text: Annual (1), or perennial (3). Stolons absent (1), or present (3). Culms decumbent (1/1); 20–40–60 cm long; firm (3), or wiry (1); rooting from lower nodes (1/1). Ligule a ciliate membrane (1), or a fringe of hairs (3). Leaf-blades stiff (1), or firm (3). Leaf-blade margins cartilaginous (2/2).

text: Once the skin is damaged, a series of interrelated events take place in close succession in order to repair the skin. Within minutes after an injury occurs, blood platelets collect at the site of injury to form a clot. This clot limits bleeding at the injury site.

text: Once the skin is damaged, a series of interrelated events take place in close succession in order to repair the skin. Within minutes after an injury occurs, blood

entity_name: Platelet

text: platelet

text: s collect at the site of injury to form a

entity_name: Thrombus

text: clot

text: . This clot limits bleeding at the injury site.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Claspers are found on the males of cartilaginous fishes. They are the posterior part of the pelvic fins that have also been modified to function as intromittent organs, and are used to channel semen into the female's cloaca during copulation. The act of mating in sharks usually includes raising one of the claspers to allow water into a siphon through a specific orifice.  The clasper is then inserted into the cloaca, where it opens like an umbrella to anchor its position. The siphon then begins to contract expelling water and sperm.

entity_name: Clasper

text: Clasper

text: s are found on the males of

entity_name: Chondrichthyes

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es. They are the posterior part of the pelvic fins that have also been modified to function as intromittent organs, and are used to channel semen into the female's

entity_name: Cloaca

text: cloaca

text: during copulation. The act of mating in sharks usually includes raising one of the claspers to allow water into a siphon through a specific

entity_name: Body orifice

text: orifice

text: .  The clasper is then inserted into the cloaca, where it opens like an umbrella to anchor its position. The siphon then begins to contract expelling water and sperm.

text: Both male and female species have five pairs of sharp teeth. These are not used in retrieval of a food source, like a piercing mouthpart, but are instead used to aid digestion and breakdown of nutrients. Human cases involving skin inflammation are likely due to these teeth. It is important to note the distinction that while Megaselia scalaris can feed on blood meals, the teeth are not used to puncture the host. The blood must be found on the body as an exudate. One theory to the evolution of these teeth is that Megaselia scalaris uses them in order to exit their pupal casings.

text: Both male and female species have five pairs of sharp teeth. These are not used in retrieval of a food source, like a piercing mouthpart, but are instead used to aid digestion and breakdown of nutrients. Human cases involving skin

entity_name: Inflammation

text: inflammation

text: are likely due to these teeth. It is important to note the distinction that while Megaselia scalaris can feed on blood meals, the teeth are not used to puncture the host. The blood must be found on the body as an

entity_name: Exudate

text: exudate

text: . One theory to the evolution of these teeth is that Megaselia scalaris uses them in order to exit their pupal casings.

text: Cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays and skates) have cartilaginous jaws. The jaw's surface (in comparison to the vertebrae and gill arches) needs extra strength due to its heavy exposure to physical stress. It has a layer of tiny hexagonal plates called "tesserae", which are crystal blocks of calcium salts arranged as a mosaic. This gives these areas much of the same strength found in the bony tissue found in other animals.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: es (

entity_name: Shark

text: sharks

entity_name: Batoidea

text: rays

text: and

entity_name: Skate (fish)

text: skates

text: ) have

entity_name: Cartilage

text: cartilaginous

text: jaws. The jaw's surface (in comparison to the

entity_name: Vertebra

text: vertebrae

text: and gill arches) needs extra strength due to its heavy exposure to physical stress. It has a layer of tiny

entity_name: Hexagon

text: hexagon

text: al plates called "

entity_name: Tessera

text: tesserae

text: ", which are

entity_name: Crystal

text: crystal

text: blocks of calcium salts arranged as a

entity_name: Mosaic

text: mosaic

text: . This gives these areas much of the same strength found in the bony tissue found in other animals.

method: UNH-ecn

text: Paracanthopoma parva has been found on the gills of another species of giant catfish, Brachyplatystoma vaillanti. Species within the genus Paracanthopoma have the longest and most robust snout, and the longest and strongest dentary teeth among blood-feeding candirus, which fit their drilling needs. Riding on a giant host is advantageous for dispersal,  no need to search for hosts to feed, and protection from predators. It is unlikely that Paracanthopoma takes blood from the tiny holes it drills in the skin; the areas these fish attach to have no large blood vessels to supply them with blood, and fish that have been riding are found only with trace amounts of blood in their digestive tracts. Also, most vandelliine candirus take blood from the gill region of their hosts.

text: Paracanthopoma parva has been found on the gills of another species of giant catfish,

text: Brachyplatystoma vaillanti

text: . Species within the genus Paracanthopoma have the longest and most robust snout, and the longest and strongest dentary teeth among blood-feeding

entity_name: Candiru

text: candiru

text: s, which fit their drilling needs. Riding on a giant host is advantageous for dispersal,  no need to search for hosts to feed, and protection from predators. It is unlikely that Paracanthopoma takes blood from the tiny holes it drills in the skin; the areas these fish attach to have no large blood vessels to supply them with blood, and fish that have been riding are found only with trace amounts of blood in their digestive tracts. Also, most vandelliine candirus take blood from the gill region of their hosts.

text: Harpacanthus is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish.

text: Harpacanthus is an extinct

entity_name: Genus

text: genus

text: of

text: cartilaginous fish

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Feeding mainly on cephalopods, bony fishes, and other cartilaginous fishes, the copper shark is a fast-swimming predator that has been known to hunt in large groups, utilizing their numbers to their advantage; however for most of the time they remain solitary. Off South Africa, this species associates closely with the annual sardine run, involving millions of southern African pilchard (Sardinops sagax). Like other requiem sharks, it is viviparous, with the developing embryos mainly nourished through a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac. Females bear litters of 7 to 24 pups every other year in coastal nursery areas, after a gestation period of 12 or perhaps as long as 21 months. It is extremely slow-growing, with males and females not reaching maturity until 13–19 and 19–20 years of age respectively.

text: Feeding mainly on

entity_name: Cephalopod

text: cephalopod

text: s,

entity_name: Osteichthyes

text: bony fish

text: es, and other

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es, the copper shark is a fast-swimming

entity_name: Predation

text: predator

text: that has been known to hunt in large groups, utilizing their numbers to their advantage; however for most of the time they remain solitary. Off

entity_name: South Africa

text: South Africa

text: , this species associates closely with the annual

entity_name: Sardine run

text: sardine run

text: , involving millions of

entity_name: South American pilchard

text: southern African pilchard

text: (Sardinops sagax). Like other requiem sharks, it is

entity_name: Viviparity

text: viviparous

text: , with the developing

entity_name: Embryo

text: embryo

text: s mainly nourished through a

entity_name: Placenta

text: placenta

text: l connection formed from the depleted

entity_name: Yolk sac

text: yolk sac

text: . Females bear litters of 7 to 24 pups every other year in coastal nursery areas, after a

entity_name: List of mammalian gestation durations

text: gestation period

text: of 12 or perhaps as long as 21 months. It is extremely slow-growing, with males and females not reaching

entity_name: Sexual maturity

text: maturity

text: until 13–19 and 19–20 years of age respectively.

text: The toothless blindcat has no pigmentation and no externally visible eyes. The eye remnants are extremely reduced in size, with very little or no trace of a retina or lens; the optic tract is present, but always regresses before reaching the brain. In juveniles, the eye is under the skin, but as the fish grows, the eyes are withdrawn even further. The head is as long as it is broad. The adipose fin is long and rounded at the end, and is connected to the caudal fin. The dorsal and pectoral fins have spines. The swim bladder in these fish is reduced. The skull is mostly cartilaginous and not well-ossified, unlike the adults of most larger ictalurids. The lateral line is fragmented and reaches to between the anterior to the posterior end of the adipose fin. This species also has a few paedomorphic traits (indicated by small size, kidney morphology, and weak ossification of the skeleton). This species may reach about  TL.

text: The toothless blindcat has no pigmentation and no externally visible eyes. The eye remnants are extremely reduced in size, with very little or no trace of a

entity_name: Retina

text: retina

text: or

entity_name: Lens (anatomy)

text: lens

text: ; the

entity_name: Optic tract

text: optic tract

text: is present, but always regresses before reaching the brain. In juveniles, the eye is under the skin, but as the fish grows, the eyes are withdrawn even further. The head is as long as it is broad. The

entity_name: Fish fin

entity_section: AnchAdipose

text: adipose fin

text: is long and rounded at the end, and is connected to the

entity_section: AnchCaudal

text: caudal fin

text: . The

entity_name: Dorsal fin

text: dorsal

text: and

entity_section: AnchPectoral

text: pectoral fin

text: s have spines. The

entity_name: Swim bladder

text: swim bladder

text: in these fish is reduced. The skull is mostly

text: cartilaginous

text: and not well-

entity_name: Ossification

text: ossified

text: , unlike the adults of most larger ictalurids. The

entity_name: Lateral line

text: lateral line

text: is fragmented and reaches to between the anterior to the posterior end of the adipose fin. This species also has a few

entity_name: Neoteny

text: paedomorphic

text: traits (indicated by small size, kidney morphology, and weak ossification of the skeleton). This species may reach about

entity_name: Fish measurement

text: TL

text: The shell is present in all stages of the Cavolinioidea (euthecosomata) life cycle, whereas in the  Cymbulioidea (pseudothecosomata), adult Peraclididae  bear shells, Cymbuliidae shed their larval shells and develop a cartilaginous pseudoconch in adulthood, and Desmopteridaen adults lack any rigid structure.

text: The remains of Gogoselachus were first discovered in 2005 by John A. Long in Gogo formation strata in Kimberly, making it the first known cartilaginous fish from the Gogo formation in over 60 years. The specimen was found inside a broken concretion, and was made up of the complete lower jaws, the shoulder blades, gill-arches, scales and teeth. During the specimen's preparation (dissolving the surrounding limestone with acetic acid), the cartilaginous elements were released surprisingly quickly, meaning that the fish's skeleton was made up of a special kind of mineralized cartilage.

text: The remains of Gogoselachus were first discovered in 2005 by

entity_name: John A. Long

text: John A. Long

text: in

entity_name: Gogo Formation

text: Gogo formation

text: strata in

entity_name: Kimberley (Western Australia)

text: Kimberly

text: , making it the first known cartilaginous fish from the Gogo formation in over 60 years. The specimen was found inside a broken

entity_name: Concretion

text: concretion

text: , and was made up of the complete lower jaws, the shoulder blades, gill-arches, scales and teeth. During the specimen's preparation (dissolving the surrounding

entity_name: Limestone

text: limestone

text: with

entity_name: Acetic acid

text: acetic acid

text: ), the cartilaginous elements were released surprisingly quickly, meaning that the fish's

entity_name: Skeleton

text: skeleton

text: was made up of a special kind of

entity_name: Mineralized tissues

text: mineralized

text: cartilage.

method: UNH-qee

text: The skull in fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Jawless fish and sharks only poses a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper an lower jaws being separate elements. Bony fishes has additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish and holost fish. The lower jaw defines a chin.

text: The

entity_name: Skull

text: skull

text: in fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Jawless fish and sharks only poses a cartilaginous

entity_name: Endocranium

text: endocranium

text: , with both the upper an lower jaws being separate elements.

text: Bony fish

text: es has additional

entity_name: Dermal bone

text: dermal bone

text: , forming a more or less coherent

entity_name: Skull roof

text: skull roof

text: in

entity_name: Lungfish

text: lungfish

text: and

entity_name: Holostei

text: holost fish

text: . The

entity_name: Mandible

text: lower jaw

text: defines a

entity_name: Chin

text: chin

text: Blood flow to skin and fat are affected by skin and core temperature, and resting muscle perfusion is controlled by the temperature of the muscle itself. During exercise increased flow to the working muscles is often balanced by reduced flow to other tissues, such as kidneys spleen and liver. Blood flow to the muscles is also lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion. Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present. Inert gas exchange is least favourable for the diver who is warm and exercises at depth during the ingassing phase, and rests and is cold during decompression.

text: The name and order Asterales is botanically venerable, dating back to at least 1926 in the  Hutchinson system of plant taxonomy when it contained only five families, of which only two are retained in the APG III classification. Under the Cronquist system of taxonomic classification of flowering plants, Asteraceae was the only family in the group, but newer systems (such as APG II and APG III) have expanded it to 11. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Asterales were in the superorder Asteriflorae (also called Asteranae).

text: The name and order Asterales is botanically venerable, dating back to at least 1926 in the

entity_name: Hutchinson system

text: Hutchinson system of plant taxonomy

text: when it contained only five families, of which only two are retained in the APG III classification. Under the

entity_name: Cronquist system

text: Cronquist system

text: of taxonomic classification of flowering plants,

entity_name: Asteraceae

text: Asteraceae

text: was the only family in the group, but newer systems (such as

entity_name: APG II system

text: APG II

text: and

entity_name: APG III system

text: APG III

text: ) have expanded it to 11. In the classification system of

entity_name: Rolf Dahlgren

text: Dahlgren

text: the Asterales were in the

entity_name: Order (biology)

text: superorder

text: Asteriflorae (also called Asteranae).

text: Bony fishes form a taxonomic group called Osteichthyes. They have skeletons made of bone, and can be contrasted with cartilaginous fishes which have skeletons made of cartilage. Bony fishes are divided into ray-finned and lobe-finned fish. Most fish are ray-finned, an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of over 30,000 species. It is  the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. In the distant past, lobe-finned fish were abundant. Nowadays they are mainly extinct, with only eight living species. Bony fish have fin spines and rays called lepidotrichia. They typically have swim bladders, which allows the fish to create a neutral balance between sinking and floating without having to use its fins. However, these are absent in many species, and have developed into primitive lungs in the lungfishes. Bony fishes also have an operculum, which helps them breathe without having to use fins to swim.

text: Bony fish

text: es form a

text: taxonomic

text: group called Osteichthyes. They have skeletons made of bone, and can be contrasted with

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es which have skeletons made of

text: cartilage

text: . Bony fishes are divided into

text: ray-finned

text: and

text: lobe-finned fish

text: . Most fish are ray-finned, an extremely diverse and abundant group consisting of over 30,000 species. It is  the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. In the distant past, lobe-finned fish were abundant. Nowadays they are mainly extinct, with only eight living species. Bony fish have fin spines and rays called lepidotrichia. They typically have

text: swim bladder

text: s, which allows the fish to create a neutral balance between sinking and floating without having to use its fins. However, these are absent in many species, and have developed into primitive lungs in the lungfishes. Bony fishes also have an

text: operculum

text: , which helps them breathe without having to use fins to swim.

text: Most nimravids had muscular, low-slung, cat-like bodies, with shorter legs and tails than are typical of cats. Unlike extant Feliformia, the nimravids had a different bone structure in the small bones of the ear. The middle ear of true cats is housed in an external structure called an auditory bulla, which is separated by a septum into two chambers. Nimravid remains show ossified bullae with no septum, or no trace at all of the entire bulla. It is assumed that they had a cartilaginous housing of the ear mechanism.

text: Most nimravids had muscular, low-slung, cat-like bodies, with shorter legs and tails than are typical of cats. Unlike

text: extant

text: Feliformia, the nimravids had a different bone structure in the

text: small bones

text: of the ear. The

text: middle ear

text: of true cats is housed in an external structure called an

text: auditory bulla

text: , which is separated by a

text: septum

text: into two chambers. Nimravid remains show

text: ossified

text: bullae with no septum, or no trace at all of the entire bulla. It is assumed that they had a

text: cartilaginous

text: housing of the ear mechanism.

text: The Stomiiformes are often placed in the teleost superorder Stenopterygii, usually together with the Ateleopodiformes (jellynoses), but sometimes on their own. Whether it is indeed justified to accept such a small group is doubtful; it may well be that the closest living relatives of the "Stenopterygii" are found among the superorder Protacanthopterygii, and that the former would need to be merged in the latter. In some classifications, the "Stenopterygii" are kept separate but included with the Protacanthopterygii and the monotypic superorder Cyclosquamata in an unranked clade called Euteleostei. That would probably require splitting two additional monotypic superorders out of the Protacanthopterygii, and thus result in a profusion of very small taxa.

text: The Stomiiformes are often placed in the

text: teleost

text: superorder

text: Stenopterygii

text: , usually together with the

text: Ateleopodiformes

text: (jellynoses), but sometimes on their own. Whether it is indeed justified to accept such a small group is doubtful; it may well be that the closest living relatives of the "Stenopterygii" are found among the superorder

text: Protacanthopterygii

text: , and that the former would need to be merged in the latter. In some classifications, the "Stenopterygii" are kept separate but included with the Protacanthopterygii and the

text: monotypic

text: superorder

text: Cyclosquamata

text: in an unranked

text: clade

text: called Euteleostei. That would probably require splitting two additional monotypic superorders out of the Protacanthopterygii, and thus result in a profusion of very small

text: taxa

text: Phorcynis is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish and it's kingdom is animalia. the scales of Phorcynis have elongated crowns with a narrow median keel and short lateral folds and the teeth are asymmetrical, similar to those of Orectolobus.

text: Phorcynis is an extinct genus of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: and it's kingdom is animalia. the scales of Phorcynis have elongated crowns with a narrow median keel and short lateral folds and the teeth are asymmetrical, similar to those of Orectolobus.

text: Like other members of its order, the oarfish has a small yet highly protrusible oblique mouth with no visible teeth. The body is scaleless and the skin is covered with easily abraded, silvery guanine. In the streamer fish (Agrostichthys parkeri), the skin is clad with hard tubercles. All species lack gas bladders and the number of gill rakers is variable.

text: Like other members of its order, the oarfish has a small yet highly protrusible oblique mouth with no visible

text: teeth

text: . The body is

text: scale

text: less and the skin is covered with easily abraded, silvery

text: guanine

text: . In the streamer fish (

text: Agrostichthys parkeri

text: ), the skin is clad with hard

text: tubercle

text: s. All species lack

text: gas bladder

text: s and the number of

text: gill raker

text: s is variable.

text: As clearly seen in the lamprey, Cyclostome also has a pair of cartilaginous rods in the embryonic head which is similar to the trabecular cartilages in jawed vertebrates.However, in 1916, Alexej Nikolajevich Sewertzoff pointed out that the cranial base of the lamprey is exclusively originated from the paraxial mesoderm. Then in 1948, Alf Johnels reported the detail of the skeletogenesis of the lamprey, and showed that the “trabecular cartilages” in lamprey appear just beside the notochord, in a similar position to the parachordal cartilages in jawed vertebrates. Recent experimental studies also showed that the cartilages are derived from the head mesoderm. Today, the “trabecular cartilages” in the Cyclostome is no longer considered to be the homologue of the trabecular in the jawed vertebrates: the (true) trabecular cartilages were firstly acquired in the Gnathostome lineage.

text: As clearly seen in the

text: lamprey

text: Cyclostome

text: also has a pair of cartilaginous rods in the embryonic head which is similar to the trabecular cartilages in jawed vertebrates.However, in 1916,

text: Alexej Nikolajevich Sewertzoff

text: pointed out that the cranial base of the lamprey is exclusively originated from the paraxial mesoderm. Then in 1948,

text: Alf Johnels

text: reported the detail of the skeletogenesis of the lamprey, and showed that the “trabecular cartilages” in lamprey appear just beside the notochord, in a similar position to the parachordal cartilages in jawed vertebrates. Recent experimental studies also showed that the cartilages are derived from the head mesoderm. Today, the “trabecular cartilages” in the Cyclostome is no longer considered to be the homologue of the trabecular in the jawed vertebrates: the (true) trabecular cartilages were firstly acquired in the Gnathostome lineage.

text: Proposed superorder Mecopteroidea/Antliophora

text: Proposed superorder

text: Mecopteroidea

text: Antliophora

text: When used in the phrases "Cartilaginous exostosis" or "Osteocartilaginous exostosis", it is considered synonymous with Osteochondroma. Some sources consider the terms to mean the same thing even without qualifiers, but this interpretation is not universal.

text: When used in the phrases "Cartilaginous exostosis" or "Osteocartilaginous exostosis", it is considered synonymous with

text: Osteochondroma

text: . Some sources consider the terms to mean the same thing even without qualifiers, but this interpretation is not universal.

text: There are over 980 species of cartilaginous fish. They include sharks, rays and chimaera.

text: There are over 980 species of cartilaginous fish. They include

text: shark

text: s,

text: ray

text: s and

text: chimaera

text: In the majority of vertebrates, the mesonephros persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced metanephros; only in amniotes is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of fish and amphibians are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an archinephric duct, which is homologous with the vas deferens of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in cartilaginous fish and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.

text: In the majority of vertebrates, the

text: mesonephros

text: persists into the adult, albeit usually fused with the more advanced

text: metanephros

text: ; only in

text: amniote

text: s is the mesonephros restricted to the embryo. The kidneys of

text: fish

text: and

text: amphibian

text: s are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. The collecting ducts from each cluster of nephrons usually drain into an archinephric duct, which is

text: homologous

text: with the

text: vas deferens

text: of amniotes. However, the situation is not always so simple; in

text: cartilaginous fish

text: and some amphibians, there is also a shorter duct, similar to the amniote ureter, which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the archinephric duct at the

text: bladder

text: or

text: cloaca

text: . Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.

text: Jawless fish were the earliest fish to evolve. There is current debate over whether these are really fish at all. They have no jaw, no scales, no paired fins, and no bony skeleton. Their skin is smooth and soft to the touch, and they are very flexible. Instead of a jaw, they possess an oral sucker. They use this to fasten onto other fish, and then use their rasp-like teeth to grind through their host's skin into the viscera. Jawless fish inhabit both fresh and salt water environments. Some are anadromous, moving between both fresh and salt water habitats.

text: Jawless fish

text: were the earliest fish to evolve. There is current debate over whether these are really fish at all. They have no jaw, no scales, no paired

text: fin

text: s, and no bony skeleton. Their skin is smooth and soft to the touch, and they are very flexible. Instead of a jaw, they possess an oral sucker. They use this to fasten onto other fish, and then use their rasp-like teeth to grind through their host's skin into the

text: viscera

text: . Jawless fish inhabit both fresh and salt water environments. Some are

text: anadromous

text: , moving between both fresh and salt water habitats.

text: The Carpathian brook lamprey grows to a maximum length of . It is a long eel-like fish and its girth is greatest in the middle. It is a uniform silvery-olive colour. It has no jaws and the mouth is surrounded by an oral plate with many small blunt teeth. There are cartilaginous plates inside the mouth and the central, lingual plate has nine to thirteen teeth, a fact that distinguishes it from other lamprey species. The single nostril is between the eyes and seven naked gill pores are behind them. The only fins are two dorsal fins that run most of the way along the spine, and a small diamond-shaped tail fin.

text: Onchosaurus is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fishes belonging to the family Sclerorhynchidae.

text: Onchosaurus is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fishes belonging to the

text: family

text: Sclerorhynchidae

text: Newer research suggests that a branch of Placoderms was most likely the ancestor of present-day gnathostomes. A 419-million-year-old fossil of a placoderm named Entelognathus had a bony skeleton and anatomical details associated with cartilaginous and bony fish, demonstrating that the absence of a bony skeleton in Chondrichthyes is a derived trait. The fossil findings of primitive bony fishes such as Guiyu oneiros and Psarolepis, which lived contemporaneously with Entelognathus and had pelvic girdles more in common with placoderms than with other bony fish, show that it was a relative rather than a direct ancestor of the extant gnathostomes. It also indicates that spiny sharks and Chondrichthyes represent a single sister group to the bony fishes. Fossils findings of juvenile placoderms, which had true teeth that grew on the surface of the jawbone and had no roots, making it impossible to replace or regrow as they broke or wore down as they grew older, proves the common ancestor of all gnathostomes had teeth and place the origin of teeth along with, or soon after, the evolution of jaws.

text: Newer research suggests that a branch of

text: Placoderm

text: s was most likely the ancestor of present-day gnathostomes. A 419-million-year-old fossil of a placoderm named

text: Entelognathus

text: had a bony skeleton and anatomical details associated with cartilaginous and bony fish, demonstrating that the absence of a bony skeleton in Chondrichthyes is a derived trait. The fossil findings of primitive bony fishes such as

text: Guiyu oneiros

text: and

text: Psarolepis

text: , which lived contemporaneously with Entelognathus and had pelvic girdles more in common with placoderms than with other bony fish, show that it was a relative rather than a direct ancestor of the extant gnathostomes. It also indicates that spiny sharks and Chondrichthyes represent a single sister group to the bony fishes. Fossils findings of juvenile placoderms, which had true teeth that grew on the surface of the jawbone and had no roots, making it impossible to replace or regrow as they broke or wore down as they grew older, proves the common ancestor of all gnathostomes had teeth and place the origin of teeth along with, or soon after, the evolution of jaws.

text: Their best known song is his "The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag" (1965), a black comedy novelty song about the Vietnam War, whose familiar chorus ("One, two, three, what are we fighting for?") is well known to the Woodstock generation and Vietnam veterans of the 1960s and '70s. McDonald wrote the song in about 20 minutes for an anti-Vietnam War play. The "Fish Cheer" was the band performing a call-and-response with the audience, spelling the word "fish", followed by Country Joe yelling, "What's that spell?" twice, with the audience responding, and then, the third time, "What's that spell?", followed immediately by the song. The "Fish Cheer" evolved into the "Fuck Cheer" after the Berkeley free speech movement. The cheer was on the original recording of "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag", being played right before the song on the LP of the same name. The cheer became popular and the crowd would spell out F-I-S-H when the band performed live. During the summer of 1968 the band played on the Schaefer Music Festival tour. Gary "Chicken" Hirsh suggested before one of the shows to spell the word "fuck" instead of "fish." Although the crowd loved it, the management of the Schaefer Beer Festival did not and kicked the band off the tour for life. The Ed Sullivan Show then canceled a previously scheduled appearance by the band, telling them to keep the money they had already been paid in exchange for never playing on the show. The modified cheer continued at most of the band's live shows throughout the years, including Woodstock and elsewhere. In Massachusetts, McDonald was fined $500 for uttering "fuck" in public.

text: Their best known song is his "

entity_name: The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag

text: The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag

text: " (1965), a

text: black comedy

text: novelty song

text: about the

text: Vietnam War

text: , whose familiar chorus ("One, two, three, what are we fighting for?") is well known to the

text: Woodstock

text: generation and

text: Vietnam veteran

text: s of the 1960s and '70s. McDonald wrote the song in about 20 minutes for an anti-Vietnam War play. The "Fish Cheer" was the band performing a

text: call-and-response

text: with the audience, spelling the word "fish", followed by Country Joe yelling, "What's that spell?" twice, with the audience responding, and then, the third time, "What's that spell?", followed immediately by the song. The "Fish Cheer" evolved into the "Fuck Cheer" after the Berkeley

text: free speech movement

text: . The cheer was on the original recording of "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag", being played right before the song on the

text: LP

text: of the same name. The cheer became popular and the crowd would spell out F-I-S-H when the band performed live. During the summer of 1968 the band played on the

text: Schaefer Music Festival

text: tour.

text: Gary "Chicken" Hirsh

text: suggested before one of the shows to spell the word "

text: fuck

text: " instead of "fish." Although the crowd loved it, the management of the

text: Schaefer Beer

text: Festival did not and kicked the band off the tour for life.

text: The Ed Sullivan Show

text: then canceled a previously scheduled appearance by the band, telling them to keep the money they had already been paid in exchange for never playing on the show. The modified cheer continued at most of the band's live shows throughout the years, including Woodstock and elsewhere. In Massachusetts, McDonald was fined $500 for uttering "fuck" in public.

text: The human nose is a sensory organ that is structurally composed of three types of tissue: (i) an osseo-cartilaginous support framework (nasal skeleton), (ii) a mucous membrane lining, and (iii) an external skin. The anatomic topography of the human nose is a graceful blend of convexities, curves, and depressions, the contours of which show the underlying shape of the nasal skeleton. Hence, these anatomic characteristics permit dividing the nose into nasal subunits: (i) the midline (ii) the nose-tip, (iii) the dorsum, (iv) the soft triangles, (v) the alar lobules, and (vi) the lateral walls. Surgically, the borders of the nasal subunits are ideal locations for the scars, whereby is produced a superior aesthetic outcome, a corrected nose with corresponding skin colors and skin textures.

text: The

text: human nose

text: is a sensory organ that is structurally composed of three types of tissue: (i) an

text: osseo

text: cartilaginous

text: support framework (nasal skeleton), (ii) a mucous membrane lining, and (iii) an external skin. The anatomic

text: topography

text: of the human nose is a graceful blend of convexities, curves, and depressions, the contours of which show the underlying shape of the nasal skeleton. Hence, these anatomic characteristics permit dividing the nose into nasal subunits: (i) the midline (ii) the nose-tip, (iii) the dorsum, (iv) the soft triangles, (v) the alar lobules, and (vi) the lateral walls. Surgically, the borders of the nasal subunits are ideal locations for the scars, whereby is produced a superior aesthetic outcome, a corrected nose with corresponding skin colors and skin textures.

text: Once, when Bhattathiri, unable to move, was carried into the Guruvayur temple, he met Tunchath Ezhuthachan, an eminent Malayalam poet of the time. Ezhuthachan advised Bhattathiri that he could be cured if he "began his treatment with fish". The disciples of Bhattathiri who heard this were shocked because Bhattathiri was a devout Hindu and therefore a vegetarian who would consider it sinful to eat fish. Bhattathiri however understood what Ezhuthachan really meant - that he would be cured if he could compose a hymn glorifying the incarnations of Lord Krishna beginning with the fish incarnation, known as Matsya.

text: Once, when Bhattathiri, unable to move, was carried into the Guruvayur temple, he met Tunchath Ezhuthachan, an eminent

text: Malayalam

text: poet of the time. Ezhuthachan advised Bhattathiri that he could be cured if he "began his treatment with fish". The disciples of Bhattathiri who heard this were shocked because Bhattathiri was a devout Hindu and therefore a vegetarian who would consider it sinful to eat fish. Bhattathiri however understood what Ezhuthachan really meant - that he would be cured if he could compose a hymn glorifying the incarnations of Lord Krishna beginning with the fish incarnation, known as Matsya.

text: Once phlebotomy is performed (in most insects by a specialized fine hollow "needle," the proboscis, which perforates skin and capillaries; in bats by sharp incisor teeth that act as a razor to cut the skin), blood is acquired either by sucking action directly from the veins or capillaries, from a pool of escaped blood, or by lapping (again, in bats). To overcome natural hemostasis (blood coagulation), vasoconstriction, inflammation, and pain sensation in the host, hematophagous animals have evolved hembiochemical solutions, in their saliva for instance, that they pre-inject—and anesthesia and capillary dilation have evolved in some hematophagous species. Scientists have developed anticoagulant medicines from studying substances in the saliva of several hematophagous species, such as leeches (hirudin).

text: Once phlebotomy is performed (in most insects by a specialized fine hollow "needle," the

text: proboscis

text: , which perforates skin and

text: capillaries

text: ; in bats by sharp

text: incisor teeth

text: that act as a razor to cut the skin), blood is acquired either by sucking action directly from the veins or capillaries, from a pool of escaped blood, or by lapping (again, in bats). To overcome natural

text: hemostasis

text: (blood coagulation),

text: vasoconstriction

text: , inflammation, and pain sensation in the host, hematophagous animals have evolved

text: hembiochemical

text: solutions, in their saliva for instance, that they pre-inject—and

text: anesthesia

text: and capillary dilation have evolved in some hematophagous species. Scientists have developed

text: anticoagulant

text: medicines from studying substances in the saliva of several hematophagous species, such as leeches (

text: hirudin

text: Chondrostei are primarily cartilaginous fish showing some degree of ossification. It is thought that the cartilaginous condition is derived, and that the ancestors of this group were bony fish with fully ossified skeletons. Members of this group  share with the Elasmobranchii certain features such as the possession of spiracles, a heterocercal tail and the absence of scales. Nevertheless, the fossil record suggests they have more in common with the teleosts. The Chondrostei is probably a paraphyletic grouping; the fifty-two living species are divided among two orders, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes), and the Polypteriformes (reedfishes and bichirs).

text: Chondrostei are primarily

text: cartilaginous

text: fish showing some degree of

text: ossification

text: . It is thought that the cartilaginous condition is derived, and that the ancestors of this group were bony fish with fully ossified skeletons. Members of this group  share with the

text: Elasmobranchii

text: certain features such as the possession of

text: spiracle

text: s, a

text: heterocercal tail

text: and the absence of scales. Nevertheless, the fossil record suggests they have more in common with the

text: teleost

text: s. The Chondrostei is probably a

text: paraphyletic

text: grouping; the fifty-two living species are divided among two orders, the

text: Acipenseriformes

text: sturgeon

text: s and

text: paddlefish

text: es), and the

text: Polypteriformes

text: reedfish

text: es and

text: bichir

text: s).

text: Gogoselachus ("shark from the Gogo formation") is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish known from the late Devonian of Australia. It is one of the earliest well-preserved Devonian chondrichthyans (20 million years older than Cladoselache), as much more of the fish than just teeth and scales were preserved. This rare preservation reveals some unique discoveries about the evolution of the cartilage that was inside later cartilaginous fish such as sharks, rays, and chimaeras.

text: Gogoselachus ("shark from the Gogo formation") is an extinct genus of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: known from the late

text: Devonian

text: of

text: Australia

text: . It is one of the earliest well-preserved Devonian chondrichthyans (20 million years older than

text: Cladoselache

text: ), as much more of the fish than just teeth and scales were preserved. This rare preservation reveals some unique discoveries about the evolution of the

text: cartilage

text: that was inside later cartilaginous fish such as

text: shark

text: s,

text: rays

text: , and

text: chimaera

text: s.

text: However, some have argued that the remains of E. kawai are actually those of another prehistoric cartilaginous fish, Ischyodus, which lived about the same time and has also been compared to the rabbitfish Chimaera monstrosa.

text: However, some have argued that the remains of E. kawai are actually those of another prehistoric cartilaginous fish,

text: Ischyodus

text: , which lived about the same time and has also been compared to the rabbitfish

text: Chimaera monstrosa

text: The skull of fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Lampreys and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper and lower jaws being separate elements. Bony fishes have additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish and holost fish. The lower jaw defines a chin.

text: The skull of fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones.

text: Lamprey

text: s and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper and lower

text: jaw

text: s being separate elements. Bony fishes have additional

text: dermal bone

text: , forming a more or less coherent

text: skull roof

text: in

text: lungfish

text: and

text: holost

text: fish. The lower jaw defines a chin.

text: Commercial fishing vessels can be classified by architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, or geographical origin. The following classification follows the FAO, who classify commercial fishing vessels by the gear they use.

text: Commercial fishing vessels can be classified by architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, or geographical origin. The following classification follows the

text: FAO

text: , who classify commercial fishing vessels by the gear they use.

text: In botany, classes are now rarely discussed. Since the first publication of the APG system in 1998, which proposed a taxonomy of the flowering plants up to the level of orders, many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal clades. Where formal ranks have been assigned, the ranks have been reduced to a very much lower level, e.g. class Equisitopsida for the land plants, with the major divisions within the class assigned to subclasses and superorders.

text: In botany, classes are now rarely discussed. Since the first publication of the

text: APG system

text: in 1998, which proposed a taxonomy of the

text: flowering plant

text: s up to the level of orders, many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal

text: clade

text: s. Where formal ranks have been assigned, the ranks have been reduced to a very much lower level, e.g. class Equisitopsida for the land plants, with the major divisions within the class assigned to subclasses and superorders.

text: The ocellated eagle ray (Aetobatus ocellatus) is a species of cartilaginous fish in the eagle ray family Myliobatidae. It is found in the tropical Indo-West Pacific region. In the past it was included in the spotted eagle ray (A. narinari), a species restricted to the Atlantic after the split. Further taxonomic changes are possible in the future, as there are distinct genetic differences within A. ocellatus as currently defined.

text: The ocellated eagle ray (Aetobatus ocellatus) is a species of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: in the eagle ray family

text: Myliobatidae

text: . It is found in the tropical

text: Indo-West Pacific

text: region. In the past it was included in the

text: spotted eagle ray

text: (A. narinari), a species restricted to the Atlantic after the split. Further

text: taxonomic

text: changes are possible in the future, as there are distinct

text: genetic

text: differences within A. ocellatus as currently defined.

text: The order Myctophiformes is anatomically similar to the grinners (Aulopiformes), but their pharyngobranchials and retractor muscles are more plesiomorphic. It was also allied with the more advanced spiny-rayed Teleostei (e.g. Paracanthopterygii) as "Ctenosquamata". These apomorphically have a fifth upper pharyngeal toothplate and a third internal levator muscle to move it, and molecular data also support the long-held view that these two lineages are at least closely related. Other sources ally them with the Lampriformes, which are often placed in a monotypic superorder "Lampridiomorpha". In a similar fashion, separation of the Myctophiformes in superorder "Scopelomorpha" has been proposed. The Aulopiformes, though, are usually considered to be closer or even among the Protacanthopterygii, one of the core groups of moderately advanced teleosts. As modern taxonomy tries to avoid a profusion of small taxa, and the delimitation of the Euteleostei (Protacanthopterygii sensu stricto and their allies) versus "Ctenosquamata" such as the Paracanthopterygii remains uncertain, the systematics and taxonomy of the Myctophiformes among the teleosts are in need of further study.

text: The

text: order

text: Myctophiformes is

text: anatomical

text: ly similar to the

text: grinner

text: s (Aulopiformes), but their

text: pharyngobranchial

text: s and

text: retractor muscle

text: s are more

text: plesiomorph

text: ic. It was also allied with the more advanced spiny-

text: rayed

text: Teleostei

text: (e.g.

text: Paracanthopterygii

text: ) as "

text: Ctenosquamata

text: ". These

text: apomorph

text: ically have a fifth upper

text: pharyngeal tooth

text: plate and a third internal

entity_name: Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi muscle

text: levator muscle

text: to move it, and

text: molecular

text: data also support the long-held view that these two lineages are at least closely related. Other sources ally them with the

text: Lampriformes

text: , which are often placed in a

text: monotypic

text: superorder

text: "Lampridiomorpha". In a similar fashion, separation of the Myctophiformes in superorder "Scopelomorpha" has been proposed. The Aulopiformes, though, are usually considered to be closer or even among the

text: Protacanthopterygii

text: , one of the core groups of moderately advanced teleosts. As modern

text: taxonomy

text: tries to avoid a profusion of small

text: taxa

text: , and the delimitation of the Euteleostei (Protacanthopterygii

text: sensu stricto

text: and their allies) versus "Ctenosquamata" such as the

text: Paracanthopterygii

text: remains uncertain, the

text: systematics

text: and taxonomy of the Myctophiformes among the teleosts are in need of further study.

text: MOE follows a much more chronic and indolent course than ordinary acute otitis externa. There may be granulation involving the floor of the external ear canal, most often at the bony-cartilaginous junction.  Paradoxically, the physical findings of MOE, at least in its early stages, are often much less dramatic than those of ordinary acute otitis externa. In later stages there can be soft tissue swelling around the ear, even in the absence of significant canal swelling. While fever and leukocytosis might be expected in response to bacterial infection invading the skull region, MOE does not cause fever or elevation of white blood count.

text: MOE follows a much more chronic and

text: indolent

text: course than ordinary acute otitis externa. There may be granulation involving the floor of the external ear canal, most often at the bony-cartilaginous junction.  Paradoxically, the physical findings of MOE, at least in its early stages, are often much less dramatic than those of ordinary acute otitis externa. In later stages there can be soft tissue swelling around the ear, even in the absence of significant canal swelling. While fever and

text: leukocytosis

text: might be expected in response to bacterial infection invading the skull region, MOE does not cause fever or elevation of white blood count.

text: The common ancestor of all present gnathostomes lived in freshwater, and later migrated back to the sea. To deal with the much higher salinity in sea water, they evolved the ability to turn the nitrogen waste product ammonia into harmless urea, storing it in the body to give the blood the same osmolarity as the sea water without poisoning the organism. This is the system currently found in cartilaginous fishes. Ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) later returned to freshwater and lost this ability, while the fleshy-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii) retained it. Since the blood of ray-finned fishes contains more salt than freshwater, they could simply get rid of ammonia through their gills. When they finally returned to the sea again, they did not recover their old trick of turning ammonia to urea, and they had to evolve salt excreting glands instead. Lungfishes do the same when they are living in water, making ammonia and no urea, but when the water dries up and they are forced to burrow down in the mud, they switch to urea production. Like cartilaginous fishes, the coelacanth can store urea in its blood, as can the only known amphibians that can live for long periods of time in salt water (the toad Bufo marinus and the frog Rana cancrivora). These are traits they have inherited from their ancestors.

text: The common ancestor of all present

text: gnathostomes

text: lived in freshwater, and later migrated back to the sea. To deal with the much higher salinity in sea water, they evolved the ability to turn the

text: nitrogen

text: waste product

text: ammonia

text: into harmless

text: urea

text: , storing it in the body to give the blood the same

text: osmolarity

text: as the sea water without poisoning the organism. This is the system currently found in

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: Ray-finned fishes

text: (Actinopterygii) later returned to freshwater and lost this ability, while the

text: fleshy-finned fishes

text: (Sarcopterygii) retained it. Since the blood of ray-finned fishes contains more salt than freshwater, they could simply get rid of ammonia through their gills. When they finally returned to the sea again, they did not recover their old trick of turning ammonia to urea, and they had to evolve salt excreting glands instead.

text: Lungfish

text: es do the same when they are living in water, making ammonia and no urea, but when the water dries up and they are forced to burrow down in the mud, they switch to urea production. Like cartilaginous fishes, the

text: coelacanth

text: can store urea in its blood, as can the only known amphibians that can live for long periods of time in salt water (the

text: toad

text: Bufo marinus

text: and the

text: frog

text: Rana cancrivora

text: ). These are traits they have inherited from their ancestors.

text: Vertebrates  comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata  (chordates with backbones). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 64,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fish and the jawed vertebrates, which include the cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) and the bony fish.

text: Vertebrates  comprise all species of

text: animal

text: s within the

text: subphylum

text: Vertebrata  (

text: chordates

text: with

text: backbones

text: ). Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the

text: phylum

text: Chordata

text: , with currently about 64,000

text: species

text: described. Vertebrates include the

text: jawless fish

text: and the

text: jawed vertebrates

text: , which include the

text: cartilaginous fish

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: ) and the

text: bony fish

text: In addition to these bony fish, four types of cartilaginous fishes are also filter feeders.  The whale shark sucks in a mouthful of water, closes its mouth and expels the water through its gills. During the slight delay between closing the mouth and opening the gill flaps, plankton is trapped against the dermal denticles which line its gill plates and pharynx. This fine sieve-like apparatus, which is a unique modification of the gill rakers, prevents the passage of anything but fluid out through the gills (anything above 2 to 3 mm in diameter is trapped). Any material caught in the filter between the gill bars is swallowed. Whale sharks have been observed "coughing" and it is presumed that this is a method of clearing a build up of food particles in the gill rakers. The megamouth shark has luminous organs called photophores around its mouth. It is believed they may exist to lure plankton or small fish into its mouth. The basking shark is a passive filter feeder, filtering zooplankton, small fish, and invertebrates from up to 2,000 tons of water per hour. Unlike the megamouth and whale sharks, the basking shark does not appear to actively seek its quarry; but it does possess large olfactory bulbs that may guide it in the right direction. Unlike the other large filter feeders, it relies only on the water that is pushed through the gills by swimming; the megamouth shark and whale shark can suck or pump water through their gills. Manta rays can time their arrival at the spawning of large shoals of fish and feed on the free-floating eggs and sperm. This stratagem is also employed by whale sharks.

text: In addition to these bony fish, four types of

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: are also filter feeders.  The

text: whale shark

text: sucks in a mouthful of water, closes its mouth and expels the water through its

text: gill

text: s. During the slight delay between closing the mouth and opening the gill flaps, plankton is trapped against the

text: dermal denticle

text: s which line its gill plates and

text: pharynx

text: . This fine sieve-like apparatus, which is a unique modification of the gill rakers, prevents the passage of anything but fluid out through the gills (anything above 2 to 3 mm in diameter is trapped). Any material caught in the filter between the gill bars is swallowed. Whale sharks have been observed "coughing" and it is presumed that this is a method of clearing a build up of food particles in the gill rakers. The

text: megamouth shark

text: has luminous organs called

text: photophore

text: s around its mouth. It is believed they may exist to lure plankton or small fish into its mouth. The

text: basking shark

text: is a passive filter feeder, filtering

text: zooplankton

text: , small fish, and

text: invertebrate

text: s from up to 2,000 tons of water per hour. Unlike the megamouth and whale sharks, the basking shark does not appear to actively seek its quarry; but it does possess large

text: olfactory bulb

text: s that may guide it in the right direction. Unlike the other large filter feeders, it relies only on the water that is pushed through the gills by swimming; the megamouth shark and whale shark can suck or pump water through their gills.

text: Manta ray

text: s can time their arrival at the spawning of large shoals of fish and feed on the free-floating eggs and sperm. This stratagem is also employed by whale sharks.

text: The larvae hatch after about three weeks, and then live in the pond as aquatic predators. They are vulnerable to fish predation, and water bodies containing fish are rarely used for breeding (this means they do not usually use running water, larger lakes, nor many garden ponds).

text: The larvae hatch after about three weeks, and then live in the pond as aquatic predators. They are vulnerable to

text: fish

text: predation, and water bodies containing fish are rarely used for breeding (this means they do not usually use running water, larger lakes, nor many garden ponds).

text: cartilaginous fish and bony fish, salamanders, turtles, champsosaurs, amphisbaenians, lizards, snakes, crocodilians, birds, and a variety of archaic mammals.  Mammalian groups represented include multituberculates, didelphid marsupials, insectivorans, plesiadapiforms, carnivorans, taeniodonts, mesonychids, condylarths, and cimolestans.

text: cartilaginous fish

text: and

text: bony fish

text: , salamanders, turtles,

text: champsosaurs

text: amphisbaenia

text: ns, lizards, snakes, crocodilians, birds, and a variety of archaic mammals.  Mammalian groups represented include

text: multituberculate

text: s,

text: didelphid

text: marsupial

text: s,

text: insectivora

text: ns,

text: plesiadapiform

text: s,

text: carnivora

text: ns,

text: taeniodont

text: s,

text: mesonychid

text: s,

text: condylarth

text: s, and

text: cimolesta

text: ns.

text: Intra-articularly (IA) use of PSGAGs have been shown to improve lameness, signs of arthritis, joint effusion, and synovial fluid quality. However, mixed results have been reported on its ability to actually repair cartilaginous defects present at time of injection. IA use of PSGAGs may have an increased risk of Staphylococcus aureus infections within the joint when compared to intra-articular injections of other substances, although this can be prevented by concurrently injecting aminoglycoside antibiotics.

text: Intra-articularly (IA) use of PSGAGs have been shown to improve lameness, signs of arthritis, joint effusion, and synovial fluid quality. However, mixed results have been reported on its ability to actually repair cartilaginous defects present at time of injection. IA use of PSGAGs may have an increased risk of

text: Staphylococcus aureus

text: infections within the joint when compared to intra-articular injections of other substances, although this can be prevented by concurrently injecting

text: aminoglycoside

text: antibiotics.

text: Cartilaginous fish (sharks, stingrays and chimaeras) use magnetoception. They possess special electroreceptors called the ampullae of Lorenzini which detect a slight variation in electric potential.  These receptors, located along the mouth and nose of the fish, operate according to the principle that a time-varying magnetic field moving through a conductor induces an electric potential across the ends of the conductor. The ampullae may also allow the fish to detect changes in water temperature. As in birds, magnetoception may provide information which help the fish map migration routes.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: (sharks, stingrays and chimaeras) use magnetoception. They possess special

text: electroreceptors

text: called the

text: ampullae of Lorenzini

text: which detect a slight variation in electric potential.  These receptors, located along the mouth and nose of the fish, operate according to the principle that a time-varying magnetic field moving through a conductor

text: induces an electric potential

text: across the ends of the conductor. The ampullae may also allow the fish to detect changes in water temperature. As in birds, magnetoception may provide information which help the fish map migration routes.

text: The Australian ghostshark, Callorhinchus milii, is a cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes) belonging to the subclass Holocephali (chimaera). Sharks, rays and skates are the other members of the cartilaginous fish group and are grouped under the subclass Elasmobranchii. Alternative names include elephant shark, makorepe (in Māori), whitefish, plownose chimaera, or elephant fish. It is found off southern Australia, including Tasmania, and south of East Cape and Kaipara Harbour in New Zealand, at depths of 0 – 200 m.

text: The Australian ghostshark, Callorhinchus milii, is a cartilaginous fish (

text: Chondrichthyes

text: ) belonging to the subclass

text: Holocephali

text: chimaera

text: ). Sharks, rays and skates are the other members of the cartilaginous fish group and are grouped under the subclass

text: Elasmobranchii

text: . Alternative names include elephant shark, makorepe (in

text: Māori

text: ), whitefish, plownose chimaera, or elephant fish. It is found off southern

text: Australia

text: , including

text: Tasmania

text: , and south of

text: East Cape

text: and

text: Kaipara Harbour

text: in

text: New Zealand

text: , at depths of 0 – 200 m.

text: Lancelets have no respiratory system, breathing solely through their skin, which consists of a simple epithelium. Despite the name, little if any respiration occurs in the gill slits, which are solely devoted to feeding. The circulatory system does resemble that of primitive fish in its general layout, but is much simpler, and does not include a heart. There are no blood cells, and no haemoglobin.

text: Lancelets have no respiratory system, breathing solely through their skin, which consists of a simple

text: epithelium

text: . Despite the name, little if any respiration occurs in the gill slits, which are solely devoted to feeding. The circulatory system does resemble that of primitive fish in its general layout, but is much simpler, and does not include a

text: heart

text: . There are no blood cells, and no

text: haemoglobin

text: The spiracle is a small hole behind each eye that opens to the mouth in some fish. In the primitive jawless fish the first gill opening immediately behind the mouth is essentially similar to the other gill opening.  With the evolution of the jaw in the early jawed vertebrates, this gill slit was "caught" between the forward gill-rod (now functioning as the jaw) and the next rod, the hyomandibular bone, supporting the jaw hinge and anchoring the jaw to the skull proper. The gill opening was closed off from below, the remaining opening was small and hole-like, and is termed a "spiracle". The spiracle is still found in all cartilaginous fish except requiem sharks, hammerhead sharks, and chimaeras, and is found in some primitive bony fishes, the (coelacanth, sturgeon, paddlefish and bichirs). It is also seen as an otic notch in the skull of the extinct  labyrinthodonts, and is thought to be associated with the ear opening in amniotes and frogs.

text: The spiracle is a small hole behind each eye that opens to the mouth in some

text: fish

text: . In the primitive

text: jawless fish

text: the first gill opening immediately behind the mouth is essentially similar to the other gill opening.  With the

text: evolution

text: of the

text: jaw

text: in the early

text: jawed vertebrates

text: , this gill slit was "caught" between the forward gill-rod (now functioning as the jaw) and the next rod, the

text: hyomandibular bone

text: , supporting the jaw hinge and anchoring the jaw to the

text: skull

text: proper. The gill opening was closed off from below, the remaining opening was small and hole-like, and is termed a "spiracle". The spiracle is still found in all

text: cartilaginous fish

text: except

text: requiem shark

text: s,

text: hammerhead shark

text: s, and

text: chimaera

text: s, and is found in some primitive

text: bony fishes

text: , the (

text: coelacanth

text: sturgeon

text: paddlefish

text: and

text: bichir

text: s). It is also seen as an

text: otic notch

text: in the skull of the extinct

text: labyrinthodonts

text: , and is thought to be associated with the

text: ear

text: opening in

text: amniote

text: s and

text: frog

text: s.

text: Different authors have variously reported the birth length at between , and the maturation length at between , with females usually maturing at a slightly larger size than males. This range of sizes may reflect life history differences in crossback stingarees across different parts of its range. Both sexes mature at around six years of age, and can live to at least 11 years. The crossback stingaree may hybridize naturally with the closely related yellowback stingaree off southern New South Wales, where the distributions of the two species overlap and apparent hybrid offspring with intermediate color patterns have been found. If true, this would represent one of the few known cases of hybridization among cartilaginous fishes.

text: Different authors have variously reported the birth length at between , and the

text: maturation

text: length at between , with females usually maturing at a slightly larger size than males. This range of sizes may reflect life history differences in crossback stingarees across different parts of its range. Both sexes mature at around six years of age, and can live to at least 11 years. The crossback stingaree may hybridize naturally with the closely related yellowback stingaree off southern New South Wales, where the distributions of the two species overlap and apparent hybrid offspring with intermediate color patterns have been found. If true, this would represent one of the few known cases of hybridization among

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es.

text: Chondrichthyes (; from Greek χονδρ- chondr- 'cartilage', ἰχθύς ichthys 'fish') is a class that contains the cartilaginous fishes: they are jawed vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. The class is divided into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates, and sawfish) and Holocephali (chimaeras, sometimes called ghost sharks, which are sometimes separated into their own class).

text: Chondrichthyes (; from Greek χονδρ- chondr- 'cartilage', ἰχθύς ichthys 'fish') is a

text: class

text: that contains the cartilaginous fishes: they are jawed

text: vertebrates

text: with paired fins, paired

text: nare

text: s, scales, a heart with its chambers in series, and skeletons made of

text: cartilage

text: rather than

text: bone

text: . The class is divided into two subclasses:

text: Elasmobranchii

text: shark

text: s,

text: ray

text: s,

text: skate

text: s, and

text: sawfish

text: ) and

text: Holocephali

text: chimaera

text: s, sometimes called ghost sharks, which are sometimes separated into their own class).

text: Its lateral border is free and rough, and gives attachment to the cartilaginous part of the ear canal. Internally, the tympanic part is fused with the petrous portion, and appears in the retreating angle between it and the squama, where it lies below and lateral to the orifice of the auditory tube. Posteriorly, it blends with the squama and mastoid part, and forms the anterior boundary of the tympanomastoid fissure.

text: Its lateral border is free and rough, and gives attachment to the cartilaginous part of the ear canal. Internally, the tympanic part is fused with the petrous portion, and appears in the retreating angle between it and the squama, where it lies below and lateral to the orifice of the

text: auditory tube

text: . Posteriorly, it blends with the squama and mastoid part, and forms the anterior boundary of the tympanomastoid fissure.

text: Recreational fishermen usually fish either from a boat or from a shoreline or river bank. When fishing from a boat, or fishing vessel, most fishing technique can be used, from nets to fish traps, but some form of angling is by far the most common. Compared to fishing from the land, fishing from a boat allows more access to different fishing grounds and different species of fish.

text: Recreational fishermen usually

text: fish

text: either from a

text: boat

text: or from a

text: shoreline

text: or

text: river bank

text: . When fishing from a boat, or

text: fishing vessel

text: , most

text: fishing technique

text: can be used, from

text: nets

text: to

text: fish trap

text: s, but some form of

text: angling

text: is by far the most common. Compared to fishing from the land, fishing from a boat allows more access to different fishing grounds and different species of fish.

text: Chimaeras are cartilaginous fish belonging to the subclass Holocephali, in the class Chondrichthyes, distantly related to sharks and rays. The first chimaeras appeared in the oceans 420 million years ago.

text: Chimaera

text: s are cartilaginous fish belonging to the subclass

text: Holocephali

text: , in the class

text: Chondrichthyes

text: , distantly related to

text: sharks and rays

text: . The first chimaeras appeared in the oceans 420 million years ago.

text: Peter's disk-winged bat (Thyroptera discifera) is a bat species mainly found in  South and Central America. They belong to the family Thyropteridae which are a small group of disk-winged bats. These bats have a distinguishing feature of circular, suction disks at the base of their thumbs and hind feet. They use these suction disks to cling onto young unfurling banana or liconia leaves to roost while avoiding the rain and predators. They are very similar in appearance and easily confused with Thyroptera tricolor which has a paler venter than dorsum, and two cartilaginous projections on the calcar.

text: Peter's disk-winged bat (Thyroptera discifera) is a

text: bat

text: species

text: mainly found in

text: South

text: and

text: Central America

text: . They belong to the family

text: Thyropteridae

text: which are a small group of disk-winged bats. These bats have a distinguishing feature of circular, suction disks at the base of their thumbs and hind feet. They use these suction disks to cling onto young unfurling banana or liconia leaves to roost while avoiding the rain and predators. They are very similar in appearance and easily confused with

text: Thyroptera tricolor

text: which has a paler venter than dorsum, and two cartilaginous projections on the

text: calcar

text: This perennial grass has decumbent stems that spread along the ground and root where stem nodes come in contact with the substrate. It grows from a rhizome. The stems may reach a meter in length. The leaves are evenly distributed along the stem. The firm, blue-green leaf blades are up to 10 centimeters long by 1 centimeter wide, and are lance-shaped, widest distal to the bases. The leaf blade margins are cartilaginous, becoming white in color when dry. The plant has open flowers on the stem inflorescence and cleistogamous, unopening flowers which grow underground on white, self-pollinating spikelets.

text: This perennial grass has decumbent stems that spread along the ground and root where stem nodes come in contact with the substrate. It grows from a

text: rhizome

text: . The stems may reach a meter in length. The leaves are evenly distributed along the stem. The firm, blue-green leaf blades are up to 10 centimeters long by 1 centimeter wide, and are lance-shaped, widest distal to the bases. The leaf blade margins are cartilaginous, becoming white in color when dry. The plant has open flowers on the stem

text: inflorescence

text: and

text: cleistogamous

text: , unopening flowers which grow underground on white, self-pollinating spikelets.

text: The flame chub is extremely vulnerable, as stated previously, to any human activity that disturbs their habitat. One topic of interest when trying to learn more about the ecology of the flame chub is what it eats. Although there have been little to no published studies done about the stomach contents of the flame chub, we can learn from sister species to get a good educated guess about what the flame chub might eat. A study done in western New York examined the river chub, or Nocomis micropogon.  The main predators for small river fish such as this are other bigger fish and birds. The diet of these fish, as conducted from the New York study, showed that out of a sample size of 308 young to old adult river chubs, 70% of the food volume found was various insects. The other 30% of the stomach contents were found to be various Crustacea, Mollusca, plants, and other various small organic materials.

text: Electroreception occurred early in evolutionary history with the evolution of an ampullary sensory system that included receptors able to detect weak electric signals in the environment (less than 1ųV/cm or 50 Hz). Sense organs specialized for electroreception have only been found among vertebrates, and around 8.600 species are known to be electroreceptive. The majority of teleosts and amniotes do not have an electroreceptive system, but the distribution of electroreception in terms of evolution involves different classes of fish.  First, there is an origin of a common ancestor of current existent vertebrates (close to lampreys and gnathostomes). This ancestor evolved a lateral line that is important in processing sensory information and present in today’s hagfishes. Ampullary receptors are ancestral to jawed fish, for lampreys and agnathans were found to have ampullary receptors 400 million years earlier. Second, there is a loss of electroreception in amniotes. This could be due to the fact that air is a poor medium to effectively conduct the electric fields, unlike water. Third, there is also a loss of electroreception in gars, bowfin, and teleosts (neopterygian fishes). Ampullary receptors are present in all surviving cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes except a few species present in Neopterygii (which include gars, bowfins, and teleosts) Fourth, monotremes and a least three groups of fresh-water teleosts re-evolved electroreception. Fifth, a group of teleosts, Xenomystinae, acquired passive electrolocation with low frequency sensitive ampullary receptors. Sixth, another group of teleosts, Mormyroids, evolved passive electrolocation and active location, as well as a pulse type EOD in active electrolocation. Seventh, Silurifiormes and Gymnoformes evolved passive electrolocation, and Gymnoformes also evolved active electrolocation with a pulse type or wave type EODs.

text: Electroreception

text: neopterygian

text: fishes). Ampullary receptors are present in all surviving cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes except a few species present in Neopterygii (which include gars, bowfins, and teleosts) Fourth, monotremes and a least three groups of fresh-water teleosts re-evolved electroreception. Fifth, a group of teleosts, Xenomystinae, acquired passive electrolocation with low frequency sensitive ampullary receptors. Sixth, another group of teleosts, Mormyroids, evolved passive electrolocation and active location, as well as a pulse type EOD in active electrolocation. Seventh, Silurifiormes and Gymnoformes evolved passive electrolocation, and Gymnoformes also evolved active electrolocation with a pulse type or wave type EODs.

text: Juveniles look very different from adults, so much so that they were at one time believed to be a different species. The juveniles were first described as Anoplogaster cornuta by the French zoologist Achille Valenciennes in 1833, and it was fifty years later that the adults were described and given the name Caulolepis longidens. Not until 1955 was it appreciated that the two were the same species. The juveniles are a much paler colour and somewhat triangular in cross section. They have several long spines on the head, large eyes and slender, pointed gill rakers, but have small teeth and lack the fangs of the adult fish. The skin is largely unpigmented and clad in unpigmented scales, but there is a black patch on the belly formed by dark-coloured cup-like scales. As the juvenile reaches adulthood, it becomes darker as black scales grow to cover its still-unpigmented skin.

text: Juveniles look very different from adults, so much so that they were at one time believed to be a different species. The juveniles were

text: first described

text: as Anoplogaster cornuta by the French zoologist

text: Achille Valenciennes

text: in 1833, and it was fifty years later that the adults were described and given the name Caulolepis longidens. Not until 1955 was it appreciated that the two were the same species. The juveniles are a much paler colour and somewhat triangular in cross section. They have several long spines on the head, large eyes and slender, pointed gill rakers, but have small teeth and lack the fangs of the adult fish. The skin is largely unpigmented and clad in unpigmented scales, but there is a black patch on the belly formed by dark-coloured cup-like scales. As the juvenile reaches adulthood, it becomes darker as black scales grow to cover its still-unpigmented skin.

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. granulosus, the toothpad is uninterrupted, or continuous without a break. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. granulosus, there are 28 to 51 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain

text: papilla

text: . All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. granulosus, the toothpad is uninterrupted, or continuous without a break. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. granulosus, there are 28 to 51 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: Ostariophysi is the second-largest superorder of fish. Members of this superorder are called ostariophysians. This diverse group contains almost 8,000 species, about 28% of known fish species in the world and 68% of freshwater species, and are present on all major continents except Antarctica. They have a number of common characteristics such as an alarm substance and a Weberian apparatus. Members of this group include fish important to people for food, sport, the aquarium industry, and research.

text: Ostariophysi is the second-largest

text: superorder

text: of

text: fish

text: . Members of this superorder are called ostariophysians. This diverse group contains almost 8,000 species, about 28% of known fish species in the world and 68% of freshwater species, and are present on all major continents except

text: Antarctica

text: . They have a number of common characteristics such as an alarm substance and a

text: Weberian apparatus

text: . Members of this group include fish important to people for food, sport, the aquarium industry, and research.

text: Between the early 1940s and the 1960s the lake trout catch from Lake Huron and Lake Superior dropped from about 6.8 million kg (15 million lbs) to 136,077 kg (300,000 lbs), about two percent of its former level, largely attributed to the introduction of sea lampreys.The Sea Lamprey made its way into the Canadian ocean through a canal system that was initially built by man in the early 1830s. Their physical structure is built to attack and feed on other fishes with different species. Their mouth has a suction that sucks and attach to other fishes, then use then use its blade sharp teeth and tongue to puncture holes into the body of other fishes such as: salmon brown trout, whiten fish and yellow fish. The Sea lamprey feeds on the blood of other fish species. After puncturing the body of a different fish species; the Sea Lamprey then leave the fish with an open wound which in turn causes them to bleed till death. Rarely a different fish survive a Lamprey puncture.

text: Between the early 1940s and the 1960s the

text: lake trout

text: catch from

text: Lake Huron

text: and

text: Lake Superior

text: dropped from about 6.8 million kg (15 million lbs) to 136,077 kg (300,000 lbs), about two percent of its former level, largely attributed to the introduction of

text: sea lamprey

text: s.The

text: Sea Lamprey

text: made its way into the Canadian ocean through a canal system that was initially built by man in the early 1830s. Their physical structure is built to attack and feed on other fishes with different species. Their mouth has a suction that sucks and attach to other fishes, then use then use its blade sharp teeth and tongue to puncture holes into the body of other fishes such as: salmon brown trout, whiten fish and yellow fish. The Sea lamprey feeds on the blood of other fish species. After puncturing the body of a different fish species; the Sea Lamprey then leave the fish with an open wound which in turn causes them to bleed till death. Rarely a different fish survive a Lamprey puncture.

text: Sharks are a group of fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the sister group to the rays. However, the term "shark" has also been used for extinct members of the subclass Elasmobranchii outside the Selachimorpha, such as Cladoselache and Xenacanthus, as well as other Chondrichthyes such as the holocephalid eugenedontidans. Under this broader definition, the earliest known sharks date back to more than 420 million years ago. Acanthodians are often referred to as "spiny sharks"; though they are not part of Chondrichthyes proper, they are a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish as a whole.

text: Sharks are a group of

text: fish

text: characterized by a

text: cartilaginous

text: skeleton

text: , five to seven

text: gill slit

text: s on the sides of the head, and

text: pectoral fin

text: s that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the

text: clade

text: Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the

text: sister group

text: to the

text: rays

text: . However, the term "shark" has also been used for extinct members of the subclass

text: Elasmobranchii

text: outside the Selachimorpha, such as

text: Cladoselache

text: and

text: Xenacanthus

text: , as well as other

text: Chondrichthyes

text: such as the

text: holocephalid

text: eugenedontidans

text: . Under this broader definition, the earliest known sharks date back to more than 420 million years ago.

text: Acanthodians

text: are often referred to as "spiny sharks"; though they are not part of Chondrichthyes proper, they are a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish as a whole.

text: The blind electric rays are small, flat cartilaginous fish with the round pectoral fin disc characteristic of electric rays, a short, fleshy tail, and one dorsal fin. The front part of their pelvic fins are modified for walking, while the back is fused to the disk. Their eyes are not visible externally and are practically useless, hence the name. The coloration is dark brown above and lighter below. T. aysoni grows to a maximum length of 38 cm and T. tarakea to 35 cm.

text: The blind electric rays are small, flat

text: cartilaginous fish

text: with the round

text: pectoral fin

text: disc characteristic of electric rays, a short, fleshy tail, and one

text: dorsal fin

text: . The front part of their

text: pelvic fin

text: s are modified for walking, while the back is fused to the disk. Their eyes are not visible externally and are practically useless, hence the name. The coloration is dark brown above and lighter below. T. aysoni grows to a maximum length of 38 cm and T. tarakea to 35 cm.

text: In their 1997 classification of mammals, McKenna and Bell used two extra levels between superorder and order: "grandorder" and "mirorder". Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position. Michael Benton (2005) inserted them between superorder and magnorder instead. This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others.

text: In their 1997 classification of mammals, McKenna and Bell used two extra levels between superorder and order: "grandorder" and "mirorder". Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position.

text: Michael Benton

text: (2005) inserted them between superorder and magnorder instead. This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others.

text: In cartilaginous fish, the zonular fibres are replaced by a membrane, including a small muscle at the underside of the lens. This muscle pulls the lens forward from its relaxed position when focusing on nearby objects. In teleosts, by contrast, a muscle projects from a vascular structure in the floor of the eye, called the falciform process, and serves to pull the lens backwards from the relaxed position to focus on distant objects. While amphibians move the lens forward, as do cartilaginous fish, the muscles involved are not homologous with those of either type of fish. In frogs, there are two muscles, one above and one below the lens, while other amphibians have only the lower muscle.

text: In

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , the zonular fibres are replaced by a membrane, including a small muscle at the underside of the lens. This muscle pulls the lens forward from its relaxed position when focusing on nearby objects. In

text: teleost

text: s, by contrast, a muscle projects from a vascular structure in the floor of the eye, called the falciform process, and serves to pull the lens backwards from the relaxed position to focus on distant objects. While amphibians move the lens forward, as do cartilaginous fish, the muscles involved are not

text: homologous

text: with those of either type of fish. In

text: frog

text: s, there are two muscles, one above and one below the lens, while other amphibians have only the lower muscle.

text: Saddle nose is a condition associated with nasal trauma, congenital syphilis, relapsing polychondritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, cocaine abuse, and leprosy, among other conditions. The most common etiology is nasal trauma. It is characterized by a loss of height of the nose, because of the collapse of the bridge. The depressed nasal dorsum may involve bony, cartilaginous or both bony and cartilaginous components of the nasal dorsum.

text: Saddle nose is a condition associated with nasal trauma,

text: congenital syphilis

text: , relapsing

text: polychondritis

text: granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: cocaine

text: abuse, and

text: leprosy

text: , among other conditions. The most common etiology is nasal trauma. It is characterized by a loss of height of the nose, because of the collapse of the bridge. The depressed nasal dorsum may involve bony, cartilaginous or both bony and cartilaginous components of the nasal dorsum.

text: The kidneys of fish are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. They are similar to the mesonephros of higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds and mammals). The kidneys contain clusters of nephrons, serviced by collecting ducts which usually drain into a mesonephric duct. However, the situation is not always so simple. In cartilaginous fish there is also a shorter duct which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the mesonephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult. Hagfish and lamprey kidneys are unusually simple. They consist of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the mesonephric duct.

text: The

text: kidney

text: s of fish are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. They are similar to the

text: mesonephros

text: of higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds and mammals). The kidneys contain clusters of

text: nephron

text: s, serviced by collecting ducts which usually drain into a

text: mesonephric duct

text: . However, the situation is not always so simple. In

text: cartilaginous fish

text: there is also a shorter duct which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the mesonephric duct at the

text: bladder

text: or

text: cloaca

text: Hagfish

text: and

text: lamprey

text: kidneys are unusually simple. They consist of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the mesonephric duct.

text: While some small teeth have been found, few fossilized skeletons of manta rays have been discovered. Their cartilaginous skeletons do not preserve well as they lack the calcification of the bony fish. Only three sedimentary beds bearing manta ray fossils are known, one from the Oligocene in South Carolina and two from the Miocene and Pliocene in North Carolina. Remains of an extinct species have been found in the Chandler Bridge Formation of South Carolina. These were originally described as Manta fragilis but were later reclassified as Paramobula fragilis.

text: While some small teeth have been found, few fossilized skeletons of manta rays have been discovered. Their cartilaginous skeletons do not preserve well as they lack the

text: calcification

text: of the

text: bony fish

text: . Only three sedimentary beds bearing manta ray fossils are known, one from the

text: Oligocene

text: in

text: South Carolina

text: and two from the

text: Miocene

text: and

text: Pliocene

text: in

text: North Carolina

text: . Remains of an extinct species have been found in the

text: Chandler Bridge Formation

text: of South Carolina. These were originally described as Manta fragilis but were later reclassified as

text: Paramobula fragilis

text: 4 Superorders

text: 4 Superorders

text: The Megaloptera were formerly considered part of a group then called Neuroptera, together with lacewings and snakeflies, but these are now generally considered to be separate orders, with Neuroptera referring to the lacewings and relatives (which were formerly called Planipennia). The former Neuroptera, particularly the lacewing group, are nonetheless very closely related to each other, and the new name for this group is Neuropterida. This is either placed at superorder rank, with the Endopterygota—of which they are part—becoming an unranked clade above it, or the Endopterygota are maintained as a superorder, with an unranked Neuropterida being a part of them. Within the endopterygotes, the closest living relatives of the neuropteridan clade are the beetles.

text: The Megaloptera were formerly considered part of a group then called Neuroptera, together with

text: lacewing

text: s and

text: snakeflies

text: , but these are now generally considered to be separate orders, with Neuroptera referring to the lacewings and relatives (which were formerly called Planipennia). The former Neuroptera, particularly the lacewing group, are nonetheless very closely related to each other, and the new name for this group is

text: Neuropterida

text: . This is either placed at

text: superorder

text: rank, with the

text: Endopterygota

text: —of which they are part—becoming an unranked

text: clade

text: above it, or the Endopterygota are maintained as a superorder, with an unranked Neuropterida being a part of them. Within the endopterygotes, the closest living relatives of the neuropteridan clade are the

text: beetle

text: s.

text: The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses pelagic fishes, including herring and anchovies, tuna and mackerel, billfish, jacks, needlefish and flyingfish, threadfins, hairtails, lancetfish, and lanternfish; demersal fishes, including mullets, porgies, grunts, and flatheads, eels, lizardfish, cusk eels, gurnards, and flatfish; reef fishes, including barracudas, goatfish, spadefish, groupers, scorpionfish, and porcupinefish; cartilaginous fishes, including dogfish, sawsharks, angel sharks, catsharks, thresher sharks, smoothhounds, smaller requiem sharks, sawfish, guitarfish, skates, stingrays, and butterfly rays; and invertebrates, including cephalopods, decapod crustaceans, barnacles, and sea stars. Very rarely, the largest dusky sharks may also consume sea turtles, marine mammals (mainly as carrion), and human refuse.

text: The known diet of the dusky shark encompasses

text: pelagic fish

text: es, including

text: herring and anchovies

text: tuna and mackerel

text: billfish

text: jacks

text: needlefish and flyingfish

text: threadfin

text: s,

text: hairtail

text: s,

text: lancetfish

text: , and

text: lanternfish

text: demersal fish

text: es, including

text: mullets

text: porgies

text: grunts

text: , and

text: flatheads

text: eel

text: s,

text: lizardfish

text: cusk eel

text: s,

text: gurnard

text: s, and

text: flatfish

text: reef fish

text: es, including

text: barracuda

text: s,

text: goatfish

text: spadefish

text: grouper

text: s,

text: scorpionfish

text: , and

text: porcupinefish

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es, including

text: dogfish

text: sawshark

text: s,

text: angel shark

text: s,

text: catshark

text: s,

text: thresher shark

text: s,

text: smoothhounds

text: , smaller requiem sharks,

text: sawfish

text: guitarfish

text: skates

text: stingray

text: s, and

text: butterfly ray

text: s; and

text: invertebrate

text: s, including

text: cephalopod

text: s,

text: decapod crustaceans

text: barnacle

text: s, and

text: sea star

text: s. Very rarely, the largest dusky sharks may also consume

text: sea turtle

text: s,

text: marine mammal

text: s (mainly as

text: carrion

text: ), and human refuse.

text: The song "The Skin of My Yellow Country Teeth" was featured on the 2005 episode "E-mail Surveillance" of the NBC show The Office as well as the 2011 film The Art of Getting By.

text: The song "The Skin of My Yellow Country Teeth" was featured on the 2005 episode "

text: E-mail Surveillance

text: " of the NBC show

text: The Office

text: as well as the 2011 film

text: The Art of Getting By

text: The Tikar have elements of matrilineal and patrilineal descent. Their folk belief states that during pregnancy the blood that the woman would normally release during menstruation forms parts of the fetus. This blood is said to form the skin, blood, flesh and most of the organs. The bones, brain, heart and teeth are believed to be formed from the father's sperm. In the case of a son the masculinity also comes from this. The Tikar are also noted as mask-makers.

text: The Tikar have elements of matrilineal and patrilineal descent. Their folk belief states that during pregnancy the blood that the woman would normally release during

text: menstruation

text: forms parts of the fetus. This blood is said to form the skin, blood, flesh and most of the organs. The bones, brain, heart and teeth are believed to be formed from the father's

text: sperm

text: . In the case of a son the masculinity also comes from this. The Tikar are also noted as mask-makers.

text: The diagram on the right shows the horizontal vestibulo-ocular reflex circuitry in bony and cartilaginous fish.

text: The diagram on the right shows the horizontal

text: vestibulo-ocular reflex

text: circuitry in

text: bony

text: and

text: cartilaginous fish

text: All lungfish demonstrate an uninterrupted cartilaginous notochord and an extensively developed palatal dentition. Basal ("primitive") lungfish groups may retain marginal teeth and an ossified braincase, but derived lungfish groups, including all modern species, show a significant reduction in the marginal bones and a cartilaginous braincase.  The bones of the skull roof in primitive lungfish are covered in a mineralized tissue called cosmine, but in post-Devonian lungfishes, the skull roof lies beneath the skin and the cosmine covering is lost.  All modern lungfish show significant reductions and fusions of the bones of the skull roof, and the specific bones of the skull roof show no homology to the skull roof bones of ray-finned fishes or tetrapods. During the breeding season, the South American lungfish develops a pair of feathery appendages that are actually highly modified pelvic fins. These fins are thought to improve gas exchange around the fish's eggs in its nest.

text: All lungfish demonstrate an uninterrupted cartilaginous

text: notochord

text: and an extensively developed palatal dentition.

text: Basal

text: primitive"

text: ) lungfish groups may retain marginal teeth and an ossified braincase, but derived lungfish groups, including all modern species, show a significant reduction in the marginal bones and a cartilaginous braincase.  The bones of the

text: skull roof

text: in primitive lungfish are covered in a

text: mineralized tissue

text: called

text: cosmine

text: , but in post-

text: Devonian

text: lungfishes, the skull roof lies beneath the skin and the cosmine covering is lost.  All modern lungfish show significant reductions and fusions of the bones of the skull roof, and the specific bones of the skull roof show no

text: homology

text: to the skull roof bones of

text: ray-finned fish

text: es or

text: tetrapods

text: . During the breeding season, the South American lungfish develops a pair of feathery appendages that are actually highly modified pelvic fins. These fins are thought to improve gas exchange around the fish's eggs in its nest.

text: The use of the neck frill in dinosaurs is uncertain; it may have been used for thermoregulation or simply as a defense mechanism. Indeed, during battles for territory, competing Triceratops crashed heads together with their elongated horns and the neck frill may have been employed as a kind of shield, protecting the rest of the animal from harm. However, usage of the neck frill in modern reptiles is better documented. Two chief and disparate examples are the horned lizards (genus Phrynosoma) with a bony frill, and the frill-necked lizard (genus Chlamydosaurus) with a cartilaginous frill. The frill-necked lizard's frill is mainly made up of flaps of skin, which are usually coloured pink, supported by cartilaginous spines. Similar to the portrayal of the dinosaur Dilophosaurus in Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park, the frill-necked lizard can puff out these neck frills either side of its head when threatened. The lizards often raise their frills when battling for territory or when making themselves seem bigger when threatened. There is, however, no evidence that suggests that Dilophosaurus had the same abilities, as many of its features in the Jurassic Park film were purely fictional.

text: The use of the neck frill in dinosaurs is uncertain; it may have been used for

text: thermoregulation

text: or simply as a defense mechanism. Indeed, during battles for territory, competing Triceratops crashed heads together with their elongated horns and the neck frill may have been employed as a kind of shield, protecting the rest of the animal from harm. However, usage of the neck frill in modern reptiles is better documented. Two chief and disparate examples are the

text: horned lizard

text: s (genus Phrynosoma) with a bony frill, and the frill-necked lizard (genus Chlamydosaurus) with a cartilaginous frill. The frill-necked lizard's frill is mainly made up of flaps of skin, which are usually coloured pink, supported by cartilaginous spines. Similar to the portrayal of the dinosaur

text: Dilophosaurus

text: in

text: Steven Spielberg

text: 's

text: Jurassic Park

text: , the frill-necked lizard can puff out these neck frills either side of its head when threatened. The lizards often raise their frills when battling for territory or when making themselves seem bigger when threatened. There is, however, no evidence that suggests that Dilophosaurus had the same abilities, as many of its features in the Jurassic Park film were purely fictional.

text: The superorder Elopomorpha contains a variety of types of fishes that range from typical silvery-colored species, such as the tarpons and ladyfishes of the Elopiformes and the bonefishes of the Albuliformes, to the long and slender, smooth-bodied eels of the Anguilliformes. The one characteristic uniting this group of fishes is they all have leptocephalus larvae, which are unique to the Elopomorpha. No other fishes have this type of larvae.

text: The superorder Elopomorpha contains a variety of types of fishes that range from typical silvery-colored species, such as the tarpons and ladyfishes of the

text: Elopiformes

text: and the bonefishes of the

text: Albuliformes

text: , to the long and slender, smooth-bodied eels of the

text: Anguilliformes

text: . The one characteristic uniting this group of fishes is they all have

text: leptocephalus

text: larvae, which are unique to the Elopomorpha. No other fishes have this type of larvae.

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla.     All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth.  This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth.  In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster.   In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad.   This character is used as a method of differentiating between to different but similar species of Syndontis.  In S. grandiops, the toothpad is uninterrupted, or continuous without a break.  On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked".  The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. grandiops, there are 17-26 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: papilla

text: .     All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth.  This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth.  In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster.   In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad.   This character is used as a method of differentiating between to different but similar species of Syndontis.  In S. grandiops, the toothpad is uninterrupted, or continuous without a break.  On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked".  The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. grandiops, there are 17-26 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: Bony fish use countercurrent flow to maximize the intake of oxygen that can diffuse through the gill.  Countercurrent flow occurs when deoxygenated blood moves through the gill in one direction while oxygenated water moves through the gill in the opposite direction. This mechanism maintains the concentration gradient thus increasing the efficiency of the respiration process as well and prevents the oxygen levels from reaching an equilibrium. Cartilaginous fish do not have a countercurrent flow system as they lack bones which are needed to have the opened out gill that bony fish have.

text: Bony fish use

text: countercurrent flow

text: to maximize the intake of oxygen that can

text: diffuse

text: through the gill.  Countercurrent flow occurs when deoxygenated blood moves through the gill in one direction while oxygenated water moves through the gill in the opposite direction. This mechanism maintains the

text: concentration gradient

text: thus increasing the efficiency of the respiration process as well and prevents the oxygen levels from reaching an

text: equilibrium

text: . Cartilaginous fish do not have a countercurrent flow system as they lack bones which are needed to have the opened out gill that bony fish have.

text: A blood blister is a type of blister that forms when subdermal tissues and blood vessels are damaged without piercing the skin. It consists of a pool of lymph, blood and other body fluids trapped beneath the skin. If punctured, it suppurates a dark  fluid. Sometimes the fluids are cut off from the rest of the body and dry up, leaving behind dead cell material inside the blister with a texture like putty. Some blood blisters can be extremely painful due to bruising where the blister occurred.

text: A blood blister is a type of

text: blister

text: that forms when subdermal

text: tissue

text: s and

text: blood vessel

text: s are damaged without piercing the

text: skin

text: . It consists of a pool of

text: lymph

text: , blood and other body fluids trapped beneath the skin. If punctured, it suppurates a dark  fluid. Sometimes the fluids are cut off from the rest of the body and dry up, leaving behind dead cell material inside the blister with a texture like

text: putty

text: . Some blood blisters can be extremely painful due to bruising where the blister occurred.

text: Squalomorphii is a superorder of cartilaginous fishes, generally characterized by lacking traits such as an anal fin, nictitating membrane, or suborbital shelves in the cranium. Also called squalea, or squalean sharks. There are about 163 living species in 11 families. Squalean sharks are divided into four orders: the Hexanchiformes, Squaliformes, Squatiniformes, and Pristiophoriformes.

text: Squalomorphii is a

text: superorder

text: of

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: , generally characterized by lacking traits such as an anal fin,

text: nictitating membrane

text: , or suborbital shelves in the cranium. Also called squalea, or squalean sharks. There are about 163 living

text: species

text: in 11

text: families

text: . Squalean sharks are divided into four

text: orders

text: : the

text: Hexanchiformes

text: Squaliformes

text: Squatiniformes

text: , and

text: Pristiophoriformes

text: The cartilage of Gogoselachus was very different from those of other cartilaginous fish and acanthodians. While the cartilage itself closely resembled modern shark cartilage, the matrix holding the cartilage cells together contained remnant bone cells. This means that in contrast to the previous idea that cartilaginous fish were jawed vertebrates that evolved before the advent of a bony skeleton, cartilaginous fish in fact evolved from bony ancestors. Cartilaginous fish most likely lost these bony skeletons in order to evade predators and catch prey faster.

text: The cartilage of Gogoselachus was very different from those of other cartilaginous fish and acanthodians. While the cartilage itself closely resembled modern shark cartilage, the matrix holding the cartilage cells together contained remnant

text: bone cell

text: s. This means that in contrast to the previous idea that cartilaginous fish were

text: jawed vertebrates

text: that evolved before the advent of a bony skeleton, cartilaginous fish in fact evolved from bony ancestors. Cartilaginous fish most likely lost these bony skeletons in order to evade predators and catch prey faster.

text: The first attested use of the term "safety razor" is in a patent application for "new and useful improvements in Safety-Razors", filed in May 1880 by Fredrik and Otto Kampfe of Brooklyn, New York, and issued the following month. This differed from the Henson design in distancing the blade from the handle by interposing, "a hollow metallic blade-holder having a preferably removable handle and a flat plate in front, to which the blade is attached by clips and a pivoted catch, said plate having bars or teeth at its lower edge, and the lower plate having an opening, for the purpose set forth", which is, to "insure a smooth bearing for the plate upon the skin, while the teeth or bars will yield sufficiently to allow the razor to sever the hair without danger of cutting the skin." The Kampfe Brothers produced razors under their own name following the 1880 patent and improved the design in a series of subsequent patents. These models were manufactured under the "Star Safety Razor" brand.

text: Manta rays are members of Chondrichthyes, fish with tough cartilage rather than bone in their skeletons. Mantas are among the Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays), in the superorder Batoidea (rays and skates) and the order Myliobatiformes (stingrays and relatives). The genus Manta is part of the eagle ray family Myliobatidae, where it is grouped in the subfamily Mobulinae along with the devil rays.

text: Manta rays are members of

text: Chondrichthyes

text: , fish with tough

text: cartilage

text: rather than

text: bone

text: in their skeletons. Mantas are among the

text: Elasmobranchii

text: (sharks and rays), in the

text: superorder

text: Batoidea

text: (rays and skates) and the order

text: Myliobatiformes

text: stingray

text: s and relatives). The genus Manta is part of the eagle ray

text: family

text: Myliobatidae

text: , where it is grouped in the subfamily

text: Mobulinae

text: along with the devil rays.

text: Blood constitutes about eight percent of a person's weight (normally about five liters), and it circulates near the surface of the skin. Almost all trauma to the body, therefore, results in the shedding of blood. Its red color makes it readily apparent at crime scenes, and its residues are very difficult to completely remove. Blood residue has even been recovered from 100,000-year-old stone tools.

text: Blood constitutes about eight percent of a person's weight (normally about five liters), and it circulates near the surface of the skin. Almost all

text: trauma

text: to the body, therefore, results in the shedding of blood. Its red color makes it readily apparent at crime scenes, and its residues are very difficult to completely remove. Blood residue has even been recovered from 100,000-year-old stone tools.

text: Paracanthopterygii is a superorder of fishes. Members of this group are called paracanthopterygians.

text: Paracanthopterygii is a

text: superorder

text: of

text: fish

text: es. Members of this group are called paracanthopterygians.

text: Aetobatus narutobiei, the Naru eagle ray, is a species of cartilaginous fish of the eagle ray family, Myliobatidae. It is found in the northwest Pacific off south Japan, South Korea, China, Hong Kong and Vietnam. It occurs from shallow, coastal flats to a depth of , but always  in water warmer than .

text: Aetobatus narutobiei, the Naru eagle ray, is a species of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: of the

text: eagle ray

text: family,

text: Myliobatidae

text: . It is found in the northwest Pacific off south Japan, South Korea, China, Hong Kong and Vietnam. It occurs from shallow, coastal flats to a depth of , but always  in water warmer than .

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. irsacae, the toothpad is interrupted, or separated into two distinct groups. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. irsacae, there are 15 to 29 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: papilla

text: . All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. irsacae, the toothpad is interrupted, or separated into two distinct groups. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. irsacae, there are 15 to 29 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: Proposed superorder Amphiesmenoptera

text: Proposed superorder

text: Amphiesmenoptera

text: There are times where a patient may require a blood culture collection. The culture will determine if the patient has pathogens in the blood. Normally blood is sterile. When drawing blood from cultures use a sterile solution such as Betadine rather than alcohol. This is done using sterile gloves, while not wiping away the surgical solution, touching the puncture site, or in any way compromising the sterile process. It is vital that the procedure is performed in as sterile a manner as possible as the persistent presence of skin commensals in blood cultures could indicate endocarditis but they are most often found as contaminants. It is encouraged to use an abrasive method of skin preparation. This removes the upper layers of dead skin cells along with their contaminating bacteria. Povidone-iodine has traditionally been used but in the UK a 2% chlorhexidine in 70% ethanol or isopropyl alcohol solution is preferred and time must be allowed for it to dry. The tops of any containers used when drawing a blood culture should also be disinfected using a similar solution. Some labs will actively discourage iodine use where iodine is thought to degrade the rubber stopper through which blood enters the bottle, thus allowing contaminates to enter the container.

text: There are times where a patient may require a blood culture collection. The culture will determine if the patient has pathogens in the blood. Normally blood is sterile. When drawing blood from cultures use a sterile solution such as

text: Betadine

text: rather than

text: alcohol

text: . This is done using sterile gloves, while not wiping away the surgical solution, touching the puncture site, or in any way compromising the sterile process. It is vital that the procedure is performed in as sterile a manner as possible as the persistent presence of skin

text: commensal

text: s in blood cultures could indicate

text: endocarditis

text: but they are most often found as contaminants. It is encouraged to use an abrasive method of skin preparation. This removes the upper layers of dead skin cells along with their contaminating bacteria. Povidone-iodine has traditionally been used but in the UK a 2%

text: chlorhexidine

text: in 70% ethanol or isopropyl alcohol solution is preferred and time must be allowed for it to dry. The tops of any containers used when drawing a blood culture should also be disinfected using a similar solution. Some labs will actively discourage iodine use where iodine is thought to degrade the rubber stopper through which blood enters the bottle, thus allowing contaminates to enter the container.

text: The work by which Gegenbaur is best known is his Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie (Leipzig, 1874; 2nd edition, 1878), translated into English by W. F. Jeffrey Bell (as Elements of Comparative Anatomy, 1878), with additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognizing the importance of comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegenbaur laid stress on the higher value of comparative anatomy as the basis of the study of homologies, i.e. of the relations between corresponding parts in different animals, as, for example, the arm of man, with the foreleg of a horse, and with the wing of a fowl. A distinctive piece of work was effected by him in 1871 in supplementing the evidence adduced by Huxley in refutation of the skull-vertebrae theory: the theory of the origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae, which, formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had been championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that in the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae might be most expected, the skull is an unsegmented gristly brain-box, and that in higher forms, the vertebral nature of the skull cannot be maintained, since many of the bones, notably those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin.

text: The work by which Gegenbaur is best known is his Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie (Leipzig, 1874; 2nd edition, 1878), translated into English by W. F. Jeffrey Bell (as Elements of Comparative Anatomy, 1878), with additions by

text: E. Ray Lankester

text: . While recognizing the importance of

text: comparative embryology

text: in the study of descent, Gegenbaur laid stress on the higher value of

text: comparative anatomy

text: as the basis of the study of homologies, i.e. of the relations between corresponding parts in different animals, as, for example, the arm of man, with the foreleg of a horse, and with the wing of a fowl. A distinctive piece of work was effected by him in 1871 in supplementing the evidence adduced by

text: Huxley

text: in refutation of the

text: skull

text: vertebrae

text: theory: the theory of the origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae, which, formulated independently by

text: Goethe

text: and

text: Oken

text: , had been championed by

text: Owen

text: Huxley

text: demonstrated that the skull is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that in the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae might be most expected, the skull is an unsegmented gristly brain-box, and that in higher forms, the vertebral nature of the skull cannot be maintained, since many of the bones, notably those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin.

text: Fishing is another key activity with ecological and economic impacts on the lakes.

text: Fishing

text: is another key activity with ecological and economic impacts on the lakes.

text: Cladodont (from Latin cladus, meaning branch and Greek Odon, meaning tooth) is the term for a common category of early Devonian shark known primarily for its "multi-cusped" tooth consisting of one long blade surrounded by many short, fork-like tines, designed to catch food that was swallowed whole, instead of being used to saw off chunks of meat like many modern sharks. Because the most common fossil evidence of cartilaginous fish is teeth, this term is also used for the fossilised teeth themselves.

text: Cladodont (from Latin cladus, meaning

text: branch

text: and Greek Odon, meaning

text: tooth

text: ) is the term for a common category of early

text: Devonian

text: shark known primarily for its "multi-cusped" tooth consisting of one long blade surrounded by many short, fork-like

text: tines

text: , designed to catch food that was swallowed whole, instead of being used to saw off chunks of meat like many modern sharks. Because the most common fossil evidence of

text: cartilaginous

text: fish is teeth, this term is also used for the

text: fossil

text: ised teeth themselves.

text: In general lifestyle, it was probably most similar to the albatrosses, tropicbirds and frigatebirds of today, with long slender wings adapted for soaring vast distances over the open seas. Due to its size, the bird is presumed to have been an excellently adapted dynamic soarer. It probably built its nest on high plateaus or similar places, where it could easily take flight by simply walking into the wind with wings spread. It was a seabird that apparently lived mainly off squid and other soft-bodied prey; the "teeth" were less saw-like than the horny serrations on the beak of the fish-eating saw-billed ducks (Merginae), pointing straight downwards instead and in the fossils often very abraded or broken. The downward-pointing "teeth" were ideal for digging into and holding slippery, soft-skinned pelagic animals such as cephalopods that were probably snatched out of the water in flight or while swimming. Lightly built as it was, O. orri was probably not a good diver and may have found it impossible to dive at all.

text: In general lifestyle, it was probably most similar to the

text: albatross

text: es,

text: tropicbird

text: s and

text: frigatebird

text: s of today, with long slender wings adapted for

text: soaring

text: vast distances over the open seas. Due to its size, the bird is presumed to have been an excellently

text: adapted

text: dynamic soarer

text: . It probably built its

text: nest

text: on high

text: plateau

text: s or similar places, where it could easily take flight by simply walking into the wind with wings spread. It was a seabird that apparently lived mainly off

text: squid

text: and other soft-bodied prey; the "teeth" were less saw-like than the

text: horny

text: serrations on the beak of the fish-eating saw-billed ducks (

text: Merginae

text: ), pointing straight downwards instead and in the fossils often very abraded or broken. The downward-pointing "teeth" were ideal for digging into and holding slippery, soft-skinned

text: pelagic

text: animals such as

text: cephalopod

text: s that were probably snatched out of the water in flight or while swimming. Lightly built as it was, O. orri was probably not a good diver and may have found it impossible to dive at all.

text: Anglers can now use many available maps and surveys to help pinpoint lakes and areas within those lakes that make sense to try for specific fish, noting those locations in latitude and longitude coordinates. They are then able to use a handheld GPS receiver to aim them to those spots, usually with accuracy of less than 20 feet. Ice anglers then drill holes with whichever auger they have, checking the ice thickness for safety as they go.  Using sonar, the angler can determine the depth of the water, bottom content, weed and structure cover, and even see if there are fish there. Also, by using sonar, they can place the bait according to where they think the fish are. If they are using "tip-ups" they can carpet the area at different depths and with different presentations (the number allowed being determined by local laws) and see what is the most productive.  Modern ice anglers can also use modern reels mounted on shorter (18"-36"/45–90 cm long) fishing rods to actively fish by watching, by using their sonar, where their lure is relative to the fish, and jig accordingly to entice a bite.

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. tanganyicae, the toothpad is interrupted, with a distinct gap between groups of teeth. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. tanganyicae, there are 33 to 49 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: papilla

text: In 2015, Portland's Bureau of Environmental Services (BES) began issuing annual "report cards" for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city. BES assigns grades for each of four categories: hydrology, water quality, habitat, and fish and wildlife. Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and to what degree its streams flow freely, not dammed or diverted. Water-quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen, E-coli bacteria, temperature, suspended solids, and substances such as mercury and phosphorus. Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains, riparian zones, tree canopies, and other variables. The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds, fish, and macroinvertebrates. In 2015, the BES grades for the Columbia Slough are hydrology, B− ; water quality, B− ; habitat, D− , and fish and wildlife, F.

text: In 2015, Portland's Bureau of Environmental Services (BES) began issuing annual "report cards" for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city. BES assigns grades for each of four categories: hydrology, water quality, habitat, and fish and wildlife. Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other

text: impervious surface

text: s in the watershed and to what degree its streams flow freely, not dammed or diverted. Water-quality grades are based on measurements of

text: dissolved oxygen

text: E-coli

text: bacteria, temperature,

text: suspended solid

text: s, and substances such as mercury and

text: phosphorus

text: . Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains,

text: riparian zone

text: s,

text: tree canopies

text: , and other variables. The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds, fish, and

text: macroinvertebrate

text: s. In 2015, the BES grades for the Columbia Slough are hydrology, B− ; water quality, B− ; habitat, D− , and fish and wildlife, F.

text: The skin can be divided into three main layers including the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous tissue. Blood is supplied to the skin mainly by two networks of blood vessels. The deep network lies between the dermis and the subcutaneous tissue, while the shallow network lies within the papillary layer of the dermis. The epidermis is supplied by diffusion from this shallow network and both networks are supplied by collaterals, and by perforating arteries that bring blood from deeper layers either between muscles (septocutaneous perforators) or through muscles (musculocutaneous perforators). This redundant and robust blood supply is important in flap surgery because part of the supply will be cut off. The remaining blood supply must then keep the tissue alive until a more optimal supply can be restored through angiogenesis.

text: The skin can be divided into three main layers including the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous tissue. Blood is supplied to the skin mainly by two networks of blood vessels. The deep network lies between the dermis and the subcutaneous tissue, while the shallow network lies within the papillary layer of the dermis. The epidermis is supplied by diffusion from this shallow network and both networks are supplied by

text: collaterals

text: , and by perforating arteries that bring blood from deeper layers either between muscles (septocutaneous perforators) or through muscles (musculocutaneous perforators). This redundant and robust blood supply is important in flap surgery because part of the supply will be cut off. The remaining blood supply must then keep the tissue alive until a more optimal supply can be restored through

text: angiogenesis

text: Male cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays), as well as the males of some live-bearing ray finned fishes, have fins that have been modified to function as intromittent organs, reproductive appendages which allow internal fertilization. In ray finned fish they are called gonopodiums or andropodiums, and in cartilaginous fish they are called claspers.

text: Male

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es (sharks and rays), as well as the males of some live-bearing

text: ray finned fish

text: es, have fins that have been modified to function as

text: intromittent organ

text: s, reproductive appendages which allow

text: internal fertilization

text: . In ray finned fish they are called gonopodiums or andropodiums, and in cartilaginous fish they are called claspers.

text: Other abnormalities, affecting the scalp, head, face, jaw and teeth may be found with JBS. These include: ectodermal mid-line scalp defects with sparse, oddly-patterned hair growth; aplasia cutis  (underdeveloped, very thin skin) over the head, an enlarged fontanelle ("soft spot" on the head of young infants), microcephaly (undersized skull), prominent forehead, absence of eyebrows and eyelashes, mongoloidal eye shape, nasolacrimo-cutaneous fistulae (this refers to the formation of an abnormal secondary passageway from either the tear duct or lacrimal sac to the facial skin surface, possibly discharging fluid), flattened ears, micrognathism of the maxilla and mandible (underdevelopment of the upper and lower jaw, respectively), with the maxilla more prominently affected in some cases; congenital clefting of bones surrounding the optical orbit (eye socket), such as the frontal and lacrimal bone; and maldeveloped deciduous teeth ("baby teeth"), with an absence of permanent teeth.

text: Other abnormalities, affecting the scalp,

text: head

text: face

text: jaw

text: and

text: teeth

text: may be found with JBS. These include:

text: ectoderm

text: al mid-line scalp defects with sparse, oddly-patterned

text: hair

text: growth; aplasia

text: cutis

text: (underdeveloped, very thin

text: skin

text: ) over the head, an enlarged

text: fontanelle

text: ("soft spot" on the head of young

text: infant

text: s),

text: microcephaly

text: (undersized

text: skull

text: ), prominent

text: forehead

text: , absence of

text: eyebrow

text: s and

text: eyelash

text: es,

text: mongoloidal

text: eye

text: shape,

text: nasolacrimo-

text: cutaneous

text: fistula

text: e (this refers to the formation of an abnormal secondary passageway from either the tear duct or

text: lacrimal sac

text: to the facial skin surface, possibly discharging fluid), flattened

text: ear

text: s,

text: micrognathism

text: of the

text: maxilla

text: and

text: mandible

text: (underdevelopment of the upper and lower jaw, respectively), with the maxilla more prominently affected in some cases; congenital clefting of

text: bone

text: s surrounding the

text: optical orbit

text: (eye socket), such as the

text: frontal

text: and

text: lacrimal bone

text: ; and maldeveloped

text: deciduous teeth

text: ("baby teeth"), with an absence of

text: permanent teeth

text: Cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays) are covered with placoid scales. Most bony fishes are covered with the cycloid scales of salmon and carp, or the ctenoid scales of perch, or the ganoid scales of sturgeons and gars. Some species are covered instead by scutes, and others have no outer covering on the skin.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: es (

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: ) are covered with placoid scales. Most

text: bony fishes

text: are covered with the cycloid scales of

text: salmon

text: and

text: carp

text: , or the ctenoid scales of

text: perch

text: , or the ganoid scales of

text: sturgeon

text: s and

text: gar

text: s. Some species are covered instead by

text: scute

text: s, and others have no outer covering on the skin.

text: The trematodes or flukes include 18,000 to 24,000 species, divided into two subclasses. Nearly all trematodes are parasites of mollusks and vertebrates. The smaller Aspidogastrea, comprising about 100 species, are obligate parasites of mollusks and may also infect turtles and fish, including cartilaginous fish. The Digenea, the majority of trematodes, are obligate parasites of both mollusks and vertebrates, but rarely occur in cartilaginous fish.

text: The trematodes or flukes include 18,000 to 24,000

text: species

text: , divided into two subclasses. Nearly all trematodes are

text: parasite

text: s of

text: mollusks

text: and

text: vertebrates

text: . The smaller

text: Aspidogastrea

text: , comprising about 100

text: species

text: , are

text: obligate parasite

text: s of

text: mollusk

text: s and may also infect

text: turtle

text: s and

text: fish

text: , including

text: cartilaginous fish

text: . The

text: Digenea

text: , the majority of trematodes, are

text: obligate parasite

text: s of both

text: mollusk

text: s and

text: vertebrates

text: , but rarely occur in

text: cartilaginous fish

text: Fish reproduction

text: Fish reproduction

text: To perform the test, one set of electrodes are placed on viable tissue (e.g. the chest) as a control and a second set is placed around the tissue in question (e.g. legs or feet). The electrodes may mildly heat the skin to increase blood flow into the area. Oxygen may also be given to the patient to see if that increases oxygen levels in the tissue. The test takes about 45 minutes. Results are reported either as the absolute values of the tissue in question (in mmHg) or as a ratio of the tissue in question to the control tissue. The normal oxygen tension in the foot is approximately 60 mmHg  and a normal chest/foot ratio is approximately 0.9. Many factors can limit the accuracy of the test including edema, temperature, inflammation, medications, and stress. In addition for the measurement to be normal, all parts of the oxygenation pathway must be functioning: the lungs must be able to oxygenate the blood, the heart must be able to pump the blood, and a patent artery must be able to carry blood to the skin.

text: To perform the test, one set of electrodes are placed on viable tissue (e.g. the chest) as a control and a second set is placed around the tissue in question (e.g. legs or feet). The electrodes may mildly heat the skin to increase blood flow into the area. Oxygen may also be given to the patient to see if that increases oxygen levels in the tissue. The test takes about 45 minutes. Results are reported either as the absolute values of the tissue in question (in

text: mmHg

text: ) or as a ratio of the tissue in question to the control tissue. The normal oxygen tension in the foot is approximately 60 mmHg  and a normal chest/foot ratio is approximately 0.9. Many factors can limit the accuracy of the test including

text: edema

text: , temperature, inflammation, medications, and stress. In addition for the measurement to be normal, all parts of the oxygenation pathway must be functioning: the lungs must be able to oxygenate the blood, the heart must be able to pump the blood, and a patent artery must be able to carry blood to the skin.

text: In the final decades of the nineteenth century, as farmland spread and settlement intensified, Wiradjuri could no longer enforce sanctuary law or maintain established ways of engaging with country. The natural productivity and bounty of land and river systems declined. Even though fewer people now lived beside the Murrumbidgee River, fish and freshwater lobsters became scarce, Mary Gilmore told: I do not remember in just what year it was, but the chief of the tribe at Wagga Wagga in talking to my father, said that, white settlement increasing along the river, it was not only fished in by the settlers, but fished in season and out, so that the breeding-stocks were diminishing as well as the grown fish which the blacks’ laws allowed them to take for sustenance.

text: Hagfish have elongated, eel-like bodies, and paddle-like tails. The skin is naked and covers the body like a loosely fitting sock. They have cartilaginous skulls (although the part surrounding the brain is composed primarily of a fibrous sheath) and tooth-like structures composed of keratin. Colors depend on the species, ranging from pink to blue-grey, and black or white spots may be present. Eyes are simple eyespots, not compound eyes that can resolve images. Hagfish have no true fins and have six or eight barbels around the mouth and a single nostril. Instead of vertically articulating jaws like Gnathostomata (vertebrates with jaws), they have a pair of horizontally moving structures with tooth-like projections for pulling off food. The mouth of the hagfish has two pairs of horny, comb-shaped teeth on a cartilaginous plate that protracts and retracts. These teeth are used to grasp food and draw it toward the pharynx.

text: Hagfish have elongated, eel-like bodies, and

text: paddle

text: -like

text: tail

text: s. The skin is naked and covers the body like a loosely fitting sock. They have

text: cartilaginous

text: skull

text: s (although the part surrounding the brain is composed primarily of a fibrous sheath) and

text: tooth

text: -like structures composed of

text: keratin

text: Color

text: s depend on the

text: species

text: , ranging from

text: pink

text: to

text: blue

text: grey

text: , and

text: black

text: or

text: white

text: spots may be present.

text: Eye

text: s are simple eyespots, not compound eyes that can resolve images. Hagfish have no true

text: fin

text: s and have six or eight

text: barbel

text: s around the mouth and a single

text: nostril

text: . Instead of vertically articulating

text: jaw

text: s like

text: Gnathostomata

text: vertebrate

text: s with jaws), they have a pair of

text: horizontally

text: moving structures with tooth-like projections for pulling off food. The mouth of the hagfish has two pairs of horny, comb-shaped teeth on a cartilaginous plate that protracts and retracts. These teeth are used to grasp food and draw it toward the pharynx.

text: Cartilaginous fishes are a class of fishes called Chondrichthyes. They have skeletons made of cartilage rather than bone. The class includes sharks, rays and chimaeras. Shark fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny keratin in hair and feathers. Originally the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and pubioischiadic bars evolved. In rays, the pectoral fins have connected to the head and are very flexible. One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion. Most sharks have eight fins. Sharks can only drift away from objects directly in front of them because their fins do not allow them to move in the tail-first direction.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: es are a class of fishes called Chondrichthyes. They have skeletons made of

text: cartilage

text: rather than

text: bone

text: . The class includes

text: shark

text: s,

text: ray

text: s and

text: chimaera

text: s. Shark fin skeletons are elongated and supported with soft and unsegmented rays named ceratotrichia, filaments of elastic protein resembling the horny

text: keratin

text: in hair and feathers. Originally the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and pubioischiadic bars evolved. In

text: rays

text: , the pectoral fins have connected to the head and are very flexible. One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion. Most sharks have eight fins. Sharks can only drift away from objects directly in front of them because their fins do not allow them to move in the tail-first direction.

text: The type species is from Upper Givetian freshwater strata of Scotland and Estonia, including the John O'Groats sandstone of Caithness, and the Eday beds of the Orkney islands. It is named after its discoverer, Robert Dick. Total armor length is an average of 3 centimeters. It lived about 385 million years ago and is the earliest gnathostome in which internal fertilization has been identified.Newly discovered fossils of M. dicki found in Estonia in 2013 demonstrate clear evidence of unique male and female sexual organs, with males possessing claspers, and females developing fixed plates to lock the claspers in for mating. Separate male and female organs indicate these fish would have been capable of internal fertilization similar to sharks and other cartilaginous fishes, rather than broadcasting gametes externally into the water column like most modern bony fishes. The finding also served to reveal the unusual mating strategy used by this ancient group, which involved a sideways position with their bony arms locked together.

text: The type species is from Upper Givetian freshwater strata of

text: Scotland

text: and

text: Estonia

text: , including the John O'Groats sandstone of

text: Caithness

text: , and the

text: Eday

text: beds of the

text: Orkney

text: islands. It is named after its discoverer,

text: Robert Dick

text: . Total armor length is an average of 3 centimeters. It lived about 385 million years ago and is the earliest gnathostome in which

text: internal fertilization

text: has been identified.Newly discovered fossils of M. dicki found in Estonia in 2013 demonstrate clear evidence of

text: unique male and female sexual organs

text: , with males possessing claspers, and females developing fixed plates to lock the claspers in for mating. Separate male and female organs indicate these fish would have been capable of internal fertilization similar to sharks and other cartilaginous fishes, rather than broadcasting gametes externally into the water column like most modern bony fishes. The finding also served to reveal the unusual mating strategy used by this ancient group, which involved a sideways position with their bony arms locked together.

text: Finally, the cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, do not have any of the bones found in the lower jaw of other vertebrates. Instead, their lower jaw is composed of a cartilagenous structure homologous with the Meckel's cartilage of other groups. This also remains a significant element of the jaw in some primitive bony fish, such as sturgeons.

text: Finally, the

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , such as

text: shark

text: s, do not have any of the bones found in the lower jaw of other vertebrates. Instead, their lower jaw is composed of a

text: cartilage

text: nous structure homologous with the

text: Meckel's cartilage

text: of other groups. This also remains a significant element of the jaw in some primitive bony fish, such as

text: sturgeon

text: s.

text: In some classifications, the chimaeras are included (as subclass Holocephali) in the class Chondrichthyes of cartilaginous fishes; in other systems, this distinction may be raised to the level of class. Chimaeras also have some characteristics of bony fishes.

text: In some classifications, the chimaeras are included (as subclass Holocephali) in the class

text: Chondrichthyes

text: of cartilaginous fishes; in other systems, this distinction may be raised to the level of class. Chimaeras also have some characteristics of

text: bony fishes

text: Factory ship -Farley Boats -Farm-Raised Catfish -Fécamp -Felucca -Feskekôrka -Fibras Industriales S.A. -Field & Stream -Fifie -Firehole River -Fish -Fish (food) -Fish aggregating device -Fish and Game New Zealand -Fish emulsion -Fish farming -Fish flake -Fish hatchery -Fish hook -Fish hydrolysate -Fish in Australia -Fish market -Fish meal -Fish measurement -Fish migration -Fish oil -Fish preservation -Fish processing -Fish processing facility -Fish product sales -Fish products -Fish research institutions in the Maharashtra -Fish sauce -Fish stock -Fish stocking -Fish trap -Fish wheel -Fisheries and Oceans Canada -Fisheries Centre -Fisheries management -Fisheries Research Services -Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory -Fisheries science -Fisherman -Fishermen's Union Trading Co. -Fishery -Fishery Resources Monitoring System -Fishfinder -Fishing -Fishing bait -Fishing by country -Fishing communities in Maharashtra -Fishing fleet -Fishing in Alabama -Fishing in Angola -Fishing in Bangladesh -Fishing in Chad -Fishing in Chile -Fishing in Ethiopia -Fishing in Ghana -Fishing in India -Fishing in Ohio -Fishing in the North Sea -Fishing in Uganda -Fishing in Wyoming -Fishing industry -Fishing industry in Canada -Fishing industry in China -Fishing industry in New Zealand -Fishing industry in Russia -Fishing industry in Scotland -Fishing industry in the United States -Fishing light attractor -Fishing line -Fishing lure -Fishing net -Fishing reel -Fishing rod -Fishing rod tapers -Fishing sinker -Fishing swivel -Fishing tackle -Fishing techniques -Fishing tournament -Fishing vessel -Fishing weir -Fishingkaki -Flatfish -Fleetwood -Flemish Cap -Flesh Fly (Fly-Fishing) -Float (fishing) -Florida stone crab -Flosser -Flounder -Flounder boat -Flounder tramping -Fly fishing -Fly lure -Fly rod building -Fly Tyer -Fly tying -Food and Agriculture Organization -Food of the Tlingit -Forage fish -Fort Frances Canadian Bass Championship -Frank Mundus -Freshwater prawn farm -Fulton Fish Market -Fur-Fish-Game -FV Cornelia Marie -FV Northwestern -FV Wizard

text: Factory ship

text: Farley Boats

text: Farm-Raised Catfish

text: Fécamp

text: Felucca

text: Feskekôrka

text: Fibras Industriales S.A.

text: Field & Stream

text: Fifie

text: Firehole River

text: Fish

text: Fish (food)

text: Fish aggregating device

text: Fish and Game New Zealand

text: Fish emulsion

text: Fish farming

text: Fish flake

text: Fish hatchery

text: Fish hook

text: Fish hydrolysate

text: Fish in Australia

text: Fish market

text: Fish meal

text: Fish measurement

text: Fish migration

text: Fish oil

text: Fish preservation

text: Fish processing

text: Fish processing facility

text: Fish product sales

text: Fish products

entity_name: Fish research institutions in the Maharashtra

text: Fish research institutions in the Maharashtra

text: Fish sauce

text: Fish stock

text: Fish stocking

text: Fish trap

text: Fish wheel

text: Fisheries and Oceans Canada

text: Fisheries Centre

text: Fisheries management

text: Fisheries Research Services

entity_name: Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory

text: Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory

text: Fisheries science

text: Fisherman

text: Fishermen's Union Trading Co.

text: Fishery

text: Fishery Resources Monitoring System

text: Fishfinder

text: Fishing

text: Fishing bait

text: Fishing by country

text: Fishing communities in Maharashtra

text: Fishing fleet

text: Fishing in Alabama

text: Fishing in Angola

text: Fishing in Bangladesh

text: Fishing in Chad

text: Fishing in Chile

text: Fishing in Ethiopia

text: Fishing in Ghana

text: Fishing in India

text: Fishing in Ohio

text: Fishing in the North Sea

text: Fishing in Uganda

text: Fishing in Wyoming

text: Fishing industry

text: Fishing industry in Canada

text: Fishing industry in China

text: Fishing industry in New Zealand

text: Fishing industry in Russia

text: Fishing industry in Scotland

text: Fishing industry in the United States

text: Fishing light attractor

text: Fishing line

text: Fishing lure

text: Fishing net

text: Fishing reel

text: Fishing rod

text: Fishing rod tapers

text: Fishing sinker

text: Fishing swivel

text: Fishing tackle

text: Fishing techniques

text: Fishing tournament

text: Fishing vessel

text: Fishing weir

text: Fishingkaki

text: Flatfish

text: Fleetwood

text: Flemish Cap

text: Flesh Fly (Fly-Fishing)

text: Float (fishing)

text: Florida stone crab

text: Flosser

text: Flounder

text: Flounder boat

text: Flounder tramping

text: Fly fishing

text: Fly lure

text: Fly rod building

text: Fly Tyer

text: Fly tying

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: Food of the Tlingit

text: Forage fish

text: Fort Frances Canadian Bass Championship

text: Frank Mundus

text: Freshwater prawn farm

text: Fulton Fish Market

text: Fur-Fish-Game

text: FV Cornelia Marie

text: FV Northwestern

text: FV Wizard

text: The Piranha was a normal piranha fish mutated by radiation into a semi-humanoid being with human intelligence.  The Piranha had superhuman strength, teeth that were strong and sharp enough to penetrate the Sub-Mariner's skin, and the power to command other fish telepathically.

text: The Piranha was a normal piranha fish mutated by radiation into a semi-humanoid being with human intelligence.  The Piranha had superhuman strength, teeth that were strong and sharp enough to penetrate the

text: Sub-Mariner

text: 's skin, and the power to command other fish telepathically.

text: The epidermis of fish and of most amphibians consists entirely of live cells, with only minimal quantities of keratin in the cells of the superficial layer. It is generally permeable, and in the case of many amphibians, may actually be a major respiratory organ. The dermis of bony fish typically contains relatively little of the connective tissue found in tetrapods. Instead, in most species, it is largely replaced by solid, protective bony scales. Apart from some particularly large dermal bones that form parts of the skull, these scales are lost in tetrapods, although many reptiles do have scales of a different kind, as do pangolins. Cartilaginous fish have numerous tooth-like denticles embedded in their skin, in place of true scales.

text: The epidermis of

text: fish

text: and of most

text: amphibian

text: s consists entirely of live

text: cells

text: , with only minimal quantities of

text: keratin

text: in the

text: cells

text: of the superficial layer. It is generally permeable, and in the case of many

text: amphibians

text: , may actually be a major respiratory organ. The

text: dermis

text: of

text: bony fish

text: typically contains relatively little of the

text: connective tissue

text: found in

text: tetrapod

text: s. Instead, in most species, it is largely replaced by solid, protective bony

text: scale

text: s. Apart from some particularly large dermal bones that form parts of the

text: skull

text: , these

text: scale

text: s are lost in

text: tetrapods

text: , although many

text: reptile

text: s do have

text: scale

text: s of a different kind, as do

text: pangolin

text: s.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: have numerous tooth-like

text: denticle

text: s embedded in their skin, in place of true

text: scale

text: s.

text: Historically the European medicinal leech, another invertebrate parasite, has been used in medicine to remove blood from patients. They have three jaws (tripartite) that look like little saws, and on them are about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark that is an inverted Y inside of a circle. After piercing the skin and injecting anticoagulants (hirudin) and anaesthetics, they suck out blood, consuming up to ten times their body weight in a single meal.

text: Historically the

text: European medicinal leech

text: , another invertebrate parasite, has been used in medicine to remove blood from patients. They have three jaws (tripartite) that look like little saws, and on them are about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark that is an inverted Y inside of a circle. After piercing the skin and injecting

text: anticoagulant

text: s (

text: hirudin

text: ) and

text: anaesthetic

text: s, they suck out blood, consuming up to ten times their body weight in a single meal.

text: They did, however, have certain traits separating them from cartilaginous fishes, traits that would become pivotal in the evolution of terrestrial forms. With the exception of a pair of spiracles, the gills did not open singly to the exterior as they do in sharks; rather, they were encased in a gill chamber stiffened by membrane bones and covered by a bony operculum, with a single opening to the exterior. The cleithrum bone, forming the posterior margin of the gill chamber, also functioned as anchoring for the pectoral fins. The cartilaginous fishes do not have such an anchoring for the pectoral fins. This allowed for a movable joint at the base of the fins in the early bony fishes, and would later function in a weight bearing structure in tetrapods. As part of the overall armour of rhomboid cosmin scales, the skull had a full cover of dermal bone, constituting a skull roof over the otherwise shark-like cartilaginous inner cranium. Importantly, they also had a swim bladder/lung, a feature lacking in sharks and rays.

text: They did, however, have certain traits separating them from cartilaginous fishes, traits that would become pivotal in the evolution of terrestrial forms. With the exception of a pair of

text: spiracles

text: , the

text: gills

text: did not open singly to the exterior as they do in sharks; rather, they were encased in a gill chamber stiffened by

text: membrane bone

text: s and covered by a bony

text: operculum

text: , with a single opening to the exterior. The

text: cleithrum bone

text: , forming the posterior margin of the gill chamber, also functioned as anchoring for the pectoral fins. The cartilaginous fishes do not have such an anchoring for the pectoral fins. This allowed for a movable joint at the base of the fins in the early bony fishes, and would later function in a weight bearing structure in tetrapods. As part of the overall armour of

text: rhomboid

text: cosmin scales

text: , the

text: skull

text: had a full cover of

text: dermal bone

text: , constituting a

text: skull roof

text: over the otherwise shark-like cartilaginous

text: inner cranium

text: . Importantly, they also had a

text: swim bladder

text: lung

text: , a feature lacking in sharks and rays.

text: The spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari) is a cartilaginous fish of the eagle ray family, Myliobatidae. It can be found globally in tropical regions, including the Gulf of Mexico, Hawaii, off the coast of West Africa, the Indian Ocean, Oceania, and on both coasts of the Americas at depths down to about . The rays are most commonly seen alone, but occasionally swim in groups. Rays are ovoviviparous, the female retaining the eggs then releasing the young as miniature versions of the parent.

text: The spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari) is a

text: cartilaginous fish

text: of the

text: eagle ray

text: family, Myliobatidae. It can be found globally in tropical regions, including the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: Hawaii

text: , off the coast of West Africa, the

text: Indian Ocean

text: Oceania

text: , and on both coasts of the Americas at depths down to about . The rays are most commonly seen alone, but occasionally swim in groups. Rays are

text: ovoviviparous

text: , the female retaining the eggs then releasing the young as miniature versions of the parent.

text: Cartilaginous fishes, such as sharks and rays, have one set of oral jaws made mainly of cartilage. They do not have pharyngeal jaws. Generally jaws are articulated and oppose vertically, comprising an upper jaw and a lower jaw and can bear numerous ordered teeth. Bony fishes usually develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont). Cartilaginous fishes grow multiple sets (polyphyodont) and replace teeth as they wear.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: es, such as

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: , have one set of oral jaws made mainly of

text: cartilage

text: . They do not have pharyngeal jaws. Generally

text: jaw

text: s are

text: articulated

text: and oppose vertically, comprising an

text: upper jaw

text: and a

text: lower jaw

text: and can bear numerous ordered

text: teeth

text: . Bony fishes usually develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont). Cartilaginous fishes grow multiple sets (polyphyodont) and replace teeth as they wear.

text: Asclepiades of Bithynia is credited with being the first person who proposed bronchotomy as a surgical procedure, though he never attempted to perform one.  Aretaeus of Cappadocia thought the procedure dangerous even as a remedy for choking, since the resulting incision "would not heal, as being cartilaginous"; Caelius Aurelianus also rejected its usefulness.

text: Asclepiades of Bithynia

text: is credited with being the first person who proposed bronchotomy as a surgical procedure, though he never attempted to perform one.

text: Aretaeus of Cappadocia

text: thought the procedure dangerous even as a remedy for

text: choking

text: , since the resulting incision "would not heal, as being

text: cartilaginous

text: Caelius Aurelianus

text: also rejected its usefulness.

text: Bank fishing is fishing from places where the land meets the waters edge. Fishing from rocks is usually called rock fishing. Like rock fishing, bank fishing is typically done by casting fishing bait or lures into the water in an attempt to catch fish. Bank fishing is usually performed with a rod and reel but nets, traps, and spears, and fishing lines used without rods can also be used. People who fish from a boat can sometimes access more areas in prime locations with greater ease than bank fishermen. However many people don’t use boats find fishing from a bank has its own advantages. Many things contribute to success in bank fishing, such as local knowledge, water depth, bank structure, location, time of day, and the type of bait and lures.

text: Bank fishing is

text: fishing

text: from places where the land meets the waters edge. Fishing from rocks is usually called

text: rock fishing

text: . Like rock fishing, bank fishing is typically done by

text: casting

text: fishing bait

text: or

text: lure

text: s into the water in an attempt to catch fish. Bank fishing is usually performed with a

text: rod

text: and

text: reel

text: but

text: nets

text: traps

text: , and

text: spear

text: s, and fishing lines used without rods can also be used. People who fish from a boat can sometimes access more areas in prime locations with greater ease than bank fishermen. However many people don’t use boats find fishing from a bank has its own advantages. Many things contribute to success in bank fishing, such as local knowledge, water depth, bank structure, location, time of day, and the type of bait and lures.

text: Suckers use their cartilaginous jaws to scrap the algae and detritus off the stones at the bottom, and despite any shortages of these foods, suckers show little seasonal movement.  Diatoms, detritus, algae, and other organic debris have been found in the gut.  Bluehead suckers are unique in that they are the only members of the genus to hybridize with other members of the same genus, increasing gene flow among species.  They can also live to be more than twenty years old.

text: Teeth may turn grey following trauma-induced pulp necrosis (death of the pulp). This discoloration typically develops weeks or months after the injury and is caused by incorporation of pigments released during the breakdown of the pulpal tissue and blood into the dentin.

text: Teeth may turn grey following trauma-induced

text: pulp necrosis

text: (death of the pulp). This discoloration typically develops weeks or months after the injury and is caused by incorporation of pigments released during the breakdown of the pulpal tissue and blood into the dentin.

text: The treatment of the Argentiniformes as distinct order follows the discovery that they are by no means as closely related to the Osmeriformes as was long believed. In fact, they may actually be the most basal lineage of the living Protacanthopterygii. If this is so, it would probably require either inclusion of the supposed superorders "Cyclosquamata" and "Stenopterygii" in the Protacanthopterygii, or – if the unranked clade name Euteleostei is used for this entire group – restricting the Protacanthopterygii to the Osmeriformes and either Esociformes or Salmoniformes and establishing a monotypic superorder for the other of the two latter orders. Given the reluctance of modern zoologists to establish monotypic taxa if not absolutely necessary, the former treatment is probably preferable.

text: The treatment of the Argentiniformes as distinct

text: order

text: follows the discovery that they are by no means as closely related to the

text: Osmeriformes

text: as was long believed. In fact, they may actually be the most

text: basal

text: lineage of the living Protacanthopterygii. If this is so, it would probably require either inclusion of the supposed superorders "

text: Cyclosquamata

text: " and "

text: Stenopterygii

text: " in the Protacanthopterygii, or – if the unranked

text: clade

text: name Euteleostei is used for this entire group – restricting the Protacanthopterygii to the Osmeriformes and either

text: Esociformes

text: or

text: Salmoniformes

text: and establishing a

text: monotypic

text: superorder for the other of the two latter orders. Given the reluctance of modern zoologists to establish monotypic taxa if not absolutely necessary, the former treatment is probably preferable.

text: The distinctive nasal arch of Gryposaurus, like other cranial modifications in duckbills, may have been used for a variety of social functions, such as identification of sexes or species and social ranking. It could also have functioned as a tool for broadside pushing or butting in social contests, and there may have been inflatable air sacs flanking it for both visual and auditory signaling. The top of the arch is roughened in some specimens, suggesting that it was covered by thick, keratinized skin, or that there was a cartilaginous extension.

text: The distinctive nasal arch of Gryposaurus, like other cranial modifications in duckbills, may have been used for a variety of social functions, such as identification of sexes or species and social ranking. It could also have functioned as a tool for broadside pushing or butting in social contests, and there may have been inflatable air sacs flanking it for both visual and auditory signaling. The top of the arch is roughened in some specimens, suggesting that it was covered by thick,

text: keratin

text: ized skin, or that there was a

text: cartilaginous

text: extension.

text: Fish anatomy includes a two-chambered heart, operculum, swim bladder, scales, eyes adapted to seeing underwater, and secretory cells that produce mucous. Fish breathe by extracting oxygen from water through gills. Fins propel and stabilize the fish in the water. Fish fall into two main groups: fish with bony skeletons and fish with cartilaginous skeletons.

text: Fish anatomy

text: includes a two-chambered heart,

text: operculum

text: swim bladder

text: scales

text: eyes

text: adapted to seeing underwater, and secretory

text: cells

text: that produce

text: mucous

text: . Fish breathe by extracting oxygen from water through

text: gills

text: Fins

text: propel and stabilize the fish in the water. Fish fall into two main groups:

text: fish with bony skeletons

text: and

text: fish with cartilaginous skeletons

text: In 2015, Portland's Bureau of Environmental Services (BES) began issuing annual "report cards" for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city. BES assigns grades for each of four categories: hydrology, water quality, habitat, and fish and wildlife. Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and to what degree its streams flow freely, not dammed or diverted. Water-quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen, E-coli bacteria, temperature, suspended solids, and substances such as mercury and phosphorus. Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains, riparian zones, tree canopies, and other variables. The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds, fish, and macroinvertebrates. In 2015, the BES grades for Johnson Creek are hydrology, B+; water quality, C+; habitat, C, and fish and wildlife, D+.

text: impervious surface

text: dissolved oxygen

text: E-coli

text: bacteria, temperature,

text: suspended solid

text: s, and substances such as mercury and

text: phosphorus

text: riparian zone

text: s,

text: tree canopies

text: macroinvertebrate

text: s. In 2015, the BES grades for Johnson Creek are hydrology, B+; water quality, C+; habitat, C, and fish and wildlife, D+.

text: Each pharyngeal arch has a cartilaginous stick, a muscle component that differentiates from the cartilaginous tissue, an artery, and a cranial nerve. Each of these is surrounded by mesenchyme. Arches do not develop simultaneously but instead possess a "staggered" development.

text: Each pharyngeal arch has a

text: cartilaginous

text: stick, a

text: muscle

text: component that differentiates from the cartilaginous tissue, an artery, and a

text: cranial nerve

text: . Each of these is surrounded by

text: mesenchyme

text: . Arches do not develop simultaneously but instead possess a "staggered" development.

text: Many fish have a swimbladder. By filling the swimbladder with gas, fish can float and swim in the water. However, redlip blennies never develop a swimbladder. The lack of a swimbladder does not affect adult redlip blennies, since they have already adjusted to the benthic life, as they matured. However, unlike the adults, redlip blenny larvae are not comfortable living at the sea bottom. Until they adjust to the bottom-dwelling life style, the larvae use a means of floating for survival: redlip blenny larvae have a huge storage of lipids in their liver, and this high lipid concentration provides buoyancy. The larvae keeps its high lipid concentration until maturation. Later, as the larvae go through metamorphosis, it burns down all the stored lipids to support the high metabolism of metamorphosis. After losing its lipids through metamorphosis, the now-grown-up redlip blenny does not restore lipids, which provides a permanent high density body to the adult fish.

text: Many fish have a

text: swimbladder

text: . By filling the swimbladder with gas, fish can float and swim in the water. However, redlip blennies never develop a swimbladder. The lack of a swimbladder does not affect adult redlip blennies, since they have already adjusted to the benthic life, as they matured. However, unlike the adults, redlip blenny

text: larvae

text: are not comfortable living at the sea bottom. Until they adjust to the bottom-dwelling life style, the larvae use a means of floating for survival: redlip blenny larvae have a huge storage of

text: lipids

text: in their

text: liver

text: , and this high lipid concentration provides

text: buoyancy

text: . The larvae keeps its high lipid concentration until maturation. Later, as the larvae go through

text: metamorphosis

text: , it burns down all the stored lipids to support the high

text: metabolism

text: of metamorphosis. After losing its lipids through metamorphosis, the now-grown-up redlip blenny does not restore lipids, which provides a permanent high density body to the adult fish.

text: In 2005, the Cleveland Clinic became the first US hospital to approve the procedure. In December 2008, a team at the Cleveland Clinic, led by Pole Prof. Maria Siemionow and including a group of supporting doctors and six plastic surgeons (Dr Steven Bernard, Dr Mark Hendrickson, Dr Robert Lohman, Dr Dan Alam and Dr Francis Papay) performed the first face transplant in the US on a woman named Connie Culp. It was the world's first near-total facial transplant and the fourth known facial transplant to have been successfully performed to date. This operation was the first facial transplant known to have included bones, along with muscle, skin, blood vessels, and nerves. The woman received a nose, most of the sinuses around the nose, the upper jaw, and even some teeth from a brain-dead donor. As doctors recovered the donor's facial tissue, they paid special attention to maintaining arteries, veins, and nerves, as well as soft tissue and bony structures. The surgeons then connected facial graft vessels to the patient's blood vessels in order to restore blood circulation in the reconstructed face before connecting arteries, veins and nerves in the 22-hour procedure. She had been disfigured to the point where she could not eat or breathe on her own as a result of a traumatic injury several years ago, which had left her without a nose, right eye and upper jaw. Doctors hoped the operation would allow her to regain her sense of smell and ability to smile, and said she had a "clear understanding" of the risks involved.

text: In 2005, the Cleveland Clinic became the first US hospital to approve the procedure. In December 2008, a team at the Cleveland Clinic, led by

text: Pole

text: Prof. Maria Siemionow

text: and including a group of supporting doctors and six plastic surgeons (Dr Steven Bernard, Dr Mark Hendrickson, Dr Robert Lohman, Dr Dan Alam and Dr Francis Papay) performed the first face transplant in the US on a woman named

text: Connie Culp

text: The knifetooth sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata), also known as the pointed sawfish or narrow sawfish, is a species of sawfish in the family Pristidae, part of the Batoidea, a superorder of cartilaginous fish that includes the rays and skates. The sawfishes are characterised by the long, narrow, flattened rostrum or extension on their snout. This is lined with sharp transverse teeth, arranged in a way that resembles the teeth of a saw. It is found in the shallow coastal waters and estuaries of the Indo-West Pacific, ranging from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to southern Japan, Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. It is the only member of the genus Anoxypristis, but was previously included in the genus Pristis. Compared to that genus, Anoxypristis has a narrower rostral saw with numerous teeth on the distal part and no teeth on the basal quarter. This endangered species reaches a length of up to .

text: The knifetooth sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata), also known as the pointed sawfish or narrow sawfish, is a

text: species

text: of

text: sawfish

text: in the

text: family

text: Pristidae

text: , part of the

text: Batoidea

text: , a superorder of cartilaginous fish that includes the

text: rays

text: and

text: skate

text: s. The sawfishes are characterised by the long, narrow, flattened

text: rostrum

text: or extension on their snout. This is lined with sharp transverse teeth, arranged in a way that resembles the teeth of a saw. It is found in the shallow coastal waters and estuaries of the

text: Indo-West Pacific

text: , ranging from the

text: Red Sea

text: and the

text: Persian Gulf

text: to southern

text: Japan

text: Papua New Guinea

text: and northern

text: Australia

text: . It is the only member of the

text: genus

text: Anoxypristis, but was previously included in the

text: genus

text: Pristis

text: . Compared to that genus, Anoxypristis has a narrower rostral saw with numerous teeth on the distal part and no teeth on the basal quarter. This

text: endangered

text: species reaches a length of up to .

text: Superorder Thoracica

text: Superorder Thoracica

text: The epidermis of fish consists entirely of live cells, with only minimal quantities of keratin in the cells of the superficial layer. It is generally permeable. The dermis of bony fish typically contains relatively little of the connective tissue found in tetrapods. Instead, in most species, it is largely replaced by solid, protective bony scales. Apart from some particularly large dermal bones that form parts of the skull, these scales are lost in tetrapods, although many reptiles do have scales of a different kind, as do pangolins. Cartilaginous fish have numerous tooth-like denticles embedded in their skin, in place of true scales.

text: The

text: epidermis

text: of fish consists entirely of live

text: cells

text: , with only minimal quantities of

text: keratin

text: in the

text: cells

text: of the superficial layer. It is generally permeable. The

text: dermis

text: of

text: bony fish

text: connective tissue

text: found in

text: tetrapod

text: scale

text: skull

text: , these

text: scale

text: s are lost in

text: tetrapods

text: , although many

text: reptile

text: s do have

text: scale

text: s of a different kind, as do

text: pangolin

text: s.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: have numerous tooth-like

text: denticle

text: scale

text: s.

text: Not only do the fish have to be organically reared, organic fish feeds need to be developed. Research into ways of decreasing the amount on non-sustainable fishmeal in feed is currently focussing on replacement by organic vegetable proteins. Some organic fish feeds becoming available, and/or the option of integrated multi-species systems (e.g. growing plants using aquaponics, as well as larvae or other fish). For example, locating a shellfish bed next to a finfish farm to dispose of the waste and provide the shellfish with controlled nutrients.

text: The fish had a cartilaginous skeleton, and a branchial basket resembling the cyclostomes - used to suggest that it was a near-ancestor to that clade. It is also the earliest known vertebrate with camera-type eyes.  It also possessed weakly mineralised scales.

text: The fish had a cartilaginous skeleton, and a branchial basket resembling the

text: cyclostomes

text: - used to suggest that it was a near-ancestor to that clade. It is also the earliest known vertebrate with camera-type eyes.  It also possessed weakly mineralised scales.

text: Gogoselachus was a diminutive shark-like fish that was a fast-swimming predator. It probably hunted other fish, such as placoderms and primitive bony fish. It had very unusual teeth, with large fangs surrounded by many small cusps; these jagged teeth were useful to snag its prey. Its scales resembled those of the spiny sharks, which were ancestral to all cartilaginous fish. Its mineralized, tesselated cartilage was highly unusual.

text: Gogoselachus was a diminutive shark-like fish that was a fast-swimming predator. It probably hunted other fish, such as

text: placoderms

text: and primitive

text: bony fish

text: . It had very unusual teeth, with large fangs surrounded by many small cusps; these jagged teeth were useful to snag its prey. Its scales resembled those of the

text: spiny sharks

text: , which were ancestral to all cartilaginous fish. Its mineralized, tesselated cartilage was highly unusual.

text: "Haifisch" (German: "Shark") is the third single from the 2009 album Liebe ist für alle da by the German band Rammstein. Just before announcing the premiere of the video, Rammstein's website left this quote regarding the song: "the shark not only has teeth – he's got tears as well. But since it lives in the briny deep, no one sees them. A shame. After all, this cartilaginous fish is one of the oldest of the world's many misunderstood creatures. A bit more sympathy couldn't hurt!"

text: "Haifisch" (

text: German

text: : "Shark") is the third single from the 2009 album

text: Liebe ist für alle da

text: by the German band

text: Rammstein

text: . Just before announcing the premiere of the video, Rammstein's website left this quote regarding the song: "the shark not only has teeth – he's got tears as well. But since it lives in the briny deep, no one sees them. A shame. After all, this cartilaginous fish is one of the oldest of the world's many misunderstood creatures. A bit more sympathy couldn't hurt!"

text: In a study of early jawed vertebrate relationships, Davis et al. (2012) found acanthodians to be split among the two major clades Osteichthyes (bony fish) and Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish). The well-known acanthodian Acanthodes was placed within Osteichthyes, despite the presence of many chondrichthyan characteristics in its braincase. However, a newly described Silurian placoderm, Entelognathus, which has jaw anatomy shared with bony fish and tetrapods, has led to revisions of this phylogeny: acanthodians are now considered to be a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish, while bony fish evolved from placoderm ancestors.

text: In a study of early jawed vertebrate relationships, Davis et al. (2012) found acanthodians to be split among the two major clades

text: Osteichthyes

text: (bony fish) and

text: Chondrichthyes

text: (cartilaginous fish). The well-known acanthodian

text: Acanthodes

text: was placed within Osteichthyes, despite the presence of many chondrichthyan characteristics in its braincase. However, a newly described Silurian

text: placoderm

text: Entelognathus

text: , which has jaw anatomy shared with

text: bony fish

text: and

text: tetrapod

text: s, has led to revisions of this phylogeny: acanthodians are now considered to be a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish, while bony fish evolved from placoderm ancestors.

text: The traditional clothing was made out of fish skins.  These skins were left to dry.  Once dry, they were struck repeatedly with a mallet to leave them completely smooth.  Finally they were sewn together.  The fish chosen to be used were those weighing more than 50 kilograms.In the past centuries, this distinct practice earned the Nanai the name "Fish-skin Tartars"  (, Yupi Dazi). This name has also been applied, more generically, to other aboriginal groups of the lower Sungari and lower Amur basins.

text: The

text: traditional

text: clothing was made out of fish skins.  These skins were left to dry.  Once dry, they were struck repeatedly with a mallet to leave them completely smooth.  Finally they were sewn together.  The fish chosen to be used were those weighing more than 50 kilograms.In the past centuries, this distinct practice earned the Nanai the name "Fish-skin Tartars"  (, Yupi Dazi). This name has also been applied, more generically, to other aboriginal groups of the lower Sungari and lower Amur basins.

text: Stingrays are a group of rays, which are cartilaginous fish related to sharks. They are classified in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order Myliobatiformes and consist of eight families: Hexatrygonidae (sixgill stingray), Plesiobatidae (deepwater stingray), Urolophidae (stingarees), Urotrygonidae (round rays), Dasyatidae (whiptail stingrays), Potamotrygonidae (river stingrays), Gymnuridae (butterfly rays), and Myliobatidae (eagle rays).

text: Stingrays are a group of

text: rays

text: , which are

text: cartilaginous fish

text: related to

text: shark

text: s. They are classified in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order

text: Myliobatiformes

text: and consist of eight families:

text: Hexatrygonidae

text: (sixgill stingray),

text: Plesiobatidae

text: (deepwater stingray),

text: Urolophidae

text: (stingarees),

text: Urotrygonidae

text: (round rays),

text: Dasyatidae

text: (whiptail stingrays),

text: Potamotrygonidae

text: (river stingrays),

text: Gymnuridae

text: (butterfly rays), and

text: Myliobatidae

text: (eagle rays).

text: Batoidea is a superorder of cartilaginous fish commonly known as batoids or rays, but it also includes the skates and sawfishes. Approximately 560 species are described in thirteen families. Batoids are in the fish subclass Elasmobranchii along with sharks, as they are closely related. Rays are distinguished by their flattened bodies, enlarged pectoral fins that are fused to the head, and gill slits that are placed on their ventral surfaces.

text: Batoidea is a

text: superorder

text: of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: commonly known as batoids or rays, but it also includes the

text: skate

text: s and

text: sawfish

text: es. Approximately 560 species are described in thirteen families. Batoids are in the fish subclass

text: Elasmobranchii

text: along with

text: shark

text: s, as they are closely related. Rays are distinguished by their flattened bodies, enlarged

text: pectoral fin

text: s that are fused to the head, and

text: gill slit

text: s that are placed on their ventral surfaces.

text: Sparassodonts have highly reduced epipubic bones, to the point that early analysis couldn't even find evidence for them. This is a characteristic shared with the Australian thylacine, and historically argued as a synapomorphy, though nowadays its considered to have developed independently for poorly understood reasons. Like with thylacines, it is very likely that they possessed long cartilaginous elements instead.

text: Sparassodonts have highly reduced

text: epipubic

text: bones, to the point that early analysis couldn't even find evidence for them. This is a characteristic shared with the Australian

text: thylacine

text: , and historically argued as a synapomorphy, though nowadays its considered to have developed independently for poorly understood reasons. Like with thylacines, it is very likely that they possessed long cartilaginous elements instead.

text: Together rays and  sharks make up the class of modern cartilaginous fishes. Modern fish are either cartilaginous or bony. Cartilaginous fishes have skeletons made of cartilage while bony fishes have skeletons made of bone. Because rays and sharks are closely related, they are often studied together. In 2010 a global IUCN study of vertebrates found that of 1,044 cartilaginous (ray and shark) species examined, 345 or 33% were threatened with extinction.

text: Together

text: rays

text: and

text: shark

text: s make up the

text: class

text: of modern

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: . Modern fish are either cartilaginous or bony. Cartilaginous fishes have skeletons made of

text: cartilage

text: while

text: bony fishes

text: have skeletons made of

text: bone

text: . Because rays and sharks are closely related, they are often studied together. In 2010 a global IUCN study of vertebrates found that of 1,044 cartilaginous (ray and shark) species examined, 345 or 33% were threatened with extinction.

text: The monophyly of Epitheria has been challenged by molecular phylogenetic studies. While preliminary analysis of a set of retroposons shared by both Afrotheria, and Boreoeutheria (presence/absence data) supported the Epitheria clade, more extensive analysis of such transposable element insertions around the time of the divergence of Xenarthra, Afrotheria, and Boreoeutheria strongly support the hypothesis of a near-concomitant origin (trifurcation) of these three superorders of mammals.

text: The monophyly

text: of Epitheria has been challenged by

text: molecular phylogenetic

text: studies. While preliminary analysis of a set of

text: retroposon

text: s shared by both

text: Afrotheria

text: , and

text: Boreoeutheria

text: presence/absence data

text: ) supported the Epitheria clade, more extensive analysis of such

text: transposable element

text: insertions around the time of the divergence of Xenarthra, Afrotheria, and Boreoeutheria strongly support the hypothesis of a near-concomitant origin (

text: trifurcation

text: ) of these three superorders of mammals.

text: Cartilaginous fish are considered to have evolved from acanthodians. Originally assumed to be closely related to bony fish or a polyphyletic assemblage leading to both groups, the discovery of Entelognathus and several examinations of acanthodian characteristics indicate that bony fish evolved directly from placoderm like ancestors, while acanthodians represent a paraphyletic assemblage leading to Chondrichthyes. Some characteristics previously thought to be exclusive to acanthodians are also present in basal cartilaginous fish. In particular, new phylogenetic studies find cartilaginous fish to be well nested among acanthodians, with Doliodus and Tamiobatis being the closest relatives to Chondrichthyes.

text: Cartilaginous fish are considered to have evolved from

text: acanthodians

text: . Originally assumed to be closely related to bony fish or a polyphyletic assemblage leading to both groups, the discovery of

text: Entelognathus

text: and several examinations of acanthodian characteristics indicate that bony fish evolved directly from placoderm like ancestors, while acanthodians represent a paraphyletic assemblage leading to Chondrichthyes. Some characteristics previously thought to be exclusive to acanthodians are also present in basal cartilaginous fish. In particular, new phylogenetic studies find cartilaginous fish to be well nested among acanthodians, with

text: Doliodus

text: and

text: Tamiobatis

text: being the closest relatives to Chondrichthyes.

text: The copper shark feeds more towards the bottom of the water column than the top, consuming cephalopods, including squid (Loligo spp.), cuttlefishes, and octopus; bony fishes, including gurnards, flatfishes, hakes, catfishes, jacks, Australian salmon, mullets, sea breams, smelts, tunas, sardines, and anchovies; and cartilaginous fishes, including dogfish sharks (Squalus spp.), stingrays, skates, electric rays, and sawfishes. Cephalopods and cartilaginous fishes become relatively more important food for sharks over  long. Young sharks also consume scyphozoan jellyfish and crustaceans, including mud shrimps (Callianassa) and penaeid prawns. It does not attack marine mammals, though has been known rarely to scavenge on dolphins that had succumbed to fishing nets. The predominant prey of this species off South Africa is the southern African pilchard (Sardinops sagax), which comprise 69–95% of its diet. Every winter, schools of copper sharks follow the "run" of the pilchard from the Eastern Cape to KwaZulu-Natal. The gathering of millions of forage fish attract a multitude of predators, including several species of sharks, of which copper sharks are the most numerous.

text: The copper shark feeds more towards the bottom of the

text: water column

text: than the top, consuming

text: cephalopod

text: s, including

text: squid

text: Loligo

text: spp.),

text: cuttlefish

text: es, and

text: octopus

text: bony fish

text: es, including

text: gurnards

text: flatfish

text: es,

text: hakes

text: catfish

text: es,

text: jacks

text: Australian salmon

text: mullet

text: s,

text: sea bream

text: s,

text: smelt

text: s,

text: tuna

text: s,

text: sardine

text: s, and

text: anchovies

text: ; and

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es, including

text: dogfish sharks

text: (Squalus spp.),

text: stingray

text: s,

text: skate

text: s,

text: electric ray

text: s, and

text: sawfish

text: es. Cephalopods and cartilaginous fishes become relatively more important food for sharks over  long. Young sharks also consume

text: scyphozoan jellyfish

text: and

text: crustacean

text: s, including

text: mud shrimp

text: s (

text: Callianassa

text: ) and

text: penaeid

text: prawn

text: s. It does not attack

text: marine mammals

text: , though has been known rarely to scavenge on

text: dolphin

text: s that had succumbed to fishing nets. The predominant prey of this species off South Africa is the

text: southern African pilchard

text: (Sardinops sagax), which comprise 69–95% of its diet. Every winter, schools of copper sharks follow the

text: "run" of the pilchard

text: from the Eastern Cape to

text: KwaZulu-Natal

text: . The gathering of millions of

text: forage fish

text: attract a multitude of predators, including several species of sharks, of which copper sharks are the most numerous.

text: The primitive skeleton is cartilage, a solid avascular (without blood vessels) tissue in which individual cartilage-matrix secreting cells, or chondrocytes, occur. Chondrocytes do not have intercellular connections and are not coordinated in units. Cartilage is composed of a network of collagen type II held in tension by water-absorbing proteins, hydrophilic proteoglycans. This is the adult skeleton in cartilaginous fishes such as sharks. It develops as the initial skeleton in more advanced classes of animals.

text: The primitive skeleton is

text: cartilage

text: , a solid avascular (without blood vessels) tissue in which individual cartilage-matrix secreting cells, or

text: chondrocyte

text: s, occur. Chondrocytes do not have intercellular connections and are not coordinated in units. Cartilage is composed of a network of

text: collagen

text: type II held in tension by water-absorbing proteins, hydrophilic

text: proteoglycans

text: . This is the adult skeleton in

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: such as

text: sharks

text: . It develops as the initial skeleton in more advanced

text: classes

text: of animals.

text: Biogenic ACP has been found in the inner ear of embryonic sharks, mammalian milk and dental enamel. However whilst the unequivocal presence of ACP in bones and teeth is the subject of debate, there is evidence that transient amorphous precursors are involved in the development of bone and teeth. The ACP in bovine milk is believed to involve calcium phosphate nanoclusters covered in a shell of casein phosphopeptides. A typical casein micelle of radius 100 nm contains around 10,000 casein molecules and 800 nanoclusters of ACP each of an approximate diameter of 4.8 nm. The concentration of calcium phosphate is higher in milk than in serum but it rarely forms deposits of insoluble phosphates. Unfolded phosphopeptides are believed to sequester ACP nanoclusters, and form stable complexes in other biofluids such as urine and blood serum, thus preventing deposition of insoluble calcium phosphates and calcification of soft tissue. In the laboratory, stored samples of formulations of artificial blood, serum, urine and milk (which approximate the pH of the naturally occurring fluid) deposit insoluble phosphates. The addition of suitable phosphopeptides prevents precipitation.

text: Biogenic

text: Venom can also be found in some fish, such as the cartilaginous fishes – stingrays, sharks, and chimaeras – and the teleost fishes including onejaws, catfishes, stonefishes and waspfishes, scorpionfishes and lionfishes, gurnards, rabbitfishes, dragonets, surgeonfishes, scats, stargazers, weever, and swarmfish.

text: Venom can also be found in some

text: fish

text: , such as the cartilaginous fishes –

text: stingrays

text: shark

text: s, and

text: chimaera

text: s – and the

text: teleost

text: fishes including

text: onejaws

text: catfishes

text: stonefish

text: es and

text: waspfish

text: es,

text: scorpionfish

text: es and

text: lionfish

text: es,

text: gurnard

text: s,

text: rabbitfishes

text: dragonets

text: surgeonfish

text: es,

text: scats

text: stargazers

text: weever

text: , and swarmfish.

text: Myledaphus is a genus of Late Cretaceous cartilaginous fish whose fossils are known from Canada, the Midwest of the United States, and Uzbekistan. It was a freshwater guitarfish that probably reached a length of 3 feet long, and had teeth adapted for a durophagous diet of animals such as clams.

text: Myledaphus is a genus of

text: Late Cretaceous

text: cartilaginous fish

text: whose fossils are known from Canada, the

text: Midwest

text: of the United States, and Uzbekistan. It was a

text: freshwater

text: guitarfish

text: that probably reached a length of 3 feet long, and had teeth adapted for a

text: durophagous

text: diet of animals such as

text: clam

text: s.

text: The silver lamprey is an eel-like fish with an attenuate body composed of 49–52 clearly defined segments (i.e. myomeres, between the last gill slit and the anus).  Silver lampreys possess a cartilaginous skeleton, and adults generally grow to a length of 12 inches and are silvery or bluish in color when spawning. Prior to spawning adults are often a dull brown or tan color. The dorsal fin is continuous, though it may be notched. The mouth is a jawless, sucking disc, with unicuspid teeth arranged in circular rows and is in the inferior position. When expanded, the mouth is wider than the lamprey's body. The lamprey's gills are arranged in a straight line immediately behind the eye, and a single nostril is located between the eyes. Larvae are a brown to tan all over have no eyes (instead they have eyespots) and are called ammocoetes. They also have seven gill openings and do not have any paired fins, they have only a long continuous fin runs from the dorsal to the ventral side. Ammocoetes also have no teeth and instead have an oral hood which houses skin extensions that help them filter particles out of the water as they draw it into their oral cavity.

text: The silver lamprey is an

text: eel

text: -like fish with an attenuate body composed of 49–52 clearly defined segments (i.e. myomeres, between the last gill slit and the anus).  Silver lampreys possess a cartilaginous skeleton, and adults generally grow to a length of 12 inches and are silvery or bluish in color when spawning. Prior to spawning adults are often a dull brown or tan color. The

text: dorsal fin

text: is continuous, though it may be notched. The mouth is a jawless, sucking disc, with unicuspid teeth arranged in circular rows and is in the inferior position. When expanded, the mouth is wider than the lamprey's body. The lamprey's gills are arranged in a straight line immediately behind the eye, and a single nostril is located between the eyes. Larvae are a brown to tan all over have no eyes (instead they have eyespots) and are called ammocoetes. They also have seven gill openings and do not have any paired fins, they have only a long continuous fin runs from the dorsal to the ventral side. Ammocoetes also have no teeth and instead have an oral hood which houses skin extensions that help them filter particles out of the water as they draw it into their oral cavity.

text: Cladodus is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fishes in the family Cladoselachidae. As the name implies, they are a type of cladodont, primitive sharks with teeth designed to snag fish and swallow them whole, instead of sawing off chunks to swallow.

text: Cladodus is an extinct genus of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es in the family

text: Cladoselachidae

text: . As the name implies, they are a type of

text: cladodont

text: , primitive sharks with teeth designed to snag fish and swallow them whole, instead of sawing off chunks to swallow.

text: The adaptive immune system, which has been best-studied in mammals, originated in jawed fish approximately 500 million years ago.  Most of the molecules, cells, tissues, and associated mechanisms of this system of defense are found in cartilaginous fishes. Lymphocyte receptors, Ig and TCR, are found in all jawed vertebrates.  The most ancient Ig class, IgM, is membrane-bound and then secreted upon stimulation of cartilaginous fish B cells.  Another isotype, shark IgW, is related to mammalian IgD.  TCRs, both α/β and γ/δ, are found in all animals from gnathostomes to mammals.  The organization of gene segments that undergo gene rearrangement differs in cartilaginous fishes, which have a cluster form as compared to the translocon form in bony fish to mammals. Like TCR and Ig, the MHC is found only in jawed vertebrates.  Genes involved in antigen processing and presentation, as well as the class I  and class II genes, are closely linked within the MHC of almost all studied species.

text: The adaptive immune system, which has been best-studied in mammals, originated in jawed fish approximately 500 million years ago.  Most of the molecules, cells, tissues, and associated mechanisms of this system of defense are found in

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: Lymphocyte

text: receptors, Ig and TCR, are found in all jawed vertebrates.  The most ancient Ig class, IgM, is membrane-bound and then secreted upon stimulation of cartilaginous fish B cells.  Another isotype, shark IgW, is related to mammalian IgD.  TCRs, both α/β and γ/δ, are found in all animals from

text: gnathostomes

text: to mammals.  The organization of gene segments that undergo

text: gene rearrangement

text: differs in cartilaginous fishes, which have a cluster form as compared to the translocon form in bony fish to mammals. Like TCR and Ig, the MHC is found only in jawed vertebrates.  Genes involved in

text: antigen processing

text: and

text: presentation

text: , as well as the

text: class I

text: and

text: class II

text: genes, are closely linked within the MHC of almost all studied species.

text: Within the infraphylum Gnathostomata, cartilaginous fishes are distinct from all other jawed vertebrates.

text: Within the infraphylum

text: Gnathostomata

text: , cartilaginous fishes are distinct from all other jawed vertebrates.

text: 6 Superorders

text: 6 Superorders

text: Arbovirus is a term used to refer to a group of viruses that are transmitted by arthropod vectors. The word arbovirus is an acronym (ARthropod-BOrne virus). Symptoms of arbovirus infection generally occur 3–15 days after exposure to the virus and last 3 or 4 days. The most common clinical features of infection are fever, headache, and malaise, but encephalitis and hemorrhagic fever may also occur. The word tibovirus (TIck-BOrne virus) is sometimes used to describe viruses transmitted by ticks, a superorder within the arthropods.

text: Arbovirus is a term used to refer to a group of

text: virus

text: es that are

text: transmitted

text: by

text: arthropod

text: vectors

text: . The word arbovirus is an

text: acronym

text: (ARthropod-BOrne virus). Symptoms of arbovirus infection generally occur 3–15 days after exposure to the virus and last 3 or 4 days. The most common clinical features of infection are

text: fever

text: headache

text: , and

text: malaise

text: , but

text: encephalitis

text: and

text: hemorrhagic fever

text: may also occur. The word tibovirus (TIck-BOrne virus) is sometimes used to describe viruses transmitted by

text: ticks

text: , a

text: superorder

text: within the arthropods.

text: The base of the  cartilaginous portion of the auditory tube (eustachian tube, pharyngotympanic tube) lies directly under the mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx, where it forms an elevation, the torus tubarius, the torus of the auditory tube, or cushion, behind the pharyngeal orifice of the tube. The torus tubarius is very close to the tubal tonsil, which is sometimes also called the tonsil of (the) torus tubarius. Equating the torus with its tonsil however might be seen as incorrect or imprecise.

text: The base of the

text: cartilaginous

text: portion of the

text: auditory tube

text: (eustachian tube, pharyngotympanic tube) lies directly under the

text: mucous membrane

text: of the

text: nasal part of the pharynx

text: , where it forms an elevation, the torus tubarius, the torus of the auditory tube, or cushion, behind the pharyngeal orifice of the tube. The torus tubarius is very close to the

text: tubal tonsil

text: , which is sometimes also called the tonsil of (the) torus tubarius. Equating the torus with its tonsil however might be seen as incorrect or imprecise.

text: 1. Humans see what they look for. The belief that science is experimentally grounded is only partially true. Rather, our intellectual apparatus is such that much of what we see comes from the glasses we put on. Eddington went so far as to claim that a sufficiently wise mind could deduce all of physics, illustrating his point with the following joke: "Some men went fishing in the sea with a net, and upon examining what they caught they concluded that there was a minimum size to the fish in the sea."

text: 1. Humans see what they look for. The belief that science is experimentally grounded is only partially true. Rather, our intellectual apparatus is such that much of what we see comes from the glasses we put on.

text: Eddington

text: went so far as to claim that a sufficiently wise mind could deduce all of physics, illustrating his point with the following joke: "Some men went fishing in the sea with a net, and upon examining what they caught they concluded that there was a minimum size to the fish in the sea."

text: Blood usually oozes from the forehead, nails, umbilicus, and other skin surfaces. In addition, oozing from mucocutaneous surfaces causing nosebleeds, blood stained tears, and vicarious menstruation are common. The episodes may be proceeded by intense headache and abdominal pain and are usually self-limiting. In some conditions, the secreted fluid is more dilute and appears to be blood-tinged, while others may have darker bright red secretions resembling blood.

text: Blood usually oozes from the forehead, nails,

text: umbilicus

text: , and other skin surfaces. In addition, oozing from

text: mucocutaneous

text: surfaces causing

text: nosebleeds

text: , blood stained tears, and vicarious menstruation are common. The episodes may be proceeded by intense

text: headache

text: and abdominal pain and are usually self-limiting. In some conditions, the secreted fluid is more dilute and appears to be blood-tinged, while others may have darker bright red secretions resembling blood.

text: The mola is the heaviest of all the bony fish, with large specimens reaching  vertically and   horizontally and weighing nearly . Sharks and rays can be heavier, but they are cartilaginous fish.

text: The mola is the heaviest of all the bony fish, with large specimens reaching  vertically and   horizontally and weighing nearly .

text: Shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: can be heavier, but they are

text: cartilaginous

text: fish.

text: 1: last free cartilaginous tracheal ring,

text: 1: last free cartilaginous

text: tracheal ring

text: Proposed superorder Coleopterida

text: Proposed superorder

text: Coleopterida

text: Long Key Fishing Camp was established on Long Key in Florida in 1908 by Henry M. Flagler's Florida East Coast Railway Company for the use of tourists to enjoy what was described as "some of the best fishing in the world." It initially served a housing for some of the employees who were building the Overseas Railroad to Key West.

text: Long Key Fishing Camp was established on

text: Long Key

text: in Florida in 1908 by

text: Henry M. Flagler

text: 's

text: Florida East Coast Railway

text: Company for the use of tourists to enjoy what was described as "some of the best fishing in the world." It initially served a housing for some of the employees who were building the

text: Overseas Railroad

text: to

text: Key West

text: Sharks and rays are both cartilaginous fishes which can be contrasted with bony fishes. Rays are basically flattened sharks, adapted for feeding on the bottom. Guitarfish are somewhat between sharks and rays, and show characteristics of both (though they are classified as rays).

text: Sharks and rays are both

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es which can be

text: contrasted with bony fishes

text: . Rays are basically flattened sharks, adapted for feeding on the bottom.

text: Guitarfish

text: are somewhat between sharks and rays, and show characteristics of both (though they are classified as rays).

text: The pectoral fins are rather long and broad. The first dorsal fin originates over the rear of the pelvic fin bases; the second dorsal fin is slightly larger and originates over the rear of the anal fin base. The pelvic and anal fins are long and low, and larger than the dorsal fins. The free rear tips of the pelvic fins may be fused together to some degree, but never completely; males have slender, pointed claspers. The caudal peduncle is long and thin, particularly in younger sharks. The caudal fin makes up one-fourth to one-fifth of the total length and has a weak lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The thick skin is covered by well-calcified dermal denticles, except around the gill slits. Enlarged, spike-like denticles are found on the upper surface of the pectoral fins and along the dorsal midline from the snout to the second dorsal fin origin. Juvenile Izak catsharks are boldly patterned with many irregularly shaped dark brown spots on a light yellow to yellowish brown background. The spots enlarge and fuse with age to form an intricate pattern of reticulations and U-shaped markings in adults. The underside is plain white, with obvious black sensory pores beneath the head, body, and paired fins. Like other Holohalaelurus species, but contrary to the pattern in most cartilaginous fishes, males attain a much greater maximum length than females:  versus .

text: The

text: pectoral fin

text: s are rather long and broad. The first

text: dorsal fin

text: originates over the rear of the

text: pelvic fin

text: bases; the second dorsal fin is slightly larger and originates over the rear of the

text: anal fin

text: base. The pelvic and anal fins are long and low, and larger than the dorsal fins. The free rear tips of the pelvic fins may be fused together to some degree, but never completely; males have slender, pointed

text: claspers

text: . The

text: caudal peduncle

text: is long and thin, particularly in younger sharks. The

text: caudal fin

text: makes up one-fourth to one-fifth of the total length and has a weak lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe. The thick skin is covered by well-

text: calcified

text: dermal denticle

text: s, except around the gill slits. Enlarged, spike-like denticles are found on the upper surface of the pectoral fins and along the dorsal midline from the snout to the second dorsal fin origin. Juvenile Izak catsharks are boldly patterned with many irregularly shaped dark brown spots on a light yellow to yellowish brown background. The spots enlarge and fuse with age to form an intricate pattern of reticulations and U-shaped markings in adults. The underside is plain white, with obvious black sensory pores beneath the head, body, and paired fins. Like other Holohalaelurus species, but contrary to the pattern in most

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es, males attain a much greater maximum length than females:  versus .

text: Superorder Exopterygota

text: Superorder

text: Exopterygota

text: Virtually nothing is known of the natural history of the Coral Sea stingaree. It is presumably aplacental viviparous like other stingrays, with developing embryos provisioned with maternally produced histotroph ("uterine milk"). Newborns measure around  long; the litter size is probably small based on related species. Males and females attain sexual maturity at under  and  long respectively. The disparity between the maturation size and the maximum size is usually large for a cartilaginous fish, and it is possible that the specimens currently identified as the Coral Sea stingaree actually represent distinct species, one large and one small. However, the presumed large and small forms cannot be distinguished by morphological or meristic traits.

text: Virtually nothing is known of the natural history of the Coral Sea stingaree. It is presumably

text: aplacental viviparous

text: like other stingrays, with developing

text: embryo

text: s provisioned with maternally produced histotroph ("uterine milk"). Newborns measure around  long; the litter size is probably small based on related species. Males and females attain

text: sexual maturity

text: at under  and  long respectively. The disparity between the maturation size and the maximum size is usually large for a

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , and it is possible that the specimens currently identified as the Coral Sea stingaree actually represent distinct species, one large and one small. However, the presumed large and small forms cannot be distinguished by

text: morphological

text: or

text: meristic

text: traits.

text: Frogfishes belong to the order Lophiiformes, commonly known as anglerfish, which is a member of the superorder Paracanthopterygii with four other orders. They belong to the infraclass Teleostei, the bony fishes, in the class Actinopterygii.

text: Frogfishes belong to the order

text: Lophiiformes

text: , commonly known as

text: anglerfish

text: , which is a member of the

text: superorder

text: Paracanthopterygii

text: with four other orders. They belong to the

text: infraclass

text: Teleostei

text: , the bony fishes, in the class

text: Actinopterygii

text: The placoderm claspers are not homologous with the claspers in cartilaginous fishes. The similarities between the structures has been revealed to be an example of convergent evolution. While the claspers in cartilaginous fishes are specialized parts of their paired pelvic fins that have been modified for copulation due to changes in the hox genes hoxd13, the origin of the mating organs in placoderms most likely relied on different sets of hox genes and were structures that developed further down the body as an extra and independent pair of appendages, but which during development turned into body parts used for reproduction only. Because they were not attached to the pelvic fins, as are the claspers in fish like sharks, they were much more flexible and could probably be rotated forward.

text: The placoderm claspers are not

text: homologous

text: with the claspers in

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: . The similarities between the structures has been revealed to be an example of

text: convergent evolution

text: . While the claspers in cartilaginous fishes are specialized parts of their paired pelvic fins that have been modified for copulation due to changes in the hox genes hoxd13, the origin of the mating organs in placoderms most likely relied on different sets of hox genes and were structures that developed further down the body as an extra and independent pair of appendages, but which during development turned into body parts used for reproduction only. Because they were not attached to the pelvic fins, as are the claspers in fish like sharks, they were much more flexible and could probably be rotated forward.

text: A peccary is a medium-sized animal, with a strong resemblance to a pig. Like a pig, it has a snout ending in a  cartilaginous disc, and eyes that are small relative to its head. Also like a pig, it uses only the middle two digits for walking, although, unlike pigs, the other toes may be altogether absent. Its stomach is not ruminating, although it has three chambers, and is more complex than those of pigs.

text: A peccary is a medium-sized animal, with a strong resemblance to a

text: pig

text: . Like a pig, it has a

text: snout

text: ending in a

text: cartilaginous

text: disc, and eyes that are small relative to its head. Also like a pig, it uses only the middle two digits for walking, although, unlike pigs, the other toes may be altogether absent. Its

text: stomach

text: is not

text: ruminating

text: , although it has three chambers, and is more complex than those of pigs.

text: Pacific blood star, Blood star, Blood star fish.

text: This list of prehistoric cartilaginous fish is an attempt to create a comprehensive listing of all genera that have ever been included in the class chondrichthyes and are known from the fossil record. This list excludes purely vernacular terms, genera that are now considered invalid, doubtful (nomina dubia), or were not formally published (nomina nuda), as well as junior synonyms of more established names, and genera that are no longer considered to be cartilaginous fish. It includes all commonly accepted genera.

text: This list of prehistoric cartilaginous fish is an attempt to create a comprehensive listing of all

text: genera

text: that have ever been included in the class

text: chondrichthyes

text: and are known from the fossil record. This list excludes purely vernacular terms, genera that are now considered invalid, doubtful (nomina dubia), or were not formally published (nomina nuda), as well as junior synonyms of more established names, and genera that are no longer considered to be cartilaginous fish. It includes all commonly accepted genera.

text: Andersson is interested in ecology affecting fish and seeks to preserve the species of fish in the Baltic Sea.

text: Andersson is interested in ecology affecting fish and seeks to preserve the species of fish in the

text: Baltic Sea

text: Blood blisters also may occur with friction caused by constant rubbing of skin against a surface. Because of this, baseball pitchers, rowers, and drummers often contract blood blisters on the fingers and palms. They also form as a result of frostbite.

text: Blood blisters also may occur with friction caused by constant rubbing of skin against a surface. Because of this, baseball pitchers, rowers, and drummers often contract blood blisters on the fingers and palms. They also form as a result of

text: frostbite

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. lucipinnis, the toothpad is interrupted, or separated into two distinct groups. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. lucipinnis, there are 35 to 51 teeth on the mandible, arranged in six short rows.

text: papilla

text: Cartilaginous fishes can be further divided into sharks, rays and chimaeras. In the table below, the comparison is made between sharks and bony fishes. For the further differences with rays, see sharks versus rays.

text: Cartilaginous fishes can be further divided into

text: shark

text: s,

text: rays

text: and

text: chimaera

text: s. In the table below, the comparison is made between sharks and bony fishes. For the further differences with rays, see

text: sharks versus rays

text: Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, also  have simple, and presumably primitive, skull structures. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the lower surface and the sides, but always at least partially open at the top as a large fontanelle. The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the rostrum, and capsules to enclose the olfactory organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the inner ear. Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single condyle, articulating with the first vertebra. There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller foramina for the cranial nerves. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: , such as

text: shark

text: s, also  have simple, and presumably primitive, skull structures. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the lower surface and the sides, but always at least partially open at the top as a large

text: fontanelle

text: . The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the

text: rostrum

text: , and capsules to enclose the

text: olfactory

text: organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the

text: inner ear

text: . Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single

text: condyle

text: , articulating with the first

text: vertebra

text: . There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller

text: foramina

text: for the cranial nerves. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.

text: Sawsharks and sawfishes  are cartilaginous fishes possessing large saws. However, sawfishes are not sharks, but a type of ray. The gill slits of the sawfishes are positioned on the underside like a ray, but the gill slits of the sawshark are positioned on the side like a shark. Another clear difference is that a sawfish has no barbels and a sawshark has a prominent pair halfway along the saw. The sawshark uses these like other bottom fish, as a kind of antennae, feeling the way along the ocean bottom until it finds some prey of interest.

text: Sawsharks and

text: sawfish

text: es  are

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es possessing large saws. However, sawfishes are not sharks, but a type of

text: ray

text: . The gill slits of the sawfishes are positioned on the underside like a ray, but the gill slits of the sawshark are positioned on the side like a shark. Another clear difference is that a sawfish has no barbels and a sawshark has a prominent pair halfway along the saw. The sawshark uses these like other bottom fish, as a kind of antennae, feeling the way along the ocean bottom until it finds some prey of interest.

text: The general structure of teeth is similar across the vertebrates, although there is considerable variation in their form and position. The teeth of mammals have deep roots, and this pattern is also found in some fish, and in crocodilians. In most teleost fish, however, the teeth are attached to the outer surface of the bone, while in lizards they are attached to the inner surface of the jaw by one side. In cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, the teeth are attached by tough ligaments to the hoops of cartilage that form the jaw.

text: The general structure of teeth is similar across the vertebrates, although there is considerable variation in their form and position. The

text: teeth of mammals

text: have deep roots, and this pattern is also found in some fish, and in

text: crocodilian

text: s. In most

text: teleost

text: fish, however, the teeth are attached to the outer surface of the bone, while in

text: lizard

text: s they are attached to the inner surface of the jaw by one side. In

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , such as sharks, the teeth are attached by tough

text: ligament

text: s to the hoops of

text: cartilage

text: that form the jaw.

text: Metopacanthus is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish from the middle Jurassic of Europe.

text: Metopacanthus is an extinct genus of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: from the middle

text: Jurassic

text: of

text: Europe

text: Schistura bucculenta is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schistura.

text: Schistura bucculenta is a species of

text: ray-finned fish

text: in the genus

text: Schistura

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between to different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. petricola, the toothpad is interrupted, or clearly divided between the groups of teeth on the toothpad. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. petricola, there are 31 to 50 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a six short rows.

text: papilla

text: Most organisms are not preserved as fossils. Unless covered quickly after death, their bodies are consumed by other animals and plants or destroyed by weather. Even the bones and shells of animals which were quickly buried after death may be later dissolved by groundwater. The clay in the sediment at Coon Creek sealed off the fragile fossils from the corrosive action of water and the hard parts of the clams, snails, crabs, and shrimps were well preserved.  Occasionally the bones of vertebrates are found, as well as the cartilaginous vertebrae of sharks. Fish scales and plant leaves are sometimes found as well (Wade 1926). The Coon Creek Formation has one of the highest densities of fossil in Eastern North America. Crustacean fossils have also been unearthed in the Coon Creek Formation as well.

text: Most organisms are not preserved as fossils. Unless covered quickly after death, their bodies are consumed by other animals and plants or destroyed by weather. Even the bones and shells of animals which were quickly buried after death may be later dissolved by groundwater. The clay in the sediment at Coon Creek sealed off the fragile fossils from the corrosive action of water and the hard parts of the clams, snails, crabs, and shrimps were well preserved.  Occasionally the bones of vertebrates are found, as well as the cartilaginous vertebrae of sharks. Fish scales and plant leaves are sometimes found as well (Wade 1926). The Coon Creek Formation has one of the highest densities of fossil in Eastern North America.

text: Crustacean

text: fossils have also been unearthed in the Coon Creek Formation as well.

text: Damage to the pulp of permanent teeth usually requires a Root Canal Treatment or Endodontic Therapy. The pulp of primary or deciduous teeth, which only have to survive until an adult teeth come in, and because they have a better blood supply, can sometimes be saved.

text: While the length of the egg stage depends on the species and environmental conditions, aquatic eggs generally hatch within one week. Unlike salamanders and newts, frogs and toads never become sexually mature while still in their larval stage. The hatched eggs continue life as tadpoles, which typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails. As a general rule, free living larvae are fully aquatic. They lack  eyelids and have a cartilaginous skeleton, a lateral line system, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later) and tails with dorsal and ventral folds of skin for swimming. They quickly develop a gill pouch that covers the gills and the front legs; the lungs are also developed at an early stage as an accessory breathing organ. Some species which go through the metamorphosis inside the egg and hatch to small frogs never develop gills; instead there are specialised areas of skin that take care of respiration. Tadpoles also lack true teeth, but the jaws in most species usually have two elongate, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts in the upper jaw while the lower jaw has three rows of keradonts, surrounded by a horny beak, but the number of rows can be lower (sometimes zero), or much higher. Tadpoles feed on algae, including diatoms filtered from the water through the gills. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles, and fish. Cannibalism has been observed among tadpoles. Early developers who gain legs may be eaten by the others, so the late bloomers survive longer.

text: While the length of the egg stage depends on the species and environmental conditions, aquatic eggs generally hatch within one week. Unlike salamanders and newts, frogs and toads never become sexually mature while still in their larval stage. The hatched eggs continue life as

text: tadpole

text: s, which typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails. As a general rule, free living larvae are fully aquatic. They lack  eyelids and have a cartilaginous skeleton, a

text: lateral line system

text: , gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later) and tails with dorsal and ventral folds of skin for swimming. They quickly develop a gill pouch that covers the gills and the front legs; the lungs are also developed at an early stage as an accessory breathing organ. Some species which go through the metamorphosis inside the egg and hatch to small frogs never develop gills; instead there are specialised areas of skin that take care of respiration. Tadpoles also lack true teeth, but the jaws in most species usually have two elongate, parallel rows of small

text: keratin

text: ized structures called keradonts in the upper jaw while the lower jaw has three rows of keradonts, surrounded by a

text: horny

text: beak, but the number of rows can be lower (sometimes zero), or much higher. Tadpoles feed on

text: alga

text: e, including

text: diatom

text: s filtered from the water through the

text: gill

text: s. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles, and fish.

text: Cannibalism

text: has been observed among tadpoles. Early developers who gain legs may be eaten by the others, so the late bloomers survive longer.

text: Male cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays), as well as the males of some live-bearing ray finned fishes, have fins that have been modified to function as intromittent organs, reproductive appendages which allow internal fertilization. In ray finned fish they are called gonopodia or andropodia, and in cartilaginous fish they are called claspers.

text: Male

text: cartilaginous fish

text: ray finned fish

text: intromittent organ

text: s, reproductive appendages which allow

text: internal fertilization

text: . In ray finned fish they are called gonopodia or andropodia, and in cartilaginous fish they are called claspers.

text: The human skin has a somewhat elastic property as a self-defense; when the human body is stabbed by a thin object such as a small kitchen knife, the skin often closes tightly around the object and closes again if the object is removed, which can trap some blood within the body. It has thus been speculated that the fuller, an elongated concave depression in a metal blade, functions to let blood out of the body in order to cause more damage. This misconception has led to fullers becoming widely known as "blood grooves".  The fuller is actually a structural reinforcement of the blade similar in design to a metal I-beam used in construction. However, internal bleeding is just as dangerous as external bleeding; if enough blood vessels are severed to cause serious injury, the skin's elasticity will do nothing to prevent blood from exiting the circulatory system and accumulating uselessly in other parts of the body.

text: The human

text: skin

text: has a somewhat elastic property as a self-defense; when the human body is stabbed by a thin object such as a small kitchen knife, the skin often closes tightly around the object and closes again if the object is removed, which can trap some blood within the body. It has thus been speculated that the

text: fuller

text: , an elongated concave depression in a metal blade, functions to let blood out of the body in order to cause more damage. This misconception has led to fullers becoming widely known as "blood grooves".  The fuller is actually a structural reinforcement of the blade similar in design to a metal I-beam used in construction. However,

text: internal bleeding

text: is just as dangerous as external bleeding; if enough blood vessels are severed to cause serious injury, the skin's elasticity will do nothing to prevent blood from exiting the circulatory system and accumulating uselessly in other parts of the body.

text: Proposed superorder Neuropterida/Neuropteroidea

text: Proposed superorder

text: Neuropterida

text: /Neuropteroidea

text: Where the connecting medium is hyaline cartilage, a cartilaginous joint is termed a synchondrosis. An example of a synchondrosis joint is the first sternocostal joint (where the first rib meets the manubrium). In this example, the rib articulates with the manubrium via the costal cartilage. (The rest of the sternocostal joints are synovial plane joints.)

text: Where the connecting medium is

text: hyaline cartilage

text: , a

text: cartilaginous joint

text: is termed a synchondrosis. An example of a synchondrosis joint is the first

text: sternocostal joint

text: (where the

text: first rib

text: meets the

text: manubrium

text: ). In this example, the rib articulates with the manubrium via the

text: costal cartilage

text: . (The rest of the sternocostal joints are synovial

text: plane joints

text: The skull, of which the left side is severely damaged, is very elongated and flat. The back part is missing; in its preserved state it has a length of 192 millimetres; the total length in a complete state was estimated at 201 millimetres. On its top is a low crest, two to three millimetres high. The nares are long, slit-like and positioned above and in front of the large skull openings, the fenestrae antorbitales, with which they are not confluent. Of the jaws, which are very straight, the front part is lacking. There are six pairs of teeth in the maxillae and three pairs in the praemaxillae. In the mandible there are at least ten pairs of teeth, perhaps twelve. The back teeth are small, the front teeth are very long, robust and curved, pointing moderately forwards. At the front they form a large, intermeshing "prey grab", that may have been used to snatch fish from the water surface. The teeth of Angustinaripterus resemble those of Dorygnathus.

text: The skull, of which the left side is severely damaged, is very elongated and flat. The back part is missing; in its preserved state it has a length of 192 millimetres; the total length in a complete state was estimated at 201 millimetres. On its top is a low crest, two to three millimetres high. The nares are long, slit-like and positioned above and in front of the large skull openings, the fenestrae antorbitales, with which they are not confluent. Of the jaws, which are very straight, the front part is lacking. There are six pairs of teeth in the

text: maxillae

text: and three pairs in the

text: praemaxillae

text: . In the

text: mandible

text: there are at least ten pairs of teeth, perhaps twelve. The back teeth are small, the front teeth are very long, robust and curved, pointing moderately forwards. At the front they form a large, intermeshing "prey grab", that may have been used to snatch fish from the water surface. The teeth of Angustinaripterus resemble those of

text: Dorygnathus

text: The prickly brown ray (Dipturus teevani) is a species of cartilaginous fish in the family Rajidae. It is also known as the Caribbean skate. The prickly brown ray is medium in size compared to other skates, and is known from a patchy, deep-water distribution in the western Atlantic Ocean.

text: The prickly brown ray (Dipturus teevani) is a species of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: in the family

text: Rajidae

text: . It is also known as the Caribbean skate. The prickly brown ray is medium in size compared to other

text: skates

text: , and is known from a patchy, deep-water distribution in the western

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: Shark skeletons are very different from those of bony fish and terrestrial vertebrates. Sharks and other cartilaginous fish (skates and rays) have skeletons made of cartilage and connective tissue. Cartilage is flexible and durable, yet is about half the normal density of bone. This reduces the skeleton's weight, saving energy. Because sharks do not have rib cages, they can easily be crushed under their own weight on land.

text: Shark skeletons are very different from those of

text: bony fish

text: and

text: terrestrial vertebrates

text: . Sharks and other

text: cartilaginous fish

text: skate

text: s and

text: rays

text: ) have skeletons made of

text: cartilage

text: and

text: connective tissue

text: . Cartilage is flexible and durable, yet is about half the normal density of bone. This reduces the skeleton's weight, saving energy. Because sharks do not have rib cages, they can easily be crushed under their own weight on land.

text: Platysiagum is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.

text: Platysiagum is an extinct genus of prehistoric

text: bony fish

text: Richardson's snaggletooth is a slender, laterally-compressed fish with a short snout, a terminal, horizontal mouth and large fang-like teeth. The teeth on the maxillae are backwards-pointing and comb-like. The long barbel on the chin is ribbon-like and lacks a bulb or swelling at its tip. The dorsal fin has 12 to 14 soft rays and the anal fin has 13 to 18. The origin of the dorsal fin is behind the insertion of the pelvic fins. There is a dorsal adipose fin anterior to the caudal peduncle, and a small ventral adipose fin just anterior to the anus. There are two rows of photophores (luminous spots) on each side of the underside of the fish, numerous other photophores on the head and body and a luminous patch on the edge of the preoperculum; the colour of this fish is black and the maximum standard length is .

text: Richardson's snaggletooth is a slender, laterally-compressed fish with a short snout, a terminal, horizontal mouth and large fang-like teeth. The teeth on the

text: maxilla

text: e are backwards-pointing and comb-like. The long

text: barbel

text: on the chin is ribbon-like and lacks a bulb or swelling at its tip. The dorsal fin has 12 to 14 soft rays and the anal fin has 13 to 18. The origin of the dorsal fin is behind the insertion of the pelvic fins. There is a dorsal

text: adipose fin

text: anterior to the

text: caudal peduncle

text: , and a small ventral adipose fin just anterior to the

text: anus

text: . There are two rows of

text: photophore

text: s (luminous spots) on each side of the underside of the fish, numerous other photophores on the head and body and a luminous patch on the edge of the

text: preoperculum

text: ; the colour of this fish is black and the maximum standard length is .

text: Fishing here is open to the public but a Vermont fishing license is required. The type of license depends on what kind of fishing you are doing.

text: Myliobatiformes  is one of the four orders of batoids, cartilaginous fishes related to sharks. They were formerly included in the order Rajiformes, but more recent phylogenetic studies have shown  the myliobatiforms to be a monophyletic group, and  its more derived members evolved their highly flattened shapes independently of the skates.

text: Myliobatiformes  is one of the four

text: orders

text: of

text: batoids

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es related to sharks. They were formerly included in the order

text: Rajiformes

text: , but more recent

text: phylogenetic

text: studies have shown  the myliobatiforms to be a

text: monophyletic group

text: , and  its more

text: derived

text: members evolved their highly flattened shapes independently of the

text: skate

text: s.

text: Most vertebrates have some form of duct to transfer the sperm from the testes to the urethra. In cartilaginous fish and amphibians, sperm is carried through the archinephric duct, which also partially helps to transport urine from the kidneys. In teleosts, there is a distinct sperm duct, separate from the ureters, and often called the vas deferens, although probably not truly homologous with that in humans.

text: Most vertebrates have some form of duct to transfer the sperm from the

text: testes

text: to the

text: urethra

text: . In

text: cartilaginous fish

text: and

text: amphibian

text: s, sperm is carried through the

text: archinephric duct

text: , which also partially helps to transport urine from the kidneys. In

text: teleost

text: s, there is a distinct sperm duct, separate from the

text: ureter

text: s, and often called the vas deferens, although probably not truly

text: homologous

text: with that in humans.

text: In Arkansas, sheriff's deputy Bill Sherman (Chris Owens) discovers bite-marks on his son's skin after he returns home from the daycare. When his son refuses to discuss what happened, Sherman is convinced of the rumours about Plott. Black arrives in town, and pretends to be a local parent interested in using the daycare. His visit is interrupted by Lara Means (Kristen Cloke), who is investigating for Plott's defence. However, the two are forced to work together when one boy, Jason Wells, stops breathing. Despite attempts to revive him, the boy dies. Meanwhile, in Seattle, Black's wife Catherine (Megan Gallagher) takes Jordan to the dentist after she spits blood while brushing her teeth.  The dentist tells her such an injury is most commonly caused by blunt force trauma. Catherine dismisses the idea outright, but Jordan mentions Black losing his temper during the shopping trip.

text: In Arkansas, sheriff's deputy Bill Sherman (

text: Chris Owens

text: ) discovers bite-marks on his son's skin after he returns home from the daycare. When his son refuses to discuss what happened, Sherman is convinced of the rumours about Plott. Black arrives in town, and pretends to be a local parent interested in using the daycare. His visit is interrupted by Lara Means (

text: Kristen Cloke

text: ), who is investigating for Plott's defence. However, the two are forced to work together when one boy, Jason Wells, stops breathing. Despite attempts to revive him, the boy dies. Meanwhile, in Seattle, Black's wife Catherine (

text: Megan Gallagher

text: ) takes Jordan to the dentist after she spits blood while brushing her teeth.  The dentist tells her such an injury is most commonly caused by blunt force trauma. Catherine dismisses the idea outright, but Jordan mentions Black losing his temper during the shopping trip.

text: Superorder Cocculiniformia

text: Superorder

text: Cocculiniformia

text: The Sternoptychidae belong to the order Stomiiformes, which is often placed in the teleost superorder Stenopterygii, usually together with the Ateleopodiformes (jellynoses), but sometimes on their own. But it may well be that the closest living relatives of the "Stenopterygii" are found among the superorder Protacanthopterygii, and that the former would need to be merged in the latter. In some classifications, the "Stenopterygii" are kept separate but included with the Protacanthopterygii and the monotypic superorder Cyclosquamata in an unranked clade called Euteleostei. That would probably require splitting two additional monotypic superorders out of the Protacanthopterygii, and thus result in a profusion of very small taxa.

text: The Sternoptychidae belong to the

text: order

text: Stomiiformes

text: , which is often placed in the

text: teleost

text: superorder

text: Stenopterygii

text: , usually together with the

text: Ateleopodiformes

text: (jellynoses), but sometimes on their own. But it may well be that the closest living relatives of the "Stenopterygii" are found among the superorder

text: Protacanthopterygii

text: monotypic

text: superorder

text: Cyclosquamata

text: in an unranked

text: clade

text: taxa

text: Proposed superorder Dictyoptera

text: Proposed superorder

text: Dictyoptera

text: Eugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre cartilaginous fishes.  They possessed a unique "tooth-whorl" on the symphysis of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials.  The palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced.  Now determined to be within Holocephali, their closest living relatives are ratfish. The meaning of the name Eugeneodont correlates to "true origin teeth", and comes from the Greek words eu (good/true), geneos(race, kind, origin) and odon (tooth.)

text: Eugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre

text: cartilaginous fishe

text: s.  They possessed a unique "tooth-whorl" on the

text: symphysis

text: of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials.  The

text: palatoquadrate

text: was either fused to the skull or reduced.  Now determined to be within

text: Holocephali

text: , their closest living relatives are

text: ratfish

text: . The meaning of the name Eugeneodont correlates to "true origin teeth", and comes from the Greek words eu (good/true), geneos(race, kind, origin) and odon (tooth.)

text: Wade (1988) divided the subclass Nautiloidea into 6 superorders, combining orders that are phylogenetically related. They are:

text: Ctenothrissa is a prehistoric genus of ray-finned fish in the supposed order "Ctenothrissiformes". These Teleostei are only known from fossils. While they are sometimes included in the superorder Acanthopterygii or Protacanthopterygii, this is neither well-supported, nor is the monophyly of the "Ctenothrissiformes" robustly established. Indeed, it is quite likely that the supposed order is a paraphyletic assemblage of ancient moderately advanced Teleostei.

text: Ctenothrissa is a prehistoric

text: genus

text: of

text: ray-finned fish

text: in the supposed

text: order

text: Ctenothrissiformes

text: ". These

text: Teleostei

text: are only known from

text: fossil

text: s. While they are sometimes included in the

text: superorder

text: Acanthopterygii

text: or

text: Protacanthopterygii

text: , this is neither well-supported, nor is the

text: monophyly

text: of the "Ctenothrissiformes" robustly established. Indeed, it is quite likely that the supposed order is a

text: paraphyletic

text: assemblage of ancient moderately advanced Teleostei.

text: The two species of this genus can keep their blood temperature higher above that of the water surrounding them than other cartilaginous fish, with temperature differences recorded up to 15.6 °C.  Among fish, blood temperature regulation only occurs in large, fast species – bluefin tuna and swordfish are  bony fish  with similar abilities.

text: The two species of this genus can

entity_section: Temperature control in cold-blooded animals

text: keep their blood temperature

text: higher above that of the water surrounding them than other

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , with temperature differences recorded up to 15.6 °C.  Among fish, blood temperature regulation only occurs in large, fast species –

text: bluefin tuna

text: and

text: swordfish

text: are

text: bony fish

text: with similar abilities.

text: Skates are cartilaginous fish belonging to the family Rajidae in the superorder Batoidea of rays. More than 200 species have been described, in 30 genera. The two subfamilies are Rajinae (hardnose skates) and Arhynchobatinae (softnose skates).

text: Skates are

text: cartilaginous fish

text: belonging to the

text: family

text: Rajidae in the superorder

text: Batoidea

text: of

text: rays

text: . More than 200 species have been described, in 30 genera. The two subfamilies are Rajinae (hardnose skates) and Arhynchobatinae (softnose skates).

text: Tourist destinations are the Sanctuaries of Montevergine,  San Gerardo Maiella of Caposele, San Francesco a Folloni and the sanctuary of Sant' Antonio in Montefalcione; the ski resort of Laceno; the archeological areas of Avella and Aeclanum, the Lancellotti castle in Lauro, the medieval town of Gesualdo, the Roman ruins of Abellinum and the early Christian basilica in Prata. The Selachoidei National Gallery at Avellino houses one of the largest collections of cartilaginous fishes in the country.

text: Tourist destinations are the

text: Sanctuaries of Montevergine

text: ,  San Gerardo Maiella of Caposele, San Francesco a Folloni and the sanctuary of Sant' Antonio in Montefalcione; the ski resort of

text: Laceno

text: ; the archeological areas of

text: Avella

text: and

text: Aeclanum

text: , the Lancellotti castle in

text: Lauro

text: , the medieval town of

text: Gesualdo

text: , the Roman ruins of

text: Abellinum

text: and the early Christian basilica in

text: Prata

text: . The

text: Selachoidei

text: National Gallery at Avellino houses one of the largest collections of

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: in the country.

text: Placoid scales are found in the cartilaginous fishes: sharks, rays, and chimaeras. They are also called dermal denticles. Placoid scales are structurally homologous with vertebrate teeth ("denticle" translates to "small tooth"), having a central pulp cavity supplied with blood vessels, surrounded by a conical layer of dentine, all of which sits on top of a rectangular basal plate that rests on the dermis. The outermost layer is composed of vitrodentine, a largely inorganic enamel-like substance. Placoid scales cannot grow in size, but rather more scales are added as the fish increases in size.

text: Placoid scales are found in the

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es:

text: shark

text: s,

text: rays

text: , and

text: chimaera

text: s. They are also called dermal denticles. Placoid scales are structurally

text: homologous

text: with

text: vertebrate

text: teeth

text: ("denticle" translates to "small tooth"), having a central

text: pulp cavity

text: supplied with

text: blood vessel

text: s, surrounded by a conical layer of

text: dentine

text: , all of which sits on top of a rectangular basal plate that rests on the

text: dermis

text: . The outermost layer is composed of

text: vitrodentine

text: , a largely inorganic

text: enamel

text: -like substance. Placoid scales cannot grow in size, but rather more scales are added as the fish increases in size.

text: Along with the publication outlining the new system, there were two accompanying publications in the same issue of the Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. The first, by Chase & Reveal, was a formal phylogenetic classification of all land plants (embryophytes), compatible with the APG III classification. As the APG have chosen to eschew ranks above order, this paper was meant to fit the system into the existing Linnaean hierarchy for those that prefer such a classification. The result was that all land plants were placed in the class Equisitopsida, which was then divided into 16 subclasses (including the Magnoliidae, containing all flowering plants) and a multitude of superorders. The second, by Haston et al., was a linear sequence of families following the APG III system (LAPG III).

text: Along with the publication outlining the new system, there were two accompanying publications in the same issue of the

entity_name: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society

text: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society

text: . The first, by Chase & Reveal, was a formal

text: phylogenetic classification

text: of all

text: land plants

text: (embryophytes), compatible with the APG III classification. As the APG have chosen to eschew ranks above order, this paper was meant to fit the system into the existing

text: Linnaean hierarchy

text: for those that prefer such a classification. The result was that all land plants were placed in the class Equisitopsida, which was then divided into 16 subclasses (including the

text: Magnoliidae

text: , containing all flowering plants) and a multitude of superorders. The second, by Haston et al., was a linear sequence of families following the APG III system (LAPG III).

text: The Australian ghostshark was proposed as a model cartilaginous fish genome because of its relatively small genome size. Its genome is estimated to be 910 megabases long, which is the smallest among all the cartilaginous fishes and one-third the size of the human genome (3000 Mb). Because cartilaginous fishes are the oldest living group of jawed vertebrates, the Australian ghostshark genome will serve as a useful reference genome for understanding the origin and evolution of vertebrate genomes including humans, which shared a common ancestor with the Australian ghostshark about 450 million years ago. Interestingly, studies so far have shown the sequence and the gene order (synteny) are more similar between human and elephant shark genomes than between human and teleost fish genomes (pufferfish and zebrafish), though humans are more closely related to teleost fishes than to the Australian ghostshark. The Elephant Shark Genome Project was launched with the aim to sequence the whole genome of the elephant shark.

text: The Australian ghostshark was proposed as a model cartilaginous fish genome because of its relatively small genome size. Its genome is estimated to be 910

text: megabase

text: s long, which is the smallest among all the cartilaginous fishes and one-third the size of the

text: human genome

text: (3000 Mb). Because cartilaginous fishes are the oldest living group of jawed

text: vertebrate

text: s, the Australian ghostshark genome will serve as a useful reference genome for understanding the origin and

text: evolution

text: of vertebrate genomes including humans, which shared a common ancestor with the Australian ghostshark about 450 million years ago. Interestingly, studies so far have shown the sequence and the gene order (

text: synteny

text: ) are more similar between human and elephant shark genomes than between human and

text: teleost

text: fish genomes (

text: pufferfish

text: and

text: zebrafish

text: ), though humans are more closely related to teleost fishes than to the Australian ghostshark. The Elephant Shark Genome Project was launched with the aim to sequence the whole genome of the elephant shark.

text: This list of fossil fishes described in 2016 is a list of new taxa of jawless vertebrates, placoderms, acanthodians, fossil cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes and other fishes of every kind that have been described during the year 2016, as well as other significant discoveries and events related to paleontology of fishes that occurred in the year 2016. The list only includes taxa at the level of genus or species.

text: This list of

text: fossil

text: fishes

text: described in 2016 is a list of new

text: taxa

text: of

text: jawless vertebrates

text: placoderm

text: s,

text: acanthodians

text: , fossil

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: bony fishes

text: and other fishes of every kind that have been

text: described

text: during the year 2016, as well as other significant discoveries and events related to

text: paleontology

text: of fishes that occurred in the year 2016. The list only includes taxa at the level of

text: genus

text: or

text: species

text: M8571/3 Adenocarcinoma with cartilaginous and osseus metaplasia

text: Chomatodus is a prehistoric cartilaginous fish genus.

text: Rajiformes is one of the four orders in the superorder Batoidea, flattened cartilaginous fishes related to sharks. Rajiforms are distinguished by the presence of greatly enlarged pectoral fins, which reach as far forward as the sides of the head, with a generally flattened body. The undulatory pectoral fin motion diagnostic to this taxon is known as rajiform locomotion. The eyes and spiracles are located on the upper surface of the head and the gill slits are on the underside of the body. Most species give birth to live young, although some lay eggs with a horny capsule ("mermaid's purse").

text: Rajiformes is one of the four

text: orders

text: in the superorder

text: Batoidea

text: , flattened cartilaginous fishes related to

text: shark

text: s. Rajiforms are distinguished by the presence of greatly enlarged

text: pectoral fin

text: s, which reach as far forward as the sides of the head, with a generally flattened body. The undulatory pectoral fin motion diagnostic to this taxon is known as

text: rajiform

text: locomotion. The eyes and

text: spiracle

text: s are located on the upper surface of the head and the gill slits are on the underside of the body. Most species give birth to live young, although some lay eggs with a horny capsule ("

text: mermaid's purse

text: Cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes) like sharks, rays and skates have a skeleton composed entirely of cartilage.

text: Cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes)

text: like

text: shark

text: s,

text: ray

text: s and

text: skate

text: s have a skeleton composed entirely of cartilage.

text: In the Powers 2008 Annual, it is revealed that Walker and his rival clashed, this time as full Homo sapiens cave-dwellers. Walker, now known as Gor, has retired to a desolate cave where he sat alone for many years, simply metamorphosing to 'higher' forms of hominids (Evolution describes how species separate, not changes in  individual life forms). Over time, Gor attracts a tribe, and becomes something like a worshipped chief to his people. When one of Gor's men is killed by a wound not made by teeth or claw, Gor is forced to investigate, following a trail that leads to his old rival. Gor's rival, now calling himself Blood Fist, has invented the world's first stone weapon (a knife made of rock and bone, suggesting he has a tendency to out-pace Walker in evolution) and has used it to violently take over a tribe. Now Blood Fist is preparing to challenge the tribe's "cave god", an enormous bear to which the tribe pays tribute, and claims to be a god himself. Remembering the two's past encounter Gor resolves to end their fight once and for all, and moves quickly into the cave, killing the bear with his bare hands and ripping off its skin. Gor challenges Blood Fist while wearing the bear skin, rejecting his words and claiming that they are both just men. Finally, Gor apparently ends their fight by stealing Blood Fist's weapon and stabbing him through the skull.

text: These cartilages form the cartilaginous bar of the mandibular arch, and are two in number, a right and a left. Their proximal or cranial ends are connected with the ear capsules, and their distal extremities are joined to one another at the symphysis by mesodermal tissue.  They run forward immediately below the condyles and then, bending downward, lie in a groove near the lower border of the bone; in front of the canine tooth they incline upward to the symphysis. From the proximal end of each cartilage the malleus and incus, two of the bones of the middle ear, are developed; the next succeeding portion, as far as the lingula, is replaced by fibrous tissue, which persists to form the sphenomandibular ligament.

text: These cartilages form the

text: cartilaginous bar

text: of the

text: mandibular arch

text: , and are two in number, a right and a left. Their proximal or cranial ends are connected with the ear capsules, and their distal extremities are joined to one another at the

text: symphysis

text: by

text: mesodermal

text: tissue.  They run forward immediately below the condyles and then, bending downward, lie in a groove near the lower border of the bone; in front of the

text: canine tooth

text: they incline upward to the

text: symphysis

text: . From the proximal end of each cartilage the

text: malleus

text: and

text: incus

text: , two of the bones of the middle ear, are developed; the next succeeding portion, as far as the lingula, is replaced by fibrous tissue, which persists to form the

text: sphenomandibular ligament

text: In the wild this fish eats mainly aquatic insect larvae and crustaceans.In an aquarium they will readily adapt to a diet of commercial dry fish foods, but benefit from a variety of food including both live and frozen foods such as daphnia and bloodworms.

text: In the wild this fish eats mainly aquatic insect

text: larva

text: e and

text: crustaceans

text: .In an aquarium they will readily adapt to a diet of commercial dry fish foods, but benefit from a variety of food including both live and frozen foods such as daphnia and bloodworms.

text: Generally, lesions may be classified by the patterns they form, their size, their location, or their cause. Lesions are sometimes also named after the person who discovered them. Some lesions have specialized names, such as Ghon lesions in the lungs of tuberculosis victims, which is named after the lesion's discoverer. The characteristic skin lesions of a varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection are called chickenpox. Lesions of the teeth are usually called dental caries.

text: Generally, lesions may be classified by the patterns they form, their size, their location, or their cause. Lesions are sometimes also named after the person who discovered them. Some lesions have specialized names, such as

text: Ghon lesions

text: in the lungs of

text: tuberculosis

text: victims, which is named after the lesion's discoverer. The characteristic

text: skin lesion

text: s of a

text: varicella zoster virus

text: (VZV) infection are called

text: chickenpox

text: . Lesions of the teeth are usually called

text: dental caries

text: The cartilaginous fish (e.g. sharks and rays) do not have swim bladders. Some of them can control their depth only by swimming (using dynamic lift); others store fats or oils with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral buoyancy, which does not change with depth.

text: The

text: cartilaginous fish

text: (e.g. sharks and rays) do not have swim bladders. Some of them can control their depth only by swimming (using

text: dynamic lift

text: ); others store fats or oils with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral buoyancy, which does not change with depth.

text: In recent times, a trend exists to split the Osmeriformes in two, as their supposed suborders do not seem to be particularly closely related among the Protacanthopterygii. The resultant order Argentiniformes contains a number of peculiar deep sea forms. And as it seems, the superorders Cyclosquamata and Stenopterygii, which contain some bizarre apomorphic forms, are so closely related to the "traditional" Protacanthopterygii as to be included therein. Alternatively, the unranked clade name Euteleostei has been proposed for the whole group, but that would require splitting up the Protacanthopterygii lest they become paraphyletic. Thus, up to seven orders might be included here:

text: In recent times, a trend exists to

text: split

text: the

text: Osmeriformes

text: in two, as their supposed

text: suborder

text: s do not seem to be particularly closely related among the Protacanthopterygii. The resultant order

text: Argentiniformes

text: contains a number of peculiar

text: deep sea

text: forms. And as it seems, the superorders

text: Cyclosquamata

text: and

text: Stenopterygii

text: , which contain some bizarre

text: apomorph

text: ic forms, are so closely related to the "traditional" Protacanthopterygii as to be included therein. Alternatively, the unranked

text: clade

text: name Euteleostei has been proposed for the whole group, but that would require splitting up the Protacanthopterygii lest they become

text: paraphyletic

text: . Thus, up to seven orders might be included here:

text: One of the most abundant cartilaginous fishes off southern Australia, the sparsely-spotted stingaree has a relatively wide distribution extending from Crowdy Head in New South Wales to Lancelin in Western Australia, including the entirety of Tasmania. Its range has expanded southward in the past few decades, apparently due to climate change. In Port Phillip, its numbers increased from 1970 to 1991, likely as a result of fisheries depleting its ecological competitors.

text: One of the most abundant

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es off southern Australia, the sparsely-spotted stingaree has a relatively wide distribution extending from

text: Crowdy Head

text: in

text: New South Wales

text: to

text: Lancelin

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: , including the entirety of

text: Tasmania

text: . Its range has expanded southward in the past few decades, apparently due to

text: climate change

text: . In

text: Port Phillip

text: , its numbers increased from 1970 to 1991, likely as a result of

text: fisheries

text: depleting its

text: ecological competitor

text: s.

text: Sharks belong to the superorder Selachimorpha in the subclass Elasmobranchii in the class Chondrichthyes. The Elasmobranchii also include rays and skates; the Chondrichthyes also include Chimaeras. It is currently thought that the sharks form a polyphyletic group: some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some other sharks.

text: Sharks belong to the

text: superorder

text: Selachimorpha in the

text: subclass

text: Elasmobranchii

text: in the

text: class

text: Chondrichthyes

text: . The Elasmobranchii also include

text: rays

text: and

text: skate

text: s; the Chondrichthyes also include

text: Chimaera

text: s. It is currently thought that the sharks form a

text: polyphyletic

text: group: some sharks are more closely related to rays than they are to some other sharks.

text: Blood blisters are commonly caused by accidents in which the skin is pinched by a tool, mechanism, or heavy weight without protective gear. Blood blisters can also arise from forcible human contact, including grappling.

text: Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. In this sense, concepts' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don't in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. In this sense, the Theory-Theory of concepts is responding to some of the issues of prototype theory and classic theory.

text: For many centuries the Amur Valley was populated by the Tungusic (Evenki, Solon, Ducher, Jurchen, Nanai, Ulch) and Mongol (Daur) people, and, near its mouth, by the Nivkhs.  For many of them, fishing in the Amur and its tributaries was the main source of their livelihood. Until the 17th century, these people were not known to the Europeans, and little known to the Han Chinese, who sometimes collectively described them as the Wild Jurchens. The term Yupi Dazi ("Fish-skin Tatars") was used for the Nanais and related groups as well, owing to their traditional clothes made of fish skins.

text: For many centuries the Amur Valley was populated by the

text: Tungusic

text: Evenki

text: Solon

text: Ducher

text: Jurchen

text: Nanai

text: Ulch

text: ) and

text: Mongol

text: Daur

text: ) people, and, near its mouth, by the

text: Nivkhs

text: .  For many of them, fishing in the Amur and its tributaries was the main source of their livelihood. Until the 17th century, these people were not known to the Europeans, and little known to the

text: Han Chinese

text: , who sometimes collectively described them as the

text: Wild Jurchens

text: . The term Yupi Dazi ("Fish-skin Tatars") was used for the Nanais and related groups as well, owing to their traditional clothes made of fish skins.

text: Galeomorphii is a superorder of cartilaginous fishes which includes all modern sharks except the dogfish and its relatives. They are sometimes called galea or galean sharks. There are about 300 living species in 23 families. Galean sharks are divided into four orders: the Heterodontiformes, Orectolobiformes, Lamniformes, and Carcharhiniformes

text: Galeomorphii is a

text: superorder

text: of

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: which includes all modern sharks except the

text: dogfish

text: and its relatives. They are sometimes called galea or galean sharks. There are about 300 living

text: species

text: in 23

text: families

text: . Galean sharks are divided into four

text: orders

text: : the

text: Heterodontiformes

text: Orectolobiformes

text: Lamniformes

text: , and

text: Carcharhiniformes

text: Plesiococcolepis is an extinct genus of prehistoric ray-finned fish.

text: Plesiococcolepis is an extinct genus of prehistoric

text: ray-finned fish

text: Skates (hongeo) are cartilaginous fish that excrete uric acid through the skin, rather than by urinating as other animals do.  As they ferment, ammonia is produced which helps preserve the flesh and gives the fish its distinctive, powerful odor.

text: Skates (hongeo) are

text: cartilaginous fish

text: that excrete

text: uric acid

text: through the skin, rather than by urinating as other animals do.  As they ferment, ammonia is produced which helps preserve the flesh and gives the fish its distinctive, powerful odor.

text: Sharks (superorder Selachimorpha) – a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 440 million years ago, before the time of the dinosaurs.

text: Shark

text: s (

text: superorder

text: Selachimorpha) – a type of

text: fish

text: with a full

text: cartilaginous

text: skeleton

text: and a highly

text: streamlined

text: body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 440 million years ago, before the time of the

text: dinosaur

text: s.

text: Schistura imitator is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schistura.

text: Schistura imitator is a species of

text: ray-finned fish

text: in the genus

text: Schistura

text: As they do not have bone marrow, red blood cells are produced in the spleen and the epigonal organ (special tissue around the gonads, which is also thought to play a role in the immune system). They are also produced in the Leydig's organ, which is only found in certain cartilaginous fishes. The subclass Holocephali, which is a very specialized group, lacks both the Leydig's and epigonal organs.

text: As they do not have

text: bone marrow

text: red blood cell

text: s are produced in the

text: spleen

text: and the epigonal organ (special tissue around the

text: gonad

text: s, which is also thought to play a role in the immune system). They are also produced in the

text: Leydig's organ

text: , which is only found in certain cartilaginous fishes. The subclass

text: Holocephali

text: , which is a very specialized group, lacks both the Leydig's and epigonal organs.

text: Similar to the situation observed for bony fish, three distinct Ig heavy chain isotypes have been identified in cartilaginous fish. With the exception of μ, these Ig heavy chain isotypes appear to be unique to cartilaginous fish. The resulting antibodies are designated IgW (also called IgX or IgNARC) and IgNAR ('immunoglobulin new antigen receptor'). The latter type is a heavy-chain antibody, an antibody lacking light chains, and can be used to produce single-domain antibodies, which are essentially the variable domain of an IgNAR.

text: Similar to the situation observed for bony fish, three distinct Ig heavy chain isotypes have been identified in

text: cartilaginous fish

text: . With the exception of μ, these Ig heavy chain isotypes appear to be unique to cartilaginous fish. The resulting antibodies are designated IgW (also called IgX or IgNARC) and IgNAR ('immunoglobulin new antigen receptor'). The latter type is a

text: heavy-chain antibody

text: , an antibody lacking light chains, and can be used to produce

text: single-domain antibodies

text: , which are essentially the variable domain of an IgNAR.

text: The infant lamina propria is composed of only one layer, as compared to three in the adult, and there is no vocal ligament. The vocal ligament begins to be present in children at about four years of age. Two layers appear in the lamina propria between the ages of six and twelve, and the mature lamina propria, with the superficial, intermediate and deep layers, is only present by the conclusion of adolescence. As vocal fold vibration is a foundation for vocal formants, this presence or absence of tissue layers influences a difference in the number of formants between the adult and pediatric populations. In females, the voice is three tones lower than the child’s and has five to twelve formants, as opposed to the pediatric voice with three to six.The length of the vocal fold at birth is approximately six to eight millimeters and grows to its adult length of eight to sixteen millimeters by adolescence. The infant vocal fold is half membranous or anterior glottis, and half cartilaginous or posterior glottis. The adult fold is approximately three-fifths membranous and two-fifths cartilaginous.

text: Together with the closely related Esociformes (the pikes and related fishes), Osmeriformes (e.g. smelts), and Argentiniformes, the Salmoniformes comprise the superorder Protacanthopterygii.

text: Together with the closely related

text: Esociformes

text: (the pikes and related fishes),

text: Osmeriformes

text: (e.g.

text: smelt

text: s), and

text: Argentiniformes

text: , the Salmoniformes comprise the

text: superorder

text: Protacanthopterygii

text: They are grouped together because of common features in the structure of their gill arches. Indeed, many authors have considered them so distinct as to warrant separation in a monotypic superorder of the Teleostei, under the name Cyclosquamata. However, monotypic taxa are generally avoided by modern taxonomists if not necessary, and in this case a distinct superorder seems indeed unwarranted: together with the equally dubious superorder "Stenopterygii", the grinners appear to be so closely related to some Protacanthopterygii to be included in that superorder. In particular, this group might be the sister taxon of the Salmoniformes (salmon, trout, and relatives). As an alternative, the superorders are sometimes united as an unranked clade named Euteleostei, but in that case the Protacanthopterygii would need to be split further to account for the phylogenetic uncertainty. This would result in a highly cumbersome and taxonomically redundant group of two very small and no less than four monotypic superorders.

text: They are grouped together because of common features in the structure of their

text: gill arch

text: es. Indeed, many authors have considered them so distinct as to warrant separation in a

text: monotypic

text: superorder

text: of the

text: Teleostei

text: , under the name Cyclosquamata. However, monotypic taxa are generally avoided by modern

text: taxonomist

text: s if not necessary, and in this case a distinct superorder seems indeed unwarranted: together with the equally dubious superorder "

text: Stenopterygii

text: ", the grinners appear to be so closely related to some

text: Protacanthopterygii

text: to be included in that superorder. In particular, this group might be the

text: sister taxon

text: of the

text: Salmoniformes

text: (salmon, trout, and relatives). As an alternative, the superorders are sometimes united as an unranked

text: clade

text: named Euteleostei, but in that case the Protacanthopterygii would need to be split further to account for the

text: phylogenetic

text: uncertainty. This would result in a highly cumbersome and taxonomically redundant group of two very small and no less than four monotypic superorders.

text: Best Performance by an Actress: Tallulah Bankhead (The Skin of Our Teeth)

text: Best Performance by an Actress:

text: Tallulah Bankhead

text: The Skin of Our Teeth

text: The popular name "spiny sharks" is a partial misnomer for these early jawed fishes. The name was coined because they were superficially shark-shaped, with a streamlined body, paired fins, and a strongly upturned tail; stout, largely immovable bony spines supporting all the fins except the tail - hence, "spiny sharks"; in retrospect, however, their close relation to modern cartilaginous fish can lead them to be considered "stem-sharks". Fossilized spines and scales are often all that remains of these fishes in ancient sedimentary rocks. Although not sharks or cartilaginous fish, acanthodians did, in fact, have a cartilaginous skeleton, but their fins had a wide, bony base and were reinforced on their anterior margin with a dentine spine. The earliest acanthodians were marine, but during the Devonian, freshwater species became predominant.

text: The popular name "spiny sharks" is a partial misnomer for these early

text: jawed fishes

text: . The name was coined because they were superficially shark-shaped, with a streamlined body, paired

text: fins

text: , and a strongly upturned tail; stout, largely immovable bony spines supporting all the fins except the tail - hence, "spiny sharks"; in retrospect, however, their close relation to modern cartilaginous fish can lead them to be considered "stem-sharks". Fossilized

text: spines and scales

text: are often all that remains of these fishes in ancient

text: sedimentary rock

text: s. Although not sharks or cartilaginous fish, acanthodians did, in fact, have a cartilaginous

text: skeleton

text: , but their fins had a wide, bony base and were reinforced on their anterior margin with a dentine spine. The earliest acanthodians were marine, but during the

text: Devonian

text: , freshwater species became predominant.

text: The vampire snail possesses a long thin proboscis to feed on the blood of the fishes. Once contact is made between the proboscis and the skin of the fish, the proboscis extends its length to gain access to the blood vessel.

text: The vampire snail possesses a long thin

text: proboscis

text: to feed on the

text: blood

text: of the fishes. Once contact is made between the

text: proboscis

text: and the skin of the fish, the

text: proboscis

text: extends its length to gain access to the blood vessel.

text: Once there was a little island in the ocean. That little island changes as the seasons comes and go. The storm and the day and night change it.The island stood out up north. It was a popular place to be. Lots of gulls, lobsters, seals and many more animals come to this beautiful place. One day a black dark kitten with blue eyes come to the island with his owners. This kitten is very insensitive; he does not care about others. In this story, the island and the kitten talk and fight, because the cat does not think the island is a part of the world but it really is. So the island says “Ask the underworld”. The underworld is the sea. The cat walks to the dark green underworld to see if he will get his answer. When the kitten doubts the island about this point, the island suggests asking a fish. The cat catches a fish and demands to know how the island is part of the bigger land. “Come with me” says the fish. 'I cannot swim', says the cat. 'Then you will have to take it on faith', says the fish. 'What is that - faith?' asks the cat. "Faith is to believe what I tell you about what you don't know", says the fish. "All lands are one land under the sea", says the fish. The cat realizes he has learned a great truth, and his eyes "were shining with the secret of it, and because he loved secrets, he let the fish go". Then the cat leaves the island, and the island settles back into the timeless cycle of the seasons. The kitten learns from the island that the island is connected to all of the other land.

text: Barbus stigmatopygus is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Barbus.

text: Barbus stigmatopygus is a species of

text: ray-finned fish

text: in the genus

text: Barbus

text: As mentioned initially, one of the closest relatives of the Protacanthopterygii are the Otocephala, which include such different fishes as carp, catfish, and herrings in superorders Clupeomorpha and Ostariophysi. While the core of the present superorder has always consisted of three orders, additional taxa are likely to belong here, but are more disputed.

text: As mentioned initially, one of the closest relatives of the Protacanthopterygii are the Otocephala, which include such different fishes as

text: carp

text: catfish

text: , and

text: herring

text: s in superorders

text: Clupeomorpha

text: and

text: Ostariophysi

text: . While the core of the present superorder has always consisted of three orders, additional taxa are likely to belong here, but are more disputed.

text: The subclass Holocephali ("complete heads") is a taxon of cartilaginous fish in the class Chondrichthyes.  The earliest fossils are of teeth and come from the Devonian period. Little is known about these primitive forms, and the only surviving group in the subclass is the order Chimaeriformes. This group includes the rat fishes in the genus Chimaera, and the elephant fishes in the genus Callorhynchus.  These fishes move by using sweeping movements of their large pectoral fins. They have long slender tails and live close to the seabed feeding on benthic invertebrates. They lack a stomach, food moving directly into the intestine.

text: The subclass Holocephali ("complete heads") is a

text: taxon

text: of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: in the

text: class

text: Chondrichthyes.  The earliest

text: fossil

text: s are of teeth and come from the

text: Devonian

text: period. Little is known about these primitive forms, and the only surviving group in the subclass is the

text: order

text: Chimaeriformes

text: . This group includes the rat fishes in the

text: genus

text: Chimaera

text: , and the elephant fishes in the genus

text: Callorhynchus

text: .  These fishes move by using sweeping movements of their large pectoral fins. They have long slender tails and live close to the seabed feeding on

text: benthic

text: invertebrates. They lack a stomach, food moving directly into the intestine.

text: Pleuropholis is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish.

text: Pleuropholis is an extinct genus of prehistoric

text: bony fish

text: The skin is the largest organ in the human body. For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square metres (16.1-21.5 sq ft.). The thickness of the skin varies considerably over all parts of the body, and between men and women and the young and the old. An example is the skin on the forearm which is on average 1.3 mm in the male and 1.26 mm in the female. The average square inch (6.5 cm²) of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than 1,000 nerve endings. The average human skin cell is about 30 micrometers in diameter, but there are variants. A skin cell usually ranges from 25-40 micrometers (squared), depending on a variety of factors.

text: The Chimaeridae, or shortnose chimaeras, are a family of cartilaginous fish.

text: The Chimaeridae, or shortnose chimaeras, are a

text: family

text: of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: The Callorhinchidae (sometimes spelled "Callorhynchidae"), or plough-nose chimaeras, are a family of marine fish containing one genus, Callorhinchus. They are similar in form and habits to other chimaeras, but are distinguished by the presence of an elongated, flexible, fleshy snout, with a vague resemblance to a ploughshare. The snout is used to probe the sea bottom in search of the invertebrates and small fishes on which it preys. The remainder of the body is flat and compressed, often described as elongated. The mouth is just under this snout and the eyes are located high on top of the head. The usual color is black or brown, and, often a mixture between the two. Phylogenetically, they are the oldest group of living jawed Chondrichthyes. They possess the same cartilaginous skeleton seen in sharks but are considered holocephali to distinguish them from the shark and ray categorization. Because of this, they provide a useful research organism for studying the early development of the jawed characteristic. Among the Chondrichthyes genome, Callorhinchus has the smallest genome. Because of this, it has been proposed to be used for entire genome sequencing to represent the cartilaginous fish class. They are considered to resemble a cross between a shark and a ray or skate, but can be distinguished from sharks because they possess an operculum over their gill slits. Additionally, their skin is smooth, not covered in tough scales, characteristic of the shark. While the shark's jaw is loosely attached to the skull, the Callorhinchidae family differ in that their jaws are fused to their skulls. Many classify the Callorhinchidae as a chimeric species due to their shared characteristics of both the sharks and rays. They are found in muddy and sandy substrates of the ocean bottom, where they filter feed, with small shellfish making up the bulk of their diet. They have broad flat teeth that have adapted for this type of eating habit, two pair that reside in the upper jaw and one pair in the lower jaw.  In addition to its utilization for feeding, the trunk of the Callorhinchus fish can sense movement and electric fields, allowing them to locate their prey.  They possess large pectoral fins, believed to aid in moving swiftly through the water. They also have two dorsal fins spaced widely apart, which help identify the species in the open ocean.

text: The Callorhinchidae (sometimes spelled "Callorhynchidae"), or plough-nose chimaeras, are a family of marine fish containing one genus, Callorhinchus. They are similar in form and habits to other

text: chimaera

text: s, but are distinguished by the presence of an elongated, flexible, fleshy snout, with a vague resemblance to a ploughshare. The snout is used to probe the sea bottom in search of the invertebrates and small fishes on which it preys. The remainder of the body is flat and compressed, often described as elongated. The mouth is just under this snout and the eyes are located high on top of the head. The usual color is black or brown, and, often a mixture between the two.

text: Phylogenetically

text: , they are the oldest group of living jawed

text: Chondrichthyes

text: . They possess the same

text: cartilaginous

text: skeleton seen in sharks but are considered

text: holocephali

text: to distinguish them from the shark and ray categorization. Because of this, they provide a useful research organism for studying the early development of the jawed characteristic. Among the Chondrichthyes

text: genome

text: , Callorhinchus has the smallest genome. Because of this, it has been proposed to be used for entire

text: genome sequencing

text: to represent the cartilaginous fish class. They are considered to resemble a cross between a shark and a ray or skate, but can be distinguished from sharks because they possess an

text: operculum

text: Historically, Bentham (1877), considered the monocots to consist of four alliances, Epigynae, Coronariae, Nudiflorae and Glumales, based on floral characteristics. He describes the attempts to subdivide the group since the days of Lindley as largely unsuccessful. Like most subsequent classification systems it failed to distinguish between two major orders, Liliales and Asparagales, now recognised as quite separate. A major advance in this respect was the work of Rolf Dahlgren (1980), which would form the basis of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's (APG) subsequent modern classification of monocot families. Dahlgren who used the alternate name Lilliidae considered the monocots as a subclass of angiosperms characterised by a single cotyledon and the presence of triangular protein bodies in the sieve tube plastids. He divided the monocots into seven superorders, Alismatiflorae, Ariflorae, Triuridiflorae, Liliiflorae, Zingiberiflorae, Commeliniflorae and Areciflorae. With respect to the specific issue regarding Liliales and Asparagales, Dahlgren followed Huber (1969) in adopting a splitter approach, in contrast to the longstanding tendency to view Liliaceae as a very broad sensu lato family. Following Dahlgren's untimely death in 1987, his work was continued by his widow, Gertrud Dahlgren, who published a revised version of the classification in 1989. In this scheme the suffix -florae was replaced with -anae (e.g. Alismatanae) and the number of superorders expanded to ten with the addition of Bromelianae, Cyclanthanae and Pandananae.

text: Historically,

text: Bentham

text: (1877), considered the monocots to consist of four

text: alliances

text: , Epigynae, Coronariae, Nudiflorae and Glumales, based on floral characteristics. He describes the attempts to subdivide the group since the days of

text: Lindley

text: as largely unsuccessful. Like most subsequent classification systems it failed to distinguish between two major orders,

text: Liliales

text: and

text: Asparagales

text: , now recognised as quite separate. A major advance in this respect was the work of

text: Rolf Dahlgren

text: (1980), which would form the basis of the

text: Angiosperm Phylogeny Group

text: 's (APG) subsequent modern classification of monocot families. Dahlgren who used the alternate name

text: Lilliidae

text: considered the monocots as a

text: subclass

text: of

text: angiosperms

text: characterised by a single cotyledon and the presence of triangular protein bodies in the

text: sieve tube

text: plastids

text: . He divided the monocots into seven

text: superorders

text: , Alismatiflorae, Ariflorae, Triuridiflorae,

text: Liliiflorae

text: , Zingiberiflorae, Commeliniflorae and Areciflorae. With respect to the specific issue regarding Liliales and Asparagales, Dahlgren followed

text: Huber

text: (1969) in adopting a

text: splitter

text: approach, in contrast to the longstanding tendency to view

text: Liliaceae

text: as a very broad

text: sensu lato

text: family

text: . Following Dahlgren's untimely death in 1987, his work was continued by his widow,

text: Gertrud Dahlgren

text: , who published a revised version of the classification in 1989. In this scheme the

text: suffix

text: -florae was replaced with -anae (e.g.

text: Alismatanae

text: ) and the number of superorders expanded to ten with the addition of Bromelianae, Cyclanthanae and Pandananae.

text: Chondromyxoid fibroma is a type of cartilaginous tumor.

text: Chondromyxoid fibroma is a type of

text: cartilaginous

text: tumor

text: Diet: feeds on small sharks, bony fishes, cuttlefish, and crustaceans. Reproduction: are ovoviviparous.

text: Diet: feeds on small sharks, bony fishes, cuttlefish, and crustaceans. Reproduction: are

text: ovoviviparous

text: Harpagofututor is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish from the Mississippian of North America.

text: Harpagofututor is an extinct

text: genus

text: of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: from the

text: Mississippian

text: of

text: North America

text: Linnaeus (1758) used the terms 'Craniata' and 'Vertebrata' interchangeably to include lampreys, jawed fishes, and terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods). Hagfishes were classified as Vermes, possibly representing a transitional form between 'worms' and fishes. Dumeril (1806) grouped hagfishes and lampreys in the taxon 'Cyclostomi', characterized by horny teeth borne on a tongue-like apparatus, a large notochord as adults, and pouch-shaped gills (Marspibranchii). Cyclostomes were regarded as either degenerate cartilaginous fishes or primitive vertebrates. Cope (1889) coined the name 'Agnatha' (jawless) for a group that included the cyclostomes and a number of fossil groups in which jaws could not be observed. Vertebrates were subsequently divided into two major sister-groups; Agnatha and Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates). Stensiö (1927) suggested that the two groups of living agnathans (i.e., cyclostomes) arose independently from different groups of fossil agnathans. Løvtrup (1977) argued that lampreys are more closely related to gnathostomes based on a number of uniquely derived characters, including: arcualia (serially arranged paired cartilages above the notochord), extrinsic eyeball muscles, radial muscles in the fins, a closely set atrium and ventricle of the heart, nervous regulation of the heart (by the vagus nerve), a typhlosole (spirally coiled valve of the intestinal wall), true lymphocytes, a differentiated anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis), three inner ear maculae (patches of acceleration sensitive 'hair cells' used in balance) organized into two or three vertical semicircular canals, neuromast organs (composed of vibration sensitive hair cells) in the laterosensory canals, an electroreceptive lateral line (with voltage sensitive hair cells) and electrosensory lateral line nerves, and a cerebellum (i.e., the multi-layered roof of the hindbrain with unique structure [characteristic neural architecture including direct inputs from the lateral line and large output Purkinje cells] and function [integrating sensory perception and coordinating motor control]). In other words, the 'cyclostome' characteristics (e.g., horny teeth, "tongue", gill pouches) are either instances of convergent evolution for feeding and gill ventilation in animals with an eel-like body shape, or represent primitive craniate characteristics subsequently lost or modified in gnathostomes. Janvier (1978) proposed to use the names 'Vertebrata' and 'Craniata' as two distinct and nested taxa.

text: Linnaeus (1758) used the terms 'Craniata' and 'Vertebrata' interchangeably to include lampreys, jawed fishes, and terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods). Hagfishes were classified as

text: Vermes

text: The dens or odontoid process consists originally of a continuation upward of the cartilaginous mass, in which the lower part of the body is formed.

text: The dens or

text: odontoid process

text: consists originally of a continuation upward of the cartilaginous mass, in which the lower part of the body is formed.

text: The simpler structure is found in jawless fish, in which the cranium is represented by a trough-like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.

text: The simpler structure is found in

text: jawless fish

text: , in which the cranium is represented by a trough-like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no

text: jaw

text: s.

text: Superorder: Hypnanae

text: Superorder: Hypnanae

text: Fruit bodies are typically cartilaginous or rubbery-gelatinous. In effused species (those that spread out loosely or flat), they are formed on the soil surface or in leaf litter, often encrusting fallen twigs and debris, sometimes encrusting the stem bases of living plants. In the type species, irregular or coral-like outgrowths may also be produced. In one species, bracket-like outgrowths are formed. In two other species, the fruit bodies are entirely coral- or net-like. Spores are white in mass.

text: The lamprey uses its suction cup-like mouth to attach itself to the skin of a fish and rasps away tissue with its sharp, probing tongue and keratinized teeth. Secretions in the lamprey's mouth prevent the victim's blood from clotting. Victims typically die from excessive blood loss or infection. After one year of hematophagous feeding, lampreys return to the river to spawn and die, one year and a half after the completion of metamorphosis.

text: The lamprey uses its suction cup-like mouth to attach itself to the skin of a fish and rasps away tissue with its sharp, probing tongue and

text: keratin

text: ized teeth. Secretions in the lamprey's mouth prevent the victim's blood from clotting. Victims typically die from excessive blood loss or infection. After one year of hematophagous feeding, lampreys return to the river to spawn and die, one year and a half after the completion of metamorphosis.

text: Recent genetic research has caused a change in the naming scheme, however, and recent publications have changed the superorder Parasitiformes to an order.

text: Recent genetic research has caused a change in the naming scheme, however, and recent publications have changed the superorder

text: Parasitiformes

text: to an order.

text: There are two different skeletal types: the exoskeleton, which is the stable outer shell of an organism, and the endoskeleton, which forms the support structure inside the body. The skeleton of the fish is either made of cartilage (cartilaginous fishes) or bones (bony fishes). The main features of the fish, the fins, are bony fin rays and, except for the caudal fin, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported only by the muscles. The ribs attach to the spine.

text: There are two different skeletal types: the

text: exoskeleton

text: , which is the stable outer shell of an organism, and the

text: endoskeleton

text: , which forms the support structure inside the body. The skeleton of the

text: fish

text: is either made of

text: cartilage

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: ) or bones (

text: bony fishes

text: ). The main features of the fish, the fins, are bony fin rays and, except for the

text: caudal fin

text: , have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported only by the muscles. The ribs attach to the spine.

text: Once cercariae are shed from the snail, it contracts repeatedly until it contacts a fish and penetrates under its skin within 30 seconds to 2 minutes.  The cercariae penetrate further into the renal portal blood system, into the kidney and deeper tissues into the base of the tail.  Penetrations sights are easily visible, as the skin, fins, and tails of the fish appear to be heavily eroded and damaged.Cercariae can also indirectly infect the fish, if the fish eat the cercariae orally.

text: Elasmobranchii () is a subclass of Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fish. Members of this subclass are characterised by having five to seven pairs of gill clefts opening individually to the exterior, rigid dorsal fins and small placoid scales on the skin. The teeth are in several series; the upper jaw is not fused to the cranium, and the lower jaw is articulated with the upper.  The details of this jaw anatomy vary between species, and help distinguish the different elasmobranch clades. The pelvic fins in males are modified to create claspers for the transfer of sperm. There is no swim bladder, instead these fish maintain buoyancy with large livers rich in oil.

text: Elasmobranchii () is a

text: subclass

text: of

text: Chondrichthyes

text: or cartilaginous fish. Members of this subclass are characterised by having five to seven pairs of

text: gill

text: clefts opening individually to the exterior, rigid

text: dorsal fin

text: s and small

text: placoid scale

text: s on the skin. The teeth are in several series; the upper jaw is not fused to the cranium, and the lower jaw is articulated with the upper.  The details of this jaw anatomy vary between species, and help distinguish the different elasmobranch

text: clade

text: s. The pelvic fins in males are modified to create

text: clasper

text: s for the transfer of sperm. There is no swim bladder, instead these fish maintain buoyancy with large livers rich in oil.

text: Superorder: LaurasiatheriaOrder: Carnivora

text: Superorder:

text: Laurasiatheria

text: Order:

text: Carnivora

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. ilebrevis, the toothpad is interrupted, or separated into two distinct groups. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. ilebrevis, there are 50 to 66 teeth on the mandible, arranged in eight short rows.

text: papilla

text: A famous example is the trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish. Bony fish are more closely related to terrestrial vertebrates, which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: A famous example is the trait of breathing via

text: gills

text: in

text: bony fish

text: and

text: cartilaginous fish

text: . Bony fish are more closely related to

text: terrestrial vertebrates

text: , which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the

text: shark

text: s,

text: rays

text: , and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living

text: vertebrate

text: s. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: The eagle rays are a group of cartilaginous fishes in the family Myliobatidae, consisting mostly of large species living in the open ocean rather than on the sea bottom.

text: The eagle rays are a group of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es in the family Myliobatidae, consisting mostly of large species living in the open ocean rather than on the sea bottom.

text: Acanthopterygii (meaning "spiny finned one") is a superorder of bony fishes in the class Actinopterygii.  Members of this superorder are sometimes called ray-finned fishes for the characteristic sharp, bony rays in their fins; however this name is often given to the class Actinopterygii as a whole.

text: Acanthopterygii (meaning "spiny finned one") is a

text: superorder

text: of

text: bony fishes

text: in the class

text: Actinopterygii

text: .  Members of this superorder are sometimes called ray-finned fishes for the characteristic sharp, bony rays in their fins; however this name is often given to the class Actinopterygii as a whole.

text: Fish has written widely on psychotherapy as a social influence process, on social and cultural factors in therapy, and on brief therapy—including brief behavioral, cognitive, strategic, systemic, and solution focused therapies, and on the use of hypnosis in brief therapy. In Placebo Therapy, for example, Fish argued that stimulating the client's positive expectancy of change was a primary source of the effectiveness of therapy. Hence, rather than attempting to minimize or control for the placebo effect, therapy should be structured so as tomaximize it. Patrick Pentony's Models of Influence in Psychotherapy presented Fish's placebo model as one of only three models of influence underlying the numerous systems of psychotherapy. (The other two are the resocialization model and the contextual model). Fish's book also stimulated Irving Kirsch's research on response expectancy theory, in which people's experience—such as becoming calmer or happier—is affected by what they expect to experience.

text: Fish has written widely on

text: psychotherapy

text: as a

text: social influence

text: process, on social and cultural factors in therapy, and on

text: brief therapy

text: —including brief

text: behavioral

text: cognitive

text: strategic

text: systemic

text: , and

text: solution focused

text: therapies, and on the use of

text: hypnosis

text: in brief therapy. In Placebo Therapy, for example, Fish argued that stimulating the client's positive expectancy of change was a primary source of the effectiveness of therapy. Hence, rather than attempting to minimize or control for the placebo effect, therapy should be structured so as tomaximize it. Patrick Pentony's Models of Influence in Psychotherapy presented Fish's placebo model as one of only three models of influence underlying the numerous systems of psychotherapy. (The other two are the resocialization model and the contextual model). Fish's book also stimulated

text: Irving Kirsch's

text: research on response expectancy theory, in which people's experience—such as becoming calmer or happier—is affected by what they expect to experience.

text: Typical individuals are  long and weigh . Queens are larger and may weigh well over , the largest reaching . They are well-adapted to their underground existence. Their eyes are quite small, and their visual acuity is poor. Their legs are thin and short; however, they are highly adept at moving underground and can move backward as fast as they can move forward. Their large, protruding teeth are used to dig and their lips are sealed just behind the teeth, preventing soil from filling their mouths while digging. About a quarter of their musculature is used in the closing of their jaws while they dig - about the same proportion that is utilized in the human leg. They have little hair (hence the common name) and wrinkled pink or yellowish skin. They lack an insulating layer in the skin.

text: The Calpini are a tribe of fruit-piercing moths in the Noctuidae family; formerly they were included in the Erebidae family. The proboscis of the adult moths of this tribe is pointed and barbed, allowing the moth to pierce the skin of fruit to drink the juice. The vampire moths in the Calyptra genus can pierce mammal skin to drink blood.

text: The Calpini are a

text: tribe

text: of fruit-piercing

text: moth

text: s in the

text: Noctuidae

text: family; formerly they were included in the

text: Erebidae

text: family. The

text: proboscis

text: of the adult moths of this tribe is pointed and barbed, allowing the moth to pierce the skin of fruit to drink the juice. The vampire moths in the

text: Calyptra

text: genus can pierce mammal skin to drink blood.

text: He became known along with his brother for the auricular style of cartilaginous arabesques in baroque art. Paulus designed them and Adam transformed them into three-dimensional objects. The memorial jug he designed to commemorate Paul's death (1613) in Prague is one fluid embodiment of this art.

text: He became known along with his brother for the

text: auricular style

text: of cartilaginous arabesques in baroque art. Paulus designed them and Adam transformed them into three-dimensional objects. The memorial jug he designed to commemorate Paul's death (1613) in Prague is one fluid embodiment of this art.

text: One can see that in temperate environments there is room to increase or decrease blood flow to the skin dramatically. This is achieved by way of special arrangements in the vascular beds of the skin. There are significant numbers of extra vessels, especially in the extremities with their large surface areas (hands, ears, toes etc.). These are direct connections between artery and vein which bypass nourishing capillaries, and are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. These shunts are normally mostly closed, but opening them up allows the skin to become engorged with blood, and because these vessels have low resistance, the blood flow through them is brisk. Conversely, when blood supply to the skin must be reduced these shunts can be closed and furthermore, the normal mechanism of vasoconstriction of arterioles, can dramatically reduce perfusion of the skin.

text: According to Sibley and Ahlquist, they include the following superorders and orders:

text: According to Sibley and Ahlquist, they include the following

text: superorder

text: s and

text: order

text: s:

text: Fisherman have different preferences about the equipment they use for bank fishing, but most agree with certain basics. Obviously fishing tackle is needed. Most bank fishing is performed with a rod, reel and lures or bait. Often two fishing rods are used. The bait can be changed on one rod while fishing continues with the other. Some fishermen bring a lidded container for the fish they catch which doubles as a seat. Other fishermen bring a stringer to hold the fish they catch. Catch and release fishermen don't need either of these. With growing technology some luxury equipment has been developed such as the fish finder that uses sonar or a camera to physically locate fish. This is typically reserved for boat fishing but can also be applied to bank fishing.

text: Fisherman have different preferences about the equipment they use for bank fishing, but most agree with certain basics. Obviously

text: fishing tackle

text: is needed. Most bank fishing is performed with a

text: rod

text: reel

text: and

text: lures

text: or

text: bait

text: . Often two fishing rods are used. The bait can be changed on one rod while fishing continues with the other. Some fishermen bring a lidded container for the fish they catch which doubles as a seat. Other fishermen bring a

text: stringer

text: to hold the fish they catch.

text: Catch and release

text: fishermen don't need either of these. With growing technology some luxury equipment has been developed such as the

text: fish finder

text: that uses

text: sonar

text: or a

text: camera

text: to physically locate fish. This is typically reserved for

text: boat fishing

text: but can also be applied to bank fishing.

text: The superorder rank is commonly used, with the ending -anae that was initiated by Armen Takhtajan's publications from 1966 onwards.

text: The superorder rank is commonly used, with the ending -anae that was initiated by

text: Armen Takhtajan

text: 's publications from 1966 onwards.

text: The superorder has its roots in the Bassleroceratidae, the ancestral family of the Tarphycerida, sometimes included in the Ellesmerocerida. The Bassleroceratidae also gave rise to the Granciloceratidae, the ancestral family of the Oncocerida, which in turn gave rise to the Nautilida, which includes the Nautilidae which includes the living Nautilus.

text: The superorder has its roots in the

text: Bassleroceratidae

text: , the ancestral family of the Tarphycerida, sometimes included in the Ellesmerocerida. The Bassleroceratidae also gave rise to the Granciloceratidae, the ancestral family of the Oncocerida, which in turn gave rise to the Nautilida, which includes the

text: Nautilidae

text: which includes the living

text: Nautilus

text: If it is possible to find out what species of fish serves as the fish host for the larvae of the Carolina heelsplitters, then it will be possible to determine whether the fish host is endangered or over fished.

text: Superorders

text: Superorders

text: His "medical training proved to be of value in his mission work, mostly in obstetrics, minor surgery and treatment of skin diseases such as boils and ulcers. No record remains of the number of childbirths at which father officiated. He was called upon for this part of his mission work at any hour of day or night. ... Along with his medical work he also pulled a great many teeth. One year, by actual count he pulled over 5000 teeth."

text: His "medical training proved to be of value in his mission work, mostly in

text: obstetrics

text: , minor surgery and treatment of skin diseases such as boils and ulcers. No record remains of the number of childbirths at which father officiated. He was called upon for this part of his mission work at any hour of day or night. ... Along with his medical work he also pulled a great many teeth. One year, by actual count he pulled over 5000 teeth."

text: Sharks and rays typically have five pairs of gill slits that open directly to the outside of the body, though some more primitive sharks have six pairs and the Broadnose sevengill shark being the only cartilaginous fish exceeding this number. Adjacent slits are separated by a cartilaginous gill arch from which projects a cartilaginous gill ray. This gill ray is the support for the sheet-like interbranchial septum, which the individual lamellae of the gills lie on either side of. The base of the arch may also support gill rakers, projections into the pharyngeal cavity that help to prevent large pieces of debris from damaging the delicate gills.

text: Shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: typically have five pairs of gill slits that open directly to the outside of the body, though some more primitive sharks have six pairs and the

text: Broadnose sevengill shark

text: being the only cartilaginous fish exceeding this number. Adjacent slits are separated by a

text: cartilaginous

text: gill arch from which projects a cartilaginous gill ray. This gill ray is the support for the sheet-like interbranchial

text: septum

text: , which the individual lamellae of the gills lie on either side of. The base of the arch may also support

text: gill raker

text: s, projections into the pharyngeal cavity that help to prevent large pieces of debris from damaging the delicate gills.

text: The group is traditionally a superclass, broken into three top-level groupings: Chondrichthyes, or the cartilaginous fish; Placodermi, an extinct clade of armored fish; and Teleostomi, which includes the familiar classes of bony fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Some classification systems have used the term Amphirhina. It is a sister group of the jawless craniates Agnatha.

text: The group is traditionally a

text: superclass

text: , broken into three top-level groupings:

text: Chondrichthyes

text: , or the cartilaginous fish;

text: Placodermi

text: , an extinct

text: clade

text: of armored fish; and

text: Teleostomi

text: , which includes the familiar classes of

text: bony fish

text: bird

text: s,

text: mammal

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s, and

text: amphibian

text: s. Some classification systems have used the term

text: Amphirhina

text: . It is a sister group of the jawless craniates

text: Agnatha

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between to different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. dhonti, the toothpad is uninterrupted, or continuous without a break. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. dhonti, there are 22 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: papilla

text: . All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between to different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. dhonti, the toothpad is uninterrupted, or continuous without a break. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. dhonti, there are 22 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a single row.

text: A molera is a "hole" in a Chihuahua's head; it is the same as a fontanelle in human babies. Historically, the Chihuahua as developed in Mexico and the United States has displayed a "hole in the head". In times past, this has been accepted as a mark of purity for this dog breed, and it is still mentioned in most Chihuahua breed standards the world over. The bones of the head in all foetuses are not firmly knitted together, but in most mammals, the different bones of the skull join with cartilaginous sutures as the animal matures. The Chihuahuas' moleras vary in size and shape, occurring on the top of the head where the parietal and frontal bones come together.

text: A molera is a "hole" in a

text: Chihuahua

text: 's head; it is the same as a

text: fontanelle

text: in human babies. Historically, the Chihuahua as developed in

text: Mexico

text: and the

text: United States

text: has displayed a "hole in the head". In times past, this has been accepted as a mark of purity for this

text: dog breed

text: , and it is still mentioned in most Chihuahua breed standards the world over. The bones of the head in all foetuses are not firmly knitted together, but in most mammals, the different bones of the skull join with cartilaginous sutures as the animal matures. The Chihuahuas' moleras vary in size and shape, occurring on the top of the head where the parietal and frontal bones come together.

text: The general morphology of medicinal leeches follows that of most other leeches. Fully mature adults can be up to 20 cm in length, and are green, brown, or greenish-brown with a darker tone on the dorsal side and a lighter ventral side. The dorsal side also has a thin red stripe. These organisms have two suckers, one at each end, called the anterior and posterior suckers. The posterior is used mainly for leverage, whereas the anterior sucker, consisting of the jaw and teeth, is where the feeding takes place. Medicinal leeches have three jaws (tripartite) that look like little saws, and on them are about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark that is an inverted Y inside of a circle. After piercing the skin and injecting anticoagulants (hirudin) and anaesthetics, they suck out blood. Large adults can consume up to ten times their body weight in a single meal, with 5-15 ml being the average volume taken. These leeches can live for up to a year between feeding.

text: The general

text: morphology

text: of medicinal leeches follows that of most other leeches. Fully mature adults can be up to 20 cm in length, and are green, brown, or greenish-brown with a darker tone on the

text: dorsal

text: side and a lighter

text: ventral

text: side. The dorsal side also has a thin red stripe. These organisms have two suckers, one at each end, called the

text: anterior

text: and

text: posterior

text: suckers. The posterior is used mainly for leverage, whereas the anterior sucker, consisting of the

text: jaw

text: and

text: teeth

text: , is where the feeding takes place. Medicinal leeches have three jaws (tripartite) that look like little saws, and on them are about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host. The incision leaves a mark that is an inverted Y inside of a circle. After piercing the skin and injecting

text: anticoagulant

text: s (

text: hirudin

text: ) and

text: anaesthetic

text: s, they suck out

text: blood

text: . Large adults can consume up to ten times their body weight in a single meal, with 5-15 ml being the average volume taken. These leeches can live for up to a year between feeding.

text: Superorder Crocodylomorpha

text: Superorder

text: Crocodylomorpha

text: Type A is found in 56% of females and 66% of males. There is a well-defined "facet". It has a tight capsule and ligaments with either a concavity or a small groin directed from posterior superior to anterior inferior. Horizontal translational movement is about 3.0 mm, vertical gliding about 2.5 mm with great movement horizontally than vertically. The gliding movements are smaller in males than in females.Type B is in 24% of females and 20% of males. In contrary to type A it lacks a definite "facet" and the two cartilaginous parts of the articulation are joined only by soft connective tissue. Horizontal movement is 5.0 mm and vertical, 5.1 mm with no differences between them.

text: Of the Rajiformes, three species are common in Nordic waters. The largest is the Blue skate, which is commons in the Skagerrak and Kattegatt west of Sweden but otherwise only sporadic. It is together with the Thumback ray (Raja clavata) the only cartilaginous fish of economical importance in Sweden.

text: Of the Rajiformes, three species are common in Nordic waters. The largest is the

text: Blue skate

text: , which is commons in the

text: Skagerrak

text: and

text: Kattegatt

text: west of Sweden but otherwise only sporadic. It is together with the Thumback ray (

text: Raja clavata

text: ) the only

text: cartilaginous fish

text: of economical importance in Sweden.

text: The fish have delicate skin, and mouths filled with sharp, needlelike, curved teeth.

text: The use of the hook in angling is descended, historically, from what would today be called a "gorge". The word "gorge", in this context, comes from an archaic word meaning "throat". Gorges were used by ancient peoples to capture fish. A gorge was a long, thin piece of bone or stone attached by its midpoint to a thin line. The gorge would be fixed with a bait so that it would rest parallel to the lay of the line. When a fish swallowed the bait, a tug on the line caused the gorge to orient itself at right angles to the line, thereby sticking in the fish's gullet.

text: The use of the hook in angling is descended, historically, from what would today be called a "gorge". The word "gorge", in this context, comes from an archaic word meaning "throat". Gorges were used by ancient peoples to capture fish. A gorge was a long, thin piece of bone or stone attached by its midpoint to a thin line. The gorge would be fixed with a bait so that it would rest parallel to the lay of the line. When a fish swallowed the bait, a tug on the line caused the gorge to orient itself at right angles to the line, thereby sticking in the fish's

text: gullet

text: As mentioned earlier, A. bronni is an acanthodian, a group of stem gnathostomes more derived than placoderms, but fairly close to the origins of chondrichthyans and osteichthyans. A. bronni lived about 290 million years ago during the Carboniferous period.Researchers took 138 characteristics of various skulls of A. bronni and compared these with skulls of both chondrichthyans and osteichthyans, and determined that acanthodians are closer to cartilaginous fishes.

text: As mentioned earlier, A. bronni is an acanthodian, a group of stem gnathostomes more derived than

text: placoderm

text: s, but fairly close to the origins of chondrichthyans and osteichthyans. A. bronni lived about 290 million years ago during the

text: Carboniferous

text: period.Researchers took 138 characteristics of various skulls of A. bronni and compared these with skulls of both chondrichthyans and osteichthyans, and determined that acanthodians are closer to cartilaginous fishes.

text: Diaphyodus is an extinct genus of prehistoric ray-finned fish.

text: Diaphyodus is an extinct genus of prehistoric

text: ray-finned fish

text: Edaphodon hesperis was a prehistoric chimaeriform fish species belonging to the genus Edaphodon, of which all the species are now extinct.  Edaphodon hesperis was a type of rabbitfish, a cartilaginous fish related to sharks and rays, and indeed, some rabbitfishes are still alive today.

text: Edaphodon hesperis was a prehistoric

text: chimaeriform

text: fish

text: species

text: belonging to the

text: genus

text: Edaphodon

text: , of which all the species are now extinct.  Edaphodon hesperis was a type of rabbitfish, a

text: cartilaginous fish

text: related to

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: , and indeed, some rabbitfishes are still alive today.

text: The scientific classification of acanthodians is still a subject of great dispute, due to the fact that they share qualities of both bony fish (osteichthyes) and cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes). A recent study has suggested that Acanthodes may have been, or closely related to an early common ancestor to all cartilaginous and bony fish, including humans. Acanthodian internal anatomy is primarily understood by Acanthodes bronni because it remains the only example preserved in substantial detail, central to which is an osensible osteichthyan braincase. For this reason, Acanthodes has become an indispensable component in early gnathostome phylogenies. Acanthodes is quantifiably closer to chondrichthyans than to osteichthyans. However, phylogenetic analysis places Acanthodes on the osteichthyan stem, as part of a well-resolved tree that also recovers acanthodians as stem chondrichthyans and stem gnathostomes. As such, perceived chondrichthyan features of the Acanthodes cranium represent shared primitive conditions for crown group gnathostomes. There has been increasingly detailed findings of early gnathostome evolution highlights ongoing and profound anatomical reorganization of vertebrate crania after the origin of jaws but before the divergence of living clades.

text: The scientific classification of acanthodians is still a subject of great dispute, due to the fact that they share qualities of both bony fish (

text: osteichthyes

text: ) and cartilaginous fish (

text: chondrichthyes

text: ). A recent study has suggested that Acanthodes may have been, or closely related to an early common ancestor to all

text: cartilaginous

text: and

text: bony fish

text: , including

text: humans

text: Acanthodian

text: internal anatomy is primarily understood by Acanthodes bronni because it remains the only example preserved in substantial detail, central to which is an osensible

text: osteichthyan

text: braincase. For this reason, Acanthodes has become an indispensable component in early gnathostome phylogenies. Acanthodes is quantifiably closer to

text: chondrichthyans

text: than to

text: osteichthyan

text: s. However, phylogenetic analysis places Acanthodes on the osteichthyan stem, as part of a well-resolved tree that also recovers acanthodians as stem chondrichthyans and stem

text: gnathostomes

text: . As such, perceived chondrichthyan features of the Acanthodes cranium represent shared primitive conditions for crown group gnathostomes. There has been increasingly detailed findings of early gnathostome evolution highlights ongoing and profound anatomical reorganization of vertebrate crania after the origin of

text: jaw

text: s but before the divergence of living clades.

text: As with other sturgeon, pallid sturgeon lack the scales or bones found in more "modern" species of fish. Instead, they have cartilaginous skeletons with five rows of thick cartilage plates that extend along their sides, undersides, and backs, as well as over most of the head. These thick cartilage plates are covered by the skin and serve as a protective armor.  The bony cartilage also extends along the backside, from the dorsal fin to the tail.

text: As with other sturgeon, pallid sturgeon lack the

text: scales

text: or bones found in more "modern" species of fish. Instead, they have

text: cartilaginous

text: skeletons with five rows of thick cartilage plates that extend along their sides, undersides, and backs, as well as over most of the head. These thick cartilage plates are covered by the skin and serve as a protective armor.  The bony cartilage also extends along the backside, from the

text: dorsal fin

text: to the tail.

text: The superorder is classified below:

text: The superorder is classified below:

text: L. alexandri is a rarely imported aquarium fish. These fish require a sandy substrate and should not be maintained with fish that it can eat (a fish less than half of its size).

text: L. alexandri is a rarely imported

text: aquarium

text: fish. These fish require a sandy

text: substrate

text: and should not be maintained with fish that it can eat (a fish less than half of its size).

text: The phrase used as the title comes from the King James Bible, Job 19:20: "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth."

text: The phrase used as the title comes from the

text: King James Bible

text: , Job 19:20: "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the

text: skin of my teeth

text: By the start of the Early Devonian, 419 mya (million years ago), jawed fishes had divided into three distinct groups: the now extinct placoderms (a paraphyletic assemblage of ancient armoured fishes), the bony fishes and the clade including spiny sharks and early cartilaginous fish. The modern bony fishes, class Osteichthyes, appeared in the late Silurian or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago. Cartilaginous fishes first appeared about 395 Ma, having evolved from Doliodus-like spiny shark ancestors. The first abundant genus of shark, Cladoselache, appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period.

text: By the start of the Early Devonian, 419

text: mya

text: (million years ago),

text: jawed fish

text: es had divided into three distinct groups: the now extinct

text: placoderm

text: s (a paraphyletic assemblage of ancient armoured fishes), the

text: bony fish

text: es and the clade including

text: spiny sharks

text: and early

text: cartilaginous

text: fish. The modern bony fishes, class

text: Osteichthyes

text: , appeared in the late

text: Silurian

text: or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago. Cartilaginous fishes first appeared about 395 Ma, having evolved from

text: Doliodus

text: -like

text: spiny shark

text: ancestors. The first abundant genus of shark,

text: Cladoselache

text: , appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period.

text: Through her art, Reed became an expert on the use of fish skins and their uses, especially in the traditional indigenous art of Alaska, such as baskets. She extensively researched Alaskan fish skin and their uses independently. Her unique art and expertise attracted attention from throughout Alaska and the rest of the United States. This led to a number of awards and honors.

text: Through her art, Reed became an expert on the use of fish skins and their uses, especially in the traditional indigenous art of Alaska, such as

text: baskets

text: . She extensively researched Alaskan fish skin and their uses independently. Her unique art and expertise attracted attention from throughout Alaska and the rest of the

text: United States

text: . This led to a number of awards and honors.

text: The bony or cartilaginous bones that support the base of the dorsal fin in fish are called pterygiophores.

text: The immunoglobulin new antigen receptor (IgNAR) of cartilaginous fishes (for example sharks) is a heavy-chain antibody. IgNAR shows significant structural differences to other antibodies. It has five constant domains (C) per chain instead of the usual three, several disulfide bonds in unusual positions, and the complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3) forms an extended loop covering the site which binds to a light chain in other antibodies. These differences, in combination with the phylogenetic age of the cartilaginous fishes, have led to the hypothesis that IgNAR could be more closely related to a primordial antigen-binding protein than the mammalian immunoglobulins. To test this hypothesis, it would be necessary to discover IgNAR or similar antibodies in vertebrates that are phylogenetically still older, like the jawless fish lamprey and hagfish. Non-vertebrates do not have antibodies at all.

text: The immunoglobulin new antigen receptor (IgNAR) of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es (for example sharks) is a heavy-chain antibody. IgNAR shows significant structural differences to other antibodies. It has five constant domains (C) per chain instead of the usual three, several

text: disulfide bond

text: s in unusual positions, and the

text: complementarity determining region

text: 3 (CDR3) forms an extended loop covering the site which binds to a light chain in other antibodies. These differences, in combination with the

text: phylogenetic

text: age of the cartilaginous fishes, have led to the hypothesis that IgNAR could be more closely related to a primordial antigen-binding protein than the

text: mammal

text: ian immunoglobulins. To test this hypothesis, it would be necessary to discover IgNAR or similar antibodies in

text: vertebrate

text: s that are phylogenetically still older, like the

text: jawless fish

text: lamprey

text: and

text: hagfish

text: Non-vertebrate

text: s do not have antibodies at all.

text: The Devonian Period is broken into the Early, Middle and Late Devonian. By the start of the Early Devonian 419 mya, jawed fishes had divided into four distinct clades: the placoderms and spiny sharks, both of which are now extinct, and the cartilaginous and bony fishes, both of which are still extant. The modern bony fishes, class Osteichthyes, appeared in the late Silurian or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago. Both the cartilaginous and bony fishes may have arisen from either the placoderms or the spiny sharks. A subclass of bony fishes, the ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii), have become the dominant group in the post-Paleozoic and modern world, with some 30,000 living species.

text: The Devonian Period is broken into the Early, Middle and Late Devonian. By the start of the Early Devonian 419 mya,

text: jawed fish

text: es had divided into four distinct clades: the

text: placoderm

text: s and

text: spiny shark

text: s, both of which are now extinct, and the

text: cartilaginous

text: and

text: bony fish

text: es, both of which are still extant. The modern bony fishes, class

text: Osteichthyes

text: , appeared in the late

text: Silurian

text: or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago. Both the cartilaginous and bony fishes may have arisen from either the placoderms or the spiny sharks. A subclass of bony fishes, the

text: ray-finned fish

text: es (Actinopterygii), have become the

text: dominant group

text: in the post-Paleozoic and modern world, with some 30,000 living species.

text: Humans in East Asia were consuming large amounts of freshwater fish around 40 000 years ago. Spearfishing with barbed harpoons along the coast was widespread by the Palaeolithic. Fish ponds surrounded Sumerian temples by 2 500 BC and a Chinese classical text credited to the 5th-century BC businessman Fan Li is the earliest known work on fish farming. A surviving fragment of Isidore of Charax's 1st-century Parthian itinerary describes locals freediving for pearls in the Persian Gulf, and Oppian's 2nd-century Halieutics relates the four main Greek and Roman fishing methods as hook-and-line, netting, passive traps, and trident. Traditional fishing boats operate in near-shore waters but, during the late Middle Ages and early Modern period, fishing on the open sea—particularly cod—became important to the economic and naval development of Northern Europe, New England, and Canada. Overfishing along the coasts of the North Sea spurred the development of deep-sea fishers such as the Brixham and otter trawlers, which might serve as motherships for longlining dories; in the 19th century, advances such as rail transport, canning, and refrigeration allowed fishing to become a full-fledged industry. Improvements in sonar during the world wars were adapted as fishfinders and, during the 1950s, great factory ships caught and processed as many fish in an hour as earlier trawlers had in a season. By the 1960s, the North Atlantic and North Pacific fisheries were close to maximal exploitation. After the catch from wild marine fisheries grew from 18 million metric tons (20 million tons) in 1950 to around 85 million metric tons ( million tons) by the late 1980s, it has remained essentially constant since. Chinese economic reform led to massive growth of its fishing production, from 7% of the world total in 1961 to 35% by 2010. Scientific studies of population dynamics and nationalization of formerly shared waters are both helping to cope with overexploitation but the success of modern commercial fishing has required major corrective actions: the collapse of the Grand Banks cod fishery to less than 1% of its historic levels required a complete moratorium by Canada in 1992 and China has enforced a zero-growth policy in its wild catch since 2000, redirecting its industry towards aquaculture; its annual months-long bans on fishing in disputed areas of the South China Sea is enforced over the protest of neighboring states.

text: Humans in

text: East Asia

text: were consuming large amounts of

text: freshwater fish

text: around 40 000 years ago.

text: Spearfishing

text: with barbed

text: harpoon

text: s along the coast was widespread by the

text: Palaeolithic

text: Fish pond

text: s surrounded

text: Sumer

text: ian temples by 2 500 BC and a

text: Chinese classic

text: al text credited to the 5th-century BC businessman

text: Fan Li

text: is the earliest known work on

text: fish farm

text: ing. A surviving fragment of

text: Isidore of Charax

text: 's 1st-century

text: Parthia

text: n itinerary describes locals

text: freediving

text: for

text: pearls

text: in the

text: Persian Gulf

text: , and

text: Oppian

text: 's 2nd-century Halieutics relates the four main Greek and Roman fishing methods as

text: hook

text: -and-

text: line

text: netting

text: passive traps

text: , and

text: trident

text: Traditional fishing boat

text: s operate in near-shore waters but, during the

text: late Middle Ages

text: and

text: early Modern period

text: , fishing on the open sea—particularly

text: cod

text: —became important to the economic and naval development of

text: Northern Europe

text: New England

text: , and Canada.

text: Overfishing

text: along the coasts of the

text: North Sea

text: spurred the development of deep-sea fishers such as the

text: Brixham

text: and

text: otter trawler

text: s, which might serve as

text: mothership

text: s for

text: longlining

text: dories

text: ; in the 19th century, advances such as

text: rail transport

text: canning

text: , and

text: refrigeration

text: allowed fishing to become a full-fledged

text: industry

text: . Improvements in

text: sonar

text: during the

text: world wars

text: were adapted as

text: fishfinder

text: s and, during the 1950s, great

text: factory ship

text: s caught and processed as many fish in an hour as earlier trawlers had in a season. By the 1960s, the

text: North Atlantic

text: and

text: North Pacific fisheries

text: were close to maximal exploitation. After the catch from

text: wild marine fisheries

text: grew from 18 million

text: metric ton

text: s (20 million

text: tons

text: ) in 1950 to around 85 million

text: metric ton

text: s ( million

text: ton

text: s) by the late 1980s, it has remained essentially constant since.

text: Chinese economic reform

text: led to massive growth of its

text: fishing production

text: , from 7% of the world total in 1961 to 35% by 2010. Scientific studies of

text: population dynamics

text: and

text: nationalization

text: of formerly

text: shared waters

text: are both helping to cope with

text: overexploitation

text: but the success of modern

text: commercial fishing

text: has required major corrective actions: the

entity_name: Collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery

text: collapse of the Grand Banks cod fishery

text: to less than 1% of its historic levels required a complete moratorium by Canada in 1992 and China has enforced a zero-growth policy in its wild catch since 2000, redirecting its industry towards

text: aquaculture

text: ; its annual months-long bans on fishing in disputed areas of the

text: South China Sea

text: is enforced over the protest of neighboring states.

text: Proposed superorder Paraneoptera

text: Proposed superorder

text: Paraneoptera

text: The shared trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish is a famous example of symplesiomorphy. Bony fish are more closely related to terrestrial vertebrates, which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: The shared trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish is a famous example of

text: symplesiomorphy

text: . Bony fish are more closely related to

text: terrestrial vertebrates

text: , which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: Most freshwater mussels reproduce by releasing their larvae, called glochidia, into the water, where they are then taken in by fish. The glochidia lodge in the gills or fins of the fish and develop into juvenile mussels encysted in the fish tissue. They then drop off the fish into the substrate. Little is known about how this species transfers its glochidia to fish hosts, but it may occur when the adult female is eaten by the fish. The fish host for this mussel species is the freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens).

text: Most freshwater mussels reproduce by releasing their larvae, called

text: glochidia

text: , into the water, where they are then taken in by fish. The glochidia lodge in the gills or fins of the fish and develop into juvenile mussels encysted in the fish tissue. They then drop off the fish into the substrate. Little is known about how this species transfers its glochidia to fish hosts, but it may occur when the adult female is eaten by the fish. The fish host for this mussel species is the

text: freshwater drum

text: (Aplodinotus grunniens).

text: For a discussion of the various suffixes used for superorders (-florae vs. -anae), see Brummitt 1992, and Thorne 1992. In this latter paper, Thorne sets out his reasons for abandoning -florae for -anae, following contemporary practice.

text: For a discussion of the various

text: suffixes

text: used for

text: superorders

text: (-florae vs. -anae), see Brummitt 1992, and Thorne 1992. In this latter paper, Thorne sets out his reasons for abandoning -florae for -anae, following contemporary practice.

text: Schistura horai is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Schistura.

text: Schistura horai is a species of

text: ray-finned fish

text: in the genus

text: Schistura

text: Reveal and Chase, 2011, divide the Magnoliidae subclass into the following superorders:

text: The skull in fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Jawless fish and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with the upper and lower jaws of cartilaginous fish being separate elements not attached to the skull.Bony fishes have additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish and holost fish. The lower jaw defines a chin.

text: The

text: skull

text: in fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Jawless fish and sharks only possess a cartilaginous

text: endocranium

text: , with the upper and lower jaws of cartilaginous fish being separate elements not attached to the skull.

text: Bony fish

text: es have additional

text: dermal bone

text: , forming a more or less coherent

text: skull roof

text: in

text: lungfish

text: and

text: holost fish

text: . The

text: lower jaw

text: defines a

text: chin

text: The mouth of the fish faces downward and has wide lips that contain papilla. All members of Syndontis have a structure called a premaxillary toothpad, which is located on the very front of the upper jaw of the mouth. This structure contains several rows of short, chisel-shaped teeth. In some species, this toothpad is made up of a large patch with several rows in a large cluster. In other species of Syndontis, this toothpad is clearly divided into two separate groups, separated by a thin band of skin that divides the toothpad. This character is used as a method of differentiating between two different but similar species of Syndontis. In S. polli, the toothpad is interrupted,  with a distinct gap between groups of teeth. On the lower jaw, or mandible, the teeth of Syndontis are attached to flexible, stalk-like structures and described as "s-shaped" or "hooked". The number of teeth on the mandible is used to differentiate between species; in S. polli, there are 40 to 70 teeth on the mandible, arranged in a 6 to 8 rows.

text: papilla

text: Accommodation is the process by which the vertebrate eye adjusts focus on an object as it moves closer or further away. Whereas birds and mammals achieve accommodation by deforming the lens of their eyes, fish and amphibians normally adjust focus by moving the lens closer or further from the retina. They use a special muscle which changes the distance of the lens from the retina. In bony fishes the muscle is called the retractor lentis, and is relaxed for near vision, whereas for cartilaginous fishes the muscle is called the protractor lentis, and is relaxed for far vision. Thus bony fishes accommodate for distance vision by moving the lens further from the retina, while cartilaginous fishes accommodate for near vision by moving the lens closer to the retina.

text: Accommodation

text: is the process by which the vertebrate eye adjusts

text: focus

text: on an object as it moves closer or further away. Whereas birds and mammals achieve accommodation by deforming the lens of their eyes, fish and

text: amphibian

text: s normally adjust

text: focus

text: by moving the lens closer or further from the retina. They use a special muscle which changes the distance of the lens from the retina. In

text: bony fish

text: es the muscle is called the retractor lentis, and is relaxed for near vision, whereas for

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es the muscle is called the protractor lentis, and is relaxed for far vision. Thus bony fishes accommodate for distance vision by moving the lens further from the retina, while cartilaginous fishes accommodate for near vision by moving the lens closer to the retina.

text: Reduced blood flow to the skin layers may result in mottling or uneven, patchy discoloration of the skin

text: Reduced blood flow to the skin layers may result in

text: mottling

text: or uneven, patchy discoloration of the skin

text: The largest specimen of T. marauna measures  long. Like other members of its family, this fish is knife-shaped with a long anal fin extending the length of its body, an electroreceptive appendage on its back, and no dorsal or pelvic fins. The head is long and low, with a rounded snout and a straight dorsal profile. The teeth are elongated and conical, numbering around 15 on the premaxillary bone (at the front of the upper jaw) and around 30 on the dentary bone (the lower jaw). The most distinctive feature of T. marauna is a prominent fleshy (possibly cartilaginous) extension at the tip of the upper jaw, in which approximately 15 slender teeth are loosely embedded. Another, toothless, extension is present at the tip of the lower jaw. T. marauna is mostly light brown to gray-brown.

text: The largest specimen of T. marauna measures  long. Like other members of its family, this fish is knife-shaped with a long

text: anal fin

text: extending the length of its body, an

text: electroreceptive

text: appendage on its back, and no

text: dorsal

text: or

text: pelvic fin

text: s. The head is long and low, with a rounded snout and a straight dorsal profile. The teeth are elongated and conical, numbering around 15 on the

text: premaxillary bone

text: (at the front of the upper jaw) and around 30 on the

text: dentary bone

text: (the lower jaw). The most distinctive feature of T. marauna is a prominent fleshy (possibly

text: cartilaginous

text: ) extension at the tip of the upper jaw, in which approximately 15 slender teeth are loosely embedded. Another, toothless, extension is present at the tip of the lower jaw. T. marauna is mostly light brown to gray-brown.

text: Like most prehistoric cartilaginous fishes, E. kawai is known from a few fragmentary remains, including teeth and a beak. E. kawai provided many new points of knowledge for scientists when it was formally described in 2006.  Firstly, the range of the prehistoric Edaphodon species, and indeed all prehistoric rabbitfish, was thought to be resricted to the Northern Hemisphere.  However, when the fragmental remains of E. kawai were discovered in the Chatham Islands not far from New Zealand, the rabbitfish range was extended. The E. kawai holotype was discovered in the island's Takatiki Grit formation and was dated back to the Late Cretaceous.

text: Like most prehistoric cartilaginous fishes, E. kawai is known from a few fragmentary remains, including teeth and a beak. E. kawai provided many new points of knowledge for scientists when it was formally described in 2006.  Firstly, the range of the prehistoric Edaphodon species, and indeed all prehistoric rabbitfish, was thought to be resricted to the Northern Hemisphere.  However, when the fragmental remains of E. kawai were discovered in the

text: Chatham Islands

text: not far from New Zealand, the rabbitfish range was extended. The E. kawai

text: holotype

text: was discovered in the island's Takatiki Grit formation and was dated back to the Late Cretaceous.

text: The holotype (and only known specimen) of S. caillieti is an immature female collected on September 23, 1995 by Leonard Compagno and Peter Last. It was originally identified tentatively as a Taiwan angelshark (S. formosa), before being described as a new species by Jonathan Walsh, David Ebert, and Leonard Compagno in a 2011 issue of the scientific journal Zootaxa. It was named in honor of ichthyologist Gregor Cailliet, particularly known for his studies of growth and aging in cartilaginous fishes.

text: The

text: holotype

text: (and only known specimen) of S. caillieti is an immature female collected on September 23, 1995 by

text: Leonard Compagno

text: and Peter Last. It was originally identified tentatively as a

text: Taiwan angelshark

text: (S. formosa), before being described as a new species by Jonathan Walsh, David Ebert, and Leonard Compagno in a 2011 issue of the

text: scientific journal

text: Zootaxa

text: . It was named in honor of

text: ichthyologist

text: Gregor Cailliet, particularly known for his studies of growth and aging in

text: cartilaginous fish

text: es.

text: A fan on F is a preordering T with the property that if S is a subgroup of index 2 in F containing T - {0} and not containing −1 then S is an ordering (that is, S is closed under addition).  A superordered field is a totally real field in which the set of sums of squares forms a fan.

text: The cartilaginous fish (e.g., sharks and rays) split from the other fishes about 420 million years ago, and lack both lungs and swim bladders, suggesting that these structures evolved after that split. Correspondingly, these fish also have both heterocercal and pectoral fins  which provide the necessary lift needed due to the lack of swim bladders. Teleost fish with swim bladders have neutral buoyancy, and have no need for this lift.

text: The

text: cartilaginous fish

text: (e.g., sharks and rays) split from the other fishes about 420 million years ago, and lack both lungs and swim bladders, suggesting that these structures evolved after that split. Correspondingly, these fish also have both

text: heterocercal

text: and

text: pectoral fin

text: s  which provide the necessary lift needed due to the lack of swim bladders. Teleost fish with swim bladders have neutral buoyancy, and have no need for this lift.

text: Orthologs of the C15orf52 protein were traced back to cartilaginous fishes. None were found in any multicellular organisms more distant than cartilaginous fishes or unicellular organisms.

text: Orthologs of the C15orf52 protein were traced back to

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: . None were found in any multicellular organisms more distant than cartilaginous fishes or unicellular organisms.

text: Chimaera is the type genus of the cartilaginous fish family Chimaeridae.

text: Chimaera is the

text: type genus

text: of the

text: cartilaginous fish

text: family

text: Chimaeridae

text: Harriotta is a genus of cartilaginous fish in the Rhinochimaeridae family.

text: Harriotta is a

text: genus

text: of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: in the

text: Rhinochimaeridae

text: family.

text: Parexus is an extinct genus of acanthodian fish. Acanthodians are often referred to as ‘spiny sharks’, although acanthodians are not true sharks and evolved perhaps 50 million years earlier than sharks. Acanthodians share several features with bony fish and cartilaginous fish; they often have spines supporting their fins.

text: Parexus is an extinct genus of

text: acanthodian fish

text: . Acanthodians are often referred to as ‘spiny sharks’, although acanthodians are not true sharks and evolved perhaps 50 million years earlier than sharks. Acanthodians share several features with bony fish and cartilaginous fish; they often have spines supporting their fins.

text: Spinnerbaits attract predatory fish primarily by activating a special sense organ called the lateral line system through the spinning blade. The Lateral line system enables fish to "touch" and ‘feel’ objects at a distance. Most fish have well-developed sense of touch and can feel the slightest change of water flow around it as a series of vibrations which may warn fish of approaching dangers or indicate the location of prey.

text: Spinnerbaits attract predatory fish primarily by activating a special sense organ called the

text: lateral line system

text: through the spinning blade. The Lateral line system enables fish to "touch" and ‘feel’ objects at a distance. Most fish have well-developed sense of touch and can feel the slightest change of water flow around it as a series of vibrations which may warn fish of approaching dangers or indicate the location of prey.

text: Petalodus is an extinct genus of cartilaginous fish from the Pennsylvanian to the Permian.

text: Petalodus is an extinct genus of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: from the

text: Pennsylvanian

text: to the

text: Permian

text: Neoselachii are a grouping of cartilaginous fishes in subclass Elasmobranchii of class Chondrichthyes. It contains all living (extant) sharks, skates,  and rays. The first known neoselachian is the Devonian (possible) hexanchiforme Mcmurdodus.

text: Neoselachii are a grouping of cartilaginous fishes in subclass

text: Elasmobranchii

text: of class

text: Chondrichthyes

text: . It contains all living (

text: extant

text: shark

text: s,

text: skates

text: ,  and

text: rays

text: . The first known neoselachian is the

text: Devonian

text: (possible)

text: hexanchiforme

text: Mcmurdodus

text: Orodontidae is an extinct family of cartilaginous fish that lived from the late Pennsylvanian to the early Permian in what is now North America.

text: Orodontidae is an

text: extinct

text: family

text: of

text: cartilaginous fish

text: that lived from the late

text: Pennsylvanian

text: to the early

text: Permian

text: in what is now

text: North America

text: In cartilaginous fishes, the middle portion of the tube develops as a shell gland. The first portion of this gland secretes the egg white, while the lower portion secretes a hard, horny, capsule to protect the developing egg. Below the shell gland is the ovisac, a distended region in which eggs are stored prior to laying. In ovoviviparous species, the egg remains within the ovisac until it hatches. Some cartilaginous fishes, however, are truly viviparous, giving birth to live young, and producing no egg shell. In these forms, the ovisac nurtures the developing embryo, often with the aid of vascular outgrowths similar to, but much simpler than, the mammalian placenta.

text: In cartilaginous fishes, the middle portion of the tube develops as a

text: shell gland

text: . The first portion of this gland secretes the

text: egg white

text: , while the lower portion secretes a hard, horny, capsule to protect the developing egg. Below the shell gland is the ovisac, a distended region in which eggs are stored prior to laying. In

text: ovoviviparous

text: species, the egg remains within the ovisac until it hatches. Some cartilaginous fishes, however, are truly

text: viviparous

text: , giving birth to live young, and producing no egg shell. In these forms, the ovisac nurtures the developing embryo, often with the aid of vascular outgrowths similar to, but much simpler than, the mammalian

text: placenta

text: The smooth butterfly ray (Gymnura micrura) is a species of cartilaginous fish in the Gymnuridae family. It is a member of the Order Myliobatiformes, which contains 10 total families. Its natural habitats are shallow seas, subtidal aquatic beds, estuarine waters, and coastal saline lagoons. Its common name is derived from its compressed body, pectoral fins that are wider than their length, and overall diamond shape.

text: The smooth butterfly ray (Gymnura micrura) is a species of

text: cartilaginous

text: fish

text: in the

text: Gymnuridae

text: family. It is a member of the Order

text: Myliobatiformes

text: , which contains 10 total families. Its natural

text: habitat

text: s are shallow

text: sea

text: s, subtidal aquatic beds,

text: estuarine

text: waters, and coastal saline

text: lagoon

text: s. Its common name is derived from its compressed body, pectoral fins that are wider than their length, and overall diamond shape.

text: Superorder: Bryanae

text: Superorder: Bryanae

text: :Not to be confused with KahawaiEdaphodon kawai was a prehistoric chimaeriform fish species belonging to the genus Edaphodon, of which all the species are now extinct.  Edaphodon kawai was a type of rabbitfish, a cartilaginous fish related to sharks and rays, and indeed, some rabbitfishes are still alive today. E. kawai is one of numerous Edaphodon species, but is the only one which has been discovered in the Southern Hemisphere, near New Zealand.  Indeed, only a handful of other Chimaeroformes have been discovered in the Southern Hemisphere. They first appeared during the Devonian period around 415 to 360 million years ago, but the only known specimen of E. kawai has been dated to the Late Cretaceous at the height of the rabbitfish's reign. Its scientific name, kawai, means "fish" in the language of the Moriori, a Pacific tribe who inhabited the islands.

text: :Not to be confused with

text: Kahawai

text: Edaphodon kawai was a prehistoric

text: chimaeriform

text: fish

text: species

text: belonging to the

text: genus

text: Edaphodon

text: , of which all the species are now extinct.  Edaphodon kawai was a type of rabbitfish, a

text: cartilaginous fish

text: related to

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: , and indeed, some rabbitfishes are still alive today. E. kawai is one of numerous Edaphodon species, but is the only one which has been discovered in the Southern Hemisphere, near

text: New Zealand

text: .  Indeed, only a handful of other Chimaeroformes have been discovered in the Southern Hemisphere. They first appeared during the

text: Devonian

text: period around 415 to 360 million years ago, but the only known specimen of E. kawai has been dated to the Late

text: Cretaceous

text: at the height of the rabbitfish's reign. Its scientific name, kawai, means "fish" in the language of the

text: Moriori

text: , a

text: Pacific

text: tribe who inhabited the islands.

text: E. H. Carr in his 1961 volume What is History? argues that the inherent biases from the gathering of facts makes the objective truth of any historical perspective idealistic and impossible. Facts are, "like fish in the Ocean," of which we may only happen to catch a few, only an indication of what is below the surface. Even a dragnet cannot tell us for certain what it would be like to live below the Ocean's surface. Even if we do not discard any facts (or fish) presented, we will always miss the majority; the site of our fishing, the methods undertaken, the weather and even luck play a vital role in what we will catch. Additionally, the composition of history is inevitably made up by the compilation of many different biases of fact finding - all compounded over time. He concludes that for a historian to attempt a more objective method, one must accept that history can only aspire to a conversation of the present with the past - and that one's methods of fact gathering should be openly examined.  Historical truth and facts therefore change over time, and reflect only the present consensus (if that).

text: E. H. Carr

text: in his 1961 volume

text: What is History?

text: argues that the inherent biases from the gathering of facts makes the objective truth of any historical

text: perspective

text: idealistic

text: and impossible. Facts are, "like fish in the Ocean," of which we may only happen to catch a few, only an indication of what is below the surface. Even a dragnet cannot tell us for certain what it would be like to live below the Ocean's surface. Even if we do not discard any facts (or fish) presented, we will always miss the majority; the site of our fishing, the methods undertaken, the weather and even luck play a vital role in what we will catch. Additionally, the composition of history is inevitably made up by the compilation of many different biases of fact finding - all compounded over time. He concludes that for a historian to attempt a more objective method, one must accept that history can only aspire to a conversation of the present with the past - and that one's methods of fact gathering should be openly examined.  Historical truth and facts therefore change over time, and reflect only the present consensus (if that).

text: 10 superorders

text: 10 superorders

text: Cartilaginous fishes, class Chondrichthyes, consisting of sharks, rays and chimaeras, appeared by about 395 million years ago, in the middle Devonian, evolving from acanthodians. The class contains the sub classes Holocephali (chimaera) and Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays). The radiation of elasmobranches in the chart on the right is divided into the taxa: Cladoselache, Eugeneodontiformes, Symmoriida, Xenacanthiformes, Ctenacanthiformes, Hybodontiformes, Galeomorphi, Squaliformes and Batoidea.

text: Cartilaginous fishes, class

text: Chondrichthyes

text: , consisting of

text: shark

text: s,

text: rays

text: and

text: chimaera

text: s, appeared by about 395 million years ago, in the middle

text: Devonian

text: , evolving from acanthodians. The class contains the sub classes

text: Holocephali

text: chimaera

text: ) and

text: Elasmobranchii

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: ). The radiation of elasmobranches in the chart on the right is divided into the taxa:

text: Cladoselache

text: Eugeneodontiformes

text: Symmoriida

text: Xenacanthiformes

text: Ctenacanthiformes

text: Hybodontiformes

text: Galeomorphi

text: Squaliformes

text: and

text: Batoidea

text: To compensate for the loss of hemoglobin, they have larger blood vessels (including capillaries), greater blood volumes (four times that of other fish), bigger hearts, and greater cardiac outputs (fivefold greater) compared to other fish. Their hearts lack coronary arteries, and the ventricle muscles are very spongy, enabling them to absorb oxygen directly from the blood they pump. Their hearts, large blood vessels and low-viscosity (RBC free) blood are specialized to carry out very high flow rates at low pressures. This helps to reduce the problems caused by the lack of hemoglobin. In the past, their scaleless skin had been widely thought to help absorb oxygen. However, current analysis has shown that the amount of oxygen absorbed by the skin is much less than that absorbed through the gills. The little extra oxygen absorbed by the skin may play a part in supplementing the oxygen supply to the heart which receives venous blood from the skin and body before pumping it to the gills.

text: To compensate for the loss of hemoglobin, they have larger blood vessels (including

text: capillaries

text: ), greater blood volumes (four times that of other fish), bigger hearts, and greater cardiac outputs (fivefold greater) compared to other fish. Their hearts lack

text: coronary arteries

text: , and the ventricle muscles are very spongy, enabling them to absorb oxygen directly from the blood they pump. Their hearts, large blood vessels and low-viscosity (RBC free) blood are specialized to carry out very high flow rates at low pressures. This helps to reduce the problems caused by the lack of hemoglobin. In the past, their scaleless skin had been widely thought to help absorb oxygen. However, current analysis has shown that the amount of oxygen absorbed by the skin is much less than that absorbed through the gills. The little extra oxygen absorbed by the skin may play a part in supplementing the oxygen supply to the heart which receives venous blood from the skin and body before pumping it to the gills.

text: While the internal subdivision of this superorder is subject to much dispute and far from resolved, at least the coarser divisions seem to be fairly stable by now. Six orders are generally recognized, as well as two families incertae sedis and a further "family" that is almost certainly not monophyletic. Ordered from the most ancestral to the most advanced, these are:

text: While the internal subdivision of this superorder is subject to much dispute and far from resolved, at least the coarser divisions seem to be fairly stable by now. Six orders are generally recognized, as well as two

text: families

text: incertae sedis

text: and a further "family" that is almost certainly not monophyletic. Ordered from the most ancestral to the most advanced, these are:

text: The banded sunfish feeds upon aquatic insects, microcrustaceans, and small fish.

text: The outer body of many fish is covered with scales, which are part of the fish's integumentary system. The scales originate from the mesoderm (skin), and may be similar in structure to teeth. Some species are covered instead by scutes. Others have no outer covering on the skin. Most fish are covered in a protective layer of slime (mucus).

text: The outer body of many fish is covered with

text: scale

text: s, which are part of the fish's

text: integumentary system

text: . The scales originate from the mesoderm (skin), and may be similar in structure to teeth. Some species are covered instead by

text: scute

text: s. Others have no outer covering on the skin. Most fish are covered in a protective layer of slime (mucus).

text: This list of fossil fishes described in 2017 is a list of new taxa of jawless vertebrates, placoderms, acanthodians, fossil cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes and other fishes of every kind that are scheduled to be described during the year 2017, as well as other significant discoveries and events related to paleontology of fishes that are scheduled to occur in the year 2017. The list only includes taxa at the level of genus or species.

text: This list of

text: fossil

text: fishes

text: described in 2017 is a list of new

text: taxa

text: of

text: jawless vertebrates

text: placoderm

text: s,

text: acanthodians

text: , fossil

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: bony fishes

text: and other fishes of every kind that are scheduled to be

text: described

text: during the year 2017, as well as other significant discoveries and events related to

text: paleontology

text: of fishes that are scheduled to occur in the year 2017. The list only includes taxa at the level of

text: genus

text: or

text: species

text: Chemical alarm systems have been identified in a number of different taxa, including gastropods, echinoderms, amphibians and fishes.  One of the most well-studied chemical alarm signals is schreckstoff, the use of which is widespread in the superorder Ostariophysi (e.g., minnows, characins, catfishes, etc.).  About 64% of all freshwater fish species and 27% of all fish species worldwide are found in the ostariophysan superorder, which highlights the widespread use and importance of this chemical alarm system in fishes.

text: Chemical alarm systems have been identified in a number of different taxa, including

text: gastropods

text: echinoderms

text: amphibians

text: and

text: fishes

text: .  One of the most well-studied chemical alarm signals is schreckstoff, the use of which is widespread in the superorder

text: Ostariophysi

text: (e.g.,

text: minnows

text: characins

text: catfishes

text: , etc.).  About 64% of all freshwater fish species and 27% of all fish species worldwide are found in the ostariophysan superorder, which highlights the widespread use and importance of this chemical alarm system in fishes.

text: This list of fossil fishes described in 2015 is a list of new taxa of jawless vertebrates, placoderms, acanthodians, fossil cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes and other fishes of every kind that have been described during the year 2015, as well as other significant discoveries and events related to paleontology of fishes that occurred in the year 2015. The list only includes taxa at the level of genus or species.

text: This list of

text: fossil

text: fishes

text: described in 2015 is a list of new

text: taxa

text: of

text: jawless vertebrates

text: placoderm

text: s,

text: acanthodians

text: , fossil

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: bony fishes

text: described

text: during the year 2015, as well as other significant discoveries and events related to

text: paleontology

text: of fishes that occurred in the year 2015. The list only includes taxa at the level of

text: genus

text: or

text: species

text: The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae. They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae  must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae.

text: The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called

text: larva

text: e. They are usually poorly formed, carry a large

text: yolk sac

text: (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed

text: metamorphosis

text: ) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae  must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on

text: zooplankton

text: prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae.

text: Eostegostoma is an extinct genus of prehistoric cartilaginous fish from the Eocene period of Belgium.

text: Eostegostoma is an extinct genus of prehistoric

text: cartilaginous fish

text: from the

text: Eocene

text: period of

text: Belgium

text: The spinal column of M. mola contains fewer vertebrae and is shorter in relation to the body than that of any other fish.Although the sunfish descended from bony ancestors, its skeleton contains largely cartilaginous tissues, which are lighter than bone, allowing it to grow to sizes impractical for other bony fishes. Its teeth are fused into a beak-like structure, and pharyngeal teeth located in the throat.

text: The spinal column of M. mola contains fewer

text: vertebra

text: e and is shorter in relation to the body than that of any other fish.Although the sunfish descended from

text: bony ancestors

text: , its skeleton contains largely

text: cartilaginous

text: tissues, which are lighter than

text: bone

text: , allowing it to grow to sizes impractical for other bony fishes. Its teeth are fused into a beak-like structure, and

text: pharyngeal teeth

text: located in the throat.

text: Spicara maena, the blotched picarel, is a species of ray-finned fish native to the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. The male grows to a maximum length of about , and the female reaches . This fish is fished commercially in some areas.

text: Spicara maena, the blotched picarel, is a

text: species

text: of

text: ray-finned fish

text: native to the eastern

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: and the

text: Black Sea

text: . The male grows to a maximum length of about , and the female reaches . This fish is fished commercially in some areas.

text: Superorder Endopterygota

text: Superorder

text: Endopterygota

text: Fish scales are part of the fish's integumentary system, and are produced from the mesoderm layer of the dermis, which distinguishes them from reptile scales.  The same genes involved in tooth and hair development in mammals are also involved in scale development. The placoid scales of cartilaginous fishes are also called dermal denticles and are structurally homologous with vertebrate teeth. It has been suggested that the scales of bony fishes are similar in structure to teeth, but they probably originate from different tissue. Most fish are also covered in a protective layer of mucus (slime).

text: Fish scales are part of the fish's

text: integumentary system

text: , and are produced from the

text: mesoderm

text: layer of the

text: dermis

text: , which distinguishes them from

text: reptile scale

text: s.  The same

text: gene

text: s involved in tooth and hair development in

text: mammal

text: s are also involved in scale development. The placoid scales of cartilaginous fishes are also called dermal denticles and are structurally homologous with vertebrate teeth. It has been suggested that the scales of bony fishes are similar in structure to teeth, but they probably originate from different tissue. Most fish are also covered in a protective layer of

text: mucus

text: (slime).

text: Together with their relatives, the Stomiiformes, the jellynoses are often placed in the teleost superorder Stenopterygii. Whether it is indeed justified to accept such a small group is doubtful; it may well be that the closest living relatives of the "Stenopterygii" are found among the superorder Protacanthopterygii, and that the former would need to be merged in the latter. In some classifications, the "Stenopterygii" are kept separate but included with the Protacanthopterygii and the monotypic superorder Cyclosquamata in an unranked clade called Euteleostei. That would probably require splitting two additional monotypic superorders out of the Protacanthopterygii, and is probably not ideal due to the profusion of very small taxa it would create. In fact, in some treatments, the jellynose fishes are even placed in yet another monotypic superorder, the Ateleopodomorpha.

text: Together with their relatives, the

text: Stomiiformes

text: , the jellynoses are often placed in the

text: teleost

text: superorder

text: Stenopterygii

text: . Whether it is indeed justified to accept such a small group is doubtful; it may well be that the closest living relatives of the "Stenopterygii" are found among the superorder Protacanthopterygii, and that the former would need to be merged in the latter. In some classifications, the "Stenopterygii" are kept separate but included with the Protacanthopterygii and the

text: monotypic

text: superorder

text: Cyclosquamata

text: in an unranked

text: clade

text: called Euteleostei. That would probably require splitting two additional monotypic superorders out of the Protacanthopterygii, and is probably not ideal due to the profusion of very small

text: taxa

text: it would create. In fact, in some treatments, the jellynose fishes are even placed in yet another monotypic superorder, the Ateleopodomorpha.

text: In cartilaginous fish, such as sharks, the vertebrae consist of two cartilaginous tubes. The upper tube is formed from the vertebral arches, but also includes additional cartilaginous structures filling in the gaps between the vertebrae, and so enclosing the spinal cord in an essentially continuous sheath. The lower tube surrounds the notochord, and has a complex structure, often including multiple layers of calcification.

text: In

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , such as

text: shark

text: s, the vertebrae consist of two cartilaginous tubes. The upper tube is formed from the vertebral arches, but also includes additional cartilaginous structures filling in the gaps between the vertebrae, and so enclosing the spinal cord in an essentially continuous sheath. The lower tube surrounds the notochord, and has a complex structure, often including multiple layers of

text: calcification

text: Placoid scales are found on cartilaginous fish including sharks.  These scales, also called denticles, are similar in structure to teeth, and have one median spine and two lateral spines.

text: Placoid scale

text: s are found on

text: cartilaginous fish

text: including

text: shark

text: s.  These scales, also called denticles, are similar in structure to

text: teeth

text: , and have one median spine and two lateral spines.

text: The Archonta are a group of mammals, considered a superorder in some classifications, which consists of the following orders:

text: The Archonta are a group of mammals, considered a

text: superorder

text: in some classifications, which consists of the following orders:

text: The skin has a huge capacity to accept blood flow resulting in a range of 1ml/100g of skin/min, to 150ml/100g/min. Its metabolic requirements are very low and hence it only requires a very small fraction of the heart's output to maintain its own growth and metabolism. In temperate environments the blood flow to the skin is much higher than required for metabolism, the determining factor is the need for the body to get rid of its heat. In fact, skin can survive for long periods of time (hours) with sub-physiological blood flow and oxygenation, and, as long as this is followed by a period of good perfusion, necrosis will not occur.

text: The following is the full list of the extant species in Class Chondrichthyes, or the cartilaginous fish. Members of this class have a backbone, gills, no swim bladder, jaws, and a skeleton made of cartilage, a soft, strong material as a replacement for bone.

text: The following is the full list of the extant

text: species

text: in Class

text: Chondrichthyes

text: , or the

text: cartilaginous fish

text: . Members of this

text: class

text: have a

text: backbone

text: gills

text: , no

text: swim bladder

text: jaw

text: s, and a

text: skeleton

text: made of

text: cartilage

text: , a soft, strong material as a replacement for

text: bone

text: B. H. Fisher -Bag limits -Bait Act -Bait fish -Bamboo fly rod -Bangladesh Marine Fisheries Academy -Bank fishing -Banks dory -Basa fish -Basnig -Bass Anglers Sportsman Society -Bass boat -Bass Festival -Bass fishing -Bassmaster Classic -Bay mud -Bayou La Batre, Alabama -Beach casting -Bennett Spring State Park -Benthic zone -Benthos -Bering Sea Arbitration -Best Angler ESPY Award -Bibliography of fly fishing -Big Hole River -Big-game fishing -Billingsgate Fish Market -Bioeconomics -Bioluminescence -Biomass (ecology) -Bite alarm -Blast fishing -Blast fishing -Blue cod -Blue grenadier -Blue mussel -Bluefish -Bobs Farm, New South Wales -Boilie -Bombarda -Bonefish -Bottom feeder -Bottom fishing -Bottom trawling -Bowfishing -Braided fishing line -Brixham -Broodstock -Brook trout -Brown trout -Bruno Hofer -Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (Philippines) -Busan Cooperative Fish Market -Büsum -By-catch

text: B. H. Fisher

text: Bag limits

text: Bait Act

text: Bait fish

text: Bamboo fly rod

text: Bangladesh Marine Fisheries Academy

text: Bank fishing

text: Banks dory

text: Basa fish

text: Basnig

text: Bass Anglers Sportsman Society

text: Bass boat

text: Bass Festival

text: Bass fishing

text: Bassmaster Classic

text: Bay mud

text: Bayou La Batre, Alabama

text: Beach casting

text: Bennett Spring State Park

text: Benthic zone

text: Benthos

text: Bering Sea Arbitration

text: Best Angler ESPY Award

text: Bibliography of fly fishing

text: Big Hole River

text: Big-game fishing

text: Billingsgate Fish Market

text: Bioeconomics

text: Bioluminescence

text: Biomass (ecology)

text: Bite alarm

text: Blast fishing

text: Blast fishing

text: Blue cod

text: Blue grenadier

text: Blue mussel

text: Bluefish

text: Bobs Farm, New South Wales

text: Boilie

text: Bombarda

text: Bonefish

text: Bottom feeder

text: Bottom fishing

text: Bottom trawling

text: Bowfishing

text: Braided fishing line

text: Brixham

text: Broodstock

text: Brook trout

text: Brown trout

text: Bruno Hofer

entity_name: Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

text: Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (Philippines)

text: Busan Cooperative Fish Market

text: Büsum

text: By-catch

text: “some of the liquid injected form[ed] a pocket below the injection site. This will be under maximum pressure towards the end of the injection process, before sufficient dispersion into surrounding tissues has occurred to release pressure. This will coincide with a lessening of pressure from the injector. When the pressure from the injector is exceeded by the back-pressure from the tissue pocket, backflow through the pathway in the skin created by the injector could occur. This liquid will contain blood from the destruction of small blood vessels during the injection process and can have different pathways after it has emerged from the skin according to the type of injector. Injectors that have direct skin contact will form a continuous fluid pathway between the skin and injector. As the outward pressure from the injector dies away at the end of an injection, back-pressure from the fluid in the tissue pocket will cause blackflow out of the skin to inside the injector’s fluid pathway.”

text: Menaspis is an extinct genus of holocephalian cartilaginous fish from the Permian.

text: Menaspis is an

text: extinct

text: genus

text: of

text: holocephali

text: an

text: cartilaginous fish

text: from the

text: Permian

text: In the wild, an adult Komodo dragon usually weighs around , although captive specimens often weigh more. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, an average adult male will weigh  and measure , while an average female will weigh  and measure . The largest verified wild specimen was  long and weighed , including undigested food. The Komodo dragon has a tail as long as its body, as well as about 60 frequently replaced, serrated teeth that can measure up to  in length. Its saliva is frequently blood-tinged, because its teeth are almost completely covered by gingival tissue that is naturally lacerated during feeding.  It also has a long, yellow, deeply forked tongue. Komodo dragon skin is reinforced by armoured scales, which contain tiny bones called osteoderms that function as a sort of natural chain-mail. This rugged hide makes Komodo dragon skin poorly suited for making into leather.

text: In the wild, an adult Komodo dragon usually weighs around , although captive specimens often weigh more. According to the

text: Guinness Book of World Records

text: , an average adult male will weigh  and measure , while an average female will weigh  and measure . The largest verified wild specimen was  long and weighed , including undigested food. The Komodo dragon has a tail as long as its body, as well as about 60 frequently replaced, serrated teeth that can measure up to  in length. Its saliva is frequently blood-tinged, because its teeth are almost completely covered by

text: gingival tissue

text: that is naturally lacerated during feeding.  It also has a long, yellow, deeply forked tongue. Komodo dragon skin is reinforced by armoured scales, which contain tiny bones called

text: osteoderm

text: s that function as a sort of natural chain-mail. This rugged hide makes Komodo dragon skin poorly suited for making into

text: leather

text: Sturgeon are comparatively basal species of fish, whose earliest fossils date back to the Cretaceous period.  They are best known members of the bony fish taxon Chondrostei, a group of bony fishes that have cartilaginous skeletons superficially similar to the skeletons seen in the unrelated chondrichthyan fishes. In Qing Dynasty Chinese cuisine, its meat and cartilaginous skeleton was often cooked and served together, and considered a delicacy.

text: Sturgeon

text: are comparatively basal species of fish, whose earliest fossils date back to the

text: Cretaceous

text: period.  They are best known members of the bony fish taxon

text: Chondrostei

text: , a group of bony fishes that have cartilaginous skeletons superficially similar to the skeletons seen in the unrelated

text: chondrichthyan fishes

text: . In

text: Qing Dynasty

text: Chinese cuisine

text: , its meat and cartilaginous skeleton was often cooked and served together, and considered a delicacy.

text: A blood blister usually forms when a minute blood vessel close to the surface of the skin ruptures (breaks), and blood leaks into a tear between the layers of skin. This can happen if the skin is crushed, pinched or aggressively squeezed.

text: A

text: blood blister

text: usually forms when a minute

text: blood vessel

text: close to the surface of the skin ruptures (breaks), and blood leaks into a tear between the layers of skin. This can happen if the skin is crushed, pinched or aggressively squeezed.

text: The pelvic fins are only slightly overlapped by the disc; each is long, wide, and roughly triangular, with trailing margins that are more concave in males than in females. The tail is stout and much shorter than the disc. Unique amongst electric rays, there are no dorsal fins. The tail terminates in a fairly large, triangular caudal fin about as long as wide, with rounded corners. The skin entirely lacks dermal denticles. This species is plain light brown dorsally, sometimes with darker markings and whitish spots, and pale ventrally, with broad darker margins on the pectoral and pelvic fins. Possibly the smallest cartilaginous fish, the smallest known adult finless sleeper ray measured only  long and weighed . Few individuals exceed  and the maximum length is thought to be , though there is a dubious old record of a specimen  long.

text: The

text: pelvic fin

text: s are only slightly overlapped by the disc; each is long, wide, and roughly triangular, with trailing margins that are more concave in males than in females. The tail is stout and much shorter than the disc. Unique amongst electric rays, there are no

text: dorsal fin

text: s. The tail terminates in a fairly large, triangular

text: caudal fin

text: about as long as wide, with rounded corners. The skin entirely lacks

text: dermal denticle

text: s. This species is plain light brown dorsally, sometimes with darker markings and whitish spots, and pale ventrally, with broad darker margins on the pectoral and pelvic fins. Possibly the smallest

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , the smallest known adult finless sleeper ray measured only  long and weighed . Few individuals exceed  and the maximum length is thought to be , though there is a dubious old record of a specimen  long.

text: The fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the true fruit: five cartilaginous carpels, known colloquially as the "core". From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five petals, and the very numerous stamens.

text: The fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the flower-stalk (the so-called

text: calyx

text: tube) greatly dilated. Enclosed within its cellular flesh is the true fruit: five

text: cartilaginous

text: carpels

text: , known colloquially as the "core". From the upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five

text: sepal

text: s, the five

text: petal

text: s, and the very numerous

text: stamen

text: s.

text: Cartilaginous fish have a cartilaginous skeleton. However, their ancestors were bony animals, and were the first fish to develop paired fins. Cartilaginous fish don't have swim bladders. Their skin is covered in placoid scales (dermal denticles) that are as rough as sandpaper. Because cartilaginous fish do not have bone marrow, the spleen and special tissue around the gonads produces red blood cells. Their tails can be asymmetric, with the upper lobe longer than the lower lobe. Some cartilaginous fishes possess an organ called Leydig's Organ which also produces red blood cells.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: have a

text: cartilaginous

text: skeleton. However, their ancestors were bony animals, and were the first fish to develop paired fins. Cartilaginous fish don't have

text: swim bladder

text: s. Their skin is covered in

text: placoid scale

text: s (dermal denticles) that are as rough as

text: sandpaper

text: . Because cartilaginous fish do not have bone

text: marrow

text: , the

text: spleen

text: and special tissue around the

text: gonad

text: s produces

text: red blood cell

text: s. Their tails can be asymmetric, with the upper

text: lobe

text: longer than the lower lobe. Some cartilaginous fishes possess an organ called

text: Leydig's Organ

text: which also produces red blood cells.

text: The nervous system of cephalopods is the most complex of all the invertebrates and their brain-to-body-mass ratio falls between that of endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates. The brain is protected in a cartilaginous cranium.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: of cephalopods is the most complex of all the invertebrates and their brain-to-body-mass ratio falls between that of

text: endotherm

text: ic and

text: ectotherm

text: ic vertebrates. The brain is protected in a

text: cartilaginous

text: cranium.

text: The scales of fish originate from the mesoderm (skin); they may be similar in structure to teeth.

text: The most distant homolog detectable is in cartilaginous fish (462.5 MYA).

text: Petalodontiformes ("thin-plate teeth") is an extinct order of marine cartilaginous fish related to modern day chimaera found in what is now the United States of America and Europe.  With a very few exceptions, they are known entirely from teeth.  All fossils range from the Carboniferous to the Permian, where they are presumed to have died out during the Permian/Triassic extinction event.

text: Petalodontiformes ("thin-plate teeth") is an extinct

text: order

text: of marine

text: cartilaginous fish

text: related to modern day

text: chimaera

text: found in what is now the

text: United States of America

text: and

text: Europe

text: .  With a very few exceptions, they are known entirely from teeth.  All fossils range from the

text: Carboniferous

text: to the

text: Permian

text: , where they are presumed to have died out during the Permian/Triassic extinction event.

text: The Albanians, dwelling in provinces controlled by the Ottoman Empire, objected to what they considered a significant loss of their territory to Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro and realized they would have to organize nationally to attract the assistance of foreign powers seeking to neutralize Russia's influence in the region. The implications of the treaty led to the formation of the League of Prizren.

text: The

text: Albania

text: ns, dwelling in provinces controlled by the Ottoman Empire, objected to what they considered a significant loss of their territory to Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro and realized they would have to organize nationally to attract the assistance of foreign powers seeking to neutralize Russia's influence in the region. The implications of the treaty led to the formation of the

text: League of Prizren

text: The magazine was established by Arkajit Mandal and Siddharth Sivakumar. The idea of Tinpahar was developed from Resonance, a magazine edited by Siddharth and published by Patha Bhavana and Visva Bharati. It was launched on 14 September 2012.

text: The magazine was established by Arkajit Mandal and

text: Siddharth Sivakumar

text: . The idea of Tinpahar was developed from Resonance, a magazine edited by Siddharth and published by

text: Patha Bhavana

text: and

text: Visva Bharati

text: . It was launched on 14 September 2012.

text: Secretary - Theresa Maher,  Jobing.com

text: Secretary - Theresa Maher,  Jobing.com

text: As in most vertebrates, fish jaws are bony or cartilaginous and oppose vertically, comprising an upper jaw and a lower jaw. The jaw is derived from the most anterior two pharyngeal arches supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous teeth. The skull of the last common ancestor of today's jawed vertebrates is assumed to have resembled sharks.

text: As in most

text: vertebrate

text: s, fish jaws are

text: bony

text: or

text: cartilaginous

text: and oppose vertically, comprising an upper jaw and a lower jaw. The jaw is derived from the most anterior two

text: pharyngeal arch

text: es supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous

text: teeth

text: . The skull of the last common ancestor of today's jawed vertebrates is assumed to have resembled sharks.

text: SEC22B has been shown to interact with syntaxin 18.

text: Edmonton's draft picks at the 1986 NHL Entry Draft

text: Edmonton's draft picks at the

text: 1986 NHL Entry Draft

text: The simpler structure is found in jawless fish, in which the cranium is normally represented by a trough-like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.

text: The simpler structure is found in

text: jawless fish

text: , in which the cranium is normally represented by a trough-like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.

text: Throughout "A Fish Called Selma", it is hinted that Troy engages in strange sexual activity. The writers initially did not know what the "unsavory" sexual preference would be, but eventually decided on a fish fetish, a suggestion from executive producer James L. Brooks, since it was "so perverted and strange, that it was over the top". At the episode's table reading, a female staff member demanded the line, "from now on she's smoking for two", be removed from the script; however, her request was denied. On the walls of the Pimento Grove restaurant, the animators placed caricatures of every single guest star who had appeared on the show up to that point, as well as pictures of the fictional celebrities of the show.

text: Throughout "A Fish Called Selma", it is hinted that Troy engages in strange sexual activity. The writers initially did not know what the "unsavory" sexual preference would be, but eventually decided on a fish fetish, a suggestion from executive producer

text: James L. Brooks

text: , since it was "so perverted and strange, that it was over the top". At the episode's

text: table reading

text: , a female staff member demanded the line, "from now on she's smoking for two", be removed from the script; however, her request was denied. On the walls of the Pimento Grove restaurant, the animators placed caricatures of every single guest star who had appeared on the show up to that point, as well as pictures of the fictional celebrities of the show.