supergiants, but have lower luminosities than supergiants and peculiar B[e] spectra extremely deficient in hydrogen.  Possibly they are also post-AGB objects, or perhaps "born-again" AGB stars.

text: There are two major differences between the synchrocyclotron and the classical cyclotron. In the synchrocyclotron, only one dee retains its classical shape, while the other pole is open (see patent sketch). Furthermore, the frequency of oscillating electric field in a synchrocyclotron is decreasing continuously instead of kept constant so as to maintain cyclotron resonance for relativistic velocities. One terminal of the oscillating electric potential varying periodically is applied to the dee and the other terminal is on ground potential. The protons or deuterons to be accelerated are made to move in circles of increasing radius. The acceleration of particles takes place as they enter or leave the dee. At the outer edge, the ion beam can be removed with the aid of electrostatic deflector. It was possible to produce 200 MeV deuterons and 400 MeV α-particles with the first synchrocyclotron.

text: There are two major differences between the synchrocyclotron and the classical cyclotron. In the synchrocyclotron, only one dee retains its classical shape, while the other pole is open (see patent sketch). Furthermore, the frequency of oscillating electric field in a synchrocyclotron is decreasing continuously instead of kept constant so as to maintain

text: cyclotron resonance

text: for relativistic velocities. One terminal of the oscillating electric potential varying periodically is applied to the dee and the other terminal is on ground potential. The protons or

text: deuterons

text: to be accelerated are made to move in circles of increasing radius. The acceleration of particles takes place as they enter or leave the dee. At the outer edge, the ion beam can be removed with the aid of electrostatic deflector. It was possible to produce 200 MeV deuterons and 400 MeV

text: α-particles

text: with the first synchrocyclotron.

text: This is a chemically peculiar star and was first classified as a silicon star by American astronomer William Morgan in 1933. The stellar spectrum displays an overabundance of heavier elements; particularly silicon and gallium. These abundances may be caused by the magnetic field of the star, which produces concentrations of the observed elements in the outer atmosphere. It is a α² Canum Venaticorum-type variable star, ranging in magnitude from 5.15 down to 5.22. These variations are likely due to large spots or rings on the side of the star being observed.

text: This is a

text: chemically peculiar star

text: and was first classified as a

text: silicon star

text: by American astronomer

text: William Morgan

text: in 1933. The

text: stellar spectrum

text: displays an overabundance of heavier elements; particularly silicon and gallium. These abundances may be caused by the

text: magnetic field

text: of the star, which produces concentrations of the observed elements in the

text: outer atmosphere

text: . It is a

text: α² Canum Venaticorum

text: -type

text: variable star

text: , ranging in magnitude from 5.15 down to 5.22. These variations are likely due to large

text: spots

text: or rings on the side of the star being observed.

text: The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through Eta to label the most prominent stars in the constellation. John Flamsteed gave nine stars Flamsteed designations, while one star he designated in the neighbouring constellation Crater—31 Crateris—ended up in Corvus.  Within the constellation's borders, there are 29 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.

text: The German cartographer

text: Johann Bayer

text: used the Greek letters

text: Alpha

text: through

text: Eta

text: to label the most prominent stars in the constellation.

text: John Flamsteed

text: gave nine stars

text: Flamsteed designation

text: s, while one star he designated in the neighbouring constellation Crater—

text: 31 Crateris

text: —ended up in Corvus.  Within the constellation's borders, there are 29 stars brighter than or equal to

text: apparent magnitude

text: In addition to being a contestant on Rock Star: Supernova, Large appeared as a guest on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on September 11, 2006.  She discussed her childhood (and her unique name) with Ellen and performed Queen's "We Are the Champions" with Paul Mirkovich from the Rock Star: Supernova house band accompanying her on piano.

text: In addition to being a contestant on Rock Star: Supernova, Large appeared as a guest on

text: The Ellen DeGeneres Show

text: on September 11, 2006.  She discussed her childhood (and her unique name) with Ellen and performed

text: Queen

text: 's "

text: We Are the Champions

text: " with Paul Mirkovich from the Rock Star: Supernova

text: house band

text: accompanying her on piano.

text: The NGC 4038 Group is a group of galaxies across Corvus and Crater. The group may contain between 13 and 27 galaxies. The best-known member is the Antennae peculiar galaxy, located 0.25 north of 31 Crateris.  It consists of two interacting galaxies—NGC 4038 and 4039—that appear to have a heart shape as seen from Earth. The name originates from the huge tidal tails that come off the ends of the two galaxies, formed because of the spiral galaxies' original rotation. Both original galaxies were spiral galaxies and are now experiencing extensive star formation due to the interaction of gas clouds. The galaxies are 45 million light-years from Earth and each has multiple ultraluminous X-ray sources, the source of which is unknown. Astronomers theorize that they may be a rare type of x-ray emitting binary stars or intermediate-mass black holes. The Antennae galaxies appear in a telescope at the 10th magnitude. SN 2004gt was a type Ic supernova that erupted on December 12, 2004. The progenitor was not identified from older images of the galaxy, and is either a type WC Wolf-Rayet star with a mass over 40 times that of the Sun, or a star 20 to 40 times as massive as the Sun in a binary star system. SN 2007sr was a Type Ia supernova event that peaked in brightness on  December 14, 2007. The galaxy has been identified as a good place to take detailed images in case of further supernovae.

text: The

text: NGC 4038 Group

text: is a

text: group of galaxies

text: across Corvus and Crater. The group may contain between 13 and 27 galaxies. The best-known member is the

text: Antennae

text: peculiar galaxy

text: , located 0.25 north of 31 Crateris.  It consists of two

text: interacting

text: galaxies—NGC 4038 and 4039—that appear to have a heart shape as seen from Earth. The name originates from the huge tidal tails that come off the ends of the two galaxies, formed because of the spiral galaxies' original rotation. Both original galaxies were

text: spiral galaxies

text: and are now experiencing extensive

text: star formation

text: due to the interaction of gas clouds. The galaxies are 45 million light-years from Earth and each has multiple

text: ultraluminous X-ray source

text: s, the source of which is unknown. Astronomers theorize that they may be a rare type of x-ray emitting

text: binary star

text: s or

text: intermediate-mass black hole

text: s. The Antennae galaxies appear in a telescope at the 10th magnitude.

text: SN 2004gt

text: was a

text: type Ic supernova

text: that erupted on December 12, 2004. The progenitor was not identified from older images of the galaxy, and is either a type WC

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: with a mass over 40 times that of

text: the Sun

text: , or a star 20 to 40 times as massive as the Sun in a

text: binary star

text: system.

text: SN 2007sr

text: was a

text: Type Ia supernova

text: event that peaked in brightness on  December 14, 2007. The galaxy has been identified as a good place to take detailed images in case of further supernovae.

text: The most common red giants are stars on the red-giant branch (RGB) that are still fusing hydrogen into helium in a shell surrounding an inert helium core. Other red giants are the red-clump stars in the cool half of the horizontal branch, fusing helium into carbon in their cores via the triple-alpha process; and the asymptotic-giant-branch (AGB) stars with a helium burning shell outside a degenerate carbon–oxygen core, and a hydrogen burning shell just beyond that.

text: The most common red giants are stars on the

text: red-giant branch

text: (RGB) that are still

text: fusing hydrogen

text: into helium in a shell surrounding an inert helium core. Other red giants are the

text: red-clump

text: stars in the cool half of the

text: horizontal branch

text: , fusing helium into carbon in their cores via the

text: triple-alpha process

text: ; and the

text: asymptotic-giant-branch

text: (AGB) stars with a helium burning shell outside a degenerate carbon–oxygen core, and a hydrogen burning shell just beyond that.

text: Operation Redwing was a United States series of 17 nuclear test detonations from May to July 1956.  They were conducted at Bikini and Enewetak atolls. The entire operation followed Project 56 and preceded Project 57. The primary intention was to test new, second-generation thermonuclear devices. Also tested were fission devices intended to be used as primaries for thermonuclear weapons, and small tactical weapons for air defense. Redwing demonstrated the first US airdrop of a deliverable hydrogen bomb - test Cherokee. Because the yields for many tests at Operation Castle in 1954 were dramatically higher than predictions, Redwing was conducted using an "energy budget" - there were limits to the total amount of energy released, and the amount of fission yield was also strictly controlled. Fission, primarily "fast" fission of the natural uranium tamper surrounding the fusion capsule, greatly increases the yield of thermonuclear devices, and contributes the vast majority of the fallout - fusion being a relatively clean reaction.

text: Operation Redwing was a United States series of 17

text: nuclear test

text: detonations from May to July 1956.  They were conducted at

text: Bikini

text: and

text: Enewetak

text: atolls. The entire operation followed

text: Project 56

text: and preceded

text: Project 57

text: . The primary intention was to test new, second-generation

text: thermonuclear devices

text: . Also tested were

text: fission

text: devices intended to be used as primaries for

text: thermonuclear weapon

text: s, and small tactical weapons for air defense. Redwing demonstrated the first US airdrop of a deliverable

text: hydrogen bomb

text: - test Cherokee. Because the

text: yields

text: for many tests at Operation Castle in 1954 were dramatically higher than predictions, Redwing was conducted using an "energy budget" - there were limits to the total amount of energy released, and the amount of fission yield was also strictly controlled. Fission, primarily "fast" fission of the natural

text: uranium

text: tamper surrounding the fusion capsule, greatly increases the yield of thermonuclear devices, and contributes the vast majority of the

text: fallout

text: fusion

text: being a relatively clean reaction.

text: "Constellation" is a bebop composition written in 1948 by American jazz saxophonist Charlie Parker. It is a contrafact of "I Got Rhythm". "Constellation" was originally recorded by Charlie Parker All-Stars on September 18, 1948 in NYC for Savoy Records

text: "Constellation" is a

text: bebop

text: composition

text: written in 1948 by

text: America

text: n jazz saxophonist

text: Charlie Parker

text: . It is a

text: contrafact

text: of "

text: I Got Rhythm

text: ". "Constellation" was originally recorded by Charlie Parker All-Stars on September 18, 1948 in NYC for Savoy Records

text: The light curves for type II supernovae are characterised by a much slower decline than type I, on the order of 0.05 magnitudes per day, excluding the plateau phase. The visual light output is dominated by kinetic energy rather than radioactive decay for several months, due primarily to the existence of hydrogen in the ejecta from the atmosphere of the supergiant progenitor star.  In the initial explosion this hydrogen becomes heated and ionised.  The majority of type II supernovae show a prolonged plateau in their light curves as this hydrogen recombines, emitting visible light and becoming more transparent.  This is then followed by a declining light curve driven by radioactive decay although slower than in type I supernovae, due to the efficiency of conversion into light by all the hydrogen.

text: The light curves for type II supernovae are characterised by a much slower decline than type I, on the order of 0.05

text: magnitudes

text: per day, excluding the plateau phase. The visual light output is dominated by kinetic energy rather than radioactive decay for several months, due primarily to the existence of hydrogen in the ejecta from the atmosphere of the supergiant progenitor star.  In the initial explosion this hydrogen becomes heated and ionised.  The majority of type II supernovae show a prolonged plateau in their light curves as this hydrogen recombines, emitting visible light and becoming more transparent.  This is then followed by a declining light curve driven by radioactive decay although slower than in type I supernovae, due to the efficiency of conversion into light by all the hydrogen.

text: Like many low-mass stars, Gliese 876 is a variable star. Its variable star designation is IL Aquarii and it is classified as a BY Draconis variable. Its brightness fluctuates by around 0.04 magnitudes. This type of variability is thought to be caused by large starspots moving in and out of view as the star rotates. Gliese 876 emits X-rays.

text: Like many low-mass stars, Gliese 876 is a

text: variable star

text: . Its

text: variable star designation

text: is IL Aquarii and it is classified as a

text: BY Draconis variable

text: . Its brightness fluctuates by around 0.04

text: magnitudes

text: . This type of variability is thought to be caused by large

text: starspot

text: s moving in and out of view as the star rotates. Gliese 876 emits X-rays.

text: Even planets in more stable orbits of a binary star system would suffer other kinds of problems according to her such as climatic problems. As an example, a planet in a binary star system orbiting the larger star would be drawn closer to its gravitational field, causing the planet to endure heat of great temperatures during this period. As the planet passes its larger star and reaches the orbit of its smaller star, the gravitational field of that star would give the planet more distance from it. The distance (perhaps along with the smaller solar projection of the star) would send the planet into extreme frigid temperatures.

text: Sadhus (Hindu ascetics) still meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus do pradakshina (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting "vriksha rajaya namah", meaning "salutation to the king of trees." It claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses (rasis) and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees—one for each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent Pushya (Western star name γ, δ and θ Cancri in the Cancer constellation).

text: Sadhu

text: s (

text: Hindu

text: ascetics) still meditate beneath sacred fig trees, and Hindus do

text: pradakshina

text: (circumambulation, or meditative pacing) around the sacred fig tree as a mark of worship. Usually seven pradakshinas are done around the tree in the morning time chanting "vriksha rajaya namah", meaning "salutation to the king of trees." It claimed that the 27 stars (constellations) constituting 12 houses (rasis) and 9 planets are specifically represented precisely by 27 trees—one for each star. The Bodhi Tree is said to represent

text: Pushya

text: (Western star name γ, δ and θ Cancri in the Cancer constellation).

text: The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, particle accelerators, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.

text: The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between

text: pseudo-sciences

text: , such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as

text: correlation

text: and

text: regression

text: , performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized

text: scientific instrument

text: s such as

text: thermometer

text: s,

text: spectroscopes

text: particle accelerator

text: s, or

text: voltmeter

text: s, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.

text: Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the polarity is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of "bunches" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.

text: Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the

text: polarity

text: is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of "bunches" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.

text: A multiple star system consists of three or more stars that appear from Earth to be close to one another in the sky. This may result from the stars actually being physically close and gravitationally bound to each other, in which case it is a physical multiple star, or this closeness may be merely apparent, in which case it is an optical multiple star (meaning that the stars may appear to be close to each other when viewed from planet Earth, as they both seem to occupy the same point in the sky, but in reality, one star may be much further away from Earth than the other, which is not readily apparent unless one can view them from a different angle). Physical multiple stars are also commonly called multiple stars or multiple star systems.

text: A multiple star system consists of three or more

text: star

text: s that appear from

text: Earth

text: to be close to one another in the sky. This may result from the stars actually being physically close and

text: gravitationally

text: bound to each other, in which case it is a physical multiple star, or this closeness may be merely apparent, in which case it is an optical multiple star (meaning that the stars may appear to be close to each other when viewed from planet Earth, as they both seem to occupy the same point in the sky, but in reality, one star may be much further away from Earth than the other, which is not readily apparent unless one can view them from a different angle). Physical multiple stars are also commonly called multiple stars or multiple star systems.

text: 5 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.98.

text: 5 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.98.

text: The original Nova was soon followed by the faster SuperNova, then later by several minor versions based on the SuperNova core. The last major version, the Nova 4, was released in 1978. During this period the Nova generated 20% annual growth rates for the company, becoming a star in the business community and generating US$ 100 million in sales in 1975. In 1977, DG launched a 16-bit microcomputer called the microNOVA to poor commercial success.

text: The original Nova was soon followed by the faster SuperNova, then later by several minor versions based on the SuperNova core. The last major version, the Nova 4, was released in 1978. During this period the Nova generated 20% annual growth rates for the company, becoming a star in the business community and generating

text: US$

text: 100 million in sales in 1975. In 1977, DG launched a 16-bit microcomputer called the microNOVA to poor commercial success.

text: Chemically peculiar stars (CP stars) are common among hot main sequence (hydrogen-burning) stars.  These hot peculiar stars have been divided into 4 main classes on the basis of their spectra, although two classification systems are sometimes used: metallic-lined (Am, CP1), Ap (CP2), mercury-manganese (HgMn, CP3) and helium-weak (He-weak, CP4). The class names provide a good idea of the peculiarities that set them apart from other stars on the main sequence.

text: Chemically peculiar stars (CP stars) are common among hot

text: main sequence

text: (hydrogen-burning) stars.  These hot peculiar stars have been divided into 4 main classes on the basis of their spectra, although two classification systems are sometimes used:

text: metallic-lined

text: (Am, CP1),

text: Ap

text: mercury-manganese

text: (HgMn, CP3) and helium-weak (He-weak, CP4). The class names provide a good idea of the peculiarities that set them apart from other stars on the

text: main sequence

text: A number of surveys have been performed to explore the connection between star formation and LINER activity.  If a connection can be found between star formation activity and LINER activity, then this strengthens the possibility that LINERs are powered by the hot gas found in star formation regions.  However, if star formation cannot be found in LINERs, then this definitively excludes star formation as powering LINER emission.

text: The Helmholtz Institute Jena was founded as an outstation of the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung on June 25, 2009 and is located on the campus of the Friedrich Schiller University (FSU) in the city of Jena, Germany. Its purpose is to unite the research activities of the FSU in the fields of high intensity laser physics and x-ray spectroscopy with the expertise of the Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung and Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf in the fields of accelerator physics, laser physics and x-ray technology.The research profile of the Helmholtz Institute Jena is focused on the physics occurring at the border between conventional particle-acceleration technology and the fast-evolving field of laser-induced particle acceleration. (e.g. wakefield accelerator). It is concerned with advancing these new laser-induced accelerator concepts, as well as with the production and investigation of intense photon and particle beams, including their interaction with matter. Therefore the main activities of the institute are emphasized on the development of high intensity lasers, new concepts for laser-driven particle acceleration, x-ray spectroscopy and strong-field quantum electrodynamics, as well as on the physics of hot dense plasmas. Apart from that the Helmholtz Institute Jena aims to contribute to the further development of the research facilities at the Helmholtz center GSI, especially the future project FAIR (Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research), and DESY with the free-electron laser (FEL) photon sources FLASH and XFEL (European XFEL).In cooperation with the FSU Jena a completely diode-pumped laser system of the high energy petawatt class (HEPW) with the POLARIS laser is realized in the building of the Helmholtz Institute Jena. First measurements are done since 2008. Due to the missing last amplifier stage the pulse strength of 1 PW couldn't be reached yet.The graduate school "Research School for Advanced Photon Science" (RS-APS) was established at the Helmholtz Institute Jena in July 2012. The RS-APS supports up to 25 PhD students and provides a structured graduation program in cooperation with facilities of the FSU Jena and the Helmholtz Graduate School for Hadron and Ion Research (HGS-HIRe).

text: The Helmholtz Institute Jena was founded as an outstation of the

entity_name: GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research

text: GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung

text: on June 25, 2009 and is located on the campus of the

text: Friedrich Schiller University

text: (FSU) in the city of

text: Jena

text: Germany

text: . Its purpose is to unite the research activities of the FSU in the fields of high intensity laser physics and x-ray spectroscopy with the expertise of the

text: Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY)

text: and

text: Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf

text: in the fields of accelerator physics, laser physics and x-ray technology.The research profile of the Helmholtz Institute Jena is focused on the physics occurring at the border between conventional particle-acceleration technology and the fast-evolving field of laser-induced particle acceleration. (e.g.

text: wakefield accelerator

text: ). It is concerned with advancing these new laser-induced accelerator concepts, as well as with the production and investigation of intense photon and particle beams, including their interaction with matter. Therefore the main activities of the institute are emphasized on the development of high intensity lasers, new concepts for laser-driven particle acceleration, x-ray spectroscopy and strong-field quantum electrodynamics, as well as on the physics of hot dense plasmas. Apart from that the Helmholtz Institute Jena aims to contribute to the further development of the research facilities at the Helmholtz center GSI, especially the future project FAIR (

entity_name: Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research

text: Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research

text: ), and DESY with the

text: free-electron laser

text: (FEL) photon sources FLASH and XFEL (

text: European XFEL

text: ).In cooperation with the FSU Jena a completely diode-pumped laser system of the high energy petawatt class (HEPW) with the

text: POLARIS laser

text: is realized in the building of the Helmholtz Institute Jena. First measurements are done since 2008. Due to the missing last amplifier stage the pulse strength of 1 PW couldn't be reached yet.The graduate school "Research School for Advanced Photon Science" (RS-APS) was established at the Helmholtz Institute Jena in July 2012. The RS-APS supports up to 25 PhD students and provides a structured graduation program in cooperation with facilities of the FSU Jena and the Helmholtz Graduate School for Hadron and Ion Research (HGS-HIRe).

text: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion (thermonuclear weapon). Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The first test of a fission ("atomic") bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately . The first thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately .

text: A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from

text: nuclear reaction

text: s, either

text: fission

text: fission bomb

text: ) or a combination of fission and

text: fusion

text: thermonuclear weapon

text: ). Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter. The

text: first test

text: of a

text: fission ("atomic") bomb

text: released the same amount of energy as approximately . The first

text: thermonuclear ("hydrogen") bomb

text: test

text: released the same amount of energy as approximately .

text: Order consists of three classes:  I - three stars; II - two stars; III - one star.

text: The velocity vector can change in magnitude and in direction or both at once. Hence, the acceleration is the rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity vector plus the rate of change of direction of that vector. The same reasoning used with respect to the position of a particle to define velocity, can be applied to the velocity to define acceleration. The acceleration of a particle is the vector defined by the rate of change of the velocity vector.  The average acceleration of a particle over a time interval is defined as the ratio.

text: The velocity vector can change in magnitude and in direction or both at once. Hence, the acceleration is the rate of change of the magnitude of the velocity vector plus the rate of change of direction of that vector. The same reasoning used with respect to the position of a particle to define velocity, can be applied to the velocity to define acceleration. The

text: acceleration

text: of a particle is the vector defined by the rate of change of the velocity vector.  The average acceleration of a particle over a time interval is defined as the ratio.

text: Pair instability supernovae completely destroy the progenitor star and do not leave behind a neutron star or black hole.  The entire mass of the star is ejected, so a nebular remnant is produced and many solar masses of heavy elements are returned to interstellar space.

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of G8 Ib, where the luminosity class of Ib indicates this is a lower luminosity supergiant star. Alternatively, it may be a star that has passed through the asymptotic giant branch stage and possesses a detached shell of dust. The estimated mass of this star is over 19 times the mass of the Sun, and it has expanded to a radius measured at around 105–175 times that of the Sun. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of G8 Ib, where the

text: luminosity class

text: of Ib indicates this is a lower luminosity

text: supergiant star

text: . Alternatively, it may be a star that has passed through the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: stage and possesses a detached shell of dust. The estimated mass of this star is over 19 times the mass of the Sun, and it has expanded to a radius measured at around 105–175 times that of the Sun. Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified.

text: If the core is largely supported by electron degeneracy pressure, helium fusion will ignite on a timescale of days in a helium flash. In more massive stars, the ignition of helium fusion occurs relatively slowly with no flash. The nuclear power released during the helium flash is very large, on the order of 10 times the luminosity of the Sun for a few days and 10 times the luminosity of the Sun (roughly the luminosity of the Milky Way Galaxy) for a few seconds. However, the energy is absorbed by the stellar envelope and thus cannot be seen from outside the star. The energy released by helium fusion causes the core to expand, so that hydrogen fusion in the overlying layers slows and total energy generation decreases. The star contracts, although not all the way to the main sequence, and it migrates to the horizontal branch on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, gradually shrinking in radius and increasing its surface temperature.

text: If the core is largely supported by

text: electron degeneracy pressure

text: , helium fusion will ignite on a timescale of days in a

text: helium flash

text: . In more massive stars, the ignition of helium fusion occurs relatively slowly with no flash. The nuclear power released during the helium flash is very large, on the order of 10 times the luminosity of the Sun for a few days and 10 times the luminosity of the Sun (roughly the luminosity of the

text: Milky Way Galaxy

text: ) for a few seconds. However, the energy is absorbed by the stellar envelope and thus cannot be seen from outside the star. The energy released by helium fusion causes the core to expand, so that hydrogen fusion in the overlying layers slows and total energy generation decreases. The star contracts, although not all the way to the main sequence, and it migrates to the

text: horizontal branch

text: on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, gradually shrinking in radius and increasing its surface temperature.

text: Red giants are evolved from main-sequence stars with masses in the range from about  to around .  When a star initially forms from a collapsing molecular cloud in the interstellar medium, it contains primarily hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of "metals" (in stellar structure, this simply refers to any element that is not hydrogen or helium i.e. atomic number greater than 2). These elements are all uniformly mixed throughout the star. The star reaches the main sequence when the core reaches a temperature high enough to begin fusing hydrogen (a few million kelvin) and establishes hydrostatic equilibrium. Over its main sequence life, the star slowly converts the hydrogen in the core into helium; its main-sequence life ends when nearly all the hydrogen in the core has been fused. For the Sun, the main-sequence lifetime is approximately 10 billion years. More-massive stars burn disproportionately faster and so have a shorter lifetime than less massive stars.

text: Red giants are evolved from

text: main-sequence

text: stars with masses in the range from about  to around .  When a star initially

text: forms

text: from a collapsing

text: molecular cloud

text: in the

text: interstellar medium

text: , it contains primarily hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of "

text: metals

text: " (in stellar structure, this simply refers to any element that is not hydrogen or helium i.e.

text: atomic number

text: greater than 2). These elements are all uniformly mixed throughout the star. The star reaches the main sequence when the core reaches a temperature high enough to begin

text: fusing hydrogen

text: (a few million kelvin) and establishes

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: . Over its main sequence life, the star slowly converts the hydrogen in the core into helium; its main-sequence life ends when nearly all the hydrogen in the core has been fused. For the

text: Sun

text: , the main-sequence lifetime is approximately 10 billion years. More-massive stars burn disproportionately faster and so have a shorter lifetime than less massive stars.

text: QnA users also have a reputation system under their profile that allows other users to know how likely their answer is a good one, based on the user's past performance. This is shown by the number of stars under their username. This is a lifetime rating, so all users begins with zero stars and as time passes, their reputation will change. The reputation system is based on the number of best answers given over time as a percentage of total answers given. It is also possible to affect a reputation negatively by violating the code of conduct. The account that caused the violation receives moderation and removal of content.  Participants that repeatedly violate the code of conduct are moderated to a "Former Member" status and to continue in the forum are required to start a new account and lose all reputation and points from the previous account.

text: QnA users also have a

text: reputation system

text: under their profile that allows other users to know how likely their answer is a good one, based on the user's past performance. This is shown by the number of stars under their username. This is a lifetime rating, so all users begins with zero stars and as time passes, their reputation will change. The reputation system is based on the number of best answers given over time as a percentage of total answers given. It is also possible to affect a reputation negatively by violating the code of conduct. The account that caused the violation receives moderation and removal of content.  Participants that repeatedly violate the code of conduct are moderated to a "Former Member" status and to continue in the forum are required to start a new account and lose all reputation and points from the previous account.

text: Two systems introduced in historical catalogues remain in use to the present day. The first system comes from the German astronomer Johann Bayer's (1572–1625) Uranometria published in 1603 and is for bright stars. These are given a Greek letter followed by the genitive case of the constellation in which they are located; examples are Alpha Centauri or Gamma Cygni. The major problem with Bayer's naming system was the number of letters in the Greek alphabet (24). It was easy to run out of letters before running out of stars needing names, particularly for large constellations such as Argo Navis. Bayer extended his lists up to 67 stars by using lower-case Roman letters ("a" through "z") then upper-case ones ("A" through "Q"). Few of those designations have survived. It is worth mentioning, however, as it served as the starting point for variable star designations, which start with "R" through "Z", then "RR", "RS", "RT"..."RZ", "SS", "ST"..."ZZ" and beyond.

text: Two systems introduced in historical catalogues remain in use to the present day. The first system comes from the

text: German

text: astronomer

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's (1572–1625)

text: Uranometria

text: published in 1603 and is for bright stars. These are given a

text: Greek letter

text: followed by the

text: genitive case

text: of the

text: constellation

text: in which they are located; examples are

text: Alpha Centauri

text: or

text: Gamma Cygni

text: . The major problem with Bayer's naming system was the number of letters in the

text: Greek alphabet

text: (24). It was easy to run out of letters before running out of stars needing names, particularly for large constellations such as

text: Argo Navis

text: . Bayer extended his lists up to 67 stars by using lower-case Roman letters ("a" through "z") then upper-case ones ("A" through "Q"). Few of those designations have survived. It is worth mentioning, however, as it served as the starting point for

text: variable star designations

text: , which start with "R" through "Z", then "RR", "RS", "RT"..."RZ", "SS", "ST"..."ZZ" and beyond.

text: The  particle is a "doubly strange" baryon containing two strange quarks and a bottom quark. A discovery of this particle was first claimed in September 2008 by physicists working on the DØ experiment at the Tevatron facility of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. However, the reported mass of  was significantly higher than expected in the quark model. The apparent discrepancy from the Standard Model has since been dubbed the " puzzle". In May 2009, the CDF collaboration made public their results on the search for the  based on analysis of a data sample roughly four times the size of the one used by the DØ experiment. CDF measured the mass to be , which was in excellent agreement with the Standard Model prediction. No signal has been observed at the DØ reported value. The two results differ by , which is equivalent to 6.2 standard deviations and are therefore inconsistent. Excellent agreement between the CDF measured mass and theoretical expectations is a strong indication that the particle discovered by CDF is indeed the . In February 2013 the LHCb collaboration published a measurement of the  mass that is consistent with, but more precise than, the CDF result.

text: The  particle is a "doubly

text: strange

text: baryon

text: containing two strange quarks and a

text: bottom quark

text: . A discovery of this particle was first claimed in September 2008 by physicists working on the

text: DØ

text: experiment at the

text: Tevatron

text: facility of the

text: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

text: . However, the reported mass of  was significantly higher than expected in the

text: quark model

text: . The apparent discrepancy from the

text: Standard Model

text: has since been dubbed the " puzzle". In May 2009, the

text: CDF

text: collaboration made public their results on the search for the  based on analysis of a data sample roughly four times the size of the one used by the

text: DØ experiment

text: CDF

text: measured the mass to be , which was in excellent agreement with the Standard Model prediction. No signal has been observed at the DØ reported value. The two results differ by , which is equivalent to 6.2 standard deviations and are therefore inconsistent. Excellent agreement between the CDF measured mass and theoretical expectations is a strong indication that the particle discovered by CDF is indeed the . In February 2013 the

text: LHCb

text: collaboration published a measurement of the  mass that is consistent with, but more precise than, the CDF result.

text: The 2003 Game's format was reverted to its classic East vs. West format. Dany Heatley scored four goals, tying an All-Star Game record, in addition to recording a shootout goal. Heatley also set the record for being the youngest player to score a hat-trick in the All-Star Game, a record previously held by the Edmonton Oilers' Wayne Gretzky. This shootout, the first of its kind in the NHL in the modern era, received an enthusiastic, frenzied response from the crowd when it was announced, and carried on during the event. This was influential in the later decision to decide regular season games tied after overtime with a shootout, thus eliminating tie games.

text: The

entity_name: 53rd National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: 2003 Game

text: 's format was reverted to its classic East vs. West format.

text: Dany Heatley

text: scored four goals, tying an All-Star Game record, in addition to recording a shootout goal. Heatley also set the record for being the youngest player to score a hat-trick in the All-Star Game, a record previously held by the

text: Edmonton Oilers

text: Wayne Gretzky

text: . This shootout, the first of its kind in the NHL in the modern era, received an enthusiastic, frenzied response from the crowd when it was announced, and carried on during the event. This was influential in the later decision to decide regular season games tied after overtime with a shootout, thus eliminating tie games.

text: When observed in the ultraviolet and mid-infrared, the central region and bar of  show old stars and low rates of star formation, with rates increasing along the spiral arms as distance from the core increases. The most active region of star formation, located in the northeast arm, shows a stellar flux around 1,000 times higher than in the central region, though this may be affected by the density of stellar dust in the core. The extended portions of both arms exhibit young star cluster formations with ages ranging from one to one hundred million years. Star formation rates in the northeast extended arm are twice that of the southwest extended arm, and five times the formation rate in the sections of the arms closer to the central region.

text: When observed in the

text: ultraviolet

text: and mid-

text: infrared

text: , the central region and bar of  show old stars and low rates of star formation, with rates increasing along the spiral arms as distance from the core increases. The most active region of star formation, located in the northeast arm, shows a

text: stellar flux

text: around 1,000 times higher than in the central region, though this may be affected by the density of stellar dust in the core. The extended portions of both arms exhibit young

text: star cluster

text: formations with ages ranging from one to one hundred million years. Star formation rates in the northeast extended arm are twice that of the southwest extended arm, and five times the formation rate in the sections of the arms closer to the central region.

text: Vivian E. Robson notes that many of the traditional constellations outside of the zodiac constellations occupy large degrees of arc and typically compass several of the tropical zodiac signs.  Ptolemy referred to stars by reference to the anatomy or parts of the constellations in which they appeared; thus Arcturus he named the "right knee of Boötes".  Most of the Western names of stars, such as Algol or Betelgeuse, are Arabic in origin.  In 1603 the Augsburg lawyer-uranographer Johann Bayer introduced the current classificatory system for the brighter stars, in which stars are identified as belonging to their constellations by Greek letters, in (roughly) descending order of brightness; so that Regulus, brightest star in Leo, is called α Leonis, the brightest star of the Lion.

text: Vivian E. Robson notes that many of the traditional constellations outside of the zodiac constellations occupy large degrees of arc and typically compass several of the tropical zodiac signs.

text: Ptolemy

text: referred to stars by reference to the anatomy or parts of the constellations in which they appeared; thus

text: Arcturus

text: he named the "right knee of

text: Boötes

text: ".  Most of the Western names of stars, such as

text: Algol

text: or

text: Betelgeuse

text: , are

text: Arabic

text: in origin.  In 1603 the Augsburg lawyer-uranographer

text: Johann Bayer

text: introduced the current classificatory system for the brighter stars, in which stars are identified as belonging to their constellations by Greek letters, in (roughly) descending order of brightness; so that

text: Regulus

text: , brightest star in

text: Leo

text: , is called α Leonis, the brightest star of the Lion.

text: The focus for discovering new exoplanets has been on sun-like stars. The catalog of more than 400 exoplanets has proved that these searches are successful, because exoplanets of various sizes have been discovered. However, other star types are also a likely place to discover new exoplanets. New research, announced at the meeting, confirms that planet formation is a natural by-product of star formation. Planet formation occurs even around stars much more massive than the Sun. However, the life of the stars which the planets orbit are so short that intelligent extraterrestrial life is not very likely. A and B type stars were surveyed for the research which involved NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, the Two Micron All-Sky Survey, and astronomers from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) and the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO).

text: The focus for discovering new

text: exoplanet

text: s has been on sun-like

text: star

text: s. The catalog of more than 400 exoplanets has proved that these searches are successful, because exoplanets of various sizes have been discovered. However, other star types are also a likely place to discover new exoplanets. New research, announced at the meeting, confirms that planet formation is a natural by-product of star formation. Planet formation occurs even around stars much more massive than the

text: Sun

text: . However, the life of the stars which the planets orbit are so short that intelligent

text: extraterrestrial life

text: is not very likely.

text: A and B type stars

text: were surveyed for the research which involved NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, the Two Micron All-Sky Survey, and astronomers from the

text: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: (CfA) and the

text: National Optical Astronomy Observatory

text: (NOAO).

text: where M is the mass of the star, X is the fraction of the star (by mass) that is composed of the fuel, L is the star's luminosity, Q is the energy released per mass of the fuel from nuclear fusion (the chemical equation should be examined to get this value), and F is the fraction of the star where the fuel is burned (F is generally equal to .1 or so).  As an example, the Sun's nuclear time scale is approximately 10 billion years.

text: where M is the

text: mass

text: of the star, X is the fraction of the star (by mass) that is composed of the fuel, L is the star's

text: luminosity

text: , Q is the energy released per mass of the fuel from

text: nuclear fusion

text: (the

text: chemical equation

text: should be examined to get this value), and F is the fraction of the star where the fuel is burned (F is generally equal to .1 or so).  As an example, the

text: Sun

text: 's nuclear time scale is approximately

text: 10 billion years

text: A global cataclysm, caused by a fatal accident in Geneva, Switzerland, during the implementation of a particle accelerator, leaves the crew and students of the school-ship Estrella Polar (North Star) isolated in a post-apocalyptic world. The ship becomes their home in this isolated world. However, apart from the isolation, they also discover they are not alone, and must face "the others".

text: A global cataclysm, caused by a fatal accident in

text: Geneva

text: Switzerland

text: , during the implementation of a

text: particle accelerator

text: , leaves the crew and students of the school-ship Estrella Polar (North Star) isolated in a post-apocalyptic world. The ship becomes their home in this isolated world. However, apart from the isolation, they also discover they are not alone, and must face "the others".

text: Alpha Centauri is the name given to what appears as a single star to the naked eye and the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus. At −0.27 apparent visual magnitude (calculated from A and B magnitudes), it is fainter only than Sirius and Canopus. The next-brightest star in the night sky is Arcturus. Alpha Centauri is a multiple-star system, with its two main stars being Alpha Centauri A  and Alpha Centauri B , usually defined to identify them as the different components of the binary . A third companion—Proxima Centauri (or Proxima or )—has a distance much greater than the observed separation between stars A and B and is probably gravitationally associated with the AB system. As viewed from Earth, it is located at an angular separation of 2.2° from the two main stars. Proxima Centauri would appear to the naked eye as a separate star from  if it were bright enough to be seen without a telescope. Alpha Centauri AB and Proxima Centauri form a visual double star. Direct evidence that Proxima Centauri has an elliptical orbit typical of binary stars has yet to be found. Together, the three components make a triple star system, referred to by double-star observers as the triple star (or multiple star), .

text: Alpha Centauri is the name given to what appears as a single star to the naked eye and the

text: brightest

text: star in the southern constellation of

text: Centaurus

text: . At −0.27

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: calculated

text: from A and B magnitudes), it is fainter only than Sirius and

text: Canopus

text: . The next-brightest star in the night sky is

text: Arcturus

text: . Alpha Centauri is a multiple-star system, with its two main stars being Alpha Centauri A  and Alpha Centauri B , usually defined to identify them as the different components of the binary . A third companion—

text: Proxima Centauri

text: (or Proxima or )—has a distance much greater than the observed separation between stars A and B and is probably gravitationally associated with the AB system. As viewed from Earth, it is located at an

text: angular separation

text: of 2.2° from the two main stars. Proxima Centauri would appear to the naked eye as a separate star from  if it were bright enough to be seen without a telescope. Alpha Centauri AB and Proxima Centauri form a visual

text: double star

text: . Direct evidence that Proxima Centauri has an elliptical orbit typical of binary stars has yet to be found. Together, the three components make a triple

text: star system

text: , referred to by double-star observers as the

text: triple star

text: (or multiple star), .

text: Modelling suggests that at near-solar metallicity, stars with an initial mass around  will explode as a supernova while in the LBV stage of their lives. They will be post-red-supergiants with luminosities a few hundred thousand times that of the Sun. The supernova is expected to be of type II, most likely type IIb, although possibly type IIn due to episodes of enhanced mass loss that occur as an LBV and in the yellow-hypergiant stage.

text: Modelling suggests that at near-solar metallicity, stars with an initial mass around  will explode as a supernova while in the LBV stage of their lives. They will be post-red-supergiants with luminosities a few hundred thousand times that of the Sun. The supernova is expected to be of type II, most likely type IIb, although possibly type IIn due to episodes of enhanced mass loss that occur as an LBV and in the

text: yellow-hypergiant

text: stage.

text: A flare star is a variable star that can undergo unpredictable dramatic increases in brightness for a few minutes. It is believed that the flares on flare stars are analogous to solar flares in that they are due to the magnetic energy stored in the stars' atmospheres. The brightness increase is across the spectrum, from X rays to radio waves. The first known flare stars (V1396 Cygni and AT Microscopii) were discovered in 1924. However, the best-known flare star is UV Ceti, discovered in 1948. Today similar flare stars are classified as UV Ceti type variable stars (using the abbreviation UV) in variable star catalogs such as the General Catalogue of Variable Stars.

text: A flare star is a

text: variable star

text: that can undergo unpredictable dramatic increases in brightness for a few minutes. It is believed that the flares on flare stars are analogous to

text: solar flare

text: s in that they are due to

text: the magnetic energy

text: stored in the

text: star

text: s' atmospheres. The brightness increase is across the

text: spectrum

text: , from

text: X ray

text: s to

text: radio wave

text: s. The first known flare stars (

text: V1396 Cygni

text: and

text: AT Microscopii

text: ) were discovered in 1924. However, the best-known flare star is

text: UV Ceti

text: , discovered in 1948. Today similar flare stars are classified as UV Ceti type

text: variable star

text: s (using the abbreviation UV) in variable star catalogs such as the

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: When he arrived at the Comisión Chilena de Energía Nuclear, he started to work in plasmas driven by small transient electrical discharges and small pulsed power devices: z-pinch, capillary discharges and plasma focus. His work has contributed to understand that it is possible to scale the plasma focus in a wide range of energies and sizes, keeping the same value of ion density, magnetic field, plasma sheath velocity, Alfvén speed and the quantity of energy per particle. Therefore, fusion reactions are possible to be obtained in ultra-miniaturized devices (driven by generators of 0.1J for example), as well as they are obtained in bigger devices (driven by generators of 1MJ). However, the stability of the plasma pinch highly depends on the size and energy of the device. A rich plasma phenomenology it has been observed in the table-top plasma focus devices developed by Soto´s group: filamentary structures, toroidal singularities, plasma bursts and plasma jets generations. In addition, possible applications are explored using these kind of small plasma devices: development of portable generator as non-radioactive sources of neutrons and x-rays for field applications, pulsed radiation applied to biological studies, plasma focus as neutron source for nuclear fusion-fission hybrid reactors, and the use of plasma focus devices as plasma accelerators for studies of materials under intense fusion-relevant pulses.

text: Binary systems containing neutron stars often emit X-rays, which are emitted by hot gas as it falls towards the surface of the neutron star.  The source of the gas is the companion star, the outer layers of which can be stripped off by the gravitational force of the neutron star if the two stars are sufficiently close.  As the neutron star accretes this gas its mass can increase; if enough mass is accreted the neutron star may collapse into a black hole.

text: Binary systems containing neutron stars often emit

text: X-rays

text: , which are emitted by hot gas as it falls towards the surface of the neutron star.  The source of the gas is the companion star, the outer layers of which can be stripped off by the gravitational force of the neutron star if the two stars are sufficiently close.  As the neutron star accretes this gas its mass can increase; if enough mass is accreted the neutron star may collapse into a black hole.

text: The Detroit Red Wings' line of Gordie Howe, Alex Delvecchio and Norm Ullman opened and closed the scoring, as the NHL All-Stars toppled the Stanley Cup champion Chicago Black Hawks 3-1 before a record crowd of 14,534 spectators.Delvecchio opened the scoring twelve minutes into the first period on assists from Howe and Ullman, and Howe closed the scoring twelve minutes into the second period on assists from Delvecchio and Ullman. Don McKenney of the Boston Bruins also scored for the All-Stars, while Eric Nesterenko beat Toronto Maple Leafs' Johnny Bower for Chicago's only goal.

text: The

text: Detroit Red Wings

text: ' line of

text: Gordie Howe

text: Alex Delvecchio

text: and

text: Norm Ullman

text: opened and closed the scoring, as the NHL All-Stars toppled the Stanley Cup champion Chicago Black Hawks 3-1 before a record crowd of 14,534 spectators.Delvecchio opened the scoring twelve minutes into the first period on assists from Howe and Ullman, and Howe closed the scoring twelve minutes into the second period on assists from Delvecchio and Ullman.

text: Don McKenney

text: of the

text: Boston Bruins

text: also scored for the All-Stars, while

text: Eric Nesterenko

text: beat

text: Toronto Maple Leafs

text: Johnny Bower

text: for Chicago's only goal.

text: In April 2007, astronomers announced that the Swedish-built Odin satellite had made the first detection of clouds of molecular oxygen in space, following observations in the constellation Ophiuchus. The supernova of 1604 was first observed on 9 October 1604, near θ Ophiuchi. Johannes Kepler saw it first on 16 October and studied it so extensively that the supernova was subsequently called Kepler's Supernova. He published his findings in a book titled De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus' Foot). Galileo used its brief appearance to counter the Aristotelian dogma that the heavens are changeless. In 2009 it was announced that GJ 1214, a star in Ophiuchus, undergoes repeated, cyclical dimming with a period of about 1.5 days consistent with the transit of a small orbiting planet. The planet's low density (about 40% that of Earth) suggests that the planet may have a substantial component of low-density gas—possibly hydrogen or steam. The proximity of this star to Earth (42 light years) makes it a tempting target for further observations. In April 2010, the naked-eye star ζ Ophiuchi was occulted by the asteroid 824 Anastasia.

text: In April 2007,

text: astronomers

text: announced that the

text: Swedish

text: -built

text: Odin satellite

text: had made the first detection of clouds of

text: molecular

text: oxygen

text: in space, following observations in the constellation Ophiuchus. The

text: supernova of 1604

text: was first observed on 9 October 1604, near θ Ophiuchi.

text: Johannes Kepler

text: saw it first on 16 October and studied it so extensively that the

text: supernova

text: was subsequently called Kepler's Supernova. He published his findings in a book titled De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus' Foot).

text: Galileo

text: used its brief appearance to counter the

text: Aristotelian

text: dogma

text: that the heavens are changeless. In 2009 it was announced that

text: GJ 1214

text: , a star in Ophiuchus, undergoes repeated, cyclical dimming with a period of about 1.5 days consistent with the transit of a small orbiting planet. The planet's low density (about 40% that of Earth) suggests that the planet may have a substantial component of low-density gas—possibly

text: hydrogen

text: or

text: steam

text: . The proximity of this star to Earth (42 light years) makes it a tempting target for further observations. In April 2010, the naked-eye star

text: ζ Ophiuchi

text: was occulted by the asteroid

text: 824 Anastasia

text: Blue supergiants newly evolved from the main sequence have extremely high luminosities, high mass loss rates, and are generally unstable.  Many of them become luminous blue variables with episodes of extreme mass loss.  Lower mass blue supergiants continue to expand until they become red supergiants.  In the process they obviously must spend some time as yellow supergiants or yellow hypergiants, but this expansion occurs in just a few thousand years and so these stars are rare.  Higher mass red supergiants blow away their outer atmospheres and evolve back to blue supergiants, and possibly onwards to Wolf–Rayet stars.  Depending on the exact mass and composition of a red supergiant, it can execute a number of blue loops before either exploding as a type II supernova or finally dumping enough of its outer layers to become a blue supergiant again, less luminous than the first time but more unstable.  If such a star can pass through the yellow evolutionary void it is expected that it becomes one of the lower luminosity LBVs.

text: Blue supergiants newly evolved from the main sequence have extremely high luminosities, high mass loss rates, and are generally unstable.  Many of them become

text: luminous blue variable

text: s with episodes of extreme mass loss.  Lower mass blue supergiants continue to expand until they become red supergiants.  In the process they obviously must spend some time as

text: yellow supergiant

text: s or

text: yellow hypergiant

text: s, but this expansion occurs in just a few thousand years and so these stars are rare.  Higher mass red supergiants blow away their outer atmospheres and evolve back to blue supergiants, and possibly onwards to Wolf–Rayet stars.  Depending on the exact mass and composition of a red supergiant, it can execute a number of blue loops before either exploding as a

text: type II supernova

text: or finally dumping enough of its outer layers to become a blue supergiant again, less luminous than the first time but more unstable.  If such a star can pass through the yellow evolutionary void it is expected that it becomes one of the lower luminosity LBVs.

text: Iota Crucis (ι Cru / ι Crucis) is a star in the constellation Crux. It has an apparent magnitude of 4.69. The star is classified as an orange giant (spectral class K1 III). Iota Crucis is located at 125 light-years from the Sun.

text: Iota Crucis (ι Cru / ι Crucis) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Crux

text: . It has an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 4.69. The star is

text: classified

text: as an

text: orange giant

text: (spectral class K1 III). Iota Crucis is located at 125

text: light-year

text: s from the

text: Sun

text: Another eclipsing binary in Auriga, part of the Haedi asterism with Eta Aurigae, is Zeta Aurigae (Sadatoni), an eclipsing binary star at a distance of 776 light-years with a period of 2 years and 8 months. It has an absolute magnitude of −2.3. The primary is an orange-hued K5II-type star (K-type bright giant) and the secondary is a smaller blue star similar to Regulus; its period is 972 days. The secondary is a B7V-type star, a B-type main-sequence star. Zeta Aurigae's maximum magnitude is 3.7 and its minimum magnitude is 4.0. The full eclipse of the small blue star by the orange giant lasts 38 days, with two partial phases of 32 days at the beginning and end. The primary has a diameter of 150 D and a luminosity of ; the secondary has a diameter of 4 D and a luminosity of . Zeta Aurigae was spectroscopically determined to be a double star by Antonia Maury in 1897 and was confirmed as a binary star in 1908 by William Wallace Campbell. The two stars orbit each other about  apart. Zeta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of  per second. The second of the two Haedi or "Kids" is Eta Aurigae, a B3 class star located 243 light-years from Earth with a magnitude of 3.17. It is a B3V class star, meaning that it is a blue-white hued main-sequence star. Eta Aurigae has an absolute magnitude of −1.7 and a luminosity of . Eta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of  per second.

text: Another eclipsing binary in Auriga, part of the Haedi asterism with Eta Aurigae, is

text: Zeta Aurigae

text: (Sadatoni), an eclipsing binary star at a distance of 776 light-years with a period of 2 years and 8 months. It has an absolute magnitude of −2.3. The primary is an orange-hued K5II-type star (K-type bright giant) and the secondary is a smaller blue star similar to

text: Regulus

text: ; its period is 972 days. The secondary is a B7V-type star, a B-type main-sequence star. Zeta Aurigae's maximum magnitude is 3.7 and its minimum magnitude is 4.0. The full eclipse of the small blue star by the orange giant lasts 38 days, with two partial phases of 32 days at the beginning and end. The primary has a diameter of 150

text: D

text: and a

text: luminosity

text: of ; the secondary has a diameter of 4 D and a luminosity of . Zeta Aurigae was spectroscopically determined to be a double star by Antonia Maury in 1897 and was confirmed as a binary star in 1908 by

text: William Wallace Campbell

text: . The two stars orbit each other about  apart. Zeta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of  per second. The second of the two Haedi or "Kids" is

text: Eta Aurigae

text: , a

text: B3 class star

text: located 243 light-years from Earth with a magnitude of 3.17. It is a B3V class star, meaning that it is a blue-white hued main-sequence star. Eta Aurigae has an absolute magnitude of −1.7 and a luminosity of . Eta Aurigae is moving away from Earth at a rate of  per second.

text: Volcanologists use the regular, predictable Earth tide movements to calibrate and test sensitive volcano deformation monitoring instruments. The tides may also trigger volcanic events.Seismologists have determined that microseismic events are correlated to tidal variations in Central Asia (north of the Himalayas).The semidiurnal amplitude of terrestrial tides can reach about 55 cm at the equator which is important in GPS, VLBI, and SLR measurements. Also to make precise astronomical angular measurements requires knowledge of the Earth's rate of rotation (length of day, precession, and nutation), which is influenced by earth tides (so-called pole tide). Terrestrial tides also need to be taken in account in the case of some particle physics experiments.For instance, at the CERN or SLAC, the very large particle accelerators were designed while taking terrestrial tides into account for proper operation. Among the effects that need to be taken into account are circumference deformation for circular accelerators and particle beam energy.

text: Volcanologists use the regular, predictable Earth tide movements to calibrate and test sensitive volcano deformation monitoring instruments. The tides may also trigger volcanic events.Seismologists have determined that microseismic events are correlated to tidal variations in Central Asia (north of the Himalayas).The semidiurnal amplitude of terrestrial tides can reach about 55 cm at the equator which is important in

text: GPS

text: VLBI

text: , and

text: SLR

text: measurements. Also to make precise astronomical angular measurements requires knowledge of the Earth's rate of rotation (

text: length of day

text: precession

text: , and

text: nutation

text: ), which is influenced by earth tides (so-called

text: pole tide

text: ). Terrestrial tides also need to be taken in account in the case of some

text: particle physics

text: experiments.For instance, at the

text: CERN

text: or

text: SLAC

text: , the very large

text: particle accelerator

text: s were designed while taking terrestrial tides into account for proper operation. Among the effects that need to be taken into account are circumference deformation for circular accelerators and particle beam energy.

text: The instability strip intersects the main sequence in the region of A and F stars (1–2 solar mass ()) and extends to G and early K bright supergiants (early M if RV Tauri stars at minimum are included). The lower part of instability strip appears as the Hertzsprung gap on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.  Above the main sequence, the vast majority of stars in the instability strip are variable.  Where the instability strip intersects the main sequence, the vast majority of stars are stable, but there are some variables, including the roAp stars.

text: The instability strip intersects the

text: main sequence

text: in the region of A and F stars (1–2

text: solar

text: mass ()) and extends to G and early K bright supergiants (early M if RV Tauri stars at minimum are included). The lower part of instability strip appears as the

text: Hertzsprung gap

text: on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram.  Above the main sequence, the vast majority of stars in the instability strip are variable.  Where the instability strip intersects the main sequence, the vast majority of stars are stable, but there are some variables, including the roAp stars.

text: Travis had the leading role of psychology professor Dr. Joyce Reardon in 2002's four-hour television adaptation of Stephen King's Rose Red. In 2002, Travis joined the cast of the CBS sitcom Becker as Chris Connor. She starred in the show for its final two seasons, replacing the series' original female lead, Terry Farrell. From 2007 to 2009 Travis appeared in the television sitcom The Bill Engvall Show as Bill's wife Susan. In 2009 she starred in the Hallmark Channel film Safe Harbor, about a happily married couple, Doug (Treat Williams) and Robbie Smith (Travis) about to retire and spend their days cruising the world on their sailboat. In 2010, she starred in TV films The Pregnancy Pact, In My Shoes and was a guest star in two episodes of Desperate Housewives. In 2011, she guest starred in the television series Grey's Anatomy and How I Met Your Mother.

text: Travis had the leading role of psychology professor Dr. Joyce Reardon in 2002's four-hour television adaptation of

text: Stephen King's Rose Red

text: . In 2002, Travis joined the cast of the CBS sitcom

text: Becker

text: as Chris Connor. She starred in the show for its final two seasons, replacing the series' original female lead,

text: Terry Farrell

text: . From 2007 to 2009 Travis appeared in the television sitcom

text: The Bill Engvall Show

text: as Bill's wife Susan. In 2009 she starred in the

text: Hallmark Channel

text: film

text: Safe Harbor

text: , about a happily married couple, Doug (

text: Treat Williams

text: ) and Robbie Smith (Travis) about to retire and spend their days cruising the world on their sailboat. In 2010, she starred in TV films

text: The Pregnancy Pact

text: , In My Shoes and was a guest star in two episodes of

text: Desperate Housewives

text: . In 2011, she guest starred in the television series

text: Grey's Anatomy

text: and

text: How I Met Your Mother

text: Three star systems have been discovered to have exoplanets. HD 111232 is a yellow main sequence star around 78% as massive as the Sun around 95 light-years distant. It has a planet (HD 111232 b) around 6.8 times the mass of Jupiter that has an orbital period of around 1143 days. HD 112410 is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III located around 439 light-years distant. With around 1.54 times the mass of our Sun, it is cooling and expanding along the red giant branch, having left the main sequence after exhausting its core supply of hydrogen fuel. It has a substellar companion calculated to have a mass 9.2 times that of Jupiter and an orbital period of 124.6 days at a distance of approximately 0.57 AU. Yet another member of the Lower Centaurus Crux subgroup, HD 100546 is a young blue-white Herbig Ae/Be star of spectral type B9V that has yet to settle on the main sequence—the closest of these stars to Earth at around 320 light-years distant. It is surrounded by a circumstellar debris disk from a distance of 0.2 to 4 AU, and again from 13 AU out to a few hundred AU, with evidence for a protoplanet forming at a distance of around 47 AU. There is a gap between 4 and 13 AU, which appears to contain a large planet around 20 times the mass of Jupiter, although further examination of the disk profile indicates it might be a more massive object such as a brown dwarf or more than one planet. LP 145-141 is a white dwarf located 15 light-years distant—the fourth-closest to the Solar System. It is considered a good candidate to look for Jupiter-like planets, on account if its proximity and mass.

text: Three star systems have been discovered to have exoplanets.

text: HD 111232

text: is a yellow main sequence star around 78% as massive as the Sun around 95 light-years distant. It has a planet (

text: HD 111232 b

text: ) around 6.8 times the mass of

text: Jupiter

text: that has an orbital period of around 1143 days.

text: HD 112410

text: is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III located around 439 light-years distant. With around 1.54 times the mass of our Sun, it is cooling and expanding along the

text: red giant branch

text: , having left the

text: main sequence

text: after exhausting its core supply of hydrogen fuel. It has a substellar companion calculated to have a mass 9.2 times that of Jupiter and an orbital period of 124.6 days at a distance of approximately 0.57 AU. Yet another member of the Lower Centaurus Crux subgroup,

text: HD 100546

text: is a young blue-white

text: Herbig Ae/Be star

text: of spectral type B9V that has yet to settle on the main sequence—the closest of these stars to Earth at around 320 light-years distant. It is surrounded by a circumstellar

text: debris disk

text: from a distance of 0.2 to 4 AU, and again from 13 AU out to a few hundred AU, with evidence for a protoplanet forming at a distance of around 47 AU. There is a gap between 4 and 13 AU, which appears to contain a large planet around 20 times the mass of Jupiter, although further examination of the disk profile indicates it might be a more massive object such as a

text: brown dwarf

text: or more than one planet.

text: LP 145-141

text: is a white dwarf located 15 light-years distant—the fourth-closest to the

text: Solar System

text: . It is considered a good candidate to look for Jupiter-like planets, on account if its proximity and mass.

text: A list of particle accelerators used for particle physics experiments. Some early particle accelerators that more properly did nuclear physics, but existed prior to the separation of particle physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for experiments are listed.

text: A list of

text: particle accelerator

text: s used for

text: particle physics

text: experiments. Some early particle accelerators that more properly did

text: nuclear physics

text: , but existed prior to the separation of particle physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for experiments are listed.

text: The McDonald's All-American designation began in 1977 with the selection of the inaugural team. That year, the All-Americans played in an all-star game against a group of high school stars from the Washington, D.C. area.  The following year, the McDonald's game format of East vs. West was begun with a boys contest. In 2002, with the addition of a girls contest, the current girl-game / boy-game doubleheader format began.

text: The McDonald's

text: All-America

text: n designation began in 1977 with the selection of the inaugural team. That year, the All-Americans played in an all-star game against a group of high school stars from the Washington, D.C. area.  The following year, the McDonald's game format of East vs. West was begun with a boys contest. In 2002, with the addition of a girls contest, the current girl-game / boy-game doubleheader format began.

text: One or more of the particles may each be subject to one or more holonomic constraints, such a constraint is described by an equation of the form f(r, t) = 0. If the number of constraints in the system is C, then each constraint has an equation, f(r, t) = 0, f(r, t) = 0, ... f(r, t) = 0, each could apply to any of the particles. If particle k is subject to constraint i, then f(r, t) = 0. At any instant of time, the coordinates of a constrained particle are linked together and not independent. The constraint equations determine the allowed paths the particles can move along, but not where they are or how fast they go at every instant of time. Nonholonomic constraints depend on the particle velocities, accelerations, or higher derivatives of position. Lagrangian mechanics can only be applied to systems with holonomic constraints. Three examples are when the constraint equations are nonintegrable, when the constraints have inequalities, or with complicated non-conservative forces like friction. Nonholonomic constraints require special treatment, and one may revert to Newtonian mechanics, or use other methods.

text: One or more of the particles may each be subject to one or more

text: holonomic constraint

text: s, such a constraint is described by an equation of the form f(r, t) = 0. If the number of constraints in the system is C, then each constraint has an equation, f(r, t) = 0, f(r, t) = 0, ... f(r, t) = 0, each could apply to any of the particles. If particle k is subject to constraint i, then f(r, t) = 0. At any instant of time, the coordinates of a constrained particle are linked together and not independent. The constraint equations determine the allowed paths the particles can move along, but not where they are or how fast they go at every instant of time.

text: Nonholonomic constraints

text: depend on the particle velocities, accelerations, or higher derivatives of position. Lagrangian mechanics can only be applied to systems with holonomic constraints. Three examples are when the constraint equations are nonintegrable, when the constraints have inequalities, or with complicated non-conservative forces like friction. Nonholonomic constraints require special treatment, and one may revert to Newtonian mechanics, or use other methods.

text: Ryan and Youatt left Man in 1973 to re-form the Neutrons. Andrew Lauder, head of A&R at United Artists put the duo in  Rockfield Studios where they began recording the first Neutrons album, Black Hole Star. To record the album, Ryan and Youatt assembled several friends and former band-mates, including drummers John "Pugwash" Weathers (then with Gentle Giant) and Dave Charles; guitarists Martin Wallace and Ray "Taff" Williams, who had been in Eyes of Blue and Piblokto!, violinist Stuart Gordon (ex Incredible String Band) and vocalist Caromay Dixon.

text: Ryan and Youatt left Man in 1973 to re-form the Neutrons.

text: Andrew Lauder

text: , head of

text: A&R

text: at United Artists put the duo in

text: Rockfield Studios

text: where they began recording the first Neutrons album, Black Hole Star. To record the album, Ryan and Youatt assembled several friends and former band-mates, including drummers

text: John "Pugwash" Weathers

text: (then with

text: Gentle Giant

text: ) and

text: Dave Charles

text: ; guitarists Martin Wallace and Ray "Taff" Williams, who had been in Eyes of Blue and Piblokto!, violinist Stuart Gordon (ex

text: Incredible String Band

text: ) and vocalist Caromay Dixon.

text: Beta Boötis (β Boötis, abbreviated Beta Boo, β Boo), also named Nekkar, is a star in the northern constellation of Boötes. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 3.5, making it one of the brighter members of the constellation. In the modern constellation, it marks the head of Boötis the herdsman. Based upon parallax measurements, this star is approximately  from the Sun. At that distance, the magnitude of the star is reduced by 0.06 from extinction caused by intervening gas and dust.

text: Beta Boötis (β Boötis, abbreviated Beta Boo, β Boo), also named Nekkar, is a

text: star

text: in the northern

text: constellation

text: of

text: Boötes

text: . It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 3.5, making it one of the brighter members of the constellation. In the modern constellation, it marks the head of Boötis the herdsman. Based upon

text: parallax

text: measurements, this star is approximately  from the

text: Sun

text: . At that distance, the magnitude of the star is reduced by 0.06 from

text: extinction

text: caused by intervening gas and dust.

text: Howes began making silent pictures in Hollywood in 1923. At this stage of his career his youthful good looks led to him supporting or co-starring with many of filmdoms well-known and beautiful female stars of the time i.e. Marie Prevost, Clara Bow, Mildred Harris, Marjorie Daw, Viola Dana, Louise Fazenda and Virginia Brown Faire. He also appeared in low budget pictures with lesser known female stars i.e. Gladys Hulette, Ruth Dwyer, Carmelita Geraghty, Ethel Shannon and Alice Calhoun. Indeed, many of Howes's silent pictures are 'racing car-romance' movies, the kind Wallace Reid made popular before his untimely death in 1923. Howes seems to have picked up where Wally Reid left off and in fact Howes resembles Wally in looks or more precisely a cross between Wallace Reid and Neil Hamilton. The majority of Howes silents were produced by Harry Joe Brown(who also directed) and released through the Rayart company. Al Rogell directed a lot of them. The studios Howes worked for in the silent era were FBO, Warner Brothers, Fox, Paramount and Universal.

text: Howes began making silent pictures in Hollywood in 1923. At this stage of his career his youthful good looks led to him supporting or co-starring with many of filmdoms well-known and beautiful female stars of the time i.e.

text: Marie Prevost

text: Clara Bow

text: Mildred Harris

text: Marjorie Daw

text: Viola Dana

text: Louise Fazenda

text: and

text: Virginia Brown Faire

text: . He also appeared in low budget pictures with lesser known female stars i.e.

text: Gladys Hulette

text: Ruth Dwyer

text: Carmelita Geraghty

text: Ethel Shannon

text: and

text: Alice Calhoun

text: . Indeed, many of Howes's silent pictures are 'racing car-romance' movies, the kind

text: Wallace Reid

text: made popular before his untimely death in 1923. Howes seems to have picked up where Wally Reid left off and in fact Howes resembles Wally in looks or more precisely a cross between Wallace Reid and

text: Neil Hamilton

text: . The majority of Howes silents were produced by

text: Harry Joe Brown

text: (who also directed) and released through the Rayart company.

text: Al Rogell

text: directed a lot of them. The studios Howes worked for in the silent era were FBO,

text: Warner Brothers

text: Fox

text: Paramount

text: and

text: Universal

text: A small subset of Miras appear to change their period over time—the period increases or decreases by a substantial amount (up to a factor of three) over the course of several decades to a few centuries. This is believed to be caused by thermal pulses, where the helium shell reignites the outer hydrogen shell. This changes the structure of the star, which manifests itself as a change in period. This process is predicted to happen to all Mira variables, but the relatively short duration of thermal pulses (a few thousand years at most) over the asymptotic giant branch lifetime of the star (less than a million years), means we only see it in a few of the several thousand Mira stars known, possibly in R Hydrae.  Most Mira variables do exhibit slight cycle-to-cycle changes in period, probably caused by nonlinear behaviour in the stellar envelope including deviations from spherical symmetry.

text: A small subset of Miras appear to change their period over time—the period increases or decreases by a substantial amount (up to a factor of three) over the course of several decades to a few centuries. This is believed to be caused by

text: thermal pulse

text: s, where the

text: helium

text: shell reignites the outer

text: hydrogen

text: shell. This changes the structure of the star, which manifests itself as a change in period. This process is predicted to happen to all Mira variables, but the relatively short duration of thermal pulses (a few thousand years at most) over the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: lifetime of the star (less than a million years), means we only see it in a few of the several thousand Mira stars known, possibly in

text: R Hydrae

text: .  Most Mira variables do exhibit slight cycle-to-cycle changes in period, probably caused by nonlinear behaviour in the stellar envelope including deviations from spherical symmetry.

text: The gravitational collapse of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit for neutron-degenerate matter, the end product is a compact star — either a white dwarf (for masses below the Chandrasekhar limit) or a neutron star or a (hypothetical) quark star.  If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until zero volume is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.

text: The

text: gravitational collapse

text: of a star is a natural process that can produce a black hole. It is inevitable at the end of the life of a star, when all stellar energy sources are exhausted. If the mass of the collapsing part of the star is below the

text: Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff (TOV) limit

text: for

text: neutron-degenerate matter

text: , the end product is a

text: compact star

text: — either a

text: white dwarf

text: (for masses below the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: ) or a

text: neutron star

text: or a (hypothetical)

text: quark star

text: .  If the collapsing star has a mass exceeding the TOV limit, the crush will continue until

text: zero volume

text: is achieved and a black hole is formed around that point in space.

text: Other note-worthy research the South African Astronomical Observatory has achieved using SALT include the discovery of a class of stars known as "polar", or a pair of stars. The "polar" binary star system, where a compactor star called a "white dwarf" whose volume has shrunk about one millionth of a star like our sun. Studies using SALT concluded that these polar binary star systems take only an hour and a half to complete an orbit. Also, the SALT telescope allows scientists to study the rapid brightness changes in exotic stars.

text: M38 is a diffuse open cluster at a distance of 3,900 light-years, the least concentrated of the three main open clusters in Auriga; it is classified as a Trumpler Class II 2 r or III 2 r cluster because of this. It appears as a cross-shaped or pi-shaped object in a telescope and contains approximately 100 stars; its overall magnitude is 6.4. M38, like M36, was discovered by Guillaume Le Gentil in 1749. It has an apparent diameter of approximately 20 arcseconds and a true diameter of about 25 light-years. Unlike M36 or M37, M38 has a varied stellar population. The majority of the population consists of A and B type main sequence stars, the B type stars being the oldest members, and a number of G type giant stars. One yellow-hued G type star is the brightest star in M38 at a magnitude of 7.9. The brightest stars in M38 are magnitude 9 and 10. M38 is accompanied by NGC 1907, a smaller and dimmer cluster that lies half a degree south-southwest of M38; it is at a distance of 4,200 light-years. The smaller cluster has an overall magnitude of 8.2 and a diameter of 6.0 arcminutes, making it about a third the size of M38. However, NGC 1907 is a rich cluster, classified as a Trumpler Class I 1 m n cluster. It has approximately 12 stars of magnitude 9–10, and at least 25 stars of magnitude 9–12.

text: M38 is a diffuse open cluster at a distance of 3,900 light-years, the least concentrated of the three main open clusters in Auriga; it is classified as a Trumpler Class II 2 r or III 2 r cluster because of this. It appears as a cross-shaped or

text: pi

text: -shaped object in a telescope and contains approximately 100 stars; its overall magnitude is 6.4. M38, like M36, was discovered by Guillaume Le Gentil in 1749. It has an apparent diameter of approximately 20 arcseconds and a true diameter of about 25 light-years. Unlike M36 or M37, M38 has a varied stellar population. The majority of the population consists of A and B type main sequence stars, the B type stars being the oldest members, and a number of

text: G type giant stars

text: . One yellow-hued G type star is the brightest star in M38 at a magnitude of 7.9. The brightest stars in M38 are magnitude 9 and 10. M38 is accompanied by

text: NGC 1907

text: , a smaller and dimmer cluster that lies half a degree south-southwest of M38; it is at a distance of 4,200 light-years. The smaller cluster has an overall magnitude of 8.2 and a diameter of 6.0 arcminutes, making it about a third the size of M38. However, NGC 1907 is a rich cluster, classified as a Trumpler Class I 1 m n cluster. It has approximately 12 stars of magnitude 9–10, and at least 25 stars of magnitude 9–12.

text: Psi Cancri (ψ Cnc, ψ Cancri) is a star in the constellation Cancer.  It is classified as an orange K-type giant, with an apparent magnitude of +6.44.  It is approximately 1030 light years from Earth. Its designation is unusual as it is one of a very few stars which have a Bayer designation and are not in the Bright Star Catalog.

text: Psi Cancri (ψ Cnc, ψ Cancri) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Cancer

text: .  It is classified as an orange

text: K-type

text: giant

text: , with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +6.44.  It is approximately 1030

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: . Its designation is unusual as it is one of a very few stars which have a Bayer designation and are not in the Bright Star Catalog.

text: Hosted by: Dixie and Horsey (Stars of ‘Svengali’). Lifetime Achievement Winner: Katrina Larkin (The Big Chill).

text: Hosted by: Dixie and Horsey (Stars of ‘Svengali’). Lifetime Achievement Winner:

text: Katrina Larkin

text: The Big Chill

text: Both stars have a matching stellar classification of B9.5 III, indicating that they are massive, B-type giant stars that have exhausted the supply of hydrogen at their cores and evolved away from the main sequence of stars like the Sun. Hummel et al. (1996) gave the primary component, θ Aql A, an estimated mass of 3.6 solar, a radius 4.8 the Sun's, and 278 the luminosity of the Sun. For the secondary component, θ Aql B, they give the corresponding parameters as 2.9 times the mass, 2.4 times the radius and 68 times the luminosity of the Sun. Based upon their estimated parameters, Kaler (2008) suggests that θ Aql A is actually a subgiant star, while θ Aql B is a main sequence star.

text: Both stars have a matching

text: stellar classification

text: of B9.5 III, indicating that they are massive, B-type

text: giant star

text: s that have exhausted the supply of hydrogen at their cores and evolved away from the

text: main sequence

text: of stars like the

text: Sun

text: . Hummel et al. (1996) gave the primary component, θ Aql A, an estimated mass of 3.6 solar, a radius 4.8 the Sun's, and 278 the luminosity of the Sun. For the secondary component, θ Aql B, they give the corresponding parameters as 2.9 times the mass, 2.4 times the radius and 68 times the luminosity of the Sun. Based upon their estimated parameters, Kaler (2008) suggests that θ Aql A is actually a

text: subgiant star

text: , while θ Aql B is a

text: main sequence

text: star.

text: During the red giant phase of stellar evolution in stars with less than 2.0  the nuclear fusion of hydrogen ceases in the core as it is depleted, leaving a helium-rich core. While fusion of hydrogen continues in the star’s shell causing a continuation of the accumulation of helium ash in the core, making the core denser, the temperature still is unable to reach the level required for helium fusion, as happens in more massive stars. Thus the thermal pressure from fusion is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational collapse and create the hydrostatic equilibrium found in most stars. This causes the star to start contracting and increasing in temperature until it eventually becomes compressed enough for the helium core to become degenerate matter. This degeneracy pressure is finally sufficient to stop further collapse of the most central material but the rest of the core continues to contract and the temperature continues to rise until it reaches a point () at which the helium can ignite and start to fuse.

text: During the

text: red giant

text: phase of

text: stellar evolution

text: in stars with less than 2.0  the

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen ceases in the core as it is depleted, leaving a helium-rich core. While fusion of hydrogen continues in the star’s shell causing a continuation of the accumulation of helium ash in the core, making the core denser, the temperature still is unable to reach the level required for helium fusion, as happens in more massive stars. Thus the thermal pressure from fusion is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational collapse and create the

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: found in most stars. This causes the star to start contracting and increasing in temperature until it eventually becomes compressed enough for the helium core to become

text: degenerate matter

text: . This degeneracy pressure is finally sufficient to stop further collapse of the most central material but the rest of the core continues to contract and the temperature continues to rise until it reaches a point () at which the helium can ignite and start to fuse.

text: Despite the up-or-out system, under President José Sarney the army became top-heavy as generals began to occupy many positions that previously had been reserved for colonels. In 1991 there were fifteen four-stars, forty three-stars, and 110 two-stars generals. The figure for four-stars generals did not include four who were Ministers in the Superior Military Court (Superior Tribunal Militar—STM). Thus, in the mid-1990s the army sought to reduce the number of active-duty generals. In 2014, there are fifteen four-stars, forty five three-stars, and eighty nine two-stars generals in active service.

text: Despite the up-or-out system, under

text: President

text: José Sarney

text: the army became top-heavy as generals began to occupy many positions that previously had been reserved for colonels. In 1991 there were fifteen four-stars, forty three-stars, and 110 two-stars generals. The figure for four-stars generals did not include four who were Ministers in the Superior Military Court (Superior Tribunal Militar—STM). Thus, in the mid-1990s the army sought to reduce the number of active-duty generals. In 2014, there are fifteen four-stars, forty five three-stars, and eighty nine two-stars generals in active service.

text: Supergiants are among the most massive and most luminous stars. They occupy the top region of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram with absolute visual magnitudes between about −3 and −8 with temperatures spanning from about 3,500 K to over 20,000 K.

text: Supergiants are among the most massive and most luminous

text: star

text: s. They occupy the top region of the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: with

text: absolute visual magnitude

text: s between about −3 and −8 with temperatures spanning from about 3,500 K to over 20,000 K.

text: In general, the more massive a star is, the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence. After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed, the star evolves away from the main sequence on the HR diagram. The behavior of a star now depends on its mass, with stars below 0.23  becoming white dwarfs directly, whereas stars with up to ten solar masses pass through a red giant stage. More massive stars can explode as a supernova, or collapse directly into a black hole.

text: In general, the more massive a star is, the shorter its lifespan on the main sequence. After the hydrogen fuel at the core has been consumed, the star

text: evolves

text: away from the main sequence on the HR diagram. The behavior of a star now depends on its mass, with stars below 0.23  becoming

text: white dwarf

text: s directly, whereas stars with up to ten solar masses pass through a

text: red giant

text: stage. More massive stars can explode as a

text: supernova

text: , or collapse directly into a

text: black hole

text: Four star systems are known to harbour planets. HD 330075 is a sunlike star around 164 light-years distant that is orbited by a hot Jupiter every 3.4 days. Announced in 2004, it was the first planet discovered by the HARPS spectrograph. HD 148156 is a star 168 ± 7 light-years distant. Slightly larger and hotter than the Sun, it was found to have a roughly Jupiter-size planet with an orbital period of 2.8 years. HD 143361 is a binary star system composed of a sunlike star and a faint red dwarf separated by 30.9 AU. A planet roughly triple the mass of Jupiter orbits the brighter star every 1057± 20 days. HD 142415 is approximately 113 light-years distant and has a Jupiter-sized planet with an orbital period of around 386 days.

text: Four star systems are known to harbour planets.

text: HD 330075

text: is a sunlike star around 164 light-years distant that is orbited by a

text: hot Jupiter

text: every 3.4 days. Announced in 2004, it was the first planet discovered by the

entity_name: High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher

text: HARPS

text: spectrograph

text: HD 148156

text: is a star 168 ± 7 light-years distant. Slightly larger and hotter than the Sun, it was found to have a roughly Jupiter-size planet with an orbital period of 2.8 years.

text: HD 143361

text: is a binary star system composed of a sunlike star and a faint red dwarf separated by 30.9 AU. A planet roughly triple the mass of Jupiter orbits the brighter star every 1057± 20 days.

text: HD 142415

text: is approximately 113 light-years distant and has a Jupiter-sized planet with an orbital period of around 386 days.

text: Supergiant luminosity classes are easy to determine and apply to large numbers of stars, but they group a number of very different types of star into a single category.  An evolutionary definition restricts the term supergiant to those massive stars which start core helium fusion without developing a degenerate helium core and without undergoing a helium flash.  They will universally go on to burn heavier elements and undergo core collapse resulting in a supernova.

text: Supergiant luminosity classes are easy to determine and apply to large numbers of stars, but they group a number of very different types of star into a single category.  An evolutionary definition restricts the term supergiant to those massive stars which start core helium fusion without developing a degenerate helium core and without undergoing a helium flash.  They will universally go on to burn heavier elements and undergo core collapse resulting in a

text: supernova

text: In 2010, the star was among a survey of massive, lower effective temperature supergiants in an attempt to detect a magnetic field. This star may have a longitudinal magnetic field with a strength of less than a Gauss. It is a young disk star system with space velocity components,  = . There is a magnitude 12.5 optical companion, located at an angular separation of 12.7 arcseconds and a position angle of 118° as of the year 1943.

text: In 2010, the star was among a survey of massive, lower

text: effective temperature

text: supergiants in an attempt to detect a magnetic field. This star may have a longitudinal

text: magnetic field

text: with a strength of less than a

text: Gauss

text: . It is a

text: young disk star

text: system with

text: space velocity

text: components,  = . There is a magnitude 12.5 optical companion, located at an angular separation of 12.7

text: arcsecond

text: s and a

text: position angle

text: of 118° as of the year 1943.

text: A low-mass X-ray binary (LMXB) is a binary star system where one of the components is either a black hole or neutron star.  The other component, a donor, usually fills its Roche lobe and therefore transfers mass to the compact star.  The donor is less massive than the compact object, and can be on the main sequence, a degenerate dwarf (white dwarf), or an evolved star (red giant).  Approximately two hundred LMXBs have been detected in the Milky Way, and of these, thirteen LMXBs have been discovered in globular clusters.  The Chandra X-ray Observatory has revealed LMXBs in many distant galaxies.

text: A low-mass X-ray binary (LMXB) is a

text: binary star

text: system where one of the components is either a

text: black hole

text: or

text: neutron star

text: .  The other component, a donor, usually fills its

text: Roche lobe

text: and therefore transfers mass to the compact star.  The donor is less massive than the compact object, and can be on the

text: main sequence

text: , a degenerate dwarf (

text: white dwarf

text: ), or an evolved star (

text: red giant

text: ).  Approximately two hundred LMXBs have been detected in the

text: Milky Way

text: , and of these, thirteen LMXBs have been discovered in

text: globular cluster

text: s.  The

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: has revealed LMXBs in many distant galaxies.

text: Gemini is dominated by Castor and Pollux, two bright stars that appear relatively very closely together forming an o shape, encouraging the mythological link between the constellation and twinship. The twin above and to the right (as seen from the Northern Hemisphere) is Castor, whose brightest star is α Gem; it is a second magnitude star and represents Castor's head. The twin below and to the left is Pollux, whose brightest star is β Gem (more commonly called Pollux); it is of the first magnitude and represents Pollux's head. Furthermore, the other stars can be visualized as two parallel lines descending from the two main stars, making it look like two figures.

text: Gemini is dominated by

text: Castor

text: and

text: Pollux

text: , two bright stars that appear relatively very closely together forming an o shape, encouraging the mythological link between the constellation and twinship. The twin above and to the right (as seen from the Northern Hemisphere) is Castor, whose brightest star is

text: α Gem

text: ; it is a second magnitude star and represents Castor's head. The twin below and to the left is Pollux, whose brightest star is

text: β Gem

text: (more commonly called Pollux); it is of the first magnitude and represents Pollux's head. Furthermore, the other stars can be visualized as two parallel lines descending from the two main stars, making it look like two figures.

text: Grus (, or colloquially ) is a constellation in the southern sky. Its name is Latin for the crane, a type of bird. It is one of twelve constellations conceived by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. Grus first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer's star atlas Uranometria of 1603.  French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille gave Bayer designations to its stars in 1756, some of which had been previously considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus. The constellations Grus, Pavo, Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the "Southern Birds".

text: Grus (, or colloquially ) is a

text: constellation

text: in the

text: southern sky

text: . Its name is

text: Latin

text: for the

text: crane

text: , a type of bird. It is one of twelve constellations conceived by

text: Petrus Plancius

text: from the observations of

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: and

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: . Grus first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and

text: Jodocus Hondius

text: and was depicted in

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's star atlas

text: Uranometria

text: of 1603.  French explorer and astronomer

text: Nicolas Louis de Lacaille

text: gave

text: Bayer designation

text: s to its stars in 1756, some of which had been previously considered part of the neighbouring constellation

text: Piscis Austrinus

text: . The constellations Grus,

text: Pavo

text: Phoenix

text: and

text: Tucana

text: In a neutron star less massive than the limit, the weight of the star is balanced by short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions mediated by the strong force and also by the quantum degeneracy pressure of neutrons, preventing collapse.  If its mass is above the limit, the star will collapse to some denser form.  It could form a black hole, or change composition and be supported in some other way (for example, by quark degeneracy pressure if it becomes a quark star).  Because the properties of hypothetical, more exotic forms of degenerate matter are even more poorly known than those of neutron-degenerate matter, most astrophysicists assume, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, that a neutron star above the limit collapses directly into a black hole.

text: In a neutron star less massive than the limit, the weight of the star is balanced by short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions mediated by the strong force and also by the quantum degeneracy pressure of neutrons, preventing collapse.  If its mass is above the limit, the star will collapse to some denser form.  It could form a

text: black hole

text: , or change composition and be supported in some other way (for example, by

text: quark degeneracy pressure

text: if it becomes a

text: quark star

text: ).  Because the properties of hypothetical, more exotic forms of

text: degenerate matter

text: are even more poorly known than those of neutron-degenerate matter, most astrophysicists assume, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, that a neutron star above the limit collapses directly into a black hole.

text: 2 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 4.79.

text: 2 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 4.79.

text: The proper motions of stars near the center of our own Milky Way provide strong observational evidence that these stars are orbiting a supermassive black hole. Since 1995, astronomers have tracked the motions of 90 stars orbiting an invisible object coincident with the radio source Sagittarius A*. By fitting their motions to Keplerian orbits, the astronomers were able to infer, in 1998, that a 2.6 million  object must be contained in a volume with a radius of 0.02 light-years to cause the motions of those stars. Since then, one of the stars—called S2—has completed a full orbit. From the orbital data, astronomers were able to make refine the calculations of the mass to 4.3 million  and a radius of less than 0.002 lightyears for the object causing the orbital motion of those stars. The upper limit on the object's size is still too large to test whether it is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius; nevertheless, these observations strongly suggest that the central object is a supermassive black hole as there are no other plausible scenarios for confining so much invisible mass into such a small volume. Additionally, there is some observational evidence that this object might possess an event horizon, a feature unique to black holes.

text: The

text: proper motion

text: s of stars near the center of our own

text: Milky Way

text: provide strong observational evidence that these stars are orbiting a supermassive black hole. Since 1995, astronomers have tracked the motions of 90 stars orbiting an invisible object coincident with the radio source Sagittarius A*. By fitting their motions to

text: Keplerian orbit

text: s, the astronomers were able to infer, in 1998, that a 2.6 million  object must be contained in a volume with a radius of 0.02

text: light-year

text: s to cause the motions of those stars. Since then, one of the stars—called

text: —has completed a full orbit. From the orbital data, astronomers were able to make refine the calculations of the mass to 4.3 million  and a radius of less than 0.002 lightyears for the object causing the orbital motion of those stars. The upper limit on the object's size is still too large to test whether it is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius; nevertheless, these observations strongly suggest that the central object is a supermassive black hole as there are no other plausible scenarios for confining so much invisible mass into such a small volume. Additionally, there is some observational evidence that this object might possess an event horizon, a feature unique to black holes.

text: A blitzar is thought to start from a neutron star with a mass that would cause it to collapse into a black hole if it were not rapidly spinning.  Instead, the neutron star spins fast enough so that its centrifugal force keeps the collapse from happening.  This makes the neutron star a typical but doomed pulsar.  Over a few million years, the pulsar's strong magnetic field radiates energy away and slows its spin.  Eventually the weakening centrifugal force is no longer able to stop the pulsar from its transformation into a black hole.  At this moment of blitzar formation, part of the pulsar's magnetic field outside the black hole is suddenly cut off from its vanished source.  This magnetic energy is instantly transformed into a burst of wide spectrum radio energy. As of January 20, 2015, seven  radio events detected so far might represent such possible collapses; they are projected to occur every 10 seconds within the observable universe.  Because the magnetic field had previously cleared the surrounding space of gas and dust, there is no nearby material that will fall into the new black hole.  Thus there is no burst of X-rays or gamma rays that usually happens when other black holes form.

text: A blitzar is thought to start from a

text: neutron star

text: with a mass that would cause it to collapse into a

text: black hole

text: if it were not rapidly spinning.  Instead, the neutron star spins fast enough so that its

text: centrifugal force

text: keeps the collapse from happening.  This makes the neutron star a typical but doomed

text: pulsar

text: .  Over a few million years, the pulsar's strong

text: magnetic field

text: radiates energy away and slows its spin.  Eventually the weakening centrifugal force is no longer able to stop the pulsar from its transformation into a black hole.  At this moment of blitzar formation, part of the pulsar's magnetic field outside the black hole is suddenly cut off from its vanished source.  This magnetic energy is instantly transformed into a burst of wide spectrum radio energy. As of January 20, 2015, seven  radio events detected so far might represent such possible collapses; they are projected to occur every 10 seconds within the observable universe.  Because the magnetic field had previously cleared the surrounding space of gas and dust, there is no nearby material that will fall into the new black hole.  Thus there is no burst of

text: X-rays

text: or

text: gamma rays

text: that usually happens when other black holes form.

text: K-type main-sequence stars are smaller than the Sun and live longer, remaining on the main sequence 15 to 30 billion years compared to the Sun's estimated 10 billion. Despite these properties, the small M-type and K-type stars can pose a threat to life. Because of their high stellar activity at the beginning of their lives, they emit strong solar winds. The duration of this period is inversely linked to the size of the star. However, because of the uncertainty of the age of Kepler-442, it is likely it may have passed this stage, making Kepler-442b potentially more suitable for habitability. Because it is closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun, the planet will probably rotate much more slowly than Earth; its day could be weeks or months long (see Tidal effects on rotation rate, axial tilt and orbit). This is reflected on its orbital distance just outside of the point where the tidal interactions from its star would be strong enough to tidally locked.

text: K-type main-sequence stars are smaller than the Sun and live longer, remaining on the

text: main sequence

text: 15 to 30 billion years compared to the Sun's estimated 10 billion. Despite these properties, the small M-type and K-type stars can pose a threat to life. Because of their high stellar activity at the beginning of their lives, they emit strong solar winds. The duration of this period is inversely linked to the size of the star. However, because of the uncertainty of the age of Kepler-442, it is likely it may have passed this stage, making Kepler-442b potentially more suitable for habitability. Because it is closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun, the planet will probably rotate much more slowly than Earth; its day could be weeks or months long (see

entity_section: Tidal effects on rotation rate, axial tilt and orbit

text: Tidal effects on rotation rate, axial tilt and orbit

text: ). This is reflected on its orbital distance just outside of the point where the tidal interactions from its star would be strong enough to tidally locked.

text: Because colliders can give evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. Despite the fact that most accelerators (but not ion facilities) actually propel subatomic particles, the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general.

text: Because colliders can give evidence of the structure of the subatomic world, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. Despite the fact that most accelerators (but not

text: ion

text: facilities) actually propel

text: subatomic particles

text: , the term persists in popular usage when referring to particle accelerators in general.

text: Girl, Positive is a 2007 Lifetime Television movie, starring Andrea Bowen and Jennie Garth.

text: Girl, Positive is a 2007

text: Lifetime Television

text: movie, starring

text: Andrea Bowen

text: and

text: Jennie Garth

text: Vega's spectral class is A0V, making it a blue-tinged white main sequence star that is fusing hydrogen to helium in its core. Since more massive stars use their fusion fuel more quickly than smaller ones, Vega's main-sequence lifetime is roughly one billion years, a tenth of the Sun's. The current age of this star is about 455 million years, or up to about half its expected total main-sequence lifespan. After leaving the main sequence, Vega will become a class-M red giant and shed much of its mass, finally becoming a white dwarf. At present, Vega has more than twice the mass of the Sun and its full luminosity is about 40 times the Sun's value. However, because of its high rate of rotation, the pole is considerably brighter than the equator. Because it is seen nearly pole-on, its apparent luminosity from Earth is notably higher, about 57 times the Sun's value. If Vega is variable, then it may be a Delta Scuti type with a period of about 0.107 days.

text: Vega's

text: spectral class

text: is A0V, making it a blue-tinged white

text: main sequence

text: star that is

text: fusing

text: hydrogen

text: to

text: helium

text: in its core. Since more massive stars use their fusion fuel more quickly than smaller ones, Vega's main-sequence lifetime is roughly one billion years, a tenth of the Sun's. The current age of this star is about 455 million years, or up to about half its expected total main-sequence lifespan. After leaving the main sequence, Vega will become a class-M

text: red giant

text: and shed much of its mass, finally becoming a

text: white dwarf

text: . At present, Vega has more than twice the mass of the Sun and its full luminosity is about 40 times the Sun's value. However, because of its high rate of rotation, the pole is considerably brighter than the equator. Because it is seen nearly pole-on, its apparent luminosity from Earth is notably higher, about 57 times the Sun's value. If Vega is variable, then it may be a

text: Delta Scuti type

text: with a period of about 0.107 days.

text: Marry Me is a 2010 television miniseries starring Lucy Liu. It was directed by James Hayman and written by Barbara Hall. This miniseries aired on Lifetime on December 12, 2010 and December 13, 2010.

text: Marry Me is a 2010

text: television miniseries

text: starring

text: Lucy Liu

text: . It was directed by

text: James Hayman

text: and written by Barbara Hall. This miniseries aired on

text: Lifetime

text: on December 12, 2010 and December 13, 2010.

text: Reticulum II (or Reticulum 2) is an old dwarf galaxy in the Local Group. Reticulum II was discovered in 2015 by analysing images from the Dark Energy Survey. It is elongated, having an axis ratio of 0.6. The size is given by a half light distance of 30 pc. This is too large for it to be a globular cluster. Magnitude M is -2.7. The distance is 30 kpc. The galaxy contains some blue horizontal branch stars. Other features visible are a main sequence, and a main sequence turn off, and a red giant branch. It has an unusual enhancement of r-process elements; meaning that gold and europium are extra common in the brightest stars in the galaxy. The implication of the unusual enrichment in elements heavier than zinc, is that the r-process is very rare, and only happened once in this galaxy, possibly by the collision of two neutron stars.

text: Reticulum II (or Reticulum 2) is an old dwarf galaxy in the

text: Local Group

text: . Reticulum II was discovered in 2015 by analysing images from the

text: Dark Energy Survey

text: . It is elongated, having an axis ratio of 0.6. The size is given by a half light distance of 30 pc. This is too large for it to be a

text: globular cluster

text: . Magnitude M is -2.7. The distance is 30 kpc. The galaxy contains some blue horizontal branch stars. Other features visible are a

text: main sequence

text: , and a main sequence turn off, and a

text: red giant branch

text: . It has an unusual enhancement of

text: r-process

text: elements; meaning that gold and

text: europium

text: are extra common in the brightest stars in the galaxy. The implication of the unusual enrichment in elements heavier than zinc, is that the r-process is very rare, and only happened once in this galaxy, possibly by the

text: collision of two neutron stars

text: Marking the herdsman's head is Beta Boötis, or Nekkar, a yellow giant of magnitude 3.5 and spectral type G8IIIa. Like Arcturus, it has expanded and cooled off the main sequence—likely to have lived most of its stellar life as a blue-white B-type main sequence star. Its common name comes from the Arabic phrase for "ox-driver". It is 219 light-years away and has a luminosity of . Located 86 light-years distant, Gamma Boötis, or Seginus, is a white giant star of spectral class A7III, with a luminosity 34 times and diameter 3.5 times that of the Sun. It is a Delta Scuti variable, ranging between magnitudes 3.02 and 3.07 every 7 hours. Thes stars are short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology. Delta Boötis is a wide double star with a primary of magnitude 3.5 and a secondary of magnitude 7.8. The primary is a yellow giant that has cooled and expanded to 10.4 times the diameter of the Sun. Of spectral class G8IV, it is around 121 light-years away, while the secondary is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V. The two are thought to take 120,000 years to orbit each other. Mu Boötis, known as Alkalurops, is a triple star popular with amateur astronomers. It has an overall magnitude of 4.3 and is 121 light-years away. Its name is from the Arabic phrase for "club" or "staff". The primary appears to be of magnitude 4.3 and is blue-white. The secondary appears to be of magnitude 6.5, but is actually a close double star itself with a primary of magnitude 7.0 and a secondary of magnitude 7.6. The secondary and tertiary stars have an orbital period of 260 years. The primary has an absolute magnitude of 2.6 and is of spectral class F0. The secondary and tertiary stars are separated by 2 arcseconds; the primary and secondary are separated by 109.1 arcseconds at an angle of 171 degrees. Nu Boötis is an optical double star. The primary is an orange giant of magnitude 5.0 and the secondary is a white star of magnitude 5.0. The primary is 870 light-years away and the secondary is 430 light-years.

text: Marking the herdsman's head is Beta Boötis, or Nekkar, a

text: yellow giant

text: of magnitude 3.5 and spectral type G8IIIa. Like Arcturus, it has expanded and cooled off the

text: main sequence

text: —likely to have lived most of its stellar life as a blue-white

text: B-type main sequence star

text: . Its common name comes from the Arabic phrase for "ox-driver". It is 219 light-years away and has a luminosity of . Located 86 light-years distant,

text: Gamma Boötis

text: , or Seginus, is a white giant star of spectral class A7III, with a luminosity 34 times and diameter 3.5 times that of the Sun. It is a

text: Delta Scuti variable

text: , ranging between magnitudes 3.02 and 3.07 every 7 hours. Thes stars are short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as

text: standard candles

text: and as subjects to study

text: astroseismology

text: Delta Boötis

text: is a wide double star with a primary of magnitude 3.5 and a secondary of magnitude 7.8. The primary is a yellow giant that has cooled and expanded to 10.4 times the diameter of the Sun. Of spectral class G8IV, it is around 121 light-years away, while the secondary is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V. The two are thought to take 120,000 years to orbit each other.

text: Mu Boötis

text: , known as

text: Alkalurops

text: , is a triple star popular with amateur astronomers. It has an overall magnitude of 4.3 and is 121 light-years away. Its name is from the Arabic phrase for "club" or "staff". The primary appears to be of magnitude 4.3 and is blue-white. The secondary appears to be of magnitude 6.5, but is actually a close double star itself with a primary of magnitude 7.0 and a secondary of magnitude 7.6. The secondary and tertiary stars have an orbital period of 260 years. The primary has an absolute magnitude of 2.6 and is of spectral class F0. The secondary and tertiary stars are separated by 2 arcseconds; the primary and secondary are separated by 109.1 arcseconds at an angle of 171 degrees.

text: Nu Boötis

text: is an optical double star. The primary is an orange giant of magnitude 5.0 and the secondary is a white star of magnitude 5.0. The primary is 870 light-years away and the secondary is 430 light-years.

text: It was the last original play by Odets produced in his lifetime. The play was revived in 1994.While seldom produced in stock and regional theatres, a musical version entitled Two By Two was produced on Broadway in 1970 by Richard Rodgers, Martin Charnin and Peter Stone. It starred Danny Kaye and ran for a year on Broadway

text: It was the last original play by Odets produced in his lifetime. The play was revived in 1994.While seldom produced in stock and regional theatres, a musical version entitled

text: Two By Two

text: was produced on Broadway in 1970 by

text: Richard Rodgers

text: Martin Charnin

text: and

text: Peter Stone

text: . It starred

text: Danny Kaye

text: and ran for a year on Broadway

text: Some modern proposals for new constellations were not successful; an example is Quadrans, eponymous of the Quadrantid meteors, now divided between Boötes and Draco in the northern sky. The large classical constellation of Argo Navis was broken up into three separate parts (Carina, Puppis and Vela), for the convenience of stellar cartographers.

text: Some modern proposals for new constellations were not successful; an example is

text: Quadrans

text: , eponymous of the

text: Quadrantid

text: meteors, now divided between

text: Boötes

text: and

text: Draco

text: in the northern sky. The large classical constellation of

text: Argo Navis

text: was broken up into three separate parts (Carina, Puppis and Vela), for the convenience of stellar cartographers.

text: Although it appears to be a single star to the naked eye, 61 Cygni is in fact a widely separated binary star system, composed of two K class (orange) main sequence stars, the brighter 61 Cygni A  and fainter 61 Cygni B, which have apparent magnitudes of 5.2 and 6.1, respectively. Both appear to be old-disk stars, with an estimated age that is older than the Sun. The system has a net space velocity of 108 km/s relative to the Sun, which results in the high proper motion across the sky. At a distance of just over 11 light-years, it is the 15th-nearest-known star system to the Earth (not including the Sun). 61 Cygni A is the fourth-nearest star that is visible to the naked eye for mid-latitude northern observers, after Sirius, Epsilon Eridani, and Procyon A. This system will make its closest approach at about 20,000 CE, when the separation from the Sun will be about 9 light-years.

text: Although it appears to be a single star to the naked eye, 61 Cygni is in fact a widely separated binary star system, composed of two

text: K class (orange)

text: main sequence

text: stars, the brighter 61 Cygni A  and fainter 61 Cygni B, which have

text: apparent magnitude

text: s of 5.2 and 6.1, respectively. Both appear to be

text: old-disk star

text: s, with an estimated age that is older than the Sun. The system has a net

text: space velocity

text: of 108 km/s relative to the Sun, which results in the high proper motion across the sky. At a distance of just over 11 light-years, it is the 15th-nearest-known star system to the Earth (not including the Sun). 61 Cygni A is the fourth-nearest star that is visible to the naked eye for mid-latitude northern observers, after

text: Sirius

text: Epsilon Eridani

text: , and

text: Procyon A

text: . This system will make its closest approach at about 20,000

text: CE

text: , when the separation from the Sun will be about 9 light-years.

text: A popular child-oriented derivative of the Milky Way bar known as 'Milky Way Magic Stars' is also sold in the UK and consists of small aerated chocolate star shapes. Originally, every star was engraved with a different smiley face, each representing one of the magic star characters portrayed on the packaging. The characters were: Pop Star, Jess Star, Bright Star, Super Star, Twinkle Star, Falling Star, Happy Star, Sport Star, Clever Star and Baby Star. Recently, however, the characters and their respective engravings have been discontinued, possibly to lower production costs.

text: Chattopadhyay returned to Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1984, where he led and defined the accelerator physics of the Advanced Light Source (ALS) and contributed to the conceptual design of the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC), pioneered the accelerator physics which underpinned the Berkeley-Stanford asymmetric B-factory (PEP-II) for CP-violation studies, and initiated the Berkeley FEL/Femtosecond X-ray Source and Laser-Plasma Acceleration development. He was a Senior Scientist, a Guest Professor, and the Founder/Director of the Center for Beam Physics at Berkeley, until his move to Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in 2001 as the Associate Laboratory Director for Accelerators, after 25 years at the University of California and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.At Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, he made critical advancements in microwave superconducting linear accelerators leading the way to current and future grand instruments of science such as the high precision CEBAF and its 12 GeV upgrade for precision research in hadronic physics, Spallation Neutron Source at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA to advance neutron sciences and novel materials research, and the current superconducting version of the International Linear Collider, to name a few.His research at the Cockcroft Institute in UK included development of sources of “ultra-cold” relativistic free electron beams to advance coherent electron diffraction techniques; production of novel coherent and ultra-short pulses of photons (e.g. x-ray FELs); novel acceleration methods; investigation of photonic crystals and metamaterial structures for charged particle acceleration; novel high energy colliders; cavity search for “dark matter” and laboratory investigation of “dark energy” via atom interferometer techniques. Chattopadhyay is currently working for Fermilab and Northern Illinois University (NIU) acting as a distinctive professor and director of accelerator research.Having contributed to the conception, design, construction, commissioning and operation of numerous accelerators for particle and nuclear physics, photon and neutron sciences around the world, with significant research accomplishments in advanced particle and photon beam physics, and mentoring scientists around the world, in the developing nations in particular, in accelerator developments as a unifying global force among nations, Prof. Chattopadhyay is a frequently invited speaker and advisor at professional societies and government research agencies, serving on numerous editorial, advisory and review committees throughout the world.

text: Chattopadhyay returned to Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in 1984, where he led and defined the accelerator physics of the

text: Advanced Light Source

text: (ALS) and contributed to the conceptual design of the

text: Superconducting Super Collider

text: (SSC), pioneered the accelerator physics which underpinned the Berkeley-Stanford asymmetric B-factory (PEP-II) for

text: CP-violation

text: studies, and initiated the Berkeley FEL/Femtosecond X-ray Source and

text: Laser-Plasma Acceleration

text: development. He was a Senior Scientist, a

text: Guest Professor

text: , and the Founder/Director of the Center for Beam Physics at Berkeley, until his move to Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility in 2001 as the Associate Laboratory Director for Accelerators, after 25 years at the University of California and Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.At Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility, he made critical advancements in microwave superconducting linear accelerators leading the way to current and future grand instruments of science such as the high precision CEBAF and its 12 GeV upgrade for precision research in

text: hadron

text: ic physics,

text: Spallation Neutron Source

text: at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA to advance

text: neutron

text: sciences and novel materials research, and the current

text: superconducting

text: version of the

text: International Linear Collider

text: , to name a few.His research at the Cockcroft Institute in UK included development of sources of “ultra-cold”

text: relativistic free electron beams

text: to advance coherent

text: electron diffraction

text: techniques; production of novel coherent and ultra-short pulses of

text: photons

text: (e.g. x-ray FELs); novel acceleration methods; investigation of

text: photonic crystals

text: and

text: metamaterial

text: structures for charged particle acceleration; novel high energy colliders; cavity search for “dark matter” and laboratory investigation of “

text: dark energy

text: ” via

text: atom interferometer

text: techniques. Chattopadhyay is currently working for

text: Fermilab

text: and

text: Northern Illinois University

text: (NIU) acting as a distinctive professor and director of accelerator research.Having contributed to the conception, design, construction, commissioning and operation of numerous accelerators for particle and nuclear physics, photon and neutron sciences around the world, with significant research accomplishments in advanced particle and photon beam physics, and mentoring scientists around the world, in the developing nations in particular, in accelerator developments as a unifying global force among nations, Prof. Chattopadhyay is a frequently invited speaker and advisor at professional societies and government research agencies, serving on numerous editorial, advisory and review committees throughout the world.

text: Named Gorgonea Tertia, Rho Persei varies in brightness like Algol, but is a pulsating rather than eclipsing star. At an advanced stage of stellar evolution, it is a red giant that has expanded for the second time to have a radius around 150 times that of our Sun. Its helium has been fused into heavier elements and its core is composed of carbon and oxygen. It is a semiregular variable star of the Mu Cephei type, whose apparent magnitude varies between 3.3 and 4.0 with periods of 50, 120 and 250 days. The Double Cluster contains three even larger stars, each over 700 solar radii: S, RS, and SU Persei are all semiregular pulsating M-type supergiants. The stars are not visible to the naked eye;  SU Persei, the brightest of the three, has an apparent magnitude of 7.9 and thus is visible through binoculars. AX Persei is another binary star, the primary component is a red giant in an advanced phase of stellar evolution, which is transferring material onto an accretion disc around a smaller star. The star system is one of the few eclipsing symbiotic binaries, but is unusual because the secondary star is not a white dwarf, but an A-type star. DY Persei is a variable star that is the prototype of DY Persei variables, which are carbon-rich R Coronae Borealis variables that exhibit the variability of asymptotic giant branch stars. DY Persei itself is a carbon star that is too dim to see through binoculars, with an apparent magnitude of 10.6.

text: Named Gorgonea Tertia,

text: Rho Persei

text: varies in brightness like Algol, but is a pulsating rather than eclipsing star. At an advanced stage of stellar evolution, it is a red giant that has expanded for the second time to have a radius around 150 times that of our Sun. Its helium has been fused into heavier elements and its core is composed of carbon and oxygen. It is a

text: semiregular variable star

text: of the

text: Mu Cephei

text: type, whose

text: apparent magnitude

text: varies between 3.3 and 4.0 with periods of 50, 120 and 250 days. The Double Cluster contains three even larger stars, each over 700

text: solar radii

text: S

text: RS

text: , and

text: SU Persei

text: are all semiregular pulsating

text: M-type supergiants

text: . The stars are not visible to the naked eye;  SU Persei, the brightest of the three, has an apparent magnitude of 7.9 and thus is visible through binoculars.

text: AX Persei

text: is another binary star, the primary component is a

text: red giant

text: in an advanced phase of

text: stellar evolution

text: , which is transferring material onto an

text: accretion disc

text: around a smaller star. The star system is one of the few eclipsing

text: symbiotic binaries

text: , but is unusual because the secondary star is not a white dwarf, but an

text: A-type star

text: DY Persei

text: is a variable star that is the prototype of

text: DY Persei variable

text: s, which are carbon-rich

text: R Coronae Borealis variable

text: s that exhibit the variability of

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: stars. DY Persei itself is a

text: carbon star

text: that is too dim to see through binoculars, with an apparent magnitude of 10.6.

text: Stars do exist in the Hertzsprung gap region, but because they move through this section of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram very quickly in comparison to the lifetime of the star (thousands of years, compared to tens of millions of years for the lifetime of the star), that portion of the diagram is less densely populated.  Full Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams of the 11,000 Hipparcos mission targets show a handful of stars in that region.

text: Stars do exist in the Hertzsprung gap region, but because they move through this section of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram very quickly in comparison to the lifetime of the star (thousands of years, compared to tens of millions of years for the lifetime of the star), that portion of the diagram is less densely populated.  Full Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams of the 11,000

text: Hipparcos

text: mission targets show a handful of stars in that region.

text: The first large proton synchrotron was the Cosmotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory, which accelerated protons to about 3 GeV (1953–1968). The Bevatron at Berkeley, completed in 1954, was specifically designed to accelerate protons to sufficient energy to create antiprotons, and verify the particle-antiparticle symmetry of nature, then only theorized. The Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) at Brookhaven (1960–) was the first large synchrotron with alternating gradient, "strong focusing" magnets, which greatly reduced the required aperture of the beam, and correspondingly the size and cost of the bending magnets. The Proton Synchrotron, built at CERN (1959–), was the first major European particle accelerator and generally similar to the AGS.

text: The first large proton

text: synchrotron

text: was the

text: Cosmotron

text: at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: , which accelerated

text: protons

text: to about 3

text: GeV

text: (1953–1968). The

text: Bevatron

text: at Berkeley, completed in 1954, was specifically designed to accelerate protons to sufficient energy to create

text: antiprotons

text: , and verify the

text: particle-antiparticle symmetry

text: of nature, then only theorized. The

text: Alternating Gradient Synchrotron

text: (AGS) at Brookhaven (1960–) was the first large synchrotron with alternating gradient, "

text: strong focusing

text: " magnets, which greatly reduced the required aperture of the beam, and correspondingly the size and cost of the bending magnets. The

text: Proton Synchrotron

text: , built at

text: CERN

text: (1959–), was the first major European particle accelerator and generally similar to the AGS.

text: Hiberlac is a planet in the Huynoc star system in the Zuccone star system.

text: Current models indicate that matter at the surface of a neutron star is composed of ordinary atomic nuclei crushed into a solid lattice with a sea of electrons flowing through the gaps between them. It is possible that the nuclei at the surface are iron, due to iron's high binding energy per nucleon. It is also possible that heavy elements, such as iron, simply sink beneath the surface, leaving only light nuclei like helium and hydrogen. If the surface temperature exceeds 10 kelvin (as in the case of a young pulsar), the surface should be fluid instead of the solid phase that might exist in cooler neutron stars (temperature

text: Current models indicate that matter at the surface of a neutron star is composed of ordinary

text: atomic nuclei

text: crushed into a solid lattice with a sea of

text: electron

text: s flowing through the gaps between them. It is possible that the nuclei at the surface are

text: iron

text: , due to iron's high

text: binding energy

text: per nucleon. It is also possible that heavy elements, such as iron, simply sink beneath the surface, leaving only light nuclei like

text: helium

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: . If the surface temperature exceeds 10 kelvin (as in the case of a young

text: pulsar

text: ), the surface should be fluid instead of the solid phase that might exist in cooler neutron stars (temperature

text: Tau2 A Gruis is an F7V main sequence star, of apparent Magnitude +6.67, and absolute magnitude +3.33. Tau2 Gruis is an G5V main sequence star, of apparent magnitude +7, and an absolute magnitude of +3.71. The stars are both slightly more massive than the Sun.

text: Muon-catalyzed fusion (μCF) is a process allowing nuclear fusion to take place at temperatures significantly lower than the temperatures required for thermonuclear fusion, even at room temperature or lower. It is one of the few known ways of catalyzing nuclear fusion reactions.

text: Muon-catalyzed fusion (μCF) is a process allowing

text: nuclear fusion

text: to take place at

text: temperature

text: s significantly lower than the temperatures required for

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: , even at

text: room temperature

text: or lower. It is one of the few known ways of catalyzing nuclear fusion reactions.

text: The time until Betelgeuse explodes depends on the predicted initial conditions and on the estimate of the time already spent as a red supergiant.  The total lifetime from the start of the red supergiant phase to core collapse varies from about 300,000 years for a rotating  star, 550,000 years for a rotating  star, up to a million years for a non-rotating  star.  Given the estimated time since Betelgeuse became a red supergiant, estimates of its remaining lifetime range from a "best guess" of under 100,000 years for a non-rotating  model to far longer for rotating models or lower mass stars.  Betelgeuse's suspected birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association is the location of several previous supernovae. It is believed that runaway stars may be caused by supernovae, and there is strong evidence that OB stars μ Columbae, AE Aurigae and 53 Arietis all originated from such explosions in Ori OB1 2.2, 2.7 and 4.9 million years ago.

text: The time until Betelgeuse explodes depends on the predicted initial conditions and on the estimate of the time already spent as a red supergiant.  The total lifetime from the start of the red supergiant phase to core collapse varies from about 300,000 years for a rotating  star, 550,000 years for a rotating  star, up to a million years for a non-rotating  star.  Given the estimated time since Betelgeuse became a red supergiant, estimates of its remaining lifetime range from a "best guess" of under 100,000 years for a non-rotating  model to far longer for rotating models or lower mass stars.  Betelgeuse's suspected birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association is the location of several previous supernovae. It is believed that runaway stars may be caused by supernovae, and there is strong evidence that OB stars

text: μ Columbae

text: AE Aurigae

text: and

text: 53 Arietis

text: all originated from such explosions in Ori OB1 2.2, 2.7 and 4.9 million years ago.

text: A star becomes a giant star after all the hydrogen available for fusion at its core has been depleted and, as a result, leaves the main sequence.  The behaviour of a post-main-sequence star depends largely on its mass.

text: A star becomes a giant star after all the

text: hydrogen

text: available for

text: fusion

text: at its core has been depleted and, as a result, leaves the

text: main sequence

text: .  The behaviour of a

text: post-main-sequence star

text: depends largely on its mass.

text: The central star is classified as a subdwarf O star.

text: The central star is classified as a

text: subdwarf O star

text: HD 81817 is a star in the constellation Draco. Its apparent magnitude is 4.27 and it is a spectroscopic binary system containing a red giant and a white dwarf.

text: HD 81817 is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Draco

text: . Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 4.27 and it is a spectroscopic binary system containing a

text: red giant

text: and a

text: white dwarf

text: Before the Standard Model (SM) was developed in the 1970s (the key elements of the Standard Model known as quarks were proposed by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964), physicists observed hundreds of different kinds of particles in particle accelerators. These were organized into relationships on their physical properties in a largely ad-hoc system of hierarchies, not entirely unlike the way taxonomy grouped animals based on their physical features. Not surprisingly, the huge number of particles was referred to as the "particle zoo".

text: Before the

text: Standard Model

text: (SM) was developed in the 1970s (the key elements of the Standard Model known as

text: quark

text: s were proposed by

text: Murray Gell-Mann

text: and

text: George Zweig

text: in 1964), physicists observed hundreds of different kinds of particles in

text: particle accelerator

text: s. These were organized into relationships on their physical properties in a largely ad-hoc system of hierarchies, not entirely unlike the way

text: taxonomy

text: grouped animals based on their physical features. Not surprisingly, the huge number of particles was referred to as the "

text: particle zoo

text: A significant number of science fiction works have explored the imaginative possibilities of binary or multiple star systems. Many real stars near the Sun belong in this category. This article is about imaginary binary and multiple star systems in science fiction.

text: A significant number of science fiction works have explored the imaginative possibilities of binary or multiple star systems. Many real stars near the Sun

entity_section: Real binary and multiple stars in fiction

text: belong in this category

text: . This article is about imaginary binary and multiple star systems in science fiction.

text: Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies.  These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the Sokolov–Ternov effect. Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles.  Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions, which particle physics studies .

text: Particle accelerator

text: s use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies.  These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields. The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam—a process known as the

text: Sokolov–Ternov effect

text: . Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments.

text: Synchrotron

text: radiation can also

text: cool

text: the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles.  Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles' accelerating to the required energies;

text: particle detector

text: s observe the resulting energy emissions, which

text: particle physics

text: studies .

text: Trained  at Caltech as a nuclear physicist by Wm. A. Fowler, Clayton was well positioned to consider interactions of heavy nuclei with neutrons. These were believed by Fowler to govern the nucleosynthesis of nuclei heavier than iron. Clayton calculated the isotopic abundances produced by neutron irradiation of iron in stars for both the slow neutron capture S-process and the ra[id neutron capture R-process of heavy-element stellar nucleosynthesis (processes first defined by BFH). Clayton's two papers (1961 and 1965) on those topics demonstrated that solar-system abundances had been created not by a single neutron irradiation but as superpositions of abundance patterns established in presolar stars by differing neutron irradiations. His 1961 calculations of s-process abundance patterns, achieved by mathematical analysis rather than by computers, established Clayton as a nucleosynthesis theorist. They provided standard models that guided four decades of progress on the s process and on characteristics of the r process. In 1967 Clayton turned to the supernova origin of the abundances of elements that can be created in stars from hydrogen and helium alone. Those so-called primary nucleosynthesis nuclei having atomic weights between silicon and nickel (A=28-62) are very abundant. To understand their dramatic alternating abundances he tested a new conceptual idea that he named nuclear quasiequilibrium during silicon burning. The quasiequilibrium  concept did explain the observed numbers of isotopes in the A=28-62 mass range, which had previously been unsolved. Nuclear quasiequilibrium was at that time the grandest advance in theory of primary nucleosynthesis in supernovae since Hoyle's 1954 paper, whose focus it validated. Of extreme importance was its demonstration that supernova silicon burning should become profoundly radioactive because rapid quasiequilibrium between atomic weights A=44-62 is overwhelmingly of radioactive nuclei. Clayton's recent description in 2016 in terms of a secondary supernova machine of this important process with B. S. Meyer clarified that the intense radioactivity resulted from supernova shock waves forcing excess Coulomb energy into those nuclei.

text: Trained  at Caltech as a nuclear physicist by Wm. A. Fowler, Clayton was well positioned to consider interactions of heavy nuclei with neutrons. These were believed by Fowler to govern the nucleosynthesis of nuclei heavier than iron. Clayton calculated the isotopic abundances produced by neutron irradiation of iron in stars for both the slow neutron capture

text: S-process

text: and the ra[id neutron capture

text: R-process

text: of heavy-element

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: (processes first defined by

text: BFH

text: The mass surrounding the radiative zone is still rich in deuterium, and deuterium fusion proceeds in an increasingly thin shell that gradually moves outwards as the radiative core of the star grows. The generation of nuclear energy in these low-density outer regions causes the protostar to swell, delaying the gravitational contraction of the object and postponing its arrival on the main sequence. The total energy available by deuterium fusion is comparable to that released by gravitational contraction.

text: The mass surrounding the radiative zone is still rich in deuterium, and deuterium fusion proceeds in an increasingly thin shell that gradually moves outwards as the radiative core of the star grows. The generation of nuclear energy in these low-

text: density

text: outer regions causes the protostar to swell, delaying the gravitational contraction of the object and postponing its arrival on the main sequence. The total energy available by deuterium fusion is comparable to that released by gravitational contraction.

text: Arcturus had several names that described its significance to indigenous Polynesians. In the Society Islands, Arcturus, called Ana-tahua-taata-metua-te-tupu-mavae ("a pillar to stand by"), was one of the ten "pillars of the sky", bright stars that represented the ten heavens of the Tahitian afterlife. In Hawaii, the pattern of Boötes was called Hoku-iwa, meaning "stars of the frigate bird". This constellation marked the path for Hawaiiloa on his return to Hawaii from the South Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiians called Arcturus Hoku-leʻa. It was equated to the Tuamotuan constellation Te Kiva, meaning "frigate-bird", which could either represent the figure of Boötes or just Arcturus. However, Arcturus may instead be the Tuamotuan star called Turu. The Hawaiian name for Arcturus as a single star was likely Hoku-leʻa, which means "star of gladness", or "clear star". In the Marquesas Islands, Arcturus was probably called Tau-tou and was the star that ruled the month approximating January. The Maori and Moriori called it Tautoru, a variant of the Marquesan name and a name shared with Orion's Belt.

text: Arcturus had several names that described its significance to indigenous

text: Polynesia

text: ns. In the

text: Society Islands

text: , Arcturus, called Ana-tahua-taata-metua-te-tupu-mavae ("a pillar to stand by"), was one of the ten "pillars of the sky", bright stars that represented the ten heavens of the

text: Tahiti

text: an afterlife. In

text: Hawaii

text: , the pattern of Boötes was called Hoku-iwa, meaning "stars of the frigate bird". This constellation marked the path for

text: Hawaiiloa

text: on his return to Hawaii from the South Pacific Ocean. The Hawaiians called Arcturus Hoku-leʻa. It was equated to the

text: Tuamotu

text: an constellation Te Kiva, meaning "

text: frigate-bird

text: ", which could either represent the figure of Boötes or just Arcturus. However, Arcturus may instead be the Tuamotuan star called Turu. The Hawaiian name for Arcturus as a single star was likely Hoku-leʻa, which means "star of gladness", or "clear star". In the

text: Marquesas Islands

text: , Arcturus was probably called Tau-tou and was the star that ruled the month approximating January. The

text: Maori

text: and

text: Moriori

text: called it Tautoru, a variant of the Marquesan name and a name shared with

text: Orion's Belt

text: One suggested source of UHECR particles is their origination from neutron stars.  In young neutron stars with spin periods of <10ms, the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) forces from the quasi-neutral fluid of superconducting protons and electrons existing in a neutron superfluid accelerate iron nuclei to UHECR velocities.  The magnetic field produced by the neutron superfluid in rapidly rotating stars creates a magnetic field of 10–10 tesla, at which point the neutron star is classified as a magnetar.  This magnetic field is the strongest in the observed universe and creates the relativistic MHD wind believed to accelerate iron nuclei remaining from the supernova to the necessary energy.

text: One suggested source of UHECR particles is their origination from

text: neutron star

text: s.  In young neutron stars with spin periods of <10ms, the

text: magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) forces

text: from the quasi-neutral fluid of superconducting protons and electrons existing in a neutron

text: superfluid

text: accelerate iron nuclei to UHECR velocities.  The magnetic field produced by the neutron superfluid in rapidly rotating stars creates a magnetic field of 10–10 tesla, at which point the neutron star is classified as a

text: magnetar

text: .  This magnetic field is the strongest in the observed universe and creates the relativistic MHD wind believed to accelerate iron nuclei remaining from the supernova to the necessary energy.

text: The binary system is classified as a white A-type main sequence dwarf with a mean apparent magnitude of +5.20.  Both component stars are detached main sequence stars which do not fill their Roche lobes.  Because the components regularly eclipse each other, 31 Camelopardalis is classified as a variable star and its brightness varies from magnitude +5.12 to +5.29 with a period of 2.93 days, which is the orbital period of the binary.

text: The binary system is classified as a white

text: A-type

text: main sequence

text: dwarf with a mean

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +5.20.  Both component stars are detached main sequence stars which do not fill their

text: Roche lobe

text: s.  Because the components regularly eclipse each other, 31 Camelopardalis is classified as a

text: variable star

text: and its brightness varies from magnitude +5.12 to +5.29 with a period of 2.93 days, which is the orbital period of the binary.

text: Reviews for the fifth episode were somewhat mixed. SFX magazine gave it 3.5 stars out of 5 and said that the episode had "some classic Red Dwarf moments ... but [was] not a classic episode." Similarly Starburst magazine gave it 6 stars out of 10, and said that "it’s clearly not the most complete of the recent episodes and there was plenty in there which felt like padding, but there was enough good stuff on show too to ensure it kept up the quality of the series." Radio Times liked the episode and said that "Red Dwarf is always at its finest when it jettisons the sci-fi plots and concentrates on Lister’s sense of loneliness", and reserved particular praise for Cat’s attempt at charades saying that it was "both excruciating and hilarious."

text: Reviews for the fifth episode were somewhat mixed.

text: SFX

text: magazine gave it 3.5 stars out of 5 and said that the episode had "some classic Red Dwarf moments ... but [was] not a classic episode." Similarly

text: Starburst

text: magazine gave it 6 stars out of 10, and said that "it’s clearly not the most complete of the recent episodes and there was plenty in there which felt like padding, but there was enough good stuff on show too to ensure it kept up the quality of the series."

text: Radio Times

text: liked the episode and said that "Red Dwarf is always at its finest when it jettisons the sci-fi plots and concentrates on Lister’s sense of loneliness", and reserved particular praise for

text: Cat’s

text: attempt at

text: charades

text: saying that it was "both excruciating and hilarious."

text: Particle physics (also high energy physics) is the branch of physics that studies the nature of the particles that constitute matter (particles with mass) and radiation (massless particles). Although the word "particle" can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g. protons, gas particles, the Tylertron, or even household dust), "particle physics" usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the irreducibly fundamental force fields necessary to explain them. The Tylertron is a newly discovered quark that was found using the Harritron particle accelerator. It is named after the highly renouned physics student, Taylor Robb. By our current understanding, these elementary particles are excitations of the quantum fields that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the Standard Model. Thus, modern particle physics generally investigates the Standard Model and its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest "known" particle, the Higgs boson, or even to the oldest known force field, gravity.

text: Particle physics (also high energy physics) is the branch of

text: physics

text: that studies the nature of the particles that constitute

text: matter

text: (particles with

text: mass

text: ) and

text: radiation

text: (massless particles). Although the word "

text: particle

text: " can refer to various types of very small objects (e.g.

text: protons

text: , gas particles, the Tylertron, or even household dust), "particle physics" usually investigates the irreducibly smallest detectable particles and the irreducibly fundamental force

text: fields

text: necessary to explain them. The Tylertron is a newly discovered quark that was found using the Harritron particle accelerator. It is named after the highly renouned physics student, Taylor Robb. By our current understanding, these

text: elementary particle

text: s are excitations of the

text: quantum fields

text: that also govern their interactions. The currently dominant theory explaining these fundamental particles and fields, along with their dynamics, is called the

text: Standard Model

text: . Thus, modern particle physics generally investigates the Standard Model and its various possible extensions, e.g. to the newest "known" particle, the

text: Higgs boson

text: , or even to the oldest known force field,

text: gravity

text: Bayer is most famous for his star atlas Uranometria Omnium Asterismorum ("Uranometry of all the asterisms"), which was first published in 1603 in Augsburg and dedicated to two prominent local citizens. This was the first atlas to cover the entire celestial sphere. It was based upon the work of Tycho Brahe and may have borrowed from Alessandro Piccolomini's 1540 star atlas, De le stelle fisse ("Of the fixed stars"), although Bayer included an additional 1,000 stars. The Uranometria introduced a new system of star designation which has become known as the Bayer designation. Bayer's atlas included twelve new constellations invented a few years earlier to fill in the far south of the night sky, which was unknown to ancient Greece and Rome.

text: Bayer is most famous for his

text: star atlas

text: Uranometria Omnium Asterismorum

text: Uranometry

text: of all the

text: asterism

text: s"), which was first published in 1603 in Augsburg and dedicated to two prominent local citizens. This was the first

text: atlas

text: to cover the entire

text: celestial sphere

text: . It was based upon the work of

text: Tycho Brahe

text: and may have borrowed from

text: Alessandro Piccolomini

text: 's 1540 star atlas, De le stelle fisse ("Of the fixed stars"), although Bayer included an additional 1,000 stars. The Uranometria introduced a new system of star designation which has become known as the

text: Bayer designation

text: . Bayer's atlas included twelve new constellations invented a few years earlier to fill in the far south of the night sky, which was unknown to ancient Greece and Rome.

text: Stars with an initial mass above about  quickly move away from the main sequence and increase somewhat in luminosity to become blue supergiants.  They cool and enlarge at approximately constant luminosity to become a red supergiant, then contract and increase in temperature as the outer layers are blown away.  They may "bounce" backwards and forwards executing one or more "blue loops", still at a fairly steady luminosity, until they explode as a supernova or completely shed their outer layers to become a Wolf–Rayet star.  Stars with an initial mass above about  are simply too luminous to develop a stable extended atmosphere and so they never cool sufficiently to become red supergiants.  The most massive stars, especially rapidly rotating stars with enhanced convection and mixing, may skip these steps and move directly to the Wolf–Rayet stage.

text: Stars with an initial mass above about  quickly move away from the main sequence and increase somewhat in luminosity to become blue supergiants.  They cool and enlarge at approximately constant luminosity to become a red supergiant, then contract and increase in temperature as the outer layers are blown away.  They may "bounce" backwards and forwards executing one or more "blue loops", still at a fairly steady luminosity, until they explode as a

text: supernova

text: or completely shed their outer layers to become a

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: .  Stars with an initial mass above about  are simply too luminous to develop a stable extended atmosphere and so they never cool sufficiently to become red supergiants.  The most massive stars, especially rapidly rotating stars with enhanced convection and mixing, may skip these steps and move directly to the Wolf–Rayet stage.

text: Trapezia are usually very young, unstable systems. These are thought to form in stellar nurseries, and quickly fragment into stable multiple stars, which in the process may eject components as galactic high-velocity stars. They are named after the multiple star system known as the Trapezium Cluster in the heart of the Orion Nebula. Such systems are not rare, and commonly appear close to or within bright nebulae. These stars have no standard hierarchical arrangements, but compete for stable orbits, where the center of gravity is not fixed at some point but moves as the stars change their mutual positions. This relationship is called interplay. Such stars eventually settle down to a close binary with a distant companion, with the other star(s) previously in the system ejected into interstellar space at high velocities. Example of such events may explain the runaway stars that might have been ejected during a collision of two binary star groups or a multiple system. This event is credited with ejecting AE Aurigae, Mu Columbae and 53 Arietis at above 200 km·s and has been traced to the Trapezium cluster in the Orion Nebula some two million years ago.

text: Trapezia are usually very young, unstable systems. These are thought to form in stellar nurseries, and quickly fragment into stable multiple stars, which in the process may eject components as galactic

text: high-velocity stars

text: . They are named after the multiple star system known as the

text: Trapezium Cluster

text: in the heart of the

text: Orion Nebula

text: . Such systems are not rare, and commonly appear close to or within bright

text: nebula

text: e. These stars have no standard hierarchical arrangements, but compete for stable orbits, where the center of gravity is not fixed at some point but moves as the stars change their mutual positions. This relationship is called interplay. Such stars eventually settle down to a close binary with a distant companion, with the other star(s) previously in the system ejected into interstellar space at high velocities. Example of such events may explain the

text: runaway star

text: s that might have been ejected during a collision of two binary star groups or a multiple system. This event is credited with ejecting

text: AE Aurigae

text: Mu Columbae

text: and

text: 53 Arietis

text: at above 200 km·s and has been traced to the

text: Trapezium cluster

text: in the

text: Orion Nebula

text: some two million years ago.

text: The largest and highest energy particle accelerator used for elementary particle physics is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, operating since 2009.

text: The largest and highest energy particle accelerator used for elementary

text: particle physics

text: is the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC) at

text: CERN

text: , operating since 2009.

text: Historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred: SN 185, SN 1006, SN 1054, SN 1572 (called Tycho's Nova) and SN 1604 (Kepler's Star). Since 1885 the additional letter notation has been used, even if there was only one supernova discovered that year (e.g. SN 1885A, SN 1907A, etc.) — this last happened with SN 1947A. SN, for SuperNova, is a standard prefix. Until 1987, two-letter designations were rarely needed; since 1988, however, they have been needed every year.

text: Historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred:

text: SN 185

text: SN 1006

text: SN 1054

text: SN 1572

text: (called Tycho's Nova) and

text: SN 1604

text: (Kepler's Star). Since 1885 the additional letter notation has been used, even if there was only one supernova discovered that year (e.g.

text: SN 1885A

text: SN 1907A

text: , etc.) — this last happened with

text: SN 1947A

text: . SN, for SuperNova, is a standard prefix. Until 1987, two-letter designations were rarely needed; since 1988, however, they have been needed every year.

text: Perseus is bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south, Auriga to the east, Camelopardalis and Cassiopeia to the north, and Andromeda and Triangulum to the west. Covering 615 square degrees, it ranks twenty-fourth of the 88 constellations in size. It appears prominently in the northern sky during the Northern Hemisphere's spring. Its main asterism consists of 19 stars. The constellation's boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a 26-sided polygon. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between  and , while the declination coordinates are between  and . The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the three-letter abbreviation "Per" for the constellation in 1922.

text: Perseus is bordered by

text: Aries

text: and

text: Taurus

text: to the south,

text: Auriga

text: to the east,

text: Camelopardalis

text: and

text: Cassiopeia

text: to the north, and

text: Andromeda

text: and

text: Triangulum

text: to the west. Covering 615

text: square degree

text: s, it ranks twenty-fourth of the 88 constellations in size. It appears prominently in the northern sky during the Northern Hemisphere's spring. Its main

text: asterism

text: consists of 19 stars. The constellation's boundaries, as set by

text: Eugène Delporte

text: in 1930, are defined by a 26-sided polygon. In the

text: equatorial coordinate system

text: , the

text: right ascension

text: coordinates of these borders lie between  and , while the

text: declination

text: coordinates are between  and . The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) adopted the three-letter abbreviation "Per" for the constellation in 1922.

text: Johann Elert Bode renamed the constellation Telescopium Herschelii and omitted the smaller telescope constellation in his 1801 Uranographia  star atlas. In his atlas, the constellation depicted Herschel's earlier 7-foot telescope. It was ignored by some celestial cartographers such as Argelander in 1843, Proctor in 1876, Rosser in 1879 and Pritchard in 1885, yet did appear in two works of the 1890s. However, it was noted by Allen in 1899 that it was becoming obsolete. In 1930, when the official borders of the constellations were drawn up, its stars were absorbed into Auriga, Gemini and Lynx.

text: Johann Elert Bode

text: renamed the constellation Telescopium Herschelii and omitted the smaller telescope constellation in his 1801 Uranographia  star atlas. In his atlas, the constellation depicted Herschel's earlier 7-foot telescope. It was ignored by some celestial cartographers such as Argelander in 1843, Proctor in 1876, Rosser in 1879 and Pritchard in 1885, yet did appear in two works of the 1890s. However, it was noted by Allen in 1899 that it was becoming obsolete. In 1930, when the official borders of the constellations were drawn up, its stars were absorbed into Auriga, Gemini and Lynx.

text: The quote was used in the 2009 Star Trek reboot film series, at the end of each film. In the 2009 film reboot of Star Trek, the word "ongoing" is used in place of "continuing". The quote is spoken by Spock Prime in Star Trek, Kirk in Star Trek Into Darkness and by Kirk, Spock, Scotty, Bones, Sulu, Chekov, and Uhura in Star Trek Beyond; the latter used the same monologue used for The Next Generation.

text: The quote was used in the 2009 Star Trek reboot film series, at the end of each film. In the 2009 film reboot of

text: Star Trek

text: , the word "ongoing" is used in place of "continuing". The quote is spoken by Spock Prime in Star Trek, Kirk in

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: and by Kirk, Spock, Scotty, Bones, Sulu, Chekov, and Uhura in Star Trek Beyond; the latter used the same monologue used for The Next Generation.

text: Stars with large proper motions tend to be nearby; most stars are far enough away that their proper motions are very small, on the order of a few thousandths of an arcsecond per year.  It is possible to construct nearly complete samples of high proper motion stars by comparing photographic sky survey images taken many years apart. The Palomar Sky Survey is one source of such images. In the past, searches for high proper motion objects were undertaken using blink comparators to examine the images by eye, but modern efforts use techniques such as image differencing to automatically search through digitized image data.  Because the selection biases of the resulting high proper motion samples are well-understood and well-quantified, it is possible to use them to construct an unbiased census of the nearby stellar population — how many stars exist of each true brightness, for example.  Studies of this kind show that the local population of stars consists largely of intrinsically faint, inconspicuous stars such as red dwarfs.

text: Stars with large proper motions tend to be nearby; most stars are far enough away that their proper motions are very small, on the order of a few thousandths of an arcsecond per year.  It is possible to construct nearly complete samples of high proper motion stars by comparing photographic sky survey images taken many years apart. The

entity_name: National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Survey

text: Palomar Sky Survey

text: is one source of such images. In the past, searches for high proper motion objects were undertaken using

text: blink comparator

text: s to examine the images by eye, but modern efforts use techniques such as

text: image differencing

text: to automatically search through digitized image data.  Because the

text: selection bias

text: es of the resulting high proper motion samples are well-understood and well-quantified, it is possible to use them to construct an unbiased census of the nearby stellar population — how many stars exist of each true brightness, for example.  Studies of this kind show that the local population of stars consists largely of intrinsically faint, inconspicuous stars such as

text: red dwarf

text: s.

text: Star formation is taking place at a rate that is strongly correlated with the local gas density, and the rate per unit area is higher than in the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy. (The rate of star formation is about 3.4 Gyr pc in the Triangulum galaxy, compared to 0.74 in Andromeda.) The total integrated rate of star formation in the Triangulum galaxy is about . It is uncertain whether this net rate is currently decreasing or remaining constant.

text: Star formation

text: is taking place at a rate that is strongly correlated with the local gas density, and the rate per unit area is higher than in the neighboring

text: Andromeda Galaxy

text: . (The rate of star formation is about 3.4 Gyr pc in the Triangulum galaxy, compared to 0.74 in Andromeda.) The total integrated rate of star formation in the Triangulum galaxy is about . It is uncertain whether this net rate is currently decreasing or remaining constant.

text: The remnant's age is still uncertain. There is some agreement that the progenitor supernova happened between 3,000 and 30,000 years ago. Recent Chandra and XMM-Newton observationsidentified a plerion nebula, close to the remnant southern rim. The point source near the apex of the nebula is a neutron star, relic of a SN explosion. The location in a star forming region and the presence of a neutron star favor a Type II supernova,  the ultimate fate of a massive star, as the progenitor explosion.

text: The remnant's age is still uncertain. There is some agreement that the progenitor supernova happened between 3,000 and 30,000 years ago. Recent

text: Chandra

text: and

text: XMM-Newton

text: observationsidentified a

text: plerion nebula

text: , close to the remnant southern rim. The point source near the apex of the nebula is a

text: neutron star

text: , relic of a SN explosion. The location in a star forming region and the presence of a

text: neutron star

text: favor a

text: Type II supernova

text: ,  the ultimate fate of a massive star, as the progenitor explosion.

text: Typical estimates often suggest that 50% or more of all stellar systems are binary systems. This may be partly sample bias, as massive and bright stars tend to be in binaries and these are most easily observed and catalogued; a more precise analysis has suggested that the more common fainter stars are usually singular, and that up to two thirds of all stellar systems are therefore solitary.

text: Typical estimates often suggest that 50% or more of all stellar systems are

text: binary systems

text: . This may be partly sample bias, as massive and bright stars tend to be in binaries and these are most easily observed and catalogued; a more precise analysis has suggested that the more common fainter stars are usually singular, and that up to two thirds of all stellar systems are therefore solitary.

text: More of Me is a 2007 Lifetime Television movie, starring Molly Shannon and directed by Daisy von Scherler Mayer.

text: More of Me is a 2007

text: Lifetime Television

text: movie, starring

text: Molly Shannon

text: and directed by

text: Daisy von Scherler Mayer

text: The formation of the stars themselves is also unclear.  Standard stellar evolution models do not produce large luminous stars with essentially zero hydrogen.  The two main theories to explain these stars are both somewhat exotic, perhaps befitting such rare stars.  In one, a merger occurs between two white dwarf stars, one a Helium white dwarf and the other a carbon-oxygen white dwarf.  White dwarfs are naturally lacking in hydrogen and the resultant star would also lack that element.  The second model postulates a massive convective event at the onset of burning of an outer helium shell, causing the little remaining atmospheric Hydrogen to be turned over into the interior of the star.  It is possible that the diversity of R CrB stars is caused by a diversity of formation mechanisms, relating them to extreme helium stars and hydrogen-deficient carbon stars.

text: The formation of the stars themselves is also unclear.  Standard stellar evolution models do not produce large luminous stars with essentially zero hydrogen.  The two main theories to explain these stars are both somewhat exotic, perhaps befitting such rare stars.  In one, a merger occurs between two

text: white dwarf

text: stars, one a Helium white dwarf and the other a carbon-oxygen white dwarf.  White dwarfs are naturally lacking in hydrogen and the resultant star would also lack that element.  The second model postulates a massive convective event at the onset of burning of an outer helium shell, causing the little remaining atmospheric Hydrogen to be turned over into the interior of the star.  It is possible that the diversity of R CrB stars is caused by a diversity of formation mechanisms, relating them to

text: extreme helium star

text: s and hydrogen-deficient

text: carbon star

text: s.

text: Astronomy provides a spectacular demonstration of the effect of the Pauli principle, in the form of white dwarf and neutron stars. In both bodies, atomic structure is disrupted by large gravitational forces, but the stars are held in hydrostatic equilibrium by degeneracy pressure, also known as Fermi pressure.  This exotic form of matter is known as degenerate matter. The immense gravitational force of a star's mass is normally held in equilibrium by thermal pressure caused by heat produced in thermonuclear fusion in the star's core. In white dwarfs, which do not undergo nuclear fusion, an opposing force to gravity is provided by electron degeneracy pressure. In neutron stars, subject to even stronger gravitational forces, electrons have merged with protons to form neutrons. Neutrons are capable of producing an even higher degeneracy pressure, neutron degeneracy pressure, albeit over a shorter range. This can stabilize neutron stars from further collapse, but at a smaller size and higher density than a white dwarf. Neutrons are the most "rigid" objects known; their Young modulus (or more accurately, bulk modulus) is 20 orders of magnitude larger than that of diamond. However, even this enormous rigidity can be overcome by the gravitational field of a massive star or by the pressure of a supernova, leading to the formation of a black hole.

text: Astronomy provides a spectacular demonstration of the effect of the Pauli principle, in the form of

text: white dwarf

text: and

text: neutron star

text: s. In both bodies, atomic structure is disrupted by large

text: gravitation

text: al forces, but the stars are held in

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: by

text: degeneracy pressure

text: , also known as Fermi pressure.  This exotic form of matter is known as

text: degenerate matter

text: . The immense gravitational force of a star's mass is normally held in equilibrium by

text: thermal pressure

text: caused by heat produced in

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: in the star's core. In white dwarfs, which do not undergo nuclear fusion, an opposing force to gravity is provided by

text: electron degeneracy pressure

text: . In

text: neutron star

text: s, subject to even stronger gravitational forces, electrons have merged with

text: proton

text: s to form

text: neutron

text: s. Neutrons are capable of producing an even higher degeneracy pressure,

text: neutron degeneracy pressure

text: , albeit over a shorter range. This can stabilize neutron stars from further collapse, but at a smaller size and higher

text: density

text: than a white dwarf. Neutrons are the most "rigid" objects known; their

text: Young modulus

text: (or more accurately,

text: bulk modulus

text: ) is 20 orders of magnitude larger than that of

text: diamond

text: . However, even this enormous rigidity can be overcome by the

text: gravitational field

text: of a massive star or by the pressure of a

text: supernova

text: , leading to the formation of a

text: black hole

text: The stars called white or degenerate dwarfs are made up mainly of degenerate matter: typically carbon and oxygen nuclei in a sea of degenerate electrons. White dwarfs arise from the cores of main-sequence stars and are therefore very hot when they are formed. As they cool they will redden and dim until they eventually become dark black dwarfs. White dwarfs were observed in the 19th century, but the extremely high densities and pressures they contain were not explained until the 1920s.

text: The stars called

text: white or degenerate dwarf

text: s are made up mainly of

text: degenerate matter

text: : typically carbon and oxygen nuclei in a sea of degenerate electrons. White dwarfs arise from the cores of

text: main-sequence star

text: s and are therefore very hot when they are formed. As they cool they will redden and dim until they eventually become dark

text: black dwarf

text: s. White dwarfs were observed in the 19th century, but the extremely high densities and pressures they contain were not explained until the 1920s.

text: The Superconducting Radio Frequency (SRF) cavities used in the free electron lasers FLASH (result of the cancelled TESLA linear accelerator project) and XFEL are made from pure niobium. A cryomodule team at Fermilab used the same SRF technology from the FLASH project to develop 1.3 GHz nine-cell SRF cavities made from pure niobium. The cavities will be used in the  linear particle accelerator of the International Linear Collider. The same technology will be used in LCLS-II at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and PIP-II at Fermilab.

text: The

text: Superconducting Radio Frequency

text: (SRF) cavities used in the

text: free electron laser

text: s

text: FLASH

text: (result of the cancelled TESLA linear accelerator project) and

text: XFEL

text: are made from pure niobium. A

text: cryomodule

text: team at

text: Fermilab

text: used the same SRF technology from the FLASH project to develop 1.3 GHz nine-cell SRF cavities made from pure niobium. The cavities will be used in the

text: linear particle accelerator

text: of the

text: International Linear Collider

text: . The same technology will be used in

text: LCLS-II

text: at

text: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

text: and

text: PIP-II

text: at Fermilab.

text: The visible component, Epsilon Aurigae A, is a semiregular pulsating post-asymptotic giant branch star belonging to the spectral class F0. This F-type star has around 135 to 190 times the diameter of the Sun, and is 70,000 to 80,000 times as luminous. (Reliable sources vary considerably in their estimates of both quantities.) If the star were in the position of the Sun, it would envelop Mercury and possibly Venus. F-type stars like Epsilon Aurigae tend to glow white and display strong ionized calcium absorption lines and weak hydrogen absorption lines; being a class above the Sun (which is a G-type star), F-type stars are typically hotter than sunlike stars. Other F-type stars include Procyon's primary star, the brightest star in the Canis Minor constellation; and Canopus, the second brightest star in the night sky and the brightest star in the Carina constellation.

text: The visible component, Epsilon Aurigae A, is a semiregular

text: pulsating

text: post-asymptotic giant branch star belonging to the

text: spectral class

text: F0. This F-type star has around 135 to 190 times the diameter of the Sun, and is 70,000 to 80,000 times as luminous. (Reliable sources vary considerably in their estimates of both quantities.) If the star were in the position of the Sun, it would envelop Mercury and possibly Venus. F-type stars like Epsilon Aurigae tend to glow white and display strong ionized calcium absorption lines and weak hydrogen absorption lines; being a class above the Sun (which is a G-type star), F-type stars are typically hotter than sunlike stars. Other F-type stars include

text: Procyon

text: 's primary star, the brightest star in the

text: Canis Minor

text: constellation; and

text: Canopus

text: , the second brightest star in the night sky and the brightest star in the

text: Carina

text: constellation.

text: MACHO-1997-BLG-41, commonly abbreviated as 97-BLG-41 or MACHO-97-BLG-41, was a gravitational microlensing event located in Sagittarius which occurred in July 1999. The source star is likely a giant or subgiant star of spectral type K located at a distance of around 8 kiloparsecs (26,000 light years). The lens star is a binary system approximately 10,000 light years away in the constellation Sagittarius. The two stars are separated from each other by about 0.9 AU and have an orbital period of around 1.5 years. The most likely mass of the system is about 0.3 times that of our Sun. Star A and star B are both red dwarfs.

text: MACHO-1997-BLG-41, commonly abbreviated as 97-BLG-41 or MACHO-97-BLG-41, was a

text: gravitational microlensing

text: event located in

text: Sagittarius

text: which occurred in July 1999. The source star is likely a

text: giant

text: or

text: subgiant

text: star of

text: spectral type

text: K located at a distance of around 8

text: kiloparsecs

text: (26,000 light years). The lens star is a

text: binary system

text: approximately 10,000

text: light year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: Sagittarius

text: . The two

text: star

text: s are separated from each other by about 0.9

text: AU

text: and have an orbital period of around 1.5 years. The most likely mass of the system is about 0.3 times that of our

text: Sun

text: . Star A and star B are both

text: red dwarf

text: s.

text: It is that which contributes to a double-peaked spectral energy distribution. It is estimated the star has lost about 10% of its initial mass after being a red supergiant star just 1,600 years ago, and is a likely supernova candidate.

text: It is that which contributes to a double-peaked

text: spectral energy distribution

text: . It is estimated the star has lost about 10% of its initial mass after being a

text: red supergiant

text: star just 1,600 years ago, and is a likely supernova candidate.

text: The spectrum of V838 Monocerotis reveals a companion, a hot blue B-type main sequence star probably not much different from the progenitor star. It is also possible that the progenitor was slightly less massive than the companion and only just entering the main sequence.

text: The spectrum of V838 Monocerotis reveals a companion, a hot blue

text: B-type

text: main sequence

text: star probably not much different from the progenitor star. It is also possible that the progenitor was slightly less massive than the companion and only just entering the main sequence.

text: Theoretical models show that Hot Jupiters and Hot Neptunes can evolve by hydrodynamic loss of their atmospheres to Mini-Neptunes (as it could be the Super-Earth GJ 1214 b), or even to rocky planets known as chthonian planets (after migrating towards the proximity of their parent star). The amount of the outermost layers that is lost depends on the size and the material of the planet and the distance from the star. In a typical system a gas giant orbiting 0.02 AU around its parent star loses 5–7% of its mass during its lifetime, but orbiting closer than 0.015 AU can mean evaporation of the whole planet except for its core.

text: Theoretical models show that Hot Jupiters and Hot Neptunes can evolve by hydrodynamic loss of their atmospheres to Mini-Neptunes (as it could be the Super-Earth

text: GJ 1214 b

text: ), or even to rocky planets known as

text: chthonian planet

text: s (after migrating towards the proximity of their parent star). The amount of the outermost layers that is lost depends on the size and the material of the planet and the distance from the star. In a typical system a gas giant orbiting 0.02 AU around its parent star loses 5–7% of its mass during its lifetime, but orbiting closer than 0.015 AU can mean evaporation of the whole planet except for its core.

text: Eta Leonis (η Leo, η Leonis) is a fourth-magnitude star in the constellation Leo. It doesn't have a proper name. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified.

text: Eta Leonis (η Leo, η Leonis) is a fourth-magnitude

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Leo

text: . It doesn't have a proper name. Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: White dwarfs with a spectrum that indicates high levels of metal contamination often possess a circumstellar disk. In the case of van Maanen 2, observations of the star at a wavelength of 24 μm do not show the infrared excess that might be generated by a dusty disk. Instead there is a noticeable deficit. The predicted flux at 24 μm is 0.23 mJy, whereas the measured value is . This deficit may be explained by collision-induced absorption in the atmosphere of the star. However, this is normally only known to happen with white dwarfs that have temperatures below 4,000 K, as a result of collisions between hydrogen molecules or between hydrogen molecules and helium.

text: White dwarfs with a spectrum that indicates high levels of metal contamination often possess a

text: circumstellar disk

text: . In the case of van Maanen 2, observations of the star at a wavelength of 24

text: μm

text: do not show the

text: infrared excess

text: that might be generated by a dusty disk. Instead there is a noticeable deficit. The predicted flux at 24 μm is 0.23 mJy, whereas the measured value is . This deficit may be explained by collision-induced absorption in the atmosphere of the star. However, this is normally only known to happen with white dwarfs that have temperatures below 4,000 K, as a result of collisions between hydrogen molecules or between hydrogen molecules and helium.

text: AG Pegasi is a symbiotic binary star in the constellation Pegasus.  It is a close binary composed of a red giant and white dwarf, estimated to be around 2.5 and 0.6 times the mass of the Sun respectively.

text: AG Pegasi is a

text: symbiotic binary

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Pegasus

text: .  It is a close binary composed of a

text: red giant

text: and

text: white dwarf

text: , estimated to be around 2.5 and 0.6 times the mass of the Sun respectively.

text: Stars are usually formed in the center of the galaxy. The center part of M51 appears to be undergoing a period of enhanced star formation. The present efficiency of star formation, defined as the ratio of mass of new stars to the mass of star-forming gas, is only ~1%, quite comparable to the global value for the Milky Way and other galaxies. It is estimated that the current high rate of star formation can last no more than another 100 million years or so.

text: The channel aired as part of yes re-branding the television shows' channels on March 14, 2008 and now the yes stars group of channels is formed from yes stars 1, yes stars 2, yes stars 3, yes stars Israeli and yes stars HD.

text: The channel aired as part of yes re-branding the television shows' channels on March 14, 2008 and now the

text: yes stars

text: group of channels is formed from yes stars 1, yes stars 2, yes stars 3, yes stars Israeli and yes stars HD.

text: A constellation is formally defined as a region of the celestial sphere, with boundaries laid down by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). The constellation areas mostly had their origins in Western-traditional patterns of stars from which the constellations take their names.

text: A constellation is formally defined as a region of the

text: celestial sphere

text: , with boundaries laid down by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU). The constellation areas mostly had their origins in Western-traditional patterns of stars from which the constellations take their names.

text: Countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway have no nuclear power reactors and remain opposed to nuclear power. However, by contrast, some countries remain in favor, and financially support nuclear fusion research, including EU wide funding of the ITER project.

text: Countries such as

text: Australia

text: Austria

text: Denmark

text: Greece

text: Ireland

text: Italy

text: , Latvia, Liechtenstein,

text: Luxembourg

text: Malta

text: Portugal

text: Israel

text: Malaysia

text: New Zealand

text: , and

text: Norway

text: have no nuclear power reactors and remain opposed to nuclear power. However, by contrast, some countries remain in favor, and financially support nuclear fusion research, including EU wide funding of the

text: ITER

text: project.

text: It was in this region where the striking prevalence of filamentary cloud structures seen by ESA's Herschel Space Observatory was first noted. These filaments of cloud have dense "cores" of gas embedded within them—many of which are likely to gravitationally collapse and form stars. The Herschel results for this region, and subsequently reported results for other star-forming regions, imply that fragmentation of molecular-cloud filaments are fundamental to the star-formation process. The Herschel results for W40 and the Aquila Rift, compared to those for molecular clouds in the Polaris region, suggest that star-formation occurs when the linear density (mass per unit length) exceeds a threshold making them susceptible to gravitational instability. This accounts for the high star-formation rate in W40 and the Aquila Rift, in contrast to the low star-formation rate in the Polaris clouds. These observational results complement computer simulations of star-formation, which also emphasize the role that molecular-cloud filaments play in the birth of stars.

text: It was in this region where the striking prevalence of filamentary cloud structures seen by

text: ESA

text: 's

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: was first noted. These filaments of cloud have dense "cores" of gas embedded within them—many of which are likely to gravitationally collapse and form stars. The Herschel results for this region, and subsequently reported results for other star-forming regions, imply that fragmentation of molecular-cloud filaments are fundamental to the star-formation process. The Herschel results for W40 and the Aquila Rift, compared to those for molecular clouds in the Polaris region, suggest that star-formation occurs when the linear density (mass per unit length) exceeds a

text: threshold

text: making them susceptible to gravitational instability. This accounts for the high star-formation rate in W40 and the Aquila Rift, in contrast to the low star-formation rate in the Polaris clouds. These observational results complement computer

text: simulations

text: of star-formation, which also emphasize the role that molecular-cloud filaments play in the birth of stars.

text: X-ray emission is expected from astronomical objects that contain extremely hot gasses at temperatures from about a million kelvin (K) to hundreds of millions of kelvin (MK). Although X-rays have been observed emanating from the Sun since the 1940s, the discovery in 1962 of the first cosmic X-ray source was a surprise. This source is called Scorpius X-1 (Sco X-1), the first X-ray source found in the constellation Scorpius. The X-ray emission of Scorpius X-1 is 10,000 times greater than its visual emission, whereas that of the Sun is about a million times less. In addition, the energy output in X-rays is 100,000 times greater than the total emission of the Sun in all wavelengths. Based on discoveries in this new field of X-ray astronomy, starting with Scorpius X-1, Riccardo Giacconi received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002. It is now known that such X-ray sources as Sco X-1 are compact stars, such as neutron stars or black holes. Material falling into a black hole may emit X-rays, but the black hole itself does not. The energy source for the X-ray emission is gravity. Infalling gas and dust is heated by the strong gravitational fields of these and other celestial objects.

text: X-ray emission

text: is expected from astronomical objects that contain extremely hot gasses at temperatures from about a million

text: kelvin

text: (K) to hundreds of millions of kelvin (MK). Although X-rays have been observed emanating from the

text: Sun

text: since the 1940s, the discovery in 1962 of the first cosmic X-ray source was a surprise. This source is called

text: Scorpius X-1

text: (Sco X-1), the first X-ray source found in the

text: constellation

text: Scorpius

text: . The X-ray emission of Scorpius X-1 is 10,000 times greater than its visual emission, whereas that of the Sun is about a million times less. In addition, the energy output in X-rays is 100,000 times greater than the total emission of the

text: Sun

text: in all

text: wavelength

text: s. Based on discoveries in this new field of X-ray astronomy, starting with Scorpius X-1,

text: Riccardo Giacconi

text: received the

text: Nobel Prize in Physics

text: in 2002. It is now known that such X-ray sources as Sco X-1 are

text: compact star

text: s, such as

text: neutron star

text: s or

text: black hole

text: s. Material falling into a black hole may emit X-rays, but the black hole itself does not. The energy source for the X-ray emission is

text: gravity

text: . Infalling gas and dust is heated by the strong

text: gravitational fields

text: of these and other celestial objects.

text: However, there are some cautions about the study. First, the method used was actually an indirect method of calculation, and not Keplerian orbital estimation; the latter being a more precise estimate. It is unlikely for a quasar as luminous as S5 0014+81, which will just outshine the stars within its vicinity, thereby making estimates very inaccurate. Second, the spectra used is actually a long spectra, not accounting for the observed parameters. Third, the quasar is surrounded by a large accretion disc, a few parsecs in size, and it shines at 40% of its Eddington luminosity, the maximum luminosity through which radiation pressure is strong enough to blow up the disc away from the gravitational influence of the central black hole, so the observed characteristics are unknown due to intervening dust and gases. However, the possibility of an ultramassive black hole has not been ruled out entirely, since only a black hole of that mass can account for the observed power output of the quasar.

text: However, there are some cautions about the study. First, the method used was actually an indirect method of calculation, and not Keplerian orbital estimation; the latter being a more precise estimate. It is unlikely for a quasar as luminous as S5 0014+81, which will just outshine the stars within its vicinity, thereby making estimates very inaccurate. Second, the spectra used is actually a long spectra, not accounting for the observed parameters. Third, the quasar is surrounded by a large

text: accretion disc

text: , a few parsecs in size, and it shines at 40% of its

text: Eddington luminosity

text: , the maximum luminosity through which

text: radiation pressure

text: is strong enough to blow up the disc away from the gravitational influence of the central black hole, so the observed characteristics are unknown due to intervening dust and gases. However, the possibility of an ultramassive black hole has not been ruled out entirely, since only a black hole of that mass can account for the observed power output of the quasar.

text: 57 Aquilae (abbreviated 57 Aql) is a double star in the constellation of Aquila. 57 Aquilae is its Flamsteed designation. The primary star has an apparent visual magnitude of 5.70, while the secondary is magnitude 6.48. The pair have an angular separation of 35.624 arcseconds and probably form a wide binary star system. The estimated distance of the first component is , while the second is at . However, the margin of errors for their respective distance estimates overlap, indicating a probability that they are actually located much closer to each other. Both stars are massive, B-type main sequence stars with rapid rotation rates.

text: 57 Aquilae (abbreviated 57 Aql) is a

text: double star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Aquila

text: . 57 Aquilae is its

text: Flamsteed designation

text: . The primary star has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 5.70, while the secondary is magnitude 6.48. The pair have an

text: angular separation

text: of 35.624

text: arcsecond

text: s and probably form a wide

text: binary star

text: system. The estimated distance of the first component is , while the second is at . However, the

text: margin of error

text: s for their respective distance estimates overlap, indicating a probability that they are actually located much closer to each other. Both stars are massive,

text: B-type main sequence star

text: s with rapid rotation rates.

text: On April 19, 2009, Lifetime aired Natalee Holloway, starring Tracy Pollan as Beth Holloway-Twitty, Grant Show as George "Jug" Twitty, Amy Gumenick as Natalee Holloway and Jacques Strydom as Joran van der Sloot. The film does not solve the case, but stages re-creations of various scenarios, based on the testimony of key players and suspects. The broadcast of the film attracted 3.2 million viewers, garnering the highest television ratings in the network's history at the time. Although it set ratings records for Lifetime, the movie was not received well by critic Alec Harvey of The Birmingham News. Harvey called the movie "sloppy and uneven, a forgettable look at the tragedy that consumed the nation's attention for months". However, Jake Meaney of PopMatters found the film to be surprisingly "calm and levelheaded", and praised Tracy Pollan's portrayal of Holloway. Holloway said that she was honored by Pollan's portrayal and that there "could not have been a better choice."

text: On April 19, 2009, Lifetime aired

text: Natalee Holloway

text: , starring

text: Tracy Pollan

text: as Beth Holloway-Twitty,

text: Grant Show

text: as George "Jug" Twitty, Amy Gumenick as Natalee Holloway and Jacques Strydom as Joran van der Sloot. The film does not solve the case, but stages re-creations of various scenarios, based on the testimony of key players and suspects. The broadcast of the film attracted 3.2 million viewers, garnering the highest

text: television ratings

text: in the network's history at the time. Although it set ratings records for Lifetime, the movie was not received well by critic Alec Harvey of

text: The Birmingham News

text: . Harvey called the movie "sloppy and uneven, a forgettable look at the tragedy that consumed the nation's attention for months". However, Jake Meaney of

text: PopMatters

text: found the film to be surprisingly "calm and levelheaded", and praised Tracy Pollan's portrayal of Holloway. Holloway said that she was honored by Pollan's portrayal and that there "could not have been a better choice."

text: Early work in that area includes Turney and Pang who applied different methods for detecting the polarity of product reviews and movie reviews respectively. This work is at the document level. One can also classify a document's polarity on a multi-way scale, which was attempted by Pang and Snyder among others: Pang and Lee expanded the basic task of classifying a movie review as either positive or negative to predict star ratings on either a 3 or a 4 star scale, while Snyder performed an in-depth analysis of restaurant reviews, predicting ratings for various aspects of the given restaurant, such as the food and atmosphere (on a five-star scale). Even though in most statistical classification methods, the neutral class is ignored under the assumption that neutral texts lie near the boundary of the binary classifier, several researchers suggest that, as in every polarity problem, three categories must be identified. Moreover, it can be proven that specific classifiers such as the Max Entropy and the SVMs can benefit from the introduction of a neutral class and improve the overall accuracy of the classification. There are in principle two ways for operating with a neutral class. Either, the algorithm proceeds by first identifying the neutral language, filtering it out and then assessing the rest in terms of positive and negative sentiments, or it builds a three way classification in one step. This second approach often involves estimating a probability distribution over all categories (e.g. Naive Bayes classifiers as implemented by Python's NLTK kit). Whether and how to use a neutral class depends on the nature of the data: if the data is clearly clustered into neutral, negative and positive language, it makes sense to filter the neutral language out and focus on the polarity between positive and negative sentiments. If, in contrast, the data is mostly neutral with small deviations towards positive and negative affect, this strategy would make it harder to clearly distinguish between the two poles.

text: Early work in that area includes Turney and Pang who applied different methods for detecting the polarity of product reviews and movie reviews respectively. This work is at the document level. One can also classify a document's polarity on a multi-way scale, which was attempted by Pang and Snyder among others: Pang and Lee expanded the basic task of classifying a movie review as either positive or negative to predict star ratings on either a 3 or a 4 star scale, while Snyder performed an in-depth analysis of restaurant reviews, predicting ratings for various aspects of the given restaurant, such as the food and atmosphere (on a five-star scale). Even though in most statistical classification methods, the neutral class is ignored under the assumption that neutral texts lie near the boundary of the binary classifier, several researchers suggest that, as in every polarity problem, three categories must be identified. Moreover, it can be proven that specific classifiers such as the

entity_name: Maximum entropy probability distribution

text: Max Entropy

text: and the

text: SVMs

text: can benefit from the introduction of a neutral class and improve the overall accuracy of the classification. There are in principle two ways for operating with a neutral class. Either, the algorithm proceeds by first identifying the neutral language, filtering it out and then assessing the rest in terms of positive and negative sentiments, or it builds a three way classification in one step. This second approach often involves estimating a probability distribution over all categories (e.g.

text: Naive Bayes

text: classifiers as implemented by Python's

text: NLTK

text: kit). Whether and how to use a neutral class depends on the nature of the data: if the data is clearly clustered into neutral, negative and positive language, it makes sense to filter the neutral language out and focus on the polarity between positive and negative sentiments. If, in contrast, the data is mostly neutral with small deviations towards positive and negative affect, this strategy would make it harder to clearly distinguish between the two poles.

text: As only 30 to 40 per cent of the gas in the cloud core forms stars, the process of residual gas expulsion is highly damaging to the star formation process. All clusters thus suffer significant infant weight loss, while a large fraction undergo infant mortality. At this point, the formation of an open cluster will depend on whether the newly formed stars are gravitationally bound to each other; otherwise an unbound stellar association will result. Even when a cluster such as the Pleiades does form, it may only hold on to a third of the original stars, with the remainder becoming unbound once the gas is expelled. The young stars so released from their natal cluster become part of the Galactic field population.

text: As only 30 to 40 per cent of the gas in the cloud core forms stars, the process of residual gas expulsion is highly damaging to the star formation process. All clusters thus suffer significant infant weight loss, while a large fraction undergo infant mortality. At this point, the formation of an open cluster will depend on whether the newly formed stars are gravitationally bound to each other; otherwise an unbound

text: stellar association

text: will result. Even when a cluster such as the Pleiades does form, it may only hold on to a third of the original stars, with the remainder becoming unbound once the gas is expelled. The young stars so released from their natal cluster become part of the Galactic field population.

text: HD 71334 is a Sun-like star 126.7 light years (38.85 parsecs) from the Sun.  HD 150248 is a G-type star and a older solar analog. It is older than the sun at 8.1 billion years, compared to the sun at 4.6 billion years old. At 8.1 billion years old, HD 71334 has pasted its stable burning stage. HD 71334 has a lower metallicity that the Sun. HD 71334 is found in the constellations of Puppis. Puppis is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union. HD 71334 has a brightness of 7.8.

text: HD 71334 is a Sun-like star 126.7 light years (38.85 parsecs) from the Sun.  HD 150248 is a

text: G-type

text: star and a older

text: solar analog

text: . It is older than the sun at 8.1 billion years, compared to the sun at 4.6 billion years old. At 8.1 billion years old, HD 71334 has pasted its stable burning stage. HD 71334 has a lower

text: metallicity

text: that the Sun. HD 71334 is found in the constellations of

text: Puppis

text: . Puppis is one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: . HD 71334 has a brightness of 7.8.

text: In some spectroscopic binaries, spectral lines from both stars are visible and the lines are alternately double and single. Such a system is known as a double-lined spectroscopic binary (often denoted "SB2"). In other systems, the spectrum of only one of the stars is seen and the lines in the spectrum shift periodically towards the blue, then towards red and back again. Such stars are known as single-lined spectroscopic binaries ("SB1").

text: These stars are rarely classified, or are classified incorrectly.  The General Catalogue of Variable Stars does not have a type for λ Eridani variables, only GCAS for Gamma Cassiopeiae variables and BE for non-GCAS Be star variables.  λ Eridani itself is incorrectly listed as a Beta Cephei variable.  The AAVSO International Variable Star Index defines a LERI type of variability, with 16 stars included as λ Eri variables, five of them only suspected, and 13 combined with other types of variation.

text: These stars are rarely classified, or are classified incorrectly.  The

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: does not have a type for λ Eridani variables, only GCAS for

text: Gamma Cassiopeiae variable

text: s and

text: BE

text: for non-GCAS Be star variables.  λ Eridani itself is incorrectly listed as a

text: Beta Cephei variable

text: .  The

entity_name: American Association of Variable Star Observers

text: AAVSO

text: International Variable Star Index defines a LERI type of variability, with 16 stars included as λ Eri variables, five of them only suspected, and 13 combined with other types of variation.

text: There are relatively few stars within ten light-years of the Sun. The closest is the triple star system Alpha Centauri, which is about 4.4 light-years away. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the small red dwarf, Proxima Centauri, orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-year. In 2016, a potentially habitable exoplanet was confirmed to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called Proxima Centauri b, the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun. The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs Barnard's Star (at 5.9 ly), Wolf 359 (7.8 ly), and Lalande 21185 (8.3 ly).

text: There are relatively few

text: stars within ten light-years of the Sun

text: . The closest is the triple star system

text: Alpha Centauri

text: , which is about 4.4 light-years away. Alpha Centauri A and B are a closely tied pair of Sun-like stars, whereas the small

text: red dwarf

text: Proxima Centauri

text: , orbits the pair at a distance of 0.2 light-year. In 2016, a potentially habitable

text: exoplanet

text: was confirmed to be orbiting Proxima Centauri, called

text: Proxima Centauri b

text: , the closest confirmed exoplanet to the Sun. The stars next closest to the Sun are the red dwarfs

text: Barnard's Star

text: (at 5.9 ly),

text: Wolf 359

text: (7.8 ly), and

text: Lalande 21185

text: (8.3 ly).

text: Another type, microscopic particles usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from atoms to molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nanoparticles, and colloidal particles. These particles are studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics. The smallest of particles are the subatomic particles, which refer to particles smaller than atoms. These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms – protons, neutrons, and electrons – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in particle accelerators or cosmic rays. These particles are studied in particle physics.

text: Another type,

text: microscopic particles

text: usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from

text: atom

text: s to

text: molecule

text: s, such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: nanoparticle

text: s, and

text: colloidal particles

text: . These particles are studied in

text: chemistry

text: , as well as

text: atomic

text: and

text: molecular physics

text: . The smallest of particles are the

text: subatomic particle

text: s, which refer to particles smaller than atoms. These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms –

text: proton

text: s,

text: neutron

text: s, and

text: electron

text: s – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in

text: particle accelerator

text: s or

text: cosmic ray

text: s. These particles are studied in

text: particle physics

text: Traditionally, the defining characteristic for starhood has been an object's ability to fuse hydrogen in its core. However, stars such as brown dwarfs have always challenged that distinction. Too small to commence sustained hydrogen fusion, they have been granted star status on their ability to fuse deuterium. However, due to the relative rarity of that isotope, this process lasts only a tiny fraction of the star's lifetime, and hence most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusion long before their discovery. Binary stars and other multiple-star formations are common, and many brown dwarfs orbit other stars. Therefore, since they do not produce energy through fusion, they could be described as planets. Indeed, astronomer Adam Burrows of the University of Arizona claims that "from the theoretical perspective, however different their modes of formation, extrasolar giant planets and brown dwarfs are essentially the same." Burrows also claims that such stellar remnants as white dwarfs should not be considered stars, a stance which would mean that an orbiting white dwarf, such as Sirius B, could be considered a planet. However, the current convention among astronomers is that any object massive enough to have possessed the capability to sustain atomic fusion during its lifetime should be considered a star.

text: Traditionally, the defining characteristic for starhood has been an object's ability to

text: fuse

text: hydrogen

text: in its core. However, stars such as brown dwarfs have always challenged that distinction. Too small to commence sustained hydrogen fusion, they have been granted star status on their ability to fuse

text: deuterium

text: . However, due to the relative rarity of that

text: isotope

text: , this process lasts only a tiny fraction of the star's lifetime, and hence most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusion long before their discovery.

text: Binary star

text: s and other multiple-star formations are common, and many brown dwarfs orbit other stars. Therefore, since they do not produce energy through fusion, they could be described as planets. Indeed, astronomer

text: Adam Burrows

text: of the

text: University of Arizona

text: claims that "from the theoretical perspective, however different their modes of formation, extrasolar giant planets and brown dwarfs are essentially the same." Burrows also claims that such stellar remnants as

text: white dwarfs

text: should not be considered stars, a stance which would mean that an orbiting

text: white dwarf

text: , such as

text: Sirius B

text: , could be considered a planet. However, the current convention among astronomers is that any object massive enough to have possessed the capability to sustain atomic fusion during its lifetime should be considered a star.

text: An intermediate-mass X-ray binary (IMXB) is a binary star system where one of the components is a neutron star or a black hole. The other component is an intermediate mass star.

text: An

text: intermediate-mass X-ray binary

text: (IMXB) is a

text: binary star

text: system where one of the components is a neutron star or a

text: black hole

text: . The other component is an intermediate mass star.

text: In some ancient atlases, the constellations Serpens and Ophiuchus were depicted as two separate constellations, although more often they were shown as a single constellation. One notable figure to depict Serpens separately was Johann Bayer; thus, Serpens' stars are cataloged with separate Bayer designations from those of Ophiuchus. When Eugène Delporte established modern constellation boundaries in the 1920s, he elected to depict the two separately. However, this posed the problem of how to disentangle the two constellations, with Deporte deciding to split Serpens into two areas—the head and the tail—separated by the continuous Ophiuchus. These two areas became known as Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda, caput being the Latin word for head and cauda the Latin word for tail.

text: In some ancient atlases, the constellations Serpens and Ophiuchus were depicted as two separate constellations, although more often they were shown as a single constellation. One notable figure to depict Serpens separately was

text: Johann Bayer

text: ; thus, Serpens' stars are cataloged with separate

text: Bayer designation

text: s from those of Ophiuchus. When

text: Eugène Delporte

text: established modern constellation boundaries in the 1920s, he elected to depict the two separately. However, this posed the problem of how to disentangle the two constellations, with Deporte deciding to split Serpens into two areas—the head and the tail—separated by the continuous Ophiuchus. These two areas became known as Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda, caput being the Latin word for head and cauda the Latin word for tail.

text: These results came at the beginning of the golden age of general relativity, which was marked by general relativity and black holes becoming mainstream subjects of research. This process was helped by the discovery of pulsars in 1967, which, by 1969, were shown to be rapidly rotating neutron stars. Until that time, neutron stars, like black holes, were regarded as just theoretical curiosities; but the discovery of pulsars showed their physical relevance and spurred a further interest in all types of compact objects that might be formed by gravitational collapse.

text: These results came at the beginning of the

text: golden age of general relativity

text: , which was marked by general relativity and black holes becoming mainstream subjects of research. This process was helped by the discovery of

text: pulsar

text: s in 1967, which, by 1969, were shown to be rapidly rotating

text: neutron star

text: s. Until that time, neutron stars, like black holes, were regarded as just theoretical curiosities; but the discovery of pulsars showed their physical relevance and spurred a further interest in all types of compact objects that might be formed by gravitational collapse.

text: It is more familiar to most observers in the northern hemisphere as the lower-left star forming the bowl of the Big Dipper, together with Alpha Ursae Majoris (Dubhe, upper-right), Beta Ursae Majoris (Merak, lower-right) and Delta Ursae Majoris (Megrez, upper-left). Along with four other stars in this well-known asterism, Phecda forms a loose association of stars known as the Ursa Major moving group. Like the other stars in the group, it is a main sequence star not unlike the Sun, although somewhat hotter, brighter and larger.

text: It is more familiar to most observers in the

text: northern hemisphere

text: as the lower-left star forming the bowl of the

text: Big Dipper

text: , together with

text: Alpha Ursae Majoris

text: (Dubhe, upper-right),

text: Beta Ursae Majoris

text: (Merak, lower-right) and

text: Delta Ursae Majoris

text: (Megrez, upper-left). Along with four other stars in this well-known

text: asterism

text: , Phecda forms a loose association of stars known as the

text: Ursa Major moving group

text: . Like the other stars in the group, it is a

text: main sequence

text: star not unlike the Sun, although somewhat hotter, brighter and larger.

text: At the next stage, the envelope completely disappears, having been gathered up by the disk, and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star.  The latter have accretion disks and continue to accrete hot gas, which manifests itself by strong emission lines in their spectrum. The former do not possess accretion disks. Classical T Tauri stars evolve into weakly lined T Tauri stars. This happens after about 1 million years. The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1–3% of the stellar mass, and it is accreted at a rate of 10 to  per year. A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well. The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars: strong flux in the emission lines (up to 100% of the intrinsic luminosity of the star), magnetic activity, photometric variability and jets. The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the "surface" of the star, which happens around its magnetic poles. The jets are byproducts of accretion: they carry away excessive angular momentum. The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years.  The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star, planet formation, ejection by jets, and photoevaporation by ultraviolet radiation from the central star and nearby stars. As a result, the young star becomes a weakly lined T Tauri star, which, over hundreds of millions of years, evolves into an ordinary Sun-like star, dependent on its initial mass.

text: At the next stage, the envelope completely disappears, having been gathered up by the disk, and the protostar becomes a classical T Tauri star.  The latter have accretion disks and continue to accrete hot gas, which manifests itself by strong emission lines in their spectrum. The former do not possess accretion disks. Classical T Tauri stars evolve into weakly lined T Tauri stars. This happens after about 1 million years. The mass of the disk around a classical T Tauri star is about 1–3% of the stellar mass, and it is accreted at a rate of 10 to  per year. A pair of bipolar jets is usually present as well. The accretion explains all peculiar properties of classical T Tauri stars: strong

text: flux

text: in the

text: emission line

text: s (up to 100% of the intrinsic

text: luminosity

text: of the star),

text: magnetic

text: activity,

text: photometric

text: variability

text: and jets. The emission lines actually form as the accreted gas hits the "surface" of the star, which happens around its

text: magnetic poles

text: . The jets are byproducts of accretion: they carry away excessive angular momentum. The classical T Tauri stage lasts about 10 million years.  The disk eventually disappears due to accretion onto the central star, planet formation, ejection by jets, and

text: photoevaporation

text: by

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation from the central star and nearby stars. As a result, the young star becomes a

text: weakly lined T Tauri star

text: , which, over hundreds of millions of years, evolves into an ordinary Sun-like star, dependent on its initial mass.

text: Other research is being or has been done in numerous areas relating to the chemical nature of stars.  The formation of stars is of particular interest.  Research published in 2009 presents spectroscopic observations of so-called "young stellar objects" viewed in the Large Magellanic Cloud with the Spitzer Space Telescope.  This research suggests that water, or, more specifically, ice, plays a large role in the formation of these eventual stars

text: Other research is being or has been done in numerous areas relating to the chemical nature of stars.  The formation of stars is of particular interest.  Research published in 2009 presents spectroscopic observations of so-called "young stellar objects" viewed in the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: with the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: .  This research suggests that water, or, more specifically, ice, plays a large role in the formation of these eventual stars

text: Around 25-33% of white dwarfs have metal lines in their spectra, which is unusual because any heavy elements in a white dwarf should sink into the star's interior in just a small fraction of the star's lifetime. The prevailing explanation for metal-rich white dwarfs is that they have recently accreted rocky planetesimals. The bulk composition of the accreted object can be measured from the strengths of the metal lines. For example, a 2015 study of the white dwarf Ton 345 concluded that its metal abundances were consistent with those of a differentiated, rocky planet whose mantle had been eroded by the host star's wind during its asymptotic giant branch phase.

text: Around 25-33% of white dwarfs have metal lines in their spectra, which is unusual because any heavy elements in a white dwarf should sink into the star's interior in just a small fraction of the star's lifetime. The prevailing explanation for metal-rich white dwarfs is that they have recently accreted rocky planetesimals. The bulk composition of the accreted object can be measured from the strengths of the metal lines. For example, a 2015 study of the white dwarf Ton 345 concluded that its metal abundances were consistent with those of a differentiated, rocky planet whose mantle had been eroded by the host star's wind during its

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: phase.

text: The development begins with two main sequence stars in a binary relation. One of the two evolves into a red giant leaving its remnant white dwarf core in orbit with the remaining star. The second star—which may be either a main sequence star, or an aging giant one as well—begins to shed its envelope onto its white dwarf companion when it overflows its Roche lobe. As a result, the white dwarf will steadily accrete matter from the companion's outer atmosphere; the white dwarf consists of degenerate matter, so the accreted hydrogen does not inflate as its temperature increases. Rapid, uncontrolled fusion occurs when the temperature of this accreted layer reaches ~20 million Kelvins, initiating a burn via the CNO cycle.

text: The development begins with two main sequence stars in a binary relation. One of the two evolves into a

text: red giant

text: leaving its remnant white dwarf core in orbit with the remaining star. The second star—which may be either a main sequence star, or an aging giant one as well—begins to shed its envelope onto its white dwarf companion when it overflows its

text: Roche lobe

text: . As a result, the white dwarf will steadily accrete matter from the companion's outer atmosphere; the white dwarf consists of degenerate matter, so the accreted hydrogen does not inflate as its temperature increases. Rapid, uncontrolled fusion occurs when the temperature of this accreted layer reaches ~20 million Kelvins, initiating a burn via the

text: CNO cycle

text: MAXI helped discover the rapidly rotating black-hole/star system MAXI J1659-152.

text: MAXI helped discover the rapidly rotating black-hole/star system

text: MAXI J1659-152

text: The initial recordings were made at Rockfield Studios - "Snow Covered Eyes" and "Living In The World Today". The rest of the album was recorded in April 1974 at Chipping Norton Recording Studios.  Released in September 1974 Black Hole Star featured Neutrons' logo, designed by Rick Griffin, whilst the track "Mermaid And Chips" features the lyrics of Pete Brown.  The album spawned one single "Dance of the Psychedelic Lounge Lizard"/"Suzy and the Wonder Boy", The A-side being dedicated to Graham Bond, whilst the B side was not on the album, although it features Dave Edmunds on slide guitar.

text: The initial recordings were made at Rockfield Studios - "Snow Covered Eyes" and "Living In The World Today". The rest of the album was recorded in April 1974 at

text: Chipping Norton Recording Studios

text: .  Released in September 1974 Black Hole Star featured Neutrons' logo, designed by

text: Rick Griffin

text: , whilst the track "Mermaid And Chips" features the lyrics of Pete Brown.  The album spawned one single "Dance of the Psychedelic Lounge Lizard"/"Suzy and the Wonder Boy", The A-side being dedicated to

text: Graham Bond

text: , whilst the B side was not on the album, although it features

text: Dave Edmunds

text: on slide guitar.

text: In 1881 Pickering hired Fleming to join the HCO and taught her how to analyze stellar spectra; she was the first of an all-women cadre of human "computers"  created by Pickering at HCO. Soon she devised a system for classifying stars according to the relative amount of hydrogen observed in their spectra. (Stars showing hydrogen as the most abundant element were  classified A; those of hydrogen as the second-most abundant element, B; and so on.)  Later, Annie Jump Cannon developed an improved classification system based upon the surface temperature of stars.

text: In 1881 Pickering hired Fleming to join the HCO and taught her how to analyze stellar spectra; she was the first of an all-women cadre of

text: human "computers"

text: created by Pickering at HCO. Soon she devised a system for classifying

text: star

text: s according to the relative amount of

text: hydrogen

text: observed in their

text: spectra

text: . (Stars showing hydrogen as the most abundant element were  classified A; those of hydrogen as the second-most abundant element, B; and so on.)  Later,

text: Annie Jump Cannon

text: developed an improved classification system based upon the surface

text: temperature

text: of stars.

text: Star Wraith: Shadows of Orion (also known as Star Wraith III or Star Wraith 3) is the third game in the Star Wraith series developed by StarWraith 3D Games LLC. It is the successor of Star Wraith II. Star Wraith IV: Reviction is the successor to Star Wraith III.

text: Star Wraith: Shadows of Orion (also known as Star Wraith III or Star Wraith 3) is the third game in the Star Wraith series developed by StarWraith 3D Games LLC. It is the successor of

text: Star Wraith II

text: Star Wraith IV: Reviction

text: is the successor to Star Wraith III.

text: Circumstellar habitable zones change over time with stellar evolution. For example, hot O-type stars, which may remain on the main sequence for fewer than 10 million years, would have rapidly changing habitable zones not conducive to the development of life. Red dwarf stars, on the other hand, which can live for hundreds of billions of years on the main sequence, would have planets with ample time for life to develop and evolve. Even while stars are on the main sequence, though, their energy output steadily increases, pushing their habitable zones farther out; our Sun, for example, was 75% as bright in the Archaean as it is now, and in the future, continued increases in energy output will put Earth outside the Sun's habitable zone, even before it reaches the red giant phase. In order to deal with this increase in luminosity, the concept of a continuously habitable zone has been introduced. As the name suggests, the continuously habitable zone is a region around a star in which planetary-mass bodies can sustain liquid water for a given period of time. Like the general circumstellar habitable zone, the continuously habitable zone of a star is divided into a conservative and extended region.

text: Circumstellar habitable zones change over time with stellar evolution. For example, hot O-type stars, which may remain on the

text: main sequence

text: for fewer than 10 million years, would have rapidly changing habitable zones not conducive to the development of life. Red dwarf stars, on the other hand, which can live for hundreds of billions of years on the main sequence, would have planets with ample time for life to develop and evolve. Even while stars are on the main sequence, though, their energy output steadily increases, pushing their habitable zones farther out; our Sun, for example, was 75% as bright in the

text: Archaean

text: as it is now, and in the future, continued increases in energy output will put Earth outside the Sun's habitable zone, even before it reaches the

text: red giant

text: phase. In order to deal with this increase in luminosity, the concept of a continuously habitable zone has been introduced. As the name suggests, the continuously habitable zone is a region around a star in which planetary-mass bodies can sustain liquid water for a given period of time. Like the general circumstellar habitable zone, the continuously habitable zone of a star is divided into a conservative and extended region.

text: Upsilon Andromedae d (υ Andromedae d, abbreviated Upsilon And d, υ And d), also named Majriti, is a super-Jupiter exoplanet orbiting within the habitable zone of the Sun-like star Upsilon Andromedae A, approximately 44 light-years (13.5 parsecs, or nearly  km) away from Earth in the constellation of Andromeda. Its discovery made it the first multiplanetary system to be discovered around a main sequence star, and the first such system known in a multiple star system. The exoplanet was found by using the radial velocity method, where periodic Doppler shifts of spectral lines of the host star suggest an orbiting object.

text: Upsilon Andromedae d (υ Andromedae d, abbreviated Upsilon And d, υ And d), also named Majriti, is a

text: super-Jupiter

text: exoplanet

text: orbiting within the

text: habitable zone

text: of the

text: Sun-like star

text: Upsilon Andromedae A

text: , approximately 44

text: light-year

text: s (13.5

text: parsec

text: s, or nearly

text: km

text: ) away from

text: Earth

text: in the constellation of

text: Andromeda

text: . Its discovery made it the first

text: multiplanetary system

text: to be discovered around a

text: main sequence

text: star, and the first such system known in a

text: multiple star

text: system. The exoplanet was found by using the

text: radial velocity method

text: , where periodic Doppler shifts of

text: spectral line

text: s of the host star suggest an orbiting object.

text: A symbiotic star is a type of binary star. They are usually a white dwarf with a companion late sequence red giant. They are indicated by the exhibition of spectral lines of the highly contrasting temperatures of the red giant (~3000 K) and the white dwarf (~20 000 K). The white dwarf gains mass from stellar wind from the red giant or gravitational streaming.

text: A symbiotic star is a type of

text: binary star

text: . They are usually a

text: white dwarf

text: with a companion late sequence

text: red giant

text: . They are indicated by the exhibition of

text: spectral lines

text: of the highly contrasting temperatures of the red giant (~3000 K) and the white dwarf (~20 000 K). The white dwarf gains mass from

text: stellar wind

text: from the red giant or gravitational streaming.

text: In both the primary and secondary star, their cores will eventually collapse, resulting in a supernova explosion.  The initially-more massive primary will collapse first, probably as a type Ic supernova, within a few hundred thousand years.  The secondary will live on as a single star, or possibly in a binary with a supernova remnant, for a few million years before it also explodes as a supernova, probably a type Ib.  Massive stars at SMC metallicity may produce a low luminosity supernova, or even collapse directly to a black hole without a visible explosion.

text: Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between cosmic rays and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate, on demand. Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the nuclear chain reactions in fissionable materials that produce induced nuclear fission, and the various nuclear fusion reactions of light elements that power the energy production of the Sun and stars. Both of these types of reactions are employed in nuclear weapons.

text: Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between

text: cosmic ray

text: s and matter, and nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate, on demand. Perhaps the most notable nuclear reactions are the

text: nuclear chain reaction

text: s in

text: fissionable

text: materials that produce induced

text: nuclear fission

text: , and the various

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions of light elements that power the energy production of the Sun and stars. Both of these types of reactions are employed in

text: nuclear weapon

text: s.

text: Hostals are classified from one to three stars, contrary from hostels, which are not classified under the star rating, and from hotels which are classified from one to five stars.

text: This star is classified as spectral type F7V, meaning the color of the photosphere of this star is yellow-white. It takes 9.5 days for the star to rotate once around its axis. This star is 40% more massive and 84% larger than our Sun. Combining the mass and radius makes the surface gravity only 41% that of our Sun.

text: This star is classified as

text: spectral type

text: F7V, meaning the color of the

text: photosphere

text: of this star is yellow-white. It takes 9.5 days for the star to rotate once around its axis. This star is 40% more massive and 84% larger than our

text: Sun

text: . Combining the mass and radius makes the

text: surface gravity

text: only 41% that of our Sun.

text: Hydrogen generally determines a star's nuclear lifetime because it is used as the main source of fuel in a main sequence star. Hydrogen becomes helium in the nuclear reaction that takes place within stars; when the hydrogen has been exhausted, the star moves on to another phase of its life and begins burning the helium.

text: Hydrogen

text: generally determines a star's nuclear lifetime because it is used as the main source of fuel in a

text: main sequence

text: star. Hydrogen becomes helium in the nuclear reaction that takes place within stars; when the hydrogen has been exhausted, the star moves on to another phase of its life and begins burning the helium.

text: Rigel A is a blue supergiant that has exhausted burning the hydrogen fuel in its core and left the main sequence, expanding and brightening as it progresses across the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. Przybilla estimated that it has lost around 3 solar masses since beginning life as a star of 24 ± 3 solar masses 7 to 9 million years ago. It will become a red supergiant and eventually end its stellar life by exploding as a type II supernova, in the process flinging out material that will serve to seed future generations of stars. It is one of the closest known potential supernova progenitors to Earth.

text: Rigel A is a

text: blue supergiant

text: that has exhausted burning the hydrogen fuel in its core and left the main sequence, expanding and brightening as it progresses across the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: . Przybilla estimated that it has lost around 3 solar masses since beginning life as a star of 24 ± 3 solar masses 7 to 9 million years ago. It will become a red supergiant and eventually end its stellar life by exploding as a

text: type II supernova

text: , in the process flinging out material that will serve to seed future generations of stars. It is one of the closest known potential supernova progenitors to Earth.

text: Jean Hebb Swank is an astrophysicist who is best known for her studies of black holes and neutron stars.

text: Jean Hebb Swank is an

text: astrophysicist

text: who is best known for her studies of

text: black hole

text: s and

text: neutron star

text: s.

text: The chemical composition of this star differs from that of other yellow supergiant stars. The star is moderately metal-deficient and the main elements present in the star (apart from hydrogen and helium) are oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. Molecules such as hydrogen isocyanide, sulfur monoxide and HCO have been detected in the circumstellar envelope of the star. These molecules may result from an active photochemistry, generated by UV photons emitted by the central star as it warms up, or can be produced in shocks.

text: The chemical composition of this star differs from that of other yellow supergiant stars. The star is moderately

text: metal-deficient

text: and the main elements present in the star (apart from hydrogen and helium) are oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. Molecules such as

text: hydrogen isocyanide

text: sulfur monoxide

text: and HCO have been detected in the circumstellar envelope of the star. These molecules may result from an active

text: photochemistry

text: , generated by UV photons emitted by the central star as it warms up, or can be produced in shocks.

text: The North Star Roller Girls League has four teams: the Banger Sisters, Delta Delta Di, Kilmore Girls, and the Violent Femmes. NSRG also has a traveling team, the Supernovas, composed of skaters from all four league teams, which competes against leagues from other areas. The North Star Supernovas are ranked 70th in the world by the WFTDA (as of November, 2016).

text: In the second Red Dwarf novel, Better Than Life (1990), Rimmer and Cat use White Giant to find Lister on Garbage World. Given that Starbug was destroyed by acid rain, and the destruction of Blue Midget, White Giant was left as the only remaining shuttlecraft for Red Dwarf. However, in the two sequel novels Last Human (1995) and Backwards (1996), Starbug has been rebuilt and White Giant never appears.

text: In the second Red Dwarf novel,

text: Better Than Life

text: (1990), Rimmer and Cat use White Giant to find Lister on Garbage World. Given that Starbug was destroyed by acid rain, and the destruction of Blue Midget, White Giant was left as the only remaining shuttlecraft for Red Dwarf. However, in the two sequel novels

text: Last Human

text: (1995) and

text: Backwards

text: (1996), Starbug has been rebuilt and White Giant never appears.

text: Potential sources of detectable gravitational waves include binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. On February 11, 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made the first observation of gravitational waves, originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On June 15, 2016, a second detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced.

text: Potential sources of detectable gravitational waves include

text: binary star

text: systems composed of

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s, and

text: black hole

text: s. On February 11, 2016, the

text: LIGO

text: Scientific Collaboration and

text: Virgo

text: Collaboration teams announced that they had made the

entity_name: First observation of gravitational waves

text: first observation of gravitational waves

text: , originating from a

text: pair

text: of

text: merging

text: black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On June 15, 2016, a

text: second detection

text: of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced.

text: In the MMORPG Eve Online, jump gates allow travel between star systems. Due to the complex nature of their construction and the physics that they are based upon, in the official lore of the game, a jump gate must be placed between two stars of a star system with at least two stars – this makes "approximately one in every three" star systems unsuitable.

text: In the

entity_name: Massively multiplayer online role-playing game

text: MMORPG

text: Eve Online

text: , jump gates allow travel between star systems. Due to the complex nature of their construction and the physics that they are based upon, in the official lore of the game, a jump gate must be placed between two stars of a star system with at least two stars – this makes "approximately one in every three" star systems unsuitable.

text: In general, stars with lower metallicity are smaller and hotter than stars with higher metallicity.  For subgiants, this is complicated by different ages and core masses at the main sequence turnoff.  Low metallicity stars develop a larger helium core before leaving the main sequence, hence lower mass stars show a hook at the start of the subgiant branch.  The helium core mass of a Z=0.001 (extreme population II)  star at the end of the main sequence is nearly double that of a Z=0.02 (population I) star.  The low metallicity star is also over 1,000 K hotter and over twice as luminous at the start of the subgiant branch.  The difference in temperature is less pronounced at the end of the subgiant branch, but the low metallicity star is larger and nearly four times as luminous.  Similar differences exist in the evolution of stars with other masses, and key values such as the mass of a star that will become a supergiant instead of reaching the red giant branch are lower at low metallicity.

text: In general, stars with lower metallicity are smaller and hotter than stars with higher metallicity.  For subgiants, this is complicated by different ages and core masses at the main sequence turnoff.  Low metallicity stars develop a larger helium core before leaving the main sequence, hence lower mass stars show a hook at the start of the subgiant branch.  The helium core mass of a Z=0.001 (extreme

text: population II

text: )  star at the end of the main sequence is nearly double that of a Z=0.02 (

text: population I

text: ) star.  The low metallicity star is also over 1,000 K hotter and over twice as luminous at the start of the subgiant branch.  The difference in temperature is less pronounced at the end of the subgiant branch, but the low metallicity star is larger and nearly four times as luminous.  Similar differences exist in the evolution of stars with other masses, and key values such as the mass of a star that will become a supergiant instead of reaching the red giant branch are lower at low metallicity.

text: V533 Carinae is classified as a double star with the companion being a magnitude 11.5 star 21.7 arc-seconds away.

text: SN 1987A appears to be a core-collapse supernova, which should result in a neutron star given the size of the original star. The neutrino data indicate that a compact object did form at the star's core. However, since the supernova first became visible, astronomers have been searching for the collapsed core but have not detected it. The Hubble Space Telescope has taken images of the supernova regularly since August 1990, but, so far, the images have shown no evidence of a neutron star. A number of possibilities for the 'missing' neutron star are being considered, although none are clearly favored. The first is that the neutron star is enshrouded in dense dust clouds so that it cannot be seen. Another is that a pulsar was formed, but with either an unusually large or small magnetic field. It is also possible that large amounts of material fell back on the neutron star, so that it further collapsed into a black hole. Neutron stars and black holes often give off light when material falls onto them. If there is a compact object in the supernova remnant, but no material to fall onto it, it would be very dim and could therefore avoid detection. Other scenarios have also been considered, such as if the collapsed core became a quark star.

text: SN 1987A appears to be a core-collapse supernova, which should result in a

text: neutron star

text: given the size of the original star. The neutrino data indicate that a compact object did form at the star's core. However, since the supernova first became visible, astronomers have been searching for the collapsed core but have not detected it. The

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: has taken images of the supernova regularly since August 1990, but, so far, the images have shown no evidence of a neutron star. A number of possibilities for the 'missing' neutron star are being considered, although none are clearly favored. The first is that the neutron star is enshrouded in dense dust clouds so that it cannot be seen. Another is that a

text: pulsar

text: was formed, but with either an unusually large or small magnetic field. It is also possible that large amounts of material fell back on the neutron star, so that it further collapsed into a

text: black hole

text: . Neutron stars and black holes often give off light when material falls onto them. If there is a compact object in the supernova remnant, but no material to fall onto it, it would be very dim and could therefore avoid detection. Other scenarios have also been considered, such as if the collapsed core became a

text: quark star

text: The 32nd National Hockey League All-Star Game was held in Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, home to the Detroit Red Wings, on February 5, 1980. The Wales Conference all-star team won for the fifth consecutive time. Reggie Leach was voted MVP after scoring one goal and one assist. This was Wayne Gretzky's first appearance and Gordie Howe's 23rd and final All-Star game appearance.

text: The 32nd

text: National Hockey League

text: All-Star Game

text: was held in

text: Joe Louis Arena

text: in

text: Detroit

text: , home to the

text: Detroit Red Wings

text: , on February 5, 1980. The

text: Wales Conference

text: all-star team won for the fifth consecutive time.

text: Reggie Leach

text: was voted MVP after scoring one goal and one assist. This was

text: Wayne Gretzky

text: 's first appearance and

text: Gordie Howe

text: 's 23rd and final All-Star game appearance.

text: In the initial film, Solo brags that the Falcon made the Kessel Run in "less than twelve parsecs". As the parsec is a unit of distance, not time, different explanations have been provided. In the fourth draft of the script, Kenobi "reacts to Solo’s stupid attempt to impress them with obvious misinformation". In the Expanded Universe, the Kessel Run is a pathway from Kessel past the Maw Black Hole Cluster: used by smugglers to transport precious Glitterstim spice; and Solo's bragging refers to his ability to move the ship closer to the Maw's black holes and therefore shorten the distance traveled. On the Star Wars DVD audio commentary, Lucas comments that, in the Star Wars universe, traveling through hyperspace requires careful navigation to avoid stars, planets, asteroids, and other obstacles, and that because no long-distance journey can be made in a straight line, the "fastest" ship is the one that can plot the "most direct course", thereby traveling the least distance.However, since a parsec relates to a measurement of distance dependent on the motion of the observer and the angular shift in the position of a distant object, it would be unsuitable (to say the least) as a standard unit of distance for use by a galactic empire or in interstellar navigation, rendering any attempt to make the line have any scientifically accurate meaning futile.

text: In the initial film, Solo brags that the Falcon made the Kessel Run in "less than twelve

text: parsec

text: s". As the parsec is a unit of distance, not time, different explanations have been provided. In the fourth draft of the script, Kenobi "reacts to Solo’s stupid attempt to impress them with obvious misinformation". In the Expanded Universe, the Kessel Run is a pathway from

text: Kessel

text: past the Maw

text: Black Hole

text: Cluster: used by smugglers to transport precious

text: Glitterstim spice

text: ; and Solo's bragging refers to his ability to move the ship closer to the Maw's black holes and therefore shorten the distance traveled. On the Star Wars DVD

text: audio commentary

text: , Lucas comments that, in the Star Wars universe, traveling through hyperspace requires careful navigation to avoid stars, planets, asteroids, and other obstacles, and that because no long-distance journey can be made in a straight line, the "fastest" ship is the one that can plot the "most direct course", thereby traveling the least distance.However, since a parsec relates to a measurement of distance dependent on the motion of the observer and the angular shift in the position of a distant object, it would be unsuitable (to say the least) as a standard unit of distance for use by a galactic empire or in interstellar navigation, rendering any attempt to make the line have any scientifically accurate meaning futile.

text: Well-known features of Down Beat magazine include its "Reviews" section where jazz critics, using a '1-Star to 5-Star' maximum rating system, rate the latest musical recordings, vintage recordings, and books; articles on individual musicians and music forms; and its famous "Blindfold Test" column, in a which a musician listens to records by other artists, tries to guess who they are, and rates them using the 5-star maximum rating system.

text: Beta Hydri (β Hyi, β Hydri) is a star in the southern circumpolar constellation of Hydrus. (Note that Hydrus is not the same as Hydra.) With an apparent visual magnitude of 2.8, this is the brightest star in the constellation. Based upon parallax measurements the distance to this star is about .

text: Beta Hydri (β Hyi, β Hydri) is a

text: star

text: in the southern

text: circumpolar constellation

text: of

text: Hydrus

text: . (Note that Hydrus is not the same as

text: Hydra

text: .) With an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 2.8, this is the

text: brightest star

text: in the constellation. Based upon

text: parallax

text: measurements the distance to this star is about .

text: Colgate's supernova research during this investigation ignited his interest in astrophysics. Colgate and Johnson's first attempts to understand the mechanism of a supernova began with determining the actual cause of one. They assumed that "a shockwave from the core bounce smashes into nuclear ash plummeting inwards due to the inward tug of gravity". The shock wave would turn this matter around, heating it up, causing the supernova. However this turned out to be wrong, as Richard H. White used computer simulations to show that the shock wave would not be strong enough to trigger the event. Colgate and White began developing models of stars on the verge of collapse. White wrote a computer program combining software used to design bombs with equations of state for a star. In discussions with a friend, Colgate found that neutrinos can develop degeneracy pressure. This pressure aided the shock wave in blowing off the outer shells of an expiring star, leaving a neutron star behind. While this research helped validate Chandrasekhar's work on limits, neutron stars were still purely hypothetical.

text: Colgate's supernova research during this investigation ignited his interest in astrophysics. Colgate and Johnson's first attempts to understand the mechanism of a supernova began with determining the actual cause of one. They assumed that "a

text: shockwave

text: from the core bounce smashes into nuclear ash plummeting inwards due to the inward tug of gravity". The shock wave would turn this matter around, heating it up, causing the supernova. However this turned out to be wrong, as

text: Richard H. White

text: used computer simulations to show that the shock wave would not be strong enough to trigger the event. Colgate and White began developing models of stars on the verge of collapse. White wrote a computer program combining software used to design bombs with

text: equations of state

text: for a star. In discussions with a friend, Colgate found that

text: neutrinos

text: can develop

text: degeneracy pressure

text: . This pressure aided the shock wave in blowing off the outer shells of an expiring star, leaving a

text: neutron star

text: behind. While this research helped validate

text: Chandrasekhar's work on limits

text: , neutron stars were still purely hypothetical.

text: Stories in the book anthologies "can be set in any of the Star Trek time frames and may feature any one or more of the Star Trek characters," according to the submission guidelines, and each anthology included a selection of stories for all of the live-action Star Trek series: Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, and (from 2002 to 2007) Star Trek: Enterprise. In more recent years, each anthology also included a section called "Speculations," containing stories which could not be neatly ascribed to any one of those series.

text: Stories in the book anthologies "can be set in any of the Star Trek time frames and may feature any one or more of the Star Trek characters," according to the submission guidelines, and each anthology included a selection of stories for all of the live-action Star Trek series:

text: Star Trek: The Original Series

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: , and (from 2002 to 2007)

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: . In more recent years, each anthology also included a section called "Speculations," containing stories which could not be neatly ascribed to any one of those series.

text: In 2015, Susan Sarandon, Kelli Garner and Jeffrey Dean Morgan starred in the miniseries adaptation of his book, "The Secret Life of Marilyn Monroe" for Lifetime.  Also, it was announced that Katie Holmes would star in "After Camelot," as Jackie Kennedy Onassis in miniseries for ReelzTV based on Taraborrelli's book of the same name.  She is also slated to direct one of the four hours.  Additionally, Matthew Perry was cast to co-star with Holmes in the role of "Ted Kennedy."  Principal photography began in May 2016.  The miniseries will air in Spring, 2017.

text: The following list of constellations in different languages are the 88 designated constellations of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Constellations are presented in tabular form and link directly to the corresponding non-English Wikipedia entry. The list of languages is not complete, but gives examples from multiple language families for which entries for all constellations are available. Languages are listed in alphabetical order, with the exception of English and Latin.

text: The following

text: list of constellations

text: in different languages are the 88 designated constellations of the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU). Constellations are presented in tabular form and link directly to the corresponding non-English Wikipedia entry. The list of languages is not complete, but gives examples from multiple language families for which entries for all constellations are available. Languages are listed in alphabetical order, with the exception of

text: English

text: and

text: Latin

text: The progenitor of this white dwarf had an estimated 2.6 solar masses and remained on the main sequence for about . This gives the star a combined age of about 4.1 billion years. When this star left the main sequence, it expanded into a red giant that reached a maximum radius of 650 times the current radius of the Sun, or about 3 astronomical units. Any planets that were orbiting within this radius would have interacted directly with the star's extended envelope.

text: The progenitor of this white dwarf had an estimated 2.6 solar masses and remained on the main sequence for about . This gives the star a combined age of about 4.1 billion years. When this star left the main sequence, it expanded into a

text: red giant

text: that reached a maximum radius of 650 times the current radius of the Sun, or about 3

text: astronomical unit

text: s. Any planets that were orbiting within this radius would have interacted directly with the star's extended envelope.

text: A star's metallicity measurement is one parameter that helps determine if a star will have planets and the type of planets, as there is a direct correlation between metallicity and the type of planets a star may have. Measurements have demonstrated the connection between a star's metallicity and gas giant planets, like Jupiter and Saturn.  The more metals in a star and thus its planetary system and proplyd, the more likely the system may have gas giant planets and rocky planets.  Current models show that the metallicity along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star are key to planet and planetesimal formation. Metallicity also affects a star's color temperature.  Metal poor stars are bluer and metal rich stars are redder. The Sun, with 8 planets and 5 planetesimals, is used as the reference, with a [Fe/H] of 0.00. Other stars are noted with a positive or negative value.  A star with a  has the same iron abundance as the Sun. A star with  has one tenth heavy elements of that found in the Sun. At , the heavy element abundance is 10 times the Sun's value. The survey of stellar population of stars shows that older stars have less metallicity.

text: A star's metallicity measurement is one parameter that helps determine if a star will have

text: planet

text: s and the type of planets, as there is a direct correlation between metallicity and the type of planets a star may have. Measurements have demonstrated the connection between a star's metallicity and

text: gas giant

text: planets, like

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: .  The more metals in a star and thus its

text: planetary system

text: and

text: proplyd

text: , the more likely the system may have gas giant planets and

text: rocky planets

text: .  Current models show that the metallicity along with the correct planetary system temperature and distance from the star are key to planet and

text: planetesimal

text: formation. Metallicity also affects a star's

text: color temperature

text: .  Metal poor stars are

text: bluer

text: and metal rich stars are redder. The

text: Sun

text: , with

text: 8 planets

text: and 5 planetesimals, is used as the reference, with a [Fe/H] of 0.00. Other stars are noted with a positive or negative value.  A star with a  has the same iron abundance as the Sun. A star with  has one tenth heavy elements of that found in the Sun. At , the heavy element abundance is 10 times the Sun's value. The survey of

text: stellar population

text: of stars shows that older stars have less metallicity.

text: Some examples of "toy models" in physics might be: the Ising model as a toy model for ferromagnetism, or, more generally, as one of the simplest examples of lattice models; orbital mechanics described by assuming that the Earth is attached to the Sun by a large elastic band; Hawking radiation around a black hole described as conventional radiation from a fictitious membrane at radius r=2M (the black hole membrane paradigm); frame-dragging around a rotating star considered as the effect of space being a conventional "draggable" fluid.

text: Some examples of "toy models" in physics might be: the

text: Ising model

text: as a toy model for

text: ferromagnetism

text: , or, more generally, as one of the simplest examples of

text: lattice models

text: ; orbital mechanics described by assuming that the Earth is attached to the Sun by a large elastic band;

text: Hawking radiation

text: around a

text: black hole

text: described as conventional radiation from a fictitious membrane at radius

text: (the black hole

text: membrane paradigm

text: frame-dragging

text: around a rotating star considered as the effect of space being a conventional "draggable" fluid.

text: Draco is home to several double stars and binary stars. η Draconis is a double star with a yellow-hued primary of magnitude 2.8 and a white-hued secondary of magnitude 8.2 located south of the primary. The two are separated by 4.8 arcseconds. Mu Draconis, traditionally called Alrakis, is a binary star with two white components. Magnitude 5.6 and 5.7, the two components orbit each other every 670 years. The Alrakis system is 88 light-years from Earth. Nu Draconis is a similar binary star with two white components, 100 light-years from Earth. Both components are of magnitude 4.9 and can be distinguished in a small amateur telescope or a pair of binoculars. Omicron Draconis is a double star divisible in small telescopes. The primary is an orange giant of magnitude 4.6, 322 light-years from Earth. The secondary is of magnitude 7.8. Psi Draconis is a binary star divisible in binoculars and small amateur telescopes, 72 light-years from Earth. The primary is a yellow-white star of magnitude 4.6 and the secondary is a yellow star of magnitude 5.8. 16 Draconis and 17 Draconis are part of a triple star 400 light-years from Earth, divisible in medium-sized amateur telescopes. The primary, a blue-white star of magnitude 5.1, is itself a binary with components of magnitude 5.4 and 6.5. The secondary is of magnitude 5.5 and the system is 400 light-years away. 20 Draconis is a binary star with a white-hued primary of magnitude 7.1 and a yellow-hued secondary of magnitude 7.3 located east-northeast of the primary. The two are separated by 1.2 arcseconds at their maximum and have an orbital period of 420 years. As of 2012, the two components are approaching their maximum separation. 39 Draconis is a triple star 188 light-years from Earth, divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a blue star of magnitude 5.0, the secondary is a yellow star of magnitude 7.4, and the tertiary is  a star of magnitude 8.0; the tertiary appears to be a close companion to the primary. 40 Draconis and 41 Draconis are a binary star divisible in small telescopes. The two orange dwarf stars are 170 light-years from Earth and are of magnitude 5.7 and 6.1.

text: Draco is home to several double stars and binary stars.

text: η Draconis

text: is a

text: double star

text: with a yellow-hued primary of magnitude 2.8 and a white-hued secondary of magnitude 8.2 located south of the primary. The two are separated by 4.8

text: arcsecond

text: s.

text: Mu Draconis

text: , traditionally called Alrakis, is a

text: binary star

text: with two white components. Magnitude 5.6 and 5.7, the two components orbit each other every 670 years. The Alrakis system is 88 light-years from Earth.

text: Nu Draconis

text: is a similar binary star with two white components, 100 light-years from Earth. Both components are of magnitude 4.9 and can be distinguished in a small amateur telescope or a pair of binoculars.

text: Omicron Draconis

text: is a double star divisible in small telescopes. The primary is an orange giant of magnitude 4.6, 322 light-years from Earth. The secondary is of magnitude 7.8.

text: Psi Draconis

text: is a binary star divisible in binoculars and small amateur telescopes, 72 light-years from Earth. The primary is a yellow-white star of magnitude 4.6 and the secondary is a yellow star of magnitude 5.8.

text: 16 Draconis

text: and

text: 17 Draconis

text: are part of a triple star 400 light-years from Earth, divisible in medium-sized amateur telescopes. The primary, a blue-white star of magnitude 5.1, is itself a binary with components of magnitude 5.4 and 6.5. The secondary is of magnitude 5.5 and the system is 400 light-years away.

text: 20 Draconis

text: is a binary star with a white-hued primary of magnitude 7.1 and a yellow-hued secondary of magnitude 7.3 located east-northeast of the primary. The two are separated by 1.2 arcseconds at their maximum and have an orbital period of 420 years. As of 2012, the two components are approaching their maximum separation.

text: 39 Draconis

text: is a triple star 188 light-years from Earth, divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a blue star of magnitude 5.0, the secondary is a yellow star of magnitude 7.4, and the tertiary is  a star of magnitude 8.0; the tertiary appears to be a close companion to the primary.

text: 40 Draconis

text: and

text: 41 Draconis

text: are a binary star divisible in small telescopes. The two orange dwarf stars are 170 light-years from Earth and are of magnitude 5.7 and 6.1.

text: The study of stars and stellar evolution is fundamental to our understanding of the Universe. The astrophysics of stars has been determined through observation and theoretical understanding; and from computer simulations of the interior. Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant molecular clouds. When destabilized, cloud fragments can collapse under the influence of gravity, to form a protostar. A sufficiently dense, and hot, core region will trigger nuclear fusion, thus creating a main-sequence star.

text: The study of stars and

text: stellar evolution

text: is fundamental to our understanding of the Universe. The astrophysics of stars has been determined through observation and theoretical understanding; and from computer simulations of the interior.

text: Star formation

text: occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as

text: giant molecular clouds

text: . When destabilized, cloud fragments can collapse under the influence of gravity, to form a

text: protostar

text: . A sufficiently dense, and hot, core region will trigger

text: nuclear fusion

text: , thus creating a

text: main-sequence star

text: A mix of D-T at standard conditions does not undergo fusion; the nuclei must be forced together before the nuclear force can pull them together into stable collections. Even in the hot, dense center of the sun, the average proton will exist for billions of years before it fuses. For practical fusion power systems, the rate must be dramatically increased; heated to tens of millions of degrees, and/or compressed to immense pressures. The temperature and pressure required for any particular fuel to fuse is known as the Lawson criterion. These conditions have been known since the 1950s when the first H-bombs were built. To meet the Lawson Criterion is extremely difficult on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current high state of technical prowess.

text: A mix of D-T at

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: standard conditions

text: does not undergo fusion; the nuclei must be forced together before the nuclear force can pull them together into stable collections. Even in the hot, dense center of the sun, the average proton will exist for billions of years before it fuses. For practical fusion power systems, the rate must be dramatically increased; heated to tens of millions of degrees, and/or compressed to immense pressures. The temperature and pressure required for any particular fuel to fuse is known as the

text: Lawson criterion

text: . These conditions have been known since the 1950s when the first

text: H-bomb

text: s were built. To meet the Lawson Criterion is extremely difficult on Earth, which explains why fusion research has taken many years to reach the current high state of technical prowess.

text: Be stars are often visually and spectroscopically variable.  Be stars can be classified as Gamma Cassiopeiae variables when a transient or variable disk is observed.  Be stars that show variability without clear indication of the mechanism are listed simply as BE in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars.  Some of these are thought to be pulsating stars and are sometimes called Lambda Eridani variables.

text: Be stars are often visually and spectroscopically variable.  Be stars can be classified as

text: Gamma Cassiopeiae variable

text: s when a transient or variable disk is observed.  Be stars that show variability without clear indication of the mechanism are listed simply as BE in the

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: .  Some of these are thought to be pulsating stars and are sometimes called

text: Lambda Eridani variable

text: s.

text: During this phase of the contraction, the potential energy of gravitational contraction heats the interior to 5 GK (430 keV) and this opposes and delays the contraction. However, since no additional heat energy can be generated via new fusion reactions, the final unopposed contraction rapidly accelerates into a collapse lasting only a few seconds. The central portion of the star is now crushed into either a neutron star or, if the star is massive enough, a black hole. The outer layers of the star are blown off in an explosion known as a Type II supernova that lasts days to months. The supernova explosion releases a large burst of neutrons, which may synthesize in about one second roughly half of the supply of elements in the universe that are heavier than iron, via a rapid neutron-capture sequence known as the r-process (where the “r” stands for rapid neutron capture).

text: During this phase of the contraction, the potential energy of gravitational contraction heats the interior to 5 GK (430 keV) and this opposes and delays the contraction. However, since no additional heat energy can be generated via new fusion reactions, the final unopposed contraction rapidly accelerates into a collapse lasting only a few seconds. The central portion of the star is now crushed into either a

text: neutron star

text: or, if the star is massive enough, a

text: black hole

text: . The outer layers of the star are blown off in an explosion known as a

text: Type II

text: supernova

text: that lasts days to months. The supernova explosion releases a large burst of neutrons, which may synthesize in about one second roughly half of the supply of elements in the universe that are heavier than iron, via a rapid neutron-capture sequence known as the

text: r-process

text: (where the “r” stands for rapid neutron capture).

text: This white dwarf has relatively low temperature 5590 K (slightly cooler than the Sun), and old cooling age, i. e. age as degenerate star (not counting duration of previous existence as main sequence star and as giant star) 5.69 Gyr. Despite it is classified as "white dwarf", it should appear yellow, not white, due to low temperature.

text: This white dwarf has relatively low temperature 5590

text: K

text: (slightly cooler than the

text: Sun

text: ), and old cooling age, i. e. age as degenerate star (not counting duration of previous existence as main sequence star and as giant star) 5.69

text: Gyr

text: . Despite it is classified as "white dwarf", it should appear yellow, not white, due to low temperature.

text: A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined beams.Large accelerators are used in particle physics as colliders (e.g. the LHC at CERN, KEKB at KEK in Japan, RHIC at Brookhaven National Laboratory, and Tevatron at Fermilab), or as synchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, ion implanters for manufacture of semiconductors, and accelerator mass spectrometers for measurements of rare isotopes such as radiocarbon.  There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world.

text: A particle accelerator is a machine that uses

text: electromagnetic field

text: s to propel

text: charged

text: particle

text: s to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined

text: beams

text: .Large accelerators are used in

text: particle physics

text: as

text: collider

text: s (e.g. the

text: LHC

text: at

text: CERN

text: KEKB

text: at

text: KEK

text: in Japan,

text: RHIC

text: at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: , and

text: Tevatron

text: at

text: Fermilab

text: ), or as

text: synchrotron light source

text: s for the study of

text: condensed matter physics

text: . Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including

text: particle therapy

text: for

text: oncological

text: purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics,

text: ion implanters

text: for manufacture of semiconductors, and

text: accelerator mass spectrometers

text: for measurements of rare isotopes such as

text: radiocarbon

text: .  There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world.

text: In recent years, he has appeared in various movies on the Lifetime channel, including A Lover's Revenge (starring his former Perry Mason co-star Alexandra Paul), and The Perfect Marriage (co-starring Jamie Luner and James Wilder).

text: In recent years, he has appeared in various movies on the

text: Lifetime

text: channel, including A Lover's Revenge (starring his former Perry Mason co-star

text: Alexandra Paul

text: ), and The Perfect Marriage (co-starring

text: Jamie Luner

text: and James Wilder).

text: This star is roughly halfway through the initial phase of its stellar evolution and will, within the next few million years, expand into a red supergiant star wider than the orbit of Jupiter before ending its life in a supernova explosion leaving behind a neutron star or pulsar. From the Earth, a significant fraction of the light from this star is absorbed by interstellar dust, particularly at the blue end of the spectrum. In fact, were it not for this dust, ζ Ophiuchi would shine several times brighter and be among the very brightest stars visible.

text: This star is roughly halfway through the initial phase of its

text: stellar evolution

text: and will, within the next few million years, expand into a red

text: supergiant

text: star wider than the orbit of

text: Jupiter

text: before ending its life in a

text: supernova

text: explosion leaving behind a

text: neutron star

text: or

text: pulsar

text: . From the Earth, a significant fraction of the light from this star is absorbed by interstellar dust, particularly at the blue end of the spectrum. In fact, were it not for this dust, ζ Ophiuchi would shine several times brighter and be among the very brightest stars visible.

text: where  is the vector sum of the physical forces applied to the particle and  is the absolute acceleration (that is, acceleration in an inertial frame) of the particle, given by:

text: where  is the vector sum of the physical forces applied to the particle and  is the absolute

text: acceleration

text: (that is, acceleration in an

text: inertial frame

text: ) of the particle, given by:

text: Perfect High is a 2015 drama film produced by Lifetime and starring Bella Thorne, Daniella Bobadilla, Israel Broussard, and Ross Butler. The film premiered June 27, 2015 on Lifetime.

text: Perfect High is a 2015 drama film produced by

text: Lifetime

text: and starring

text: Bella Thorne

text: Daniella Bobadilla

text: Israel Broussard

text: , and Ross Butler. The film premiered June 27, 2015 on

text: Lifetime

text: After leaving NASA, Huntress continued to provide testimony to Congress regarding space funding and budgetary issues, including a series of congressional hearings in October 2003 on the future of NASA. In 2001 he testified before the House Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, setting forward four "grand challenges" for American space exploration. According to the Washington Times, those challenges were: "(1) To seek evidence of life elsewhere in the solar system where liquid water existed in the past or exists now. (2) To study planets around other stars (the sun being the star of our planetary system). (3) To send a spacecraft to a nearby star, something we don't know how to do today - "but in 1900 we didn't know how to fly either." (4) To develop a plan of human exploration beyond Earth orbit."

text: After leaving NASA, Huntress continued to provide testimony to Congress regarding space funding and budgetary issues, including a series of congressional hearings in October 2003 on the future of NASA. In 2001 he testified before the House Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, setting forward four "grand challenges" for American space exploration. According to the

text: Washington Times

text: , those challenges were: "(1) To seek evidence of life elsewhere in the solar system where liquid water existed in the past or exists now. (2) To study planets around other stars (the sun being the star of our planetary system). (3) To send a spacecraft to a nearby star, something we don't know how to do today - "but in 1900 we didn't know how to fly either." (4) To develop a plan of human exploration beyond Earth orbit."

text: Within any giant luminosity class, the cooler stars (spectral class K, M, S, and C) are called red giants. Red giants include stars in a number of distinct evolutionary phases of their lives: a main red-giant branch (RGB); a red horizontal branch or red clump; the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), although AGB stars are often large enough and luminous enough to get classified as supergiants; and sometimes other large cool stars such as immediate post-AGB stars.  The RGB stars are by far the most common type of giant star due to their moderate mass, relatively long stable lives, and luminosity. They are the most obvious grouping of stars after the main sequence on most HR diagrams, although white dwarfs are more numerous but far less luminous.

text: Within any giant luminosity class, the cooler stars (spectral class K, M, S, and C) are called red giants. Red giants include stars in a number of distinct evolutionary phases of their lives: a main

text: red-giant branch

text: (RGB); a red

text: horizontal branch

text: or

text: red clump

text: ; the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (AGB), although AGB stars are often large enough and luminous enough to get classified as supergiants; and sometimes other large cool stars such as immediate post-AGB stars.  The RGB stars are by far the most common type of giant star due to their moderate mass, relatively long stable lives, and luminosity. They are the most obvious grouping of stars after the main sequence on most HR diagrams, although white dwarfs are more numerous but far less luminous.

text: 42 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 6.53.

text: 42 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 6.53.

text: All current thermonuclear weapons use a fission bomb as a first stage to create the high temperatures and pressures necessary to start a fusion reaction between deuterium and tritium in a second stage.  For many years, nuclear weapon designers have researched whether it is possible to create high enough temperatures and pressures inside a confined space to ignite a fusion reaction, without using fission. Pure fusion weapons offer the possibility of generating very small nuclear yields and the advantage of reduced collateral damage stemming from fallout because these weapons would not create the highly radioactive byproducts associated with fission-type weapons. These weapons would be lethal not only because of their explosive force, which could be large compared to bombs based on chemical explosives, but also because of the neutrons they generate.

text: All current

text: thermonuclear weapon

text: s use a

text: fission bomb

text: as a first stage to create the high temperatures and pressures necessary to start a

text: fusion reaction

text: between deuterium and tritium in a second stage.  For many years,

text: nuclear weapon

text: designers have researched whether it is possible to create high enough temperatures and pressures inside a confined space to ignite a fusion reaction, without using fission. Pure fusion weapons offer the possibility of generating very small nuclear yields and the advantage of reduced collateral damage stemming from

text: fallout

text: because these weapons would not create the highly

text: radioactive

text: byproducts associated with fission-type weapons. These weapons would be lethal not only because of their explosive force, which could be large compared to bombs based on chemical explosives, but also because of the

text: neutrons

text: they generate.

text: Prior to 2008, it was airing a Hot AC format known as "Star 100.5"

text: Prior to 2008, it was airing a

text: Hot AC

text: format known as "Star 100.5"

text: WNh stars, spectroscopically similar but actually a much less evolved star which has only just started to expel its atmosphere, are an exception and still retain much of their initial mass.  The most massive stars currently known are all WNh stars rather than O-type main-sequence stars, an expected situation because such stars show helium and nitrogen at the surface only a few thousand years after they form, possibly before they become visible through the surrounding gas cloud.  An alternative explanation is that these stars are so massive that they could not form as normal main-sequence stars, instead being the result of mergers of less extreme stars.

text: WNh stars, spectroscopically similar but actually a much less evolved star which has only just started to expel its atmosphere, are an exception and still retain much of their initial mass.  The

text: most massive stars

text: currently known are all WNh stars rather than O-type main-sequence stars, an expected situation because such stars show helium and nitrogen at the surface only a few thousand years after they form, possibly before they become visible through the surrounding gas cloud.  An alternative explanation is that these stars are so massive that they could not form as normal main-sequence stars, instead being the result of mergers of less extreme stars.

text: In his Uranometria, Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through to Omega and then A to k to label what he saw as the most prominent 35 stars in the constellation, with subsequent astronomers splitting Kappa, Mu, Nu and Pi as two stars each. Nu is also the same star as Psi Herculis. John Flamsteed numbered 54 stars for the constellation.

text: In his

text: Uranometria

text: Johann Bayer

text: used the

text: Greek letters

text: Alpha through to Omega and then A to k to label what he saw as the most prominent 35 stars in the constellation, with subsequent astronomers splitting Kappa, Mu, Nu and Pi as two stars each. Nu is also the same star as Psi Herculis.

text: John Flamsteed

text: numbered 54 stars for the constellation.

text: Glendening was scheduled to appear in the Lifetime US TV remake of the British series, Mistresses. The series was to star actress Holly Marie Combs, Cory Monteith, Brooke Burns, and Rochelle Aytes. Lifetime passed on the pilot, in favor of Drop Dead Diva. ABC later announced that they planned to shoot their own pilot, starring Combs' Charmed co-star, Alyssa Milano which went on to premiere in 2013.

text: Glendening was scheduled to appear in the

text: Lifetime

text: US TV remake of the British series,

text: Mistresses

text: . The series was to star actress

text: Holly Marie Combs

text: Cory Monteith

text: Brooke Burns

text: , and

text: Rochelle Aytes

text: . Lifetime passed on the pilot, in favor of

text: Drop Dead Diva

text: ABC

text: later announced that they planned to shoot their own pilot, starring Combs'

text: Charmed

text: co-star,

text: Alyssa Milano

text: which went on to premiere in 2013.

text: Kepler-20 is a Sun-like star in the constellation Lyra with a mass of 0.91 (± 0.03)  and a radius of 0.94 (± 0.06) , and is thought to be 8.8 billion years old, though there is a large uncertainty in its age. In other words, Kepler-20 is approximately 9% less massive and 6% shorter than the Sun. The star's metallicity is 0.01 (± 0.04), meaning that the level of iron (and, presumably, other elements) in the star is almost the same as that of the Sun. Metallicity plays an important role in planetary systems, and stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets detected around them. This may be because the higher metallicity provides more material with which to quickly build planets into gas giants or because the higher metallicity increases planet migration towards the host star, making the planet easier to detect. The star has four other known planets in orbit: Kepler-20b, Kepler-20c, Kepler-20d, and Kepler-20e. All of the planets in the system would fit inside the orbit of Mercury.

text: Kepler-20 is a Sun-like star in the constellation

text: Lyra

text: with a mass of 0.91 (± 0.03)  and a radius of 0.94 (± 0.06) , and is thought to be 8.8 billion years old, though there is a large uncertainty in its age. In other words, Kepler-20 is approximately 9% less massive and 6% shorter than the Sun. The star's

text: metallicity

text: is 0.01 (± 0.04), meaning that the level of iron (and, presumably, other elements) in the star is almost the same as that of the Sun. Metallicity plays an important role in planetary systems, and stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets detected around them. This may be because the higher metallicity provides more material with which to quickly build planets into gas giants or because the higher metallicity increases

text: planet migration

text: towards the host star, making the planet easier to detect. The star has four other known planets in orbit:

text: , and

text: . All of the planets in the system would fit inside the orbit of

text: Mercury

text: In 2000, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to her. In 2013, she was honoured for her lifetime achievement at the 26th European Film Awards.

text: In 2000, a Golden Palm Star on the

text: Palm Springs, California

text: Walk of Stars

text: was dedicated to her. In 2013, she was honoured for her lifetime achievement at the

text: 26th European Film Awards

text: A star system or stellar system is a small number of stars that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction. A large number of stars bound by gravitation is generally called a star cluster or galaxy, although, broadly speaking, they are also star systems. Star systems are not to be confused with planetary systems, which include planets and similar bodies.

text: A star system or stellar system is a small number of

text: star

text: s that orbit each other, bound by

text: gravitational attraction

text: . A large number of stars bound by gravitation is generally called a

text: star cluster

text: or

text: galaxy

text: , although, broadly speaking, they are also star systems. Star systems are not to be confused with

text: planetary system

text: s, which include planets and similar bodies.

text: The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.

text: The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the

text: coulomb barrier

text: —and fuse together into a single nucleus.

text: Nuclear fission

text: is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.

text: These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "Northern Star".

text: Progress has been made in creating artificial pyroelectric materials, usually in the form of a thin film, out of gallium nitride (GaN), caesium nitrate (CsNO), polyvinyl fluorides, derivatives of phenylpyridine, and cobalt phthalocyanine. (See pyroelectric crystals.) Lithium tantalate (LiTaO) is a crystal exhibiting both piezoelectric and pyroelectric properties, which has been used to create small-scale nuclear fusion ("pyroelectric fusion").

text: Progress has been made in creating artificial pyroelectric materials, usually in the form of a thin film, out of

text: gallium nitride

text: Ga

text: N

text: caesium nitrate

text: Cs

text: N

text: O

text: polyvinyl fluoride

text: s, derivatives of

text: phenylpyridine

text: , and

text: cobalt

text: phthalocyanine

text: . (See

text: pyroelectric crystal

text: s.)

text: Lithium tantalate

text: Li

text: Ta

text: O

text: ) is a crystal exhibiting both

text: piezoelectric

text: and pyroelectric properties, which has been used to create small-scale

text: nuclear fusion

text: pyroelectric fusion

text: The Book of Abraham is unclear about Kolob being a star or a planet, and Mormon writings have taken positions on either side of this issue. One part of the Book of Abraham states that Abraham "saw the stars ... and that one of them was nearest unto the throne of God; ... and the name of the great one is Kolob." Thus, Kolob is referred to as a "star". However, the book defines the word "Kokaubeam" (a transliteration of the Hebrew "כּוֹכָבִים" [c.f., Gen. 15:5]) as meaning "all the great lights, which were in the firmament of heaven". This would appear to include planets as among the "stars", and the Book of Abraham refers to Earth as a star. In addition, the Book of Abraham text appears to classify Kolob as among a hierarchy of "planets". On the other hand, in the Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar paper, Kolob is classified as one of twelve "fixed stars", in distinction with fifteen "moving planets". The term "fixed star" generally refers to an astronomical object that does not seem to move across the sky, but may have a slow proper motion, as discovered in 1718 by Edmund Halley. Though "fixed", according to Smith, Kolob moves "swifter than the rest of the twelve fixed stars". Moreover, in the Book of Abraham, Smith refers to "fixed planets or stars", implying that some planets may be "fixed". He also refers to the Sun as a "governing planet", which further complicates the terminology. Therefore, there is no consensus on whether Smith understood Kolob to be a planet or a star as those terms are used in modern astronomy.

text: The Book of Abraham is unclear about Kolob being a star or a planet, and Mormon writings have taken positions on either side of this issue. One part of the Book of Abraham states that Abraham "saw the stars ... and that one of them was nearest unto the throne of God; ... and the name of the great one is Kolob." Thus, Kolob is referred to as a "star". However, the book defines the word "Kokaubeam" (a transliteration of the Hebrew "כּוֹכָבִים" [c.f., Gen. 15:5]) as meaning "all the great lights, which were in the firmament of heaven". This would appear to include planets as among the "stars", and the Book of Abraham refers to Earth as a star. In addition, the Book of Abraham text appears to classify Kolob as among a hierarchy of "planets". On the other hand, in the

text: Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar

text: paper, Kolob is classified as one of twelve "fixed stars", in distinction with fifteen "moving planets". The term "

text: fixed star

text: " generally refers to an astronomical object that does not seem to move across the sky, but may have a slow

text: proper motion

text: , as discovered in 1718 by

text: Edmund Halley

text: . Though "fixed", according to Smith, Kolob moves "swifter than the rest of the twelve fixed stars". Moreover, in the Book of Abraham, Smith refers to "fixed planets or stars", implying that some planets may be "fixed". He also refers to the

text: Sun

text: as a "governing planet", which further complicates the terminology. Therefore, there is no consensus on whether Smith understood Kolob to be a planet or a star as those terms are used in modern astronomy.

text: In 1595 Plancius asked Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser, the chief pilot on the Hollandia, to make observations to fill in the blank area around the south celestial pole on European maps of the southern sky. Keyser died in Java the following year – the expedition had many casualties – but his catalogue of 135 stars, probably measured up with the help of explorer-colleague Frederick de Houtman, was delivered to Plancius.  These stars appear as 12 new southern constellations, on a 35-cm celestial globe designed by Plancius in late 1597 (or early 1598) and produced in collaboration with the Amsterdam cartographer Jodocus Hondius the Elder. The 12 new constellations (mostly referring to animals and subjects described in natural history books and travellers' journals of his day) are Apis the Bee (later changed to Musca by Lacaille), Apus the Bird of Paradise, Chamaeleon, Dorado the Goldfish (or Swordfish), Grus the Crane, Hydrus the Small Water Snake, Indus the Indian, Pavo the Peacock, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe the Southern Triangle, Tucana the Toucan, and Volans the Flying Fish. (The Southern Triangle and Southern Cross were reported as asterisms by earlier navigators and appear on earlier charts, but the globe of 1598 is the first surviving source that plots their locations reasonably accurately.)  Also notable is the inclusion of Achernar as Alpha Eridani.

text: In 1595 Plancius asked

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: , the chief pilot on the Hollandia, to make observations to fill in the blank area around the south celestial pole on European maps of the southern sky. Keyser died in

text: Java

text: the following year – the expedition had many casualties – but his catalogue of 135

text: star

text: s, probably measured up with the help of explorer-colleague

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: , was delivered to Plancius.  These stars appear as 12 new southern

text: constellation

text: s, on a 35-cm celestial globe designed by Plancius in late 1597 (or early 1598) and produced in collaboration with the Amsterdam cartographer

text: Jodocus Hondius the Elder

text: . The 12 new constellations (mostly referring to animals and subjects described in natural history books and travellers' journals of his day) are

text: Apis

text: the Bee (later changed to

text: Musca

text: by

text: Lacaille

text: Apus

text: the Bird of Paradise,

text: Chamaeleon

text: Dorado

text: the Goldfish (or Swordfish),

text: Grus

text: the Crane,

text: Hydrus

text: the Small Water Snake,

text: Indus

text: the Indian,

text: Pavo

text: the Peacock,

text: Phoenix

text: Triangulum Australe

text: the Southern Triangle,

text: Tucana

text: the Toucan, and

text: Volans

text: the Flying Fish. (The Southern Triangle and Southern Cross were reported as asterisms by earlier navigators and appear on earlier charts, but the globe of 1598 is the first surviving source that plots their locations reasonably accurately.)  Also notable is the inclusion of Achernar as Alpha Eridani.

text: Stars more massive than about  cannot expand into a red supergiant.  They burn too quickly and lose their outer layers too quickly, so they reach the blue supergiant stage, or perhaps yellow hypergiant, and then return to become hotter stars.  The most massive stars, above about , hardly move at all from their position as O main-sequence stars.  These stars convect so efficiently that they mix hydrogen from the surface right down to the core.  They continue to fuse hydrogen until it is almost entirely depleted throughout the star, then very rapidly evolve through a series of stages of very similar hot and luminous stars, if supergiants, slash stars, WNh-, WN-, and possibly WC- or WO-type stars. They are expected to explode as supernovae, but it is not clear how far they evolve before this happens.  The existence of these supergiants still burning hydrogen in their cores may necessitate a slightly more complex definition of supergiant: a massive star with increased size and luminosity due to fusion products building up, but still with some hydrogen remaining.

text: The components of binary stars are denoted by the suffixes A and B appended to the system's designation, A denoting the primary and B the secondary. The suffix AB may be used to denote the pair (for example, the binary star α Centauri AB consists of the stars α Centauri A and α Centauri B.) Additional letters, such as C, D, etc., may be used for systems with more than two stars. In cases where the binary star has a Bayer designation and is widely separated, it is possible that the members of the pair will be designated with superscripts; an example is Zeta Reticuli, whose components are ζ Reticuli and ζ Reticuli.

text: The components of binary stars are denoted by the suffixes A and B appended to the system's designation, A denoting the primary and B the secondary. The suffix AB may be used to denote the pair (for example, the binary star α Centauri AB consists of the stars α Centauri A and α Centauri B.) Additional letters, such as C, D, etc., may be used for systems with more than two stars. In cases where the binary star has a

text: Bayer designation

text: and is widely separated, it is possible that the members of the pair will be designated with superscripts; an example is

text: Zeta Reticuli

text: , whose components are ζ Reticuli and ζ Reticuli.

text: A comprehensive survey of stars, the Henry Draper Catalog, is published. In the catalog, Annie Jump Cannon proposes a sequence of classifying stars by the absorption lines in their spectra, which is still in use today.

text: A comprehensive survey of stars, the

text: Henry Draper Catalog

text: , is published. In the catalog,

text: Annie Jump Cannon

text: proposes a sequence of classifying stars by the absorption lines in their spectra, which is still in use today.

text: There are several dimmer stars within the borders of Crux. Epsilon Crucis is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 3.6, 228 light-years from Earth. Iota Crucis is a binary star 125 light-years from Earth. The primary is an orange-hued giant of magnitude 4.6 and the secondary is of magnitude 9.5. Mu Crucis is a double star where the unrelated components are about 370 light-years from Earth. The primary is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 4.0 and the secondary is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 5.1. Mu Crucis is divisible in small amateur telescopes or large binoculars.

text: There are several dimmer stars within the borders of Crux.

text: Epsilon Crucis

text: is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 3.6, 228 light-years from Earth.

text: Iota Crucis

text: is a

text: binary star

text: 125 light-years from Earth. The primary is an orange-hued giant of magnitude 4.6 and the secondary is of magnitude 9.5.

text: Mu Crucis

text: is a double star where the unrelated components are about 370 light-years from Earth. The primary is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 4.0 and the secondary is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 5.1. Mu Crucis is divisible in small amateur telescopes or large binoculars.

text: The stellar classification of this star has undergone some revision over time, with the star being classified anywhere from an F-type main sequence star to a giant star. In 2006, the NStars program assigned it a class of F5 IV, where the luminosity class of 'IV' indicates this is a subgiant star that is exhausting the supply of hydrogen at its core and is in the process of evolving into a giant star. It has around 175% of the Sun's mass with an estimated age of 1.1 billion years. The star is radiating about 18 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 6,519 K. It is this heat that gives it a yellow-white hue that is typical for an F-type star.

text: The

text: stellar classification

text: of this star has undergone some revision over time, with the star being classified anywhere from an

text: F-type main sequence star

text: to a

text: giant star

text: . In 2006, the

text: NStars

text: program assigned it a class of F5 IV, where the

text: luminosity class

text: of 'IV' indicates this is a

text: subgiant star

text: that is exhausting the supply of hydrogen at its core and is in the process of

text: evolving

text: into a

text: giant star

text: . It has around 175% of the Sun's mass with an estimated age of 1.1 billion years. The star is radiating about 18 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 6,519 K. It is this heat that gives it a yellow-white hue that is typical for an F-type star.

text: Algol (from the Arabic رأس الغول Ra's al-Ghul, which means The Demon's Head), also known by its Bayer designation Beta Persei, is the best-known star in Perseus. Representing the eye of the Gorgon Medusa in Greek mythology, it was called Horus in Egyptian mythology and Rosh ha Satan ("Satan's Head") in Hebrew. Located 92.8 light-years from Earth, it varies in apparent magnitude from a minimum of 3.5 to a maximum of 2.3 over a period of 2.867 days.The star system is the prototype of a group of eclipsing binary stars named Algol variables, though it has a third member to make up what is actually a triple star system. The brightest component is a blue-white main-sequence star of spectral type B8V, which is 3.5 times as massive and 180 times as luminous as the Sun. The secondary component is an orange subgiant star of type K0IV that has begun cooling and expanding to 3.5 times the radius of the Sun, and has 4.5 times the luminosity and 80% of its mass. These two are separated by only 0.05 astronomical units (AU)—five percent of the distance between the Earth and Sun; the main dip in brightness arises when the larger fainter companion passes in front of the hotter brighter primary. The tertiary component is a main sequence star of type A7, which is located on average 2.69 AU from the other two stars. AG Persei is another Algol variable in Perseus, whose primary component is a B-type main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 6.69. Phi Persei is a double star, although the two components do not eclipse each other. The primary star is a Be star of spectral type B0.5, possibly a giant star, and the secondary companion is likely a stellar remnant. The secondary has a similar spectral type to O-type subdwarfs.

text: Algol

text: (from the Arabic رأس الغول Ra's al-Ghul, which means The Demon's Head), also known by its

text: Bayer designation

text: Beta Persei, is the best-known star in Perseus. Representing the eye of the Gorgon Medusa in Greek mythology, it was called

text: Horus

text: in Egyptian mythology and Rosh ha Satan ("

text: Satan

text: 's Head") in Hebrew. Located 92.8

text: light-year

text: s from Earth, it varies in

text: apparent magnitude

text: from a minimum of 3.5 to a maximum of 2.3 over a period of 2.867 days.The star system is the prototype of a group of

text: eclipsing binary stars

text: named

text: Algol variable

text: s, though it has a third member to make up what is actually a

text: triple star

text: system. The brightest component is a

text: blue-white main-sequence star

text: of

text: spectral type

text: B8V, which is 3.5 times as massive and 180 times as luminous as the Sun. The secondary component is an orange subgiant star of type K0IV that has begun cooling and expanding to 3.5 times the radius of the Sun, and has 4.5 times the luminosity and 80% of its mass. These two are separated by only 0.05

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU)—five percent of the distance between the Earth and Sun; the main dip in brightness arises when the larger fainter companion passes in front of the hotter brighter primary. The tertiary component is a main sequence star of type A7, which is located on average 2.69 AU from the other two stars.

text: AG Persei

text: is another Algol variable in Perseus, whose primary component is a B-type main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 6.69.

text: Phi Persei

text: is a double star, although the two components do not eclipse each other. The primary star is a

text: Be star

text: of spectral type B0.5, possibly a giant star, and the secondary companion is likely a stellar remnant. The secondary has a similar spectral type to O-type

text: subdwarf

text: s.

text: The revised Yerkes Atlas system (Johnson & Morgan 1953) listed a dense grid of F-type dwarf spectral standard stars; however, not all of these have survived to this day as standards.The anchor points of the MK spectral classification system among the F-type main-sequence dwarf stars, i.e. those standard stars that have remained unchanged over years and can be used to define the system, are considered to be 78 Ursae Majoris (F2 V) and pi3 Orionis (F6 V). In addition to those two standards, Morgan & Keenan (1973) considered the following stars to be dagger standards: HR 1279 (F3 V), HD 27524 (F5 V), HD 27808 (F8 V), HD 27383 (F9 V), and Beta Virginis (F9 V). Other primary MK standard stars include HD 23585 (F0 V), HD 26015 (F3 V), and HD 27534 (F5 V). Note that two Hyades members with almost identical HD names (HD 27524 and HD 27534) are both considered strong F5 V standard stars, and indeed they share nearly identical colors and magnitudes.Gray & Garrison (1989) provide a modern table of dwarf standards for the hotter F-type stars. F1 and F7 dwarf standards stars are rarely listed, but have changed slightly over the years among expert classifiers. Often-used standard stars include 37 Ursae Majoris (F1 V) and Iota Piscium (F7 V). No F4 V standard stars have been published. Unfortunately F9 V defines the boundary between the hot stars classified by Morgan, and the cooler stars classified by Keenan, and there are discrepancies in the literature on which stars define the F/G dwarf boundary. Morgan & Keenan (1973) listed Beta Virginis and HD 27383 as F9 V standards, but Keenan & McNeil (1989) listed HD 10647 as their F9 V standard. Eta Cassiopeiae A should probably be avoided as a standard star because it was often considered F9 V in Keenan's publications, but G0 V in Morgan's publications.

text: The revised Yerkes Atlas system (Johnson & Morgan 1953) listed a dense grid of F-type dwarf spectral standard stars; however, not all of these have survived to this day as standards.The anchor points of the

text: MK spectral classification

text: system among the F-type main-sequence dwarf stars, i.e. those standard stars that have remained unchanged over years and can be used to define the system, are considered to be

text: 78 Ursae Majoris

text: (F2 V) and

text: pi3 Orionis

text: (F6 V). In addition to those two standards, Morgan & Keenan (1973) considered the following stars to be dagger standards:

text: HR 1279

text: (F3 V),

text: HD 27524

text: (F5 V),

text: HD 27808

text: (F8 V),

text: HD 27383

text: (F9 V), and

text: Beta Virginis

text: (F9 V). Other primary MK standard stars include

text: HD 23585

text: (F0 V),

text: HD 26015

text: (F3 V), and

text: HD 27534

text: (F5 V). Note that two Hyades members with almost identical HD names (HD 27524 and HD 27534) are both considered strong F5 V standard stars, and indeed they share nearly identical colors and magnitudes.Gray & Garrison (1989) provide a modern table of dwarf standards for the hotter F-type stars. F1 and F7 dwarf standards stars are rarely listed, but have changed slightly over the years among expert classifiers. Often-used standard stars include

text: 37 Ursae Majoris

text: (F1 V) and

text: Iota Piscium

text: (F7 V). No F4 V standard stars have been published. Unfortunately F9 V defines the boundary between the hot stars classified by Morgan, and the cooler stars classified by Keenan, and there are discrepancies in the literature on which stars define the F/G dwarf boundary. Morgan & Keenan (1973) listed

text: Beta Virginis

text: and

text: HD 27383

text: as F9 V standards, but Keenan & McNeil (1989) listed

text: HD 10647

text: as their F9 V standard.

text: Eta Cassiopeiae

text: A should probably be avoided as a standard star because it was often considered F9 V in Keenan's publications, but G0 V in Morgan's publications.

text: Star formation does not seem to be occurring currently at the Galactic Center, although the Circumnuclear Disk of molecular gas that orbits the Galactic Center at two parsecs seems a fairly favorable site for star formation. Work presented in 2002 by Antony Stark and Chris Martin mapping the gas density in a 400-light-year region around the Galactic Center has revealed an accumulating ring with a mass several million times that of the Sun and near the critical density for star formation. They predict that in approximately 200 million years there will be an episode of starburst in the Galactic Center, with many stars forming rapidly and undergoing supernovae at a hundred times the current rate. This starburst may also be accompanied by the formation of galactic jets as matter falls into the central black hole. It is thought that the Milky Way undergoes a starburst of this sort every 500 million years.

text: Star formation does not seem to be occurring currently at the Galactic Center, although the

text: Circumnuclear Disk

text: of molecular gas that orbits the Galactic Center at two parsecs seems a fairly favorable site for star formation. Work presented in 2002 by Antony Stark and Chris Martin mapping the gas density in a 400-

text: light-year

text: region around the Galactic Center has revealed an accumulating ring with a mass several million times that of the

text: Sun

text: and near the critical density for

text: star formation

text: . They predict that in approximately 200 million years there will be an episode of

text: starburst

text: in the Galactic Center, with many stars forming rapidly and undergoing supernovae at a hundred times the current rate. This starburst may also be accompanied by the formation of

text: galactic jets

text: as matter falls into the central

text: black hole

text: . It is thought that the Milky Way undergoes a starburst of this sort every 500 million years.

text: The bar of the "A" consists of a line of four stars.  On the right (south) is BU Cru, a magnitude 6.92 B2 supergiant and eclipsing binary.  Next to it is BV Cru, a magnitude 8.662 B0.5 giant and Beta Cephei variable.  Next in line is DU Cru, an M2 red supergiant that varies irregularly between magnitude 7.1 and 7.6.  The last of the four is CC Cru, a magnitude 7.83 B2 giant and ellipsoidal variable.

text: The bar of the "A" consists of a line of four stars.  On the right (south) is

text: BU Cru

text: , a magnitude 6.92 B2 supergiant and

text: eclipsing binary

text: .  Next to it is BV Cru, a magnitude 8.662 B0.5

text: giant

text: and

text: Beta Cephei variable

text: .  Next in line is

text: DU Cru

text: , an M2

text: red supergiant

text: that varies irregularly between magnitude 7.1 and 7.6.  The last of the four is CC Cru, a magnitude 7.83 B2 giant and

text: ellipsoidal variable

text: In 1997, QFM rebranded as Star 106.9, dropping a CHR format for a classic hits format.

text: In 1997, QFM rebranded as Star 106.9, dropping a CHR format for a

text: classic hits

text: format.

text: In physical cosmology, a protogalaxy, which could also be called a "primeval galaxy", is a cloud of gas which is forming into a galaxy. It is believed that the rate of star formation during this period of galactic evolution will determine whether a galaxy is a spiral or elliptical galaxy; a slower star formation tends to produce a spiral galaxy. The smaller clumps of gas in a protogalaxy form into stars.

text: In

text: physical cosmology

text: , a protogalaxy, which could also be called a "primeval galaxy", is a cloud of

text: gas

text: which is forming into a

text: galaxy

text: . It is believed that the rate of

text: star formation

text: during this period of

text: galactic evolution

text: will determine whether a galaxy is a

text: spiral

text: or

text: elliptical galaxy

text: ; a slower star formation tends to produce a spiral galaxy. The smaller clumps of gas in a protogalaxy form into

text: star

text: s.

text: In 2014, The Ocean of Soul performed at the premiere of The Wedding Ringer in Houston. Co-star Kevin Hart accepted his invitation to become an honorary lifetime "Ocean" member at the event. Hart donated $50,000 to the band.

text: In 2014, The Ocean of Soul performed at the premiere of

text: The Wedding Ringer

text: in Houston. Co-star

text: Kevin Hart

text: accepted his invitation to become an honorary lifetime "Ocean" member at the event. Hart donated $50,000 to the band.

text: A helium flash is a very brief thermal runaway nuclear fusion of large quantities of helium into carbon through the triple-alpha process in the core of low mass stars (between 0.8 solar masses () and 2.0 ) during their red giant phase (the Sun is predicted to experience a flash 1.2 billion years after it leaves the main sequence). A much rarer runaway helium fusion process can also occur on the surface of accreting white dwarf stars.

text: A helium flash is a very brief

text: thermal runaway

text: nuclear fusion

text: of large quantities of

text: helium

text: into

text: carbon

text: through the

text: triple-alpha process

text: in the core of low mass

text: star

text: s (between 0.8

text: solar mass

text: es () and 2.0 ) during their

text: red giant

text: phase (the

text: Sun

text: is predicted to experience a flash 1.2 billion years after it leaves the

text: main sequence

text: ). A much rarer runaway helium fusion process can also occur on the surface of

text: accreting

text: white dwarf

text: stars.

text: Beta Ceti (β Ceti, abbreviated Beta Cet, β Cet), also named Diphda, is the brightest star in the constellation of Cetus. Although designated 'beta', it is actually brighter than the 'alpha' star in the constellation (Alpha Ceti). This orange giant is easy to identify due to its location in an otherwise dark section of the celestial sphere. Based on parallax measurements, it lies at an estimated distance of  from the Sun.

text: Beta Ceti (β Ceti, abbreviated Beta Cet, β Cet), also named Diphda, is the brightest

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Cetus

text: . Although designated '

text: beta

text: ', it is actually brighter than the '

text: alpha

text: ' star in the constellation (

text: Alpha Ceti

text: ). This orange giant is easy to identify due to its location in an otherwise dark section of the

text: celestial sphere

text: . Based on

text: parallax

text: measurements, it lies at an estimated distance of  from the

text: Sun

text: To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite velocity of light. It takes billions of years for light from a distant galaxy to reach the Earth. Since the universe is expanding, the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to dark energy, then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.

text: To determine if the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up or slowing down over time, cosmologists make use of the finite

text: velocity of light

text: . It takes billions of years for light from a distant

text: galaxy

text: to reach the Earth. Since the universe is

text: expanding

text: , the universe was smaller (galaxies were closer together) when light from distant galaxies was emitted. If the expansion rate of the universe is speeding up due to

text: dark energy

text: , then the size of the universe increases more rapidly with time than if the expansion were slowing down. Using supernovae, we cannot quite measure the size of the universe versus time. Instead we can measure the size of the universe (at the time the star exploded) and the distance to the supernova. With the distance to the exploding supernova in hand, astronomers can use the value of the speed of light along with the theory of General Relativity to determine how long it took the light to reach the Earth. This then tells them the age of the universe when the supernova exploded.

text: Stars greater than 8 solar masses (M) will likely end their lives in dramatic supernovae explosions, while planetary nebulae seemingly only occur at the end of the lives of intermediate and low mass stars between 0.8 M to 8.0 M. Progenitor stars that form planetary nebulae will spend most of their lifetimes converting their hydrogen into helium in the star's core by nuclear fusion at about 15 million K. This generated energy creates outward pressure from fusion reactions in the core, equally balancing the crushing inward pressures of the star's gravity. Hence, all single intermediate to low-mass stars on the main sequence can last for tens of millions to billions of years.

text: Stars greater than 8

text: solar mass

text: es (M) will likely end their lives in dramatic

text: supernova

text: e explosions, while planetary nebulae seemingly only occur at the end of the lives of intermediate and low mass stars between 0.8 M to 8.0 M. Progenitor stars that form planetary nebulae will spend most of their lifetimes converting their

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: in the star's core by

text: nuclear fusion

text: at about 15 million

text: K

text: . This generated energy creates outward pressure from fusion reactions in the core, equally balancing the crushing inward pressures of the star's gravity. Hence, all single intermediate to low-mass stars on the

text: main sequence

text: can last for tens of millions to billions of years.

text: HR 4458 (289 G. Hydrae) is a binary star system in the constellation Hydra. At a distance of 31 light years, it is the closest star system to the solar system within this constellation. The primary is K-type main-sequence star of class K0. It has a common proper motion companion at an angular separation of 16.2″. This is a white dwarf star with a classification of DC8.

text: HR 4458 (289 G. Hydrae) is a

text: binary star

text: system in the

text: constellation

text: Hydra

text: . At a distance of 31

text: light year

text: s, it is the closest star system to the

text: solar system

text: within this constellation. The primary is

text: K-type main-sequence star

text: of class K0. It has a

text: common proper motion

text: companion at an

text: angular separation

text: of 16.2″. This is a

text: white dwarf

text: star with a classification of DC8.

text: Working together with Kip Thorne in 1976, Żytkow developed a theoretical model for a new star type, the Thorne–Żytkow object (TŻO), which contains either a neutron star or a black hole core at the center of a stellar envelope. The evolution of such a star occurs rarely and only two processes exist that define the structure and evolution of a TŻO. In the first process a collision between a neutron star and a normal star, either dwarf or giant, must occur in order to merge the two into a single object. This occurrence is rare since stars do not usually collide with each other. This could only happen in a dense cluster of stars. The second possible evolution of a larger TŻO can occur when a  star expands into a red supergiant a and engulfs its companion neutron star.

text: Working together with

text: Kip Thorne

text: in 1976, Żytkow developed a theoretical model for a new star type, the

text: Thorne–Żytkow object

text: (TŻO), which contains either a

text: neutron star

text: or a black hole core at the center of a stellar envelope. The evolution of such a star occurs rarely and only two processes exist that define the structure and evolution of a TŻO. In the first process a collision between a neutron star and a normal star, either dwarf or giant, must occur in order to merge the two into a single object. This occurrence is rare since stars do not usually collide with each other. This could only happen in a dense cluster of stars. The second possible evolution of a larger TŻO can occur when a  star expands into a red supergiant a and engulfs its companion neutron star.

text: The planet orbits a (M-type) red dwarf star named Gliese 667 C, orbited by a total of two planets. The star is part of a trinary star system, with Gliese 667 A and B both being more massive than the smaller companion. Gilese 667 C has a mass of 0.31  and a radius of 0.42 . It has a temperature of 3700 K, but its age is poorly constrained, estimates place it greater than 2 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K. This star is radiating only 1.4% of the Sun's luminosity from its outer atmosphere. It is known to have a system of two planets: claims have been made for up to seven, but these may be in error due to failure to account for correlated noise in the radial velocity data. Since red dwarfs emit little ultraviolet light, the planets likely receive minimal amounts of ultraviolet radiation.

text: The planet orbits a (

text: M-type

text: red dwarf

text: star

text: named

text: Gliese 667 C

text: , orbited by a total of two planets. The star is part of a

text: trinary star system

text: , with Gliese 667 A and B both being more massive than the smaller companion. Gilese 667 C has a mass of 0.31  and a radius of 0.42 . It has a temperature of 3700

text: K

text: , but its age is poorly constrained, estimates place it greater than 2 billion years old. In comparison, the

text: Sun

text: is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K. This star is radiating only 1.4% of the Sun's luminosity from its outer atmosphere. It is known to have a system of two planets: claims have been made for up to seven, but these may be in error due to failure to account for correlated noise in the radial velocity data. Since red dwarfs emit little

text: ultraviolet

text: light, the planets likely receive minimal amounts of ultraviolet radiation.

text: of a particle is defined as the acceleration that a particle "feels" as it accelerates from one inertial reference frame to another.  This can be derived mathematically as

text: of a particle is defined as the

text: acceleration

text: that a particle "feels" as it accelerates from one

text: inertial reference frame

text: to another.  This can be derived mathematically as

text: As of August 27, 2007, discoveries concerning asymmetric iron line broadening and their implications for relativity have been a topic of much excitement. With respect to the asymmetric iron line broadening, Edward Cackett of the University of Michigan commented, "We're seeing the gas whipping around just outside the neutron star's surface,". "And since the inner part of the disk obviously can't orbit any closer than the neutron star's surface, these measurements give us a maximum size of the neutron star's diameter. The neutron stars can be no larger than 18 to 20.5 miles across, results that agree with other types of measurements."

text: As of August 27, 2007, discoveries concerning asymmetric iron line broadening and their implications for relativity have been a topic of much excitement. With respect to the asymmetric iron line broadening, Edward Cackett of the

text: University of Michigan

text: commented, "We're seeing the gas whipping around just outside the neutron star's surface,". "And since the inner part of the disk obviously can't orbit any closer than the neutron star's surface, these measurements give us a maximum size of the neutron star's diameter. The neutron stars can be no larger than 18 to 20.5 miles across, results that agree with other types of measurements."

text: In Orbient, players control a white star.  The game starts with the white star able to take 5 hits before it is destroyed.  To make it grow, the player must collide his/her star with a similar-sized, blue star.  Stars smaller than the player's star are gray-colored.  Colliding with these stars will not change the white star's size, but if the player positions the white star just right, the gray star will orbit the white and become a satellite.  Red stars are bigger than the white.  The white star is able to orbit red stars to help travel through space.  Whenever the white star grows large enough, the target star glows orange, and is able to be a satellite; as soon as that happens, a small crescent star appears, and having it successfully orbit the white star will give the player bonus points, (and collecting all different crescent stars unlocks new galaxies and are the goal to complete the game 100%).  Colliding with the orange star will take away a hit, but having it orbit the white star will clear the round. The player guides the star by pressing the A and B buttons on the Wii Remote to utilize gravity and anti-gravity, respectively, and attract it towards or repel against (also respectively) the gravitational wells of celestial objects.  Players must be careful not to crash their star into the red stars or floating objects like asteroids, or be sucked into black holes, which takes away a hit (and in the case of black holes, restart the entire stage).

text: In Orbient, players control a white star.  The game starts with the white star able to take 5 hits before it is destroyed.  To make it grow, the player must collide his/her star with a similar-sized, blue star.  Stars smaller than the player's star are gray-colored.  Colliding with these stars will not change the white star's size, but if the player positions the white star just right, the gray star will orbit the white and become a

text: satellite

text: .  Red stars are bigger than the white.  The white star is able to orbit red stars to help travel through space.  Whenever the white star grows large enough, the target star glows orange, and is able to be a satellite; as soon as that happens, a small crescent star appears, and having it successfully orbit the white star will give the player bonus points, (and collecting all different crescent stars unlocks new galaxies and are the goal to complete the game 100%).  Colliding with the orange star will take away a hit, but having it orbit the white star will clear the round. The player guides the star by pressing the A and B buttons on the

text: Wii Remote

text: to utilize

text: gravity

text: and

text: anti-gravity

text: , respectively, and attract it towards or repel against (also respectively) the

text: gravitational well

text: s of celestial objects.  Players must be careful not to crash their star into the red stars or floating objects like

text: asteroid

text: s, or be sucked into

text: black hole

text: s, which takes away a hit (and in the case of black holes, restart the entire stage).

text: 60 Cancri is a star in the constellation Cancer.

text: 60 Cancri is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Cancer

text: Chattopadhyay completed his B.Sc. degree from Calcutta University in 1970, with Honors in Physics, graduating from St. Xavier’s College, a well known institution run by the early Jesuit clergy in India, which also boasts of having graduated the famous Indian scientist Prof. Jagadish Chandra Bose and Indian steel tycoon Laxmi Mittal. Caught in the turmoil of the politically vibrant and active university community in the city of Calcutta in the state of West Bengal in the late 1960s and early 1970s, he circumvented a delayed prospect of admission into the university’s post-graduate program by joining the Indian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur, eighty miles south-west of Calcutta, for his post-graduate studies, completing his M.Sc. degree with specialization in Particle Physics in 1972.Hoping to combine his passion for physics with the desire to explore nature, and upon direct invitation from Prof. Michael Moravscik as Chair of the Physics Interview Committee of the American Physical Society, he then joined in 1972 the Physics department of the University of Oregon at Eugene in the Pacific Northwest region of USA, known for its rugged natural beauty. However, over time, the draw towards the larger, diverse and vibrant campus of the University of California at Berkeley got stronger and with direct support and recommendation from Prof. Rudy Hwa and Prof. Berndt Crasemann while working on research projects with them in the summers of 1973 and 1974, he joined the University of California at Berkeley in 1974, as a Ph.D. student in the Department of Physics. After flirting for two years (1974-1976) with the inimitable Berkeley brand of theoretical particle physics, then known as the “S-matrix” and “Bootstrap” theories of “strong interactions”, under tutelage of Prof. Geoffrey Chew, Chattopadhyay was attracted away by the eclectic and pragmatic charm of accelerator physics dealing with charged particle and light beams under mentorship of some of the most prominent accelerator pioneers in the original accelerator laboratory created by Ernest Orlando Lawrence at Berkeley, such as: Edward J. Lofgren, Andrew Sessler, Denis Keefe, L. Jackson Laslett and Glen Lambertson, to name a few. In 1978, he was also heavily influenced by the visit of Simon van der Meer and Carlo Rubbia to the laboratory, speaking on the possibilities of stochastic phase space cooling of antiproton beams and the exciting possibilities with proton-antiproton collisions. He was also simultaneously being encouraged by Prof. Owen Chamberlain, discoverer of the ‘antiproton’ and a Berkeley Nobel laureate, to engage in antiproton beam research. He subsequently completed his PhD dissertation on the timely and critical topic of stochastic cooling of bunched beams of antiproton from the University of California (Berkeley) Physics department in 1982 and continued onto CERN as an “attaché scientifique” in the Super Proton Antiproton Synchrotron working with Daniel Boussard, Simon van der Meer and Carlo Rubbia, contributing to the ongoing program of stochastic cooling of antiproton beams, which led to the discovery of the W and Z vector bosons at CERN, and to the early ideas of stochastic cooling of “bunched” beams, which today are being applied successfully to phase space cooling of heavy ions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory, leading to exciting new investigations of the ‘quark-gluon’ plasma in gold-on-gold collisions.

text: Chattopadhyay completed his

text: B.Sc

text: . degree from

text: Calcutta University

text: in 1970, with Honors in

text: Physics

text: , graduating from

entity_name: List of schools named after Francis Xavier

text: St. Xavier’s College

text: , a well known institution run by the early

text: Jesuit

text: clergy in India, which also boasts of having graduated the famous Indian scientist

text: Prof. Jagadish Chandra Bose

text: and Indian steel tycoon

text: Laxmi Mittal

text: . Caught in the turmoil of the politically vibrant and active university community in the city of Calcutta in the state of West Bengal in the late 1960s and early 1970s, he circumvented a delayed prospect of admission into the university’s post-graduate program by joining the

text: Indian Institute of Technology

text: at

text: Kharagpur

text: , eighty miles south-west of Calcutta, for his post-graduate studies, completing his M.Sc. degree with specialization in

text: Particle Physics

text: in 1972.Hoping to combine his passion for physics with the desire to explore nature, and upon direct invitation from Prof. Michael Moravscik as Chair of the Physics Interview Committee of the American Physical Society, he then joined in 1972 the Physics department of the University of Oregon at Eugene in the Pacific Northwest region of USA, known for its rugged natural beauty. However, over time, the draw towards the larger, diverse and vibrant campus of the University of California at Berkeley got stronger and with direct support and recommendation from Prof. Rudy Hwa and Prof. Berndt Crasemann while working on research projects with them in the summers of 1973 and 1974, he joined the University of California at Berkeley in 1974, as a Ph.D. student in the Department of Physics. After flirting for two years (1974-1976) with the inimitable Berkeley brand of theoretical particle physics, then known as the “

text: S-matrix

text: ” and “

text: Bootstrap

text: ” theories of “

text: strong interactions

text: ”, under tutelage of

text: Prof. Geoffrey Chew

text: , Chattopadhyay was attracted away by the eclectic and pragmatic charm of accelerator physics dealing with charged particle and light beams under mentorship of some of the most prominent accelerator pioneers in the original accelerator laboratory created by

text: Ernest Orlando Lawrence

text: at Berkeley, such as:

text: Edward J. Lofgren

text: Andrew Sessler

text: , Denis Keefe, L. Jackson Laslett and Glen Lambertson, to name a few. In 1978, he was also heavily influenced by the visit of

text: Simon van der Meer

text: and

text: Carlo Rubbia

text: to the laboratory, speaking on the possibilities of

text: stochastic phase space cooling

text: of

text: antiproton

text: beams and the exciting possibilities with proton-antiproton collisions. He was also simultaneously being encouraged by

text: Prof. Owen Chamberlain

text: , discoverer of the ‘antiproton’ and a Berkeley Nobel laureate, to engage in antiproton beam research. He subsequently completed his PhD dissertation on the timely and critical topic of stochastic cooling of bunched beams of antiproton from the University of California (Berkeley) Physics department in 1982 and continued onto CERN as an “attaché scientifique” in the Super Proton Antiproton Synchrotron working with Daniel Boussard, Simon van der Meer and Carlo Rubbia, contributing to the ongoing program of stochastic cooling of antiproton beams, which led to the discovery of the

text: W

text: and

text: Z

text: vector bosons at CERN, and to the early ideas of stochastic cooling of “bunched” beams, which today are being applied successfully to

text: phase space

text: cooling of heavy

text: ions

text: at the

text: Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider

text: at Brookhaven National Laboratory, leading to exciting new investigations of the

text: ‘quark-gluon’ plasma

text: in gold-on-gold collisions.

text: This is a list of the fictional Star Trek universe's Starfleet ships organized by ship class. These vessels appear or are mentioned in the original series Star Trek (TOS), Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG), Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (DS9), Star Trek: Voyager (VOY), Star Trek: Enterprise (ENT), the Star Trek films, or the Star Trek games. Many of the ship names, classes, or registry numbers are not identified on screen and instead are derived from The Star Trek Encyclopedia. This listing does not include ships mentioned in fan fiction related to Star Trek.

text: This is a list of the fictional

text: Star Trek

text: universe's

text: Starfleet

text: ships organized by

text: ship class

text: . These vessels appear or are mentioned in the original series

text: Star Trek

text: (TOS),

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: (TNG),

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: (VOY),

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: (ENT), the

text: Star Trek films

text: , or the

text: Star Trek games

text: . Many of the ship names, classes, or registry numbers are not identified on screen and instead are derived from

text: The Star Trek Encyclopedia

text: . This listing does not include ships mentioned in

text: fan fiction

text: related to Star Trek.

text: The north part of the disk also contains what appears to be a very intense region of star formation.  Unusually, the star formation within this region appears to be more intense than the star formation in the galaxy's nucleus, and it is the brightest infrared source within the disk.

text: The north part of the disk also contains what appears to be a very intense region of

text: star formation

text: .  Unusually, the star formation within this region appears to be more intense than the star formation in the galaxy's nucleus, and it is the brightest

text: infrared

text: source within the disk.

text: Astronomers believe that they represent the earliest stage in the formation of high-mass stars and are therefore of great importance for understanding the star formation process as a whole.

text: Astronomer

text: s believe that they represent the earliest stage in the formation of high-mass stars and are therefore of great importance for understanding the star formation process as a whole.

text: 70 Aquarii (abbreviated 70 Aqr) is a star in the equatorial constellation of Aquarius. 70 Aquarii is the Flamsteed designation and it is a Delta Scuti-type variable with the variable star designation FM Aquarii. The mean apparent visual magnitude of this star is 6.19 and it is around  from Earth.

text: 70 Aquarii (abbreviated 70 Aqr) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: equatorial

text: constellation

text: of

text: Aquarius

text: . 70 Aquarii is the

text: Flamsteed designation

text: and it is a

text: Delta Scuti-type variable

text: with the

text: variable star designation

text: FM Aquarii. The mean

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of this star is 6.19 and it is around  from Earth.

text: This star has about 12% of the Sun's mass and 16% of the Sun's radius, but only 0.2% of the Sun's luminosity. It has a stellar classification of M6 V, which indicates it is a type of main sequence star known as a red dwarf. This is a flare star that occasionally increases in luminosity. With high probability there appears to be a long-term cycle of variability with a period of 4.20 years. This variability causes the star to range in visual magnitude from 12.23 to 12.34. In 1950, this became the first star to have a small variation in magnitude attributed to spots on its photosphere.

text: This star has about 12% of the

text: Sun's mass

text: and 16% of the

text: Sun's radius

text: , but only 0.2% of the

text: Sun's luminosity

text: . It has a

text: stellar classification

text: of M6 V, which indicates it is a type of

text: main sequence star

text: known as a

text: red dwarf

text: . This is a

text: flare star

text: that occasionally increases in luminosity. With high probability there appears to be a long-term cycle of variability with a period of 4.20 years. This variability causes the star to range in visual magnitude from 12.23 to 12.34. In 1950, this became the first star to have a small variation in magnitude attributed to spots on its

text: photosphere

text: The Jeans instability likely determines when star formation occurs in molecular clouds.

text: The Jeans instability likely determines when

text: star formation

text: occurs in

text: molecular cloud

text: s.

text: Depicting the eyepiece of the microscope is Gamma Microscopii, which—at magnitude of 4.68—is the brightest star in the constellation. Having spent much of its 620-million-year lifespan as a blue-white main sequence star, it has swollen and cooled to become a yellow giant of spectral type G6III, with a diameter ten times that of the Sun. Measurement of its parallax yields a distance of 229±4 light years from Earth. Alpha Microscopii is also an ageing yellow giant star of spectral type G7III with an apparent magnitude of 4.90. Located 380±30 light-years away from Earth, it has swollen to 17.5 times the diameter of the Sun. Alpha has a 10th magnitude companion, visible in 7.5 cm telescopes, though this is a coincidental closeness rather than a true binary system. Epsilon Microscopii lies 182±2 light years away, and is a white star of apparent magnitude 4.7, and spectral type A1V. Theta and Theta Microscopii make up a wide double whose components are splittable to the naked eye. Both are white A-class magnetic spectrum variable stars with strong metallic lines, similar to Cor Caroli. They mark the constellation's specimen slide.

text: Depicting the eyepiece of the microscope is

text: Gamma Microscopii

text: , which—at magnitude of 4.68—is the brightest star in the constellation. Having spent much of its 620-million-year lifespan as a blue-white

text: main sequence

text: star, it has swollen and cooled to become a yellow

text: giant

text: of

text: spectral type

text: G6III, with a diameter ten times that of the Sun. Measurement of its parallax yields a distance of 229±4 light years from Earth.

text: Alpha Microscopii

text: is also an ageing yellow giant star of spectral type G7III with an apparent magnitude of 4.90. Located 380±30 light-years away from Earth, it has swollen to 17.5 times the diameter of the Sun. Alpha has a 10th magnitude companion, visible in 7.5 cm telescopes, though this is a coincidental closeness rather than a true binary system.

text: Epsilon Microscopii

text: lies 182±2 light years away, and is a white star of apparent magnitude 4.7, and spectral type A1V.

text: Theta

text: and

text: Theta Microscopii

text: make up a wide double whose components are splittable to the naked eye. Both are white A-class

text: magnetic spectrum variable stars

text: with strong metallic lines, similar to

text: Cor Caroli

text: . They mark the constellation's specimen slide.

text: Zeta Persei is the third-brightest star in the constellation at magnitude 2.86. Around 750 light-years from Earth, it is a blue-white supergiant 26–27 times the radius of the Sun and 47,000 times its luminosity. It is the brightest star (as seen from Earth) of a moving group of bright blue-white giant and supergiant stars, the Perseus OB2 Association or Zeta Persei Association. Zeta is a triple star system, with a companion blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B8 and apparent magnitude 9.16 around 3900 AU distant from the primary, and a white main sequence star of magnitude 9.90 and spectral type A2, some 50,000 AU away, that may or may not be gravitationally bound to the other two. X Persei is a double system in this association; one component is a hot, bright star and the other is a neutron star. With an apparent magnitude of 6.72, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye even in perfectly dark conditions. The system is an X-ray source and the primary star appears to be undergoing substantial mass loss. Once thought to be a member of the Perseus OB2 Association, Omicron Persei is a multiple star system with a combined visual magnitude of 3.85. It is composed of two blue-white starsa giant of spectral class B1.5 and main sequence star of B3which orbit each other every 4.5 days and are distorted into ovoids due to their small separation. The system has a third star about which little is known. At an estimated distance of 1475 light-years from Earth, the system is now thought to lie too far from the center of the Zeta Persei group to belong to it.

text: Zeta Persei

text: is the third-brightest star in the constellation at magnitude 2.86. Around 750 light-years from Earth, it is a blue-white supergiant 26–27 times the radius of the Sun and 47,000 times its luminosity. It is the brightest star (as seen from Earth) of a

text: moving group

text: of bright blue-white giant and supergiant stars, the Perseus OB2 Association or Zeta Persei Association. Zeta is a triple star system, with a companion blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B8 and apparent magnitude 9.16 around 3900 AU distant from the primary, and a white main sequence star of magnitude 9.90 and spectral type A2, some 50,000 AU away, that may or may not be gravitationally bound to the other two.

text: X Persei

text: is a double system in this association; one component is a hot, bright star and the other is a

text: neutron star

text: . With an apparent magnitude of 6.72, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye even in perfectly dark conditions. The system is an

text: X-ray

text: source and the primary star appears to be undergoing substantial mass loss. Once thought to be a member of the Perseus OB2 Association,

text: Omicron Persei

text: is a multiple star system with a combined visual magnitude of 3.85. It is composed of two blue-white starsa giant of spectral class B1.5 and main sequence star of B3which orbit each other every 4.5 days and are distorted into ovoids due to their small separation. The system has a third star about which little is known. At an estimated distance of 1475 light-years from Earth, the system is now thought to lie too far from the center of the Zeta Persei group to belong to it.

text: Delta Capricorni (δ Cap, δ Capricorni), also traditionally named Deneb Algedi (or Deneb Algiedi) and Scheddi, is a binary star system approximately 39 light-years away in the constellation of Capricornus (the Sea Goat).  The primary star in the system is a white giant star and the combined light of its members makes it the brightest star within the constellation.

text: Delta Capricorni (δ Cap, δ Capricorni), also traditionally named Deneb Algedi (or Deneb Algiedi) and Scheddi, is a

text: binary star

text: system approximately 39

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Capricornus

text: (the Sea

text: Goat

text: ).  The primary star in the system is a

text: white giant

text: star

text: and the combined light of its members makes it the brightest star within the constellation.

text: Some constellations are no longer recognized by the International Astronomical Union, but may appear in older star charts and other references.  Most notable is Argo Navis, which was one of Ptolemy's original 48 constellations.

text: Some constellations are no longer recognized by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: , but may appear in older

text: star charts

text: and other references.  Most notable is

text: Argo Navis

text: , which was one of Ptolemy's original 48 constellations.

text: Stars more massive than  spend a few million years on the main sequence as class O and early B stars until the hydrogen in their cores becomes depleted.  Then they expand and cool to become supergiants.  They spend only a few thousand years as a yellow supergiant while cooling to become a red supergiant, then one to four million years as a red supergiant.  Such massive stars make up less than 1% of all stars.  Combined with the relative lifetime of the yellow supergiant phase, this explains the rarity of these stars.

text: Paramount originally began work on a Star Trek feature film in 1975 after lobbying by the creator of the franchise, Gene Roddenberry. The studio scrapped the project two years later in favor of creating a television series, Star Trek: Phase II, with the original cast. However, following the huge success of Star Wars and Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Paramount changed its mind again, halting production on the television series and adapting its pilot episode into the Star Trek feature film, Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979). Five more films featuring the entire original cast followed. The cast of the 1987–1994 spin-off series Star Trek: The Next Generation starred in a further four films. After a 6-year hiatus following the release of Star Trek: Nemesis (2002), a new film was released on May 16, 2009, simply titled Star Trek, serving as a reboot to the franchise with a new cast portraying younger versions of the original series' characters. A sequel to Star Trek (2009), Star Trek Into Darkness, was released in theaters on May 16, 2013. A second sequel, Star Trek Beyond, was released on July 22, 2016, on the franchise's 50th anniversary.

text: Paramount originally began work on a Star Trek feature film in 1975 after lobbying by the creator of the franchise,

text: Gene Roddenberry

text: . The studio scrapped the project two years later in favor of creating a television series,

text: Star Trek: Phase II

text: , with the original cast. However, following the huge success of

text: Star Wars

text: and

text: Close Encounters of the Third Kind

text: , Paramount changed its mind again, halting production on the television series and adapting its pilot episode into the Star Trek feature film,

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: (1979). Five more films featuring the entire original cast followed. The cast of the 1987–1994 spin-off series

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: starred in a further four films. After a 6-year hiatus following the release of

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: (2002), a new film was released on May 16, 2009, simply titled

text: Star Trek

text: , serving as a reboot to the franchise with a new cast portraying younger versions of the original series' characters. A sequel to Star Trek (2009),

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: , was released in theaters on May 16, 2013. A second sequel,

text: Star Trek Beyond

text: , was released on July 22, 2016, on the franchise's 50th anniversary.

text: If the star's mass, when on the main sequence, was below approximately , it will never reach the central temperatures necessary to fuse helium.  It will therefore remain a hydrogen-fusing red giant until it runs out of hydrogen, at which point it will become a helium white dwarf. This is entirely theoretical because no star of such low mass has been in existence long enough to evolve to that stage.

text: If the star's mass, when on the main sequence, was below approximately , it will never reach the central temperatures necessary to fuse

text: helium

text: .  It will therefore remain a hydrogen-fusing red giant until it runs out of hydrogen, at which point it will become a helium

text: white dwarf

text: . This is entirely theoretical because no star of such low mass has been in existence long enough to evolve to that stage.

text: After a star has formed, it generates thermal energy in the dense core region through nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium. During this stage of the star's lifetime, it is located along the main sequence at a position determined primarily by its mass, but also based upon its chemical composition and other factors. All main-sequence stars are in hydrostatic equilibrium, where outward thermal pressure from the hot core is balanced by the inward pressure of gravitational collapse from the overlying layers. The strong dependence of the rate of energy generation in the core on the temperature and pressure helps to sustain this balance. Energy generated at the core makes its way to the surface and is radiated away at the photosphere. The energy is carried by either radiation or convection, with the latter occurring in regions with steeper temperature gradients, higher opacity or both.

text: After a star has formed, it generates

text: thermal energy

text: in the dense core region through

text: nuclear fusion

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: atoms into

text: helium

text: . During this stage of the star's lifetime, it is located along the main sequence at a position determined primarily by its mass, but also based upon its chemical composition and other factors. All main-sequence stars are in

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: , where outward thermal pressure from the hot core is balanced by the inward pressure of

text: gravitational collapse

text: from the overlying layers. The strong dependence of the rate of energy generation in the core on the temperature and pressure helps to sustain this balance. Energy generated at the core makes its way to the surface and is radiated away at the

text: photosphere

text: . The energy is carried by either

text: radiation

text: or

text: convection

text: , with the latter occurring in regions with steeper temperature gradients, higher opacity or both.

text: As of 2013, Irwin starring opposite Rebecca Wisocky in the Lifetime television comedy-drama series Devious Maids.

text: As of 2013, Irwin starring opposite

text: Rebecca Wisocky

text: in the

text: Lifetime

text: television comedy-drama series

text: Devious Maids

text: In the first phase (early 2017), the array will consist of 3 telescopes of 2.7 square degrees field of view each, later to be extended to more units with a total field of view of 40 square degrees. This also makes the BlackGEM array a very good survey instrument. The first phase of operations will therefore perform a complete survey of the southern sky. In parallel to this phase, multi-epoch imaging will give a characterization of any fast (shorter than one day) transient sources down to 23rd magnitude. In parallel, the BlackGEM array will act on triggers from the gravitational wave detectors to look for optical emission from such events as merging black holes and neutron stars.

text: In the first phase (early 2017), the array will consist of 3 telescopes of 2.7 square degrees field of view each, later to be extended to more units with a total field of view of 40 square degrees. This also makes the BlackGEM array a very good survey instrument. The first phase of operations will therefore perform a complete survey of the southern sky. In parallel to this phase, multi-

text: epoch

text: imaging will give a characterization of any fast (shorter than one day)

text: transient

text: sources down to 23rd

text: magnitude

text: . In parallel, the BlackGEM array will act on triggers from the gravitational wave detectors to look for optical emission from such events as merging black holes and neutron stars.

text: The commune has been classified as a climate resort since 16 March 1926, and a tourist and seaside resort since 12 March 1979. Tourism is an important part of the local economy. The commune has a tourist office which ensures the promotion of monuments, museums and natural sites, and has joined the association of the Most Beautiful Detours of France. It offers much infrastructure, including some certified by the  label issued by the : Two three-star hotels, six two-star hotels and seven hotels not classified with a total of 213 rooms, two three-star campsites with a total of 145 pitches, communal gites on the Chausey Islands and guest rooms, a youth hostel, a thalassotherapy centre, thirty-three restaurants with a total of 1,931 seats.

text: The commune has been classified as a climate resort since 16 March 1926, and a tourist and

text: seaside resort

text: since 12 March 1979.

text: Tourism

text: is an important part of the local economy. The commune has a

text: tourist office

text: which ensures the promotion of

text: monument

text: s,

text: museum

text: s and natural sites, and has joined the association of the

text: Most Beautiful Detours of France

text: . It offers much infrastructure, including some certified by the  label issued by the : Two three-

text: star

text: hotel

text: s, six two-star hotels and seven hotels not classified with a total of 213 rooms, two three-star

text: campsite

text: s with a total of 145 pitches, communal

text: gite

text: s on the

text: Chausey Islands

text: and guest rooms, a

text: youth hostel

text: , a

text: thalassotherapy

text: centre, thirty-three

text: restaurant

text: s with a total of 1,931 seats.

text: Other names for Betelgeuse included the Persian Bašn "the Arm", and Coptic Klaria "an Armlet". Bahu was its Sanskrit name, as part of a Hindu understanding of the constellation as a running antelope or stag. In traditional Chinese astronomy, Betelgeuse was known as 参宿四 (Shēnxiùsì, the Fourth Star of the constellation of Three Stars) as the Chinese constellation 参宿 originally referred to the three stars in the girdle of Orion. This constellation was ultimately expanded to ten stars, but the earlier name stuck. In Japan, the Taira or Heike clan adopted Betelgeuse and its red color as its symbol, calling the star Heike-boshi, (平家星), while the Minamoto or Genji clan had chosen  Rigel and its white color. The two powerful families fought a legendary war in Japanese history, the stars seen as facing each other off and only kept apart by the Belt.

text: Other names for Betelgeuse included the Persian Bašn "the Arm", and

text: Coptic

text: Klaria "an Armlet". Bahu was its

text: Sanskrit

text: name, as part of a Hindu understanding of the constellation as a running antelope or stag. In traditional

text: Chinese astronomy

text: , Betelgeuse was known as 参宿四 (Shēnxiùsì, the Fourth Star of the constellation of

text: Three Stars

text: ) as the

text: Chinese constellation

text: 参宿 originally referred to the three stars in the

text: girdle of Orion

text: . This constellation was ultimately expanded to ten stars, but the earlier name stuck. In Japan, the Taira or

text: Heike clan

text: adopted Betelgeuse and its red color as its symbol, calling the star Heike-boshi, (平家星), while the Minamoto or

text: Genji clan

text: had chosen  Rigel and its white color. The two powerful families fought a legendary war in

text: Japanese history

text: , the stars seen as facing each other off and only kept apart by the Belt.

text: His most famous work is Curiositez inouyes sur la sculpture talismanique des Persans, horoscope des Patriarches et lecture des estoiles ("Unheard-of Curiosities concerning Talismanical Sculpture of the Persians, the horoscope of the Patriarchs, and the reading of the Stars), which was published in French in 1629 (and translated into English in 1650, by Edmund Chilmead). Jewish astrology developed independently from the mythology and star-gazing of the ancient Greek and Roman civilisations. Gaffarel included in his work two large folding plates of "the Celestial Constellations expressed by Hebrew characters", and asserted that the letters of the Hebrew alphabet could be interpreted from the constellations and that the heavens could be read as if a book.

text: His most famous work is Curiositez inouyes sur la sculpture talismanique des Persans, horoscope des Patriarches et lecture des estoiles ("Unheard-of Curiosities concerning Talismanical Sculpture of the

text: Persia

text: ns, the

text: horoscope

text: of the

text: Patriarchs

text: , and the reading of the Stars), which was published in

text: French

text: in 1629 (and translated into

text: English

text: in 1650, by

text: Edmund Chilmead

text: Jewish astrology

text: developed independently from the

text: mythology

text: and star-gazing of the ancient

text: Greek

text: and

text: Roman

text: civilisation

text: s. Gaffarel included in his work two large folding plates of "the Celestial

text: Constellation

text: s expressed by Hebrew characters", and asserted that the letters of the

text: Hebrew alphabet

text: could be interpreted from the

text: constellation

text: s and that the heavens could be read as if a

text: book

text: Astronomer Anatoly Miroshnichenko has made it the prototype of a new type of variable star, FS Canis Majoris stars. These are hot blue-white stars that exhibit forbidden line emission and strong infra-red excess suggestive of very young (pre-main-sequence) stars yet they do not lie in star-forming regions. Nor did they appear to be stars that had evolved off the main sequence into giant or supergiant stars. It is now thought that they are main sequence stars that have absorbed or are absorbing matter, most likely from a companion star, and are surrounded by a compact dusty shell. These stars are thought to be significant contributors to interstellar dust.

text: Astronomer Anatoly Miroshnichenko has made it the prototype of a new type of variable star, FS Canis Majoris stars. These are hot

text: blue-white star

text: s that exhibit

text: forbidden line

text: emission and strong

text: infra-red

text: excess suggestive of very young (

text: pre-main-sequence

text: ) stars yet they do not lie in

text: star-forming

text: regions. Nor did they appear to be stars that had evolved off the main sequence into giant or supergiant stars. It is now thought that they are main sequence stars that have absorbed or are absorbing matter, most likely from a companion star, and are surrounded by a compact dusty shell. These stars are thought to be significant contributors to interstellar dust.

text: Most compact stars are the endpoints of stellar evolution and are thus often referred to as stellar remnants, the form of the remnant depending primarily on the mass of the star when it formed. These objects are all small in volume for their mass, giving them a very high density. The term compact star is often used when the exact nature of the star is not known, but evidence suggests that it is very massive and has a small radius, thus implying one of the above-mentioned categories. A compact star that is not a black hole may be called a degenerate star.

text: Most compact stars are the endpoints of stellar evolution and are thus often referred to as stellar remnants, the form of the remnant depending primarily on the mass of the

text: star

text: when it

text: formed

text: . These objects are all small in volume for their mass, giving them a very high

text: density

text: . The term compact star is often used when the exact nature of the star is not known, but evidence suggests that it is very

text: mass

text: ive and has a small

text: radius

text: , thus implying one of the above-mentioned categories. A compact star that is not a black hole may be called a degenerate star.

text: These stars, known as neutron stars, are extremely small—on the order of radius 10 km, no bigger than the size of a large city—and are phenomenally dense. Their period of rotation shortens dramatically as the stars shrink (due to conservation of angular momentum); observed rotational periods of neutron stars range from about 1.5 milliseconds (over 600 revolutions per second) to several seconds. When these rapidly rotating stars' magnetic poles are aligned with the Earth, we detect a pulse of radiation each revolution. Such neutron stars are called pulsars, and were the first neutron stars to be discovered. Though electromagnetic radiation detected from pulsars is most often in the form of radio waves, pulsars have also been detected at visible, X-ray, and gamma ray wavelengths.

text: These stars, known as neutron stars, are extremely small—on the order of radius 10 km, no bigger than the size of a large city—and are phenomenally dense. Their period of rotation shortens dramatically as the stars shrink (due to

text: conservation of angular momentum

text: ); observed rotational periods of neutron stars range from about 1.5 milliseconds (over 600 revolutions per second) to several seconds. When these rapidly rotating stars' magnetic poles are aligned with the Earth, we detect a pulse of radiation each revolution. Such neutron stars are called

text: pulsar

text: s, and were the first neutron stars to be discovered. Though electromagnetic radiation detected from pulsars is most often in the form of radio waves, pulsars have also been detected at visible, X-ray, and gamma ray wavelengths.

text: Protostars with masses less than roughly  never reach temperatures high enough for nuclear fusion of hydrogen to begin. These are known as brown dwarfs. The International Astronomical Union defines brown dwarfs as stars massive enough to fuse deuterium at some point in their lives (13 Jupiter masses (), 2.5 × 10 kg, or ). Objects smaller than  are classified as sub-brown dwarfs (but if they orbit around another stellar object they are classified as planets). Both types, deuterium-burning and not, shine dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.

text: Protostars with masses less than roughly  never reach temperatures high enough for

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen to begin. These are known as

text: brown dwarf

text: s. The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: defines brown dwarfs as stars massive enough to

text: fuse deuterium

text: at some point in their lives (13

text: Jupiter mass

text: es (), 2.5 × 10 kg, or ). Objects smaller than  are classified as sub-brown dwarfs (but if they orbit around another stellar object they are classified as planets). Both types, deuterium-burning and not, shine dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.

text: WR 114 is a Wolf-Rayet star in the constellation of Scutum.  It is an early type star of the carbon sequence (WCE) classified as WC5.

text: WR 114 is a

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: in the constellation of

text: Scutum

text: .  It is an early type star of the carbon sequence (WCE) classified as WC5.

text: In 1984, a Type II-L supernova was discovered in this galaxy. Designated 1984E, the spectrum of this event at maximum light showed prominent balmer lines that indicated the explosion occurred inside a dense shell of hydrogen surrounding the star. This shell was likely created by a strong stellar wind from the progenitor star. A second supernova was discovered in 2003; this time of type 1a. It was designated SN 2003 cg and reached peak magnitude 15.94.

text: In 1984, a

text: Type II-L supernova

text: was discovered in this galaxy. Designated 1984E, the spectrum of this event at maximum light showed prominent

text: balmer lines

text: that indicated the explosion occurred inside a dense shell of hydrogen surrounding the star. This shell was likely created by a strong

text: stellar wind

text: from the progenitor star. A second supernova was discovered in 2003; this time of

text: type 1a

text: . It was designated SN 2003 cg and reached peak magnitude 15.94.

text: A nanoFET works in a fairly straight forward manner. It consists of 3 main parts: a particle storage area, a charging pad, and an acceleration grid. To start, it transports  cylindrical particles to the charging pad which then imposes a charge on the particles. As the particle gains charge, the pulling force from the acceleration grid increases. Eventually, this pulling force overpowers the electro-magnetic and surface adhesion forces between the particles and charging pad. Now the particle begins accelerating towards the acceleration grid until it is shot out of the nanoFET, consequently pushing the nanoFET in the opposite direction.

text: Many of the cooler chemically peculiar stars are the result of the mixing of nuclear fusion products from the interior of the star to its surface; these include most of the carbon stars and S-type stars.  Others are the result of mass transfer in a binary star system; examples of these include the barium stars and some S stars.

text: Many of the cooler chemically peculiar stars are the result of the mixing of nuclear fusion products from the interior of the star to its surface; these include most of the

text: carbon stars

text: and

text: S-type star

text: s.  Others are the result of

text: mass transfer

text: in a

text: binary star

text: system; examples of these include the

text: barium star

text: s and some S stars.

text: Stars with mass less than the Sun's mass, have very long lifetimes, long enough to be discovered. The distinctive chemical patterns of these low mass stars can be used to estimate the mass of the first generation stars.In the past thirty years astronomers have conducted large-scale investigations to find low-mass and metal-poor stars formed in the early Universe. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and Sloan Extension for Galactic Understanding and Exploration (SEGUE) projects are the latest to obtain evidence for the age, chemical composition and distribution of stars in the Milky Way, and provided crucial clues to understand the structure, formation and evolution of the Milky Way Galaxy.

text: Stars with mass less than the Sun's mass, have very long lifetimes, long enough to be discovered. The distinctive chemical patterns of these low mass stars can be used to estimate the mass of the first generation stars.In the past thirty years astronomers have conducted large-scale investigations to find low-mass and metal-poor stars formed in the early Universe. The

text: Sloan Digital Sky Survey

text: (SDSS) and

entity_section: Sloan Extension for Galactic Understanding and Exploration (SEGUE)

text: Sloan Extension for Galactic Understanding and Exploration

text: (SEGUE) projects are the latest to obtain evidence for the age, chemical composition and distribution of stars in the Milky Way, and provided crucial clues to understand the structure, formation and evolution of the Milky Way Galaxy.

text: Although white dwarfs are known with estimated masses as low as 0.17  and as high as 1.33 , the mass distribution is strongly peaked at 0.6 , and the majority lie between 0.5 and 0.7 . The estimated radii of observed white dwarfs are typically 0.8–2 % the radius of the Sun; this is comparable to the Earth's radius of approximately 0.9% solar radius. A white dwarf, then, packs mass comparable to the Sun's into a volume that is typically a million times smaller than the Sun's; the average density of matter in a white dwarf must therefore be, very roughly, 1,000,000 times greater than the average density of the Sun, or approximately 10 g/cm, or 1 tonne per cubic centimetre. A typical white dwarf has a density of between 10 and 10 g/cm^3. White dwarfs are composed of one of the densest forms of matter known, surpassed only by other compact stars such as neutron stars, black holes and, hypothetically, quark stars.

text: Although white dwarfs are known with estimated masses as low as 0.17  and as high as 1.33 , the mass distribution is strongly peaked at 0.6 , and the majority lie between 0.5 and 0.7 . The estimated radii of observed white dwarfs are typically 0.8–2 % the

text: radius of the Sun

text: ; this is comparable to the Earth's radius of approximately 0.9% solar radius. A white dwarf, then, packs mass comparable to the Sun's into a volume that is typically a million times smaller than the Sun's; the average density of matter in a white dwarf must therefore be, very roughly, 1,000,000 times greater than the average density of the Sun, or approximately 10

text: g/cm

text: , or 1

text: tonne

text: per cubic centimetre. A typical white dwarf has a density of between 10 and 10 g/cm^3. White dwarfs are composed of one of the densest forms of matter known, surpassed only by other

text: compact star

text: s such as

text: neutron star

text: s,

text: black hole

text: s and, hypothetically,

text: quark star

text: s.

text: 16 Lacertae is a star in the constellation Lacerta. It is a blue-white B-type subgiant with a mean apparent magnitude of +5.58.  It is approximately 1300 light years from Earth.  It is classified as a Beta Cephei type variable star.

text: 16 Lacertae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Lacerta

text: . It is a blue-white

text: B-type

text: subgiant

text: with a mean

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +5.58.  It is approximately 1300

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: .  It is classified as a

text: Beta Cephei type

text: variable star

text: Beginning in 1969, the format was geographic with the Wales/Eastern Conference All-Stars played the Campbell/Western Conference All-Stars, where the "first team", or starting line, including the starting goaltender, voted in by fans, while the remainder of the teams' rosters are chosen by the NHL's Hockey Operations Department in consultation with the teams' general managers. Since 1996, the head coaches for the two All-Star teams have been the coaches of the two teams that are leading their respective conferences in point percentage (i.e. fraction of points obtained out of total possible points). Prior policy saw the two head coaches that appeared in the previous year's Stanley Cup Finals coaching the All-Star teams.

text: Beginning in 1969, the format was geographic with the

text: Wales/Eastern Conference

text: All-Stars played the

text: Campbell/Western Conference

text: All-Stars, where the "first team", or starting line, including the starting goaltender, voted in by fans, while the remainder of the teams' rosters are chosen by the NHL's Hockey Operations Department in consultation with the teams' general managers. Since

entity_name: 46th National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: , the

text: head coach

text: es for the two All-Star teams have been the coaches of the two teams that are leading their respective conferences in point percentage (i.e. fraction of points obtained out of total possible points). Prior policy saw the two head coaches that appeared in the previous year's

text: Stanley Cup Finals

text: coaching the All-Star teams.

text: PMS stars can be differentiated empirically from main-sequence stars by using stellar spectra to measure their surface gravity.  A PMS object has a larger radius than a main-sequence star with the same stellar mass and thus has a lower surface gravity. Although they are optically visible, PMS objects are rare relative to those on the main sequence, because their contraction lasts for only 1 percent of the time required for hydrogen fusion. During the early portion of the PMS stage, most stars have circumstellar disks, which are the sites of planet formation.

text: PMS stars can be differentiated empirically from main-sequence stars by using stellar spectra to measure their surface gravity.  A PMS object has a larger radius than a main-sequence star with the same

text: stellar mass

text: and thus has a lower surface gravity. Although they are optically visible, PMS objects are rare relative to those on the

text: main sequence

text: , because their contraction lasts for only 1 percent of the time required for

text: hydrogen fusion

text: . During the early portion of the PMS stage, most stars have

text: circumstellar disk

text: s, which are the sites of

text: planet formation

text: Actually, Red Giant was a sarcastic title, the exact opposite of White Dwarf, run by Games Workshop. In his first editorial, Tom Sage described WD as "[one of the] magazines exclusive to their product range."

text: Actually, Red Giant was a sarcastic title, the exact opposite of

text: White Dwarf

text: , run by Games Workshop. In his first editorial, Tom Sage described WD as "[one of the] magazines exclusive to their product range."

text: Replacing the Heroes of Hockey Old-Timers matches during the All-Star Weekend activities, the first four games were played as separate games to the actual All-Star Game, but starting in 2008, it was changed to become part of the NHL Super Skills Competition, with the winning team gaining a point for their conference. It was not held in 2005 due to that year's league lockout, or in 2006 due to the All-Star Game not being held so that NHL players could participate in the 2006 Winter Olympics.  Through the years, the game implemented different formats and rules.  It was discontinued after 2009 and has not been played since.

text: Replacing the Heroes of Hockey Old-Timers matches during the All-Star Weekend activities, the first four games were played as separate games to the actual All-Star Game, but starting in

entity_name: 56th National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: , it was changed to become part of the

entity_name: NHL All-Star Game SuperSkills Competition

text: NHL Super Skills Competition

text: , with the winning team gaining a point for their conference. It was not held in 2005 due to that year's

text: league lockout

text: , or in 2006 due to the All-Star Game not being held so that NHL players could participate in the

text: 2006 Winter Olympics

text: .  Through the years, the game implemented different formats and rules.  It was discontinued after 2009 and has not been played since.

text: A system of computing one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, known as Zi Wei Dou Shu (), or Purple Star Astrology, is still used regularly in modern-day Chinese astrology to divine one's fortune. The 28 Chinese constellations, Xiu (), are quite different from Western constellations.  For example, the Big Bear (Ursa Major) is known as Dou (); the belt of Orion is known as Shen (), or the "Happiness, Fortune, Longevity" trio of demigods. The seven northern constellations are referred to as Xuan Wu ().  Xuan Wu is also known as the spirit of the northern sky or the spirit of Water in Taoism belief.

text: A system of computing one's fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, known as

text: Zi Wei Dou Shu

text: (), or Purple Star Astrology, is still used regularly in modern-day Chinese astrology to divine one's fortune. The 28

text: Chinese constellation

text: s, Xiu (), are quite different from Western constellations.  For example, the Big Bear (

text: Ursa Major

text: ) is known as Dou (); the belt of

text: Orion

text: is known as Shen (), or the "Happiness, Fortune, Longevity" trio of demigods. The seven northern constellations are referred to as Xuan Wu ().  Xuan Wu is also known as the spirit of the northern sky or the spirit of Water in

text: Taoism

text: belief.

text: Deneb spent much of its early life as a  O-type main-sequence star but it has now exhausted the supply of hydrogen in its core and begun to cool and expand.  Stars in the mass range of Deneb eventually expand to become the most luminous red supergiants, and within a few million years their cores will collapse producing a supernova explosion.  It is now known that red supergiants up to a certain mass explode as the commonly seen type II-P supernovae, but more massive ones lose their outer layers to become hotter again.  Depending on their initial masses and the rate of mass loss, they may explode as yellow hypergiants or luminous blue variables, or they may become Wolf-Rayet stars before exploding in a type Ib or Ic supernova.  Identifying whether Deneb is currently evolving towards a red supergiant or is currently evolving bluewards again would place valuable constraints on the classes of stars that explode as red supergiants and those that explode as hotter stars.

text: Deneb spent much of its early life as a

text: O-type main-sequence star

text: but it has now exhausted the supply of hydrogen in its core and begun to cool and expand.  Stars in the mass range of Deneb eventually expand to become the most luminous

text: red supergiants

text: , and within a few million years their cores will collapse producing a

text: supernova

text: explosion.  It is now known that red supergiants up to a certain mass explode as the commonly seen

text: type II-P supernova

text: e, but more massive ones lose their outer layers to become hotter again.  Depending on their initial masses and the rate of mass loss, they may explode as

text: yellow hypergiant

text: s or

text: luminous blue variable

text: s, or they may become

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: s before exploding in a

text: type Ib or Ic supernova

text: .  Identifying whether Deneb is currently evolving towards a red supergiant or is currently evolving bluewards again would place valuable constraints on the classes of stars that explode as red supergiants and those that explode as hotter stars.

text: Many other particle accelerators also exist.

text: Many other

text: particle accelerator

text: s also exist.

text: In the mid-nineties, Bussard publications prompted the development of a fusors at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.  Madison's machine was first built in 1995 and the group still produces some of the best IEC research in the world. Dr George H. Miley team at Illinois, built a 25 cm fusor which has produced 10 neutrons using deuterium gas  and discovered the "star mode" of fusor operation in 1994.  The following year, the first "US-Japan Workshop on IEC Fusion", was conducted. This is now the premier conference for IEC researchers.  At this time in Europe, an IEC device was developed as a commercial neutron source by Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace under the name FusionStar.  In the late nineties, hobbyist Richard Hull began building the first amateur fusors in his home in Virginia. In March 1999, he achieved a neutron rate of 10 neutrons per second. Hull and Paul Schatzkin, started fusor.net in 1998.  Through this open forum, a community of amateur fusioneers have done nuclear fusion using homemade fusors.

text: In the mid-nineties, Bussard publications prompted the development of a

text: fusor

text: s at the

text: University of Wisconsin–Madison

text: and at the

entity_name: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

text: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

text: .  Madison's machine was first built in 1995 and the group still produces some of the best IEC research in the world. Dr

text: George H. Miley

text: team at Illinois, built a 25 cm fusor which has produced 10 neutrons using deuterium gas  and discovered the "star mode" of fusor operation in 1994.  The following year, the first "US-Japan Workshop on IEC Fusion", was conducted. This is now the premier conference for IEC researchers.  At this time in Europe, an IEC device was developed as a commercial neutron source by

text: Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace

text: under the name FusionStar.  In the late nineties, hobbyist Richard Hull began building the first amateur

text: fusor

text: s in his home in Virginia. In March 1999, he achieved a neutron rate of 10 neutrons per second. Hull and Paul Schatzkin, started fusor.net in 1998.  Through this open forum, a community of amateur fusioneers have done nuclear fusion using homemade

text: fusor

text: s.

text: Two star systems have had exoplanets discovered by doppler spectroscopy, and the substellar companion of a third star system—the sunlike star HD 131664—has turned out to be a brown dwarf with a predicted mass of the companion to 23 times that of Jupiter (minimum of 18 and maximum of 49 Jovian masses). HD 134606 is a yellow sunlike star of spectral type G6IV that has begun expanding and cooling off the main sequence. Three planets orbit it with periods of 12, 59.5 and 459 days, successively larger as they are further away from the star. HD 137388 is another star—of spectral type K2IV—that is cooler than the Sun and has begun cooling off the main sequence. Around 47% as luminous and 88% as massive as the Sun, with 85% of its diameter, it is thought to be around 7.4 ± 3.9 billion years old. It has a planet that is 79 times as massive as the Earth and orbits its sun every 330 days at an average distance of 0.89 astronomical units (AU).

text: Two star systems have had

text: exoplanet

text: s discovered by

text: doppler spectroscopy

text: , and the substellar companion of a third star system—the sunlike star

text: HD 131664

text: —has turned out to be a

text: brown dwarf

text: with a predicted mass of the companion to 23 times that of Jupiter (minimum of 18 and maximum of 49 Jovian masses).

text: HD 134606

text: is a yellow sunlike star of spectral type G6IV that has begun expanding and cooling off the main sequence. Three planets orbit it with periods of 12, 59.5 and 459 days, successively larger as they are further away from the star.

text: HD 137388

text: is another star—of spectral type K2IV—that is cooler than the Sun and has begun cooling off the main sequence. Around 47% as luminous and 88% as massive as the Sun, with 85% of its diameter, it is thought to be around 7.4 ± 3.9 billion years old. It has a planet that is 79 times as massive as the Earth and orbits its sun every 330 days at an average distance of 0.89

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU).

text: In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') and draw an "embedding diagram" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein–Rosen bridge". Note that the Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region, along with the part of the diagram corresponding to the other universe.

text: In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a

text: space-like

text: separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') and draw an "embedding diagram" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein–Rosen bridge". Note that the Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region, along with the part of the diagram corresponding to the other universe.

text: Beta Chamaeleontis (Beta Cha, β Chamaeleontis, β Cha) is a B-type main sequence star and is the third-brightest star in the constellation of Chamaeleon.  It has an apparent visual magnitude that varies between 4.24 and 4.30.

text: Beta Chamaeleontis (Beta Cha, β Chamaeleontis, β Cha) is a

text: B-type

text: main sequence

text: star

text: and is the third-brightest star in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Chamaeleon

text: .  It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: that varies between 4.24 and 4.30.

text: While the position, velocity and acceleration of a particle can be described with respect to any observer in any state of motion, classical mechanics assumes the existence of a special family of reference frames in terms of which the mechanical laws of nature take a comparatively simple form. These special reference frames are called inertial frames. An inertial frame is one that when an object that has no force interactions (an idealized situation) is viewed from that frame, it appears either to be at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an inertial frame. They are characterized by the requirement that all forces entering the observer's physical laws originate from identifiable sources caused by fields, such as electro-static field (caused by static electrical charges), electro-magnetic field (caused by moving charges), gravitational field (caused by mass), and so forth. A non-inertial reference frame is one that is accelerating with respect to an inertial frame, and in such a non-inertial frame a particle appears to be acted on by other forces not explained by existing fields. Such other forces are called variously fictitious forces, inertia forces, pseudo-forces. Hence, there appears to be other forces that enter the equations of motion solely as a result of the observed accelerations. A key concept of inertial frames is the method for identifying them. For practical purposes, reference frames that are unaccelerated with respect to the distant stars (an extremely distant point) are regarded as good approximations to inertial frames.

text: While the position, velocity and acceleration of a

text: particle

text: can be described with respect to any

text: observer

text: in any state of motion, classical mechanics assumes the existence of a special family of

text: reference frames

text: in terms of which the mechanical laws of nature take a comparatively simple form. These special reference frames are called

text: inertial frames

text: . An inertial frame is one that when an object that has no force interactions (an idealized situation) is viewed from that frame, it appears either to be at rest or in a state of uniform motion in a straight line. This is the fundamental definition of an inertial frame. They are characterized by the requirement that all forces entering the observer's

text: physical law

text: s originate from identifiable sources caused by

text: fields

text: , such as electro-static field (caused by static electrical charges), electro-magnetic field (caused by moving charges), gravitational field (caused by mass), and so forth. A non-inertial reference frame is one that is accelerating with respect to an inertial frame, and in such a non-inertial frame a particle appears to be acted on by other forces not explained by existing fields. Such other forces are called variously

text: fictitious force

text: s, inertia forces, pseudo-forces. Hence, there appears to be other forces that enter the equations of motion solely as a result of the observed accelerations. A key concept of inertial frames is the method for identifying them. For practical purposes, reference frames that are unaccelerated with respect to the

text: distant stars

text: (an extremely distant point) are regarded as good approximations to inertial frames.

text: Five star systems have been found to have planets, four of which have been discovered by the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) in Chile. HD 4308 is a star with around 83% of the Sun's mass located 72 light-years away with a super-Earth planet with an orbital period of around 15 days. HD 215497 is an orange star of spectral type K3V around 142 light-years distant. It is orbited by a hot super-Earth every 3 days and a second planet around the size of Saturn with a period of around 567 days. HD 221287 has a spectral type of F7V and lies 173 light-years away, and has a super-Jovian planet. HD 7199 has spectral type KOIV/V and is located 117 light-years away. It has a planet with around 30% the mass of Jupiter that has an orbital period of 615 days. HD 219077 has a planet around 10 times as massive as Jupiter in a highly eccentric orbit.

text: Five star systems have been found to have planets, four of which have been discovered by the

text: High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher

text: (HARPS) in Chile.

text: HD 4308

text: is a star with around 83% of the Sun's mass located 72 light-years away with a

text: super-Earth

text: planet with an orbital period of around 15 days.

text: HD 215497

text: is an orange star of spectral type K3V around 142 light-years distant. It is orbited by a hot super-Earth every 3 days and a second planet around the size of Saturn with a period of around 567 days.

text: HD 221287

text: has a spectral type of F7V and lies 173 light-years away, and has a

text: super-Jovian

text: planet.

text: HD 7199

text: has spectral type KOIV/V and is located 117 light-years away. It has a planet with around 30% the mass of Jupiter that has an orbital period of 615 days.

text: HD 219077

text: has a planet around 10 times as massive as Jupiter in a highly eccentric orbit.

text: Zeta Coronae Borealis is a double star with two blue-white components 6.3 arcseconds apart that can be readily separated at 100x magnification. The primary is of magnitude 5.1 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0. Nu Coronae Borealis is an optical double, whose components are a similar distance from Earth but have different radial velocities, hence are assumed to be unrelated. The primary, Nu Coronae Borealis, is a red giant of spectral type M2III and magnitude 5.2, lying 640±30 light-years distant, and the secondary, Nu Coronae Borealis, is an orange-hued giant star of spectral type K5III and magnitude 5.4, estimated to be 590±30 light-years away. Sigma Coronae Borealis, on the other hand, is a true multiple star system divisible by small amateur telescopes. It is actually a complex system composed of two stars around as massive as the Sun that orbit each other every 1.14 days, orbited by a third Sun-like star every 726 years. The fourth and fifth components are a binary red dwarf system that is 14,000 AU distant from the other three stars. ADS 9731 is an even rarer multiple system in the constellation, composed of six stars, two of which are spectroscopic binaries.

text: Zeta Coronae Borealis

text: is a double star with two blue-white components 6.3

text: arcseconds

text: apart that can be readily separated at 100x

entity_section: Calculating the magnification of optical systems

text: magnification

text: . The primary is of magnitude 5.1 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.

text: Nu Coronae Borealis

text: is an

text: optical double

text: , whose components are a similar distance from Earth but have different

text: radial velocities

text: , hence are assumed to be unrelated. The primary,

text: Nu Coronae Borealis

text: , is a

text: red giant

text: of spectral type M2III and magnitude 5.2, lying 640±30 light-years distant, and the secondary,

text: Nu Coronae Borealis

text: , is an orange-hued giant star of spectral type K5III and magnitude 5.4, estimated to be 590±30 light-years away.

text: Sigma Coronae Borealis

text: , on the other hand, is a true multiple star system divisible by small amateur telescopes. It is actually a complex system composed of two stars around as massive as the Sun that orbit each other every 1.14 days, orbited by a third Sun-like star every 726 years. The fourth and fifth components are a binary

text: red dwarf

text: system that is 14,000 AU distant from the other three stars.

text: ADS 9731

text: is an even rarer multiple system in the constellation, composed of six stars, two of which are spectroscopic binaries.

text: DD Microscopii, also known as CD-43 14304, is a binary star system in the constellation Microscopium. Its apparent magnitude is 11.0. It is a symbiotic star system composed of an orange giant of spectral type K2III and white dwarf in close orbit, with the smaller star ionizing the stellar wind of the larger star. The system is metal-poor. Combined with its high galactic latitude, this indicates that the star system has its origin in the galactic halo of the Milky Way.

text: DD Microscopii, also known as CD-43 14304, is a

text: binary star

text: system in the

text: constellation

text: Microscopium

text: . Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 11.0. It is a

text: symbiotic star

text: system composed of an orange

text: giant

text: of spectral type K2III and

text: white dwarf

text: in close orbit, with the smaller star ionizing the stellar wind of the larger star. The system is metal-poor. Combined with its high galactic latitude, this indicates that the star system has its origin in the

text: galactic halo

text: of the

text: Milky Way

text: Although most supergiant stars are less luminous than hypergiants of the same temperature, a few fall in the same luminosity range.  Ordinary supergiants lack the strong H emission and broadened spectral lines that indicate rapid mass loss in the hypergiants.  Lower mass supergiants do not return from the red supergiant phase, either exploding as supernovae or leaving behind a white dwarf.

text: Although most

text: supergiant

text: stars are less luminous than hypergiants of the same temperature, a few fall in the same luminosity range.  Ordinary supergiants lack the strong H emission and broadened spectral lines that indicate rapid mass loss in the hypergiants.  Lower mass supergiants do not return from the red supergiant phase, either exploding as supernovae or leaving behind a white dwarf.

text: Constellation cards represent star constellations in the sky which impact play in some way.  For example, a given Constellation might confer an additional power to the Neopets in play, or otherwise might change the game in some fashion. Wizards of the Coast has not given any official ruling as to the rules regarding constellations, but popular rule sets online (most notably in player-created "guilds" on the Neopets web site) considered them similar to Magic's enchantments.

text: Class O supergiants can develop emission lines of helium and nitrogen, or emission components to some absorption lines.  These are indicated by spectral peculiarity suffix codes specific to this type of star:

text: As of 2012, Field plays Lacey on The Client List starring Jennifer Love Hewitt, on Lifetime.

text: As of 2012, Field plays Lacey on

text: The Client List

text: starring

text: Jennifer Love Hewitt

text: , on

text: Lifetime

text: Nuclear engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the application of the breakdown (fission) as well as the fusion of atomic nuclei and/or the application of other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics. In the sub-field of nuclear fission, it particularly includes the interaction and maintenance of systems and components like nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants, and/or nuclear weapons. The field also includes the study of medical and other applications of (generally ionizing) radiation, nuclear safety, heat/thermodynamics transport, nuclear fuel and/or other related technology (e.g., radioactive waste disposal), and the problems of nuclear proliferation.

text: Nuclear engineering is the branch of

text: engineering

text: concerned with the application of the breakdown (

text: fission

text: ) as well as the

text: fusion

text: of

text: atomic nuclei

text: and/or the application of other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of

text: nuclear physics

text: . In the sub-field of nuclear fission, it particularly includes the interaction and maintenance of systems and components like

text: nuclear reactor

text: s,

text: nuclear power plant

text: s, and/or

text: nuclear weapon

text: s. The field also includes the study of

text: medical

text: and other applications of (generally

text: ionizing

text: radiation

text: nuclear safety

text: heat/thermodynamics

text: transport,

text: nuclear fuel

text: and/or other related technology (e.g.,

text: radioactive waste

text: disposal), and the problems of

text: nuclear proliferation

text: Supergiants have masses from 8 to 12 times the Sun () upwards, and luminosities from about 1,000 to over a million times the Sun (). They vary greatly in radius, usually from 30 to 500, or even in excess of 1,000 solar radii (). They are massive enough to begin core helium burning gently before the core becomes degenerate, without a flash, and without the strong dredge-ups that lower-mass stars experience. They go on to successively ignite heavier elements, usually all the way to iron. Also because of their high masses they are destined to explode as supernovae.

text: Supergiants have masses from 8 to 12 times the

text: Sun

text: () upwards, and

text: luminosities

text: from about 1,000 to over a million times the Sun (). They vary greatly in

text: radius

text: , usually from 30 to 500, or even in excess of 1,000

text: solar radii

text: (). They are massive enough to begin core helium burning gently before the core becomes degenerate, without a flash, and without the strong dredge-ups that lower-mass stars experience. They go on to successively ignite heavier elements, usually all the way to iron. Also because of their high masses they are destined to explode as

text: supernova

text: e.

text: The observed progenitors of type II-P supernovae all have temperatures between 3,500K and 4,400K and luminosities between  and .  This matches the expected parameters of lower mass red supergiants.  A small number of progenitors of type II-L and type IIb supernovae have been observed, all having luminosities around  and somewhat higher temperatures up to 6,000K.  These are a good match for slightly higher mass red supergiants with high mass loss rates.  There are no known supernova progenitors corresponding to the most luminous red supergiants, and it is expected that these evolve to Wolf Rayet stars before exploding.

text: The progenitor of SN 1993J was identified in pre-explosion ground-based images. The progenitor was observed to be a K-supergiant star, with an excess in the ultraviolet possibly due to surrounding hot stars or a hot binary companion.  While the supernova is located in a region populated by young massive stars, late-time photometry with the Hubble Space Telescope and spectroscopy with the Keck 10m-telescope presented by Maund and collaborators revealed the presence of the long suspected B-supergiant companion star.

text: The progenitor of SN 1993J was identified in pre-explosion ground-based images. The progenitor was observed to be a K-supergiant star, with an excess in the

text: ultraviolet

text: possibly due to surrounding hot stars or a hot binary companion.  While the supernova is located in a region populated by young massive stars, late-time photometry with the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and spectroscopy with the

text: Keck 10m-telescope

text: presented by Maund and collaborators revealed the presence of the long suspected B-supergiant companion star.

text: Supernova appear not to start from stars with greater than 18 solar masses, and the rate of large star formation appears to exceed the rate of supernovae.  So the suspiscion is that something else is happening to these extra large stars. Failed supernovae and black hole formation is an explanation. If this event indeed reflected the formation of a black hole, it is the first time that black hole formation has been observed.

text: Hydrogen fusion (nuclear fusion of four protons to form a helium-4 nucleus) is the dominant process that generates energy in the cores of main-sequence stars. It is also called "hydrogen burning", which should not be confused with the chemical combustion of hydrogen in an oxidizing atmosphere. There are two predominant processes by which stellar hydrogen fusion occurs: proton-proton chain and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle. Ninety percent of all stars, with the exception of white dwarfs, are fusing hydrogen by these two processes.

text: Hydrogen fusion

text: (nuclear fusion of four protons to form a

text: nucleus) is the dominant process that generates energy in the cores of

text: main-sequence

text: stars. It is also called "hydrogen burning", which should not be confused with the

text: chemical

text: combustion of hydrogen

text: in an

text: oxidizing

text: atmosphere. There are two predominant processes by which stellar hydrogen fusion occurs: proton-proton chain and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle. Ninety percent of all stars, with the exception of

text: white dwarfs

text: , are fusing hydrogen by these two processes.

text: It has been proposed that white dwarfs with surface temperatures of less than 10,000 kelvins could harbor a habitable zone at a distance between ~0.005 to 0.02 AU that would last upwards of 3 billion years. The goal is to search for transits of hypothetical Earth-like planets that could have migrated inward and/or formed there. As a white dwarf has a size similar to that of a planet, these kinds of transits would produce strong eclipses. Newer research casts some doubts on this idea, given that the close orbits of those hypothetical planets around their parent stars would subject them to strong tidal forces that could render them unhabitable by triggering a greenhouse effect. Another suggested constraint to this idea is the origin of those planets. Leaving aside in-situ formation on an accretion disk surrounding the white dwarf, there are two ways a planet could end in a close orbit around stars of this kind: by surviving being engulfed by the star during its red giant phase, and then spiraling towards its core, or inward migration after the white dwarf has formed. The former case is implausible for low-mass bodies, as they are unlikely to survive being absorbed by their stars. In the latter case, the planets would have to expel so much orbital energy as heat, through tidal interactions with the white dwarf, that they would likely end as uninhabitable embers.

text: It has been proposed that white dwarfs with surface temperatures of less than 10,000 kelvins could harbor a

text: habitable zone

text: at a distance between ~0.005 to 0.02

text: AU

text: that would last upwards of 3 billion years. The goal is to search for

text: transits

text: of hypothetical Earth-like planets that could have migrated inward and/or formed there. As a white dwarf has a size similar to that of a planet, these kinds of transits would produce strong

text: eclipse

text: s. Newer research casts some doubts on this idea, given that the close orbits of those hypothetical planets around their parent stars would subject them to strong

text: tidal force

text: s that could render them unhabitable by triggering a

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Another suggested constraint to this idea is the origin of those planets. Leaving aside in-situ formation on an

text: accretion disk

text: surrounding the white dwarf, there are two ways a planet could end in a close orbit around stars of this kind: by surviving being engulfed by the star during its red giant phase, and then spiraling towards its core, or inward migration after the white dwarf has formed. The former case is implausible for low-mass bodies, as they are unlikely to survive being absorbed by their stars. In the latter case, the planets would have to expel so much orbital energy as heat, through tidal interactions with the white dwarf, that they would likely end as uninhabitable embers.

text: A high-mass X-ray binary (HMXB) is a binary star system that is strong in X rays, and in which the normal stellar component is a massive star: usually an O or B star, or a blue supergiant. The compact, X-ray emitting, component is a neutron star or black hole.A fraction of the stellar wind of the massive normal star is captured by the compact object, and produces X-rays as it falls onto the compact object.

text: A high-mass X-ray binary (HMXB) is a

text: binary star

text: system that is strong in X rays, and in which the normal stellar component is a massive

text: star

text: : usually an O or B star, or a blue

text: supergiant

text: . The compact, X-ray emitting, component is a

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: .A fraction of the

text: stellar wind

text: of the massive normal star is captured by the compact object, and produces

text: X-ray

text: s as it falls onto the compact object.

text: The ISR (standing for "Intersecting Storage Rings") was a particle accelerator at CERN.  It was the world's first hadron collider, and ran from 1971 to 1984, with a maximum center of mass energy of 62 GeV.  From its initial startup, the collider itself had the capability to produce particles like the J/ψ and the upsilon, as well as observable jet structure; however, the particle detector experiments were not configured to observe events with large momentum transverse to the beamline, leaving these discoveries to be made at other experiments in the mid-1970s.  Nevertheless, the construction of the ISR involved many advances in accelerator physics, including the first use of stochastic cooling, and it held the record for luminosity at a hadron collider until surpassed by the Tevatron in 2004.

text: The ISR (standing for "Intersecting Storage Rings") was a

text: particle accelerator

text: at

text: CERN

text: .  It was the world's first

text: hadron

text: collider

text: , and ran from 1971 to 1984, with a maximum

text: center of mass

text: energy

text: of 62

text: GeV

text: .  From its initial startup, the collider itself had the capability to produce particles like the

text: J/ψ

text: and the

text: upsilon

text: , as well as observable

text: jet structure

text: ; however, the

text: particle detector

text: experiments were not configured to observe events with large

text: momentum

text: transverse

text: to the

text: beamline

text: , leaving these discoveries to be made at other experiments in the mid-1970s.  Nevertheless, the construction of the ISR involved many advances in

text: accelerator physics

text: , including the first use of

text: stochastic cooling

text: , and it held the record for

text: luminosity

text: at a hadron collider until surpassed by the

text: Tevatron

text: in 2004.

text: Of all the strands of his work, Velikovsky published least on his belief that electromagnetism plays a role in orbital mechanics. Although he appears to have retreated from the propositions in his 1946 monograph Cosmos without Gravitation, no such retreat is apparent in Stargazers and Gravediggers. Cosmos without Gravitation, which Velikovsky placed in university libraries and sent to scientists, is a probable catalyst for the hostile response of astronomers and physicists to his later claims about astronomy.  However, other Velikovskian enthusiasts such as Ralph Juergens (dec.), Earl Milton (dec.), Wal Thornhill, and Donald E. Scott have claimed that stars are powered not by internal nuclear fusion, but by galactic-scale electrical discharge currents. Such ideas do not find support in the conventional literature and are rejected as pseudoscience by the scientific community.

text: Of all the strands of his work, Velikovsky published least on his belief that electromagnetism plays a role in orbital mechanics. Although he appears to have retreated from the propositions in his 1946 monograph Cosmos without Gravitation, no such retreat is apparent in Stargazers and Gravediggers. Cosmos without Gravitation, which Velikovsky placed in university libraries and sent to scientists, is a probable catalyst for the hostile response of astronomers and physicists to his later claims about astronomy.  However, other Velikovskian enthusiasts such as Ralph Juergens (dec.), Earl Milton (dec.), Wal Thornhill, and Donald E. Scott have claimed that stars are powered not by internal nuclear fusion, but by galactic-scale electrical discharge currents. Such ideas do not find support in the conventional literature and are rejected as

text: pseudoscience

text: by the scientific community.

text: In 2006, McKellar starred in a Lifetime movie and web-based series titled Inspector Mom about a mother who solves mysteries.

text: In 2006, McKellar starred in a

text: Lifetime

text: movie and web-based series titled Inspector Mom about a mother who solves mysteries.

text: For at least a portion of its life, a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core, releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then radiates into outer space. Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star's lifetime, and for some stars by supernova nucleosynthesis when it explodes. Near the end of its life, a star can also contain degenerate matter. Astronomers can determine the mass, age, metallicity (chemical composition), and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space, its luminosity, and spectrum respectively. The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its evolution and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star, including diameter and temperature, change over its life, while the star's environment affects its rotation and movement. A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram). Plotting a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined.

text: For at least a portion of its life, a star shines due to

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: in its core, releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then

text: radiates

text: into

text: outer space

text: . Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: during the star's lifetime, and for some stars by

text: supernova nucleosynthesis

text: when it explodes. Near the end of its life, a star can also contain

text: degenerate matter

text: Astronomer

text: s can determine the

text: mass

text: , age,

text: metallicity

text: (chemical composition), and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space, its

text: luminosity

text: , and

text: spectrum

text: respectively. The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its

text: evolution

text: and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star, including diameter and temperature, change over its life, while the star's environment affects its rotation and movement. A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: (H–R diagram). Plotting a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined.

text: 39 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.90.

text: 39 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.90.

text: A Polar (also AM Herculis Star) is a highly magnetic type of cataclysmic variable binary star system. Like other cataclysmic variables (CVs), polars contain two stars: an accreting white dwarf (WD), and a low-mass donor star (usually a red dwarf) which is transferring mass to the WD as a result of the WD's gravitational pull. (In technical terms, the donor star overfills its Roche lobe.) Polars are distinguished from other CVs by the presence of a very strong magnetic field in the WD. Typical magnetic field strengths of polar systems are 10 million to 80 million gauss (1000–8000 teslas). The WD in the polar AN Ursae Majoris has the strongest known magnetic field among cataclysmic variables, with a field strength of 230 million gauss (23 kT). The presence of such a strong magnetic field gives rise to a number of fundamental differences between polars and non-magnetic CVs.

text: A Polar (also

text: AM Herculis

text: Star) is a highly magnetic type of

text: cataclysmic variable

text: binary star

text: system. Like other cataclysmic variables (CVs), polars contain two stars: an accreting

text: white dwarf

text: (WD), and a low-mass donor star (usually a

text: red dwarf

text: ) which is transferring mass to the WD as a result of the WD's gravitational pull. (In technical terms, the donor star overfills its

text: Roche lobe

text: .) Polars are distinguished from other CVs by the presence of a very strong

text: magnetic field

text: in the WD. Typical magnetic field strengths of polar systems are 10 million to 80 million gauss (1000–8000

text: tesla

text: s). The WD in the polar

text: AN Ursae Majoris

text: has the strongest known magnetic field among cataclysmic variables, with a field strength of 230 million gauss (23 kT). The presence of such a strong magnetic field gives rise to a number of fundamental differences between polars and non-magnetic CVs.

text: In physics, the term macron is used to describe microscopic particles, dust sized, accelerated to high speeds. The term was first used in the late 1960s, when it was believed that macrons could be accelerated cheaply in small particle accelerators as a way of achieving low-cost fusion power.

text: In

text: physics

text: , the term macron is used to describe microscopic particles, dust sized, accelerated to high speeds. The term was first used in the late 1960s, when it was believed that macrons could be accelerated cheaply in small

text: particle accelerator

text: s as a way of achieving low-cost

text: fusion power

text: For most ships, travel between star systems is only possible by using structures called "Stargates". Each stargate is linked to a partner stargate in another system; most star systems have more than two stargates <--two: entry and exit. only dead-ends are exceptions, of which there are few.-->, forming a network through which players travel. While travel within a star system by warp drive is relatively free-form, the need to use stargates to travel between systems makes them focal points for combat.

text: Fusion reactions occur when two (or more) atomic nuclei come close enough for long enough that the strong nuclear force pulling them together exceeds the electrostatic force pushing them apart, fusing them into heavier nuclei. For nuclei lighter than iron-56, the reaction is exothermic, releasing energy. For nuclei heavier than iron-56, the reaction is endothermic, requiring an external source of energy. Hence, nuclei smaller than iron-56 are more likely to fuse while those heavier than iron-56 are more likely to break apart.

text: Fusion reactions occur when two (or more) atomic nuclei come close enough for long enough that the

text: strong nuclear force

text: pulling them together exceeds the

text: electrostatic force

text: pushing them apart, fusing them into heavier nuclei. For nuclei lighter than

text: , the reaction is

text: exothermic

text: , releasing energy. For nuclei heavier than iron-56, the reaction is

text: endothermic

text: , requiring an external source of energy. Hence, nuclei smaller than iron-56 are more likely to fuse while those heavier than iron-56 are more likely to break apart.

text: After its cancellation, Star Trek engendered a cult following during the 1970s from syndicated reruns, and Captain Kirk became a cultural icon. Shatner began appearing at Star Trek conventions organized by Trekkies. In the mid-1970s, Paramount began pre-production for a revised Star Trek television series, tentatively titled Star Trek: Phase II. However, the phenomenal success of Star Wars (1977) led the studio to instead consider developing a Star Trek motion picture. Shatner and the other original Star Trek cast members returned to their roles when Paramount produced Star Trek: The Motion Picture, released in 1979. He played Kirk in the next six Star Trek films, ending with the character's death in Star Trek Generations (1994). Some later appearances in the role are in the movie sequences of the video game Starfleet Academy (1997), briefly for a DirecTV advertisement using footage from Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country running from late summer 2006, and the 2013 Academy Awards, in which he reprised the role for a comedic interlude with host Seth MacFarlane.

text: After its cancellation, Star Trek engendered a

text: cult following

text: during the 1970s from

text: syndicated rerun

text: s, and Captain Kirk became a

text: cultural icon

text: . Shatner began appearing at

text: Star Trek convention

text: s organized by

text: Trekkies

text: . In the mid-1970s,

text: Paramount

text: began pre-production for a revised Star Trek television series, tentatively titled

text: Star Trek: Phase II

text: . However, the phenomenal success of

text: Star Wars

text: (1977) led the studio to instead consider developing a Star Trek motion picture. Shatner and the other original Star Trek cast members returned to their roles when Paramount produced

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: , released in 1979. He played Kirk in the next six Star Trek films, ending with the character's death in

text: Star Trek Generations

text: (1994). Some later appearances in the role are in the movie sequences of the video game

text: Starfleet Academy

text: (1997), briefly for a

text: DirecTV advertisement

text: using footage from Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country running from late summer 2006, and the

text: 2013 Academy Awards

text: , in which he reprised the role for a comedic interlude with host

text: Seth MacFarlane

text: Black holes give off radiation because matter falling into them loses gravitational energy which may result in the emission of radiation before the matter falls into the event horizon. The infalling matter has angular momentum, which means that the material cannot fall in directly, but spins around the black hole. This material often forms an accretion disk. Similar luminous accretion disks can also form around white dwarfs and neutron stars, but in these the infalling gas releases additional energy as it slams against the high-density surface with high speed. In case of a neutron star, the infall speed can be a sizeable fraction of the speed of light.

text: Black holes give off radiation because matter falling into them loses gravitational energy which may result in the emission of radiation before the matter falls into the

text: event horizon

text: . The infalling matter has

text: angular momentum

text: , which means that the material cannot fall in directly, but spins around the black hole. This material often forms an

text: accretion disk

text: . Similar luminous accretion disks can also form around

text: white dwarf

text: s and neutron stars, but in these the infalling gas releases additional energy as it slams against the high-

text: density

text: surface with high speed. In case of a neutron star, the infall speed can be a sizeable fraction of the speed of light.

text: There a few stars in double or multiple star systems that appear greenish, even though they are really blue or white. This can happen if the star system contains a large red or orange star. An optical illusion causes things close to the red star to appear slightly greenish.The classical example is Antares B, the blue companion of the red supergiant  Antares, and another example is the star system Almach.

text: There a few stars in double or multiple star systems that appear greenish, even though they are really blue or white. This can happen if the star system contains a large red or orange star. An optical illusion causes things close to the red star to appear slightly greenish.The classical example is

text: Antares B

text: , the blue companion of the red supergiant

text: Antares

text: , and another example is the star system

text: Almach

text: The non-classical kinds of carbon stars, belonging to the types C-J and C-H, are believed to be binary stars, where one star is observed to be a giant star (or occasionally a red dwarf) and the other a white dwarf. The star presently observed to be a giant star accreted carbon-rich material when it was still a main-sequence star from its companion (that is, the star that is now the white dwarf) when the latter was still a classical carbon star. That phase of stellar evolution is relatively brief, and most such stars ultimately end up as white dwarfs. We are now seeing these systems a comparatively long time after the mass transfer event, so the extra carbon observed in the present red giant was not produced within that star. This scenario is also accepted as the origin of the barium stars, which are also characterized as having strong spectral features of carbon molecules and of barium (an s-process element). Sometimes the stars whose excess carbon came from this mass transfer are called "extrinsic" carbon stars to distinguish them from the "intrinsic" AGB stars which produce the carbon internally. Many of these extrinsic carbon stars are not luminous or cool enough to have made their own carbon, which was a puzzle until their binary nature was discovered.

text: The non-classical kinds of carbon stars, belonging to the types C-J and

text: C-H

text: , are believed to be

text: binary star

text: s, where one star is observed to be a giant star (or occasionally a

text: red dwarf

text: ) and the other a

text: white dwarf

text: . The star presently observed to be a giant star accreted carbon-rich material when it was still a

text: main-sequence

text: star from its companion (that is, the star that is now the white dwarf) when the latter was still a classical carbon star. That phase of

text: stellar evolution

text: is relatively brief, and most such stars ultimately end up as white dwarfs. We are now seeing these systems a comparatively long time after the

text: mass transfer

text: event, so the extra carbon observed in the present red giant was not produced within that star. This scenario is also accepted as the origin of the

text: barium star

text: s, which are also characterized as having strong spectral features of carbon molecules and of barium (an

text: s-process element

text: ). Sometimes the stars whose excess carbon came from this mass transfer are called "extrinsic" carbon stars to distinguish them from the "intrinsic" AGB stars which produce the carbon internally. Many of these extrinsic carbon stars are not luminous or cool enough to have made their own carbon, which was a puzzle until their binary nature was discovered.

text: The bat'leth appeared in 29 television episodes across the Star Trek franchise in Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Voyager, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Enterprise. The Bat'leth was also used in the 1994 film Star Trek Generations.  The mek'leth appeared in the television series Deep Space Nine and in the 1996 film Star Trek: First Contact. The Sword of Kahless appeared in the 2000 video game Star Trek: Armada and normal bat'leths appeared in the 1996 video game Star Trek: Klingon.  Some of the bat'leth's uses were in the debut episode "Reunion", where Worf teaches his son Alexander how to use one. Worf used a bat'leth to kill Durasa Klingon who killed Worf's mate K'Ehleyr. Notable uses of the weapon occurred in the Voyager episode "Barge of the Dead"in which Tuvok uses a bat'leth to teach B'Elanna Torres about her Klingon heritage, and in the Deep Space Nine episode "Tacking into the Wind" in which Worf kills the leader of the Klingon High Council, Gowron in a bat'leth duel to give the Klingon Chancellorship to General Martok.

text: The bat'leth appeared in 29 television episodes across the Star Trek franchise in Star Trek: The Next Generation,

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: , Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: . The Bat'leth was also used in the 1994 film

text: Star Trek Generations

text: .  The mek'leth appeared in the television series Deep Space Nine and in the 1996 film

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: . The Sword of Kahless appeared in the 2000 video game

text: Star Trek: Armada

text: and normal bat'leths appeared in the 1996 video game

text: Star Trek: Klingon

text: .  Some of the bat'leth's uses were in the debut episode "

entity_name: Reunion (Star Trek: The Next Generation)

text: Reunion

text: ", where Worf teaches his son

entity_name: List of Star Trek: The Next Generation characters

text: Alexander

text: how to use one. Worf used a bat'leth to kill Durasa Klingon who killed Worf's mate

text: K'Ehleyr

text: . Notable uses of the weapon occurred in the Voyager episode "

text: Barge of the Dead

text: "in which

text: Tuvok

text: uses a bat'leth to teach

text: B'Elanna Torres

text: about her Klingon heritage, and in the Deep Space Nine episode "

text: Tacking into the Wind

text: " in which Worf kills the leader of the

text: Klingon High Council

text: Gowron

text: in a bat'leth duel to give the Klingon Chancellorship to General

text: Martok

text: Xi Telescopii is an irregular variable star that ranges between magnitudes 4.89 and 4.94. Located 1079 light-years distant, it is a red giant of spectral type M2III that has a diameter around 5.6 times the Sun's, and a luminosity around 2973 times that of the Sun. Another irregular variable, RX Telescopii is a red supergiant that varies between magnitudes 6.45 and 7.47, just visible to the unaided eye under good viewing conditions. BL Telescopii is an Algol-like eclipsing binary system that varies between apparent magnitudes 7.09 and 9.08 over a period of just over 778 days (2 years 48 days). The primary is a yellow supergiant that is itself intrinsically variable. Dipping from its baseline magnitude of 9.6 to 16.5, RS Telescopii is a rare R Coronae Borealis variable—an extremely hydrogen-deficient supergiant thought to have arisen as the result of the merger of two white dwarfs; fewer than 100 have been discovered as of 2012. The dimming is thought to be caused by carbon dust expelled by the star. As of 2012, four dimmings have been observed. PV Telescopii is a class B-type (blue) extreme helium star that is the prototype of a class of variables known as PV Telescopii variables. First discovered in 1952, it was found to have a very low level of hydrogen. One theory of its origin is that it is the result of a merger between a helium- and a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. If the combined mass does not exceed the Chandrasekhar limit, the former will accrete onto the latter star and ignite to form a supergiant. Later this will become an extreme helium star before cooling to become a white dwarf.

text: Xi Telescopii

text: is an

text: irregular variable

text: star that ranges between magnitudes 4.89 and 4.94. Located 1079 light-years distant, it is a

text: red giant

text: of spectral type M2III that has a diameter around 5.6 times the Sun's, and a luminosity around 2973 times that of the Sun. Another irregular variable,

text: RX Telescopii

text: is a

text: red supergiant

text: that varies between magnitudes 6.45 and 7.47, just visible to the unaided eye under good viewing conditions.

text: BL Telescopii

text: is an

text: Algol

text: -like

text: eclipsing binary

text: system that varies between

text: apparent magnitude

text: s 7.09 and 9.08 over a period of just over 778 days (2 years 48 days). The primary is a

text: yellow supergiant

text: that is itself intrinsically variable. Dipping from its baseline magnitude of 9.6 to 16.5,

text: RS Telescopii

text: is a rare

text: R Coronae Borealis variable

text: —an extremely hydrogen-deficient

text: supergiant

text: thought to have arisen as the result of the merger of two

text: white dwarf

text: s; fewer than 100 have been discovered as of 2012. The dimming is thought to be caused by carbon dust expelled by the star. As of 2012, four dimmings have been observed.

text: PV Telescopii

text: is a class B-type (blue)

text: extreme helium star

text: that is the prototype of a class of variables known as

text: PV Telescopii variable

text: s. First discovered in 1952, it was found to have a very low level of hydrogen. One theory of its origin is that it is the result of a merger between a helium- and a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. If the combined mass does not exceed the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: , the former will accrete onto the latter star and ignite to form a supergiant. Later this will become an extreme helium star before cooling to become a white dwarf.

text: In Potsdam in 1906, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars—classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme—could be divided into two distinct groups. These stars are either much brighter than the Sun, or much fainter. To distinguish these groups, he called them "giant" and "dwarf" stars. The following year he began studying star clusters; large groupings of stars that are co-located at approximately the same distance. He published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence.

text: In

text: Potsdam

text: in 1906, the Danish astronomer

text: Ejnar Hertzsprung

text: noticed that the reddest stars—classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme—could be divided into two distinct groups. These stars are either much brighter than the Sun, or much fainter. To distinguish these groups, he called them "giant" and "dwarf" stars. The following year he began studying

text: star cluster

text: s; large groupings of stars that are co-located at approximately the same distance. He published the first plots of color versus

text: luminosity

text: for these stars. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence.

text: Froese finished second in voting for the Vezina Trophy. Mark Howe finished second in voting for the Norris Trophy and third in voting for the Hart Memorial Trophy as league MVP. Howe was named to the first NHL All-Star Team and took home the NHL Plus-Minus Award — the defense pairing of Howe and Brad McCrimmon finished with a +85 and a +83 respectively — while Froese was named to the second NHL All-Star Team and was the co-winner with Jensen of the William M. Jennings Trophy.

text: Froese finished second in voting for the

text: Vezina Trophy

text: Mark Howe

text: finished second in voting for the

text: Norris Trophy

text: and third in voting for the

text: Hart Memorial Trophy

text: as league MVP. Howe was named to the first

text: NHL All-Star Team

text: and took home the

text: NHL Plus-Minus Award

text: — the defense pairing of Howe and

text: Brad McCrimmon

text: finished with a +85 and a +83 respectively — while Froese was named to the second NHL All-Star Team and was the co-winner with Jensen of the

text: William M. Jennings Trophy

text: The conventional color descriptions are traditional in astronomy, and represent colors relative to the mean color of an A-class star, which is considered to be white. The apparent color descriptions are what the observer would see if trying to describe the stars under a dark sky without aid to the eye, or with binoculars. However, most stars in the sky, except the brightest ones, appear white or bluish white to the unaided eye because they are too dim for color vision to work. Red supergiants are cooler and redder than dwarfs of the same spectral type, and stars with particular spectral features such as carbon stars may be far redder than any black body.

text: The generator appears to resemble a scaled-down particle accelerator.

text: The generator appears to resemble a scaled-down

text: particle accelerator

text: The integral extends from the present to infinitely far in the future. Thus future values of the force affect the acceleration of the particle in the present. The future values are weighted by the factor

text: Lauren Murphy from The Irish Times gave only two stars out of five, commented "this unfortunately titled record is neither original nor uplifting enough to generate a high of any description." Brittany Spanos from the Rolling Stone magazine gave the album three out of five stars, stating that "even when the lyrics verge on ridiculousness [...], he's one of the biggest personalities in pop."  Maura Johnson from The Boston Globe wrote that the album is "an appealing snapshot of how Lambert has grown, and how he’s still willing to surprise his listeners and himself." Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle was similarly impressed, writing that the album "builds on the brash appeal that made [Lambert] a star."  Pip Ellwood of Entertainment Focus called The Original High "the strongest record that Lambert has released to date."

text: Lauren Murphy from

text: The Irish Times

text: gave only two stars out of five, commented "this unfortunately titled record is neither original nor uplifting enough to generate a high of any description." Brittany Spanos from the

text: Rolling Stone

text: magazine gave the album three out of five stars, stating that "even when the lyrics verge on ridiculousness [...], he's one of the biggest personalities in pop."  Maura Johnson from

text: The Boston Globe

text: wrote that the album is "an appealing snapshot of how Lambert has grown, and how he’s still willing to surprise his listeners and himself." Joey Guerra of the

text: Houston Chronicle

text: was similarly impressed, writing that the album "builds on the brash appeal that made [Lambert] a star."  Pip Ellwood of Entertainment Focus called The Original High "the strongest record that Lambert has released to date."

text: Fusion power is energy generated by nuclear fusion. Fusion reactions fuse two lighter atomic nuclei to form a heavier nucleus. It is a major area of plasma physics research that attempts to harness such reactions as a source of large scale sustainable energy. Fusion reactions are how stars transmute matter into energy.

text: Fusion power is

text: energy

text: generated by

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Fusion reactions fuse two lighter

text: atomic nuclei

text: to form a heavier nucleus. It is a major area of

text: plasma physics

text: research that attempts to harness such reactions as a source of large scale

text: sustainable energy

text: . Fusion reactions are how

text: star

text: s transmute matter into energy.

text: Her most recent television work was the 2007 Lifetime movie Christmas in Paradise co-starring Eureka star Colin Ferguson. She co-starred in the 2009 film release Skills Like This which won the Audience Award at the 2007 SXSW Film Festival.

text: Her most recent television work was the 2007

text: Lifetime

text: movie Christmas in Paradise co-starring

text: Eureka

text: star

text: Colin Ferguson

text: . She co-starred in the 2009 film release Skills Like This which won the Audience Award at the 2007

text: SXSW Film Festival

text: Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than fourth magnitude. At magnitude 0.34, Procyon, or Alpha Canis Minoris, is the seventh-brightest star in the night sky, as well as one of the closest. Its name means "before the dog" or "preceding the dog" in Greek, as it rises an hour before the "Dog Star", Sirius, of Canis Major. It is a binary star system, consisting of a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F5 IV-V, named Procyon A, and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA, named Procyon B. Procyon B, which orbits the more massive star every 41 years, is of magnitude 10.7. Procyon A is 1.4 times the Sun's mass, while its smaller companion is 0.6 times as massive as the Sun. The system is   from Earth, the shortest distance to a northern-hemisphere star of the first magnitude.  Gomeisa, or Beta Canis Minoris, with a magnitude of 2.89, is the second-brightest star in Canis Minor. Lying  from the Solar System, it is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral class B8 Ve. Although fainter to Earth observers, it is much brighter than Procyon, and is 250 times as luminous and three times as massive as the Sun.  Although its variations are slight, Gomeisa is classified as a shell star (Gamma Cassiopeiae variable), with a maximum magnitude of 2.84 and a minimum magnitude of 2.92. It is surrounded by a disk of gas which it heats and causes to emit radiation.

text: Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than fourth

text: magnitude

text: . At magnitude 0.34,

text: Procyon

text: , or Alpha Canis Minoris, is the seventh-

text: brightest star

text: in the night sky, as well as one of the

text: closest

text: . Its name means "before the dog" or "preceding the dog" in Greek, as it rises an hour before the "Dog Star",

text: Sirius

text: , of

text: Canis Major

text: . It is a

text: binary star

text: system, consisting of a yellow-white

text: main sequence

text: star of

text: spectral type

text: F5 IV-V, named Procyon A, and a faint

text: white dwarf

text: companion of spectral type DA, named Procyon B. Procyon B, which orbits the more massive star every 41 years, is of magnitude 10.7. Procyon A is 1.4 times the

text: Sun's mass

text: , while its smaller companion is 0.6 times as massive as the Sun. The system is   from

text: Earth

text: , the shortest distance to a northern-hemisphere star of the first magnitude.

text: Gomeisa

text: , or Beta Canis Minoris, with a magnitude of 2.89, is the second-brightest star in Canis Minor. Lying  from the

text: Solar System

text: , it is a blue-white

text: main sequence

text: star of

text: spectral class

text: B8 Ve. Although fainter to Earth observers, it is much brighter than Procyon, and is 250 times as

text: luminous

text: and three times as massive as the Sun.  Although its variations are slight, Gomeisa is classified as a

text: shell star

text: (Gamma Cassiopeiae variable), with a maximum magnitude of 2.84 and a minimum magnitude of 2.92. It is surrounded by a disk of gas which it heats and causes to emit radiation.

text: Particles that are produced in accelerators must also be observed, and this is the task of particle detectors. While interesting phenomena may occur when protons collide it is not enough to just produce them. Particle detectors must be built to detect particles, their masses, momentum, energies, lifetime, charges, and nuclear spins. In order to identify all particles produced at the interaction point where the particle beams collide, particle detectors are usually designed in layers like an onion. The layers are made up of detectors of different types, each of which is designed to observe specific types of particles.  The different traces that particles leave in each layer of the detector allow for effective particle identification and accurate measurements of energy and momentum. (The role of each layer in the detector is discussed below.) As the energy of the particles produced by the accelerator increases, the detectors attached to it must grow to effectively measure and stop higher-energy particles. ATLAS is the largest detector ever built at a particle collider.

text: Particles that are produced in accelerators must also be observed, and this is the task of particle detectors. While interesting phenomena may occur when protons collide it is not enough to just produce them. Particle detectors must be built to detect particles, their masses,

text: momentum

text: energies

text: , lifetime, charges, and

text: nuclear spin

text: s. In order to identify all particles produced at the

text: interaction point

text: where the particle beams collide, particle detectors are usually designed in layers like an onion. The layers are made up of detectors of different types, each of which is designed to observe specific types of particles.  The different traces that particles leave in each layer of the detector allow for effective

text: particle identification

text: and accurate measurements of energy and momentum. (The role of each layer in the detector is discussed

text: below

text: .) As the energy of the particles produced by the accelerator increases, the detectors attached to it must grow to effectively measure and stop higher-energy particles. ATLAS is the largest detector ever built at a particle collider.

text: There are two basic shapes of accelerators. Linear accelerators ("linacs") accelerate elementary particles along a straight path. Circular accelerators ("synchrotrons"), such as the Tevatron, the LEP, and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), use circular paths. Circular geometry has significant advantages at energies up to and including tens of GeV: With a circular design, particles can be effectively accelerated over longer distances. Also, only a fraction of the particles brought onto a collision course actually collide. In a linear accelerator, the remaining particles are lost; in a ring accelerator, they keep circulating and are available for future collisions. The disadvantage of circular accelerators is that charged particles moving along bent paths will necessarily emit electromagnetic radiation known as synchrotron radiation. Energy loss through synchrotron radiation is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the mass of the particles in question. That is why it makes sense to build circular accelerators for heavy particles—hadron colliders such as the LHC for protons or, alternatively, for lead nuclei. An electron–positron collider of the same size would never be able to achieve the same collision energies. In fact, energies at the LEP, which used to occupy the tunnel now given over to the LHC, were limited to 209 GeV by energy loss via synchrotron radiation.

text: There are two basic shapes of accelerators. Linear accelerators ("linacs") accelerate

text: elementary particle

text: s along a straight path. Circular accelerators ("synchrotrons"), such as the

text: Tevatron

text: , the

text: LEP

text: , and the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC), use circular paths. Circular geometry has significant advantages at energies up to and including tens of

text: GeV

text: : With a circular design,

text: particle

text: s can be effectively accelerated over longer distances. Also, only a fraction of the particles brought onto a collision course actually collide. In a linear accelerator, the remaining particles are lost; in a ring accelerator, they keep circulating and are available for future collisions. The disadvantage of circular accelerators is that charged particles moving along bent paths will necessarily emit electromagnetic radiation known as

text: synchrotron radiation

text: . Energy loss through synchrotron radiation is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the

text: mass

text: of the particles in question. That is why it makes sense to build circular accelerators for heavy particles—hadron colliders such as the LHC for

text: proton

text: s or, alternatively, for

text: lead

text: nuclei

text: . An electron–positron collider of the same size would never be able to achieve the same collision energies. In fact, energies at the

text: LEP

text: , which used to occupy the tunnel now given over to the LHC, were limited to 209 GeV by energy loss via synchrotron radiation.

text: Once the neutron star enters the red giant, drag between the neutron star and the outer, diffuse layers of the red giant causes the binary star system's orbit to decay, and the neutron star and core of the red giant spiral inward toward one another. Depending on their initial separation, this process may take hundreds of years. When the two finally collide, the neutron star and red giant core will merge. If their combined mass exceeds the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit then the two will collapse into a black hole, resulting in a supernova that disperses the outer layers of the star.  Otherwise, the two will coalesce into a single neutron star.

text: Once the neutron star enters the red giant,

text: drag

text: between the neutron star and the outer, diffuse layers of the red giant causes the binary star system's

text: orbit

text: to decay, and the neutron star and core of the red giant spiral inward toward one another. Depending on their initial separation, this process may take hundreds of years. When the two finally collide, the neutron star and red giant core will merge. If their combined mass exceeds the

text: Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit

text: then the two will collapse into a

text: black hole

text: , resulting in a

text: supernova

text: that disperses the outer layers of the star.  Otherwise, the two will coalesce into a single neutron star.

text: The European International dive education system CMAS recognises only three main levels of dive education indicated by a one star, two star, or three star system. One star indicates an ability to dive, two star indicates additional skill of rescuing divers, and three star indicates the additional skill in leading a group of divers.

text: Detroit has hosted five of the games. The 4th, 6th, 8th, and 9th games all took place at the Detroit Olympia. On October 8, 1950 the Red Wings, winner of the 1950 Stanley Cup Finals, played a team of All-Stars in the 4th All-Star Game. Only 9,166 people attended the game, making it is the smallest attendance figure in All-Star Game history. Ted Lindsay scored the first hat trick in an All-Star Game, as the Red Wings won 7–1. The 6th All-Star Game was held on October 5, 1952. For the second year in a row, the format had the First and Second Team All-Stars, with additional players on each team, play each other. After the game ended in a tie for the second year in a row, the NHL decided that they would continue with the previous format of the Stanley Cup winner playing an all-star team. The Red Wings won both the 1954 Stanley Cup Finals and the 1955 Stanley Cup Finals and so hosted the 8th and 9th All-Star Games, each on October 2.  The 1954 match ended in a 2–2 tie while the Red Wings won the 1955 game by a score of 3–1. The 32nd National Hockey League All-Star Game  was held at Joe Louis Arena in Detroit on February 5, 1980. The Wales Conference all-star team won for the fifth consecutive time. Gordie Howe, then of the Hartford Whalers, appeared in his twenty-third and final All-Star game, his first twenty-two coming during his career in Detroit.

text: Detroit has hosted five of the games. The

entity_name: 4th National Hockey League All-Star Game

entity_name: 6th National Hockey League All-Star Game

entity_name: 8th National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: , and

entity_name: 9th National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: games all took place at the

text: Detroit Olympia

text: . On October 8, 1950 the Red Wings, winner of the

text: 1950 Stanley Cup Finals

text: , played a team of All-Stars in the 4th All-Star Game. Only 9,166 people attended the game, making it is the smallest attendance figure in All-Star Game history.

text: Ted Lindsay

text: scored the first

text: hat trick

text: in an All-Star Game, as the Red Wings won 7–1. The 6th All-Star Game was held on October 5, 1952. For the second year in a row, the format had the

text: First and Second Team All-Stars

text: , with additional players on each team, play each other. After the game ended in a tie for the second year in a row, the NHL decided that they would continue with the previous format of the

text: Stanley Cup

text: winner playing an all-star team. The Red Wings won both the

text: 1954 Stanley Cup Finals

text: and the

text: 1955 Stanley Cup Finals

text: and so hosted the 8th and 9th All-Star Games, each on October 2.  The 1954 match ended in a 2–2 tie while the Red Wings won the 1955 game by a score of 3–1. The

entity_name: 32nd National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: 32nd National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: was held at

text: Joe Louis Arena

text: in Detroit on February 5, 1980. The

text: Wales Conference

text: Gordie Howe

text: , then of the

text: Hartford Whalers

text: , appeared in his twenty-third and final All-Star game, his first twenty-two coming during his career in Detroit.

text: The magnetic fields linked to starspots and coronal loops are linked to flare activity, and the associated coronal mass ejection. The plasma is heated to tens of millions of kelvins, and the particles are accelerated away from the star's surface at extreme velocities.

text: The magnetic fields linked to starspots and coronal loops are linked to

text: flare

text: activity, and the associated

text: coronal mass ejection

text: . The plasma is heated to tens of millions of kelvins, and the particles are accelerated away from the star's surface at extreme velocities.

text: Eclipsing variables are star systems that vary in brightness because of one star passing in front of the other rather than from any intrinsic change in luminosity. W Ursae Minoris is one such system, its magnitude ranging from 8.51 to 9.59 over 1.7 days. The combined spectrum of the system is A2V, but the masses of the two component stars are unknown. A slight change in the orbital period in 1973 suggests there is a third component of the multiple star system—most likely a red dwarf—with an orbital period of 62.2±3.9 years. RU Ursae Minoris is another example, ranging from 10 to 10.66 over 0.52 days. It is a semidetached system, as the secondary star is filling its Roche lobe and transferring matter to the primary.

text: Eclipsing variables are star systems that vary in brightness because of one star passing in front of the other rather than from any intrinsic change in luminosity.

text: W Ursae Minoris

text: is one such system, its magnitude ranging from 8.51 to 9.59 over 1.7 days. The combined spectrum of the system is A2V, but the masses of the two component stars are unknown. A slight change in the orbital period in 1973 suggests there is a third component of the multiple star system—most likely a

text: red dwarf

text: —with an orbital period of 62.2±3.9 years.

text: RU Ursae Minoris

text: is another example, ranging from 10 to 10.66 over 0.52 days. It is a

text: semidetached

text: system, as the secondary star is filling its

text: Roche lobe

text: and transferring matter to the primary.

text: Usually the only thing the stars in a constellation have in common is that they appear near each other in the sky when viewed from the Earth.  In galactic space, the stars of a constellation usually lie at a variety of distances. Since stars also travel on their own orbits through the Milky Way, the star patterns of the constellations change slowly over time. After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, their familiar outlines will become unrecognisable.

text: Usually the only thing the stars in a constellation have in common is that they appear near each other in the sky when viewed from the Earth.  In galactic space, the stars of a constellation usually lie at a variety of distances. Since stars also travel on their own orbits through the

text: Milky Way

text: , the star patterns of the constellations change slowly over time. After tens to hundreds of thousands of years, their familiar outlines will become unrecognisable.

text: They can also be classified based on how we observe them. Visual binaries are two stars separated enough that they can be viewed through a telescope or binoculars.

text: Gliese 221 is an orange-red dwarf star.

text: Gliese 221 is an orange-red dwarf star.

text: A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased explosive power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a hydrogen bomb or H-bomb because it employs fusion of isotopes of hydrogen.

text: A thermonuclear weapon is a

text: nuclear weapon

text: that uses the energy from a primary

text: nuclear fission

text: reaction to compress and ignite a secondary

text: nuclear fusion

text: reaction. The result is greatly increased explosive power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a hydrogen bomb or H-bomb because it employs fusion of

text: isotope

text: s of

text: hydrogen

text: Fred Hoyle authored the first two research papers ever published on the synthesis of the chemical elements heavier than helium by nuclear reactions in stars. The first of these  in 1946 showed that the cores of stars will evolve to temperatures of billions of degrees, much hotter than temperatures considered for thermonuclear origin of stellar power in main sequence stars. Hoyle showed that at such high temperatures the element iron can become much more abundant than other heavy elements owing to thermal equilibrium among nuclear particles, explaining the high natural abundance of iron. This idea would later be called the e Process.  Hoyle's second foundational nucleosynthesis publication showed that the elements between carbon and iron cannot be synthesized by such equilibrium processes. Hoyle attributed those elements to specific nuclear fusion reactions between abundant constituents in concentric shells of evolved massive, pre-supernova stars. This startlingly modern picture is the accepted paradigm today for the supernova nucleosynthesis of these primary elements.  In the mid 1950s, Hoyle became the leader of a group of very talented experimental and theoretical physicists who met in Cambridge:  William Alfred Fowler, Margaret Burbidge, and Geoffrey Burbidge.  This group systematized basic ideas of how all the chemical elements in our universe were manufactured, with this now being a field called nucleosynthesis.  Famously, in 1957, this group produced the BFH paper (known for the initials of the four authors) in which the field of nucleosynthesis was organized into complementary nuclear processes. They also added much new material on the synthesis of heavy elements by neutron-capture reactions, the so-called s process and the r process. So influential did the BFH paper become that for the remainder of the twentieth century it became the default citation of almost all researchers wishing to cite an accepted origin for nucleosynthesis theory, and as a result the path breaking Hoyle 1954 paper fell into obscurity. Many younger researchers appear to have never read it. Historical research in the 21st century  has brought Hoyle's 1954 paper back to scientific prominence. Those historical arguments were first presented to a gathering of nucleosynthesis experts attending a 2007 conference at Caltech organized after the deaths of both Fowler and Hoyle to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the publication of BFH. Ironically the BFH paper did not review Hoyle's 1954 supernova-shells attribution of the origin of elements between silicon and iron despite Hoyle's co authorship of BFH. Based on his many personal discussions with Hoyle  Donald D. Clayton has attributed this seemingly inexplicable oversight in BFH to the lack of proofreading by Hoyle of the draft composed at Caltech in 1956 by G.R. Burbidge and E.M. Burbidge.

text: Fred Hoyle authored the first two research papers ever published on the synthesis of the chemical elements heavier than helium by nuclear reactions in stars. The first of these  in 1946 showed that the cores of stars will evolve to temperatures of billions of degrees, much hotter than temperatures considered for thermonuclear origin of stellar power in main sequence stars. Hoyle showed that at such high temperatures the element iron can become much more abundant than other heavy elements owing to thermal equilibrium among nuclear particles, explaining the high natural abundance of iron. This idea would later be called the e Process.  Hoyle's second foundational nucleosynthesis publication showed that the elements between carbon and iron cannot be synthesized by such equilibrium processes. Hoyle attributed those elements to specific nuclear fusion reactions between abundant constituents in concentric shells of evolved massive, pre-supernova stars. This startlingly modern picture is the accepted paradigm today for the

text: supernova nucleosynthesis

text: of these primary elements.  In the mid 1950s, Hoyle became the leader of a group of very talented experimental and theoretical physicists who met in Cambridge:

text: William Alfred Fowler

text: Margaret Burbidge

text: , and

text: Geoffrey Burbidge

text: .  This group systematized basic ideas of how all the chemical elements in our universe were manufactured, with this now being a field called

text: nucleosynthesis

text: .  Famously, in 1957, this group produced the

text: BFH paper

text: (known for the initials of the four authors) in which the field of nucleosynthesis was organized into complementary nuclear processes. They also added much new material on the synthesis of heavy elements by neutron-capture reactions, the so-called

text: s process

text: and the

text: r process

text: . So influential did the BFH paper become that for the remainder of the twentieth century it became the default citation of almost all researchers wishing to cite an accepted origin for nucleosynthesis theory, and as a result the path breaking Hoyle 1954 paper fell into obscurity. Many younger researchers appear to have never read it. Historical research in the 21st century  has brought Hoyle's 1954 paper back to scientific prominence. Those historical arguments were first presented to a gathering of nucleosynthesis experts attending a 2007 conference at Caltech organized after the deaths of both Fowler and Hoyle to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the publication of BFH. Ironically the BFH paper did not review Hoyle's 1954 supernova-shells attribution of the origin of elements between silicon and iron despite Hoyle's co authorship of BFH. Based on his many personal discussions with Hoyle

text: Donald D. Clayton

text: has attributed this seemingly inexplicable oversight in BFH to the lack of proofreading by Hoyle of the draft composed at Caltech in 1956 by G.R. Burbidge and E.M. Burbidge.

text: Rey's interest in astronomy began during World War I and led to his desire to redraw constellation diagrams, which he found difficult to remember, so that they were more intuitive. This led to the 1952 publication of The Stars: A New Way to See Them, (ISBN 0-395-24830-2). His constellation diagrams were adopted widely and now appear in many astronomy guides, such as Donald H. Menzel's A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets. As of 2003 The Stars: A New Way to See Them, and a simplified presentation for children called Find the Constellations, are still in print. A new edition of Find the Constellations was released in 2008, updated with modern fonts, the new status of Pluto, and some more current measurements of planetary sizes and orbital radii.

text: Rey's interest in astronomy began during World War I and led to his desire to redraw constellation diagrams, which he found difficult to remember, so that they were more intuitive. This led to the 1952 publication of The Stars: A New Way to See Them, (ISBN 0-395-24830-2). His constellation diagrams were adopted widely and now appear in many astronomy guides, such as

text: Donald H. Menzel

text: 's A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets. As of 2003 The Stars: A New Way to See Them, and a simplified presentation for children called Find the Constellations, are still in print. A new edition of Find the Constellations was released in 2008, updated with modern fonts, the new status of

text: Pluto

text: , and some more current measurements of planetary sizes and orbital radii.

text: A B[e] star, frequently called a B(e)-type star, is a B-type star with distinctive forbidden neutral or low ionisation emission lines in its spectrum. The designation results from combining the spectral class B, the lowercase e denoting emission in the spectral classification system, and the surrounding square brackets signifying forbidden lines.  These stars frequently also show strong hydrogen emission lines, but this feature is present in a variety of other stars and is not sufficient to classify a B[e] object.  Other observational characteristics include optical linear polarization and often infrared radiation that is much stronger than in ordinary B-class stars, called infrared excess.  As the B[e] nature is transient, B[e]-type stars might exhibit a normal B-type spectrum at times, and hitherto normal B-type stars may become B[e]-type stars.

text: A B[e] star, frequently called a B(e)-type star, is a

text: B-type star

text: with distinctive

text: forbidden

text: neutral or low ionisation

text: emission lines

text: in its spectrum. The designation results from combining the spectral class B, the lowercase e denoting emission in the spectral classification system, and the surrounding square brackets signifying forbidden lines.  These stars frequently also show strong hydrogen emission lines, but this feature is present in a variety of other stars and is not sufficient to classify a B[e] object.  Other observational characteristics include optical

text: linear polarization

text: and often

text: infrared

text: radiation that is much stronger than in ordinary B-class stars, called

text: infrared excess

text: .  As the B[e] nature is transient, B[e]-type stars might exhibit a normal B-type spectrum at times, and hitherto normal B-type stars may become B[e]-type stars.

text: Draco Dwarf contains many red giant branch (RGB) stars; five carbon stars have been identified in Draco Dwarf and four likely asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars have been detected.

text: Draco Dwarf contains many

text: red giant branch

text: (RGB) stars; five

text: carbon star

text: s have been identified in Draco Dwarf and four likely

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (AGB) stars have been detected.

text: The only star in the constellation to have received a name is Alfecca Meridiana or Alpha CrA. The name combines the Arabic name of the constellation with the Latin for "southern". In Arabic, Alfecca means "break", and refers to the shape of both Corona Australis and Corona Borealis. Also called simply "Meridiana", it is a white main sequence star located 130 light years away from Earth, with an apparent magnitude of 4.10 and spectral type A2Va. A rapidly rotating star, it spins at almost 200 km per second at its equator, making a complete revolution in around 14 hours. Like the star Vega, it has excess infrared radiation, which indicates it may be ringed by a disk of dust.  It is currently a main-sequence star, but will eventually evolve into a white dwarf; currently, it has a luminosity 31 times greater, and a radius and mass of 2.3 times that of the Sun. Beta Coronae Australis is an orange giant 510 light years from Earth. Its spectral type is K0II, and it is of apparent magnitude 4.11. Since its formation, it has evolved from a B-type star to a K-type star. Its luminosity class places it as a bright giant; its luminosity is 730 times that of the Sun, designating it one of the highest-luminosity K0-type stars visible to the naked eye. 100 million years old, it has a radius of 43 solar radii () and a mass of between 4.5 and 5 solar masses (). Alpha and Beta are so similar as to be indistinguishable in brightness to the naked eye.

text: The only star in the constellation to have received a name is

text: Alfecca Meridiana or Alpha CrA

text: . The name combines the

text: Arabic

text: name of the constellation with the

text: Latin

text: for "southern". In Arabic, Alfecca means "break", and refers to the shape of both Corona Australis and Corona Borealis. Also called simply "Meridiana", it is a white

text: main sequence

text: star located 130 light years away from Earth, with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 4.10 and

text: spectral type

text: A2Va. A rapidly rotating star, it spins at almost 200 km per second at its equator, making a complete revolution in around 14 hours. Like the star

text: Vega

text: , it has

text: excess infrared radiation

text: , which indicates it may be ringed by a disk of dust.  It is currently a

text: main-sequence star

text: , but will eventually

text: evolve

text: into a

text: white dwarf

text: ; currently, it has a luminosity 31 times greater, and a radius and mass of 2.3 times that of the Sun.

text: Beta Coronae Australis

text: is an orange

text: giant

text: 510 light years from Earth. Its spectral type is K0II, and it is of apparent magnitude 4.11. Since its formation, it has evolved from a

text: B-type star

text: to a

text: K-type star

text: . Its

text: luminosity class

text: places it as a

text: bright giant

text: ; its luminosity is 730 times that of the Sun, designating it one of the highest-luminosity K0-type stars visible to the naked eye. 100 million years old, it has a radius of 43

text: solar radii

text: () and a mass of between 4.5 and 5

text: solar mass

text: es (). Alpha and Beta are so similar as to be indistinguishable in brightness to the naked eye.

text: This equation entails that photon spheres can only exist in the space surrounding an extremely compact object (a black hole or possibly a neutron star).

text: This equation entails that photon spheres can only exist in the space surrounding an extremely compact object (a

text: black hole

text: or possibly a

text: neutron star

text: ASASSN-16ma was a bright nova in the constellation Sagittarius discovered by All Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae, which peaked at magnitude of 5.4 in early November of 2016. It is one of the brightest novae in recent history, and the brightest since V5668 Sagittarii in 2015. Being in one of the densest regions of the sky (the galactic core) it is nearly impossible to determine the culprit system, but due to the nature of the nova, a white dwarf and giant star binary system is the most likely origin.

text: ASASSN-16ma was a bright

text: nova

text: in the constellation

text: Sagittarius

text: discovered by

text: All Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae

text: , which peaked at

text: magnitude

text: of 5.4 in early November of 2016. It is one of the brightest novae in recent history, and the brightest since

text: V5668 Sagittarii

text: in 2015. Being in one of the densest regions of the sky (the galactic core) it is nearly impossible to determine the culprit system, but due to the nature of the nova, a white dwarf and giant star binary system is the most likely origin.

text: A preon star is a proposed type of compact star made of preons, a group of hypothetical subatomic particles. Preon stars would be expected to have huge densities, exceeding 10 kg/m. They may have greater densities than quark stars and neutron stars although they are smaller and, therefore, less massive than white dwarfs and neutron stars. Preon stars could originate from supernova explosions or the big bang. Such objects could be detected in principle through gravitational lensing of gamma rays. Preon stars are a potential candidate for dark matter. However, current observations from particle accelerators speak against the existence of preons, or at least do not prioritize their investigation, since the only particle detector presently able to explore very high energies (the Large Hadron Collider) is not designed specifically for this, and its research program is directed towards other areas such as the Higgs boson, quark-gluon plasma and evidence related to physics beyond the Standard Model.

text: A preon star is a proposed type of compact star made of

text: preon

text: s, a group of

text: hypothetical subatomic particles

text: . Preon stars would be expected to have huge

text: densities

text: , exceeding 10 kg/m. They may have greater densities than quark stars and neutron stars although they are smaller and, therefore, less massive than white dwarfs and neutron stars. Preon stars could originate from

text: supernova

text: explosions or the

text: big bang

text: . Such objects could be detected in principle through

text: gravitational lensing

text: of

text: gamma ray

text: s. Preon stars are a potential candidate for

text: dark matter

text: . However, current observations from

text: particle accelerator

text: s speak against the existence of preons, or at least do not prioritize their investigation, since the only particle detector presently able to explore very high energies (the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: ) is not designed specifically for this, and its research program is directed towards other areas such as the

text: Higgs boson

text: quark-gluon plasma

text: and evidence related to

text: physics beyond the Standard Model

text: This is an A-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of A1 V. It has about 2.45 times the mass of the Sun and shines with 40 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space at an effective temperature of 10.300 K, giving it the white-hued glow of an A-type star. It is roughly 23% of the way through its lifetime on the main sequence of core hydrogen burning stars.

text: This is an

text: A-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of A1 V. It has about 2.45 times the mass of the Sun and shines with 40 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 10.300 K, giving it the white-hued glow of an

text: A-type star

text: . It is roughly 23% of the way through its lifetime on the

text: main sequence

text: of core

text: hydrogen burning

text: stars.

text: The kicked rotator approximates systems studied in the fields of mechanics of particles, accelerator physics, plasma physics, and solid state physics. For example, circular particle accelerators accelerate particles by applying periodic kicks, as they circulate in the beam tube. Thus, the structure of the beam can be approximated by the kicked rotor.  However, this map is interesting from a fundamental point of view in physics and mathematics because it is a very simple model of a conservative system that displays Hamiltonian chaos. It is therefore useful to study the development of chaos in this kind of system.

text: The

text: kicked rotator

text: approximates systems studied in the fields of

text: mechanics

text: of particles,

text: accelerator physics

text: plasma physics

text: , and

text: solid state physics

text: . For example, circular

text: particle accelerator

text: s accelerate particles by applying periodic kicks, as they circulate in the beam tube. Thus, the structure of the beam can be approximated by the kicked rotor.  However, this map is interesting from a fundamental point of view in physics and mathematics because it is a very simple model of a conservative system that displays

text: Hamiltonian chaos

text: . It is therefore useful to study the development of chaos in this kind of system.

text: There are a number of difficulties reconciling modelled and observed stellar evolution leading up to core collapse supernovae.  Red supergiants are the expected progenitors for the vast majority of core collapse supernovae, and these have been observed but only at relatively low masses and luminosities, below about  and  respectively.  Most progenitors of type II supernovae are not detected and must be considerably fainter, and presumably less massive.  It is now proposed that higher mass red supergiants do not explode as supernovae, but instead evolve back towards hotter temperatures.  Several progenitors of type IIb supernovae have been confirmed, and these were K and G supergiants, plus one A supergiant.  Yellow hypergiants or LBVs are proposed progenitors for type IIb supernovae, and almost all type IIb supernovae near enough to observe have shown such progenitors.

text: Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in interstellar space collapse to form stars. As a branch of astronomy, star formation includes the study of the interstellar medium and giant molecular clouds (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process, and the study of protostars and young stellar objects as its immediate products.  Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of binary stars and the initial mass function.

text: Star formation

text: is the process by which dense regions within

text: molecular cloud

text: s in

text: interstellar space

text: collapse to form

text: star

text: s. As a branch of

text: astronomy

text: , star formation includes the study of the

text: interstellar medium

text: and

text: giant molecular cloud

text: s (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process, and the study of

text: protostar

text: s and

text: young stellar object

text: s as its immediate products.  Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of

text: binary star

text: s and the

text: initial mass function

text: Many of the cast members have had roles in the Star Trek franchise: Patrick Stewart played Captain Jean-Luc Picard, Whoopi Goldberg played Guinan, Leonard Nimoy played Mr. Spock, Christopher Lloyd played Kruge in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, Ed Begley, Jr. played Henry Starling in a two-part episode of Star Trek: Voyager, George Hearn played Dr. Berel in an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation, and B.J. Ward played numerous characters in Star Trek computer games, as did Jim Cummings. Composer James Horner was also the composer for Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek III: The Search for Spock. Frank Welker voiced Spock's screams in Star Trek III and the alien creature in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Nothing Human". Robert Picardo played The Doctor on Star Trek: Voyager.

text: Many of the cast members have had roles in the

text: Star Trek

text: franchise:

text: Patrick Stewart

text: played Captain

text: Jean-Luc Picard

text: Whoopi Goldberg

text: played

text: Guinan

text: Leonard Nimoy

text: played

text: Mr. Spock

text: Christopher Lloyd

text: played Kruge in

text: Star Trek III: The Search for Spock

text: Ed Begley, Jr.

text: played Henry Starling in a two-part episode of

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: George Hearn

text: played Dr. Berel in an episode of

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: , and

text: B.J. Ward

text: played numerous characters in Star Trek computer games, as did

text: Jim Cummings

text: . Composer

text: James Horner

text: was also the composer for

text: Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan

text: and

text: Star Trek III: The Search for Spock

text: Frank Welker

text: voiced Spock's screams in Star Trek III and the alien creature in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "

text: Nothing Human

text: Robert Picardo

text: played

text: The Doctor

text: on

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: If muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion were able to be realized practically, it would be a much more attractive way of generating power than conventional nuclear fission reactors because muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion (like most other types of nuclear fusion), produces far fewer harmful (and far less long-lived) radioactive wastes.

text: If muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion were able to be realized practically, it would be a much more attractive way of generating power than conventional

text: nuclear fission

text: reactors because muon-catalyzed d-t nuclear fusion (like most other types of

text: nuclear fusion

text: ), produces far fewer harmful (and far less long-lived) radioactive wastes.

text: Wolf 489's temperature is 5030 ± 120 K (comparable with that of early K-type main sequence stars); its cooling age, i. e. age as degenerate star (not including lifetime as main sequence star and as giant star) is 5.19 Gyr. Despite its official classification as "white dwarf", Wolf 489 is not actually white due to low temperature, and should appear the same color as K-type main sequence stars, often referred to as "orange dwarfs".

text: Wolf 489's temperature is 5030 ± 120

text: K

text: (comparable with that of early

text: K-type main sequence star

text: s); its cooling age, i. e. age as degenerate star (not including lifetime as main sequence star and as giant star) is 5.19

text: Gyr

text: . Despite its official classification as "white dwarf", Wolf 489 is not actually white due to low temperature, and should appear the same color as K-type main sequence stars, often referred to as "

text: orange dwarf

text: s".

text: The shape and position of the Hayashi track on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram depends on the star's mass and chemical composition. For solar-mass stars, the track lies at a temperature of roughly 4000 K. Stars on the track are nearly fully convective and have their opacity dominated by hydrogen ions. Stars less than  are fully convective even on the main sequence, but their opacity begins to be dominated by Kramers' opacity law after nuclear fusion begins, thus moving them off the Hayashi track. Stars between 0.5 and  develop a radiativezone prior to reaching the main sequence. Stars between 3 and  are fully radiative at the beginning of the pre-main-sequence. Even heavier stars are born onto the main sequence, with no PMS evolution.

text: The shape and position of the Hayashi track on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram depends on the star's mass and chemical composition. For solar-mass stars, the track lies at a temperature of roughly 4000 K. Stars on the track are nearly fully convective and have their

text: opacity

text: dominated by hydrogen ions. Stars less than  are fully convective even on the main sequence, but their opacity begins to be dominated by

text: Kramers' opacity law

text: after nuclear fusion begins, thus moving them off the Hayashi track. Stars between 0.5 and  develop a radiativezone prior to reaching the main sequence. Stars between 3 and  are fully radiative at the beginning of the pre-main-sequence. Even heavier stars are born onto the main sequence, with no PMS evolution.

text: The primary component in this system is a blue straggler, which is a type of star that is created by the interaction between two or more stars. Most likely the source of this mass transfer was the secondary member of the system, and what is now the primary star was probably once the secondary component. At an estimated age of 4 million years, this star is much younger than the age of the surrounding IC 2602 cluster, which is consistent with it being a straggler. At present the primary star has about 15 times the mass of the Sun and five times the Sun's radius. It has an intensely hot outer envelope that is radiating more than 25,000 the Sun's luminosity at an effective temperature of 31,000 K, giving it a blue-white glow. When the primary reaches the age of around 11 million years, it will expand to the point where it will begin to transfer part of its mass back to its companion. Little is known about this secondary component, but it may be an F-type star with a luminosity less than 1% of the primary.

text: The primary component in this system is a

text: blue straggler

text: , which is a type of star that is created by the interaction between two or more stars. Most likely the source of this mass transfer was the secondary member of the system, and what is now the primary star was probably once the secondary component. At an estimated age of 4 million years, this star is much younger than the age of the surrounding IC 2602 cluster, which is consistent with it being a straggler. At present the primary star has about 15 times the mass of the Sun and five times the Sun's radius. It has an intensely hot outer envelope that is radiating more than 25,000 the Sun's luminosity at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 31,000 K, giving it a blue-white glow. When the primary reaches the age of around 11 million years, it will expand to the point where it will begin to transfer part of its mass back to its companion. Little is known about this secondary component, but it may be an

text: F-type star

text: with a luminosity less than 1% of the primary.

text: These injected elements ultimately enrich the molecular clouds that are the sites of star formation. Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life, and may decisively influence the possibility of having planets orbiting it.

text: These injected elements ultimately enrich the

text: molecular cloud

text: s that are the sites of star formation. Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life, and may decisively influence the possibility of having

text: planet

text: s orbiting it.

text: This is a long-period spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of approximately 15,000 days (41 years) and an overall apparent visual magnitude of approximately 3.28. The primary of the spectroscopic binary has a stellar classification of K3 III, indicating that it is a giant star. It most likely evolved from a F-type main sequence star after consuming the hydrogen at its core. The secondary is believed to be relatively faint, as it has not been observed interferometrically. The star has two optical companions, the closest of which may be an orbiting red dwarf of class M3 with a separation of at least 900 astronomical units.

text: This is a long-period

text: spectroscopic binary

text: with an orbital period of approximately 15,000 days (41 years) and an overall

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of approximately 3.28. The primary of the spectroscopic binary has a

text: stellar classification

text: of K3 III, indicating that it is a

text: giant star

text: . It most likely evolved from a F-type

text: main sequence

text: star after consuming the hydrogen at its core. The secondary is believed to be relatively faint, as it has not been observed

text: interferometrically

text: . The star has two optical companions, the closest of which may be an orbiting

text: red dwarf

text: of class M3 with a separation of at least 900

text: astronomical unit

text: s.

text: Diphda has an apparent visual magnitude of 2.02, making it the brightest star in Cetus. The stellar classification of this star is K0 III, although some sources list a classification of G9.5 III indicating that it lies along the dividing line separating G-type from K-type stars. The luminosity class of 'III' means that it is a giant star that has consumed the hydrogen at its core and evolved away from an A-type main sequence star. After passing through the red giant stage, it underwent the helium flash event and is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of helium at its core. Beta Ceti will remain in this mode for over 100 million years.

text: Diphda has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 2.02, making it the

text: brightest star in Cetus

text: . The

text: stellar classification

text: of this star is K0 III, although some sources list a classification of G9.5 III indicating that it lies along the dividing line separating G-type from K-type stars. The luminosity class of 'III' means that it is a

text: giant star

text: that has consumed the hydrogen at its core and

text: evolved

text: away from an A-type

text: main sequence

text: star. After passing through the

text: red giant

text: stage, it underwent the

text: helium flash

text: event and is generating energy through the

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of

text: helium

text: at its core. Beta Ceti will remain in this mode for over 100 million years.

text: Different types of galaxies have different histories of star formation and hence planet formation. Planet formation is affected by the ages, metallicities, and orbits of stellar populations within a galaxy. Distribution of stellar populations within a galaxy varies between the different types of galaxies.Stars in elliptical galaxies are much older than stars in spiral galaxies. Most elliptical galaxies contain mainly low-mass stars, with minimal star-formation activity. The distribution of the different types of galaxies in the universe depends on their location within galaxy clusters, with elliptical galaxies found mostly close to their centers.

text: Different

text: types of galaxies

text: have different histories of

text: star formation

text: and hence

text: planet formation

text: . Planet formation is affected by the ages, metallicities, and orbits of stellar populations within a galaxy. Distribution of stellar populations within a galaxy varies between the different types of galaxies.Stars in

text: elliptical galaxies

text: are much older than stars in

text: spiral galaxies

text: . Most elliptical galaxies contain mainly

text: low-mass stars

text: , with minimal

text: star-formation

text: activity. The distribution of the different types of galaxies in the

text: universe

text: depends on their location within

text: galaxy cluster

text: s, with elliptical galaxies found mostly close to their centers.

text: Nuclear pasta phases are theorized to exist in the inner crust of neutron stars, forming a transition region between the conventional matter at the surface, and the ultradense matter at the core. Towards the top of this transition region, the pressure is great enough that conventional nuclei will be condensed into much more massive semi-spherical collections. These formations would be unstable outside the star, due to their high neutron content and size, which can vary between tens and hundreds of nucleons. This semispherical phase is known as the gnocchi phase.

text: The value a = 3.5 is commonly used for main-sequence stars. This equation and the usual value of a = 3.5 only applies to main-sequence stars with masses 2M

text: The value a = 3.5 is commonly used for

text: main-sequence

text: stars. This equation and the usual value of a = 3.5 only applies to main-sequence stars with masses 2M

text: Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU (roughly the distance between the Sun and Uranus) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter component, termed Sirius A, is a main-sequence star of spectral type A1V, with an estimated surface temperature of 9,940 K. Its companion, Sirius B, is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the more massive of the two. The age of the system has been estimated at around 230 million years. Early in its lifespan it was thought to have been two bluish white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9.1 years. The system emits a higher than expected level of infrared radiation, as measured by IRAS space-based observatory. This may be an indication of dust in the system, and is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star. The Chandra X-ray Observatory image shows Sirius B outshining its bright partner as it is a brighter X-ray source.

text: Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU (roughly the distance between the Sun and

text: Uranus

text: ) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter component, termed Sirius A, is a

text: main-sequence

text: star of

text: spectral type

text: A1V, with an estimated surface temperature of 9,940

text: K

text: . Its companion, Sirius B, is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the more massive of the two. The age of the system has been estimated at around 230 million years. Early in its lifespan it was thought to have been two bluish white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9.1 years. The system emits a

text: higher than expected level of infrared radiation

text: , as measured by

text: IRAS

text: space-based observatory. This may be an indication of dust in the system, and is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star. The

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: image shows Sirius B outshining its bright partner as it is a brighter X-ray source.

text: Slightly more massive stars do expand into red giants, but their helium cores are not massive enough to reach the temperatures required for helium fusion so they never reach the tip of the red giant branch.  When hydrogen shell burning finishes, these stars move directly off the red giant branch like a post AGB star, but at lower luminosity, to become a white dwarf.  A star of about  will be able to reach temperatures high enough to fuse helium, and these "mid-sized" stars go on to further stages of evolution beyond the red giant branch.

text: Slightly more

text: massive star

text: s do expand into

text: red giant

text: s, but their helium cores are not massive enough to reach the temperatures required for helium fusion so they never reach the tip of the red giant branch.  When hydrogen shell burning finishes, these stars move directly off the red giant branch like a post AGB star, but at lower luminosity, to become a white dwarf.  A star of about  will be able to reach temperatures high enough to fuse helium, and these "mid-sized" stars go on to further stages of evolution beyond the red giant branch.

text: This cluster is of interest because of the high number of Be stars, with a total of about 24 discovered. These are spectral class B stars that show prominent emission lines of hydrogen in their spectrum. Most of the Be stars in the cluster lie between spectral class B0 and B3. A candidate member of the cluster, LS I +61° 235, is a Be star with an X-ray binary component that has a period of about three years. There are at least five blue stragglers in the cluster. These are stars that formed by the merger of two other stars. Two of the cluster's star systems are likely eclipsing binaries with periods of 0.6 and 1.03 days. NGC 663 also has two red supergiant stars, both located on its periphery

text: This cluster is of interest because of the high number of

text: Be star

text: s, with a total of about 24 discovered. These are

text: spectral class

text: B stars that show prominent

text: emission line

text: s of

text: hydrogen

text: in their spectrum. Most of the Be stars in the cluster lie between spectral class B0 and B3. A candidate member of the cluster, LS I +61° 235, is a Be star with an

text: X-ray

text: binary component that has a period of about three years. There are at least five

text: blue straggler

text: s in the cluster. These are stars that formed by the merger of two other stars. Two of the cluster's star systems are likely

text: eclipsing binaries

text: with periods of 0.6 and 1.03 days. NGC 663 also has two

text: red supergiant

text: stars, both located on its periphery

text: The Jacksons: Next Generation is an American reality television program that stars members of the group 3T and airs on Lifetime.

text: The Jacksons: Next Generation is an American reality

text: television program

text: that stars members of the group

text: and airs on

text: Lifetime

text: A star remains near its initial position on the main sequence until a significant amount of hydrogen in the core has been consumed, then begins to evolve into a more luminous star. (On the HR diagram, the evolving star moves up and to the right of the main sequence.) Thus the main sequence represents the primary hydrogen-burning stage of a star's lifetime.

text: Another alternative was the so-called emission theory of light. As in special relativity the aether concept is discarded, yet the main difference from relativity lies in the fact that the velocity of the light source is added to that of light in accordance with the Galilean transformation. As the hypothesis of complete aether drag, it can explain the negative outcome of all aether drift experiments. Yet, there are various experiments that contradict this theory. For example, the Sagnac effect is based on the independence of light speed from the source velocity, and the image of Double stars should be scrambled according to this model—which was not observed. Also in modern experiments in particle accelerators no such velocity dependence could be observed.  These results are further confirmed by  are the De Sitter double star experiment (1913), conclusively repeated in the x-ray spectrum by K. Brecher in 1977;and the terrestrial experiment by Alväger, et al. (1963);, which all show that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the source within the limits of experimental accuracy.

text: Another alternative was the so-called

text: emission theory

text: of light. As in special relativity the aether concept is discarded, yet the main difference from relativity lies in the fact that the velocity of the light source is added to that of light in accordance with the

text: Galilean transformation

text: . As the hypothesis of complete aether drag, it can explain the negative outcome of all aether drift experiments. Yet, there are various experiments that contradict this theory. For example, the

text: Sagnac effect

text: is based on the independence of light speed from the source velocity, and the image of

text: Double star

text: s should be scrambled according to this model—which was not observed. Also in modern experiments in particle accelerators no such velocity dependence could be observed.  These results are further confirmed by  are the

text: De Sitter double star experiment

text: (1913), conclusively repeated in the x-ray spectrum by K. Brecher in 1977;and the terrestrial experiment by Alväger, et al. (1963);, which all show that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the source within the limits of experimental accuracy.

text: is the star's estimated main sequence lifetime.

text: During the formation of a Sun-like star, the object passes through the T-Tauri phase during which it is surrounded by a disk-shaped nebula. Out of this material are formed planetesimals, which can undergo an accretion process to form planets. The nebula continues to orbit the pre-main-sequence star for a period of  until it is cleared out by radiation pressure and other processes. Additional dust may then be generated about the star by collisions between the planetesimals, which forms a disk out of the resulting debris. At some point during their lifetime, at least 45% of these stars are surrounded by a debris disk, which then can be detected by the thermal emission of the dust using an infrared telescope. Repeated collisions can cause a disk to persist for much of the lifetime of a star.

text: During the formation of a Sun-like star, the object passes through the

text: T-Tauri

text: phase during which it is surrounded by a disk-shaped nebula. Out of this material are formed

text: planetesimal

text: s, which can undergo an accretion process to form planets. The nebula continues to orbit the

text: pre-main-sequence star

text: for a period of  until it is cleared out by radiation pressure and other processes. Additional dust may then be generated about the star by collisions between the planetesimals, which forms a disk out of the resulting debris. At some point during their lifetime, at least 45% of these stars are surrounded by a debris disk, which then can be detected by the thermal emission of the dust using an infrared telescope. Repeated collisions can cause a disk to persist for much of the lifetime of a star.

text: The conditions in neutron stars are very different from those encountered on Earth, as a result of the high density and gravity of neutron stars; their masses are of order the mass of a star, but they have sizes around  in radius, which is comparable to the size of the center of large cities such as London. Neutron stars also have the property that as they become more massive, their diameter decreases. The mass of PSR J1614–2230 is the second highest of all the known neutron stars. The existence of a neutron star with such a high mass constrains the composition and structure of neutron stars, both of which are poorly understood. The reason for this is that the maximum mass of a neutron star is dependent upon its composition. A neutron star composed of matter such as hyperons or kaon condensates would collapse to form a black hole before it could reach the observed mass of PSR J1614–2230, meaning neutron star models that include such matter are strongly constrained by this result.

text: The conditions in neutron stars are very different from those encountered on Earth, as a result of the high

text: density

text: and

text: gravity

text: of neutron stars; their masses are of order the mass of a

text: star

text: , but they have sizes around  in radius, which is comparable to the size of the center of large cities such as

text: London

text: . Neutron stars also have the property that as they become more massive, their diameter decreases. The mass of PSR J1614–2230 is the second highest of all the known

text: neutron stars

text: . The existence of a neutron star with such a high mass constrains the composition and structure of neutron stars, both of which are poorly understood. The reason for this is that the maximum mass of a neutron star is dependent upon its composition. A neutron star composed of matter such as

text: hyperon

text: s or

text: kaon

text: condensate

text: s would collapse to form a

text: black hole

text: before it could reach the observed mass of PSR J1614–2230, meaning neutron star models that include such matter are strongly constrained by this result.

text: Seven star systems have been found to have planets. Nu Canis Majoris is an ageing orange giant of spectral type K1III of apparent magnitude 3.91 located around 64 light-years distant. Around 1.5 times as massive and 11 times as luminous as the Sun, it is orbited over a period of 763 days by a planet 2.6 times as massive as Jupiter. HD 47536 is likewise an ageing orange giant found to have a planetary system—echoing the fate of the Solar System in a few billion years as the Sun ages and becomes a giant. Conversely, HD 45364 is a star 107 light-years distant that is a little smaller and cooler than the Sun, of spectral type G8V, which has two planets discovered in 2008. With orbital periods of 228 and 342 days, the planets have a 3:2 orbital resonance, which helps stabilise the system. HD 47186 is another sunlike star with two planets; the inner—HD 47186 b—takes four days to complete an orbit and has been classified as a Hot Neptune, while the outer—HD 47186 c—has an eccentric 3.7-year period orbit and has a similar mass to Saturn. HD 43197 is a sunlike star around 183 light-years distant that has a Jupiter-size planet with an eccentric orbit.

text: Seven star systems have been found to have planets.

text: Nu Canis Majoris

text: is an ageing orange giant of spectral type K1III of apparent magnitude 3.91 located around 64 light-years distant. Around 1.5 times as massive and 11 times as luminous as the Sun, it is orbited over a period of 763 days by a planet 2.6 times as massive as Jupiter.

text: HD 47536

text: is likewise an ageing orange giant found to have a planetary system—echoing the fate of the Solar System in a few billion years as the Sun ages and becomes a giant. Conversely,

text: HD 45364

text: is a star 107 light-years distant that is a little smaller and cooler than the Sun, of spectral type G8V, which has two planets discovered in 2008. With orbital periods of 228 and 342 days, the planets have a 3:2

text: orbital resonance

text: , which helps stabilise the system.

text: HD 47186

text: is another sunlike star with two planets; the inner—

text: HD 47186 b

text: —takes four days to complete an orbit and has been classified as a

text: Hot Neptune

text: , while the outer—

text: HD 47186 c

text: —has an eccentric 3.7-year period orbit and has a similar mass to

text: Saturn

text: HD 43197

text: is a sunlike star around 183 light-years distant that has a Jupiter-size planet with an eccentric orbit.

text: Pulsations with a stable period, similar to those resulting from the spin of a neutron star, have never been seen from Cygnus X-1. The pulsations from neutron stars are caused by the neutron star's magnetic field, however, the no hair theorem guarantees that black holes do not have magnetic poles. For example, the X-ray binary V 0332+53 was thought to be a possible black hole until pulsations were found. Cygnus X-1 has also never displayed X-ray bursts similar to those seen from neutron stars. Cygnus X-1 unpredictably changes between two X-ray states, although the X-rays may vary continuously between those states as well. In the most common state, the X-rays are "hard", which means that more of the X-rays have high energy. In the less common state, the X-rays are "soft", with more of the X-rays having lower energy. The soft state also shows greater variability. The hard state is believed to originate in a corona surrounding the inner part of the more opaque accretion disk. The soft state occurs when the disk draws closer to the compact object (possibly as close as ), accompanied by cooling or ejection of the corona. When a new corona is generated, Cygnus X-1 transitions back to the hard state.

text: Pulsations with a stable period, similar to those resulting from the spin of a neutron star, have never been seen from Cygnus X-1. The pulsations from neutron stars are caused by the neutron star's magnetic field, however, the

text: no hair theorem

text: guarantees that black holes do not have magnetic poles. For example, the X-ray binary

text: V 0332+53

text: was thought to be a possible black hole until pulsations were found. Cygnus X-1 has also never displayed X-ray bursts similar to those seen from neutron stars. Cygnus X-1 unpredictably changes between two X-ray states, although the X-rays may vary continuously between those states as well. In the most common state, the X-rays are "hard", which means that more of the X-rays have high energy. In the less common state, the X-rays are "soft", with more of the X-rays having lower energy. The soft state also shows greater variability. The hard state is believed to originate in a corona surrounding the inner part of the more opaque accretion disk. The soft state occurs when the disk draws closer to the compact object (possibly as close as ), accompanied by cooling or ejection of the corona. When a new corona is generated, Cygnus X-1 transitions back to the hard state.

text: Just like White Dwarf did in early ages of its existence, Red Giant made room for many games, such as AD&D, Runequest, Call of Cthulhu, Warhammer Fantasy Role-play and many others.

text: Just like White Dwarf did in early ages of its existence, Red Giant made room for many games, such as

text: AD&D

text: Runequest

text: Call of Cthulhu

text: Warhammer Fantasy Role-play

text: and many others.

text: The Hayashi track is a luminosity–temperature relationship obeyed by infant stars of less than  in the pre-main-sequence phase (PMS phase) of stellar evolution. It is named after Japanese astrophysicist Chushiro Hayashi. On the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, which plots luminosity against temperature, the track is a nearly vertical curve. After a protostar ends its phase of rapid contraction and becomes a T Tauri star, it is extremely luminous. The star continues to contract, but much more slowly.  While slowly contracting, the star follows the Hayashi track downwards, becoming several times less luminous but staying at roughly the same surface temperature, until either a radiative zone develops, at which point the star starts following the Henyey track, or nuclear fusion begins, marking its entry onto the main sequence.

text: The Hayashi track is a luminosity–temperature relationship obeyed by infant stars of less than  in the

text: pre-main-sequence phase

text: (PMS phase) of stellar evolution. It is named after Japanese astrophysicist

text: Chushiro Hayashi

text: . On the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: , which plots luminosity against temperature, the track is a nearly vertical curve. After a

text: protostar

text: ends its phase of rapid contraction and becomes a

text: T Tauri star

text: , it is extremely luminous. The star continues to contract, but much more slowly.  While slowly contracting, the star follows the Hayashi track downwards, becoming several times less luminous but staying at roughly the same surface temperature, until either a

text: radiative zone

text: develops, at which point the star starts following the

text: Henyey track

text: , or nuclear fusion begins, marking its entry onto the

text: main sequence

text: When two massive stars are born close together from the same cloud of gas, they can form a binary system and orbit each other from birth. If those two stars are at least a few times as massive as our sun, their lives will both end in supernova explosions. The more massive star explodes first, leaving behind a neutron star. If the explosion does not kick the second star away, the binary system survives. The neutron star can now be visible as a radio pulsar, and it slowly loses energy and spins down. Later, the second star can swell up, allowing the neutron star to suck up its matter. The matter falling onto the neutron star spins it up and reduces its magnetic field. This is called "recycling" because it returns the neutron star to a quickly-spinning state. Finally, the second star also explodes in a supernova, producing another neutron star. If this second explosion also fails to disrupt the binary, a double neutron star binary is formed. Otherwise, the spun-up neutron star is left with no companion and becomes a "disrupted recycled pulsar", spinning between a few and 50 times per second.

text: Theta Apodis is a cool red giant of spectral type M7 III located  370 ± 20 light years distant. It shines with a luminosity approximately 3879 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3151 K. A semiregular variable, it varies by 0.56 magnitudes with a period of 119 days—or approximately 4 months, It is losing mass at the rate of  times the mass of the Sun per year through its stellar wind. Dusty material ejected from this star is interacting with the surrounding interstellar medium, forming a bow shock as the star moves through the galaxy. NO Apodis is a red giant of spectral type M3III that varies between magnitudes 5.71 and 5.95. Located around 883 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity approximately 2059 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3568 K. S Apodis is a rare R Coronae Borealis variable, an extremely hydrogen-deficient supergiant thought to have arisen as the result of the merger of two white dwarfs; fewer than 100 have been discovered as of 2012. It has a baseline magnitude of 9.7. R Apodis is a star that was given a variable star designation, yet has turned out not to be variable. Of magnitude 5.3, it is another orange giant.

text: Theta Apodis

text: is a cool red giant of spectral type M7 III located  370 ± 20 light years distant. It shines with a

text: luminosity

text: approximately 3879 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3151 K. A semiregular variable, it varies by 0.56 magnitudes with a period of 119 days—or approximately 4 months, It is losing mass at the rate of  times the mass of the Sun per year through its

text: stellar wind

text: . Dusty material ejected from this star is interacting with the surrounding

text: interstellar medium

text: , forming a

text: bow shock

text: as the star moves through the galaxy.

text: NO Apodis

text: is a red giant of spectral type M3III that varies between magnitudes 5.71 and 5.95. Located around 883 light-years distant, it shines with a

text: luminosity

text: approximately 2059 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3568 K.

text: S Apodis

text: is a rare

text: R Coronae Borealis variable

text: , an extremely hydrogen-deficient supergiant thought to have arisen as the result of the merger of two white dwarfs; fewer than 100 have been discovered as of 2012. It has a baseline magnitude of 9.7.

text: R Apodis

text: is a star that was given a

text: variable star designation

text: , yet has turned out not to be variable. Of magnitude 5.3, it is another orange giant.

text: Can be classified as XDINS (X-ray Dim Isolated Neutron Stars), XTINS (X-ray Thermal Isolated Neutron Stars), XINS (X-ray Isolated Neutron Stars), TEINS (Thermally Emitting Neutron Star), INS (Isolated Neutron Stars).

text: In the most common case, the innermost part of a large star (called the core) stops burning and without this source of heat, the forces holding electrons and protons apart are no longer strong enough to do so. The core collapses in on itself exceedingly quickly, and becomes a neutron star or black hole; the outer layers of the original star fall inwards and may rebound off the newly created neutron star (if one was created), creating a supernova.

text: In the most common case, the innermost part of a large star (called the

text: core

text: ) stops burning and without this source of

text: heat

text: , the forces holding

text: electron

text: s and

text: proton

text: s apart are no longer strong enough to do so. The core collapses in on itself exceedingly quickly, and becomes a

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: ; the outer layers of the original star fall inwards and may rebound off the newly created neutron star (if one was created), creating a

text: supernova

text: Theoretically, a red supergiant star may be too massive to explode into a supernova, and collapse directly into being a black hole, without the bright flash. They would however generate a burst of gravitational waves. This process would occur in the higher mass red supergiants, explaining the absence of observed supernovae with such progenitors.

text: Theoretically, a

text: red supergiant

text: star may be too massive to explode into a

text: supernova

text: , and collapse directly into being a

text: black hole

text: , without the bright flash. They would however generate a burst of

text: gravitational wave

text: s. This process would occur in the higher mass red supergiants, explaining the absence of observed supernovae with such

text: progenitors

text: Spin-down of rapidly spinning stellar mass black holes in their lowest energy state takes tens of seconds against an inner disk, representing the remnant debris of the merger of two neutron stars, the break-up of a neutron star around a companion black hole or formed in core-collapse of a massive star. Forced turbulence in the inner disk stimulates the creation of magnetic fields and multipole mass-moments, thereby opening radiation channels in radio, neutrinos and, mostly, in gravitational waves with distinctive chirps shown in the diagramwith the creation of astronomical amounts of Bekenstein-Hawking entropy.

text: Both parts of Bailey's vision would, however, come true: The first game of the annual tradition, and the first official NHL All-Star Game, would be played in Maple Leaf Gardens, on October 13, 1947. The format of the All-Star Game, which remained the same, with two exceptions, until the 1967–68 NHL season, called for the defending Stanley Cup champions to play against a selection of players from the other five teams. For the first year, the All-Stars were a team composed of the First and Second NHL All-Star Teams (not to be confused with the All-Stars that played against the Cup champions), as well as three players from the New York Rangers and one player each from the Detroit Red Wings and the Chicago Black Hawks.

text: Both parts of Bailey's vision would, however, come true: The first game of the annual tradition, and the first official NHL All-Star Game, would be played in

text: Maple Leaf Gardens

text: , on October 13, 1947. The format of the All-Star Game, which remained the same, with two exceptions, until the

text: 1967–68 NHL season

text: , called for the defending

text: Stanley Cup champions

text: to play against a selection of players from the other five teams. For the first year, the All-Stars were a team composed of the First and Second

text: NHL All-Star Team

text: s (not to be confused with the All-Stars that played against the Cup champions), as well as three players from the

text: New York Rangers

text: and one player each from the

text: Detroit Red Wings

text: and the

text: Chicago Black Hawks

text: Concerns were noted during the construction of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which began operations in 2008, is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator complex, intended to collide opposing beams of either protons or lead nuclei with very high kinetic energy. It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) near Geneva, in Switzerland. The LHC's main purpose is to explore the validity and limitations of the Standard Model, the current theoretical picture for particle physics. The first particle collisions at the LHC took place shortly after startup in November 2009, at energies up to  per beam. On 30 March 2010, the first planned collisions took place between two 3.5 TeV beams, which set another new world record for the highest energy man-made particle collisions. In 2012 the beam energy was increased to 4 TeV, after upgrades in 2013 and 2014 collisions in 2015 and 2016 happened at an energy of 6.5 TeV per proton.

text: Concerns were noted during the construction of the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC), which began operations in 2008, is the world's largest and highest-energy

text: particle accelerator

text: complex, intended to

text: collide

text: opposing

text: beams

text: of either

text: proton

text: s or

text: lead

text: nuclei

text: with very high

text: kinetic energy

text: . It was built by the

text: European Organization for Nuclear Research

text: (CERN) near

text: Geneva

text: , in

text: Switzerland

text: . The LHC's main purpose is to explore the validity and limitations of the

text: Standard Model

text: , the current theoretical picture for

text: particle physics

text: . The first particle collisions at the LHC took place shortly after startup in November 2009, at energies up to  per beam. On 30 March 2010, the first planned collisions took place between two 3.5 TeV beams, which set another new world record for the highest energy man-made particle collisions. In 2012 the beam energy was increased to 4 TeV, after upgrades in 2013 and 2014 collisions in 2015 and 2016 happened at an energy of 6.5 TeV per proton.

text: The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star. Thus, the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models. The Sun has been a main-sequence star for about 4.5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6.5 billion years, for a total main sequence lifetime of roughly 10 years. Hence:

text: The amount of fuel available for nuclear fusion is proportional to the mass of the star. Thus, the lifetime of a star on the main sequence can be estimated by comparing it to solar evolutionary models. The

text: Sun

text: has been a main-sequence star for about 4.5 billion years and it will become a red giant in 6.5 billion years, for a total main sequence lifetime of roughly 10 years. Hence:

text: "The Hand of Nergal" is one of the original short stories by American author Robert E. Howard starring the sword and sorcery hero Conan the Cimmerian, an untitled fragment begun in the 1930s but not finished or published in Howard's lifetime. It was completed and titled by Lin Carter and in this form was published in the following collections:

text: "The Hand of Nergal" is one of the original

text: short stories

text: by

text: American

text: author

text: Robert E. Howard

text: starring the

text: sword and sorcery

text: hero

text: Conan the Cimmerian

text: , an untitled fragment begun in the 1930s but not finished or published in Howard's lifetime. It was completed and titled by

text: Lin Carter

text: and in this form was published in the following collections:

text: Cox travels to Kathmandu and visits the Pashupatinath Temple where he discusses the link between the stars and the elements of which all living things, including humans, are made. He explores the beginnings of the universe and the origins of humanity, going far back in time to look at the process of stellar evolution and comparing it to the formation cycle of the Himalayas. He describes 92 known elements found on Earth, which are mirrored in the spectrum observed through stellar classification. In northern Chile at El Tatio he compares the three states of water to the states found in the universe. He further explains how these basic elements are combined to form complexity through nuclear fusion. However, 26 more complex elements only form when stars die and eject material during a supernova. In an abandoned prison in Rio de Janeiro Cox describes the dying stages of fusion, and in the 16-to-1 Mine he describes how the rarest and heaviest elements are made. In the Atacama Desert he concludes with the recycling of matter in the Universe and the possibility that the Earth was seeded with  life from space.

text: Cox travels to

text: Kathmandu

text: and visits the

text: Pashupatinath Temple

text: where he discusses the link between the stars and the elements of which all living things, including humans, are made. He explores the beginnings of the universe and the origins of humanity, going far back in time to look at the process of

text: stellar evolution

text: and comparing it to the formation cycle of the

text: Himalayas

text: . He describes

text: 92 known elements

text: found on Earth, which are mirrored in the spectrum observed through

text: stellar classification

text: . In northern

text: Chile

text: at

text: El Tatio

text: he compares the three states of water to the states found in the universe. He further explains how these basic elements are combined to form complexity through

text: nuclear fusion

text: . However, 26 more complex elements only form when stars die and eject material during a

text: supernova

text: . In an

text: abandoned prison

text: in Rio de Janeiro Cox describes the dying stages of fusion, and in

text: the 16-to-1 Mine

text: he describes how the rarest and heaviest elements are made. In the

text: Atacama Desert

text: he concludes with the recycling of matter in the Universe and the possibility that the Earth was seeded with

text: life from space

text: In a 1981 paper, Thabit was observed to have nonradial pulsations over a period of around 12 hours, and has been classified as a Slowly pulsating B star. Subsequent review of Hipparcos catalog data indicated it was most likely a Beta Cephei variable, and is hence considered a candidate for that class. These are blue-white main sequence stars of around 10 to 20 times the mass of the Sun that pulsate with periods of 0.1 to 0.3 days; their changes in magnitude are much more pronounced in the ultraviolet than in the visual spectrum. It is classified as a Beta Cephei variable by the American Association of Variable Star Observers, and has an apparent magnitude of +4.62.

text: In a 1981 paper, Thabit was observed to have nonradial pulsations over a period of around 12 hours, and has been classified as a

text: Slowly pulsating B star

text: . Subsequent review of

text: Hipparcos catalog

text: data indicated it was most likely a

text: Beta Cephei variable

text: , and is hence considered a candidate for that class. These are blue-white main sequence stars of around 10 to 20 times the mass of the Sun that pulsate with periods of 0.1 to 0.3 days; their changes in magnitude are much more pronounced in the ultraviolet than in the visual spectrum. It is classified as a Beta Cephei variable by the

text: American Association of Variable Star Observers

text: , and has an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +4.62.

text: Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from a runaway nuclear fusion of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. The details of the energetics are still not fully understood, but the end result is the ejection of the entire mass of the original star at high kinetic energy.  Around half a solar mass of that mass is Ni generated from silicon burning.  Ni is radioactive and decays into Co by beta plus decay (with a half life of six days) and gamma rays.  Co itself decays by the beta plus (an anti-electron) path with a half life of 77 days into stable Fe.  These two processes are responsible for the electromagnetic radiation from type Ia supernovae. In combination with the changing transparency of the ejected material, they produce the rapidly declining light curve.

text: Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from a runaway nuclear fusion of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. The details of the energetics are still not fully understood, but the end result is the ejection of the entire mass of the original star at high kinetic energy.  Around half a solar mass of that mass is

text: Ni

text: generated from silicon burning.  Ni is

text: radioactive

text: and decays into

text: Co

text: by

text: beta plus decay

text: (with a

text: half life

text: of six days) and gamma rays.  Co itself decays by the beta plus (an anti-electron) path with a half life of 77 days into stable Fe.  These two processes are responsible for the electromagnetic radiation from type Ia supernovae. In combination with the changing transparency of the ejected material, they produce the rapidly declining light curve.

text: Chandra X-ray imaging of NGC 1553 show diffuse hot gas making up 70% of the emissions, dotted with many point-like sources (low-mass X-ray binaries) making up the rest.  Similarly to NGC 4697 and Messier 60, these bright spots are due to binary star systems of black holes and neutron stars most of which are located in globular clusters and reflect this old galaxy's very active past.  In these systems, material pulled off a regular star is heated and gives off X-rays as it falls toward the accompanying black hole or neutron star. The brightest of the point sources is coincident with the galaxy's optical nucleus. Its luminosity and spectrum suggest its being an obscured central active galactic nucleus (AGN). This source is visible in the center of the X-ray image of NGC 1553 shown above.

text: Chandra X-ray

text: imaging of NGC 1553 show diffuse hot gas making up 70% of the emissions, dotted with many point-like sources (

text: low-mass X-ray binaries

text: ) making up the rest.  Similarly to

text: NGC 4697

text: and

text: Messier 60

text: , these bright spots are due to

text: binary star system

text: s of

text: black hole

text: s and

text: neutron star

text: s most of which are located in globular clusters and reflect this old galaxy's very active past.  In these systems, material pulled off a regular star is heated and gives off X-rays as it falls toward the accompanying black hole or neutron star. The brightest of the point sources is coincident with the galaxy's optical nucleus. Its luminosity and spectrum suggest its being an obscured central

text: active galactic nucleus

text: (AGN). This source is visible in the center of the X-ray image of NGC 1553 shown above.

text: The double companion star is a binary system of red dwarfs, thought to be separated from the pair of G-type giants by a distance of around 10,000 AU.  Although this pair has only been observed to cover approximately 30° of its orbit, a rough, preliminary orbit has been computed, giving an orbital period of approximately 400 years.

text: The double companion star is a

text: binary system

text: of red dwarfs, thought to be separated from the pair of G-type giants by a distance of around 10,000

text: AU

text: .  Although this pair has only been observed to cover approximately 30° of its orbit, a rough, preliminary orbit has been computed, giving an orbital period of approximately 400 years.

text: The distance of the habitable zone from a star depends on the type of star and this distance changes during the star's lifetime as the size and temperature of the star changes.

text: The distance of the

text: habitable zone

text: from a star depends on the type of star and this distance changes during the star's lifetime as the size and temperature of the star changes.

text: The supernova classification type is closely tied to the type of star at the time of the explosion.  The occurrence of each type of supernova depends dramatically on the metallicity and hence the age of the host galaxy.

text: In a physical triple star system, each star orbits the center of mass of the system. Usually, two of the stars form a close binary system, and the third orbits this pair at a distance much larger than that of the binary orbit. This arrangement is called hierarchical. The reason for this is that if the inner and outer orbits are comparable in size, the system may become dynamically unstable, leading to a star being ejected from the system. Triple stars that are not all gravitationally bound might comprise a physical binary and an optical companion, such as Beta Cephei, or rarely, a purely optical triple star, such as Gamma Serpentis.

text: In a physical triple star system, each star

text: orbit

text: s the

text: center of mass

text: of the system. Usually, two of the stars form a close

text: binary system

text: , and the third orbits this pair at a distance much larger than that of the binary orbit. This arrangement is called hierarchical. The reason for this is that if the inner and outer orbits are comparable in size, the system may become dynamically unstable, leading to a star being ejected from the system. Triple stars that are not all gravitationally bound might comprise a physical binary and an optical companion, such as

text: Beta Cephei

text: , or rarely, a purely optical triple star, such as

text: Gamma Serpentis

text: 53 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.76.

text: 53 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.76.

text: A theme in Big History is what has been termed Goldilocks conditions or the Goldilocks principle, which describes how "circumstances must be right for any type of complexity to form or continue to exist," as emphasized by Spier in his recent book. For humans, bodily temperatures can neither be too hot nor too cold; for life to form on a planet, it can neither have too much nor too little energy from sunlight. Stars require sufficient quantities of hydrogen, sufficiently packed together under tremendous gravity, to cause nuclear fusion.

text: A theme in Big History is what has been termed

text: Goldilocks conditions

text: or the

text: Goldilocks principle

text: , which describes how "circumstances must be right for any type of complexity to form or continue to exist," as emphasized by Spier in his recent book. For humans, bodily temperatures can neither be too hot nor too cold; for life to form on a planet, it can neither have too much nor too little energy from sunlight. Stars require sufficient quantities of

text: hydrogen

text: , sufficiently packed together under tremendous gravity, to cause

text: nuclear fusion

text: There are no strict upper limits for giant stars, but early O types become increasingly difficult to classify separately from main sequence and supergiant stars, have almost identical sizes and temperatures to the main-sequence stars from which they develop, and very short lifetimes.  A good example is Plaskett's star, a close binary consisting of two O type giants both over , temperatures over 30,000 K, and more than 100,000 times the luminosity of the Sun ().  Astronomers still differ over whether to classify at least one of the stars as a supergiant, based on subtle differences in the spectral lines.

text: There are no strict upper limits for giant stars, but early O types become increasingly difficult to classify separately from main sequence and supergiant stars, have almost identical sizes and temperatures to the main-sequence stars from which they develop, and very short lifetimes.  A good example is

text: Plaskett's star

text: , a close binary consisting of two O type giants both over , temperatures over 30,000 K, and more than 100,000 times the luminosity of the Sun ().  Astronomers still differ over whether to classify at least one of the stars as a supergiant, based on subtle differences in the spectral lines.

text: With optical spectrometry, the red giant has been calculated as having a surface temperature of 3500 K and spectral type M4.5III, with around 1.3 times the Sun's mass, 86 times its radius and 1000 times its luminosity. The white dwarf is only 0.43 times the mass of the Sun. The two stars are 1.72 astronomical units (AU) apart, and take 624 days to orbit each other. The red giant also pulsates with a period of 56 days. The surface of the giant star extends to 40% of the distance to the Lagrange point L, and hence does not fill its Roche Lobe and cause the white dwarf to gain an accretion disc. The system was calculated at being around 850 parsecs (2771 light-years) distant.

text: With optical spectrometry, the red giant has been calculated as having a surface temperature of 3500 K and spectral type M4.5III, with around 1.3 times the

text: Sun's mass

text: , 86 times its radius and 1000 times its

text: luminosity

text: . The white dwarf is only 0.43 times the mass of the Sun. The two stars are 1.72

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU) apart, and take 624 days to orbit each other. The red giant also pulsates with a period of 56 days. The surface of the giant star extends to 40% of the distance to the

text: Lagrange point L

text: , and hence does not fill its

text: Roche Lobe

text: and cause the white dwarf to gain an

text: accretion disc

text: . The system was calculated at being around 850

text: parsec

text: s (2771

text: light-year

text: s) distant.

text: On May 21, 2008, supernova SN 2008cn was discovered at a position 23.″2 north and 4.″7 east of the galaxy center. It was determined to be a high-luminosity Type II-P supernova, with a progenitor tentatively identified as a red supergiant with 15 ± 2 solar masses. Based upon the yellowish color, it may have been a member of a binary star system.

text: On May 21, 2008, supernova

text: SN 2008cn

text: was discovered at a position 23.″2 north and 4.″7 east of the galaxy center. It was determined to be a high-luminosity

text: Type II-P

text: supernova, with a progenitor tentatively identified as a

text: red supergiant

text: with 15 ± 2

text: solar mass

text: es. Based upon the yellowish color, it may have been a member of a

text: binary star system

text: The magnetic radiation reaction force is the result of the most fundamental calculation of the effect of self-generated fields. It arises from the observation that accelerating non-relativistic particles with associated magnetic moment emit radiation. The Abraham–Lorentz force is the average force that an accelerating charged particle feels in the recoil from the emission of radiation.  The introduction of quantum effects leads one to quantum electrodynamics. The self-fields in quantum electrodynamics generate a finite number of infinities in the calculations that can be removed by the process of renormalization. This has led to a theory that is able to make the most accurate predictions that humans have made to date. See precision tests of QED.  The renormalization process fails, however, when applied to the gravitational force. The infinities in that case are infinite in number, which causes the failure of renormalization. Therefore general relativity has unsolved self-field problems. String theory is a current attempt to resolve these problems for all forces.

text: The magnetic radiation reaction force is the result of the most fundamental calculation of the effect of self-generated fields. It arises from the observation that accelerating non-relativistic particles with associated magnetic moment emit radiation. The Abraham–Lorentz force is the average force that an accelerating charged particle feels in the recoil from the emission of radiation.  The introduction of

text: quantum effects

text: leads one to

text: quantum electrodynamics

text: . The self-fields in quantum electrodynamics generate a finite number of infinities in the calculations that can be removed by the process of

text: renormalization

text: . This has led to a theory that is able to make the most accurate predictions that humans have made to date. See

text: precision tests of QED

text: .  The renormalization process fails, however, when applied to the

text: gravitational force

text: . The infinities in that case are infinite in number, which causes the failure of renormalization. Therefore

text: general relativity

text: has unsolved self-field problems.

text: String theory

text: is a current attempt to resolve these problems for all forces.

text: Two contestants faced a panel of six celebrities in game of answering questions about the stars themselves, a concept similar in format to Match Game. As in Match Game, the contestants' goal is to match the stars' answers in order to score points; this is classified as "making a connection".

text: Two contestants faced a panel of six celebrities in game of answering questions about the stars themselves, a concept similar in format to

text: Match Game

text: . As in Match Game, the contestants' goal is to match the stars' answers in order to score points; this is classified as "making a connection".

text: When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost, the star lies along a curve on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (or HR diagram) called the standard main sequence. Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as "zero age main sequence", or ZAMS. The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion. From this point, the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age.

text: When nuclear fusion of hydrogen becomes the dominant energy production process and the excess energy gained from gravitational contraction has been lost, the star lies along a

text: curve

text: on the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: (or HR diagram) called the standard main sequence. Astronomers will sometimes refer to this stage as "zero age main sequence", or ZAMS. The ZAMS curve can be calculated using computer models of stellar properties at the point when stars begin hydrogen fusion. From this point, the brightness and surface temperature of stars typically increase with age.

text: The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter. This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions. The energy per particle in a supernova is typically one to one hundred and fifty picojoules (tens to hundreds of MeV). The per-particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct. But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model. In particular, Earth-based particle accelerators can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae, but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles, and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects. The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the weak nuclear force, which is believed to be well understood. However, the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force, which is much less well understood.

text: The

text: Standard Model

text: of

text: particle physics

text: is a theory which describes three of the four known

text: fundamental interaction

text: s between the

text: elementary particles

text: that make up all

text: matter

text: . This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions. The energy per particle in a supernova is typically one to one hundred and fifty

text: picojoule

text: s (tens to hundreds of

text: MeV

text: ). The per-particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct. But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model. In particular, Earth-based

text: particle accelerator

text: s can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae, but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles, and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects. The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the

text: weak nuclear force

text: , which is believed to be well understood. However, the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the

text: strong nuclear force

text: , which is much less well understood.

text: Since the particles are accelerated by the voltage many times, the final energy of the particles is not dependent on the accelerating voltage but on the strength of the magnetic field and the diameter of the accelerating chamber, the dees.  Cyclotrons can only accelerate particles to speeds much slower than the speed of light, nonrelativistic speeds. For nonrelativistic particles, the centripetal force

text: Since the particles are accelerated by the voltage many times, the final energy of the particles is not dependent on the accelerating voltage but on the strength of the magnetic field and the diameter of the accelerating chamber, the dees.  Cyclotrons can only accelerate particles to speeds much slower than the

text: speed of light

text: nonrelativistic

text: speeds. For nonrelativistic particles, the centripetal force

text: The star was discovered by a team led by Australian National University astronomers. The discovery was reported in Nature on 9 February 2014 and indicates that the supernovae of the first generation of stars may not have been as powerful as previously thought.

text: The star was discovered by a team led by

text: Australian National University

text: astronomers. The discovery was reported in

text: Nature

text: on 9 February 2014 and indicates that the supernovae of the

text: first generation of stars

text: may not have been as powerful as previously thought.

text: The discovery that a blue supergiant was a supernova progenitor contradicted all known theories at the time and produced a flurry of new ideas about how such a thing might happen, but it is now accepted that blue supergiants are a normal progenitor for some supernovae.

text: The discovery that a blue

text: supergiant

text: was a supernova progenitor contradicted

text: all known theories

text: at the time and produced a flurry of new ideas about how such a thing might happen, but it is now accepted that blue supergiants are a normal progenitor for some supernovae.

text: Less massive stars may develop a supergiant spectral luminosity class at relatively low luminosity, around , when they are on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) undergoing helium shell burning.  Researchers now prefer to categorise these as AGB stars distinct from supergiants because they are less massive, have different chemical compositions at the surface, undergo different types of pulsation and variability, and will evolve in a different way, usually producing a planetary nebula and white dwarf.  Most AGB stars will not become supernovae although there is interest in a class of super-AGB stars, those almost massive enough to undergo full carbon fusion, which may produce peculiar supernovae although without ever developing an iron core.  One notable group of low mass high luminosity stars are the RV Tauri variables, AGB or post-AGB stars lying on the instability strip and showing distinctive semi-regular variations.

text: Less massive stars may develop a supergiant spectral luminosity class at relatively low luminosity, around , when they are on the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (AGB) undergoing helium shell burning.  Researchers now prefer to categorise these as AGB stars distinct from supergiants because they are less massive, have different chemical compositions at the surface, undergo different types of pulsation and variability, and will evolve in a different way, usually producing a planetary nebula and white dwarf.  Most AGB stars will not become supernovae although there is interest in a class of super-AGB stars, those almost massive enough to undergo full carbon fusion, which may produce peculiar supernovae although without ever developing an iron core.  One notable group of low mass high luminosity stars are the

text: RV Tauri variable

text: s, AGB or post-AGB stars lying on the

text: instability strip

text: and showing distinctive semi-regular variations.

text: Binary and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits. When two such stars have a relatively close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution. Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure, such as a star cluster or a galaxy.

text: Binary

text: and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable

text: orbit

text: s. When two such stars have a relatively close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution. Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure, such as a

text: star cluster

text: or a

text: galaxy

text: The Weather Star XL is a rack-mounted rendering computer, manufactured by Silicon Graphics, Inc., containing a modified SGI O2 computer. The O2 is an entry-level Unix workstation introduced in 1996 by SGI to replace their earlier Indy series. Like the Indy, the O2 used a single MIPS microprocessor and was intended to be used mainly for multimedia purposes; the O2 was SGI's last attempt at a low-end workstation. The Weather Star XL utilizes the SGI IRIX Operating System with custom written software for The Weather Channel. Because of the proprietary SGI hardware and software, the Weather Star XL remains the most expensive STAR system, having a manufacturing cost of $US6,500. As a result of the XL's high price, many smaller cable headends retained their Weather Star 4000 or Weather Star Jr. units until the IntelliStar was released, skipping the XL altogether.

text: The Weather Star XL is a rack-mounted rendering computer, manufactured by

text: Silicon Graphics, Inc.

text: , containing a modified

text: SGI O2

text: computer. The O2 is an entry-level Unix workstation introduced in 1996 by SGI to replace their earlier Indy series. Like the Indy, the O2 used a single MIPS microprocessor and was intended to be used mainly for multimedia purposes; the O2 was SGI's last attempt at a low-end workstation. The Weather Star XL utilizes the SGI

text: IRIX

text: Operating System with custom written software for The Weather Channel. Because of the proprietary SGI hardware and software, the Weather Star XL remains the most expensive STAR system, having a manufacturing cost of $

text: US

text: 6,500. As a result of the XL's high price, many smaller cable headends retained their

text: Weather Star 4000

text: or

text: Weather Star Jr.

text: units until the

text: IntelliStar

text: was released, skipping the XL altogether.

text: My Picross contains Original and Classic puzzles. Original puzzles are those that are created by the player or downloaded from friends in local or online wireless modes. Original puzzles can be classified as Normal or Free mode, and are given an automatically generated one to four star rating based on the puzzle's difficulty as assessed by the game. When these puzzles are played, the music selections are the same as in the regular Normal and Free modes depending on how the Original puzzle is classified.

text: My Picross

text: contains Original and Classic puzzles. Original puzzles are those that are created by the player or downloaded from friends in local or online wireless modes. Original puzzles can be classified as Normal or Free mode, and are given an automatically generated one to four star rating based on the puzzle's difficulty as assessed by the game. When these puzzles are played, the music selections are the same as in the regular Normal and Free modes depending on how the Original puzzle is classified.

text: The table in this section summarizes all worldwide nuclear testing (including the two bombs dropped in combat which were not tests). The country names are links to summary articles for each country, which may in turn be used to drill down to test series articles which contain details on every known nuclear explosion and test. The notes attached to various table cells detail how the numbers therein are arrived at. As of 1993, worldwide, 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions (including 8 underwater) have been conducted with a total yield of 545 Megaton (Mt): 217 Mt from fission and 328 Mt from fusion, while the estimated number of underground nuclear tests conducted in the period from 1957 to 1992 is 1,352 explosions with a total yield of 90 Mt.

text: The table in this section summarizes all worldwide nuclear testing (including the two bombs dropped in combat which were not tests). The country names are links to summary articles for each country, which may in turn be used to drill down to test series articles which contain details on every known nuclear explosion and test. The notes attached to various table cells detail how the numbers therein are arrived at. As of 1993, worldwide, 520 atmospheric nuclear explosions (including 8 underwater) have been conducted with a total yield of 545

text: Megaton

text: (Mt): 217 Mt from

text: fission

text: and 328 Mt from

text: fusion

text: , while the estimated number of underground nuclear tests conducted in the period from 1957 to 1992 is 1,352 explosions with a total yield of 90 Mt.

text: Superheavy elements, such as unbinilium, are produced by nuclear fusion. These fusion reactions can be divided into "hot" and "cold" fusion, depending on the excitation energy of the compound nucleus produced. In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (actinides), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50 MeV) that may fission, or alternatively evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons. In cold fusion reactions (which use heavier projectiles, typically from the fourth period, and lighter targets, usually lead and bismuth), the fused nuclei produced have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state, they require emission of only one or two neutrons. However, hot fusion reactions tend to produce more neutron-rich products because the actinides have the highest neutron-to-proton ratios of any elements that can presently be made in macroscopic quantities, and is currently the only method to produce the superheavy elements from flerovium (element 114) onwards.

text: Superheavy element

text: s, such as unbinilium, are produced by

text: nuclear fusion

text: . These fusion reactions can be divided into "hot" and "cold" fusion, depending on the excitation energy of the compound nucleus produced. In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (

text: actinide

text: s), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50

text: MeV

text: ) that may fission, or alternatively evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons. In cold fusion reactions (which use heavier projectiles, typically from the

text: fourth period

text: , and lighter targets, usually

text: lead

text: and

text: bismuth

text: ), the fused nuclei produced have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the

text: ground state

text: , they require emission of only one or two neutrons. However, hot fusion reactions tend to produce more neutron-rich products because the actinides have the highest neutron-to-proton ratios of any elements that can presently be made in macroscopic quantities, and is currently the only method to produce the superheavy elements from

text: flerovium

text: (element 114) onwards.

text: The entire silicon-burning sequence lasts about one day in the core of a contracting massive star and stops after nickel-56 has become the dominant abundance. The explosive burning caused when the supernova shock passes through the silicon-burning shell lasts only seconds but is the major contributor to nucleosynthesis in the mass range 28-60.  The star can no longer release energy via nuclear fusion because a nucleus with 56 nucleons has the lowest mass per nucleon of all the elements in the sequence. The next step up in the alpha-particle chain would be Zn, which has slightly more mass per nucleon and thus is less thermodynamically favorable. Ni (which has 28 protons) has a half-life of 6.02 days and decays via β decay to Co (27 protons), which in turn has a half-life of 77.3 days as it decays to Fe (26 protons). However, only minutes are available for the Ni to decay within the core of a massive star.  This establishes Ni  as the most abundant of the radioactive nuclei created in this way. Its radioactivity energizes the late supernova light curve and creates the pathbreaking opportunity for gamma-ray-line astronomy.  See SN 1987A light curve for the aftermath of that opportunity.

text: The entire silicon-burning sequence lasts about one day in the core of a contracting massive star and stops after nickel-56 has become the dominant abundance. The explosive burning caused when the supernova shock passes through the silicon-burning shell lasts only seconds but is the major contributor to nucleosynthesis in the mass range 28-60.  The star can no longer release energy via nuclear fusion because a nucleus with 56 nucleons has the lowest

text: mass

text: per

text: nucleon

text: of all the elements in the sequence. The next step up in the alpha-particle chain would be Zn, which has slightly more mass per nucleon and thus is less thermodynamically favorable. Ni (which has 28 protons) has a

text: half-life

text: of 6.02 days and decays via

text: β decay

text: to Co (27 protons), which in turn has a half-life of 77.3 days as it decays to Fe (26 protons). However, only minutes are available for the Ni to decay within the core of a massive star.  This establishes Ni  as the most abundant of the radioactive nuclei created in this way. Its radioactivity energizes the late

text: supernova

text: light curve

text: and creates the pathbreaking opportunity for gamma-ray-line astronomy.  See

text: SN 1987A light curve

text: for the aftermath of that opportunity.

text: There were several different Polynesian equivalents to Aquila as a whole. On the island of Futuna, it was called Kau-amonga, meaning "Suspended Burden". Its name references the Futunan name for Orion's belt and sword, Amonga. In Hawaii, Altair was called Humu, after the humu humu fish, and the whole constellation was called Humu-ma, the "Humu cluster". Humu-ma was said to influence the astrologers. Pao-toa was the name for the entire constellation in the Marquesas Islands; the name meant "Fatigued Warrior". There were also Polynesian constellations that incorporated the stars of modern Aquila. The Pukapuka constellation Tolu, meaning "three", was made up of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Aquilae. Altair was commonly named among Polynesian peoples as well. The people of Hawaii called it Humu, the people of the Tuamotus called it Tukituki ("Pound with a hammer") - they named Beta Aquilae Nga Tangata ("The Men") - and the people of Pukapuka called Altair Turu and used it as a navigational star. The Māori people named Altair Poutu-te-rangi, "Pillar of the Sky", because of its important position in their cosmology. It was used differently in different Māori calendars, being the star of February and March in one version and March and April in the other. Altair was also the star that ruled the annual sweet potato harvest.

text: There were several different

text: Polynesia

text: n equivalents to Aquila as a whole. On the island of

text: Futuna

text: , it was called Kau-amonga, meaning "Suspended Burden". Its name references the Futunan name for Orion's belt and sword, Amonga. In

text: Hawaii

text: , Altair was called Humu, after the

text: humu humu

text: fish, and the whole constellation was called Humu-ma, the "Humu cluster". Humu-ma was said to influence the astrologers. Pao-toa was the name for the entire constellation in the

text: Marquesas Islands

text: ; the name meant "Fatigued Warrior". There were also Polynesian constellations that incorporated the stars of modern Aquila. The

text: Pukapuka

text: constellation Tolu, meaning "three", was made up of Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Aquilae. Altair was commonly named among Polynesian peoples as well. The people of Hawaii called it Humu, the people of the

text: Tuamotus

text: called it Tukituki ("Pound with a hammer") - they named Beta Aquilae Nga Tangata ("The Men") - and the people of Pukapuka called Altair Turu and used it as a navigational star. The

text: Māori people

text: named Altair Poutu-te-rangi, "Pillar of the Sky", because of its important position in their cosmology. It was used differently in different Māori calendars, being the star of February and March in one version and March and April in the other. Altair was also the star that ruled the annual

text: sweet potato

text: harvest.

text: Cooling techniques are important for the control the emittance of particle beams in particle accelerators.  Usually, these techniques take advantage, in some way, of the electric or the magnetic fields present in the fast-moving bunches of particles in the accelerator in clever ways to damp the tendency of these particles to repel each other.  It is accurate to think of these techniques as thermodynamic cooling, or the reduction of entropy, in much the same way that a refrigerator or an air conditioner cools its contents.

text: Cooling techniques are important for the control the

text: emittance

text: of

text: particle beam

text: s in

text: particle accelerator

text: s.  Usually, these techniques take advantage, in some way, of the electric or the magnetic fields present in the fast-moving bunches of particles in the accelerator in clever ways to damp the tendency of these particles to repel each other.  It is accurate to think of these techniques as

text: thermodynamic

text: cooling

text: , or the reduction of

text: entropy

text: , in much the same way that a

text: refrigerator

text: or an

text: air conditioner

text: cools its contents.

text: Thanks to Wilson's talented leadership, a management style very much adopted from Lawrence, the facility was completed on time and under budget. According to Wilson, he gave Atomic Energy Commission chairman Glenn T. Seaborg his assurance "signed in blood" that he would not exceed the authorized $250 million budget and "would rot in Hell" if he did. The facility centered on a four-mile circumference, 400 GeV accelerator. Wilson subsequently initiated the design of the Tevatron, a 1 TeV  particle accelerator. The National Accelerator Laboratory, was renamed the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in 1974, after Enrico Fermi. It is frequently referred to as "Fermilab".

text: Thanks to Wilson's talented leadership, a management style very much adopted from Lawrence, the facility was completed on time and under budget. According to Wilson, he gave

text: Atomic Energy Commission

text: chairman

text: Glenn T. Seaborg

text: his assurance "signed in blood" that he would not exceed the authorized $250 million budget and "would rot in Hell" if he did. The facility centered on a four-mile circumference, 400 GeV accelerator. Wilson subsequently initiated the design of the

text: Tevatron

text: , a 1 TeV

text: particle accelerator

text: . The National Accelerator Laboratory, was renamed the

text: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

text: in 1974, after

text: Enrico Fermi

text: . It is frequently referred to as "Fermilab".

text: Delta and Epsilon mark the fly's left wing and right wing respectively. With an apparent magnitude of 3.62, Delta is an orange giant of spectral type K2III located around 91 light-years away. Epsilon Muscae is a red giant of spectral type M5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3.99 and 4.31 over approximately 40 days. It has expanded to 130 times the Sun's diameter and 1800 to 2300 its luminosity. It was a star originally 1.5 to 2 times as massive as our Sun. Although of a similar distance—around 302 light-years—to the stars of the Lower Centaurus Crux subgroup, it is moving much faster at around 100 km/s and does not share a common origin. To the northwest lies Mu Muscae, an orange giant of spectral type K4III that varies between apparent magnitude is 4.71 and 4.76 and has been classified as a slow irregular variable. Near Mu is Lambda Muscae, the third brightest star in the constellation and a white main sequence star of spectral type A7V around 128 light-years distant from Earth.

text: Delta and Epsilon mark the fly's left wing and right wing respectively. With an apparent magnitude of 3.62, Delta is an orange giant of spectral type K2III located around 91 light-years away.

text: Epsilon Muscae

text: is a

text: red giant

text: of spectral type M5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3.99 and 4.31 over approximately 40 days. It has expanded to 130 times the Sun's diameter and 1800 to 2300 its luminosity. It was a star originally 1.5 to 2 times as massive as our Sun. Although of a similar distance—around 302 light-years—to the stars of the Lower Centaurus Crux subgroup, it is moving much faster at around 100 km/s and does not share a common origin. To the northwest lies Mu Muscae, an orange giant of spectral type K4III that varies between apparent magnitude is 4.71 and 4.76 and has been classified as a slow irregular variable. Near Mu is Lambda Muscae, the third brightest star in the constellation and a white main sequence star of spectral type A7V around 128 light-years distant from Earth.

text: The massive-star model probably does not explain all types of gamma-ray burst. There is strong evidence that some short-duration gamma-ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and no massive stars, such as elliptical galaxies and galaxy halos. The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars. According to this model, the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other because gravitational radiation releases energy until tidal forces suddenly rip the neutron stars apart and they collapse into a single black hole. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma-ray bursts, including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole, the accretion-induced collapse of a neutron star, or the evaporation of primordial black holes.

text: The massive-star model probably does not explain all types of gamma-ray burst. There is strong evidence that some short-duration gamma-ray bursts occur in systems with no star formation and no massive stars, such as elliptical galaxies and

text: galaxy halo

text: s. The favored theory for the origin of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a binary system consisting of two neutron stars. According to this model, the two stars in a binary slowly spiral towards each other because

text: gravitational radiation

text: releases energy until

text: tidal forces

text: suddenly rip the neutron stars apart and they collapse into a single black hole. The infall of matter into the new black hole produces an accretion disk and releases a burst of energy, analogous to the collapsar model. Numerous other models have also been proposed to explain short gamma-ray bursts, including the merger of a neutron star and a black hole, the accretion-induced collapse of a neutron star, or the

text: evaporation

text: of

text: primordial black hole

text: s.

text: The primary star is a yellow-orange main sequence dwarf BY Draconis variable of spectral type K0, and the secondary star is an orange main sequence dwarf of spectral type K4. The two stars orbit each other at an average distance of 23.2 AUs. But since the orbit is highly elliptical (at e=0.499), the separation between the two varies from 11.4 to 34.8 AUs, with one orbit taking 83.38 years to complete.

text: The primary star is a yellow-orange

text: main sequence

text: dwarf

text: BY Draconis variable

text: of

text: spectral type

text: K0, and the secondary star is an orange

text: main sequence

text: dwarf of

text: spectral type

text: K4. The two stars orbit each other at an average distance of 23.2

text: AUs

text: . But since the orbit is highly elliptical (at e=0.499), the separation between the two varies from 11.4 to 34.8 AUs, with one orbit taking 83.38 years to complete.

text: Very massive stars are expected to develop directly from hydrogen-rich young stars showing an Of or WNh spectrum into classical hydrogen-poor Wolf–Rayet stars, possibly with a short period as a luminous blue variable  They will continue to lose mass rapidly, passing through WN, WC, and WO stages before exploding as a type Ic supernova and leaving behind a black hole.  It is unclear whether the resulting supernova would be under-luminous, or even invisible, as the result of collapsing into the black hole, or over-luminous due to a large mass of ejected radioactive Ni.

text: Very massive stars are expected to develop directly from hydrogen-rich young stars showing an Of or WNh spectrum into classical hydrogen-poor

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: s, possibly with a short period as a luminous blue variable  They will continue to lose mass rapidly, passing through WN, WC, and WO stages before exploding as a

text: type Ic

text: supernova

text: and leaving behind a

text: black hole

text: .  It is unclear whether the resulting supernova would be under-luminous, or even invisible, as the result of collapsing into the black hole, or over-luminous due to a large mass of ejected radioactive Ni.

text: Lenard is best known for his appearances in the Star Trek franchise, particularly in the role of Sarek, the father of Spock (Leonard Nimoy).  However, his first television appearance was in the first season of Star Trek: The Original Series, playing the first Romulan ever seen in the series, in the episode "Balance of Terror" (1966). He later played an ill-fated Klingon Captain in Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979).  He originated the character of Sarek in the second-season episode "Journey to Babel" (1967), and provided his voice in the Star Trek: The Animated Series episode "Yesteryear" (1973).  He reprised the role in three of the Star Trek feature films: Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984), Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986), and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991), and provided the voice of young Sarek in a brief flashback sequence in Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989). Additionally, he appeared as elderly Sarek in the third-season Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Sarek" (1990) and the fifth-season episode "Unification: Part 1" (1991).

text: Lenard is best known for his appearances in the Star Trek franchise, particularly in the role of

text: Sarek

text: , the father of

text: Spock

text: Leonard Nimoy

text: ).  However, his first television appearance was in the first season of

text: Star Trek: The Original Series

text: , playing the first

text: Romulan

text: ever seen in the series, in the episode "

text: Balance of Terror

text: " (1966). He later played an ill-fated

text: Klingon

text: Captain in

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: (1979).  He originated the character of Sarek in the second-season episode "

text: Journey to Babel

text: " (1967), and provided his voice in the

text: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: episode "

entity_name: Yesteryear (Star Trek: The Animated Series)

text: Yesteryear

text: " (1973).  He reprised the role in three of the Star Trek feature films:

text: Star Trek III: The Search for Spock

text: Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home

text: (1986), and

text: Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country

text: (1991), and provided the voice of young Sarek in a brief flashback sequence in

text: Star Trek V: The Final Frontier

text: (1989). Additionally, he appeared as elderly Sarek in the third-season

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: episode "

text: Sarek

text: " (1990) and the fifth-season episode "

entity_name: Unification (Star Trek: The Next Generation)

text: Unification: Part 1

text: " (1991).

text: First noticed as something unusual in images of the center of the Milky Way in 2002, the gas cloud G2, which has a mass about three times that of Earth, was confirmed to be likely on a course taking it into the accretion zone of Sgr A* in a paper published in Nature in 2012. Predictions of its orbit suggested it would make its closest approach to the black hole (a perinigricon) in early 2014, when the cloud was at a distance of just over 3000 times the radius of the event horizon (or ≈260 AU, 36 light-hours) from the black hole. G2 has been observed to be disrupting since 2009, and was predicted by some to be completely destroyed by the encounter, which could have led to a significant brightening of X-ray and other emission from the black hole. Other astronomers suggested the gas cloud could be hiding a dim star, or a binary star merger product, which would hold it together against the tidal forces of Sgr A*, allowing the ensemble to pass by without any effect.  In addition to the tidal effects on the cloud itself, it was proposed in May 2013 that, prior to its perinigricon, G2 might experience multiple close encounters with members of the black-hole and neutron-star populations thought to orbit near the Galactic Center, offering some insight into the region surrounding the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way.

text: First noticed as something unusual in images of the center of the Milky Way in 2002, the gas cloud G2, which has a mass about three times that of Earth, was confirmed to be likely on a course taking it into the accretion zone of Sgr A* in a paper published in Nature in 2012. Predictions of its orbit suggested it would make its closest approach to the black hole (a

text: perinigricon

text: ) in early 2014, when the cloud was at a distance of just over 3000 times the radius of the event horizon (or ≈260 AU, 36 light-hours) from the black hole. G2 has been observed to be disrupting since 2009, and was predicted by some to be completely destroyed by the encounter, which could have led to a significant brightening of X-ray and other emission from the black hole. Other astronomers suggested the gas cloud could be hiding a dim star, or a binary star merger product, which would hold it together against the tidal forces of Sgr A*, allowing the ensemble to pass by without any effect.  In addition to the tidal effects on the cloud itself, it was proposed in May 2013 that, prior to its perinigricon, G2 might experience multiple close encounters with members of the black-hole and neutron-star populations thought to orbit near the Galactic Center, offering some insight into the region surrounding the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way.

text: High-resolution surface textures are available for most solar system bodies, including Virtual Textures with complete coverage up to 32768 pixels wide (1.25 km/pixel at the Earth's equator), with selected coverage at higher resolutions. This allows very close views of the Earth, Mars, and the Moon. Many 3D models of historical and existing spacecraft are available flying in reasonably accurate trajectories, from Sputnik 1 and Voyager 2 to the Hubble Space Telescope and International Space Station, as are extended data plots for stars (2 million with correct spatial coordinates). DSOs (nebulae, galaxies, open clusters, etc.), as well as catalogues of thousands of asteroids and comets, and more than 96,000 locations on the Earth can be drawn by the program. Add-ons also include extensive space objects such as red and blue supergiants, red and brown dwarfs, neutron stars, spinning pulsars, rotating black holes with accretion disks, protostars, star nursery nebula, supernova and planetary nebulae, galactic redshifts, geological planetary displays (e.g. 3D interiors, topographic and bathymetric maps, ice age simulations), planetary aurorae, rotating magnetic fields, animated solar flares and prominences, 3D craters and mountains, and historic collision events. All can be visited via the Celestia travel interface. All stages in the life cycle of stars are available, from protostar to black dwarf.

text: High-resolution surface textures are available for most solar system bodies, including Virtual Textures with complete coverage up to 32768 pixels wide (1.25 km/pixel at the Earth's equator), with selected coverage at higher resolutions. This allows very close views of the Earth, Mars, and the Moon. Many 3D models of historical and existing spacecraft are available flying in reasonably accurate trajectories, from

text: Sputnik 1

text: and

text: Voyager 2

text: to the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and

text: International Space Station

text: , as are extended

text: data plot

text: s for stars (2 million with correct spatial coordinates).

text: DSO

text: s (nebulae, galaxies,

text: open cluster

text: s, etc.), as well as catalogues of thousands of asteroids and comets, and more than 96,000 locations on the Earth can be drawn by the program. Add-ons also include extensive space objects such as red and blue supergiants, red and brown dwarfs, neutron stars, spinning pulsars, rotating black holes with accretion disks, protostars, star nursery nebula, supernova and planetary nebulae, galactic redshifts, geological planetary displays (e.g. 3D interiors, topographic and

text: bathymetric

text: maps, ice age simulations),

text: planetary aurorae

text: , rotating magnetic fields, animated

text: solar flare

text: s and

text: prominence

text: s, 3D craters and mountains, and historic collision events. All can be visited via the Celestia travel interface. All stages in the life cycle of stars are available, from

text: protostar

text: to

text: black dwarf

text: The stars that form Grus were originally considered part of the neighbouring constellation Piscis Austrinus (the southern fish), with Gamma Gruis seen as part of the fish's tail. The stars were first defined as a separate constellation by  the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius, who created twelve new constellations based on the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the Eerste Schipvaart, to the East Indies. Grus first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. Its first depiction in a celestial atlas was in  the German cartographer Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name Den Reygher, "The Heron", but Bayer followed Plancius and Hondius in using Grus.

text: The stars that form Grus were originally considered part of the neighbouring constellation

text: Piscis Austrinus

text: (the southern fish), with

text: Gamma Gruis

text: seen as part of the fish's tail. The stars were first defined as a separate constellation by  the Dutch astronomer

text: Petrus Plancius

text: , who created twelve new constellations based on the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: and

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: , who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the

text: Eerste Schipvaart

text: , to the

text: East Indies

text: . Grus first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in

text: Amsterdam

text: by Plancius with

text: Jodocus Hondius

text: . Its first depiction in a celestial atlas was in  the German cartographer

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's

text: Uranometria

text: of 1603. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name Den Reygher, "The Heron", but Bayer followed Plancius and Hondius in using Grus.

text: β Capricorni is a double star also known as Dabih. It is a yellow-hued giant star of magnitude 3.1, 340 light-years from Earth. The secondary is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 6.1. The two stars are distinguishable in binoculars. β Capricorni's traditional name comes from the Arabic phrase for "the lucky stars of the slaughterer," a reference to ritual sacrifices performed by ancient Arabs at the heliacal rising of Capricornus. Another star visible to the naked eye is γ Capricorni, sometimes called Nashira ("bringing good tidings"); it is a white-hued giant star of magnitude 3.7, 139 light-years from Earth. π Capricorni is a double star with a blue-white hued primary of magnitude 5.1 and a white-hued secondary of magnitude 8.3. It is 670 light-years from Earth and the components are distinguishable in a small telescope.

text: β Capricorni

text: is a

text: double star

text: also known as Dabih. It is a yellow-hued giant star of magnitude 3.1, 340 light-years from Earth. The secondary is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 6.1. The two stars are distinguishable in binoculars.

text: β Capricorni

text: 's traditional name comes from the Arabic phrase for "the lucky stars of the slaughterer," a reference to ritual sacrifices performed by ancient Arabs at the

text: heliacal rising

text: of Capricornus. Another star visible to the naked eye is

text: γ Capricorni

text: , sometimes called Nashira ("bringing good tidings"); it is a white-hued giant star of magnitude 3.7, 139 light-years from Earth.

text: π Capricorni

text: is a double star with a blue-white hued primary of magnitude 5.1 and a white-hued secondary of magnitude 8.3. It is 670 light-years from Earth and the components are distinguishable in a small telescope.

text: As the bunches will travel many millions of kilometers (considering that they will be moving at near the speed of light for many hours), any residual gas in the beam pipe will result in many, many collisions.  This will have the effect of increasing the size of the bunch, and increasing the energy spread.  Therefore, a better vacuum yields better beam dynamics. Also, single large-angle scattering events from either the residual gas, or from other particles in the bunch (Touschek effect), can eject particles far enough that they are lost on the walls of the accelerator vacuum vessel. This gradual loss of particles is called beam lifetime, and means that storage rings must be periodically injected with a new complement of particles.

text: As the bunches will travel many millions of kilometers (considering that they will be moving at near the speed of light for many hours), any residual gas in the beam pipe will result in many, many collisions.  This will have the effect of increasing the size of the bunch, and increasing the energy spread.  Therefore, a better

text: vacuum

text: yields better beam dynamics. Also, single large-angle scattering events from either the residual gas, or from other particles in the bunch (

text: Touschek effect

text: ), can eject particles far enough that they are lost on the walls of the accelerator vacuum vessel. This gradual loss of particles is called beam lifetime, and means that storage rings must be periodically injected with a new complement of particles.

text: Theoretical studies of many supernovae indicate that most are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core. In the first instance, a degenerate white dwarf may accumulate sufficient material from a binary companion, either through accretion or via a merger, to raise its core temperature enough to trigger runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. In the second case, the core of a massive star may undergo sudden gravitational collapse, releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova. While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical collapse mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for some time.

text: Theoretical studies of many supernovae indicate that most are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of

text: nuclear fusion

text: in a

text: degenerate star

text: or the sudden

text: gravitational collapse

text: of a massive star's core. In the first instance, a degenerate

text: white dwarf

text: may accumulate sufficient material from a

text: binary companion

text: , either through

text: accretion

text: or via a merger, to raise its core temperature enough to trigger

text: runaway

text: nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. In the second case, the core of a

text: massive star

text: may undergo sudden

text: gravitational collapse

text: , releasing

text: gravitational potential energy

text: as a supernova. While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical collapse mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for some time.

text: Historically, the first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to accelerate charged particles.  The charged particle was accelerated through an evacuated tube with an electrode at either end, with the static potential across it.   Since the particle passed only once through the potential difference, the output energy was limited to the accelerating voltage of the machine.  While this method is still extremely popular today, with the electrostatic accelerators greatly out-numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for air insulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in a tank of pressurized gas with high dielectric strength, such as sulfur hexafluoride.  In a tandem accelerator the potential is used twice to accelerate the particles, by reversing the charge of the particles while they are inside the terminal.  This is possible with the acceleration of atomic nuclei by using anions (negatively charged ions), and then passing the beam through a thin foil to strip electrons off the anions inside the high voltage terminal, converting them to cations (positively charged ions), which are accelerated again as they leave the terminal.

text: Historically, the first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to accelerate charged particles.  The charged particle was accelerated through an evacuated tube with an electrode at either end, with the static potential across it.   Since the particle passed only once through the potential difference, the output energy was limited to the accelerating voltage of the machine.  While this method is still extremely popular today, with the electrostatic accelerators greatly out-numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for air insulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in a tank of pressurized gas with high

text: dielectric strength

text: , such as

text: sulfur hexafluoride

text: .  In a tandem accelerator the potential is used twice to accelerate the particles, by reversing the charge of the particles while they are inside the terminal.  This is possible with the acceleration of

text: atomic nuclei

text: by using

text: anion

text: s (negatively charged

text: ion

text: s), and then passing the beam through a thin foil to strip electrons off the anions inside the high voltage terminal, converting them to cations (positively charged ions), which are accelerated again as they leave the terminal.

text: That same year, Goldsmith concluded the decade composing what is widely considered his most recognized and celebrated score for Star Trek: The Motion Picture.  Having been Gene Roddenberry's initial choice to compose the original Star Trek pilot "The Cage" yet being unable to do so due to scheduling conflicts, Goldsmith was the first pick of both Paramount Pictures and director Robert Wise to compose a score for The Motion Picture.  Faced with composing a new Star Trek theme for the film, Goldsmith initially struggled for inspiration, and proceeded to compose as much of the score as possible before the need to develop the main title theme. His initial score for the scene in which the newly-refit Starship Enterprise is revealed to the audience was not well received by the filmmakers, director Robert Wise feeling that it lacked a strong thematic hook and evoked sailing ships. Though somewhat irked by its rejection, Goldsmith consented to re-work his initial idea and finally arrived at the majestic Star Trek theme which was ultimately used.   The film's soundtrack also provided a debut for the Blaster Beam, an electronic instrument  long, created by musician Craig Huxley.  The Blaster had steel wires connected to amplifiers fitted to the main piece of aluminum; the device was played with an artillery shell. Goldsmith heard it and immediately decided to use it for V'Ger's cues. An enormous pipe organ first plays the V'Ger theme on the Enterprises approach, a literal indication of the machine's power.  His score for The Motion Picture earned him Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations, and was one of the AFI's 250 nominees for the top twenty-five American film scores.  Goldsmith would later compose the scores for Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), and Star Trek: Nemesis (2002), as well as the theme to the television series Star Trek: Voyager in 1995. In addition, his theme for The Motion Picture, as arranged by Dennis McCarthy, was reused as the theme for Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1987.

text: That same year, Goldsmith concluded the decade composing what is widely considered his most recognized and celebrated score for

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: .  Having been

text: Gene Roddenberry

text: 's initial choice to compose the original

text: Star Trek

text: pilot "

entity_name: The Cage (Star Trek: The Original Series)

text: The Cage

text: " yet being unable to do so due to scheduling conflicts, Goldsmith was the first pick of both

text: Paramount Pictures

text: and director

text: Robert Wise

text: to compose a score for The Motion Picture.  Faced with composing a new Star Trek theme for the film, Goldsmith initially struggled for inspiration, and proceeded to compose as much of the score as possible before the need to develop the main title theme. His initial score for the scene in which the newly-refit Starship

text: Enterprise

text: is revealed to the audience was not well received by the filmmakers, director Robert Wise feeling that it lacked a strong thematic hook and evoked sailing ships. Though somewhat irked by its rejection, Goldsmith consented to re-work his initial idea and finally arrived at the majestic Star Trek theme which was ultimately used.   The film's soundtrack also provided a debut for the

text: Blaster Beam

text: , an electronic instrument  long, created by musician

text: Craig Huxley

text: .  The Blaster had steel wires connected to amplifiers fitted to the main piece of aluminum; the device was played with an artillery shell. Goldsmith heard it and immediately decided to use it for V'Ger's cues. An enormous pipe organ first plays the V'Ger theme on the Enterprises approach, a literal indication of the machine's power.  His score for The Motion Picture earned him

text: Academy Award

text: and

text: Golden Globe Award

text: nominations, and was one of the

text: AFI

text: 's 250 nominees for the

text: top twenty-five American film scores

text: .  Goldsmith would later compose the scores for

text: Star Trek V: The Final Frontier

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Star Trek: Insurrection

text: (1998), and

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: (2002), as well as the theme to the television series

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: in 1995. In addition, his theme for The Motion Picture, as arranged by

text: Dennis McCarthy

text: , was reused as the theme for

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: in 1987.

text: At this point in its evolution, the Sun is thought to have been a T Tauri star. Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre-planetary matter with masses of . These discs extend to several hundred AU—the Hubble Space Telescope has observed protoplanetary discs of up to 1000 AU in diameter in star-forming regions such as the Orion Nebula—and are rather cool, reaching a surface temperature of only about 1000 kelvin at their hottest.Within 50 million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved. This marked the Sun's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the main sequence. Main-sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a main-sequence star today.

text: At this point in its

text: evolution

text: , the Sun is thought to have been a

text: T Tauri star

text: . Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre-planetary matter with masses of . These discs extend to several hundred

text: AU

text: —the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: has observed protoplanetary discs of up to 1000 AU in diameter in

text: star-forming regions

text: such as the

text: Orion Nebula

text: —and are rather cool, reaching a surface temperature of only about 1000

text: kelvin

text: at their hottest.Within 50 million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: was achieved. This marked the Sun's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the

text: main sequence

text: . Main-sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a main-sequence star today.

text: A supernova occurs when a high-mass star reaches the end of its life.  When nuclear fusion in the core of the star stops, the star collapses.  The gas falling inward either rebounds or gets so strongly heated that it expands outwards from the core, thus causing the star to explode.  The expanding shell of gas forms a supernova remnant, a special diffuse nebula. Although much of the optical and X-ray emission from supernova remnants originates from ionized gas, a great amount of the radio emission is a form of non-thermal emission called synchrotron emission. This emission originates from high-velocity electrons oscillating within magnetic fields.

text: A

text: supernova

text: occurs when a high-mass star reaches the end of its life.  When

text: nuclear fusion

text: in the core of the star stops, the star collapses.  The gas falling inward either rebounds or gets so strongly heated that it expands outwards from the core, thus causing the star to explode.  The expanding shell of gas forms a

text: supernova remnant

text: , a special

text: diffuse nebula

text: . Although much of the optical and

text: X-ray

text: emission from supernova remnants originates from ionized gas, a great amount of the

text: radio

text: emission is a form of non-thermal emission called

text: synchrotron emission

text: . This emission originates from high-velocity

text: electrons

text: oscillating within

text: magnetic field

text: s.

text: In 1910, it was discovered that although component B was a faint star, it was white in color. This meant that it had to be a small star; in fact it was a white dwarf, the first discovered. Although it is neither the closest white dwarf, nor the brightest in the night sky, it is by far the easiest to observe; it is nearly three magnitudes brighter than Van Maanen's Star (the nearest solitary white dwarf), and unlike the companions of Procyon and Sirius it is not swamped in the glare of a much brighter primary.

text: In 1910, it was discovered that although component B was a faint star, it was white in color. This meant that it had to be a small star; in fact it was a

text: white dwarf

text: , the first discovered. Although it is neither the closest white dwarf, nor the brightest in the night sky, it is by far the easiest to observe; it is nearly three magnitudes brighter than

text: Van Maanen's Star

text: (the nearest solitary white dwarf), and unlike the companions of

text: Procyon

text: and

text: Sirius

text: it is not swamped in the glare of a much brighter primary.

text: Modern models suggest that stars with a certain range of masses and rotation rates may explode as supernovae without ever becoming blue supergiants again, but many will eventually pass right through the yellow void and become low-mass low-luminosity luminous blue variables and possibly Wolf–Rayet stars after that.  Specifically, more massive stars and those with higher mass loss rates due to rotation or high metallicity will evolve beyond the yellow hypergiant stage to hotter temperatures before reaching core collapse.

text: Modern models suggest that stars with a certain range of masses and rotation rates may explode as

text: supernovae

text: without ever becoming blue supergiants again, but many will eventually pass right through the yellow void and become low-mass low-luminosity

text: luminous blue variable

text: s and possibly

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: s after that.  Specifically, more massive stars and those with higher mass loss rates due to rotation or high metallicity will evolve beyond the yellow hypergiant stage to hotter temperatures before reaching core collapse.

text: The Henry Draper Catalogue (HD) is an astronomical star catalogue published between 1918 and 1924, giving spectroscopic classifications for 225,300 stars; it was later expanded by the Henry Draper Extension (HDE), published between 1925 and 1936, which gave classifications for 46,850 more stars, and by the Henry Draper Extension Charts (HDEC), published from 1937 to 1949 in the form of charts, which gave classifications for 86,933 more stars.  In all, 359,083 stars were classified.  The original HD catalogue covers the entire sky almost completely down to an apparent photographic magnitude of about 9; the extensions added fainter stars in certain areas of the sky.  The construction of the Henry Draper Catalogue was part of a pioneering effort to classify stellar spectra, and its catalogue numbers are commonly used as a way of identifying stars.

text: The Henry Draper Catalogue (HD) is an

text: astronomical

text: star catalogue

text: published between 1918 and 1924, giving

text: spectroscopic

text: classifications

text: for 225,300 stars; it was later expanded by the Henry Draper Extension (HDE), published between 1925 and 1936, which gave classifications for 46,850 more stars, and by the Henry Draper Extension Charts (HDEC), published from 1937 to 1949 in the form of charts, which gave classifications for 86,933 more stars.  In all, 359,083 stars were classified.  The original HD catalogue covers the entire sky almost completely down to an apparent

text: photographic magnitude

text: of about 9; the extensions added fainter stars in certain areas of the sky.  The construction of the Henry Draper Catalogue was part of a pioneering effort to classify stellar spectra, and its catalogue numbers are commonly used as a way of identifying stars.

text: Collapse of massive non-degenerate cores will ignite further fusion. When the core collapse is initiated by pair instability, oxygen fusion begins and the collapse may be halted.  For core masses of , the collapse halts and the star remains intact, but core collapse will occur again when a larger core has formed.  For cores of around , the fusion of oxygen and heavier elements is so energetic that the entire star is disrupted, causing a supernova.  At the upper end of the mass range, the supernova is unusually luminous and extremely long-lived due to many solar masses of ejected Ni.  For even larger core masses, the core temperature becomes high enough to allow photodisintegration and the core collapses completely into a black hole.

text: The Super Proton Synchrotron (an older ring collider) was used to accelerate electrons and positrons to nearly the speed of light. These are then injected into the ring. As in all ring colliders, the LEP's ring consists of many magnets which force the charged particles into a circular trajectory (so that they stay inside the ring), RF accelerators which accelerate the particles with radio frequency waves, and quadrupoles that focus the particle beam (i.e. keep the particles together).  The function of the accelerators is to increase the particles' energies so that heavy particles can be created when the particles collide.  When the particles are accelerated to maximum energy (and focused to so-called bunches), an electron and a positron bunch is made to collide with each other at one of the collision points of the detector. When an electron and a positron collide, they annihilate to a virtual particle, either a photon or a Z boson. The virtual particle almost immediately decays into other elementary particles, which are then detected by huge particle detectors.

text: The

text: Super Proton Synchrotron

text: (an older ring collider) was used to accelerate

text: electron

text: s and

text: positron

text: s to nearly the

text: speed of light

text: . These are then injected into the ring. As in all

text: ring collider

text: s, the LEP's ring consists of many

text: magnet

text: s which force the

text: charged

text: particles into a circular

text: trajectory

text: (so that they stay inside the ring),

text: RF accelerator

text: s which

text: accelerate

text: the particles with

text: radio frequency waves

text: , and

text: quadrupole

text: s that focus the particle beam (i.e. keep the particles together).  The function of the accelerators is to increase the particles' energies so that heavy particles can be created when the particles collide.  When the particles are accelerated to maximum energy (and focused to so-called bunches), an electron and a positron bunch is made to collide with each other at one of the collision points of the detector. When an electron and a positron collide, they

text: annihilate

text: to a

text: virtual particle

text: , either a

text: photon

text: or a

text: Z boson

text: . The virtual particle almost immediately

text: decay

text: s into other elementary particles, which are then detected by huge

text: particle detector

text: s.

text: Cusack starred in her first film role in 1992, when she was cast in A League of Their Own, as Shirley Baker. She was in the 1996 comedy Multiplicity, which starred Michael Keaton and Andie MacDowell.  Also in 1996, she replaced Anita Barone on The Jeff Foxworthy Show until the series ended. In 1998, Cusack starred in Maggie on Lifetime Television. Cusack has made guest appearances in Grey's Anatomy, Scandal, One Tree Hill, Charmed, Ghost Whisperer, The Unit, Boston Legal, Bones, Frasier, Ally McBeal, Criminal Minds, Private Practice, and Castle among others. In 2002, she guest-starred in the episode of Star Trek: Enterprise entitled "Carbon Creek".  She had a small role in Grosse Pointe Blank, which starred her siblings John and Joan; appeared in the movie Accepted, in which she plays Diane Gaines, mother to the lead character played by Justin Long; and appeared in the film What Planet Are You From. She also co-starred in Ace Ventura Jr: Pet Detective as Melissa Robinson Ventura, the titular character's mother (replacing Courteney Cox from the original film). She also appeared in the SciFi series Lost Room as Helen Ruber (2 episodes, 2006). In 2015 she appeared in the first episode of Fargos second season.  In 2016, she played Donna Dent in the new Clint Eastwood-directed Warner Brothers film Sully, a film about Chesley Sullenberger and the events of Flight 1549, starring Tom Hanks.

text: Cusack starred in her first film role in 1992, when she was cast in

text: A League of Their Own

text: , as

text: Shirley Baker

text: . She was in the 1996 comedy

text: Multiplicity

text: , which starred Michael Keaton and Andie MacDowell.  Also in 1996, she replaced

text: Anita Barone

text: on

text: The Jeff Foxworthy Show

text: until the series ended. In 1998, Cusack starred in

text: Maggie

text: on

text: Lifetime Television

text: . Cusack has made guest appearances in

text: Grey's Anatomy

text: Scandal

text: One Tree Hill

text: Charmed

text: Ghost Whisperer

text: The Unit

text: Boston Legal

text: Bones

text: Frasier

text: Ally McBeal

text: Criminal Minds

text: Private Practice

text: , and

text: Castle

text: among others. In 2002, she guest-starred in the episode of

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: entitled "Carbon Creek".  She had a small role in

text: Grosse Pointe Blank

text: , which starred her siblings John and Joan; appeared in the movie

text: Accepted

text: , in which she plays Diane Gaines, mother to the lead character played by

text: Justin Long

text: ; and appeared in the film

text: What Planet Are You From

text: . She also co-starred in

text: Ace Ventura Jr: Pet Detective

text: as Melissa Robinson Ventura, the titular character's mother (replacing

text: Courteney Cox

text: from the

text: original film

text: ). She also appeared in the SciFi series

text: Lost Room

text: as Helen Ruber (2 episodes, 2006). In 2015 she appeared in the first episode of

text: Fargo

text: s second season.  In 2016, she played Donna Dent in the new

text: Clint Eastwood

text: -directed Warner Brothers film

text: Sully

text: , a film about Chesley Sullenberger and the events of Flight 1549, starring

text: Tom Hanks

text: There are also examples of systems beyond ternaries: Castor is a sextuple star system, which is the second-brightest star in the constellation Gemini and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. Astronomically, Castor was discovered to be a visual binary in 1719. Each of the components of Castor is itself a spectroscopic binary. Castor also has a faint and widely separated companion, which is also a spectroscopic binary. The Alcor–Mizar visual binary in Ursa Majoris also consists of six stars, four comprising Mizar and two comprising Alcor.

text: There are also examples of systems beyond ternaries:

text: Castor

text: is a sextuple star system, which is the second-brightest star in the constellation

text: Gemini

text: and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. Astronomically, Castor was discovered to be a visual binary in 1719. Each of the components of Castor is itself a spectroscopic binary. Castor also has a faint and widely separated companion, which is also a spectroscopic binary. The

text: Alcor–Mizar

text: visual binary in Ursa Majoris also consists of six stars, four comprising Mizar and two comprising Alcor.

text: HD 76151 is a G-type main sequence star in the constellation of Hydra.  It has an apparent visual magnitude of approximately 6.00.

text: HD 76151 is a

text: G-type

text: main sequence

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Hydra

text: .  It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of approximately 6.00.

text: For his outstanding contributions to the understanding of "white-dwarf" stars.

text: Scovell has also directed two made for television movies: Hayley Wagner, Star for Showtime and It Was One of Us for Lifetime.

text: Scovell has also directed two

text: made for television movies

text: : Hayley Wagner, Star for

text: Showtime

text: and It Was One of Us for

text: Lifetime

text: The fusion rate for d-d muon-catalyzed fusion has been estimated to be only about 1% of the fusion rate for d-t muon-catalyzed fusion, but this still gives about one d-d nuclear fusion every 10 to 100 picoseconds or so.  However, the energy released with every d-d muon-catalyzed fusion reaction is only about 20% or so of the energy released with every d-t muon-catalyzed fusion reaction.  Moreover, the catalyzing muon has a probability of sticking to at least one of the d-d muon-catalyzed fusion reaction products that Jackson in this 1957 paper estimated to be at least 10 times greater than the corresponding probability of the catalyzing muon sticking to at least one of the d-t muon-catalyzed fusion reaction products, thereby preventing the muon from catalyzing any more nuclear fusions.  Effectively, this means that each muon catalyzing d-d muon-catalyzed fusion reactions in pure deuterium is only able to catalyze about one-tenth of the number of d-t muon-catalyzed fusion reactions that each muon is able to catalyze in a mixture of equal amounts of deuterium and tritium, and each d-d fusion only yields about one-fifth of the yield of each d-t fusion, thereby making the prospects for useful energy release from d-d muon-catalyzed fusion at least 50 times worse than the already dim prospects for useful energy release from d-t muon-catalyzed fusion.

text: Sergei has also had roles in If Someone Had Known (1995), Dangerous Minds (1995), Mother, May I Sleep with Danger? (1996), The Opposite of Sex (1998), and 10.5 (2004). He has guest starred on Touched by an Angel, Cybill and Party of Five. In 2005 and 2006, he starred in Charmed as Henry Mitchell, the boyfriend and later husband of the character Paige Matthews. He also had a minor role in The Break-Up with Jennifer Aniston and Vince Vaughn. He co-starred with Jenny McCarthy in Santa Baby.  He guest-starred in the October 2008 CSI: Miami episode "Raging Cannibal". Sergei has also played the lead character in the TV mini-series Jack Hunter and the Lost Treasure of Ugarit (2008). Among Sergei's recent roles are the Lifetime Nora Roberts' series movie High Noon where he portrayed Duncan (April 2009) and a guest role in episode 3 of Warehouse 13 with his Jack Hunter co-star Joanne Kelly.

text: Sergei has also had roles in

text: If Someone Had Known

text: Dangerous Minds

text: Mother, May I Sleep with Danger?

text: The Opposite of Sex

text: (1998), and

text: (2004). He has guest starred on

text: Touched by an Angel

text: Cybill

text: and

text: Party of Five

text: . In 2005 and 2006, he starred in

text: Charmed

text: as

text: Henry Mitchell

text: , the boyfriend and later husband of the character

text: Paige Matthews

text: . He also had a minor role in

text: The Break-Up

text: with

text: Jennifer Aniston

text: and

text: Vince Vaughn

text: . He co-starred with

text: Jenny McCarthy

text: in

text: Santa Baby

text: .  He guest-starred in the October 2008

text: CSI: Miami

text: episode "Raging Cannibal". Sergei has also played the lead character in the TV mini-series

entity_name: Jack Hunter and the Lost Treasure of Ugarit

text: Jack Hunter and the Lost Treasure of Ugarit

text: (2008). Among Sergei's recent roles are the Lifetime

text: Nora Roberts

text: ' series movie

text: High Noon

text: where he portrayed Duncan (April 2009) and a guest role in episode 3 of

text: Warehouse 13

text: with his Jack Hunter co-star

text: Joanne Kelly

text: Weizsäcker made important theoretical discoveries regarding energy production in stars from nuclear fusion processes.  He also did influential theoretical work on planetary formation in the early Solar System.

text: Weizsäcker made important theoretical discoveries regarding energy production in stars from

text: nuclear fusion

text: processes.  He also did influential theoretical work on planetary formation in the early

text: Solar System

text: Although HD 93250 is known to be a binary star, individual spectra of the two components have never been observed, although they are thought to be very similar. The spectral type of HD 93250 has variously been given as O5, O6/7, O4, and O3. It has sometimes been classified as a main sequence star and sometimes as a giant star. The Galactic O-Star Spectroscopic Survey has used it as the standard star for the newly created O4 subgiant spectral type.

text: Although HD 93250 is known to be a binary star, individual spectra of the two components have never been observed, although they are thought to be very similar. The spectral type of HD 93250 has variously been given as O5, O6/7, O4, and O3. It has sometimes been classified as a

text: main sequence

text: star and sometimes as a

text: giant star

text: . The Galactic O-Star Spectroscopic Survey has used it as the standard star for the newly created O4

text: subgiant

text: spectral type.

text: In astronomy, the circumpolar constellations are a group of constellations of stars that never set below the horizon from the viewer's perspective. Because of the rotation of the Earth and its axial tilt with respect to the Sun, the stars and constellations can be divided into two groups. Some stars and constellations never rise nor set, and they are called circumpolar. All the rest are divided into seasonal stars and constellations.

text: In astronomy, the circumpolar constellations are a group of

text: constellation

text: s of

text: star

text: s that never set below the

text: horizon

text: from the viewer's perspective. Because of the rotation of the Earth and its

text: axial tilt

text: with respect to the

text: Sun

text: , the stars and constellations can be divided into two groups. Some stars and constellations never rise nor set, and they are called circumpolar. All the rest are divided into seasonal stars and constellations.

text: All three components of δ Circini A are hot luminous stars.  The brightest is an O8 star just beginning to evolve away from the main sequence.  It is in a very close orbit with an O9.5 main sequence star.  The two stars are deformed into ellipsoidal shapes and eclipse each other every 3.9 days.  The total brightness change is only 0.15 magnitudes.

text: Often when a star is a member of a pair of close-orbiting binary stars, the tidal attraction of the gasses near the center of mass are sufficient to pull gas from one star onto its partner. This effect is especially prominent when the partner is a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.

text: Often when a star is a member of a pair of close-orbiting

text: binary star

text: s, the tidal attraction of the gasses near the center of mass are sufficient to pull gas from one star onto its partner. This effect is especially prominent when the partner is a

text: white dwarf

text: neutron star

text: , or

text: black hole

text: AR Cassiopeiae (AR Cas) is a multiple star system in the constellation of Cassiopeia. It is thought to be a septuple star system. It is one of only two known star systems with a multiplicity of 7, the other being Nu Scorpii, with no physical multiple stars of greater multiplicity yet found.

text: AR Cassiopeiae (AR Cas) is a

text: multiple star system

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Cassiopeia

text: . It is thought to be a septuple star system. It is one of only two known

text: star system

text: s with a multiplicity of 7, the other being

text: Nu Scorpii

text: , with no physical

text: multiple star

text: s of greater multiplicity yet found.

text: Subgiants occupy a region above (i.e. more luminous than) the main sequence stars and below the giant stars.  There are relatively few on most H-R diagrams because the time spent as a subgiant is much less than the time spent on the main sequence or as a giant star.  Hot, class B, subgiants are barely distinguishable from the main sequence stars, while cooler subgiants fill a relatively large gap between cool main sequence stars and the red giants.  Below approximately spectral type K3 the region between the main sequence and red giants is entirely empty, with no subgiants.

text: Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller) investigated it as a method to build a bomb. The project abandoned fusion after concluding that it would require a fission reaction to detonate. It took until 1952 for the first full hydrogen bomb to be detonated, so-called because it used reactions between deuterium and tritium. Fusion reactions are much more energetic per unit mass of fuel than fission reactions, but starting the fusion chain reaction is much more difficult.

text: Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by

text: Edward Teller

text: ) investigated it as a method to build a bomb. The project abandoned fusion after concluding that it would require a fission reaction to detonate. It took until 1952 for the first full

text: hydrogen

text: bomb to be detonated, so-called because it used reactions between

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: . Fusion reactions are much more energetic per unit mass of

text: fuel

text: than fission reactions, but starting the fusion chain reaction is much more difficult.

text: Stars generate energy by the nuclear fusion of elements. Unlike the Sun, massive stars possess the mass needed to fuse elements that have an atomic mass greater than hydrogen and helium, albeit at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures, causing increasingly shorter stellar life spans. The degeneracy pressure of electrons and the energy generated by these fusion reactions are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing, maintaining stellar equilibrium. The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements, starting with hydrogen and then helium, progressing up through the periodic table until a core of iron and nickel is produced. Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output, so no further fusion can take place, leaving the nickel-iron core inert. Due to the lack of energy output creating outward pressure, equilibrium is broken and the core is compressed by the overlying mass of the star.

text: Stars generate energy by the

text: nuclear fusion

text: of elements. Unlike the Sun, massive stars possess the mass needed to fuse elements that have an

text: atomic mass

text: greater than hydrogen and helium, albeit at increasingly higher

text: temperature

text: s and

text: pressure

text: s, causing increasingly shorter stellar life spans. The

text: degeneracy pressure

text: of electrons and the energy generated by these

text: fusion reactions

text: are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing, maintaining stellar equilibrium. The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements, starting with

text: hydrogen

text: and then

text: helium

text: , progressing up through the periodic table until a core of

text: iron

text: and

text: nickel

text: is produced. Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output, so no further fusion can take place, leaving the nickel-iron core inert. Due to the lack of energy output creating outward pressure, equilibrium is broken and the core is compressed by the overlying mass of the star.

text: Nova takes place around star systems in the Milky Way, many of which have planets or space stations that the player can land on. Each star system is either controlled by a faction and has an evaluation of the player's crimes or contributions to that star system and its faction, or is uninhabited and controlled by no one. The player's ship usually travels between star systems by "hyperjumping" by fixed (and to the user, instantaneous) paths to surrounding systems. The player can also use rare wormholes which transport the player's ship to a fairly random star system, or can use a "hypergate" system to move between certain systems after the Sigma Shipyard mission string has been completed.

text: Nova takes place around star systems in the

text: Milky Way

text: , many of which have planets or space stations that the player can land on. Each star system is either controlled by a faction and has an evaluation of the player's crimes or contributions to that star system and its faction, or is uninhabited and controlled by no one. The player's ship usually travels between star systems by "hyperjumping" by fixed (and to the user, instantaneous) paths to surrounding systems. The player can also use rare wormholes which transport the player's ship to a fairly random star system, or can use a "hypergate" system to move between certain systems after the Sigma Shipyard mission string has been completed.

text: T Tauri stars are Orion variables exhibiting characteristic fluorescent violet emission lines from singly ionized Iron (FeII) in their star spectra, and also emission from Lithium, a metal that usually is destroyed by the nuclear fusion in the stars.

text: T Tauri star

text: s are Orion variables exhibiting characteristic fluorescent violet emission lines from singly

text: ionize

text: d

text: Iron

text: (FeII) in their

text: star spectra

text: , and also emission from

text: Lithium

text: , a metal that usually is destroyed by the nuclear fusion in the stars.

text: Major League Soccer's first all-star game was played at Giants Stadium in the summer of 1996. The game, using the traditional East–West format with players handpicked by the coaching staffs, was the first game of a doubleheader with the Brazilian national team defeating a team of FIFA World All-Stars.The matchup between divisions would only be used for six seasons as MLS tried experimenting with different formats. The 1998 All-Star Game placed a team of American MLS players against MLS players from abroad. The 2002 game, the first to use a league-wide all-star team, is the only game to feature a national team opponent. Since then every opponent has been a professional club invited by the league. The MLS All-Stars won their first six games before falling to Everton in penalties in 2009. All games since 2005 have been against teams from Europe, the majority of which have been from England's Premier League. This is a feasible format because unlike MLS (which runs a spring-summer-fall schedule) the major European leagues all run a fall-winter-spring schedule, meaning the middle of the MLS season coincides with the pre-seasons of most European leagues.

text: Major League Soccer's

text: first all-star game

text: was played at

text: Giants Stadium

text: in the summer of 1996. The game, using the traditional East–West format with players handpicked by the coaching staffs, was the first game of a doubleheader with the

text: Brazilian national team

text: defeating a team of FIFA World All-Stars.The matchup between divisions would only be used for six seasons as MLS tried experimenting with different formats. The

text: 1998 All-Star Game

text: placed a team of American MLS players against MLS players from abroad. The

text: 2002 game

text: , the first to use a league-wide all-star team, is the only game to feature a national team opponent. Since then every opponent has been a professional club invited by the league. The MLS All-Stars won their first six games before falling to

text: Everton

text: in penalties in

text: . All games since

text: have been against teams from Europe, the majority of which have been from England's

text: Premier League

text: . This is a feasible format because unlike MLS (which runs a spring-summer-fall schedule) the major European leagues all run a fall-winter-spring schedule, meaning the middle of the MLS season coincides with the pre-seasons of most European leagues.

text: The formation of individual stars can only be directly observed in the Milky Way Galaxy, but in distant galaxies star formation has been detected through its unique spectral signature.

text: The formation of individual stars can only be directly observed in the

text: Milky Way Galaxy

text: , but in distant galaxies star formation has been detected through its unique

text: spectral signature

text: Apart from the foresaid mentions, six-pointed star formations are rare as an ideograph in Western cultures except in the case of law enforcement badges. In astrology some formations of a six-pointed star can signify fixed stars. In some rare instances it can signify the date of birth on a gravestone, synonymous with the five-point star.

text: Apart from the foresaid mentions, six-pointed star formations are rare as an

text: ideograph

text: in Western cultures except in the case of law enforcement badges. In

text: astrology

text: some formations of a six-pointed star can signify

text: fixed star

text: s. In some rare instances it can signify the date of birth on a gravestone, synonymous with the five-point star.

text: The subsequent nucleosynthesis of the heavier elements requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within stars and supernovas. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars at 500 million years. Star formation has occurred continuously in the galaxy since that time. The elements found on Earth, the so-called primordial elements, were created prior to Earth's formation by stellar nucleosynthesis and by supernova nucleosynthesis. They range in atomic numbers from Z=6 (carbon) to Z=94 (plutonium). Synthesis of these elements occurred either by nuclear fusion (including both rapid and slow multiple neutron capture) or to a lesser degree by nuclear fission followed by beta decay.

text: The subsequent nucleosynthesis of the heavier elements requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within

text: star

text: s and

text: supernova

text: s. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars at 500 million years. Star formation has occurred continuously in the galaxy since that time. The elements found on Earth, the so-called

text: primordial element

text: s, were created prior to Earth's formation by

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: and by

text: supernova nucleosynthesis

text: . They range in

text: atomic number

text: s from Z=6 (

text: carbon

text: ) to Z=94 (

text: plutonium

text: ). Synthesis of these elements occurred either by

text: nuclear fusion

text: (including both

text: rapid

text: and

text: slow

text: multiple neutron capture) or to a lesser degree by

text: nuclear fission

text: followed by

text: beta decay

text: ZZ dibosons are rare pairs of Z bosons. They were first observed by the experiments at the Large Electron–Positron Collider (ALEPH, DELPHI, L3 and OPAL). The first observation in a hadron collider was made by the scientists of DØ collaboration at Fermilab. They are force-carrying particles produced in proton–antiproton collisions at the Tevatron, the world’s second highest-energy particle accelerator (after the CERN Large Hadron Collider). The observation of the ZZ dibosons was announced at a Fermilab seminar on 30 July 2008.

text: ZZ dibosons are rare pairs of

text: Z boson

text: s. They were first observed by the experiments at the

text: Large Electron–Positron Collider

text: (ALEPH,

text: DELPHI

text: , L3 and OPAL). The first observation in a hadron collider was made by the scientists of

text: DØ collaboration

text: at

text: Fermilab

text: . They are

text: force-carrying particles

text: produced in

text: proton

text: antiproton

text: collisions at the

text: Tevatron

text: , the world’s second highest-energy

text: particle accelerator

text: (after the

text: CERN

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: ). The observation of the ZZ dibosons was announced at a Fermilab seminar on 30 July 2008.

text: A subdwarf, sometimes denoted by "sd", is a star with luminosity class VI under the Yerkes spectral classification system. They are defined as stars with luminosity 1.5 to 2 magnitudes lower than that of main-sequence stars of the same spectral type. On an Hertzsprung–Russell diagram subdwarfs appear to lie below the main sequence.

text: A subdwarf, sometimes denoted by "sd", is a star with

text: luminosity class

text: VI under the

text: Yerkes spectral classification

text: system. They are defined as

text: star

text: s with

text: luminosity

text: 1.5 to 2

text: magnitudes

text: lower than that of main-sequence stars of the same

text: spectral type

text: . On an

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: subdwarfs appear to lie below the

text: main sequence

text: Ilarde was honored to be one of PMPC Star Awards for Television's Lifetime Achievement Awardees.

text: Carlos Battey provided the singing voice of Bobby Brown in director Angela Bassett’s 2015 Whitney Houston biopic for Lifetime. The film “Whitney” drew in an epic 4.5 million viewers the night it premiered (January 17, 2015.) The film, starring Yaya DaCosta as the late Houston, was Lifetime’s most popular in a year.

text: 63 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 4.91.

text: 63 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 4.91.

text: Similarly, the second derivative of the particle's position r equals its acceleration a

text: Nuclear fusion refers to nuclear reactions that combine lighter nuclei to become heavier nuclei. All chemical elements can be fused, but only for elements with fewer protons than iron, this process changes mass into energy that can potentially be captured to provide fusion power.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: refers to

text: nuclear reaction

text: s that combine lighter

text: nuclei

text: to become heavier nuclei. All

text: chemical element

text: s can be fused, but only for elements with fewer protons than iron, this process changes

text: mass into energy

text: that can potentially be captured to provide

text: fusion power

text: Sine Pilipino got then hot young star Vilma Santos to essay the role of Darna in Lipad, Darna, Lipad!. But the problem was, Vilma was hesitant to wear the two-piece costume. So, during their photo shoot for the publicity photos of the new Darna movie, she wore the Darna costume on top of her body stocking. Directors told her if she did not take it off, they will give the role to someone else. Vilma was finally convinced by producers Douglas Quijano and William Leary to lose the body stocking and wear just the costume on the day of the press conference. The press people were surprised on seeing how sexy Vilma was in her Darna costume, which was back to the original red bikini with gold stars including the red helmet with gold winged medallion, and gold boots, bracelets and belt with red loincloth. In Darna vs. the Planetwomen (1975) Vilma wore a dark blue bikini with red stars, gold headpiece and belt, and red loincloth, boots, bracelets and choker. In Darna and the Giants (1974) Vilma wore a gold bikini with red stars, red loincloth, all gold helmet, belt, boots, bracelets and choker. Darna and Ding (1980) was the last time Vilma played Darna. Her costume this time was sexier and more revealing. Vilma wore a shiny red bra with gold stars, shiny blue shorts, white loincloth, red and gold helmet with the gold winged medallion, and gold bracelets, belt and boots. This time Ding also had his own superhero costume together with his own superpowers. He wore red long-sleeved leotard and boots, and red helmet with gold winged medallion.

text: Ptolemy designated four stars as "border stars", each shared by two constellations: Alpheratz (in Andromeda and Pegasus), Elnath (in Taurus and Auriga), Nu Boötis (in Boötes and Hercules), and Fomalhaut (in Piscis Austrinus and Aquarius).  Bayer assigned the first three of these stars a Greek letter from both constellations:  Delta Pegasi}},  Gamma Aurigae}}, and  Psi Herculis}}. (He catalogued Fomalhaut only once, as Alpha Piscis Austrini.) When the International Astronomical Union (IAU) assigned definite boundaries to the constellations in 1930, it declared that stars and other celestial objects can belong to only one constellation.  Consequently, the redundant second designation in each pair above has dropped out of use.

text: Ptolemy

text: designated four stars as "border stars", each shared by two constellations: Alpheratz (in

text: Andromeda

text: and

text: Pegasus

text: ), Elnath (in

text: Taurus

text: and

text: Auriga

text: ), Nu Boötis (in

text: Boötes

text: and

text: Hercules

text: ), and Fomalhaut (in

text: Piscis Austrinus

text: and

text: Aquarius

text: ).  Bayer assigned the first three of these stars a Greek letter from both constellations:  Delta Pegasi}},  Gamma Aurigae}}, and  Psi Herculis}}. (He catalogued Fomalhaut only once, as

text: Alpha Piscis Austrini

text: .) When the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) assigned definite boundaries to the constellations in 1930, it declared that stars and other celestial objects can belong to only one constellation.  Consequently, the redundant second designation in each pair above has dropped out of use.

text: Due to the high voltage ceiling imposed by electrical discharge, in order to accelerate particles to higher energies, techniques involving dynamic fields rather than static fields are used.  Electrodynamic acceleration can arise from either of two mechanisms: non-resonant magnetic induction, or resonant circuits or cavities excited by oscillating RF fields.  Electrodynamic accelerators can be linear, with particles accelerating in a straight line, or circular, using magnetic fields to bend particles in a roughly circular orbit.

text: Due to the high voltage ceiling imposed by electrical discharge, in order to accelerate particles to higher energies, techniques involving dynamic fields rather than static fields are used.  Electrodynamic acceleration can arise from either of two mechanisms: non-resonant

text: magnetic induction

text: , or resonant circuits or

text: cavities

text: excited by oscillating

text: RF

text: fields.  Electrodynamic accelerators can be linear, with particles accelerating in a straight line, or circular, using magnetic fields to bend particles in a roughly circular orbit.

text: Four principal stars, Delta, Gamma, Epsilon, and Beta Corvi, form a quadrilateral asterism known as "the "Spica's Spanker" or "the Sail". Although none of the stars are particularly bright, they lie in a dim area of the sky, rendering the asterism easy to distinguish in the night sky. Gamma and Delta serve as pointers toward Spica. Also called Gienah, Gamma is the brightest star in Corvus at magnitude 2.59. Its traditional name means "wing", the star marking the left wing in Bayer's Uranometria. 154±1 light-years from Earth, it is a blue-white hued giant star of spectral type B8III that is  times as massive, and 355 times as luminous as the Sun. Around  million years old, it has exhausted its core hydrogen and begun expanding and cooling as it moves away from the main sequence. A binary star, it has a companion orange or red dwarf star of spectral type K5V to M5V that is about 0.8 times as massive as the Sun. Around 50 astronomical units distant from Gamma Corvi A, it is estimated to complete an orbit in 158 years. Delta Corvi, traditionally called Algorab, is a double star divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.9, around 87 light-years from Earth. An enigmatic star around 2.7 times as massive as the Sun, it is more luminous (65–70 times that of the Sun) than its should be for its surface temperature of 10,400 K, and hence is either a 3.2 million year-old very young pre-main sequence star that has not settled down to a stable main sequence life stage, or a 260 million year-old star that has begun to exhaust its core hydrogen and expand, cool and shine more brightly as it moves away from the main sequence. Its spectral type is given as A0IV, corresponding with the latter scenario. Warm circumstellar dust—by definition part of its inner stellar system—has been detected around Delta Corvi A. Delta Corvi B is an orange dwarf star of magnitude 8.51 and spectral class K, also surrounded by circumstellar dust. A post T-tauri star, it is at least 650 AU distant from its brighter companion and takes at least 9400 years to complete an orbit. Delta Corvi's common name means "the raven". It is one of two stars marking the right wing. Located 4.5 degrees northeast of Delta Corvi is  Struve 1669, a binary star that is divisible into two stars 5.4" apart by small amateur telescopes, 280 light-years from Earth. The pair, both white stars, is visible to the naked eye at magnitude 5.2; the primary is of magnitude 5.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.

text: Four principal stars,

text: Delta

text: Gamma

text: Epsilon

text: , and

text: Beta Corvi

text: , form a quadrilateral

text: asterism

text: known as "the "

text: Spica

text: 's

text: Spanker

text: " or "the Sail". Although none of the stars are particularly bright, they lie in a dim area of the sky, rendering the asterism easy to distinguish in the night sky. Gamma and Delta serve as pointers toward Spica. Also called Gienah, Gamma is the brightest star in Corvus at magnitude 2.59. Its traditional name means "wing", the star marking the left wing in Bayer's

text: Uranometria

text: . 154±1 light-years from Earth, it is a blue-white hued giant star of spectral type B8III that is  times as massive, and 355 times as luminous as the Sun. Around  million years old, it has exhausted its core hydrogen and begun expanding and cooling as it moves away from the

text: main sequence

text: . A

text: binary star

text: , it has a companion orange or

text: red dwarf

text: star of spectral type K5V to M5V that is about 0.8 times as massive as the Sun. Around 50

text: astronomical unit

text: s distant from Gamma Corvi A, it is estimated to complete an orbit in 158 years. Delta Corvi, traditionally called Algorab, is a

text: double star

text: divisible in small amateur telescopes. The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.9, around 87 light-years from Earth. An enigmatic star around 2.7 times as massive as the Sun, it is more luminous (65–70 times that of the Sun) than its should be for its surface temperature of 10,400 K, and hence is either a 3.2 million year-old very young pre-main sequence star that has not settled down to a stable main sequence life stage, or a 260 million year-old star that has begun to exhaust its core hydrogen and expand, cool and shine more brightly as it moves away from the main sequence. Its spectral type is given as A0IV, corresponding with the latter scenario. Warm circumstellar dust—by definition part of its inner stellar system—has been detected around Delta Corvi A. Delta Corvi B is an orange dwarf star of magnitude 8.51 and spectral class K, also surrounded by circumstellar dust. A post T-tauri star, it is at least 650 AU distant from its brighter companion and takes at least 9400 years to complete an orbit. Delta Corvi's common name means "the raven". It is one of two stars marking the right wing. Located 4.5 degrees northeast of Delta Corvi is

text: Struve 1669

text: , a binary star that is divisible into two stars 5.4" apart by small amateur telescopes, 280 light-years from Earth. The pair, both white stars, is visible to the naked eye at magnitude 5.2; the primary is of magnitude 5.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0.

text: While the unusual spectra of red giant stars had been known since the 19th century, it was George Gamow who, in the 1940s, first understood that they were stars of roughly solar mass that had run out of hydrogen in their cores and had resorted to burning the hydrogen in their outer shells. This allowed Martin Schwarzschild to draw the connection between red giants and the finite lifespans of stars. It is now understood that red giants are stars in the last stages of their life cycles.

text: While the unusual spectra of red giant stars had been known since the 19th century, it was

text: George Gamow

text: who, in the 1940s, first understood that they were stars of roughly solar mass that had run out of hydrogen in their cores and had resorted to burning the hydrogen in their outer shells. This allowed

text: Martin Schwarzschild

text: to draw the connection between red giants and the finite lifespans of stars. It is now understood that red giants are stars in the last stages of their life cycles.

text: GD 356 is a white dwarf in the constellation of Draco showing an unusual emission of circular polarised light. The star is 65 light years from earth. The class of this white dwarf is DA meaning that it has a cool helium rich atmosphere. This star exhibits emission lines showing the Zeeman effect in the hydrogen Balmer spectrum.  GD 356 belongs to a class of high field magnetic white dwarfs (HFMWD), but it is unique in that the split lines are purely emission lines with no absorption.  The emission region appears to be due to a heated upper layer in the photosphere in which the magnetic field is uniform to within 10%. The emission can be produced by an atmosphere at 7500K in a gravity field of 10 ms and a magnetic field of 13 megaGauss. The magnetically split emission lines, H and H, are circularly polarised. One explanation is that it is caused by a large electric current flowing between the poles of the star and a highly conducting planet.  Other explanations such as being due to Bondi-Hoyle accretion or due to a corona are ruled out by the lack of radio and X-ray emissions.  Accretion of gas at a low rate over a broad area of the star, only results in heating at levels high in the atmosphere and not down to the opacity depth of 1.0 as observed with these lines.

text: GD 356 is a

text: white dwarf

text: in the constellation of

text: Draco

text: showing an unusual emission of circular polarised light. The star is 65 light years from earth. The class of this white dwarf is DA meaning that it has a cool helium rich atmosphere. This star exhibits emission lines showing the

text: Zeeman effect

text: in the hydrogen

text: Balmer

text: spectrum.  GD 356 belongs to a class of

text: high field magnetic white dwarf

text: s (HFMWD), but it is unique in that the split lines are purely emission lines with no absorption.  The emission region appears to be due to a heated upper layer in the

text: photosphere

text: in which the magnetic field is uniform to within 10%. The emission can be produced by an atmosphere at 7500K in a gravity field of 10 ms and a magnetic field of 13 megaGauss. The magnetically split emission lines, H and H, are circularly polarised. One explanation is that it is caused by a large electric current flowing between the poles of the star and a highly conducting planet.  Other explanations such as being due to

text: Bondi-Hoyle accretion

text: or due to a corona are ruled out by the lack of radio and X-ray emissions.  Accretion of gas at a low rate over a broad area of the star, only results in heating at levels high in the atmosphere and not down to the opacity depth of 1.0 as observed with these lines.

text: Many types of astronomical objects are not included with Celestia. Variable stars, supernovae, black holes, and nebulae are missing from the standard distribution. Some are available as add-ons. Although objects that form part of a planetary system move, and stars rotate about their axes and orbit each other in multiple star systems, stellar proper motion is not simulated, and galaxies are at fixed locations. Celestia's binary star catalogs only describe a few hundred systems of multiple stars. Most binary star systems cannot be simulated because adequate orbital information is not yet available.

text: Many types of astronomical objects are not included with Celestia.

text: Variable star

text: s,

text: supernova

text: e,

text: black hole

text: s, and

text: nebula

text: e are missing from the standard distribution. Some are available as add-ons. Although objects that form part of a

text: planetary system

text: move, and stars rotate about their axes and orbit each other in multiple star systems, stellar

text: proper motion

text: is not simulated, and

text: galaxies

text: are at fixed locations. Celestia's binary star catalogs only describe a few hundred systems of multiple stars. Most

text: binary star

text: systems cannot be simulated because adequate orbital information is not yet available.

text: Alpha Hydri (α Hyi, α Hydri) is the second brightest star in the southern circumpolar constellation of Hydrus. It is readily visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of +2.9. It is sometimes informally known as the Head of Hydrus. This should not be confused with Alpha Hydrae (Alphard) in the constellation Hydra. Alpha Hydri is one of only three stars in the constellation Hydrus that are above the fourth visual magnitude. This star can be readily located as it lies to the south and west of the prominent star Achernar in the constellation Eridanus.

text: Alpha Hydri (α Hyi, α Hydri) is the

text: second brightest

text: star

text: in the southern

text: circumpolar constellation

text: of

text: Hydrus

text: . It is readily visible to the naked eye with an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of +2.9. It is sometimes informally known as the Head of Hydrus. This should not be confused with

text: Alpha Hydrae

text: (Alphard) in the constellation Hydra. Alpha Hydri is one of only three stars in the constellation Hydrus that are above the fourth

text: visual magnitude

text: . This star can be readily located as it lies to the south and west of the prominent star

text: Achernar

text: in the constellation

text: Eridanus

text: Alpha Camelopardalis (Alpha Cam, α Camelopardalis, α Cam) is a star in the constellation Camelopardalis, with an apparent visual magnitude of 4.3. It is the third-brightest star in this not-very-prominent circumpolar constellation, the first and second-brightest stars being β Camelopardalis and CS Camelopardalis, respectively. It is the farthest constellational star, with a distance of 6,000 light-years from Earth.

text: Alpha Camelopardalis (Alpha Cam, α Camelopardalis, α Cam) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Camelopardalis

text: , with an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 4.3. It is the third-brightest star in this not-very-prominent

text: circumpolar

text: constellation, the first and second-brightest stars being

text: β Camelopardalis

text: and

text: CS Camelopardalis

text: , respectively. It is the farthest constellational star, with a distance of 6,000

text: light-year

text: s from Earth.

text: Cricket Star India is the first programme in a 5-year international roll out, and the new series is scheduled to air in early 2008. This series will focus on the exciting new Twenty20 format, which Cricket Star helped introduce into India, as the Cricket Star contestants were put through a series of Twenty20 matches to test their skills. Public interest and excitement around the Twenty20 format continues to grow following India's surprise win of the inaugural World Twenty20 in South Africa in 2007. With the growth of this novel format of the game, there are new opportunities for cricketers with Twenty20 skills to shine.

text: Cricket Star India is the first programme in a 5-year international roll out, and the new series is scheduled to air in early 2008. This series will focus on the exciting new

text: format, which Cricket Star helped introduce into India, as the Cricket Star contestants were put through a series of

text: matches to test their skills. Public interest and excitement around the Twenty20 format continues to grow following India's surprise win of the inaugural World Twenty20 in South Africa in 2007. With the growth of this novel format of the game, there are new opportunities for cricketers with Twenty20 skills to shine.

text: Some red giants are large amplitude variables.  Many of the earliest known variable stars are Mira variables with regular periods and amplitudes of several magnitudes, semiregular variables with less obvious periods or multiple periods and slightly lower amplitudes, and slow irregular variables with no obvious period.  These have long been considered to be asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars or supergiants and the red giant branch (RGB) stars themselves were not generally considered to be variable.  A few apparent exceptions were considered to be low luminosity AGB stars.

text: Some

text: red giant

text: s are large amplitude variables.  Many of the earliest known variable stars are

text: Mira variable

text: s with regular periods and amplitudes of several magnitudes,

text: semiregular variable

text: s with less obvious periods or multiple periods and slightly lower amplitudes, and

text: slow irregular variable

text: s with no obvious period.  These have long been considered to be

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (AGB) stars or supergiants and the red giant branch (RGB) stars themselves were not generally considered to be variable.  A few apparent exceptions were considered to be low luminosity AGB stars.

text: ο Puppis is slightly variable.  The General Catalogue of Variable Stars lists it as a possible Be star with a magnitude range of 4.43 - 4.46. The International Variable Star Index classifies it as a Lambda Eridani variable.

text: ο Puppis is slightly variable.  The

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: lists it as a possible

text: Be star

text: with a magnitude range of 4.43 - 4.46. The International Variable Star Index classifies it as a

text: Lambda Eridani variable

text: When the WHA folded in 1979, the renamed Hartford Whalers joined the NHL. While the Red Wings still held his NHL rights even though he had retired eight years earlier, the Whalers and Red Wings reached a gentleman's agreement in which the Red Wings agreed not to reclaim him. Howe had experienced dizzy spells in the late part of the 1978–79 WHA season, and underwent an “extensive battery of tests” before making his decision to play the 1979–80 season. The 51/52-year-old Howe played one final season appearing in all 80 games of the schedule and helping his team to make the playoffs by scoring 41 points – 15 goals and 26 assists. Late in the season the Whalers signed Bobby Hull and put Howe-Hull and Dave Keon on the same line. One particular honour was when Howe, Phil Esposito and Jean Ratelle were selected to the mid-season All-Star Game—which was to take place in Detroit—by coach Scotty Bowman, as a nod to their storied careers before they retired. Howe had played in five decades of All-Star Games and he would skate alongside the second-youngest to ever play in an All-Star Game, 19-year-old Wayne Gretzky. The Joe Louis Arena crowd gave him a standing ovation twice, lasting so long that he had to skate to the bench to stop people from cheering. He had one assist in the Wales Conference's 6–3 win.

text: When the WHA folded in 1979, the renamed

text: Hartford Whalers

text: joined the NHL. While the Red Wings still held his NHL rights even though he had retired eight years earlier, the Whalers and Red Wings reached a gentleman's agreement in which the Red Wings agreed not to reclaim him. Howe had experienced dizzy spells in the late part of the

text: 1978–79 WHA season

text: , and underwent an “extensive battery of tests” before making his decision to play the

text: season. The 51/52-year-old Howe played one final season appearing in all 80 games of the schedule and helping his team to make the playoffs by scoring 41 points – 15 goals and 26 assists. Late in the season the Whalers signed Bobby Hull and put Howe-Hull and Dave Keon on the same line. One particular honour was when Howe,

text: Phil Esposito

text: and

text: Jean Ratelle

text: were selected to the mid-season

text: All-Star Game

text: —which was to take place in Detroit—by coach

text: Scotty Bowman

text: , as a nod to their storied careers before they retired. Howe had played in five decades of All-Star Games and he would skate alongside the second-youngest to ever play in an All-Star Game, 19-year-old Wayne Gretzky. The

text: Joe Louis Arena

text: crowd gave him a standing ovation twice, lasting so long that he had to skate to the bench to stop people from cheering. He had one assist in the Wales Conference's 6–3 win.

text: The apparent brightness (apparent magnitude) of a planet depends on how far away the observer is, how reflective the planet is (albedo), and how much light the planet receives from its star, which depends on how far the planet is from the star and how bright the star is. So, a planet with a low albedo that is close to its star can appear brighter than a planet with high albedo that is far from the star.

text: The apparent brightness (

text: apparent magnitude

text: ) of a planet depends on how far away the observer is, how reflective the planet is (

text: albedo

text: ), and how much light the planet receives from its star, which depends on how far the planet is from the star and how bright the star is. So, a planet with a low albedo that is close to its star can appear brighter than a planet with high albedo that is far from the star.

text: Pavo is a constellation in the southern sky with the Latin name for peacock. It is one of twelve constellations conceived by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. Pavo first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and was depicted in Johann Bayer's star atlas Uranometria of 1603. French explorer and astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille gave its stars Bayer designations in 1756. The constellations Pavo, Grus, Phoenix and Tucana are collectively known as the "Southern Birds".

text: Pavo is a

text: constellation

text: in the

text: southern sky

text: with the

text: Latin

text: name for

text: peacock

text: . It is one of twelve constellations conceived by

text: Petrus Plancius

text: from the observations of

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: and

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: . Pavo first appeared on a 35-cm (14 in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius and

text: Jodocus Hondius

text: and was depicted in

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's star atlas

text: Uranometria

text: of 1603. French explorer and astronomer

text: Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille

text: gave its stars

text: Bayer designation

text: s in 1756. The constellations Pavo,

text: Grus

text: Phoenix

text: and

text: Tucana

text: HD 53705/53706/53680 is a star system that lies approximately 54 light-years away in the constellation of Puppis. The system consists of four stars in two binaries, making it one of the nearest quadruple star systems.

text: HD 53705/53706/53680 is a star system that lies approximately 54

text: light-year

text: s away in the constellation of Puppis. The system consists of four stars in two binaries, making it one of the nearest quadruple star systems.

text: X-ray binaries are a class of binary stars that are luminous in X-rays. The X-rays are produced by matter falling from one component, called the donor (usually a relatively normal star), to the other component, called the accretor, which is very compact: a neutron star or black hole. The infalling matter releases gravitational potential energy, up to several tenths of its rest mass, as X-rays. The lifetime and the mass-transfer rate in an X-ray binary depends on the evolutionary status of the donor star, the mass ratio between the stellar components, and their orbital separation. (Hydrogen fusion releases only about 0.7 percent of rest mass.)An estimated 10 positrons escape per second from a typical low-mass X-ray binary.

text: X-ray binaries are a class of

text: binary star

text: s that are luminous in

text: X-ray

text: s. The X-rays are produced by matter falling from one component, called the donor (usually a relatively normal

text: star

text: ), to the other component, called the accretor, which is very compact: a

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: . The infalling matter releases

text: gravitational potential energy

text: , up to several tenths of its rest mass, as X-rays. The lifetime and the mass-transfer rate in an X-ray binary depends on the evolutionary status of the donor star, the mass ratio between the stellar components, and their orbital separation. (Hydrogen

text: fusion

text: releases only about 0.7 percent of rest mass.)An estimated 10

text: positron

text: s escape per second from a typical

text: low-mass X-ray binary

text: Particle accelerators are a well-developed technology used in scientific research for decades. They use electromagnetic fields to accelerate and direct charged particles along a predetermined path, and electrostatic “lenses” to focus these streams for collisions. The cathode ray tube in many twentieth-century televisions and computer monitors is a very simple type of particle accelerator. More powerful versions include synchrotrons and cyclotrons used in nuclear research. A particle-beam weapon is a weaponized version of this technology. It accelerates charged particles (in most cases electrons, positrons, protons, or ionized atoms, but very advanced versions can use other particles such as mercury nuclei) to near-light speed and then shoots them at a target. These particles have tremendous kinetic energy which they impart to matter in the target’s surface, inducing near-instantaneous and catastrophic superheating.

text: Particle accelerators

text: are a well-developed technology used in scientific research for decades. They use

text: electromagnetic field

text: s to accelerate and direct

text: charged particles

text: along a predetermined path, and

text: electrostatic

text: “lenses” to focus these streams for collisions. The

text: cathode ray tube

text: in many twentieth-century televisions and computer monitors is a very simple type of

text: particle accelerator

text: . More powerful versions include

text: synchrotron

text: s and

text: cyclotron

text: s used in nuclear research. A particle-beam weapon is a weaponized version of this technology. It accelerates

text: charged particles

text: (in most cases

text: electron

text: s,

text: positron

text: s,

text: proton

text: s, or

text: ionized

text: atoms, but very advanced versions can use other particles such as mercury nuclei) to near-light speed and then shoots them at a target. These particles have tremendous

text: kinetic energy

text: which they impart to matter in the target’s surface, inducing near-instantaneous and catastrophic

text: superheating

text: In 2006, she starred in Monarch Cove, a TV series shown on Lifetime Network.

text: In 2006, she starred in Monarch Cove, a TV series shown on

text: Lifetime Network

text: Kepler-432 is a binary star system composed of a K-type giant star (Kepler-432 A) and a red dwarf star (Kepler-432 B).

text: Kepler-432 is a

text: binary star system

text: composed of a

text: K-type

text: giant star

text: (Kepler-432 A) and a

text: red dwarf

text: star (Kepler-432 B).

text: While reviewing the book for Legends Magazine, Marcus Pan commented that the book was "rather engrossing", "lighthearted" and had character development complete with character flaws and "endearing personalities" that made Phule's Company "a fun book to read." Similarly, Paul Stuewe in the Toronto Star, noted how "Phule's company spoofs the space-soldier brand of science fiction" classifying it along with Kim Stanley Robinson's Escape from Kathmandu as "low-key [and] somewhat lightweight entertainments that keep pages turning pleasantly enough."

text: While reviewing the book for

text: Legends Magazine

text: , Marcus Pan commented that the book was "rather engrossing", "lighthearted" and had character development complete with character flaws and "endearing personalities" that made Phule's Company "a fun book to read." Similarly, Paul Stuewe in the Toronto Star, noted how "Phule's company spoofs the space-soldier brand of science fiction" classifying it along with

text: Kim Stanley Robinson

text: 's

text: Escape from Kathmandu

text: as "low-key [and] somewhat lightweight entertainments that keep pages turning pleasantly enough."

text: The large distances above the galactic plane achieved by some binaries are the result of black hole natal kicks. The velocity distribution of black hole natal kicks seems similar to that of neutron star kick velocities. One might have expected that it would be the momenta that were the same with black holes receiving lower velocity than neutron stars due to their higher mass but that doesn't seem to be the case, which may be due to the fall-back of asymmetrically expelled matter increasing the momentum of the resulting black hole.

text: The large distances above the

text: galactic plane

text: achieved by some

text: binaries

text: are the result of black hole natal kicks. The velocity distribution of black hole natal kicks seems similar to that of

text: neutron star kick

text: velocities. One might have expected that it would be the momenta that were the same with black holes receiving lower velocity than neutron stars due to their higher mass but that doesn't seem to be the case, which may be due to the fall-back of asymmetrically expelled matter increasing the momentum of the resulting black hole.

text: A Great Eruption event similar to Eta Carinae A's has only been observed in one other star in the Milky Way—P Cygni—and in a handful of other possible LBVs in external galaxies.  None of them seem to be quite as violent as Eta Carinae's.  It is unclear if this is something that only a very few of the most massive LBVs undergo, something that is caused by a close companion star, or a very brief but common phase for massive stars.  Some similar events in external galaxies have been mistaken for supernovae and have been called supernova impostors, although this grouping may also include other types of non-terminal transients that approach the brightness of a supernova.

text: A Great Eruption event similar to Eta Carinae A's has only been observed in one other star in the Milky Way—

text: P Cygni

text: —and in a handful of other possible LBVs in external galaxies.  None of them seem to be quite as violent as Eta Carinae's.  It is unclear if this is something that only a very few of the most massive LBVs undergo, something that is caused by a close companion star, or a very brief but common phase for massive stars.  Some similar events in external galaxies have been mistaken for supernovae and have been called

text: supernova impostor

text: s, although this grouping may also include other types of non-terminal transients that approach the brightness of a supernova.

text: The SSPSF (stochastic self-propagating star formation) model of star formation was proposed by Mueller & Arnett in 1976, generalized afterward by Gerola & Seiden in 1978 and Gerola, Seiden, & Schulman in 1980. This model proposes that star formation propagates via the action of shock waves produced by stellar winds and supernovae that compose the interstellar medium.

text: The SSPSF (stochastic self-propagating star formation) model of star formation was proposed by Mueller & Arnett in 1976, generalized afterward by Gerola & Seiden in 1978 and Gerola, Seiden, & Schulman in 1980. This model proposes that star formation propagates via the action of shock waves produced by

text: stellar wind

text: s and

text: supernovae

text: that compose the

text: interstellar medium

text: While the bulk of material in any star is hydrogen and helium, there is a significant variation in the amount of heavier elements (metals). A high proportion of metals in a star correlates to the amount of heavy material initially available in the protoplanetary disk. A smaller amount of metal makes the formation of planets much less likely, under the solar nebula theory of planetary system formation. Any planets that did form around a metal-poor star would probably be low in mass, and thus unfavorable for life. Spectroscopic studies of systems where exoplanets have been found to date confirm the relationship between high metal content and planet formation: "Stars with planets, or at least with planets similar to the ones we are finding today, are clearly more metal rich than stars without planetary companions." This relationship between high metallicity and planet formation also means that habitable systems are more likely to be found around stars of younger generations, since stars that formed early in the universe's history have low metal content.

text: While the bulk of material in any star is

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: , there is a significant variation in the amount of heavier elements (

text: metals

text: ). A high proportion of metals in a star correlates to the amount of heavy material initially available in the

text: protoplanetary disk

text: . A smaller amount of metal makes the formation of planets much less likely, under the

entity_name: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: solar nebula

text: theory of

text: planetary system

text: formation. Any planets that did form around a metal-poor star would probably be low in mass, and thus unfavorable for life.

text: Spectroscopic

text: studies of systems where

text: exoplanet

text: s have been found to date confirm the relationship between high metal content and planet formation: "Stars with planets, or at least with planets similar to the ones we are finding today, are clearly more metal rich than stars without planetary companions." This relationship between high metallicity and planet formation also means that habitable systems are more likely to be found around stars of younger generations, since stars that formed early in the

text: universe

text: 's history have low metal content.

text: A reviewer in The Australian Star expressed an initial wariness with the novel, given that the author had moved his focus from bushrangers to buccanneers but "it was well for one who, whether by personal visitation or reading, or intercourse with island men, had made himself familiar with the facts of the island life to weave them into such a romance as people of to-day and to-morrow would read, and possibly remember, and as would help them to an understanding of things as they are or have been. This task Rolf Boldrewood has essayed, and very fairly accomplished...All in all, it may be said that the story, tale, narrative, sketch — we scarce know how to classify it — is plentiful in incident, and warm as it should be in color."

text: In creating Star Trek, Roddenberry was inspired by the Horatio Hornblower novels, the satirical book Gulliver's Travels, and by works of western genre such as the television series Wagon Train. In fact, The Original Series was initially described as Wagon Train to the Stars. These adventures continued in the short-lived Star Trek: The Animated Series and six feature films. Four spin-off television series were eventually produced: Star Trek: The Next Generation followed the crew of a new starship Enterprise set a century after the original series; Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Star Trek: Voyager set contemporaneously with The Next Generation; and Star Trek: Enterprise set before the original series in the early days of human interstellar travel. Four additional The Next Generation feature films were produced. In 2009, the film franchise underwent a "reboot" set in an alternate timeline, or "Kelvin Timeline", titled simply Star Trek. This film featured a new cast portraying younger versions of the crew from the original show; their adventures were continued in the sequel film, Star Trek Into Darkness (2013). The thirteenth film feature and sequel, Star Trek Beyond (2016), was released to coincide with the franchise's 50th anniversary.  A new Star Trek TV series, titled Star Trek: Discovery, will premiere in May 2017 on the digital platform CBS All Access.

text: In creating Star Trek, Roddenberry was inspired by the

text: Horatio Hornblower

text: novels, the satirical book

text: Gulliver's Travels

text: , and by works of

text: western genre

text: such as the television series

text: Wagon Train

text: . In fact, The Original Series was initially described as Wagon Train to the Stars. These adventures continued in the short-lived

text: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: and six feature films. Four spin-off television series were eventually produced:

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: followed the crew of a new starship Enterprise set a century after the original series;

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: and

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: set contemporaneously with The Next Generation; and

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: set before the original series in the early days of human interstellar travel. Four additional The Next Generation feature films were produced. In 2009, the film franchise underwent a "reboot" set in an

text: alternate timeline

text: , or "Kelvin Timeline", titled simply

text: Star Trek

text: . This film featured a new cast portraying younger versions of the crew from the original show; their adventures were continued in the sequel film,

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: (2013). The thirteenth film feature and sequel,

text: Star Trek Beyond

text: (2016), was released to coincide with the franchise's 50th anniversary.  A new Star Trek TV series, titled

text: Star Trek: Discovery

text: , will premiere in May 2017 on the digital platform

text: CBS All Access

text: Beta Pictoris is a star in the southern constellation of Pictor, the Easel, and is located to the west of the bright star Canopus. It traditionally marked the sounding line of the ship Argo Navis, before the constellation was split. The star has an apparent visual magnitude of 3.861, so is visible to the naked eye under good conditions, though light pollution may result in stars dimmer than magnitude 3 being too dim to see. It is the second brightest in its constellation, exceeded only by Alpha Pictoris, which has an apparent magnitude of 3.30.

text: Beta Pictoris is a star in the southern constellation of Pictor, the

text: Easel

text: , and is located to the west of the bright star

text: Canopus

text: . It traditionally marked the sounding line of the ship

text: Argo Navis

text: , before the constellation was split. The star has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 3.861, so is visible to the

text: naked eye

text: under good conditions, though

text: light pollution

text: may result in stars dimmer than magnitude 3 being too dim to see. It is the second brightest in its constellation, exceeded only by

text: Alpha Pictoris

text: , which has an apparent magnitude of 3.30.

text: Located around 97 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity approximately 5.38 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 7199 K. A cold debris disk has been detected with a likely inner border of 82 astronomical units (AU). A yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F0V, 51 Eridani is a member of the Beta Pictoris moving group and hence thought to be around 23 million years old. Somewhat more luminous than it should be for its surface temperature, 51 Eridani has also been classified as spectrum F0IV—a type corresponding to ageing stars that have used up their core hydrogen fuel and become subgiants—however in this case it is a phenomenon of very young stars 5 to 30 million years old that have yet to settle on the main sequence.

text: Located around 97

text: light-year

text: s distant, it shines with a

text: luminosity

text: approximately 5.38 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 7199 K. A cold

text: debris disk

text: has been detected with a likely inner border of 82 astronomical units (AU). A

text: yellow-white main sequence star

text: of spectral type F0V, 51 Eridani is a member of the

text: Beta Pictoris moving group

text: and hence thought to be around 23 million years old. Somewhat more luminous than it should be for its surface temperature, 51 Eridani has also been classified as spectrum F0IV—a type corresponding to ageing stars that have used up their core hydrogen fuel and become subgiants—however in this case it is a phenomenon of very young stars 5 to 30 million years old that have yet to settle on the

text: main sequence

text: Perseus, named after the Greek mythological hero Perseus, is a constellation in the northern sky.  It is one of the 48 listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and among the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). It is located in the northern celestial hemisphere near several other constellations named after ancient Greek legends surrounding Perseus, including Andromeda to the west and Cassiopeia to the north. Perseus is also bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south, Auriga to the east, Camelopardalis to the north, and Triangulum to the west. Some star atlases during the early 19th century also depicted Perseus holding onto the head of the Medusa, whose asterism was named together as Perseus et Caput Medusae, however, this never came into popular usage.

text: Perseus, named after the

text: Greek mythological

text: hero

text: Perseus

text: , is a

text: constellation

text: in the

text: northern sky

text: .  It is one of the 48 listed by the 2nd-century astronomer

text: Ptolemy

text: , and among the

text: 88 modern constellations

text: defined by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU). It is located in the

text: northern celestial hemisphere

text: near several other constellations named after ancient Greek legends surrounding Perseus, including

text: Andromeda

text: to the west and

text: Cassiopeia

text: to the north. Perseus is also bordered by

text: Aries

text: and

text: Taurus

text: to the south,

text: Auriga

text: to the east,

text: Camelopardalis

text: to the north, and

text: Triangulum

text: to the west. Some

text: star atlases

text: during the early 19th century also depicted Perseus holding onto the head of the Medusa, whose

text: asterism

text: was named together as Perseus et Caput Medusae, however, this never came into popular usage.

text: WO stars are the last evolutionary stage of the most massive stars before exploding as supernovae. It is very likely that WR 102 is on its last stages of nuclear fusion, near or beyond the end of helium burning.

text: WO stars are the last evolutionary stage of the most massive stars before exploding as

text: supernova

text: e. It is very likely that WR 102 is on its last stages of

text: nuclear fusion

text: , near or beyond the end of

text: helium burning

text: Cyclotron particle accelerators, linear particle accelerators, and Synchrotron particle accelerators can accelerate positively charged hydrogen ions until their velocity approaches the speed of light, and each individual ion has a kinetic energy range of 100 MeV to 1000 MeV or more. Then the resulting high energy protons can capture electrons from electron emitter electrodes, and be thus electrically neutralized. This creates an electrically neutral beam of high energy hydrogen atoms, that can proceed in a straight line at near the speed of light to smash into its target and damage it.

text: Cyclotron particle accelerator

text: s,

text: linear particle accelerator

text: s, and

text: Synchrotron

text: particle accelerators can accelerate positively charged hydrogen ions until their velocity approaches the

text: speed of light

text: , and each individual ion has a kinetic energy range of 100

text: MeV

text: to 1000 MeV or more. Then the resulting high energy protons can capture electrons from electron emitter electrodes, and be thus electrically neutralized. This creates an electrically neutral beam of high energy hydrogen atoms, that can proceed in a straight line at near the speed of light to smash into its target and damage it.

text: Other types of particle accelerator, such as radio frequency linear particle accelerators and laser wakefield plasma accelerators have their own hazards.

text: Other types of particle accelerator, such as radio frequency

text: linear particle accelerator

text: s and laser

text: wakefield plasma accelerator

text: s have their own hazards.

text: Fomalhaut, also designated Alpha Piscis Austrini (α Piscis Austrini, abbreviated Alpha PsA, α PsA) is the brightest star in the constellation of Piscis Austrinus and one of the brightest stars in the sky. It is a class A star on the main sequence approximately  from the Sun as measured by the Hipparcos astrometry satellite. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is classified as a Vega-like star that emits excess infrared radiation, indicating it is surrounded by a circumstellar disk. Fomalhaut, K-type main-sequence star TW Piscis Austrini and M-type, red dwarf star LP 876-10 constitute a triple system even though the companions are separated by several degrees.

text: Fomalhaut, also designated Alpha Piscis Austrini (α Piscis Austrini, abbreviated Alpha PsA, α PsA) is the brightest star in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Piscis Austrinus

text: and

text: one of the brightest stars

text: in the sky. It is a

text: class A

text: star

text: on the

text: main sequence

text: approximately  from the

text: Sun

text: as measured by the

text: Hipparcos

text: astrometry satellite. Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is classified as a

text: Vega

text: -like star that emits

text: excess infrared radiation

text: , indicating it is surrounded by a

text: circumstellar disk

text: . Fomalhaut,

text: K-type main-sequence star

text: TW Piscis Austrini and

text: M-type

text: red dwarf

text: star LP 876-10 constitute a

text: triple system

text: even though the companions are separated by several degrees.

text: Originally classified as R and N stars, these are also known as 'carbon stars'. These are red giants, near the end of their lives, in which there is an excess of carbon in the atmosphere. The old R and N classes ran parallel to the normal classification system from roughly mid G to late M. These have more recently been remapped into a unified carbon classifier C with N0 starting at roughly C6. Another subset of cool carbon stars are the J-type stars, which are characterized by the strong presence of molecules of CN in addition to those of CN. A few main-sequence carbon stars are known, but the overwhelming majority of known carbon stars are giants or supergiants. There are several subclasses:

text: Beta Aurigae is a binary star system, although the light that the star system releases forges the appearance of a single star in the night sky. The two brightest components are metallic-lined subgiant stars belonging to the A-type stellar classification; they have roughly the same mass and radius. A-type entities are hot stars that release a blue-white hued light; these two stars burn brighter and with more heat than the Sun, which is a G2-type main sequence star. The pair constitute an eclipsing spectroscopic binary; the combined apparent magnitude varies over a period of 3.96 days between +1.89 and +1.94, as every 47.5 hours one of the stars partially eclipses the other from Earth's perspective.

text: Beta Aurigae is a binary star system, although the light that the star system releases forges the appearance of a single star in the night sky. The two brightest components are

text: metallic-lined

text: subgiant star

text: s belonging to the

text: A-type

text: stellar classification

text: ; they have roughly the same mass and radius. A-type entities are hot stars that release a blue-white hued light; these two stars burn brighter and with more heat than the

text: Sun

text: , which is a G2-type

text: main sequence

text: star. The pair constitute an

text: eclipsing

text: spectroscopic binary

text: ; the combined

text: apparent magnitude

text: varies over a period of 3.96

text: day

text: s between +1.89 and +1.94, as every 47.5

text: hour

text: s one of the stars partially

text: eclipse

text: s the other from

text: Earth

text: 's perspective.

text: In about 5 to 6 billion years, the Sun will have depleted the hydrogen fuel in its core and will begin to expand. At its largest, its surface (photosphere) will approximately reach the current orbit of Earth. It will then lose its atmosphere completely; its outer layers forming a planetary nebula and the core a white dwarf. The evolution of the Sun into and through the red-giant phase has been extensively modelled, but it remains unclear whether Earth will be engulfed by the Sun or will continue in orbit. The uncertainty arises in part because as the Sun burns hydrogen, it loses mass causing Earth (and all planets) to orbit farther away. There are also significant uncertainties in calculating the orbits of the planets over the next 5–6.5 billion years, so the fate of Earth is not well understood. At its brightest, the red-giant Sun will be several thousand times more luminous than today but its surface will be at about half the temperature. In its red giant phase, the Sun will be so bright that any water on Earth will boil away into space, leaving it unable to support life.

text: In about 5 to 6 billion years, the Sun will have depleted the hydrogen fuel in its core and will begin to expand. At its largest, its surface (

text: photosphere

text: ) will approximately reach the current orbit of Earth. It will then lose its atmosphere completely; its outer layers forming a

text: planetary nebula

text: and the core a

text: white dwarf

text: . The evolution of the Sun into and through the red-giant phase has been extensively modelled, but it remains unclear whether Earth will be engulfed by the Sun or will continue in orbit. The uncertainty arises in part because as the Sun burns hydrogen, it loses mass causing Earth (and all planets) to orbit farther away. There are also significant uncertainties in calculating the orbits of the planets over the next 5–6.5 billion years, so the fate of Earth is not well understood. At its brightest, the red-giant Sun will be several thousand times more luminous than today but its surface will be at about half the temperature. In its red giant phase, the Sun will be so bright that any water on Earth will boil away into space, leaving it unable to support life.

text: 37 Comae Berenices (37 Com) is a star in the constellation Coma Berenices. Its apparent magnitude is 4.88.  It is a weak G-band star, a luminous giant star with a carbon abundance about a factor of 5 lower than is typical for such stars.  It is also a variable star of the RS CVn type, classified as LU Com.

text: 37 Comae Berenices (37 Com) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Coma Berenices

text: . Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 4.88.  It is a

text: weak G-band star

text: , a luminous

text: giant star

text: with a

text: carbon

text: abundance about a factor of 5 lower than is typical for such stars.  It is also a variable star of the

text: RS CVn type

text: , classified as LU Com.

text: Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is also one of the 57 stars used in celestial navigation. It is at its highest point in the sky around midnight on December 15.

text: CSS, while not a programming language, also uses the slash-star comment format.

text: CSS

text: , while not a programming language, also uses the slash-star comment format.

text: 47 Tucanae's dense core contains a number of exotic stars of scientific interest.  Globular clusters efficiently sort stars by mass, with the most massive stars falling to the center.47 Tucanae contains at least 21 blue stragglers near its core.It also contains hundreds of X-ray sources, including stars with enhanced chromospheric activity due to their presence in binary star systems, cataclysmic variable stars containing white dwarfs accreting from companion stars, and low-mass X-ray binaries containing neutron stars that are not currently accreting, but can be observed by the X-rays emitted from the hot surface of the neutron star.47 Tucanae has 25 known millisecond pulsars, the second largest population of pulsars in any globular cluster.  These pulsars are thought to be spun up by the accretion of material from binary companion stars, in a previous X-ray binary phase.  The companion of one pulsar in 47 Tucanae, 47 Tucanae W, seems to still be transferring mass towards the neutron star, indicating that this system is completing a transition from being an accreting low-mass X-ray binary to a millisecond pulsar.X-ray emission has been individually detected from most millisecond pulsars in 47 Tucanae with the Chandra X-ray Observatory, likely emission from the neutron star surface, and gamma-ray emission has been detected with the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope from its millisecond pulsar population (making 47 Tucanae the first globular cluster to be detected in gamma-rays).

text: 47 Tucanae's dense core contains a number of exotic stars of scientific interest.  Globular clusters efficiently sort stars by mass, with the most massive stars falling to the center.47 Tucanae contains at least 21

text: blue straggler

text: s near its core.It also contains hundreds of X-ray sources, including stars with enhanced

text: chromospheric activity

text: due to their presence in

text: binary star

text: systems,

text: cataclysmic variable star

text: s containing

text: white dwarf

text: s accreting from companion stars, and

text: low-mass X-ray binaries

text: containing

text: neutron star

text: s that are not currently accreting, but can be observed by the

text: X-rays

text: emitted from the hot surface of the neutron star.47 Tucanae has 25 known

text: millisecond pulsar

text: s, the second largest population of

text: pulsar

text: s in any globular cluster.  These pulsars are thought to be spun up by the

text: accretion

text: of material from binary companion stars, in a previous

text: X-ray binary

text: phase.  The companion of one pulsar in 47 Tucanae, 47 Tucanae W, seems to still be transferring mass towards the

text: neutron star

text: , indicating that this system is completing a transition from being an accreting

text: low-mass X-ray binary

text: to a

text: millisecond pulsar

text: .X-ray emission has been individually detected from most millisecond pulsars in 47 Tucanae with the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: , likely emission from the neutron star surface, and gamma-ray emission has been detected with the

text: Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

text: from its millisecond pulsar population (making 47 Tucanae the first globular cluster to be detected in gamma-rays).

text: In 1994, several stars were identified as having broad helium emission lines in their spectra, and some showed narrow hydrogen emission lines.  This was completely unexpected for protostars, instead suggesting the objects were much more evolved stars.  Shortly afterwards two emission line stars were classified as Wolf Rayet stars, and a third as a Luminous Blue Variable that was thought to be one of the most luminous stars in the galaxy.  A small number of red supergiants were also identified, narrowing the likely age of the cluster.

text: In 1994, several stars were identified as having broad

text: helium

text: emission lines in their spectra, and some showed narrow

text: hydrogen

text: emission lines.  This was completely unexpected for protostars, instead suggesting the objects were much more evolved stars.  Shortly afterwards two emission line stars were classified as Wolf Rayet stars, and a third as a Luminous Blue Variable that was thought to be one of the most luminous stars in the galaxy.  A small number of red supergiants were also identified, narrowing the likely age of the cluster.

text: Some work in nuclear transmutation had been done. In 1917, Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p.  This was the first observation of a nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split this nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the atom", although it was not the modern nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements, which is discussed below. Meanwhile, the possibility of combining nuclei—nuclear fusion—had been studied in connection with understanding the processes which power stars. The first artificial fusion reaction had been achieved by Mark Oliphant in 1932, using two accelerated deuterium nuclei (each consisting of a single proton bound to a single neutron) to create a helium-3 nucleus.

text: Some work in

text: nuclear transmutation

text: had been done. In 1917, Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p.  This was the first observation of a

text: nuclear reaction

text: , that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues

text: Ernest Walton

text: and

text: John Cockcroft

text: , who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split this nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as "splitting the atom", although it was not the modern nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements, which is discussed below. Meanwhile, the possibility of combining nuclei—

text: nuclear fusion

text: —had been studied in connection with understanding the processes which power

text: star

text: s. The first artificial fusion reaction had been achieved by

text: Mark Oliphant

text: in 1932, using two accelerated

text: deuterium

text: nuclei (each consisting of a single proton bound to a single neutron) to create a

text: nucleus.

text: A December 1824 advertisement, which states the cards were "just published", offered the cards "plain" at £1/8s or "fully coloured" for £1/14s. This first edition did not include any stars surrounding the named constellations, leaving those parts blank. This was changed for the second edition, which added back stars around theose constellations.  An American edition was published in 1832. Modern reprints were produced in 1993, and Barnes & Noble reproduced the American edition (with accompanying book) in 2004. The accompanying book, A Familiar Treatise on Astronomy by Jehoshaphat Aspin went through at least four editions, with the last coming out in 1834. The second edition featured a marked expansion in content, growing from 121 pages in the first edition to 200 pages in the second. The book, by the time of the 1834 American edition, consisted of an introduction, a list of the northern and southern constellations, a description of each of the plates, with the history and background of the constellations depicted, and an alphabetical list of named stars (such as Achernar) with their Bayer designation, magnitude, and respective constellation.

text: A December 1824 advertisement, which states the cards were "just published", offered the cards "plain" at £1/8s or "fully coloured" for £1/14s. This first edition did not include any stars surrounding the named constellations, leaving those parts blank. This was changed for the second edition, which added back stars around theose constellations.  An American edition was published in 1832. Modern reprints were produced in 1993, and

text: Barnes & Noble

text: reproduced the American edition (with accompanying book) in 2004. The accompanying book, A Familiar Treatise on Astronomy by Jehoshaphat Aspin went through at least four editions, with the last coming out in 1834. The second edition featured a marked expansion in content, growing from 121 pages in the first edition to 200 pages in the second. The book, by the time of the 1834 American edition, consisted of an introduction, a list of the northern and southern constellations, a description of each of the plates, with the history and background of the constellations depicted, and an alphabetical list of named stars (such as

text: Achernar

text: ) with their

text: Bayer designation

text: magnitude

text: , and respective constellation.

text: where the internal forces F cancel in pairs.  The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and acceleration a of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector ω and angular acceleration vector α of the rigid system of particles as,

text: where the internal forces F cancel in pairs.  The

text: kinematics

text: of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and acceleration a of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector ω and angular acceleration vector α of the rigid system of particles as,

text: Although the Be type spectrum is most strongly produced in class B stars, it is also detected in O and A shell stars, and these are sometimes included under the "Be star" banner.  Be stars are primarily considered to be main sequence stars, but a number of subgiants and giant stars are also included.

text: Although the Be type spectrum is most strongly produced in class B stars, it is also detected in O and A

text: shell star

text: s, and these are sometimes included under the "Be star" banner.  Be stars are primarily considered to be

text: main sequence

text: stars, but a number of

text: subgiant

text: s and

text: giant star

text: s are also included.

text: Most multiple-star systems are organized in what is called a hierarchical system: the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system's center of mass. Each of these smaller groups must also be hierarchical, which means that they must be divided into smaller subgroups which themselves are hierarchical, and so on. Each level of the hierarchy can be treated as a two-body problem by considering close pairs as if they were a single star. In these systems there is little interaction between the orbits and the stars' motion will continue to approximate stable Keplerian orbits around the system's center of mass, unlike the unstable trapezia systems or the even more complex dynamics of the large number of stars in star clusters and galaxies.

text: Most multiple-star systems are organized in what is called a hierarchical system: the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system's

text: center of mass

text: . Each of these smaller groups must also be hierarchical, which means that they must be divided into smaller subgroups which themselves are hierarchical, and so on. Each level of the hierarchy can be treated as a

text: two-body problem

text: by considering close pairs as if they were a single star. In these systems there is little interaction between the orbits and the stars' motion will continue to approximate stable

text: Keplerian

text: orbits around the system's center of mass, unlike the unstable

text: trapezia

text: systems or the even more complex

text: dynamics

text: of the large number of

text: star

text: s in

text: star cluster

text: s and

text: galaxies

text: Nuclear fusion occurs when the nuclei of two atoms approach closely enough for the nuclear force to pull them together into a single larger nucleus. The strong force is opposed by the electrostatic force created by the positive charge of the nuclei's protons, pushing the nuclei apart. The amount of energy that is needed to overcome this repulsion is known as the Coulomb barrier. The amount of energy released by the fusion reaction when it occurs may be greater or less than the Coulomb barrier. Generally, lighter nuclei with a smaller number of protons and greater number of neutrons will have the greatest ratio of energy released to energy required, and the majority of fusion power research focusses on the use of deuterium and tritium, two isotopes of hydrogen.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: occurs when the

text: nuclei

text: of two atoms approach closely enough for the

text: nuclear force

text: to pull them together into a single larger nucleus. The strong force is opposed by the

text: electrostatic force

text: created by the positive charge of the nuclei's

text: proton

text: s, pushing the nuclei apart. The amount of energy that is needed to overcome this repulsion is known as the

text: Coulomb barrier

text: . The amount of energy released by the fusion reaction when it occurs may be greater or less than the Coulomb barrier. Generally, lighter nuclei with a smaller number of protons and greater number of

text: neutron

text: s will have the greatest ratio of energy released to energy required, and the majority of

text: fusion power

text: research focusses on the use of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: , two

text: isotope

text: s of

text: hydrogen

text: A dwarf star is a star of relatively small size and low luminosity. Most main sequence stars are dwarf stars. The term was originally coined in 1906 when the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung noticed that the reddest stars—classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme could be divided into two distinct groups. They are either much brighter than the Sun, or much fainter. To distinguish these groups, he called them "giant" and "dwarf" stars, the dwarf stars being fainter and the giants being brighter than the Sun. Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan Keenan System using the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, a sequence from the hottest: O type, to the coolest: M type. The scope of the term "dwarf" was later expanded to include the following:

text: A dwarf star is a

text: star

text: of relatively small size and low

text: luminosity

text: . Most

text: main sequence stars

text: are dwarf stars. The term was originally coined in 1906 when the Danish astronomer

text: Ejnar Hertzsprung

text: noticed that the reddest stars—classified as K and M in the Harvard scheme could be divided into two distinct groups. They are either much brighter than the Sun, or much fainter. To distinguish these groups, he called them "giant" and "dwarf" stars, the dwarf stars being fainter and the giants being brighter than the Sun. Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan Keenan System using the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, a sequence from the hottest: O type, to the coolest: M type. The scope of the term "dwarf" was later expanded to include the following:

text: The two franchises have a "symbiotic relationship", as stated by William Shatner, who credits Star Wars for the beginning of the Star Trek films. He repeated this sentiment at a 2016 Star Trek fan convention in Las Vegas by stating "Star Wars created Star Trek". He clarified this statement by explaining that at the time of the release the first Star Wars film (A New Hope), Paramount, then under new management, was struggling to come up with something that could compete with Star Wars. It was then that Star Trek came to mind and, as a result, the Star Trek franchise was relaunched, but this time as a series of feature films rather than a television series. Since then, public interest has returned to Star Trek.

text: The two franchises have a "symbiotic relationship", as stated by William Shatner, who credits Star Wars for the beginning of the

text: Star Trek films

text: . He repeated this sentiment at a 2016 Star Trek fan convention in

text: Las Vegas

text: by stating "Star Wars created Star Trek". He clarified this statement by explaining that at the time of the release the first Star Wars film (A New Hope), Paramount, then under new management, was struggling to come up with something that could compete with Star Wars. It was then that Star Trek came to mind and, as a result, the Star Trek franchise was relaunched, but this time as a series of feature films rather than a television series. Since then, public interest has returned to Star Trek.

text: Yellow hypergiants form from massive stars after they have evolved away from the main sequence.  Most observed yellow hypergiants have been through a red supergiant phase and are evolving back towards higher temperatures, but a few are seen in the brief first transition from main sequence to red supergiant. Supergiants with an initial mass less than  will explode as a supernova while still red supergiants, while stars more massive than about  will never cool beyond blue supergiant temperatures. The exact mass ranges depend on metallicity and rotation.  Yellow supergiants cooling for the first time may be massive stars of up to  or more, but post-red supergiant stars will have lost around half their initial mass.

text: Yellow hypergiants form from massive stars after they have evolved away from the main sequence.  Most observed yellow hypergiants have been through a red supergiant phase and are evolving back towards higher temperatures, but a few are seen in the brief first transition from main sequence to red supergiant. Supergiants with an initial mass less than  will explode as a supernova while still red supergiants, while stars more massive than about  will never cool beyond blue supergiant temperatures. The exact mass ranges depend on

text: metallicity

text: and rotation.  Yellow supergiants cooling for the first time may be massive stars of up to  or more, but post-red supergiant stars will have lost around half their initial mass.

text: In 1929, Atkinson collaborated with Fritz Houtermans to apply Gamow's quantum tunnelling theory to the process of nuclear fusion in stars.  They showed that fusing light nuclei could create energy in accordance with Einstein's formula of mass-energy equivalence, and that heavy nuclei could be built up by a successive series of fusions.  Their models were similar to the later CNO cycle.  This theory was not accepted at the time as it depended on the idea that stars were mostly hydrogen.  Atkinson wrote about this theory again in the 1930s, predicting that the most luminous stars should have a short lifetime.  He also proposed that the elements found in the Universe could be built up by fusion in stars, and that white dwarf stars did not need a nuclear source of energy in order to shine.  After World War II, he worked on astronomical instrumentation and positional astronomy.

text: In 1929, Atkinson collaborated with

text: Fritz Houtermans

text: to apply

text: Gamow

text: 's

text: quantum tunnelling

text: theory to the process of

text: nuclear fusion

text: in stars.  They showed that fusing light nuclei could create energy in accordance with Einstein's formula of mass-energy equivalence, and that heavy nuclei could be built up by a successive series of fusions.  Their models were similar to the later

text: CNO cycle

text: .  This theory was not accepted at the time as it depended on the idea that stars were mostly

text: hydrogen

text: .  Atkinson wrote about this theory again in the 1930s, predicting that the most luminous stars should have a short lifetime.  He also proposed that the elements found in the Universe could be

text: built up by fusion

text: in stars, and that

text: white dwarf star

text: s did not need a nuclear source of energy in order to shine.  After

text: World War II

text: , he worked on astronomical instrumentation and positional astronomy.

text: Products are rated on a 10-point scale represented on the site by half and full stars. The site includes a plain-English explanation of the scale, describing ratings from Exceptional (5 stars) to Garbage (0.5 stars). Users can also submit reviews of products they own. Products of note receive a Recommended Product badge. Standouts receive the Editors’ Choice award.Digital Trends also publishes news and how to features about products, features including interviews, and editorials and opinions.

text: In August 2002, LIGO began its search for cosmic gravitational waves. Measurable emissions of gravitational waves are expected from binary systems (collisions and coalescences of neutron stars or black holes), supernova explosions of massive stars (which form neutron stars and black holes), accreting neutron stars, rotations of neutron stars with deformed crusts, and the remnants of gravitational radiation created by the birth of the universe. The observatory may, in theory, also observe more exotic hypothetical phenomena, such as gravitational waves caused by oscillating cosmic strings or colliding domain walls.

text: In August 2002, LIGO began its search for cosmic gravitational waves. Measurable emissions of gravitational waves are expected from binary systems (collisions and coalescences of

text: neutron star

text: s or

text: black holes

text: supernova

text: explosions of massive stars (which form neutron stars and black holes), accreting neutron stars, rotations of neutron stars with deformed crusts, and the remnants of gravitational radiation created by the

text: birth of the universe

text: . The observatory may, in theory, also observe more exotic hypothetical phenomena, such as gravitational waves caused by oscillating

text: cosmic string

text: s or colliding

text: domain wall

text: s.

text: Star formation is the process by which dense regions within molecular clouds in The "medium" is present further soon.-->interstellar space, sometimes referred to as "stellar nurseries" or "star-forming regions", fuse to form stars. As a branch of astronomy, star formation includes the study of the interstellar medium (ISM) and giant molecular clouds (GMC) as precursors to the star formation process, and the study of protostars and young stellar objects as its immediate products.  It is closely related to planet formation, another branch of astronomy.  Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of binary stars and the initial mass function.

text: Star formation is the process by which dense regions within

text: molecular cloud

text: s in

text: The "medium" is present further soon.-->interstellar space

text: , sometimes referred to as "stellar nurseries" or "

text: star

text: -forming regions", fuse to form

text: star

text: s. As a branch of

text: astronomy

text: interstellar medium

text: (ISM) and

text: giant molecular cloud

text: protostar

text: s and

text: young stellar object

text: s as its immediate products.  It is closely related to

text: planet formation

text: , another branch of

text: astronomy

text: .  Star formation theory, as well as accounting for the formation of a single star, must also account for the statistics of

text: binary star

text: s and the

text: initial mass function

text: A 1998 allgame review of the Macintosh version of the game by Lisa Karen Savignano commented on the games sameness to the previous World title, and insinuated that a player's response to one game would determine how they respond to the other. She comments that the animated clip of the robot capturing the criminal "is cute the first couple of times you see it, but quickly grows boring and tiresome to the older set" She also commented on the "realistic sounds" of the deathtraps and the "improbable-sounding names" of the villains. Overall, she gave the game a score of 3/5 stars. This breaks down into: 3 stars for graphics ("static and photorealistic [and] cartoony"), 3.5 stars for sound ("they tell you if you...are on the right track"), 2 stars for enjoyment ("older kids may find it tiresome and continually the same"), 3.5 stars for replay value ("the game always plays differently each time, but your 80th case is always Carmen Sandiego", and 3 stars for documentation ("a slim manual...explains the basics of the game").

text: Traditionally known as Pherkad, Gamma Ursae Minoris has an apparent magnitude that varies between 3.04 and 3.09 roughly every 3.4 hours. It and Kochab have been termed the "guardians of the pole star". A white bright giant of spectral type A3II-III, with around 4.8 times the Sun's mass, 1,050 times its luminosity and 15 times its radius, it is 487±8 light-years distant from Earth. Pherkad belongs to a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables—short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology. Also possibly a member of this class is Zeta Ursae Minoris, a white star of spectral type A3V, which has begun cooling, expanding and brightening. It is likely to have been a B3 main-sequence star and is now slightly variable. At magnitude 4.95 the dimmest of the seven stars of the Little Dipper is Eta Ursae Minoris. A yellow-white main-sequence star of spectral type F5V, it is 97 light-years distant. It is double the Sun's diameter, 1.4 times as massive, and shines with 7.4 times its luminosity. Nearby Zeta lies 5.00-magnitude Theta Ursae Minoris. Located 860 ± 80 light-years distant, it is an orange giant of spectral type K5III that has expanded and cooled off the main sequence, and has an estimated diameter around 4.8 times that of the Sun.

text: Traditionally known as Pherkad,

text: Gamma Ursae Minoris

text: has an apparent magnitude that varies between 3.04 and 3.09 roughly every 3.4 hours. It and Kochab have been termed the "guardians of the pole star". A white bright giant of spectral type A3II-III, with around 4.8 times the Sun's mass, 1,050 times its luminosity and 15 times its radius, it is 487±8 light-years distant from Earth. Pherkad belongs to a class of stars known as

text: Delta Scuti variable

text: s—short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as

text: standard candles

text: and as subjects to study

text: asteroseismology

text: . Also possibly a member of this class is

text: Zeta Ursae Minoris

text: , a white star of spectral type A3V, which has begun cooling, expanding and brightening. It is likely to have been a B3 main-sequence star and is now slightly variable. At magnitude 4.95 the dimmest of the seven stars of the Little Dipper is

text: Eta Ursae Minoris

text: . A yellow-white main-sequence star of spectral type F5V, it is 97 light-years distant. It is double the Sun's diameter, 1.4 times as massive, and shines with 7.4 times its luminosity. Nearby Zeta lies 5.00-magnitude

text: Theta Ursae Minoris

text: . Located 860 ± 80 light-years distant, it is an orange giant of spectral type K5III that has expanded and cooled off the main sequence, and has an estimated diameter around 4.8 times that of the Sun.

text: 41 Aquarii (abbreviated 41 Aqr) is a double star in the equatorial constellation of Aquarius. 41 Aquarii is its Flamsteed designation. Its apparent magnitude is 5.354 and is located at a distance of around  from Earth. The brighter component is a red clump giant star with a stellar classification of K0 III and a magnitude of 5.73. At an angular separation of  5.148 arcseconds, the fainter companion is an F-type main sequence star with a magnitude 7.16 and a classification of F8 V.

text: 41 Aquarii (abbreviated 41 Aqr) is a

text: double star

text: in the

text: equatorial

text: constellation

text: of

text: Aquarius

text: . 41 Aquarii is its

text: Flamsteed designation

text: . Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.354 and is located at a distance of around  from Earth. The brighter component is a

text: red clump

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 III and a magnitude of 5.73. At an

text: angular separation

text: of  5.148

text: arcsecond

text: s, the fainter companion is an

text: F-type main sequence star

text: with a magnitude 7.16 and a classification of F8 V.

text: While neutron stars and black holes are the quintessential point sources of X-rays, all main sequence stars are likely to have hot enough coronae to emit X-rays. A- or F-type stars have at most thin convection zones and thus produce little coronal activity.

text: On November 18, 2015, the NHL announced significant changes to the All-Star Game format, starting with the 2016 game: instead of one game pitted against two teams, there will be three games of 10-minute halves each, with four All-Star teams based on the league's four divisions. The Atlantic Division All-Stars will face the Metropolitan Division All-Stars, while the Central Division All-Stars will play against the Pacific Division All-Stars. The winners of these two games will then meet in an All-Star Game Final. The format for all three games will be three-on-three. If a tie remains after 20 minutes, then it will directly go to a three-round shootout plus extra rounds as needed to determine the winner; there is no standard overtime.

text: A more compact site of star formation is the opaque clouds of dense gas and dust known as Bok globules; so named after the astronomer Bart Bok. These can form in association with collapsing molecular clouds or possibly independently. The Bok globules are typically up to a light year across and contain a few solar masses. They can be observed as dark clouds silhouetted against bright emission nebulae or background stars. Over half the known Bok globules have been found to contain newly forming stars.

text: A more compact site of star formation is the opaque clouds of dense gas and dust known as

text: Bok globule

text: s; so named after the astronomer

text: Bart Bok

text: . These can form in association with collapsing molecular clouds or possibly independently. The Bok globules are typically up to a light year across and contain a few

text: solar mass

text: es. They can be observed as dark clouds silhouetted against bright

text: emission nebula

text: e or background stars. Over half the known Bok globules have been found to contain newly forming stars.

text: In the army of the Republic of Ireland, the most junior ranks are classified by stars. A three-star private/gunner/trooper is one who is considered a fully trained soldier. Two-star privates/gunners/troopers are those who have completed basic training but have not yet completed other specialised training necessary for their roles. One-star privates do not exist: the lowest rank is recruit. Senior officers are classified as Brigadiers, Majors General and Lts General.

text: In the

text: army

text: of the

text: Republic of Ireland

text: , the most junior ranks are classified by stars. A three-star

text: private

text: gunner

text: trooper

text: is one who is considered a fully trained soldier. Two-star privates/gunners/troopers are those who have completed basic training but have not yet completed other specialised training necessary for their roles. One-star privates do not exist: the lowest rank is recruit. Senior officers are classified as Brigadiers, Majors General and Lts General.

text: Regular segments include reports of the latest Star Wars merchandise available in stores and online, reviews of Star Wars comics and novels, and an Ebay item of the Week focusing on weird Star Wars items, such as a chicken nugget shaped like Jabba the Hutt. One of the most popular segments is the weekly destruction of a classic "Star Wars" collectible. The show also reviews high-end collectibles, such as Master Replicas and Gentle Giant items. The show regularly has ongoing series including "Collecting 101" series which provides a basic overview of being a Star Wars collector including what to buy and how to care for a collection, and "30 years of Collecting" which reviewed an item released each year from 1977 through 2007.

text: Regular segments include reports of the latest Star Wars merchandise available in stores and online, reviews of Star Wars comics and novels, and an

text: Ebay

text: item of the Week focusing on weird Star Wars items, such as a chicken nugget shaped like

text: Jabba the Hutt

text: . One of the most popular segments is the weekly destruction of a classic "Star Wars" collectible. The show also reviews high-end collectibles, such as

text: Master Replicas

text: and

text: Gentle Giant

text: items. The show regularly has ongoing series including "Collecting 101" series which provides a basic overview of being a Star Wars collector including what to buy and how to care for a collection, and "30 years of Collecting" which reviewed an item released each year from 1977 through 2007.

text: Matthew Puckett wrote the score for the films Caught (Lifetime Network) starring Anna Camp, Dial A Prayer (Vertical Entertainment) starring Britney Snow (Pitch Perfect 1 and 2), Brightest Star (dir. Maggie Kiley) (Gravitas/Warner Bros. Ent.) and Boy Meets Girl among others. His songs, themes, and scores have been featured in numerous films and series, most recently: NY Med (ABC Series), After Fall, Winter (Showtime), She Wants Me, 2BR/2BA (Lionsgate), Best Friends Forever (Dir. Brea Grant), Particles of Truth (75 Films), Hooking Up (ABC), Lisa Williams Show (Lifetime), and Crazy Sexy Cancer (TLC).

text: Matthew Puckett wrote the score for the films Caught (

text: Lifetime Network

text: ) starring

text: Anna Camp

text: , Dial A Prayer (

text: Vertical Entertainment

text: ) starring Britney Snow (

text: Pitch Perfect

text: 1 and 2), Brightest Star (dir.

text: Maggie Kiley

text: ) (Gravitas/

text: Warner Bros. Ent.

text: ) and Boy Meets Girl among others. His songs, themes, and scores have been featured in numerous films and series, most recently: NY Med (

text: ABC Series

text: ), After Fall, Winter (

text: Showtime

text: ), She Wants Me, 2BR/2BA (

text: Lionsgate

text: ), Best Friends Forever (Dir.

text: Brea Grant

text: ), Particles of Truth (75 Films), Hooking Up (ABC), Lisa Williams Show (

text: Lifetime

text: ), and Crazy Sexy Cancer (

text: TLC

text: This star will be in constellation Perseus around 5200 AD.

text: This star will be in constellation

text: Perseus

text: around 5200 AD.

text: The absence of gas, presence of dust, lack of recent star formation, and rotational support are all attributes one might expect of a spiral galaxy which had used up all of its gas in the formation of stars. This possibility is further enhanced by the existence of gas poor, or "anemic," spiral galaxies. If the spiral pattern then dissipated the resulting galaxy would be similar to many lenticulars. Moore et al. also document that tidal harassment - the gravitational effects from other, near-by galaxies - could aid this process in dense regions. The clearest support for this theory, however, is their adherence to slightly shifted version of Tully–Fisher relation, discussed above.

text: The absence of gas, presence of dust, lack of recent star formation, and rotational support are all attributes one might expect of a spiral galaxy which had used up all of its gas in the formation of stars. This possibility is further enhanced by the existence of gas poor, or

text: "anemic," spiral galaxies

text: . If the spiral pattern then dissipated the resulting galaxy would be similar to many lenticulars. Moore et al. also document that tidal harassment - the gravitational effects from other, near-by galaxies - could aid this process in dense regions. The clearest support for this theory, however, is their adherence to slightly shifted version of Tully–Fisher relation, discussed above.

text: "Things You Can't Outrun" is the third episode of the The CW series The Flash. The episode was written by Alison Schapker and Grainne Godfree and directed by Jesse Warn. It was first broadcast in October 21, 2014 in The CW. The show is itself an spin-off of the show Arrow, where many characters in the series were introduced during the second season. The episode revolves about Barry Allen (Grant Gustin), a CSI forensic scientist working for the Central City Police Department. The S.T.A.R. Labs team is currently investigating the rampage of a man who seems to control gases and smokes to kill the people who sentenced him to jail. Meanwhile, Wells and Cisco consider using the particle accelerator as a jail for the metahumans, reminding Caitlin when her fiancee died trying to stop the explosion of the particle accelerator. Meanwhile, Iris and Eddie consider telling Joe about their relationship.

text: "Things You Can't Outrun" is the third episode of the

text: The CW

text: series

text: The Flash

text: . The episode was written by

text: Alison Schapker

text: and

text: Grainne Godfree

text: and directed by

text: Jesse Warn

text: . It was first broadcast in October 21, 2014 in The CW. The show is itself an spin-off of the show

text: Arrow

text: , where many characters in the series were introduced during the second season. The episode revolves about Barry Allen (

text: Grant Gustin

text: ), a CSI forensic scientist working for the Central City Police Department. The S.T.A.R. Labs team is currently investigating the rampage of a man who seems to control gases and smokes to kill the people who sentenced him to jail. Meanwhile, Wells and Cisco consider using the particle accelerator as a jail for the metahumans, reminding Caitlin when her fiancee died trying to stop the explosion of the particle accelerator. Meanwhile, Iris and Eddie consider telling Joe about their relationship.

text: Epsilon Pegasi, also known as Enif, marks the horse's muzzle. The brightest star in Pegasus, is an orange supergiant of spectral type K21b that is around 12 times as massive as the Sun and is around 690 light-years distant from Earth. It is an irregular variable, its apparent magnitude varying between 2.37 and 2.45. Lying near Enif is AG Pegasi, an unusual star that brightened to magnitude 6.0 around 1885 before dimming to magnitude 9. It is composed of a red giant and white dwarf, estimated to be around 2.5 and 0.6 times the mass of the Sun respectively. With its outburst taking over 150 years, it has been described as the slowest nova ever recorded.

text: Epsilon Pegasi

text: , also known as Enif, marks the horse's muzzle. The brightest star in Pegasus, is an orange

text: supergiant

text: of

text: spectral type

text: K21b that is around 12 times

text: as massive as the Sun

text: and is around 690

text: light-year

text: s distant from Earth. It is an irregular variable, its

text: apparent magnitude

text: varying between 2.37 and 2.45. Lying near Enif is

text: AG Pegasi

text: , an unusual star that brightened to magnitude 6.0 around 1885 before dimming to magnitude 9. It is composed of a

text: red giant

text: and

text: white dwarf

text: , estimated to be around 2.5 and 0.6 times the mass of the Sun respectively. With its outburst taking over 150 years, it has been described as the slowest

text: nova

text: ever recorded.

text: 83 Leonis, abbreviated 83 Leo, is a binary star system approximately 58 light-years away in the constellation of Leo (the Lion).  The primary star of the system is a cool orange subgiant star, while the secondary star is an orange dwarf star.  The two stars are separated by at least 515 astronomical units from each other.  Both stars are presumed to be cooler than the Sun.

text: 83 Leonis, abbreviated 83 Leo, is a

text: binary star

text: system approximately 58

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Leo

text: (the

text: Lion

text: ).  The primary star of the system is a cool

text: orange subgiant

text: star

text: , while the secondary star is an

text: orange dwarf

text: star.  The two stars are separated by at least 515

text: astronomical unit

text: s from each other.  Both stars are presumed to be cooler than the

text: Sun

text: solar masses per year), slow (v = 10 km/s) winds.  These include red giants and supergiants, and asymptotic giant branch stars.  These winds are understood to be driven by radiation pressure on dust condensing in the upper atmosphere of the stars.

text: solar masses per year), slow (v = 10 km/s) winds.  These include

text: red giant

text: s and

text: supergiants

text: , and

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: stars.  These winds are understood to be driven by

text: radiation pressure

text: on

text: dust

text: condensing in the upper atmosphere of the stars.

text: A purely theoretical group of stars could be formed when red dwarfs finally exhaust their core hydrogen trillions of years into the future.  These stars are convective through their depth and are expected to very slowly increase both their temperature and luminosity as they accumulate more and more helium until eventually they cannot sustain fusion and they quickly collapse to white dwarfs.  Although these stars can become hotter than the Sun they will never become more luminous, so are hardly blue giants as we see them today.  The name blue dwarf has been coined although that name could easily be confusing.

text: A purely theoretical group of stars could be formed when

text: red dwarf

text: s finally exhaust their core hydrogen trillions of years into the future.  These stars are convective through their depth and are expected to very slowly increase both their temperature and luminosity as they accumulate more and more helium until eventually they cannot sustain fusion and they quickly collapse to white dwarfs.  Although these stars can become hotter than the

text: Sun

text: they will never become more luminous, so are hardly blue giants as we see them today.  The name

text: blue dwarf

text: has been coined although that name could easily be confusing.

text: A star whose initial mass is less than approximately  will not become a giant star at all. For most of their lifetimes, such stars have their interior thoroughly mixed by convection and so they can continue fusing hydrogen for a time in excess of 10 years, much longer than the current age of the Universe. They steadily become hotter and more luminous throughout this time.  Eventually they do develop a radiative core, subsequently exhausting hydrogen in the core and burning hydrogen in a shell surrounding the core. (Stars with a mass in excess of  may expand at this point, but will never become very large.) Shortly thereafter, the star's supply of hydrogen will be completely exhausted and it will become a helium white dwarf.  Again, the universe is too young for any such stars to be observed.

text: A star whose initial mass is less than approximately  will not become a giant star at all. For most of their lifetimes, such stars have their interior thoroughly mixed by

text: convection

text: and so they can continue fusing hydrogen for a time in excess of 10 years, much longer than the current age of the

text: Universe

text: . They steadily become hotter and more luminous throughout this time.  Eventually they do develop a radiative core, subsequently exhausting hydrogen in the core and burning hydrogen in a shell surrounding the core. (Stars with a mass in excess of  may expand at this point, but will never become very large.) Shortly thereafter, the star's supply of hydrogen will be completely exhausted and it will become a

text: helium

text: white dwarf

text: .  Again, the universe is too young for any such stars to be observed.

text: A G-type main-sequence star (Spectral type: G-V), often (and imprecisely) called a yellow dwarf, or G dwarf star, is a main-sequence star (luminosity class V) of spectral type G. Such a star has about 0.8 to 1.2 solar masses and  surface temperature of between 5,300 and 6,000 K. Like other main-sequence stars, a G-type main-sequence star is converting the element hydrogen to helium in its core by means of nuclear fusion. The Sun, the star to which the Earth is gravitationally bound in the Solar System and the object with the largest apparent magnitude, is an example of a G-type main-sequence star. Each second, the Sun fuses approximately 600 million tons of hydrogen to helium, converting about 4 million tons of matter to energy. Besides the Sun, other well-known examples of G-type main-sequence stars include Alpha Centauri A, Tau Ceti, and 51 Pegasi.

text: A G-type main-sequence star (Spectral type: G-V), often (and imprecisely) called a yellow dwarf, or G dwarf star, is a

text: main-sequence

text: star

text: (luminosity class V) of

text: spectral type

text: G. Such a star has about 0.8 to 1.2

text: solar mass

text: es and

text: surface temperature

text: of between 5,300 and 6,000

text: K

text: . Like other main-sequence stars, a G-type main-sequence star is converting the

text: element

text: hydrogen

text: to

text: helium

text: in its core by means of

text: nuclear fusion

text: . The

text: Sun

text: , the star to which the Earth is gravitationally bound in the

text: Solar System

text: and the object with the largest

text: apparent magnitude

text: , is an example of a G-type main-sequence star. Each second, the Sun fuses approximately 600 million

text: ton

text: s of hydrogen to helium,

text: converting

text: about 4 million tons of

text: matter

text: to

text: energy

text: . Besides the Sun, other well-known examples of G-type main-sequence stars include

text: Alpha Centauri A

text: Tau Ceti

text: , and

text: 51 Pegasi

text: How does one then decide which is the correct answer in this case? Whenever one makes an identity claim (i.e. a claim which states that two things are the same), one almost always uses two different descriptions. Sometimes, one may say, "x = x", like "I am I", but such claims are not particularly interesting or informative. The interesting identity claims are claims where two different descriptions are used for one and the same thing. As an example, take these two descriptions: "the Morning Star", and "the Evening Star". Sometimes, one can look in the sky just before dawn, and see a very bright point of light — that has been called "the Morning Star".  And then also, one can look in the sky just after sunset, and see a very similar point — that has been called "the Evening Star". The Morning Star is, in fact, identical to the Evening Star — both are the planet Venus. As such, they are "two" things, only in description, but in actuality, are one and the same thing under two different descriptions.

text: How does one then decide which is the correct answer in this case? Whenever one makes an identity claim (i.e. a claim which states that two things are the same), one almost always uses two different descriptions. Sometimes, one may say, "x = x", like "I am I", but such claims are not particularly interesting or informative. The interesting identity claims are claims where two different descriptions are used for one and the same thing. As an example, take these two descriptions: "the Morning Star", and "the Evening Star". Sometimes, one can look in the sky just before dawn, and see a very bright point of light — that has been called "the Morning Star".  And then also, one can look in the sky just after sunset, and see a very similar point — that has been called "the Evening Star". The Morning Star is, in fact, identical to the Evening Star — both are the

text: planet

text: Venus

text: . As such, they are "two" things, only in description, but in actuality, are one and the same thing under two different descriptions.

text: Gold Star in lieu of second Silver Star Medal:

text: The All-Star Game began in 1933; Landis had been a strong supporter of the proposal for such a contest, and after the first game remarked, "That's a grand show, and it should be continued."  He never missed an All-Star Game in his lifetime; his final public appearance was at the 1944 All-Star Game in Pittsburgh.

text: The All-Star Game began in 1933; Landis had been a strong supporter of the proposal for such a contest, and after

entity_name: 1933 Major League Baseball All-Star Game

text: the first game

text: remarked, "That's a grand show, and it should be continued."  He never missed an All-Star Game in his lifetime; his final public appearance was at the

entity_name: 1944 Major League Baseball All-Star Game

text: 1944 All-Star Game

text: in Pittsburgh.

text: Wolf 359 is classified as a UV Ceti-type flare star, which is a star that undergoes brief, energetic increases in luminosity because of magnetic activity in the photosphere.  Its variable star designation is CN Leonis.  Wolf 359 has a relatively high flare rate.  Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope detected 32 flare events within a two-hour period, with energies of 10 ergs (10 joules) and higher. The mean magnetic field at the surface of Wolf 359 has a strength of about 2.2 kG (0.22 teslas), but this varies significantly on time scales as short as six hours. By comparison, the magnetic field of the Sun averages 1 gauss (100 µT), although it can rise as high as 3 kG (0.3 T) in active sunspot regions. During flare activity, Wolf 359 has been observed emitting X-rays and gamma rays.

text: Wolf 359 is classified as a

text: UV Ceti

text: -type

text: flare star

text: , which is a star that undergoes brief, energetic increases in luminosity because of magnetic activity in the photosphere.  Its

text: variable star designation

text: is CN Leonis.  Wolf 359 has a relatively high flare rate.  Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope detected 32 flare events within a two-hour period, with energies of 10

text: erg

text: s (10

text: joule

text: s) and higher. The mean magnetic field at the surface of Wolf 359 has a strength of about 2.2

text: kG

text: teslas

text: ), but this varies significantly on time scales as short as six hours. By comparison, the magnetic field of the Sun averages 1 gauss (100

text: µT

text: ), although it can rise as high as 3 kG (0.3 T) in active

text: sunspot

text: regions. During flare activity, Wolf 359 has been observed emitting

text: X-ray

text: s and

text: gamma ray

text: s.

text: This star is one of a few stars named after people — named after a scientist, whereas the majority of proper names of stars have ancient origins or medieval, in the main Arabic, ones. Certain stars, found to be nearby due to their large proper motion, also fall into this class and are named after their discoverers: Barnard's Star; Kapteyn's Star; Luyten's Star; van Maanen's Star: van Biesbroeck's Star; and Teegarden's Star. Innes is also known as the discoverer of Proxima Centauri.

text: This star is one of a few

text: stars named after people

text: — named after

text: a scientist

text: , whereas the

text: majority of proper names

text: of stars have ancient origins or medieval, in the main Arabic, ones. Certain stars, found to be nearby due to their large proper motion, also fall into this class and are named after their discoverers:

text: Barnard's Star

text: Kapteyn's Star

text: Luyten's Star

text: van Maanen's Star

text: van Biesbroeck's Star

text: ; and

text: Teegarden's Star

text: . Innes is also known as the discoverer of

text: Proxima Centauri

text: The following hypotheses exist for star formation caused by density waves:

text: Frakes is one of only two Star Trek regulars to appear on four different Star Trek series (Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager and Star Trek: Enterprise). (The only other regular to match or exceed that number is Majel Barrett-Roddenberry who appeared in all five television series.) He has also directed episodes in three of them (TNG, DS9 and VOY) and was a popular and innovative director on the Star Trek set, often finding completely new ways to shoot the show's familiar sets. His directing career has included the films Star Trek: First Contact and Star Trek: Insurrection. Additionally, Frakes was an executive producer for the WB series Roswell, directed several episodes, and guest-starred in three episodes. His relationship with Star Trek is made light of in the episode "Secrets and Lies", in which the alien character Max auditions for a guest role as an alien for Star Trek: Enterprise.

text: Frakes is one of only two Star Trek regulars to appear on four different Star Trek series (

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: and

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: ). (The only other regular to match or exceed that number is

text: Majel Barrett-Roddenberry

text: who appeared in all five television series.) He has also directed episodes in three of them (TNG, DS9 and VOY) and was a popular and innovative director on the Star Trek set, often finding completely new ways to shoot the show's familiar sets. His directing career has included the films

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: and

text: Star Trek: Insurrection

text: . Additionally, Frakes was an executive producer for the WB series

text: Roswell

text: , directed several episodes, and guest-starred in three episodes. His relationship with Star Trek is made light of in the episode "Secrets and Lies", in which the alien character Max auditions for a guest role as an alien for Star Trek: Enterprise.

text: White dwarfs are the remnants of low-mass stars and, if they form a binary system with another star, they can cause large stellar explosions known as type Ia supernova. One route by which this may happen involves a white dwarf drawing material off a main sequence or red giant star to form an accretion disc. However, when two white dwarfs orbit each other closely, emission of gravitational waves causes the pair to spiral inward. When they finally merge, if their combined mass approaches or exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit, carbon fusion is ignited, raising the temperature. Since a white dwarf consists of degenerate matter, there is no safe equilibrium between thermal pressure and the weight of overlying layers of the star. Because of this, runaway fusion reactions rapidly heat up the interior of the combined star and spread, causing a supernova explosion. In a matter of seconds, all of the white dwarf's mass is thrown into space.

text: White dwarfs are the remnants of low-mass stars and, if they form a binary system with another star, they can cause large stellar explosions known as

text: type Ia supernova

text: . One route by which this may happen involves a white dwarf drawing material off a

text: main sequence

text: or

text: red giant

text: star to form an

text: accretion disc

text: . However, when two white dwarfs orbit each other closely, emission of

text: gravitational wave

text: s causes the pair to spiral inward. When they finally merge, if their combined mass approaches or exceeds the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: carbon fusion

text: is ignited, raising the temperature. Since a white dwarf consists of

text: degenerate matter

text: , there is no safe equilibrium between

text: thermal pressure

text: and the weight of overlying layers of the star. Because of this,

text: runaway fusion reactions

text: rapidly heat up the interior of the combined star and spread, causing a

text: supernova

text: explosion. In a matter of seconds, all of the white dwarf's mass is thrown into space.

text: The universe will become extremely dark after the last star burns out. Even so, there can still be occasional light in the universe. One of the ways the universe can be illuminated is if two carbon–oxygen white dwarfs with a combined mass of more than the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 solar masses happen to merge. The resulting object will then undergo runaway thermonuclear fusion, producing a Type Ia supernova and dispelling the darkness of the Degenerate Era for a few weeks. If the combined mass is not above the Chandrasekhar limit but is larger than the minimum mass to fuse carbon (about ), a carbon star could be produced, with a lifetime of around 10 (1 million) years. Also, if two helium white dwarfs with a combined mass of at least  collide, a helium star may be produced, with a lifetime of a few hundred million years. Finally brown dwarfs can form new stars colliding with each other to form a red dwarf star, that can survive for 10 (10 trillion) years, or accreting gas at very slow rates from the remaining interstellar medium until they have enough mass to start hydrogen burning as red dwarfs too. This process, at least on white dwarfs, could induce Type Ia supernovae too.

text: The universe will become extremely dark after the last star burns out. Even so, there can still be occasional light in the universe. One of the ways the universe can be illuminated is if two

text: carbon

text: oxygen

text: white dwarfs with a combined mass of more than the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: of about 1.4 solar masses happen to merge. The resulting object will then undergo runaway thermonuclear fusion, producing a

text: Type Ia supernova

text: and dispelling the darkness of the

text: Degenerate Era

text: for a few weeks. If the combined mass is not above the Chandrasekhar limit but is larger than the minimum mass to

text: fuse

text: carbon (about ), a

text: carbon star

text: could be produced, with a lifetime of around 10 (1 million) years. Also, if two helium white dwarfs with a combined mass of at least  collide, a

text: helium star

text: may be produced, with a lifetime of a few hundred million years. Finally brown dwarfs can form new stars colliding with each other to form a

text: red dwarf

text: star, that can survive for 10 (10 trillion) years, or accreting gas at very slow rates from the remaining

text: interstellar medium

text: until they have enough mass to start

text: hydrogen burning

text: as red dwarfs too. This process, at least on white dwarfs, could induce Type Ia supernovae too.

text: Natural cosmic rays are made up primarily of relativistic protons but also include heavier atomic nuclei like helium ions and HZE ions. In the atmosphere such particles are often stopped by air molecules, and this produces short-lived charged pions, which soon decay to muons, a primary type of cosmic ray radiation that reaches the ground (and also penetrates it to some extent). Pions can also be produced in large amounts in particle accelerators.

text: Natural

text: cosmic ray

text: s are made up primarily of relativistic protons but also include heavier atomic nuclei like

text: helium

text: ions and

text: HZE ions

text: . In the atmosphere such particles are often stopped by air molecules, and this produces short-lived charged pions, which soon decay to muons, a primary type of cosmic ray radiation that reaches the ground (and also penetrates it to some extent). Pions can also be produced in large amounts in particle accelerators.

text: In June 1983, Valdes and Freitas used the 26 m radiotelescope at Hat Creek Radio Observatory to search for the tritium hyperfine line at 1516 MHz from 108 assorted astronomical objects, with emphasis on 53 nearby stars including all visible stars within a 20 light-year radius. The tritium frequency was deemed highly attractive for SETI work because (1) the isotope is cosmically rare, (2) the tritium hyperfine line is centered in the SETI waterhole region of the terrestrial microwave window, and (3) in addition to beacon signals, tritium hyperfine emission may occur as a byproduct of extensive nuclear fusion energy production by extraterrestrial civilizations. The wideband- and narrowband-channel observations achieved sensitivities of 5–14 x 10 W/m²/channel and 0.7-2 x 10 W/m²/channel, respectively, but no detections were made.

text: In June 1983, Valdes and Freitas used the 26 m radiotelescope at Hat Creek Radio Observatory to search for the tritium hyperfine line at 1516 MHz from 108 assorted astronomical objects, with emphasis on 53 nearby stars including all visible stars within a 20 light-year radius. The tritium frequency was deemed highly attractive for SETI work because (1) the isotope is cosmically rare, (2) the tritium hyperfine line is centered in the SETI

text: waterhole region

text: of the terrestrial microwave window, and (3) in addition to beacon signals, tritium hyperfine emission may occur as a byproduct of extensive

text: nuclear fusion

text: energy production by extraterrestrial civilizations. The wideband- and narrowband-channel observations achieved sensitivities of 5–14 x 10 W/m²/channel and 0.7-2 x 10 W/m²/channel, respectively, but no detections were made.

text: Sulfur makes up 0.035% of the earth's crust by weight, making it the 17th most abundant element there and makes up 0.25% of the human body. It is a major component of soil. Sulfur makes up 870 parts per million of seawater and about 1 part per billion of the atmosphere. Sulfur can be found in elemental form or in the form of sulfide minerals, sulfate minerals, or sulfosalt minerals. Stars of at least 12 times the mass of the sun produce sulfur in their cores via nuclear fusion. Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element in the universe, making up 500 parts per million of the universe by weight.

text: Sulfur makes up 0.035% of the earth's crust by weight, making it the 17th most abundant element there and makes up 0.25% of the human body. It is a major component of soil. Sulfur makes up 870 parts per million of seawater and about 1 part per billion of the atmosphere. Sulfur can be found in elemental form or in the form of

text: sulfide minerals

text: sulfate minerals

text: , or

text: sulfosalt minerals

text: . Stars of at least 12 times the mass of the sun produce sulfur in their cores via nuclear fusion. Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element in the universe, making up 500 parts per million of the universe by weight.

text: A starburst galaxy is a galaxy undergoing an exceptionally high rate of star formation, as compared to the long-term average rate of star formation in the galaxy or the star formation rate observed in most other galaxies. In a starburst galaxy, the rate of star formation is so large that the galaxy will consume all of its gas reservoir, from which the stars are forming, on a timescale much shorter than the age of the galaxy. As such, the starburst nature of a galaxy is a phase, and one that typically occupies a brief period of a galaxy's evolution. The majority of starburst galaxies are in the midst of a merger or close encounter with another galaxy.  Starburst galaxies include M82, NGC 4038/NGC 4039 (the Antennae Galaxies), and IC 10.

text: A starburst galaxy is a

text: galaxy

text: undergoing an exceptionally high rate of

text: star formation

text: , as compared to the long-term average rate of star formation in the galaxy or the star formation rate observed in most other galaxies. In a starburst galaxy, the rate of star formation is so large that the galaxy will consume all of its gas reservoir, from which the stars are forming, on a timescale much shorter than the age of the galaxy. As such, the

text: starburst

text: nature of a galaxy is a phase, and one that typically occupies a brief period of a

text: galaxy's evolution

text: . The majority of starburst galaxies are in the midst of a

text: merger

text: or close encounter with another galaxy.  Starburst galaxies include

text: NGC 4038/NGC 4039

text: (the Antennae Galaxies), and

text: IC 10

text: The Energy Star is awarded to only certain bulbs that meet strict efficiency, quality, and lifetime criteria.

text: Write & Wrong is a 2007 Lifetime Television movie, directed by Graeme Clifford and starring Kirstie Alley and Eric Christian Olsen.

text: Write & Wrong is a 2007

text: Lifetime Television

text: movie, directed by

text: Graeme Clifford

text: and starring

text: Kirstie Alley

text: and

text: Eric Christian Olsen

text: The central cubic parsec around Sagittarius A* contains around 10 million stars. Although most of them are old red giant stars, the Galactic Center is also rich in massive stars. More than 100 OB and Wolf–Rayet stars have been identified there so far. They seem to have all been formed in a single star formation event a few million years ago. The existence of these relatively young stars was a surprise to experts, who expected the tidal forces from the central black hole to prevent their formation. This paradox of youth is even stronger for stars that are on very tight orbits around Sagittarius A*, such as S2 and S0-102. The scenarios invoked to explain this formation involve either star formation in a massive star cluster offset from the Galactic Center that would have migrated to its current location once formed, or star formation within a massive, compact gas accretion disk around the central black-hole. Most of these 100 young, massive stars seem to be concentrated within one or two disks, rather than randomly distributed within the central parsec. This observation however does not allow definite conclusions to be drawn at this point.

text: The central cubic

text: parsec

text: around Sagittarius A* contains around 10 million

text: star

text: s. Although most of them are old red

text: giant star

text: s, the Galactic Center is also rich in

text: massive stars

text: . More than 100

text: OB

text: and

text: Wolf–Rayet stars

text: have been identified there so far. They seem to have all been formed in a single

text: star formation

text: event a few million years ago. The existence of these relatively young stars was a surprise to experts, who expected the

text: tidal forces

text: from the central black hole to prevent their formation. This paradox of youth is even stronger for stars that are on very tight orbits around Sagittarius A*, such as

text: and

text: . The scenarios invoked to explain this formation involve either star formation in a massive

text: star cluster

text: offset from the Galactic Center that would have migrated to its current location once formed, or star formation within a massive, compact gas

text: accretion disk

text: around the central black-hole. Most of these 100 young, massive stars seem to be concentrated within one or two disks, rather than randomly distributed within the central parsec. This observation however does not allow definite conclusions to be drawn at this point.

text: Strnad's Star Wars work includes story arcs in Star Wars: X-Wing Rogue Squadron (1996–1997), Star Wars: Prelude to Rebellion (1998–1999), and "Vow of Justice" in Star Wars: Republic, all published by Dark Horse Comics.

text: Strnad's Star Wars work includes story arcs in

entity_name: Star Wars: X-wing Rogue Squadron (comics)

text: Star Wars: X-Wing Rogue Squadron

text: (1996–1997), Star Wars: Prelude to Rebellion (1998–1999), and "

text: Vow of Justice

text: " in

text: Star Wars: Republic

text: , all published by

text: Dark Horse Comics

text: Wear is a mechanical material degradation process occurring on rubbing or impacting surfaces, while corrosion involves chemical or electrochemical reactions of the material. Corrosion may accelerate wear and wear may accelerate corrosion. One then speaks of corrosion accelerated wear or wear accelerated corrosion. Both these phenomena, as well as fretting corrosion (which results from small amplitude oscillations between contacting surfaces) fall into the broader category of tribocorrosion. Erosion-corrosion is another tribocorrosion phenomenon involving mechanical and chemical effects: impacting particles or fluids erode a solid surface by abrasion, chipping or fatigue while simultaneously the surface corrodes.

text: Wear is a mechanical material degradation process occurring on rubbing or impacting surfaces, while corrosion involves

text: chemical

text: or

text: electrochemical reaction

text: s of the material. Corrosion may accelerate wear and wear may accelerate corrosion. One then speaks of corrosion accelerated wear or wear accelerated corrosion. Both these phenomena, as well as fretting corrosion (which results from small amplitude oscillations between contacting surfaces) fall into the broader category of tribocorrosion. Erosion-corrosion is another tribocorrosion phenomenon involving mechanical and chemical effects: impacting particles or fluids erode a solid surface by abrasion, chipping or fatigue while simultaneously the surface corrodes.

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of F3 V. The luminosity class 'V' is associated with a category of stars called main sequence, which, like the Sun, are generating energy through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their cores. The outer envelope of this star is radiating 4.2 times the luminosity of the Sun at an effective temperature of about 6,381 K, which gives it the yellow-white hue typical of F-type stars. Theta Cygni is larger than the Sun, with about 38% more mass and a 58% greater radius. The estimated age of this star is probably in the range of 0.6–1.9 billion years.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of F3 V. The

text: luminosity class

text: 'V' is associated with a category of stars called

text: main sequence

text: , which, like the

text: Sun

text: , are generating energy through the

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen at their cores. The outer envelope of this star is radiating 4.2 times the luminosity of the Sun at an

text: effective temperature

text: of about 6,381 K, which gives it the yellow-white hue typical of F-type stars. Theta Cygni is larger than the

text: Sun

text: , with about 38% more mass and a 58% greater radius. The estimated age of this star is probably in the range of 0.6–1.9 billion years.

text: Cygnus also contains several other noteworthy X-ray sources. Cygnus X-3 is a microquasar containing a Wolf–Rayet star in orbit around a very compact object, with a period of only 4.8 hours. The system is one of the most intrinsically luminous X-ray sources observed. Interestingly, the system undergoes periodic outbursts of unknown nature, and during one such outburst, the system was found to be emitting muons, likely caused by neutrinos. While the compact object is thought to be a neutron star or possibly a black hole, it is possible that the object is instead a more exotic stellar remnant, possibly the first discovered quark star, hypothesized due to its production of cosmic rays that cannot be explained if the object is a normal neutron star. The system also emits cosmic rays and gamma rays, and has helped shed insight on to the formation of such rays. Cygnus X-2 is another X-ray binary, containing an A-type giant in orbit around a neutron star with a 9.8 day period. The system is interesting due to the rather small mass of the companion star, as most millisecond pulsars have much more massive companions. Another black hole in Cygnus is V404 Cygni, which consists of a K-type star orbiting around a black hole of around 12 solar masses. The black hole, similar to that of Cygnus X-3, has been hypothesized to be a quark star. 4U 2129+ 47 is another X-ray binary containing a neutron star which undergoes outbursts, as is EXO 2030+ 375.

text: Cygnus also contains several other noteworthy X-ray sources.

text: Cygnus X-3

text: is a

text: microquasar

text: containing a

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: in orbit around a very compact object, with a period of only 4.8 hours. The system is one of the most intrinsically luminous X-ray sources observed. Interestingly, the system undergoes periodic outbursts of unknown nature, and during one such outburst, the system was found to be emitting

text: muon

text: s, likely caused by

text: neutrino

text: s. While the compact object is thought to be a

text: neutron star

text: or possibly a black hole, it is possible that the object is instead a more exotic stellar remnant, possibly the first discovered

text: quark star

text: , hypothesized due to its production of cosmic rays that cannot be explained if the object is a normal neutron star. The system also emits

text: cosmic ray

text: s and

text: gamma ray

text: s, and has helped shed insight on to the formation of such rays.

text: Cygnus X-2

text: is another

text: X-ray binary

text: , containing an A-type giant in orbit around a neutron star with a 9.8 day period. The system is interesting due to the rather small mass of the companion star, as most

text: millisecond pulsar

text: s have much more massive companions. Another black hole in Cygnus is

text: V404 Cygni

text: , which consists of a

text: K-type star

text: orbiting around a black hole of around 12 solar masses. The black hole, similar to that of Cygnus X-3, has been hypothesized to be a quark star.

text: 4U 2129+ 47

text: is another X-ray binary containing a neutron star which undergoes outbursts, as is

text: EXO 2030+ 375

text: The city's population was listed at 55,659 in 2013, including many of the 12,500 students and 5,000 employees of the University of Greifswald. Greifswald draws international attention due to the university, its surrounding BioCon Valley, the Nord Stream gas pipeline and the Wendelstein 7-X nuclear fusion projects.

text: The city's population was listed at 55,659 in 2013, including many of the 12,500 students and 5,000 employees of the

text: University of Greifswald

text: . Greifswald draws international attention due to the university, its surrounding

text: BioCon Valley

text: , the

text: Nord Stream

text: gas pipeline and the

text: Wendelstein 7-X

text: nuclear fusion projects.

text: The next brightest star is Delta Velorum, also a multiple star system and one of the brightest eclipsing binaries in the sky. Together with Kappa Velorum, Iota and Epsilon Carinae, it forms the diamond-shaped asterism known as the False Cross—so called because it is sometimes mistaken for the Southern Cross, causing errors in astronavigation.  Appearing as a white star of magnitude 1.95, Delta is actually a triple or possibly quintuple star system located around 80 light-years from the Solar System. Delta A has a magnitude of 1.99 and is an eclipsing binary composed of two A-type white stars (Delta Aa and Ab) which orbit each other every  45.2 days and lie 0.5 AU from each other, with a resulting drop in magnitude of 0.4 when the dimmer one passes.in front of the brighter. Delta B is a 5.1 magnitude yellow G-class star of similar dimensions to our sun which ranges between 26 and 72 AU away from the brighter pair, taking 142 years to complete a revolution. Further out still, at a distance of 1700 AU, are two red dwarfs of magnitudes 11 and 13. If they are part of the multiple system, they take 28000 years to complete and orbit. Also called Markeb, Kappa appears as a blue-white star of spectral type B2IV-V and magnitude 2.47 but is in fact a spectroscopic binary. The two orbit around each other with a period of 116.65 days, but the size, mass and nature of the companion are as yet unclear.

text: The next brightest star is

text: Delta Velorum

text: , also a multiple star system and one of the brightest eclipsing binaries in the sky. Together with

text: Kappa Velorum

text: Iota

text: and

text: Epsilon Carinae

text: , it forms the diamond-shaped

text: asterism

text: known as the

text: False Cross

text: —so called because it is sometimes mistaken for the

text: Southern Cross

text: , causing errors in

text: astronavigation

text: .  Appearing as a white star of magnitude 1.95, Delta is actually a triple or possibly quintuple star system located around 80 light-years from the

text: Solar System

text: . Delta A has a magnitude of 1.99 and is an

text: eclipsing binary

text: composed of two A-type white stars (Delta Aa and Ab) which orbit each other every  45.2 days and lie 0.5 AU from each other, with a resulting drop in magnitude of 0.4 when the dimmer one passes.in front of the brighter. Delta B is a 5.1 magnitude yellow G-class star of similar dimensions to our sun which ranges between 26 and 72 AU away from the brighter pair, taking 142 years to complete a revolution. Further out still, at a distance of 1700 AU, are two red dwarfs of magnitudes 11 and 13. If they are part of the multiple system, they take 28000 years to complete and orbit. Also called Markeb, Kappa appears as a blue-white star of spectral type B2IV-V and magnitude 2.47 but is in fact a spectroscopic binary. The two orbit around each other with a period of 116.65 days, but the size, mass and nature of the companion are as yet unclear.

text: Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the nuclear force, and neutrons are required for the stability of nuclei. Neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and fusion. They are a primary contributor to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion, and neutron capture processes.

text: Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the

text: nuclear force

text: , and neutrons are required for the stability of nuclei. Neutrons are produced copiously in

text: nuclear fission

text: and

text: fusion

text: . They are a primary contributor to the

text: nucleosynthesis

text: of chemical elements within

text: star

text: s through fission, fusion, and

text: neutron capture

text: processes.

text: The nebula has within its boundaries the large Carina OB1 association and several related open clusters, including numerous O-type stars and several Wolf–Rayet stars.   encompasses the star clusters  and .   is one of the youngest known star clusters at half a million years old.  is the home of , currently the most luminous star known in our Milky Way galaxy, together with the less luminous but more massive and famous Eta Carinae star system and the O2 supergiant .  , , , , and  are also considered members of the association.   is the oldest and furthest from , indicating sequential and ongoing star formation.

text: The nebula has within its boundaries the large

text: Carina OB1

text: association

text: and several related

text: open cluster

text: s, including numerous

text: O-type

text: stars and several

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: s.   encompasses the

text: star cluster

text: s  and .   is one of the youngest known star clusters at half a million years old.  is the home of , currently the

text: most luminous star

text: known in our

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy

text: , together with the less luminous but more massive and famous

text: Eta Carinae

text: star system and the O2 supergiant .  , , , , and  are also considered members of the association.   is the oldest and furthest from , indicating sequential and ongoing star formation.

text: When using superconducting RF cavities in particle accelerators, the field level in the cavity should generally be as high as possible to most efficiently accelerate the beam passing through it.  The Q values described by the above calculations tend to degrade as the fields increase, which is plotted for a given cavity as a "Q vs E" curve, where "E" refers to the accelerating electric field of the TM mode.  Ideally, the cavity Q would remain constant as the accelerating field is increased all the way up to the point of a magnetic quench field, as indicated by the "ideal" dashed line in the plot below.  In reality, though, even a well prepared niobium cavity will have a Q vs E curve that lies beneath the ideal, as shown by the "good cavity" curve in the plot.

text: When using superconducting RF cavities in particle accelerators, the field level in the cavity should generally be as high as possible to most efficiently accelerate the beam passing through it.  The Q values described by the above calculations tend to degrade as the fields increase, which is plotted for a given cavity as a "Q vs E" curve, where "E" refers to the accelerating electric field of the

text: TM

text: mode.  Ideally, the cavity Q would remain constant as the accelerating field is increased all the way up to the point of a magnetic quench field, as indicated by the "ideal" dashed line in the plot below.  In reality, though, even a well prepared niobium cavity will have a Q vs E curve that lies beneath the ideal, as shown by the "good cavity" curve in the plot.

text: The nuclear fusion process works as follows: five billion years ago, the new Sun formed when gravity pulled together a vast cloud of hydrogen and dust, from which the Earth and other planets also arose. The gravitational pull released energy and heated the early Sun, much in the way Helmholtz proposed.

text: The

text: nuclear fusion

text: process works as follows: five billion years ago, the new Sun formed when gravity pulled together a vast cloud of

text: hydrogen

text: and dust, from which the Earth and other planets also arose. The gravitational pull released energy and heated the early Sun, much in the way

text: Helmholtz

text: proposed.

text: Plancius's constellations (mostly referring to animals and subjects described in natural history books and travellers' journals of his day) are Apis the Bee (later changed to Musca by Lacaille), Apus the Bird of Paradise, Chamaeleon, Dorado the Goldfish (or Swordfish), Grus the Crane, Hydrus the Small Water Snake, Indus the Indian, Pavo the Peacock, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe the Southern Triangle, Tucana the Toucan, and Volans the Flying Fish. The acceptance of these new constellations was assured when Johann Bayer, a German astronomer, included them in his Uranometria of 1603, the leading star atlas of its day. These 12 southern constellations are still recognized today by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

text: Plancius's constellations (mostly referring to animals and subjects described in natural history books and travellers' journals of his day) are

text: Apis

text: the Bee (later changed to

text: Musca

text: by

text: Lacaille

text: Apus

text: the Bird of Paradise,

text: Chamaeleon

text: Dorado

text: the Goldfish (or Swordfish),

text: Grus

text: the Crane,

text: Hydrus

text: the Small Water Snake,

text: Indus

text: the Indian,

text: Pavo

text: the Peacock,

text: Phoenix

text: Triangulum Australe

text: the Southern Triangle,

text: Tucana

text: the Toucan, and

text: Volans

text: the Flying Fish. The acceptance of these new

text: constellations

text: was assured when

text: Johann Bayer

text: , a German astronomer, included them in his

text: Uranometria

text: of 1603, the leading

text: star atlas

text: of its day. These 12 southern constellations are still recognized today by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU).

text: Most type II supernova progenitors are thought to be red supergiants, while the less common type Ib/c supernovae are produced by hotter Wolf–Rayet stars that have completely lost more of their hydrogen atmosphere.  Almost by definition, supergiants are destined to end their lives violently.  Stars that are large enough to start fusing elements heavier than helium just do not seem to have any way to lose enough mass to avoid catastrophic core collapse, although some of them may collapse almost without trace into their own central black holes.

text: Most type II

text: supernova

text: progenitors are thought to be red supergiants, while the less common type Ib/c supernovae are produced by hotter Wolf–Rayet stars that have completely lost more of their hydrogen atmosphere.  Almost by definition, supergiants are destined to end their lives violently.  Stars that are large enough to start fusing elements heavier than helium just do not seem to have any way to lose enough mass to avoid catastrophic core collapse, although some of them may collapse almost without trace into their own central black holes.

text: The star that exploded as a supernova is referred to as the supernova's progenitor star. Two types of stars explode as supernovae: white dwarfs and massive stars. In the so-called Type Ia supernovae, gases falling onto a 'dead' white dwarf raise its mass until it nears a critical level, the Chandrasekhar limit, resulting in a runaway nuclear fusion explosion that obliterates the star; in Type Ib/c and Type II supernovae, the progenitor star is a massive star whose core runs out of fuel to power its nuclear fusion reactions and collapses in on itself, releasing gravitational potential energy in a form that blows away the star's outer layers. The presence of a pulsar in the Crab Nebula means that it must have formed in a core-collapse supernova; Type Ia supernovae do not produce pulsars.

text: The star that exploded as a supernova is referred to as the supernova's progenitor star. Two types of stars explode as supernovae:

text: white dwarf

text: s and

text: massive stars

text: . In the so-called

text: Type Ia supernova

text: e, gases falling onto a 'dead' white dwarf raise its mass until it nears a critical level, the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: , resulting in a

text: runaway nuclear fusion explosion

text: that obliterates the star; in

text: Type Ib/c

text: and

text: Type II

text: supernovae, the progenitor star is a massive star whose core runs out of fuel to power its

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions and collapses in on itself, releasing

text: gravitational potential energy

text: in a form that blows away the star's outer layers. The presence of a pulsar in the Crab Nebula means that it must have formed in a core-collapse supernova; Type Ia supernovae do not produce pulsars.

text: U.S. rhetoricians Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson refer to genre as a “constellation of elements." They say, “A genre is a group of acts unified by a constellation of forms that recurs in each of its members.” Genres are formed when examined constituents are similar. The metaphors of genres as “constellations” serves to explain how genres, like constellations of stars, are constructed of individual members, but are under the influence of each other and outside elements. As a result they move together and remain in a similar relation to each other despite their ever-changing positions. According to Campbell and Jamieson, “when a generic claim is made, the critical situation alters significantly because the critic is now arguing that a group of discourses has a synthetic core in which certain significant rhetorical elements, e.g., a system of belief, lines of argument, stylistic choices, and the perception of the situation, are fused into an indivisible whole".

text: U.S. rhetoricians

text: Karlyn Kohrs Campbell

text: and

text: Kathleen Hall Jamieson

text: refer to genre as a “constellation of elements." They say, “A genre is a group of acts unified by a constellation of forms that recurs in each of its members.” Genres are formed when examined constituents are similar. The metaphors of genres as “constellations” serves to explain how genres, like constellations of stars, are constructed of individual members, but are under the influence of each other and outside elements. As a result they move together and remain in a similar relation to each other despite their ever-changing positions. According to Campbell and Jamieson, “when a generic claim is made, the critical situation alters significantly because the critic is now arguing that a group of discourses has a synthetic core in which certain significant rhetorical elements, e.g., a system of belief, lines of argument, stylistic choices, and the perception of the situation, are fused into an indivisible whole".

text: Based at NASA Ames Research Center, Quintana has been a member of the NASA Kepler Mission Team since 2006. She worked as a scientific programmer developing the Kepler pipeline for which she was awarded the NASA Software of the Year in 2010. She was part of the team that discovered the first rocky exoplanet Kepler-10b, the first exoplanet to orbit the habitable zone of another star Kepler-22b and the first Earth-sized exoplanet Kepler-20e. In 2014 she led the team that discovered Kepler-186f, an earth-sized exoplanet orbiting in the habitable zone a red dwarf star which was published in the journal Science. Quintana received the 2015 Scientist of the Year award from Great Minds in STEM for her discovery of Kepler-186f and contribution to science. More recently Quintana has been studying the frequency of giant impacts  on exoplanets and comparing how their frequency compares with Earth.

text: Based at

text: NASA Ames Research Center

text: , Quintana has been a member of the NASA

text: Kepler Mission

text: Team since 2006. She worked as a

text: scientific programmer

text: developing the Kepler pipeline for which she was awarded the NASA Software of the Year in 2010. She was part of the team that discovered the first rocky exoplanet

text: , the first exoplanet to orbit the

text: habitable zone

text: of another star

text: and the first Earth-sized exoplanet

text: . In 2014 she led the team that discovered

text: , an earth-sized exoplanet orbiting in the habitable zone a

text: red dwarf

text: star which was published in the journal

text: Science

text: . Quintana received the 2015 Scientist of the Year award from Great Minds in STEM for her discovery of Kepler-186f and contribution to science. More recently Quintana has been studying the frequency of

text: giant impacts

text: on exoplanets and comparing how their frequency compares with

text: Earth

text: White dwarfs are thought to be the final evolutionary state of stars whose mass is not high enough to become a neutron star, which would include the Sun and over 97% of the other stars in the Milky Way. After the hydrogen-fusing period of a main-sequence star of low or medium mass ends, such a star will expand to a red giant during which it fuses helium to carbon and oxygen in its core by the triple-alpha process. If a red giant has insufficient mass to generate the core temperatures, around 1 billion K, required to fuse carbon, an inert mass of carbon and oxygen will build up at its center. After such a star sheds its outer layers and forms a planetary nebula, it will leave behind this core, which is the remnant white dwarf. Usually, white dwarfs are composed of carbon and oxygen. If the mass of the progenitor is between 8 and 10.5 solar masses (), the core temperature will be sufficient to fuse carbon but not neon, in which case an oxygen–neon–magnesium white dwarf may form. Stars of very low mass will not be able to fuse helium, hence, a helium white dwarf may form by mass loss in binary systems.

text: White dwarfs are thought to be the final

text: evolutionary state

text: of stars whose mass is not high enough to become a

text: neutron star

text: , which would include the

text: Sun

text: and over 97% of the other stars in the

text: Milky Way

text: . After the

text: hydrogen

text: fusing

text: period of a

text: main-sequence star

text: of low or medium mass ends, such a star will expand to a

text: red giant

text: during which it fuses

text: helium

text: to

text: carbon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: in its core by the

text: triple-alpha process

text: . If a red giant has insufficient mass to generate the core temperatures, around 1 billion K, required to fuse

text: carbon

text: , an inert mass of carbon and oxygen will build up at its center. After such a star sheds its outer layers and forms a

text: planetary nebula

text: , it will leave behind this core, which is the remnant white dwarf. Usually, white dwarfs are composed of carbon and oxygen. If the mass of the progenitor is between 8 and 10.5

text: solar mass

text: es (), the core temperature will be sufficient to fuse carbon but not

text: neon

text: , in which case an oxygen–neon–

text: magnesium

text: white dwarf may form. Stars of very low mass will not be able to fuse helium, hence, a

text: helium

text: white dwarf may form by mass loss in binary systems.

text: Only a few million years ago, IC 418 was probably a common red giant star. Since running out of nuclear fuel, though, the outer envelope has begun expanding outward leaving a hot remnant core destined to become a white dwarf star.

text: Only a few million years ago, IC 418 was probably a common red giant star. Since running out of nuclear fuel, though, the outer envelope has begun expanding outward leaving a hot remnant core destined to become a

text: white dwarf

text: star.

text: The ultimate fate of all massive stars is a core collapse and some sort of supernova explosion.  Below about  this is expected to occur as a type II supernova from a red supergiant progenitor.  More massive stars evolve into Wolf Rayet stars before exploding as a type Ib or Ic supernova.  For some intermediate range of masses, stars are thought to undergo core collapse at the yellow hypergiant or LBV stage of their lives, resulting in a type IIb or perhaps IIn supernova.  HR 8752 may be such a star, and may never make it beyond its current evolutionary state before exploding.

text: Good's research interests spanned a broad range of topics in particle physics. He did important work on muon-catalyzed fusion, Kaon regeneration, strange particles, diffraction of particle beams, W boson phenomenology, and particle accelerator technology. Outside of particle physics, he also developed a theory of pulsars as rotating neutron stars.

text: Good's research interests spanned a broad range of topics in

text: particle physics

text: . He did important work on

text: muon-catalyzed fusion

text: Kaon

text: regeneration,

text: strange particles

text: diffraction

text: of particle beams,

text: W boson

text: phenomenology

text: , and

text: particle accelerator

text: technology. Outside of particle physics, he also developed a theory of

text: pulsar

text: s as rotating

text: neutron star

text: s.

text: There are 52 constellations that primarily use Flamsteed designations. Stars are listed in the appropriate lists for the constellation, as follows:

text: VV Corvi is a close spectroscopic binary, its two component stars orbiting each other with a period of 1.46 days. Both are yellow-white main sequence stars of spectral type F5V, though the primary has begun expanding and cooling as it nears the end of its time on the main sequence. The mass ratio of the two stars is 0.775±0.024. A tertiary companion was discovered during the Two Micron All-Sky Survey. W Corvi is an eclipsing binary that varies in brightness from apparent magnitude 11.16 to 12.5 over 9 hours.  Its period has increased by 1/4 second over a century. It is an unusual system in that its two stars are very close to each other yet have different surface temperatures and hence thermal transfer is not taking place as expected. SX Corvi is an eclipsing binary that is also a contact binary also known as a W Ursae Majoris variable. The two component stars orbit closely enough to each other for mass to have been transferred between them—in this case the secondary having transferred a large amount of mass to the primary. RV Corvi is another eclipsing binary. Its brightness varies from apparent magnitude 8.6 to 9.16 over 18 hours. The system is composed of stars of spectral types F0 and G0, which orbit each other every 0.7473 days.

text: VV Corvi

text: is a close

text: spectroscopic binary

text: , its two component stars orbiting each other with a

text: period

text: of 1.46 days. Both are yellow-white main sequence stars of spectral type F5V, though the primary has begun expanding and cooling as it nears the end of its time on the main sequence. The mass ratio of the two stars is 0.775±0.024. A tertiary companion was discovered during the

text: Two Micron All-Sky Survey

text: W Corvi

text: is an eclipsing binary that varies in brightness from apparent magnitude 11.16 to 12.5 over 9 hours.  Its period has increased by 1/4 second over a century. It is an unusual system in that its two stars are very close to each other yet have different surface temperatures and hence thermal transfer is not taking place as expected.

text: SX Corvi

text: is an eclipsing binary that is also a contact binary also known as a

text: W Ursae Majoris variable

text: . The two component stars orbit closely enough to each other for mass to have been transferred between them—in this case the secondary having transferred a large amount of mass to the primary.

text: RV Corvi

text: is another eclipsing binary. Its brightness varies from apparent magnitude 8.6 to 9.16 over 18 hours. The system is composed of stars of spectral types F0 and G0, which orbit each other every 0.7473 days.

text: Processes, collectively known as particle acceleration, produce populations of relativistic and non-thermal particles that give rise to synchrotron and inverse-Compton radiation. Fermi acceleration is one plausible particle acceleration process in radio-loud active galaxies.

text: Processes, collectively known as particle acceleration, produce populations of relativistic and non-thermal particles that give rise to synchrotron and inverse-Compton radiation.

text: Fermi acceleration

text: is one plausible particle acceleration process in radio-loud active galaxies.

text: Although no star systems in Telescopium have confirmed planets, several have been found to have brown dwarf companions. A member of the 12-million-year-old Beta Pictoris moving group of stars that share a common proper motion through space, Eta Telescopii is a young white main sequence star of magnitude 5.0 and spectral type A0V. It has a debris disk and brown dwarf companion of spectral type M7V or M8V that is between 20 and 50 times as massive as Jupiter. The system is complex, as it has a common proper motion with (and is gravitationally bound to) the star HD 181327, which has its own debris disk. This latter star is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F6V of magnitude 7.0. PZ Telescopii is another young star with a debris disk and substellar brown dwarf companion, though at 24 million years of age appears too old to be part of the Beta Pictoris moving group. HD 191760 is a yellow subgiant—a star that is cooling and expanding off the main sequence—of spectral type G3IV/V. Estimated to be just over four billion years old, it is slightly (1.1 to 1.3 times) more massive as the Sun, 2.69 times as luminous, and has around 1.62 times its radius. Using the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) instrument on the ESO 3.6 m Telescope, it was found to have a brown dwarf around 38 times as massive as Jupiter orbiting at an average distance of 1.35 AU with a period of 505 days. This is an unusually close distance from the star, within a range that has been termed the brown-dwarf desert.

text: Although no star systems in Telescopium have confirmed planets, several have been found to have

text: brown dwarf

text: companions. A member of the 12-million-year-old

text: Beta Pictoris moving group

text: of stars that share a

text: common proper motion

text: through space,

text: Eta Telescopii

text: is a young

text: white main sequence star

text: of magnitude 5.0 and spectral type A0V. It has a

text: debris disk

text: and brown dwarf companion of spectral type M7V or M8V that is between 20 and 50 times as massive as Jupiter. The system is complex, as it has a common proper motion with (and is gravitationally bound to) the star

text: HD 181327

text: , which has its own debris disk. This latter star is a

text: yellow-white main sequence star

text: of spectral type F6V of magnitude 7.0.

text: PZ Telescopii

text: is another young star with a debris disk and substellar brown dwarf companion, though at 24 million years of age appears too old to be part of the Beta Pictoris moving group.

text: HD 191760

text: is a yellow subgiant—a star that is cooling and expanding off the

text: main sequence

text: —of spectral type G3IV/V. Estimated to be just over four billion years old, it is slightly (1.1 to 1.3 times) more massive as the Sun, 2.69 times as luminous, and has around 1.62 times its radius. Using the

text: (HARPS) instrument on the

text: ESO 3.6 m Telescope

text: , it was found to have a brown dwarf around 38 times as massive as Jupiter orbiting at an average distance of 1.35 AU with a period of 505 days. This is an unusually close distance from the star, within a range that has been termed the

text: brown-dwarf desert

text: Multiple star systems or physical multiple stars are systems of more than two stars. Various multiple star systems may be called triple if they contain three stars; quadruple if they contain four stars, quintuple for five stars, and so on. These systems are smaller than open star clusters, which have more complex dynamics and typically have from 100 to 1,000 stars.

text: Multiple star systems

text: or physical multiple stars are systems of more than two stars. Various multiple star systems may be called triple if they contain three stars; quadruple if they contain four stars, quintuple for five stars, and so on. These systems are smaller than

text: open star cluster

text: s, which have more complex dynamics and typically have from 100 to 1,000 stars.

text: The star is currently tentatively classified as a rotating ellipsoidal variable, varying between magnitudes 4.98 and 5.09. Rotating ellipsoidal variables are binary systems in which the constituent components are distorted into ellipses due to fast rotation rates, and as the two stars orbit each other, the surface area of the star facing Earth changes, causing variations in brightness. However, the actual cause of the variability, and even whether or not there is a companion, is uncertain. No companion has ever been directly detected, but its existence has been inferred from spectral line variations in the primary O-type star. A period of 5.1 days has been assigned for the orbit of the binary, which is approximately the same as the rotation period of the star. Unlike typical rotating ellipsoidal variables, there is no clearly defined period in the variations in brightness. Data derived from the assumption of a binary system, for example the mass, are highly uncertain due to the lack of information about the inclination or eccentricity of the orbit, or even whether there is a companion.

text: The star is currently tentatively classified as a

text: rotating ellipsoidal variable

text: , varying between magnitudes 4.98 and 5.09. Rotating ellipsoidal variables are binary systems in which the constituent components are distorted into ellipses due to fast rotation rates, and as the two stars orbit each other, the surface area of the star facing Earth changes, causing variations in brightness. However, the actual cause of the variability, and even whether or not there is a companion, is uncertain. No companion has ever been directly detected, but its existence has been inferred from spectral line variations in the primary O-type star. A period of 5.1 days has been assigned for the orbit of the binary, which is approximately the same as the rotation period of the star. Unlike typical rotating ellipsoidal variables, there is no clearly defined period in the variations in brightness. Data derived from the assumption of a binary system, for example the mass, are highly uncertain due to the lack of information about the inclination or eccentricity of the orbit, or even whether there is a companion.

text: Compared to the Sun, the primary is an enormous star with more than 11 times the mass and 5–6 times the radius. It is rotating rapidly with a projected rotational velocity of . The companion has about 94% the mass of the Sun, although it is unknown whether this is a main sequence star, a neutron star, or a white dwarf. If it is a main sequence star, then the mass indicates it may have a stellar classification of G4.

text: Compared to the Sun, the primary is an enormous star with more than 11 times the mass and 5–6 times the radius. It is rotating rapidly with a

text: projected rotational velocity

text: of . The companion has about 94% the mass of the Sun, although it is unknown whether this is a

text: main sequence

text: star, a

text: neutron star

text: , or a

text: white dwarf

text: . If it is a main sequence star, then the mass indicates it may have a

text: stellar classification

text: of G4.

text: The stars and constellations that are circumpolar depends on your latitude. In the northern hemisphere, viewers will always be able to see certain stars and constellations in the northern circumpolar sky, while same holds true for the southern hemisphere with respect to certain stars and constellations in the southern circumpolar sky. The celestial north pole, currently marked by Polaris, always has an azimuth equal to zero. Its altitude for a given latitude Ø is fixed and its value is given by the following formula: A = 90° - Ø. All stars with a declination less than A are not circumpolar.

text: The stars and constellations that are circumpolar depends on your

text: latitude

text: . In the northern hemisphere, viewers will always be able to see certain stars and constellations in the northern circumpolar sky, while same holds true for the southern hemisphere with respect to certain stars and constellations in the southern circumpolar sky. The

text: celestial north pole

text: , currently marked by

text: Polaris

text: , always has an

text: azimuth

text: equal to zero. Its

text: altitude

text: for a given latitude Ø is fixed and its value is given by the following formula: A = 90° - Ø. All stars with a

text: declination

text: less than A are not circumpolar.

text: R136 is thought to be less than 2 million years old.  None of the member stars is significantly evolved and none is thought to have exploded as supernova.  The brightest stars are WNh, O supergiants, and OIf/WN slash stars, all extremely massive fully convective stars.  There are no red supergiants, blue hypergiants, or luminous blue variables within the cluster.  A small number of class B stars have been detected in the outskirts of the cluster, but less massive and less luminous stars cannot be resolved from the dense cluster core at the large distance of the LMC.

text: R136 is thought to be less than 2 million years old.  None of the member stars is significantly evolved and none is thought to have exploded as supernova.  The brightest stars are WNh, O supergiants, and OIf/WN

text: slash star

text: s, all extremely massive fully convective stars.  There are no red supergiants, blue hypergiants, or luminous blue variables within the cluster.  A small number of class B stars have been detected in the outskirts of the cluster, but less massive and less luminous stars cannot be resolved from the dense cluster core at the large distance of the LMC.

text: Xi Aurigae (ξ Aur, ξ Aurigae) is the Bayer designation for a star in the northern constellation of Auriga. This star was once considered part of the constellation of Camelopardalis and held the Flamsteed designation 32 Camelopardalis. It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of +5.0. The measured annual parallax shift of this star is , which corresponds to a physical distance of  with a 5 light-year margin of error. This is an A-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of A2 V.

text: Xi Aurigae (ξ Aur, ξ Aurigae) is the

text: Bayer designation

text: for a

text: star

text: in the northern

text: constellation

text: of

text: Auriga

text: . This star was once considered part of the constellation of

text: Camelopardalis

text: and held the

text: Flamsteed designation

text: 32 Camelopardalis. It is visible to the naked eye with an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of +5.0. The measured annual

text: parallax

text: shift of this star is , which corresponds to a physical distance of  with a 5 light-year

text: margin of error

text: . This is an

text: A-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of A2 V.

text: This is an orange K-type giant with an apparent magnitude of +3.57. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. There is an optical companion, an eleventh magnitude star, located 42 arcseconds away.

text: This is an orange

text: K-type

text: giant

text: with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +3.57. Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. There is an optical companion, an eleventh magnitude star, located 42

text: arcsecond

text: s away.

text: The nuclear fusion project International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor is constructing the world's largest and most advanced experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor in the south of France. A collaboration between the European Union (EU), India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea and the United States, the project aims to make a transition from experimental studies of plasma physics to electricity-producing fusion power plants. In 2005, Greenpeace International issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups, Sortir du nucléaire (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy deuterium and tritium hydrogen isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream".  The World Nuclear Association says that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges". Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated.

text: The nuclear fusion project

text: International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

text: is constructing the world's largest and most advanced experimental

text: tokamak

text: nuclear fusion reactor

text: in the south of

text: France

text: . A collaboration between the

text: European Union

text: (EU),

text: India

text: Japan

text: China

text: Russia

text: South Korea

text: and the

text: United States

text: , the project aims to make a transition from experimental studies of

text: plasma

text: physics to electricity-producing

text: fusion power

text: plants. In 2005,

text: Greenpeace International

text: issued a press statement criticizing government funding of the ITER, believing the money should have been diverted to renewable energy sources and claiming that fusion energy would result in nuclear waste and nuclear weapons proliferation issues. A French association including about 700 anti-nuclear groups,

text: Sortir du nucléaire

text: (Get Out of Nuclear Energy), claimed that ITER was a hazard because scientists did not yet know how to manipulate the high-energy deuterium and tritium

text: hydrogen

text: isotopes used in the fusion process. According to most anti-nuclear groups, nuclear fusion power "remains a distant dream".  The

text: World Nuclear Association

text: says that fusion "presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering challenges". Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated.

text: The Greek All Star Game was held for the first time on December 31, 1991, and in that first game, "The Rest of the World All Stars" defeated "The Greek All Stars", by a score of 133-122. Over the next seven all star games, the format was "The European All Stars" versus "The American All Stars". From 2001 until now, the format has been the same as the original all star game was, The Greek All Stars versus The Rest of the World All Stars. Also, since 2001, the Greek All-Star Game is held annually in various cities in Greece, which is in contrast to the early years of the all star game, when most of the games were held at either the Peace and Friendship Stadium or Nikos Galis Olympic Indoor Hall arenas in Athens.

text: The Greek All Star Game was held for the first time on December 31, 1991, and in that first game, "The Rest of the World All Stars" defeated "The Greek All Stars", by a score of 133-122. Over the next seven all star games, the format was "The European All Stars" versus "The American All Stars". From 2001 until now, the format has been the same as the original all star game was, The Greek All Stars versus The Rest of the World All Stars. Also, since 2001, the Greek All-Star Game is held annually in various cities in Greece, which is in contrast to the early years of the all star game, when most of the games were held at either the

text: Peace and Friendship Stadium

text: or

text: Nikos Galis Olympic Indoor Hall

text: arenas in Athens.

text: Bayer  catalogued what he counted as 23 stars in the constellation, giving them the Bayer designations Alpha to Psi. He saw Pi Pegasi as one star, and was uncertain of its brightness, wavering between magnitude 4 and 5. Flamsteed labelled this star 29 Pegasi, but Bode concluded that the stars 27 and 29 Pegasi should be Pi and Pi Pegasi and that Bayer had seen them as a single star. Flamsteed added lower case letters e through to y, omitting A to D as they had been used on Bayer's chart to designate neighbouring constellations and the equator. He numbered 89 stars (now with Flamsteed designations), though 6 and 11 turned out to be stars in Aquarius. Within the constellation's borders there are 177 stars of apparent magnitude 6.5 or greater.

text: Bayer  catalogued what he counted as 23 stars in the constellation, giving them the

text: Bayer designation

text: s Alpha to Psi. He saw

text: Pi Pegasi

text: as one star, and was uncertain of its brightness, wavering between magnitude 4 and 5. Flamsteed labelled this star 29 Pegasi, but Bode concluded that the stars 27 and 29 Pegasi should be

text: Pi

text: and

text: Pi Pegasi

text: and that Bayer had seen them as a single star. Flamsteed added lower case letters e through to y, omitting A to D as they had been used on Bayer's chart to designate neighbouring constellations and the equator. He numbered 89 stars (now with Flamsteed designations), though 6 and 11 turned out to be stars in Aquarius. Within the constellation's borders there are 177 stars of

text: apparent magnitude

text: 6.5 or greater.

text: When the core's mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about , degeneracy pressure can no longer support it, and catastrophic collapse ensues. The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70,000 km/s (23% of the speed of light) as it collapses toward the center of the star. The rapidly shrinking core heats up, producing high-energy gamma rays that decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free neutrons via photodisintegration. As the core's density increases, it becomes energetically favorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay, producing neutrons and elementary particles called neutrinos. Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter, they can escape from the core, carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse, which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds. As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star, some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star's outer layers, beginning the supernova explosion.

text: When the core's mass exceeds the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: of about , degeneracy pressure can no longer support it, and catastrophic collapse ensues. The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70,000 km/s (23% of the

text: speed of light

text: ) as it collapses toward the center of the star. The rapidly shrinking core heats up, producing high-energy

text: gamma rays

text: that decompose iron

text: nuclei

text: into helium nuclei and free

text: neutron

text: s via

text: photodisintegration

text: . As the core's

text: density

text: increases, it becomes energetically favorable for

text: electron

text: s and

text: proton

text: s to merge via inverse

text: beta decay

text: , producing neutrons and

text: elementary particle

text: s called

text: neutrino

text: s. Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter, they can escape from the core, carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse, which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds. As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star, some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star's outer layers, beginning the supernova explosion.

text: 19 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.05.

text: 19 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.05.

text: One of the most interesting problems is that of star formation. It is known that stars form out of the Interstellar Medium and that this mostly occurs in Giant Molecular Clouds such as the Rosette Nebula for example. It has been known for a long time that an interstellar cloud can collapse due to its self-gravity if it is large enough, but in the ordinary interstellar medium, this can only happen if the cloud has a mass of several thousand solar masses - much larger than that of any star. There must therefore be some process that fragments the cloud into smaller high density clouds whose masses are in the same range as that of stars. Self-gravity cannot do this, but it turns out that there are processes that do this if the magnetic pressure is much larger than the thermal pressure, as it is in Giant Molecular Clouds. These processes rely on the interaction of magnetohydrodynamic waves with a thermal instability. A magnetohydrodynamic wave in a medium in which the magnetic pressure is much larger than the thermal pressure can produce dense regions, but they cannot by themselves make the density high enough for self-gravity to act. However, the gas in star forming regions is heated by cosmic rays and is cooled by radiative processes. The net result is that gas in a thermal equilibrium state in which heating balances cooling can exist in three different phases at the same pressure: a warm phase with a low density, an unstable phase with intermediate density and a cold phase at low temperature. An increase in pressure, due to a supernova or a spiral density wave can flip the gas from the warm phase into the unstable phase and a Magnetohydrodynamic wave can then produce dense fragments in the cold phase whose self-gravity is strong enough for them to collapse to form stars .

text: The term "protogalaxy" itself is generally accepted to mean "Progenitors of the present day (normal) galaxies, in the early stages of formation." However, the "early stages of formation" is not a clearly defined phrase. It could be defined as: "The first major burst of star formation in a progenitor of a present day elliptical galaxy"; "The peak merging epoch of dark halos of the fragments which assemble to produce an average galaxy today"; "A still gaseous body before any star formation has taken place."; or " an over-dense region of dark matter in the very early universe, destined to become gravitationally bound and to collapse."

text: The term "protogalaxy" itself is generally accepted to mean "Progenitors of the present day (normal) galaxies, in the early stages of formation." However, the "early stages of formation" is not a clearly defined phrase. It could be defined as: "The first major burst of

text: star formation

text: in a progenitor of a present day elliptical galaxy"; "The peak merging

text: epoch

text: of

text: dark halo

text: s of the fragments which assemble to produce an average galaxy today"; "A still gaseous body before any star formation has taken place."; or " an over-dense region of

text: dark matter

text: in the very

text: early universe

text: , destined to become

text: gravitationally bound

text: and to collapse."

text: Prior to the merger, the Honolulu Advertiser published in broadsheet format while the Honolulu Star-Bulletin published in tabloid format. The Star-Advertiser uses the Advertisers broadsheet format, while using a modified Star-Bulletin masthead (with the name "Advertiser" replacing "Bulletin" in the masthead's blackletter font).

text: Prior to the merger, the

text: Honolulu Advertiser

text: published in

text: broadsheet

text: format while the

text: Honolulu Star-Bulletin

text: published in

text: tabloid

text: format. The Star-Advertiser uses the Advertisers broadsheet format, while using a modified Star-Bulletin masthead (with the name "Advertiser" replacing "Bulletin" in the

text: masthead

text: 's

text: blackletter

text: font).

text: The shining star in constellation represent the size of territory of the state in the Brazilian region (constellation).

text: Circle of Friends is a Lifetime Movie starring Julie Benz that aired on 28 August 2006.

text: Circle of Friends is a

text: Lifetime

text: Movie starring

text: Julie Benz

text: that aired on 28 August 2006.

text: A nuclear explosion is an explosion that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed nuclear reaction. The driving reaction may be nuclear fission, nuclear fusion or a multistage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a pure fusion weapon remains a hypothetical device.

text: A nuclear explosion is an

text: explosion

text: that occurs as a result of the rapid release of energy from a high-speed

text: nuclear reaction

text: . The driving reaction may be

text: nuclear fission

text: nuclear fusion

text: or a multistage cascading combination of the two, though to date all fusion based weapons have used a fission device to initiate fusion, and a

text: pure fusion weapon

text: remains a hypothetical device.

text: A proposed new type of telescope is one that detects gravitational waves; ripples in space-time generated by colliding neutron stars and black holes.

text: A proposed new type of telescope is one that detects

text: gravitational wave

text: s; ripples in

text: space-time

text: generated by colliding

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s.

text: Based upon a stellar classification of G6 III, this is a G-type giant star. It is a core helium fusing star that is classified as a member of the red clump evolutionary branch, although the metallicity of this star—meaning the abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium—is anomalously low for a member of this group. The effective temperature of the star's outer envelope is 5,050 K, giving it the yellow-hued glow typical of G-type stars.

text: Based upon a

text: stellar classification

text: of G6 III, this is a

text: G-type

text: giant star

text: . It is a core

text: helium fusing

text: star that is classified as a member of the

text: red clump

text: evolutionary

text: branch, although the

text: metallicity

text: of this star—meaning the abundance of elements other than hydrogen and helium—is anomalously low for a member of this group. The

text: effective temperature

text: of the star's

text: outer envelope

text: is 5,050 K, giving it the yellow-hued glow typical of G-type stars.

text: Since these bombings, no nuclear weapons have been deployed offensively. Nevertheless, they prompted an arms race to develop increasingly destructive bombs to provide a nuclear deterrent. Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first fission weapon. The United Kingdom followed on October 2, 1952; France, on February 13, 1960; and China component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from Hiroshima and Nagasaki died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure. A radiological weapons is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas. Such a weapon would not have the explosive capability of a fission or fusion bomb, but would kill many people and contaminate a large area. A radiological weapon has never been deployed. While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over nuclear terrorism.

text: Since

entity_name: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text: these bombings

text: , no nuclear weapons have been deployed offensively. Nevertheless, they prompted an

text: arms race

text: to develop increasingly destructive bombs to provide a

text: nuclear deterrent

text: . Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the

text: Soviet Union

text: detonated its

text: first fission weapon

text: . The

text: United Kingdom

text: followed on October 2, 1952;

text: France

text: , on February 13, 1960; and

text: China

text: component to a nuclear weapon. Approximately half of the deaths from

text: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text: died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure. A

text: radiological weapons

text: is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas. Such a weapon would not have the explosive capability of a fission or fusion bomb, but would kill many people and contaminate a large area. A radiological weapon has never been deployed. While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over

text: nuclear terrorism

text: The 61st National Hockey League All-Star Game was held in Nashville, Tennessee at Bridgestone Arena, home of the Nashville Predators, on January 31, 2016. The All-Star Game adopted a new, three-on-three tournament format; there were three 20-minute games, with four All-Star teams based on the league's four divisions. The Atlantic Division All-Stars faced the Metropolitan Division All-Stars, while the Central Division All-Stars played against the Pacific Division All-Stars. The winners of these two games then met in an All-Star Game Final. Had a tie remained after 20 minutes, then it would have immediately gone to a shootout to determine the winner; there would be no standard overtime. The Pacific Division All-Stars, led by fan-voted captain and MVP John Scott, won the tournament, beating the Atlantic All-Stars in the finals

text: The 61st

text: National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: was held in

text: Nashville, Tennessee

text: at

text: Bridgestone Arena

text: , home of the

text: Nashville Predators

text: , on January 31, 2016. The All-Star Game adopted a new, three-on-three tournament format; there were three 20-minute games, with four All-Star teams based on the league's four divisions. The Atlantic Division All-Stars faced the Metropolitan Division All-Stars, while the Central Division All-Stars played against the Pacific Division All-Stars. The winners of these two games then met in an All-Star Game Final. Had a tie remained after 20 minutes, then it would have immediately gone to a shootout to determine the winner; there would be no standard overtime. The Pacific Division All-Stars, led by fan-voted captain and MVP

text: John Scott

text: , won the tournament, beating the Atlantic All-Stars in the finals

text: Stellar black holes have much greater densities than supermassive black holes. If one accumulates matter at nuclear density (the density of the nucleus of an atom, about 10 kg/m; neutron stars also reach this density), such an accumulation would fall within its own Schwarzschild radius at about  and thus would be a stellar black hole.

text: Stellar black holes have much greater densities than supermassive black holes. If one accumulates matter at

text: nuclear density

text: (the density of the nucleus of an atom, about 10

text: kg/m

text: neutron star

text: s also reach this density), such an accumulation would fall within its own Schwarzschild radius at about  and thus would be a

text: stellar black hole

text: Big bang nucleosynthesis tells us that the early universe consisted of only the light elements, and so one expects the first stars to be composed of hydrogen, helium, and lithium, the three lightest elements. Stellar structure and the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram indicate that the length of the lifetime of a star depends greatly on its initial mass, so that massive stars are very short-lived, and less massive stars are longer-lived. BFH argues that as a star dies, it will enrich the interstellar medium with 'heavy elements' (in this case all elements heavier than lithium, the third element), from which newer stars are formed. This account is consistent with the observed negative correlation between stellar metallicity and red shift.

text: Big bang nucleosynthesis

text: tells us that the early universe consisted of only the light elements, and so one expects the first stars to be composed of

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: , and

text: lithium

text: , the three lightest elements.

text: Stellar structure

text: and the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: indicate that the length of the lifetime of a star depends greatly on its initial mass, so that massive stars are very short-lived, and less massive stars are longer-lived. BFH argues that as a star dies, it will enrich the

text: interstellar medium

text: with 'heavy elements' (in this case all elements heavier than lithium, the third element), from which newer stars are formed. This account is consistent with the observed negative correlation between stellar metallicity and red shift.

text: Thus, light elements undergoing nuclear fusion and heavy elements undergoing nuclear fission release energy as their nucleons bind more tightly, and the resulting nuclei approach the maximum total energy per nucleon, which occurs at Ni. However, during nucleosynthesis in stars the competition between photodisintegration and alpha capturing causes more Ni to be produced than Ni (Fe is produced later in the star's ejection shell as Ni decays). This means that as the Universe ages, more matter is converted into extremely tightly bound nuclei, such as Fe. This progression of matter towards iron and nickel is one of the phenomena responsible for the heat death of the universe.

text: Thus, light elements undergoing

text: nuclear fusion

text: and heavy elements undergoing

text: nuclear fission

text: release energy as their nucleons bind more tightly, and the resulting nuclei approach the maximum total energy per nucleon, which occurs at Ni. However, during

text: nucleosynthesis

text: in stars the competition between

text: photodisintegration

text: and

text: alpha capturing

text: causes more

text: Ni

text: to be produced than Ni (Fe is produced later in the star's ejection shell as Ni decays). This means that as the

text: Universe

text: ages, more matter is converted into extremely tightly bound nuclei, such as Fe. This progression of matter towards iron and nickel is one of the phenomena responsible for the

text: heat death of the universe

text: Danfysik is a Danish developer and manufacturer of particle accelerators for scientific research and medical usage, specialized magnets and particle accelerator power supplies.

text: Danfysik is a

text: Danish

text: developer and manufacturer of particle accelerators for scientific research and medical usage, specialized magnets and particle accelerator power supplies.

text: A G-type main-sequence star will fuse hydrogen for approximately 10 billion years, until it is exhausted at the center of the star. When this happens, the star expands to many times its previous size and becomes a red giant, such as Aldebaran (or Alpha Tauri).  Eventually the red giant sheds its outer layers of gas, which become a planetary nebula, while the core rapidly cools and contracts into a compact, dense white dwarf.

text: A G-type main-sequence star will fuse hydrogen for approximately 10 billion years, until it is exhausted at the center of the star. When this happens, the star expands to many times its previous size and becomes a

text: red giant

text: , such as

text: Aldebaran

text: (or Alpha Tauri).  Eventually the red giant sheds its outer layers of gas, which become a

text: planetary nebula

text: , while the core rapidly cools and contracts into a compact, dense white dwarf.

text: The unusual shape of the Cartwheel Galaxy may be due to a collision with a smaller galaxy such as those in the lower left of the image. The most recent star burst (star formation due to compression waves) has lit up the Cartwheel rim, which has a diameter larger than the Milky Way. Star formation via starburst galaxies, such as the Cartwheel Galaxy, results in the formation of large and extremely luminous stars. When massive stars explode as supernovas, they leave behind neutron stars and black holes. Some of these neutron stars and black holes have nearby companion stars, and become powerful sources of X-rays as they pull matter off their companions (also known as ultra and hyperluminous X-ray sources). The brightest X-ray sources are likely black holes with companion stars, and appear as the white dots that lie along the rim of the X-ray image. The Cartwheel contains an exceptionally large number of these black hole binary X-ray sources, because many massive stars formed in the ring.

text: The unusual shape of the Cartwheel Galaxy may be due to a collision with a smaller galaxy such as those in the lower left of the image. The most recent star burst (star formation due to compression waves) has lit up the Cartwheel rim, which has a diameter larger than the Milky Way. Star formation via

text: starburst galaxies

text: , such as the Cartwheel Galaxy, results in the formation of large and extremely luminous stars. When massive stars explode as supernovas, they leave behind neutron stars and black holes. Some of these neutron stars and black holes have nearby companion stars, and become powerful sources of X-rays as they pull matter off their companions (also known as ultra and hyperluminous X-ray sources). The brightest X-ray sources are likely black holes with companion stars, and appear as the white dots that lie along the rim of the X-ray image. The Cartwheel contains an exceptionally large number of these black hole binary X-ray sources, because many massive stars formed in the ring.

text: Omicron Canis Majoris (ο CMa, ο Canis Majoris) is a red supergiant star in the constellation Canis Major.  It is a variable star in the constellation of Canis Major.

text: Omicron Canis Majoris (ο CMa, ο Canis Majoris) is a

text: red supergiant

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Canis Major

text: .  It is a

text: variable star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Canis Major

text: In the Star Press issue of September 7, 2006, Michelle Kinsey had interviewed Nielsen, who had stated that "If It Takes a Lifetime" was the song he looked forward to the most during a Cheap Trick concert.

text: The entrance to the ride was decorated with shooting stars/comets. The Black Hole tunnel was added over a hilly portion of the track in 1990, and was meant to add to the space theme of the ride.

text: Some neutron stars are inferred to be traveling with similar speeds. This could be related to HVSs and the HVS ejection mechanism. Neutron stars are the remnants of supernova explosions, and their extreme speeds are very likely the result of an asymmetric supernova explosion or the loss of their near partner during the supernova explosions that forms them. The neutron star RX J0822-4300, which was measured to move at a record speed of over 1500 km/s (0.5% c) in 2007 by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, is thought to have been produced the first way.

text: Some

text: neutron star

text: s are inferred to be traveling with similar speeds. This could be related to HVSs and the HVS ejection mechanism. Neutron stars are the remnants of

text: supernova

text: explosions, and their extreme speeds are very likely the result of an asymmetric

text: supernova

text: explosion or the loss of their near partner during the supernova explosions that forms them. The neutron star

text: RX J0822-4300

text: , which was measured to move at a record speed of over 1500 km/s (0.5% c) in 2007 by the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: , is thought to have been produced the first way.

text: Likewise, in Red Dwarf, characters use a series of minced oaths regularly. Two such are used moderately, 'Gimboid' and 'goit' are derivations of 'gimp' and 'git' respectively (although "git" is frequently used also), but the final is a series trademark, 'smeg'. Although it is said to have derived from 'smegma', the show's writers have said it is just a coincidence, as its similarity to the label of an Italian white-goods manufacturer. In any case, it has evolved into a word almost entirely specific to the Red Dwarf universe and numerous alterations were used in the show, such as: 'smeg-head', 'smeg-for-brains', 'smegging', etc.

text: Likewise, in

text: Red Dwarf

text: , characters use a series of minced oaths regularly. Two such are used moderately, 'Gimboid' and 'goit' are derivations of 'gimp' and 'git' respectively (although "git" is frequently used also), but the final is a series trademark, 'smeg'. Although it is said to have derived from 'smegma', the show's writers have said it is just a coincidence, as its similarity to the label of an Italian white-goods manufacturer. In any case, it has evolved into a word almost entirely specific to the Red Dwarf universe and numerous alterations were used in the show, such as: 'smeg-head', 'smeg-for-brains', 'smegging', etc.

text: In France, the rating is defined by the public tourist board of the department using a four-star system (plus "L" for Luxus) which has changed to a five-star system from 2009 on. In South Africa, the Tourist Grading Council of South Africa has strict rules for a hotel types granting up to 5 stars. In India, the classification of hotels is based on two categories such as “Star” and “Heritage”. Hotels in India are classified by Hotel and Restaurant Association Classification Committee (HRACC), Ministry of Tourism, India. In New Zealand, hotels and other tourism services are graded by Qualmark, which is owned by Tourism New Zealand, a government organisation.

text: In France, the rating is defined by the public tourist board of the department using a four-star system (plus "L" for Luxus) which has changed to a five-star system from 2009 on. In South Africa, the

text: Tourist Grading Council of South Africa

text: has strict rules for a hotel types granting up to 5 stars. In India, the classification of hotels is based on two categories such as “Star” and “Heritage”. Hotels in India are classified by Hotel and Restaurant Association Classification Committee (HRACC), Ministry of Tourism, India. In New Zealand, hotels and other tourism services are graded by Qualmark, which is owned by

text: Tourism New Zealand

text: , a government organisation.

text: Bondi pointed out that a negative mass will fall toward (and not away from) "normal" matter, since although the gravitational force is repulsive, the negative mass (according to Newton's law, F=ma) responds by accelerating in the opposite of the direction of the force. Normal mass, on the other hand, will fall away from the negative matter. He noted that two identical masses, one positive and one negative, placed near each other will therefore self-accelerate in the direction of the line between them, with the negative mass chasing after the positive mass. Notice that because the negative mass acquires negative kinetic energy, the total energy of the accelerating masses remains at zero. Forward pointed out that the self-acceleration effect is due to the negative inertial mass, and could be seen induced without the gravitational forces between the particles.

text: Bondi pointed out that a negative mass will fall toward (and not away from) "normal" matter, since although the gravitational force is repulsive, the negative mass (according to Newton's law, F=ma) responds by accelerating in the opposite of the direction of the force. Normal mass, on the other hand, will fall away from the negative matter. He noted that two identical masses, one positive and one negative, placed near each other will therefore self-accelerate in the direction of the line between them, with the negative mass chasing after the positive mass. Notice that because the negative mass acquires negative

text: kinetic energy

text: , the total energy of the accelerating masses remains at zero. Forward pointed out that the self-acceleration effect is due to the negative inertial mass, and could be seen induced without the gravitational forces between the particles.

text: In 1999, Whitaker received the Young Artist Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award at the 20th Youth in Film Awards.

text: In 1999, Whitaker received the

entity_name: Young Artist Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award

text: Young Artist Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award

text: at the

text: 20th Youth in Film Awards

text: Y Lyncis is a popular target among amateur astronomers, as it is a semiregular variable ranging in brightness from magnitude 6.2 to 8.9. These shifts in brightness are complex, with a shorter period of 110 days due to the star's pulsations, and a longer period of 1400 days possibly due to the star's rotation or regular cycles in its convection. A red supergiant, it has an estimated diameter around 580 times that of the Sun, is around 1.5 to 2 times as massive, and has a luminosity around 25,000 times that of the Sun. 1 Lyncis and UX Lyncis are red giants that are also semiregular variables with complex fluctuations in brightness.

text: Y Lyncis

text: is a popular target among amateur astronomers, as it is a

text: semiregular variable

text: ranging in brightness from magnitude 6.2 to 8.9. These shifts in brightness are complex, with a shorter period of 110 days due to the star's pulsations, and a longer period of 1400 days possibly due to the star's rotation or regular cycles in its

text: convection

text: . A

text: red supergiant

text: , it has an estimated diameter around 580 times that of the Sun, is around 1.5 to 2 times as massive, and has a

text: luminosity

text: around 25,000 times that of the Sun.

text: 1 Lyncis

text: and

text: UX Lyncis

text: are

text: red giant

text: s that are also semiregular variables with complex fluctuations in brightness.

text: In particle accelerators an ion source creates a particle beam at the beginning of the machine, the source. The technology to create ion sources for particle accelerators depends strongly on the type of particle that needs to be generated: electrons, protons, H ion or a Heavy ions.

text: In

text: particle accelerator

text: s an ion source creates a

text: particle beam

text: at the beginning of the machine, the source. The technology to create ion sources for particle accelerators depends strongly on the type of particle that needs to be generated:

text: electron

text: s,

text: proton

text: s,

text: H ion

text: or a

text: Heavy ions

text: In 1994, she starred on the Lifetime movie A Friend to Die For (also known as Death of a Cheerleader) in a lead role. In 1995, she starred on The Face on the Milk Carton, a TV film based on the book by Caroline Cooney about a teenager who finds out she was kidnapped from her real family 13 years prior and had been raised by the parents of her kidnapper. She also was in A Goofy Movie as the voice of Roxanne, Max's love interest. In 1996, Martin starred as deaf abuse victim Laura Keyes on Lifetime's TV movie "After the Silence (aka Breaking Through)" and in 1997, she starred on the short-lived NBC drama Crisis Center, which lasted only six episodes.

text: In 1994, she starred on the

text: Lifetime

text: movie

text: A Friend to Die For

text: (also known as Death of a Cheerleader) in a lead role. In 1995, she starred on

text: The Face on the Milk Carton

text: , a TV film based on the book by

text: Caroline Cooney

text: about a teenager who finds out she was kidnapped from her real family 13 years prior and had been raised by the parents of her kidnapper. She also was in

text: A Goofy Movie

text: as the voice of Roxanne,

text: Max

text: 's love interest. In 1996, Martin starred as deaf abuse victim Laura Keyes on Lifetime's TV movie "After the Silence (aka Breaking Through)" and in 1997, she starred on the short-lived NBC drama

text: Crisis Center

text: , which lasted only six episodes.

text: One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The progenitor binary system consists of main sequence stars, with the primary possessing more mass than the secondary. Being greater in mass, the primary is the first of the pair to evolve onto the asymptotic giant branch, where the star's envelope expands considerably. If the two stars share a common envelope then the system can lose significant amounts of mass, reducing the angular momentum, orbital radius and period. After the primary has degenerated into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase, the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours. If the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the Chandrasekhar limit.

text: One model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close

text: binary star

text: system. The progenitor binary system consists of main sequence stars, with the primary possessing more mass than the secondary. Being greater in mass, the primary is the first of the pair to evolve onto the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: , where the star's envelope expands considerably. If the two stars share a common envelope then the system can lose significant amounts of mass, reducing the angular momentum, orbital radius and period. After the primary has degenerated into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase, the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours. If the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: The fainter of the two stars, ι Cancri B, is a white A-type main sequence dwarf with an apparent magnitude of +6.57.  It is a shell star, surrounded by material expelled by its rapid rotation.

text: The fainter of the two stars, ι Cancri B, is a white

text: A-type

text: main sequence dwarf

text: with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +6.57.  It is a shell star, surrounded by material expelled by its rapid rotation.

text: This timeline of nuclear fusion is an incomplete chronological summary of significant events in the study and use of nuclear fusion.

text: This timeline of nuclear fusion is an incomplete chronological summary of significant events in the study and use of

text: nuclear fusion

text: In 1992, Rho Aquilae became the first star to have its Bayer designation invalidated by moving to a neighbouring constellation – it is now a star of the constellation Delphinus.

text: In 1992,

text: Rho Aquilae

text: became the first star to have its

text: Bayer designation

text: invalidated by moving to a neighbouring constellation – it is now a star of the constellation

text: Delphinus

text: A Type Ia supernova is an explosion of a white dwarf in orbit around either another white dwarf or a red giant star. The dense white dwarf can accumulate gas donated from the companion. When the dwarf reaches the critical mass of , a thermonuclear explosion ensues. As each Type Ia shines with a known luminosity, Type Ia are called "standard candles" and are used by astronomers to measure distances in the universe.

text: A

text: Type Ia supernova

text: is an explosion of a

text: white dwarf

text: in orbit around either another white dwarf or a

text: red giant

text: star. The dense white dwarf can accumulate gas donated from the companion. When the dwarf reaches the critical mass of , a thermonuclear explosion ensues. As each Type Ia shines with a known luminosity, Type Ia are called "standard candles" and are used by astronomers to measure distances in the universe.

text: A General Products hull is "an artificially-generated giant molecule, with the inter-atomic bonds artificially strengthened", causing the hull to resist "any kind of impact, and heat in the hundreds of thousands of degrees" (from Flatlander).  In Fleet of Worlds, the characters learn that the bonds of the giant molecule are "artificially strengthened" by a small power plant in the hull. By aiming a very powerful laser at it (since GP hulls are transparent to visible light), one can destroy the power plant, and destroy the hull. Gravity attracts the hull and its contents normally, but not even close approach to the event horizon of a black hole can damage the hull. However, tidal stress will kill anything outside the ship's center of mass (from Neutron Star), and the hull probably could not survive entering a black hole's singularity. Furthermore, a General Products hull can be destroyed by antimatter. Hyperdrive affects General Products hulls, since it is used by the ships to travel. From the text of stories involving stasis boxes, it is implied that the "hyperwave" pulses used for probing for them are not reflected by General Products hulls, though whether these are absorbed or penetrate is unclear.

text: A General Products hull is "an artificially-generated giant

text: molecule

text: , with the

text: inter-atomic bonds

text: artificially strengthened", causing the hull to resist "any kind of impact, and heat in the hundreds of thousands of degrees" (from

text: Flatlander

text: ).  In

text: Fleet of Worlds

text: , the characters learn that the bonds of the giant molecule are "artificially strengthened" by a small power plant in the hull. By aiming a very powerful laser at it (since GP hulls are transparent to visible light), one can destroy the power plant, and destroy the hull. Gravity attracts the hull and its contents normally, but not even close approach to the

text: event horizon

text: of a

text: black hole

text: can damage the hull. However, tidal stress will kill anything outside the ship's center of mass (from Neutron Star), and the hull probably could not survive entering a black hole's

text: singularity

text: . Furthermore, a General Products hull can be destroyed by

text: antimatter

text: Hyperdrive

text: affects General Products hulls, since it is used by the ships to travel. From the text of stories involving

text: stasis

text: boxes, it is implied that the "

text: hyperwave

text: " pulses used for probing for them are not reflected by General Products hulls, though whether these are absorbed or penetrate is unclear.

text: O-type stars represent the highest masses of stars on the main sequence.  The coolest of them have initial masses of around 16 times the Sun.  It is unclear what the upper limit to the mass of an O-type star would be.  At solar metallicity levels, stars should not be able to form with masses above 120–150 solar masses, but at lower metallicity this limit is much higher.  O-type stars form only a tiny fraction of main-sequence stars and the vast majority of these are towards the lower end of the mass range.  The most massive and hottest types O3 and O2 are extremely rare, were only defined in 1971 and 2002 respectively, and only a handful are known in total.  Giant and supergiant stars are somewhat less massive than the most massive main sequence O-type stars due to mass loss, but are still among the most massive stars known.

text: O-type stars represent the highest masses of stars on the main sequence.  The coolest of them have initial masses of around 16 times the Sun.  It is unclear what the upper limit to the mass of an O-type star would be.  At solar

text: metallicity

text: levels, stars should not be able to form with masses above 120–150 solar masses, but at lower metallicity this limit is much higher.  O-type stars form only a tiny fraction of main-sequence stars and the vast majority of these are towards the lower end of the mass range.  The most massive and hottest types O3 and O2 are extremely rare, were only defined in 1971 and 2002 respectively, and only a handful are known in total.  Giant and supergiant stars are somewhat less massive than the most massive main sequence O-type stars due to mass loss, but are still among the most massive stars known.

text: Binary stars are classified into four types according to the way in which they are observed: visually, by observation; spectroscopically, by periodic changes in spectral lines; photometrically, by changes in brightness caused by an eclipse; or astrometrically, by measuring a deviation in a star's position caused by an unseen companion. Any binary star can belong to several of these classes; for example, several spectroscopic binaries are also eclipsing binaries.

text: Binary stars are classified into four types according to the way in which they are observed: visually, by observation;

text: spectroscopically

text: , by periodic changes in

text: spectral line

text: s;

text: photometrically

text: , by changes in brightness caused by an eclipse; or

text: astrometrically

text: , by measuring a deviation in a star's position caused by an unseen companion. Any binary star can belong to several of these classes; for example, several spectroscopic binaries are also eclipsing binaries.

text: It is named after the Southern Cross constellation, and the town's streets are named after constellations and stars.

text: It is named after the

text: Southern Cross

text: constellation

text: , and the town's streets are named after constellations and stars.

text: After they are formed, the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other. As a result, the velocity vectors of the stars are steadily modified, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity. The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time. This is related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster as well as the number of stellar masses in the system. The value of the relaxation time varies by cluster, but the mean value is on the order of 10 years.

text: After they are formed, the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other. As a result, the velocity vectors of the stars are steadily modified, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity. The characteristic interval for this to occur is the

text: relaxation time

text: . This is related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster as well as the number of stellar masses in the system. The value of the relaxation time varies by cluster, but the mean value is on the order of 10 years.

text: The league has adopted various formats for the All-Star Game:

text: A binary star system consists of two stars that orbit around their common centre of mass. The movements of both stars lie on a common orbital plane in space. When this plane is very closely aligned with the location of an observer, the stars can be seen to pass in front of each other. The result is a type of extrinsic variable star system called an eclipsing binary.

text: A

text: binary star

text: system consists of two stars that orbit around their common

text: centre of mass

text: . The movements of both stars lie on a common

text: orbital plane

text: in space. When this plane is very closely aligned with the location of an observer, the stars can be seen to pass in front of each other. The result is a type of extrinsic

text: variable star

text: system called an

text: eclipsing binary

text: HIP 11952 is a star in the Milky Way galaxy, located 375 light-years away from the Sun. While the spectral lines strongly indicate that the star is of spectral type F2V-IV, previous analyses have stated that the star is a G8III giant star and an F0V main-sequence star. Located in the constellation Cetus, the star has a metallicity only 1% that of the Sun. It is nearing the end of its lifetime on the main sequence, and will soon begin the transition into a red giant.

text: HIP 11952 is a

text: star

text: in the

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy, located 375 light-years away from the

text: Sun

text: . While the spectral lines strongly indicate that the star is of spectral type F2V-IV, previous analyses have stated that the star is a G8III giant star and an F0V main-sequence star. Located in the constellation Cetus, the star has a

text: metallicity

text: only 1% that of the

text: Sun

text: . It is nearing the end of its lifetime on the

text: main sequence

text: , and will soon begin the transition into a

text: red giant

text: At the age of 11, Bochner began his acting career on Ontario radio programs. He went on to garner two Liberty Awards, the highest acting honour in Canada, for his work in Canadian film and theatre. In 1951, he moved to New York City and appeared in early television series such as One Man's Family and Kraft Television Theatre. In 1960, ABC called with a starring role in the series Hong Kong with co-star Rod Taylor. Faced against NBC's Wagon Train, then one of the most highly rated programs on the air, Hong Kong ended with the 26th episode. In 1961, he guest-starred in The Americans, an American Civil War drama about how the conflict divided families, starring Darryl Hickman.

text: At the age of 11, Bochner began his acting career on

text: Ontario

text: radio programs. He went on to garner two Liberty Awards, the highest acting honour in Canada, for his work in Canadian film and theatre. In 1951, he moved to New York City and appeared in early television series such as

text: One Man's Family

text: and

text: Kraft Television Theatre

text: . In 1960,

text: ABC

text: called with a starring role in the series

text: Hong Kong

text: with co-star

text: Rod Taylor

text: . Faced against

text: NBC

text: 's

text: Wagon Train

text: , then one of the most highly rated programs on the air, Hong Kong ended with the 26th episode. In 1961, he guest-starred in

text: The Americans

text: , an

text: American Civil War

text: drama about how the conflict divided families, starring

text: Darryl Hickman

text: There are compelling theoretical reasons to believe that, aside from the fact that antiparticles have different signs on all charges (such as electric charge and spin), matter and antimatter have exactly the same properties. This means a particle and its corresponding antiparticle must have identical masses and decay lifetimes (if unstable). This implies that, for example, a star made up of antimatter (an "antistar") will shine just like an ordinary star. This idea was tested experimentally in 2016 by the ALPHA experiment, which measured the transition between the two lowest energy states of antihydrogen. The results, which are identical to that of hydrogen, confirmed the validity of quantum mechanics for antimatter.

text: There are compelling theoretical reasons to believe that, aside from the fact that antiparticles have different signs on all charges (such as electric charge and spin), matter and antimatter have exactly the same properties. This means a particle and its corresponding antiparticle must have identical masses and decay lifetimes (if unstable). This implies that, for example, a star made up of antimatter (an "antistar") will shine just like an ordinary star. This idea was tested experimentally in 2016 by the

text: ALPHA

text: experiment, which measured the transition between the two lowest energy states of

text: antihydrogen

text: . The results, which are identical to that of hydrogen, confirmed the validity of quantum mechanics for antimatter.

text: The term yellow dwarf is a misnomer, because G-type stars actually range in color from white, for more luminous types like the Sun, to only very slightly yellow for the less massive and luminous G-type main-sequence stars. The Sun is in fact white, but appears yellow through Earth's atmosphere due to atmospheric Rayleigh scattering. In addition, although the term "dwarf" is used to contrast yellow main-sequence stars from giant stars, yellow dwarfs like the Sun outshine 90% of the stars in the Milky Way (which are largely much dimmer orange dwarfs, red dwarfs, and white dwarfs, the last being a stellar remnant).

text: The term yellow dwarf is a misnomer, because G-type stars actually range in color from white, for more luminous types like the Sun, to only very slightly yellow for the less massive and luminous G-type main-sequence stars. The Sun is in fact white, but appears yellow through

text: Earth

text: 's atmosphere due to atmospheric

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: . In addition, although the term "dwarf" is used to contrast yellow main-sequence stars from

text: giant star

text: s, yellow dwarfs like the Sun outshine 90% of the stars in the

text: Milky Way

text: (which are largely much dimmer

text: orange dwarf

text: s,

text: red dwarf

text: s, and

text: white dwarf

text: s, the last being a

text: stellar remnant

text: Simulation of astrophysical flows is of particular importance as many objects and processes of astronomical interest such as stars and nebulae involve gases. Fluid computer models are often coupled with radiative transfer,  (Newtonian) gravity, nuclear physics and (general) relativity to study highly energetic phenomena such as supernovae, relativistic jets, active galaxies and gamma-ray bursts and are also used to model stellar structure, planetary formation, evolution of stars and of galaxies, and exotic objects such as neutron stars, pulsars, magnetars and black holes. Computer simulations are often the only means to study stellar collisions, galaxy mergers, as well as galactic and black hole interactions.

text: Simulation of astrophysical flows is of particular importance as many objects and processes of astronomical interest such as stars and nebulae involve gases.

text: Fluid computer models

text: are often coupled with radiative transfer,  (Newtonian) gravity, nuclear physics and (general) relativity to study highly energetic phenomena such as supernovae,

text: relativistic jets

text: active galaxies

text: and

text: gamma-ray bursts

text: and are also used to model

text: stellar structure

text: planetary formation

text: evolution of stars

text: and

text: of galaxies

text: , and exotic objects such as

text: neutron stars

text: pulsars

text: magnetars

text: and black holes. Computer simulations are often the only means to study

text: stellar collisions

text: galaxy merger

text: s, as well as

text: galactic

text: and black hole interactions.

text: One case where gravitational waves would be strongest is during the final moments of the merger of two compact objects such as neutron stars or black holes. Over a span of millions of years, binary neutron stars, and binary black holes lose energy, largely through gravitational waves, and as a result, they spiral in towards each other. At the very end of this process, the two objects will reach extreme velocities, and in the final fraction of a second of their merger a substantial amount of their mass would theoretically be converted into gravitational energy, and travel outward as gravitational waves, allowing a greater than usual chance for detection. However, since little was known about the number of compact binaries in the universe and reaching that final stage can be very slow, there was little certainty as to how often such events might happen.

text: One case where gravitational waves would be strongest is during the final moments of the merger of two

text: compact objects

text: such as

text: neutron star

text: s or

text: black hole

text: s. Over a span of millions of years,

text: binary neutron stars

text: , and

text: binary black hole

text: s lose energy, largely through gravitational waves, and as a result, they

text: spiral in

text: towards each other. At the very end of this process, the two objects will reach extreme velocities, and in the final fraction of a second of their merger a substantial amount of their mass would theoretically be converted into gravitational energy, and travel outward as gravitational waves, allowing a greater than usual chance for detection. However, since little was known about the number of compact binaries in the universe and reaching that final stage can be very slow, there was little certainty as to how often such events might happen.

text: Xi Tauri is a spectroscopic and eclipsing quadruple star.  It consists of three blue-white B-type main sequence dwarfs.  Two of the stars form an eclipsing binary system and revolve around each other once every 7.15 days.  These in turn orbit the third star once every 145 days. The fourth star is a F star that orbits the other three stars in a roughly fifty-year period. The mean combined apparent magnitude of the system is +3.73 but, because the stars eclipse one another during their orbits, it is classified as a variable star, and its brightness varies from magnitude +3.70 to +3.79. Xi Tauri is approximately 210 light years from Earth.

text: Xi Tauri is a

text: spectroscopic

text: and

text: eclipsing

text: quadruple star.  It consists of three blue-white

text: B-type

text: main sequence dwarfs

text: .  Two of the stars form an

text: eclipsing binary

text: system and revolve around each other once every 7.15 days.  These in turn orbit the third star once every 145 days. The fourth star is a F star that orbits the other three stars in a roughly fifty-year period. The mean combined

text: apparent magnitude

text: of the system is +3.73 but, because the stars eclipse one another during their orbits, it is classified as a

text: variable star

text: , and its brightness varies from magnitude +3.70 to +3.79. Xi Tauri is approximately 210

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: In 1980, this was found to be a variable star with a periodicity of 7.655 days, and it was given variable star designation BE Cet. This variation in luminosity was interpreted to be the result of rotational modulation of star spot activity in the photosphere, and hence it is classified as a BY Draconis variable. There is considerable variation in the strength of the surface activity—to the point where it has appeared inactive during some observation runs. The strength of the surface magnetic field was measured to be 450 G. The spectrum of this star includes lines of titanium oxide and calcium hydride, which, for a star of this class, is further evidence of star spot activity. Star spots cover an estimated 3% of the surface.

text: In 1980, this was found to be a

text: variable star

text: with a periodicity of 7.655 days, and it was given

text: variable star designation

text: BE Cet. This variation in luminosity was interpreted to be the result of rotational modulation of

text: star spot

text: activity in the

text: photosphere

text: , and hence it is classified as a

text: BY Draconis variable

text: . There is considerable variation in the strength of the surface activity—to the point where it has appeared inactive during some observation runs. The strength of the surface

text: magnetic field

text: was measured to be 450

text: G

text: . The spectrum of this star includes

text: lines

text: of

text: titanium oxide

text: and

text: calcium hydride

text: , which, for a star of this class, is further evidence of star spot activity. Star spots cover an estimated 3% of the surface.

text: The Star Trek canon is the set of all canonical material in the Star Trek universe. The official Star Trek website formerly defined canon as comprising the television series Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek: The Animated Series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, Star Trek: Enterprise, Star Trek: Discovery,  and the motion pictures in the franchise. Later changes to the Star Trek website acknowledges that this definition is not set in stone, but that the notion of what constitutes canon in Star Trek is fluid, open to interpretation and debate. The most recent iteration of the website has removed all references to a canon policy.

text: The Star Trek canon is the set of all

text: canonical

text: material in the

text: Star Trek

text: universe. The official Star Trek website formerly defined canon as comprising the television series

text: Star Trek: The Original Series

text: Star Trek: The Animated Series

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: Star Trek: Discovery

text: ,  and the

text: motion pictures in the franchise

text: . Later changes to the Star Trek website acknowledges that this definition is not set in stone, but that the notion of what constitutes canon in Star Trek is fluid, open to interpretation and debate. The most recent iteration of the website has removed all references to a canon policy.

text: Constellation families are collections of constellations sharing some defining characteristic, such as  proximity on the celestial sphere, common historical origin, or common mythological theme.  In the Western tradition, most of the northern constellations stem from Ptolemy's list in the Almagest (which in turn has roots that go back to Mesopotamian astronomy), and most of the far southern constellations were introduced by sailors and astronomers who traveled to the south in the 16th to 18th centuries.  Separate traditions arose in India and China.

text: Constellation families are collections of

text: constellation

text: s sharing some defining characteristic, such as  proximity on the

text: celestial sphere

text: , common historical origin, or common mythological theme.  In the Western tradition, most of the northern constellations stem from

text: Ptolemy

text: 's list in the

text: Almagest

text: (which in turn has roots that go back to Mesopotamian astronomy), and most of the far southern constellations were introduced by sailors and astronomers who traveled to the south in the 16th to 18th centuries.  Separate traditions arose in India and China.

text: Omega Fornacis is a binary star system composed of a blue main-sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 4.96, and a white main sequence star of spectral type A7V and magnitude 7.88.

text: Omega Fornacis

text: is a binary star system composed of a blue main-sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 4.96, and a white main sequence star of spectral type A7V and magnitude 7.88.

text: Kinkaid was part of the Constellation carrier battle group, as Constellation officially relieved  in the Persian Gulf in September 1999. The Constellation carrier battle group then spent the next 10 weeks in the Persian Gulf and conducted maritime interception operation boardings as well as flew combat air patrols over the Iraqi no-fly zones in support of Operation Southern Watch. During the period, Kinkaid rescued the merchant vessel Sima Star, a container ship, from sinking  off the coast of Bahrain after taking on over 40 tons of water. Kinkaid sailors dewatered the fully loaded container ship, which was listing 15 degrees to the port side. After seven hours of battling poor ventilation and flooding below decks, Kinkaids rescue and assistance team was able to return the Sima Star to a five-degree list, allowing its crew to sail into Bahrain the following Monday morning for repairs. Kinkaid returned home on 17 December 1999, after a six-months deployment. During its 10-week patrol in the Persian Gulf region, the Constellation carrier battle group flew more than 5,000 casualty-free sorties, including nearly 1,300 in support of Operation Southern Watch. These flights included nine separate combat strikes and more than 43 tons of ordnance expended on various Iraqi air defense sites in response to Iraqi aggression against coalition aircraft.

text: Kinkaid was part of the Constellation carrier battle group, as Constellation officially relieved  in the Persian Gulf in September 1999. The Constellation carrier battle group then spent the next 10 weeks in the Persian Gulf and conducted maritime interception operation boardings as well as flew combat air patrols over the Iraqi no-fly zones in support of Operation Southern Watch. During the period, Kinkaid rescued the merchant vessel Sima Star, a

text: container ship

text: , from sinking  off the coast of Bahrain after taking on over 40 tons of water. Kinkaid sailors dewatered the fully loaded container ship, which was listing 15 degrees to the port side. After seven hours of battling poor ventilation and flooding below decks, Kinkaids rescue and assistance team was able to return the Sima Star to a five-degree list, allowing its crew to sail into Bahrain the following Monday morning for repairs. Kinkaid returned home on 17 December 1999, after a six-months deployment. During its 10-week patrol in the Persian Gulf region, the Constellation carrier battle group flew more than 5,000 casualty-free sorties, including nearly 1,300 in support of

text: Operation Southern Watch

text: . These flights included nine separate combat strikes and more than 43 tons of ordnance expended on various Iraqi air defense sites in response to Iraqi aggression against coalition aircraft.

text: Psi Velorum (ψ Vel, ψ Velorum) is a binary star in the constellation Vela.  It is approximately 60.5 light years from Earth, making it the nearest naked-eye star of the constellation.

text: Psi Velorum (ψ Vel, ψ Velorum) is a

text: binary star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Vela

text: .  It is approximately 60.5

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: , making it the nearest naked-eye star of the constellation.

text: Secret Talents of the Stars was to follow a seven-week, tournament-style broadcast format.

text: The current list of 88 constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union since 1922 is based on the 48 listed by Ptolemy in his Almagest in the 2nd century, with early modern modifications and additions (most importantly introducing constellations covering the parts of the southern sky unknown to Ptolemy) by Petrus Plancius (1592, 1597/98 and 1613), Johannes Hevelius (1690) and Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1763), who named fourteen constellations and renamed a fifteenth one. De Lacaille studied the stars of the southern hemisphere from 1750 until 1754 from Cape of Good Hope, when he was said to have observed more than 10,000 stars using a  refracting telescope.

text: The current list of 88 constellations recognized by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: since 1922 is based on the 48 listed by Ptolemy in his Almagest in the 2nd century, with early modern modifications and additions (most importantly introducing constellations covering the parts of the southern sky unknown to Ptolemy) by Petrus Plancius (1592, 1597/98 and 1613),

text: Johannes Hevelius

text: (1690) and Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (1763), who named fourteen constellations and renamed a fifteenth one. De Lacaille studied the stars of the southern hemisphere from 1750 until 1754 from

text: Cape of Good Hope

text: , when he was said to have observed more than 10,000 stars using a

text: refracting telescope

text: PYTHIA is a computer simulation program for particle collisions at very high energies (see event (particle physics)) in particle accelerators.

text: PYTHIA is a computer simulation program for particle collisions at very high energies (see

text: event (particle physics)

text: ) in

text: particle accelerator

text: s.

text: A modern understanding of star formation recognizes planets forming around any star. The term 'creature' is used elsewhere in Bahá'í scripture by `Abdu'l-Bahá to also include minerals, in addition to plants, animals, and humans.

text: In astronomy, the term compact star (or compact object) is used to refer collectively to white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. It would grow to include exotic stars if such hypothetical dense bodies are confirmed.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: , the term compact star (or compact object) is used to refer collectively to

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s, and

text: black hole

text: s. It would grow to include

text: exotic star

text: s if such hypothetical dense bodies are confirmed.

text: Despite many protestations from the Pro-D-STAR lobby that the standard was developed by the JARL and D-STAR is not only an Icom system, the mark 'D-STAR' is itself a registered trademark of Icom.  According to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, a trademark is defined as "a word, phrase, symbol or design, or a combination of words, phrases, symbols or designs, that identifies and distinguishes the source of the goods of one party from those of others."  Icom does hold a trademark for its stylized D-STAR logo.  There is no indication Icom is charging other vendors to use any of the D-STAR branding.

text: The primary star in the YZ Cassiopeiae system is a white subgiant (main sequence) star of spectral type A1Vm and 2.31 solar masses () with a less massive main sequence dwarf star of type F2V and 1.35 . The apparent magnitude of the eclipsing binary varies from 5.65 to 6.05 with a period of 4.4672 days. Combined, they appear to have a spectral type of A2IV.

text: The primary star in the YZ Cassiopeiae system is a white

text: subgiant

text: main sequence

text: ) star of

text: spectral type

text: A1Vm and 2.31 solar masses () with a less massive main sequence dwarf star of type F2V and 1.35 . The

text: apparent magnitude

text: of the eclipsing binary varies from 5.65 to 6.05 with a period of 4.4672 days. Combined, they appear to have a spectral type of A2IV.

text: Despite their small diameters—about 12.5 miles (20 kilometers)—neutron stars boast nearly 1.5 times the mass of our sun, and are thus incredibly dense. Just a sugar cube of neutron star matter would weigh about one hundred million tons on Earth.

text: The relation E=qV also indicates very simply why the electronvolt (ev) was invented for use in accelerator-based sciences, because if q is entered in integer units of the elementary charge and V in volts, the energy is given in eV; if we wanted to convert the energy into joules, we need to multiply by the elementary charge in Coulombs on both sides of the equation, yielding a very small number. Usually, the high voltage is quoted in MV and the beam energy then in MeV.  With more sophisticated, higher energy machines, those working in particle physics are just accustomed to discussing mass and energy in units MeV or GeV, but the relationship of the accelerator state to the beam energy is not as simple as merely knowing the terminal voltage and the particle species accelerated.

text: The relation E=qV also indicates very simply why the

text: electronvolt

text: (ev) was invented for use in accelerator-based sciences, because if q is entered in integer units of the

text: elementary charge

text: and V in

text: volt

text: s, the energy is given in eV; if we wanted to convert the energy into

text: joule

text: s, we need to multiply by the elementary charge in

text: Coulomb

text: s on both sides of the equation, yielding a very small number. Usually, the high voltage is quoted in MV and the beam energy then in MeV.  With more sophisticated, higher energy machines, those working in

text: particle physics

text: are just accustomed to discussing mass and energy in units MeV or GeV, but the relationship of the accelerator state to the beam energy is not as simple as merely knowing the terminal voltage and the particle species accelerated.

text: Belliard was drafted by the Milwaukee Brewers in the 8th round of the 1994 Major League Baseball draft.  Belliard played in the Brewers farm system from 1994–1999, winning Texas League All-Star honors in 1996 and in 1998 he was honored as a Triple-A All-Star, International League All-Star, Baseball America 1st Team Minor League All-Star and Brewers Minor League Player of the Year.

text: Belliard was drafted by the

text: Milwaukee Brewers

text: in the 8th round of the

text: 1994 Major League Baseball draft

text: .  Belliard played in the Brewers farm system from 1994–1999, winning

text: Texas League

text: All-Star honors in 1996 and in 1998 he was honored as a

text: Triple-A

text: All-Star,

text: International League

text: All-Star,

text: Baseball America

text: 1st Team Minor League All-Star and Brewers Minor League Player of the Year.

text: William Shatner argues that Star Trek is superior to Star Wars. According to him, "Star Trek had relationships and conflict among the relationships and stories that involved humanity and philosophical questions."  Shatner believes that Star Wars was only better than Star Trek in terms of special effects, and that once J.J. Abrams became involved, Star Trek was able to "supersede Star Wars on every level."

text: She also starred in V and V: The Final Battle in the 1980s as Harmony Moore, a human who fell in love with the visitor, Willie (played by Robert Englund). Diane Cary guest starred in three episodes alongside Lindsay Wagner in The Bionic Woman; in the two-part story, "Jamie's Shield" (1976) and "Rancho Outcast" (1978).  In addition, she had a recurring role in Alien Nation 1989 and 1994; she also guest starred in Fame in the 1987 episode "Alice Doesn't Work Here Anymore," Tales from the Crypt in the 1990 episode "Cutting Cards," L.A. Law in a 1994 episode called "How am I driving", and in two episodes of Forever Knight "Dead Air" and "Avenging Angel." In 2006, Cary guest starred on Cold Case (episode titled "The Key") and as Bradford's assistant in three episodes of Ugly Betty. More recently in 2009, she guest starred in an episode of Defying Gravity. In 2014 Cary completed filming the  horror thriller film 'Kantemir' reuniting with her former V co-star Robert Englund after 30 years.

text: She also starred in

text: V

text: and

text: V: The Final Battle

text: in the 1980s as Harmony Moore, a human who fell in love with the visitor, Willie (played by

text: Robert Englund

text: ). Diane Cary guest starred in three episodes alongside

text: Lindsay Wagner

text: in

text: The Bionic Woman

text: ; in the two-part story, "Jamie's Shield" (1976) and "Rancho Outcast" (1978).  In addition, she had a recurring role in

text: Alien Nation

text: 1989 and 1994; she also guest starred in

text: Fame

text: in the 1987 episode "Alice Doesn't Work Here Anymore,"

text: Tales from the Crypt

text: in the 1990 episode "Cutting Cards,"

text: L.A. Law

text: in a 1994 episode called "How am I driving", and in two episodes of

text: Forever Knight

text: "Dead Air" and "Avenging Angel." In 2006, Cary guest starred on

text: Cold Case

text: (episode titled "The Key") and as Bradford's assistant in three episodes of

text: Ugly Betty

text: . More recently in 2009, she guest starred in an episode of

text: Defying Gravity

text: . In 2014 Cary completed filming the  horror thriller film 'Kantemir' reuniting with her former

text: V

text: co-star

text: Robert Englund

text: after 30 years.

text: Most of the stars occupy the region in the diagram along the line called the main sequence. During the stage of their lives in which stars are found on the main sequence line, they are fusing hydrogen in their cores. The next concentration of stars is on the horizontal branch (helium fusion in the core and hydrogen burning in a shell surrounding the core). Another prominent feature is the Hertzsprung gap located in the region between A5 and G0 spectral type and between +1 and −3 absolute magnitudes (i.e. between the top of the main sequence and the giants in the horizontal branch). RR Lyrae variable stars can be found in the left of this gap. Cepheid variables reside in the upper section of the instability strip.

text: Most of the stars occupy the region in the diagram along the line called the

text: main sequence

text: . During the stage of their lives in which stars are found on the main sequence line, they are

text: fusing hydrogen

text: in their cores. The next concentration of stars is on the

text: horizontal branch

text: helium fusion

text: in the core and hydrogen burning in a shell surrounding the core). Another prominent feature is the

text: Hertzsprung gap

text: located in the region between A5 and G0 spectral type and between +1 and −3 absolute magnitudes (i.e. between the top of the main sequence and the giants in the

text: horizontal branch

text: RR Lyrae variable

text: stars can be found in the left of this gap.

text: Cepheid variable

text: s reside in the upper section of the

text: instability strip

text: When a star in a binary fills its Roche lobe (either due to being very close to its companion or having a relatively large radius), it begins to lose matter, which streams towards its neutron star companion. The star may also undergo mass loss by exceeding its Eddington luminosity, or through strong stellar winds, and some of this material may become gravitationally attracted to the neutron star. In the circumstance of a short orbital period and a massive partner star, both of these processes may contribute to the transfer of material from the companion to the neutron star.  In both cases, the falling material originates from the surface layers of the partner star and is rich in hydrogen and helium.  Because compact stars have high gravitational fields, the material falls with a high velocity towards the neutron star, usually colliding with other accreting material en route, and in so doing forming an accretion disk.  In an X-ray burster, this material accretes onto the surface of the neutron star, where it forms a dense layer. After mere hours of accumulation and gravitational compression, nuclear fusion starts in this matter. Often the increase in temperature (greater than 1 × 10 kelvins) gives rise to a thermonuclear runaway.  This explosive stellar nucleosynthesis begins with the hot CNO cycle which quickly yields to the rp-process. Within seconds most of the accreted material is burned, powering a bright X-ray flash that is observable with X-ray telescopes. Theory suggests that in at least some cases the hydrogen in the accreting material burns continuously, and that it is the accumulation of helium that causes the bursts.

text: When a star in a

text: binary

text: fills its

text: Roche lobe

text: (either due to being very close to its companion or having a relatively large radius), it begins to lose matter, which streams towards its neutron star companion. The star may also undergo

text: mass loss

text: by exceeding its

text: Eddington luminosity

text: , or through strong

text: stellar wind

text: s, and some of this material may become gravitationally attracted to the neutron star. In the circumstance of a short

text: orbital period

text: and a massive partner star, both of these processes may contribute to the transfer of material from the companion to the neutron star.  In both cases, the falling material originates from the surface layers of the partner star and is rich in

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: .  Because compact stars have high

text: gravitational fields

text: , the material falls with a high

text: velocity

text: towards the neutron star, usually colliding with other accreting material en route, and in so doing forming an

text: accretion disk

text: .  In an X-ray burster, this material accretes onto the surface of the neutron star, where it forms a dense layer. After mere hours of accumulation and gravitational compression,

text: nuclear fusion

text: starts in this matter. Often the increase in temperature (greater than 1 × 10

text: kelvin

text: s) gives rise to a

text: thermonuclear runaway

text: .  This explosive

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: begins with the hot

text: CNO cycle

text: which quickly yields to the

text: rp-process

text: . Within seconds most of the accreted material is burned, powering a bright X-ray flash that is observable with X-ray telescopes. Theory suggests that in at least some cases the hydrogen in the accreting material burns continuously, and that it is the accumulation of helium that causes the bursts.

text: No known globular clusters display active star formation, which is consistent with the view that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in the Galaxy, and were among the first collections of stars to form. Very large regions of star formation known as super star clusters, such as Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way, may be the precursors of globular clusters.

text: No known globular clusters display active star formation, which is consistent with the view that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in the Galaxy, and were among the first collections of stars to form. Very large regions of star formation known as

text: super star cluster

text: s, such as

text: Westerlund 1

text: in the

text: Milky Way

text: , may be the precursors of globular clusters.

text: The 2016 All Stars match was the sixth annual representative exhibition All Stars match. For the first time, the match was played between the Indigenous All Stars and a World All Stars team.

text: The 2016

text: All Stars match

text: was the sixth annual representative exhibition All Stars match. For the first time, the match was played between the

text: Indigenous All Stars

text: and a

text: World All Stars team

text: Both stars share similar physical characteristics to the Sun, so they are considered solar analogs. Their stellar classification is nearly identical to that of the Sun. ζ has 96% of the Sun's mass and 84% of the Sun's radius. ζ is slightly larger and more luminous than ζ, with 99% of the Sun's mass and 88% of the Sun's radius. The two stars are somewhat deficient in metals, having only 60% of the proportion of elements other than hydrogen and helium as compared to the Sun. For reasons that remain uncertain, ζ has an anomalously low abundance of beryllium. Two possible explanations are: during the star's formation it underwent multiple intense bursts of mass accretion from a rapidly rotating protostellar cloud, or else the star underwent rotational mixing brought on by a period of rapid rotation during the star's youth.

text: Both stars share similar physical characteristics to the Sun, so they are considered

text: solar analog

text: s. Their

text: stellar classification

text: is nearly identical to that of the Sun. ζ has 96% of the

text: Sun's mass

text: and 84% of the

text: Sun's radius

text: . ζ is slightly larger and more luminous than ζ, with 99% of the Sun's mass and 88% of the Sun's radius. The two stars are somewhat deficient in

text: metals

text: , having only 60% of the proportion of elements other than hydrogen and helium as compared to the Sun. For reasons that remain uncertain, ζ has an anomalously low abundance of

text: beryllium

text: . Two possible explanations are: during the star's formation it underwent multiple intense bursts of mass accretion from a rapidly rotating protostellar cloud, or else the star underwent rotational mixing brought on by a period of rapid rotation during the star's youth.

text: The Chinese incorporated Phoenix's brightest star, Ankaa (Alpha Phoenicis), and stars from the adjacent constellation Sculptor to depict Bakui, a net for catching birds. Phoenix and the neighbouring constellation of Grus together were seen by Julius Schiller as portraying Aaron the High Priest. These two constellations, along with nearby Pavo and Tucana, are called the Southern Birds.

text: The Chinese incorporated Phoenix's brightest star,

text: Ankaa

text: Alpha Phoenicis

text: ), and stars from the adjacent constellation

text: Sculptor

text: to depict Bakui, a net for catching birds. Phoenix and the neighbouring constellation of

text: Grus

text: together were seen by

text: Julius Schiller

text: as portraying

text: Aaron

text: the High Priest. These two constellations, along with nearby

text: Pavo

text: and

text: Tucana

text: , are called the Southern Birds.

text: T Tauri stars (TTS) are a class of variable stars named after their prototype – T Tauri. They are found near molecular clouds and identified by their optical variability and strong chromospheric lines.  T Tauri stars are pre-main-sequence stars in the process of contracting to the main sequence along the Hayashi track, a luminosity-temperature relationship obeyed by infant stars of less than 3 solar masses () in the pre-main-sequence phase of stellar evolution. It ends when a star of  develops a radiative zone, or when a larger star commences nuclear fusion on the main sequence.

text: T Tauri stars (TTS) are a class of variable

text: star

text: s named after their prototype –

text: T Tauri

text: . They are found near

text: molecular cloud

text: s and identified by their optical

text: variability

text: and strong

text: chromospheric

text: lines.  T Tauri stars are

text: pre-main-sequence star

text: s in the process of contracting to the main sequence along the

text: Hayashi track

text: , a luminosity-temperature relationship obeyed by infant stars of less than 3

text: solar masses

text: () in the pre-main-sequence phase of

text: stellar evolution

text: . It ends when a star of  develops a

text: radiative zone

text: , or when a larger star commences

text: nuclear fusion

text: on the

text: main sequence

text: A helium star is also a term for a hypothetical star that could occur if two helium white dwarfs with a combined mass of at least 0.5 solar masses merge and subsequently start nuclear fusion of helium, with a lifetime of a few hundred million years. It is believed this is the origin of the extreme helium stars.

text: A helium star is also a term for a hypothetical

text: star

text: that could occur if two

text: helium

text: white dwarf

text: s with a combined mass of at least 0.5 solar masses merge and subsequently start nuclear fusion of helium, with a lifetime of a few hundred million years. It is believed this is the origin of the extreme helium stars.

text: Tau Centauri (τ Cen, τ Centauri) is a star in the constellation Centaurus.  It is a A-type main-sequence star with an apparent magnitude of +3.85 and is approximately 131 light years from Earth.

text: Tau Centauri (τ Cen, τ Centauri) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Centaurus

text: .  It is a

text: A-type

text: main-sequence

text: star with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +3.85 and is approximately 131

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: Analogs of T Tauri stars in the higher mass range (2–8 solar masses)—A and B spectral type pre–main-sequence stars, are called Herbig Ae/Be-type stars. More massive (>8 Solar mass) stars in pre–main sequence stage are not observed, because they evolve very quickly: when they become visible (i.e. disperses surrounding circumstellar gas and dust cloud), the hydrogen in the center is already burning and they are main sequence objects.

text: Analogs of T Tauri stars in the higher mass range (2–8

text: solar mass

text: es)—A and B

text: spectral type

text: pre–main-sequence star

text: s, are called

text: Herbig Ae/Be-type stars

text: . More massive (>8 Solar mass)

text: star

text: s in pre–main sequence stage are not observed, because they evolve very quickly: when they become visible (i.e. disperses surrounding circumstellar gas and dust cloud), the hydrogen in the center is already burning and they are

text: main sequence

text: objects.

text: In the final season of the WHA, Gordie had the opportunity to play with Wayne Gretzky in the 1979 WHA All-Star Game. The format of the game was a three-game series between the WHA All-Stars against HC Dynamo Moscow. The WHA All-Stars were coached by Jacques Demers, and Demers asked Howe if it was okay to put him on a line with Gretzky and his son Mark. In Game One, the line scored seven points, as the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4–2. In Game Two, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4–2. WHA also won Game Three to ensure a clean sweep.

text: In the final season of the WHA, Gordie had the opportunity to play with

text: Wayne Gretzky

text: in the 1979 WHA All-Star Game. The format of the game was a three-game series between the WHA All-Stars against

text: HC Dynamo Moscow

text: . The WHA All-Stars were coached by

text: Jacques Demers

text: , and Demers asked Howe if it was okay to put him on a line with Gretzky and his son Mark. In Game One, the line scored seven points, as the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4–2. In Game Two, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4–2. WHA also won Game Three to ensure a clean sweep.

text: According to recent studies, like the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy lies in what in the galaxy color–magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley", a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud" (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence" (galaxies that lack star formation). Star formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star-forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short-term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way.

text: According to recent studies, like the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy lies in what in the

text: galaxy color–magnitude diagram

text: is known as the "green valley", a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud" (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence" (galaxies that lack star formation). Star formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star-forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short-term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way.

text: NGC 1569 is characterized by a large  starburst. It has formed stars at a rate 100 times greater than that of the Milky Way during the last 100 million years. It contains two prominent super star clusters with different histories.  Both clusters have experienced episodic star formation.  Super starcluster A, located in the northwest of the galaxy and actually formed of two close clusters (NGC 1569 A1 and NGC 1569 A2), contains young stars (including Wolf-Rayet stars) that formed less than 5 million years ago (in NGC 1569 A1) as well as older red stars (in NGC 1569 A2).Super star cluster B, located near the center of the galaxy, contains an older stellar population of red giants and red supergiants. Both of these star clusters are thought to have masses equivalent to the masses of the globular clusters in the Milky Way (approximately (6-7) × 10 solar masses).  Numerous smaller star clusters, some of them having masses similar to those of small globular clusters or R136 in the Large Magellanic Cloud, with relatively young ages (between 2 million years and 1 billion years) have also been identified. These results, along with the results from other dwarf galaxies such as the Large Magellanic Cloud and NGC 1705, demonstrate that star formation in dwarf galaxies does not occur continuously but instead occurs in a series of short, nearly instantaneous bursts.

text: NGC 1569 is characterized by a large

text: starburst

text: . It has formed stars at a rate 100 times greater than that of the

text: Milky Way

text: during the last 100 million years. It contains two prominent

text: super star cluster

text: s with different histories.  Both clusters have experienced episodic

text: star formation

text: .  Super starcluster A, located in the northwest of the galaxy and actually formed of two close clusters (NGC 1569 A1 and NGC 1569 A2), contains young stars (including

text: Wolf-Rayet stars

text: ) that formed less than 5 million years ago (in NGC 1569 A1) as well as older red stars (in NGC 1569 A2).Super star cluster B, located near the center of the galaxy, contains an older stellar population of

text: red giants

text: and

text: red supergiants

text: . Both of these star clusters are thought to have masses equivalent to the masses of the

text: globular cluster

text: s in the

text: Milky Way

text: (approximately (6-7) × 10

text: solar mass

text: es).  Numerous smaller star clusters, some of them having masses similar to those of small globular clusters or

text: in the Large Magellanic Cloud, with relatively young ages (between 2 million years and 1 billion years) have also been identified. These results, along with the results from other dwarf galaxies such as the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: and

text: NGC 1705

text: , demonstrate that star formation in dwarf galaxies does not occur continuously but instead occurs in a series of short, nearly instantaneous bursts.

text: where a is the acceleration of the particle P.  The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and acceleration A of the reference point, as well as the angular velocity vector ω and angular acceleration vector α of the rigid system as,

text: where a is the acceleration of the particle P.  The

text: kinematics

text: of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and acceleration A of the reference point, as well as the angular velocity vector ω and angular acceleration vector α of the rigid system as,

text: Made up of two terms, the force on this particle is first the proportional to rate of v change, the second is due to the change in direction of this component of velocity as the body moves. The latter terms gives rise to cross products of small quantities (pq, pr,qr), which are later discarded.  In this analysis, they are discarded from the outset for the sake of clarity. In effect, we assume that the direction of the velocity of the particle due to the simultaneous roll and yaw rates does not change significantly throughout the motion.  With this simplifying assumption, the acceleration of the particle becomes:

text: On February 8, 2009, The Star-Bulletin made the conversion from a broadsheet to a tabloid format in an effort to retain its readership base, even though the move resulted in the layoff of 17 editorial staffers (about 20% of its unionized workforce). This was done to save costs. However, the format did not help as it continued to lose both money and readership. At the same time, Gannett was looking into selling the Advertiser as the company decided that it did not fit in with Gannett's long-term strategy. This move would lead to Black Press pursuing a deal that would result in buying the Advertiser, a more profitable paper with a daily circulation of 115,000, even though the Star-Bulletin itself was losing money and had a daily circulation of 37,000.

text: This galaxy is known to contain two counter-rotating populations of stars. That is, one set of stars is rotating in the opposite direction with respect to the other. One means for this to occur is by acquiring gas from an external source, which then undergoes star formation. An alternative is by a merger with a second galaxy. Neither scenario has been ruled out. The age of the lower mass, counter-rotating population is younger by about  than the primary star population of the galaxy.

text: BU Crucis is a variable star with a brightness range of about 0.1 magnitudes.  It is listed as a probable eclipsing binary in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars, but the International Variable Star Index classifies it as an α Cygni variable with a visual magnitude range of 6.82 - 7.01.

text: BU Crucis is a variable star with a brightness range of about 0.1 magnitudes.  It is listed as a probable

text: eclipsing binary

text: in the

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: , but the International Variable Star Index classifies it as an

text: α Cygni variable

text: with a visual magnitude range of 6.82 - 7.01.

text: Centaurus contains several very bright stars because of its position in the Milky Way; in addition, its alpha and beta stars are used to find the constellation Crux. The constellation has 281 stars above magnitude 6.5, meaning that they are visible to the unaided eye, the most of any constellation. Alpha Centauri, the closest star system to the Sun, has a high proper motion; it will be a mere half-degree from Beta Centauri in approximately 4000 years.

text: Centaurus contains several very bright stars because of its position in the

text: Milky Way

text: ; in addition, its alpha and beta stars are used to find the constellation

text: Crux

text: . The constellation has 281 stars above magnitude 6.5, meaning that they are visible to the unaided eye, the most of any constellation.

text: Alpha Centauri

text: , the closest star system to the Sun, has a high

text: proper motion

text: ; it will be a mere half-degree from

text: Beta Centauri

text: in approximately 4000 years.

text: Aviation regiments are named for stars, while Aviation Support Regiments are named for constellations. All squadrons groups (with the exception of "Giove" and "Mercurio") are named for constellations:

text: Aviation regiments are named for

text: star

text: s, while Aviation Support Regiments are named for

text: constellation

text: s. All squadrons groups (with the exception of "Giove" and "Mercurio") are named for

text: constellation

text: s:

text: Castor C is a variable star, classified as a BY Dra type.  BY Draconis variables are cool dwarf stars which vary as they rotate due to star spots or other variations in their photospheres.

text: Castor C is a variable star, classified as a

text: BY Dra

text: type.  BY Draconis variables are cool dwarf stars which vary as they rotate due to star spots or other variations in their

text: photosphere

text: s.

text: In all, ten bodies have been proposed as rotation-powered neutron stars that are not visible as radio sources, but are visible as x–ray and gamma ray sources. Indicators that they are indeed neutron stars include them having a high x-ray to lower frequencies emission ratio, a constant x-ray emission profile, and coincidence with a gamma ray source.

text: Alpha Lacertae (Alpha Lac, α Lacertae, α Lac) is an A-type main sequence star in the constellation of Lacerta.  It is the brightest star in Lacerta and has an apparent visual magnitude of approximately 3.777.

text: Alpha Lacertae (Alpha Lac, α Lacertae, α Lac) is an

text: A-type

text: main sequence

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Lacerta

text: .  It is the brightest star in Lacerta and has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of approximately 3.777.

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, and Star Trek: Voyager, as well as Star Trek Generations, Star Trek: First Contact, Star Trek: Insurrection, and Star Trek Nemesis are set in the 24th century.

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: , and

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: , as well as

text: Star Trek Generations

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Star Trek: Insurrection

text: , and

text: Star Trek Nemesis

text: are set in the 24th century.

text: The most massive and luminous main-sequence stars are almost indistinguishable from the supergiants they quickly evolve into.  They have almost identical temperatures and very similar luminosities, and only the most detailed analyses can distinguish the spectral features that show they have evolved away from the narrow early O-type main-sequence to the nearby area of early O-type supergiants. Such early O-type supergiants share many features with WNLh Wolf–Rayet stars and are sometimes designated as slash stars, intermediates between the two types.

text: The most massive and luminous main-sequence stars are almost indistinguishable from the supergiants they quickly evolve into.  They have almost identical temperatures and very similar luminosities, and only the most detailed analyses can distinguish the spectral features that show they have evolved away from the narrow early

text: O-type main-sequence

text: to the nearby area of early O-type supergiants. Such early O-type supergiants share many features with WNLh Wolf–Rayet stars and are sometimes designated as

text: slash stars

text: , intermediates between the two types.

text: Amir would star and produce a total of twenty five films in her lifetime.

text: Low to intermediate-mass stars age in a very different way, through red-giant, horizontal-branch, asymptotic-giant-branch (AGB), and then post-AGB phases. Post-AGB evolution generally involves dramatic mass loss, sometimes leaving a planetary nebula, and leaving an increasingly hot exposed stellar interior. If there is sufficient helium and hydrogen remaining, these small but extremely hot stars have an O-type spectrum. They increase in temperature until shell burning and mass loss ceases, then they cool into white dwarfs.

text: Low to intermediate-mass stars age in a very different way, through

text: red-giant

text: horizontal-branch

text: asymptotic-giant-branch

text: (AGB), and then

text: post-AGB

text: phases. Post-AGB evolution generally involves dramatic mass loss, sometimes leaving a planetary nebula, and leaving an increasingly hot exposed stellar interior. If there is sufficient helium and hydrogen remaining, these small but extremely hot stars have an O-type spectrum. They increase in temperature until shell burning and mass loss ceases, then they cool into white dwarfs.

text: Major American newspapers of the day called Warneke the outstanding National League pitcher of the 1932 season and The Sporting News (which had hailed Warneke as "a great pitcher, such as pops up once in a lifetime") named him as one of two pitchers to its 1932 All-Star team, honors foreshadowing the then non-existent Cy Young Award.

text: Major American newspapers of the day called Warneke the outstanding National League pitcher of the 1932 season and The Sporting News (which had hailed Warneke as "a great pitcher, such as pops up once in a lifetime") named him as one of two pitchers to its 1932 All-Star team, honors foreshadowing the then non-existent

text: Cy Young Award

text: It is two years following the events of the first game. Spider-Man is trying to balance his civilian and superhero life, frequently late or absent for school, work, and leisure time with his friends. Following dinner with Mary Jane Watson, Peter thwarts an armed looting of an art museum, and tracks down an escaped robber, the Black Cat. Soon after this, he thwarts an attack in the streets of Manhattan by The Rhino. Meanwhile, Doctor Otto Octavius attempts to recreate nuclear fusion of that seen in the sun to provide an energy source for Manhattan. To control this fusion, he creates four metal arms which he can mentally control. His fusion creates a strong magnetic field, destroying the lab, killing his wife Rosie, and grafting his metal arms to his spine and giving his arms control over him. He blames Spider-Man for the incident, despite the fact that Spider-Man was not in the lab until the middle of it.

text: It is two years following the events of the first game. Spider-Man is trying to balance his civilian and superhero life, frequently late or absent for school, work, and leisure time with his friends. Following dinner with Mary Jane Watson, Peter thwarts an armed looting of an art museum, and tracks down an escaped robber, the

text: Black Cat

text: . Soon after this, he thwarts an attack in the streets of Manhattan by

text: The Rhino

text: . Meanwhile, Doctor Otto Octavius attempts to recreate

text: nuclear fusion

text: of that seen in the sun to provide an energy source for Manhattan. To control this fusion, he creates four metal arms which he can mentally control. His fusion creates a strong magnetic field, destroying the lab, killing his wife Rosie, and grafting his metal arms to his spine and giving his arms control over him. He blames Spider-Man for the incident, despite the fact that Spider-Man was not in the lab until the middle of it.

text: The "Star" name and format was later picked up by KEDG as part of their reformatting and rebranding as "Star 106.9" to replace the format installed here.

text: The "Star" name and format was later picked up by

text: KEDG

text: as part of their reformatting and rebranding as "Star 106.9" to replace the format installed here.

text: The stars of Leo IV were probably among the first stars to form in the Universe. Nevertheless, the detailed study of the stellar population revealed the presence of a small number of much younger stars with the age of about 2 billion years or less. This discovery points to a complicated star formation history of this galaxy. Currently there is no star formation in Leo IV. The measurements have so far failed to detect any neutral hydrogen in it—the upper limit is just 600 solar masses.

text: The stars of Leo IV were probably among the first stars to form in the

text: Universe

text: . Nevertheless, the detailed study of the stellar population revealed the presence of a small number of much younger stars with the age of about 2 billion years or less. This discovery points to a complicated

text: star formation

text: history of this galaxy. Currently there is no star formation in Leo IV. The measurements have so far failed to detect any

text: neutral hydrogen

text: in it—the upper limit is just 600 solar masses.

text: The spectrum of component B, the outer star of the triple, cannot be detected.  Lines representing a B0.5 main sequence star have been shown to belong to the inner secondary component Ab.  The luminosity contribution from σ Ori B can be measured and it is likely to be a B0-2 main sequence star.  Its visual magnitude of 5.31 is similar to σ Ori Ab and so it should be easily visible, but it is speculated that its spectral lines are highly broadened and invisible against the backdrop of the other two stars.

text: The spectrum of R Scuti is peculiar, especially at cooler temperatures near the minima.  In deep minima, much of the spectrum corresponds to an early K supergiant, but the spectrum also develops TiO bands more typical of an M-class star.

text: A pre-main-sequence star (also known as a PMS star and PMS object) is a star in the stage when it has not yet reached the main sequence. Earlier in its life, the object is a protostar that grows by acquiring mass from its surrounding envelope of interstellar dust and gas. After the protostar blows away this envelope, it is optically visible, and appears on the stellar birthline in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. At this point, the star has acquired nearly all of its mass but has not yet started hydrogen burning (i.e. nuclear fusion of hydrogen). The star then contracts, its internal temperature rising until it begins hydrogen burning on the zero age main sequence. This period of contraction is the pre-main sequence stage.  An observed PMS object can either be a T Tauri star, if it has fewer than 2 solar masses (), or else a Herbig Ae/Be star, if it has 2 to 8 . Yet more massive stars have no pre-main-sequence stage because they contract too quickly as protostars. By the time they become visible, the hydrogen in their centers is already fusing and they are main-sequence objects.

text: A pre-main-sequence star (also known as a PMS star and PMS object) is a

text: star

text: in the stage when it has not yet reached the

text: main sequence

text: . Earlier in its life, the object is a

text: protostar

text: that grows by acquiring mass from its surrounding envelope of interstellar dust and gas. After the

text: protostar

text: blows away this envelope, it is optically visible, and appears on the

text: stellar birthline

text: in the

text: Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

text: . At this point, the star has acquired nearly all of its mass but has not yet started

text: hydrogen burning

text: (i.e.

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen). The star then contracts, its internal temperature rising until it begins hydrogen burning on the

text: zero age main sequence

text: . This period of contraction is the pre-main sequence stage.  An observed PMS object can either be a

text: T Tauri star

text: , if it has fewer than 2

text: solar mass

text: es (), or else a

text: Herbig Ae/Be star

text: , if it has 2 to 8 . Yet more massive stars have no pre-main-sequence stage because they contract too quickly as protostars. By the time they become visible, the hydrogen in their centers is already fusing and they are

text: main-sequence

text: objects.

text: Main-sequence stars are called dwarf stars, but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing. For the cooler stars, dwarfs such as red dwarfs, orange dwarfs, and yellow dwarfs are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors. However, for hotter blue and white stars, the size and brightness difference between so-called "dwarf" stars that are on the main sequence and the so-called "giant" stars that are not becomes smaller; for the hottest stars it is not directly observable. For those stars the terms "dwarf" and "giant" refer to differences in spectral lines which indicate if a star is on the main sequence or off it.  Nevertheless, very hot main-sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs, even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the "giant" stars of that temperature.

text: Main-sequence stars are called dwarf stars, but this terminology is partly historical and can be somewhat confusing. For the cooler stars, dwarfs such as

text: red dwarf

text: s,

text: orange dwarf

text: s, and

text: yellow dwarf

text: s are indeed much smaller and dimmer than other stars of those colors. However, for hotter blue and white stars, the size and brightness difference between so-called "dwarf" stars that are on the main sequence and the so-called "giant" stars that are not becomes smaller; for the hottest stars it is not directly observable. For those stars the terms "dwarf" and "giant" refer to differences in

text: spectral line

text: s which indicate if a star is on the main sequence or off it.  Nevertheless, very hot main-sequence stars are still sometimes called dwarfs, even though they have roughly the same size and brightness as the "giant" stars of that temperature.

text: In the past scientists thought that planets would be unlikely to form around binary stars. However, recent simulations indicate that planets are just as likely to form around binary star systems as single-star systems. Of the 778 Exoplanets currently known, about 20 or so actually orbit binary star systems. Specifically, they orbit what are known as "wide" binary star systems where the two stars are fairly far apart (several AU). Tatooine appears to be of the other type — a "close" binary, where the stars are very close, and the planets orbit their common center of mass.

text: In the past scientists thought that planets would be unlikely to form around

text: binary star

text: s. However, recent simulations indicate that planets are just as likely to form around binary star systems as single-star systems. Of the 778 Exoplanets currently known, about 20 or so actually orbit

text: binary star system

text: s. Specifically, they orbit what are known as "wide" binary star systems where the two stars are fairly far apart (several

text: AU

text: Tatooine

text: appears to be of the other type — a "close" binary, where the stars are very close, and the planets orbit their common

text: center of mass

text: Supernova progenitors are most commonly red supergiants and it was believed that only red supergiants could explode as supernovae.  SN 1987A, however, forced astronomers to re-examine this theory, as its progenitor, Sanduleak -69° 202, was a B3 blue supergiant.  Now it is known from observation  that almost any class of evolved high-mass star, including blue and yellow supergiants, can explode as a supernova although theory still struggles to explain how in detail. While most supernovae are of the relatively homogeneous type II-P and are produced by red supergiants, blue supergiants are observed to produce supernovae with a wide range of luminosities, durations, and spectral types, sometimes sub-luminous like SN 1987A, sometimes super-luminous such as many type IIn supernovae.

text: Supernova progenitors are most commonly red supergiants and it was believed that only red supergiants could explode as supernovae.

text: SN 1987A

text: , however, forced astronomers to re-examine this theory, as its progenitor,

text: Sanduleak -69° 202

text: , was a B3 blue supergiant.  Now it is known from observation  that almost any class of evolved high-mass star, including blue and yellow supergiants, can explode as a supernova although theory still struggles to explain how in detail. While most supernovae are of the relatively homogeneous type II-P and are produced by red supergiants, blue supergiants are observed to produce supernovae with a wide range of luminosities, durations, and spectral types, sometimes sub-luminous like SN 1987A, sometimes super-luminous such as many type IIn supernovae.

text: Star Wraith and Star Wraith II do not easily seem to flow into the stories of Star Wraith III and Star Wraith IV. This seems to suggest that Star Wraith and Star Wraith II are no longer canon. The most important factor is that time scales don't seem to match between games.

text: Star Wraith and Star Wraith II do not easily seem to flow into the stories of Star Wraith III and Star Wraith IV. This seems to suggest that Star Wraith and Star Wraith II are no longer

text: canon

text: . The most important factor is that time scales don't seem to match between games.

text: and does not apply to red giants or white dwarfs.  As a star approaches the Eddington Luminosity then a = 1.

text: and does not apply to red giants or white dwarfs.  As a star approaches the

text: Eddington Luminosity

text: then a = 1.

text: Six single stars, two binary star systems, and a triple star share a common motion through space with Proxima Centauri and the Alpha Centauri system. The space velocities of these stars are all within 10 km/s of Alpha Centauri's peculiar motion. Thus, they may form a moving group of stars, which would indicate a common point of origin, such as in a star cluster. If it is determined that Proxima Centauri is not gravitationally bound to Alpha Centauri, then such a moving group would help explain their relatively close proximity.

text: Six single stars, two binary star systems, and a triple star share a common motion through space with Proxima Centauri and the Alpha Centauri system. The

text: space velocities

text: of these stars are all within 10 km/s of Alpha Centauri's

text: peculiar motion

text: . Thus, they may form a

text: moving group

text: of stars, which would indicate a common point of origin, such as in a

text: star cluster

text: . If it is determined that Proxima Centauri is not gravitationally bound to Alpha Centauri, then such a moving group would help explain their relatively close proximity.

text: AXAF was renamed Chandra as part of a contest held by NASA in 1998, which drew more than 6,000 submissions worldwide. The contest winners, Jatila van der Veen and Tyrel Johnson (then a high school teacher and high school student, respectively), suggested the name in honor of Nobel Prize–winning Indian-American astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. He is known for his work in determining the maximum mass of white dwarf stars, leading to greater understanding of high energy astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars and black holes.

text: AXAF was renamed Chandra as part of a contest held by NASA in 1998, which drew more than 6,000 submissions worldwide. The contest winners, Jatila van der Veen and Tyrel Johnson (then a high school teacher and high school student, respectively), suggested the name in honor of Nobel Prize–winning

text: Indian-American

text: astrophysicist

text: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: . He is known for his work in determining the

text: maximum mass

text: of

text: white dwarf

text: stars, leading to greater understanding of high energy astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars and black holes.

text: Main-sequence stars with masses above about  are already very luminous and they move horizontally across the HR diagram when they leave the main sequence, briefly becoming blue giants before they expand further into blue supergiants. They start core-helium burning before the core becomes degenerate and develop smoothly into red supergiants without a strong increase in luminosity.  At this stage they have comparable luminosities to bright AGB stars although they have much higher masses, but will further increase in luminosity as they burn heavier elements and eventually become a supernova. Stars in the  range have somewhat intermediate properties and have been called super-AGB stars. They largely follow the tracks of lighter stars through RGB, HB, and AGB phases, but are massive enough to initiate core carbon burning and even some neon burning. They form oxygen–magnesium–neon cores, which may collapse in an electron-capture supernova, or they may leave behind an oxygen–neon white dwarf.

text: A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common center of mass. The brighter star is called the primary and the lesser is its companion star, or secondary. A binary star is one kind of double star : a star that resolves visually into two separate stars that are very close together as seen from the Earth; the other type of double star is an optical double, consisting of stars of significantly differing distances or velocities which merely appear near each other in the sky but are dynamically unrelated.

text: A

text: binary star

text: is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common center of mass. The brighter star is called the primary and the lesser is its companion star, or secondary. A binary star is one kind of double star : a star that resolves visually into two separate stars that are very close together as seen from the Earth; the other type of double star is an optical double, consisting of stars of significantly differing distances or velocities which merely appear near each other in the sky but are dynamically unrelated.

text: His writing credits include: Abandoned, starring Brittany Murphy in her final starring role, Dean Cain, Mimi Rogers, Peter Bogdanovich and Tim Thomerson; the Hallmark film Christmas Wedding Tail starring Jennie Garth, Brad Rowe, Tom Arnold, Jay Mohr and Nikki Cox; A Valentine Date, starring Elisa Donovan, Brad Rowe, Tom Skeritt, Fred Willard, John Schneider, Catherine Hicks and Tracey Gold; Stolen, starring Emmanuelle Vaugier and Corbin Bernsen; Obsession, starring Charisma Carpenter; Seduced by Lies, starring Josie Davis; Eve's Christmas starring Elisa Donovan and Cheryl Ladd, one of the highest rated Christmas movies in Lifetime history; His and Her Christmas starring Dina Meyer and David Sutcliffe; the New Line Cinema release Poison Ivy 4: The Secret Society starring  Catherine Hicks, Greg Evigan, Miriam McDonald and Shawna Waldron; the Syfy original Killer Mountain starring Emmanuelle Vaugier, Aaron Douglas, Paul Campbell, Torrance Coombs, and Crystal Lowe; The Perfect Student starring Natasha Henstridge, Brea Grant, and Josie Davis; A Christmas Proposal starring Nicole Eggert, Tom Arnold, David O'Donnell, Shannon Sturges, David DeLuise, and Oscar-nominee Patty McCormack; Termination Point starring Jason Priestley and Lou Diamond Phillips; Blind Injustice starring Jamie Luner, Josie Davis and Theresa Russell; Cave In starring Mimi Rogers and Ted Shackelford; Secret Lives starring Daphne Zuniga and Duncan Regehr; His and Her Christmas starring Dina Meyer, Paula Devicq and David Sutcliffe; Trapped, starring Alexandra Paul, Nicholas Turturro and Dennis Christopher; Hydra starring George Stults; Past Lies, starring Nicole Eggert and Ty Olsson; Encounter With Danger, starring Shannen Doherty and Mark Humphrey; Faultline starring Doug Savant. He also co-wrote the airline disaster film Turbulent Skies with director Fred Olen Ray, starring Casper Van Dien, Nicole Eggert, Patrick Muldoon and Brad Dourif.

text: His writing credits include:

text: Abandoned

text: , starring

text: Brittany Murphy

text: in her final starring role,

text: Dean Cain

text: Mimi Rogers

text: Peter Bogdanovich

text: and

text: Tim Thomerson

text: ; the Hallmark film Christmas Wedding Tail starring

text: Jennie Garth

text: Brad Rowe

text: Tom Arnold

text: Jay Mohr

text: and

text: Nikki Cox

text: ; A Valentine Date, starring

text: Elisa Donovan

text: Brad Rowe

text: Tom Skeritt

text: Fred Willard

text: John Schneider

text: Catherine Hicks

text: and

text: Tracey Gold

text: ; Stolen, starring

text: Emmanuelle Vaugier

text: and

text: Corbin Bernsen

text: ; Obsession, starring

text: Charisma Carpenter

text: ; Seduced by Lies, starring

text: Josie Davis

text: ; Eve's Christmas starring

text: Elisa Donovan

text: and

text: Cheryl Ladd

text: , one of the highest rated Christmas movies in Lifetime history;

text: His and Her Christmas

text: starring

text: Dina Meyer

text: and

text: David Sutcliffe

text: ; the New Line Cinema release

text: Poison Ivy 4: The Secret Society

text: starring

text: Catherine Hicks

text: Greg Evigan

text: Miriam McDonald

text: and

text: Shawna Waldron

text: ; the Syfy original Killer Mountain starring

text: Emmanuelle Vaugier

text: Aaron Douglas

text: Paul Campbell

text: Torrance Coombs

text: , and

text: Crystal Lowe

text: The Perfect Student

text: starring

text: Natasha Henstridge

text: Brea Grant

text: , and

text: Josie Davis

text: ; A Christmas Proposal starring

text: Nicole Eggert

text: Tom Arnold

text: , David O'Donnell,

text: Shannon Sturges

text: David DeLuise

text: , and Oscar-nominee

text: Patty McCormack

text: ; Termination Point starring

text: Jason Priestley

text: and

text: Lou Diamond Phillips

text: Blind Injustice

text: starring

text: Jamie Luner

text: Josie Davis

text: and

text: Theresa Russell

text: ; Cave In starring

text: Mimi Rogers

text: and

text: Ted Shackelford

text: ; Secret Lives starring

text: Daphne Zuniga

text: and

text: Duncan Regehr

text: ; His and Her Christmas starring

text: Dina Meyer

text: Paula Devicq

text: and

text: David Sutcliffe

text: ; Trapped, starring

text: Alexandra Paul

text: Nicholas Turturro

text: and

text: Dennis Christopher

text: Hydra

text: starring

text: George Stults

text: ; Past Lies, starring

text: Nicole Eggert

text: and

text: Ty Olsson

text: ; Encounter With Danger, starring

text: Shannen Doherty

text: and

text: Mark Humphrey

text: ; Faultline starring

text: Doug Savant

text: . He also co-wrote the airline disaster film Turbulent Skies with director

text: Fred Olen Ray

text: , starring

text: Casper Van Dien

text: Nicole Eggert

text: Patrick Muldoon

text: and

text: Brad Dourif

text: Suddenly displacing one of two gravitoelectrically interacting particles would, after a delay corresponding to lightspeed, cause the other to feel the displaced particle's absence: accelerations due to the change in quadrupole moment of star systems, like the Hulse–Taylor binary have removed much energy (almost 2% of the energy of our own Sun's output) as gravitational waves, which would theoretically travel at the speed of light.

text: Suddenly displacing one of two gravitoelectrically interacting particles would, after a delay corresponding to lightspeed, cause the other to feel the displaced particle's absence: accelerations due to the change in quadrupole moment of star systems, like the

text: Hulse–Taylor binary

text: have removed much energy (almost 2% of the energy of our own Sun's output) as gravitational waves, which would theoretically travel at the speed of light.

text: Six star systems have been found to contain exoplanets, of which two were discovered by the Doppler method and four by the transit method. 6 Lyncis, an orange subgiant that spent much of its life as an A-type or F-type main sequence star, is orbited by a planet with a minimum mass of 2.4 Jupiter masses and an orbital period of 899 days. HD 75898 is a 3.8 ± 0.8 billion-year-old yellow star of spectral type G0V that has just begun expanding and cooling off the main sequence. It has a planet at least 2.51 times as massive as Jupiter orbiting with a period of around 418 days. The centre of mass of the system is accelerating, indicating there is a third, more distant, component at least the size of Jupiter. Three star systems were found to have planets that were observed by the XO Telescope in Hawaii as they passed in front of them. XO-2 is a binary star system, both the stars of which are slightly less massive and cooler than the Sun and have planetary companions: XO-2S has a Saturn-mass planet at 0.13 au distance with a period of around 18 days, and one a little more massive than Jupiter at a distance of 0.48 au and with a period of around 120 days, while XO-2N has a hot jupiter with around half Jupiter's mass that has an orbit of only 2.6 days. XO-4 is an F-type main sequence star that is a little hotter and more massive than the Sun that has a hot jupiter orbiting with a period of around 4.1 days. XO-5 is a Sun-like star with a hot jupiter about as massive as Jupiter that takes around 4.2 days to complete an orbit. WASP-13, a sun-like star that has begun to swell and cool off the main sequence, had a transiting planet discovered by the SuperWASP program in 2009. The planet is around half as massive as Jupiter and takes 4.35 days to complete a revolution.

text: Six star systems have been found to contain

text: exoplanet

text: s, of which two were discovered by the

text: Doppler method

text: and four by the transit method.

text: 6 Lyncis

text: , an orange subgiant that spent much of its life as an A-type or F-type main sequence star, is orbited by a planet with a

text: minimum mass

text: of 2.4 Jupiter masses and an

text: orbital period

text: of 899 days.

text: HD 75898

text: is a 3.8 ± 0.8 billion-year-old yellow star of spectral type G0V that has just begun expanding and cooling off the main sequence. It has a planet at least 2.51 times as massive as Jupiter orbiting with a period of around 418 days. The centre of mass of the system is accelerating, indicating there is a third, more distant, component at least the size of Jupiter. Three star systems were found to have planets that were observed by the

text: XO Telescope

text: in Hawaii as they

text: passed in front of them

text: is a binary star system, both the stars of which are slightly less massive and cooler than the Sun and have planetary companions: XO-2S has a Saturn-mass planet at 0.13 au distance with a period of around 18 days, and one a little more massive than Jupiter at a distance of 0.48 au and with a period of around 120 days, while XO-2N has a

text: hot jupiter

text: with around half Jupiter's mass that has an orbit of only 2.6 days.

text: is an F-type main sequence star that is a little hotter and more massive than the Sun that has a hot jupiter orbiting with a period of around 4.1 days.

text: is a Sun-like star with a hot jupiter about as massive as Jupiter that takes around 4.2 days to complete an orbit.

text: , a sun-like star that has begun to swell and cool off the main sequence, had a transiting planet discovered by the

text: SuperWASP

text: program in 2009. The planet is around half as massive as Jupiter and takes 4.35 days to complete a revolution.

text: When the core of a medium mass star contracts, it causes a release of energy that makes the envelope of the star expand. This continues until the star finally blows its outer layers off. The core of the star remains intact and becomes a white dwarf. The white dwarf is surrounded by an expanding shell of gas in an object known as a planetary nebula. Planetary nebulae seem to mark the transition of a medium mass star from red giant to white dwarf. X-ray images reveal clouds of multimillion degree gas that have been compressed and heated by the fast stellar wind. Eventually the central star collapses to form a white dwarf. For a billion or so years after a star collapses to form a white dwarf, it is "white" hot with surface temperatures of ~20,000 K.

text: When the core of a medium mass star contracts, it causes a release of energy that makes the envelope of the star expand. This continues until the star finally blows its outer layers off. The core of the star remains intact and becomes a

text: white dwarf

text: . The white dwarf is surrounded by an expanding shell of gas in an object known as a planetary nebula.

text: Planetary nebulae

text: seem to mark the transition of a medium mass star from

text: red giant

text: to white dwarf. X-ray images reveal clouds of multimillion degree gas that have been compressed and heated by the fast stellar wind. Eventually the central star collapses to form a white dwarf. For a billion or so years after a star collapses to form a white dwarf, it is "white" hot with surface temperatures of ~20,000 K.

text: Monday played 19-seasons for the Kansas City/Oakland Athletics (1966–71), Chicago Cubs (1972–76) and Los Angeles Dodgers (1977–84). He compiled a lifetime .264 batting average, 1,619 hits, 241 home runs, and 775 RBI. He was selected an All-Star in 1968 and 1978. He batted and threw left-handed.

text: Monday played 19-seasons for the

text: Kansas City/Oakland Athletics

text: Chicago Cubs

text: (1972–76) and

text: Los Angeles Dodgers

text: (1977–84). He compiled a lifetime .264

text: batting average

text: , 1,619

text: hits

text: , 241

text: home run

text: s, and 775

text: RBI

text: . He was selected an

text: All-Star

text: in 1968 and 1978. He batted and threw left-handed.

text: O-type main-sequence stars tend to appear in the spiral arms of spiral galaxies. This is because of the fact that, as a spiral arm moves through space, it compresses any molecular clouds in its way. The initial compression of these molecular clouds leads to the formation of stars, some of which are O- and B-type stars. Also, as these stars have shorter lifetimes, they cannot move great distances before their death and so they stay in or relatively near to the spiral arm in which they formed. On the other hand, less massive stars live longer and thus are found throughout the galactic disc, including in between the spiral arms.

text: O-type main-sequence stars tend to appear in the spiral arms of spiral galaxies. This is because of the fact that, as a spiral arm moves through space, it compresses any

text: molecular cloud

text: s in its way. The initial compression of these molecular clouds leads to the formation of stars, some of which are O- and

text: B-type star

text: s. Also, as these stars have shorter lifetimes, they cannot move great distances before their death and so they stay in or relatively near to the spiral arm in which they formed. On the other hand, less massive stars live longer and thus are found throughout the

text: galactic disc

text: , including in between the spiral arms.

text: The Telegraph awarded the album four out of five stars, and called it "an ambient album for broken-hearted hipsters" and praised the melodies and arrangements on the album. USA Today believed the album "shows that Del Rey's sound has evolved and matured in captivating ways", while giving a three-out-of-four-stars review for the album. In a four-star review, The Metropolist thought "Del Rey has found a balance in sounds" and praised how the album's production "beautifully harmonises lush strings, muddy baselines and haunting melodies, all blending to create a fluent and ethereal body of work". Evening Standard also praised the album's production, remarking how it "swells in time to the oceans of longing in Del Rey's voice".

text: The Telegraph

text: awarded the album four out of five stars, and called it "an ambient album for broken-hearted hipsters" and praised the melodies and arrangements on the album.

text: USA Today

text: believed the album "shows that Del Rey's sound has evolved and matured in captivating ways", while giving a three-out-of-four-stars review for the album. In a four-star review, The Metropolist thought "Del Rey has found a balance in sounds" and praised how the album's production "beautifully harmonises lush strings, muddy baselines and haunting melodies, all blending to create a fluent and ethereal body of work". Evening Standard also praised the album's production, remarking how it "swells in time to the oceans of longing in Del Rey's voice".

text: In 1990, Kenyon, Hartmann and Karen & Steve Strom identified the luminosity problem: protostars in the Taurus-Auriga star-forming region are approximately 10 times less luminous than predicted by star formation theory. In this theory, protostars form by gravitational collapse of a cloud of gas and dust. Over their lifetimes, protostars radiate a total energy comparable to their binding energy. With apparent lifetimes of about 100,000 yr, they have expected luminosities of 10-20 larger than the solar luminosity.  Recent observations of larger numbers of protostars with the Spitzer Space Telescope confirm that protostars have typical luminosities closer to the solar luminosity. Kenyon and colleagues identified several possible solutions to this luminosity problem. Adopting larger ages allows protostars to radiate the same amount of energy over a longer time, reducing their average luminosity. If protostars spend a small fraction of their lifetimes at much higher luminosity, as in the FU Orionis stars, then their average luminosity can be much larger than their typical luminosity. McKee & Offner note that ejecting material in a bipolar outflow reduces the expected luminosity of protostars but does not resolve the luminosity problem. Data from Spitzer resolve the luminosity problem by deriving better estimates for the time spent in a high luminosity state and larger ages of 300,000 yr for protostars. This resolution leads to an improved understanding of the early life histories of stars.

text: In 1990, Kenyon, Hartmann and Karen & Steve Strom identified the luminosity problem:

text: protostars

text: in the Taurus-Auriga star-forming region are approximately 10 times less luminous than predicted by star formation theory. In this theory, protostars form by gravitational collapse of a cloud of gas and dust. Over their lifetimes, protostars radiate a total energy comparable to their binding energy. With apparent lifetimes of about 100,000 yr, they have expected luminosities of 10-20 larger than the

text: solar luminosity

text: .  Recent observations of larger numbers of protostars with the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: confirm that protostars have typical luminosities closer to the solar luminosity. Kenyon and colleagues identified several possible solutions to this luminosity problem. Adopting larger ages allows protostars to radiate the same amount of energy over a longer time, reducing their average luminosity. If

text: protostars

text: spend a small fraction of their lifetimes at much higher luminosity, as in the

text: FU Orionis stars

text: , then their average luminosity can be much larger than their typical luminosity. McKee & Offner note that ejecting material in a bipolar outflow reduces the expected luminosity of protostars but does not resolve the luminosity problem. Data from

text: Spitzer

text: resolve the luminosity problem by deriving better estimates for the time spent in a high luminosity state and larger ages of 300,000 yr for protostars. This resolution leads to an improved understanding of the early life histories of stars.

text: It is believed that plasma wakefield acceleration in the form of electron-beam 'afterburners' and standalone laser pulsers might be able to provide dramatic increases in efficiency over RF accelerators within two to three decades. In plasma wakefield accelerators, the beam cavity is filled with a plasma (rather than vacuum). A short pulse of electrons or laser light either constitutes or immediately precedes the particles that are being accelerated. The pulse disrupts the plasma, causing the charged particles in the plasma to integrate into and move toward the rear of the bunch of particles that are being accelerated. This process transfers energy to the particle bunch, accelerating it further, and continues as long as the pulse is coherent.

text: It is believed that

text: plasma wakefield acceleration

text: in the form of electron-beam 'afterburners' and standalone laser pulsers might be able to provide dramatic increases in efficiency over RF accelerators within two to three decades. In plasma wakefield accelerators, the beam cavity is filled with a plasma (rather than vacuum). A short pulse of electrons or laser light either constitutes or immediately precedes the particles that are being accelerated. The pulse disrupts the plasma, causing the charged particles in the plasma to integrate into and move toward the rear of the bunch of particles that are being accelerated. This process transfers energy to the particle bunch, accelerating it further, and continues as long as the pulse is coherent.

text: 6 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 6.46.

text: 6 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 6.46.

text: The brightest O7-8V main sequence stars in Wd1 have V-band photometric magnitudes around 20.5, and therefore at visual wavelengths Wd1 is dominated by highly luminous post-Main Sequence stars (V-band magnitudes of 14.5–18, absolute magnitudes −7 to −10), along with less-luminous post-Main Sequence stars of luminosity class Ib and II (V-band magnitudes of 18–20). Due to the extremely high interstellar reddening towards Wd1, it is very difficult to observe in the U- and B-bands, and most observations are made in the R- or I-bands at the red end of the spectrum or in the infra red. Stars in the cluster are generally named using a classification introduced by Westerlund, although a separate naming convention is often used for the Wolf-Rayet stars.

text: The brightest O7-8V

text: main sequence

text: stars in Wd1 have

text: V-band photometric

text: magnitudes

text: around 20.5, and therefore at visual wavelengths Wd1 is dominated by highly luminous post-Main Sequence stars (V-band magnitudes of 14.5–18,

text: absolute magnitude

text: s −7 to −10), along with less-luminous post-Main Sequence stars of

text: luminosity class

text: Ib and II (V-band magnitudes of 18–20). Due to the extremely high interstellar reddening towards Wd1, it is very difficult to observe in the U- and B-bands, and most observations are made in the R- or I-bands at the red end of the spectrum or in the

text: infra red

text: . Stars in the cluster are generally named using a classification introduced by Westerlund, although a separate naming convention is often used for the Wolf-Rayet stars.

text: Runaway thermonuclear reactions can occur in stars when nuclear fusion is ignited in conditions under which the pressure exerted by overlying layers of the star greatly exceeds thermal pressure, a situation that makes possible rapid increases in temperature. Such a scenario may arise in stars containing degenerate matter, in which electron degeneracy pressure rather than normal thermal pressure does most of the work of supporting the star against gravity, and in stars undergoing implosion. In all cases, the imbalance arises prior to fusion ignition; otherwise, the fusion reactions would be naturally regulated to counteract temperature changes and stabilize the star. When thermal pressure is in equilibrium with overlying pressure, a star will respond to the increase in temperature and thermal pressure due to initiation of a new exothermic reaction by expanding and cooling. A runaway reaction is only possible when this response is inhibited.

text: Runaway thermonuclear reactions can occur in stars when

text: nuclear fusion

text: is ignited in conditions under which the pressure exerted by overlying layers of the star greatly exceeds

text: thermal pressure

text: , a situation that makes possible rapid increases in temperature. Such a scenario may arise in stars containing

text: degenerate matter

text: , in which

text: electron degeneracy pressure

text: rather than normal thermal pressure does most of the work of supporting the star against gravity, and in stars undergoing implosion. In all cases, the imbalance arises prior to fusion ignition; otherwise, the fusion reactions would be naturally regulated to counteract temperature changes and stabilize the star. When thermal pressure is in equilibrium with overlying pressure, a star will respond to the increase in temperature and thermal pressure due to initiation of a new exothermic reaction by expanding and cooling. A runaway reaction is only possible when this response is inhibited.

text: The double star nature of this system was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1664. The two components have an angular separation of 7.606 arcseconds, which can be resolved with a small telescope. The orbital period of the pair is greater than 5000 years. The brighter component, γ¹ Arietis, is a magnitude 4.58 B-type main-sequence star with a stellar classification of B9 V. The secondary, γ² Arietis, is a Lambda Boötis (chemically peculiar) star with a stellar classification of A1p Si and a magnitude of 4.64. It is classified as an α CVn type variable star and its brightness varies by 0.04 magnitudes with a period of 2.61 days.

text: The

text: double star

text: nature of this system was discovered by

text: Robert Hooke

text: in 1664. The two components have an

text: angular separation

text: of 7.606

text: arcsecond

text: s, which can be resolved with a small

text: telescope

text: . The

text: orbital period

text: of the pair is greater than 5000 years. The brighter component, γ¹ Arietis, is a magnitude 4.58

text: B-type main-sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of B9 V. The secondary, γ² Arietis, is a

text: Lambda Boötis

text: chemically peculiar

text: ) star with a

text: stellar classification

text: of A1p Si and a magnitude of 4.64. It is classified as an

text: α CVn type

text: variable star

text: and its brightness varies by 0.04 magnitudes with a period of 2.61 days.

text: Both stars are considered unusual because they have a lower luminosity than is normal for main sequence stars of their age and surface temperature. That is, they lie below the main sequence curve on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for newly formed stars. Most stars will evolve above this curve as they age. ζ has an intermediate level of magnetic activity in its chromosphere. Although the kinematics of this system suggest that they belong to a population of older stars, the properties of their stellar chromospheres suggests that they are only about 2 billion years old.

text: Both stars are considered unusual because they have a lower

text: luminosity

text: than is normal for

text: main sequence

text: stars of their age and surface temperature. That is, they lie below the main sequence curve on the

text: Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

text: for newly formed stars. Most stars will evolve above this curve as they age. ζ has an intermediate level of magnetic activity in its

text: chromosphere

text: . Although the kinematics of this system suggest that they belong to a population of older stars, the properties of their stellar

text: chromosphere

text: s suggests that they are only about 2 billion years old.

text: At the beginning of the game, the player accumulates mass by colliding their asteroid against other asteroids until enough mass has been gathered to become a small planet. From there, the player has to absorb other asteroids to make their planet grow enough to become a life planet; crashing against other objects will decrease the player's mass. At this point, life forms will evolve in the planet, creating spaceships, planetary shields and cannons. If the player wishes, they can accumulate more mass until their planet becomes a star. Life forms will disappear, but the player will be able to attract planets to form a solar system, further grow the star by absorbing other planets, or a combination of both. The player can also create multi-star systems by selecting planets from their system and make them absorb asteroids until they become another star.

text: Names similar to Deneb were given to at least seven different stars, most notably Deneb Kaitos, the brightest star in the constellation of Cetus; Deneb Algedi, the brightest star in Capricornus; and Denebola, the second brightest star in Leo. All these stars are referring to the tail of the animals that their respective constellations represent.

text: Names similar to Deneb were given to at least seven different stars, most notably

text: Deneb Kaitos

text: , the brightest star in the constellation of

text: Cetus

text: Deneb Algedi

text: , the brightest star in

text: Capricornus

text: ; and

text: Denebola

text: , the second brightest star in

text: Leo

text: . All these stars are referring to the tail of the animals that their respective constellations represent.

text: The most important fusion process in nature is the one that powers stars, stellar nucleosynthesis. In the 20th century, it was realized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the Sun and other stars  as a source of heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei as a byproduct of the fusion process. The prime energy producer in the Sun is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium, which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two positrons, two neutrinos (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star. For stars the size of the sun or smaller, the proton-proton chain dominates. In heavier stars, the CNO cycle is more important.

text: The most important fusion process in nature is the one that powers

text: star

text: s,

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: . In the 20th century, it was realized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the

text: Sun

text: and other stars  as a source of heat and light. The fusion of nuclei in a star, starting from its initial hydrogen and helium abundance, provides that energy and synthesizes new nuclei as a byproduct of the fusion process. The prime energy producer in the Sun is the fusion of hydrogen to form helium, which occurs at a solar-core temperature of 14 million kelvin. The net result is the fusion of four

text: proton

text: s into one

text: alpha particle

text: , with the release of two

text: positron

text: s, two

text: neutrino

text: s (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy. Different reaction chains are involved, depending on the mass of the star. For stars the size of the sun or smaller, the

text: proton-proton chain

text: dominates. In heavier stars, the

text: CNO cycle

text: is more important.

text: In 2014, he starred as Ray in the rom-com thriller I Put a Hit on You co-starring Sara Canning. In 2015, Ashmore had a supporting role in movie Regression. He also starred as Nick Hopewell in the Lifetime original movie Swept Under alongside Devin Kelley. In summer 2015, Ashmore began his role as John Jaqobis in the Syfy original series Killjoys. The show was renewed for a second season by Syfy for the summer of 2016, where he is continuing his role. He plays the role of one of the three interplanetary bounty hunters sworn to remain impartial as they chase deadly warrants throughout the Quad, a distant system on the brink of a bloody, multi-planetary class war. In December 2015, he starred as Jesse in Christmas themed lifetime movie Wish Upon a Christmas co-starring Larisa Oleynik.

text: In 2014, he starred as Ray in the rom-com thriller I Put a Hit on You co-starring

text: Sara Canning

text: . In 2015, Ashmore had a supporting role in movie

text: Regression

text: . He also starred as Nick Hopewell in the

text: Lifetime

text: original movie Swept Under alongside

text: Devin Kelley

text: . In summer 2015, Ashmore began his role as John Jaqobis in the

text: Syfy

text: original series

text: Killjoys

text: . The show was renewed for a second season by Syfy for the summer of 2016, where he is continuing his role. He plays the role of one of the three interplanetary bounty hunters sworn to remain impartial as they chase deadly warrants throughout the Quad, a distant system on the brink of a bloody, multi-planetary class war. In December 2015, he starred as Jesse in Christmas themed

text: lifetime

text: movie Wish Upon a Christmas co-starring

text: Larisa Oleynik

text: Images taken by Jeff Hester and Paul Scowen using the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995 greatly improved scientific understanding of processes inside the nebula. One of these photographs became famous as the "Pillars of Creation", depicting a large region of star formation. The small dark areas in the photograph are believed to be protostars (Bok globules). The pillar structure of the region resembles that of a much larger star formation region in the Soul Nebula of Cassiopeia, imaged with the Spitzer Space Telescope in 2005 and characterized as "Pillars of Star Creation". or "Pillars of Star Formation". These columns – which resemble stalagmites protruding from the floor of a cavern – are composed of interstellar hydrogen gas and dust, which act as incubators for new stars. Inside the columns and on their surface astronomers have found knots or globules of denser gas, called EGGs ("Evaporating Gaseous Globules"). Stars are being formed inside some of these EGGs.

text: Images taken by Jeff Hester and Paul Scowen using the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: in 1995 greatly improved scientific understanding of processes inside the nebula. One of these photographs became famous as the "

text: Pillars of Creation

text: ", depicting a large region of star formation. The small dark areas in the photograph are believed to be

text: protostar

text: s (

text: Bok globules

text: ). The pillar structure of the region resembles that of a much larger star formation region in the

text: Soul Nebula

text: of

text: Cassiopeia

text: , imaged with the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: in 2005 and characterized as "Pillars of Star Creation". or "Pillars of Star Formation". These columns – which resemble

text: stalagmites

text: protruding from the floor of a cavern – are composed of interstellar hydrogen gas and dust, which act as incubators for new stars. Inside the columns and on their surface astronomers have found knots or globules of denser gas, called EGGs ("Evaporating Gaseous Globules"). Stars are being formed inside some of these EGGs.

text: Gravitational collapse requires great density. In the current epoch of the universe these high densities are only found in stars, but in the early universe shortly after the big bang densities were much greater, possibly allowing for the creation of black holes. The high density alone is not enough to allow the formation of black holes since a uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up. In order for primordial black holes to form in such a dense medium, there must be initial density perturbations that can then grow under their own gravity. Different models for the early universe vary widely in their predictions of the size of these perturbations. Various models predict the creation of black holes, ranging from a Planck mass to hundreds of thousands of solar masses. Primordial black holes could thus account for the creation of any type of black hole.

text: Gravitational collapse requires great density. In the current epoch of the universe these high densities are only found in stars, but in the early universe shortly after the

text: big bang

text: densities were much greater, possibly allowing for the creation of black holes. The high density alone is not enough to allow the formation of black holes since a uniform mass distribution will not allow the mass to bunch up. In order for

text: primordial black holes

text: to form in such a dense medium, there must be initial density perturbations that can then grow under their own gravity. Different models for the early universe vary widely in their predictions of the size of these perturbations. Various models predict the creation of black holes, ranging from a

text: Planck mass

text: to hundreds of thousands of solar masses. Primordial black holes could thus account for the creation of any type of black hole.

text: The measureable properties of an eclipsing binary can allow the physical parameters of the individual components to be worked out in some detail. The primary component has 122% of the Sun's mass, spans 128% of the radius of the Sun, and is emitting 217% of the Sun's luminosity. It is most likely an F-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of F8. The secondary is smaller, with 96% of the mass of the Sun, 96% of the Sun's radius, and radiates just 65% of the Sun's luminosity. This is a G-type main sequence star of class G8.

text: The measureable properties of an eclipsing binary can allow the physical parameters of the individual components to be worked out in some detail. The primary component has 122% of the

text: Sun's mass

text: , spans 128% of the

text: radius of the Sun

text: , and is emitting 217% of the

text: Sun's luminosity

text: . It is most likely an

text: F-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of F8. The secondary is smaller, with 96% of the mass of the Sun, 96% of the Sun's radius, and radiates just 65% of the Sun's luminosity. This is a

text: G-type main sequence star

text: of class G8.

text: The most massive blue supergiants are too luminous to retain an extensive atmosphere and they never expand into a red supergiant.  The dividing line is approximately , although the coolest and largest red supergiants develop from stars with initial masses of .  It isn't clear whether more massive blue supergiants can lose enough mass to evolve safely into a comfortable old age as a Wolf Rayet star and finally a white dwarf, or they reach the Wolf Rayet stage and explode as supernovae, or they explode as supernovae while blue supergiants.

text: The most massive blue supergiants are too luminous to retain an extensive atmosphere and they never expand into a red supergiant.  The dividing line is approximately , although the coolest and largest red supergiants develop from stars with initial masses of .  It isn't clear whether more massive blue supergiants can lose enough mass to evolve safely into a comfortable old age as a Wolf Rayet star and finally a white dwarf, or they reach the Wolf Rayet stage and explode as

text: supernovae

text: , or they explode as

text: supernovae

text: while blue supergiants.

text: In type II-L the plateau is absent because the progenitor had relatively little hydrogen left in its atmosphere, sufficient to appear in the spectrum but insufficient to produce a noticeable plateau in the light output.  In type IIb supernovae the hydrogen atmosphere of the progenitor is so depleted (thought to be due to tidal stripping by a companion star) that the light curve is closer to a type I supernova and the hydrogen even disappears from the spectrum after several weeks.

text: The giant planet is Neptune-sized, about 20-55 Earth-masses (). It has a radius 6.2 times that of Earth's. The star system is 5000 light years from Earth. The planet orbits a close binary, with a more distant binary orbiting at a distance, forming the quadruple star system. The star system has the Kepler Input Catalogue name KIC 4862625 as well as the designation Kepler-64. The close binary (Aa+Ab) that the planet circles has an orbital period of 20 days. They form an eclipsing binary pair. The two stars are (Aa) 1.5 solar mass () F-type main-sequence star and (Ab)  red dwarf. The planet orbits this binary pair in a 138.3-day orbit. The binary pairs have a separation of 1000 AUs. A photometric-dynamical model was used to model the planetary system of the close binary pair. The distant binary (Ba+Bb) have a pair separation of 60 AU. The two stars are (Ba)  G-type main-sequence star and (Bb)  red dwarf. The quadruple star system has an estimated age of 2 gigayears. The system is located at right ascension  declination , so also has a 2MASS catalogue entry of 2MASS 19525162+3957183

text: The

text: giant planet

text: is

text: Neptune

text: -sized, about 20-55

text: Earth-masses

text: (). It has a radius 6.2 times that of Earth's. The star system is 5000

text: light year

text: s from Earth. The planet orbits a close

text: binary

text: , with a more distant binary orbiting at a distance, forming the quadruple star system. The star system has the Kepler Input Catalogue name

text: KIC 4862625

text: as well as the designation

text: . The close binary (Aa+Ab) that the planet circles has an orbital period of 20 days. They form an

text: eclipsing binary

text: pair. The two stars are (Aa) 1.5

text: solar mass

text: F-type main-sequence star

text: and (Ab)

text: red dwarf

text: . The planet orbits this binary pair in a 138.3-day orbit. The binary pairs have a separation of 1000

text: AU

text: s. A photometric-dynamical model was used to model the

text: planetary system

text: of the close binary pair. The distant binary (Ba+Bb) have a pair separation of 60 AU. The two stars are (Ba)

text: G-type main-sequence star

text: and (Bb)  red dwarf. The quadruple star system has an estimated age of 2 gigayears. The system is located at

text: right ascension

text: declination

text: , so also has a

text: catalogue entry of

text: 2MASS 19525162+3957183

text: which now acts as an effective potential. Specifically, an isolated test particle will experience a universal four-acceleration

text: There are several compact clusters near S Doradus, within the general NGC 1910/LH41 association.  The closest is less than four arc-minutes away, contains two out of the three WO stars in the entire LMC, and the entire cluster is about the same brightness as S Doradus.  A little further away is NGC 1916.  Another LBV, R85, is just two arc-minutes away.  This rich star-forming region also hosts a third Wolf-Rayet star, at least 10 other supergiants, and at least 10 class O stars.

text: There are several compact clusters near S Doradus, within the general NGC 1910/LH41 association.  The closest is less than four arc-minutes away, contains two out of the three WO stars in the entire LMC, and the entire cluster is about the same brightness as S Doradus.  A little further away is

text: NGC 1916

text: .  Another LBV,

text: , is just two arc-minutes away.  This rich

text: star-forming region

text: also hosts a third

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: , at least 10 other

text: supergiant

text: s, and at least 10 class O stars.

text: Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than the fourth magnitude, Procyon (Alpha Canis Minoris), with a magnitude of 0.34, and Gomeisa (Beta Canis Minoris), with a magnitude of 2.9. The constellation's dimmer stars were noted by Johann Bayer, who named eight stars including Alpha and Beta, and John Flamsteed, who numbered fourteen. Procyon is the seventh-brightest star in the night sky, as well as one of the closest. A yellow-white main sequence star, it has a white dwarf companion. Gomeisa is a blue-white main sequence star. Luyten's Star is a ninth-magnitude red dwarf and the Solar System's next closest stellar neighbour in the constellation after Procyon. The fourth-magnitude HD 66141, which has evolved into an orange giant towards the end of its life cycle, was discovered to have a planet in 2012. There are two faint deep sky objects within the constellation's borders. The 11 Canis-Minorids are a meteor shower that can be seen in early December.

text: Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than the fourth

text: magnitude

text: Procyon

text: (Alpha Canis Minoris), with a magnitude of 0.34, and

text: Gomeisa

text: (Beta Canis Minoris), with a magnitude of 2.9. The constellation's dimmer stars were noted by

text: Johann Bayer

text: , who named eight stars including Alpha and Beta, and

text: John Flamsteed

text: , who numbered fourteen. Procyon is the seventh-

text: brightest star

text: in the night sky, as well as one of the

text: closest

text: . A yellow-white

text: main sequence

text: star, it has a

text: white dwarf

text: companion

text: . Gomeisa is a blue-white main sequence star.

text: Luyten's Star

text: is a ninth-magnitude

text: red dwarf

text: and the

text: Solar System

text: 's next closest stellar neighbour in the constellation after Procyon. The fourth-magnitude

text: HD 66141

text: , which has evolved into an orange

text: giant

text: towards the end of its

text: life cycle

text: , was discovered to have a planet in 2012. There are two faint

text: deep sky objects

text: within the constellation's borders. The 11

text: Canis-Minorids

text: are a

text: meteor shower

text: that can be seen in early December.

text: 27 Cancri is a star in the constellation Cancer.

text: 27 Cancri is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Cancer

text: Every 9 Seconds, is a 1997 television film directed by Kenneth Fink. It stars former NYPD Blue co-star, Gail O'Grady, Amy Pietz, and former Law & Order: Special Victims Unit star, Christopher Meloni. The film debuted on NBC on October 12, 1997 at 9/8c. The film occasionally re-airs on Lifetime as well as its sister channel Lifetime Movie Network.

text: Every 9 Seconds, is a

text: television film

text: directed by

text: Kenneth Fink

text: . It stars former

text: NYPD Blue

text: co-star,

text: Gail O'Grady

text: Amy Pietz

text: , and former

text: Law & Order: Special Victims Unit

text: star,

text: Christopher Meloni

text: . The film debuted on

text: NBC

text: on October 12, 1997 at 9/8c. The film occasionally re-airs on

text: Lifetime

text: as well as its sister channel

text: Lifetime Movie Network

text: Systems with more than two stars are termed multiple stars. Algol is the most noted ternary (long thought to be a binary), located in the constellation Perseus. Two components of the system eclipse each other, the variation in the intensity of Algol first being recorded in 1670 by Geminiano Montanari. The name Algol means "demon star" (from  al-ghūl), which was probably given due to its peculiar behavior. Another visible ternary is Alpha Centauri, in the southern constellation of Centaurus, which contains the fourth-brightest star in the night sky, with an apparent visual magnitude of −0.01. This system also underscores the fact that binaries need not be discounted in the search for habitable planets. Alpha Centauri A and B have an 11 AU distance at closest approach, and both should have stable habitable zones.

text: Systems with more than two stars are termed

text: multiple star

text: s.

text: Algol

text: is the most noted ternary (long thought to be a binary), located in the constellation

text: Perseus

text: . Two components of the system eclipse each other, the variation in the intensity of Algol first being recorded in 1670 by

text: Geminiano Montanari

text: . The name Algol means "demon star" (from

text: al-ghūl

text: ), which was probably given due to its peculiar behavior. Another visible ternary is

text: Alpha Centauri

text: , in the southern constellation of

text: Centaurus

text: , which contains the

text: fourth-brightest star

text: in the night sky, with an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of −0.01. This system also underscores the fact that binaries need not be discounted in the search for habitable planets. Alpha Centauri A and B have an 11 AU distance at closest approach, and both should have stable habitable zones.

text: In colloquial usage, constellation is a synonym of asterism. But in astronomy, a constellation is an officially recognized area of the sky, surrounding certain asterisms. For example, the asterism known as the Big Dipper comprises the seven brightest stars in the International Astronomical Union (IAU) constellation Ursa Major. Asterism is the more general term, referring to any identified pattern of stars.

text: In colloquial usage, constellation is a synonym of asterism. But in astronomy, a constellation is an officially recognized area of the sky, surrounding certain asterisms. For example, the asterism known as the

text: Big Dipper

text: comprises the seven brightest stars in the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) constellation

text: Ursa Major

text: . Asterism is the more general term, referring to any identified pattern of stars.

text: Moscovium is produced a few atoms at a time in particle accelerators.

text: Moscovium is produced a few atoms at a time in

text: particle accelerators

text: BCD galaxies cool in the process of forming new stars. The galaxies' stars are all formed at different time periods, so the galaxies have time to cool and to build up matter to form new stars. As time passes, this star formation changes the shape of the galaxies.

text: BCD galaxies cool in the process of

text: forming new stars

text: . The galaxies' stars are all formed at different time periods, so the galaxies have time to cool and to build up matter to form new stars. As time passes, this star formation changes the shape of the galaxies.

text: The term subgiant was first used in 1930 for class G and early K stars with absolute magnitudes between +2.5 and +4. These were noted as being part of a continuum of stars between obvious main-sequence stars such as the Sun and obvious giant stars such as Aldebaran, although less numerous than either the main sequence or the giant stars.

text: The term subgiant was first used in 1930 for class G and early K stars with

text: absolute magnitude

text: s between +2.5 and +4. These were noted as being part of a continuum of stars between obvious main-sequence stars such as the

text: Sun

text: and obvious giant stars such as

text: Aldebaran

text: , although less numerous than either the main sequence or the giant stars.

text: eons, leading to what is known as the faint young Sun paradox. Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of the Sun increased and atmospheric composition changed. The Great Oxygenation Event – oxygenation of the atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a red giant and then a white dwarf will have large effects on climate, with the red giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.

text: eons, leading to what is known as the

text: faint young Sun paradox

text: . Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of the Sun increased and atmospheric composition changed. The

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: – oxygenation of the atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a

text: red giant

text: and then a

text: white dwarf

text: will have large effects on climate, with the red giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.

text: According to computer simulations, the minimum mass a red dwarf must have in order to eventually evolve into a red giant is ; less massive objects, as they age, would increase their surface temperatures and luminosities becoming blue dwarfs and finally white dwarfs.

text: According to computer simulations, the minimum mass a red dwarf must have in order to eventually evolve into a

text: red giant

text: is ; less massive objects, as they age, would increase their surface temperatures and luminosities becoming

text: blue dwarfs

text: and finally

text: white dwarf

text: s.

text: Along with ζ Aurigae it represents one of the Kids of the she-goat Capella, from which it gets its Latin traditional name Hoedus II or Haedus II, from the Latin hædus "kid"; Zeta Aurigae is Hoedus I. It has the less common traditional name Mahasim, from the Arabic المِعْصَم al-mişam "wrist" (of the charioteer), which it shares with Theta Aurigae. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 3.18 and is located at a distance of around  from Earth.

text: Along with

text: ζ Aurigae

text: it represents one of the Kids of the she-goat

text: Capella

text: , from which it gets its

text: Latin

text: traditional name Hoedus II or Haedus II, from the Latin hædus "kid"; Zeta Aurigae is Hoedus I. It has the less common traditional name Mahasim, from the

text: Arabic

text: المِعْصَم al-mişam "wrist" (of the charioteer), which it shares with

text: Theta Aurigae

text: . Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 3.18 and is located at a distance of around  from Earth.

text: In November 2015, astronomer Paul Scholz at McGill University in Canada, found ten non-periodically repeated fast radio pulses in archival data gathered in May and June 2015 by the Arecibo radio telescope. The ten bursts have dispersion measures and sky positions consistent with the original burst FRB 121102, detected in 2012. Like the 2012 burst, the 10 bursts have three times the maximum plasma dispersion measure from a source in the Milky Way Galaxy. The team thinks that this finding rules out self-destructive, cataclysmic events that could only occur once, such as the explosion of a black hole or the collision between two neutron stars. According to the scientists, the data support an origin in a young rotating neutron star (pulsar), or in a highly magnetized neutron star (magnetar), or from highly magnetized pulsars travelling through asteroid belts, or from an intermittent Roche-lobe overflow in a neutron star-white dwarf binary.

text: In November 2015, astronomer Paul Scholz at

text: McGill University

text: in Canada, found ten non-periodically repeated fast radio pulses in archival data gathered in May and June 2015 by the Arecibo radio telescope. The ten bursts have dispersion measures and sky positions consistent with the original burst FRB 121102, detected in 2012. Like the 2012 burst, the 10 bursts have three times the maximum

text: plasma

text: dispersion measure from a source in the

text: Milky Way

text: Galaxy. The team thinks that this finding rules out self-destructive, cataclysmic events that could only occur once, such as the explosion of a black hole or the collision between two neutron stars. According to the scientists, the data support an origin in a young rotating

text: neutron star

text: pulsar

text: ), or in a highly magnetized neutron star (

text: magnetar

text: ), or from highly magnetized pulsars travelling through asteroid belts, or from an intermittent Roche-lobe overflow in a neutron star-white dwarf binary.

text: Yes Stars Base airs shows in four formats:

text: Ariadne has been left on the island of Naxos, deserted by her lover Theseus, whose ship sails away to the far left. She is discovered on the shore by the god Bacchus, leading a procession of revelers in a chariot drawn by two cheetahs (These were probably modelled on those in the Duke's menagerie and were tigers in Ovid's original text). Bacchus is depicted  in mid-air as he leaps out of the chariot to protect Ariadne from these beasts. In the sky above the figure of Ariadne is the star constellation Corona Borealis (Northern crown). There are two possible variations of the story both going back to Ovid. In his Metamorphoses, Ovid has Bacchus throw the crown of Ariadne into the sky where it becomes the constellation Northern Crown. In Ars Amatoria, Bacchus promises the entire sky to Ariadne where she then would become the constellation Northern Crown. The National Gallery's website states that in the painting, 'Bacchus, god of wine, emerges with his followers from the landscape to the right. Falling in love with Ariadne on first sight, he leaps from his chariot, drawn by two cheetahs, towards her. Ariadne had been abandoned on the Greek island of Naxos by Theseus, whose ship is shown in the distance. The picture shows her initial fear of Bacchus, but he raised her to heaven and turned her into a constellation, represented by the stars above her head.'

text: Ariadne

text: has been left on the island of

text: Naxos

text: , deserted by her lover

text: Theseus

text: , whose ship sails away to the far left. She is discovered on the shore by the god

text: Bacchus

text: , leading a procession of revelers in a chariot drawn by two

text: cheetah

text: s (These were probably modelled on those in the Duke's menagerie and were

text: tiger

text: s in Ovid's original text). Bacchus is depicted  in mid-air as he leaps out of the chariot to protect Ariadne from these beasts. In the sky above the figure of Ariadne is the star constellation

text: Corona Borealis

text: (Northern crown). There are two possible variations of the story both going back to Ovid. In his Metamorphoses, Ovid has Bacchus throw the crown of Ariadne into the sky where it becomes the constellation Northern Crown. In Ars Amatoria, Bacchus promises the entire sky to Ariadne where she then would become the constellation Northern Crown. The National Gallery's website states that in the painting, 'Bacchus, god of wine, emerges with his followers from the landscape to the right. Falling in love with Ariadne on first sight, he leaps from his chariot, drawn by two cheetahs, towards her. Ariadne had been abandoned on the Greek island of Naxos by Theseus, whose ship is shown in the distance. The picture shows her initial fear of Bacchus, but he raised her to heaven and turned her into a constellation, represented by the stars above her head.'

text: 2MASS J19383260+4603591 (Also known as Kepler-451) is a binary star system with at least one known planet, Kepler-451b. The system comprises two stars, a subdwarf B-type star as well as a small red dwarf star.

text: 2MASS J19383260+4603591 (Also known as Kepler-451) is a binary

text: star system

text: with at least one known planet,

text: . The system comprises two stars, a

text: subdwarf

text: B-type star as well as a small

text: red dwarf

text: star.

text: The Bayer Family collects several southern constellations first introduced by Petrus Plancius on several celestial globes in the late 16th century, based on astronomical observations by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman. The constellations were named mostly for exotic animals reported in the travel journals of that period, and were copied in Johann Bayer's influential celestial atlas Uranometria in 1603.    The group includes Hydrus, Dorado, Volans, Apus, Pavo, Grus, Phoenix, Tucana, Indus, Chamaeleon, and Musca. Bayer labeled Musca as "Apis" (the Bee), but over time it was renamed.  (Bayer's twelfth new southern constellation, Triangulum Australe, was placed by Menzel in the Hercules Family.)  The Bayer Family circles the south celestial pole, forming an irregular contiguous band.  Because these constellations are located in the far southern sky, their stars were not visible to the ancient Greeks and Romans.

text: The Bayer Family collects several southern constellations first introduced by

text: Petrus Plancius

text: on several celestial globes in the late 16th century, based on astronomical observations by the Dutch explorers

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: and

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: . The constellations were named mostly for exotic animals reported in the travel journals of that period, and were copied in

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's influential celestial atlas

text: Uranometria

text: in 1603.    The group includes

text: Hydrus

text: Dorado

text: Volans

text: Apus

text: Pavo

text: Grus

text: Phoenix

text: Tucana

text: Indus

text: Chamaeleon

text: , and

text: Musca

text: . Bayer labeled Musca as "Apis" (the Bee), but over time it was renamed.  (Bayer's twelfth new southern constellation, Triangulum Australe, was placed by Menzel in the Hercules Family.)  The Bayer Family circles the south celestial pole, forming an irregular contiguous band.  Because these constellations are located in the far southern sky, their stars were not visible to the ancient Greeks and Romans.

text: The presence of significant amounts of dust around the star implies a young age of the system and led to debate about whether it had joined the main sequence or was still a pre–main sequence star However, when the star's distance was measured by Hipparcos it was revealed that Beta Pictoris was located further away than previously thought and hence was more luminous than originally believed. Once the Hipparcos results were taken into account, it was found that Beta Pictoris was located close to the zero age main sequence and was not a pre–main sequence star after all. Analysis of Beta Pictoris and other stars within the Beta Pictoris moving group suggests that they are around 12 million years old. Allowing for uncertainties, the age may range between 8 and 20 million years.

text: The presence of significant amounts of dust around the star implies a young age of the system and led to debate about whether it had joined the main sequence or was still a

text: pre–main sequence star

text: However, when the star's distance was measured by Hipparcos it was revealed that Beta Pictoris was located further away than previously thought and hence was more luminous than originally believed. Once the Hipparcos results were taken into account, it was found that Beta Pictoris was located close to the

text: zero age main sequence

text: and was not a pre–main sequence star after all. Analysis of Beta Pictoris and other stars within the Beta Pictoris moving group suggests that they are around 12 million years old. Allowing for uncertainties, the age may range between 8 and 20 million years.

text: Gordie Howe is the team's most decorated player, with six wins each of the Art Ross Trophy as regular season scoring leader and the Hart Memorial Trophy as regular season most valuable player (MVP), twenty-one selections to the First and Second Team All-Stars (the most in league history), twenty-two appearances in the All-Star Game, the Lester Patrick Trophy for outstanding contributions to the sport in the United States, and the NHL Lifetime Achievement Award for long term contributions to hockey.  Nicklas Lidstrom has the most awards of any defenseman, having once won the Conn Smythe Trophy as post season MVP to go along with having won the James Norris Memorial Trophy (Norris Trophy) seven times as the best defenseman in the league as well as twelve selections to the First and Second Team All-Stars and twelve selections to the All-Star Game. Terry Sawchuk leads goaltenders with three wins of the Vezina Trophy as the league's best goaltender, seven selections to the First and Second Team All-Stars, seven selections to the All-Star Game, the Lester Patrick Trophy, and the Calder Memorial Trophy as the league's best rookie. Howe, Lidstrom, and Sawchuk have all had their uniform number retired by the team and have all been inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame.

text: Gordie Howe

text: is the team's most decorated player, with six wins each of the

text: Art Ross Trophy

text: as

text: regular season

text: scoring leader and the

text: Hart Memorial Trophy

text: as regular season

text: most valuable player

text: (MVP), twenty-one selections to the

text: First and Second Team All-Stars

text: (the most in league history), twenty-two appearances in the

text: All-Star Game

text: , the

text: Lester Patrick Trophy

text: for outstanding contributions to the sport in the United States, and the NHL Lifetime Achievement Award for long term contributions to hockey.

text: Nicklas Lidstrom

text: has the most awards of any

text: defenseman

text: , having once won the

text: Conn Smythe Trophy

text: as post season MVP to go along with having won the

text: James Norris Memorial Trophy

text: (Norris Trophy) seven times as the best defenseman in the league as well as twelve selections to the First and Second Team All-Stars and twelve selections to the All-Star Game.

text: Terry Sawchuk

text: leads

text: goaltender

text: s with three wins of the

text: Vezina Trophy

text: as the league's best goaltender, seven selections to the First and Second Team All-Stars, seven selections to the All-Star Game, the Lester Patrick Trophy, and the

text: Calder Memorial Trophy

text: as the league's best

text: rookie

text: . Howe, Lidstrom, and Sawchuk have all had their uniform

text: number retired

text: by the team and have all been inducted into the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: Alpha Leporis is an older, dying star that may have already passed through a supergiant phase and is now contracting and heating up in the latter phases of stellar evolution, or perhaps is still expanding into the supergiant phase. Based upon its estimated mass, it is expected to end its life in a spectacular stellar explosion known as a supernova.

text: Alpha Leporis is an older, dying star that may have already passed through a

text: supergiant

text: phase and is now contracting and heating up in the latter phases of

text: stellar evolution

text: , or perhaps is still expanding into the supergiant phase. Based upon its estimated mass, it is expected to end its life in a spectacular stellar explosion known as a

text: supernova

text: Pi Herculis (π Her, π Herculis) is a third-magnitude star in the constellation Hercules. As one of the four stars in the Keystone asterism (see yellow quadrangle) is one of the more easily recognized in the constellation. It has an apparent visual magnitude of +3.2, which is visible to the naked eye and makes it one of the brighter members of the constellation. The Hipparcos satellite mission estimated its distance at roughly 115 parsecs from Earth, or about 377 light years away. The overall reduction in the star's visual magnitude due to extinction from the intervening matter is 0.11.

text: Pi Herculis (π Her, π Herculis) is a third-magnitude

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Hercules

text: . As one of the four stars in the

text: Keystone

text: asterism

text: (see yellow

text: quadrangle

text: ) is one of the more easily recognized in the constellation. It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of +3.2, which is visible to the naked eye and makes it one of the brighter members of the constellation. The

text: Hipparcos

text: satellite

text: mission estimated its distance at roughly 115

text: parsec

text: s from Earth, or about 377

text: light year

text: s away. The overall reduction in the star's visual magnitude due to

text: extinction

text: from the intervening matter is 0.11.

text: In addition, knowing the age of one member of a star system can help determine the age of that system. In a star system, stars almost always form at the same time as each other, and given the age of one star, the age of all of the others can be known.

text: According to Gavin White, the Greek constellation of Hercules is a distorted version of the Babylonian constellation known as the "Standing Gods" (MUL.DINGIR.GUB.BA.MESH). White argues that this figure was, like the similarly named "Sitting Gods", depicted as a man with a serpent's body instead of legs (the serpent element now being represented on the Greek star map by the figure of Draco that Hercules crushes beneath his feet). He further argues that the original name of Hercules – the 'Kneeler' (see below) – is a conflation of the two Babylonian constellations of the Sitting and Standing Gods.

text: According to Gavin White, the Greek constellation of Hercules is a distorted version of the Babylonian constellation known as the "Standing Gods" (MUL.DINGIR.GUB.BA.MESH). White argues that this figure was, like the similarly named "Sitting Gods", depicted as a man with a serpent's body instead of legs (the serpent element now being represented on the Greek star map by the figure of

text: Draco

text: that Hercules crushes beneath his feet). He further argues that the original name of Hercules – the 'Kneeler' (see below) – is a conflation of the two Babylonian constellations of the Sitting and Standing Gods.

text: The first record of Auriga's stars was in Mesopotamia as a constellation called GAM, representing a scimitar or crook. However, this may have represented just Capella (Alpha Aurigae) or the modern constellation as a whole; this figure was alternatively called Gamlum or MUL.GAM in the MUL.APIN. The crook of Auriga stood for a goat-herd or shepherd. It was formed from most of the stars of the modern constellation; all of the bright stars were included except for Elnath, traditionally assigned to both Taurus and Auriga. Later, Bedouin astronomers created constellations that were groups of animals, where each star represented one animal. The stars of Auriga comprised a herd of goats, an association also present in Greek mythology. The association with goats carried into the Greek astronomical tradition, though it later became associated with a charioteer along with the shepherd.

text: The first record of Auriga's stars was in

text: Mesopotamia

text: as a constellation called GAM, representing a

text: scimitar

text: or crook. However, this may have represented just Capella (Alpha Aurigae) or the modern constellation as a whole; this figure was alternatively called Gamlum or MUL.GAM in the

text: MUL.APIN

text: . The crook of Auriga stood for a goat-herd or shepherd. It was formed from most of the stars of the modern constellation; all of the bright stars were included except for

text: Elnath

text: , traditionally assigned to both Taurus and Auriga. Later,

text: Bedouin

text: astronomers created constellations that were groups of animals, where each star represented one animal. The stars of Auriga comprised a herd of goats, an association also present in Greek mythology. The association with goats carried into the Greek astronomical tradition, though it later became associated with a charioteer along with the shepherd.

text: Nuclear fusion is unlike nuclear fission: fusion requires extremely precise and controlled temperature, pressure and magnetic field parameters for any net energy to be produced. If a reactor suffers damage or loses even a small degree of required control, fusion reactions and heat generation would rapidly cease. Additionally, fusion reactors contain relatively small amounts of fuel, enough to "burn" for minutes, or in some cases, microseconds. Unless they are actively refueled, the reactions will quickly end. Therefore, fusion reactors are considered extremely safe.

text: Spock, commonly Mr. Spock (sometimes referred to as Spock, son of Sarek), is a fictional character in the Star Trek media franchise. Spock was first portrayed by Leonard Nimoy in the original Star Trek series, and also appears in the animated Star Trek series, a two-part episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation, eight of the Star Trek feature films, and numerous Star Trek novels, comics, and video games. In addition, numerous actors portrayed the various stages of Spock's rapid growth, due to the effects of the Genesis Planet, in the 1984 Star Trek film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock. In the 2009 film Star Trek, Nimoy reprised his role with Zachary Quinto, who depicted a younger version of the character, existing within an alternate timeline. Both reprised their roles in the 2013 sequel Star Trek Into Darkness and Quinto reprised his role again in 2016's Star Trek Beyond.

text: Spock, commonly Mr. Spock (sometimes referred to as Spock, son of Sarek), is a fictional character in the

text: Star Trek

text: media franchise. Spock was first portrayed by

text: Leonard Nimoy

text: in the

text: original Star Trek series

text: , and also appears in the

text: animated Star Trek series

text: , a two-part episode of

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: , eight of the Star Trek feature films, and numerous Star Trek novels, comics, and video games. In addition, numerous actors portrayed the various stages of Spock's rapid growth, due to the effects of the Genesis Planet, in the 1984 Star Trek film

text: Star Trek III: The Search for Spock

text: . In the 2009 film

text: Star Trek

text: , Nimoy reprised his role with

text: Zachary Quinto

text: , who depicted a younger version of the character, existing within an alternate timeline. Both reprised their roles in the 2013 sequel

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: and Quinto reprised his role again in 2016's

text: Star Trek Beyond

text: Because of these stars' large mass and high luminosity, their lifetime is very short—only a few million years in total and much less than a million years in the LBV phase. They are rapidly evolving on observable timescales; examples have been detected where stars with Wolf–Rayet spectra (WNL/Ofpe) have developed to show LBV outbursts and a handful of supernovae have been traced to likely LBV progenitors. Recent theoretical research confirms the latter scenario, where luminous blue variable stars are the final evolutionary stage of some massive stars before they explode as supernovae, for at least stars with initial masses between 20 and 25 solar masses.  For more-massive stars, computer simulations of their evolution suggest the luminous blue variable phase takes place during the latest phases of core hydrogen burning (LBV with high surface temperature), the hydrogen shell burning phase (LBV with lower surface temperature), and the earliest part of the core helium burning phase (LBV with high surface temperature again) before transitioning to the Wolf–Rayet phase, thus being analogous to the red giant and red supergiant phases of less massive stars.

text: Because of these stars' large mass and high luminosity, their

text: lifetime

text: is very short—only a few million years in total and much less than a million years in the LBV phase. They are rapidly evolving on observable timescales; examples have been detected where stars with Wolf–Rayet spectra (WNL/Ofpe) have developed to show LBV outbursts and a handful of

text: supernovae

text: have been traced to likely LBV progenitors. Recent theoretical research confirms the latter scenario, where luminous blue variable stars are the final evolutionary stage of some massive stars before they explode as supernovae, for at least stars with initial masses between 20 and 25

text: solar mass

text: es.  For more-massive stars, computer simulations of their evolution suggest the luminous blue variable phase takes place during the latest phases of core

text: hydrogen burning

text: (LBV with high surface temperature), the hydrogen shell burning phase (LBV with lower surface temperature), and the earliest part of the core

text: helium burning

text: phase (LBV with high surface temperature again) before transitioning to the

text: Wolf–Rayet phase

text: , thus being analogous to the

text: red giant

text: and

text: red supergiant

text: phases of less massive stars.

text: When performing star counts, astronomers consider many different categories that have been created to classify a few stars that have been well studied. One of the hopes of studying the results of star counts is to discover new categories. Different counts typically seek to categorize stars for only a few of the qualities listed below, and determine how common each considered quality is and how stars of that kind are distributed.

text: Until about March 2000, Achernar and Fomalhaut were the two first-magnitude stars furthest in angular distance from any other first-magnitude star in the celestial sphere. Antares, in the constellation of Scorpius, is now the most isolated first-magnitude star, although Antares is located in a constellation with many bright second-magnitude stars, whereas the stars surrounding Alpha Eridani and Fomalhaut are considerably fainter.

text: Until about March 2000, Achernar and

text: Fomalhaut

text: were the two

text: first-magnitude stars

text: furthest in angular distance from any other first-magnitude star in the

text: celestial sphere

text: Antares

text: , in the constellation of

text: Scorpius

text: , is now the most isolated first-magnitude star, although Antares is located in a constellation with many bright second-magnitude stars, whereas the stars surrounding Alpha Eridani and Fomalhaut are considerably fainter.

text: HD 109271 is an old yellow main-sequence dwarf star.

text: She starred in the role of "Raina" on the first season of the sitcom Mr. Box Office alongside Bill Bellamy, Vivica A. Fox, and Tim Meadows. Norman was also pegged as the host for the brand new music show Real Music Live (along with co-host Prolifik) which aired on NBC, following Saturday Night Live. She guest starred in an episode of the ABC sitcom, How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life). She guest starred on an episode of the Fox show Bones in an episode entitled "Party in the Pants".

text: She starred in the role of "Raina" on the first season of the sitcom

text: Mr. Box Office

text: alongside

text: Bill Bellamy

text: Vivica A. Fox

text: , and

text: Tim Meadows

text: . Norman was also pegged as the host for the brand new music show Real Music Live (along with co-host

text: Prolifik

text: ) which aired on NBC, following Saturday Night Live. She guest starred in an episode of the ABC sitcom,

entity_name: How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life)

text: How to Live with Your Parents (For the Rest of Your Life)

text: . She guest starred on an episode of the Fox show

text: Bones

text: in an episode entitled "Party in the Pants".

text: Implosion is a key part of the gravitational collapse of large stars, which can lead to the creation of supernovae, neutron stars and black holes.

text: Implosion is a key part of the

text: gravitational collapse

text: of large

text: star

text: s, which can lead to the creation of

text: supernova

text: e,

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s.

text: When a binary star system is aligned such that – from the Earth's point of view – the stars pass in front of each other in their orbits, the system is called an "eclipsing binary" star system. The time of minimum light, when the star with the brighter surface is at least partially obscured by the disc of the other star, is called the primary eclipse, and approximately half an orbit later, the secondary eclipse occurs when the brighter surface area star obscures some portion of the other star. These times of minimum light, or central eclipses, constitute a time stamp on the system, much like the pulses from a pulsar (except that rather than a flash, they are a dip in brightness). If there is a planet in circumbinary orbit around the binary stars, the stars will be offset around a binary-planet center of mass. As the stars in the binary are displaced back and forth by the planet, the times of the eclipse minima will vary. The periodicity of this offset may be the most reliable way to detect extrasolar planets around close binary systems. With this method, planets are more easily detectable if they are more massive, orbit relatively closely around the system, and if the stars have low masses.

text: When a

text: binary star

text: system is aligned such that – from the Earth's point of view – the stars pass in front of each other in their orbits, the system is called an "eclipsing binary" star system. The time of minimum light, when the star with the brighter surface is at least partially obscured by the disc of the other star, is called the primary

text: eclipse

text: , and approximately half an orbit later, the secondary eclipse occurs when the brighter surface area star obscures some portion of the other star. These times of minimum light, or central eclipses, constitute a time stamp on the system, much like the pulses from a

text: pulsar

text: (except that rather than a flash, they are a dip in brightness). If there is a planet in circumbinary orbit around the binary stars, the stars will be offset around a binary-planet

text: center of mass

text: . As the stars in the binary are displaced back and forth by the planet, the times of the eclipse minima will vary. The periodicity of this offset may be the most reliable way to detect extrasolar planets around close binary systems. With this method, planets are more easily detectable if they are more massive, orbit relatively closely around the system, and if the stars have low masses.

text: Second hourThe second hour focuses on further programs in Star Trek franchise: Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager and Star Trek: Enterprise and their impact and how they differed from the original series.

text: Second hourThe second hour focuses on further programs in Star Trek franchise:

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: and

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: and their impact and how they differed from the original series.

text: The starry ceiling is astronomically inaccurate in a complicated way. While the stars within some constellations appear correctly as they would from earth, other constellations are reversed left-to-right, as is the overall arrangement of the constellations on the ceiling. For example, Orion is correctly rendered, but the adjacent constellations Taurus and Gemini are reversed both internally and in their relation to Orion, with Taurus near Orion's raised arm where Gemini should be. One possible explanation is that the overall ceiling design might have been based on the medieval custom of depicting the sky as it would appear to God looking in at the celestial sphere from outside, but that would have reversed Orion as well. A more likely explanation is partially mistaken transcription of the sketch supplied by Columbia Astronomy professor Harold Jacoby. Though the astronomical inconsistencies were noticed promptly by a commuter in 1913, they have not been corrected in any of the subsequent renovations of the ceiling.

text: The starry ceiling is astronomically inaccurate in a complicated way. While the stars within some constellations appear correctly as they would from earth, other constellations are reversed left-to-right, as is the overall arrangement of the constellations on the ceiling. For example,

text: Orion

text: is correctly rendered, but the adjacent constellations

text: Taurus

text: and

text: Gemini

text: are

text: reversed both internally and in their relation to Orion

text: , with Taurus near Orion's raised arm where Gemini should be. One possible explanation is that the overall ceiling design might have been based on the medieval custom of depicting the sky as it would appear to God looking in at the

text: celestial sphere

text: from outside, but that would have reversed Orion as well. A more likely explanation is partially mistaken transcription of the sketch supplied by Columbia Astronomy professor Harold Jacoby. Though the astronomical inconsistencies were noticed promptly by a commuter in 1913, they have not been corrected in any of the subsequent renovations of the ceiling.

text: NGC 1084 has been home of 5 supernovae in the last 50 years, 1963P (mag. 14), 1996an (type II, mag. 14), 1998dl (type II, mag. 16), 2009H (type II, mag. 17), and 2012ec (type IIP, mag. 14,5). Star formation in the galaxy is chaotic and not confined at the spiral arms of the galaxy, however, not as high as to classify the galaxy as a starburst galaxy. Star formation has taken place in small bursts in the last 40 million years. The reason of this activity has been proposed to be a merger with a gas-rich dwarf galaxy. A radio source has been detacted 3,5' south-west of the galaxy, connected to it by a bridge.

text: NGC 1084 has been home of 5

text: supernova

text: e in the last 50 years, 1963P (mag. 14), 1996an (type II, mag. 14), 1998dl (type II, mag. 16), 2009H (type II, mag. 17), and 2012ec (type IIP, mag. 14,5). Star formation in the galaxy is chaotic and not confined at the spiral arms of the galaxy, however, not as high as to classify the galaxy as a

text: starburst galaxy

text: . Star formation has taken place in small bursts in the last 40 million years. The reason of this activity has been proposed to be a merger with a gas-rich

text: dwarf galaxy

text: . A radio source has been detacted 3,5' south-west of the galaxy, connected to it by a bridge.

text: A new star will sit at a specific point on the main sequence of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, with the main-sequence spectral type depending upon the mass of the star. Small, relatively cold, low-mass red dwarfs fuse hydrogen slowly and will remain on the main sequence for hundreds of billions of years or longer, whereas massive, hot O-type stars will leave the main sequence after just a few million years. A mid-sized yellow dwarf star, like the Sun, will remain on the main sequence for about 10 billion years. The Sun is thought to be in the middle of its main sequence lifespan.

text: A new star will sit at a specific point on the main sequence of the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: , with the main-sequence

text: spectral type

text: depending upon the mass of the star. Small, relatively cold, low-mass

text: red dwarf

text: s fuse hydrogen slowly and will remain on the main sequence for hundreds of billions of years or longer, whereas massive, hot

text: O-type stars

text: will leave the main sequence after just a few million years. A mid-sized

text: yellow dwarf

text: star, like the Sun, will remain on the main sequence for about 10 billion years. The Sun is thought to be in the middle of its main sequence lifespan.

text: 29 Aquarii (abbreviated 29 Aqr) is a binary star system in the equatorial constellation of Aquarius. 29 Aquarii is the Flamsteed designation; the system also bears the variable star designation DX Aquarii The orbital plane of the two stars lies near the line of sight, so they form an Algol-type eclipsing binary. The first component of the system is an A-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of A2 V. Its companion is giant star with a classification of K0 III. Their orbital period is 0.94501 days.

text: 29 Aquarii (abbreviated 29 Aqr) is a

text: binary star

text: system in the

text: equatorial

text: constellation

text: of

text: Aquarius

text: . 29 Aquarii is the

text: Flamsteed designation

text: ; the system also bears the

text: variable star designation

text: DX Aquarii The

text: orbital plane

text: of the two stars lies near the line of sight, so they form an

text: Algol-type eclipsing binary

text: . The first component of the system is an

text: A-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of A2 V. Its companion is

text: giant star

text: with a classification of K0 III. Their

text: orbital period

text: is 0.94501 days.

text: Ultra-compact HII regions are among the best tracers of high-mass star formation. The dense material surrounding UCHII regions is likely primarily molecular. Since a complete study of massive star formation necessarily involves the cloud from which the star formed, ammonia is an invaluable tool in understanding this surrounding molecular material. Since this molecular material can be spatially resolved, it is possible to constrain the heating/ionising sources, temperatures, masses, and sizes of the regions. Doppler-shifted velocity components allow for the separation of distinct regions of molecular gas that can trace outflows and hot cores originating from forming stars.

text: Six stars with planetary systems have been found. Three planets have been discovered in the system of the orange star HD 181433, an inner super-earth with an orbital period of 9.4 days and two outer gas giants with periods of 2.6 and 6 years respectively. HD 196050 and HD 175167 are yellow G-class Sun-like stars, while HD 190984 is an F-class main sequence star slightly larger and hotter than the Sun; all three are accompanied by a gas giant companion. HD 172555 is a young white A-type main sequence star, two planets of which appear to have had a major collision  in the past few thousand years. Spectrographic evidence of large amounts of silicon dioxide gas indicates the smaller of the two, which had been at least the size of Earth's moon, was destroyed,  and the larger, which was at least the size of Mercury, was severely damaged. Evidence of the collision was detected by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope. In the south of the constellation, Epsilon Pavonis is a 3.95-magnitude white main sequence star of spectral type A0Va located around 105 light years distant from Earth. It appears to be surrounded by a narrow ring of dust at a distance of 107 AU.

text: Six stars with

text: planetary systems

text: have been found. Three planets have been discovered in the system of the orange star

text: HD 181433

text: , an inner super-earth with an orbital period of 9.4 days and two outer gas giants with periods of 2.6 and 6 years respectively.

text: HD 196050

text: and

text: HD 175167

text: are yellow G-class Sun-like stars, while

text: HD 190984

text: is an F-class main sequence star slightly larger and hotter than the Sun; all three are accompanied by a gas giant companion.

text: HD 172555

text: is a young white A-type main sequence star, two planets of which appear to have had a major collision  in the past few thousand years.

text: Spectrographic

text: evidence of large amounts of

text: silicon dioxide

text: gas indicates the smaller of the two, which had been at least the size of Earth's moon, was destroyed,  and the larger, which was at least the size of Mercury, was severely damaged. Evidence of the collision was detected by NASA's

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: . In the south of the constellation,

text: Epsilon Pavonis

text: is a 3.95-magnitude white main sequence star of spectral type A0Va located around 105 light years distant from Earth. It appears to be surrounded by a narrow ring of dust at a distance of 107 AU.

text: The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together. It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.

text: The fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than

text: iron

text: and

text: nickel

text: —a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an

text: exothermic process

text: that releases more energy than is required to bring them together. It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in

text: star

text: s a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per

text: nucleon

text: in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and

text: atomic mass

text: es higher than about 60, is an

text: endothermic process

text: . These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: of a star.

text: NGC 206 is the richest and most conspicuous star cloud in the Andromeda Galaxy as well as one of the largest and brightest star formation regions of the Local Group. It contains more than 300 stars brighter than M=−3.6. It was originally identified by Edwin Hubble as a star cluster but today, due to its size, it is classified as an OB association.

text: NGC 206 is the richest and most conspicuous star cloud in the Andromeda Galaxy as well as one of the largest and brightest star formation regions of the

text: Local Group

text: . It contains more than 300 stars brighter than M=−3.6. It was originally identified by

text: Edwin Hubble

text: as a star cluster but today, due to its size, it is classified as an

text: OB association

text: The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through Lambda to label the most prominent stars in the constellation. Bode added more, though only Psi Crateris remains in use. John Flamsteed gave 31 stars in Crater and the segment of Hydra immediately below Crater Flamsteed designations, naming the resulting constellation Hydra et Crater. Most of these stars lie in Hydra. Within the constellation's borders, there are 33 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.

text: The German cartographer

text: Johann Bayer

text: used the Greek letters

text: Alpha

text: through

text: Lambda

text: to label the most prominent stars in the constellation. Bode added more, though only

text: Psi Crateris

text: remains in use.

text: John Flamsteed

text: gave 31 stars in Crater and the segment of Hydra immediately below Crater

text: Flamsteed designation

text: s, naming the resulting constellation Hydra et Crater. Most of these stars lie in Hydra. Within the constellation's borders, there are 33 stars brighter than or equal to

text: apparent magnitude

text: There have been numerous features and articles in various magazines on Suraiya during her lifetime. Some of these magazines were 'The Illustrated Weekly of India', 'Stardust', 'Society', 'Star & Style' and 'Filmfare'. The details of available articles/references are as follows:

text: A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of vigorous and occasionally fractious debate.

text: Detecting planets in multiple star systems introduces additional technical difficulties, which may be why they are only rarely found. Examples include the white dwarf-pulsar binary PSR B1620-26, the subgiant-red dwarf binary Gamma Cephei, and the white dwarf-red dwarf binary NN Serpentis; among others.

text: Detecting planets in multiple star systems introduces additional technical difficulties, which may be why they are only rarely found. Examples include the

text: white dwarf

text: pulsar

text: binary

text: PSR B1620-26

text: , the

text: subgiant

text: red dwarf

text: binary

text: Gamma Cephei

text: , and the

text: white dwarf

text: red dwarf

text: binary

text: NN Serpentis

text: ; among others.

text: In many early civilizations, it was already common to associate groups of stars in connect-the-dots stick-figure patterns; some of the earliest records are those of the Babylonians. This process was essentially arbitrary, and different cultures have identified different constellations, although a few of the more obvious patterns tend to appear in the constellations of multiple cultures, such as those of Orion and Scorpius. Anyone could arrange and name a grouping, which could even overlap with other groupings, and since there was no "official" list, there was no difference between a constellation and an asterism.

text: In many early civilizations, it was already common to associate groups of stars in

text: connect-the-dots

text: stick-figure

text: patterns; some of the earliest records are those of the

text: Babylonians

text: . This process was essentially arbitrary, and different cultures have identified different constellations, although a few of the more obvious patterns tend to appear in the constellations of multiple cultures, such as those of

text: Orion

text: and

text: Scorpius

text: . Anyone could arrange and name a grouping, which could even overlap with other groupings, and since there was no "official" list, there was no difference between a constellation and an asterism.

text: The theoretical model suggested that a nuclear pulse rocket employing nuclear fusion (specifically, electron bombardment of deuterium and helium-3) and accelerating for four years could achieve a velocity of 12% of the speed of light. The star could then be reached in 50 years, within a human lifetime. Along with detailed investigation of the star and any companions, the interstellar medium would be examined and baseline astrometric readings performed.

text: The theoretical model suggested that a nuclear pulse rocket employing

text: nuclear fusion

text: (specifically, electron bombardment of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: ) and accelerating for four years could achieve a velocity of 12% of the

text: speed of light

text: . The star could then be reached in 50 years, within a human lifetime. Along with detailed investigation of the star and any companions, the

text: interstellar medium

text: would be examined and baseline astrometric readings performed.

text: The crew obsess over trivial matters when they explore a black-hole in a trinary star-system and succumb to its radiation.

text: A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis (spins it in a circle), applying a potentially strong force perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward). The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction.  At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and move to the center. In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low-density substances rise to the top.

text: A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in

text: rotation around a fixed axis

text: (spins it in a circle), applying a potentially strong force perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward). The centrifuge works using the

text: sedimentation principle

text: , where the

text: centripetal acceleration

text: causes denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction.  At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and move to the center. In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low-density substances rise to the top.

text: Storage rings are most often used to store electrons that radiate synchrotron radiation. Over 50 facilities based on electron storage rings exist and are used for a variety of studies in chemistry and biology. Storage rings can also be used to produce polarized high-energy electron beams through the Sokolov-Ternov effect. The best-known application of storage rings is their use in particle accelerators and in particle colliders, where two counter-rotating beams of stored particles are brought into collision at discrete locations. The resulting subatomic interactions are then studied in a surrounding particle detector. Examples of such facilities are LHC, LEP, PEP-II, KEKB, RHIC, Tevatron and HERA.

text: Storage rings are most often used to store electrons that radiate

text: synchrotron radiation

text: . Over 50 facilities based on electron storage rings exist and are used for a variety of studies in chemistry and biology. Storage rings can also be used to produce polarized high-energy electron beams through the

text: Sokolov-Ternov effect

text: . The best-known application of storage rings is their use in

text: particle accelerator

text: s and in

text: particle colliders

text: , where two counter-rotating beams of stored particles are brought into collision at discrete locations. The resulting

text: subatomic

text: interactions are then studied in a surrounding

text: particle detector

text: . Examples of such facilities are

text: LHC

text: LEP

text: PEP-II

text: KEKB

text: RHIC

text: Tevatron

text: and

text: HERA

text: Influenced by European astronomy during the late Ming Dynasty, more stars were depicted on the charts but retaining the traditional constellations; new stars observed were incorporated as supplementary stars in old constellations in the southern sky which did not depict any of the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers. Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming Dynasty by Xu Guangqi and Johann Adam Schall von Bell, the German Jesuit and was recorded in Chongzhen Lishu (Calendrical Treatise of Chongzhen Period, 1628). Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of western star charts; with this improvement the Chinese Sky was integrated with the World astronomy.

text: Influenced by European astronomy during the late

text: Ming Dynasty

text: , more stars were depicted on the charts but retaining the traditional constellations; new stars observed were incorporated as supplementary stars in old constellations in the southern sky which did not depict any of the traditional stars recorded by ancient Chinese astronomers. Further improvements were made during the later part of the Ming Dynasty by

text: Xu Guangqi

text: and

text: Johann Adam Schall von Bell

text: , the German Jesuit and was recorded in

text: Chongzhen Lishu

text: (Calendrical Treatise of

text: Chongzhen Period

text: , 1628). Traditional Chinese star maps incorporated 23 new constellations with 125 stars of the southern hemisphere of the sky based on the knowledge of western star charts; with this improvement the Chinese Sky was integrated with the World astronomy.

text: Cristal, the host and star of a TV show called “Starmania,” gets a call from Sadia offering her a clandestine interview with Johnny Rockfort, whose face no one knows. The get-together takes place at the Underground Café. For Cristal and Johnny, it is love at first sight. They go off together; therefore, Sadia has lost her hold over Johnny. Cristal decides to become the spokeswoman for the Black Stars, transmitting pirate messages by means of a neutron camera that lets her take over television frequencies.

text: Stars more massive than the sun have a convective core on the main sequence.  They develop a more massive helium core, taking up a larger fraction of the star, before they exhaust the hydrogen in the entire convective region.  Fusion in the star ceases entirely and the core begins to contract and increase in temperature.  The entire star contracts and increases in temperature, with the radiated luminosity actually increasing despite the lack of fusion. This continues for several million years before the core becomes hot enough to ignite hydrogen in a shell, which reverses the temperature and luminosity increase and the star starts to expand and cool.  This hook is generally defined as the end of the main sequence and the start of the subgiant branch in these stars.

text: Vega is only about a tenth of the age of the Sun, but since it is 2.1 times as massive its expected lifetime is also one tenth of that of the Sun; both stars are at present approaching the midpoint of their life expectancies. Vega has an unusually low abundance of the elements with a higher atomic number than that of helium. Vega is also a variable star that varies slightly in brightness. It is rotating rapidly with a velocity of 274 km/s at the equator. This is causing the equator to bulge outward because of centrifugal effects, and, as a result, there is a variation of temperature across the star's photosphere that reaches a maximum at the poles. From Earth, Vega is being observed from the direction of one of these poles.

text: Vega is only about a tenth of the age of the Sun, but since it is 2.1 times as massive its expected lifetime is also one tenth of that of the Sun; both stars are at present approaching the midpoint of their life expectancies. Vega has an unusually low abundance of the elements with a higher

text: atomic number

text: than that of

text: helium

text: . Vega is also a

text: variable star

text: that varies slightly in brightness. It is

text: rotating

text: rapidly with a velocity of 274 km/s at the equator. This is causing the equator to bulge outward because of

text: centrifugal

text: effects, and, as a result, there is a variation of temperature across the star's

text: photosphere

text: that reaches a maximum at the poles. From Earth, Vega is being observed from the direction of one of these poles.

text: Several former constellations were formed from stars now included in Boötes. Quadrans Muralis, the Quadrant, was a constellation created near Beta Boötis from faint stars. It was invented in 1795 by Jérôme Lalande, an astronomer who used a quadrant to perform detailed astronometric measurements. Lalande worked with Nicole-Reine Lepaute and others to predict the 1758 return of Halley's Comet. Quadrans Muralis was formed from the stars of eastern Boötes, western Hercules, and Draco. It was originally called Le Mural by Jean Fortin in his 1795 Atlas Céleste; it was not given the name Quadrans Muralis until Johann Bode's 1801 Uranographia. The constellation was quite faint, with its brightest stars reaching the 5th magnitude. Mons Maenalus, representing the Maenalus mountains, was created by Johannes Hevelius in 1687 at the foot of the constellation's figure. The mountain was named for the son of Lycaon, Maenalus. The mountain, one of Diana's hunting grounds, was also holy to Pan.

text: Several

text: former constellations

text: were formed from stars now included in Boötes.

text: Quadrans Muralis

text: , the Quadrant, was a constellation created near Beta Boötis from faint stars. It was invented in 1795 by

text: Jérôme Lalande

text: , an astronomer who used a

text: quadrant

text: to perform detailed

text: astronometric measurements

text: . Lalande worked with

text: Nicole-Reine Lepaute

text: and others to predict the 1758 return of

text: Halley's Comet

text: . Quadrans Muralis was formed from the stars of eastern Boötes, western

text: Hercules

text: , and

text: Draco

text: . It was originally called Le Mural by

text: Jean Fortin

text: in his 1795

text: Atlas Céleste

text: ; it was not given the name Quadrans Muralis until

text: Johann Bode

text: 's 1801 Uranographia. The constellation was quite faint, with its brightest stars reaching the 5th magnitude.

text: Mons Maenalus

text: , representing the

text: Maenalus

text: mountains, was created by

text: Johannes Hevelius

text: in 1687 at the foot of the constellation's figure. The mountain was named for the son of Lycaon,

text: Maenalus

text: . The mountain, one of

text: Diana

text: 's hunting grounds, was also holy to

text: Pan

text: Subdwarf B stars such as V391 Pegasi are thought to be the result of the ejection of the hydrogen envelope of a red giant star at or just before the onset of helium fusion. The ejection left only a tiny amount of hydrogen on the surface - less than 1/1000 of the total stellar mass.  The future for the star is to eventually cool down to make a low mass white dwarf.  Most stars retain more of their hydrogen after the first red giant phase, and eventually become asymptotic giant branch stars. The reason that some stars, like V391 Pegasi, lose so much mass is not well known.

text: Subdwarf B stars such as V391 Pegasi are thought to be the result of the ejection of the hydrogen envelope of a

text: red giant

text: star at or just before the onset of

text: helium

text: fusion. The ejection left only a tiny amount of hydrogen on the surface - less than 1/1000 of the total stellar mass.  The future for the star is to eventually cool down to make a low mass white dwarf.  Most stars retain more of their hydrogen after the first red giant phase, and eventually become

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: stars. The reason that some stars, like V391 Pegasi, lose so much mass is not well known.

text: In the 1997 Major League Baseball Draft Redding was drafted by the Houston Astros in the 20th round (610th). In 2000, with the Kissimmee Cobras of the Florida State League, he was 12-5 with a 2.68 ERA in 24 starts and was selected as a Baseball America 2nd team Minor League All-Star, a High-A All-Star, Florida State League All-Star and Florida State League Pitcher of the Year. In 2001, with the Round Rock Express, he was selected as a Double-A All-Star, the Texas League Pitcher of the Year (and All-Star) and again was selected to the Baseball America 2nd team Minor League All-Stars. He was also recognized as the #3 prospect in the Astros system.

text: In the

text: 1997 Major League Baseball Draft

text: Redding was

text: drafted

text: by the

text: Houston Astros

text: in the 20th round (610th). In 2000, with the

text: Kissimmee Cobras

text: of the

text: Florida State League

text: , he was 12-5 with a 2.68 ERA in 24 starts and was selected as a

text: Baseball America

text: 2nd team Minor League All-Star, a High-A All-Star, Florida State League All-Star and Florida State League Pitcher of the Year. In 2001, with the

text: Round Rock Express

text: , he was selected as a Double-A All-Star, the

text: Texas League

text: Pitcher of the Year (and All-Star) and again was selected to the Baseball America 2nd team Minor League All-Stars. He was also recognized as the #3 prospect in the Astros system.

text: If the Sun were observed from the Alpha Centauri system, the nearest star system to ours, it would appear to be a bright star in the constellation Cassiopeia. It would be almost as bright as Capella is in our sky. Due to the proximity of the Alpha Centauri system, the constellations would, for the most part, appear similar. However, there are some notable differences with the position of other nearby stars; for example, Sirius would appear about one degree from the star Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion. Also, Procyon would appear in the constellation Gemini, about 13 degrees below Pollux.

text: If the Sun were observed from the

text: Alpha Centauri

text: system, the nearest

text: star system

text: to ours, it would appear to be a bright star in the constellation

text: Cassiopeia

text: . It would be almost as bright as

text: Capella

text: is in our sky. Due to the proximity of the Alpha Centauri system, the constellations would, for the most part, appear similar. However, there are some notable differences with the position of other nearby stars; for example,

text: Sirius

text: would appear about one degree from the star

text: Betelgeuse

text: in the constellation

text: Orion

text: . Also,

text: Procyon

text: would appear in the constellation

text: Gemini

text: , about 13 degrees below

text: Pollux

text: Despite demonstration in 2000 of 7200 hours of operation without degradation at high input power as a sealed reaction chamber with automated control the FusionStar project was cancelled and the company NSD Ltd was founded.  The spherical FusionStar technology was then further developed as a linear geometry system with improved efficiency and higher neutron output by NSD Ltd. which became NSD-Fusion GmbH in 2005.  In early 2000, Dr. Alex Klein, developed a cross between a polywell and ion beams.  Using Gabor lensing Dr. Klein attempted to focus plasma into non-neutral clouds for fusion.  He founded FP generation, which in April 2009, raised $3 million in financing from two venture funds.  The company developed the MIX and Marble machine, but ran into technical challenges and closed.  In response to Riders' criticisms, researchers at LANL reasoned that a plasma oscillating could be at local thermodynamic equilibrium, this prompted the POPS and penning trap machines.  At this time, researchers at MIT became interested in fusors for space propulsion and powering space vehicles.  Specifically, researchers developed fusors with multiple inner cages.  In 2005, Greg Piefer graduated from Madison and founded Phoenix Nuclear Labs a company which developed the fusor into a neutron source for the mass production of medical isotopes.

text: Despite demonstration in 2000 of 7200 hours of operation without degradation at high input power as a sealed reaction chamber with automated control the FusionStar project was cancelled and the company NSD Ltd was founded.  The spherical FusionStar technology was then further developed as a linear geometry system with improved efficiency and higher neutron output by NSD Ltd. which became NSD-Fusion GmbH in 2005.  In early 2000, Dr. Alex Klein, developed a cross between a polywell and ion beams.  Using

text: Gabor lensing

text: Dr. Klein attempted to focus plasma into non-neutral clouds for fusion.  He founded FP generation, which in April 2009, raised $3 million in financing from two venture funds.  The company developed the MIX and Marble machine, but ran into technical challenges and closed.  In response to Riders' criticisms, researchers at

text: LANL

text: reasoned that a plasma oscillating could be at local thermodynamic equilibrium, this prompted the POPS and penning trap machines.  At this time, researchers at

text: MIT

text: became interested in

text: fusor

text: s for space propulsion and powering space vehicles.  Specifically, researchers developed

text: fusor

text: s with multiple inner cages.  In 2005, Greg Piefer graduated from Madison and founded

text: Phoenix Nuclear Labs

text: a company which developed the

text: fusor

text: into a neutron source for the mass production of medical isotopes.

text: Many possible configurations of small groups of stars are dynamically unstable, as eventually one star will approach another closely and be ejected from the system. This instability can be avoided if the system is what Evans has called hierarchical (see graphic). In a hierarchical system, the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller tightly bunched groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system's center of mass. Each of these smaller groups may also be hierarchical, and so on. A good example of this is the hierarchical triple star Alpha Centauri AB-C, where the dash in AB-C indicates that AB is one subgroup, and C the other (for another example see Marune: Alastor 993 by Jack Vance, below). This is not to say that more chaotic multiple star systems do not exist: trapezia are young, unstable systems—thought to form in stellar nurseries—that quickly fragment and may eject components as galactic high velocity stars. An example of such a system is the Trapezium in the heart of the Orion nebula. (See also "The Devil on Salvation Bluff" and the Durdane trilogy by Jack Vance, below.)

text: Many possible configurations of small groups of stars are dynamically unstable, as eventually one star will approach another closely and be ejected from the system. This instability can be avoided if the system is what Evans has called hierarchical (see graphic). In a hierarchical system, the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller tightly bunched groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system's center of mass. Each of these smaller groups may also be hierarchical, and so on. A good example of this is the hierarchical triple star

text: Alpha Centauri AB-C

text: , where the dash in AB-C indicates that AB is one subgroup, and C the other (for another example see

text: Marune: Alastor 993

text: by Jack Vance, below). This is not to say that more chaotic multiple star systems do not exist: trapezia are young, unstable systems—thought to form in stellar nurseries—that quickly fragment and may eject components as galactic high velocity stars. An example of such a system is the

text: Trapezium

text: in the heart of the Orion nebula. (See also

text: "The Devil on Salvation Bluff"

text: and the

text: Durdane trilogy

text: by Jack Vance, below.)

text: The Draco Dwarf contains primarily an old population of stars and insignificant amounts of interstellar matter (being basically dust free).  From 75% to 90% of its stars formed more than ~10 Gyr ago followed by a low rate of formation with a small burst of star formation around 2-3 Gyr ago. It has a single Gaussian distribution with average metallicity of [Fe/H] = −1.74 dex with a standard deviation (sigma/σ) of 0.24 dex and a small tail of metal-rich stars.  The central region of Draco Dwarf exhibits a concentration of more metal-rich stars there being more centrally concentrated red horizontal branch stars than blue horizontal branch stars.

text: The Draco Dwarf contains primarily an

text: old population

text: of stars and insignificant amounts of

text: interstellar matter

text: (being basically dust free).  From 75% to 90% of its stars formed more than ~10 Gyr ago followed by a low rate of formation with a small burst of star formation around 2-3 Gyr ago. It has a single

text: Gaussian distribution

text: with average metallicity of [Fe/H] = −1.74 dex with a

text: standard deviation

text: (sigma/σ) of 0.24 dex and a small tail of metal-rich stars.  The central region of Draco Dwarf exhibits a concentration of more metal-rich stars there being more centrally concentrated red

text: horizontal branch

text: stars than blue horizontal branch stars.

text: Analogs of Herbig Ae/Be stars in the smaller mass range (<2 )  – F, G, K, M spectral type pre-main-sequence stars – are called T Tauri stars. More massive (>8 ) stars in pre-main-sequence stage are not observed, because they evolve very quickly: when they become visible (i.e. disperses surrounding circumstellar gas and dust cloud), the hydrogen in the center is already burning and they are main-sequence objects.

text: Analogs of Herbig Ae/Be stars in the smaller mass range (<2 )  – F, G, K, M

text: spectral type

text: pre-main-sequence star

text: s – are called

text: T Tauri star

text: s. More massive (>8 )

text: star

text: s in pre-main-sequence stage are not observed, because they evolve very quickly: when they become visible (i.e. disperses surrounding circumstellar gas and dust cloud), the hydrogen in the center is already burning and they are

text: main-sequence

text: objects.

text: Dunlop's other major observational work was of 256 southern double stars or "pairs" below the declination of about 30° South. These were listed in Approximate Places of Double Stars in the Southern Hemisphere, observed at Paramatta in New South Wales, published in 1829. Many of these pairs were actual new discoveries, though the most northerly of them had been earlier discoveries made by other observers. These double star observations were all made roughly between December 1827 and December 1828, being observed through his homemade 9-foot 23 cm (9-inch) speculum Newtonian reflector, or by measuring the separated distances and position angles of selected double stars using the small  equatorial mounted refracting telescope. Most of these pairs have proved to be uninteresting to astronomers, and many of the double stars selected were too wide for the indication of orbital motion as binary stars. It seems these observations were made when the atmospheric conditions were quite unsuitable for looking at deep sky objects, either being made under unsteady astronomical seeing or when the sky was illuminated by the bright moon. John Herschel immediately on arrival in South Africa in 1834 and 1835 re-observed all of the James Dunlop's double stars, but had troubles identifying them or finding significant differences in the measured positions of the stars . He first began with Alpha Crucis / Acrux, the brightest star in the constellation of Crux, also commonly known as the Southern Cross, then systematically searched for all the others. Herschel also was first to designated all the Dunlop double stars to begin with the Greek letter "Δ", which persists in many amateur observational references. Hence, bright southern doubles like p Eridani is known as Δ5, Gamma Crucis / Gacrux is Δ124, etc. Modern double star observers have since discarded this designation and prefer the observer abbreviation "DUN", as first adopted in the Washington Double Star Catalog (WDS) as maintained by the US Naval Observatory in Washington D.C.. Hence, p Eridani is DUN 5, Gamma Crucis / Gacrux is DUN 124, etc.

text: Dunlop's other major observational work was of 256 southern

text: double stars

text: or "pairs" below the

text: declination

text: of about 30° South. These were listed in Approximate Places of Double Stars in the Southern Hemisphere, observed at Paramatta in New South Wales, published in 1829. Many of these pairs were actual new discoveries, though the most northerly of them had been earlier discoveries made by other observers. These double star observations were all made roughly between December 1827 and December 1828, being observed through his homemade 9-foot 23 cm (9-inch)

text: speculum

text: Newtonian reflector

text: , or by measuring the separated distances and position angles of selected double stars using the small  equatorial mounted

text: refracting telescope

text: . Most of these pairs have proved to be uninteresting to astronomers, and many of the double stars selected were too wide for the indication of orbital motion as

text: binary stars

text: . It seems these observations were made when the atmospheric conditions were quite unsuitable for looking at

text: deep sky

text: objects, either being made under unsteady

text: astronomical seeing

text: or when the sky was illuminated by the bright moon.

text: John Herschel

text: immediately on arrival in South Africa in 1834 and 1835 re-observed all of the James Dunlop's double stars, but had troubles identifying them or finding significant differences in the measured positions of the stars . He first began with

text: Alpha Crucis

text: Acrux

text: Crux

text: , also commonly known as the

text: Southern Cross

text: , then systematically searched for all the others. Herschel also was first to designated all the Dunlop double stars to begin with the Greek letter "Δ", which persists in many amateur observational references. Hence, bright southern doubles like

text: p Eridani

text: is known as Δ5,

text: Gamma Crucis

text: / Gacrux is Δ124, etc. Modern double star observers have since discarded this designation and prefer the observer abbreviation "DUN", as first adopted in the

text: Washington Double Star Catalog

text: (WDS) as maintained by the

text: US Naval Observatory

text: in Washington D.C.. Hence, p Eridani is DUN 5, Gamma Crucis /

text: Gacrux

text: is DUN 124, etc.

text: After UV come X-rays, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the Compton effect. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to 'see through' objects with 'thicknesses' less than that equivalent to a few meters of water. One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as radiography). X-rays are useful as probes in high-energy physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena. X-rays are also emitted by the coronas of stars and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae. However, X-ray telescopes must be placed outside the Earth's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the atmosphere of Earth is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 grams per cm), equivalent to 10 meters thickness of water. This is an amount sufficient to block almost all astronomical X-rays (and also astronomical gamma rays—see below).

text: After UV come

text: X-ray

text: s, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the

text: Compton effect

text: . Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to 'see through' objects with 'thicknesses' less than that equivalent to a few meters of water. One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as

text: radiography

text: ). X-rays are useful as probes in high-energy physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena. X-rays are also emitted by the

text: corona

text: s of stars and are strongly emitted by some types of

text: nebulae

text: . However,

text: X-ray telescope

text: s must be placed outside the Earth's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the

text: atmosphere of Earth

text: is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 grams per cm), equivalent to 10 meters thickness of water. This is an amount sufficient to block almost all astronomical X-rays (and also astronomical gamma rays—see below).

text: This is usually a fixed target, such as the phosphor coating on the back of the screen in the case of a television tube; a piece of uranium in an accelerator designed as a neutron source; or a tungsten target for an X-ray generator. In a linac, the target is simply fitted to the end of the accelerator. The particle track in a cyclotron is a spiral outwards from the centre of the circular machine, so the accelerated particles emerge from a fixed point as for a linear accelerator.

text: This is usually a fixed target, such as the

text: phosphor

text: coating on the back of the screen in the case of a television tube; a piece of

text: uranium

text: in an accelerator designed as a neutron source; or a tungsten target for an X-ray generator. In a linac, the target is simply fitted to the end of the accelerator. The particle track in a cyclotron is a spiral outwards from the centre of the circular machine, so the accelerated particles emerge from a fixed point as for a linear accelerator.

text: In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by al-Sufi. In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star.

text: In the 10th century,

text: Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi

text: (Azophi) carried out observations on the

text: star

text: s and described their positions,

text: magnitude

text: s, brightness, and

text: colour

text: and drawings for each constellation in his

text: Book of Fixed Stars

text: . He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the

text: Andromeda Galaxy

text: . He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic

text: constellation

text: . This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the

text: Isfahan

text: astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. The first recorded mention of the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: was also given by al-Sufi. In 1006,

text: Ali ibn Ridwan

text: observed

text: SN 1006

text: , the brightest

text: supernova

text: in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star.

text: The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). All such weapons derive a significant portion, and sometimes a majority, of their energy from fission. This is because a fission reaction is required as a "trigger" for the fusion reactions, and the fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.

text: The other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of

text: hydrogen

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: ). All such weapons derive a significant portion, and sometimes a majority, of their energy from fission. This is because a fission reaction is required as a "trigger" for the fusion reactions, and the fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.

text: Neutron stars, differently from  black holes, are not heavy enough to collapse completely, and instead forms a material rather like that of an atomic nucleus (sometimes informally called neutronium). After sufficient time these stars could radiate away enough energy to become cold enough that they would be too faint to see. Likewise, old white dwarfs may also become cold and dead, eventually becoming black dwarfs, although the universe is not thought to be old enough for any stars to have reached this stage.

text: Neutron star

text: s, differently from  black holes, are not heavy enough to collapse completely, and instead forms a material rather like that of an

text: atomic nucleus

text: (sometimes informally called

text: neutronium

text: ). After sufficient time these stars could radiate away enough energy to become cold enough that they would be too faint to see. Likewise, old

text: white dwarf

text: s may also become cold and dead, eventually becoming

text: black dwarf

text: s, although the

text: universe

text: is not thought to be

text: old enough

text: for any stars to have reached this stage.

text: The large distances above the galactic plane achieved by some binaries are the result of stellar black hole natal kicks. The velocity distribution of black hole natal kicks seems similar to that of neutron-star kick velocities. One might have expected that it would be the momenta that were the same with black holes receiving lower velocity than neutron stars due to their higher mass but that does not seem to be the case.

text: The large distances above the

text: galactic plane

text: achieved by some

text: binaries

text: are the result of

text: stellar black hole

text: natal kicks. The velocity distribution of black hole natal kicks seems similar to that of neutron-star kick velocities. One might have expected that it would be the momenta that were the same with black holes receiving lower velocity than neutron stars due to their higher mass but that does not seem to be the case.

text: This table shows the typical lifetimes on the main sequence (MS) and subgiant branch (SB), as well as any hook duration between core hydrogen exhaustion and the onset of shell burning, for stars with different initial masses, all at solar metallicity (Z = 0.02).  Also shown are the helium core mass, surface effective temperature, radius, and luminosity at the start and end of the subgiant branch for each star.  The end of the subgiant branch is defined to be when the core becomes degenerate or when the luminosity starts to increase.

text: Living Proof is a 2008 Lifetime Television film, directed by Dan Ireland, starring Harry Connick, Jr.

text: Living Proof is a 2008

text: Lifetime Television

text: film, directed by

text: Dan Ireland

text: , starring

text: Harry Connick, Jr.

text: The obsolete constellations introduced in Aries (Musca Borealis, Lilium, Vespa, and Apes) have all been composed of the northern stars. Musca Borealis was created from the stars 33 Arietis, 35 Arietis, 39 Arietis, and 41 Arietis. In 1612, Petrus Plancius introduced Apes, a constellation representing a bee. In 1624, the same stars were used by Jakob Bartsch to create a constellation called Vespa, representing a wasp. In 1679 Augustin Royer used these stars for his constellation Lilium, representing the fleur-de-lis. None of these constellation became widely accepted. Johann Hevelius renamed the constellation "Musca" in 1690 in his Firmamentum Sobiescianum. To differentiate it from Musca, the southern fly, it was later renamed Musca Borealis but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into Aries.

text: The

text: obsolete constellations

text: introduced in Aries (

text: Musca Borealis

text: Lilium

text: Vespa

text: , and

text: Apes

text: ) have all been composed of the northern stars. Musca Borealis was created from the stars

text: 33 Arietis

text: 35 Arietis

text: 39 Arietis

text: , and

text: 41 Arietis

text: . In 1612,

text: Petrus Plancius

text: introduced Apes, a constellation representing a bee. In 1624, the same stars were used by

text: Jakob Bartsch

text: to create a constellation called Vespa, representing a wasp. In 1679

text: Augustin Royer

text: used these stars for his constellation Lilium, representing the

text: fleur-de-lis

text: . None of these constellation became widely accepted.

text: Johann Hevelius

text: renamed the constellation "Musca" in 1690 in his

text: Firmamentum Sobiescianum

text: . To differentiate it from

text: Musca

text: , the southern fly, it was later renamed Musca Borealis but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into Aries.

text: In astronomy, Conon wrote in seven books his De astrologia, including observations on solar eclipses. Ptolemy further attributes seventeen "signs of the seasons" to Conon, although this may not have been given in De astrologia. Seneca writes that "Conon was a careful observer" and that he "recorded solar eclipses observed by the Egyptians", although the accuracy of this statement is doubted. The Roman Catullus writes that Conon "discerned all the lights of the vast universe, and disclosed the risings and settings of the stars, how the fiery brightness of the sun is darkened, and how the stars retreat at fixed times."

text: In astronomy, Conon wrote in seven books his De astrologia, including observations on solar eclipses. Ptolemy further attributes seventeen "signs of the seasons" to Conon, although this may not have been given in De astrologia. Seneca writes that "Conon was a careful observer" and that he "recorded solar eclipses observed by the Egyptians", although the accuracy of this statement is doubted. The Roman

text: Catullus

text: writes that Conon "discerned all the lights of the vast universe, and disclosed the risings and settings of the stars, how the fiery brightness of the sun is darkened, and how the stars retreat at fixed times."

text: Near Procyon, three stars share the name Delta Canis Minoris. Delta is a yellow-white F-type giant of magnitude 5.25 located around  from Earth. About 360 times as luminous and 3.75 times as massive as the Sun, it is expanding and cooling as it ages, having spent much of its life as a  main sequence star of spectrum B6V. Also known as 8 Canis Minoris, Delta is an F-type main-sequence star of spectral type F2V and magnitude 5.59 which is  distant. The last of the trio, Delta (also known as 9 Canis Minoris), is a white main sequence star of spectral type A0Vnn and magnitude 5.83 which is  distant. These stars mark the paws of the Lesser Dog's left hind leg, while  magnitude 5.13 Zeta marks the right. A blue-white bright giant of spectral type B8II, Zeta lies around  away from the Solar System.

text: Near Procyon, three stars share the name

text: Delta Canis Minoris

text: Delta

text: is a yellow-white

text: F-type

text: giant

text: of magnitude 5.25 located around  from Earth. About 360 times as luminous and 3.75 times as massive as the Sun, it is expanding and cooling as it ages, having spent much of its life as a

text: main sequence star

text: of spectrum B6V. Also known as 8 Canis Minoris,

text: Delta

text: is an

text: F-type main-sequence star

text: of spectral type F2V and magnitude 5.59 which is  distant. The last of the trio,

text: Delta

text: (also known as 9 Canis Minoris), is a

text: white main sequence star

text: of spectral type A0Vnn and magnitude 5.83 which is  distant. These stars mark the paws of the Lesser Dog's left hind leg, while  magnitude 5.13

text: Zeta

text: marks the right. A blue-white

text: bright giant

text: of spectral type B8II, Zeta lies around  away from the Solar System.

text: The stars from which HH objects are emitted are all very young stars, the youngest of which are still protostars in the process of collecting from their surrounding gases. Astronomers divide these stars into classes 0, I, II and III, according to how much infrared radiation the stars emit. A greater amount of infrared radiation implies a larger amount of cooler material surrounding the star, which indicates it is still coalescing. The numbering of the classes arises because class 0 objects (the youngest) were not discovered until classes I, II and III had already been defined.

text: For a particle at rest no drag force will be exhibited, which causes the particle to accelerate due to the applied force. When the particle accelerates, the drag force acts in the direction opposite to the particle's motion, retarding further acceleration, in the absence of other forces drag directly opposes the applied force. As the particle increases in velocity eventually the drag force and the applied force will approximately equate, causing no further change in the particle's velocity. This velocity is known as the terminal velocity, settling velocity or fall velocity of the particle. This is readily measurable by examining the rate of fall of individual particles.

text: For a particle at rest no drag force will be exhibited, which causes the particle to accelerate due to the applied force. When the particle accelerates, the drag force acts in the direction opposite to the particle's motion, retarding further acceleration, in the absence of other forces drag directly opposes the applied force. As the particle increases in velocity eventually the drag force and the applied force will

text: approximately equate

text: , causing no further change in the particle's velocity. This velocity is known as the

text: terminal velocity

text: , settling velocity or fall velocity of the particle. This is readily measurable by examining the rate of fall of individual particles.

text: Marginal cases are allowed; for example, a star may be either a supergiant or a bright giant, or may be in between the subgiant and main-sequence classifications. In these cases, two special symbols are used: a slash (/) means that a star is either one class or the other, and a dash (-) means that the star is in between the two classes. For example, a star classified as A3-4III/IV would be in between spectral types A3 and A4, while being either a giant star or a subgiant. Sub-dwarf classes have also been used: VI for sub-dwarfs, stars slightly less luminous than the main sequence; VII and sometimes higher numerals for white dwarf or "hot sub-dwarf" classes.

text: 26 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.40.

text: 26 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.40.

text: Most of the parts Doohan subsequently played made at least oblique references to his Trek fame and engineering reputation. He was Commander Canarvin in the short-lived Saturday morning live-action kids' show Jason of Star Command, and had a cameo in the made-for-TV movie Knight Rider 2000 as "Jimmy Doohan, the guy who played Scotty on Star Trek". In the TV series Homeboys in Outer Space, he was Pippen, a pun on Scotty and basketball star Scottie Pippen. He played himself in an episode of The Ben Stiller Show. He played Damon Warwick, father of James Warwick, on the daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful. After learning about cold fusion from technical journals in 1989, he narrated the video "Cold Fusion: Fire From Water", about the physics behind cold fusion.

text: Most of the parts Doohan subsequently played made at least oblique references to his Trek fame and engineering reputation. He was Commander Canarvin in the short-lived Saturday morning

text: live-action

text: kids' show

text: Jason of Star Command

text: , and had a

text: cameo

text: in the made-for-TV movie

text: Knight Rider 2000

text: as "Jimmy Doohan, the guy who played Scotty on Star Trek". In the TV series

text: Homeboys in Outer Space

text: , he was Pippen, a pun on Scotty and basketball star

text: Scottie Pippen

text: . He played himself in an episode of

text: The Ben Stiller Show

text: . He played Damon Warwick, father of James Warwick, on the daytime

text: soap opera

text: The Bold and the Beautiful

text: . After learning about cold fusion from technical journals in 1989, he narrated the video "Cold Fusion: Fire From Water", about the physics behind cold fusion.

text: Nuclear fusion is normally understood to occur at temperatures in the tens of millions of degrees.  Since the 1920s, there has been speculation that nuclear fusion might be possible at much lower temperatures by catalytically fusing hydrogen absorbed in a metal catalyst. In 1989, a claim by Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann (then one of the world's leading electrochemists) that such cold fusion had been observed caused a brief media sensation before the majority of scientists criticized their claim as incorrect after many found they could not replicate the excess heat. Since the initial announcement, cold fusion research has continued by a small community of researchers who believe that such reactions happen and hope to gain wider recognition for their experimental evidence.

text: is the particle acceleration.

text: is the particle acceleration.

text: This equation is often referred to in the plural as Einstein's equations, since the quantities G and T are each determined by several functions of the coordinates of spacetime, and the equations equate each of these component functions. A solution of these equations describes a particular geometry of spacetime; for example, the Schwarzschild solution describes the geometry around a spherical, non-rotating mass such as a star or a black hole, whereas the Kerr solution describes a rotating black hole.  Still other solutions can describe a gravitational wave or, in the case of the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker solution, an expanding universe.  The simplest solution is the uncurved Minkowski spacetime, the spacetime described by special relativity.

text: This equation is often referred to in the plural as Einstein's equations, since the quantities G and T are each determined by several functions of the coordinates of spacetime, and the equations equate each of these component functions.

text: A solution of these equations

text: describes a particular geometry of

text: spacetime

text: ; for example, the

text: Schwarzschild solution

text: describes the geometry around a spherical, non-rotating mass such as a

text: star

text: or a

text: black hole

text: , whereas the

text: Kerr solution

text: describes a rotating black hole.  Still other solutions can describe a

text: gravitational wave

text: or, in the case of the

text: Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker solution

text: , an expanding universe.  The simplest solution is the uncurved

text: Minkowski spacetime

text: , the spacetime described by special relativity.

text: The stages of the process are well defined in stars with masses around  or less. In high mass stars, the length of the star formation process is comparable to the other timescales of their evolution, much shorter, and the process is not so well defined. The later evolution of stars are studied in stellar evolution.

text: The stages of the process are well defined in stars with masses around  or less. In high mass stars, the length of the star formation process is comparable to the other timescales of their evolution, much shorter, and the process is not so well defined. The later evolution of stars are studied in

text: stellar evolution

text: In addition to the larger ones, there are also several smaller particle accelerators which serve mostly as pre-accelerators for PETRA and HERA. Among these are the linear accelerators LINAC I (operated from 1964 to 1991 for electrons), LINAC II (operated since 1969 for positrons) and LINAC III (operated since 1988 as a pre-accelerator for protons for HERA).

text: Well known stars which are classified as bright giants include:

text: Another theory of massive star formation suggests that massive stars may form by the coalescence of two or more stars of lower mass.

text: Many notable objects are too faint to be seen with the naked eye. AX Microscopii, better known as Lacaille 8760, is a red dwarf which lies only 12.9 light-years from the Solar System. At magnitude 6.68, it is the brightest red dwarf in the sky. BO Microscopii is a rapidly rotating star that has 80% the diameter of the Sun. Nicknamed "Speedy Mic", it has a rotation period of 9 hours 7 minutes. An active star, it has prominent stellar flares that average 100 times stronger than those of the Sun, and are emitting energy mainly in the X-ray and ultraviolet bands of the spectrum. AT Microscopii is a binary star system, both members of which are flare star red dwarfs. The system lies close to and may form a very wide triple system with AU Microscopii, a young star which appears to be a planetary system in the making with a debris disk.  The three stars are candidate members of the Beta Pictoris moving group, one of the nearest associations of stars that share a common motion through space.

text: Many notable objects are too faint to be seen with the naked eye. AX Microscopii, better known as

text: Lacaille 8760

text: , is a

text: red dwarf

text: which lies only 12.9 light-years from the

text: Solar System

text: . At magnitude 6.68, it is the brightest red dwarf in the sky.

text: BO Microscopii

text: is a rapidly rotating star that has 80% the diameter of the Sun. Nicknamed "Speedy Mic", it has a rotation period of 9 hours 7 minutes. An active star, it has prominent

text: stellar flares

text: that average 100 times stronger than those of the Sun, and are emitting energy mainly in the X-ray and ultraviolet bands of the spectrum.

text: AT Microscopii

text: is a binary star system, both members of which are flare star red dwarfs. The system lies close to and may form a very wide triple system with

text: AU Microscopii

text: , a young star which appears to be a

text: planetary system

text: in the making with a

text: debris disk

text: .  The three stars are candidate members of the

text: Beta Pictoris moving group

text: , one of the nearest

text: associations of stars

text: that share a common motion through space.

text: In astronomy, a green star is a white or blue star that appears green due to an optical illusion. There are no truly green stars, because the color of a star is more or less given by a black-body spectrum and this never looks green. However, there are a few stars that appear green to some observers. This is usually because of the optical illusion that a red object can make nearby objects look greenish. There are some multiple star systems, such as Antares, with a bright red star where this illusion makes other stars in the system look green.

text: In

text: astronomy

text: , a green star is a white or blue

text: star

text: that appears green due to an optical illusion. There are no truly green stars, because the color of a star is more or less given by a

text: black-body spectrum

text: and this never looks green. However, there are a few stars that appear green to some observers. This is usually because of the optical illusion that a red object can make nearby objects look greenish. There are some multiple star systems, such as

text: Antares

text: , with a bright red star where this illusion makes other stars in the system look green.

text: The fact that red dwarfs and other low-mass stars still remain on the main sequence when more massive stars have moved off the main sequence allows the age of star clusters to be estimated by finding the mass at which the stars move off the main sequence. This provides a lower limit to the age of the Universe and also allows formation timescales to be placed upon the structures within the Milky Way, such as the Galactic halo and Galactic disk.

text: The fact that red dwarfs and other low-mass stars still remain on the main sequence when more massive stars have moved off the main sequence allows the age of

text: star cluster

text: s to be estimated by finding the mass at which the stars move off the main sequence. This provides a lower limit to the age of the

text: Universe

text: and also allows formation timescales to be placed upon the structures within the

text: Milky Way

text: , such as the

text: Galactic halo

text: and

text: Galactic disk

text: Each of the constellations' stars are overlain on an engraved image of the subject of the constellation.  For reasons unknown, many of the human constellations are engraved as figures seen from behind whereas they had traditionally been rendered as facing the Earth.  This oddity led to some confusion in the literal meanings of certain star names (e.g. the origins of several named stars refer specifically to "right shoulder" and the like, which would be incorrect given Uranometria's illustrations).

text: Each of the constellations' stars are overlain on an engraved image of the subject of the constellation.  For reasons unknown, many of the human constellations are engraved as figures seen from behind whereas they had traditionally been rendered as facing the

text: Earth

text: .  This oddity led to some confusion in the literal meanings of certain star names (e.g. the origins of several named stars refer specifically to "right shoulder" and the like, which would be incorrect given Uranometria's illustrations).

text: Stars are listed in the appropriate lists for the constellation, as follows:

text: Gliese 570, also known as 33 G. Librae, is a ternary star system approximately 19 light-years away.  The primary star is an orange dwarf star (much dimmer and smaller than the Sun).  The other secondary stars are themselves a binary system, two red dwarfs that orbit the primary star.  A brown dwarf has been confirmed to be orbiting in the system. In 1998, an extrasolar planet was thought to orbit the primary star, but it was discounted in 2000.

text: Gliese 570, also known as 33 G. Librae, is a

text: ternary star system

text: approximately 19

text: light-year

text: s away.  The primary star is an

text: orange dwarf

text: star

text: (much dimmer and smaller than the

text: Sun

text: ).  The other secondary stars are themselves a

text: binary system

text: , two

text: red dwarf

text: s that orbit the primary star.  A

text: brown dwarf

text: has been confirmed to be orbiting in the system. In 1998, an

text: extrasolar planet

text: was thought to orbit the primary star, but it was discounted in 2000.

text: A star is a special kind of tree. As with any tree, stars may be encoded by a Prüfer sequence; the Prüfer sequence for a star K consists of k − 1 copies of the center vertex.

text: A star is a special kind of

text: tree

text: . As with any tree, stars may be encoded by a

text: Prüfer sequence

text: ; the Prüfer sequence for a star K consists of k − 1 copies of the center vertex.

text: The model for the formation of this category of supernova is a closed binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve off the main sequence, and it expands to form a red giant. The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion. At this point it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen. Eventually the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass. Despite widespread acceptance of the basic model, the exact details of initiation and of the heavy elements produced in the explosion are still unclear.

text: The model for the formation of this category of supernova is a closed

text: binary star

text: system. The larger of the two stars is the first to

text: evolve

text: off the

text: main sequence

text: , and it expands to form a

text: red giant

text: . The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue

text: nuclear fusion

text: . At this point it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen. Eventually the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass. Despite widespread acceptance of the basic model, the exact details of initiation and of the heavy elements produced in the explosion are still unclear.

text: A single constellation may contain fifty or more stars, but the Greek alphabet has only twenty-four letters. When these ran out, Bayer began using Latin letters:  upper case A, followed by lower case b through z (omitting j and v), for a total of another 24 letters.  Bayer never went beyond z, but later astronomers added more designations using both upper and lower case Latin letters, the upper case letters following the lower case ones in general.  Examples include s Carinae (s of the constellation Carina), d Centauri (d of the constellation Centaurus), G Scorpii (G of the constellation Scorpius), and N Velorum (N of the constellation Vela).  The last upper-case letter used in this way was Q.

text: A single constellation may contain fifty or more stars, but the Greek alphabet has only twenty-four letters. When these ran out, Bayer began using Latin letters:  upper case A, followed by lower case b through z (omitting j and v), for a total of another 24 letters.  Bayer never went beyond z, but later astronomers added more designations using both upper and lower case Latin letters, the upper case letters following the lower case ones in general.  Examples include

text: s Carinae

text: (s of

text: the constellation Carina

text: d Centauri

text: (d of

text: the constellation Centaurus

text: G Scorpii

text: (G of

text: the constellation Scorpius

text: ), and

text: N Velorum

text: (N of

text: the constellation Vela

text: ).  The last upper-case letter used in this way was Q.

text: The company operated the following steam ships starting in January 1887 - Star of Victoria (built 1886), Star of England (built 1889), Star of New Zealand (built 1895), Star of Australia (built 1899), Star of Scotland (built 1904), Star of Japan (built 1906), Star of Ireland (built 1903), Star of Canada (built 1909) and Star Of India (built 1910).

text: The Greeks depicted the constellation as a centaur and gave it its current name. It was mentioned by Eudoxus in the 4th century BCE and Aratus in the 3rd century BCE. In the 2nd century AD, Claudius Ptolemy catalogued 37 stars in Centaurus. Large as it is now, in earlier times it was even larger, as the constellation Lupus was treated as an asterism within Centaurus, portrayed in illustrations as an unspecified animal either in the centaur's grasp or impaled on its spear. The Southern Cross, which is now regarded as a separate constellation, was treated by the ancients as a mere asterism formed of the stars composing the centaur's legs. Additionally, what is now the minor constellation Circinus was treated as undefined stars under the centaur's front hooves.

text: The Greeks depicted the constellation as a

text: centaur

text: and gave it its current name. It was mentioned by

text: Eudoxus

text: in the 4th century BCE and

text: Aratus

text: in the 3rd century BCE. In the 2nd century AD,

text: Claudius Ptolemy

text: catalogued 37 stars in Centaurus. Large as it is now, in earlier times it was even larger, as the constellation

text: Lupus

text: was treated as an

text: asterism

text: within Centaurus, portrayed in illustrations as an unspecified animal either in the centaur's grasp or impaled on its spear. The

text: Southern Cross

text: , which is now regarded as a separate constellation, was treated by the ancients as a mere asterism formed of the stars composing the centaur's legs. Additionally, what is now the minor constellation

text: Circinus

text: was treated as undefined stars under the centaur's front hooves.

text: Recent observations indicate black holes and neutron stars produce vast amounts of positron-electron plasma via the jets. Large clouds of positron-electron plasma have also been associated with neutron stars.

text: 67 Oph has four companions. The closest is a magnitude 13.7 B1 main sequence star at 8.29", designated B. Component C (BD+02°3459) is the brightest close companion, a magnitude 8.1 B2 main sequence star at 54.32".  Component D is a magnitude 12.5 star 8.37" from component C. Component E is a magnitude 10.9 star 46.53" from 67 Oph A.

text: 67 Oph has four companions. The closest is a magnitude 13.7 B1 main sequence star at 8.29", designated B. Component C (

text: BD

text: +02°3459) is the brightest close companion, a magnitude 8.1 B2 main sequence star at 54.32".  Component D is a magnitude 12.5 star 8.37" from component C. Component E is a magnitude 10.9 star 46.53" from 67 Oph A.

text: 51 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.70.

text: 51 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.70.

text: Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae

text: Timeline

text: of

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s, and

text: supernova

text: e

text: In 2010, she starred in the Lifetime Original Movie, Reviving Ophelia, which aired October 11, 2010, she starred as the mother of a 16-year-old girl who was in an abusive relationship.

text: In 2010, she starred in the

text: Lifetime Original

text: Movie,

text: Reviving Ophelia

text: , which aired October 11, 2010, she starred as the mother of a 16-year-old girl who was in an

text: abusive relationship

text: Type IIn supernovae are not listed in the table.  They can potentially be produced by various types of core collapse in different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will be from iron core collapse in luminous supergiants or hypergiants (including LBVs). The narrow spectral lines for which they are named occur because the supernova is expanding into a small dense cloud of circumstellar material.  It appears that a significant proportion of supposed type IIn supernovae are actually supernova imposters, massive eruptions of LBV-like stars similar to the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae.  In these events, material previously ejected from the star creates the narrow absorption lines and causes a shock wave through interaction with the newly ejected material.

text: Type IIn supernovae are not listed in the table.  They can potentially be produced by various types of core collapse in different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will be from iron core collapse in luminous

text: supergiant

text: s or

text: hypergiant

text: s (including

text: LBVs

text: ). The narrow spectral lines for which they are named occur because the supernova is expanding into a small dense cloud of circumstellar material.  It appears that a significant proportion of supposed type IIn supernovae are actually

text: supernova imposter

text: s, massive eruptions of

text: LBV

text: -like stars similar to the Great Eruption of

text: Eta Carinae

text: .  In these events, material previously ejected from the star creates the narrow absorption lines and causes a shock wave through interaction with the newly ejected material.

text: Van Maanen 2 (van Maanen's Star) is a white dwarf. It is a dense, compact stellar remnant that is no longer generating energy, having about 68% of the Sun's mass but only 1% of the Sun's radius. Out of the white dwarfs known, it is, at 13.9 light-years, the third closest to the Sun, after Sirius B and Procyon B, in that order, and the closest known solitary white dwarf. Discovered in 1917 by Dutch–American astronomer Adriaan van Maanen, Van Maanen 2 was the third white dwarf identified, after 40 Eridani B and Sirius B, and the first that was not a member of a multi-star system. A spectrographic plate made in 1917 shows evidence of planetary matter around the star.

text: Van Maanen 2 (van Maanen's Star) is a

text: white dwarf

text: . It is a dense, compact

text: stellar remnant

text: that is no longer generating energy, having about 68% of the Sun's mass but only 1% of the Sun's radius. Out of the white dwarfs known, it is, at 13.9 light-years, the third closest to the Sun, after

text: Sirius B

text: and

text: Procyon B

text: , in that order, and the closest known solitary white dwarf. Discovered in 1917 by Dutch–American astronomer

text: Adriaan van Maanen

text: , Van Maanen 2 was the third white dwarf identified, after

text: 40 Eridani B

text: and Sirius B, and the first that was not a member of a multi-star system. A spectrographic plate made in 1917 shows evidence of planetary matter around the star.

text: Mind Meld: Secrets Behind the Voyage of a Lifetime is a 2001 American documentary film in which actors William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy discuss the Star Trek science fiction franchise and its effects on their lives. Shatner and Nimoy portrayed the characters James T. Kirk and Spock respectively in the 1960s Star Trek television series, the 1970s animated television series, and their film sequels. They talk about differences they had with Gene Roddenberry, the creator of Star Trek, and about the strained relationships between Shatner and some of the other cast members. It was in this film that Nimoy first publicly revealed that he had struggled with alcoholism while he was acting in the original television series. Shatner talks about the death of his third wife, Nerine Kidd, who accidentally drowned in a pool in 1999 after suffering from alcoholism.

text: Mind Meld: Secrets Behind the Voyage of a Lifetime is a 2001 American

text: documentary film

text: in which actors

text: William Shatner

text: and

text: Leonard Nimoy

text: discuss the

text: Star Trek

text: science fiction

text: franchise and its effects on their lives. Shatner and Nimoy portrayed the characters

text: James T. Kirk

text: and

text: Spock

text: respectively in the

text: 1960s Star Trek television series

text: , the

text: 1970s animated television series

text: , and

text: their film sequels

text: . They talk about differences they had with

text: Gene Roddenberry

text: , the creator of Star Trek, and about the strained relationships between Shatner and some of the other cast members. It was in this film that Nimoy first publicly revealed that he had struggled with

text: alcoholism

text: while he was acting in the original television series. Shatner talks about the death of his third wife,

text: Nerine Kidd

text: , who accidentally drowned in a pool in 1999 after suffering from alcoholism.

text: When the progenitor star is below about  – depending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back – the degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star. Above this mass, the remnant collapses to form a black hole. The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about . Above that mass, a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion, although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain.

text: When the progenitor star is below about  – depending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back – the degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a

text: neutron star

text: . Above this mass, the remnant collapses to form a

text: black hole

text: . The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about . Above that mass, a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion, although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain.

text: Southern Star Central Gas Pipeline, Inc, headquartered in Owensboro, Kentucky, is a natural gas transmission system spanning over  in the Midwest and Mid-continent regions of the United States. Southern Star's employees and its pipeline system and facilities are located throughout Kansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Wyoming, Colorado, Texas, Nebraska, and Kentucky. It serves major markets such as St. Louis, Wichita, and Kansas City. Southern Star is a locally managed, private company owned by Morgan Stanley Infrastructure Partners and Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec. The company is more commonly referred to as Southern Star. The company's FERC code is 43.

text: Southern Star Central Gas Pipeline, Inc, headquartered in

text: Owensboro, Kentucky

text: , is a

text: natural gas

text: transmission system spanning over  in the Midwest and Mid-continent regions of the United States. Southern Star's employees and its pipeline system and facilities are located throughout

text: Kansas

text: Oklahoma

text: Missouri

text: Wyoming

text: Colorado

text: Texas

text: Nebraska

text: , and

text: Kentucky

text: . It serves major markets such as St. Louis, Wichita, and Kansas City. Southern Star is a locally managed, private company owned by Morgan Stanley Infrastructure Partners and

text: Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec

text: . The company is more commonly referred to as Southern Star. The company's

text: FERC

text: code is 43.

text: In 1967, his long-term relationship with the University of Michigan came to an end when he accepted an appointment as visiting professor at Oakland University. Not long afterwards, he also resigned from Conductron, the company which he had founded, in a disagreement with the majority stockholder (McDonnell-Douglas) as to how the corporation should expand, and immediately started KMS Industries. Many of his former employees at Conductron joined him in his new venture, which prospered immediately. In the early 1970s he established KMS Fusion, a subsidiary of KMS Industries, to pursue the development of nuclear fusion as an energy source.

text: In 1967, his long-term relationship with the University of Michigan came to an end when he accepted an appointment as visiting professor at

text: Oakland University

text: . Not long afterwards, he also resigned from Conductron, the company which he had founded, in a disagreement with the majority stockholder (McDonnell-Douglas) as to how the corporation should expand, and immediately started

text: KMS Industries

text: . Many of his former employees at Conductron joined him in his new venture, which prospered immediately. In the early 1970s he established

text: KMS Fusion

text: , a subsidiary of KMS Industries, to pursue the development of

text: nuclear fusion

text: as an

text: energy

text: source.

text: Most of our Galaxy's star formation takes place in clusters and groups within large molecular clouds. These clouds are often turbulent, showing supersonic line widths and complex magnetic fields which play crucial roles in cloud physics. The properties of pre-stellar cores within molecular clouds aid understanding of the large-scale physical processes dictating star formation.

text: Most of our

text: Galaxy

text: 's

text: star formation

text: takes place in

text: clusters

text: and groups within large

text: molecular cloud

text: s. These clouds are often turbulent, showing

text: supersonic

text: line widths and complex

text: magnetic field

text: s which play crucial roles in cloud physics. The properties of pre-stellar cores within molecular clouds aid understanding of the large-scale physical processes dictating star formation.

text: Stellar evolution is the process by which a star changes over the course of time. Depending on the mass of the star, its lifetime can range from a few million years for the most massive to trillions of years for the least massive, which is considerably longer than the age of the universe. The table shows the lifetimes of stars as a function of their masses. All stars are born from collapsing clouds of gas and dust, often called nebulae or molecular clouds. Over the course of millions of years, these protostars settle down into a state of equilibrium, becoming what is known as a main-sequence star.

text: Stellar evolution is the process by which a

text: star

text: changes over the course of time. Depending on the mass of the star, its lifetime can range from a few million years for the most massive to trillions of years for the least massive, which is considerably longer than the

text: age of the universe

text: . The table shows the lifetimes of stars as a function of their masses. All stars are born from

text: collapsing

text: clouds of gas and dust, often called

text: nebula

text: e or

text: molecular cloud

text: s. Over the course of millions of years, these

text: protostar

text: s settle down into a state of equilibrium, becoming what is known as a

text: main-sequence

text: star.

text: Neutron stars in binary systems can undergo accretion which typically makes the system bright in x-rays while the material falling onto the neutron star can form hotspots that rotate in and out of view in identified X-ray pulsar systems. Additionally, such accretion can "recycle" old pulsars and potentially cause them to gain mass and spin-up to very fast rotation rates, forming the so-called millisecond pulsars. These binary systems will continue to evolve, and eventually the companions can become compact objects such as white dwarfs or neutron stars themselves, though other possibilities include a complete destruction of the companion through ablation or merger. The merger of binary neutron stars may be the source of short-duration gamma-ray bursts and are likely strong sources of gravitational waves. Though  no direct detection of the gravitational waves from such an event has been made, gravitational waves have been indirectly detected in a system where two neutron stars orbit each other.

text: Neutron stars in binary systems can undergo

text: accretion

text: which typically makes the system bright in

text: x-ray

text: s while the material falling onto the neutron star can form hotspots that rotate in and out of view in identified

text: X-ray pulsar

text: systems. Additionally, such accretion can "recycle" old pulsars and potentially cause them to gain mass and spin-up to very fast rotation rates, forming the so-called

text: millisecond pulsar

text: s. These binary systems will continue to

text: evolve

text: , and eventually the companions can become

text: compact objects

text: such as white dwarfs or neutron stars themselves, though other possibilities include a complete destruction of the companion through

text: ablation

text: or merger. The merger of binary neutron stars may be the source of

text: short-duration gamma-ray burst

text: s and are likely strong sources of

text: gravitational wave

text: s. Though  no direct detection of the gravitational waves from such an event has been made, gravitational waves have been indirectly detected in a

text: system where two neutron stars orbit each other

text: On September 20, 2004, the WJST call sign was moved to 1280 AM. WJST-FM became WKPL, playing an oldies format under the name "Pickle 92.1" (WICT, which already was a country station as "95.1 The Cat", changed its call sign to WWGY and was converted to the Froggy format), while WJST 1280 temporarily continued the adult contemporary music format from WJST-FM as "Star 1280" instead of "Star 92.1", before itself converting to an oldies format (unrelated to WKPL) as "Just Oldies 1280".

text: On September 20, 2004, the WJST call sign was moved to 1280 AM. WJST-FM became

text: WKPL

text: , playing an

text: oldies

text: format under the name "Pickle 92.1" (WICT, which already was a country station as "95.1 The Cat", changed its

text: call sign

text: to WWGY and was converted to the Froggy format), while WJST 1280 temporarily continued the

text: adult contemporary music

text: format from WJST-FM as "Star 1280" instead of "Star 92.1", before itself converting to an oldies format (unrelated to WKPL) as "Just Oldies 1280".

text: The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis. Since Ni (14 alpha particles) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars, since addition of another alpha particle, resulting in Zn, requires a great deal more energy. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants, and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth. It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight. Iron is the sixth most abundant element in the Universe, and the most common refractory element.

text: The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of

text: nucleosynthesis

text: . Since Ni (14

text: alpha particle

text: s) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the

text: alpha process

text: in

text: nuclear reaction

text: s in supernovae (see

text: silicon burning process

text: ), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside

text: extremely massive stars

text: , since addition of another alpha particle, resulting in Zn, requires a great deal more energy. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in the

text: supernova remnant

text: gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of

text: red giant

text: s, and is the most abundant metal in

text: iron meteorite

text: s and in the dense metal

text: cores of planets

text: such as

text: Earth

text: . It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable

text: metals

text: of approximately the same

text: atomic weight

text: . Iron is the sixth most

text: abundant element

text: in the

text: Universe

text: , and the most common

text: refractory

text: element.

text: In 2010 a study was published in which its proper motion was estimated using images from the Hubble Space Telescope from 2006 and 2009. This ruled out the possibility that the star came from the Large Magellanic Cloud, but was consistent with the hypothesis that it was ejected from the center of the Milky Way. Given its velocity, this would have occurred 100 million years ago. However, the star seems to be at most 20 million years old, which implies that it is a blue straggler, a star born from the merger of a binary star system, which was earlier ejected from the center of the Milky Way. In order for this to happen, there must have originally been a three-star system, or else there were two black holes and just the two stars.

text: In 2010 a study was published in which its

text: proper motion

text: was estimated using images from the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: from 2006 and 2009. This ruled out the possibility that the star came from the Large Magellanic Cloud, but was consistent with the hypothesis that it was ejected from the center of the

text: Milky Way

text: . Given its velocity, this would have occurred 100 million years ago. However, the star seems to be at most 20 million years old, which implies that it is a

text: blue straggler

text: , a star born from the merger of a

text: binary star system

text: , which was earlier ejected from the center of the Milky Way. In order for this to happen, there must have originally been a three-star system, or else there were two black holes and just the two stars.

text: "We've seen these asymmetric lines from many black holes, but this is the first confirmation that neutron stars can produce them as well. It shows that the way neutron stars accrete matter is not very different from that of black holes, and it gives us a new tool to probe Einstein's theory", says Tod Strohmayer of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

text: "We've seen these asymmetric lines from many black holes, but this is the first confirmation that neutron stars can produce them as well. It shows that the way neutron stars accrete matter is not very different from that of black holes, and it gives us a new tool to probe Einstein's theory", says Tod Strohmayer of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: Lukas Rossi (born December 21, 1976) is a Canadian rock musician and was the winner of the CBS Television reality series Rock Star: Supernova - a televised audition contest to become lead singer of the hard rock supergroup Rock Star Supernova.

text: Lukas Rossi (born December 21, 1976) is a

text: Canadian

text: rock

text: musician and was the winner of the

text: CBS Television

text: reality series

text: Rock Star: Supernova

text: - a televised audition contest to become lead singer of the

text: hard rock

text: supergroup

text: Rock Star Supernova

text: The destructive power of the nova bomb is not clearly defined, but there is an established upper limit - in the second episode, the Andromeda Ascendant's entire complement of 40 nova bombs was not powerful enough to destroy a relatively small black hole, although they did temporarily neutralize enough of its gravitational field to briefly turn the black hole into a white hole. However, since a main-sequence star consists of a large body of extremely energetic superheated gas, held under pressure by the gravitational field generated by its own mass, it is actually highly unstable – it would only be necessary to temporarily neutralize a relatively small proportion of a star's gravitational field to drive it to go supernova. It is seen to be able to destroy a star system filled with Magog by firing into the star system's sun.

text: The destructive power of the nova bomb is not clearly defined, but there is an established upper limit - in the second episode, the Andromeda Ascendant's entire complement of 40 nova bombs was not powerful enough to destroy a relatively small

text: black hole

text: , although they did temporarily neutralize enough of its

text: gravitational field

text: to briefly turn the black hole into a

text: white hole

text: . However, since a main-sequence star consists of a large body of extremely energetic superheated gas, held under pressure by the gravitational field generated by its own mass, it is actually highly unstable – it would only be necessary to temporarily neutralize a relatively small proportion of a star's gravitational field to drive it to go supernova. It is seen to be able to destroy a

text: star system

text: filled with

text: Magog

text: by firing into the star system's sun.

text: In ancient Egypt the three brightest stars of Libra (α, β, and σ Librae) formed a constellation that was viewed as a boat. Libra is a constellation not mentioned by Eudoxus or Aratus. Libra is mentioned by Manetho (3rd century B.C.) and Geminus (1st century B.C.), and included by Ptolemy in his 48 asterisms. Ptolemy catalogued 17 stars, Tycho Brahe 10, and Johannes Hevelius 20. It only became a constellation in ancient Rome, when it began to represent the scales held by Astraea, the goddess of justice, associated with Virgo.

text: In ancient Egypt the three brightest stars of Libra (α, β, and σ Librae) formed a constellation that was viewed as a boat. Libra is a constellation not mentioned by

text: Eudoxus

text: or

text: Aratus

text: . Libra is mentioned by

text: Manetho

text: (3rd century B.C.) and

text: Geminus

text: (1st century B.C.), and included by

text: Ptolemy

text: in his 48

text: asterism

text: s. Ptolemy catalogued 17 stars,

text: Tycho Brahe

text: 10, and

text: Johannes Hevelius

text: 20. It only became a constellation in

text: ancient Rome

text: , when it began to represent the scales held by

text: Astraea

text: , the goddess of justice, associated with

text: Virgo

text: There are many applications of particle accelerators.  For example, two important applications are elementary particle physics and synchrotron radiation production.  When performing a modeling task for any accelerator operation, the results of charged particle beam dynamics simulations must feed into the associated application.  Thus, for a full simulation, one must include the codes in associated applications.  For particle physics, the simulation may be continued in a detector with a code such as Geant4.

text: There are many applications of particle accelerators.  For example, two important applications are elementary

text: particle physics

text: and

text: synchrotron radiation

text: production.  When performing a modeling task for any accelerator operation, the results of charged particle beam dynamics simulations must feed into the associated application.  Thus, for a full simulation, one must include the codes in associated applications.  For particle physics, the simulation may be continued in a detector with a code such as

text: Research into nuclear fusion started in the early part of the 20th century. In 1920 the British physicist Francis William Aston discovered that the total mass equivalent of four hydrogen atoms (two protons and two neutrons) are heavier than the total mass of one helium atom (He-4), which implied that net energy can be released by combining hydrogen atoms together to form helium, and provided the first hints of a mechanism by which stars could produce energy in the quantities being measured. Through the 1920s, Arthur Stanley Eddington became a major proponent of the proton–proton chain reaction (PP reaction) as the primary system running the Sun.

text: Research into nuclear fusion started in the early part of the 20th century. In 1920 the British physicist

text: Francis William Aston

text: discovered that the total mass equivalent of four

text: hydrogen atom

text: s (two protons and two neutrons) are heavier than the total mass of one

text: helium atom

text: ), which implied that net energy can be released by combining hydrogen atoms together to form helium, and provided the first hints of a mechanism by which stars could produce energy in the quantities being measured. Through the 1920s,

text: Arthur Stanley Eddington

text: became a major proponent of the

text: proton–proton chain reaction

text: (PP reaction) as the primary system running the

text: Sun

text: Eta Ursae Majoris (η Ursae Majoris, abbreviated Eta UMa, η UMa), also named Alkaid, is a star in the constellation of Ursa Major. It is the most eastern (leftmost) star in the Big Dipper (Plough) asterism. However, unlike most stars of the Big Dipper, it is not a member of the Ursa Major moving group. With an apparent visual magnitude of +1.84, it is the third-brightest star in the constellation and one of the brightest stars in the night sky.

text: Eta Ursae Majoris (η Ursae Majoris, abbreviated Eta UMa, η UMa), also named Alkaid, is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Ursa Major

text: . It is the most eastern (leftmost) star in the

text: Big Dipper

text: (Plough)

text: asterism

text: . However, unlike most stars of the Big Dipper, it is not a member of the

text: Ursa Major moving group

text: . With an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of +1.84, it is the

text: third-brightest star

text: in the constellation and one of the

text: brightest stars

text: in the night sky.

text: Some atoms, notably uranium-238, do not usually undergo fission when struck by slow neutrons, but do split when struck with neutrons of high enough energy. The fast neutrons produced in a hydrogen bomb by fusion of deuterium and tritium have even higher energy than the fast neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This makes it possible to increase the yield of any given fusion weapon by the simple expedient of adding layers of cheap natural (or even depleted) uranium. Fast fission of uranium-238 provides a large part of the explosive yield, and fallout, in many designs of hydrogen bomb.

text: Some atoms, notably

text: , do not usually undergo fission when struck by slow neutrons, but do split when struck with neutrons of high enough energy. The fast neutrons produced in a

text: hydrogen bomb

text: by fusion of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: have even higher energy than the fast neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This makes it possible to increase the yield of any given fusion weapon by the simple expedient of adding layers of cheap natural (or even depleted) uranium. Fast fission of uranium-238 provides a large part of the explosive yield, and

text: fallout

text: , in many designs of hydrogen bomb.

text: Flamsteed designations for stars are similar to Bayer designations, except that they use numbers instead of Greek and Roman letters. Each star is assigned a number and the Latin genitive of the constellation it lies in (see 88 modern constellations for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names). Flamsteed designations were assigned to 2554 stars. The numbers were originally assigned in order of increasing right ascension within each constellation, but due to the effects of precession they are now slightly out of order in some places.

text: Flamsteed designations for

text: star

text: s are similar to

text: Bayer designation

text: s, except that they use numbers instead of Greek and Roman letters. Each star is assigned a number and the Latin

text: genitive

text: of the

text: constellation

text: it lies in (see

text: 88 modern constellations

text: for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names). Flamsteed designations were assigned to 2554 stars. The numbers were originally assigned in order of increasing

text: right ascension

text: within each constellation, but due to the effects of

text: precession

text: they are now slightly out of order in some places.

text: 18 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 6.49.

text: 18 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 6.49.

text: HD 124639 is a Be star in the southern constellation of Apus.

text: HD 124639 is a

text: Be star

text: in the southern

text: constellation

text: of

text: Apus

text: It is thought that the red giant phase of the current white dwarf was dramatically shortened from around 100 million years on average, to a few decades, because of the actions of the brown dwarf. The brown dwarf was swallowed into the envelope of the red giant, and hastened the expulsion of matter during this phase by rapidly heating gas and accreting a portion of it. During this phase, the gas drag also decreased the orbit of the brown dwarf.

text: Most observed events (70%) have a duration of greater than two seconds and are classified as long gamma-ray bursts. Because these events constitute the majority of the population and because they tend to have the brightest afterglows, they have been studied in much greater detail than their short counterparts. Almost every well-studied long gamma-ray burst has been linked to a galaxy with rapid star formation, and in many cases to a core-collapse supernova as well, unambiguously associating long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars. Long GRB afterglow observations, at high redshift, are also consistent with the GRB having originated in star-forming regions.

text: Most observed events (70%) have a duration of greater than two seconds and are classified as long gamma-ray bursts. Because these events constitute the majority of the population and because they tend to have the brightest afterglows, they have been studied in much greater detail than their short counterparts. Almost every well-studied long gamma-ray burst has been linked to a galaxy with rapid star formation, and in many cases to a

text: core-collapse supernova

text: as well, unambiguously associating long GRBs with the deaths of massive stars. Long GRB afterglow observations, at high redshift, are also consistent with the GRB having originated in star-forming regions.

text: Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, circular accelerators suffer a disadvantage in that the particles emit synchrotron radiation. When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits electromagnetic radiation and secondary emissions. As a particle traveling in a circle is always accelerating towards the center of the circle, it continuously radiates towards the tangent of the circle. This radiation is called synchrotron light and depends highly on the mass of the accelerating particle. For this reason, many high energy electron accelerators are linacs. Certain accelerators (synchrotrons) are however built specially for producing synchrotron light (X-rays).

text: Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, circular accelerators suffer a disadvantage in that the particles emit

text: synchrotron radiation

text: . When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: and

text: secondary emission

text: s. As a particle traveling in a circle is always accelerating towards the center of the circle, it continuously radiates towards the tangent of the circle. This radiation is called

text: synchrotron light

text: and depends highly on the mass of the accelerating particle. For this reason, many high energy electron accelerators are linacs. Certain accelerators (

text: synchrotron

text: s) are however built specially for producing synchrotron light (

text: X-ray

text: s).

text: In 2008 a study was undertaken of fourteen stars with exoplanets that were originally discovered using the transit method through relatively small telescopes. These systems were re-examined with the 2.2M reflector telescope at the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain. This star system, along with two others, was determined to be a previously unknown binary star system. The previously unknown secondary star is a dim magnitude 14 K or M-type star separated by about 755 AU from the primary, appearing offset from the primary by about one arc second in the images. This discovery resulted in a recalculation of parameters for both the planet and the primary star.

text: In 2008 a study was undertaken of fourteen stars with exoplanets that were originally discovered using the

text: transit method

text: through relatively small telescopes. These systems were re-examined with the 2.2M

text: reflector telescope

text: at the

text: Calar Alto Observatory

text: in

text: Spain

text: . This star system, along with two others, was determined to be a previously unknown

text: binary star

text: system. The previously unknown secondary star is a dim

text: magnitude

text: K or M-type

text: star separated by about 755

text: AU

text: from the primary, appearing offset from the primary by about one arc second in the images. This discovery resulted in a recalculation of parameters for both the planet and the primary star.

text: The creation story of the Navajo people is recounted as part of a Blessingway Ritual: “The Sky and the Earth were placed after the People emerged from a series of previous worlds. Four Holy People – First Man, First Woman, Salt Woman, and Black God – [sat together and] planned the conditions of life on the surface of the earth.” Still more, these four figures are collectively responsible, not just for the organization of all things terrestrial, but for the placement of the stars themselves. Of the four, however, because of his association with fire, the Navajo saw Black God as responsible for the creation, and sustaining of the celestial bodies.As the story goes, First Man, First Woman, Salt Woman were sitting in a hogan (a Navajo hut made of wood and dirt) when Black God entered with the constellation of Pleiades affixed to his ankle. “When several of the Holy People commented on the presence of this constellation, Black God stamped his foot vigorously, bringing the constellation to his knee. A second stamp…  brought the stars to his hip.” The Holy People were impressed by Black God’s display and nodded approvingly.  Black God then stamped his foot a third and fourth time, until the constellation was lodged in his temple. Satisfied, Black God declared: “There it shall stay!” The Holy People were so captivated by Black God’s performance that they gave him the responsibility of creating constellations with which to adorn the “upper dark.” Black God acquiesced, carefully arranging his star crystals throughout the heavens until the night sky was beautified by his glittering constellations. Yet, the crystals had no light of their own, and the night sky remained dark. “To solve this problem, Black God placed some of his fire in the sky by providing an igniter star to radiate light for each constellation.” Black God went on to impart his fire unto the sun.

text: The creation story of the Navajo people is recounted as part of a

text: Blessingway

text: Ritual: “The Sky and the Earth were placed after the People emerged from a series of previous worlds. Four Holy People – First Man, First Woman, Salt Woman, and Black God – [sat together and] planned the conditions of life on the surface of the earth.” Still more, these four figures are collectively responsible, not just for the organization of all things terrestrial, but for the placement of the stars themselves. Of the four, however, because of his association with fire, the Navajo saw Black God as responsible for the creation, and sustaining of the celestial bodies.As the story goes, First Man, First Woman, Salt Woman were sitting in a

text: hogan

text: (a Navajo hut made of wood and dirt) when Black God entered with the constellation of

text: Pleiades

text: affixed to his ankle. “When several of the Holy People commented on the presence of this constellation, Black God stamped his foot vigorously, bringing the constellation to his knee. A second stamp…  brought the stars to his hip.” The Holy People were impressed by Black God’s display and nodded approvingly.  Black God then stamped his foot a third and fourth time, until the constellation was lodged in his temple. Satisfied, Black God declared: “There it shall stay!” The Holy People were so captivated by Black God’s performance that they gave him the responsibility of creating constellations with which to adorn the “upper dark.” Black God acquiesced, carefully arranging his star crystals throughout the heavens until the night sky was beautified by his glittering constellations. Yet, the crystals had no light of their own, and the night sky remained dark. “To solve this problem, Black God placed some of his fire in the sky by providing an igniter star to radiate light for each constellation.” Black God went on to impart his fire unto the sun.

text: One of the nearest stars in Caelum is the eclipsing binary star RR Caeli, at a distance of . This star system consists of a dim red dwarf and a white dwarf. Despite its closeness to the Earth, the system's apparent magnitude is only 14.40 due to the faintness of its components, and thus it cannot be easily seen with amateur equipment. In 2012, the system was found to contain a giant planet, and there is evidence for a second substellar body. The system is a post-common-envelope binary and is losing angular momentum over time, which will eventually cause mass transfer from the red dwarf to the white dwarf. In approximately 9–20 billion years, this will cause the system to become a cataclysmic variable.

text: One of the nearest stars in Caelum is the

text: eclipsing binary

text: star

text: RR Caeli

text: , at a distance of . This star system consists of a dim

text: red dwarf

text: and a

text: white dwarf

text: . Despite its closeness to the Earth, the system's apparent magnitude is only 14.40 due to the faintness of its components, and thus it cannot be easily seen with amateur equipment. In 2012, the system was found to contain a

text: giant planet

text: , and there is evidence for a second substellar body. The system is a

text: post-common-envelope binary

text: and is losing

text: angular momentum

text: over time, which will eventually cause

text: mass transfer

text: from the red dwarf to the white dwarf. In approximately 9–20 billion years, this will cause the system to become a

text: cataclysmic variable

text: At the other end of the scale are massive stars. These stars burn their fuel very quickly, ending their lives as supernovae. After which further gravitational compression will produce either a neutron star or a black hole from the remnants.

text: At the other end of the scale are

text: massive stars

text: . These stars burn their fuel very quickly, ending their lives as

text: supernova

text: e. After which further gravitational compression will produce either a

text: neutron star

text: or a

text: black hole

text: from the remnants.

text: Multiple X-ray sources have since been detected in the Andromeda Galaxy, using observations from the European Space Agency's (ESA) XMM-Newton orbiting observatory. Robin Barnard et al. hypothesized that these are candidate black holes or neutron stars, which are heating incoming gas to millions of kelvins and emitting X-rays. The spectrum of the neutron stars is the same as the hypothesized black holes, but can be distinguished by their masses.

text: Multiple X-ray sources have since been detected in the Andromeda Galaxy, using observations from the

text: European Space Agency

text: 's (ESA)

text: XMM-Newton

text: orbiting observatory.

text: Robin Barnard

text: et al. hypothesized that these are candidate black holes or

text: neutron stars

text: , which are heating incoming gas to millions of kelvins and emitting X-rays. The spectrum of the neutron stars is the same as the hypothesized black holes, but can be distinguished by their masses.

text: Most multiple star systems known are triple; for higher multiplicities, the number of known systems with a given multiplicity decreases exponentially with multiplicity; this was confirmed with a sample of 807 nearby stars by the astronomer A Tokovinin. A similar exponential relationship holds for 41 multiplicities of real binary and multiple star systems cited in fiction, as listed in the following section.

text: Most multiple star systems known are triple; for higher multiplicities, the number of known systems with a given multiplicity decreases exponentially with multiplicity; this was confirmed with a sample of 807 nearby stars by the astronomer A Tokovinin. A similar exponential relationship holds for 41 multiplicities of real binary and multiple star systems cited in fiction, as listed in the

text: following section

text: There is, however, one major advantage that red dwarfs have over other stars as abodes for life: they live a long time. It took 4.5 billion years before humanity appeared on Earth, and life as we know it will see suitable conditions for 1 to 2.3  more. Red dwarfs, by contrast, could live for trillions of years because their nuclear reactions are far slower than those of larger stars, meaning that life would have longer to evolve and survive.

text: The third companion C lies much closer to A, presently at a distance of approximately 24 AU. The pair A-C have an estimated orbital period of 61 years.  C's orbit is estimated to have a high eccentricity of around 0.75 and a semi-major axis of 15 AU, giving an aphelion of 26.25 AU and a perihelion of just 3.75 AU. Component C is a relatively minuscule star that lies at the low end of the mass range needed to achieve nuclear fusion.

text: The third companion C lies much closer to A, presently at a distance of approximately 24 AU. The pair A-C have an estimated orbital period of 61 years.  C's orbit is estimated to have a high eccentricity of around 0.75 and a semi-major axis of 15 AU, giving an

text: aphelion

text: of 26.25 AU and a

text: perihelion

text: of just 3.75 AU. Component C is a relatively minuscule star that lies at the low end of the mass range needed to achieve

text: nuclear fusion

text: Phoenix is a minor constellation in the southern sky. Named after the mythical phoenix, it was first depicted on a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria. The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille  charted the brighter stars and gave their Bayer designations in 1756. The constellation stretches from roughly −39° to −57° declination, and from 23.5h to 2.5h of right ascension. The constellations Phoenix, Grus, Pavo and Tucana, are known as the Southern Birds.

text: Phoenix is a minor

text: constellation

text: in the

text: southern sky

text: . Named after the mythical

text: phoenix

text: , it was first depicted on a celestial atlas by

text: Johann Bayer

text: in his 1603

text: Uranometria

text: . The French explorer and astronomer

text: Nicolas Louis de Lacaille

text: charted the brighter stars and gave their

text: Bayer designation

text: s in 1756. The constellation stretches from roughly −39° to −57°

text: declination

text: , and from 23.5h to 2.5h of

text: right ascension

text: . The constellations Phoenix,

text: Grus

text: Pavo

text: and

text: Tucana

text: , are known as the Southern Birds.

text: Constellations, on the other hand, are unequal in size and are based on the positions of the stars. The constellations of the zodiac have only a loose association with the signs of the zodiac, and do not in general coincide with them. In Western astrology the constellation of Aquarius, for example, largely corresponds to the sign of Pisces. Similarly, the constellation of Ophiuchus occupies most (November 29 – December 18) of the sign of Sagittarius (November 23 – December 21). The differences are due to the fact that the time of year that the sun passes through a particular zodiac constellation's position has slowly changed (because of the precession of the equinoxes) over the centuries from when the Greeks, Babylonians and the Dacians through Zamolxis  originally developed the Zodiac.

text: Constellations, on the other hand, are unequal in size and are based on the positions of the stars. The

text: constellations of the zodiac

text: have only a loose association with the signs of the zodiac, and do not in general coincide with them. In Western astrology the constellation of Aquarius, for example, largely corresponds to the sign of Pisces. Similarly, the constellation of Ophiuchus occupies most (November 29 – December 18) of the sign of Sagittarius (November 23 – December 21). The differences are due to the fact that the time of year that the sun passes through a particular zodiac constellation's position has slowly changed (because of the

text: precession of the equinoxes

text: ) over the centuries from when the Greeks,

text: Babylonians

text: and the

text: Dacians

text: through

text: Zamolxis

text: originally developed the Zodiac.

text: After the breakthrough made by Sandia National Laboratories at the end of 2005 where researchers generated more than 3 billion degrees within the MHD compressor Z machine, he tries to draw the attention of scientists, politicians, ecologists and the public to what he presents as a possible future clean nuclear civilian energy, thanks to aneutronic nuclear fusion reactions with none or very few radioactive waste byproducts. But again this technology is potentially proliferating and Petit claims it could also lead to new pure fusion weapons, where the central fission A-bomb used classically for ignition of the H-bomb would be useless, replaced by a fast electric pulsed power detonator (a compact z-pinch fed with some explosively pumped flux compression generator).

text: After the breakthrough made by

text: Sandia National Laboratories

text: at the end of 2005 where researchers generated more than 3 billion degrees within the MHD compressor

text: Z machine

text: , he tries to draw the attention of scientists, politicians, ecologists and the public to what he presents as a possible future clean nuclear civilian energy, thanks to

text: aneutronic nuclear fusion

text: reactions with none or very few

text: radioactive waste

text: byproducts. But again this technology is

text: potentially

text: proliferating and Petit claims it could also lead to new

text: pure fusion weapon

text: s, where the central

text: fission

text: A-bomb

text: used classically for ignition of the

text: H-bomb

text: would be useless, replaced by a fast electric

text: pulsed power

text: detonator

text: (a compact

text: z-pinch

text: fed with some

entity_name: Explosively pumped flux compression generator

text: explosively pumped flux compression generator

text: It is 330,000 times the luminosity of the sun and 40 times its mass. It is suspected of being an Alpha Cygni variable, which are named after the similar star Deneb. Being a blue supergiant, it is likely to become a red supergiant in a few million years and eventually a type-II supernova.

text: It is 330,000 times the luminosity of the sun and 40 times its mass. It is suspected of being an

text: Alpha Cygni variable

text: , which are named after the similar star

text: Deneb

text: . Being a blue supergiant, it is likely to become a

text: red supergiant

text: in a few million years and eventually a

text: type-II

text: supernova

text: Wolf–Rayet stars explode as type Ib/c core collapse supernovae when they have fused elements all the way to iron.  Depending on the mass of the core at the time of collapse they will leave a black hole or neutron star remnant. SMC Wolf–Rayet stars are expected to be relatively massive and relatively short-lived, leaving behind black holes.  They are also good candidates for gamma-ray bursts if they are rotating quickly enough.

text: Wolf–Rayet stars explode as type Ib/c core collapse

text: supernova

text: e when they have fused elements all the way to iron.  Depending on the mass of the core at the time of collapse they will leave a black hole or neutron star remnant. SMC Wolf–Rayet stars are expected to be relatively massive and relatively short-lived, leaving behind black holes.  They are also good candidates for

text: gamma-ray burst

text: s if they are rotating quickly enough.

text: Walther Ritz's emission theory (or ballistic theory), was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source. However de Sitter noted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in a spectrometer. If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown by J. G. Fox that the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due to extinction, but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results. Also terrestrial tests using particle accelerators have been made that were inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. In addition, Emission theory might fail the Ives–Stilwell experiment, but Fox questioned that as well.

text: Walther Ritz

text: 's

text: emission theory

text: (or ballistic theory), was also consistent with the results of the experiment, not requiring aether. The theory postulates that light has always the same velocity in respect to the source. However

text: de Sitter

text: noted that emitter theory predicted several optical effects that were not seen in observations of binary stars in which the light from the two stars could be measured in a

text: spectrometer

text: . If emission theory were correct, the light from the stars should experience unusual fringe shifting due to the velocity of the stars being added to the speed of the light, but no such effect could be seen. It was later shown by

text: J. G. Fox

text: that the original de Sitter experiments were flawed due to

text: extinction

text: , but in 1977 Brecher observed X-rays from binary star systems with similar null results. Also terrestrial tests using

text: particle accelerator

text: s have been made that were inconsistent with source dependence of the speed of light. In addition,

text: Emission theory

text: might fail the

text: Ives–Stilwell experiment

text: , but Fox questioned that as well.

text: Sales of the paper declined as the interest in the Chartist movement fell, with weekly circulation being only 1,200 by the end of 1851. O'Connor was losing interest in the campaign and sold the Northern Star to Harney in April 1852, who merged it with the Friend of the people to form the Star of Freedom. The latter appeared in a smaller format to Northern Star and to avoid the Stamp Duty printed no news. It survived only until December of the same year.

text: In 2008 a study was undertaken of fourteen stars with exoplanets that were originally discovered using the transit method through relatively small telescopes. These systems were re-examined with the 2.2M reflector telescope at the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain. This star system, along with two others, was determined to be a previously unknown binary star system. The previously unknown secondary star is a dim magnitude 15 K-type star separated by about 232 AU from the primary, appearing offset from the primary by about one arc second in the images. This discovery resulted in a significant recalculation of parameters for both the planet and the primary star.

text: transit method

text: reflector telescope

text: at the

text: Calar Alto Observatory

text: in

text: Spain

text: binary star

text: magnitude

text: K-type

text: star separated by about 232

text: AU

text: from the primary, appearing offset from the primary by about one arc second in the images. This discovery resulted in a significant recalculation of parameters for both the planet and the primary star.

text: He researches supernovae (exploding stars).

text: He researches

text: supernova

text: e (exploding stars).

text: While approximations of this type of situation can occur in the real world  (in particle accelerators, for example), a true event horizon is never present, as this requires the particle to be accelerated indefinitely (requiring arbitrarily large amounts of energy and an arbitrarily large apparatus).

text: While approximations of this type of situation can occur in the real world  (in

text: particle accelerator

text: s, for example), a true event horizon is never present, as this requires the particle to be accelerated indefinitely (requiring arbitrarily large amounts of energy and an arbitrarily large apparatus).

text: Gliese 667 (142 G. Scorpii) is a triple-star system in the constellation of Scorpius lying at a distance of about 6.8 pc (23.6 ly) from Earth. All three of the stars have masses smaller than the Sun. There is a 12th magnitude star close to the other three, but it is not gravitationally bound to the system. To the naked eye, the system appears to be a single faint star of magnitude 5.89.

text: Gliese 667 (142 G. Scorpii) is a

text: triple-star system

text: in the constellation of

text: Scorpius

text: lying at a distance of about 6.8

text: pc

text: ly

text: ) from Earth. All three of the stars have masses smaller than the Sun. There is a 12th magnitude star close to the other three, but it is not gravitationally bound to the system. To the naked eye, the system appears to be a single faint star of magnitude 5.89.

text: One of the many possible reasons for the existence of the desert relates to planetary (and brown dwarf) migration. If a brown dwarf were to form within 5 AU of its companion star, it could plausibly begin migrating inwards towards the central star and eventually fall into the star itself. That being said, the exact details of migration within a proto-planetary disk are not completely understood, and it is equally plausible that brown dwarf companions to FGK dwarfs would not undergo appreciable migration after their formation. A second possible reason is, depending on which formation paradigm is invoked, that a formation by core accretion should make the formation of higher mass brown dwarfs unlikely, as the gas accretion rate during runaway accretion onto high mass forming objects is reduced due to gap formation in the disk. The limited disk life time then truncates the mass range, limiting the maximum masses to approximately 10 Jupiter masses ().This effect might be somewhat mitigated by the fact that objects of  and above might excite eccentric perturbations in the disk, allowing for non-negligible mass accretion even in the presence of a gap.Objects that form further outside (a>80 AU), where the disk is prone to gravitational instabilities, might be able to reach the masses required to cross the planet—brown dwarf threshold. For these objects it might be unlikely to migrate into the inner regions of the disk, however, due to the long type-II migration timescale for massive objects in the brown dwarf mass regime.

text: One of the many possible reasons for the existence of the desert relates to

text: planetary (and brown dwarf) migration

text: . If a brown dwarf were to form within 5 AU of its companion star, it could plausibly begin migrating inwards towards the central star and eventually fall into the star itself. That being said, the exact details of migration within a

text: proto-planetary disk

text: are not completely understood, and it is equally plausible that brown dwarf companions to FGK dwarfs would not undergo appreciable migration after their formation. A second possible reason is, depending on which formation paradigm is invoked, that a formation by

text: core accretion

text: should make the formation of higher mass brown dwarfs unlikely, as the gas accretion rate during runaway accretion onto high mass forming objects is reduced due to gap formation in the disk. The limited disk life time then truncates the mass range, limiting the maximum masses to approximately 10 Jupiter masses ().This effect might be somewhat mitigated by the fact that objects of  and above might excite eccentric perturbations in the disk, allowing for non-negligible mass accretion even in the presence of a gap.Objects that form further outside (a>80 AU), where the disk is prone to gravitational instabilities, might be able to reach the masses required to cross the planet—brown dwarf threshold. For these objects it might be unlikely to migrate into the inner regions of the disk, however, due to the long type-II migration timescale for massive objects in the brown dwarf mass regime.

text: The Entropy Effect is a novel by Vonda N. McIntyre set in the fictional Star Trek Universe. It was originally published in 1981 by Pocket Books and is the second in its long-running series of Star Trek novels (and the first original novel in that series; the first of the series is the novelization of Star Trek: The Motion Picture). It is also the first source to give Sulu and Uhura first names later made canon, Hikaru (in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country) and Nyota (in Star Trek).

text: The Entropy Effect is a novel by

text: Vonda N. McIntyre

text: set in the fictional

text: Star Trek

text: Universe. It was originally published in 1981 by

text: Pocket Books

text: and is the second in its long-running series of

text: Star Trek novels

text: (and the first original novel in that series; the first of the series is the novelization of

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: ). It is also the first source to give

text: Sulu

text: and

text: Uhura

text: first names later made canon, Hikaru (in

text: Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country

text: ) and Nyota (in

text: Star Trek

text: As stars grow older, their luminosity increases at an appreciable rate. Given the mass of the star, one can use this rate of increase in luminosity in order to determine the age of the star. This method only works for calculating stellar age on the main sequence, because in advanced evolutionary stages of the star, such as the red giant stage, the standard relationship for the determination of age no longer holds. However, when one can observe a red giant star with a known mass, one can calculate the main-sequence lifetime, and thus the minimum age of star is known given that it is in an advanced stage of its evolution. As the star spends only about 1% of its total lifetime as a red giant, this is an accurate method of determining age.

text: As stars grow older, their luminosity increases at an appreciable rate. Given the mass of the star, one can use this rate of increase in luminosity in order to determine the age of the star. This method only works for calculating stellar age on the

text: main sequence

text: , because in advanced evolutionary stages of the star, such as the

text: red giant

text: stage, the standard relationship for the determination of age no longer holds. However, when one can observe a red giant star with a known mass, one can calculate the main-sequence lifetime, and thus the minimum age of star is known given that it is in an advanced stage of its evolution. As the star spends only about 1% of its total lifetime as a red giant, this is an accurate method of determining age.

text: A neutron star is the collapsed core of a large (10–29 solar masses) star. Neutron stars are the smallest and densest stars known to exist. With a radius on the order of 10 km, they can, however, have a mass of about twice that of the Sun. They result from the supernova explosion of a massive star, combined with gravitational collapse, that compresses the core past the white dwarf star density to that of atomic nuclei. Most of the basic models for these objects imply that neutron stars are composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are subatomic particles with no net electrical charge and with slightly larger mass than protons. They are supported against further collapse by neutron degeneracy pressure, a phenomenon described by the Pauli exclusion principle. If the remnant has too great a density, something which occurs in excess of an upper limit of the size of neutron stars at 2-3 solar masses, it will continue collapsing to form a black hole.

text: A neutron star is the collapsed core of a large (10–29 solar masses) star. Neutron stars are the smallest and densest stars known to exist. With a radius on the order of 10

text: km

text: , they can, however, have a mass of about twice

text: that of the Sun

text: . They result from the

text: supernova

text: explosion of a

text: massive star

text: , combined with

text: gravitational collapse

text: , that compresses the core past the

text: white dwarf

text: star density to that of

text: atomic nuclei

text: . Most of the basic models for these objects imply that neutron stars are composed almost entirely of

text: neutron

text: s, which are subatomic particles with no net

text: electrical charge

text: and with slightly larger mass than

text: proton

text: s. They are supported against further collapse by

text: neutron degeneracy pressure

text: , a phenomenon described by the

text: Pauli exclusion principle

text: . If the remnant has too great a

text: density

text: , something which occurs in excess of an upper limit of the size of neutron stars at 2-3 solar masses, it will continue collapsing to form a

text: black hole

text: The star formation process naturally results in the appearance of accretion disks around young stellar objects. At the age of about 1 million years, 100% of stars may have such disks. This conclusion is supported by the discovery of the gaseous and dusty disks around protostars and T Tauri stars as well as by theoretical considerations. Observations of these disks show that the dust grains inside them grow in size on short (thousand-year) time scales, producing 1 centimeter sized particles.

text: The star formation process naturally results in the appearance of

text: accretion disk

text: s around young stellar objects. At the age of about 1 million years, 100% of stars may have such disks. This conclusion is supported by the discovery of the gaseous and dusty disks around

text: protostar

text: s and

text: T Tauri star

text: s as well as by theoretical considerations. Observations of these disks show that the

text: dust

text: grains inside them grow in size on short (thousand-year) time scales, producing 1 centimeter sized particles.

text: In the case of planar motion of a particle, the "coordinate" centrifugal and Coriolis acceleration terms found above to be non-zero in an inertial frame can be shown to be the negatives of the "state-of-motion" centrifugal and Coriolis terms that appear in a very particular non-inertial co-rotating frame (see next subsection). See Figure 3. To define a co-rotating frame, first an origin is selected from which the distance r(t) to the particle is defined. An axis of rotation is set up that is perpendicular to the plane of motion of the particle, and passing through this origin. Then, at the selected moment t, the rate of rotation of the co-rotating frame Ω is made to match the rate of rotation of the particle about this axis, dθ/dt. The co-rotating frame applies only for a moment, and must be continuously re-selected as the particle moves. For more detail, see Polar coordinates, centrifugal and Coriolis terms.

text: In the case of planar motion of a particle, the "coordinate" centrifugal and Coriolis acceleration terms found above to be non-zero in an inertial frame can be shown to be the negatives of the "state-of-motion" centrifugal and Coriolis terms that appear in a very particular non-inertial co-rotating frame (see next subsection). See

text: Figure 3

text: . To define a co-rotating frame, first an origin is selected from which the distance r(t) to the particle is defined. An axis of rotation is set up that is perpendicular to the plane of motion of the particle, and passing through this origin. Then, at the selected moment t, the rate of rotation of the co-rotating frame Ω is made to match the rate of rotation of the particle about this axis, dθ/dt. The co-rotating frame applies only for a moment, and must be continuously re-selected as the particle moves. For more detail, see

text: Polar coordinates, centrifugal and Coriolis terms

text: The first stars in the universe are thought to have been considerably brighter and more massive than the stars in the modern universe. These stars were part of the theorized population III of stars. Their existence is necessary to explain observations of elements other than hydrogen and helium in quasars.  Although they may have been larger and more luminous than any supergiant known today, their structure was quite different, with reduced convection and less mass loss. Their very short lives are likely to have ended in violent photodisintegration or pair instability supernovae.

text: The first stars in the

text: universe

text: are thought to have been considerably brighter and more massive than the stars in the modern universe. These stars were part of the theorized

text: population III

text: of stars. Their existence is necessary to explain observations of

text: elements

text: other than

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: in

text: quasar

text: s.  Although they may have been larger and more luminous than any supergiant known today, their structure was quite different, with reduced convection and less mass loss. Their very short lives are likely to have ended in violent photodisintegration or pair instability supernovae.

text: The European Union has a strongly coordinated nuclear fusion research programme. At the European level, the so-called EURATOM Treaty is the international legal framework under which member states cooperate in the fields of nuclear fusion research.

text: The European Union has a strongly coordinated

text: nuclear fusion

text: research programme. At the European level, the so-called EURATOM Treaty is the international legal framework under which member states cooperate in the fields of nuclear fusion research.

text: All main-sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion. The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star. A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass to compress the core, resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure. Likewise an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand, lowering the pressure at the core. Thus the star forms a self-regulating system in hydrostatic equilibrium that is stable over the course of its main sequence lifetime.

text: All main-sequence stars have a core region where energy is generated by nuclear fusion. The temperature and density of this core are at the levels necessary to sustain the energy production that will support the remainder of the star. A reduction of energy production would cause the overlaying mass to compress the core, resulting in an increase in the fusion rate because of higher temperature and pressure. Likewise an increase in energy production would cause the star to expand, lowering the pressure at the core. Thus the star forms a self-regulating system in

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: that is stable over the course of its main sequence lifetime.

text: The supernova of 1572 is often called "Tycho's supernova", because of Tycho Brahe's extensive work De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella ("Concerning the Star, new and never before seen in the life or memory of anyone", published in 1573 with reprints overseen by Johannes Kepler in 1602, and 1610), a work containing both Tycho Brahe's own observations and the analysis of sightings from many other observers. Tycho was not the first to observe the 1572 supernova, although he was probably the most accurate observer of the object.  Almost as accurate were his European colleagues, such as Wolfgang Schuler, Thomas Digges, John Dee, Francesco Maurolico, Jerónimo Muñoz, Tadeáš Hájek, or Bartholomäus Reisacher.

text: The supernova of 1572 is often called "Tycho's supernova", because of

text: Tycho Brahe

text: 's extensive work De nova et nullius aevi memoria prius visa stella ("Concerning the Star, new and never before seen in the life or memory of anyone", published in 1573 with reprints overseen by

text: Johannes Kepler

text: in 1602, and 1610), a work containing both Tycho Brahe's own observations and the analysis of sightings from many other observers. Tycho was not the first to observe the 1572 supernova, although he was probably the most accurate observer of the object.  Almost as accurate were his European colleagues, such as Wolfgang Schuler,

text: Thomas Digges

text: John Dee

text: Francesco Maurolico

text: , Jerónimo Muñoz,

text: Tadeáš Hájek

text: , or Bartholomäus Reisacher.

text: The size of a star as well as its energy output generally determine a star's thermal lifetime because the measurement is independent of the type of fuel normally found at its center.  Indeed, the thermal time scale assumes that there is no fuel at all inside the star and simply predicts the length of time it would take for the resulting change in outputted energy to reach the surface of the star and become visually apparent to an outside observer.

text: Key elements of star formation are only available by observing in wavelengths other than the optical. The protostellar stage of stellar existence is almost invariably hidden away deep inside dense clouds of gas and dust left over from the GMC. Often, these star-forming cocoons known as Bok globules, can be seen in silhouette against bright emission from surrounding gas. Early stages of a star's life can be seen in infrared light, which penetrates the dust more easily than visible light.  Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have thus been especially important for unveiling numerous Galactic protostars and their parent star clusters.  Examples of such embedded star clusters are FSR 1184, FSR 1190, Camargo 14, Camargo 74, Majaess 64, and Majaess 98.

text: Key elements of star formation are only available by observing in

text: wavelength

text: s other than the

text: optical

text: . The protostellar stage of stellar existence is almost invariably hidden away deep inside dense clouds of gas and dust left over from the

text: GMC

text: . Often, these star-forming cocoons known as

text: Bok globule

text: s, can be seen in

text: silhouette

text: against bright emission from surrounding gas. Early stages of a star's life can be seen in

text: infrared

text: light, which penetrates the dust more easily than

text: visible

text: light.  Observations from the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: (WISE) have thus been especially important for unveiling numerous Galactic protostars and their parent

text: star clusters

text: .  Examples of such embedded star clusters are FSR 1184, FSR 1190, Camargo 14, Camargo 74, Majaess 64, and Majaess 98.

text: Tucana is one of the twelve constellations established by the Dutch astronomer Petrus Plancius from the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the Eerste Schipvaart, to the East Indies. It first appeared on a  celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in the German cartographer Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. Both Plancius and Bayer depict it as a toucan. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name Den Indiaenschen Exster, op Indies Lang ghenaemt "the Indian magpie, named Lang in the Indies", by this meaning a particular bird with a long beak—a hornbill, a bird native to the East Indies. A 1603 celestial globe by Willem Blaeu depicts it with a casque. It was interpreted on Chinese charts as Neaou Chuy "beak bird", and in England as "Brasilian Pye", while Johannes Kepler and Giovanni Battista Riccioli termed it Anser Americanus "American Goose", and Caesius as Pica Indica. Tucana and the nearby constellations Phoenix, Grus and Pavo are collectively called the "Southern Birds".

text: Tucana is one of the twelve constellations established by the Dutch astronomer

text: Petrus Plancius

text: from the observations of the southern sky by the Dutch explorers

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: and

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: Eerste Schipvaart

text: , to the

text: East Indies

text: . It first appeared on a  celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with

text: Jodocus Hondius

text: . The first depiction of this constellation in a

text: celestial atlas

text: was in the German cartographer

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's

text: Uranometria

text: of 1603. Both Plancius and Bayer depict it as a

text: toucan

text: . De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue the same year under the Dutch name Den Indiaenschen Exster, op Indies Lang ghenaemt "the Indian magpie, named Lang in the Indies", by this meaning a particular bird with a long beak—a

text: hornbill

text: , a bird native to the East Indies. A 1603 celestial globe by

text: Willem Blaeu

text: depicts it with a

text: casque

text: . It was interpreted on Chinese charts as Neaou Chuy "beak bird", and in England as "Brasilian Pye", while

text: Johannes Kepler

text: and

text: Giovanni Battista Riccioli

text: termed it Anser Americanus "American Goose", and Caesius as Pica Indica. Tucana and the nearby constellations

text: Phoenix

text: Grus

text: and

text: Pavo

text: are collectively called the "Southern Birds".

text: In 2008 a study was undertaken of fourteen stars with exoplanets that were originally discovered using the transit method through relatively small telescopes. These systems were re-examined with the  reflector telescope at the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain. This star system, along with two others, was determined to be a previously unknown binary star system. The previously unknown secondary star is a dim magnitude 15 M-type star separated by about 111 AU from the primary, appearing offset from the primary by about one arc second in the images. This discovery resulted in a recalculation of parameters for both the planet and the primary star.

text: transit method

text: through relatively small telescopes. These systems were re-examined with the

text: reflector telescope

text: at the

text: Calar Alto Observatory

text: in

text: Spain

text: binary star

text: magnitude

text: M-type

text: star separated by about 111

text: AU

text: In "Demons and Angels" (1992), Red Dwarf is blown up when the beam of a device called the triplicator is put into reverse, putting the engine core into meltdown, while creating a "high" and "low" version of Red Dwarf, complete with their own versions of Kryten (both played by Llewellyn). Before the lifespans of both versions of Red Dwarf expire after an hour, the crew collect pieces of the triplicator from both Red Dwarfs, and restore the original Red Dwarf by amalgamating the two copies with a rebuilt triplicator. The "high" version of Kryten is blown up by a bomb the "lows" throw at him, while the "low" version disappears with his version of Red Dwarf.

text: In "

text: Demons and Angels

text: " (1992), Red Dwarf is blown up when the beam of a device called the triplicator is put into reverse, putting the engine core into meltdown, while creating a "high" and "low" version of Red Dwarf, complete with their own versions of Kryten (both played by Llewellyn). Before the lifespans of both versions of Red Dwarf expire after an hour, the crew collect pieces of the triplicator from both Red Dwarfs, and restore the original Red Dwarf by amalgamating the two copies with a rebuilt triplicator. The "high" version of Kryten is blown up by a bomb the "lows" throw at him, while the "low" version disappears with his version of Red Dwarf.

text: L - Luyten, Proper motion stars and White dwarfs

text: λ Eri is classified in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars as a Beta Cephei variable. The AAVSO International Variable Star Index defines a LERI type of variation. λ Eri is classified as LERI + GCAS since it shows both short term periodic variations and longer timescale eruptive variation. It was one of the first stars where short-period variations were found. The line profile variability periods are 0.702d and 0.269d, with intermittently present periods of 0.6d and 0.75d. The photometric amplitude of the variation is 0.010 magnitude.

text: λ Eri is classified in the

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: as a

text: Beta Cephei variable

text: . The

text: AAVSO

text: International Variable Star Index defines a

text: LERI type of variation

text: . λ Eri is classified as LERI + GCAS since it shows both short term periodic variations and longer timescale eruptive variation. It was one of the first stars where short-period variations were found. The line profile variability periods are 0.702d and 0.269d, with intermittently present periods of 0.6d and 0.75d. The

text: photometric

text: amplitude

text: of the variation is 0.010 magnitude.

text: In nuclear fusion, two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other, so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or nuclear forces to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to nickel-62. Stars like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the Joint European Torus (JET) and ITER, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction.Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun.

text: In

text: nuclear fusion

text: , two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other, so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or

text: nuclear force

text: s to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to

text: nickel

text: Star

text: s like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two

text: positron

text: s, and two

text: neutrinos

text: . The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the

text: Joint European Torus

text: (JET) and

text: ITER

text: , is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction.Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun.

text: A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram, known as the instability strip, is occupied by pulsating variable stars known as Cepheid variables. These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals, giving them a pulsating appearance. The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class A and F stars, which are between one and two solar masses. Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip that intersects the upper part of the main sequence are called Delta Scuti variables. Main-sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude and so this variation is difficult to detect. Other classes of unstable main-sequence stars, like Beta Cephei variables, are unrelated to this instability strip.

text: A nearly vertical region of the HR diagram, known as the

text: instability strip

text: , is occupied by pulsating

text: variable star

text: s known as

text: Cepheid variable

text: s. These stars vary in magnitude at regular intervals, giving them a pulsating appearance. The strip intersects the upper part of the main sequence in the region of class A and F stars, which are between one and two solar masses. Pulsating stars in this part of the instability strip that intersects the upper part of the main sequence are called

text: Delta Scuti variable

text: s. Main-sequence stars in this region experience only small changes in magnitude and so this variation is difficult to detect. Other classes of unstable main-sequence stars, like

text: Beta Cephei variable

text: s, are unrelated to this instability strip.

text: Jango Fett was portrayed by Temuera Morrison in Attack of the Clones, Star Wars: Bounty Hunter, Star Wars: Battlefront II, Star Wars: Republic Commando, Star Wars Battlefront: Elite Squadron, Star Wars: The Force Unleashed (the PSP version) and Lego Star Wars: The Video Game, Bob Marshall in a commercial (but the voice was provided by an unknown actor) ILM filmed for Star Wars: Bounty Hunter, Jeff Bennett in Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds and Star Wars: Jedi Starfighter, and Andrew Chaikin in Star Wars Battlefront: Renegade Squadron.

text: Jango Fett was portrayed by

text: Temuera Morrison

text: in Attack of the Clones,

text: Star Wars: Bounty Hunter

text: Star Wars: Battlefront II

text: Star Wars: Republic Commando

text: Star Wars Battlefront: Elite Squadron

text: Star Wars: The Force Unleashed

text: (the

text: PSP

text: version) and

text: Lego Star Wars: The Video Game

text: , Bob Marshall in a commercial (but the voice was provided by an unknown actor) ILM filmed for Star Wars: Bounty Hunter,

text: Jeff Bennett

text: in

text: Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds

text: and

text: Star Wars: Jedi Starfighter

text: , and Andrew Chaikin in

entity_name: Star Wars Battlefront: Renegade Squadron

text: Star Wars Battlefront: Renegade Squadron

text: A hot, luminous main-sequence star may also be referred to as a giant, but any main-sequence star is properly called a dwarf no matter how large and luminous it is.

text: B-type stars are very luminous and blue. Their spectra have neutral helium, which are most prominent at the B2 subclass, and moderate hydrogen lines. As O- and B-type stars are so energetic, they only live for a relatively short time. Thus, due to the low probability of kinematic interaction during their lifetime, they are unable to stray far from the area in which they formed, apart from runaway stars.

text: B-type stars are very luminous and blue. Their spectra have neutral helium, which are most prominent at the B2 subclass, and moderate hydrogen lines. As

text: O- and B-type stars

text: are so energetic, they only live for a relatively short time. Thus, due to the low probability of kinematic interaction during their lifetime, they are unable to stray far from the area in which they formed, apart from

text: runaway star

text: s.

text: Another Red Dwarf magazine was started called Red Dwarf: Better Than Life which is only available through the Red Dwarf Official Fan Club. It features cast interviews and the latest news. Each person gets four issues each year.

text: The Orion Nebula contains a very young open cluster, known as the Trapezium due to the asterism of its primary four stars. Two of these can be resolved into their component binary systems on nights with good seeing, giving a total of six stars. The stars of the Trapezium, along with many other stars, are still in their early years. The Trapezium is a component of the much larger Orion Nebula Cluster, an association of about 2,800 stars within a diameter of 20 light years. Two million years ago this cluster may have been the home of the runaway stars AE Aurigae, 53 Arietis, and Mu Columbae, which are currently moving away from the nebula at velocities greater than 100 km/s.

text: The Orion Nebula contains a very young

text: open cluster

text: , known as the

text: Trapezium

text: due to the

text: asterism

text: of its primary four stars. Two of these can be resolved into their component binary systems on nights with good

text: seeing

text: , giving a total of six stars. The stars of the Trapezium, along with many other stars, are still in their

text: early years

text: . The Trapezium is a component of the much larger Orion Nebula Cluster, an association of about 2,800 stars within a diameter of 20 light years. Two million years ago this cluster may have been the home of the

text: runaway star

text: s

text: AE Aurigae

text: 53 Arietis

text: , and

text: Mu Columbae

text: , which are currently moving away from the nebula at velocities greater than 100 km/s.

text: Several publications have accused Greenpeace of being anti-technology.  In an editorial in the Register, Andrew Orlowski cites Greenpeace's opposition to research on nuclear fusion.  Orlowski points out the incoherent and contradictory argument by Greenpeace that nuclear fusion is non-viable but then warns of the dangers that commercial nuclear fusion posed on the environment despite their claims that nuclear fusion is an impractical, technological deadend.  Other publications also criticized Greenpeace's stand against genetically modified crops and the unlawful destruction of those crops by its members.

text: Several publications have accused Greenpeace of being

text: anti-technology

text: .  In an editorial in the Register, Andrew Orlowski cites Greenpeace's opposition to research on nuclear fusion.  Orlowski points out the incoherent and contradictory argument by Greenpeace that nuclear fusion is non-viable but then warns of the dangers that commercial nuclear fusion posed on the environment despite their claims that nuclear fusion is an impractical, technological deadend.  Other publications also criticized Greenpeace's stand against genetically modified crops and the unlawful destruction of those crops by its members.

text: Babylonian astronomy collated earlier observations and divinations into sets of Babylonian star catalogues, during and after the Kassite rule over Babylonia. These star catalogues, written in cuneiform script, contained lists of constellations, individual stars, and planets. The constellations were probably collected from various other sources, the earliest catalogue, Three Stars Each mentions stars of Akkad, of Amurru, of Elam and others.

text: Babylonian astronomy

text: collated earlier observations and divinations into sets of Babylonian star catalogues, during and after the

text: Kassite

text: rule over

text: Babylonia

text: . These star catalogues, written in

text: cuneiform

text: script, contained lists of constellations, individual stars, and planets. The constellations were probably collected from various other sources, the earliest catalogue, Three Stars Each mentions stars of

text: Akkad

text: , of

text: Amurru

text: , of

text: Elam

text: and others.

text: The paintings in the Tomb do not show the names of the constellations, nor do they show the connecting lines between the stars (but research has identified these paintings as part of the twenty-eight Chinese constellations). The paintings of the constellations in this tomb do show modifications over their Chinese depictions: the direction of the arrangement of the twenty-eight constellations is counterclockwise and the reversal of the east and west constellations (seven constellations of the east have been placed in the west and the seven constellations of the west have been placed in the east). These differences are thought to be due to an error by the painters or because the reproductions of the astronomical directions were erroneous. The stars are painted various sizes, using the Korean tradition of indicating the brightness of the stars. There are 128 stars in total in the painting; some scholars have identified the Big Dipper and either one or several other constellations.

text: The paintings in the Tomb do not show the names of the constellations, nor do they show the connecting lines between the stars (but research has identified these paintings as part of the twenty-eight Chinese constellations). The paintings of the constellations in this tomb do show modifications over their Chinese depictions: the direction of the arrangement of the twenty-eight constellations is counterclockwise and the reversal of the east and west constellations (seven constellations of the east have been placed in the west and the seven constellations of the west have been placed in the east). These differences are thought to be due to an error by the painters or because the reproductions of the astronomical directions were erroneous. The stars are painted various sizes, using the Korean tradition of indicating the brightness of the stars. There are 128 stars in total in the painting; some scholars have identified the

text: Big Dipper

text: and either one or several other constellations.

text: The name Hadar comes from the GUCCCo. Star Class boats being named after stars or constellations. "Hadar" is more commonly known as "Beta Centauri" and is the tenth-brightest star in the night sky. It is in the southern hemisphere and part of the Centaurus constellation and one of the two stars that point to the Southern Cross.

text: The name Hadar comes from the GUCCCo. Star Class boats being named after stars or constellations. "Hadar" is more commonly known as "

text: Beta Centauri

text: " and is the tenth-brightest star in the night sky. It is in the southern hemisphere and part of the

text: Centaurus

text: constellation and one of the two stars that point to the

text: Southern Cross

text: It is not expected that yellow supergiants should explode as a supernova before reaching the red supergiant stage, but the cores of some post-red supergiant yellow supergiants might collapse and trigger a supernova.  A handful of supernovae have been associated with apparent yellow supergiant progenitors that are not luminous enough to be post-red supergiants.  If these are confirmed then an explanation must be found for how a star of moderate mass still with a helium core would cause a core-collapse supernova.  The obvious candidate in such cases is always some form of binary interaction.

text: The term red-giant branch came into use during the 1940s and 1950s, although initially just as a general term to refer to the red-giant region of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. Although the basis of a thermonuclear main-sequence lifetime, followed by a thermodynamic contraction phase to a white dwarf was understood by 1940, the internal details of the various types of giant stars were not known.

text: The term red-giant branch came into use during the 1940s and 1950s, although initially just as a general term to refer to the red-giant region of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. Although the basis of a thermonuclear main-sequence lifetime, followed by a thermodynamic contraction phase to a

text: white dwarf

text: was understood by 1940, the internal details of the various types of giant stars were not known.

text: It is easier to detect planets around low-mass stars, for two reasons: First, these stars are more affected by gravitational tug from planets. The second reason is that low-mass main-sequence stars generally rotate relatively slowly. Fast rotation makes spectral-line data less clear because half of the star quickly rotates away from observer's viewpoint while the other half approaches. Detecting planets around more massive stars is easier if the star has left the main sequence, because leaving the main sequence slows down the star's rotation.

text: HD 161988 is star in the southern constellation of Apus.

text: HD 161988 is star in the southern

text: constellation

text: of

text: Apus

text: Pulses with an apparent extragalactic origin have been observed in archived data. It is suggested that hundreds of similar events could occur every day and, if detected, could serve as cosmological probes. Radio pulsar surveys such as Astropulse-SETI@home offer one of the few opportunities to monitor the radio sky for impulsive burst-like events with millisecond durations. Because of the isolated nature of the observed phenomenon, the nature of the source remains speculative.  Possibilities include a black hole-neutron star collision, a neutron star-neutron star collision, a black hole-black hole collision, or some phenomenon not yet considered.

text: Pulses with an apparent extragalactic origin have been observed in archived data. It is suggested that hundreds of similar events could occur every day and, if detected, could serve as cosmological probes. Radio pulsar surveys such as Astropulse-SETI@home offer one of the few opportunities to monitor the radio sky for impulsive burst-like events with millisecond durations. Because of the isolated nature of the observed phenomenon, the nature of the source remains speculative.  Possibilities include a black hole-

text: neutron star

text: collision, a neutron star-neutron star collision, a black hole-black hole collision, or some phenomenon not yet considered.

text: The requirement that the star remain on the main sequence for at least 3 Ga sets an upper limit of approximately 1.5 solar masses, corresponding to a hottest spectral type of F5 V. Such stars can reach an absolute magnitude of 2.5, or 8.55 times as bright as the Sun, at the end of the main sequence.

text: The requirement that the star remain on the main sequence for at least 3 Ga sets an upper limit of approximately 1.5 solar masses, corresponding to a hottest spectral type of

text: F5 V

text: . Such stars can reach an absolute magnitude of 2.5, or 8.55 times as bright as the Sun, at the end of the main sequence.

text: A television film based on the song starring Eric Close and Samantha Mathis was broadcast on Lifetime TV in 2010.

text: A television film based on the song starring

text: Eric Close

text: and

text: Samantha Mathis

text: was broadcast on

text: Lifetime TV

text: in 2010.

text: Variable stars are designated using a variation on the Bayer designation format of an identifying label (as described below) combined with the Latin genitive of the name of the constellation in which the star lies. See List of constellations for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names.

text: Variable star

text: s are designated using a variation on the

text: Bayer designation

text: format of an identifying label (as described below) combined with the

text: Latin

text: genitive

text: of the name of the

text: constellation

text: in which the star lies. See

text: List of constellations

text: Barium stars are believed to be the result of mass transfer in a binary star system.  The mass transfer occurred when the now-observed giant star was on the main sequence.  Its companion, the donor star, was a carbon star on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), and had produced carbon and s-process elements in its interior.  These nuclear fusion products were mixed by convection to its surface.  Some of that matter "polluted" the surface layers of the main-sequence star as the donor star lost mass at the end of its AGB evolution, and it subsequently evolved to become a white dwarf.  These systems are being observed at an indeterminate amount of time after the mass transfer event, when the donor star has long been a white dwarf, and the "polluted" recipient star has evolved to become a red giant.

text: Barium stars are believed to be the result of

text: mass transfer

text: in a

text: binary star

text: system.  The mass transfer occurred when the now-observed giant star was on the

text: main sequence

text: .  Its companion, the donor star, was a

text: carbon star

text: on the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (AGB), and had produced carbon and s-process elements in its interior.  These nuclear fusion products were mixed by

text: convection

text: to its surface.  Some of that matter "polluted" the surface layers of the main-sequence star as the donor star lost mass at the end of its AGB evolution, and it subsequently evolved to become a white dwarf.  These systems are being observed at an indeterminate amount of time after the mass transfer event, when the donor star has long been a white dwarf, and the "polluted" recipient star has evolved to become a

text: red giant

text: Magnetic induction accelerators accelerate particles by induction from an increasing magnetic field, as if the particles were the secondary winding in a transformer.  The increasing magnetic field creates a circulating electric field which can be configured to accelerate the particles.  Induction accelerators can be either linear or circular.

text: Exceptional stellar properties which allow for an estimation of age are not confined to advanced evolutionary stages. When a roughly solar-mass star exhibitis T Tauri variability, astronomers can locate the age of the star as being before the beginning of the main sequence phase of the star's life. Additionally, more massive pre-main-sequence stars could be Herbig Ae/Be stars. If a red dwarf star is emitting immense stellar flares and x-rays, the star can be calculated to be in an early stage of its main-sequence lifetime, after which it will become less variable and become stable.

text: Exceptional stellar properties which allow for an estimation of age are not confined to advanced evolutionary stages. When a roughly solar-mass star exhibitis

text: T Tauri variability

text: , astronomers can locate the age of the star as being before the beginning of the

text: main sequence

text: phase of the star's life. Additionally, more massive pre-main-sequence stars could be

text: Herbig Ae/Be star

text: s. If a

text: red dwarf

text: star is emitting immense

text: stellar flare

text: s and

text: x-rays

text: , the star can be calculated to be in an early stage of its main-sequence lifetime, after which it will become less variable and become stable.

text: Spectral class-A stars are hotter and more massive than the Sun. But, in consequence, their life span on the main sequence is correspondingly shorter. For a star with a mass similar to IK Pegasi A (1.65 ), the expected lifetime on the main sequence is 2–3, which is about half the current age of the Sun.

text: Gladwell introduced this concept of the "talent myth" to explain how some firms with excellent reputations and the apparent ability to attract the best employees often exercise this power incorrectly.  His work examines different managerial and administrative techniques that companies, both winners and losers, have used.  He states that the misconception seems to be that management and executives are all too ready to classify employees without ample performance records and thus makes hasty decisions. Specifically, he cites how Enron in particular prided itself on only choosing the best and the brightest from its pool of applicants and then offered disproportionate rewards and promotions to what they deemed as 'star' performers. At Enron, employees were reviewed annually and placed into three categories, and from there either rapidly promoted with large bonuses, given moderate bonuses, or, for the worst performing, possibly layoffs.  However with the quick rise of inexperienced workers with little in-depth performance review, promotions are often incorrectly made, putting employees into positions they should not have and keeping other more experienced employees from rising.  Enron supposedly experienced this many fold, where 'stars' were deemed based on irrelevant factors and thus promoted to positions for which they were unfit.  Gladwell states that this system of promotion was part of the reason Enron would eventually face its demise.

text: Gladwell introduced this concept of the "talent myth" to explain how some firms with excellent reputations and the apparent ability to attract the best employees often exercise this power incorrectly.  His work examines different managerial and administrative techniques that companies, both winners and losers, have used.  He states that the misconception seems to be that management and executives are all too ready to classify employees without ample performance records and thus makes hasty decisions. Specifically, he cites how

text: Enron

text: in particular prided itself on only choosing the best and the brightest from its pool of applicants and then offered disproportionate rewards and promotions to what they deemed as 'star' performers. At Enron, employees were reviewed annually and placed into three categories, and from there either rapidly promoted with large bonuses, given moderate bonuses, or, for the worst performing, possibly layoffs.  However with the quick rise of inexperienced workers with little in-depth performance review, promotions are often incorrectly made, putting employees into positions they should not have and keeping other more experienced employees from rising.  Enron supposedly experienced this many fold, where 'stars' were deemed based on irrelevant factors and thus promoted to positions for which they were unfit.  Gladwell states that this system of promotion was part of the reason Enron would eventually face its demise.

text: Star 104.5 carries an Adult Contemporary format compared to the CHR format of other Star FM stations.

text: Beta CVn has a stellar classification of G0 V, and so is a G-type main sequence star. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. The spectrum of this star shows a very weak emission line of singly ionized calcium (Ca II) from the chromosphere, making it a useful reference star for a reference spectrum to compare with other stars in a similar spectral category. (The Ca-II emission lines are readily accessible and can be used to measure the level of activity in a star's chromosphere.)

text: Beta CVn has a

text: stellar classification

text: of G0 V, and so is a

text: G-type main sequence star

text: . Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. The spectrum of this star shows a very weak

text: emission line

text: of singly

text: ion

text: ized calcium (Ca II) from the

text: chromosphere

text: , making it a useful reference star for a reference spectrum to compare with other stars in a similar spectral category. (The Ca-II emission lines are readily accessible and can be used to measure the level of activity in a star's

text: chromosphere

text: However, the simple "onion" models showing red supergiants inevitably developing to an iron core and then exploding have been shown to be much too simplistic.  The progenitor for the unusual type II Supernova 1987A was a blue supergiant, thought to have already passed through the red supergiant phase of its life, and this is now known to be far from an exceptional situation.  Much research is now focused on how blue supergiants can explode as a supernova and when red supergiants can survive to become hotter supergiants again.

text: However, the simple "onion" models showing red supergiants inevitably developing to an iron core and then exploding have been shown to be much too simplistic.  The progenitor for the unusual type II

text: Supernova 1987A

text: was a

text: blue supergiant

text: , thought to have already passed through the red supergiant phase of its life, and this is now known to be far from an exceptional situation.  Much research is now focused on how blue supergiants can explode as a supernova and when red supergiants can survive to become hotter supergiants again.

text: First investigations of the formation of common envelopes in close binary stars.

text: The coolest true main-sequence stars are thought to have spectral types around L2 or L3, but many objects cooler than about M6 or M7 are brown dwarfs, insufficiently massive to sustain hydrogen-1 fusion.

text: The coolest true main-sequence stars are thought to have spectral types around L2 or L3, but many objects cooler than about M6 or M7 are

text: brown dwarf

text: s, insufficiently massive to sustain

text: fusion.

text: Stars and planetary systems tend to be born in star clusters rather than forming in isolation. Protoplanetary disks can collide with or steal material from molecular clouds within the cluster and this can lead to disks and their resulting planets having inclined or retrograde orbits around their stars. Retrograde motion may also result from gravitational interactions with other celestial bodies in the same system (See Kozai mechanism) or a near-collision with another planet, or it may be that the star itself flipped over early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.

text: Stars and planetary systems tend to be born in

text: star cluster

text: s rather than forming in isolation.

text: Protoplanetary disk

text: s can collide with or steal material from

text: molecular cloud

text: s within the cluster and this can lead to disks and their resulting planets having inclined or retrograde orbits around their stars. Retrograde motion may also result from gravitational interactions with other celestial bodies in the same system (See

text: Kozai mechanism

text: ) or a near-collision with another planet, or it may be that the star itself flipped over early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.

text: Muse returned in 2006 with their fourth album Black Holes and Revelations, which reverted to crediting solely Bellamy for songwriting. In 2009 this was followed by The Resistance, on which the song "United States of Eurasia" featured elements from Frédéric Chopin's Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9, No. 2, and "I Belong to You" featured elements from Camille Saint-Saëns' "Mon cœur s'ouvre à ta voix". "Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever)", a single from the romantic fantasy film The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, was released the following year.

text: Muse returned in 2006 with their fourth album

text: Black Holes and Revelations

text: , which reverted to crediting solely Bellamy for songwriting. In 2009 this was followed by

text: The Resistance

text: , on which the song "

text: United States of Eurasia

text: " featured elements from

text: Frédéric Chopin

text: 's

text: Nocturne in E-flat major, Op. 9, No. 2

text: , and "I Belong to You" featured elements from

text: Camille Saint-Saëns

text: Mon cœur s'ouvre à ta voix

entity_name: Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever)

text: Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever)

text: ", a single from the

text: romantic fantasy

text: film

text: The Twilight Saga: Eclipse

text: , was released the following year.

text: IM Normae is one of only ten recurrent novae known in the Milky Way. It has erupted in 1920 and 2002, reaching magnitude 8.5 from a baseline of 18.3. It was poorly monitored after the first eruption, so it is possible  that it erupted in between. Norma hosts two faint R Coronae Borealis variable stars of magnitude 10—RT Normae and RZ Normae—rare degenerate stars thought to have formed from the merger of two white dwarfs that fade by several magnitudes periodically as they eject large amounts of carbon dust. A faint object of magnitude 16, QV Normae is a high mass X-ray binary star system 15,000–20,000 light-years distant from Earth. It is composed of a neutron star orbiting a blue-white supergiant approximately 20 times as massive as the Sun. The stellar wind from the more massive star is drawn to the magnetic poles of the neutron star, forming an accretion column and producing X-rays. Located 19,000 light-years away, QX Normae is an active low mass X ray binary composed of a neutron star and its companion star that is smaller and cooler than the Sun. The neutron star is 1.74 ± 0.14 times as massive as the Sun, yet its radius is a mere 9.3 ± 1.0 km. 1E161348-5055 is a neutron star found in the centre of RCW103 supernova remnant. A periodic X-Ray source with a period of 6.67 hours, it is approximately 2000 years old and 10,000 light-years away from Earth. It is unusual in that it is spinning much too slowly for its young age, behaving instead like a multi-million-year-old star. SGR J1550-5418 is a soft gamma repeater (SGR)—a magnetar that is emitting gamma ray flares, located some 30,000 light-years distant from Earth. The rotation period, of approximately 2.07 seconds, is the fastest yet observed for a magnetar. XTE J1550-564 is another X-ray binary, this time composed of a large black hole around 10 times as massive as the Sun and a cool orange donor star. The black hole is a microquasar, firing off jets of material most likely from its accretion disk.

text: IM Normae

text: is one of only ten

text: recurrent nova

text: e known in the

text: Milky Way

text: . It has erupted in 1920 and 2002, reaching magnitude 8.5 from a baseline of 18.3. It was poorly monitored after the first eruption, so it is possible  that it erupted in between. Norma hosts two faint

text: R Coronae Borealis variable

text: stars of magnitude 10—

text: RT Normae

text: and

text: RZ Normae

text: —rare degenerate stars thought to have formed from the merger of two

text: white dwarf

text: s that fade by several magnitudes periodically as they eject large amounts of carbon dust. A faint object of magnitude 16,

text: QV Normae

text: is a high mass

text: X-ray binary

text: star system 15,000–20,000 light-years distant from Earth. It is composed of a

text: neutron star

text: orbiting a blue-white supergiant approximately 20 times as massive as the Sun. The

text: stellar wind

text: from the more massive star is drawn to the magnetic poles of the neutron star, forming an accretion column and producing X-rays. Located 19,000 light-years away,

text: QX Normae

text: is an active

text: low mass X ray binary

text: composed of a neutron star and its companion star that is smaller and cooler than the Sun. The neutron star is 1.74 ± 0.14 times as massive as the Sun, yet its radius is a mere 9.3 ± 1.0 km.

text: is a neutron star found in the centre of

text: supernova remnant

text: . A periodic

text: X-Ray

text: source with a period of 6.67 hours, it is approximately 2000 years old and 10,000 light-years away from Earth. It is unusual in that it is spinning much too slowly for its young age, behaving instead like a multi-million-year-old star.

text: SGR J1550-5418

text: is a

text: soft gamma repeater

text: (SGR)—a

text: magnetar

text: that is emitting gamma ray flares, located some 30,000 light-years distant from Earth. The rotation period, of approximately 2.07 seconds, is the fastest yet observed for a magnetar.

text: XTE J1550-564

text: is another X-ray binary, this time composed of a large black hole around 10 times as massive as the Sun and a cool orange donor star. The black hole is a

text: microquasar

text: , firing off

text: jets

text: of material most likely from its accretion disk.

text: Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

text: Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight

text: constellation

text: s. In most constellations the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of

text: Centaurus

text: is known as

text: Alpha Centauri

text: . For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter.

text: Due to opacity effects, as metallicity of the interstellar gas increases both the maximum and minimum masses a star can have will decrease. For the latter case, it's expected that an object with a mass of 0.04 solar masses (40 times the mass of Jupiter), that currently would become a brown dwarf unable to fuse hydrogen, could do so ending in the main sequence with a surface temperature of 0 °C (273 K, thus frozen), much cooler than the dimmest red dwarfs of today, and water ice clouds forming in its atmosphere. The luminosity of these objects would be more than a thousand times smaller than the faintest stars currently existing and their lifetimes would be also sensibly longer.

text: Due to opacity effects, as metallicity of the interstellar gas increases both the maximum and minimum masses a star can have will decrease. For the latter case, it's expected that an object with a mass of 0.04

text: solar mass

text: es (40 times the mass of

text: Jupiter

text: ), that currently would become a

text: brown dwarf

text: unable to fuse

text: hydrogen

text: , could do so ending in the

text: main sequence

text: with a surface temperature of 0 °C (273

text: K

text: , thus frozen), much cooler than the dimmest

text: red dwarf

text: s of today, and

text: water ice

text: clouds forming in its

text: atmosphere

text: . The luminosity of these objects would be more than a thousand times smaller than the faintest stars currently existing and their lifetimes would be also sensibly longer.

text: While the personal name is most often derived from the Biblical story, Talitha is also the name of two stars, Talitha Borealis and Talitha Australis, in the Ursa Major constellation. The names of the stars are derived from the Arabic word for 'third' in the phrase القفزة الثالثة () meaning 'The third leap [of the gazelle]', referring to an Arabic story about a startled gazelle which leapt three times to different points in the constellation.

text: While the personal name is most often derived from the Biblical story, Talitha is also the name of two

text: star

text: s,

text: Talitha Borealis

text: and

text: Talitha Australis

text: , in the

text: Ursa Major

text: constellation. The names of the stars are derived from the

text: Arabic

text: word for 'third' in the phrase القفزة الثالثة () meaning 'The third leap [of the

text: gazelle

text: ]', referring to an Arabic story about a startled gazelle which leapt three times to different points in the constellation.

text: The Kerr geometry is often used as a model of a black hole, but if we hold the solution to be valid only outside some compact region (subject to certain restrictions), in principle we should be able to use it as an exterior solution to model the gravitational field around a rotating massive object other than a black hole, such as a neutron star, or the Earth.  This works out very nicely for the non-rotating case, where we can match the Schwarzschild vacuum exterior to a Schwarzschild fluid interior, and indeed to more general static spherically symmetric perfect fluid solutions. However, the problem of finding a rotating perfect-fluid interior which can be matched to a Kerr exterior, or indeed to any asymptotically flat vacuum exterior solution, has proven very difficult. In particular, the Wahlquist fluid, which was once thought to be a candidate for matching to a Kerr exterior, is now known not to admit any such matching. At present it seems that only approximate solutions modeling slowly rotating fluid balls are known. (Slowly rotating fluid balls are the relativistic analog of oblate spheroidal balls with nonzero mass and angular momentum but vanishing higher multipole moments.)  However, the exterior of the Neugebauer–Meinel disk, an exact dust solution which models a rotating thin disk, approaches in a limiting case the

text: The Kerr geometry is often used as a model of a black hole, but if we hold the solution to be valid only outside some compact region (subject to certain restrictions), in principle we should be able to use it as an

text: exterior solution

text: to model the gravitational field around a rotating massive object other than a black hole, such as a

text: neutron star

text: , or the Earth.  This works out very nicely for the non-rotating case, where we can match the Schwarzschild vacuum exterior to a

text: Schwarzschild fluid

text: interior, and indeed to more general

entity_name: Static spherically symmetric perfect fluid

text: static spherically symmetric perfect fluid

text: solutions. However, the problem of finding a rotating perfect-fluid interior which can be matched to a Kerr exterior, or indeed to any asymptotically flat vacuum exterior solution, has proven very difficult. In particular, the

text: Wahlquist fluid

text: , which was once thought to be a candidate for matching to a Kerr exterior, is now known not to admit any such matching. At present it seems that only approximate solutions modeling slowly rotating fluid balls are known. (Slowly rotating fluid balls are the relativistic analog of oblate spheroidal balls with nonzero mass and angular momentum but vanishing higher multipole moments.)  However, the exterior of the

text: Neugebauer–Meinel disk

text: , an exact

text: dust solution

text: which models a rotating thin disk, approaches in a limiting case the

text: The Black Widow Pulsar (B1957+20) is an eclipsing binary millisecond pulsar discovered in 1988.  It orbits with a brown dwarf companion with a period of 9.2 hours with an eclipse duration of approximately 20 minutes.  When it was discovered it was the first such pulsar known. The prevailing theoretical explanation for the system implied that the companion is being destroyed by the gravitational environment (Roche lobe overflow) caused by the neutron star, and so the sobriquet black widow was applied to the object. Subsequent to this, other objects with similar features have been discovered, and the name has been applied to the class of millisecond pulsars with an ablating companion.

text: The Black Widow Pulsar (B1957+20) is an

text: eclipsing binary

text: millisecond pulsar

text: discovered in 1988.  It orbits with a

text: brown dwarf

text: companion with a period of 9.2 hours with an eclipse duration of approximately 20 minutes.  When it was discovered it was the first such pulsar known. The prevailing theoretical explanation for the system implied that the companion is being destroyed by the gravitational environment (

text: Roche lobe

text: overflow) caused by the

text: neutron star

text: , and so the sobriquet

text: black widow

text: was applied to the object. Subsequent to this, other objects with similar features have been discovered, and the name has been applied to the class of millisecond pulsars with an

text: ablating

text: companion.

text: An F-type main-sequence star (F V) is a main-sequence, hydrogen-fusing star of spectral type F and luminosity class V. These stars have from 1.0 to 1.4 times the mass of the Sun and surface temperatures between 6,000 and 7,600 K. This temperature range gives the F-type stars a yellow-white hue. Because a main-sequence star is referred to as a dwarf star, this class of star may also be termed a yellow-white dwarf. Famous examples include Procyon A, Gamma Virginis A and B, and KIC 8462852.

text: An F-type main-sequence star (F V) is a

text: main-sequence

text: hydrogen

text: -fusing

text: star

text: of

text: spectral type

text: F and luminosity class V. These stars have from 1.0 to 1.4 times the

text: mass

text: of the

text: Sun

text: and

text: surface temperature

text: s between 6,000 and 7,600

text: K

text: . This temperature range gives the F-type stars a yellow-white hue. Because a main-sequence star is referred to as a dwarf star, this class of star may also be termed a yellow-white dwarf. Famous examples include

text: Procyon A

text: Gamma Virginis

text: A and B, and

text: KIC 8462852

text: In his 2005 book Rip It Up and Start Again: Post Punk 1978–1984, British music journalist Simon Reynolds describes the sound of the album as "pared and sparse". He goes on to describe Pattinson's "granite basslines" carrying the melody; Sergeant's guitar playing as "jagged-quartz" and avoiding "anything resembling a solo, apart from the odd flinty peal of lead playing"; de Freitas' drumming as minimal and "surging urgency"; and McCulloch's vocals as having "precocious authority". Reynolds then describes the songs as being rooted in "doubt, anguish, despair" while the "tightness and brightness of their sound transmits contradictory sensations of confidence, vigour and euphoria." He also describes how the line "Stars are stars and they shine so hard" – from the track "Stars Are Stars" – showed how the band felt no embarrassment in their wish to be famous. In 1989 McCulloch told Reynolds how, as a teenager, he felt there was "a big movie camera in the sky". McCulloch described the opening line of the track "Going Up" – "Ain't thou watching my film" – as a terrible line and he went on to say, "It was meant to be tongue in cheek, but that was what spurred me on."

text: In his 2005 book Rip It Up and Start Again: Post Punk 1978–1984, British music journalist

text: Simon Reynolds

text: describes the sound of the album as "pared and sparse". He goes on to describe Pattinson's "granite basslines" carrying the melody; Sergeant's guitar playing as "jagged-quartz" and avoiding "anything resembling a solo, apart from the odd flinty peal of lead playing"; de Freitas' drumming as minimal and "surging urgency"; and McCulloch's vocals as having "precocious authority". Reynolds then describes the songs as being rooted in "doubt, anguish, despair" while the "tightness and brightness of their sound transmits contradictory sensations of confidence, vigour and euphoria." He also describes how the line "Stars are stars and they shine so hard" – from the track "Stars Are Stars" – showed how the band felt no embarrassment in their wish to be famous. In 1989 McCulloch told Reynolds how, as a teenager, he felt there was "a big movie camera in the sky". McCulloch described the opening line of the track "Going Up" – "Ain't thou watching my film" – as a terrible line and he went on to say, "It was meant to be tongue in cheek, but that was what spurred me on."

text: The table below shows the typical lifetimes on the main sequence (MS), subgiant branch (SB), and red-giant branch (RGB), for stars with different initial masses, all at solar metallicity (Z = 0.02).  Also shown are the helium core mass, surface effective temperature, radius, and luminosity at the start and end of the RGB for each star. The end of the red-giant branch is defined to be when core helium ignition takes place.

text: 5. As a specimen of a warlike army, which is destined for battle, they have ordained every single constellation of those 6480 thousand small stars as assistance; and among those constellations four chieftains, appointed on the four sides, are leaders.

text: 5. As a specimen of a warlike army, which is destined for battle, they have ordained every single constellation of those 6480 thousand small stars as assistance; and among those constellations

text: four chieftains

text: , appointed on the four sides, are leaders.

text: In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

text: In

text: cosmology and astronomy

text: the phenomena of

text: star

text: s,

text: nova

text: supernova

text: quasar

text: s and

text: gamma-ray burst

text: s are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All

text: stellar

text: phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the

text: Big Bang

text: . At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

text: According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the galaxy color–magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley", a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud" (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence" (galaxies that lack star formation). Star-formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star-forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short-term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.

text: According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the

text: galaxy color–magnitude diagram

text: is known as the "green valley", a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud" (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence" (galaxies that lack star formation). Star-formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star-forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short-term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.

text: Hybrid nuclear power is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by Hans Bethe during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.

text: Hybrid nuclear power

text: is a proposed means of generating power by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s, and was briefly advocated by

text: Hans Bethe

text: during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.

text: Nuclear fusion powers a star for most of its life. Initially the energy is generated by the fusion of hydrogen atoms at the core of the main-sequence star. Later, as the preponderance of atoms at the core becomes helium, stars like the Sun begin to fuse hydrogen along a spherical shell surrounding the core. This process causes the star to gradually grow in size, passing through the subgiant stage until it reaches the red giant phase. Stars with at least half the mass of the Sun can also begin to generate energy through the fusion of helium at their core, whereas more-massive stars can fuse heavier elements along a series of concentric shells. Once a star like the Sun has exhausted its nuclear fuel, its core collapses into a dense white dwarf and the outer layers are expelled as a planetary nebula. Stars with around ten or more times the mass of the Sun can explode in a supernova as their inert iron cores collapse into an extremely dense neutron star or black hole. Although the universe is not old enough for any of the smallest red dwarfs to have reached the end of their lives, stellar models suggest they will slowly become brighter and hotter before running out of hydrogen fuel and becoming low-mass white dwarfs.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: powers a star for most of its life. Initially the energy is generated by the fusion of

text: hydrogen atoms

text: at the core of the main-sequence star. Later, as the preponderance of atoms at the core becomes

text: helium

text: , stars like the

text: Sun

text: begin to fuse hydrogen along a spherical shell surrounding the core. This process causes the star to gradually grow in size, passing through the

text: subgiant

text: stage until it reaches the

text: red giant

text: phase. Stars with at least half the mass of the

text: Sun

text: can also begin to generate energy through the fusion of helium at their core, whereas more-massive stars can fuse heavier elements along a series of concentric shells. Once a star like the Sun has exhausted its nuclear fuel, its core collapses into a dense

text: white dwarf

text: and the outer layers are expelled as a

text: planetary nebula

text: . Stars with around ten or more times the mass of the Sun can explode in a

text: supernova

text: as their inert iron cores collapse into an extremely dense

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: . Although the

text: universe

text: is not old enough for any of the smallest

text: red dwarf

text: s to have reached the end of their lives, stellar models suggest they will slowly become brighter and hotter before running out of hydrogen fuel and becoming low-mass white dwarfs.

text: Most multiple star systems are triple stars. Systems with four or more components are less likely to occur. Multiple-star systems are called triple, trinary or ternary if they contain three stars; quadruple or quaternary if they contain four stars; quintuple or quintenary with five stars; sextuple or sextenary with six stars; septuple or septenary with seven stars. These systems are smaller than open star clusters, which have more complex dynamics and typically have from 100 to 1,000 stars. Most multiple star systems known are triple; for higher multiplicities, the number of known systems with a given multiplicity decreases exponentially with multiplicity. For example, in the 1999 revision of Tokovinin's catalog of physical multiple stars, 551 out of the 728 systems described are triple. However, because of selection effects, knowledge of these statistics is very incomplete.

text: Most multiple star systems are triple stars. Systems with four or more components are less likely to occur. Multiple-star systems are called triple, trinary or ternary if they contain three stars; quadruple or quaternary if they contain four stars; quintuple or quintenary with five stars; sextuple or sextenary with six stars; septuple or septenary with seven stars. These systems are smaller than

text: open star cluster

text: s, which have more complex dynamics and typically have from 100 to 1,000 stars. Most multiple star systems known are triple; for higher multiplicities, the number of known systems with a given multiplicity decreases exponentially with multiplicity. For example, in the 1999 revision of Tokovinin's catalog of physical multiple stars, 551 out of the 728 systems described are triple. However, because of

text: selection effect

text: s, knowledge of these statistics is very incomplete.

text: A white dwarf forms only after the star has evolved from the main sequence and then passed through a red-giant stage. This occurred when Sirius B was less than half its current age, around 120 million years ago. The original star had an estimated  and was a B-type star (roughly B4–5) when it still was on the main sequence. While it passed through the red giant stage, Sirius B may have enriched the metallicity of its companion.

text: A white dwarf forms only after the star has evolved from the main sequence and then passed through a red-giant stage. This occurred when Sirius B was less than half its current age, around 120 million years ago. The original star had an estimated  and was a

text: B-type star

text: (roughly B4–5) when it still was on the main sequence. While it passed through the red giant stage, Sirius B may have enriched the

text: metallicity

text: of its companion.

text: The figure to the right shows 15-second samples of the raw counts (per 20.48ms) observed in a 1973 sounding-rocket-borne exposure to three of the X-ray brightest binary sources in our galaxy: Her X-1 (1.7 days), Cyg X-3 (0.2 day), and Cyg X-1 (5.6 days). The 1.24 second pulsar period associated with Her X-1 is immediately evident from the data, while the rate profile for Cyg X-3 is completely consistent with the statistical fluctuations in counts expected for a source that is constant, at least for the 15s duration of the exposure shown; the Cyg X-1 data, on the other hand, clearly exhibit the chaotic "shot noise" behavior characteristic of this black-hole candidate and also provided preliminary evidence for the additional feature of millisecond "burst" sub-structure, noted for the first time in this observation. The sharp cut-off at ~24 keV in the flat spectrum observed for Her X-1 in this exposure provided the first reported evidence for radiative transfer effects to be associated with a highly magnetized plasma near the surface of a neutron star. The black-body spectral component observed for Cyg X-3 during this experiment gave strong evidence that this emission is from the immediate vicinity of a compact object the size of a neutron star.

text: The deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a processing gas having high speed of sound (helium instead of nitrogen).However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.

text: The deposition efficiency is typically low for alloy powders, and the window of process parameters and suitable powder sizes is narrow. To accelerate powders to higher velocity, finer powders (<20 micrometers) are used. It is possible to accelerate powder particles to much higher velocity using a processing gas having high

text: speed of sound

text: (helium instead of nitrogen).However, helium is costly and its flow rate, and thus consumption, is higher. To improve acceleration capability, nitrogen gas is heated up to about 900 C. As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.

text: A hadron collider is a very large particle accelerator built to test the predictions of various theories in particle physics, high-energy physics or nuclear physics by colliding hadrons. A hadron collider uses underground tunnels to accelerate, store, and collide two particle beams.

text: A hadron collider is a very large

text: particle accelerator

text: built to test the predictions of various theories in

text: particle physics

text: high-energy physics

text: or

text: nuclear physics

text: by colliding

text: hadrons

text: . A hadron collider uses underground tunnels to accelerate, store, and collide two

text: particle beams

text: Foster has the story credit for Star Trek: The Motion Picture. He also wrote 10 books based on episodes of the animated Star Trek, the first six books each consisting of three linked novella-length episode adaptations, and the last four being expanded adaptations of single episodes that segued into original story. In the mid-seventies, he wrote original Star Trek stories for the Peter Pan-label Star Trek audio story records.  He later wrote the novelization of the 2009 film Star Trek, his first Star Trek novel in over 30 years. He later wrote the novelization for Star Treks sequel, Star Trek Into Darkness.

text: Foster has the

text: story credit

text: for

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: . He also wrote 10 books based on episodes of the

text: animated Star Trek

text: , the first six books each consisting of three linked novella-length episode adaptations, and the last four being expanded adaptations of single episodes that segued into original story. In the mid-seventies, he wrote original Star Trek stories for the Peter Pan-label Star Trek audio story records.  He later wrote the novelization of the 2009 film

text: Star Trek

text: , his first Star Trek novel in over 30 years. He later wrote the novelization for Star Treks sequel,

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: The star's high mass loss rate combined with its eruptions will strip off its hydrogen layers and expose a hot helium core. It will proceed to the Wolf–Rayet sequence.  It will eventually start fusing heavy elements in its core, and when it develops a large iron core the star will collapse in on itself and explode as a type Ib or Ic supernovae.  Depending on the amount of mass lost before the supernova explosion, the remnant will be a neutron star or black hole.  A black hole is predicted for the most massive stars such as this one.

text: The star's high mass loss rate combined with its eruptions will strip off its hydrogen layers and expose a hot helium core. It will proceed to the

text: Wolf–Rayet

text: sequence.  It will eventually start fusing heavy elements in its core, and when it develops a large iron core the star will collapse in on itself and explode as a

text: type Ib or Ic supernovae

text: .  Depending on the amount of mass lost before the supernova explosion, the remnant will be a

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: .  A black hole is predicted for the most massive stars such as this one.

text: Schedar has been sometimes classified as a variable star, but no variability has been detected since the 19th century. Also, three companions to the star have been listed in the Washington Double Star Catalog, but it seems that all of them are just line-of-sight optical components.

text: Schedar has been sometimes classified as a

text: variable star

text: , but no variability has been detected since the 19th century. Also, three companions to the star have been listed in the

text: Washington Double Star Catalog

text: , but it seems that all of them are just line-of-sight

text: optical components

text: In stars massive enough to ignite helium fusion, an analogous process occurs when the central helium is exhausted and the star collapses once again, causing helium in an outer shell to begin fusing. At the same time hydrogen may begin fusion in a shell just outside the burning helium shell. This puts the star onto the asymptotic giant branch, a second red-giant phase. The helium fusion results in the build up of a carbon–oxygen core. A star below about  will never start fusion in its degenerate carbon–oxygen core. Instead, at the end of the asymptotic-giant-branch phase the star will eject its outer layers, forming a planetary nebula with the core of the star exposed, ultimately becoming a white dwarf. The ejection of the outer mass and the creation of a planetary nebula finally ends the red-giant phase of the star's evolution. The red-giant phase typically lasts only around a billion years in total for a solar mass star, almost all of which is spent on the red-giant branch. The horizontal-branch and asymptotic-giant-branch phases proceed tens of times faster.

text: In stars massive enough to ignite

text: helium fusion

text: , an analogous process occurs when the central helium is exhausted and the star collapses once again, causing helium in an outer shell to begin fusing. At the same time hydrogen may begin fusion in a shell just outside the burning helium shell. This puts the star onto the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: , a second red-giant phase. The helium fusion results in the build up of a carbon–oxygen core. A star below about  will never start fusion in its degenerate carbon–oxygen core. Instead, at the end of the asymptotic-giant-branch phase the star will eject its outer layers, forming a

text: planetary nebula

text: with the core of the star exposed, ultimately becoming a

text: white dwarf

text: . The ejection of the outer mass and the creation of a planetary nebula finally ends the red-giant phase of the star's evolution. The red-giant phase typically lasts only around a billion years in total for a solar mass star, almost all of which is spent on the red-giant branch. The horizontal-branch and asymptotic-giant-branch phases proceed tens of times faster.

text: The experiments conducted with particle accelerators are not regarded as part of accelerator physics, but belong (according to the objectives of the experiments) to, e.g., particle physics, nuclear physics, condensed matter physics or materials physics. The types of experiments done at a particular accelerator facility are determined by characteristics of the generated particle beam such as average energy, particle type, intensity, and dimensions.

text: The experiments conducted with particle accelerators are not regarded as part of accelerator physics, but belong (according to the objectives of the experiments) to, e.g.,

text: particle physics

text: nuclear physics

text: condensed matter physics

text: or

text: materials physics

text: . The types of experiments done at a particular accelerator facility are determined by characteristics of the generated

text: particle beam

text: such as average energy, particle type, intensity, and dimensions.

text: García has guest starred on various television series, such as Psych, The Closer, Las Vegas, Nip/Tuck, and Keeping Up with the Kardashians. She appeared twice as a reporter on the 2007 ABC television series Big Shots, and she had a recurring role on Lifetime's Army Wives (2008-2009) as Jennifer Connor.

text: García has guest starred on various television series, such as

text: Psych

text: The Closer

text: Las Vegas

text: Nip/Tuck

text: , and

text: Keeping Up with the Kardashians

text: . She appeared twice as a reporter on the 2007

text: ABC

text: television series

text: Big Shots

text: , and she had a recurring role on Lifetime's

text: Army Wives

text: (2008-2009) as Jennifer Connor.

text: There are several naked-eye double stars in Grus. Forming a triangle with Alnair and Beta, Delta Gruis is an optical double whose components—Delta and Delta—are separated by 45 arcseconds. Delta is a yellow giant of spectral type G7III and magnitude 4.0, 309 light-years from Earth, and may have its own magnitude 12 orange dwarf companion. Delta is a red giant of spectral type M4.5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3.99 and 4.2, located 325 light-years from Earth. It has around 3 times the mass and 135 times the diameter of our sun. Mu Gruis, composed of Mu and Mu, is also an optical double—both stars are yellow giants of spectral type G8III around 2.5 times as massive as the Sun with surface temperatures of around 4900 K. Mu is the brighter of the two at magnitude 4.8 located around 275 light-years from Earth, while Mu the dimmer at magnitude 5.11 lies 265 light-years distant from Earth. Pi Gruis, an optical double with a variable component, is composed of Pi Gruis and Pi. Pi is a semi-regular red giant of spectral type S5, ranging from magnitude 5.31 to 7.01 over a period of 191 days, and is around 532 light-years from Earth. One of the brightest S-class stars to Earth viewers, it has a companion star of apparent magnitude 10.9 with sunlike properties, being a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V. The pair make up a likely binary system. Pi is a giant star of spectral type F3III-IV located around 130 light-years from Earth, and is often brighter than its companion at magnitude 5.6. Marking the right wing is Theta Gruis, yet another double star, lying 5 degrees east of Delta and Delta.

text: There are several naked-eye

text: double star

text: s in Grus. Forming a triangle with Alnair and Beta, Delta Gruis is an optical double whose components—

text: Delta

text: and

text: Delta

text: —are separated by 45 arcseconds. Delta is a

text: yellow giant

text: of spectral type G7III and magnitude 4.0, 309 light-years from Earth, and may have its own magnitude 12

text: orange dwarf

text: companion. Delta is a red giant of spectral type M4.5III and semiregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 3.99 and 4.2, located 325 light-years from Earth. It has around 3 times the mass and 135 times the diameter of our sun. Mu Gruis, composed of

text: Mu

text: and

text: Mu

text: , is also an optical double—both stars are yellow giants of spectral type G8III around 2.5 times as massive as the Sun with surface temperatures of around 4900 K. Mu is the brighter of the two at magnitude 4.8 located around 275 light-years from Earth, while Mu the dimmer at magnitude 5.11 lies 265 light-years distant from Earth. Pi Gruis, an optical double with a variable component, is composed of

text: Pi Gruis

text: and

text: Pi

text: . Pi is a

text: semi-regular

text: red giant of spectral type S5, ranging from magnitude 5.31 to 7.01 over a period of 191 days, and is around 532 light-years from Earth. One of the brightest S-class stars to Earth viewers, it has a companion star of apparent magnitude 10.9 with sunlike properties, being a

text: yellow main sequence star

text: of spectral type G0V. The pair make up a likely binary system. Pi is a

text: giant star

text: of spectral type F3III-IV located around 130 light-years from Earth, and is often brighter than its companion at magnitude 5.6. Marking the right wing is

text: Theta Gruis

text: , yet another double star, lying 5 degrees east of Delta and Delta.

text: The primary and secondary stars are nearly identical orange main sequence dwarves of spectral type K2/K1; the tertiary star is an orange main sequence dwarf of spectral type K5.

text: The primary and secondary stars are nearly identical orange

text: main sequence

text: dwarves of

text: spectral type

text: K2/K1; the tertiary star is an orange

text: main sequence

text: dwarf of

text: spectral type

text: A double degenerate scenario is one of several explanations proposed for the anomalously massive () progenitor of the SN 2003fg. It is the only possible explanation for SNR 0509-67.5, as all possible models with only one white dwarf have been ruled out. It has also been strongly suggested for SN 1006, given that no companion star remnant has been found there. Observations made with NASA's Swift space telescope ruled out existing supergiant or giant companion stars of every Type Ia supernovae studied. The supergiant companion's blown out outer shell should emit X-rays, but this glow was not detected by Swift's XRT (X-Ray telescope) in the 53 closest supernova remnants. For 12 Type Ia supernovae observed within 10 days of the explosion, the satellite's UVOT (Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope) showed no ultraviolet radiation originating from the heated companion star's surface hit by the supernova shock wave, meaning there were no red giants or larger stars orbiting those supernova progenitors. In the case of SN 2011fe, the companion star must have been smaller than the Sun, if it existed. The Chandra X-ray Observatory revealed that the X-ray radiation of five elliptical galaxies and the bulge of the Andromeda galaxy is 30-50 times fainter than expected. X-ray radiation should be emitted by the accretion discs of Type Ia supernova progenitors. The missing radiation indicates that few white dwarfs possess accretion discs, ruling out the common, accretion-based model of Ia supernovae. Inward spiraling white dwarf pairs must be strong sources of gravitational waves, but this cannot be detected as of 2012.

text: A double degenerate scenario is one of several explanations proposed for the anomalously massive () progenitor of the

text: SN 2003fg

text: . It is the only possible explanation for

text: SNR 0509-67.5

text: , as all possible models with only one white dwarf have been ruled out. It has also been strongly suggested for

text: SN 1006

text: , given that no companion star remnant has been found there. Observations made with

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Swift

text: space telescope ruled out existing supergiant or giant companion stars of every Type Ia supernovae studied. The supergiant companion's blown out outer shell should emit X-rays, but this glow was not detected by Swift's XRT (X-Ray telescope) in the 53 closest supernova remnants. For 12 Type Ia supernovae observed within 10 days of the explosion, the satellite's UVOT (Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope) showed no ultraviolet radiation originating from the heated companion star's surface hit by the supernova shock wave, meaning there were no red giants or larger stars orbiting those supernova progenitors. In the case of

text: SN 2011fe

text: , the companion star must have been smaller than the

text: Sun

text: , if it existed. The

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: revealed that the X-ray radiation of five

text: elliptical galaxies

text: and the bulge of the

text: Andromeda galaxy

text: is 30-50 times fainter than expected. X-ray radiation should be emitted by the accretion discs of Type Ia supernova progenitors. The missing radiation indicates that few white dwarfs possess accretion discs, ruling out the common, accretion-based model of Ia supernovae. Inward spiraling white dwarf pairs must be strong sources of

text: gravitational wave

text: s, but this cannot be detected as of 2012.

text: The lifespan of a star is determined by the size of its supply of nuclear "fuel" and the rate at which it uses up that fuel in fusion reactions in its core. Larger stars have a larger supply of fuel, but the increased core pressure resulting from that additional mass increases the reaction rate even more; large stars have a significantly shorter lifespan than small ones. Current theories of stellar dynamics also suggest that there is very little mixing between the bulk of a star's atmosphere and the material of its core, where fusion takes place, so most of a large star's fuel will never be used naturally.

text: The lifespan of a star is determined by the size of its supply of nuclear "fuel" and the rate at which it uses up that fuel in

text: fusion

text: reactions in its core. Larger stars have a larger supply of fuel, but the increased core pressure resulting from that additional mass increases the reaction rate even more; large stars have a significantly shorter lifespan than small ones. Current theories of stellar dynamics also suggest that there is very little mixing between the bulk of a star's atmosphere and the material of its core, where fusion takes place, so most of a large star's fuel will never be used naturally.

text: Over time intervals of around 30 trillion years, the Sun will undergo a close encounter with another star. As a consequence, the orbits of their planets can become disrupted, potentially ejecting them from the system entirely. If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7.6 billion years and not ejected from its orbit by a stellar encounter, its ultimate fate will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation, in 10 (100 quintillion) years.

text: Over time intervals of around 30 trillion years, the Sun will undergo a close encounter with another star. As a consequence, the orbits of their planets can become disrupted, potentially ejecting them from the system entirely. If Earth is not destroyed by the

text: expanding red giant Sun

text: in 7.6 billion years and not ejected from its orbit by a stellar encounter, its ultimate fate will be that it collides with the

text: black dwarf

text: Sun due to the decay of its orbit via

text: gravitational radiation

text: , in 10 (100 quintillion) years.

text: The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign, astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations because they don't reference them. Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being "...empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars." Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, by the same astrologers, to the Age of Aquarius, which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius.

text: The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated

text: sign

text: , astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations because they don't reference them. Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being "...empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars." Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, by the same astrologers, to the

text: Age of Aquarius

text: , which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius.

text: Neutron stars have overall densities of  to  ( to  times the density of the Sun), which is comparable to the approximate density of an atomic nucleus of . The neutron star's density varies from about  in the crust—increasing with depth—to about  or  (denser than an atomic nucleus) deeper inside. A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 milliliters) of its material would have a mass over  (that is 1100 tonnes per 1 nanolitre), about 900 times the mass of the Great Pyramid of Giza. The pressure increases from 3×10 to 1.6×10 Pa from the inner crust to the center.

text: Neutron stars have overall densities of  to  ( to  times the density of the Sun), which is comparable to the approximate density of an

text: atomic nucleus

text: of . The neutron star's density varies from about  in the crust—increasing with depth—to about  or  (denser than an atomic nucleus) deeper inside. A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5

text: milliliter

text: s) of its material would have a mass over  (that is 1100

text: tonne

text: s per 1

text: nanolitre

text: ), about 900 times the mass of the

text: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: . The pressure increases from 3×10 to 1.6×10 Pa from the inner crust to the center.

text: Beta, Delta and Kappa are multiple star systems containing six, two and four stars respectively. Located near the tail of the toucan, Beta Tucanae's two brightest components, Beta and Beta are separated by an angle of 27 arcseconds and have apparent magnitudes of 4.4 and 4.5 respectively. They can be separated in small telescopes. A third star, Beta Tucanae, is separated by 10 arcminutes from the two, and able to be seen as a separate star with the unaided eye. Each star is itself a binary star, making six in total. Lying in the southwestern corner of the constellation around 251 light-years away from Earth, Delta Tucanae consists of a blue-white primary contrasting with a yellowish companion. Delta Tucanae A is a main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and an apparent magnitude of 4.49. The companion has an apparent magnitude of 9.3. The Kappa Tucanae system shines with an combined apparent magnitude of 4.25, and is located around 68 light-years from the Solar System. The brighter component is a yellowish star, known as Kappa Tucanae A with an apparent magnitude of 5.33 and spectral type F6V, while the fainter lies 5 arcseconds to the northwest. Known as Kappa Tucanae B, it has an apparent magnitude of 7.58 and spectral type K1V. Five arcminutes to the northwest is a fainter star of apparent magnitude 7.24 —actually a pair of orange main sequence stars of spectral types K2V and K3V, which can be seen individually as stars one arcsecond apart with a telescope such as a Dobsonian with high power.

text: Beta

text: Delta

text: and

text: Kappa

text: are multiple

text: star system

text: s containing six, two and four stars respectively. Located near the tail of the toucan, Beta Tucanae's two brightest components, Beta and Beta are separated by an angle of 27

text: arcsecond

text: s and have apparent magnitudes of 4.4 and 4.5 respectively. They can be separated in small telescopes. A third star, Beta Tucanae, is separated by 10

text: arcminute

text: s from the two, and able to be seen as a separate star with the unaided eye. Each star is itself a binary star, making six in total. Lying in the southwestern corner of the constellation around 251 light-years away from Earth, Delta Tucanae consists of a blue-white primary contrasting with a yellowish companion. Delta Tucanae A is a

text: main sequence

text: star of spectral type B9.5V and an apparent magnitude of 4.49. The companion has an apparent magnitude of 9.3. The Kappa Tucanae system shines with an combined apparent magnitude of 4.25, and is located around 68 light-years from the Solar System. The brighter component is a yellowish star, known as Kappa Tucanae A with an apparent magnitude of 5.33 and spectral type F6V, while the fainter lies 5 arcseconds to the northwest. Known as Kappa Tucanae B, it has an apparent magnitude of 7.58 and spectral type K1V. Five arcminutes to the northwest is a fainter star of apparent magnitude 7.24 —actually a pair of orange main sequence stars of spectral types K2V and K3V, which can be seen individually as stars one arcsecond apart with a telescope such as a

text: Dobsonian

text: with high power.

text: In "Demons and Angels" (1992), Red Dwarf is blown up when the beam of a device called the triplicator is put into reverse, putting the engine core into meltdown, while creating a "high" and "low" version of Red Dwarf, complete with their own versions of Lister (both played by Charles). Before the lifespans of both versions of Red Dwarf expire after an hour, the crew collect pieces of the triplicator from both Red Dwarfs, and restore the original Red Dwarf by amalgamating the two copies with a rebuilt triplicator. The "high" version of Lister is stabbed to death when Lister's "low" self controls Lister into doing this by remote control, while the "low" version is shot down by bazookoid fire from the Cat.

text: In "

text: Demons and Angels

text: " (1992), Red Dwarf is blown up when the beam of a device called the triplicator is put into reverse, putting the engine core into meltdown, while creating a "high" and "low" version of Red Dwarf, complete with their own versions of Lister (both played by Charles). Before the lifespans of both versions of Red Dwarf expire after an hour, the crew collect pieces of the triplicator from both Red Dwarfs, and restore the original Red Dwarf by amalgamating the two copies with a rebuilt triplicator. The "high" version of Lister is stabbed to death when Lister's "low" self controls Lister into doing this by remote control, while the "low" version is shot down by bazookoid fire from the Cat.

text: </onlyinclude>|-| 2001 ||  || Painter, sculptor || Cape Dorset, Nunavut || Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2001 ||  || Author || Ottawa, Ontario || Won the Booker Prize for The Blind Assassin, companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2002 ||  || Actor, comedian || Ottawa, Ontario || Nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1989 for Driving Miss Daisy; charter member of Saturday Night Live.|-| 2012 ||  || Musician, singer || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Has earned 120 gold and platinum album/singles awards and sold over 40 million records worldwide as a solo artist and various bands, including The Guess Who and Bachman-Turner Overdrive.|-| 2014 || The Band || Musicians|| Toronto, Ontario || Inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame; Honoured with The Recording Academy’s Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.|-| 2008 ||  || Actress || Mannville, Alberta || Won a Gemini Award for Road to Avonlea.|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Trois-Rivières, Quebec || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, two-time NHL MVP, won 10 Stanley Cups, companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2001 ||  || Inventor || Edinburgh, Scotland || Inventor of the telephone.|-| 1998 ||  || Author || Whitehorse, Yukon || Winner of four Governor General's Awards, companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2009 || Blue Rodeo || Musicians || Toronto, Ontario || Won 11 Juno Awards, including five for Group of the Year.|-| 2011 ||  || Astronaut || Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario || Canada's first female astronaut.|-| 2003 ||  || Coach, ice hockey || Montreal, Quebec || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, two-time NHL coach of the year, coached nine Stanley Cup-winning teams and has the highest winning percentage in NHL history.|-| 2007 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Prince Albert, Saskatchewan || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, two-time Vezina Trophy winner, won four Stanley Cups.|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, figure skating || Caroline, Alberta || Four-time World Figure Skating Champion.|-| 2009 ||  || Actor || New Westminster, British Columbia || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Known for his portrayal of Perry Mason in the television series of the same name, for which he won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Lead Actor – Drama Series; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2008 ||  || Director || Kapuskasing, Ontario || Won three Academy Awards in 1997 for best director, best film editing and best picture for the film Titanic; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 1998 ||  || Actor, comedian || Newmarket, Ontario || Part of SCTV.|-| 1998 ||  || Actor, comedian || Newmarket, Ontario || Won two Golden Globe Awards for The Truman Show and Man on the Moon. Carrey was unable to attend his 1998 induction and was later honoured at a ceremony in 2004.|-| 2009 ||  || Fashion designers || Toronto, Ontario || Creators of Dsquared, a high-end fashion label.|-| 2009 ||  || Actress || Little River, British Columbia || Born in Liverpool, England. Known for her portrayal of Samantha Jones in Sex and the City for which she won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress.|-| 1999 ||  || Singer || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Member of the Order of Canada.|-| 2005 ||  || Athlete, boxing || Toronto, Ontario || Member of the World Boxing Hall of Fame.|-| 2002 || Cirque du Soleil || Circus troupe || Baie-Saint-Paul, Quebec || A world-renowned circus troup that originated in Quebec; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2010 ||  || Musician, frontman || Willowdale, Ontario || Lead singer and frontman for Blood, Sweat & Tears. Won three Grammy Awards, and a member of the Canadian Music Hall of Fame.|-| 2009 ||  || Musician || Lynn Lake, Manitoba || Member of the Canadian Music Hall of Fame. Won six Juno Awards, including Single of the Year for "Life Is a Highway".|-| 2005 ||  || Music producer, concert promoter || Toronto, Ontario || Member of the Canadian Music Hall of Fame.|-| 2002 ||  || Painter, printmaker || Toronto, Ontario || Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 2005 ||  || Music producer || Valleyfield, Quebec || Executive-producer of Grammy Awards for 35 years, has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2003 ||  || Athlete, figure skating || Hamilton, Ontario || Olympic figure skating bronze medalist in 1976.|-| 2006 || Crazy Canucks || Athlete, downhill skiing || Various (Ontario, BC, Saskatchewan) || Collectively earned 107 top 10 World Cup finishes from 1978 to 1984. Members were: Dave Irwin, Dave Murray, Steve Podborski, Jim Hunter and Ken Read.|-| 1999 ||  || Director || Toronto, Ontario || Officer of the Order of Canada, winner of the Cannes lifetime achievement award.|-| 1999 ||  || Actor || London, Ontario || Nominated for Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in 1944 for The Seventh Cross.|-| 2011 ||  || Musician || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Lead singer for The Guess Who, six-time Juno Award winner.|-| 1999 ||  || Singer || Charlemagne, Quebec || Won five Grammy Awards; has sold over 200 million albums worldwide. Member of the Order of Canada. Has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. |-| 2004 ||  || Actress || Weyburn, Saskatchewan || Won a Gemini Award. Member of the Order of Canada.|-| 2003 ||  || Athlete, equestrian || Toronto, Ontario || Olympic gold medalist in 1968.|-| 2003 ||  || Supermodel || St. Catharines, Ontario || Supermodel.|-| 2013 ||  || Music producer || Toronto, Ontario || Canadian music producer and keyboardist|-| 2002 ||  || Author; playwright || Toronto, Ontario || Won one Governor General's Award.|-| 2000 ||  || Singer || Montréal, Quebec ||  Canada's "Grande Dame of Song."|-| 2002 ||  || Music producer || Victoria, British Columbia || Won 15 Grammy Awards as a producer, including three for Producer of the Year, nominated for three Academy Awards for Best Song.|-| 2000 ||  || Actor || Edmonton, Alberta || Won three Primetime Emmy Awards and one Golden Globe Awards for Family Ties and one Emmy Award and three Golden Globes for Spin City; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Fox was unable to attend his 2000 induction and was later honoured at a ceremony in 2008.|-| 2013 ||  || Athlete, runner || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Youngest person ever named a Companion of the Order of Canada. He won the 1980 Lou Marsh Award as the nation's top sportsman and was named Canada's Newsmaker of the Year in both 1980 and 1981. Died at age 22 from cancer, during which time he steadfastly kept active and fought with grace and dignity for his life.|-| 2006 ||  || Actor || Indianapolis, Indiana || Raised in Ottawa, Ontario, was part of the Screen Actors Guild Award winning cast of Crash.|-| 2010 ||  || Musician || Victoria, British Columbia || Five-time Juno Award winner; won a Grammy Award for her song "I'm like a Bird."|-| 2013 ||  || Actor|| London, Ontario || Film, stage, musical theatre and television actor, and singer.|-| 1998 ||  || Musician || Toronto, Ontario || Inducted into Canadian Music Hall of Fame, won four Grammy Awards.|-| 2006 ||  || Singer; actor || Lawrence, Massachusetts || Raised in Edmonton, Alberta, won a Grammy Award in 1963 for Best New Artist, won a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical in 1968 for The Happy Time; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 1999 ||  || Athlete, downhill skiing || Ottawa, Ontario || Won a gold and silver medal at the 1968 Winter Olympics, Canadian female athlete of the half century (1950–1999), Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 2002 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Brantford, Ontario || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, highest scoring player in NHL history, nine-time NHL MVP, won four Stanley Cups, and was named Canadian male athlete of the half century (1950–1999).|-| 2001 ||  || Musicians || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame, first Canadian band to have a No. 1 single in the United States.|-| 2002 ||  || Game show host; humanitarian || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Host of Let's Make a Deal; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2007 ||  || Athlete, wheelchair || Williams Lake, British Columbia || "Man in Motion", won a gold medal at the 1980 Summer Paralympics.|-| 2005 ||  || Ballet dancer || Peterborough, Ontario || Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 2000 ||  || Ballet dancer || Toronto, Ontario || Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2012 ||  || Actor, voice actor || Brantford, Ontario || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Known as "The Man of A Thousand Voices", Hartman gained fame playing various characters on shows such as Saturday Night Live and The Simpsons.|-| 2002 ||  || Musician || Huntsville, Arkansas || Lived adult life in Toronto and later in Peterborough, Ontario; inducted into Canadian Music Hall of Fame.|-| 2014 ||  || Musician || Toronto, Ontario || Grammy Award nominee and JUNO Award winner; inducted as a Cineplex Legends Award recipient.|-| 2007 ||  || Actress || Edmonton, Alberta || Best known for roles on Law & Order and Crossing Jordan.|-| 2010 ||  || Magician || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient.|-| 2002 ||  || Director || Edmonton, Alberta || Won the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director for Love Story, Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 2000 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Floral, Saskatchewan || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, six-time NHL MVP, winner of four Stanley Cups.|-| 2010 ||  || Athlete, speed skating || Winnipeg, Manitoba || One of Canada's most decorated Olympic athletes; won two bronze medals in cycling in 1996, and four medals (including a gold in 2006) in speed skating.|-| 2000 ||  || Actor, stage || Toronto, Ontario || Acted in the Stratford Festival since it first started in 1953; Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2012 ||  || Athlete, Football || Hamilton, Ontario || A three-time winner of the CFL's Most Outstanding Player Award and was named the Most Outstanding Canadian four times.|-| 1999 ||  || Actor || Toronto, Ontario || Noted actor of stage, film and television.|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, baseball || Chatham, Ontario || Won the National League Cy Young Award in 1971, inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, sprinting || Prince Albert, Saskatchewan || Won an Olympic bronze medal in 1964.|-| 1998 ||  || Director || Toronto, Ontario || Nominated for three Academy Awards for Best Director for In the Heat of the Night, Fiddler on the Roof and Moonstruck, awarded the Irving Thalberg Award in 1999; Companion of the Order of Canada. Has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2003 ||  || Cartoonist || Collingwood, Ontario || Creator of For Better or For Worse, won a Reuben Award for Cartoonist of the Year in 1985.|-| 1998 ||  || Ballet dancer || Hamilton, Ontario || Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2004 ||  || Musician, frontman || Toronto, Ontario || Born in Germany, moved to Canada as a teenager, and began his musical career in Toronto. Frontman of the band Steppenwolf.|-| 2008 || The Kids in the Hall || Comedy troupe || Toronto, Ontario || Members include: Dave Foley, Bruce McCulloch, Kevin McDonald, Mark McKinney and Scott Thompson.|-| 2013 ||  || Humanitarians; activists || Thornhill, Ontario || Humanitarian activist brothers.|-| 2004 ||  || Musician || Nanaimo, British Columbia || Won a Grammy Award and three Juno Awards.|-| 2008 ||  || Musician || Consort, Alberta || Won four Grammy Awards and eight Juno Awards.|-| 2005 ||  || Music producer || Hull, Quebec || Producer, won seven Grammy Awards, including Producer of the Year in 1993.|-| 2004 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Montreal, Quebec || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, Olympic gold medalist in 2002, three-time NHL MVP, winner of two Stanley Cups.|-| 2001 ||  || Director; playwright || Quebec City, Quebec || Former director of the Canadian Opera Company.|-| 2006 ||  || Comedian || Hamilton, Ontario || Member of SCTV, won two Primetime Emmy Awards and a Grammy.|-| 1998 ||  || Musician || Orillia, Ontario || Won 16 Juno Awards, nominated for five Grammy Awards, inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 1986 and Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 1998 ||  || Impressionist || Ottawa, Ontario || Has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2002 ||  || Bandleader || London, Ontario || Member of Canadian Music Hall of Fame, has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2009 ||  || Game show host; comedian|| Toronto, Ontario || Comedian, known for his roles in Bobby's World and St. Elsewhere and as host of the game show Deal or No Deal.|-| 2004 ||  || Hollywood pioneer || Minsk, Belarus || Founder and head of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) Studios, raised in Saint John, New Brunswick. Has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2014 ||  || Actress || Toronto, Ontario || Won Gemini Award for Slings and Arrows in 2004; nominated for Screen Actors Guild Award for "Outstanding Performance By A Cast In A Motion Picture" for Midnight in Paris.|-| 2010 ||  || Actor || Toronto, Ontario || Won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for his portrayal of Will Truman in Will & Grace.|-| 2012 ||  || Singer, songwriter || Halifax, Nova Scotia || Won three Grammy Awards and eight Juno Awards.|-| 2003 ||  || Producer || Toronto, Ontario || Creator of Saturday Night Live.|-| 2000 ||  || Singer || Fort Macleod, Alberta || Member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, won nine Grammy Awards, companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2005 ||  || Singer || Ottawa, Ontario || Winner of 12 Juno Awards and seven Grammy Awards.|-| 2010 ||  || Author|| Belleville, Ontario || Best-selling author whose books include People of the Deer and Never Cry Wolf; Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 2009 ||  || Author, children's || Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania || Has lived and worked in Guelph, Ontario since 1975. Author of over 50 children's books, member of the Order of Canada.|-| 1998 ||  || Singer || Springhill, Nova Scotia || Winner of four Grammy Awards, has 24 gold or platinum albums, companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2003 ||  || Actor, comedian || Scarborough, Ontario || Won an Primetime Emmy Award for his work on Saturday Night Live; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2008 ||  || Athlete, basketball || Victoria, British Columbia || Born in Johannesburg, South Africa, but raised from early childhood in Victoria. Won two consecutive NBA Most Valuable Player Awards.|-| 2011 ||  || Athlete, Tennis || Toronto, Ontario || Born in Yugoslavia. Won over 70 ATP doubles titles, including seven Grand Slams and a gold medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics.|-| 2007 || Nickelback || Musicians || Hanna, Alberta || Won 12 Juno Awards, sold almost 30 million records worldwide.|-| 2001 ||  || Actor, comedian || Regina, Saskatchewan || Officer of the Order of Canada; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2011 ||  || Actress || Ottawa, Ontario || Won a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Dr. Cristina Yang in Grey's Anatomy.|-| 2007 ||  || Actress, comedian || Toronto, Ontario || Member of SCTV, won a Primetime Emmy Award.|-| 1998 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Parry Sound, Ontario || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, eight-time Norris Trophy winner for best NHL defenseman, three-time NHL MVP, winner of two Stanley Cups.|-| 2001 ||  || Musician, Polka || Duparquet, Quebec || "The Polka King", won three Grammy Awards for Best Polka Album.|-| 2011 ||  || Comedian || Brampton, Ontario || One of the best-selling comedians in the United States, and winner of one Gemini Award.|-| 2013 ||  || Musician || Montreal, Quebec || Inducted as a Cineplex Legends Award recipient.|-| 2009 ||  || Athlete, wheelchair ||Saint-Marc-des-Carrières, Quebec || Won 21 medals, including 14 gold, in wheelchair racing at the Paralympic Games.|-| 1999 ||  || Actress || Toronto, Ontario || Won an Academy Award in 1929 for Coquette and a Lifetime Achievement Oscar in 1976; has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2007 ||  || Actor || Grand Falls, Newfoundland || Won three Gemini Awards and two Genie Awards, companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2003 ||  || Musician || Saint-Raymond, Quebec || Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 1998 ||  || Actor || Toronto, Ontario || Companion of the Order of Canada, won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for Beginners, won two Tony Awards.|-| 2010 ||  || Actress, writer, director || Toronto, Ontario || Won two Gemini Awards and four Genie Awards; nominated for an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for Away from Her.|-| 2001 ||  || Director, producer || Komárno, Czechoslovakia || Raised in Toronto, has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Reitman was unable to attend his 1998 induction and was later honoured at a ceremony in 2007.|-| 2000 ||  || Singer, actress || Montréal, Quebec || Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 2014 ||  || Actor || Vancouver, British Columbia || Has appeared in a number of box office hits, was named People magazine's Sexiest Man Alive in 2010. Reynolds was originally announced for induction in 2011, but this was pushed back due to a scheduling conflict.|-| 1999 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Montréal, Quebec || Member of the Hockey Hall of Fame, first player to score 50 goals in 50 games, Hart Trophy winner, eight-time Stanley Cup champion, companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2011 ||  || Author || Montreal, Quebec || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Two-time winner of the Governor General's Awards, received Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay for the film adaptation of his novel The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz. Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2000 ||  || Painter || Montréal, Quebec || Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2007 ||  || Journalist, anchor || Stratford, Ontario || Anchor of CTV National News for 30 years, won three Gemini Awards.|-| 2003 ||  || Musician || Toronto, Ontario || Guiter player of The Band, member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.|-| 2012 ||  || Ballet dancer || Toronto, Ontario || Longtime member of the National Ballet of Canada and was promoted to principal dancer in 2000.|-| 2000 ||  || Comedy troupe || Montréal, Quebec || Founding members include: Roger Abbott, Don Ferguson, Luba Goy and John Morgan.|-| 1999 || Rush || Musicians || Toronto, Ontario || Have 23 Gold and 14 Platinum records, inducted into Canadian Music Hall of Fame. Also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and is a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.|-| 1999 ||  || Singer, actress || Piapot Reserve, Saskatchewan || Won an Academy Award for the song "Up Where We Belong" from An Officer and a Gentleman in 1982.|-| 1998 ||  || Athlete, figure skating || Ottawa, Ontario || Olympic Gold medalist in 1948.|-| 2002 || Second City Television || Comedy troupe || Toronto, Ontario || Original members include: John Candy, Joe Flaherty, Eugene Levy, Andrea Martin, Catherine O'Hara, Harold Ramis, Dave Thomas and later Rick Moranis and Martin Short.|-| 2004 ||  || Hollywood pioneer || Montreal, Quebec || Co-founded Keystone Studios; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2006 ||  || Musician || Thunder Bay, Ontario || Musical Director for the Late Show with David Letterman, won one Grammy Award.|-| 2000 ||  || Actor || Montréal, Quebec || Portrayed Captain James T. Kirk in Star Trek, won two Primetime Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award for Boston Legal; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2004 ||  || Actress || St. Thomas, Ontario || Won a Gemini Award in 2003.|-| 2008 ||  || Sound designer || Westmount, Quebec || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Won seven Academy Awards (the most of any Canadian) for sound and special effects, nominated for fourteen more.|-| 2008 ||  || Actress || Montreal, Quebec || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Won an Academy Award for Best Actress in 1930 for The Divorcee, nominated for the same award five more times, has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2000 ||  || Actor, comedian || Hamilton, Ontario || Won a Primetime Emmy Award, Member of the Order of Canada.|-| 2013 ||  || Athlete, soccer|| Burnaby, British Columbia || Olympic Bronze medallist; and one of the most prolific scorers of all-time.|-| 2003 ||  || Actor, comedian, writer, director || Winnipeg, Manitoba || Won two Primetime Emmy Awards for directing Academy Awards telecasts, appeared on The Tonight Show 140 times.|-| 2001 ||  || Opera soprano || Toronto, Ontario || Won two Grammy Awards, Officer of the Order of Canada.|-| 2000 ||  || Actor || Saint John, New Brunswick || Won a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globes, Officer of the Order of Canada; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2005 ||  || Actor || St. Thomas, Ontario || Born in London, England, won a Primetime Emmy Award for 24, son of fellow inductees Donald Sutherland and Shirley Douglas; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2001 ||  || Ballet dancer || London, Ontario || Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2013 ||  || Actor || Kirkland Lake, Ontario || Actor, game show and talk show host, songwriter.|-| 2002 || The Tragically Hip || Musicians || Kingston, Ontario || Won 14 Juno Awards, inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame.|-| 2006 ||  || Game Show host || Sudbury, Ontario || Long-time host of Jeopardy!, won five Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game Show Host; also has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2003 ||  || Musician || Windsor, Ontario || Won five Grammy Awards.|-| 1998 ||  || Athlete, race car driving || Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec || Became the first Canadian to win the Indianapolis 500 in 1995, also won the Formula One World Championship in 1997 and the Champ Car championship in 1995.|-| 2004 ||  || Hollywood pioneer || London, Ontario || One of the Warner Bros..|-| 1999 || Wayne and Shuster || Comedy duo || Toronto, Ontario || Johnny Wayne and Frank Shuster, won the Margaret Collier Award in 1998.|-| 2008 ||  || Supermodel || Mississauga, Ontario || Born in Krakow, Poland, ninth highest-earning model in the world.|-| 2014 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey || Shaunavon, Saskatchewan || Won four gold and one silver medal at the Winter Olympics; elected to the International Olympic Committee's Athletes Commission.|-| 2005 ||  || Actress, Hollywood pioneer || Cardston, Alberta || Portrayed Ann Darrow in King Kong (1933), has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.|-| 2000 ||  || Singer || Toronto, Ontario || Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice, with Buffalo Springfield and as a solo artist. Also was a member of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.|}

text: </onlyinclude>|-| 2001 ||  || Painter, sculptor ||

text: Cape Dorset, Nunavut

text: || Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2001 ||  || Author ||

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: || Won the

text: Booker Prize

text: for

text: The Blind Assassin

text: , companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2002 ||  || Actor, comedian ||

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: || Nominated for an

text: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor

text: in 1989 for

text: Driving Miss Daisy

text: ; charter member of

text: Saturday Night Live

text: .|-| 2012 ||  || Musician, singer ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Has earned 120 gold and platinum album/singles awards and sold over 40 million records worldwide as a solo artist and various bands, including

text: The Guess Who

text: and

text: Bachman-Turner Overdrive

text: .|-| 2014 ||

text: The Band

text: || Musicians||

text: Toronto

text: Ontario

text: || Inducted into the

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: and the

text: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

text: ; Honoured with The Recording Academy’s

text: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award

text: .|-| 2008 ||  || Actress ||

text: Mannville, Alberta

text: || Won a

text: Gemini Award

text: for

text: Road to Avonlea

text: .|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Trois-Rivières, Quebec

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , two-time

text: NHL MVP

text: , won 10

text: Stanley Cup

text: s, companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2001 ||  || Inventor ||

text: Edinburgh

text: , Scotland || Inventor of the telephone.|-| 1998 ||  || Author ||

text: Whitehorse, Yukon

text: || Winner of four

text: Governor General's Award

text: s, companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2009 ||

text: Blue Rodeo

text: || Musicians ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Won 11

text: Juno Award

text: s, including five for

text: Group of the Year

text: .|-| 2011 ||  || Astronaut ||

text: Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario

text: || Canada's first female astronaut.|-| 2003 ||  || Coach, ice hockey ||

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , two-time

text: NHL coach of the year

text: , coached nine Stanley Cup-winning teams and has the highest winning percentage in NHL history.|-| 2007 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Prince Albert, Saskatchewan

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , two-time

text: Vezina Trophy

text: winner, won four

text: Stanley Cup

text: s.|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, figure skating ||

text: Caroline, Alberta

text: || Four-time

text: World Figure Skating Champion

text: .|-| 2009 ||  || Actor ||

text: New Westminster

text: , British Columbia || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Known for his portrayal of

text: Perry Mason

text: in the

text: television series of the same name

text: , for which he won two

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: s for

entity_name: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series

text: Outstanding Lead Actor – Drama Series

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2008 ||  || Director ||

text: Kapuskasing

text: , Ontario || Won three

text: Academy Awards

text: in 1997 for best director, best film editing and best picture for the film

text: Titanic

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Actor, comedian ||

text: Newmarket, Ontario

text: || Part of

text: SCTV

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Actor, comedian ||

text: Newmarket, Ontario

text: || Won two

text: Golden Globe Award

text: s for

text: The Truman Show

text: and

text: Man on the Moon

text: . Carrey was unable to attend his 1998 induction and was later honoured at a ceremony in 2004.|-| 2009 ||  || Fashion designers ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Creators of Dsquared, a high-end

text: fashion label

text: .|-| 2009 ||  || Actress ||

text: Little River, British Columbia

text: || Born in

text: Liverpool

text: , England. Known for her portrayal of

text: Samantha Jones

text: in

text: Sex and the City

text: for which she won a

text: Golden Globe Award

text: for

entity_name: Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film

text: Best Supporting Actress

text: .|-| 1999 ||  || Singer ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Member of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2005 ||  || Athlete, boxing ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Member of the World Boxing Hall of Fame.|-| 2002 ||

text: Cirque du Soleil

text: || Circus troupe ||

text: Baie-Saint-Paul, Quebec

text: || A world-renowned circus troup that originated in Quebec; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2010 ||  || Musician, frontman ||

text: Willowdale, Ontario

text: || Lead singer and frontman for

text: Blood, Sweat & Tears

text: . Won three Grammy Awards, and a member of the

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: .|-| 2009 ||  || Musician ||

text: Lynn Lake, Manitoba

text: || Member of the

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: . Won six

text: Juno Award

text: s, including

text: Single of the Year

text: for "

text: Life Is a Highway

text: ".|-| 2005 ||  || Music producer, concert promoter ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Member of the

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: .|-| 2002 ||  || Painter, printmaker ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2005 ||  || Music producer ||

text: Valleyfield, Quebec

text: || Executive-producer of

text: Grammy Awards

text: for 35 years, has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2003 ||  || Athlete, figure skating ||

text: Hamilton, Ontario

text: Olympic

text: figure skating bronze medalist in

text: .|-| 2006 ||

text: Crazy Canucks

text: || Athlete, downhill skiing || Various (Ontario, BC, Saskatchewan) || Collectively earned 107 top 10 World Cup finishes from 1978 to 1984. Members were:

text: Dave Irwin

text: Dave Murray

text: Steve Podborski

text: Jim Hunter

text: and

text: Ken Read

text: .|-| 1999 ||  || Director ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: , winner of the

text: Cannes

text: lifetime achievement award.|-| 1999 ||  || Actor ||

text: London, Ontario

text: || Nominated for

text: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor

text: in 1944 for

text: The Seventh Cross

text: .|-| 2011 ||  || Musician ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Lead singer for

text: The Guess Who

text: , six-time

text: Juno Award

text: winner.|-| 1999 ||  || Singer ||

text: Charlemagne, Quebec

text: || Won five

text: Grammy Award

text: s; has sold over 200 million albums worldwide. Member of the

text: Order of Canada

text: . Has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: . |-| 2004 ||  || Actress ||

text: Weyburn, Saskatchewan

text: || Won a

text: Gemini Award

text: . Member of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2003 ||  || Athlete, equestrian ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Olympic gold medalist in

text: .|-| 2003 ||  || Supermodel ||

text: St. Catharines, Ontario

text: || Supermodel.|-| 2013 ||  || Music producer ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Canadian music producer and keyboardist|-| 2002 ||  || Author; playwright ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Won one

text: Governor General's Award

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Singer ||

text: Montréal, Quebec

text: ||  Canada's "Grande Dame of Song."|-| 2002 ||  || Music producer ||

text: Victoria, British Columbia

text: || Won 15

text: Grammy Award

text: s as a producer, including three for

entity_name: Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical

text: Producer of the Year

text: , nominated for three Academy Awards for

text: Best Song

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Actor ||

text: Edmonton, Alberta

text: || Won three

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: s and one

text: Golden Globe Award

text: s for

text: Family Ties

text: and one Emmy Award and three Golden Globes for

text: Spin City

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: . Fox was unable to attend his 2000 induction and was later honoured at a ceremony in 2008.|-| 2013 ||  || Athlete, runner ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Youngest person ever named a Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: . He won the 1980

text: Lou Marsh Award

text: as the nation's top sportsman and was named

text: Canada's Newsmaker of the Year

text: in both 1980 and 1981. Died at age 22 from cancer, during which time he steadfastly kept active and fought with grace and dignity for his life.|-| 2006 ||  || Actor ||

text: Indianapolis, Indiana

text: || Raised in

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: , was part of the

text: Screen Actors Guild Award

text: winning

entity_name: Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture

text: cast

text: of

text: Crash

text: .|-| 2010 ||  || Musician ||

text: Victoria, British Columbia

text: || Five-time

text: Juno Award

text: winner; won a

text: Grammy Award

text: for her song "

text: I'm like a Bird

text: ."|-| 2013 ||  || Actor||

text: London, Ontario

text: || Film, stage, musical theatre and television actor, and singer.|-| 1998 ||  || Musician ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Inducted into

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: , won four

text: Grammy Award

text: s.|-| 2006 ||  || Singer; actor ||

text: Lawrence, Massachusetts

text: || Raised in

text: Edmonton, Alberta

text: , won a Grammy Award in 1963 for

text: Best New Artist

text: , won a

text: Tony Award

text: for

text: Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical

text: in 1968 for

text: The Happy Time

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 1999 ||  || Athlete, downhill skiing ||

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: || Won a gold and silver medal at the

text: 1968 Winter Olympics

text: , Canadian female athlete of the half century (1950–1999), Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2002 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Brantford, Ontario

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , highest scoring player in NHL history, nine-time

text: NHL MVP

text: , won four

text: Stanley Cup

text: s, and was named Canadian male athlete of the half century (1950–1999).|-| 2001 ||  || Musicians ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Inducted into the

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: , first Canadian band to have a No. 1 single in the United States.|-| 2002 ||  || Game show host; humanitarian ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Host of

text: Let's Make a Deal

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2007 ||  || Athlete, wheelchair ||

text: Williams Lake, British Columbia

text: "Man in Motion"

text: , won a gold medal at the

text: 1980 Summer Paralympics

text: .|-| 2005 ||  || Ballet dancer ||

text: Peterborough, Ontario

text: || Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Ballet dancer ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2012 ||  || Actor, voice actor ||

text: Brantford, Ontario

text: || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Known as "The Man of A Thousand Voices", Hartman gained fame playing various characters on shows such as

text: Saturday Night Live

text: and

text: The Simpsons

text: .|-| 2002 ||  || Musician ||

text: Huntsville, Arkansas

text: || Lived adult life in

text: Toronto

text: and later in

text: Peterborough, Ontario

text: ; inducted into

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: .|-| 2014 ||  || Musician ||

text: Toronto

text: Ontario

text: Grammy Award

text: nominee and

text: JUNO Award

text: winner; inducted as a Cineplex Legends Award recipient.|-| 2007 ||  || Actress ||

text: Edmonton, Alberta

text: || Best known for roles on

text: Law & Order

text: and

text: Crossing Jordan

text: .|-| 2010 ||  || Magician ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient.|-| 2002 ||  || Director ||

text: Edmonton, Alberta

text: || Won the

text: Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award

text: , nominated for an

text: Academy Award

text: for

text: Best Director

text: for

text: Love Story

text: , Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Floral, Saskatchewan

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , six-time

text: NHL MVP

text: , winner of four

text: Stanley Cup

text: s.|-| 2010 ||  || Athlete, speed skating ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || One of Canada's most decorated Olympic athletes; won two bronze medals in cycling in

text: , and four medals (including a gold in

text: ) in speed skating.|-| 2000 ||  || Actor, stage ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Acted in the

text: Stratford Festival

text: since it first started in 1953; Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2012 ||  || Athlete, Football ||

text: Hamilton, Ontario

text: || A three-time winner of the

text: CFL's Most Outstanding Player Award

text: and was named the

text: Most Outstanding Canadian

text: four times.|-| 1999 ||  || Actor ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Noted actor of stage, film and television.|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, baseball ||

text: Chatham, Ontario

text: || Won the

text: National League Cy Young Award

text: in 1971, inducted into the

entity_name: National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum

text: Baseball Hall of Fame

text: .|-| 2001 ||  || Athlete, sprinting ||

text: Prince Albert, Saskatchewan

text: || Won an Olympic bronze medal in

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Director ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Nominated for three Academy Awards for Best Director for

text: In the Heat of the Night

text: Fiddler on the Roof

text: and

text: Moonstruck

text: , awarded the

text: Irving Thalberg Award

text: in 1999; Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: . Has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2003 ||  || Cartoonist ||

text: Collingwood, Ontario

text: || Creator of

text: For Better or For Worse

text: , won a

text: Reuben Award

text: for Cartoonist of the Year in 1985.|-| 1998 ||  || Ballet dancer ||

text: Hamilton, Ontario

text: || Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2004 ||  || Musician, frontman ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Born in Germany, moved to Canada as a teenager, and began his musical career in Toronto. Frontman of the band

text: Steppenwolf

text: .|-| 2008 ||

text: The Kids in the Hall

text: || Comedy troupe ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Members include:

text: Dave Foley

text: Bruce McCulloch

text: Kevin McDonald

text: Mark McKinney

text: and

text: Scott Thompson

text: .|-| 2013 ||  || Humanitarians; activists ||

text: Thornhill, Ontario

text: || Humanitarian activist brothers.|-| 2004 ||  || Musician ||

text: Nanaimo, British Columbia

text: || Won a

text: Grammy Award

text: and three

text: Juno Awards

text: .|-| 2008 ||  || Musician ||

text: Consort, Alberta

text: || Won four Grammy Awards and eight Juno Awards.|-| 2005 ||  || Music producer ||

text: Hull, Quebec

text: || Producer, won seven

text: Grammy Award

text: s, including

text: Producer of the Year

text: in 1993.|-| 2004 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , Olympic gold medalist in

text: , three-time

text: NHL MVP

text: , winner of two

text: Stanley Cup

text: s.|-| 2001 ||  || Director; playwright ||

text: Quebec City, Quebec

text: || Former director of the

text: Canadian Opera Company

text: .|-| 2006 ||  || Comedian ||

text: Hamilton, Ontario

text: || Member of

text: SCTV

text: , won two

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: s and a

text: Grammy

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Musician ||

text: Orillia, Ontario

text: || Won 16

text: Juno Award

text: s, nominated for five Grammy Awards, inducted into the

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: in 1986 and Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Impressionist ||

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: || Has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2002 ||  || Bandleader ||

text: London, Ontario

text: || Member of

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: , has three stars on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2009 ||  || Game show host; comedian||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Comedian, known for his roles in

text: Bobby's World

text: and

text: St. Elsewhere

text: and as host of the game show

text: Deal or No Deal

text: .|-| 2004 ||  || Hollywood pioneer ||

text: Minsk

text: Belarus

text: || Founder and head of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) Studios, raised in

text: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: . Has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2014 ||  || Actress ||

text: Toronto

text: Ontario

text: || Won

text: Gemini Award

text: for

text: Slings and Arrows

text: in 2004; nominated for

text: Screen Actors Guild Award

text: for "Outstanding Performance By A Cast In A Motion Picture" for

text: Midnight in Paris

text: .|-| 2010 ||  || Actor ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Won a

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: for

entity_name: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series

text: Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series

text: for his portrayal of

text: Will Truman

text: in

text: Will & Grace

text: .|-| 2012 ||  || Singer, songwriter ||

text: Halifax, Nova Scotia

text: || Won three

text: Grammy Award

text: s and eight

text: Juno Award

text: s.|-| 2003 ||  || Producer ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Creator of

text: Saturday Night Live

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Singer ||

text: Fort Macleod, Alberta

text: || Member of the

text: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

text: , won nine

text: Grammy Award

text: s, companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2005 ||  || Singer ||

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: || Winner of 12

text: Juno Award

text: s and seven

text: Grammy Award

text: s.|-| 2010 ||  || Author||

text: Belleville, Ontario

text: || Best-selling author whose books include

text: People of the Deer

text: and

text: Never Cry Wolf

text: ; Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2009 ||  || Author, children's ||

text: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

text: || Has lived and worked in

text: Guelph

text: , Ontario since 1975. Author of over 50 children's books, member of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Singer ||

text: Springhill, Nova Scotia

text: || Winner of four

text: Grammy Award

text: s, has 24 gold or platinum albums, companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2003 ||  || Actor, comedian ||

text: Scarborough

text: Ontario

text: || Won an

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: for his work on

text: Saturday Night Live

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2008 ||  || Athlete, basketball ||

text: Victoria, British Columbia

text: || Born in

text: Johannesburg, South Africa

text: , but raised from early childhood in Victoria. Won two consecutive

text: NBA Most Valuable Player Award

text: s.|-| 2011 ||  || Athlete, Tennis ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Born in

text: Yugoslavia

text: . Won over 70

text: ATP

text: doubles titles, including seven

text: Grand Slam

text: s and a gold medal at the

text: 2000 Summer Olympics

text: .|-| 2007 ||

text: Nickelback

text: || Musicians ||

text: Hanna, Alberta

text: || Won 12

text: Juno Award

text: s, sold almost 30 million records worldwide.|-| 2001 ||  || Actor, comedian ||

text: Regina, Saskatchewan

text: || Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2011 ||  || Actress ||

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: || Won a

text: Golden Globe

text: for

text: Best Supporting Actress

text: for her portrayal of

text: Dr. Cristina Yang

text: in

text: Grey's Anatomy

text: .|-| 2007 ||  || Actress, comedian ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Member of

text: SCTV

text: , won a

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Parry Sound, Ontario

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , eight-time

text: Norris Trophy

text: winner for best NHL defenseman, three-time

text: NHL MVP

text: , winner of two

text: Stanley Cup

text: s.|-| 2001 ||  || Musician, Polka ||

text: Duparquet, Quebec

text: || "The Polka King", won three Grammy Awards for

text: Best Polka Album

text: .|-| 2011 ||  || Comedian ||

text: Brampton, Ontario

text: || One of the best-selling comedians in the United States, and winner of one

text: Gemini Award

text: .|-| 2013 ||  || Musician ||

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: || Inducted as a Cineplex Legends Award recipient.|-| 2009 ||  || Athlete, wheelchair ||

text: Saint-Marc-des-Carrières

text: , Quebec || Won 21 medals, including 14 gold, in wheelchair racing at the

text: Paralympic Games

text: .|-| 1999 ||  || Actress ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Won an Academy Award in 1929 for

text: Coquette

text: and a Lifetime Achievement Oscar in 1976; has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2007 ||  || Actor ||

text: Grand Falls, Newfoundland

text: || Won three

text: Gemini Award

text: s and two

text: Genie Award

text: s, companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2003 ||  || Musician ||

text: Saint-Raymond, Quebec

text: || Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 1998 ||  || Actor ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: , won an

text: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor

text: for

text: Beginners

text: , won two

text: Tony Award

text: s.|-| 2010 ||  || Actress, writer, director ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Won two

text: Gemini Awards

text: and four

text: Genie Awards

text: ; nominated for an

text: Academy Award

text: for

entity_name: Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay

text: Best Adapted Screenplay

text: for

text: Away from Her

text: .|-| 2001 ||  || Director, producer ||

text: Komárno

text: Czechoslovakia

text: || Raised in

text: Toronto

text: , has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: . Reitman was unable to attend his 1998 induction and was later honoured at a ceremony in 2007.|-| 2000 ||  || Singer, actress ||

text: Montréal, Quebec

text: || Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2014 ||  || Actor ||

text: Vancouver, British Columbia

text: || Has appeared in a number of box office hits, was named

text: People

text: magazine's Sexiest Man Alive in 2010. Reynolds was originally announced for induction in 2011, but this was pushed back due to a scheduling conflict.|-| 1999 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Montréal, Quebec

text: || Member of the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: , first player to score

text: 50 goals in 50 games

text: Hart Trophy

text: winner, eight-time

text: Stanley Cup

text: champion, companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2011 ||  || Author ||

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Two-time winner of the

text: Governor General's Awards

text: , received

text: Academy Award

text: nomination for

text: Best Adapted Screenplay

text: for the

entity_name: The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (film)

text: film adaptation

text: of his novel

entity_name: The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz (novel)

text: The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz

text: . Companion of the Order of Canada.|-| 2000 ||  || Painter ||

text: Montréal, Quebec

text: || Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2007 ||  || Journalist, anchor ||

text: Stratford, Ontario

text: || Anchor of

text: CTV National News

text: for 30 years, won three

text: Gemini Award

text: s.|-| 2003 ||  || Musician ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Guiter player of

text: The Band

text: , member of the

text: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

text: .|-| 2012 ||  || Ballet dancer ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Longtime member of the

text: National Ballet of Canada

text: and was promoted to principal dancer in 2000.|-| 2000 ||  || Comedy troupe ||

text: Montréal, Quebec

text: || Founding members include:

text: Roger Abbott

text: Don Ferguson

text: Luba Goy

text: and

text: John Morgan

text: .|-| 1999 ||

text: Rush

text: || Musicians ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Have 23 Gold and 14 Platinum records, inducted into

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: . Also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: , and is a member of the

text: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

text: .|-| 1999 ||  || Singer, actress ||

text: Piapot Reserve, Saskatchewan

text: || Won an

text: Academy Award

text: for the song "

text: Up Where We Belong

text: " from

text: An Officer and a Gentleman

text: in 1982.|-| 1998 ||  || Athlete, figure skating ||

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: || Olympic Gold medalist in

text: .|-| 2002 ||

text: Second City Television

text: || Comedy troupe ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Original members include:

text: John Candy

text: Joe Flaherty

text: Eugene Levy

text: Andrea Martin

text: Catherine O'Hara

text: Harold Ramis

text: Dave Thomas

text: and later

text: Rick Moranis

text: and

text: Martin Short

text: .|-| 2004 ||  || Hollywood pioneer ||

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: || Co-founded

text: Keystone Studios

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2006 ||  || Musician ||

text: Thunder Bay, Ontario

text: || Musical Director for the

text: Late Show with David Letterman

text: , won one

text: Grammy Award

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Actor ||

text: Montréal, Quebec

text: || Portrayed Captain

text: James T. Kirk

text: in

text: Star Trek

text: , won two

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: s and a Golden Globe Award for

text: Boston Legal

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2004 ||  || Actress ||

text: St. Thomas, Ontario

text: || Won a

text: Gemini Award

text: in 2003.|-| 2008 ||  || Sound designer ||

text: Westmount, Quebec

text: || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Won seven

text: Academy Awards

text: (the most of any Canadian) for sound and special effects, nominated for fourteen more.|-| 2008 ||  || Actress ||

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: || Inducted as a Canadian Legends Award recipient. Won an

text: Academy Award for Best Actress

text: in 1930 for

text: The Divorcee

text: , nominated for the same award five more times, has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Actor, comedian ||

text: Hamilton, Ontario

text: || Won a

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: , Member of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2013 ||  || Athlete, soccer||

text: Burnaby, British Columbia

text: || Olympic Bronze medallist; and one of the most prolific scorers of all-time.|-| 2003 ||  || Actor, comedian, writer, director ||

text: Winnipeg, Manitoba

text: || Won two Primetime Emmy Awards for directing Academy Awards telecasts, appeared on

text: The Tonight Show

text: 140 times.|-| 2001 ||  || Opera soprano ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Won two

text: Grammy Award

text: s, Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Actor ||

text: Saint John, New Brunswick

text: || Won a

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: and two

text: Golden Globes

text: , Officer of the

text: Order of Canada

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2005 ||  || Actor ||

text: St. Thomas, Ontario

text: || Born in

text: London

text: , England, won a

text: Primetime Emmy Award

text: for

text: , son of fellow inductees Donald Sutherland and Shirley Douglas; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2001 ||  || Ballet dancer ||

text: London, Ontario

text: || Companion of the

text: Order of Canada

text: .|-| 2013 ||  || Actor ||

text: Kirkland Lake, Ontario

text: || Actor, game show and talk show host, songwriter.|-| 2002 ||

text: The Tragically Hip

text: || Musicians ||

text: Kingston, Ontario

text: || Won 14

text: Juno Award

text: s, inducted into the

text: Canadian Music Hall of Fame

text: .|-| 2006 ||  || Game Show host ||

text: Sudbury, Ontario

text: || Long-time host of

text: Jeopardy!

text: , won five

text: Daytime Emmy Award

text: s for

entity_name: Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Game Show Host

text: Outstanding Game Show Host

text: ; also has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2003 ||  || Musician ||

text: Windsor, Ontario

text: || Won five

text: Grammy Award

text: s.|-| 1998 ||  || Athlete, race car driving ||

text: Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec

text: || Became the first Canadian to win the

text: Indianapolis 500

text: in 1995, also won the

text: Formula One World Championship

text: in 1997 and the

text: Champ Car

text: championship in 1995.|-| 2004 ||  || Hollywood pioneer ||

text: London, Ontario

text: || One of the

text: Warner Bros.

text: .|-| 1999 ||

text: Wayne and Shuster

text: || Comedy duo ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: Johnny Wayne

text: and

text: Frank Shuster

text: , won the

text: Margaret Collier Award

text: in 1998.|-| 2008 ||  || Supermodel ||

text: Mississauga, Ontario

text: || Born in

text: Krakow, Poland

text: , ninth highest-earning model in the world.|-| 2014 ||  || Athlete, ice hockey ||

text: Shaunavon, Saskatchewan

text: || Won four gold and one silver medal at the

text: Winter Olympics

text: ; elected to the

text: International Olympic Committee

text: 's Athletes Commission.|-| 2005 ||  || Actress, Hollywood pioneer ||

text: Cardston, Alberta

text: || Portrayed Ann Darrow in

text: King Kong

text: (1933), has a star on the

text: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: .|-| 2000 ||  || Singer ||

text: Toronto, Ontario

text: || Inducted into the

text: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

text: twice, with Buffalo Springfield and as a solo artist. Also was a member of

text: Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young

text: The best known IEC device is the fusor.  This device typically consists of two wire cages inside a vacuum chamber.  These cages are referred to as grids.  The inner cage is held at a negative voltage against the outer cage.  A small amount of fusion fuel is introduced (deuterium gas being the most common).  The voltage between the grids causes the fuel to ionize.  The positive ions fall down the voltage drop towards the negative inner cage.  As they accelerate, the electric field does work on the ions, heating them to fusion conditions.  If these ions collide, they can fuse.  Fusors can also use ion guns rather than electric grids.  Fusors are popular with amateurs, because they can be easy to construct, can regularly produce fusion and are a practical way to study nuclear physics.  Fusors have also been used as a commercial neutron generator for industrial applications.

text: The best known IEC device is the

text: fusor

text: .  This device typically consists of two wire cages inside a vacuum chamber.  These cages are referred to as grids.  The inner cage is held at a negative voltage against the outer cage.  A small amount of

text: fusion fuel

text: is introduced (

text: deuterium

text: gas being the most common).  The voltage between the grids causes the fuel to ionize.  The positive ions fall down the voltage drop towards the negative inner cage.  As they accelerate, the

text: electric field

text: does

text: work

text: on the ions, heating them to fusion conditions.  If these ions collide, they can fuse.  Fusors can also use

text: ion gun

text: s rather than electric grids.

text: Fusor

text: s are popular with amateurs, because they can be easy to construct, can regularly produce fusion and are a practical way to study

text: nuclear physics

text: Fusor

text: s have also been used as a commercial

text: neutron generator

text: for industrial applications.

text: There are two common routes to a supernova: either a massive star may run out of fuel, ceasing to generate fusion energy in its core, and collapsing inward under the force of its own gravity to form a neutron star or a black hole; or a white dwarf star may accumulate (accrete) material from a companion star until it reaches a critical mass and undergoes a thermonuclear explosion.

text: There are two common routes to a supernova: either a massive star may run out of fuel, ceasing to generate fusion energy in its core, and collapsing inward under the force of its own gravity to form a

text: neutron star

text: or a

text: black hole

text: ; or a

text: white dwarf

text: star may accumulate (

text: accrete

text: ) material from a companion star until it reaches a critical mass and undergoes a thermonuclear explosion.

text: Former constellations are constellations that are no longer recognized by the International Astronomical Union for various reasons.  Many of these constellations were recognized by authorities for long periods of time, even centuries in many cases, which means they have historical value and can be found on older star charts.

text: Former constellations are

text: constellation

text: s that are no longer recognized by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: for various reasons.  Many of these constellations were recognized by authorities for long periods of time, even centuries in many cases, which means they have historical value and can be found on older

text: star chart

text: s.

text: With Anna Żytkow, Thorne predicted the existence of red supergiant stars with neutron-star cores (Thorne–Żytkow objects). He laid the foundations for the theory of pulsations of relativistic stars and the gravitational radiation they emit. With James Hartle, Thorne derived from general relativity the laws of motion and precession of black holes and other relativistic bodies, including the influence of the coupling of their multipole moments to the spacetime curvature of nearby objects. Thorne has also theoretically predicted the existence of universally antigravitating "exotic matter" – the element needed to accelerate the expansion rate of the universe, keep traversable wormhole "Star Gates" open and keep timelike geodesic free float "warp drives" working.   With Clifford Will and others of his students, he laid the foundations for the theoretical interpretation of experimental tests of relativistic theories of gravity – foundations on which Will and others then built. Thorne is currently interested in the origin of classical space and time from the quantum foam of quantum gravity theory.

text: With

text: Anna Żytkow

text: , Thorne predicted the existence of

text: red supergiant star

text: s with

text: neutron-star

text: cores (

text: Thorne–Żytkow object

text: s). He laid the foundations for the theory of

text: pulsation

text: s of relativistic stars and the

text: gravitational radiation

text: they emit. With

text: James Hartle

text: , Thorne derived from general relativity the laws of motion and precession of black holes and other relativistic bodies, including the influence of the coupling of their

text: multipole moments

text: to the spacetime curvature of nearby objects. Thorne has also theoretically predicted the existence of universally antigravitating "

text: exotic matter

text: " – the element needed to accelerate the expansion rate of the universe, keep traversable wormhole "Star Gates" open and keep

text: timelike

text: geodesic

text: free float "

text: warp drive

text: s" working.   With Clifford Will and others of his students, he laid the foundations for the theoretical interpretation of experimental

text: tests of relativistic theories of gravity

text: – foundations on which Will and others then built. Thorne is currently interested in the origin of classical space and time from the

text: quantum foam

text: of

text: quantum gravity

text: theory.

text: Barry Thomas is bored with his job and moons over high-profile scientist Lisa Fredericks, who is working on an particle accelerator that accelerates faster than the speed of light that is about to be shut down over the risks regarding it.

text: The enormous metallicity of HD 108063 has strong effect on its apparent parameters. A metal-rich star has a cooler surface temperature than a lower-metallicity star, with the strength of the effect increasing with a higher metallicity. On a plot of B-V (which is an indicator of temperature) to absolute magnitude for main sequence stars (left), HD 108063 has the absolute magnitude of an F0V star but the B-V of an F9-G0V (F9.5V) star, again showing that the star is significantly above the main sequence. However, on a plot of stellar mass to absolute magnitude (left), HD 108063 has parameters consistent with an F0V star. This indicates that the over-luminosity is actually an overly low temperature caused by the star's metallicity and that the apparent subgiant luminosity is artificial. HD 108063 is therefore likely to be on the main sequence.

text: With the official adoption of the armed forces rank system in 1958, the VPA has three levels of ranks: General Officers, Field Grade Officers,  and Company Grade Officers, and each level has four steps are classified by number of stars: 4 stars, 3 stars, 2 stars and 1 star; specially, Company Grade officers have one more rank which is that of Warrant-officer (professional officer).

text: This consensus is based largely on two lines of evidence. First, long gamma-ray bursts are found without exception in systems with abundant recent star formation, such as in irregular galaxies and in the arms of spiral galaxies. This is strong evidence of a link to massive stars, which evolve and die within a few hundred million years and are never found in regions where star formation has long ceased. This does not necessarily prove the collapsar model (other models also predict an association with star formation) but does provide significant support.

text: This consensus is based largely on two lines of evidence. First, long gamma-ray bursts are found without exception in systems with abundant recent star formation, such as in

text: irregular galaxies

text: and in the arms of

text: spiral galaxies

text: . This is strong evidence of a link to massive stars, which evolve and die within a few hundred million years and are never found in regions where star formation has long ceased. This does not necessarily prove the collapsar model (other models also predict an association with star formation) but does provide significant support.

text: Star Academy () is the edition of the international television format Star Academy in the Republic of Georgia.

text: Star Academy () is the edition of the international television format

text: Star Academy

text: in the

text: Republic of Georgia

text: Along with the George Cross, Hollowday was the recipient of the 1939–45 Star, Africa Star, Italy Star, France and Germany Star, the Defence Medal, War Medal 1939–1945, and was Mentioned in Dispatches.

text: Along with the George Cross, Hollowday was the recipient of the

text: 1939–45 Star

text: Africa Star

text: Italy Star

text: France and Germany Star

text: , the

text: Defence Medal

text: War Medal 1939–1945

text: , and was

text: Mentioned in Dispatches

text: This was followed by arguments from Stephen Hawking and others that an accelerated observer near a black hole (e.g. an observer carefully lowered towards the horizon at the end of a rope) ought to see the region inhabited by "real" radiation, whereas for a distant observer this radiation would be said to be "virtual". If the accelerated observer near the event horizon traps a nearby particle and throws it out to the distant observer for capture and study, then for the distant observer, the appearance of the particle can be explained by saying that the physical acceleration of the particle has turned it from a virtual particle into a "real" particle  (see Hawking radiation).

text: This was followed by arguments from

text: Stephen Hawking

text: and others that an accelerated observer near a black hole (e.g. an observer carefully lowered towards the horizon at the end of a rope) ought to see the region inhabited by "real" radiation, whereas for a distant observer this radiation would be said to be "virtual". If the accelerated observer near the

text: event horizon

text: traps a nearby particle and throws it out to the distant observer for capture and study, then for the distant observer, the appearance of the particle can be explained by saying that the physical acceleration of the particle has turned it from a

text: virtual particle

text: into a "real" particle  (see

text: Hawking radiation

text: After the reception to Star Trek: Nemesis and the cancellation of the television series Star Trek: Enterprise, the franchise's executive producer Rick Berman and screenwriter Erik Jendresen began developing a new film, entitled Star Trek: The Beginning, which would take place after Enterprise but before The Original Series. J. J. Abrams, the producer of Cloverfield and creator of Lost, was a Star Wars fan as a child and confessed that the Star Trek franchise "disconnected" for him. In February 2007, Abrams accepted Paramount's offer to direct the new Star Trek film, having been previously attached as producer. Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman wrote a script that impressed Abrams, featuring new actors portraying younger versions of the original series' cast. The Enterprise, its interior, and the original uniforms were redesigned. While the film was ready for a December 2008 release, Paramount chose to move the film's opening to May 8, 2009. The film earned over $350 million worldwide (from a solid $75.2 million opening weekend, higher than Star Trek: First Contact (1996)), and surpassed Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home as the highest grossing film in the franchise. A sequel, Star Trek Into Darkness, was greenlighted even before the first one opened, and Paramount released the film on May 17, 2013. A third film, Star Trek Beyond, was directed by Justin Lin and produced by Abrams. It was released in July 2016, also to critical acclaim.

text: After the reception to Star Trek: Nemesis and the cancellation of the television series

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: , the franchise's executive producer

text: Rick Berman

text: and screenwriter

text: Erik Jendresen

text: began developing a new film, entitled Star Trek: The Beginning, which would take place after Enterprise but before The Original Series.

text: J. J. Abrams

text: , the producer of

text: Cloverfield

text: and creator of

text: Lost

text: , was a

text: Star Wars

text: fan as a child and confessed that the Star Trek franchise "disconnected" for him. In February 2007, Abrams accepted Paramount's offer to direct the new

text: Star Trek

text: film, having been previously attached as producer.

text: Roberto Orci

text: and

text: Alex Kurtzman

text: wrote a script that impressed Abrams, featuring new actors portraying younger versions of the original series' cast. The Enterprise, its interior, and the original uniforms were redesigned. While the film was ready for a December 2008 release, Paramount chose to move the film's opening to May 8, 2009. The film earned over $350 million worldwide (from a solid $75.2 million opening weekend, higher than

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: (1996)), and surpassed

text: Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home

text: as the highest grossing film in the franchise. A sequel,

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: , was greenlighted even before the first one opened, and Paramount released the film on May 17, 2013. A third film,

text: Star Trek Beyond

text: , was directed by Justin Lin and produced by Abrams. It was released in July 2016, also to critical acclaim.

text: In a compressible sound transmission medium - mainly air - air particles get an accelerated motion: the particle acceleration or sound acceleration with the symbol a in metre/second. In acoustics or physics, acceleration (symbol: a) is defined as the rate of change (or time derivative) of velocity. It is thus a vector quantity with dimension length/time. In SI units, this is m/s.

text: In a compressible sound transmission medium - mainly air - air particles get an accelerated motion: the particle acceleration or sound acceleration with the symbol a in

text: metre/second

text: . In

text: acoustics

text: or

text: physics

text: , acceleration (symbol: a) is defined as the rate of change (or time

text: derivative

text: ) of

text: velocity

text: . It is thus a

text: vector

text: quantity with dimension

text: length

text: time

text: . In

text: SI units

text: , this is m/s.

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of B9 IV or B9 V. The IV luminosity class would indicate the star is in the subgiant stage, while a V class means it is a main sequence star like the Sun. In the latter case, it is close to entering the subgiant stage at an estimated 93% of the way through its lifespan on the main sequence.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of B9 IV or B9 V. The IV

text: luminosity class

text: would indicate the star is in the

text: subgiant

text: stage, while a V class means it is a

text: main sequence

text: star like the Sun. In the latter case, it is close to entering the subgiant stage at an estimated 93% of the way through its lifespan on the

text: main sequence

text: Messier 41 (also known as M41 or NGC 2287) is an open cluster in the Canis Major constellation. It was discovered by Giovanni Batista Hodierna before 1654 and was perhaps known to Aristotle about 325 BC. M41 lies about four degrees almost exactly south of Sirius, and forms a triangle with it and Nu Canis Majoris—all three can be seen in the same field in binoculars. The cluster itself covers an area around the size of the full moon. It contains about 100 stars including several red giants, the brightest being a spectral type K3 giant of apparent magnitude 6.3 near the cluster's center, and a number of white dwarfs. The cluster is estimated to be moving away from us at 23.3 km/s.  The diameter of the cluster is between 25 and 26 light years.  It is estimated to be 190 million years old, and cluster properties and dynamics suggest a total life expectancy of 500 million years for this cluster, before it will have disintegrated.

text: Messier 41 (also known as M41 or NGC 2287) is an

text: open cluster

text: in the

text: Canis Major constellation

text: . It was discovered by

text: Giovanni Batista Hodierna

text: before 1654 and was perhaps known to

text: Aristotle

text: about

text: 325 BC

text: . M41 lies about four degrees almost exactly south of

text: Sirius

text: , and forms a triangle with it and

text: Nu Canis Majoris

text: —all three can be seen in the same field in binoculars. The cluster itself covers an area around the size of the full moon. It contains about 100 stars including several

text: red giants

text: , the brightest being a

text: spectral type

text: K3 giant of apparent magnitude 6.3 near the cluster's center, and a number of white dwarfs. The cluster is estimated to be moving away from us at 23.3 km/s.  The

text: diameter

text: of the cluster is between 25 and 26

text: light year

text: s.  It is estimated to be 190 million years old, and cluster properties and dynamics suggest a total life expectancy of 500 million years for this cluster, before it will have disintegrated.

text: Since the universe must be at least as old as the oldest thing in it, there are a number of observations which put a lower limit on the age of the universe; these include the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs, which gradually cool as they age, and the dimmest turnoff point of main sequence stars in clusters (lower-mass stars spend a greater amount of time on the main sequence, so the lowest-mass stars that have evolved off of the main sequence set a minimum age).

text: Since the universe must be at least as old as the oldest thing in it, there are a number of observations which put a lower limit on the age of the universe; these include the temperature of the coolest

text: white dwarf

text: s, which gradually cool as they age, and the dimmest

text: turnoff point

text: of

text: main sequence

text: stars

text: in clusters (lower-mass stars spend a greater amount of time on the main sequence, so the lowest-mass stars that have evolved off of the main sequence set a minimum age).

text: Stellar black holes in close binary systems are observable when matter is transferred from a companion star to the black hole. The energy release in the fall toward the compact star is so large that the matter heats up to temperatures of several hundred million degrees and radiates in X-rays (X-ray astronomy).  The black hole therefore is observable in X-rays, whereas the companion star can be observed with optical telescopes. The energy release for black holes and neutron stars are of the same order of magnitude. Black holes and neutron stars are often difficult to distinguish.

text: Stellar

text: black holes

text: in

text: close binary

text: systems are observable when

text: matter

text: is transferred from a companion

text: star

text: to the

text: black hole

text: . The

text: energy

text: release in the fall toward the compact star is so large that the

text: matter

text: heats up to

text: temperatures

text: of several hundred million degrees and radiates in

text: X-rays

text: X-ray astronomy

text: ).  The

text: black hole

text: therefore is observable in

text: X-rays

text: , whereas the companion

text: star

text: can be observed with

text: optical telescopes

text: . The

text: energy

text: release for

text: black holes

text: and

text: neutron stars

text: are of the same order of magnitude.

text: Black holes

text: and

text: neutron stars

text: are often difficult to distinguish.

text: which means that they contain 100 times less heavy elements than the Sun. The observed old stars are primarily red giants, although a number of horizontal branch stars and red clump stars were also discovered. After a pause star formation activity resumed about 1 billion years ago resulting in a generation of blue young stars. These young stars, which comprise only about 10% of all stellar mass, appear to be more concentrated at the center of Leo T than the old population. Currently there is no star formation in this galaxy.

text: which means that they contain 100 times less heavy elements than the Sun. The observed old stars are primarily

text: red giant

text: s, although a number of

text: horizontal branch

text: stars and

text: red clump

text: stars were also discovered. After a pause star formation activity resumed about 1 billion years ago resulting in a generation of blue young stars. These young stars, which comprise only about 10% of all stellar mass, appear to be more concentrated at the center of Leo T than the old population. Currently there is no star formation in this galaxy.

text: Eta and Omicron Pegasi mark the left knee and Pi Pegasi the left hoof, while Iota and Kappa Pegasi mark the right knee and hoof. Also known as Matar, Eta Pegasi is the fifth-brightest star in the constellation. Shining with an apparent magnitude of  2.94, it is a multiple star system composed of a yellow giant of spectral type G2 and a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type A5V that are 3.2 and 2.0 times as massive as our Sun. The two revolve around each other every 2.24 years. Farther afield is a binary system of two G-type main sequence stars, that would take 170,000 years to orbit the main pair if they are in fact related. Omicron Pegasi has a magnitude of 4.79. Located 300 ± 20 light-years distant from Earth, it is a white subgiant that has begun to cool, expand and brighten as it exhausts its core hydrogen fuel and moves off the main sequence. Pi and Pi Pegasi appear as an optical double to the unaided eye as they are separated by 10 arcminutes, and are not a true binary system. Located 289 ± 8 light-years distant, Pi is an ageing yellow giant of spectral type G6III, 1.92 times as massive and around 200 times as luminous as the Sun. Pi is a yellow-white subgiant that is 2.5 times as massive as the Sun and has expanded to 8 times the Sun's radius and brightened to 92 times the Sun's luminosity. It is surrounded by a circumstellar disk spinning at 145 km a second, and is 263 ± 4 light-years distant from Earth.

text: Eta

text: and

text: Omicron Pegasi

text: mark the left knee and Pi Pegasi the left hoof, while

text: Iota

text: and

text: Kappa Pegasi

text: mark the right knee and hoof. Also known as Matar, Eta Pegasi is the fifth-brightest star in the constellation. Shining with an apparent magnitude of  2.94, it is a multiple star system composed of a yellow giant of spectral type G2 and a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type A5V that are 3.2 and 2.0 times as massive as our Sun. The two revolve around each other every 2.24 years. Farther afield is a binary system of two G-type main sequence stars, that would take 170,000 years to orbit the main pair if they are in fact related. Omicron Pegasi has a magnitude of 4.79. Located 300 ± 20 light-years distant from Earth, it is a white subgiant that has begun to cool, expand and brighten as it exhausts its core hydrogen fuel and moves off the main sequence. Pi and Pi Pegasi appear as an optical double to the unaided eye as they are separated by 10 arcminutes, and are not a true binary system. Located 289 ± 8 light-years distant, Pi is an ageing yellow giant of spectral type G6III, 1.92 times as massive and around 200 times as luminous as the Sun. Pi is a yellow-white subgiant that is 2.5 times as massive as the Sun and has expanded to 8 times the Sun's radius and brightened to 92 times the Sun's luminosity. It is surrounded by a circumstellar disk spinning at 145 km a second, and is 263 ± 4 light-years distant from Earth.

text: Alpha Apodis is an orange giant of spectral type K3III located 447 ± 8 light years away from Earth, with a magnitude of 3.8. It spent much of its life as a blue-white (B-type) main sequence star before expanding, cooling and brightening as it used up its core hydrogen, now shining with a luminosity approximately 928 times that of the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4312 K. Beta Apodis is an orange giant 157 ± 2 light years away, with a magnitude of 4.2. It is around 1.84 times as massive as the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4677 K. Gamma Apodis is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III located 156 ± 1 light-years away, with a magnitude of 3.87. It is approximately 63 times as luminous the Sun, with a surface temperature of 5279 K. Delta Apodis is a double star, the two components of which are 103 arcseconds apart and visible through binoculars. Delta is a red giant star of spectral type M4III located 760 ± 30 light years away. It is a semiregular variable that varies from magnitude +4.66 to +4.87, with pulsations of multiple periods of 68.0, 94.9 and 101.7 days. Delta is an orange giant star of spectral type K3III, located 610 ± 30 light years away, with a magnitude of 5.3. The separate components can be resolved with binoculars, a telescope, or the naked eye.

text: Alpha Apodis is an

text: orange giant

text: of spectral type K3III located 447 ± 8 light years away from Earth, with a magnitude of 3.8. It spent much of its life as a blue-white (B-type) main sequence star before expanding, cooling and brightening as it used up its core hydrogen, now shining with a

text: luminosity

text: approximately 928 times that of the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4312 K. Beta Apodis is an

text: orange giant

text: 157 ± 2 light years away, with a magnitude of 4.2. It is around 1.84 times as massive as the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4677 K. Gamma Apodis is a

text: yellow giant

text: of spectral type G8III located 156 ± 1 light-years away, with a magnitude of 3.87. It is approximately 63 times as luminous the Sun, with a surface temperature of 5279 K. Delta Apodis is a

text: double star

text: , the two components of which are 103 arcseconds apart and visible through binoculars. Delta is a

text: red giant

text: star of spectral type M4III located 760 ± 30 light years away. It is a semiregular variable that varies from magnitude +4.66 to +4.87, with pulsations of multiple periods of 68.0, 94.9 and 101.7 days. Delta is an

text: orange giant

text: star of spectral type K3III, located 610 ± 30 light years away, with a magnitude of 5.3. The separate components can be resolved with binoculars, a telescope, or the naked eye.

text: Dr. Leonard Horatio "Bones" McCoy  is a character in the American science fiction franchise Star Trek. First portrayed by DeForest Kelley in the original Star Trek series, McCoy also appears in the animated Star Trek series, six Star Trek  films, the pilot episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation, and in numerous books, comics, and video games. Karl Urban assumed the role of the character in the 2009 film Star Trek, and its sequels, 2013's Star Trek Into Darkness and 2016's Star Trek Beyond.

text: Dr. Leonard Horatio "Bones" McCoy  is a character in the American

text: science fiction

text: franchise

text: Star Trek

text: . First portrayed by

text: DeForest Kelley

text: in the

text: original Star Trek series

text: , McCoy also appears in the

text: animated Star Trek series

text: six Star Trek  films

text: , the

text: pilot episode

text: of

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: , and in numerous books, comics, and video games.

text: Karl Urban

text: assumed the role of the character in the 2009 film

text: Star Trek

text: , and its sequels, 2013's

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: and 2016's

text: Star Trek Beyond

text: Major predators include Solaster stimpsoni (the Sun Star), Luidia foliolata (the Sand Star), as well as other sea stars.

text: Major predators include

text: Solaster stimpsoni

text: (the Sun Star),

text: Luidia foliolata

text: (the Sand Star), as well as other sea stars.

text: The equatorial region of the celestial sphere's eastern hemisphere includes 16 navigational stars from Alpheratz in the constellation Andromeda to Denebola in Leo.  It also includes stars from the constellations Cetus, Aries, Taurus, Orion, Canis Major and Minor, Gemini, and Hydra.  Of particular note among these stars are "the dog star" Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, and four stars of the easily identified constellation Orion.

text: On November 18, 2015, the NHL announced significant changes to the All-Star Game format, replacing the previous two-team format with a 3-on-3 tournament between All-Star teams representing the league's four divisions; the Atlantic division played the Metropolitan, while the Central played the Pacific. Each game was played in two 10-minute halves, and went directly to a shootout in the event of a tie. The winners of the two semi-final games played in a championship game to determine the winner of the competition.

text: On November 18, 2015, the NHL announced significant changes to the All-Star Game format, replacing the previous two-team format with a 3-on-3 tournament between All-Star teams representing the league's four divisions; the

text: Atlantic

text: division played the

text: Metropolitan

text: , while the

text: Central

text: played the

text: Pacific

text: . Each game was played in two 10-minute halves, and went directly to a

text: shootout

text: in the event of a tie. The winners of the two semi-final games played in a championship game to determine the winner of the competition.

text: In binaries that are initially widely separated, material escaping from the Roche lobe of the evolved red giant immerses the system in material, creating a common-envelope binary that contains the core of the red giant (a white dwarf) and the companion star. Friction causes the two components to approach, and thus the orbital period to shorten. The common envelope is ejected and a cataclysmic variable star is left, wherein the mass transfer from the companion to the white dwarf causes the periodic outbursts seen in novae, recurrent novae, dwarf novae, and symbiotic novae.

text: In binaries that are initially widely separated, material escaping from the Roche lobe of the evolved red giant immerses the system in material, creating a common-envelope binary that contains the core of the red giant (a

text: white dwarf

text: ) and the companion star. Friction causes the two components to approach, and thus the orbital period to shorten. The common envelope is ejected and a

text: cataclysmic variable star

text: is left, wherein the mass transfer from the companion to the white dwarf causes the periodic outbursts seen in

text: nova

text: e,

text: recurrent novae

text: dwarf nova

text: e, and

text: symbiotic nova

text: e.

text: MacLeod worked for a while with the Star Wars universe: He reprised his role as Sebulba in  the video games: Star Wars Episode I: Racer, Star Wars: Super Bombad Racing, Star Wars Racer Revenge and Lego Star Wars: The Video Game via uncredited archived sounds and also played Jedi master Obi-Wan Kenobi in the video games: Star Wars: Obi-Wan,Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds and Star Wars: Super Bombad Racing, a role previously played by Alec Guinness in the Star Wars Original Trilogy and later by fellow Scottish actor Ewan McGregor in the Star Wars Prequel Trilogy and Lego Star Wars: The Video Game.

text: MacLeod worked for a while with the Star Wars universe: He reprised his role as Sebulba in  the video games:

text: Star Wars Episode I: Racer

text: Star Wars: Super Bombad Racing

text: Star Wars Racer Revenge

text: and

text: Lego Star Wars: The Video Game

text: via uncredited archived sounds and also played Jedi master

text: Obi-Wan Kenobi

text: in the video games:

text: Star Wars: Obi-Wan

text: Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds

text: and

text: Star Wars: Super Bombad Racing

text: , a role previously played by

text: Alec Guinness

text: in the

text: Star Wars Original Trilogy

text: and later by fellow Scottish actor

text: Ewan McGregor

text: in the

text: Star Wars Prequel Trilogy

text: and Lego Star Wars: The Video Game.

text: However, this does not match the known properties of superflare stars. Such stars are extremely rare in the Kepler data; one study showed only 279 such stars in 31,457 studied, a proportion below 1%; for older stars this fell to 0.25%.  Also, about half of the stars which were active showed repeating flares: one  had as many as 57 events in 500 days. Concentrating on solar-type stars, the most active averaged one flare every 100 days; the  frequency of superﬂare occurrence in the most active Sun-like stars is 1000 times larger than that of the general average for such stars. This suggests that such behaviour is not present throughout a stars lifetime, but is confined to episodes of extraordinary activity. This is also suggested by the clear relation between the magnetic activity of a star and its superflare activity; in particular, superflare stars are much more active (based on starspot area) than the Sun.

text: Colloquial usage does not draw a sharp distinction between "constellation" in the sense of an asterism (pattern of stars) and "constellation" in the sense of an area surrounding an asterism. The modern system of constellations used in astronomy employs the latter concept. For example, the northern asterism known as the Big Dipper comprises the seven brightest stars in the IAU constellation (area) Ursa Major while the southern False Cross includes portions of the constellations Carina and Vela.

text: Colloquial usage does not draw a sharp distinction between "constellation" in the sense of an asterism (pattern of stars) and "constellation" in the sense of an area surrounding an asterism. The modern system of constellations used in astronomy employs the latter concept. For example, the northern asterism known as the

text: Big Dipper

text: comprises the seven brightest stars in the IAU constellation (area)

text: Ursa Major

text: while the southern

text: False Cross

text: includes portions of the constellations

text: Carina

text: and

text: Vela

text: The sparseness of interstellar and interplanetary space results in some unusual chemistry, since symmetry-forbidden reactions cannot occur except on the longest of timescales. For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on Earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the H ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with astrophysics and nuclear physics in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, the consequences for stellar evolution, as well as stellar 'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions in stars produce every naturally occurring chemical element. As the stellar 'generations' advance, the mass of the newly formed elements increases. A first-generation star uses elemental hydrogen (H) as a fuel source and produces helium (He). Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and it is the basic building block for all other elements as its nucleus has only one proton. Gravitational pull toward the center of a star creates massive amounts of heat and pressure, which cause nuclear fusion. Through this process of merging nuclear mass, heavier elements are formed. Carbon,  oxygen and silicon are examples of elements that form in stellar fusion. After many stellar generations, very heavy elements are formed (e.g. iron and lead).

text: The sparseness of interstellar and interplanetary space results in some unusual chemistry, since

text: symmetry-forbidden

text: reactions cannot occur except on the longest of timescales. For this reason, molecules and molecular ions which are unstable on Earth can be highly abundant in space, for example the

text: H

text: ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with

text: astrophysics

text: and

text: nuclear physics

text: in characterizing the nuclear reactions which occur in stars, the consequences for

text: stellar evolution

text: , as well as stellar 'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions in stars produce every naturally occurring chemical element. As the stellar 'generations' advance, the mass of the newly formed elements increases. A first-generation star uses elemental hydrogen (H) as a fuel source and produces

text: helium

text: (He). Hydrogen is the most abundant element, and it is the basic building block for all other elements as its nucleus has only one

text: proton

text: . Gravitational pull toward the center of a star creates massive amounts of heat and pressure, which cause

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Through this process of merging nuclear mass, heavier elements are formed.

text: Carbon

text: oxygen

text: and

text: silicon

text: are examples of elements that form in stellar fusion. After many stellar generations, very heavy elements are formed (e.g.

text: iron

text: and

text: lead

text: Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term counter is often used instead of detector when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy photons or even visible light). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called radiation detectors, but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term particle detector is still correct.

text: Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term

text: counter

text: is often used instead of detector when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy

text: photon

text: s or even visible

text: light

text: ). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called radiation detectors, but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term particle detector is still correct.

text: CM Draconis (GJ 630.1A) is an eclipsing binary system approximately 47 light-years away in the constellation of Draco (the Dragon).  The system consists of two nearly identical red dwarf stars located in the constellation Draco. The two stars orbit each other with a period of 1.27 days with a separation of 2.7 million kilometres (0.018 AU). Along with two stars in the triple system KOI 126, the stars in CM Draconis are the lightest stars with precisely measured masses and radii. Consequently, the system plays an important role in testing stellar structure models for very low mass stars. These comparisons find that models underpredict the stellar radii by approximately 5%. This is attributed to consequences of the stars' strong magnetic activity. According to the system's entry in the Combined General Catalogue of Variable Stars, at least one of the components is a flare star and at least one is a BY Draconis variable. The white dwarf star GJ 630.1B, located 25.7 arcseconds away shares the same proper motion as the CM Draconis stars and is thus a true companion star of the system. Given the system's distance of 47 light years, this corresponds to a separation of at least 370 astronomical units between CM Draconis and GJ 630.1B.

text: CM Draconis (GJ 630.1A) is an

text: eclipsing binary

text: system approximately 47

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Draco

text: (the

text: Dragon

text: ).  The system consists of two nearly identical

text: red dwarf

text: stars located in the constellation

text: Draco

text: . The two stars orbit each other with a period of 1.27

text: day

text: s with a separation of 2.7 million kilometres (0.018 AU). Along with two stars in the triple system

text: KOI 126

text: , the stars in CM Draconis are the lightest stars with precisely measured masses and radii. Consequently, the system plays an important role in testing stellar structure models for very low mass stars. These comparisons find that models underpredict the stellar radii by approximately 5%. This is attributed to consequences of the stars' strong magnetic activity. According to the system's entry in the

text: Combined General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: , at least one of the components is a

text: flare star

text: and at least one is a

text: BY Draconis variable

text: . The

text: white dwarf

text: star GJ 630.1B, located 25.7

text: arcsecond

text: s away shares the same

text: proper motion

text: as the CM Draconis stars and is thus a true companion star of the system. Given the system's distance of 47

text: light year

text: s, this corresponds to a separation of at least 370

text: astronomical unit

text: s between CM Draconis and GJ 630.1B.

text: ζ Ophiuchi is moving through space with a peculiar velocity of 30 km s. Based upon the age and direction of motion of this star, it is a member of the Upper Scorpius sub-group of the Scorpius-Centaurus Association of stars that share a common origin and space velocity. Such runaway stars may be ejected by dynamic interactions between three or four stars. However, in this case the star may be a former component of a binary star system in which the more massive primary was destroyed in a Type II supernova explosion. The pulsar PSR B1929+10 may be the leftover remnant of this supernova, as it too was ejected from the association with a velocity vector that fits the scenario.

text: ζ Ophiuchi is moving through space with a

text: peculiar velocity

text: of 30 km s. Based upon the age and direction of motion of this star, it is a member of the Upper Scorpius sub-group of the

text: Scorpius-Centaurus Association

text: of stars that share a common origin and

text: space velocity

text: . Such

text: runaway star

text: s may be ejected by dynamic interactions between three or four stars. However, in this case the star may be a former component of a

text: binary star

text: system in which the more massive primary was destroyed in a

text: Type II supernova

text: explosion. The pulsar

text: PSR B1929+10

text: may be the leftover remnant of this supernova, as it too was ejected from the association with a velocity vector that fits the scenario.

text: SN 2002fk was discovered jointly by Reiki Kushida of the Yatsugatake South Base Observatory, Nagano Prefecture, Japan; and Jun-jie Wang and Yu-Lei Qiu of the Beijing Astronomical Observatory on Sept. 17.719 UT.When it was discovered it was magnitude ~15.0; it was estimated to have reached maximum magnitude of ~13.0 before fading away. It was a Type Ia supernova (i.e., the progenitor star was white dwarf). White dwarfs are older stars that have used up almost all of their main fuel (the lighter elements such as hydrogen and helium). SN 2002fk's spectra showed no indications of hydrogen, helium or carbon; instead ionized calcium, silicon, iron and nickel were found.

text: SN 2002fk was discovered jointly by Reiki Kushida of the Yatsugatake South Base Observatory, Nagano Prefecture, Japan; and Jun-jie Wang and Yu-Lei Qiu of the Beijing Astronomical Observatory on Sept. 17.719

text: UT

text: .When it was discovered it was

text: magnitude

text: ~15.0; it was estimated to have reached maximum magnitude of ~13.0 before fading away. It was a

text: Type Ia supernova

text: (i.e., the progenitor star was

text: white dwarf

text: ). White dwarfs are older stars that have used up almost all of their main fuel (the lighter elements such as

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: helium

text: ). SN 2002fk's

text: spectra

text: showed no indications of hydrogen, helium or carbon; instead ionized calcium, silicon, iron and nickel were found.

text: A supernova may also result from mass transfer onto a white dwarf from a star companion in a double star system. The Chandrasekhar limit is surpassed from the infalling matter. The absolute luminosity of this latter type is related to properties of its light curve, so that these supernovae can be used to establish the distance to other galaxies. One of the most studied supernovae is SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud.

text: A supernova may also result from mass transfer onto a

text: white dwarf

text: from a star companion in a double star system. The Chandrasekhar limit is surpassed from the infalling matter. The absolute luminosity of this latter type is related to properties of its light curve, so that these supernovae can be used to establish the distance to other galaxies. One of the most studied supernovae is

text: SN 1987A

text: in the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: On March 22, 2005, it was announced  that the Chandra X-ray Observatory had observed an ultraluminous X-ray source (ULX) in M74, radiating more X-ray power than a neutron star in periodic intervals of around two hours. It has an estimated mass of around 10,000 Suns. This is an indicator of an intermediate-mass black hole. This would be a rather uncommon class of black holes, somewhere in between in size of stellar black holes and the massive black holes theorized to reside in the center of many galaxies. Because of this, they are believed to form not from single supernovae, but possibly from a number of lesser stellar black holes in a star cluster. The X-ray source is identified as CXOU J013651.1+154547.

text: On March 22, 2005, it was announced  that the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: had observed an

text: ultraluminous X-ray source

text: (ULX) in M74, radiating more X-ray power than a

text: neutron star

text: in periodic intervals of around two hours. It has an estimated mass of around 10,000

text: Sun

text: s. This is an indicator of an

text: intermediate-mass black hole

text: . This would be a rather uncommon class of black holes, somewhere in between in size of stellar black holes and the massive black holes theorized to reside in the center of many galaxies. Because of this, they are believed to form not from single supernovae, but possibly from a number of lesser stellar black holes in a star cluster. The X-ray source is identified as CXOU J013651.1+154547.

text: Very-high-mass stars develop into supergiants that follow an evolutionary track that takes them back and forth horizontally over the HR diagram, at the right end constituting red supergiants. These usually end their life as a type II supernova. The most massive stars can become Wolf–Rayet stars without becoming giants or supergiants at all.

text: Very-high-mass stars develop into

text: supergiant

text: s that follow an

text: evolutionary track

text: that takes them back and forth horizontally over the HR diagram, at the right end constituting

text: red supergiant

text: s. These usually end their life as a type II

text: supernova

text: . The most massive stars can become

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: s without becoming giants or supergiants at all.

text: German physicist Hans Bethe explains how stars generate energy. He outlines a series of nuclear fusion reactions that turn hydrogen into helium and release enormous amounts of energy in a star's core. These reactions use the star's hydrogen very slowly, allowing it to burn for billions of years.

text: German physicist

text: Hans Bethe

text: explains how stars generate energy. He outlines a series of nuclear fusion reactions that turn hydrogen into helium and release enormous amounts of energy in a star's core. These reactions use the star's hydrogen very slowly, allowing it to burn for billions of years.

text: Among the remaining stars, the nearer ones exhibit proper motion, so it is only a matter of time before some of them cross a constellation boundary and switch constellations as a consequence. In 1992, Rho Aquilae became the first star to have its Bayer designation "invalidated" by moving to a neighbouring constellation—it is now a star of the constellation Delphinus.

text: Among the remaining stars, the nearer ones exhibit

text: proper motion

text: , so it is only a matter of time before some of them cross a constellation boundary and switch constellations as a consequence. In 1992,

text: Rho Aquilae

text: became the first star to have its

text: Bayer designation

text: "invalidated" by moving to a neighbouring constellation—it is now a star of the constellation

text: Delphinus

text: Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a krytron, a small particle accelerator drives ions of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15 kilo-electron-volts or so needed for deuterium-tritium fusion and directs them into a metal target where the tritium and deuterium are adsorbed as hydrides. High-energy fusion neutrons from the resulting fusion radiate in all directions. Some of these strike plutonium or uranium nuclei in the primary's pit, initiating nuclear chain reaction. The quantity of neutrons produced is large in absolute numbers, allowing the pit to quickly achieve neutron levels that would otherwise need many more generations of chain reaction, though still small compared to the total number of nuclei in the pit.

text: Actuated by an ultrafast switch like a

text: krytron

text: , a small

text: particle accelerator

text: drives

text: ions

text: of tritium and deuterium to energies above the 15 kilo-electron-volts or so needed for deuterium-tritium fusion and directs them into a metal target where the tritium and deuterium are

text: adsorbed

text: as

text: hydride

text: s. High-energy

text: fusion neutron

text: s from the resulting fusion radiate in all directions. Some of these strike plutonium or uranium nuclei in the primary's pit, initiating

text: nuclear chain reaction

text: . The quantity of neutrons produced is large in absolute numbers, allowing the pit to quickly achieve neutron levels that would otherwise need many more generations of chain reaction, though still small compared to the total number of nuclei in the pit.

text: Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density, then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch. Alternatively, if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down but never stop. Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy; stars would burn out leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze. Moreover, if the proton were unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation. The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.

text: Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass

text: density

text: of the universe were greater than the

text: critical density

text: , then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch. Alternatively, if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down but never stop. Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy; stars would burn out leaving

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s, and

text: black hole

text: s. Very gradually, collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach

text: absolute zero

text: —a

text: Big Freeze

text: . Moreover, if the proton were

text: unstable

text: , then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes. Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting

text: Hawking radiation

text: . The

text: entropy

text: of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.

text: Normal nearby galaxies with LINERs, however, appear to be different.  A few near-infrared spectroscopic surveys have identified some LINERs in normal galaxies that may be powered by star formation.  However, most LINERs in nearby galaxies have low levels of star formation activity.  Moreover, the stellar populations of many LINERs appear to be very old, and the mid-infrared spectra, as observed by the Spitzer Space Telescope, do not appear similar to the spectra expected from star formation.  These results demonstrate that most LINER in nearby normal galaxies may not be powered by star formation, although a few exceptions clearly exist.

text: Normal nearby galaxies with LINERs, however, appear to be different.  A few near-infrared spectroscopic surveys have identified some LINERs in normal galaxies that may be powered by star formation.  However, most LINERs in nearby galaxies have low levels of star formation activity.  Moreover, the stellar populations of many LINERs appear to be very old, and the mid-infrared spectra, as observed by the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: , do not appear similar to the spectra expected from star formation.  These results demonstrate that most LINER in nearby normal galaxies may not be powered by star formation, although a few exceptions clearly exist.

text: Neutron stars are formed by gravitational collapse of the cores of larger stars, and are the remnant of other types of supernova. They are so compact that a Newtonian description is inadequate for an accurate treatment, which requires the use of Einstein's general relativity.

text: Neutron stars are formed by gravitational collapse of the cores of larger stars, and are the remnant of

text: other types of supernova

text: . They are so compact that a Newtonian description is inadequate for an accurate treatment, which requires the use of Einstein's general relativity.

text: Because the core-collapse supernova mechanism itself is imperfectly understood, it is still not known whether it is possible for a star to collapse directly to a black hole without producing a visible supernova, or whether some supernovae initially form unstable neutron stars which then collapse into black holes; the exact relation between the initial mass of the star and the final remnant is also not completely certain. Resolution of these uncertainties requires the analysis of more supernovae and supernova remnants.

text: Not long after work began on the Draper Catalogue, a disagreement developed as to how to classify the stars.  The analysis was first started by Nettie Farrar, who left a few months later to be married.  This left the problem to the ideas of Henry Draper's niece Antonia Maury (who insisted on a complex classification system) and Williamina Fleming (who was overseeing the project for Pickering, and wanted a much more simple, straightforward approach).  Cannon negotiated a compromise: she started by examining the bright southern hemisphere stars.  To these stars, she applied a third system, a division of stars into the spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M.  Her scheme was based on the strength of the Balmer absorption lines.  After absorption lines were understood in terms of stellar temperatures, her initial classification system was rearranged to avoid having to update star catalogs.  Cannon came up with the mnemonic of "Oh Be a Fine Girl, Kiss Me" as a way to remember stellar classification.  Cannon published her first catalog of stellar spectra in 1901.

text: Not long after work began on the Draper Catalogue, a disagreement developed as to how to classify the stars.  The analysis was first started by Nettie Farrar, who left a few months later to be married.  This left the problem to the ideas of Henry Draper's niece

text: Antonia Maury

text: (who insisted on a complex classification system) and

text: Williamina Fleming

text: (who was overseeing the project for Pickering, and wanted a much more simple, straightforward approach).  Cannon negotiated a compromise: she started by examining the bright southern hemisphere stars.  To these stars, she applied a third system, a division of stars into the

text: spectral classes O, B, A, F, G, K, M

text: .  Her scheme was based on the strength of the

text: Balmer absorption lines

text: .  After absorption lines were understood in terms of stellar temperatures, her initial classification system was rearranged to avoid having to update star catalogs.  Cannon came up with the

text: mnemonic

text: of "Oh Be a Fine Girl, Kiss Me" as a way to remember stellar classification.  Cannon published her first catalog of stellar spectra in 1901.

text: Stars are classified as supergiants on the basis of their spectral luminosity class.  This system uses certain diagnostic spectral lines to estimate the surface gravity of a star, hence determining its size relative to its mass.  Larger stars are more luminous at a given temperature and can now be grouped into bands of differing luminosity.

text: Stars are classified as supergiants on the basis of their spectral

text: luminosity class

text: .  This system uses certain diagnostic spectral lines to estimate the

text: surface gravity

text: of a star, hence determining its size relative to its mass.  Larger stars are more luminous at a given temperature and can now be grouped into bands of differing luminosity.

text: The launch of the NASA-led GEMS mission is scheduled for November 2014. The spacecraft will use an X-Ray telescope to measure the polarization of x-rays coming from black holes and neutron stars. It will also conduct research on remnants of supernovae stars that have exploded. Few experiments have been conducted in X-Ray polarization since the 1970s, and scientists expect GEMS will break new ground. Through GEMS, scientists will be able to improve their knowledge in black holes, in particular whether matter around a black hole is confined to a flat-disk, a puffed disk, or a squirting jet.

text: The launch of the NASA-led

text: GEMS

text: mission is scheduled for November 2014. The spacecraft will use an X-Ray telescope to measure the polarization of x-rays coming from black holes and neutron stars. It will also conduct research on remnants of supernovae stars that have exploded. Few experiments have been conducted in X-Ray polarization since the 1970s, and scientists expect GEMS will break new ground. Through GEMS, scientists will be able to improve their knowledge in black holes, in particular whether matter around a black hole is confined to a flat-disk, a puffed disk, or a squirting jet.

text: In some neutron star or white dwarf systems, the magnetic field of the star is strong enough to prevent the formation of an accretion disc. The material in the disc gets very hot because of friction, and emits X-rays. The material in the disc slowly loses its angular momentum and falls into the compact star. In neutron stars and white dwarfs, additional X-rays are generated when the material hits their surfaces. X-ray emission from black holes is variable, varying in luminosity in very short timescales. The variation in luminosity can provide information about the size of the black hole.

text: In some neutron star or white dwarf systems, the

text: magnetic field

text: of the star is strong enough to prevent the formation of an accretion disc. The material in the disc gets very hot because of friction, and emits X-rays. The material in the disc slowly loses its angular momentum and falls into the compact star. In neutron stars and white dwarfs, additional X-rays are generated when the material hits their surfaces. X-ray emission from black holes is variable, varying in

text: luminosity

text: in very short timescales. The variation in luminosity can provide information about the size of the black hole.

text: A Froebel star () is a Christmas decoration made of paper, common in Germany. In English it does not have a commonly recognised name; it can be referred to as Advent star, Danish star, German star, Nordic star, Pennsylvanian star, Polish star, Swedish star, Christmas star, or Froebel star. It is also sometimes called a Moravian star, though the Moravian star is a general category of geometrical shapes and the 16 tipped piece of origami is specifically called the Froebel star.

text: A Froebel star () is a

text: Christmas

text: decoration made of paper, common in Germany. In

text: English

text: it does not have a commonly recognised name; it can be referred to as Advent star, Danish star, German star, Nordic star, Pennsylvanian star, Polish star, Swedish star, Christmas star, or Froebel star. It is also sometimes called a

text: Moravian star

text: , though the Moravian star is a general category of geometrical shapes and the 16 tipped piece of origami is specifically called the Froebel star.

text: AM CVn stars with a white-dwarf donor can be formed when a binary consisting of a white dwarf and a low-mass giant evolve through a common-envelope (CE) phase.  The outcome of the CE will be a double white-dwarf binary.  Through the emission of gravitational radiation, the binary loses angular momentum, which causes the binary orbit to shrink.  When the orbital period has shrunk to about 5 minutes, the least-massive (and the largest) of the two white dwarfs will fill its Roche lobe and start mass transfer to its companion.  Soon after the onset of mass transfer, the orbital evolution will reverse and the binary orbit will expand.  It is in this phase, after the period minimum, that the binary is most likely to be observed.

text: AM CVn stars with a white-dwarf donor can be formed when a binary consisting of a white dwarf and a low-mass

text: giant

text: evolve through a

text: common-envelope

text: (CE) phase.  The outcome of the CE will be a double white-dwarf binary.  Through the emission of gravitational radiation, the binary loses

text: angular momentum

text: , which causes the binary orbit to shrink.  When the orbital period has shrunk to about 5 minutes, the least-massive (and the largest) of the two white dwarfs will fill its

text: Roche lobe

text: and start mass transfer to its companion.  Soon after the onset of mass transfer, the orbital evolution will reverse and the binary orbit will expand.  It is in this phase, after the period minimum, that the binary is most likely to be observed.

text: The newly-eligible players included twelve All-Stars, one of whom (Steve Howe) was not on the ballot, representing a total of 49 All-Star selections. Among the candidates were 15-time All Star Ozzie Smith, 8-time All Star Andre Dawson, 6-time All-Star Alan Trammell and 5-time All Star Tim Wallach. The field also included two Rookies of the Year (Dawson and Steve Howe), one Cy Young Award winner (Frank Viola) and one MVP (Dawson). Finally, Ozzie Smith holds the record for Gold Gloves at Shortstop, with thirteen.

text: The newly-eligible players included twelve All-Stars, one of whom (

text: Steve Howe

text: ) was not on the ballot, representing a total of 49 All-Star selections. Among the candidates were 15-time All Star

text: Ozzie Smith

text: , 8-time All Star

text: Andre Dawson

text: , 6-time All-Star

text: Alan Trammell

text: and 5-time All Star

text: Tim Wallach

text: . The field also included two Rookies of the Year (Dawson and

text: Steve Howe

text: ), one

text: Cy Young Award

text: winner (

text: Frank Viola

text: ) and one MVP (Dawson). Finally, Ozzie Smith holds the record for

text: Gold Gloves

text: at Shortstop, with thirteen.

text: Current theory is divided on whether the first stars were very massive or not - theories proposed in 2009 and 2011 suggest the first star groups might have consisted of a massive star surrounded by several smaller stars. One theory, which seems to be borne out by computer models of star formation, is that with no heavy elements and a much warmer interstellar medium from the Big Bang, it was easy to form stars with much greater total mass than the ones visible today. Typical masses for population III stars are expected to be about several hundred solar masses, which is much larger than that of current stars. Analysis of data of extremely low-metallicity population II stars such as HE0107-5240, which are thought to contain the metals produced by population III stars, suggest that these metal-free stars had masses of 20 to 130 solar masses. On the other hand, analysis of globular clusters associated with elliptical galaxies suggests pair-instability supernovae, which are typically associated with very massive stars, were responsible for their metallic composition. This also explains why there have been no low-mass stars with zero metallicity observed, although models have been constructed for smaller population III stars. Clusters containing zero-metallicity red dwarfs or brown dwarfs (possibly created by pair-instability supernovae) have been proposed as dark matter candidates, but searches for these and other MACHOs through gravitational microlensing have produced negative results.

text: Current theory is divided on whether the first stars were very massive or not - theories proposed in 2009 and 2011 suggest the first star groups might have consisted of a massive star surrounded by several smaller stars. One theory, which seems to be borne out by computer models of

text: star formation

text: , is that with no heavy elements and a much warmer

text: interstellar medium

text: from the Big Bang, it was easy to form stars with much greater total mass than the ones visible today. Typical masses for population III stars are expected to be about several hundred

text: solar mass

text: es, which is much larger than that of current stars. Analysis of data of extremely low-

text: metallicity

text: population II stars such as

text: , which are thought to contain the metals produced by population III stars, suggest that these metal-free stars had masses of 20 to 130 solar masses. On the other hand, analysis of

text: globular cluster

text: s associated with

text: elliptical galaxies

text: suggests

text: pair-instability supernova

text: e, which are typically associated with very massive stars, were responsible for their

text: metallic

text: composition. This also explains why there have been no low-mass stars with zero

text: metallicity

text: observed, although models have been constructed for smaller population III stars. Clusters containing zero-metallicity

text: red dwarfs

text: or

text: brown dwarfs

text: (possibly created by pair-instability supernovae) have been proposed as

text: dark matter

text: candidates, but searches for these and other

text: MACHO

text: s through

text: gravitational microlensing

text: have produced negative results.

text: A type of symmetry known as supersymmetry has been used to try to make theoretical advances in the standard model. Supersymmetry is based on the idea that there is another physical symmetry beyond those already developed in the standard model, specifically a symmetry between bosons and fermions. Supersymmetry asserts that each type of boson has, as a supersymmetric partner, a fermion, called a superpartner, and vice versa. Supersymmetry has not yet been experimentally verified: no known particle has the correct properties to be a superpartner of any other known particle. If superpartners exist they must have masses greater than current particle accelerators can generate.

text: A type of symmetry known as supersymmetry has been used to try to make theoretical advances in the

text: standard model

text: . Supersymmetry is based on the idea that there is another physical symmetry beyond those already developed in the standard model, specifically a symmetry between

text: boson

text: s and

text: fermion

text: s. Supersymmetry asserts that each type of boson has, as a supersymmetric partner, a fermion, called a superpartner, and vice versa. Supersymmetry has not yet been experimentally verified: no known particle has the correct properties to be a superpartner of any other known particle. If superpartners exist they must have masses greater than current

text: particle accelerator

text: s can generate.

text: The AAVSO LPV Section covers the Mira, SR, and L stars, but also RV Tauri variables, another type of large cool slowly varying star.  This includes SRc and Lc stars which are respectively semi-regular and irregular cool supergiants.  Recent researches have increasingly focused on the long period variables as only AGB and possibly red giant tip stars.  The recently classified OSARGs are by far the most numerous of these stars, comprising a high proportion of red giants.

text: The

text: AAVSO

text: LPV Section covers the Mira, SR, and L stars, but also

text: RV Tauri variables

text: , another type of large cool slowly varying star.  This includes SRc and Lc stars which are respectively semi-regular and irregular cool supergiants.  Recent researches have increasingly focused on the long period variables as only AGB and possibly red giant tip stars.  The recently classified OSARGs are by far the most numerous of these stars, comprising a high proportion of red giants.

text: The format of the The Hotel Inspector has since been used twice for other series for Channel 5, both of which recreate the concept of an expert visiting and suggesting improvements for failing commercial ventures. In March 2010, The Business Inspector was broadcast, starring Hilary Devey, who advised struggling small businesses on how to become successful. In June 2011, The Restaurant Inspector was broadcast, starring Fernando Peire, who advised struggling restaurants on how to achieve higher profits, with a second series which broadcast in 2012.

text: The format of the The Hotel Inspector has since been used twice for other series for Channel 5, both of which recreate the concept of an expert visiting and suggesting improvements for failing commercial ventures. In March 2010, The Business Inspector was broadcast, starring

text: Hilary Devey

text: , who advised struggling small businesses on how to become successful. In June 2011,

text: The Restaurant Inspector

text: was broadcast, starring Fernando Peire, who advised struggling restaurants on how to achieve higher profits, with a second series which broadcast in 2012.

text: If extraction of particles is required (for example in a chain of accelerators), then single-turn extraction may be performed analogously to injection. Resonant extraction may also be employed.

text: In Mapudungun, the language of Patagonian Mapuches, the name of the Southern Cross is Melipal, which means "four stars". In Quechua, the language of the Inca civilization, Crux is known as "Chakana", which means literally "stair" (chaka, bridge, link; hanan, high, above), but carries a deep symbolism within Quechua mysticism. Acrux and Mimosa make up one foot of the Great Rhea, a constellation encompassing Centaurus and Circinus along with the two bright stars. The Great Rhea was a constellation of the Bororo people of Brazil. The Mocoví people of Argentina also saw a rhea including the stars of Crux. Their rhea is attacked by two dogs, represented by bright stars in Centaurus and Circinus. The dogs' heads are marked by Alpha and Beta Centauri. The rhea's body is marked by the four main stars of Crux, while its head is Gamma Centauri and its feet are the bright stars of Musca. The Bakairi people of Brazil had a sprawling constellation representing a bird snare. It included the bright stars of Crux, the southern part of Centaurus, Circinus, at least one star in Lupus, the bright stars of Musca, Beta and Delta Chamaeleonis, Volans, and Mensa. The Kalapalo people of Mato Grosso state in Brazil saw the stars of Crux as Aganagi angry bees having emerged from the Coalsack, which they saw as the beehive.

text: In

text: Mapudungun

text: , the language of Patagonian

text: Mapuche

text: s, the name of the Southern Cross is Melipal, which means "four stars". In

text: Quechua

text: , the language of the

text: Inca

text: civilization, Crux is known as "

text: Chakana

text: ", which means literally "stair" (chaka, bridge, link; hanan, high, above), but carries a deep symbolism within Quechua mysticism. Acrux and Mimosa make up one foot of the Great Rhea, a constellation encompassing

text: Centaurus

text: and

text: Circinus

text: along with the two bright stars. The Great Rhea was a constellation of the

text: Bororo people

text: of Brazil. The

text: Mocoví people

text: of Argentina also saw a

text: rhea

text: including the stars of Crux. Their rhea is attacked by two dogs, represented by bright stars in Centaurus and Circinus. The dogs' heads are marked by

text: Alpha

text: and

text: Beta Centauri

text: . The rhea's body is marked by the four main stars of Crux, while its head is

text: Gamma Centauri

text: and its feet are the bright stars of

text: Musca

text: . The

text: Bakairi people

text: of Brazil had a sprawling constellation representing a bird snare. It included the bright stars of Crux, the southern part of Centaurus, Circinus, at least one star in

text: Lupus

text: , the bright stars of Musca,

text: Beta

text: and

text: Delta Chamaeleonis

text: Volans

text: , and Mensa. The

text: Kalapalo people

text: of

text: Mato Grosso

text: state in Brazil saw the stars of Crux as Aganagi angry bees having emerged from the Coalsack, which they saw as the beehive.

text: In the 1970s, the future of an expanding universe was studied by the astrophysicist Jamal Islam and the physicist Freeman Dyson.Then, in their 1999 book The Five Ages of the Universe, the astrophysicists Fred Adams and Gregory Laughlin have divided the past and future history of an expanding universe into five eras.  The first, the Primordial Era, is the time in the past just after the Big Bang when stars had not yet formed.  The second, the Stelliferous Era, includes the present day and all of the stars and galaxies we see.  It is the time during which stars form from collapsing clouds of gas.  In the subsequent Degenerate Era, the stars will have burnt out, leaving all stellar-mass objects as stellar remnants—white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes.  In the Black Hole Era, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and other smaller astronomical objects have been destroyed by proton decay, leaving only black holes.  Finally, in the Dark Era, even black holes have disappeared, leaving only a dilute gas of photons and leptons.

text: In the 1970s, the future of an expanding universe was studied by the astrophysicist

text: Jamal Islam

text: and the physicist

text: Freeman Dyson

text: .Then, in their 1999 book

text: The Five Ages of the Universe

text: , the astrophysicists

text: Fred Adams

text: and Gregory Laughlin have divided the past and future history of an expanding universe into five eras.  The first, the Primordial Era, is the time in the past just after the

text: Big Bang

text: when

text: star

text: s had not yet formed.  The second, the Stelliferous Era, includes the present day and all of the stars and

text: galaxies

text: we see.  It is the time during which stars form from

text: collapsing clouds of gas

text: .  In the subsequent Degenerate Era, the stars will have burnt out, leaving all stellar-mass objects as

text: stellar remnants

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron stars

text: , and

text: black hole

text: s.  In the Black Hole Era, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and other smaller

text: astronomical objects

text: have been destroyed by

text: proton decay

text: , leaving only black holes.  Finally, in the Dark Era, even black holes have disappeared, leaving only a dilute gas of

text: photons

text: and

text: leptons

text: Flerovium only occurs in particle accelerators.

text: Flerovium only occurs in

text: particle accelerators

text: The Chandrasekhar  limit () is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star.  The limit was first indicated in papers published by Wilhelm Anderson and E. C. Stoner, and was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, the Indian astrophysicist who independently discovered and improved upon the accuracy of the calculation in 1930, at the age of 19, in India.  This limit was initially ignored by the community of scientists because such a limit would logically require the existence of black holes, which were considered a scientific impossibility at the time.  White dwarfs resist gravitational collapse primarily through electron degeneracy pressure. (By comparison, main sequence stars resist collapse through thermal pressure.)  The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction.  Consequently, white dwarfs with masses greater than the limit would be subject to further gravitational collapse, evolving into a different type of stellar remnant, such as a neutron star or black hole. (However, white dwarfs generally avoid this fate by exploding before they undergo collapse.) Those with masses under the limit remain stable as white dwarfs.

text: The Chandrasekhar  limit () is the maximum mass of a

text: stable

text: white dwarf

text: star

text: .  The limit was first indicated in papers published by

text: Wilhelm Anderson

text: and

text: E. C. Stoner

text: , and was named after

text: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar

text: , the Indian

text: astrophysicist

text: who independently discovered and improved upon the accuracy of the calculation in 1930, at the age of 19, in

text: India

text: .  This limit was initially ignored by the community of scientists because such a limit would logically require the existence of

text: black hole

text: s, which were considered a scientific impossibility at the time.  White dwarfs resist

text: gravitational collapse

text: primarily through

text: electron degeneracy pressure

text: . (By comparison,

text: main sequence

text: stars resist collapse through

text: thermal pressure

text: .)  The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction.  Consequently, white dwarfs with masses greater than the limit would be subject to further gravitational collapse,

text: evolving

text: into a different type of

text: stellar remnant

text: , such as a

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: . (However, white dwarfs generally avoid this fate by

text: exploding

text: before they undergo collapse.) Those with masses under the limit remain stable as white dwarfs.

text: The evidence for stellar black holes strongly relies on the existence of an upper limit for the mass of a neutron star. The size of this limit heavily depends on the assumptions made about the properties of dense matter. New exotic phases of matter could push up this bound. A phase of free quarks at high density might allow the existence of dense quark stars, and some supersymmetric models predict the existence of Q stars. Some extensions of the standard model posit the existence of preons as fundamental building blocks of quarks and leptons, which could hypothetically form preon stars. These hypothetical models could potentially explain a number of observations of stellar black hole candidates. However, it can be shown from arguments in general relativity that any such object will have a maximum mass.

text: The evidence for stellar black holes strongly relies on the existence of an upper limit for the mass of a neutron star. The size of this limit heavily depends on the assumptions made about the properties of dense matter. New exotic

text: phases of matter

text: could push up this bound. A phase of free

text: quark

text: s at high density might allow the existence of dense

text: quark star

text: s, and some

text: supersymmetric

text: models predict the existence of

text: Q star

text: s. Some extensions of the

text: standard model

text: posit the existence of

text: preon

text: s as fundamental building blocks of quarks and

text: lepton

text: s, which could hypothetically form

text: preon star

text: s. These hypothetical models could potentially explain a number of observations of stellar black hole candidates. However, it can be shown from arguments in general relativity that any such object will have a maximum mass.

text: A Delta Scuti variable (sometimes termed dwarf cepheid) is a variable star which exhibits variations in its luminosity due to both radial and non-radial pulsations of the star's surface.  The variables are important standard candles and have been used to establish the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud, globular clusters, open clusters, and the Galactic center. The variables follow a period-luminosity relation in certain passbands like other standard candles such as Cepheids.  SX Phoenicis variables are generally considered to be a subclass of Delta Scuti variables that contain old stars, and can be found in globular clusters.  SX Phe variables also follow a period-luminosity relation.  The recently discovered Rapidly oscillating Ap stars are also a subclass of Delta Scuti variables, found on the main sequence.  One last sub-class are the pre-main sequence (PMS) Delta Scuti variables.

text: A Delta Scuti variable (sometimes termed dwarf cepheid) is a

text: variable star

text: which exhibits variations in its

text: luminosity

text: due to both radial and non-radial pulsations of the star's surface.  The variables are important

text: standard candles

text: and have been used to establish the distance to the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: globular clusters

text: open clusters

text: , and the

text: Galactic center

text: . The variables follow a period-luminosity relation in certain passbands like other

text: standard candles

text: such as

text: Cepheids

text: SX Phoenicis variables

text: are generally considered to be a subclass of Delta Scuti variables that contain old stars, and can be found in globular clusters.  SX Phe variables also follow a period-luminosity relation.  The recently discovered

text: Rapidly oscillating Ap stars

text: are also a subclass of Delta Scuti variables, found on the main sequence.  One last sub-class are the pre-main sequence (PMS) Delta Scuti variables.

text: Lidsky was the advisor to more than 80 graduate students and the founding editor of the Journal of Fusion Energy. In 1983, as assistant director for the MIT Plasma Fusion Center, Lidsky wrote an influential article about the difficulties of making a working nuclear fusion power plant. The ensuing reduction in federal funding for fusion research led him to resign from the center, and caused him to be "drummed out" of the nuclear fusion research community. Because of his concerns with the viability of fusion power, he instead became an advocate for safer nuclear fission reactor designs.  In 1999 he was named a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science "for outstanding contributions to both nuclear fission and fusion in education, research, system design and analysis, technical publications and federal policy".

text: Lidsky was the advisor to more than 80 graduate students and the founding editor of the Journal of Fusion Energy. In 1983, as assistant director for the MIT Plasma Fusion Center, Lidsky wrote an influential article about the difficulties of making a working

text: nuclear fusion

text: power plant. The ensuing reduction in federal funding for fusion research led him to resign from the center, and caused him to be "drummed out" of the nuclear fusion research community. Because of his concerns with the viability of fusion power, he instead became an advocate for safer

text: nuclear fission

text: reactor designs.  In 1999 he was named a fellow of the

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: "for outstanding contributions to both nuclear fission and fusion in education, research, system design and analysis, technical publications and federal policy".

text: and does not apply to red giants or white dwarfs. For these stars, the equation applies with different constants, since these stars have different masses. For the different ranges of masses, an adequate form of the Mass-Luminosity Relation is

text: As non-fusing helium ash accumulates in the core of a main-sequence star, the reduction in the abundance of hydrogen per unit mass results in a gradual lowering of the fusion rate within that mass. Since it is the outflow of fusion-supplied energy that supports the higher layers of the star, the core is compressed, producing higher temperatures and pressures. Both factors increase the rate of fusion thus moving the equilibrium towards a smaller, denser, hotter core producing more energy whose increased outflow pushes the higher layers further out. Thus there is a steady increase in the luminosity and radius of the star over time. For example, the luminosity of the early Sun was only about 70% of its current value. As a star ages this luminosity increase changes its position on the HR diagram. This effect results in a broadening of the main sequence band because stars are observed at random stages in their lifetime. That is, the main sequence band develops a thickness on the HR diagram; it is not simply a narrow line.

text: The celestial sphere measures 410 cm. in diameter and weighs some 5,800 kg. The spherical frame is adorned with constellations and stars. The Sphere represents eighty-five constellations of the universe and shows four stars of the first four magnitudes. The constellations are gilded and the 840 stars are silvered. As his signature, it bears Manship's self-portrait with his tools, in profile, hidden among the constellations.

text: Released in 1988, Star Wars: Assault on Hoth was one of the first products published by West End Games when it first acquired the Star Wars license. Other products included Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game and its supplement books, the Star Wars Miniatures Game, and additional board games such Star Wars: Star Warriors, Star Wars: Escape from the Death Star, and Star Wars: Battle for Endor, among others.

text: Released in 1988, Star Wars: Assault on Hoth was one of the first products published by West End Games when it first acquired the Star Wars license. Other products included

text: Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game

text: and its supplement books, the Star Wars Miniatures Game, and additional board games such Star Wars: Star Warriors, Star Wars: Escape from the Death Star, and Star Wars: Battle for Endor, among others.

text: In Chile, at the Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission the plasma focus experiments have been extended to sub-kilojoules devices and the scales rules have been stretched up to region less than one joule . Their studies have contributes to know that is possible to scale the plasma focus in a wide range of energies and sizes keeping the same value of ion density, magnetic field, plasma sheath velocity, Alfvén speed and the quantity of energy per particle. Therefore, fusion reactions are even possible to be obtained in ultraminiature devices (driven by generators of 0.1J for example), as they are in the bigger devices (driven by generators of 1MJ). However, the stability of the plasma pinch highly depends on the size and energy of the device. A rich plasma phenomenology it has been observed in the table-top plasma focus devices developed at the Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission: filamentary structures, toroidal singularities, plasma bursts and plasma jets generations. In addition, possible applications are explored using these kind of small plasma devices: development of portable generator as non-radioactive sources of neutrons and x-rays for field applications, pulsed radiation applied to biological studies, plasma focus as neutron source for nuclear fusion-fission hybrid reactors, and the use of plasma focus devices as plasma accelerators for studies of materials under intense fusion-relevant pulses. In addition, Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission currently operates the facility SPEED-2, the largest Plasma Focus facility of the southern hemisphere.

text: A star system of two stars is known as a binary star, binary star system or physical double star. If there are no tidal effects, no perturbation from other forces, and no transfer of mass from one star to the other, such a system is stable, and both stars will trace out an elliptical orbit around the center of mass of the system indefinitely. (See Two-body problem). Examples of binary systems are Sirius, Procyon and Cygnus X-1, the last of which probably consists of a star and a black hole.

text: A star system of two stars is known as a

text: binary star

text: , binary star system or physical

text: double star

text: . If there are no

text: tidal

text: effects, no perturbation from other forces, and no transfer of

text: mass

text: from one star to the other, such a system is stable, and both stars will trace out an

text: elliptical

text: orbit

text: around the

text: center of mass

text: of the system indefinitely. (See

text: Two-body problem

text: ). Examples of binary systems are

text: Sirius

text: Procyon

text: and

text: Cygnus X-1

text: , the last of which probably consists of a star and a

text: black hole

text: Aries is now recognized as an official constellation, albeit as a specific region of the sky, by the International Astronomical Union. It was originally defined in ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars, and has remained a constellation since ancient times; it now includes the ancient pattern as well as the surrounding stars. In the description of the Babylonian zodiac given in the clay tablets known as the MUL.APIN, the constellation now known as Aries was the final station along the ecliptic. The MUL.APIN was a comprehensive table of the risings and settings of stars, which likely served as an agricultural calendar. Modern-day Aries was known as

text: Aries is now recognized as an official constellation, albeit as a specific region of the sky, by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: . It was originally defined in ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars, and has remained a constellation since ancient times; it now includes the ancient pattern as well as the surrounding stars. In the description of the

text: Babylonian zodiac

text: given in the clay tablets known as the

text: MUL.APIN

text: , the constellation now known as Aries was the final station along the

text: ecliptic

text: . The MUL.APIN was a comprehensive table of the risings and settings of stars, which likely served as an agricultural calendar. Modern-day Aries was known as

text: If all the available elements strongly suggest that the star of 1054 was a supernova, and that in the area next to where the star was seen, there is a remnant of a supernova which has all of the characteristics expected of an object that is around 1000 years old, a major problem arises: the new star is described as being to the South-East of Tianguan, while the Crab Nebula is to the North-East. This problem has been known since the 1940s and has long been unsolved. In 1972 for example, Ho Peng Yoke and his colleagues suggested that the Crab Nebula was not the product of the explosion of 1054, but that the true remnant was to the South-East, as indicated in several Chinese sources. For this, they envisaged that the angular unit cun corresponds to a considerable angle of 1 or 2 degrees, meaning that the distance from the remnant to ζ Tauri was therefore considerable. Aside from the fact that this theory does not account for the large angular sizes of certain comets, expressed in zhang, it comes up against the fact that there it does not make sense to measure the gap between a guest star and a star located so far away from it, when there are closer asterisms that could be used.

text: A type Ia supernova is a type of supernova that occurs in binary systems (two stars orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a white dwarf. The other star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf.

text: A type Ia supernova is a type of

text: supernova

text: that occurs in

text: binary system

text: s (two

text: star

text: s orbiting one another) in which one of the stars is a

text: white dwarf

text: . The other star can be anything from a giant star to an even smaller white dwarf.

text: The financial success of Carmen I allowed a sequel, Carmen II, to be produced. While Carmen I covered only the Solar System, Carmen II explored: stars, multiple stars, star clusters, stellar evolution, supernovae, neutron stars, black holes, and the size/structure of the Milky Way Galaxy. The show had higher production values than the original, with the team using "all the same production and education devices that made “Carmen I” such a success while, at the same time, increasing both the amount and quality of the computer animation employed". Many affiliated institutions contributed both funding and animation, giving the show extra talent such as that by animators: Salt Lake’s Aaron McEuen, Houston’s Tony Butterfield, Dickson’s Weiherng Lee and Kevin Scott, and Vancouver’s Erik Koelemeyer. The character and black hole animation was produced by a team of California animators. Steve Savage provided the Sky-Skan’s animation material, while The Renaissance Center produced the video post production time and facilities. Again, a poster and an extensive Teacher’s Guide were provided with the show.

text: The second-brightest star, the yellow-white subgiant star Alpha Trianguli (3.41) with a close dimmer companion, is also known as Caput Trianguli or Ras al Muthallath, and is at the apex of the triangle. It lies around 7 degrees north-northwest of Alpha Arietis. Making up the triangle is Gamma Trianguli, a white main sequence star of spectral type A1Vnn of apparent magnitude 4.00 about 112 light-years from Earth. It is around double the size of and around 33 times as luminous as the sun and rotates rapidly. Like Beta, it is surrounded by a dusty debris disk, which has a radius 80 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun. Lying near Gamma and forming an optical triple system with it are Delta and 7 Trianguli. Delta is a spectroscopic binary system composed of two yellow main sequence stars of similar dimensions to the Sun that lies 35 light-years from Earth. The two stars orbit each other every ten days and are a mere 0.1 AU apart. This system is the closest in the constellation to the Earth. Only of magnitude 5.25, 7 Trianguli is much further away at around 280 light-years distant from Earth.

text: The second-brightest star, the yellow-white

text: subgiant

text: star Alpha Trianguli (3.41) with a close dimmer companion, is also known as Caput Trianguli or Ras al Muthallath, and is at the apex of the

text: triangle

text: . It lies around 7 degrees north-northwest of

text: Alpha Arietis

text: . Making up the triangle is

text: Gamma Trianguli

text: , a

text: white main sequence star

text: of spectral type A1Vnn of apparent magnitude 4.00 about 112 light-years from Earth. It is around double the size of and around 33 times as luminous as the sun and rotates rapidly. Like Beta, it is surrounded by a dusty debris disk, which has a radius 80 times the distance of the Earth from the Sun. Lying near Gamma and forming an optical triple system with it are

text: Delta

text: and

text: 7 Trianguli

text: . Delta is a

text: spectroscopic binary

text: system composed of two

text: yellow main sequence stars

text: of similar dimensions to the Sun that lies 35 light-years from Earth. The two stars orbit each other every ten days and are a mere 0.1 AU apart. This system is the closest in the constellation to the Earth. Only of magnitude 5.25, 7 Trianguli is much further away at around 280 light-years distant from Earth.

text: There are supergiant stars at all of the main spectral classes and across the whole range of temperatures from mid-M class stars at around 3,500 K to the hottest O class stars over 40,000 K.  Supergiants are generally not found cooler than mid-M class.  This is expected theoretically since they would be catastrophically unstable.  However, there are potential exceptions among extreme stars such as VX Sagittarii.

text: There are supergiant stars at all of the main spectral classes and across the whole range of temperatures from mid-M class stars at around 3,500 K to the hottest O class stars over 40,000 K.  Supergiants are generally not found cooler than mid-M class.  This is expected theoretically since they would be catastrophically unstable.  However, there are potential exceptions among extreme stars such as

text: VX Sagittarii

text: V404 Cygni is a microquasar and a binary system consisting of a black hole with a mass of about  and a late G or early K companion star of mass slightly smaller than the Sun in the constellation of Cygnus. The star and the black hole orbit each other every  at fairly close range. Due to their proximity the main sequence star would be distorted into an egg shape by the black hole's gravity and lose mass to the black hole.The "V" in the name indicates that it is a variable star, which repeatedly gets brighter and fainter over time. It is also considered a nova, because at least three times in the 20th century it produced a bright outburst of energy. Finally, it is a soft X-ray transient because it periodically emits short bursts of X-rays.

text: V404 Cygni is a

text: microquasar

text: and a

text: binary

text: system consisting of a

text: black hole

text: with a mass of about  and a

text: late G or early K

text: companion star of mass slightly smaller than the

text: Sun

text: in the constellation of

text: Cygnus

text: . The star and the black hole

text: orbit

text: each other every  at fairly close range. Due to their proximity the

text: main sequence star

text: would be distorted into an egg shape by the black hole's gravity and lose mass to the black hole.The "V" in the name indicates that it is a

text: variable star

text: , which repeatedly gets brighter and fainter over time. It is also considered a

text: nova

text: , because at least three times in the 20th century it produced a bright outburst of energy. Finally, it is a

text: soft X-ray transient

text: because it periodically emits short bursts of X-rays.

text: One early theory proposed for the acceleration of auroral electrons is based on an assumed static, or quasi-static, electric field creating a uni-directional potential drop. No mention is provided of either  the necessary space-charge or equi-potential distribution, and these remain to be specified for the notion of acceleration by double layers to be credible.   Fundamentally, Poisson’s equation indicates that there can be no configuration of charge resulting in a net potential drop.  Inexplicably though, some authors  still invoke quasi-static parallel electric fields as net accelerators of auroral electrons, citing interpretations of transient observations of fields and particles as supporting this theory as firm fact.  In another example, there is little justification given for saying ’FAST observations demonstrate detailed quantitative agreement between the measured electric potentials  and the ion beam energies...., leaving no doubt that parallel potential drops are a dominant source of auroral particle acceleration’.

text: One early theory proposed for the acceleration of auroral electrons is based on an assumed static, or quasi-static, electric field creating a uni-directional potential drop. No mention is provided of either  the necessary space-charge or equi-potential distribution, and these remain to be specified for the notion of acceleration by double layers to be credible.   Fundamentally,

text: Poisson’s equation

text: indicates that there can be no configuration of charge resulting in a net potential drop.  Inexplicably though, some authors  still invoke quasi-static parallel electric fields as net accelerators of auroral electrons, citing interpretations of transient observations of fields and particles as supporting this theory as firm fact.  In another example, there is little justification given for saying ’FAST observations demonstrate detailed quantitative agreement between the measured electric potentials  and the ion beam energies...., leaving no doubt that parallel potential drops are a dominant source of auroral particle acceleration’.

text: Other interesting binaries include 61 Cygni (a binary in the constellation Cygnus, composed of two K class (orange) main-sequence stars, 61 Cygni A and 61 Cygni B, which is known for its large proper motion), Procyon (the brightest star in the constellation Canis Minor and the eighth-brightest star in the night time sky, which is a binary consisting of the main star with a faint white dwarf companion), SS Lacertae (an eclipsing binary which stopped eclipsing), V907 Sco (an eclipsing binary which stopped, restarted, then stopped again) and BG Geminorum (an eclipsing binary which is thought to contain a black hole with a K0 star in orbit around it).

text: Other interesting binaries include

text: 61 Cygni

text: (a binary in the constellation

text: Cygnus

text: , composed of two

text: K class (orange)

text: main-sequence

text: stars, 61 Cygni A and 61 Cygni B, which is known for its large

text: proper motion

text: Procyon

text: (the brightest star in the constellation

text: Canis Minor

text: and the eighth-brightest star in the night time sky, which is a binary consisting of the main star with a faint

text: white dwarf

text: companion), SS Lacertae (an eclipsing binary which stopped eclipsing), V907 Sco (an eclipsing binary which stopped, restarted, then stopped again) and

text: BG Geminorum

text: (an eclipsing binary which is thought to contain a black hole with a K0 star in orbit around it).

text: Symbiotic novae are slow irregular eruptive variable stars with very slow nova-like outbursts with an amplitude of between 9 and 11 magnitudes. The symbiotic nova remains at maximum for one or a few decades, and then declines towards its original luminosity. Variables of this type are double star systems with one red giant, which probably is a Mira variable, and one white dwarf, with markedly contrasting spectra and whose proximity and mass characteristics indicate it as a symbiotic star. The red giant fills its Roche lobe so that matter is transferred to the white dwarf and accumulates until a nova-like outburst occurs, caused by ignition of thermonuclear fusion. The temperature at maximum is estimated to rise up to 200,000 K, similar to the energy source of novae, but dissimilar to the dwarf novae. The slow luminosity increase would then be simply due to time needed for growth of the ionization front in the outburst.

text: Symbiotic novae are slow irregular eruptive

text: variable star

text: s with very slow

text: nova

text: -like outbursts with an amplitude of between 9 and 11

text: magnitudes

text: . The symbiotic nova remains at maximum for one or a few decades, and then declines towards its original

text: luminosity

text: . Variables of this type are

text: double star

text: systems with one

text: red giant

text: , which probably is a

text: Mira variable

text: , and one

text: white dwarf

text: , with markedly contrasting spectra and whose proximity and mass characteristics indicate it as a symbiotic star. The red giant fills its

text: Roche lobe

text: so that matter is transferred to the white dwarf and accumulates until a nova-like outburst occurs, caused by ignition of

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: . The temperature at maximum is estimated to rise up to 200,000 K, similar to the energy source of novae, but dissimilar to the

text: dwarf nova

text: e. The slow luminosity increase would then be simply due to time needed for growth of the ionization front in the outburst.

text: Service stars, Campaign stars, and Battle stars are worn with one point of the star pointing up on the suspension ribbon of a medal and or service ribbon. A silver star is worn instead of five bronze stars. A service star is sometimes mistaken for a Bronze Star (Bronze Star Medal) or Silver Star (Silver Star Medal). The service star is also similar to the gold and silver  Inch Stars which may be authorized to be worn on specific individual decorations of certain services to denote additional decorations.

text: Service stars, Campaign stars, and Battle stars are worn with one point of the star pointing up on the suspension ribbon of a medal and or

text: service ribbon

text: . A silver star is worn instead of five bronze stars. A service star is sometimes mistaken for a

text: Bronze Star

text: (Bronze Star Medal) or

text: Silver Star

text: (Silver Star Medal). The service star is also similar to the gold and silver

text: Inch Star

text: s which may be authorized to be worn on specific

text: individual decorations

text: of certain services to denote additional decorations.

text: Asymptotic-giant-branch (AGB) and post-AGB stars are highly evolved lower-mass red giants with luminosities that can be comparable to more massive red supergiants, but because of their low mass, being in a different stage of development (helium shell burning), and their lives ending in a different way (planetary nebula and white dwarf rather than supernova), astrophysicists prefer to keep them separate.  The dividing line becomes blurred at around  (or as high as  in some models) where stars start to undergo limited fusion of elements heavier than helium. Specialists studying these stars often refer to them as super AGB stars, since they have many properties in common with AGB such as thermal pulsing. Others describe them as low-mass supergiants since they start to burn elements heavier than helium and can explode as supernovae.  Many post-AGB stars receive spectral types with supergiant luminosity classes.  For example, RV Tauri has an Ia (bright supergiant) luminosity class despite being less massive than the sun.  Some AGB stars also receive a supergiant luminosity class, most notably W Virginis variables such as W Virginis itself, stars that are executing a blue loop triggered by thermal pulsing.  A very small number of Mira variables and other late AGB stars have supergiant luminosity classes, for example α Herculis.

text: Asymptotic-giant-branch

text: (AGB) and post-AGB stars are highly evolved lower-mass red giants with luminosities that can be comparable to more massive red supergiants, but because of their low mass, being in a different stage of development (helium shell burning), and their lives ending in a different way (

text: planetary nebula

text: and

text: white dwarf

text: rather than supernova), astrophysicists prefer to keep them separate.  The dividing line becomes blurred at around  (or as high as  in some models) where stars start to undergo limited fusion of elements heavier than helium. Specialists studying these stars often refer to them as super AGB stars, since they have many properties in common with AGB such as thermal pulsing. Others describe them as low-mass supergiants since they start to burn elements heavier than helium and can explode as supernovae.  Many post-AGB stars receive spectral types with supergiant luminosity classes.  For example,

text: RV Tauri

text: has an Ia (bright supergiant) luminosity class despite being less massive than the sun.  Some AGB stars also receive a supergiant luminosity class, most notably

text: W Virginis variable

text: s such as W Virginis itself, stars that are executing a blue loop triggered by

text: thermal pulsing

text: .  A very small number of

text: Mira variable

text: s and other late AGB stars have supergiant luminosity classes, for example

text: α Herculis

text: Supergiant stars can be identified on the basis of their spectra, with distinctive lines sensitive to high luminosity and low surface gravity. In 1897,   Antonia C. Maury, had divided stars based on the widths of their spectral lines, with her class "c" identifying stars with the narrowest lines. Although it was not known at the time, these were the most luminous stars. In 1943 Morgan and Keenan formalised the definition of spectral luminosity classes, with class I referring to supergiant stars.  The same system of MK luminosity classes is still used today, with refinements based on the increased resolution of modern spectra.  Supergiants occur in every spectral class from young blue class O supergiants to highly evolved red class M supergiants. Because they are enlarged compared to main-sequence and giant stars of the same spectral type, they have lower surface gravities and changes can be observed in their line profiles. Supergiants are also evolved stars with higher levels of heavy elements than main-sequence stars. This is the basis of the MK luminosity system which assigns stars to luminosity classes purely from observing their spectra. In addition to the line changes due to low surface gravity and fusion products, the most luminous stars have high mass-loss rates and resulting clouds of expelled circumstellar materials which can produce emission lines, P Cygni profiles, or forbidden lines. The MK system assigns stars to luminosity classes: Ib for supergiants; Ia for luminous supergiants; and 0 (zero) or Ia for hypergiants.  In reality there is very much of a continuum rather than well defined bands for these classifications, and classifications such as Iab are used for intermediate luminosity supergiants. Supergiant spectra are frequently annotated to indicate spectral peculiarities, for example B2 Iae or F5 Ipec.

text: Supergiant stars can be identified on the basis of their spectra, with distinctive lines sensitive to high luminosity and low

text: surface gravity

text: . In 1897,

text: Antonia C. Maury

text: , had divided stars based on the widths of their spectral lines, with her class "c" identifying stars with the narrowest lines. Although it was not known at the time, these were the most luminous stars. In 1943 Morgan and Keenan formalised the definition of spectral luminosity classes, with class I referring to supergiant stars.  The same system of MK

text: luminosity class

text: es is still used today, with refinements based on the increased resolution of modern spectra.  Supergiants occur in every spectral class from young blue

text: class O

text: supergiants to highly evolved red

text: class M

text: supergiants. Because they are enlarged compared to main-sequence and giant stars of the same spectral type, they have lower surface gravities and changes can be observed in their line profiles. Supergiants are also evolved stars with higher levels of heavy elements than main-sequence stars. This is the basis of the

text: MK luminosity system

text: which assigns stars to luminosity classes purely from observing their spectra. In addition to the line changes due to low surface gravity and fusion products, the most luminous stars have high mass-loss rates and resulting clouds of expelled circumstellar materials which can produce

text: emission line

text: s,

text: P Cygni profile

text: s, or

text: forbidden line

text: s. The MK system assigns stars to luminosity classes: Ib for supergiants; Ia for luminous supergiants; and 0 (zero) or Ia for hypergiants.  In reality there is very much of a continuum rather than well defined bands for these classifications, and classifications such as Iab are used for intermediate luminosity supergiants. Supergiant spectra are frequently annotated to indicate

text: spectral peculiarities

text: , for example

text: B2 Iae

text: or

text: F5 Ipec

text: The derived masses come from observations of compact X-ray sources (combining X-ray and optical data). All identified neutron stars have a mass below 2.0 solar masses. None of the compact systems with a mass above 2.0 solar masses display the properties of a neutron star. The combination of these facts make it more and more likely that the class of compact stars with a mass above 2.0 solar masses are in fact black holes.

text: The derived masses come from observations of compact

text: X-ray

text: sources (combining X-ray and optical data). All identified

text: neutron stars

text: have a mass below 2.0

text: solar mass

text: es. None of the compact systems with a mass above 2.0 solar masses display the properties of a

text: neutron star

text: . The combination of these facts make it more and more likely that the class of compact stars with a mass above 2.0 solar masses are in fact

text: black holes

text: Rock Star Supernova released their debut self-titled album Rock Star Supernova (album) following the second series and also went on tour. The album was released on November 21, 2006 and charted at #101 on the Billboard 200 and #4 on the Canadian Albums Chart. and was certified Platinum (over 100,000 units sold).

text: Rock Star Supernova released their debut self-titled album

text: Rock Star Supernova (album)

text: following the second series and also went on tour. The album was released on November 21, 2006 and charted at #101 on the

text: Billboard 200

text: and #4 on the

text: Canadian Albums Chart

text: . and was certified Platinum (over 100,000 units sold).

text: About 5% of all known neutron stars are members of a binary system. The formation and evolution of binary neutron stars can be a complex process. Neutron stars have been observed in binaries with ordinary main-sequence stars, red giants, white dwarfs or other neutron stars. According to modern theories of binary evolution it is expected that neutron stars also exist in binary systems with black hole companions. The merger of binaries containing two neutron stars, or a neutron star and a black hole, are expected to be prime sources for the emission of detectable gravitational waves.

text: About 5% of all known neutron stars are members of a

text: binary system

text: . The formation and evolution of binary neutron stars can be a complex process. Neutron stars have been observed in binaries with ordinary

text: main-sequence star

text: s,

text: red giant

text: s,

text: white dwarf

text: s or other neutron stars. According to modern theories of binary evolution it is expected that neutron stars also exist in binary systems with

text: black hole

text: companions. The merger of binaries containing two neutron stars, or a neutron star and a black hole, are expected to be prime sources for the emission of detectable

text: gravitational waves

text: The new format had the First Team All-Stars and the Second Team All-Stars be the cores of the two teams playing in the all-star game, with the reserves for the First Team consisting of players on American-based teams and the Second Team reserves consisting of Habs and Leafs. Because of the new format, the First Team All-Stars wore red jerseys while the Second Team wore white ones.

text: The new format had the First Team All-Stars and the Second Team All-Stars be the cores of the two teams playing in the all-star game, with the reserves for the First Team consisting of players on American-based teams and the Second Team reserves consisting of

text: Habs

text: and

text: Leafs

text: . Because of the new format, the First Team All-Stars wore red jerseys while the Second Team wore white ones.

text: Alpha Ursae Majoris forms part of the Big Dipper (also known as the Plough or the Great Bear), and is the northern of the 'pointers' (or 'guards'), the two stars of Ursa Major which point towards Polaris, the North Star. Dubhe is about 123 light years from the Sun and is a giant star that has evolved away from the main sequence after consuming the hydrogen at its core. It is a spectroscopic binary with a main sequence companion α UMa B that has a stellar classification of F0V. The companion star orbits at a mean separation of about 23 astronomical units (AU) and completes an orbit every 44.4 years.

text: Alpha Ursae Majoris forms part of the

text: Big Dipper

text: (also known as the Plough or the Great Bear), and is the northern of the 'pointers' (or 'guards'), the two stars of Ursa Major which point towards

text: Polaris

text: , the North Star. Dubhe is about 123

text: light year

text: s from the

text: Sun

text: and is a

text: giant star

text: that has evolved away from the

text: main sequence

text: after consuming the hydrogen at its core. It is a

text: spectroscopic binary

text: with a

text: main sequence

text: companion α UMa B that has a

text: stellar classification

text: of F0V. The companion star orbits at a mean separation of about 23

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU) and completes an orbit every 44.4 years.

text: Amell starred as Joran van der Sloot in the Lifetime film Justice for Natalee Holloway which originally aired in May 2011.

text: Amell starred as

text: Joran van der Sloot

text: in the

text: Lifetime

text: film

text: Justice for Natalee Holloway

text: which originally aired in May 2011.

text: In 2013, the company released its Horror Film Ek Thi Daayan, co-produced with Vishal Bhardwaj. The film received mostly positive response. It was well-accepted by critics and received 3 out of 5 on an average. Jinson John of Indian Box Office also stated "Ek Thi Daayan is not that regular Bhootiya Isshtoorry, the plot stands out of them all, it's surely is an Experimental Plot, but not written by an Idiot." The film opened Ek Thi Daayan opened at around 30-40% occupancy with better opening in multiplexes rather than single screens netted around  over the first weekend. In May 2013, released by the company was Shootout at Wadala. The film opened with great reviews from many quarters. Bollywood Hungama, rated the film with  stars whereas The Times of India rated it with  stars. Made on the string Budget of , the film grossed  worldwide. The film was declared Average by Box office India. In July 2013, the company released Lootera, starring Ranveer Singh & Sonakshi Sinha as leads. The film opened with best reviews from many critics. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film with  Stars, describing "On the whole, LOOTERA is an intrinsically earnest and profoundly heartwarming story that stays in your heart. An absolute must for those who love romantic films or are romantic at heart. This one's a cinematic gem!". Raja Sen of Rediff.com rated  stars and noted, "Lootera is a gorgeous, gorgeous film, one that uses its period setting affectionately, with loving detail, and not exploitatively, as our cinema is wont to do." Meena Iyer of The Times of India assigned the film  Stars and noted, "Lootera is a love saga of yore." She added, "You may find this film boring if state-of-the-art, slow romance is not your idea of a movie outing." The film was made on the Budget of  and netted  worldwide in its lifetime . In August 2013, the company released Once Upon ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara! the sequel to one of its most successful film, Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai. The film opened with mixed reviews from all the critics and was also slammed by many critics for its poor drafting and execution of story line. The film was made on the high Budget of  to  and collected  worldwide, thereby contributing the loss and was declared "Flop". In 2014, On February 28, the company released Shaadi Ke Side Effects starring Farhan Akhtar & Vidya Balan. The film opened with positive reviews from various quarters and collected  on its day one. The film went on to gross  in its opening weekend. The film grossed  worldwide during its lifetime run and was declared "Below Average" by Boxoffice India. In the same year, On March 21, the company released Ragini MMS 2 starring Sunny Leone, the sequel to yet another successful film of the company Ragini MMS. Made on the budget of , the film opened with mixed reviews from the critics and went on to collect . The film was a major commercial success and was declared "Hit" by Boxoffice India.

text: In 2013, the company released its

text: Horror Film

text: Ek Thi Daayan

text: , co-produced with

text: Vishal Bhardwaj

text: . The film received mostly positive response. It was well-accepted by critics and received 3 out of 5 on an average. Jinson John of Indian Box Office also stated "Ek Thi Daayan is not that regular Bhootiya Isshtoorry, the plot stands out of them all, it's surely is an Experimental Plot, but not written by an Idiot." The film opened Ek Thi Daayan opened at around 30-40% occupancy with better opening in multiplexes rather than single screens netted around  over the first weekend. In May 2013, released by the company was

text: Shootout at Wadala

text: . The film opened with great reviews from many quarters.

text: Bollywood Hungama

text: , rated the film with  stars whereas The Times of India rated it with  stars. Made on the string Budget of , the film grossed  worldwide. The film was declared Average by Box office India. In July 2013, the company released

text: Lootera

text: , starring

text: Ranveer Singh

text: Sonakshi Sinha

text: as leads. The film opened with best reviews from many critics.

text: Taran Adarsh

text: of Bollywood Hungama rated the film with  Stars, describing "On the whole, LOOTERA is an intrinsically earnest and profoundly heartwarming story that stays in your heart. An absolute must for those who love romantic films or are romantic at heart. This one's a cinematic gem!". Raja Sen of

text: Rediff.com

text: rated  stars and noted, "Lootera is a gorgeous, gorgeous film, one that uses its period setting affectionately, with loving detail, and not exploitatively, as our cinema is wont to do." Meena Iyer of

text: The Times of India

text: assigned the film  Stars and noted, "Lootera is a love saga of yore." She added, "You may find this film boring if state-of-the-art, slow romance is not your idea of a movie outing." The film was made on the Budget of  and netted  worldwide in its lifetime . In August 2013, the company released

text: Once Upon ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara!

text: the sequel to one of its most successful film,

text: Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai

text: . The film opened with mixed reviews from all the critics and was also slammed by many critics for its poor drafting and execution of story line. The film was made on the high Budget of  to  and collected  worldwide, thereby contributing the loss and was declared "Flop". In 2014, On February 28, the company released

text: Shaadi Ke Side Effects

text: starring

text: Farhan Akhtar

text: Vidya Balan

text: . The film opened with positive reviews from various quarters and collected  on its day one. The film went on to gross  in its opening weekend. The film grossed  worldwide during its lifetime run and was declared "Below Average" by Boxoffice India. In the same year, On March 21, the company released

text: Ragini MMS 2

text: starring

text: Sunny Leone

text: , the sequel to yet another successful film of the company

text: Ragini MMS

text: . Made on the budget of , the film opened with mixed reviews from the critics and went on to collect . The film was a major commercial success and was declared "Hit" by Boxoffice India.

text: The results of N-body simulations have shown that the stars can follow unusual paths through the cluster, often forming loops and often falling more directly toward the core than would a single star orbiting a central mass. In addition, due to interactions with other stars that result in an increase in velocity, some of the stars gain sufficient energy to escape the cluster. Over long periods of time this will result in a dissipation of the cluster, a process termed evaporation. The typical time scale for the evaporation of a globular cluster is 10 years. In 2010 it became possible to directly compute, star by star, N-body simulations of a globular cluster over the course of its lifetime.

text: ADS 9731 is a star system that consists of six stars. Four of the stars are visually separate in the sky, forming a visual star system, which was resolved using adaptive optics in 1995. Two of these stars were themselves found to be spectroscopic binaries in 1998, resulting in a total of six known stars in the system. It is one of very few multiple star systems known to have at least six members. The components are organised thus: Aa and Ab are yellow-white main sequence stars of spectral types F4V and F5V and 1.35 and 1.32 solar masses respectively, which orbit each other every 3.27 days. This pair is in a 450-year orbit with star B, a star of spectral type G4V that has around the same mass as the Sun. Star C is a yellow white star of spectral type F3V around 1.41 times as massive as the sun, which has just started brightening and moving off the main sequence. It is in a 1000-year orbit with a pair of stars, Da and Db, a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F7V and a red dwarf of spectral type M3V. Da and Db take 14.28-days to orbit each other. Finally the system of stars C and Dab, and the system of stars Aab and B, take over 20,000 years to orbit each other.

text: ADS 9731 is a star system that consists of six stars. Four of the stars are visually separate in the sky, forming a

text: visual star system

text: , which was resolved using

text: adaptive optics

text: in 1995. Two of these stars were themselves found to be

text: spectroscopic binaries

text: in 1998, resulting in a total of six known stars in the system. It is one of very few

text: multiple star system

text: s known to have at least six members. The components are organised thus: Aa and Ab are yellow-white main sequence stars of spectral types F4V and F5V and 1.35 and 1.32 solar masses respectively, which orbit each other every 3.27 days. This pair is in a 450-year orbit with star B, a star of spectral type G4V that has around the same mass as the Sun. Star C is a yellow white star of spectral type F3V around 1.41 times as massive as the sun, which has just started brightening and moving off the main sequence. It is in a 1000-year orbit with a pair of stars, Da and Db, a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F7V and a red dwarf of spectral type M3V. Da and Db take 14.28-days to orbit each other. Finally the system of stars C and Dab, and the system of stars Aab and B, take over 20,000 years to orbit each other.

text: Sher 25, the B class supergiant on the outskirts of NGC 3603, is surrounded by ejected material in an hourglass shape similar to that found for the supernova 1987A, and this has aroused intense interest in the future evolution of stars such as Sher 25.

text: Sher 25

text: , the B class supergiant on the outskirts of NGC 3603, is surrounded by ejected material in an hourglass shape similar to that found for the supernova 1987A, and this has aroused intense interest in the future evolution of stars such as Sher 25.

text: In 2012, she starred in the Lifetime movie, Love at the Christmas Table  with Dustin Milligan.

text: In 2012, she starred in the Lifetime movie, Love at the Christmas Table  with

text: Dustin Milligan

text: The term has also been used historically to refer to certain types of nuclear weapons. Due to the inefficiency of early nuclear weapons, only a small amount of the nuclear material would be consumed during the explosion. Little Boy had an efficiency of only 1.4%. Fat Man, which used a different design and a different fissile material, had an efficiency of 14%. Thus, they tended to disperse large amounts of unused fissile material, and the fission products, which are on average much more dangerous, in the form of nuclear fallout. During the 1950s, there was considerable debate over whether "clean" bombs could be produced and these were often contrasted with "dirty" bombs. "Clean" bombs were often a stated goal and scientists and administrators said that high-efficiency nuclear weapon design could create explosions which generated almost all of their energy in the form of nuclear fusion, which does not create harmful fission products.

text: The term has also been used historically to refer to certain types of

text: nuclear weapon

text: s. Due to the inefficiency of early nuclear weapons, only a small amount of the

text: nuclear material

text: would be consumed during the explosion.

text: Little Boy

text: had an efficiency of only 1.4%.

text: Fat Man

text: , which used a different design and a different

text: fissile

text: material, had an efficiency of 14%. Thus, they tended to disperse large amounts of unused

text: fissile material

text: , and the

text: fission product

text: s, which are on average much more dangerous, in the form of

text: nuclear fallout

text: . During the 1950s, there was considerable debate over whether "clean" bombs could be produced and these were often contrasted with "dirty" bombs. "Clean" bombs were often a stated goal and scientists and administrators said that high-efficiency

text: nuclear weapon design

text: could create explosions which generated almost all of their energy in the form of

text: nuclear fusion

text: , which does not create harmful fission products.

text: times the Hill radius and a time limit of the parent star's lifetime on the main sequence (which is a function of the mass of the star). Then, in the mentioned units and a main-sequence lifetime of 10 billion years, k = 807. The body is a planet if Π > 1. The minimum mass necessary to clear the given orbit is given when Π = 1.

text: times the

text: Hill radius

text: and a time limit of the parent star's lifetime on the

text: main sequence

text: (which is a function of the mass of the star). Then, in the mentioned units and a main-sequence lifetime of 10 billion years, k = 807. The body is a planet if Π > 1. The minimum mass necessary to clear the given orbit is given when Π = 1.

text: HD 4203 is a 9th magnitude star located approximately 250 light years away in the constellation Pisces. The star is yellow with spectral type G5. The star has evolved for 9.41 billion years. The star has a gas giant planet orbiting around a high metallicity star.

text: HD 4203 is a 9th

text: magnitude

text: star

text: located approximately 250

text: light year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: Pisces

text: . The star is yellow with

text: spectral type

text: G5. The star has

text: evolved

text: for 9.41 billion years. The star has a

text: gas giant

text: planet orbiting around a high

text: metallicity

text: star.

text: The spectral classes O through M, as well as other more specialized classes discussed later, are subdivided by Arabic numerals (0–9), where 0 denotes the hottest stars of a given class. For example, A0 denotes the hottest stars in the A class and A9 denotes the coolest ones. Fractional numbers are allowed; for example, the star Mu Normae is classified as O9.7. The Sun is classified as G2.

text: The spectral classes O through M, as well as other more specialized classes discussed later, are subdivided by

text: Arabic numerals

text: (0–9), where 0 denotes the hottest stars of a given class. For example, A0 denotes the hottest stars in the A class and A9 denotes the coolest ones. Fractional numbers are allowed; for example, the star

text: Mu Normae

text: is classified as O9.7. The

text: Sun

text: is classified as G2.

text: In 2009, she starred for one season in Lifetime Television's Sherri, a sitcom about Shepherd's life.

text: In 2009, she starred for one season in

text: Lifetime Television

text: 's

text: Sherri

text: , a sitcom about Shepherd's life.

text: Binary star systems are common, found more frequently than single star systems like our own. The arrangement of HD 113766, a binary star system with a protoplanetary disk around one star, is somewhat similar to the one-half of the system HD 98800, which has been reported to have a large amount of warm dust mass at the equivalent distance of the solar system's asteroid belt.  It is not currently known why both of these star systems should have such configurations; i.e. a protoplanetary disk around part of the system while other stars in the system lack one.

text: Binary star systems are common, found more frequently than single star systems like our own. The arrangement of HD 113766, a binary star system with a protoplanetary disk around one star, is somewhat similar to the one-half of the system

text: HD 98800

text: , which has been reported to have a large amount of warm dust mass at the equivalent distance of the solar system's asteroid belt.  It is not currently known why both of these star systems should have such configurations; i.e. a protoplanetary disk around part of the system while other stars in the system lack one.

text: Potential "aneutronic" (or substantially aneutronic) nuclear fusion possibilities, which result in essentially no neutrons among the nuclear fusion products, are almost certainly not very amenable to muon-catalyzed fusion.  This is somewhat disappointing because aneutronic nuclear fusion reactions typically produce substantially only energetic charged particles whose energy could potentially be converted to more useful electrical energy with a much higher efficiency than is the case with the conversion of thermal energy.  One such essentially aneutronic nuclear fusion reaction involves a deuteron from deuterium fusing with a helion (h) from helium-3, which yields an energetic alpha particle and a much more energetic proton, both positively charged (with a few neutrons coming from inevitable d-d nuclear fusion side reactions).  However, one muon with only one negative electric charge is incapable of shielding both positive charges of a helion from the one positive charge of a deuteron.  The chances of the requisite two muons being present simultaneously are exceptionally remote.

text: Potential "aneutronic" (or substantially aneutronic)

text: nuclear fusion

text: possibilities, which result in essentially no neutrons among the nuclear fusion products, are almost certainly not very amenable to muon-catalyzed fusion.  This is somewhat disappointing because aneutronic nuclear fusion reactions typically produce substantially only energetic charged particles whose energy could potentially be converted to more useful electrical energy with a much higher efficiency than is the case with the conversion of thermal energy.  One such essentially aneutronic nuclear fusion reaction involves a deuteron from deuterium fusing with a

text: helion

text: (h) from

text: , which yields an energetic

text: alpha particle

text: and a much more energetic

text: proton

text: , both positively charged (with a few neutrons coming from inevitable d-d

text: nuclear fusion

text: side reactions).  However, one

text: muon

text: with only one negative electric charge is incapable of shielding both positive charges of a helion from the one positive charge of a deuteron.  The chances of the requisite two muons being present simultaneously are exceptionally remote.

text: The oxygen-burning process is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in massive stars that have used up the lighter elements in their cores. Oxygen-burning is preceded by the neon-burning process and succeeded by the silicon-burning process. As the neon-burning process ends, the core of the star contracts and heats until it reaches the ignition temperature for oxygen burning. Oxygen burning reactions are similar to those of carbon burning; however, they must occur at higher temperatures and densities due to the larger Coulomb barrier of oxygen. Oxygen in the core ignites in the temperature range of (1.5-2.6)×10 K and in the density range of (2.6-6.7)×10g/cm. The principal reactions are given below, where the branching ratios assume that the deuteron channel is open (at high temperatures):

text: The oxygen-burning process is a set of

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions that take place in massive stars that have used up the lighter elements in their cores. Oxygen-burning is preceded by the

text: neon-burning process

text: and succeeded by the

text: silicon-burning process

text: . As the neon-burning process ends, the core of the star contracts and heats until it reaches the ignition temperature for oxygen burning. Oxygen burning reactions are similar to those of carbon burning; however, they must occur at higher temperatures and densities due to the larger

text: Coulomb barrier

text: of oxygen. Oxygen in the core ignites in the temperature range of (1.5-2.6)×10 K and in the density range of (2.6-6.7)×10g/cm. The principal reactions are given below, where the branching ratios assume that the

text: deuteron

text: channel is open (at high temperatures):

text: A carbon star is typically an asymptotic giant branch star, a luminous red giant, whose atmosphere contains more carbon than oxygen; the two elements combine in the upper layers of the star, forming carbon monoxide, which consumes all the oxygen in the atmosphere, leaving carbon atoms free to form other carbon compounds, giving the star a "sooty" atmosphere and a strikingly ruby red appearance. There are also some dwarf and supergiant carbon stars, with the more common giant stars sometimes being called classical carbon stars to distinguish them.

text: A carbon star is typically an

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: star, a luminous

text: red giant

text: , whose atmosphere contains more

text: carbon

text: than

text: oxygen

text: ; the two elements combine in the upper layers of the star, forming

text: carbon monoxide

text: , which consumes all the oxygen in the atmosphere, leaving carbon atoms free to form other carbon compounds, giving the star a "

text: soot

text: y" atmosphere and a strikingly

text: ruby red

text: appearance. There are also some dwarf and

text: supergiant

text: carbon stars, with the more common giant stars sometimes being called classical carbon stars to distinguish them.

text: NMR-STAR is an extension of the STAR file format to store the results of biological NMR experiments.

text: NMR-STAR is an extension of the

text: STAR file format

text: to store the results of

text: biological NMR

text: experiments.

text: Andromeda was one of the original 48 constellations formulated by Ptolemy in his 2nd-century Almagest, in which it was defined as a specific pattern of stars. She is typically depicted with α Andromedae as her head, ο and λ Andromedae as her chains, and δ, π, μ, Β, and γ Andromedae representing her body and legs. However, there is no universal depiction of Andromeda and the stars used to represent her body, head, and chains. Arab astronomers were aware of Ptolemy's constellations, but they included a second constellation representing a fish at Andromeda's feet. Several stars from Andromeda and most of the stars in Lacerta were combined in 1787 by German astronomer Johann Bode to form Frederici Honores (also called Friedrichs Ehre). It was designed to honor King Frederick II of Prussia, but quickly fell into disuse. Since the time of Ptolemy, Andromeda has remained a constellation and is officially recognized by the International Astronomical Union, although like all modern constellations, it is now defined as a specific region of the sky that includes both Ptolemy's pattern and the surrounding stars. In 1922, the IAU defined its recommended three-letter abbreviation, "And". The official boundaries of Andromeda were defined in 1930 by Eugène Delporte as a polygon of 36 segments. Its right ascension is between 22 57.5 and 2 39.3 and its declination is between 53.19° and 21.68° in the equatorial coordinate system.

text: Andromeda was one of the original 48

text: constellation

text: s formulated by

text: Ptolemy

text: in his 2nd-century

text: Almagest

text: , in which it was defined as a specific pattern of stars. She is typically depicted with α Andromedae as her head, ο and λ Andromedae as her chains, and δ, π, μ, Β, and γ Andromedae representing her body and legs. However, there is no universal depiction of Andromeda and the stars used to represent her body, head, and chains. Arab astronomers were aware of Ptolemy's constellations, but they included a second constellation representing a fish at Andromeda's feet. Several stars from Andromeda and most of the stars in

text: Lacerta

text: were combined in 1787 by German astronomer

text: Johann Bode

text: to form

text: Frederici Honores

text: (also called Friedrichs Ehre). It was designed to honor

text: King Frederick II of Prussia

text: , but quickly fell into disuse. Since the time of Ptolemy, Andromeda has remained a constellation and is officially recognized by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: , although like all modern constellations, it is now defined as a specific region of the sky that includes both Ptolemy's pattern and the surrounding stars. In 1922, the IAU defined its recommended three-letter abbreviation, "And". The official boundaries of Andromeda were defined in 1930 by

text: Eugène Delporte

text: as a polygon of 36 segments. Its

text: right ascension

text: is between 22 57.5 and 2 39.3 and its

text: declination

text: is between 53.19° and 21.68° in the

text: equatorial coordinate system

text: Ten star systems have been found to have planets. Rho-1 Cancri or 55 Cancri is a binary star approximately 40.9 light-years distant from Earth. 55 Cancri consists of a yellow dwarf and a smaller red dwarf, with five planets orbiting the primary star; one low-mass planet that may be either a hot, water-rich world or a carbon planet and four gas giants. 55 Cancri A, classified as a rare "super metal-rich" star, is one of the top 100 target stars for NASA’s Terrestrial Planet Finder mission, ranked 63rd on the list. The red dwarf 55 Cancri B, a suspected binary, appears to be gravitationally bound to the primary star, as the two share common proper motion.

text: Ten star systems have been found to have planets. Rho-1 Cancri or

text: 55 Cancri

text: is a binary star approximately 40.9 light-years distant from Earth. 55 Cancri consists of a yellow dwarf and a smaller red dwarf, with five planets orbiting the primary star; one low-mass planet that may be either a hot, water-rich world or a carbon planet and four gas giants. 55 Cancri A, classified as a rare "super metal-rich" star, is one of the top 100 target stars for NASA’s Terrestrial Planet Finder mission, ranked 63rd on the list. The red dwarf 55 Cancri B, a suspected binary, appears to be gravitationally bound to the primary star, as the two share common proper motion.

text: The lifetimes of these dust particles are very short compared to the lifetime of the Solar System. If one finds grains around a star that is older than about 10,000,000 years, then the grains must have been from recently released fragments of larger objects, i.e. they cannot be leftover grains from the protoplanetary disk (Backman, private communication). Therefore, the grains would be "later-generation" dust. The zodiacal dust in the Solar System is 99.9% later-generation dust and 0.1% intruding interstellar medium dust. All primordial grains from the Solar System's formation were removed long ago.

text: The lifetimes of these dust particles are very short compared to the lifetime of the Solar System. If one finds grains around a star that is older than about 10,000,000 years, then the grains must have been from recently released fragments of larger objects, i.e. they cannot be leftover grains from the

text: protoplanetary disk

text: (Backman, private communication). Therefore, the grains would be "later-generation" dust. The zodiacal dust in the Solar System is 99.9% later-generation dust and 0.1% intruding

text: interstellar medium

text: dust. All primordial grains from the Solar System's formation were removed long ago.

text: The WR 22 system contains two massive stars which orbit every 80 days.  The spectrum and luminosity are dominated by the primary, which has a spectral type of WN7h, indicating that it is a WR star on the nitrogen sequence, but also with hydrogen lines in its spectrum.  The secondary is an O9 star which appears to have the spectral luminosity class of a giant star, but the brightness of a main sequence star.

text: The WR 22 system contains two massive stars which orbit every 80 days.  The spectrum and luminosity are dominated by the primary, which has a spectral type of WN7h, indicating that it is a WR star on the nitrogen sequence, but also with hydrogen lines in its spectrum.  The secondary is an O9 star which appears to have the spectral luminosity class of a

text: giant star

text: , but the brightness of a

text: main sequence star

text: Negative energy- Nuclear fusion- Nuclear power- Nuclear reactor

text: Negative energy

text: Nuclear fusion

text: Nuclear power

text: Nuclear reactor

text: Stars less massive than about  are convective throughout most of the star. These stars continue to fuse hydrogen in their cores until essentially the entire star has been converted to helium, and they do not develop into subgiants. Stars of this mass have main-sequence lifetimes many times longer than the current age of the Universe.

text: Stars less massive

text: than about  are convective throughout most of the star. These stars continue to fuse hydrogen in their cores until essentially the entire star has been converted to helium, and they do not develop into subgiants. Stars of this mass have main-sequence lifetimes many times longer than the current age of the Universe.

text: The score for Star Trek: The Motion Picture was written by Jerry Goldsmith, who would later compose the scores Star Trek V: The Final Frontier, Star Trek: First Contact, Star Trek: Insurrection, and Star Trek: Nemesis, as well as the themes to the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Voyager. Gene Roddenberry had originally wanted Goldsmith to score Star Trek

text: The score for

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: was written by

text: Jerry Goldsmith

text: , who would later compose the scores

text: Star Trek V: The Final Frontier

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Star Trek: Insurrection

text: , and

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: , as well as the themes to the television series

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: and

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Gene Roddenberry

text: had originally wanted Goldsmith to score Star Trek

text: The two stars in Serpens Caput that form part of the Snake's body below the heart are Epsilon and Mu Serpentis, both third-magnitude A-type main-sequence stars. Both have a peculiarity: Epsilon is an Am star, while Mu is a binary. Located slightly northwest of Mu is 36 Serpentis, another A-type main-sequence star. This star also has a peculiarity; it is a binary with the primary component being a Lambda Boötis star, meaning that it has solar-like amounts of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, while containing very low amounts of iron peak elements. 25 Serpentis, positioned a few degrees northeast of Mu Serpentis, is a spectroscopic binary consisting of a hot B-type giant and an A-type main-sequence star. The primary is a slowly pulsating B star, which causes the system to vary by 0.03 magnitudes.

text: The two stars in Serpens Caput that form part of the Snake's body below the heart are

text: Epsilon

text: and

text: Mu Serpentis

text: , both third-magnitude

text: A-type main-sequence star

text: s. Both have a peculiarity: Epsilon is an

text: Am star

text: , while Mu is a binary. Located slightly northwest of Mu is

text: 36 Serpentis

text: , another A-type main-sequence star. This star also has a peculiarity; it is a binary with the primary component being a

text: Lambda Boötis star

text: , meaning that it has solar-like amounts of

text: carbon

text: nitrogen

text: , and

text: oxygen

text: , while containing very low amounts of

text: iron peak

text: elements.

text: 25 Serpentis

text: , positioned a few degrees northeast of Mu Serpentis, is a

text: spectroscopic binary

text: consisting of a hot

text: B-type giant

text: and an A-type main-sequence star. The primary is a

text: slowly pulsating B star

text: , which causes the system to vary by 0.03 magnitudes.

text: In January 2015 she co-starred with Regina Hall and Eve in Lifetime Movie Networks' With this Ring.

text: Kashyyyk also appears in the video games Star Wars: Galaxies, Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds, Star Wars: Battlefront, Star Wars: Battlefront II, Star Wars: Republic Commando, Star Wars: The Clone Wars, Star Wars: Empire at War, Lego Star Wars: The Video Game, Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga, Star Wars: The Force Unleashed and Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. The latter takes place 4000 years before the Galactic Empire, with the Wookiees being oppressed by the slavers of Czerka Corporation.

text: Kashyyyk also appears in the video games

text: Star Wars: Galaxies

text: Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds

text: Star Wars: Battlefront

text: Star Wars: Battlefront II

text: Star Wars: Republic Commando

entity_name: Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2002 video game)

text: Star Wars: The Clone Wars

text: Star Wars: Empire at War

text: Lego Star Wars: The Video Game

text: Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga

text: Star Wars: The Force Unleashed

text: and

text: Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic

text: . The latter takes place 4000 years before the

text: Galactic Empire

text: , with the Wookiees being oppressed by the slavers of

text: Czerka Corporation

text: Describes double stars, variable star, star clusters, nebulas, globular clusters, and galaxies. Explains how astronomers determine the distances to stars and galaxies, how sky objects are designated, and how to use deep-sky charts. Includes an atlas of 20 star charts.The charts are ideal for stargazers using a small telescope or binoculars.

text: Describes

text: double stars

text: variable star

text: star clusters

text: nebulas

text: globular clusters

text: , and

text: galaxies

text: . Explains how astronomers determine the distances to stars and galaxies, how sky objects are designated, and how to use deep-sky charts. Includes an atlas of 20 star charts.The charts are ideal for stargazers using a small telescope or binoculars.

text: WASP-10 is a star in the constellation Pegasus. The SuperWASP project has observed and classified this star as a variable star, perhaps due to the eclipsing planet.

text: WASP-10 is a star in the constellation

text: Pegasus

text: . The

text: SuperWASP

text: project has observed and classified this star as a

text: variable star

text: , perhaps due to the

text: eclipsing

text: planet.

text: It is worth pointing out that the sidereal signs and the tropical signs are both geometrical conventions of 30° each, whereas the zodiacal constellations are pictorial representations of mythological figures projected onto the celestial sphere based on patterns of visible star groupings, none of which occupy precisely 30° of the ecliptic. So constellations and signs are not the same, although for historical reasons they might have the same names.

text: The kinetic process of destabilisation can be rather long (up to several months or even years for some products) and it is often required for the formulator to use further accelerating methods in order to reach reasonable development time for new product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used and consists in increasing temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more generally interactions forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures enables to simulate real life conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation processes up to 200 times.Mechanical acceleration including vibration, centrifugation and agitation are sometimes used. They subject the product to different forces that pushes the particles / droplets against one another, hence helping in the film drainage. However, some emulsions would never coalesce in normal gravity, while they do under artificial gravity. Moreover, segregation of different populations of particles have been highlighted when using centrifugation and vibration.

text: The kinetic process of destabilisation can be rather long (up to several months or even years for some products) and it is often required for the formulator to use further accelerating methods in order to reach reasonable development time for new product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used and consists in increasing temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more generally interactions forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures enables to simulate real life conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation processes up to 200 times.Mechanical acceleration including vibration,

text: centrifugation

text: and agitation are sometimes used. They subject the product to different forces that pushes the particles / droplets against one another, hence helping in the film drainage. However, some emulsions would never coalesce in normal gravity, while they do under artificial gravity. Moreover, segregation of different populations of particles have been highlighted when using centrifugation and vibration.

text: By matching up these curves on the HR diagram the absolute magnitude of main-sequence stars in the cluster can also be determined. This in turn provides a distance estimate to the cluster, based on the visual magnitude of the stars. The difference between the relative and absolute magnitude, the distance modulus, yields this estimate of the distance.

text: By matching up these curves on the HR diagram the absolute magnitude of main-sequence stars in the cluster can also be determined. This in turn provides a distance estimate to the cluster, based on the visual magnitude of the stars. The difference between the relative and absolute magnitude, the

text: distance modulus

text: , yields this estimate of the distance.

text: The most common binary systems are binary stars and binary asteroid, but brown dwarfs, planets, neutron stars, black holes and galaxies can also form binaries.

text: The most common binary systems are

text: binary star

text: s and

text: binary asteroid

text: , but

text: brown dwarf

text: s,

text: planet

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s,

text: black hole

text: s and

text: galaxies

text: can also form binaries.

text: is zero. This term does not affect the observed acceleration of particles on the surface of m because with respect to M, m (and everything on its surface) is in free fall. When the force on the far particle is subtracted from the force on the near particle, this first term cancels, as do all other even-order terms. The remaining (residual) terms represent the difference mentioned above and are tidal force (acceleration) terms. When ∆r is small compared to R, the terms after the first residual term are very small and can be neglected, giving the approximate tidal acceleration

text: Membership in a star cluster or star system permits an assignment of rough ages to a large number of stars present within. When one can determine the age of stars through other methods, such as the ones listed above, one can identify the age of all of the bodies in a system. This is especially useful in clusters of stars which exhibit a large amount of variety in their stellar masses, evolutionary stages, and classifications. While not entirely independent of the properties of the stars in the cluster, system, or other reasonably-sized association of stars, an astronomer would only need a representative sample of stars to determine the age of the cluster, rather than painstakingly finding the age of every star in the cluster through other properties.

text: Membership in a

text: star cluster

text: or

text: star system

text: permits an assignment of rough ages to a large number of stars present within. When one can determine the age of stars through other methods, such as the ones listed above, one can identify the age of all of the bodies in a system. This is especially useful in clusters of stars which exhibit a large amount of variety in their stellar masses, evolutionary stages, and classifications. While not entirely independent of the properties of the stars in the cluster, system, or other reasonably-sized association of stars, an astronomer would only need a representative sample of stars to determine the age of the cluster, rather than painstakingly finding the age of every star in the cluster through other properties.

text: The following examples of fictional "aliens" existing within Red Dwarf star systems exist:

text: Epsilon Eridani's Bayer designation was established in 1603 as part of the Uranometria, a star catalogue produced by German celestial cartographer Johann Bayer. His catalogue assigned letters from the Greek alphabet to groups of stars belonging to the same visual magnitude class in each constellation, beginning with alpha (α) for a star in the brightest class. However, Bayer made no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness within each class. Thus, although Epsilon is the fifth letter in the Greek alphabet, the star is the tenth-brightest star in Eridanus. In addition to the letter ε, Bayer had given it the number 13 (the same as Ptolemy's catalogue number, as were many of Bayer's numbers) and designation "Decima septima", which means in Latin "The seventeenth". The meaning of this: Bayer designated 21 stars in the northern part of Eridanus along the river from east to west from the first (β, "Supra pedem Orionis in flumine, prima", that is "Above the foot of Orion in the river, the first") to the twenty-first (σ, "Vigesima prima", that is "the twenty-first"), and Epsilon Eridani was the seventeenth of them. These 21 stars are: β, λ, ψ, b, ω, μ, c, ν, ξ, ο (two stars), d, A, γ, π, δ, ε, ζ, ρ, η, σ. Bayer assigned Epsilon Eridani magnitude 3.

text: Epsilon Eridani's

text: Bayer designation

text: was established in 1603 as part of the

text: Uranometria

text: , a star catalogue produced by German celestial cartographer

text: Johann Bayer

text: . His catalogue assigned letters from the

text: Greek alphabet

text: to groups of stars belonging to the same visual magnitude class in each constellation, beginning with alpha (α) for a star in the brightest class. However, Bayer made no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness within each class. Thus, although Epsilon is the fifth letter in the Greek alphabet, the star is the

text: tenth-brightest star in Eridanus

text: . In addition to the letter ε, Bayer had given it the number 13 (the same as Ptolemy's catalogue number, as were many of Bayer's numbers) and designation "Decima septima", which means in Latin "The seventeenth". The meaning of this: Bayer designated 21 stars in the northern part of Eridanus along the river from east to west from the first (β, "Supra pedem Orionis in flumine, prima", that is "Above

text: the foot

text: of

text: Orion

text: in the river, the first") to the twenty-first (σ, "Vigesima prima", that is "the twenty-first"), and Epsilon Eridani was the seventeenth of them. These 21 stars are: β, λ, ψ, b, ω, μ, c, ν, ξ, ο (two stars), d, A, γ, π, δ, ε, ζ, ρ, η, σ. Bayer assigned Epsilon Eridani magnitude 3.

text: Planets in binary star systems may be candidates for supporting extraterrestrial life. Habitability of binary star systems is determined by a large number of factors from a variety of sources. Typical estimates often suggest that 50% or more of all star systems are binary systems. This may be partly due to sample bias, as massive and bright stars tend to be in binaries and these are most easily observed and catalogued; a more precise analysis has suggested that the more common fainter stars are usually singular, and that up to two thirds of all stellar systems are therefore solitary.

text: Planets

text: in

text: binary star

text: systems

text: may be candidates for supporting

text: extraterrestrial life

text: . Habitability of binary star systems is determined by a large number of factors from a variety of sources. Typical estimates often suggest that 50% or more of all

text: star system

text: s are

text: binary systems

text: . This may be partly due to sample bias, as massive and bright stars tend to be in binaries and these are most easily observed and catalogued; a more precise analysis has suggested that the more common fainter stars are usually singular, and that up to two thirds of all stellar systems are therefore solitary.

text: In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they reach sufficient energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using electromagnets. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators (linacs) is that the ring topology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transit indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator).

text: In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they reach sufficient energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using

text: electromagnet

text: s. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators (linacs) is that the ring topology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transit indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator).

text: IC 2118 is a faint reflection nebula believed to be an ancient supernova remnant or gas cloud illuminated by nearby supergiant star Rigel in Orion.

text: IC 2118

text: is a faint

text: reflection nebula

text: believed to be an ancient supernova remnant or gas cloud illuminated by nearby

text: supergiant

text: star

text: Rigel

text: in

text: Orion

text: Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved binary stars that can alter the observed stellar parameters. However, even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star's color and luminosity. Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances, the star's evolutionary status, interaction with a close companion, rapid rotation, or a magnetic field can all slightly change a main-sequence star's HR diagram position, to name just a few factors. As an example, there are metal-poor stars (with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as subdwarfs. These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition.

text: Other factors that broaden the main sequence band on the HR diagram include uncertainty in the distance to stars and the presence of unresolved

text: binary star

text: s that can alter the observed stellar parameters. However, even perfect observation would show a fuzzy main sequence because mass is not the only parameter that affects a star's color and luminosity. Variations in chemical composition caused by the initial abundances, the star's

text: evolutionary status

text: , interaction with a

text: close companion

text: rapid rotation

text: , or a

text: magnetic field

text: can all slightly change a main-sequence star's HR diagram position, to name just a few factors. As an example, there are

text: metal-poor stars

text: (with a very low abundance of elements with higher atomic numbers than helium) that lie just below the main sequence and are known as

text: subdwarf

text: s. These stars are fusing hydrogen in their cores and so they mark the lower edge of main sequence fuzziness caused by variance in chemical composition.

text: Gliese 581 is classified as a variable star of the BY Draconis type, and has been given the variable star designation HO Librae. This is a star that exhibits variability because of the presence of star spots combined with the rotation of the star. However, the measured variability is close to the margin of error, and, if real, is most likely a long term variability. Its brightness is stable to 1%. Gliese 581 emits X-rays.

text: Gliese 581 is classified as a

text: variable star

text: of the

text: BY Draconis

text: type, and has been given the variable star designation HO Librae. This is a star that exhibits variability because of the presence of

text: star spot

text: s combined with the rotation of the star. However, the measured variability is close to the margin of error, and, if real, is most likely a long term variability. Its brightness is stable to 1%. Gliese 581 emits X-rays.

text: The habitable zone varies with the type and age of the central star. For advanced life the star must have a high degree of stability. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years, middle star life, are at the most stable state. Proper metallicity and size are also very important to stability. The Sun as a low 0.1% solar luminosity variation. A solar twin star, would be a star with low luminosity variation. To date no solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found, however, there are some stars that come close to being identical. The star must have no stellar companions, other close by stars as in binary systems, would disrupt the orbits of planets. Estimates suggest that 50% or more of all star systems are binary systems. The habitable zone for a main sequence star very gradually moves out over time until the star becomes a white dwarf, at which time the habitable zone vanishes. The habitable zone is closely connected to the greenhouse warming afforded by atmospheric water vapor (), carbon dioxide (), and/or other greenhouse gases. Even though the Earth's atmosphere contains a water vapor concentration from 0% (in arid regions) to 4% (in rain forest and ocean regions) and -as of June 2013- only 400 parts per million of , these small amounts suffice to raise the average surface temperature of the Earth by about 40 °C from what it would otherwise be, with the dominant contribution being due to water vapor, which together with clouds makes up between 66% and 85% of Earth's greenhouse effect, with  contributing between 9% and 26% of the effect.

text: The habitable zone varies with the type and age of the central star. For advanced life the star must have a high degree of stability. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years, middle star life, are at the most stable state. Proper

text: metallicity

text: and size are also very important to stability. The Sun as a low 0.1%

text: solar luminosity

text: variation. A

text: solar twin

text: star, would be a star with low luminosity variation. To date no solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found, however, there are some stars that come close to being identical. The star must have no stellar companions, other close by stars as in

text: binary systems

text: , would disrupt the orbits of planets. Estimates suggest that 50% or more of all star systems are binary systems. The habitable zone for a main sequence star very gradually moves out over time until the star becomes a white dwarf, at which time the habitable zone vanishes. The habitable zone is closely connected to the

text: greenhouse warming

text: afforded by atmospheric water vapor (), carbon dioxide (), and/or other greenhouse gases. Even though the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: contains a water vapor concentration from 0% (in arid regions) to 4% (in rain forest and ocean regions) and -as of June 2013- only 400 parts per million of , these small amounts suffice to raise the average surface temperature of the Earth by about 40 °C from what it would otherwise be, with the dominant contribution being due to water vapor, which together with clouds makes up between 66% and 85% of Earth's greenhouse effect, with  contributing between 9% and 26% of the effect.

text: An electrostatic nuclear accelerator is one of the two main types of particle accelerators, where charged particles can be accelerated by subjection to a static high voltage potential.  The static high voltage method is contrasted with the dynamic fields used in oscillating field particle accelerators.  Owing to their simpler design, historically these accelerators were developed earlier.  These machines are operated at lower energy than some larger oscillating field accelerators, and to the extent that the energy regime scales with the cost of these machines, in broad terms these machines are less expensive than higher energy machines, and as such they are much more common.  Many universities worldwide have electrostatic accelerators for research purposes.

text: An electrostatic nuclear accelerator is one of the two main types of

text: particle accelerator

text: s, where charged particles can be accelerated by subjection to a static high voltage potential.  The static high voltage method is contrasted with the dynamic fields used in

text: oscillating field particle accelerators

text: .  Owing to their simpler design, historically these accelerators were developed earlier.  These machines are operated at lower energy than some larger oscillating field accelerators, and to the extent that the energy regime scales with the cost of these machines, in broad terms these machines are less expensive than higher energy machines, and as such they are much more common.  Many universities worldwide have electrostatic accelerators for research purposes.

text: The remnant from a type Ic core collapse supernova is either a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the progenitor core.  R136a1 will have a core far above the maximum mass of a neutron star, so a black hole is inevitable.

text: The remnant from a type Ic core collapse supernova is either a

text: neutron star

text: or black hole, depending on the mass of the progenitor core.  R136a1 will have a core far above the maximum mass of a neutron star, so a black hole is inevitable.

text: If a particle is moving at a constant velocity in a non-expanding universe free of gravitational fields, any event that occurs in that Universe will eventually be observable by the particle, because the forward light cones from these events intersect the particle's world line. On the other hand, if the particle is accelerating, in some situations light cones from some events never intersect the particle's world line. Under these conditions, an apparent horizon is present in the particle's (accelerating) reference frame, representing a boundary beyond which events are unobservable.

text: If a particle is moving at a constant velocity in a non-expanding universe free of gravitational fields, any event that occurs in that Universe will eventually be observable by the particle, because the forward

text: light cone

text: s from these events intersect the particle's

text: world line

text: . On the other hand, if the particle is accelerating, in some situations light cones from some events never intersect the particle's world line. Under these conditions, an

text: apparent horizon

text: is present in the particle's (accelerating) reference frame, representing a boundary beyond which events are unobservable.

text: The Bayer designation Delta Lyrae (δ Lyr / δ Lyrae) is shared by a star and a star system, in the constellation Lyra (constellation):

text: The

text: Bayer designation

text: Delta Lyrae (δ Lyr / δ Lyrae) is shared by a

text: star

text: and a

text: star system

text: , in the

text: constellation

text: Lyra (constellation)

text: As controlled nuclear fusion has proven difficult to use as an energy source, an alternate proposal for producing fusion power has been to detonate nuclear fusion explosives inside very large underground chambers and then using the heat produced, which would be absorbed by a molten salt coolant which would also absorb neutrons.  The 1970s PACER (fusion) project investigated fusion detonation as a power source.

text: As controlled

text: nuclear fusion

text: has proven difficult to use as an energy source, an alternate proposal for producing

text: fusion power

text: has been to detonate nuclear fusion explosives inside very large underground chambers and then using the heat produced, which would be absorbed by a molten salt coolant which would also absorb neutrons.  The 1970s

text: PACER (fusion)

text: project investigated fusion detonation as a power source.

text: TY Pyxidis is an eclipsing binary star whose apparent magnitude ranges from 6.85 to 7.5 over 3.2 days. The two components are both of spectral type G5IV with a diameter 2.2 times, and mass 1.2 times that of the Sun, and revolve around each other every 3.2 days. The system is classified as a RS Canum Venaticorum variable, a binary system with prominent starspot activity, and lies 184 ± 5 light-years away. The system emits X-rays, and analysing the emission curve over time led researchers to conclude that there was a loop of material arcing between the two stars. RZ Pyxidis is another eclipsing binary system, made up of two young stars less than 200,000 years old. Both are hot blue-white stars of spectral type B7V and are around 2.5 times the size of the Sun. One is around five times as luminous as the Sun and the other around four times as luminous. The system is classified as a Beta Lyrae variable, the apparent magnitude varying from 8.83 to 9.72 over 0.66 days. XX Pyxidis is one of the more-studied members of a class of stars known as Delta Scuti variables—short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology. Astronomers made more sense of its pulsations when it became clear that it is also a binary star system. The main star is a white main sequence star of spectral type A4V that is around 1.85 ± 0.05 times as massive as the Sun. Its companion is most likely a red dwarf of spectral type M3V, around 0.3 times as massive as the Sun. The two are very close—possibly only 3 times the diameter of the Sun between them—and orbit each other every 1.15 days. The brighter star is deformed into an egg shape.

text: TY Pyxidis

text: is an

text: eclipsing binary star

text: whose apparent magnitude ranges from 6.85 to 7.5 over 3.2 days. The two components are both of spectral type G5IV with a diameter 2.2 times, and mass 1.2 times that of the Sun, and revolve around each other every 3.2 days. The system is classified as a

text: RS Canum Venaticorum variable

text: , a binary system with prominent

text: starspot

text: activity, and lies 184 ± 5 light-years away. The system emits X-rays, and analysing the emission curve over time led researchers to conclude that there was a loop of material arcing between the two stars.

text: RZ Pyxidis

text: is another eclipsing binary system, made up of two young stars less than 200,000 years old. Both are hot blue-white stars of spectral type B7V and are around 2.5 times the size of the Sun. One is around five times as luminous as the Sun and the other around four times as luminous. The system is classified as a

text: Beta Lyrae variable

text: , the apparent magnitude varying from 8.83 to 9.72 over 0.66 days.

text: XX Pyxidis

text: is one of the more-studied members of a class of stars known as

text: Delta Scuti variable

text: standard candles

text: and as subjects to study

text: astroseismology

text: . Astronomers made more sense of its pulsations when it became clear that it is also a binary star system. The main star is a white main sequence star of spectral type A4V that is around 1.85 ± 0.05 times as massive as the Sun. Its companion is most likely a red dwarf of spectral type M3V, around 0.3 times as massive as the Sun. The two are very close—possibly only 3 times the diameter of the Sun between them—and orbit each other every 1.15 days. The brighter star is deformed into an egg shape.

text: The  of elliptical galaxies paints them as galaxies where star formation finished after an initial burst at high-redshift, leaving them to shine with only their aging stars. Elliptical galaxies typically appear yellow-red, which is in contrast to the distinct blue tinge of most spiral galaxies. In spirals, this blue color emanates largely from the young, hot stars in their spiral arms. Very little star formation is thought to occur in elliptical galaxies, because of their lack of gas compared to spiral or irregular galaxies. However, in recent years, evidence has shown that a reasonable proportion (~25%) of these galaxies have residual gas reservoirs and low level star-formation. Researchers with the Herschel Space Observatory have speculated that the central black holes in elliptical galaxies keep the gas from cooling enough for star formation.

text: The  of elliptical galaxies paints them as galaxies where

text: star formation

text: finished after an initial burst at high-redshift, leaving them to shine with only their aging stars. Elliptical galaxies typically appear yellow-red, which is in contrast to the distinct blue tinge of most

text: spiral galaxies

text: . In spirals, this blue color emanates largely from the young, hot stars in their spiral arms. Very little

text: star formation

text: is thought to occur in elliptical galaxies, because of their lack of gas compared to spiral or irregular galaxies. However, in recent years, evidence has shown that a reasonable proportion (~25%) of these galaxies have residual gas reservoirs and low level star-formation. Researchers with the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: have speculated that the central black holes in elliptical galaxies keep the gas from cooling enough for star formation.

text: The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions, so the star has no source of energy. As a result, it cannot support itself by the heat generated by fusion against gravitational collapse, but is supported only by electron degeneracy pressure, causing it to be extremely dense. The physics of degeneracy yields a maximum mass for a non-rotating white dwarf, the Chandrasekhar limit—approximately 1.46 —beyond which it cannot be supported by electron degeneracy pressure. A carbon-oxygen white dwarf that approaches this mass limit, typically by mass transfer from a companion star, may explode as a type Ia supernova via a process known as carbon detonation. (SN 1006 is thought to be a famous example.)

text: The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions, so the star has no source of energy. As a result, it cannot support itself by the heat generated by fusion against

text: gravitational collapse

text: , but is supported only by

text: electron degeneracy pressure

text: , causing it to be extremely dense. The physics of degeneracy yields a maximum mass for a non-rotating white dwarf, the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: —approximately 1.46 —beyond which it cannot be supported by electron degeneracy pressure. A carbon-oxygen white dwarf that approaches this mass limit, typically by mass transfer from a companion star, may explode as a

text: type Ia supernova

text: via a process known as

text: carbon detonation

text: SN 1006

text: is thought to be a famous example.)

text: Centaurus  is a bright constellation in the southern sky. One of the largest constellations, Centaurus was included among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. In Greek mythology, Centaurus represents a centaur; a creature that is half human, half horse (another constellation named after a centaur is one from the zodiac: Sagittarius). Notable stars include Alpha Centauri, the nearest star system to the Solar System, its neighbour in the sky Beta Centauri, and V766 Centauri, one of the largest stars yet discovered. The constellation also contains Omega Centauri, the brightest globular cluster as visible from Earth and one of the largest known.

text: Centaurus  is a bright constellation in the

text: southern sky

text: . One of the

text: largest constellations

text: , Centaurus was included among the 48

text: constellation

text: s listed by the 2nd-century astronomer

text: Ptolemy

text: , and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. In

text: Greek mythology

text: , Centaurus represents a

text: centaur

text: ; a creature that is half human, half horse (another constellation named after a centaur is one from the

text: zodiac

text: Sagittarius

text: ). Notable stars include

text: Alpha Centauri

text: , the nearest star system to the

text: Solar System

text: , its neighbour in the sky

text: Beta Centauri

text: , and

text: V766 Centauri

text: , one of the largest stars yet discovered. The constellation also contains

text: Omega Centauri

text: , the brightest

text: globular cluster

text: as visible from Earth and one of the largest known.

text: It was thought that the solution of the Abraham–Lorentz force problem predicts that signals from the future affect the present, thus challenging intuition of cause and effect. For example, there are pathological solutions using the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac equation in which a particle accelerates in advance of the application of a force, so-called pre-acceleration solutions. One resolution of this problem was discussed by Yaghjian and is further discussed by Rohrlich and Medina.

text: It was thought that the solution of the Abraham–Lorentz force problem predicts that signals from the future affect the present, thus challenging intuition of

text: cause and effect

text: . For example, there are pathological solutions using the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac equation in which a particle accelerates in advance of the application of a force, so-called pre-acceleration solutions. One resolution of this problem was discussed by Yaghjian and is further discussed by Rohrlich and Medina.

text: Around half of the known B[e] stars could not be placed in any of these groups and were called unclassified B[e] stars (unclB[e]).  The unclB[e] stars have since been re-classified as FS CMa stars, a type of variable named for one of the earliest known B[e] stars.

text: Around half of the known B[e] stars could not be placed in any of these groups and were called unclassified B[e] stars (unclB[e]).  The unclB[e] stars have since been re-classified as

text: FS CMa

text: stars, a type of variable named for one of the earliest known B[e] stars.

text: The output of a particle accelerator can generally be directed towards multiple lines of experiments, one at a given time, by means of a deviating electromagnet. This makes it possible to operate multiple experiments without needing to move things around or shutting down the entire accelerator beam. Except for synchrotron radiation sources, the purpose of an accelerator is to generate high-energy particles for interaction with matter.

text: The output of a particle accelerator can generally be directed towards multiple lines of experiments, one at a given time, by means of a deviating

text: electromagnet

text: . This makes it possible to operate multiple experiments without needing to move things around or shutting down the entire accelerator beam. Except for synchrotron radiation sources, the purpose of an accelerator is to generate high-energy particles for interaction with matter.

text: The RFQ is a combined-function component that both accelerates and focuses the beam of charged particles.

text: Early calculations suggested that there might be white dwarfs whose luminosity varied with a period of around 10 seconds, but searches in the 1960s failed to observe this. The first variable white dwarf found was HL Tau 76; in 1965 and 1966, and was observed to vary with a period of approximately 12.5 minutes. The reason for this period being longer than predicted is that the variability of HL Tau 76, like that of the other pulsating variable white dwarfs known, arises from non-radial gravity wave pulsations. Known types of pulsating white dwarf include the DAV, or ZZ Ceti, stars, including HL Tau 76, with hydrogen-dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DA; DBV, or V777 Her, stars, with helium-dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DB; and GW Vir stars (sometimes subdivided into DOV and PNNV stars), with atmospheres dominated by helium, carbon, and oxygen. GW Vir stars are not, strictly speaking, white dwarfs, but are stars which are in a position on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram between the asymptotic giant branch and the white dwarf region. They may be called pre-white dwarfs. These variables all exhibit small (1%–30%) variations in light output, arising from a superposition of vibrational modes with periods of hundreds to thousands of seconds. Observation of these variations gives asteroseismological evidence about the interiors of white dwarfs.

text: Early calculations suggested that there might be white dwarfs whose

text: luminosity

text: varied

text: with a period of around 10 seconds, but searches in the 1960s failed to observe this. The first variable white dwarf found was

text: HL Tau 76

text: ; in 1965 and 1966, and was observed to vary with a period of approximately 12.5 minutes. The reason for this period being longer than predicted is that the variability of HL Tau 76, like that of the other pulsating variable white dwarfs known, arises from non-radial

text: gravity wave

text: pulsations. Known types of pulsating white dwarf include the DAV, or ZZ Ceti, stars, including HL Tau 76, with hydrogen-dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DA; DBV, or V777 Her, stars, with helium-dominated atmospheres and the spectral type DB; and

text: GW Vir stars

text: (sometimes subdivided into DOV and PNNV stars), with atmospheres dominated by helium, carbon, and oxygen. GW Vir stars are not, strictly speaking, white dwarfs, but are stars which are in a position on the

text: Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

text: between the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: and the white dwarf region. They may be called pre-white dwarfs. These variables all exhibit small (1%–30%) variations in light output, arising from a superposition of vibrational modes with periods of hundreds to thousands of seconds. Observation of these variations gives

text: asteroseismological

text: evidence about the interiors of white dwarfs.

text: Color–color diagrams allow for these effects to be isolated. As the color–color relationships of main sequence stars are well known, a theoretical main sequence can be plotted for reference, as is done with the solid black line in the example to the right. Interstellar dust scattering is also well understood, allowing bands to be drawn on a color–color diagram defining the region in which stars reddened by interstellar dust are expected to be observed, indicated on the color–color diagram by dashed lines. The typical axes for infrared color–color diagrams have (H–K) on the horizontal axis and (J–H) on the vertical axis (see infrared astronomy for information on band color designations). On a diagram with these axes, stars which fall to the right of the main sequence and the reddening bands drawn are significantly brighter in the K band than main sequence stars, including main sequence stars which have experienced reddening due to interstellar dust. Of the J, H, and K bands, K is the longest wavelength, so objects which are anomalously bright in the K band are said to exhibit infrared excess. These objects are likely protostellar in nature, with the excess radiation at long wavelengths caused by suppression by the reflection nebula in which the protostars are embedded. Color–color diagrams can be used then as a means of studying stellar formation, as the state of a star in its formation can be roughly determined by looking at its position on the diagram.

text: Color–color diagrams allow for these effects to be isolated. As the color–color relationships of

text: main sequence

text: stars are well known, a theoretical main sequence can be plotted for reference, as is done with the solid black line in the example to the right.

text: Interstellar dust

text: scattering is also well understood, allowing bands to be drawn on a color–color diagram defining the region in which stars

text: reddened

text: by interstellar dust are expected to be observed, indicated on the color–color diagram by dashed lines. The typical axes for infrared color–color diagrams have (H–K) on the horizontal axis and (J–H) on the vertical axis (see

text: infrared astronomy

text: for information on band color designations). On a diagram with these axes, stars which fall to the right of the main sequence and the reddening bands drawn are significantly brighter in the K band than main sequence stars, including main sequence stars which have experienced reddening due to interstellar dust. Of the J, H, and K bands, K is the longest wavelength, so objects which are anomalously bright in the K band are said to exhibit

text: infrared excess

text: . These objects are likely

text: protostellar

text: in nature, with the excess radiation at long wavelengths caused by suppression by the

text: reflection nebula

text: in which the protostars are embedded. Color–color diagrams can be used then as a means of studying stellar formation, as the state of a star in its formation can be roughly determined by looking at its position on the diagram.

text: Any star in the universe can be involved in a stellar collision; whether it is 'alive' (meaning fusion is still active in the star) or dead (with fusion no longer taking place). Examples include white dwarf stars, neutron stars, black holes, main sequence stars, giant stars, and supergiants. Differences in star types, masses, temperatures, and radii will result in different types of collisions or mergers.

text: Any star in the

text: universe

text: can be involved in a stellar collision; whether it is 'alive' (meaning fusion is still active in the star) or dead (with fusion no longer taking place). Examples include

text: white dwarf

text: stars,

text: neutron stars

text: black holes

text: main sequence stars

text: giant stars

text: , and

text: supergiants

text: . Differences in star types, masses, temperatures, and radii will result in different types of collisions or mergers.

text: Delta Canis Minoris (δ CMi, δ Canis Minoris) is a star in the constellation Canis Minor. It is one of three stars that share the Bayer designation Delta Canis Minoris in Johann Bayer's 1603 Uranometria atlas of bright stars. The Flamsteed designation for this star is 8 Canis Minoris, indicating it is the eighth star in the constellation Canis Minoris listed in John Flamsteed's 1712 star catalogue.

text: Delta Canis Minoris (δ CMi, δ Canis Minoris) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Canis Minor

text: . It is one of three stars that share the

text: Bayer designation

text: Delta Canis Minoris in

text: Johann Bayer

text: 's 1603

text: Uranometria

text: atlas of bright stars. The

text: Flamsteed designation

text: for this star is 8 Canis Minoris, indicating it is the eighth star in the constellation Canis Minoris listed in

text: John Flamsteed

text: 's 1712 star catalogue.

text: The disc gradually cools in what is known as the T Tauri star stage. Within this disc, the formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ices can occur, and these can coagulate into planetesimals. If the disc is sufficiently massive, the runaway accretions begin, resulting in the appearance of planetary embryos. The formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A sun-like star usually takes around 100 million years to form.

text: The disc gradually cools in what is known as the

text: T Tauri star

text: stage. Within this disc, the formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ices can occur, and these can coagulate into

text: planetesimal

text: s. If the disc is sufficiently massive, the runaway accretions begin, resulting in the appearance of planetary embryos. The formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A sun-like star usually takes around 100 million years to form.

text: The primary member of this system is a massive, B-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of B6 V. It is a close spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 3.854 days, an eccentricity of 0.04, and a combined visual magnitude of 5.30. At an angular separation of 3.28 arcseconds is a magnitude 8.46 A-type main sequence star with a classification of A0 Vp. Finally, a fourth member of the system is a magnitude 11.0 F-type main sequence star with a classification of F8V at an angular separation of 25.2 arcseconds from the primary.

text: The primary member of this system is a massive,

text: B-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of B6 V. It is a close

text: spectroscopic binary

text: with an

text: orbital period

text: of 3.854 days, an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.04, and a combined visual magnitude of 5.30. At an

text: angular separation

text: of 3.28

text: arcsecond

text: s is a magnitude 8.46

text: A-type main sequence star

text: with a classification of A0 Vp. Finally, a fourth member of the system is a magnitude 11.0

text: F-type main sequence star

text: with a classification of F8V at an angular separation of 25.2 arcseconds from the primary.

text: Particle accelerators in popular culture is about popular science books, fictional literature, feature films, TV series and other venues which include particle accelerators as part of their content. Particle physics, fictional or scientific, is an inherent part of this topic.

text: Particle accelerators in popular culture is about popular

text: science

text: books,

text: fiction

text: al literature,

text: feature film

text: s,

text: TV series

text: and other venues which include

text: particle accelerator

text: s as part of their content.

text: Particle physics

text: , fictional or scientific, is an inherent part of this topic.

text: Orion is mentioned in the oldest surviving works of Greek literature, which probably date back to the 7th or 8th century BC, but which are the products of an oral tradition with origins several centuries earlier. In Homer's Iliad Orion is described as a constellation, and the star Sirius is mentioned as his dog. In the Odyssey, Odysseus sees him hunting in the underworld with a bronze club, a great slayer of animals; he is also mentioned as a constellation, as the lover of the Goddess Dawn, as slain by Artemis, and as the most handsome of the earthborn. In the Works and Days of Hesiod, Orion is also a constellation, one whose rising and setting with the sun is used to reckon the year.

text: Orion is mentioned in the oldest surviving works of Greek literature, which probably date back to the 7th or 8th century BC, but which are the products of an oral tradition with origins several centuries earlier. In

text: Homer

text: 's

text: Iliad

text: Orion is described as a constellation, and the star

text: Sirius

text: is mentioned as his dog. In the

text: Odyssey

text: , Odysseus sees him hunting in the underworld with a bronze club, a great slayer of animals; he is also mentioned as a constellation, as the lover of the

text: Goddess Dawn

text: , as slain by

text: Artemis

text: , and as the most handsome of the earthborn. In the

text: Works and Days

text: of

text: Hesiod

text: , Orion is also a constellation, one whose rising and setting with the sun is used to reckon the year.

text: In 2014, Lombard starred in the pilot for the Lifetime post-apocalyptic drama series The Lottery.

text: In 2014, Lombard starred in the pilot for the

text: Lifetime

entity_name: Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction

text: post-apocalyptic

text: drama series

text: The Lottery

text: Starting around 1970, the temperature began to increase and is now over 90,000 K.  It is widely believed to be a born-again star, a post-asymptotic-giant-branch star which experienced a very late thermal pulse and began to fuse again.  An alternative explanation is that the outburst was a nova from an oxygen-neon white dwarf.  To explain difficulties with the nova theory, a merger has been proposed between a white dwarf and a normal companion star.

text: Starting around 1970, the temperature began to increase and is now over 90,000 K.  It is widely believed to be a born-again star, a

text: post-asymptotic-giant-branch

text: star which experienced a

text: very late thermal pulse

text: and began to fuse again.  An alternative explanation is that the outburst was a nova from an oxygen-neon

text: white dwarf

text: .  To explain difficulties with the nova theory, a merger has been proposed between a white dwarf and a normal companion star.

text: Located outside the triangle near Beta, Delta Trianguli Australis is the fourth-brightest star at apparent magnitude +3.8. It is a yellow giant of spectral type G2Ib-II and lies  away. A binary star, it has a 12th-magnitude companion star separated by 30 arcseconds from the primary. Lying halfway between Beta and Gamma, Epsilon Trianguli Australis is another double star. The primary component, Epsilon Trianguli Australis A, is an orange K-type sub-giant of spectral type K1.5III with an apparent magnitude of +4.11. The companion, Epsilon Trianguli Australis B (or HD 138510), is a white main sequence star of spectral type A9IV/V which has an apparent magnitude of +9.32, Zeta Trianguli Australis appears as a star of apparent magnitude +4.91 and spectral class F9V, but is actually a spectroscopic binary with a near companion, probably a red dwarf. The pair orbit each other once every 13 days. A young star, its proper motion indicates it is a member of the Ursa Major moving group. Iota Trianguli Australis shows itself to be a multiple star system composed of a yellow and a white star when seen though a 7.5 cm telescope. The brighter star has a spectral type of F4IV and is a spectroscopic binary whose components are two yellow-white stars which orbit each other every 39.88 days. The primary is a Gamma Doradus variable, pulsating over a period of 1.45 days. The fainter star is not associated with the system, hence the system is an optical double. HD 147018 is a Sun-like star of apparent magnitude 8.3 and spectral type G9V, which was found to have two exoplanets, HD 147018 b and HD 147018 c, in 2009.

text: Located outside the triangle near Beta,

text: Delta Trianguli Australis

text: is the fourth-brightest star at apparent magnitude +3.8. It is a yellow giant of spectral type G2Ib-II and lies  away. A

text: binary star

text: , it has a 12th-magnitude companion star separated by 30

text: arcseconds

text: from the primary. Lying halfway between Beta and Gamma,

text: Epsilon Trianguli Australis

text: is another double star. The primary component, Epsilon Trianguli Australis A, is an orange

text: K-type

text: sub-

text: giant

text: of spectral type K1.5III with an apparent magnitude of +4.11. The companion, Epsilon Trianguli Australis B (or HD 138510), is a white main sequence star of spectral type A9IV/V which has an apparent magnitude of +9.32,

text: Zeta Trianguli Australis

text: appears as a star of apparent magnitude +4.91 and spectral class F9V, but is actually a

text: spectroscopic binary

text: with a near companion, probably a

text: red dwarf

text: . The pair orbit each other once every 13 days. A young star, its proper motion indicates it is a member of the

text: Ursa Major moving group

text: Iota Trianguli Australis

text: shows itself to be a multiple star system composed of a yellow and a white star when seen though a 7.5 cm telescope. The brighter star has a spectral type of F4IV and is a spectroscopic binary whose components are two yellow-white stars which orbit each other every 39.88 days. The primary is a

text: Gamma Doradus variable

text: , pulsating over a period of 1.45 days. The fainter star is not associated with the system, hence the system is an

text: optical double

text: HD 147018

text: is a Sun-like star of apparent magnitude 8.3 and spectral type G9V, which was found to have two exoplanets,

text: HD 147018 b

text: and

text: HD 147018 c

text: , in 2009.

text: The first white dwarf discovered was in the triple star system of 40 Eridani, which contains the relatively bright main sequence star 40 Eridani A, orbited at a distance by the closer binary system of the white dwarf 40 Eridani B and the main sequence red dwarf 40 Eridani C. The pair 40 Eridani B/C was discovered by William Herschel on January 31, 1783; it was again observed by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve in 1825 and by Otto Wilhelm von Struve in 1851.  In 1910, it was discovered by Henry Norris Russell, Edward Charles Pickering and Williamina Fleming that despite being a dim star, 40 Eridani B was of spectral type A, or white.

text: The first white dwarf discovered was in the

text: triple star system

text: of

text: 40 Eridani

text: , which contains the relatively bright

text: main sequence

text: star

text: 40 Eridani A

text: , orbited at a distance by the closer

text: binary system

text: of the white dwarf

text: 40 Eridani B

text: and the

text: main sequence

text: red dwarf

text: 40 Eridani C

text: . The pair 40 Eridani B/C was discovered by

text: William Herschel

text: on January 31, 1783; it was again observed by

text: Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve

text: in 1825 and by

text: Otto Wilhelm von Struve

text: in 1851.  In 1910, it was discovered by

text: Henry Norris Russell

text: Edward Charles Pickering

text: and

text: Williamina Fleming

text: that despite being a dim star, 40 Eridani B was of

text: spectral type

text: A, or white.

text: K-type stars are orangish stars that are slightly cooler than the Sun. They make up about 12%, nearly one in eight, of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood. There are also giant K-type stars, which range from hypergiants like RW Cephei, to giants and supergiants, such as Arcturus, whereas orange dwarfs, like Alpha Centauri B, are main-sequence stars.

text: K-type stars are orangish stars that are slightly cooler than the Sun. They make up about 12%, nearly one in eight, of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood. There are also giant K-type stars, which range from

text: hypergiant

text: s like

text: RW Cephei

text: , to

text: giants

text: and

text: supergiant

text: s, such as

text: Arcturus

text: , whereas

text: orange dwarfs

text: , like

text: Alpha Centauri

text: B, are main-sequence stars.

text: Models of star formation by accretion from molecular clouds predict an upper limit to the mass a star can achieve before its radiation prevents further accretion.  The most simplistic accretion models at population I metallicities predict a limit as low as , but more complex theories allow masses several times higher.  An empirical limit of around  has become widely accepted.  R136a1 clearly exceeds all these limits, leading to development of new single star accretion models potentially removing the upper limit, and the potential for massive star formation by stellar mergers.

text: Models of star formation by accretion from molecular clouds predict an upper limit to the mass a star can achieve before its radiation prevents further accretion.  The most simplistic accretion models at

text: population I

text: metallicities predict a limit as low as , but more complex theories allow masses several times higher.  An empirical limit of around  has become widely accepted.  R136a1 clearly exceeds all these limits, leading to development of new single star accretion models potentially removing the upper limit, and the potential for massive star formation by stellar mergers.

text: While the astrophysical community has yet to settle on a single, universally favored model for the progenitors of short GRBs, the generally preferred model is the merger of two compact objects as a result of gravitational inspiral: two neutron stars, or a neutron star and a black hole. While thought to be rare in the Universe, a small number of cases of close neutron star - neutron star binaries are known in our Galaxy, and neutron star - black hole binaries are believed to exist as well. According to Einstein's theory of general relativity, systems of this nature will slowly lose energy due to gravitational radiation and the two degenerate objects will spiral closer and closer together, until in the last few moments, tidal forces rip the neutron star (or stars) apart and an immense amount of energy is liberated before the matter plunges into a single black hole. The whole process is believed to occur extremely quickly and be completely over within a few seconds, accounting for the short nature of these bursts. Unlike long-duration bursts, there is no conventional star to explode and therefore no supernova.

text: While the astrophysical community has yet to settle on a single, universally favored model for the progenitors of short GRBs, the generally preferred model is the merger of two compact objects as a result of gravitational inspiral: two neutron stars, or a neutron star and a black hole. While thought to be rare in the Universe, a small number of cases of close neutron star - neutron star binaries are known in our Galaxy, and neutron star - black hole binaries are believed to exist as well. According to Einstein's theory of

text: general relativity

text: , systems of this nature will slowly lose energy due to

text: gravitational radiation

text: and the two degenerate objects will spiral closer and closer together, until in the last few moments,

text: tidal forces

text: rip the neutron star (or stars) apart and an immense amount of energy is liberated before the matter plunges into a single black hole. The whole process is believed to occur extremely quickly and be completely over within a few seconds, accounting for the short nature of these bursts. Unlike long-duration bursts, there is no conventional star to explode and therefore no supernova.

text: Energetic helium nuclei may be produced by cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and other particle accelerators, but they are not normally referred to as "alpha particles."

text: Energetic helium nuclei may be produced by

text: cyclotron

text: s,

text: synchrotron

text: s, and other

text: particle accelerator

text: s, but they are not normally referred to as "alpha particles."

text: White Giant is a shuttlecraft on Red Dwarf that only features in the Red Dwarf novels and is never mentioned in the television series. It's never explained what the craft looks like.

text: Gliese 752 is a binary star system in the Aquila constellation. This system is relatively nearby, at a distance of about 19 light years. This system consists of two M-type stars. The primary star is the magnitude 9 Gliese (GJ) 752 A. The secondary star is the dim magnitude 17 Gliese (GJ) 752 B, more commonly referred to as VB 10. This stellar pair form an astrometric binary star system separated by about 74 arc seconds (~434 AU). This system is also known for its high proper motion of about 1 arc second a year.

text: Gliese 752 is a binary star system in the

text: Aquila

text: constellation

text: . This system is relatively nearby, at a distance of about 19 light years. This system consists of two

text: M-type

text: stars. The

text: primary star

text: is the

text: magnitude

text: 9 Gliese (GJ) 752 A. The

text: secondary star

text: is the dim

text: magnitude

text: 17 Gliese (GJ) 752 B, more commonly referred to as

text: VB 10

text: . This stellar pair form an

text: astrometric binary star system

text: separated by about 74 arc seconds (~434 AU). This system is also known for its high

text: proper motion

text: of about 1 arc second a year.

text: Both of these bright stars have at least one closer main sequence companion. Beta Tucanae B is a magnitude +13.5 M3-type star which is a close companion to Beta-1, being 2.4 arcseconds, or at least 100 AU away. Beta-2's companion, the 6th magnitude Beta Tucanae D, is another A-type star which is separated by approximately 0.38 arcseconds (16 AU) from Beta-2.

text: Both of these bright stars have at least one closer main sequence companion. Beta Tucanae B is a magnitude +13.5 M3-type star which is a close companion to Beta-1, being 2.4

text: arcsecond

text: s, or at least 100 AU away. Beta-2's companion, the 6th magnitude Beta Tucanae D, is another A-type star which is separated by approximately 0.38

text: arcsecond

text: s (16 AU) from Beta-2.

text: Star formation begins in relatively small molecular clouds called dense cores. Each dense core is initially in balance between self-gravity, which tends to compress the object, and both gas pressure and magnetic pressure, which tend to inflate it. As the dense core accrues mass from its larger, surrounding cloud, self-gravity begins to overwhelm pressure, and collapse begins. Theoretical modeling of an idealized spherical cloud initially supported only by gas pressure indicates that the collapse process spreads from the inside toward the outside. Spectroscopic observations of dense cores that do not yet contain stars indicate that contraction indeed occurs. So far, however, the predicted outward spread of the collapse region has not been observed.

text: Star formation begins in relatively small

text: molecular cloud

text: s called dense cores. Each dense core is initially in balance between self-gravity, which tends to compress the object, and both

text: gas pressure

text: and

text: magnetic pressure

text: , which tend to inflate it. As the dense core accrues mass from its larger, surrounding cloud, self-gravity begins to overwhelm pressure, and collapse begins. Theoretical modeling of an idealized spherical cloud initially supported only by gas pressure indicates that the collapse process spreads from the inside toward the outside. Spectroscopic observations of dense cores that do not yet contain stars indicate that contraction indeed occurs. So far, however, the predicted outward spread of the collapse region has not been observed.

text: Yūga Yamato began her career in Takarazuka in 1995. She was one of the young stars that were promoted by the company in 1999 (along with Sumire Haruno, the former top star for Flower Troupe and Hikaru Asami, the former top star for Snow Troupe). Before she was promoted to top star, she was considered as one of top-stars-in-waiting along with Kei Takashiro, the former top star for Cosmos Troupe, Kei Aran, the current top star for Star Troupe, Jun Sena, the current top star for Moon Troupe, and Natsuki Mizu, the current top star of Snow Troupe.

text: Yūga Yamato began her career in Takarazuka in 1995. She was one of the young stars that were promoted by the company in 1999 (along with

text: Sumire Haruno

text: , the former top star for Flower Troupe and

text: Hikaru Asami

text: , the former top star for Snow Troupe). Before she was promoted to top star, she was considered as one of top-stars-in-waiting along with

text: Kei Takashiro

text: , the former top star for Cosmos Troupe,

text: Kei Aran

text: , the current top star for Star Troupe,

text: Jun Sena

text: , the current top star for Moon Troupe, and

text: Natsuki Mizu

text: , the current top star of Snow Troupe.

text: Kroupa leads the research group on stellar populations and stellar dynamics at the University of Bonn. His research work began in 1987 in Australia with an investigation of Proxima Centauri. Kroupa is well known for his work for the distribution of stellar masses. In Cambridge in 1990–1992 by means of observational data on star counts and on binary stars and with detailed computations of stellar structure with Christopher A. Tout and Gerard F. Gilmore he deduced the contemporary, generally used canonical IMF (initial mass function), which describes the distribution of the star masses at their birth. In 2004 in Kiel together with Carsten Weidner he suggested the existence of a physical maximum star mass of approximately 150 solar masses. In Heidelberg he presented the first stellar-dynamic computations in 1993–1995 of star clusters, in which all stars are born as binary stars. He thus solved the problem that field populations have a significantly lower double star rate than star formation areas, because the binary stars are broken up as the star clusters evolve and disperse. He mathematically formulated and applied a theory of the evolution of binary stars (eigenevolution), created the method of dynamic population synthesis, and predicted the existence of binary stars forbidden by previous theory (forbidden binaries). He suggested in co-operation with Ingo Thies and Christian Theis in 2003–2004 in Kiel that brown dwarves and extrasolar planetary systems can develop in circumstellar disks due to passing stars which disturb the disks. Our Solar System is likely to have been shaped by such events.

text: Kroupa leads the research group on stellar populations and stellar dynamics at the University of Bonn. His research work began in 1987 in Australia with an investigation of

text: Proxima Centauri

text: . Kroupa is well known for his work for the distribution of stellar masses. In Cambridge in 1990–1992 by means of observational data on

text: star count

text: s and on

text: binary star

text: s and with detailed computations of stellar structure with Christopher A. Tout and

text: Gerard F. Gilmore

text: he deduced the contemporary, generally used canonical IMF (

text: initial mass function

text: ), which describes the distribution of the star masses at their birth. In 2004 in Kiel together with Carsten Weidner he suggested the existence of a physical

text: maximum star mass

text: of approximately 150 solar masses. In Heidelberg he presented the first stellar-dynamic computations in 1993–1995 of

text: star cluster

text: s, in which all stars are born as binary stars. He thus solved the problem that field populations have a significantly lower double star rate than star formation areas, because the binary stars are broken up as the star clusters evolve and disperse. He mathematically formulated and applied a theory of the evolution of binary stars (eigenevolution), created the method of dynamic population synthesis, and predicted the existence of binary stars forbidden by previous theory (forbidden binaries). He suggested in co-operation with Ingo Thies and Christian Theis in 2003–2004 in Kiel that

text: brown dwarves

text: and extrasolar

text: planetary system

text: s can develop in

text: circumstellar disk

text: s due to passing stars which disturb the disks. Our

text: Solar System

text: is likely to have been shaped by such events.

text: When deuterium (hydrogen-2) is bombarded with deuterium, the fusion reaction yields either tritium (hydrogen-3) plus a proton or helium-3 plus a neutron (). This is one of the most basic fusion reactions, and the foundation of the hydrogen bomb and the current research on controlled nuclear fusion. At that time the stability of these two reaction products was unknown, but based on existing theories Hans Bethe thought that tritium would be stable and helium-3 unstable. Alvarez proved the reverse by using his knowledge of the details of the 60-inch cyclotron operation. He tuned the machine to accelerate doubly ionized helium-3 nuclei and was able to get a beam of accelerated ions, thus using the cyclotron as a kind of super mass spectrometer. As the accelerated helium came from deep gas wells where it had been for millions of years, the helium-3 component had to be stable. Afterwards Alvarez produced the radioactive tritium using the cyclotron and the  reaction and measured its lifetime.

text: When

text: deuterium

text: (hydrogen-2) is bombarded with deuterium, the

text: fusion reaction

text: yields either

text: tritium

text: (hydrogen-3) plus a

text: proton

text: or

text: plus a

text: neutron

text: (). This is one of the most basic

text: fusion reaction

text: s, and the foundation of the

text: hydrogen bomb

text: and the current research on

text: controlled nuclear fusion

text: . At that time the stability of these two reaction products was unknown, but based on existing theories

text: Hans Bethe

text: thought that tritium would be stable and helium-3 unstable. Alvarez proved the reverse by using his knowledge of the details of the 60-inch

text: cyclotron

text: operation. He tuned the machine to accelerate doubly ionized helium-3 nuclei and was able to get a

text: beam of accelerated ions

text: , thus using the cyclotron as a kind of super

text: mass spectrometer

text: . As the accelerated helium came from deep

text: gas well

text: s where it had been for millions of years, the helium-3 component had to be stable. Afterwards Alvarez produced the radioactive tritium using the cyclotron and the  reaction and measured its lifetime.

text: The cluster is at most 10 million years old, as is evident from the presence of numerous stars of spectral type B of the main sequence, and the absence of evolved supergiants, as well as the existence of a population of stars of the pre-main-sequence; among its most massive stars there are two Herbig Be stars.

text: The cluster is at most 10 million years old, as is evident from the presence of numerous stars of

text: spectral type

text: B of the

text: main sequence

text: , and the absence of evolved supergiants, as well as the existence of a population of stars of the pre-main-sequence; among its most massive stars there are two Herbig Be stars.

text: α Ceti, traditionally called Menkar ("the nose"), is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 2.5, 220 light-years from Earth. It is a wide double star; the secondary is 93 Ceti, a blue-white hued star of magnitude 5.6, 440 light-years away. β Ceti, also called Deneb Kaitos and Diphda, is the brightest star in Cetus. It is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 2.0, 96 light-years from Earth. The traditional name "Deneb Kaitos" means "the whale's tail". γ Ceti, Kaffaljidhma ("head of the whale") is a very close double star. The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 3.5, 82 light-years from Earth, and the secondary is a blue-hued star of magnitude 6.6. Tau Ceti is noted for being the nearest Sun-like star at a distance of 11.9 light-years. It is a yellow-hued main-sequence star of magnitude 3.5.

text: α Ceti

text: , traditionally called Menkar ("the nose"), is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 2.5, 220 light-years from Earth. It is a wide

text: double star

text: ; the secondary is

text: 93 Ceti

text: , a blue-white hued star of magnitude 5.6, 440 light-years away.

text: β Ceti

text: , also called Deneb Kaitos and Diphda, is the brightest star in Cetus. It is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 2.0, 96 light-years from Earth. The traditional name "Deneb Kaitos" means "the whale's tail".

text: γ Ceti

text: , Kaffaljidhma ("head of the whale") is a very close double star. The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 3.5, 82 light-years from Earth, and the secondary is a blue-hued star of magnitude 6.6.

text: Tau Ceti

text: is noted for being the nearest

text: Sun-like star

text: at a distance of 11.9 light-years. It is a yellow-hued

text: main-sequence star

text: of magnitude 3.5.

text: Gamma Gruis (Gamma Gru, γ Gruis, γ Gru) is a star in the southern constellation of Grus. It is known as Al Dhanab, "the Tail (of the constellation of the Southern Fish)" and once belonged to the Ptolemaic constellation Piscis Austrinus. With an apparent visual magnitude of 3.0, it is the third-brightest star in the constellation.

text: Gamma Gruis (Gamma Gru, γ Gruis, γ Gru) is a

text: star

text: in the southern

text: constellation

text: of

text: Grus

text: . It is known as Al Dhanab, "the Tail (of the constellation of the

text: Southern Fish

text: )" and once belonged to the

text: Ptolemaic

text: constellation

text: Piscis Austrinus

text: . With an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 3.0, it is the third-brightest star in the constellation.

text: By 10 (100 trillion) years from now, star formation will end. This period, known as the Degenerate Era, will last until the degenerate remnants finally decay. The least massive stars take the longest to exhaust their hydrogen fuel (see stellar evolution). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are low-mass red dwarfs, with a mass of about 0.08 solar masses (), which have a lifetime of order 10 (10 trillion) years. Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of time over which star formation takes place. Once star formation ends and the least massive red dwarfs exhaust their fuel, nuclear fusion will cease. The low-mass red dwarfs will cool and become black dwarfs. The only objects remaining with more than planetary mass will be brown dwarfs, with mass less than , and degenerate remnants; white dwarfs, produced by stars with initial masses between about 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and neutron stars and black holes, produced by stars with initial masses over . Most of the mass of this collection, approximately 90%, will be in the form of white dwarfs. In the absence of any energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies will cool and become faint.

text: By 10 (100 trillion) years from now, star formation will end. This period, known as the Degenerate Era, will last until the degenerate remnants finally decay. The least massive stars take the longest to exhaust their hydrogen fuel (see

text: stellar evolution

text: ). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are low-mass

text: red dwarf

text: s, with a mass of about 0.08

text: solar mass

text: es (), which have a lifetime of order 10 (10 trillion) years. Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of time over which star formation takes place. Once star formation ends and the least massive red dwarfs exhaust their fuel,

text: nuclear fusion

text: will cease. The low-mass red dwarfs will cool and become

text: black dwarf

text: s. The only objects remaining with more than

text: planetary mass

text: will be

text: brown dwarf

text: s, with mass less than , and

text: degenerate remnants

text: white dwarf

text: s, produced by stars with initial masses between about 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black holes

text: , produced by stars with initial masses over . Most of the mass of this collection, approximately 90%, will be in the form of white dwarfs. In the absence of any energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies will cool and become faint.

text: Stars of this type are particularly rare; only 0.00003% of the main sequence are O-type stars. However, because they are usually very bright, they can be seen when further away than dimmer stars, and two of the 90 brightest stars as seen from Earth are O type. Due to high temperature and luminosity, O-type stars end their lives rather quickly in violent supernova explosions, resulting in black holes or neutron stars.  Most of these stars are young massive main sequence, giant, or supergiant stars, but the central stars of planetary nebulae, old low-mass stars near the end of their lives, also usually have O spectra.

text: Stars of this type are particularly rare; only 0.00003% of the

text: main sequence

text: are O-type stars. However, because they are usually very bright, they can be seen when further away than dimmer stars, and two of the 90

text: brightest stars as seen from Earth

text: are O type. Due to high temperature and luminosity, O-type stars end their lives rather quickly in violent

text: supernova

text: explosions, resulting in

text: black hole

text: s or

text: neutron star

text: s.  Most of these stars are young massive main sequence, giant, or supergiant stars, but the central stars of

text: planetary nebula

text: e, old low-mass stars near the end of their lives, also usually have O spectra.

text: Because low-mass red dwarfs are fully convective, helium does not accumulate at the core, and compared to larger stars such as the Sun, they can burn a larger proportion of their hydrogen before leaving the main sequence. As a result, red dwarfs have estimated lifespans far longer than the present age of the universe, and stars less than  have not had time to leave the main sequence. The lower the mass of a red dwarf, the longer the lifespan. It is believed that the lifespan of these stars exceeds the expected 10 billion year lifespan of our Sun by the third or fourth power of the ratio of the solar mass to their masses; thus a  red dwarf may continue burning for 10 trillion years. As the proportion of hydrogen in a red dwarf is consumed, the rate of fusion declines and the core starts to contract. The gravitational energy released by this size reduction is converted into heat, which is carried throughout the star by convection.

text: Because low-mass red dwarfs are fully convective, helium does not accumulate at the core, and compared to larger stars such as the Sun, they can burn a larger proportion of their hydrogen before leaving the

text: main sequence

text: . As a result, red dwarfs have estimated lifespans far longer than the present age of the universe, and stars less than  have not had time to leave the main sequence. The lower the mass of a red dwarf, the longer the lifespan. It is believed that the lifespan of these stars exceeds the expected 10 billion year lifespan of our Sun by the third or fourth power of the ratio of the solar mass to their masses; thus a  red dwarf may continue burning for 10 trillion years. As the proportion of hydrogen in a red dwarf is consumed, the rate of fusion declines and the core starts to contract. The gravitational energy released by this size reduction is converted into heat, which is carried throughout the star by convection.

text: Every 3.6 days the two stars in this system revolve around each other.  Although the stars are in very tight orbit, both stars in the system are detached.

text: K-type main-sequence stars may be candidates for supporting extraterrestrial life. They remain stable in the main phase longer than the Sun, allowing more time for life to form on a planet around a K-type main-sequence star. These stars are known as "Goldilocks stars" and they emit enough radiation in the non-UV ray spectrum to provide a temperature that allows liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet orbiting around a K-type main-sequence star in the habitable zone.  The planet's habitable zone,  ranging from 0.1–0.4 to 0.3–1.3 astronomical units (AU), depending on the size of the star, is often far enough from the star so as not to be tidally locked to the star, and to have a sufficiently low solar flare activity not to be lethal to life. In comparison, red dwarf stars have too much solar activity and quickly tidally lock the planets in their habitable zones, making them less suitable for life. The odds of intelligent life arising may be better on planets around K-type main-sequence stars than around Sun-like stars, given the extra time available for it to evolve. Few planets thus far have been found around K-type main-sequence stars, but those that have are potential candidates for extraterrestrial life.

text: K-type main-sequence star

text: s may be candidates for supporting

text: extraterrestrial life

text: . They remain stable in the main phase longer than the Sun, allowing more time for

text: life to form

text: on a planet around a K-type main-sequence star. These stars are known as "Goldilocks stars" and they emit enough

text: radiation

text: in the non-

text: UV ray spectrum

text: to provide a temperature that allows liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet orbiting around a K-type main-sequence star in the habitable zone.  The planet's habitable zone,  ranging from 0.1–0.4 to 0.3–1.3

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU), depending on the size of the star, is often far enough from the star so as not to be tidally locked to the star, and to have a sufficiently low solar flare activity not to be lethal to life. In comparison, red dwarf stars have too much solar activity and quickly tidally lock the planets in their habitable zones, making them less suitable for life. The odds of intelligent life arising may be better on planets around K-type main-sequence stars than around Sun-like stars, given the extra time available for it to evolve. Few planets thus far have been found around K-type main-sequence stars, but those that have are potential candidates for extraterrestrial life.

text: In addition to the Nebula award in 1970 and the Hugo and Locus awards in 1971 for Ringworld, Niven won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story for "Neutron Star" in 1967. He won the same award in 1972, for "Inconstant Moon", and in 1975 for "The Hole Man". In 1976, he won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette for "The Borderland of Sol".

text: In addition to the Nebula award in 1970 and the Hugo and Locus awards in 1971 for Ringworld, Niven won the

text: Hugo Award for Best Short Story

text: for "

text: Neutron Star

text: " in 1967. He won the same award in 1972, for "

text: Inconstant Moon

text: ", and in 1975 for "

text: The Hole Man

text: ". In 1976, he won the

text: Hugo Award for Best Novelette

text: for "

text: The Borderland of Sol

text: If core collapse occurs during a supergiant phase when the star still has a hydrogen envelope, the result is a Type II supernova. The rate of mass loss for luminous stars depends on the metallicity and luminosity.  Extremely luminous stars at near solar metallicity will lose all their hydrogen before they reach core collapse and so will not form a type II supernova.  At low metallicity, all stars will reach core collapse with a hydrogen envelope but sufficiently massive stars collapse directly to a black hole without producing a visible supernova.

text: The Stars did not have an official team logo as professional and collegiate teams have today. It was not common practice for teams to have such standardized team symbols in the 1930s and 1940s. The Stars wore uniforms with red and navy blue decoration. The cap most commonly associated today with the Stars is their 1938 cap, seen above, which has a navy crown, red brim, and white star with a red sanserif P. For most of their history, they wore a white cap with a red brim, and red sanserif P as seen to the left. Another style cap worn by the Stars was an all navy cap with a red P.

text: The stellar classification of B2 III indicates this is a giant star. The effective temperature of the star's outer envelope is 24,090 K, giving it the blue-white hue of a B-type star. With an age of around 25 million years, it is near the end of its hydrogen phase, where hydrogen is fused into the element helium, and transferring into a red supergiant star. At about 8.8 solar masses, it may have enough mass to end its life as a Type II supernova, but there is the possibility of Beta Lupi becoming a white dwarf.

text: The

text: stellar classification

text: of B2 III indicates this is a

text: giant star

text: . The

text: effective temperature

text: of the star's outer envelope is 24,090 K, giving it the blue-white hue of a B-type star. With an age of around 25 million years, it is near the end of its

text: hydrogen phase

text: , where hydrogen is fused into the

text: element

text: helium

text: , and transferring into a

text: red supergiant

text: star. At about 8.8

text: solar mass

text: es, it may have enough mass to end its life as a

text: Type II supernova

text: , but there is the possibility of Beta Lupi becoming a

text: white dwarf

text: Cannon manually classified more stars in a lifetime than anyone else, with a total of around 350,000 stars.  She discovered 300 variable stars, five novas, and one spectroscopic binary, creating a bibliography that included about 200,000 references.  Cannon could classify three stars a minute just by looking at their spectral patterns and, if using a magnifying glass, could classify stars down to the ninth magnitude, around 16 times fainter than the human eye can see.

text: Cannon manually classified more stars in a lifetime than anyone else, with a total of around 350,000 stars.  She discovered 300

text: variable stars

text: , five

text: novas

text: , and one

text: spectroscopic binary

text: , creating a

text: bibliography

text: that included about 200,000 references.  Cannon could classify three stars a minute just by looking at their spectral patterns and, if using a magnifying glass, could classify stars down to the ninth magnitude, around 16 times fainter than the human eye can see.

text: Plasma acceleration is a technique for accelerating charged particles, such as electrons, positrons and ions, using an electric field associated with electron plasma wave or other high-gradient plasma structures (like shock and sheath fields). The plasma acceleration structures are created either using ultra-short laser pulses or energetic particle beams that are matched to the plasma parameters. These techniques offer a way to build high performance particle accelerators of much smaller size than conventional devices. The basic concepts of plasma acceleration and its possibilities were originally conceived by Toshiki Tajima and Prof. John M. Dawson of UCLA in 1979. Initial designs of experiment for "wakefield" were conceived at UCLA by the group of Prof. Chan Joshi. Current experimental devices show accelerating gradients several orders of magnitude better than current particle accelerators.

text: Plasma acceleration is a technique for accelerating

text: charged particle

text: s, such as

text: electron

text: s,

text: positron

text: s and

text: ion

text: s, using an

text: electric field

text: associated with

text: electron plasma wave

text: or other high-gradient plasma structures (like shock and sheath fields). The plasma acceleration structures are created either using ultra-short

text: laser

text: pulses or energetic particle beams that are matched to the plasma parameters. These techniques offer a way to build high performance

text: particle accelerator

text: s of much smaller size than conventional devices. The basic concepts of plasma acceleration and its possibilities were originally conceived by

text: Toshiki Tajima

text: and Prof.

text: John M. Dawson

text: of

text: UCLA

text: in 1979. Initial designs of experiment for "wakefield" were conceived at UCLA by the group of

text: Prof. Chan Joshi

text: . Current experimental devices show accelerating gradients several orders of magnitude better than current particle accelerators.

text: Population II, or metal-poor stars, are those with relatively little metal. The idea of a relatively small amount must be kept in perspective as even metal-rich astronomical objects contain low percentages of any element other than hydrogen or helium; metals constitute only a tiny percentage of the overall chemical makeup of the universe, even 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang. However, metal-poor objects are even more primitive. These objects formed during an earlier time of the universe. Intermediate population I stars are common in the bulge near the centre of our galaxy, whereas population II stars found in the galactic halo are older and thus more metal-poor. Globular clusters also contain high numbers of population II stars. It is thought that population II stars created all the other elements in the periodic table, except the more unstable ones. An interesting characteristic of population II stars is that despite their lower overall metallicity, they often have a higher ratio of alpha elements (O, Si, Ne, etc.) relative to Fe as compared to population I stars; current theory suggests this is the result of Type II supernovae being more important contributors to the interstellar medium at the time of their formation, whereas Type Ia supernovae metal enrichment came later in the universe's evolution.

text: Population II, or metal-poor stars, are those with relatively little metal. The idea of a relatively small amount must be kept in perspective as even metal-rich astronomical objects contain low percentages of any element other than hydrogen or helium; metals constitute only a tiny percentage of the overall chemical makeup of the universe, even 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang. However, metal-poor objects are even more primitive. These objects formed during an earlier time of the universe. Intermediate population I stars are common in the

text: bulge

text: near the centre of

text: our galaxy

text: , whereas population II stars found in the

text: galactic halo

text: are older and thus more metal-poor.

text: Globular clusters

text: also contain high numbers of population II stars. It is thought that population II stars created all the other

text: elements

text: in the

text: periodic table

text: , except the more unstable ones. An interesting characteristic of population II stars is that despite their lower overall metallicity, they often have a higher ratio of

text: alpha elements

text: O

text: Si

text: Ne

text: , etc.) relative to

text: Fe

text: as compared to population I stars; current theory suggests this is the result of Type II supernovae being more important contributors to the

text: interstellar medium

text: at the time of their formation, whereas Type Ia supernovae metal enrichment came later in the universe's evolution.

text: They are also referenced here as Neutron Slaves. They were used to mine Neutron Stars and many other ultra-dense gravity sites. They rebelled against their slave masters and began manufacturing a drug called "Krush" from the surface of Neutron Stars. They are members of the Black Hole Sons and it seems they are led by a being called The Mind who is currently held prisoner in a Nova Corps ship.

text: They are also referenced here as Neutron Slaves. They were used to mine Neutron Stars and many other ultra-dense gravity sites. They rebelled against their slave masters and began manufacturing a drug called "Krush" from the surface of Neutron Stars. They are members of the Black Hole Sons and it seems they are led by a being called The Mind who is currently held prisoner in a

text: Nova Corps

text: ship.

text: At age 22, Rinna appeared in the 1985 John Parr "Naughty Naughty" music video as the passenger in Parr's car. Rinna later appeared as the girlfriend to Jason Bateman's character in several episodes of The Hogan Family in 1990. In 1992, she received national recognition when she first starred on NBC's Days of Our Lives as Billie Reed. She departed in 1995, though reprised the role from 2002 to 2003. She later switched from daytime to primetime, portraying Taylor McBride on Aaron Spelling's Melrose Place from 1996 to 1998. Rinna has starred in two projects opposite husband Harry Hamlin, the teen crime-drama Veronica Mars, and the Lifetime movie Sex, Lies & Obsession. Her previous Lifetime movie, Another Woman's Husband, boasted one of the highest ratings for a movie on Lifetime since 1999. She has also appeared in Hannah Montana in the role of Mr. Dontzig's cousin Francesca. She also guest-starred on an episode of Movie Stars for the WB, the first ever on-screen appearance she shared opposite her husband. Rinna got her first role in the feature film Good Advice, starring Charlie Sheen and Jon Lovitz, and recently appeared in an episode of HBO's Entourage. In 2009, Rinna stated that she would love to reprise her role of Taylor McBride on CW's revival Melrose Place, if given the offer, however the series was cancelled after only one season.

text: At age 22, Rinna appeared in the 1985

text: John Parr

text: "Naughty Naughty" music video as the passenger in Parr's car. Rinna later appeared as the girlfriend to

text: Jason Bateman

text: 's character in several episodes of

text: The Hogan Family

text: in 1990. In 1992, she received national recognition when she first starred on NBC's

text: Days of Our Lives

text: as

text: Billie Reed

text: . She departed in 1995, though reprised the role from 2002 to 2003. She later switched from daytime to primetime, portraying Taylor McBride on

text: Aaron Spelling

text: 's

text: Melrose Place

text: from 1996 to 1998. Rinna has starred in two projects opposite husband

text: Harry Hamlin

text: , the teen crime-drama

text: Veronica Mars

text: , and the Lifetime movie Sex, Lies & Obsession. Her previous Lifetime movie, Another Woman's Husband, boasted one of the highest ratings for a movie on Lifetime since 1999. She has also appeared in Hannah Montana in the role of Mr. Dontzig's cousin Francesca. She also guest-starred on an episode of Movie Stars for the

text: WB

text: , the first ever on-screen appearance she shared opposite her husband. Rinna got her first role in the feature film

text: Good Advice

text: , starring

text: Charlie Sheen

text: and

text: Jon Lovitz

text: , and recently appeared in an episode of HBO's

text: Entourage

text: . In 2009, Rinna stated that she would love to reprise her role of Taylor McBride on CW's revival

text: Melrose Place

text: , if given the offer, however the series was cancelled after only one season.

text: Many advanced D-STAR features rely on internet connections although simplex, repeated and crossband gateway voice and data communications do not. During widespread disasters that compromise commercial telecommunications infrastructure, D-STAR systems (as well as other modes that rely on the internet) may suffer outages or feature degradation that impacts operations. Without simulating such outages during drills, it is difficult to assess the impact of or establish D-STAR service recovery procedures in the event of such failures. As of the fall of 2011, there has been almost no discussion in the ham radio literature regarding actual drills where D-STAR systems were tested with completely failed or even intermittent telecommunications infrastructure. Comprehensive emergency communications plans used by ARES and other such organizations should address the possibility that such systems may not function as intended during major disasters.

text: An asterism is a pattern of stars recognized in the Earth's night sky and may be part of an official constellation. It may also be composed of stars from more than one constellation. The stars of the main asterism within a constellation are usually given Greek letters in their order of brightness, the so-called Bayer designation introduced by Johann Bayer in 1603. A total of 1,564 stars are so identified, out of approximately 10,000 stars visible to the naked eye.

text: An asterism is a pattern of stars recognized in the Earth's night sky and may be part of an official constellation. It may also be composed of stars from more than one constellation. The stars of the main asterism within a constellation are usually given Greek letters in their order of brightness, the so-called

text: Bayer designation

text: introduced by

text: Johann Bayer

text: in 1603. A total of 1,564 stars are so identified, out of approximately 10,000 stars visible to the

text: naked eye

text: One of the interests of astronomy is to determine how many stars there are of each of several types that stars can be categorized into, and how these stars are distributed in space.

text: The first stars, most likely Population III stars, form and start the process of turning the light elements that were formed in the Big Bang (hydrogen, helium and lithium) into heavier elements. However, as yet there have been no observed Population III stars, and understanding of them is currently based on computational models of their formation and evolution.  Fortunately  observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation can be used to date when star formation began in earnest.  Analysis of such observations made by the European Space Agency's Planck telescope, as reported by BBC News in early February, 2015, concludes that the first generation of stars lit up 560 million years after the Big Bang.

text: The first stars, most likely

text: Population III

text: stars, form and start the process of turning the light elements that were formed in the Big Bang (hydrogen, helium and lithium) into heavier elements. However, as yet there have been no observed Population III stars, and understanding of them is currently based on computational models of their formation and evolution.  Fortunately  observations of the

text: Cosmic Microwave Background

text: radiation can be used to date when star formation began in earnest.  Analysis of such observations made by the European Space Agency's Planck telescope, as reported by BBC News in early February, 2015, concludes that the first generation of stars lit up 560 million years after the Big Bang.

text: Theory and computer simulations predicted the formation of massive stars, from gas clouds containing only hydrogen and helium, within a few hundred million years after the Big Bang . The first massive stars died in supernova explosions which ejected heavier elements into the gas,  that formed the next generations of stars. The element composition of a star is an indirect indication of the star's generation and its previous star generation.The mass distribution of the first generation stars is key to understanding the formation of the Universe's structure, chemical enrichment, and large stellar structures like galaxies.No evidence of supernovae from the very massive first generation stars has been found in the chemical composition of the Milky Way stars.

text: Theory and computer simulations predicted the formation of massive stars, from gas clouds containing only hydrogen and helium, within a few hundred million years after the

text: Big Bang

text: . The first massive stars died in supernova explosions which ejected heavier elements into the gas,  that formed the next generations of stars. The element composition of a star is an indirect indication of the star's generation and its previous star generation.The mass distribution of the first generation stars is key to understanding the formation of the Universe's structure, chemical enrichment, and large stellar structures like galaxies.No evidence of supernovae from the very massive first generation stars has been found in the chemical composition of the

text: Milky Way

text: stars.

text: Newly formed stars are known as pre-main-sequence stars during the stage of stellar evolution before they reach the main-sequence. Stars in this stage (ages <10 million years) produce X-rays in their stellar coronae. However, their X-ray emission is 10 to 10 times stronger than for main-sequence stars of similar masses.

text: Newly formed stars are known as

text: pre-main-sequence star

text: s during the stage of stellar evolution before they reach the

text: main-sequence

text: . Stars in this stage (ages <10 million years) produce X-rays in their stellar coronae. However, their X-ray emission is 10 to 10 times stronger than for main-sequence stars of similar masses.

text: The four dominant stars have an apparent magnitude of 1.5 or brighter. The reason why they are called "Royal" is that they appear to stand aside from the other stars in the sky. The four stars, Aldebaran, Regulus, Antares, Fomalhaut, are the brightest stars in their constellations and among the 25 brightest stars in the night sky. The Persians considered these stars to be the four guardians of the heavens. They marked the seasonal changes and marked the equinoxes and solstices. Aldebaran watched the Eastern sky and was the dominant star in the Taurus constellation, Regulus watched the North and was the dominant star in the Leo constellation, Antares watched the West and was the alpha star in Scorpio, and Fomalhaut watched the Southern sky and was the brightest star in Piscis Austrinus (sharing the same longitude with the star Sadalmelik which is the predominant star in Aquarius). Aldebaran marked the vernal equinox and Antares marked the autumnal equinox, while Regulus marked the Summer Solstice and Fomalhaut the Winter Solstice. While watching the sky, the dominant star would appear in its season, each having a time of the year when most noticeable. Regulus was seen as the main star because it was in the constellation of Leo, giving it the power of the lion, signifying the strength of kings with large implications.

text: The four dominant stars have an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 1.5 or brighter. The reason why they are called "Royal" is that they appear to stand aside from the other stars in the sky. The four stars,

text: Aldebaran

text: Regulus

text: Antares

text: Fomalhaut

text: , are the brightest stars in their constellations and among the 25 brightest stars in the night sky. The Persians considered these stars to be the four guardians of the heavens. They marked the seasonal changes and marked the

text: equinoxes

text: and

text: solstices

text: Aldebaran

text: watched the Eastern sky and was the dominant star in the

text: Taurus constellation

text: Regulus

text: watched the North and was the dominant star in the

text: Leo constellation

text: Antares

text: watched the West and was the alpha star in

text: Scorpio

text: , and

text: Fomalhaut

text: watched the Southern sky and was the brightest star in

text: Piscis Austrinus

text: (sharing the same longitude with the star

text: Sadalmelik

text: which is the predominant star in

text: Aquarius

text: Aldebaran

text: marked the

text: vernal equinox

text: and

text: Antares

text: marked the

text: autumnal equinox

text: , while

text: Regulus

text: marked the

text: Summer Solstice

text: and

text: Fomalhaut

text: the

text: Winter Solstice

text: . While watching the sky, the dominant star would appear in its season, each having a time of the year when most noticeable.

text: Regulus

text: was seen as the main star because it was in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Leo

text: , giving it the power of the

text: lion

text: , signifying the strength of kings with large implications.

text: Rees was born on 23 June 1942 in York, England. After a peripatetic life during the war his parents, both teachers, settled with Rees, an only child, in a rural part of Shropshire near the border with Wales. There, his parents founded Bedstone College, a boarding school based on progressive educational concepts that continues to thrive to this day. He was educated at Bedstone College, then from the age of 13 at Shrewsbury School, Shropshire. He studied for the Mathematics tripos at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating with first class. He then undertook post-graduate research at Cambridge and completed a PhD degree under Dennis Sciama in 1967. Rees's post-graduate work in astrophysics in the mid-1960s coincided with an explosion of new discoveries, with breakthroughs ranging from confirmation of the big bang, the discovery of neutron stars and black holes, and a host of other revelations. Martin Rees is an atheist and has criticised militant atheists for being too hostile to religion.

text: Rees was born on 23 June 1942 in

text: York

text: England

text: . After a peripatetic life during the war his parents, both teachers, settled with Rees, an only child, in a rural part of Shropshire near the border with Wales. There, his parents founded Bedstone College, a boarding school based on progressive educational concepts that continues to thrive to this day. He was educated at

text: Bedstone College

text: , then from the age of 13 at

text: Shrewsbury School

text: , Shropshire. He studied for the

text: Mathematics

text: tripos

text: at

text: Trinity College, Cambridge

text: , graduating with

entity_name: British undergraduate degree classification

text: first class

text: . He then undertook post-graduate research at Cambridge and completed a PhD degree under

text: Dennis Sciama

text: in 1967. Rees's post-graduate work in astrophysics in the mid-1960s coincided with an explosion of new discoveries, with breakthroughs ranging from confirmation of the big bang, the discovery of neutron stars and black holes, and a host of other revelations. Martin Rees is an atheist and has criticised militant atheists for being too hostile to religion.

text: As a star's mass is reduced by star lifting its rate of nuclear fusion will decrease, reducing the amount of energy available to the star lifting process but also reducing the gravity that needs to be overcome. Theoretically, it would be possible to remove an arbitrarily large portion of a star's total mass given sufficient time. In this manner a civilization could control the rate at which its star uses fuel, optimizing the star's power output and lifespan to its needs. The hydrogen and helium extracted in the process could also be used as fusion reactor fuel. Alternatively, the material could be assembled into additional smaller stars, to improve the efficiency of its use. Theoretically all the energy of the matter lifted from a star could be harvested if it is made into small black holes, via the mechanism of Hawking Radiation.

text: As a star's mass is reduced by star lifting its rate of nuclear fusion will decrease, reducing the amount of energy available to the star lifting process but also reducing the gravity that needs to be overcome. Theoretically, it would be possible to remove an arbitrarily large portion of a star's total mass given sufficient time. In this manner a civilization could control the rate at which its star uses fuel, optimizing the star's power output and lifespan to its needs. The hydrogen and helium extracted in the process could also be used as fusion reactor fuel. Alternatively, the material could be assembled into additional smaller stars, to improve the efficiency of its use. Theoretically all the energy of the matter lifted from a star could be harvested if it is made into small

text: black holes

text: , via the mechanism of

text: Hawking Radiation

text: As the galactic plane passes through it, Serpens Cauda contains many massive OB stars. Several of these are visible to the naked eye, such as NW Serpentis, an early Be star that has been found to be somewhat variable. The variability is interesting; according to one study, it could be one of the first discovered hybrids between Beta Cephei variables and slowly pulsating B stars. Although not visible to the naked eye, HD 167971 (MY Serpentis) is a Beta Lyrae variable triple system consisting of three very hot O-type stars. A member of the cluster NGC 6604, the two eclipsing stars are both blue giants, with one being of the very early spectral type O7.5III. The remaining star is either a blue giant or supergiant of a late O or early B spectral type. Also an eclipsing binary, the HD 166734 system consists of two O-type blue supergiants in orbit around each other. Less extreme in terms of mass and temperature is HD 161701, a spectroscopic binary consisting of a B-type primary and an Ap secondary, although it is the only known spectroscopic binary to consist of a star with excess of mercury and manganese and an Ap star.

text: As the

text: galactic plane

text: passes through it, Serpens Cauda contains many massive

text: OB star

text: s. Several of these are visible to the naked eye, such as

text: NW Serpentis

text: , an early

text: Be star

text: that has been found to be somewhat variable. The variability is interesting; according to one study, it could be one of the first discovered hybrids between

text: Beta Cephei variable

text: s and slowly pulsating B stars. Although not visible to the naked eye,

text: HD 167971

text: (MY Serpentis) is a

text: Beta Lyrae variable

text: triple system consisting of three very hot

text: O-type star

text: s. A member of the cluster

text: NGC 6604

text: , the two eclipsing stars are both blue giants, with one being of the very early spectral type O7.5III. The remaining star is either a blue giant or

text: supergiant

text: of a late O or early B spectral type. Also an eclipsing binary, the

text: HD 166734

text: system consists of two O-type blue supergiants in orbit around each other. Less extreme in terms of mass and temperature is

text: HD 161701

text: , a spectroscopic binary consisting of a

text: B-type

text: primary and an

text: Ap

text: secondary, although it is the only known spectroscopic binary to consist of a star with excess of

text: mercury

text: and

text: manganese

text: and an Ap star.

text: This binary star system consists of a red giant (Mira, designated Mira A) undergoing mass loss and a high temperature white dwarf companion (Mira B) that is accreting mass from the primary. Such an arrangement of stars is known as a symbiotic system and this is the closest such symbiotic pair to the Sun. Examination of this system by the Chandra X-ray Observatory shows a direct mass exchange along a bridge of matter from the primary to the white dwarf. The two stars are currently separated by about 70 astronomical units.

text: This binary star system consists of a red giant (Mira, designated Mira A) undergoing mass loss and a high temperature

text: white dwarf

text: companion (Mira B) that is accreting mass from the primary. Such an arrangement of stars is known as a symbiotic system and this is the closest such symbiotic pair to the

text: Sun

text: . Examination of this system by the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: shows a direct mass exchange along a bridge of matter from the primary to the white dwarf. The two stars are currently separated by about 70

text: astronomical unit

text: s.

text: Recent astrophysical models suggest that red dwarfs of  may stay on the main sequence for some six to twelve trillion years, gradually increasing in both temperature and luminosity, and take several hundred billion more to collapse, slowly, into a white dwarf.  Such stars will not become red giants as they are fully convective and will not develop a degenerate helium core with a shell burning hydrogen.  Instead, hydrogen fusion will proceed until almost the whole star is helium.

text: Recent astrophysical models suggest that

text: red dwarf

text: s of  may stay on the main sequence for some six to twelve trillion years, gradually increasing in both

text: temperature

text: and

text: luminosity

text: , and take several hundred billion more to collapse, slowly, into a

text: white dwarf

text: .  Such stars will not become red giants as they are fully convective and will not develop a degenerate helium core with a shell burning hydrogen.  Instead, hydrogen fusion will proceed until almost the whole star is helium.

text: Fuels that produce energy by the process of nuclear fusion are currently not utilized by humans but are the main source of fuel for stars. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as hydrogen which will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising temperature so high all materials would turn into plasma, and allow nuclei to collide and stick together with each other before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy.

text: Fuels that produce energy by the process of

text: nuclear fusion

text: are currently not utilized by humans but are the main source of fuel for

text: star

text: s. Fusion fuels tend to be light elements such as

text: hydrogen

text: which will combine easily. Energy is required to start fusion by raising temperature so high all materials would turn into plasma, and allow nuclei to collide and stick together with each other before repelling due to electric charge. This process is called fusion and it can give out energy.

text: Red dwarfs are stars of 0.08-0.4 solar masses and are also referred to as class M stars.  Red dwarfs have sufficient hydrogen mass to sustain hydrogen fusion to helium via the proton-proton chain reaction, but do not have sufficient mass to create the temperatures and pressures necessary to fuse helium to carbon, nitrogen or oxygen (see CNO cycle).  However, all their hydrogen is available for fusion, and the low temperatures and pressures mean the lifetimes of these stars on the main sequence from zero point to turn off point is measured in trillions of years.  For example, the lifespan of a star of 0.1 solar masses is 6 trillion years.  This lifespan greatly exceeds the current age of the universe, therefore all red dwarfs are main sequence stars.  Even though extremely long lived, those stars will eventually run out of fuel.  Once all of the available hydrogen has been fused stellar nucleosynthesis stops and the remaining heated helium slowly cools by radiation.  Gravity will contract the star from lack of expansive pressure from fusion until electron degeneracy pressure compensates.  The cooling star is now off the main sequence and is known as a helium white dwarf.

text: Red dwarfs

text: are stars of 0.08-0.4 solar masses and are also referred to as class M stars.  Red dwarfs have sufficient

text: hydrogen

text: mass to sustain hydrogen

text: fusion

text: to

text: helium

text: via the

text: proton-proton chain reaction

text: , but do not have sufficient mass to create the temperatures and pressures necessary to fuse helium to

text: carbon

text: nitrogen

text: or

text: oxygen

text: (see

text: CNO cycle

text: ).  However, all their hydrogen is available for fusion, and the low temperatures and pressures mean the lifetimes of these stars on the main sequence from zero point to turn off point is measured in trillions of years.  For example, the lifespan of a star of 0.1 solar masses is 6 trillion years.  This lifespan greatly exceeds the current age of the

text: universe

text: , therefore all red dwarfs are main sequence stars.  Even though extremely long lived, those stars will eventually run out of fuel.  Once all of the available hydrogen has been fused

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: stops and the remaining heated helium slowly cools by

text: radiation

text: Gravity

text: will contract the star from lack of expansive pressure from fusion until

text: electron degeneracy pressure

text: compensates.  The cooling star is now off the main sequence and is known as a helium

text: white dwarf

text: HD 195019 (HIP 100970, SAO 106138) is a star system in the constellation of Delphinus. Star B is located approximately 150 AU from Star A. This star system is located  away from the Sun, Earth and Solar System. It is a yellow dwarf or subgiant [G3IV-V].

text: HD 195019 (HIP 100970, SAO 106138) is a

text: star system

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Delphinus

text: . Star B is located approximately 150

text: AU

text: from Star A. This star system is located  away from the

text: Sun

text: Earth

text: and

text: Solar System

text: . It is a

text: yellow dwarf

text: or

text: subgiant

text: Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the nuclear binding energy curve.  Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the Big Bang, and during the development of the universe thereafter.See the article about nucleosynthesis for the explanation on how certain nuclear fusion processes in stars (such as carbon burning, etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.

text: Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the

text: nuclear binding energy curve

text: .  Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the

text: Big Bang

text: , and during the development of the universe thereafter.See the article about

text: nucleosynthesis

text: for the explanation on how certain

text: nuclear fusion

text: processes in stars (such as

text: carbon burning

text: , etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.

text: Gravitational waves are a type of radiation that is emitted by objects that have mass and are undergoing acceleration. The strongest sources of gravitational waves are expected to be compact objects such as neutron stars and black holes. This detector may be able to detect certain types of instabilities in rotating single and binary neutron stars, and the merger of small black holes or neutron stars.

text: Gravitational waves are a type of radiation that is emitted by objects that have mass and are undergoing acceleration. The strongest sources of gravitational waves are expected to be

text: compact object

text: s such as

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s. This detector may be able to detect certain types of instabilities in rotating single and binary neutron stars, and the merger of small black holes or neutron stars.

text: Corona Borealis is home to two remarkable variable stars. T Coronae Borealis is a cataclysmic variable star also known as the Blaze Star. Normally placid around magnitude 10—it has a minimum of 10.2 and maximum of 9.9—it brightens to magnitude 2 in a period of hours, caused by a nuclear chain reaction and the subsequent explosion. T Coronae Borealis is one of a handful of stars called recurrent novae, which include T Pyxidis and U Scorpii. An outburst of T Coronae Borealis was first recorded in 1866; its second recorded outburst was in February 1946. T Coronae Borealis is a binary star with a red-hued giant primary and a white dwarf secondary, the two stars orbiting each other over a period of approximately 8 months. R Coronae Borealis is a yellow-hued variable supergiant star, over 7000 light-years from Earth, and prototype of a class of stars known as R Coronae Borealis variables. Normally of magnitude 6, its brightness periodically drops as low as magnitude 15 and then slowly increases over the next several months. These declines in magnitude come about as dust that has been ejected from the star obscures it. Direct imaging with the Hubble Space Telescope shows extensive dust clouds out to a radius of around 2000 AU from the star, corresponding with a stream of fine dust (composed of grains 5 nm in diameter) associated with the star's stellar wind and coarser dust (composed of grains with a diameter of around 0.14 µm) ejected periodically.

text: Corona Borealis is home to two remarkable

text: variable

text: stars.

text: T Coronae Borealis

text: is a

text: cataclysmic variable star

text: also known as the Blaze Star. Normally placid around magnitude 10—it has a minimum of 10.2 and maximum of 9.9—it brightens to magnitude 2 in a period of hours, caused by a

text: nuclear chain reaction

text: and the subsequent explosion. T Coronae Borealis is one of a handful of stars called

text: recurrent nova

text: e, which include

text: T Pyxidis

text: and

text: U Scorpii

text: . An outburst of T Coronae Borealis was first recorded in 1866; its second recorded outburst was in February 1946. T Coronae Borealis is a

text: binary star

text: with a red-hued giant primary and a

text: white dwarf

text: secondary, the two stars orbiting each other over a period of approximately 8 months.

text: R Coronae Borealis

text: is a yellow-hued variable

text: supergiant

text: star, over 7000 light-years from Earth, and prototype of a class of stars known as

text: R Coronae Borealis variable

text: s. Normally of magnitude 6, its brightness periodically drops as low as magnitude 15 and then slowly increases over the next several months. These declines in magnitude come about as dust that has been ejected from the star obscures it. Direct imaging with the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: shows extensive dust clouds out to a radius of around 2000 AU from the star, corresponding with a stream of fine dust (composed of grains 5

text: nm

text: in diameter) associated with the star's stellar wind and coarser dust (composed of grains with a diameter of around 0.14

text: µm

text: ) ejected periodically.

text: The Central Bulge contains Population II stars, which are old stars, devoid of metals, and have low surface temperatures. For this reason the central bulge glows an orange/red color. The disk of the galaxy is full of star formation, and Population I stars, which are metal-rich, with high surface temperatures, causing the disk to glow blue. Surrounding the galaxy is a halo that is made up of old Population II stars, as well as globular clusters, which are groups of Population II stars that are spherical in shape and contain roughly one million stars. Star formation takes place in the spiral arms of the galaxy. The rotation velocity of the galaxy is nearly uniform throughout the entire disk. The reason for this is due to an even bigger halo of postulated dark matter that extends beyond the size of the galaxy. This dark matter is to date made up of an unknown substance which radiates no light, and accounts for up to 90% of the mass in a total galaxy.

text: HD 84117 is a F-type main sequence star in the constellation of Hydra.  It has an apparent visual magnitude of approximately 4.94.

text: HD 84117 is a

text: F-type

text: main sequence

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Hydra

text: .  It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of approximately 4.94.

text: The luminosity classes of O-type stars are assigned on the relative strengths of the He emission lines and certain ionised N and Si lines.  These are indicated by the "f" suffix on the spectral type, with "f" alone indicating N and He emission, "(f)" meaning the He emission is weak or absent, "((f))" meaning the N emission is weak or absent, "f*" indicating the addition of very strong N emission, and "f+" the presence of Si emission. Luminosity class V, main-sequence stars, generally have weak or missing emission lines, with giants and supergiants showing increasing emission line strength. At O2–O4, the distinction between main sequence and supergiant stars is narrow and may not even represent true luminosity or evolutionary differences.  At intermediate O5–O8 classes, the distinction between O((f)) main sequence, O(f) giants, and Of supergiants is well-defined and represents a definite increase in luminosity.  The increasing strength of Si emission is also an indicator of increasing luminosity and this is the primary means of assigning luminosity classes to the late O-type stars.

text: The luminosity classes of O-type stars are assigned on the relative strengths of the He emission lines and certain ionised N and Si lines.  These are indicated by the "f" suffix on the spectral type, with "f" alone indicating N and He emission, "(f)" meaning the He emission is weak or absent, "((f))" meaning the N emission is weak or absent, "f*" indicating the addition of very strong N emission, and "f+" the presence of

text: Si

text: emission. Luminosity class V, main-sequence stars, generally have weak or missing emission lines, with giants and supergiants showing increasing emission line strength. At O2–O4, the distinction between main sequence and supergiant stars is narrow and may not even represent true luminosity or evolutionary differences.  At intermediate O5–O8 classes, the distinction between O((f)) main sequence, O(f) giants, and Of supergiants is well-defined and represents a definite increase in luminosity.  The increasing strength of Si emission is also an indicator of increasing luminosity and this is the primary means of assigning luminosity classes to the late O-type stars.

text: R Sagittae is an RV Tauri variable star in the constellation Sagitta that varies from magnitude 8.0 to 10.5 in 70.77 days. It is a post-AGB low mass yellow supergiant that varies between spectral types G0Ib and G8Ib as it pulsates. Its variable star designation of "R" indicates that it was the first star discovered to be variable in the constellation. It was discovered in 1859 by Joseph Baxendell, though classified as a semi regular variable until RV Tauri variables were identified as a distinct class in 1905.

text: R Sagittae is an

text: RV Tauri variable

text: star in the constellation

text: Sagitta

text: that varies from magnitude 8.0 to 10.5 in 70.77 days. It is a post-

text: AGB

text: low mass yellow supergiant that varies between spectral types G0Ib and G8Ib as it pulsates. Its variable star designation of "R" indicates that it was the first star discovered to be variable in the constellation. It was discovered in 1859 by

text: Joseph Baxendell

text: , though classified as a semi regular variable until RV Tauri variables were identified as a distinct class in 1905.

text: Epsilon Reticuli (Epsilon Ret, ε Reticuli, ε Ret) is a double star approximately 59 light-years away in the constellation of Reticulum. The primary component is an orange subgiant, while the secondary is a white dwarf. The two stars share a common motion through space and hence most likely form a binary star system. The brighter star should be easily visible without optical aid under dark skies in the southern hemisphere. In 2000, an extrasolar planet was confirmed to be orbiting the primary star in the system.

text: Epsilon Reticuli (Epsilon Ret, ε Reticuli, ε Ret) is a

text: double star

text: approximately 59

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Reticulum

text: . The primary component is an

text: orange subgiant

text: , while the secondary is a

text: white dwarf

text: . The two stars share a common motion through space and hence most likely form a

text: binary star

text: system. The brighter star should be easily visible without optical aid under dark skies in the southern hemisphere. In 2000, an

text: extrasolar planet

text: was confirmed to be orbiting the primary star in the system.

text: The mass of GD 356 is  whereas when it was a main sequence star it would have had a mass of .  In order to reach a temperature of 7510 K it would have become a white dwarf about 1.6 Ga.  Prior to this the main sequence lifetime would have been 500 million years giving it a total age of 2.1 billion years.  The current magnitude is 15.

text: This star belongs to the spectral class K0 and has apparent magnitude +3.8. It is 112 light years from Earth. Kappa Persei is a triple star system consisting of a spectroscopic double star with a wider companion.

text: This star belongs to the

text: spectral class

text: K0 and has

text: apparent magnitude

text: +3.8. It is 112

text: light year

text: s from

text: Earth

text: . Kappa Persei is a

text: triple star

text: system consisting of a

text: spectroscopic

text: double star

text: with a wider companion.

text: VV Corvi (VV Crv) is a close spectroscopic binary in the constellation Corvus. It is also an eclipsing binary,varying from magnitude 5.19 to 5.34 over 3.145 days. The two stars orbit each other with a period of 1.46 days and an eccentricity of 0.088. The mass ratio of the two stars is 0.775±0.024. The primary is 1.978 ± 0.010 times as massive as the Sun, 18.253 ± 2.249 its luminosity and has 3.375 ± 0.010 the Sun's radius. The secondary is 1.513 ± 0.008 times as massive as the Sun, 4.745 ± 0.583 its luminosity and has 1.650 ± 0.008 the Sun's radius. Both are yellow-white main sequence stars of spectral type F5V, though the primary has begun expanding and cooling as it nears the end of its time on the main sequence. A tertiary companion was discovered during the Two Micron All-Sky Survey.

text: VV Corvi (VV Crv) is a close

text: spectroscopic binary

text: in the constellation

text: Corvus

text: . It is also an eclipsing binary,varying from magnitude 5.19 to 5.34 over 3.145 days. The two stars orbit each other with a

text: period

text: of 1.46 days and an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.088. The mass ratio of the two stars is 0.775±0.024. The primary is 1.978 ± 0.010 times as massive as the Sun, 18.253 ± 2.249 its luminosity and has 3.375 ± 0.010 the Sun's radius. The secondary is 1.513 ± 0.008 times as massive as the Sun, 4.745 ± 0.583 its luminosity and has 1.650 ± 0.008 the Sun's radius. Both are yellow-white main sequence stars of spectral type F5V, though the primary has begun expanding and cooling as it nears the end of its time on the main sequence. A tertiary companion was discovered during the

text: Two Micron All-Sky Survey

text: Stars of different masses are thought to form by slightly different mechanisms.  The theory of low-mass star formation, which is well-supported by a plethora of observations, suggests that low-mass stars form by the gravitational collapse of rotating density enhancements within molecular clouds.  As described above, the collapse of a rotating cloud of gas and dust leads to the formation of an accretion disk through which matter is channeled onto a central protostar.  For stars with masses higher than about , however, the mechanism of star formation is not well understood.

text: Magni has also occasionally performed in the U.S. and Canada since his stint on Rock Star: Supernova, including several shows as a duo with Dilana. In addition, he sang and played guitar for Dilana as an opening act on the January/February 2007 Rock Star Supernova North American tour and opening for Aerosmith at a benefit concert at Mandalay Bay in Las Vegas.

text: Magni has also occasionally performed in the U.S. and Canada since his stint on Rock Star: Supernova, including several shows as a duo with Dilana. In addition, he sang and played guitar for Dilana as an opening act on the January/February 2007

text: Rock Star Supernova

text: North American tour and opening for

text: Aerosmith

text: at a benefit concert at Mandalay Bay in Las Vegas.

text: Most of the stars in this catalog are type K and M, red dwarf, stars, some with exceptionally low mass and luminosity. Three of the stars are type DC, white dwarf, stars.

text: Most of the stars in this catalog are

text: type K and M

text: red dwarf

text: , stars, some with exceptionally low mass and luminosity. Three of the stars are type DC,

text: white dwarf

text: , stars.

text: S-bot mobile robot- S. Shankar Sastry- Saburo Yatsude- Safety engineering- Samsung SGR-A1- Samuel Anders- Sandstorm (vehicle)- Santa Claus Conquers the Martians- Santa Claus machine- Sarcoman- Sarcos- Saturn 3- Saul Tigh- SAVIOUR (robot)- Sawfish harvester- SCARA- Science- Science fiction film- Scratch- Scratch and Grounder- Screamers (1995 film)- Scud: The Disposable Assassin- Search algorithm- Sebastian Thrun- SEIF SLAM- Seiko Epson- Self-balancing unicycle- Self-management (computer science)- Self-reconfiguring modular robot- Self-replicating machine- Semi Human Instinctive Artificial Intelligence- Sense Plan Act- Sensitive skin- Sensor- Sensor fusion- Senster- Serial manipulator- Serpentor- Service robot- SERVO Magazine- Servo motor- Servomechanism- Seth A. Hutchinson- Seth J. Teller- Shadow Hand- Shakey the robot- Shakey the Robot- Shigeo Hirose- Short Circuit (1986 film)- Short Circuit 2- Shyster (expert system)- Silent Running- Silicate (Space: Above and Beyond character type)- Silver Swan (automaton)- Simbad robot simulator- Simon Penny- Simultaneous localization and mapping- Singleton (global governance)- Sinistron- Siri- Sitter (BEAM)- Situated- Situated robotics- Six degrees of freedom- Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow- Slider (BEAM)- Small Wonder (TV series)- SMART Agent- Smart objects- smartwheels- Smash Martians- SMErobot- Snake-arm robot- Snakebot- SNePS- Soccer robot- Social robot- Sociorobotics- Soft computing- Software agent- Software engineering- Sparkplug (Transformers)- Speech processing- Sphere world- Spherical robot- Spider-Slayer- Spirit rover- Spreading activation- Squirmer (BEAM)- ST Robotics- Stage (software)- Star Trek Generations- Star Trek: First Contact- Star Trek: Insurrection- Star Trek: Nemesis- Star Trek: The Next Generation- Star Wars- Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace- Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones- Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith- Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope- The Empire Strikes Back- Return of the Jedi- Star world- Stardust in Your Eyes- State space planning- Stäubli- Stefano Nolfi- Stepper motor- Stereo cameras- Steve Grand- Steve Mann- Steven M. LaValle- Stewart platform- Stochastic diffusion search- Stochastic Roadmap Simulation- Stochastic semantic analysis- Strong AI (disambiguation)- Subsumption architecture- Super Robot- Superman Classic- Support vector machine- Surena (robot)- Sussman Anomaly- Sven Koenig (computer scientist)- Swarm intelligence- Swarm robotics- Swedish Robotics Society- Swimmer (BEAM)- SwisTrack- Symbol level- Symbot- Symbrion- Synchro- Synthetic Environment for Analysis and Simulations- Synthetics (Odyssey 5)- Synthoid

text: S-bot mobile robot

text: S. Shankar Sastry

text: Saburo Yatsude

text: Safety engineering

text: Samsung SGR-A1

text: Samuel Anders

text: Sandstorm (vehicle)

text: Santa Claus Conquers the Martians

text: Santa Claus machine

text: Sarcoman

text: Sarcos

text: Saturn 3

text: Saul Tigh

text: SAVIOUR (robot)

text: Sawfish harvester

text: SCARA

text: Science

text: Science fiction film

text: Scratch

text: Scratch and Grounder

text: Screamers (1995 film)

text: Scud: The Disposable Assassin

text: Search algorithm

text: Sebastian Thrun

text: SEIF SLAM

text: Seiko Epson

text: Self-balancing unicycle

text: Self-management (computer science)

text: Self-reconfiguring modular robot

text: Self-replicating machine

text: Semi Human Instinctive Artificial Intelligence

text: Sense Plan Act

text: Sensitive skin

text: Sensor

text: Sensor fusion

text: Senster

text: Serial manipulator

text: Serpentor

text: Service robot

text: SERVO Magazine

text: Servo motor

text: Servomechanism

text: Seth A. Hutchinson

text: Seth J. Teller

text: Shadow Hand

text: Shakey the robot

text: Shakey the Robot

text: Shigeo Hirose

text: Short Circuit

text: (1986 film)-

text: Short Circuit 2

text: Shyster (expert system)

text: Silent Running

text: Silicate

text: (Space: Above and Beyond character type)-

text: Silver Swan (automaton)

text: Simbad robot simulator

text: Simon Penny

text: Simultaneous localization and mapping

text: Singleton (global governance)

text: Sinistron

text: Siri

text: Sitter (BEAM)

text: Situated

text: Situated robotics

text: Six degrees of freedom

text: Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow

text: Slider (BEAM)

text: Small Wonder (TV series)

text: SMART Agent

text: Smart objects

text: smartwheels

text: Smash Martians

text: SMErobot

text: Snake-arm robot

text: Snakebot

text: SNePS

text: Soccer robot

text: Social robot

text: Sociorobotics

text: Soft computing

text: Software agent

text: Software engineering

text: Sparkplug (Transformers)

text: Speech processing

text: Sphere world

text: Spherical robot

text: Spider-Slayer

text: Spirit rover

text: Spreading activation

text: Squirmer (BEAM)

text: ST Robotics

text: Stage (software)

text: Star Trek Generations

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Star Trek: Insurrection

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Wars

entity_name: Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace

text: Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace

entity_name: Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones

text: Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones

entity_name: Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith

text: Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith

text: Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

text: The Empire Strikes Back

text: Return of the Jedi

text: Star world

text: Stardust in Your Eyes

text: State space planning

text: Stäubli

text: Stefano Nolfi

text: Stepper motor

text: Stereo cameras

text: Steve Grand

text: Steve Mann

text: Steven M. LaValle

text: Stewart platform

text: Stochastic diffusion search

text: Stochastic Roadmap Simulation

text: Stochastic semantic analysis

text: Strong AI (disambiguation)

text: Subsumption architecture

text: Super Robot

text: Superman Classic

text: Support vector machine

text: Surena (robot)

text: Sussman Anomaly

text: Sven Koenig (computer scientist)

text: Swarm intelligence

text: Swarm robotics

text: Swedish Robotics Society

text: Swimmer (BEAM)

text: SwisTrack

text: Symbol level

text: Symbot

text: Symbrion

text: Synchro

entity_name: Synthetic Environment for Analysis and Simulations

text: Synthetic Environment for Analysis and Simulations

text: Synthetics (Odyssey 5)

text: Synthoid

text: Though the related terminologies are confusingly ambiguous, spectral objects known as "B(e)" or "B[e] stars" are distinct from Be stars since said B(e) entities are in possession of distinctive neutral or low ionization emission lines that are considered to have 'forbidden mechanisms', something denoted by the use of brackets or parenthesis. In other words, these particular stars' emissions appear to undergo processes not normally allowed under current understandings of quantum mechanics. It should be noted that the definition of a "B(e) star" can include objects that are large enough to be in Blue giant and Blue supergiant territory, beyond the size of standard main-sequence stars.

text: Though the related terminologies are confusingly ambiguous, spectral objects known as

text: "B(e)" or "B[e] stars"

text: are distinct from Be stars since said B(e) entities are in possession of distinctive neutral or low ionization

text: emission lines

text: that are considered to have '

text: forbidden mechanism

text: s', something denoted by the use of brackets or parenthesis. In other words, these particular stars' emissions appear to undergo processes not normally allowed under current understandings of

text: quantum mechanics

text: . It should be noted that the definition of a "B(e) star" can include objects that are large enough to be in

text: Blue giant

text: and

text: Blue supergiant

text: territory, beyond the size of standard main-sequence stars.

text: 1951 Nobel Prize laureate Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton (1903–1995) lectured in physics for three months in the fall of 1975  The department's Ion Beam and Modification Analysis Laboratory houses four active linear particle accelerators. The lab is among the more sophisticated ion beam facilities in the country. Three of the accelerators are housed in a 450 square-meter, ultra-clean, microbeam, raster-scanning, depth-profiling, Cs-sputtering ion source laboratory, one being a 3 million volt tandem Pelletron accelerator, Model 9-SDH, delveloped by National Electrostatics Corporation, and installed at North Texas in December 1989. It is the workhouse of the laboratory and is used for trace element analysis via accelerator mass spectroscopy.  One of the older accelerators, a 2.5 MV, is used for routine PIXE, RBS, and NRA and for advanced undergraduate and first year graduate student laboratory experiments. A smaller laboratory, 78-square-meters, houses a 200 kilovolt Cockcroft-Walton accelerator and a 2.5 megavolt Van de Graaff. North Texas is the host of the International Conference on the Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry, held every November.

text: 1951 Nobel Prize laureate

text: Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton

text: (1903–1995) lectured in physics for three months in the fall of 1975  The department's

text: Ion Beam

text: and Modification

text: Analysis

text: Laboratory houses four active

text: linear particle accelerator

text: s. The lab is among the more sophisticated ion beam facilities in the country. Three of the

text: accelerators

text: are housed in a 450 square-meter, ultra-clean,

text: microbeam

text: raster-scanning

text: , depth-profiling,

text: Cs

text: sputtering

text: ion source

text: laboratory, one being a 3 million volt tandem

text: Pelletron accelerator

text: , Model 9-SDH, delveloped by

text: National Electrostatics Corporation

text: , and installed at North Texas in December 1989. It is the workhouse of the laboratory and is used for

text: trace element

text: analysis via

text: accelerator mass spectroscopy

text: .  One of the older

text: accelerators

text: , a 2.5 MV, is used for routine

text: PIXE

text: RBS

text: , and

text: NRA

text: and for advanced undergraduate and first year graduate student laboratory experiments. A smaller laboratory, 78-square-meters, houses a 200 kilovolt

text: Cockcroft-Walton accelerator

text: and a 2.5 megavolt

text: Van de Graaff

text: . North Texas is the host of the International Conference on the Application of Accelerators in Research and Industry, held every November.

text: Mergers are also locations of extreme amounts of star formation. The star formation rate (SFR) during a major merger can reach thousands of solar masses worth of new stars each year, depending on the gas content of each galaxy and its redshift. Typical merger SFRs are less than 100 new solar masses per year. This is large compared to our Galaxy, which makes only a few (~2) new stars each year. Though stars almost never get close enough to actually collide in galaxy mergers, giant molecular clouds rapidly fall to the center of the galaxy where they collide with other molecular clouds.  These collisions then induce condensations of these clouds into new stars. We can see this phenomenon in merging galaxies in the nearby universe. Yet, this process was more pronounced during the mergers that formed most elliptical galaxies we see today, which likely occurred 1-10 billion years ago, when there was much more gas (and thus more molecular clouds) in galaxies. Also, away from the center of the galaxy gas clouds will run into each other producing shocks which stimulate the formation of new stars in gas clouds. The result of all this violence is that galaxies tend to have little gas available to form new stars after they merge. Thus if a galaxy is involved in a major merger, and then a few billion years pass, the galaxy will have very few young stars (see Stellar evolution) left. This is what we see in today's elliptical galaxies, very little molecular gas and very few young stars. It is thought that this is because elliptical galaxies are the end products of major mergers which use up the majority of gas during the merger, and thus further star formation after the merger is quenched.

text: Mergers are also locations of extreme amounts of

text: star formation

text: . The star formation rate (SFR) during a major merger can reach thousands of solar masses worth of new stars each year, depending on the gas content of each galaxy and its redshift. Typical merger SFRs are less than 100 new solar masses per year. This is large compared to our Galaxy, which makes only a few (~2) new stars each year. Though stars almost never get close enough to actually collide in galaxy mergers, giant

text: molecular clouds

text: rapidly fall to the center of the galaxy where they collide with other molecular clouds.  These collisions then induce condensations of these clouds into new stars. We can see this phenomenon in merging galaxies in the nearby universe. Yet, this process was more pronounced during the mergers that formed most elliptical galaxies we see today, which likely occurred 1-10 billion years ago, when there was much more gas (and thus more

text: molecular clouds

text: ) in galaxies. Also, away from the center of the galaxy gas clouds will run into each other producing shocks which stimulate the formation of new stars in gas clouds. The result of all this violence is that galaxies tend to have little gas available to form new stars after they merge. Thus if a galaxy is involved in a major merger, and then a few billion years pass, the galaxy will have very few young stars (see

text: Stellar evolution

text: ) left. This is what we see in today's elliptical galaxies, very little molecular gas and very few young stars. It is thought that this is because elliptical galaxies are the end products of major mergers which use up the majority of gas during the merger, and thus further star formation after the merger is quenched.

text: Many of the proper names for individual stars within the constellations are Arabic (modern designation is the Bayer designation by the German Johann Bayer from 1603, its a stellar designation in which a specific star is identified by a Greek letter, followed by the genitive form of its parent constellation's Latin name. The original list of Bayer designations contained 1,564 stars), before the Arabian names, there were Greek names of the stars.The Greek astronomer Hipparchus 190 BC – c. 120 BC work, were later made into several scientific texts by the Greek Claudius Ptolemy’s called the Almagest,  which contained the original Greek and Latin names for stars,It contain a star catalogue of 1022 stars, described by their positions in the constellations,In the 9th century it was adopted by the Arabs and translated from the original Greek and Latin into Arabic. For example, the Arabs translated Opisthen (Οπισθεν "after" or "following") or Opiso (Οπισω "to follow after" ), one of the original Greek names for the brightest star in Taurus, as Aldebaran (الدبران), which means "the Follower" in Arabic, because the star always follows behind the Pleiades as both move across the sky. In all, there are three major names for the brightest star in Taurus; the proper name Aldebaran and the scientific names, Alpha Taurind and 87 Tauri. Any of these three names can be used for the brightest star in Taurus but present day astronomers prefer to use the latter two scientific names.

text: Many of the proper names for individual stars within the constellations are

text: Arabic

text: (modern designation is the

text: Bayer designation

text: by the German

text: Johann Bayer

text: from 1603, its a stellar designation in which a specific star is identified by a Greek letter, followed by the genitive form of its parent constellation's Latin name. The original list of Bayer designations contained 1,564 stars), before the Arabian names, there were Greek names of the stars.The Greek astronomer

text: Hipparchus

text: 190 BC – c. 120 BC work, were later made into several scientific texts by the Greek

text: Claudius Ptolemy

text: ’s called the

text: Almagest

text: ,  which contained the original

text: Greek

text: and Latin names for stars,It contain a star catalogue of 1022 stars, described by their positions in the constellations,In the 9th century it was adopted by the

text: Arab

text: s and translated from the original Greek and Latin into Arabic. For example, the Arabs translated Opisthen (Οπισθεν "after" or "following") or Opiso (Οπισω "to follow after" ), one of the original Greek names for the brightest star in Taurus, as

text: Aldebaran

text: (الدبران), which means "the Follower" in Arabic, because the star always follows behind the

text: Pleiades

text: as both move across the sky. In all, there are three major names for the brightest star in Taurus; the proper name Aldebaran and the scientific names, Alpha Taurind and 87 Tauri. Any of these three names can be used for the brightest star in Taurus but present day astronomers prefer to use the latter two scientific names.

text: In the early 2000s, Researchers at LANL reasoned that a plasma oscillating could be at local thermodynamic equilibrium. This prompted the POPS and Penning trap designs. At this time, researchers at MIT became interested in fusors for space propulsion and powering space vehicles. Specifically, researchers developed fusors with multiple inner cages. Greg Piefer graduated from Madison and founded Phoenix Nuclear Labs, a company that developed the fusor into a neutron source for the mass production of medical isotopes. Robert Bussard began speaking openly about the Polywell in 2006. He attempted to generate interest in the research, before his death. In 2008, Taylor Wilson achieved notoriety for achieving nuclear fusion at 14, with a homemade fusor.

text: In the early 2000s, Researchers at

text: LANL

text: reasoned that a plasma oscillating could be at local thermodynamic equilibrium. This prompted the POPS and

text: Penning trap

text: designs. At this time, researchers at

text: MIT

text: became interested in

text: fusor

text: s for space propulsion and powering space vehicles. Specifically, researchers developed

text: fusor

text: s with multiple inner cages. Greg Piefer graduated from Madison and founded

text: Phoenix Nuclear Labs

text: , a company that developed the

text: fusor

text: Robert Bussard

text: began speaking openly about the

text: Polywell

text: in 2006. He attempted to generate interest in the research, before his death. In 2008,

text: Taylor Wilson

text: achieved notoriety for achieving nuclear fusion at 14, with a homemade

text: fusor

text: It forms a group of stars known as the Camelopardalis R1 association, part of the Cam OB1 association.  The near-identical supergiant CE Camelopardalis is located half a degree to the south.

text: It forms a group of stars known as the Camelopardalis R1 association, part of the Cam OB1 association.  The near-identical supergiant

text: CE Camelopardalis

text: is located half a degree to the south.

text: The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars. Decrease in the size of an object n times results in increase of its angular velocity by the factor of n.

text: The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars. Decrease in the size of an object n times results in increase of its angular velocity by the factor of n.

text: This is the list of notable stars in the constellation Boötes, sorted by decreasing brightness. The genitive for stars in this constellation is Boötis. Hence, η Boo is Eta Boötis.

text: This is the list of notable

text: star

text: s in the

text: constellation

text: Boötes

text: , sorted by decreasing brightness. The

text: genitive

text: for stars in this constellation is Boötis. Hence, η Boo is Eta Boötis.

text: "The Hall of the Dead" is one of the original short stories by American author Robert E. Howard starring the fictional sword and sorcery hero Conan the Cimmerian, a fragment begun in the 1930s but not finished or published in Howard's lifetime. It was completed by L. Sprague de Camp and published in the following works:

text: "The Hall of the Dead" is one of the original

text: short stories

text: by American author

text: Robert E. Howard

text: starring the fictional

text: sword and sorcery

text: hero

text: Conan the Cimmerian

text: , a fragment begun in the 1930s but not finished or published in Howard's lifetime. It was completed by

text: L. Sprague de Camp

text: and published in the following works:

text: Most of the brighter stars were assigned their first systematic names by the German astronomer Johann Bayer in 1603, in his star atlas Uranometria. Bayer assigned a lower-case Greek letter, such as alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), etc., to each star he catalogued, combined with the Latin name of the star’s parent constellation in genitive (possessive) form. (See 88 modern constellations for the genitive forms.) For example, Aldebaran is designated α Tauri (pronounced Alpha Tauri), which means "Alpha of the constellation Taurus".

text: Most of the brighter stars were assigned their first systematic names by the German

text: astronomer

text: Johann Bayer

text: in 1603, in his star atlas

text: Uranometria

text: . Bayer assigned a lower-case Greek letter, such as alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), etc., to each star he catalogued, combined with the Latin name of the star’s parent constellation in

text: genitive

text: (possessive) form. (See

text: 88 modern constellations

text: for the genitive forms.) For example,

text: Aldebaran

text: is designated α Tauri (pronounced Alpha Tauri), which means "Alpha of

text: the constellation Taurus

text: The 21st All-Star Game one year later was somber compared to the 20 before it, as the days before the game were tragic. On January 14, 1968, two days before the game, Bill Masterton had been checked by two Oakland Seals players and died from his on-ice injuries. The game itself was overshadowed by the debate on whether helmets should be worn in the NHL in the fallout of Masterton's untimely death. As in the previous years, the All-Stars were represented by the First and Second All-Star teams, as well as enough players so that each team was represented. The East-West format of future All-Star Games was announced in the 21st All-Star Game, with the intention of being able to move the game anywhere, alternating home ice between an East division team and a West division team year after year. The idea, along with the notion that the players chosen for the two All-Star teams should be the best at the time of the game rather than the best of the players from the season before, quickly gained popularity, although the Cup champions reserved the right to host the 22nd All-Star Game. The St. Louis Blues became the first Western host of the All-Star Game the following year. The 26th All-Star Game was the first in which the game MVP received a car as a prize.

text: The

entity_name: 21st National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: 21st All-Star Game

text: one year later was somber compared to the 20 before it, as the days before the game were tragic. On January 14, 1968, two days before the game,

text: Bill Masterton

text: had been checked by two

text: Oakland Seals

text: players and died from his on-ice injuries. The game itself was overshadowed by the debate on whether helmets should be worn in the NHL in the fallout of Masterton's untimely death. As in the previous years, the All-Stars were represented by the First and Second All-Star teams, as well as enough players so that each team was represented. The East-West format of future All-Star Games was announced in the 21st All-Star Game, with the intention of being able to move the game anywhere, alternating home ice between an East division team and a West division team year after year. The idea, along with the notion that the players chosen for the two All-Star teams should be the best at the time of the game rather than the best of the players from the season before, quickly gained popularity, although the Cup champions reserved the right to host the

entity_name: 22nd National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: 22nd All-Star Game

text: . The

text: St. Louis Blues

text: became the first Western host of the All-Star Game the following year. The

entity_name: 26th National Hockey League All-Star Game

text: 26th All-Star Game

text: was the first in which the game MVP received a car as a prize.

text: "Polar Star" was classified as a medium-tempo rock song that describes a love that never changes, similar to how the location of a pole star never changes. "Fallin' for You" is an acoustic rock song that "depicts a man who isn't able to get close to the woman he loves". Lee was inspired to write the melody from playing his acoustic guitar. "Beautiful World" is a rock ballad that incorporates the use of a piano, which was described as having a sound not previously heard from F.T. Island. Choi composed the melody while thinking of the lyrics, which describe how "a man looks on at his lovely lover".

text: "Polar Star" was classified as a medium-

text: tempo

text: rock

text: song that describes a love that never changes, similar to how the location of a

text: pole star

text: never changes. "Fallin' for You" is an

text: acoustic rock

text: song that "depicts a man who isn't able to get close to the woman he loves". Lee was inspired to write the melody from playing his

text: acoustic guitar

text: . "Beautiful World" is a

text: rock ballad

text: that incorporates the use of a

text: piano

text: , which was described as having a sound not previously heard from F.T. Island. Choi composed the melody while thinking of the lyrics, which describe how "a man looks on at his lovely lover".

text: In nuclear fusion, there are two types of reactors stable enough to conduct fusion: magnetic confinement reactors and inertial confinement reactors. The former method of fusion seeks to lengthen the time that ions spend close together in order to fuse them together, while the latter aims to fuse the ions so fast that they do not have time to move apart. Inertial confinement reactors, unlike magnetic confinement reactors, use laser fusion and ion-beam fusion in order to conduct fusion. However, with magnetic confinement reactors you avoid the problem of having to find a material that can withstand the high temperatures of nuclear fusion reactions.The heating current is induced by the changing magnetic fields in central induction coils and exceeds a million amperes. Magnetic fusion devices keep the hot plasma out of contact with the walls of its container by keeping it moving in circular or helical paths by means of the magnetic force on charged particles and by a centripetal force acting on the moving particles.

text: The bulge of this galaxy is composed mainly of evolved red stars.  The dusty disk, however, has been the site of more recent star formation; over 100 star formation regions have been identified in the disk.

text: The bulge of this galaxy is composed mainly of evolved red stars.  The dusty disk, however, has been the site of more recent

text: star formation

text: ; over 100 star formation regions have been identified in the disk.

text: Nuclear fusion refers to reactions in which lighter nuclei are combined to become heavier nuclei. This process changes mass into energy which in turn may be captured to provide fusion power. Many types of atoms can be fused. The easiest to fuse are deuterium and tritium. For fusion to occur the ions must be at a temperature of at least 4 keV (kiloelectronvolts) or about 45 million kelvins. The second easiest reaction is fusing deuterium with itself. Because this gas is cheaper, it is the fuel commonly used by amateurs. The ease of doing a fusion reaction is measured by its cross section.

text: Nuclear fusion

text: refers to reactions in which lighter

text: nuclei

text: are combined to become heavier nuclei. This process changes

text: mass into energy

text: which in turn may be captured to provide

text: fusion power

text: . Many types of atoms can be fused. The easiest to fuse are

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: . For fusion to occur the ions must be at a temperature of at least 4 keV (

text: kiloelectronvolt

text: s) or about 45 million

text: kelvin

text: s. The second easiest reaction is fusing

text: deuterium

text: with itself. Because this gas is cheaper, it is the fuel commonly used by amateurs. The ease of doing a fusion reaction is measured by its

text: cross section

text: The VLBI radio observations of Sagittarius A* could also be aligned centrally with the images so S2 could be seen to orbit Sagittarius A*. From examining the Keplerian orbit of S2, they determined the mass of Sagittarius A* to be 2.6 ± 0.2 million solar masses, confined in a volume with a radius no more than 17 light-hours (120 AU). Later observations of the star S14 showed the mass of the object to be about 4.1 million solar masses within a volume with radius no larger than 6.25 light-hours (45 AU) or about 6.7 billion kilometres. They also determined the distance from Earth to the Galactic Center (the rotational center of the Milky Way), which is important in calibrating astronomical distance scales, as 8.0 ± 0.6 × 10 parsecs. In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of a potential intermediate-mass black hole, referred to as GCIRS 13E, orbiting three light-years from Sagittarius A*. This black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars.

text: The VLBI radio observations of Sagittarius A* could also be aligned centrally with the images so S2 could be seen to orbit Sagittarius A*. From examining the

text: Keplerian orbit

text: of S2, they determined the mass of Sagittarius A* to be 2.6 ± 0.2 million

text: solar mass

text: es, confined in a volume with a radius no more than 17 light-hours (120

text: AU

text: ). Later observations of the star S14 showed the mass of the object to be about 4.1 million solar masses within a volume with radius no larger than 6.25 light-hours (45 AU) or about 6.7 billion

text: kilometres

text: . They also determined the distance from Earth to the

text: Galactic Center

text: (the rotational center of the Milky Way), which is important in calibrating astronomical distance scales, as 8.0 ± 0.6 × 10

text: parsec

text: s. In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of a potential

text: intermediate-mass black hole

text: , referred to as

text: GCIRS 13E

text: , orbiting three light-years from Sagittarius A*. This black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars.

text: The resulting outflow would be collected by using a ring current around the star's equator to generate a powerful toroidal magnetic field with its dipoles over the star's rotational poles. This would deflect the star's solar wind into a pair of jets aligned along its rotational axis passing through a pair of magnetic rocket nozzles. The magnetic nozzles would convert some of the plasma's thermal energy into outward velocity, helping cool the outflow. The ring current required to generate this magnetic field would be generated by a ring of particle accelerator space stations in close orbit around the star's equator. These accelerators would be physically separate from each other but would exchange two counterdirected beams of oppositely charged ions with their neighbor on each side, forming a complete circuit around the star.

text: The resulting outflow would be collected by using a

text: ring current

text: around the star's equator to generate a powerful

text: toroidal

text: magnetic field

text: with its

text: dipole

text: s over the star's rotational poles. This would deflect the star's solar wind into a pair of jets aligned along its rotational axis passing through a pair of magnetic rocket

text: nozzle

text: s. The

text: magnetic nozzle

text: s would convert some of the plasma's thermal energy into outward velocity, helping cool the outflow. The ring current required to generate this magnetic field would be generated by a ring of

text: particle accelerator

text: space station

text: s in close orbit around the star's equator. These accelerators would be physically separate from each other but would exchange two counterdirected beams of oppositely charged

text: ion

text: s with their neighbor on each side, forming a complete circuit around the star.

text: The mechanism by which StAR causes cholesterol movement remains unclear as it appears to act from the outside of the mitochondria and its entry into the mitochondria ends its function. Various hypotheses have been advanced.  Some involve StAR transferring cholesterol itself like a shuttle. While StAR may bind cholesterol itself, the exorbitant number of cholesterol molecules that the protein transfers would indicate that it would have to act as a cholesterol channel instead of a shuttle. Another notion is that it causes cholesterol to be kicked out of the outer membrane to the inner (cholesterol desorption).  StAR may also promote the formation of contact sites between the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes to allow cholesterol influx.  Another suggests that StAR acts in conjunction with PBR, causing the movement of Cl out of the mitochondria to facilitate contact site formation.  However, evidence for an interaction between StAR and PBR remains elusive.

text: The league also established the Pro Bowl in the 1950 season. Though the league had attempted an all-star game annually between 1938 and 1942, it had cancelled the game because of World War II and did not revive it when the war ended. Unlike the previous all-star game format, which pitted the league's most recent champion against the league's best all-stars, the Pro Bowl would pit two all-star teams, one from each conference, against each other.

text: The league also established the

text: Pro Bowl

text: in the 1950 season. Though the league had attempted an all-star game annually between 1938 and 1942, it had cancelled the game because of

text: World War II

text: and did not revive it when the war ended. Unlike the previous all-star game format, which pitted the league's most recent champion against the league's best all-stars, the Pro Bowl would pit two all-star teams, one from each conference, against each other.

text: Eta Serpentis was previously classified as a carbon star, which would have made it the brightest carbon star in the sky, although this classification was since found to be erroneous.

text: Eta Serpentis was previously classified as a

text: carbon star

text: , which would have made it the brightest carbon star in the sky, although this classification was since found to be erroneous.

text: In 2015, NASCAR made a slight modification to the All-Star Race.  The ten-year rule for former Series and All-Star Race champions was replaced with a rule allowing a full-time driver who has won either to have a "lifetime" exemption provided they race full-time.  Also, for the Showdown, the "No Bull Sprint" format returned.  The first segment was 20 laps, then the winner advanced to the All-Star Race.  The second segment was 20 laps in which only Green Flag laps counted, that winner advanced.  The winners joined the Fan Vote winner, Danica Patrick.

text: In 2015, NASCAR made a slight modification to the All-Star Race.  The ten-year rule for former Series and All-Star Race champions was replaced with a rule allowing a full-time driver who has won either to have a "lifetime" exemption provided they race full-time.  Also, for the Showdown, the "No Bull Sprint" format returned.  The first segment was 20 laps, then the winner advanced to the All-Star Race.  The second segment was 20 laps in which only Green Flag laps counted, that winner advanced.  The winners joined the Fan Vote winner,

text: Danica Patrick

text: Ernest Hemingway was a reporter for the Star from October 1917 to April 1918.  Hemingway credited Star editor C.G. "Pete" Wellington with changing a wordy high-schooler's writing style into clear,  provocative English. Throughout his lifetime he referred to this admonition from The Star Copy Style, the paper's style guide:

text: Ernest Hemingway

text: was a reporter for the Star from October 1917 to April 1918.  Hemingway credited Star editor C.G. "Pete" Wellington with changing a wordy high-schooler's writing style into clear,  provocative English. Throughout his lifetime he referred to this admonition from The Star Copy Style, the paper's

text: style guide

text: A Type II supernova (plural: supernovae or supernovas) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star. A star must have at least 8 times, and no more than 40–50 times, the mass of the Sun () to undergo this type of explosion. It is distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in its spectrum. Type II supernovae are mainly observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions, but not in elliptical galaxies.

text: A Type II supernova (plural: supernovae or supernovas) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive

text: star

text: . A star must have at least 8 times, and no more than 40–50 times, the

text: mass of the Sun

text: () to undergo this type of explosion. It is distinguished from other types of

text: supernova

text: e by the presence of hydrogen in its

text: spectrum

text: . Type II supernovae are mainly observed in the

text: spiral arm

text: s of

text: galaxies

text: and in

text: H II region

text: s, but not in

text: elliptical galaxies

text: The planetary object orbits a (DB-type) white dwarf star. It has ended its main sequence lifetime and will continue to cool for billions of years to come in the future. Based on recent studies and its mass, the star was likely an early F-type main sequence star (spectral type F0) before it became a red giant. The star has a mass of 0.6  and a radius of 0.02  (1.4 ). It has a temperature of 15900 K and its cooling age is 175 million years. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: The planetary object orbits a (

text: DB-type

text: white dwarf

text: star

text: . It has ended its

text: main sequence

text: lifetime and will continue to cool for billions of years to come in the future. Based on recent studies and its mass, the star was likely an early

text: F-type main sequence star

text: (spectral type F0) before it became a

text: red giant

text: . The star has a mass of 0.6  and a radius of 0.02  (1.4 ). It has a temperature of 15900

text: K

text: and its cooling age is 175 million years. In comparison, the

text: Sun

text: is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: In 2006, a TV movie, Amber's Story, was broadcast on Lifetime. It stars Elisabeth Röhm and Sophie Hough.

text: In 2006, a TV movie, Amber's Story, was broadcast on

text: Lifetime

text: . It stars

text: Elisabeth Röhm

text: and Sophie Hough.

text: Meanwhile, Kyle has a change of heart and frees the delirious Cartman from his captivity, takes him home, and puts him to bed. When Cartman awakens with no knowledge of how he got home, he classifies the experience as a religious epiphany, and announces to everyone at the Easter egg hunt that he has converted to Judaism. When he tells everyone that they should convert too by recognizing Jehovah as their true God and denying Christ, the assembled Christians label Cartman as a heathen and return to their hunt. Cartman apologizes to Kyle, saying he now knows what he feels like to be mocked by others for being Jewish, and the two wish each other a Happy Passover. The camera then pans up to a Star of David shining at the center of the Sun.

text: Meanwhile, Kyle has a change of heart and frees the delirious Cartman from his captivity, takes him home, and puts him to bed. When Cartman awakens with no knowledge of how he got home, he classifies the experience as a religious epiphany, and announces to everyone at the Easter egg hunt that he has converted to Judaism. When he tells everyone that they should convert too by recognizing Jehovah as their true God and

text: denying Christ

text: , the assembled Christians label Cartman as a heathen and return to their hunt. Cartman apologizes to Kyle, saying he now knows what he feels like to be mocked by others for being Jewish, and the two wish each other a Happy

text: Passover

text: . The camera then pans up to a

text: Star of David

text: shining at the center of the Sun.

text: Flanking Sirius are Beta and Gamma Canis Majoris. Also called Mirzam or Murzim, Beta is a blue-white Beta Cephei variable star of magnitude 2.0, which varies by a few hundredths of a magnitude over a period of six hours. Mirzam is 500 light-years from Earth, and its traditional name means "the announcer", referring to its position as the "announcer" of Sirius, as it rises a few minutes before Sirius does. Gamma, also known as Muliphein, is a fainter star of magnitude 4.12, in reality a blue-white bright giant of spectral type B8IIe located 441 light-years from earth. Iota Canis Majoris, lying between Sirius and Gamma, is another star that has been classified as a Beta Cephei variable, varying from magnitude 4.36 to 4.40 over a period of 1.92 hours. It is a remote blue-white supergiant star of spectral type B3Ib, around 46,000 times as luminous as the sun and, at 2500 light-years distant, 300 times further away than Sirius.

text: Flanking Sirius are Beta and

text: Gamma Canis Majoris

text: . Also called Mirzam or Murzim, Beta is a blue-white

text: Beta Cephei variable

text: star of magnitude 2.0, which varies by a few hundredths of a magnitude over a period of six hours. Mirzam is 500 light-years from Earth, and its traditional name means "the announcer", referring to its position as the "announcer" of Sirius, as it rises a few minutes before Sirius does. Gamma, also known as Muliphein, is a fainter star of magnitude 4.12, in reality a blue-white bright giant of

text: spectral type

text: B8IIe located 441 light-years from earth.

text: Iota Canis Majoris

text: , lying between Sirius and Gamma, is another star that has been classified as a Beta Cephei variable, varying from magnitude 4.36 to 4.40 over a period of 1.92 hours. It is a remote blue-white

text: supergiant star

text: of spectral type B3Ib, around 46,000 times as luminous as the sun and, at 2500 light-years distant, 300 times further away than Sirius.

text: In 1978, the Society published a starship study called Project Daedalus, which was a detailed feasibility study for a simple unmanned interstellar flyby mission to Barnard's Star using present-day technology and a reasonable extrapolation of near-future capabilities. Daedalus was to have used a pellet driven nuclear-pulse fusion rocket to accelerate to 12 percent of the speed of light.

text: In 1978, the Society published a

text: starship

text: study called

text: Project Daedalus

text: , which was a detailed feasibility study for a simple unmanned interstellar flyby mission to

text: Barnard's Star

text: using present-day technology and a reasonable extrapolation of near-future capabilities. Daedalus was to have used a pellet driven nuclear-pulse

text: fusion rocket

text: to accelerate to 12 percent of the

text: speed of light

text: Dwarf Pickaxes are tools assigned to mining Dwarves after they are newly hatched and ready to work. Per axe, each is designated to give a name to a dwarf based on his individual personality. A pickaxe that no longer fits a dwarf after he undergoes a personality change (such as in the case of Dreamy when he became Grumpy) cannot use the old pickax anymore. Instead, a new pickaxe is assigned to the dwarf with a new name. As noted by the lead mining dwarf Bossy, pickaxes never lie and always tell the truth about a dwarf's personality type by the name that is given. Though pickaxes are usually reserved for dwarves only, an exception is given when a giant named Anton is having trouble finding a place in life where he fits in and is accepted by the dwarves as a brother of sorts. Anton is given his own pickaxe with his nickname "Tiny" on it. Pickaxes are incredible durable and can break the most rigid of items, including diamonds. It is used as a weapon by Greg to break open the trigger and undo Storybrooke, and by Snow White to learn Queens whereabouts from a soldier. They can't work on the stone holding Excalibur.

text: Dwarf

text: Pickaxe

text: s are tools assigned to mining Dwarves after they are newly hatched and ready to work. Per axe, each is designated to give a name to a dwarf based on his individual personality. A pickaxe that no longer fits a dwarf after he undergoes a personality change (such as in the case of Dreamy when he became Grumpy) cannot use the old pickax anymore. Instead, a new pickaxe is assigned to the dwarf with a new name. As noted by the lead mining dwarf Bossy, pickaxes never lie and always tell the truth about a dwarf's personality type by the name that is given. Though pickaxes are usually reserved for dwarves only, an exception is given when a giant named Anton is having trouble finding a place in life where he fits in and is accepted by the dwarves as a brother of sorts. Anton is given his own pickaxe with his nickname "Tiny" on it. Pickaxes are incredible durable and can break the most rigid of items, including diamonds. It is used as a weapon by Greg to break open the trigger and undo Storybrooke, and by Snow White to learn Queens whereabouts from a soldier. They can't work on the stone holding Excalibur.

text: Following the discovery of quantum tunneling by physicist Friedrich Hund, in 1929 Robert Atkinson and Fritz Houtermans used the measured masses of light elements to predict that large amounts of energy could be released by fusing small nuclei. Building upon the nuclear transmutation experiments by Ernest Rutherford, carried out several years earlier, the laboratory fusion of hydrogen isotopes was first accomplished by Mark Oliphant in 1932. During the remainder of that decade the steps of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars were worked out by Hans Bethe.  Research into fusion for military purposes began in the early 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project.  Fusion was accomplished in 1951 with the Greenhouse Item nuclear test.  Nuclear fusion on a large scale in an explosion was first carried out on November 1, 1952, in the Ivy Mike hydrogen bomb test.

text: Following the discovery of

text: quantum tunneling

text: by physicist

text: Friedrich Hund

text: , in 1929

text: Robert Atkinson

text: and

text: Fritz Houtermans

text: used the measured masses of light elements to predict that large amounts of energy could be released by fusing small nuclei. Building upon the

text: nuclear transmutation

text: experiments by

text: Ernest Rutherford

text: , carried out several years earlier, the laboratory fusion of

text: hydrogen isotopes

text: was first accomplished by

text: Mark Oliphant

text: in 1932. During the remainder of that decade the steps of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars were worked out by

text: Hans Bethe

text: .  Research into fusion for military purposes began in the early 1940s as part of the

text: Manhattan Project

text: .  Fusion was accomplished in 1951 with the

text: Greenhouse Item

text: nuclear test.  Nuclear fusion on a large scale in an explosion was first carried out on November 1, 1952, in the

text: Ivy Mike

text: hydrogen bomb

text: test.

text: Stars close to the upper mass limit to still qualify as AGB stars show some interesting properties and have been dubbed super-AGB stars.  They have masses above  and up to 9 or  (or more). They represent a transition to the more massive supergiant stars that undergo full fusion of elements heavier than helium.  During the triple-alpha process, some elements heavier than carbon are also produced: mostly oxygen, but also some magnesium, neon, and even heavier elements.  Super-AGB stars develop partially degenerate carbon–oxygen cores that are large enough to ignite carbon in a flash analogous to the earlier helium flash. The second dredge-up is very strong in this mass range and that keeps the core size below the level required for burning of neon as occurs in higher-mass supergiants. The size of the thermal pulses and third dredge-ups are reduced compared to lower-mass stars, while the frequency of the thermal pulses increases dramatically. Some super-AGB stars may explode as an electron capture supernova, but most will end as an oxygen–neon white dwarf.  Since these stars are much more common than higher-mass supergiants, they could form a high proportion of observed supernovae.  Detecting examples of these supernovae would provide valuable confirmation of models that are highly dependent on assumptions.

text: Stars close to the upper mass limit to still qualify as AGB stars show some interesting properties and have been dubbed super-AGB stars.  They have masses above  and up to 9 or  (or more). They represent a transition to the more massive supergiant stars that undergo full fusion of elements heavier than helium.  During the

text: triple-alpha process

text: , some elements heavier than carbon are also produced: mostly oxygen, but also some magnesium, neon, and even heavier elements.  Super-AGB stars develop partially degenerate carbon–oxygen cores that are large enough to ignite carbon in a flash analogous to the earlier helium flash. The second dredge-up is very strong in this mass range and that keeps the core size below the level required for burning of neon as occurs in higher-mass supergiants. The size of the thermal pulses and third dredge-ups are reduced compared to lower-mass stars, while the frequency of the thermal pulses increases dramatically. Some super-AGB stars may explode as an electron capture supernova, but most will end as an oxygen–neon white dwarf.  Since these stars are much more common than higher-mass supergiants, they could form a high proportion of observed supernovae.  Detecting examples of these supernovae would provide valuable confirmation of models that are highly dependent on assumptions.

text: The cluster contains a large number of rare, evolved, high-mass stars, including: 6 yellow hypergiants, 4 red supergiants including Westerlund 1-26, one of the largest known stars, 24 Wolf-Rayet stars, a luminous blue variable, many OB supergiants, and an unusual supergiant sgB[e] star which has been proposed to be the remnant of a recent stellar merger. In addition, X-ray observations have revealed the presence of the anomalous X-ray pulsar CXO J164710.2-455216, a slow rotating neutron star that must have formed from a high-mass progenitor star. Westerlund 1 is believed to have formed in a single burst of star formation, implying the constituent stars have similar ages and compositions.

text: The cluster contains a large number of rare, evolved, high-mass stars, including: 6

text: yellow hypergiant

text: s, 4

text: red supergiant

text: s including

text: Westerlund 1-26

text: , one of the

text: largest known stars

text: , 24

text: Wolf-Rayet stars

text: , a

text: luminous blue variable

text: , many

text: OB supergiants

text: , and an unusual supergiant

text: sgB[e] star

text: which has been proposed to be the remnant of a recent

text: stellar merger

text: . In addition,

text: X-ray

text: observations have revealed the presence of the

text: anomalous X-ray pulsar

text: CXO J164710.2-455216

text: , a slow rotating

text: neutron star

text: that must have formed from a high-mass progenitor star. Westerlund 1 is believed to have formed in a single burst of star formation, implying the constituent stars have similar ages and compositions.

text: Chi Orionis (Chi Ori / χ Orionis / χ Ori) is a B-type supergiant star in the constellation of Orion.  It has an apparent visual magnitude of 4.63.  Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified.

text: Chi Orionis (Chi Ori / χ Orionis / χ Ori) is a

text: B-type

text: supergiant

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Orion

text: .  It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 4.63.  Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: These stars represent a late stage in the evolution of some stars, caused when a red giant star loses its outer hydrogen layers before the core begins to fuse helium. The reasons why this premature mass loss occurs are unclear, but the interaction of stars in a binary star system is thought to be one of the main mechanisms. Single subdwarfs may be the result of a merger of two white dwarfs. The sdB stars are expected to become white dwarfs without going through any more giant stages.

text: These stars represent a late stage in the evolution of some stars, caused when a

text: red giant

text: star loses its outer

text: hydrogen

text: layers before the core begins to fuse

text: helium

text: . The reasons why this premature mass loss occurs are unclear, but the interaction of stars in a

text: binary star

text: system is thought to be one of the main mechanisms. Single subdwarfs may be the result of a merger of two

text: white dwarf

text: s. The sdB stars are expected to become white dwarfs without going through any more giant stages.

text: Across the 0.2-second duration of the detectable signal, the relative tangential (orbiting) velocity of the black holes increased from 30% to 60% of the speed of light. The orbital frequency of 75 Hz (half the gravitational wave frequency) means that the objects were orbiting each other at a distance of only 350 km by the time they merged. The phase changes to the signal's polarization allowed calculation of the objects' orbital frequency, and taken together with the amplitude and pattern of the signal, allowed calculation of their masses and therefore their extreme final velocities and orbital separation (distance apart) when they merged. That information showed that the objects had to be black holes, as any other kind of known objects with these masses would have been physically larger and therefore merged before that point, or would not have reached such velocities in such a small orbit. The highest observed neutron star mass is two solar masses, with a conservative upper limit for the mass of a stable neutron star of three solar masses, so that a pair of neutron stars would not have had sufficient mass to account for the merger (unless exotic alternatives exist, for example, boson stars), while a black hole-neutron star pair would have merged sooner, resulting in a final orbital frequency that was not so high.

text: Across the 0.2-second duration of the detectable signal, the relative tangential (orbiting) velocity of the black holes increased from 30% to 60% of the

text: speed of light

text: . The orbital frequency of 75 Hz (half the gravitational wave frequency) means that the objects were orbiting each other at a distance of only 350 km by the time they merged. The

text: phase

text: changes to the signal's

text: polarization

text: allowed calculation of the objects' orbital frequency, and taken together with the

text: amplitude

text: and pattern of the signal, allowed calculation of their masses and therefore their extreme final velocities and orbital separation (distance apart) when they merged. That information showed that the objects had to be black holes, as any other kind of known objects with these masses would have been physically larger and therefore merged before that point, or would not have reached such velocities in such a small orbit. The highest observed neutron star mass is two solar masses, with a conservative

text: upper limit

text: for the mass of a stable neutron star of three solar masses, so that a pair of neutron stars would not have had sufficient mass to account for the merger (unless exotic alternatives exist, for example,

text: boson stars

text: ), while a black hole-

text: neutron star

text: pair would have merged sooner, resulting in a final orbital frequency that was not so high.

text: There are a number of astrophysical processes which are believed to be responsible for nucleosynthesis. The majority of these occur in shells within stars, and the chain of those nuclear fusion processes are known as hydrogen burning (via the proton-proton chain or the CNO cycle), helium burning, carbon burning, neon burning, oxygen burning and silicon burning. These processes are able to create elements up to and including iron and nickel. This is the region of nucleosynthesis within which the isotopes with the highest binding energy per nucleon are created. Heavier elements can be assembled within stars by a neutron capture process known as the s-process or in explosive environments, such as supernovae, by a number of other processes. Some of those others include the r-process, which involves rapid neutron captures, the rp-process, and the p-process (sometimes known as the gamma process), which results in the photodisintegration of existing nuclei.

text: There are a number of

text: astrophysical

text: processes which are believed to be responsible for nucleosynthesis. The majority of these occur in shells within stars, and the chain of those

text: nuclear fusion

text: processes are known as hydrogen burning (via the

text: proton-proton chain

text: or the

text: CNO cycle

text: helium burning

text: carbon burning

text: neon burning

text: oxygen burning

text: and

text: silicon burning

text: . These processes are able to create elements up to and including iron and nickel. This is the region of nucleosynthesis within which the isotopes with the highest

text: binding energy

text: per nucleon are created. Heavier elements can be assembled within stars by a neutron capture process known as the

text: s-process

text: or in explosive environments, such as

text: supernova

text: e, by a number of other processes. Some of those others include the

text: r-process

text: , which involves rapid neutron captures, the

text: rp-process

text: , and the

text: p-process

text: (sometimes known as the gamma process), which results in the

text: photodisintegration

text: of existing nuclei.

text: A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1934 in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the centre along a spiral path.   The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying (radio frequency) electric field.   Lawrence was awarded the 1939 Nobel prize in physics for this invention.   Cyclotrons were the most powerful particle accelerator technology until the 1950s when they were superseded by the synchrotron, and are still used to produce particle beams in physics and nuclear medicine.  The largest single-magnet cyclotron was the  synchrocyclotron built between 1940 and 1946 by Lawrence at the University of California at Berkeley, which could accelerate protons to 730 MeV.  The largest cyclotron is the  multimagnet TRIUMF accelerator at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia which can produce 500 MeV protons.

text: A cyclotron is a type of

text: particle accelerator

text: invented by

text: Ernest O. Lawrence

text: in 1934 in which

text: charged particle

text: s accelerate outwards from the centre along a spiral path.   The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying (

text: radio frequency

text: ) electric field.   Lawrence was awarded the 1939

text: Nobel prize in physics

text: for this invention.   Cyclotrons were the most powerful particle accelerator technology until the 1950s when they were superseded by the

text: synchrotron

text: , and are still used to produce particle beams in physics and

text: nuclear medicine

text: .  The largest single-magnet cyclotron was the

text: synchrocyclotron

text: built between 1940 and 1946 by Lawrence at the

text: University of California at Berkeley

text: , which could accelerate protons to 730

text: MeV

text: .  The largest cyclotron is the  multimagnet

text: TRIUMF

text: accelerator at the

text: University of British Columbia

text: in

text: Vancouver, British Columbia

text: which can produce 500 MeV protons.

text: Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both Li and Li produce tritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material.

text: Lithium deuteride

text: was the

text: fusion fuel

text: of choice in early versions of the

text: hydrogen bomb

text: . When bombarded by

text: neutron

text: s, both Li and Li produce

text: tritium

text: — this reaction, which was not fully understood when

text: hydrogen bombs

text: were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the

text: Castle Bravo

text: nuclear test

text: . Tritium fuses with

text: deuterium

text: in a

text: fusion

text: reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern

text: nuclear weapons

text: as a fusion material.

text: At 14 years of age, Hopkins fell into the acting business when his mother brought him to a casting-call audition in New York for the Warner Bros. feature Lean on Me, a starring role as Thomas Samms, a misguided drug-abusing high school student. His next project Juice,  directed by Ernest R. Dickerson, had him starring as Steel alongside Khalil Kain, Omar Epps and Tupac Shakur. Hopkins subsequently starred in the HBO worldwide release "Strapped", that would be Forest Whitaker's directorial debut. Over the next two years, Hopkins appeared in episodes of "Murder One" and "Moesha", and six episodes as Dupree on "The Wayans Brothers" series, before finishing production on his next film "How to Be a Player", starring opposite Bill Bellamy and comedian Pierre Edwards.

text: At 14 years of age, Hopkins fell into the acting business when his mother brought him to a casting-call audition in New York for the Warner Bros. feature

text: Lean on Me

text: , a starring role as Thomas Samms, a misguided drug-abusing high school student. His next project

text: Juice

text: ,  directed by Ernest R. Dickerson, had him starring as Steel alongside

text: Khalil Kain

text: Omar Epps

text: and

text: Tupac Shakur

text: . Hopkins subsequently starred in the HBO worldwide release "

text: Strapped

text: ", that would be

text: Forest Whitaker

text: 's directorial debut. Over the next two years, Hopkins appeared in episodes of "Murder One" and "

text: Moesha

text: ", and six episodes as Dupree on "The Wayans Brothers" series, before finishing production on his next film "

text: How to Be a Player

text: ", starring opposite

text: Bill Bellamy

text: and comedian Pierre Edwards.

text: An A-type main-sequence star (A V) or A dwarf star is a main-sequence (hydrogen-burning) star of spectral type A and luminosity class V. These stars have spectra which are defined by strong hydrogen Balmer absorption lines. They have masses from 1.4 to 2.1 times the mass of the Sun and surface temperatures between 7600 and 11 500  K. Bright and nearby examples are Altair (A7 V), Sirius A (A1 V), and Vega (A0 V).

text: An A-type main-sequence star (A V) or A dwarf star is a

text: main-sequence

text: hydrogen

text: -burning)

text: star

text: of

text: spectral type

text: A and

text: luminosity class

text: V. These stars have

text: spectra

text: which are defined by strong

text: hydrogen Balmer absorption lines

text: . They have

text: mass

text: es from 1.4 to 2.1 times the

text: mass

text: of the

text: Sun

text: and

text: surface temperatures

text: between 7600 and 11 500

text: K

text: . Bright and nearby examples are

text: Altair

text: (A7 V),

text: Sirius A

text: (A1 V), and

text: Vega

text: (A0 V).

text: The primary component, Delta Tucanae A, is a blue-white B-type main sequence dwarf with an apparent magnitude of +4.49.  The companion star is a G-type main sequence star of magnitude +9.3, 7 arcseconds from the primary.

text: The primary component, Delta Tucanae A, is a blue-white

text: B-type

text: main sequence dwarf

text: with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +4.49.  The companion star is a G-type main sequence star of magnitude +9.3, 7

text: arcsecond

text: s from the primary.

text: Ever since the discovery of Proxima it has been suspected to be a true companion of the Alpha Centauri binary star system. At a distance to Alpha Centauri of just 0.21 ly (15,000 ± 700 AU), Proxima Centauri may be in orbit around Alpha Centauri, with an orbital period of the order of 500,000 years or more. For this reason, Proxima is sometimes referred to as Alpha Centauri C. Modern estimates, taking into account the small separation between and relative velocity of the stars, suggest that the chance of the observed alignment being a coincidence is roughly one in a million. Data from the Hipparcos satellite, combined with ground-based observations, is consistent with the hypothesis that the three stars are truly a bound system. If so, Proxima would currently be near apastron, the farthest point in its orbit from the Alpha Centauri system. Such a triple system can form naturally through a low-mass star being dynamically captured by a more massive binary of  within their embedded star cluster before the cluster disperses.More accurate measurement of the radial velocity is needed to confirm this hypothesis.

text: Ever since the discovery of Proxima it has been suspected to be a true companion of the Alpha Centauri

text: binary star

text: system. At a distance to Alpha Centauri of just 0.21 ly (15,000 ± 700

text: AU

text: ), Proxima Centauri may be in orbit around Alpha Centauri, with an

text: orbital period

text: of the order of 500,000 years or more. For this reason, Proxima is sometimes referred to as Alpha Centauri C. Modern estimates, taking into account the small separation between and relative velocity of the stars, suggest that the chance of the observed alignment being a coincidence is roughly one in a million. Data from the

text: Hipparcos

text: satellite, combined with ground-based observations, is consistent with the hypothesis that the three stars are truly a bound system. If so, Proxima would currently be near

text: apastron

text: , the farthest point in its orbit from the Alpha Centauri system. Such a triple system can form naturally through a low-mass star being dynamically captured by a more massive binary of  within their embedded star cluster before the cluster disperses.More accurate measurement of the radial velocity is needed to confirm this hypothesis.

text: Supergiants are evolved high-mass stars, larger and more luminous than main-sequence stars.  O class and early B class stars with initial masses around  evolve away from the main sequence in just a few million years as their hydrogen is consumed and heavy elements start to appear near the surface of the star.  These stars usually become blue supergiants, although it is possible that some of them evolve directly to Wolf–Rayet stars.  Expansion into the supergiant stage occurs when hydrogen in the core of the star is depleted and hydrogen shell burning starts, but it may also be caused as heavy elements are dredged up to the surface by convection and mass loss due to radiation pressure increase.

text: Supergiants are evolved high-mass stars, larger and more luminous than

text: main-sequence

text: stars.  O class and early B class stars with initial masses around

text: evolve

text: away from the main sequence in just a few million years as their hydrogen is consumed and heavy elements start to appear near the surface of the star.  These stars usually become blue supergiants, although it is possible that some of them evolve directly to

text: Wolf–Rayet stars

text: .  Expansion into the supergiant stage occurs when hydrogen in the core of the star is depleted and hydrogen shell burning starts, but it may also be caused as heavy elements are dredged up to the surface by convection and mass loss due to radiation pressure increase.

text: The supernova was determined to be of Type Ibc. The velocities measured from SN2008D indicated expansion rates of more than 10,000 kilometers per second. The explosion was off-center, with gas on one side of the explosion moving outward faster than on the other. This was the first time the X-ray emission pattern of a supernova (which only lasted about five minutes) was captured at the moment of its birth. Now that it is known what X-ray pattern to look for, the next generation of X-ray satellites is expected to find hundreds of supernovae every year exactly when they explode, which will allow searches for neutrino and gravitational wave bursts that are predicted to accompany the collapse of stellar cores and the birth of neutron stars.

text: The supernova was determined to be of

text: Type Ibc

text: . The velocities measured from SN2008D indicated expansion rates of more than 10,000 kilometers per second. The explosion was off-center, with gas on one side of the explosion moving outward faster than on the other. This was the first time the X-ray emission pattern of a supernova (which only lasted about five minutes) was captured at the moment of its birth. Now that it is known what X-ray pattern to look for, the next generation of X-ray satellites is expected to find hundreds of supernovae every year exactly when they explode, which will allow searches for

text: neutrino

text: and

text: gravitational wave

text: bursts that are predicted to accompany the collapse of stellar cores and the birth of

text: neutron star

text: s.

text: In the late phase of stellar evolution, massive stars like Betelgeuse exhibit high rates of mass loss, possibly as much as 1  every  years, resulting in a complex circumstellar environment that is constantly in flux. In a 2009 paper, stellar mass loss was cited as the "key to understanding the evolution of the universe from the earliest cosmological times to the current epoch, and of planet formation and the formation of life itself". However, the physical mechanism is not well understood. When Schwarzschild first proposed his theory of huge convection cells, he argued it was the likely cause of mass loss in evolved supergiants like Betelgeuse. Recent work has corroborated this hypothesis, yet there are still uncertainties about the structure of their convection, the mechanism of their mass loss, the way dust forms in their extended atmosphere, and the conditions which precipitate their dramatic finale as a type II supernova. In 2001, Graham Harper estimated a stellar wind at 0.03  every  years, but research since 2009 has provided evidence of episodic mass loss making any total figure for Betelgeuse uncertain. Current observations suggest that a star like Betelgeuse may spend a portion of its lifetime as a red supergiant, but then cross back across the H-R diagram, pass once again through a brief yellow supergiant phase and then explode as a blue supergiant or Wolf-Rayet star.

text: In the late phase of

text: stellar evolution

text: , massive stars like Betelgeuse exhibit high rates of

text: mass loss

text: , possibly as much as 1  every  years, resulting in a complex

text: circumstellar environment

text: that is constantly in flux. In a 2009 paper, stellar mass loss was cited as the "key to understanding the evolution of the universe from the earliest cosmological times to the current epoch, and of planet formation and the formation of life itself". However, the physical mechanism is not well understood. When Schwarzschild first proposed his theory of huge convection cells, he argued it was the likely cause of mass loss in evolved supergiants like Betelgeuse. Recent work has corroborated this hypothesis, yet there are still uncertainties about the structure of their convection, the mechanism of their mass loss, the way dust forms in their extended atmosphere, and the conditions which precipitate their dramatic finale as a type II supernova. In 2001, Graham Harper estimated a stellar wind at 0.03  every  years, but research since 2009 has provided evidence of episodic mass loss making any total figure for Betelgeuse uncertain. Current observations suggest that a star like Betelgeuse may spend a portion of its lifetime as a red supergiant, but then cross back across the H-R diagram, pass once again through a brief yellow supergiant phase and then explode as a

text: blue supergiant

text: or

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: The cluster contains no main sequence stars bluer than spectral type F, other than perhaps some of the blue stragglers, since the brighter stars of that age have already left the main sequence.  In fact, when the stars of the cluster are plotted on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, there is a distinct "turn-off" representing the stars which have terminated hydrogen fusion in the core and are destined to become red giants.  As the cluster ages, the turn-off moves progressively down the main sequence.

text: The cluster contains no

text: main sequence

text: stars bluer than

text: spectral type F

text: , other than perhaps some of the blue stragglers, since the brighter stars of that age have already left the main sequence.  In fact, when the stars of the cluster are plotted on the

text: Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

text: , there is a distinct "turn-off" representing the stars which have terminated hydrogen fusion in the core and are destined to become red giants.  As the cluster ages, the turn-off moves progressively down the main sequence.

text: There is, however, one major advantage that red dwarfs have over other stars as abodes for life: they live a long time. It took 4.5 billion years before humanity appeared on Earth, and life as we know it will see suitable conditions for as little as half a billion years more. Red dwarfs, by contrast, could live for trillions of years, because their nuclear reactions are far slower than those of larger stars, meaning that life both would have longer to evolve and longer to survive. Furthermore, although the odds of finding a planet in the habitable zone around any specific red dwarf are unknown, the total amount of habitable zone around all red dwarfs combined is equal to the total amount around Sun-like stars given their ubiquity. The first super-Earth with a mass of a 3 to 4 times that of Earth's found in the potentially habitable zone of its star is Gliese 581 g, and its star, Gliese 581, is indeed a red dwarf. Although tidally locked, it is thought possible that at its terminator liquid water may well exist. The planet is thought to have existed for approximately 7 billion years and has a large enough mass to support an atmosphere.

text: There is, however, one major advantage that red dwarfs have over other stars as abodes for life: they live a long time. It took 4.5 billion years before humanity appeared on Earth, and life as we know it will see suitable conditions for as little as half a billion years more. Red dwarfs, by contrast, could live for trillions of years, because their nuclear reactions are far slower than those of larger stars, meaning that life both would have longer to evolve and longer to survive. Furthermore, although the odds of finding a planet in the habitable zone around any specific red dwarf are unknown, the total amount of habitable zone around all red dwarfs combined is equal to the total amount around Sun-like stars given their ubiquity. The first

text: super-Earth

text: with a mass of a 3 to 4 times that of Earth's found in the potentially

text: habitable zone

text: of its star is

text: Gliese 581 g

text: , and its star,

text: Gliese 581

text: , is indeed a red dwarf. Although tidally locked, it is thought possible that at its

text: terminator

text: liquid water may well exist. The planet is thought to have existed for approximately 7 billion years and has a large enough mass to support an atmosphere.

text: For Star Wars, Burton voiced Count Dooku in Star Wars: Clone Wars, Star Wars: The Clone Wars and several Star Wars video games.

text: For

text: Star Wars

text: , Burton voiced

text: Count Dooku

text: in

text: Star Wars: Clone Wars

entity_name: Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series)

text: Star Wars: The Clone Wars

text: and several Star Wars video games.

text: Everyday examples of particle accelerators are cathode ray tubes found in television sets and X-ray generators. These low-energy accelerators use a single pair of electrodes with a DC voltage of a few thousand volts between them. In an X-ray generator, the target itself is one of the electrodes. A low-energy particle accelerator called an ion implanter is used in the manufacture of integrated circuits.

text: Everyday examples of particle accelerators are

text: cathode ray tube

text: s found in television sets and

text: X-ray

text: generators. These low-energy accelerators use a single pair of

text: electrode

text: s with a

text: DC

text: voltage of a few thousand volts between them. In an X-ray generator, the target itself is one of the electrodes. A low-energy particle accelerator called an

text: ion implanter

text: is used in the manufacture of

text: integrated circuit

text: s.

text: Statistically, the next supernova is likely to be produced from an otherwise unremarkable red supergiant, but it is difficult to identify which of those supergiants are in the final stages of heavy element fusion in their cores and which have millions of years left.  The most massive red supergiants are expected to shed their atmospheres and evolve to Wolf-Rayet stars before their cores collapse.  All Wolf-Rayet stars are expected to end their lives from the Wolf-Rayet phase within a million years or so, but again it is difficult to identify those that are closest to core collapse.  One class that is expected to have no more than a few thousand years before exploding are the WO Wolf-Rayet stars, which are known to have exhausted their core helium.  Only eight of them are known, and only four of those are in the Milky Way.

text: When a binary system contains a compact object such as a white dwarf, neutron star or black hole, gas from the other (donor) star can accrete onto the compact object. This releases gravitational potential energy, causing the gas to become hotter and emit radiation. Cataclysmic variable stars, where the compact object is a white dwarf, are examples of such systems.In X-ray binaries, the compact object can be either a neutron star or a black hole. These binaries are classified as low-mass or high-mass according to the mass of the donor star. High-mass X-ray binaries contain a young, early-type, high-mass donor star which transfers mass by its stellar wind, while low-mass X-ray binaries are semidetached binaries in which gas from a late-type donor star or a white dwarf overflows the Roche lobe and falls towards the neutron star or black hole. Probably the best known example of an X-ray binary is the high-mass X-ray binary Cygnus X-1. In Cygnus X-1, the mass of the unseen companion is estimated to be about nine times that of the Sun, far exceeding the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit for the maximum theoretical mass of a neutron star. It is therefore believed to be a black hole; it was the first object for which this was widely believed.

text: When a binary system contains a

text: compact object

text: such as a

text: white dwarf

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: , gas from the other (donor) star can

text: accrete

text: onto the compact object. This releases

text: gravitational potential energy

text: , causing the gas to become hotter and emit radiation.

text: Cataclysmic variable star

text: s, where the compact object is a white dwarf, are examples of such systems.In

text: X-ray binaries

text: , the compact object can be either a

text: neutron star

text: or a

text: black hole

text: . These binaries are classified as

text: low-mass

text: or

text: high-mass

text: according to the mass of the donor star. High-mass X-ray binaries contain a young,

text: early-type

text: , high-mass donor star which transfers mass by its

text: stellar wind

text: , while low-mass X-ray binaries are semidetached binaries in which gas from a

text: late-type

text: donor star or a white dwarf overflows the Roche lobe and falls towards the neutron star or black hole. Probably the best known example of an X-ray binary is the

text: high-mass X-ray binary

text: Cygnus X-1

text: . In Cygnus X-1, the mass of the unseen companion is estimated to be about nine times that of the Sun, far exceeding the

text: Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit

text: for the maximum theoretical mass of a neutron star. It is therefore believed to be a black hole; it was the first object for which this was widely believed.

text: Ever since the detection of the first millisecond pulsar (MSP), it has been theorized that MSPs are neutron stars that have been spun up by accretion in a close binary system. The change in rotational period of the neutron star comes from the transition region between the magnetosphere and the plasma flow from the companion star. In this context the magnetosphere is defined as the region of space surrounding the neutron star, in which the magnetic field determines the motion of the plasma. Inside the magnetic field, the plasma will eventually co-rotate with the neutron star while in the transition region, angular momentum from the accretion disk will be transferred via the magnetic field to the neutron star, leading to the spin-up.

text: Ever since the detection of the first

text: millisecond pulsar

text: (MSP), it has been theorized that MSPs are

text: neutron star

text: s that have been spun up by

text: accretion

text: in a close

text: binary system

text: . The change in rotational period of the neutron star comes from the transition region between the magnetosphere and the

text: plasma

text: flow from the

text: companion star

text: . In this context the magnetosphere is defined as the region of space surrounding the neutron star, in which the

text: magnetic field

text: determines the motion of the plasma. Inside the magnetic field, the plasma will eventually co-rotate with the neutron star while in the transition region,

text: angular momentum

text: from the

text: accretion disk

text: will be transferred via the magnetic field to the neutron star, leading to the spin-up.

text: Eta Hydri is a star in the constellation Hydrus. Its apparent magnitude is 6.76. It is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B9V that was suspected of being variable.

text: Eta Hydri is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Hydrus

text: . Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 6.76. It is a blue-white

text: main sequence

text: star of

text: spectral type

text: B9V that was suspected of being

text: variable

text: The terms chosen for the constellation themselves, together with the appearance of a constellation, may reveal where and when its constellation makers lived.  The big dipper, for example, appears in many cultures under different names, e.g. "Plough" is the name in the United Kingdom, parrot in the Maya civilization, and the Egyptians saw it as part of the thigh and leg of a bull. Professor John D. Barrow claimed that people who named constellations did not do so because they thought them to be looking like e.g. a plough, but the naming was symbolic instead for something associated with e.g. a plough.

text: The terms chosen for the constellation themselves, together with the appearance of a constellation, may reveal where and when its constellation makers lived.  The

text: big dipper

text: , for example, appears in many cultures under different names, e.g. "Plough" is the name in the

text: United Kingdom

text: , parrot in the

text: Maya civilization

text: , and the Egyptians saw it as part of the thigh and leg of a bull. Professor

text: John D. Barrow

text: claimed that people who named constellations did not do so because they thought them to be looking like e.g. a plough, but the naming was symbolic instead for something associated with e.g. a plough.

text: The expected progenitors of type Ib supernovae, luminous WC stars, are not observed at all.  Instead WC stars are found at lower luminosities, apparently post-red supergiant stars.  WO stars are extremely rare and visually relatively faint, so it is difficult to say whether such progenitors are missing or just yet to be observed.  Very luminous progenitors, despite numerous supernovae being observed near enough that such progenitors would have been clearly imaged.  Several examples of hot luminous progenitors of type IIn supernovae have been detected: SN 2005gy and SN 2010jl were both apparently massive luminous stars, but are very distant; and SN 2009ip had a highly luminous progenitor likely to have been an LBV, but is a peculiar supernova whose exact nature is disupted.

text: The expected progenitors of type Ib supernovae, luminous WC stars, are not observed at all.  Instead WC stars are found at lower luminosities, apparently post-red supergiant stars.  WO stars are extremely rare and visually relatively faint, so it is difficult to say whether such progenitors are missing or just yet to be observed.  Very luminous progenitors, despite numerous supernovae being observed near enough that such progenitors would have been clearly imaged.  Several examples of hot luminous progenitors of type IIn supernovae have been detected:

text: SN 2005gy

text: and

text: SN 2010jl

text: were both apparently massive luminous stars, but are very distant; and

text: SN 2009ip

text: had a highly luminous progenitor likely to have been an LBV, but is a peculiar supernova whose exact nature is disupted.

text: The unaided human eye can detect about 6000 stars, of which about half are below the horizon at any one time. On modern star charts, the celestial sphere is divided into 88 constellations. Every star lies within a constellation. Constellations are useful for navigation. Polaris lies close to due north to an observer in the northern hemisphere. This star is always at a position nearly over the North Pole.

text: The unaided human eye can detect about 6000

text: star

text: s, of which about half are below the horizon at any one time. On modern star charts, the

text: celestial sphere

text: is divided into 88

text: constellation

text: s. Every star lies within a constellation. Constellations are useful for navigation.

text: Polaris

text: lies close to due north to an observer in the northern hemisphere. This star is always at a position nearly over the

text: North Pole

text: Lalande 21185 is listed as a BY Draconis type variable star in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars. It is identified by the variable star designation NSV 18593. Several star catalogs, including SIMBAD, also classify it as a flare star. This conclusion is not supported by the primary reference these catalogs all use. The observations made in this reference show that it is rather quiet in comparison to other stars of its variable type.

text: Lalande 21185 is listed as a

text: BY Draconis

text: type variable star in the

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: . It is identified by the variable star designation NSV 18593. Several star catalogs, including

text: SIMBAD

text: , also classify it as a

text: flare star

text: . This conclusion is not supported by the primary reference these catalogs all use. The observations made in this reference show that it is rather quiet in comparison to other stars of its variable type.

text: The most massive main-sequence stars will also have the highest absolute magnitude, and these will be the first to evolve into the giant star stage. As the cluster ages, stars of successively lower masses will also enter the giant star stage. Thus the age of a single population cluster can be measured by looking for the stars that are just beginning to enter the giant star stage. This forms a "knee" in the HR diagram, bending to the upper right from the main-sequence line. The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the age of globular cluster, so an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude.

text: The most massive main-sequence stars will also have the highest absolute magnitude, and these will be the first to evolve into the

text: giant star

text: stage. As the cluster ages, stars of successively lower masses will also enter the

text: giant star

text: stage. Thus the age of a single population cluster can be measured by looking for the stars that are just beginning to enter the giant star stage. This forms a "knee" in the HR diagram, bending to the upper right from the main-sequence line. The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the age of globular cluster, so an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude.

text: There are many other variable stars of different types in Auriga. ψ Aurigae (Dolones) is an orange-hued supergiant, which ranges between magnitudes 4.8 and 5.7, though not with a regular period. It has a spectral class of K5Iab, an average magnitude of 4.91, and an absolute magnitude of −5.7. Dolones is 3,976 light-years from Earth. RT Aurigae is a Cepheid variable which ranges between magnitudes 5.0 and 5.8 over a period of 3.7 days. A yellow-white supergiant, it lies at a distance of 1,600 light-years. It was discovered to be variable by English amateur T.H. Astbury in 1905. It has a spectral class of F81bv, meaning that it is an F-type supergiant star. RX Aurigae is a Cepheid variable as well; it varies in magnitude from a minimum of 8.0 to a maximum of 7.3; its spectral class is G0Iabv. It has a period of 11.62 days. RW Aurigae is the prototype of its class of irregular variable stars. Its variability was discovered in 1906 by Lydia Ceraski at the Moscow Observatory. RW Aurigae's spectrum indicates a turbulent stellar atmosphere, and has prominent emission lines of calcium and hydrogen. Its spectral type is G5V:e. SS Aurigae is an SS Cygni-type variable star, classified as an explosive dwarf. Discovered by Emil Silbernagel in 1907, it is almost always at its minimum magnitude of 15, but brightens to a maximum up to 60 times brighter than the minimum an average of every 55 days, though the period can range from 50 days to more than 100 days. It takes about 24 hours for the star to go from its minimum to maximum magnitude. SS Aurigae is a very close binary star with a period of 4 hours and 20 minutes. Both components are small subdwarf stars; there has been dispute in the scientific community about which star originates the outbursts. UU Aurigae is a variable red giant star at a distance of 2,000 light-years. It has a period of approximately 234 days and ranges between magnitudes 5.0 and 7.0.

text: There are many other variable stars of different types in Auriga.

text: ψ Aurigae

text: (Dolones) is an orange-hued

text: supergiant

text: , which ranges between magnitudes 4.8 and 5.7, though not with a regular period. It has a spectral class of K5Iab, an average magnitude of 4.91, and an absolute magnitude of −5.7. Dolones is 3,976 light-years from Earth.

text: RT Aurigae

text: is a

text: Cepheid variable

text: which ranges between magnitudes 5.0 and 5.8 over a period of 3.7 days. A yellow-white supergiant, it lies at a distance of 1,600 light-years. It was discovered to be variable by English amateur T.H. Astbury in 1905. It has a spectral class of F81bv, meaning that it is an F-type supergiant star.

text: RX Aurigae

text: is a Cepheid variable as well; it varies in magnitude from a minimum of 8.0 to a maximum of 7.3; its spectral class is G0Iabv. It has a period of 11.62 days.

text: RW Aurigae

text: is the prototype of its class of irregular variable stars. Its variability was discovered in 1906 by

text: Lydia Ceraski

text: at the

text: Moscow Observatory

text: . RW Aurigae's spectrum indicates a turbulent

text: stellar atmosphere

text: , and has prominent

text: emission line

text: s of

text: calcium

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: . Its spectral type is G5V:e.

text: SS Aurigae

text: is an

text: SS Cygni

text: -type variable star, classified as an explosive dwarf. Discovered by

text: Emil Silbernagel

text: in 1907, it is almost always at its minimum magnitude of 15, but brightens to a maximum up to 60 times brighter than the minimum an average of every 55 days, though the period can range from 50 days to more than 100 days. It takes about 24 hours for the star to go from its minimum to maximum magnitude. SS Aurigae is a very close binary star with a period of 4 hours and 20 minutes. Both components are small subdwarf stars; there has been dispute in the scientific community about which star originates the outbursts.

text: UU Aurigae

text: is a variable

text: red giant

text: star at a distance of 2,000 light-years. It has a period of approximately 234 days and ranges between magnitudes 5.0 and 7.0.

text: 8 Cancri is a star in the constellation Cancer.

text: 8 Cancri is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Cancer

text: In modern usage, the definition of a red dwarf still varies.  When explicitly defined, it typically includes late K- and early to mid-M-class stars, but in many cases it is restricted just to M-class stars.  In some cases all K stars are included as red dwarfs, and occasionally even earlier stars.

text: The notion of using a fission weapon to ignite a process of nuclear fusion can be dated back to 1942. At the first major theoretical conference on the development of an atomic bomb hosted by J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley, participant Edward Teller directed the majority of the discussion towards Enrico Fermi's idea of a "Super" bomb that would use the same reactions that powered the Sun itself.

text: The notion of using a fission weapon to ignite a process of

text: nuclear fusion

text: can be dated back to 1942. At the first major theoretical conference on the development of an atomic bomb hosted by J. Robert Oppenheimer at the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: , participant

text: Edward Teller

text: directed the majority of the discussion towards Enrico Fermi's idea of a "Super" bomb that would use the same reactions that powered the

text: Sun

text: itself.

text: The Orion Arm is named for the Orion constellation, which is one of the most prominent constellations of Northern Hemisphere winter (Southern Hemisphere summer).  Some of the brightest stars and most famous celestial objects of this constellation (Betelgeuse, Rigel, the stars of Orion's Belt, the Orion Nebula) are located within the Orion Arm, as shown on the interactive map below.

text: The Orion Arm is named for the

text: Orion constellation

text: , which is one of the most prominent constellations of Northern Hemisphere winter (Southern Hemisphere summer).  Some of the brightest stars and most famous celestial objects of this constellation (

text: Betelgeuse

text: Rigel

text: , the stars of

text: Orion's Belt

text: , the

text: Orion Nebula

text: ) are located within the Orion Arm, as shown on the

text: interactive map below

text: The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density. Therefore, the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers. This would reduce the fusion rate and correct the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.

text: The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density. Therefore, the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and

text: expand

text: slightly against the

text: weight

text: of the outer layers. This would reduce the fusion rate and correct the

text: perturbation

text: ; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level.

text: Population I, or metal-rich stars, are those young stars whose metallicity is highest. The high metallicity of population I stars makes them more likely to possess planetary systems than older populations, because planets form by the accretion of metals. The Sun is an example of a metal-rich star. These are common in the spiral arms of the Milky Way. Generally, the youngest stars, the extreme population I, are found farther in and intermediate population I stars are farther out, etc. The Sun is considered an intermediate population I star. Population I stars have regular elliptical orbits around the Galactic Center, with a low relative velocity.

text: Population I, or metal-rich stars, are those young stars whose

text: metallicity

text: is highest. The high metallicity of population I stars makes them more likely to possess planetary systems than older populations, because planets form by the

text: accretion

text: of metals. The Sun is an example of a metal-rich star. These are common in the

text: spiral arm

text: s of the

text: Milky Way

text: . Generally, the youngest stars, the extreme population I, are found farther in and intermediate population I stars are farther out, etc. The Sun is considered an intermediate population I star. Population I stars have regular

text: elliptical orbit

text: s around the

text: Galactic Center

text: , with a low

text: relative velocity

text: Particle accelerators, such as a magnetron or cyclotron, implement electromagnetic fields to achieve acceleration of elements. Atoms must be electrically charged (ionized) before they can be accelerated. Ionization involves the removal of electrons from the target atoms. A magnetron can be used to produce H- ions. Van de Graaff generators have also been integrated with particle accelerators, shown in figure 3, for light ion beam generation.

text: Particle accelerators, such as a magnetron or cyclotron, implement electromagnetic fields to achieve acceleration of elements. Atoms must be electrically charged (ionized) before they can be accelerated. Ionization involves the removal of electrons from the target atoms. A magnetron can be used to produce H- ions.

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: s have also been integrated with particle accelerators, shown in figure 3, for light ion beam generation.

text: A red dwarf is a small and relatively cool star on the main sequence, of either K or M spectral type. Red dwarfs range in mass from a low of 0.075 solar masses () to about  and have a surface temperature of less than 4,000 K.

text: A red dwarf is a small and relatively cool

text: star

text: on the

text: main sequence

text: , of either K or M

text: spectral type

text: . Red dwarfs range in mass from a low of 0.075 solar masses () to about  and have a surface temperature of less than 4,000

text: K

text: Orbital inclination is the angle between a planet's orbital plane and another plane of reference. For exoplanets, the inclination is usually stated with respect to an observer on Earth: the angle used is that between the normal to the planet's orbital plane and the line of sight from Earth to the star. Therefore, most planets observed by the transit method are close to 90 degrees. Because the word 'inclination' is used in exoplanet studies for this line-of-sight inclination then the angle between the planet's orbit and the star's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin–orbit angle or spin–orbit alignment. In most cases the orientation of the star's rotational axis is unknown. The Kepler spacecraft has found a few hundred multi-planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane, much like the Solar System. However, a combination of astrometric and radial-velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other. More than half of hot Jupiters have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent star's rotation. A substantial fraction of hot-Jupiters even have retrograde orbits, meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star's rotation. Rather than a planet's orbit having been disturbed, it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.

text: Orbital inclination

text: is the angle between a planet's

text: orbital plane

text: and another plane of reference. For exoplanets, the inclination is usually stated with respect to an observer on Earth: the angle used is that between the

text: normal

text: to the planet's orbital plane and the line of sight from Earth to the star. Therefore, most planets observed by the

text: transit method

text: are close to 90 degrees. Because the word 'inclination' is used in exoplanet studies for this line-of-sight inclination then the angle between the planet's orbit and the star's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin–orbit angle or spin–orbit alignment. In most cases the orientation of the star's rotational axis is unknown. The Kepler spacecraft has found a few hundred multi-planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane, much like the Solar System. However, a combination of astrometric and radial-velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other. More than half of

text: hot Jupiter

text: s have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent star's rotation. A substantial fraction of hot-Jupiters even have

text: retrograde orbit

text: s, meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star's rotation. Rather than a planet's orbit having been disturbed, it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.

text: A microquasar is a smaller cousin of a quasar that is a radio emitting X-ray binary, with an often resolvable pair of radio jets. SS 433 is one of the most exotic star systems observed. It is an eclipsing binary with the primary either a black hole or neutron star and the secondary is a late A-type star. SS 433 lies within SNR W50. The material in the jet traveling from the secondary to the primary does so at 26% of light speed. The spectrum of SS 433 is affected by Doppler shifts and by relativity: when the effects of the Doppler shift are subtracted, there is a residual redshift which corresponds to a velocity of about 12,000 kps. This does not represent an actual velocity of the system away from the Earth; rather, it is due to time dilation, which makes moving clocks appear to stationary observers to be ticking more slowly. In this case, the relativistically moving excited atoms in the jets appear to vibrate more slowly and their radiation thus appears red-shifted.

text: A

text: microquasar

text: is a smaller cousin of a

text: quasar

text: that is a radio emitting

text: X-ray binary

text: , with an often resolvable pair of radio jets.

text: SS 433

text: is one of the most exotic

text: star system

text: s observed. It is an

text: eclipsing binary

text: with the primary either a black hole or neutron star and the secondary is a late

text: A-type star

text: . SS 433 lies within

text: SNR

text: . The material in the jet traveling from the secondary to the primary does so at 26% of light speed. The spectrum of SS 433 is affected by

text: Doppler shift

text: s and by

text: relativity

text: : when the effects of the Doppler shift are subtracted, there is a residual redshift which corresponds to a velocity of about 12,000 kps. This does not represent an actual velocity of the system away from the Earth; rather, it is due to

text: time dilation

text: , which makes moving clocks appear to stationary observers to be ticking more slowly. In this case, the relativistically moving excited atoms in the jets appear to vibrate more slowly and their radiation thus appears red-shifted.

text: KOI-256 is a double star located in the constellation Cygnus approximately  from Earth. While observations by the Kepler spacecraft suggested the system contained a gas giant exoplanet orbiting a red dwarf, later studies determined that KOI-256 was a binary system composed of the red dwarf orbiting a white dwarf.

text: KOI-256 is a

text: double star

text: located in the constellation

text: Cygnus

text: approximately  from Earth. While observations by the

text: Kepler

text: spacecraft suggested the system contained a gas giant

text: exoplanet

text: orbiting a

text: red dwarf

text: , later studies determined that KOI-256 was a binary system composed of the red dwarf orbiting a

text: white dwarf

text: A schematic drawing of a VSI mill is shown at Fig. 1. Raw material particles transports via hopper (1) into the accelerator (2). An accelerator (2) rotates with a high speed and particles increase their speed by a centrifugal force. After leaving channels of the accelerator particles impact with a wear plate (3) in the grinding chamber. A high speed impact leads to destruction of particles into pieces of different size. Big particles (greater than 1 mm) fall down to outlet (5) and later they transport to hopper by an elevator. Other particles (less than 1 mm) lift by air stream into a classifier where blades (4) make rotating dust flow. Middle size particles shift to wall by centrifugal force in a big chamber of a classifier and fall down to cone (6) and later they move into an accelerator (2). Small particles move by air stream to outlet (8). Fine tune of a product size is achieved by changing of blade angle.

text: NASA on June 7, 2012 announced the cancellation of the GEMS project. The Gravity and Extreme Magnetism Small Explorer mission was supposed to blast off in 2014 to study black holes and neutron stars. But external reviews found the project would likely come in over budget. GEMS was supposed to hold at $119 million, not counting the rocket. NASA's astrophysics director, Paul Hertz, says the technology needed for the instrument took longer to develop than expected, and that drove up the price.

text: Six star systems are thought to have planetary systems. Tau Gruis is a yellow star of magnitude 6.0 located around 106 light-years away. It may be a main sequence star or be just beginning to depart from the sequence as it expands and cools. In 2002 the star was found to have a planetary companion. HD 215456, HD 213240 and WASP-95 are yellow sunlike stars discovered to have two planets, a planet and a remote red dwarf, and a hot Jupiter respectively; this last—WASP-95b—completes an orbit round its sun in a mere two days. Gliese 832 is a red dwarf of spectral type M1.5V and apparent magnitude 8.66 located only 16.1 light-years distant; hence it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System. A Jupiter-like planet—Gliese 832 b—orbiting the red dwarf over a period of 9.4±0.4 years  was discovered in 2008. WISE 2220−3628 is a brown dwarf of spectral type Y, and hence one of the coolest star-like objects known. It has been calculated as being around 26 light-years distant from Earth.

text: Six star systems are thought to have planetary systems.

text: Tau Gruis

text: is a yellow star of magnitude 6.0 located around 106 light-years away. It may be a main sequence star or be just beginning to depart from the sequence as it expands and cools. In 2002 the star was found to have a planetary companion.

text: HD 215456

text: HD 213240

text: and

text: are yellow sunlike stars discovered to have two planets, a planet and a remote

text: red dwarf

text: , and a

text: hot Jupiter

text: respectively; this last—WASP-95b—completes an orbit round its sun in a mere two days.

text: Gliese 832

text: is a red dwarf of spectral type M1.5V and apparent magnitude 8.66 located only 16.1 light-years distant; hence it is one of the nearest stars to the Solar System. A

text: Jupiter

text: -like planet—

text: Gliese 832 b

text: —orbiting the red dwarf over a period of 9.4±0.4 years  was discovered in 2008.

text: WISE 2220−3628

text: is a

text: brown dwarf

text: of spectral type Y, and hence one of the coolest star-like objects known. It has been calculated as being around 26 light-years distant from Earth.

text: A U Geminorum-type variable star, or dwarf nova (pl. novae) is a type of cataclysmic variable star  consisting of a close binary star system in which one of the components is a white dwarf that accretes matter from its companion. The first one to be observed was U Geminorum in 1855; however, the mechanism was not known till 1974, when Brian Warner showed that the nova is due to the increase of the luminosity of the accretion disk. They are similar to classical novae in that the white dwarf is involved in periodic outbursts, but the mechanisms are different.  Classical novae result from the fusion and detonation of accreted hydrogen on the primary's surface. Current theory suggests that dwarf novae result from instability in the accretion disk, when gas in the disk reaches a critical temperature that causes a change in viscosity, resulting in a temporary increase in mass flow through the disc, which heats the whole disc and hence increases its luminosity. The mass transfer from the donor star is less than this increased flow through the disc, so the disc will eventually drop back below the critical temperature and revert to a cooler, duller mode.

text: A U Geminorum-type variable star, or dwarf nova (pl.

text: novae

text: ) is a type of

text: cataclysmic variable star

text: consisting of a close

text: binary star

text: system in which one of the components is a

text: white dwarf

text: that

text: accretes

text: matter from its companion. The first one to be observed was

text: U Geminorum

text: in 1855; however, the mechanism was not known till 1974, when Brian Warner showed that the nova is due to the increase of the luminosity of the accretion disk. They are similar to classical

text: nova

text: e in that the white dwarf is involved in periodic outbursts, but the mechanisms are different.

text: Classical novae

text: result from the fusion and detonation of accreted hydrogen on the primary's surface. Current theory suggests that dwarf novae result from instability in the accretion disk, when gas in the disk reaches a critical

text: temperature

text: that causes a change in

text: viscosity

text: , resulting in a temporary increase in mass flow through the disc, which heats the whole disc and hence increases its luminosity. The mass transfer from the donor star is less than this increased flow through the disc, so the disc will eventually drop back below the critical temperature and revert to a cooler, duller mode.

text: Martínez-Delgado, Aparicio, & Gallart (1999) looked into the star formation history of NGC 185 and found that the majority of star formation in NGC 185 happened at early times. In the last ~1 Gyr, stars have formed only near the center of this galaxy. Walter Baade discovered young blue objects within this galaxy in 1951, but these have turned out to be star clusters and not individual stars. A supernova remnant near the center was also discovered by Martínez-Delgado et al.

text: Martínez-Delgado, Aparicio, & Gallart (1999) looked into the

text: star formation

text: history of NGC 185 and found that the majority of star formation in NGC 185 happened at early times. In the last ~1 Gyr, stars have formed only near the center of this galaxy.

text: Walter Baade

text: discovered young blue objects within this galaxy in 1951, but these have turned out to be star clusters and not individual stars. A

text: supernova remnant

text: near the center was also discovered by Martínez-Delgado et al.

text: Spectroscopic observation of nova ejecta nebulae has shown that they are enriched in elements such as helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, and magnesium.  The contribution of novae to the interstellar medium is not great; novae supply only  as much material to the Galaxy as do supernovae, and only  as much as red giant and supergiant stars.

text: Spectroscopic

text: observation of nova ejecta

text: nebulae

text: has shown that they are enriched in elements such as helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, and magnesium.  The contribution of novae to the

text: interstellar medium

text: is not great; novae supply only  as much material to the Galaxy as do supernovae, and only  as much as

text: red giant

text: and

text: supergiant

text: stars.

text: Lannemezan is located at a crossroads between sea and mountains, and thus represents a place of inescapable passage. The commune has four hotels, which have a capacity of 104 rooms (67 classified as 2-star, 37 classified as 1-star).

text: If such a system emits signals that can be directly traced back to the compact object, it cannot be a black hole. The absence of such a signal does, however, not exclude the possibility that the compact object is a neutron star. By studying the companion star it is often possible to obtain the orbital parameters of the system and to obtain an estimate for the mass of the compact object. If this is much larger than the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit (that is, the maximum mass a neutron star can have before it collapses) then the object cannot be a neutron star and is generally expected to be a black hole.

text: The eponymous spaceship Red Dwarf is an enormous mining vessel owned by the Jupiter Mining Corporation. In the first episode "The End" (1988), and in some episodes early in the series chronologically set before the first episode, it is commanded by Captain Frank Hollister. For most of the show, Second Technician Arnold Rimmer is the self-imposed commander of this ship following the captain's off screen death in "The End", despite Rimmer being a deceased hologram. Holly says in both "Me²" (1988) and "Thanks for the Memory" (1988) that the ship has enough food and drink to last 30,000 years, but in "Thanks for the Memory" he says they have run out of Shake n' Vac, and in "Me²", he claims there is only one After Eight mint left, and everyone is too polite to take it. In the novel Red Dwarf: Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers (1989), the ship is described as being 6 miles (10 km) long, 4 miles (6.5 km) tall, and 3 miles (5 km) wide. However, in the episode "DNA" (1991), the Cat describes the ship as being 5 miles (8 km) long. The jagged shape and dull red colour of the vessel has led to the vessel being described in the episode "Psirens" (1993) as a "gigantic red trash can". All of Red Dwarfs systems are controlled by the computer Holly, although in Back to Earth (2009), Holly is depicted as being non-functioning after being washed out by a nine-year-overflowing bath, and is still evidently non-functioning as of "Twentica" (2016). The last mention of Holly is in "Fathers and Suns" (2012) when Kryten mentions that he misses him. In Series X the ship is instead run by the JMC On-Board Computer in Holly's absence. The On-Board Computer is not a character but rather an automated system that does not seem to have artificial intelligence and behaves as if the ship is still fully staffed and operating normally, at one point even threatening to demote Rimmer for not showing up to work in three million years.

text: The eponymous spaceship Red Dwarf is an enormous mining vessel owned by the Jupiter Mining Corporation. In the first episode "

text: The End

text: " (1988), and in some episodes early in the series chronologically set before the first episode, it is commanded by Captain

text: Frank Hollister

text: . For most of the show, Second Technician

text: Arnold Rimmer

text: is the self-imposed commander of this ship following the captain's off screen death in "The End", despite Rimmer being a deceased

text: hologram

text: Holly

text: says in both "

text: " (1988) and "

text: Thanks for the Memory

text: " (1988) that the ship has enough food and drink to last 30,000 years, but in "Thanks for the Memory" he says they have run out of

text: Shake n' Vac

text: , and in "Me²", he claims there is only one

text: After Eight

text: mint left, and everyone is too polite to take it. In the novel

entity_name: Red Dwarf: Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers

text: Red Dwarf: Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers

text: (1989), the ship is described as being 6 miles (10 km) long, 4 miles (6.5 km) tall, and 3 miles (5 km) wide. However, in the episode "

text: DNA

text: " (1991), the

text: Cat

text: describes the ship as being 5 miles (8 km) long. The jagged shape and dull red colour of the vessel has led to the vessel being described in the episode "

text: Psirens

text: " (1993) as a "gigantic red trash can". All of Red Dwarfs systems are controlled by the computer Holly, although in

text: Back to Earth

text: (2009), Holly is depicted as being non-functioning after being washed out by a nine-year-overflowing bath, and is still evidently non-functioning as of "

text: Twentica

text: " (2016). The last mention of Holly is in "

text: Fathers and Suns

text: " (2012) when

text: Kryten

text: mentions that he misses him. In Series X the ship is instead run by the JMC On-Board Computer in Holly's absence. The On-Board Computer is not a character but rather an automated system that does not seem to have artificial intelligence and behaves as if the ship is still fully staffed and operating normally, at one point even threatening to demote Rimmer for not showing up to work in three million years.

text: An accurate determination of the distance to the Galactic Center as established from variable stars (e.g. RR Lyrae variables) or standard candles (e.g. red-clump stars) is hindered by countless effects, which include: an ambiguous reddening law; a bias for smaller values of the distance to the Galactic Center because of a preferential sampling of stars toward the near side of the Galactic bulge owing to interstellar extinction; and an uncertainty in characterizing how a mean distance to a group of variable stars found in the direction of the Galactic bulge relates to the distance to the Galactic Center.

text: An accurate determination of the distance to the Galactic Center as established from

text: variable star

text: s (e.g.

text: RR Lyrae variable

text: s) or

text: standard candles

text: (e.g.

text: red-clump

text: stars) is hindered by countless effects, which include: an ambiguous

text: reddening law

text: ; a bias for smaller values of the distance to the Galactic Center because of a preferential sampling of stars toward the near side of the

text: Galactic bulge

text: owing to

text: interstellar extinction

text: ; and an uncertainty in characterizing how a mean distance to a group of

text: variable stars

text: found in the direction of the Galactic bulge relates to the distance to the Galactic Center.

text: Stochastic cooling is a form of particle beam cooling. It is used in some particle accelerators and storage rings to control the emission of particle beams. This process uses the electrical signals that the individual charged particles generate in a feedback loop to reduce the tendency of individual particles to move away from other particles in the beam. This technique was invented and applied at the Intersecting Storage Rings, and later the Super Proton Synchrotron, at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland by Dutch physicist Simon van der Meer. By increasing the particle density to close to the required energy, this technique improved the beam quality and, inter alia, brought the discovery of W and Z bosons within reach.

text: Stochastic cooling

text: is a form of

text: particle beam cooling

text: . It is used in some

text: particle accelerator

text: s and

text: storage ring

text: s to control the emission of

text: particle beam

text: s. This process uses the electrical signals that the individual

text: charged particle

text: s generate in a feedback loop to reduce the tendency of individual particles to move away from other particles in the beam. This technique was invented and applied at the

text: Intersecting Storage Rings

text: , and later the

text: Super Proton Synchrotron

text: , at

text: CERN

text: in Geneva, Switzerland by Dutch physicist

text: Simon van der Meer

text: . By increasing the particle density to close to the required energy, this technique improved the beam quality and, inter alia, brought the discovery of

text: W and Z bosons

text: within reach.

text: Throughout her career at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Swank focused her research on observing and analyzing X-ray emissions from black holes and neutron stars.  She was elected a fellow in the American Physical Society in 1993.  She wrote or co-authored over 300 scientific papers published in scientific journals or by NASA during her career.  In June 2013, Swank was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal.

text: Throughout her career at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Swank focused her research on observing and analyzing X-ray emissions from black holes and neutron stars.  She was elected a fellow in the

text: American Physical Society

text: in 1993.  She wrote or co-authored over 300 scientific papers published in

text: scientific journal

text: s or by NASA during her career.  In June 2013, Swank was awarded the

text: NASA Distinguished Service Medal

text: V1054 Ophiuchi/Gliese 643 has the largest number of stars of all star systems, located within 10 pc from Earth. It is also the nearest quintuple star system (the next nearest star systems with at least five stars are GJ 2069 (quintuple) at 41.8 light-years, and  Castor (sextuple) at 51.6 light-years), and only quintuple star system within 10 pc.

text: V1054 Ophiuchi/Gliese 643 has the largest number of stars of all star systems, located within 10

text: pc

text: from

text: Earth

text: . It is also the nearest quintuple star system (the next nearest star systems with at least five stars are

text: GJ 2069

text: (quintuple) at 41.8 light-years, and

text: Castor

text: (sextuple) at 51.6 light-years), and only quintuple star system within 10 pc.

text: During this phase of the core contraction, the potential energy of gravitational contraction heats the interior to 5 GK (430 keV) and this opposes and delays the contraction. However, since no additional heat energy can be generated via new fusion reactions, the final unopposed contraction rapidly accelerates into a collapse lasting only a few seconds. The central portion of the star is now crushed into either a neutron star or, if the star is massive enough, a black hole. The outer layers of the star are blown off in an explosion triggered by the outward moving supernova shock, known as a Type II supernova that lasts days to months. The supernova explosion releases a large burst of neutrons, which synthesizes, in about one second while inside the star, roughly half of the supply of elements in the universe that are heavier than iron via a neutron-capture mechanism known as the r-process (where the “r” stands for rapid neutron capture).

text: During this phase of the core contraction, the potential energy of gravitational contraction heats the interior to 5 GK (430 keV) and this opposes and delays the contraction. However, since no additional heat energy can be generated via new fusion reactions, the final unopposed contraction rapidly accelerates into a collapse lasting only a few seconds. The central portion of the star is now crushed into either a

text: neutron star

text: or, if the star is massive enough, a

text: black hole

text: . The outer layers of the star are blown off in an explosion triggered by the outward moving supernova shock, known as a

text: Type II

text: supernova

text: that lasts days to months. The supernova explosion releases a large burst of neutrons, which synthesizes, in about one second while inside the star, roughly half of the supply of elements in the universe that are heavier than iron via a neutron-capture mechanism known as the

text: r-process

text: The Cosmotron was a particle accelerator, specifically a proton synchrotron, at Brookhaven National Laboratory.  Its construction was approved by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission in 1948, it reached its full energy in 1953, and it continued running until 1968.  It was the first particle accelerator to impart kinetic energy in the range of GeV to a single particle, accelerating protons to 3.3 GeV.  It was also the first accelerator to allow the extraction of the particle beam for experiments located physically outside the accelerator.  It was used to observe a number of mesons previously seen only in cosmic rays, and to make the first discoveries of heavy, unstable particles (called V particles at the time).

text: The Cosmotron was a

text: particle accelerator

text: , specifically a

text: proton

text: synchrotron

text: , at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: .  Its construction was approved by the

text: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

text: in 1948, it reached its full energy in 1953, and it continued running until 1968.  It was the first particle accelerator to impart

text: kinetic energy

text: in the range of

text: GeV

text: to a single particle, accelerating protons to 3.3 GeV.  It was also the first accelerator to allow the extraction of the

text: particle beam

text: for experiments located physically outside the accelerator.  It was used to observe a number of

text: meson

text: s previously seen only in

text: cosmic ray

text: s, and to make the first discoveries of heavy, unstable particles (called

text: V particle

text: s at the time).

text: This star has a stellar classification of B5Ve, which indicates it is a B-type main sequence star that is generating energy at its core through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen. It is a shell star with a circumstellar disc of gas surrounding the equator and extending out to about 11 times the radius of the star. As a result of this disc, the spectrum of this star shows emission lines (as indicated by the 'e' in the stellar class) and its magnitude varies over a period of about a day.

text: This star has a

text: stellar classification

text: of B5Ve, which indicates it is a

text: B-type main sequence star

text: that is generating energy at its core through the

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen. It is a

text: shell star

text: with a circumstellar disc of gas surrounding the equator and extending out to about 11 times the radius of the star. As a result of this disc, the spectrum of this star shows

text: emission line

text: s (as indicated by the 'e' in the stellar class) and its magnitude varies over a period of about a day.

text: With a mass only 93 times that of Jupiter (), or .09 , AB Doradus C, a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core. For stars with similar metallicity to the Sun, the theoretical minimum mass the star can have, and still undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 75 . When the metallicity is very low, however, a recent study of the faintest stars found that the minimum star size seems to be about 8.3% of the solar mass, or about 87 . Smaller bodies are called brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and gas giants.

text: With a mass only 93 times that of

text: Jupiter

text: (), or .09 ,

text: AB Doradus C

text: , a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core. For stars with similar metallicity to the Sun, the theoretical minimum mass the star can have, and still undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 75 . When the metallicity is very low, however, a recent study of the faintest stars found that the minimum star size seems to be about 8.3% of the solar mass, or about 87 . Smaller bodies are called

text: brown dwarf

text: s, which occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and

text: gas giant

text: s.

text: The first white dwarf discovered was in the triple star system of 40 Eridani, which contains the relatively bright main sequence star 40 Eridani A, orbited at a distance by the closer binary system of the white dwarf 40 Eridani B and the main sequence red dwarf 40 Eridani C. The pair 40 Eridani B/C was discovered by William Herschel on 31 January 1783; it was again observed by Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve in 1825 and by Otto Wilhelm von Struve in 1851. In 1910, Henry Norris Russell, Edward Charles Pickering and Williamina Fleming discovered that, despite being a dim star, 40 Eridani B was of spectral type A, or white. In 1939, Russell looked back on the discovery:

text: triple star system

text: of

text: 40 Eridani

text: , which contains the relatively bright

text: main sequence

text: star

text: 40 Eridani A

text: , orbited at a distance by the closer

text: binary system

text: of the white dwarf

text: 40 Eridani B

text: and the

text: main sequence

text: red dwarf

text: 40 Eridani C

text: William Herschel

text: on 31 January 1783; it was again observed by

text: Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve

text: in 1825 and by

text: Otto Wilhelm von Struve

text: in 1851. In 1910,

text: Henry Norris Russell

text: Edward Charles Pickering

text: and

text: Williamina Fleming

text: discovered that, despite being a dim star, 40 Eridani B was of

text: spectral type

text: A, or white. In 1939, Russell looked back on the discovery:

text: In work that led to his PhD thesis, Lattimer and his advisor David N. Schramm firstargued that the mergers of neutron stars and black holes would result in the ejection of neutron-rich matter in sufficient quantities to explain the origin of r-process elements such as gold and platinum.  Later, with collaborators, he demonstrated decompressing neutron-star matter from both neutron star-black hole and neutron star-neutron star mergers would form a natural r-process that would match observed patterns.

text: In work that led to his PhD thesis, Lattimer and his advisor

text: David N. Schramm

text: firstargued that the mergers of neutron stars and

text: black holes

text: would result in the ejection of neutron-rich matter in sufficient quantities to explain the origin of

text: r-process

text: elements such as gold and platinum.  Later, with collaborators, he demonstrated decompressing neutron-star matter from both neutron star-black hole and neutron star-neutron star mergers would form a natural r-process that would match observed patterns.

text: HD 20782 is a 7th magnitude G-type main sequence star about 117 light-years away from Earth, in the constellation of Fornax. HD 20782 is a part of a wide binary system in which the other star is designated HD 20781, and both stars host planetary systems. Indeed, this is the first known case of a binary star system where there are planetary systems around both the primary and the secondary stars in the system.  The companion star HD 20781 has a very large angular separation of 252 arcsec, corresponding to 9080 AU at the distance of HD 20782. It is estimated to be 7.1 (± 4) billion years old, with a mass close to that of our Sun. (Note that, despite the numbering, HD 20782 is the primary star of the system, and HD 20781 the secondary star.)

text: HD 20782 is a 7th

text: magnitude

text: G-type main sequence

text: star

text: about 117

text: light-year

text: s away from Earth, in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Fornax

text: . HD 20782 is a part of a wide

text: binary system

text: in which the other star is designated

text: HD 20781

text: , and both stars host planetary systems. Indeed, this is the first known case of a binary star system where there are planetary systems around both the primary and the secondary stars in the system.  The companion star HD 20781 has a very large

text: angular separation

text: of 252 arcsec, corresponding to 9080 AU at the distance of HD 20782. It is estimated to be 7.1 (± 4) billion years old, with a mass close to that of our

text: Sun

text: . (Note that, despite the numbering, HD 20782 is the primary star of the system, and

text: HD 20781

text: the secondary star.)

text: This is a young system with an estimated age of about 8 million years.  The primary member A has a stellar classification of A0 V, while its smaller companion B is a red dwarf with a classification of M2.5 V. The luminosity class of 'V' indicates that both stars belong to the main sequence and are generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at their cores. The primary is emitting this energy from its outer envelope at an effective temperature of about 9,378 K, which gives it the white hue characteristic of A-type stars. It has a radius about 168% of the radius of the Sun and 218% of the Sun's mass. By comparison, the secondary has only 30% of a solar mass. The abundance of elements other than hydrogen or helium, what astronomers term the star's metallicity, is similar to the proportion in the Sun.

text: This is a young system with an estimated age of about 8 million years.  The primary member A has a

text: stellar classification

text: of A0 V, while its smaller companion B is a

text: red dwarf

text: with a classification of M2.5 V. The

text: luminosity class

text: of 'V' indicates that both stars belong to the

text: main sequence

text: and are generating energy through the

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen at their cores. The primary is emitting this energy from its outer envelope at an

text: effective temperature

text: of about 9,378 K, which gives it the white hue characteristic of

text: A-type star

text: s. It has a radius about 168% of the

text: radius of the Sun

text: and 218% of the

text: Sun's mass

text: . By comparison, the secondary has only 30% of a solar mass. The abundance of elements other than hydrogen or helium, what astronomers term the star's

text: metallicity

text: , is similar to the proportion in the Sun.

text: In certain binary stars containing a white dwarf, mass is transferred from the companion star onto the white dwarf, eventually pushing it over the Chandrasekhar limit. Electrons react with protons to form neutrons and thus no longer supply the necessary pressure to resist gravity, causing the star to collapse. If the center of the star is composed mostly of carbon and oxygen then such a gravitational collapse will ignite runaway fusion of the carbon and oxygen, resulting in a Type Ia supernova that entirely blows apart the star before the collapse can become irreversible. If the center is composed mostly of magnesium or heavier elements, the collapse continues. As the density further increases, the remaining electrons react with the protons to form more neutrons. The collapse continues until (at higher density) the neutrons become degenerate. A new equilibrium is possible after the star shrinks by three orders of magnitude, to a radius between 10 and 20 km. This is a neutron star.

text: In certain

text: binary stars

text: containing a white dwarf, mass is transferred from the companion star onto the white dwarf, eventually pushing it over the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: . Electrons react with protons to form neutrons and thus no longer supply the necessary pressure to resist gravity, causing the star to collapse. If the center of the star is composed mostly of carbon and oxygen then such a

text: gravitational collapse

text: will ignite runaway fusion of the carbon and oxygen, resulting in a

text: Type Ia supernova

text: that entirely blows apart the star before the collapse can become irreversible. If the center is composed mostly of magnesium or heavier elements, the collapse continues. As the density further increases, the remaining electrons react with the protons to form more neutrons. The collapse continues until (at higher density) the neutrons become degenerate. A new equilibrium is possible after the star shrinks by three

text: orders of magnitude

text: , to a radius between 10 and 20 km. This is a

text: neutron star

text: The companion star has a classification of A2 V, so it is a main sequence star that is generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core. This star is rotating rapidly, with a projected rotational velocity of  By the time the smaller main sequence star reaches the current point of the primary in its evolution, the larger star will have lost much of its mass in a planetary nebula and will have evolved into a white dwarf. The pair will have essentially changed roles: the brighter star becoming the dim dwarf, while the lesser companion will shine as a giant star.

text: The companion star has a classification of A2 V, so it is a

text: main sequence

text: star that is generating energy through the

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen at its core. This star is rotating rapidly, with a projected

text: rotational velocity

text: of  By the time the smaller main sequence star reaches the current point of the primary in its evolution, the larger star will have lost much of its mass in a

text: planetary nebula

text: and will have evolved into a

text: white dwarf

text: . The pair will have essentially changed roles: the brighter star becoming the dim dwarf, while the lesser companion will shine as a

text: giant star

text: Kepler-37 is a G-type main-sequence star located in the constellation Lyra 215.2 light years from Earth. It is host to exoplanets Kepler-37b, Kepler-37c, Kepler-37d and Kepler-37e, all of which orbit very close to it. Kepler-37 has a mass about 80.3 percent of the Sun's and a radius about 77 percent as large. It has a temperature similar to that of the Sun, but a bit cooler at 5,417 K. It has about half the metallicity of our Sun.  With an age of roughly 6 billion years, it is slightly older than the Sun, but is still a main-sequence star.  Until January 2015, Kepler-37 was the smallest star to be measured via asteroseismology.

text: Kepler-37 is a

text: G-type main-sequence star

text: located in the

text: constellation

text: Lyra

text: light year

text: s from Earth. It is host to

text: exoplanets

text: and Kepler-37e, all of which orbit very close to it. Kepler-37 has a mass about 80.3 percent of the

text: Sun

text: 's and a radius about 77 percent as large. It has a temperature similar to that of the Sun, but a bit cooler at 5,417

text: K

text: . It has about half the

text: metallicity

text: of our Sun.  With an age of roughly 6 billion years, it is slightly older than the Sun, but is still a main-sequence star.  Until January 2015, Kepler-37 was the smallest star to be measured via

text: asteroseismology

text: There are several other stars above magnitude 3 in Carina. Beta Carinae, traditionally called Miaplacidus, is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 1.7, 111 light-years from Earth. Epsilon Carinae is an orange-hued giant star similarly bright to Miaplacidus at magnitude 1.9; it is 630 light-years from Earth. Another fairly bright star is the blue-white hued Theta Carinae; it is a magnitude 2.7 star 440 light-years from Earth. Theta Carinae is also the most prominent member of the cluster IC 2602. Iota Carinae is a white-hued supergiant star of magnitude 2.2, 690 light-years from Earth.

text: There are several other stars above magnitude 3 in Carina.

text: Beta Carinae

text: , traditionally called Miaplacidus, is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 1.7, 111 light-years from Earth.

text: Epsilon Carinae

text: is an orange-hued giant star similarly bright to Miaplacidus at magnitude 1.9; it is 630 light-years from Earth. Another fairly bright star is the blue-white hued

text: Theta Carinae

text: ; it is a magnitude 2.7 star 440 light-years from Earth. Theta Carinae is also the most prominent member of the cluster

text: IC 2602

text: Iota Carinae

text: is a white-hued supergiant star of magnitude 2.2, 690 light-years from Earth.

text: Once they have exhausted their supply of hydrogen through nuclear fusion, medium- to low-mass stars shed their outer layers to form a planetary nebula and evolve into white dwarfs. While most clusters become dispersed before a large proportion of their members have reached the white dwarf stage, the number of white dwarfs in open clusters is still generally much lower than would be expected, given the age of the cluster and the expected initial mass distribution of the stars. One possible explanation for the lack of white dwarfs is that when a red giant expels its outer layers to become a planetary nebula, a slight asymmetry in the loss of material could give the star a 'kick' of a few kilometres per second, enough to eject it from the cluster.

text: Once they have exhausted their supply of

text: hydrogen

text: through

text: nuclear fusion

text: , medium- to low-mass stars shed their outer layers to form a

text: planetary nebula

text: and evolve into

text: white dwarf

text: s. While most clusters become dispersed before a large proportion of their members have reached the white dwarf stage, the number of white dwarfs in open clusters is still generally much lower than would be expected, given the age of the cluster and the expected initial mass distribution of the stars. One possible explanation for the lack of white dwarfs is that when a

text: red giant

text: expels its outer layers to become a planetary nebula, a slight asymmetry in the loss of material could give the star a 'kick' of a few

text: kilometres per second

text: , enough to eject it from the cluster.

text: The Self-Defining Text Archive and Retrieval (STAR) file format is a text-based file format for storing structured data.Using a "Dictionary Definition Language" file, itself a STAR-based file format, STAR sub-formats can be defined for particular use cases.One notable STAR-based format is the Crystallographic Information File format.

text: The Self-Defining Text Archive and Retrieval (STAR) file format is a text-based file format for storing structured data.Using a "Dictionary Definition Language" file, itself a STAR-based file format, STAR sub-formats can be defined for particular use cases.One notable STAR-based format is the

text: Crystallographic Information File

text: format.

text: His main research interest is in binary systems containing collapsed stars—white dwarfs, neutron stars (including pulsars), and black holes.

text: His main research interest is in binary systems containing collapsed stars—

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s (including

text: pulsar

text: s), and

text: black hole

text: s.

text: Before the development of the telescope, there have only been five supernovae seen in the last millennium. In the perspective of how long a star's lifetime is, its death is very brief. In fact, a star's death may only last a few months. Due to this, a typical human will only experience this rarity, on average, once in their lifetime. This is a microscopic fraction in comparison to the 100 billion stars that compose a galaxy. However, since the use of modern equipment, particularly in this millennium, professional and amateur astronomers have been finding several hundreds of supernovae each year.

text: Before the development of the

text: telescope

text: , there have only been five supernovae seen in the last

text: millennium

text: . In the perspective of how long a star's lifetime is, its death is very brief. In fact, a star's death may only last a few months. Due to this, a typical human will only experience this rarity, on average, once in their lifetime. This is a microscopic fraction in comparison to the 100 billion stars that compose a

text: galaxy

text: . However, since the use of modern equipment, particularly in this millennium, professional and amateur astronomers have been finding several hundreds of supernovae each year.

text: Size is not the only factor in making red dwarfs potentially unsuitable for life, however. On a red dwarf planet, photosynthesis on the night side would be impossible, since it would never see the sun. On the day side, because the sun does not rise or set, areas in the shadows of mountains would remain so forever. Photosynthesis as we understand it would be complicated by the fact that a red dwarf produces most of its radiation in the infrared, and on the Earth the process depends on visible light. There are potential positives to this scenario. Numerous terrestrial ecosystems rely on chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis, for instance, which would be possible in a red dwarf system. A static primary star position removes the need for plants to steer leaves toward the sun, deal with changing shade/sun patterns, or change from photosynthesis to stored energy during night. Because of the lack of a day-night cycle, including the weak light of morning and evening, far more energy would be available at a given radiation level.

text: Size is not the only factor in making red dwarfs potentially unsuitable for life, however. On a red dwarf planet, photosynthesis on the night side would be impossible, since it would never see the sun. On the day side, because the sun does not rise or set, areas in the shadows of mountains would remain so forever.

text: Photosynthesis

text: as we understand it would be complicated by the fact that a red dwarf produces most of its radiation in the

text: infrared

text: , and on the Earth the process depends on visible light. There are potential positives to this scenario. Numerous terrestrial ecosystems rely on

text: chemosynthesis

text: rather than photosynthesis, for instance, which would be possible in a red dwarf system. A static primary star position removes the need for plants to steer leaves toward the sun, deal with changing shade/sun patterns, or change from photosynthesis to stored energy during night. Because of the lack of a day-night cycle, including the weak light of morning and evening, far more energy would be available at a given radiation level.

text: RS Ophiuchi (RS Oph) is a recurrent nova system approximately 5,000 light-years away in the constellation Ophiuchus. In its quiet phase it has an apparent magnitude of about 12.5. It has been observed to erupt in 1898, 1933, 1958, 1967, 1985, and 2006 and reached about magnitude 5 on average. A further two eruptions, in 1907 and 1945, have been inferred from archival data. The recurrent nova is produced  by a white dwarf star and a red giant in a binary system. About every 20 years, enough material from the red giant builds up on the surface of the white dwarf to produce a thermonuclear explosion. The white dwarf orbits close to the red giant, with an accretion disc concentrating the overflowing atmosphere of the red giant onto the white dwarf.

text: RS Ophiuchi (RS Oph) is a recurrent

text: nova

text: system approximately 5,000

text: light-year

text: s away in the

text: constellation

text: Ophiuchus

text: . In its quiet phase it has an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of about 12.5. It has been observed to erupt in 1898, 1933, 1958, 1967, 1985, and 2006 and reached about magnitude 5 on average. A further two eruptions, in 1907 and 1945, have been inferred from archival data. The recurrent nova is produced  by a

text: white dwarf

text: star and a

text: red giant

text: in a

text: binary system

text: . About every 20 years, enough material from the red giant builds up on the surface of the white dwarf to produce a

text: thermonuclear explosion

text: . The white dwarf orbits close to the red giant, with an

text: accretion disc

text: concentrating the overflowing atmosphere of the red giant onto the white dwarf.

text: ADS 16402 is a binary star system, composed of two sun-like stars located 450 light-years away in the constellation Lacerta. It was first identified by John Herschel in 1831. The two stars are separated by 1500 AUs. The star system is estimated to be 1.9 ± 0.6 billion years old. The secondary star ADS 16402 B is also designated HAT-P-1.

text: ADS

text: 16402 is a

text: binary

text: star system

text: , composed of two sun-like

text: star

text: s located 450

text: light-years

text: away in the

text: constellation

text: Lacerta

text: . It was first identified by

text: John Herschel

text: in 1831. The two stars are separated by 1500

text: AU

text: s. The star system is estimated to be 1.9 ± 0.6 billion years old. The secondary star ADS 16402 B is also designated HAT-P-1.

text: A type Ia supernova results from runaway carbon fusion in the core of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf star. If a white dwarf, which is composed almost entirely of degenerate matter, can gain mass from a companion, the increasing temperature and density of material in its core will ignite carbon fusion if the star's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit. This leads to an explosion that completely disrupts the star. Luminosity increases by a factor of greater than 5 billion. One way to gain the additional mass would be by accreting gas from a giant star (or even main sequence) companion. A second and apparently more common mechanism to generate the same type of explosion is the merger of two white dwarfs.

text: A

text: type Ia supernova

text: results from

text: runaway carbon fusion

text: in the core of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf star. If a white dwarf, which is composed almost entirely of degenerate matter, can gain mass from a companion, the increasing temperature and density of material in its core will ignite

text: carbon fusion

text: if the star's mass approaches the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: . This leads to an explosion that completely disrupts the star. Luminosity increases by a factor of greater than 5 billion. One way to gain the additional mass would be by

text: accreting gas

text: from a

text: giant star

text: (or even

text: main sequence

text: ) companion. A second and apparently more common mechanism to generate the same type of explosion is the

text: merger of two white dwarfs

text: Fitting the main sequence, and pre-main sequence gives a cluster age of 1 million years or less.  There is no clear main sequence turnoff, although the most massive stars are modelled best with an age of 2.5 million years, but are compatible with an age around one million years.  A small number of stars, for example Sher 25, apparently show much greater ages and it has been suggested that there is either ongoing star formation, or an earlier burst of star formation.  Other studies have estimated ages up to 2 million years, but the existence of the most massive and luminous stars provide a hard upper limit of 2.5 million years on the possible age.

text: The Star of Russia now lies in 40 metres of water in Port Vila harbor, Vanuatu and is a popular dive site. Other ships in this series that are no longer afloat include the Star of Bengal, Star of England, Star of Falkland, Star of Finland, Star of France, Star of Greenland, Star of Holland, Star of Iceland, Star of Italy, Star of Lapland,  Star of Poland,  Star of Scotland, Star of Shetland, and Star of Zealand.

text: The Star of Russia now lies in 40 metres of water in Port Vila harbor,

text: Vanuatu

text: and is a popular dive site. Other ships in this series that are no longer afloat include the Star of Bengal, Star of England, Star of Falkland, Star of Finland, Star of France, Star of Greenland, Star of Holland, Star of Iceland, Star of Italy, Star of Lapland,  Star of Poland,  Star of Scotland, Star of Shetland, and Star of Zealand.

text: Black holes are the end point evolution of massive stars. Technically they are not stars, as they no longer generate heat and light via nuclear fusion in their cores.

text: Black hole

text: s are the end point evolution of massive stars. Technically they are not stars, as they no longer generate heat and light via nuclear fusion in their cores.

text: Red Giant was a fantasy magazine published by Folio Works Ltd. which covered historical or fantasy wargamers, role-players, computer games, play by mail, or live role-playing. Unlike White Dwarf (WD) published by its competitor Games Workshop, Red Giant was not intend to support exclusively Fantasy Warlord or High Command games, but was a response to what Games Workshop and other editors did to the business, according to the company.

text: Red Giant was a fantasy magazine published by Folio Works Ltd. which covered historical or fantasy wargamers, role-players, computer games, play by mail, or live role-playing. Unlike

text: White Dwarf

text: (WD) published by its competitor Games Workshop, Red Giant was not intend to support exclusively Fantasy Warlord or High Command games, but was a response to what Games Workshop and other editors did to the business, according to the company.

text: The station branded itself as Star 100.9 featuring a country music format before switching to the current format in June 2008.

text: This variation may be caused by a change in emitted light or by something partly blocking the light, so variable stars are classified as either:

text: Sites suggested for the rp-process are accreting binary systems where one star is a neutron star.  In these systems the donor star is accreting material onto its compact partner star.  The accreted material is usually rich in hydrogen and helium because of its origin from the surface layers of the donor star.  Because such compact stars have high gravitational fields, the material falls with a high velocity towards the compact star, usually colliding with other accreted material en route, forming an accretion disk.  In the case of accretion onto a neutron star, as this material slowly builds up on the surface, it will have a high temperature, typically around 10 K. Eventually, it is believed that thermonuclear instabilities arise in this hot atmosphere, allowing the temperature to continue to rise until it leads to a runaway thermonuclear explosion of the hydrogen and helium. During the flash, the temperature quickly rises, becoming high enough for the rp-process to occur. While the initial flash of hydrogen and helium lasts only a second, the rp-process typically takes up to 100 seconds. Therefore, the  rp-process is observed as the tail of the resulting X-ray burst.

text: Sites suggested for the rp-process are

text: accreting

text: binary systems where one star is a

text: neutron star

text: .  In these systems the donor star is accreting material onto its compact partner star.  The accreted material is usually rich in hydrogen and helium because of its origin from the surface layers of the donor star.  Because such compact stars have high

text: gravitational fields

text: , the material falls with a high

text: velocity

text: towards the compact star, usually colliding with other accreted material en route, forming an

text: accretion disk

text: .  In the case of accretion onto a neutron star, as this material slowly builds up on the surface, it will have a high temperature, typically around 10 K. Eventually, it is believed that thermonuclear instabilities arise in this hot atmosphere, allowing the temperature to continue to rise until it leads to a runaway

text: thermonuclear explosion

text: of the hydrogen and helium. During the flash, the temperature quickly rises, becoming high enough for the rp-process to occur. While the initial flash of hydrogen and helium lasts only a second, the rp-process typically takes up to 100 seconds. Therefore, the  rp-process is observed as the tail of the resulting

text: X-ray burst

text: Tanvir headed the international team that discovered the infrared afterglow of  GRB 090423 (detected 2009 April 23), the most distant event recorded to date.In 2013 he led a team that discovered so-called kilonova emission accompanying GRB 130603B, which provided the first direct evidence that short-duration gamma-ray bursts are created by merging compact sources, either two neutron-stars or a neutron-star and black-hole.

text: Tanvir headed the international team that discovered the

text: infrared

text: afterglow

text: of

text: GRB 090423

text: (detected 2009 April 23), the most distant event recorded to date.In 2013 he led a team that discovered so-called kilonova emission accompanying

text: GRB 130603B

text: , which provided the first direct evidence that short-duration gamma-ray bursts are created by merging compact sources, either two neutron-stars or a neutron-star and black-hole.

text: The United States is known to have possessed three types of weapons of mass destruction: nuclear weapons, chemical weapons, and  biological weapons. The U.S. is the only country to have used nuclear weapons in combat, when it detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. It had secretly developed the earliest form of the atomic weapon during the 1940s under the title "Manhattan Project". The United States pioneered the development of both the nuclear fission and hydrogen bombs (the latter involving nuclear fusion). It was the world's first and only nuclear power for four years (1945-1949), until the Soviet Union managed to produce its own nuclear weapon. The United States has the second largest number of deployed nuclear weapons in the world, after Russia.

text: The

text: United States

text: is known to have possessed three types of

text: weapons of mass destruction

text: nuclear weapon

text: s,

text: chemical weapons

text: , and

text: biological weapons

text: . The U.S. is the only country to have used nuclear weapons in

text: combat

text: , when it detonated

text: two atomic bombs

text: over the

text: Japan

text: ese cities of

text: Hiroshima

text: and

text: Nagasaki

text: during

text: World War II

text: . It had secretly developed the earliest form of the atomic weapon during the 1940s under the title "

text: Manhattan Project

text: ". The United States pioneered the development of both the

text: nuclear fission

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: bombs (the latter involving

text: nuclear fusion

text: ). It was the world's first and only nuclear power for four years (1945-1949), until the

text: Soviet Union

text: managed to produce its own nuclear weapon. The United States has the second largest number of deployed nuclear weapons in the world, after Russia.

text: In the case of radiative energy transport, appropriate for the inner portion of a solar mass main sequence star and the outer envelope of a massive main sequence star,

text: In the case of radiative energy transport, appropriate for the inner portion of a solar mass

text: main sequence

text: star and the outer envelope of a massive main sequence star,

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of F4 V, which places it among the category of F-type main sequence stars. It shines with 4.6 times the luminosity of the Sun. The outer atmosphere is radiating this energy at an effective temperature of 6,725 K, giving it the yellow-white hue of an F-type star. There is some evidence that this may be a binary star system consisting of two stars with identical masses.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of F4 V, which places it among the category of

text: F-type main sequence star

text: s. It shines with 4.6 times the luminosity of the Sun. The

text: outer atmosphere

text: is radiating this energy at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 6,725 K, giving it the yellow-white hue of an

text: F-type star

text: . There is some evidence that this may be a

text: binary star

text: system consisting of two stars with identical masses.

text: In practice, this ratio is almost always extremely small.  For example, the Schwarzschild radius r of the Earth is roughly 9 mm ( inch); at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion.  The Schwarzschild radius of the Sun is much larger, roughly 2953 meters, but at its surface, the ratio r/r is roughly 4 parts in a million.  A white dwarf star is much denser, but even here the ratio at its surface is roughly 250 parts in a million.  The ratio only becomes large close to ultra-dense objects such as neutron stars (where the ratio is roughly 50%) and black holes.

text: In practice, this ratio is almost always extremely small.  For example, the Schwarzschild radius r of the Earth is roughly 9

text: mm

text: inch

text: ); at the surface of the Earth, the corrections to Newtonian gravity are only one part in a billion.  The Schwarzschild radius of the Sun is much larger, roughly 2953 meters, but at its surface, the ratio r/r is roughly 4 parts in a million.  A

text: white dwarf

text: star is much denser, but even here the ratio at its surface is roughly 250 parts in a million.  The ratio only becomes large close to ultra-dense objects such as

text: neutron star

text: s (where the ratio is roughly 50%) and

text: black hole

text: s.

text: which becomes infinite as . This implies that the point particle would have infinite inertia, making it unable to be accelerated. Incidentally, the value of  that makes

text: which becomes infinite as . This implies that the point particle would have infinite

text: inertia

text: , making it unable to be accelerated. Incidentally, the value of  that makes

text: HD 82785 is star in the southern constellation of Antlia.

text: HD 82785 is star in the southern

text: constellation

text: of

text: Antlia

text: In an ever-accelerating universe, if two particles are separated by a distance greater than the Hubble radius, they cannot talk to each other from now on (as they are now, not as they have been in the past), However, if they are outside of each other's particle horizon, they could have never communicated. Depending on the form of expansion of the universe, they may be able to exchange information in the future. Today,

text: The Tevatron can accelerate the particles from the Main Injector up to 980 GeV. The protons and antiprotons are accelerated in opposite directions, crossing paths in the CDF and DØ detectors to collide at 1.96 TeV. To hold the particles on track the Tevatron uses 774 niobium-titanium superconducting dipole magnets cooled in liquid helium producing 4.2 teslas. The field ramps over about 20 seconds as the particles are accelerated. Another 240 NbTi quadrupole magnets are used to focus the beam.

text: The Tevatron can accelerate the particles from the Main Injector up to 980 GeV. The protons and antiprotons are accelerated in opposite directions, crossing paths in the

text: CDF

text: and

text: DØ

text: detectors to collide at 1.96 TeV. To hold the particles on track the Tevatron uses 774

text: niobium-titanium

text: superconducting

text: dipole

text: magnet

text: s cooled in liquid

text: helium

text: producing 4.2

text: tesla

text: s. The field ramps over about 20 seconds as the particles are accelerated. Another 240 NbTi

text: quadrupole

text: magnets are used to focus the beam.

text: A preon star is a proposed type of compact star made of preons, a group of hypothetical subatomic particles. Preon stars would be expected to have huge densities, exceeding  10 kilogram per cubic meter – intermediate between quark stars and black holes.Preon stars could originate from supernova explosions or the big bang; however, current observations from particle accelerators speak against the existence of preons.

text: A preon star is a

text: proposed

text: type of compact star made of

text: preon

text: s, a group of

text: hypothetical

text: subatomic particle

text: s. Preon stars would be expected to have huge

text: densities

text: , exceeding  10 kilogram per cubic meter – intermediate between quark stars and black holes.Preon stars could originate from

text: supernova

text: explosions or the

text: big bang

text: ; however, current observations from particle accelerators speak against the existence of preons.

text: Located near Alpha is Delta Antliae, a binary star, 430 ± 30 light-years distant from Earth. The primary is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 5.6, and the secondary is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F9Ve and magnitude 9.6. Zeta Antliae is a wide optical double star. The brighter star—Zeta Antliae—is 410 ± 40 light-years distant and has a magnitude of 5.74, though it is a true binary star system composed of two white main sequence stars of magnitudes 6.20 and 7.01 that are separated by 8.042 arcseconds. The fainter star—Zeta Antliae—is 380 ± 20 light-years distant and of magnitude 5.9. Eta Antliae is another double composed of a yellow white star of spectral type F1V and magnitude 5.31, with a companion of magnitude 11.3. Theta Antliae is likewise double, most likely composed of an A-type main sequence star and a yellow giant. S Antliae is an eclipsing binary star system that varies in apparent magnitude from 6.27 to 6.83 over a period of 15.6 hours. The system is classed as a W Ursae Majoris variable—the primary is hotter than the secondary and the drop in magnitude is caused by the latter passing in front of the former. Calculating the properties of the component stars from the orbital period indicates that the primary star has a mass 1.94 times and a diameter 2.026 times that of the Sun, and the secondary has a mass 0.76 times and a diameter 1.322 times that of the Sun. The two stars have similar luminosity and spectral type as they have a common envelope and share stellar material. The system is thought to be around 5–6 billion years old. The two stars will eventually merge to form a single fast-spinning star.

text: Located near Alpha is

text: Delta Antliae

text: , a

text: binary star

text: , 430 ± 30 light-years distant from Earth. The primary is a

text: blue-white main sequence star

text: of spectral type

text: and magnitude 5.6, and the secondary is a

text: yellow-white main sequence star

text: of spectral type

text: and magnitude 9.6.

text: Zeta Antliae

text: is a wide optical

text: double star

text: . The brighter star—

text: Zeta Antliae

text: —is 410 ± 40 light-years distant and has a magnitude of 5.74, though it is a true binary star system composed of two

text: white main sequence stars

text: of magnitudes 6.20 and 7.01 that are separated by 8.042

text: arcsecond

text: s. The fainter star—

text: Zeta Antliae

text: —is 380 ± 20 light-years distant and of magnitude 5.9.

text: Eta Antliae

text: is another double composed of a yellow white star of spectral type F1V and magnitude 5.31, with a companion of magnitude 11.3.

text: Theta Antliae

text: is likewise double, most likely composed of an

text: A-type main sequence star

text: and a yellow giant.

text: S Antliae

text: is an

text: eclipsing binary

text: star system that varies in apparent magnitude from 6.27 to 6.83 over a period of 15.6 hours. The system is classed as a

text: W Ursae Majoris variable

text: —the primary is hotter than the secondary and the drop in magnitude is caused by the latter passing in front of the former. Calculating the properties of the component stars from the orbital period indicates that the primary star has a mass 1.94 times and a diameter 2.026 times that of the Sun, and the secondary has a mass 0.76 times and a diameter 1.322 times that of the Sun. The two stars have similar

text: luminosity

text: and

text: spectral type

text: as they have a

text: common envelope

text: and share stellar material. The system is thought to be around 5–6 billion years old. The two stars will eventually merge to form a single fast-spinning star.

text: 62 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 6.02.

text: 62 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 6.02.

text: is the luminosity of the Sun. While giving enough power for considerably longer than many other physical methods, such as chemical energy, this value was clearly still not long enough due to geological and biological evidence that the Earth was billions of years old. It was eventually discovered that thermonuclear energy was responsible for the power output and long lifetimes of stars.

text: is the luminosity of the Sun. While giving enough power for considerably longer than many other physical methods, such as

text: chemical energy

text: , this value was clearly still not long enough due to geological and biological evidence that the Earth was billions of years old. It was eventually discovered that

text: thermonuclear

text: energy was responsible for the power output and long lifetimes of stars.

text: A dredge-up is a period in the evolution of a star where a surface convection zone extends down to the layers where material has undergone nuclear fusion. As a result, the fusion products are mixed into the outer layers of the stellar atmosphere where they can appear in the spectrum of the star.

text: A dredge-up is a period in the evolution of a

text: star

text: where a surface

text: convection zone

text: extends down to the layers where material has undergone

text: nuclear fusion

text: . As a result, the fusion products are mixed into the outer layers of the stellar atmosphere where they can appear in the

text: spectrum

text: of the star.

text: Such aged stars as red giants and white dwarfs are also unlikely to support life. Red giants are common in globular clusters and elliptical galaxies. White dwarfs are mostly dying stars that have already completed their red giant phase. Stars that become red giants expand into or overheat the habitable zones of their youth and middle age (though theoretically planets at a much greater distance may become habitable).

text: Such aged stars as

text: red giant

text: s and

text: white dwarf

text: s are also unlikely to support life. Red giants are common in globular clusters and

text: elliptical galaxies

text: . White dwarfs are mostly dying stars that have already completed their red giant phase. Stars that become red giants expand into or overheat the habitable zones of their youth and middle age (though theoretically planets at a much greater distance

text: may become habitable

text: Rho Puppis has an estimated age of about 2 billion years and it has 3.4 times the Sun's radius. It has a stellar classification of F2mF5IIp, which matches the spectrum of an F-type bright giant star. It shows stronger than normal absorption lines of metals—a term astronomers use for any element other than hydrogen and helium. The 'p' suffix indicates chemical peculiarities that mark it as a cooler temperature Am star. Most such stars are found in binary star systems, but this appears to be an exception as no companion has been discovered. Evolved stars that show this combination of Delta Scuti variability with Am-like peculiarities of abundance have come to be known as ρ Pup stars. The star's metallicity is more than double that in the Sun.

text: Rho Puppis has an estimated age of about 2 billion years and it has 3.4 times the Sun's radius. It has a stellar classification of F2mF5IIp, which matches the

text: spectrum

text: of an

text: F-type

text: bright giant

text: star. It shows stronger than normal

text: absorption line

text: s of metals—a term astronomers use for any element other than hydrogen and helium. The 'p' suffix indicates chemical peculiarities that mark it as a cooler temperature

text: Am star

text: . Most such stars are found in binary star systems, but this appears to be an exception as no companion has been discovered. Evolved stars that show this combination of Delta Scuti variability with Am-like peculiarities of abundance have come to be known as ρ Pup stars. The star's

text: metallicity

text: is more than double that in the Sun.

text: In particle accelerators, a common mechanism for accelerating a charged particle beam is via copper resonant cavities in which electric and magnetic fields form a standing wave, the mode of which is designed so that the E field points along the axis of the accelerator, producing forward acceleration of the particles when in the correct phase.

text: In

text: particle accelerators

text: , a common mechanism for accelerating a charged particle beam is via

text: copper

text: resonant cavities

text: in which electric and

text: magnetic field

text: s form a

text: standing wave

text: , the mode of which is designed so that the

text: E field

text: points along the axis of the accelerator, producing forward acceleration of the particles when in the correct phase.

text: The company has continued to make critically acclaimed scripted content. The film Ring of Fire, starring Jewel as June Carter Cash, debuted on Lifetime TV in May 2013. The four-hour miniseries The Secret Life of Marilyn Monroe, starring Kelli Garner and Susan Sarandon, aired on Lifetime in May 2015. Both films were nominated for Emmys. Another Lifetime film, Manson’s Lost Girls, aired in February 2016. After Camelot, the four-hour sequel to The Kennedys, starts production in April 2016. Asylum has also made two feature films. A coming-of-age movie starring Christopher Meloni, Small Time, was written and directed by Joel Surnow. The documentary feature Happy Valley, about the Jerry Sandusky scandal at Penn State, was directed by Amir Bar-Lev for A&E Indie Films.

text: The company has continued to make critically acclaimed scripted content. The film

text: Ring of Fire

text: , starring

text: Jewel

text: as

text: June Carter Cash

text: , debuted on

text: Lifetime TV

text: in May 2013. The four-hour miniseries

text: The Secret Life of Marilyn Monroe

text: , starring

text: Kelli Garner

text: and

text: Susan Sarandon

text: , aired on Lifetime in May 2015. Both films were nominated for Emmys. Another Lifetime film, Manson’s Lost Girls, aired in February 2016. After Camelot, the four-hour sequel to The Kennedys, starts production in April 2016. Asylum has also made two feature films. A coming-of-age movie starring

text: Christopher Meloni

text: , Small Time, was written and directed by

text: Joel Surnow

text: . The documentary feature

text: Happy Valley

text: , about the

text: Jerry Sandusky

text: scandal at

text: Penn State

text: , was directed by

text: Amir Bar-Lev

text: for A&E Indie Films.

text: Black Hole is a fixed shooter arcade game released by Tokyo Denshi Sekkei in 1981.  Players must shoot splitting "neutron mines" and flying saucers.

text: Black Hole is a

text: fixed shooter

text: arcade game

text: released by

text: Tokyo Denshi Sekkei

text: in

text: .  Players must shoot splitting "neutron mines" and flying saucers.

text: The most luminous red supergiants, at near solar metallicity, are expected to lose most of their outer layers before their cores collapse, hence they evolve back to yellow hypergiants and luminous blue variables.  Such stars can explode as type II-L supernovae, still with hydrogen in their spectra but not with sufficient hydrogen to cause an extended brightness plateau in their light curves.  Stars with even less hydrogen remaining may produce the uncommon type IIb supernova, where there is so little hydrogen remaining that the hydrogen lines in the initial type II spectrum fade to the appearance of a type Ib supernova.

text: The most luminous red supergiants, at near solar

text: metallicity

text: , are expected to lose most of their outer layers before their cores collapse, hence they evolve back to yellow hypergiants and luminous blue variables.  Such stars can explode as type II-L supernovae, still with hydrogen in their spectra but not with sufficient hydrogen to cause an extended brightness plateau in their light curves.  Stars with even less hydrogen remaining may produce the uncommon type IIb supernova, where there is so little hydrogen remaining that the hydrogen lines in the initial type II spectrum fade to the appearance of a type Ib supernova.

text: Pavo contains several variable stars of note. Lambda Pavonis is a bright irregular variable ranging between magnitudes 3.4 and 4.4; this variation can be observed with the unaided eye. Classed as a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable or shell star, it is of spectral type B2II-IIIe and lies around 1430 light years distant from Earth. Kappa Pavonis is a W Virginis variable—a subclass of Type II Cepheid. It ranges from magnitude 3.91 to 4.78 over 9 days and is a yellow-white supergiant pulsating between spectral classes F5I-II and G5I-II. NU and V Pavonis are pulsating semiregular variable red giant stars. NU has a spectral type M6III and ranges from magnitude 4.9 to 5.3, while V Pavonis ranges from magnitude 6.3 to 8.2 over two periods of 225.4 and 3735 days concurrently. V is a carbon star<ref name="gray_corbally" group="note">C6 is equivalent to a class M2–M3 star, the 4 shows the strength of the Swan bands on a scale of 1 (weak) to 5 (strong), and the Nb indicates bands of the chemical element niobium. See:

text: Pavo contains several variable stars of note.

text: Lambda Pavonis

text: is a bright

text: irregular variable

text: ranging between magnitudes 3.4 and 4.4; this variation can be observed with the unaided eye. Classed as a Gamma Cassiopeiae variable or

text: shell star

text: , it is of spectral type B2II-IIIe and lies around 1430 light years distant from Earth.

text: Kappa Pavonis

text: is a

text: W Virginis variable

text: —a subclass of

text: Type II Cepheid

text: . It ranges from magnitude 3.91 to 4.78 over 9 days and is a yellow-white

text: supergiant

text: pulsating between spectral classes F5I-II and G5I-II.

text: NU

text: and

text: V Pavonis

text: are pulsating

text: semiregular variable

text: red giant

text: stars. NU has a spectral type M6III and ranges from magnitude 4.9 to 5.3, while V Pavonis ranges from magnitude 6.3 to 8.2 over two periods of 225.4 and 3735 days concurrently. V is a

text: carbon star

text: <ref name="gray_corbally" group="note">C6 is equivalent to a class M2–M3 star, the 4 shows the strength of the

text: Swan bands

text: on a scale of 1 (weak) to 5 (strong), and the Nb indicates bands of the chemical element

text: niobium

text: . See:

text: Up to the helium burning stage the neutrino losses are negligible. But from the carbon burning stage onwards, the reduction in stellar lifetime due to energy lost in the form of neutrinos roughly matches the increased energy production due to fuel change and core contraction. In successive fuel changes in the most massive stars, the reduction in lifetime is dominated by the neutrino losses. For example, a star of 25 solar masses burns hydrogen in the core for 10 years, helium for 10 years and carbon for only 10 years.

text: An interesting case for visual binaries occurs when one or both components are located above or below the Main-Sequence. If a star is more luminous than a Main-Sequence star, it is either very young, and therefore contracting due to gravity, or is at the post Main-Sequence stage of its evolution. The study of binaries is useful here because, unlike with single stars, it is possible to determine which reason is the case. If the primary is gravitationally contracting, then the companion will be further away from the Main-Sequence than the primary since the more massive star becomes a Main-Sequence star much faster than the less massive star.

text: The IHL first started holding All-Star games in 1962. Initially the game format had the defending champion playing against a collection of All-Stars from the teams in the league. The game changed to an East vs. West in 1967, but returned to the original format in 2000. The Wolves hosted the game as defending champions in 2001. They entered the game as the last place team in the Western Conference. Despite their record Chicago won the game 4–0. It was the only shutout in IHL All-Star game history. During the contest Steve Maltais recorded a goal and an assist, the two-point performance made him the IHL's all-time leading scorer in All-Star competition with 12 points in 7 games.

text: The IHL first started holding All-Star games in 1962. Initially the game format had the defending champion playing against a collection of All-Stars from the teams in the league. The game changed to an East vs. West in 1967, but returned to the original format in 2000. The Wolves hosted the game as defending champions in

text: . They entered the game as the last place team in the Western Conference. Despite their record Chicago won the game 4–0. It was the only

text: shutout

text: in IHL All-Star game history. During the contest

text: Steve Maltais

text: recorded a goal and an assist, the two-point performance made him the IHL's all-time leading scorer in All-Star competition with 12 points in 7 games.

text: A WHA all-star team played three games against Dynamo Moscow at Edmonton's Northlands Coliseum. The WHA All-Stars were coached by Jacques Demers, who asked Gordie Howe if it was okay to put him on a line with his son Mark Howe and with Wayne Gretzky . In the first game, this line scored seven points, as the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4-2. In the second game, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4-2. The line did not score in the final game but the WHA won by a score of 4-3.

text: A WHA all-star team played three games against

text: Dynamo Moscow

text: at Edmonton's

text: Northlands Coliseum

text: . The WHA All-Stars were coached by

text: Jacques Demers

text: , who asked

text: Gordie Howe

text: if it was okay to put him on a line with his son

text: Mark Howe

text: and with

text: Wayne Gretzky

text: . In the first game, this line scored seven points, as the WHA All-Stars won by a score of 4-2. In the second game, Gretzky and Mark Howe each scored a goal and Gordie Howe picked up an assist as the WHA won 4-2. The line did not score in the final game but the WHA won by a score of 4-3.

text: Fusion takes place when atoms come into close proximity and the nuclear strong force pulls their nuclei together. Counteracting this process is the fact that the nuclei are all positively charged, and thus repel each other due to the electrostatic force. In order for fusion to occur, the nuclei must have enough energy to overcome this coulomb barrier. The barrier is lowered for atoms with less positive charge, those with the fewest number of protons, and the strong force is increased with additional nucleons, the total number of protons and neutrons. This means that a combination of deuterium and tritium has the lowest coulomb barrier, at about 100 keV (see requirements for fusion).

text: Fusion takes place when atoms come into close proximity and the nuclear

text: strong force

text: pulls their nuclei together. Counteracting this process is the fact that the nuclei are all positively charged, and thus repel each other due to the

text: electrostatic force

text: . In order for fusion to occur, the nuclei must have enough energy to overcome this

text: coulomb barrier

text: . The barrier is lowered for atoms with less positive charge, those with the fewest number of

text: proton

text: s, and the strong force is increased with additional nucleons, the total number of protons and

text: neutron

text: s. This means that a combination of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: has the lowest coulomb barrier, at about 100 keV (see

text: requirements for fusion

text: Chandrasekhar's most notable work was the astrophysical Chandrasekhar limit. The limit describes the maximum mass of a white dwarf star, ~1.44 solar masses, or equivalently, the minimum mass which must be exceeded for a star to ultimately collapse into a neutron star or black hole (following a supernova). The limit was first calculated by Chandrasekhar in 1930 during his maiden voyage from India to Cambridge, England for his graduate studies. In 1999, NASA named the third of its four "Great Observatories" after Chandrasekhar. This followed a naming contest which attracted 6,000 entries from fifty states and sixty-one countries. The Chandra X-ray Observatory was launched and deployed by Space Shuttle Columbia on July 23, 1999. The Chandrasekhar number, an important dimensionless number of magnetohydrodynamics, is named after him. The asteroid 1958 Chandra is also named after Chandrasekhar. American astronomer Carl Sagan, who studied Mathematics under Chandrasekhar, at the University of Chicago, praised him in the book The Demon-Haunted World: "I discovered what true mathematical elegance is from Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar."

text: Chandrasekhar's most notable work was the

text: astrophysical

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: . The limit describes the maximum mass of a

text: white dwarf

text: star, ~1.44

text: solar mass

text: es, or equivalently, the minimum mass which must be exceeded for a star to ultimately collapse into a

text: neutron star

text: or

text: black hole

text: (following a

text: supernova

text: ). The limit was first calculated by Chandrasekhar in 1930 during his maiden voyage from India to

text: Cambridge, England

text: for his graduate studies. In 1999,

text: NASA

text: named the third of its four "Great Observatories" after Chandrasekhar. This followed a naming contest which attracted 6,000 entries from fifty states and sixty-one countries. The

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: was launched and deployed by

text: Space Shuttle Columbia

text: on July 23, 1999. The

text: Chandrasekhar number

text: , an important

text: dimensionless number

text: of

text: magnetohydrodynamics

text: , is named after him. The

text: asteroid

text: 1958 Chandra

text: is also named after Chandrasekhar. American astronomer

text: Carl Sagan

text: , who studied Mathematics under Chandrasekhar, at the University of Chicago, praised him in the book

text: The Demon-Haunted World

text: : "I discovered what true mathematical elegance is from Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar."

text: The primary component, υ Carinae A, has a stellar classification of A8 Ib, making it a supergiant star that has exhausted the hydrogen at its core and evolved away from its brief main sequence lifetime as an O9 V star. With an apparent magnitude of +3.08, it has an effective temperature of about 7,600 K, giving it a white hue. The companion, υ Carinae B, is a giant star with a classification of B7 III, although Mandrini and Niemela (1986) suggested it may be a subgiant star with a classification of B4–5 IV. The outer envelope of this star has an effective temperature of around 23,000 K, resulting in the blue-white hue of a B-type star.

text: The primary component, υ Carinae A, has a

text: stellar classification

text: of A8 Ib, making it a

text: supergiant

text: star that has exhausted the hydrogen at its core and

text: evolved

text: away from its brief

text: main sequence

text: lifetime as an O9 V star. With an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +3.08, it has an

text: effective temperature

text: of about 7,600 K, giving it a white hue. The companion, υ Carinae B, is a

text: giant star

text: with a classification of B7 III, although Mandrini and Niemela (1986) suggested it may be a

text: subgiant star

text: with a classification of B4–5 IV. The outer envelope of this star has an effective temperature of around 23,000 K, resulting in the blue-white hue of a B-type star.

text: This star will be in constellation Fornax around 2920 CE.

text: This star will be in constellation

text: Fornax

text: around 2920 CE.

text: Sagittarius A* (pronounced "Sagittarius A-star", standard abbreviation Sgr A*) is a bright and very compact astronomical radio source at the center of the Milky Way, near the border of the constellations Sagittarius and Scorpius. It is part of a larger astronomical feature known as Sagittarius A. Sagittarius A* is thought to be the location of a supermassive black hole, like those that are now generally accepted to be at the centers of most spiral and elliptical galaxies. Observations of the star S2 in orbit around Sagittarius A* have been used to show the presence of, and produce data about, the Milky Way's central supermassive black hole, and have led to the conclusion that Sagittarius A* is the site of that black hole.

text: Sagittarius A* (pronounced "Sagittarius A-star", standard abbreviation Sgr A*) is a bright and very compact

text: astronomical radio source

text: at the

text: center

text: of the

text: Milky Way

text: , near the border of the constellations

text: Sagittarius

text: and

text: Scorpius

text: . It is part of a larger astronomical feature known as

text: Sagittarius A

text: . Sagittarius A* is thought to be the location of a

text: supermassive black hole

text: , like those that are now generally accepted to be at the centers of most

text: spiral

text: and

text: elliptical galaxies

text: . Observations of the star

text: in orbit around Sagittarius A* have been used to show the presence of, and produce data about, the Milky Way's central supermassive black hole, and have led to the conclusion that Sagittarius A* is the site of that black hole.

text: Star Wraith (1999–2000) was the first game made by Star Wraith 3D Games with the title Star Wraith as well as the first game of the Star Wraith series. It superseded Raven and Star Wolf, the third and fourth official games made by SW3DG respectively. While its predecessors were written in QuickBasic, Star Wraith was written entirely in DarkBasic. Star Wraith is now almost nonexistent on the internet as it has been made all but obsolete by newer titles.

text: Star Wraith (1999–2000) was the first game made by Star Wraith 3D Games with the title Star Wraith as well as the first game of the Star Wraith series. It superseded Raven and Star Wolf, the third and fourth official games made by SW3DG respectively. While its predecessors were written in

text: QuickBasic

text: , Star Wraith was written entirely in

text: DarkBasic

text: . Star Wraith is now almost nonexistent on the internet as it has been made all but obsolete by newer titles.

text: Using this formula, the magnitude scale can be extended beyond the ancient magnitude 1–6 range, and it becomes a precise measure of brightness rather than simply a classification system. Astronomers can now measure differences as small as one-hundredth of a magnitude. Stars that have magnitudes between 1.5 and 2.5 are called second-magnitude; there are some 20 stars brighter than 1.5, which are first-magnitude stars (see the list of brightest stars). For example, Sirius is magnitude −1.46, Arcturus is −0.04, Aldebaran is 0.85, Spica is 1.04, and Procyon (the little Dog) is 0.34. Under the ancient magnitude system, all of these stars might have been classified as "stars of the first magnitude".

text: Using this formula, the magnitude scale can be extended beyond the ancient magnitude 1–6 range, and it becomes a precise measure of brightness rather than simply a classification system.

text: Astronomer

text: s can now measure differences as small as one-hundredth of a magnitude. Stars that have magnitudes between 1.5 and 2.5 are called second-magnitude; there are some 20 stars brighter than 1.5, which are first-magnitude stars (see the

text: list of brightest stars

text: ). For example,

text: Sirius

text: is magnitude −1.46,

text: Arcturus

text: is −0.04,

text: Aldebaran

text: is 0.85,

text: Spica

text: is 1.04, and

text: Procyon

text: (the little Dog) is 0.34. Under the ancient magnitude system, all of these stars might have been classified as "stars of the first magnitude".

text: If neutrons are squeezed enough at a high temperature, they will decompose into their component quarks, forming what is known as a quark matter. In this case, the star will shrink further and become denser, but instead of a total collapse into a black hole, it is possible, that the star may stabilize itself and survive in this state indefinitely, as long as no extra mass is added. It has, to some extent, become a very large nucleon. A-type star in this hypothetical state is called a quark star or more specifically a strange star. The pulsars RX J1856.5-3754 and 3C58 have been suggested as possible quark stars. Most neutron stars are thought to hold a core of quark matter, but it has proven hard to determine observationally.

text: If

text: neutron

text: s are squeezed enough at a high temperature, they will decompose into their component

text: quark

text: s, forming what is known as a

text: quark matter

text: . In this case, the star will shrink further and become denser, but instead of a total collapse into a black hole, it is possible, that the star may stabilize itself and survive in this state indefinitely, as long as no extra mass is added. It has, to some extent, become a very large

text: nucleon

text: . A-type star in this hypothetical state is called a

text: quark star

text: or more specifically a strange star. The pulsars

text: RX J1856.5-3754

text: and

text: have been suggested as possible quark stars. Most neutron stars are thought to hold a core of quark matter, but it has proven hard to determine observationally.

text: 54 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 6.02.

text: 54 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 6.02.

text: BX Circini is a star in the constellation Circinus. Its variability was discovered in 1995, with its apparent magnitude ranging from 12.57 to 12.62  over a period of 2 hours 33 minutes. It is currently classified as a PV Telescopii variable star, but has been put forward as the prototype of a new class of pulsating star—the BX Circini variables—along with the only other known example, V652 Herculis. This class of star is rare, possibly because this is a brief stage of stellar evolution. Its mass has been calculated to be around 40 percent that of the Sun and the average surface temperature has been measured at 23,390 ±90 K using optical spectra, but 1750 K cooler if analysing it in both the visual and ultraviolet. The temperature appears to vary by 3450 K. It has an extremely low proportion of hydrogen, which was first noticed in 1980. In fact, over 99% of its composition appears to be helium, qualifying  it as an extreme helium star. Its origin is unclear, but thought to be a result of the merger of a helium white dwarf with a carbon/oxygen one. The two merge violently, with material from the lighter helium white dwarf forming the outer envelope. The resulting star expands and shines as a yellow giant, its outer helium shell igniting and undergoing fusion as material continues to be accreted from the lighter star. The size of the star is maintained by the weight upon the helium shell, and once that has become light enough and the helium is exhausted, the star begins heating and shrinking, becoming the smaller blue star now observed.

text: BX Circini is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Circinus

text: . Its

text: variability

text: was discovered in 1995, with its

text: apparent magnitude

text: ranging from 12.57 to 12.62  over a period of 2 hours 33 minutes. It is currently classified as a

text: PV Telescopii variable

text: star, but has been put forward as the prototype of a new class of pulsating star—the BX Circini variables—along with the only other known example,

text: V652 Herculis

text: . This class of star is rare, possibly because this is a brief stage of stellar evolution. Its mass has been calculated to be around 40 percent that of the Sun and the average surface temperature has been measured at 23,390 ±90 K using optical spectra, but 1750 K cooler if analysing it in both the visual and ultraviolet. The temperature appears to vary by 3450 K. It has an extremely low proportion of

text: hydrogen

text: , which was first noticed in 1980. In fact, over 99% of its composition appears to be

text: helium

text: , qualifying  it as an

text: extreme helium star

text: . Its origin is unclear, but thought to be a result of the merger of a helium

text: white dwarf

text: with a carbon/oxygen one. The two merge violently, with material from the lighter helium white dwarf forming the outer envelope. The resulting star expands and shines as a

text: yellow giant

text: , its outer helium shell igniting and undergoing fusion as material continues to be accreted from the lighter star. The size of the star is maintained by the weight upon the helium shell, and once that has become light enough and the helium is exhausted, the star begins heating and shrinking, becoming the smaller blue star now observed.

text: Theta Eridani is a binary system with some evidence suggesting it is part of a multiple star system. The main star, θ¹ Eridani, is of spectral class A4 with a +3.2 apparent magnitude. Its companion star, θ² Eridani, is of spectral class A1 with an apparent magnitude of +4.3. The angular separation of the two stars is equal to 8.3 arcseconds.

text: Theta Eridani is a

text: binary system

text: with some evidence suggesting it is part of a multiple

text: star system

text: . The main star, θ¹ Eridani, is of

text: spectral class

text: A4 with a +3.2

text: apparent magnitude

text: . Its companion star, θ² Eridani, is of spectral class A1 with an apparent magnitude of +4.3. The

text: angular separation

text: of the two stars is equal to 8.3

text: arcseconds

text: Intrinsic S-type stars are thermal pulsing asymptotic giant branch (TP-AGB) stars.  AGB stars have inert carbon-oxygen cores and undergo fusion both in an inner helium shell and an outer hydrogen shell.  They are large cool M class giants.  The thermal pulses, created by flashes from the helium shell, cause strong convection within the upper layers of the star.  These pulses become stronger as the star evolves and in sufficiently massive stars the convection becomes deep enough to dredge up fusion products from the region between the two shells to the surface.  These fusion products include carbon and s-process elements.  The s-process elements include zirconium (Zr), yttrium (Y), lanthanum (La), technetium (Tc), barium (Ba), and strontium (Sr), which form the characteristic S class spectrum with ZrO, YO, and LaO bands, as well as Tc, Sr, and Ba lines.  The atmosphere of S stars already has almost as much carbon as oxygen.  Carbon enrichment continues with subsequent thermal pulses until the carbon abundance exceeds the oxygen abundance, at which point the oxygen in the atmosphere is rapidly locked into CO and formation of the oxides diminishes.  These stars show intermediate SC spectra and further carbon enrichment leads to a carbon star.

text: Intrinsic S-type stars are thermal pulsing

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (TP-AGB) stars.  AGB stars have inert carbon-oxygen cores and undergo fusion both in an inner helium shell and an outer hydrogen shell.  They are large cool M class giants.  The thermal pulses, created by

text: flashes

text: from the helium shell, cause strong convection within the upper layers of the star.  These pulses become stronger as the star evolves and in sufficiently massive stars the convection becomes deep enough to

text: dredge up

text: fusion products from the region between the two shells to the surface.  These fusion products include

text: carbon

text: and

text: s-process

text: elements.  The s-process elements include

text: zirconium

text: (Zr),

text: yttrium

text: (Y),

text: lanthanum

text: (La), technetium (Tc),

text: barium

text: (Ba), and

text: strontium

text: (Sr), which form the characteristic S class spectrum with ZrO, YO, and LaO bands, as well as Tc, Sr, and Ba lines.  The atmosphere of S stars already has almost as much carbon as oxygen.  Carbon enrichment continues with subsequent thermal pulses until the carbon abundance exceeds the oxygen abundance, at which point the oxygen in the atmosphere is rapidly locked into

text: CO

text: and formation of the oxides diminishes.  These stars show intermediate SC spectra and further carbon enrichment leads to a

text: carbon star

text: Because the lunar month consists of 28 days plus one or two days, there are at least 28 visible lunation over four weeks. Moon station or conjunction is observed nightly as the moon sets with a star or constellation. Consequently, the date of a certain day can be figured out by the position of the moon in the horizon. The star or constellation that set with the moon in each of the four weeks of every month is also identified with each of the four seasons in a year. Here, every week in the month corresponds to one quarter of the year.

text: Stars increase in luminosity as they age, and a more luminous star needs to radiate energy more quickly to maintain equilibrium. Stars larger than red dwarfs do this by increasing their size and becoming red giants with larger surface areas. Rather than expanding, however, red dwarfs with less than 0.25 solar masses are predicted to increase their radiative rate by increasing their surface temperatures and becoming "bluer". This is because the surface layers of red dwarfs do not become significantly more opaque with increasing temperature.

text: Stars increase in

text: luminosity

text: as they age, and a more luminous star needs to radiate energy more quickly to maintain equilibrium. Stars larger than red dwarfs do this by increasing their size and becoming

text: red giant

text: s with larger surface areas. Rather than expanding, however, red dwarfs with less than 0.25

text: solar mass

text: es are predicted to increase their radiative rate by increasing their surface

text: temperature

text: s and becoming "bluer". This is because the surface layers of red dwarfs do not become significantly more opaque with increasing temperature.

text: When the star exhausts the hydrogen fuel in its core, nuclear reactions can no longer continue and so the core begins to contract due to its own gravity. This brings additional hydrogen into a zone where the temperature and pressure are adequate to cause fusion to resume in a shell around the core. The higher temperatures lead to increasing reaction rates, enough to increase the star's luminosity by a factor of 1,000–10,000. The outer layers of the star then expand greatly, thus beginning the red-giant phase of the star's life. As the star expands, the energy produced in the burning shell of the star is spread over a much larger surface area, resulting in a lower surface temperature and a shift in the star's visible light output towards the red – hence it becomes a red giant. In actuality, though, the color usually is orange. At this time, the star is said to be ascending the red-giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram. The outer layers carry the energy evolved from fusion to the surface by way of convection. This causes material exposed to nuclear "burning" in the star's interior (but not its core) to be brought to the star's surface for the first time in its history, an event called the first dredge-up.

text: When the star exhausts the hydrogen fuel in its core, nuclear reactions can no longer continue and so the core begins to contract due to its own gravity. This brings additional hydrogen into a zone where the temperature and pressure are adequate to cause fusion to resume in a shell around the core. The higher temperatures lead to increasing reaction rates, enough to increase the star's luminosity by a factor of 1,000–10,000. The outer layers of the star then expand greatly, thus beginning the red-giant phase of the star's life. As the star expands, the energy produced in the burning shell of the star is spread over a much larger surface area, resulting in a lower

text: surface temperature

text: and a shift in the star's visible light output towards the red – hence it becomes a red giant. In actuality, though, the color usually is orange. At this time, the star is said to be ascending the red-giant branch of the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram

text: . The outer layers carry the energy evolved from fusion to the surface by way of

text: convection

text: . This causes material exposed to

text: nuclear "burning"

text: in the star's interior (but not its core) to be brought to the star's surface for the first time in its history, an event called the first

text: dredge-up

text: A white dwarf's stellar and planetary system is inherited from its progenitor star and may interact with the white dwarf in various ways. Infrared spectroscopic observations made by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope of the central star of the Helix Nebula suggest the presence of a dust cloud, which may be caused by cometary collisions. It is possible that infalling material from this may cause X-ray emission from the central star. Similarly, observations made in 2004 indicated the presence of a dust cloud around the young white dwarf G29-38 (estimated to have formed from its AGB progenitor about 500 million years ago), which may have been created by tidal disruption of a comet passing close to the white dwarf. Some estimations based on the metal content of the atmospheres of the white dwarfs consider that at least a 15% of them may be orbited by planets and/or asteroids, or at least their debris. Another suggested idea is that white dwarfs could be orbited by the stripped cores of rocky planets, that would have survived the red giant phase of their star but losing their outer layers and, given those planetary remnants would likely be made of metals, to attempt to detect them looking for the signatures of their interaction with the white dwarf's magnetic field.

text: A white dwarf's

text: stellar

text: and

text: planetary system

text: is inherited from its progenitor star and may interact with the white dwarf in various ways. Infrared spectroscopic observations made by NASA's

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: of the central star of the

text: Helix Nebula

text: suggest the presence of a dust cloud, which may be caused by cometary collisions. It is possible that infalling material from this may cause X-ray emission from the central star. Similarly, observations made in 2004 indicated the presence of a dust cloud around the young white dwarf

text: (estimated to have formed from its

text: AGB

text: progenitor about 500 million years ago), which may have been created by tidal disruption of a comet passing close to the white dwarf. Some estimations based on the metal content of the atmospheres of the white dwarfs consider that at least a 15% of them may be orbited by planets and/or asteroids, or at least their debris. Another suggested idea is that white dwarfs could be orbited by the stripped cores of

text: rocky planet

text: s, that would have survived the red giant phase of their star but losing their outer layers and, given those planetary remnants would likely be made of

text: metal

text: s, to attempt to detect them looking for the signatures of their interaction with the white dwarf's

text: magnetic field

text: Miracle Run is a 2004 Lifetime Television film starring Mary-Louise Parker, Zac Efron, Bubba Lewis, Aidan Quinn and Alicia Morton

text: Miracle Run is a 2004

text: Lifetime Television

text: film starring

text: Mary-Louise Parker

text: Zac Efron

text: Bubba Lewis

text: Aidan Quinn

text: and

text: Alicia Morton

text: Also known as Nova Muscae 1983, GQ Muscae is a binary system consisting of a white dwarf and small star that is about 10% as massive as the Sun. The two orbit each other every 1.4 hours. The white dwarf accumulates material from its companion star via its accretion disc. After a certain amount has accumulated the star erupts, as it did in 1983, reaching a magnitude of 7.2. Discovered with a magnitude of 7.1 on 18 January 1983, it was the first nova from which X-rays were detected. The soft X-ray transient GRS 1124-683 (also known as Nova Muscae 1991) is a binary object consisting of an orange main-sequence star (GU Muscae) of spectral type K3V–K4V and a black hole of around 6 solar masses. During the 1991 outburst which led to its discovery, radiation was produced through a process of positron annihilation. GR Muscae is an X-ray source composed of a neutron star of between 1.2 and 1.8 times the mass of our Sun and a low-mass star likely to be around the mass of the Sun in close orbit. Finally, SY Muscae is a symbiotic star system composed of a red giant and white dwarf, where although the larger star is transferring mass to the smaller, there is no periodic eruption nor accretion disc formed. The star system varies in magnitude from 10.2 to 12.7 over a period of 624.5 days.

text: Also known as Nova Muscae 1983,

text: GQ Muscae

text: is a binary system consisting of a white dwarf and small star that is about 10% as massive as the Sun. The two orbit each other every 1.4 hours. The white dwarf accumulates material from its companion star via its

text: accretion disc

text: . After a certain amount has accumulated the star erupts, as it did in 1983, reaching a magnitude of 7.2. Discovered with a magnitude of 7.1 on 18 January 1983, it was the first nova from which X-rays were detected. The

text: soft X-ray transient

text: GRS 1124-683

text: (also known as Nova Muscae 1991) is a binary object consisting of an orange main-sequence star (GU Muscae) of spectral type K3V–K4V and a

text: black hole

text: of around 6 solar masses. During the 1991 outburst which led to its discovery,

text: radiation

text: was produced through a process of

text: positron

text: annihilation

text: GR Muscae

text: is an X-ray source composed of a

text: neutron star

text: of between 1.2 and 1.8 times the mass of our Sun and a low-mass star likely to be around the mass of the Sun in close orbit. Finally,

text: SY Muscae

text: is a

text: symbiotic

text: star system composed of a red giant and white dwarf, where although the larger star is transferring mass to the smaller, there is no periodic eruption nor accretion disc formed. The star system varies in magnitude from 10.2 to 12.7 over a period of 624.5 days.

text: This is a massive supergiant star with a stellar classification of B3 Ia, indicating that, at the age of around 7 million years, it has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core and is now undergoing nuclear fusion of helium to generate energy. It has about 21 times the mass of the Sun and 65 times the Sun's radius. In all likelihood, it will end its life as a Type II supernova.

text: This is a massive

text: supergiant

text: star with a

text: stellar classification

text: of B3 Ia, indicating that, at the age of around 7 million years, it has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core and is now undergoing

text: nuclear fusion

text: of helium to generate energy. It has about 21 times the mass of the Sun and 65 times the Sun's radius. In all likelihood, it will end its life as a

text: Type II supernova

text: Observations over the decades have shown that its colour slightly changes and it exhibits variation in light that indicate the star is actually an ellipsoidal binary with a period of seven days. The system is more luminous than expected, given the spectrum and distance of the primary star, indicating that the companion star must be contributing a good proportion of its light. Stellar evolution modelling has concluded that the system likely begun as a binary system, with one star about double the Sun's mass and the other roughly equivalent to that of the sun. The larger star eventually aged and expanded as it used up its core hydrogen, and begun having its mass siphoned off by the smaller star; the system is likely to have been an Algol-type eclipsing binary at this stage. This star appears now to be an aged star composed mostly of helium with very little hydrogen and with a mass of 0.2 solar masses and around 37 times the luminosity of the Sun and surface temperature of 7000 K, while the once-smaller star is the Delta Scuti variable that is now around two solar masses. Around 0.8 solar masses has been lost from the system over time.

text: Observations over the decades have shown that its colour slightly changes and it exhibits variation in light that indicate the star is actually an ellipsoidal binary with a period of seven days. The system is more luminous than expected, given the spectrum and distance of the primary star, indicating that the companion star must be contributing a good proportion of its light. Stellar evolution modelling has concluded that the system likely begun as a

text: binary system

text: , with one star about double the

text: Sun's mass

text: and the other roughly equivalent to that of the sun. The larger star eventually aged and expanded as it used up its core hydrogen, and begun having its mass siphoned off by the smaller star; the system is likely to have been an

text: Algol-type eclipsing binary

text: at this stage. This star appears now to be an aged star composed mostly of helium with very little hydrogen and with a mass of 0.2

text: solar mass

text: es and around 37 times the luminosity of the

text: Sun

text: and surface temperature of 7000 K, while the once-smaller star is the Delta Scuti variable that is now around two solar masses. Around 0.8 solar masses has been lost from the system over time.

text: Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community.  Models based on ships from such franchises as Star Trek, Star Wars, and Battlestar Galactica are regularly sold and created in scales ranging from 1:24 to 1:1400 to 1:2500 to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships (for especially objects like the Death Stars and Super Star Destroyers, even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72, and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic.

text: Science fiction

text: space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community.  Models based on ships from such franchises as

text: Star Trek

text: Star Wars

text: , and

text: Battlestar Galactica

text: are regularly sold and created in scales ranging from 1:24 to 1:1400 to 1:2500 to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships (for especially objects like the

text: Death Star

text: s and

text: Super Star Destroyer

text: s, even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72, and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic.

text: These interesting objects are born from once-large stars that grew to four to eight times the size of our own sun before exploding in catastrophic supernovae. After such an explosion blows a star's outer layers into space, the core remains—but it no longer produces nuclear fusion. With no outward pressure from fusion to counterbalance gravity's inward pull, the star condenses and collapses in upon itself.

text: The best-known classes of exothermic nuclear transmutations are fission and fusion. Nuclear energy may be liberated by atomic fission, when heavy atomic nuclei (like uranium and plutonium) are broken apart into lighter nuclei. The energy from fission is used to generate electric power in hundreds of locations worldwide. Nuclear energy is also released during atomic fusion, when light nuclei like hydrogen are combined to form heavier nuclei such as helium. The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to generate thermal energy which is later radiated from the surface, a type of stellar nucleosynthesis. In any exothermic nuclear process, nuclear mass might ultimately be converted to thermal energy, given off as heat.

text: The best-known classes of exothermic nuclear transmutations are

text: fission

text: and

text: fusion

text: . Nuclear energy may be liberated by atomic fission, when heavy atomic nuclei (like uranium and plutonium) are broken apart into lighter nuclei. The energy from fission is used to generate electric power in hundreds of locations worldwide. Nuclear energy is also released during atomic fusion, when light

text: nuclei

text: like

text: hydrogen

text: are combined to form heavier nuclei such as helium. The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to generate thermal energy which is later radiated from the surface, a type of stellar nucleosynthesis. In any exothermic nuclear process, nuclear mass might ultimately be converted to thermal energy, given off as heat.

text: A binary black hole (BBH) is a system consisting of two black holes in close orbit around each other.  Like black holes themselves, binary black holes are often divided into stellar binary black holes, formed either as remnants of high-mass binary star systems or by dynamic processes and mutual capture, and binary supermassive black holes believed to be a result of galactic mergers.

text: A binary black hole (BBH) is a system consisting of two

text: black hole

text: s in close orbit around each other.  Like black holes themselves, binary black holes are often divided into

text: stellar

text: binary black holes, formed either as remnants of high-mass

text: binary star

text: systems or by

text: dynamic processes

text: and mutual capture, and binary

text: supermassive black holes

text: believed to be a result of

text: galactic merger

text: s.

text: In physics, the laboratory frame of reference, or lab frame for short, is a frame of reference centered on the laboratory in which the experiment (either real or thought experiment) is done. This is the reference frame in which the laboratory is at rest. Also, this is usually the frame of reference in which measurements are made, since they are presumed (unless stated otherwise) to be made by laboratory instruments. An example of instruments in a lab frame, would be the particle detectors at the detection facility of a particle accelerator.

text: In physics, the laboratory frame of reference, or lab frame for short, is a

text: frame of reference

text: centered on the

text: laboratory

text: in which the

text: experiment

text: (either real or thought experiment) is done. This is the reference frame in which the laboratory is at rest. Also, this is usually the frame of reference in which

text: measurement

text: s are made, since they are presumed (unless stated otherwise) to be made by laboratory instruments. An example of instruments in a lab frame, would be the

text: particle detector

text: s at the detection facility of a

text: particle accelerator

text: One of the most peculiar systems in Lyra is MV Lyrae, a nova-like star consisting of a red dwarf and a white dwarf. Originally classified as a VY Sculptoris star due to spending most time at maximum brightness, since around 1979 the system has been dominantly at minimum brightness, with periodic outbursts. Its nature is still not fully understood. Another outbursting star is AY Lyrae, an SU Ursae Majoris-type dwarf nova that has undergone several superoutbursts. Of the same type is V344 Lyrae, notable for an extremely short period between superoutbursts coupled with one of the highest amplitudes for such a period. The true nova HR Lyrae flared in 1919 to a maximum magnitude of 6.5, over 9.5 magnitudes higher than in quiescence. Some of its characteristics are similar to those of recurring novae.

text: One of the most peculiar systems in Lyra is

text: MV Lyrae

text: , a

text: nova-like star

text: consisting of a

text: red dwarf

text: and a

text: white dwarf

text: . Originally classified as a

text: VY Sculptoris star

text: due to spending most time at maximum brightness, since around 1979 the system has been dominantly at minimum brightness, with periodic outbursts. Its nature is still not fully understood. Another outbursting star is

text: AY Lyrae

text: , an

text: SU Ursae Majoris

text: -type

text: dwarf nova

text: that has undergone several superoutbursts. Of the same type is

text: V344 Lyrae

text: , notable for an extremely short period between superoutbursts coupled with one of the highest amplitudes for such a period. The true

text: nova

text: HR Lyrae

text: flared in 1919 to a maximum magnitude of 6.5, over 9.5 magnitudes higher than in quiescence. Some of its characteristics are similar to those of

text: recurring nova

text: e.

text: Theory predicts that a young cluster of this size should give birth to stars and substellar objects of all spectral types, from huge, hot O stars down to dim brown dwarfs. However, studies of the Hyades show that it is deficient in stars at both extremes of mass. At an age of 625 million years, the cluster's main sequence turn-off is about , meaning that all heavier stars have evolved into subgiants, giants, or white dwarfs, while less massive stars continue fusing hydrogen on the main sequence. Extensive surveys have revealed a total of 8 white dwarfs in the cluster core, corresponding to the final evolutionary stage of its original population of B-type stars (each about ). The preceding evolutionary stage is currently represented by the cluster's four red clump giants. Their present spectral type is K0 III, but all are actually "retired A stars" of around . An additional "white giant" of type A7 III is the primary of θ² Tauri, a binary system that includes a less massive companion of spectral type A; this pair is visually associated with θ¹ Tauri, one of the four red giants, which also has an A-type binary companion.

text: Theory predicts that a young cluster of this size should give birth to stars and substellar objects of all spectral types, from huge, hot O stars down to dim

text: brown dwarf

text: s. However, studies of the Hyades show that it is deficient in stars at both extremes of mass. At an age of 625 million years, the cluster's main sequence turn-off is about , meaning that all heavier stars have evolved into subgiants, giants, or

text: white dwarf

text: s, while less massive stars continue fusing hydrogen on the main sequence. Extensive surveys have revealed a total of 8 white dwarfs in the cluster core, corresponding to the final evolutionary stage of its original population of B-type stars (each about ). The preceding evolutionary stage is currently represented by the cluster's four red clump giants. Their present spectral type is K0 III, but all are actually "retired A stars" of around . An additional "white giant" of type A7 III is the primary of

text: θ² Tauri

text: , a

text: binary

text: system that includes a less massive companion of spectral type A; this pair is visually associated with

text: θ¹ Tauri

text: , one of the four red giants, which also has an A-type binary companion.

text: While it is not impossible that some binaries might be created through gravitational capture between two single stars, given the very low likelihood of such an event (three objects are actually required, as conservation of energy rules out a single gravitating body capturing another) and the high number of binaries, this cannot be the primary formation process. Also, the observation of binaries consisting of pre main-sequence stars, supports the theory that binaries are already formed during star formation. Fragmentation of the molecular cloud during the formation of protostars is an acceptable explanation for the formation of a binary or multiple star system.

text: While it is not impossible that some binaries might be created through

text: gravitational capture

text: between two single stars, given the very low likelihood of such an event (three objects are actually required, as conservation of energy rules out a single gravitating body capturing another) and the high number of binaries, this cannot be the primary formation process. Also, the observation of binaries consisting of pre

text: main-sequence

text: stars, supports the theory that binaries are already formed during

text: star formation

text: . Fragmentation of the molecular cloud during the formation of

text: protostar

text: s is an acceptable explanation for the formation of a binary or multiple star system.

text: The internal structure of a main sequence star depends upon the mass of the star.

text: The internal structure of a

text: main sequence

text: star depends upon the mass of the star.

text: results in the acceleration of the particle until the edge of the first Brillouin zone is reached. The following sudden change in velocity from

text: results in the acceleration of the particle until the edge of the first

text: Brillouin zone

text: is reached. The following sudden change in velocity from

text: Besides the real accelerators listed above, there are hypothetical accelerators often usedas hypothetical examples or optimistic projects by particle physicists.

text: The band was originally formed as "Supernova", but the legality of the use of that name was called into question by another band of the same name: Supernova, a pop punk trio from California founded in 1989 and best known for a song contributed to the soundtrack of the 1994 film Clerks. On June 26, 2006, the latter band filed a federal lawsuit against Mark Burnett Productions, Rockstar Entertainment, CBS, Tommy Lee, Jason Newsted, and Gilby Clarke. The California band sought both compensatory and punitive damages, as well as trademark protection of the "Supernova" name, the destruction of all Rock Star materials bearing the name "Supernova", and clarifying statements made on the show. One of their primary pieces of evidence was a message from Butch Walker on the social networking website MySpace, in which he notes that the defendants had been informed of the existence of a prior band of the same name, but decided to proceed anyway.

text: The band was originally formed as "Supernova", but the legality of the use of that name was called into question by another band of the same name:

text: Supernova

text: , a

text: pop punk

text: trio from California founded in 1989 and best known for a song contributed to the soundtrack of the 1994 film

text: Clerks

text: . On June 26, 2006, the latter band filed a federal lawsuit against

text: Mark Burnett

text: Productions,

text: Rockstar Entertainment

text: CBS

text: , Tommy Lee, Jason Newsted, and Gilby Clarke. The California band sought both

text: compensatory

text: and

text: punitive damages

text: , as well as

text: trademark

text: protection of the "Supernova" name, the destruction of all Rock Star materials bearing the name "Supernova", and clarifying statements made on the show. One of their primary pieces of evidence was a message from Butch Walker on the social networking website

text: MySpace

text: , in which he notes that the defendants had been informed of the existence of a prior band of the same name, but decided to proceed anyway.

text: 110 Herculis (110 Her) is an F6V, white dwarf star in the constellation Hercules, 63 light-years away with an apparent magnitude of 4.20; the 17th-brightest star in the constellation.

text: 110 Herculis (110 Her) is an F6V, white

text: dwarf star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Hercules

text: , 63

text: light-year

text: s away with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 4.20; the 17th-brightest star in the constellation.

text: Numerical relativity is applied to many areas, such as cosmological models, critical phenomena, perturbed black holes and neutron stars, and the coalescence of black holes and neutron stars, for example. In any of these cases, Einstein's equations can be formulated in several ways that allow us to evolve the dynamics. While Cauchy methods have received a majority of the attention, characteristic and Regge calculus based methods have also been used. All of these methods begin with a snapshot of the gravitational fields on some hypersurface, the initial data, and evolve these data to neighboring hypersurfaces.

text: Numerical relativity is applied to many areas, such as

text: cosmological

text: models

text: critical phenomena

text: perturbed

text: black hole

text: s and

text: neutron star

text: s, and the

text: coalescence of black hole

text: s and neutron stars, for example. In any of these cases, Einstein's equations can be formulated in several ways that allow us to evolve the dynamics. While

text: Cauchy

text: methods have received a majority of the attention, characteristic and

text: Regge calculus

text: based methods have also been used. All of these methods begin with a snapshot of the

text: gravitational field

text: s on some

text: hypersurface

text: , the initial data, and evolve these data to neighboring hypersurfaces.

text: The term constellation can also refer to the stars within the boundaries of that constellation. Notable groupings of stars that do not form a constellation are called asterisms.  When astronomers say something is “in” a given constellation they mean it is within those official boundaries.

text: The term constellation can also refer to the stars within the boundaries of that constellation. Notable groupings of stars that do not form a constellation are called

text: asterism

text: s.  When astronomers say something is “in” a given constellation they mean it is within those official boundaries.

text: Fusion rocket starships, powered by nuclear fusion reactions, should conceivably be able to reach speeds of the order of 10% of that of light, based on energy considerations alone. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of light. These would "burn" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, He, B, and Li. Because fusion yields about 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases <0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically 4–10% of c. However, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a large fraction of their energy as high-energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may turn out to be intractable for decades or centuries.

text: Fusion rocket

text: starships, powered by

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions, should conceivably be able to reach speeds of the order of 10% of that of light, based on energy considerations alone. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of light. These would "burn" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, He, B, and Li. Because fusion yields about 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases <0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically 4–10% of c. However, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a large fraction of their energy as high-energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may turn out to be intractable for decades or centuries.

text: The third type of potential donor in an AM CVn system is the evolved main-sequence star.  In this case, the secondary star does not cause a common envelope, but fills its Roche lobe near the end of the main sequence (terminal-age main sequence or TAMS).  An important ingredient for this scenario is magnetic braking, which allows efficient angular-momentum loss from the orbit and hence a strong shrinkage of the orbit to ultra-short periods.  The scenario is rather sensitive to the initial orbital period; if the donor star fills its Roche lobe too long before the TAMS the orbit will converge, but bounce at periods of 70–80 minutes, like ordinary CVs.  If the donor starts mass transfer too long after the TAMS, the mass-transfer rate will be high and the orbit will diverge.  Only a narrow range of initial periods, around this bifurcation period will lead to the ultra-short periods that are observed in AM CVn stars.  The process of bringing the two stars into a close orbit under the influence of magnetic braking is called magnetic capture.  AM CVn stars formed this way may be observed either before or after the period minimum (which can lie anywhere between 5 and 70 minutes, depending on exactly when the donor star filled its Roche lobe) and are assumed to have some hydrogen on their surface.

text: The third type of potential donor in an AM CVn system is the evolved main-sequence star.  In this case, the secondary star does not cause a common envelope, but fills its Roche lobe near the end of the main sequence (terminal-age main sequence or TAMS).  An important ingredient for this scenario is

text: magnetic braking

text: , which allows efficient angular-momentum loss from the orbit and hence a strong shrinkage of the orbit to ultra-short periods.  The scenario is rather sensitive to the initial orbital period; if the donor star fills its Roche lobe too long before the TAMS the orbit will converge, but bounce at periods of 70–80 minutes, like ordinary CVs.  If the donor starts mass transfer too long after the TAMS, the mass-transfer rate will be high and the orbit will diverge.  Only a narrow range of initial periods, around this bifurcation period will lead to the ultra-short periods that are observed in AM CVn stars.  The process of bringing the two stars into a close orbit under the influence of magnetic braking is called magnetic capture.  AM CVn stars formed this way may be observed either before or after the period minimum (which can lie anywhere between 5 and 70 minutes, depending on exactly when the donor star filled its Roche lobe) and are assumed to have some hydrogen on their surface.

text: 65 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.14.

text: 65 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.14.

text: SXTs are quite rare, about 100 systems are known. SXTs are a class of low-mass X-ray binaries. A typical SXT contains a K-type subgiant or dwarf that is transferring mass to a compact object through an accretion disk. In some cases the compact object is a neutron star, but black holes are more common.  The type of compact object can be determined by observation of the system after an outburst; residual thermal emission from the surface of a neutron star will be seen whereas a black hole will not show residual emission. During "quiescence" mass is accumulating to the disk, and during outburst most of the disk falls into the black hole. The outburst is triggered as the density in the accretion disk exceeds a critical value. High density increases viscosity, which results in heating of the disk. Increasing temperature ionizes the gas, increasing the viscosity, and the instability increases and propagates throughout the disk. As the instability reaches the inner accretion disk, the X-ray luminosity rises and outburst begins. The outer disk is further heated by intense radiation from the inner accretion disk. A similar runaway heating mechanism operates in dwarf novae.

text: SXTs are quite rare, about 100 systems are known. SXTs are a class of

text: low-mass X-ray binaries

text: . A typical SXT contains a

text: K-type

text: subgiant or dwarf that is transferring mass to a compact object through an

text: accretion disk

text: . In some cases the compact object is a

text: neutron star

text: , but

text: black hole

text: s are more common.  The type of compact object can be determined by observation of the system after an outburst; residual thermal emission from the surface of a neutron star will be seen whereas a black hole will not show residual emission. During "quiescence" mass is accumulating to the disk, and during outburst most of the disk falls into the black hole. The outburst is triggered as the density in the accretion disk exceeds a critical value. High density increases viscosity, which results in heating of the disk. Increasing temperature ionizes the gas, increasing the viscosity, and the instability increases and propagates throughout the disk. As the instability reaches the inner accretion disk, the X-ray luminosity rises and outburst begins. The outer disk is further heated by intense radiation from the inner accretion disk. A similar runaway heating mechanism operates in

text: dwarf novae

text: The next seven brightest stars in Cassiopeia are also all confirmed or suspected variable stars, including 50 Cassiopeiae which was not given a Greek letter by Bayer and is a suspected variable with a very small amplitude. Zeta Cassiopeiae is a suspected slowly pulsating B-type star. Eta Cassiopeiae is a spectroscopic binary star with a period of 480 years, and a suspected RS Canum Venaticorum variable. The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 3.5 and the secondary is a red-hued star of magnitude 7.5. The system is 19 light-years from Earth. Kappa Cassiopeiae is a blue supergiant of spectral type BC0.7Ia that is some 302,000 times as luminous as the Sun and has 33 times its diameter. It is a runaway star, moving at around 2.5 million mph relative to its neighbors (1,100 kilometers per second). Its magnetic field and wind of particles creates a visible bow shock 4 light-years ahead of it, colliding with the diffuse, and usually invisible, interstellar gas and dust. The dimensions of the bow shock are vast: around 12 light-years long and 1.8 light-years wide. Theta Cassiopeiae, named Marfak, is a suspected variable star whose brightness changes by less than a tenth of a magnitude. Iota Cassiopeiae is a triple star 142 light-years from Earth. The primary is a white-hued star of magnitude 4.5 and an α Canum Venaticorum variable, the secondary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 6.9, and the tertiary is a star of magnitude 8.4. The primary and secondary are close together but the primary and tertiary are widely separated. Omicron Cassiopeiae is a triple star and the primary is another γ Cassiopeiae variable.

text: The next seven brightest stars in Cassiopeia are also all confirmed or suspected variable stars, including

text: 50 Cassiopeiae

text: which was not given a Greek letter by Bayer and is a suspected variable with a very small amplitude.

text: Zeta Cassiopeiae

text: is a suspected

text: slowly pulsating B-type star

text: Eta Cassiopeiae

text: is a spectroscopic binary star with a period of 480 years, and a suspected

text: RS Canum Venaticorum variable

text: . The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 3.5 and the secondary is a red-hued star of magnitude 7.5. The system is 19 light-years from Earth.

text: Kappa Cassiopeiae

text: is a

text: blue supergiant

text: of spectral type BC0.7Ia that is some 302,000 times as luminous as the Sun and has 33 times its diameter. It is a

text: runaway star

text: , moving at around 2.5 million mph relative to its neighbors (1,100 kilometers per second). Its magnetic field and wind of particles creates a visible

text: bow shock

text: 4 light-years ahead of it, colliding with the diffuse, and usually invisible, interstellar gas and dust. The dimensions of the bow shock are vast: around 12 light-years long and 1.8 light-years wide.

text: Theta Cassiopeiae

text: , named Marfak, is a suspected variable star whose brightness changes by less than a tenth of a magnitude.

text: Iota Cassiopeiae

text: is a

text: triple star

text: 142 light-years from Earth. The primary is a white-hued star of magnitude 4.5 and an

text: α Canum Venaticorum variable

text: , the secondary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 6.9, and the tertiary is a star of magnitude 8.4. The primary and secondary are close together but the primary and tertiary are widely separated.

text: Omicron Cassiopeiae

text: is a triple star and the primary is another γ Cassiopeiae variable.

text: The star density in each game determines how many solar systems exist in the star cluster - the higher the density the more planets that are available to colonize. Star density affects both the length of the game, as large star clusters will take longer to conquer, as well as affecting how quickly species will encounter each other and how much room they have to grow. Once a density is selected the particular type of each star system is generated randomly at the start of the game.

text: Oliphant used electromagnetic separation to separate the isotopes of lithium. He was the first to experimentally demonstrate nuclear fusion. He found that when deuterons reacted with nuclei of Helium-3, tritium or with other deuterons, the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with. Binding energy had been liberated from inside the nucleus. Following  Arthur Eddington's 1920 prediction that energy released by fusing small nuclei together could provide the energy source that powers the stars, Oliphant speculated that nuclear fusion reactions might be what powered the sun. With its higher cross section, the deuterium–tritium nuclear fusion reaction became the basis of a hydrogen bomb. Oliphant had not foreseen this development:

text: Oliphant used

text: electromagnetic separation

text: to separate the isotopes of lithium. He was the first to experimentally demonstrate

text: nuclear fusion

text: . He found that when deuterons reacted with nuclei of Helium-3, tritium or with other deuterons, the particles that were released had far more energy than they started with.

text: Binding energy

text: had been liberated from inside the nucleus. Following

text: Arthur Eddington

text: 's 1920 prediction that energy released by

text: fusing

text: small nuclei together could provide the energy source that powers the stars, Oliphant speculated that nuclear fusion reactions might be what powered the sun. With its higher

text: cross section

text: , the deuterium–tritium nuclear fusion reaction became the basis of a

text: hydrogen bomb

text: . Oliphant had not foreseen this development:

text: This is a binary star system with an overall apparent visual magnitude that varies between 3.26 and 3.30, making this one of the brightest binary stars. The system consists of a subgiant star of spectral type B revolving around a giant star with spectral type A in an eccentric orbit with a period of about 12 years. The orbital separation varies from 2 astronomical units at periastron to 17.5 astronomical units at apastron. The primary, α Doradus A, is a chemically peculiar star whose atmosphere displays an abnormally high abundance of silicon, making this an Si star.

text: This is a

text: binary star

text: system with an overall

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: that varies between 3.26 and 3.30, making this one of the brightest binary stars. The system consists of a

text: subgiant

text: star of

text: spectral type

text: B revolving around a

text: giant star

text: with

text: spectral type

text: A in an eccentric

text: orbit

text: with a period of about 12 years. The orbital separation varies from 2

text: astronomical unit

text: s at

text: periastron

text: to 17.5 astronomical units at

text: apastron

text: . The primary, α Doradus A, is a

text: chemically peculiar star

text: whose atmosphere displays an abnormally high abundance of

text: silicon

text: , making this an Si star.

text: There is a theory that strange particles such as hyperons  and dibaryons could form in the interior of a neutron star, changing its mass–radius ratio in ways that might be detectable. Conversely, measurements of neutron stars set constraints on possible dibaryon properties. A large fraction of the neutrons in a neutron star could turn into hyperons and merge into dibaryons during the early part of its collapse into a black hole . These dibaryons would very quickly dissolve into quark–gluon plasma during the collapse, or go into some currently unknown state of matter.

text: There is a theory that

text: strange

text: particles such as hyperons  and dibaryons could form in the interior of a

text: neutron star

text: , changing its mass–radius ratio in ways that might be detectable. Conversely, measurements of neutron stars set constraints on possible dibaryon properties. A large fraction of the neutrons in a neutron star could turn into hyperons and merge into dibaryons during the early part of its collapse into a black hole . These dibaryons would very quickly dissolve into

text: quark–gluon plasma

text: during the collapse, or go into some currently unknown state of matter.

text: In a linear particle accelerator (linac), particles are accelerated in a straight line with a target of interest at one end. They are often used to provide an initial low-energy kick to particles before they are injected into circular accelerators. The longest linac in the world is the Stanford Linear Accelerator, SLAC, which is  long. SLAC is an electron-positron collider.

text: In a

text: linear particle accelerator

text: (linac), particles are accelerated in a straight line with a target of interest at one end. They are often used to provide an initial low-energy kick to particles before they are injected into circular accelerators. The longest linac in the world is the

text: Stanford Linear Accelerator

text: , SLAC, which is  long. SLAC is an

text: electron

text: positron

text: collider.

text: Delta Chamaeleontis (δ Cha), is a solitary star located in the southern circumpolar constellation of Chamaeleon. It has an apparent visual magnitude of 4.42, which is bright enough for the star to seen with the naked eye. Based upon an annual parallax shift of 9.30 mas, it is located around 351 light years from the Sun. This pair is one of two stars named Delta Chamaeleontis, the other being the fainter Delta Chamaeleontis located about 6 arcminutes away. Delta Chamaeleontis forms the southernmost component of the constellation's "dipper" or bowl. Together with Gamma Chamaeleontis, they point to a spot that is within 2° of the south celestial pole.

text: Delta Chamaeleontis (δ Cha), is a solitary

text: star

text: located in the southern

text: circumpolar constellation

text: of

text: Chamaeleon

text: . It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 4.42, which is bright enough for the star to seen with the naked eye. Based upon an annual

text: parallax shift

text: of 9.30

text: mas

text: , it is located around 351

text: light year

text: s from the

text: Sun

text: . This pair is one of two stars named Delta Chamaeleontis, the other being the fainter

text: Delta Chamaeleontis

text: located about 6

text: arcminute

text: s away. Delta Chamaeleontis forms the southernmost component of the constellation's "dipper" or bowl. Together with

text: Gamma Chamaeleontis

text: , they point to a spot that is within 2° of the south

text: celestial pole

text: A MACHO may be detected when it passes in front of or nearly in front of a star and the MACHO's gravity bends the light, causing the star to appear brighter in an example of gravitational lensing known as gravitational microlensing. Several groups have searched for MACHOs by searching for the microlensing amplification of light. These groups have ruled out dark matter being explained by MACHOs with mass in the range  solar masses (0.3 lunar masses) to 100 solar masses. One group, the MACHO collaboration, claims to have found enough microlensing to predict the existence of many MACHOs with mass of about 0.5 solar masses, enough to make up perhaps 20% of the dark matter in the galaxy.This suggests that MACHOs could be white dwarfs or red dwarfs which have similar masses. However, red and white dwarfs are not completely dark; they do emit some light, and so can be searched for with the Hubble Telescope and with proper motion surveys.  These searches have ruled out the possibility that these objects make up a significant fraction of dark matter in our galaxy. Another group, the EROS2 collaboration, does not confirm the signal claims by the MACHO group. They did not find enough microlensing effect with a sensitivity higher by a factor 2. Observations using the Hubble Space Telescope's NICMOS instrument showed that less than one percent of the halo mass is composed of red dwarfs. This corresponds to a negligible fraction of the dark matter halo mass.  Therefore, the missing mass problem is not solved by MACHOs.

text: A MACHO may be detected when it passes in front of or nearly in front of a star and the MACHO's gravity bends the light, causing the star to appear brighter in an example of

text: gravitational lensing

text: known as

text: gravitational microlensing

text: . Several groups have searched for MACHOs by searching for the microlensing amplification of light. These groups have ruled out

text: dark matter

text: being explained by MACHOs with mass in the range

text: solar mass

text: es (0.3 lunar masses) to 100 solar masses. One group, the MACHO collaboration, claims to have found enough microlensing to predict the existence of many MACHOs with mass of about 0.5

text: solar mass

text: es, enough to make up perhaps 20% of the dark matter in the galaxy.This suggests that MACHOs could be white dwarfs or red dwarfs which have similar masses. However, red and white dwarfs are not completely dark; they do emit some light, and so can be searched for with the

text: Hubble Telescope

text: and with

text: proper motion

text: surveys.  These searches have ruled out the possibility that these objects make up a significant fraction of dark matter in our galaxy. Another group, the EROS2 collaboration, does not confirm the signal claims by the MACHO group. They did not find enough microlensing effect with a sensitivity higher by a factor 2. Observations using the Hubble Space Telescope's

entity_name: Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer

text: NICMOS

text: instrument showed that less than one percent of the halo mass is composed of red dwarfs. This corresponds to a negligible fraction of the dark matter halo mass.  Therefore, the missing mass problem is not solved by MACHOs.

text: 6 Cassiopeiae (6 Cas) is a double star in the constellation Cassiopeia (constellation).

text: 6 Cassiopeiae (6 Cas) is a

text: double star

text: in the constellation

text: Cassiopeia (constellation)

text: The belt contains bright stars in many constellations including (in order going more or less eastward) Cepheus, Lacerta, Perseus, Orion, Canis Major, Puppis, Vela, Carina, Crux (the Southern Cross), Centaurus, Lupus, and Scorpius (including the Scorpius-Centaurus Association). The Milky Way visible in the sky also passes through most of these constellations, but a bit southeast of Lupus.

text: The belt contains bright stars in many constellations including (in order going more or less eastward)

text: Cepheus

text: Lacerta

text: Perseus

text: Orion

text: Canis Major

text: Puppis

text: Vela

text: Carina

text: Crux

text: (the Southern Cross),

text: Centaurus

text: Lupus

text: , and

text: Scorpius

text: (including the

text: Scorpius-Centaurus Association

text: ). The Milky Way visible in the sky also passes through most of these constellations, but a bit southeast of Lupus.

text: J. J. Abrams, director and producer of Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013) and producer of Star Trek Beyond (2016), has directed and produced Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) for Walt Disney Pictures. Star Trek (2009) and Star Wars: The Force Awakens are each the first of their three-film trilogies. More significantly, both of these films that Abrams supervised are regarded as reboots of their respective franchises, with Star Trek (2009) being set in an alternate reality due to time travel while Star Wars: The Force Awakens is a separate continuity from the Star Wars expanded universe. These films have received critical and commercial acclaim and are credited with reviving interest for both franchises. Prior to Abrams' involvement, the next iteration in the series of Star Trek and Star Wars films had been in development hell, as Star Trek: Nemesis (2002) was poorly received and Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith (2005) had capped off the prequel trilogy, which overall had a mixed to positive reception. In addition to Abrams' involvement, several actors such as Simon Pegg have also starred in both series.

text: J. J. Abrams

text: , director and producer of

text: Star Trek

text: (2009) and

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: (2013) and producer of

text: Star Trek Beyond

text: (2016), has directed and produced

text: Star Wars: The Force Awakens

text: (2015) for

text: Walt Disney Pictures

text: . Star Trek (2009) and Star Wars: The Force Awakens are each the first of their three-film trilogies. More significantly, both of these films that Abrams supervised are regarded as reboots of their respective franchises, with Star Trek (2009) being set in an alternate reality due to time travel while Star Wars: The Force Awakens is a separate continuity from the

text: Star Wars expanded universe

text: . These films have received critical and commercial acclaim and are credited with reviving interest for both franchises. Prior to Abrams' involvement, the next iteration in the series of Star Trek and Star Wars films had been in

text: development hell

text: , as

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: (2002) was poorly received and

text: Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith

text: (2005) had capped off the prequel trilogy, which overall had a mixed to positive reception. In addition to Abrams' involvement, several actors such as

text: Simon Pegg

text: have also starred in both series.

text: Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013. Gliese 876, one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years, was the first red dwarf star to be found to possess a planetary system. It is orbited by four planets, including one terrestrial planet 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days. 91 Aquarii is an orange giant star orbited by one planet, 91 Aquarii b. The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days. Gliese 849 is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet, Gliese 849 b. The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days.

text: Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013.

text: Gliese 876

text: , one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years, was the first

text: red dwarf

text: star to be found to possess a

text: planetary system

text: . It is orbited by four planets, including one

text: terrestrial planet

text: 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days.

text: 91 Aquarii

text: is an

text: orange giant

text: star orbited by one planet,

text: 91 Aquarii b

text: . The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days.

text: Gliese 849

text: is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet,

text: Gliese 849 b

text: . The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days.

text: The Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars lists three companions: B is 24 Tau, a magnitude 6.28 A0 main sequence star 117" away; C is V647 Tau, a δ Sct variable star; and D is a magnitude 9.15 F3 main sequence star.  V647 Tau varies from magnitude +8.25 to +8.30 over 1.13 hours.

text: The

entity_name: Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars

text: Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars

text: lists three companions: B is 24 Tau, a magnitude 6.28 A0 main sequence star 117" away; C is V647 Tau, a

text: δ Sct variable

text: star; and D is a magnitude 9.15 F3 main sequence star.  V647 Tau varies from magnitude +8.25 to +8.30 over 1.13 hours.

text: HD 316285 is listed in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars as a variable Be star with a range of about one tenth of a magnitude.  The International Variable Star Index classifies it as an S Doradus variable and it is considered to be a candidate Luminous Blue Variable.

text: HD 316285 is listed in the

text: General Catalogue of Variable Stars

text: as a variable

text: Be star

text: with a range of about one tenth of a magnitude.  The International Variable Star Index classifies it as an

text: S Doradus variable

text: and it is considered to be a candidate

text: Luminous Blue Variable

text: During the photon epoch the temperature of the universe falls to the point where atomic nuclei can begin to form. Protons (hydrogen ions) and neutrons begin to combine into atomic nuclei in the process of nuclear fusion. Free neutrons combine with protons to form deuterium. Deuterium rapidly fuses into helium-4. Nucleosynthesis only lasts for about seventeen minutes, since the temperature and density of the universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue. By this time, all neutrons have been incorporated into helium nuclei. This leaves about three times more hydrogen than helium-4 (by mass) and only trace quantities of other light nuclei.

text: During the photon epoch the temperature of the universe falls to the point where atomic nuclei can begin to form. Protons (hydrogen ions) and neutrons begin to combine into atomic nuclei in the process of

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Free neutrons combine with protons to form deuterium. Deuterium rapidly fuses into helium-4. Nucleosynthesis only lasts for about seventeen minutes, since the temperature and density of the universe has fallen to the point where nuclear fusion cannot continue. By this time, all neutrons have been incorporated into helium nuclei. This leaves about three times more hydrogen than helium-4 (by mass) and only trace quantities of other light nuclei.

text: 49 Aurigae is a star in the constellation Auriga.  Its apparent magnitude is 5.26.

text: 49 Aurigae is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Auriga

text: .  Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 5.26.

text: When a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is plotted for an open cluster, most stars lie on the main sequence. The most massive stars have begun to evolve away from the main sequence and are becoming red giants; the position of the turn-off from the main sequence can be used to estimate the age of the cluster.

text: When a

text: Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

text: is plotted for an open cluster, most stars lie on the

text: main sequence

text: . The most massive stars have begun to evolve away from the main sequence and are becoming

text: red giant

text: s; the position of the turn-off from the main sequence can be used to estimate the age of the cluster.

text: If, for example, the strong nuclear force were 2% stronger than it is (for example, if the coupling constant representing its strength were 2% larger), while the other constants were left unchanged, diprotons would be stable; according to physicist Paul Davies, hydrogen would fuse into them instead of deuterium and helium. This would drastically alter the physics of stars, and presumably preclude the existence of life similar to what we observe on Earth. The existence of the diproton would short-circuit the slow fusion of hydrogen into deuterium. Hydrogen would fuse so easily that it is likely that all of the Universe's hydrogen would be consumed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang. This "diproton argument" is disputed by other physicists, who calculate that as long as the increase in strength is less than 50%, stellar fusion could occur despite the existence of stable diprotons.

text: If, for example, the strong nuclear force were 2% stronger than it is (for example, if the

text: coupling constant

text: representing its strength were 2% larger), while the other constants were left unchanged,

text: diproton

text: s would be stable; according to physicist

text: Paul Davies

text: , hydrogen would

text: fuse

text: into them instead of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: helium

text: . This would drastically alter the physics of

text: star

text: s, and presumably preclude the existence of life similar to what we observe on Earth. The existence of the diproton would short-circuit the slow fusion of hydrogen into deuterium. Hydrogen would fuse so easily that it is likely that all of the Universe's hydrogen would be consumed in the first few minutes after the

text: Big Bang

text: . This "diproton argument" is disputed by other physicists, who calculate that as long as the increase in strength is less than 50%, stellar fusion could occur despite the existence of stable diprotons.

text: In February 2012, ABC announced that it had green-lighted Mistresses with a direct-to-series order and a planned summer 2013 airdate. Thirteen episodes were ordered.  K.J. Steinberg wrote the pilot episode, which had previously been under consideration for a pilot order for ABC’s fall 2012 schedule. This is the second attempt by a network to import the British series to the U.S. In 2008, Lifetime announced it was developing the series, but it never made it to air. The Lifetime version was also to have starred Aytes, alongside Milano's Charmed co-star Holly Marie Combs.

text: In February 2012, ABC announced that it had

text: green-light

text: ed Mistresses with a direct-to-series order and a planned summer 2013 airdate. Thirteen episodes were ordered.  K.J. Steinberg wrote the

text: pilot episode

text: , which had previously been under consideration for a pilot order for ABC’s fall 2012 schedule. This is the second attempt by a network to import the British series to the U.S. In 2008,

text: Lifetime

text: announced it was developing the series, but it never made it to air. The Lifetime version was also to have starred Aytes, alongside Milano's

text: Charmed

text: co-star

text: Holly Marie Combs

text: In some sense, the easiest signals to detect should be constant sources. Supernovae and neutron star or black hole mergers should have larger amplitudes and be more interesting, but the waves generated will be more complicated. The waves given off by a spinning, bumpy neutron star would be "monochromatic" – like a pure tone in acoustics. It would not change very much in amplitude or frequency.

text: In some sense, the easiest signals to detect should be constant sources. Supernovae and neutron star or black hole mergers should have larger amplitudes and be more interesting, but the waves generated will be more complicated. The waves given off by a spinning, bumpy neutron star would be "

text: monochromatic

text: " – like a

text: pure tone

text: in

text: acoustics

text: . It would not change very much in amplitude or frequency.

text: Supernova-induced HVSs may also be possible, although they are presumably rare. In this scenario, a HVS is ejected from a close binary system as a result of the companion star undergoing a supernova explosion. Ejection velocities up to 770 km/s, as measured from the Galactic rest frame, are possible for late-type B-stars . This mechanism can explain the origin of HVSs which are ejected from the Galactic disk.

text: Deadly Love is a 1995 Lifetime Original Movie starring Susan Dey as a lonely vampire photographer. The film was based on the book Love Bites by Sherry Gottlieb and co-stars Stephen McHattie.

text: Deadly Love is a 1995

text: Lifetime

text: Original Movie starring

text: Susan Dey

text: as a lonely vampire photographer. The film was based on the book Love Bites by Sherry Gottlieb and co-stars

text: Stephen McHattie

text: A 2001 made-for-TV movie, Like Mother, Like Son: The Strange Story of Sante and Kenny Kimes, starred Mary Tyler Moore as Sante Kimes, Gabriel Olds as Kenny, and Jean Stapleton as Silverman. In 2006, another television movie based on a book about the case, A Little Thing Called Murder, starring Judy Davis and Jonathan Jackson, aired on Lifetime.

text: A 2001

text: made-for-TV movie

text: , Like Mother, Like Son: The Strange Story of Sante and Kenny Kimes, starred

text: Mary Tyler Moore

text: as Sante Kimes,

text: Gabriel Olds

text: as Kenny, and

text: Jean Stapleton

text: as Silverman. In 2006, another television movie based on a book about the case,

text: A Little Thing Called Murder

text: , starring

text: Judy Davis

text: and

text: Jonathan Jackson

text: , aired on

text: Lifetime

text: Although Iota Aquilae is listed in star catalogues as a giant star, calculations of its dimension show that in reality it is a main-sequence star. It has nearly five times the mass of the Sun and five to six times the Sun's radius. It is emitting 851 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 14,552 K, giving it the blue-white hue of a B-type star. The projected rotational velocity of this star is 55 km/s. Even though it is only around 100 million years old, it has already spent 91% of its allotted lifetime on the main sequence.

text: Although Iota Aquilae is listed in star catalogues as a

text: giant star

text: , calculations of its dimension show that in reality it is a

text: main-sequence star

text: . It has nearly five times the mass of the Sun and five to six times the Sun's radius. It is emitting 851 times the luminosity of the Sun from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 14,552 K, giving it the blue-white hue of a

text: B-type star

text: . The

text: projected rotational velocity

text: of this star is 55 km/s. Even though it is only around 100 million years old, it has already spent 91% of its allotted lifetime on the main sequence.

text: The surface gravity of a white dwarf is very high, and of a neutron star even more. The neutron star's compactness gives it a surface gravity of up to 7 m/s with typical values of order 10 m/s (that is more than 10 times that of Earth). One measure of such immense gravity is the fact that neutron stars have an escape velocity of around 100,000 km/s, about a third of the speed of light.

text: The surface gravity of a

text: white dwarf

text: is very high, and of a

text: neutron star

text: even more. The neutron star's compactness gives it a surface gravity of up to 7 m/s with typical values of order 10 m/s (that is more than 10 times that of

text: Earth

text: ). One measure of such immense gravity is the fact that neutron stars have an

text: escape velocity

text: of around

text: 100,000 km/s

text: , about a third of the

text: speed of light

text: SS 433 is one of the most exotic star systems observed.  It is an eclipsing X-ray binary system, with the primary most likely a black hole, or possibly a neutron star.  The spectrum of the secondary companion star suggests that it is a late A-type star.  SS 433 is a microquasar, the first discovered.

text: SS 433 is one of the most exotic

text: star system

text: s observed.  It is an

text: eclipsing

text: X-ray binary

text: system

text: , with the primary most likely a

text: black hole

text: , or possibly a

text: neutron star

text: .  The spectrum of the secondary

text: companion star

text: suggests that it is a late

text: A-type star

text: .  SS 433 is a

text: microquasar

text: , the first discovered.

text: In fusion, lighter atoms are fused to make heavier atoms. The easiest fuel to do this with is isotopes of hydrogen. Generally these reactions take place inside a plasma. A plasma is a heated gas, where all the electrons have been stripped away; the gas has been fully ionized. The ions are positively charged, so they repel each other due to the electrostatic force. Fusion occurs when two ions collide at high energy, allowing the strong force to overcome the electrostatic force at a short distance. The amount of energy that needs to be applied to force the nuclei together is termed the Coulomb barrier or fusion barrier energy. For fusion to occur in bulk plasma, it must be heated to tens of millions of degrees and compressed at high pressures, for a sufficient amount of time. Together, this is known as the "Triple Product". Fusion research focuses on reaching the highest triple product possible.

text: In fusion, lighter atoms are fused to make heavier atoms. The easiest fuel to do this with is isotopes of

text: hydrogen

text: . Generally these reactions take place inside a plasma. A plasma is a heated gas, where all the

text: electron

text: s have been stripped away; the gas has been fully

text: ionized

text: . The ions are positively charged, so they repel each other due to the

text: electrostatic force

text: . Fusion occurs when two ions collide at high energy, allowing the

text: strong force

text: to overcome the

text: electrostatic force

text: at a short distance. The amount of energy that needs to be applied to force the nuclei together is termed the

text: Coulomb barrier

text: or fusion barrier energy. For fusion to occur in bulk plasma, it must be heated to tens of millions of degrees and compressed at high pressures, for a sufficient amount of time. Together, this is known as the "Triple Product". Fusion research focuses on reaching the highest triple product possible.

text: In orbit around the orange subgiant star HD 177830 is one of the earliest exoplanets to be detected. A jovian-mass planet, it orbits in an eccentric orbit with a period of 390 days. A second planet closer to the star was discovered in 2011. Visible to the naked eye are HD 173416, a yellow giant hosting a planet over twice the mass of Jupiter discovered in 2009; and HD 176051, a low-mass binary star containing another high-mass planet. Just short of naked-eye visibility is HD 178911, a triple system consisting of a close binary and a visually separable sunlike star. The sunlike star has a planet with over 6 Jupiter masses discovered in 2001, the second found in a triple system after that of 16 Cygni.

text: In orbit around the orange subgiant star

text: HD 177830

text: is one of the earliest

text: exoplanet

text: s to be detected. A jovian-mass planet, it orbits in an eccentric orbit with a period of 390 days. A second planet closer to the star was discovered in 2011. Visible to the naked eye are

text: HD 173416

text: , a

text: yellow giant

text: hosting a planet over twice the mass of Jupiter discovered in 2009; and

text: HD 176051

text: , a low-mass binary star containing another high-mass planet. Just short of naked-eye visibility is

text: HD 178911

text: , a triple system consisting of a close binary and a visually separable sunlike star. The sunlike star has a planet with over 6 Jupiter masses discovered in 2001, the second found in a triple system after that of

text: 16 Cygni

text: It was not until the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) that astronomers started to observe and record names for all the stars that were apparent (to the naked eye) in the night sky, not just those around the ecliptic. A star catalogue is featured in one of the chapters of the late 2nd-century-BC history work Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian (145-86 BC) and contains the "schools" of Shi Shen and Gan De's work (i.e. the different constellations they allegedly focused on for astrological purposes). Sima's catalogue—the Book of Celestial Offices (天官書 Tianguan shu)—includes some 90 constellations, the stars therein named after temples, ideas in philosophy, locations such as markets and shops, and different people such as farmers and soldiers. For his Spiritual Constitution of the Universe (靈憲, Ling Xian) of 120 AD, the astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 AD) compiled a star catalogue comprising 124 constellations. Chinese constellation names were later adopted by the Koreans and Japanese.

text: It was not until the

text: Han Dynasty

text: (202 BC - 220 AD) that astronomers started to observe and record names for all the stars that were apparent (to the

text: naked eye

text: ) in the night sky, not just those around the ecliptic. A star catalogue is featured in one of the chapters of the late 2nd-century-BC history work

text: Records of the Grand Historian

text: by

text: Sima Qian

text: (145-86 BC) and contains the "schools" of Shi Shen and Gan De's work (i.e. the different constellations they allegedly focused on for astrological purposes). Sima's catalogue—the Book of Celestial Offices (天官書 Tianguan shu)—includes some 90 constellations, the stars therein named after

text: temples

text: , ideas in

text: philosophy

text: , locations such as markets and shops, and different people such as

text: farmers and soldiers

text: . For his Spiritual Constitution of the Universe (靈憲, Ling Xian) of 120 AD, the astronomer

text: Zhang Heng

text: (78-139 AD) compiled a star catalogue comprising 124 constellations.

text: Chinese constellation

text: names were later adopted by the

text: Korea

text: ns and

text: Japan

text: ese.

text: Vega also forms one vertex of a much smaller triangle, along with Epsilon and Zeta Lyrae. Zeta forms a wide binary star visible in binoculars, consisting of an Am star and an F-type subgiant. The Am star has an additional close companion, bringing the total number of stars in the system to three. Epsilon is a more famous wide binary that can even be separated by the naked eye under good conditions. Both components are themselves close binaries which can be seen with telescopes to consist of A- and F-type stars, and a faint star was recently found to orbit component C as well, for a total of five stars.

text: Vega also forms one vertex of a much smaller triangle, along with

text: Epsilon

text: and

text: Zeta Lyrae

text: . Zeta forms a wide

text: binary star

text: visible in binoculars, consisting of an

text: Am star

text: and an

text: F-type

text: subgiant

text: . The Am star has an additional close companion, bringing the total number of stars in the system to three. Epsilon is a more famous wide binary that can even be separated by the naked eye under good conditions. Both components are themselves close binaries which can be seen with telescopes to consist of

text: A-

text: and F-type stars, and a faint star was recently found to orbit component C as well, for a total of five stars.

text: There are several other noteworthy stars in Eridanus, including some double stars. Beta Eridani, traditionally called Cursa, is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.8, 89 light-years from Earth. Its place to the south of Orion's foot gives it its name, which means "the footstool". Theta Eridani, called Acamar, is a binary star with blue-white components, distinguishable in small amateur telescopes and 161 light-years from Earth. The primary is of magnitude 3.2 and the secondary is of magnitude 4.3. 32 Eridani is a binary star 290 light-years from Earth. The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 4.8 and the secondary is a blue-green star of magnitude 6.1. 32 Eridani is divisible in small amateur telescopes. 39 Eridani is a binary star also divisible in small amateur telescopes, 206 light-years from Earth. The primary is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 4.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 8. 40 Eridani is a triple star system consisting of an orange main-sequence star, a white dwarf, and a red dwarf. The orange main-sequence star is the primary of magnitude 4.4, and the white secondary of magnitude 9.5 is the most easily visible white dwarf. The red dwarf, of magnitude 11, orbits the white dwarf every 250 years. The 40 Eridani system is 16 light-years from Earth. p Eridani is a binary star with two orange components, 27 light-years from Earth. The magnitude 5.8 primary and 5.9 secondary have an orbital period of 500 years.

text: There are several other noteworthy stars in Eridanus, including some double stars.

text: Beta Eridani

text: , traditionally called Cursa, is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.8, 89 light-years from Earth. Its place to the south of Orion's foot gives it its name, which means "the footstool".

text: Theta Eridani

text: , called Acamar, is a binary star with blue-white components, distinguishable in small amateur telescopes and 161 light-years from Earth. The primary is of magnitude 3.2 and the secondary is of magnitude 4.3.

text: 32 Eridani

text: is a binary star 290 light-years from Earth. The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 4.8 and the secondary is a blue-green star of magnitude 6.1. 32 Eridani is divisible in small amateur telescopes.

text: 39 Eridani

text: is a binary star also divisible in small amateur telescopes, 206 light-years from Earth. The primary is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 4.9 and the secondary is of magnitude 8.

text: 40 Eridani

text: is a triple star system consisting of an orange main-sequence star, a

text: white dwarf

text: , and a

text: red dwarf

text: . The orange main-sequence star is the primary of magnitude 4.4, and the white secondary of magnitude 9.5 is the most easily visible white dwarf. The red dwarf, of magnitude 11, orbits the white dwarf every 250 years. The 40 Eridani system is 16 light-years from Earth.

text: p Eridani

text: is a binary star with two orange components, 27 light-years from Earth. The magnitude 5.8 primary and 5.9 secondary have an orbital period of 500 years.

text: Neutrino losses, by this and similar processes, play an increasingly important part in the evolution of the most massive stars. They force the star to burn its fuel at a higher temperature to offset them. Fusion processes are very sensitive to temperature so the star can produce more energy to retain hydrostatic equilibrium, at the cost of burning through successive nuclear fuels ever more rapidly. Fusion produces less energy per unit mass as the fuel nuclei get heavier, and the core of the star contracts and heats up when switching from one fuel to the next, so both these processes also significantly reduce the lifetime of each successive fusion-burning fuel.

text: Neutrino losses, by this and similar processes, play an increasingly important part in the evolution of the most massive stars. They force the star to burn its fuel at a higher temperature to offset them. Fusion processes are very sensitive to temperature so the star can produce more energy to retain

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: , at the cost of burning through successive nuclear fuels ever more rapidly. Fusion produces less energy per unit mass as the fuel nuclei get heavier, and the core of the star contracts and heats up when switching from one fuel to the next, so both these processes also significantly reduce the lifetime of each successive fusion-burning fuel.

text: Stars are created within galaxies from a reserve of cold gas that forms into giant molecular clouds. Some galaxies have been observed to form stars at an exceptional rate, which is known as a starburst. If they continue to do so, then they would consume their reserve of gas in a time span less than the lifespan of the galaxy. Hence starburst activity usually lasts for only about ten million years, a relatively brief period in the history of a galaxy. Starburst galaxies were more common during the early history of the Universe, and, at present, still contribute an estimated 15% to the total star production rate.

text: Stars are created within galaxies from a reserve of cold gas that forms into giant

text: molecular cloud

text: s. Some galaxies have been observed to form stars at an exceptional rate, which is known as a starburst. If they continue to do so, then they would consume their reserve of gas in a time span less than the lifespan of the galaxy. Hence starburst activity usually lasts for only about ten million years, a relatively brief period in the history of a galaxy. Starburst galaxies were more common during the early history of the Universe, and, at present, still contribute an estimated 15% to the total star production rate.

text: A planet could possibly get into this situation by evaporating while orbiting inside the gaseous shell of the red giant and at the same time having its orbit decay due to bow-shock friction with the gas.  Tides induce on the expanded star by the planet would also cause the orbit to decay, rather than expand as might have been expected to loss of gas from the star. These possibilities have been studied because that is the expected future of the Earth. Another hypothesis is that close-in planets could have formed during the merger of two white dwarfs.

text: A planet could possibly get into this situation by evaporating while orbiting inside the gaseous shell of the

text: red giant

text: and at the same time having its

text: orbit decay

text: due to

text: bow-shock friction

text: with the gas.  Tides induce on the expanded star by the planet would also cause the orbit to decay, rather than expand as might have been expected to loss of gas from the star. These possibilities have been studied because that is the expected

text: future of the Earth

text: . Another hypothesis is that close-in planets could have formed during the merger of two white dwarfs.

text: Most stars will eventually come to a point in their evolution, when the outward radiation pressure from the nuclear fusions in its interior can no longer resist the ever-present gravitational forces. When this happens, the star collapses under its own weight and undergoes the process of stellar death. For most stars, this will result in the formation of a very dense and compact stellar remnant, also known as a compact star.

text: Most stars will eventually come to a point in their evolution, when the outward radiation pressure from the nuclear fusions in its interior can no longer resist the ever-present gravitational forces. When this happens, the star collapses under its own weight and undergoes the process of

text: stellar death

text: . For most stars, this will result in the formation of a very dense and compact stellar remnant, also known as a compact star.

text: Prior to Hawaii Five-0, Griffith's television work included the short-lived WB sitcom Twins (2005–06), and the 2007 series Viva Laughlin, which was canceled after two episodes. Her 2012 television pilot, This American Housewife (produced by Banderas), was not picked up by Lifetime. In the interim, Griffith guest-starred on Nip/Tuck and Hot in Cleveland.

text: Prior to Hawaii Five-0, Griffith's television work included the short-lived

text: WB

text: sitcom

text: Twins

text: (2005–06), and the 2007 series

text: Viva Laughlin

text: , which was canceled after two episodes. Her 2012 television pilot,

text: This American Housewife

text: (produced by Banderas), was not picked up by Lifetime. In the interim, Griffith guest-starred on

text: Nip/Tuck

text: and

text: Hot in Cleveland

text: It will require about two thousand years before the location of this star shifts by more than a degree. A high proper motion is an indicator of closeness to the Sun. Nearby stars can traverse an angle of arc across the sky more rapidly than the distant background stars and are good candidates for parallax studies. In the case of Tau Ceti, the parallax measurements indicate a distance of . This makes it one of the closest star systems to the Sun, and the next-closest spectral class-G star after Alpha Centauri A.

text: It will require about two thousand years before the location of this star shifts by more than a degree. A high proper motion is an indicator of closeness to the Sun. Nearby stars can traverse an angle of arc across the sky more rapidly than the distant background stars and are good candidates for

text: parallax

text: studies. In the case of Tau Ceti, the parallax measurements indicate a distance of . This makes it

text: one of the closest

text: star systems to the Sun, and the next-closest

text: spectral class-G star

text: after

text: Alpha Centauri A

text: This star system was first cataloged by William Herschel in the late 18th century in his study of binary stars. Herschel proved that this system is a gravitationally bound binary system where the two stars orbit around a common center of mass. This was an important contribution to the proof that Newton's law of universal gravitation applied to objects beyond the solar system.  He commented at the time that there was a possible third unseen companion affecting the orbit of the two visible stars.

text: This star system was first cataloged by

text: William Herschel

text: in the late 18th century in his study of binary stars. Herschel proved that this system is a gravitationally bound

text: binary

text: system where the two stars orbit around a common

text: center of mass

text: . This was an important contribution to the proof that

text: Newton's law of universal gravitation

text: applied to objects beyond the

text: solar system

text: .  He commented at the time that there was a possible third unseen companion affecting the orbit of the two visible stars.

text: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the cores of massive stars (at least 8  at birth) that combines carbon into other elements. It requires high temperatures (> 5×10 K or 50 keV) and densities (> 3×10 kg/m).

text: The carbon-burning process or carbon fusion is a set of

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions that take place in the cores of massive

text: star

text: s (at least 8

text: at birth) that combines carbon into other elements. It requires high temperatures (> 5×10

text: K

text: or 50

text: keV

text: ) and

text: densities

text: (> 3×10 kg/m).

text: Sextans A has a peculiar square shape. Massive short-lived stars exploded in supernovae that caused more star formation, triggering yet more supernovae, ultimately resulting in an expanding shell. Young blue stars now highlight areas and shell edges high in current star formation, which from the perspective of observers on Earth appears roughly square.

text: A primer on how to observe the sky with the unaided eye. Sky motion, sky measures, star brightness, the constellations, star names, comets and meteors. Includes a pronunciation guide for stars and constellations.

text: A primer on how to observe the sky with the unaided eye. Sky motion, sky measures, star brightness, the

text: constellations

text: , star names,

text: comets

text: and

text: meteors

text: . Includes a pronunciation guide for stars and constellations.

text: The Phoenix Dwarf has an inner part of young stars which is stretched in an east-west direction and an outer part of mainly old stars that is stretched north-south. The central region's rate of star formation seems to have been relatively constant across time (Martínez-Delgado et al. 1999). In 1999, St-Germain et al. discovered a H I region of about 10  just to the west of Phoenix. Its radial velocity is -23 km/s and may be physically associated with Phoenix if it is found to have a similar radial velocity.

text: The Phoenix Dwarf has an inner part of young

text: star

text: s which is stretched in an east-west direction and an outer part of mainly old stars that is stretched north-south. The central region's rate of

text: star formation

text: seems to have been relatively constant across time (Martínez-Delgado et al. 1999). In 1999, St-Germain et al. discovered a

text: H I

text: region of about 10  just to the west of Phoenix. Its

text: radial velocity

text: is -23 km/s and may be physically associated with Phoenix if it is found to have a similar radial velocity.

text: Argo Navis is the only one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy that is no longer officially recognized as a constellation. It was unwieldy due to its enormous size. In his Coelum Australe Stelliferum, published in 1763, the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille explained that there were more than a hundred and sixty stars clearly visible to the naked eye in Navis, and so he used the set of lowercase and uppercase latin letters three times on portions of the constellation referred to as "Argûs in carina" (Carina, the keel or hull), "Argûs in puppi" (Puppis, the poop deck or stern), and "Argûs in velis" (Vela, the sails). Lacaille replaced Bayer's designations with new ones that followed the stars' magnitudes more closely, but used only a single Greek-letter sequence described the constellation for those stars as "Argûs". Similarly, faint non-lettered stars were listed only as in "Argûs".

text: Argo Navis is the only one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer

text: Ptolemy

text: that is no longer officially recognized as a constellation. It was unwieldy due to its enormous size. In his Coelum Australe Stelliferum, published in 1763, the French astronomer

text: Nicolas Louis de Lacaille

text: explained that there were more than a hundred and sixty stars clearly visible to the naked eye in Navis, and so he used the set of lowercase and uppercase latin letters three times on portions of the constellation referred to as "Argûs in carina" (

text: Carina

text: , the

text: keel

text: or hull), "Argûs in puppi" (

text: Puppis

text: , the

text: poop deck

text: or

text: stern

text: ), and "Argûs in velis" (

text: Vela

text: , the

text: sail

text: s). Lacaille replaced Bayer's

text: designations

text: with new ones that followed the stars' magnitudes more closely, but used only a single Greek-letter sequence described the constellation for those stars as "Argûs". Similarly, faint non-lettered stars were listed only as in "Argûs".

text: About 80% of the stars giving rise to HH objects are in fact binary or multiple systems (two or more stars orbiting each other), which is a much higher proportion than that found for low mass stars on the main sequence. This may indicate that binary systems are more likely to generate the jets which give rise to HH objects, and evidence suggests the largest HH outflows might be formed when multiple star systems disintegrate. It is thought that most stars originate from multiple star systems, but that a sizable fraction are disrupted before they reach the main sequence by gravitational interactions with nearby stars and dense clouds of gas.

text: About 80% of the stars giving rise to HH objects are in fact

text: binary

text: or multiple systems (two or more stars orbiting each other), which is a much higher proportion than that found for low mass stars on the

text: main sequence

text: . This may indicate that binary systems are more likely to generate the jets which give rise to HH objects, and evidence suggests the largest HH outflows might be formed when multiple star systems disintegrate. It is thought that most stars originate from multiple star systems, but that a sizable fraction are disrupted before they reach the main sequence by

text: gravitation

text: al interactions with nearby stars and dense clouds of gas.

text: If a charged particle such as an electron is accelerated – this can be acceleration in a straight line or motion in a curved path – electromagnetic radiation is emitted by the particle. Within electron storage rings and circular particle accelerators known as synchrotrons, electrons are bent in a circular path and emit X-rays typically. This radially emitted (

text: If a charged particle such as an electron is accelerated – this can be acceleration in a straight line or motion in a curved path – electromagnetic radiation is emitted by the particle. Within electron storage rings and circular particle accelerators known as

text: synchrotron

text: s, electrons are bent in a circular path and emit X-rays typically. This radially emitted (

text: Gliese 402 is a red dwarf star.

text: Gliese 402 is a

text: red dwarf

text: star.

text: , then the particle accelerates after the impact.

text: A fusor, according to a proposal to the IAU by Gibor Basri, Professor of Astronomy at the University of California, Berkeley to help clarify the nomenclature of celestial bodies, is "an object that achieves core fusion during its lifetime". This definition included any form of nuclear fusion, so the lowest possible mass of a fusor was set at roughly 13 times that of Jupiter, at which point deuterium fusion becomes possible. This is significantly smaller than the point at which sustained hydrogen fusion becomes possible, around 60 times the mass of Jupiter. Objects are considered "stellar" when they are about 75 times the mass of Jupiter, when gravitational contraction, i.e. contraction of the object due to gravity, is halted by heat generated by the nuclear reaction in their interiors. Fusors would include active stars, dead stars, and brown dwarfs.

text: A fusor, according to a proposal to the

text: IAU

text: by

text: Gibor Basri

text: , Professor of Astronomy at the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: to help clarify the nomenclature of

text: celestial bodies

text: , is "an object that achieves core fusion during its lifetime". This definition included any form of

text: nuclear fusion

text: , so the lowest possible mass of a fusor was set at roughly 13 times that of

text: Jupiter

text: , at which point

text: deuterium

text: fusion becomes possible. This is significantly smaller than the point at which sustained

text: hydrogen

text: fusion becomes possible, around 60 times the mass of Jupiter. Objects are considered "stellar" when they are about 75 times the mass of Jupiter, when

text: gravitational contraction

text: , i.e. contraction of the object due to gravity, is halted by heat generated by the nuclear reaction in their interiors. Fusors would include active

text: star

text: s, dead stars, and

text: brown dwarf

text: s.

text: At present, there are about 2000 known neutron stars in the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds, the majority of which have been detected as radio pulsars. Neutron stars are mostly concentrated along the disk of the Milky Way although the spread perpendicular to the disk is large because the supernova explosion process can impart high translational speeds (400 km/s) to the newly formed neutron star.

text: At present, there are about 2000 known neutron stars in the

text: Milky Way

text: and the

text: Magellanic Clouds

text: , the majority of which have been detected as radio

text: pulsar

text: s. Neutron stars are mostly concentrated along the disk of the Milky Way although the spread perpendicular to the disk is large because the

text: supernova

text: explosion process can impart high translational speeds (400 km/s) to the newly formed neutron star.

text: CXOU J164710.2-455216 is an anomalous X-ray pulsar in the massive galactic open cluster Westerlund 1. It is the brightest X-ray source in the cluster, and was discoveredin 2005 in observations made by the Chandra X-ray observatory. The Westerlund 1 cluster is believed to have formed in a single burst of star formation, implying that the progenitor star must have had a mass in excess of 40 solar masses. The fact that a neutron star was formed instead of a black hole implies that more than 95% of the star's original mass must have been lost before or during the supernova that produced the magnetar.

text: CXOU J164710.2-455216 is an

text: anomalous X-ray pulsar

text: in the massive galactic open cluster

text: Westerlund 1

text: . It is the brightest

text: X-ray

text: source in the cluster, and was discoveredin 2005 in observations made by the

text: Chandra X-ray observatory

text: . The Westerlund 1 cluster is believed to have formed in a single burst of star formation, implying that the progenitor star must have had a mass in excess of 40 solar masses. The fact that a

text: neutron star

text: was formed instead of a

text: black hole

text: implies that more than 95% of the star's original mass must have been lost before or during the

text: supernova

text: that produced the magnetar.

text: Various other unofficial patterns have existed alongside the constellations.  These are known as "asterisms." Examples include the Big Dipper/Plough and the Northern Cross.Some ancient asterisms, for example Coma Berenices, Serpens, and portions of Argo Navis, are now officially constellations.

text: Various other unofficial patterns have existed alongside the constellations.  These are known as "asterisms." Examples include the

text: Big Dipper/Plough

text: and the

text: Northern Cross

text: .Some ancient asterisms, for example

text: Coma Berenices

text: Serpens

text: , and portions of

text: Argo Navis

text: , are now officially constellations.

text: These accelerators are being used for nuclear medicine in medical physics, sample analysis using techniques such as PIXE in the material sciences, depth profiling in solid state physics, and to a lesser extent secondary ion mass spectrometry in geologic and cosmochemical works, and even neutron beams can be made from the charged particles emerging from these accelerators to perform neutron crystallography in condensed matter physics.  The principles used in electrostatic nuclear accelerators could be used to accelerate any charged particles, but particle physics operates at much higher energy regimes than these machines can achieve, and there are various better methods suited for making electron beams, so these accelerators are used for accelerating nuclei.

text: These accelerators are being used for

text: nuclear medicine

text: in

text: medical physics

text: , sample analysis using techniques such as

text: PIXE

text: in the

text: material science

text: s, depth profiling in

text: solid state physics

text: , and to a lesser extent secondary ion mass spectrometry in

text: geologic

text: and

text: cosmochemical

text: works, and even neutron beams can be made from the charged particles emerging from these accelerators to perform

text: neutron crystallography

text: in

text: condensed matter physics

text: .  The principles used in electrostatic nuclear accelerators could be used to accelerate any charged particles, but

text: particle physics

text: operates at much higher energy regimes than these machines can achieve, and there are various better methods suited for making

text: electron beams

text: , so these accelerators are used for accelerating nuclei.

text: The type of pulsations that 55 Cyg exhibits suggest that it was previously a red supergiant that has shed its outer layers.  The most massive red supergiants are expected to pass through a blue supergiant phase before becoming a Wolf-Rayet star and eventually exploding as a type Ib or Ic supernova.

text: The type of pulsations that 55 Cyg exhibits suggest that it was previously a

text: red supergiant

text: that has shed its outer layers.  The most massive red supergiants are expected to pass through a blue supergiant phase before becoming a

text: Wolf-Rayet star

text: and eventually exploding as a type Ib or Ic

text: supernova

text: Delta Chamaeleontis (δ Cha) is a close double star located in the constellation Chamaeleon. It has a combined apparent visual magnitude of 5.47, which is just bright enough for the star to be faintly seen on a dark rural night. With an annual parallax shift of 9.36 mas, it is located around 350 light years from the Sun. This pair is one of two stars named Delta Chamaeleontis, the other being the slightly brighter Delta Chamaeleontis located about 6 arcminutes away. Delta Chamaeleontis forms the southernmost component of the constellation's "dipper" or bowl. Together with Gamma Chamaeleontis, they point to a spot that is within 2° of the south celestial pole.

text: Delta Chamaeleontis (δ Cha) is a close

text: double star

text: located in the

text: constellation

text: Chamaeleon

text: . It has a combined

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 5.47, which is just bright enough for the star to be faintly seen on a dark rural night. With an annual

text: parallax shift

text: of 9.36

text: mas

text: , it is located around 350

text: light year

text: s from the

text: Sun

text: . This pair is one of two stars named Delta Chamaeleontis, the other being the slightly brighter

text: Delta Chamaeleontis

text: located about 6

text: arcminute

text: Gamma Chamaeleontis

text: celestial pole

text: In Super Mario Galaxy, Bowser kidnaps Princess Peach by removing her castle from the ground with Peach still inside, and also attacks the Comet Observatory, where Rosalina lives with her adopted Lumas, and steals its main source of fuel: Power Stars. Rosalina asks Mario to retrieve the lost Power Stars; in return she promises to help him save Princess Peach. Once Mario retrieves enough Power Stars, Rosalina is able to turn her Comet Observatory into a comet and drive Mario to the center of the universe, where Bowser keeps the kidnapped Princess Peach. After Bowser is defeated by Mario, Bowser's galaxy at the center of the universe turns into a supermassive black hole, devouring Princess Peach's castle and Rosalina's Comet Observatory. All of Rosalina's Lumas throw themselves into the black hole in order to stop it. After this, Rosalina appears to Mario, explaining to him about the cycle of life and the death and rebirth of stars; it is implicit in her explanation that the universe and all the Lumas are to be reborn. Afterwards, Rosalina is gone and Mario, as well as Bowser and Peach, wake up back in the Mushroom Kingdom again. Once 120 Power Stars in the game are collected, Rosalina delivers a thank you message to the player, promising to watch over them. In a backstory which is unlocked gradually as the game progresses, it is explained that Rosalina tells the story of how she was a young girl who went off in a spaceship in order to help a lost Luma find its parents, hiding the fact that she herself had lost her own mother. As Rosalina starts to feel lonely, numerous other Lumas soon come to join her, and she comes to know about their purpose in life to eventually transform into other things. Rosalina decides to build a house for her new family, which soon became the Comet Observatory.

text: In

text: Super Mario Galaxy

text: Bowser

text: kidnaps

text: Princess Peach

text: by removing her castle from the ground with Peach still inside, and also attacks the Comet Observatory, where Rosalina lives with her adopted Lumas, and steals its main source of fuel: Power Stars. Rosalina asks

text: Mario

text: to retrieve the lost Power Stars; in return she promises to help him save Princess Peach. Once Mario retrieves enough Power Stars, Rosalina is able to turn her Comet Observatory into a

text: comet

text: and drive Mario to the center of the universe, where Bowser keeps the kidnapped

text: Princess Peach

text: . After Bowser is defeated by Mario, Bowser's galaxy at the center of the universe turns into a supermassive

text: black hole

text: , devouring Princess Peach's castle and Rosalina's Comet Observatory. All of Rosalina's Lumas throw themselves into the black hole in order to stop it. After this, Rosalina appears to Mario, explaining to him about the cycle of life and the death and rebirth of stars; it is implicit in her explanation that the universe and all the Lumas are to be reborn. Afterwards, Rosalina is gone and Mario, as well as Bowser and Peach, wake up back in the

text: Mushroom Kingdom

text: again. Once 120 Power Stars in the game are collected, Rosalina delivers a thank you message to the player, promising to watch over them. In a backstory which is unlocked gradually as the game progresses, it is explained that Rosalina tells the story of how she was a young girl who went off in a spaceship in order to help a lost Luma find its parents, hiding the fact that she herself had lost her own mother. As Rosalina starts to feel lonely, numerous other Lumas soon come to join her, and she comes to know about their purpose in life to eventually transform into other things. Rosalina decides to build a house for her new family, which soon became the Comet Observatory.

text: The current editor-in-chief is John Mcgann. Previous editors include Rick Voegelin, Jon Asher, Jeff Smith, John Baechtel, Chuck Schifsky, Matt King, David Freiburger, and Douglas Glad.Car Craft names an annual All-Star drag racing team each year plus a lifetime achievement award.

text: The current editor-in-chief is John Mcgann. Previous editors include Rick Voegelin, Jon Asher, Jeff Smith, John Baechtel,

text: Chuck Schifsky

text: Matt King

text: David Freiburger

text: , and Douglas Glad.Car Craft names an annual All-Star drag racing team each year plus a lifetime achievement award.

text: This is classified as a Be star, which is a B-type star with prominent emission lines of hydrogen in its spectrum. The Be stars have a rotation rate that is 1.5–2 times the rotation of normal B-type stars. This high rate of rotation may allow mass loss during even minor prominences. Changes in the radial velocity measurements indicate that this star may have a companion, which would make Electra a spectroscopic binary.

text: This is classified as a

text: Be star

text: , which is a

text: B-type star

text: with prominent emission lines of

text: hydrogen

text: in its spectrum. The Be stars have a rotation rate that is 1.5–2 times the rotation of normal B-type stars. This high rate of rotation may allow mass loss during even minor prominences. Changes in the

text: radial velocity

text: measurements indicate that this star may have a companion, which would make Electra a

text: spectroscopic binary

text: In the case of Algol and other binary stars, something completely different is observed: The less massive star is already a subgiant while the star with much greater mass is still on the main-sequence.  Since the partner stars of the binary are thought to have formed at approximately the same time and so should have similar ages, this appears paradoxical. The more massive star, rather than the less massive one, should have left the main sequence.

text: In the case of

text: Algol

text: and other binary stars, something completely different is observed: The less massive star is already a subgiant while the star with much greater mass is still on the main-sequence.  Since the partner stars of the binary are thought to have formed at approximately the same time and so should have similar ages, this appears paradoxical. The more massive star, rather than the less massive one, should have left the main sequence.

text: A pure fusion weapon is a hypothetical hydrogen bomb design that does not need a fission "primary" explosive to ignite the fusion of deuterium and tritium, two heavy isotopes of hydrogen (see thermonuclear weapon for more information about fission-fusion weapons). Such a weapon would require no fissile material and would therefore be much easier to build in secret than existing weapons. The necessity of separating high-quality fissile material requires a substantial industrial investment, and blocking the sale and transfer of the needed machinery has been the primary mechanism to control nuclear proliferation to date.

text: A pure fusion weapon is a

text: hypothetical

text: hydrogen bomb

text: design

text: that does not need a

text: fission

text: "primary" explosive to ignite the

text: fusion

text: of

text: deuterium

text: and

text: tritium

text: , two heavy

text: isotope

text: s of

text: hydrogen

text: (see

text: thermonuclear weapon

text: for more information about fission-fusion weapons). Such a weapon would require no fissile material and would therefore be much easier to build in secret than existing weapons. The necessity of separating high-quality fissile material requires a substantial industrial investment, and blocking the sale and transfer of the needed machinery has been the primary mechanism to control

text: nuclear proliferation

text: to date.

text: Note: in actual fact, the process of nuclear fusion in stars turns mass into energy rather than vice versa. This lights up the stars: the stars get lighter and produce energy.

text: The main sequence is sometimes divided into upper and lower parts, based on the dominant process that a star uses to generate energy. Stars below about 1.5 times the mass of the Sun (or 1.5 solar masses ()) primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium, a sequence called the proton–proton chain. Above this mass, in the upper main sequence, the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries in the CNO cycle that produces helium from hydrogen atoms. Main-sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions, which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur. Below this mass, stars have cores that are entirely radiative with convective zones near the surface. With decreasing stellar mass, the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases, whereas main-sequence stars below 0.4  undergo convection throughout their mass. When core convection does not occur, a helium-rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen.

text: The main sequence is sometimes divided into upper and lower parts, based on the dominant process that a star uses to generate energy. Stars below about 1.5 times the

text: mass of the Sun

text: (or 1.5 solar masses ()) primarily fuse hydrogen atoms together in a series of stages to form helium, a sequence called the

text: proton–proton chain

text: . Above this mass, in the upper main sequence, the nuclear fusion process mainly uses atoms of

text: carbon

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: oxygen

text: as intermediaries in the

text: CNO cycle

text: that produces helium from hydrogen atoms. Main-sequence stars with more than two solar masses undergo convection in their core regions, which acts to stir up the newly created helium and maintain the proportion of fuel needed for fusion to occur. Below this mass, stars have cores that are entirely radiative with convective zones near the surface. With decreasing stellar mass, the proportion of the star forming a convective envelope steadily increases, whereas main-sequence stars below 0.4  undergo convection throughout their mass. When core convection does not occur, a helium-rich core develops surrounded by an outer layer of hydrogen.

text: Jon was an author, editor-in-chief and contributor for the Star Wars fan magazine Star Wars Insider as well as the Star Wars Kids magazine published by Scholastic. In addition, Snyder was also managing editor of the "Star Trek Communicator", released by the Official Star Trek Fan Club.

text: Jon was an

text: author

text: editor-in-chief

text: and contributor for the Star Wars fan magazine

text: Star Wars Insider

text: as well as the Star Wars Kids magazine published by Scholastic. In addition, Snyder was also managing editor of the "Star Trek Communicator", released by the Official Star Trek Fan Club.

text: The Van de Graaff generator is a simple mechanical device. Small Van de Graaff generators are built by hobbyists and scientific apparatus companies and are used to demonstrate the effects of high DC potentials. Even small hobby machines produce impressive sparks several centimeters long. The largest air insulated Van de Graaff generator in the world, built by Van de Graaff himself, is operational and is on display at the Boston Museum of Science. Demonstrations throughout the day are a popular attraction. More modern Van de Graaff generators are insulated by pressurized dielectric gas, usually freon or sulfur hexafluoride. In recent years, Van de Graaff generators have been slowly replaced by solid-state DC power supplies without moving parts. The energies produced by Van de Graaff atomic particle accelerators are limited to about 30 MeV, even with tandem generators accelerating doubly charged (for example alpha) particles. More modern particle accelerators using different technology produce much higher energies, thus Van de Graaff particle accelerators have become largely obsolete. They are still used to some extent for graduate student research at colleges and universities and as ion sources for high energy bursts.

text: The Van de Graaff generator is a simple mechanical device. Small Van de Graaff generators are built by hobbyists and scientific apparatus companies and are used to demonstrate the effects of high DC potentials. Even small hobby machines produce impressive sparks several centimeters long. The largest air insulated Van de Graaff generator in the world, built by Van de Graaff himself, is operational and is on display at the

text: Boston Museum of Science

text: . Demonstrations throughout the day are a popular attraction. More modern Van de Graaff generators are insulated by pressurized

text: dielectric gas

text: , usually

text: freon

text: or

text: sulfur hexafluoride

text: . In recent years, Van de Graaff generators have been slowly replaced by solid-state DC power supplies without moving parts. The energies produced by Van de Graaff atomic

text: particle accelerator

text: s are limited to about 30 MeV, even with tandem generators accelerating doubly charged (for example alpha) particles. More modern particle accelerators using different technology produce much higher energies, thus Van de Graaff particle accelerators have become largely obsolete. They are still used to some extent for graduate student research at colleges and universities and as ion sources for high energy bursts.

text: Colombo and another Italian scientist Francesco Scaramuzzi carried out an experiment on nuclear fusion in April 1989. They reported that their experiment was successful in creating nuclear fusion at room temperature with a novice technique.

text: Colombo and another Italian scientist Francesco Scaramuzzi carried out an experiment on

text: nuclear fusion

text: in April 1989. They reported that their experiment was successful in creating nuclear fusion at room temperature with a novice technique.

text: It is classified as an irregular variable star and its brightness varies from magnitude +3.43 to +3.51. The magnetic field of this star has a strength below 1 G. It is suspected of being a member of the Collinder 121 stellar association of co-moving stars, but this is disputed.

text: It is classified as an

text: irregular

text: variable star

text: and its brightness varies from magnitude +3.43 to +3.51. The magnetic field of this star has a strength below 1

text: G

text: . It is suspected of being a member of the Collinder 121

text: stellar association

text: of co-moving stars, but this is disputed.

text: Theoretical models of supernova explosions suggest that the star that exploded to produce the Crab Nebula must have had a mass of between . Stars with masses lower than  are thought to be too small to produce supernova explosions, and end their lives by producing a planetary nebula instead, while a star heavier than  would have produced a nebula with a different chemical composition from that observed in the Crab Nebula. Recent studies, however, suggest the progenitor could have been a super-asymptotic giant branch star in the  range that would have exploded in an electron-capture supernova.

text: Theoretical models of supernova explosions suggest that the star that exploded to produce the Crab Nebula must have had a

text: mass

text: of between . Stars with masses lower than  are thought to be too small to produce supernova explosions, and end their lives by producing a

text: planetary nebula

text: instead, while a star heavier than  would have produced a nebula with a different chemical composition from that observed in the Crab Nebula. Recent studies, however, suggest the progenitor could have been a

text: super-asymptotic giant branch

text: star in the  range that would have exploded in an

text: electron-capture supernova

text: The H II region of NGC 2467 has been the target of various investigations to elucidate the process of star formation. Unresolved questions include understanding the degree to which the stars already formed in such regions, especially the massive O or B stars, can affect the future formation of stars in the region: Do these pre-existing stars trigger the formation of others? One such investigation was conducted using the Spitzer Space Telescope, which discovered 45 young stellar objects (YSOs), or protostars, in the region during its "cold" mission, i.e. before its supply of liquid helium ran out. The YSO's are mostly along the edge of the HII region. The concentrated distribution of these objects spatially correlated with the ionization fronts provides evidence for triggered star formation. The newly forming ptotostars are concentrated in areas where the shock front driven in advance of the ionization front compresses the molecular gas.

text: The H II region of NGC 2467 has been the target of various investigations to elucidate the process of star formation. Unresolved questions include understanding the degree to which the stars already formed in such regions, especially the massive O or B stars, can affect the future formation of stars in the region: Do these pre-existing stars trigger the formation of others? One such investigation was conducted using the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: , which discovered 45 young stellar objects (YSOs), or

text: protostar

text: s, in the region during its "cold" mission, i.e. before its supply of

text: liquid helium

text: ran out. The YSO's are mostly along the edge of the HII region. The concentrated distribution of these objects spatially correlated with the ionization fronts provides evidence for triggered star formation. The newly forming ptotostars are concentrated in areas where the shock front driven in advance of the ionization front compresses the molecular gas.

text: Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have largely maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25,800 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now. In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substantial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on 25 December in Roman times would have been born with the sun in the constellation Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date would have the sun in Sagittarius due to the precession of the equinoxes.

text: Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have largely maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a

text: spinning top

text: . Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25,800 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around

text: Polaris

text: as they do now. In the case of the

text: Egyptian pyramids

text: , it has been shown they were aligned towards

text: Thuban

text: , a faint star in the constellation of

text: Draco

text: . The effect can be substantial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on 25 December in Roman times would have been born with the sun in the constellation

text: Capricorn

text: . In the modern period a person born on the same date would have the sun in

text: Sagittarius

text: due to the

text: precession of the equinoxes

text: Recent discoveries of blue supergiant supernova progenitors have also raised the question of whether stars could explode directly from the yellow hypergiant stage.  A handful of possible yellow supergiant supernova progenitors have been discovered, but they all appear to be of relatively low mass and luminosity, not hypergiants.  SN 2013cu is a type IIb supernova whose progenitor has been directly and clearly observed.  It was an evolved star around 8,000K showing extreme mass loss of helium and nitrogen enriched material.  Although the luminosity is not known, only a yellow hypergiant or luminous blue variable in outburst would have these properties.

text: Recent discoveries of blue supergiant supernova progenitors have also raised the question of whether stars could explode directly from the yellow hypergiant stage.  A handful of possible yellow supergiant supernova progenitors have been discovered, but they all appear to be of relatively low mass and luminosity, not hypergiants.

text: SN 2013cu

text: is a type IIb supernova whose progenitor has been directly and clearly observed.  It was an evolved star around 8,000K showing extreme mass loss of helium and nitrogen enriched material.  Although the luminosity is not known, only a yellow hypergiant or luminous blue variable in outburst would have these properties.

text: The Hayashi track describes a fully convective star.  This is a good approximation for very young pre-main-sequence stars they are still cool and highly opaque, so that radiative transport is insufficient to carry away the generated energy and convection must occur.  Stars less massive than  remain fully convective, and therefore remain on the Hayashi track, throughout their pre-main-sequence stage, joining the main sequence at the bottom of the Hayashi track. Stars heavier than  have higher interior temperatures, which decreases their central opacity and allows radiation to carry away large amounts of energy.  This allows a radiative zone to develop around the star's core. The star is then no longer on the Hayashi track, and experiences a period of rapidly increasing temperature at nearly constant luminosity.  This is called the Henyey track, and ends when temperatures are high enough to ignite hydrogen fusion in the core.  The star is then on the main sequence.

text: The Hayashi track describes a fully

text: convective

text: star.  This is a good approximation for very young pre-main-sequence stars they are still cool and highly

text: opaque

text: , so that

text: radiative transport

text: is insufficient to carry away the generated energy and convection must occur.  Stars less massive than  remain fully convective, and therefore remain on the Hayashi track, throughout their pre-main-sequence stage, joining the main sequence at the bottom of the Hayashi track. Stars heavier than  have higher interior temperatures, which decreases their central opacity and allows radiation to carry away large amounts of energy.  This allows a

text: radiative zone

text: to develop around the star's core. The star is then no longer on the Hayashi track, and experiences a period of rapidly increasing temperature at nearly constant luminosity.  This is called the

text: Henyey track

text: , and ends when temperatures are high enough to ignite hydrogen fusion in the core.  The star is then on the

text: main sequence

text: A related technology is the plasma valve, invented shortly after the plasma window. A plasma valve is a layer of gas in the shell of a particle accelerator. The ring of a particle accelerator contains a vacuum, and ordinarily a breach of this vacuum is disastrous. If, however, an accelerator equipped with plasma valve technology breaches, the gas layer is ionized within a nanosecond, creating a seal that prevents the accelerator's recompression. This gives researchers time to shut off the particle beam in the accelerator and slowly recompress the accelerator ring to avoid damage.

text: A related technology is the plasma valve, invented shortly after the plasma window. A plasma valve is a layer of gas in the shell of a

text: particle accelerator

text: . The ring of a particle accelerator contains a vacuum, and ordinarily a breach of this vacuum is disastrous. If, however, an accelerator equipped with plasma valve technology breaches, the gas layer is ionized within a nanosecond, creating a seal that prevents the accelerator's recompression. This gives researchers time to shut off the particle beam in the accelerator and slowly recompress the accelerator ring to avoid damage.

text: The official Star Trek website describes Star Trek canon as "the events that take place within the episodes and movies" (that is, the television series Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, Star Trek: Enterprise, and the Star Trek motion pictures). Events, characters and story lines from tie-in novels, comic books, and video games are explicitly excluded from the Star Trek canon, but the site notes that elements from these sources have been subsequently introduced into the television series, and says that "canon is not something set in stone." One example of a non-canonical element that later became canonical in the Star Trek universe was the name "Tiberius" becoming the official middle name of Enterprise captain James T. Kirk. The name was introduced in the Star Trek animated series, and was later added into the official biography of the character by its mention in the live-action film Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.

text: The official Star Trek website describes

text: Star Trek canon

text: as "the events that take place within the episodes and movies" (that is, the television series

text: Star Trek: The Original Series

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: , and the

text: Star Trek motion pictures

text: ). Events, characters and story lines from tie-in novels, comic books, and video games are explicitly excluded from the Star Trek canon, but the site notes that elements from these sources have been subsequently introduced into the television series, and says that "canon is not something set in stone." One example of a non-canonical element that later became canonical in the Star Trek universe was the name "Tiberius" becoming the official middle name of Enterprise captain

text: James T. Kirk

text: . The name was introduced in the Star Trek animated series, and was later added into the official biography of the character by its mention in the live-action film

text: Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country

text: Several chapters are devoted to a detailed "behind the scenes" look at how an episode of The Simpsons is made, including the writing, recording and animation. My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy contains multiple excerpts from Cartwright's diary detailing various events, mostly encounters with The Simpsons guest stars. Guest stars she talks about include Ernest Borgnine, Danny DeVito, Kirk Douglas, Mel Gibson, Kelsey Grammer, Tom Jones, Michael Jackson, Mickey Rooney, Meryl Streep and Elizabeth Taylor. One chapter describes the day she found out that Phil Hartman, a frequent guest star on The Simpsons, was murdered. The final chapter is a retrospective in which she answers the question "what is it like to be the voice behind the star?"

text: Several chapters are devoted to a detailed "behind the scenes" look at how an episode of The Simpsons is made, including the writing, recording and animation. My Life as a 10-Year-Old Boy contains multiple excerpts from Cartwright's diary detailing various events, mostly encounters with The Simpsons guest stars. Guest stars she talks about include

text: Ernest Borgnine

text: Danny DeVito

text: Kirk Douglas

text: Mel Gibson

text: Kelsey Grammer

text: Tom Jones

text: Michael Jackson

text: Mickey Rooney

text: Meryl Streep

text: and

text: Elizabeth Taylor

text: . One chapter describes the day she found out that

text: Phil Hartman

text: , a frequent guest star on The Simpsons, was murdered. The final chapter is a retrospective in which she answers the question "what is it like to be the voice behind the star?"

text: Ankaa is the brightest star in the constellation.  It is an orange giant of apparent visual magnitude 2.37 and spectral type K0.5IIIb, 77 light years distant from Earth and orbited by a secondary object about which little is known. Lying close by Ankaa is Kappa Phoenicis, a main sequence star of spectral type A5IVn and apparent magnitude 3.90. Located centrally in the asterism,  Beta Phoenicis is the second brightest star in the constellation and another binary star. Together the stars, both yellow giants of spectral type G8, shine with an apparent magnitude of 3.31, though the components are of individual apparent magnitudes of 4.0 and 4.1 and orbit each other every 168 years. Zeta Phoenicis is an Algol-type eclipsing binary, with an apparent magnitude fluctuating between 3.9 and 4.4 with a period of around 1.7 days (40 hours); its dimming results from the component two blue-white B-type stars, which orbit and block out each other from Earth. The two stars are 0.05 AU from each other, while a third star is around 600 AU away from the pair, and has an orbital period exceeding 5000 years. The system is around 300 light years distant. In 1976, researchers Clausen, Gyldenkerne, and Grønbech calculated that a nearby 8th magnitude star is a fourth member of the system.

text: Ankaa is the brightest star in the constellation.  It is an orange giant of

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: 2.37 and

text: spectral type

text: K0.5IIIb, 77 light years distant from Earth and orbited by a secondary object about which little is known. Lying close by Ankaa is

text: Kappa Phoenicis

text: , a

text: main sequence

text: star of spectral type A5IVn and apparent magnitude 3.90. Located centrally in the asterism,

text: Beta Phoenicis

text: is the second brightest star in the constellation and another

text: binary

text: star. Together the stars, both yellow giants of spectral type G8, shine with an apparent magnitude of 3.31, though the components are of individual apparent magnitudes of 4.0 and 4.1 and orbit each other every 168 years.

text: Zeta Phoenicis

text: is an

text: Algol

text: -type

text: eclipsing binary

text: , with an

text: apparent magnitude

text: fluctuating between 3.9 and 4.4 with a period of around 1.7 days (40 hours); its dimming results from the component two blue-white B-type stars, which orbit and block out each other from Earth. The two stars are 0.05 AU from each other, while a third star is around 600 AU away from the pair, and has an orbital period exceeding 5000 years. The system is around 300 light years distant. In 1976, researchers Clausen, Gyldenkerne, and Grønbech calculated that a nearby 8th magnitude star is a fourth member of the system.

text: Kepler-14 is a binary star system, which means that it is actually composed of two gravitationally bound stars that orbit a common point in space. The system is composed of a primary star, Kepler-14A, and a dimmer companion star, Kepler-14B. When the stars were observed, while searching for the planet Kepler-14b, the angular separation of the binary system made it extremely difficult to note the dimmer companion star. The stars have such a wide orbit that it takes approximately 2800 years for each star to complete a revolution around the centroid. The two stars are located approximately 980 parsecs (3,196 light years) from Earth.

text: Kepler-14 is a binary star system, which means that it is actually composed of two gravitationally bound stars that orbit a common point in space. The system is composed of a primary star, Kepler-14A, and a dimmer companion star, Kepler-14B. When the stars were observed, while searching for the planet Kepler-14b, the

text: angular separation

text: of the binary system made it extremely difficult to note the dimmer companion star. The stars have such a wide orbit that it takes approximately 2800 years for each star to complete a revolution around the centroid. The two stars are located approximately 980

text: parsec

text: s (3,196

text: light year

text: s) from Earth.

text: The Technetium isotope produced by neutron capture in the s-process is Tc and it has a half life of around 200,000 years in a stellar atmosphere.  Any of the isotope present when a star formed would have completely decayed by the time it became a giant, and any newly formed Tc dredged up in an AGB star would survive until the end of the AGB phase, making it difficult for a red giant to have other s-process elements in its atmosphere without technetium.  S-type stars without technetium form by the transfer of technetium-rich matter, as well as other dredged-up elements, from an intrinsic S star in a binary system onto a smaller less-evolved companion.  After a few hundred thousand years, the Tc will have decayed and a technetium-free star enriched with carbon and other s-process elements will remain.  When this star is, or becomes, a G or K type red giant, it will be classified as a Barium star.  When it evolves to temperatures cool enough for ZrO absorption bands to show in the spectrum, approximately M class, it will be classified as an S-type star.  These stars are called extrinsic S stars.

text: The Technetium isotope produced by neutron capture in the s-process is Tc and it has a half life of around 200,000 years in a stellar atmosphere.  Any of the isotope present when a star formed would have completely decayed by the time it became a giant, and any newly formed Tc dredged up in an AGB star would survive until the end of the AGB phase, making it difficult for a red giant to have other s-process elements in its atmosphere without technetium.  S-type stars without technetium form by the

text: transfer

text: of technetium-rich matter, as well as other dredged-up elements, from an intrinsic S star in a binary system onto a smaller less-evolved companion.  After a few hundred thousand years, the Tc will have decayed and a technetium-free star enriched with carbon and other s-process elements will remain.  When this star is, or becomes, a G or K type red giant, it will be classified as a

text: Barium star

text: .  When it evolves to temperatures cool enough for ZrO absorption bands to show in the spectrum, approximately M class, it will be classified as an S-type star.  These stars are called extrinsic S stars.

text: Kepler-14 is a binary star system targeted by the Kepler spacecraft. It is host to one known planet: the Jupiter-like Kepler-14b. The star system was identified by Kepler as a possible planetary host, but when imaging revealed that Kepler-14 was a binary star system and not a single star, the confirmation process became protracted. The stars are separated by at least 280 AU, and the stars complete an orbit around a common center of mass every 2800 years. Both stars are larger than the Sun. They are of similar absolute magnitudes; however, the primary star is brighter as seen from Earth.

text: Kepler-14 is a

text: binary star

text: system targeted by the

text: Kepler

text: spacecraft. It is host to one known planet: the Jupiter-like

text: . The star system was identified by Kepler as a possible planetary host, but when imaging revealed that Kepler-14 was a binary star system and not a single star, the confirmation process became protracted. The stars are separated by at least 280 AU, and the stars complete an orbit around a common center of mass every 2800 years. Both stars are larger than the Sun. They are of similar

text: absolute magnitude

text: s; however, the primary star is brighter as seen from Earth.

text: If a planet orbits one member of a binary star system, then an uppercase letter for the star will be followed by a lowercase letter for the planet. Examples are 16 Cygni Bb and HD 178911 Bb. Planets orbiting the primary or "A" star should have 'Ab' after the name of the system, as in HD 41004 Ab. However, the "A" is sometimes omitted; for example the first planet discovered around the primary star of the Tau Boötis binary system is usually called simply Tau Boötis b. The star designation is necessary when more than one star in the system has its own planetary system such as in case of WASP-94 A and WASP-94 B.

text: If a planet orbits one member of a

text: binary star

text: system, then an uppercase letter for the star will be followed by a lowercase letter for the planet. Examples are

text: 16 Cygni Bb

text: and

text: HD 178911 Bb

text: . Planets orbiting the primary or "A" star should have 'Ab' after the name of the system, as in

text: HD 41004 Ab

text: . However, the "A" is sometimes omitted; for example the first planet discovered around the primary star of the

text: Tau Boötis

text: binary system is usually called simply

text: Tau Boötis b

text: . The star designation is necessary when more than one star in the system has its own planetary system such as in case of WASP-94 A and WASP-94 B.

text: Series 2 received a similar critical response, with Time Out giving 3 out of 5 stars to the first episode  and 2 out of 5 stars to the second episode. Again the show was both criticised and praised for its relentless jokes, with one critic calling the second series "black-hole dense with good gags" but saying he "couldn't wait for the experience to end."

text: Series 2 received a similar critical response, with

text: Time Out

text: giving 3 out of 5 stars to the first episode  and 2 out of 5 stars to the second episode. Again the show was both criticised and praised for its relentless jokes, with one critic calling the second series "black-hole dense with good gags" but saying he "couldn't wait for the experience to end."

text: The depictions of the constellations are redrawn from those in Alexander Jamieson's A Celestial Atlas, published about three years earlier, and include unique quirks of Jamieson's sky atlas, including the new constellation of Noctua the owl, and "Norma Nilotica" – a measuring device for the Nile floods – held by Aquarius the water bearer.

text: The depictions of the constellations are redrawn from those in Alexander Jamieson's

text: A Celestial Atlas

text: , published about three years earlier, and include unique quirks of Jamieson's sky atlas, including the new constellation of

text: Noctua

text: the owl, and "Norma Nilotica" – a measuring device for the Nile floods – held by

text: Aquarius

text: the water bearer.

text: The Planetarium uses the Zeiss Model M1015 star projector, manufactured by Carl Zeiss, Inc. of Germany. It is the first of its kind to be installed anywhere in the world. It projects 7,600 stars down to magnitude 6, 25 star clusters and nebulae, the sun, moon, and the five planets visible to the human eye. The Zeiss can show the daily motions of the sky, the sun, the moon, and the positions of the stars on almost any given day, as well as various astronomical grids and scales. Auxiliary equipment allows projection of rainbows, clouds, solar and lunar eclipses, rotating galaxies, double star systems, and varied constellations.

text: The Planetarium uses the

text: Zeiss

text: Model M1015

text: star projector

text: , manufactured by

text: Carl Zeiss

text: , Inc. of

text: Germany

text: . It is the first of its kind to be installed anywhere in the world. It projects 7,600 stars down to

text: magnitude

text: 6, 25

text: star cluster

text: s and

text: nebulae

text: , the

text: sun

text: moon

text: , and the five planets visible to the human eye. The Zeiss can show the daily motions of the sky, the sun, the moon, and the positions of the stars on almost any given day, as well as various astronomical grids and scales. Auxiliary equipment allows projection of rainbows, clouds, solar and lunar eclipses, rotating galaxies, double star systems, and varied constellations.

text: Nuclear power, or nuclear energy, is the use of exothermic nuclear processes, to generate useful heat and electricity. The term includes nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion. Presently the nuclear fission of elements in the actinide series of the periodic table produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with nuclear decay processes, primarily in the form of geothermal energy, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators, in niche uses making up the rest. Nuclear (fission) power stations, excluding the contribution from naval nuclear fission reactors, provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012. In 2013, the IAEA report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors, in 31 countries,  although not every reactor is producing electricity. In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a net energy gain from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the Sun, remains an ongoing area of international physics and engineering research. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.

text: Nuclear power, or nuclear

text: energy

text: , is the use of

text: exothermic nuclear processes

text: , to generate useful

text: heat

text: and

text: electricity

text: . The term includes

text: nuclear fission

text: nuclear decay

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Presently the

text: nuclear fission

text: of elements in the

text: actinide

text: series of the

text: periodic table

text: produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with

text: nuclear decay

text: processes, primarily in the form of

text: geothermal energy

text: , and

text: radioisotope thermoelectric generator

text: s, in niche uses making up the rest.

text: Nuclear (fission) power stations

text: , excluding the contribution from

text: naval nuclear fission reactors

text: , provided about 5.7% of the world's

text: energy

text: and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012. In 2013, the

text: IAEA

text: report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors, in

text: 31 countries

text: ,  although not every reactor is producing electricity. In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using

text: nuclear propulsion

text: in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a

text: net energy gain

text: from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the

text: Sun

text: , remains an ongoing area of international

text: physics

text: and

entity_name: International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

text: engineering research

text: . More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.

text: Cold fusion is a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at, or near, room temperature. This is compared with the "hot" fusion which takes place naturally within stars, under immense pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees, and distinguished from muon-catalyzed fusion. There is currently no accepted theoretical model that would allow cold fusion to occur.

text: Cold fusion is a hypothesized type of

text: nuclear reaction

text: that would occur at, or near,

text: room temperature

text: . This is compared with the

text: "hot" fusion

text: which takes place naturally within

text: stars

text: , under immense pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees, and distinguished from

text: muon-catalyzed fusion

text: . There is currently no accepted theoretical model that would allow cold fusion to occur.

text: Pictor is a faint constellation; its three brightest stars can be seen near the prominent Canopus. Within the constellation's borders, there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5. Located about 97 light-years away from Earth, Alpha Pictoris is the brightest star in the constellation; it is a white main-sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 3.3, and spectral type A8VnkA6. A rapidly spinning star with a projected rotational velocity estimated at 206 km/s, it has a shell of circumstellar gas. Beta Pictoris is another white main sequence star of spectral type A6V and apparent magnitude 3.86. Located around 63.4 light-years distant from Earth, it is a member of the Beta Pictoris moving group—a group of 17 star systems around 12 million years old moving through space together. In 1984 Beta Pictoris was the first star discovered to have a debris disk.  Since then, an exoplanet about eight times the mass of Jupiter has been discovered orbiting approximately 8 astronomical units (AU) away from the star—a similar distance as that between our Sun and Saturn. The European Southern Observatory (ESO) confirmed its presence through the use of direct imagery with the Very Large Telescope in late 2009.

text: Pictor is a faint constellation; its three brightest stars can be seen near the prominent

text: Canopus

text: . Within the constellation's borders, there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to

text: apparent magnitude

text: 6.5. Located about 97

text: light-year

text: s away from Earth,

text: Alpha Pictoris

text: is the brightest star in the constellation; it is a

text: white main-sequence star

text: with an apparent magnitude of 3.3, and

text: spectral type

text: A8VnkA6. A rapidly spinning star with a

text: projected rotational velocity

text: estimated at 206 km/s, it has a shell of circumstellar gas.

text: Beta Pictoris

text: is another white main sequence star of spectral type A6V and apparent magnitude 3.86. Located around 63.4 light-years distant from Earth, it is a member of the

text: Beta Pictoris moving group

text: —a group of 17 star systems around 12 million years old moving through space together. In 1984 Beta Pictoris was the first star discovered to have a

text: debris disk

text: .  Since then, an

text: exoplanet

text: about eight times the mass of Jupiter has been discovered orbiting approximately 8

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU) away from the star—a similar distance as that between our Sun and Saturn. The

text: European Southern Observatory

text: (ESO) confirmed its presence through the use of

text: direct imagery

text: with the

text: Very Large Telescope

text: in late 2009.

text: With an age of 53 million years, this star has evolved into a supergiant with a stellar classification of G2 Ib. It has 6.5 times as much mass as the Sun and has expanded to around 77 times the Sun's radius. It is radiating 3,000 times as much luminosity as the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 5,210 K. At this heat, the star glows with the yellow hue of a G-type star. Examination of this star with the Chandra X-ray Observatory shows it to be significantly X-ray deficient compared to G-type main sequence stars. This deficit is a common feature of early G-type giant stars.

text: With an age of 53 million years, this star has

text: evolved

text: into a

text: supergiant

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of G2 Ib. It has 6.5 times as much mass as the Sun and has expanded to around 77 times the Sun's radius. It is radiating 3,000 times as much luminosity as the Sun from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5,210 K. At this heat, the star glows with the yellow hue of a

text: G-type star

text: . Examination of this star with the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: shows it to be significantly X-ray deficient compared to G-type main sequence stars. This deficit is a common feature of early G-type giant stars.

text: Unlike the stars in the main-sequence, brown dwarfs are not massive enough to sustain nuclear fusion of ordinary hydrogen (H) to helium in their cores. They are, however, thought to fuse deuterium (H) and to burn lithium (Li) if their mass is above a debated threshold of  and , respectively. It is also debated whether brown dwarfs would be better defined by their formation processes rather than by their supposed nuclear fusion reactions.

text: Unlike the stars in the

text: main-sequence

text: , brown dwarfs are not massive enough to sustain

text: nuclear fusion

text: of ordinary

text: hydrogen

text: H

text: ) to helium in their cores. They are, however, thought to

text: fuse deuterium

text: (H) and to

text: burn lithium

text: (Li) if their mass is above a debated threshold of  and , respectively. It is also debated whether brown dwarfs would be better defined by their formation processes rather than by their supposed nuclear fusion reactions.

text: Particle accelerators routinely accelerate and measure the properties of particles moving at near the speed of light, where their behavior is completely consistent with relativity theory and inconsistent with the earlier Newtonian mechanics. These machines would simply not work if they were not engineered according to relativistic principles. In addition, a considerable number of modern experiments have been conducted to test special relativity. Some examples:

text: Particle accelerator

text: s routinely accelerate and measure the properties of particles moving at near the speed of light, where their behavior is completely consistent with relativity theory and inconsistent with the earlier

text: Newtonian mechanics

text: . These machines would simply not work if they were not engineered according to relativistic principles. In addition, a considerable number of modern experiments have been conducted to test special relativity. Some examples:

text: The planet orbits in a circumbinary  (M-type) binary star system named OGLE-2007-BLG-349L. They orbit around each other roughly every 9 days. The stars have masses of 0.41 and 0.30 , respectively. The age of the system, radii and temperatures of the stars are not known. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a surface temperature of 5778 K.

text: The planet orbits in a circumbinary  (

text: M-type

text: binary star system

text: named

text: . They orbit around each other roughly every 9 days. The stars have masses of 0.41 and 0.30 , respectively. The age of the system, radii and temperatures of the stars are not known. In comparison, the

text: Sun

text: Electrostatic accelerators are often confused with linear accelerators simply because they can (but do not always) accelerate particles in a line.  As we can see even early in their history, accelerators were named in some way referring to the method or type of acceleration.  Terminal accelerators pre-date both linear accelerator technology and the nomenclature, so it would be confusing and incorrect to categorize them with a newer technology which is quite different.  Linear accelerators use an array of oscillating electric fields, historically arranged in a line, but nothing would prevent a person from using magnets in between the columns of linear accelerators to form some other geometric shape.  Oscillating field accelerators do not actually produce beams of particles, but rather packets of particles, unlike electrostatic accelerators which can have a beam current that is constant in time.  Thus, the naming scheme for accelerators is based on the method of acceleration, or the physics, and not its geometry, which can be a point of confusion.  In fact, it was the oscillating field design of the linear accelerator which inspired Lawrence to construct the cyclotron, which accelerates particles in a spiral, thus taking up a considerably smaller amount of space.  A linear accelerator has more in common with a cyclotron than an electrostatic terminal accelerator.

text: Electrostatic accelerators are often confused with

text: linear accelerator

text: s simply because they can (but do not always) accelerate particles in a line.  As we can see even early in their history,

text: accelerators

text: were named in some way referring to the method or type of acceleration.  Terminal accelerators pre-date both linear accelerator technology and the nomenclature, so it would be confusing and incorrect to categorize them with a newer technology which is quite different.  Linear accelerators use an array of oscillating electric fields, historically arranged in a line, but nothing would prevent a person from using magnets in between the columns of linear accelerators to form some other geometric shape.  Oscillating field accelerators do not actually produce beams of particles, but rather packets of particles, unlike electrostatic accelerators which can have a beam current that is constant in time.  Thus, the naming scheme for accelerators is based on the method of acceleration, or the physics, and not its geometry, which can be a point of confusion.  In fact, it was the oscillating field design of the linear accelerator which inspired

text: Lawrence

text: to construct the

text: cyclotron

text: , which accelerates particles in a spiral, thus taking up a considerably smaller amount of space.  A linear accelerator has more in common with a cyclotron than an electrostatic terminal accelerator.

text: Psi Sagittarii (Psi Sgr, ψ Sagittarii, ψ Sgr) is a binary star in the constellation Sagittarius.  The star system is 330 light years from Earth.  The two stars are separated by 0.15 arcseconds on the sky, which puts them approximately 15 astronomical units apart.  The star system has a combined apparent magnitude of +4.86.  The orbital period of the system is 18.8 years.

text: Psi Sagittarii (Psi Sgr, ψ Sagittarii, ψ Sgr) is a

text: binary star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Sagittarius

text: .  The

text: star system

text: is 330

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: .  The two stars are separated by 0.15

text: arcseconds

text: on the sky, which puts them approximately 15

text: astronomical units

text: apart.  The star system has a combined

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +4.86.  The orbital period of the system is 18.8 years.

text: Failed supernovae are thought to create stellar black holes by the collapsing of a red supergiant star in the early stages of a supernova. When the star can no longer support itself, the core collapses completely, forming a stellar-mass black hole, and consuming the nascent supernova without having the massive explosion. For a distant observer, the red supergiant star will seem to wink out of existence with little or no flare-up. The observed instances of these disappearances seem to involve supergiant stars with masses above 17 solar masses.

text: Failed supernovae are thought to create

text: stellar black hole

text: s by the collapsing of a

text: red supergiant

text: star in the early stages of a supernova. When the star can no longer support itself, the core collapses completely, forming a

text: stellar-mass black hole

text: , and consuming the nascent supernova without having the massive explosion. For a distant observer, the red supergiant star will seem to wink out of existence with little or no flare-up. The observed instances of these disappearances seem to involve

text: supergiant star

text: s with masses above 17

text: solar masses

text: Imaginary Friend is a 2012 Lifetime television movie starring Lacey Chabert, Ethan Embry, Amanda Schull, and Ted McGinley.

text: Imaginary Friend is a 2012

text: Lifetime

text: television movie

text: starring

text: Lacey Chabert

text: Ethan Embry

text: Amanda Schull

text: , and

text: Ted McGinley

text: There always had been film stars in Germany, but a star system comparable to the star system in Hollywood did not yet exist. Various Nazi leaders denounced the star system as a Jewish invention. However, in order to improve the image of Nazi Germany, Goebbels made great efforts to form a star system. After Marlene Dietrich and Greta Garbo had gone to Hollywood and could not be persuaded to serve the National Socialist film industry as figureheads, new film stars were promoted.

text: There always had been

text: film star

text: s in Germany, but a

text: star system

text: comparable to the star system in Hollywood did not yet exist. Various Nazi leaders denounced the star system as a Jewish invention. However, in order to improve the image of Nazi Germany, Goebbels made great efforts to form a star system. After

text: Marlene Dietrich

text: and

text: Greta Garbo

text: had gone to Hollywood and could not be persuaded to serve the National Socialist film industry as figureheads, new film stars were promoted.

text: On 31 May 2011 a type II supernova, was detected in the Whirlpool Galaxy, peaking at magnitude 12.1. This supernova, designated SN 2011dh, showed a spectrum much bluer than average, with P Cygni like characteristics in its hydrogen-Balmer lines. Interestingly, the progenitor was probably a yellow supergiant and not a red or blue supergiant, which is unusual.

text: On 31 May 2011 a

text: type II supernova

text: , was detected in the Whirlpool Galaxy, peaking at magnitude 12.1. This supernova, designated

text: SN 2011dh

text: , showed a spectrum much bluer than average, with

text: P Cygni

text: like characteristics in its

text: hydrogen-Balmer lines

text: . Interestingly, the progenitor was probably a

text: yellow supergiant

text: and not a

text: red

text: or

text: blue supergiant

text: , which is unusual.

text: The Crystal Ball was a hermetic particle detector used initially with the SPEAR particle accelerator at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center beginning in 1979.  It was designed to detect neutral particles and was used to discover the η meson.  Its central section was a spark chamber surrounded by a nearly-complete sphere of scintillating crystals (NaI(Tl)), for which it was named. With the addition of endcaps of similar construction, the detector covered 98% of the solid angle around the interaction point.

text: The Crystal Ball was a

text: hermetic

text: particle detector

text: used initially with the

text: SPEAR

text: particle accelerator

text: at the

text: Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

text: beginning in 1979.  It was designed to detect

text: neutral particle

text: s and was used to discover the

text: η meson

text: .  Its central section was a

text: spark chamber

text: surrounded by a nearly-complete sphere of

text: scintillating

text: crystal

text: s (

text: NaI(Tl)

text: ), for which it was named. With the addition of endcaps of similar construction, the detector covered 98% of the

text: solid angle

text: around the

text: interaction point

text: Reviewed games were rated on a scale of 1.0 to 5.0 stars broken down into fractions of 0.5 stars. A graphic of five stars were shown alongside the written review. The number of stars a game earned was indicated by the number of solid stars (e.g., a game's 4-star rating was represented by showing 4 solid stars and one hollow star). No game ever received less than one star. An Editors' Choice Award was given to a game that earned either 4.5 or 5.0 stars.

text: HD 85951 is a star in the constellation Hydra. Its apparent magnitude is 4.95.

text: HD 85951 is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Hydra

text: . Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 4.95.

text: Planetary systems come from protoplanetary disks that form around stars as part of the process of star formation.

text: Planetary systems come from

text: protoplanetary disk

text: s that form around stars as part of the process of

text: star formation

text: The electron-cloud effect is a phenomenon that occurs in particle accelerators and reduces the quality of the particle beam.

text: The electron-cloud effect is a phenomenon that occurs in

text: particle accelerators

text: and reduces the quality of the

text: particle beam

text: There are also classes of chemically peculiar cool stars (that is, stars with spectral type G or later), but these stars are typically not main-sequence stars.  These are usually identified by the name of their class or some further specific label.  The phrase chemically peculiar star without further specification usually means a member of one of the hot main sequence types described above.

text: There are also classes of chemically peculiar cool stars (that is, stars with

text: spectral type

text: G or later), but these stars are typically not main-sequence stars.  These are usually identified by the name of their class or some further specific label.  The phrase chemically peculiar star without further specification usually means a member of one of the hot main sequence types described above.

text: The Density Wave Theory also explains a number of other observations that have been made about spiral galaxies.  For example, "the ordering of H I clouds and dust bands on the inner edges of spiral arms, the existence of young, massive stars and H II regions throughout the arms, and an abundance of old, red stars in the remainder of the disk".  Basically, when clouds of gas and dust enter into a density wave and are compressed the rate of star formation increases as some clouds meet the Jeans criterion, and collapse to form new stars.  Since star formation does not happen immediately, the stars are slightly behind the density waves.  The hot OB stars that are created ionize the gas of the interstellar medium, and form H II regions.  These stars have relatively short lifetimes, however, and expire before fully leaving the density wave.  The smaller, redder stars do leave the wave, and become distributed throughout the galactic disk.

text: The Density Wave Theory also explains a number of other observations that have been made about spiral galaxies.  For example, "the ordering of

text: H I clouds

text: and dust bands on the inner edges of spiral arms, the existence of young, massive stars and

text: H II region

text: s throughout the arms, and an abundance of old, red stars in the remainder of the disk".  Basically, when clouds of gas and

text: dust

text: enter into a density wave and are compressed the rate of star formation increases as some clouds meet the

text: Jeans criterion

text: , and collapse to form new stars.  Since star formation does not happen immediately, the stars are slightly behind the density waves.  The hot

text: OB star

text: s that are created ionize the gas of the

text: interstellar medium

text: , and form H II regions.  These stars have relatively short lifetimes, however, and expire before fully leaving the density wave.  The smaller, redder stars do leave the wave, and become distributed throughout the galactic disk.

text: The coolest and least luminous stars referred to as blue giants are on the horizontal branch, intermediate-mass stars that have passed through a red giant phase and are now burning helium in their cores.  Depending on mass and chemical composition these stars gradually move bluewards until they exhaust the helium in their cores and then they return redwards to the asymptotic giant branch (AGB).  The RR Lyrae variable stars, usually with spectral types of A, lie across the middle of the horizontal branch.  Horizontal-branch stars hotter than the RR Lyrae gap are generally considered to be blue giants, and sometimes the RR Lyrae stars themselves are called blue giants despite some of them being F class.  The hottest stars, blue horizontal branch (BHB) stars, are called extreme horizontal branch (EHB) stars and can be hotter than main-sequence stars of the same luminosity.  In these cases they are called blue subdwarf (sdB) stars rather than blue giants, named for their position to the left of the main sequence on the HR diagram rather than for their increased luminosity and temperature compared to when they were themselves main-sequence stars.

text: The coolest and least luminous stars referred to as blue giants are on the

text: horizontal branch

text: , intermediate-mass stars that have passed through a red giant phase and are now burning

text: helium

text: in their cores.  Depending on mass and chemical composition these stars gradually move bluewards until they exhaust the helium in their cores and then they return redwards to the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: (AGB).  The

text: RR Lyrae variable

text: stars, usually with spectral types of A, lie across the middle of the horizontal branch.  Horizontal-branch stars hotter than the RR Lyrae gap are generally considered to be blue giants, and sometimes the RR Lyrae stars themselves are called blue giants despite some of them being F class.  The hottest stars, blue horizontal branch (BHB) stars, are called extreme horizontal branch (EHB) stars and can be hotter than main-sequence stars of the same luminosity.  In these cases they are called blue subdwarf (sdB) stars rather than blue giants, named for their position to the left of the main sequence on the HR diagram rather than for their increased luminosity and temperature compared to when they were themselves main-sequence stars.

text: The ancient Sumerians, and later the Greeks (as recorded by Ptolemy), established most of the northern constellations in international use today. When explorers mapped the stars of the southern skies, European and American astronomers proposed new constellations for that region, as well as ones to fill gaps between the traditional constellations. Not all of these proposals caught on, but in 1922, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the modern list of 88 constellations.  After this, Eugène Joseph Delporte drew up precise boundaries for each constellation, so that every point in the sky belonged to exactly one constellation.

text: The ancient

text: Sumer

text: ians, and later the

text: Greeks

text: (as recorded by

text: Ptolemy

text: ), established most of the northern constellations in international use today. When explorers mapped the stars of the southern skies, European and American astronomers proposed new constellations for that region, as well as ones to fill gaps between the traditional constellations. Not all of these proposals caught on, but in 1922, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) adopted the modern list of 88 constellations.  After this,

text: Eugène Joseph Delporte

text: drew up precise boundaries for each constellation, so that every point in the sky belonged to exactly one constellation.

text: Dictionary Definition Language (DDL) is a STAR-based file format, which allows user communities to define their own custom STAR-based file format for the data they need to exchange.DDL plays a similar role for STAR as XSD does for XML.

text: Dictionary Definition Language (DDL) is a

entity_name: Self-defining Text Archive and Retrieval

text: STAR

text: -based file format, which allows user communities to define their own custom STAR-based file format for the data they need to exchange.DDL plays a similar role for STAR as

text: XSD

text: does for

text: XML

text: The AToFMS allows for the determination of mixing state, or distribution of chemical species, within individual particles.  These mixing states are important in the determination of climate and health impact of aerosols.  The schematic of a typical AToFMS is shown to the right.  The overall structure of ATOF instruments is; sampling, sizing, and the mass analyzer region.  The inlet system is similar to the AMS by using the same aerodynamic focusing lens, but it has smaller orifices because of it analysis single particles. In the sizing region particle passes through the first continuous solid state laser that generates an initial pulse of scattered light.  Then the particle passes through the second laser that is orthogonal to the first and produces a pulse of scattered light.  The light is detected by a photomultiplier (PMT) that is matched up to each laser. Using the transit times between the two detected pulses and the fixed distance the velocity and size of each particle is calculated. Next the particles travel through to the mass analyzer region where it is ionized by a pulsed LDI laser, which is timed to hit the particle as it reaches the center of the ion extraction region.  Once ionized, the positive ions are accelerated towards the positive ToF section and the negative ions are accelerated towards the negative ToF section where they are detected.

text: The AToFMS allows for the determination of mixing state, or distribution of chemical species, within individual particles.  These mixing states are important in the determination of climate and health impact of aerosols.  The schematic of a typical AToFMS is shown to the right.  The overall structure of ATOF instruments is; sampling, sizing, and the mass analyzer region.  The inlet system is similar to the AMS by using the same aerodynamic focusing lens, but it has smaller orifices because of it analysis single particles. In the sizing region particle passes through the first continuous solid state laser that generates an initial pulse of scattered light.  Then the particle passes through the second laser that is orthogonal to the first and produces a pulse of scattered light.  The light is detected by a

text: photomultiplier

text: (PMT) that is matched up to each laser. Using the transit times between the two detected pulses and the fixed distance the velocity and size of each particle is calculated. Next the particles travel through to the mass analyzer region where it is ionized by a pulsed LDI laser, which is timed to hit the particle as it reaches the center of the ion extraction region.  Once ionized, the positive ions are accelerated towards the positive ToF section and the negative ions are accelerated towards the negative ToF section where they are detected.

text: The mass lost by a star similar to the Sun affects the temperature and luminosity of the star when it reaches the horizontal branch, so the properties of red-clump stars can be used to determine the mass difference before and after the helium flash. Mass lost from red giants also determines the mass and properties of the white dwarfs that form subsequently. Estimates of total mass loss for stars that reach the tip of the red-giant branch are around . Most of this is lost within the final million years before the helium flash.

text: The mass lost by a star similar to the Sun affects the temperature and luminosity of the star when it reaches the horizontal branch, so the properties of red-clump stars can be used to determine the mass difference before and after the helium flash. Mass lost from red giants also determines the mass and properties of the

text: white dwarf

text: s that form subsequently. Estimates of total mass loss for stars that reach the tip of the red-giant branch are around . Most of this is lost within the final million years before the helium flash.

text: |-|1989|Rabbit Ears: Thumbelina|Storyteller|Video short, starring Dennis Hopper|-|1989|Winter People|Collie Wright|Starring Kurt Russell|-|1989|Cat Chaser|Mary DeBoya|Starring Peter Weller|-|1991|Grand Isle|Edna Pontellier, and film producer|Starring Julian Sands, Ellen Burstyn|-|1992||Claire Hodgson Ruth|Starring John Goodman|-|1994|North|Amish Mom|Starring Bruce Willis, Kathy Bates, Elijah Wood and Dan Aykroyd|-|1998|Painted Angels|Nettie|Starring Brenda Fricker, Meret Becker, Bronagh Gallagher|-|1998|Ground Control|Susan Stratton|Starring Kiefer Sutherland, Bruce McGill,  Kristy Swanson, Robert Sean Leonard|-|1999|At First Sight|Jennie Adamson|Starring Val Kilmer, Mira Sorvino|-|1999||Ellie / Fake Barbara|Starring John C. Reilly,  William Fichtner|-|2000||Prof. Diana Maitland|Starring Susie Porter, Abbie Cornish|-|2001|No One Can Hear You|Trish Burchall|Starring  Kate Elliott                        |-|2001|Morgan's Ferry|Vonnie Carpenter|Starring Billy Zane|-|2007|Supergator|Kim Taft|Video, Starring Brad Johnson|-|2010|Stake Land|Sister|Starring  Nick Damici, Connor Paolo, Michael Cerveris, Sean Nelson|-|2011|What Could Have Been|Margaret|Starring  Matthew Harrison,  Joely Collins|-|2011||Leanne Rease-Jones|Starring Sara Paxton, Pat Healy|-|2013|We Are What We Are|Marge|Starring Bill Sage, Julia Garner, Ambyr Childers|-|2013|Tio Papi|Elizabeth Warden|Starring Joey Dedio|-|2013|Grand Street|Isabelle|Starring  Sophie Auster,  Byrdie Bell|-|2015|Blue|Ms. Hutcherson|Starring Kenny Johnson            |}

text: |-|1989|Rabbit Ears: Thumbelina|Storyteller|Video short, starring

text: Dennis Hopper

text: Winter People

text: |Collie Wright|Starring

text: Kurt Russell

text: Cat Chaser

text: |Mary DeBoya|Starring

text: Peter Weller

text: Grand Isle

text: |Edna Pontellier, and film producer|Starring

text: Julian Sands

text: Ellen Burstyn

text: Claire Hodgson Ruth

text: |Starring

text: John Goodman

text: North

text: |Amish Mom|Starring

text: Bruce Willis

text: Kathy Bates

text: Elijah Wood

text: and

text: Dan Aykroyd

text: Painted Angels

text: |Nettie|Starring

text: Brenda Fricker

text: Meret Becker

text: Bronagh Gallagher

text: Ground Control

text: |Susan Stratton|Starring

text: Kiefer Sutherland

text: Bruce McGill

text: Kristy Swanson

text: Robert Sean Leonard

text: At First Sight

text: |Jennie Adamson|Starring

text: Val Kilmer

text: Mira Sorvino

text: |-|1999||Ellie / Fake Barbara|Starring

text: John C. Reilly

text: William Fichtner

text: |-|2000||Prof. Diana Maitland|Starring

text: Susie Porter

text: Abbie Cornish

text: |-|2001|No One Can Hear You|Trish Burchall|Starring

text: Kate Elliott

text: Morgan's Ferry

text: |Vonnie Carpenter|Starring

text: Billy Zane

text: Supergator

text: |Kim Taft|Video, Starring

text: Brad Johnson

text: Stake Land

text: |Sister|Starring

text: Nick Damici

text: Connor Paolo

text: Michael Cerveris

text: Sean Nelson

text: |-|2011|What Could Have Been|Margaret|Starring  Matthew Harrison,

text: Joely Collins

text: |-|2011||Leanne Rease-Jones|Starring

text: Sara Paxton

text: Pat Healy

text: We Are What We Are

text: |Marge|Starring

text: Bill Sage

text: Julia Garner

text: Ambyr Childers

text: |-|2013|Tio Papi|Elizabeth Warden|Starring

text: Joey Dedio

text: |-|2013|Grand Street|Isabelle|Starring

text: Sophie Auster

text: Byrdie Bell

text: |-|2015|Blue|Ms. Hutcherson|Starring

text: Kenny Johnson

text: The easiest way to locate the constellation is to find its two brightest stars Castor and Pollux eastward from the familiar “V” shaped asterism of Taurus and the three stars of Orion’s belt. Another way is to mentally draw a line from the Pleiades star cluster located in Taurus and the brightest star in Leo, Regulus. In doing so, you are drawing an imaginary line that is relatively close to the ecliptic, a line which intersects Gemini roughly at the midpoint of the constellation, just below Castor and Pollux.

text: The easiest way to locate the constellation is to find its two brightest stars

text: Castor

text: and

text: Pollux

text: eastward from the familiar “V” shaped

text: asterism

text: of

text: Taurus

text: and the three stars of

text: Orion

text: ’s belt. Another way is to mentally draw a line from the

text: Pleiades

text: star cluster

text: located in Taurus and the brightest star in

text: Leo

text: Regulus

text: . In doing so, you are drawing an imaginary line that is relatively close to the

text: ecliptic

text: , a line which intersects Gemini roughly at the midpoint of the constellation, just below Castor and Pollux.

text: Two Native American paintings in Arizona show a crescent moon located next to a circle that could represent a star. It has been proposed that this represents a conjunction between the moon and the supernova, made possible by the fact that, seen from the Earth, the supernova occurred in the path of the Ecliptic. This theory is compatible with the datings in these paintings. In fact, on the morning of 5 July, the moon was located in the immediate proximity of the supernova, which could reinforce the idea that it was this proximity that had been represented in these paintings. This interpretation cannot be confirmed. The dating of the paintings is extremely imprecise (between the 10th and 12th century), and only one of them shows the crescent moon with the correct orientation in relation to the supernova. Moreover, this type of drawing could well represent a proximity of the moon with Venus or Jupiter.

text: Two

text: Native American

text: paintings in

text: Arizona

text: show a crescent moon located next to a circle that could represent a star. It has been proposed that this represents a

text: conjunction

text: between the moon and the supernova, made possible by the fact that, seen from the

text: Earth

text: , the supernova occurred in the path of the

text: Ecliptic

text: . This theory is compatible with the datings in these paintings. In fact, on the morning of 5 July, the moon was located in the immediate proximity of the supernova, which could reinforce the idea that it was this proximity that had been represented in these paintings. This interpretation cannot be confirmed. The dating of the paintings is extremely imprecise (between the 10th and 12th century), and only one of them shows the crescent moon with the correct orientation in relation to the supernova. Moreover, this type of drawing could well represent a proximity of the moon with

text: Venus

text: or

text: Jupiter

text: Red giant branch stars have another issue for detecting planets around them: while planets around these stars are much more likely to transit due to the larger size, these transit signals are hard to separate from the main star's brightness light curve as red giants have frequent pulsations in brightness with a period of few hours to days. This is especially notable with subgiants. In addition, these stars are much more luminous and transiting planets block much smaller percentage of light coming from these stars. In the contrary, planets can completely occult a neutron star or a white dwarf which would be easily detectable from Earth. However, due to their small sizes, chance of a planet aligning such a stellar remnant is extremely small.

text: Red giant

text: branch stars have another issue for detecting planets around them: while planets around these stars are much more likely to transit due to the larger size, these transit signals are hard to separate from the main star's brightness light curve as red giants have frequent pulsations in brightness with a period of few hours to days. This is especially notable with

text: subgiant

text: s. In addition, these stars are much more luminous and transiting planets block much smaller percentage of light coming from these stars. In the contrary, planets can completely occult a neutron star or a white dwarf which would be easily detectable from Earth. However, due to their small sizes, chance of a planet aligning such a stellar remnant is extremely small.

text: Its temperature is 5790 ± 110 K, almost like the Sun's; its cooling age, i. e. age as degenerate star (not including lifetime as main sequence star and as giant star) is 3.97 Gyr. Due almost equal to the Sun's temperature, GJ 1087 should appear almost the same color as the Sun.

text: Its temperature is 5790 ± 110

text: K

text: , almost like the

text: Sun

text: 's; its cooling age, i. e. age as degenerate star (not including lifetime as main sequence star and as giant star) is 3.97

text: Gyr

text: . Due almost equal to the Sun's temperature, GJ 1087 should appear almost the same color as the Sun.

text: When the absolute magnitude for a group of stars is plotted against the spectral classification of the star, in a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, evolutionary patterns are found that relate to the mass, age and composition of the star. In particular, during their hydrogen burning period, stars lie along a curve in the diagram called the main sequence. By measuring these properties from a star's spectrum, the position of a main sequence star on the H–R diagram can be determined, and thereby the star's absolute magnitude estimated. A comparison of this value with the apparent magnitude allows the approximate distance to be determined, after correcting for interstellar extinction of the luminosity because of gas and dust.

text: When the absolute magnitude for a group of stars is plotted against the

text: spectral classification

text: of the star, in a

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: , evolutionary patterns are found that relate to the mass, age and composition of the star. In particular, during their hydrogen burning period, stars lie along a curve in the diagram called the

text: main sequence

text: . By measuring these properties from a star's spectrum, the position of a main sequence star on the H–R diagram can be determined, and thereby the star's absolute magnitude estimated. A comparison of this value with the apparent magnitude allows the approximate distance to be determined, after correcting for

text: interstellar extinction

text: of the luminosity because of gas and dust.

text: Epsilon Volantis (ε Vol, ε Volantis) is a quadruple star system in the southern constellation Volans. This star is at the center of the constellation of Volans and connects the "wings" of the constellation. Based upon parallax measurements, is roughly 560 light years from Earth.

text: Epsilon Volantis (ε Vol, ε Volantis) is a

text: quadruple star system

text: in the southern

text: constellation

text: Volans

text: . This star is at the center of the constellation of Volans and connects the "wings" of the constellation. Based upon

text: parallax

text: measurements, is roughly 560

text: light years

text: from

text: Earth

text: Within the constellation's borders, there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5. The four main stars that form the asterism are Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta Crucis. Also known as Acrux, Alpha Crucis is a triple star 321 light-years from Earth. Blue-tinged and magnitude 0.8 to the unaided eye, it has two close components of magnitude 1.3 and 1.8, as well as a wide component of magnitude 5. The two close components are divisible in a small amateur telescope and the wide component is divisible in a pair of binoculars. Beta Crucis, called Mimosa, is a blue-hued giant of magnitude 1.3, 353 light-years from Earth. It is a Beta Cephei-type Cepheid variable with a variation of less than 0.1 magnitudes. Gamma Crucis, called Gacrux, is an optical double star. The primary is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 1.6, 88 light-years from Earth. The secondary is of magnitude 6.5, 264 light-years from Earth. Delta Crucis is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 2.8, 364 light-years from Earth. It is the dimmest of the Southern Cross stars. Like Beta it is a Beta Cepheid.

text: Within the constellation's borders, there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to

text: apparent magnitude

text: 6.5. The four main stars that form the asterism are Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta Crucis. Also known as Acrux,

text: Alpha Crucis

text: is a triple star 321 light-years from Earth. Blue-tinged and magnitude 0.8 to the unaided eye, it has two close components of magnitude 1.3 and 1.8, as well as a wide component of magnitude 5. The two close components are divisible in a small amateur telescope and the wide component is divisible in a pair of binoculars.

text: Beta Crucis

text: , called Mimosa, is a blue-hued giant of magnitude 1.3, 353 light-years from Earth. It is a

text: Beta Cephei

text: -type

text: Cepheid variable

text: with a variation of less than 0.1 magnitudes.

text: Gamma Crucis

text: , called Gacrux, is an optical

text: double star

text: . The primary is a red-hued giant star of magnitude 1.6, 88 light-years from Earth. The secondary is of magnitude 6.5, 264 light-years from Earth.

text: Delta Crucis

text: is a blue-white hued star of magnitude 2.8, 364 light-years from Earth. It is the dimmest of the Southern Cross stars. Like Beta it is a Beta Cepheid.

text: Arceuthobium abietinum is a species of dwarf mistletoe known as fir dwarf mistletoe. It is native to western North America from Washington to New Mexico to northern Mexico, where it lives in coniferous forests as a parasite on various species of fir, particularly white fir, giant fir, and red fir. This is a small shrub which is visible as a network of scaly yellowish stems extending above the bark of its host tree. Most of the mistletoe is located inside the host tree, attached to it via haustoria, which tap the tree for water and nutrients. The leaves of the mistletoe are reduced to knobby scales on its surface. It is dioecious, with male and female mistletoe plants producing spikes of staminate and pistillate flowers, respectively. The fruit is a sticky berry a few millimeters long which explodes to disperse the seeds it contains several meters away from the parent plant and its host tree.

text: Arceuthobium abietinum is a species of

text: dwarf mistletoe

text: known as fir dwarf mistletoe. It is native to western North America from

text: Washington

text: to

text: New Mexico

text: to northern Mexico, where it lives in

text: coniferous forests

text: as a

text: parasite

text: on various species of

text: fir

text: , particularly

text: white fir

text: giant fir

text: , and

text: red fir

text: . This is a small

text: shrub

text: which is visible as a network of scaly yellowish stems extending above the bark of its host tree. Most of the mistletoe is located inside the host tree, attached to it via

text: haustoria

text: , which tap the tree for water and nutrients. The leaves of the mistletoe are reduced to knobby scales on its surface. It is

text: dioecious

text: , with male and female mistletoe plants producing spikes of

text: staminate

text: and

text: pistillate

text: flowers, respectively. The fruit is a sticky berry a few millimeters long which explodes to

text: disperse

text: the seeds it contains several meters away from the parent plant and its host tree.

text: Mu Cancri is a star in the constellation Cancer.

text: Mu Cancri is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Cancer

text: There appear to be two groups of LBVs, one with luminosities above 630,000 times the Sun and the other with luminosities below 400,000 times the Sun, although this is disputed in more-recent research. Models have been constructed showing that the lower-luminosity group are post-red-supergiants with initial masses of 30–60 times the Sun, whereas the higher-luminosity group are population-II stars with initial masses 60–90 times the Sun that never develop to red supergiants, although they may become yellow hypergiants. Some models suggest that LBVs are a stage in the evolution of very massive stars required for them to shed excess mass, whereas others require that most of the mass is lost at an earlier cool-supergiant stage. Normal outbursts and the stellar winds in the quiescent state are not sufficient for the required mass loss, but LBVs occasionally produce abnormally large outbursts that can be mistaken for a faint supernova and these may shed the necessary mass. Recent models all agree that the LBV stage occurs after the main-sequence stage and before the hydrogen-depleted Wolf–Rayet stage, and that essentially all LBV stars will eventually explode as a supernova. LBVs apparently can explode directly as a supernova, but probably only a small fraction do. If the star does not lose enough mass before the end of the LBV stage, it may undergo a particularly powerful supernova created by pair-instability. The latest models of stellar evolution suggest that some single stars with initial masses around 20 times that of the Sun will explode as LBVs as type II-P, type IIb, or type Ib supernovae, whereas binary stars undergo much-more-complex evolution through envelope stripping leading to less predictable outcomes.

text: There appear to be two groups of LBVs, one with luminosities above 630,000 times the Sun and the other with luminosities below 400,000 times the Sun, although this is disputed in more-recent research. Models have been constructed showing that the lower-luminosity group are post-red-supergiants with initial masses of 30–60 times the Sun, whereas the higher-luminosity group are population-II stars with initial masses 60–90 times the Sun that never develop to

text: red supergiant

text: s, although they may become

text: yellow hypergiant

text: s. Some models suggest that LBVs are a stage in the evolution of very massive stars required for them to shed excess mass, whereas others require that most of the mass is lost at an earlier cool-supergiant stage. Normal outbursts and the stellar winds in the quiescent state are not sufficient for the required mass loss, but LBVs occasionally produce abnormally

text: large outbursts

text: that can be mistaken for a faint supernova and these may shed the necessary mass. Recent models all agree that the LBV stage occurs after the main-sequence stage and before the hydrogen-depleted Wolf–Rayet stage, and that essentially all LBV stars will eventually explode as a supernova. LBVs apparently can explode directly as a supernova, but probably only a small fraction do. If the star does not lose enough mass before the end of the LBV stage, it may undergo a particularly powerful supernova created by

text: pair-instability

text: . The latest models of stellar evolution suggest that some single stars with initial masses around 20 times that of the Sun will explode as LBVs as type II-P, type IIb, or type Ib supernovae, whereas binary stars undergo much-more-complex evolution through envelope stripping leading to less predictable outcomes.

text: In a similar system to the Chinese, the first lunar mansion in Hindu astronomy was called "Aswini", after the traditional names for Beta and Gamma Arietis, the Aswins. Because the Hindu new year began with the vernal equinox, the Rig Veda contains over 50 new-year's related hymns to the twins, making them some of the most prominent characters in the work. Aries itself was known as "Aja" and "Mesha". In Hebrew astronomy Aries was named "Teli"; it signified either Simeon or Gad, and generally symbolizes the "Lamb of the World". The neighboring Syrians named the constellation "Amru", and the bordering Turks named it "Kuzi". Half a world away, in the Marshall Islands, several stars from Aries were incorporated into a constellation depicting a porpoise, along with stars from Cassiopeia, Andromeda, and Triangulum. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis formed the head of the porpoise, while stars from Andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of Cassiopeia formed the tail. Other Polynesian peoples recognized Aries as a constellation. The Marquesas islanders called it Na-pai-ka; the Māori constellation Pipiri may correspond to modern Aries as well. In indigenous Peruvian astronomy, a constellation with most of the same stars as Aries existed. It was called the "Market Moon" and the "Kneeling Terrace", as a reminder for when to hold the annual harvest festival, Ayri Huay.

text: In a similar system to the Chinese, the first lunar mansion in

text: Hindu astronomy

text: was called "Aswini", after the traditional names for Beta and Gamma Arietis, the

text: Aswins

text: . Because the Hindu new year began with the vernal equinox, the

text: Rig Veda

text: contains over 50 new-year's related hymns to the twins, making them some of the most prominent characters in the work. Aries itself was known as "Aja" and "Mesha". In

text: Hebrew astronomy

text: Aries was named "Teli"; it signified either

text: Simeon

text: or

text: Gad

text: , and generally symbolizes the "Lamb of the World". The neighboring

text: Syria

text: ns named the constellation "Amru", and the bordering Turks named it "Kuzi". Half a world away, in the

text: Marshall Islands

text: , several stars from Aries were incorporated into a constellation depicting a

text: porpoise

text: , along with stars from

text: Cassiopeia

text: Andromeda

text: , and

text: Triangulum

text: . Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Arietis formed the head of the porpoise, while stars from Andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of Cassiopeia formed the tail. Other

text: Polynesian people

text: s recognized Aries as a constellation. The

text: Marquesas

text: islanders called it Na-pai-ka; the

text: Māori

text: constellation Pipiri may correspond to modern Aries as well. In indigenous Peruvian astronomy, a constellation with most of the same stars as Aries existed. It was called the "Market Moon" and the "Kneeling Terrace", as a reminder for when to hold the annual harvest festival,

text: Ayri Huay

text: In 2007, Antonio Cupo starred in a lifetime film titled Love Notes alongside Laura Leighton.

text: Lacaille gave nine stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Theta, including two stars next to each other as Zeta. Gould later added a tenth, Iota Antliae. Beta and Gamma Antliae (now HR 4339 and HD 90156) ended up in the neighbouring constellation Hydra once the constellation boundaries were delineated in 1930. Within the constellation's borders, there are 42 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5.The constellation's two brightest stars—Alpha and Epsilon Antliae—shine with a reddish tinge. Alpha is an orange giant of spectral type K4III that is a suspected variable star, ranging between apparent magnitudes 4.22 and 4.29. It is located 370 ± 20 light-years away from Earth. Estimated to be shining with around 480 to 555 times the luminosity of the Sun, it is most likely an ageing star that is brightening and on its way to becoming a Mira variable star, having converted all its core fuel into carbon. Located 710 ± 40 light-years from Earth, Epsilon Antliae is an evolved orange giant star of spectral type K3 IIIa, that has swollen to have a diameter about 69 times that of the Sun, and a luminosity of around 1279 Suns. It is slightly variable. At the other end of Antlia, Iota Antliae is likewise an orange giant of spectral type K1 III.

text: Lacaille gave nine stars

text: Bayer designation

text: s, labelling them Alpha through to Theta, including two stars next to each other as Zeta. Gould later added a tenth,

text: Iota Antliae

text: . Beta and Gamma Antliae (now

text: HR 4339

text: and

text: HD 90156

text: ) ended up in the neighbouring constellation Hydra once the constellation boundaries were delineated in 1930. Within the constellation's borders, there are 42 stars brighter than or equal to

text: apparent magnitude

text: 6.5.The constellation's two brightest stars—

text: Alpha

text: and

text: Epsilon Antliae

text: —shine with a reddish tinge. Alpha is an orange

text: giant

text: of

text: spectral type

text: that is a suspected

text: variable star

text: , ranging between

text: apparent magnitude

text: s 4.22 and 4.29. It is located 370 ± 20

text: light-year

text: s away from Earth. Estimated to be shining with around 480 to 555 times the

text: luminosity

text: of the Sun, it is most likely an ageing star that is brightening and on its way to becoming a

text: Mira variable

text: star, having converted all its core fuel into carbon. Located 710 ± 40 light-years from Earth, Epsilon Antliae is an evolved orange giant star of spectral type K3 IIIa, that has swollen to have a diameter about 69 times that of the Sun, and a luminosity of around 1279 Suns. It is slightly variable. At the other end of Antlia,

text: Iota Antliae

text: is likewise an orange giant of spectral type K1 III.

text: WASP-14 or BD+22 2716 is a star in the constellation Boötes. The SuperWASP project has observed and classified this star as a variable star, perhaps due to the eclipsing planet.

text: WASP-14 or BD+22 2716 is a star in the constellation

text: Boötes

text: . The

text: SuperWASP

text: variable star

text: , perhaps due to the

text: eclipsing

text: planet.

text: Surface abundances of red supergiants are dominated by hydrogen even though hydrogen at the core has been completely consumed.  In the latest stages of mass loss before a star explodes, surface helium may become enriched to levels comparable with hydrogen.  In theoretical extreme mass loss models, sufficient hydrogen may be lost that helium becomes the most abundant element at the surface.  When pre-red supergiant stars leave the main sequence, oxygen is more abundant than carbon at the surface, and nitrogen is less abundant than either, reflecting abundances from the formation of the star.  Carbon and oxygen are quickly depleted and nitrogen enhanced as a result of the dredge-up of CNO-processed material from the fusion layers.

text: The most common application of superconducting RF is in particle accelerators. Accelerators typically use resonant RF cavities formed from or coated with superconducting materials. Electromagnetic fields are excited in the cavity by coupling in an RF source with an antenna.  When the RF frequency fed by the antenna is the same as that of a cavity mode, the resonant fields build to high amplitudes. Charged particles passing through apertures in the cavity are then accelerated by the electric fields and deflected by the magnetic fields.  The resonant frequency driven in SRF cavities typically ranges from 200 MHz to 3 GHz, depending on the particle species to be accelerated.

text: The most common application of superconducting RF is in

text: particle accelerator

text: s. Accelerators typically use

text: resonant RF cavities

text: formed from or coated with superconducting materials. Electromagnetic fields are excited in the cavity by coupling in an RF source with an antenna.  When the RF frequency fed by the antenna is the same as that of a cavity mode, the resonant fields build to high amplitudes. Charged particles passing through apertures in the cavity are then accelerated by the electric fields and deflected by the magnetic fields.  The resonant frequency driven in SRF cavities typically ranges from 200 MHz to 3 GHz, depending on the particle species to be accelerated.

text: In most constellations, Bayer assigned Greek and Latin letters to stars within a constellation in rough order of apparent brightness, from brightest to dimmest. Since the brightest star in a majority of constellations is designated Alpha (α), many people wrongly assume that Bayer meant to order the stars exclusively by brightness. In Bayer's day, however, stellar brightness could not be measured precisely. Stars were traditionally assigned to one of six magnitude classes (the brightest to first magnitude, the dimmest to sixth), and Bayer typically ordered stars within a constellation by class: all the first-magnitude stars, followed by all the second-magnitude stars, and so on. Within each magnitude class, Bayer made no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness. As a result, the brightest star in each class did not always get listed first in Bayer's order.

text: In most constellations, Bayer assigned Greek and Latin letters to stars within a constellation in rough order of

text: apparent brightness

text: , from brightest to dimmest. Since the brightest star in a majority of constellations is designated Alpha (α), many people wrongly assume that Bayer meant to order the stars exclusively by brightness. In Bayer's day, however, stellar brightness could not be measured precisely. Stars were traditionally assigned to one of six magnitude classes (the brightest to first magnitude, the dimmest to sixth), and Bayer typically ordered stars within a constellation by class: all the first-magnitude stars, followed by all the second-magnitude stars, and so on. Within each magnitude class, Bayer made no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness. As a result, the brightest star in each class did not always get listed first in Bayer's order.

text: The original list ended at 12 with most identified as gravitationally bound in a binary or multiple star system. He also identified an additional 17 known high proper motion stars he later found to have low luminosity stars in the field of view of the bright star. Many of these stars were found to be optical double stars, not gravitationally bound to another star, and not known to be part of a binary system.

text: The original list ended at 12 with most identified as gravitationally bound in a binary or multiple star system. He also identified an additional 17 known high

text: proper motion

text: stars he later found to have low luminosity stars in the field of view of the bright star. Many of these stars were found to be optical

text: double stars

text: , not gravitationally bound to another star, and not known to be part of a binary system.

text: Delta Librae is an Algol-type eclipsing variable star, 304 lightyears from Earth. It has a period of 2 days, 8 hours; its minimum magnitude of 5.9 and its maximum magnitude is 4.9. FX Librae, designated 48 Librae, is a shell star of magnitude 4.9. Shell stars, like Pleione and Gamma Cassiopeiae, are blue supergiants with irregular variations caused by their abnormally high speed of rotation. This ejects gas from the star's equator.

text: Delta Librae

text: is an

text: Algol-type

text: eclipsing variable

text: star, 304 lightyears from Earth. It has a period of 2 days, 8 hours; its minimum magnitude of 5.9 and its maximum magnitude is 4.9.

text: FX Librae

text: , designated

text: 48 Librae

text: , is a

text: shell star

text: of magnitude 4.9. Shell stars, like

text: Pleione

text: and

text: Gamma Cassiopeiae

text: , are

text: blue supergiant

text: s with irregular variations caused by their abnormally high speed of rotation. This ejects gas from the star's equator.

text: The observed upper limit for a main-sequence star is 120–200 . The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable, so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit. The lower limit for sustained proton–proton nuclear fusion is about 0.08  or 80 times the mass of Jupiter. Below this threshold are sub-stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion, known as brown dwarfs.

text: The observed upper limit for a main-sequence star is 120–200 . The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable, so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit. The lower limit for sustained proton–proton nuclear fusion is about 0.08  or 80 times the mass of

text: Jupiter

text: . Below this threshold are sub-stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion, known as

text: brown dwarf

text: s.

text: Hikaru Sulu is a fictional character in the Star Trek media franchise.  Originally known simply as "Sulu", he was portrayed by George Takei in the original Star Trek series.  Sulu also appears in the animated Star Trek series, the first six Star Trek movies, one episode of Star Trek: Voyager, and in numerous books, comics, and video games. Sulu's first name, "Hikaru", appeared in a 1981 novel well over a decade after the original series had ended. John Cho assumed the role of the character in both the 2009 film Star Trek and its sequels, Star Trek Into Darkness and Star Trek Beyond.

text: Hikaru Sulu is a fictional character in the

text: Star Trek

text: media franchise.  Originally known simply as "Sulu", he was portrayed by

text: George Takei

text: in the

text: original Star Trek series

text: .  Sulu also appears in the

text: animated Star Trek series

text: , the first six Star Trek movies, one episode of

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: , and in numerous books, comics, and video games. Sulu's first name, "Hikaru", appeared in a 1981 novel well over a decade after the original series had ended.

text: John Cho

text: assumed the role of the character in both the 2009 film

text: Star Trek

text: and its sequels,

text: Star Trek Into Darkness

text: and

text: Star Trek Beyond

text: In the southeastern corner of the constellation is Gamma Hydri, a red giant of spectral type M2III located 214 light-years from Earth. It is a semi-regular variable star, pulsating between magnitudes 3.26 and 3.33. Observations over five years were not able to establish its periodicity. It is around 1.5 to 2 times as massive as our Sun, and has expanded to about 60 times the Sun's diameter. It shines with about 655 times the luminosity of the Sun. Located 3° northeast of Gamma is the VW Hydri, a dwarf nova of the SU Ursae Majoris type. It is a close binary system that consists of a white dwarf and another star, the former drawing off matter from the latter into a bright accretion disk. These systems are characterised by frequent eruptions and less frequent supereruptions. The former are smooth, while the latter exhibit short "superhumps" of heightened activity. One of the brightest dwarf novae in the sky, it has a baseline magnitude of 14.4 and can brighten to magnitude 8.4 during peak activity. BL Hydri is another close binary system composed of a low mass star and a strongly magnetic white dwarf. Known as a polar or AM Herculis variable, these produce polarized optical and infrared emissions and intense soft and hard X-ray emissions to the frequency of the white dwarf's rotation period—in this case 113.6 minutes.

text: In the southeastern corner of the constellation is

text: Gamma Hydri

text: , a

text: red giant

text: of spectral type M2III located 214 light-years from Earth. It is a

text: semi-regular variable

text: star, pulsating between magnitudes 3.26 and 3.33. Observations over five years were not able to establish its

text: periodicity

text: . It is around 1.5 to 2 times as massive as our Sun, and has expanded to about 60 times the Sun's diameter. It shines with about 655 times the luminosity of the Sun. Located 3° northeast of Gamma is the

text: VW Hydri

text: , a

text: dwarf nova

text: of the SU Ursae Majoris type. It is a close

text: binary

text: system that consists of a

text: white dwarf

text: and another star, the former drawing off matter from the latter into a bright

text: accretion disk

text: . These systems are characterised by frequent eruptions and less frequent supereruptions. The former are smooth, while the latter exhibit short "superhumps" of heightened activity. One of the brightest dwarf novae in the sky, it has a baseline magnitude of 14.4 and can brighten to magnitude 8.4 during peak activity.

text: BL Hydri

text: is another close binary system composed of a low mass star and a strongly magnetic white dwarf. Known as a

text: polar

text: or AM Herculis variable, these produce

text: polarized

text: optical and

text: infrared

text: emissions and intense soft and hard

text: X-ray

text: emissions to the frequency of the white dwarf's

text: rotation period

text: —in this case 113.6 minutes.

text: GD 66 or V361 Aurigae is a 0.64 solar mass () pulsating white dwarf star located 170 light years from Earth in the Auriga constellation. The estimated cooling age of the white dwarf is 500 million years. Models of the relationship between the initial mass of a star and its final mass as a white dwarf star suggest that when the star was on the main sequence it had a mass of approximately 2.5 , which implies its lifetime was around 830 million years. The total age of the star is thus estimated to be in the range 1.2 to 1.7 billion years.

text: GD 66 or V361 Aurigae is a 0.64

text: solar mass

text: pulsating white dwarf

text: star located 170

text: light year

text: s from Earth in the

text: Auriga constellation

text: . The estimated cooling age of the white dwarf is 500 million years. Models of the relationship between the initial mass of a star and its final mass as a white dwarf star suggest that when the star was on the

text: main sequence

text: it had a mass of approximately 2.5 , which implies its lifetime was around 830 million years. The total age of the star is thus estimated to be in the range 1.2 to 1.7 billion years.

text: A Q-Star, also known as a gray hole, is hypothetical type of a compact, heavy neutron star with an exotic state of matter. The Q stands for a conserved particle number. A Q-Star may be mistaken for a stellar black hole.

text: A Q-Star, also known as a gray hole, is hypothetical type of a compact, heavy neutron star with an

text: exotic state

text: of matter. The Q stands for a conserved particle number. A Q-Star may be mistaken for a

text: stellar black hole

text: In 2008 and 2009, Ruccolo starred in the Lifetime sitcom Rita Rocks.

text: In 2008 and 2009, Ruccolo starred in the

text: Lifetime

text: sitcom

text: Rita Rocks

text: The third known class of pulsating variable white dwarfs is the GW Vir stars, sometimes subdivided into DOV and PNNV stars.  Their prototype is PG 1159-035.  This star (also the prototype for the class of PG 1159 stars) was observed to vary in 1979, and was given the variable star designation GW Vir in 1985, giving its name to the class.  These stars are not, strictly speaking, white dwarfs; rather, they are stars which are in a position on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram between the asymptotic giant branch and the white dwarf region.   They may be called pre-white dwarfs. They are hot, with surface temperatures between 75,000 K and 200,000 K, and have atmospheres dominated by helium, carbon, and oxygen.  They may have relatively low surface gravities (log g ≤ 6.5.)   It is believed that these stars will eventually cool and become DO white dwarfs.

text: The third known class of pulsating variable white dwarfs is the GW Vir stars, sometimes subdivided into DOV and PNNV stars.  Their prototype is

text: PG 1159-035

text: .  This star (also the prototype for the class of

text: PG 1159 star

text: s) was observed to vary in 1979, and was given the variable star designation GW Vir in 1985, giving its name to the class.  These stars are not, strictly speaking, white dwarfs; rather, they are stars which are in a position on the

text: Hertzsprung-Russell diagram

text: between the

text: asymptotic giant branch

text: and the white dwarf region.   They may be called pre-white dwarfs. They are hot, with

text: surface temperature

text: s between 75,000 K and 200,000 K, and have atmospheres dominated by

text: helium

text: carbon

text: , and

text: oxygen

text: .  They may have relatively low surface gravities (log g ≤ 6.5.)   It is believed that these stars will eventually cool and become DO white dwarfs.

text: Worf, son of Mogh (wo'rIv in the Klingon language) is a fictional character in the Star Trek franchise. He appears in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG) and seasons four through seven of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (DS9) as well as the feature films Star Trek: Generations (1994), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), and Star Trek: Nemesis (2002). Worf is the first Klingon main character to appear in Star Trek, and has appeared in more Star Trek franchise episodes than any other character. He is played by the actor Michael Dorn.

text: Worf, son of Mogh (wo'rIv in the

text: Klingon language

text: ) is a

text: fictional character

text: in the

text: Star Trek

text: franchise. He appears in the

text: television series

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: (TNG) and seasons four through seven of

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: (DS9) as well as the feature films

text: Star Trek: Generations

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Star Trek: Insurrection

text: (1998), and

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: (2002). Worf is the first

text: Klingon

text: main character to appear in Star Trek, and has appeared in more Star Trek franchise episodes than any other character. He is played by the actor

text: Michael Dorn

text: All nuclear fusion reactions that produce heavier elements cause the star to lose energy and are said to be endothermic reactions. The pressure that supports the star's outer layers drops sharply. As the outer envelope is no longer sufficiently supported by the radiation pressure, the star's gravity pulls its outer layers rapidly inward. As the star collapses, these outer layers collide with the incompressible stellar core, producing a shockwave that expands outward through the unfused material of the outer shell. The pressures and densities in the shockwave are sufficient to induce fusion in that material, and the energy released leads to the star's explosion, dispersing material from the star into interstellar space.

text: All nuclear fusion reactions that produce heavier elements cause the star to lose energy and are said to be

text: endothermic

text: reactions. The pressure that supports the star's outer layers drops sharply. As the outer envelope is no longer sufficiently supported by the radiation pressure, the star's gravity pulls its outer layers rapidly inward. As the star collapses, these outer layers collide with the incompressible stellar core, producing a shockwave that expands outward through the unfused material of the outer shell. The pressures and densities in the shockwave are sufficient to induce fusion in that material, and the energy released leads to the star's explosion, dispersing material from the star into

text: interstellar space

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of , with the luminosity class of III indicating that it is an evolved giant star that has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core and is now on the red giant branch. The 'Ca-1' portion of the classification indicates that it shows weaker than normal lines of calcium in its spectrum. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is estimated to have about 50% more mass than the Sun, while interferometric measurements show it to be 15 times larger in diameter. Despite its enlarged girth, this star is still spinning with a slightly faster equatorial azimuthal velocity than the Sun, having a projected rotational velocity of 3.44 km s.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of , with the

text: luminosity class

text: of III indicating that it is an

text: evolved

text: giant star

text: that has exhausted the supply of hydrogen at its core and is now on the

text: red giant branch

text: . The 'Ca-1' portion of the classification indicates that it shows weaker than normal

text: lines

text: of

text: calcium

text: in its

text: spectrum

text: . Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is estimated to have about 50% more mass than the Sun, while

text: interferometric

text: measurements show it to be 15 times larger in diameter. Despite its enlarged girth, this star is still spinning with a slightly faster equatorial

text: azimuth

text: al velocity than the Sun, having a

text: projected rotational velocity

text: of 3.44 km s.

text: John J. Lumpkin used the star system in his novel Through Struggle, the Stars.

text: John J. Lumpkin

text: used the star system in his novel

text: Through Struggle, the Stars

text: Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which the natural abundances of the chemical elements within stars change due to nuclear fusion reactions in the cores and their overlying mantles. Stars are said to evolve (age) with changes in the abundances of the elements within. Core fusion increases the atomic weight of elements and reduces the number of particles, which would lead to a pressure loss except that gravitation leads to contraction, an increase of temperature, and a balance of forces. A star loses most of its mass when it is ejected late in the star's stellar lifetimes, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to describe the creation of elements during the evolution and explosion of a presupernova star, as Fred Hoyle advocated presciently in 1954. A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in the abundances of elements found in the universe. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens of millions. This suggested a natural process other than random. Such a graph of the abundances can be seen at History of nucleosynthesis theory article. Of the several processes of nucleosynthesis, stellar nucleosynthesis is the dominating contributor to elemental abundances in the universe.

text: Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which the natural abundances of the

text: chemical element

text: s within stars change due to

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactions in the cores and their overlying mantles. Stars are said to evolve (age) with changes in the abundances of the elements within. Core fusion increases the atomic weight of elements and reduces the number of particles, which would lead to a pressure loss except that gravitation leads to contraction, an increase of temperature, and a balance of forces. A star loses most of its mass when it is ejected late in the star's stellar lifetimes, thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the

text: interstellar medium

text: . The term

text: supernova nucleosynthesis

text: is used to describe the creation of elements during the evolution and explosion of a presupernova star, as

text: Fred Hoyle

text: advocated presciently in 1954. A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in the

text: abundances of elements found in the universe

text: . Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens of millions. This suggested a natural process other than random. Such a graph of the abundances can be seen at

text: History of nucleosynthesis theory

text: article. Of the several processes of

text: nucleosynthesis

text: , stellar nucleosynthesis is the dominating contributor to elemental abundances in the universe.

text: This relativistic helical jet and its source are not obscured by explosion debris or accretion material. This jet is observed in x-rays and has no detected radio signature. Numbers in this paragraph are tentative. In the composite processed image the neutron star pulsar is the point-like object with a pulsar wind nebula tail trailing behind it for about 3 light years. The jet, aligned with the pulsar rotation axis, is perpendicular to the pulsar's trajectory and extends out over 37 light years (about 10 times the distance from our sun to the nearest visible star). This distance is quite impressive considering estimates suggest the star's radius is only 12-km, and illustrates the power of relativistic jets. The estimated velocity of this jet is 0.8c. In the image the high speed runaway pulsar was created and ejected about 10 – 30 thousand years prior from a supernova explosion which created the supernova remnant. The pulsar is shown about 60 light years from the original supernova location. The pulsar's speed is reported between 0.003 – 0.008c; faster than almost all runaway neutron stars. This pulsar is not listed in the latest revision of Accreting Millisecond X-Ray Pulsars (AMXPs) and no accretion material has been detected. This star was presumed to be rapidly spinning but later measurements indicate the spin rate is only 15.9 Hz. This rather slow spin rate and the lack of accretion material suggest the jet is neither rotation nor accretion powered. A counter-jet (not shown in the image) has been significantly confirmed but may be difficult to detect due to relativistic beaming. The glitch at about 1/3 the jet length is presently unexplained but might be due to the jet switching off and on or the jet orientation changing. Accurate mass measurements for this star might not be possible and temperature estimates are not yet available. Other neutron stars have been observed to have extremely high velocity jets.

text: This

text: relativistic helical jet

text: and its source are not obscured by explosion debris or accretion material. This jet is observed in x-rays and has no detected radio signature. Numbers in this paragraph are tentative. In the composite processed image the

text: neutron star

text: pulsar is the point-like object with a

text: pulsar wind nebula

text: tail trailing behind it for about 3 light years. The jet, aligned with the pulsar rotation axis, is perpendicular to the pulsar's trajectory and extends out over 37 light years (about 10 times the distance from our sun to the nearest visible star). This distance is quite impressive considering estimates suggest the star's radius is only 12-km, and illustrates the power of relativistic jets. The estimated velocity of this jet is 0.8c. In the image the high speed runaway pulsar was created and ejected about 10 – 30 thousand years prior from a

text: supernova

text: explosion which created the

text: supernova remnant

text: . The pulsar is shown about 60 light years from the original supernova location. The pulsar's speed is reported between 0.003 – 0.008c; faster than almost all runaway neutron stars. This pulsar is not listed in the latest revision of Accreting Millisecond X-Ray Pulsars (AMXPs) and no accretion material has been detected. This star was presumed to be rapidly spinning but later measurements indicate the spin rate is only 15.9 Hz. This rather slow spin rate and the lack of accretion material suggest the jet is neither rotation nor accretion powered. A counter-jet (not shown in the image) has been significantly confirmed but may be difficult to detect due to

text: relativistic beaming

text: . The glitch at about 1/3 the jet length is presently unexplained but might be due to the jet switching off and on or the jet orientation changing. Accurate mass measurements for this star might not be possible and temperature estimates are not yet available. Other neutron stars have been observed to have extremely high velocity jets.

text: The kinematics of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and acceleration A of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector ω and angular acceleration vector α of the rigid system of particles as,

text: The

text: kinematics

text: of a rigid body yields the formula for the acceleration of the particle P in terms of the position R and acceleration A of the reference particle as well as the angular velocity vector ω and angular acceleration vector α of the rigid system of particles as,

text: Unlike in a cyclotron, synchrotrons are unable to accelerate particles from zero kinetic energy; one of the obvious reasons for this is that its closed particle path would be cut by a device that emits particles. Thus, schemes were developed to inject pre-accelerated particle beams into a synchrotron. The pre-acceleration can be realized by a chain of other accelerator structures like a linac, a microtron or another synchrotron; all of these in turn need to be fed by a particle source comprising a simple high voltage power supply, typically a Cockcroft-Walton generator.

text: Unlike in a cyclotron, synchrotrons are unable to accelerate particles from zero kinetic energy; one of the obvious reasons for this is that its closed particle path would be cut by a device that emits particles. Thus, schemes were developed to inject pre-accelerated

text: particle beam

text: s into a synchrotron. The pre-acceleration can be realized by a chain of other accelerator structures like a

text: linac

text: , a

text: microtron

text: or another synchrotron; all of these in turn need to be fed by a particle source comprising a simple high voltage power supply, typically a

text: Cockcroft-Walton generator

text: Beck has criticized Speidel and Ulansey of adherence to a literal cartographic logic, describing their theories as a "will-o'-the-wisp" which "lured them down a false trail." He argues that a literal reading of the tauroctony as a star chart raises two major problems: it is difficult to find a constellation counterpart for Mithras himself (despite efforts by Speidel and Ulansey) and that unlike in a star chart, each feature of the tauroctony might have more than a single counterpart. Rather than seeing Mithras as a constellation, Beck argues that Mithras is the prime traveller on the celestial stage (represented by the other symbols of the scene), the Unconquered Sun moving through the constellations. But again, Meyer holds that the Mithras Liturgy reflects the world of Mithraism and may be a confirmation for Ulansey's theory of Mithras being held responsible for the precession of equinoxes.

text: The first HH object was observed in the late 19th century by Sherburne Wesley Burnham, when he observed the star T Tauri with the  refracting telescope at Lick Observatory and noted a small patch of nebulosity nearby. However, it was catalogued merely as an emission nebula, later becoming known as Burnham's Nebula, and was not recognised as a distinct class of object. T Tauri was found to be a very young and variable star, and is the prototype of the class of similar objects known as T Tauri stars which have yet to reach a state of hydrostatic equilibrium between gravitational collapse and energy generation through nuclear fusion at their centres.

text: The first HH object was observed in the late 19th century by Sherburne Wesley Burnham, when he observed the star

text: T Tauri

text: with the

text: refracting telescope

text: at

text: Lick Observatory

text: and noted a small patch of nebulosity nearby. However, it was catalogued merely as an emission nebula, later becoming known as

text: Burnham's Nebula

text: , and was not recognised as a distinct class of object. T Tauri was found to be a very young and variable star, and is the prototype of the class of similar objects known as

text: T Tauri star

text: s which have yet to reach a state of

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: between

text: gravitational collapse

text: and energy generation through

text: nuclear fusion

text: at their centres.

text: It has a spectral classification of K1II-III, making it a giant star that has evolved away from the main sequence. The mass is 2–7 times the Sun, while measurements of the star's radius give estimates of 45.5 or 50.4 solar radii. This mass range is typical of a B-type main sequence star, suggesting the star belong to stellar class B when it was on the main sequence. The atmosphere of the star displays short period radial velocity variations with a primary period of 4.89 days. This behavior is typical for giant K-type stars such as this and it is not the result of a close-orbit planetary companion.

text: It has a

text: spectral classification

text: of K1II-III, making it a

text: giant star

text: that has

text: evolved

text: away from the

text: main sequence

text: . The

text: mass

text: is 2–7 times the

text: Sun

text: , while measurements of the star's radius give estimates of 45.5 or 50.4

text: solar radii

text: . This mass range is typical of a

text: B-type main sequence star

text: , suggesting the star belong to stellar class B when it was on the main sequence. The atmosphere of the star displays short period radial velocity variations with a primary period of 4.89 days. This behavior is typical for giant K-type stars such as this and it is not the result of a close-orbit planetary companion.

text: This is a giant star with a stellar classification of K1 III, having exhausted the hydrogen at its core and evolved away from the main sequence of stars like the Sun. (The classification is sometimes listed as K1.5 IIICN1Fe0.5, indicating a higher than normal abundance of cyanogen and iron relative to other stars of its class.) It is a red clump star that is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of helium at its core.

text: This is a

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K1 III, having exhausted the hydrogen at its core and

text: evolved

text: away from the

text: main sequence

text: of stars like the Sun. (The classification is sometimes listed as K1.5 IIICN1Fe0.5, indicating a higher than normal abundance of

text: cyanogen

text: and iron relative to other stars of its class.) It is a

text: red clump

text: nuclear fusion

text: of helium at its core.

text: In July 1989, the Beam Experiments Aboard a Rocket (BEAR) program launched a sounding rocket containing a neutral particle beam (NPB) accelerator. The experiment successfully demonstrated that a particle beam would operate and propagate as predicted outside the atmosphere and that there are no unexpected side-effects when firing the beam in space. After the rocket was recovered, the particle beam was still operational. According to the BMDO, the research on neutral particle beam accelerators, which was originally funded by the SDIO, could eventually be used to reduce the half-life of nuclear waste products using accelerator-driven transmutation technology.

text: In July 1989, the Beam Experiments Aboard a Rocket (BEAR) program launched a sounding rocket containing a neutral

text: particle beam

text: (NPB) accelerator. The experiment successfully demonstrated that a particle beam would operate and propagate as predicted outside the atmosphere and that there are no unexpected side-effects when firing the beam in space. After the rocket was recovered, the particle beam was still operational. According to the BMDO, the research on neutral particle beam accelerators, which was originally funded by the SDIO, could eventually be used to reduce the

text: half-life

text: of nuclear waste products using

text: accelerator-driven transmutation technology

text: In 1987, Spiner started his 15-year run portraying Lieutenant Commander Data on Star Trek: The Next Generation, which spanned seven seasons and four feature films. As a main character, he appeared in all but one of the series' 178 episodes; he was not in the episode "Family". He reprised his role in the spin-off films Star Trek: Generations (1994), Star Trek: First Contact (1996), Star Trek: Insurrection (1998), and Star Trek: Nemesis (2002). Although billed as the final Trek movie for the TNG cast, the ambiguous ending of Star Trek: Nemesis suggested a possible avenue for the return of Data. However, Spiner has opined that he is too old to continue playing the part, as Data embodies a "childlike innocence" that Spiner can no longer credibly exhibit, as his appearance had already begun to lose that quality by the time he filmed his last Trek films. In addition to the series and films, he voiced his character in several Star Trek video games, such as Star Trek: Generations, Star Trek: The Next Generation - A Final Unity, Star Trek: Hidden Evil, and Star Trek: Bridge Commander. After appearing in several episodes as the ancestor of Data's creator, Dr. Noonien Soong, Spiner also recorded dialogue as Data that was heard in the final episode of Star Trek: Enterprise, "These Are the Voyages...", which aired in 2005, bringing the Star Trek TV franchise Spiner had helped establish 18 years earlier to a close. He also played Arik Soong in Star Trek- Enterprise as "father of the Augments" in S4E6.

text: In 1987, Spiner started his 15-year run portraying Lieutenant Commander Data on

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: , which spanned seven seasons and four feature films. As a main character, he appeared in all but one of the series' 178 episodes; he was not in the episode "

text: Family

text: ". He reprised his role in the spin-off films

text: Star Trek: Generations

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Star Trek: Insurrection

text: (1998), and

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: (2002). Although billed as the final Trek movie for the TNG cast, the ambiguous ending of

text: Star Trek: Nemesis

text: suggested a possible avenue for the return of Data. However, Spiner has opined that he is too old to continue playing the part, as Data embodies a "childlike innocence" that Spiner can no longer credibly exhibit, as his appearance had already begun to lose that quality by the time he filmed his last Trek films. In addition to the series and films, he voiced his character in several Star Trek video games, such as

text: Star Trek: Generations

entity_name: Star Trek: The Next Generation – A Final Unity

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation - A Final Unity

text: Star Trek: Hidden Evil

text: , and

text: Star Trek: Bridge Commander

text: . After appearing in several episodes as the ancestor of Data's creator, Dr. Noonien Soong, Spiner also recorded dialogue as Data that was heard in the final episode of

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: , "These Are the Voyages...", which aired in 2005, bringing the Star Trek TV franchise Spiner had helped establish 18 years earlier to a close. He also played Arik Soong in Star Trek- Enterprise as "father of the Augments" in S4E6.

text: It is this "wakefield" that is used for particle acceleration. A particle injected into the plasma near the high-density area will experience an acceleration toward (or away) from it, an acceleration that continues as the wakefield travels through the column, until the particle eventually reaches the speed of the wakefield. Even higher energies can be reached by injecting the particle to travel across the face of the wakefield, much like a surfer can travel at speeds much higher than the wave they surf on by traveling across it. Accelerators designed to take advantage of this technique have been referred to colloquially as "surfatrons".

text: It is this "wakefield" that is used for particle acceleration. A particle injected into the plasma near the high-density area will experience an acceleration toward (or away) from it, an acceleration that continues as the wakefield travels through the column, until the particle eventually reaches the speed of the wakefield. Even higher energies can be reached by injecting the particle to travel across the face of the wakefield, much like a

text: surfer

text: can travel at speeds much higher than the wave they surf on by traveling across it. Accelerators designed to take advantage of this technique have been referred to colloquially as "surfatrons".

text: It is the nature of QAM that most orders of constellations can be constructed in many different ways and it is neither possible nor instructive to cover them all here. This article instead presents two, lower-order constellations.

text: The career leaders in citations are Gordie Howe, named to a total of 21 all-star teams (12 first, 9 second), all with the Detroit Red Wings, and Ray Bourque, named to a total of 19 all-star teams (13 first, 6 second) over the course of his 21-season career with the Boston Bruins and Colorado Avalanche. Alexander Ovechkin is the only player in history to be named to both all-star teams in the same season (as a left and right winger respectively) because of a voting error.

text: The career leaders in citations are

text: Gordie Howe

text: , named to a total of 21 all-star teams (12 first, 9 second), all with the

text: Detroit Red Wings

text: , and

text: Ray Bourque

text: , named to a total of 19 all-star teams (13 first, 6 second) over the course of his 21-season career with the

text: Boston Bruins

text: and

text: Colorado Avalanche

text: Alexander Ovechkin

text: is the only player in history to be named to both all-star teams in the same season (as a left and right winger respectively) because of a voting error.

text: The process allows a nuclear interaction to take place at lower energies than would be expected from a simple calculation of the Coulomb barrier between a deuteron and a target nucleus. This is because, as the deuteron approaches the positively charged target nucleus, it experiences a charge polarization where the "proton-end" faces away from the target and the "neutron-end" faces towards the target. The fusion proceeds when the binding energy of the neutron and the target nucleus exceeds the binding energy of the deuteron and a proton is then repelled from the new, heavier, nucleus.

text: The process allows a nuclear interaction to take place at lower energies than would be expected from a simple calculation of the

text: Coulomb barrier

text: between a deuteron and a target nucleus. This is because, as the deuteron approaches the positively charged target nucleus, it experiences a

text: charge polarization

text: where the "proton-end" faces away from the target and the "neutron-end" faces towards the target. The fusion proceeds when the binding energy of the neutron and the target nucleus exceeds the binding energy of the deuteron and a proton is then

text: repelled

text: from the new, heavier, nucleus.

text: Early modelling of the evolution of massive stars showed that they evolve away from the main sequence, not towards hotter temperature and a WR state, but by expanding and cooling to become blue and then red supergiants.  These supergiants are only modestly more luminous than the main-sequence stars they originate from, but are progressively more unstable as their cores become hotter and their atmospheres more extended.  Simple models of nuclear fusion showed that these red supergiants burned heavier elements in their cores until exploding as a supernova, but not becoming WR stars.

text: Early modelling of the

text: evolution

text: of massive stars showed that they evolve away from the main sequence, not towards hotter temperature and a WR state, but by expanding and cooling to become blue and then red supergiants.  These supergiants are only modestly more luminous than the main-sequence stars they originate from, but are progressively more unstable as their cores become hotter and their atmospheres more extended.  Simple models of nuclear fusion showed that these red supergiants burned heavier elements in their cores until exploding as a supernova, but not becoming WR stars.

text: Alpha Aurigae (Capella), the brightest star in Auriga, is a G8III class star (G-type giant) 43 light-years away and the sixth-brightest star in the night sky at magnitude 0.08. Its traditional name is a reference to its mythological position as Amalthea; it is sometimes called the "Goat Star". Capella's names all point to this mythology. In Arabic, Capella was called al-'Ayyuq, meaning "the goat", and in Sumerian, it was called mul.ÁŠ.KAR, "the goat star". On Ontong Java, Capella was called ngahalapolu. Capella is a spectroscopic binary with a period of 104 days; the components are both yellow giants, more specifically, the primary is a G-type star and the secondary is between a G-type and F-type star in its evolution. The secondary is formally classified as a G0III class star (G-type giant). The primary has a radius of 11.87 solar radii () and a mass of 2.47 solar masses (); the secondary has a radius of  and a mass of . The two components are separated by 110 million kilometers, almost 75% of the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The star's status as a binary was discovered in 1899 at the Lick Observatory; its period was determined in 1919 by J.A. Anderson at the 100-inch Mt. Wilson Observatory telescope. It appears with a golden-yellow hue, though Ptolemy and Giovanni Battista Riccioli both described its color as red, a phenomenon attributed not to a change in Capella's color but to the idiosyncrasies of their color sensitivities. Capella has an absolute magnitude of 0.3 and a luminosity of 160 times the luminosity of the Sun, or  (the primary is  and the secondary is ). It may be loosely associated with the Hyades, an open cluster in Taurus, because of their similar proper motion. Capella has one more companion, Capella H, which is a pair of red dwarf stars located 11,000 astronomical units (0.17 light-years) from the main pair.

text: Alpha Aurigae

text: (Capella), the brightest star in Auriga, is a

text: G8III class star

text: (G-type

text: giant

text: ) 43

text: light-year

text: s away and the sixth-brightest star in the night sky at magnitude 0.08. Its traditional name is a reference to its mythological position as Amalthea; it is sometimes called the "Goat Star". Capella's names all point to this mythology. In Arabic, Capella was called al-'Ayyuq, meaning "the goat", and in Sumerian, it was called mul.ÁŠ.KAR, "the goat star". On

text: Ontong Java

text: , Capella was called ngahalapolu. Capella is a

text: spectroscopic binary

text: with a period of 104 days; the components are both

text: yellow giant

text: s, more specifically, the primary is a G-type star and the secondary is between a G-type and F-type star in its evolution. The secondary is formally classified as a G0III class star (G-type giant). The primary has a radius of 11.87

text: solar radii

text: () and a mass of 2.47

text: solar mass

text: es (); the secondary has a radius of  and a mass of . The two components are separated by 110 million kilometers, almost 75% of the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The star's status as a binary was discovered in 1899 at the

text: Lick Observatory

text: ; its period was determined in 1919 by

text: J.A. Anderson

text: at the 100-inch

text: Mt. Wilson Observatory

text: telescope. It appears with a golden-yellow hue, though Ptolemy and

text: Giovanni Battista Riccioli

text: both described its color as red, a phenomenon attributed not to a change in Capella's color but to the idiosyncrasies of their color sensitivities. Capella has an

text: absolute magnitude

text: of 0.3 and a

text: luminosity

text: of 160 times the

text: luminosity of the Sun

text: , or  (the primary is  and the secondary is ). It may be loosely associated with the

text: Hyades

text: , an

text: open cluster

text: in

text: Taurus

text: , because of their similar

text: proper motion

text: . Capella has one more companion, Capella H, which is a pair of

text: red dwarf

text: stars located 11,000

text: astronomical unit

text: s (0.17

text: light-year

text: s) from the main pair.

text: Gravitational wave detectors are being designed that may capture events such as collisions of massive objects such as neutron stars or black holes.

text: Gravitational wave

text: detectors are being designed that may capture events such as collisions of massive objects such as

text: neutron star

text: s or

text: black hole

text: s.

text: In the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies. Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or composites of smaller particles called quarks. The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.

text: In the 1950s, the development of improved

text: particle accelerator

text: s and

text: particle detector

text: s allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies. Neutrons and protons were found to be

text: hadron

text: s, or composites of smaller particles called

text: quark

text: s. The

text: standard model of particle physics

text: was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.

text: There are potentially two sources of nuclear power. Fission is used in all current nuclear power plants. Fusion is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about radioactive waste disposal, safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.

text: There are potentially two sources of nuclear power.

text: Fission

text: is used in all current nuclear power plants.

text: Fusion

text: is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about

text: radioactive waste disposal

text: , safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.

text: RS Ophiuchi is a system consisting of a white dwarf with a red giant companion. The stars are in a binary system with an orbital period of around 454 days.

text: RS Ophiuchi is a system consisting of a

text: white dwarf

text: with a

text: red giant

text: companion. The stars are in a

text: binary system

text: with an orbital period of around 454 days.

text: Upon seeing that Iron Heights Penitentiary may not hold the metahumans, Wells (Tom Cavanagh) and Cisco (Carlos Valdes) propose using the particle accelerator as a jail, causing a trauma to Caitlin (Danielle Panabaker). In a flashback to 9 months ago, the particle accelerator is successfully launched and everyone celebrates. However, wine began levitating and alarms were heard. In an attempt to shut it down, her fiancee Ronnie Raymond (Robbie Amell) entered the particle accelerator but was killed in the process.

text: Upon seeing that

text: Iron Heights Penitentiary

text: may not hold the metahumans, Wells (

text: Tom Cavanagh

text: ) and Cisco (

text: Carlos Valdes

text: ) propose using the particle accelerator as a jail, causing a trauma to Caitlin (

text: Danielle Panabaker

text: ). In a flashback to 9 months ago, the particle accelerator is successfully launched and everyone celebrates. However, wine began levitating and alarms were heard. In an attempt to shut it down, her fiancee

text: Ronnie Raymond

text: Robbie Amell

text: ) entered the particle accelerator but was killed in the process.

text: The cyclotron was the first "cyclical" accelerator.  The advantage of the cyclotron design over the existing "electrostatic" accelerators of the time such as the Cockcroft-Walton accelerator and Van de Graaff generator,  was that in these machines the particles were only accelerated once by the voltage, so the particles' energy was equal to the accelerating voltage on the machine, which was limited by air breakdown to a few million volts.  In the cyclotron, in contrast,  the particles encounter the accelerating voltage many times during their spiral path, and so are accelerated many times, so the output energy can be many times the accelerating voltage.

text: The cyclotron was the first "cyclical" accelerator.  The advantage of the cyclotron design over the existing "electrostatic" accelerators of the time such as the

text: Cockcroft-Walton accelerator

text: and

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: ,  was that in these machines the particles were only accelerated once by the voltage, so the particles' energy was equal to the accelerating voltage on the machine, which was limited by air breakdown to a few million volts.  In the cyclotron, in contrast,  the particles encounter the accelerating voltage many times during their spiral path, and so are accelerated many times, so the output energy can be many times the accelerating voltage.

text: Yellow Star is written in free verse, after Roy struggled with how to authentically express Perlmutter Rozines' experiences to children in a way that did not seem stiff or detached.  Roy cites Karen Hesse's Newbery Medal -winning Out of the Dust as an inspiration for the book's voice.  Roy edited Perlmutter Rozines' various recollections together into chronological order, and penned narrative introductions to each chapter describing the war's events outside the ghetto.  While the book is substantially based on Perlmutter Rozines' recollections, it is classified as historical fiction since Roy included fictionalized dialogue.

text: Yellow Star is written in

text: free verse

text: , after Roy struggled with how to authentically express Perlmutter Rozines' experiences to children in a way that did not seem stiff or detached.  Roy cites Karen Hesse's

text: Newbery Medal

text: -winning

text: Out of the Dust

text: as an inspiration for the book's voice.  Roy edited Perlmutter Rozines' various recollections together into chronological order, and penned narrative introductions to each chapter describing the war's events outside the ghetto.  While the book is substantially based on Perlmutter Rozines' recollections, it is classified as

text: historical fiction

text: since Roy included fictionalized dialogue.

text: The film aired on Lifetime. It starred Jami Gertz, Ernie Hudson, Eugene Clark and Sicily Sewell.

text: The film aired on

text: Lifetime

text: . It starred

text: Jami Gertz

text: Ernie Hudson

text: Eugene Clark

text: and

text: Sicily Sewell

text: Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating power  by use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy fast neutrons from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like U-238 or Th-232. Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their nuclear waste.

text: Hybrid nuclear fusion-fission (hybrid nuclear power) is a proposed means of generating

text: power

text: by use of a combination of

text: nuclear fusion

text: and

text: fission

text: processes. The basic idea is to use high-energy

text: fast neutron

text: s from a fusion reactor to trigger fission in otherwise nonfissile fuels like

text: or

text: . Each neutron can trigger several fission events, multiplying the energy released by each fusion reaction hundreds of times. This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their

text: nuclear waste

text: Some authors use "nuclear matter" in a broader sense, and refer to the model described above as "infinite nuclear matter", and consider it as a "toy model", a testing ground for analytical techniques. However, the composition of a neutron star, which requires more than neutrons and protons, is not necessarily locally charge neutral, and does not exhibit translation invariance, often is differently referred to, for example, as neutron star matter or stellar matter and is considered distinct from nuclear matter. In a neutron star, pressure rises from zero (at the surface) to an unknown large value in the center.

text: Some authors use "nuclear matter" in a broader sense, and refer to the model described above as "infinite nuclear matter", and consider it as a "toy model", a testing ground for analytical techniques. However, the composition of a

text: neutron star

text: , which requires more than neutrons and protons, is not necessarily locally charge neutral, and does not exhibit translation invariance, often is differently referred to, for example, as neutron star matter or stellar matter and is considered distinct from nuclear matter. In a neutron star, pressure rises from zero (at the surface) to an unknown large value in the center.

text: It is a main sequence F type star a little larger and hotter than the Sun.

text: It is a

text: main sequence

text: F type

text: Sun

text: In the current system of stellar classification, stars are grouped according to temperature, with the massive, very young and energetic Class O stars boasting temperatures in excess of 30,000 K while the less massive, typically older Class M stars exhibit temperatures less than 3,500 K. Because luminosity is proportional to temperature to the fourth power, the large variation in stellar temperatures produces an even vaster variation in stellar luminosity.  Because the luminosity depends on a high power of the stellar mass, high mass luminous stars have much shorter lifetimes.  The most luminous stars are always young stars, no more than a few million years for the most extreme.  In the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, the x-axis represents temperature or spectral type while the y-axis represents luminosity or magnitude.  The vast majority of stars are found along the main sequence with blue Class 0 stars found at the top left of the chart while red Class M stars fall to the bottom right.  Certain stars like Deneb and Betelgeuse are found above and to the right of the main sequence, more luminous or cooler than their equivalents on the main sequence.  Increased luminosity at the same temperature, or alternatively cooler temperature at the same luminosity, indicates that these stars are larger than those on the main sequence and they are called giants or supergiants.

text: In the current system of

text: stellar classification

text: , stars are grouped according to temperature, with the massive, very young and energetic

text: Class O

text: stars boasting temperatures in excess of 30,000

text: K

text: while the less massive, typically older

text: Class M

text: stars exhibit temperatures less than 3,500 K. Because luminosity is proportional to temperature to the fourth power, the large variation in stellar temperatures produces an even vaster variation in stellar luminosity.  Because the luminosity depends on a high power of the stellar mass, high mass luminous stars have much shorter lifetimes.  The most luminous stars are always young stars, no more than a few million years for the most extreme.  In the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: , the x-axis represents temperature or spectral type while the y-axis represents luminosity or magnitude.  The vast majority of stars are found along the

text: main sequence

text: with blue Class 0 stars found at the top left of the chart while red Class M stars fall to the bottom right.  Certain stars like

text: Deneb

text: and

text: Betelgeuse

text: are found above and to the right of the main sequence, more luminous or cooler than their equivalents on the main sequence.  Increased luminosity at the same temperature, or alternatively cooler temperature at the same luminosity, indicates that these stars are larger than those on the main sequence and they are called giants or supergiants.

text: Defining a star as "Sun-like" is very difficult, because to be Sun-like the star should have a mass, radius, age, temperature metallicity, and spectral type that is similar to the Sun's. Measuring most of these factors is difficult, and determining the age of a star is extremely difficult, so astronomers tend to ignore it when deciding if a star is Sun-like or not. However, this is not ideal, because the Sun, and all stars change over time. If a star's rotation period is less than 25 days, the star can be determined as being younger than the Sun, if the rotation rate is longer, the star can be determined as being older than the Sun.

text: Nimoy returned for Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan with the promise of a dramatic death scene. Nimoy enjoyed the production of the film so much that he asked if the previously irrevocable death could be reversed. Nimoy did not know how this going to happen until he saw the film. To facilitate his return in the following film, Paramount executives agreed that Nimoy could direct it and following the success, he was asked to direct once more for Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. The call for Spock to betray Kirk and side with his half-brother Sybok in Star Trek V: The Final Frontier was changed at Nimoy's insistence, as he felt the character had already comes to terms with his human-side and Sybok would have no influence on him. Nimoy organised Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, appointing the director, writers and producers. To hand over to Star Trek: The Next Generation at the time of The Undiscovered Country, Nimoy agreed to appear as Spock in the episode "Unification". Nimoy subsequently turned down the directing role on Star Trek Generations as the role for Spock was limited; the character's lines were subsequently given to Chekov and Scotty.

text: Nimoy returned for

text: Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan

text: with the promise of a dramatic death scene. Nimoy enjoyed the production of the film so much that he asked if the previously irrevocable death could be reversed. Nimoy did not know how this going to happen until he saw the film. To facilitate his return in the following film, Paramount executives agreed that Nimoy could direct it and following the success, he was asked to direct once more for

text: Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home

text: . The call for Spock to betray Kirk and side with his half-brother Sybok in

text: Star Trek V: The Final Frontier

text: was changed at Nimoy's insistence, as he felt the character had already comes to terms with his human-side and Sybok would have no influence on him. Nimoy organised

text: Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country

text: , appointing the director, writers and producers. To hand over to

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: at the time of The Undiscovered Country, Nimoy agreed to appear as Spock in the episode "Unification". Nimoy subsequently turned down the directing role on

text: Star Trek Generations

text: as the role for Spock was limited; the character's lines were subsequently given to Chekov and Scotty.

text: There is no reliable evidence of Eta Carinae being observed or recorded before the 17th century, although Dutch navigator Pieter Keyser described a fourth-magnitude star at approximately the correct position around 1595–96, which was copied onto the celestial globes of Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius and the 1603 Uranometria of Johann Bayer. However, Frederick de Houtman's independent star catalogue from 1603 does not include Eta Carinae among the other fourth-magnitude stars in the region. The earliest firm record was made by Edmond Halley in 1677 when he recorded the star simply as Sequens (i.e. "following" relative to another star) within a new constellation Robur Carolinum.  His Catalogus Stellarum Australium was published in 1679. The star was also known by the Bayer designations Eta Roboris Caroli, Eta Argus or Eta Navis. In 1751 Nicolas Louis de Lacaille mapped the stars of Argo Navis and Robur Carolinum and divided them into separate smaller constellations. The star was placed within the keel portion of the ship named as the new constellation Carina. It was not generally known as Eta Carinae until 1879, when the stars of Argo Navis were finally given the epithets of the daughter constellations in the Uranometria Argentina of Gould.

text: There is no reliable evidence of Eta Carinae being observed or recorded before the 17th century, although Dutch navigator

text: Pieter Keyser

text: described a fourth-magnitude star at approximately the correct position around 1595–96, which was copied onto the celestial globes of

text: Petrus Plancius

text: and

text: Jodocus Hondius

text: and the 1603

text: Uranometria

text: of

text: Johann Bayer

text: . However,

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: 's independent star catalogue from 1603 does not include Eta Carinae among the other fourth-magnitude stars in the region. The earliest firm record was made by

text: Edmond Halley

text: in 1677 when he recorded the star simply as Sequens (i.e. "following" relative to another star) within a new constellation

text: Robur Carolinum

text: .  His Catalogus Stellarum Australium was published in 1679. The star was also known by the

text: Bayer designation

text: s Eta Roboris Caroli, Eta Argus or Eta Navis. In 1751

text: Nicolas Louis de Lacaille

text: mapped the stars of

text: Argo Navis

text: and Robur Carolinum and divided them into separate smaller constellations. The star was placed within the keel portion of the ship named as the new constellation

text: Carina

text: . It was not generally known as Eta Carinae until 1879, when the stars of Argo Navis were finally given the epithets of the daughter constellations in the Uranometria Argentina of

text: Gould

text: NGC 2040 is an open star cluster located 160,000 light years away in the constellation of Dorado. It is a young group of stars in one of the largest star formation regions of the Large Magellanic Cloud.

text: NGC 2040 is an

text: open star cluster

text: located 160,000 light years away in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Dorado

text: . It is a young group of stars in one of the largest

text: star formation

text: regions of the

text: Large Magellanic Cloud

text: The revised Yerkes Atlas system (Johnson & Morgan 1953) listed only 2 M-type spectral standard stars: HD 147379 (M0 V)and HD 95735/Lalande 21185 (M2 V). While HD 147379 was not considered a standard by expert classifiers in later compendia of standards, Lalande 21185 is still a primary standard for M2 V. Robert Garrison does not list any "anchor" standards among the red dwarfs, but Lalande 21185 has survived as a M2 V standard through many compendia. The review on MK classification by Morgan & Keenan (1973) did not contain red dwarf standards. In the mid-1970s, red dwarf standard stars were published by Keenan & McNeil (1976) and Boeshaar (1976), but unfortunately there was little agreement among the standards. As later cooler stars were identified through the 1980s, it was clear that an overhaul of the red dwarf standards was needed. Building primarily upon the Boeshaar standards, a group at Steward Observatory (Kirkpatrick, Henry, & McCarthy 1991) filled in the spectral sequence from K5 V to M9 V. It is these M-type dwarf standard stars which have largely survived as the main standards to the modern day. There have been negligible changes in the red dwarf spectral sequence since 1991. Additional red dwarf standards were compiled by Henry et al. (2002), and D. Kirkpatrick has recentlyreviewed the classification of red dwarfs and standard stars in Gray & Corbally's 2009 monograph. The M-dwarf primary spectral standards are: GJ 270 (M0 V), GJ 229A (M1 V), Lalande 21185 (M2 V), Gliese 581 (M3 V), GJ 402 (M4 V), GJ 51 (M5 V), Wolf 359 (M6 V), Van Biesbroeck 8 (M7 V), VB 10 (M8 V), LHS 2924 (M9 V).

text: The revised Yerkes Atlas system (Johnson & Morgan 1953) listed only 2 M-type spectral standard stars: HD 147379 (M0 V)and HD 95735/

text: Lalande 21185

text: (M2 V). While HD 147379 was not considered a standard by expert classifiers in later compendia of standards,

text: Lalande 21185

text: is still a primary standard for M2 V. Robert Garrison does not list any "anchor" standards among the red dwarfs, but

text: Lalande 21185

text: has survived as a M2 V standard through many compendia. The review on MK classification by Morgan & Keenan (1973) did not contain red dwarf standards. In the mid-1970s, red dwarf standard stars were published by Keenan & McNeil (1976) and Boeshaar (1976), but unfortunately there was little agreement among the standards. As later cooler stars were identified through the 1980s, it was clear that an overhaul of the red dwarf standards was needed. Building primarily upon the Boeshaar standards, a group at Steward Observatory (Kirkpatrick, Henry, & McCarthy 1991) filled in the spectral sequence from K5 V to M9 V. It is these M-type dwarf standard stars which have largely survived as the main standards to the modern day. There have been negligible changes in the red dwarf spectral sequence since 1991. Additional red dwarf standards were compiled by Henry et al. (2002), and D. Kirkpatrick has recentlyreviewed the classification of red dwarfs and standard stars in Gray & Corbally's 2009 monograph. The M-dwarf primary spectral standards are:

text: GJ 270

text: (M0 V),

text: GJ 229A

text: (M1 V),

text: Lalande 21185

text: (M2 V),

text: Gliese 581

text: (M3 V),

text: GJ 402

text: (M4 V),

text: GJ 51

text: (M5 V),

text: Wolf 359

text: (M6 V),

text: Van Biesbroeck 8

text: (M7 V),

text: VB 10

text: (M8 V),

text: LHS 2924

text: (M9 V).

text: A red star could be a tiny red dwarf, a star of feeble energy production and a small surface or a bloated giant or even supergiant star such as Antares or Betelgeuse, either of which generates far greater energy but passes it through a surface so large that the star radiates little per unit of surface area. A star near the middle of the spectrum, such as the modest Sun or the giant Capella radiates more energy per unit of surface area than the feeble red dwarf stars or the bloated supergiants, but much less than  such a white or blue star as Vega or Yeti.

text: A red star could be a tiny

text: red dwarf

text: , a star of feeble energy production and a small surface or a bloated giant or even

text: supergiant

text: star such as

text: Antares

text: or

text: Betelgeuse

text: , either of which generates far greater energy but passes it through a surface so large that the star radiates little per unit of surface area. A star near the middle of the spectrum, such as the modest

text: Sun

text: or the giant

text: Capella

text: radiates more energy per unit of surface area than the feeble red dwarf stars or the bloated supergiants, but much less than  such a white or blue star as

text: Vega

text: or

text: Yeti

text: Despite its invisible interior, the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light. Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction, forming some of the brightest objects in the universe. If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black hole's  mass and location. Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars. In this way, astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems, and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A*, at the core of our own Milky Way galaxy, contains a supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million solar masses.

text: Despite its invisible interior, the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other

text: matter

text: and with

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: such as visible light. Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external

text: accretion disk

text: heated by friction, forming some of the

text: brightest objects in the universe

text: . If there are other stars orbiting a black hole, their orbits can be used to determine the black hole's  mass and location. Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars. In this way, astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in

text: binary systems

text: , and established that the radio source known as

text: Sagittarius A*

text: , at the core of our own

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy, contains a supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million

text: solar mass

text: es.

text: The habitable zone is also very stable, lasting for most of the K-type main-sequence star's main sequence phase.The size of K-type's habitable zones also means that a planet, even if it's orbiting a late K-type main-sequence star so long as it lies towards the middle-outer edge, can lie far enough away in the star's habitable zone so as not be tidally locked to its host star. This is further beneficial to the emergence of life, as it means that the planet can possess rotation, which can help to average out heat distribution longitudinally around a planet with in addition axial tilt there is the possibility of seasons and greater sharing of heat across latitudes.

text: The habitable zone is also very stable, lasting for most of the K-type main-sequence star's

text: main sequence

text: phase.The size of K-type's habitable zones also means that a planet, even if it's orbiting a late K-type main-sequence star so long as it lies towards the middle-outer edge, can lie far enough away in the star's habitable zone so as not be tidally locked to its host star. This is further beneficial to the emergence of life, as it means that the planet can possess rotation, which can help to average out heat distribution longitudinally around a planet with in addition axial tilt there is the possibility of seasons and greater sharing of heat across latitudes.

text: When the stars near the Sun are plotted on an HR diagram, it displays a distribution of stars of various masses, ages, and compositions. Many of the stars lie relatively close to a sloping curve with increasing absolute magnitude as the stars are hotter, known as main-sequence stars. However the diagram also typically includes stars that are in later stages of their evolution and have wandered away from this main-sequence curve.

text: When the stars near the

text: Sun

text: are plotted on an HR diagram, it displays a distribution of stars of various masses, ages, and compositions. Many of the stars lie relatively close to a sloping curve with increasing absolute magnitude as the stars are hotter, known as

text: main-sequence

text: stars. However the diagram also typically includes stars that are in later stages of their evolution and have wandered away from this main-sequence curve.

text: Some planets orbit one member of a binary star system, and several circumbinary planets have been discovered which orbit around both members of binary star. A few planets in triple star systems are known and one in the quadruple system Kepler-64.

text: Some planets orbit one member of a

text: binary star

text: system, and several

text: circumbinary planet

text: s have been discovered which orbit around both members of binary star. A few planets in

text: triple star

text: systems are known and one in the quadruple system

text: "Chamaeleon III appears to be devoid of current star-formation activity."

text: In South Korea, the constellation is referred to as "the seven stars of the north". In the related myth, a widow with seven sons found comfort with a widower, but to get to his house required crossing a stream. The seven sons, sympathetic to their mother, placed stepping stones in the river. Their mother, not knowing who put the stones in place, blessed them and, when they died, they became the constellation.

text: The 2006 season of Rock Star selected Lukas Rossi as the lead singer for Supernova. Dilana, Magni Ásgeirsson, and Toby Rand with his own band Juke Kartel were the three runners up and accepted an offer to go on tour with Supernova. The self-titled debut album Rock Star Supernova was released on November 21, 2006.

text: The 2006

text: season

text: of

text: Rock Star

text: selected

text: Lukas Rossi

text: as the lead singer for Supernova.

text: Dilana

text: Magni Ásgeirsson

text: , and

text: Toby Rand

text: with his own band

text: Juke Kartel

text: were the three runners up and accepted an offer to go on tour with Supernova. The self-titled debut album

text: Rock Star Supernova

text: was released on November 21, 2006.

text: Betelgeuse is a very large, luminous but cool star classified as an M1-2 Ia-ab red supergiant. The letter "M" in this designation means that it is a red star belonging to the M spectral class and therefore has a relatively low photospheric temperature; the "Ia-ab" suffix luminosity class indicates that it is an intermediate-luminosity supergiant, with properties partway between a normal supergiant and a luminous supergiant. Since 1943, the spectrum of Betelgeuse has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified.

text: Betelgeuse is a very large, luminous but cool star classified as an M1-2 Ia-ab

text: red supergiant

text: . The letter "M" in this designation means that it is a red star belonging to the

text: M spectral class

text: and therefore has a relatively low photospheric temperature; the "Ia-ab" suffix

text: luminosity class

text: indicates that it is an intermediate-luminosity supergiant, with properties partway between a normal supergiant and a luminous supergiant. Since 1943, the spectrum of Betelgeuse has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified.

text: Invented by Ramsey Campbell. A mysterious planet believed to be part of the Solar System, though the predominant view places it in a binary star system near Baalblo and its companion Yifne, namely a dark star and a green sun. The former could be a black hole, a brown dwarf or even a stellar degenerate making up an X-ray binary (i.e. a neutron star orbited by a stellar or a white dwarf companion) like the system Hercules X-1.

text: Invented by

text: Ramsey Campbell

text: . A mysterious planet believed to be part of the Solar System, though the predominant view places it in a

text: binary star

text: system near Baalblo and its companion Yifne, namely a dark star and a green sun. The former could be a

text: black hole

text: , a

text: brown dwarf

text: or even a stellar degenerate making up an

text: X-ray binary

text: (i.e. a

text: neutron star

text: orbited by a stellar or a

text: white dwarf

text: companion) like the system

text: Hercules X-1

text: Lambda Equulei is a double star system in the constellation of Equuleus. The main component is a F-type main sequence star.

text: Lambda Equulei is a

text: double star

text: system in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Equuleus

text: . The main component is a

text: F-type main sequence

text: star.

text: A case of interest to nuclear fusion is an equimolar mixture of deuterium and tritium ions (

text: Any main-sequence star with an initial mass of above  has the potential to produce a neutron star. As the star evolves away from the main sequence, subsequent nuclear burning produces an iron-rich core. When all nuclear fuel in the core has been exhausted, the core must be supported by degeneracy pressure alone. Further deposits of mass from shell burning cause the core to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit. Electron-degeneracy pressure is overcome and the core collapses further, sending temperatures soaring to over . At these temperatures, photodisintegration (the breaking up of iron nuclei into alpha particles by high-energy gamma rays) occurs. As the temperature climbs even higher, electrons and protons combine to form neutrons via electron capture, releasing a flood of neutrinos. When densities reach nuclear density of , neutron degeneracy pressure halts the contraction. The infalling outer envelope of the star is halted and flung outwards by a flux of neutrinos produced in the creation of the neutrons, becoming a supernova. The remnant left is a neutron star. If the remnant has a mass greater than about , it collapses further to become a black hole.

text: Any

text: main-sequence

text: star with an initial mass of above  has the potential to produce a neutron star. As the star evolves away from the main sequence, subsequent nuclear burning produces an iron-rich core. When all nuclear fuel in the core has been exhausted, the core must be supported by degeneracy pressure alone. Further deposits of mass from shell burning cause the core to exceed the

text: Chandrasekhar limit

text: . Electron-degeneracy pressure is overcome and the core collapses further, sending temperatures soaring to over . At these temperatures,

text: photodisintegration

text: (the breaking up of iron nuclei into alpha particles by high-energy gamma rays) occurs. As the temperature climbs even higher, electrons and protons combine to form neutrons via

text: electron capture

text: , releasing a flood of

text: neutrino

text: s. When densities reach nuclear density of , neutron degeneracy pressure halts the contraction. The infalling outer envelope of the star is halted and flung outwards by a flux of neutrinos produced in the creation of the neutrons, becoming a supernova. The remnant left is a neutron star. If the remnant has a mass greater than about , it collapses further to become a black hole.

text: The full details of massive star formation within H II regions are not yet well known. Two major problems hamper research in this area. First, the distance from Earth to large H II regions is considerable, with the nearest H II (California Nebula) region at 300 pc (1,000 light-years); other H II regions are several times that distance from Earth. Secondly, the formation of these stars is deeply obscured by dust, and visible light observations are impossible. Radio and infrared light can penetrate the dust, but the youngest stars may not emit much light at these wavelengths.

text: The full details of massive star formation within H II regions are not yet well known. Two major problems hamper research in this area. First, the distance from Earth to large H II regions is considerable, with the nearest H II (

text: California Nebula

text: ) region at 300 pc (1,000 light-years); other H II regions are several times that distance from Earth. Secondly, the formation of these stars is deeply obscured by dust, and

text: visible light

text: observations are impossible.

text: Radio

text: and

text: infrared

text: light can penetrate the dust, but the youngest stars may not emit much light at these

text: wavelength

text: s.

text: The most senior military ranks in all services are classified by a star system in many countries, ranging from one-star rank which typically corresponds to brigadier, brigadier general, Commodore or air commodore, to the most senior five-star ranks which include Admiral of the Fleet, Grand Admiral, Field Marshal, General of the Army and Marshal of the Air Force which typically only exist during large scale conflicts.

text: The most senior

text: military rank

text: s in all services are classified by a star system in many countries, ranging from

text: one-star rank

text: which typically corresponds to

text: brigadier

text: brigadier general

text: Commodore

text: or

text: air commodore

text: , to the most senior

text: five-star rank

text: s which include

text: Admiral of the Fleet

text: Grand Admiral

text: Field Marshal

text: General of the Army

text: and

text: Marshal of the Air Force

text: which typically only exist during large scale conflicts.

text: When a star exhausts the supply of hydrogen by nuclear fusion processes in its core, the core contracts and its temperature increases, causing the outer layers of the star to expand and cool.  The star becomes a red giant, following a track towards the upper-right hand corner of the HR diagram.  Eventually, once the temperature in the core has reached approximately , helium burning (fusion of helium nuclei) begins. The onset of helium burning in the core halts the star's cooling and increase in luminosity, and the star instead moves down and leftwards in the HR diagram. This is the horizontal branch (for population II stars) or red clump (for population I stars), or a blue loop for stars more massive than about .

text: When a star exhausts the supply of

text: hydrogen

text: by

text: nuclear fusion

text: processes in its core, the core contracts and its temperature increases, causing the outer layers of the star to expand and cool.  The star becomes a red giant, following a track towards the upper-right hand corner of the HR diagram.  Eventually, once the

text: temperature

text: in the core has reached approximately ,

text: helium burning

text: (fusion of

text: helium

text: nuclei) begins. The onset of helium burning in the core halts the star's cooling and increase in luminosity, and the star instead moves down and leftwards in the HR diagram. This is the

text: horizontal branch

text: (for

text: population II stars

text: ) or

text: red clump

text: (for

text: population I stars

text: ), or a blue loop for stars more massive than about .

text: Epsilon Cygni is a giant star with a stellar classification of K0 III. This indicates that the star has left the main sequence and has begun the final stages in its stellar evolution. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. The effective temperature of the star's photosphere is 4,710 K, giving Epsilon Cygni an orange hue that is a characteristic of K-type stars. This star has nearly 11 times the solar radius and is about 62 times the luminosity of the Sun.

text: Epsilon Cygni is a

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 III. This indicates that the star has left the

text: main sequence

text: and has begun the final stages in its

text: stellar evolution

text: . Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. The

text: effective temperature

text: of the star's

text: photosphere

text: is 4,710 K, giving Epsilon Cygni an orange hue that is a characteristic of K-type stars. This star has nearly 11 times the

text: solar radius

text: and is about 62 times the

text: luminosity of the Sun

text: Stars of spectral classes F and G, such as our Sun, have color temperatures that make them look "yellowish". The first astronomer to classify stars according to their color was F. G. W. Struve in 1827. One of his classifications was flavae, or yellow, and this roughly corresponded to stars in the modern spectral range F5 to K0. The Strömgren photometric system for stellar classification includes a 'y' or yellow filter that is centered at a wavelength of 550 nm and has a bandwidth of 20–30 nm.

text: Star

text: s of

text: spectral class

text: es F and G, such as our Sun, have

text: color temperature

text: s that make them look "yellowish". The first astronomer to classify stars according to their color was

text: F. G. W. Struve

text: in 1827. One of his classifications was flavae, or yellow, and this roughly corresponded to stars in the modern spectral range F5 to K0. The

text: Strömgren photometric system

text: for stellar classification includes a 'y' or yellow filter that is centered at a wavelength of 550 nm and has a bandwidth of 20–30 nm.

text: Given the light weight of these probes, it would take much less energy to accelerate them. With on board solar cells they could continually accelerate using solar power. One can envision a day when a fleet of millions or even billions of these particles swarm to distant stars at nearly the speed of light and relay signals back to Earth through a vast interstellar communication network.

text: In accelerator physics, a magnetic lattice is a composition of electromagnets at given longitudinal positions around the vacuum tube of a particle accelerator, and thus along the path of the enclosed charged particle beam. The lattice properties have a large influence on the properties of the particle beam, which is shaped by magnetic fields. Lattices can be closed (cyclic accelerators like the synchrotrons), linear (for linac facilities) and are also used at interconnects between different accelerator structures (transfer beamlines).

text: In

text: accelerator physics

text: , a magnetic lattice is a composition of

text: electromagnet

text: s at given longitudinal positions around the vacuum tube of a

text: particle accelerator

text: , and thus along the path of the enclosed

text: charged particle beam

text: . The lattice properties have a large influence on the properties of the particle beam, which is shaped by magnetic fields. Lattices can be closed (cyclic accelerators like the

text: synchrotron

text: s), linear (for

text: linac

text: facilities) and are also used at interconnects between different accelerator structures (transfer beamlines).

text: ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS) is one of the seven particle detector experiments (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb, LHCf and MoEDAL) constructed at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), a particle accelerator at CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Switzerland. The experiment is designed to take advantage of the unprecedented energy available at the LHC and observe phenomena that involve highly massive particles which were not observable using earlier lower-energy accelerators. It is hoped that it will shed light on new theories of particle physics beyond the Standard Model.

text: ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC ApparatuS) is one of the seven

text: particle detector

text: experiments (

text: ALICE

text: , ATLAS,

text: CMS

text: TOTEM

text: LHCb

text: LHCf

text: and

text: MoEDAL

text: ) constructed at the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC), a

text: particle accelerator

text: at

text: CERN

text: (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Switzerland. The experiment is designed to take advantage of the unprecedented energy available at the LHC and observe phenomena that involve highly massive

text: particles

text: which were not observable using earlier lower-

text: energy

text: accelerators. It is hoped that it will shed light on new

text: theories

text: of

text: particle physics

text: beyond the

text: Standard Model

text: The New Zealand flag was the first national flag to incorporate the stars of the Southern Cross constellation, and remains distinctive as the only national flag that includes only those stars from the constellation that actually form the cross itself. The Australian flag adopted in 1901 also has the Union Flag in the canton and the Southern Cross on the fly. The cross on the New Zealand flag is composed of the four prime stars of the Southern Cross constellation, each being a red five pointed star with a white outline. The Australian flag has six white stars, five of which have seven points (the Commonwealth Star) and a five pointed star, Epsilon Crucis, the smaller star of the Southern Cross constellation which does not form part of the actual cross itself is also included.  Australia's flag features a large Commonwealth Star below the Union Flag as it is a symbol of Australia.

text: The New Zealand flag was the first national flag to incorporate the stars of the Southern Cross constellation, and remains distinctive as the only national flag that includes only those stars from the constellation that actually form the cross itself. The

text: Australian flag

text: adopted in 1901 also has the Union Flag in the canton and the Southern Cross on the fly. The cross on the New Zealand flag is composed of the four prime stars of the Southern Cross constellation, each being a red five pointed star with a white outline. The Australian flag has six white stars, five of which have seven points (the

text: Commonwealth Star

text: ) and a five pointed star,

text: Epsilon Crucis

text: , the smaller star of the Southern Cross constellation which does not form part of the actual cross itself is also included.  Australia's flag features a large Commonwealth Star below the Union Flag as it is a

text: symbol of Australia

text: There are 37 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 6.5 in the constellation; three are brighter than magnitude 4.5. 46 Leonis Minoris, an orange giant of magnitude 3.8, is located some 95 light-years from Earth. At magnitude 4.4, Beta Leonis Minoris is the second-brightest star and the only one in the constellation with a Bayer designation. It is a binary star, the brighter component of which is an orange giant and the fainter a yellow-white main sequence star. The third-brightest star is 21 Leonis Minoris, a rapidly rotating white main-sequence star of average magnitude 4.5. The constellation also includes two stars with planetary systems, two pairs of interacting galaxies, and the unique deep-sky object Hanny's Voorwerp.

text: There are 37 stars brighter than

text: apparent magnitude

text: 6.5 in the constellation; three are brighter than magnitude 4.5.

text: 46 Leonis Minoris

text: , an orange

text: giant

text: of magnitude 3.8, is located some 95

text: light-year

text: s from Earth. At magnitude 4.4,

text: Beta Leonis Minoris

text: is the second-brightest star and the only one in the constellation with a

text: Bayer designation

text: . It is a

text: binary star

text: , the brighter component of which is an orange giant and the fainter a yellow-white

text: main sequence

text: star. The third-brightest star is

text: 21 Leonis Minoris

text: , a rapidly rotating

text: white main-sequence star

text: of average magnitude 4.5. The constellation also includes two stars with

text: planetary system

text: s, two pairs of

text: interacting galaxies

text: , and the unique

text: deep-sky object

text: Hanny's Voorwerp

text: According to the nebular hypothesis, stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds (GMC). These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex process, which always produces a gaseous protoplanetary disk, proplyd, around the young star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10–100 million years.

text: According to the nebular hypothesis, stars form in massive and dense clouds of

text: molecular hydrogen

text: giant molecular cloud

text: s (GMC). These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex process, which always produces a gaseous

text: protoplanetary disk

text: proplyd

text: , around the young star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10–100 million years.

text: In Brazil, the Bororo people incorporate the stars of Auriga into a massive constellation representing a caiman; its southern stars represent the end of the animal's tail. The eastern portion of Taurus is the rest of the tail, while Orion is its body and Lepus is the head. This constellation arose because of the prominence of caymans in daily Amazonian life. There is evidence that Capella was significant to the Aztec people, as the Late Classic site Monte Albán has a marker for the star's heliacal rising. Indigenous peoples of California and Nevada also noticed the bright pattern of Auriga's stars. To them, the constellation's bright stars formed a curve that was represented in crescent-shaped petroglyphs. The indigenous Pawnee of North America recognized a constellation with the same major stars as modern Auriga: Alpha, Beta, Gamma (Beta Tauri), Theta, and Iota Aurigae.

text: In Brazil, the

text: Bororo people

text: incorporate the stars of Auriga into a massive constellation representing a

text: caiman

text: ; its southern stars represent the end of the animal's tail. The eastern portion of

text: Taurus

text: is the rest of the tail, while

text: Orion

text: is its body and

text: Lepus

text: is the head. This constellation arose because of the prominence of caymans in daily Amazonian life. There is evidence that Capella was significant to the

text: Aztec people

text: , as the

text: Late Classic

text: site

text: Monte Albán

text: has a marker for the star's

text: heliacal rising

text: Indigenous peoples

text: of

text: California

text: and

text: Nevada

text: also noticed the bright pattern of Auriga's stars. To them, the constellation's bright stars formed a curve that was represented in crescent-shaped

text: petroglyph

text: s. The indigenous

text: Pawnee

text: of North America recognized a constellation with the same major stars as modern Auriga: Alpha, Beta, Gamma (Beta Tauri), Theta, and Iota Aurigae.

text: Compared to many other nearby spiral galaxies, NGC 5713 appears to be a site of relatively intense star formation activity.  The boost in star formation in NGC 5713 may be linked to the gravitational interactions with NGC 5719.  The interactions are expected to disturb the orbits of gas clouds in NGC 5713, thus causing the clouds to collide with each other.  The collisions cause the clouds to collapse and form new stars, hence leading to the increased star formation seen in NGC 5713.

text: Compared to many other nearby spiral galaxies, NGC 5713 appears to be a site of relatively intense

text: star formation

text: activity.  The boost in star formation in NGC 5713 may be linked to the gravitational interactions with NGC 5719.  The interactions are expected to disturb the orbits of gas clouds in NGC 5713, thus causing the clouds to collide with each other.  The collisions cause the clouds to collapse and form new stars, hence leading to the increased star formation seen in NGC 5713.

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of A2 III, with the luminosity class of 'III' indicating this is a giant star that has exhausted the hydrogen at its core and evolved away from the main sequence of stars like the Sun. Since 1943, the spectrum of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is 19% more massive than the Sun, but the outer envelope has expanded to around 11 times the Sun's radius. With its enlarged size, it is radiating 46 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,529 K. This is cooler than the Sun's surface and gives Kappa Ophiuchi the orange-hued glow of a K-type star.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of A2 III, with the

text: luminosity class

text: of 'III' indicating this is a

text: giant star

text: that has exhausted the hydrogen at its core and

text: evolved away

text: from the

text: main sequence

text: of stars like the Sun. Since 1943, the

text: spectrum

text: of this star has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified. It is 19% more massive than the Sun, but the outer envelope has expanded to around 11 times the Sun's radius. With its enlarged size, it is radiating 46 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,529 K. This is cooler than the Sun's surface and gives Kappa Ophiuchi the orange-hued glow of a

text: K-type star

text: Alpha Fornacis (α Fornacis, α For) is the brightest star in the constellation Fornax. It is the only star brighter than magnitude 4.0 in the constellation. It has the proper names Dalim (in Piazzi's Palermo Catalogue) and Fornacis (in Burritt's Atlas). This star was formally identical with 12 Eridani.

text: Alpha Fornacis (α Fornacis, α For) is the brightest

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Fornax

text: . It is the only star brighter than magnitude 4.0 in the constellation. It has the proper names Dalim (in

text: Piazzi

text: 's

text: Palermo Catalogue

text: ) and Fornacis (in

text: Burritt

text: 's

text: Atlas

text: ). This star was formally identical with 12

text: Eridani

text: Gonzalez will co-star in upcoming Lifetime series Witches of East End.

text: Gonzalez will co-star in upcoming

text: Lifetime

text: series

text: Witches of East End

text: In the series Red Dwarf, Earth is seen mainly as the goal of the crew's trip; Dave Lister is personally obsessed with revisiting it as his home world, especially since he is the only character to be from there as Arnold Rimmer was born on Io. The novel Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers mentions the Earth, despite Lister's regard for it, as suffering from massive littering and environmental damage; with a giant toupee being installed to in order to cover up ozone depletion. The novel Better Than Life, however, mentions Earth being voted out of inhabitability to be the solar system's chosen planet of refuse known as Garbage World. A methane build up "farts" the planet out of the system and sends it out into deep space where it becomes an ice planet; later moved and thawed by the actions of the crew of Red Dwarf. The Earth is inhabited by giant cockroaches and the descendants of GELFs sent there as punishment for their rebellion and bred into the polymorph. Lister spends half a lifetime trapped there attempting to correct his species past actions before Red Dwarf can rescue him due to black hole time dilation. In Last Human a parallel Earth is doomed by the initiatives of Earth President John Milhous Nixon and humanity breeds GELFs and simulants to terraform a new home across the multi-dimensional omni-zone.

text: In the series

text: Red Dwarf

text: , Earth is seen mainly as the goal of the crew's trip;

text: Dave Lister

text: is personally obsessed with revisiting it as his home world, especially since he is the only character to be from there as

text: Arnold Rimmer

text: was born on

text: Io

text: . The novel

text: Infinity Welcomes Careful Drivers

text: mentions the Earth, despite Lister's regard for it, as suffering from massive littering and environmental damage; with a giant

text: toupee

text: being installed to in order to cover up

text: ozone depletion

text: . The novel

text: Better Than Life

text: , however, mentions Earth being voted out of inhabitability to be the solar system's chosen planet of refuse known as Garbage World. A

text: methane

text: build up "farts" the planet out of the system and sends it out into deep space where it becomes an ice planet; later moved and thawed by the actions of the crew of Red Dwarf. The Earth is inhabited by giant

text: cockroach

text: es and the descendants of

text: GELF

text: s sent there as punishment for their rebellion and bred into the

text: polymorph

text: . Lister spends half a lifetime trapped there attempting to correct his species past actions before Red Dwarf can rescue him due to

text: black hole

text: time dilation

text: . In

text: Last Human

text: a parallel Earth is doomed by the initiatives of Earth President John Milhous

text: Nixon

text: and humanity breeds GELFs and

text: simulants

text: to terraform a new home across the multi-

text: dimension

text: al omni-zone.

text: In main sequence stars with masses up to 2.3 times the mass of the Sun, the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen (bearing the name of p-p chain) at the core will steadily build up a concentration of helium at a rate primarily determined by the mass of the star. In due course, the helium-enriched core becomes unable to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen and that fusion process migrates outward to a shell. The core becomes a region of degenerate matter that does not contribute to the generation of energy. It continues to grow and increase in temperature as the hydrogen fusion in the shell contributes more helium.

text: In

text: main sequence

text: stars with masses up to 2.3 times the mass of the

text: Sun

text: , the

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen (bearing the name of

text: p-p chain

text: ) at the core will steadily build up a concentration of

text: helium

text: at a rate primarily determined by the mass of the

text: star

text: . In due course, the helium-enriched core becomes unable to sustain

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen and that fusion process migrates outward to a shell. The core becomes a region of

text: degenerate matter

text: that does not contribute to the generation of

text: energy

text: . It continues to grow and increase in

text: temperature

text: as the

text: hydrogen fusion

text: in the shell contributes more

text: helium

text: A white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a stellar companion to raise its core temperature enough to ignite carbon fusion, at which point it undergoes runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. There are three avenues by which this detonation is theorized to happen: stable accretion of material from a companion, the collision of two white dwarfs, or accretion that causes ignition in a shell that then ignites. The dominant mechanism by which Type Ia supernovae are produced remains unclear. Despite this uncertainty in how Type Ia supernovae are produced, Type Ia supernovae have very uniform properties, and are useful standard candles over intergalactic distances. Some calibrations are required to compensate for the gradual change in properties or different frequencies of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high red shift, and for small variations in brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.

text: A white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a

text: stellar companion

text: to raise its core temperature enough to

text: ignite

text: carbon fusion

text: , at which point it undergoes

text: runaway

text: nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. There are three avenues by which this detonation is theorized to happen: stable

text: accretion

text: of material from a companion, the collision of two white dwarfs, or accretion that causes ignition in a shell that then ignites. The dominant mechanism by which Type Ia supernovae are produced remains unclear. Despite this uncertainty in how Type Ia supernovae are produced, Type Ia supernovae have very uniform properties, and are useful standard candles over intergalactic distances. Some calibrations are required to compensate for the gradual change in properties or different frequencies of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high red shift, and for small variations in brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.

text: One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae, with ; its lifespan is very short—only several million years at most. A study of the Arches cluster suggests that  is the upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe. The reason for this limit is not precisely known, but it is partially due to the Eddington luminosity which defines the maximum amount of luminosity that can pass through the atmosphere of a star without ejecting the gases into space. However, a star named R136a1 in the RMC 136a star cluster has been measured at 265 , putting this limit into question. A study have determined that stars larger than 150  in R136 were created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close binary systems, providing a way to sidestep the 150  limit.

text: One of the most massive stars known is

text: Eta Carinae

text: , with ; its lifespan is very short—only several million years at most. A study of the

text: Arches cluster

text: suggests that  is the upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe. The reason for this limit is not precisely known, but it is partially due to the

text: Eddington luminosity

text: which defines the maximum amount of luminosity that can pass through the atmosphere of a star without ejecting the gases into space. However, a star named

text: in the RMC 136a star cluster has been measured at 265 , putting this limit into question. A study have determined that stars larger than 150  in

text: were created through the collision and merger of massive stars in close

text: binary systems

text: , providing a way to sidestep the 150  limit.

text: There is some evidence that a small percent of the Type Ic supernovae may be the progenitors of gamma ray bursts (GRB); in particular, type Ic supernovae that have broad spectral lines corresponding to high-velocity outflows are thought to be strongly associated with gamma ray bursts (GRB). However, it is also hypothesized that any hydrogen-stripped Type Ib or Ic supernova could be a GRB, dependent upon the geometry of the explosion. In any case, astronomers believe that most Type Ib, and probably Type Ic as well, result from core collapse in stripped, massive stars, rather than from the thermonuclear runaway of white dwarfs.

text: There is some evidence that a small percent of the Type Ic supernovae may be the progenitors of

text: gamma ray bursts

text: (GRB); in particular, type Ic supernovae that have broad spectral lines corresponding to high-velocity outflows are thought to be strongly associated with

text: gamma ray bursts

text: (GRB). However, it is also hypothesized that any hydrogen-stripped Type Ib or Ic supernova could be a GRB, dependent upon the geometry of the explosion. In any case, astronomers believe that most Type Ib, and probably Type Ic as well, result from core collapse in stripped, massive stars, rather than from the thermonuclear runaway of

text: white dwarf

text: s.

text: Like in All Star Battle characters are categorized by Battle Styles which change how each character plays in the game, as well as their different strengths and weaknesses. For example, Vampires and the Mode-using Pillar Men heal from damage over time, except from Ripple-enhanced attacks and they can be immobilized by ultraviolet lamps as part of Rudol von Stroheim's "The Prime Example of Superior German Science" style. The Battle Styles "Ripple User", "Vampire", "Mode", "Stand User", and "Mounted" return from All Star Battle (with slightly different names), while Eyes of Heaven adds  and  to the game. Also new in Eyes of Heaven is that characters that were previously classified in All Star Battle as having one Battle Style but displayed abilities of another are now classified as having two Battle Styles. For example, Old Joseph Joestar is now classed as both a Ripple User and a Stand User, while in the previous game he was only classified as a Stand User who happened to have Ripple attacks as well.

text: Encounters is an arcade style shoot 'em up game, and features ships and characters from all five Star Trek series: Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Star Trek: Voyager, and Star Trek: Enterprise.

text: Encounters is an arcade style

text: shoot 'em up

text: game, and features

text: ships

text: and

text: characters

text: from all five Star Trek series:

text: Star Trek: The Original Series

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: , and

text: Star Trek: Enterprise

text: Major League Soccer's previously informal system, one star per MLS Cup title, was standardised in 2006, with the defending champions wearing the MLS Scudetto, like the Serie A system, for one season before adding a new star.  Starting in 2012, the Scudetto was replaced with a single gold star worn by reigning champions above any other silver championship stars. In 2016, this system changed again in recognition of the LA Galaxy's fifth championship title: champion clubs during their title defence will wear a large gold star (featuring the year of the league win) above other smaller stars set in silver; clubs with five championships (presently only the Galaxy) will wear one gold star; and teams with one-to-four MLS Cup wins will wear one silver star for each victory. In Australia, they also use a system based around different coloured stars for different trophy wins: Australian winners of the AFC Champions League will wear a gold star inscribed with the number of wins, while A-League and W-League victory is recognised with a silver star similarly embossed; reigning league or FFA Cup champions will also wear a gold competition emblem in the season following the championship.

text: Major League Soccer

text: 's previously informal system, one star per

text: MLS Cup

text: title, was standardised in 2006, with the defending champions wearing the

text: MLS Scudetto

text: , like the

text: Serie A

text: system, for one season before adding a new star.  Starting in 2012, the Scudetto was replaced with a single gold star worn by reigning champions above any other silver championship stars. In 2016, this system changed again in recognition of the

text: LA Galaxy

text: 's fifth championship title: champion clubs during their title defence will wear a large gold star (featuring the year of the league win) above other smaller stars set in silver; clubs with five championships (presently only the Galaxy) will wear one gold star; and teams with one-to-four MLS Cup wins will wear one silver star for each victory. In Australia, they also use a system based around different coloured stars for different trophy wins: Australian winners of the

text: AFC Champions League

text: will wear a gold star inscribed with the number of wins, while

text: A-League

text: and

text: W-League

text: victory is recognised with a silver star similarly embossed; reigning league or

text: FFA Cup

text: champions will also wear a gold competition emblem in the season following the championship.

text: The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.

text: The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the

text: Big Bang

text: and a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by

text: cosmic ray

text: s). Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming

text: supernova

text: s. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.

text: HD 81799 is a star in the constellation Hydra. Its apparent magnitude is 4.69.

text: HD 81799 is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Hydra

text: . Its

text: apparent magnitude

text: is 4.69.

text: Four days after the event was recorded, the progenitor star was tentatively identified as Sanduleak -69° 202, a blue supergiant.After the supernova faded, the identification was definitely confirmed by Sanduleak -69° 202 having disappeared. This was an unexpected identification, because at the time blue supergiants were not considered susceptible to a supernova event in existing models of high mass stellar evolution. Many models of the progenitor have attributed the color to its chemical composition, particularly the low levels of heavy elements, among other factors. There was some speculation that the star might have merged with a companion star prior to the supernova. However, it is now widely understood that blue supergiants are natural progenitors of supernovae, although there is still speculation that the evolution of such stars requires mass loss involving a binary companion. It is of note that the supernova of the blue giant Sanduleak -69° 202 was about one-tenth as luminous as the average observed type II supernova, which is associated with the denser makeup of the star. Because blue supergiant supernovae are not as bright as those generated by red supergiants, we cannot see them in as large a volume. We would thus not expect to see as many of them, and so they might not be as rare or unusual as previously thought.

text: Four days after the event was recorded, the progenitor star was tentatively identified as Sanduleak -69° 202, a

text: blue supergiant

text: .After the supernova faded, the identification was definitely confirmed by Sanduleak -69° 202 having disappeared. This was an unexpected identification, because at the time blue supergiants were not considered susceptible to a supernova event in existing models of

text: high mass stellar evolution

text: . Many models of the progenitor have attributed the color to its chemical composition, particularly the low levels of heavy elements, among other factors. There was some speculation that the star might have merged with a

text: companion star

text: prior to the supernova. However, it is now widely understood that blue supergiants are natural progenitors of supernovae, although there is still speculation that the evolution of such stars requires mass loss involving a binary companion. It is of note that the supernova of the blue giant Sanduleak -69° 202 was about one-tenth as luminous as the average observed

text: type II supernova

text: , which is associated with the denser makeup of the star. Because blue supergiant supernovae are not as bright as those generated by

text: red supergiant

text: s, we cannot see them in as large a volume. We would thus not expect to see as many of them, and so they might not be as rare or unusual as previously thought.

text: There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators. Electrostatic accelerators use static electric fields to accelerate particles.  The most common types are the Cockcroft–Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator.  A small-scale example of this class is the cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television set.  The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating voltage, which is limited by electrical breakdown. Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields (either magnetic induction or oscillating radio frequency fields) to accelerate particles.  Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field.    This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators.

text: There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators.

text: Electrostatic

text: accelerators use static

text: electric field

text: s to accelerate particles.  The most common types are the

text: Cockcroft–Walton generator

text: and the

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: .  A small-scale example of this class is the

text: cathode ray tube

text: in an ordinary old television set.  The achievable

text: kinetic energy

text: for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating

text: voltage

text: , which is limited by

text: electrical breakdown

text: . Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields (either

text: magnetic induction

text: or oscillating

text: radio frequency

text: fields) to accelerate particles.  Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field.    This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators.

text: A supermassive black hole at the core of a galaxy may serve to regulate the rate of star formation in a galactic nucleus. A black hole that is accreting infalling matter can become active, emitting a strong wind through a collimated relativistic jet. This can limit further star formation. Massive black holes ejecting radio-frequency-emitting particles at near-light speed can also block the formation of new stars in aging galaxies. However, the radio emissions around the jets may also trigger star formation. Likewise, a weaker jet may trigger star formation when it collides with a cloud.

text: A

text: supermassive black hole

text: at the core of a galaxy may serve to regulate the rate of star formation in a galactic nucleus. A black hole that is accreting infalling matter can become

text: active

text: , emitting a strong wind through a collimated

text: relativistic jet

text: . This can limit further star formation. Massive black holes ejecting radio-frequency-emitting particles at near-light speed can also block the formation of new stars in aging galaxies. However, the radio emissions around the jets may also trigger star formation. Likewise, a weaker jet may trigger star formation when it collides with a cloud.

text: The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the "stellar age" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (10–10 years), as the smallest, longest-lived stars in our universe, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of compact objects: brown dwarfs, white dwarfs that are cooling or cold ("black dwarfs"), neutron stars, and black holes. Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions.

text: The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the "stellar age" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (10–10 years), as the smallest, longest-lived stars in our universe, tiny

text: red dwarf

text: s, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of

text: compact objects

text: brown dwarf

text: s,

text: white dwarf

text: s that are cooling or cold ("

text: black dwarf

text: s"),

text: neutron star

text: s, and

text: black hole

text: s. Eventually, as a result of

text: gravitational relaxation

text: , all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions.

text: The 1976 ABA All Star Game was the 9th and final American Basketball Association All-Star Game, played at McNichols Arena in Denver, Colorado on January 27, 1976. This time, the league abandoned the usual East vs. West format it used from the 1967-68 season onward and instead had the league's first place team at the All Star break face off against a team of ABA All Stars.  At the All Star break the Denver Nuggets were in first place, which was convenient as the Nuggets had also been selected to host the game in McNichols Arena. Kevin Loughery of the New York Nets coached the All-Stars while Larry Brown led the Denver Nuggets. This was the second year in a row that Loughery and Brown coached against each other in the ABA All-Star Game. (The Nuggets went on to finish the regular season in first place at 60-24 (.714), but after beating the Kentucky Colonels 4 games to 3 in the ABA Semifinals the Nuggets lost in the 1976 ABA Finals to the New York Nets, 4 games to 2.)

text: The 1976 ABA All Star Game was the 9th and final

text: American Basketball Association

text: All-Star Game, played at

text: McNichols Arena

text: in

text: Denver, Colorado

text: on January 27, 1976. This time, the league abandoned the usual East vs. West format it used from the 1967-68 season onward and instead had the league's first place team at the All Star break face off against a team of ABA All Stars.  At the All Star break the

text: Denver Nuggets

text: were in first place, which was convenient as the Nuggets had also been selected to host the game in

text: McNichols Arena

text: Kevin Loughery

text: of the

text: New York Nets

text: coached the All-Stars while

text: Larry Brown

text: led the

text: Denver Nuggets

text: . This was the second year in a row that Loughery and Brown coached against each other in the ABA All-Star Game. (The Nuggets went on to finish the regular season in first place at 60-24 (.714), but after beating the

text: Kentucky Colonels

text: 4 games to 3 in the

text: ABA Semifinals

text: the Nuggets lost in the

text: 1976 ABA Finals

text: to the

text: New York Nets

text: , 4 games to 2.)

text: A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic particle accelerator, descended from the cyclotron, in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path.  The magnetic field which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, being synchronized to the increasing kinetic energy of the particles (see image). The synchrotron is one of the first accelerator concepts to enable the construction of large-scale facilities, since bending, beam focusing and acceleration can be separated into different components.  The most powerful modern particle accelerators use versions of the synchrotron design.  The largest synchrotron-type accelerator is the  Large Hadron Collider (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, built in 2008 by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).

text: A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic

text: particle accelerator

text: , descended from the

text: cyclotron

text: , in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path.  The

text: magnetic field

text: which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, being synchronized to the increasing

text: kinetic energy

text: of the particles (see image). The synchrotron is one of the first accelerator concepts to enable the construction of large-scale facilities, since bending, beam focusing and acceleration can be separated into different components.  The most powerful modern particle accelerators use versions of the synchrotron design.  The largest synchrotron-type accelerator is the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, built in 2008 by the

text: (CERN).

text: While RR Telescopii, also designated Nova Telescopii 1948, is often called a slow nova, it is now classified as a symbiotic nova system composed of an M5III pulsating red giant and a white dwarf; between 1944 and 1948 it brightened by about 7 magnitudes before being noticed at apparent magnitude 6.0 in mid-1948. It has since faded slowly to about apparent magnitude 12. QS Telescopii is a binary system composed of a white dwarf and main sequence donor star, in this case the two are close enough to be tidally locked, facing one another. Known as polars, material from the donor star does not form an accretion disk around the white dwarf, but rather streams directly onto it. This is due to the presence of the white dwarf's strong magnetic field.

text: While

text: RR Telescopii

text: , also designated Nova Telescopii 1948, is often called a

text: slow nova

text: , it is now classified as a

text: symbiotic nova

text: system composed of an M5III pulsating

text: red giant

text: and a white dwarf; between 1944 and 1948 it brightened by about 7 magnitudes before being noticed at apparent magnitude 6.0 in mid-1948. It has since faded slowly to about apparent magnitude 12.

text: QS Telescopii

text: is a binary system composed of a white dwarf and

text: main sequence

text: donor star, in this case the two are close enough to be

text: tidally locked

text: , facing one another. Known as

text: polars

text: , material from the donor star does not form an

text: accretion disk

text: around the white dwarf, but rather streams directly onto it. This is due to the presence of the white dwarf's strong

text: magnetic field

text: There are no markings on the night sky, though there exist many sky maps to aid stargazers in identifying constellations and other celestial objects.  Constellations are prominent because their stars tend to be brighter than other nearby stars in the sky.  Different cultures have created different groupings of constellations based on differing interpretations of the more-or-less random patterns of dots in the sky.  Constellations were identified without regard to distance to each star, but instead as if they were all dots on a dome.

text: There are no markings on the night sky, though there exist many

text: sky maps

text: to aid stargazers in identifying

text: constellation

text: s and other celestial objects.  Constellations are prominent because their stars tend to be brighter than other nearby stars in the sky.  Different cultures have created different groupings of constellations based on differing interpretations of the more-or-less random patterns of dots in the sky.  Constellations were identified without regard to distance to each star, but instead as if they were all dots on a dome.

text: Walke (DD-723) earned six battle stars during World War II, four battle stars in the Korean War, and seven battle stars for Vietnam service.

text: Walke (DD-723) earned six

text: battle stars

text: during World War II, four battle stars in the Korean War, and seven battle stars for Vietnam service.

text: 4 Equulei is a double star in the constellation of Equuleus.

text: 4 Equulei is a

text: double star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Equuleus

text: The relative numbers of blue, yellow, and red supergiants is an indicator of the speed of stellar evolution and is used as a powerful test  of models of the evolution of massive stars.

text: Main-sequence stars cool, but eventually reach a minimum bolometric luminosity that they can sustain through steady fusion. This varies from star to star, but is generally at least 0.01% that of the Sun. Brown dwarfs cool and darken steadily over their lifetimes: sufficiently old brown dwarfs will be too faint to be detectable.

text: Main-sequence stars cool, but eventually reach a minimum

text: bolometric luminosity

text: that they can sustain through steady fusion. This varies from star to star, but is generally at least 0.01% that of the Sun. Brown dwarfs cool and darken steadily over their lifetimes: sufficiently old brown dwarfs will be too faint to be detectable.

text: The Tucana Dwarf is a dwarf spheroidal galaxy of type dE5. It contains only old stars, formed in a single star formation era around the time the Milky Way's globular clusters formed. It is not experiencing any current star formation, unlike other isolated dwarf galaxies.

text: The Tucana Dwarf is a

text: dwarf spheroidal galaxy

text: of

text: type dE5

text: . It contains only old stars, formed in a single

text: star formation

text: era around the time the Milky Way's

text: globular cluster

text: s formed. It is not experiencing any current star formation, unlike other isolated dwarf galaxies.

text: Compact and fast-rotating astronomical objects (white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) have extremely strong magnetic fields. The magnetic field of a newly born fast-spinning neutron star is so strong (up to 10 teslas) that it electromagnetically radiates enough energy to quickly (in a matter of few million years) damp down the star rotation by 100 to 1000 times. Matter falling on a neutron star also has to follow the magnetic field lines, resulting in two hot spots on the surface where it can reach and collide with the star's surface. These spots are literally a few feet (about a metre) across but tremendously bright. Their periodic eclipsing during star rotation is hypothesized to be the source of pulsating radiation (see pulsars).

text: Compact and fast-rotating astronomical objects (

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s) have extremely strong magnetic fields. The magnetic field of a newly born fast-spinning neutron star is so strong (up to 10 teslas) that it electromagnetically radiates enough energy to quickly (in a matter of few million years) damp down the star rotation by 100 to 1000 times. Matter falling on a neutron star also has to follow the magnetic field lines, resulting in two hot spots on the surface where it can reach and collide with the star's surface. These spots are literally a few feet (about a metre) across but tremendously bright. Their periodic eclipsing during star rotation is hypothesized to be the source of pulsating radiation (see

text: pulsar

text: s).

text: FF Aql is a possible quadruple star system.  Analysis of its spectrum shows that it is a spectroscopic binary system with the fainter companion calculated to be a main sequence star of spectral type A9V to F3V, orbiting every 3.92 years.  A third star, revealed by speckle interferometry, is likely to be a cooler star that has evolved off the main sequence. A fourth star, that is of magnitude 11.4 and located 6 arcseconds away, is unlikely to be a member of the system.

text: FF Aql is a possible quadruple star system.  Analysis of its spectrum shows that it is a

text: spectroscopic binary

text: system with the fainter companion calculated to be a

text: main sequence

text: star of spectral type A9V to F3V, orbiting every 3.92 years.  A third star, revealed by speckle interferometry, is likely to be a cooler star that has evolved off the main sequence. A fourth star, that is of magnitude 11.4 and located 6

text: arcsecond

text: s away, is unlikely to be a member of the system.

text: The brighter of this two stars is A (a red dwarf), but the more massive is component B (a white dwarf).

text: The brighter of this two stars is A (a

text: red dwarf

text: ), but the more massive is component B (a

text: white dwarf

text: O-type stars are very hot and extremely luminous, with most of their radiated output in the ultraviolet range. These are the rarest of all main-sequence stars. About 1 in 3,000,000 (0.00003%) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are O-type stars. Some of the most massive stars lie within this spectral class. O-type stars frequently have complicated surroundings that make measurement of their spectra difficult.

text: O-type stars are very hot and extremely luminous, with most of their radiated output in the

text: ultraviolet

text: range. These are the rarest of all main-sequence stars. About 1 in 3,000,000 (0.00003%) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood are O-type stars. Some of the

text: most massive stars

text: lie within this spectral class. O-type stars frequently have complicated surroundings that make measurement of their spectra difficult.

text: The Michelin system remains the best known star system. A single star denotes "a very good restaurant in its category", two stars "excellent cooking, worth a detour", and three stars, "exceptional cuisine, worth a special journey".

text: Nuclear fusion has many potential attractions. Firstly, its hydrogen isotope fuels are relatively abundant – one of the necessary isotopes, deuterium, can be extracted from seawater, while the other fuel, tritium, would be bred from a lithium blanket using neutrons produced in the fusion reaction itself. Furthermore, a fusion reactor would produce virtually no CO or atmospheric pollutants, and its other radioactive waste products would be very short-lived compared to those produced by conventional nuclear reactors.

text: Nuclear fusion has many potential attractions. Firstly, its

text: hydrogen isotope

text: fuels are relatively abundant – one of the necessary isotopes,

text: deuterium

text: , can be extracted from

text: seawater

text: , while the other fuel,

text: tritium

text: , would be bred from a lithium blanket using neutrons produced in the fusion reaction itself. Furthermore, a fusion reactor would produce virtually no

text: CO

text: or atmospheric pollutants, and its other

text: radioactive waste products

text: would be very short-lived compared to those produced by conventional nuclear reactors.

text: Kappa Columbae is a giant star in the constellation Columba.

text: Kappa Columbae is a

text: giant star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Columba

text: A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common barycenter. Systems of two or more stars are called multiple star systems. These systems, especially when more distant, often appear to the unaided eye as a single point of light, and are then revealed as multiple by other means. Research over the last two centuries suggests that half or more of visible stars are part of multiple star systems.

text: A binary star is a

text: star system

text: consisting of two

text: star

text: s

text: orbit

text: ing around their common

text: barycenter

text: . Systems of two or more stars are called

text: multiple star systems

text: . These systems, especially when more distant, often appear to the unaided eye as a single point of light, and are then revealed as multiple by other means. Research over the last two centuries suggests that half or more of visible stars are part of multiple star systems.

text: In this system the ring of particle accelerators would not be in orbit, instead depending on the outward force of the magnetic field itself for support against the star's gravity. To inject energy into the star's atmosphere the ring current would first be temporarily shut down, allowing the particle accelerator stations to begin falling freely toward the star's surface. Once the stations had developed sufficient inward velocity the ring current would be reactivated and the resulting magnetic field would be used to reverse the stations' fall. This would "squeeze" the star, propelling stellar atmosphere through the polar magnetic nozzles. The ring current would be shut down again before the ring stations achieved enough outward velocity to throw them too far away from the star, and the star's gravity would be allowed to pull them back inward to repeat the cycle.

text: Regardless of the details, the outer surface of a protostar consists at least partially of shocked gas that has fallen from the inner edge of the disk. The surface is thus very different from the relatively quiescent photosphere of a pre-main sequence or main-sequence star. Within its deep interior, the protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center, hydrogen is not yet undergoing nuclear fusion. Theory predicts, however, that the hydrogen isotope deuterium is undergoing fusion, creating helium-3. The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed pre-main-sequence stars.

text: Regardless of the details, the outer surface of a protostar consists at least partially of shocked gas that has fallen from the inner edge of the disk. The surface is thus very different from the relatively quiescent

text: photosphere

text: of a

text: pre-main sequence

text: or

text: main-sequence

text: star. Within its deep interior, the protostar has lower temperature than an ordinary star. At its center,

text: hydrogen

text: is not yet undergoing

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Theory predicts, however, that the hydrogen isotope

text: deuterium

text: is undergoing fusion, creating

text: . The heat from this fusion reaction tends to inflate the protostar, and thereby helps determine the size of the youngest observed

text: pre-main-sequence

text: stars.

text: Supergiants are rare and short-lived stars, but their high luminosity means that there are many naked eye examples, including some of the brightest stars in the sky.  Rigel is the brightest star in the constellation Orion and a typical blue-white supergiant, Deneb is the brightest star in Cygnus and a white supergiant, Delta Cephei is the famous prototype Cepheid variable and a yellow supergiant, while Betelgeuse, Antares and UY Scuti are red supergiants.  μ Cephei is one of the reddest stars visible to the naked eye and one of the largest in the galaxy.  Rho Cassiopeiae is a naked eye variable, a yellow hypergiant, and one of the most luminous naked eye stars.

text: Supergiants are rare and short-lived stars, but their high luminosity means that there are many naked eye examples, including some of the brightest stars in the sky.

text: Rigel

text: is the brightest star in the

text: constellation

text: Orion

text: and a typical blue-white supergiant,

text: Deneb

text: is the brightest star in

text: Cygnus

text: and a white supergiant,

text: Delta Cephei

text: is the famous prototype Cepheid variable and a yellow supergiant, while

text: Betelgeuse

text: Antares

text: and UY Scuti are

text: red supergiant

text: s.

text: μ Cephei

text: is one of the reddest stars visible to the naked eye and one of the largest in the galaxy.

text: Rho Cassiopeiae

text: is a naked eye variable, a yellow hypergiant, and one of the most luminous naked eye stars.

text: VxV was met with generally positive reception from music critics. Anthony Bryant of HM Magazine rated the album four stars out of five, writing how "Wolves at the Gate has put together a worthy blend of melodic songs [...] with heart-pounding jammers [...] for a stellar release." At New Release Tuesday, Mary Nikkel rated the album four stars out of five, saying how "VxV is theologically dense and gospel-centric, emphasizing calls to repentance and redemption, frequently using strong scriptural imagery and voice overs to achieve an even stronger presentation." In addition, Nikkel observes how "The album's strength lies in its urgency, setting scruples aside in favor of raw writing focused on our desperate need for a desperately loving Savior." Brody B. of Indie Vision Music rated the album a perfect five stars, saying how the release "finds them more focused and spiritual than ever", and calls "The combination of powerful lyrics and intricate musicianship is a reckoning force." Katie Evans, writing for Big Cheese, rated the album an eight out of ten, for its enormity as "an album which sticks around way longer [than when] the stereo plays out" calling it a "certified deal clincher."

text: VxV was met with generally positive reception from music critics. Anthony Bryant of

text: HM Magazine

text: rated the album four stars out of five, writing how "Wolves at the Gate has put together a worthy blend of melodic songs [...] with heart-pounding jammers [...] for a stellar release." At New Release Tuesday, Mary Nikkel rated the album four stars out of five, saying how "VxV is theologically dense and gospel-centric, emphasizing calls to repentance and redemption, frequently using strong scriptural imagery and voice overs to achieve an even stronger presentation." In addition, Nikkel observes how "The album's strength lies in its urgency, setting scruples aside in favor of raw writing focused on our desperate need for a desperately loving Savior." Brody B. of Indie Vision Music rated the album a perfect five stars, saying how the release "finds them more focused and spiritual than ever", and calls "The combination of powerful lyrics and intricate musicianship is a reckoning force." Katie Evans, writing for

text: Big Cheese

text: , rated the album an eight out of ten, for its enormity as "an album which sticks around way longer [than when] the stereo plays out" calling it a "certified deal clincher."

text: Baby for Sale is a 2004 television film that was premiered on the Lifetime Network on 12 July 2004. It stars Dana Delany and was directed by Peter Svatek. The filming took place in Montréal, Québec, Canada.

text: Baby for Sale is a 2004 television film that was premiered on the

text: Lifetime Network

text: on 12 July 2004. It stars

text: Dana Delany

text: and was directed by Peter Svatek. The filming took place in

text: Montréal, Québec

text: , Canada.

text: The second season of MTV's Scream premiered on May 30, 2016.

text: The second season of

text: MTV

text: 's

text: Scream

text: premiered on May 30, 2016.

text: When a main-sequence star consumes the hydrogen at its core, the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume. Stars with less than 0.23 , are predicted to directly become white dwarfs when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt. In stars between this threshold and 10 , the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion, forming a hydrogen-burning shell. In consequence of this change, the outer envelope of the star expands and decreases in temperature, turning it into a red giant. At this point the star is evolving off the main sequence and entering the giant branch. The path which the star now follows across the HR diagram, to the upper right of the main sequence, is called an evolutionary track.

text: When a main-sequence star consumes the hydrogen at its core, the loss of energy generation causes its gravitational collapse to resume. Stars with less than 0.23 , are predicted to directly become

text: white dwarf

text: s when energy generation by nuclear fusion of hydrogen at their core comes to a halt. In stars between this threshold and 10 , the hydrogen surrounding the helium core reaches sufficient temperature and pressure to undergo fusion, forming a hydrogen-burning shell. In consequence of this change, the outer envelope of the star expands and decreases in temperature, turning it into a

text: red giant

text: . At this point the star is evolving off the main sequence and entering the giant branch. The path which the star now follows across the HR diagram, to the upper right of the main sequence, is called an evolutionary track.

text: A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of particle accelerator that greatly increases the kinetic energy of charged subatomic particles or ions by subjecting the charged particles to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beamline. The principles for such machines were proposed by Gustav Ising in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by Rolf Widerøe in 1928  at the RWTH Aachen University.Linacs have many applications: they generate X-rays and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in radiation therapy, serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and positrons) for particle physics.

text: A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of

text: particle accelerator

text: that greatly increases the

text: kinetic energy

text: of charged

text: subatomic particle

text: s or

text: ion

text: s by subjecting the

text: charged particle

text: s to a series of

text: oscillating

text: electric potential

text: s along a

text: linear

text: beamline

text: . The principles for such machines were proposed by

text: Gustav Ising

text: in 1924, while the first machine that worked was constructed by

text: Rolf Widerøe

text: in 1928  at the

text: RWTH Aachen University

text: .Linacs have many applications: they generate

text: X-ray

text: s and high energy electrons for medicinal purposes in

text: radiation therapy

text: , serve as particle injectors for higher-energy accelerators, and are used directly to achieve the highest kinetic energy for light particles (electrons and positrons) for

text: particle physics

text: The journal is abstracted and indexed in MathSciNet and Zentralblatt Math.

text: The journal is abstracted and indexed in

text: MathSciNet

text: and

text: Zentralblatt Math

text: The most probable candidate sites for the r-process has long been suggested to be core-collapse supernovae (spectral Type Ib, Ic and II), which may provide the necessary physical conditions for the r-process. However, the abundance of r-process nuclei requires that either only a small fraction of supernovae eject r-process nuclei to the interstellar medium, or that each supernova ejects only a very small amount of r-process material.  In addition, the ejected material must be relatively neutron-rich, a condition which has been difficult to achieve in models.  An alternative site proposed in 1974 was decompressing neutron star matter.  It was proposed such matter is ejected from neutron stars merging with black holes in compact binaries. In 1989 (see also  ) this scenario was extended to binary neutron star mergers (a binary star system of two neutron stars that collide). These sites may now be starting to be observationally confirmed.

text: The most probable candidate sites for the r-process has long been suggested to be core-collapse

text: supernova

text: e (spectral Type Ib, Ic and II), which may provide the necessary physical conditions for the r-process. However, the abundance of r-process

text: nuclei

text: requires that either only a small fraction of supernovae eject r-process nuclei to the

text: interstellar medium

text: , or that each supernova ejects only a very small amount of r-process material.  In addition, the ejected material must be relatively neutron-rich, a condition which has been difficult to achieve in models.  An alternative site proposed in 1974 was decompressing

text: neutron star

text: matter.  It was proposed such matter is ejected from

text: neutron stars

text: merging with

text: black holes

text: in compact binaries. In 1989 (see also  ) this scenario was extended to binary

text: neutron star

text: mergers (a

text: binary star system

text: of two neutron stars that collide). These sites may now be starting to be

text: observationally

text: confirmed.

text: In enzymology, a glycerophosphoinositol glycerophosphodiesterase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

text: In

text: enzymology

text: , a glycerophosphoinositol glycerophosphodiesterase () is an

text: enzyme

text: that

text: catalyzes

text: the

text: chemical reaction

text: From 1997 to 2002, Dedini served as an assistant coach with the Quaker Valley High School boys' soccer team.  In 2004, he became an assistant (goalkeeper) coach with Sacramento State women's soccer team.  In 2005, he became a full assistant.  On February 2, 2007, Dedini replaced Katie Poynter as head coach.  He was the 2007 and 2010 Big Sky Conference Coach of the Year.

text: From 1997 to 2002, Dedini served as an assistant coach with the

text: Quaker Valley High School

text: boys' soccer team.  In 2004, he became an assistant (goalkeeper) coach with

text: Sacramento State

text: women's soccer team.  In 2005, he became a full assistant.  On February 2, 2007, Dedini replaced Katie Poynter as head coach.  He was the 2007 and 2010

text: Big Sky Conference

text: Coach of the Year.

text: The 2000 Chinese census recorded 8,028,133 Tujia in China.

text: The

entity_name: Fifth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China

text: 2000 Chinese census

text: recorded 8,028,133 Tujia in China.

text: Having blown off course and crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, Cutter was captured by a Soviet submarine and held as a spy. Opus developed amnesia during the incident and found his way back to the Bloom Boardinghouse, and told everyone what had happened once his memory returned. Eventually Cutter was traded for Bill the Cat, who had apparently been moonlighting as a spy. He appeared much less often after that. In one Sunday strip, it is revealed that "Cutter John's" true name is Cutter Jeff. He prefers to be called Cutter John, though.

text: Having blown off course and crashed into the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , Cutter was captured by a

text: Soviet

text: submarine and held as a spy. Opus developed

text: amnesia

text: during the incident and found his way back to the Bloom Boardinghouse, and told everyone what had happened once his memory returned. Eventually Cutter was traded for

text: Bill the Cat

text: , who had apparently been moonlighting as a spy. He appeared much less often after that. In one Sunday strip, it is revealed that "Cutter John's" true name is Cutter Jeff. He prefers to be called Cutter John, though.

text: Both in the Walkamepa and Wikedjasapa, the following clans were represented and shared mostly overlapping territories:

text: Prints can be made from large format negatives and lithography film, Digital negative (transparency) or everyday objects can be used to make photograms.

text: Prints can be made from large format

text: negatives

text: and

text: lithography

text: film,

text: Digital negative (transparency)

text: or everyday objects can be used to make

text: photogram

text: s.

text: In April 28, 2005, Misamis University was certified by DET NORSKE VERITAS (DNV), (Management System Certificate No. 2373-2005-AQ-SIN-RVA) The Netherlands, through its DNV Regional Office in Singapore as having conformed to the Quality Management System set forth in ISO: 9001:2000 standard in full scope. Five years later, in July 14, 2010, the university was certified to ISO 9001:2008 Standard.

text: In many cases, the extinct wild type ancestors of a given species are known only through skeletons and, in some cases, historical descriptions, so their phenotype is not directly accessible. Therefore, there is no certainty of success with a breeding back attempt and the results must be reviewed with caution. In order to test genetic closeness, both mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA have to be accessible. However, success is possible: humans selected only for superficial characters and as a rule did not change inner mechanisms such as digestion.  Further, since many domestic animals show a behaviour that is derived from their wild ancestors (such as the herding instinct of cattle or the social instincts of dogs), and are fit to survive under natural circumstances, as evidenced by the many feral populations of many domestic animals, it can be presumed that back-bred animals will function like their wild ancestors.  For example, food choice should be the same in domestic and wild types. Natural selection could serve as an additional tool in creating authentic robustness, behaviour and maybe also phenotype. For large herbivores, a sufficient predator population would also be necessary to support such a process, but this predator population is largely not present in today's Europe, where many breeding back projects are conducted.

text: In many cases, the extinct wild type ancestors of a given species are known only through skeletons and, in some cases, historical descriptions, so their phenotype is not directly accessible. Therefore, there is no certainty of success with a breeding back attempt and the results must be reviewed with caution. In order to test genetic closeness, both

text: mitochondrial DNA

text: and

text: nuclear DNA

text: have to be accessible. However, success is possible: humans selected only for superficial characters and as a rule did not change inner mechanisms such as digestion.  Further, since many domestic animals show a behaviour that is derived from their wild ancestors (such as the herding instinct of

text: cattle

text: or the social instincts of

text: dog

text: s), and are fit to survive under natural circumstances, as evidenced by the many

text: feral

text: populations of many domestic animals, it can be presumed that back-bred animals will function like their wild ancestors.  For example, food choice should be the same in domestic and wild types.

text: Natural selection

text: could serve as an additional tool in creating authentic robustness, behaviour and maybe also phenotype. For large herbivores, a sufficient predator population would also be necessary to support such a process, but this predator population is largely not present in today's

text: Europe

text: , where many breeding back projects are conducted.

text: A travel document ( "Teudat Ma'avar Israelit Lezarim") may be issued to Arab residents of East-Jerusalem who have neither Israeli nor Jordanian citizenship, and to non-Israeli Arab residents of the Golan Heights.

text: Family participation as managers and/or owners of a business can strengthen the company because family members are often loyal and dedicated to the family enterprise. However, family participation as managers and/or owners of a business can present unique problems because the dynamics of the family system and the dynamics of the business systems are often not in balance.

text: As of March 31, 2014, Cepheid markets 14 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cleared Clinical IVD Tests in the U.S. and 16 CE/IVD tests internationally and has placed 6,012 GeneXpert Systems globally.

text: As of March 31, 2014, Cepheid markets 14 U.S.

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) cleared Clinical IVD Tests in the U.S. and 16 CE/IVD tests internationally and has placed 6,012 GeneXpert Systems globally.

text: Apparently, the star formation rate in the Pisces Dwarf has been declining for the past 10 billion years. Most of the galaxy's stars were formed in its early years, about 8 billion years ago. The  study has also shown that there has been no significant star formation for the past 100 million years. Hence, most of the stars that populate this galaxy are old, metal-rich stars aged about 2.5 billion years. However, there are small clusters of young, hot, blue stars on the outer areas of the galaxy.

text: Diario provided news stories based on investigative journalism. Enzo Baldon, an Italian journalist working for the magazine was killed in Iraq in August 2004.

text: Diario provided news stories based on

text: investigative journalism

text: . Enzo Baldon, an

text: Italian

text: journalist working for the magazine was killed in

text: Iraq

text: in August 2004.

text: In 2016, the Chargers picked up Inman's one-year tender for $600,000.

text: SysOps could add a common third-party script written in PPL, called "DIZ/2-PCB" that would process. rewrite, verify and format DIZ files from archives as they were uploaded to a BBS.  The software would extract the archive, examine the contents, compile a report, import the DIZ description file and then format it according to your liking.  During this time, it was usual practice to add additional lines to the description, such as ads exclaiming the source of the uploaded BBS.

text: The Heracleia were ancient festivals honouring the divine hero Heracles. The ancient Athenians celebrated the festival, which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the second day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late July or early August), at the Κυνοσαργες (Kynosarges) gymnasium at the demos Diomeia outside the walls of Athens, in a sanctuary dedicated to Heracles. His priests were drawn from the list of boys who were not full Athenian citizens (nothoi).

text: The

text: Heracleia

text: were ancient festivals honouring the divine hero

text: Heracles

text: . The ancient Athenians celebrated the festival, which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the second day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late July or early August), at the Κυνοσαργες (Kynosarges)

text: gymnasium

text: at the demos Diomeia outside the walls of Athens, in a sanctuary dedicated to Heracles. His priests were drawn from the list of boys who were not full Athenian citizens (nothoi).

text: On 2 February 2015, transfer deadline day, Lee signed for Premier League side Crystal Palace for an undisclosed fee with Barry Bannan going the other way on loan. Lee's contract runs to June 2018. He scored his first goal for the club against Shrewsbury Town in the League Cup on 25 August 2015. He scored his first league goal for Palace with a 30-yard volley at the 90th minute to defeat Stoke City 2-1 on 19 December 2015.

text: On 2 February 2015, transfer deadline day, Lee signed for

text: Premier League

text: side

text: Crystal Palace

text: for an undisclosed fee with

text: Barry Bannan

text: going the other way on loan. Lee's contract runs to June 2018. He scored his first goal for the club against

text: Shrewsbury Town

text: in the

text: League Cup

text: on 25 August 2015. He scored his first league goal for Palace with a 30-yard volley at the 90th minute to defeat

text: Stoke City

text: 2-1 on 19 December 2015.

text: A special edition is available with a DVD containing 24 music videos.

text: HD 316285 has been identified as a possible type II-b or type IIn supernova candidate in modelling of the fate of stars 20 to 25 times the mass of the Sun.  It has been shown that these supernovae may explode directly from stars in an LBV phase after spending time as a red supergiant.

text: HD 316285 has been identified as a possible type II-b or type IIn

text: supernova

text: candidate in modelling of the fate of stars 20 to 25 times the mass of the Sun.  It has been shown that these supernovae may explode directly from stars in an LBV phase after spending time as a

text: red supergiant

text: The Creativity Prize is awarded to work that the Prize Committee deems to be a "breakthrough" in any water-related field. The work might be an invention, a research paper, a new technology, or a development project. It can relate to any branch of any water-related discipline. It might contribute to increasing available water resources, or to alleviating scarcity, or to minimizing pollution. It might make a material contribution to water conservation or to effective water management. The work should provide a solution which is useful to society, contribute to development and social upliftment, be practical, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective.

text: The Creativity Prize is awarded to work that the Prize Committee deems to be a "breakthrough" in any water-related field. The work might be an invention, a research paper, a new technology, or a development project. It can relate to any branch of any water-related discipline. It might contribute to increasing available water resources, or to alleviating scarcity, or to minimizing pollution. It might make a material contribution to

text: water conservation

text: or to effective water management. The work should provide a solution which is useful to society, contribute to development and social upliftment, be practical, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective.

text: If the star has about 0.2 to , it is massive enough to become a red giant but does not have enough mass to initiate the fusion of helium. These "intermediate" stars cool somewhat and increase their luminosity but never achieve the tip of the red-giant branch and helium core flash. When the ascent of the red-giant branch ends they puff off their outer layers much like a post-asymptotic-giant-branch star and then become a white dwarf.

text: A Multi-line Telephone System (MLTS), often referred to as a private branch exchange, is a telecommunications switching system used by enterprise style organizations to process calls between employees within the organization and with parties external to the organization. An MLTS may serve a single building, segments of multi-tenant buildings, a group of buildings on a campus or even a number of buildings separated by geography. New communications technologies are making it possible for single MLTS systems to serve locations at far distant places that may span multiple governmental jurisdictions even distant countries.

text: A Multi-line Telephone System (MLTS), often referred to as a

text: private branch exchange

text: , is a telecommunications switching system used by enterprise style organizations to process calls between employees within the organization and with parties external to the organization. An MLTS may serve a single building, segments of multi-tenant buildings, a group of buildings on a campus or even a number of buildings separated by geography. New communications technologies are making it possible for single MLTS systems to serve locations at far distant places that may span multiple governmental jurisdictions even distant countries.

text: Rodopi Peak (Vrah Rodopi \'vr&h ro-'do-pi\) is an ice-covered peak rising to approximately 500 m in Delchev Ridge, Tangra Mountains, eastern Livingston Islandin the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica.

text: Rodopi Peak (Vrah Rodopi \'vr&h ro-'do-pi\) is an ice-covered peak rising to approximately 500 m in

text: Delchev Ridge

text: Tangra Mountains

text: , eastern

text: Livingston Island

text: in the

text: South Shetland Islands

text: Antarctica

text: He returned to England in the 1970s and enjoyed a hugely successful music career, starting a band called “Slam!” (a parody of Wham!). This shot him to fame at once. At the end of the 1970s, the band split up and he started a solo career. His first solo album, "Firelight", went platinum and he won several awards and released the single "Something for the Children" at Christmas time in 1986, with all funds given to charity. Cray campaigned for several issues, including saving the rainforests, ending world debt and banning animal testing. His tireless work for charity earned him a knighthood in 1990. The rich superstar then branched into hotels, television, and even started developing "Gameslayer", the most advanced and realistic games console of its time.

text: He returned to England in the 1970s and enjoyed a hugely successful music career, starting a band called “Slam!” (a parody of

text: Wham!

text: ). This shot him to fame at once. At the end of the 1970s, the band split up and he started a solo career. His first solo album, "Firelight", went platinum and he won several awards and released the single "Something for the Children" at Christmas time in 1986, with all funds given to charity. Cray campaigned for several issues, including saving the rainforests, ending world debt and banning animal testing. His tireless work for charity earned him a knighthood in 1990. The rich superstar then branched into hotels, television, and even started developing "Gameslayer", the most advanced and realistic games console of its time.

text: The main advantage of the more modern agents is lower blood solubility, resulting in faster induction of and recovery from anaesthesia.

text: In 2011 Bustos was honored with a Prince Claus Award from the Netherlands in the category Breaking taboos.

text: In 2011 Bustos was honored with a

text: Prince Claus Award

text: from the

text: Netherlands

text: in the category Breaking taboos.

text: Shortest path bridging allows Ethernet switches to be connected in a mesh topology and for all paths to be active.

text: Shortest path bridging

text: allows

text: Ethernet switch

text: es to be connected in a mesh topology and for all paths to be active.

text: 41 (forty-one) is the natural number following 40 and preceding 42.

text: 41 (forty-one) is the

text: natural number

text: following

text: and preceding

text: For the first year since 1960 there was no Disney Time show on BBC1 over the Christmas holidays at all.

text: The active fuel would have been surrounded by a radial blanket consisting of 150 assemblies of similar, but not identical, design containing depleted uranium oxide; outside of the blanket would have been 324 radial shield assemblies of the same overall hexagonal geometry.

text: The active fuel would have been surrounded by a radial blanket consisting of 150 assemblies of similar, but not identical, design containing

text: depleted

text: uranium

text: oxide; outside of the blanket would have been 324 radial shield assemblies of the same overall hexagonal geometry.