text: The development of a 700°C steam power plant to operate on coal in combination with biomass will enable a reduction of CO2 emission of around 40% compared with the most advanced USC power plants operating today. This will bring the emissions from a combined coal-biomass fired 700°C power plant close to the figures of gas-fired combined cycle plants. The 700°C steam power plant offers a flexible technology with minimized CO2-emission based on coal - the most reliable energy source in the world. Further, it gives the demanded production flexibility in order to stabilize a grid with a high amount of unpredictable renewable energy input. The technical realization of a 700°C steam power plant depends on a successful development and qualification of advanced ferritic, austenitic and Ni- based alloys. With respect to austenitic and Ni-based alloys, promising results have been achieved. The economic criterion for the realization of a 700°C steam power plant is a realistic budget price. The consumption of large quantities of expensive Ni -based alloys has significant influence in this respect, and a successful development of an improved ferritic steel to be used at temperatures up to 650°C would improve the situation.

text: The Economic Development program also coordinates with the Renewable Energy program to provide solar and clean energy financial modeling for businesses looking for economic returns on renewable energy projects. The N.C. Solar Center’s dashboard allows customers to model inputs including ownership structures, tax incentives, grants, depreciation, electricity prices, and project costs.

text: The Economic Development program also coordinates with the Renewable Energy program to provide solar and clean energy

entity_name: Financial modeling

text: financial modeling

text: for businesses looking for economic returns on renewable energy projects. The N.C. Solar Center’s dashboard allows customers to model inputs including ownership structures,

entity_name: Tax incentive

text: tax incentives

text: , grants,

entity_name: Depreciation

text: depreciation

text: , electricity prices, and project costs.

text: As with other forms of economic activity, hydropower projects can have both a positive and a negative environmental and social impact, because the construction of a dam and power plant, along with the impounding of a reservoir, creates certain social and physical changes.

text: Two privately owned hydro powered power plants, the Sol Plaatje and Merino, were commissioned in 2009 and 2012 respectively, and supply a total of 7 MW to the power grid. The automated and low maintenance Stortemelk Hydropower Project at the Botterkloof Dam is set to contribute a further 4.4 MW to the power grid, starting July 2016.

text: Two privately owned hydro powered power plants, the

entity_name: Bethlehem Hydro

text: Sol Plaatje and Merino

text: , were commissioned in 2009 and 2012 respectively, and supply a total of 7

entity_name: Watt

text: MW

text: to the power grid. The automated and low maintenance Stortemelk Hydropower Project at the Botterkloof Dam is set to contribute a further 4.4 MW to the power grid, starting July 2016.

text: Wind power is growing at the rate of 17% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 432,883 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2015, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 18% in Portugal, 16% in Spain, 14% in Ireland and 9% in Germany in 2010. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis. In 2013 wind generated almost 3% of the worlds total electricity.

text: Wind power is growing at the rate of 17% annually, with a worldwide

entity_name: Wind power by country

text: installed capacity

text: of 432,883 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2015, and is widely used in

entity_name: Wind power in the European Union

text: Europe

entity_name: Wind power in China

text: Asia

text: , and the

entity_name: Wind power in the United States

text: United States

text: . Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in

entity_name: Wind power in Denmark

text: Denmark

text: , 18% in

entity_name: Wind power in Portugal

text: Portugal

text: , 16% in

entity_name: Wind power in Spain

text: Spain

text: , 14% in

entity_name: Wind power in the Republic of Ireland

text: Ireland

text: and 9% in

entity_name: Wind power in Germany

text: Germany

text: in 2010. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis. In 2013 wind generated almost 3% of the worlds total electricity.

text: Renewable energy is energy that comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables. During the five years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60 percent annually for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years. More wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology. However, grid-connected photovoltaics increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60 percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period.

text: Renewable energy is

entity_name: Energy

text: energy

text: that comes from

entity_name: Natural resource

text: natural resource

text: s such as

entity_name: Sunlight

text: sunlight

entity_name: Wind

text: wind

entity_name: Rain

text: rain

entity_name: Tidal power

text: tides

text: , and

entity_name: Geothermal energy

text: geothermal heat

text: , which are

entity_name: Renewable resource

text: renewable

text: (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables. During the five years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60 percent annually for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years. More wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology. However, grid-connected

entity_name: Photovoltaics

text: photovoltaics

text: increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60 percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period.

method: UNH-qee

text: Nowadays, a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is referred to as wind power density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at 50 meters." The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 120.8 gigawatts. Although wind produced only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use in 2009, it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration, accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 10% in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70% wind is attainable at today's power prices by linking wind farms with an HVDC supergrid.Wind power has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. In 2011 wind energy was also used to power the longest journey in a wind powered car which travelled a distance of 5,000 km (3,100 miles) from Perth to Melbourne in Australia.

text: Nowadays, a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is referred to as wind power density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at 50 meters." The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. At the end of 2008, worldwide

entity_name: Nameplate capacity

text: nameplate capacity

text: of wind-powered generators was 120.8

entity_section: Gigawatt

text: gigawatt

text: s. Although wind produced only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use in 2009, it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration, accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in

text: Denmark

text: , 10% in

text: Spain

text: and

text: Portugal

text: , and 7% in

text: Germany

text: and the

text: Republic of Ireland

text: in 2008. One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70% wind is attainable at today's power prices by linking

entity_name: Wind farm

text: wind farm

text: s with an

entity_name: High-voltage direct current

text: HVDC

text: supergrid.

entity_name: Wind power

text: Wind power

text: has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. In 2011 wind energy was also used to power the longest journey in a wind powered car which travelled a distance of 5,000 km (3,100 miles) from Perth to Melbourne in Australia.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy and are high priorities in the sustainable energy hierarchy. In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.

text: Energy efficiency and

entity_name: Renewable energy

text: renewable energy

text: are said to be the twin pillars of

entity_name: Sustainable energy

text: sustainable energy

text: policy and are high priorities in the sustainable

entity_name: Energy hierarchy

text: energy hierarchy

text: . In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.

text: In electricity grids, DR is similar to dynamic demand mechanisms to manage customer consumption of electricity in response to supply conditions, for example, having electricity customers reduce their consumption at critical times or in response to market prices. The difference is that demand response mechanisms respond to explicit requests to shut off, whereas dynamic demand devices passively shut off when stress in the grid is sensed. Demand response can involve actually curtailing power used or by starting on-site generation which may or may not be connected in parallel with the grid. This is a quite different concept from energy efficiency, which means using less power to perform the same tasks, on a continuous basis or whenever that task is performed. At the same time, demand response is a component of smart energy demand, which also includes energy efficiency, home and building energy management, distributed renewable resources, and electric vehicle charging.

text: In electricity grids, DR is similar to

entity_name: Dynamic demand (electric power)

text: dynamic demand

text: mechanisms to manage customer consumption of electricity in response to supply conditions, for example, having electricity customers reduce their consumption at critical times or in response to market prices. The difference is that demand response mechanisms respond to explicit requests to shut off, whereas dynamic demand devices passively shut off when stress in the grid is sensed. Demand response can involve actually curtailing power used or by starting on-site generation which may or may not be connected in parallel with the grid. This is a quite different concept from

entity_name: Efficient energy use

text: energy efficiency

text: , which means using less power to perform the same tasks, on a continuous basis or whenever that task is performed. At the same time, demand response is a component of smart energy demand, which also includes energy efficiency, home and building energy management,

entity_name: Distributed generation

text: distributed renewable resources

text: , and electric vehicle charging.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: The feed-in tariff for renewable energy generation in Taiwan is set by the Bureau of Energy. It applies to most of the renewable energy sources, namely solar, wind, hydraulic, geothermal, biomass, waste etc.

text: The feed-in tariff for renewable energy generation in Taiwan is set by the

entity_name: Bureau of Energy

text: Bureau of Energy

text: . It applies to most of the renewable energy sources, namely solar, wind, hydraulic, geothermal, biomass, waste etc.

text: The U.S. state of Massachusetts has vast wind energy resources onshore as well as offshore and the installed capacity has been growing in recent years due to a variety of regulatory actions and financial incentives enacted by the state government. Notable policies include a Renewable portfolio standard that requires 22% of the state's electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020 and a goal of installing 2,000 MW of wind power in the state by 2020.

text: The U.S. state of

entity_name: Massachusetts

text: Massachusetts

text: has vast wind energy resources onshore as well as offshore and the installed capacity has been growing in recent years due to a variety of regulatory actions and financial incentives enacted by the state government. Notable policies include a

entity_name: Renewable portfolio standard

text: Renewable portfolio standard

text: that requires 22% of the state's electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020 and a goal of installing 2,000 MW of wind power in the state by 2020.

text: The shift from coal to natural gas in power plants, and the promotion of the use of clean and renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy to replace energy from fossil fuels present significant opportunities.

text: Currently, the majority of the United States’ renewable energy production comes from hydroelectric power, solar power, and wind power. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, the cost of wind power doubled between the years of 2002 to 2008. However, since then, the prices of wind power have declined by 1/3, on average. Various factors have been contributing to the decline in the cost of wind power, such as government subsidies, tax breaks, technological advancement, and the cost of  oil and natural gas. 	Hydroelectric power has been the most predominant source of renewable energy for quite some time due to the fact that it has been proven to be reliable and has been in use for quite some time. This source of energy has provided the majority of renewable energy and has been a significant source of overall energy production in the United States.  The problem with traditional hydroelectric power has been the requirement of damming rivers and other sources of water.  The problem created by damming is that the natural environment of the area is disrupted due to the formation of a lake caused by the damming of the water source. This creates uproar by environmentalists and a large obstacle to clear before being able to build a hydroelectric plant. However, new forms of hydroelectric power that harness wave energy from the oceans have been in development in recent years. Although these power sources still need much development before they become economically viable, they do have potential to become significant sources of energy.

text: Currently, the majority of the United States’ renewable energy production comes from hydroelectric power, solar power, and wind power. According to the

entity_name: United States Department of Energy

text: U.S. Department of Energy

text: , the cost of wind power doubled between the years of 2002 to 2008. However, since then, the prices of wind power have declined by 1/3, on average. Various factors have been contributing to the decline in the cost of wind power, such as government subsidies, tax breaks, technological advancement, and the cost of  oil and natural gas.

entity_name: Hydroelectric power in the United States

text: Hydroelectric power

text: has been the most predominant source of renewable energy for quite some time due to the fact that it has been proven to be reliable and has been in use for quite some time. This source of energy has provided the majority of renewable energy and has been a significant source of overall energy production in the United States.  The problem with traditional hydroelectric power has been the requirement of damming rivers and other sources of water.  The problem created by damming is that the natural environment of the area is disrupted due to the formation of a lake caused by the damming of the water source. This creates uproar by environmentalists and a large obstacle to clear before being able to build a

entity_name: Hydroelectricity

text: hydroelectric plant

text: . However, new forms of hydroelectric power that harness wave energy from the oceans have been in development in recent years. Although these power sources still need much development before they become economically viable, they do have potential to become significant sources of energy.

text: The growth of wind power in the United States has been enhanced by a production tax credit (PTC), which pays 2.3¢/kWh for the first 10 years. Development has been off and on again due to the expiration and late renewal of the PTC. It expired at the end of 2013, only to be restored in December 2014. In 2015 it was renewed but is phased out over a five-year period. One of the goals set by the Department of Energy is to increase the number of states which have over 1,000 MW of wind power to 15 by 2018. By the end of 2015 there were 17. Another goal was to increase the number of states with at least 100 MW to 30 by 2010. As of 2011, there are 29. The 2015 vision for wind calls for 10% generation by wind by 2020 (113 GW), 30% by 2030 (224 GW), and 35% by 2050 (404 GW). It calls for 40 states to each have at least 1 GW, and wind power in all 50 states. Larger wind turbines has expanded the commercial viability of wind to all 50 states. Analysts expect 25 GW more between 2016-18.

text: The growth of

text: wind power in the United States

text: has been enhanced by a

entity_name: Tax credit

entity_section: Renewable Energy/Production Tax Credit (PTC)

text: production tax credit

text: (PTC), which pays 2.3¢/kWh for the first 10 years. Development has been off and on again due to the expiration and late renewal of the PTC. It expired at the end of 2013, only to be restored in December 2014. In 2015 it was renewed but is phased out over a five-year period. One of the goals set by the

text: Department of Energy

text: is to increase the number of states which have over 1,000 MW of wind power to 15 by 2018. By the end of 2015 there were 17. Another goal was to increase the number of states with at least 100 MW to 30 by 2010. As of 2011, there are 29. The 2015 vision for wind calls for 10% generation by wind by 2020 (113 GW), 30% by 2030 (224 GW), and 35% by 2050 (404 GW). It calls for 40 states to each have at least 1 GW, and wind power in all 50 states. Larger wind turbines has expanded the commercial viability of wind to all 50 states. Analysts expect 25 GW more between 2016-18.

text: The country of South Africa alone obtains the sixth largest coal reserves on the planet, after China, the US, India, Russia and Australia.[18] Specific renewable resources in South Africa include solar, wind, hydropower, wave energy, and bio-energy.[19][14]

text: The low take up of renewable energy may be partially explained by the flat and often sub-sea level landscape and subsequent limits to hydropower resources as well as little natural geothermal potential, although hydro poor resource countries such as Denmark have still managed to make renewables the focus of their energy needs. In 2015, Dutch wind turbines had a total nameplate capacity of 3,431 MW. Most of the tiny contribution made to electricity generation by hydroelectricity came from three power plants.

text: The low take up of renewable energy may be partially explained by the flat and often sub-sea level landscape and subsequent limits to

entity_name: Hydropower

text: hydropower

text: resources as well as little natural

entity_name: Geothermal gradient

text: geothermal

text: potential, although hydro poor resource countries such as

entity_name: Renewable energy in Denmark

text: Denmark

text: have still managed to make renewables the focus of their energy needs. In 2015, Dutch wind turbines had a total nameplate capacity of 3,431 MW. Most of the tiny contribution made to electricity generation by hydroelectricity came from three power plants.

text: Included in the list of pending hydropower plants are the 665-MW Lower Palas Valley and 496-MW Lower Spat Gah hydropower projects, both contracted via public-private memoranda of understanding in December 2012.

text: The Renewable Energy Development and Energy Transition Financing Law (LAERFTE) mandated the Secretary of Energy (SENER) to produce a Special Program for Development of Renewable Energy (PEAER), and a National Strategy for Energy Transition and Sustainable Energy Use (ENTEASE), to be updated yearly. The main objective of the law is to regulate the use of renewable energy resources and clean technology, as well as to establish financing instruments to allow Mexico to scale-up electricity generation based on renewable resources. SENER and the Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) are responsible for defining those mechanisms and establishing legal instruments.

text: Since prehistory, when humanity discovered fire to warm up and roast food, through the Middle Ages in which populations built windmills to grind the wheat, until the modern era in which nations can get electricity splitting the atom. Man has sought endlessly for energy sources from which to draw profit, which have been the fossil fuels, on one hand the coal to fuel the steam engines run industrial rails as well as maintain households, and secondly, the oil and its derivatives in the industry and transportation (primarily automotive), although have lived with smaller-scale exploitation of wind power, hydro and biomass. This model of development, however, is based on the depletion of fossil resources from periods of millions years without possibility for replacement as would be required to maintain. The search for energy sources that are inexhaustible and utilization by industrialized countries to strengthen their national economies by reducing its dependence on fossil fuels, has led to the adoption of nuclear energy and those with sufficient water resources, the intensive hydraulic use of their waterways.

text: Landsvirkjun operates some hydropower plants in other countries:

text: He was born in 1960 and received his B.A. from University of California, Berkeley and M.A. from California State University, Sonoma, in psychology. He created 611 in Ghosttown, Oakland, California and The Mendocino project, in Laytonville, California. He is a licensed general contractor, a registered green builder with the National Association of Remodeling Industry Professionals (NARI) and a member of the United States Green Building Council (USGBC), the American Solar Energy Association, the Northern California Solar Energy Association, and the Eastern Oregon Renewable Energy Association.

text: He was born in 1960 and received his

entity_name: Bachelor of Arts

text: B.A.

text: from

entity_name: University of California, Berkeley

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: and

entity_name: Master of Arts

text: M.A.

text: from

entity_name: Sonoma State University

text: California State University, Sonoma

text: , in psychology. He created 611 in

entity_name: Ghost Town, Oakland, California

text: Ghosttown, Oakland, California

text: and The Mendocino project, in

entity_name: Laytonville, California

text: Laytonville, California

text: . He is a licensed general contractor, a registered green builder with the National Association of Remodeling Industry Professionals (NARI) and a member of the

entity_name: U.S. Green Building Council

text: United States Green Building Council

text: (USGBC), the American Solar Energy Association, the Northern California Solar Energy Association, and the Eastern Oregon Renewable Energy Association.

text: Turkey enacted its second Renewable Energy Law, namely Law No. 6094 Concerning the use of Renewable Energy Resources for the Generation of Electrical Energy, in 2010.

text: Turkey enacted its second

entity_name: Renewable energy law

text: Renewable Energy Law

text: , namely Law No. 6094 Concerning the use of Renewable Energy Resources for the Generation of Electrical Energy, in 2010.

text: Both the Fmoc and Boc methods offer advantages and disadvantages.  The selection of one technique over another is thus made on a case-by-case basis.

text: Each year it publishes a number of reports, one for each sector: photovoltaic, wind energy, solid biomass, hydro, solar thermal, concentrated solar power, ocean energies, geothermal energy, biofuels, biogas and solid waste. These reports are called "Barometers", e.g. "Biofuels barometer 2013". These barometers summarises the state for each of the EU member states for the particular energy sector using both technical and socioeconomic indicators. It also publishes an annual report on the state of renewable energies in Europe.

text: Each year it publishes a number of reports, one for each sector:

text: photovoltaic

text: wind energy

text: solid biomass

text: hydro

text: , solar thermal, concentrated solar power,

text: ocean energies

text: geothermal energy

text: biofuel

text: s,

text: biogas

text: and

text: solid waste

text: . These reports are called "Barometers", e.g. "Biofuels barometer 2013". These barometers summarises the state for each of the EU member states for the particular energy sector using both technical and socioeconomic indicators. It also publishes an annual report on the state of renewable energies in Europe.

text: The remuneration tariffs for renewables have been specified based on reference power plants for each individual technology. Feed-in tariffs are applicable for 20 to 25 years, depending on the technology. In view of the anticipated technological progress and the increasing degree of market maturity of renewables energy technologies (especially for solar PV), the feed-in tariffs are subjected to a gradual reduction once or twice a year. These reductions only apply to new production facilities that are put into operation.

text: The renewable energy use and potential in Honduras - hydro, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal - is described in more detail in the article Renewable energy in Honduras.

text: The renewable energy use and potential in Honduras - hydro, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal - is described in more detail in the article

text: Renewable energy in Honduras

text: As a result of climate change and extreme pollution, the 21st century has seen the world increase its use of renewable resources from hydro power, solar power and wind power. Iran does not have any rivers large enough that would produce enough energy for a hydroelectric dam to be an effective source of renewable energy. As for solar power, Iran is a great county for solar power to be an effective source of energy its warm and dry climate would be ideal for a large scale solar farm. However, with the extreme sanctions placed on Iran, the import of materials and resources to start a large scale solar power initiative would be extremely expensive and time-consuming, as materials would be hard to attain legally or cheaply. With so many challenges and obstacles facing Iran's energy sector they started to search for a more practical energy solution: wind power. Iran began really investing in wind power in the early 2000s and has increased the size and scale of its wind turbines.

text: Finch was elected Mayor of Bridgeport in November 2007. During his first year as mayor, Finch focused on professionalizing city government, aiming to stabilize the city's finances, and signing his first Executive Order to Promote Sustainability in Bridgeport. Finch is known for being a conservationist and advocate for programs, legislation and organizations that promote green living and green business in the state of Connecticut. In his first year in office, Finch signed up for the Connecticut Clean Energy Fund's Clean Energy Communities Program. He also signed an Executive Order to promote sustainability in Bridgeport.  Upon signing this order, he assembled a team of 100 volunteers who worked for 18 months to compile the BGreen2020 initiative, which served as a “Greenprint” for the City’s overall vision and path forward for the “green” economy. Among the programs included in BGreen2020 are: Solar leasing of rooftops, a comprehensive energy plan, increasing recycling rates (Recycling in the city has increased almost 20 percent since Finch signed an Executive Order to promote sustainability), and moving to single stream recycling and a Parks Master Plan for the city. Finch's sustainability plan further calls for reducing the total number of vehicle miles traveled in the city, mainly by building "complete streets." Finch also ordered a $35,000 feasibility study to see how viable it would be to use the city's sewage waste to produce energy in a biomass facility. The city began exploring the possibility of constructing a biomass plant, which generates 365 kilowatts of renewable energy a year.

text: complete streets

text: ." Finch also ordered a $35,000 feasibility study to see how viable it would be to use the city's sewage waste to produce energy in a biomass facility. The city began exploring the possibility of constructing a biomass plant, which generates 365 kilowatts of renewable energy a year.

text: Renewable energy, mainly hydropower, is gaining share.

text: Renewable energy

text: , mainly

text: hydropower

text: , is gaining share.

text: Geothermal energy- Gravitational energy- Gravitational potential

text: Geothermal energy

text: Gravitational energy

text: Gravitational potential

text: Geothermal power accounts for about 1.6-1.8% of the total electric energy production in Italy and is about 7% of the total renewable energy produced in 2010.The total energy from Geothermal was 5,660 GWh in 2015. Italy is the sixth country by geothermal installed capacity.

text: Geothermal power

text: accounts for about 1.6-1.8% of the total

text: electric energy production in Italy

text: and is about 7% of the total renewable energy produced in 2010.The total energy from Geothermal was 5,660 GWh in 2015. Italy is the sixth country by geothermal installed capacity.

text: Soft energy technologies (appropriate renewables) have five defining characteristics.  They (1) rely on renewable energy resources, (2) are diverse and designed for maximum effectiveness in particular circumstances, (3) are flexible and relatively simple to understand, (4) are matched to end-use needs in terms of scale, and (5) are matched to end-use needs in terms of quality.

text: Soft energy technologies

text: (appropriate renewables) have five defining characteristics.  They (1) rely on

text: renewable energy

text: resources, (2) are diverse and designed for maximum effectiveness in particular circumstances, (3) are flexible and relatively simple to understand, (4) are matched to end-use needs in terms of scale, and (5) are matched to end-use needs in terms of quality.

text: The Wind and Water Power Technologies Office conducts research in wind and water energy technologies. Wind energy R&D includes utility-scale technologies for both land-based and offshore applications and small distributed wind energy systems for home, farm, and business applications.  One example of a project sponsored by the Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program is the Wind ENergy Data & Information (WENDI) Gateway, established by Oak Ridge National Laboratory in March 2010. An additional program within this section is the Wind Powering America Initiative.  Water energy research includes traditional hydropower technologies as well as wave energy, ocean current, tidal current, and river current technologies. A project dealing with both wind and water energy is the Tethys database, which compiles literature on the environmental effects of these technologies while fostering a community of active researchers.

text: The Wind and Water Power Technologies Office conducts research in wind and water energy technologies. Wind energy R&D includes utility-scale technologies for both land-based and offshore applications and small distributed

text: wind energy systems

text: for home, farm, and business applications.  One example of a project sponsored by the Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program is the

entity_name: Wind ENergy Data & Information (WENDI) Gateway

text: Wind ENergy Data & Information (WENDI) Gateway

text: , established by

text: Oak Ridge National Laboratory

text: in March 2010. An additional program within this section is the

text: Wind Powering America Initiative

text: .  Water energy research includes

text: traditional hydropower technologies

text: as well as

text: wave energy

text: , ocean current,

text: tidal current

text: , and river current technologies. A project dealing with both wind and water energy is the

text: Tethys database

text: , which compiles literature on the environmental effects of these technologies while fostering a community of active researchers.

text: There is considerable support for community-scale energy projects. For example, Alex Salmond, First Minister of Scotland, has stated that "we can think big by delivering small" and aspires to have a "million Scottish households with access to their own or community renewable generation within ten years". The John Muir Trust has also stated that "the best renewable energy options around wild land are small-scale, sensitively sited and adjacent to the communities directly benefiting from them", although even community-owned schemes can prove controversial.

text: There is considerable support for community-scale energy projects. For example, Alex Salmond,

text: First Minister of Scotland

text: , has stated that "we can think big by delivering small" and aspires to have a "million Scottish households with access to their own or community renewable generation within ten years". The

text: John Muir Trust

text: has also stated that "the best renewable energy options around wild land are small-scale, sensitively sited and adjacent to the communities directly benefiting from them", although even community-owned schemes can prove controversial.

text: Wind power goes through predictable variation by season, but is intermittent on a daily basis. Maximum wind generation has little relationship to peak daily electricity consumption, the wind may peak at night when power isn't needed or be still during the day when electrical demand is highest. Occasionally weather patterns can result in low wind for days or weeks at a time, a hydroelectric reservoir capable of storing weeks of output is useful to balance generation on the grid. Peak wind power can be offset by minimum hydropower and minimum wind can be offset with maximum hydropower. In this way the easily regulated character of hydroelectricity is used to compensate for the intermittent nature of wind power. Conversely, in some cases wind power can be used to spare water for later use in dry seasons.

text: Wind power

text: goes through predictable

text: variation

text: by season, but is

text: intermittent

text: on a daily basis. Maximum wind generation has little relationship to peak daily electricity consumption, the wind may peak at night when power isn't needed or be still during the day when electrical demand is highest. Occasionally weather patterns can result in low wind for days or weeks at a time, a hydroelectric reservoir capable of storing weeks of output is useful to balance generation on the grid. Peak wind power can be offset by minimum hydropower and minimum wind can be offset with maximum hydropower. In this way the easily regulated character of hydroelectricity is used to compensate for the intermittent nature of wind power. Conversely, in some cases wind power can be used to spare water for later use in dry seasons.

text: The government has approved feed-in-tariff (FIT) rates for renewable energy in 2014 for wind, solar, hydroelectric and biomass energy at a rate lower than those asked for by renewable energy developers.  Hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass, wind power and solar plants operate in the Philippines.

text: The government has approved feed-in-tariff (FIT) rates for

text: renewable energy

text: in 2014 for wind, solar, hydroelectric and biomass energy at a rate lower than those asked for by renewable energy developers.

text: Hydroelectric

text: geothermal

text: biomass

text: wind power

text: and solar plants operate in the Philippines.

text: Renewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption, with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet. Iceland expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, while Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station. When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.

text: Renewable sources

text: geothermal

text: and

text: hydropower

text: —provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption, with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet. Iceland expects to be energy-independent by 2050. Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are

text: Hellisheiði

text: and

text: Nesjavellir

text: , while

text: Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant

text: is the country's largest hydroelectric power station. When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.

text: The development of wind power in India began in the 1986 with first wind farms being set up in coastal areas of Maharasahtra (Ratnagiri), Gujarat (Okha) and Tamil Nadu (Tuticorin) with 55 kW Vestas wind turbines. These demonstration projects were supported by the Minstry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). The capacity has significantly increased in the last few years and as of 31 Aug 2016 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 27,676.55 MW, mainly spread across the South, West and North regions. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry, compared with countries such as Denmark or the United States, by year end 2015 India had the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. (behind 1. China, 2. USA and 3. Germany), having overtaken 5. Spain  in 2015 and ahead of 6. UK.

text: The development of wind power in India began in the 1986 with first

text: wind farm

text: s being set up in coastal areas of

text: Maharasahtra

text: Ratnagiri

text: Gujarat

text: Okha

text: ) and

text: Tamil Nadu

text: Tuticorin

text: ) with 55 kW Vestas wind turbines. These demonstration projects were supported by the Minstry of New and Renewable Energy

text: (MNRE

text: ). The capacity has significantly increased in the last few years and as of 31 Aug 2016 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 27,676.55

text: MW

text: , mainly spread across the South, West and North regions. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry, compared with countries such as

text: Denmark

text: or the

text: United States

text: , by year end 2015 India had the

text: fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world

text: . (behind 1.

text: China

text: , 2.

text: USA

text: and 3.

text: Germany

text: ), having overtaken 5.

text: Spain

text: in 2015 and ahead of 6.

text: UK

text: E.S.E.T Technical School:Algorithms and numerical methods for large systems,Biomedical Engineering,Composites,Robotics and Industrial Control. Students participate on Solar Decathlon many years. The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon is an international competition that challenges 20 collegiate teams to design, build, and operate the most attractive, effective, and energy-efficient solar-powered house. The competition is presented by the U.S. Department of Energy and organized by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). There is also a Solar Decathlon Europe, which was established by a 2007 agreement between the United States and Spain. Students pariticipate on Eco-marathon too. The Eco-Marathon is an annual competition sponsored by Shell, in which participants build special vehicles to achieve the highest possible fuel efficiency.

text: E.S.E.T Technical School:Algorithms and numerical methods for large systems,Biomedical Engineering,Composites,Robotics and Industrial Control. Students participate on

text: Solar Decathlon

text: many years. The U.S.

text: Department of Energy

text: Solar Decathlon is an international competition that challenges 20 collegiate teams to design, build, and operate the most attractive, effective, and energy-efficient

text: solar-power

text: ed house. The competition is presented by the

text: U.S. Department of Energy

text: and organized by the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: (NREL). There is also a

text: Solar Decathlon Europe

text: , which was established by a 2007 agreement between the United States and

text: Spain

text: . Students pariticipate on

text: Eco-marathon

text: too. The Eco-Marathon is an annual competition sponsored by

text: Shell

text: , in which participants build special vehicles to achieve the highest possible

text: fuel efficiency

text: A yardstick used to determine locations with high potential wind energy production is referred to as Wind Power Density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are frequently prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Meters." The results of the above calculation are entered into an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class.

text: A yardstick used to determine locations with high potential wind energy production is referred to as

text: Wind Power Density

text: (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are frequently prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Meters." The results of the above calculation are entered into an index developed by the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class.

text: Iran is still very dependent on fossil fuels and nuclear power to provide the country with almost all of its power.  With wind power being a very cheap and effective renewable resource and does not take up large amounts of land, Iran is still investing in their wind power.  However, with international sanctions starting to be eased with the recent nuclear deal with the United States, it is likely that Iran will be investing more in their nuclear program rather than the wind power. One issue with Iran's wind program is that around every 10–15 years or so wind turbines require repairs and if they are not properly maintained then the turbines will no longer function. If Iran refocuses its priorities to nuclear power rather than their wind farms then the progress they have made in wind power could be in jeopardy. Although wind power is only a small fraction of Iran's energy, it is a renewable resource and has produced increased megawatts on a consistent basis—as well as being a relatively cheap and easy power source to maintain. However, now with international sanctions on Iran being lessened it could have the potential to explore more renewable energy options like solar power while maintaining the growth of wind power.  Such measures could prove to be an effective and environmentally friendly way to meet Iranian energy needs without being too rooted in fossil fuels and nuclear options.

text: Many island countries rely heavily on fish for their main supply of food.Some are turning to renewable energy—such as wind power, hydropower, geothermal power and biodiesel from copra oil—to combat the rise in oil prices.

text: Many island countries rely heavily on

text: fish

text: for their main supply of food.Some are turning to

text: renewable energy

text: —such as

text: wind power

text: hydropower

text: geothermal power

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: from

text: copra oil

text: —to combat the rise in

text: oil

text: prices.

text: It covers the difference between the production and the market price, and guarantees producers of electricity from renewable sources  a price that corresponds to their production costs. The following renewable energy sources are supported by the KEV remuneration: distributed small hydro (with capacities up to 10 MW), solar photovoltaics, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and biogas (from agriculture, waste and water treatment).

text: It covers the difference between the production and the market price, and guarantees producers of electricity from renewable sources  a price that corresponds to their production costs. The following renewable energy sources are supported by the KEV remuneration: distributed

text: small hydro

text: (with

text: capacities

text: up to 10

text: MW

text: solar photovoltaics

text: wind power

text: geothermal energy

text: biomass

text: and

text: biogas

text: (from agriculture, waste and water treatment).

text: From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide, 11,700 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 2013.  An additional 28 gigawatts  of direct geothermal heating  capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.

text: From

text: hot springs

text: , geothermal energy has been used for bathing since

text: Paleolithic

text: times and for

text: space heating

text: since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for

text: electricity generation

text: . Worldwide, 11,700

text: megawatts

text: (MW) of geothermal power is online in 2013.  An additional 28 gigawatts  of direct

text: geothermal heating

text: capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.

text: Samsung C&T’s Trading & Investment Group focuses on trading industrial commodities such as chemicals, steel, and natural resources, and organizes projects such as Samsung Renewable Energy (a wind/solar power cluster), the Balkhash Thermal Power Plant, Terminal KMS (LNG), and the KST Electric Power Company.

text: The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO/km, which is equivalent to a  petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.

text: The country ranking was led by

text: Paraguay

text: , where all electricity is produced from

text: hydropower

text: , and

text: Iceland

text: , where electricity production relies on

text: renewable power

text: , mainly hydro and

text: geothermal power

text: . Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO/km, which is equivalent to a  petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly

text: nuclear power

text: ). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.

text: Close to 90% of Verbund energy in Austria originates from hydropower. Verbund operates 20 storage power plants and 88 run-of-river plants in Austria; these plants are located in the alpine regions of Salzburg, Tyrol, Carinthia and Styria, as well as along all major rivers such as the Inn, Danube, Enns and Drau rivers. Verbund's total installed capacity in hydropower plants is 6,600 megawatt; average annual generation is 24.8 billion kWh altogether. In mid-2009, as a result of Verbund's acquisition of 13 run-of-river plants on the river Inn in Bavaria, Germany, power generation rose by 7%; together, the Bavarian Inn power plants have a peak capacity of 312 megawatt and an annual generation of 1.85 billion kW hours.

text: Close to 90% of Verbund energy in Austria originates from hydropower. Verbund operates 20 storage power plants and 88

text: run-of-river

text: plants in Austria; these plants are located in the alpine regions of Salzburg, Tyrol, Carinthia and Styria, as well as along all major rivers such as the Inn, Danube, Enns and Drau rivers. Verbund's total installed capacity in hydropower plants is 6,600 megawatt; average annual generation is 24.8 billion kWh altogether. In mid-2009, as a result of Verbund's acquisition of 13 run-of-river plants on the river Inn in Bavaria, Germany, power generation rose by 7%; together, the Bavarian Inn power plants have a peak capacity of 312 megawatt and an annual generation of 1.85 billion kW hours.

text: Wind energy policy mostly comes from a state level due to the limited access to relevant federal incentives.  Most states in the US have energy policies to help support wind energy development.  State policies offer incentives and tax credits for both producers and consumers to make wind energy more affordable.  These tax credits are towards personal finances or property value. Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) and state grant programs are also used to increase wind energy usage in the United States.  By using these incentives, the US can make wind power more prominent to push for renewable energy sources, in an effort to lessen its dependence on foreign oil, protect the environment, and stabilize its energy costs.  This section outlines different financial incentives available by state, and programs designed to increase the development and use of wind power.  It also displays state permitting and ordinance requirements, usually done on a county level, that are important to know before installing wind turbines.

text: The Solutions Project is an organization first conceived in 2011 by prominent figures in science, business and the entertainment media with the goal of utilizing the combined efforts of individuals in the fields of science, business and culture to accelerate the transition to 100% renewable energy use in the United States. Based on the results of academic research, the organization maintains that America is capable of meeting its entire energy needs through renewable energy sources, and that this goal can be achieved by the year 2050. (The organization defines renewable energy as solar power, wind power, hydroelectric power, geothermal energy and wave/tidal power.) Furthermore, the organization claims that the solutions that will be needed to achieve this goal are primarily social and political, not technical, in nature, as most of the technology necessary to bring about the transition already exists.

text: The Solutions Project is an organization first conceived in 2011 by prominent figures in science, business and the entertainment media with the goal of utilizing the combined efforts of individuals in the fields of science, business and culture to accelerate the transition to

text: 100% renewable energy

text: use in the United States. Based on the results of academic research, the organization maintains that America is capable of meeting its entire energy needs through renewable energy sources, and that this goal can be achieved by the year 2050. (The organization defines renewable energy as

text: solar power

text: wind power

text: hydroelectric power

text: geothermal energy

text: and

text: wave

text: tidal

text: power.) Furthermore, the organization claims that the solutions that will be needed to achieve this goal are primarily social and political, not technical, in nature, as most of the technology necessary to bring about the transition already exists.

text: Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. The world’s largest solar thermal power plants are now the 370 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, commissioned in 2014, and the 354 MW SEGS CSP installation, both located in the Mojave Desert of California, where several other solar projects have been realized as well.With the exception of the Shams solar power station, built in 2013 near Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates, all other 100 MW or larger CSP plants are either located in the United States or in Spain.

text: Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the 1980s. The world’s largest solar thermal power plants are now the 370 MW

text: Ivanpah Solar Power Facility

text: , commissioned in 2014, and the 354 MW

text: SEGS

text: CSP installation, both located in the

text: Mojave Desert

text: of California, where several

text: other solar projects

text: have been realized as well.With the exception of the

text: Shams solar power station

text: , built in 2013 near

text: Abu Dhabi

text: , the United Arab Emirates, all other

text: 100 MW or larger CSP plants

text: are either located in the United States or in Spain.

text: The Hydropower Renewable Energy Development Act, sponsored by Senator Lisa Murkowski (R-AK), sought to catalyze investment in hydropower by broadening its definition so more types of it qualify for Production Tax Credits and other types of government funding.  The bill also tried to redefine hydropower as a renewable energy source in the eyes of the federal government.  This would have made hydropower projects eligible for more tax credits that are currently only available for traditional renewable energy sources like solar and wind.  The Hydropower Renewable Energy Development Act was introduced too late during the 111th Congressional session and thus never reached the floor.

text: The Sussman family believed that because their business was spending about 20,000 a year to power the plant, the Solar Power System will pay itself off in about 3 years. Steven Sussman said "It's going to virtually all of our electric needs, we've done the numbers and we expect it to pay off in 3 years." He also said "Energy is getting so expensive it becoming prohibitive to do manufacturing in New York" David Sussman added, "I love that we can get our energy from a renewable resource instead of destroying the environment. It's a win-win situation." The panels were installed by Brooklyn-based Solar Energy Systems and are made of silicon cells sheathed in glass. Richard Werber, director of Business Services at Greater Jamaica, said "J.Sussman is the poster child for other companies in southeast Queens."

text: The Sussman family believed that because their business was spending about 20,000 a year to power the plant, the Solar Power System will pay itself off in about 3 years. Steven Sussman said "It's going to virtually all of our electric needs, we've done the numbers and we expect it to pay off in 3 years." He also said "Energy is getting so expensive it becoming prohibitive to do manufacturing in

text: New York

text: " David Sussman added, "I love that we can get our energy from a renewable resource instead of destroying the environment. It's a win-win situation." The panels were installed by Brooklyn-based Solar Energy Systems and are made of silicon cells sheathed in glass. Richard Werber, director of Business Services at Greater Jamaica, said "J.Sussman is the poster child for other companies in southeast

text: Queens

text: In 2009, the global primary energy use corresponded to  oil equivalent corresponding to ). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) 13,6% of that was used by the EU. Within the EU, 75.9% came from fossil fuels, 14.1% from nuclear energy, 7% from biofuels, 2.9 from renewable energy resources.

text: In 2009, the

text: global primary energy use

text: corresponded to

text: oil equivalent

text: corresponding to ). According to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) 13,6% of that was used by the

text: EU

text: . Within the EU, 75.9% came from

text: fossil fuel

text: s, 14.1% from

text: nuclear energy

text: , 7% from

text: biofuel

text: s, 2.9 from

text: renewable energy

text: resources.

text: In 2013, China led the world in renewable energy production, with a total capacity of 378 GW, mainly from hydroelectric and wind power. As of 2014, China leads the world in the production and use of wind power, solar photovoltaic power and smart grid technologies, generating almost as much water, wind and solar energy as all of France and Germany's power plants combined. China's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its fossil fuels and nuclear power capacity. Since 2005, production of solar cells in China has expanded 100-fold. As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown, the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped. Innovation has helped, but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion.

text: In 2013, China led the world in

text: renewable energy

text: production, with a total capacity of 378

text: GW

text: , mainly from

text: hydroelectric

text: and

text: wind power

text: . As of 2014, China leads the world in the production and use of wind power,

text: solar photovoltaic power

text: and

text: smart grid

text: technologies, generating almost as much water, wind and

text: solar energy

text: as all of France and Germany's power plants combined. China's renewable energy sector is growing faster than its

text: fossil fuels

text: and

text: nuclear power

text: capacity. Since 2005, production of

text: solar cells

text: in China has expanded 100-fold. As Chinese renewable manufacturing has grown, the costs of renewable energy technologies have dropped. Innovation has helped, but the main driver of reduced costs has been market expansion.

text: The utilization of solar water heaters and biodiesel resources in South Africa within recent years reveals that renewable energy can significantly diminish poverty, for the implementation of clean energy systems has led to improvement in health, and general welfare of the people. The assimilation of these programs also generates employment, and develops empowerment of the people due to a localized level of energy operation.

text: Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by burning of fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save associated health costs that amount to several hundred billion dollars annually only in the United States. Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the sun is expected to make the surface of the earth too hot for liquid water to exist.

text: Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for

text: energy efficiency

text: exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant

entity_name: Energy security and renewable technology

text: energy security

text: and economic benefits. It would also reduce environmental

text: pollution

text: such as

text: air pollution

text: caused by burning of fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save associated health costs that amount to several hundred billion dollars annually only in the United States. Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the

text: sun

text: is expected to make the surface of the earth too hot for liquid water to exist.

text: The industrial society, from 1860 to 1950, had to import coal as it was the main source of energy but not much available as a natural resource. Also an important source of energy was water power at low or high pressure. Then came the consumer society, which needs mostly oil and natural gas and, to a lesser extent, water power (turbines) and later nuclear energy. The oil crisis and pollution of the environment prompted to make use (in a limited extent) of renewable energy. It is notable that 100% of the Swiss railway network is electrified: - the high proportion of energy generated through hydroelectric power and the lack of natural resources (e.g. coal and oil) help to explain why such a situation is strategically beneficial in Switzerland.

text: The industrial society, from 1860 to 1950, had to import coal as it was the main source of energy but not much available as a natural resource. Also an important source of energy was water power at low or high pressure. Then came the consumer society, which needs mostly oil and natural gas and, to a lesser extent, water power (turbines) and later

text: nuclear energy

text: . The oil crisis and pollution of the environment prompted to make use (in a limited extent) of

text: renewable energy

text: . It is notable that 100% of the Swiss railway network is electrified: - the high proportion of energy generated through hydroelectric power and the lack of natural resources (e.g. coal and oil) help to explain why such a situation is strategically beneficial in Switzerland.

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services. Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively.

text: Renewable energy

text: is generally defined as energy that comes from

text: resources

text: which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas:

text: electricity generation

text: , air and water heating/cooling,

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services. Based on

text: 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our

text: global energy consumption

text: and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively.

text: About 16% of global final energy consumption presently comes from renewable resources, with 10%  of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing rapidly. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Wind power, for example, is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 282,482 megawatts (MW) at the end of 2012.

text: About 16% of global final energy consumption presently comes from

text: renewable resource

text: s, with 10%  of all energy from traditional

text: biomass

text: , mainly used for

text: heating

text: , and 3.4% from

text: hydroelectricity

text: . New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing rapidly. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.

text: Wind power

text: , for example, is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide

text: installed capacity

text: of 282,482

text: megawatt

text: s (MW) at the end of 2012.

text: The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels. Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease. In the mid-20th century, a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century, environmental problems became global in scale. The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources.

text: The Western

text: industrial revolution

text: of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in

text: fossil fuels

text: Coal

text: was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern

text: sanitation

text: systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease. In the mid-20th century, a gathering

text: environmental movement

text: pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century, environmental problems became global in scale. The 1973 and 1979

text: energy crises

text: demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources.

text: The wind resource in many parts of Texas is very large. Farmers may lease their land to wind developers, creating a new revenue stream for the farm. The wind power industry has also created over 20,000 jobs for local communities and for the state. Texas is seen as a profit-driven leader of renewable energy commercialization in the United States. The wind boom in Texas was assisted by expansion of the state’s Renewable Portfolio Standard, use of designated Competitive Renewable Energy Zones, expedited transmission construction, and the necessary Public Utility Commission rule-making.

text: The wind resource in many parts of Texas is very large. Farmers may lease their land to wind developers, creating a new revenue stream for the farm. The wind power industry has also created over 20,000 jobs for local communities and for the state. Texas is seen as a profit-driven leader of

text: renewable energy commercialization

text: in the United States. The wind boom in Texas was assisted by expansion of the state’s

text: Renewable Portfolio Standard

text: , use of designated Competitive Renewable Energy Zones, expedited transmission construction, and the necessary Public Utility Commission rule-making.

text: Solar power in California has been growing rapidly because of high insolation, community support, declining solar costs, and a Renewable Portfolio Standard which requires that 33% of California's electricity come from renewable resources by 2020, and 50% by 2030. Much of this is expected to come from solar power. At noon on July 12, 2016, California generated 8 GW of utility scale solar power and around 4 GW of behind-the-meter private solar power.

text: Solar power in California has been growing rapidly because of high

text: insolation

text: , community support, declining solar costs, and a

text: Renewable Portfolio Standard

text: which requires that 33% of

text: California

text: 's electricity come from

text: renewable resource

text: s by 2020, and 50% by 2030. Much of this is expected to come from solar power. At noon on July 12, 2016, California generated 8 GW of utility scale solar power and around 4 GW of behind-the-meter private solar power.

text: As wind is free (no fuel cost), wind-to-rotor efficiency (including rotor blade friction and drag) is one of many aspects impacting the final price of wind power.Further inefficiencies, such as gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. To protect components from undue wear, extracted power is held constant above the rated operating speed as theoretical power increases at the cube of wind speed, further reducing theoretical efficiency. In 2001, commercial utility-connected turbines deliver 75% to 80% of the Betz limit of power extractable from the wind, at rated operating speed.

text: As wind is

text: free

text: (no fuel cost), wind-to-rotor efficiency (including rotor blade

text: friction

text: and

text: drag

text: ) is one of many aspects impacting the final

text: price

text: of wind power.Further inefficiencies, such as gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. To protect components from undue wear, extracted power is held constant above the rated operating speed as theoretical power

text: increases at the cube

text: of wind speed, further reducing theoretical efficiency. In 2001, commercial utility-connected turbines deliver 75% to 80% of the Betz limit of power extractable from the wind, at rated operating speed.

text: Since the early 21st century, opportunities to take advantage of improvements in electronic communication technology to resolve the limitations and costs of the electrical grid have become apparent. Technological limitations on metering no longer force peak power prices to be averaged out and passed on to all consumers equally. In parallel, growing concerns over environmental damage from fossil-fired power stations has led to a desire to use large amounts of renewable energy. Dominant forms such as wind power and solar power are highly variable, and so the need for more sophisticated control systems became apparent, to facilitate the connection of sources to the otherwise highly controllable grid. Power from photovoltaic cells (and to a lesser extent wind turbines) has also, significantly, called into question the imperative for large, centralised power stations. The rapidly falling costs point to a major change from the centralised grid topology to one that is highly distributed, with power being both generated and consumed right at the limits of the grid. Finally, growing concern over terrorist attack in some countries has led to calls for a more robust energy grid that is less dependent on centralised power stations that were perceived to be potential attack targets.<ref>

text: Since the early 21st century, opportunities to take advantage of improvements in electronic communication technology to resolve the limitations and costs of the electrical grid have become apparent. Technological limitations on metering no longer force peak power prices to be averaged out and passed on to all consumers equally. In parallel, growing concerns over environmental damage from fossil-fired power stations has led to a desire to use large amounts of

text: renewable energy

text: . Dominant forms such as

text: wind power

text: and

text: solar power

text: are highly variable, and so the need for more sophisticated control systems became apparent, to facilitate the connection of sources to the otherwise highly controllable grid. Power from

text: photovoltaic cells

text: (and to a lesser extent

text: wind turbines

text: ) has also, significantly, called into question the imperative for large, centralised power stations. The rapidly falling costs point to a major change from the centralised grid topology to one that is highly distributed, with power being both generated and consumed right at the limits of the grid. Finally, growing concern over

text: terrorist

text: attack in some countries has led to calls for a more robust energy grid that is less dependent on centralised power stations that were perceived to be potential attack targets.<ref>

text: Some grid batteries are co-located with renewable energy plants, either to smooth the power supplied by the intermittent wind or solar output, or to shift the power output into other hours of the day when the renewable plant cannot produce power directly (see Installation examples).

text: Some grid batteries are co-located with renewable energy plants, either to smooth the power supplied by the intermittent wind or solar output, or to shift the power output into other hours of the day when the renewable plant cannot produce power directly (see

text: Installation examples

text: Wind power in Germany describes wind power in Germany as part of energy in Germany and renewable energy in Germany. In 2015, the installed capacity of wind power in Germany was 44,470 megawatts (MW), with wind power producing about 13.3 percent of Germany’s total electrical power. According to EWEA in a typical wind year, installed wind capacity in Germany was estimated to have met 10.6% at end 2011 and 9.3% at end 2010 of the German electricity needs. The persistent disparity between EWEA estimates for a "normal wind year" and the actual data tabulated below may be due to the EWEA relying on an unrealistically high capacity factor for German wind production.

text: Wind power in Germany describes

text: wind power

text: in

text: Germany

text: as part of

text: energy in Germany

text: and

text: renewable energy in Germany

text: . In 2015, the installed capacity of wind power in Germany was 44,470

text: megawatts

text: (MW), with wind power producing about 13.3 percent of Germany’s total electrical power. According to

text: EWEA

text: in a typical wind year, installed wind capacity in Germany was estimated to have met 10.6% at end 2011 and 9.3% at end 2010 of the German electricity needs. The persistent disparity between EWEA estimates for a "normal wind year" and the actual data tabulated below may be due to the EWEA relying on an unrealistically high capacity factor for German wind production.

text: The production of renewable energy in Scotland is an issue that has come to the fore in technical, economic, and political terms during the opening years of the 21st century. The natural resource base for renewable energy is extraordinary by European, and even global standards, with the most important potential sources being wind, wave, and tide.

text: The production of renewable energy in Scotland is an issue that has come to the fore in technical, economic, and political terms during the opening years of the 21st century. The natural resource base for

text: renewable energy

text: is extraordinary by

text: European

text: , and even global standards, with the most important potential sources being

text: wind

text: wave

text: , and

text: tide

text: Since 2012, the Bio-Economy division has been a new research focus at DIL. It serves as an interface between research platforms and business divisions. Cross-thematic and cross-sectoral research activities have been established to promote the structural change from an oil-based to a bio-based industry along with major opportunities for growth and employment. At the same time, international responsibility needs to be taken on the issues of the global food supply, the biomass-based supply of raw materials and energy, and climate and environmental protection. DIL is continually working to pave the way for bio-based food production. As part of these efforts, natural resources shall be used and new ways of using renewable raw materials are to be developed. This will be made possible through the development of new, bio-based production processes. This objective not only serves to preserve our living space, but also improves product quality and is good for our health. The division has its own research projects planned for 2013.

text: Offshore wind power can help to reduce energy imports, reduce air pollution and greenhouse gases (by displacing fossil-fuel power generation), meet renewable electricity standards, and create jobs and local business opportunities. However, according to the US Energy Information Agency, offshore wind power is the most expensive energy generating technology being considered for large scale deployment". The advantage is that the wind is much stronger off the coasts, and unlike wind over the continent, offshore breezes can be strong in the afternoon, matching the time when people are using the most electricity. Offshore turbines can also be "located close to the power-hungry populations along the coasts, eliminating the need for new overland transmission lines".

text: Established in the early stages of the semiconductor electronics industry in 1959, MEMC was for the next half century a major and pioneering manufacturer of silicon wafers, the most basic element of semiconductor-chip manufacturing. The company entered the solar market in a major way beginning in 2006, with longterm contracts to manufacture and sell solar wafers to several large Asian solar-energy companies. Contracts with other solar-energy companies followed, as did joint-venture projects on solar power plants. With the acquisition of the large, successful, and pioneering solar-energy systems company SunEdison LLC in late 2009 and the smaller solar-power companies Axio and Fotowatio in 2011, MEMC focused increasingly on the burgeoning solar-energy industry to offset the cyclical downturns in the semiconductor market. The company now develops, finances, and maintains solar power systems and plants for a widespread commercial, public-sector, and power-plant customer base, and its name change in 2013 to SunEdison, Inc. reflects its main focus. It is one of the leading solar-power companies worldwide, and with its acquisition of wind-energy company First Wind in 2014, SunEdison is the leading renewable energy development company in the world. SunEdison's subsidiaries TerraForm Power and TerraForm Global own and operate renewable-energy projects around the globe. In 2015, SunEdison sold off its subsidiary SunEdison Semiconductor, which manufactures silicon wafers for the electronics industry. The divestiture marked the completion of SunEdison, Inc.'s transition from a semiconductor-wafer company to a dedicated renewable-energy corporation.

text: Established in the early stages of the semiconductor electronics industry in 1959, MEMC was for the next half century a major and pioneering manufacturer of silicon wafers, the most basic element of semiconductor-chip manufacturing. The company entered the solar market in a major way beginning in 2006, with longterm contracts to manufacture and sell solar wafers to several large Asian solar-energy companies. Contracts with other solar-energy companies followed, as did joint-venture projects on solar power plants. With the acquisition of the large, successful, and pioneering solar-energy systems company SunEdison LLC in late 2009 and the smaller solar-power companies Axio and Fotowatio in 2011, MEMC focused increasingly on the burgeoning solar-energy industry to offset the cyclical downturns in the semiconductor market. The company now develops, finances, and maintains solar power systems and plants for a widespread commercial, public-sector, and power-plant customer base, and its name change in 2013 to SunEdison, Inc. reflects its main focus. It is one of the leading solar-power companies worldwide, and with its acquisition of wind-energy company

text: First Wind

text: in 2014, SunEdison is the leading

text: renewable energy

text: development company in the world. SunEdison's subsidiaries TerraForm Power and TerraForm Global own and operate renewable-energy projects around the globe. In 2015, SunEdison sold off its subsidiary SunEdison Semiconductor, which manufactures silicon wafers for the electronics industry. The divestiture marked the completion of SunEdison, Inc.'s transition from a semiconductor-wafer company to a dedicated renewable-energy corporation.

text: The Italian government has identified measures to increase the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency in the heating and cooling sector as outlined in the 2009 Italian National Renewable Energy Action Plan. These include an energy efficiency credits scheme which was expected to save 6 Mtoe by 2012.  A 55% tax relief for building and refurbishment projects due to be reviewed by 2010. The report outlined a plan for regulating a minimum quota of 50% (20% for buildings in historic centres) of domestic hot water being produced by renewable energy targeting newly constructed buildings or buildings to be refurbished. From 1999 tax credits were made available for district heating using either geothermal or biomass energy. Tax relief for specific measures is included to encourage the replacement of old boilers and chimneys with high energy efficiency and low-emission biomass boilers. Legislation in Italy allows biogas to be injected into the natural gas system where there are no technical issues.

text: The Italian government has identified measures to increase the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency in the heating and cooling sector as outlined in the 2009 Italian National Renewable Energy Action Plan. These include an energy efficiency credits scheme which was expected to save 6 Mtoe by 2012.  A 55% tax relief for building and refurbishment projects due to be reviewed by 2010. The report outlined a plan for regulating a minimum quota of 50% (20% for buildings in historic centres) of domestic hot water being produced by renewable energy targeting newly constructed buildings or buildings to be refurbished. From 1999 tax credits were made available for

text: district heating

text: using either geothermal or biomass energy. Tax relief for specific measures is included to encourage the replacement of old boilers and chimneys with high energy efficiency and low-emission biomass boilers. Legislation in Italy allows biogas to be injected into the natural gas system where there are no technical issues.

text: According to Federal Power Act of 1920, hydropower producers are periodically required to apply for license renewal from FERC. Condit's license was last reviewed in 1991, when it failed approval, and expired in 1993.  From 1993 until 2011, PacifiCorp operated the plant under annual license extensions while it sought approval from FERC for the decommissioning.

text: According to Federal Power Act of 1920, hydropower producers are periodically required to apply for license renewal from

text: FERC

text: . Condit's license was last reviewed in 1991, when it failed approval, and expired in 1993.  From 1993 until 2011, PacifiCorp operated the plant under annual license extensions while it sought approval from FERC for the decommissioning.

text: During the twentieth century, Italy was at the forefront of technological development and the production of energy from renewable sources. In the field of geothermal energy, the first plant dates back to 1904, at Larderello in Tuscany, where in 1913 the first geothermal power plant was also built, and remained the only one in the world until 1958. With regards to hydropower, the first plant in Europe was built in Paderno d'Adda in Lombardy between 1895 and 1898. In the solar energy industry, the first power plant (that could produce steam at 450 °C) was built in Genoa in 1963, and in 1980 the first solar power tower that uses mirrors was built at Adrano in Sicily. As for the production of wind power, the first experimental projects (sponsored by the National Research Council and in collaboration with Enel) were started in the second half of the seventies as part of the restructuring of the entire system of production and supply of energy that followed the 1973 and 1979 energy crisis.

text: During the twentieth century, Italy was at the forefront of technological development and the production of energy from

text: renewable sources

text: . In the field of

text: geothermal energy

text: , the first plant dates back to 1904, at

text: Larderello

text: in

text: Tuscany

text: , where in 1913 the first geothermal power plant was also built, and remained the only one in the world until 1958. With regards to

text: hydropower

text: , the first plant in

text: Europe

text: was built in Paderno d'Adda in

text: Lombardy

text: between 1895 and 1898. In the

text: solar energy

text: industry, the first power plant (that could produce steam at 450 °C) was built in

text: Genoa

text: in 1963, and in 1980 the first

text: solar power tower

text: that uses mirrors was built at

text: Adrano

text: in

text: Sicily

text: . As for the production of

text: wind power

text: , the first experimental projects (sponsored by the

text: National Research Council

text: and in collaboration with

text: Enel

text: ) were started in the second half of the seventies as part of the restructuring of the entire system of production and supply of energy that followed the

text: and

text: energy crisis.

text: Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials (in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions).  The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.

text: Geothermal energy is

text: thermal energy

text: generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the

text: temperature

text: of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's

text: crust

text: originates from the original formation of the planet and from

text: radioactive decay

text: of materials (in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions).  The

text: geothermal gradient

text: , which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous

text: conduction of thermal energy

text: in the form of

text: heat

text: from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.

text: The aim of Guy Reinaud's project is to reply to the needs, in renewable domestic energy, of a population of 2 billion individuals living in the tropical regions of Africa, Latin America and Asia, and at the same time fighting against deforestation and climatic changes. The proposed solution is biomass charcoal as a source of renewable energy - patented and developed by Pro-Natura International. Biomass charcoal produces domestic energy from non-upgraded biomass, other than wood, in particular agricultural residues non-consumed by animals. By reducing the dependence on wood, biomass charcoal protects forests and as a consequence fights against desertification. Moreover, the energy produced by biomass charcoal is equal to that of wood charcoal for a sales price per kilo 50% cheaper.

text: The aim of Guy Reinaud's project is to reply to the needs, in renewable domestic energy, of a population of 2 billion individuals living in the tropical regions of

text: Africa

text: Latin America

text: and

text: Asia

text: , and at the same time fighting against

text: deforestation

text: and climatic changes. The proposed solution is biomass charcoal as a source of renewable energy - patented and developed by

text: Pro-Natura International

text: . Biomass charcoal produces domestic energy from non-upgraded biomass, other than wood, in particular agricultural residues non-consumed by animals. By reducing the dependence on wood, biomass charcoal protects forests and as a consequence fights against

text: desertification

text: . Moreover, the energy produced by biomass charcoal is equal to that of wood charcoal for a sales price per kilo 50% cheaper.

text: Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of wind power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur. Power management techniques such as having excess capacity, geographically distributed turbines, dispatchable backing sources, sufficient hydroelectric power, exporting and importing power to neighboring areas, using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low, can in many cases overcome these problems. In addition, weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur.

text: Wind power gives

text: variable power

text: which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales. It is therefore used in conjunction with other

text: electric power source

text: s to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of wind power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur. Power management techniques such as having excess capacity, geographically distributed turbines,

text: dispatchable backing

text: sources, sufficient

text: hydroelectric power

text: , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas, using

text: vehicle-to-grid

text: strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low, can in many cases overcome these problems. In addition,

text: weather forecast

text: ing permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur.

text: The most practical solution was mentioned by Gujba, Mulugetta and Azapagic, (2011). The authors of this article suggested that a harmonization of different forms of energy take place. In their sustainable development scenario they suggested some reliance on renewable energy sources and a slow change from fossil fuels to the renewable energy sources. Since the rural areas are further from the electricity grid and most currently do not have power, each area would become a little hub where they would produce their own power by whatever resource was closest. For example, in the northern areas the mini-grids would work off of wind and solar power energy. Hydropower development would have to increase in order for this to be successful.  Winkler, Howells and Baumert (2002) talk about envisioning where a country wants to end up before the development of energy resources. This is a great perspective about how to fix the energy crisis because taking the big picture into account before the development of the sector could include things outside of simply fixing the energy crisis such as: poverty eradication, job creation, reducing carbon emissions etc.  Fixing the energy supply will solve many problems such as the over pricing of electricity due to the loss of the electricity within the grid (Winkler, Howells & Baumert, 2002)

text: The city of Freiburg, Germany, whose sustainable policies date all the way back to the 1970s, has constructed itself as a sustainable city by actively committing to its target areas of energy, transportation, and to its three pillars for sustainable development: energy saving, new technology, and renewable energy sources. One of the largest motivators for success can be accredited to citizen’s engagement; in the 1970s opposition to local nuclear power led to the creation of a campaign for sustainable solutions for the energy needs of the city. A network of environmentalists, research organizations, and businesses was established, helping the agenda of a sustainable city push forward.	Taking advantage of Freiburg’s location, educated and active residents, and political priorities invested in the environment and economy has led Freiburg to be considered a Solar Capital. Along with high solar electricity rates, Freiburg hosts such innovations as the world’s first football stadium with its own solar power plant and the world’s first self-sustaining solar energy building. In terms of both ecology and economy, Freiburg has been extremely successful in the fields of research and marketing of renewable energy. The Freiburg science network and solar industry embraces many research institutions, like the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Europe’s largest solar research institute.	In addition to solar initiatives, over the last four decades Freiburg has made improvements to their transportation systems. Freiburg has over 500 km of bicycle paths and more than 5000 bicycle parking spaces as well as car-free centers, 30 kph zones, a region wide bus service, and tram lines.	Long before it was taken seriously Freiburg was resolving to cut carbon dioxide emissions. In 1966, the city resolved to lower carbon dioxide by 25 percent by 2010. Although they did not reach their initial goal by 2010, they are continually extending their goals. By 2030, they resolved to cut carbon dioxide emissions by 40 percent and be climate neutral by 2050.

text: The city of

text: Freiburg, Germany

text: , whose sustainable policies date all the way back to the 1970s, has constructed itself as a sustainable city by actively committing to its target areas of energy, transportation, and to its three pillars for sustainable development: energy saving, new technology, and renewable energy sources. One of the largest motivators for success can be accredited to citizen’s engagement; in the 1970s opposition to local nuclear power led to the creation of a campaign for sustainable solutions for the energy needs of the city. A network of environmentalists, research organizations, and businesses was established, helping the agenda of a sustainable city push forward.	Taking advantage of Freiburg’s location, educated and active residents, and political priorities invested in the environment and economy has led Freiburg to be considered a Solar Capital. Along with high solar electricity rates, Freiburg hosts such innovations as the world’s first football stadium with its own solar power plant and the world’s first self-sustaining solar energy building. In terms of both ecology and economy, Freiburg has been extremely successful in the fields of research and marketing of renewable energy. The Freiburg science network and solar industry embraces many research institutions, like the

entity_name: Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE

text: Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE

text: , Europe’s largest solar research institute.	In addition to solar initiatives, over the last four decades Freiburg has made improvements to their transportation systems. Freiburg has over 500 km of bicycle paths and more than 5000 bicycle parking spaces as well as car-free centers, 30 kph zones, a region wide bus service, and tram lines.	Long before it was taken seriously Freiburg was resolving to cut

text: carbon dioxide emissions

text: . In 1966, the city resolved to lower carbon dioxide by 25 percent by 2010. Although they did not reach their initial goal by 2010, they are continually extending their goals. By 2030, they resolved to cut carbon dioxide emissions by 40 percent and be climate neutral by 2050.

text: Renewable energy offsets commonly include wind power, solar power, hydroelectric power and biofuel. Some of these offsets are used to reduce the cost differential between renewable and conventional energy production, increasing the commercial viability of a choice to use renewable energy sources.

text: Renewable energy

text: offsets commonly include

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: hydroelectric power

text: and

text: biofuel

text: . Some of these offsets are used to reduce the cost differential between renewable and conventional energy production, increasing the commercial viability of a choice to use renewable energy sources.

text: In the case of a wind power station, the situation is more complex. The alternator of a wind turbine is normally specified to match the strongest wind in which the turbine is designed to operate. This is because most of the cost of a wind turbine is in the rotor and the tower and bearings that support it, rather than in the alternator. It makes no economic sense to restrict the size of the alternator to anything less than the maximum that the rotor will deliver. However, this means that, unlike a conventional power station, a wind turbine rarely achieves its maximum rated output while operating.

text: In the case of a

text: wind power

text: station, the situation is more complex. The alternator of a

text: wind turbine

text: is normally specified to match the strongest wind in which the turbine is designed to operate. This is because most of the cost of a wind turbine is in the rotor and the tower and bearings that support it, rather than in the alternator. It makes no economic sense to restrict the size of the alternator to anything less than the maximum that the rotor will deliver. However, this means that, unlike a conventional power station, a wind turbine rarely achieves its maximum rated output while operating.

text: Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. ISBN 0-7425-4909-7), a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon, discusses the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy. The book has been called a "sophisticated, insightful, and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy, from wind to solar, geothermal, hydrogen, and beyond".

text: Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. ISBN 0-7425-4909-7), a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon, discusses the transition from

text: fossil fuels

text: to

text: renewable energy

text: . The book has been called a "sophisticated, insightful, and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy, from wind to solar, geothermal, hydrogen, and beyond".

text: Renewable energy is generated from natural resources—such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally replenished).  When comparing the processes for producing energy, there remain several fundamental differences between renewable energy and fossil fuels.  The process of producing oil, coal, or natural gas fuel is a difficult and demanding process that requires a great deal of complex equipment, physical and chemical processes. On the other hand, alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment and natural processes.  Wood, the most renewable and available alternative energy, burns the same amount of carbon it would emit if it degraded naturally. Nuclear power is an alternative to fossil fuels that is non-renewable, like fossil fuels, nuclear ones are a finite resource.

text: Renewable energy is generated from

text: natural resource

text: s—such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: —which are renewable (naturally replenished).  When comparing the processes for producing energy, there remain several fundamental differences between renewable energy and fossil fuels.  The process of producing oil, coal, or natural gas fuel is a difficult and demanding process that requires a great deal of complex equipment, physical and chemical processes. On the other hand, alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment and natural processes.  Wood, the most renewable and available alternative energy, burns the same amount of carbon it would emit if it degraded naturally. Nuclear power is an alternative to fossil fuels that is non-renewable, like fossil fuels, nuclear ones are a finite resource.

text: The first two industrial scale solar power plants in the country are the Singureni Solar Park completed in December 2010, and the Scornicesti Photovoltaic Park, completed 27 December 2011. Each is 1 MW.

text: The first two industrial scale solar power plants in the country are the

text: Singureni Solar Park

text: completed in December 2010, and the Scornicesti Photovoltaic Park, completed 27 December 2011. Each is 1 MW.

text: It will be the largest such facility in the UK. Ince Park will be utilized by taking waste and transforming it into energy. It is a facility dedicated to waste management and environmental technologies. It is located on the south bank of the Manchester Ship Canal. It is 126 acre site that has road and rail access and it can accommodate ships into the canal. It is being developed by a joint venture partnership by Peel Environmental and Covanta Energy. This park will possibly generate over 110 megawatts of renewable and low cost energy. The main concept of Ince Park is to perceive waste as a greener and more sustainable resource for energy rather than a costly issue that needs to be dealt with. It will also provide careers in the areas of waste, manufacturing, engineering, power generation, warehousing, supply chain, and logistics. Ince Park has received approval with the planning and will be the centre of Eco Park. It will be able to provide about 16 percent of the North West's renewable energy.

text: Solar power plants equipped with battery storage systems wherever net energy metering is implemented can use the stored electricity to feed electricity into the power grid when its frequency is below the rated parameter (50 Hz) and draw the excess cheap power from the grid when its frequency is above the rated parameter. Every day, frequency excursions above and below the rated grid frequency are in the order of 100 times in a day. The solar power plant owner would get nearly double the price for the electricity sent into the grid compared to the electricity consumed from the grid if a frequency-based tariff is offered to rooftop solar power plants or solar power plants dedicated to a distribution substation. A power purchase agreement (PPA) is not needed for solar power plants with a battery storage system to effectively serve ancillary services operations and to transmit generated electricity for captive consumption utilising an open access facility. Battery storage is already popular in India with more than 10 million households using batteries as back-up in case of load shedding. Battery storage systems are also used to improve the power factor.

text: Solar power plants equipped with

text: battery

text: storage systems wherever

text: net energy metering

text: is implemented can use the stored electricity to feed electricity into the power grid when its frequency is below the rated parameter (50 Hz) and draw the excess cheap power from the grid when its frequency is above the rated parameter. Every day, frequency excursions above and below the rated grid frequency are in the order of 100 times in a day. The solar power plant owner would get nearly double the price for the electricity sent into the grid compared to the electricity consumed from the grid if a frequency-based tariff is offered to rooftop solar power plants or solar power plants dedicated to a distribution substation. A power purchase agreement (PPA) is not needed for solar power plants with a

text: battery storage system

text: to effectively serve

text: ancillary services operations

text: and to transmit generated electricity for captive consumption utilising an open access facility. Battery storage is already popular in India with more than 10 million households using batteries as back-up in case of

text: load shedding

text: . Battery storage systems are also used to improve the

text: power factor

text: On June 28, 2005, the Senate approved an expansive energy bill with an 11-year, $18.6 billion package of energy tax breaks with a renewed focus toward renewable energy resources and conservation.  Tax credits were introduced for Solar Water Heat, Solar Space Heat, Solar Thermal Electric, Solar Thermal Process Heat, Photovoltaics, Wind, Biomass, Geothermal Electric, Fuel Cells, Geothermal Heat Pumps, CHP/Cogeneration, Solar Hybrid Lighting, Microturbines, and Geothermal Direct-Use.

text: The New Mexico Renewable Portfolio Standard calls for 20% renewable energy by 2020, and 4% from solar power from investor owned utilities, and 10% renewable from rural electric cooperatives. Renewable Energy Certificates, (RECs), may be sold through the Western Renewable Energy Generation Information System (WREGIS).

text: The New Mexico Renewable Portfolio Standard calls for 20% renewable energy by 2020, and 4% from

text: solar power

text: from investor owned utilities, and 10% renewable from rural electric cooperatives.

entity_name: Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)

text: Renewable Energy Certificates

text: , (RECs), may be sold through the Western Renewable Energy Generation Information System (WREGIS).

text: The Libra Group owns two renewable-energy subsidiaries. EuroEnergy, based in Greece, operates solar, wind and biogas energy plants. Greenwood Energy, based in the U.S., develops and produces renewable fuels including biofuels and fuel pellets, and provides fuel cell energy and combined fuel-cell heat and power plants, for utilities and for industrial customers including hotels, university campuses, and other public buildings. Greenwood also has a solar-power engineering, procurement, and construction division, called Greenwood Biosar. In 2014 Greenwood Biosar built Panama's first utility-scale solar power plant. Greenwood's solar division expanded significantly in 2014, and as of February 2015 it has a nearly 3 GW pipeline of renewable-energy projects, mainly in Latin America.

text: The Libra Group owns two renewable-energy subsidiaries. EuroEnergy, based in Greece, operates solar, wind and

text: biogas

text: energy plants. Greenwood Energy, based in the U.S., develops and produces renewable fuels including

text: biofuel

text: s and

text: fuel pellet

text: s, and provides

text: fuel cell

text: energy and combined fuel-cell heat and power plants, for utilities and for industrial customers including hotels, university campuses, and other public buildings. Greenwood also has a

text: solar-power

text: engineering, procurement, and construction division, called Greenwood Biosar. In 2014 Greenwood Biosar built Panama's first utility-scale solar power plant. Greenwood's solar division expanded significantly in 2014, and as of February 2015 it has a nearly 3 GW pipeline of renewable-energy projects, mainly in Latin America.

text: The report says that the  Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster is exacerbating many of the problems that nuclear energy is facing. There is "no obvious sign that the international nuclear industry could eventually turn empirically evident downward trend into a promising future", and the Fukushima nuclear disaster is likely to accelerate the decline. With long lead times of 10 years and more, it will be difficult to maintain, let alone increase, the number of operating nuclear power plants over the next 20 years. Moreover, says the report, it is clear that nuclear power development cannot keep up with the pace of renewable energy commercialization. For the first time, in 2010 total installed nuclear power capacity in the world (375 gigawatts) fell behind aggregate installed capacity (381 GW) of three specific renewables — wind turbines (193 GW), biomass and waste-to-energy plants (65 GW), and solar power (43 GW).

text: The report says that the

text: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

text: is exacerbating many of the problems that nuclear energy is facing. There is "no obvious sign that the international nuclear industry could eventually turn empirically evident downward trend into a promising future", and the Fukushima nuclear disaster is likely to accelerate the decline. With long lead times of 10 years and more, it will be difficult to maintain, let alone increase, the number of operating nuclear power plants over the next 20 years. Moreover, says the report, it is clear that nuclear power development cannot keep up with the pace of

text: renewable energy commercialization

text: . For the first time, in 2010 total installed nuclear power capacity in the world (375 gigawatts) fell behind aggregate installed capacity (381 GW) of three specific renewables — wind turbines (193 GW),

text: biomass

text: and

text: waste-to-energy

text: plants (65 GW), and solar power (43 GW).

text: As a solar energy provider, Island Pacific Energy owns, operates and maintains the photovoltaic systems on the roofs of commercial and non-profit entities and sells the clean renewable energy that is generated to the customer under long term power purchase agreements. This arrangement enables customers who cannot take advantage of the incentives (tax credits) to still reap the economic benefits of solar power. Island Pacific Energy was the first company to execute a power purchase agreement with a non-profit entity in the state of Hawaii.

text: As a solar energy provider, Island Pacific Energy owns, operates and maintains the photovoltaic systems on the roofs of commercial and non-profit entities and sells the clean renewable energy that is generated to the customer under long term

text: power purchase agreement

text: s. This arrangement enables customers who cannot take advantage of the incentives (tax credits) to still reap the economic benefits of solar power. Island Pacific Energy was the first company to execute a

text: power purchase agreement

text: with a non-profit entity in the state of Hawaii.

text: Unlike some other renewable power sources such as wind and solar, geothermal energy is dispatchable, meaning that it is both available whenever needed, and can quickly adjust output to match demand. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), of all types of new electrical generation plants, geothermal generators have the highest capacity factor, a measure of how much power a facility actually generates as a percent of its maximum capacity. The EIA rates new geothermal plants as having a 92% capacity factor, higher than those of nuclear (90%), gas (87%), or coal (85%), and much higher than those of intermittent sources such as onshore wind (34%) or solar photovoltaic (25%). While the carrier medium for geothermal electricity (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earth's heat, will be available, for most intents and purposes, indefinitely.

text: Unlike some other renewable power sources such as wind and solar, geothermal energy is

text: dispatchable

text: , meaning that it is both available whenever needed, and can quickly adjust output to match demand. According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), of all types of new electrical generation plants, geothermal generators have the highest

text: capacity factor

text: , a measure of how much power a facility actually generates as a percent of its maximum capacity. The EIA rates new geothermal plants as having a 92% capacity factor, higher than those of nuclear (90%), gas (87%), or coal (85%), and much higher than those of intermittent sources such as onshore wind (34%) or solar photovoltaic (25%). While the carrier medium for geothermal electricity (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earth's heat, will be available, for most intents and purposes, indefinitely.

text: If the total annual primary production of biomass is just over 100 billion (1.0E+11) tonnes of Carbon /yr, and the energy reserve per metric tonne of biomass is between about 1.5E3 – 3E3 Kilowatt hours (5E6 – 10E6 BTU), or 24.8 TW average, then biomass could in principle provide 1.4 times the approximate annual  150E3 Terrawatt hours required for current world energy consumption. For reference, the total solar power on Earth is 174 kTW.  The biomass equivalent to solar energy ratio is 143 ppm (parts per million), given current living system coverage on Earth. Best in class solar cell efficiency is (20–40)%. Additionally, Earth's internal radioactive energy production, largely the driver for volcanic activity, continental drift, etc.,  is in the same range of power, 20 TW. At some 50% carbon mass content in biomass, annual production, this corresponds to about 6% of atmospheric carbon content in CO2 (for the current 400 ppm).

text: If the total annual

text: primary production

text: of

text: biomass

text: is just over 100 billion (1.0E+11) tonnes of Carbon /yr, and the energy reserve per

text: metric tonne

text: of biomass is between about 1.5E3 – 3E3

text: Kilowatt hour

text: s (5E6 – 10E6 BTU), or 24.8 TW average, then biomass could in principle provide 1.4 times the approximate annual  150E3 Terrawatt hours required for current

text: world energy consumption

text: . For reference, the total solar power on Earth is 174 kTW.  The biomass equivalent to solar energy ratio is 143 ppm (parts per million), given current living system coverage on Earth. Best in class solar cell efficiency is (20–40)%. Additionally, Earth's internal radioactive energy production, largely the driver for volcanic activity, continental drift, etc.,  is in the same range of power, 20 TW. At some 50% carbon mass content in biomass, annual production, this corresponds to about 6% of atmospheric carbon content in CO2 (for the current 400 ppm).

text: Currently there is a 304 MW installed capacity of electricity generated by hydropower, in which 183 MW are in operation.The current system in place in Afghanistan though it works well, is not without its flaws. As Yasah et al. contend, “the common strategy is currently to build micro-hydropower facilities to power single bulbs and maybe a water boiler for the whole community. Such constructions will not deliver sufficient power for electric ovens etc., grid electricity will not stretch out to the rural areas of Afghanistan in the near decades” (Yasah et al., p. 51). That being said, Hydropower and Hydro Energy are some of the best options that are currently in place. The geographical location of Afghanistan is extremely mountainous which makes the implementation of Hydropower an easier choice though not much has been created and implemented yet (Ahmad & Wasiq). Acknowledging how low Afghanistan’s ecological footprint is in terms of their energy consumption talking about a worldwide standpoint, it is not a current possibility to have enough energy (Global Footprint International; Mainali & Silveira Mainali). In fact, “the country has 75 billion cubic meters of potentially available renewable water resources are also the main source of recharge for groundwater as precipitation is low in Afghanistan” (Ahmad & Wasiq, p. 2). Water has become such a precious commodity across the globe that makes having an abundance of it, as a natural resource is a fortunate reality for Afghanistan (Ahmad & Wasiq). That being said it is also contended that even though these ideas and proposals for hydro energy would work and have positive effects, the necessary work that is a project such as hydro energy. (Yasah et al.; Ahmad & Wasiq)

text: Through the Renewables Obligation, British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee. The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC) for each MW·h of electricity they have purchased. The Energy Act 2008 introduced banded ROCs for different technologies from April 2009. Onshore wind receives 1 ROC per MW·h, however following the Renewables Obligation Banding Review in 2009 offshore wind now receives 2 ROCs to reflect its higher costs of generation. Wind energy receives approximately 40% of the total revenue generated by the RO. The ROCs are the principal form of support for United Kingdom wind power, providing over half of the revenue from wind generation.

text: Through the

text: Renewables Obligation

text: , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee. The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC) for each MW·h of electricity they have purchased. The Energy Act 2008 introduced banded ROCs for different technologies from April 2009. Onshore wind receives 1 ROC per MW·h, however following the Renewables Obligation Banding Review in 2009 offshore wind now receives 2 ROCs to reflect its higher costs of generation. Wind energy receives approximately 40% of the total revenue generated by the RO. The ROCs are the principal form of support for United Kingdom wind power, providing over half of the revenue from wind generation.

text: Energy independence, while being attempted by large or resource-rich and economically strong countries like United States, Russia, China and the Near East, is an idealized status that at present can only be approximated through non-sustainable exploitation of a country's (non-renewable) natural resources. Another factor in reducing dependence is of course the addition of renewable energy sources to the energy mix. Usually, a country will rely on local and global energy renewable and non-renewable resources, a mixed-model solution that presumes various energy sources and modes of energy transfer between countries like electric power transmission, oil transport (oil and gas pipelines and tankers), etc.. The European dependence on Russian energy is a case in point.

text: Energy independence, while being attempted by large or resource-rich and economically strong countries like United States, Russia, China and the

text: Near East

text: , is an idealized status that at present can only be approximated through

text: non-sustainable

text: exploitation

text: of a country's (

text: non-renewable

text: natural resource

text: s. Another factor in reducing dependence is of course the addition of

text: renewable energy

text: sources to the

text: energy mix

text: . Usually, a country will rely on local and global energy renewable and non-renewable resources, a mixed-model solution that presumes various energy sources and modes of

text: energy transfer

text: between countries like

text: electric power transmission

text: , oil transport (

text: oil

text: and

text: gas pipeline

text: s and

text: tankers

text: ), etc.. The

text: European dependence on Russian energy

text: is a case in point.

text: In 2010 the Arizona Legislature included nuclear power in a proposed bill for electric utility renewable energy standards.  The bill defined "renewable energy" as energy that is renewable and non-carbon emitting.  It listed solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, hydroelectric, agricultural waste, landfill gas and nuclear sources.

text: In 2010 the

text: Arizona Legislature

text: included nuclear power in a proposed bill for electric utility renewable energy standards.  The bill defined "renewable energy" as energy that is renewable and non-carbon emitting.  It listed solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, hydroelectric, agricultural waste, landfill gas and nuclear sources.

text: Renewable energy encompasses wind, hydropower, solar power (thermal and photovoltaic), geothermal, and ocean power. These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) and nuclear fuel (uranium). Solving the energy problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century.

text: Renewable energy encompasses

text: wind

text: hydropower

text: solar power

text: (thermal and photovoltaic),

text: geothermal

text: , and

text: ocean power

text: . These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels (

text: oil

text: coal

text: natural gas

text: ) and

text: nuclear fuel

text: (uranium). Solving the energy problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century.

text: The Google photovoltaic campus and the Microsoft 480-kilowatt photovoltaic campus relied on U.S. Federal, and especially California, subsidies and financial incentives. California is now providing US$3.2 billion in subsidies for residential-and-commercial near-zero-energy buildings. The details of other American states' renewable energy subsidies (up to US$5.00 per watt) can be found in the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency. The Florida Solar Energy Center has a slide presentation on recent progress in this area.

text: Despite its long interaction with water, the Netherlands has little potential for hydropower due to its flat topography. The Netherlands has a large resource of moving water in its major rivers but its limited hydraulic head because of little elevation change means that hydropower is a minor component of the country's renewable energy portfolio. A few small hydro plants exist but in total produce less than a tenth of a percent of the Netherlands' electricity.

text: Despite its long interaction with water, the

text: Netherlands

text: has little potential for

text: hydropower

text: due to its flat topography. The Netherlands has a large resource of moving water in its major rivers but its limited

text: hydraulic head

text: because of little elevation change means that hydropower is a minor component of the country's

text: renewable energy

text: portfolio. A few small hydro plants exist but in total produce less than a tenth of a percent of the Netherlands' electricity.

text: Like nuclear energy, renewable electricity supply, of primarily hydropower, in the 20-50+% range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system. In 2012, the share of electricity generated by all types of renewable sources in Germany was 21.9%, compared to 16.0% for nuclear power after Germany shut down 7-8 of its 18 nuclear reactors in 2011. In the United Kingdom, the amount of energy produced from renewable energy is expected to exceed that from nuclear power by 2018, and Scotland plans to obtain all electricity from renewable energy by 2020. The majority of installed renewable energy across the world is in the form of hydro power.

text: Like nuclear energy, renewable electricity supply, of primarily

text: hydropower

text: , in the 20-50+% range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system. In 2012, the share of electricity generated by all types of renewable sources in Germany was 21.9%, compared to 16.0% for nuclear power after Germany shut down 7-8 of its 18 nuclear reactors in 2011. In the United Kingdom, the amount of energy produced from renewable energy is expected to exceed that from nuclear power by 2018, and Scotland plans to obtain all electricity from renewable energy by 2020. The majority of installed renewable energy across the world is in the form of

text: hydro power

text: In the United States, one of the main problems with purchasing green energy through the electrical grid is the current centralized infrastructure that supplies the consumer’s electricity. This infrastructure has led to increasingly frequent brown outs and black outs, high CO emissions, higher energy costs, and power quality issues. An additional $450 billion will be invested to expand this fledgling system over the next 20 years to meet increasing demand. In addition, this centralized system is now being further overtaxed with the incorporation of renewable energies such as wind, solar, and geothermal energies. Renewable resources, due to the amount of space they require, are often located in remote areas where there is a lower energy demand. The current infrastructure would make transporting this energy to high demand areas, such as urban centers, highly inefficient and in some cases impossible. In addition, despite the amount of renewable energy produced or the economic viability of such technologies only about 20 percent will be able to be incorporated into the grid. To have a more sustainable energy profile, the United States must move towards implementing changes to the electrical grid that will accommodate a mixed-fuel economy.

text: Wind (primary renewable natural) power harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms. There are offshore and onshore wind farms. Global wind power capacity has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was around 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing rapidly.

text: Wind (primary renewable natural) power harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of

text: wind turbine

text: s. These turbines cause the rotation of

text: magnet

text: s, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on

text: wind farm

text: s. There are

text: offshore

text: and

text: onshore

text: wind farms.

text: Global wind power capacity

text: has expanded rapidly to 336

text: GW

text: in June 2014, and wind energy production was around 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing rapidly.

text: Renewable Thermal has been a core resource in many states Renewable Portfolio Standards.  The report says: "State Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) programs have historically focused on electricity generation. However, some states have started incorporating renewable thermal power for heat generation into their RPS as a way to support the development and market growth of solar thermal, biomass thermal, geothermal, and other renewable thermal technologies."  Further: "Renewable thermal energy has many of the same benefits as other renewable technologies, including improved air quality, economic development and job creation, and the promotion of regional energy security."

text: With such a high demand for oil many countries in the Middle East (e.g.  Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Kuwait) have all been involved in armed conflicts with western oil interests.  With the political battle for oil raging in the region for over 30 years now and with fewer Middle Eastern allies, Iran has started to expand its energy sector to try meets its growing needs.  While Iran has been investing in nuclear energy since the 1950s, in the last 15 years they have dedicated much more time and resources to strengthen their nuclear program. Nuclear energy produced by refining of uranium is an excellent source of energy and is a strong alternative in the face of falling oil sales and a growing population. However the United States and their allies such as Israel, Great Britain, France, etc. have expressed fears that Iran's nuclear program is really to achieve nuclear weapons of mass destruction which threaten the safety and stability of countries in the region, as well as the world. As a result, the United States imposed strong sanctions against Iran extremely limiting their nuclear capabilities which impacted Iran's own growing demand for energy.  Faced with the issue of limited energy, Iran has begun to invest in a very effective renewable resource, wind power.

text: Methods to manage wind power integration range from those that are commonly used at present (e.g. demand management) to potential new technologies for grid energy storage. Improved forecasting can also contribute as the daily and seasonal variations in wind and solar sources are to some extent predictable. The Pembina Institute and the World Wide Fund for Nature state in the Renewable is Doable plan that resilience is a feature of renewable energy:

text: Methods to manage wind power integration range from those that are commonly used at present (e.g.

text: demand management

text: ) to potential new technologies for

text: grid energy storage

text: . Improved

text: forecasting

text: can also contribute as the daily and seasonal variations in wind and solar sources are to some extent predictable. The

text: Pembina Institute

text: and the

text: World Wide Fund for Nature

text: state in the

text: Renewable is Doable

text: plan that resilience is a feature of renewable energy:

text: The potential of renewable energy resources to expand our energy supply while decreasing adverse environmental impact has been an interest of Wellinghoff throughout his career.  Obstacles remain, however, to the full utilization of wind, solar, geothermal, and hydrokinetic energy.  While these resources provide a growing share of America’s energy, they remain hampered by their often remote proximity to major population centers and other impediments.  Wellinghoff has made the integration of these resources into the energy market a key aspect of his agenda.

text: Solar energy – radiant light and heat from the sun. It has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces.

text: Solar energy

text: – radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: . It has been harnessed by humans since

text: ancient times

text: using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include

text: solar heating

text: solar photovoltaics

text: solar thermal electricity

text: and

text: solar architecture

text: , which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces.

text: Greengate Power Corporation (Greengate) has nine wind projects under development in Alberta, Canada totaling 1,550 Megawatts (MW) across 200,000 acres of private land.  This represents a potential investment of $4 billion upon full build-out of the projects.  Greengate’s goal is to be Canada’s largest pure-play renewable energy producer.  Greengate’s unique strategy has been to develop wind energy projects in close proximity to transmission lines with available capacity, with high quality wind resources and substantially contracted sources of revenue.  This strategy has enabled Greengate to be a leader in the wind energy industry in Alberta.

text: Greengate Power Corporation (Greengate) has nine

text: wind projects

text: under development in

text: Alberta

text: Canada

text: totaling 1,550

text: Megawatts

text: (MW) across 200,000

text: acres

text: of private land.  This represents a potential investment of $4 billion upon full build-out of the projects.  Greengate’s goal is to be Canada’s largest pure-play renewable energy producer.  Greengate’s unique strategy has been to develop wind energy projects in close proximity to transmission lines with available capacity, with high quality wind resources and substantially contracted sources of revenue.  This strategy has enabled Greengate to be a leader in the wind energy industry in Alberta.

text: Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies. Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today". A series of studies by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory modeled the "grid in the Western US under a number of different scenarios where intermittent renewables accounted for 33 percent of the total power." In the models, inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to compensate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in an additional cost of "between $0.47 and $1.28 to each MegaWatt hour generated"; however, the savings in the cost of the fuels saved "adds up to $7 billion, meaning the added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings."

text: Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (

text: LCOE

text: ) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (

text: PV

text: ), concentrated solar power (

text: CSP

text: ) and some biomass technologies. Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today". A series of studies by the US

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: modeled the "grid in the Western US under a number of different scenarios where intermittent renewables accounted for 33 percent of the total power." In the models, inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to compensate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in an additional cost of "between $0.47 and $1.28 to each MegaWatt hour generated"; however, the savings in the cost of the fuels saved "adds up to $7 billion, meaning the added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings."

text: The main area of focus of the group is the utilization of the ocean resources to find alternative technologies for fresh water and renewable energy. Currently the group is working on three specific areas, fresh water production using low temperature thermal desalination (LTTD) process and energy production using two distinctly different processes, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion and Wave Energy.

text: In pursuit of the supply objective, policy initiatives, particularly with respect to crude oil and natural gas,Malaysia have aimed at both extending the life of domestic non-renewable energy resources, as well as diversification away from oil dependence to include other forms of energy sources.

text: In pursuit of the supply objective, policy initiatives, particularly with respect to

text: crude oil

text: and natural gas,Malaysia have aimed at both extending the life of domestic non-renewable energy resources, as well as diversification away from oil dependence to include other forms of energy sources.

text: In October 2014, Senator Meredith was named "Legislator of the Year" by the N.C. Sustainable Energy Association for his "vocal support of clean energy policies" and his support for the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficient Portfolio Standard, a program which requires the state's electrical power producers to utilize renewable sources for a proportion of their electricity generation, as well as the Renewable Energy Investment Tax Credit.  Additionally, Meredith was recognized through the honor for his work with Fort Bragg to help take advantage of the renewable energy that the is produced at the base.

text: In October 2014, Senator Meredith was named "Legislator of the Year" by the N.C. Sustainable Energy Association for his "vocal support of clean energy policies" and his support for the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficient Portfolio Standard, a program which requires the state's electrical power producers to utilize renewable sources for a proportion of their electricity generation, as well as the Renewable Energy Investment Tax Credit.  Additionally, Meredith was recognized through the honor for his work with

text: Fort Bragg

text: to help take advantage of the renewable energy that the is produced at the base.

text: Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid. Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent  renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels.

text: Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or

text: caravans

text: or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the

text: electrical grid

text: . Arrays of large turbines, known as

text: wind farm

text: s, are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent

text: renewable energy

text: and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on

text: fossil fuel

text: s.

text: Renewable energy in Luxembourg comes from hydro power, wind, biomass and solar power.

text: Renewable energy

text: in

text: Luxembourg

text: comes from

text: hydro power

text: wind

text: biomass

text: and

text: solar power

text: Three primary energy sources make up the energy mix in Guinea: fossil biomass, oil and hydropower. Biomass (firewood and charcoal) makes the largest contribution in primary energy consumption. It is locally produced, while Guinea imports all the petroleum products it needs. The potential for hydroelectric power generation is high, but largely untapped. Electricity is not available to a high percentage of Guineans, especially in rural areas, and service is intermittent, even in the capital city of Conakry.

text: Three

text: primary energy

text: sources make up the

text: energy mix

text: in Guinea:

text: fossil

text: biomass

text: oil

text: and

text: hydropower

text: . Biomass (firewood and

text: charcoal

text: ) makes the largest contribution in primary energy consumption. It is locally produced, while Guinea imports all the

text: petroleum

text: products it needs. The potential for hydroelectric power generation is high, but largely untapped. Electricity is not available to a high percentage of Guineans, especially in rural areas, and service is intermittent, even in the capital city of

text: Conakry

text: Electrolysis consists of using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This source of hydrogen is by far the most expensive since the energy input required for water splitting is higher than the energy that could be obtained from the produced hydrogen. Due to their use of water, a readily available resource, electrolysis and similar water-splitting methods have attracted the interest of the scientific community. With the objective of reducing the cost of hydrogen production, renewable sources of energy have been targeted to allow electrolysis.There are three main types of cells, solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs), polymer electrolyte membrane cells (PEM) and alkaline electrolysis cells (AECs). SOECs operate at high temperatures, typically around 800 °C. At these high temperatures a significant amount of the energy required can be provided as thermal energy (heat), and as such is termed High temperature electrolysis. The heat energy can be provided from a number of different sources, including waste industrial heat, nuclear power stations or concentrated solar thermal plants. This has the potential to reduce the overall cost of the hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of electrical energy required for electrolysis. PEM electrolysis cells typically operate below 100 °C and are becoming increasingly available commercially. These cells have the advantage of being comparatively simple and can be designed to accept widely varying voltage inputs which makes them ideal for use with renewable sources of energy such as solar PV. AECs optimally operate at high concentrations electrolyte (KOH or potassium carbonate) and at high temperatures, often near 200 °C.

text: Electrolysis consists of using electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This source of hydrogen is by far the most expensive since the energy input required for water splitting is higher than the energy that could be obtained from the produced hydrogen. Due to their use of water, a readily available resource, electrolysis and similar water-splitting methods have attracted the interest of the scientific community. With the objective of reducing the cost of hydrogen production, renewable sources of energy have been targeted to allow electrolysis.There are three main types of cells,

text: solid oxide electrolysis cells

text: (SOECs),

entity_name: Polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis

text: polymer electrolyte membrane cells

text: (PEM) and alkaline electrolysis cells (AECs). SOECs operate at high temperatures, typically around 800 °C. At these high temperatures a significant amount of the energy required can be provided as thermal energy (heat), and as such is termed

text: High temperature electrolysis

text: . The heat energy can be provided from a number of different sources, including waste industrial heat, nuclear power stations or concentrated solar thermal plants. This has the potential to reduce the overall cost of the hydrogen produced by reducing the amount of electrical energy required for electrolysis. PEM electrolysis cells typically operate below 100 °C and are becoming increasingly available commercially. These cells have the advantage of being comparatively simple and can be designed to accept widely varying voltage inputs which makes them ideal for use with renewable sources of energy such as solar PV. AECs optimally operate at high concentrations electrolyte (KOH or potassium carbonate) and at high temperatures, often near 200 °C.

text: In response to the objective to be a sustainable city stated in the city’s general plan prepared in 2010, the city has adopted a Climate Action Plan. In addition, SVP has for many years acquired renewable resources and has implemented programs such as Santa Clara Green Power, which allows customers the option to purchase 100% green power, and multiple energy efficiency rebate programs for residences and businesses.SVP maintains a renewable energy portfolio that exceeds state-mandated levels by approximately 25%. In 2013, the State of California required utilities to provide at least 20% of their power from eligible renewable resources, which includes hydropower plants that generate up to 30 MW of power. SVP’s eligible renewable portfolio in 2012 was 24.2%.   When SVP’s hydropower plants that generate over 30 MW are factored in, SVP’s total “green” resource profile rises to 41.9%.In 2011, 2012, and 2013, SVP was ranked among the top 10 municipal utilities in the U.S. by the Solar Electric Power Association for new solar power capacity. In late 2013, SVP was recognized by the independent survey company RKS Research for scoring the highest business customer satisfaction ratings of any California utility included in its surveys since RKS began polling utility customers in 1995.  SVP also earned the U.S. Department of Energy’s 2014 Public Power Wind Award for the pursuit and creative utilization of wind power resources.

text: Portugal has considerable resources of wind and river power, the two most cost-effective renewable sources. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been a trend towards the development of a renewable resource industry and reduction of both consumption and use of fossil fuel resources. In 2006, the world's largest solar power plant at that date, the Moura Photovoltaic Power Station, began operating near Moura, in the south, while the world's first commercial wave power farm, the Aguçadoura Wave Farm, opened in the Norte region (2008). By the end of 2006, 66% of the country's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants, while 29% were derived from hydroelectric dams, and 6% by wind energy.

text: Portugal has considerable resources of wind and river power, the two most cost-effective renewable sources. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been a trend towards the development of a renewable resource industry and reduction of both consumption and use of fossil fuel resources. In 2006, the world's largest

text: solar power

text: plant at that date, the

text: Moura Photovoltaic Power Station

text: , began operating near

text: Moura

text: , in the south, while the world's first commercial

text: wave power

text: farm, the

text: Aguçadoura Wave Farm

text: , opened in the

text: Norte region

text: (2008). By the end of 2006, 66% of the country's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants, while 29% were derived from

text: hydroelectric

text: dams, and 6% by

text: wind energy

text: The U.S. electric power industry now relies on large, central power stations, including coal, natural gas, nuclear, and hydropower plants that together generate more than 95% of the nation’s electricity. Over the next few decades uses of renewable energy could help to diversify the nation’s bulk power supply.  Already, appropriate renewable resources (which excludes large hydropower) produce 12% of northern California’s electricity.

text: Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits, Renewable Electricity Certificates, or Tradable Renewable Certificates (TRCs), are tradable, non-tangible energy commodities in the United States that represent proof that 1 megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity was generated from an eligible renewable energy resource (renewable electricity) and was fed into the shared system of power lines which transport energy. Solar renewable energy certificates (SRECs) are RECs that are specifically generated by solar energy. Renewable Energy Certificates provide a mechanism for the purchase of renewable energy that is added to and pulled from the electrical grid.

text: Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits, Renewable Electricity Certificates, or Tradable Renewable Certificates (TRCs), are tradable, non-tangible energy commodities in the United States that represent proof that 1

text: megawatt-hour

text: (MWh) of

text: electricity

text: was generated from an eligible

text: renewable energy

text: resource (

text: renewable electricity

text: ) and was fed into the shared system of power lines which transport energy.

text: Solar renewable energy certificates

text: (SRECs) are RECs that are specifically generated by solar energy. Renewable Energy Certificates provide a mechanism for the purchase of renewable energy that is added to and pulled from the

text: electrical grid

text: The house was designed with environmental standards in mind.  Heymann selected limestone quarried very close to the site.  The pieces used are left-over from other cuttings, making a statement about resource conservation.  "They cut the top and bottom of it off because nobody really wants it," Heymann says. "So we bought all this throwaway stone. It's fabulous. It's got great color and it is relatively inexpensive."  Both the main house and the guest house use geothermal energy for their heating and cooling and require 25% less energy usage than a conventional heating and cooling system.

text: The house was designed with environmental standards in mind.  Heymann selected limestone quarried very close to the site.  The pieces used are left-over from other cuttings, making a statement about resource conservation.  "They cut the top and bottom of it off because nobody really wants it," Heymann says. "So we bought all this throwaway stone. It's fabulous. It's got great color and it is relatively inexpensive."  Both the main house and the guest house use

text: geothermal

text: energy for their heating and cooling and require 25% less energy usage than a conventional heating and cooling system.

text: Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all renewable energies, other than Geothermal power and Tidal power, derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun.

text: Solar technologies are characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight and enable solar energy to be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. Although solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends, all renewable energies, other than

text: Geothermal power

text: and

text: Tidal power

text: , derive their energy either directly or indirectly from the Sun.

text: Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in the early 1980s. Its cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached 33.8 GW, of which 66% comes from wind, while solar power contributes 4.59% along with biomass and hydro power.

text: Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the

text: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

text: . India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of

text: non-conventional energy

text: resources, in the early 1980s. Its cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached 33.8 GW, of which 66% comes from wind, while solar power contributes 4.59% along with biomass and hydro power.

text: Iceland began utilising renewable energy early in the 20th century and so since has been a low-carbon economy. However, since dramatic economic growth, Iceland's emissions have increased significantly per capita. As of 2009, Iceland energy is sourced from mostly geothermal energy and hydropower, renewable energy in Iceland and, since 1999, has provided over 70% of the nation's primary energy and 99.9% of Iceland's electricity. As a result of this, Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the United States despite using more primary energy per capita, due to the fact that it is renewable and low-cost. Iceland seeks carbon neutrality and expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating hydrogen fuel from renewable energy sources.

text: Iceland began utilising renewable energy early in the 20th century and so since has been a low-carbon economy. However, since dramatic economic growth, Iceland's emissions have increased significantly per capita. As of 2009, Iceland energy is sourced from mostly

text: geothermal energy

text: and

text: hydropower

text: renewable energy in Iceland

text: and, since 1999, has provided over 70% of the nation's

text: primary energy

text: and 99.9% of Iceland's

text: electricity

text: . As a result of this, Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the

text: United States

text: despite using more primary energy per capita, due to the fact that it is renewable and low-cost. Iceland seeks

text: carbon neutrality

text: and expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating

text: hydrogen fuel

text: from renewable energy sources.

text: Hans-Josef Fell wrote the draft    of the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG), which was adopted in 2000 in the face of strong political opposition. The law, enacted 25 February 2000, guarantees cost-covering feed-in tariffs for electricity from biomass, wind power, and solar power, and aimed to increase the percentage of renewable energy used in Germany to 12.5% by the year 2010 and 20% by 2020. In 2011, Germany was already generating 20% of its energy from renewable resources. He was also involved in drafting the law amending the EEG in 2004.

text: Hans-Josef Fell wrote the draft    of the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG), which was adopted in 2000 in the face of strong political opposition. The law, enacted 25 February 2000, guarantees cost-covering

text: feed-in tariff

text: s for electricity from

text: biomass

text: wind power

text: , and

text: solar power

text: , and aimed to increase the percentage of

text: renewable energy

text: used in

text: Germany

text: to 12.5% by the year 2010 and 20% by 2020. In 2011, Germany was already generating 20% of its energy from renewable resources. He was also involved in drafting the law amending the EEG in 2004.

text: In 2012, ex-prime minister Naoto Kan was interviewed about the Fukushima nuclear disaster, and has said that at one point Japan faced a situation where there was a chance that people might not be able to live in the capital zone including Tokyo and would have to evacuate. He says he is haunted by the specter of an even bigger nuclear crisis forcing tens of millions of people to flee Tokyo and threatening the nation's existence. "If things had reached that level, not only would the public have had to face hardships but Japan's very existence would have been in peril". That convinced Kan to "declare the need for Japan to end its reliance on atomic power and promote renewable sources of energy such as solar that have long taken a back seat in the resource-poor country's energy mix". Government Officials revealed in interviews that they were grappling the possibility of a "demonic chain reaction": If Fukushima collapsed and released enough radiation, it was "possible that other nearby nuclear power plants would have to be abandoned and could also collapse, thereby necessitating the evacuation of one of the world’s largest cities".

text: In 2012, ex-prime minister

text: Naoto Kan

text: was interviewed about the Fukushima nuclear disaster, and has said that at one point Japan faced a situation where there was a chance that people might not be able to live in the capital zone including Tokyo and would have to evacuate. He says he is haunted by the specter of an even bigger nuclear crisis forcing tens of millions of people to flee Tokyo and threatening the nation's existence. "If things had reached that level, not only would the public have had to face hardships but Japan's very existence would have been in peril". That convinced Kan to "declare the need for Japan to end its reliance on atomic power and promote renewable sources of energy such as solar that have long taken a back seat in the resource-poor country's energy mix". Government Officials revealed in interviews that they were grappling the possibility of a "demonic chain reaction": If Fukushima collapsed and released enough radiation, it was "possible that other nearby nuclear power plants would have to be abandoned and could also collapse, thereby necessitating the evacuation of one of the world’s largest cities".

text: One major project that is being worked on is the development of nanotechnology in solar cells. Solar cells are more efficient as they get tinier and solar energy is a renewable resource. The price per watt of solar energy is lower than one dollar.

text: One major project that is being worked on is the development of nanotechnology in

text: solar cells

text: . Solar cells are more efficient as they get tinier and

text: solar energy

text: is a

text: renewable resource

text: . The price per watt of solar energy is lower than one dollar.

text: On 8 August 2013, Greece, Israel and Cyprus signed the tripartite energy memorandum of understanding after the completion of one year negotiation in Nicosia. Negotiations were held between the Energy and Water Resources Minister of Israel Silvan Shalom, the Cypriot minister of agriculture, natural resources and environment Nicos Kouyialis and the Greek minister of environment, energy and climate change George Lakkotrypis. The  2,000-mega-watt EuroAsia Interconnector is planned to lift Cyprus and Israel out of energy isolation through cheaper electricity as supported by George Lakkotrypis.Silvan Shalom announced that the agreement is "historic" and insisted that it demonstrated the powerful relations between the three countries adding that the electric conduit will become a cable and is going to export electricity to the European energy market. The Greek Prime Minister Antonis Samaras proclaimed on 8 August 2013 that Israel has a special role to play in supplying Europe with energy resources and supported that it can become a key energy hub.  His statement at the White House occurred a few hours after the signing of an 800-million-Euro agreement to lay the EuroAsia Interconnector cable connecting the three country's power grids.

text: On 8 August 2013, Greece, Israel and Cyprus signed the tripartite energy memorandum of understanding after the completion of one year negotiation in Nicosia. Negotiations were held between the Energy and Water Resources Minister of Israel

text: Silvan Shalom

text: , the Cypriot minister of agriculture, natural resources and environment Nicos Kouyialis and the Greek minister of environment, energy and climate change George Lakkotrypis. The  2,000-mega-watt EuroAsia Interconnector is planned to lift Cyprus and Israel out of energy isolation through cheaper electricity as supported by George Lakkotrypis.Silvan Shalom announced that the agreement is "historic" and insisted that it demonstrated the powerful relations between the three countries adding that the electric conduit will become a cable and is going to export electricity to the European energy market. The Greek Prime Minister Antonis Samaras proclaimed on 8 August 2013 that Israel has a special role to play in supplying Europe with energy resources and supported that it can become a key energy hub.  His statement at the

text: White House

text: occurred a few hours after the signing of an 800-million-Euro agreement to lay the

text: EuroAsia Interconnector

text: cable connecting the three country's power grids.

text: In December 2016, Google announced that starting in 2017, it will power all of its data centers, as well as all of its offices, from 100% renewable energy. The commitment will make Google "the world’s largest corporate buyer of renewable power, with commitments reaching 2.6 gigawatts (2,600 megawatts) of wind and solar energy". Google also stated that it does not count that as its final goal; it says that "since the wind doesn’t blow 24 hours a day, we’ll also broaden our purchases to a variety of energy sources that can enable renewable power, every hour of every day". Additionally, the project will "help support communities" around the world, as the purchase commitments will "result in infrastructure investments of more than $3.5 billion globally", and will "generate tens of millions of dollars per year in revenue to local property owners, and tens of millions more to local and national governments in tax revenue".

text: The Mountain View Solar Energy Project is a 20 MW solar photovoltaic power plant located in the Mountain View Industrial Park near North Las Vegas in Clark County, Nevada.  All power generated by the nearly 84,000 modules is sold to NV Energy via a power purchase agreement.  The plant is operated by Mountain View Solar, a subsidiary of NextEra Energy Resources

text: The Mountain View Solar Energy Project is a 20 MW solar

text: photovoltaic

text: power plant located in the Mountain View Industrial Park near

text: North Las Vegas

text: in

text: Clark County, Nevada

text: .  All power generated by the nearly 84,000 modules is sold to

text: NV Energy

text: via a

text: power purchase agreement

text: .  The plant is operated by Mountain View Solar, a subsidiary of

text: NextEra Energy Resources

text: Manufacturers also recognized a profit opportunity in negative public perceptions about nuclear. In September 2011, German engineering giant Siemens announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan, and said that it would no longer build nuclear power plants anywhere in the world. The company’s chairman, Peter Löscher, said that "Siemens was ending plans to cooperate with Rosatom, the Russian state-controlled nuclear power company, in the construction of dozens of nuclear plants throughout Russia over the coming two decades". Renewable energy is a core component of Siemens's profit base. In February, 2016 the firm proposed a €10 billion renewable energy investment in Egypt.

text: Manufacturers also recognized a profit opportunity in negative public perceptions about nuclear. In September 2011, German engineering giant

text: Siemens

text: announced it will withdraw entirely from the nuclear industry, as a response to the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan, and said that it would no longer build nuclear power plants anywhere in the world. The company’s chairman, Peter Löscher, said that "Siemens was ending plans to cooperate with Rosatom, the Russian state-controlled nuclear power company, in the construction of dozens of nuclear plants throughout Russia over the coming two decades". Renewable energy is a core component of Siemens's profit base. In February, 2016 the firm proposed a €10 billion renewable energy investment in Egypt.

text: Dariali Hydropower Plant by the amount of generated energy is the fourth hydropower plant in Georgia. It will make annually a contribution to the local budget in kind of the property tax. The developed layout proposes the substation of Dariali HPP will be connected to the National Grid via Dariali 110kV transmission overhead line. The agreement on construction was signed between the Government of Georgia and the company Dariali Energy JSC on May 19, 2011. Before EBRD loan approval the company had actively used the domestic (more expensive) resource to boost the project development as much as possible. The company is supported by a top European project engineering conglomerate (Landsvirkjun Power & Verkis) (Iceland) which provides the project’s engineering supervision and preparation and implementation of the construction project. Construction and electromechanical contracts have been executed according to FIDIC standards, which makes the employer-contractor relationship the most transparent and effective.

text: Dariali Hydropower Plant by the amount of generated energy is the fourth hydropower plant in Georgia. It will make annually a contribution to the local budget in kind of the property tax. The developed layout proposes the substation of Dariali HPP will be connected to the National Grid via Dariali 110kV transmission overhead line. The agreement on construction was signed between the

text: Government of Georgia

text: and the company Dariali Energy JSC on May 19, 2011. Before EBRD loan approval the company had actively used the domestic (more expensive) resource to boost the project development as much as possible. The company is supported by a top European project engineering conglomerate (Landsvirkjun Power & Verkis) (Iceland) which provides the project’s engineering supervision and preparation and implementation of the construction project. Construction and electromechanical contracts have been executed according to FIDIC standards, which makes the employer-contractor relationship the most transparent and effective.

text: The main sources of energy in Bosnia-Herzegovina are coal and hydro-power. Oil and natural gas are imported. In 2012, the approximated hydro-potential was 6,800 MW. Only 35% of the capacities have been used, making it the lowest rate of exploitation in Europe. The gas supply is unreliable because only one pipeline for transporting natural gas exists. Fireword is most widely used for heating. Final energy consumption, which includes households, industry, traffic and agriculture, has been increasing since the drastic drops in the nineties, caused by warfare. According to data from 2008, the final energy consumption in Bosnia-Herzegovina was 0.62 toe/capita, which is significantly less than the average of 1.10 toe/capita energy consumption of Western Balkan countries, and the average of 2.23 toe/capita of European Union countries. Renewable energy consumption was 575 ktoe, which was 9.59% of the total consumption in 2008.It is forecast that the conditions for hydroelectric power will improve, which will lead to decreased use of fossil fuels. High oil prices may discourage its widespread usage. Compared to the Western Balkan region, however, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the leader in the usage of renewable energy. In 2008, the only other country that reported a growth was Croatia, with a 0.6% growth of renewable energy usage, following Bosnia's 1.32%. All other countries, such as Albania, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Serbia reported drops. Hydroelectric power is in majority with 51.8% of the renewable energy share, while biomass is at 48.14% and geothermal at 0.04%.

text: As opposed to overall energy reduction, the government organization Saudi Aramco wishes to create a solar energy sector. Saudi Arabia has a goal to create 41 GW of renewable energy plants, which would place the country as a leading solar energy exporter. Currently, the country is at 17 MW of solar energy and as a ways to go before reaching the goal. Hydroelectric and water based powers are also being discussed as alternatives to carbon emitting energies.

text: As opposed to overall energy reduction, the government organization

text: Saudi Aramco

text: wishes to create a

text: solar energy

text: sector. Saudi Arabia has a goal to create 41 GW of renewable energy plants, which would place the country as a leading solar energy exporter. Currently, the country is at 17 MW of solar energy and as a ways to go before reaching the goal.

text: Hydroelectric

text: and water based powers are also being discussed as alternatives to carbon emitting energies.

text: NaS batteries can be deployed to support the electric grid, or for stand-alone renewable power applications. In 2010, Presidio, Texas built the world's largest sodium–sulfur battery, which can provide 4 MW of power for up to eight hours when the city's lone line to the Texas power grid goes down. Under some market conditions, NaS batteries provide value via energy arbitrage (charging battery when electricity is abundant/cheap, and discharging into the grid when electricity is more valuable) and voltage regulation. NaS batteries are a possible energy storage technology to support renewable energy generation, specifically wind farms and solar generation plants. In the case of a wind farm, the battery would store energy during times of high wind but low power demand. This stored energy could then be discharged from the batteries during peak load periods. In addition to this power shifting, sodium sulfur batteries could be used to assist in stabilizing the power output of the wind farm during wind fluctuations. These types of batteries present an option for energy storage in locations where other storage options are not feasible. For example, pumped-storage hydroelectricity facilities require significant space and water resources, while compressed air energy storage (CAES) requires some type of geologic feature such as a salt cave.

text: NaS batteries can be deployed to support the electric grid, or for stand-alone renewable power applications. In 2010,

text: Presidio, Texas

text: built the world's largest sodium–sulfur battery, which can provide 4 MW of power for up to eight hours when the city's lone line to the

text: Texas power grid

text: goes down. Under some market conditions, NaS batteries provide value via energy

text: arbitrage

text: (charging battery when electricity is abundant/cheap, and discharging into the grid when electricity is more valuable) and

text: voltage regulation

text: . NaS batteries are a possible energy storage technology to support renewable energy generation, specifically

text: wind farm

text: s and solar generation plants. In the case of a wind farm, the battery would store energy during times of high wind but low power demand. This stored energy could then be discharged from the batteries during

text: peak load

text: periods. In addition to this power shifting, sodium sulfur batteries could be used to assist in stabilizing the power output of the wind farm during wind fluctuations. These types of batteries present an option for energy storage in locations where other storage options are not feasible. For example,

text: pumped-storage hydroelectricity

text: facilities require significant space and water resources, while compressed air energy storage (

text: CAES

text: ) requires some type of geologic feature such as a salt cave.

text: Future battery developmentsmay change the economic equation, making it advantageous to use newer high capacity and longer-lived batteries in BEV/PHEVs. These newer batteries can be used in grid load balancing and as a large energy cache for renewable grid resources. If cycled daily, such batteries would only require replacement/recycling about every 55 years . Since BEVs can have up to 50 kWh worth of battery storage they represent somewhat more than the average home's daily energy demand. Even without a PHEV's gas generation capabilities such a vehicle could be used for emergency power for several days (for example, lighting, home appliances, etc. with combined load of 1 kW could be powered for 50 hours). This would be an example of Vehicle-to-home transmission (V2H).  As such they may be seen as a complementary technology for intermittent renewable power resources such as wind or solar electric.

text: Chinese energy experts are estimating that by 2050 the percentage of China's energy requirements that are satisfied by coal-fired plants will have declined to 30-50% of total energy consumption and that the remaining 50-70% will be provided by a combination of oil, natural gas, and renewable energy sources, including hydropower, nuclear power, biomass, solar energy, wind energy, and other renewable energy sources.

text: Chinese energy experts are estimating that by 2050 the percentage of China's energy requirements that are satisfied by coal-fired plants will have declined to 30-50% of total energy consumption and that the remaining 50-70% will be provided by a combination of

text: oil

text: natural gas

text: , and

text: renewable energy

text: sources, including

text: hydropower

text: nuclear power

text: biomass

text: , solar energy, wind energy, and other renewable energy sources.

text: Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates had anticipated. Wind turbines generate 39 percent of Danish electricity, and Denmark has many biogas digesters and waste-to-energy plants as well. Together, wind and biomass provide 44% of the electricity consumed by the country's six million inhabitants. In 2010, Portugal’s 10 million people produced more than half their electricity from indigenous renewable energy resources. Spain’s 40 million inhabitants meet one-third of their electrical needs from renewables.

text: Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates had anticipated.

text: Wind turbine

text: s generate 39 percent of Danish electricity, and Denmark has many biogas digesters and waste-to-energy plants as well. Together, wind and biomass provide 44% of the electricity consumed by the country's six million inhabitants. In 2010, Portugal’s 10 million people produced more than half their electricity from indigenous renewable energy resources. Spain’s 40 million inhabitants meet one-third of their electrical needs from renewables.

text: One advantage of such a geographically dispersed and dynamically balanced system is that the need for baseload generation is significantly reduced since intermittency of some sources such as ocean, solar, and wind can be smoothed.A series of detailed modeling studies by Dr. Gregor Czisch, which looked at the European-wide adoption of renewable energy and interlinking power grids using HVDC cables, indicates that Europe's entire power usage could come from renewables, with 70% total energy from wind at the same level of cost or lower as at present.

text: One advantage of such a geographically dispersed and dynamically balanced system is that the need for

text: baseload

text: generation is significantly reduced since

text: intermittency of some sources

text: such as

text: ocean

text: solar

text: , and

text: wind

text: can be smoothed.A series of detailed modeling studies by Dr. Gregor Czisch, which looked at the European-wide adoption of renewable energy and interlinking power grids using

text: HVDC

text: cables, indicates that Europe's entire power usage could come from renewables, with 70% total energy from wind at the same level of cost or lower as at present.

text: Wet infrastructure is the spectrum of water-related projects relating to water supply, treatment and storage, water resource management, flood management, coastal restoration, hydropower and renewable energy facilities.  Common examples of wet infrastructure include new construction as well as renovations and maintenance of locks, weirs, storm-surge barriers, guiding structures, pumping plants, culverts, bridges, controlling systems, operating systems, and tunnel installations

text: Wet infrastructure is the spectrum of water-related projects relating to water supply, treatment and storage, water resource management, flood management, coastal restoration,

text: hydropower

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: facilities.  Common examples of wet infrastructure include new construction as well as renovations and maintenance of locks, weirs, storm-surge barriers, guiding structures, pumping plants,

text: culverts

text: , bridges, controlling systems, operating systems, and tunnel installations

text: An interaction web, shown above right, is similar to a topological web, but instead of showing the movement of energy or materials, the arrows show how one group influences another. In interaction food web models, every link has two direct effects, one of the resource on the consumer and one of the consumer on the resource. The effect of the resource on the consumer is positive, (the consumer gets to eat) and the effect on the resource by the consumer is negative (it is eaten). These direct, trophic, effects can lead to indirect effects. Indirect effects, represented by dashed lines, show the effect of one element on another to which it is not directly linked. For example, in the simple interaction web below, when the predator eats the root herbivore, the plant eaten by the herbivore may increase in biomass. We would then say that the predator has a beneficial indirect effect on the plant roots.

text: From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide, 11,400 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012.  An additional 28 gigawatts  of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.

text: From

text: hot springs

text: Paleolithic

text: times and for

text: space heating

text: electricity generation

text: . Worldwide, 11,400

text: megawatts

text: (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012.  An additional 28 gigawatts  of direct

text: geothermal heating

text: In collaboration with ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Chicago, U.S.A., Punjab University established Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology (DCET) in the year 1958. Prof. R. E. Peck from I.I.T. Chicago headed the Department in the beginning and laid foundation of its enduring work culture that is prevailing today. The Energy Research Centre was established in 1983 in department of Chemical Engineering and Technology at Panjab University to promote R&D and Extension activities in the emerging field of Renewable Energy. It has emerged as a major focal point of R&D and extension on energy and environment at national and international level. Pioneering work in the area of solar thermal energy Storage, Solar Detoxification, Biomethanation of agricultural/industrial/forestwastes, Biomass combustion and gasification, Indoor Air Quality, Energy and Environmental Conservation and Management and Hydrodynamics of Polymeric Solutions is being carried out at the Centre.

text: In collaboration with

text: ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

text: Chicago, U.S.A., Punjab University established Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology (DCET) in the year 1958. Prof. R. E. Peck from I.I.T. Chicago headed the Department in the beginning and laid foundation of its enduring work culture that is prevailing today. The Energy Research Centre was established in 1983 in department of Chemical Engineering and Technology at Panjab University to promote R&D and Extension activities in the emerging field of Renewable Energy. It has emerged as a major focal point of R&D and extension on energy and environment at national and international level. Pioneering work in the area of solar thermal energy Storage, Solar Detoxification, Biomethanation of agricultural/industrial/forestwastes, Biomass combustion and gasification, Indoor Air Quality, Energy and Environmental Conservation and Management and Hydrodynamics of Polymeric Solutions is being carried out at the Centre.

text: The Reduced-Moderation Water Reactor (RMWR), also referred to as the Resource-renewable BWR, is a proposed type of light water moderated nuclear power reactor, featuring some characteristics of a fast neutron reactor, thereby combining the established and proven technology of light water reactors with the desired features of fast neutron reactors. The RMWR concept builds upon the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor and is under active development in theoretical studies, particularly in Japan. Hitachi and the Japan Atomic Energy Agency are both involved in research.

text: The Reduced-Moderation Water Reactor (RMWR), also referred to as the Resource-renewable BWR, is a proposed type of

text: light water

text: moderated

text: nuclear power reactor

text: , featuring some characteristics of a

text: fast neutron reactor

text: , thereby combining the established and proven technology of light water reactors with the desired features of fast neutron reactors. The RMWR concept builds upon the

text: Advanced Boiling Water Reactor

text: and is under active development in theoretical studies, particularly in

text: Japan

text: Hitachi

text: and the

text: Japan Atomic Energy Agency

text: are both involved in research.

text: On February 11, 2010, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory released the first comprehensive update of the wind energy potential by state since 1993, showing that Pennsylvania had potential to install up to about 3,300 MW of onshore wind power nameplate capacity at 80m, which would generate enough clean power annually to meet the energy needs of 1,168,000 homes, or 7,200 MW at 100m, capable of generating 21,200 GWh/year.Despite the state's limited shoreline, on Lake Erie, Pennsylvania has the potential to install up to 5,670 MW of offshore wind turbines in an area of , capable of generating 23,571 GWh/year. Offshore wind turbines tend to have a higher capacity factor than onshore wind turbines.

text: On February 11, 2010, the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: released the first comprehensive update of the wind energy potential by state since 1993, showing that Pennsylvania had potential to install up to about 3,300 MW of onshore wind power

text: nameplate capacity

text: at 80m, which would generate enough clean

text: power

text: annually to meet the energy needs of 1,168,000 homes, or 7,200 MW at 100m, capable of generating 21,200 GWh/year.Despite the state's limited shoreline, on

text: Lake Erie

text: , Pennsylvania has the potential to install up to 5,670 MW of offshore wind turbines in an area of , capable of generating 23,571 GWh/year. Offshore wind turbines tend to have a higher

text: capacity factor

text: than onshore wind turbines.

text: Azam also stressed the need for educational programs in sustainable designs and various universities in Bangladesh planned to promote Green Building principles in their curriculum, such as in the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, American International University-Bangladesh, North South University, BRAC University and Asia Pacific University. Dr. Saleh Uddin was the Events and Education Committee of Bangladesh Green Building Council. Citing that in cramped environment, such buildings and structures would be far more comfortable and satisfying but most importantly directly address some national issues, like conserving water and energy. The Government of Bangladesh in 2009 stopped giving connections to newly constructed buildings meaning that new homes would not have access to energy, and even water due to shortages. Experts agreed that a rating tool would not only facilitate government incentives to sustainable communities but achieve the six point goals of the National Water Policy of 1999 by the World Bank as well as the Renewable Energy Policy of 2008 by the Ministry of Power and Energy.

text: Azam also stressed the need for educational programs in

text: sustainable design

text: s and various

text: universities in Bangladesh

text: planned to promote Green Building principles in their curriculum, such as in the

entity_name: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

text: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

text: American International University-Bangladesh

text: North South University

text: BRAC University

text: and

text: Asia Pacific University

text: . Dr.

text: Saleh Uddin

text: was the Events and Education Committee of Bangladesh Green Building Council. Citing that in cramped environment, such buildings and structures would be far more comfortable and satisfying but most importantly directly address some national issues, like

text: conserving water

text: and

text: energy

text: . The

text: Government of Bangladesh

text: in 2009 stopped giving connections to newly constructed buildings meaning that new homes would not have access to energy, and even water due to shortages. Experts agreed that a rating tool would not only facilitate government incentives to sustainable communities but achieve the six point goals of the

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in Bangladesh

entity_section: Recent developments:National Water Policy and related policies

text: National Water Policy of 1999

text: by the

text: World Bank

text: as well as the

text: Renewable Energy Policy of 2008

text: by the

text: Ministry of Power and Energy

text: Anthony was Chief Executive Officer of Energy Power Resourcesfrom 2002 to 2005, one of the United Kingdom’s largest renewable energy companies.

text: Anthony was Chief Executive Officer of

text: Energy Power Resources

text: from 2002 to 2005, one of the United Kingdom’s largest renewable energy companies.

text: Hydropower resources are estimated to be about 40 GW at a capacity factor of 0.40, giving a total yearly hydropower generation capacity of about 140 TWh. Installed hydropower capacity as of 2011 was 1.54 GW with a total generation of 3.9 TWh, there is therefore substantial opportunity for further growth of this energy source.The Shweli 1 hydroelectric power plant, with a capacity of 600 MW, started operation in 2008. The Yeywa hydropower plant opened in 2010 with a capacity of 790 MW, the largest in the country. Several other hydropower projects are under construction or planned. Planned major hydropower plants have been designed mainly for export. The Myitsone Dam project, with a capacity of 6,000 MW, is expected to supply 100% of its electricity to China, while the Tasang Dam project with a planned capacity of 7,110 MW is planned to supply 1,500 MW to Thailand.

text: Hydropower resources are estimated to be about 40 GW at a capacity factor of 0.40, giving a total yearly hydropower generation capacity of about 140 TWh. Installed hydropower capacity as of 2011 was 1.54 GW with a total generation of 3.9 TWh, there is therefore substantial opportunity for further growth of this energy source.The

text: Shweli 1 hydroelectric power plant

text: , with a capacity of 600 MW, started operation in 2008. The

text: Yeywa hydropower plant

text: opened in 2010 with a capacity of 790 MW, the largest in the country. Several other hydropower projects are under construction or planned. Planned major hydropower plants have been designed mainly for export. The

text: Myitsone Dam

text: project, with a capacity of 6,000 MW, is expected to supply 100% of its electricity to

text: China

text: , while the

text: Tasang Dam

text: project with a planned capacity of 7,110 MW is planned to supply 1,500 MW to

text: Thailand

text: Variable renewable energy (VRE) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature, like wind power and solar power, as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity, or biomass, or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity. Skeptics of wind and solar power warn of their variable output, but many studies have shown that the grid can cope, and it is doing so in Denmark, Germany, and Spain.

text: Variable renewable energy (VRE) is a

text: renewable energy

text: source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature, like

text: wind power

text: and

text: solar power

text: , as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as

text: hydroelectricity

text: , or

text: biomass

text: , or a relatively constant source such as

text: geothermal

text: power or

text: run-of-the-river hydroelectricity

text: . Skeptics of wind and solar power warn of their variable output, but many studies have shown that the grid can cope, and it is doing so in

text: Denmark

text: Germany

text: , and

text: Spain

text: Scheer believed that the continuation of current patterns of energy supply and use would be environmentally, socially, economically, and politically damaging, with renewable energy being the only realistic alternative. Scheer had concluded that it is technically and environmentally feasible to harness enough solar radiation to achieve a total replacement of the foclear (fossil/nuclear) energy system by a global renewable energy economy. The main obstacle to such a change is seen to be political, not technical or economic. In 1999 he was one of the initiators of the German feed-in tariffs that were the major source of the rise of renewable energies in Germany during the following years.

text: Scheer believed that the continuation of current patterns of energy supply and use would be environmentally, socially, economically, and politically damaging, with

text: renewable energy

text: being the only realistic alternative. Scheer had concluded that it is technically and environmentally feasible to harness enough solar radiation to achieve a total replacement of the foclear (fossil/nuclear) energy system by a global

text: renewable energy economy

text: . The main obstacle to such a change is seen to be political, not technical or economic. In 1999 he was one of the initiators of the

text: German feed-in tariffs

text: that were the major source of the rise of

text: renewable energies in Germany

text: during the following years.

text: Navarre lacks thermal, nuclear, coal, oil, gas fields, or hefty hydro-electric power stations, but does possess considerable wind renewable resources, which the Government of Navarre pursued to drop its external energy dependence.Navarre was entirely reliant on imported energy until wind-power development and utilization began progress in 1996.

text: High energy production costs, coupled with the advantages of wind power as a renewable, widely available energy source, have led several countries to establish regulatory incentives and direct financial investments to stimulate wind power generation.

text: The SolarFest Renewable Energy music festival began in Vermont in 1995. The stated goals of the nonprofit Solarfest organization are to inspire the conservation of Earth's limited resources, to promote renewable energy, and to support the creation of sustainable communities.Solar Energy is the sun’s rays (solar radiation) that reach the earth.  This energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.  In the 1830s, the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box (a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook food during an expedition to Africa. Today, Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to:  Heat water – for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Solar energy can also be used to heat spaces such has homes, buildings or arenas as is seen by SolarFest.

text: The SolarFest Renewable Energy

text: music festival

text: began in

text: Vermont

text: in 1995. The stated goals of the nonprofit Solarfest organization are to inspire the conservation of Earth's limited resources, to promote

text: renewable energy

text: , and to support the creation of sustainable communities.

text: Solar Energy

text: is the sun’s rays (solar radiation) that reach the earth.  This energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.  In the 1830s, the British astronomer

text: John Herschel

text: used a solar thermal collector box (a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook food during an expedition to

text: Africa

text: . Today, Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to:  Heat water – for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Solar energy can also be used to heat spaces such has homes, buildings or arenas as is seen by SolarFest.

text: In contrast, because wind power has been harnessed for over 100 years, its underlying technology is relatively stable.  Its economics are largely determined by siting (e.g., how hard the wind blows and the grid investment requirements) and the prices of steel (the largest component of a wind turbine) and select composites (used for the blades).  Because current wind turbines are often in excess of 100 meters high, logistics and a global manufacturing platform are major sources of competitive advantage.  These issues and others were explored in a research report by Sanford Bernstein.  Some of its key conclusions are shown here.

text: The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste, manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Energy derived from biomass is projected to be the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the US between 2000 and 2020.

text: The main contributors of

text: waste energy

text: are

text: municipal solid waste

text: manufacturing waste

text: , and

text: landfill gas

text: . Energy derived from biomass is projected to be the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the US between 2000 and 2020.

text: Rabbit-proof fence- Rabbits in Australia- Rachel Carson- Radiative forcing- Radical environmentalism- Radio Frequency Interference- Radioactive decay- Radioactive waste- Rain garden- Ralph Nader- Ramsar Convention- Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance- RealClimate- Rechargeable battery- Reclaimed water- Reconciliation Ecology- Rectenna- Recumbent bicycle- Recycling- Recycling of PET Bottles- Recycling Symbol- Red panda- Red tide- Reducing environment- Refined resource- Reforestation- Refrigerant- Refurbishment- Regenerative (design)- Regenerative fuel cell- Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals- Remanufacturing- Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory- Renewable energy- Renewable energy commercialization- Renewable energy development- Renewable resource- Renovation- Repair and maintenance- Research institutes- Research Natural Area- Residual fuel- Resin identification code- Resource- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act- Resource curse- Resource depletion- Resource economics- Resource extraction- Resource Management Act 1991- Resource rent- Respect diversity- Respect for diversity- Restoration ecology- Restricted use pesticides- Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive- Resurrection ecology- Reuse- Right of public access to the wilderness- Rimini protocol- Rio Declaration on Environment and Development- Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve- Road pricing- Road verge- Roads Beautifying Association- Roads to Resources Program- Roof garden- Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts- RTECS- Runoff (water)- Rush hour

text: Rabbit-proof fence

text: Rabbits in Australia

text: Rachel Carson

text: Radiative forcing

text: Radical environmentalism

text: Radio Frequency Interference

text: Radioactive decay

text: Radioactive waste

text: Rain garden

text: Ralph Nader

text: Ramsar Convention

entity_name: List of Ramsar wetlands of international importance

text: Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance

text: RealClimate

text: Rechargeable battery

text: Reclaimed water

text: Reconciliation Ecology

text: Rectenna

text: Recumbent bicycle

text: Recycling

text: Recycling of PET Bottles

text: Recycling Symbol

text: Red panda

text: Red tide

text: Reducing environment

text: Refined resource

text: Reforestation

text: Refrigerant

text: Refurbishment

text: Regenerative (design)

text: Regenerative fuel cell

entity_name: Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals

text: Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals

text: Remanufacturing

entity_name: Research centers and laboratories at the University of California, Berkeley

entity_section: Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory

text: Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory

text: Renewable energy

text: Renewable energy commercialization

text: Renewable energy development

text: Renewable resource

text: Renovation

text: Repair and maintenance

entity_name: List of environmental research institutes

text: Research institutes

text: Research Natural Area

text: Residual fuel

text: Resin identification code

text: Resource

text: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

text: Resource curse

text: Resource depletion

text: Resource economics

text: Resource extraction

text: Resource Management Act 1991

text: Resource rent

text: Respect diversity

text: Respect for diversity

text: Restoration ecology

text: Restricted use pesticides

entity_name: Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive

text: Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive

text: Resurrection ecology

text: Reuse

text: Right of public access to the wilderness

text: Rimini protocol

entity_name: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

text: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

text: Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve

text: Road pricing

text: Road verge

text: Roads Beautifying Association

text: Roads to Resources Program

text: Roof garden

text: Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts

entity_name: Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances

text: RTECS

text: Runoff (water)

text: Rush hour

text: Demand for water from agriculture for irrigation, greater threats to viable habitat for endangered species and wildlife are large concerns directly related to increasing temperatures and evapotranspiration.  Water companies are also concerned about “water delivery” in response to shifting runoff periods.  Similarly, power companies are concerned about climate effects on hydropower generation.

text: In 2014, AWS committed to achieving 100% renewable energy usage.  As part of this effort in the United States, AWS commissioned with Community Energy of Virginia a solar farm coming online in 2016 to support the US East region. In January 2015, AWS announced it has teamed with Pattern Development to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm Fowler Ridge. In July 2015, AWS announced that it has contracted with Iberdrola Renewables, LLC to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm US East. In November 2015, AWS announced that it has contracted with EDP Renewables to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm US Central. AWS is also working with Tesla Motors to apply battery storage technology to address some power needs in the US West (Northern California) region.

text: In 2014, AWS committed to achieving

text: 100% renewable energy

text: usage.  As part of this effort in the United States, AWS commissioned with Community Energy of Virginia a

text: solar farm

text: coming online in 2016 to support the US East region. In January 2015, AWS announced it has teamed with Pattern Development to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm Fowler Ridge. In July 2015, AWS announced that it has contracted with Iberdrola Renewables, LLC to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm US East. In November 2015, AWS announced that it has contracted with EDP Renewables to construct and operate Amazon Wind Farm US Central. AWS is also working with

text: Tesla Motors

text: to apply battery storage technology to address some power needs in the US West (Northern California) region.

text: Solar thermal power plants are another type of solar power plant. They use either parabolic troughs or heliostats to direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a heat transfer fluid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to boil water into steam, which turns a turbine that drives an electrical generator. The central tower type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors, depending on size, to direct sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tower. Again, the heat is used to produce steam to turn turbines that drive electrical generators.

text: Solar thermal power plants are another type of solar power plant. They use either parabolic troughs or

text: heliostat

text: s to direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a heat transfer fluid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to boil water into steam, which turns a turbine that drives an electrical generator. The central tower type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors, depending on size, to direct sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tower. Again, the heat is used to produce steam to turn turbines that drive electrical generators.

text: LREDA has a number of initiatives including the Ladakh Renewable Energy Initiative Project (LREI), an off-grid renewable energy development program establish in 2011, which sought to install over the next three years: "11 micro-hydro projects with a total capacity of 11.2 MW, 125 solar-photovoltaic power plants of varying capacities, solar water heaters for 40% of the building in Leh, 3000 solar greenhouses, 4500 solar cookers, solar driers, solar passive housing projects and ground based heat pumping for space heating."

text: The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland. Some months later American inventor Charles F Brush built the first automatically operated wind turbine for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio. Advances in recent decades greatly lowered the cost of wind power making it one of the most competitive alternate energies and competitive with higher priced natural gas (before shale gas). Wind energy's main problem is that it is intermittent and therefore needs grid extensions and energy storage to be a reliable main energy source.

text: The first electricity-generating

text: wind turbine

text: was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic

text: James Blyth

text: to light his holiday home in

text: Marykirk

text: , Scotland. Some months later American inventor

text: Charles F Brush

text: built the first automatically operated wind turbine for electricity production in

text: Cleveland, Ohio

text: . Advances in recent decades greatly lowered the cost of wind power making it one of the most competitive alternate energies and competitive with higher priced natural gas (before shale gas). Wind energy's main problem is that it is intermittent and therefore needs grid extensions and energy storage to be a reliable main energy source.

text: Geothermal has a higher capacity factor than many other power sources, and geothermal resources are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. While the carrier medium for geothermal electricity (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earth's heat, will be available for the foreseeable future. Geothermal power can be looked at as a nuclear battery where the heat is produced via the decay of radioactive elements in the core and mantle of the earth.

text: Geothermal

text: has a higher capacity factor than many other power sources, and geothermal resources are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. While the carrier medium for

text: geothermal electricity

text: (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earth's heat, will be available for the foreseeable future. Geothermal power can be looked at as a nuclear battery where the heat is produced via the decay of radioactive elements in the core and mantle of the earth.

text: WPA supports a collaborative effort between the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and AWS Truepower to update the map of U.S. wind energy potential. New wind energy resource maps with potential estimates at 80 meters and 100 meters were recently completed, and a 30-meter map focusing on small and community wind will soon follow. These products support understanding of wind energy potential at the local, state, and national levels.

text: PNM, the leading electric utility company in New Mexico, United States, has integrated an UltraBattery energy storage system with a solar energy-generating farm to demonstrate smoothing and shifting of solar power for use as a dispatchable renewable resource. The PNM Prosperity project features one of the United States’ largest combinations of photovoltaic energy and solar panel battery storage.

text: Biomass represents the most common source of renewable energy in Lithuania, with most of the biomass is use being firewood.  The amount of energy generated from biomass in Lithuania is the second highest in the EU per capita.  It is estimated that in 2020 the country will lead the EU in the quantity of biomass available for biofuel production.

text: Biomass

text: represents the most common source of renewable energy in Lithuania, with most of the biomass is use being

text: firewood

text: .  The amount of energy generated from biomass in Lithuania is the second highest in the EU per capita.  It is estimated that in 2020 the country will lead the EU in the quantity of biomass available for biofuel production.

text: A power canal refers to a canal used for hydraulic power generation, rather than for transport.  Nowadays power canals are built almost exclusively as parts of hydroelectric power stations. Parts of the United States, particularly in the Northeast, had enough fast-flowing rivers that water power was the primary means of powering factories (usually textile mills) until after the American Civil War. For example, Lowell, Massachusetts, considered to be "The Cradle of the American Industrial Revolution," has  of canals, built from around 1790 to 1850, that provided water power and a means of transportation for the city. The output of the system is estimated at 10,000 horsepower. Other cities with extensive power canal systems include Lawrence, Massachusetts, Holyoke, Massachusetts, Manchester, New Hampshire, and Augusta, Georgia. The most notable power canal was built in 1862 for the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company.

text: A power canal refers to a canal used for

text: hydraulic power

text: generation, rather than for transport.  Nowadays power canals are built almost exclusively as parts of

text: hydroelectric power station

text: s. Parts of the United States, particularly in the

text: Northeast

text: , had enough fast-flowing rivers that

text: water power

text: was the primary means of powering factories (usually textile mills) until after the

text: American Civil War

text: . For example,

text: Lowell, Massachusetts

text: , considered to be "The Cradle of the American Industrial Revolution," has  of canals, built from around 1790 to 1850, that provided water power and a means of transportation for the city. The output of the system is estimated at 10,000

text: horsepower

text: . Other cities with extensive power canal systems include

text: Lawrence, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Manchester, New Hampshire

text: , and

text: Augusta, Georgia

text: . The most notable power canal was built in 1862 for the

entity_name: Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company

text: Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company

text: As the resources that have been so crucial to survival in the world to this day start declining in numbers, countries will begin to realize that the need for renewable fuel sources will be as vital as ever. With the production of new types of energy, including solar, geothermal, hydro-electric, biofuel, and wind power. With the amount of solar energy that hits the world in one hour there is enough energy to power the world for one year.  With the addition of solar panels all around the world a little less pressure is taken off the need to produce more oil.

text: Mathiesen researches 100% renewable energy systems and paths to transition the energy system to 100% renewable sources. He is also doing feasibility studies and technical energy system analyses and works on ways to base energy systems mainly on variable renewable energy sources such as wind power.

text: Mathiesen researches

text: 100% renewable energy

text: systems and paths to

text: transition the energy system

text: to 100% renewable sources. He is also doing feasibility studies and technical energy system analyses and works on ways to base energy systems mainly on

text: variable renewable energy

text: sources such as

text: wind power

text: In addition, although it only makes a minor contribution to the total, Japan was the world's second largest producer of photovoltaic electricity in early 2000s, until overtaken by Germany in 2005, a year in which it had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.In December 2011, Tohoku Electric Power began operating a solar power plant in Hachinohe, Aomori. The 10,000 panel plant, occupying a 50,000 square meter site, is expected to produce 1.6 million kwh of electricity a year, about the equivalent needed to power 500 households. On 1 July 2012, new tariffs for renewable energy were introduced by the Japanese government. Tariffs, set at ¥42 per kWh over the next 20 years to solar power producers, are among the highest in the world. They are expected to provide incentive for widespread expansion of solar power energy sources in the country.With the incentives in place after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima, Japan has added 1,394 MW of renewable energy in 2012. One third of the renewable energy is solar energy, with production increasing for additional solar installations in 2013.Tariffs are expected to increase Japan's share of renewable energy to 20% by 2020. Japan's total solar capacity was 7.4GW at the end of 2012. A gigawatt can supply power to an estimated 250,000 homes.

text: In addition, although it only makes a minor contribution to the total, Japan was the world's second largest producer of

text: photovoltaic electricity

text: in early 2000s, until overtaken by

text: Germany

text: in 2005, a year in which it had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.In December 2011,

text: Tohoku Electric Power

text: began operating a solar power plant in

text: Hachinohe, Aomori

text: . The 10,000 panel plant, occupying a 50,000 square meter site, is expected to produce 1.6 million kwh of electricity a year, about the equivalent needed to power 500 households. On 1 July 2012, new tariffs for renewable energy were introduced by the Japanese government. Tariffs, set at ¥42 per kWh over the next 20 years to solar power producers, are among the highest in the world. They are expected to provide incentive for widespread expansion of solar power energy sources in the country.With the incentives in place after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima, Japan has added 1,394 MW of renewable energy in 2012. One third of the renewable energy is solar energy, with production increasing for additional solar installations in 2013.Tariffs are expected to increase Japan's share of renewable energy to 20% by 2020. Japan's total solar capacity was 7.4GW at the end of 2012. A gigawatt can supply power to an estimated 250,000 homes.

text: Moreover, for government efforts of missionary electrification, EPIRA promoted the utilization of renewable energy resources whenever feasible, providing power generation and its associated power delivery systems in areas that are not connected to the grid. This act also set criteria for determining qualified third parties that may participate in providing electricity to remote and unviable areas, giving preference to parties that would utilize least-cost renewable energy resources.

text: Moreover, for government efforts of missionary electrification, EPIRA promoted the utilization of renewable energy resources whenever feasible, providing power generation and its associated power delivery systems in areas that are not connected to the

text: grid

text: . This act also set criteria for determining qualified third parties that may participate in providing electricity to remote and unviable areas, giving preference to parties that would utilize least-cost renewable energy resources.

text: Africa has about 9% of the world’s fresh water resources and 11% of the world’s population. Sub-Saharan Africa faces numerous water-related challenges that constrain economic growth and threaten the livelihoods of its people. African agriculture is mostly based on rain fed farming and less than 10% of its cultivated land is irrigated. There is very significant inter-and intra-annual variability of all climate and water resources characteristics. The impact of climate change and variability is thus very pronounced. The main source of electricity is hydropower, which contributes significantly to the current installed capacity for energy. Continuing investment in the last decade has increased the amount of power generated.

text: Africa has about 9% of the world’s

text: fresh water

text: resources and 11% of the

text: world’s population

text: Sub-Saharan Africa

text: faces numerous water-related challenges that constrain

text: economic growth

text: and threaten the livelihoods of its people. African

text: agriculture

text: is mostly based on

text: rain

text: fed farming and less than 10% of its

text: cultivated

text: land is

text: irrigated

text: . There is very significant inter-and intra-annual variability of all

text: climate

text: and

text: water resources

text: characteristics. The impact of

text: climate change

text: and variability is thus very pronounced. The main source of

text: electricity

text: is

text: hydropower

text: , which contributes significantly to the current installed capacity for energy. Continuing investment in the last decade has increased the amount of power generated.

text: In 2015 a study was published in Energy and Environmental Science that describes a pathway to 100% renewable energy in the United States by 2050 without using biomass. Implementation of this roadmap is regarded as both environmentally and economically feasible and reasonable, as by 2050 it would save about $600 Billion Dollars health costs a year due to reduced air pollution and $3.3 Trillion global warming costs. This would translate in yearly cost savings per head of around $8300 compared to a business as usual pathway. According to that study, barriers that could hamper implementation are neither technical nor economic but social and political, as most people didn't know that benefits from such a transformation far exceeded the costs.

text: In 2015 a study was published in

text: Energy and Environmental Science

text: that describes a pathway to 100% renewable energy in the United States by 2050 without using biomass. Implementation of this roadmap is regarded as both environmentally and economically feasible and reasonable, as by 2050 it would save about $600 Billion Dollars

text: health costs

text: a year due to reduced

text: air pollution

text: and $3.3 Trillion global warming costs. This would translate in yearly cost savings per head of around $8300 compared to a business as usual pathway. According to that study, barriers that could hamper implementation are neither technical nor economic but social and political, as most people didn't know that benefits from such a transformation far exceeded the costs.

text: Completely Renewable Hybrid Power Plant (solar, wind, biomass, hydrogen)A hybrid power plant consisting of these four renewable energy sources can be made into operation by proper utilization of these resources in a completely controlled manner.Hybrid Energy Europe-USA.Caffese in Europe introduce hybridizing HVDC transmission with Marine hydro pumped Energy Storage via elpipes.The project of Caffese is 3 marine big lakes producing 1800 GW and transmission with elpipes.A part 1200 GW produce waterfuels-windfuels-solar fuels 210 billion liter year. (IEEE Power and Engineering Society-General Meeting Feb.9.2011,Arpa-E,Doe USA,MSE Italy,European COmmission-Energy-Caffese plan and Consortium)

text: The Act describes the powers of the Minister as related to water, air and soil quality; renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna; meteorology; the enforcement of rules and regulations arising from the advice of the International Joint Commission relating to boundary waters and questions arising between the United States and Canada insofar as they relate to the preservation and enhancement of environmental quality.

text: The Act describes the powers of the Minister as related to

text: water

text: air

text: and

text: soil

text: quality;

text: renewable resources

text: , including

text: migratory birds

text: and other non-domestic

text: flora

text: and

text: fauna

text: meteorology

text: ; the enforcement of rules and regulations arising from the advice of the

text: International Joint Commission

text: relating to boundary waters and questions arising between the

text: United States

text: and

text: Canada

text: insofar as they relate to the preservation and enhancement of environmental quality.

text: Traditionally, wind power has been generated on land. But higher wind speeds are available offshore compared to land. Technologies are being improved to exploit the potential of wind power in offshore environments. The offshore wind power market is expanding with the use of larger turbines and installations farther from shore.

text: A lineage can also dispense with complexity when a particular complex trait merely provides no selective advantage in a particular environment. Loss of this trait need not necessarily confer a selective advantage, but may be lost due to the accumulation of mutations if its loss does not confer an immediate selective disadvantage. For example, a parasitic organism may dispense with the synthetic pathway of a metabolite where it can readily scavenge that metabolite from its host. Discarding this synthesis may not necessarily allow the parasite to conserve significant energy or resources and grow faster, but the loss may be fixed in the population through mutation accumulation if no disadvantage is incurred by loss of that pathway. Mutations causing loss of a complex trait occur more often than mutations causing gain of a complex trait.

text: A lineage can also dispense with complexity when a particular complex trait merely provides no selective advantage in a particular environment. Loss of this trait need not necessarily confer a selective advantage, but may be lost due to the accumulation of mutations if its loss does not confer an immediate selective disadvantage. For example, a

text: parasitic organism

text: may dispense with the synthetic pathway of a metabolite where it can readily scavenge that metabolite from its host. Discarding this synthesis may not necessarily allow the parasite to conserve significant energy or resources and grow faster, but the loss may be fixed in the population through mutation accumulation if no disadvantage is incurred by loss of that pathway. Mutations causing loss of a complex trait occur more often than mutations causing gain of a complex trait.

text: Hydro Power is generated when the natural force from the water's current moves a device (fan, propeller, wheel) that is pushed by the force of the water. Ordinary water weighs 8 lbs. to the gallon. The force make the turbine mechanism spin creating electricity. As long as there is flow it is possible to produce electricity. The advantage of electricity generated in this way is that it is a renewable resource.  A small-scale Micro Hydro Power can be a reliable and long lasting piece of technology. The disadvantage of the system is that technology has yet to be developed more than what it is today.

text: Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of NChIP and XChIP

text: The US state of Colorado has vast wind energy resources and the installed capacity of wind power in Colorado has been growing significantly in recent years due to international mass adoption of wind power and the state's aggressive renewable portfolio standard that requires 30% of the state's electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020.

text: The US state of

text: Colorado

text: has vast wind energy resources and the installed capacity of wind power in Colorado has been growing significantly in recent years due to international mass adoption of wind power and the state's aggressive

text: renewable portfolio standard

text: that requires 30% of the state's electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020.

text: Even with fully automated production, limitations on the number of goods produced would arise from the availability of raw materials and energy, as well as ecological damage associated with manufacturing technologies. Advocates of technological abundance often argue for more extensive use of renewable energy and greater recycling in order to prevent future drops in availability of energy and raw materials, and reduce ecological damage. Solar energy in particular is often emphasized, as the cost of solar panels continues to drop (and could drop far more with automated production by self-replicating machines), and advocates point out the total solar power striking the Earth's surface annually exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands. Advocates also sometimes argue that the energy and raw materials available could be greatly expanded if we looked to resources beyond the Earth. For example, asteroid mining is sometimes discussed as a way of greatly reducing scarcity for many useful metals such as nickel. While early asteroid mining might involve manned missions, advocates hope that eventually humanity could have automated mining done by self-replicating machines. If this were done, then the only capital expenditure would be a single self-replicating unit (whether robotic or nanotechnological), after which the number of units could replicate at no further cost, limited only by the available raw materials needed to build more.

text: Even with fully automated production, limitations on the number of goods produced would arise from the availability of raw materials and energy, as well as ecological damage associated with manufacturing technologies. Advocates of technological abundance often argue for more extensive use of renewable energy and greater recycling in order to prevent future drops in availability of energy and raw materials, and reduce ecological damage. Solar energy in particular is often emphasized, as the cost of solar panels continues to drop (and could drop far more with automated production by self-replicating machines), and advocates point out the total solar power striking the Earth's surface annually exceeds our civilization's current annual power usage by a factor of thousands. Advocates also sometimes argue that the energy and raw materials available could be greatly expanded if we looked to resources beyond the Earth. For example,

text: asteroid mining

text: is sometimes discussed as a way of greatly reducing scarcity for many useful metals such as nickel. While early asteroid mining might involve manned missions, advocates hope that eventually humanity could have

text: automated mining

text: done by self-replicating machines. If this were done, then the only capital expenditure would be a single self-replicating unit (whether robotic or nanotechnological), after which the number of units could replicate at no further cost, limited only by the available raw materials needed to build more.

text: Solar energy sources are covered by this law, which decrees that facilities which generate electricity from renewable energy sources will be granted a renewable energy resources certificate (RER Certificate) which will entitle such facilities to benefit from the incentives provided by the Law. EMRA is the competent authority to grant the RER Certificates.

text: In 2004, the California Public Utilities Commission approved SDG&E's long-term energy resource plan, which relies on a balanced mix of resources to meet the growing energy needs of San Diego. That mix includes increased emphasis on energy efficiency, more renewable energy resources, and additional baseload generation plants and transmission capacity. In 2014 SDG&E had a renewables mix of 36.4%, more than the 33% requirement by 2020.

text: In 2004, the

text: California Public Utilities Commission

text: approved SDG&E's long-term energy resource plan, which relies on a balanced mix of resources to meet the growing energy needs of San Diego. That mix includes increased emphasis on energy efficiency, more renewable energy resources, and additional baseload generation plants and transmission capacity. In 2014 SDG&E had a

text: renewables mix

text: of 36.4%, more than the 33% requirement by 2020.

text: DER systems typically use renewable energy sources, including small hydro, biomass, biogas, solar power, wind power, and geothermal power, and increasingly play an important role for the electric power distribution system. A grid-connected device for electricity storage can also be classified as a DER system, and is often called a distributed energy storage system (DESS). By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a smart grid. Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply.

text: DER systems typically use

text: renewable energy

text: sources, including

text: small hydro

text: biomass

text: biogas

text: solar power

text: wind power

text: , and

text: geothermal power

text: , and increasingly play an important role for the

text: electric power distribution

text: system. A grid-connected device for

text: electricity storage

text: can also be classified as a DER system, and is often called a distributed energy storage system (DESS). By means of an interface, DER systems can be managed and coordinated within a

text: smart grid

text: . Distributed generation and storage enables collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve security of supply.

text: The UCS supports a national renewable energy standard which would require utilities to produce a certain percentage of their energy from sources such as wind power, solar energy and geothermal energy. The group also supports a national energy efficiency standard for home appliances. The UCS acknowledges that nuclear power can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but maintains that it must become much safer and cheaper before it can be considered a workable solution to global warming. They support increased safety enforcement from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission among other steps to improve nuclear power. UCS has been critical of proposed Generation III reactor designs. Edwin Lyman, a senior staff scientist at UCS, has challenged specific cost-saving design choices made for both the AP1000 and Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor. The UCS referred to the European Pressurized Reactor as the only new reactor design under consideration in the United States that "...appears to have the potential to be significantly safer and more secure against attack than today's reactors."

text: The UCS supports a national

text: renewable energy

text: standard which would require utilities to produce a certain percentage of their energy from sources such as

text: wind power

text: solar energy

text: and

text: geothermal energy

text: . The group also supports a national

text: energy efficiency

text: standard for home appliances. The UCS acknowledges that

text: nuclear power

text: can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but maintains that it must become much safer and cheaper before it can be considered a workable solution to

text: global warming

text: . They support increased safety enforcement from the

text: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

text: among other steps to improve nuclear power. UCS has been critical of proposed

text: Generation III reactor

text: designs.

text: Edwin Lyman

text: , a senior staff scientist at UCS, has challenged specific cost-saving design choices made for both the

text: and

entity_name: Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor

text: Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor

text: . The UCS referred to the

text: European Pressurized Reactor

text: as the only new reactor design under consideration in the United States that "...appears to have the potential to be significantly safer and more secure against attack than today's reactors."

text: Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) in California, with the combined capacity from three separate locations at 354 megawatts (MW, 474,700 hp), is now the world's second largest solar thermal energy generating facility, after the commissioning of the even larger Ivanpah facility in 2014. It consists of nine solar power plants in California's Mojave Desert, where insolation is among the best available in the United States.  SEGS I–II (44 MW) are located at Daggett (), SEGS III–VII (150 MW) are installed at Kramer Junction (), and SEGS VIII–IX (160 MW) are placed at Harper Lake (). NextEra Energy Resources operates and partially owns the plants located at Kramer Junction and Harper Lake.A tenth plant (SEGS X, 80 MW) had been in construction and SEGS XI and SEGS XII had been planned by Luz Industries, but the developer filed for bankruptcy in 1992, because it was unable to secure construction financing.

text: Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) in

text: California

text: , with the combined capacity from three separate locations at 354

text: megawatts

text: (MW, 474,700 hp), is now the world's

text: second largest

text: solar thermal energy

text: generating facility, after the commissioning of the even larger

text: Ivanpah facility

text: in 2014. It consists of nine

text: solar power plant

text: s in California's

text: Mojave Desert

text: , where

text: insolation

text: is among the best available in the United States.  SEGS I–II (44 MW) are located at

text: Daggett

text: (), SEGS III–VII (150 MW) are installed at

text: Kramer Junction

text: (), and SEGS VIII–IX (160 MW) are placed at

text: Harper Lake

text: NextEra Energy Resources

text: operates and partially owns the plants located at Kramer Junction and Harper Lake.A tenth plant (SEGS X, 80 MW) had been in construction and SEGS XI and SEGS XII had been planned by

text: Luz Industries

text: , but the developer filed for bankruptcy in 1992, because it was unable to secure construction financing.

text: In March 2011, HypoVereinsbank (UniCredit Bank AG) announced that the HVB Tower will be redeveloped the coming years (until approx. 2015) and so should be converted to a "green building" according to LEED. Construction works began during the year 2013. Important components of the energy-efficient renovation is the renewal of the entire facade while maintaining the outer listed appearance. In addition, the building will be complertly renovated, building fire protection will be adapted for today's standards, and use of geothermal energy and rainwater will be implemented.

text: In March 2011, HypoVereinsbank (

text: UniCredit Bank AG

text: ) announced that the HVB Tower will be redeveloped the coming years (until approx. 2015) and so should be converted to a "green building" according to LEED. Construction works began during the year 2013. Important components of the energy-efficient renovation is the renewal of the entire facade while maintaining the outer listed appearance. In addition, the building will be complertly renovated, building fire protection will be adapted for today's standards, and use of geothermal energy and rainwater will be implemented.

text: In 2006 the Shanghai Power Company purchased 64.485 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of green energy (primarily from wind farms), yet the amount of renewable energy which was subscribed by customers from Shanghai Power Company was only 23% of that total. In 2006 there were just 6,482 households in Shanghai that subscribed to renewable energy in part because the cost of wind power is 0.53 Yuan/kWh higher than power produced from coal plants; in 2007 total output of wind farms in Shanghai will total 100 GWh, which is sufficient to power 120,000 households. Though there were 22 entities that purchased renewable energy in Shanghai, though with the exception of 1/3 of that total being state owned enterprises, the remainder was foreign invested enterprises. Shanghai’s city government did not purchase any renewable energy. Of the top ten power customers in Shanghai, only Bao Steel purchased renewable energy; in 2006 Bao Steel entered into an agreement to purchase 1.2 GWh over three years.

text: In 2006 the Shanghai Power Company purchased 64.485

text: gigawatt-hour

text: s (GWh) of green energy (primarily from wind farms), yet the amount of renewable energy which was subscribed by customers from Shanghai Power Company was only 23% of that total. In 2006 there were just 6,482 households in Shanghai that subscribed to renewable energy in part because the cost of wind power is 0.53 Yuan/

text: kWh

text: higher than power produced from

text: coal plants

text: ; in 2007 total output of wind farms in Shanghai will total 100 GWh, which is sufficient to power 120,000 households. Though there were 22 entities that purchased renewable energy in Shanghai, though with the exception of 1/3 of that total being

text: state owned enterprise

text: s, the remainder was foreign invested enterprises. Shanghai’s city government did not purchase any renewable energy. Of the top ten power customers in Shanghai, only

text: Bao Steel

text: purchased renewable energy; in 2006 Bao Steel entered into an agreement to purchase 1.2 GWh over three years.

text: Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics (among other factors). If wind speed is too low (less than about 2.5 m/s) then the wind turbines will not be able to make electricity, and if it is too high (more than about 25 m/s) the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage.  While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.

text: The political class has proven to be highly stubborn when examining existent public policies. This stubbornness ultimately forced Puerto Rico to incur in higher opportunity costs. For example, even though the island's geography features many rivers, the government has opted to leave the hydroelectric industry behind. Public policy has also opted not to pursue nuclear power either. Instead, even though Puerto Rico does not have any oil-based resources, it has opted to power its electric plants with fossil fuels: less than 3% of all energy is produced through renewable energy even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65% sunny hours per day in average and 19-knot (22 mph; 35 km/h) winds year round. This forces PREPA, the government-owned corporation and government monopoly that owns and manages all electric power distribution and transmission, to spend 58% of its operational expenses in fuel purchases alone.

text: The political class has proven to be highly stubborn when examining existent public policies. This stubbornness ultimately forced Puerto Rico to incur in higher

text: opportunity cost

text: s. For example, even though the island's geography features many rivers, the government has opted to leave the

text: hydroelectric industry

text: behind. Public policy has also opted not to pursue

text: nuclear power

text: either. Instead, even though Puerto Rico does not have any oil-based resources, it has opted to power its electric plants with fossil fuels: less than 3% of all energy is produced through

text: renewable energy

text: even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65% sunny hours per day in average and 19-knot (22 mph; 35 km/h) winds year round. This forces

text: PREPA

text: , the

entity_name: List of government-owned corporations of Puerto Rico

text: government-owned corporation

text: and

text: government monopoly

text: that owns and manages all

text: electric power distribution

text: and

text: transmission

text: , to spend 58% of its operational expenses in fuel purchases alone.

text: A 2013 study by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory concluded that utility-scale solar power plants directly disturb an average of 2.7 to 2.9 acres per gigawatt-hour/year, and use from 3.5 to 3.8 acres per gW-hr/year for the entire sites. According to a 2009 study, this intensity of land use is less than that of the average US power plant using surface-mined coal. Some of the land in the eastern portion of the Mojave Desert is to be preserved, but the solar industry is more interested in areas of the western desert, "where the sun burns hotter and there is easier access to transmission lines".

text: Crosswind kite power is power derived from a class of airborne wind-energy conversion systems (AWECS, aka AWES) or crosswind kite power systems (CWKPS) characterized by a kite system that has energy-harvesting parts that fly transverse to the direction of the ambient wind, i.e., to crosswind mode; sometimes the entire wing set and tether set is flown in crosswind mode. These systems at many scales from toy to power-grid-feeding sizes may be used as high-altitude wind power (HAWP) devices or low-altitude wind power (LAWP) devices without having to use towers. Flexible wings or rigid wings may be used in the kite system. A tethered wing, flying in crosswind at many times wind speed, harvests wind power from an area that is many times exceeding the wing’s own area. Crosswind kite power systems have some advantages over conventional wind turbines: access to more powerful and stable wind resource, high capacity factor, capability for deployment on and offshore at comparable costs, and no need for a tower. Additionally, the wings of the CWKPS may vary in aerodynamic efficiency; the movement of crosswinding tethered wings is sometimes compared with the outer parts of conventional wind turbine blades. However, a conventional traverse-to-wind rotating blade set carried aloft in a kite-power system has the blade set cutting to crosswind and is a form of crosswind kite power. Miles L. Loyd furthered studies on crosswind kite power systems in his work "Crosswind Kite Power" in 1980.  Some believe that crosswind kite power was introduced by P. Payne and C. McCutchen in their patent No. 3,987,987, filed in 1975, however, crosswind kite power was used far before such patent, e.g., in target kites for war-target practice where the crosswinding power permitted high speeds to give practice to gunners.

text: Crosswind kite power is

text: power

text: derived from a class of airborne wind-energy conversion systems (AWECS, aka AWES) or crosswind kite power systems (CWKPS) characterized by a

text: kite

text: system that has

text: energy

text: -harvesting parts that fly transverse to the direction of the ambient wind, i.e., to

text: crosswind

text: mode; sometimes the entire wing set and tether set is flown in crosswind mode. These systems at many scales from toy to power-grid-feeding sizes may be used as

text: high-altitude wind power

text: Tracking 111 companies. The focus is on pure play companies using a rule based approach which is inclusive in the clean energy technologies sector.  Companies are involves in the following areas of focus: alternative energy resources (technologies for solar, wind, hydro, tidal, wave, geothermal and bio-energy); distributed generation technologies; environmental technologies including water and air quality; energy efficiency; and, enabling technologies including electronic, batteries, superconductors and advanced materials.

text: Tracking 111 companies. The focus is on pure play companies using a rule based approach which is inclusive in the clean energy technologies sector.  Companies are involves in the following areas of focus: alternative energy resources (technologies for solar, wind, hydro,

text: tidal

text: wave

text: , geothermal and

text: bio-energy

text: distributed generation

text: technologies; environmental technologies including water and air quality;

text: energy efficiency

text: ; and, enabling technologies including electronic, batteries, superconductors and advanced materials.

text: Large PV power plants in Germany include Senftenberg Solarpark, Finsterwalde Solar Park, Lieberose Photovoltaic Park, Strasskirchen Solar Park, Waldpolenz Solar Park, and Köthen Solar Park.

text: Large PV power plants in Germany include

text: Senftenberg Solarpark

text: Finsterwalde Solar Park

text: Lieberose Photovoltaic Park

text: Strasskirchen Solar Park

text: Waldpolenz Solar Park

text: , and

text: Köthen Solar Park

text: In addition to hydropower and solar energy, Ghana also produces a lot of other renewable energy, other forms of energy that produce electricity in Ghana are wind power, geothermal and biomass. It is the official goal of Ghana energy industry to have 10% of Ghana’s energy mix come from renewable sources (not counting large-scale hydropower) by 2015, or at the very least by 2020.

text: In addition to hydropower and solar energy, Ghana also produces a lot of other

text: renewable energy

text: , other forms of energy that produce electricity in Ghana are

text: wind power

text: geothermal

text: and

text: biomass

text: . It is the official goal of Ghana energy industry to have 10% of Ghana’s energy mix come from renewable sources (not counting large-scale hydropower) by 2015, or at the very least by 2020.

text: Solar Radiation Resource Assessment stations (51 nos) have been installed across India by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) to create a database of solar energy potential. Data is collected and reported to the Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET), in order to create a Solar Atlas. In June 2015, India started a  project to measure solar radiation with a spatial resolution of 3 km x 3 km. This solar radiation measuring network will provide the basis for the functioning of the Indian Solar Radiation Atlas. According to officials at NIWE, the Solar Radiation Resource Assessment wing (SRRA) 121 ground stations would measure the three parameters of solar radiation: Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) to give a highly accurate measure of solar radiation in a particular region.

text: Solar Radiation Resource Assessment stations (51 nos) have been installed across India by the

text: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

text: (MNRE) to create a database of solar energy potential. Data is collected and reported to the Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET), in order to create a Solar Atlas. In June 2015, India started a  project to measure solar radiation with a spatial resolution of 3 km x 3 km. This solar radiation measuring network will provide the basis for the functioning of the Indian Solar Radiation Atlas. According to officials at NIWE, the Solar Radiation Resource Assessment wing (SRRA) 121 ground stations would measure the three parameters of solar radiation: Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) to give a highly accurate measure of solar radiation in a particular region.

text: Electric power generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales: hourly, daily, or seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant. Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing energy demand management, load shedding, storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables.

text: Electric power generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales: hourly, daily, or seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant. Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-

text: dispatchable

text: nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental

text: operating reserve

text: , and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing

text: energy demand management

text: load shedding

text: , storage solutions or system interconnection with

text: HVDC

text: cables.

text: Of all the state-based RPS programs in place today, no two are the same. Each has been designed taking into account state-specific policy objectives (e.g.  economic growth, diversity of energy supply, environmental concerns), local resource endowment, political considerations, and the capacity to expand renewable energy production. At the most basic level, this gives rise to differing RPS targets and years (e.g. Arizona's 15% by 2025 and Colorado's 30% by 2020). Other factors in program design include resource eligibility, in-state requirements, new build requirements, technology favoritism, lobbying by industry associations and non-profits, groups cost caps, program coverage (IOUs versus Cooperatives and Municipal utilities), cost recovery by utilities, penalties for non-compliance, rules regarding REC creation and trading, and additional non-binding goals. Since RPS programs create a mandate to purchase renewable energy, they create a lucrative captive market of buyers for renewable energy producers who are eligible in a particular state's RPS program to issue RECs. A state may choose to promote new investment in renewable energy generation capacity by not making eligible existing renewable energy such as hydroelectric plants or geothermal energy to qualify under an RPS program.

text: Of all the state-based RPS programs in place today, no two are the same. Each has been designed taking into account state-specific policy objectives (e.g.  economic growth, diversity of energy supply, environmental concerns), local resource endowment, political considerations, and the capacity to expand renewable energy production. At the most basic level, this gives rise to differing RPS targets and years (e.g. Arizona's 15% by 2025 and Colorado's 30% by 2020). Other factors in program design include resource eligibility, in-state requirements, new build requirements, technology favoritism, lobbying by industry associations and non-profits, groups cost caps, program coverage (IOUs versus Cooperatives and Municipal utilities), cost recovery by utilities, penalties for non-compliance, rules regarding REC creation and trading, and additional non-binding goals. Since RPS programs create a mandate to purchase renewable energy, they create a lucrative

text: captive market

text: of buyers for renewable energy producers who are eligible in a particular state's RPS program to issue RECs. A state may choose to promote new investment in renewable energy generation capacity by not making eligible existing renewable energy such as hydroelectric plants or geothermal energy to qualify under an RPS program.

text: Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable. Almost without a doubt the oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from 790,000 years ago. Use of biomass for fire did not become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later, sometime between 200,000 and 400,000 years ago. Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships on the Nile. Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy were human labor, animal power, water power, wind, in grain crushing windmills, and firewood, a traditional biomass. A graph of energy use in the United States up until 1900 shows oil and natural gas with about the same importance in 1900 as wind and solar played in 2010.

text: Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable. Almost without a doubt the oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from 790,000 years ago. Use of biomass for fire did not become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later, sometime between 200,000 and 400,000 years ago. Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships on the Nile. Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy were human

text: labor

text: animal power

text: water power

text: , wind, in grain crushing

text: windmill

text: s, and

text: firewood

text: , a traditional biomass. A graph of energy use in the United States up until 1900 shows oil and natural gas with about the same importance in 1900 as wind and solar played in 2010.

text: As of 2007, wind energy represented only 1.7% of Illinois' energy production, and it was estimated that wind power could provide 5–10% of the state's energy needs. Also, the Illinois General Assembly mandated in 2007 that by 2025, 25% of all electricity generated in Illinois is to come from renewable resources.

text: As of 2007, wind energy represented only 1.7% of Illinois' energy production, and it was estimated that wind power could provide 5–10% of the state's energy needs. Also, the

text: Illinois General Assembly

text: mandated in 2007 that by 2025, 25% of all electricity generated in Illinois is to come from

text: renewable resource

text: s.

text: Solar panels produce direct current (DC) electricity, so solar parks need conversion equipment to convert this to alternating current (AC), which is the form transmitted by the electricity grid. This conversion is done by inverters. To maximise their efficiency, solar power plants also incorporate maximum power point trackers, either within the inverters or as separate units. These devices keep each solar array string close to its peak power point.

text: Solar panels produce

text: direct current

text: (DC) electricity, so solar parks need conversion equipment to convert this to

text: alternating current

text: (AC), which is the form transmitted by the electricity grid. This conversion is done by

text: inverter

text: s. To maximise their efficiency, solar power plants also incorporate

text: maximum power point trackers

text: , either within the inverters or as separate units. These devices keep each solar array string close to its

text: peak power point

text: Wind power is harnessed through turbines, set on tall towers (typically 20’ or 6m with 10‘ or 3m diameter blades for an individual household‘s needs) that power a generator that creates electricity. They typically require an average of wind speed of 9 mi/hr (14 km/hr) to be worth their investment (as prescribed by the US Department of Energy), and are capable of paying for themselves within their lifetimes. Wind turbines in urban areas usually need to be mounted at least 30’ (10m) in the air to receive enough wind and to be void of nearby obstructions (such as neighboring buildings). Mounting a wind turbine may also require permission from authorities. Wind turbines have been criticized for the noise they produce, their appearance, and the argument that they can affect the migratory patterns of birds (their blades obstruct passage in the sky). Wind turbines are much more feasible for those living in rural areas and are one of the most cost-effective forms of renewable energy per kilowatt, approaching the cost of fossil fuels, and have quick paybacks.

text: Hydropower or water power (from the , "water") is power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from many kinds of watermills has been used as a renewable energy source for irrigation and the operation of various mechanical devices, such as gristmills, sawmills, textile mills, trip hammers, dock cranes, domestic lifts, and ore mills. A trompe, which produces compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance.

text: Hydropower or water power (from the , "water") is

text: power

text: derived from the

text: energy

text: of falling water or fast running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydropower from many kinds of

text: watermill

text: s has been used as a

text: renewable energy

text: source for

text: irrigation

text: and the operation of various mechanical devices, such as

text: gristmill

text: s,

text: sawmill

text: s,

text: textile

text: mills,

text: trip hammer

text: s, dock

text: cranes

text: , domestic

text: lifts

text: , and

text: ore

text: mills. A

text: trompe

text: , which produces compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance.

text: Eco-cities look to employ renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines, solar panels, and biogas, to reduce emissions. Wind turbines present the opportunity of being able to provide both localized districts within eco-cities and the larger region as a whole with emission-free renewable energy that can additionally supplement existing power sources.  Furthermore, by designing buildings with natural ventilation systems, eco-cities reduce the need for air conditioning, thus, drastically decreasing commercial and residential energy use. The energy generated can come from large scale energy production systems such as solar farms which supply many homes and businesses or from individual buildings energying at least in part their own energy from solar photovoltaic or small scale wind turbines or biomass.Many eco-cities additionally look to deploy solar thermal energy. By installing solar collectors, developers will be able to provide hot water for space heating and individual and community needs while reducing dependence on gas fueled boilers. While solar thermal energy appears to be a more efficient source of renewable energy, many urban planners also view photovoltaics as a viable source of energy. Photovoltaics directly convert solar energy into electricity; however, the extensive costs associated with developing this technology on the city-scale may limit its use when compared to its potential payback.  Biogas technology is also deployed as a source of renewable energy as the organic material from wastewater is converted into fuel.

text: Eco-cities look to employ

text: renewable energy

text: sources, such as

text: wind turbines

text: solar panels

text: , and

text: biogas

text: , to reduce emissions. Wind turbines present the opportunity of being able to provide both localized districts within eco-cities and the larger region as a whole with emission-free renewable energy that can additionally supplement existing power sources.  Furthermore, by designing buildings with

text: natural ventilation

text: systems, eco-cities reduce the need for air conditioning, thus, drastically decreasing commercial and residential energy use. The energy generated can come from large scale energy production systems such as solar farms which supply many homes and businesses or from individual buildings energying at least in part their own energy from solar photovoltaic or small scale wind turbines or biomass.Many eco-cities additionally look to deploy

text: solar thermal energy

text: . By installing

text: solar collectors

text: , developers will be able to provide hot water for space heating and individual and community needs while reducing dependence on gas fueled boilers. While solar thermal energy appears to be a more efficient source of renewable energy, many urban planners also view

text: photovoltaics

text: as a viable source of energy. Photovoltaics directly convert solar energy into electricity; however, the extensive costs associated with developing this technology on the city-scale may limit its use when compared to its potential payback.

text: Biogas

text: technology is also deployed as a source of renewable energy as the organic material from wastewater is converted into fuel.

text: In 1921 The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) was created to operate the nation's power plants. From 1950 to 1960, the state constructed large hydropower plants across the country.

text: Over time, distributions of the genotypic traits for worker food preference must have clustered around those conferring a proclivity towards resources that improved the fitness of the subspecies. The balancing of evolutionary costs and benefits have shaped the distribution of these genotypic traits. A bee population must strike a balance in the distribution of resources towards the growth of the current colony members versus reproduction. If too much energy is expended on the maintenance of an adult colony, the bees will lose the chance to expand through reproduction but they will have older workers who specialize in nectar resources for energy (honey.) If too much energy is spent on reproduction, such a colony will be less equipped to survive drastic seasonal changes because they have younger workers who specialize in pollen for feeding the brood, not energy storage.

text: The concept allows V2G vehicles to provide power to help balance loads by "valley filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and "peak shaving" (sending power back to the grid when demand is high, see duck curve). Peak load leveling can enable utilities new ways to provide regulation services (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide spinning reserves (meet sudden demands for power). In future development, it has been proposed that such use of electric vehicles could buffer renewable power sources such as wind power, for example, by storing excess energy produced during windy periods and providing it back to the grid during high load periods, thus effectively stabilizing the intermittency of wind power.  Some see this application of vehicle-to-grid technology as a renewable energy approach that can penetrate the baseline electric market.

text: The concept allows V2G vehicles to provide power to help balance loads by "valley filling" (charging at night when demand is low) and "peak shaving" (sending power back to the grid when demand is high, see

text: duck curve

text: ). Peak load leveling can enable

text: utilities

text: new ways to provide

text: regulation service

text: s (keeping voltage and frequency stable) and provide

text: spinning reserve

text: s (meet sudden demands for power). In future development, it has been proposed that such use of electric vehicles could buffer renewable power sources such as

text: wind power

text: , for example, by storing excess energy produced during windy periods and providing it back to the grid during high load periods, thus effectively stabilizing the

text: intermittency

text: of wind power.  Some see this application of vehicle-to-grid technology as a renewable energy approach that can penetrate the baseline electric market.

text: Tidal power is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power. The first large-scale tidal power plant (the Rance Tidal Power Station) started operation in 1966. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power.

text: Tidal power

text: is a form of

text: hydropower

text: that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power. The first large-scale tidal power plant (the

text: Rance Tidal Power Station

text: ) started operation in 1966. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power.

text: The company has divisions for supporting renewable energy project development, and operations for offshore wind energy, onshore wind energy, and solar. Services include "resource mapping, energy assessment, project engineering, due diligence, performance evaluation, data monitoring, data collection, and power production forecasting."

text: The company has divisions for supporting renewable energy project development, and operations for offshore

text: wind energy

text: , onshore wind energy, and

text: solar

text: . Services include "resource mapping, energy assessment, project engineering, due diligence, performance evaluation, data monitoring, data collection, and power production forecasting."

text: The following is a very brief list of advantages and disadvantages to using the ABLLS-R assessment.

text: Renewable energy in Armenia ranges from geothermal, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy in Armenia.

text: Renewable energy in Armenia ranges from

text: geothermal

text: hydroelectric

text: solar

text: and

text: wind

text: energy in

text: Armenia

text: Manure can also have environmental benefit as a renewable energy source, in digester systems yielding biogas for heating and/or electricity generation. Manure biogas operations can be found in Asia,  Europe, North America, and elsewhere.  The US EPA estimates that as of July 2010, 157 manure digester systems for biogas energy were in operation on commercial-scale US livestock facilities. System cost is substantial, relative to US energy values, which may be a deterrent to more widespread use, although additional factors, such as odor control and carbon credits, may improve benefit /cost ratios.

text: A practical example of the use of solar energy can be seen in some rural villages of Pakistan where houses have been provided with solar panels that run electric fans and energy-saving bulbs. One notable and successfully implemented case was the village of Narian Khorian (about 50 kilometers from Islamabad), which employs the use of 100 solar panels installed by a local firm, free of cost; these panels have provide energy through lights and fan facilities to some 100 households.The alternative energy development board installed 200 solar home systems at District Khuzdar Balochistan in a remote off-grid village Karak. Government of Balochistan launched a programme to electrify off-grid villages of various districts through solar technology.

text: A practical example of the use of solar energy can be seen in some rural villages of Pakistan where houses have been provided with solar panels that run electric fans and energy-saving bulbs. One notable and successfully implemented case was the village of

text: Narian Khorian

text: (about 50 kilometers from Islamabad), which employs the use of 100 solar panels installed by a local firm, free of cost; these panels have provide energy through lights and fan facilities to some 100 households.The

text: alternative energy

text: development board installed 200 solar home systems at District Khuzdar Balochistan in a remote off-grid village Karak. Government of Balochistan launched a programme to electrify off-grid villages of various districts through solar technology.

text: The Geothermal Education Office and a 1980 article titled "The Philippines geothermal success story" by Rudolph J. Birsic published in the journal Geothermal Energy note the remarkable geothermal resources of the Philippines. During the World Geothermal Congress 2000 held in Beppu, Ōita Prefecture of Japan held from May to June 2000, it was reported that the Philippines is the largest consumer of electricity from geothermal sources and highlighted the potential role of geothermal energy in providing energy needs for developing countries.

text: The Geothermal Education Office and a 1980 article titled "The Philippines geothermal success story" by Rudolph J. Birsic published in the journal Geothermal Energy note the remarkable

text: geothermal resources

text: of the

text: Philippines

text: . During the World Geothermal Congress 2000 held in

text: Beppu, Ōita

text: Prefecture of Japan held from May to June 2000, it was reported that the Philippines is the largest consumer of electricity from geothermal sources and highlighted the potential role of geothermal energy in providing energy needs for developing countries.

text: At the regime level, institutions such as the European Investment Bank are beginning to provide funding to facilitate the resources required to advance such niche technology. Furthermore, policies such as that of the Renewables Obligation channels funding from the energy industry to support the niche space and development. As per the method, a number of visions are currently being explored, including smart infrastructure, renewable energy alternatives and the viability of hydrogen. The UK Government uses the Renewable Obligation to 'steer' innovators towards particular solutions. More Renewable Obligation Certificates are awarded to those technologies that are pre-demonstration such as tidal and wave power, while developed technologies such as onshore wind receive less.

text: At the regime level, institutions such as the

text: European Investment Bank

text: are beginning to provide funding to facilitate the resources required to advance such niche technology. Furthermore, policies such as that of the

text: Renewables Obligation

text: channels funding from the energy industry to support the niche space and development. As per the method, a number of visions are currently being explored, including smart infrastructure, renewable energy alternatives and the viability of hydrogen. The UK Government uses the Renewable Obligation to 'steer' innovators towards particular solutions. More

text: Renewable Obligation Certificates

text: are awarded to those technologies that are pre-demonstration such as tidal and wave power, while developed technologies such as onshore wind receive less.

text: The concept of a "backstop" resource is a resource that is sufficiently abundant and sustainable to replace non-renewable resources. Thus, solar and other renewable energy sources are considered "backstop" energy options for unsustainable fossil fuels. Similarly, Gleick and Palaniappan defined "backstop water sources" to be those resources that can replace unsustainable and non-renewable use of water, albeit typically at a higher cost.The classic backstop water source is desalination of seawater. If the rate of water production is not sufficient in one area, another "backstop" could be increased interbasin transfers, such as pipelines to carry freshwater from where it is abundant to an area where water is needed. Water can be imported into an area using water trucks. The most expensive and last resort measures of getting water to a community such as desalination, water transfers are called “backstop” water sources. Fog catchers are the most extreme of backstop methods.

text: The concept of a "backstop" resource is a resource that is sufficiently abundant and sustainable to replace non-renewable resources. Thus, solar and other renewable energy sources are considered "backstop" energy options for unsustainable

text: fossil fuel

text: s. Similarly, Gleick and Palaniappan defined "backstop water sources" to be those resources that can replace unsustainable and non-renewable use of water, albeit typically at a higher cost.The classic backstop water source is

text: desalination

text: of seawater. If the rate of water production is not sufficient in one area, another "backstop" could be increased interbasin transfers, such as pipelines to carry freshwater from where it is abundant to an area where water is needed. Water can be imported into an area using water trucks. The most expensive and last resort measures of getting water to a community such as desalination, water transfers are called “backstop” water sources. Fog catchers are the most extreme of backstop methods.

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels (see solar power by country). Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their grids to supplement or provide an alternative to

text: conventional energy

text: sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels (see

text: solar power by country

text: ). Long distance transmission allows remote

text: renewable energy

text: resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

text: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems. These have occurred in the past, and still occur worldwide. Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by Vaclav Smil. Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and governance. In a more narrow sense, a sustainable energy transition is the shift by some countries, most notably Germany (), to decentralised renewable energy, and energy efficiency. Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy, their declared goal is also the abolishment of coal and other non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on 100% renewable energy.

text: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems. These have occurred in the past, and still occur worldwide. Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by

text: Vaclav Smil

text: . Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and governance. In a more narrow sense, a sustainable energy transition is the shift by some countries, most notably Germany (), to decentralised

text: renewable energy

text: , and

text: energy efficiency

text: . Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy, their declared goal is also the

text: abolishment of coal

text: and other non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on

text: 100% renewable energy

text: Wind power plays an important role in Germany's renewable energy mix. In October 2014, the installed domestic capacity amounted to 35,678 megawatts, of which offshore contributed 616 MW.<ref name=ISE-electricityproduction-from-solar-and-wind>

text: Wind power plays an important role in Germany's

text: renewable energy mix

text: . In October 2014, the installed domestic capacity amounted to 35,678 megawatts, of which offshore contributed 616 MW.<ref name=ISE-electricityproduction-from-solar-and-wind>

text: Usually, gathering energy resources in the developing countries in particular sub Saharan countries is undertaken by women. And women spend much time on cooking in a kitchen. They spend much time on harvesting energy resources and thus correspondingly consume their physical energy, which bring chronic fatigue to women. Moreover, the women and children, who spend much time in their kitchens to serve their families and stick around their moms to help moms' house chores, respectively, are in danger of long-term exposure to indoor air pollution caused by burning the traditional biomass. During the combustion, carbon monoxide, particles, benzene, and the likes threat their health. Expected diseases are acute respiratory infections, lung cancer, asthma, and other diseases. "The health consequences of using biomass in an unsustainable way are staggering. According to the World Health Organization, exposure to indoor air pollution is responsible for the nearly two million excess deaths, primarily women and children, from cancer, respiratory infections and lung diseases and for four percent of the global burden of disease. In relative terms, deaths related to biomass pollution kill more people than malaria (1.2 million) and tuberculosis (1.6 million) each year around the world."

text: The incentive to use 100% renewable energy has been created by global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns. Mark Z. Jacobson says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power,  and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs. According to a 2011 projection by the (IEA)International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, dramatically reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include Vaclav Smil and James E. Hansen. Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, NIMBYism, and a lack of infrastructure.

text: The incentive to use

text: 100% renewable energy

text: has been created by

text: global warming

text: and other ecological as well as economic concerns.

text: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: says producing all new energy with

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: ,  and

text: hydropower

text: by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs. According to a 2011 projection by the (IEA)

text: International Energy Agency

text: , solar power generators may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, dramatically reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include

text: Vaclav Smil

text: and

text: James E. Hansen

text: . Smil and Hansen are concerned about the

text: variable output

text: of solar and wind power,

text: NIMBY

text: ism, and a lack of infrastructure.

text: Today, his most important book is considered to be "In a hundred years: the world's future energy supply" (In hundert Jahren - Die künftige Energieversorgung der Welt), which was published in 1931 for Franckh's "Friends of Nature Club" (Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde). In this book, he started by pointing out that humanity would one day run out of coal (he dismissed petroleum as a source of energy, because he felt that it would run out very quickly), and went on to discuss other possible sources of energy that could replace coal, including geothermal power (which already existed in Italy at the time the book was written), and other types of renewable energy that had not yet actually been used: the solar updraft tower, wave farms, and tidal power plants.

text: Today, his most important book is considered to be "In a hundred years: the world's future energy supply" (In hundert Jahren - Die künftige Energieversorgung der Welt), which was published in 1931 for Franckh's "Friends of Nature Club" (Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde). In this book, he started by pointing out that humanity would one day run out of coal (he dismissed petroleum as a source of energy, because he felt that it would run out very quickly), and went on to discuss other possible sources of energy that could replace coal, including

text: geothermal power

text: (which already existed in Italy at the time the book was written), and other types of renewable energy that had not yet actually been used: the

text: solar updraft tower

text: wave farm

text: s, and

text: tidal power plants

text: An enhanced geothermal system (EGS) generates geothermal electricity without the need for natural convective hydrothermal resources. Until recently, geothermal power systems have exploited only resources where naturally occurring heat, water, and rock permeability are sufficient to allow energy extraction. However, by far most of geothermal energy within reach of conventional techniques is in dry and impermeable rock. EGS technologies enhance and/or create geothermal resources in this hot dry rock (HDR) through 'hydraulic stimulation'.

text: An enhanced geothermal system (EGS) generates

text: geothermal electricity

text: without the need for natural

text: convective

text: hydrothermal resources. Until recently, geothermal power systems have exploited only resources where naturally occurring heat, water, and rock

text: permeability

text: are sufficient to allow energy extraction. However, by far most of geothermal energy within reach of conventional techniques is in dry and impermeable rock. EGS technologies enhance and/or create geothermal resources in this hot dry rock (HDR) through 'hydraulic stimulation'.

text: In order to finance the restructuring and expansion of the Verbund Group, eight Austrian Danube power plants, among others, were leased in the period from 1997 to 2000 as part of a cross-border leasing agreement with a US financial company and leased back without property transfer. In 2009, the backtransaction of virtually all leasing transactions was decided and, for the major part, implemented that same year.In mid-2005, Verbund established the business division of Sales and became active in Austria's end customer market selling electricity. Within but a few years, the company had advanced to the fifth largest end customer provider in Austria. In 2007, Verbund expanded its activities to include additional renewable energy sources and began to undertake large investments in especially wind power. In mid-2009, Verbund acquired a power plant chain on the Bavarian river Inn from energy company E.ON and, hence, advanced to fourth largest hydropower producer in Europe.

text: Alternative Earth Resources Inc. is an emerging renewable energy developer focused on producing clean, sustainable geothermal electric power from high temperature geothermal resources in the United States. Based in Vancouver, BC, the company has 6 geothermal projects in the Western United States.  Despite federal government loan guarantees, the company is facing financial trouble and there is "significant doubt about the company’s ability to continue as a going concern".

text: Alternative Earth Resources Inc. is an emerging renewable energy developer focused on producing clean, sustainable

text: geothermal electric power

text: from high temperature geothermal resources in the United States. Based in

text: Vancouver, BC

text: , the company has 6 geothermal projects in the Western

text: United States

text: .  Despite federal government loan guarantees, the company is facing financial trouble and there is "significant doubt about the company’s ability to continue as a

text: going concern

text: Spain is one of the world leaders in renewable energies, both as a producer of renewable energy itself and as an exporter of such technology. In 2013 it became the first country ever in the world to have wind power as its main source of energy.

text: Spain is one of the world leaders in

text: renewable energies

text: , both as a producer of renewable energy itself and as an exporter of such technology. In 2013 it became the first country ever in the world to have

text: wind power

text: as its main source of energy.

text: The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society uses large amounts of electrical power.  This power is normally generated at power plants that convert some other kind of energy into electrical power.  Each such system has advantages and disadvantages, but many of them pose environmental concerns.

text: The environmental impact of electricity generation is significant because modern society uses large amounts of electrical power.  This power is normally

text: generated

text: at

text: power plant

text: s that convert some other kind of energy into electrical power.  Each such system has advantages and disadvantages, but many of them pose environmental concerns.

text: Although a majority of the renewable energy in China is from hydropower, other renewable energy sources are in rapid development. In 2006, a total of 10 billion US dollars had been invested in renewable energy, second only to Germany.

text: Although a majority of the renewable energy in China is from

text: hydropower

text: , other renewable energy sources are in rapid development. In 2006, a total of 10 billion US dollars had been invested in renewable energy, second only to Germany.

text: =Section 1101 extends for three years the tax credit for producing electricity from wind, biomass, geothermal or solar, solid waste, and qualified hydropower facilities. Extends such credit for two years for marine and hydrokinetic renewable energy resources.

text: In 1996, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducted a wind resource analysis and mapping study. It concluded that various areas in the Philippines are ideal for wind power installation. These areas include Bangui and Burgos towns in Ilocos Norte, Batanes and Babuyan Islands, which are north of Luzon and the higher interior terrain of Mindoro, Samar, Leyte, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Palawan and Eastern Mindanao. The study led to the inception of the wind farm project. NorthWind Power Development Corp. developed (and maintains and operates) the project, while Vestas Wind Systems, a Danish firm, supplied the wind turbine-generator units (WTGs) for the site, similar to those already found in Denmark. The project was to have been developed in three phases.

text: Kazakhstan possesses 5 operational hydroelectric plants which provide roughly 12% of the electricity generation. The majority of the facilities are located on the Irtysh River. Other renewables are largely undeveloped although Kazakhstan has potential in renewable energy resources. Renewable energy sources could be particularly attractive in isolated rural areas.

text: Kazakhstan possesses 5 operational hydroelectric plants which provide roughly 12% of the electricity generation. The majority of the facilities are located on the

text: Irtysh River

text: . Other renewables are largely undeveloped although Kazakhstan has potential in renewable energy resources. Renewable energy sources could be particularly attractive in isolated rural areas.

text: When generating renewable energy and feeding it back into the grid (in participating countries such as the US and Germany), producing households are typically paid at least the full standard electricity rate by their utility and are also given separate renewable energy credits that they can then sell to their utility, additionally (utilities are interested in buying these renewable energy credits because it allows them to claim that they produce renewable energy). In some special cases, producing households may be paid up to four times the standard electricity rate, but this is not common.

text: Onshore wind investors will also have to get prior approval for their projects under the Federal Immission Control Act (Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetzes or BlmSchG), the federal law regulating the harmful effects of air pollution, noise, vibration and similar phenomena.  Citizens cooperatives (Genossenschaft) participating in wind energy tenders have special dispensations.  Wind energy auctions will be held more often in the beginning, with three in 2017 and four in 2018, in order to quickly establish a price level.  The annual capacity for onshore wind farms will be set at 2.8GW per year for 2017 to 2019 and at 2.9GW thereafter.  In order to better synchronise the development of the grid with renewables growth, the addition of onshore wind will be restricted to specified 'grid congestion zones' where high inputs of renewable electricity cannot be accepted because of network congestion.  These areas are to be identified by the Federal Network Agency.  The new rules on funding offshore wind farms will apply to those projects that commence operation in 2021 or later.  From 2025, the government will specify the sites for future wind farms and investors will then compete for the right to build at those locations.  This centralised (Danish) model is designed to ensure competition and to make project approvals, site planning, and network connections more cost effective and better integrated.  Between 2021 and 2024 a transitional auction model will be used and wind farms that have been planned and approved but not built will compete in two rounds of tenders for a restricted amount of capacity.  Offshore wind will remain capped at 15GW by 2030 and the capacity auctioned each year will be consistent with this target.  In 2021, only wind farms in the Baltic Sea will be considered, due to a shortage of network connections at the North Sea.  Biomass projects will also participate in the new auction system.  Biomass capacity is to be expanded by 150MW annually in the next three years and by 200MW annually for the following three years.  Installations with a capacity greater than 150kW will also be able to tender.  Biomass facilities will only receive remuneration for half their runtime in order to incentivize their use during times of high electricity prices.  Hydroelectricity, geothermal, and mine, landfill, and sewage gas are excluded from the auction system because of the prospect of insufficient competition.

text: Onshore wind investors will also have to get prior approval for their projects under the Federal Immission Control Act (Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetzes or BlmSchG), the federal law regulating the harmful effects of air pollution, noise, vibration and similar phenomena.  Citizens cooperatives (Genossenschaft) participating in wind energy tenders have special dispensations.  Wind energy auctions will be held more often in the beginning, with three in 2017 and four in 2018, in order to quickly establish a price level.  The annual capacity for onshore wind farms will be set at 2.8GW per year for 2017 to 2019 and at 2.9GW thereafter.  In order to better synchronise the development of the grid with renewables growth, the addition of onshore wind will be restricted to specified 'grid congestion zones' where high inputs of renewable electricity cannot be accepted because of network congestion.  These areas are to be identified by the

text: Federal Network Agency

text: Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gasalso called landfill gas or biogas. Crops, such as corn and sugarcane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats. Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research. There is a great deal of research involving algal fuel or algae-derived biomass due to the fact that it's a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land-based agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen. The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the United Kingdom.

text: Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like

text: methane

text: gas or transportation fuels like

text: ethanol

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: . Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gasalso called

text: landfill gas

text: or

text: biogas

text: . Crops, such as corn and sugarcane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats. Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research. There is a great deal of research involving

text: algal fuel

text: or algae-derived biomass due to the fact that it's a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land-based agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol,

text: butanol

text: , and methane, as well as biodiesel and

text: hydrogen

text: . The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States. Agricultural waste is common in

text: Mauritius

text: (sugar cane residue) and

text: Southeast Asia

text: (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the United Kingdom.

text: The International Geo Association (IGA) is an international non-profit association representing the geothermal power sector worldwide.  The organisation works for the promotion and worldwide deployment of geothermal energy technology and advocates a future energy system based on renewable energy.

text: The International Geo Association (IGA) is an international non-profit association representing the

text: geothermal power

text: sector worldwide.  The organisation works for the promotion and worldwide deployment of geothermal energy technology and advocates a future energy system based on

text: renewable energy

text: Under capitalism, he suggests that technology "has been the sine qua non of growth" - thus he believes that, even in a world with hypothetical "free energy", the effect would be to lower the cost of automobile production, leading to the massive overproduction of vehicles, "collapsing infrastructure", chronic resource depletion and the "paving over" of the "remainder of nature". In the modern world, Kovel considers the supposed efficiency of new post-industrial commodities is a "plain illusion", as miniaturized components involve many substances and are therefore non-recyclable (and, theoretically, only simple substances could be retrieved by burning out-of-date equipment, releasing more pollutants). He is quick to warn "environmental liberals" against over-selling the virtues of renewable energies that cannot meet the mass energy consumption of the era; although he would still support renewable energy projects, he believes it is more important to restructure societies to reduce energy use before relying on renewable energy technologies alone.

text: Under

text: capitalism

text: , he suggests that technology "has been the sine qua non of

text: growth

text: " - thus he believes that, even in a world with hypothetical "free energy", the effect would be to lower the cost of

text: automobile

text: production, leading to the massive

text: overproduction

text: of

text: vehicle

text: s, "collapsing infrastructure", chronic

text: resource depletion

text: and the "paving over" of the "remainder of

text: nature

text: ". In the modern world, Kovel considers the supposed efficiency of new

text: post-industrial

text: commodities is a "plain illusion", as

text: miniaturized

text: components involve many substances and are therefore non-

text: recyclable

text: (and, theoretically, only simple substances could be retrieved by burning out-of-date equipment, releasing more

text: pollutants

text: ). He is quick to warn "environmental

text: liberals

text: " against over-selling the virtues of

text: renewable energies

text: that cannot meet the mass energy consumption of the era; although he would still support

text: renewable energy

text: projects, he believes it is more important to restructure societies to reduce energy use before relying on

text: renewable energy

text: technologies alone.

text: Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world’s largest photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are connected to the grid using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff. In 2013 solar generated less than 1% of the world's total grid electricity.

text: Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW

text: SEGS

text: CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW

text: Solnova Solar Power Station

text: and the 100 MW

text: Andasol solar power station

text: , both in Spain. The 250 MW

text: Agua Caliente Solar Project

text: , in the United States, and the 221 MW

text: Charanka Solar Park

text: in

text: India

text: , are the

text: world’s largest

text: photovoltaic plant

text: s. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are connected to the grid using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff. In 2013 solar generated less than 1% of the world's total grid electricity.

text: This abundant amount of natural resources within Norway, has given the country a lucrative revenue. Crude oil and natural gas accounted for 40% of the country's total export value in 2015. As a share of GDP, the export of oil and natural gas is approximately 17%. As a means to ensure security and mitigate against the “Dutch disease” characterized by fluctuations in the price of oil, the Norwegian government funnels a portion of this export revenue into a pension fund, the Government Pension Fund Global (GPFG). The Norwegian government receives these funds from their market shares within oil industries, such as their two-thirds share of Statoil, and allocates it through their government controlled domestic economy. This combination allows the government to distribute the natural resource wealth into welfare investments for the mainland. Tying this fiscal policy to the oil market for equity concerns creates a cost-benefit economic solution towards a public access good problem in which a select few are able to reap the direct benefits of a public good. Domestically, Norway has addressed the complications that occur with oil industry markets in protecting the mainland economy and government intervention in distributing its revenue to combat balance-of-payment shocks and to address energy security.

text: In 1950, the E.J. Stoneman generating station (“Stoneman”) was built by Dairyland Power Cooperative ("Dairyland") placed into service.  The plant was named after Erle Stoneman, a director of Grant Electric Cooperative and an original incorporator of Dairyland.  In 1993, E.J. Stoneman was closed due to economic reasons.  In 1996, Dairyland sold the mothballed Stoneman plant to Mid-American power, an Arkansas-based subsidiary of WPS Resources, and put Stoneman back into operation.  In 2007, WPS Resources merged with a group of Illinois natural gas utilities, forming Integrys Energy.  In 2008, Integrys sold Stoneman to DTE Stoneman, LLC, a non-utility subsidiary of DTE Energy.  One week later, Dairyland Power announced an agreement to purchase the facility’s entire 40 MW net output from DTE upon conversion to a biomass burning plant.

text: Wind power is a clean, domestic, renewable resource that assists the U.S. in meeting energy, environmental, and economic challenges.  The U.S. wind industry has the potential to generate tens of thousands of jobs and billions of dollars of economic activity. Wind projects boost local tax bases, and revitalize the economy of rural communities by providing a steady income stream to farmers with wind turbines on their land. GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer.

text: Wind power is a clean, domestic, renewable resource that assists the U.S. in meeting energy, environmental, and economic challenges.  The U.S. wind industry has the potential to generate tens of thousands of jobs and billions of dollars of economic activity. Wind projects boost local tax bases, and revitalize the economy of rural communities by providing a steady income stream to farmers with wind turbines on their land.

text: GE Energy

text: is the largest domestic

text: wind turbine

text: manufacturer.

text: Key goals of the program are to demonstrate the possibilities for solar power, smart meters, energy conservation, new approaches to electricity pricing and sustainable living in urban locations. It is a partnership approach that involves all levels of Government, the private sector and the local community. Consumers will be able to purchase solar photovoltaic panels using discounted loans. The project also plans to help low-income and rental households in the community share in the benefits of the project through other cost-saving initiatives. The Solar City project aims for customers to better understand energy use, electricity companies to understand the extent of cost savings in servicing peak demand periods, to provide a low risk environment to test new sustainable energy options, and for Governments to develop future energy and green house emission policies. Their vision is to create a model of cooperation between governments, businesses, and the community to achieve a community conscious of its unique environment and natural resources (Alice Solar City, 2008 p. 2).  The program emphasizes the importance of being energy efficient as the first priority, followed by utilizing renewable energy sources (Alice Solar City Energy Champions 2008, p. 3).

text: Key goals of the program are to demonstrate the possibilities for

text: solar power

text: smart meter

text: s,

text: energy conservation

text: , new approaches to electricity pricing and sustainable living in urban locations. It is a partnership approach that involves all levels of Government, the private sector and the local community. Consumers will be able to purchase solar

text: photovoltaic

text: panels using discounted loans. The project also plans to help low-income and rental households in the community share in the benefits of the project through other cost-saving initiatives. The Solar City project aims for customers to better understand energy use, electricity companies to understand the extent of cost savings in servicing peak demand periods, to provide a low risk environment to test new sustainable energy options, and for Governments to develop future energy and green house emission policies. Their vision is to create a model of cooperation between governments, businesses, and the community to achieve a community conscious of its unique environment and natural resources (Alice Solar City, 2008 p. 2).  The program emphasizes the importance of being energy efficient as the first priority, followed by utilizing renewable energy sources (Alice Solar City Energy Champions 2008, p. 3).

text: Renewable energy in Albania ranges from biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, wind energy in Albania. Albania relies mostly on hydroelectric resources, therefore, it has difficulties when water levels are low. Albania has a great potential for solar, wind, and geothermal energy. The climate in Albania is Mediterranean so it possesses considerable potential for solar energy. Similarly, the mountain elevations provide good areas for wind projects. There is also potential for geothermal energy because Albania has natural wells.

text: Renewable energy in Albania ranges from

text: biomass

text: geothermal

text: hydropower

text: solar

text: wind

text: energy in

text: Albania

text: . Albania relies mostly on hydroelectric resources, therefore, it has difficulties when water levels are low. Albania has a great potential for solar, wind, and geothermal energy. The climate in Albania is Mediterranean so it possesses considerable potential for solar energy. Similarly, the mountain elevations provide good areas for wind projects. There is also potential for geothermal energy because Albania has natural wells.

text: These all hold specific advantages and disadvantages over BV, although in the past BV has been held in high regard.

text: Apart from biomass, which accounts for about 3.5% of total generation capacity, no other renewable energy source besides hydroelectricity plays a relevant role in the energy mix. However, the potential for wind energy, which is concentrated in the Northeast, is very large. It is about 143 GW, which exceeds current installed capacity and is second only to Argentina in the LAC region. There are projects for the development of biomass, solar and wind energy.

text: Apart from biomass, which accounts for about 3.5% of total generation capacity, no other renewable energy source besides

text: hydroelectricity

text: plays a relevant role in the energy mix. However, the potential for wind energy, which is concentrated in the Northeast, is very large. It is about 143 GW, which exceeds current installed capacity and is second only to

text: Argentina

text: in the

entity_name: United Nations geoscheme for the Americas

text: LAC

text: region. There are projects for the development of biomass, solar and wind energy.

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources that are not significantly depleted by their use, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy is gradually replacing conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from

text: resources

text: that are not significantly depleted by their use, such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy is gradually replacing conventional fuels in four distinct areas:

text: electricity generation

text: hot water

text: space heating

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Despite being technically non-renewable, fusion power has many of the benefits of renewable energy sources (such as being a long-term energy supply and emitting no greenhouse gases) as well as some of the benefits of the resource-limited energy sources as hydrocarbons and nuclear fission (without reprocessing). Like these currently dominant energy sources, fusion could provide very high power-generation density and uninterrupted power delivery (because it is not dependent on the weather, unlike wind and solar power).

text: Despite being technically

text: non-renewable

text: , fusion power has many of the benefits of renewable energy sources (such as being a long-term energy supply and emitting no

text: greenhouse gas

text: es) as well as some of the benefits of the resource-limited energy sources as hydrocarbons and nuclear fission (without

text: reprocessing

text: ). Like these currently dominant energy sources, fusion could provide very high power-generation density and uninterrupted power delivery (because it is not dependent on the

text: weather

text: , unlike wind and solar power).

text: Recent U.S. policy has generally been to provide an inflation-adjusted federal production tax credit (PTC) of $15 per MW·h (in 1995 dollars) generated for the first ten years of operation for wind energy sold. As of 2015, the credit was $23 per MW·h. Renewable portfolio standards mandating a certain percentage of electric power sales come from renewable energy sources, which are in place in about half of the states, also have boosted the development of the wind industry.

text: Recent U.S. policy has generally been to provide an inflation-adjusted federal

text: production tax credit

text: (PTC) of $15 per MW·h (in 1995 dollars) generated for the first ten years of operation for wind energy sold. As of 2015, the credit was $23 per MW·h.

text: Renewable portfolio standard

text: s mandating a certain percentage of electric power sales come from renewable energy sources, which are in place in about half of the states, also have boosted the development of the wind industry.

text: Karve did her M.sc. (Physics with Specialisation: Energy Studies, LASER), University of Pune, 1993, and later pursued her Ph.D. (Physics) from the University of Pune in 1998. As a student, she worked on a three-month project to create compact fuel for stoves used in rural areas using sawdust and sand. Her experience with the sooty, inefficient stoves that rural women dealt with on a daily basis spurred her to join the Appropriate Rural Technology Institute, an NGO based in Maharashtra, where she experiments with cook stove designs and biomass fuels. She also endeavoured to develop a sustainable channel for people in rural areas to access biomass energy technologies. She was part of the team that developed the biowaste-to-charcoal technology, which won the Ashden Award for Renewable Energy in 2002.

text: Karve did her M.sc. (Physics with Specialisation: Energy Studies, LASER), University of Pune, 1993, and later pursued her Ph.D. (Physics) from the

text: University of Pune

text: in 1998. As a student, she worked on a three-month project to create compact fuel for stoves used in rural areas using sawdust and sand. Her experience with the sooty, inefficient stoves that rural women dealt with on a daily basis spurred her to join the

text: Appropriate Rural Technology Institute

text: , an NGO based in Maharashtra, where she experiments with cook stove designs and biomass fuels. She also endeavoured to develop a sustainable channel for people in rural areas to access biomass energy technologies. She was part of the team that developed the biowaste-to-charcoal technology, which won the

text: Ashden Award

text: for Renewable Energy in

text: Arthur Nozik is a researcher at the National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL). He is also a professor at the University of Colorado, which is located in Boulder. He researches semiconductor quantum dots at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and is a chemistry professor at the University of Colorado. He also does research for the advancement of solar energy, for which he won the Intergovernmental Renewable Energy Organization (IREO) Award for Science and Technology in 2009.

text: Arthur Nozik is a researcher at the

text: National Renewable Energy Lab

text: (NREL). He is also a professor at the

text: University of Colorado

text: , which is located in

text: Boulder

text: . He researches semiconductor quantum dots at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and is a chemistry professor at the University of Colorado. He also does research for the advancement of solar energy, for which he won the Intergovernmental Renewable Energy Organization (IREO) Award for Science and Technology in 2009.

text: Production Tax Credits (PTC) were a part of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (102nd Congress H.R.776.ENR, abbreviated as EPACT92) and are intended for wind and bioenergy resources. The purpose of the Production Tax Credit is to support renewable energy based upon the environmental, economic, and energy security benefits that renewable energy resources can provide. Besides wind energy, the PTC also covers closed loop biomass, geothermal power, and half the rate for open loop biomass, hydropower, landfill gas, and municipal solid waste. The PTC provides a 2.2 cent per kilowatt-hour benefit for the first ten years of a renewable energy facility's operation. It is only available for wind energy equipment located within the United States and only if electricity produced is sold to an unrelated party. Any unused credits may be carried forward for up to 20 years following generation.

text: Production Tax Credits (PTC) were a part of the

text: Energy Policy Act of 1992

text: (102nd Congress H.R.776.ENR, abbreviated as EPACT92) and are intended for wind and bioenergy resources. The purpose of the Production Tax Credit is to support renewable energy based upon the environmental, economic, and energy security benefits that renewable energy resources can provide. Besides wind energy, the PTC also covers closed loop biomass, geothermal power, and half the rate for open loop

text: biomass

text: hydropower

text: landfill gas

text: , and

text: municipal solid waste

text: . The PTC provides a 2.2 cent per kilowatt-hour benefit for the first ten years of a renewable energy facility's operation. It is only available for wind energy equipment located within the United States and only if electricity produced is sold to an unrelated party. Any unused credits may be carried forward for up to 20 years following generation.

text: Energy efficiency and renewable energy are twin pillars of a sustainable energy future. However, there is little linking of these pillars despite their potential synergies. The more efficiently energy services are delivered, the faster renewable energy can become an effective and significant contributor of primary energy. The more energy is obtained from renewable sources, the less fossil fuel energy is required to provide that same energy demand. This linkage of renewable energy with energy efficiency relies in part on the electrical energy efficiency benefits of copper.

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy

text: is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: electricity generation

text: hot water

text: space heating

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Hydroelectric power plants generally require the creation of a large artificial lake. Evaporation from this lake is higher than evaporation from a river due to the larger surface area exposed to the elements, resulting in much higher water consumption. The process of driving water through the turbine and tunnels or pipes also briefly removes this water from the natural environment, creating water withdrawal. The impact of this withdrawal on wildlife varies greatly depending on the design of the powerplant.

text: The environmental effects involved in recharging the batteries can of course be minimised. The small size of the battery pack on an e-bike, relative to the larger pack used in an electric car, makes them very good candidates for charging via solar power or other renewable energy resources.  Sanyo capitalized on this benefit when it set up "solar parking lots," in which e-bike riders can charge their vehicles while parked under photovoltaic panels.

text: The environmental effects involved in recharging the batteries can of course be minimised. The small size of the battery pack on an e-bike, relative to the larger pack used in an

text: electric car

text: , makes them very good candidates for charging via

text: solar power

text: or other renewable energy resources.  Sanyo capitalized on this benefit when it set up "solar parking lots," in which e-bike riders can charge their vehicles while parked under

text: photovoltaic panels

text: Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy. In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.

text: Energy efficiency and

text: renewable energy

text: are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy. In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.

text: Hydropower plants have an established capacity of 1,038 MW.

text: "Since the turn of the century, the Shri Kshetra Dharmasthala Rural Development Project (SKDRDP) has extended micro-credits for renewable energy projects for a total of $3.2 million to poor farmers in the South Indian state of Karnataka. The credits paid for the installation of almost 20,000 biogas plants, solar home systems, improved cooking stoves and family-size pico-hydropower plants" (Bosshard 2012).

text: Hydropower is an environmental friendly and renewable energy source. 99% of all power production in Norway comes from hydropower. On a global basis, 1/6 of the power produced comes from hydropower.

text: Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or once-through cooling system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's heat exchangers. However, the waste heat can cause thermal pollution as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as fish screens, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the Indian Point Energy Center in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.

text: Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or

text: once-through cooling

text: system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's

text: heat exchanger

text: s. However, the waste heat can cause

text: thermal pollution

text: as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as

text: fish screen

text: s, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the

text: Indian Point Energy Center

text: in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.

text: Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) is a company of the Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, established to facilitate the implementation of Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission. It is the only Public Sector Undertaking dedicated to the solar energy sector. The company's mandate has recently been broadened to cover the entire renewable energy domain and the company renamed to Renewable Energy Corporation of India (RECI).

text: Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) is a company of the Indian

text: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

text: , established to facilitate the implementation of

text: Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission

text: . It is the only

text: Public Sector Undertaking

text: dedicated to the

text: solar energy

text: sector. The company's mandate has recently been broadened to cover the entire

text: renewable energy

text: domain and the company renamed to Renewable Energy Corporation of India (RECI).

text: Despite its heavy reliance on fossil fuels for energy, the Philippines does utilize renewable sources of energy in its current energy mix. In particular, the Philippines utilizes hydropower, geothermal, solar, wind and biomass resources. Together, these renewable energy sources contributed 19,903 GWh of electrical energy in 2013, or 26.44% of the country’s power needs.

text: Despite its heavy reliance on fossil fuels for energy, the Philippines does utilize renewable sources of energy in its current

text: energy mix

text: . In particular, the Philippines utilizes

text: hydropower

text: geothermal

text: solar

text: wind

text: and

text: biomass

text: resources. Together, these renewable energy sources contributed 19,903 GWh of electrical energy in 2013, or 26.44% of the country’s power needs.

text: Solar energy deployment increased at a record pace in the United States and throughout the world in 2008, according to industry reports. The Solar Energy Industries Association's "2008 U.S. Solar Industry Year in Review" found that U.S. solar energy capacity increased by 17% in 2007, reaching the total equivalent of 8,775 megawatts (MW). The SEIA report tallies all types of solar energy, and in 2007 the United States installed 342 MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) electric power, 139 thermal megawatts (MWth) of solar water heating, 762 MWth of pool heating, and 21 MWth of solar space heating and cooling.

text: Solar energy deployment increased at a record pace in the United States and

text: throughout the world

text: in 2008, according to industry reports. The

text: Solar Energy Industries Association

text: 's "2008

text: U.S. Solar Industry Year in Review

text: " found that U.S. solar energy capacity increased by 17% in 2007, reaching the total equivalent of 8,775

text: megawatt

text: s (MW). The SEIA report tallies all types of solar energy, and in 2007 the United States installed 342 MW of

text: solar photovoltaic

text: (PV) electric power, 139

text: thermal megawatt

text: s (

text: MWth

text: ) of

text: solar water heating

text: , 762 MWth of

text: pool heating

text: , and 21 MWth of solar

text: space heating and cooling

text: A bill proposed in the South Carolina Legislature in 2007-2008 aimed to classify nuclear power as renewable energy.  The bill listed as renewable energy: solar photovoltaic energy, solar thermal energy, wind power, hydroelectric, geothermal energy, tidal energy, recycling, hydrogen fuel derived from renewable resources, biomass energy, nuclear energy, and landfill gas.

text: A bill proposed in the South Carolina Legislature in 2007-2008 aimed to classify nuclear power as renewable energy.  The bill listed as renewable energy: solar photovoltaic energy, solar thermal energy, wind power, hydroelectric, geothermal energy, tidal energy, recycling, hydrogen fuel derived from renewable resources, biomass energy, nuclear energy, and

text: landfill gas

text: Wind power harnesses mechanical energy from the constant flow of air over the surface of the earth. Wind power stations generally consist of wind farms, fields of wind turbines in locations with relatively high winds. A primary publicity issue regarding wind turbines are their older predecessors, such as the Altamont Pass Wind Farm in California. These older, smaller, wind turbines are rather noisy and densely located, making them very unattractive to the local population. The downwind side of the turbine does disrupt local low-level winds. Modern large wind turbines have mitigated these concerns, and have become a commercially important energy source. Many homeowners in areas with high winds and expensive electricity set up small windmills to reduce their electric bills.

text: Wind power harnesses mechanical energy from the constant flow of air over the surface of the earth. Wind power stations generally consist of

text: wind farm

text: s, fields of

text: wind turbine

text: s in locations with relatively high winds. A primary publicity issue regarding wind turbines are their older predecessors, such as the

text: Altamont Pass Wind Farm

text: in California. These older, smaller, wind turbines are rather noisy and densely located, making them very unattractive to the local population. The downwind side of the turbine does disrupt local low-level winds. Modern large wind turbines have mitigated these concerns, and have become a commercially important energy source. Many homeowners in areas with high winds and expensive electricity set up small windmills to reduce their electric bills.

text: The benefits of the thousands of renewable energy systems installed by ECAMI are considerable: more than 100,000 people have been benefited in Nicaragua while the use of CO emitting fuels and air pollution is being reduced. The social and economic benefits are perceived through longer hours of emergency service in health centers, the installations of water pumps that bring drinking water to distant communities, the access of satellite internet, land irrigation, longer and more efficient working hours, etc.

text: Schmidt has proposed that the easiest way to solve all of the domestic problems of the United States at once is by a stimulus program that rewards renewable energy and, over time, attempts to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy.

text: Schmidt has proposed that the easiest way to solve all of the domestic problems of the United States at once is by a stimulus program that rewards

text: renewable energy

text: and, over time, attempts to replace

text: fossil fuel

text: s with renewable energy.

text: He is author or co-author of articles and publications on renewable energy, energy system analysis, energy technology assessment, energy policies, and climate change. He has served on national and international boards and working groups including the board of the Netherlands' Physical Society (NNV), the Dutch division of the International Solar Energy Society, the working group on renewable energy of the World Energy Council, the working group on energy supply mitigation options of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources for Development of the United Nations (UN-CENRD). He also served on the Editorial Board of the World Energy Assessment (1998–2004) and was Convening Lead Author of the WEA chapter on Renewable Energy Technologies.

text: He is author or co-author of articles and publications on

text: renewable energy

text: , energy system analysis, energy technology assessment, energy policies, and

text: climate change

text: . He has served on national and international boards and working groups including the board of the

text: Netherlands' Physical Society

text: (NNV), the Dutch division of the

text: International Solar Energy Society

text: , the working group on renewable energy of the

text: World Energy Council

text: , the working group on energy supply mitigation options of the

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: , and the

text: Committee on Energy and Natural Resources for Development

text: of the United Nations (UN-CENRD). He also served on the Editorial Board of the

text: World Energy Assessment

text: (1998–2004) and was Convening Lead Author of the WEA chapter on Renewable Energy Technologies.

text: Hydroelectricity uses a water turbine to generate power.  In 1878 the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William George Armstrong. It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery.  The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1 near Niagara Falls in the U.S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power plant, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts.

text: Hydroelectricity

text: uses a

text: water turbine

text: to generate power.  In 1878 the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at

text: Cragside

text: in

text: Northumberland

text: England

text: by

text: William George Armstrong

text: . It was used to power a single

text: arc lamp

text: in his art gallery.  The old

text: Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1

text: near

text: Niagara Falls

text: in the U.S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The first

text: Edison

text: hydroelectric power plant, the

text: Vulcan Street Plant

text: , began operating September 30, 1882, in

text: Appleton, Wisconsin

text: , with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts.

text: In 2012, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory assessed the technical potential for renewable electricity for each of the 50 states, and concluded that each state has technical potential for renewable electricity, mostly from solar power and wind power, greater than its current electricity consumption. The report cautions: "Note that as a technical potential, rather than economic or market potential, these estimates do not consider availability of transmission infrastructure, costs, reliability or time-of-dispatch, current or future electricity loads, or relevant policies."

text: In 2012, the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: assessed the technical potential for renewable electricity for each of the 50 states, and concluded that each state has technical potential for renewable electricity, mostly from

text: solar power

text: and

text: wind power

text: , greater than its current electricity consumption. The report cautions: "Note that as a technical potential, rather than economic or market potential, these estimates do not consider availability of transmission infrastructure, costs, reliability or time-of-dispatch, current or future electricity loads, or relevant policies."

text: A resource is a source or supply from which benefit is produced. Typically resources are materials, energy, services, staff, knowledge, or other assets that are transformed to produce benefit and in the process may be consumed or made unavailable. Benefits of resource utilization may include increased wealth or wants, proper functioning of a system, or enhanced well being. From a human perspective a natural resource is anything obtained from the environment to satisfy human needs and wants.  From a broader biological or ecological perspective a resource satisfies the needs of a living organism (see biological resource).

text: A resource is a source or supply from which benefit is produced. Typically resources are materials, energy, services, staff, knowledge, or other assets that are transformed to produce benefit and in the process may be consumed or made unavailable. Benefits of resource utilization may include increased wealth or wants, proper functioning of a system, or enhanced well being. From a

text: human

text: perspective a

text: natural resource

text: is anything obtained from the

text: environment

text: to satisfy human needs and wants.  From a broader biological or ecological perspective a resource satisfies the needs of a living organism (see

text: biological resource

text: These systems use the principle of harnessing the power generated from renewable and inexhaustible sources of energy, for example; solar, wind, thermal, biomass, and geothermal energy.

text: Power modules are widely found in inverters for renewable energies as wind turbines, solar power panels and tidal power plants. They are also heart of electric vehicles (EVs), power plants and industrial machines.

text: Power modules are widely found in inverters for

text: renewable energies

text: as

text: wind turbine

text: s,

text: solar power

text: panels and tidal power plants. They are also heart of

text: electric vehicle

text: s (EVs), power plants and industrial machines.

text: In the renewable energy sector, MasTec is a contractor that constructs wind farms, solar energy facilities and power plants. Through their wholly owned subsidiary, Wanzek Construction, MasTec has built several wind farms, including Clipper Wind Farm in Jefferson, Minnesota; Taloga Wind Farm, in Putnam, Oklahoma; Crow Lake Wind Farm, in White Lake, South Dakota; Goat Mountain Wind Farm, in Robert Lee, Texas; and Laredo Ridge, in Boone County, Nebraska. Solar Energy projects include Douglas County Schools, in Denver, Colorado, where photo voltaic panels were installed onto 31 rooftops, and the Willows, California, Solar Project.  MasTec also designed and built the Cornhusker Energy Power Plant, in Lexington, Nebraska.  MasTec Power Corp. is another wholly owned subsidiary providing renewable energy Engineering, procurement, and construction management (EPC) services for a variety of fuel types.

text: In the

text: renewable energy

text: sector, MasTec is a contractor that constructs wind farms, solar energy facilities and power plants. Through their wholly owned subsidiary, Wanzek Construction, MasTec has built several wind farms, including Clipper Wind Farm in

text: Jefferson, Minnesota

text: ; Taloga Wind Farm, in

text: Putnam, Oklahoma

text: ; Crow Lake Wind Farm, in

text: White Lake, South Dakota

text: ; Goat Mountain Wind Farm, in

text: Robert Lee, Texas

text: ; and Laredo Ridge, in

text: Boone County, Nebraska

text: . Solar Energy projects include Douglas County Schools, in

text: Denver, Colorado

text: , where photo voltaic panels were installed onto 31 rooftops, and the

text: Willows, California

text: , Solar Project.  MasTec also designed and built the Cornhusker Energy Power Plant, in

text: Lexington, Nebraska

text: .  MasTec Power Corp. is another wholly owned subsidiary providing renewable energy

entity_name: Engineering, procurement, and construction management

text: Engineering, procurement, and construction management

text: (EPC) services for a variety of fuel types.

text: Torresol Energy is a company dedicated to developing renewable and alternative energies, focusing on concentrated solar energy. Its goal is the technological development, construction, operation and maintenance of concentrated solar power plants.

text: Torresol Energy is a company dedicated to developing renewable and alternative energies, focusing on concentrated solar energy. Its goal is the technological development, construction, operation and maintenance of concentrated

text: solar power plants

text: Spoiled (stylized as spOILed) is a 2011 documentary film about energy myths, environmental issues with energy, the problems with alternative energy, and the global warming controversy associated with energy. Spoiled also discusses wind energy, solar energy, fossil fuels, green energy, alternative energy, and sustainable energy as a part of its renewable energy documentary scope.

text: Spoiled (stylized as spOILed) is a 2011 documentary film about energy

text: myths

entity_name: Environmental impact of the energy industry

text: environmental issues with energy

text: , the problems with

text: alternative energy

text: , and the

text: global warming controversy

text: associated with energy. Spoiled also discusses

text: wind energy

text: solar energy

text: fossil fuels

text: green energy

text: alternative energy

text: , and

text: sustainable energy

text: as a part of its

text: renewable energy

text: documentary scope.

text: A large part of the renewable electricity sold in the Netherlands comes from Norway, a country which generates almost all its electricity from hydropower plants. In the Netherlands, household consumers can choose to buy renewable electricity. Since 2008, the amount of renewable energy used by household users has been increasing, rising from 38% in 2008  to 41% by 2009. and up to 44% by mid 2010.

text: A large part of the renewable electricity sold in the Netherlands comes from

text: Norway

text: , a country which generates almost all its electricity from hydropower plants. In the Netherlands, household consumers can choose to buy

text: renewable electricity

text: . Since 2008, the amount of renewable energy used by household users has been increasing, rising from 38% in 2008  to 41% by 2009. and up to 44% by mid 2010.

text: The majority of renewable energy in Lithuania is from firewood. The principal source of electricity from renewable resources is from hydropower.

text: The majority of renewable energy in

text: Lithuania

text: is from firewood. The principal source of electricity from renewable resources is from hydropower.

text: Winds at higher altitudes become steadier, more persistent, and of higher velocity. Because power available in wind increases as the cube of velocity (the velocity-cubed law), assuming other parameters remaining the same, doubling a wind's velocity gives 2=8 times the power; tripling the velocity gives 3=27 times the available power. With steadier and more predictable winds, high-altitude wind has an advantage over wind near the ground. Being able to locate HAWP to effective altitudes and using the vertical dimension of airspace for wind farming brings further advantage using high-altitude winds for generating energy.

text: Winds at higher altitudes become steadier, more persistent, and of higher velocity. Because

text: power available in wind

text: increases as the cube of velocity (the velocity-cubed law), assuming other parameters remaining the same, doubling a wind's velocity gives 2=8 times the power; tripling the velocity gives 3=27 times the available power. With steadier and more predictable winds, high-altitude wind has an advantage over wind near the ground. Being able to locate HAWP to effective altitudes and using the vertical dimension of airspace for wind farming brings further advantage using high-altitude winds for generating energy.

text: Hydropower can be intermittent and/or dispatchable, depending on the configuration of the plant. Typical hydroelectric plants in the dam configuration may have substantial storage capacity, and be considered dispatchable. Run of the river hydroelectric generation will typically have limited or no storage capacity, and will be variable on a seasonal or annual basis (dependent on rainfall and snow melt).

text: Hydropower

text: can be intermittent and/or dispatchable, depending on the configuration of the plant. Typical

text: hydroelectric

text: plants in the dam configuration may have substantial storage capacity, and be considered dispatchable.

text: Run of the river

text: hydroelectric generation will typically have limited or no storage capacity, and will be variable on a seasonal or annual basis (dependent on rainfall and snow melt).

text: Climate change concerns and the need to reduce carbon emissions are driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries. Low-carbon renewable energy replaces conventional fossil fuels in three main areas: power generation, hot water/ space heating, and transport fuels. In 2011, the share of renewables in electricity generation worldwide grew for the fourth year in a row to 20.2%. Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19% to supply global energy consumption. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from burning biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% as electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass thermal power plants.

text: Climate change concerns

text: and the need to reduce carbon emissions are driving increasing growth in the

entity_name: List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange

text: renewable energy industries

text: . Low-carbon renewable energy replaces conventional fossil fuels in three main areas:

text: power generation

text: hot water

text: space heating

text: , and

text: transport fuel

text: s. In 2011, the share of renewables in

text: electricity generation

text: worldwide grew for the fourth year in a row to 20.2%. Based on

text: 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19% to supply global energy consumption. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from burning biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% as electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass thermal power plants.

text: LEED is a design tool and not a performance measurement tool. It is also not yet climate-specific, although the newest version hopes to address this weakness partially. Because of this, designers may make materials or design choices that garner a LEED point, even though they may not be the most site- or climate-appropriate choice available. On top of this, LEED is also not energy-specific. Since it only measures the overall performances, builders are free to choose how to achieve points under various categories. A USA TODAY review showed that 7,100 certified commercial building projects targeted easy and cheap green points, such as creating healthy spaces and providing educational displays in the building. Few builders would really adopt renewable energy because the generators for those energy resources, such as solar photovoltaic, are costly. Builders game the rating system and use certain performances to compensate for the others, making energy conservation the weakest part in the overall evaluation.

text: LEED is a design tool and not a performance measurement tool. It is also not yet climate-specific, although the newest version hopes to address this weakness partially. Because of this, designers may make materials or design choices that garner a LEED point, even though they may not be the most site- or climate-appropriate choice available. On top of this, LEED is also not energy-specific. Since it only measures the overall performances, builders are free to choose how to achieve points under various categories. A USA TODAY review showed that 7,100 certified commercial building projects targeted easy and cheap green points, such as creating healthy spaces and providing educational displays in the building. Few builders would really adopt renewable energy because the generators for those energy resources, such as solar

text: photovoltaic

text: , are costly. Builders game the rating system and use certain performances to compensate for the others, making energy conservation the weakest part in the overall evaluation.

text: She received a research post at the university, where she conducts research in atmospheric and space weather physics, particle physics, and electronics. Her research is conducted to solve Nigerian environmental challenges. To reduce the number of trees cut down for firewood, for instance, one study was about use scraps of wood from carpentry projects for briquettes that could be to use as a fuel, thereby reducing the rate at which the country's forests are diminished. She also gathers atmospheric data and studies the effects of deforestation and dust aerosols on climate temperatures. Her goal is to encourage greater reliance in Nigeria on renewable energy sources—like wind power, solar energy, and hydropower—that are less harmful to the environment than fossil fuels.

text: She received a research post at the university, where she conducts research in

text: atmospheric

text: and

text: space weather physics

text: particle physics

text: , and electronics. Her research is conducted to solve Nigerian environmental challenges. To reduce the number of trees cut down for firewood, for instance, one study was about use scraps of wood from carpentry projects for briquettes that could be to use as a fuel, thereby reducing the rate at which the country's forests are diminished. She also gathers atmospheric data and studies the effects of

text: deforestation

text: and

text: dust aerosols

text: on climate temperatures. Her goal is to encourage greater reliance in Nigeria on renewable energy sources—like wind power, solar energy, and hydropower—that are less harmful to the environment than

text: fossil fuel

text: s.

text: In 2008 for the first time, more renewable energy than conventional power capacity was added in both the European Union and United States, demonstrating a "fundamental transition" of the world's energy markets towards renewables, according to a report released by REN21, a global renewable energy policy network based in Paris. In 2010, renewable power consisted about a third of the newly built power generation capacities.

text: In 2008 for the first time, more renewable energy than conventional power capacity was added in both the European Union and United States, demonstrating a "fundamental transition" of the world's energy markets towards renewables, according to a report released by

text: , a global renewable energy policy network based in Paris. In 2010, renewable power consisted about a third of the newly built power generation capacities.

text: Technologies that promote sustainable energy include renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, solar energy, wind energy, wave power, geothermal energy, bioenergy, tidal power and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency. Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall. Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding. Considerable progress is being made in the energy transition from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support 100% renewable energy.

text: Technologies that promote

text: sustainable

text: energy include

text: renewable energy

text: sources, such as

text: hydroelectricity

text: solar energy

text: wind energy

text: wave power

text: geothermal energy

text: bioenergy

text: tidal power

text: and also technologies designed to improve

text: energy efficiency

text: . Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall. Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding. Considerable progress is being made in the

text: energy transition

text: from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support

text: 100% renewable energy

text: Hydropower draws mechanical energy from rivers, ocean waves and tides. Civil engineering is used to study and build dams, tunnels, waterways and manage coastal resources through hydrology and geology. A low speed water turbine spun by flowing water can power an electrical generator to produce electricity.

text: Hydropower draws mechanical energy from rivers,

text: ocean waves

text: and

text: tides

text: Civil engineering

text: is used to study and build

text: dam

text: s,

text: tunnel

text: s,

text: waterways

text: and manage coastal resources through

text: hydrology

text: and

text: geology

text: . A low speed

text: water turbine

text: spun by flowing water can power an

text: electrical generator

text: to produce electricity.

text: Currently, the biggest renewable source of energy in the UK is wind power, and the UK has some of the best wind resources in Europe. The UK has relatively small hydroelectricity deployment and resources, although some pumped storage exists. Solar power is rapidly growing and provides significant power during daylight hours, but total energy provided is still small. Biofuels are also used as a significant sources of power. Geothermal is not highly accessible and is not a significant source. Tidal resources are present, but are projected to be expensive.

text: The US DOE believes that high-pressure electrolysis, supported by ongoing research and development, will contribute to the enabling and acceptance of technologies where hydrogen is the energy carrier between renewable energy resources and clean energy consumers.

text: The

text: US DOE

text: believes that high-pressure electrolysis, supported by ongoing research and development, will contribute to the enabling and acceptance of technologies where hydrogen is the energy carrier between renewable energy resources and clean energy consumers.

text: Approximately 40% of primary energy is from renewable energy sources in New Zealand. Approximately 80% of electricity comes from renewable energy, primarily hydropower and geothermal power.

text: Approximately 40% of primary energy is from renewable energy sources in

text: New Zealand

text: . Approximately 80% of electricity comes from renewable energy, primarily

text: hydropower

text: and

text: geothermal power

text: Water turbines were developed in the 19th century and were widely used for industrial power prior to electrical grids.  Now they are mostly used for electric power generation.Water turbines are mostly found in dams to generate electric power from water kinetic energy.

text: Water

text: turbine

text: s were developed in the 19th century and were widely used for industrial power prior to

text: electrical grid

text: s.  Now they are mostly used for

text: electric power

text: generation.Water turbines are mostly found in

text: dam

text: s to generate electric power from water kinetic energy.

text: Production of biomass and biofuels are growing industries as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. Utilizing waste products avoids a food vs fuel trade-off, and burning methane gas reduces greenhouse gas emissions, because even though it releases carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is 23 times less of a greenhouse gas than is methane. Biofuels represent a sustainable partial replacement for fossil fuels, but their net impact on greenhouse gas emissions depends on the agricultural practices used to grow the plants used as feedstock to create the fuels. While it is widely believed that biofuels can be carbon-neutral, there is evidence that biofuels produced by current farming methods are substantial net carbon emitters. Geothermal and biomass are the only two renewable energy sources that require careful management to avoid local depletion.

text: Production of biomass and biofuels are growing industries as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. Utilizing waste products avoids a

text: food vs fuel

text: trade-off, and burning

text: methane gas

text: reduces greenhouse gas emissions, because even though it releases carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is 23 times less of a greenhouse gas than is methane. Biofuels represent a sustainable partial replacement for fossil fuels, but their net impact on

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions depends on the agricultural practices used to grow the plants used as feedstock to create the fuels. While it is widely believed that biofuels can be carbon-neutral, there is evidence that biofuels produced by current farming methods are substantial net carbon emitters. Geothermal and biomass are the only two renewable energy sources that require careful management to avoid local depletion.

text: It is the second solar thermal energy (STE) power plant built in the United States in more than 16 years, and the largest STE plant built in the world since 1991.  It is located in Eldorado Valley in the southwest fringe of Boulder City, Nevada, and was built in that city's Energy Resource Zone, which requires renewable generation as part of plant development permits; Nevada Solar One was approved as part of Duke Energy's larger El Dorado Energy project that built 1 GW of electrical generation capacity. The solar trough generation was built by Acciona Solar Power, a partially owned subsidiary of Spanish conglomerate Acciona Energy.  Lauren Engineers & Constructors (Abilene, TX) was the EPC contractor for the project.  Acciona purchased a 55 percent stake in Solargenix (formerly Duke Solar) and Acciona owns 95 percent of the project. Nevada Solar One is unrelated to the Solar One power plant in California.

text: It is the second

text: solar thermal energy

text: (STE) power plant built in the United States in more than 16 years, and the largest STE plant built in the world since 1991.  It is located in

text: Eldorado Valley

text: in the southwest fringe of

text: Boulder City

text: Nevada

text: , and was built in that city's Energy Resource Zone, which requires renewable generation as part of plant development permits; Nevada Solar One was approved as part of

text: Duke Energy

text: 's larger El Dorado Energy project that built 1

text: GW

text: of electrical generation capacity. The solar trough generation was built by Acciona Solar Power, a partially owned subsidiary of Spanish conglomerate

text: Acciona Energy

text: Lauren Engineers & Constructors

text: (Abilene, TX) was the EPC contractor for the project.  Acciona purchased a 55 percent stake in Solargenix (formerly Duke Solar) and Acciona owns 95 percent of the project. Nevada Solar One is unrelated to the

text: Solar One

text: power plant in

text: California

text: The new system incorporates a 9.9 kWp PV system, three hydro generation systems (totalling 112 kW) and a 24 kW wind farm supported by stand-by diesel generation and batteries to guarantee continuous availability of power. A load management system has been installed to provide optimal use of the renewables. This combination of solar, wind and hydro power should provide a network that is self-sufficient and powered 98% from renewable sources. On 1 February 2008 the system was switched on. Eigg Electric generates a finite amount of energy and so Eigg residents agreed from the outset to cap electricity use at 5 kW at any one time for households, and 10 kW for businesses. If renewable resources are low, for example when there is less rain or wind, a "traffic light" system asks residents to keep their usage to a minimum. The traffic light reduces demand by up to 20% and ensures there's always enough energy for everyone.

text: Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogeneration, gas turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load power stations functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generators use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released.  For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning coal for power. The US Energy Information Administration reports the following emissions in million metric tons of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012:

text: Natural gas is a major source of

text: electricity generation

text: through the use of

text: cogeneration

text: gas turbine

text: s and

text: steam turbine

text: s. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with

text: renewable energy

text: sources such as wind or

text: solar

text: and for alimenting

text: peak-load

text: power stations functioning in tandem with

text: hydroelectric

text: plants. Most grid

text: peaking power plant

text: s and some off-grid

text: engine-generator

text: s use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in

text: combined cycle

text: mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other

text: hydrocarbon fuel

text: s, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released.  For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less

text: carbon dioxide

text: than burning

text: petroleum

text: . For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning

text: coal

text: for power. The US

text: Energy Information Administration

text: reports the following emissions in million

text: metric tons

text: of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012:

text: The Council of Energy, Environment and Water, commonly known as CEEW, is a Delhi-based not-for-profit policy research institution. Some of CEEW’s research areas include resource efficiency and security; water resources; renewable energy; sustainability finance; energy-trade-climate linkages; integrated energy, environment and water plans; and climate geoengineering governance. The think-tank advises the Indian government.

text: The Council of Energy, Environment and Water, commonly known as CEEW, is a

text: Delhi

text: -based

text: not-for-profit

text: policy research institution. Some of CEEW’s research areas include

text: resource efficiency

text: and security; water resources;

text: renewable energy

text: ; sustainability finance; energy-trade-climate linkages; integrated energy, environment and water plans; and climate geoengineering governance. The think-tank advises the Indian government.

text: Imperial Valley has become a hotbed of renewable energy projects, both solar and geothermal. This is driven in part by California's mandate to generate 20% of its power from renewable sources by the end of 2010, the valley's excellent sun resources, the high unemployment, its proximity to large population centers on the coast, and large tracts of otherwise unusable desert land. Much of the land suitable for green energy is owned by the federal government (Bureau of Land Management). As of April 2008, the BLM has received 163 applications to build renewable energy projects on  in California. Almost all of these are planned for the Imperial Valley and the desert region north of the valley. Stirling Energy is currently building one of the world's largest solar thermal plants,  with 38,000 "sun catchers," it will power up to 600,000 homes once it is fully operational by around 2015. CalEnergy currently runs a geothermal plant that generates enough power for 300,000 homes and could tap into more for up to 2.5 million homes.

text: Imperial Valley has become a hotbed of renewable energy projects, both solar and geothermal. This is driven in part by California's mandate to generate 20% of its power from renewable sources by the end of 2010, the valley's excellent sun resources, the high unemployment, its proximity to large population centers on the coast, and large tracts of otherwise unusable desert land. Much of the land suitable for green energy is owned by the federal government (

text: Bureau of Land Management

text: ). As of April 2008, the BLM has received 163 applications to build renewable energy projects on  in California. Almost all of these are planned for the Imperial Valley and the desert region north of the valley. Stirling Energy is currently building one of the world's largest

text: solar thermal

text: plants,  with 38,000 "sun catchers," it will power up to 600,000 homes once it is fully operational by around 2015. CalEnergy currently runs a geothermal plant that generates enough power for 300,000 homes and could tap into more for up to 2.5 million homes.

text: Jordan aims to benefit from its large uranium reserves with two nuclear plants, 1000 MW each, scheduled for completion in 2025. Natural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987. The estimated size of the reserve discovered was about 230 billion cubic feet, a modest quantity compared with its other Arab neighbours. The Risha field, in the eastern desert beside the Iraqi border, produces nearly 35 million cubic feet of gas a day, which is sent to a nearby power plant to produce nearly 10% of Jordan's electricity needs. Jordan receives 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds reach over 7 m/s over the mountainous areas. For this reason, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources inaugurated several large-scale projects like the Tafila Wind Farm and the Shams Ma'an Power Plant. The ministry have set a target to obtain 10% of Jordan's electrical consumption from renewable resources by 2020.

text: Jordan aims to benefit from its large uranium reserves with two nuclear plants, 1000 MW each, scheduled for completion in 2025. Natural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987. The estimated size of the reserve discovered was about 230 billion

text: cubic feet

text: , a modest quantity compared with its other Arab neighbours. The Risha field, in the eastern desert beside the Iraqi border, produces nearly 35 million cubic feet of gas a day, which is sent to a nearby power plant to produce nearly 10% of Jordan's electricity needs. Jordan receives 330 days of sunshine per year, and wind speeds reach over 7 m/s over the mountainous areas. For this reason, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources inaugurated several large-scale projects like the

text: Tafila Wind Farm

text: and the

text: Shams Ma'an Power Plant

text: . The ministry have set a target to obtain 10% of Jordan's electrical consumption from renewable resources by 2020.

text: The major renewable energy sources, namely hydropower and bioenergy are produced in a large scale, where business models and jobs are similar to other large-scale energy production. There is additionally small scale production of renewable energy that tends to generate small enterprise and a proportionally greater amount of jobs.

text: Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on imported energy sources. Proponents claim that nuclear power produces virtually no conventional air pollution, such as greenhouse gases and smog, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Nuclear power can produce base-load power unlike many renewables which are intermittent energy sources lacking large-scale and cheap ways of storing energy. M. King Hubbert saw oil as a resource that would run out, and proposed nuclear energy as a replacement energy source. Proponents claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.

text: Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a

text: sustainable energy

text: source that reduces

text: carbon emissions

text: and increases

text: energy security

text: by decreasing dependence on imported energy sources. Proponents claim that nuclear power produces virtually no conventional air pollution, such as greenhouse gases and smog, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of

text: fossil fuel

text: . Nuclear power can produce

text: base-load

text: power unlike many renewables which are

text: intermittent energy source

text: s lacking large-scale and cheap ways of storing energy.

text: M. King Hubbert

text: saw oil as a resource that would

text: run out

text: , and proposed nuclear energy as a replacement energy source. Proponents claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.

text: Geothermal energy originates from the heat retained within the Earth since the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. Most high temperature geothermal heat is harvested in regions close to tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity rises close to the surface of the Earth. In these areas, ground and groundwater can be found with temperatures higher than the target temperature of the application. However, even cold ground contains heat, below  the undisturbed ground temperature is consistently at the Mean Annual Air Temperature and it may be extracted with a heat pump.

text: Geothermal energy

text: originates from the heat retained within the Earth since the original formation of the planet, from

text: radioactive decay

text: of minerals, and from

text: solar energy

text: absorbed at the surface. Most high temperature geothermal heat is harvested in regions close to

text: tectonic plate boundaries

text: where volcanic activity rises close to the surface of the Earth. In these areas, ground and groundwater can be found with temperatures higher than the target temperature of the application. However, even cold ground contains heat, below  the undisturbed ground temperature is consistently at the Mean Annual Air Temperature and it may be extracted with a

text: heat pump

text: The principle of carbon offset is fairly simple: a business decides that it doesn't want to contribute further to global warming, and it has already made efforts to reduce its carbon (dioxide) emissions, so it decides to pay someone else to further reduce its net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies. Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees—or not emitted due to funding of renewable energy deployment—offsets the emissions from fossil fuel use. In many cases, funding of renewable energy, energy efficiency, or tree planting—particularly in developing nations—can be a relatively cheap way of making an event, project, or business "carbon neutral".  Many carbon offset providers—some as inexpensive as $0.10 per ton of carbon dioxide—are referenced in the Carbon Offset article of this encyclopedia.

text: The principle of

text: carbon offset

text: is fairly simple: a business decides that it doesn't want to contribute further to global warming, and it has already made efforts to reduce its carbon (dioxide) emissions, so it decides to pay someone else to further reduce its net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies. Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees—or not emitted due to funding of renewable energy deployment—offsets the emissions from fossil fuel use. In many cases, funding of renewable energy, energy efficiency, or tree planting—particularly in developing nations—can be a relatively cheap way of making an event, project, or business "carbon neutral".  Many carbon offset providers—some as inexpensive as $0.10 per ton of carbon dioxide—are referenced in the

text: Carbon Offset

text: article of this encyclopedia.

text: Solar Energy is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on solar energy such as photovoltaics and solar heating, but also its indirect usages like wind power or bioenergy. It is published by Elsevier on behalf of the International Solar Energy Society. The editor-in-chief is Yogi Goswami. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2013 impact factor of 3.541.

text: Solar Energy is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: covering research on

text: solar energy

text: such as

text: photovoltaics

text: and

text: solar heating

text: , but also its indirect usages like

text: wind power

text: or

text: bioenergy

text: . It is published by

text: Elsevier

text: on behalf of the

text: International Solar Energy Society

text: . The

text: editor-in-chief

text: is

text: Yogi Goswami

text: . According to the

text: Journal Citation Reports

text: , the journal has a 2013

text: impact factor

text: of 3.541.

text: Geothermal energy is obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself. Most systems in Scotland provide heating through a ground source heat pump which brings energy to the surface via shallow pipe works. An example is the Glenalmond Street project in Shettleston, which uses a combination of solar and geothermal energy to heat 16 houses. Water in a coal mine  below ground level is heated by geothermal energy and maintained at a temperature of about 12 °C (54 °F) throughout the year. The warmed water is raised and passed through a heat pump, boosting the temperature to 55 °C (131 °F), and is then distributed to the houses providing heating to radiators.

text: Geothermal energy

text: is obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself. Most systems in Scotland provide heating through a ground source

text: heat pump

text: which brings energy to the surface via shallow pipe works. An example is the Glenalmond Street project in

text: Shettleston

text: , which uses a combination of solar and geothermal energy to heat 16 houses. Water in a coal mine  below ground level is heated by geothermal energy and maintained at a temperature of about 12

text: °C

text: °F

text: ) throughout the year. The warmed water is raised and passed through a heat pump, boosting the temperature to 55 °C (131 °F), and is then distributed to the houses providing heating to radiators.

text: Even though a source of renewable energy may last for billions of years, renewable energy infrastructure, like hydroelectric dams, will not last forever, and must be removed and replaced at some point. Events like the shifting of riverbeds, or changing weather patterns could potentially alter or even halt the function of hydroelectric dams, lowering the amount of time they are available to generate electricity. Hydropower dams is also affected by silting which may or may not be cost-effective to remove.

text: Even though a source of renewable energy may last for billions of years, renewable energy infrastructure, like hydroelectric dams, will not last forever, and must be removed and replaced at some point. Events like the shifting of riverbeds, or changing weather patterns could potentially alter or even halt the function of hydroelectric dams, lowering the amount of time they are available to generate electricity. Hydropower dams is also affected by

text: silting

text: which may or may not be cost-effective to remove.

text: The oil price increases since 2003 and consequent price increases for natural gas and coal have increased the value of biomass for heat generation. Forest renderings, agricultural waste, and crops grown specifically for energy production become competitive as the prices of energy dense fossil fuels rise.  Efforts to develop this potential may have the effect of regenerating mismanaged croplands and be a cog in the wheel of a decentralized, multi-dimensional renewable energy industry.  Efforts to promote and advance these methods became common throughout the European Union through the 2000s. In other areas of the world, inefficient and polluting means to generate heat from biomass coupled with poor forest practices have significantly added to environmental degradation.

text: The

text: oil price increases since 2003

text: and consequent price increases for natural gas and coal have increased the value of biomass for heat generation. Forest renderings, agricultural waste, and

text: crops grown specifically for energy

text: production become competitive as the prices of

text: energy dense

text: fossil fuels rise.  Efforts to develop this potential may have the effect of

text: regenerating mismanaged croplands

text: and be a cog in the wheel of a decentralized, multi-dimensional renewable energy industry.  Efforts to promote and advance these methods became common throughout the

text: European Union

text: through the 2000s. In other areas of the world, inefficient and polluting means to generate heat from biomass coupled with poor forest practices have significantly added to

text: environmental degradation

text: Between 2005-2014, Finland produced 25-30% of electricity as a percentage of demand from renewable energy. The largest source is hydropower (15-20%) which fluctuates yearly depending on rainfall, causing the share of renewable generation to also vary. Other major sources are wood-based energy resources like black liquor from the forest industry, accounting for approximately 12% on average. In recent years wind power (see below) has also gained a foothold.

text: Between 2005-2014,

text: Finland

text: produced 25-30% of electricity as a percentage of demand from

text: renewable energy

text: . The largest source is

text: hydropower

text: (15-20%) which fluctuates yearly depending on rainfall, causing the share of renewable generation to also vary. Other major sources are wood-based energy resources like

text: black liquor

text: from the forest industry, accounting for approximately 12% on average. In recent years wind power (see below) has also gained a foothold.

text: The United States has inconsistent energy generation policies across its 50 states. State energy policies and laws may vary significantly with location. Some states have imposed requirements on utilities that a certain percentage of total power generation be from renewable sources.  For this purpose, renewable sources include wind, hydroelectric, and solar power whether from large or microgeneration projects.  Further, in some areas transferrable "renewable source energy" credits are needed by power companies to meet these mandates. As a result, in some portions of the United States, power companies will pay a portion of the cost of renewable source microgeneration projects in their service areas. These rebates are in addition to any Federal or State renewable-energy income-tax credits that may be applicable.  In other areas, such rebates may differ or may not be available.

text: Jacobson conducted several studies about 100% renewable energy systems and renewable energy integration and concluded that wind, water, and solar power can be scaled up in cost-effective ways to fulfill our energy demands, freeing human society from dependence on both fossil fuels and nuclear power. In 2009 Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi published “A Plan to Power 100 Percent of the Planet With Renewables” in Scientific American. The article addressed several issues, such as the worldwide spatial footprint of wind farms, the availability of scarce materials needed for manufacture of new systems, the ability to produce reliable energy on demand, and the average cost per kilowatt hour. A more detailed and updated technical analysis has been published as a two-part article in the journal Energy Policy in 2010. "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power". The articles analyze the feasibility of providing worldwide energy for all purposes (electric power, transportation, heating/cooling, etc.) from wind, water, and sunlight (WWS). In Part I, Jacobson and Delucchi discuss WWS energy system characteristics, current and future energy demand, availability of WWS resources, numbers of WWS devices, and area and material requirements. They estimate that 3,800,000 5 MW wind turbines, 49,000 300 MW concentrated solar plants, 40,000 300 MW solar PV power plants, 1.7 billion 3 kW rooftop PV systems, 5350 100 MW geothermal power plants, and 270 new 1300 MW hydroelectric power plants will be needed. Such a WWS infrastructure reduces world power demand by 30% and requires 0.41% and 0.59% more of the world's land for footprint and spacing, respectively.

text: Jacobson conducted several studies about 100% renewable energy systems and renewable energy integration and concluded that wind, water, and solar power can be scaled up in cost-effective ways to fulfill our energy demands, freeing human society from dependence on both fossil fuels and nuclear power. In 2009 Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi published “A Plan to Power 100 Percent of the Planet With Renewables” in

text: Scientific American

text: . The article addressed several issues, such as the worldwide spatial footprint of

text: wind farms

text: , the availability of scarce materials needed for manufacture of new systems, the ability to produce reliable energy on demand, and the average cost per kilowatt hour. A more detailed and updated technical analysis has been published as a two-part article in the journal

text: Energy Policy

text: in 2010. "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power". The articles analyze the feasibility of providing worldwide energy for all purposes (electric power, transportation, heating/cooling, etc.) from wind, water, and sunlight (WWS). In Part I, Jacobson and Delucchi discuss WWS energy system characteristics, current and future energy demand, availability of WWS resources, numbers of WWS devices, and area and material requirements. They estimate that 3,800,000 5 MW wind turbines, 49,000 300 MW concentrated solar plants, 40,000 300 MW solar PV power plants, 1.7 billion 3 kW rooftop PV systems, 5350 100 MW geothermal power plants, and 270 new 1300 MW hydroelectric power plants will be needed. Such a WWS infrastructure reduces world power demand by 30% and requires 0.41% and 0.59% more of the world's land for footprint and spacing, respectively.

text: Definitions of renewable: resources may also include agricultural production, as in sustainable agriculture and to an extent water resources. In 1962 Paul Alfred Weiss defined Renewable Resources as: "The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, etc...". Another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources. Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are all categorised as renewable resources.

text: Definitions of renewable: resources may also include agricultural production, as in

text: sustainable agriculture

text: and to an extent

text: water resources

text: . In 1962

text: Paul Alfred Weiss

text: defined Renewable Resources as: "The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, etc...". Another type of renewable resources is

text: renewable energy

text: resources. Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are all categorised as renewable resources.

text: In 2016, National Renewable Energy Laboratory simulated a year with 30% renewable energy (wind and solar power) in 5-minute intervals. Results show a stable grid with some changes in operation.

text: In 2016,

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: simulated a year with 30%

text: renewable energy

text: wind

text: and

text: solar power

text: ) in 5-minute intervals. Results show a stable grid with some changes in operation.

text: The Energy transition is the shift by several countries to sustainable economies by means of renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable development. The final goal is the abolishment of coal and other non-renewable energy sources.

text: The

text: Energy transition

text: is the shift by several countries to sustainable economies by means of

text: renewable energy

text: energy efficiency

text: and

text: sustainable development

text: . The final goal is the abolishment of coal and other non-renewable energy sources.

text: Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms, such as plants and trees and utilizes wastes or plant matter specifically grown to generate electricity or produce heat. The main advantage of using grown fuels, as opposed to fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and oil, is that while they are growing they absorb the near-equivalent in carbon dioxide (an important greenhouse gas) to that which is later released in their burning. Although there is some debate over the net carbon neutrality and near term affects of using the biomass for energy a key difference is the relatively short carbon recycle period of grown biomass (several years or decades) as opposed to the millions of years it took to turn carbon into fossil fuels.  With proper conservation and growing techniques biomass can be an important renewable energy source.

text: Research and development programs and financial incentives are used to promote hydropower.  The financial incentives that exist are: Renewable Energy Production Tax Credits (PTC), loan guarantees,  Clean Renewable Energy Bond (CREB), Qualified Energy Conservation Bonds (QECB)

text: Although carbon-14 dating can determine with excellent precision the biomass fraction of RDF/SRF, it cannot determine directly the biomass calorific value. Determining the calorific value is important for green certificate programs such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate program in the United Kingdom. These programs award certificates based on the energy produced from biomass. Several research papers, including the one commissioned by the Renewable Energy Association in the UK, have been published that demonstrate how the carbon-14 result can be used to calculate the biomass calorific value.

text: Solar power tends to be complementary to wind. On daily to weekly timescales, high pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low pressure areas tend to be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy peaks in summer, whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter. Thus the intermittencies of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat. In 2007 the Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock and throughout the year, entirely from renewable sources.

text: Solar power

text: tends to be complementary to wind. On daily to weekly timescales,

text: high pressure area

text: s tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas

text: low pressure area

text: s tend to be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy peaks in summer, whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter. Thus the intermittencies of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat. In 2007 the Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the

text: University of Kassel

text: pilot-tested a

text: combined power plant

text: linking solar, wind,

text: biogas

text: and

text: hydrostorage

text: to provide load-following power around the clock and throughout the year, entirely from renewable sources.

text: Nuclear power plants are a complex energy system.  and opponents of nuclear power have criticized the sophistication and complexity of the technology. Helen Caldicott has said: "... in essence, a nuclear reactor is just a very sophisticated and dangerous way to boil water -- analogous to cutting a pound of butter with a chain saw." These critics of nuclear power advocate the use of energy conservation, efficient energy use, and appropriate renewable energy technologies to create our energy future. Amory Lovins, from the Rocky Mountain Institute, has argued that centralized electricity systems with giant power plants are becoming obsolete. In their place are emerging "distributed resources"—smaller, decentralized electricity supply sources (including efficiency) that are cheaper, cleaner, less risky, more flexible, and quicker to deploy. Such technologies are often called "soft energy technologies" and Lovins viewed their impacts as more gentle, pleasant, and manageable than hard energy technologies such as nuclear power.

text: Nuclear power plants are a complex energy system.  and opponents of nuclear power have criticized the sophistication and complexity of the technology.

text: Helen Caldicott

text: has said: "... in essence, a nuclear reactor is just a very sophisticated and dangerous way to boil water -- analogous to cutting a pound of butter with a chain saw." These critics of nuclear power advocate the use of

text: energy conservation

text: efficient energy use

text: , and appropriate

text: renewable energy

text: technologies to create our energy future.

text: Amory Lovins

text: , from the

text: Rocky Mountain Institute

text: , has argued that centralized electricity systems with giant power plants are becoming obsolete. In their place are emerging "distributed resources"—smaller, decentralized electricity supply sources (including efficiency) that are cheaper, cleaner, less risky, more flexible, and quicker to deploy. Such technologies are often called "

text: soft energy technologies

text: " and Lovins viewed their impacts as more gentle, pleasant, and manageable than hard energy technologies such as nuclear power.

text: Both the state and federal government are making efforts to support and sponsor research for realizing geothermal energy commercially. The South Australian Centre for Geothermal Energy Research (SACGER) was established in 2010 as a part of the state government's Renewable Energy Fund in order to promote a world class hub for practical, high priority geothermal energy research.  This 3.6 million dollar funding will help South Australia to reach its target of producing 33% of renewable energy by 2020. Apart from designing geophysical tools, imaging the possible geothermal reservoirs, improving simulation of fracture and fluid networks in geothermal reservoirs, SACGER is also involved in developing trace elements micro-analytical imaging facilities for South Australia  through key analytical infrastructure advances and mapping fracture systems in South Australian geothermal reservoir analogues.

text: Both the state and

text: federal government

text: are making efforts to support and sponsor research for realizing geothermal energy commercially. The South Australian Centre for Geothermal Energy Research (SACGER) was established in 2010 as a part of the state government's Renewable Energy Fund in order to promote a world class hub for practical, high priority geothermal energy research.  This 3.6 million dollar funding will help South Australia to reach its target of producing 33% of renewable energy by 2020. Apart from designing geophysical tools, imaging the possible geothermal reservoirs, improving simulation of fracture and fluid networks in geothermal reservoirs,

text: SACGER

text: is also involved in developing trace elements micro-analytical imaging facilities for South Australia  through key analytical infrastructure advances and mapping fracture systems in South Australian geothermal reservoir analogues.

text: The main advantage of wind power is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. However, location is critical. Just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, there are many areas that lack sufficient wind to justify a turbine installation. In the Great Plains of the United States, a 10-metre (33 foot) turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site-survey.

text: The main advantage of

text: wind power

text: is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. However, location is critical. Just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, there are many areas that lack sufficient wind to justify a turbine installation. In the

text: Great Plains

text: of the United States, a 10-metre (33 foot) turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site-survey.

text: The LTWP project is of such a large scale that it will provide up to 20% of the Kenyan power grid’s capacity to absorb wind energy. It is generally accepted in wind technology research that intermittent resources can destabilise a small grid such as that in Kenya, especially if it is concentrated all in one location.  Denmark has over 19% wind power (wind capacity of 4,885MW) connected to the grid, but this capacity is supplied across thousands of projects. While LTWP aims to provide 310MW of reliable, low cost wind power to the Kenya national grid, equivalent to approximately 18% of Kenya’ current installed electricity generating capacity, Currently,Kenya has a total installed capacity of 2,300 MW, largely being generated by hydro (46.3%) and thermal (37.4%). The Government targets to increase generating capacity to 6,762MW in 2017. Kenya also plans to change the energy generation mix, with a view of reducing dependency on hydro and thermal. LTWP will play a key role in balancing the energy generation mix.

text: The LTWP project is of such a large scale that it will provide up to 20% of the Kenyan power grid’s capacity to absorb wind energy. It is generally accepted in wind technology research that intermittent resources can destabilise a small grid such as that in Kenya, especially if it is concentrated all in one location.  Denmark has over 19% wind power

text: (wind capacity of 4,885MW)

text: connected to the grid, but this capacity is supplied across thousands of projects. While LTWP aims to provide 310MW of reliable, low cost wind power to the Kenya national grid, equivalent to approximately 18% of Kenya’ current installed electricity generating capacity, Currently,Kenya has a total installed capacity of 2,300 MW, largely being generated by hydro (46.3%) and thermal (37.4%). The Government targets to increase generating capacity to 6,762MW in 2017. Kenya also plans to change the energy generation mix, with a view of reducing dependency on hydro and thermal. LTWP will play a key role in balancing the energy generation mix.

text: NGOs have criticized the inclusion of large hydropower projects, which they consider unsustainable, as CDM projects. Lately, both the CDM EB and investors have become concerned about such projects for potential lack of additionality. One reason was that many of these projects had started well before applying for CDM status. In June 2008, third party validator TÜV SÜD Group rejected a hydropower project in China because the project proponents could not document that they had seriously considered CDM at the time the project was started. In July 2008, third party validators agreed that projects applying for CDM status more than one year after having taken their investment decision should not qualify for CDM status.  Currently, the largest power plant to receive CDM registration is the Jirau Hydroelectric Plant in Brazil.

text: NGOs have criticized the inclusion of large

text: hydropower

text: projects, which they consider unsustainable, as CDM projects. Lately, both the CDM EB and investors have become concerned about such projects for potential lack of additionality. One reason was that many of these projects had started well before applying for CDM status. In June 2008, third party validator TÜV SÜD Group rejected a hydropower project in China because the project proponents could not document that they had seriously considered CDM at the time the project was started. In July 2008, third party validators agreed that projects applying for CDM status more than one year after having taken their investment decision should not qualify for CDM status.  Currently, the largest power plant to receive CDM registration is the

text: Jirau Hydroelectric Plant

text: in Brazil.

text: Renewable energy in Argentina ranges from biofuel, biogas, biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy in Argentina.

text: Renewable energy in Argentina ranges from

text: biofuel

text: biogas

text: biomass

text: geothermal

text: hydroelectric

text: solar

text: and

text: wind

text: energy in

text: Argentina

text: The company owns 15 hydropower plants with a combined capacity of 819.9 MW, five thermal power plants of 262.5 MW, five geothermal power plants of 508.8 MW and one Wind power plant  at Ngong of 25.5 MW resulting a total installed capacity of 1,617 GW.

text: The company owns 15

text: hydropower plant

text: s with a combined capacity of 819.9 MW, five

text: thermal power plants

text: of 262.5 MW, five

text: geothermal power plants

text: of 508.8 MW and one

text: Wind power plant

text: at

text: Ngong

text: of 25.5 MW resulting a total installed capacity of 1,617 GW.

text: The Oslo region possesses a unique competency gained through its central role in 100 years of hydropower production and close to 40 years of offshore petroleum development.  Oslo is the main location for Norwegian research and development, and many of the institutions are clustered in the area around the University of Oslo, the largest in Northern Europe. At the University of Oslo several research groups are engaged in energy research, including work on new renewable energy sources and petroleum-related issues. Other important institutions in this field are the Norwegian Geotechnical Research Institute, Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research, the Norwegian Building Research Institute (energy efficiency, ventilation technology and indoor air quality) and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute.  The Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research(SINTEF), with its 1800 employees, is the largest independent research organisation in Scandinavia. SINTEF's headquarters are based in Trondheim but it conducts extensive research activities, primarily within oil and gas exploration and production, in the Gaustadbekk Valley. Located in the heart of the Gaustadbekk Valley, the Oslo Innovation Center is the leading business incubator in the region. The park is strongly committed to the commercialisation of ideas and results from research environments through creating favourable conditions for business start-ups. The center has recently constructed an environmental technology wing to accommodate the ever-growing need for research into Renewable energy and climate-friendly technologies.

text: The Oslo region possesses a unique competency gained through its central role in 100 years of

text: hydropower

text: production and close to 40 years of offshore

text: petroleum

text: development.  Oslo is the main location for

text: Norwegian

text: research and development, and many of the institutions are clustered in the area around the

text: University of Oslo

text: , the largest in

text: Northern Europe

text: . At the University of Oslo several research groups are engaged in

text: energy research

text: , including work on new

text: renewable energy

text: sources and

text: petroleum

text: -related issues. Other important institutions in this field are the Norwegian Geotechnical Research Institute, Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research, the Norwegian Building Research Institute (energy efficiency, ventilation technology and indoor air quality) and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute.  The Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research(SINTEF), with its 1800 employees, is the largest independent research organisation in Scandinavia. SINTEF's headquarters are based in Trondheim but it conducts extensive research activities, primarily within

text: oil

text: and

text: gas

text: exploration and production, in the Gaustadbekk Valley. Located in the heart of the Gaustadbekk Valley, the

text: Oslo Innovation Center

text: is the leading business incubator in the region. The park is strongly committed to the commercialisation of ideas and results from research environments through creating favourable conditions for business start-ups. The center has recently constructed an

text: environmental technology

text: wing to accommodate the ever-growing need for research into

text: Renewable energy

text: and climate-friendly technologies.

text: Renewable energy in Bangladesh refers to the use of renewable energy to generate electricity in Bangladesh. The current renewable energy comes from biogas, hydro power, solar and wind.

text: Renewable energy in Bangladesh refers to the use of

text: renewable energy

text: to

text: generate electricity

text: in

text: Bangladesh

text: . The current renewable energy comes from

text: biogas

text: hydro power

text: solar

text: and

text: wind

text: Biomass is the energy source created from organic materials generated through a forced or spontaneous biological process.

text: Biomass

text: is the energy source created from organic materials generated through a forced or spontaneous biological process.

text: GE (General Electric) Energy's renewable energy business has expanded greatly, to keep up with growing U.S. and global demand for clean energy. Since entering the renewable energy industry in 2002, GE has invested more than $850 million in renewable energy commercialization. In August 2008 it acquired Kelman Ltd, a Northern Ireland company specializing in advanced monitoring and diagnostics technologies for transformers used in renewable energy generation, and announced an expansion of its business in Northern Ireland in May 2010. In 2009, GE's renewable energy initiatives, which include solar power, wind power and GE Jenbacher gas engines using renewable and non-renewable methane-based gases, employ more than 4,900 people globally and have created more than 10,000 supporting jobs.

text: GE (General Electric) Energy's

text: renewable energy

text: business has expanded greatly, to keep up with growing U.S. and global demand for

text: clean energy

text: . Since entering the

text: renewable energy industry

text: in 2002, GE has invested more than $850 million in

text: renewable energy commercialization

text: . In August 2008 it acquired Kelman Ltd, a Northern Ireland company specializing in advanced monitoring and diagnostics technologies for transformers used in renewable energy generation, and announced an expansion of its business in Northern Ireland in May 2010. In 2009, GE's renewable energy initiatives, which include

text: solar power

text: wind power

text: and

text: GE Jenbacher

text: gas engines

text: using renewable and non-renewable methane-based gases, employ more than 4,900 people globally and have created more than 10,000 supporting jobs.

text: Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished. However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories are conducting research toward the goal of establishing a proven science around geothermal energy. The International Centre for Geothermal Research (IGC), a German geosciences research organization, is largely focused on geothermal energy development research.

text: Geothermal energy

text: is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished. However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: and

text: Sandia National Laboratories

text: are conducting research toward the goal of establishing a proven science around geothermal energy. The International Centre for Geothermal Research (IGC), a German geosciences research organization, is largely focused on geothermal energy development research.

text: In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW. Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electricity usage, 11.4% in the EU, and it is widely used in Asia, and the United States. In 2014, worldwide installed photovoltaics capacity increased to 177 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 percent of global electricity demands. Solar thermal energy stations operate in the USA and Spain, and as of 2016, the largest of these is the 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California. The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA.

text: In 2014 global

text: wind power

text: capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW. Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electricity usage, 11.4% in the EU, and it is widely used in

text: Asia

text: , and the

text: United States

text: . In 2014, worldwide installed photovoltaics capacity increased to 177

text: gigawatts

text: (GW), sufficient to supply 1 percent of global

text: electricity demands

text: Solar thermal energy

text: stations operate in the USA and Spain, and as of 2016, the largest of these is the 392 MW

text: Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System

text: in California. The world's largest

text: geothermal power

text: installation is

text: The Geysers

text: in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW.

text: Brazil

text: has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of

text: ethanol fuel

text: from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA.

text: Footprint values at the end of a survey are categorized for Carbon, Food, Housing, and Goods and Services as well as the total footprint number of Earths needed to sustain the world's population at that level of consumption. This approach can also be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life-cycle analysis wherein the consumption of energy, biomass (food, fiber), building material, water and other resources are converted into a normalized measure of land area called global hectares (gha).

text: Footprint values at the end of a survey are categorized for Carbon, Food, Housing, and Goods and Services as well as the total footprint number of Earths needed to sustain the world's population at that level of consumption. This approach can also be applied to an activity such as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to

text: life-cycle analysis

text: wherein the consumption of

text: energy

text: biomass

text: food

text: fiber

text: building material

text: water

text: and other

text: resources

text: are converted into a normalized measure of land area called

text: global hectare

text: s (gha).

text: Title XIII of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA)(Pub.L. 110-140)  is the only major piece of federal legislation that addresses the modernization of the United States’ electric utility transmission and distribution system by upgrading to the Smart Grid.  The shift to Smart Grid technology would maintain the reliability and infrastructure protection that we are accustomed  to with our current grid system while providing many benefits that our current system is incapable of meeting.  Smart Grid, on a broad scale, refers to an advanced distribution system which accommodates for the “flow of information from a customer’s meter in two directions: both inside the house to thermostats, appliances, and other devices, and from the house back to the utility”.  Smart Grid is designed to support operational and energy measures such as smart meters and appliances, renewable energy resources, as well as energy efficiency resources.  This piece of legislation sets up a variety of measures that must be developed to facilitate the eventual deployment of Smart Grid in the United States.  Various research-related committees and councils are created and called upon for information pertaining to Smart Grid.  The Department of Energy (DOE) is required by Section 1304 to conduct Smart Grid research, development and demonstration, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology is to establish protocols and standards for Smart Grid equipment and systems.  Smart Grid technology is even subsidized by the creation of a program within the DOE that “reimburses 20% of qualifying Smart Grid investments”.  On a state level, utilities are encouraged to employ Smart Grid technology and to recover Smart Grid investments through rates.

text: Title XIII of the

entity_name: Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

text: Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

text: EISA

text: )(Pub.L. 110-140)  is the only major piece of federal legislation that addresses the modernization of the United States’ electric utility transmission and distribution system by upgrading to the

text: Smart Grid

text: .  The shift to

text: Smart Grid

text: technology would maintain the reliability and infrastructure protection that we are accustomed  to with our current grid system while providing many benefits that our current system is incapable of meeting.

text: Smart Grid

text: , on a broad scale, refers to an advanced distribution system which accommodates for the “flow of information from a customer’s meter in two directions: both inside the house to thermostats, appliances, and other devices, and from the house back to the utility”.  Smart Grid is designed to support operational and energy measures such as smart meters and appliances, renewable energy resources, as well as energy efficiency resources.  This piece of legislation sets up a variety of measures that must be developed to facilitate the eventual deployment of Smart Grid in the United States.  Various research-related committees and councils are created and called upon for information pertaining to Smart Grid.  The

text: Department of Energy

text: (DOE) is required by Section 1304 to conduct Smart Grid research, development and demonstration, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology is to establish protocols and standards for Smart Grid equipment and systems.  Smart Grid technology is even subsidized by the creation of a program within the DOE that “reimburses 20% of qualifying Smart Grid investments”.  On a state level, utilities are encouraged to employ Smart Grid technology and to recover Smart Grid investments through rates.

text: Duke Energy Renewable Services (DERS), a subsidiary of Duke Energy, specializes in the development, ownership, and operation of various generation facilities throughout the United States. This segment of the company operates 1,700 megawatts of generation. 240 megawatts of wind generation were under construction and 1,500 additional megawatts of wind generation were in planning stages. On September 9, 2008, DERS updated its projections for future wind power capacity. By the end of 2008, it would have over 500 MW of nameplate capacity of wind power online, and an additional 5,000 MW in development.

text: Duke Energy Renewable Services (DERS), a subsidiary of Duke Energy, specializes in the development, ownership, and operation of various generation facilities throughout the United States. This segment of the company operates 1,700 megawatts of generation. 240 megawatts of

text: wind generation

text: were under construction and 1,500 additional megawatts of wind generation were in planning stages. On September 9, 2008, DERS updated its projections for future

text: wind power

text: capacity. By the end of 2008, it would have over 500 MW of

text: nameplate capacity

text: of wind power online, and an additional 5,000 MW in development.

text: Summary of advantages and disadvantages:

text: Geothermal power makes up approximately 18% of the country’s electricity generation and President Benigno Aquino III aimed for the Philippines to be the number one geothermal energy producer in the world, once the additional 1,475 MW capacity is achieved. On December 8, 2011, at the Investor Breakfast Meeting during World Geothermal Energy Summit organised by the Center for Energy Sustainability and Economics and Arc Media Global, Almendras addressed investor concerns on streamlining the permit process by government regulators as shorter project periods would reduce uncertainty for policy and market dynamics when modeling economic returns and more importantly the implementation of feed-in-tariffs (“FiT”) rates and guidelines for renewable portfolio standards for renewable energy (“RE”).,

text: Geothermal power makes up approximately 18% of the country’s electricity generation and President

text: Benigno Aquino III

text: aimed for the Philippines to be the number one geothermal energy producer in the world, once the additional 1,475 MW capacity is achieved. On December 8, 2011, at the Investor Breakfast Meeting during World Geothermal Energy Summit organised by the

text: Center for Energy Sustainability and Economics

text: and

text: Arc Media Global

text: , Almendras addressed investor concerns on streamlining the permit process by government regulators as shorter project periods would reduce uncertainty for policy and market dynamics when modeling economic returns and more importantly the implementation of feed-in-tariffs (“FiT”) rates and guidelines for renewable portfolio standards for renewable energy (“RE”).,

text: Biomass can be used directly for electricity generation, for example by burning sugar cane waste (bagasse) as a fuel for thermal power generation in sugar mills. It can also be used to produce steam for industrial uses, cooking and heating. It can also be converted into a liquid or gaseous biofuel.

text: Biomass

text: can be used directly for electricity generation, for example by burning sugar cane waste (

text: bagasse

text: ) as a fuel for thermal power generation in sugar mills. It can also be used to produce steam for industrial uses, cooking and heating. It can also be converted into a liquid or gaseous biofuel.

text: Approximately 40% of primary energy is from renewable energy sources. Approximately 80% of electricity comes from renewable energy, primarily hydropower and geothermal power. Studies have shown that it is technically feasible to provide 100% of the electricity demand by renewable power without risking with shortages in energy supply.

text: Approximately 40% of primary energy is from renewable energy sources. Approximately 80% of electricity comes from renewable energy, primarily

text: hydropower

text: and

text: geothermal power

text: . Studies have shown that it is technically feasible to provide 100% of the electricity demand by renewable power without risking with shortages in energy supply.

text: Government agencies in some countries publish maps (commonly collected together as a national 'wind atlas') of estimated wind resources, which serve to inform policy-making and encourage wind power development. Examples include the Canadian Wind Atlas, the European Wind Atlas, and the Wind Resource Atlas of the United States. Recognizing the lack of knowledge of wind (and solar) resource potential in developing countries, the Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) project was initiated by the United Nations Environment Program in 2002, with funding from the Global Environment Facility, to carry out initial mapping using only satellite-based data. More recently the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), a program within the World Bank, has launched an initiative to map wind and other renewable energy resources in a number of developing countries, with the intention of developing high quality mapping outputs (and associated datasets) that are validated with specially commissioned ground-based data. There is also an ongoing effort by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) to create a Global Atlas for Renewable Energy, which brings together publicly available GIS data on wind and other renewable energy resources.

text: Government agencies in some countries publish maps (commonly collected together as a national 'wind atlas') of estimated wind resources, which serve to inform policy-making and encourage wind power development. Examples include the Canadian Wind Atlas, the European Wind Atlas, and the Wind Resource Atlas of the United States. Recognizing the lack of knowledge of wind (and solar) resource potential in developing countries, the Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) project was initiated by the

text: United Nations Environment Program

text: in 2002, with funding from the

text: Global Environment Facility

text: , to carry out initial mapping using only satellite-based data. More recently the

entity_name: Energy Sector Management Assistance Program

text: Energy Sector Management Assistance Program

text: (ESMAP), a program within the

text: World Bank

text: , has launched an initiative to map wind and other renewable energy resources in a number of developing countries, with the intention of developing high quality mapping outputs (and associated datasets) that are validated with specially commissioned ground-based data. There is also an ongoing effort by the

text: International Renewable Energy Agency

text: (IRENA) to create a Global Atlas for Renewable Energy, which brings together publicly available

text: GIS

text: data on wind and other renewable energy resources.

text: Increased global awareness of global warming and reduced nonrenewable resources has driven ESF to invest in biomass.  Biomass is a renewable resource that draws light energy, carbon dioxide, and water from the environment; in return oxygen is released. It can be harvested without negatively affecting the environment.  For this reason, SUNY-ESF has launched a program to grow its own biomass, known as the Willow Biomass Project. Benefits of woody willow include, high yields and fast growth times, quick re-sprouting,and high heat energy is produced when burned. Woody willow also increases habitat diversity significantly contributes to carbon neutrality.

text: Increased global awareness of global warming and reduced nonrenewable resources has driven ESF to invest in biomass.  Biomass is a renewable resource that draws light energy, carbon dioxide, and water from the environment; in return oxygen is released. It can be harvested without negatively affecting the environment.  For this reason, SUNY-ESF has launched a program to grow its own biomass, known as the

text: Willow Biomass Project

text: . Benefits of woody willow include, high yields and fast growth times, quick re-sprouting,and high heat energy is produced when burned. Woody willow also increases habitat diversity significantly contributes to carbon neutrality.

text: Unfavourable energy mix, strong dependence on energy import, obsolete energy system and inefficiency in energy production and use are the main problems of the Macedonian energy sector. Macedonia imports roughly a quarter of its annual electricity needs. Domestic energy production is based mainly on the low-quality domestic lignite, biomass and hydro. The purpose of the Boškov most HPP is to support Macedonia's drive to improve the security and quality of its energy supplies, as well as promoting renewable sources of energy generation. Once operating, the plant will enable the nation to reduce electricity imports and in addition decrease the carbon intensity of the Macedonian generation sector.

text: Unfavourable

text: energy mix

text: , strong

text: dependence on energy

text: import, obsolete

text: energy system

text: and inefficiency in energy production and use are the main problems of the Macedonian energy sector. Macedonia

text: import

text: s roughly a quarter of its annual electricity needs. Domestic energy production is based mainly on the low-quality domestic

text: lignite

text: biomass

text: and

text: hydro

text: . The purpose of the Boškov most HPP is to support Macedonia's drive to improve the security and quality of its energy supplies, as well as promoting

text: renewable sources

text: of energy generation. Once operating, the plant will enable the nation to reduce electricity imports and in addition decrease the

text: carbon intensity

text: of the Macedonian generation sector.

text: Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see renewable energy.

text: Natural resources such as

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: (crude oil) and

text: natural gas

text: take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see

text: renewable energy

text: Electricity generated from biomass increased dramatically in 2010 following in increased share in its use in a number of power plants. Between 2009 and 2014 production of power increased by around 50%. By 2024 biomass is expected to double the percentage of renewable energy share from 15% to 30% of renewable electricity production in Denmark. Total consumption of Biomass is expected to rise to 115PJ by 2024. A number of power stations are being converted from using coal to using wood pellets as a fuel. Some smaller CHP plants are converting from using natural gas to biomass.

text: It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

text: It is an important source of

text: renewable energy

text: and its technologies are broadly characterized as either

text: passive solar

text: or

text: active solar

text: depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into

text: solar power

text: . Active solar techniques include the use of

text: photovoltaic system

text: s,

text: concentrated solar power

text: and

text: solar water heating

text: to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable

text: thermal mass

text: or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

text: naturally circulate air

text: Interest in hydropower in the UK has been renewed in recent years due to new UK and EU targets for reductions in carbon emissions and the promotion of renewable energy power generation through commercial incentives such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate scheme (ROCs) and Feed in tariffs (FITs). Prior to such schemes, studies to assess the available hydro resources in the UK had discounted a large number of sites for reasons of poor economic or technological viability, but more recent studies in 2008 and 2010 by the British Hydro Association (BHA) have identified a larger number of viable sites due to improvements in the available technology and the economic of ROCs and FITSs

text: Interest in hydropower in the UK has been renewed in recent years due to new UK and EU targets for reductions in carbon emissions and the promotion of renewable energy power generation through commercial incentives such as the

text: Renewable Obligation Certificate scheme (ROCs)

text: and

text: Feed in tariffs (FITs)

text: . Prior to such schemes, studies to assess the available hydro resources in the UK had discounted a large number of sites for reasons of poor economic or technological viability, but more recent studies in 2008 and 2010 by the British Hydro Association (BHA) have identified a larger number of viable sites due to improvements in the available technology and the economic of ROCs and FITSs

text: Thomas J. "Tom" LaBonge (born October 6, 1953) is an American politician. He was a member of the Los Angeles City Council representing the 4th district,  serving from 2001 to 2015. He won a special election to fill the seat left vacant by the death of long-time council member John Ferraro. The district represents a wide diversity of incomes and neighborhoods. At the time he was in office, he was the Chairman of the Arts, Parks, Health and Aging committee, Vice Chairman of the Transportation Committee and the Ad Hoc River Committee, and member of the Trade, Commerce & Tourism Committee, and the Ad Hoc on Recovering Energy, Natural Resources & Economic Benefit from Waste for L.A. (RENEW LA) in the city of Los Angeles. He is a member of the Democratic Party.

text: Thomas J. "Tom" LaBonge (born October 6, 1953) is an

text: American

text: politician

text: . He was a member of the

text: Los Angeles City Council

text: representing the

text: 4th district

text: ,  serving from 2001 to 2015. He won a special election to fill the seat left vacant by the death of long-time council member

text: John Ferraro

text: . The district represents a wide diversity of incomes and neighborhoods. At the time he was in office, he was the Chairman of the Arts, Parks, Health and Aging committee, Vice Chairman of the Transportation Committee and the Ad Hoc River Committee, and member of the Trade, Commerce & Tourism Committee, and the Ad Hoc on Recovering Energy, Natural Resources & Economic Benefit from Waste for L.A. (RENEW LA) in the city of

text: Los Angeles

text: . He is a member of the

text: Democratic Party

text: Currently, there are plans for the construction of two 600MW coal-fired plants, Montecristi and Azúa, by the private sector. It is also expected that, by 2012, an additional 762MW of hydroelectric capacity will have been added to the generation system. The first three hydropower plants with a combined capacity of 240MW are:

text: Currently, there are plans for the construction of two 600MW coal-fired plants, Montecristi and Azúa, by the private sector. It is also expected that, by 2012, an additional 762MW of

text: hydroelectric

text: capacity will have been added to the generation system. The first three hydropower plants with a combined capacity of 240MW are:

text: Biomass is collected from large volumes of plant origin, which include corn or wood waste. Biomass does not just include these two substances though; it can range from leftover grass to surplus pulp. John R. Wilson and Griffin Burgh say although the needed machinery is not currently available but that a variation of feed stock are readily available for use in producing ethanol from cellulosic biomass. They continue saying that even more materials are being considered such as agricultural waste, forest residue, and municipal solid waste if of dependable makeup and worth, and energy crops such as fast-growing poplar. The big issue from ethanol conversion comes from the cost issue of the selection of such feed stock, as well as environmental issues. An example of such feed stock is forest thinning. The problem of forest thinning do not come in large amounts but can be collected at a low cost; the set back is that collection costs rise as the amount increases.

text: Biomass

text: is collected from large volumes of plant origin, which include

text: corn

text: or wood waste. Biomass does not just include these two substances though; it can range from leftover grass to surplus pulp. John R. Wilson and Griffin Burgh say although the needed machinery is not currently available but that a variation of feed stock are readily available for use in producing ethanol from cellulosic biomass. They continue saying that even more materials are being considered such as agricultural waste, forest residue, and municipal solid waste if of dependable makeup and worth, and energy crops such as fast-growing poplar. The big issue from ethanol conversion comes from the cost issue of the selection of such feed stock, as well as environmental issues. An example of such feed stock is forest thinning. The problem of forest thinning do not come in large amounts but can be collected at a low cost; the set back is that collection costs rise as the amount increases.

text: , about six operational mini-hydropower plants are connected to the national electricity grid, supplying about 65 megawatts. These include Nyagak I (3.5 megawatts), Kabalega (9 megawatts), Kanungu (6.6 megawatts), Bugoye (13 megawatts), Mubuku I (5 megawatts), Mubuku III (10 megawatts), and Mpanga (18 megawatts).

text: , about six operational mini-hydropower plants are connected to the national electricity grid, supplying about 65 megawatts. These include

text: Nyagak I

text: (3.5 megawatts),

text: Kabalega

text: (9 megawatts),

text: Kanungu

text: (6.6 megawatts),

text: Bugoye

text: (13 megawatts),

text: Mubuku I

text: (5 megawatts),

text: Mubuku III

text: (10 megawatts), and

text: Mpanga

text: (18 megawatts).

text: Some rodent species (most typically males) will take the chance to kill neonates that are unrelated to them should opportunity permit. There is thought to be several benefits by doing so, which not only include nutrition benefits (particularly where food is in short supply) but also non-direct benefits, such as allowing access to more resources,improving reproductive opportunities and the retainment of energy and resources that might otherwise be spent on unrelated offspring. A common causal factor of infanticide, particularly among sciurid rodents, is direct resource competition, therefore killing the pups of an unrelated neighbour would prevent resource competition with those individuals in the future.

text: Some rodent species (most typically males) will take the chance to kill neonates that are unrelated to them should opportunity permit. There is thought to be several benefits by doing so, which not only include nutrition benefits (particularly where food is in short supply) but also non-direct benefits, such as allowing access to more resources,improving reproductive opportunities and the retainment of energy and resources that might otherwise be spent on unrelated offspring. A common causal factor of infanticide, particularly among

text: sciurid

text: rodents, is direct resource competition, therefore killing the pups of an unrelated neighbour would prevent resource competition with those individuals in the future.

text: Biomass, in ecology, is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time. Biomass can refer to species biomass, which is the mass of one or more species, or to community biomass, which is the mass of all species in the community. It can include microorganisms, plants or animals. The mass can be expressed as the average mass per unit area, or as the total mass in the community.

text: Biomass, in

text: ecology

text: , is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or

text: ecosystem

text: at a given time. Biomass can refer to species biomass, which is the mass of one or more species, or to community biomass, which is the mass of all species in the community. It can include microorganisms, plants or animals. The mass can be expressed as the average mass per unit area, or as the total mass in the community.

text: Renewable energy consumption more than quadrupled from 48 PJ in 1990 to 203 PJ in 2015. Whilst renewable energy consumption was rising between 1990 and 2013 gross energy consumption actually fell by 7%. Most of the fall can be attributed to a great increase in combined power and heat generation (CHP) and the growth in wind power. This has increased energy conversion efficiency, reducing conversion losses by 28% or 7% relative to gross energy consumption. Put simply smaller and decentralised CHP plants use fuels far more efficiently than older centralised power plants, and wind power has no fossil fuel to waste. Thus the growth of these two sources (10% during the period) has displaced fossil fuels by more than a one-to-one ratio. The use of Biofuels in local CHP plants has further displaced fossil fuel consumption. The figures in the table above show that whilst the reduction in fossil fuel use has been most pronounced in coal use, there has also been a significant reduction in oil and natural gas usage since 2000.  Oil has fared better than the other fuels because it still dominates usage in the transport sector and alternative fuels and transport solutions are not yet widely deployed. The Danish Government has introduced the following targets for national energy policy:

text: Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today". As of 2012, renewable power generation technologies accounted for around half of all new power generation capacity additions globally. In 2011, additions included 41 gigawatt (GW) of new wind power capacity, 30 GW of PV, 25 GW of hydro-electricity, 6 GW of biomass, 0.5 GW of CSP, and 0.1 GW of geothermal power.

text: Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today". As of 2012, renewable power generation technologies accounted for around half of all new power generation capacity additions globally. In 2011, additions included 41

text: gigawatt

text: (GW) of new wind power capacity, 30 GW of PV, 25 GW of hydro-electricity, 6 GW of biomass, 0.5 GW of CSP, and 0.1 GW of geothermal power.

text: Geothermal power is the dominant renewable energy resource in the Philippines. According to DOE, the Philippines is second largest geothermal power producer in the world behind the United States of America. DOE estimates a total potential of untapped geothermal resource is about 2,600 MW.

text: Geothermal power is the dominant renewable energy resource in the Philippines. According to DOE, the Philippines is second largest geothermal power producer in the world behind the

text: United States of America

text: . DOE estimates a total potential of untapped geothermal resource is about 2,600 MW.

text: On February 11, 2010, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory released the first comprehensive update of the wind energy potential by state since 1993, showing that Ohio had potential to install 55 GW of onshore wind power nameplate capacity, generating 152 TWh annually. For comparison, Ohio consumed 160.176 TWh of electricity in 2005; the entire U.S. wind power industry was producing at an annual rate of approximately 50 TWh at the end of 2008; and Three Gorges Dam (the world's largest electricity-generating station) produced an average of 80 TWh/yr in 2008 and 2009.

text: On February 11, 2010, the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: released the first comprehensive update of the wind energy potential by state since 1993, showing that Ohio had potential to install 55 GW of onshore wind power

text: nameplate capacity

text: , generating 152 TWh annually. For comparison, Ohio consumed 160.176 TWh of electricity in 2005; the entire

text: U.S. wind power industry

text: was producing at an annual rate of approximately 50 TWh at the end of 2008; and

text: Three Gorges Dam

text: (the world's largest electricity-generating station) produced an average of 80 TWh/yr in 2008 and 2009.

text: As the world’s second most populous country, India is taking action on a number of fronts in order to address poverty, natural resource management, as well as preparing for the inevitable effects of climate change. India has made significant strides in the energy sector and the country is now a global leader in renewable energy.  In 2011 India achieved a record $10.3 billion (USD) in clean energy investments, which the country is now using to fund solar, wind, and hydropower projects around the country. In 2008, India published its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), which contains several goals for the country. These goals include but are not limited to: covering one third of the country with forests and trees, increasing renewable energy supply to 6% of total energy mix by 2022, and the further maintenance of disaster management. All of the actions work to improve the resiliency of the country as a whole, and this proves to be important because India has an economy closely tied to its natural resource base and climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water, and forestry.

text: As the world’s second most populous country,

text: India

text: is taking action on a number of fronts in order to address

text: poverty

text: , natural resource management, as well as preparing for the inevitable effects of

text: climate change

text: . India has made significant strides in the energy sector and the country is now a global leader in renewable energy.  In 2011 India achieved a record $10.3 billion (USD) in clean energy investments, which the country is now using to fund solar, wind, and hydropower projects around the country. In 2008, India published its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), which contains several goals for the country. These goals include but are not limited to: covering one third of the country with forests and trees, increasing renewable energy supply to 6% of total energy mix by 2022, and the further maintenance of disaster management. All of the actions work to improve the resiliency of the country as a whole, and this proves to be important because India has an economy closely tied to its natural resource base and climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water, and forestry.

text: Wind power is a renewable and emission free energy resource. Statkraft has been active within wind power since 2002 when Smøla wind farm in Mid-Norway was opened. Smøla was at the time the largest onshore wind farm in Europe.

text: Wind power

text: is a renewable and emission free energy resource. Statkraft has been active within wind power since 2002 when Smøla wind farm in Mid-Norway was opened.

text: Smøla

text: was at the time the largest onshore wind farm in Europe.

text: Since solar energy is not available at night, storing its energy is an important issue in order to have continuous energy availability. Both wind power and solar power are variable renewable energy, meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available, and either stored for when it can be used later, or transported over transmission lines to where it can be used now. Concentrated solar power plants may use thermal energy storage to store the solar energy, such as in high-temperature molten salts. These salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity, and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. This method of energy storage is used, for example, by the Solar Two power station, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m³ storage tank, enough to provide full output for close to 39 hours, with an efficiency of about 99%.

text: Since solar energy is not available at night,

text: storing its energy

text: is an important issue in order to have continuous energy availability. Both

text: wind power

text: and solar power are

text: variable renewable energy

text: , meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available, and either stored for when it can be used later, or transported over

text: transmission

text: lines to where it can be used now.

text: Concentrated solar power

text: plants may use

text: thermal energy storage

text: to store the solar energy, such as in high-temperature molten salts. These salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity, and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. This method of energy storage is used, for example, by the

text: Solar Two

text: power station, allowing it to store 1.44

text: TJ

text: in its 68 m³ storage tank, enough to provide full output for close to 39 hours, with an efficiency of about 99%.

text: Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years.  First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power and heat.  Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include solar heating, photovoltaics, wind power, solar thermal power stations, and modern forms of bioenergy.  Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. As of 2012, renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall.

text: Renewable energy commercialization involves the

text: deployment

text: of three generations of

text: renewable energy

text: technologies dating back more than 100 years.  First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include

text: biomass

text: hydroelectricity

text: geothermal power

text: and heat.  Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include

text: solar heating

text: photovoltaics

text: wind power

text: solar thermal power stations

text: , and modern forms of

text: bioenergy

text: .  Third-generation technologies require continued

text: R&D

text: efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced

text: biomass gasification

text: hot-dry-rock

text: geothermal power, and

text: ocean energy

text: . As of 2012, renewable energy accounts for about half of new

text: nameplate electrical capacity

text: installed and costs are continuing to fall.

text: Talks with the Moroccan government had been successful and the Dii confirmed their first reference project would be in Morocco. As a partner in a beginning partnership between Europe and MENA Morocco is especially well-suited since a grid connection from Morocco via Gibraltar to Spain already exists. Also the Moroccan government enacted a program to support renewable energies.  In June 2011, Dii signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy (MASEN). MASEN will act as a project developer and will be responsible for all important project steps in Morocco. Dii will promote the project and its financing in the European Union in Brussels as well as in national governments. This reference project, with a total capacity of 500 MW, will be a combination of concentrated solar power plants (400 MW) and photovoltaics (100 MW). The first available power from the joint Dii/MASEN project could be fed into the Moroccan and Spanish grids between 2014 and 2016, depending on the selected technology and market conditions. Based on the current estimate the total costs are €2 billion.

text: Talks with the

text: Moroccan government

text: had been successful and the Dii confirmed their first reference project would be in

text: Morocco

text: . As a partner in a beginning partnership between Europe and MENA Morocco is especially well-suited since a grid connection from Morocco via Gibraltar to Spain already exists. Also the Moroccan government enacted a program to support renewable energies.  In June 2011, Dii signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy (MASEN). MASEN will act as a project developer and will be responsible for all important project steps in Morocco. Dii will promote the project and its financing in the

text: European Union

text: in Brussels as well as in national governments. This reference project, with a total capacity of 500 MW, will be a combination of concentrated solar power plants (400 MW) and photovoltaics (100 MW). The first available power from the joint Dii/MASEN project could be fed into the Moroccan and Spanish grids between 2014 and 2016, depending on the selected technology and market conditions. Based on the current estimate the total costs are €2 billion.

text: Despite abundant natural resources and a relatively small population, New Zealand is a net importer of energy, in the form of petroleum products. The ratio of non-renewable and renewable energy sources was fairly consistent from 1975 to 2008, with about 70 per cent of primary energy supply coming from hydrocarbon fuels. This ratio decreased to about 60 per cent in 2014. The proportion of non-renewable energy varies annually, depending on water flows into hydro-electricity lakes and demand for energy. In 2014, approximately 60% of primary energy was from non-renewable hydrocarbon fuels and 40% was from renewable sources. In 2007 energy consumption per capita was 120 gigajoules. Per capita energy consumption had increased 8 per cent since 1998. New Zealand uses more energy per capita than 17 of 30 OECD countries.  New Zealand is one of 13 OECD countries that does not operate nuclear power stations.

text: Despite abundant natural resources and a relatively small population,

text: New Zealand

text: is a net importer of energy, in the form of

text: petroleum

text: products. The ratio of non-renewable and

text: renewable energy

text: sources was fairly consistent from 1975 to 2008, with about 70 per cent of primary energy supply coming from

text: hydrocarbon

text: fuels. This ratio decreased to about 60 per cent in 2014. The proportion of non-renewable energy varies annually, depending on water flows into hydro-electricity lakes and demand for energy. In 2014, approximately 60% of

text: primary energy

text: was from non-renewable hydrocarbon fuels and 40% was from renewable sources. In 2007 energy consumption per capita was 120 gigajoules. Per capita energy consumption had increased 8 per cent since 1998. New Zealand uses more energy per capita than 17 of 30 OECD countries.  New Zealand is one of 13 OECD countries that does not operate

text: nuclear power station

text: s.

text: At the local level hydropower can have an enormous effect on communities; creating employment, improving infrastructure, and building new or enhanced roads. However, some communities can be resistant to hydropower, especially when local incomes are dependent on tourism. For example, fishing is an important recreational sport in Norway; and hydropower may prevent local people from participating. Also the installation of hydropower upon historic sites, and areas of natural beauty, is other major concern. Local communities have been known to bring in NGO’s such as WWF Norway, or Friends of the Earth, in order to resist the installation of hydropower plants.

text: The Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) was established in 2008 and is planning for further development as far out as 2030 to exploit the abundant energy resources in the state (Murum Dam, Baram Dam, Baleh Dam, and coal-based power plants) and to develop 10high priority industries such as aluminium, glass, steel, oil, fisheries, livestock, timber, and tourism. The Regional Corridor Development Authority (RECODA) is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE. The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE and is to include major areas such as Samalaju (near Bintulu), Tanjung Manis, and Mukah. Samalaju will be developed as an industrial park, with Tanjung Manis as a halal food hub, and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource-based research and development.

text: The Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) was established in 2008 and is planning for further development as far out as 2030 to exploit the abundant energy resources in the state (Murum Dam,

text: Baram Dam

text: , Baleh Dam, and coal-based power plants) and to develop 10high priority industries such as aluminium, glass, steel, oil, fisheries, livestock, timber, and tourism. The Regional Corridor Development Authority (RECODA) is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE. The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE and is to include major areas such as Samalaju (near Bintulu), Tanjung Manis, and Mukah. Samalaju will be developed as an industrial park, with Tanjung Manis as a

text: halal

text: food hub, and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource-based research and development.

text: The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land available to humans limit the amount of solar energy that we can acquire.

text: Located in what's been referred to as the "renewable energy capital of the world," IID serves as a catalyst for renewable energy development in the Imperial Valley and is going to great lengths to enhance its energy infrastructure to be able to move renewable energy generated in the Imperial Valley to markets far and wide. The Energy Department has an aggressive transmission expansion plan and, over the next five years, intends to invest $1 billion in its energy infrastructure, which includes building a state-of-the-art energy battery storage unit in El Centro, which would provide back-up energy resources but also help the IID grid integrate the many megawatts of solar energy entering the IID grid during the day.

text: Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) and subsidies create protected markets for renewable energy. RPS require utilities to obtain a minimum percentage of their energy from renewable sources. In some states, utilities can purchase Renewable Energy Certificates (USA), Renewable Energy Certificate System (EU), Renewable Energy Certificates Registry (AUS) to meet this requirement. These certificates are issued to renewable energy producers based on the amount of energy they feed into the grid. Selling the certificates is another way for the renewable producer to supplement its revenues.

text: Renewable Portfolio Standard

text: s (RPS) and subsidies create protected markets for renewable energy. RPS require utilities to obtain a minimum percentage of their energy from renewable sources. In some states, utilities can purchase

text: Renewable Energy Certificates

text: (USA),

text: Renewable Energy Certificate System

text: (EU),

text: Renewable Energy Certificates Registry

text: (AUS) to meet this requirement. These certificates are issued to renewable energy producers based on the amount of energy they feed into the grid. Selling the certificates is another way for the renewable producer to supplement its revenues.

text: In 2006, the energy market was around 90 terawatt hours and the peak demand around 15 gigawatts in winter. This means that the energy consumption per capita is around 7.2 tons of oil equivalent per year. Industry and construction consumed 51% of total consumption, a relatively high figure reflecting Finland's industries. Finland's hydrocarbon resources are limited to peat and wood. About 10–15% of the electricity is produced by hydropower, which is low compared with more mountainous Sweden or Norway. In 2008, renewable energy  (mainly hydropower and various forms of wood energy) was high at 31% compared with the EU average of 10.3% in final energy consumption.

text: In 2006, the energy market was around 90 terawatt hours and the peak demand around 15

text: gigawatt

text: s in winter. This means that the

entity_name: List of countries by energy consumption per capita

text: energy consumption per capita

text: is around 7.2 tons of oil equivalent per year. Industry and construction consumed 51% of total consumption, a relatively high figure reflecting Finland's industries. Finland's

text: hydrocarbon

text: resources are limited to

text: peat

text: and wood. About 10–15% of the electricity is produced by

text: hydropower

text: , which is low compared with more mountainous Sweden or Norway. In 2008,

text: renewable energy

text: (mainly hydropower and various forms of wood energy) was high at 31% compared with the EU average of 10.3% in final energy consumption.

text: Renewable energies and renewable energy technologies have many advantages over their fossil fuel counterparts. These advantages include the absence of local pollution such as particulates, sulphur oxides (SOX's) and nitrous oxides (NOX's). For the business community, the economic advantages are also becoming clearer. Numerous studies have shown that the working environment has a significant effect on workforce morale. Renewable energy solutions are a part of this, wind turbines in particular being seen by many as a potent symbol of a new modernity, where environmental considerations are taken seriously. A workforce seeing a forward-looking and responsible company is more likely to feel good about working for such a company. A happier workforce is a more productive workforce.

text: The Hambantota Solar Power Station (also known as the Buruthakanda Solar Park) is the first commercial-scale solar power station in Sri Lanka. The photovoltaic solar facility was constructed in Buruthakanda, in the Hambantota District. The plant is owned and operated by the Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority, a state-run organization responsible for renewable resources.

text: The Hambantota Solar Power Station (also known as the Buruthakanda Solar Park) is the first commercial-scale

text: solar

text: power station

text: in

text: Sri Lanka

text: . The

text: photovoltaic

text: solar facility was constructed in Buruthakanda, in the

text: Hambantota District

text: . The plant is owned and operated by the Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority, a state-run organization responsible for renewable resources.

text: Some countries, with favorable geography, geology and weather well suited to an economical exploitation of renewable energy sources, already get most of their electricity from renewables, including from geothermal energy in Iceland (100 percent), and Hydroelectric power in Brazil (85 percent), Austria (62 percent), New Zealand (65 percent), and Sweden (54 percent). Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, with wind power providing a significant share of electricity in some regional areas: for example, 14 percent in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40 percent in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20 percent in Denmark. Solar water heating makes an important and growing contribution in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70 percent of the global total (180 GWth). Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal heating is also growing rapidly. Renewable biofuels for transportation, such as ethanol fuel and biodiesel, have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the United States since 2006. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5 percent of world gasoline production.

text: Some countries, with favorable

text: geography

text: geology

text: and

text: weather

text: well suited to an economical exploitation of renewable energy sources, already get most of their electricity from renewables, including from

text: geothermal energy

text: in Iceland (100 percent), and

text: Hydroelectric

text: power in Brazil (85 percent), Austria (62 percent), New Zealand (65 percent), and Sweden (54 percent). Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, with wind power providing a significant share of electricity in some regional areas: for example, 14 percent in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40 percent in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20 percent in Denmark.

text: Solar water heating

text: makes an important and growing contribution in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70 percent of the global total (180 GWth). Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of

text: biomass

text: for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct

text: geothermal heating

text: is also growing rapidly. Renewable

text: biofuel

text: s for transportation, such as

text: ethanol fuel

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: , have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the United States since 2006. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5 percent of world gasoline production.

text: Renewable energy in Pakistan is a relatively underdeveloped sector; however, in recent years, there has been some interest by environmentalist groups and from the authorities to explore renewable energy resources for energy production, in light of the energy crises and power shortages affecting the country. Most of the renewable energy in Pakistan comes from hydroelectricity.

text: Renewable energy in Pakistan is a relatively underdeveloped sector; however, in recent years, there has been some interest by environmentalist groups and from the authorities to explore

text: renewable energy

text: resources for

text: energy production

text: , in light of the energy crises and

text: power shortage

text: s affecting the country. Most of the renewable energy in Pakistan comes from

text: hydroelectricity

text: Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with the Moon and Sun and the Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as a renewable energy resource. Movement of tides causes a loss of mechanical energy in the Earth–Moon system: this is a result of pumping of water through natural restrictions around coastlines and consequent viscous dissipation at the seabed and in turbulence. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since its formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation of the earth (length of a day) has increased from 21.9 hours to 24 hours; in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its rotational energy. While tidal power will take additional energy from the system, the effect is negligible and would only be noticed over millions of years.

text: Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with the Moon and Sun and the Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as a

text: renewable energy

text: resource. Movement of tides causes a

text: loss of mechanical energy

text: in the Earth–Moon system: this is a result of pumping of water through natural restrictions around coastlines and consequent

text: viscous

text: dissipation at the

text: seabed

text: and in

text: turbulence

text: . This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since its formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation of the earth (length of a day) has increased from 21.9 hours to 24 hours; in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its rotational energy. While tidal power will take additional energy from the system, the effect is negligible and would only be noticed over millions of years.

text: Republic Act 9136, or the Electric Power Industry Reform Act of 2001 (EPIRA), declared that “it is the policy of the state to promote the utilization of indigenous and new and renewable energy resources in power generation in order to reduce dependence on imported energy.” It stated that the DOE shall “encourage private sector investments in the electricity sector and promote development of Renewable energy Sources including small-scale renewable energy generating sources”

text: In 1977 US-President Jimmy Carter installed solar hot water panels on the White House promoting solar energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, originally named Solar Energy Research Institute was established at Golden, Colorado. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules were used in stand-alone power systems or powered consumer products such as watches, calculators and toys, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing grid-connected rooftop PV systems and power stations. By 1996, solar PV capacity in the US amounted to 77 megawatts–more than any other country in the world at the time. Then, Japan stayed ahead.

text: In 1977 US-President

text: Jimmy Carter

text: installed

text: solar hot water panel

text: s on the White House promoting

text: solar energy

text: and the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: , originally named Solar Energy Research Institute was established at Golden, Colorado. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most photovoltaic modules were used in

text: stand-alone power system

text: s or powered consumer products such as

text: watches

text: calculators

text: and toys, but from around 1995, industry efforts have focused increasingly on developing grid-connected

text: rooftop PV system

text: s and

text: power stations

text: . By 1996, solar PV capacity in the US amounted to 77 megawatts–more than any other country in the world at the time. Then, Japan stayed ahead.

text: Solar power in Nevada has been growing, due to a Renewable Portfolio Standard which requires 20% renewable energy by 2015, and 5% from solar power. Nevada, at the end of 2007, became home to then-largest photovoltaic power plant in the world, the 14.2 megawatt (peak) Nellis Solar Power Plant, which, by selling the renewable energy credits (RECs), was able to provide Nellis Air Force Base with electricity for only 2.2 cents/kWh, compared to the 9 cents they are paying Nevada Power. Since then many larger solar power stations have been built in Nevada, with more proposed.

text: Solar power in Nevada has been growing, due to a

text: Renewable Portfolio Standard

text: which requires 20% renewable energy by 2015, and 5% from

text: solar power

text: . Nevada, at the end of 2007, became home to then-largest

text: photovoltaic

text: power plant in the world, the 14.2

text: megawatt

text: (peak)

text: Nellis Solar Power Plant

text: , which, by selling the renewable energy credits (RECs), was able to provide

text: Nellis Air Force Base

text: with electricity for only 2.2 cents/kWh, compared to the 9 cents they are paying Nevada Power. Since then many larger

text: solar power stations

text: have been built in Nevada, with more proposed.

text: In addition to reusing materials waste products can go through biological treatment. There are two types of biological treatments anaerobic digestion or composting. Simply stated, biological treatment is the breaking down of material through the action of micro-organisms. Materials are broken down to carbon dioxide, water and biomass. Biomass consists of wood, crops, yard and animal waste. Biomass is considered a renewable energy because more can be grown in a short amount of time. Biomass contributes to roughly four percent of our energy. Biomass energy although its burned, does not pollute the air as much as fossil fuels. Some materials easily break down, others do not. The environment in which the material is placed determines the speed of breakdown.

text: In addition to reusing materials waste products can go through biological treatment. There are two types of biological treatments

text: anaerobic digestion

text: or

text: composting

text: . Simply stated, biological treatment is the breaking down of material through the action of micro-organisms. Materials are broken down to carbon dioxide, water and biomass. Biomass consists of wood, crops, yard and animal waste. Biomass is considered a renewable energy because more can be grown in a short amount of time. Biomass contributes to roughly four percent of our energy. Biomass energy although its burned, does not pollute the air as much as fossil fuels. Some materials easily break down, others do not. The environment in which the material is placed determines the speed of breakdown.

text: Rural areas are predominant in developing countries, and the rural areas in the countries do not have modern energy infrastructure. They have heavily relied on traditional biomass such as fuelwood, charcoal, crop residual, pellets and the likes. Because lack of modern energy infrastructure like power plants, transmission lines, underground pipelines to deliver energy resources such as natural gas, petroleum that need high or cutting edge technologies and extremely high upfront costs, which are beyond their financial and technological capacity. Although some developing countries like BRICs have reached close to the energy-related technological level of developed countries and have financial power, still most developing countries are dominated by traditional biomass. According to the International Energy Agency IEA, "use of traditional biomass will decrease in many countries, but is likely to increase in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa alongside population growth."

text: Rural areas are predominant in developing countries, and the rural areas in the countries do not have modern energy infrastructure. They have heavily relied on traditional biomass such as fuelwood, charcoal, crop residual, pellets and the likes. Because lack of modern energy infrastructure like power plants, transmission lines, underground pipelines to deliver energy resources such as natural gas, petroleum that need high or cutting edge technologies and extremely high upfront costs, which are beyond their financial and technological capacity. Although some developing countries like BRICs have reached close to the energy-related technological level of developed countries and have financial power, still most developing countries are dominated by traditional biomass. According to the International Energy Agency

text: IEA

text: , "use of traditional biomass will decrease in many countries, but is likely to increase in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa alongside population growth."

text: Biomass for heat and power is a fully mature technology which offers a ready disposal mechanism for municipal, agricultural, and industrial organic wastes. However, the industry has remained relatively stagnant over the decade to 2007, even though demand for biomass (mostly wood) continues to grow in many developing countries. One of the problems of biomass is that material directly combusted in cook stoves produces pollutants, leading to severe health and environmental consequences, although improved cook stove programmes are alleviating some of these effects. First-generation biomass technologies can be economically competitive, but may still require deployment support to overcome public acceptance and small-scale issues.

text: Biomass

text: for heat and power is a fully

text: mature technology

text: which offers a ready disposal mechanism for municipal, agricultural, and industrial organic wastes. However, the industry has remained relatively stagnant over the decade to 2007, even though demand for biomass (mostly wood) continues to grow in many developing countries. One of the problems of biomass is that material directly combusted in cook stoves produces pollutants, leading to severe health and environmental consequences, although improved cook stove programmes are alleviating some of these effects. First-generation biomass technologies can be economically competitive, but may still require deployment support to overcome public acceptance and small-scale issues.

text: However, the federal government has discussed enacting a nationwide RPS in the future.  Such a policy would establish a common goal for every state in the country, which is less confusing than the state by state table below.  If the federal government does pass a national Renewable Portfolio Standard it could be problematic for some states.  Since each state has a unique environmental landscape, each state has different abilities when it comes to producing renewable energy.  States with less renewable resources available could be penalized for their lack of ability.

text: Colombia has 28.1 Megawatt installed capacity of renewable energy (excluding large hydropower), consisting mainly of wind power. The country has significant wind and solar resources that remain largely unexploited. According to a study by the World Bank’s Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), exploitation of the country’s significant wind potential alone could cover more than the country’s current total energy needs.

text: Colombia

text: has 28.1 Megawatt installed capacity of

text: renewable energy

text: (excluding large

text: hydropower

text: ), consisting mainly of

text: wind power

text: . The country has significant wind and solar resources that remain largely unexploited. According to a study by the World Bank’s

text: (ESMAP), exploitation of the country’s significant wind potential alone could cover more than the country’s current total energy needs.

text: This article lists the largest power stations in the world, the ten overall and the five of each type, in terms of current installed electrical capacity. Non-renewable power stations are those that run on coal, fuel oils, nuclear, natural gas, oil shale and peat, while renewable power stations run on fuel sources such as biomass, geothermal heat, hydro, solar energy, solar heat, tides, waves and the wind. Only the most significant fuel source is listed for power stations that run on multiple sources.

text: This article lists the largest

text: power

text: stations in the world, the ten overall and the five of each type, in terms of current installed electrical

text: capacity

text: Non-renewable

text: power stations are those that run on

text: coal

text: fuel oil

text: s,

text: nuclear

text: natural gas

text: oil shale

text: and

text: peat

text: , while

text: renewable

text: power stations run on fuel sources such as

text: biomass

text: geothermal heat

text: hydro

text: solar energy

text: solar heat

text: tides

text: waves

text: and the

text: wind

text: . Only the most significant fuel source is listed for power stations that run on multiple sources.

text: According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world's electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environment. Cedric Philibert, senior analyst in the renewable energy division at the IEA said: "Photovoltaic and solar-thermal plants may meet most of the world's demand for electricity by 2060and half of all energy needswith wind, hydropower and biomass plants supplying much of the remaining generation". "Photovoltaic and concentrated solar power together can become the major source of electricity", Philibert said.

text: Conventional hydroelectricity, biomass and geothermal are completely dispatchable as each has a store of potential energy; wind and solar production are typically without storage and can be decreased, but not dispatched, other than when nature provides. Between wind and solar, solar has a more variable daily cycle than wind, but is more predictable in daylight hours than wind. Like solar, tidal energy varies between on and off cycles through each day, unlike solar there is no intermittentcy, tides are available every day without fail. Biofuel and biomass involve multiple steps in the production of energy – growing plants, harvesting, processing, transportation, storage and burning to create heat for electricity, transportation or space heating. In the combined power plant used by the University of Kassel to simulate using 100% renewable energy, wind farms and solar farms were supplemented as needed by hydrostorage and biomass to follow the electricity demand.

text: Conventional hydroelectricity, biomass and geothermal are completely dispatchable as each has a store of potential energy; wind and solar production are typically without storage and can be decreased, but not dispatched, other than when nature provides. Between wind and solar, solar has a more variable daily cycle than wind, but is more predictable in daylight hours than wind. Like solar, tidal energy varies between on and off cycles through each day, unlike solar there is no intermittentcy, tides are available every day without fail. Biofuel and biomass involve multiple steps in the production of energy – growing plants, harvesting, processing, transportation, storage and burning to create heat for electricity, transportation or space heating. In the combined power plant used by the

text: University of Kassel

text: to simulate using

text: 100% renewable energy

text: wind farms

text: and

text: solar farms

text: were supplemented as needed by hydrostorage and biomass to follow the electricity demand.

text: Biomass is organic matter derived from living, or recently living organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. In this system biomass, bagasse, forestry, domestic organic wastes, industrial organic wastes and agro residue & agricultural wastes are used as fuel to produce electricity. Nearly 750 million tons of non edible (by cattle) biomass is available annually in India which can be put to use for higher value addition. Biomass is a renewable energy source as it is generated by extracting the carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere. Its use for electricity generation is carbon-neutral fuel because it would also release global warming green house gasses like methane and carbon dioxide when it is left to decay / degenerate without using as an energy source. The total biomass traditional use in India is nearly 177 Mtoe in the year 2013.

text: Biomass

text: is

text: organic matter

text: derived from living, or recently living organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of

text: biofuel

text: . Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. In this system biomass, bagasse, forestry, domestic organic wastes, industrial organic wastes and agro residue & agricultural wastes are used as fuel to produce electricity. Nearly 750 million tons of non edible (by cattle) biomass is available annually in India which can be put to use for higher value addition. Biomass is a renewable energy source as it is generated by

text: extracting the carbon dioxide gas

text: from the atmosphere. Its use for electricity generation is

text: carbon-neutral fuel

text: because it would also release

text: global warming

text: green house gasses

text: like methane and carbon dioxide when it is left to decay / degenerate without using as an energy source. The total biomass traditional use in India is nearly 177

text: Mtoe

text: in the year 2013.

text: Together, the owners of SFFE represent Norway's largest resource in renewable energy research. Research fields at the Centre include small scale hydropower, wind energy, solar energy, wave energy, and bio-energy as well as the social dimensions of energy use. Competence has recently been developed in ocean energy fields, especially research on offshore wind power and tidal power.

text: Together, the owners of SFFE represent Norway's largest resource in renewable energy research. Research fields at the Centre include small scale

text: hydropower

text: wind energy

text: solar energy

text: wave energy

text: , and

text: bio-energy

text: as well as the social dimensions of energy use. Competence has recently been developed in

text: ocean energy

text: fields, especially research on

text: offshore wind power

text: and

text: tidal power

text: There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States. Many states have set individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions. Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation requiring California's utilities to obtain 33 percent of their electricity from renewable energy sources by the end of 2020.

text: There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States. Many states have set individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions. Governor

text: Jerry Brown

text: has signed legislation requiring California's utilities to obtain 33 percent of their electricity from

text: renewable energy

text: sources by the end of 2020.

text: The 2007 National Energy Policy supports the diversification and increase of energy sources, mainly through renewable energy such as hydroelectricity, geothermal, solar, wind power and biofuels (as well as mineral coal and natural gas). Besides hydroelectricity and geothermal energy, the government foresees the addition of 50MW of renewable generation in the next 10 years in the form of wind power, solar power, biomass and mini-hydroelectric plants.

text: After moving the fair from the city center to the former airport site in Messestadt Riem allowing the exhibition companies, along with the Neue Messe Munich, to have one of the most modern and sustainable trade fair complexes in the world and it has been certified as an energy-efficient company by TÜV Süd. With one of the largest Photovoltaic roof systems in the world and a sophisticated energy concept to an annual saving of more than 8,000 tons of CO. The entire exhibition center is heated with renewable energy through a geothermal system from Stadtwerke München.

text: After moving the fair from the city center to the former

text: airport site

text: in

text: Messestadt Riem

text: allowing the exhibition companies, along with the Neue Messe Munich, to have one of the most modern and sustainable trade fair complexes in the world and it has been certified as an energy-efficient company by

text: TÜV Süd

text: . With one of the largest

text: Photovoltaic roof systems

text: in the world and a sophisticated energy concept to an annual saving of more than 8,000 tons of

text: CO

text: . The entire exhibition center is heated with renewable energy through a geothermal system from

text: Stadtwerke München

text: If built, it would be the second HVDC system in the Pacific Northwest, along with the Pacific DC Intertie. The system would enable a more stable renewable energy supply by allowing bidirectional exchange of power based on renewable sources such as wind, hydro and solar, for which both supply and demand vary across wide areas based on seasonal and other factors. British Columbia's wind power is considered an underdeveloped resource.

text: If built, it would be the second HVDC system in the

text: Pacific Northwest

text: , along with the

text: Pacific DC Intertie

text: . The system would enable a more stable

text: renewable energy

text: supply by allowing bidirectional exchange of power based on renewable sources such as wind, hydro and solar, for which both supply and demand vary across wide areas based on seasonal and other factors.

text: British Columbia's wind power

text: is considered an underdeveloped resource.

text: ASES publishes Solar Today magazine, organizes the National Solar Tour, produces the National Solar Energy Conference National Solar Conference and World Renewable Energy Forum 2012, and advocates for policies to promote the research, commercialization and deployment of renewable energy.

text: ASES publishes Solar Today magazine, organizes the National Solar Tour, produces the National Solar Energy Conference

entity_name: National Solar Conference and World Renewable Energy Forum 2012

text: National Solar Conference and World Renewable Energy Forum 2012

text: , and advocates for policies to promote the research, commercialization and deployment of

text: renewable energy

text: Senate Energy and Natural Resources Subcommittee on Water and Power is one of four subcommittees of the U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee.

text: Senate Energy and Natural Resources Subcommittee on Water and Power is one of four subcommittees of the

entity_name: United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

text: U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee

text: The “Energy Policy of Guyana,” completed in 1994, advocates the replacement of imported petroleum, as far as possible, by indigenous renewable energy sources. Increased and more efficient use of domestic energy resources, primarily hydropower and bagasse for electricity generation, is envisaged to contribute significantly in this regard. More recently, the System Development Plan prepared by GPL (Guyana Power and Light) in 2000 and its 2007-2011 Development and Expansion Programme (D&E) reflect the official government policy of utilizing Guyana’s renewable energy resources such as biomass and hydropower.

text: Mauritius has no exploitable natural resources and therefore depends on imported petroleum products to meet most of its energy requirements. Local and renewable energy sources are biomass, hydro, solar and wind energy. Mauritius has one of the largest Exclusive Economic Zones in the world, and in 2012 the government announced its intention to develop the marine economy.

text: Mauritius has no exploitable

text: natural resource

text: s and therefore depends on imported petroleum products to meet most of its energy requirements. Local and renewable energy sources are biomass, hydro, solar and wind energy. Mauritius has one of the largest

text: Exclusive Economic Zones

text: in the world, and in 2012 the government announced its intention to develop the marine economy.

text: There are several proposals for gigawatt size, very large scale solar power plants. They include the Euro-Mediterranean Desertec proposal anf Project Helios in Greece (10 gigawatt), both now canceled. A 2003 study concluded that the world could generate 2,357,840 TWh each year from very large scale solar power plants using 1% of each of the world's deserts. Total consumption worldwide was 15,223 TWh/year (in 2003). The gigawatt size projects are arrays of single plants. The largest single plant in operation is the 370 MW Ivanpah Solar. In 2012, the BLM made available  of land in the southwestern United States for solar projects, enough for between 10,000 and 20,000 gigawatts (GW).

text: There are several proposals for gigawatt size, very large scale solar power plants. They include the Euro-Mediterranean

text: Desertec

text: proposal anf Project Helios in Greece (10 gigawatt), both now canceled. A 2003 study concluded that the world could generate 2,357,840 TWh each year from very large scale solar power plants using 1% of each of the world's deserts. Total consumption worldwide was 15,223 TWh/year (in 2003). The gigawatt size projects are arrays of single plants. The largest single plant in operation is the 370 MW

text: Ivanpah Solar

text: . In 2012, the

text: BLM

text: made available  of land in the

text: southwestern United States

text: for solar projects, enough for between 10,000 and 20,000 gigawatts (GW).

text: ISES aims to bring recent developments in solar energy, both in research and applications, to the attention of decision makers and the general public, in order to increase the understanding and use of this non-polluting resource in everyday life. ISES promotes research, development and the use of technologies which are directly or indirectly fuelled by the sun and which minimise the consequences of energy use. These technologies can provide sustainable solutions for the supply of energy in both industrialised and developing countries. In spite of a historic focus on direct solar energy, ISES today is involved in all renewable energy fields.

text: A range of energy technologies may contribute to climate change mitigation. These include nuclear power and renewable energy sources such as biomass, hydroelectricity, wind power, solar power, geothermal power, ocean energy, and; the use of carbon sinks, and carbon capture and storage. For example, Pacala and Socolow of Princeton have proposed a 15 part program to reduce CO emissions by 1 billion metric tons per year − or 25 billion tons over the 50-year period using today's technologies as a type of Global warming game.

text: A range of energy technologies may contribute to climate change mitigation. These include

text: nuclear power

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: sources such as

text: biomass

text: hydroelectricity

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: geothermal power

text: ocean energy

text: , and; the use of

text: carbon sink

text: s, and

text: carbon capture and storage

text: . For example, Pacala and Socolow of Princeton have proposed a 15 part program to reduce CO emissions by 1 billion metric tons per year − or 25 billion tons over the 50-year period using today's technologies as a type of

text: Global warming game

text: The share of renewables within the total energy mix is still very small, but is growing fast. Total installed capacity of renewable energy installations more than doubled in 2011 and  stands at 397 MW. In 2011 several large solar power stations were opened in Ukraine, among them Europe's largest solar park in Perovo, (Crimea). Ukrainian State Agency for Energy Efficiency and Conservation forecasts that combined installed capacity of wind and solar power plants in Ukraine could increase by another 600 MW in 2012. According to Macquarie Research, by 2016 Ukraine will construct and commission new solar power stations with a total capacity of 1.8 GW, almost equivalent to the capacity of two nuclear reactors.

text: The share of

text: renewables

text: within the total energy mix is still very small, but is growing fast. Total installed capacity of renewable energy installations more than doubled in 2011 and  stands at 397 MW. In 2011 several large

text: solar power stations

text: were opened in Ukraine, among them Europe's largest solar park in Perovo, (Crimea). Ukrainian State Agency for Energy Efficiency and Conservation forecasts that combined installed capacity of wind and solar power plants in Ukraine could increase by another 600 MW in 2012. According to Macquarie Research, by 2016 Ukraine will construct and commission new solar power stations with a total capacity of 1.8 GW, almost equivalent to the capacity of two nuclear reactors.

text: In 2005, the organization Republicans for Environmental Protection ("REP") gave Brownback a grade of 7 percent for the 107th United States Congress, but in 2006, increased the rating to 26%. Senator Brownback supported an amendment to the Energy Policy Act of 2005, offered by Senator Jeff Bingaman, (D-NM), requiring at least 10 percent of electricity sold by utilities to originate from renewable resources. He has also supported conservation of rare felids & canids. He has voted for increased funding for international conservation of cranes. Brownback has supported oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and in the Gulf of Mexico, as a way to reduce dependence on foreign oil. He has promoted the use of renewable energy such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric sources to achieve energy independence.

text: In 2005, the organization

text: Republicans for Environmental Protection

text: ("REP") gave Brownback a grade of 7 percent for the

text: 107th United States Congress

text: , but in 2006, increased the rating to 26%. Senator Brownback supported an amendment to the

text: Energy Policy Act of 2005

text: , offered by Senator

text: Jeff Bingaman

text: , (D-

text: NM

text: ), requiring at least 10 percent of electricity sold by utilities to originate from renewable resources. He has also supported conservation of rare felids & canids. He has voted for increased funding for international conservation of cranes. Brownback has supported

text: oil drilling

text: in the

text: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge

text: and in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , as a way to reduce dependence on foreign oil. He has promoted the use of

text: renewable energy

text: such as nuclear, wind, solar, and hydroelectric sources to achieve energy independence.

text: The Sere Wind Farm is the first foray into large scale wind energy for the country's largest utility, Eskom. The plant will help meet to South Africa's long-term renewable energy and CO mitigation strategy as set out in the Power Sector Integrated Resource Plan 2010-2030.  As such the project was given to South Africa's largest state owned power company Eskom for development in an effort to diversify the company away from coal fired energy production.  By 2030 South Africa aims to meet 42% of its national demand for power using renewable energy sources. It is estimated that the project will create 140 direct jobs during the construction phase and 10 permanent jobs once the plant is operational.  It is targeted to reduce South Africa's CO emissions by 5 million tons during its first 20 years.

text: The Sere Wind Farm is the first foray into large scale wind energy for the country's largest utility,

text: Eskom

text: . The plant will help meet to South Africa's long-term renewable energy and

text: CO

text: mitigation strategy as set out in the Power Sector Integrated Resource Plan 2010-2030.  As such the project was given to South Africa's largest state owned power company Eskom for development in an effort to diversify the company away from coal fired energy production.  By 2030 South Africa aims to meet 42% of its national demand for power using renewable energy sources. It is estimated that the project will create 140 direct jobs during the construction phase and 10 permanent jobs once the plant is operational.  It is targeted to reduce South Africa's CO emissions by 5 million tons during its first 20 years.

text: While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development. United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. As most of renewables provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification, which has several benefits: Electricity can be converted to heat (where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels), can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption. In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements, because most renewables don't have a steam cycle with high losses (fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65%).

text: While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to

text: rural

text: and remote areas and

entity_name: Renewable energy in developing countries

text: developing countries

text: , where energy is often crucial in

text: human development

text: United Nations

text: ' Secretary-General

text: Ban Ki-moon

text: has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. As most of renewables provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further

text: electrification

text: , which has several benefits: Electricity can be converted to heat (where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels), can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption. In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements, because most renewables don't have a steam cycle with high losses (fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65%).

text: The Nyagak Hydropower project is in line with the Ugandan government’s plans for the decentralization and privatization of hydropower systems. The government of Uganda, through support from the World Bank, is in the process of implementing the Energy for Rural Transformation (ERT) through the African Rural Renewable Energy Initiative (AFRREI). West Nile Rural Electrification Company (WENRECO), a subsidiary of Industrial Promotion Services, was selected to develop the power plant. Construction began in December 2006.

text: The Nyagak Hydropower project is in line with the Ugandan government’s plans for the decentralization and privatization of hydropower systems. The

text: government of Uganda

text: , through support from the

text: World Bank

text: , is in the process of implementing the Energy for Rural Transformation (ERT) through the African Rural Renewable Energy Initiative (AFRREI).

text: West Nile Rural Electrification Company

text: WENRECO

text: ), a subsidiary of

text: Industrial Promotion Services

text: , was selected to develop the power plant. Construction began in December 2006.

text: Sustainable harvesting and use of renewable resources (i.e., maintaining a positive renewal rate) can reduce air pollution, soil contamination, habitat destruction and land degradation. Biomass energy is derived from six distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, plants, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the advent of burning wood to make fire, and wood remains the largest biomass energy source today.

text: Sustainable harvesting and use of renewable resources (i.e., maintaining a positive renewal rate) can reduce

text: air pollution

text: soil contamination

text: habitat destruction

text: and

text: land degradation

text: . Biomass energy is derived from six distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, plants, waste,

text: landfill gases

text: , and

text: alcohol fuels

text: . Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the advent of burning wood to make fire, and wood remains the largest biomass energy source today.

text: Across the nation almost 150 coal burning power plants have been proposed, three in Missouri (Weston, Norborne, and Springfield) CCPCs home state, and three in Kansas (Goodland, Holcomb and Kansas City, KS), just on the other side of the Missouri River and Platte County. Not one of these plants has proposed using any kind of renewable energy, instead they pose the threat of using large amounts of water, creating huge landfills of waste, emitting mercury and other health threatening pollution, releasing millions of tons of global warming gasses, and driving up the demand of the price of energy. CCPC believes that energy efficiency and renewable resources can keep electricity rates low, create new jobs and avoid health risks. Their mission is to convince the public and leaders that this is a better idea.

text: Across the nation almost 150 coal burning power plants have been proposed, three in Missouri (Weston, Norborne, and Springfield) CCPCs home state, and three in Kansas (Goodland, Holcomb and Kansas City, KS), just on the other side of the

text: Missouri River

text: and Platte County. Not one of these plants has proposed using any kind of

text: renewable energy

text: , instead they pose the threat of using large amounts of water, creating huge landfills of waste, emitting mercury and other health threatening pollution, releasing millions of tons of

text: global warming

text: gasses, and driving up the demand of the price of energy. CCPC believes that energy efficiency and renewable resources can keep electricity rates low, create new jobs and avoid health risks. Their mission is to convince the public and leaders that this is a better idea.

text: The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water (hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

text: The renewable energy from the

text: sun

text: wind

text: wave

text: biomass

text: and

text: geothermal

text: energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of

text: water

text: hydropower

text: tidal power

text: and

text: wave power

text: wind

text: and

text: radiant energy

text: from geothermal heat (used for

text: geothermal power

text: ) and solar energy (used for

text: solar power

text: ) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

text: As of 2008, wind power is one of the fastest-growing power sources in the world. The bulk of this growth has been in the form of conventional, three-bladed, horizontal-axis wind turbines, with vertical axis wind turbines accounting for a small remainder. Converting the kinetic energy of the wind into useful electricity requires converting the linear horizontal motion of wind into the rotational motion of a shaft in an electrical generator. In every case this requires some method of maintaining a static force against the motion of the wind, to keep the wind-collection apparatus from simply blowing away. Conventional wind turbines accomplish this by mounting rotors rigidly on towers, relatively close to the ground. This arrangement works reliably, but is relatively expensive, requires large amounts of structural material, and cannot tap the much stronger winds often present at higher altitudes.

text: As of 2008,

text: wind power

text: is one of the fastest-growing power sources in the world. The bulk of this growth has been in the form of conventional, three-bladed, horizontal-axis

text: wind turbine

text: s, with

text: vertical axis wind turbine

text: s accounting for a small remainder. Converting the kinetic energy of the wind into useful electricity requires converting the linear horizontal motion of wind into the rotational motion of a shaft in an

text: electrical generator

text: . In every case this requires some method of maintaining a static force against the motion of the wind, to keep the wind-collection apparatus from simply blowing away. Conventional wind turbines accomplish this by mounting rotors rigidly on towers, relatively close to the ground. This arrangement works reliably, but is relatively expensive, requires large amounts of structural material, and cannot tap the

text: much stronger winds

text: often present at higher altitudes.

text: Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$214 billion in 2013, with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.

text: Based on

text: 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$214 billion in 2013, with countries like

text: China

text: and the

text: United States

text: heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: is resulting in significant

text: energy security

text: climate change mitigation

text: , and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.

text: All these consume a lot of oil, coal and nuclear energy and all these resources have a big impact on our planet because of the waste they produce. We have all read about Fukushima in Japan we have all heard about Chernobyl and we all know that even if these things happened years ago they are still troublesome for our environment. In the whole world there are approximately over one billion cars, each of these cars release around 200 grams of carbon dioxide per kilometers that’s around 200,000 tons per kilometer! Who drives their car for just one kilometer you can ease multiplicity that with at least 50 and that’s just the average release of carbon dioxide per day. This is just our cars think of all the industrial facilities and how much toxins they release. We together as humans have to cooperate for the sake of our planet and all the living things to find other energy resources. We have to use solar power, wind power, tidal power and many others we have to put our best minds together and make them more effective. We must adapt these on the geographic locations using solar panels to harvest the energy from the sun in warm countries. Wind power where there is a lot of wind and tidal power near the oceans. We have the capacity to use our oceans as power the earth is 70% water there is plenty of energy for the whole earth. We can use Hydrogen power where the only waste is vaporized water."

text: All these consume a lot of oil, coal and nuclear energy and all these resources have a big impact on our planet because of the waste they produce. We have all read about

text: Fukushima

text: in Japan we have all heard about

text: Chernobyl

text: and we all know that even if these things happened years ago they are still troublesome for our environment. In the whole world there are approximately over one billion cars, each of these cars release around 200 grams of

text: carbon dioxide

text: per kilometers that’s around 200,000 tons per kilometer! Who drives their car for just one kilometer you can ease multiplicity that with at least 50 and that’s just the average release of carbon dioxide per day. This is just our cars think of all the industrial facilities and how much toxins they release. We together as humans have to cooperate for the sake of our planet and all the living things to find other energy resources. We have to use

text: solar power

text: wind power

text: tidal power

text: and many others we have to put our best minds together and make them more effective. We must adapt these on the geographic locations using solar panels to harvest the energy from the sun in warm countries. Wind power where there is a lot of wind and tidal power near the oceans. We have the capacity to use our oceans as power the earth is 70% water there is plenty of energy for the whole earth. We can use Hydrogen power where the only waste is vaporized water."

text: Wind turbines can be distributed energy resources or they can be built at utility scale. These have low maintenance and low pollution, but distributed wind unlike utility-scale wind has much higher costs than other sources of energy. As with solar, wind energy is variable and non-dispatchable. Wind towers and generators have substantial insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good operating safety. Distributed generation from wind hybrid power systems combines wind power with other DER systems. One such example is the integration of wind turbines into solar hybrid power systems, as wind tends to complement solar because the peak operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and year.

text: Wind turbine

text: s can be distributed energy resources or they can be built at utility scale. These have low maintenance and low pollution, but distributed wind unlike utility-scale wind has much higher costs than other sources of energy. As with solar, wind energy is variable and non-dispatchable. Wind towers and generators have substantial insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good operating safety. Distributed generation from

text: wind hybrid power systems

text: combines wind power with other DER systems. One such example is the integration of wind turbines into

text: solar hybrid power systems

text: , as wind tends to complement solar because the peak operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and year.

text: The United States Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) promotes energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy resources at federal sites,  helping agencies save energy, save taxpayer dollars, and demonstrate leadership with responsible, cleaner energy choices, because as the largest energy consumer in the United States, the federal government has both a tremendous opportunity and a clear responsibility to lead by example with smart energy management.

text: The United States Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) promotes

text: energy efficiency

text: and the use of

text: renewable energy

text: resources at federal sites,  helping agencies save energy, save

text: taxpayer

text: dollars, and demonstrate leadership with responsible, cleaner energy choices, because as the largest energy consumer in the United States, the

text: federal government

text: has both a tremendous opportunity and a clear responsibility to

text: lead by example

text: with smart

text: energy management

text: In the Philippines, five main types of renewable energy are used. These are hydropower, geothermal power, wind power, solar power and biomass power.

text: In the Philippines, five main types of renewable energy are used. These are

text: hydropower

text: geothermal power

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: and

text: biomass power

text: The Ontario Power Authority's Feed-In Tariff (FIT) program  is now in place as the most generous renewable energy support program in North America (See Green Energy Act 2009, and Ontario Power Authority "Standard Offer Program" (SOP) for Wind Energy Projects ).  TREC is moving ahead with ambitious generation development plans. Building on the experience from the WindShare co-operative's Exhibition Place wind turbine project, TREC has submitted a FIT contract application for a 20-megawatt (MW) wind farm project called Lakewind. TREC has incorporated Lakewind Power Co-operative Inc., a for-profit co-operative of Ontarians that will develop and own the project near the village of Bervie, just east of Kincardine, Ontario. The Lakewind project will be the largest co-operatively owned, wind power project in Canada and pending a successful FIT application, is expected to be generating power in the spring of 2012.

text: The

text: Ontario Power Authority

text: 's

text: Feed-In Tariff (FIT)

text: program  is now in place as the most generous renewable energy support program in North America (See

text: Green Energy Act 2009

text: , and Ontario Power Authority "Standard Offer Program" (SOP) for Wind Energy Projects ).  TREC is moving ahead with ambitious generation development plans. Building on the experience from the WindShare co-operative's Exhibition Place wind turbine project, TREC has submitted a FIT contract application for a 20-megawatt (MW) wind farm project called Lakewind. TREC has incorporated Lakewind Power Co-operative Inc., a for-profit co-operative of Ontarians that will develop and own the project near the village of Bervie, just east of

text: Kincardine, Ontario

text: . The Lakewind project will be the largest co-operatively owned, wind power project in Canada and pending a successful FIT application, is expected to be generating power in the spring of 2012.

text: It was announced on December 7, 2007, that the company had chosen Qualico to provide the space with the construction of new office tower on the Station Lands site by the CN Tower. Epcor would entered into a 20-year lease to become the anchor tenant of the tower with an option for a 15-year renewal. The structure would be certified to a silver standard or higher under the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program. LEED certification is a widely used standard for reducing energy, water and other resources in buildings. With the completion of the building, Edmonton saw its first new office tower in 17 years. Due to the nature of the anchor tenant, the building has been nicknamed the "Power Tower".

text: It was announced on December 7, 2007, that the company had chosen Qualico to provide the space with the construction of new office tower on the Station Lands site by the

text: CN Tower

text: . Epcor would entered into a 20-year lease to become the anchor tenant of the tower with an option for a 15-year renewal. The structure would be certified to a silver standard or higher under the

entity_name: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

text: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

text: (LEED) program. LEED certification is a widely used standard for reducing energy, water and other resources in buildings. With the completion of the building, Edmonton saw its first new office tower in 17 years. Due to the nature of the anchor tenant, the building has been nicknamed the "Power Tower".

text: Through the Renewables Obligation, British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee. The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC) for each MW·h of electricity they have purchased. Within the United Kingdom, wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity, and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass. However, the UK's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016, although the House of Lords have struck these changes down.

text: Through the

text: Renewables Obligation

text: , British

text: electricity suppliers

text: are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee. The supplier then receives a

text: Renewables Obligation Certificate

text: (ROC) for each MW·h of electricity they have purchased. Within the United Kingdom, wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity, and the second largest source of renewable energy after

text: biomass

text: . However, the UK's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016, although the House of Lords have struck these changes down.

text: A Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal. The federal RPS is called the Renewable Electricity Standard (RES).

text: A Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) is a

text: regulation

text: that requires the increased production of

text: energy

text: from

text: renewable energy sources

text: , such as

text: wind

text: solar

text: biomass

text: , and

text: geothermal

text: . The federal RPS is called the Renewable Electricity Standard (RES).

text: Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.

text: Solar energy is radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: Sun

text: that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as

text: solar heating

text: photovoltaics

text: solar thermal energy

text: solar architecture

text: molten salt power plant

text: s and

text: artificial photosynthesis

text: NREL provides a wealth of information on solar energy, beyond the scientific papers on research done at the lab. The lab provides a great number of publications on solar resources and manuals on different applications of solar technology, as well as a number of different solar resource models and tools. The lab also makes available a number of different solar resource data sets in its Renewable Resource Data Center.

text: Since the publication of the Spanish Royal Decree 661/2007, solar thermal energy plants were taken in consideration for development and several projects followed construction and operation. These Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plants produce electricity by converting solar energy into high temperature heat using diverse mirror configurations. The heat is then used to produce electricity through a conventional generator system using a steam turbine. Currently, research is undertaken on various CSP technologies for storage of thermal energy to increase the number of operation hours of CSP plants. The Termosolar Borges plant implements a different approach: the hybridization of a CSP plant with biomass fueled boilers. There is also a natural gas burner, to be used as an emergency backup. This solution reaches a higher electric production, an improvement in the operation stability of the thermal system and a higher renewable output of the plant. Beside, the most solar projects and plants are developed in the southern Spain territory, in consideration of more daily energy and a better winter insolation. The hybridization technology compensates the lower winter season solar production in northern Spain. The hybridization of a CSP plant with  biomass allows expanding this technology in northern Spain areas and opens the use of multiple renewable energy sources for the CSP plants.

text: Renewable energy has been an ongoing interest of CSG’s. Although the company’s efforts to design and install large-scale solar power plants were discontinued around 2007, in 1998 CSG operated Sun Power Electric, which built the nation's first solar power plant. Sun Power Electric was active in various states including New York and Rhode Island.CSG also partnered with the Center for Ecological Technology (now known as the Center for EcoTechnology) to offer a renewable energy product called GreenerWatts New England.

text: African governments are taking advantage of the readily available water resources to broaden their energy mix. Hydro Turbine Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa generated revenues of $120.0 million in 2007 and is estimated to reach $425.0 million. Asian countries, notably China, India, and Japan, are playing an active role in power projects across the African continent. The majority of these power projects are hydro-based because of China's vast experience in the construction of hydro-power projects and part of the Energy & Power Growth Partnership Services programme.

text: It is claimed to be a zero-emissions vehicle. The only problem is the recharging, but if the energy is produced solely via renewable resources such as wind, geothermal power or solar power, the emission is zero. On the other hand, most electricity worldwide is made by burning coal, oil or natural gas, or from nuclear energy.

text: It is claimed to be a

text: zero-emissions vehicle

text: . The only problem is the recharging, but if the energy is produced solely via

text: renewable resource

text: s such as

text: wind

text: geothermal power

text: or

text: solar power

text: , the emission is zero. On the other hand, most electricity worldwide is made by burning coal, oil or natural gas, or from nuclear energy.

text: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia is largely undeveloped although Russia has many potential renewable energy resources.

text: Non-hydroelectric

text: renewable energy

text: in Russia is largely undeveloped although Russia has many potential renewable energy resources.

text: A water vapor explosion creates a high volume of gas without producing environmentally harmful leftovers. The controlled explosion of water has been used for generating steam in power stations and in modern types of steam turbines. Newer steam engines use heated oil to force drops of water to explode and create high pressure in a controlled chamber. The pressure is then used to run a turbine or a converted combustion engine. Hot oil and water explosions are becoming particularly popular in concentrated solar generators, because the water can be separated from the oil in a closed loop without any external energy. Water explosion is considered to be environmentally friendly if the heat is generated by a renewable resource.

text: A water vapor explosion creates a high volume of gas without producing environmentally harmful leftovers. The controlled explosion of water has been used for generating steam in power stations and in modern types of steam turbines. Newer steam engines use heated oil to force drops of water to explode and create high pressure in a controlled chamber. The pressure is then used to run a turbine or a converted combustion engine. Hot oil and water explosions are becoming particularly popular in concentrated solar generators, because the water can be separated from the oil in a closed loop without any external energy. Water explosion is considered to be

text: environmentally friendly

text: if the heat is generated by a renewable resource.

text: Geothermal energy is the heat of the Earth, which can be tapped into to produce electricity in power plants. Warm water produced from geothermal sources can be used for industry, agriculture, bathing and cleansing. Where underground steam sources can be tapped, the steam is used to run a steam turbine. Geothermal steam sources have a finite life as underground water is depleted. Arrangements that circulate surface water through rock formations to produce hot water or steam are, on a human-relevant time scale, renewable.

text: On July 20, 2009, USDOE awarded $47 million in American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds on July 20 to eight ongoing smart grid demonstration projects. The $47 million investment will add to the $17 million in funds DOE had awarded these eight projects in 2008, thereby accelerating the timelines for the projects. Most of the projects relate to technologies to help transmission and distribution systems operate better, but a few are directly related to renewable energy. For example, the city of Fort Collins, Colorado, will research, develop, and demonstrate a coordinated and integrated system of mixed clean energy technologies and distributed energy resources, allowing the city to reduce its peak electrical demand by at least 15%. Meanwhile, the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago will focus on implementing distributed energy resources and creating demand-responsive microgrids, which are small power networks that can operate independently of the utility power grid. In addition, the University of Hawaii will explore the management of its electrical distribution system to better accommodate wind power.

text: On July 20, 2009, USDOE awarded $47 million in

entity_name: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009

text: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

text: funds on July 20 to eight ongoing smart grid demonstration projects. The $47 million investment will add to the $17 million in funds DOE had awarded these eight projects in 2008, thereby accelerating the timelines for the projects. Most of the projects relate to technologies to help transmission and distribution systems operate better, but a few are directly related to

text: renewable energy

text: . For example, the city of

text: Fort Collins, Colorado

text: , will research, develop, and demonstrate a coordinated and integrated system of mixed clean energy technologies and distributed energy resources, allowing the city to reduce its peak electrical demand by at least 15%. Meanwhile, the

text: Illinois Institute of Technology

text: in Chicago will focus on implementing distributed energy resources and creating demand-responsive

text: microgrid

text: s, which are small power networks that can operate independently of the

text: utility power grid

text: . In addition, the

text: University of Hawaii

text: will explore the management of its electrical distribution system to better accommodate wind power.

text: Hydropower projects can have both a positive and a negative environmental and social impact. This is because the construction of a dam, power plant and reservoir creates certain social and physical changes in the area it effects. The protocol provides a common language to allow governments, civil society, financial institutions and the hydropower sector to talk about and evaluate sustainability issues.

text: Hydropower projects can have both a positive and a negative environmental and social impact. This is because the construction of a

text: dam

text: , power plant and

text: reservoir

text: creates certain social and physical changes in the area it effects. The protocol provides a common language to allow governments,

text: civil society

text: , financial institutions and the hydropower sector to talk about and evaluate

text: sustainability

text: issues.

text: Florida has low electricity costs compared with other states, which makes individual solar investment less attractive. Florida ranks ninth nationally in solar resource strength according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and tenth in solar generation by the Solar Energy Industries Association.

text: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from

text: renewable resource

text: s, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas:

text: electricity generation

text: , air and water heating/cooling,

text: transportation

text: , and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Anti-nuclear groups also favour the use of renewable energy, such as hydro, wind power, solar power, geothermal energy and biofuel. According to the International Energy Agency renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. Fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy. According to Lester R. Brown:

text: Anti-nuclear groups also favour the use of

text: renewable energy

text: , such as

text: hydro

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: geothermal energy

text: and

text: biofuel

text: . According to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to

text: world energy security

text: and provide opportunities for mitigating

text: greenhouse gases

text: . Fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy. According to

text: Lester R. Brown

text: The most important energy sources in the Nordic countries measured in terms of energy supply in million toe (tonnes oil equivalent) are in order of importance: oil, solid fuels (e.g. coal and wood), nuclear power, hydro and geothermal power and solar energy, and gas. In the EU the most important source of energy is also oil, but gas comes in second. Hydro and  geothermal power and other renewable sources of energy are major sources in the Nordic countries, as compared to the EU countries. Particularly in Iceland and Norway, hydro and geothermal power constitute a major share of the overall energy supply. Denmark depends almost entirely on thermal power generated from coal, oil and gas. Iceland obtains a substantial part of its energy for heating from geothermal energy and depends almost entirely upon hydro-power resources for its production of electricity.

text: Without proper management, a community's material resources may be depleted or rendered unusable. The common pool problem is an economic situation which exists when goods are rival, but non-exclusive (See common-pool resource). Since these resources are owned in common, individuals have no private incentive to preserve them, but rather will seek to exploit them before others can derive benefit. The classic example is of fish in the ocean; anybody can harvest fish, but a fish that has been caught cannot be caught by another fisherman. Therefore, fishermen will seek to maximize their personal profit by catching as many fish as possible, which will ultimately lead to the stock being depleted. It is similar to the free rider problem in that those who do not contribute to the resource may use it without penalty, but the common pool problem is usually considered an economic "problem" since it will eventually lead to the exhausting of a resource. Another example of the common pool problem involves the shared use of limited internet bandwidth, such as in a university network, when the connectivity of all users is slowed by the heavy usage of a few.

text: Without proper management, a community's material resources may be depleted or rendered unusable. The common pool problem is an economic situation which exists when goods are rival, but non-exclusive (See

text: common-pool resource

text: ). Since these resources are owned in common, individuals have no private incentive to preserve them, but rather will seek to exploit them before others can derive benefit. The classic example is of fish in the ocean; anybody can harvest fish, but a fish that has been caught cannot be caught by another fisherman. Therefore, fishermen will seek to maximize their personal profit by catching as many fish as possible, which will ultimately lead to the stock being depleted. It is similar to the

text: free rider problem

text: in that those who do not contribute to the resource may use it without penalty, but the common pool problem is usually considered an economic "problem" since it will eventually lead to the exhausting of a resource. Another example of the common pool problem involves the shared use of limited internet

text: bandwidth

text: , such as in a

text: university network

text: , when the connectivity of all users is slowed by the heavy usage of a few.

text: Assuming complete tritium burn-up, the reduction in the fraction of fusion energy carried by neutrons would be only about 18%, so that the primary advantage of the D-D fuel cycle is that tritium breeding would not be required. Other advantages are independence from scarce lithium resources and a somewhat softer neutron spectrum. The disadvantage of D-D compared to D-T is that the energy confinement time (at a given pressure) must be 30 times longer and the power produced (at a given pressure and volume) would be 68 times less .

text: Whilst China has the world's largest installations of solar and wind power its energy needs are so great that in 2013 renewables provided just a little over 20% of its power generation, with most of the remainder provided by traditional coal power facilities. Nevertheless, the share of renewables in the energy mix had been gradually rising from 2013 and targets from 2015 onwards have represented a step change in ambition. The next few years will demonstrate whether these ambitious targets can be delivered. As of the end of 2015 the world leading countries in wind power by installations (although the USA generated slightly more wind power at 190 TWh as of 186.3 TWh in China) were: 1. China 2. USA 3. Germany 4. India 5. Spain and 6. UK, and in solar power installations: 1. China 2. Germany 3. Japan. 4. United States 5. Italy and 6. UK.

text: Whilst China has the world's largest installations of solar and wind power its energy needs are so great that in 2013 renewables provided just a little over 20% of its power generation, with most of the remainder provided by traditional coal power facilities. Nevertheless, the share of renewables in the energy mix had been gradually rising from 2013 and targets from 2015 onwards have represented a step change in ambition. The next few years will demonstrate whether these ambitious targets can be delivered. As of the end of 2015 the world leading countries in wind power by installations (although the USA generated slightly more wind power at 190 TWh as of 186.3 TWh in China) were: 1.

text: China

text: USA

text: Germany

text: India

text: Spain

text: and 6.

text: UK

text: , and in solar power installations: 1.

text: China

text: Germany

text: Japan.

text: United States

text: Italy

text: and 6.

text: UK

text: Environment and natural resources aspects involve the required energy, water and other natural resources for construction, operation and maintenance of the system, as well as the potential emissions to the environment resulting from use. It also includes the degree of recycling and reuse of excreta practiced and the effects of these, for example reusing the wastewater, returning nutrients and organic material to agriculture, and the protecting of other non-renewable resources, for example through the production of renewable energy (e.g. biogas or fuel wood).

text: Environment and natural resources aspects involve the required energy, water and other natural resources for construction, operation and maintenance of the system, as well as the potential emissions to the environment resulting from use. It also includes the degree of recycling and

text: reuse of excreta

text: practiced and the effects of these, for example reusing the

text: wastewater

text: , returning nutrients and organic material to agriculture, and the protecting of other non-renewable resources, for example through the production of

text: renewable energy

text: (e.g.

text: biogas

text: or fuel wood).

text: Biomass is the material derived from recently living organisms, which includes plants, animals and their byproducts. Manure, garden waste and crop residues are all sources of biomass. It is a renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal, and nuclear fuels. Another source includes Animal waste, which is a persistent and unavoidable pollutant produced primarily by the animals housed in industrial-sized farms.

text: Biomass is the material derived from recently living

text: organism

text: s, which includes plants, animals and their byproducts. Manure, garden waste and crop residues are all sources of biomass. It is a renewable energy source based on the

text: carbon cycle

text: , unlike other

text: natural resource

text: s such as

text: petroleum

text: coal

text: , and

text: nuclear

text: fuels. Another source includes

text: Animal waste

text: , which is a persistent and unavoidable

text: pollutant

text: produced primarily by the animals housed in industrial-sized farms.

text: , citizen support for the Energiewende remains high, with recent surveys indicating that about 80–90% of the public are in favor.  One reason for the high acceptance is the substantial participation of German citizens in the Energiewende, as private households, land owners, or members of energy cooperatives (Genossenschaft).  A 2016 survey showed that roughly one in two Germans would consider investing in community renewable energy projects.  Manfred Fischedick, Director of the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy has commented that "if people participate with their own money, for example in a wind or solar power plant in their area, they will also support [the Energiewende]."  A 2010 study shows the benefits to municipalities of community ownership of renewable generation in their locality.

text: , citizen support for the Energiewende remains high, with recent surveys indicating that about 80–90% of the public are in favor.  One reason for the high acceptance is the substantial participation of German citizens in the Energiewende, as private households, land owners, or members of energy cooperatives (Genossenschaft).  A 2016 survey showed that roughly one in two Germans would consider investing in community renewable energy projects.  Manfred Fischedick, Director of the

entity_name: Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy

text: Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy

text: has commented that "if people participate with their own money, for example in a wind or solar power plant in their area, they will also support [the Energiewende]."  A 2010 study shows the benefits to

text: municipalities

text: of community ownership of renewable generation in their locality.

text: High Temperature Geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of minerals (in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.

text: High Temperature Geothermal energy is from

text: thermal energy

text: temperature

text: of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from

text: radioactive decay

text: of minerals (in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions). The

text: geothermal gradient

text: , which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of

text: heat

text: from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.

text: Solar energy is variable because of the daily rotation of the earth, seasonal changes, and because of cloud cover. According to, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District observed a 15% capacity factor in 2005. However, according to the SolarPACES programme of the International Energy Agency (IEA), solar power plants designed for solar-only generation are well matched to summer noon peak loads in areas with significant cooling demands, such as Spain or the south-western United States, although in some locations solar PV does not reduce the need for generation of network upgrades given that air conditioner peak demand often occurs in the late afternoon or early evening when solar output is reduced. SolarPACES states that by using thermal energy storage systems the operating periods of solar thermal power (CSP) stations can be extended to become dispatchable (load following). The IEA CSP Technology Roadmap (2010) suggests that "in the sunniest countries, CSP can be expected to become a competitive source of bulk power in peak and intermediate loads by 2020, and of base-load power by 2025 to 2030". A dispatchable source is more valuable than baseload power.

text: Solar energy

text: is variable because of the daily rotation of the earth, seasonal changes, and because of cloud cover. According to, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District observed a 15% capacity factor in 2005. However, according to the

text: SolarPACES

text: programme of the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA), solar power plants designed for solar-only generation are well matched to summer noon peak loads in areas with significant cooling demands, such as

text: Spain

text: or the

text: south-western United States

text: , although in some locations solar PV does not reduce the need for generation of network upgrades given that air conditioner peak demand often occurs in the late afternoon or early evening when solar output is reduced. SolarPACES states that by using thermal energy storage systems the operating periods of

text: solar thermal power

text: (CSP) stations can be extended to become dispatchable (load following). The IEA CSP Technology Roadmap (2010) suggests that "in the sunniest countries, CSP can be expected to become a competitive source of bulk power in peak and intermediate loads by 2020, and of base-load power by 2025 to 2030". A dispatchable source is more valuable than baseload power.

text: The Union of Concerned Scientists supports a national renewable energy standard which would require utilities to produce a certain percentage of their energy from sources such as wind power, solar energy and geothermal energy. The group also supports a national energy efficiency standard for home appliances. The UCS also acknowledges that nuclear power can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but maintains that it must become much safer and cheaper before it can be considered a workable solution to global warming. They support increased safety enforcement from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission among other steps to improve nuclear power.  UCS has been critical of proposed Generation III reactor designs. Edwin Lyman, a senior staff scientist at UCS, has challenged specific cost-saving design choices made for both the AP1000 and ESBWR. Lyman is concerned about the strength of the steel containment vessel and the concrete shield building around the AP1000. The AP1000 containment vessel does not have sufficient safety margins, says Lyman.

text: The

text: Union of Concerned Scientists

text: supports a national

text: renewable energy

text: wind power

text: solar energy

text: and

text: geothermal energy

text: . The group also supports a national

text: energy efficiency

text: standard for home appliances. The UCS also acknowledges that

text: nuclear power

text: global warming

text: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

text: among other steps to improve nuclear power.  UCS has been critical of proposed

text: Generation III reactor

text: designs.

text: Edwin Lyman

text: and

text: ESBWR

text: . Lyman is concerned about the strength of the steel containment vessel and the concrete shield building around the AP1000. The AP1000 containment vessel does not have sufficient safety margins, says Lyman.

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels. Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant

text: solar power

text: capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to

text: conventional energy

text: sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels. Long distance transmission allows remote

text: renewable energy

text: As of January 2013, the largest individual photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are Agua Caliente Solar Project, (Arizona, over 247 MW connected - to increase to 397 MW), Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW), Mesquite Solar project (Arizona, 150 MW), Neuhardenberg Solar Park (Germany, 145 MW), Templin Solar Park (Germany, 128 MW), Toul-Rosières Solar Park (France, 115 MW), and Perovo Solar Park (Ukraine, 100 MW). The Charanka Solar Park is a collection of solar power stations of which 214 MW were reported complete in April 2012, on a 2000 ha site. It is part of Gujarat Solar Park, a group of solar farms at various locations in the Gujarat state of India, with overall capacity of 702 MW. There are a total of 570 MW of solar parks in Golmud, with 500 MW more expected in 2012.

text: As of January 2013, the largest individual photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are

text: Agua Caliente Solar Project

text: , (Arizona, over 247 MW connected - to increase to 397 MW),

text: Golmud Solar Park

text: (China, 200 MW),

text: Mesquite Solar project

text: (Arizona, 150 MW),

text: Neuhardenberg Solar Park

text: (Germany, 145 MW),

text: Templin Solar Park

text: (Germany, 128 MW),

text: Toul-Rosières Solar Park

text: (France, 115 MW), and

text: Perovo Solar Park

text: (Ukraine, 100 MW). The

text: Charanka Solar Park

text: is a collection of solar power stations of which 214 MW were reported complete in April 2012, on a 2000

text: ha

text: site. It is part of

text: Gujarat Solar Park

text: , a group of solar farms at various locations in the

text: Gujarat

text: state of India, with overall capacity of 702 MW. There are a total of 570 MW of solar parks in Golmud, with 500 MW more expected in 2012.

text: Internal renewable water resources are estimated at 128.5 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year (average for 1977-2001). Surface runoff represents a total of 97.3 BCM/year, of which 5.4 BCM/year comes from drainage of the aquifers and thus needs to be subtracted from the total. Groundwater recharge is estimated at about 49.3 BCM/year, of which 12.7 BCM/year is obtained from infiltration in the river bed and also needs to be subtracted. Iran receives 6.7 BCM/year of surface water from Pakistan and some water from Afghanistan through the Helmand River. The flow of the Arax river, at the border with Azerbaijan, is estimated at 4.6 BCM/year. The surface runoff to the sea and to other countries is estimated at 55.9 BCM/year. Per capita water availability in the pre-Islamic Revolution era was about 4,500 cubic meters. But, in 2009 this figure was less than 2,000 cubic meters. The total water withdrawal was estimated at about 70 BCM in 1993, rising to 93 BCM in 2004, of which 92% was used for agricultural purposes, 6% for domestic use and 2% for industrial use. Although this is equal to 51% of the actual available renewable water resources, annual abstraction from aquifers (57 BCM in 1993, 53 BCM in 2004) is already more than the estimated safe yield (46 BCM). Of the 4.3 BCM/year in 1993 (6.2 in 2004) used for domestic purposes, 61% is supplied from surface water and 39% from groundwater. As of 2014, Iran is using 70% of its total renewable freshwater, far above the upper limit of 40% recommended according to international norms. A large part of the water used in agriculture is evaporated instead of properly used because of inefficient consumption patterns. 16 BCM of water was used for power generation in 1999.

text: Internal renewable water resources are estimated at 128.5 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year (average for 1977-2001). Surface runoff represents a total of 97.3 BCM/year, of which 5.4 BCM/year comes from drainage of the aquifers and thus needs to be subtracted from the total.

text: Groundwater recharge

text: is estimated at about 49.3 BCM/year, of which 12.7 BCM/year is obtained from infiltration in the river bed and also needs to be subtracted. Iran receives 6.7 BCM/year of surface water from Pakistan and some water from Afghanistan through the

text: Helmand River

text: . The flow of the

text: Arax river

text: , at the border with

text: Azerbaijan

text: , is estimated at 4.6 BCM/year. The surface runoff to the sea and to other countries is estimated at 55.9 BCM/year. Per capita water availability in the pre-Islamic Revolution era was about 4,500 cubic meters. But, in 2009 this figure was less than 2,000 cubic meters. The total water withdrawal was estimated at about 70 BCM in 1993, rising to 93 BCM in 2004, of which 92% was used for agricultural purposes, 6% for domestic use and 2% for industrial use. Although this is equal to 51% of the actual available renewable water resources, annual abstraction from aquifers (57 BCM in 1993, 53 BCM in 2004) is already more than the estimated safe yield (46 BCM). Of the 4.3 BCM/year in 1993 (6.2 in 2004) used for domestic purposes, 61% is supplied from surface water and 39% from groundwater. As of 2014, Iran is using 70% of its total renewable freshwater, far above the upper limit of 40% recommended according to international norms. A large part of the

text: water used in agriculture

text: is

text: evaporated

text: instead of properly used because of

text: inefficient consumption patterns

text: . 16 BCM of water was used for power generation in 1999.

text: The natural resource base for renewables is extraordinary by European, and even global standards. In addition to an existing installed capacity of 1.3 Gigawatts (GW) of hydro-electric schemes, Scotland has an estimated potential of 36.5 GW of wind and 7.5 GW of tidal power, 25% of the estimated total capacity for the European Union and up to 14 GW of wave power potential, 10% of EU capacity. The renewable electricity generating capacity may be 60 GW or more, considerably greater than the existing capacity from all Scottish fuel sources of 10.3 GW. Scotland exceeded its renewable energy target, set in 2007, for 31% of total power generation coming from renewables by 2011, and the 2020 target for the renewable share of total electricity generation has been raised from 50% to 80%.

text: The natural resource base for

text: renewables

text: is extraordinary by

text: European

text: , and even global standards. In addition to an existing installed capacity of 1.3 Gigawatts (GW) of

text: hydro-electric

text: schemes, Scotland has an estimated potential of 36.5 GW of

text: wind

text: and 7.5 GW of

text: tidal power

text: , 25% of the estimated total capacity for the

text: European Union

text: and up to 14 GW of

text: wave power

text: potential, 10% of EU capacity. The renewable electricity generating capacity may be 60 GW or more, considerably greater than the existing capacity from all Scottish fuel sources of 10.3 GW. Scotland exceeded its renewable energy target, set in 2007, for 31% of total power generation coming from renewables by 2011, and the 2020 target for the renewable share of total electricity generation has been raised from 50% to 80%.

text: EPA estimates the Clean Power Plan will reduce the pollutants that contribute to smog and soot by 25 percent, and the reduction will lead to net climate and health benefits of an estimated $25 billion to $45 billion per year in 2030.  That includes the avoidance of 140,000 to 150,000 asthma attacks among children and 2,700 to 6,600 premature deaths.  EPA projects that the plan will save the average American family $85 per year in energy bills in 2030, and it will save enough energy to power 30 million homes and save consumers $155 billion from 2020-2030. The plan would create 30 percent more renewable energy generation in 2030 and help to lower the costs of renewable energy.   It  also would create hundreds of thousands of jobs, according to the NRDC.

text: Historically–and until recent times–energy in Australia was sourced largely from coal and natural gas, however due to the increasing effects of global warming and human-induced climate change on the global environment, there has been a greater shift towards renewable energy such as solar power and wind power both in Australia and abroad. This in turn has led to a decrease in the demand of coal worldwide.

text: Historically–and until recent times–energy in Australia was sourced largely from coal and natural gas, however due to the increasing

text: effects of global warming

text: and human-induced

text: climate change

text: on the global environment, there has been a greater shift towards

text: renewable energy

text: such as

text: solar power

text: and

text: wind power

text: both in Australia and abroad. This in turn has led to a decrease in the demand of coal worldwide.

text: Most anarchist or autonomist squats in Greece maintain a blog or website to post their news, and they often also have an internet forum and e-mail address. Community-oriented squats often organize music gigs (mostly Punk and hip hop ) or movie screenings, usually announced on Athens Indymedia or Kinimatorama.net in addition to the squat's blog. A few squats experiment with DIY renewable energy generation, such as wind turbines, but most of them are depended on the main grid or have no power (there have been attempts by the power and water companies to cut their access to these resources). Sometimes anarchist or autonomist academics or writers of international fame are invited to give talks at squats, and very often free food is served to the community. Usually every squat's blog also lists links to the blogs of most other squats.

text: Most anarchist or

text: autonomist

text: squats in Greece maintain a

text: blog

text: or website to post their news, and they often also have an

text: internet forum

text: and e-mail address. Community-oriented squats often organize music gigs (mostly

text: Punk

text: and

text: hip hop

text: ) or movie screenings, usually announced on

text: Athens Indymedia

text: or Kinimatorama.net in addition to the squat's blog. A few squats experiment with

text: DIY

text: renewable energy generation, such as

text: wind turbine

text: s, but most of them are depended on the main grid or have no power (there have been attempts by the power and water companies to cut their access to these resources). Sometimes anarchist or autonomist academics or writers of international fame are invited to give talks at squats, and very often free food is served to the community. Usually every squat's blog also lists links to the blogs of most other squats.

text: The National Promotion Direction (DNPROM) within the Energy Secretariat (SENER) is responsible for the design of programs and actions conducive to the development of renewable energies (through the Renewable Energy Coordination) and energy efficiency (through the Energy Efficiency Coordination) initiatives. Complementarily, the Secretariat for the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) is responsible for environmental policy and the preservation of renewable and non-renewable resources.

text: When the source of the recently living material has little importance to the product produced, such as in the production of biofuels, biotic material is simply called biomass. Many fuel sources may have biological sources, and may be divided roughly into fossil fuels, and biofuel.

text: When the source of the recently living material has little importance to the product produced, such as in the production of

text: biofuel

text: s, biotic material is simply called

text: biomass

text: . Many fuel sources may have biological sources, and may be divided roughly into

text: fossil fuels

text: , and

text: biofuel

text: All types of energy generation consume water either to process the raw materials used in the facility, constructing and maintaining the plant, or to just generate the electricity itself. Renewable power sources such as photovoltaic solar and wind power, which require little water to produce energy, require water in processing the raw materials to build. Water can either be used or consumed, and can be categorised as fresh, ground, surface, blue, grey or green among others. Water is considered used if it does not reduce the supply of water to downstream users, i.e. water that is taken and returned to the same source (instream use), such as in thermoelectric plants that use water for cooling and are by far the largest users of water. While used water is returned to the system for downstream uses, it has usually been degraded in some way, mainly due to thermal or chemical pollution, and the natural flow has been altered which does not factor into an assessment if only the quantity of water is considered. Water is consumed when it is removed completely from the system, such as by evaporation or consumption by crops or humans. When assessing water use all these factors must be considered as well as spatiotemporal considerations making precise determination of water use very difficult.

text: All types of energy generation consume water either to process the raw materials used in the facility, constructing and maintaining the plant, or to just generate the electricity itself. Renewable power sources such as

text: photovoltaic solar

text: and

text: wind power

text: , which require little water to produce energy, require water in processing the raw materials to build. Water can either be used or consumed, and can be categorised as fresh, ground, surface, blue, grey or green among others. Water is considered used if it does not reduce the supply of water to downstream users, i.e. water that is taken and returned to the same source (instream use), such as in thermoelectric plants that use water for cooling and are by far the largest users of water. While used water is returned to the system for downstream uses, it has usually been degraded in some way, mainly due to thermal or chemical pollution, and the natural flow has been altered which does not factor into an assessment if only the quantity of water is considered. Water is consumed when it is removed completely from the system, such as by evaporation or consumption by crops or humans. When assessing water use all these factors must be considered as well as spatiotemporal considerations making precise determination of water use very difficult.

text: Afghanistan is a landlocked country located in Asia that holds a spot as one of the countries with a smaller ecological footprint. As shown in Figure One, the biocapacity  of the country and their ecological footprint  have a tendency to be relatively close to one another  (Global Footprint Network). That being said their renewable energy is very important. Some of the most influential sources have proven to be hydropower . It has been contended at different levels that hydropower may be an easier source of renewable energy for Afghanistan than other nations due to their geographical location (Ahmad & Wasiq). Their mountainous environment facilitates hydro dams and other facets of hydro energy (Yasah et al.). The nation however, is not entirely independent on their sources of energy; they import an annual sum from neighboring countries like Tajikistan (Mainali & Silveira). Another form of renewable energy that Afghanistan has been doing is the implementation of Biogas  (Amjid et al.). With the start of Biogas, communities have begun to feel the benefits beyond that of the environment through capacity building as well (Amjid et al.).

text: Construction of Gulpur Hydropower Plant commenced in January 2014 and the project is expected to be completed in August 2018. The total cost of the project is about PKR 16 billion. Gulpur Hydropower Project is part of the least-cost energy generation plan of the Government of Pakistan. It is being executed by Wapda on priority basis to harness indigenous hydropower resources to improve the ratio of hydel electricity in the national grid and help provide relief to the consumers.

text: Construction of Gulpur Hydropower Plant commenced in January 2014 and the project is expected to be completed in August 2018. The total cost of the project is about PKR 16 billion. Gulpur Hydropower Project is part of the least-cost energy generation plan of the

text: Government of Pakistan

text: . It is being executed by Wapda on priority basis to harness indigenous hydropower resources to improve the ratio of hydel electricity in the national grid and help provide relief to the consumers.

text: In March 2009, he testified before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources to discuss the limits inherent in renewable energy, saying "no matter how you do the calculations, renewable energy by itself, can not, will not, be able to replace hydrocarbons over the next two to three decades, and that’s a conservative estimate".

text: In March 2009, he testified before the

text: Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

text: to discuss the limits inherent in renewable energy, saying "no matter how you do the calculations, renewable energy by itself, can not, will not, be able to replace hydrocarbons over the next two to three decades, and that’s a conservative estimate".

text: Concerning medium-size and small dams, private developers receive tax breaks. Specifically, private producers are benefiting from fiscal incentives, tax exemptions, and the recognition of 10 percent of the short-term marginal cost per kWh as a premium. Fiscal incentives for small and medium-size hydropower have created a bias toward this type of development and against other renewable options, such as the use of photovoltaic, wind, and geothermal systems.

text: In 2011, Auerbach testified in front of the U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, the U.S. House Energy and Commerce Sub-Committee on Energy and Power, and the U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means,  proposing a market-based approach for the federal government to encourage large-scale deployment of clean energy in the U.S. Auerbach has supported the development and implementation of reverse auctions as an innovative approach to support the continued growth of the renewable energy sector that has met success in other industries and recently in the renewable energy industry in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Peru, Honduras, Uruguay, China, Morocco, and Egypt.

text: The National Energy Strategy includes ambitious targets to increase the contribution of renewable energy sources to the national energy supply. The share of renewable energy in the total energy mix is anticipated to reach 7% by 2015 and 10% by 2020. Plans are in place for up to 2,000 MW in solar and wind energy projects by the end of the decade, with 64 international firms expressing interest in various projects across the country. The government is looking to generate 30–50 MW of biomass by 2020. The passage of the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Law, which aims to streamline investment procedures and paves the way for citizens to sell electricity back to the national grid, would go a long way into breathing life into the alternative energy sector. By November 2014 Jordan had 10 MW of installed capacity from renewable energy, and had over 15 renewable energy power plants in progress to be completed by the end of 2015, raising the installed capacity to 500 MW, representing 14% of the overall installed capacity.

text: The National Energy Strategy includes ambitious targets to increase the contribution of renewable energy sources to the national energy supply. The share of renewable energy in the total energy mix is anticipated to reach 7% by 2015 and 10% by 2020. Plans are in place for up to 2,000 MW in

text: solar

text: and

text: wind energy

text: projects by the end of the decade, with 64 international firms expressing interest in various projects across the country. The government is looking to generate 30–50 MW of biomass by 2020. The passage of the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Law, which aims to streamline investment procedures and paves the way for citizens to sell electricity back to the national grid, would go a long way into breathing life into the alternative energy sector. By November 2014 Jordan had 10 MW of installed capacity from renewable energy, and had over 15 renewable energy power plants in progress to be completed by the end of 2015, raising the installed capacity to 500 MW, representing 14% of the overall installed capacity.

text: A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO/km. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a  petrol car. The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO/km, which is equivalent to a  petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with similar low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.

text: A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO/km. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a  petrol car. The country ranking was led by

text: Paraguay

text: hydropower

text: , and

text: Iceland

text: renewable power

text: , mainly hydro and

text: geothermal power

text: . Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO/km, which is equivalent to a  petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with similar low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly

text: nuclear power

text: By far the largest of the many Icelandic hydroelectric power stations is Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant (690 MW) in the area north of Vatnajökull. Other stations include Búrfell (270 MW), Hrauneyjarfoss (210 MW), Sigalda (150 MW), Blanda (150 MW), and more. Iceland has explored the feasibility of exporting hydroelectric energy via submarine cable to mainland Europe and also actively seeks to expand its power-intensive industries, including aluminium and ferro-silicon smelting plants.

text: By far the largest of the many

text: Icelandic hydroelectric power stations

text: is

text: Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant

text: (690 MW) in the area north of

text: Vatnajökull

text: . Other stations include Búrfell (270 MW), Hrauneyjarfoss (210 MW), Sigalda (150 MW), Blanda (150 MW), and more. Iceland has explored the feasibility of exporting hydroelectric energy via submarine cable to mainland Europe and also actively seeks to expand its power-intensive industries, including aluminium and ferro-silicon smelting plants.

text: Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to humans' global energy consumption. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.

text: Based on

text: 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to humans'

text: global energy consumption

text: . This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.

text: This broad degree area covers many areas but is mainly mechanically and electrically biased. It seeks to explore cleaner, more efficient ways of using fossil fuels, while investigating and developing systems using renewable and sustainable resources, such as solar, wind and wave energy.

text: This broad degree area covers many areas but is mainly mechanically and electrically biased. It seeks to explore cleaner, more efficient ways of using

text: fossil fuels

text: , while investigating and developing systems using renewable and sustainable resources, such as

text: solar

text: wind

text: and

text: wave

text: energy.

text: Carbon Footprints can be reduced through the development of alternative projects, such as solar and wind energy, which are environment friendly, renewable resources, or reforestation, the restocking of existing forests or woodlands that have previously been depleted. These examples are known as Carbon Offsetting, the counteracting of carbon dioxide emissions with an equivalent reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.	The main influences on carbon footprints include population, economic output, and energy and carbon intensity of the economy. These factors are the main targets of individuals and businesses in order to decrease carbon footprints. Production creates a large carbon footprint, scholars suggest that decreasing the amount of energy needed for production would be one of the most effective ways to decrease a carbon footprint. This is due to the fact that Electricity is responsible for roughly 37% of Carbon Dioxide emissions. Coal production has been refined to greatly reduce carbon emissions, since the 1980’s, the amount of energy used to produce a ton of steel has decreased by 50%.

text: How biomass is measured depends on why it is being measured. Sometimes, the biomass is regarded as the natural mass of organisms in situ, just as they are. For example, in a salmon fishery, the salmon biomass might be regarded as the total wet weight the salmon would have if they were taken out of the water. In other contexts, biomass can be measured in terms of the dried organic mass, so perhaps only 30% of the actual weight might count, the rest being water. For other purposes, only biological tissues count, and teeth, bones and shells are excluded. In some applications, biomass is measured as the mass of organically bound carbon (C) that is present.

text: How biomass is measured depends on why it is being measured. Sometimes, the biomass is regarded as the natural mass of organisms in situ, just as they are. For example, in a salmon

text: fishery

text: , the salmon biomass might be regarded as the total wet weight the salmon would have if they were taken out of the water. In other contexts, biomass can be measured in terms of the dried organic mass, so perhaps only 30% of the actual weight might count, the rest being water. For other purposes, only biological tissues count, and teeth, bones and shells are excluded. In some applications, biomass is measured as the mass of

text: organically bound carbon

text: (C) that is present.

text: On August 8th 2013, Greece, Israel and Cyprus signed the tripartite energy memorandum of understanding after the completion of one year negotiation in Nicosia. Negotiations were held between the Energy and Water Resources Minister of Israel Silvan Shalom, the Cypriot minister of agriculture, natural resources and environment Nicos Kouyialis and the Cypriot minister of environment, energy and climate change George Lakkotrypis. The  2,000-mega-watt EuroAsia Interconnector is planned to lift Cyprus and Israel out of energy isolation through cheaper electricity as supported by George Lakkotrypis.Silvan Shalom announced that the agreement is "historic" and that it demonstrated the powerful relations between the three countries adding that electricity will be exported to the European energy market via cable. The Greek Prime Minister at the time Antonis Samaras proclaimed on 8 August that Israel has a special role to play in supplying Europe with energy resources and supported that it can become a key energy hub.

text: On August 8th 2013, Greece, Israel and Cyprus signed the tripartite energy memorandum of understanding after the completion of one year negotiation in

text: Nicosia

text: . Negotiations were held between the Energy and Water Resources Minister of Israel

text: Silvan Shalom

text: , the Cypriot minister of agriculture, natural resources and environment Nicos Kouyialis and the Cypriot minister of environment, energy and climate change George Lakkotrypis. The  2,000-mega-watt EuroAsia Interconnector is planned to lift Cyprus and Israel out of energy isolation through cheaper electricity as supported by George Lakkotrypis.Silvan Shalom announced that the agreement is "historic" and that it demonstrated the powerful relations between the three countries adding that electricity will be exported to the European energy market via cable. The Greek Prime Minister at the time Antonis Samaras proclaimed on 8 August that Israel has a special role to play in supplying Europe with energy resources and supported that it can become a key energy hub.

text: The hydroelectric industry has been and remains affected by the regulations and interests of various agencies and organizations.  Since 1977 the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has been the main regulatory body for the industry.  Currently FERC is responsible for licensing new project construction, as well as the re-licensing, and operations oversight of existing projects, including dam safety inspections and environmental monitoring.  Environmental concerns and implications are evaluated by both federal and state Natural Resource agencies, Indian tribes, and state water quality agencies.  Examples of such federal agencies include, but are not limited to, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Agriculture's Forest Service, the Department of Commerce’s National Marine Fisheries Service, and the Department of the Interior.  The National Hydropower Association is a hydropower trade organization which lobbies for policies which favor the industry.

text: The hydroelectric industry has been and remains affected by the regulations and interests of various agencies and organizations.  Since 1977 the

text: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

text: (FERC) has been the main regulatory body for the industry.  Currently FERC is responsible for licensing new project construction, as well as the re-licensing, and operations oversight of existing projects, including dam safety inspections and environmental monitoring.  Environmental concerns and implications are evaluated by both federal and state Natural Resource agencies,

text: Indian tribes

text: , and state

text: water quality

text: agencies.  Examples of such federal agencies include, but are not limited to, the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA), the

text: Department of Agriculture

text: 's Forest Service, the

text: Department of Commerce

text: ’s National Marine Fisheries Service, and the

entity_name: United States Department of the Interior

text: Department of the Interior

text: .  The

text: National Hydropower Association

text: is a hydropower trade organization which lobbies for policies which favor the industry.

text: Solar thermal collectors are classified by the United States Energy Information Administration as low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use. High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300 deg C / 20 bar pressure in industries, and for electric power production. Two categories include Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST) for fulfilling heat requirements in industries, and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) when the heat collected is used for power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of application. The largest facilities are located in the American Mojave Desert of California and Nevada. These plants employ a variety of different technologies. The largest examples include, Ivanpah Solar Power Facility (377 MW), Solar Energy Generating Systems installation (354 MW), and Crescent Dunes (110 MW). Spain is the other major developer of solar thermal power plant. The largest examples include, Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), and Extresol Solar Power Station (100 MW).

text: Solar thermal collector

text: s are classified by the United States

text: Energy Information Administration

text: as low-, medium-, or high-temperature collectors. Low-temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat

text: swimming pool

text: s. Medium-temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for heating water or air for residential and commercial use. High-temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using

text: mirror

text: s or

text: lenses

text: and are generally used for fulfilling heat requirements up to 300 deg C / 20 bar pressure in industries, and for electric power production. Two categories include Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST) for fulfilling heat requirements in industries, and Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) when the heat collected is used for power generation. CST and CSP are not replaceable in terms of application. The largest facilities are located in the American

text: Mojave Desert

text: of California and Nevada. These plants employ a variety of different technologies. The largest examples include,

text: Ivanpah Solar Power Facility

text: (377 MW),

text: Solar Energy Generating Systems

text: installation (354 MW), and

text: Crescent Dunes

text: (110 MW). Spain is the other major developer of solar thermal power plant. The largest examples include,

text: Solnova Solar Power Station

text: (150 MW), the

text: Andasol solar power station

text: (150 MW), and

text: Extresol Solar Power Station

text: (100 MW).

text: The Cassino plant is characterised by the careful exploitation of natural resources, which has made it possible to achieve considerable results. The chosen technologies have the goal of eliminating the need to draw water from local sources for the industrial process. CO emissions of the production cycle as a whole are entirely compensated and no industrial waste is sent to the landfill. The same water is reused several times in the Body Shop and on the Assembly Line. In the Paint Shop it was eliminated and replaced by dry filters in the paint booths. Energy use is also low because state-of-the-art technologies are used, like LED lights or energy heat recovery. Furthermore, the plant uses only electricity from guaranteed renewable sources or generated by solar panels.

text: The Cassino plant is characterised by the careful exploitation of natural resources, which has made it possible to achieve considerable results. The chosen technologies have the goal of eliminating the need to draw water from local sources for the industrial process. CO emissions of the production cycle as a whole are entirely compensated and no industrial waste is sent to the landfill. The same water is reused several times in the Body Shop and on the Assembly Line. In the Paint Shop it was eliminated and replaced by dry filters in the paint booths. Energy use is also low because state-of-the-art technologies are used, like LED lights or energy heat recovery. Furthermore, the plant uses only electricity from guaranteed

text: renewable sources

text: or generated by solar panels.

text: The exact question posed by the survey was as follows:More than half of power plant-generated electricity comes from coal. Experts say that power plants are responsible for about 40 percent of U.S. carbon dioxide pollution linked to global warming. There are plans to build more than 150 new coal-fired power plants over the next several years. Would you support a five-year moratorium on new coal-fired power plants in the United States if there was stepped-up investment in clean, safe and renewable energy—such as wind and solar—and improved home energy-efficiency standards? Would you say definitely yes, probably yes, probably no, definitely no, or don't know.

text: Hydropower is the most used form of renewable energy in Russia, and there is large potential in Russia for more use of hydropower. Russia has 102 hydropower plants with capacities of over 100 MW, making it fifth in the world for hydropower production. It is also second in the world for hydro potential, yet only 20% of this potential is developed. Russia is home to 9% of the world's hydro resources, mostly in Siberia and the country's far east. At the end of 2005, the generating capacity from hydroelectric sources in Russia was 45,700 MW, and an additional 5,648 MW was under construction. The World Energy Council believes that Russia has much potential for using its hydro resources, with a theoretical potential of about 2,295 TWh/yr, with 852 TWh being economically feasible.

text: Hydropower is the most used form of renewable energy in Russia, and there is large potential in Russia for more use of hydropower. Russia has 102 hydropower plants with capacities of over 100 MW, making it fifth in the world for hydropower production. It is also second in the world for hydro potential, yet only 20% of this potential is developed. Russia is home to 9% of the world's hydro resources, mostly in Siberia and the country's far east. At the end of 2005, the generating capacity from

text: hydroelectric

text: sources in Russia was 45,700 MW, and an additional 5,648 MW was under construction. The

text: World Energy Council

text: believes that Russia has much potential for using its hydro resources, with a theoretical potential of about 2,295 TWh/yr, with 852 TWh being economically feasible.

text: Renewable energy in Tuvalu is a growing sector of the country's energy supply. Tuvalu has committed to becoming the first country to get 100% of its electricity from renewable energy sources by 2020. This is considered possible because of the small size of the population of Tuvalu and its abundant solar energy resources due to its tropical location. It is somewhat complicated because Tuvalu consists of nine inhabited islands. The Tuvalu National Energy Policy (TNEP) was formulated in 2009, and the Energy Strategic Action Plan defines and directs current and future energy developments so that Tuvalu can achieve the ambitious target of 100% renewable energy for power generation by 2020. The program is expected to cost 20 million US dollars and is supported by the e8, a group of 10 electric companies from G8 countries. The Government of Tuvalu worked with the e8 group to develop the Tuvalu Solar Power Project, which is a 40 kW grid-connected solar system that is intended to provide about 5% of Funafuti’s peak demand, and 3% of the Tuvalu Electricity Corporation's annual household consumption.

text: Renewable energy in Tuvalu is a growing sector of the country's energy supply.

text: Tuvalu

text: has committed to becoming the first country to get 100% of its

text: electricity

text: from

text: renewable energy

text: sources by 2020. This is considered possible because of the small size of the population of Tuvalu and its abundant solar energy resources due to its tropical location. It is somewhat complicated because Tuvalu consists of nine inhabited islands. The Tuvalu National Energy Policy (TNEP) was formulated in 2009, and the Energy Strategic Action Plan defines and directs current and future energy developments so that Tuvalu can achieve the ambitious target of

text: 100% renewable energy

text: for power generation by 2020. The program is expected to cost 20 million US dollars and is supported by the e8, a group of 10 electric companies from

text: countries. The Government of Tuvalu worked with the e8 group to develop the Tuvalu Solar Power Project, which is a 40 kW grid-connected solar system that is intended to provide about 5% of

text: Funafuti

text: ’s peak demand, and 3% of the Tuvalu Electricity Corporation's annual household consumption.

text: If nuclear power prices rise too quickly, or too high, power companies may look for substitutes in fossil energy (coal, oil, and gas) and/or renewable energy, such as hydro, bio-energy, solar thermal electricity, geothermal, wind, tidal energy. Both fossil energy and some renewable electricity sources (e.g. hydro, bioenergy, solar thermal electricity and geothermal) can be used as base-load.

text: If nuclear power prices rise too quickly, or too high, power companies may look for substitutes in fossil energy (coal, oil, and gas) and/or

text: renewable energy

text: , such as hydro, bio-energy, solar thermal electricity, geothermal, wind, tidal energy. Both fossil energy and some renewable electricity sources (e.g. hydro, bioenergy, solar thermal electricity and geothermal) can be used as base-load.

text: The Distribution Network Operator for electricity is EDF Energy. The largest straw-burning power station in the world is at nearby Sutton. This renewable energy resource power station rated at 36.85 MW from burning biomass, nearly 25 percent of the total renewable energy reported for Cambridgeshire in 2009. The world's largest poultry litter power plant, 38.5 MW, at Thetford, refers to the other Thetford in Norfolk.

text: The

text: Distribution Network Operator

text: for

text: electricity

text: is

text: EDF Energy

text: . The largest straw-burning

text: power station

text: in the world is at nearby Sutton. This

text: renewable energy

text: resource power station rated at 36.85 MW from burning

text: biomass

text: , nearly 25 percent of the total renewable energy reported for Cambridgeshire in 2009. The world's largest poultry litter power plant, 38.5 MW, at Thetford, refers to the other Thetford in Norfolk.

text: The U.S. Department of Energy and ARPA-E awarded $151 million in American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds on October 26, 2009 for 37 energy research projects. It supported renewable energy technologies for solar cells, wind turbines, geothermal drilling, biofuels, and biomass energy crops. The grants also supported energy efficiency technologies, including power electronics and engine-generators for advanced vehicles, devices for waste heat recovery, smart glass and control systems for smart buildings, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), reverse-osmosis membranes for water desalination, catalysts to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, improved fuel cell membranes, and more energy-dense magnetic materials for electronic components. Six grants went to energy storage technologies, including an ultracapacitor, improved lithium-ion batteries, metal-air batteries that use ionic liquids, liquid sodium batteries, and liquid metal batteries.Other awards went to projects that conducted research and development on a bioreactor with potential to produce gasoline directly from sunlight and carbon dioxide, and crystal growth technology to lower the cost of light emitting diodes.

text: The U.S. Department of Energy and ARPA-E awarded $151 million in

text: American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

text: funds on October 26, 2009 for 37 energy research projects. It supported

text: renewable energy

text: technologies for

text: solar cell

text: s,

text: wind turbine

text: s,

text: geothermal drilling

text: biofuel

text: s, and

text: biomass energy crop

text: s. The grants also supported

text: energy efficiency

text: technologies, including

text: power electronics

text: and

text: engine-generator

text: s for

text: advanced vehicle

text: s, devices for

text: waste heat recovery

text: smart glass

text: and control systems for

text: smart building

text: s,

text: light-emitting diode

text: s (LEDs),

text: reverse-osmosis membrane

text: s for

text: water desalination

text: catalyst

text: s to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, improved fuel cell membranes, and more energy-dense

text: magnetic material

text: s for electronic components. Six grants went to

text: energy storage

text: technologies, including an

text: ultracapacitor

text: , improved

text: lithium-ion batteries

text: metal-air batteries

text: that use

text: ionic liquid

text: s,

text: liquid sodium batteries

text: , and

text: liquid metal batteries

text: .Other awards went to projects that conducted research and development on a

text: bioreactor

text: with potential to produce gasoline directly from sunlight and carbon dioxide, and

text: crystal growth

text: technology to lower the cost of light emitting diodes.

text: It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleth or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of water power potential as a renewable energy source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other renewable energy resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.

text: It is difficult to relate

text: wetlands

text: maps to

text: rainfall

text: amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with

text: isopleth

text: or

text: contour line

text: s that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of

text: water power

text: potential as a

text: renewable energy

text: source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other

text: renewable energy

text: resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.

text: After an almost two decade long hiatus, deployment of CSP resumed in 2007, with significant growth only in the most recent years. However, the design for several new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics. Most operational CSP stations are located in Spain and the United States, while large solar farms using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions. As of January 2015, the largest solar power plants in the world are:

text: After an almost two decade long hiatus,

text: deployment of CSP

text: resumed in 2007, with significant growth only in the most recent years. However, the design for several new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics. Most

text: operational CSP stations

text: are located in

text: Spain

text: and the United States, while

text: large solar farms

text: using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions. As of January 2015, the largest solar power plants in the world are:

text: Through the Renewables Obligation, British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee. The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC) for each MW·h of electricity they have purchased. Within the United Kingdom, wind power is the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass.

text: Through the

text: Renewables Obligation

text: , British

text: electricity suppliers

text: Renewables Obligation Certificate

text: (ROC) for each MW·h of electricity they have purchased. Within the United Kingdom, wind power is the second largest source of renewable energy after

text: biomass

text: Renewable energy encompasses wind, biomass (such as landfill gas and sewage gas), hydropower, solar power (thermal and photovoltaic), geothermal, and ocean power. These renewable sources serve as alternatives to conventional power generation such as coal power, oil power, and natural gas power.Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential, so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel. Energy conservation and improvements in energy efficiency thus play a major role. An example of an effective energy conservation measure is improved insulation for buildings; an example of improved energy efficiency is cogeneration of heat and power. Smart electric meters can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively.

text: Renewable energy encompasses

text: wind

text: biomass

text: (such as landfill gas and sewage gas),

text: hydropower

text: solar power

text: (thermal and photovoltaic),

text: geothermal

text: , and

text: ocean power

text: . These renewable sources serve as alternatives to conventional power generation such as

text: coal power

text: oil power

text: , and

text: natural gas power

text: .Piecemeal measures often have only limited potential, so a timely implementation for the energy transition requires multiple approaches in parallel.

text: Energy conservation

text: and improvements in

text: energy efficiency

text: thus play a major role. An example of an effective energy conservation measure is improved

text: insulation

text: for buildings; an example of improved energy efficiency is

text: cogeneration

text: of heat and power.

text: Smart electric meters

text: can schedule energy consumption for times when electricity is available inexpensively.

text: Aliyu, Ramli  and Saleh, (2013) claim that these blackouts cripple the industrial sector. For example, outages in this area of the world also have implications for the mining industry. When power fails, workers may be trapped in the mines, so as soon as there is a risk of failure the operations are such down, which leads to economic difficulties (Kaseke & Hosking, 2013). Lack of electricity also causes problems for agriculture. Most irrigation lines are run by electricity, so when the power is cut out then the crop yield decreases, (Kaseke & Hosking, 2013). Nigeria’s energy grid is arguably in crisis due to lack of development. The key to making a more reliable energy sector is to find and use a renewable energy resources, rather than simply relying on the country’s non-renewable resources.The crisis of energy is a complex problem stemming from a variety of issues. This paper will cover role of the government in the electricity problem, the environmental impacts of the current system, the effect on the people who live in Nigeria and the potential solutions to the crisis.

text: Thermal power plants play a marginal role in Hydro-Québec's system, which is dominated by hydropower. In 2009, non-nuclear thermal generation accounted for 4.4% of nameplate capacity but only generated 446 GWh, 0.3% of total energy production. More expensive to run and more polluting than hydroelectric power plants, thermal plants are used to generate power during peak conditions, but most of the company's thermal plants serve remote communities not connected to the main power grid in Nunavik, on the Lower North Shore, in Haute-Mauricie and in the Magdalen Islands.

text: Thermal power plants play a marginal role in Hydro-Québec's system, which is dominated by

text: hydropower

text: . In 2009, non-nuclear thermal generation accounted for 4.4% of

text: nameplate capacity

text: but only generated 446 GWh, 0.3% of total energy production. More expensive to run and more polluting than hydroelectric power plants, thermal plants are used to generate power during peak conditions, but most of the company's thermal plants serve remote communities not connected to the main power grid in

text: Nunavik

text: , on the

text: Lower North Shore

text: , in

text: Haute-Mauricie

text: and in the

text: Magdalen Islands

text: Where it can be had, geothermal energy is used for heating and electricity.

text: Where it can be had,

text: geothermal

text: energy is used for heating and electricity.

text: Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships. In a wind turbine, the wind's kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy to drive a generator, which in turn generates electricity.

text: Wind power

text: is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using

text: wind turbines

text: to make electricity,

text: windmills

text: for mechanical power,

text: windpump

text: s for water pumping or drainage, or

text: sail

text: s to propel ships. In a

text: wind turbine

text: , the wind's

text: kinetic energy

text: is converted into

text: mechanical energy

text: to drive a

text: generator

text: , which in turn generates

text: electricity

text: The share of electricity produced from renewable energy in Germany has increased from 6.3 percent of the national total in 2000 to over 25 percent in the first half of 2012. Germany renewable power market grew from 0.8 million residential customers in 2006 to 4.9 million in 2012, or 12.5% of all private households in the country. In 2011, they purchased 15 terawatt-hours (TWh) of green power, and commercial customers bought a further 10.3 TWh. Renewable energy share of gross electricity consumption rose from 10% in 2005 to 20% in 2011. Main renewable electricity sources were in first half of 2012: Wind energy 36.6%, biomass 22.5%, hydropower 14.7%, photovoltaics (solar) 21.2% and biowaste 3.6%. Wood-fire plants fuelled by wood pellets are included in biomass. Half of Germany's timber production is consumed by wood fired plants. Wood fired plants are counted as renewable energy by Germany and the European Union counting them as "carbon neutral".

text: The share of electricity produced from renewable energy in Germany has increased from 6.3 percent of the national total in 2000 to over 25 percent in the first half of 2012. Germany renewable power market grew from 0.8 million residential customers in 2006 to 4.9 million in 2012, or 12.5% of all private households in the country. In 2011, they purchased 15 terawatt-hours (TWh) of green power, and commercial customers bought a further 10.3 TWh. Renewable energy share of gross electricity consumption rose from 10% in 2005 to 20% in 2011. Main renewable electricity sources were in first half of 2012:

text: Wind energy

text: 36.6%, biomass 22.5%, hydropower 14.7%,

text: photovoltaics (solar)

text: 21.2% and biowaste 3.6%. Wood-fire plants fuelled by wood pellets are included in biomass. Half of Germany's timber production is consumed by wood fired plants. Wood fired plants are counted as renewable energy by Germany and the European Union counting them as "carbon neutral".

text: Energy is a key theme for future world development. Worldwide energy demand is mounting rapidly, particularly in the developing and newly industrialising countries, which seek to catch up with the level of economic development attained by industrialised countries. The great challenge now is to meet this energy demand in a sustainable manner. However, sustainable development will be inconceivable without a deep-seated reconfiguration of worldwide energy systems. One goal in this context must be to protect natural life-support systems and, in particular, to prevent dangerous anthropogenic perturbation of the climate system. If the present path continues and rising energy demand is met mainly from fossil sources, this would trigger intolerable global climate change with high consequential costs, and would thus also jeopardize economic development. A second necessary goal is to eradicate energy poverty in developing countries in order that these countries can make use of development opportunities. It is essential that 2.4 billion people gain access to modern forms of energy so that they can shake off the yoke of energy poverty. To attain these two goals, energy systems need to be turned towards sustainability. To that end, efficiency must be improved at all levels of the energy system, and fossil energy sources must be substituted by renewable ones. The potential of renewable energies, above all solar energy, is almost unlimited and can be harnessed sustainably. Energy system transformation towards sustainability is thus the first step into the solar age. However, without rapid and resolute international policy support, the expansion of renewable energy sources will not be able to develop the necessary dynamics in time. The International Conference for Renewable Energies (renewables 2004) held in Bonn 2004 is a milestone for this process.

text: Malta has no domestic resource of fossil fuels and no gas distribution network. Primary energy supply of Malta is exclusively based on oil. Gross consumption has increased by 53% in 1990-2004. In 2008 the renewable energy market was at an early stage  in Malta. Only solar energy and biofuels were used. The potential for solar and wind is substantial according to the EU.  Energy import dependency was 100% in 2004.

text: Malta has no domestic resource of fossil fuels and no gas distribution network. Primary energy supply of Malta is exclusively based on

text: oil

text: . Gross consumption has increased by 53% in 1990-2004. In 2008 the renewable energy market was at an early stage  in Malta. Only solar energy and biofuels were used. The potential for

text: solar

text: and

text: wind

text: is substantial according to the EU.  Energy import dependency was 100% in 2004.

text: Two CSP plants are being built by Abengoa in the Northern Cape. Khi Solar One is a Solar Tower plant of 50 MW capacity near Upington and Kaxu Solar One is a Parabolic Trough plant of 100 MW capacity near Pofadder with storage capability for 3 hours.

text: Two CSP plants are being built by Abengoa in the

text: Northern Cape

text: . Khi Solar One is a Solar Tower plant of 50 MW capacity near

text: Upington

text: and Kaxu Solar One is a Parabolic Trough plant of 100 MW capacity near

text: Pofadder

text: with storage capability for 3 hours.

text: Colombia has 28.1 MW installed capacity of renewable energy (excluding large hydro), consisting mainly of wind power. The country has significant small hydro, wind, and solar resources that remain largely unexploited. According to a study by the World Bank’s Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), exploitation of the country’s significant wind potential alone could cover more than the country’s current total energy needs.

text: Colombia has 28.1 MW installed capacity of renewable energy (excluding large hydro), consisting mainly of wind power. The country has significant small hydro, wind, and solar resources that remain largely unexploited. According to a study by the World Bank’s

text: As early as 1767 several sawmills and gristmills were operating along the banks of Mill Brook in Windsor, however, during periods of low water flow the mills stood idle. Like many early towns their location was often selected on the availability of such a resource. Water-powered mills to save human labor have been used since ancient times, but like all renewable energy resources, their power is not always available when needed.  Sawmills were important facilities which cut logs into boards for construction, as were gristmills, which ground grain into flour. In post-colonial Vermont, these mills were essential for building and food supply needs of the growing cities.

text: Centre for Renewable Energy Research (CRER). A need for a renewable energy is imperative now more than ever. In a country like Pakistan, where the energy crisis remains unabated, a renewable energy source would prove to be highly beneficial. Therefore, the CRER is geared towards creating energy from natural sources such as sun, wind, water, geothermal, and biomass resources.

text: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, concentrated solar power and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces. The International Energy Agency projected that solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060, while CO emissions would be reduced to very low levels." Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

text: Solar energy, radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: , has been harnessed by humans since

text: ancient times

text: solar heating

text: solar photovoltaics

text: concentrated solar power

text: and

text: solar architecture

text: , which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces. The

text: International Energy Agency

text: projected that solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060, while CO emissions would be reduced to very low levels." Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either

text: passive solar

text: or

text: active solar

text: depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of

text: photovoltaic system

text: s and

text: solar thermal collector

text: s to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable

text: thermal mass

text: or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

text: naturally circulate air

text: An energy ladder shows the improvement of energy use corresponding to an increase in the household income. Basically, as income increases, the energy types used by households would be cleaner and more efficient, but more expensive as moving from traditional biomasses to electricity. "Households at lower levels of income and development tend to be at the bottom of the energy ladder, using fuel that is cheap and locally available but not very clean nor efficient. According to the World Health Organization, over three billion people worldwide are at these lower rungs, depending on biomass fuels—crop waste, dung, wood, leaves, etc.—and coal to meet their energy needs. A disproportionate number of these individuals reside in Asia and Africa: 95% of the population in Afghanistan uses these fuels, 95% in Chad, 87% in Ghana, 82% in India, 80% in China, and so forth. As incomes rise, we would expect that households would substitute to higher quality fuel choices. However, this process has been quite slow. In fact, the World Bank reports that the use of biomass for all energy sources had remained constant at about 25% since 1975."

text: An

text: energy ladder

text: shows the improvement of energy use corresponding to an increase in the household income. Basically, as income increases, the energy types used by households would be cleaner and more efficient, but more expensive as moving from traditional biomasses to electricity. "Households at lower levels of income and development tend to be at the bottom of the energy ladder, using fuel that is cheap and locally available but not very clean nor efficient. According to the World Health Organization, over three billion people worldwide are at these lower rungs, depending on biomass fuels—crop waste, dung, wood, leaves, etc.—and coal to meet their energy needs. A disproportionate number of these individuals reside in Asia and Africa: 95% of the population in Afghanistan uses these fuels, 95% in Chad, 87% in Ghana, 82% in India, 80% in China, and so forth. As incomes rise, we would expect that households would substitute to higher quality fuel choices. However, this process has been quite slow. In fact, the World Bank reports that the use of biomass for all energy sources had remained constant at about 25% since 1975."

text: The United States of America (USA) is the world's second largest producer and consumer of electricity. It consumes about 20% of the world's supply of electricity. This section provides a summary of the consumption and generation of the USA Electric industry, based upon data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration/Electric Power Annual 2013 files. Data was obtained from the most recent DOE Energy Information Agency (EIA) files. Consumption is detailed from the residential, commercial, industrial, and other user communities. Generation is detailed for the major fuel sources of coal, natural gas, nuclear, petroleum, hydro and the other renewables of wind, wood, other biomass, geothermal and solar. Changes to the electrical energy fuel mix and other trends are identified. Progress in wind and solar contributions to the energy mix are addressed. Expected changes in the generation environment during the next 5 years are discussed.

text: The United States of America (USA) is the world's second largest producer and consumer of electricity. It consumes about 20% of the world's supply of electricity. This section provides a summary of the

text: consumption

text: and

text: generation

text: of the USA Electric industry, based upon data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration/Electric Power Annual 2013 files. Data was obtained from the most recent DOE Energy Information Agency (EIA) files. Consumption is detailed from the residential, commercial, industrial, and other user communities. Generation is detailed for the major fuel sources of

text: coal

text: natural gas

text: nuclear

text: petroleum

text: hydro

text: and the other

text: renewables

text: of

text: wind

text: wood

text: other biomass

text: geothermal

text: and

text: solar

text: . Changes to the electrical energy fuel mix and other trends are identified. Progress in

text: wind

text: and

text: solar

text: contributions to the

text: energy mix

text: are addressed. Expected changes in the generation environment during the next 5 years are discussed.

text: One of the widely disputed aspects of the proposed National Energy Policy is the how the plan suggests balancing needs for future sources of renewable energy with the immediate reliance on petroleum. In Chapter Six of the policy, titled "Nature’s Power: Increasing America’s Use of Renewable and Alternative Energy", domestic energy sources such as wind, geothermal, solar and bio-fuel are cited as necessary to stabilize and protect the United States' interests. Future energy sources such as hydrogen and fusion are also cited as long term projects. However, the Policy also states the necessity for plans to improve and expand the current pipeline systems within the US, implying that reliance on oil and natural gas will exist for years to come. The plan then goes on to detail American interests in foreign energy resources. In a section titled "Diversity of Supply", the policy explains why diversifying dependence on foreign oil is a key factor in securing short term stability. Canada, South America and the Caribbean, Africa, Russia and Asia were all detailed as having supplies of oil that could add to the supply of resources available to US consumption.

text: On 17 December 2007, Logue was appointed to '''Inter-Trade Ireland''', the North South Body established under the Belfast Agreement to promote economic development in Ireland. Integrating Ireland economically has been a theme of Logue's writing throughout his career, most recently in the Irish Times and in earlier publications as economic spokesman for the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). He was economist at the Dublin-based National Board for Science and Technology from 1981-84. Logue, after leaving the European Commission in 2005, became involved in Renewable Energy and is chairman of Priority Resources as well as a director of two companies, one in Solar Energy, the other in Wind Energy. In November 2011 he was elected to the main board of European Association of Energy (EAE).

text: On 17 December 2007, Logue was appointed to '''Inter-Trade Ireland''', the North South Body established under the

text: Belfast Agreement

text: to promote economic development in Ireland. Integrating Ireland economically has been a theme of Logue's writing throughout his career, most recently in the

text: Irish Times

text: and in earlier publications as economic spokesman for the

text: Social Democratic and Labour Party

text: (SDLP). He was economist at the Dublin-based National Board for Science and Technology from 1981-84. Logue, after leaving the European Commission in 2005, became involved in Renewable Energy and is chairman of Priority Resources as well as a director of two companies, one in Solar Energy, the other in Wind Energy. In November 2011 he was elected to the main board of European Association of Energy (EAE).

text: Sustainable energy is clean and can be used over a long period of time. Unlike fossil fuels that most countries are using, renewable energy only produces little or even no pollution. The most common types of renewable energy in US are hydroelectric, solar and wind energy. Solar energy is commonly used on public parking meters, street lights and the roof of buildings. Wind power has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. Most of California's fossil fuel infrastructures are sited in or near low-income communities, and have traditionally suffered the most from California's fossil fuel energy system.  These communities are historically left out during the decision-making process, and often end up with dirty power plants and other dirty energy projects that poison the air and harm the area. These toxicants are major contributors to health problems in the communities. As renewable energy becomes more common, fossil fuel infrastructures are replaced by renewables, providing  better social equity to these communities.Overall, and in the long run, sustainable development in the field of energy is also deemed to contribute to economic sustainability and national security of communities, thus being increasingly encouraged through investment policies.

text: Sustainable energy is clean and can be used over a long period of time. Unlike fossil fuels that most countries are using, renewable energy only produces little or even no pollution. The most common types of

text: renewable energy

text: in US are hydroelectric, solar and wind energy.

text: Solar energy

text: is commonly used on public parking meters, street lights and the roof of buildings.

text: Wind power

text: has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. Most of California's fossil fuel infrastructures are sited in or near low-income communities, and have traditionally suffered the most from California's fossil fuel energy system.  These communities are historically left out during the decision-making process, and often end up with dirty power plants and other dirty energy projects that poison the air and harm the area. These toxicants are major contributors to health problems in the communities. As renewable energy becomes more common, fossil fuel infrastructures are replaced by renewables, providing  better social equity to these communities.Overall, and in the long run, sustainable development in the field of energy is also deemed to contribute to economic sustainability and national security of communities, thus being increasingly encouraged through investment policies.

text: Renewable energies such as wind, solar, biomass and geothermal combined, supplied 1.3% of global final energy consumption in 2013.

text: Electricity distribution in the state as well in the Federal Territory of Labuan are operated and managed by the Sabah Electricity Sdn. Bhd. (SESB). Sabah electrics are mostly generated from diesel power plant, hydropower and combined cycle power plants. The only main hydroelectric plant is the Tenom Pangi Dam. The combined cycle power plant called Kimanis Power Plant was completed in 2014, supplying 300 MW, with 285 MW nominal capacity. The plant is a joint venture between Petronas and NRG Consortium that also includes facilities such as gas pipeline of Sabah–Sarawak Gas Pipeline and a terminal of Sabah Oil and Gas Terminal. There is another two combined cycle power plants with a capacity of 380 MW operated by Ranhill Holdings Berhad. In 2009, the electricity coverage covers 67% of the state population and by 2011 increase to 80%. The coverage reach 100% in 2012 after an allocation of RM962.5 million from the federal government were given to expand the coverage under the 2012 National Budget. The electrical grid is divided into two of West Coast and East Coast which has been integrated since 2007. The West Coast Grid supplies electricity to Kota Kinabalu, Papar, Beaufort, Keningau, Kota Belud, Kota Marudu, Kudat and Labuan with a capacity of 488.4 MW and maximum demand of 396.5 MW. While the East Coast Grid supplies electricity to the major towns of Sandakan, Kinabatangan, Lahad Datu, Kunak, Semporna and Tawau with a capacity of 333.02 MW and maximum demand of 203.3 MW. Since 2007, there is an attempt to establish a coal power plant in Lahad Datu which receiving opposition from local residents and non-governmental organisations for the pollution that would be caused by the plant. Thus Sabah has start to exploring alternative ways to generate electricity with the usage of renewable energy such as solar, mini hydro, biomass, geothermal and micro-algae and tidal technologies. The Japanese government has extended aid totalling RM172,190.93 for the solar electrification project in the island of Larapan in Sabah's east coast in 2010. In 2016, Malaysia's first geothermal plant was started to be developed in Tawau to boost electricity in the east coast after a  research by United States GeothermEx Inc. and Jacobs New Zealand indicated the existence of an active geothermal system centred around the flanks of Mount Maria on Apas Kiri. A South Korean company GS Caltex also sets to built Malaysia's first bio-butanol plant in the state.

text: Electricity distribution in the state as well in the

text: Federal Territory

text: of

text: Labuan

text: are operated and managed by the

text: Sabah Electricity

text: Sdn. Bhd.

text: (SESB). Sabah electrics are mostly generated from

text: diesel power plant

text: hydropower

text: and

text: combined cycle

text: power plants. The only main

text: hydroelectric plant

text: is the

text: Tenom Pangi Dam

text: . The combined cycle power plant called Kimanis Power Plant was completed in 2014, supplying 300

text: MW

text: , with 285 MW nominal capacity. The plant is a joint venture between Petronas and NRG Consortium that also includes facilities such as

text: gas pipeline

text: of

text: Sabah–Sarawak Gas Pipeline

text: and a terminal of

text: Sabah Oil and Gas Terminal

text: . There is another two combined cycle power plants with a capacity of 380 MW operated by

text: Ranhill Holdings Berhad

text: . In 2009, the electricity coverage covers 67% of the state population and by 2011 increase to 80%. The coverage reach 100% in 2012 after an allocation of RM962.5 million from the federal government were given to expand the coverage under the 2012

text: National Budget

text: . The

text: electrical grid

text: is divided into two of West Coast and East Coast which has been integrated since 2007. The West Coast Grid supplies electricity to Kota Kinabalu, Papar, Beaufort, Keningau, Kota Belud, Kota Marudu, Kudat and Labuan with a capacity of 488.4 MW and maximum demand of 396.5 MW. While the East Coast Grid supplies electricity to the major towns of Sandakan, Kinabatangan, Lahad Datu, Kunak, Semporna and Tawau with a capacity of 333.02 MW and maximum demand of 203.3 MW. Since 2007, there is an attempt to establish a

text: coal power plant

text: in Lahad Datu which receiving opposition from local residents and non-governmental organisations for the pollution that would be caused by the plant. Thus Sabah has start to exploring alternative ways to generate electricity with the usage of

text: renewable energy

text: such as

text: solar

text: mini hydro

text: biomass

text: geothermal

text: and micro-algae and

text: tidal

text: technologies. The

text: Japanese government

text: has extended aid totalling RM172,190.93 for the solar electrification project in the island of

text: Larapan

text: in Sabah's east coast in 2010. In 2016, Malaysia's first geothermal plant was started to be developed in Tawau to boost electricity in the east coast after a  research by United States GeothermEx Inc. and Jacobs New Zealand indicated the existence of an active geothermal system centred around the flanks of Mount Maria on Apas Kiri. A South Korean company

text: GS Caltex

text: also sets to built Malaysia's first

text: bio-butanol

text: plant in the state.

text: In 2011, a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world’s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. "The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale".

text: In 2011, a report by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world’s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting

text: climate change

text: . The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in

text: energy efficiency

text: and imposing costs on

text: greenhouse gas

text: emitters. "The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale".

text: Tamil Nadu is the state with highest installed solar power capacity in India as of 21 September 2016, when Kamuthi Solar Power Project, with 648 MW capacity at a single location, was formally dedicated to the nation. With the addition of this plant, the total installed capacity in Tamil Nadu is 2100 MW. This constitutes 21% of the installed renewable energy source in the state. The other 79% is constituted by wind power. The plant is set up at Kamuthi, Ramanathapuram, in Tamil Nadu with an investment of Rs 4,550 crore. The plant consists of 3.80 lakh foundations, 25 lakh solar modules, 27,000 mt of structure, 576 inverters, 154 transformers along with 6,000-km cables. About 8,500 personnel worked on average installing about 11 MW a day to set up the plant in the stipulated time. Tamil Nadu is now the  leader in harnessing renewable energy using solar and wind energy.

text: Tamil Nadu is the state with highest installed solar power capacity in India as of 21 September 2016, when

text: Kamuthi Solar Power Project

text: , with 648 MW capacity at a single location, was formally dedicated to the nation. With the addition of this plant, the total installed capacity in Tamil Nadu is 2100 MW. This constitutes 21% of the installed renewable energy source in the state. The other 79% is constituted by wind power. The plant is set up at

text: Kamuthi

text: , Ramanathapuram, in Tamil Nadu with an investment of Rs 4,550 crore. The plant consists of 3.80 lakh foundations, 25 lakh solar modules, 27,000 mt of structure, 576 inverters, 154 transformers along with 6,000-km cables. About 8,500 personnel worked on average installing about 11 MW a day to set up the plant in the stipulated time. Tamil Nadu is now the  leader in harnessing renewable energy using solar and wind energy.

text: On December 16, 2008, the Renewable Energy Act of 2008 was signed into law to accelerate the exploration, development, and utilization of renewable energy resources, including biofuels and to provide a legal and institutional framework to harmonize the fragmented policies for renewable energy in the country. One salient feature of the policy is to create an environment conducive to investments through the provision of the following incentives: (a) duty-free importation of renewable energy (RE) machinery, equipment and materials over the initial 10 years through the issuance of certifications to RE developers; (b) duty-free importation of farm machinery and agricultural inputs during the initial 10 years from the effectivity of the Renewable Energy law; (c) income tax holidays over the first seven years of commercial operation; (d) accelerated depreciation if an RE fails to receive an ITH before full operation; (e) cash incentives from RE Developers for Missionary Electrification, i.e., 50% of the universal charge for power needed to service missionary areas; (f) corporate tax rates of 10% on its net taxable income after the initial seven-year ITH period; (g) tax exemptions for carbon credits; (h) special realty tax rates of not more than 1.5% on equipment and machinery, civil works, and other improvements; and (i) net operating loss carry-over (NOLCO) during the first three years of commercial operation will be deductible from gross income over the next seven years of operation. As of 2009, the Department of Energy has accredited 12 producers of Coconut Methyl Ester (CME) for biodiesel with a total production capacity of 395,620,165 liters. The Sugar Regulatory Administration (SRA) has accredited two producers  of bioethanol (from sugarcane) with a total production capacity of 39 million liters per year.

text: Water is used in renewable power generation. Hydroelectric power derives energy from the force of water flowing downhill, driving a turbine connected to a generator. This hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. Significantly, hydroelectric power can also be used for load following unlike most renewable energy sources which are intermittent. Ultimately, the energy in a hydroelectric powerplant is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes and flows downhill. Pumped-storage hydroelectric plants also exist, which use grid electricity to pump water uphill when demand is low, and use the stored water to produce electricity when demand is high.

text: Water is used in renewable power generation. Hydroelectric power derives energy from the force of water flowing downhill, driving a turbine connected to a generator. This hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. Significantly, hydroelectric power can also be used for

text: load following

text: unlike most renewable energy sources which are

text: intermittent

text: . Ultimately, the energy in a hydroelectric powerplant is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes and flows downhill.

text: Pumped-storage hydroelectric

text: plants also exist, which use grid electricity to pump water uphill when demand is low, and use the stored water to produce electricity when demand is high.

text: Estimates of exploitable worldwide geothermal energy resources vary considerably, depending on assumed investments in technology and exploration and guesses about geological formations. According to a 1999 study, it was thought that this might amount to between 65 and 138 GW of electrical generation capacity 'using enhanced technology'. Other estimates range from 35 to 2000 GW of electrical generation capacity, with a further potential for 140 EJ/year of direct use.

text: Estimates of exploitable worldwide

text: geothermal energy

text: resources vary considerably, depending on assumed investments in technology and exploration and guesses about geological formations. According to a 1999 study, it was thought that this might amount to between 65 and 138 GW of electrical generation capacity 'using enhanced technology'. Other estimates range from 35 to 2000 GW of electrical generation capacity, with a further potential for 140

text: EJ

text: /year of direct use.

text: The Republic of Kazakhstan has enormous renewable energy potential, particularly from wind and small hydropower plants. The country has the potential to generate 10 times as much power as it currently needsfrom wind energy alone. But renewable energy accounts for just 0.6 percent of all power installations. Of that, 95 percent comes from small hydropower projects. The main barriers to investment in renewable energy are relatively high financing costs and an absence of uniform feed-in tariffs for electricity from renewable sources. The amount and duration of renewable energy feed-in tariffs are separately evaluated for each project, based on feasibility studies and project-specific generation costs. Power from wind, solar, biomass and water up to 35 MW, plus geothermal sources, are eligible for the tariff and transmission companies are required to purchase the energy of renewable energy producers. An amendmentthat introduces and clarifies technology-specific tariffs is now being prepared. It is expected to be adoptedby Parliament by the end of 2014. In addition, the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business indicator shows the country to be relatively investor-friendly, ranking it in 10th position for investor protection.

text: The Republic of

text: Kazakhstan

text: has enormous renewable energy potential, particularly from wind and small hydropower plants. The country has the potential to generate 10 times as much power as it currently needsfrom wind energy alone. But

text: renewable energy

text: accounts for just 0.6 percent of all power installations. Of that, 95 percent comes from small

text: hydropower

text: projects. The main barriers to investment in renewable energy are relatively high financing costs and an absence of uniform feed-in tariffs for electricity from renewable sources. The amount and duration of renewable energy feed-in tariffs are separately evaluated for each project, based on feasibility studies and project-specific generation costs. Power from wind, solar, biomass and water up to 35 MW, plus geothermal sources, are eligible for the tariff and transmission companies are required to purchase the energy of renewable energy producers. An amendmentthat introduces and clarifies technology-specific tariffs is now being prepared. It is expected to be adoptedby Parliament by the end of 2014. In addition, the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business indicator shows the country to be relatively investor-friendly, ranking it in 10th position for investor protection.

text: Solar energy is a source of inexhaustible energy. There is more solar energy that reaches the surface of the Earth each hour than the amount of energy consumed by the world in a year. The challenges of using the sun's energy – energy which can be obtained either from wind power or from solar power – is that the energy needs to either be (1) stored in physical form of fuel for when it can be used in the future, or (2) transported directly as electricity, through transmission lines. Neither is dispatchable, as there is no control over when the sun will shine or when the wind will blow. There are, however, concentrated solar power plants using thermal storage that can store energy efficiently for up to 24 hours.

text: Solar

text: energy is a source of inexhaustible energy. There is more solar energy that reaches the surface of the Earth each hour than the amount of energy consumed by the world in a year. The challenges of using the

text: sun

text: 's energy – energy which can be obtained either from

text: wind power

text: or from

text: solar power

text: – is that the energy needs to either be (1) stored in physical form of fuel for when it can be used in the future, or (2) transported directly as electricity, through transmission lines. Neither is

text: dispatchable

text: , as there is no control over when the sun will shine or when the wind will blow. There are, however,

text: concentrated solar power

text: plants using thermal storage that can store energy efficiently for up to 24 hours.

text: Thermal energy is economical in areas of high industrial density, as the high demand cannot be met by renewable sources. The effect of localized pollution is also minimized as industries are usually located away from residential areas. These plants can also withstand variation in load and consumption by adding more units or temporarily decreasing the production of some units.Nuclear power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit. However, recent disasters in Japan have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear plants is very high.Hydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy from falling water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power. It is not an economically viable source of production where the load varies too much during the annual production cycle and the ability to store the flow of water is limited.

text: Thermal energy

text: is economical in areas of high industrial density, as the high demand cannot be met by renewable sources. The effect of localized pollution is also minimized as industries are usually located away from residential areas. These plants can also withstand variation in load and consumption by adding more units or temporarily decreasing the production of some units.Nuclear power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit. However, recent disasters in Japan have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear plants is very high.Hydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy from falling water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power. It is not an economically viable source of production where the load varies too much during the annual production cycle and the ability to store the flow of water is limited.

text: In contrast, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered renewable resources, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans.

text: In contrast, resources such as

text: timber

text: (when

text: harvested sustainably

text: ) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered

text: renewable resource

text: s, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans.

text: Solar energy can be turned into electricity either directly in solar cells, or in a concentrating solar power plant by focusing the light to run a heat engine.

text: Solar energy

text: can be turned into electricity either directly in

text: solar cell

text: s, or in a

text: concentrating solar power

text: plant by focusing the light to run a heat engine.

text: Indonesia uses some geothermal energy. According to the Renewable Energy Policy Network's Renewables 2013 Global Status Report, Indonesia has the third largest installed generating capacity in the world. With 1.3 GW installed capacity, Indonesia trails only the United States (3.4 GW) and the Philippines (1.9 GW). However it leads Mexico (1.0 GW), Italy (0.9 GW), New Zealand (0.8 GW), Iceland (0.7 GW), and Japan (0.5 GW). Current official policy is to encourage the increasing use of geothermal energy for electricity production.  Geothermal sites in Indonesia include the Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station and the Kamojang plant, both in West Java.

text: Indonesia uses

text: some geothermal energy

text: . According to the Renewable Energy Policy Network's Renewables 2013 Global Status Report, Indonesia has the third largest installed generating capacity in the world. With 1.3 GW installed capacity, Indonesia trails only the United States (3.4 GW) and the Philippines (1.9 GW). However it leads Mexico (1.0 GW), Italy (0.9 GW), New Zealand (0.8 GW), Iceland (0.7 GW), and Japan (0.5 GW). Current official policy is to encourage the increasing use of geothermal energy for electricity production.  Geothermal sites in Indonesia include the

text: Wayang Windu Geothermal Power Station

text: and the

text: Kamojang

text: plant, both in

text: West Java

text: Life on our planet is an endless exchange of energies among living things and the environment. Most of the energy resources we currently use, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.Renewable energy resources such as Solar energy, wind energy, small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant), geothermal energy and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar, Photovoltaics, water and wind energy do not send pollutants into the air as occurs with coal and petroleum energy.

text: Life on our planet is an endless exchange of energies among living things and the environment. Most of the energy resources we currently use, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.Renewable energy resources such as

text: Solar energy

text: wind energy

text: , small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant),

text: geothermal energy

text: and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar,

text: Photovoltaics

text: , water and wind energy do not send pollutants into the air as occurs with coal and petroleum energy.

text: The New Scientist described a scenario in a September 2016 article which illustrated why the journal believed bioenergy can be bad: Suppose you cut down a 50 year oak tree in your garden and use the logs to heat your house instead of coal. Wood emits more carbon dioxide than coal per unit of heat gained and the roots left in the soil emit more carbon dioxide as they rot. If you plant another tree it will soak up that carbon dioxide in about 50 years. But if you had left the original tree in place  it would have soaked up the carbon dioxide from the coal and more.  It could take centuries before cutting down the tree would give any benefit. But the world needed to cut carbon dioxide over the next few decades if the global warming was to be kept below 3 degrees C. The journal also concluded that official claimed carbon reductions from renewables had been overstated. The European Union, for example, got more 64% of its renewable energy from biomass (mostly wood) but United Nations and EU rules did not count the carbon emissions from burning biomass.

text: The

text: New Scientist

text: described a scenario in a September 2016 article which illustrated why the journal believed bioenergy can be bad: Suppose you cut down a 50 year oak tree in your garden and use the logs to heat your house instead of coal. Wood emits more carbon dioxide than coal per unit of heat gained and the roots left in the soil emit more carbon dioxide as they rot. If you plant another tree it will soak up that carbon dioxide in about 50 years. But if you had left the original tree in place  it would have soaked up the carbon dioxide from the coal and more.  It could take centuries before cutting down the tree would give any benefit. But the world needed to cut carbon dioxide over the next few decades if the global warming was to be kept below 3 degrees C. The journal also concluded that official claimed carbon reductions from renewables had been overstated. The

text: European Union

text: , for example, got more 64% of its renewable energy from biomass (mostly wood) but

text: United Nations

text: and EU rules did not count the carbon emissions from burning biomass.

text: The government considers renewable resources as a vital element of its strategy to diversify energy supply, reduce vulnerability to external shocks, and mitigate the environmental impacts of energy production. The development of large hydropower projects and the provision of further incentives for grid-connected renewable projects are the present priorities of the government in the renewable energy sector. The penetration of renewable energy technologies into rural electrification programs is still limited and most of the rural electrification activities are grid extensions.

text: In 2014 renewables such as wind, geothermal, solar, biomass and burnt waste provided 19% of the total world final energy consumption, roughly half of it traditional use of biomass. The most important sector electricity with a renewable share of 22.8%, most of it coming from water power with a share of 16.6%, followed by wind with 3.1%. Several places run their grids almost exclusively on renewable energy. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.  Also, Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of “Climate stabilization wedges” that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges."

text: In 2014 renewables such as

text: wind

text: geothermal

text: solar

text: biomass

text: and burnt waste provided 19% of the total world final energy consumption, roughly half of it traditional use of biomass. The most important sector electricity with a renewable share of 22.8%, most of it coming from water power with a share of 16.6%, followed by wind with 3.1%. Several places run their grids almost exclusively on renewable energy. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.  Also, Professors S. Pacala and

text: Robert H. Socolow

text: have developed a series of “

text: Climate stabilization wedge

text: s” that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic

text: climate change

text: , and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges."

text: In his first 100 days in office as governor, he proposed expansion of the beverage container deposit law (bottle bill), a switch by state government agencies to the use of environmentally friendly cleansers, and clean up of the state's “Filthy Five” power plants. He appointed a prominent environmentalist, Douglas Foy, to oversee energy development, transportation, housing, and environmental affairs. Foy helped develop an energy and environment plan that included 72 public and private initiatives, with a goal of deriving 15 percent of the state’s electricity from renewable sources such as wind, solar, and nonpolluting fuel cells by 2020, and of reducing greenhouse gas emissions of state agencies by 25 percent. The plan also proposed to impose strict emissions standards on older power plants and sought to substantially reduce soot emissions from diesel buses, trucks, and heavy construction equipment.

text: In his first 100 days in office as governor, he proposed expansion of the beverage container deposit law (

entity_name: Container deposit legislation in the United States

text: bottle bill

text: ), a switch by state government agencies to the use of environmentally friendly cleansers, and clean up of the state's “Filthy Five” power plants. He appointed a prominent environmentalist,

text: Douglas Foy

text: , to oversee energy development, transportation, housing, and environmental affairs. Foy helped develop an energy and environment plan that included 72 public and private initiatives, with a goal of deriving 15 percent of the state’s electricity from

text: renewable sources

text: such as wind, solar, and nonpolluting

text: fuel cells

text: by 2020, and of reducing

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions of state agencies by 25 percent. The plan also proposed to impose strict

text: emissions standards

text: on older power plants and sought to substantially reduce soot emissions from diesel buses, trucks, and heavy construction equipment.

text: Hydropower companies pay fees to the local municipalities in the form of taxes and license fees. Smaller hydropower plants are exempt from taxes in order to economically stimulate local development. The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) determines the license fees paid to municipalities by hydropower companies. The NVE assess various factors such as degree of environmental disturbance and the profitability of the project.

text: Biomass is biological material from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials. As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or indirectly—once or converted into another type of energy product such as biofuel. Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.

text: Biomass

text: is

text: biological material

text: from living, or recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials. As a

text: renewable energy source

text: , biomass can either be used directly, or indirectly—once or converted into another type of energy product such as

text: biofuel

text: . Biomass can be converted to energy in three ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion.

text: Finland is among the leading countries in the use of biomass in energy production: the share of bioenergy is 20% of all primary energy consumption and, therefore, the second highest in the EU after Latvia.  The high share of biomass in Finnish energy production is explained by the large forest resources of the country and a highly developed wood and paper industry. Most of the country (68%) is covered by boreal coniferous forests. The wood and paper industry accounts for nearly two thirds of all industrial energy consumption but it is also a major producer of renewable energy. Most liquid and solid industrial wood residues are recycled into energy production, which accounts for 20% of Finnish primary energy use. Thus, the wood and paper industry is for large part energy independent.

text: Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources, including solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, and biomass, as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these. By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas, creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises. In many circumstances, these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems.

text: Most developing countries have abundant

text: renewable energy

text: resources, including

text: solar energy

text: wind power

text: geothermal energy

text: , and

text: biomass

text: , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these. By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas, creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises. In many circumstances, these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems.

text: The pavilions have been recognized for their innovative use of renewable energy and green design. In 2005, the North Pavilions received the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) silver rating from the United States Green Building Council. They received a Technology Award Honorable Mention in the category of "Alternative and/or Renewable Energy Use – New Construction" from the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The United States Department of Energy has recognized all the pavilions as part of its Million Solar Roofs Initiative. In 2005 Chicago ranked fourth among U.S. cities in solar installations; the completion of the Exelon Pavilions took the city to a total of  of installed photovoltaic systems. The pavilions together generate  of electricity annually, worth $2,353 per year at 2010 average Illinois electricity prices. According to the City of Chicago, this is enough energy to power the equivalent of 14 Energy Star-rated efficient houses in Chicago.

text: The pavilions have been recognized for their innovative use of renewable energy and green design. In 2005, the North Pavilions received the

text: (LEED) silver rating from the

text: United States Green Building Council

text: . They received a Technology Award Honorable Mention in the category of "Alternative and/or Renewable Energy Use – New Construction" from the

text: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

text: (ASHRAE). The

text: United States Department of Energy

text: has recognized all the pavilions as part of its Million Solar Roofs Initiative. In 2005 Chicago ranked fourth among U.S. cities in solar installations; the completion of the Exelon Pavilions took the city to a total of  of installed photovoltaic systems. The pavilions together generate  of electricity annually, worth $2,353 per year at 2010 average Illinois electricity prices. According to the City of Chicago, this is enough energy to power the equivalent of 14

text: Energy Star-rated

text: efficient houses in Chicago.

text: According to Focus.com “Of 149 schools which reported the use of renewable energy, a score of A- was awarded to Amherst College (MA), Arizona State University-Tempe (AZ), University of California-San Diego (CA), University of Colorado (CO), Dickinson College (PA), Harvard University (MA), Luther College (IA), Macalester College (MN), Middlebury College (VT), University of Minnesota (MN), University of New Hampshire (NH), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (NC), Oberlin College (OH), Pacific Lutheran University (WA), Pomona College (CA), Smith College (MA), Stanford University (CA), University of Washington (WA), Wesleyan University (CT), Williams College (MA), and Yale University (CT). Another 28 schools scored B+ and 7 institutions scored a mark of D on renewable energy use."Two out of every five schools purchase renewable energy, either through the purchase of green power directly from their utility or through renewable energy credits equivalent to a percentage of their energy use. Nearly half of the schools produce renewable energy on campus, with solar, wind, bioenergy or geothermal systems in operation."

text: According to Focus.com “Of 149 schools which reported the use of renewable energy, a score of A- was awarded to Amherst College (MA), Arizona State University-Tempe (AZ), University of California-San Diego (CA), University of Colorado (CO), Dickinson College (PA), Harvard University (MA), Luther College (IA), Macalester College (MN), Middlebury College (VT), University of Minnesota (MN), University of New Hampshire (NH), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (NC), Oberlin College (OH), Pacific Lutheran University (WA), Pomona College (CA), Smith College (MA), Stanford University (CA), University of Washington (WA), Wesleyan University (CT), Williams College (MA), and Yale University (CT). Another 28 schools scored B+ and 7 institutions scored a mark of D on renewable energy use."Two out of every five schools purchase

text: renewable energy

text: , either through the purchase of green power directly from their utility or through renewable energy credits equivalent to a percentage of their energy use. Nearly half of the schools produce renewable energy on campus, with solar, wind, bioenergy or geothermal systems in operation."

text: Human activities influence the natural environment in many different ways. Processes needed to execute these activities need resources, energy and human manpower. Production, delivery and consummation of goods generates emissions and waste. The SPI includes all these different issues affecting the environment. A total area A which would be needed to embed human activities into ecosphere can so be aggregated.A = A + A + A + A + A 	[m] (1)A = A + A + A					[m] (2)A = A + A 							[m] (3)The sum for the total area is the sum of all partial areas (Formel 1). A, the area needed to provide raw materials, is the sum (formula 2) of all areas needed to provide renewable resources (A), fossil resources (A) and non-renewable resources (A). A is the area needed to provide process energy (incl. electricity). A, the area needed to provide the infrastructure for the process is the sum (formula 3) of direct land use (A) and the area needed to provide the area for buildings and process plants (A). A is the area needed for the supply of the staff and A is the area needed for a sustainable embedding of emissions and waste into ecosphere. The SPI aggregates partial footprints from mass, energy and emission inventories of every sub-process and refers them to the end product. This means that a is the total footprint of a considered product per measurement unit. Seven different categories were defined to guarantee a better visibility of the different impact categories:

text: Taiwan has significant coal deposits and some insignificant petroleum and natural gas deposits. , oil accounts for 49.0% of the total energy consumption. Coal comes next with 32.1%, followed by nuclear energy with 8.3%, natural gas (indigenous and liquefied) with 10.2%, and energy from renewable sources with 0.5%. Taiwan has six nuclear reactors and two under construction. Nearly all oil and gas for transportation and power needs must be imported, making Taiwan particularly sensitive to fluctuations in energy prices. Taiwan is rich in wind energy resources, with wind farms both onshore and offshore, though limited land area favors offshore wind resources. By promoting renewable energy, Taiwan's government hopes to also aid the nascent renewable energy manufacturing industry, and develop it into an export market.

text: Taiwan has significant coal deposits and some insignificant

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: deposits. ,

text: oil

text: accounts for 49.0% of the total energy consumption.

text: Coal

text: comes next with 32.1%, followed by

text: nuclear energy

text: with 8.3%,

text: natural gas

text: (indigenous and liquefied) with 10.2%, and energy from renewable sources with 0.5%. Taiwan has

text: six nuclear reactors

text: and two under construction. Nearly all oil and gas for transportation and power needs must be imported, making Taiwan particularly sensitive to fluctuations in energy prices. Taiwan is rich in

text: wind energy

text: resources, with wind farms both onshore and offshore, though limited land area favors offshore wind resources. By promoting renewable energy, Taiwan's government hopes to also aid the nascent renewable energy manufacturing industry, and develop it into an export market.

text: Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."

text: Renewable energy resources other than hydropower are barely exploited in Bolivia, and their contribution to electricity generation is insignificant. However, the potential of decentralized electricity systems (i.e. solar photovoltaics or PV, wind, etc.) for disperse populations was recognized by the government in the Rural Electrification Plan (PLABER). This component established that the service to households, schools and health facilities in areas of low population density would rely on locally available renewable energy sources.

text: Renewable energy resources other than

text: hydropower

text: are barely exploited in Bolivia, and their contribution to electricity generation is insignificant. However, the potential of decentralized electricity systems (i.e. solar

text: photovoltaics

text: or PV, wind, etc.) for disperse populations was recognized by the government in the Rural Electrification Plan (PLABER). This component established that the service to households, schools and health facilities in areas of low population density would rely on locally available renewable energy sources.

text: In March 2008 the government of Iran approved a US$230 million credit for the construction of a 70MW hydropower plant by the name of Bodoke on the Tuma River in the northern department of Jinotega. According to press reports the project will be carried out by a state-owned Iranian company with financing from the Iranian Export Bank under an agreement with the Nicaraguan Ministry of Energy and Mines. Micro hydropower also continues to be a popular sustainable energy resource, particularly in isolated rural regions of Nicaragua which are currently not electrified .

text: In March 2008 the government of Iran approved a US$230 million credit for the construction of a 70MW hydropower plant by the name of Bodoke on the Tuma River in the northern department of

text: Jinotega

text: . According to press reports the project will be carried out by a state-owned Iranian company with financing from the Iranian Export Bank under an agreement with the Nicaraguan Ministry of Energy and Mines. Micro hydropower also continues to be a popular sustainable energy resource, particularly in isolated rural regions of Nicaragua which are currently not electrified .

text: In April 2011, Japanese Ministry of the Environment issued a "Study of Potential for the introduction of Renewable Energy" report. It has shown total 19.14GW of Japanese geothermal resource potential.

text: In April 2011,

text: Japanese Ministry of the Environment

text: issued a "Study of Potential for the introduction of Renewable Energy" report. It has shown total 19.14GW of Japanese geothermal resource potential.

text: A diverse energy portfolio, depending on the local availability of natural resources, includes (1) solar, wind, biomass-to-power, ocean, and geothermal energy for power generation, and (2) renewable hydrocarbons, biomass- and algae-derived biofuels, and electric vehicles for transportation.  The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world.

text: Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP) plants, also called "solar thermal power stations", were first developed in the 1980s. The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in California's Mojave Desert, is the world’s largest solar thermal power plant project.  Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), and Extresol Solar Power Station (150 MW), all in Spain. The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage.

text: Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP) plants, also called "solar thermal power stations", were first developed in the 1980s. The 377 MW

text: Ivanpah Solar Power Facility

text: , located in California's Mojave Desert, is the world’s largest solar thermal power plant project.  Other large CSP plants include the

text: Solnova Solar Power Station

text: (150 MW), the

text: Andasol solar power station

text: (150 MW), and

text: Extresol Solar Power Station

text: (150 MW), all in Spain. The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage.

text: Geothermal Energy is an underdeveloped energy resource and warrants further investigation and exploration.  According to the U.S. Department of Energy, Utah's geothermal capabilities alone, if fully developed, could provide 1/3 of the state's  power needs. Currently, the United States is planning to organize national geothermal databases, expand USGS resources nationally and develop geophysical projects to validate advances in exploration technologies.  Below lists U.S. counties and regions that potentially can utilize geothermal power and would warrant further exploration.

text: Geothermal Energy is an underdeveloped energy resource and warrants further investigation and exploration.  According to the

text: U.S. Department of Energy

text: , Utah's geothermal capabilities alone, if fully developed, could provide 1/3 of the state's  power needs. Currently, the United States is planning to organize national geothermal databases, expand

text: USGS

text: resources nationally and develop geophysical projects to validate advances in exploration technologies.  Below lists U.S. counties and regions that potentially can utilize geothermal power and would warrant further exploration.

text: The availability of renewable resources as well as their fluctuation in electricity production from region to region requires a customized design for each desalination facility.  In order to maintain steady-state operations many facilities utilize renewably produced energy while connected to a smart grid, importing or exporting energy to the plant as required.  The Perth Seawater Desalination Plant utilizes this strategy where 48 wind turbines produce 80MW on the Emu Downs Wind Farm to provide an overall 24MW to the desalination plant.  Electrical energy from the renewable energy can also be stored in storage batteries and utilized when needed.  As seen in the PV-powered RO system in Gillen Bore, Australia; producing 1,200 L/d. Or if the plant is not required full-time, it can operate using the power as it becomes available. In 2005 a PV-powered hybrid UF/RO filtration system providing 764 liters per day tolerated well power variation from changing weather conditions.

text: The availability of renewable resources as well as their fluctuation in electricity production from region to region requires a customized design for each desalination facility.  In order to maintain steady-state operations many facilities utilize renewably produced energy while connected to a smart grid, importing or exporting energy to the plant as required.  The

text: Perth Seawater Desalination Plant

text: utilizes this strategy where 48 wind turbines produce 80MW on the Emu Downs Wind Farm to provide an overall 24MW to the desalination plant.  Electrical energy from the renewable energy can also be stored in storage batteries and utilized when needed.  As seen in the PV-powered RO system in Gillen Bore, Australia; producing 1,200 L/d. Or if the plant is not required full-time, it can operate using the power as it becomes available. In 2005 a PV-powered hybrid UF/RO filtration system providing 764 liters per day tolerated well power variation from changing weather conditions.

text: A two-year study of carbon dioxide and methane releases in Canada concluded that while the hydroelectric reservoirs there do emit greenhouse gases, it is on a much smaller scale than thermal power plants of similar capacity. Hydropower typically emits 35 to 70 times less greenhouse gases per TWh of electricity than thermal power plants.

text: At the same time, Bulgaria has a rapidly expanding renewable energy market. Growth in the sector has surpassed forecasts and has notably increased prices and strain on the electrical grid in the past few years. Investment in wind and solar power installations between 2008 and 2012 in Bulgaria is estimated at more than 4 billion euros, which needs to be repaid by surcharges on electricity prices over the next years. Since 2005, electricity prices for industrial consumers, along with other utilities, have doubled or tripled. In 2011, SCEWR rejected demands by regional monopolies to increase power prices, but a string of severe price spikes occurred in 2012 as a consequence of renewable energy charges. In response, the government drastically cut preferential feed-in tariffs for solar power with 50%, and with 22% for wind power. SCEWR also increased power transmission fees by 50 per cent in an attempt to curb green energy production. These measures led to a drop in electricity exports and withdrawal of investment projects, but prices continued to rise slowly in the following months. Subsequent inflation caused by higher production costs was recorded as the highest for the past four years.

text: At the same time, Bulgaria has a rapidly expanding

text: renewable energy

text: market. Growth in the sector has surpassed forecasts and has notably increased prices and strain on the electrical grid in the past few years. Investment in wind and solar power installations between 2008 and 2012 in Bulgaria is estimated at more than 4 billion euros, which needs to be repaid by surcharges on electricity prices over the next years. Since 2005, electricity prices for industrial consumers, along with other utilities, have doubled or tripled. In 2011, SCEWR rejected demands by regional monopolies to increase power prices, but a string of severe price spikes occurred in 2012 as a consequence of renewable energy charges. In response, the government drastically cut preferential feed-in tariffs for solar power with 50%, and with 22% for wind power. SCEWR also increased power transmission fees by 50 per cent in an attempt to curb green energy production. These measures led to a drop in electricity exports and withdrawal of investment projects, but prices continued to rise slowly in the following months. Subsequent

text: inflation

text: caused by higher production costs was recorded as the highest for the past four years.

text: Biomass can be regarded as "biological material" derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today; examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).

text: Biomass can be regarded as "

text: biological material

text: " derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically called

text: lignocellulosic biomass

text: . As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of

text: biofuel

text: . Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today; examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and

text: tree stump

text: s), yard clippings, wood chips and even

text: municipal solid waste

text: . In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial

text: chemicals

text: , including

text: biofuel

text: s. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including

text: miscanthus

text: switchgrass

text: hemp

text: corn

text: poplar

text: willow

text: sorghum

text: sugarcane

text: bamboo

text: , and a variety of tree species, ranging from

text: eucalyptus

text: to

text: oil palm

text: palm oil

text: U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1% of the nation's electricity. Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by Iowa and California. Since the U.S. pioneered the technology with Solar One, several solar thermal power stations have also been built.  The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility (392 MW), southwest of Las Vegas, and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert, with a total generating capacity of 354 MW. Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star (579 MW), near Rosamond, California, the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm, a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County, California and the Topaz Solar Farm, a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant, in San Luis Obispo County, California. The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world.

text: U.S. wind power

text: installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1% of the nation's electricity.

text: Texas

text: is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by Iowa and California. Since the U.S. pioneered the technology with

text: Solar One

text: , several

text: solar thermal power

text: stations have also been built.  The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the

text: Ivanpah Solar Power Facility

text: (392 MW), southwest of Las Vegas, and the

text: SEGS

text: group of plants in the Mojave Desert, with a total generating capacity of 354 MW. Large

text: photovoltaic power plant

text: s in the USA include

text: Solar Star

text: (579 MW), near

text: Rosamond, California

text: , the

text: Desert Sunlight Solar Farm

text: , a 550 MW

text: solar power

text: plant in

text: Riverside County, California

text: and the

text: Topaz Solar Farm

text: , a 550 MW

text: photovoltaic

text: power plant, in

text: San Luis Obispo County, California

text: The Geysers

text: in Northern California is the largest complex of

text: geothermal energy

text: production in the world.

text: By using palm biomass to generate renewable energy, fuels and biodegradable products, both the energy balance and the greenhouse gas emissions balance for palm biodiesel is improved. For every tonne of palm oil produced from fresh fruit bunches, a farmer harvests around 6 tonnes of waste palm fronds, 1 tonne of palm trunks, 5 tonnes of empty fruit bunches, 1 tonne of press fiber (from the mesocarp of the fruit), half a tonne of palm kernel endocarp, 250 kg of palm kernel press cake, and 100 tonnes of palm oil mill effluent. Some oil palm plantations incinerate biomass to generate power for palm oil mills. Some other oil palm plantations yield large amount of biomass that can be recycled into medium density fibreboards and light furniture. In efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, scientists treat palm oil mill effluent to extract biogas. After purification, biogas can substitute for natural gas for use at factories. Anaerobic treatment of palm oil mill effluent, practiced in Malaysia and Indonesia, results in domination of Methanosaeta concilii. It plays an important role in methane production from acetate and the optimum condition for its growth should be considered to harvest biogas as renewable fuel.

text: By using palm biomass to generate renewable energy, fuels and

text: biodegradable

text: products, both the

text: energy balance

text: and the greenhouse gas emissions balance for palm biodiesel is improved. For every tonne of palm oil produced from fresh fruit bunches, a farmer harvests around 6 tonnes of waste palm fronds, 1 tonne of palm trunks, 5 tonnes of empty fruit bunches, 1 tonne of press fiber (from the mesocarp of the fruit), half a tonne of

text: palm kernel

text: endocarp, 250 kg of

text: palm kernel

text: press cake, and 100 tonnes of palm oil mill effluent. Some oil palm plantations incinerate biomass to generate power for palm oil mills. Some other oil palm plantations yield large amount of biomass that can be recycled into medium density fibreboards and light furniture. In efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, scientists treat palm oil mill effluent to extract biogas. After purification, biogas can substitute for natural gas for use at factories. Anaerobic treatment of palm oil mill effluent, practiced in Malaysia and Indonesia, results in domination of Methanosaeta concilii. It plays an important role in methane production from acetate and the optimum condition for its growth should be considered to harvest biogas as renewable fuel.

text: Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant (Icelandic Kárahnjúkavirkjun) is a hydroelectric power plant in Fljótsdalshérað municipality in eastern Iceland designed to produce  annually for Alcoa's Fjardaál aluminum smelter  to the east in Reyðarfjörður. With the installed capacity of , the plant is the largest hydroelectric power plant in Iceland. The project, named after nearby Mount Kárahnjúkur, involves damming the Jökulsá á Dal river and the Jökulsá í Fljótsdal river with five dams, creating three reservoirs. Water from the reservoirs is then diverted through  of underground water tunnels and down a  vertical penstock towards a single underground power station. The smelter became fully operational in 2008 and the hydro-power project was completed in 2009.

text: Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant (Icelandic Kárahnjúkavirkjun) is a

text: hydroelectric

text: power plant in

text: Fljótsdalshérað

text: municipality in eastern

text: Iceland

text: designed to produce  annually for

text: Alcoa

text: 's Fjardaál

text: aluminum smelter

text: to the east in

text: Reyðarfjörður

text: . With the installed capacity of , the plant is the largest hydroelectric power plant in Iceland. The project, named after nearby Mount Kárahnjúkur, involves damming the

text: Jökulsá á Dal

text: river and the

text: Jökulsá í Fljótsdal

text: river with five dams, creating three

text: reservoir

text: s. Water from the reservoirs is then diverted through  of underground water tunnels and down a  vertical

text: penstock

text: towards a single

text: underground power station

text: . The smelter became fully operational in 2008 and the hydro-power project was completed in 2009.

text: Amory Lovins advocates "soft energy paths" involving efficient energy use, diverse and renewable energy sources, and special reliance on "soft energy technologies". Soft energy technologies are those based on solar, wind, biofuels, geothermal, etc. which are matched in scale and quality to their task.  Residential solar energy technologies are prime examples of soft energy technologies and rapid deployment of simple, energy conserving, residential solar energy technologies is fundamental to a soft energy strategy.

text: Amory Lovins advocates "

text: soft energy path

text: s" involving

text: efficient energy use

text: , diverse and

text: renewable energy

text: sources, and special reliance on "

text: soft energy technologies

text: ". Soft energy technologies are those based on

text: solar

text: wind

text: biofuel

text: s,

text: geothermal

text: , etc. which are matched in scale and quality to their task.  Residential solar energy technologies are prime examples of soft energy technologies and rapid deployment of simple, energy conserving, residential solar energy technologies is fundamental to a soft energy strategy.

text: Usually however, renewable energy is derived from the mains electricity grid. This means that energy storage is mostly not used, as the mains electricity grid is organised to produce the exact amount of energy being consumed at that particular moment. Energy production on the mains electricity grid is always set up as a combination of (large-scale) renewable energy plants, as well as other power plants as fossil-fuel power plants and nuclear power. This combination however, which is essential for this type of energy supply (as e.g. wind turbines, solar power plants etc.) can only produce when the wind blows and the sun shines. This is also one of the main drawbacks of the system as fossil fuel powerplants are polluting and are a main cause of global warming (nuclear power being an exception). Although fossil fuel power plants too can be made emissionless (through carbon capture and storage), as well as renewable (if the plants are converted to e.g. biomass) the best solution is still to phase out the latter power plants over time. Nuclear power plants too can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of nuclear reprocessing and newer plants as fast breeder and nuclear fusion plants.

text: Usually however, renewable energy is derived from the mains electricity grid. This means that energy storage is mostly not used, as the mains electricity grid is organised to produce the exact amount of energy being consumed at that particular moment. Energy production on the mains electricity grid is always set up as a combination of (large-scale) renewable energy plants, as well as other power plants as

text: fossil-fuel power plant

text: s and

text: nuclear power

text: . This combination however, which is essential for this type of energy supply (as e.g. wind turbines, solar power plants etc.) can only produce when the wind blows and the sun shines. This is also one of the main drawbacks of the system as fossil fuel powerplants are polluting and are a main cause of

text: global warming

text: (nuclear power being an exception). Although fossil fuel power plants too can be made emissionless (through carbon capture and storage), as well as renewable (if the plants are converted to e.g. biomass) the best solution is still to phase out the latter power plants over time. Nuclear power plants too can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of

text: nuclear reprocessing

text: and newer plants as

text: fast breeder

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: plants.

text: Several forces are driving the growth of wind power in Texas: favorable wind resources and land availability, State targets for renewable energy, cost efficiency of development and operation of wind farms, and a suitable electric transmission grid. The broad scope and geographical extent of wind farms in Texas is considerable: wind resource areas lie in the Texas Panhandle, along the Gulf coast south of Galveston, and in the mountain passes and ridge tops of the Trans-Pecos in the western tip of Texas. While there are over 10,000 wind turbines currently operating in Texas to generate electricity, there are still 80,000 windmills operating in Texas for pumping water, indicating the amount of growth potential still left for wind power generation.

text: Several forces are driving the growth of wind power in Texas: favorable wind resources and land availability, State targets for renewable energy, cost efficiency of development and operation of wind farms, and a suitable electric transmission grid. The broad scope and geographical extent of wind farms in Texas is considerable: wind resource areas lie in the

text: Texas Panhandle

text: , along the Gulf coast south of

text: Galveston

text: , and in the mountain passes and ridge tops of the

text: Trans-Pecos

text: in the western tip of Texas. While there are over 10,000 wind turbines currently operating in Texas to generate electricity, there are still 80,000 windmills operating in Texas for pumping water, indicating the amount of growth potential still left for wind power generation.

text: In a summary, the Greek energy market situation regarding the production of energy from biomass is presented. EU Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC requires the EU to fulfill at least 20% of its total energy needs with renewable by 2020. This should be achieved through the attainment of individual national targets. EU Commission allocates biomass as the third source of energy within EU after wind.  Greek State allocated  350 MW of electricity to biomass - bio-fuels

text: In a summary, the Greek energy market situation regarding the production of

text: energy

text: from

text: biomass

text: is presented.

entity_name: EU Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC

text: EU Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC

text: requires the EU to fulfill at least 20% of its total energy needs with renewable by 2020. This should be achieved through the attainment of individual national targets.

text: EU Commission

text: allocates

text: biomass

text: as the third source of energy within

text: EU

text: after

text: wind

text: Greek State

text: allocated  350 MW of electricity to biomass -

text: bio-fuels

text: Increased reliance on electricity will make it that much more important to develop clean power plants. Renewable energy will be part of the solution, but high costs are poor reliability continue to make renewable sources challenging to develop cost-effectively. The author concludes that wind energy has the greatest potential for near-term expansion. However, smaller-scale use of solar, geothermal, biomass, and ocean sources along with current hydroelectric sources could add up to make a significant contribution. The advantages and disadvantages of each renewable energy option are examined.

text: Increased reliance on electricity will make it that much more important to develop clean

text: power plants

text: . Renewable energy will be part of the solution, but high costs are poor reliability continue to make renewable sources challenging to develop cost-effectively. The author concludes that

text: wind energy

text: has the greatest potential for near-term expansion. However, smaller-scale use of solar, geothermal, biomass, and ocean sources along with current hydroelectric sources could add up to make a significant contribution. The advantages and disadvantages of each renewable energy option are examined.

text: Energy. Energy resources are abundant in the subregion. In addition to oil, natural gas and coal resources, EAGA offers investment opportunities in the renewable energy sector, taking advantage of geothermal, biomass, hydro and wind power.

text: The high potential for solar power given the extensive daily hours of sunshine in the town necessitated the Broken Hill Solar Plant to be constructed as Australia moves away from coal generated power in favour of renewable energy. The plant was completed in 2015 and is one of the largest in Australia.

text: The high potential for solar power given the extensive daily hours of sunshine in the town necessitated the Broken Hill Solar Plant to be constructed as Australia moves away from

text: coal

text: generated power in favour of

text: renewable energy

text: . The plant was completed in 2015 and is one of the largest in Australia.

text: Geothermal projects are another area of interest for development in BC. These offer a stable source of massive energy with relatively minimal impact on the environment. The fuel source is generated by natural steam or hot water, which gives off almost no air emissions. In BC, a project north of Pemberton is undergoing prospective development. Although geothermal energy is abundant, it is location-specific and only renewable when reservoirs are managed properly. In extremely rare cases, these projects have been known to contribute to earthquakes.

text: Geothermal

text: projects are another area of interest for development in BC. These offer a stable source of massive energy with relatively minimal impact on the environment. The fuel source is generated by natural steam or hot water, which gives off almost no air emissions. In BC, a project north of Pemberton is undergoing prospective development. Although geothermal energy is abundant, it is location-specific and only renewable when reservoirs are managed properly. In extremely rare cases, these projects have been known to contribute to earthquakes.

text: Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources.  Examples include: biofuels (e.g. Vegetable oil used as fuel, ethanol, methanol from clean energy and carbon dioxide or biomass, and biodiesel) and Hydrogen fuel (when produced with renewable processes).  This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas, LPG (propane), petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy.  Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar.  Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability, low contributions to the carbon cycle, and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases.  The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil.

text: Renewable fuels are

text: fuel

text: s produced from renewable resources.  Examples include:

text: biofuels

text: (e.g.

text: Vegetable oil used as fuel

text: ethanol

text: methanol

text: from

text: clean energy and carbon dioxide

text: or biomass, and biodiesel) and

text: Hydrogen

text: fuel (when produced with renewable processes).  This is in contrast to

text: non-renewable

text: fuels such as

text: natural gas

text: LPG

text: propane

text: petroleum

text: and other

text: fossil fuels

text: and

text: nuclear energy

text: .  Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from

text: renewable energy

text: sources, such as wind and solar.  Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their

text: sustainability

text: low contributions

text: to the

text: carbon cycle

text: , and in some cases lower amounts of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.  The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire

text: independence

text: from

text: Middle Eastern

text: oil.

text: Kruger Energy specializes in renewable energy, such as hydroelectricity, wind energy, biomass cogeneration and biogas energy.

text: Solar power is a widely known and used renewable energy source. An increase in technology has allowed solar power to be used in a wide variety of applications. Two types of solar panels generate heat into electricity. Thermal solar panels reduce or eliminate the consumption of gas and diesel, and reduce CO₂ emissions. Photovoltaic panels convert solar radiation into an electric current which can power any appliance. However, this is a more complex technology and is generally more expensive to manufacture than thermal panels.

text: Solar power

text: is a widely known and used renewable energy source. An increase in technology has allowed solar power to be used in a wide variety of applications. Two types of solar panels generate heat into electricity. Thermal solar panels reduce or eliminate the consumption of gas and diesel, and reduce CO₂ emissions. Photovoltaic panels convert solar radiation into an electric current which can power any appliance. However, this is a more complex technology and is generally more expensive to manufacture than thermal panels.

text: Solar RPS requirements are meant to create a marketplace for SRECs and a dynamic incentive for the solar industry. Solar RPS requirements demand that energy suppliers or utilities procure a certain percentage of electricity from qualified solar renewable energy resources in a state. These Energy suppliers and/or utilities can meet solar RPS requirements by purchasing SRECs from homeowners and businesses who own solar systems and produce SRECs. Homeowners and businesses can then utilize the sale of the SRECs they generate to help finance their solar systems. SRECs can be sold a variety of ways, such as on the spot market, at auction, or by negotiating long-term contracts.

text: Driven by state renewable energy targets, fourteen states have installed over 1,000 MW of wind capacity, and a total of 37 states now have installed at least some utility-scale wind power. Texas, with 9,728 MW of capacity, has the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state, followed by Iowa with 3,670 MW.  The Roscoe Wind Farm (780 MW) in Texas is the world's largest wind farm.

text: Driven by state renewable energy targets, fourteen states have installed over 1,000 MW of wind capacity, and a total of 37 states now have installed at least some utility-scale wind power.

text: Texas

text: , with 9,728 MW of capacity, has the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state, followed by

text: Iowa

text: with 3,670 MW.  The

text: Roscoe Wind Farm

text: (780 MW) in

text: Texas

text: is the world's largest

text: wind farm

text: Lakes and man made reservoirs used for hydropower come in all sizes, holding enough water for as little as a one-day supply, or as much as a whole year's supply. A plant with a reservoir that holds less than the annual river flow may change its operating style depending on the season of the year. For example, the plant may operate as a peaking plant during the dry season, as a base load plant during the wet season and as a load following plant between seasons. A plant with a large reservoir may operate independently of wet and dry seasons, such as operating at maximum capacity during peak heating or cooling seasons.

text: The Seminole Campus-based Environmental Science Technology AS includes three sub-plans: Water Resource management, Environmental Resources/Energy Management and Sustainability and includes newly developed courses in Renewable Energy Resources, Solar Energy, Environmental Regulations, Environmental Compliance, Hydrology, Urban Resources Pollutants and Hazardous Waste/Materials Management.

text: Biomass is organic matter derived from living, or recently living organisms. Biomass can be used as a source of energy and it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.

text: Biomass is

text: organic matter

text: derived from living, or recently living organisms. Biomass can be used as a source of energy and it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called

text: lignocellulosic biomass

text: biofuel

text: . Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.

text: In 2010 Renewable energy in Lithuania constituted 19.7% of the country's overall electricity generation. The Lithuanian government aims to generate 23% of total power from renewable resources by 2020.

text: Because the manufacturing and transportation of disposable water bottles requires petroleum, a non-renewable resource, the single-serve bottled water industry has come under pressure from concerned consumers. The Pacific Institute calculates that it required about 17 million barrels of oil to make the disposable plastic bottles for single-serve water that Americans consumed in 2006. To sustain the consumptive use of products relying on plastic components and level of manufactured demand for plastic water bottles,  the end result is shortages of fossil fuels. Furthermore, it means not only a shortage of the raw materials to make plastics, but also a shortage of the energy required to fuel their production.

text: Because the manufacturing and transportation of disposable water bottles requires

text: petroleum

text: , a non-renewable resource, the single-serve bottled water industry has come under pressure from concerned consumers. The

text: Pacific Institute

text: calculates that it required about 17 million barrels of oil to make the disposable plastic bottles for single-serve water that Americans consumed in 2006. To sustain the consumptive use of products relying on plastic components and level of

text: manufactured demand

text: for plastic water bottles,  the end result is shortages of

text: fossil fuels

text: . Furthermore, it means not only a shortage of the raw materials to make plastics, but also a shortage of the energy required to fuel their production.

text: The facility combines solar power generation with biomass-fired power generation in a system that allows for continuous electrical production of renewable energy 24/7, even when the sun isn’t shining. The plant peak capacity of 22.5 MW is obtained when there is sufficient solar power. At night, when only the biomass power is available, the plant power capacity is 12 MW.

text: Many energy markets, institutions, and policies have been developed to support the production and use of fossil fuels. Newer and cleaner technologies may offer social and environmental benefits, but utility operators often reject renewable resources because they are trained to think only in terms of big, conventional power plants. Consumers often ignore renewable power systems because they are not given accurate price signals about electricity consumption. Intentional market distortions (such as subsidies), and unintentional market distortions (such as split incentives) may work against renewables. Benjamin K. Sovacool has argued that "some of the most surreptitious, yet powerful, impediments facing renewable energy and energy efficiency in the United States are more about culture and institutions than engineering and science".

text: Many energy markets, institutions, and policies have been developed to support the production and use of fossil fuels. Newer and cleaner technologies may offer social and environmental benefits, but utility operators often reject renewable resources because they are trained to think only in terms of big, conventional power plants. Consumers often ignore renewable power systems because they are not given accurate price signals about electricity consumption. Intentional market distortions (such as subsidies), and unintentional market distortions (such as split incentives) may work against renewables.

text: Benjamin K. Sovacool

text: has argued that "some of the most surreptitious, yet powerful, impediments facing renewable energy and energy efficiency in the United States are more about culture and institutions than engineering and science".

text: "Geothermal energy" refers to the heat generated naturally by the earth, which  can be used for the production of electricity. One of the greatest advantages of geothermal energy is said to be the reduction in CO2 emission. Unlike some other energy alternatives, which rely on intermittent supply of sunlight or wind, geothermal power generation can be used, like more traditional sources, for long term base-load power 24/7. South Australia hosts significant geothermal resources, with a surface heat flow of 92 ± 10 mW m, compared to a heat flow of 49-54 mW m in geologically similar regions.

text: Geothermal energy

text: " refers to the heat generated naturally by the earth, which  can be used for the production of

text: electricity

text: . One of the greatest advantages of geothermal energy is said to be the reduction in

text: emission. Unlike some other energy alternatives, which rely on intermittent supply of sunlight or wind, geothermal power generation can be used, like more traditional sources, for long term base-load power 24/7. South Australia hosts significant geothermal resources, with a surface heat flow of 92 ± 10 mW m, compared to a heat flow of 49-54 mW m in geologically similar regions.

text: Hydropower is considered a renewable and clean energy source. However large dams, such as the Three Gorges Dam or the Xiluodu Dam have had environmental impacts on the areas surrounding dam reservoirs. Typical problems have been erosion, flooding of farmland and destruction of fish breeding habitats.

text: Hydropower is considered a renewable and clean energy source. However large dams, such as the

text: Three Gorges Dam

text: or the

text: Xiluodu Dam

text: have had environmental impacts on the areas surrounding dam reservoirs. Typical problems have been erosion, flooding of farmland and destruction of fish breeding habitats.

text: In the North American Deserts there are emerging natural resources within the ecosystem. A few natural resources within the desert consist of oil, sunlight, copper, zinc, and water. Some of these resources are renewable and some are non-renewable. Most of these resources are being exploited by humans and most actions are not sustainable.Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations. Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels, so they can reuse the sun as energy. Areas such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and the Great Basin area, put up fields for green energy. We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals; we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us. Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations.

text: The availability, potential, and feasibility of primary renewable energy resources must be analyzed early in the planning process as part of a comprehensive energy plan. The plan must justify energy demand and supply and assess the actual costs and benefits to the local, regional, and global environments. Responsible energy use is fundamental to sustainable development and a sustainable future. Energy management must balance justifiable energy demand with appropriate energy supply. The process couples energy awareness, energy conservation, and energy efficiency with the use of primary renewable energy resources.

text: The availability, potential, and feasibility of primary renewable energy resources must be analyzed early in the planning process as part of a comprehensive energy plan. The plan must justify energy demand and supply and assess the actual costs and benefits to the local, regional, and global environments. Responsible energy use is fundamental to

text: sustainable development

text: and a sustainable future. Energy management must balance justifiable energy demand with appropriate energy supply. The process couples energy awareness, energy conservation, and energy efficiency with the use of primary renewable energy resources.

text: Abu Dhabi, 17th January 2013. Over 160 countries today endorsed the growth of renewable energy in a balanced global energy portfolio and noted the leading role of the UAE and Middle East.  In the Declaration of the Abu Dhabi International Renewable Energy Conference (ADIREC), ministers called for a doubling of the world’s share of renewable energy by 2030 under the leadership of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), capping off three days of discussions among government delegations, business leaders, NGOs, and international organizations.  Held this year as part of Abu Dhabi Sustainability Week, the world’s largest annual sustainable energy event with over 30,000 participants, ADIREC is the fifth IREC, building upon successful outcomes in Delhi in 2010 (DIREC), Washington in 2008 (WIREC), Beijing in 2005, and Bonn in 2004.  ADIREC this year also complements the General Assembly of IRENA, the 159 member country organization headquartered in Abu Dhabi. Dr Sultan Al Jaber, the UAE’s Special Envoy for Energy and Climate Change and Managing Director and Chief Executive Officer of Masdar, commented: “ADIREC and Abu Dhabi Sustainability Week have brought together the world’s renewable energy leaders in Abu Dhabi, home of IRENA, to debate strategies for the rapid expansion of renewable energy globally. The events spotlight the huge transformation in both global and regional energy markets, with billions of dollars of new renewable energy projects in the Gulf alone.” The renewable energy market in the MENA region is rapidly expanding, with a diverse range of countries announcing projects and policies to harness the region’s abundance of renewable energy resources for economic growth and energy security enhancement.  With its strong demographic growth, urbanization and expanding economy, as well as high temperatures, the MENA region is experiencing marked growth in energy and electricity demand, which conference participants and IRENA estimate could be met by renewable energy on a cost-competitive basis. Supporting the discussions, REN21 launched the Renewables Global Futures Report, providing a mosaic of credible renewable energy futures, as well as the Executive Summary of the MENA Renewables Status Report, which highlights the new investment opportunities in the MENA region and the improving direction of underpinning policy frameworks. Mr. Mohamed El-Ashry, Chairman of REN21, said: “With the world’s energy dynamics becoming increasingly complex, there is a need for greater global integration and collaboration to address how the world will power its future generations. The future of renewable energy looks very different today than it did a decade ago. The recent unanimous declaration by the UN General Assembly designating 2014-2024 as the United Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All underscores the importance of energy to sustainable development and the need for increased use of renewable sources of energy, energy efficiency, and the sustainable use of traditional energy resources. The UAE has shown tremendous leadership in this area and will continue to do so. I would like to thank the UAE for the excellent collaboration with REN21 on ADIREC and beyond.” ADIREC is jointly organized by the UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Directorate of Energy and Climate Change; Masdar, Abu Dhabi’s multi-faceted clean energy company; and REN21, the -based renewable energy policy network.

text: In 2004, the wind farm received carbon credits from the New Zealand government, under a scheme to promote renewable energy for electricity generation.  However, local councils denied the application for resource consents.  This project is notable in being one of the few power projects to be denied resource consents.

text: In 2004, the wind farm received carbon credits from the New Zealand government, under a scheme to promote

text: renewable energy

text: for electricity generation.  However, local councils denied the application for

text: resource consent

text: s.  This project is notable in being one of the few power projects to be denied resource consents.

text: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).

text: Solar energy

text: , radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: , is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as

text: solar heating

text: photovoltaics

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP),

text: concentrator photovoltaics

text: (CPV),

text: solar architecture

text: and

text: artificial photosynthesis

text: . Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either

text: passive solar

text: or

text: active solar

text: depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable

text: thermal mass

text: naturally circulate air

text: . Active solar technologies encompass

text: solar thermal energy

text: , using

text: solar collectors

text: for heating, and

text: solar power

text: , converting

text: sunlight

text: into

text: electricity

text: either directly using

text: photovoltaics

text: (PV), or indirectly using

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP).

text: Enel Green Power is engaged in the production of electricity from renewable sources at a global level: in March 2015, with 735 active power plants, it is present in 4 continents (Europe, North America, South America, Africa). In every country the activity is managed through a national division. The production mix includes geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, biomass, and wind power, with a total production capacity of 9,789 MW.

text: Enel Green Power is engaged in the production of electricity from

text: renewable sources

text: at a global level: in March 2015, with 735 active

text: power plants

text: , it is present in 4 continents (Europe, North America, South America, Africa). In every country the activity is managed through a national division. The production mix includes

text: geothermal energy

text: hydropower

text: solar energy

text: biomass

text: , and

text: wind power

text: , with a total production capacity of 9,789 MW.

text: Hydropower is a significant source of renewable energy in the United States.  The National Hydropower Association (NHA) conducted a study that concluded that "the United States could add approximately 60,000 MW of new hydropower capacity by 2025, potentially creating as many as 700,000 jobs in the process," according to the Committee Report released by the House Energy and Commerce Committee when it referred the Bill to the floor.

text: Hydropower is a significant source of

text: renewable energy

text: in the United States.  The

text: National Hydropower Association

text: (NHA) conducted a study that concluded that "the United States could add approximately 60,000

text: MW

text: of new hydropower capacity by 2025, potentially creating as many as 700,000 jobs in the process," according to the Committee Report released by the House Energy and Commerce Committee when it referred the Bill to the floor.

text: Construction of Golen Gol Hydropower Plant was commenced in June 2009 and the project is expected to be completed in October 2017. The total cost of the project is about PKR 16 billion. Golen Gol Hydropower Project is part of the least-cost energy generation plan of the Government of Pakistan. It is being executed by Wapda on priority basis to harness indigenous hydropower resources to improve the ratio of hydel electricity in the national grid and help provide relief to the consumers.

text: Construction of Golen Gol Hydropower Plant was commenced in June 2009 and the project is expected to be completed in October 2017. The total cost of the project is about PKR 16 billion. Golen Gol Hydropower Project is part of the least-cost energy generation plan of the

text: Government of Pakistan

text: There is one major factor that had a dramatic influence on the electricity spot prices in the recent years, which is the wind. The portion of the wind energy in the overall electricity production increased significantly in the last couple of years in many European countries due to heavily subsidized governmental programs favoring investments into renewable energy sources. In some countries such as Germany, the wind power installations are required by law to make full use of the prevailing weather conditions and always produce the maximum possible amount of electric energy.Firstly it has to be stated that the wind is a completely flexible energy source per se, since the head of the wind turbine can be rotated, thereby stopping to turn and to produce electric energy. However, this flexibility is taken away by the prevailing environmental and energy laws in order to maximize the share of renewable energy in the production portfolio to the fullest extent possible.Secondly, wind is a highly unpredictable factor and the schedules for wind installations are often far off, despite major efforts to statistically predict the short-term wind conditions.The two above mentioned factors combined introduce a new source of volatility into an already volatile system that gives rise to electricity prices.

text: Geothermal energy is obtained by harnessing heat from the ground. This type of energy can be used to heat and cool homes. It eliminates dependence on external energy and generates minimum waste. It is also hidden from view as it is placed underground, making it more aesthetically pleasing and easier to incorporate in a design.

text: Geothermal energy

text: is obtained by harnessing heat from the ground. This type of energy can be used to heat and cool homes. It eliminates dependence on external energy and generates minimum waste. It is also hidden from view as it is placed underground, making it more aesthetically pleasing and easier to incorporate in a design.

text: GWP has a long history of supporting renewable energy. In 1937, Glendale became one of the first California cities to contract with the Federal Government to purchase hydropower from Hoover Dam, and has been generating electricity using landfill gas from Scholl Canyon since 1994. More recently, GWP has made long term investments in wind, small hydroelectric and geothermal generation resources. In addition, GWP built a 261 KW solar photovoltaic generating system on top of the parking garage at the local community college.GWP adopted a Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) in 2004, which is being updated to comply with recent changes in California law. The GWP RPS recognizes the intent of the Californian Legislature to encourage renewable resources, while taking into consideration the effect on rates, reliability, financial resources, and the goal of environmental improvement. The current GWP RPS sets an initial goal of 20% of its annual energy requirements from renewable energy sources through 2015, with a step-up to 25% in 2016 and another step-up to 33% in 2020. Today, GWP proudly provides well over 20% of its energy requirements from renewable resources.

text: GWP has a long history of supporting

text: renewable energy

text: . In 1937, Glendale became one of the first California cities to contract with the Federal Government to purchase hydropower from Hoover Dam, and has been generating electricity using landfill gas from Scholl Canyon since 1994. More recently, GWP has made long term investments in wind, small hydroelectric and geothermal generation resources. In addition, GWP built a 261 KW solar photovoltaic generating system on top of the parking garage at the local community college.GWP adopted a Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) in 2004, which is being updated to comply with recent changes in California law. The GWP RPS recognizes the intent of the Californian Legislature to encourage renewable resources, while taking into consideration the effect on rates, reliability, financial resources, and the goal of environmental improvement. The current GWP RPS sets an initial goal of 20% of its annual energy requirements from renewable energy sources through 2015, with a step-up to 25% in 2016 and another step-up to 33% in 2020. Today, GWP proudly provides well over 20% of its energy requirements from renewable resources.

text: The Council's working group committees include Information Communication Technology, Customs, Corporate Citizenship, Defence, Energy, Financial Services, Health and Life Sciences and Food & Agriculture. Through these committees, the Council works to solve problems and facilitate opportunities in varying market conditions. Its Financial Service Committee, for instance, is a participant of the annual ASEAN Finance Ministers Meeting (AFMM), thus giving the Council the capacity to raise and advocate member company concerns. The Council's Energy Committee, currently chaired by Chevron, represents specific industries ranging from geothermal, coal based methane and wind energy to oil & gas, natural resources and nuclear energy.

text: The Council's working group committees include

entity_name: Information and communications technology

text: Information Communication Technology

text: Customs

text: Corporate Citizenship

text: Defence

text: Energy

text: Financial Services

text: Health and Life Sciences

text: and

text: Food & Agriculture

text: . Through these committees, the Council works to solve problems and facilitate opportunities in varying market conditions. Its Financial Service Committee, for instance, is a participant of the annual ASEAN Finance Ministers Meeting (AFMM), thus giving the Council the capacity to raise and advocate member company concerns. The Council's Energy Committee, currently chaired by

text: Chevron

text: , represents specific industries ranging from geothermal, coal based methane and wind energy to oil & gas, natural resources and nuclear energy.

text: According to their website, Stirling Energy Systems (SES) is a systems integration and project management company that is developing equipment for utility-scale renewable energy power plants and distributed electric generating systems ("gensets"). SES is teamed with Kockums Submarine Systems, NASA-Glenn Research Center, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), and The Boeing Company for solar power plants. SES claims it is positioned to become a premier worldwide renewable energy technology company to meet the global demand for renewable electric generating technologies through the commercialization of its own stirling cycle engine technology for solar power generation applications.

text: According to their website, Stirling Energy Systems (SES) is a

text: systems integration

text: and

text: project management

text: company that is developing equipment for utility-scale renewable energy power plants and distributed electric generating systems ("gensets"). SES is teamed with

text: Kockums

text: Submarine Systems,

text: NASA

text: Glenn Research Center

text: , the

text: U.S. Department of Energy

text: (DOE), and The

text: Boeing Company

text: for solar power plants. SES claims it is positioned to become a premier worldwide renewable energy technology company to meet the global demand for renewable electric generating technologies through the commercialization of its own

text: stirling cycle engine

text: technology for solar power generation applications.

text: Some of the legal issues raised by geothermal energy resources include questions of ownership and allocation of the resource, the grant of exploration permits, exploitation rights, royalties, and the extent to which geothermal energy issues have been recognized in existing planning and environmental laws. Other questions concern overlap between geothermal and mineral or petroleum tenements. Broader issues concern the extent to which the legal framework for encouragement of renewable energy assists in encouraging geothermal industry innovation and development.

text: Biofuels have the potential to provide environmental and economic benefits but they must be carefully managed to ensure that they are truly sustainable resources as there is the potential to damage the economy and environment if they are not used responsibly. Biofuel use in Europe is certified by the EU commission before they can be recorded as sustainable resources and used for national renewable energy targets. The main sources of biofuels in Denmark include wood and wood products, energy from waste, straw, biogas, biodiesel and bioethanol.

text: Biofuels have the potential to provide environmental and economic benefits but they must be carefully managed to ensure that they are truly

text: sustainable

text: resources as there is the potential to damage the economy and environment if they are not used responsibly. Biofuel use in Europe is certified by the EU commission before they can be recorded as sustainable resources and used for national renewable energy targets. The main sources of biofuels in Denmark include wood and wood products,

text: energy from waste

text: , straw,

text: biogas

text: biodiesel

text: and

text: bioethanol.

text: Carbon 14 dating can determine with precision the biomass fraction of waste, and also determine the biomass calorific value. Determining the calorific value is important for green certificate programs such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate program in the United Kingdom. These programs award certificates based on the energy produced from biomass. Several research papers, including the one commissioned by the Renewable Energy Association in the UK, have been published that demonstrate how the carbon 14 result can be used to calculate the biomass calorific value. The UK gas and electricity markets authority, Ofgem, released a statement in 2011 accepting the use of Carbon 14 as a way to determine the biomass energy content of waste feedstock under their administration of the Renewables Obligation. Their Fuel Measurement and Sampling (FMS) questionnaire describes the information they look for when considering such proposals.

text: Carbon 14 dating can determine with precision the biomass fraction of waste, and also determine the biomass calorific value. Determining the calorific value is important for green certificate programs such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate program in the United Kingdom. These programs award certificates based on the energy produced from biomass. Several research papers, including the one commissioned by the

text: Renewable Energy Association

text: in the UK, have been published that demonstrate how the carbon 14 result can be used to calculate the biomass calorific value. The UK gas and electricity markets authority,

text: Ofgem

text: , released a statement in 2011 accepting the use of Carbon 14 as a way to determine the biomass energy content of waste feedstock under their administration of the Renewables Obligation. Their Fuel Measurement and Sampling (FMS) questionnaire describes the information they look for when considering such proposals.

text: Concerns with energy efficiency have also led to the introduction of the compact fluorescent lamp for domestic, commercial and industrial use and the federal government stated in 2007 that the sale of incandescent light bulbs would be phased out by 2012. The technology of the LED lamp has been known for a century. In recent years, it has become a popular replacement for incandescent bulbs because of its low power consumption. RenewABILITY Energy of Waterloo has developed a technique for recovering heat from domestic waste water. Known as the Power-Pipe, it channels hot waste water through cold water waiting to be used and heats it.

text: Concerns with energy efficiency have also led to the introduction of the

text: compact fluorescent lamp

text: for domestic, commercial and industrial use and the federal government stated in 2007 that the sale of incandescent light bulbs would be phased out by 2012. The technology of the

text: LED

text: lamp has been known for a century. In recent years, it has become a popular replacement for incandescent bulbs because of its low power consumption. RenewABILITY Energy of Waterloo has developed a technique for recovering heat from domestic waste water. Known as the Power-Pipe, it channels hot waste water through cold water waiting to be used and heats it.

text: Nelja Energia (also branded as 4Energia) is a renewable energy developer based in Tallinn, Estonia. The main areas of business of the company are the development of the renewable energy industry and the operation of power production. The name of the company, meaning Energy of Four, is referring to the four type of renewable energy: wind, water, biomass and solar.  The company is focused on the renewable energy development in the Baltic countries. The CEO of the company is Martin Kruus.

text: Nelja Energia (also branded as 4Energia) is a

text: renewable energy

text: developer based in

text: Tallinn

text: Estonia

text: . The main areas of business of the company are the development of the renewable energy industry and the operation of power production. The name of the company, meaning Energy of Four, is referring to the four type of renewable energy:

text: wind

text: water

text: biomass

text: and

text: solar

text: .  The company is focused on the renewable energy development in the

text: Baltic countries

text: . The CEO of the company is Martin Kruus.

text: In 2008, about 56% of Morocco's electricity supply was provided by coal. However, as forecasts indicate that energy requirements in Morocco will rise 6% per year between 2012 and 2050, a new law passed encouraging Moroccans to look for ways to diversify the energy supply, including more renewable resources. The Moroccan government has launched a project to build a solar thermal energy power plant and is also looking into the use of natural gas as a potential source of revenue for Morocco's government.

text: In 2008, about 56% of Morocco's electricity supply was provided by coal. However, as forecasts indicate that energy requirements in Morocco will rise 6% per year between 2012 and 2050, a new law passed encouraging Moroccans to look for ways to diversify the energy supply, including more

text: renewable resources

text: . The Moroccan government has launched a project to build a

text: solar thermal energy

text: power plant

text: and is also looking into the use of natural gas as a potential source of revenue for Morocco's government.

text: The Green Mountain Wind Energy Center is a wind power plant near Garrett, Somerset County, Pennsylvania with eight Nordex 1.3 MW turbines that began commercial operation in May 2000. This was the first commercial wind farm constructed in Pennsylvania. The wind farm has a combined total nameplate capacity of 10.4 MW and the potential to produce about 27,000 megawatt-hours of electricity annually, enough to power 3,300 homes, assuming a 30% capacity factor. The wind farm was developed by National Wind Power of the UK, now part of NPower Renewables, operated by NextEra Energy Resources, based in Florida. Energy from the wind farm is purchased and sold by Green Mountain Energy based in Texas, and was the first commercial wind farm for Green Mountain Energy.

text: The Green Mountain Wind Energy Center is a wind

text: power plant

text: near

text: Garrett

text: Somerset County, Pennsylvania

text: with eight

text: Nordex 1.3 MW turbine

text: s that began commercial operation in May 2000. This was the first commercial

text: wind farm

text: constructed in Pennsylvania. The wind farm has a combined total

text: nameplate capacity

text: of 10.4 MW and the potential to produce about 27,000

text: megawatt-hours

text: of electricity annually, enough to power 3,300 homes, assuming a 30% capacity factor. The wind farm was developed by National Wind Power of the UK, now part of NPower Renewables, operated by

text: NextEra Energy Resources

text: , based in

text: Florida

text: . Energy from the wind farm is purchased and sold by

text: Green Mountain Energy

text: based in

text: Texas

text: , and was the first commercial wind farm for Green Mountain Energy.

text: The obstacles to the widespread commercialization of renewable energy technologies are primarily political, not technical, and there have been many studies which have identified a range of  "non-technical barriers" to renewable energy use. These barriers are impediments which put renewable energy at a marketing, institutional, or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy.  Key barriers include:

text: A solar turbine power plant uses the energy in solar radiation captured by so-called solar collectors. Solar power is a renewable source of energy. The solar radiant energy reaching the earth's surface is around 1.783*10 KJ or 1.353kJ/s per square meter. Solar power plants, such as the Blythe Solar Power Project, operate mainly on closed power cycles: Rankine cycles (for low temperature ranges) and Brayton cycles (for high temperature ranges). Solar plants provide energy ranging from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts. The constraints associated with solar plants are size, space, high capital cost, and the inevitable fluctuations in the daily supply of solar radiant energy.

text: A solar turbine power plant uses the energy in solar radiation captured by so-called

text: solar collector

text: s. Solar power is a renewable source of energy. The solar radiant energy reaching the earth's surface is around 1.783*10 KJ or 1.353kJ/s per square meter. Solar power plants, such as the

text: Blythe Solar Power Project

text: , operate mainly on closed power cycles:

text: Rankine cycle

text: s (for low temperature ranges) and

text: Brayton cycle

text: s (for high temperature ranges). Solar plants provide energy ranging from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts. The constraints associated with solar plants are size, space, high capital cost, and the inevitable fluctuations in the daily supply of solar radiant energy.

text: Bush also helped make Texas the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the US. In 1995 Bush made wind power a key facet of Texas' renewable energy policy. Under a 1999 Texas state law, electric retailers are obliged to buy a certain amount of energy from renewable sources (RPS). This environmentally progressive legislation is a striking counterpoint to the energy policies of his presidency that favored the status quo.

text: Bush also helped make

text: Texas

text: the

text: leading producer

text: of

text: wind power

text: ed electricity in the US. In 1995 Bush made wind power a key facet of Texas' renewable energy policy. Under a 1999 Texas state law, electric retailers are obliged to buy a

text: certain amount of energy from renewable sources (RPS)

text: . This environmentally progressive legislation is a striking counterpoint to the

entity_name: Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration

text: energy policies

text: of his presidency that favored the

text: status quo

text: The fourth issue regarding the generation of wind power is the Renewable Energy Feed-in Tariff, or REFIT. The purpose of REFIT is to encourage development of renewable energy resources. For wind power production, the current limit to the tariff is 1,450 MW. However, applications currently being processed for grid connections exceed the limit by almost 1,500 MW for a total for nearly 3,000 MW. Since the limit is 1,450 MW, many of the applications for grid connections may not eligible for the tariff.

text: The fourth issue regarding the generation of wind power is the Renewable Energy

text: Feed-in Tariff

text: , or REFIT. The purpose of REFIT is to encourage development of renewable energy resources. For wind power production, the current limit to the tariff is 1,450 MW. However, applications currently being processed for grid connections exceed the limit by almost 1,500 MW for a total for nearly 3,000 MW. Since the limit is 1,450 MW, many of the applications for grid connections may not eligible for the tariff.

text: To achieve the state-mandated 10% renewable energy requirement, the company has built or acquired power through purchase agreements from several new sources. They contracted for 19.2MW from eight new wind turbines at the Beebe Wind Farm in Gratiot County. Lansing Board of Water and Power owns the 0.5MW Moores Park hydroelectric plant on the Grand River and the 0.16MW Cedar Street Solar Array. It also purchases power from the Tower/Kleber Hydro plant near Cheboygan and the Granger Landfill Energy plant. Lansing Board of Power and Light has issued a request for  proposals for 20MW of additional solar power.

text: To achieve the state-mandated 10%

text: renewable energy

text: requirement, the company has built or acquired power through purchase agreements from several new sources. They contracted for 19.2MW from eight new

text: wind turbine

text: s at the Beebe Wind Farm in

text: Gratiot County

text: . Lansing Board of Water and Power owns the 0.5MW Moores Park hydroelectric plant on the

text: Grand River

text: and the 0.16MW Cedar Street Solar Array. It also purchases power from the Tower/Kleber Hydro plant near Cheboygan and the Granger Landfill Energy plant. Lansing Board of Power and Light has issued a request for  proposals for 20MW of additional solar power.

text: The Kargil, Ladakh,  occupied Gilgit and China occupied Aksai Chin regions of Jammu and Kashmir state are potential wind energy areas, which are yet to be exploited. Wind Speeds are higher during the winter months in the state, which is complimentary to the hydro power available during the summer months from the snow melt water. Being a Himalayan state located at higher altitude, the heating energy requirements are high which can be met by the renewable energy resources such as wind, solar and hydro power. The state is yet to open its account in grid connected wind power installations.

text: The

text: Kargil

text: Ladakh

text: ,  occupied

text: Gilgit

text: and China occupied

text: Aksai Chin

text: regions of

text: Jammu and Kashmir

text: state are potential wind energy areas, which are yet to be exploited. Wind Speeds are higher during the winter months in the state, which is complimentary to the hydro power available during the summer months from the snow melt water. Being a Himalayan state located at higher altitude, the heating energy requirements are high which can be met by the renewable energy resources such as wind, solar and hydro power. The state is yet to open its account in grid connected wind power installations.

text: Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy that encourages conservation of natural resources. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, geo-exchange systems save homeowners 30–70 percent in heating costs, and 20–50 percent in cooling costs, compared to conventional systems. Geo-exchange systems also save money because they require much less maintenance. In addition to being highly reliable they are built to last for decades.

text: Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy that encourages conservation of natural resources. According to the U.S.

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: geo-exchange

text: systems save homeowners 30–70 percent in heating costs, and 20–50 percent in cooling costs, compared to conventional systems. Geo-exchange systems also save money because they require much less maintenance. In addition to being highly reliable they are built to last for decades.

text: The Coal Question; An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines (1865) was a book by economist William Stanley Jevons that explored the implications of Britain's reliance on coal. Given that coal was a finite, non-renewable energy resource, Jevons raised the question of sustainability. "Are we wise," he asked rhetorically, "in allowing the commerce of this country to rise beyond the point at which we can long maintain it?" His central thesis was that the supremacy of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland over global affairs was transitory, given the finite nature of its primary energy resource. In propounding this thesis, Jevons covered a range of issues central to sustainability, including limits to growth, overpopulation, overshoot, energy return on energy input (EROEI), taxation of energy resources, renewable energy alternatives, and resource peakinga subject widely discussed today under the rubric of peak oil.

text: The Coal Question; An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines (1865) was a book by

text: economist

text: William Stanley Jevons

text: that explored the implications of Britain's reliance on

text: coal

text: . Given that coal was a finite, non-renewable energy resource, Jevons raised the question of

text: sustainability

text: . "Are we

text: wise

text: ," he asked rhetorically, "in allowing the commerce of this country to rise beyond the point at which we can long maintain it?" His central thesis was that the supremacy of the

entity_name: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

text: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

text: over global affairs was transitory, given the finite nature of its primary energy resource. In propounding this thesis, Jevons covered a range of issues central to sustainability, including

text: limits to growth

text: overpopulation

text: , overshoot, energy return on energy input (

text: EROEI

text: ), taxation of energy resources,

text: renewable energy

text: alternatives, and resource peakinga subject widely discussed today under the rubric of

text: peak oil

text: Henry Kissinger appointed Tom to the role of Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs in 1973.  Tom’s job was to corral the allies into a common approach to the energy crisis and prevent bilateralism from gaining the upper hand. The US spearheaded the International Energy Program (IEP) Agreement, underpinned by the International Energy Agency(IEA), which still exists today, as a counterweight to OPEC. To make the US credible on the IEA, Congress adopted our first energy legislation in 1975 promoting conservation, renewable and alternative energy resources.

text: Henry Kissinger

text: appointed Tom to the role of

text: Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs

text: in 1973.  Tom’s job was to corral the allies into a common approach to the energy crisis and prevent bilateralism from gaining the upper hand. The US spearheaded the International Energy Program (IEP) Agreement, underpinned by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA), which still exists today, as a counterweight to

text: OPEC

text: . To make the US credible on the IEA, Congress adopted our first energy legislation in 1975 promoting conservation, renewable and alternative energy resources.

text: Geothermal energy is used commercially in over 70 countries. In 2004,  of electricity was generated from geothermal resources, and an additional  of geothermal energy was used directly, mostly for space heating. In 2007, the world had a global capacity for  of electricity generation and an additional  of direct heating, including extraction by geothermal heat pumps. Heat pumps are small and widely distributed, so estimates of their total capacity are uncertain and range up to .

text: Geothermal energy

text: is used commercially in over 70 countries. In 2004,  of electricity was generated from geothermal resources, and an additional  of geothermal energy was used directly, mostly for space heating. In 2007, the world had a global capacity for  of electricity generation and an additional  of

text: direct heating

text: , including extraction by

text: geothermal heat pumps

text: . Heat pumps are small and widely distributed, so estimates of their total capacity are uncertain and range up to .

text: Deploying Renewables 2011: Best and Future Policy Practice is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency. The book analyses the recent successes in renewable energy, which now accounts for almost a fifth of all electricity produced worldwide, and addresses how countries can best capitalize on that growth to realise a sustainable energy future. The book says that renewable energy commercialization must be stepped up, especially given the world’s increasing appetite for energy and the need to meet this demand more efficiently and with low-carbon energy sources. Wind power and other renewable energy sources offer great potential to address issues of energy security and sustainability.

text: Deploying Renewables 2011: Best and Future Policy Practice is a 2011 book by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: . The book analyses the recent successes in

text: renewable energy

text: , which now accounts for almost a fifth of all

text: electricity produced worldwide

text: , and addresses how countries can best capitalize on that growth to realise a

text: sustainable energy

text: future. The book says that

text: renewable energy commercialization

text: must be stepped up, especially given the world’s increasing appetite for energy and the need to meet this demand more efficiently and with low-carbon energy sources.

text: Wind power

text: and other

text: renewable energy

text: sources offer great potential to address issues of

text: energy security

text: and

text: sustainability

text: To ensure the provision of adequate, secure and cost-effective energy supplies through developing indigenous energy resources both non-renewable and renewable energy resources using the latest cost options and diversification of supply sources both from within and outside the country.

text: To ensure the provision of adequate, secure and cost-effective energy supplies through developing indigenous

text: energy resource

text: s both

text: non-renewable

text: and

text: renewable energy resources

text: using the latest cost options and diversification of supply sources both from within and outside the country.

text: Renewable energy is energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. As of 2013, 19% of global final energy consumption comes from renewable resources, with 9% of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, 4% from hydroelectricity 1% from biofuels and 4% from biomass, geothermal or solar heat . Popular renewables (wind, solar, geothermal and biomass for power) accounted for another 1.3% and are growing rapidly.

text: Renewable energy is

text: energy

text: that comes from resources which are naturally replenished such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: . As of 2013, 19% of global final energy consumption comes from

text: renewable resource

text: s, with 9% of all energy from traditional

text: biomass

text: , mainly used for

text: heating

text: , 4% from

text: hydroelectricity

text: 1% from biofuels and 4% from biomass, geothermal or solar heat . Popular renewables (wind, solar, geothermal and biomass for power) accounted for another 1.3% and are growing rapidly.

text: Water is required for all life, but since ancient times, mankind has also employed this natural resource for other specifically human productive uses.  Millennia ago man learned to navigate on water, learned to dam and divert it for irrigation and build aqueducts and canals to carry it where possible, and learned to convert the power of moving water to mechanical energy to perform work.  They also employed basic wind and solar renewable energy for transport and heating.  It took time before ancient cities learned to separate water supply from effluent and develop independent drainage for wastewater.  Early on, in the United States, the federal government established policy on interstate navigation, with federal policy on flood control and irrigation developing later as outgrowths.  Only since the age of electricity, a century ago, have larger scientific and policy concerns been expressed about conservation and the need to view water resources in a larger frame of natural resources generally, of public health aspects of water and its pollution. Federal planning on a broader policy basis began concurrently with the development of the country's hydropower potential.  Since WWII, federal hydropower policy has become entwined within these and other broader policy concerns and it has been affected by them considerably; changes in hydropower policy have also attempted to address severe new challenges caused by the level of national energy consumption and questions of energy more globally defined, including its competing types, sources, as well as the sources and safety of competing fuels.

text: Water

text: is required for all life, but since ancient times, mankind has also employed

text: this natural resource

text: for other specifically human productive uses.  Millennia ago man learned to navigate on water, learned to dam and divert it for irrigation and build aqueducts and canals to carry it where possible, and learned to convert the power of moving water to mechanical energy to perform work.  They also employed basic wind and solar

text: renewable energy

text: for transport and heating.  It took time before ancient cities learned to separate water supply from effluent and develop independent drainage for

text: wastewater

text: .  Early on, in the United States, the federal government established policy on interstate navigation, with federal policy on

text: flood control

text: and

text: irrigation

text: developing later as outgrowths.  Only since the age of electricity, a century ago, have larger scientific and policy concerns been expressed about

text: conservation

text: and the need to view water resources in a larger frame of

text: natural resources

text: generally, of

text: public health

text: aspects of water and its

text: pollution

text: . Federal planning on a broader policy basis began concurrently with the development of the country's hydropower potential.  Since WWII, federal hydropower policy has become entwined within these and other broader policy concerns and it has been affected by them considerably; changes in hydropower policy have also attempted to address severe new challenges caused by the level of national energy consumption and questions of

text: energy

text: more globally defined, including its competing types, sources, as well as the sources and safety of competing fuels.

text: AltaRock Energy Inc., headquartered  in Seattle, Washington and having a technology development office in Sausalito, California,   is a privately held corporation that focuses on the development of  geothermal energy resources and Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS).  AltaRock has filed patent applications and holds exclusive licenses for related intellectual property related to EGS. In 2008, it started its first project near The Geysers to demonstrate the ability of EGS to be a reliable, renewable and clean source for the production of electric power.

text: AltaRock Energy Inc., headquartered  in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: and having a technology development office in

text: Sausalito, California

text: ,   is a privately held corporation that focuses on the development of

text: geothermal energy

text: resources and

text: Enhanced Geothermal Systems

text: (EGS).  AltaRock has filed patent applications and holds exclusive licenses for related intellectual property related to EGS. In 2008, it started its first project near

text: The Geysers

text: to demonstrate the ability of EGS to be a reliable, renewable and clean source for the production of

text: electric power

text: Hydroelectricity is Japan's main renewable energy source, with an installed capacity of about 27 GW, or 16% of the total generation capacity, of which about half is pumped-storage. The production was 73 TWh in 2010.As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 MW. The smaller plants accounted for 6.6 percent of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams.

text: Hydroelectricity is Japan's main renewable energy source, with an installed capacity of about 27 GW, or 16% of the total generation capacity, of which about half is

text: pumped-storage

text: . The production was 73 TWh in 2010.As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 MW. The smaller plants accounted for 6.6 percent of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams.

text: Heat from Earth's interior can be used as an energy source, known as geothermal energy. The geothermal gradient has been used for space heating and bathing since ancient Roman times, and more recently for generating electricity. As the human population continues to grow, so does energy use and the correlating environmental impacts that are consistent with global primary sources of energy. This has caused a growing interest in finding sources of energy that are renewable and have reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In areas of high geothermal energy density, current technology allows for the generation of electrical power because of the corresponding high temperatures. Generating electrical power from geothermal resources requires no fuel while providing true baseload energy at a reliability rate that constantly exceeds 90%. In order to extract geothermal energy, it is necessary to efficiently transfer heat from a geothermal reservoir to a power plant, where electrical energy is converted from heat. On a worldwide scale, the heat stored in Earth's interior provides an energy that is still seen as an exotic source. About 10 GW of geothermal electric capacity is installed around the world as of 2007, generating 0.3% of global electricity demand. An additional 28 GW of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications. Because heat is flowing through every square meter of land, it can be used for a source of energy for heating, air conditioning (HVAC) and ventilating systems using ground source heat pumps.  In areas where modest heat flow is present, geothermal energy can be used for industrial applications that presently rely on fossil fuels.

text: Heat from Earth's interior can be used as an energy source, known as

text: geothermal energy

text: . The geothermal gradient has been used for space heating and bathing since ancient Roman times, and more recently for generating electricity. As the human population continues to grow, so does energy use and the correlating environmental impacts that are consistent with global primary sources of energy. This has caused a growing interest in finding sources of energy that are renewable and have reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In areas of high geothermal energy density, current technology allows for the generation of electrical power because of the corresponding high temperatures. Generating electrical power from geothermal resources requires no fuel while providing true baseload energy at a reliability rate that constantly exceeds 90%. In order to extract geothermal energy, it is necessary to efficiently transfer heat from a geothermal reservoir to a power plant, where electrical energy is converted from heat. On a worldwide scale, the heat stored in Earth's interior provides an energy that is still seen as an exotic source. About 10 GW of

text: geothermal electric

text: capacity is installed around the world as of 2007, generating 0.3% of global electricity demand. An additional 28 GW of direct

text: geothermal heating

text: capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications. Because heat is flowing through every square meter of land, it can be used for a source of energy for heating, air conditioning (HVAC) and ventilating systems using ground source heat pumps.  In areas where modest heat flow is present, geothermal energy can be used for industrial applications that presently rely on fossil fuels.

text: Several other studies argue that a global shortage of fossil energy supply can only can be intercepted by a rigorous extension of the renewable energy system. Conversely, the potential for this endeavour is greater than previously thought according to the EWG. An EWG study posits that arguments against wind power such as fluctuations of wind, lack of grid connections and lack of reserve capacities do not hold due to improvements in planning, growing price incentives and technical improvements. In 2008, the EWG estimated that 17–29% of global energy demand can be covered by renewable energy depending on the willingness to invest. The report maintains that political will is the most crucial obstacle to a global energy transition.

text: Several other studies argue that a global shortage of fossil energy supply can only can be intercepted by a rigorous extension of the

text: renewable energy

text: system. Conversely, the potential for this endeavour is greater than previously thought according to the EWG. An EWG study posits that arguments against wind power such as fluctuations of wind, lack of grid connections and lack of reserve capacities do not hold due to improvements in planning, growing price incentives and technical improvements. In 2008, the EWG estimated that 17–29% of global energy demand can be covered by renewable energy depending on the willingness to invest. The report maintains that political will is the most crucial obstacle to a global

text: energy transition

text: In April 2014, under the leadership of Kauffman and New York Public Service Commission Chair Audrey Zibelman, the NYPSC began a regulatory reform process for New York's electric utility business. Kauffman, Zibelman, and Department of Public Service (DPS) Staff have articulated a wide variety of policy objectives for the REV Regulatory Proceeding in an attempt to modernize the electrical grid system, including the promotion of more efficient energy use, deeper penetration of renewable energy resources such as wind power and solar power, and wider deployment of Distributed Energy Resources, such as microgrids, on-site power supplies, and energy storage. The reform also seeks to promote greater use of advanced energy management products to enhance demand elasticity and efficiencies, and monetize operational efficiency for the electrical grid. Also stated is a larger goal of transforming electric utilities into Distributed System Providers (DSPs) that can manage and appropriately value a diverse set of Distributed Energy Resources.

text: In April 2014, under the leadership of Kauffman and

text: New York Public Service Commission

text: Chair Audrey Zibelman, the NYPSC began a regulatory reform process for New York's

text: electric utility

text: business. Kauffman, Zibelman, and Department of Public Service (DPS) Staff have articulated a wide variety of policy objectives for the REV Regulatory Proceeding in an attempt to modernize the electrical grid system, including the promotion of more efficient energy use, deeper penetration of renewable energy resources such as

text: wind power

text: and

text: solar power

text: , and wider deployment of

text: Distributed Energy Resources

text: , such as

text: microgrids

text: , on-site power supplies, and

text: energy storage

text: . The reform also seeks to promote greater use of advanced energy management products to enhance demand elasticity and efficiencies, and monetize operational efficiency for the electrical grid. Also stated is a larger goal of transforming electric utilities into Distributed System Providers (DSPs) that can manage and appropriately value a diverse set of Distributed Energy Resources.

text: Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time when people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams (104.9 * 10 g – about 105 billion metric tons) of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land.

text: Gujarat invests in development of solar energy in the state and has had India's largest solar power plant as of January 2012. It has allotted 716 MW of solar power capacity to 34 national and international solar project developers in 2009, against the planned 500 MW capacity under its solar power policy. This is expected to bring in investments of INR 120 billion and generate employment for 5,000 people. By 2014, Gujarat plans on producing 1000MW of energy by solar power. When taking all renewable energy sources into account, Gujarat has the highest share of renewable energy sources in India, about 14% (12,489 MW )

text: Small pumped-storage hydropower plants can be built on streams and within infrastructures, such as drinking water networks and artificial snow making infrastructures. Such plants provide distributed energy storage and distributed flexible electricity production and can contribute to the decentralized integration of intermittent renewable energy technologies, such as wind power and Solar power. Reservoirs that can be used for small pumped-storage hydropower plants could include natural or artificial lakes, reservoirs within other structures such as irrigation, or unused portions of mines or underground military installations. In Switzerland one study suggested that the total installed capacity of small pumped-storage hydropower plants in 2011 could be increased by 3 to 9 times by providing adequate policy instruments.

text: Small pumped-storage hydropower plants can be built on streams and within infrastructures, such as drinking water networks and artificial snow making infrastructures. Such plants provide distributed

text: energy storage

text: and distributed flexible

text: electricity production

text: and can contribute to the decentralized integration of

text: intermittent renewable energy

text: technologies, such as

text: wind power

text: and

text: Solar power

text: . Reservoirs that can be used for small pumped-storage hydropower plants could include natural or artificial lakes, reservoirs within other structures such as irrigation, or unused portions of mines or underground military installations. In

text: Switzerland

text: one study suggested that the total installed capacity of small pumped-storage hydropower plants in 2011 could be increased by 3 to 9 times by providing adequate

entity_name: Market-based environmental policy instruments

text: policy instruments

text: Renewable energy refers to the provision of energy via renewable resources which are naturally replenished fast enough as being used. It includes  e.g. sunlight, wind, biomass, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy may replace or enhance fossil energy supply various distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy

text: refers to the provision of energy via renewable resources which are naturally replenished fast enough as being used. It includes  e.g.

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: biomass

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy may replace or enhance fossil energy supply various distinct areas:

text: electricity generation

text: hot water

text: space heating

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Renewable resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits.

text: Renewable

text: resources and significant opportunities for

text: energy efficiency

text: exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits.

text: The Thác Bà Hydropower Plant is a major hydropower project located within the province on the Chay River, built between 1964 and 1971 with assistance from the Soviet Union.  Construction began on August 19, 1964. Despite frequent air strikes by the United States Air Force during this period, the first unit of the power plant was commissioned on October 5, 1971; the second unit followed on August 1972, and the third unit on May 19, 1972. The power plant currently has a capacity of 120 MW, and has an energy generating potential of 400 million kWh/year. The project as built has a dam 48 m high and 657 m long, creating a gross storage capacity of 2.49 cubic kilometres with a live storage of 2.16 cubic kilometres on the Chay River draining a catchment of 6430 km at the dam site. The reservoir is 60 km with a water spread of 235 km at the Full Reservoir Level of +58 m. The project has been designed for a maximum flood discharge of 3,650 m/s. The other ruling levels of the project are: dead storage level in the reservoir +46.0m and maximum flood level of +59.65 for a thousand-year flood.

text: The Thác Bà Hydropower Plant is a major

text: hydropower

text: project located within the province on the

text: Chay River

text: , built between 1964 and 1971 with assistance from the Soviet Union.  Construction began on August 19, 1964. Despite frequent air strikes by the

text: United States Air Force

text: during this period, the first unit of the power plant was commissioned on October 5, 1971; the second unit followed on August 1972, and the third unit on May 19, 1972. The power plant currently has a capacity of 120 MW, and has an energy generating potential of 400 million kWh/year. The project as built has a dam 48 m high and 657 m long, creating a gross storage capacity of 2.49 cubic kilometres with a live storage of 2.16 cubic kilometres on the Chay River draining a

text: catchment

text: of 6430 km at the dam site. The

text: reservoir

text: is 60 km with a water spread of 235 km at the Full Reservoir Level of +58 m. The project has been designed for a maximum

text: flood discharge

text: of 3,650 m/s. The other ruling levels of the project are:

text: dead storage level

text: in the reservoir +46.0m and maximum

text: flood level

text: of +59.65 for a

text: thousand-year flood

text: There are also several physico-chemical methods for producing hydrogen; most of these methods require electrolysis of water. When this process draws its power from renewable energy sources like wind turbines or photovoltaic cells, the production requires little consumption of non-renewable resources. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel.

text: There are also several physico-chemical methods for producing hydrogen; most of these methods require electrolysis of water. When this process draws its power from renewable energy sources like

text: wind turbines

text: or

text: photovoltaic cells

text: , the production requires little consumption of non-renewable resources. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel.

text: The Energy Construct is a 2007 non-fiction book by author Ben Cipiti that examines the challenge of achieving a clean, independent, and economical energy future for the United States. The book examines alternative transportation fuels, renewable energy, nuclear energy, and clean fossil energy to develop a path forward.

text: The Energy Construct is a 2007

text: non-fiction

text: book by author Ben Cipiti that examines the challenge of achieving a clean, independent, and economical energy future for the United States. The book examines alternative transportation fuels,

text: renewable energy

text: nuclear energy

text: , and clean

text: fossil energy

text: to develop a path forward.

text: The U.S. Energy Information Administration projected that by 2017, biomass is expected to be about twice as expensive as natural gas, slightly more expensive than nuclear power, and much less expensive than solar panels. In another EIA study released, concerning the government’s plan to implement a 25% renewable energy standard by 2025, the agency assumed that 598 million tons of biomass would be available, accounting for 12% of the renewable energy in the plan.

text: The U.S.

text: Energy Information Administration

text: projected that by 2017, biomass is expected to be about twice as expensive as natural gas, slightly more expensive than nuclear power, and much less expensive than solar panels. In another EIA study released, concerning the government’s plan to implement a 25% renewable energy standard by 2025, the agency assumed that 598 million tons of biomass would be available, accounting for 12% of the renewable energy in the plan.

text: According to the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report 2011, investments in renewable energy in 2010 reached a record of USD 211 billion (not including large hydropower). These amounts far exceed existing dedicated resources and those proposed under the developed world at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Cancún Agreements.

text: According to the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report 2011, investments in renewable energy in 2010 reached a record of USD 211 billion (not including large hydropower). These amounts far exceed existing dedicated resources and those proposed under the developed world at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (

entity_name: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

text: UNFCCC

text: ) Cancún Agreements.

text: Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26% of electricity generation in Mexico. As of 2009, electricity generation from renewable energy comes from hydro power, geothermal, solar power and wind. There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources. By 2035 they hope that 35 percent of energy used within the country is generated by renewable sources.

text: Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26% of

text: electricity generation

text: in

text: Mexico

text: . As of 2009, electricity generation from

text: renewable energy

text: comes from

text: hydro power

text: geothermal

text: solar power

text: and

text: wind

text: . There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources. By 2035 they hope that 35 percent of energy used within the country is generated by renewable sources.

text: Land is a scarce resource in India and per capita land availability is low. Dedication of land area for exclusive installation of solar arrays often must compete with other necessities that require land. The amount of land required for utility-scale solar power plants — currently approximately  for every 40–60 MW generated — may pose a strain on India's available land resources. One alternative is to use the water surface area available on canals, lakes, reservoirs and the sea for locating large capacity solar power plants. These water bodies can also provide the water needed for periodic cleaning of the solar panels. It is also possible to use highways and railways to avoid the excessive cost of land nearer to load centres and to minimise transmission line costs by installing solar power plants at a height of nearly 10 meters above the roads or rail tracks. The solar power generated by using road area can also be used for in-motion charging of electric vehicles to bring down fuel costs. This practice would also protect the highways from damage from rain and intense summer heat and offer additional comfort to commuters.

text: Land is a scarce resource in India and per capita land availability is low. Dedication of land area for exclusive installation of solar arrays often must compete with other necessities that require land. The amount of land required for utility-scale solar power plants — currently approximately  for every 40–60 MW generated — may pose a strain on India's available land resources. One alternative is to use the water surface area

text: available on canals

text: , lakes, reservoirs and the sea for locating large capacity solar power plants. These water bodies can also provide the water needed for periodic cleaning of the solar panels. It is also possible to use highways and railways to avoid the excessive cost of land nearer to load centres and to minimise transmission line costs by installing solar power plants at a height of nearly 10 meters above the roads or rail tracks. The solar power generated by using road area can also be used for in-motion charging of

text: electric vehicle

text: s to bring down fuel costs. This practice would also protect the highways from damage from rain and intense summer heat and offer additional comfort to commuters.

text: In January 2006, new legislation was passed to apply the benefits included in Short Laws I & II (see Recent Developments section below for details) to renewable energy production. The new regulation provided for exemptions in transmission charges for  new renewable energy sources (i.e. geothermal, wind, solar, biomass, tidal, small hydropower and cogeneration) below 20 MW of capacity. It also simplified the legal procedures for projects below 9 MW. The success of this new regulation for the promotion of renewable sources is yet to be seen.

text: In January 2006, new legislation was passed to apply the benefits included in Short Laws I & II (see Recent Developments section below for details) to renewable energy production. The new regulation provided for exemptions in transmission charges for

text: new renewable energy sources

text: (i.e. geothermal, wind, solar, biomass, tidal, small hydropower and cogeneration) below 20 MW of capacity. It also simplified the legal procedures for projects below 9 MW. The success of this new regulation for the promotion of renewable sources is yet to be seen.

text: Electric generation is controlled by the state-owned Nukissiorfiit. It is produced at 220V and 50 Hz and accessible via sockets of Danish type K . Electricity has traditionally been generated by oil or diesel power plants, even if there is a large surplus of potential hydropower. Because of rising oil prices, there is a program to build hydro power plants. Since the success of the 1993 Buksefjord dam, whose distribution path to Nuuk includes the Ameralik Span the long-term policy of the Greenland government is to produce the island's electricity from renewable domestic sources. A third turbine at Buksefjord brought its capacity up to 45 MW in 2008; in 2007, a second, 7.2MW dam was constructed at Qorlortorsuaq; and in 2010, a third, 15MW dam was constructed at Sisimiut. There is a plan for an Aluminium smelter plant, needing a very large 600-750 MW hydropower plant. Because electricity is a domestic resource, also heating is done with electricity where there is a hydro power plant.

text: Electric generation is controlled by the state-owned

text: Nukissiorfiit

text: . It is produced at

text: 220V and 50 Hz

text: and accessible via

text: sockets of Danish type K

text: . Electricity has traditionally been generated by oil or diesel power plants, even if there is a large surplus of potential

text: hydropower

text: . Because of rising oil prices, there is a program to build hydro power plants. Since the success of the 1993

text: Buksefjord dam

text: , whose distribution path to

text: Nuuk

text: includes the

text: Ameralik Span

text: the long-term policy of the Greenland government is to produce the island's electricity from renewable domestic sources. A third turbine at Buksefjord brought its capacity up to 45

text: MW

text: in 2008; in 2007, a second, 7.2MW dam was constructed at

text: Qorlortorsuaq

text: ; and in 2010, a third, 15MW dam was constructed at

text: Sisimiut

text: . There is a plan for an

text: Aluminium smelter

text: plant, needing a very large 600-750 MW hydropower plant. Because electricity is a domestic resource, also heating is done with electricity where there is a hydro power plant.

text: The most important legal instruments for the promotion of renewable energy are Law 25,019 from 1998 and Law 26,190 from 2007. The 1998 law, known as the “National Wind and Solar Energy Rules”, declared wind and solar generation of national interest and introduced a mechanism that established an additional payment per generated kWh which, in 1998, meant a 40% premium over market price. It also granted certain tax exemptions for a period of 15 years from the law's promulgation. The 2007 Law complemented the previous one, declaring of national interest the generation of electricity from any renewable source intended to deliver a public service. This law also set an 8% target for renewable energy consumption in the period of 10 years and mandated the creation of a trust fund whose resources will be allocated to pay a premium for electricity produced from renewable sources.

text: On 1 June 2009, Volvo announced the launching of series production diesel-electric plug-in hybrids by 2012. The company plans to sell a series hybrid with the goal of achieving emissions of less than 50 grams of CO per kilometer. As part of a joint venture with Vattenfall, a Swedish energy company, Volvo converted two Volvo V70 to plug-in hybrid demonstrators that have been in field testing in Göteborg, Sweden since December 2009. Vattenfall offered customers participating in this trial the supply of renewable electricity generated from wind power or hydropower. Among other challenges, this test has allowed to experience the all-electric range at low temperatures, which has been a disadvantage of plug-in vehicles.

text: On 1 June 2009,

text: Volvo

text: announced the launching of

text: series production

text: diesel

text: -electric plug-in hybrids by 2012. The company plans to sell a

text: series hybrid

text: with the goal of achieving emissions of less than 50 grams of

text: CO

text: per kilometer. As part of a

text: joint venture

text: with

text: Vattenfall

text: , a Swedish energy company, Volvo converted two

text: Volvo V70

text: to

text: plug-in hybrid

text: demonstrators that have been in field testing in

text: Göteborg, Sweden

text: since December 2009. Vattenfall offered customers participating in this trial the supply of

text: renewable electricity

text: generated from

text: wind power

text: or

text: hydropower

text: . Among other challenges, this test has allowed to experience the

text: all-electric range

text: at low temperatures, which has been a disadvantage of plug-in vehicles.

text: The National Hydropower Association (NHA) represents the interests of the U.S. hydropower industry, which includes all forms of water energy—conventional, hydrokinetic, tidal and ocean.

text: The National Hydropower Association (NHA) represents the interests of the U.S.

text: hydropower

text: industry, which includes all forms of water energy—conventional, hydrokinetic, tidal and ocean.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many

text: farm

text: s require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a

text: power plant

text: that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: With a substantial potential for the renewable energy resources, Turkey holds seventh position in the world (and first in Europe) in terms of geothermal energy. It has also planned to further increase its hydro, wind and solar energy resources. Turkey envisages producing 30% of its electricity need from the renewable by 2023.

text: The U.S. Department of Energy’s 2008 report 20% Wind Energy by 2030 envisioned that wind power could supply 20% of all U.S. electric power, which included a contribution of 4% to the nation’s total electric power from offshore wind power. In order to achieve this, however, significant advances in cost, performance and reliability are needed, based on a 2011 report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future. Obtaining 20% from wind requires about 305 GW of wind turbines, an increase of 16 GW/year after 2018, or an average increase of 14.6%/year, and transmission line improvements. Analysts estimate around 25 GW of added US wind power in 2016-18, depending on the Clean Power Plan and PTC extensions. After the current PTC phase-out in 2021, additional wind power capacity is expected to be around 5 GW per year.

text: The U.S. Department of Energy’s 2008 report 20% Wind Energy by 2030 envisioned that wind power could supply 20% of all U.S. electric power, which included a contribution of 4% to the nation’s total electric power from offshore wind power. In order to achieve this, however, significant advances in cost, performance and reliability are needed, based on a 2011 report from a coalition of researchers from universities, industry, and government, supported by the

entity_name: Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future

text: Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future

text: . Obtaining 20% from wind requires about 305 GW of wind turbines, an increase of 16 GW/year after 2018, or an average increase of 14.6%/year, and transmission line improvements. Analysts estimate around 25 GW of added US wind power in 2016-18, depending on the

text: Clean Power Plan

text: and PTC extensions. After the current PTC phase-out in 2021, additional wind power capacity is expected to be around 5 GW per year.

text: Plants with reservoir, i.e. small storage and small pumped-storage hydropower plants, can contribute to distributed energy storage and decentralized peak and balancing electricity. Such plants can be built to integrate at the regional level intermittent renewable energy sources.

text: Plants with reservoir, i.e. small storage and small

text: pumped-storage hydropower

text: plants, can contribute to distributed energy storage and decentralized peak and balancing electricity. Such plants can be built to integrate at the regional level intermittent renewable energy sources.

text: Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue." , there have been substantial reductions in the cost of solar and wind technologies:

text: The speed at which  a wind turbine rotates must be controlled for efficient power generation and to keep the turbine components within designed speed and torque limits.  The centrifugal force on the spinning blades increases as the square of the rotation speed, which makes this structure sensitive to overspeed. Because the power of the wind increases as the cube of the wind speed, turbines have to be built to survive much higher wind loads (such as gusts of wind) than those from which they can practically generate power. Wind turbines have ways of reducing torque in high winds.

text: Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power. Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no  greenhouse gas emissions during operation, consumes no water, and uses little land. The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources.

text: Wind power is the use of

text: air flow

text: through

text: wind turbine

text: s to

text: mechanically power

text: generators for

text: electric power

text: . Wind power, as an alternative to burning

text: fossil fuel

text: s, is plentiful,

text: renewable

text: , widely distributed,

text: clean

text: , produces no

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions during operation, consumes no water, and uses little land. The net

text: effects on the environment

text: are far less problematic than those of

text: nonrenewable power

text: sources.

text: A new concept is to use wind turbines or solar power to drive water pumps directly, in effect an 'Energy Storing Wind or Solar Dam'. This could provide a more efficient process and usefully smooth out the variability of energy captured from the wind or sun.. In northern Chile, the Espejo de Tarapacá project is a power project of Valhalla, that combines solar and hydroelectric resources. The project takes advantage of the unique geographic characteristics of the Atacama Desert in order to build a 300 MW pumped storage hydroelectric plant that uses the Pacific Ocean as its lower reservoir and an existing natural concavity as its upper reservoir, and a 600 MW-AC solar photovoltaic plant that is located in the region with the highest solar irradiation in the world. The above characteristics minimize the environmental impact and the cost of the plant, which is USD 400 MM for the pumped storage and USD 900 MM for the solar power plant.

text: A new concept is to use

text: wind turbine

text: s or

text: solar power

text: to drive water pumps directly, in effect an 'Energy Storing Wind or Solar Dam'. This could provide a more efficient process and usefully smooth out the variability of energy captured from the wind or sun.. In northern

text: Chile

text: , the Espejo de Tarapacá project is a power project of Valhalla, that combines solar and hydroelectric resources. The project takes advantage of the unique geographic characteristics of the Atacama Desert in order to build a 300 MW pumped storage hydroelectric plant that uses the Pacific Ocean as its lower reservoir and an existing natural concavity as its upper reservoir, and a 600 MW-AC solar photovoltaic plant that is located in the region with the highest solar irradiation in the world. The above characteristics minimize the environmental impact and the cost of the plant, which is USD 400 MM for the pumped storage and USD 900 MM for the solar power plant.

text: There are vast deep-seated granite systems, mainly in Central Australia, that have high temperatures at depth and these are being drilled by 19 companies across Australia in 141 areas. They are spending A$654M on exploration programmes.  South Australia has been described as "Australia's hot rock haven" and this emissions-free and renewable energy form could provide an estimated 6.8% of Australia's base load power needs by 2030. According to an estimate by the Centre for International Economics, Australia has enough geothermal energy to contribute electricity for 450 years.

text: There are vast deep-seated granite systems, mainly in Central Australia, that have high temperatures at depth and these are being drilled by 19 companies across Australia in 141 areas. They are spending A$654M on exploration programmes.  South Australia has been described as "Australia's hot rock haven" and this emissions-free and renewable energy form could provide an estimated 6.8% of Australia's base load power needs by 2030. According to an estimate by the Centre for International Economics, Australia has enough

text: geothermal energy

text: to contribute electricity for 450 years.

text: The resource consent process has favoured non-renewable energy projects.  This century, thermal projects have received consents (Rodney, Stratford) while several renewable energy projects have had consent applications declined (Awhitu, Mokau hydro, Mount Cass, Project Hayes, Te Waka, Waitahora).

text: The

text: resource consent

text: process has favoured non-renewable energy projects.  This century, thermal projects have received consents (

text: Rodney

text: Stratford

text: ) while several renewable energy projects have had consent applications declined (

text: Awhitu

text: Mokau hydro

text: Mount Cass

text: Project Hayes

text: Te Waka

text: Waitahora

text: Other large CSP facilities include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power installation in the USA, Solnova Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW) and the first part of Shams solar power station (United Arab Emirates, 100 MW). Other large PV power stations include the 320 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China, the 345 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, and the 166 MW Solarpark Meuro in Germany.

text: Other large CSP facilities include the 354

text: megawatt

text: (MW)

text: Solar Energy Generating Systems

text: power installation in the USA,

text: Solnova Solar Power Station

text: (Spain, 150 MW),

text: Andasol Solar Power Station

text: (Spain, 150 MW) and the first part of

text: Shams solar power station

text: United Arab Emirates

text: , 100 MW). Other large PV power stations include the 320 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China, the 345 MW

text: Charanka Solar Park

text: in

text: India

text: , and the 166 MW

text: Solarpark Meuro

text: in Germany.

text: Sierra Suntower has been certified by the California Energy Commission as a renewable energy facility. Power from the facility is sold under a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with SCE, providing  renewable energy for up to 4,000 homes.

text: Sierra Suntower has been certified by the

text: California Energy Commission

text: as a renewable energy facility. Power from the facility is sold under a

text: Power Purchase Agreement

text: (PPA) with SCE, providing  renewable energy for up to 4,000 homes.

text: IHA acts as a voice for hydropower in international governmental and sector water, energy, and climate change forums and in the media - promoting a fact-based, balanced, consensus-building approach.  The organisation is drawn on as a source for statistics on hydropower for authoritative world energy and renewable energy publications such as the REN21 Global Status Reports  and IIASA Global Energy Assessment (GEA). IHA maintains a database of the world's hydropower stations and companies, built in collaboration with regulators, ministries,electricity associations, utilities, and station owners and operators.

text: IHA acts as a voice for

text: hydropower

text: in international governmental and sector water, energy, and climate change forums and in the media - promoting a fact-based, balanced, consensus-building approach.  The organisation is drawn on as a source for statistics on

text: hydropower

text: for authoritative world energy and renewable energy publications such as the

text: Global Status Reports  and

entity_name: International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis

text: IIASA

text: Global Energy Assessment (GEA). IHA maintains a database of the world's hydropower stations and companies, built in collaboration with regulators, ministries,electricity associations, utilities, and station owners and operators.

text: Continental has implemented a program that gives passengers the opportunity to offset their carbon emissions per flight for a fee of $2. Funds collected from the carbon offset scheme are directed for tree planting in reforestation areas. Passengers can also contribute $50 or more to fund renewable-energy projects such as wind- or solar-power projects, or to re-establish algae in oceans or large-scale reforestation.

text: Continental has implemented a program that gives passengers the opportunity to offset their carbon emissions per flight for a fee of $2. Funds collected from the

text: carbon offset

text: scheme are directed for tree planting in reforestation areas. Passengers can also contribute $50 or more to fund renewable-energy projects such as wind- or solar-power projects, or to re-establish algae in oceans or large-scale reforestation.

text: There are currently several electrical generating plants in the UK, and recently in the US, that are utilizing poultry and turkey litter as their primary fuel. The first three (and the world's first three of these plants) were developed by Fibrowatt Ltd in the UK, founded by Simon Fraser, who was appointed an OBE for his contribution to renewable energy. These are: Thetford (38.5 MWe), Eye (12.7 MWe) and Glanford (13.5 MWe - now switched to burning meat and bonemeal). The fourth, Westfield (9.8 MWe), was developed by Energy Power Resources, which now owns all four.  Simon Fraser's son and partner, Rupert Fraser, went on to develop the first US plant through his company Fibrowatt LLC., at Benson, MN (55 MWe).

text: Biomass refers to organic matter from plants or animals that can be converted to energy. Bioenergy, in turn, is any form of energy (heat or electricity) generated from biomass.

text: Biomass

text: refers to organic matter from plants or animals that can be converted to energy.

text: Bioenergy

text: , in turn, is any form of energy (heat or electricity) generated from biomass.

text: TSRI was founded as the Scripps Metabolic Clinic in 1924 by the philanthropist Ellen Browning Scripps in La Jolla, California. This eventually evolved into the Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation. In 1991, the Scripps Clinic and research division became separate corporations and The Scripps Research Institute was founded. In 1989, TSRI started a graduate program. This was followed by starting a second campus located in Jupiter, Florida in 2005. Then, in 2007, TSRI president Richard Lerner hired internationally renowned chemist Roy A. Periana to lead what would become the Scripps Energy & Materials Center.  The goal was to expand beyond the biomedical research that TSRI had focused on in the past and into examining all large scale human problems from disease to how humans will access future raw materials from natural resources and how to manipulate and store energy from renewable resources.

text: TSRI was founded as the Scripps Metabolic Clinic in 1924 by the

text: philanthropist

text: Ellen Browning Scripps

text: in

text: La Jolla, California

text: . This eventually evolved into the Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation. In 1991, the Scripps Clinic and research division became separate

text: corporations

text: and The Scripps Research Institute was founded. In 1989, TSRI started a graduate program. This was followed by starting a second campus located in

text: Jupiter, Florida

text: in 2005. Then, in 2007, TSRI president

text: Richard Lerner

text: hired internationally renowned chemist

text: Roy A. Periana

text: to lead what would become the Scripps Energy & Materials Center.  The goal was to expand beyond the

text: biomedical research

text: that TSRI had focused on in the past and into examining all large scale human problems from disease to how humans will access future raw materials from

text: natural resources

text: and how to manipulate and store energy from

text: renewable resources

text: Americans for a Clean Energy Grid was launched in 2010 as an outgrowth of the Coalition’s work on the smart grid.  This initiative brings together a diverse group of stakeholders to support policies that scale up a cleaner electricity system by unlocking domestic renewable energy resources currently stranded in our country’s remote areas and deploying smart technologies to make the transmission and distribution grid more reliable, resilient, and secure, accommodate renewable power, and enable more energy efficiency by consumers and businesses.

text: Americans for a Clean Energy Grid was launched in 2010 as an outgrowth of the Coalition’s work on the

text: smart grid

text: .  This initiative brings together a diverse group of stakeholders to support policies that scale up a cleaner electricity system by unlocking domestic renewable energy resources currently stranded in our country’s remote areas and deploying smart technologies to make the transmission and distribution grid more reliable, resilient, and secure, accommodate renewable power, and enable more energy efficiency by consumers and businesses.

text: A 2012 report by a clean energy consulting group concluded that new wind farms can produce electric power in the 5-8 cents per kWh range, making wind power cost-competitive with fossil fuels in many areas. As of 2013, the US Energy Information Administration estimates the "levelized cost" of wind energy from new installations as 7 to 10 cents per kWh, depending on the geographic area, but cautioned that levelized costs of non-dispatchable sources such as wind should be compared to the avoided energy cost rather than the levelized cost of dispatchable sources such as natural gas, or baseload sources such as coal or geothermal. In 2015, a Koch-funded institute of Utah State University stated that the cost of wind energy is higher than most cost estimates calculate. Renewable portfolio standards require renewable energy to exist (most of them intermittent such as wind and solar), but at the expense of utilities and consumers. The production tax credit makes wind power cheaper for utilities and consumers, but at the expense of taxpayers. The American Wind Energy Association has criticized the study of lacking comparison with pollution and subsidies incurred by other electric power sources, and for counting transmission as a cost rather than a benefit.

text: A 2012 report by a clean energy consulting group concluded that new wind farms can produce electric power in the 5-8 cents per kWh range, making wind power cost-competitive with fossil fuels in many areas. As of 2013, the US Energy Information Administration estimates the "levelized cost" of wind energy from new installations as 7 to 10 cents per kWh, depending on the geographic area, but cautioned that levelized costs of non-

text: dispatchable

text: sources such as wind should be compared to the avoided energy cost rather than the levelized cost of dispatchable sources such as natural gas, or baseload sources such as coal or geothermal. In 2015, a

text: Koch

text: -funded institute of

text: Utah State University

text: stated that the cost of wind energy is higher than most cost estimates calculate.

text: Renewable portfolio standard

text: s require renewable energy to exist (most of them intermittent such as wind and solar), but at the expense of utilities and consumers. The

text: production tax credit

text: makes wind power cheaper for utilities and consumers, but at the expense of taxpayers. The

text: American Wind Energy Association

text: has criticized the study of lacking comparison with pollution and subsidies incurred by other electric power sources, and for counting transmission as a cost rather than a benefit.

text: Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by hydropower. Together with other renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and biomass powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to 62.89% of total use in Austria, with the rest being produced by gas and oil power plants.

text: Austria currently produces more than half of its electricity by

text: hydropower

text: . Together with other

text: renewable energy

text: sources such as

text: wind

text: solar

text: and

text: biomass

text: powerplants, the electricity supply from renewable energy amounts to 62.89% of total use in Austria, with the rest being produced by

text: gas

text: and

text: oil

text: power plants.

text: Native Wind (NAWIG) was formed to protect the environment and promote the welfare of Native Americans by facilitating the development of wind power and other renewable energy resources on tribal lands. Directors of Native Wind include representatives of the Intertribal Council On Utility Policy, Native Energy, ICLEI, Honor the Earth and American Spirit Productions.

text: Native Wind (NAWIG) was formed to protect the environment and promote the welfare of

text: Native Americans

text: by facilitating the development of

text: wind power

text: and other

text: renewable energy

text: resources on

text: tribal lands

text: . Directors of Native Wind include representatives of the

text: Intertribal Council On Utility Policy

text: Native Energy

text: ICLEI

text: Honor the Earth

text: and American Spirit Productions.

text: According to the Renewable Energy Transmission Initiative, east San Diego County, along with neighboring Imperial County and Northern Baja California, has a potential aggregate generating capacity of roughly 6,870 megawatts (MW) for solar energy, 3,495 MW for wind power and 2,000 MW for geothermal energy. Together, these renewable resources could potentially produce enough electricity to power 8 million homes at noon, on a sunny day, if the wind was turning windfarm turbine rotors at their theoretical maximum speed. Given Southern California capacity factors, however, of 28% for solar and 30% for wind, production at the quoted capacity would average one-third of that, or enough to power 2,666,000 homes.

text: According to the Renewable Energy Transmission Initiative, east San Diego County, along with neighboring Imperial County and Northern

text: Baja California

text: , has a potential aggregate generating capacity of roughly 6,870 megawatts (MW) for

text: solar energy

text: , 3,495 MW for

text: wind power

text: and 2,000 MW for

text: geothermal energy

text: . Together, these renewable resources could potentially produce enough electricity to power 8 million homes at noon, on a sunny day, if the wind was turning windfarm turbine rotors at their theoretical maximum speed. Given Southern California capacity factors, however, of 28% for solar and 30% for wind, production at the quoted capacity would average one-third of that, or enough to power 2,666,000 homes.

text: The wind power industry is currently undergoing a period of rapid globalization and consolidation, with much of the recent wind farm development occurring outside the older established markets. Several large companies with market capitalizations greater than the entire wind power industry itself (General Electric, Siemens, BP) are now making large investments in wind power. To meet a global wind turbine supply shortage, start-up wind turbine manufacturers are still appearing and ramping up the production of their new wind turbine models as quickly as possible.

text: The wind power industry is currently undergoing a period of rapid globalization and consolidation, with much of the recent wind farm development occurring outside the older established markets. Several large companies with market capitalizations greater than the entire wind power industry itself (

text: General Electric

text: Siemens

text: BP

text: ) are now making large investments in wind power. To meet a global wind turbine supply shortage, start-up wind turbine manufacturers are still appearing and ramping up the production of their new wind turbine models as quickly as possible.

text: However, it has been found that high emissions are associated only with shallow reservoirs in warm (tropical) locales, and recent innovations in hydropower turbine technology are enabling efficient development of low-impact run-of-the-river hydroelectricity projects. Generally speaking, hydroelectric plants produce much lower life-cycle emissions than other types of generation. Hydroelectric power, which underwent extensive development during growth of electrification in the 19th and 20th centuries, is experiencing resurgence of development in the 21st century. The areas of greatest hydroelectric growth are the booming economies of Asia. China is the development leader; however, other Asian nations are installing hydropower at a rapid pace. This growth is driven by much increased energy costs—especially for imported energy—and widespread desires for more domestically produced, clean, renewable, and economical generation.

text: However, it has been found that high emissions are associated only with shallow reservoirs in warm (tropical) locales, and recent innovations in hydropower turbine technology are enabling efficient development of low-impact

text: run-of-the-river hydroelectricity

text: projects. Generally speaking, hydroelectric plants produce much lower life-cycle emissions than other types of generation. Hydroelectric power, which underwent extensive development during growth of electrification in the 19th and 20th centuries, is experiencing resurgence of development in the 21st century. The areas of greatest hydroelectric growth are the booming economies of Asia. China is the development leader; however, other Asian nations are installing hydropower at a rapid pace. This growth is driven by much increased energy costs—especially for imported energy—and widespread desires for more domestically produced, clean, renewable, and economical generation.

text: Molecular hydrogen is not available on Earth in convenient natural reservoirs. Most hydrogen in the lithosphere is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen does require the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a fossil fuel or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and produces carbon dioxide, but often requires no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.  Decomposing water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (fossil fuel, nuclear power or a renewable energy). Hydrogen can also be produced by refining the effluent from geothermal sources in the lithosphere. Hydrogen produced by zero emission renewable energy sources such as electrolysis of water using wind power, solar power, hydro power, wave power or tidal power is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen produced by non-renewable energy sources may be referred to as brown hydrogen. Hydrogen produced as a waste by-product or industrial by-product is sometimes referred to as grey hydrogen.

text: Molecular hydrogen is not available on Earth in convenient natural reservoirs. Most hydrogen in the

text: lithosphere

text: is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen does require the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a

text: fossil fuel

text: or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and produces carbon dioxide, but often requires no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.

text: Decomposing

text: water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (

text: fossil fuel

text: nuclear power

text: or a

text: renewable energy

text: ). Hydrogen can also be produced by refining the effluent from geothermal sources in the

text: lithosphere

text: . Hydrogen produced by zero emission renewable energy sources such as

text: electrolysis of water

text: using

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: hydro power

text: wave power

text: or

text: tidal power

text: is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen produced by non-renewable energy sources may be referred to as brown hydrogen. Hydrogen produced as a waste by-product or industrial by-product is sometimes referred to as grey hydrogen.

text: The Southeastern United States shows tremendous promise for renewable energy generation. Recent developments indicate slow but steady movement toward realizing this potential. There are vast opportunities which offer clean, renewable energy like solar and wind. The South has been slower to adopt renewable energy technologies than many other parts of the country, thus prolonging dependence on high-risk energy sources. Advocacy by SACE and other environmental groups remains critical to build on current momentum and create a clean energy economy in the Southeast.

text: Wave power, which captures the energy of ocean surface waves, and tidal power, converting the energy of tides, are two forms of hydropower with future potential; however, they are not yet widely employed commercially. A demonstration project operated by the Ocean Renewable Power Company on the coast of Maine, and connected to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the Bay of Fundy, location of world's highest tidal flow. Ocean thermal energy conversion, which uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer surface waters, has currently no economic feasibility.

text: Wave power

text: , which captures the energy of ocean surface waves, and

text: tidal power

text: , converting the energy of tides, are two forms of hydropower with future potential; however, they are not yet widely employed commercially. A demonstration project operated by the

text: Ocean Renewable Power Company

text: on the coast of

text: Maine

text: , and connected to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the

text: Bay of Fundy

text: , location of world's highest tidal flow.

text: Ocean thermal energy conversion

text: , which uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer surface waters, has currently no economic feasibility.

text: Sundrop Farms' 20 ha expanded facility is powered by an Integrated Energy System based on the concentrated solar power (CSP) technology. The system is designed and delivered by Danish renewable energy specialist, Aalborg CSP, and it is the first large-scale CSP-based technology in the world to provide multiple energy streams – heating, fresh water and electricity – for horticultural activities. The 51,500m2 solar field comprises of eSolar’s Solar Collector System. Commissioned in October 2016, the facility's concentrated solar thermal plant has a generating capacity of 1.5 MW.

text: Sundrop Farms' 20 ha expanded facility is powered by an Integrated Energy System based on the concentrated solar power (CSP) technology. The system is designed and delivered by Danish renewable energy specialist,

text: Aalborg CSP

text: , and it is the first large-scale CSP-based technology in the world to provide multiple energy streams – heating, fresh water and electricity – for horticultural activities. The 51,500m2 solar field comprises of

text: eSolar

text: ’s Solar Collector System.

text: Commissioned

text: in October 2016, the facility's concentrated solar thermal plant has a generating capacity of 1.5 MW.

text: Østfold Energi is a Norwegian energy producer within the business areas of hydropower, wind and heat. The company operates hydroelectric power plants in Østfold and Sogn og Fjordane with an annual power production of 1,680 TW·h/year. The power plants operated by Østfold Energi are Borgund power plant (1013 GWh/year), Stuvane power plant (165 GW·h/yr), Nyset-Steggje power plant (449 GW·h/yr), Brekke power plant (30 GW·h/yr), Tistedalsfoss power plant (13 GW·h/yr) and Ørje power plant (9 GW·h/yr).

text: Østfold Energi is a

text: Norwegian

text: energy producer within the business areas of hydropower, wind and heat. The company operates

text: hydroelectric power plants

text: in

text: Østfold

text: and

text: Sogn og Fjordane

text: with an annual power production of 1,680

text: TW·h

text: /year. The power plants operated by Østfold Energi are Borgund power plant (1013 GWh/year), Stuvane power plant (165 GW·h/yr), Nyset-Steggje power plant (449 GW·h/yr), Brekke power plant (30 GW·h/yr), Tistedalsfoss power plant (13 GW·h/yr) and Ørje power plant (9 GW·h/yr).

text: Some of these hydropower facilities generate naturemade star certified green power. The naturemade star label is awarded by the Association for Environmentally Sound Energy (VUE).

text: Some of these

text: hydropower

text: facilities generate naturemade star certified

text: green power

text: . The naturemade star

text: label

text: is awarded by the Association for Environmentally Sound Energy (VUE).

text: SustainableEnergy’s aim is to work for a resource- and environment-conscious energy policy through grassroots initiatives to reach 100% renewable energy supply in Denmark by 2030.

text: SustainableEnergy’s aim is to work for a resource- and environment-conscious energy policy through grassroots initiatives to reach 100%

text: renewable energy

text: supply in Denmark by 2030.

text: With CIC's license coming up for renewal, the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources put up the Mmamabula South and Central blocks for tender in June 2012.These blocks held about 670 million tonnes of coal.  Bids would be evaluated in part on how quickly the bidder would be able to start exploiting the coal field.However, in August 2012 the government decided to renew CIC's retention licence for the central block, with about 361 million tonnes of coal. A week later the Competition Authority approved a proposed takeover of CIC Energy by Jindal Steel and Power.Jindal requires large supplies of coal for its Indian steel plants.  Jindal Steel and Power, chaired by Naveen Jindal, is also a subsidiary of the Jindal Group.In September 2012 it was announced that Jindal Steel and Power was completing a $116 million purchase of CIC Energy, acquiring its rights in the coalfield. Jindal said it planned to invest up to $700 million to develop a coal mine and a 300 MW power plant.  It would also develop coal exports from the field, possibly via rail to Mozambique. The deal was conditional on approval by the Minister of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources.

text: With CIC's license coming up for renewal, the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources put up the Mmamabula South and Central blocks for tender in June 2012.These blocks held about 670 million tonnes of coal.  Bids would be evaluated in part on how quickly the bidder would be able to start exploiting the coal field.However, in August 2012 the government decided to renew CIC's retention licence for the central block, with about 361 million tonnes of coal. A week later the Competition Authority approved a proposed takeover of CIC Energy by

text: Jindal Steel and Power

text: .Jindal requires large supplies of coal for its Indian steel plants.  Jindal Steel and Power, chaired by

text: Naveen Jindal

text: , is also a subsidiary of the Jindal Group.In September 2012 it was announced that Jindal Steel and Power was completing a $116 million purchase of CIC Energy, acquiring its rights in the coalfield. Jindal said it planned to invest up to $700 million to develop a coal mine and a 300 MW power plant.  It would also develop coal exports from the field, possibly via rail to Mozambique. The deal was conditional on approval by the Minister of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources.

text: It is a photovoltaic solar power plant, planned by a subsidiary of NextEra Energy Resources.

text: It is a

text: photovoltaic

text: solar power

text: plant, planned by a subsidiary of

text: NextEra Energy

text: Resources.

text: Since its implementation Iran's wind power has been generating increased amounts of energy which has steadily been growing over the last 10 years. With the help from Sadid Industrial Group (Iranian manufacturing company) and investments as well as resources from Indian (Sulzon Energy) and German (Siemens) wind turbine companies, Iran has been able to build a strong and stable wind sector very quickly and effectively.  In 2004 Iran generated only 25 megawatts with their wind power, a year later their production grew to 32 megawatts and in 2006 megawatt production increased again to 45 megawatts. With this stable and consistent increase in electricity production Iran has continued to invest in their wind farms, in 2009 their wind production had greatly increased to 130 megawatts. This was a result of the production of larger wind farms in more coastal and windy areas of Iran, such as Manjeel (Gilan province) and Binaloud (Razavi Khorasan Province). With such rapid growth in the wind energy sector Iran is currently ranked 30th in the world for wind energy produced, and is a member of the Global Wind Energy Council. Despite Iran’s impressive and effective use of wind power as a renewable resource and source of electricity, the current total of 150 megawatts produced a year is still just an extremely small fraction of Iran's annual energy consumption which is an estimated 33,000 megawatts.

text: Since its implementation Iran's wind power has been generating increased amounts of energy which has steadily been growing over the last 10 years. With the help from Sadid Industrial Group (Iranian manufacturing company) and investments as well as resources from Indian (Sulzon Energy) and German (Siemens) wind turbine companies, Iran has been able to build a strong and stable wind sector very quickly and effectively.  In 2004 Iran generated only 25 megawatts with their wind power, a year later their production grew to 32 megawatts and in 2006 megawatt production increased again to 45 megawatts. With this stable and consistent increase in electricity production Iran has continued to invest in their

text: wind farm

text: s, in 2009 their wind production had greatly increased to 130 megawatts. This was a result of the production of larger wind farms in more coastal and windy areas of Iran, such as Manjeel (Gilan province) and Binaloud (Razavi Khorasan Province). With such rapid growth in the wind energy sector Iran is currently ranked 30th in the world for wind energy produced, and is a member of the Global Wind Energy Council. Despite Iran’s impressive and effective use of wind power as a renewable resource and source of electricity, the current total of 150 megawatts produced a year is still just an extremely small fraction of Iran's annual energy consumption which is an estimated 33,000 megawatts.

text: Clean technology, renewable energy sources, carbon emissions trading markets and energy efficiency efforts are the most vivid examples of these opportunities: the growth of global markets for renewable energy, for example, hit $50 billion in 2005, and the market is projected to eclipse $150 billion by 2015. Companies are seizing on opportunities for creating new low-carbon energy-efficient products — GE's "ecomagination" program, for example, is expected to have sales of $20 billion by 2010. But companies in other sectors are reaping the benefits, too—banks, insurers, and others in the financial industry are also finding innovative ways of proving that for business, "green is green." Climate change, like any momentous challenge, provides opportunities for growth for companies willing to be leaders. Hand in hand with the financial and competitive risks of climate change come opportunities to increase shareholder value, increase brand value and enhance competitiveness and profitability.

text: Clean technology, renewable energy sources, carbon emissions trading markets and energy efficiency efforts are the most vivid examples of these opportunities: the growth of global markets for

text: renewable energy

text: , for example, hit $50 billion in 2005, and the market is projected to eclipse $150 billion by 2015. Companies are seizing on opportunities for creating new low-carbon energy-efficient products — GE's "ecomagination" program, for example, is expected to have sales of $20 billion by 2010. But companies in other sectors are reaping the benefits, too—banks, insurers, and others in the financial industry are also finding innovative ways of proving that for business, "green is green." Climate change, like any momentous challenge, provides opportunities for growth for companies willing to be leaders. Hand in hand with the financial and competitive risks of climate change come opportunities to increase shareholder value, increase brand value and enhance competitiveness and profitability.

text: Renewable Energy Credit is one of two main outputs or benefits from generation of new power from renewable sources. Renewable power generation creates actual power in the form of electricity, and environmental benefits to society from “green” power production – such as minimizing pollution and slowing the rate finite fuel resources are used. The actual power is sold into the local grid, and the societal benefits are sold in the form of Renewable Energy Credits or “RECs”, sold separately as a commodity into the marketplace. While RECs are not actually a measure of power, each REC represents one megawatt hour (MWh) of renewable-generated energy. For each REC purchased the customer is able to claim the equivalent MWh of energy reduction as on offset to their conventional energy use.

text: Renewable energy power plants do provide a steady flow of energy. For example, hydropower plants, ocean thermal plants, osmotic power plants all provide power at a regulated pace, and are thus available power sources at any given moment (even at night, windstill moments etc.). At present however, the number of steady-flow renewable energy plants alone is still too small to meet energy demands at the times of the day when the irregular producing renewable energy plants cannot produce power.

text: Geothermal energy is the second most used form of renewable energy in Russia but represents less than 1% of the total energy production. The first geothermal power plant in Russia was built at Pauzhetka, Kamchatka, in 1966, with a capacity of 5 MW. The total geothermal installed capacity in 2005 was 79 MW, with 50 MW coming from a plant at Verkhne-Mutnovsky. Russia is currently developing a 100 MW plant at Mutnovsky and a 50 MW plant in Kaliningrad. Most geothermal resources are currently used for heating settlements in the North Caucasus and Kamchatka. Half of the geothermal production is used to heat homes and industrial buildings, one third is used to heat greenhouses and 13% is used for industrial processes.

text: Geothermal energy is the second most used form of renewable energy in Russia but represents less than 1% of the total energy production. The first geothermal power plant in Russia was built at Pauzhetka,

text: Kamchatka

text: , in 1966, with a capacity of 5 MW. The total geothermal installed capacity in 2005 was 79 MW, with 50 MW coming from a plant at Verkhne-Mutnovsky. Russia is currently developing a 100 MW plant at Mutnovsky and a 50 MW plant in

text: Kaliningrad

text: . Most geothermal resources are currently used for heating settlements in the

text: North Caucasus

text: and

text: Kamchatka

text: . Half of the geothermal production is used to heat homes and industrial buildings, one third is used to heat greenhouses and 13% is used for industrial processes.

text: The National Hydropower Association (NHA) currently has five policy priorities on their agenda.  The first is a more efficient regulatory process.  They say that an expediting 2-year licensing process for minimal impact projects would allow hydro to be on an “equal footing” with other renewable technologies.  The second is a tax credit parity.  Hydropower currently receives half of the rate per kWh under the Production Tax Credit, and the NHA thinks that it should be increased such that it is equal with other renewable technologies.  The third priority calls for incentivizing renewable electricity production and manufacturing (manufacturing tax credits, Clean and Renewable Energy Bonds, Production and Investment Tax Credits should be extended).  They also want a federal clean and renewable energy standard which promotes development.  The last priority calls for continued investment in research and development for both conventional and non-conventional hydropower projects.

text: The

text: National Hydropower Association

text: (NHA) currently has five policy priorities on their agenda.  The first is a more efficient regulatory process.  They say that an expediting 2-year licensing process for minimal impact projects would allow hydro to be on an “equal footing” with other renewable technologies.  The second is a tax credit parity.  Hydropower currently receives half of the rate per kWh under the Production Tax Credit, and the NHA thinks that it should be increased such that it is equal with other renewable technologies.  The third priority calls for incentivizing renewable electricity production and manufacturing (manufacturing tax credits, Clean and Renewable Energy Bonds, Production and Investment Tax Credits should be extended).  They also want a federal clean and renewable energy standard which promotes development.  The last priority calls for continued investment in research and development for both conventional and non-conventional hydropower projects.

text: Under some definitions, Cascadia is energy sufficient, due to the high propensity for renewable energy resources (mostly hydroelectric and geothermal) and supplies many other western states such as California and Idaho with some electricity.

text: Under some definitions, Cascadia is energy sufficient, due to the high propensity for renewable energy resources (mostly

text: hydroelectric

text: and

text: geothermal

text: ) and supplies many other western states such as California and Idaho with some electricity.

text: Africa has significant resources for generating energy in several forms (hydroelectric, reserves of petroleum and gas, coal production, uranium production, renewable energy such as solar and geothermal). The lack of development and infrastructure means that little of this potential is actually in use today. The largest consumers of electric power in Africa are South Africa, Libya, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe, which each consume between 1000 and 5000 KWh/m per person, in contrast with African states such as Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Tanzania, where electricity consumption per person is negligible.

text: As the 21st century began, fossil fuel was still relatively cheap, but rising concerns over energy security, global warming, and eventual fossil fuel depletion led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of renewable energy. The fledgling commercial wind power industry began expanding at a robust growth rate of about 25% per year, driven by the ready availability of large wind resources, and falling costs due to improved technology and wind farm management.

text: As the 21st century began, fossil fuel was still relatively cheap, but rising concerns over

text: energy security

text: global warming

text: , and eventual

text: fossil fuel depletion

text: led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of

text: renewable energy

text: . The fledgling commercial wind power industry began expanding at a robust growth rate of about 25% per year, driven by the ready availability of large wind resources, and falling costs due to improved technology and wind farm management.

text: One of the biggest current challenges to wind power grid integration in the United States is the necessity of developing new transmission lines to carry power from wind farms, usually in remote lowly populated states in the middle of the country due to availability of wind, to high load locations, usually on the coasts where population density is higher. The current transmission lines in remote locations were not designed for the transport of large amounts of energy. As transmission lines become longer the losses associated with power transmission increase, as modes of losses at lower lengths are exacerbated and new modes of losses are no longer negligible as the length is increased, making it harder to transport large loads over large distances. However, resistance from state and local governments makes it difficult to construct new transmission lines. Multi state power transmission projects are discouraged by states with cheap electric power rates for fear that exporting their cheap power will lead to increased rates. A 2005 energy law gave the Energy Department authority to approve transmission projects states refused to act on, but after an attempt to use this authority, the Senate declared the department was being overly aggressive in doing so. Another problem is that wind companies find out after the fact that the transmission capacity of a new farm is below the generation capacity, largely because federal utility rules to encourage renewable energy installation allow feeder lines to meet only minimum standards. These are important issues that need to be solved, as when the transmission capacity does not meet the generation capacity, wind farms are forced to produce below their full potential or stop running all together, in a process known as curtailment. While this leads to potential renewable generation left untapped, it prevents possible grid overload or risk to reliable service.

text: On December 17, 2012, Governor Jindal and Drax Biomass International Inc. CEO Chuck Davis traveled to Morehouse Parish, Louisiana to announce plans to build a wood pellet facility in Bastrop and a storage-and-shipping facility at the Port of Greater Baton Rouge. The project is expected to create 63 new direct jobs, with 47 of the jobs located at the Bastrop wood pellet facility. LED estimates the project will result in an additional 143 indirect jobs in the state. Drax' budget for the Morehouse mill is about $100 million. Drax says the average pay plus benefits is expected to be in the $35,000 range annually at the pellet mill. Drax will ship wood pellets formed in Morehouse Parish to its U.K. Energy facilities for use in generating renewable power. July, 2013, Drax Biomass started work on clearing the area for the new wood-based pellet facility in Bastrop.

text: Wind energy is a source of renewable power which comes from air current flowing across the earth's surface. Wind turbines harvest this kinetic energy and convert it into usable power which can provide electricity for home. Many universities have invested in wind energy because it is clean,renewable, and good for the local economy. Wind energy is known for being 'clean' because it produces no pollution or greenhouse gases. Wind is a renewable energy resource, it is inexhaustible and requires no "fuel" besides the wind that blows across the earth; it is also beneficial for the local economy because the energy is harvested and produced locally. For universities this means that their energy costs are lowered while also being more sustainable.

text: In 2013 two wind power plants were put into operation in North Kazakhstan. In 2014 Zhambyl region (South Kazakhstan) will have two wind power stations.KazAgroFinance has adopted a program on financing of renewable energy production in the remote villages of KazakhstanIn 2013 Kazakhstan adopted legislation establishing feed-in tariffs for renewables, which will be in place for 15 years in order to encourage investment in the sectorIn January 2014 BISOL Group completed the installation of a 2 megawatt ground mounted solar power plant in the city of Kapchagay in the Almaty Province, the largest photovoltaic system in the country so far.

text: Like the author’s bestseller A Thousand Barrels a Second: The Coming Oil Break Point and the Challenges Facing an Energy Dependent World (2006), The End of Energy Obesity examines the energy industry by tracing the historical relationship between technological innovation and societal response. Tertzakian coined the term "break point" to describe both the pressures that force the displacement of an incumbent energy source and the subsequent “rebalancing” around a new energy paradigm. An important catalyst for The End of Energy Obesity appears to be the author’s conviction that the world is currently in the midst of a break point of prodigious significance where oil, "the gold standard of energy utility" (p. 101), will see its market preeminence undermined. Signs of break point pressures are legion and include: the triple digit crude oil prices reached in 2008, accelerated economic growth in the populous BRIC countries, widening prevalence of legislative and fiscal measures to address assumed anthropogenic climate change, energy independence policymaking in support of renewable energy and the energy-price influenced global recession. Historical analogues to the current break point are the shift from wood to coal with the industrial revolution and from coal to oil during the World War I. The current rebalancing of the energy mix is substantively different from historical precedents. With the possible exception of natural gas, there are still no other energy sources with adequate utility to take significant market share from oil, let alone supplant it. The rebalancing underway will be effected only in part by an increase of supply from alternative sources. Tertzakian believes that the cross-fertilization of information, communication and energy technologies promises dramatic improvement in conservation practices and energy efficiency. He cites telepresence technology,  smart grid networks, Skype telephony and virtualization software as potential "break point innovations" that could dramatically change energy needs by reconfiguring the ways people live, work and play.

text: Like the author’s bestseller A Thousand Barrels a Second: The Coming Oil Break Point and the Challenges Facing an Energy Dependent World (2006), The End of Energy Obesity examines the

text: energy industry

text: by tracing the historical relationship between

text: technological innovation

text: and societal response. Tertzakian coined the term "break point" to describe both the pressures that force the displacement of an incumbent

text: energy source

text: and the subsequent “rebalancing” around a new energy paradigm. An important catalyst for The End of Energy Obesity appears to be the author’s conviction that the world is currently in the midst of a break point of prodigious significance where

text: oil

text: , "the gold standard of energy utility" (p. 101), will see its market preeminence undermined. Signs of break point pressures are legion and include: the triple digit crude oil prices reached in 2008, accelerated economic growth in the populous

text: BRIC countries

text: , widening prevalence of legislative and fiscal measures to address assumed anthropogenic

text: climate change

text: energy independence

text: policymaking in support of

text: renewable energy

text: and the energy-price influenced

text: global recession

text: . Historical analogues to the current break point are the shift from

text: wood

text: to

text: coal

text: with the

text: industrial revolution

text: and from coal to oil during the

text: World War I

text: . The current rebalancing of the energy mix is substantively different from historical precedents. With the possible exception of

text: natural gas

text: , there are still no other energy sources with adequate utility to take significant

text: market share

text: from oil, let alone supplant it. The rebalancing underway will be effected only in part by an increase of supply from

text: alternative sources

text: . Tertzakian believes that the cross-fertilization of

text: information

text: communication

text: and energy technologies promises dramatic improvement in

text: conservation practices

text: and

text: energy efficiency

text: . He cites

text: telepresence

text: technology,

text: smart grid networks

text: Skype

text: telephony and

text: virtualization

text: software as potential "break point innovations" that could dramatically change energy needs by reconfiguring the ways people live, work and play.

text: In addition, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused and suitable for solar panels. Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells, as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way. Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are not being used for businesses where solar plants can be established.

text: Until the beginning of the nineteenth century biomass was the predominant fuel, today it has only a small share of the overall energy supply. Electricity produced from biomass sources was estimated at 44 GW for 2005. Biomass electricity generation increased by over 100% in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain. A further 220 GW was used for heating (in 2004), bringing the total energy consumed from biomass to around 264 GW. The use of biomass fires for cooking is excluded. World production of bioethanol increased by 8% in 2005 to reach , with most of the increase in the United States, bringing it level to the levels of consumption in Brazil. Biodiesel increased by 85% to , making it the fastest growing renewable energy source in 2005. Over 50% is produced in Germany.

text: Until the beginning of the nineteenth century biomass was the predominant fuel, today it has only a small share of the overall energy supply. Electricity produced from

text: biomass

text: sources was estimated at 44 GW for 2005. Biomass electricity generation increased by over 100% in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain. A further 220 GW was used for heating (in 2004), bringing the total energy consumed from biomass to around 264 GW. The use of biomass fires for cooking is excluded. World production of

text: bioethanol

text: increased by 8% in 2005 to reach , with most of the increase in the United States, bringing it level to the levels of consumption in Brazil.

text: Biodiesel

text: increased by 85% to , making it the fastest growing renewable energy source in 2005. Over 50% is produced in Germany.

text: Some hydropower systems such as water wheels can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the kinetic energy of the flowing water. Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy.

text: Some hydropower systems such as

text: water wheel

text: s can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the

text: kinetic energy

text: of the flowing water. Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy.

text: Bombard Renewable Energy, located in Las Vegas, Nevada, is an indirect, wholly owned subsidiary of MDU Resources Group, Inc. ("MDU"). Bombard Electric, LLC, founded in 1982 and acquired by MDU in 2005, later added the renewable energy division, Bombard Renewable Energy, in 2006.  Bombard Renewable Energy has installed more than 70 Megawatts of Solar PV systems in Nevada and nationwide, both in the public and private sector.  In 2012 Bombard was ranked 13th on Solar Power World's Top 100 Solar Contractors list.

text: Bombard Renewable Energy, located in

text: Las Vegas

text: Nevada

text: , is an indirect, wholly owned subsidiary of

text: MDU Resources Group, Inc.

text: ("MDU"). Bombard Electric, LLC, founded in 1982 and acquired by MDU in 2005, later added the renewable energy division, Bombard Renewable Energy, in 2006.  Bombard Renewable Energy has installed more than 70 Megawatts of Solar PV systems in Nevada and nationwide, both in the public and private sector.  In 2012 Bombard was ranked 13th on Solar Power World's Top 100 Solar Contractors list.

text: As the Jordanian government moves closer to the development of nuclear power plants, the anti-nuclear movement has picked up. The movement is spearheaded by Basel Burgan, an environmentalist and activist who leads the National Campaign, which strives to protect the people of Jordan from the dangers of nuclear energy. Burgan is one of the largest advocates for a nuclear free Jordan. The National Campaign stresses the idea that the nuclear power plants would contaminate Jordan's scarce water supply. Greenpeace Jordan has also made numerous contributions to the movement against nuclear energy in Jordan. Greenpeace Jordan has encouraged the Jordanian government to entertain the idea of creating an energy policy based on renewable resources. Greenpeace Jordan created the "Future of Energy of Jordan" report to introduce the possibility for wind and solar energy. The report brings to light some of the major issues that would occur from Jordan becoming a nuclear energy using nation and proposes a way for Jordan to thrive as a nuclear free nation. The deprivation of water in Jordan combined with heavy seismic activity. Greenpeace Jordan believes that by 2050 they will be able to attain 100% renewable energy. A possible site would be placed above the Azraq Aquifer, which provides one of the largest sources of freshwater to Amman. Environmentalists suggest that one minor accident at the plant could poison up to 1/3 of the water in the country. Jordan is already facing a high paced depletion of water resources, calling into question if the country can actually afford to take the risk of building these power plants. Jordan's Federation for Environmental Societies has used Jordan's lack of water resources as a platform for their anti-nuclear views. Jordan is ranked as the fourth water-poorest country in the world and falls 15% below the water poverty line set by the United Nations. The lack of water has also contributed to concerns about the cooling of the reactors. In cooling the reactors, Jordan would need to use approximately 500 million cubic meters of water annually. Many proponents against nuclear energy in Jordan cite water resource issues at the forefront of their protests; many believe that Jordan does not have room for water to spare.

text: As the Jordanian government moves closer to the development of nuclear power plants, the

text: anti-nuclear movement

text: has picked up. The movement is spearheaded by Basel Burgan, an environmentalist and activist who leads the National Campaign, which strives to protect the people of Jordan from the dangers of nuclear energy. Burgan is one of the largest advocates for a nuclear free Jordan. The National Campaign stresses the idea that the nuclear power plants would contaminate Jordan's scarce water supply. Greenpeace Jordan has also made numerous contributions to the movement against nuclear energy in Jordan. Greenpeace Jordan has encouraged the Jordanian government to entertain the idea of creating an energy policy based on renewable resources. Greenpeace Jordan created the "Future of Energy of Jordan" report to introduce the possibility for wind and solar energy. The report brings to light some of the major issues that would occur from Jordan becoming a nuclear energy using nation and proposes a way for Jordan to thrive as a nuclear free nation. The deprivation of water in Jordan combined with heavy seismic activity. Greenpeace Jordan believes that by 2050 they will be able to attain 100% renewable energy. A possible site would be placed above the Azraq Aquifer, which provides one of the largest sources of freshwater to

text: Amman

text: . Environmentalists suggest that one minor accident at the plant could poison up to 1/3 of the water in the country. Jordan is already facing a high paced depletion of water resources, calling into question if the country can actually afford to take the risk of building these power plants. Jordan's Federation for Environmental Societies has used Jordan's lack of water resources as a platform for their anti-nuclear views. Jordan is ranked as the fourth water-poorest country in the world and falls 15% below the water poverty line set by the United Nations. The lack of water has also contributed to concerns about the cooling of the reactors. In cooling the reactors, Jordan would need to use approximately 500 million cubic meters of water annually. Many proponents against nuclear energy in Jordan cite water resource issues at the forefront of their protests; many believe that Jordan does not have room for water to spare.

text: Zero Carbon Australia Renewable Energy Superpower Report 2015 is Beyond Zero Emissions' estimate of the size and value of Australia's economically demonstrated solar photovoltaic and wind resources situated within 10km of the existing electricity grid. The size of the resource is found to be much larger than non-renewable energy resources, and ranks Australia in the global top 3 for quality - and potential cheapness - of its renewable energy.  The report assesses the worlds clean energy transition and its energy-intensive sectors and then suggests that if it were paired with energy intensive ore and resource-processing industries,  potentially worth billions to the economy, Australia's renewable energy resource would position Australia as a renewable energy superpower with a strong sustained and sustainable competitive advantage.

text: Renewable energy in South Dakota involves production of biofuels and generation of electricity from renewable sources of energy such as wind and hydropower. South Dakota is among the states with the highest percentage of electricity generation from renewable resources, typically over 70 percent. In 2011, South Dakota became the first U.S. state to have at least 20% of its electricity generation come from wind power.

text: Renewable energy in South Dakota involves production of

text: biofuel

text: s and generation of electricity from renewable sources of energy such as wind and hydropower.

text: South Dakota

text: is among the states with the highest percentage of electricity generation from renewable resources, typically over 70 percent. In 2011, South Dakota became the first U.S. state to have at least 20% of its electricity generation come from

text: wind power

text: On a large scale, the use of biomass takes agricultural land out of food production, reduces the carbon sequestration capacity of forests, and extracts nutrients from the soil. Combustion of biomass creates air pollutants and adds significant quantities of carbon to the atmosphere that may not be returned to the soil for many decades.

text: Norway is a heavy producer of renewable energy, first of all due to good resources in hydropower. Over 99% of the electricity production in mainland Norway is covered by hydropower plants. The total production of electricity from hydropower plants amounted to 135.3 TWh in 2007 There is also a large potential in wind power, offshore wind power and wave power, as well as production of bio-energy from wood. Norway has limited resources in solar energy, but is one of the world's largest producers of solar grade silicon and silicon solar cells.

text: Norway

text: is a heavy producer of

text: renewable energy

text: , first of all due to good resources in

text: hydropower

text: . Over 99% of the electricity production in mainland Norway is covered by hydropower plants. The total production of electricity from hydropower plants amounted to 135.3 TWh in 2007 There is also a large potential in

text: wind power

text: offshore wind power

text: and

text: wave power

text: , as well as production of

text: bio-energy

text: from wood. Norway has limited resources in solar energy, but is one of the world's largest producers of

text: solar grade silicon

text: and silicon

text: solar cells

text: AEP currently gets .02% of its energy from renewable energy resources like wind and solar. They are planning to increase their reliance on coal in the next five years. They occasionally support renewable energy in their utility territories, but only when they can own it through their regulated assets.

text: Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, hydro, biomass, and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market. The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts. While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7% globally in 2010, most installation of new capacity has been with renewables. Few new installations were from fossil fuel‐based power plants. The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020. Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants, the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO emissions. Hence, renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies.

text: Renewable energy

text: sources such as

text: solar

text: wind

text: tidal

text: hydro

text: biomass

text: , and

text: geothermal

text: have become significant sectors of the energy market. The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of

text: fossil fuel

text: s as well as their negative

text: environmental impact

text: s. While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7% globally in 2010, most installation of new capacity has been with renewables. Few new installations were from fossil fuel‐based power plants. The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020. Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in

text: power plant

text: s, the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce

text: CO emissions

text: . Hence, renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies.

text: Concept of Smart villages is a global modern approach for off-grid communities.  Vision behind this concept is to assist the policy makers, donors and socio-economic planner for rural electrification worldwide, with special focus on Asian and African countries.  Smart villages concept is engaged in efforts to combat the real barriers to energy access in villages, particularly in developing countries with technological, financial and educational methodology.  Since 20th Century Electricity has become a vital part of our lives, though we can survive without electricity but cannot progress and enjoy the benefits of science.  World’s large oil companies have predicted that by 2050, one third of the energy will need to come from Solar, Wind and other renewable resources, therefore adoption of renewable resource in place of fossil fuel is the best approach that can be developed through off-grid systems or communities.

text: IRENA Renewable Energy Learning Partnership (IRELP) is an online educational resource developed by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) to raise awareness of and accessibility to readily available renewable energy education and training.

text: IRENA Renewable Energy Learning Partnership (IRELP) is an online educational resource developed by the

text: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)

text: to raise awareness of and accessibility to readily available renewable energy education and training.

text: California Proposition 7, would have required California utilities to procure half of their power from renewable resources by 2025. In order to make that goal, levels of production of solar, wind and other renewable energy resources would more than quadruple from their current output of 10.9%. It would also require California utilities to increase their purchase of electricity generated from renewable resources by 2% annually to meet Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) requirements of 40% in 2020 and 50% in 2025.  Current law AB32 requires an RPS of 20% by 2010.

text: California Proposition 7, would have required California utilities to procure half of their power from renewable resources by 2025. In order to make that goal, levels of production of solar, wind and other renewable energy resources would more than quadruple from their current output of 10.9%. It would also require California utilities to increase their purchase of electricity generated from renewable resources by 2% annually to meet

text: Renewable Portfolio Standard

text: (RPS) requirements of 40% in 2020 and 50% in 2025.  Current law AB32 requires an RPS of 20% by 2010.

text: The North Carolina Solar Center is a resource center for sustainable energy programs located at North Carolina State University in Raleigh, North Carolina. When it was created in 1988, the center's focus was solar energy. The N.C. Solar Center now serves as a resource for innovative, clean energy technologies through demonstration, technical assistance, outreach and training. It also administers the Database of Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE), a resource providing financial incentives and policies in the energy industry.

text: The North Carolina Solar Center is a resource center for

text: sustainable energy

text: programs located at

text: North Carolina State University

text: in

text: Raleigh, North Carolina

text: . When it was created in 1988, the center's focus was

text: solar energy

text: . The N.C. Solar Center now serves as a resource for innovative, clean energy technologies through demonstration, technical assistance, outreach and training. It also administers the Database of Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE), a resource providing financial incentives and policies in the energy industry.

text: Environmental Protection has become more important to government and businesses over the last 20 years, leading to great improvements in the number of people willing to invest in green technologies. For the second year in a row in 2010, the United States and Europe added more power capacity from renewable sources such as wind and solar. In 2011 the efforts continue with 45 new wind energy projects beginning in 25 different states. The focus on environmental protection has transpired globally as well, including a great deal of investment in renewable energy power capacity. Eco-city development occurring around the world helps to develop and implement water conservation, smart grids with renewable energy sources, LED street lights and energy efficient building. The consumption gap remains, consisting of the fact that "roughly 80 percent of the natural resources used each year are consumed by about 20 percent of the world's population". This level is striking and still needs to be addressed now and throughout the future.

text: The building uses renewable energy and has recycling facilities throughout.Designers sought to make the building's form and fabric temper the internal environment, thus minimising the need for mechanical systems. Where these are required they were specified to have a minimal environmental impact and to make maximum use of renewable resources. The building was designed to be well sealed and insulated to avoid incidental losses, and glazing and shading devices are orientated to minimise unnecessary gains.<br>The building makes maximum use of controlled natural light and ventilation with controls and local manual override. Materials were selected to minimise embodied energy and generation of toxins in manufacture, use and ultimate disposal. Where possible materials were recycled and locally sourced and the design allows for the building structure and fabric to be recycled at the end of its life. Water use is minimised by the specification of water saving fittings and the recycling of grey water.

text: The Welspun Solar MP project, the largest solar power plant in the state, was set up at a cost of  on  of land and will supply power at /kWh. A 130 MW solar power plant project at Bhagwanpur in Neemuch was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. This is the largest solar producer and one of the top three companies in the renewable energy sector in India.

text: The

text: Welspun Solar MP project

text: , the largest solar power plant in the state, was set up at a cost of  on  of land and will supply power at /kWh. A 130 MW solar power plant project at Bhagwanpur in Neemuch was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. This is the largest solar producer and one of the top three companies in the renewable energy sector in India.

text: The Malaysian government is seeking to intensify the development of renewable energy, particularly biomass, as the 'fifth fuel' resource under the country's Fuel Diversification Policy. The policy, which was set out in 2001, had a target of renewable energy providing 5% of electricity generation by 2005, equal to between 500 and 600 megawatt (MW) of installed capacity. The policy has been reinforced by fiscal incentives, such as investment tax allowances and the Small Renewable Energy Programme (SREP), which encourages the connection of small renewable power generation plants to the national grid.

text: The Malaysian government is seeking to intensify the development of

text: renewable energy

text: , particularly

text: biomass

text: , as the 'fifth fuel' resource under the country's Fuel Diversification Policy. The policy, which was set out in 2001, had a target of renewable energy providing 5% of electricity generation by 2005, equal to between 500 and 600

text: megawatt

text: (MW) of installed capacity. The policy has been reinforced by fiscal

text: incentives

text: , such as investment tax allowances and the Small Renewable Energy Programme (SREP), which encourages the connection of small renewable power generation plants to the

text: national grid

text: TEA promotes the use of thorium using a diverse rationale. Increasing world population, depleting resources  and global warming have put severe constraints on the choices of power generation available today. Traditional fossil fuel based energy generation faces two-fold challenges in terms of depleting resources and need to keep greenhouse gas emissions in control. While interim measures like natural gas and unconventional oil are proposed, these still have a carbon footprint and are not universally available. Hydropower use has reached a natural limit in many parts of the world, and the existing capacity is under stress due to climate change. Renewable energy is seen as an important component of future energy generation, but being essentially intermittent, can not be effectively managed by the current power distribution technologies.  Hence, nuclear energy is seen as an important option for power generation in many countries.

text: TEA promotes the use of thorium using a diverse rationale.

text: Increasing world population

text: depleting resources

text: and

text: global warming

text: have put severe constraints on the choices of

text: power

text: generation available today. Traditional

text: fossil fuel

text: based energy generation faces two-fold challenges in terms of depleting resources and need to keep

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions in control. While interim measures like

text: natural gas

text: and

text: unconventional oil

text: are proposed, these still have a

text: carbon footprint

text: and are not universally available.

text: Hydropower

text: use has reached a natural limit in many parts of the world, and the existing capacity is under stress due to

text: climate change

text: Renewable energy

text: is seen as an important component of future energy generation, but being essentially intermittent, can not be effectively managed by the current power distribution technologies.  Hence,

text: nuclear energy

text: is seen as an important option for power generation in many countries.

text: Solar thermal power stations include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power plant in the USA, Solnova Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain, 100 MW), Nevada Solar One (USA, 64 MW), PS20 solar power tower (Spain, 20 MW), and the PS10 solar power tower (Spain, 11 MW). The 370 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in California's Mojave Desert, is the world's largest solar-thermal power plant project currently under construction. Many other plants are under construction or planned, mainly in Spain and the USA. In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.

text: Solar thermal power

text: stations include the 354

text: megawatt

text: (MW)

text: Solar Energy Generating Systems

text: power plant in the USA,

text: Solnova Solar Power Station

text: (Spain, 150 MW),

text: Andasol solar power station

text: (Spain, 100 MW),

text: Nevada Solar One

text: (USA, 64 MW),

text: PS20 solar power tower

text: (Spain, 20 MW), and the

text: PS10 solar power tower

text: (Spain, 11 MW). The 370 MW

text: Ivanpah Solar Power Facility

text: , located in California's

text: Mojave Desert

text: , is the world's largest solar-thermal power plant project currently under construction. Many other plants are under construction or planned, mainly in Spain and the USA. In developing countries, three

text: World Bank

text: projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in

text: Egypt

text: Mexico

text: , and

text: Morocco

text: have been approved.

text: United States 1,068.4 Gigawatt power infrastructure  produced 4,093.6 Billion kWhs (B kWhs) in 2014. USA imports  minus exports was 53.2 B kWhs for a total of 4,146.8 B kWh of electrical energy for U.S. use. Electrical energy generated from Coal was 1,581.71 B kWhs (38.14%); Natural and other Gases, 1,138.63 B kWhs (27.46%); Nuclear, 797.17 B kWhs (19.22%); Hydro, 259.37 B kWhs (6.25%); Renewables (other than Hydro), 279.21 B kWhs (6.74%); Imports less exports, 53.2 B kWh (1.3%); Petroleum, 30.23 B kWhs (0.7%); and Misc (including pumped storage) 6.29 B kWhs (0.1%). United States' renewable fuels (Hydro reported separately) are Wind, 181.66 B kWhs (4.38%); Wood, 42.34 B kWh (1.02%); other Biomass, 21.65 B kWhs (0.52% ); Geothermal, 15.88 B kWhs (0.38%) and Solar, 17.69 B kWhs (0.43%).The following tables summarize the electrical energy generated by fuel source for the United States. Data from Electric Power Annual 2014 was used throughout this section.

text: Sebelius chaired the Governors' Ethanol Coalition. In 2006 she requested that $200 million be allotted from the US government to support the Department of Energy Biomass and Biorefinery Systems Research and Development Program. She pushed for more widespread recycling efforts across the state. In addition, she vetoed bills authorizing the construction of coal-fired power plants on three separate occasions saying in March 2008, "We know that greenhouse gases contribute to climate change. As an agricultural state, Kansas is particularly vulnerable. Therefore, reducing pollutants benefits our state not only in the short term — but also for generations of Kansans to come."  On June 2, 2008, Sebelius spoke at the American Wind Energy Association Conference, calling for greater federal support for wind energy and other renewable energy resources.

text: Sebelius chaired the Governors' Ethanol Coalition. In 2006 she requested that $200 million be allotted from the US government to support the Department of Energy Biomass and Biorefinery Systems Research and Development Program. She pushed for more widespread

text: recycling

text: efforts across the state. In addition, she vetoed bills authorizing the construction of coal-fired power plants on three separate occasions saying in March 2008, "We know that

text: greenhouse gas

text: es contribute to

text: climate change

text: . As an agricultural state, Kansas is particularly vulnerable. Therefore, reducing pollutants benefits our state not only in the short term — but also for generations of Kansans to come."  On June 2, 2008, Sebelius spoke at the

text: American Wind Energy Association

text: Conference, calling for greater federal support for

text: wind energy

text: and other

text: renewable energy

text: resources.

text: Sovacool says that variable renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar energy can displace nuclear resources. "Nine recent studies have concluded that the variability and intermittency of wind and solar resources becomes easier to manage the more they are deployed and interconnected, not the other way around, as some utilities suggest. This is because wind and solar plants help grid operators handle major outages and contingencies elsewhere in the system, since they generate power in smaller increments that are less damaging than unexpected outages from large plants".

text: Sovacool says that

text: variable renewable energy

text: sources such as

text: wind power

text: and

text: solar energy

text: can displace nuclear resources. "Nine recent studies have concluded that the variability and intermittency of wind and solar resources becomes easier to manage the more they are deployed and interconnected, not the other way around, as some utilities suggest. This is because wind and solar plants help grid operators handle major outages and contingencies elsewhere in the system, since they generate power in smaller increments that are less damaging than unexpected outages from large plants".

text: Water towers are able to supply water even during power outages, because they rely on hydrostatic pressure produced by elevation of water (due to gravity) to push the water into domestic and industrial water distribution systems; however, they cannot supply the water for a long time without power, because a pump is typically required to refill the tower. A water tower also serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times. The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak usage hours of the day, and then a pump fills it back up during the night.  This process also keeps the water from freezing in cold weather, since the tower is constantly being drained and refilled.

text: Water towers are able to supply water even during power outages, because they rely on

text: hydrostatic pressure

text: produced by elevation of water (due to

text: gravity

text: ) to push the water into domestic and industrial water distribution systems; however, they cannot supply the water for a long time without power, because a pump is typically required to refill the tower. A water tower also serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times. The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak usage hours of the day, and then a pump fills it back up during the night.  This process also keeps the water from freezing in cold weather, since the tower is constantly being drained and refilled.

text: Ontario's Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 (GEGEA), now in force and effect, takes a two-pronged approach to creating a renewable energy economy. The first is to bring more renewable energy sources to the province and the second is the creation of more energy efficiency measures to help conserve energy. The bill also appoints a Renewable Energy Facilitator to provide "one-window" assistance and support to project developers in order to facilitate project approvals. The approvals process for transmission projects are also streamlined and for the first time in Ontario, the bill enacts standards for renewable energy projects. Homeowners now have access to incentives to develop small-scale renewables such as low- or no-interest loans to finance the capital cost of renewable energy generating facilities like solar panels.

text: Ontario's Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 (GEGEA)

text: , now in force and effect, takes a two-pronged approach to creating a

text: renewable energy

text: economy. The first is to bring more

text: renewable energy sources

text: to the province and the second is the creation of more

text: energy efficiency

text: measures to help

text: conserve energy

text: . The bill also appoints a

text: Renewable Energy Facilitator

text: to provide "

text: one-window

text: " assistance and support to project developers in order to facilitate project approvals. The approvals process for transmission projects are also

text: streamline

text: d and for the first time in Ontario, the bill enacts standards for renewable energy projects. Homeowners now have access to incentives to develop small-scale renewables such as low- or no-interest

text: loan

text: s to finance the capital cost of renewable energy generating facilities like solar panels.

text: Genesis Energy began its Schoolgen programme in 2006 to teach students about solar power, renewable energy and energy efficiency. The Schoolgen program has created extensive teaching resources, including eBooks that are free for any school in New Zealand. It has also provided 92 New Zealand schools with either a 2, 4 or 6 kilowatt photovoltaic (PV) solar panel system, at no cost to the schools. The largest solar array on a Schoolgen school is 16 kilowatts on Vauxhall School in Auckland. The PV system allows these schools to generate a portion of their electricity from the sun while also teaching students about solar energy.

text: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels, is relatively minor. According to the IPCC, in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources, wind turbines have a median value of between 12 and 11 (geq/kWh) depending on whether off- or onshore turbines are being assessed. Compared with other low carbon power sources, wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated.

text: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels, is relatively minor. According to the

text: IPCC

text: , in assessments of the

text: life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources

text: , wind turbines have a

text: median

text: value of between 12 and 11 (

text: g

text: eq

text: kWh

text: ) depending on whether off- or onshore turbines are being assessed. Compared with other

text: low carbon power

text: sources, wind turbines have some of the lowest

text: global warming potential

text: per unit of electrical energy generated.

text: The 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located  southwest of Las Vegas, is the world’s largest solar-thermal power plant project which became fully operational on February 13, 2014. BrightSource Energy received a $1.6 billion loan guarantee from the United States Department of Energy to build the project, which deploys 347,000 heliostat mirrors focusing solar energy on boilers located on centralized solar power towers.  In February 2012, Ivanpah was awarded the CSP (Concentrating Solar Power) Project of the Year by Solar Power Generation USA.

text: The 392 MW

text: Ivanpah Solar Power Facility

text: , located  southwest of Las Vegas, is the world’s largest solar-thermal power plant project which became fully operational on February 13, 2014.

text: BrightSource Energy

text: received a $1.6 billion loan guarantee from the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: to build the project, which deploys 347,000

text: heliostat

text: mirrors focusing

text: solar energy

text: on boilers located on centralized

text: solar power tower

text: s.  In February 2012, Ivanpah was awarded the CSP (

text: Concentrating Solar Power

text: ) Project of the Year by Solar Power Generation USA.

text: In 2015, the production of hydropower takes place in more than 300 power plants worldwide. Most of these are in Norway, but the power plants are also located in:

text: Currently hydropower, solar and biomass are used on a large scale for electricity generation. While the potential of large generation from hydropower and geothermal energy has been studied in detail, the potential for the development of other renewable energy resources is yet to be explored in depth.

text: Currently hydropower, solar and biomass are used on a large scale for electricity generation. While the potential of large generation from

text: hydropower

text: and geothermal energy has been studied in detail, the potential for the development of other renewable energy resources is yet to be explored in depth.

text: Some water turbines are designed for pumped-storage hydroelectricity. They can reverse flow and operate as a pump to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical hours, and then revert to a water turbine for power generation during peak electrical demand. This type of turbine is usually a Deriaz or Francis turbine in design.

text: Some water turbines are designed for

text: pumped-storage hydroelectricity

text: . They can reverse flow and operate as a

text: pump

text: to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical hours, and then revert to a water turbine for power generation during peak electrical demand. This type of turbine is usually a

text: Deriaz

text: or

text: Francis turbine

text: in design.

text: The energy landscape of Idaho is favorable to the development of renewable energy systems. The state is rich in renewable energy resources but has limited fossil fuel resources. The Snake River Plain and smaller river basins provide Idaho with some of the best hydroelectric power resources in the nation and its geologically active mountain areas have significant geothermal power and wind power potential. These realities have shaped much of the state's current energy landscape.

text: The energy landscape of Idaho is favorable to the development of

text: renewable energy

text: systems. The state is rich in renewable energy resources but has limited fossil fuel resources. The

text: Snake River Plain

text: and smaller river basins provide Idaho with some of the best

text: hydroelectric power

text: resources in the nation and its geologically active mountain areas have significant

text: geothermal power

text: and

text: wind power

text: potential. These realities have shaped much of the state's current energy landscape.

text: What effect has this had on the area? A special scheme (very easy – stable energy prices, not linked to oil & gas, guaranteed long-term, 10–15 years) promoting the establishment of enterprises in the area has brought 50 new enterprises with more than 1,000 direct and indirect jobs in the city. (these 1000 jobs are in the City, region not calculated...). Güssing has since developed into an important location for industries with high energy consumption, such as parquetry production or hardwood drying. The real highlight is the Blue Chip Energy, first high-efficiency solar cell production in Austria, a Joint Venture with Solon AG, who came to Güssing only because they can power the plant with clean energy from the renewable resources.

text: The intensity of solar thermal energy from solar radiation at the surface of the earth is about , of area normal to the direction of the sun, under clear-sky conditions.  When solar energy is unconcentrated, the maximum collector temperature is about .  This is useful for space heating and heating water.  For higher temperature applications, such as cooking, or supplying a heat engine or turbine-electrical generator, this energy must be concentrated.

text: The intensity of

text: solar thermal energy

text: from

text: solar radiation

text: at the surface of the

text: earth

text: is about , of area

text: normal

text: to the direction of the

text: sun

text: , under clear-sky conditions.  When solar energy is unconcentrated, the maximum collector temperature is about .  This is useful for space heating and heating water.  For higher temperature applications, such as

text: cooking

text: , or supplying a

text: heat engine

text: or

text: turbine

text: electrical generator

text: , this energy must be concentrated.

text: Faisalabad has received substantial funding from the government of Punjab and the city district government to improve infrastructure and roads to rural areas. In an effort to deal with the energy crisis, the FCCI has been working with private companies to develop renewable energy resources such as solar energy and the construction of dams within the district. CAE, a German-based renewable energy company, has disclosed plans to establish the first solar panel manufacturing facility in Faisalabad, second of its kind in Asia, with intentions of investing upwards of €100 million (Rs 12.9 billion) for its development.

text: Faisalabad has received substantial funding from the

text: government of Punjab

text: and the city district government to improve infrastructure and roads to rural areas. In an effort to deal with the energy crisis, the FCCI has been working with private companies to develop renewable energy resources such as solar energy and the construction of dams within the district. CAE, a German-based renewable energy company, has disclosed plans to establish the first solar panel manufacturing facility in Faisalabad, second of its kind in Asia, with intentions of investing upwards of €100 million (Rs 12.9 billion) for its development.

text: Spain has long been a leader in renewable energy, and has recently become the first country in the world to have relied on wind as its top energy source for an entire year. The country is attempting to use wind power to supply 40 percent of its electricity consumption by 2020.At the same time, Spain is also developing other renewable sources of energy, particularly solar photovoltaic. Though it currently only accounts for about 3 percent of electricity generation, Spain’s solar industry is one of the largest in the world, according to Al Jazeera. In 2012, it reported that solar power accounted for almost 2,000 megawatts of energy. Comparatively in the United States, there were 3,313 megawatts of solar photovoltaic installations that same year.Though the U.S. may have more solar cumulatively, Spain’s solar makes up more of the smaller country’s electricity use as a whole. In 2013, solar accounted for about 0.2 percent of the net electricity produced in the United States, according to the Institute for Energy Research. That same year, solar accounted for 3.1 percent of Spain’s total electricity, according to REE.Spain’s renewable energy story hasn't been all good news. The country’s aggressive goals have been heavily subsidized by its government, and the government has fallen into economic distress as a result. Specifically, the New York Times reported in 2013 that Spain’s tariff deficit had built up a cumulative debt of about €26 billion ($35 billion). Since then, however, the country has slashed its subsidies, putting the bulk of costs back on the power utilities themselves.The subsidy cuts happened last summer, and since then renewable energy has not significantly grown in the country as a whole. But it has grown substantially in at least one part of Spain — the tiny island of El Hierro, which is nearing its goal to be powered 100 percent by wind and water.

text: In 1899 the company started to invest in the Valais region of Switzerland which was rich in hydropower resources. The company built a plant in Chippis (1908) using hydropower from the river Navisence. The market for their aluminium did not meet expectations and the company began to use some of the electrical production for nitric acid manufacture (Birkeland–Eyde process); during the Great Depression the company sold electricity from its plants to municipal customers. A rolling mill was established in Sierre in 1929. In the 1950s the company acquired a concession to 30% of the flow from the dam built at the Lac de Moiry, and constructed a factory at Ernen. A factory in Steg was established in 1962. The company became a major employer in the Valais region, employing over 3000 in 1942, by 1970 the approximately 2000 were employed in the canton.

text: In 1899 the company started to invest in the

text: Valais

text: region of Switzerland which was rich in hydropower resources. The company built a plant in

text: Chippis

text: (1908) using hydropower from the river

text: Navisence

text: . The market for their aluminium did not meet expectations and the company began to use some of the electrical production for nitric acid manufacture (

text: Birkeland–Eyde process

text: ); during the

text: Great Depression

text: the company sold electricity from its plants to municipal customers. A rolling mill was established in

text: Sierre

text: in 1929. In the 1950s the company acquired a concession to 30% of the flow from the dam built at the

text: Lac de Moiry

text: , and constructed a factory at

text: Ernen

text: . A factory in

text: Steg

text: was established in 1962. The company became a major employer in the Valais region, employing over 3000 in 1942, by 1970 the approximately 2000 were employed in the canton.

text: By the end of 2011, total renewable power capacity worldwide exceeded 1,360 GW, up 8%. Renewables producing electricity accounted for almost half of the 208 GW of capacity added globally during 2011. Wind and solar photovoltaics (PV) accounted for almost 40% and 30% . Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.

text: By the end of 2011, total renewable power capacity worldwide exceeded 1,360 GW, up 8%. Renewables producing electricity accounted for almost half of the 208 GW of capacity added globally during 2011. Wind and solar photovoltaics (PV) accounted for almost 40% and 30% . Based on

text: 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass.

text: China Energy Conservation Investment Corporation, through its subsidiaries, engages in the environmental protection, energy conservation, new and renewable energy, materials, and technology businesses. It involves in the treatment of environment, administration of water resources, production and supply of water, treatment and recycling of waste water, manufacture of anti-pollution equipment, and construction of environmental projects; power generation, and production and supply of heat, as well as manufacture of power transmission, distribution, and control equipment; manufacture of lighting devices and instruments, production of cold rolled steel strips, and manufacture of metal processing machines; hydroelectric and wind power generation, and gas supply; manufacture of new building materials, and mining and dressing of scarce and rare-earth metal ores; and manufacture of communication equipment, electronic devices, information chemical products, and equipment for public society security.

text: China Energy Conservation Investment Corporation, through its subsidiaries, engages in the environmental protection, energy conservation, new and

text: renewable energy

text: , materials, and technology businesses. It involves in the treatment of environment, administration of

text: water resources

text: , production and supply of water, treatment and recycling of

text: waste water

text: , manufacture of anti-pollution equipment, and construction of environmental projects; power generation, and production and supply of heat, as well as manufacture of power transmission, distribution, and control equipment; manufacture of lighting devices and instruments, production of cold rolled steel strips, and manufacture of metal processing machines; hydroelectric and wind power generation, and gas supply; manufacture of new building materials, and mining and dressing of scarce and rare-earth metal ores; and manufacture of communication equipment, electronic devices, information chemical products, and equipment for public society security.

text: Amonix, Inc. is a solar power system developer based in Seal Beach, California. The company manufactures concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) products designed for installation in sunny and dry climates. CPV products convert sunlight into electrical energy in the same way that conventional solar photovoltaic technology does, except that they use optics to focus the solar radiation before the light is absorbed by solar cells. According to a comparative study of energy production of solar technologies, CPV systems require no water for energy production and produce more energy per megawatt (MW) installed than traditional PV systems. Amonix has nearly 70 Megawatts(DC) of CPV solar power systems deployed globally, including Southwestern U.S.  and Spain. In May 2012, the Alamosa Solar Generating project, owned and operated by Cogentrix Energy, began commercial operation. This is the largest CPV power plant in the world and is expected to produce enough clean renewable energy per year to power more than 6,500 homes and will avoid the emissions of over 43,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. The Alamosa Solar Generating Project is supported by a power purchase agreement (PPA), which is a long-term agreement to sell the power it will generate.  Under the project’s PPA, the Public Service Company of Colorado will buy the power generated by the solar facility for the next 20 years.  In July 2012, Amonix set the world record for photovoltaic module efficiency at 33.5% (full regression analysis) under nominal operating conditions, verified by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.  In April 2013, Amonix broke the record set in July 2012, demonstrating photovoltaic module efficiency at 34.9% (full regression analysis) under normal concentrator standard operating conditions (CSOC), also verified by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.  In August 2013, Amonix announced it had achieved a 35.9% photovoltaic module efficiency rating under concentrator standard test conditions (CSTC) as calculated by NREL.  In June, 2014, the assets of Amonix were acquired by Arzon Solar, LLC for the purpose of continued development of CPV technology and products.

text: Amonix, Inc. is a

text: solar power

text: system developer based in

text: Seal Beach, California

text: . The company manufactures

text: concentrator photovoltaic

text: (CPV) products designed for installation in sunny and dry climates. CPV products convert sunlight into electrical energy in the same way that conventional

text: solar photovoltaic

text: technology does, except that they use optics to focus the solar radiation before the light is absorbed by solar cells. According to a comparative study of energy production of solar technologies, CPV systems require no water for energy production and produce more energy per megawatt (MW) installed than traditional PV systems. Amonix has nearly 70 Megawatts(DC) of CPV solar power systems deployed globally, including

text: Southwestern U.S.

text: and

text: Spain

text: . In May 2012, the Alamosa Solar Generating project, owned and operated by Cogentrix Energy, began commercial operation. This is the largest CPV power plant in the world and is expected to produce enough clean renewable energy per year to power more than 6,500 homes and will avoid the emissions of over 43,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. The Alamosa Solar Generating Project is supported by a

text: power purchase agreement

text: (PPA), which is a long-term agreement to sell the power it will generate.  Under the project’s PPA, the Public Service Company of Colorado will buy the power generated by the solar facility for the next 20 years.  In July 2012, Amonix set the

text: world record

text: for photovoltaic module efficiency at 33.5% (full regression analysis) under nominal operating conditions, verified by the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: .  In April 2013, Amonix broke the record set in July 2012, demonstrating photovoltaic module efficiency at 34.9% (full regression analysis) under normal concentrator standard operating conditions (CSOC), also verified by the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: .  In August 2013, Amonix announced it had achieved a 35.9% photovoltaic module efficiency rating under concentrator standard test conditions (CSTC) as calculated by NREL.  In June, 2014, the assets of Amonix were acquired by Arzon Solar, LLC for the purpose of continued development of CPV technology and products.

text: CSP is a proven technology and the first plants began operating in California in the 80’s, spurred by federal and state tax incentives and mandatory long-term power purchase contracts. A drop in fossil fuel prices then led the federal and state governments to dismantle the policy framework that had supported the advancement of CSP. In 2006, the market re-emerged in Spain and the United States, supported by changes in governmental policies favorable to renewable energies – and solar in particular. CSP uses renewable solar resource to generate electricity while producing no GHG emissions (SO

text: CSP is a proven technology and the first plants began operating in

text: California

text: in the 80’s, spurred by federal and state tax incentives and mandatory long-term

text: power purchase contracts

text: . A drop in

text: fossil fuel

text: prices then led the federal and state governments to dismantle the

text: policy

text: framework that had supported the advancement of CSP. In 2006, the market re-emerged in

text: Spain

text: and the

text: United States

text: , supported by changes in governmental policies favorable to

text: renewable energies

text: – and

text: solar

text: in particular. CSP uses

text: renewable

text: solar resource

text: to

text: generate electricity

text: while producing no

text: GHG emissions

text: (SO

text: Geothermal energy, which is used for heating and electricity production in some regions of the Northern Caucasus and the Far East, is the most developed renewable energy source in Russia. Geothermal resources have been identified in the Northern Caucasus, Western Siberia, Lake Baikal, and in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. In 1966 a 4 MWe single-flash plant was commissioned at Pauzhetka (currently 11 MWe) followed by a 12 MWe geothermal power plant at Verkhne Mutnovsky, and 50 MWe Mutnovsky geothermal power plant. At the end of 2005 installed capacity for direct use amounted to more than 307 MWt.

text: Geothermal energy

text: , which is used for heating and electricity production in some regions of the

text: Northern Caucasus

text: and the

text: Far East

text: , is the most developed renewable energy source in Russia. Geothermal resources have been identified in the Northern Caucasus, Western Siberia, Lake Baikal, and in Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. In 1966 a 4 MWe single-flash plant was commissioned at Pauzhetka (currently 11 MWe) followed by a 12 MWe geothermal power plant at Verkhne Mutnovsky, and 50 MWe Mutnovsky geothermal power plant. At the end of 2005 installed capacity for direct use amounted to more than 307 MWt.

text: The country's main renewable energy source is hydroelectricity, with an installed capacity of about 27 GW and a production of 69.2 TWh of electricity in 2009.As of September 2011, Japan had 1,198 small hydropower plants with a total capacity of 3,225 MW. The smaller plants accounted for 6.6 percent of Japan's total hydropower capacity. The remaining capacity was filled by large and medium hydropower stations, typically sited at large dams. Cost per kilowatt-hour for power from smaller plants was high at ¥15-100, hindering further development of the energy source.

text: The goal of Ghana regarding bio-energy, as articulated its energy sector policy, is to modernize and examine the benefits of bio-energy on a sustainable basis. Biomass is Ghana's dominant energy resource in terms of endowment and consumption, with the two primary bio-fuels consumed being ethanol and biodiesel. To that effect, the Ghana ministry of Energy in 2010 developed the energy sector strategy and development plan. Highlights of the key policy objectives strategy for the renewable energy subsector include sustaining the supply and efficient use of wood-fuels while ensuring that their utilization does not lead to deforestation. The plan would support private sector investments in the cultivation of bio-fuel feedstock, extraction of bio-oil and its refining into secondary products, thereby creating appropriate financial and tax incentives. The Ghana Renewal Energy Act provides the necessary fiscal incentives for renewable energy development by the private sector, and also details the control and management of bio-fuel and wood- fuel projects in Ghana. The Ghana National Petroleum Authority (NPA) was tasked by the Renewable Energy Act 2011 to price Ghana's bio-fuel blend in accordance with the prescribed petroleum pricing formula.

text: The goal of Ghana regarding bio-energy, as articulated its energy sector policy, is to modernize and examine the benefits of

text: bio-energy

text: on a sustainable basis.

text: Biomass

text: is Ghana's dominant energy resource in terms of endowment and consumption, with the two primary

text: bio-fuel

text: s consumed being

text: ethanol

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: . To that effect, the Ghana ministry of Energy in 2010 developed the energy sector strategy and development plan. Highlights of the key policy objectives strategy for the renewable energy subsector include sustaining the supply and efficient use of

text: wood-fuels

text: while ensuring that their utilization does not lead to

text: deforestation

text: . The plan would support

text: private sector

text: investments in the cultivation of

text: bio-fuel

text: feedstock, extraction of

text: bio-oil

text: and its refining into secondary products, thereby creating appropriate financial and tax incentives. The Ghana Renewal Energy Act provides the necessary fiscal incentives for

text: renewable energy

text: development by the private sector, and also details the control and management of

text: bio-fuel

text: and

text: wood- fuel

text: projects in Ghana. The Ghana National Petroleum Authority (NPA) was tasked by the

text: Renewable Energy

text: Act 2011 to price Ghana's

text: bio-fuel

text: blend in accordance with the prescribed

text: petroleum

text: pricing formula.

text: Reliant Energy claims to have made efforts toward more environmentally safe practices through the use of renewable resources such as solar energy, wind power, landfill gas, and coal refuse.

text: Reliant Energy claims to have made efforts toward more environmentally safe practices through the use of renewable resources such as

text: solar energy

text: wind power

text: landfill gas

text: , and

text: coal refuse

text: Environment California has supported environmental campaigns within California including statewide bans on plastic bags, the reduction of energy inefficient appliances, and the expansion of the state's solar metering program and solar energy production. The advocacy group has also worked to reform California’s renewable energy policies. Environment California supported a law that Governor Jerry Brown signed in 2011 which mandated that 33% of the state's energy must come from renewable sources by 2020, an increase from the previous requirement of 20%.

text: Environment California has supported environmental campaigns within California including statewide bans on plastic bags, the reduction of energy inefficient appliances, and the expansion of the state's solar metering program and solar energy production. The advocacy group has also worked to reform California’s renewable energy policies. Environment California supported a law that Governor

text: Jerry Brown

text: signed in 2011 which mandated that 33% of the state's energy must come from renewable sources by 2020, an increase from the previous requirement of 20%.

text: Senate Bill 644, approved on June 26, 2008 prohibits the issuing of building permits for new homes without solar water heaters as of 2010. The bill excludes homes located in areas with poor solar energy resources, homes using other renewable energy sources, and homes employing on-demand gas-fired water heaters. The bill also eliminates solar thermal energy tax credits for those homes.

text: According to International Energy Agency (IEA) (2011) energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production. "Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic and environmental benefits". In November 2011, an IEA report entitled Deploying Renewables 2011 said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand. "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," the IEA said, and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."

text: According to

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) (2011) energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production. "Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic and environmental benefits". In November 2011, an IEA report entitled

text: Deploying Renewables 2011

text: said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand. "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," the IEA said, and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."

text: Renewable energy in Chile is a fast growing sector that in 2014 provided 9% of the country's electricity. Chile has vast geothermal, solar and wind energy resources while fossil fuel resources are limited. It has a legislated renewable energy target of 20% by 2025.

text: Renewable energy in Chile is a fast growing sector that in 2014 provided 9% of the

text: country's electricity

text: Chile

text: has vast

text: geothermal

text: solar

text: and

text: wind energy

text: resources while

text: fossil fuel

text: resources are limited. It has a legislated

text: renewable energy target

text: of 20% by 2025.

text: Students participate on Solar Decathlon many years. The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon is an international competition that challenges 20 collegiate teams to design, build, and operate the most attractive, effective, and energy-efficient solar-powered house. The competition is presented by the U.S. Department of Energy and organized by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). There is also a Solar Decathlon Europe, which was established by a 2007 agreement between the United States and Spain. Students pariticipate on Eco-marathon too. The Eco-Marathon is an annual competition sponsored by Shell, in which participants build special vehicles to achieve the highest possible fuel efficiency.

text: Students participate on

text: Solar Decathlon

text: many years. The U.S.

text: Department of Energy

text: solar-power

text: U.S. Department of Energy

text: and organized by the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: (NREL). There is also a

text: Solar Decathlon Europe

text: Spain

text: . Students pariticipate on

text: Eco-marathon

text: Shell

text: fuel efficiency

text: Electricity has traditionally been generated by oil or diesel power plants, even if there is a large surplus of potential hydropower. Because of rising oil prices, there is a programme to build hydro power plants. The first, and still the largest, is Buksefjord hydroelectric power plant.

text: Electricity has traditionally been generated by oil or diesel power plants, even if there is a large surplus of potential

text: hydropower

text: . Because of rising oil prices, there is a programme to build hydro power plants. The first, and still the largest, is

text: Buksefjord hydroelectric power plant

text: The advantages and disadvantages listed below are further discussed in the Characteristics and principles of operation section below.

text: The advantages and disadvantages listed below are further discussed in the

entity_section: Characteristics and principles of operation

text: Characteristics and principles of operation

text: section below.

text: The development of wind power capacity in South Australia has been encouraged by a number of factors. These include the Australian Government's Renewable Energy Target, which require electricity retailers to source a proportion of energy from renewable sources, incentives from the South Australian Government including a supportive regulatory regime and a payroll tax rebate scheme for large scale renewable energy developments. Also the state's proximity to the Roaring forties means there are high quality wind resources for wind farms to exploit. In mid-2009, RenewablesSA was established by the South Australian Government to encourage further investment in renewable energy in the state.

text: The development of wind power capacity in South Australia has been encouraged by a number of factors. These include the Australian Government's

text: Renewable Energy Target

text: , which require electricity retailers to source a proportion of energy from renewable sources, incentives from the South Australian Government including a supportive regulatory regime and a payroll tax rebate scheme for large scale renewable energy developments. Also the state's proximity to the

text: Roaring forties

text: means there are high quality wind resources for

text: wind farm

text: s to exploit. In mid-2009, RenewablesSA was established by the South Australian Government to encourage further investment in

text: renewable energy

text: in the state.

text: Solar power consists of two types. The cheapest in 2013 is photovoltaics (PV), that is a variable renewable energy source. The second type of solar power, though, concentrated solar power (CSP), can efficiently provide 24-hour storage, making CSP dispatchable, and load following.

text: Solar power consists of two types. The cheapest in 2013 is

text: photovoltaics

text: (PV), that is a

text: variable renewable energy

text: source. The second type of solar power, though,

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP), can efficiently provide 24-hour storage, making CSP dispatchable, and

text: load following

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000

text: exajoules

text: (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.  In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100% renewable energy in the future. For example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply (electricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable energy by 2050.

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to

text: other energy sources

text: , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: is resulting in significant

text: energy security

text: climate change mitigation

text: , and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.  In international

text: public opinion surveys

text: there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach

text: 100% renewable energy

text: in the future. For example, in

text: Denmark

text: the government decided to

text: switch the total energy supply

text: (electricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable energy by 2050.

text: To promote wind power in New Jersey, in 2007 the state awarded a $4.4 million contract to conduct an 18-month Ocean/Wind Power Ecological Baseline Study, becoming the first state to sponsor an ocean and wind power study before allowing renewable energy developers to study and build off its shores. The study focused on a designated area off the coast to determine the current distribution, abundance and migratory patterns of avian species, fish, marine resources and sea turtle use of the existing ecological resources. The results of the study were released in June 2010. The study concluded that the effects of developing offshore windfarms would be negligible.

text: To promote

text: wind power in New Jersey

text: , in 2007 the state awarded a $4.4 million contract to conduct an 18-month Ocean/Wind Power Ecological Baseline Study, becoming the first state to sponsor an ocean and wind power study before allowing renewable energy developers to study and build off its shores. The study focused on a designated area off the coast to determine the current distribution, abundance and migratory patterns of avian species, fish, marine resources and sea turtle use of the existing ecological resources. The results of the study were released in June 2010. The study concluded that the effects of developing offshore windfarms would be negligible.

text: In 2004, Ms. Trask started working extensively with New Zealand and Hawai'i based energy initiatives to bring affordable, clean, renewable energy to indigenous communities. She was crucial in developing a "Native-to-Native" model with Hawai'i based company, Innovations Development Group. She served as a consultant, ensuring that these energy initiatives put people before profits, safeguarded human rights, and respected cultural protocols. Ms. Trask has moved significant legislation that brought attention to the fact that mineral assets like geothermal are publicly owned and that all the people in Hawai'i should benefit from it. As a prior member of the International Indigenous Caucus on Biodiversity, she strongly advocated for indigenous peoples relative to their land and other natural resources on the United Nations Permanent Forum Focal Point on Human Rights and Health, as well as in her own community in Hawai'i.

text: In 2008 renewable energy accounted for 8% of the country's total energy consumption, a rise from the 7.2% it accounted for in 2006, but still below the EU average of 10% in 2008. 10% of the country's renewable energy comes from solar power, while most comes from biomass and waste recycling. In line with the European Commission's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020. In 2013 and for several months, Greece produced more than 20% of its electricity from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric power plants. Greece currently does not have any nuclear power plants in operation, however in 2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.

text: In 2008 renewable energy accounted for 8% of the country's total energy consumption, a rise from the 7.2% it accounted for in 2006, but still below the EU average of 10% in 2008. 10% of the country's renewable energy comes from

text: solar power

text: , while most comes from

text: biomass

text: and waste recycling. In line with the

text: European Commission

text: 's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020. In 2013 and for several months, Greece produced more than 20% of its electricity from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric power plants. Greece currently does not have any

text: nuclear power plant

text: s in operation, however in 2009 the

text: Academy of Athens

text: suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.

text: While hydropower does not consume water, the filling (impoundment) of reservoirs reduces the water flow once. In addition, evaporation from the reservoir surfaces constitutes a permanent loss of water from the river. Irrigation also consumes water that is not available any more for downstream uses.

text: In August 2012, China's National Energy Administration formed a consortium of companies and research institutes, led by the Hydropower and Water Resources Planning and Design General Institute (also known as China Renewable Energy Engineering Institute), to investigate DTP. A bilateral agreement on DTP cooperation was signed between China and the Netherlands on September 27, 2012. Following technical exchange to verify the principles, a modelling study was conducted to select sites. In October 2013, a more in-depth economic analysis study was started to better understand the economic costs and benefits of DTP.

text: The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the Leviathan gas field are also an important factor for Greece, given its strong links with Cyprus. ΔΕΗ-Quantum Energy, a Cyprus-based group including Greece's state-controlled power utility Public Power Corporation of Greece (PPC, also known as ΔΕΗ) is planning to lay the world's longest subsea power cable, linking Israel, Cyprus and Greece. The link, called the EuroAsia Interconnector project, would be the longest in the world.The tripartite energy memorandum of understanding came after nearly a year of negotiations and was signed in Nicosia, Cyprus, by Energy and Water Resources Minister Silvan Shalom; Nicos Kouyialis, the Cypriot minister of agriculture, natural resources and environment; and George Lakkotrypis, the Greek minister for the environment, energy and climate change.

text: The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the

text: Leviathan gas field

text: are also an important factor for Greece, given its strong links with

text: Cyprus

text: . ΔΕΗ-Quantum Energy, a Cyprus-based group including Greece's state-controlled power utility

text: Public Power Corporation of Greece

text: (PPC, also known as ΔΕΗ) is planning to lay the world's longest subsea power cable, linking Israel, Cyprus and Greece. The link, called the

text: EuroAsia Interconnector

text: project, would be the longest in the world.The tripartite energy memorandum of understanding came after nearly a year of negotiations and was signed in Nicosia, Cyprus, by Energy and Water Resources Minister Silvan Shalom; Nicos Kouyialis, the Cypriot minister of agriculture, natural resources and environment; and George Lakkotrypis, the Greek minister for the environment, energy and climate change.

text: McDonnell advocated making Virginia the energy capital of the East Coast. He supported drilling for oil off of the coast of Virginia while simultaneously developing new technologies for wind, solar, biomass, and other renewable energy resources. He also intended to expand investments in renewable energy sources and incentivize green job creation.

text: McDonnell advocated making Virginia the energy capital of the East Coast. He supported

text: drilling for oil

text: off of the coast of Virginia while simultaneously developing new technologies for

text: wind

text: solar

text: biomass

text: , and other

text: renewable energy

text: resources. He also intended to expand investments in renewable energy sources and incentivize green job creation.

text: It was also suggested that the university was “expected to offer postgraduate studies in astronomy, as well as in applied sciences such as renewable energy, low carbon energy, hydrology, water resource management, and climate variability.”

text: In the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), the federal government set up a program to guarantee a demand for bio fuels and thus promote the biofuels industry. This demand can only be met if there is a steady, readily available supply of biomass feed stocks for producing biofuels. In the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (), the federal government created a program to help guarantee this supply, called the Biomass Crop Assistance Program (BCAP). As with the RFS, investors in the market are reluctant to place money in a currently unproven technology, or are reluctant to dedicate other resources to some endeavor, without a guarantee of a market to sell the eventual products. Such technologies and resources include the ability to convert cellulosic biomass to biofuels and crop land for feed stocks.

text: In the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), the federal government set up a program to guarantee a demand for bio fuels and thus promote the biofuels industry. This demand can only be met if there is a steady, readily available supply of biomass feed stocks for producing biofuels. In the

entity_name: Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008

text: Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008

text: (), the federal government created a program to help guarantee this supply, called the Biomass Crop Assistance Program (BCAP). As with the RFS, investors in the market are reluctant to place money in a currently unproven technology, or are reluctant to dedicate other resources to some endeavor, without a guarantee of a market to sell the eventual products. Such technologies and resources include the ability to convert cellulosic biomass to biofuels and crop land for feed stocks.

text: The advantages can in some cases outweigh the disadvantages of the higher investment cost, and more expensive maintenance and management.

text: Energy security is the intersection of national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption. Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. Threats to energy security include the political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure, as well as accidents, natural disasters, the funding to foreign dictators, rising terrorism, and dominant countries reliance to the foreign oil supply. The limited supplies, uneven distribution, and rising costs of fossil fuels, such as oil and gas, create a need to change to more sustainable energy sources in the foreseeable future.  With as much dependence that the U.S. currently has for oil and with the peaking limits of oil production; economies and societies will begin to feel the decline in the resource that we have become dependent upon.  Energy security has become one of the leading issues in the world today as oil and other resources have become as vital to the world's people.  However, with oil production rates decreasing and oil production peak nearing the world has come to protect what resources we have left in the world.  With new advancements in renewable resources less pressure has been put on companies that produce the world's oil, these resources are, geothermal, solar power, wind power and hydro-electric.  Although these are not all the current and possible future options for the world to turn to as the oil depletes the most important issue is protecting these vital resources from future threats.  These new resources will become more useful as the price of exporting and importing oil will increase due to increase of demand.

text: Energy security is the intersection of

text: national security

text: and the availability of

text: natural resource

text: s for

text: energy

text: consumption. Access to cheap

text: energy

text: has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. Threats to energy security include the political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure, as well as accidents, natural disasters, the funding to foreign dictators, rising terrorism, and dominant countries reliance to the foreign oil supply. The limited supplies, uneven distribution, and rising costs of

text: fossil fuels

text: , such as oil and gas, create a need to change to more

text: sustainable energy

text: sources in the foreseeable future.  With as much dependence that the U.S. currently has for oil and with the peaking limits of oil production; economies and societies will begin to feel the decline in the resource that we have become dependent upon.  Energy security has become one of the leading issues in the world today as oil and other resources have become as vital to the world's people.  However, with oil production rates decreasing and oil production peak nearing the world has come to protect what resources we have left in the world.  With new advancements in renewable resources less pressure has been put on companies that produce the world's oil, these resources are, geothermal, solar power, wind power and hydro-electric.  Although these are not all the current and possible future options for the world to turn to as the oil depletes the most important issue is protecting these vital resources from future threats.  These new resources will become more useful as the price of exporting and importing oil will increase due to increase of demand.

text: Against the background of its long experience with ocean engineering and the development of renewable energy sources, DEME established a fully owned new company in early 2010 which is called DEME Blue Energy. DBE focuses on wave energy and tidal energy, including the development of appropriate technology and prototype equipment that could be used to generate electricity. In 2010 a consortium of industrial partners, named Flanders Electricity from the Sea (FlanSea), submitted a research project for developing a wave energy converter (WEC) which will undergo an instrumented test in the summer of 2012. DEME Blue Energy is a member of the FlanSea consortium, together with Ghent University, the port of Oostende, and others. If successful, the new technology could be installed in between the offshore wind turbines of the Thorntonbank Wind Farm, creating a synergy between two different sources of renewable energy. In September 2010 the Flemish Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT) granted a €2.4 million subsidy for the FlanSea project. The FlanSea wave energy converter will be a so-called point absorber, modelled after the B1-device off Southeast Norway which was developed under the European funded SEEWEC project, co-ordinated by Prof. dr. ir. Julien De Rouck of the Department of Coastal Engineering at Ghent University, Belgium. Besides the FlanSea project, DEME Blue Energy is also involved in other initiatives. DEME Blue Energy is a founding member of Friends of the Supergrid, established in London on 8 March 2010 with the objective to help develop a pan-European offshore super grid for renewable energy. DEME Blue Energy is also a partner and shareholder in Renewable Energy Base Oostende (REBO), founded on 28 October 2010 for servicing offshore wind farms in Northwest Europe.

text: Against the background of its long experience with

text: ocean engineering

text: and the development of

text: renewable energy sources

text: , DEME established a fully owned new company in early 2010 which is called DEME Blue Energy. DBE focuses on

text: wave energy

text: and

text: tidal energy

text: , including the development of appropriate technology and prototype equipment that could be used to generate electricity. In 2010 a consortium of industrial partners, named Flanders Electricity from the Sea (FlanSea), submitted a

text: research project

text: for developing a

text: wave energy converter

text: (WEC) which will undergo an

text: instrumented

text: test in the summer of 2012. DEME Blue Energy is a member of the FlanSea consortium, together with

text: Ghent University

text: , the port of

text: Oostende

text: , and others. If successful, the new technology could be installed in between the

text: offshore wind turbine

text: s of the

text: Thorntonbank Wind Farm

text: , creating a synergy between two different sources of

text: renewable energy

text: . In September 2010 the

text: Flemish

text: Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT) granted a €2.4 million subsidy for the FlanSea project. The FlanSea

text: wave energy converter

text: will be a so-called point absorber, modelled after the B1-device off Southeast Norway which was developed under the European funded SEEWEC project, co-ordinated by Prof. dr. ir. Julien De Rouck of the Department of Coastal Engineering at

text: Ghent University

text: , Belgium. Besides the FlanSea project, DEME Blue Energy is also involved in other initiatives. DEME Blue Energy is a founding member of Friends of the Supergrid, established in London on 8 March 2010 with the objective to help develop a pan-European offshore

text: super grid

text: for

text: renewable energy

text: . DEME Blue Energy is also a partner and shareholder in Renewable Energy Base Oostende (REBO), founded on 28 October 2010 for servicing

text: offshore wind farm

text: s in Northwest Europe.

text: Geothermal energy is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown (making populations less dependent on oil).

text: Geothermal energy

text: is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown (making populations less dependent on oil).

text: In Tropical Asia, the Himalayas are crucial to the provision of water of the continental monsoon. Augmented temperatures and seasonal variability could cause a backdrop of glaciers and increasing danger from glacial lake outburst floods. Then, a diminution of average flow of snow-fed rivers, mixed with an increase in peak flows and sediment yield, could have major effects on hydropower generation, urban water supply and agriculture. Supply of hydropower generation from snow-fed rivers can occur in the short term, though not in the long term—run off snow-fed rivers might change as well. As stated before, an increased amount economic, agriculture, and industrial resources, can affect climate, but it can put an extra stress on water. Lower level basins are expected to be most affected. Hydrological changes on island and drainage basins will be relatively low to Tropical Asia, despite those relate to sea rise.

text: By 2007 Google had invested a massive amount of money in wind, solar, solar thermal, and geothermal projects, including a 1.6 MW solar installation pilot project at its headquarters. In 2010 Google Energy made its first investment in a renewable-energy project, putting up US$38.8 million for two wind farms in North Dakota. The company announced that the two locations will generate 169.5 MW of power, or enough to supply 55,000 homes. The farms, which were developed by NextEra Energy Resources, will reduce fossil fuel use in the region. NextEra Energy Resources sold Google a twenty percent stake in the project in order to get funding for project development. In addition, on July 30, 2010, Google Energy agreed to purchase 114 MW of Iowa wind energy from NextEra Energy at a fixed rate for 20 years. The corporation plans to primarily use the electricity for Google's data centers, but it may also be sold on the open market.

text: By 2007 Google had invested a massive amount of money in

text: wind

text: solar

text: solar thermal

text: , and

text: geothermal

text: projects, including a 1.6 MW solar installation pilot project at its headquarters. In 2010 Google Energy made its first investment in a renewable-energy project, putting up

text: US$

text: 38.8 million for two wind farms in

text: North Dakota

text: . The company announced that the two locations will generate 169.5 MW of power, or enough to supply 55,000 homes. The farms, which were developed by

text: NextEra Energy Resources

text: , will reduce fossil fuel use in the region. NextEra Energy Resources sold Google a twenty percent stake in the project in order to get funding for project development. In addition, on July 30, 2010, Google Energy agreed to purchase 114 MW of Iowa wind energy from NextEra Energy at a fixed rate for 20 years. The corporation plans to primarily use the electricity for Google's data centers, but it may also be sold on the open market.

text: Gore was criticized by the TCPR again in June 2008, after the group obtained his public utility bills from the Nashville Electric Service and compared "electricity consumption between the 12 months before June 2007, when it says he installed his new technology, and the year since then." According to their analysis, the Gores consumed 10% more energy in the year since their home received its eco-friendly modifications. TCPR also argued that, while the "average American household consumes 11,040 kWh in an entire year," the Gore residence "uses an average of 17,768 kWh per month –1,638 kWh more energy per month than before the renovations." Gore's spokeswoman Kalee Kreider countered the claim by stating that the Gores' "utility bills have gone down 40 percent since the green retrofit." and that "the three-year renovation on the home wasn't complete until November, so it's a bit early to attempt a before-and-after comparison." She also noted that TCPR did not include Gore's gas bill in their analysis (which they had done the previous year) and that the gas "bill has gone down 90 percent [...] And when the Gores do power up, they pay for renewable resources, like wind and solar power or methane gas."Media Matters for America also discussed the fact that "100 percent of the electricity in his home comes from green power" and quoted the Tennessee Valley Authority as stating that "[a]lthough no source of energy is impact-free, renewable resources create less waste and pollution."

text: Gore was criticized by the TCPR again in June 2008, after the group obtained his public utility bills from the

text: Nashville Electric Service

text: and compared "electricity consumption between the 12 months before June 2007, when it says he installed his new technology, and the year since then." According to their analysis, the Gores consumed 10% more energy in the year since their home received its eco-friendly modifications. TCPR also argued that, while the "average American household consumes 11,040 kWh in an entire year," the Gore residence "uses an average of 17,768 kWh per month –1,638 kWh more energy per month than before the renovations." Gore's spokeswoman Kalee Kreider countered the claim by stating that the Gores' "utility bills have gone down 40 percent since the green retrofit." and that "the three-year renovation on the home wasn't complete until November, so it's a bit early to attempt a before-and-after comparison." She also noted that TCPR did not include Gore's gas bill in their analysis (which they had done the previous year) and that the gas "bill has gone down 90 percent [...] And when the Gores do power up, they pay for renewable resources, like wind and solar power or methane gas."

text: Media Matters for America

text: also discussed the fact that "100 percent of the electricity in his home comes from green power" and quoted the

text: Tennessee Valley Authority

text: as stating that "[a]lthough no source of energy is impact-free, renewable resources create less waste and pollution."

text: Between Diessenhofen and Stein am Rhein, the High Rhine has yet to be dammed.  The first power plant of the Rhine river is currently at Schaffhausen; it has a damming effect to slightly above Diessenhofen.  The next power plant (the Kraftwerk Reckingen) is located at Rekingen and Küssaberg.  After Rekingen, the High Rhine flows freely through the Koblenz Rapids to the confluence with the Aar.  The next hydropower plant (the Kraftwerk Albbruck-Dogern), is at Leibstadt and Dogern.  There are seven more power plant between here and Basel.  Altogether, the High Rhine has elven dams and twelve hydropower plants (there are two plants at the Augst/Wyhlen Dam.

text: Between

text: Diessenhofen

text: and

text: Stein am Rhein

text: , the High Rhine has yet to be dammed.  The first power plant of the Rhine river is currently at Schaffhausen; it has a damming effect to slightly above Diessenhofen.  The next power plant (the

text: Kraftwerk Reckingen

text: ) is located at

text: Rekingen

text: and

text: Küssaberg

text: .  After Rekingen, the High Rhine flows freely through the Koblenz Rapids to the confluence with the Aar.  The next hydropower plant (the

text: Kraftwerk Albbruck-Dogern

text: ), is at

text: Leibstadt

text: and

text: Dogern

text: .  There are seven more power plant between here and Basel.  Altogether, the High Rhine has elven dams and twelve hydropower plants (there are two plants at the

text: Augst/Wyhlen Dam

text: If "possible and economically sensible", renewable energy will be used directly in all sectors, and electricity from renewable sources will be used efficiently for heating, transport, and industry.  The utilization of biomass will be limited and sourced mostly from waste.  The plan states that transitioning to a power supply based on renewables while ensuring supply security is "technically feasible".  During the transition, "less carbon-intensive natural gas power plants and the existing most modern coal power plants play an important role as interim technologies".

text: Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s.  The 354 MW SEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in the Mojave Desert of California.  Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), both in Spain. The over 200 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project in the United States, and the 214 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world’s largest photovoltaic plants. Solar power's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 1%.

text: Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s.  The 354 MW

text: SEGS

text: CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in the

text: Mojave Desert

text: of California.  Other large CSP plants include the

text: Solnova Solar Power Station

text: (150 MW) and the

text: Andasol solar power station

text: (150 MW), both in Spain. The over 200 MW

text: Agua Caliente Solar Project

text: in the United States, and the 214 MW

text: Charanka Solar Park

text: in India, are the

text: world’s largest

text: photovoltaic plant

text: s. Solar power's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 1%.

text: In the field of renewable energy MOL develops geothermal power production through the, CEGE Central European Geothermal Energy Production, a partnership with Australian-based Green Rock Energy Limited.  The company supports the research of second generation biofuels at the University of Pannonia.

text: In the field of

text: renewable energy

text: MOL develops

text: geothermal power

text: production through the, CEGE Central European Geothermal Energy Production, a partnership with

text: Australia

text: n-based

text: Green Rock Energy Limited

text: .  The company supports the research of

text: second generation biofuels

text: at the

text: University of Pannonia

text: The electricity sector in Mexico relies heavily on thermal sources (75% of total installed capacity), followed by hydropower generation (19%). Although exploitation of solar, wind, and biomass resources has a large potential, geothermal energy is the only renewable source (excluding hydropower) with a significant contribution to the energy mix (2% of total generation capacity). Expansion plans for the period 2006-2015 estimate the addition of some 14.8 GW of new generation capacity by the public sector, with a predominance of combined cycles.

text: The electricity sector in Mexico relies heavily on thermal sources (75% of total installed capacity), followed by hydropower generation (19%). Although exploitation of solar, wind, and biomass resources has a large potential, geothermal energy is the only renewable source (excluding hydropower) with a significant contribution to the

text: energy mix

text: (2% of total generation capacity). Expansion plans for the period 2006-2015 estimate the addition of some 14.8 GW of new generation capacity by the public sector, with a predominance of combined cycles.

text: There is also the question as to whether having children really is such a positive contribution to the world in an age when there are many concerns about overpopulation, pollution and depletion of non-renewable resources. Some critics counter that such analyses of having children may understate its potential benefits to society (e.g. a greater labor force, which may provide greater opportunity to solve social problems) and overstate the costs. That is, there is often a need for a non-zero birth rate.

text: There is also the question as to whether having children really is such a positive contribution to the world in an age when there are many concerns about

text: overpopulation

text: pollution

text: and depletion of

text: non-renewable resources

text: . Some critics counter that such analyses of having children may understate its potential benefits to society (e.g. a greater labor force, which may provide greater opportunity to solve social problems) and overstate the costs. That is, there is often a need for a non-zero

text: birth rate

text: Fast flowing rivers and waterfalls are widely used as sources of energy, via watermills and hydroelectric plants. Evidence of watermills shows them in use for many hundreds of years, for instance in Orkney at Dounby Click Mill. Prior to the invention of steam power, watermills for grinding cereals and for processing wool and other textiles were common across Europe. In the 1890s the first machines to generate power from river water were established at places such as Cragside in Northumberland and in recent decades there has been a significant increase in the development of large scale power generation from water, especially in wet mountainous regions such as Norway.

text: Fast flowing rivers and waterfalls are widely used as sources of energy, via

text: watermill

text: s and

text: hydroelectric plant

text: s. Evidence of watermills shows them in use for many hundreds of years, for instance in

text: Orkney

text: at

text: Dounby Click Mill

text: . Prior to the invention of steam power, watermills for grinding

text: cereal

text: s and for processing

text: wool

text: and other textiles were common across

text: Europe

text: . In the 1890s the first machines to generate power from river water were established at places such as

text: Cragside

text: in

text: Northumberland

text: and in recent decades there has been a significant increase in the development of large scale power generation from water, especially in wet mountainous regions such as

text: Norway

text: A significant amount of renewable energy is produced in Norsjö Municipality, including electrical energy from hydropower stations and wood-based heat energy for industrial and household heating applications.

text: A significant amount of

text: renewable energy

text: is produced in Norsjö Municipality, including electrical energy from hydropower stations and wood-based heat energy for industrial and household heating applications.

text: CleanPowerSF’s 2007 Implementation Plan called for building 210 megawatts of in-city energy efficiency and new renewable generation capacity and a 150 megawatt regional wind facility within three years of the launch of the program, as well as achieving a 51 percent renewable energy portfolio within ten years. Profit from sales of 100 percent renewable energy to end users is one revenue stream that CleanPowerSF plans to use to fund the local build-out of renewable energy resources and efficiency installations.

text: A 1997 report by the United States Department of Energy found available domestic solar energy (including biomass) technically accessible regardless of cost amounted to 586,687 Quadrillion BTUs (Quads); 95% of this was biomass. Coal represented the second largest resource, a distant 38,147 Quads. Predictions of how much solar power was economically feasible to collect amounted to 352 quads, compared with 5,266 quads from coal. The assumptions used in the report were based on a predicted 2010 price of a barrel of oil being $38, and multiplied annual renewable resources by 30 for comparison with non-renewable resources. The total annual energy consumption of the United States in 2007 was approximately 100 Quads, less than 0.5% of what is theoretically available from sunlight.

text: A 1997 report by the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: found available domestic solar energy (including biomass) technically accessible regardless of cost amounted to 586,687 Quadrillion BTUs (Quads); 95% of this was biomass. Coal represented the second largest resource, a distant 38,147 Quads. Predictions of how much solar power was economically feasible to collect amounted to 352 quads, compared with 5,266 quads from coal. The assumptions used in the report were based on a predicted 2010 price of a barrel of oil being $38, and multiplied annual renewable resources by 30 for comparison with non-renewable resources. The total annual energy consumption of the United States in 2007 was approximately 100 Quads, less than 0.5% of what is theoretically available from sunlight.

text: Commoner published another bestseller in 1976, The Poverty of Power.  In that book, he addressed the "Three E's" that were plaguing the United States in the 1970s: "First there was the threat to environmental survival; then there was the apparent shortage of energy; and now there is the unexpected decline of the economy."  He argued that the three issues were interconnected: the industries that used the most energy had the highest negative impact on the environment; the focus on non-renewable resources as sources of energy meant that those resources were growing scarce, thus pushing up the price of energy and hurting the economy. Towards the book's end, Commoner suggested that the problem of the Three E's is caused by the capitalistic system and can only be solved by replacing it with some sort of socialism.

text: Commoner published another bestseller in 1976, The Poverty of Power.  In that book, he addressed the "Three E's" that were plaguing the United States in the 1970s: "First there was the threat to environmental survival; then there was the apparent shortage of energy; and now there is the unexpected decline of the economy."  He argued that the three issues were interconnected: the industries that used the most energy had the highest negative impact on the environment; the focus on non-renewable resources as sources of energy meant that those resources were growing scarce, thus pushing up the price of energy and hurting the economy. Towards the book's end, Commoner suggested that the problem of the Three E's is caused by the capitalistic system and can only be solved by replacing it with some sort of

text: socialism

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example, TREC has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example,

text: TREC

text: has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: Lithuania has many yet undeveloped renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal energy, municipal waste, and biomass. The amount of biomass per capita in Lithuania is one of the highest in the European Union and it is estimated that in 2020 Lithuania will be the first in the EU according to the quantity of available biomass for biofuel production. The projected production of biofuels by 2020 is 0.25 tons per capita.

text: While most of the large hydropower plants in Russia date from the Soviet era, the abundance of fossil fuels in the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation has resulted in little need for the development of other renewable energy sources. There are currently plans to develop all types of renewable energy, which is strongly encouraged by the Russian government. Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev has called for renewable energy to have a larger share of Russia's energy output, and has taken steps to promote the development of renewable energy in Russia since 2008.

text: While most of the large hydropower plants in Russia date from the Soviet era, the abundance of

text: fossil fuel

text: s in the

text: Soviet Union

text: and the Russian Federation has resulted in little need for the development of other renewable energy sources. There are currently plans to develop all types of renewable energy, which is strongly encouraged by the Russian government. Russian Prime Minister

text: Dmitry Medvedev

text: has called for renewable energy to have a larger share of Russia's energy output, and has taken steps to promote the development of renewable energy in Russia since 2008.

text: Although the country has abundant renewable energy resources, more than 25% of Costa Rican territory has been entitled as natural protected land, reducing and limiting the possibility to explore and exploit these renewable sources, like geothermal energy in national parks.

text: Although the country has abundant renewable energy resources, more than 25% of Costa Rican territory has been entitled as natural protected land, reducing and limiting the possibility to explore and exploit these renewable sources, like

text: geothermal energy

text: in national parks.

text: After the sale of the Pilmaiquén power plant in 1999, the company no longer trades in the energy market. Therefore it neither generates nor sells electric energy.  Currently the suppliers are reduced to those that are related to the management and maintenance of the offices of the company and whose movements are to cover the expenses generated by the administration and operation of the organization. Additionally, there exist contracts with engineering and other consultants for the development of new projects in the area of hydropower.

text: The government of Iceland states: "It should be stressed that the geothermal resource is not strictly renewable in the same sense as the hydro resource." It estimates that Iceland's geothermal energy could provide 1700 MW for over 100 years, compared to the current production of 140 MW. Radioactive elements in the Earth's crust continuously decay, replenishing the heat. The International Energy Agency classifies geothermal power as renewable. Geothermal power in Iceland is developed in a stepwise development method to ensure that it is sustainable instead of excessive, which would deplete the resource.

text: The government of

text: Iceland

text: states: "It should be stressed that the geothermal resource is not strictly renewable in the same sense as the hydro resource." It estimates that Iceland's geothermal energy could provide 1700 MW for over 100 years, compared to the current production of 140 MW. Radioactive elements in the Earth's crust continuously decay, replenishing the heat. The

text: International Energy Agency

text: classifies geothermal power as renewable. Geothermal power in Iceland is developed in a stepwise development method to ensure that it is sustainable instead of excessive, which would deplete the resource.

text: In addition, South Africa alone obtains the sixth largest coal reserves on the planet, after China, the US, India, Russia and Australia. Specific renewable resources in South Africa include solar, wind, hydropower, wave energy, and bio-energy.

text: Reform Party (a group largely sympathetic toward the Republican Party following annexation) member Lorrin Thurston was a strong supporter of the formation of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Governor Lingle proposed a Clean Energy Initiative to encourage and promote clean and renewable energy reasorces. The goal of the Initiative is to make Hawaii 70% energy self-sustainable by 2030. The indicative uses solar, wind, ocean, geothermal, and biomass as energy resources and a phased reduction in the use of fossil fuels.

text: Reform Party

text: (a group largely sympathetic toward the Republican Party following annexation) member

text: Lorrin Thurston

text: was a strong supporter of the formation of

text: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

text: . Governor Lingle proposed a Clean Energy Initiative to encourage and promote clean and renewable energy reasorces. The goal of the Initiative is to make Hawaii 70% energy self-sustainable by 2030. The indicative uses

text: solar

text: wind

text: ocean

text: geothermal

text: , and

text: biomass

text: as energy resources and a phased reduction in the use of

text: fossil fuels

text: The firm is both a corporate member and event sponsor of the Committee for Economic Development of Australia, the Australian Institute of Company Directors and Family Business Australia. The firm is also a sponsor of the Australasian Land and Groundwater Association and Special Counsel Kyra Reznikov sits on its Adelaide branch committee. As of 2016, Finlaysons is a gold sponsor of the South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy (SACOME). Reznikov is also a member of the South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy's Women in Resources South Australia committee, and Finlaysons Partner George McKenzie is also a Councillor of SACOME. He is also a member of the Minerals and Energy Advisory Council which advises the  Government of South Australia directly. He was also a member of its predecessor, the Resources Industry Development Board prior to 2015. McKenzie is also a member of the Australian Geothermal Energy Association's Regulatory Sub-committee.

text: The firm is both a corporate member and event sponsor of the

entity_name: Committee for Economic Development of Australia

text: Committee for Economic Development of Australia

text: , the

entity_name: Australian Institute of Company Directors

text: Australian Institute of Company Directors

text: and Family Business Australia. The firm is also a sponsor of the Australasian Land and Groundwater Association and Special Counsel

text: Kyra Reznikov

text: sits on its Adelaide branch committee. As of 2016, Finlaysons is a gold sponsor of the South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy (SACOME). Reznikov is also a member of the

entity_name: South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy

text: South Australian Chamber of Mines and Energy

text: 's Women in Resources South Australia committee, and Finlaysons Partner George McKenzie is also a Councillor of SACOME. He is also a member of the

text: Minerals and Energy Advisory Council

text: which advises the

text: Government of South Australia

text: directly. He was also a member of its predecessor, the

text: Resources Industry Development Board

text: prior to 2015. McKenzie is also a member of the Australian Geothermal Energy Association's Regulatory Sub-committee.

text: Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing very rapidly.

text: Renewable energy is

text: energy

text: which comes from

text: natural resource

text: s such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: , which are

text: renewable

text: (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional

text: biomass

text: , which is mainly used for

text: heating

text: , and 3.4% from

text: hydroelectricity

text: . New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing very rapidly.

text: In the Directive 2001/77/EC, otherwise known as the RES-E Directive, the European Union stated a goal to have 22% of the total energy consumed by member states to be produced from renewable energy resources by 2010. As a result, Ireland, in a report titled "Policy Consideration for Renewable Electricity to 2010", made the commitment to have 4% of its total energy consumption come from renewable energy resources by 2002 and 13.2% by 2010. The Department of Communications Marine and Natural Resources (DCMNR) founded the Renewable Energy Group (REG) which established the short term analysis group (STAG) to investigate a means of accomplishing this goal. To meet the 2010 target of 13.2%, 1,432 MW of electricity will need to be generated from renewable resources with 1,100 MW being generated from wind resources both onshore and offshore.

text: In the

text: Directive

text: 2001/77/EC, otherwise known as the RES-E Directive, the

text: European Union

text: stated a goal to have 22% of the total energy consumed by member states to be produced from renewable energy resources by 2010. As a result, Ireland, in a report titled "Policy Consideration for Renewable Electricity to 2010", made the commitment to have 4% of its total energy consumption come from renewable energy resources by 2002 and 13.2% by 2010. The Department of Communications Marine and Natural Resources (DCMNR) founded the Renewable Energy Group (REG) which established the short term analysis group (STAG) to investigate a means of accomplishing this goal. To meet the 2010 target of 13.2%, 1,432 MW of electricity will need to be generated from renewable resources with 1,100 MW being generated from wind resources both onshore and offshore.

text: Benthic macroinvertebrates have many important ecological functions, such as regulating the flow of materials and energy in river ecosystems through their food web linkages. Because of this correlation between flow of energy and nutrients, benthic macroinvertebrates have the ability to influence food resources on fish and other organisms in aquatic ecosystems. For example, the addition of a moderate amount of nutrients to a river over the course of several years resulted in increases in invertebrate richness, abundance, and biomass. These in turn resulted in increased food resources for native species of fish with insignificant alteration of the macroinvertebrate community structure and trophic pathways. The presence of macroinvertebrates such as Amphipoda also affect the dominance of certain types of algae in Benthic ecosystems as well. In addition, because benthic zones are influenced by the flow of dead organic material, there have been studies conducted on the relationship between stream and river water flows and the resulting effects on the benthic zone. Low flow events show a restriction in nutrient transport from benthic substrates to food webs, and caused a decrease in benthic macroinvertebrate biomass, which lead to the disappearance of food sources into the substrate.

text: Benthic

text: macroinvertebrate

text: s have many important ecological functions, such as regulating the flow of materials and energy in

text: river ecosystem

text: s through their

text: food web

text: linkages. Because of this correlation between flow of energy and nutrients, benthic macroinvertebrates have the ability to influence food resources on fish and other organisms in

text: aquatic ecosystems

text: . For example, the addition of a moderate amount of

text: nutrients

text: to a river over the course of several years resulted in increases in invertebrate richness, abundance, and

text: biomass

text: . These in turn resulted in increased food resources for native species of fish with insignificant alteration of the macroinvertebrate community structure and

text: trophic

text: pathways. The presence of macroinvertebrates such as

text: Amphipoda

text: also affect the dominance of certain types of algae in Benthic ecosystems as well. In addition, because benthic zones are influenced by the flow of dead

text: organic material

text: , there have been studies conducted on the relationship between stream and river water flows and the resulting effects on the benthic zone. Low flow events show a restriction in nutrient transport from benthic

text: substrates

text: to food webs, and caused a decrease in benthic macroinvertebrate biomass, which lead to the disappearance of food sources into the substrate.

text: As part of the stimulus plan of "Golden Sun", announced by the government in 2009, several developments and projects became part of the milestones for the development of solar technology in China. These include the agreement signed by LDK for a 500MW solar project, a new thin film solar plant developed by Anwell Technologies in Henan province using its own proprietary solar technology and the solar power plant project in a desert, headed by First Solar and Ordos City. The effort to drive the renewable energy use in China was further assured after the speech by the Chinese President, given at the UN climate summit on 22 Sept 2009 in New York, pledging that China will plan to have 15% of its energy from renewable sources within a decade. China is using solar power in houses, buildings, and cars.

text: Energy from any grid-tied source is bought and sold with contracts specifying the generator and purchaser. In the trade of renewable energy, RECs specify that a unit of renewable energy was generated.  Because once electricity is placed on the electrical grid it mixes with electricity from multiple sources and becomes indistinguishable, RECs are used to track the ownership of environmental and social benefits of the renewable energy.  The majority of RECs are sold separately from the electricity itself.  In these cases, the electricity is sold as "null" energy without its environmental and social benefits, as if it were generated by non-renewable resources such as coal, nuclear or natural gas.  When RECs are purchased in combination with non-renewable electricity this constitutes the legal purchase of renewable energy.  This is how electrical grid connected renewable energy is traded in the U.S.  Grid-connected renewable energy is used by electric utility companies in meeting their regulatory requirements and by individuals and businesses wishing to lessen their environmental impact.  RECs allow for purchasers to support renewable energy generation and allows the economic forces of supply and demand to spur the further development of renewable energy generation.

text: Energy from any grid-tied source is bought and sold with contracts specifying the generator and purchaser. In the trade of renewable energy, RECs specify that a unit of renewable energy was generated.  Because once electricity is placed on the

text: electrical grid

text: it mixes with electricity from multiple sources and becomes indistinguishable, RECs are used to track the ownership of environmental and social benefits of the renewable energy.  The majority of RECs are sold separately from the electricity itself.  In these cases, the electricity is sold as "null" energy without its environmental and social benefits, as if it were generated by non-renewable resources such as coal, nuclear or natural gas.  When RECs are purchased in combination with non-renewable electricity this constitutes the legal purchase of renewable energy.  This is how

text: electrical grid

text: connected renewable energy is traded in the U.S.  Grid-connected renewable energy is used by electric utility companies in meeting their regulatory requirements and by individuals and businesses wishing to lessen their environmental impact.  RECs allow for purchasers to support renewable energy generation and allows the economic forces of supply and demand to spur the further development of renewable energy generation.

text: The UK has begun looking for an alternate electric systems and wind generation is a solution they have started researching. Wind generation can displace a significant amount of energy by a large conventional plant, but the concern is weather this system can replace the capacity and flexibility of a conventional power plant.  Another dilemma that they have with this system is that the majority of the wind is located in Scotland and the North of England; they need to have reinforcements for the transmission of north-south flow of energy. . The concern about wind generation being able to replace a power plant is important because wind power is variable, and the power will need to be retained to ensure that there is a supply of power under conditions of high demand and low wind.  Since wind is not easy to predict additional reserves will be needed to maintain the balance of supply and demand. The obvious answer would be an energy storage system that has intermittency of renewable sources: during periods when wind exceeds the demand, the supply can be stored in a standing reserve or synchronized reserves. Standing reserve will increase the capability of the systems to incorporate wind power. Synchronized reserve will accommodate relatively frequent but comparatively small imbalances between generation and demand while standing reserve will be absorbing less frequent but relatively large reductions in wind power. This trade-off between reserves should balance out costs and wind power. It was found that this wind system would be able to accommodate, power with a small increase in overall cost, about 5% for consumers.

text: Ancient water features were powered using gravitational forces, man power or animals to pump in the water. Since the 18th century, the majority of water features have been powered by pumps. In the past, the power source was sometimes a steam engine, but in modern features it is almost always powered by electricity. There is an increasing range of innovative designs as the market becomes more established and people become more aware of alternate installation methods, such as solar power. The advantages of using solar power include environmental benefits, no electrical lines in the garden, and free energy.

text: Ancient water features were powered using gravitational forces, man power or animals to pump in the water. Since the 18th century, the majority of water features have been powered by pumps. In the past, the power source was sometimes a steam engine, but in modern features it is almost always powered by electricity. There is an increasing range of innovative designs as the market becomes more established and people become more aware of alternate installation methods, such as solar power. The advantages of using

text: solar power

text: include environmental benefits, no electrical lines in the garden, and free energy.

text: Renewable energy in Algeria ranges from hydropower, solar and wind energy in Algeria.

text: Renewable energy in Algeria ranges from

text: hydropower

text: solar

text: and

text: wind

text: energy in

text: Algeria

text: The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, plate boundary movement and interest rates. Pilot programs like EWEB's customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience, the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the past two decades. In 2001, geothermal energy costs between two and ten US cents per kWh.

text: Hydroelectric plants have the advantage of being long-lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years. Hydropower is also an extremely flexible technology from the perspective of power grid operation. Large hydropower provides one of the lowest cost options in today’s energy market, even compared to fossil fuels and there are no harmful emissions associated with plant operation. However there are typically low greenhouse gas emissions with reservoirs, and possibly high emissions in the tropics.

text: Hydroelectric

text: plants have the advantage of being long-lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years. Hydropower is also an extremely flexible technology from the perspective of power grid operation. Large hydropower provides one of the lowest cost options in today’s energy market, even compared to fossil fuels and there are no harmful emissions associated with plant operation. However there are typically low greenhouse gas emissions with

text: reservoir

text: s, and possibly high emissions in the tropics.

text: Energy engineering or energy systems engineering is a broad field of engineering dealing with energy efficiency, energy services, facility management, plant engineering, environmental compliance and alternative energy technologies. Energy engineering is one of the more recent engineering disciplines to emerge. Energy engineering combines knowledge from the fields of physics, math, and chemistry with economic and environmental engineering practices. Energy engineers apply their skills to increase efficiency and further develop renewable sources of energy.The main job of energy engineers is to find the most efficient and sustainable ways to operate buildings and manufacturing processes. Energy engineers audit the use of energy in those processes and suggest ways to improve the systems. This means suggesting advanced lighting, better insulation, more efficient heating and cooling properties of buildings. Although an energy engineer is concerned about obtaining and using energy in the most environmentally friendly ways, their field is not limited to strictly renewable energy like hydro, solar, biomass, or geothermal. Energy engineers are also employed by the fields of oil and natural gas extraction.

text: Energy engineering or energy systems engineering is a broad field of

text: engineering

text: dealing with

text: energy efficiency

text: energy services

text: facility management

text: , plant engineering,

text: environmental compliance

text: and

text: alternative energy

text: technologies. Energy engineering is one of the more recent engineering disciplines to emerge. Energy engineering combines knowledge from the fields of

text: physics

text: math

text: , and

text: chemistry

text: with economic and environmental engineering practices. Energy engineers apply their skills to increase efficiency and further develop renewable sources of energy.The main job of energy engineers is to find the most efficient and sustainable ways to operate buildings and manufacturing processes. Energy engineers audit the use of energy in those processes and suggest ways to improve the systems. This means suggesting advanced lighting, better insulation, more efficient heating and cooling properties of buildings. Although an energy engineer is concerned about obtaining and using energy in the most environmentally friendly ways, their field is not limited to strictly renewable energy like hydro, solar, biomass, or geothermal. Energy engineers are also employed by the fields of oil and natural gas extraction.

text: One problem, especially in the Outer Islands off Java, is that relatively small hydro plants often experience operational problems such as shortages of water flow.  In Lampung in September 2012 for example, towards the end of the dry season, two small  hydropower stations operated by PLN (total capacity around 120 MW) ceased operation, causing blackouts in the region.  Localised problems of this sort are common across much of the Outer Islands.

text: One problem, especially in the Outer Islands off Java, is that relatively small hydro plants often experience operational problems such as shortages of water flow.  In

text: Lampung

text: in September 2012 for example, towards the end of the dry season, two small  hydropower stations operated by PLN (total capacity around 120 MW) ceased operation, causing blackouts in the region.  Localised problems of this sort are common across much of the Outer Islands.

text: EGAT's power generation plants consist of three thermal power plants, six combined cycle power plants, 24 hydropower plants, eight renewable energy plants, and four diesel power plants. As of June 2016, EGAT's power plants provided 37 percent of Thailand's electricity. The remainder is provided by private producers and neighbouring countries. Gas-fired generation powers  67 percent of EGAT's total electricity generation while coal-fired power plants account for 20 percent. Most of EGAT's electricity is sold to the Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA), which supplies the Bangkok region, and the Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA), which supplies the rest of Thailand.

text: EGAT's power generation plants consist of three thermal power plants, six combined cycle power plants, 24 hydropower plants, eight renewable energy plants, and four diesel power plants. As of June 2016, EGAT's power plants provided 37 percent of Thailand's electricity. The remainder is provided by private producers and neighbouring countries. Gas-fired generation powers  67 percent of EGAT's total electricity generation while coal-fired power plants account for 20 percent. Most of EGAT's electricity is sold to the

text: Metropolitan Electricity Authority

text: (MEA), which supplies the Bangkok region, and the

text: Provincial Electricity Authority

text: (PEA), which supplies the rest of Thailand.

text: The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360-degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.

text: The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher

text: torque

text: and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower

text: power coefficient

text: , the 360-degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.

text: The Copper Mountain Solar Facility is a 150 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic power plant in Boulder City, Nevada. Sempra Generation began construction of the plant in January 2010 and the facility began generating electricity on December 1, 2010. At its construction peak more than 350 workers were installing the 775,000 First Solar panels on the 380 acre site. The power from Copper Mountain Solar Facility (and the adjacent 10 MW El Dorado Solar Power Plant) is being sold to Pacific Gas & Electric under separate 20-year contracts. Californian utilities were required to obtain 20 percent of their energy supply from renewable energy sources by the end of 2010, increasing to 33 percent by 2020.

text: The

text: Copper Mountain Solar Facility

text: is a 150

text: megawatt

text: (MW) solar

text: photovoltaic

text: power plant in

text: Boulder City, Nevada

text: Sempra Generation

text: began construction of the plant in January 2010 and the facility began generating electricity on December 1, 2010. At its construction peak more than 350 workers were installing the 775,000

text: First Solar

text: panels on the 380 acre site. The power from Copper Mountain Solar Facility (and the adjacent 10 MW

text: El Dorado Solar Power Plant

text: ) is being sold to

text: Pacific Gas & Electric

text: under separate 20-year contracts. Californian utilities were required to obtain 20 percent of their energy supply from

text: renewable energy

text: sources by the end of 2010, increasing to 33 percent by 2020.

text: Woody biomass is a carbon-neutral, clean burning, renewable energy resource that can help solve these problems. Nebraska-grown wood is an underutilized, plentiful, economic energy resource that can revitalize our rural economies. To achieve this, financial support from the government isneeded.

text: Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It arises from the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium and other elements found in the Earth's crust. Geothermal energy can be obtained by drilling into the ground, very similar to oil exploration, and then it is carried by a heat-transfer fluid (e.g. water, brine or steam). Geothermal systems that are mainly dominated by water have the potential to provide greater benefits to the system and will generate more power. Within these liquid-dominated systems, there are possible concerns of subsidence and contamination of ground-water resources. Therefore, protection of ground-water resources is necessary in these systems. This means that careful reservoir production and engineering is necessary in liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir systems. Geothermal energy is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished. However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories are conducting research toward the goal of establishing a proven science around geothermal energy. The International Centre for Geothermal Research (IGC), a German geosciences research organization, is largely focused on geothermal energy development research.

text: Geothermal energy

text: is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It arises from the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium and other elements found in the Earth's crust. Geothermal energy can be obtained by drilling into the ground, very similar to oil exploration, and then it is carried by a heat-transfer fluid (e.g. water, brine or steam). Geothermal systems that are mainly dominated by water have the potential to provide greater benefits to the system and will generate more power. Within these liquid-dominated systems, there are possible concerns of subsidence and contamination of ground-water resources. Therefore, protection of ground-water resources is necessary in these systems. This means that careful reservoir production and engineering is necessary in liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir systems. Geothermal energy is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished. However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: and

text: Sandia National Laboratories

text: In November 2008, with reference to the Kyoto Protocol and the climate change package Paolo Scaroni claims: "We think that in the short term, with existing technologies and expertise, renewable sources, namely solar and wind, will represent only a small fraction of energy supply. For this reason, at Eni we invest in research, in particular in solar, and we are sure that only a revolutionary technological invention will create renewable resources that can significantly contribute to our energy needs.

text: In November 2008, with reference to the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: and the climate change package Paolo Scaroni claims: "We think that in the short term, with existing technologies and expertise, renewable sources, namely solar and wind, will represent only a small fraction of energy supply. For this reason, at Eni we invest in research, in particular in solar, and we are sure that only a revolutionary technological invention will create renewable resources that can significantly contribute to our energy needs.

text: For almost any open-ended, non-trivial reward function (or set of goals), possessing more resources (such as equipment, raw materials, or energy) can enable the AI to find a more "optimal" solution. Resources can benefit some AIs directly, through being able to create more of whatever stuff its reward function values: "The AI neither hates you, nor loves you, but you are made out of atoms that it can use for something else." In addition, almost all AI's can benefit from having more resources to spend on other instrumental goals, such as self-preservation.

text: The company received its federal license to operate these dams in 1955 but was unable to renew until it resolved concerns over flooding in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park as a result of the Chilhowee Dam. The Tapoco Project and Licensing Act of 2004 corrected the problem by trading land, with  going to the park and about  of Alcoa land receiving a conservation easement. A 40-year license was granted January 25, 2005, but smelter production ended in 2009, and in 2012 the company sold its dams. Brookfield Renewable Energy Partners of Canada paid $600 million for the four dams, 86 miles of transmission lines, and 14,500 acres in 2012. Tapoco-APGI became Brookfield Smoky Mountain Hydropower on November 15 of that year.

text: The company received its federal license to operate these dams in 1955 but was unable to renew until it resolved concerns over flooding in the

text: Great Smoky Mountains National Park

text: as a result of the Chilhowee Dam. The Tapoco Project and Licensing Act of 2004 corrected the problem by trading land, with  going to the park and about  of Alcoa land receiving a

text: conservation easement

text: . A 40-year license was granted January 25, 2005, but smelter production ended in 2009, and in 2012 the company sold its dams. Brookfield Renewable Energy Partners of Canada paid $600 million for the four dams, 86 miles of transmission lines, and 14,500 acres in 2012. Tapoco-APGI became Brookfield Smoky Mountain Hydropower on November 15 of that year.

text: Renewable Energy Business.  Influenced by architect, inventor and philosopher, Buckminster Fuller, who believed in the importance of renewable energy, Osborne began to focus on the renewable energy business in the late 1970s by building passive solar homes and selling energy-saving wood stoves. In 1981 he developed the first wind energy project (consisting of five 25-kilowatt wind turbines) that sold energy to an electric utility in Texas.  in 1983, he signed on as the first distributor in Texas for Solarex, a now-defunct maker of solar cells used then as power sources for such things as ranch gates, railroad signals and other places where stringing power lines was difficult or expensive. In the 1990's he ran the Texas operations for Zond Energy, which is now part of GE Wind Energy, the largest U.S. wind turbine maker. Throughout the 80's and 90s, Osborne documented and leased the wind resource for Texas wind fields. Many of his exploits are documented in the book, The Great Texas Wind Rush.

text: Renewable Energy Business.  Influenced by

text: architect

text: inventor

text: and

text: philosopher

text: Buckminster Fuller

text: , who believed in the importance of

text: renewable energy

text: , Osborne began to focus on the renewable energy business in the late 1970s by building

text: passive solar homes

text: and selling

text: energy-saving

text: wood stoves. In 1981 he developed the first

text: wind energy

text: project (consisting of five 25-kilowatt

text: wind turbine

text: s) that sold energy to an

text: electric utility

text: in Texas.  in 1983, he signed on as the first distributor in Texas for Solarex, a now-defunct maker of

text: solar cell

text: s used then as power sources for such things as ranch gates, railroad signals and other places where stringing power lines was difficult or expensive. In the 1990's he ran the Texas operations for Zond Energy, which is now part of

text: GE Wind Energy

text: , the largest U.S.

text: wind turbine

text: maker. Throughout the 80's and 90s, Osborne documented and leased the wind resource for Texas wind fields. Many of his exploits are documented in the book, The Great Texas Wind Rush.

text: Biomass is the amount of living or organic matter present in an organism. Biomass pyramids show how much biomass is present in the organisms at each trophic level, while productivity pyramids show the production or turnover in biomass.

text: There are several sectors that fall under the eco-investing umbrella. Renewable energy refers to both solar, wind, tidal current,wave and conventional hydro technology. This includes companies that build solar panels or wind turbines, or the raw materials and services that contribute to these technologies It also refers to Energy Storage – companies that develop and use technologies to store large amounts of energy, particularly renewable energies. A good example of this is the fuel cells used in hybrid cars. Also under the renewable energy sector are Biofuels. This group includes companies that use or supply biological resources (like algae, corn or waster wood) to create energy or fuel. Other technologies that are included in the renewable energy group are: Geothermal (companies who use or convert heat to electric energy) and Hydroelectricity (companies who harness water energy to make electricity).

text: There are several sectors that fall under the eco-investing umbrella.

text: Renewable energy

text: refers to both solar, wind, tidal current,wave and conventional hydro technology. This includes companies that build

text: solar panel

text: s or

text: wind turbine

text: s, or the raw materials and services that contribute to these technologies It also refers to Energy Storage – companies that develop and use technologies to store large amounts of energy, particularly renewable energies. A good example of this is the fuel cells used in

text: hybrid car

text: s. Also under the renewable energy sector are Biofuels. This group includes companies that use or supply biological resources (like algae, corn or waster wood) to create energy or fuel. Other technologies that are included in the renewable energy group are: Geothermal (companies who use or convert heat to electric energy) and Hydroelectricity (companies who harness water energy to make electricity).

text: Hydropower is the second dominant renewable energy resource in the Philippines. There are various hydropower plants spread out across the country. Large hydropower plants (more than 50 MW generating capacity) are connected directly to the main transmission grid whereas small (10-50 MW generating capacity) and mini (101 kW to 10 MW generating capacity) hydropower plants are connected to local distribution systems.

text: Renewable energy in Bhutan is the use of renewable energy for electricity generation in Bhutan. The renewable energy sources include hydropower.

text: Renewable energy in

text: Bhutan

text: is the use of

text: renewable energy

text: for

text: electricity generation

text: in

text: Bhutan

text: . The

text: renewable energy

text: sources include

text: hydropower

text: The goal of Ghana regarding bio-energy, as articulated by its energy sector policy, is to modernize and examine the benefits of bio-energy on a sustainable basis. Biomass is Ghana's dominant energy resource in terms of endowment and consumption, with the two primary bio-fuels consumed being ethanol and biodiesel. To that effect, the Ghana ministry of Energy in 2010 developed its energy sector strategy and development plan. Highlights of the strategy include sustaining the supply and efficient use of wood fuels while ensuring that their utilization does not lead to deforestation. The plan would support private sector investments in the cultivation of bio-fuel feedstock, the extraction of bio-oil, and refining it into secondary products, thereby creating financial and tax incentives. The Ghana Renewal Energy Act provides the necessary fiscal incentives for renewable energy development by the private sector, and also details the control and management of bio-fuel and wood fuel projects in Ghana. The Ghana National Petroleum Authority (NPA) was tasked by the Renewable Energy Act 2011 to price Ghana's bio-fuel blend in accordance with the prescribed petroleum pricing formula.

text: The goal of Ghana regarding bio-energy, as articulated by its energy sector policy, is to modernize and examine the benefits of bio-energy on a sustainable basis.

text: Biomass

text: is Ghana's dominant energy resource in terms of endowment and consumption, with the two primary bio-fuels consumed being

text: ethanol

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: . To that effect, the Ghana ministry of Energy in 2010 developed its energy sector strategy and development plan. Highlights of the strategy include sustaining the supply and efficient use of

text: wood fuel

text: s while ensuring that their utilization does not lead to

text: deforestation

text: . The plan would support

text: private sector

text: investments in the cultivation of bio-fuel feedstock, the extraction of

text: bio-oil

text: , and refining it into secondary products, thereby creating financial and tax incentives. The Ghana Renewal Energy Act provides the necessary fiscal incentives for

text: renewable energy

text: development by the private sector, and also details the control and management of bio-fuel and wood fuel projects in Ghana. The Ghana National Petroleum Authority (NPA) was tasked by the

text: Renewable Energy

text: Act 2011 to price Ghana's bio-fuel blend in accordance with the prescribed petroleum pricing formula.

text: Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gases, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases would result. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs. As of 2015, 33 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources (including 7% from hydro and 20% from nuclear). In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, and Denmark is using wind.

text: Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of

text: greenhouse gases

text: , a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases would result. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs. As of 2015, 33 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources (including 7% from hydro and 20% from nuclear). In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example,

text: Iceland

text: is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, and

text: Denmark

text: is using wind.

text: Green Rock Energy Limited () is an Australian company which is exploring geothermal energy resources and the development of low-emission, base load, renewable energy. In South Australia, the company has seven geothermal exploration licences (GELs) totalling  and two GEL applications surrounding Olympic Dam Mine and the Roxby Downs township. The company also has a geothermal project in Hungary.

text: Green Rock Energy Limited () is an Australian company which is exploring

text: geothermal energy

text: resources and the development of low-emission, base load,

text: renewable energy

text: . In

text: South Australia

text: , the company has seven geothermal exploration licences (GELs) totalling  and two GEL applications surrounding

text: Olympic Dam

text: Mine and the

text: Roxby Downs

text: township. The company also has a geothermal project in

text: Hungary

text: The combination of pastoralism and LP genes would have allowed individuals the advantage of niche construction, meaning they would have had less competition for resources by deriving a secondary food source, milk. Milk as a nutrition source may have been more advantageous than meat, as its rate of renewal is significantly faster. Rather than having to raise and slaughter animals, one cow or goat could repeatedly serve as a resource with fewer time and energy constraints. The competitive advantage conferred on lactose-tolerant individuals would have given rise to strong selective pressures for this genotype, especially in times of starvation and famine, which in turn gave rise to higher frequencies in lactase persistence within the populations.

text: As well as state of the art scientific equipment, much of it extremely sensitive to vibration and electromagnetic emissions, and requiring advanced methods of air handling, over a third of the building is given over to plant rooms and services distribution. The facility incorporates a combined heat and power plant in order to provide low-carbon onsite power. Solar panels installed in the roof provide extra renewable power and all light fittings are energy-efficient. The roof also hides the heating and cooling units. A third of the building is below ground-level to reduce its visible size and provide further protection to sensitive equipment.

text: As well as state of the art scientific equipment, much of it extremely sensitive to vibration and electromagnetic emissions, and requiring advanced methods of air handling, over a third of the building is given over to plant rooms and services distribution. The facility incorporates a

text: combined heat and power

text: plant in order to provide low-carbon onsite power. Solar panels installed in the roof provide extra renewable power and all light fittings are energy-efficient. The roof also hides the heating and cooling units. A third of the building is below ground-level to reduce its visible size and provide further protection to sensitive equipment.

text: Green power is a subset of renewable energy and represents those renewable energy resources and technologies that provide the highest environmental benefit. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines green power as electricity produced from solar, wind, geothermal, biogas, biomass and low-impact small hydroelectric sources. Customers often buy green power for avoided environmental impacts and its greenhouse gas reduction benefits.

text: Green power is a subset of renewable energy and represents those renewable energy resources and technologies that provide the highest environmental benefit. The

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: defines green power as electricity produced from solar, wind, geothermal, biogas, biomass and low-impact small hydroelectric sources. Customers often buy green power for avoided environmental impacts and its

text: greenhouse gas

text: reduction benefits.

text: Solarlite CSP Technology GmbH, located in Mecklenburg-Pomerania, Germany, develops and builds decentralized solar-thermal parabolic trough power plants ( CSP – Concentrated Solar Power) and process heat plants. For the first time worldwide, Solarlite is using direct steam generation commercially in a power plant.Solar thermal facilities offer the most sustainable form of energy recovery in terms of the environment, resources and availability. The technology has the advantage that as direct solar radiation increases, so does the efficiency of the facilities. The facilities are also characterized by a high degree of flexibility. They can be combined with all other fossil and renewable energy sources and are thus base-load capable. Another plus is the option of producing electricity and process heat at the same time or independently of one another. In addition, the residual heat can be used for further industrial applications for example desalination and cooling.

text: Solarlite CSP Technology GmbH, located in Mecklenburg-Pomerania,

text: Germany

text: , develops and builds decentralized solar-thermal

text: parabolic trough

text: power plants ( CSP – Concentrated Solar Power) and process heat plants. For the first time worldwide, Solarlite is using direct steam generation commercially in a power plant.Solar thermal facilities offer the most sustainable form of energy recovery in terms of the environment, resources and availability. The technology has the advantage that as direct solar radiation increases, so does the efficiency of the facilities. The facilities are also characterized by a high degree of flexibility. They can be combined with all other fossil and renewable energy sources and are thus base-load capable. Another plus is the option of producing electricity and process heat at the same time or independently of one another. In addition, the residual heat can be used for further industrial applications for example desalination and cooling.

text: According to Grenelle 2, 50% of renewable energy targets will be achieved by biomass

text: According to Grenelle 2, 50% of renewable energy targets will be achieved by

text: biomass

text: South Asian nations have varied but uneven energy resources. However, none has realized the full potential of their energy sources because of insufficient investment in energy infrastructure. The dominance of certain fuel types in certain countries – coal in India, gas in Bangladesh, and hydropower in Bhutan and Nepal – leaves them vulnerable to import dependence. There is also a need to develop renewable energy resources to increase climate change resilience in Maldives and Sri Lanka. This situation could be eased by strengthening cross-border energy networks and trade. Better telecommunications connections would also expand personal and business links, increasing trade at all levels

text: Sustainable energy is energy obtained from non-exhaustible resources, serving the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs as well. Technologies that promote sustainable energy include renewable energy sources and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency. Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Sustainable energy is energy obtained from non-exhaustible resources, serving the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs as well. Technologies that promote

text: sustainable

text: energy include renewable energy sources and also technologies designed to improve

text: energy efficiency

text: . Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from

text: resources

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: electricity generation

text: , air and water heating/cooling,

text: transportation

text: , and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: In addition to the advantages, there are also several known disadvantages.  These include:

text: The state adopted a Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) in 2008 which requires that 10% of Michigan's electricity come from renewable resources by 2015. This standard was met mostly by wind power. A program to add 2 MW of distributed solar by Consumers Energy customers was reached in two weeks, and the state directed the company to offer another 2 MW at a cost not to exceed $20 million.

text: The state adopted a

text: Renewable Portfolio Standard

text: (RPS) in 2008 which requires that 10% of Michigan's electricity come from renewable resources by 2015. This standard was met mostly by

text: wind power

text: . A program to add 2 MW of

text: distributed solar

text: by

text: Consumers Energy

text: customers was reached in two weeks, and the state directed the company to offer another 2 MW at a cost not to exceed $20 million.

text: Energy security measures center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy or supplier, exploiting renewable energy resources, and reducing demand by energy conservation. Finland is highly dependent on energy import from Russia: 71% of total energy in 2007: Hard coal 92%, raw oil 75% and natural gas 100%. The support of domestic energy has been mainly based on traditional bioenergy and highly disputed fossil peat energy alternatives.  The new renewable energy alternatives have not been effectively promoted by the end of 2010. This strategy was criticised by the IEA in its country evaluation in 2007. According to the renewable energy statistics of EU countries Finland has low capacities of wind power (19/27), solar power (17/27) and solar heating (23/27) in 2010. Wind power is repeatedly the most favoured power source in Finland with over 90% of support according to the public opinion tests. In this respect the official energy policy of Finland has promoted the market control of traditional energy sources and companies.

text: Energy security

text: measures center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy or supplier, exploiting

text: renewable energy

text: resources, and reducing demand by

text: energy conservation

text: . Finland is highly dependent on energy import from Russia: 71% of total energy in 2007: Hard coal 92%, raw oil 75% and natural gas 100%. The support of domestic energy has been mainly based on traditional bioenergy and highly disputed fossil

text: peat energy

text: alternatives.  The new renewable energy alternatives have not been effectively promoted by the end of 2010. This strategy was criticised by the IEA in its country evaluation in 2007. According to the renewable energy statistics of EU countries Finland has low capacities of

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: (17/27) and

text: solar heating

text: (23/27) in 2010. Wind power is repeatedly the most favoured power source in Finland with over 90% of support according to the public opinion tests. In this respect the official energy policy of Finland has promoted the market control of traditional energy sources and companies.

text: Those not satisfied with the third-party grid approach to green energy via the power grid can install their own locally based renewable energy system. Renewable energy electrical systems from solar to wind to even local hydro-power in some cases, are some of the many types of renewable energy systems available locally. Additionally, for those interested in heating and cooling their dwelling via renewable energy, geothermal heat pump systems that tap the constant temperature of the earth, which is around 7 to 15 degrees Celsius a few feet underground and increases dramatically at greater depths, are an option over conventional natural gas and petroleum-fueled heat approaches. Also, in geographic locations where the Earth's Crust is especially thin, or near volcanoes (as is the case in Iceland) there exists the potential to generate even more electricity than would be possible at other sites, thanks to a more significant temperature gradient at these locales.

text: Those not satisfied with the third-party grid approach to green energy via the power grid can install their own locally based renewable energy system. Renewable energy electrical systems from solar to wind to even local hydro-power in some cases, are some of the many types of renewable energy systems available locally. Additionally, for those interested in heating and cooling their dwelling via renewable energy,

text: geothermal heat pump

text: systems that tap the constant

text: temperature

text: of the earth, which is around 7 to 15 degrees

text: Celsius

text: a few feet underground and increases dramatically at greater depths, are an option over conventional

text: natural gas

text: and

text: petroleum

text: -fueled heat approaches. Also, in geographic locations where the

text: Earth's Crust

text: is especially thin, or near

text: volcanoes

text: (as is the case in

text: Iceland

text: ) there exists the potential to generate even more electricity than would be possible at other sites, thanks to a more significant

text: temperature gradient

text: at these locales.

text: In March AER partnered with a new sponsor, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Office of Biomass and launched a special Subcommittee on Renewable Energy Technology. The two-day event at the Mayflower Hotel was chaired by John Shields of the TVA and included representatives of two dozen leading  companies interested in renewable energy from solar, wind, geothermal, biomass and others primarily in relation to agriculture.  Enthusiasm dropped a few weeks later when Shields resigned, claiming budget cuts would downsize TVA’s commitment to biomass energy.

text: In March AER partnered with a new sponsor, the

text: Tennessee Valley Authority

text: (TVA) Office of Biomass and launched a special Subcommittee on Renewable Energy Technology. The two-day event at the

text: Mayflower Hotel

text: was chaired by John Shields of the TVA and included representatives of two dozen leading  companies interested in

text: renewable energy

text: from solar, wind, geothermal,

text: biomass

text: and others primarily in relation to agriculture.  Enthusiasm dropped a few weeks later when Shields resigned, claiming budget cuts would downsize TVA’s commitment to biomass energy.

text: In 2011, the refereed journal Energy Policy published two articles by Mark Z. Jacobson, a professor of engineering at Stanford University, and research scientist Mark A. Delucchi, about changing our energy supply mix and "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power". The articles analyze the feasibility of providing worldwide energy for electric power, transportation, and heating/cooling from wind, water, and sunlight (WWS), which are safe clean options. In Part I, Jacobson and Delucchi discuss WWS energy system characteristics, aspects of energy demand, WWS resource availability, WWS devices needed, and material requirements.  They estimate that 3,800,000 5 MW wind turbines, 5350 100 MW geothermal power plants, and 270 new 1300 MW hydroelectric power plants will be required. In terms of solar power, an additional 49,000 300 MW concentrating solar plants, 40,000 300 MW solar photovoltaic power plants, and 1.7 billion 3 kW rooftop photovoltaic systems will also be needed. Such an extensive WWS infrastructure could decrease world power demand by 30%.  In Part II, Jacobson and Delucchi address variability of supply, system economics, and energy policy initiatives associated with a WWS system. The authors advocate producing all new energy with WWS by 2030 and replacing existing energy supply arrangements by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Energy costs with a WWS system should be similar to today's energy costs.

text: In 2011, the refereed journal

text: Energy Policy

text: published two articles by

text: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: , a professor of engineering at

text: Stanford University

text: , and research scientist Mark A. Delucchi, about changing our energy supply mix and "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power". The articles analyze the feasibility of providing worldwide energy for electric power, transportation, and heating/cooling from wind, water, and sunlight (WWS), which are safe clean options. In Part I, Jacobson and Delucchi discuss WWS energy system characteristics, aspects of energy demand, WWS resource availability, WWS devices needed, and material requirements.  They estimate that 3,800,000 5 MW

text: wind turbines

text: , 5350 100 MW

text: geothermal power

text: plants, and 270 new 1300 MW

text: hydroelectric power

text: plants will be required. In terms of

text: solar power

text: , an additional 49,000 300 MW

text: concentrating solar

text: plants, 40,000 300 MW

text: solar photovoltaic

text: power plants, and 1.7 billion 3 kW rooftop photovoltaic systems will also be needed. Such an extensive WWS infrastructure could decrease world power demand by 30%.  In Part II, Jacobson and Delucchi address variability of supply, system economics, and energy policy initiatives associated with a WWS system. The authors advocate producing all new energy with WWS by 2030 and replacing existing energy supply arrangements by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Energy costs with a WWS system should be similar to today's energy costs.

text: The Wyoming Infrastructure Authority (WIA) has partnerships to secure tax credit bonds for construction of renewable energy projects. WIA accepted proposals for projects using resources from wind, biomass, geothermal, solar, small irrigation power, trash combustion, certain refined coal production, and certain hydropower projects.

text: The Wyoming Infrastructure Authority (WIA) has partnerships to secure

text: tax credit

text: bond

text: s for construction of

text: renewable energy

text: projects. WIA accepted proposals for projects using resources from

text: wind

text: biomass

text: geothermal

text: solar

text: , small irrigation power, trash combustion, certain

text: refined coal

text: production, and certain hydropower projects.

text: Geothermal power in Indonesia is an increasingly significant source of Renewable Energy. As a result of its volcanic geology, it is often reported that Indonesia has 40% of the world's potential geothermal resources, estimated at 28,000 megawatts (MW).

text: Geothermal power in Indonesia is an increasingly significant source of

text: Renewable Energy

text: . As a result of its

text: volcanic

text: geology, it is often reported that

text: Indonesia

text: has 40% of the world's potential

text: geothermal resources

text: , estimated at 28,000

text: megawatts

text: (MW).

text: The Saint Marys Falls Hydropower Plant is an 18-MW hydroelectric generating plant located in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan (the "Soo").  It extracts water from the St. Marys River under the supervision of the Army Corps of Engineers, and the power is taken up and distributed by the Cloverland Electric Cooperative, a rural utility that serves the Soo area.

text: The Saint Marys Falls Hydropower Plant is an 18-MW

text: hydroelectric

text: generating plant located in

text: Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan

text: (the "Soo").  It extracts water from the

text: St. Marys River

text: under the supervision of the

text: Army Corps of Engineers

text: , and the power is taken up and distributed by the

text: Cloverland Electric Cooperative

text: , a rural utility that serves the Soo area.

text: With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences, and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electric power grids for remote use of power. Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for battery charging at isolated residences, up to near-gigawatt sized offshore wind farms that provide electric power to national electrical networks.

text: With the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power. Throughout the 20th century parallel paths developed small wind stations suitable for farms or residences, and larger utility-scale wind generators that could be connected to electric power grids for remote use of power. Today wind powered generators operate in every size range between tiny stations for battery charging at isolated residences, up to near-gigawatt sized

text: offshore wind farms

text: that provide electric power to national electrical networks.

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency's Green Power Partnership is a voluntary program that supports the organizational procurement of green power by offering expert advice, technical support, tools and resources. The EPA defines 'green power' as a subset of renewable energy and "represents those renewable energy resources and technologies that provide the highest environmental benefit", with electricity produced from solar, wind, geothermal, biogas, biomass, and low-impact small hydroelectric sources listed as types of green power.

text: The

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: 's Green Power Partnership is a voluntary program that supports the organizational procurement of green power by offering expert advice, technical support, tools and resources. The EPA defines 'green power' as a subset of

text: renewable energy

text: and "represents those renewable energy resources and technologies that provide the highest environmental benefit", with electricity produced from

text: solar

text: wind

text: geothermal

text: biogas

text: biomass

text: , and low-impact small

text: hydroelectric

text: sources listed as types of green power.

text: Renewable forms of energy account for a small proportion of Poland's full energy generation capacity. However, the national government has set targets for the development of renewable energy sources in Poland which should see the portion of power produced by renewable resources climb to 7.5% by 2010 and 15% by 2020. This is to be achieved mainly through the construction of wind farms and a number of hydroelectric stations.

text: Renewable forms of energy account for a small proportion of Poland's full energy generation capacity. However, the national government has set targets for the development of renewable energy sources in Poland which should see the portion of power produced by renewable resources climb to 7.5% by 2010 and 15% by 2020. This is to be achieved mainly through the construction of

text: wind farm

text: s and a number of

text: hydroelectric

text: stations.

text: The Rudd government committed significant resources to renewable energy. Legislation for an expanded Renewable Energy Target was passed in August 2009, expanding it from 9,500 GWh by 2010 to 45,000 GWh by 2020 and introducing a 'solar credits' multiplier to provide an additional incentive for the installation of solar photovoltaic systems.

text: The organization promotes biomass thermal energy as a renewable, responsible, clean and energy-efficient pathway to meeting America’s energy needs. BTEC engages in research, education, and public advocacy for the biomass thermal energy industry.

text: Iberdrola Renovables was a subsidiary of Iberdrola, headquartered in Valencia, Spain, which included companies in the domains of renewable energy, particularly wind power. The firm was the world's largest renewable energy firm: it was the world's largest owner-operator of wind farms, but also operated in the solar, hydro, biomass and wave power industries.

text: Iberdrola Renovables was a subsidiary of

text: Iberdrola

text: , headquartered in

text: Valencia, Spain

text: , which included companies in the domains of

text: renewable energy

text: , particularly

text: wind power

text: . The firm was the world's largest

text: renewable energy firm

text: : it was the world's largest owner-operator of

text: wind farm

text: s, but also operated in the

text: solar

text: hydro

text: biomass

text: and

text: wave power

text: industries.

text: The electricity sector of Uruguay has traditionally been based on domestic hydropower along with thermal power plants, and is reliant on imports from Argentina and Brazil at times of peak demand. Over the last 10 years, investments in energy sources such as wind power and solar power has allowed the country to cover in early 2016 94.5% of its electricity needs with renewable energy sources.

text: The electricity sector of Uruguay has traditionally been based on domestic

text: hydropower

text: along with

text: thermal power

text: plants, and is reliant on imports from

text: Argentina

text: and

text: Brazil

text: at times of peak demand. Over the last 10 years, investments in energy sources such as

text: wind power

text: and

text: solar power

text: has allowed the country to cover in early 2016 94.5% of its electricity needs with

text: renewable energy

text: sources.

text: Biomass is a renewable energy source and its use for energy generation is carbon-neutral fuel. It is carbon neutral because it would also release global warming green house gasses like methane and carbon dioxide when it is left to degenerate without using as energy source. Two thirds of house holds in India use biomass and charcoal for cooking purpose. In addition biomass is also used marginally in commercial cooking, electricity generation, process industries, etc. The total biomass use in India is nearly 177 Mtoe in the year 2013. Substantial surplus crop residue is also burnt in agriculture fields for clearing the land for the next crop. Nearly 750 million tons of non edible (by cattle) biomass is available annually in India which can be put to use for higher value addition.

text: Biomass

text: is a renewable energy source and its use for energy generation is

text: carbon-neutral fuel

text: . It is carbon neutral because it would also release

text: global warming

text: green house gasses

text: like methane and carbon dioxide when it is left to degenerate without using as energy source. Two thirds of house holds in India use biomass and charcoal for cooking purpose. In addition biomass is also used marginally in commercial cooking, electricity generation, process industries, etc. The total biomass use in India is nearly 177 Mtoe in the year 2013. Substantial surplus crop residue is also burnt in agriculture fields for clearing the land for the next crop. Nearly 750 million tons of non edible (by cattle) biomass is available annually in India which can be put to use for higher value addition.

text: A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available power. Power is a function of the hydraulic head and rate of fluid flow. The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water. The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head.

text: A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available

text: power

text: . Power is a function of the

text: hydraulic head

text: and

text: rate of fluid flow

text: . The head is the energy per unit weight (or unit mass) of water. The static head is proportional to the difference in height through which the water falls. Dynamic head is related to the velocity of moving water. Each unit of water can do an amount of work equal to its weight times the head.

text: The Banjhakri falls sourced to springs in its higher reaches, cascades over rock slopes over  height of  ( is also mentioned). An area of  of forest land has been developed within the back drop of the falls as a theme park. The idea for developing the theme park was conceptualized by the Chief Minister of Sikkim who had visited the falls during his visit to the Ranka monastery on 28 September 2004, with intent to revive the shamanic beliefs of the people. Then many people were also invited to suggest themes for the park. As a result, the theme park was developed into a major recreation center and tourist attraction near Gangtok highlighting shamanic tradition of the people of Sikkim. The theme park, apart from shamanic related statues of the forest based healer, also has many statues of the ancestors of the Lyam Lymay, Mangpas and Lepcha community of Sikkim as part of the shamanic culture of the people. These sculptures are Jhakri, Bongthing, Phedangba and Bijuwa, which have been set in thatched enclosures in the well tended garden with trails and footbridges to walk around. Extensive landscaping of the mountainous region has been done and are planted with many ornamental floral trees and plants such as ardesia, acer, poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima), camellia, angelica, hydrangea and tebuchinie. Many gazebos have also been erected at strategic locations in the park Renewable energy sources in the form of solar lamps and a mini hydel station have been created to provide lighting and other energy needs of the park. Sikkim Rural Energy Development Agency (SREDA) also has exhibits of eco-friendly renewable energy sources. The exhibits within the museum hall are solar power fencing. future energy world, energy transformation, geothermal energy, solar cooker and so forth. The exhibits in the open grounds of the park are grassfire, solar water heater, solar powered cars, energy drum, glass climbing wall and Wind Aero generator.

text: The Banjhakri falls sourced to springs in its higher reaches, cascades over rock slopes over  height of  ( is also mentioned). An area of  of forest land has been developed within the back drop of the falls as a theme park. The idea for developing the theme park was conceptualized by the

text: Chief Minister of Sikkim

text: who had visited the falls during his visit to the

text: Ranka monastery

text: on 28 September 2004, with intent to revive the shamanic beliefs of the people. Then many people were also invited to suggest themes for the park. As a result, the theme park was developed into a major recreation center and tourist attraction near Gangtok highlighting shamanic tradition of the people of Sikkim. The theme park, apart from shamanic related statues of the forest based healer, also has many statues of the ancestors of the Lyam Lymay, Mangpas and Lepcha community of Sikkim as part of the shamanic culture of the people. These sculptures are Jhakri, Bongthing, Phedangba and Bijuwa, which have been set in thatched enclosures in the well tended garden with trails and footbridges to walk around. Extensive landscaping of the mountainous region has been done and are planted with many ornamental floral trees and plants such as ardesia,

text: acer

text: poinsettia

text: (Euphorbia pulcherrima),

text: camellia

text: angelica

text: hydrangea

text: and

text: tebuchinie

text: . Many gazebos have also been erected at strategic locations in the park Renewable energy sources in the form of

text: solar lamps

text: and a

text: mini hydel station

text: have been created to provide lighting and other energy needs of the park. Sikkim Rural Energy Development Agency (SREDA) also has exhibits of eco-friendly renewable energy sources. The exhibits within the museum hall are solar power fencing. future energy world, energy transformation, geothermal energy, solar cooker and so forth. The exhibits in the open grounds of the park are grassfire, solar water heater, solar powered cars, energy drum, glass climbing wall and Wind Aero generator.

text: The 2001, revision to the RPS keeps in place Nevada's commitment to expand solar energy resources by requiring that at least 5 percent of the renewable energy projects must generate electricity from solar energy.

text: The intermittency and variability of renewable energy sources can be reduced and accommodated by diversifying their technology type and geographical location, forecasting their variation, and integrating them with dispatchable renewables (such as hydropower, geothermal, and biomass). Combining this with energy storage and demand response can create a power system that can reliably match real-time energy demand. The integration of ever-higher levels of renewables has already been successfully demonstrated:

text: Regarding energy used by vehicles, a comprehensive 2008 cost-benefit analysis review was conducted of sustainable energy sources and usage combinations in the context of global warming and other dominating issues; it ranked wind power generation combined with battery electric vehicles (BEV) and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) as the most efficient. Wind was followed by concentrated solar power (CSP), geothermal power, tidal power, photovoltaic, wave power, hydropower coal capture and storage (CCS), nuclear energy and biofuel energy sources.  It states: "In sum, use of wind, CSP, geothermal, tidal, PV, wave, and hydro to provide electricity for BEVs and HFCVs and, by extension, electricity for the residential, industrial, and commercial sectors, will result in the most benefit among the options considered. The combination of these technologies should be advanced as a solution to global warming, air pollution, and energy security. Coal-CCS and nuclear offer less benefit thus represent an opportunity cost loss, and the biofuel options provide no certain benefit and the greatest negative impacts."

text: Regarding energy used by vehicles, a comprehensive 2008

text: cost-benefit analysis

text: review was conducted of sustainable energy sources and usage combinations in the context of global warming and other dominating issues; it ranked

text: wind power

text: generation combined with

text: battery electric vehicle

text: s (BEV) and

text: hydrogen fuel cell vehicles

text: (HFCVs) as the most efficient. Wind was followed by

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP),

text: geothermal power

text: tidal power

text: photovoltaic

text: wave power

text: hydropower

text: coal capture and storage

text: (CCS),

text: nuclear energy

text: and

text: biofuel

text: energy sources.  It states: "In sum, use of wind, CSP, geothermal, tidal, PV, wave, and hydro to provide electricity for BEVs and HFCVs and, by extension, electricity for the residential, industrial, and commercial sectors, will result in the most benefit among the options considered. The combination of these technologies should be advanced as a solution to global warming, air pollution, and energy security. Coal-CCS and nuclear offer less benefit thus represent an opportunity cost loss, and the biofuel options provide no certain benefit and the greatest negative impacts."

text: The principle of supply and demand holds that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore, higher prices will lead to increased alternative, renewable energy supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit. Artificial gasolines and other renewable energy sources currently require more expensive production and processing technologies than conventional petroleum reserves, but may become economically viable in the near future.Different alternative sources of energy include nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal.

text: The principle of

text: supply and demand

text: holds that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore, higher prices will lead to increased alternative,

text: renewable energy

text: supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit. Artificial gasolines and other

text: renewable energy

text: sources currently require more expensive production and processing technologies than conventional

text: petroleum reserves

text: , but may become economically viable in the near future.Different

text: alternative sources of energy

text: include

text: nuclear

text: hydroelectric

text: solar

text: wind

text: , and

text: geothermal

text: Clinton has emphasized the jobs that renewable energy creates, saying in an April 2016 town-hall event broadcast on MSNBC that the U.S. must "use clean renewable energy to create more jobs." Clinton has said that "somebody is going to be the 21st century clean energy superpower.  It's either going to be China, Germany or us.  I want it to be us because there will be a lot of jobs, again, that have to be done right here in America." On one occasion in December 2015, Clinton stated that "we now have more jobs in solar than we do in oil"; PolitiFact found that this was not true, although the number of workers in the oil and gas industry has been declining while the number of workers employees in the solar industry has increased.

text: Clinton has emphasized the jobs that renewable energy creates, saying in an April 2016 town-hall event broadcast on MSNBC that the U.S. must "use clean renewable energy to create more jobs." Clinton has said that "somebody is going to be the 21st century clean energy superpower.  It's either going to be

text: China

text: Germany

text: or us.  I want it to be us because there will be a lot of jobs, again, that have to be done right here in America." On one occasion in December 2015, Clinton stated that "we now have more jobs in solar than we do in oil"; PolitiFact found that this was not true, although the number of workers in the oil and gas industry has been declining while the number of workers employees in the solar industry has increased.

text: Renewable energy in Afghanistan ranges from biomass, hydropower, solar, wind energy in Afghanistan.

text: Renewable energy in Afghanistan ranges from

text: biomass

text: hydropower

text: solar

text: wind

text: energy in

text: Afghanistan

text: The projects will allow the university to receive 15 percent of their purchased energy from these renewable energy resources. Also in 2010, the university's dining hall, Ellicott Dining Hall, installed solar panels which would provide up to 30 percent of the energy for water heating in the dining hall. To do this the university installed 20 panels with 3 solar storage tanks, pumps, temperature sensors, and controls. The system will increasingly provide more of the dining hall's water needs due to the storage tanks.

text:
|-| Continent || Europe|-| Subregion || British Isles
Northern Europe|-| Area
 - Total
 - Land (%)
 - Water (%)|

 97%
 3%|-| Coastline || |-| Land borders || England
 |-| Highest point || Ben Nevis
|-| Lowest point || Atlantic Ocean, 0 m|-| Longest river || River Tay
 |-| Largest inland body of water || Loch Lomond
 |-| Climate: || Temperate |-| Terrain: || mountains, hills, forest, bog, urban|-| Natural resources ||  iron,  zinc, potash, silica sand, coal, fish, timber, wildlife,  petroleum, natural gas, hydropower|-| Natural hazards || windstorms, floods|-| Environmental issues || climate change, renewable energy, waste disposal and water pollution|}

text: Continent

text: || Europe|-|

text: Subregion

text: British Isles

text: <br>

text: Northern Europe

text: Area

text:
 - Total
 - Land (%)
 - Water (%)|

 97%
 3%|-| Coastline || |-| Land borders || England
 |-| Highest point ||

text: Ben Nevis

text: <br>|-| Lowest point ||

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , 0 m|-| Longest river ||

text: River Tay

text: <br> |-| Largest inland body of water ||

text: Loch Lomond

text: <br> |-|

text: Climate

text: Temperate

text: Terrain

text: mountain

text: s,

text: hill

text: s,

text: forest

text: bog

text: urban

text: |-| Natural resources ||

text: iron

text: zinc

text: potash

text: silica sand

text: coal

text: fish

text: timber

text: wildlife

text: petroleum

text: natural gas

text: hydropower

text: |-| Natural hazards ||

text: windstorm

text: s,

text: flood

text: s|-| Environmental issues ||

text: climate change

text: renewable energy

text: waste disposal

text: and

text: water pollution

text: Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river. In the United States, run of the river hydropower could potentially provide  (about 13.7% of total use in 2011 if continuously available).

text: Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the motion of water. Typically a dam is constructed on a river, creating an artificial lake behind it. Water flowing out of the lake is forced through turbines that turn generators.

text: Water is used in

text: power generation

text: Hydroelectricity

text: is electricity obtained from

text: hydropower

text: . Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the motion of water. Typically a

text: dam

text: is constructed on a river, creating an artificial lake behind it. Water flowing out of the lake is forced through turbines that turn generators.

text: The bidirectional or reversible reaction catalyzed by hydrogenase allows for the capture and storage of renewable energy as fuel with use on demand. This can be demonstrated through the chemical storage of electricity obtained from a renewable source (e.g. solar, wind, hydrothermal) as H during periods of low energy demands. When energy is desired, H can be oxidized to produce electricity.

text: The bidirectional or

text: reversible

text: reaction catalyzed by hydrogenase allows for the capture and storage of renewable energy as fuel with use on demand. This can be demonstrated through the chemical storage of electricity obtained from a renewable source (e.g. solar, wind,

text: hydrothermal

text: ) as H during periods of low energy demands. When energy is desired, H can be oxidized to produce electricity.

text: Austria embarked on its energy transition (Energiewende) some decades ago. Due to geographical conditions, energy production in Austria relies heavily on renewable energies, notably hydropower. 78.4% of domestic production in 2013 came from renewable energy, 9.2% from natural gas and 7.2% from petroleum. (rest: waste). On the basis of the Federal Constitutional Law for a Nuclear-Free Austria, no nuclear power plants are in operation in Austria.But domestic energy production makes up only 36% of Austria's total energy consumption, which among other things encompasses transport, electricity production, and heating. In 2013, oil accounts for about 36.2% of total energy consumption, renewable energies 29.8%, gas 20.6%, and coal 9.7%. In the past 20 years, the structure of gross domestic energy consumption has shifted from coal and oil to new renewables, in particular between 2005 and 2013 (plus 60%). The EU target for Austria require a renewables share of 34% by 2020 (gross final energy consumption). Austria is on a good way to achieve this target (32.5% in 2013). Energy transition in Austria can be also seen on the local level, in some villages, towns and regions. For example, the town of Güssing in the state of Burgenland is a pioneer in independent and sustainable energy production. Since 2005, Güssing has already produced significantly more heating (58 gigawatt hours) and electricity (14 GWh) from renewable resources than the city itself needs.

text: Austria embarked on its energy transition (Energiewende) some decades ago. Due to geographical conditions, energy production in Austria relies heavily on renewable energies, notably hydropower. 78.4% of domestic production in 2013 came from renewable energy, 9.2% from natural gas and 7.2% from petroleum. (rest: waste). On the basis of the Federal Constitutional Law for a Nuclear-Free Austria, no nuclear power plants are in operation in Austria.But domestic energy production makes up only 36% of Austria's total energy consumption, which among other things encompasses transport, electricity production, and heating. In 2013, oil accounts for about 36.2% of total energy consumption, renewable energies 29.8%, gas 20.6%, and coal 9.7%. In the past 20 years, the structure of gross domestic energy consumption has shifted from coal and oil to new renewables, in particular between 2005 and 2013 (plus 60%). The EU target for Austria require a renewables share of 34% by 2020 (gross final energy consumption). Austria is on a good way to achieve this target (32.5% in 2013). Energy transition in Austria can be also seen on the local level, in some villages, towns and regions. For example, the town of

text: Güssing

text: in the state of Burgenland is a pioneer in independent and sustainable energy production. Since 2005, Güssing has already produced significantly more heating (58 gigawatt hours) and electricity (14 GWh) from renewable resources than the city itself needs.

text: Energy-efficient landscaping materials for careful passive solar choices include hardscape building material and "softscape" plants. The use of landscape design principles for selection of trees, hedges, and trellis-pergola features with vines; all can be used to create summer shading. For winter solar gain it is desirable to use deciduous plants that drop their leaves in the autumn gives year round passive solar benefits. Non-deciduous evergreen shrubs and trees can be windbreaks, at variable heights and distances, to create protection and shelter from winter wind chill. Xeriscaping with 'mature size appropriate' native species of-and drought tolerant plants, drip irrigation, mulching, and organic gardening practices reduce or eliminate the need for energy-and-water-intensive irrigation, gas powered garden equipment, and reduces the landfill waste footprint. Solar powered landscape lighting and fountain pumps, and covered swimming pools and plunge pools with solar water heaters can reduce the impact of such amenities.

text: Energy-efficient landscaping

text: materials for careful passive solar choices include

text: hardscape

text: building material and "

text: softscape

text: plant

text: s. The use of

text: landscape design

text: principles for selection of

text: trees

text: hedge

text: s, and

text: trellis

text: pergola

text: features with

text: vine

text: s; all can be used to create summer shading. For winter solar gain it is desirable to use

text: deciduous

text: plants that drop their leaves in the autumn gives year round passive solar benefits. Non-deciduous

text: evergreen

text: shrub

text: s and trees can be

text: windbreak

text: s, at variable heights and distances, to create protection and shelter from winter

text: wind chill

text: Xeriscaping

text: with 'mature size appropriate'

text: native species

text: of-and

text: drought tolerant plants

text: drip irrigation

text: , mulching, and

text: organic gardening

text: practices reduce or eliminate the need for energy-and-water-intensive

text: irrigation

text: , gas powered garden equipment, and reduces the landfill waste footprint. Solar powered

text: landscape lighting

text: and fountain pumps, and covered

text: swimming pool

text: s and

text: plunge pool

text: s with

text: solar water heaters

text: can reduce the impact of such amenities.

text: Renewable energy provides almost 100 percent of electricity production, with about 75 percent coming from hydropower and 25 percent from geothermal power.  Most of the hydropower plants are owned by Landsvirkjun (the National Power Company) which is the main supplier of electricity in Iceland. In 2011, the total electricity consumption in Iceland was 17,210 GWh.

text: Renewable energy provides almost 100 percent of

text: electricity

text: production, with about 75 percent coming from hydropower and 25 percent from geothermal power.  Most of the hydropower plants are owned by

text: Landsvirkjun

text: (the National Power Company) which is the main supplier of electricity in Iceland. In 2011, the total electricity consumption in Iceland was 17,210 GWh.

text: Peter Meisen was born in San Diego, California, and is a graduate (1976) of the University of California, San Diego with an Applied Mechanics and Engineering Sciences degree. In 1983, he co-founded SHARE (Self Help and Resource Exchange), North America's largest private food distribution program. Meisen founded Global Energy Network Institute, GENI, geni.org in 1989, to conduct research and to educate world leaders to the strategy of linking renewable energy resources around the world. He is an internationally recognized speaker on the global issues of renewable energy, transmission and distribution of electricity, quality of life and its relationship to electricity, the environment and sustainable development.

text: Peter Meisen was born in San Diego, California, and is a graduate (1976) of the

text: University of California, San Diego

text: with an Applied Mechanics and Engineering Sciences degree. In 1983, he co-founded SHARE (Self Help and Resource Exchange), North America's largest private food distribution program. Meisen founded

text: Global Energy Network Institute

text: , GENI, geni.org in 1989, to conduct research and to educate world leaders to the strategy of linking renewable energy resources around the world. He is an internationally recognized speaker on the global issues of renewable energy, transmission and distribution of electricity, quality of life and its relationship to electricity, the environment and sustainable development.

text: Before the industrial revolution the only sources of power were water, wind and muscle.  Most good water power sites (those not requiring massive modern dams) in Europe were developed during the medieval period.  In the 1750s John Smeaton, the "father of civil engineering," significantly improved the efficiency of the water wheel by applying scientific principles, thereby adding badly needed power for the Industrial Revolution.  However water wheels remained costly, relatively inefficient and not well suited to very large power dams.  Benoît Fourneyron's highly efficient turbine developed in the late 1820s eventually replaced waterwheels.  Fourneyron type turbines can operate at 95% efficiency and used in today's large hydro-power installations.  Hydro-power continued to be the leading source of industrial power in the United States until past the mid 19th century because of abundant sites, but steam power overtook water power in the UK decades earlier.

text: Before the industrial revolution the only sources of power were water, wind and muscle.  Most good water power sites (those not requiring massive modern dams) in Europe were developed during the medieval period.  In the 1750s

text: John Smeaton

text: , the "father of civil engineering," significantly improved the efficiency of the water wheel by applying scientific principles, thereby adding badly needed power for the Industrial Revolution.  However water wheels remained costly, relatively inefficient and not well suited to very large power dams.

text: Benoît Fourneyron

text: 's highly efficient turbine developed in the late 1820s eventually replaced waterwheels.  Fourneyron type turbines can operate at 95% efficiency and used in today's large hydro-power installations.  Hydro-power continued to be the leading source of industrial power in the United States until past the mid 19th century because of abundant sites, but steam power overtook water power in the UK decades earlier.

text: UGE International (formerly Urban Green Energy) is a worldwide distributed renewable energy company, founded in 2008, with headquarters in New York City. UGE has projects in more than 100 countries worldwide. UGE also works with an international network of Partners that augments global distribution and sales. UGE’s capabilities include remote site assessments, power plant system design, patent-pending vertical axis wind turbine manufacturing, solar system design, monitoring  and project financing. Its hybrid wind and solar systems are widely used to power telecommunications towers, commercial buildings, and municipal infrastructure including outdoor lighting.  UGE announced in August 2013 that it had raised $20M from Tamra-Tacoma Capital Partners, a New York-based alternative investment firm, for a project finance fund to deploy UGE's wind and solar technology for telecom companies. In April 2014, UGE raised an additional $5M from Energine.

text: UGE International (formerly Urban Green Energy) is a worldwide

text: distributed renewable energy

text: company, founded in 2008, with headquarters in

text: New York City

text: . UGE has projects in more than 100 countries worldwide. UGE also works with an international network of Partners that augments global distribution and sales. UGE’s capabilities include remote site assessments, power plant system design, patent-pending vertical axis wind turbine manufacturing, solar system design, monitoring  and project financing. Its hybrid wind and solar systems are widely used to power

text: telecommunications towers

text: , commercial buildings, and municipal infrastructure including outdoor lighting.  UGE announced in August 2013 that it had raised $20M from

text: Tamra-Tacoma Capital Partners

text: , a New York-based alternative investment firm, for a project finance fund to deploy UGE's wind and solar technology for telecom companies. In April 2014, UGE raised an additional $5M from Energine.

text: Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food.  Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the geothermal energy contained within the earth.

text: Living organisms require

text: available energy

text: to stay alive, such as the

text: energy humans get from food

text: .  Civilisation gets the energy it needs from

text: energy resource

text: s such as

text: fossil fuel

text: s,

text: nuclear fuel

text: , or

text: renewable energy

text: . The processes of Earth's

text: climate

text: and

text: ecosystem

text: are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the

text: geothermal energy

text: contained within the earth.

text: Astonfield Renewables Resources is a renewable energy company that builds, owns, and operates utility-scale solar power plants in emerging markets. Headquartered in Mumbai, its operational focus on India is supported by additional offices in New Delhi and Kolkata.

text: Astonfield Renewables Resources is a

text: renewable energy

text: company that builds, owns, and operates utility-scale

text: solar power plants

text: in

text: emerging markets

text: . Headquartered in

text: Mumbai

text: , its operational focus on

text: India

text: is supported by additional offices in

text: New Delhi

text: and

text: Kolkata

text: It's organized jointly by the American Solar Energy Society, the World Renewable Energy Network, the International Solar Energy Society, the Colorado Renewable Energy Society, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

text: It's organized jointly by the

text: American Solar Energy Society

text: , the

text: World Renewable Energy Network

text: , the

text: International Solar Energy Society

text: , the Colorado Renewable Energy Society, and the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: , the government of Iceland is in talks with the government of United Kingdom about the possibility of constructing a high-voltage direct-current connector for transmission of electricity between the two countries. Such a cable would give Iceland access to a market where electricity prices have generally been much higher than those in Iceland. Iceland has considerable renewable energy resources, especially geothermal energy and hydropower resources, and most of the potential has not been developed, partly because there is not enough demand for additional electricity generation capacity from the residents and industry of Iceland, but the United Kingdom is interested in importing inexpensive electricity from renewable sources of energy, and this could lead to further development of the energy resources.

text: , the government of Iceland is in talks with the government of United Kingdom about the possibility of constructing a

text: high-voltage direct-current

text: connector for transmission of electricity between the two countries. Such a cable would give Iceland access to a market where electricity prices have generally been much higher than those in Iceland. Iceland has considerable renewable energy resources, especially geothermal energy and hydropower resources, and most of the potential has not been developed, partly because there is not enough demand for additional electricity generation capacity from the residents and industry of Iceland, but the United Kingdom is interested in importing inexpensive electricity from renewable sources of energy, and this could lead to further development of the energy resources.

text: In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the worlds total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity. The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric systems with reservoirs is their ability to store potential power for later electrical production. When used in conjunction with intermittent sources like wind and solar, a constant supply of electricity is achieved. Other advantages include longer life than fuel-fired generation, low operating costs, and other uses of the reservoir.  In areas without natural water flow, pumped-storage plants provide a constant supply of electricity.  Overall, hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels or nuclear energy, and areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry. In Canada it's estimated there are 160,000 megawatts of undeveloped hydro potential.

text: In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the worlds total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity. The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric systems with reservoirs is their ability to store potential power for later electrical production. When used in conjunction with intermittent sources like wind and solar, a constant supply of electricity is achieved. Other advantages include longer life than fuel-fired generation, low operating costs, and other uses of the

text: reservoir

text: .  In areas without natural water flow,

text: pumped-storage

text: plants provide a constant supply of electricity.  Overall, hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuels or nuclear energy, and areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry. In Canada it's estimated there are 160,000 megawatts of undeveloped hydro potential.

text: Utah's energy resource consumption consists of both fossils fuels and renewable resources.  In 2009, residents, business and industries combined, consumed approximately 27,411 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity; 0.01% of which was solar generated. Of the total energy produced in 2009, 1090 trillion Btus, 0.1% was solar generated.

text: Energy production in Hawaii is a difficult issue due to the islands' isolated location and lack of local resources. The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources. High levels of solar photovoltaic and wind power use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use. Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced.

text: Energy production in

text: Hawaii

text: is a difficult issue due to the islands' isolated location and lack of local resources. The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources. High levels of solar

text: photovoltaic

text: and

text: wind power

text: use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use. Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced.

text: A 2007 report concluded that wood fuel exceeded hydroelectric and wind as the largest potential source of renewable energy. Scotland's forests, which made up 60% of the UK resource base, were forecast to be able to provide up to 1 million tonnes of wood fuel per annum. The biomass energy supply in Scotland was forecast to reach 450 MW or higher, (predominantly from wood), with power stations requiring 4,500–5,000 oven dry tonnes per annum per megawatt of generating capacity. However a 2011 Forestry Commission and Scottish government follow-up report concluded that: "...there is no capacity to support further large scale electricity generation biomass plants from the domestic wood fibre resource." A plan to build in Edinburgh a 200 MW biomass plant which would have imported 83% of its wood, was withdrawn by Forth Energy in 2012. The energy company E.ON has constructed a 44 MW biomass power station at Lockerbie using locally sourced crops while the smaller EPR Westfield power plant in Fife produces 9.8 MW of output using chicken litter as fuel. The Scottish Executive and the Forestry Commission issued a Scottish Biomass Action Plan in 2007. The Scottish Government set up the Scottish Biomass Support Scheme in 2006 with a £7.5 million grant, later increased to £10.5 million, to support biomass energy. £6 million of grants were drawn down by the time the scheme finished in March 2008 and a 2009 review of results concluded that the scheme had "...achieved limited success against its strategic aims objectives." A 2007 article by Renew Scotland claimed that automatic wood pellet boilers could be as convenient to use as conventional central heating systems. These boilers might be cheaper to run and, by using locally produced wood fuel, could try to be as carbon neutral as possible by using little energy for transportation.

text: A 2007 report concluded that wood fuel exceeded hydroelectric and wind as the largest potential source of renewable energy. Scotland's forests, which made up 60% of the UK resource base, were forecast to be able to provide up to 1 million tonnes of wood fuel per annum. The biomass energy supply in Scotland was forecast to reach 450 MW or higher, (predominantly from wood), with power stations requiring 4,500–5,000 oven dry tonnes per annum per megawatt of generating capacity. However a 2011

text: Forestry Commission

text: and Scottish government follow-up report concluded that: "...there is no capacity to support further large scale electricity generation biomass plants from the domestic wood fibre resource." A plan to build in Edinburgh a 200 MW biomass plant which would have imported 83% of its wood, was withdrawn by Forth Energy in 2012. The energy company E.ON has constructed a 44 MW biomass power station at

text: Lockerbie

text: using locally sourced crops while the smaller EPR Westfield power plant in Fife produces 9.8 MW of output using chicken litter as fuel. The Scottish Executive and the Forestry Commission issued a Scottish Biomass Action Plan in 2007. The Scottish Government set up the Scottish Biomass Support Scheme in 2006 with a

text: 7.5 million grant, later increased to

text: 10.5 million, to support biomass energy.

text: 6 million of grants were drawn down by the time the scheme finished in March 2008 and a 2009 review of results concluded that the scheme had "...achieved limited success against its strategic aims objectives." A 2007 article by Renew Scotland claimed that automatic wood pellet boilers could be as convenient to use as conventional central heating systems. These boilers might be cheaper to run and, by using locally produced wood fuel, could try to be as carbon neutral as possible by using little energy for transportation.

text: Transmission capacity of the grid hasn't kept up with the growth of China's wind farms. In 2009, only 72% (8.94 GW) of China’s total wind power capacity was connected to the grid. In 2014, 96.37 GW of China's capacity was connected to the grid, out of a total capacity of 114.6 GW. In the first half of 2015, 1.75 TWh of wind power was wasted according to China's National Energy Administration. The slowdown in the Chinese economy in 2015 also led to overcapacity in the power sector, reducing demand. In an effort to reduce excess power capacity and encourage greater utilization of renewables, the Chinese government halted approvals for construction of new coal power plants for the three-year period starting in 2016. Combined curtailment of North China wind power was nearly 34 TWh in 2015.

text: Transmission capacity of the grid hasn't kept up with the growth of China's wind farms. In 2009, only 72% (8.94 GW) of China’s total wind power capacity was connected to the grid. In 2014, 96.37 GW of China's capacity was connected to the grid, out of a total capacity of 114.6 GW. In the first half of 2015, 1.75 TWh of wind power was wasted according to China's

entity_name: National Development and Reform Commission

text: National Energy Administration

text: . The slowdown in the Chinese economy in 2015 also led to overcapacity in the power sector, reducing demand. In an effort to reduce excess power capacity and encourage greater utilization of renewables, the Chinese government halted approvals for construction of new coal power plants for the three-year period starting in 2016. Combined curtailment of North China wind power was nearly 34 TWh in 2015.

text: Solar energy technologies come in various forms – solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity – and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces:

text: Solar energy

text: technologies come in various forms –

text: solar heating

text: solar photovoltaics

text: solar thermal electricity

text: – and can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces:

text: Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have a start-up time of the order of a few minutes. It takes around 60 to 90 seconds to bring a unit from cold start-up to full load; this is much shorter than for gas turbines or steam plants. Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it serves as backup for non-hydro generators.

text: Specifically for renewables, low-cost energy storage is required to enable renewable energy sources with varying and even intermittent output, such as solar and wind power. The storage buffers the varying output of the renewable source, allowing such sources to be considered baseline power. Among the disadvantages of a H2-Br2 flow battery are low energy density (less than that of lithium-ion batteries) and a complex balance of plant.  These drawbacks prevent the use of H2-Br2 flow batteries in transportation applications. The next stage in the development of hydrogen-bromine flow battery is hydrogen-bromate flow battery. [3]

text: Specifically for renewables, low-cost energy storage is required to enable

text: renewable energy

text: sources with varying and even intermittent output, such as

text: solar

text: and

text: wind power

text: . The storage buffers the varying output of the renewable source, allowing such sources to be considered baseline power. Among the disadvantages of a H2-Br2 flow battery are low energy density (less than that of lithium-ion batteries) and a complex balance of plant.  These drawbacks prevent the use of H2-Br2 flow batteries in transportation applications. The next stage in the development of hydrogen-bromine flow battery is hydrogen-bromate flow battery. [3]

text: The most common dispatchable power plant is natural gas. The only types of renewable energy which are dispatchable are biofuel, biomass, hydropower with a reservoir, ocean thermal energy conversion and concentrated solar power with thermal storage.

text: The most common dispatchable power plant is

text: natural gas

text: . The only types of renewable energy which are dispatchable are biofuel, biomass, hydropower with a reservoir, ocean thermal energy conversion and concentrated solar power with thermal storage.

text: Renewable advocates point out that while distributed solar and other energy efficiency measures do pose a challenge to electric utilities' existing business model, the benefits of distributed generation outweigh the costs, and those benefits are shared by all ratepayers. Grid benefits of private distributed solar investment include reduced need for centralizing power plants and reduced strain on the utility grid. They also point out that, as a cornerstone policy enabling the growth of rooftop solar, net metering creates a host of societal benefits for all ratepayers that are generally not accounted for by the utility analysis, including: public health benefits, employment and downstream economic effects, market price impacts, grid security benefits, and water savings.

text: The two main government agencies in charge of developing renewable energy resources are SEMARNAT and SENER. The Environment and Natural Resources Secretariat (SEMARNAT) is responsible for environmental policy and the preservation of renewable and non-renewable resources, while SENER defines the national energy policy. CONAE, the National Commission for Energy Savings, is responsible for promoting energy savings and energy efficiency. Finally, SEDESOL, the National Secretariat for Social Development, includes the promotion and use of renewable energy in some of their projects.

text: The oldest solar thermal power plant in the world is the 354 megawatt (MW) SEGS thermal power plant, in California. The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the California Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas, with a gross capacity of 377 MW. The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend, Arizona, about  southwest of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage.

text: The oldest

text: solar thermal power plant

text: in the world is the 354

text: megawatt

text: (MW)

text: SEGS thermal power plant

text: , in California. The

text: is a solar thermal power project in the California

text: Mojave Desert

text: , 40 miles (64 km) southwest of

text: Las Vegas

text: , with a gross capacity of 377 MW. The 280 MW

text: Solana Generating Station

text: is a

text: solar power

text: plant near

text: Gila Bend

text: Arizona

text: , about  southwest of

text: Phoenix

text: , completed in 2013. When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with

text: molten salt thermal energy storage

text: The purpose of an eco-industrial park is to connect a number of firms and organizations to work together to decrease their environmental impact while simultaneously improving their economic performance. The community of businesses accomplishes this goal through collaboration in managing environmental and resource issues, such as energy, water, and materials. The components for building an eco-industrial park include natural systems, more efficient use of energy, and more efficient material and water flows Industrial parks should be built to fit into their natural settings in order to reduce environmental impacts, which can be accomplished through plant design, landscaping, and choice of materials. For instance, there is an industrial park in Michigan built by Phoenix Designs that is made almost entirely from recycled materials. The landscaping of the building will include native trees, grasses, and flowers, and the landscaping design will also act as climate shelter for the facility. In choosing the materials for building an eco-industrial park, designers must consider the life-cycle analysis of each medium that goes into the building to assess their true impact on the environment and to ensure that they are using it from one plant to another, steam connections from firms to provide heating for homes in the area, and using renewable energy such as wind and solar power. In terms of material flows, the companies in an eco-industrial park may have common waste treatment facilities, a means for transporting by-products from one plant to another, or anchoring the park around resource recovery companies that are recruited to the location or started from scratch. To create more efficient water flows in industrial parks, the processed water from one plant can be reused by another plant and the parks infrastructure can include a way to collect and reuse storm water runoff.

text: Kick The Fossil Fuel Habit: 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World is a 2010 book by clean energy venture capitalist Tom Rand. The book is about making an energy transition from fossil fuels to clean technologies, by changing to 100% renewable energy. It includes detailed descriptions of the technologies required - solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy and more. Author Tom Rand says we will "need to deploy resources on a scale not seen since World War II, generate international co-operation, and develop rules to put a price on carbon."

text: Kick The Fossil Fuel Habit: 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World is a 2010 book by clean energy venture capitalist Tom Rand. The book is about making an energy transition from

text: fossil fuel

text: s to clean technologies, by changing to

text: 100% renewable energy

text: . It includes detailed descriptions of the technologies required -

text: solar energy

text: wind power

text: geothermal energy

text: and more. Author Tom Rand says we will "need to deploy resources on a scale not seen since World War II, generate international co-operation, and develop rules to put a price on carbon."

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: is resulting in significant

text: energy security

text: climate change mitigation

text: , and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.

text: IRELP’s partners include the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety; Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT);  Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP); National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL); La Fundación Centro de Educación a Distancia para el Desarrollo Económico y Tecnológico (CEDDET); York University Faculty of Environmental Studies Sustainable Energy Initiative (SEI);  Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM); Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE); Canadian GeoExchange Coalition (CGC); International Geothermal Association (IGA); International Hydropower Association (IHA); International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA).

text: IRELP’s partners include the

entity_name: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety

text: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety

text: ; Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT);

entity_name: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership

text: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership

text: (REEEP);

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: (NREL); La Fundación Centro de Educación a Distancia para el Desarrollo Económico y Tecnológico (CEDDET); York University Faculty of Environmental Studies Sustainable Energy Initiative (SEI);  Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM);

entity_name: Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency

text: Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency

text: (RCREEE); Canadian GeoExchange Coalition (CGC); International Geothermal Association (IGA);

text: International Hydropower Association

text: (IHA);

text: International Solar Energy Society

text: (ISES) and the

text: World Wind Energy Association

text: (WWEA).

text: In 2007, Iceland was the seventh most productive country in the world per capita (US$54,858), and the fifth most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity ($40,112). About 85 percent of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources. Utilization of abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power has made Iceland the world's largest electricity producer per capita. As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2016 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.Historically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides 40% of export earnings and employs 7% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon. Whaling in Iceland has been historically significant. Iceland still relies heavily on fishing, but its importance is diminishing from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 40% in 2006.

text: In 2007, Iceland was the

text: seventh most productive country in the world per capita

text: (US$54,858), and the fifth most productive by

entity_name: List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita

text: GDP

text: at

text: purchasing power parity

text: ($40,112). About 85 percent of total

text: primary energy

text: supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources. Utilization of abundant

text: hydroelectric

text: and

text: geothermal power

text: has made Iceland the world's largest electricity producer per capita. As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2016 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.Historically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides 40% of export earnings and employs 7% of the work force. The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and

text: ferrosilicon

text: Whaling in Iceland

text: has been historically significant. Iceland still relies heavily on fishing, but its importance is diminishing from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 40% in 2006.

text: Alternatives to fossil fuel power plants include nuclear power, solar power, geothermal power, wind power, tidal power, hydroelectric power (hydroelectricity), biomass fired power and other renewable energies (see non-carbon economy). Some of these are proven technologies on an industrial scale (i.e. nuclear, wind, tidal, hydroelectric and biomass fired power) others are still in prototype form.

text: Alternatives to fossil fuel power plants include

text: nuclear power

text: solar power

text: geothermal power

text: wind power

text: tidal power

text: , hydroelectric power (

text: hydroelectricity

text: biomass fired power

text: and other

text: renewable energies

text: (see

text: non-carbon economy

text: ). Some of these are proven technologies on an industrial scale (i.e. nuclear, wind, tidal, hydroelectric and biomass fired power) others are still in prototype form.

text: The Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 (GEGEA), takes a two-pronged approach to creating a renewable-energy economy. The first is to bring more renewable energy sources to the province and the second is the creation of more energy efficiency measures to help conserve energy. The bill would also appoint a Renewable Energy Facilitator to provide "one-window" assistance and support to project developers in order to facilitate project approvals. The approvals process for transmission projects would also be streamlined and for the first time in Ontario, the bill would enact standards for renewable energy projects. Homeowners would have access to incentives to develop small-scale renewables such as low- or no-interest loans to finance the capital cost of renewable energy generating facilities like solar panels. Solar panels are also manufactured in Ontario.

text: The Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 (GEGEA), takes a two-pronged approach to creating a

text: renewable-energy economy

text: . The first is to bring more

text: renewable energy sources

text: energy efficiency

text: measures to help

text: conserve energy

text: . The bill would also appoint a

text: Renewable Energy Facilitator

text: to provide "

text: one-window

text: " assistance and support to project developers in order to facilitate project approvals. The approvals process for transmission projects would also be

text: streamline

text: d and for the first time in Ontario, the bill would enact standards for renewable energy projects. Homeowners would have access to incentives to develop small-scale renewables such as low- or no-interest

text: loan

text: s to finance the capital cost of renewable energy generating facilities like solar panels. Solar panels are also manufactured in Ontario.

text: Small hydropower plants - the most rapidly developing areas of use of renewable energy in the country. Thus, in the period from 2007 to 2010 the Almaty region have introduced five small hydropower plants with a total installed capacity of 20 MW. One of the important areas of energy efficiency of Kazakhstan's economy is construction of hydroelectric power plants on small rivers operating without retaining dams.Hydropower accounts for approximately 13% percent of Kazakhstan's total generating capacity delivering around 7.78TWh from 15 large (450 MW)hydropower station with a total capacity of 2.248GW. Large hydropower plants comprise the Bukhtyrma (750MW, Shulbinsk (702MW)and Ust-Kamenogorsk (315MW)plants on the Irtysh river,the Kapshagai (364MW)plant on the Ili River,the Moinak (300MW)plant on the Charyn river and the Shardarinskaya (104MW)plant on the Syrdarya River. Small(1–10MW)and medium-scale(10–50MW)hydropower projects have become more popular because of their low cost,reliability and apparent environmental friendliness. There are seven small hydropower plants(<10MW),with a total installed capacity of 78MW and an estimated potential of 13TWh, spanning east and south Kazakhstan, Zhambyl and Almaty provinces. According to the experts, provided the smaller hydropower stations are installed about 8 billion kWh can produced per year and this is more than enough to meet the demand that is now satisfied through imports from Central Asia.In December 2011 the Moynak hydropower plant (300 MW) was put into operation within the realization of the State Program for Rapid Industrial-innovative Development. A number of the projects to build smaller hydropower plants are being implemented in southern Kazakhstan.

text: Small hydropower plants - the most rapidly developing areas of use of renewable energy in the country. Thus, in the period from 2007 to 2010 the

text: Almaty

text: region have introduced five small hydropower plants with a total installed capacity of 20 MW. One of the important areas of

text: energy efficiency

text: of Kazakhstan's economy is construction of

text: hydroelectric power plants

text: on small rivers operating without retaining dams.Hydropower accounts for approximately 13% percent of Kazakhstan's total generating capacity delivering around 7.78TWh from 15 large (450 MW)hydropower station with a total capacity of 2.248GW. Large hydropower plants comprise the Bukhtyrma (750MW, Shulbinsk (702MW)and Ust-Kamenogorsk (315MW)plants on the

text: Irtysh river

text: ,the Kapshagai (364MW)plant on the

text: Ili River

text: ,the Moinak (300MW)plant on the Charyn river and the Shardarinskaya (104MW)plant on the

text: Syrdarya

text: River. Small(1–10MW)and medium-scale(10–50MW)hydropower projects have become more popular because of their low cost,reliability and apparent environmental friendliness. There are seven small hydropower plants(<10MW),with a total installed capacity of 78MW and an estimated potential of 13TWh, spanning east and south Kazakhstan, Zhambyl and

text: Almaty

text: provinces. According to the experts, provided the smaller hydropower stations are installed about 8 billion kWh can produced per year and this is more than enough to meet the demand that is now satisfied through imports from

text: Central Asia

text: .In December 2011 the Moynak hydropower plant (300 MW) was put into operation within the realization of the State Program for Rapid Industrial-innovative Development. A number of the projects to build smaller hydropower plants are being implemented in southern Kazakhstan.

text: Oklahoma: Renewable energy goal established.  Oklahoma established a goal for electric utilities in the state to have 15% of the total installed generation capacity to be derived from renewable sources by 2015.  Eligible renewable resources include wind, solar, hydropower, hydrogen, and several others.

text: The easiest way to describe the function of a permutation perm is in the context of counter-plan theory.  A counter-plan functions to test the opportunity cost of a plan.  The negative proposes a counter-plan that is competitive with the affirmative's plan.  For example, if the Aff plan is to grant amnesty to all illegal immigrants within the US, a counter-plan could be to declare all illegal immigrants felons.  The neg would argue that their counter-plan, made impossible by the aff's plan, will garner more benefits than plan.  A perm is a way to test whether or not the counter-plan and plan are mutually exclusive.  An example of a perm would be this:  Aff plan is to send a mission to the moon.  counter-plan is to invest in renewable energy.  The Aff can run a perm, i.e., claim that sending a mission to the moon does not make it impossible to invest in renewable energy.  The perm demonstrates that the counter-plan is not an opportunity cost to plan, and therefore does not garner any benefits for neg.

text: The Power Sector Law No.9073, approved in 2004, gives permits to construct new hydropower plants.

text: Environmental organisations from south-eastern Europe criticised the process in December 2008 as they believed that the ECSEE contains insufficient safeguard mechanisms to ensure that the well-intentioned promotion of energy efficiency and renewable energy is not drowned out by the promotion of large and often environmentally harmful coal and hydropower plants. The Energy Community Ministerial Council decided to establish a task force in energy efficiency in 2007. The Energy Community Energy Efficiency Task Force has been operational since January 2008. It now operates under its fourth mandate (2015-2016). In 2009 the ministers also adopted the core EU energy efficiency acquis. In the area of renewable energy the discussion to adopt the EU renewable energy directive started already in 2008. The Ministerial Council established a renewable energy task force in 2009 and adopted  the Directive 2009/28/EC with binding renewable energy targets for 2020 in October 2012. In October 2015, the ministers decided to re-establish the renewable energy task force. The Energy Community Task Force on Environment has been operational since Spring 2011.

text: Environmental organisations from south-eastern Europe criticised the process in December 2008 as they believed that the ECSEE contains insufficient safeguard mechanisms to ensure that the well-intentioned promotion of energy efficiency and renewable energy is not drowned out by the promotion of large and often environmentally harmful coal and hydropower plants. The Energy Community Ministerial Council decided to establish a task force in energy efficiency in 2007. The Energy Community Energy Efficiency Task Force has been operational since January 2008. It now operates under its fourth mandate (2015-2016). In 2009 the ministers also adopted the core EU energy efficiency acquis. In the area of renewable energy the discussion to adopt the EU

text: renewable energy directive

text: started already in 2008. The Ministerial Council established a renewable energy task force in 2009 and adopted  the Directive 2009/28/EC with binding renewable energy targets for 2020 in October 2012. In October 2015, the ministers decided to re-establish the renewable energy task force. The Energy Community Task Force on Environment has been operational since Spring 2011.

text: While Bhutan has seen great successes with developing its large hydropower projects through technical and financial assistance from India, little or no private sector participation with other forms of renewable energy has been evident.  In part because of the Sustainable development goals, Bhutan has established a minimum goal of 20 megawatts of renewable energy product by 2025, through a mix of renewable energy technologies.  Bhutan's Department of Renewable Energy helped formulate and launch its Alternative Renewable Energy Policy in order to promote in Bhutan a mix of clean Renewable Energy (RE) technologies - solar, wind, bio-mass, geo-thermal, pico/micro/mini/small hydropower plants up to 25 MW in size and waste-to-energy technologies.

text: While Bhutan has seen great successes with developing its large hydropower projects through technical and financial assistance from India, little or no private sector participation with other forms of renewable energy has been evident.  In part because of the

text: Sustainable development goals

text: , Bhutan has established a minimum goal of 20 megawatts of renewable energy product by 2025, through a mix of renewable energy technologies.  Bhutan's Department of Renewable Energy helped formulate and launch its Alternative Renewable Energy Policy in order to promote in Bhutan a mix of clean Renewable Energy (RE) technologies - solar, wind, bio-mass, geo-thermal, pico/micro/mini/small hydropower plants up to 25 MW in size and waste-to-energy technologies.

text: The remuneration tariffs for renewables have been specified based on reference power plants for each individual technology. Feed-in tariffs are applicable for 20 to 25 years, depending on the technology. For solar PV, the time-span was reduced from 25 to 20 years in 2014. In view of the anticipated technological progress and the increasing degree of market maturity of renewables energy technologies (especially for solar PV), the feed-in tariffs are subjected to a gradual reduction twice a year. These reductions only apply to new production facilities that are put into operation.

text: Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).  The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.

text: Geothermal energy is

text: thermal energy

text: temperature

text: crust

text: originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from

text: radioactive decay

text: of minerals (80%).  The

text: geothermal gradient

text: heat

text: Large hydropower projects are prone to delays. The dams built in Ethiopia are no exception to the rule and all have been delayed by at least one year. A complex geology has been one of the reasons for the delays, leading to landslides and tunnel collapses. The Gibe II dam has been affected by such problems even after its completion, when a tunnel collapsed and put the hydropower plant out of service for several months.the grand Ethiopian renaissance dam was delayed as well, because of upgrading the power from 5250 watt to 6000 watt ,budget problems and dispute with government of Egypt.

text: While ARENA was created as part of the Clean Energy Future package together with the Clean Energy Finance Corporation, these are separate institutions. ARENA has consolidated various earlier renewable programs and research and development projects from the Australian Centre for Renewable Energy, the Australian Solar Institute and the former Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism.

text: While ARENA was created as part of the Clean Energy Future package together with the

text: Clean Energy Finance Corporation

text: , these are separate institutions. ARENA has consolidated various earlier renewable programs and research and development projects from the Australian Centre for Renewable Energy, the Australian Solar Institute and the former

entity_name: Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism

text: Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism

text: In 1987 the United Nation's World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), in its report Our Common Future suggested that development was acceptable, but it must be sustainable development that would meet the needs of the poor while not increasing environmental problems. Humanity’s demand on the planet has more than doubled over the past 45 years as a result of population growth and increasing individual consumption. In 1961 almost all countries in the world had more than enough capacity to meet their own demand; by 2005 the situation had changed radically with many countries able to meet their needs only by importing resources from other nations. A move toward sustainable living by increasing public awareness and adoption of recycling, and renewable energies emerged. The development of renewable sources of energy in the 1970s and '80s, primarily in wind turbines and photovoltaics and increased use of hydroelectricity, presented some of the first sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and nuclear energy generation, the first large-scale solar and wind power plants appearing during the 1980s and '90s. Also at this time many local and state governments in developed countries began to implement small-scale sustainability policies.

text: In 1987 the

text: United Nation's

text: World Commission on Environment and Development

text: (the Brundtland Commission), in its report Our Common Future suggested that development was acceptable, but it must be

text: sustainable development

text: that would meet the needs of the poor while not increasing environmental problems. Humanity’s demand on the planet has more than doubled over the past 45 years as a result of population growth and increasing individual consumption. In 1961 almost all countries in the world had more than enough capacity to meet their own demand; by 2005 the situation had changed radically with many countries able to meet their needs only by importing resources from other nations. A move toward

text: sustainable living

text: by increasing public awareness and adoption of

text: recycling

text: , and

text: renewable energies

text: emerged. The development of renewable sources of energy in the 1970s and '80s, primarily in

text: wind turbines

text: and

text: photovoltaics

text: and increased use of

text: hydroelectricity

text: , presented some of the first sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and

text: nuclear energy

text: generation, the first large-scale solar and wind power plants appearing during the 1980s and '90s. Also at this time many local and state governments in developed countries began to implement small-scale sustainability policies.

text: The value of energy-sharing is about sharing energy and resources with vulnerable people and future generations, as well as seeking a way to cooperate with other regions that have an advantage in wind power or other natural resources.

text: The water engine is a positive-displacement engine, often closely resembling a steam engine, with similar pistons and valves, that is driven by water pressure. The supply of water was derived from a natural head of water, the water mains, or a specialised high-pressure water supply such as that provided by the London Hydraulic Power Company. Water mains in the 19th century often operated at pressures of 30 - 40 psi, while hydraulic power companies supplied higher pressure water at anything up to 800 psi.

text: The water engine is a positive-displacement engine, often closely resembling a steam engine, with similar pistons and valves, that is driven by water pressure. The supply of water was derived from a natural head of water, the water mains, or a specialised high-pressure water supply such as that provided by the

text: London Hydraulic Power Company

text: . Water mains in the 19th century often operated at pressures of 30 - 40

text: psi

text: , while hydraulic power companies supplied higher pressure water at anything up to 800 psi.

text: By mid-2011, the installed capacity of wind power in the United Kingdom was over 5.7 gigawatts and the UK was ranked as the world's eighth largest producer of wind power. Wind power is expected to continue growing in the UK for the foreseeable future, RenewableUK estimates that more than 2 GW of capacity will be deployed per year for the next five years. Within the UK, wind power is the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass.

text: By mid-2011, the installed capacity of

text: wind power in the United Kingdom

text: was over 5.7

text: gigawatt

text: s and the UK was ranked as the world's eighth largest producer of

text: wind power

text: . Wind power is expected to continue growing in the UK for the foreseeable future,

text: RenewableUK

text: estimates that more than 2 GW of capacity will be deployed per year for the next five years. Within the UK, wind power is the second largest source of renewable energy after

text: biomass

text: Renewable energy is energy like wind power, solar power, hydropower and other sources of energy that will not run out.  Renewable energy is a popular source of energy for many, many reasons.  One the biggest reasons is that renewable energy greatly helps decrease the environmental impact on the plant from humans.  Using renewable, specifically wind and solar energy, greatly decreases CO2 emissions, which is a large argument against the burning of fossil fuels.  The transportation industry is a large factor in CO2 emissions on the planet.  In 2014, the United States produced 6,870 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents, much of this from transportation.  One large factor that will help decrease the impact on the environment is the implementation of hybrid or electric cars.  The increased use of electric or hybrid cars will greatly help decrease the impact of CO2 emissions on the environment.

text: The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth, all the way down to Earth's core –  down. At the core, temperatures may reach over 9,000 °F (5,000 °C). Heat conducts from the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to .

text: In 1979, Denmark had granted home rule to Greenland, and in 2008, Greenlanders voted in favour of the Self-Government Act, which transferred more power from the Danish royal government to the local Greenlandic government. Under the new structure, in effect since 21 June 2009, Greenland can gradually assume responsibility for policing, judicial system, company law, accounting, and auditing; mineral resource activities; aviation; law of legal capacity, family law and succession law; aliens and border controls; the working environment; and financial regulation and supervision, while the Danish government retains control of foreign affairs and defence. It also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK 3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources. The capital, Nuuk, held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games. Greenland leads the world in renewable energy. 70% of its energy is from renewable sources, particularly hydropower.

text: In 1979, Denmark had granted

text: home rule

text: to Greenland, and in 2008, Greenlanders voted in favour of the Self-Government Act, which transferred more power from the

text: Danish royal government

text: to the local

text: Greenlandic

text: government. Under the new structure, in effect since 21 June 2009, Greenland can gradually assume responsibility for policing, judicial system, company law, accounting, and auditing; mineral resource activities; aviation; law of legal capacity, family law and succession law; aliens and border controls; the working environment; and

text: financial regulation

text: and supervision, while the Danish government retains control of foreign affairs and defence. It also retains control of monetary policy, providing an initial annual subsidy of

text: DKK

text: 3.4 billion, which is planned to diminish gradually over time. Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources. The capital,

text: Nuuk

text: , held the

text: 2016 Arctic Winter Games

text: . Greenland leads the world in

text: renewable energy

text: . 70% of its energy is from renewable sources, particularly hydropower.

text: His other acting credits include roles in Ambush Bay (1966), In the Heat of the Night (1967), Counterpoint (1968), Von Richthofen and Brown (1971), Tomorrow (1972), The Exorcist (1973), Man on a Swing (1974) and Gardens of Stone (1987).

text: His other acting credits include roles in

text: Ambush Bay

text: In the Heat of the Night

text: Counterpoint

text: Von Richthofen and Brown

text: Tomorrow

text: The Exorcist

text: Man on a Swing

text: (1974) and

text: Gardens of Stone

text: He has a 15 year old daughter Jennifer Hurtado Janina Obregon and 19 year old son David Hurtado Johan Obregon.

text: On April 20, 2007, the Environment and Resources Committee of the National People's Congress and the National Development and Reform Commission convened a conference on the occasion of the first anniversary of the Renewable Energy Law. There were approximately 250 people who attended the conference from the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Construction, the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ), the National Bureau of Forestry, the National Power Network Company, science and technology institutes, oil companies, large energy investment companies, companies manufacturing renewable energy equipment, etc. Other conferences  included the 3rd Annual China Power & Alternative Energy Summit, held from May 16–20, 2007, at the Swissotel, Beijing; the 2nd China Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Products and Technology Exhibition, held from June 1–3, 2007, in Beijing at the National Agricultural Exhibition Hall; and the 2007 China International Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Engineering Exhibition, held at the Beijing International Exhibition Center from June 25–29, 2007. The sponsors of the exhibition included the Asia Renewable Energy Association, the China Energy Enterprises Management Association and the China Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation Enterprise Association.

text: On April 20, 2007, the Environment and Resources Committee of the

text: National People's Congress

text: and the

text: National Development and Reform Commission

text: convened a conference on the occasion of the first anniversary of the Renewable Energy Law. There were approximately 250 people who attended the conference from the

text: Ministry of Finance

text: , the

entity_name: Ministry of Science and Technology of the People's Republic of China

text: Ministry of Science and Technology

text: , the

text: Ministry of Agriculture

text: , the

entity_name: Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development

text: Ministry of Construction

text: , the

entity_name: General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine

text: General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine

text: (AQSIQ), the National Bureau of Forestry, the National Power Network Company, science and technology institutes, oil companies, large energy investment companies, companies manufacturing renewable energy equipment, etc. Other conferences  included the 3rd Annual China Power & Alternative Energy Summit, held from May 16–20, 2007, at the Swissotel, Beijing; the 2nd China Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Products and Technology Exhibition, held from June 1–3, 2007, in Beijing at the National Agricultural Exhibition Hall; and the 2007 China International Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Engineering Exhibition, held at the Beijing International Exhibition Center from June 25–29, 2007. The sponsors of the exhibition included the

text: Asia Renewable Energy Association

text: , the

text: China Energy Enterprises Management Association

text: and the

text: China Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation Enterprise Association

text: President Bush also declared Washington, D.C., as a disaster area two days after Isabel passed through the area. The United States Department of Agriculture approved a request for an emergency food stamp program for two weeks for the city to ensure those who lost food as a result of the hurricane would not go hungry. By eight days after the hurricane, the Department of Employment Services created disaster unemployment benefits for those who lost their work as a direct result of Isabel. By 11 days after Isabel, the government approved $5.21 million in disaster assistance (2003 USD, $

text: President Bush also declared Washington, D.C., as a disaster area two days after Isabel passed through the area. The United States Department of Agriculture approved a request for an emergency

entity_name: Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program

text: food stamp

text: program for two weeks for the city to ensure those who lost food as a result of the hurricane would not go hungry. By eight days after the hurricane, the

text: Department of Employment Services

text: created disaster unemployment benefits for those who lost their work as a direct result of Isabel. By 11 days after Isabel, the government approved $5.21 million in disaster assistance (2003 USD, $

text: After Danmaje's death in 1870 his successor, Haruna Karami, continued the expansionist policy with the strong backing of his able lieutenant Usman Danyaya, the then barden of Ningi. Haruna died in 1886 and Abubakar Gajigi was appointed the leader. Abubakar maintained Ningi's struggle to survive as a state of its own without losing any territory to the neighboring emirates.

text: The 3 qualifying rounds took place between 8 and 15 April 2015 at the Ponds Forge International Sports Centre in Sheffield, England. All matches were best of 19 frames.

text: The 3 qualifying rounds took place between 8 and 15 April 2015 at the

text: Ponds Forge International Sports Centre

text: in

text: Sheffield

text: , England. All matches were best of 19 frames.

text: Orkney has significant wind and marine energy resources, and renewable energy has recently come into prominence. Although Orkney is connected to the mainland, it generates over 100% of its net power from renewables. This comes mainly from wind turbines situated right across Orkney.

text: Orkney has significant wind and marine energy resources, and

text: renewable energy

text: has recently come into prominence. Although Orkney is connected to the mainland, it generates over 100% of its net power from renewables. This comes mainly from wind turbines situated right across Orkney.

text: The common platform shared by strands of Protestantism was quite unique, although their reasoning was quite different, mainstream Anglicans opposed the Maynooth Grant since it undermined the Established Church whereas non-conformists opposed it since they were opposed to all state religious establishments and Evangelicals opposed the bill since it undermined attempts to convert Irish Catholics to the Protestant Faith.The Maynooth Bill was introduced by Sir Robert Peel in April 1845.

text: The common platform shared by strands of Protestantism was quite unique, although their reasoning was quite different, mainstream Anglicans opposed the Maynooth Grant since it undermined the Established Church whereas non-conformists opposed it since they were opposed to all state religious establishments and Evangelicals opposed the bill since it undermined attempts to convert Irish Catholics to the Protestant Faith.The Maynooth Bill was introduced by Sir

text: Robert Peel

text: in April 1845.

text: Countries can tap into hidden potential and make their transition to low carbon societies truly sustainable by actively engaging both women and men in all segments of society. Women often play a central role in sectors where emissions can be substantially reduced in tandem with development benefits. This includes efficient household energy use, supporting activities that generate income, and shaping consumption patterns towards low emission products. In addition, identifying women as active members of society and promoting their participation in new/nontraditional climate related job opportunities, for example as renewable energy technicians and entrepreneurs, will contribute to poverty reduction and economic growth.

text: Adobe AIR supports ActionScript, in addition to some extended contents, such as the Stage3D engine Adobe has developed. The number of APIs (Application programming interfaces) available to ActionScript 3.0 has also risen dramatically.

text: Adobe AIR

text: supports ActionScript, in addition to some extended contents, such as the Stage3D engine Adobe has developed. The number of

text: API

text: s (Application programming interfaces) available to ActionScript 3.0 has also risen dramatically.

text: - Men Basketball Team

text: - Men Basketball Team

text: Preservation period of Records

text: Preservation period of Records

text: Free will is something many mental health experts dismiss in favor of determinism. According to Rychlak, the modern psychologist dismisses the idea of free will, claiming it as being something disproven by science. Rychlak points out that when dealing with legal matters, free will is abundant and in fact, the Supreme Court maintained their belief on the matter  - “men usually intend to do what they do”. Rychlak claimed that the determinism that psychology holds on to may have had a negative impact on the law. In a courtroom, a lawyer could look at an expert witness for their opinion on whether a person behaved on their own free will or if there were outside influences. This opinion is tainted by the expert witness’ denial of the existence of free will.

text: Free will

text: is something many mental health experts dismiss in favor of

text: determinism

text: . According to Rychlak, the modern psychologist dismisses the idea of

text: free will

text: , claiming it as being something disproven by science. Rychlak points out that when dealing with legal matters, free will is abundant and in fact, the Supreme Court maintained their belief on the matter  - “men usually intend to do what they do”. Rychlak claimed that the determinism that psychology holds on to may have had a negative impact on the law. In a courtroom, a lawyer could look at an expert witness for their opinion on whether a person behaved on their own free will or if there were outside influences. This opinion is tainted by the expert witness’ denial of the existence of free will.

text: | class="note" | | class="note" | |- class="vcard"| class="fn org" | Waterslack| class="adr" |

text: | class="note" | | class="note" | |- class="vcard"| class="fn org" |

text: Waterslack

text: | class="adr" |

text: While playing at the Park Central, Hayton was heard by Paul Whiteman and immediately engaged by him in April 1928 as second pianist, playing piano and celeste as well as acting as a part-time arranger. Whilst with the Paul Whiteman orchestra, he played with musicians such as Frankie Trumbauer, Bix Beiderbecke, Red Nichols and Joe Venuti. He also became friendly with Bing Crosby, then a member of The Rhythm Boys. In May 1930, Whiteman had to thin down his orchestra as theatre audiences fell due to the economic problems of the day and because of the impact of radio. Hayton and Eddie Lang were amongst the ten members of the band released. Hayton then joined the Charles Previn Orchestra which had a weekly assignment on radio in the Camel Pleasure Hour.

text: While playing at the Park Central, Hayton was heard by

text: Paul Whiteman

text: and immediately engaged by him in April 1928 as second pianist, playing piano and celeste as well as acting as a part-time arranger. Whilst with the Paul Whiteman orchestra, he played with musicians such as

text: Frankie Trumbauer

text: Bix Beiderbecke

text: Red Nichols

text: and

text: Joe Venuti

text: . He also became friendly with

text: Bing Crosby

text: , then a member of

text: The Rhythm Boys

text: . In May 1930, Whiteman had to thin down his orchestra as theatre audiences fell due to the economic problems of the day and because of the impact of radio. Hayton and

text: Eddie Lang

text: were amongst the ten members of the band released. Hayton then joined the

text: Charles Previn

text: Orchestra which had a weekly assignment on radio in the Camel Pleasure Hour.

text: In some dialects of English there is a distinction between two vowel heights of reduced vowels: in addition to schwa, there is a distinct near-close central unrounded vowel  (or equivalently ). In the British phonetic tradition, the latter vowel is represented with the symbol , and in the American tradition . An example of a minimal pair contrasting these two reduced vowels is Rosa’s vs. roses: the a in Rosa's is a schwa, while the e in roses (for speakers who make the distinction) is the near-close vowel. See weak vowel merger.

text: In some dialects of English there is a distinction between two

text: vowel height

text: s of reduced vowels: in addition to schwa, there is a distinct

text: near-close central unrounded vowel

text: (or equivalently ). In the British phonetic tradition, the latter vowel is represented with the symbol , and in the American tradition . An example of a

text: minimal pair

text: contrasting these two reduced vowels is Rosa’s vs. roses: the a in Rosa's is a schwa, while the e in roses (for speakers who make the distinction) is the near-close vowel. See

entity_name: Phonological history of English high front vowels

text: weak vowel merger

text: | class="note" | | class="note" | |- class="vcard"| class="fn org" | Nether Edge| class="adr" |

text: Nether Edge

text: | class="adr" |

text: Attaining his first cap in 1996, Blain became Scotland's youngest-capped cricketer since 1890. He played during the 1996 European Championship taking seven wickets at 9.85. Blain was initially signed as a footballer to Falkirk but decided to switch to cricket, signing for Northamptonshire, having not made an impact as a footballer.

text: Attaining his first

text: cap

text: in 1996, Blain became Scotland's youngest-capped cricketer since 1890. He played during the 1996

text: European Championship

text: taking seven wickets at 9.85. Blain was initially signed as a

text: footballer

text: to

text: Falkirk

text: but decided to switch to cricket, signing for

text: Northamptonshire

text: , having not made an impact as a footballer.

text: Anaerobic digestion, geothermal power, wind power, small-scale hydropower, solar energy, biomass power, tidal power, wave power, and some forms of nuclear power (ones which are able to "burn" nuclear waste through a process known as nuclear transmutation, such as an Integral Fast Reactor, and therefore belong in the "Green Energy" category). Some definitions may also include power derived from the incineration of waste.

text: Anaerobic digestion

text: geothermal power

text: wind power

text: , small-scale

text: hydropower

text: solar energy

text: biomass power

text: tidal power

text: wave power

text: , and some forms of

text: nuclear power

text: (ones which are able to "burn" nuclear waste through a process known as

text: nuclear transmutation

text: , such as an

text: Integral Fast Reactor

text: , and therefore belong in the "Green Energy" category). Some definitions may also include power derived from the

text: incineration

text: of waste.

text: The commission was established in 2007.  A judge of the Appellate Division is selected to the chairman of the commission. It is managed by a chairman and 10 member governing body. There has been allegations of cheating in the examinations conducted by the commission.

text: Solar derivatives have been studied and in some cases implemented in small and medium scale plants around the world. In Margarita de Savoya, Italy there is a 50-60 m/day MSF plant with a salinity gradient solar pond providing its thermal energy and storage capacity. In El Paso, Texas there is a similar project in operation that produces 19 m/day. In Kuwait a MSF facility has been built using parabolic trough collectors to provide the necessary solar thermal energy to produce 100 m of fresh water a day. And in Northern China there is an experimental, automatic, unmanned operation that uses 80 m of vacuum tube solar collectors coupled with a 1 kW wind turbine (to drive several small pumps) to produce 0.8 m/day.

text: The historical maritime station of Ponte dei Mille is today a technologically advanced cruise terminal, with facilities designed after the world's most modern airports, in order to ensure fast embarking and disembarking of latest generation ships carrying thousand passengers.

text: The US rating agency Standard & Poors, in a 2006 investigation of standard of living in Europe, ranked Navarre, whose primary source of renewable energy was wind power, uppermost among the 17 autonomous regions of Spain. At that time Navarre sustained approximately 70 percent of its electricity needs from renewable energy sources, wind farms being used most extensively, and had a 900-megawatt capacity of installed wind power.

text: The US rating agency

text: Standard & Poors

text: , in a 2006 investigation of standard of living in Europe, ranked Navarre, whose primary source of renewable energy was wind power, uppermost among the 17 autonomous regions of Spain. At that time Navarre sustained approximately 70 percent of its electricity needs from renewable energy sources, wind farms being used most extensively, and had a 900-megawatt capacity of installed wind power.

text: Yevgeni Aleksandrovich Gurulyov (; born 25 May 1994) is a Russian football player.

text: Yevgeni Aleksandrovich Gurulyov (; born 25 May 1994) is a

text: Russia

text: n

text: football

text: player.

text: Maglie is served by the Ferrovie Sud Est Zollino-Gagliano and Maglie-Otranto lines.

text: Maglie is served by the

text: Ferrovie Sud Est

text: Zollino

text: Gagliano

text: and Maglie-

text: Otranto

text: lines.

text: •VEMULAPALLE

text: •VEMULAPALLE

text: The School of Arts is located on Macrossan Street, the main street of Ravenswood. It is on the edge of the town's commercial centre and close to the Imperial Hotel. Ravenswood is located in a mining landscape which consists of disturbed ground with scattered ruins and mullock heaps, set amongst distinctive chinkee apples and rubber vines.

text: The School of Arts is located on Macrossan Street, the main street of Ravenswood. It is on the edge of the town's commercial centre and close to the

text: Imperial Hotel

text: . Ravenswood is located in a mining landscape which consists of disturbed ground with scattered ruins and mullock heaps, set amongst distinctive

text: chinkee apples

text: and rubber vines.

text: The logo represents the first vibrational mode of a thin L-shaped membrane, clamped at the edges, and governed by the wave equation.

text: The logo represents the first vibrational mode of a thin L-shaped membrane, clamped at the edges, and governed by the

text: wave equation

text: Norrköping Central Station () is a railway station located at Norrköping in  Norrköping Municipality, Sweden. It is located on the Southern Main Line, which runs from Katrineholm to Malmö.

text: Norrköping Central Station () is a

text: railway station

text: located at

text: Norrköping

text: in

text: Norrköping Municipality

text: Sweden

text: . It is located on the

text: Southern Main Line

text: , which runs from

text: Katrineholm

text: to

text: Malmö

text: Stew Mathews, Tensing's attorney, said that Tensing was being dragged by the car, and that the officer fired in self-defense while fearing for his life.  Mathews said that video from Lindenschmidt's bodycam helped substantiate that claim.

text: In 1388, Justinger copied Jakob Twinger von Königshofen’s treatise Computus Novus Chirometralis. Justinger’s handwriting furthermore appears in a number of chancellery documents of the city of Bern, such as the Udelbuch from 1390, the Satzungenbuch (German: ‘Statutes Book’) from 1398, the Freiheitenbuch (German: ‘Book of Liberties’) from 1431 as well as a Habsburg urbarium written after 1415. In 1420, Justinger, who was appointed chronicler of the city of Bern around 1400, was entrusted by the Bernese council to chronicle the history of his hometown. This chronicle, which Justinger completed in 1430, is known under the name of Bernese Chronicle (German: Chronik der Stadt Bern).

text: In 1388, Justinger copied

text: Jakob Twinger von Königshofen

text: ’s treatise

text: Computus Novus Chirometralis

text: . Justinger’s handwriting furthermore appears in a number of chancellery documents of the city of Bern, such as the Udelbuch from 1390, the Satzungenbuch (German: ‘Statutes Book’) from 1398, the Freiheitenbuch (German: ‘Book of Liberties’) from 1431 as well as a

text: Habsburg

text: urbarium

text: written after 1415. In 1420, Justinger, who was appointed chronicler of the city of Bern around 1400, was entrusted by the Bernese council to chronicle the history of his hometown. This chronicle, which Justinger completed in 1430, is known under the name of

text: Bernese Chronicle

text: (German: Chronik der Stadt Bern).

text: The main duty of a first assistant engineer has aboard a ship is to schedule and direct maintenance inside the engine room. As the chief may not be able to be in the engine room every day, due to paperwork or meetings, it is the first assistant’s responsibility to report on the plant conditions and needs. A first assistant has to be familiar with their ships systems, repair schedules, and test results obtained from oil or water samples.

text: The Concession Law No.9663, approved in 2006, attracts private investments in hydropower plants.

text: Footscray traded him to West Coast for Luke Trew at the end of the 1996 AFL season and he was the regular ruckman for the Eagles in 1997. However he suffered back problems in 1998 and played most of his football for Peel Thunder in the West Australian Football League (WAFL).  During his time at West Coast he was involved in a drugs controversy when he tested positive for a banned substances but it turned out to be cough medicine.

text: Footscray traded him to West Coast for Luke Trew at the end of the

text: 1996 AFL season

text: and he was the regular ruckman for the Eagles in 1997. However he suffered back problems in 1998 and played most of his football for

text: Peel Thunder

text: in the

text: West Australian Football League

text: (WAFL).  During his time at West Coast he was involved in a drugs controversy when he tested positive for a banned substances but it turned out to be

text: cough medicine

text: The two processors communicated through four pairs of FIFO buffers in the Tube ULA. Console input/output, error messages, data transfers and system calls each had their own pair of buffers, one for each direction.  The queue capacity varied between 1 and 24 bytes, depending on the dedicated buffer function.  Each buffer had a control register and status register to monitor its state and configure the raising of interrupts.

text: The two processors communicated through four pairs of

text: FIFO

text: buffers in the Tube ULA.

text: Console

text: input/output,

text: error message

text: s, data transfers and

text: system call

text: s each had their own pair of buffers, one for each direction.  The queue capacity varied between 1 and 24 bytes, depending on the dedicated buffer function.  Each buffer had a control register and status register to monitor its state and configure the raising of

text: interrupt

text: s.

text: India census, Papampeta had a population of 9,308. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Papampeta has an average literacy rate of 60%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 68%, and female literacy is 50%. In Papampeta, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.

text: India

text: census

text: , Papampeta had a population of 9,308. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Papampeta has an average literacy rate of 60%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 68%, and female literacy is 50%. In Papampeta, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.

text: The high upfront capital cost of many resources, particularly renewable resources, is one of the most critical barriers to the development of an energy market. Other challenges include the lack of food security and limited water resources, for these factors are necessary for life and therefore take priority over energy initiation.

text: indexes task, and

text: indexes task, and

text: Pilarryggen () is a rock ridge at the west side of Portalen Pass in the Borg Massif of Queen Maud Land. Mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (NBSAE) (1949–52) and named Pilarryggen (the pillar ridge).

text: Pilarryggen () is a rock ridge at the west side of

text: Portalen Pass

text: in the

text: Borg Massif

text: of

text: Queen Maud Land

text: . Mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by

text: Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition

text: (NBSAE) (1949–52) and named Pilarryggen (the pillar ridge).

text: Sıla Gençoğlu is a Turkish musician. She usually goes by her first name, 'Sıla'.

text: Sıla Gençoğlu is a

text: Turkish

text: musician

text: . She usually goes by her first name, 'Sıla'.

text: By 1930 the original mine was worked out and the company went into liquidation. A new coal seam was found 3.5 km to the south; a new company, "Wilton Collieries Ltd", was formed to operate this line, which was known as the Waipa Railway and Collieries Limited private line, and from October 1944 as the Wilton Collieries Limited private line. The railway line was sold to the new company for £10,000 in November 1930 and extended by about 2.2 km. The company purchased two ex-NZR tank locomotives, W 356 and W 316 in 1934 and 1933 to run the line, W 356 being purchased primarily to replace the former Waipa Railway & Collieries N 1 which had been lost in the Windy Creek runaway and derailment in 1933. Both of the W class locomotives were noted as being beyond repair by 1935.

text: By 1930 the original mine was worked out and the company went into liquidation. A new coal seam was found 3.5 km to the south; a new company, "Wilton Collieries Ltd", was formed to operate this line, which was known as the Waipa Railway and Collieries Limited private line, and from October 1944 as the Wilton Collieries Limited private line. The railway line was sold to the new company for £10,000 in November 1930 and extended by about 2.2 km. The company purchased two ex-NZR tank locomotives,

text: W

text: 356 and W 316 in 1934 and 1933 to run the line, W 356 being purchased primarily to replace the former Waipa Railway & Collieries N 1 which had been lost in the Windy Creek runaway and derailment in 1933. Both of the W class locomotives were noted as being beyond repair by 1935.

text: In 2003, she was appointed to the position of managing director of the Illinois Film Office by Rod Blagojevich. Many people were skeptical of this decision, because Sexton did not have a strong background in the film business. Also, her ex-husband was a generous contributor to Blagojevich, donating $260,000 to his 2002 campaign. He recommended Sexton to Blagojevich.

text: In 2003, she was appointed to the position of managing director of the Illinois Film Office by

text: Rod Blagojevich

text: . Many people were skeptical of this decision, because Sexton did not have a strong background in the film business. Also, her ex-husband was a generous contributor to Blagojevich, donating $260,000 to his 2002 campaign. He recommended Sexton to Blagojevich.

text: Wyoming's geography of high-altitude prairies with broad ridges makes the state an ideal site for the development of wind resources.  Other factors that positively affect Wyoming's wind power development potential include transmission capabilities, the high energy needs of nearby population centers, high public support of wind power development in the state (97% support), and the historical importance of energy sectors to the state's economy.  Disadvantages to large-scale wind power production include competition from fossil fuels industry, and taxation.

text: Wyoming's geography of high-altitude

text: prairie

text: s with broad ridges makes the state an ideal site for the development of wind resources.  Other factors that positively affect Wyoming's wind power development potential include transmission capabilities, the high energy needs of nearby population centers, high public support of wind power development in the state (97% support), and the historical importance of energy sectors to the state's economy.  Disadvantages to large-scale wind power production include competition from fossil fuels industry, and taxation.

text: Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density, and turbine characteristics (among other factors). If wind speed is too low (less than about 2.5 m/s) then the wind turbines will not be able to make electricity, and if it is too high (more than about 25 m/s) the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage.  When this happens other power sources must have the capacity to meet demand. Three reports on the wind variability in the United Kingdom issued in 2009, generally agree that variability of the wind does not make the grid unmanageable; and the additional costs, which are modest, can be quantified. For wind power market penetration of up to 20% studies in the UK show a cost of £3-5/MWh. In the United Kingdom, demand for electricity is higher in winter than in summer, and so are wind speeds.

text: In 2007, Giorgetti was Junior European Champion in 200 m breaststroke and won the silver medal in 100 m of the same stroke behind Dániel Gyurta. He also represented Italy at the 2007 World Aquatics Championships swimming 100 m breaststroke.

text: In 2007, Giorgetti was

text: Junior European Champion

text: in 200 m breaststroke and won the silver medal in 100 m of the same stroke behind

text: Dániel Gyurta

text: . He also represented Italy at the

text: 2007 World Aquatics Championships

text: swimming

entity_name: Swimming at the 2007 World Aquatics Championships – Men's 100 metre breaststroke

text: 100 m breaststroke

text: Hammel worked in several occupations before he settled on writing and publishing.  He has been a stringer and contributing editor to Leatherneck Magazine.  He owned and operated a publishing business under the names Pacifica Press and Pacifica Military History.

text: Hammel worked in several occupations before he settled on writing and publishing.  He has been a

text: stringer

text: and contributing editor to

text: Leatherneck Magazine

text: .  He owned and operated a

text: publishing

text: business under the names Pacifica Press and Pacifica Military History.

text: 2000: Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature

text: 2000: Fellow of the

text: Royal Society of Literature

text: Ursicollum is a fungal genus in the family Cryphonectriaceae. A monotypic genus, Ursicollum contains the single species Ursicollum fallax.

text: Ursicollum is a fungal

text: genus

text: in the family

text: Cryphonectriaceae

text: . A

text: monotypic

text: genus, Ursicollum contains the single species Ursicollum fallax.

text: Renewable energy technologies encompass a broad, diverse array of technologies, including solar photovoltaics, solar thermal power plants and heating/cooling systems, wind farms, hydroelectricity, geothermal power plants, and ocean power systems and the use of biomass.

text: Renewable energy technologies encompass a broad, diverse array of technologies, including

text: solar photovoltaics

text: solar thermal power

text: plants and heating/cooling systems,

text: wind farm

text: s,

text: hydroelectricity

text: geothermal power

text: plants, and

text: ocean power systems

text: and the use of

text: biomass

text: A transmission line is required to bring the generated power to (often remote) markets. For an off-shore station this may require a submarine cable. Construction of a new high-voltage line may be too costly for the wind resource alone, but wind sites may take advantage of lines installed for conventionally fueled generation.

text: Shepetivka is an important railway junction with five intersecting transit routes. It is located 100 km away from Khmelnytskyi, the oblast's capital. There are 5 supermarkets in the town: "Vopak", "Nash Kraj", "Econom", "Alfa Plus", "Lotok".

text: Shepetivka is an important

text: railway

text: junction with five intersecting transit routes. It is located 100 km away from

text: Khmelnytskyi

text: , the oblast's capital. There are 5 supermarkets in the town: "Vopak", "Nash Kraj", "Econom", "Alfa Plus", "Lotok".

text: The University of Holy Cross is a liberal arts college in New Orleans, Louisiana.

text: The University of Holy Cross is a

text: liberal arts college

text: in

text: New Orleans, Louisiana

text: Grumbla (, meaning the cromlech) is a hamlet in the parish of Sancreed, Cornwall, England, UK.

text: Grumbla (, meaning the

text: cromlech

text: ) is a

text: hamlet

text: in the parish of

text: Sancreed

text: Cornwall

text: , England, UK.

text: Theodore D. "Tito" Maddox (born June 7, 1981) is an American former  professional basketball player who played in the NBA.Maddox was the center of a major illegal benefits scandal while a student-athlete at Fresno State, creating NCAA rules violations.He was drafted in the second round of the NBA draft but played only one season in the NBA.

text: Theodore D. "Tito" Maddox (born June 7, 1981) is an American former  professional

text: basketball

text: player who played in the

text: NBA

text: .Maddox was the center of a major illegal benefits scandal while a student-athlete at Fresno State, creating NCAA rules violations.He was drafted in the second round of the NBA draft but played only one season in the NBA.

text: Mapia is an extinct Micronesian language of Indonesia. It was spoken on Mapia Atoll, 180 km north of the coast of West Papua. The population emigrated from Micronesia early in the 20th century, and then assimilated linguistically; the only speaker as of 2000 was an elderly man who had remained behind on the island. The rest of the population of Mapia are now Biak-speaking immigrants.

text: Mapia is an extinct

text: Micronesian language

text: of

text: Indonesia

text: . It was spoken on

text: Mapia Atoll

text: , 180 km north of the coast of

text: West Papua

text: . The population emigrated from

text: Micronesia

text: early in the 20th century, and then assimilated linguistically; the only speaker as of 2000 was an elderly man who had remained behind on the island. The rest of the population of Mapia are now

text: Biak

text: -speaking immigrants.

text: Low Temperature Geothermal refers to the use of the outer crust of the earth as a Thermal Battery to facilitate Renewable thermal energy for heating and cooling buildings, and other refrigeration and industrial uses.  In this form of Geothermal, a Geothermal Heat Pump and Ground-coupled heat exchanger are used together to move heat energy into the earth (for cooling) and out of the earth (for heating) on a varying seasonal basis.  Low temperature Geothermal (generally referred to as "GHP") is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements.  Thus Low Temperature Geothermal/GHP is becoming an increasing national priority with multiple tax credit support and focus as part of the ongoing movement toward Net Zero Energy.  New York City has even just passed a law to require GHP anytime is shown to be economical with 20 year financing including the Socialized Cost of Carbon.

text: Low Temperature Geothermal refers to the use of the outer crust of the earth as a

text: Thermal Battery

text: to facilitate

text: Renewable thermal energy

text: for heating and cooling buildings, and other refrigeration and industrial uses.  In this form of Geothermal, a

text: Geothermal Heat Pump

text: and

text: Ground-coupled heat exchanger

text: are used together to move heat energy into the earth (for cooling) and out of the earth (for heating) on a varying seasonal basis.  Low temperature Geothermal (generally referred to as "GHP") is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements.  Thus Low Temperature Geothermal/GHP is becoming an increasing national priority with multiple tax credit support and focus as part of the ongoing movement toward Net Zero Energy.  New York City has even just passed a law to require GHP anytime is shown to be economical with 20 year financing including the Socialized Cost of Carbon.

text: The contract to build her was awarded to New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden, New Jersey on 3 March 1959 and her keel was laid down on 9 September 1960.  She was launched on 18 August 1962 sponsored by Mrs. Henry M. Jackson, and commissioned on 16 December 1964, with Commander John G. Williams, Jr. in command.

text: The contract to build her was awarded to

text: New York Shipbuilding

text: Corporation in

text: Camden, New Jersey

text: on 3 March 1959 and her keel was laid down on 9 September 1960.  She was

text: launched

text: on 18 August 1962 sponsored by Mrs.

text: Henry M. Jackson

text: , and

text: commissioned

text: on 16 December 1964, with Commander

text: John G. Williams, Jr.

text: in command.

text: Sustainable Energy Utility (SEU) is a community-based model of development based on energy conservation and the use of renewables, seeking to permanently decrease the use of source materials, water, and energy. The model prescribes the creation of independent and financially self-sufficient non-profit entities for energy sustainability through conservation, efficiency, and end-user based decentralized renewable energy in an effort to address concerns about climate change, rising energy prices, inequity of energy availability, and a lack of community governance of energy development. The SEU model was developed by Dr. J. Byrne at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy, University of Delaware. The Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment (FREE) is implementing versions of the model.

text: Sustainable Energy Utility (SEU) is a community-based model of development based on

text: energy conservation

text: and the use of renewables, seeking to permanently decrease the use of source materials, water, and energy. The model prescribes the creation of independent and financially self-sufficient non-profit entities for

text: energy sustainability

text: through

text: conservation

text: efficiency

text: , and end-user based

text: decentralized

text: renewable energy

text: in an effort to address concerns about

text: climate change

text: , rising energy prices, inequity of energy availability, and a lack of community governance of energy development. The SEU model was developed by Dr. J. Byrne at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy,

text: University of Delaware

text: . The Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment (FREE) is implementing versions of the model.

text: Feed-in electricity tariffs (FiT) have been introduced in Germany to encourage the use of new energy technologies such as wind power, biomass, hydropower, geothermal power and solar photovoltaics. Feed-in tariffs are a policy mechanism designed to accelerate investment in renewable energy technologies by providing them remuneration (a "tariff") above the retail or wholesale rates of electricity. The mechanism provides long-term security to renewable energy producers, typically based on the cost of generation of each technology. Technologies such as wind power, for instance, are awarded a lower per-kWh price, while technologies such as solar PV and tidal power are offered a higher price, reflecting higher costs.

text: Feed-in electricity tariffs (FiT) have been introduced in Germany to encourage the use of new energy technologies such as

text: wind power

text: biomass

text: hydropower

text: geothermal power

text: and

text: solar photovoltaics

text: . Feed-in tariffs are a policy mechanism designed to accelerate investment in

text: renewable energy

text: technologies by providing them remuneration (a "tariff") above the retail or wholesale rates of electricity. The mechanism provides long-term security to renewable energy producers, typically based on the cost of generation of each technology. Technologies such as wind power, for instance, are awarded a lower per-kWh price, while technologies such as

text: solar PV

text: and

text: tidal power

text: are offered a higher price, reflecting higher costs.

text: The svirka (or tsafara, svorche, or little kaval) is a Bulgarian shepherds' flute, consisting of one wooden tube 25 to 50 cm long with six or seven holes for fingers, and a bone lip where it is endblown. It is played much like the kaval.

text: Iran is also working to make renewable energy commercially viable and the Ministry of Energy is required to buy privately produced renewable energy at world market prices. A feed-in-tariff (FiT) for wind and biomass energy around 13 cents/kWh is helpful.

text: Iran is also working to make

text: renewable energy

text: commercially viable and the

text: Ministry of Energy

text: is required to buy privately produced renewable energy at world market prices. A feed-in-tariff (

text: FiT

text: ) for wind and biomass energy around 13 cents/kWh is helpful.

text: In the United Kingdom, the Off The Wall organisation brought Invergorden Mural Trail that was officiated by Her Princess Royal and the total transformation costs over GBP 220,000. It was commissioned by the European Union.

text: In the United Kingdom, the Off The Wall organisation brought Invergorden Mural Trail that was officiated by Her Princess Royal and the total transformation costs over GBP 220,000. It was commissioned by the

text: European Union

text: However, low-head units are necessarily much smaller in capacity than conventional large hydro turbines, requiring many more to be built for a given annual energy production, with some of the costs of small turbine/generator units being offset by lower civil construction costs. Just as for large hydro, not every site can be economically and ecologically developed; sites may be too far from customers to be worth installation of a transmission line, or may lie in areas particularly sensitive for wildlife.

text: Power in Lincoln is provided by the Lincoln Electric System (LES).  The LES service area covers , serving Lincoln and several other communities outside of the city.  A public utility, LES's electric rates are the 13th lowest in the nation, according to a nationwide survey conducted by LES, as of January 1, 2014.  Current LES power supply resources are 43% coal, 42% oil and gas and 15% renewable. Renewable resources are expected to increase with partial help from the addition of an LES-owned five Megawatt solar energy farm put into service March, 2016.  The solar farm produces enough energy to power 900 homes.  LES also owns two wind turbines in the northeast part of the city.

text: Power in Lincoln is provided by the Lincoln Electric System (LES).  The LES service area covers , serving Lincoln and several other communities outside of the city.  A

text: public utility

text: , LES's electric rates are the 13th lowest in the nation, according to a nationwide survey conducted by LES, as of January 1, 2014.  Current LES power supply resources are 43% coal, 42% oil and gas and 15% renewable.

text: Renewable resource

text: s are expected to increase with partial help from the addition of an LES-owned five

text: Megawatt

text: solar energy

text: farm put into service March, 2016.  The solar farm produces enough energy to power 900 homes.  LES also owns two

text: wind turbine

text: s in the northeast part of the city.

text: Worldwide there are now over two hundred thousand wind turbines operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 432,000 MW as of end 2015. The European Union alone passed some 100,000 MW nameplate capacity in September 2012, while the United States surpassed 75,000 MW in 2015 and China's grid connected capacity passed 145,000 MW in 2015.

text: Worldwide there are now over two hundred thousand wind turbines operating, with a total

text: nameplate capacity

text: of 432,000 MW as of end 2015. The

text: European Union

text: alone passed some 100,000 MW nameplate capacity in September 2012, while the United States surpassed 75,000 MW in 2015 and

text: China

text: 's grid connected capacity passed 145,000 MW in 2015.

text: While Morocco is already a model of water management in the MENA region, upgrades to its water system under the National Wastewater Management Programme should further improve wastewater treatment and maximise efficient water usage. Authorities are promoting better water rationalisation in agriculture, which uses 80% of water resources, by replacing existing irrigation systems with micro- irrigation and drip networks. A net energy importer, Morocco launched the National Renewable Energy and Efficiency Plan in February 2008 to develop alternative energy to meet 15% of its domestic needs and increase the use of energy-saving methods. It is expected to create more than 40,000 jobs and stimulate over €4.5 billion in investment by 2020. The National Plan for the Development of Solar Thermal Energy, formulated in 2001, aims to install 440,000 solar-powered water heaters by 2012, of which 235,000 are completed.

text: While Morocco is already a model of water management in the

text: MENA

text: region, upgrades to its water system under the National Wastewater Management Programme should further improve wastewater treatment and maximise efficient water usage. Authorities are promoting better water rationalisation in agriculture, which uses 80% of water resources, by replacing existing irrigation systems with micro- irrigation and drip networks. A net energy importer, Morocco launched the National Renewable Energy and Efficiency Plan in February 2008 to develop alternative energy to meet 15% of its domestic needs and increase the use of energy-saving methods. It is expected to create more than 40,000 jobs and stimulate over €4.5 billion in investment by 2020. The National Plan for the Development of Solar Thermal Energy, formulated in 2001, aims to install 440,000 solar-powered water heaters by 2012, of which 235,000 are completed.

text: The primary advantage of a carbine over a pistol using the same ammunition is controllability. The combination of firing from the shoulder, a greatly increased sight picture, two-handed stability, and precision offer a significantly more user-friendly platform. In addition, the longer barrel can offer increased velocity and, with it, greater energy and effective range. As long guns, pistol-caliber carbines may be less legally restricted than handguns in some jurisdictions. Compared to carbines chambered in intermediate or rifle calibers, such as .223 Remington and 7.62×54mmR, pistol-caliber carbines generally experience less of an increase in external ballistic properties as a result of the propellant. The drawback is that one loses the primary benefits of a handgun, i.e. portability and concealability, resulting in a weapon almost the size of, but less accurate than, a long-gun, but not much more powerful than a pistol.

text: The primary advantage of a carbine over a pistol using the same ammunition is controllability. The combination of firing from the shoulder, a greatly increased sight picture, two-handed stability, and precision offer a significantly more user-friendly platform. In addition, the longer barrel can offer increased velocity and, with it, greater energy and effective range. As long guns, pistol-caliber carbines may be less legally restricted than handguns in some jurisdictions. Compared to carbines chambered in

text: intermediate

text: or

text: rifle

text: calibers, such as

text: .223 Remington

text: and

text: , pistol-caliber carbines generally experience less of an increase in

text: external ballistic

text: properties as a result of the

text: propellant

text: . The drawback is that one loses the primary benefits of a handgun, i.e. portability and concealability, resulting in a weapon almost the size of, but less accurate than, a long-gun, but not much more powerful than a pistol.