text: In Sec. 6.1 of the book has been shown that the traffic phase definitions  [S] and [J] are the origin of most hypotheses of three-phase theory and related three-phase microscopic traffic flow models. The traffic phase definitions [J] and [S] are non-local macroscopic ones and they are applicable only after macroscopic data has been measured in space and time, i.e., in an "off-line" study. This is because for the definitive distinction of the phases J and S through the definitions [J] and [S] a study of the propagation of traffic congestion through a bottleneck is necessary. This is often considered as a drawback of the traffic phase definitions [S] and [J]. However, there are local microscopic criteria for the distinction between the phases J and S without a study of the propagation of congested traffic through a bottleneck. The microscopic criteria are as follows (see Sec. 2.6 in the book): If in single-vehicle (microscopic) data related to congested traffic the "flow-interruption interval", i.e., a time headway between two vehicles following each other is observed, which is much longer than the mean time delay in vehicle acceleration from a wide moving jam (the latter is about 1.3–2.1 s), then the related flow-interruption interval corresponds to the wide moving jam phase. After all wide moving jams have been found through this criterion in congested traffic, all remaining congested states are related to the synchronized flow phase.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Microscopes were invented in The Netherlands during the 17th century, but it is unclear when exactly they reached Japan. Clear descriptions of microscopes are made in the 1720  and in the 1787 book Saying of the Dutch. Although Europeans mainly used microscopes to observe small cellular organisms, the Japanese mainly used them for entomological purposes, creating detailed descriptions of insects.

text: Microscopes were invented in The Netherlands during the 17th century, but it is unclear when exactly they reached Japan. Clear descriptions of microscopes are made in the 1720  and in the 1787 book Saying of the Dutch. Although Europeans mainly used microscopes to observe small cellular organisms, the Japanese mainly used them for

entity_name: Entomology

text: entomological

text: purposes, creating detailed descriptions of

entity_name: Insect

text: insect

text: s.

text: They also discovered the simple cell and complex cell. These exist in the primary visual cortex and respond differentially to differently oriented presentations of light.

text: They also discovered the

entity_name: Simple cell

text: simple cell

text: and

entity_name: Complex cell

text: complex cell

text: . These exist in the primary visual cortex and respond differentially to differently oriented presentations of light.

text: The figure on the right shows hook-lengths for all cells in the Young diagram  of the partition

text: The figure on the right shows hook-lengths for all cells in the

entity_name: Young tableau

entity_section: Diagrams

text: Young diagram

text: of the partition

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Physician Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner (1516–1565) and herbalist John Gerard (1545–c. 1611) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope, Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells, a term he coined, in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue.

text: Physician

entity_name: Valerius Cordus

text: Valerius Cordus

text: (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a

entity_name: Pharmacopoeia

text: pharmacopoeia

text: of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist

entity_name: Conrad Gessner

text: Conrad von Gesner

text: (1516–1565) and herbalist

entity_name: John Gerard

text: John Gerard

text: (1545–c. 1611) published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants. Naturalist

entity_name: Ulisse Aldrovandi

text: Ulisse Aldrovandi

text: (1522–1605) was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants. In 1665, using an early microscope,

entity_name: Polymath

text: Polymath

entity_name: Robert Hooke

text: Robert Hooke

text: discovered

entity_name: Cell (biology)

text: cells

text: , a term he coined, in

entity_name: Cork (material)

text: cork

text: , and a short time later in living plant tissue.

method: UNH-qee

text: Shell dwellers are carnivores that primarily feed on zooplankton and other microscopic and near-microscopic foods.

text: Shell dwellers are carnivores that primarily feed on

entity_name: Zooplankton

text: zooplankton

text: and other microscopic and near-microscopic foods.

text: A typical AFB stain procedure involves dropping the cells in suspension onto a slide, then air drying the liquid and heat fixing the cells.  The slide is flooded with Carbol Fuchsin, which is then heated to dry and rinsed off in tap water.  The slide is then flooded with a 1% solution of hydrochloric acid in isopropyl alcohol (or methanol) to remove the carbol fuchsin, thus removing the stain from cells that are unprotected by a waxy lipid layer.  Thereafter, the cells are stained in methylene blue and viewed on a microscope under oil immersion.

text: Microscopically, Krukenberg tumors are often characterized by mucin-secreting signet-ring cells in the tissue of the ovary; when the primary tumor is discovered, the same signet-ring cells are typically found. However, other microscopic features can predominate. Krukenberg tumors are most commonly metastases from gastric cancer, particularly adenocarcinoma, or breast cancer particularly invasive lobular breast carcinoma, but they can arise in the appendix, colon, small intestine, rectum, gallbladder, and urinary bladder or gallbladder, biliary tract, pancreas, ampulla of Vater or uterine cervix.

text: Microscopically, Krukenberg tumors are often characterized by

entity_name: Mucin

text: mucin

text: -secreting

entity_name: Signet ring cell

text: signet-ring cell

text: s in the tissue of the ovary; when the primary tumor is discovered, the same signet-ring cells are typically found. However, other microscopic features can predominate. Krukenberg tumors are most commonly metastases from

entity_name: Stomach cancer

text: gastric cancer

text: , particularly

entity_name: Adenocarcinoma

text: adenocarcinoma

text: , or

entity_name: Breast cancer

text: breast cancer

text: particularly

entity_name: Invasive lobular carcinoma

text: invasive lobular breast carcinoma

text: , but they can arise in the appendix, colon, small intestine, rectum, gallbladder, and urinary bladder or gallbladder, biliary tract, pancreas,

entity_name: Ampulla of Vater

text: ampulla of Vater

text: or uterine cervix.

text: Charles A. Spencer and Robert B. Tolles, renowned microscope makers, were honored by the production of the Spencer-Tolles Memorial Fund, which continues to promote publications in the field of microscopical research today.

text: On May 26, 2011 Coburn released his 73-page report, "National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope", receiving immediate attention from such media outlets as The New York Times, Fox News and MSNBC.

text: On May 26, 2011 Coburn released his 73-page report, "

entity_name: National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope

text: National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope

text: ", receiving immediate attention from such media outlets as

entity_name: The New York Times

text: The New York Times

entity_name: Fox News

text: Fox News

text: and

entity_name: MSNBC

text: MSNBC

text: Tubulin and microtubule-mediated processes, like cell locomotion, were seen by early microscopists, like Leeuwenhoek (1677). However, the fibrous nature of flagella and other structures were discovered two centuries later, with improved light microscopes, and confirmed in the 20th with electron microscope and biochemical studies.

text: Tubulin and microtubule-mediated processes, like cell locomotion, were seen by early microscopists, like

entity_name: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Leeuwenhoek

text: (1677). However, the fibrous nature of flagella and other structures were discovered two centuries later, with improved

entity_name: Optical microscope

text: light microscope

text: s, and confirmed in the 20th with

entity_name: Electron microscope

text: electron microscope

text: and biochemical studies.

text: Like Robert Boyle and Nicolaas Hartsoeker, Van Leeuwenhoek was interested in dried cochineal, trying to find out if the dye came from a berry or an insect.

text: Like

entity_name: Robert Boyle

text: Robert Boyle

text: and

entity_name: Nicolaas Hartsoeker

text: Nicolaas Hartsoeker

text: , Van Leeuwenhoek was interested in dried

entity_name: Cochineal

text: cochineal

text: , trying to find out if the

entity_name: Dye

text: dye

text: came from a

entity_name: Berry

text: berry

text: or an

text: insect

text: Dennis is best known for his microscopic research into the internal structure of bone, of which he provided an account in papers published in the Journal of Microscopical Science. He is credited with having established two important geological facts: the existence of mammals prior to the lias deposit, and the existence of birds during, or prior to, the deposit of the Stonesfield slate.

text: Dennis is best known for his microscopic research into the internal structure of bone, of which he provided an account in papers published in the

entity_name: Journal of Cell Science

text: Journal of Microscopical Science

text: . He is credited with having established two important

entity_name: Geology

text: geological

text: facts: the existence of

entity_name: Mammal

text: mammal

text: s prior to the

entity_name: Lias Group

text: lias

text: deposit, and the existence of birds during, or prior to, the deposit of the

entity_name: Taynton Limestone Formation

text: Stonesfield slate

text: Biological tissue has little inherent contrast in either the light or electron microscope. Staining is employed  to give both contrast to the tissue as well as highlighting particular features of interest. Where the underlying mechanistic chemistry of staining is understood, the term histochemistry is used. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E stain) is the most commonly used light microscopical stain in histology and histopathology. Hematoxylin, a basic dye, stains nuclei blue due to an affinity to nucleic acids in the cell nucleus; eosin, an acidic dye, stains the cytoplasm pink. Uranyl acetate and lead citrate are commonly used to impart contrast to tissue in the electron microscope.

text: Biological tissue has little inherent contrast in either the light or electron microscope. Staining is employed  to give both contrast to the tissue as well as highlighting particular features of interest. Where the underlying mechanistic chemistry of staining is understood, the term

entity_name: Immunohistochemistry

text: histochemistry

text: is used.

entity_name: Haematoxylin

text: Hematoxylin

text: and

entity_name: Eosin

text: eosin

entity_name: H&E stain

text: H&E stain

text: ) is the most commonly used light microscopical stain in histology and histopathology. Hematoxylin, a

entity_name: Base (chemistry)

text: basic

text: dye, stains

entity_name: Cell nucleus

text: nuclei

text: blue due to an affinity to nucleic acids in the cell nucleus; eosin, an

entity_name: Acid

text: acidic

text: dye, stains the

entity_name: Cytoplasm

text: cytoplasm

text: pink.

entity_name: Uranyl acetate

text: Uranyl acetate

text: and lead citrate are commonly used to impart contrast to tissue in the electron microscope.

text: Basophilic is a technical term used by histologists. It describes the microscopic appearance of cells and tissues, as seen down the microscope, after a histological section has been stained with a basic dye. The most common such dye is haematoxylin.

text: Basophilic is a technical term used by

entity_name: Histology

text: histologists

text: . It describes the microscopic appearance of

text: cell

text: s and

entity_name: Tissue (biology)

text: tissue

text: s, as seen down the

entity_name: Microscope

text: microscope

text: , after a

text: histological section

text: has been stained with a basic

text: dye

text: . The most common such dye is

text: haematoxylin

text: Edward Hutchinson Synge is given credit for conceiving and developing the idea for an imaging instrument that would image by exciting and collecting diffraction in the near field. His original idea, proposed in 1928, was based upon the usage of intense nearly planar light from an arc under pressure behind a thin, opaque metal film with a small orifice of about 100 nm. The orifice was to remain within 100 nm of the surface, and information was to be collected by point-by-point scanning. He foresaw the illumination and the detector movement being the biggest technical difficulties. John A. O'Keefe also developed similar theories in 1956. He thought the moving of the pinhole or the detector when it is so close to the sample would be the most likely issue that could prevent the realization of such an instrument. It was Ash and Nicholls who, in 1972, first broke the Abbe’s diffraction limit using radiation with wavelength of 3 cm. A line grating was resolved with a resolution of λ/60. A decade later, a patent on an optical near-field microscope was filed by Pohl,  followed in 1984 by the first paper that used visible radiation for near field scanning.  The near-field optical (NFO) microscope involved a subwavelength aperture at the apex of a metal coated sharply pointed transparent tip, and a feedback mechanism to maintain a constant distance of a few nanometers between the sample and the probe. Lewis et al. were also aware of the potential of an NFO microscope at this time. They reported first results in 1986 confirming super-resolution. In both experiments,  details below 50 nm (about λ/10)  in size could be recognized.

text: Edward Hutchinson Synge is given credit for conceiving and developing the idea for an imaging instrument that would image by exciting and collecting

entity_name: Diffraction

text: diffraction

text: in the

entity_name: Electromagnetic radiation

entity_section: Near and far fields

text: near field

text: . His original idea, proposed in 1928, was based upon the usage of intense nearly planar light from an arc under pressure behind a thin, opaque metal film with a small orifice of about 100 nm. The orifice was to remain within 100 nm of the surface, and information was to be collected by point-by-point scanning. He foresaw the illumination and the detector movement being the biggest technical difficulties.

entity_name: John A. O'Keefe

text: John A. O'Keefe

text: also developed similar theories in 1956. He thought the moving of the pinhole or the detector when it is so close to the sample would be the most likely issue that could prevent the realization of such an instrument. It was Ash and Nicholls who, in 1972, first broke the

entity_name: Ernst Abbe

text: Abbe

text: ’s

entity_name: Diffraction-limited system

text: diffraction limit

text: using radiation with wavelength of 3 cm. A line grating was resolved with a resolution of λ/60. A decade later, a patent on an optical near-field microscope was filed by Pohl,  followed in 1984 by the first paper that used visible radiation for near field scanning.  The near-field optical (NFO) microscope involved a subwavelength aperture at the apex of a metal coated sharply pointed transparent tip, and a feedback mechanism to maintain a constant distance of a few nanometers between the sample and the probe. Lewis et al. were also aware of the potential of an NFO microscope at this time. They reported first results in 1986 confirming super-resolution. In both experiments,  details below 50 nm (about λ/10)  in size could be recognized.

text: Arriving in the Underworld, Emma is contacted by Neal Cassidy, who warns to turn back, advice Emma chooses to ignore. She and the others later discover that the Underworld is for those with unfinished business, and they decide to help others move on, while they search for Hook. With the help of Hook's ex-girlfriend Milah, Emma manages to retrieve Hook from Hades's captivity. However, she is unable to split her heart, as Hades has decided that she, Regina, and Snow are to remain behind for freeing the souls of Prince Henry, Hercules, and Megara. It is discovered that the only way they would have a chance to return to the "Overworld" with Hook is by overthrowing Hades. In order to defeat Hades, Emma and Hook receive help from Hook's brother Liam; however, it is soon discovered that Liam betrayed them after being blackmailed by Hades. Fortunately, Henry agrees to help undo Liam's work by using his powers as the Author. Later, when Emma and Hook try to perform the heartsplit, they are informed by Hades that Hook's body has been dead for too long and is decaying, making him unable to come back to life. When Emma and Hook go into the depths of the Underworld to find ambrosia, something that would save Hook, they are faced with a True Love test, which they pass when Emma chooses Hook over her own heart, only to realize that Hades had tricked them and destroyed the ambrosia, and Hook tells Emma to leave him in the Underworld, as time is running out for her to go through the open portal. Emma objects, saying that she came to the Underworld to save Hook, and she wasn't leaving without him. Hook eventually gets her to say her goodbyes and she does, only to find out that Hades had trapped her and her family in the library using magic. Emma and Regina work together to use their own magic to counteract it. They all go through the portal, and while Emma has second thoughts about leaving Hook, she is persuaded to go by her father. When they get back to Storybrooke, Zelena is informed by Regina and Robin that Hades tried to trap them in the Underworld, but she brushes off the information and is upset with her sister. She talks to Hades about having the life she wants, which is just a simple picket fence life. However, Hades wants a whole kingdom. Robin and Regina break into the mayor's house, where Zelena and Hades are, trying to get Robin's daughter back from Zelena. Emma, distraught and unable to grieve Hook's death, tries to break down the protection spell surrounding the house, but Zelena uses her magic to stop her. Hades is about to use the Olympian Crystal to "end" Regina, but Robin steps in front of her, taking the blow, which kills him. Hades tries to pressure Zelena into killing Regina, but she stabs Hades instead.

text: Arriving in the Underworld, Emma is contacted by Neal Cassidy, who warns to turn back, advice Emma chooses to ignore. She and the others later discover that the Underworld is for those with unfinished business, and they decide to help others move on, while they search for Hook. With the help of Hook's ex-girlfriend Milah, Emma manages to retrieve Hook from Hades's captivity. However, she is unable to split her heart, as Hades has decided that she, Regina, and Snow are to remain behind for freeing the souls of Prince Henry,

entity_name: Hercules

text: Hercules

text: , and

entity_name: Megara (mythology)

text: Megara

text: However, the first real invention and use of the microscope were done  by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. He was a Dutch draper that took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses.  This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were instead simple powerful magnifying glasses, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.

text: However, the first real invention and use of the microscope were done  by

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: . He was a Dutch draper that took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses.  This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were instead simple powerful magnifying glasses, rather than a

text: compound microscope

text: . This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later.

entity_name: Carl Zeiss

text: Carl Zeiss

text: , a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired

entity_name: Otto Schott

text: Otto Schott

text: and eventually

text: Ernst Abbe

text: Hudson devoted his leisure to microscopical research, and in particular to the study of the Rotifera. His first printed paper was on Rhinops Vitrea in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for 1869. Afterwards he published numerous papers in the Microscopical Journal and the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, describing new genera and species of Rotifera, of which Pedahon mirum was a notable discovery. A list of these papers is given in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society for 1904, page 49.

text: Hudson devoted his leisure to microscopical research, and in particular to the study of the

text: Rotifer

text: a. His first printed paper was on Rhinops Vitrea in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for 1869. Afterwards he published numerous papers in the Microscopical Journal and the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, describing new genera and species of Rotifera, of which Pedahon mirum was a notable discovery. A list of these papers is given in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society for 1904, page 49.

text: A catalogue of work by R & J Beck from 1900 has been digitised as part of the Internet Archive which features the terms of business and pricing from 1900, simplex microscopes, No. 10 London Microscope, No. 22 London Microscope, No. 29 London Microscope, Beck Pathological Microscope, No. 3201 Massive Microscope, Radial Research Microscope, Angular Model Microscope, Beck Combined Binocular and Monocular Microscope, Baby London Microscope, No.3755 Portable Microscope, Pathological Microscope, Binomax magnifier, Greenough Binocular Microscope, Crescent Dissecting Microscope, Cornex Dissecting Microscope, Beck Ultra Violet Microscope made for J. E. Barnard F.R.S., Beck Object Glasses, Eyepieces, Beck-Chapman Opaque Illuminator, Photomigraphic Cameras, Optical Benches, Microtomes, University Micro-projector and Folding Pocket Magnifiers.

text: These cells were discovered by two scientists, Cajal and Retzius, at two different times and in different species. They are originated in the developing brain in multiple sites within the neocortex and hippocampus. From there, Cajal–Retzius (CR) cells experience migration through the marginal zone, originating the layer I of the cortex.

text: These cells were discovered by two scientists,

text: Cajal

text: and

text: Retzius

text: , at two different times and in different species. They are originated in the developing brain in multiple sites within the

text: neocortex

text: and

text: hippocampus

text: . From there, Cajal–Retzius (CR) cells experience migration through the marginal zone, originating the layer I of the cortex.

text: Born in Brantford, Ontario, the son of James and Ethel (Cooke) Hillier, he received a Bachelor of Arts in Mathematics and Physics (1937), Master of Arts (1938), and a Ph.D (1941) from the University of Toronto, where, as a graduate student, he completed a prototype of the electron microscope that had been invented by Ernst Ruska. This transmission electron microscope was used as a prototype for later electron microscopes.

text: Born in

text: Brantford, Ontario

text: , the son of James and Ethel (Cooke) Hillier, he received a

text: Bachelor of Arts

text: in Mathematics and Physics (1937),

text: Master of Arts

text: (1938), and a

text: Ph.D

text: (1941) from the

text: University of Toronto

text: , where, as a graduate student, he completed a prototype of the electron microscope that had been invented by

text: Ernst Ruska

text: . This

text: transmission electron microscope

text: was used as a prototype for later electron microscopes.

text: Six weeks earlier in the Camelot dungeon, David, Hook, Merlin and Belle waste no time at all in defeating Arthur's guards, with Hook impressed by Merlin's ability to see the future. They then reach the cell where Lancelot and Merida are being held, with Merlin telling the others that it is enchanted. Belle then gives Merlin a book of spells and makes the bars disappear. Merida tells the rescuers that Arthur took the wisps which she needed to find her brothers, so Merlin suggests that they need to come up with another way to find them. When Belle asks Merida why she was in the dungeon, Merida tells her that the wisps led her to the sea, but the boat she hid out in belonged to Arthur, and that when he found her he then threw her in the cell. Merida then knocks Belle out with a rock and hours later Bell awakes to find herself in a rowboat with Merida. Belle learns that Merida needs Belle's magic to find her brothers. She further explained that the clans kidnapped her brothers so they can force her to relinquish the throne as she is not married.

text: There are many types of microscopes. The most common (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope), the ultramicroscope, and the various types of scanning probe microscope.

text: There are many types of microscopes. The most common (and the first to be invented) is the

text: optical microscope

text: , which uses

text: light

text: to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the

text: electron microscope

text: (both the

text: transmission electron microscope

text: and the

text: scanning electron microscope

text: ), the

text: ultramicroscope

text: , and the various types of

text: scanning probe microscope

text: During the 1970s and 1980s the second generation (PEEM-2) and third generation (PEEM-3) microscopes were constructed. PEEM-2 is a conventional not aberration-corrected instrument employing electrostatic lenses. It uses a cooled charge-coupled device (CCD) fiber-coupled to a phosphor to detect the electron-optical image. The aberration corrected microscope PEEM-3 employs a curved electron mirror to counter the lowest order aberrations of the electron lenses and the accelerating field.

text: During the 1970s and 1980s the second generation (PEEM-2) and third generation (PEEM-3) microscopes were constructed. PEEM-2 is a conventional not aberration-corrected instrument employing electrostatic lenses. It uses a cooled

text: charge-coupled device

text: (CCD) fiber-coupled to a phosphor to detect the electron-optical image. The aberration corrected microscope PEEM-3 employs a curved electron mirror to counter the lowest order aberrations of the electron lenses and the accelerating field.

text: Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an objective lens and an eyepiece. The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the conservation of energy and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as compound microscopes have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the comparison microscope, looks at side-by-side images to produce a stereoscopic binocular view that appears three dimensional when used by humans.

text: Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an

text: objective lens

text: and an

text: eyepiece

text: . The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small

text: focal length

text: while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the

text: conservation of energy

text: and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as compound microscopes have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the

text: comparison microscope

text: , looks at side-by-side images to produce a

text: stereoscopic

text: binocular

text: view that appears three dimensional when used by humans.

text: The first experiments into water filtration were made in the 17th century. Sir Francis Bacon attempted to desalinate sea water by passing the flow through a sand filter. Although his experiment did not succeed, it marked the beginning of a new interest in the field. The fathers of microscopy, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke, used the newly invented microscope to observe for the first time small material particles that lay suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens.

text: The first experiments into water filtration were made in the 17th century. Sir

text: Francis Bacon

text: attempted to

text: desalinate

text: sea water by passing the flow through a

text: sand filter

text: . Although his experiment did not succeed, it marked the beginning of a new interest in the field. The fathers of

text: microscopy

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: and

text: Robert Hooke

text: , used the newly invented

text: microscope

text: to observe for the first time small material particles that lay suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens.

text: ). This is done in a constructive way by defining a random walk, called the hook walk, on the cells of the Young diagram

text: A crack-like nick was observed on the trichomes was found by Umarani et. al.  in microscopic view. While they studying individual cells notches were found at the inner side of the cell corresponding the slit on the trichome. When such cells were stacked one above the other, it results in the crack like structure on the trichome. Thus, the number of notches in a single cell equals the number of slits on the trichome. One to three notches / slits were observed in the study by Uma Rani et al. 2015.

text: The painting is considered a work with significance for Vermeer because he did not part with it or sell it, even when he was in debt. On 24 February 1676, his widow Catharina bequeathed it to her mother, Maria Thins, in an attempt to avoid the sale of the painting to satisfy creditors. The executor of Vermeer's estate, the famous Delft microscopist Anton van Leeuwenhoek, determined that the transferral of the work to the late painter's mother-in-law was illegal and, according to John Michael Montias, at least a curious transaction. On 15 March 1677 most of his paintings were sold in an auction at the Guild in Delft. It is not known who bought the Art of Painting; perhaps it was Jacob Dissius. It can not determined with certainty whether the painting is quoted in the auction Dissius of 1696 as "Portrait of Vermeer in a room with various accessories." The painting was owned by Gerard van Swieten, and passed into the hands of Gottfried van Swieten. In 1813 it was purchased for 50 florins by the Bohemian-Austrian Count Rudolf Czernin. It was placed on public display in the Czernin Museum in Vienna.

text: The painting is considered a work with significance for Vermeer because he did not part with it or sell it, even when he was in debt. On 24 February 1676, his widow Catharina bequeathed it to her mother,

text: Maria Thins

text: , in an attempt to avoid the sale of the painting to satisfy creditors. The executor of Vermeer's estate, the famous Delft microscopist

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: , determined that the transferral of the work to the late painter's mother-in-law was illegal and, according to

text: John Michael Montias

text: , at least a curious transaction. On 15 March 1677 most of his paintings were sold in an auction at the Guild in Delft. It is not known who bought the Art of Painting; perhaps it was

text: Jacob Dissius

text: . It can not determined with certainty whether the painting is quoted in the auction Dissius of 1696 as "Portrait of Vermeer in a room with various accessories." The painting was owned by

text: Gerard van Swieten

text: , and passed into the hands of

text: Gottfried van Swieten

text: . In 1813 it was purchased for 50

text: florins

text: by the

text: Bohemia

text: n-Austrian Count

entity_name: Johann Rudolf Czernin von und zu Chudenitz

text: Rudolf Czernin

text: . It was placed on public display in the

text: Czernin Museum

text: in Vienna.

text: Since the digital microscope has the image projected directly on to the CCD camera, it is possible to have higher quality recorded images than with a stereo microscope. With the stereo microscope, the lenses are made for the optics of the eye. Attaching a CCD camera to a stereo microscope will result in an image that has compromises made for the eyepiece. Although the monitor image and recorded image may be of higher quality with the digital microscope, the application of the microscope may dictate which microscope is preferred.

text: After allowing to dry, it is colored and performs counting. For this, the average of existing cells is performed in the field of the microscope, dividing total somatic cells from microscopic factor (MF) which corresponds to the number of fields in one inch, i.e. 100 mm, obtaining in this way the number of somatic cells per milliliter of milk.

text: After allowing to dry, it is colored and performs counting. For this, the

text: average

text: of existing cells is performed in the field of the microscope, dividing total somatic cells from microscopic factor (MF) which corresponds to the number of fields in one inch, i.e. 100 mm, obtaining in this way the number of somatic cells per milliliter of

text: milk

text: When only 28 years old, Mendenhall discovered the cell for Hodgkin’s disease and the evolution of the cells. Previously Hodgkin’s disease was considered a form of tuberculosis but her contribution (1901) established that it was a form of cancer, not infection. She tested the concept on rabbits by showing that Hodgkin’s disease was not transmissible unlike tuberculosis. Dorothy used microscopic specimens to compare tissue samples from TB and Hodgkin’s patients. It was then that she observed the large giant cells (The Dorothy Reed Cell later termed the Reed-Sternberg Cell). Since the giant cells were distinct in the characteristics it possessed, Hodgkin’s disease had a clear diagnostic marker. Having a way to clearly identify the condition allowed the development of effective treatment. Five-year survival of Hodgkin’s is about 80% vs about 40% for Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma.

text: ANCAs are associated with small vessel vasculitides including granulomatosis with polyangiitis (previously known as Wegener's granulomatosis), microscopic polyangiitis, primary pauci-immune necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis (a type of renal-limited microscopic polyangiitis), eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (previously known as Churg-Strauss syndrome) and drug induced vasculitides. PR3 directed c-ANCA is present in 80-90% of granulomatosis with polyangiitis, 20-40% of microscopic polyangiitis, 20-40% of pauci-immune crescentic glomerulonephritis and 35% of eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis. c-ANCA (atypical) is present in 80% of cystic fibrosis (with BPI as the target antigen) and also in inflammatory bowel disease, primary sclerosing cholangitis and rheumatoid arthritis (with antibodies to multiple antigenic targets). p-ANCA with MPO specificity is found in 50% of microscopic polyangiitis, 50% of primary pauci-immune necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis and 35% of eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis. p-ANCA with specificity to other antigens are associated with inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, drug-induced vasculitis, autoimmune liver disease, drug induced syndromes and parasitic infections. Atypical ANCA is associated with drug-induced systemic vasculitis, inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis.

text: ANCAs are associated with small vessel

text: vasculitides

text: including

text: granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: (previously known as Wegener's granulomatosis),

text: microscopic polyangiitis

text: primary pauci-immune necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis

text: (a type of renal-limited microscopic polyangiitis),

entity_name: Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: (previously known as Churg-Strauss syndrome) and drug induced vasculitides. PR3 directed c-ANCA is present in 80-90% of granulomatosis with polyangiitis, 20-40% of

text: microscopic polyangiitis

text: , 20-40% of pauci-immune crescentic glomerulonephritis and 35% of

text: . c-ANCA (atypical) is present in 80% of cystic fibrosis (with BPI as the target antigen) and also in

text: inflammatory bowel disease

text: primary sclerosing cholangitis

text: and

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: (with antibodies to multiple antigenic targets). p-ANCA with MPO specificity is found in 50% of

text: microscopic polyangiitis

text: , 50% of primary pauci-immune necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis and 35% of

text: . p-ANCA with specificity to other antigens are associated with inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, drug-induced vasculitis,

text: autoimmune liver disease

text: , drug induced syndromes and parasitic infections. Atypical ANCA is associated with drug-induced systemic vasculitis, inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis.

text: While Trembley thought he had discovered a new species, Leeuwenhoek had in fact first published on hydra in 1702-1703 volume of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, describing them as a type of "animalculum".  In his work Leeuwenhoek clearly described the process of budding, as well as tentacles contractility and the presence of cnidocyte batteries on tentacles.

text: While Trembley thought he had discovered a new species,

text: Leeuwenhoek

text: had in fact first published on hydra in 1702-1703 volume of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, describing them as a type of "animalculum".  In his work Leeuwenhoek clearly described the process of budding, as well as tentacles contractility and the presence of cnidocyte batteries on tentacles.

text: Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale.

text: Cloud microphysics

text: describe the structure and properties of clouds on the

text: microscopic scale

text: Quantum microscopy is a novel tool that allows microscopic properties of matter and quantum particles to be measured and directly visualized. There are various types of microscopy that use quantum principles. The first microscope to make use of quantum concepts was the scanning tunneling microscope, which paved the way for development of the photoionization microscope and the quantum entanglement microscope.

text: Quantum microscopy is a novel tool that allows microscopic properties of matter and quantum particles to be measured and directly visualized. There are various types of microscopy that use quantum principles. The first microscope to make use of quantum concepts was the

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: , which paved the way for development of the photoionization microscope and the quantum entanglement microscope.

text: Kircher took a notably modern approach to the study of diseases, as early as 1646 using a microscope to investigate the blood of plague victims. In his Scrutinium Pestis of 1658, he noted the presence of "little worms" or "animalcules" in the blood, and concluded that the disease was caused by microorganisms. The conclusion was correct, although it is likely that what he saw were in fact red or white blood cells and not the plague agent, Yersinia pestis. He also proposed hygienic measures to prevent the spread of disease, such as isolation, quarantine, burning clothes worn by the infected and wearing facemasks to prevent the inhalation of germs.

text: Kircher took a notably modern approach to the study of

text: disease

text: s, as early as 1646 using a

text: microscope

text: to investigate the

text: blood

text: of

text: plague

text: victims. In his Scrutinium Pestis of 1658, he noted the presence of "little worms" or "

text: animalcules

text: " in the blood, and concluded that the disease was caused by

text: microorganism

text: s. The conclusion was correct, although it is likely that what he saw were in fact

text: red

text: or

text: white

text: blood cell

text: s and not the plague agent,

text: Yersinia pestis

text: . He also proposed

text: hygienic

text: measures to prevent the spread of disease, such as isolation,

text: quarantine

text: , burning clothes worn by the infected and wearing

text: facemasks

text: to prevent the inhalation of

text: germ

text: s.

text: Results of rodent studies collectively show that regardless of the process by which CNTs were synthesized and the types and amounts of metals they contained, CNTs were capable of producing inflammation, epithelioid granulomas (microscopic nodules), fibrosis, and biochemical/toxicological changes in the lungs. Comparative toxicity studies in which mice were given equal weights of test materials showed that SWCNTs were more toxic than quartz, which is considered a serious occupational health hazard when chronically inhaled. As a control, ultrafine carbon black was shown to produce minimal lung responses.

text: Results of rodent studies collectively show that regardless of the process by which CNTs were synthesized and the types and amounts of metals they contained, CNTs were capable of producing

text: inflammation

text: epithelioid granulomas

text: (microscopic nodules),

text: fibrosis

text: , and biochemical/toxicological changes in the lungs. Comparative toxicity studies in which mice were given equal weights of test materials showed that SWCNTs were more toxic than

text: quartz

text: , which is considered a serious occupational health hazard when chronically inhaled. As a control, ultrafine

text: carbon black

text: was shown to produce minimal lung responses.

text: In his letter of 14 June 1680 to The Royal Society, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek described an experiment he carried out by filling two identical glass tubes about halfway with crushed pepper powder, to whichsome clean rain water was added. Van Leeuwenhoek sealed one of the glass tubes by using a flame and left the other glass tube open. Several days later, he discovered in the open glass tube ‘agreat many very little animalcules, of divers sort having its own particular motion.’ Not expecting to see any life in the sealed glass tube, Van Leeuwenhoek saw to his surprise ‘a kind of living animalcules that were round and bigger than the biggest sort that I have said were in the other water.’ The conditions in the sealed tube had become quite anaerobic owing to consumption of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms.

text: In his letter of 14 June 1680 to The Royal Society,

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: described an experiment he carried out by filling two identical glass tubes about halfway with crushed pepper powder, to whichsome clean rain water was added. Van Leeuwenhoek sealed one of the glass tubes by using a flame and left the other glass tube open. Several days later, he discovered in the open glass tube ‘agreat many very little animalcules, of divers sort having its own particular motion.’ Not expecting to see any life in the sealed glass tube, Van Leeuwenhoek saw to his surprise ‘a kind of living animalcules that were round and bigger than the biggest sort that I have said were in the other water.’ The conditions in the sealed tube had become quite anaerobic owing to consumption of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms.

text: In modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of materials and components. It applies the physics of stress and strain, in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies. Fractography is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real life failures.

text: In modern

text: materials science

text: , fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of materials and components. It applies the

text: physics

text: of

text: stress

text: and

text: strain

text: , in particular the theories of

text: elasticity

text: and

text: plasticity

text: , to the microscopic

text: crystallographic defects

text: found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies.

text: Fractography

text: is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical

text: failure

text: predictions with real life failures.

text: Later studies have shown that he actually saw mats of bacteria, what we know today as biofilms.  Biofilms are communities of bacteria, or micro-organisms, attached to surfaces in the body.  Oral biofilms are more commonly referred to as plaque.  Biofilms form almost everywhere bacteria are.  In the mouth, they naturally form on any stationary surface, namely teeth, gums, and the tongue.  Leeuwenhoek made important findings of bacteria with his first observation and analysis of dental plaque, and since then much more has been discovered about the mouth and its ecology.

text: Later studies have shown that he actually saw mats of bacteria, what we know today as biofilms.  Biofilms are communities of bacteria, or

text: micro-organisms

text: , attached to surfaces in the body.  Oral biofilms are more commonly referred to as plaque.  Biofilms form almost everywhere bacteria are.  In the mouth, they naturally form on any stationary surface, namely teeth, gums, and the tongue.  Leeuwenhoek made important findings of bacteria with his first observation and analysis of

text: dental plaque

text: , and since then much more has been discovered about the mouth and its ecology.

text: Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the scanning electron microscope by Max Knoll.

text: Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the

text: scanning electron microscope

text: by

text: Max Knoll

text: Conang, king of the Déisi, came to him, and Finnchu gave him, "as a soul-friend's jewel, his own place in heaven". Then, in order to obtain a place in heaven instead of that which he had given away, he suspended himself by the armpits from hooks in the roof of his cell, so that "his head did not touch the roof, nor his feet the floor". Thenceforth the place was called Bri gobann (Smith's Hill), now Mitchelstown, from the skill shown by the smiths who manufactured the hooks. During seven years he continued to practise this self-mortification until he was visited by St. Ronan Finn with an urgent request for help from the King of Meath, who was distressed by the inroads of British pirates. After much persuasion he accompanied St. Ronan to Tara. On the night of his arrival an inroad took place, and by Finnchu's advice, "all, both laymen and clerics, turned right-handwise and marched against the intruders", with the result that they slew them, burnt their ships, and made a mound of their garments.

text: Conang,

text: king of the Déisi

text: , came to him, and Finnchu gave him, "as a soul-friend's jewel, his own place in heaven". Then, in order to obtain a place in heaven instead of that which he had given away, he suspended himself by the armpits from hooks in the roof of his cell, so that "his head did not touch the roof, nor his feet the floor". Thenceforth the place was called Bri gobann (Smith's Hill), now

text: Mitchelstown

text: , from the skill shown by the smiths who manufactured the hooks. During seven years he continued to practise this self-mortification until he was visited by St. Ronan Finn with an urgent request for help from the King of

text: Meath

text: , who was distressed by the inroads of British pirates. After much persuasion he accompanied St. Ronan to

text: Tara

text: . On the night of his arrival an inroad took place, and by Finnchu's advice, "all, both laymen and clerics, turned right-handwise and marched against the intruders", with the result that they slew them, burnt their ships, and made a mound of their garments.

text: Ultramicroscopy is an established peer-reviewed scientific journal in the field of electron microscopy. It provides a forum for the publication of original research papers, invited reviews and rapid communications. The scope of Ultramicroscopy is to describe advances in instrumentation, methods and theory related to all modes of microscopical imaging, diffraction and spectroscopy in the life and physical sciences.

text: Ultramicroscopy is an established

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: in the field of

text: electron microscopy

text: . It provides a forum for the publication of original research papers, invited reviews and rapid communications. The scope of Ultramicroscopy is to describe advances in instrumentation, methods and theory related to all modes of microscopical imaging, diffraction and spectroscopy in the life and physical sciences.

text: An electron microscope uses a controlled beam of electrons to illuminate a specimen and produce a magnified image. Two common types are the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the transmission electron microscope (TEM).

text: An electron microscope uses a controlled beam of electrons to illuminate a specimen and produce a magnified image. Two common types are the

text: scanning electron microscope

text: (SEM) and the

text: transmission electron microscope

text: (TEM).

text: Typically an operating microscope might cost several thousand dollars for a basic model, more advanced models may be much more expensive. Additionally specialized microsurgical instruments may be required to make full use of the improved vision the microscope affords. It can take time to master use of an operating microscope.

text: Resected mucinous cystic neoplasms have a characteristic appearance- they tend to be between 6 and 10 centimeters in size (2 to 5 inches), they contain numerous cysts (small cavities), and the cysts are filled with thick mucin (see the photograph).  Under the microscope, the cysts are lined by tall mucin-producing cells.  These are the tumor cells.  The tumor cells "sit" on ovarian-type stroma.  This "ovarian-type stroma" is connective tissue that resembles some of the tissue normally found in the female ovary.

text: Under a light microscope, the spores are seen to be smooth, elliptical to oblong in shape, with dimensions of 3–5 by 2–3 µm. The basidia (the spore-bearing cells) are 4-spored, and have a narrow club-shape with dimension of 18–22 by 3.5–4.5 µm. The gill cystidia are seen to stain blue when cotton blue dye and lactate are applied. The cap cuticle is made of an approximately 100 µm thick layer of gelatinous hyphae that are about 2–4 µm thick. The gelatinous hyphae are only present on the cap surface, not the surface of the stem; these local differences in cell structure explain the ease with which the scales are sloughed off the cap, but not the stems of the fruit bodies. The macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the mycelia of this species grown in culture have been described in detail.

text: Under a

text: light microscope

text: , the

text: spores

text: are seen to be smooth, elliptical to oblong in shape, with dimensions of 3–5 by 2–3

text: µm

text: . The

text: basidia

text: (the spore-bearing cells) are 4-spored, and have a narrow club-shape with dimension of 18–22 by 3.5–4.5

text: µm

text: . The gill

text: cystidia

text: are seen to stain blue when

text: cotton blue

text: dye and

text: lactate

text: are applied. The cap cuticle is made of an approximately 100 µm thick layer of gelatinous hyphae that are about 2–4 µm thick. The gelatinous hyphae are only present on the cap surface, not the surface of the stem; these local differences in cell structure explain the ease with which the scales are sloughed off the cap, but not the stems of the fruit bodies. The macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the

text: mycelia

text: of this species grown in

text: culture

text: have been described in detail.

text: This was the first ride with an Omnimover system. It opened as a free attraction, unlike most, but required a "C" ticket starting in 1972. The original sponsor was Monsanto, which at the time was an agri-chemical company. Irene Kasmer, using Monsanto fabric, designed the uniforms of the attendants. In 1977, Monsanto ended their sponsorship for the attraction. All visual and audio references were removed (except for the end line, "This is Monsanto") and the Monsanto Mighty Microscope's Monsanto logo was replaced with a logo that says "The Mighty Microscope".

text: This was the first ride with an Omnimover system. It opened as a free attraction, unlike most, but required a "C" ticket starting in 1972. The original sponsor was

text: Monsanto

text: , which at the time was an agri-chemical company. Irene Kasmer, using Monsanto fabric, designed the uniforms of the attendants. In 1977, Monsanto ended their sponsorship for the attraction. All visual and audio references were removed (except for the end line, "This is Monsanto") and the Monsanto Mighty Microscope's Monsanto logo was replaced with a logo that says "The Mighty Microscope".

text: In the PAL region, the first two Electroplankton were released on January 15, 2010, which were Beatnes and Hanenbow.  The next two were released on January 22, 2010, which were Nanocarp and Trapy.  The next two released were Luminarrow and Sun-Animalcule on January 29, 2010.  Rec Rec and Lumiloop were added on February 12, 2010 and the last two minigames Marine-Crystals and Varvoice, were released on February 26, 2010.

text: Peter's movements and behavior become more erratic as he fights the bugs, invisible to the audience, that he claims are infesting his body. Agnes soon joins in this behavior. Over time, they isolate themselves from the outside world, sealing themselves in their room and covering it with flypaper and aluminum foil and lighting it with the glow from bug zappers. Peter, believing that a colony of microscopic bugs was implanted in one of his teeth, tears it out of his head. Using a child's microscope, he says he sees the bugs in the remains of the crushed tooth, as does Agnes.

text: Peter's movements and behavior become more erratic as he fights the bugs, invisible to the audience, that he claims are infesting his body. Agnes soon joins in this behavior. Over time, they isolate themselves from the outside world, sealing themselves in their room and covering it with

text: flypaper

text: and

text: aluminum foil

text: and lighting it with the glow from

text: bug zapper

text: s. Peter, believing that a colony of microscopic bugs was implanted in one of his teeth, tears it out of his head. Using a child's microscope, he says he sees the bugs in the remains of the crushed tooth, as does Agnes.

text: [[Image:LeKayTheNative.jpg|thumb|upright|The Native Navigated His Canoe by the Stars and Peacefully Disappeared into the Bermuda Triangle # 2 by John LeKay, 1993, acrylic lacquer on canvas]]1990–1994, he made "pour paintings" out of acrylic lacquer metallic car paint, using a hair dryer on some and putting others on a see-saw, swivel table to turn and tilt the paintings to create different shapes as the paint ran. His inspiration for such works came from looking at a science catalogue's microscopic slides of viruses, bacteria, AIDS, bubonic plague and cancer, which he described as "quite beautiful under a microscope".  The Watercourse Way by Alan Watts suggested the idea of minimal effort.

text: [[Image:LeKayTheNative.jpg|thumb|upright|The Native Navigated His Canoe by the Stars and Peacefully Disappeared into the Bermuda Triangle # 2 by John LeKay, 1993, acrylic lacquer on canvas]]1990–1994, he made "pour paintings" out of acrylic lacquer metallic car paint, using a hair dryer on some and putting others on a see-saw, swivel table to turn and tilt the paintings to create different shapes as the paint ran. His inspiration for such works came from looking at a science catalogue's microscopic slides of

text: virus

text: es,

text: bacteria

text: AIDS

text: bubonic plague

text: and

text: cancer

text: , which he described as "quite beautiful under a microscope".  The Watercourse Way by

text: Alan Watts

text: suggested the idea of minimal effort.

text: She observed the effects of the transposition of Ac and Ds by the changing patterns of coloration in maize kernels over generations of controlled crosses, and described the relationship between the two loci through intricate microscopic analysis. She concluded that Ac controls the transposition of the Ds from chromosome 9, and that the movement of Ds is accompanied by the breakage of the chromosome. When Ds moves, the aleurone-color gene is released from the suppressing effect of the Ds and transformed into the active form, which initiates the pigment synthesis in cells. The transposition of Ds in different cells is random, it may move in some but not others, which causes color mosaicism. The size of the colored spot on the seed is determined by stage of the seed development during dissociation. McClintock also found that the transposition of Ds is determined by the number of Ac copies in the cell.

text: She observed the effects of the transposition of Ac and Ds by the changing patterns of coloration in maize kernels over generations of controlled crosses, and described the relationship between the two

text: loci

text: through intricate microscopic analysis. She concluded that Ac controls the transposition of the Ds from chromosome 9, and that the movement of Ds is accompanied by the breakage of the chromosome. When Ds moves, the

text: aleurone

text: -color gene is released from the suppressing effect of the Ds and transformed into the active form, which initiates the pigment synthesis in cells. The transposition of Ds in different cells is random, it may move in some but not others, which causes color mosaicism. The size of the colored spot on the seed is determined by stage of the seed development during dissociation. McClintock also found that the transposition of Ds is determined by the number of Ac copies in the cell.

text: An important part of optical physics theory is starting with microscopic physics—the behavior of atoms and electrons—and using it to derive the familiar, macroscopic, laws of optics. In particular, there is a derivation of how the refractive index works and where it comes from, starting from microscopic physics. The Ewald–Oseen extinction theorem is one part of that derivation (as is the Lorentz–Lorenz equation etc.).

text: An important part of optical physics theory is starting with microscopic physics—the behavior of atoms and electrons—and using it to derive the familiar, macroscopic, laws of optics. In particular, there is a derivation of how the

text: refractive index

text: works and where it comes from, starting from microscopic physics. The Ewald–Oseen extinction theorem is one part of that derivation (as is the

text: Lorentz–Lorenz equation

text: etc.).

text: The 1980s saw the development of the first scanning probe microscopes. The first was the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981, developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer. This was closely followed in 1986 with Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber's invention of the atomic force microscope.

text: The 1980s saw the development of the first

text: scanning probe microscope

text: s. The first was the

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: in 1981, developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer. This was closely followed in 1986 with Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber's invention of the

text: atomic force microscope

text: The virus was discovered in 2014 by Olga Kosoy, Amy Lambert and colleagues from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Fort Collins, Colorado, in a sample of blood from the case patient. Tests had previously ruled out a wide range of tick-borne diseases including anaplasmosis, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever and tularemia. During tests for Heartland virus, a recently discovered Phlebovirus known to be transmitted by ticks, prominent plaques, or areas where the cells were affected by virus infection, were observed on one-cell-thick cultures of African green monkey kidney cells. The plaques did not resemble the effects of Heartland virus, and the researchers hypothesized that they were the work of another virus. Examining supernatants from these cell cultures under the electron microscope revealed virus particles of different shapes, including filaments and spheres. These features are typical of viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae, such as influenza A virus.

text: The virus was discovered in 2014 by Olga Kosoy, Amy Lambert and colleagues from the

entity_name: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: (CDC) in

text: Fort Collins, Colorado

text: , in a sample of blood from the case patient. Tests had previously ruled out a wide range of

text: tick

text: -borne diseases including

text: anaplasmosis

text: babesiosis

text: ehrlichiosis

text: Q fever

text: Rocky Mountain spotted fever

text: and

text: tularemia

text: . During tests for

text: Heartland virus

text: , a recently discovered

text: Phlebovirus

text: known to be transmitted by ticks, prominent

text: plaques

text: , or areas where the cells

text: were affected by virus infection

text: , were observed on one-cell-thick cultures of

text: African green monkey kidney cells

text: . The plaques did not resemble the effects of Heartland virus, and the researchers hypothesized that they were the work of another virus. Examining

text: supernatants

text: from these cell cultures under the

text: electron microscope

text: revealed virus particles of different shapes, including filaments and spheres. These features are typical of viruses of the family

text: Orthomyxoviridae

text: , such as

text: influenza A virus

text: As with most other microscopy development in the late 19th and early 20th century,the fluorescent microscope was pioneered by associates to Carl Zeiss AG in Jena, Germany.In 1904, Moritz von Rohr and August Köhler at Carl Zeiss constructed the first ultraviolet microscope.The intent of the microscope was to obtain higher optical resolution by using illumination with a shorter wavelength than visual light.However, they experienced difficulties with autofluorescence when observing biological material. Fortunately,Köhler saw the potential of fluorescence. This led him and the Carl Zeiss co-inventor of the ultramicroscope, Henry Siedentopf,to build a prototype of a specialized fluorescent microscope in 1908.Unfortunately, the ultraviolet light source they used was somewhat dim and fluorescence microscopy remained impractical untilHeinrich Lehmann in 1910 applied a much brighter light source and the ultraviolet filtering techniques developed byRobert Wood. Independently, Oskar Heimstädt worked along the same lines together with a competitorto Carl Zeiss; C Reichert, Optische Werke AG in Vienna, which today is a part of Leica Microsystems.

text: As with most other microscopy development in the late 19th and early 20th century,the fluorescent microscope was pioneered by associates to

text: Carl Zeiss AG

text: in Jena, Germany.In 1904,

text: Moritz von Rohr

text: and

text: August Köhler

text: at Carl Zeiss constructed the first ultraviolet microscope.The intent of the microscope was to obtain higher optical resolution by using illumination with a shorter wavelength than visual light.However, they experienced difficulties with

text: autofluorescence

text: when observing biological material. Fortunately,Köhler saw the potential of fluorescence. This led him and the Carl Zeiss co-inventor of the

text: ultramicroscope

text: Henry Siedentopf

text: ,to build a prototype of a specialized

text: fluorescent microscope

text: in 1908.Unfortunately, the ultraviolet light source they used was somewhat dim and fluorescence microscopy remained impractical until

text: Heinrich Lehmann

text: in 1910 applied a much brighter light source and the ultraviolet filtering techniques developed by

text: Robert Wood

text: . Independently,

text: Oskar Heimstädt

text: worked along the same lines together with a competitorto Carl Zeiss; C Reichert, Optische Werke AG in Vienna, which today is a part of

text: Leica Microsystems

text: Zacharias Janssen (also Zacharias Jansen or  Sacharias Jansen) (1585 – pre-1632) was a Dutch spectacle-maker from Middelburg associated with the invention of the first optical telescope. Janssen is sometimes also credited for inventing the first truly compound microscope. However, the origin of the microscope, just like the origin of the telescope, is a matter of debate.

text: Zacharias Janssen (also Zacharias Jansen or  Sacharias Jansen) (1585 – pre-1632) was a Dutch spectacle-maker from

text: Middelburg

text: associated with the invention of the first

text: optical telescope

text: . Janssen is sometimes also credited for inventing the first truly

text: compound microscope

text: . However, the origin of the microscope, just like the origin of the telescope, is a matter of debate.

text: Born in Hamburg, Schleiden was educated at University of Jena, then practiced law in Heidelberg, but soon developed his love for the botany into a full-time pursuit.  Schleiden preferred to study plant structure under the microscope.  While a professor of botany at the University of Jena, he wrote Failures to Contributate to Phytogenesis (1838), in which he stated that the different parts of the plant organism are composed of cells. Thus, Schleiden and Schwann became the first to formulate what was then an informal belief as a principle of biology equal in importance to the atomic theory of chemistry.  He also recognized the importance of the cell nucleus, discovered in 1831 by the Scottish botanist Robert Brown, and sensed its connection with cell division.

text: Born in

text: Hamburg

text: , Schleiden was educated at

text: University of Jena

text: , then practiced law in Heidelberg, but soon developed his love for the

text: botany

text: into a full-time pursuit.  Schleiden preferred to study plant structure under the

text: microscope

text: .  While a professor of botany at the

text: University of Jena

text: , he wrote Failures to Contributate to Phytogenesis (1838), in which he stated that the different parts of the plant organism are composed of cells. Thus, Schleiden and Schwann became the first to formulate what was then an informal belief as a principle of biology equal in importance to the atomic theory of chemistry.  He also recognized the importance of the

text: cell nucleus

text: , discovered in 1831 by the Scottish botanist

entity_name: Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)

text: Robert Brown

text: , and sensed its connection with

text: cell division

text: Thermodynamics is concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. It defines macroscopic variables, such as internal energy, entropy, and pressure, that partly describe a body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints, that are common to all materials, not the peculiar properties of particular materials. These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics.  Thermodynamics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, such as molecules. The behavior of these microscopic particles is described by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from, statistical mechanics.

text: Thermodynamics is concerned with

text: heat

text: and

text: temperature

text: and their relation to

text: energy

text: and

text: work

text: . It defines

text: macroscopic

text: variables, such as

text: internal energy

text: entropy

text: , and

text: pressure

text: , that partly describe a body of matter or radiation. It states that the behavior of those variables is subject to general constraints, that are common to all materials, not the peculiar properties of particular materials. These general constraints are expressed in the four laws of thermodynamics.  Thermodynamics describes the bulk behavior of the body, not the microscopic behaviors of the very large numbers of its microscopic constituents, such as molecules. The behavior of these microscopic particles is described by, and the laws of thermodynamics are derived from,

text: statistical mechanics

text: s.  Origin of "Microbial" 1880-85; < Greek mīkro- micro- small + bíos life).  "Cytology" 1857; < Cyto-is derived from the Greek "kytos" meaning "hollow, as a cell or container." + -logy meaning "the study of").  Microbial cytology is analyzed under a microscope for cells which were collected from a part of the body. The main purpose of microbial cytology is to see the structure of the cells, and how they form and operate.

text: s.  Origin of "Microbial" 1880-85; < Greek mīkro- micro- small + bíos life).  "Cytology" 1857; < Cyto-is derived from the Greek "kytos" meaning "hollow, as a cell or container." + -logy meaning "the study of").  Microbial cytology is analyzed under a

text: microscope

text: for cells which were collected from a part of the body. The main purpose of microbial cytology is to see the structure of the

text: cells

text: , and how they form and operate.

text: The Advanced Light Source (ALS) in Berkeley CA is home to XM-1 (http://www.cxro.lbl.gov/BL612/), a full field soft X-ray microscope operated by the Center for X-ray Optics  and dedicated to various applications in modern nanoscience, such as nanomagnetic materials, environmental and materials sciences and biology. XM-1 uses an X-ray lens to focus X-rays on a CCD, in a manner similar to an optical microscope. XM-1 held the world record in spatial resolution with Fresnel zone plates down to 15 nm and is able to combine high spatial resolution with a sub-100ps time resolution to study e.g. ultrafast spin dynamics.  In July 2012, a group at DESY claimed a record spatial resolution of 10 nm, by using the hard X-ray scanning microscope at PETRA III.

text: The Advanced Light Source (ALS) in Berkeley CA is home to XM-1 (http://www.cxro.lbl.gov/BL612/), a full field soft X-ray microscope operated by the Center for X-ray Optics  and dedicated to various applications in modern nanoscience, such as nanomagnetic materials, environmental and materials sciences and biology. XM-1 uses an X-ray lens to focus X-rays on a CCD, in a manner similar to an optical microscope. XM-1 held the world record in spatial resolution with Fresnel zone plates down to 15 nm and is able to combine high spatial resolution with a sub-100ps time resolution to study e.g. ultrafast spin dynamics.  In July 2012, a group at

text: DESY

text: claimed a record spatial resolution of 10 nm, by using the hard X-ray scanning microscope at PETRA III.

text: Christopher Cock was a London instrument maker of the 17th century, who supplied microscopes to Robert Hooke.  These microscopes were compound lens instruments, which suffered greatly from spherical aberration.

text: Christopher Cock was a

text: London

text: instrument maker of the 17th century, who supplied

text: microscope

text: s to

text: Robert Hooke

text: .  These microscopes were compound lens instruments, which suffered greatly from

text: spherical aberration

text: Dark field and phase contrast setups are based on an Abbe, aplanatic, or achromatic condenser, but to the light path add a dark field stop or various size phase rings. These additional elements are housed in various ways. In most modern microscope (ca. 1990s–), such elements are housed in sliders that fit into a slot between the illuminator and the condenser lens. Many older microscopes house these elements in a turret-type condenser, these elements are housed in a turret below the condenser lens and rotated into place.

text: Dark field

text: and

text: phase contrast

text: setups are based on an Abbe, aplanatic, or achromatic condenser, but to the light path add a dark field stop or various size phase rings. These additional elements are housed in various ways. In most modern microscope (ca. 1990s–), such elements are housed in sliders that fit into a slot between the illuminator and the condenser lens. Many older microscopes house these elements in a turret-type condenser, these elements are housed in a turret below the condenser lens and rotated into place.

text: |- bgcolor=#fefefe| 10901 ||  || November 30, 1997 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=902 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10902 ||  || November 25, 1997 || Xinglong || SCAP ||  —|-id=903 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10903 ||  || November 24, 1997 || Kushiro || S. Ueda, H. Kaneda ||  —|-id=904 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10904 ||  || November 29, 1997 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=905 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10905 ||  || November 29, 1997 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=906 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10906 ||  || November 29, 1997 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=907 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10907 Savalle ||  || December 6, 1997 || Caussols || ODAS || |-id=908 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10908 Kallestroetzel ||  || December 7, 1997 || Caussols || ODAS || |-id=909 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10909 ||  || December 5, 1997 || Dynic || A. Sugie ||  —|-id=910 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10910 || 1997 YX || December 20, 1997 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=911 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10911 ||  || December 19, 1997 || Xinglong || SCAP ||  —|-id=912 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10912 ||  || December 25, 1997 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=913 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10913 ||  || December 31, 1997 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=914 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10914 Tucker ||  || December 31, 1997 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || |-id=915 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10915 ||  || December 29, 1997 || Xinglong || SCAP ||  —|-id=916 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10916 Okina-Ouna ||  || December 31, 1997 || Chichibu || N. Satō || |-id=917 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10917 || 1998 AN || January 5, 1998 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=918 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10918 Kodaly ||  || January 1, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || |-id=919 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10919 Pepíkzicha ||  || January 10, 1998 || Ondřejov || L. Kotková || |-id=920 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10920 ||  || January 19, 1998 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=921 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10921 Romanozen ||  || January 17, 1998 || Dossobuono || Madonna di Dossobuono || |-id=922 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10922 ||  || January 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=923 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10923 ||  || January 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=924 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10924 Mariagriffin ||  || January 29, 1998 || Cocoa || I. P. Griffin || |-id=925 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10925 Ventoux ||  || January 28, 1998 || Bédoin || P. Antonini || |-id=926 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10926 ||  || January 25, 1998 || Haleakalā || NEAT ||  —|-id=927 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10927 Vaucluse ||  || January 29, 1998 || Blauvac || R. Roy || |-id=928 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10928 Caprara ||  || January 25, 1998 || Cima Ekar || M. Tombelli, G. Forti || |-id=929 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10929 Chenfangyun ||  || February 1, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || |-id=930 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10930 Jinyong ||  || February 6, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || |-id=931 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10931 Ceccano || 1998 DA || February 16, 1998 || Ceccano || G. Masi || |-id=932 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10932 Rebentrost ||  || February 18, 1998 || Drebach || G. Lehmann || |-id=933 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10933 ||  || February 17, 1998 || Nachi-Katsuura || Y. Shimizu, T. Urata ||  —|-id=934 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10934 Pauldelvaux ||  || February 27, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=935 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10935 || 1998 EC || March 1, 1998 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=936 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10936 ||  || March 22, 1998 || Nachi-Katsuura || Y. Shimizu, T. Urata ||  —|-id=937 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10937 Ferris ||  || August 27, 1998 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || |-id=938 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10938 Lorenzalevy ||  || September 17, 1998 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || |-id=939 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10939 ||  || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=940 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10940 ||  || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=941 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10941 ||  || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=942 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10942 ||  || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=943 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10943 Brunier ||  || March 20, 1999 || Caussols || ODAS || |-id=944 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10944 ||  || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=945 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10945 ||  || April 14, 1999 || Nachi-Katsuura || Y. Shimizu, T. Urata ||  —|-id=946 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10946 ||  || April 16, 1999 || Xinglong || SCAP ||  —|-id=947 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10947 Kaiserstuhl || 2061 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=948 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10948 Odenwald || 2207 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=949 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10949 Königstuhl || 3066 P-L || September 25, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=950 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10950 Albertjansen || 4049 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=951 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10951 Spessart || 4050 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=952 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10952 Vogelsberg || 4152 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=953 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10953 Gerdatschira || 4276 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=954 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10954 Spiegel || 4545 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=955 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10955 Harig || 5011 P-L || October 22, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=956 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10956 Vosges || 5023 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=957 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10957 Alps || 6068 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=958 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10958 Mont Blanc || 6188 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=959 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10959 Appennino || 6579 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=960 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10960 Gran Sasso || 6580 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=961 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10961 Buysballot || 6809 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=962 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10962 Sonnenborgh || 9530 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=963 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10963 van der Brugge || 2088 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=964 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10964 Degraaff || 3216 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=965 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10965 van Leverink || 3297 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=966 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10966 van der Hucht || 3308 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=967 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10967 Billallen || 4349 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=968 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10968 Sterken || 4393 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=969 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10969 Perryman || 4827 T-1 || May 13, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=970 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10970 de Zeeuw || 1079 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=971 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10971 van Dishoeck || 1179 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=972 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10972 Merbold || 1188 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=973 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10973 Thomasreiter || 1210 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=974 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10974 Carolalbert || 2225 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=975 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10975 Schelderode || 2246 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=976 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10976 Wubbena || 2287 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=977 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10977 Mathlener || 3177 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=978 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10978 Bärbchen || 4095 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=979 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10979 Fristephenson || 4171 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=980 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10980 Breimer || 4294 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=981 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10981 Fransaris || 1148 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=982 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10982 Poerink || 2672 T-3 || October 11, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=983 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10983 Smolders || 3196 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=984 bgcolor=#FA8072| 10984 Gispen || 3507 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=985 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10985 Feast || 4017 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=986 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10986 Govert || 4313 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=987 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10987 || 1967 US || October 30, 1967 || Hamburg-Bergedorf || L. Kohoutek ||  —|-id=988 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10988 Feinstein || 1968 OL || July 28, 1968 || El Leoncito || Félix Aguilar Obs. || |-id=989 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 10989 Dolios ||  || September 19, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=990 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10990 Okunev ||  || September 28, 1973 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=991 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10991 Dulov ||  || September 14, 1974 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=992 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10992 Veryuslaviya || 1974 SF || September 19, 1974 || Nauchnij || L. I. Chernykh || |-id=993 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10993 || 1975 XF || December 1, 1975 || Cerro El Roble || C. Torres, S. Barros ||  —|-id=994 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10994 ||  || March 15, 1978 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=995 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10995 || 1978 NS || July 10, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, E. M. Shoemaker ||  —|-id=996 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10996 Armandspitz ||  || July 7, 1978 || Palomar || S. J. Bus || |-id=997 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10997 Gahm ||  || September 2, 1978 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist || |-id=998 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10998 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=999 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10999 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=000 bgcolor=#fefefe| 11000 ||  || November 6, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|}

text: |- bgcolor=#fefefe| 10901 ||  || November 30, 1997 ||

text: Ōizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=902 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10902 ||  || November 25, 1997 ||

text: Xinglong

text: SCAP

text: ||  —|-id=903 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10903 ||  || November 24, 1997 ||

text: Kushiro

text: S. Ueda

text: H. Kaneda

text: ||  —|-id=904 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10904 ||  || November 29, 1997 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: ||  —|-id=905 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10905 ||  || November 29, 1997 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=906 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10906 ||  || November 29, 1997 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=907 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10907 Savalle ||  || December 6, 1997 ||

entity_name: Centre de recherches en géodynamique et astrométrie

text: Caussols

text: ODAS

text: || |-id=908 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10908 Kallestroetzel ||  || December 7, 1997 || Caussols || ODAS || |-id=909 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10909 ||  || December 5, 1997 ||

entity_name: List of asteroid-discovering observatories

text: Dynic

text: A. Sugie

text: ||  —|-id=910 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10910 || 1997 YX || December 20, 1997 ||

text: Ōizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=911 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10911 ||  || December 19, 1997 ||

text: Xinglong

text: SCAP

text: ||  —|-id=912 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10912 ||  || December 25, 1997 ||

text: Ōizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=913 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10913 ||  || December 31, 1997 || Ōizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=914 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10914 Tucker ||  || December 31, 1997 ||

text: Prescott

text: P. G. Comba

text: || |-id=915 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10915 ||  || December 29, 1997 ||

text: Xinglong

text: SCAP

text: ||  —|-id=916 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10916 Okina-Ouna ||  || December 31, 1997 ||

text: Chichibu

text: N. Satō

text: || |-id=917 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10917 || 1998 AN || January 5, 1998 ||

text: Ōizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=918 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10918 Kodaly ||  || January 1, 1998 ||

text: Kitt Peak

text: Spacewatch

text: || |-id=919 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10919 Pepíkzicha ||  || January 10, 1998 ||

text: Ondřejov

text: L. Kotková

text: || |-id=920 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10920 ||  || January 19, 1998 ||

text: Ōizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=921 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10921 Romanozen ||  || January 17, 1998 ||

text: Dossobuono

text: Madonna di Dossobuono

text: || |-id=922 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10922 ||  || January 20, 1998 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: ||  —|-id=923 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10923 ||  || January 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=924 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10924 Mariagriffin ||  || January 29, 1998 ||

entity_name: Astronaut Memorial Planetarium and Observatory

text: Cocoa

text: I. P. Griffin

text: || |-id=925 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10925 Ventoux ||  || January 28, 1998 ||

text: Bédoin

text: P. Antonini

text: || |-id=926 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10926 ||  || January 25, 1998 ||

text: Haleakalā

text: NEAT

text: ||  —|-id=927 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10927 Vaucluse ||  || January 29, 1998 ||

text: Blauvac

text: R. Roy

text: || |-id=928 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10928 Caprara ||  || January 25, 1998 ||

text: Cima Ekar

text: M. Tombelli

text: G. Forti

text: || |-id=929 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10929 Chenfangyun ||  || February 1, 1998 ||

text: Xinglong

text: SCAP

text: || |-id=930 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10930 Jinyong ||  || February 6, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || |-id=931 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10931 Ceccano || 1998 DA || February 16, 1998 ||

text: Ceccano

text: G. Masi

text: || |-id=932 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10932 Rebentrost ||  || February 18, 1998 ||

text: Drebach

text: G. Lehmann

text: || |-id=933 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10933 ||  || February 17, 1998 ||

text: Nachi-Katsuura

text: Y. Shimizu

text: T. Urata

text: ||  —|-id=934 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10934 Pauldelvaux ||  || February 27, 1998 ||

text: La Silla

text: E. W. Elst

text: || |-id=935 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10935 || 1998 EC || March 1, 1998 ||

text: Ōizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=936 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10936 ||  || March 22, 1998 ||

text: Nachi-Katsuura

text: Y. Shimizu

text: T. Urata

text: ||  —|-id=937 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10937 Ferris ||  || August 27, 1998 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

entity_name: Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search

text: LONEOS

text: || |-id=938 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10938 Lorenzalevy ||  || September 17, 1998 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || |-id=939 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10939 ||  || February 10, 1999 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: ||  —|-id=940 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10940 ||  || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=941 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10941 ||  || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=942 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10942 ||  || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=943 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10943 Brunier ||  || March 20, 1999 ||

text: Caussols

text: ODAS

text: || |-id=944 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10944 ||  || March 19, 1999 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: ||  —|-id=945 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10945 ||  || April 14, 1999 ||

text: Nachi-Katsuura

text: Y. Shimizu

text: T. Urata

text: ||  —|-id=946 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10946 ||  || April 16, 1999 ||

text: Xinglong

text: SCAP

text: ||  —|-id=947 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10947 Kaiserstuhl || 2061 P-L || September 24, 1960 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: 10974 Carolalbert

text: || 2225 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=975 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10975 Schelderode || 2246 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=976 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10976 Wubbena || 2287 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=977 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10977 Mathlener || 3177 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=978 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10978 Bärbchen || 4095 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=979 bgcolor=#fefefe|

text: 10979 Fristephenson

text: || 4171 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=980 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10980 Breimer || 4294 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=981 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10981 Fransaris || 1148 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=982 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10982 Poerink || 2672 T-3 || October 11, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=983 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10983 Smolders || 3196 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=984 bgcolor=#FA8072| 10984 Gispen || 3507 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=985 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10985 Feast || 4017 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=986 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10986 Govert || 4313 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=987 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10987 || 1967 US || October 30, 1967 ||

text: Hamburg-Bergedorf

text: L. Kohoutek

text: ||  —|-id=988 bgcolor=#fefefe|

text: 10988 Feinstein

text: || 1968 OL || July 28, 1968 ||

text: El Leoncito

text: Félix Aguilar Obs.

text: || |-id=989 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 10989 Dolios ||  || September 19, 1973 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: || |-id=990 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10990 Okunev ||  || September 28, 1973 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=991 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10991 Dulov ||  || September 14, 1974 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=992 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10992 Veryuslaviya || 1974 SF || September 19, 1974 || Nauchnij ||

text: L. I. Chernykh

text: || |-id=993 bgcolor=#fefefe| 10993 || 1975 XF || December 1, 1975 ||

entity_name: National Astronomical Observatory (Chile)

text: Cerro El Roble

text: C. Torres

text: S. Barros

text: ||  —|-id=994 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10994 ||  || March 15, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=995 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10995 || 1978 NS || July 10, 1978 || Palomar ||

text: E. F. Helin

text: E. M. Shoemaker

text: ||  —|-id=996 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10996 Armandspitz ||  || July 7, 1978 || Palomar ||

text: S. J. Bus

text: || |-id=997 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10997 Gahm ||  || September 2, 1978 ||

text: La Silla

text: C.-I. Lagerkvist

text: || |-id=998 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 10998 ||  || October 27, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. M. Olmstead

text: ||  —|-id=999 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 10999 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar ||

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=000 bgcolor=#fefefe| 11000 ||  || November 6, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|}

text: In 1951, physicist Erwin Wilhelm Müller invents the field ion microscope and is the first to see atoms, e.g. bonded atomic arrangements at the tip of a metal point.

text: In 1951, physicist

text: Erwin Wilhelm Müller

text: invents the

text: field ion microscope

text: and is the first to see

text: atom

text: s, e.g. bonded atomic arrangements at the tip of a metal point.

text: Philip O. Gravelle, developed the comparison microscope for the identification of fired bullets and cartridge cases with the support and guidance of Major Calvin H. Goddard. It was a giant leap in the science of firearms identification in forensic science.  The firearm from which a bullet or cartridge case has been fired is identified by the comparison of the unique striae left on the bullet or cartridge case from the worn, machined metal of the barrel, breach block, extractor, or firing pin in the gun. It was Gravelle who mistrusted his memory. "As long as he could inspect only one bullet at a time with his microscope, and had to keep the picture of it in his memory until he placed the comparison bullet under the microscope, scientific precision could not be attained. He invented the comparison microscope and Goddard made it work."Sir Sydney Smith also appreciated the idea, emphasizing the importance of stereo-microscope in forensic science and firearms identification. He took the comparison microscope to Scotland and introduced it to the European scientists for firearms identification and other forensic uses.

text: Philip O. Gravelle, developed the

text: comparison microscope

text: for the identification of fired

text: bullets

text: and

text: cartridge cases

text: with the support and guidance of Major Calvin H. Goddard. It was a giant leap in the science of

text: firearms

text: identification in

text: forensic science

text: .  The firearm from which a bullet or cartridge case has been fired is identified by the comparison of the unique striae left on the bullet or cartridge case from the worn, machined metal of the

text: barrel

text: , breach block,

text: extractor

text: , or

text: firing pin

text: in the

text: gun

text: . It was Gravelle who mistrusted his memory. "As long as he could inspect only one bullet at a time with his microscope, and had to keep the picture of it in his memory until he placed the comparison bullet under the microscope, scientific precision could not be attained. He invented the comparison microscope and Goddard made it work."

text: Sir Sydney Smith

text: also appreciated the idea, emphasizing the importance of

text: stereo-microscope

text: in forensic science and firearms identification. He took the comparison microscope to

text: Scotland

text: and introduced it to the European scientists for firearms identification and other forensic uses.

text: A macroscopic view of a ball is just that: a ball. A microscopic view could reveal a thick round skin seemingly composed entirely of puckered cracks and fissures (as viewed through a microscope) or, further down in scale, a collection of molecules in a roughly spherical shape. An example of a physical theory that takes a deliberately macroscopic viewpoint is thermodynamics. An example of a topic that extends from macroscopic to microscopic viewpoints is histology.

text: A macroscopic view of a

text: ball

text: is just that: a ball. A

text: microscopic

text: view could reveal a thick round skin seemingly composed entirely of puckered cracks and fissures (as viewed through a

text: microscope

text: ) or, further down in scale, a collection of

text: molecule

text: s in a roughly

text: spherical

text: shape. An example of a physical theory that takes a deliberately macroscopic viewpoint is

text: thermodynamics

text: . An example of a topic that extends from macroscopic to microscopic viewpoints is

text: histology

text: In 1619 Drebbel designed and built telescopes and microscopes and was, with Gerbier, involved in a building project for the Duke of Buckingham. William Boreel, the Dutch Ambassador to England, mentions the microscope that was developed by Drebbel. Drebbel became famous for his invention in 1621 of a microscope with two convex lenses.  Several authors, including Christiaan Huygens assign the invention of the compound microscope to Drebbel. However, a Neapolitan, named Fontana, claimed the discovery for himself in 1618. Other sources attribute the invention of the compound microscope directly to Hans Jansen and his son Zacharias around 1595. In 1624 Galileo sent a Drebbel-type microscope to Federico Cesi (1585–1630), a wealthy noble man  in Rome who used it to illustrate Apiarum, his book about bees.

text: In 1619 Drebbel designed and built telescopes and microscopes and was, with Gerbier, involved in a building project for the Duke of Buckingham.

text: William Boreel

text: , the Dutch Ambassador to England, mentions the microscope that was developed by Drebbel. Drebbel became famous for his invention in 1621 of a

text: microscope

text: with two

text: convex lens

text: es.  Several authors, including

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: assign the invention of the compound microscope to Drebbel. However, a Neapolitan, named Fontana, claimed the discovery for himself in 1618. Other sources attribute the invention of the compound microscope directly to Hans Jansen and his son Zacharias around 1595. In 1624

text: Galileo

text: sent a Drebbel-type microscope to

text: Federico Cesi

text: (1585–1630), a wealthy noble man  in Rome who used it to illustrate Apiarum, his book about bees.

text: Hooke most famously describes a fly's eye and a plant cell (where he coined that term because plant cells, which are walled, reminded him of the cells in a honeycomb). Known for its spectacular copperplate engravings of the miniature world, particularly its fold-out plates of insects, the text itself reinforces the tremendous power of the new microscope. The plates of insects fold out to be larger than the large folio itself, the engraving of the louse in particular folding out to four times the size of the book. Although the book is best known for demonstrating the power of the microscope, Micrographia also describes distant planetary bodies, the wave theory of light, the organic origin of fossils, and other philosophical and scientific interests of its author.

text: Hooke most famously describes a

text: fly

text: 's eye and a plant

text: cell

text: (where he coined that term because plant cells, which are walled, reminded him of the cells in a

text: honeycomb

text: ). Known for its spectacular copperplate engravings of the miniature world, particularly its fold-out plates of

text: insect

text: s, the text itself reinforces the tremendous power of the new

text: microscope

text: . The plates of insects fold out to be larger than the large

text: folio

text: itself, the engraving of the

text: louse

text: in particular folding out to four times the size of the book. Although the book is best known for demonstrating the power of the microscope, Micrographia also describes distant

text: planetary bodies

text: , the

text: wave theory of light

text: , the organic origin of

text: fossil

text: s, and other philosophical and scientific interests of its author.

text: Contributors to the first issue include Thomas Henry Huxley, Joseph Lister, William Crawford Williamson, and George Shadbolt. The contents of the early issues are diverse, and include original research articles, translations of papers published in other languages, transactions of the meetings of the Microscopical Society of London (later the Royal Microscopical Society), and book reviews. The journal also published short notes and memoranda, aimed "to gather up fragments of information, which singly might appear to be useless but together are of great importance to science"; the editors encouraged non-specialist submissions to this section, considering that "there are few possessors of a Microscope who have not met with some stray fact or facts which, published in this way, may not lead to important results." The editors also intended "to relieve the graver and more strictly scientific matter of the Journal by lighter contributions, such as will be found useful to the beginner, not uninteresting to the advanced observer, and of interest perhaps to the general reader."

text: Contributors to the first issue include

text: Thomas Henry Huxley

text: Joseph Lister

text: William Crawford Williamson

text: , and

text: George Shadbolt

text: . The contents of the early issues are diverse, and include original research articles, translations of papers published in other languages, transactions of the meetings of the Microscopical Society of London (later the

text: Royal Microscopical Society

text: ), and book reviews. The journal also published short notes and memoranda, aimed "to gather up fragments of information, which singly might appear to be useless but together are of great importance to science"; the editors encouraged non-specialist submissions to this section, considering that "there are few possessors of a Microscope who have not met with some stray fact or facts which, published in this way, may not lead to important results." The editors also intended "to relieve the graver and more strictly scientific matter of the Journal by lighter contributions, such as will be found useful to the beginner, not uninteresting to the advanced observer, and of interest perhaps to the general reader."

text: The first S-layers were discovered in bacteria in the 1950s and the presence of S-layers in many Archaea was determined through microscopic (both light and electron) studies of Archaea. The presence of an S-layer in a member of the Methanosarcinales was determined in the 1980s by electron microscope (EM) studies examining the cell morphology of Methanosarcina mazei. This, and other EM studies, confirmed that the cell envelope structure of the Methanosarcinales is composed of a cytoplasmic membrane (CM) with an additional barrier (the S-layer) external to the CM. Under conditions of low osmolarity the S-layer is extensively decorated with a polysaccharide, termed methanochondroitin, and the cells tend to grow in multicellular aggregates. Upon adaptation to high osmolarity conditions the cells disaggregate and grow as single cells that lack the methanochondroitin layer.

text: The first S-layers were discovered in bacteria in the 1950s and the presence of S-layers in many Archaea was determined through microscopic (both light and electron) studies of Archaea. The presence of an S-layer in a member of the Methanosarcinales was determined in the 1980s by

text: electron microscope

text: (EM) studies examining the cell morphology of Methanosarcina mazei. This, and other EM studies, confirmed that the cell envelope structure of the Methanosarcinales is composed of a cytoplasmic membrane (CM) with an additional barrier (the S-layer) external to the CM. Under conditions of low osmolarity the S-layer is extensively decorated with a polysaccharide, termed methanochondroitin, and the cells tend to grow in multicellular aggregates. Upon adaptation to high osmolarity conditions the cells disaggregate and grow as single cells that lack the methanochondroitin layer.

text: Fluoro-Jade stained tissue can be visualized under an epifluorescent microscope using a filter system designed for fluorescein or fluorescein isothiocynate (FITC) (excitation: 495 nm; emission:521 nm). Multiple morphological features can be detected using fluoro-jade stain including cell bodies, dendrites, axons, and axon terminals.  Even though all fluoro-jade derivatives can detect these specific morphological features, the newer derivatives (FlJb and FlJc) have greater specificity and resolution and therefore are superior in detecting finer morphological features.  Fluorojade is typically quantified in every 6th-12th 40 nm section within the region of interest and expressed as cells/section.  Alternatively, stereological procedures may be used to estimate total fluorojade positive cells within the defined region.

text: Fluoro-Jade stained tissue can be visualized under an

text: epifluorescent microscope

text: using a filter system designed for fluorescein or fluorescein isothiocynate (FITC) (excitation: 495 nm; emission:521 nm). Multiple morphological features can be detected using fluoro-jade stain including

text: cell bodies

text: dendrite

text: s,

text: axon

text: s, and

text: axon terminal

text: s.  Even though all fluoro-jade derivatives can detect these specific morphological features, the newer derivatives (FlJb and FlJc) have greater specificity and resolution and therefore are superior in detecting finer morphological features.  Fluorojade is typically quantified in every 6th-12th 40 nm section within the region of interest and expressed as cells/section.  Alternatively, stereological procedures may be used to estimate total fluorojade positive cells within the defined region.

text: The primary purposes of analysis are to determine historic finishes and to determine principle components such as media or basic pigments. There are two methodologies in the preparation of paint samples for microscopic analysis. The first, which is derived from the medical world, is to treat the sample as a specimen and set it into a fixed position in a permanent medium such as paraffin. The specimen is then ground to a flat finish, providing a horizontal surface for viewing under a microscope. The second is to leave the samples in a loose condition with their broken surfaces which then can be manipulated under the microscope to permit a variety of views of the layers. The primary disadvantage to the first method is that the grinding process tends to blur layers together, especially layers of similar or identical colors. It also provide only a single, fixed point of viewing. The second method lacks these disadvantages, although skill and experience is required to manipulate the samples effectively.

text: The primary purposes of analysis are to determine historic finishes and to determine principle components such as media or basic pigments. There are two methodologies in the preparation of paint samples for microscopic analysis. The first, which is derived from the medical world, is to treat the sample as a specimen and set it into a fixed position in a permanent medium such as

text: paraffin

text: . The specimen is then ground to a flat finish, providing a horizontal surface for viewing under a microscope. The second is to leave the samples in a loose condition with their broken surfaces which then can be manipulated under the microscope to permit a variety of views of the layers. The primary disadvantage to the first method is that the grinding process tends to blur layers together, especially layers of similar or identical colors. It also provide only a single, fixed point of viewing. The second method lacks these disadvantages, although skill and experience is required to manipulate the samples effectively.

text: Grossly and microscopically, it consists of the ovarian cortex.

text: Atypical hyperplasia is a benign (noncancerous) cellular hyperplasia in which cells show some atypia. In this condition, cells look abnormal under a microscope and are increased in number.

text: Atypical hyperplasia is a

text: benign

text: (noncancerous) cellular

text: hyperplasia

text: in which cells show some

text: atypia

text: . In this condition, cells look abnormal under a

text: microscope

text: and are increased in number.

text: AFM was invented by IBM Scientists in 1982.The precursor to the AFM, the scanning tunneling microscope (STM), was developed by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in the early 1980s at IBM Research - Zurich, a development that earned them the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1986. Binnig invented the atomic-force microscope and the first experimental implementation was made by Binnig, Quate and Gerber in 1986.

text: AFM was invented by IBM Scientists in 1982.The precursor to the AFM, the

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: (STM), was developed by

text: Gerd Binnig

text: and

text: Heinrich Rohrer

text: in the early 1980s at

text: IBM Research - Zurich

text: , a development that earned them the

text: Nobel Prize for Physics

text: in 1986. Binnig invented the atomic-force microscope and the first experimental implementation was made by Binnig,

text: Quate

text: and

text: Gerber

text: in 1986.

text: In 1674, in a letter to the Royal Society, the Dutch pioneer of microscopy Antoni van Leeuwenhoek wrote that he had collected water samples from an inland lake, in which he found "animalcules" that were "green in the middle, and before and behind white." Clifford Dobell regards it as "almost certain" that these were Euglena viridis, whose "peculiar arrangement of chromatophores...gives the flagellate this appearance at low magnification."

text: In 1674, in a letter to the Royal Society, the Dutch pioneer of microscopy

text: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

text: wrote that he had collected water samples from an inland lake, in which he found "animalcules" that were "green in the middle, and before and behind white." Clifford Dobell regards it as "almost certain" that these were Euglena viridis, whose "peculiar arrangement of chromatophores...gives the flagellate this appearance at low magnification."

text: Nanophytoplankton are particularly small phytoplankton with sizes between 2 and 20 µm. They are the autotrophic part of nanoplankton. Like other phytoplankton, nanophytoplankton are microscopic organisms that obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the upper sunlit layer of ocean or other bodies of water. These microscopic free-floating organisms, including algae, and cyanobacteria, fix large amounts of carbon which would otherwise be released as carbon dioxide.

text: Nanophytoplankton are particularly small

text: phytoplankton

text: with sizes between 2 and 20 µm. They are the

text: autotrophic

text: part of

text: nanoplankton

text: . Like other phytoplankton, nanophytoplankton are microscopic organisms that obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the upper sunlit layer of ocean or other bodies of water. These microscopic free-floating organisms, including

text: algae

text: , and

text: cyanobacteria

text: , fix large amounts of

text: carbon

text: which would otherwise be released as

text: carbon dioxide

text: Flustra foliacea was studied as early as 1665, when Robert Hooke published observations of various organisms and materials made with an early microscope. It was first given a binomial name in 1758, when Carl Linnaeus included it in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae as Eschara foliacea. In later publications, Linnaeus divided bryozoans into more than one genus, and so the species came to be called Flustra foliacea. It is the type species of the genus Flustra.

text: Flustra foliacea was studied as early as 1665, when

text: Robert Hooke

text: published observations of various organisms and materials made with an early

text: microscope

text: . It was first given a

text: binomial name

text: in 1758, when

text: Carl Linnaeus

text: included it in the

text: 10th edition

text: of his

text: Systema Naturae

text: as Eschara foliacea. In later publications, Linnaeus divided bryozoans into more than one genus, and so the species came to be called Flustra foliacea. It is the

text: type species

text: of the genus

text: Flustra

text: This hall focuses on health and everything related to life and their own lives. In a society where people have more time for recreational activities, higher levels of education and a longer average lifespan, the general public has become much more interested in health, medical sciences and new bio-health technologies.The hall aims to promote awareness of what is currently known about health and life sciences by providing a general overview of the field, linking the different sciences and techniques involved: these include the human body, anatomical sciences, the study of the senses, biomedicine, transplant operations, new medicines, genetics and the genetic engineering revolution, food, understanding relationships between living things and their environment, life expectancy, etc... Life sciences are exceptionally important today and a great deal of interdisciplinary research is being carried out into the field.Discovering how the human body works has always been a tremendous intellectual and scientific challenge. Knowledge has allowed scientists to carry out exhaustive research into illnesses, disorders, functional anomalies and deformities which have, for many years, caused suffering and death. The history of medicine is, on the one hand, the history of humans’ persistent curiosity and desire to understand the world, and, on the other, the history of the struggle between illnesses and the longing to be as healthy and well as possible.The hall also includes exhibits on the development of techniques used in science related to health, life, and the study of human beings: instruments and methods used to represent the body using models, recordings or photographs, as well as some of the most modern examination techniques, microscopic displays, digital simulation, etc. Because the exhibits are scientific and educational, the hall strikes a balance between highly valuable historical objects and exhibits and real organs, interactive experiments, virtual reality, IT models, scale models, scenographic exhibits, reproductions, videos, workshops, etc.

text: The spores are smooth, with a roughly ellipsoid shape, and have typical dimensions of 7–7.5 by 4.5–5 µm. In deposit, such as in a spore print, the spores are light yellow orange, while under the microscope they are a very pale yellowish. The spore bearing cells—the basidia—are 75–80 by 7–9 µm, 4-5-6-spored, slightly club-shaped, and with a distinctly thickened wall at the base. Clamp connections (short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division) are present in the hyphae of all parts of the fruit body.

text: The

text: spores

text: are smooth, with a roughly

text: ellipsoid

text: shape, and have typical dimensions of 7–7.5 by 4.5–5

text: µm

text: . In deposit, such as in a

text: spore print

text: , the spores are light yellow orange, while under the microscope they are a very pale yellowish. The spore bearing cells—the

text: basidia

text: —are 75–80 by 7–9 µm, 4-5-6-spored, slightly club-shaped, and with a distinctly thickened wall at the base.

text: Clamp connection

text: s (short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of

text: nuclear

text: division) are present in the

text: hypha

text: e of all parts of the fruit body.

text: Depending on the size of the microscope, four to six objective lenses of different magnifications may be fitted to a rotating turret known as a nosepiece. These microscopes may also be fitted with accessories for fitting still and video cameras, fluorescence illumination, confocal scanning and many other applications.

text: Depending on the size of the microscope, four to six objective lenses of different magnifications may be fitted to a rotating turret known as a nosepiece. These microscopes may also be fitted with accessories for fitting still and video cameras,

text: fluorescence illumination

text: confocal scanning

text: and many other applications.

text: |-bgcolor=#fefefe| 20901 Mattmuehler ||  || December 1, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=902 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20902 Kylebeighle ||  || December 1, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=903 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20903 ||  || December 1, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=904 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20904 || 2190 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=905 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20905 || 2581 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=906 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20906 || 2727 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=907 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20907 || 2762 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=908 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20908 || 2819 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=909 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20909 || 4026 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=910 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20910 || 4060 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=911 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20911 || 4083 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=912 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20912 || 4129 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=913 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20913 || 4214 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=914 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20914 || 4215 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=915 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20915 || 4302 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=916 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20916 || 4628 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=917 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20917 || 5016 P-L || October 22, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=918 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20918 || 6539 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=919 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20919 || 6606 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=920 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20920 || 6653 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=921 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20921 || 6680 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=922 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20922 || 6769 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=923 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20923 || 6846 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=924 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20924 || 9526 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=925 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20925 || 9596 P-L || October 22, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=926 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20926 || 1101 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=927 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20927 || 1126 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=928 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20928 || 2024 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=929 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20929 || 2050 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=930 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20930 || 2130 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=931 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20931 || 2208 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=932 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20932 || 2258 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=933 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20933 || 3015 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=934 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20934 || 4194 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=935 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20935 || 4265 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=936 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20936 Nemrut Dagi || 4835 T-1 || May 13, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=937 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20937 || 1005 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=938 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20938 || 1075 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=939 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20939 || 1178 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=940 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20940 || 1236 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=941 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20941 || 1341 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=942 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20942 || 2092 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=943 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20943 || 2115 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=944 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20944 || 2200 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=945 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20945 || 2248 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=946 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20946 || 2316 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=947 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 20947 Polyneikes || 2638 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=948 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20948 || 2754 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=949 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20949 || 3024 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=950 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20950 || 3305 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=951 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20951 || 4261 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=952 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 20952 Tydeus || 5151 T-2 || September 25, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=953 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20953 || 1068 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=954 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20954 || 1158 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=955 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20955 || 2387 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=956 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20956 || 3510 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=957 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20957 || 4430 T-3 || October 11, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=958 bgcolor=#FA8072| 20958 || A900 MA || June 29, 1900 || Mount Hamilton || J. E. Keeler ||  —|-id=959 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20959 || 1936 UG || October 21, 1936 || Nice || M. Laugier ||  —|-id=960 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20960 || 1971 UR || October 26, 1971 || Hamburg-Bergedorf || L. Kohoutek ||  —|-id=961 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 20961 Arkesilaos ||  || September 19, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=962 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20962 ||  || March 12, 1977 || Kiso || H. Kosai, K. Furukawa ||  —|-id=963 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20963 Pisarenko ||  || August 19, 1977 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=964 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20964 Mons Naklethi || 1977 UA || October 16, 1977 || Kleť || A. Mrkos || |-id=965 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20965 Kutafin ||  || September 26, 1978 || Nauchnij || L. V. Zhuravleva || |-id=966 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20966 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=967 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20967 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=968 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20968 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=969 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20969 Samo || 1979 SH || September 17, 1979 || Kleť || A. Mrkos || |-id=970 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20970 ||  || February 28, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=971 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20971 ||  || February 28, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=972 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20972 ||  || February 28, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=973 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20973 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=974 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20974 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=975 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20975 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=976 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20976 ||  || March 7, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=977 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20977 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=978 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20978 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=979 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20979 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=980 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20980 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=981 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20981 ||  || March 6, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=982 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20982 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=983 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20983 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=984 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20984 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=985 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20985 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=986 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20986 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=987 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20987 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=988 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20988 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=989 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20989 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=990 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20990 ||  || September 1, 1983 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=991 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20991 Jánkollár ||  || November 28, 1984 || Piszkéstető || M. Antal || |-id=992 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20992 ||  || September 5, 1985 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=993 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20993 ||  || September 5, 1985 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=994 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20994 Atreya || 1985 TS || October 15, 1985 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=995 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 20995 || 1985 VY || November 1, 1985 || La Silla || R. M. West ||  —|-id=996 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20996 || 1986 PB || August 4, 1986 || Palomar || E. F. Helin ||  —|-id=997 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20997 ||  || August 1, 1986 || Palomar || E. F. Helin ||  —|-id=998 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20998 ||  || August 26, 1986 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=999 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20999 || 1987 BF || January 28, 1987 || Ojima || T. Niijima, T. Urata ||  —|-id=000 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 21000 L'Encyclopédie ||  || January 26, 1987 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |}

text: |-bgcolor=#fefefe| 20901 Mattmuehler ||  || December 1, 2000 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: || |-id=902 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20902 Kylebeighle ||  || December 1, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=903 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20903 ||  || December 1, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=904 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20904 || 2190 P-L || September 24, 1960 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: 20936 Nemrut Dagi

text: Mount Hamilton

text: J. E. Keeler

text: ||  —|-id=959 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20959 || 1936 UG || October 21, 1936 ||

text: Nice

text: M. Laugier

text: ||  —|-id=960 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20960 || 1971 UR || October 26, 1971 ||

text: Hamburg-Bergedorf

text: L. Kohoutek

text: ||  —|-id=961 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 20961 Arkesilaos ||  || September 19, 1973 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: || |-id=962 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20962 ||  || March 12, 1977 ||

text: Kiso

text: H. Kosai

text: K. Furukawa

text: ||  —|-id=963 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20963 Pisarenko ||  || August 19, 1977 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=964 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20964 Mons Naklethi || 1977 UA || October 16, 1977 ||

text: Kleť

text: A. Mrkos

text: || |-id=965 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20965 Kutafin ||  || September 26, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. V. Zhuravleva

text: || |-id=966 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20966 ||  || November 7, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=967 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20967 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=968 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20968 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=969 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20969 Samo || 1979 SH || September 17, 1979 ||

text: Kleť

text: A. Mrkos

text: || |-id=970 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 20970 ||  || February 28, 1981 ||

text: Siding Spring

text: S. J. Bus

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: ||  —|-id=991 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20991 Jánkollár ||  || November 28, 1984 ||

text: Piszkéstető

text: M. Antal

text: || |-id=992 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20992 ||  || September 5, 1985 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: ||  —|-id=993 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20993 ||  || September 5, 1985 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=994 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20994 Atreya || 1985 TS || October 15, 1985 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=995 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 20995 || 1985 VY || November 1, 1985 ||

text: La Silla

text: R. M. West

text: ||  —|-id=996 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20996 || 1986 PB || August 4, 1986 ||

text: Palomar

text: E. F. Helin

text: ||  —|-id=997 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 20997 ||  || August 1, 1986 || Palomar || E. F. Helin ||  —|-id=998 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20998 ||  || August 26, 1986 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: ||  —|-id=999 bgcolor=#fefefe| 20999 || 1987 BF || January 28, 1987 ||

text: Ojima

text: T. Niijima

text: T. Urata

text: ||  —|-id=000 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 21000 L'Encyclopédie ||  || January 26, 1987 ||

text: La Silla

text: E. W. Elst

text: The most commonly used otoscopes—those used in emergency rooms, pediatric offices, general practice, and by internists- are monocular devices.  They provide only a two-dimensional view of the ear canal, its contents, and usually at least a portion of the eardrum, depending on what is within the ear canal and its status.  Another method of performing otoscopy (visualization of the ear) is use of a binocular microscope, in conjunction with a larger metal ear speculum, with the patient supine and the head tilted, which provides a much larger field of view and the added advantages of a stable head, far superior lighting, and most importantly, depth perception.  A binocular (two-eyed) view is required in order to judge depth.  If wax or another material obstructs the canal and/or a view of the entire eardrum, it can easily and confidently be removed with specialized suction tips and other microscopic ear instruments, whereas the absence of depth perception with the one-eyed view of a common otoscope makes removal of anything more laborious and hazardous.  Another major advantage of the binocular microscope is that both of the examiner's hands are free, since the microscope is suspended from a stand. The microscope has up to 40x power magnification, which allows much more detailed viewing of the entire ear canal, and of the entire eardrum unless edema of the canal skin prevents it.  Subtle changes in the anatomy are much more easily detected and interpreted than with a monocular view otoscope.  Traditionally only ENT specialists (otolaryngologists) and otologists (subspecialty ear doctors) acquire binocular microscopes and the necessary skills and training to use them, and incorporate their routine use in evaluating patient's ear complaints.  Studies have shown that reliance on a monocular otoscope to diagnose ear disease results in a more than 50% chance of misdiagnosis, as compared to binocular microscopic otoscopy.  The expense of acquiring a binocular microscope is only one obstacle to its being more widely adapted to general medicine.  The low level of familiarity with binocular otoscopy among pediatric and general medicine professors in physician training programs is probably a more difficult obstacle to overcome.  Thus, the standard of general otologic diagnosis and ear care remains, for the most part, the largely antiquated monocular otoscope.

text: ENT

text: specialists (otolaryngologists) and otologists (subspecialty ear doctors) acquire binocular microscopes and the necessary skills and training to use them, and incorporate their routine use in evaluating patient's ear complaints.  Studies have shown that reliance on a monocular otoscope to diagnose ear disease results in a more than 50% chance of misdiagnosis, as compared to binocular microscopic otoscopy.  The expense of acquiring a binocular microscope is only one obstacle to its being more widely adapted to general medicine.  The low level of familiarity with binocular otoscopy among pediatric and general medicine professors in physician training programs is probably a more difficult obstacle to overcome.  Thus, the standard of general otologic diagnosis and ear care remains, for the most part, the largely antiquated monocular otoscope.

text: A cohort of biologists and science educators, the AMS's members use a wide array of microscopical techniques (light microscopy, electron microscopy, fluorescence and confocal microscopes) to further their research and eventually publish their research in its journal Invertebrate Biology.

text: A cohort of biologists and science educators, the AMS's members use a wide array of microscopical techniques (

text: light microscopy

text: electron microscopy

text: fluorescence

text: and

text: confocal microscopes

text: ) to further their research and eventually publish their research in its journal Invertebrate Biology.

text: Great working distance and depth of field are important qualities for this type of microscope. Both qualities are inversely correlated with resolution: the higher the resolution (i.e. the greater the distance at which two adjacent points can be distinguished as separate), the smaller the depth of field and working distance. Some stereo microscopes can deliver a useful magnification up to 100×, comparable to a 10× objective and 10× eyepiece in a normal compound microscope, although the magnification is often much lower. This is around one tenth the useful resolution of a normal compound optical microscope.

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek made more than 500 optical lenses. He also created at least 25 single-lens microscopes, of differing types, of which only nine have survived. These microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-made lenses. Those that have survived are capable of magnification up to 275 times. It is suspected that Van Leeuwenhoek possessed some microscopes that could magnify up to 500 times. Although he has been widely regarded as a dilettante or amateur, his scientific research was of remarkably high quality.

text: Since the early 1970s individuals have been using the microscope as an artistic instrument.  Web sites and traveling art exhibits such as the Nikon Small World and Olympus Bioscapes have featured a range of images for the sole purpose of artistic enjoyment. Some collaborative groups, such as the Paper Project have also incorporated microscopic imagery into tactile art pieces as well as 3D immersive rooms and dance performances.

text: Since the early 1970s individuals have been using the microscope as an artistic instrument.  Web sites and traveling art exhibits such as the Nikon Small World and Olympus Bioscapes have featured a range of images for the sole purpose of artistic enjoyment. Some collaborative groups, such as the

text: Paper Project

text: have also incorporated microscopic imagery into tactile art pieces as well as 3D immersive rooms and dance performances.

text: The Journal of Microscopy is the peer-reviewed scientific journal of the Royal Microscopical Society which covers all aspects of microscopy including spatially resolved spectroscopy, compositional mapping, and image analysis. This includes technology and applications in physics, chemistry, material science, and the life sciences. It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Society. The editor-in-chief is Tony Wilson, an Engineering Science professor at Oxford University.

text: The Journal of Microscopy is the

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: of the

text: Royal Microscopical Society

text: which covers all aspects of

text: microscopy

text: including spatially resolved

text: spectroscopy

text: , compositional mapping, and

text: image analysis

text: . This includes technology and applications in

text: physics

text: chemistry

text: material science

text: , and the life sciences. It is published by

text: Wiley-Blackwell

text: on behalf of the Society. The

text: editor-in-chief

text: is Tony Wilson, an Engineering Science professor at

text: Oxford University

text: Another type, microscopic particles usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from atoms to molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nanoparticles, and colloidal particles. These particles are studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics. The smallest of particles are the subatomic particles, which refer to particles smaller than atoms. These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms – protons, neutrons, and electrons – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in particle accelerators or cosmic rays. These particles are studied in particle physics.

text: Another type,

text: microscopic particles

text: usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from

text: atom

text: s to

text: molecule

text: s, such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: nanoparticle

text: s, and

text: colloidal particles

text: . These particles are studied in

text: chemistry

text: , as well as

text: atomic

text: and

text: molecular physics

text: . The smallest of particles are the

text: subatomic particle

text: s, which refer to particles smaller than atoms. These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms –

text: proton

text: s,

text: neutron

text: s, and

text: electron

text: s – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in

text: particle accelerator

text: s or

text: cosmic ray

text: s. These particles are studied in

text: particle physics

text: Elected as a Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society in 1889, Booth was also a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Her other association memberships include the Royal Photographic Society, the American Microscopic Society, the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, and the Daughters of the American Revolution.

text: Elected as a Fellow of the

text: Royal Microscopical Society

text: in 1889, Booth was also a Fellow of the

entity_name: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: . Her other association memberships include the

text: Royal Photographic Society

text: , the American Microscopic Society, the

text: Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences

text: , and the

text: Daughters of the American Revolution

text: |-bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2701 Cherson || 1978 RT || September 1, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=702 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2702 Batrakov ||  || September 26, 1978 || Nauchnij || L. V. Zhuravleva || |-id=703 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2703 Rodari ||  || March 29, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=704 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2704 Julian Loewe ||  || June 25, 1979 || Siding Spring || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus || |-id=705 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2705 Wu ||  || October 9, 1980 || Palomar || C. S. Shoemaker || |-id=706 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2706 Borovský || 1980 VW || November 11, 1980 || Kleť || Z. Vávrová || |-id=707 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2707 Ueferji ||  || August 28, 1981 || La Silla || H. Debehogne || |-id=708 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2708 Burns || 1981 WT || November 24, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=709 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2709 Sagan || 1982 FH || March 21, 1982 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=710 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2710 Veverka || 1982 FQ || March 23, 1982 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=711 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2711 Aleksandrov ||  || August 31, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=712 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2712 Keaton || 1937 YD || December 29, 1937 || Konkoly || G. Kulin || |-id=713 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2713 Luxembourg || 1938 EA || February 19, 1938 || Uccle || E. Delporte || |-id=714 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2714 Matti || 1938 GC || April 5, 1938 || Turku || H. Alikoski || |-id=715 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2715 Mielikki || 1938 US || October 22, 1938 || Turku || Y. Väisälä || |-id=716 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2716 Tuulikki || 1939 TM || October 7, 1939 || Turku || Y. Väisälä || |-id=717 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2717 Tellervo || 1940 WJ || November 29, 1940 || Turku || L. Oterma || |-id=718 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2718 Handley || 1951 OM || July 30, 1951 || Johannesburg || E. L. Johnson || |-id=719 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2719 Suzhou || 1965 SU || September 22, 1965 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=720 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2720 Pyotr Pervyj ||  || September 6, 1972 || Nauchnij || L. V. Zhuravleva || |-id=721 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2721 Vsekhsvyatskij ||  || September 22, 1973 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=722 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2722 Abalakin ||  || April 1, 1976 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=723 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2723 Gorshkov ||  || August 31, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=724 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2724 Orlov ||  || September 13, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=725 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2725 David Bender ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus || |-id=726 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2726 Kotelnikov ||  || September 22, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=727 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2727 Paton ||  || September 22, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=728 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2728 Yatskiv ||  || September 22, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=729 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2729 Urumqi ||  || October 18, 1979 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=730 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2730 Barks || 1981 QH || August 30, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=731 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2731 Cucula || 1982 kJ || May 21, 1982 || Zimmerwald || P. Wild || |-id=732 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2732 Witt || 1926 FG || March 19, 1926 || Heidelberg || M. F. Wolf || |-id=733 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2733 Hamina || 1938 DQ || February 22, 1938 || Turku || Y. Väisälä || |-id=734 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2734 Hašek ||  || April 1, 1976 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=735 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2735 Ellen || 1977 RB || September 13, 1977 || Palomar || S. J. Bus, T. Lauer || |-id=736 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2736 Ops || 1979 OC || July 23, 1979 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=737 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2737 Kotka || 1938 DU || February 22, 1938 || Turku || Y. Väisälä || |-id=738 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2738 Viracocha || 1940 EC || March 12, 1940 || Konkoly || G. Kulin || |-id=739 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2739 Taguacipa ||  || October 17, 1952 || Mount Wilson || J. L. Brady || |-id=740 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2740 Tsoj ||  || September 26, 1974 || Nauchnij || L. V. Zhuravleva || |-id=741 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2741 Valdivia || 1975 XG || December 1, 1975 || Cerro El Roble || C. Torres, S. Barros || |-id=742 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2742 Gibson ||  || May 6, 1981 || Palomar || C. S. Shoemaker || |-id=743 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2743 Chengdu || 1965 WR || November 21, 1965 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=744 bgcolor=#FA8072| 2744 Birgitta || 1975 RB || September 4, 1975 || Kvistaberg || C.-I. Lagerkvist || |-id=745 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2745 San Martín ||  || September 25, 1976 || El Leoncito || Félix Aguilar Obs. || |-id=746 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2746 Hissao ||  || September 22, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=747 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2747 Český Krumlov || 1980 DW || February 19, 1980 || Kleť || A. Mrkos || |-id=748 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2748 Patrick Gene ||  || May 5, 1981 || Palomar || C. S. Shoemaker || |-id=749 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2749 Walterhorn || 1937 TD || October 11, 1937 || Heidelberg || K. Reinmuth || |-id=750 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2750 Loviisa || 1940 YK || December 30, 1940 || Turku || Y. Väisälä || |-id=751 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2751 Campbell || 1962 RP || September 7, 1962 || Brooklyn || Indiana University || |-id=752 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2752 Wu Chien-Shiung || 1965 SP || September 20, 1965 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=753 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2753 Duncan || 1966 DH || February 18, 1966 || Brooklyn || Indiana University || |-id=754 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2754 Efimov || 1966 PD || August 13, 1966 || Nauchnij || T. M. Smirnova || |-id=755 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2755 Avicenna ||  || September 26, 1973 || Nauchnij || L. I. Chernykh || |-id=756 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2756 Dzhangar ||  || September 19, 1974 || Nauchnij || L. I. Chernykh || |-id=757 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2757 Crisser || 1977 VN || November 11, 1977 || Cerro El Roble || S. Barros || |-id=758 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2758 Cordelia || 1978 RF || September 1, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=759 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 2759 Idomeneus || 1980 GC || April 14, 1980 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=760 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2760 Kacha ||  || October 8, 1980 || Nauchnij || L. V. Zhuravleva || |-id=761 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2761 Eddington || 1981 AE || January 1, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=762 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2762 Fowler || 1981 AT || January 14, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=763 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2763 Jeans || 1982 OG || July 24, 1982 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=764 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2764 Moeller || 1981 CN || February 8, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || N. G. Thomas || |-id=765 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2765 Dinant || 1981 EY || March 4, 1981 || La Silla || H. Debehogne, G. DeSanctis || |-id=766 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2766 Leeuwenhoek ||  || March 23, 1982 || Kleť || Z. Vávrová || |-id=767 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2767 Takenouchi || 1967 UM || October 30, 1967 || Hamburg-Bergedorf || L. Kohoutek || |-id=768 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2768 Gorky ||  || September 6, 1972 || Nauchnij || L. V. Zhuravleva || |-id=769 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2769 Mendeleev ||  || April 1, 1976 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=770 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2770 Tsvet ||  || September 19, 1977 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=771 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2771 Polzunov ||  || September 26, 1978 || Nauchnij || L. V. Zhuravleva || |-id=772 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2772 Dugan || 1979 XE || December 14, 1979 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=773 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2773 Brooks ||  || May 6, 1981 || Palomar || C. S. Shoemaker || |-id=774 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2774 Tenojoki || 1942 TJ || October 3, 1942 || Turku || L. Oterma || |-id=775 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2775 Odishaw ||  || October 14, 1953 || Brooklyn || Indiana University || |-id=776 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2776 Baikal ||  || September 25, 1976 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=777 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2777 Shukshin ||  || September 24, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=778 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2778 Tangshan || 1979 XP || December 14, 1979 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=779 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2779 Mary || 1981 CX || February 6, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || N. G. Thomas || |-id=780 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2780 Monnig ||  || February 28, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus || |-id=781 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2781 Kleczek || 1982 QH || August 19, 1982 || Kleť || Z. Vávrová || |-id=782 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2782 Leonidas || 2605 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=783 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2783 Chernyshevskij ||  || September 14, 1974 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=784 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2784 Domeyko || 1975 GA || April 15, 1975 || Cerro El Roble || C. Torres || |-id=785 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2785 Sedov ||  || August 31, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=786 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2786 Grinevia ||  || September 6, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=787 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2787 Tovarishch ||  || September 13, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=788 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2788 Andenne || 1981 EL || March 1, 1981 || La Silla || H. Debehogne, G. DeSanctis || |-id=789 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2789 Foshan || 1956 XA || December 6, 1956 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=790 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2790 Needham ||  || October 19, 1965 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=791 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2791 Paradise || 1977 CA || February 13, 1977 || Palomar || S. J. Bus || |-id=792 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2792 Ponomarev ||  || March 13, 1977 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=793 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2793 Valdaj || 1977 QV || August 19, 1977 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=794 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2794 Kulik ||  || August 8, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=795 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2795 Lepage || 1979 YM || December 16, 1979 || La Silla || H. Debehogne, E. R. Netto || |-id=796 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2796 Kron || 1980 EC || March 13, 1980 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=797 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 2797 Teucer || 1981 LK || June 4, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=798 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2798 Vergilius || 2009 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=799 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2799 Justus || 3071 P-L || September 25, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=800 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2800 Ovidius || 4585 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |}

text: |-bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2701 Cherson || 1978 RT || September 1, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=702 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2702 Batrakov ||  || September 26, 1978 || Nauchnij ||

text: L. V. Zhuravleva

text: || |-id=703 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2703 Rodari ||  || March 29, 1979 || Nauchnij ||

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=704 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2704 Julian Loewe ||  || June 25, 1979 ||

text: Siding Spring

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: || |-id=705 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2705 Wu ||  || October 9, 1980 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. S. Shoemaker

text: || |-id=706 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2706 Borovský || 1980 VW || November 11, 1980 ||

text: Kleť

text: Z. Vávrová

text: || |-id=707 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2707 Ueferji ||  || August 28, 1981 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: || |-id=708 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2708 Burns || 1981 WT || November 24, 1981 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=709 bgcolor=#fefefe|

text: 2709 Sagan

text: || 1982 FH || March 21, 1982 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=710 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2710 Veverka || 1982 FQ || March 23, 1982 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=711 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2711 Aleksandrov ||  || August 31, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=712 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2712 Keaton || 1937 YD || December 29, 1937 ||

text: Konkoly

text: G. Kulin

text: || |-id=713 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2713 Luxembourg || 1938 EA || February 19, 1938 ||

text: Uccle

text: E. Delporte

text: || |-id=714 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2714 Matti || 1938 GC || April 5, 1938 ||

text: Turku

text: H. Alikoski

text: || |-id=715 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2715 Mielikki || 1938 US || October 22, 1938 || Turku ||

text: Y. Väisälä

text: || |-id=716 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2716 Tuulikki || 1939 TM || October 7, 1939 || Turku || Y. Väisälä || |-id=717 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2717 Tellervo || 1940 WJ || November 29, 1940 || Turku ||

text: L. Oterma

text: || |-id=718 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2718 Handley || 1951 OM || July 30, 1951 ||

text: Johannesburg

text: E. L. Johnson

text: || |-id=719 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2719 Suzhou || 1965 SU || September 22, 1965 ||

text: Nanking

text: Purple Mountain Obs.

text: || |-id=720 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2720 Pyotr Pervyj ||  || September 6, 1972 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. V. Zhuravleva

text: || |-id=721 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2721 Vsekhsvyatskij ||  || September 22, 1973 || Nauchnij ||

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=722 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2722 Abalakin ||  || April 1, 1976 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=723 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2723 Gorshkov ||  || August 31, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=724 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2724 Orlov ||  || September 13, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=725 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2725 David Bender ||  || November 7, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: || |-id=726 bgcolor=#d6d6d6|

text: 2726 Kotelnikov

text: ||  || September 22, 1979 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=727 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2727 Paton ||  || September 22, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=728 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2728 Yatskiv ||  || September 22, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=729 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2729 Urumqi ||  || October 18, 1979 ||

text: Nanking

text: Purple Mountain Obs.

text: || |-id=730 bgcolor=#E9E9E9|

text: 2730 Barks

text: || 1981 QH || August 30, 1981 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=731 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2731 Cucula || 1982 kJ || May 21, 1982 ||

text: Zimmerwald

text: P. Wild

text: || |-id=732 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2732 Witt || 1926 FG || March 19, 1926 ||

text: Heidelberg

text: M. F. Wolf

text: || |-id=733 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2733 Hamina || 1938 DQ || February 22, 1938 ||

text: Turku

text: Y. Väisälä

text: || |-id=734 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2734 Hašek ||  || April 1, 1976 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=735 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2735 Ellen || 1977 RB || September 13, 1977 ||

text: Palomar

text: S. J. Bus

text: T. Lauer

text: || |-id=736 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2736 Ops || 1979 OC || July 23, 1979 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=737 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2737 Kotka || 1938 DU || February 22, 1938 ||

text: Turku

text: Y. Väisälä

text: || |-id=738 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2738 Viracocha || 1940 EC || March 12, 1940 ||

text: Konkoly

text: G. Kulin

text: || |-id=739 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2739 Taguacipa ||  || October 17, 1952 ||

text: Mount Wilson

text: J. L. Brady

text: || |-id=740 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2740 Tsoj ||  || September 26, 1974 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. V. Zhuravleva

text: || |-id=741 bgcolor=#E9E9E9|

text: 2741 Valdivia

text: || 1975 XG || December 1, 1975 ||

text: Cerro El Roble

text: C. Torres

text: S. Barros

text: || |-id=742 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2742 Gibson ||  || May 6, 1981 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. S. Shoemaker

text: || |-id=743 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2743 Chengdu || 1965 WR || November 21, 1965 ||

text: Nanking

text: Purple Mountain Obs.

text: || |-id=744 bgcolor=#FA8072| 2744 Birgitta || 1975 RB || September 4, 1975 ||

text: Kvistaberg

text: C.-I. Lagerkvist

text: || |-id=745 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2745 San Martín ||  || September 25, 1976 ||

text: El Leoncito

text: Félix Aguilar Obs.

text: || |-id=746 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2746 Hissao ||  || September 22, 1979 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=747 bgcolor=#d6d6d6|

text: 2747 Český Krumlov

text: || 1980 DW || February 19, 1980 ||

text: Kleť

text: A. Mrkos

text: || |-id=748 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2748 Patrick Gene ||  || May 5, 1981 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. S. Shoemaker

text: || |-id=749 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2749 Walterhorn || 1937 TD || October 11, 1937 ||

text: Heidelberg

text: K. Reinmuth

text: || |-id=750 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2750 Loviisa || 1940 YK || December 30, 1940 ||

text: Turku

text: Y. Väisälä

text: || |-id=751 bgcolor=#fefefe|

text: 2751 Campbell

text: || 1962 RP || September 7, 1962 ||

text: Brooklyn

text: Indiana University

text: || |-id=752 bgcolor=#d6d6d6|

text: 2752 Wu Chien-Shiung

text: || 1965 SP || September 20, 1965 ||

text: Nanking

text: Purple Mountain Obs.

text: || |-id=753 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2753 Duncan || 1966 DH || February 18, 1966 ||

text: Brooklyn

text: Indiana University

text: || |-id=754 bgcolor=#fefefe|

text: 2754 Efimov

text: || 1966 PD || August 13, 1966 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: T. M. Smirnova

text: || |-id=755 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2755 Avicenna ||  || September 26, 1973 || Nauchnij ||

text: L. I. Chernykh

text: || |-id=756 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2756 Dzhangar ||  || September 19, 1974 || Nauchnij || L. I. Chernykh || |-id=757 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2757 Crisser || 1977 VN || November 11, 1977 ||

text: Cerro El Roble

text: S. Barros

text: || |-id=758 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2758 Cordelia || 1978 RF || September 1, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=759 bgcolor=#C2FFFF|

text: 2759 Idomeneus

text: || 1980 GC || April 14, 1980 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=760 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2760 Kacha ||  || October 8, 1980 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. V. Zhuravleva

text: || |-id=761 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2761 Eddington || 1981 AE || January 1, 1981 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=762 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2762 Fowler || 1981 AT || January 14, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=763 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2763 Jeans || 1982 OG || July 24, 1982 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=764 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2764 Moeller || 1981 CN || February 8, 1981 || Anderson Mesa ||

text: N. G. Thomas

text: || |-id=765 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2765 Dinant || 1981 EY || March 4, 1981 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: G. DeSanctis

text: || |-id=766 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2766 Leeuwenhoek ||  || March 23, 1982 ||

text: Kleť

text: Z. Vávrová

text: || |-id=767 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2767 Takenouchi || 1967 UM || October 30, 1967 ||

text: Hamburg-Bergedorf

text: L. Kohoutek

text: || |-id=768 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2768 Gorky ||  || September 6, 1972 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. V. Zhuravleva

text: || |-id=769 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2769 Mendeleev ||  || April 1, 1976 || Nauchnij ||

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=770 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2770 Tsvet ||  || September 19, 1977 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=771 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2771 Polzunov ||  || September 26, 1978 || Nauchnij ||

text: L. V. Zhuravleva

text: || |-id=772 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2772 Dugan || 1979 XE || December 14, 1979 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=773 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2773 Brooks ||  || May 6, 1981 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. S. Shoemaker

text: || |-id=774 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2774 Tenojoki || 1942 TJ || October 3, 1942 ||

text: Turku

text: L. Oterma

text: || |-id=775 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2775 Odishaw ||  || October 14, 1953 ||

text: Brooklyn

text: Indiana University

text: || |-id=776 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2776 Baikal ||  || September 25, 1976 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=777 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2777 Shukshin ||  || September 24, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=778 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2778 Tangshan || 1979 XP || December 14, 1979 ||

text: Nanking

text: Purple Mountain Obs.

text: || |-id=779 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2779 Mary || 1981 CX || February 6, 1981 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: N. G. Thomas

text: || |-id=780 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2780 Monnig ||  || February 28, 1981 ||

text: Siding Spring

text: S. J. Bus

text: || |-id=781 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2781 Kleczek || 1982 QH || August 19, 1982 ||

text: Kleť

text: Z. Vávrová

text: || |-id=782 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2782 Leonidas || 2605 P-L || September 24, 1960 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: || |-id=783 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2783 Chernyshevskij ||  || September 14, 1974 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=784 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2784 Domeyko || 1975 GA || April 15, 1975 ||

text: Cerro El Roble

text: C. Torres

text: || |-id=785 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2785 Sedov ||  || August 31, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=786 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2786 Grinevia ||  || September 6, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=787 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2787 Tovarishch ||  || September 13, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=788 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2788 Andenne || 1981 EL || March 1, 1981 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: G. DeSanctis

text: || |-id=789 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2789 Foshan || 1956 XA || December 6, 1956 ||

text: Nanking

text: Purple Mountain Obs.

text: || |-id=790 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2790 Needham ||  || October 19, 1965 || Nanking || Purple Mountain Obs. || |-id=791 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2791 Paradise || 1977 CA || February 13, 1977 ||

text: Palomar

text: S. J. Bus

text: || |-id=792 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2792 Ponomarev ||  || March 13, 1977 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=793 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2793 Valdaj || 1977 QV || August 19, 1977 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=794 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2794 Kulik ||  || August 8, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=795 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2795 Lepage || 1979 YM || December 16, 1979 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: E. R. Netto

text: || |-id=796 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 2796 Kron || 1980 EC || March 13, 1980 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: E. Bowell

text: || |-id=797 bgcolor=#C2FFFF|

text: 2797 Teucer

text: || 1981 LK || June 4, 1981 || Anderson Mesa || E. Bowell || |-id=798 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2798 Vergilius || 2009 P-L || September 24, 1960 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: || |-id=799 bgcolor=#fefefe| 2799 Justus || 3071 P-L || September 25, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=800 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 2800 Ovidius || 4585 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |}

text: Grossly, LAM lungs are enlarged and diffusely cystic, with dilated air spaces as large as several centimeters in diameter. Microscopic examination of the lung reveals foci of smooth muscle-like cell infiltration of the lung parenchyma, airways, lymphatics, and blood vessels associated with areas of thin-walled cystic change. LAM lesions often contain an abundance of lymphatic channels, forming an anastomosing meshwork of slit-like spaces lined by endothelial cells. LAM cells generally expand interstitial spaces without violating tissue planes but have been observed to invade the airways, the pulmonary artery, the diaphragm, aorta, and retroperitoneal fat, to destroy bronchial cartilage and arteriolar walls, and to occlude the lumen of pulmonary arterioles.

text: Grossly, LAM lungs are enlarged and diffusely cystic, with dilated air spaces as large as several centimeters in diameter. Microscopic examination of the lung reveals foci of smooth muscle-like cell infiltration of the lung parenchyma, airways, lymphatics, and blood vessels associated with areas of thin-walled cystic change. LAM lesions often contain an abundance of lymphatic channels, forming an

text: anastomosing

text: meshwork of slit-like spaces lined by

text: endothelial

text: cells. LAM cells generally expand interstitial spaces without violating tissue planes but have been observed to invade the airways, the pulmonary artery, the diaphragm, aorta, and

text: retroperitoneal

text: fat, to destroy bronchial cartilage and arteriolar walls, and to occlude the

text: lumen

text: of pulmonary arterioles.

text: The 1655 investigation by William Boreel (who may have been a childhood friend of Zacharias Zachariassen) added to the confusion over invention. The people he interviewed were trying to recount details 50 or 60 years after the fact and Boreel may have confused the names of spectacle makers from his childhood. He may have also been confused about a microscope built by another optician for Drebbel, claiming it was built by Zacharias Janssen.

text: Electron microscopes are expensive to build and maintain, but the capital and running costs of confocal light microscope systems now overlaps with those of basic electron microscopes. Microscopes designed to achieve high resolutions must be housed in stable buildings (sometimes underground) with special services such as magnetic field cancelling systems.

text: Electron microscopes are expensive to build and maintain, but the capital and running costs of

text: confocal light microscope

text: systems now overlaps with those of basic electron microscopes. Microscopes designed to achieve high resolutions must be housed in stable buildings (sometimes underground) with special services such as magnetic field cancelling systems.

text: Not all animal fibers have the same properties, and even within a species the fiber is not consistent. Merino is a very soft, fine wool, while Cotswold is coarser, and yet both merino and Cotswold are types of sheep. This comparison can be continued on the microscopic level, comparing the diameter and structure of the fiber. With animal fibers, and natural fibers in general, the individual fibers look different, whereas all synthetic fibers look the same. This provides an easy way to differentiate between natural and synthetic fibers under a microscope.

text: Not all animal fibers have the same properties, and even within a species the fiber is not consistent.

text: Merino

text: is a very soft, fine

text: wool

text: , while

text: Cotswold

text: is coarser, and yet both merino and Cotswold are types of

text: sheep

text: . This comparison can be continued on the microscopic level, comparing the diameter and structure of the fiber. With animal fibers, and

text: natural fiber

text: s in general, the individual fibers look different, whereas all

text: synthetic fiber

text: s look the same. This provides an easy way to differentiate between natural and synthetic fibers under a microscope.

text: The subsequent steps following fusion of A and a haploid cells, have been outlined by Fincham and Day and Wagner and Mitchell.  After fusion of the cells, the further fusion of their nuclei is delayed.  Instead, a nucleus from the fertilizing cell and a nucleus from the ascogonium become associated and begin to divide synchronously.  The products of these nuclear divisions (still in pairs of unlike mating type, i.e. A/a) migrate into numerous ascogenous hyphae, which then begin to grow out of the ascogonium.  Each of these ascogenous hypha bends to form a hook (or crozier) at its tip and the A and a pair of haploid nuclei within the crozier divide synchronously.  Next, septa form to divide the crozier into three cells.  The central cell in the curve of the hook contains one A and one a nucleus (see Figure).  This binuclear cell initiates ascus formation and is called an “ascus-initial” cell.  Next the two uninucleate cells on either side of the first ascus-forming cell fuse with each other to form a binucleate cell that can grow to form a further crozier that can then form its own ascus-initial cell. This process can then be repeated multiple times.

text: Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes, which are bacteria and archaea. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied.

text: Microbiology

text: is the study of

text: microorganisms

text: , which are

text: unicellular

text: or cell-cluster

text: microscopic

text: organism

text: s. This includes

text: eukaryote

text: s such as fungi and

text: protists

text: , and

text: prokaryote

text: s, which are bacteria and

text: archaea

text: . Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied.

text: Also of importance are the "Clark level" and "Breslow's depth", which refer to the microscopic depth of tumor invasion.

text: Also of importance are the "

text: Clark level

text: " and "

text: Breslow's depth

text: ", which refer to the microscopic depth of tumor invasion.

text: Van Dael composed his flower-pieces with a variety of species, which he is believed to have studied from life.  Van Dael’s flowers were based on botanical study, and according to a contemporary botanist, van Hulthem, he grew flowers in his garden to serve as models. Van Dael applied a smooth gesso layer to his canvases, which allowed him to recreate the jewel-like quality of 17th century panels.  He departed from 17th-century still lifes in his use of a lighter palette of pinks, blues and yellows.

text: These cells were discovered by Torsten Wiesel and David Hubel in the early 1960s. They refrained from reporting on the complex cells in (Hubel 1959) because they did not feel that they understood them well enough at the time. In Hubel and Wiesel (1962), they reported that complex cells were intermixed with simple cells and when excitatory and inhibitory regions could be established, the summation and mutual antagonism properties didn't hold.

text: These cells were discovered by

text: Torsten Wiesel

text: and

text: David Hubel

text: in the early 1960s. They refrained from reporting on the complex cells in (Hubel 1959) because they did not feel that they understood them well enough at the time. In Hubel and Wiesel (1962), they reported that complex cells were intermixed with simple cells and when excitatory and inhibitory regions could be established, the summation and mutual antagonism properties didn't hold.

text: Microfluorimetry is building upon the established method of fluorimetric measurement. Using a dye that fluoresces in the presence of a target compound, fluorimetry can detect the presence of the compound by determining the presence and intensity of fluorescence. Differences in the intensity can be used to determine concentration of the compound. Additionally, if the dye undergoes a spectral shift then you can determine the absolute concentration of the target regardless of knowledge of the concentration of the dye. Fura-2 is an example of a fluorescent dye used to measure calcium. Microfluorimetry expands on fluorimetry by adding a microscopic component to measurements to allow analysis of single cells and other microscopic interests.

text: Over 30 antique microscopes are shown, most from the 18th century, in a large variety, with different solutions for lighting the subject and minimization of lens defects (e.g. chromatic aberration): simple, compound and reflecting microscopes, so called English microscopes (renowned for their quality), solar microscopes (which project their image on a wall, using sunlight only). Several wooden cabinets with microscopic slides are testimony of the craftsmanship than went into collections of ready made samples, which at the time were highly fashionable among well-to-do citizens who took an interest in scientific developments.

text: Over 30 antique

text: microscope

text: s are shown, most from the 18th century, in a large variety, with different solutions for lighting the subject and minimization of lens defects (e.g.

text: chromatic aberration

text: ): simple, compound and reflecting microscopes, so called English microscopes (renowned for their quality), solar microscopes (which project their image on a wall, using sunlight only). Several wooden cabinets with microscopic slides are testimony of the craftsmanship than went into collections of ready made samples, which at the time were highly fashionable among well-to-do citizens who took an interest in scientific developments.

text: Published in 1628 in the city of Frankfurt (host to an annual book fair that Harvey knew would allow immediate dispersion of his work), the 72 page Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus contains the matured account of the circulation of the blood. Opening with a dedication to King Charles I, the quarto has 17 chapters which give a perfectly clear and connected account of the action of the heart and the consequent movement of the blood around the body in a circuit. Having only a tiny lens at his disposal, Harvey was not able to reach the adequate pictures that were attained through such microscopes used by Leeuwenhoek; thus he had to resort to theory – and not practical evidence – in certain parts of his book.After the first chapter, which simply outlines past ideas and accepted rules regarding the heart and lungs, Harvey moves on to a fundamental premise to his treatise, stating that it was extremely important to study the heart when it was active in order to truly comprehend its true movement; a task which even he found of great difficulty, as he says:

text: Published in 1628 in the city of

text: Frankfurt

text: (host to an

text: annual book fair

text: that Harvey knew would allow immediate dispersion of his work), the 72 page

entity_name: Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus

text: Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus

text: contains the matured account of the

text: circulation of the blood

text: . Opening with a dedication to

text: King Charles I

text: , the

text: quarto

text: has 17 chapters which give a perfectly clear and connected account of the action of the

text: heart

text: and the consequent movement of the

text: blood

text: around the body in a circuit. Having only a tiny lens at his disposal, Harvey was not able to reach the adequate pictures that were attained through such microscopes used by

text: Leeuwenhoek

text: ; thus he had to resort to theory – and not practical evidence – in certain parts of his book.After the first chapter, which simply outlines past ideas and accepted rules regarding the

text: heart

text: and

text: lungs

text: , Harvey moves on to a fundamental premise to his treatise, stating that it was extremely important to study the

text: heart

text: when it was active in order to truly comprehend its true movement; a task which even he found of great difficulty, as he says:

text: In the science of the day, the prevailing view was that everything of value could be studied in a laboratory. So, for example, if a biologist wanted to study the vision of a frog, the eyeball of the frog would be taken to the laboratory for dissection and study under a microscope. Going against this prevailing view, Ritter believed that it was more important to study living things in their natural environment.

text: Wheelock and others assert the model/source was probably Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), a contemporary of Vermeer who was also born in Delft. The families of both men were in the textile business, and both families had a strong interest in science and optics. A "microscopist", van Leeuwenhoek was described after his death as being so skilled in "navigation, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and natural science ... that one can certainly place him with the most distinguished masteres of the art." Another image of van Leeuwenhoek (by the Delft artist Jan Verkolje) about 20 years later shows a broad face and straight nose, similar to Vermeer's model. At the time Vermeer painted the two works, the scientist would have been about 36 years old. He would have been actively studying for his examination for surveyor, which he passed on February 4, 1669. There is no documentary evidence for any kind of relationship between the two men during Vermeer's lifetime, although in 1676, van Leeuwenhoek was appointed a trustee for Vermeer's estate.

text: Wheelock and others assert the model/source was probably

text: Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: (1632-1723), a contemporary of Vermeer who was also born in Delft. The families of both men were in the textile business, and both families had a strong interest in science and optics. A "microscopist", van Leeuwenhoek was described after his death as being so skilled in "navigation, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and natural science ... that one can certainly place him with the most distinguished masteres of the art." Another image of van Leeuwenhoek (by the Delft artist

text: Jan Verkolje

text: ) about 20 years later shows a broad face and straight nose, similar to Vermeer's model. At the time Vermeer painted the two works, the scientist would have been about 36 years old. He would have been actively studying for his examination for surveyor, which he passed on February 4, 1669. There is no documentary evidence for any kind of relationship between the two men during Vermeer's lifetime, although in 1676, van Leeuwenhoek was appointed a trustee for Vermeer's estate.

text: Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, using a single-lens microscope of his own design. He then published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society of London. Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek's most remarkable microscopic discovery. They were just at the limit of what his simple lenses could make out and, in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science, no one else would see them again for over a century. Only then were his by-then-largely-forgotten observations of bacteria — as opposed to his famous "animalcules" (spermatozoa) — taken seriously.

text: Bacteria were first observed by the Dutch microscopist

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: in 1676, using a single-lens

text: microscope

text: of his own design. He then published his observations in a series of letters to the

text: Royal Society of London

text: . Bacteria were Leeuwenhoek's most remarkable microscopic discovery. They were just at the limit of what his simple lenses could make out and, in one of the most striking hiatuses in the history of science, no one else would see them again for over a century. Only then were his by-then-largely-forgotten observations of bacteria — as opposed to his famous "

text: animalcule

text: s" (

text: spermatozoa

text: ) — taken seriously.

text: Counting of cells: positive responder cells could be counted from the front of migrating cells, after staining or in native conditions in light microscope.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek created at least 25 microscopes, of differing types, of which only nine survive. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-ground lenses. Those that have survived are capable of magnification up to 275 times. It is suspected that Van Leeuwenhoek possessed units that could magnify up to 500 times. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which now referred to as micro-organisms or microbes.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek

text: created at least 25

text: microscope

text: s, of differing types, of which only nine survive. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-ground lenses. Those that have survived are capable of magnification up to 275 times. It is suspected that Van Leeuwenhoek possessed units that could magnify up to 500 times. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which now referred to as

text: micro-organisms

text: or

text: microbe

text: s.

text: When Hook tries to attack a steam ship, Peter, Wendy, and Tinker bell fly to the steam ship when it collides with the Jolly Rodger (the name Hook gives to the recently resurrected ship) at the same time the four shipwrecked sailors escape their cell and leave in a lifeboat unseen by the pirates. From here, they paddle back to Mollusk Island to complete their mission to grab the large cache of starstuff from the island. Peter and Wendy are taken back to London once they are discovered as stowaways aboard the steam ship.

text: As a physicist he was awarded for his research on of x-ray diffraction to the study of crystal structure; the effects of temperature on this diffraction; the diffraction of light by ultrasonics.He was working as professor of Physics at the University of Pittsburgh in the 1920s.At the University of Geneva he became director of the Institute of Physics in 1931. He developed the first electron microscope made in Switzerland, an important factor for the studies of molecular biology leading to creation in 1964 of the Institute of Molecular Biology (MOLBIO) by Edouard Kellenberger and others.

text: As a physicist he was awarded for his research on of

text: x-ray diffraction

text: to the study of

text: crystal

text: structure; the effects of temperature on this diffraction; the diffraction of light by

text: ultrasonics

text: .He was working as professor of Physics at the

text: University of Pittsburgh

text: in the 1920s.At the University of Geneva he became director of the Institute of Physics in 1931. He developed the first

text: electron microscope

text: made in Switzerland, an important factor for the studies of molecular biology leading to creation in 1964 of the Institute of Molecular Biology (MOLBIO) by

text: Edouard Kellenberger

text: and others.

text: Kircher's work in geology included studies of volcanoes and fossils. One of the first people to observe microbes through a microscope, Kircher was ahead of his time in proposing that the plague was caused by an infectious microorganism and in suggesting effective measures to prevent the spread of the disease. Kircher also displayed a keen interest in technology and mechanical inventions; inventions attributed to him include a magnetic clock, various automatons and the first megaphone. The invention of the magic lantern is often misattributed to Kircher, although he did conduct a study of the principles involved in his Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae.

text: Kircher's work in geology included studies of

text: volcano

text: es and

text: fossil

text: s. One of the first people to observe microbes through a

text: microscope

text: , Kircher was ahead of his time in proposing that the

text: plague

text: was caused by an infectious

text: microorganism

text: and in suggesting effective measures to prevent the spread of the disease. Kircher also displayed a keen interest in technology and mechanical inventions; inventions attributed to him include a magnetic clock, various

text: automaton

text: s and the first

text: megaphone

text: . The invention of the

text: magic lantern

text: is often misattributed to Kircher, although he did conduct a study of the principles involved in his Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae.

text: Seiler Instrument’s Microscope Division was created in 1950 when Seiler formed an agreement with Carl Zeiss (Jena) to distribute their microscope line in North America. After many successful years as a North American dealer for Zeiss, Seiler and Zeiss parted ways. This split allowed Seiler to create a new microscope to compete with the Zeiss product line and to develop partnerships in Germany, South America, and Asia. Seiler’s Microscope Division provides high quality optics and services to the medical and dental industry. Seiler offers a full line of medical microscope products including: Colposcopes, Ear Nose and Throat (ENT), Audiology, Compound and Laboratory Microscopes, Multidisciplinary Surgery Microscopes and Surgical Loupes. They also offer a complete line of dental microscopy products including: Surgical Microscopes, Dental Loupes, Loupe Lights, and Dental Stools.

text: UV-visible spectroscopy of microscopic samples is done by integrating an optical microscope with UV-visible optics, white light sources, a monochromator, and a sensitive detector such as a charge-coupled device (CCD) or photomultiplier tube (PMT). As only a single optical path is available, these are single beam instruments. Modern instruments are capable of measuring UV-visible spectra in both reflectance and transmission of micron-scale sampling areas. The advantages of using such instruments is that they are able to measure microscopic samples but are also able to measure the spectra of larger samples with high spatial resolution. As such, they are used in the forensic laboratory to analyze the dyes and pigments in individual textile fibers, microscopic paint chips  and the color of glass fragments. They are also used in materials science and biological research and for determining the energy content of coal and petroleum source rock by measuring the vitrinite reflectance. Microspectrophotometers are used in the semiconductor and micro-optics industries for monitoring the thickness of thin films after they have been deposited. In the semiconductor industry, they are used because the critical dimensions of circuitry is microscopic. A typical test of a semiconductor wafer would entail the acquisition of spectra from many points on a patterned or unpatterned wafer. The thickness of the deposited films may be calculated from the interference pattern of the spectra. In addition, ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry can be used to determine the thickness, along with the refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin films as described in Refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin film materials. A map of the film thickness across the entire wafer can then be generated and used for quality control purposes.

text: UV-visible spectroscopy of microscopic samples is done by integrating an optical microscope with UV-visible optics, white light sources, a

text: monochromator

text: , and a sensitive detector such as a

text: charge-coupled device

text: (CCD) or

text: photomultiplier

text: tube (PMT). As only a single optical path is available, these are single beam instruments. Modern instruments are capable of measuring UV-visible spectra in both reflectance and transmission of micron-scale sampling areas. The advantages of using such instruments is that they are able to measure microscopic samples but are also able to measure the spectra of larger samples with high spatial resolution. As such, they are used in the forensic laboratory to analyze the dyes and pigments in individual textile fibers, microscopic paint chips  and the color of glass fragments. They are also used in materials science and biological research and for determining the energy content of coal and petroleum source rock by measuring the

text: vitrinite

text: reflectance. Microspectrophotometers are used in the semiconductor and micro-optics industries for monitoring the thickness of thin films after they have been deposited. In the semiconductor industry, they are used because the critical dimensions of circuitry is microscopic. A typical test of a semiconductor wafer would entail the acquisition of spectra from many points on a patterned or unpatterned wafer. The thickness of the deposited films may be calculated from the

text: interference pattern

text: of the spectra. In addition, ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry can be used to determine the thickness, along with the refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin films as described in

entity_name: Refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin film materials

text: Refractive index and extinction coefficient of thin film materials

text: . A map of the film thickness across the entire wafer can then be generated and used for quality control purposes.

text: David Danon arrived at Medical School of University of Geneva on December 31, 1946 late in the first semester pursuant to the agreement between his father and the British Mandate authorities, essentially exiling him from Palestine for the duration of the British Mandate.  He arrived without any knowledge of the French language. Despite his late start in his first year of medical school and his having to learn the French language, he excelled.  During his second year in medical school he began to do research.  His research was published in the scientific literature between the years 1948 and 1950. One of his Important projects was the study of the structure of the human nervous system. The use of conventional microscopes for this work was an obstacle due to the limited resolution capability of the common optical microscope. In order to facilitate the use of the more sophisticated electron microscope it was necessary to cut thinner slices of tissue.  Thus, David Danon developed the Microtome (a device for cutting extremely thin slices of tissue) for use on the electron microscope.  The University of Geneva recognized David for his development of this innovative device by awarding him the "best dissertation" award.

text: David Danon arrived at Medical School of

text: University of Geneva

text: on December 31, 1946 late in the first semester pursuant to the agreement between his father and the British Mandate authorities, essentially exiling him from Palestine for the duration of the British Mandate.  He arrived without any knowledge of the French language. Despite his late start in his first year of medical school and his having to learn the French language, he excelled.  During his second year in medical school he began to do research.  His research was published in the scientific literature between the years 1948 and 1950. One of his Important projects was the study of the structure of the human nervous system. The use of conventional microscopes for this work was an obstacle due to the limited resolution capability of the common optical microscope. In order to facilitate the use of the more sophisticated electron microscope it was necessary to cut thinner slices of tissue.  Thus, David Danon developed the

text: Microtome

text: (a device for cutting extremely thin slices of tissue) for use on the

text: electron microscope

text: .  The University of Geneva recognized David for his development of this innovative device by awarding him the "best dissertation" award.

text: An account of the early history of SEM has been presented by McMullan. Although Max Knoll produced a photo with a 50 mm object-field-width showing channeling contrast by the use of an electron beam scanner, it was Manfred von Ardenne who in 1937 invented a true microscope with high magnification by scanning a very small raster with a demagnified and finely focused electron beam. Ardenne applied the scanning principle not only to achieve magnification but also to purposefully eliminate the chromatic aberration otherwise inherent in the electron microscope. He further discussed the various detection modes, possibilities and theory of SEM, together with the construction of the first high magnification SEM. Further work was reported by Zworykin's group, followed by the Cambridge groups in the 1950s and early 1960s headed by Charles Oatley, all of which finally led to the marketing of the first commercial instrument by Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company as the "Stereoscan" in 1965, which was delivered to DuPont.

text: An account of the early history of SEM has been presented by McMullan. Although

text: Max Knoll

text: produced a photo with a 50 mm object-field-width showing channeling contrast by the use of an electron beam scanner, it was

text: Manfred von Ardenne

text: who in 1937 invented a true microscope with high magnification by scanning a very small raster with a demagnified and finely focused electron beam. Ardenne applied the scanning principle not only to achieve magnification but also to purposefully eliminate the

text: chromatic aberration

text: otherwise inherent in the electron microscope. He further discussed the various detection modes, possibilities and theory of SEM, together with the construction of the

text: first high magnification SEM

text: . Further work was reported by

text: Zworykin's

text: group, followed by the Cambridge groups in the 1950s and early 1960s headed by

text: Charles Oatley

text: , all of which finally led to the marketing of the first commercial instrument by

text: Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company

text: as the "Stereoscan" in 1965, which was delivered to

text: DuPont

text: Some plants, particularly those adapted to life in damp or aquatic environments, have an extreme resistance to wetting. A well-known example is the Sacred Lotus. This adaptation is not purely the physical and chemical effect of a waxy coating, however; it depends largely on the microscopic shape of the surface. When a hydrophobic surface is sculpted into microscopic, regular, elevated areas, sometimes in fractal patterns, too high and too closely spaced for the surface tension of the liquid to permit any flow into the space between the plateaus, then the area of contact between liquid and solid surfaces may be reduced to less than a tenth of what a continuous surface might permit. The effect is to reduce wetting of the surface substantially.

text: Some plants, particularly those adapted to life in damp or aquatic environments, have an extreme resistance to wetting. A well-known example is the

text: Sacred Lotus

text: . This adaptation is not purely the physical and chemical effect of a waxy coating, however; it depends largely on the microscopic shape of the surface. When a hydrophobic surface is sculpted into microscopic, regular, elevated areas, sometimes in

text: fractal

text: patterns, too high and too closely spaced for the surface tension of the liquid to permit any flow into the space between the plateaus, then the area of contact between liquid and solid surfaces may be reduced to less than a tenth of what a continuous surface might permit. The effect is to reduce wetting of the surface substantially.

text: The development of Imaris is tightly linked to the development of the confocal microscope. The first publication of a confocal microscope appeared in 1957 when Marvin Minsky patented his microscope (Minsky 1957). The instrument did not find much attention in the scientific community at the time due to the lack of light collection efficiency. It was only at the end of the 1970s, with the generation of scanning confocal microscopes, that the technique became useful for biological studies (Brakenhoff, 1979 and Choudhury 1977).

text: The development of Imaris is tightly linked to the development of the confocal microscope. The first publication of a confocal microscope appeared in 1957 when

text: Marvin Minsky

text: patented his microscope (Minsky 1957). The instrument did not find much attention in the scientific community at the time due to the lack of light collection efficiency. It was only at the end of the 1970s, with the generation of scanning confocal microscopes, that the technique became useful for biological studies (Brakenhoff, 1979 and Choudhury 1977).

text: In contrast to macroscopic models, microscopic traffic flow models simulate single vehicle-driver units, so the dynamic variables of the models represent microscopic properties like the position and velocity of single vehicles.

text: In contrast to

text: macroscopic models

text: , microscopic traffic flow models simulate single vehicle-driver units, so the dynamic variables of the models represent microscopic properties like the position and velocity of single vehicles.

text: Presnyakov’s name is connected with development of so called micro-movement. The artist created his works microscopically (with a microscope).

text: In 1841 his study of sulphur bacteria (then the 'glairine of sulphurous waters') was noteworthy, as was his microscopic examination of drinking water. His book the Aquavivarium (1856) had a great vogue. He co-founded the important Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (QJMS) in 1853, and co-edited it with George Busk, and later with his son Ray. Half-hours with the microscope (1857) was a best-seller, reprinted until 1918.

text: In 1841 his study of sulphur bacteria (then the 'glairine of sulphurous waters') was noteworthy, as was his microscopic examination of

text: drinking water

text: . His book the Aquavivarium (1856) had a great vogue. He co-founded the important

text: Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science

text: (QJMS) in 1853, and co-edited it with

text: George Busk

text: , and later with his son Ray. Half-hours with the microscope (1857) was a best-seller, reprinted until 1918.

text: The appearance of cancer cells under a microscope is another predictor of systemic spread.  The more different the cancer cells look compared to normal duct cells, the greater the risk of systemic spread.  There are three characteristics that differentiate cancer cells from normal cells.

text: Before the era of modern medical procedures, the main means for studying the internal structure of the body were palpation and dissection. It was the advent of microscopy that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and around 1839, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. The fields of cytology and histology developed from here in the late 19th century. The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy.

text: Before the era of modern medical procedures, the main means for studying the internal structure of the body were

text: palpation

text: and

text: dissection

text: . It was the advent of

text: microscopy

text: that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of

text: achromatic lens

text: es increased the

text: resolving power

text: of the microscope and around 1839,

text: Matthias Jakob Schleiden

text: and

text: Theodor Schwann

text: identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the

text: microtome

text: was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. The fields of

text: cytology

text: and

text: histology

text: developed from here in the late 19th century. The invention of the

text: electron microscope

text: brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the

text: ultrastructure

text: of cells and the

text: organelle

text: s and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of

text: X-ray diffraction

text: for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of

text: molecular anatomy

text: His team discovered how to generate functional hemangioblasts (a population of "ambulance" cells) from human embryonic stem cells.In animals, these cells quickly repaired vascular damage, cutting the death rate after a heart attack in half and restoring the blood flow to ischemic limbs that might otherwise have required amputation.

text: His team discovered how to generate functional

text: hemangioblast

text: s (a population of "ambulance" cells) from human embryonic stem cells.In animals, these cells quickly repaired vascular damage, cutting the death rate after a heart attack in half and restoring the blood flow to ischemic limbs that might otherwise have required amputation.

text: All modern optical microscopes designed for viewing samples by transmitted light share the same basic components of the light path. In addition, the vast majority of microscopes have the same 'structural' components (numbered below according to the image on the right):

text: The optical microscope, often referred to as light microscope, is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although there are many complex designs which aim to improve resolution and sample contrast.

text: The optical microscope, often referred to as light microscope, is a type of

text: microscope

text: which uses

text: visible light

text: and a system of

text: lenses

text: to magnify images of small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although there are many complex designs which aim to improve

text: resolution

text: and sample

text: contrast

text: These microscopes could focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than a wavelength. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than a wavelength, once again, changing the possibilities in science.

text: These microscopes could focus on objects the size of a

text: wavelength

text: or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than a wavelength. Later in the 1920s, the

text: electron microscope

text: was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than a wavelength, once again, changing the possibilities in science.

text: Scanning electron microscopes operating in conventional high-vacuum mode usually image conductive specimens; therefore non-conductive materials require conductive coating (gold/palladium alloy, carbon, osmium, etc.). The low-voltage mode of modern microscopes makes possible the observation of non-conductive specimens without coating.  Non-conductive materials can be imaged also by a variable pressure (or environmental) scanning electron microscope.

text: While earlier version of fiber-based laser traps exclusively used single mode beams, M. Kreysing and colleagues recently showed that the careful excitation of further optical modes in a short piece of optical fiber allows the realization of non-trivial trapping geometries. By this the researchers were able to orient various human cell types (individual cells and clusters) on a microscope. The main advantage of the so-called "optical cell rotator" technology over standard optical tweezers is the decoupling of trapping from imaging optics. This, its modular design, and the high compatibility of divergent laser traps with biological material indicates the great potential of this new generation of laser traps in medical research and life science. Recently, the optical cell rotator technology was implemented on the basis of adaptive optics, allowing to dynamically reconfigure the optical trap during operation and adapt it to the sample.

text: While earlier version of fiber-based laser traps exclusively used single mode beams, M. Kreysing and colleagues recently showed that the careful excitation of further optical modes in a short piece of optical fiber allows the realization of non-trivial trapping geometries. By this the researchers were able to orient various human cell types (individual cells and clusters) on a microscope. The main advantage of the so-called "optical cell rotator" technology over standard optical tweezers is the decoupling of trapping from imaging optics. This, its modular design, and the high compatibility of divergent laser traps with biological material indicates the great potential of this new generation of laser traps in medical research and life science. Recently, the optical cell rotator technology was implemented on the basis of

text: adaptive optics

text: , allowing to dynamically reconfigure the optical trap during operation and adapt it to the sample.

text: The majority of fluorescence microscopes, especially those used in the life sciences, are of the epifluorescence design shown in the diagram. Light of the excitation wavelength is focused on the specimen through the objective lens. The fluorescence emitted by the specimen is focused to the detector by the same objective that is used for the excitation which for greater resolution will need objective lens with higher numerical aperture. Since most of the excitation light is transmitted through the specimen, only reflected excitatory light reaches the objective together with the emitted light and the epifluorescence method therefore gives a high signal-to-noise ratio. An additional wavelength specific filter between the objective and the detector can filter out the remaining excitation light from fluorescent light.

text: The majority of fluorescence microscopes, especially those used in the

text: life sciences

text: , are of the epifluorescence design shown in the diagram. Light of the excitation wavelength is focused on the specimen through the

text: objective

text: lens. The

text: fluorescence

text: emitted by the specimen is focused to the detector by the same objective that is used for the excitation which for greater resolution will need objective lens with higher

text: numerical aperture

text: . Since most of the excitation light is transmitted through the specimen, only reflected excitatory light reaches the objective together with the emitted light and the epifluorescence method therefore gives a high signal-to-noise ratio. An additional

text: wavelength specific filter

text: between the objective and the detector can filter out the remaining excitation light from fluorescent light.

text: Microinjection is the use of a glass micropipette to inject a liquid substance at a microscopic or borderline macroscopic level.  The target is often a living cell but may also include intercellular space. Microinjection is a simple mechanical process usually involving an inverted microscope with a magnification power of around 200x (though sometimes it is performed using a dissecting stereo microscope at 40–50x or a traditional compound upright microscope at similar power to an inverted model).

text: Microinjection is the use of a glass

text: micropipette

text: to inject a liquid substance at a

text: microscopic

text: or borderline

text: macroscopic

text: level.  The target is often a living cell but may also include intercellular space. Microinjection is a simple mechanical process usually involving an

text: inverted microscope

text: with a

text: magnification power

text: of around 200x (though sometimes it is performed using a dissecting

text: stereo microscope

text: at 40–50x or a traditional

text: compound upright microscope

text: at similar power to an inverted model).

text: Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the reflected or transmitted waves. The point is then scanned over the sample to analyze a rectangular region. Magnification of the image is achieved by displaying the data from scanning a physically small sample area on a relatively large screen. These microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide field optical, probe, and electron microscopes.

text: South Campus is the main campus of NMMU and it houses the main administration in its 18 story Main Building and is home to NMMU's Vice-Chancellor. It was built on  of land donated by the then Port Elizabeth City Council. The campus was declared a nature reserve in 1983, which covers 830 hectares and a conservation site for fynbos vegetation. The reserve has 22 mammal species (including springbok), 16 reptile species, four amphibian species, and 66 bird species. The 4.8 km Grysbok Trail is great for hiking and starts at the Biological Sciences parking area. NMMU is also the only university in South Africa to offer game drives in a 4X4 vehicle. The campus is also home to the High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscope centre housing four state-of-the-art electron microscopes, including the only double aberration corrected transmission electron microscope on the African continent, making NMMU the only place in Africa where one can view atoms.

text: The first simple condensers were introduced on pre-achromatic microscopes in the 17th century. Robert Hooke used a combination of a salt water filled globe and a plano-convex lens, and shows in the 'Micrographia' that he understands the reasons for its efficiency. Makers in the 18th century such as Benjamin Martin, Adams and Jones understood the advantage of condensing the area of the light source to that of the area of the object on the stage. This was a simple plano-convex or bi-convex lens, or sometimes a combination of lenses. With the development of the modern achromatic objective in 1829, by Joseph Jackson Lister, the need for better condensers became increasingly apparent. By 1837, the use of the achromatic condenser was introduced in France, by Felix Dujardin, and Chevalier. English makers early took up this improvement, due to the obsession with resolving test objects such as diatoms and Nobert ruled gratings. By the late 1840s, English makers such as Ross, Powell and Smith; all could supply highly corrected condensers on their best stands, with proper centring and focus. It is erroneously stated that these developments were purely empirical - no-one can design a good achromatic, spherically corrected condenser relying only on empirics. On the Continent, in Germany, the corrected condenser was not considered either useful or essential, mainly due to a misunderstanding of the basic optical principles involved. Thus the leading German company, Carl Zeiss in Jena, offered nothing more than a very poor chromatic condenser into the late 1870s. French makers, such as Nachet, provided excellent achromatic condensers on their stands When the leading German bacteriologist, Robert Koch, complained to Ernst Abbe, that he was forced to buy a Seibert achromatic condenser for his Zeiss microscope, in order to make satisfactory photographs of bacteria, Abbe produced a very good achromatic design in 1878.

text: The first simple condensers were introduced on pre-achromatic microscopes in the 17th century.

text: Robert Hooke

text: used a combination of a salt water filled globe and a plano-convex lens, and shows in the '

text: Micrographia

text: ' that he understands the reasons for its efficiency. Makers in the 18th century such as Benjamin Martin, Adams and Jones understood the advantage of condensing the area of the light source to that of the area of the object on the stage. This was a simple plano-convex or bi-convex lens, or sometimes a combination of lenses. With the development of the modern achromatic objective in 1829, by

text: Joseph Jackson Lister

text: , the need for better condensers became increasingly apparent. By 1837, the use of the achromatic condenser was introduced in France, by Felix Dujardin, and Chevalier. English makers early took up this improvement, due to the obsession with resolving test objects such as diatoms and Nobert ruled gratings. By the late 1840s, English makers such as Ross, Powell and Smith; all could supply highly corrected condensers on their best stands, with proper centring and focus. It is erroneously stated that these developments were purely empirical - no-one can design a good achromatic, spherically corrected condenser relying only on empirics. On the Continent, in Germany, the corrected condenser was not considered either useful or essential, mainly due to a misunderstanding of the basic optical principles involved. Thus the leading German company,

text: Carl Zeiss

text: in Jena, offered nothing more than a very poor chromatic condenser into the late 1870s. French makers, such as Nachet, provided excellent achromatic condensers on their stands When the leading German bacteriologist,

text: Robert Koch

text: , complained to

text: Ernst Abbe

text: , that he was forced to buy a Seibert achromatic condenser for his Zeiss microscope, in order to make satisfactory photographs of bacteria, Abbe produced a very good achromatic design in 1878.

text: Eukaryotic cells are structurally complex, and by definition are organized, in part, by interior compartments that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost cell membrane. The larger organelles, such as the nucleus and vacuoles, are easily visible with the light microscope. They were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the microscope.

text: Eukaryotic

text: cells are structurally complex, and by definition are organized, in part, by interior compartments that are themselves enclosed by lipid membranes that resemble the outermost

text: cell membrane

text: . The larger organelles, such as the

text: nucleus

text: and

text: vacuoles

text: , are easily visible with the

text: light microscope

text: . They were among the first biological discoveries made after the invention of the

text: microscope

text: The origin of the concept was pieces of ivory or bone, containing specimens held between disks of transparent mica, that would slide into the gap between the stage and the objective. These "sliders" were popular in Victorian England until the Royal Microscopical Society introduced the standardized glass microscope slide.

text: The origin of the concept was pieces of

text: ivory

text: or

text: bone

text: , containing specimens held between disks of transparent

text: mica

text: , that would slide into the gap between the stage and the objective. These "sliders" were popular in

text: Victorian

text: England

text: until the

text: Royal Microscopical Society

text: introduced the standardized glass microscope slide.

text: If the dialogue centers throughout the Netherlands were houses of study (Soete Village translation of Beth-ha-midrash) established the International Foundation united in the house of study, of which Van Praag was president. Until the end of his life he was closely involved in these houses of study, took part in the discussions and gave numerous lectures. The first house of study was located in the Amsterdam Anne Frank House. The statutes of the Anne Frank House are such things as the extent of understanding for the suffering inflicted the Jews, promoting tolerance and combating discrimination, not promote dialogue between Jews, Christians and Muslims. Nevertheless, the foundation contributed to this, not least by the stamp of Henry Van Praag 's bustle.

text: If the dialogue centers throughout the Netherlands were houses of study (Soete Village translation of Beth-ha-midrash) established the International Foundation united in the house of study, of which Van Praag was president. Until the end of his life he was closely involved in these houses of study, took part in the discussions and gave numerous lectures. The first house of study was located in the Amsterdam

text: Anne Frank House

text: . The statutes of the Anne Frank House are such things as the extent of understanding for the suffering inflicted the Jews, promoting tolerance and combating discrimination, not promote dialogue between Jews, Christians and Muslims. Nevertheless, the foundation contributed to this, not least by the stamp of Henry Van Praag 's bustle.

text: István Apáthy, also known as Stephan Apáthy (1863–1922), was a Hungarian zoologist and histologist, known for his work in medical science and microscope technique. He particularly studied neurofibrils, and was known for improving microscopic techniques for dealing with tissue samples.  Apáthy was a professor at the Franz Joseph University.  He also theorized on the "social and political aspects" of eugenics.

text: István Apáthy, also known as Stephan Apáthy (1863–1922), was a

text: Hungarian

text: zoologist

text: and

text: histologist

text: , known for his work in medical science and

text: microscope

text: technique. He particularly studied

text: neurofibrils

text: , and was known for improving microscopic techniques for dealing with tissue samples.  Apáthy was a professor at the

text: Franz Joseph University

text: .  He also theorized on the "social and political aspects" of

text: eugenics

text: Microscopic hair analysis is the science of comparing several strands of hair under a microscope and attempting to deduce if the strands 'match'.  It became established as a forensic science by the 1950s.  Researchers often monitored more than a dozen attributes, including pigment distribution and scale patterns.  This technique has been used in criminal investigations to try to tie hair found at a crime scene, or other location of note, and confirm if the hair matches that of a suspect.  While a simple hair color match might be consistent with a certain suspect having been at the scene - black hair at the scene when the suspect has black hair - microscopic hair analysis began to claim a stronger standard by the 1970s.  Rather than merely "narrow the field" of possibilities, hair analysts claimed to actually match a specific person, such that the hair could be 'proof' of a specific suspect's presence.  While the typed reports often hedged the certainty of microscopic hair analysis, witnesses in court would not always be as modest; the manager of the Montana state crime lab testified there was a "1 in 10,000 chance" that hairs found at a crime scene did not come from the suspect in one case, for example.  Microscopic hair analysis has a long tradition of being used in fiction as well; it was originally popularized by Sherlock Holmes before it was even used by the police.  Fictional works involving detectives have continued to use it since, including Columbo, Quincy, ME, Dexter, and CSI.

text: Sherlock Holmes

text: before it was even used by the police.  Fictional works involving detectives have continued to use it since, including

text: Columbo

text: Quincy, ME

text: Dexter

text: , and

text: CSI

text: The stand was made by an employee of Tulley, James Smith, and is preserved in the Wellcome Institute.  Smith set up on his own in 1837, later taking on Richard Beck, a nephew of Lister, as an apprentice finally becoming a partner in 1847 when the company was renamed Smith & Beck.Lister published his work in 1830 in a paper entitled "On Some Properties in Achromatic Object-Glasses Applicable to the Improvement of the Microscope" submitted to the Royal Society, and collaborated with Smith and with Andrew Ross, who had established what was to become one of the finest microscope manufacturers in 1832.  Lister's law of aplanatic foci remained the underlying principle of microscopic science.

text: The stand was made by an employee of Tulley, James Smith, and is preserved in the

entity_name: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine

text: Wellcome Institute

text: .  Smith set up on his own in 1837, later taking on Richard Beck, a nephew of Lister, as an apprentice finally becoming a partner in 1847 when the company was renamed Smith & Beck.Lister published his work in 1830 in a paper entitled "On Some Properties in Achromatic

text: Object-Glasses

text: Applicable to the Improvement of the Microscope" submitted to the Royal Society, and collaborated with Smith and with Andrew Ross, who had established what was to become one of the finest microscope manufacturers in 1832.  Lister's law of aplanatic foci remained the underlying principle of microscopic science.

text: MountainsMap is a surface imaging and metrology software published by the company Digital Surf. Its main application is micro-topography, the science of studying surface texture and form in 3D at the microscopic scale. The software is used mainly with stylus-based or optical profilometers, optical microscopes and scanning probe microscopes.

text: MountainsMap is a surface imaging and

text: metrology

text: software

text: published by the company

text: Digital Surf

text: . Its main application is micro-topography, the science of studying surface texture and form in

text: at the microscopic scale. The software is used mainly with stylus-based or optical

text: profilometer

text: s, optical

text: microscope

text: s and

text: scanning probe microscopes

text: They are exceptionally associated with hypercalcemia. On gross examination, dysgerminomas present with a smooth, bosselated (knobby) external surface, and is soft, fleshy and either cream-coloured, gray, pink or tan when cut. Microscopic examination typically reveals uniform cells that resemble primordial germ cells.  Typically, the stroma contains lymphocytes and about 20% of patients have sarcoid-like granulomas.

text: They are exceptionally associated with hypercalcemia. On gross examination, dysgerminomas present with a smooth,

text: bosselated

text: (knobby) external surface, and is soft, fleshy and either cream-coloured, gray, pink or tan when cut. Microscopic examination typically reveals uniform cells that resemble primordial germ cells.  Typically, the

text: stroma

text: contains

text: lymphocyte

text: s and about 20% of patients have sarcoid-like

text: granuloma

text: s.

text: For the Maricopa Association of Governments, Caliper is developing the largest high-fidelity microsimulation model ever attempted.  Using TransModeler, vehicle traffic is being simulated within a 500 square mile area of Phoenix using a microscopic model with a .1 second time step.  The network includes more than 1800 traffic signals which are being simulated at the same time.  The network is represented at the lane level with accurate intersection placement and geography.  An equilibrium dynamic traffic assignment (DTA) is performed using the microscopic loading.

text: For the

text: Maricopa Association of Governments

text: Caliper

text: is developing the largest high-fidelity

text: microsimulation

text: model ever attempted.  Using TransModeler, vehicle traffic is being simulated within a 500 square mile area of

text: Phoenix

text: using a microscopic model with a .1 second time step.  The network includes more than 1800

text: traffic signals

text: which are being simulated at the same time.  The network is represented at the lane level with accurate intersection placement and geography.  An equilibrium

text: dynamic traffic assignment

text: (DTA) is performed using the microscopic loading.

text: Fleas have appeared in poetry, literature, music and art; these include Robert Hooke's drawing of a flea under the microscope in his pioneering  book Micrographia published in 1665, poems by Donne and Jonathan Swift, works of music by Giorgio Federico Ghedini and Modest Mussorgsky, a play by Georges Feydeau, a film by Charlie Chaplin, and paintings by artists such as Giuseppe Crespi, Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, and Georges de La Tour.

text: Fleas have appeared in poetry, literature, music and art; these include

text: Robert Hooke

text: 's drawing of a flea under the

text: microscope

text: in his pioneering  book

text: Micrographia

text: published in 1665, poems by Donne and

text: Jonathan Swift

text: , works of music by

text: Giorgio Federico Ghedini

text: and

text: Modest Mussorgsky

text: , a play by

text: Georges Feydeau

text: , a film by

text: Charlie Chaplin

text: , and paintings by artists such as

text: Giuseppe Crespi

text: Giovanni Battista Piazzetta

text: , and

text: Georges de La Tour

text: In the half-century since the first experiments directly leading to the development of acoustic microscopes, at least three basic types of acoustic microscope have been developed. These are the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM), Confocal scanning acoustic microscope (CSAM), and C-mode scanning acoustic microscope (C-SAM). For details of development see the History section below. More recently acoustic microscopes based around picosecond ultrasonics systems have demonstrated acoustic imaging in cells using sub-optical wavelengths working with ultrasonic frequencies into the multi-GHz. Since the vast majority of acoustic microscopes in use today are C-SAM type instruments, this discussion will be limited to these instruments.

text: In the half-century since the first experiments directly leading to the development of acoustic microscopes, at least three basic types of acoustic microscope have been developed. These are the

text: scanning acoustic microscope

text: (SAM),

text: Confocal scanning acoustic microscope

text: (CSAM), and C-mode scanning acoustic microscope (C-SAM). For details of development see the History section below. More recently acoustic microscopes based around

text: picosecond ultrasonics

text: systems have demonstrated acoustic imaging in cells using sub-optical wavelengths working with ultrasonic frequencies into the multi-GHz. Since the vast majority of acoustic microscopes in use today are C-SAM type instruments, this discussion will be limited to these instruments.

text: A digital microscope is a microscope equipped with a digital camera allowing observation of a sample via a computer. Microscopes can also be partly or wholly computer-controlled with various levels of automation. Digital microscopy allows greater analysis of a microscope image, for example measurements of distances and areas and quantitaton of a fluorescent or histological stain.Low-powered digital microscopes, USB microscopes, are also commercially available. These are essentially webcams with a high-powered macro lens and generally do not use transillumination. The camera attached directly to the USB port of a computer, so that the images are shown directly on the monitor. They offer modest magnifications (up to about 200×) without the need to use eyepieces, and at very low cost. High power illumination is usually provided by an LED source or sources adjacent to the camera lens.

text: A

text: digital microscope

text: is a microscope equipped with a

text: digital camera

text: allowing observation of a sample via a

text: computer

text: . Microscopes can also be partly or wholly computer-controlled with various levels of automation. Digital microscopy allows greater analysis of a microscope image, for example measurements of distances and areas and quantitaton of a fluorescent or

text: histological

text: stain.Low-powered digital microscopes,

text: USB microscope

text: s, are also commercially available. These are essentially

text: webcam

text: s with a high-powered

text: macro lens

text: and generally do not use

text: transillumination

text: . The camera attached directly to the

text: USB

text: port of a computer, so that the images are shown directly on the monitor. They offer modest magnifications (up to about 200×) without the need to use eyepieces, and at very low cost. High power illumination is usually provided by an

text: LED

text: source or sources adjacent to the camera lens.

text: It has a Gram-positive cell wall, but, because the cell wall is so thin, it can appear either Gram-positive or Gram-negative under the microscope. It is associated microscopically with clue cells, which are epithelial cells covered in bacteria.

text: It has a Gram-positive cell wall, but, because the cell wall is so thin, it can appear either Gram-positive or Gram-negative under the microscope. It is associated microscopically with

text: clue cell

text: s, which are

text: epithelial cell

text: s covered in bacteria.

text: Despite the simplicity of the hook-length formula, the Frame–Robinson–Thrall proof is uninsightful and does not provide an intuitive argument as to why hooks appear in the formula.The search for a short, intuitive explanation befitting such a simple result gave rise to many alternate proofs for the hook-length formula.A. P. Hillman and R. M. Grassl gave the first proof that illuminates the role of hooks in 1976 by proving a special case of the Stanley hook-content formula, which is known to imply the hook-length formula.C. Greene, A. Nijenhuis, and H. S. Wilf found a probabilistic proof using the hook walk in which the hook lengths appear naturally in 1979.J. B. Remmel adapted the original Frame–Robinson–Thrall proof into the first bijective proof for the hook-length formula in 1982.A direct bijective proof was first discovered by D. S. Franzblau and D. Zeilberger in 1982.D. Zeilberger also converted the Greene–Nijenhuis–Wilf hook walk proof into a bijective proof in 1984.A simpler direct bijective proof was announced by Igor Pak and Alexander V. Stoyanovskii in 1992, and its complete proof was presented by the pair and Jean-Christophe Novelli in 1997.

text: Despite the simplicity of the hook-length formula, the Frame–Robinson–Thrall proof is uninsightful and does not provide an intuitive argument as to why hooks appear in the formula.The search for a short, intuitive explanation befitting such a simple result gave rise to many alternate proofs for the hook-length formula.A. P. Hillman and R. M. Grassl gave the first proof that illuminates the role of hooks in 1976 by proving a special case of the

text: Stanley

text: hook-content formula, which is known to imply the hook-length formula.

text: C. Greene

text: A. Nijenhuis

text: , and

text: H. S. Wilf

text: found a probabilistic proof using the hook walk in which the hook lengths appear naturally in 1979.J. B. Remmel adapted the original Frame–Robinson–Thrall proof into the first bijective proof for the hook-length formula in 1982.A direct bijective proof was first discovered by D. S. Franzblau and

text: D. Zeilberger

text: in 1982.

text: D. Zeilberger

text: also converted the Greene–Nijenhuis–Wilf hook walk proof into a bijective proof in 1984.A simpler direct bijective proof was announced by

text: Igor Pak

text: and Alexander V. Stoyanovskii in 1992, and its complete proof was presented by the pair and Jean-Christophe Novelli in 1997.

text: Moreover, the deterministic law at the microscopic level produces a non-deterministic arrangement of the cells: if the experiment is repeated, a particular position in the experiment will be in a clockwise cell in some cases, and a counter-clockwise cell in others.  Microscopic perturbations of the initial conditions are enough to produce a non-deterministic macroscopic effect.  That is, in principle, there is no way to calculate the macroscopic effect of a microscopic perturbation.  This inability to predict long-range conditions and sensitivity to initial-conditions are characteristics of chaotic or complex systems (i.e., the butterfly effect).

text: Moreover, the deterministic law at the microscopic level produces a non-deterministic arrangement of the cells: if the experiment is repeated, a particular position in the experiment will be in a clockwise cell in some cases, and a counter-clockwise cell in others.  Microscopic perturbations of the

text: initial conditions

text: are enough to produce a non-deterministic macroscopic effect.  That is, in principle, there is no way to calculate the macroscopic effect of a microscopic perturbation.  This inability to predict long-range conditions and sensitivity to initial-conditions are characteristics of

text: chaotic

text: or

text: complex

text: systems (i.e., the

text: butterfly effect

text: Digital holography has mostly been applied to light microscopy. However, digital holography has also been applied to electron microscopy. Holography was invented by Dennis Gabor to improve the electron microscope. For various reasons holography never made it into the electron microscope.

text: Digital holography has mostly been applied to light microscopy. However, digital holography has also been applied to

text: electron microscopy

text: . Holography was invented by

text: Dennis Gabor

text: to improve the electron microscope. For various reasons holography never made it into the electron microscope.

text: Rouget is largely remembered for his correlation of physiology to microscopic anatomical structure. He was the first to discover the branching contractile cells on the external wall of the capillaries in amphibians, structures that are now known as "Rouget cells". Also the eponymous "Rouget's muscle" was described by him, which are circular fibers of the ciliary muscle of the eye. These fibers are sometimes called "Müller's muscle" after German anatomist Heinrich Müller (1820–1864).

text: Rouget is largely remembered for his correlation of physiology to microscopic

text: anatomical

text: structure. He was the first to discover the branching contractile cells on the external wall of the

text: capillaries

text: in

text: amphibian

text: s, structures that are now known as "

text: Rouget cells

text: ". Also the eponymous "Rouget's muscle" was described by him, which are circular fibers of the

text: ciliary muscle

text: of the eye. These fibers are sometimes called "

text: Müller's muscle

text: " after German anatomist

text: Heinrich Müller

text: In North America, all 10 Electroplankton were released in November 2009. Trapy, Hanenbow, Rec-Rec, Nanocarp, and Beatnes were released on November 9, while Luminaria (renamed Luminarrow), Sun-Animalcule, Lumiloop, Marine-Snow (renamed Marine-Crystals), and Volvoice (renamed Varvoice) were released November 23.

text: Stagnicola perplexa is similar in appearance and shares habitats and a geographical range comparable to Mythicomyces corneipes. S. perplexa generally has a more faded coloration, and produces brownish spore prints lacking purplish tones. The two species can be reliably distinguished by microscopic characteristics, as Stagnicola has smooth spores and cheilocystidia with thin walls. Owing to its similarly colored cap and habitat amongst mosses, Phaeocollybia attenuata might be confused with M. corneipes. Phaeocollybia attenuata can readily be differentiated in the field by the long wirelike pseudorhiza extending below the substrate, and microscopically by the much more heavily ornamented limoniform-globose spores and absence of pleurocystidia. Other morphologically similar species include Hypholoma udum and H. elongatum, but unlike M. corneipes, both of these agarics have smooth spores, yellow chrysocystidia, and lack metuloids. The lookalike Galerina sideroides is found in Washington, Michigan, and Sweden, where it fruits in groups on rotten conifer logs. It has distinct microscopic characteristics, such as a wider range of basidial widths (20–40 µm), and a lack of pleurocystidia.

text: Stagnicola perplexa

text: is similar in appearance and shares habitats and a geographical range comparable to Mythicomyces corneipes. S. perplexa generally has a more faded coloration, and produces brownish spore prints lacking purplish tones. The two species can be reliably distinguished by microscopic characteristics, as Stagnicola has smooth spores and cheilocystidia with thin walls. Owing to its similarly colored cap and habitat amongst mosses,

text: Phaeocollybia attenuata

text: might be confused with M. corneipes. Phaeocollybia attenuata can readily be differentiated in the field by the long wirelike pseudorhiza extending below the substrate, and microscopically by the much more heavily ornamented limoniform-globose spores and absence of pleurocystidia. Other morphologically similar species include

text: Hypholoma udum

text: and

text: H. elongatum

text: , but unlike M. corneipes, both of these agarics have smooth spores, yellow chrysocystidia, and lack metuloids. The lookalike

text: Galerina sideroides

text: is found in

text: Washington

text: Michigan

text: , and Sweden, where it fruits in groups on rotten conifer logs. It has distinct microscopic characteristics, such as a wider range of basidial widths (20–40 µm), and a lack of pleurocystidia.

text: It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, the Netherlands and England. Marcelo Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures beginning with the lungs. Robert Hooke's Micrographia had a huge impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. The greatest contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification.  He sandwiched a v. small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together and with an adjustable by screws needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek discovered red blood cells and spermatozoa and helped popularise microscopy as a technique. On 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms.

text: It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, the Netherlands and England. Marcelo Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures beginning with the lungs.

text: Robert Hooke

text: 's

text: Micrographia

text: had a huge impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. The greatest contribution came from

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: who achieved up to 300 times magnification.  He sandwiched a v. small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together and with an adjustable by screws needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek discovered

text: red blood cell

text: s and

text: spermatozoa

text: and helped popularise microscopy as a technique. On 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms.

text: Quate is known as the brilliant mind behind acoustic and atomic force microscopy. The scanning acoustic microscope, invented with a colleague in 1973, has resolution exceeding optical microscopes, revealing structure in opaque or even transparent materials not visible to optics.

text: The Image Cytometry Standard (ICS) is a digital multidimensional image file format used in life sciences microscopy. It stores not only the image data, but also the microscopic parameters describing the optics during the acquisition.

text: The Image Cytometry Standard (ICS) is a digital multidimensional image

text: file format

text: used in

text: life sciences

text: microscopy

text: . It stores not only the

text: image data

text: , but also the microscopic parameters describing the optics during the acquisition.

text: During the ascus initial formation the crozier helps to maintain a dikaryotic state in the ascus initial and its side branch that will continue the spreading growth of the ascogenous hyphae in Ascomycota fruitbodies. The tips of developing asci on these ascogenous hyphae curl over. One haploid nucleus migrates into the curved tip while the other compatible haploid nucleus remains in the penultimate space below the hook. The ascus initial itself forms as a radiating spur branch at the top of the hook. Each nucleus divides resulting in the formation of a pair of compatible nuclei, i.e. a dikaryon, in the ascus. Two sister nuclei remain, one in the basal cell and the other in the crozier. The tip of the crozier fuses with the penultimate cell while walling itself off from the ascus by the formation of a septum. The nucleus from the crozier migrates into the penultimate cell joining the other nucleus, thus maintaining a dikaryotic state. These nuclei migrate into a side branch growing from the base of the ascus that repeats the ascus-crozier formation innumerable times. Mature croziers are detectable through microscopic examination of mature asci as small curved bridges at the basal septa. A minority of Ascomycota lack crosiers, hence the presence or absence of croziers is an important taxonomic character. Croziers resemble and function similarly to clamp connections on the dikaryotic hyphae of Basidiomycota.

text: During the

text: ascus

text: initial formation the crozier helps to maintain a

text: dikaryotic

text: state in the ascus initial and its side branch that will continue the spreading growth of the

text: ascogenous

text: hyphae in Ascomycota fruitbodies. The tips of developing asci on these ascogenous hyphae curl over. One

text: haploid

text: nucleus migrates into the curved tip while the other compatible haploid nucleus remains in the penultimate space below the hook. The ascus initial itself forms as a radiating spur branch at the top of the hook. Each

text: nucleus

text: divides resulting in the formation of a pair of compatible nuclei, i.e. a

text: dikaryon

text: , in the ascus. Two sister nuclei remain, one in the basal cell and the other in the crozier. The tip of the crozier fuses with the penultimate cell while walling itself off from the ascus by the formation of a

text: septum

text: . The nucleus from the crozier migrates into the penultimate cell joining the other nucleus, thus maintaining a dikaryotic state. These nuclei migrate into a side branch growing from the base of the ascus that repeats the ascus-crozier formation innumerable times. Mature croziers are detectable through microscopic examination of mature asci as small curved bridges at the basal septa. A minority of Ascomycota lack crosiers, hence the presence or absence of croziers is an important

text: taxonomic

text: character. Croziers resemble and function similarly to

text: clamp connection

text: s on the dikaryotic hyphae of

text: Basidiomycota

text: Micrographia is a historically significant book by Robert Hooke about his observations through various lenses. It is particularly notable for being the first book to illustrate insects, plants etc. as seen through microscopes. Published in January 1665, the first major publication of the Royal Society, it became the first scientific best-seller, inspiring a wide public interest in the new science of microscopy.  It is also notable for coining the biological term cell.

text: Micrographia is a historically significant book by

text: Robert Hooke

text: about his observations through various lenses. It is particularly notable for being the first book to illustrate insects, plants etc. as seen through microscopes. Published in January 1665, the first major publication of the

text: Royal Society

text: , it became the first scientific best-seller, inspiring a wide public interest in the new science of

text: microscopy

text: .  It is also notable for coining the biological term

text: cell

text: Arthur is in a cell in the town prison, and Hook wants to know who Nimue is and what he’s hiding, but Arthur says that Emma took his memories so he doesn't know anything. David pries Hook away, saying that Arthur was right, he doesn't remember anything from the events in Camelot, and the now, Arthur was "no longer important." Hook says Emma told them this was about him, but Regina says that Emma is manipulating him, like all the Dark Ones do, and Regina and Mary Margaret are convinced that Emma has fully succumbed to the darkness. Hook believes Emma hasn't fully caved to the darkness yet, since she hasn't used the sword yet, but Regina thinks Emma still needs another ingredient for her spell. Hook is determined to find out what went on in Camelot, saying that the only way to help her is to find out what happened between him and Emma. Hook visits Gold at his shop, and Mr. Gold tells Belle to put down the crossbow, since Hook wasn't Emma. Mr. Gold says he had some squid ink set aside, but the new Dark One took it. Hook says that Dark Ones are clever, being able to convince everyone that they've really changed when they haven't, and then asks what’s going on inside Emma’s head. He tells Gold what Emma said about her actions being about him. Gold says he recognizes the look on her face – regret. He says he became the Dark One to save his son. He adds that he convinced himself everything he did was for that, and that once he saved his son, he would atone for his sins, but things did not work out. He tells Hook to find out what Emma is trying to atone for to get the answers. Hook says he can’t find her, and Gold says that he will have to give her a reason to find him. Hook goes outside and calls for Emma and asks what happened between them and what she wants.

text: In the 17th and 18th centuries, hand lenses were used by Malpighi, and microscopes by van Leeuwenhoek, preparations for fixing the eye for study by Ruysch, and later the freezing of the eye by Petit. This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted, such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the posterior chamber, and of course the nature of the retina. In 1722, van Leeuwenhoek noted the existence of rods and cones, though they were not properly discovered until Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus in 1834 by use of a microscope.

text: In the 17th and 18th centuries,

text: hand lens

text: es were used by

text: Malpighi

text: , and

text: microscope

text: s by van Leeuwenhoek, preparations for fixing the eye for study by

text: Ruysch

text: , and later the freezing of the eye by

text: Petit

text: . This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted, such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the

text: posterior chamber

text: , and of course the nature of the retina. In 1722, van

text: Leeuwenhoek

text: noted the existence of rods and cones, though they were not properly discovered until

text: Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus

text: in 1834 by use of a microscope.

text: He won the Leeuwenhoek Medal in 1915. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1899, created a Companion of the Bath (CB) in the 1905 Birthday Honours, knighted in 1908 and upgraded to a Knight Commander of the Bath (KCB) in 1918. He was president of the British Science Association during 1924–1925.

text: He won the

text: Leeuwenhoek Medal

text: in 1915. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (

text: FRS

text: ) in 1899, created a Companion of the Bath (

text: CB

text: ) in the

text: 1905 Birthday Honours

text: knighted

text: in 1908 and upgraded to a Knight Commander of the Bath (KCB) in 1918. He was president of the

text: British Science Association

text: during 1924–1925.

text: The ER-C presently houses 13 electron microscopes manufactured by FEI Company and JEOL Ltd. ranging from standard scanning electron microscopes to highly specialised Titan series transmission electron microscopes equipped with aberration correction units and offering an information limit well below 100 picometres. The majority of ER-C instrumental resources is available for use by both in-house and external users.

text: The ER-C presently houses 13 electron microscopes manufactured by

text: FEI Company

text: and

text: JEOL Ltd.

text: ranging from standard scanning electron microscopes to highly specialised Titan series transmission electron microscopes equipped with aberration correction units and offering an information limit well below 100 picometres. The majority of ER-C instrumental resources is available for use by both in-house and external users.

text: In his model, Fisher argues that the functioning of the microscope is analogous to the fitness of an organism. The performance of the microscope depends on the state of various knobs that can be manipulated, corresponding to distances and orientations of various lenses, whereas the fitness of an organism depends on the state of various phenotypic character such as body size and beak length and depth. The increase in the fitness of an organism by random changes is then analogous to the attempt to improve the performance of a microscope through randomly changing the positions of the knobs on the microscope.

text: In his model, Fisher argues that the functioning of the microscope is analogous to the fitness of an organism. The performance of the microscope depends on the state of various knobs that can be manipulated, corresponding to distances and orientations of various lenses, whereas the fitness of an organism depends on the state of various

text: phenotypic

text: character such as body size and

text: beak

text: length and depth. The increase in the fitness of an organism by random changes is then analogous to the attempt to improve the performance of a microscope through randomly changing the positions of the knobs on the microscope.

text: The scanning tunneling microscope, an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level, was developed in 1981 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.  Binnig, Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber invented the first atomic force microscope in 1986. The first commercially available atomic force microscope was introduced in 1989.

text: The

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: , an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level, was developed in 1981 by

text: Gerd Binnig

text: and

text: Heinrich Rohrer

text: at

text: IBM Zurich Research Laboratory

text: , for which they were awarded the

text: Nobel Prize in Physics

text: in 1986.  Binnig,

text: Calvin Quate

text: and

text: Christoph Gerber

text: invented the first

text: atomic force microscope

text: in 1986. The first commercially available atomic force microscope was introduced in 1989.

text: A primary difference between a stereo microscope and a digital microscope is the magnification. With a stereo microscope the magnification is found by multiplying the lens magnification by the eyepiece magnification. Since the digital microscope does not have an eyepiece, the magnification cannot be found using this method. Instead the magnification for a digital microscope is found by how many times larger the sample is reproduced on the monitor. Therefore, the magnification will depend on the size of the monitor. The average digital microscope system, which has a 15" monitor, would result in an average difference in magnification between an optical microscope and a digital microscope of about 40%. Thus the magnification number of a stereo microscope is usually 40% less than the magnification number of a digital microscope.

text: A primary difference between a stereo microscope and a digital microscope is the

text: magnification

text: . With a stereo microscope the magnification is found by multiplying the lens magnification by the eyepiece magnification. Since the digital microscope does not have an eyepiece, the magnification cannot be found using this method. Instead the magnification for a digital microscope is found by how many times larger the sample is reproduced on the monitor. Therefore, the magnification will depend on the size of the monitor. The average digital microscope system, which has a 15" monitor, would result in an average difference in magnification between an optical microscope and a digital microscope of about 40%. Thus the magnification number of a stereo microscope is usually 40% less than the magnification number of a digital microscope.

text: In 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam was the first person to observe red blood cells under a microscope, and in 1695, microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, also Dutch, was the first to  draw an illustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further blood cells were discovered until 1842 when French physician Alfred Donné discovered platelets. The following year leukocytes were first observed by Gabriel Andral, a French professor of medicine, and William Addison, a British physician, simultaneously. Both men believed that both red and white cells were altered in disease. With these discoveries, hematology, a new field of medicine, was established.  Even though agents for staining tissues and cells were available, almost no advances were made in knowledge about the morphology of blood cells until 1879, when Paul Ehrlich published his technique for staining blood films and his method for differential blood cell counting

text: In 1658 Dutch naturalist

text: Jan Swammerdam

text: was the first person to observe red blood cells under a microscope, and in 1695,

text: microscopist

text: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

text: , also Dutch, was the first to  draw an illustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further blood cells were discovered until 1842 when French physician

text: Alfred Donné

text: discovered platelets. The following year leukocytes were first observed by

text: Gabriel Andral

text: , a French professor of medicine, and

text: William Addison

text: , a British physician, simultaneously. Both men believed that both red and white cells were altered in disease. With these discoveries,

text: hematology

text: , a new field of medicine, was established.  Even though agents for staining tissues and cells were available, almost no advances were made in knowledge about the morphology of blood cells until 1879, when

text: Paul Ehrlich

text: published his technique for staining blood films and his method for differential blood cell counting

text: Gai has pioneered advanced in-situ electron microscopy applications in the chemical sciences and with Edward D. Boyes co-invented the atomic resolution environmental transmission electron microscope (ETEM). The ETEM enables the visualisation and analysis on the atomic scale of dynamic gas-catalyst reactions underpinning key chemical processes. Her research has helped to understand better how catalysts function, leading to valuable new science. Her microscope and process inventions are being exploited worldwide by microscope manufacturers, chemical companies and researchers.

text: In 1964 Crewe developed the first field emission electron gun in collaboration with Hitachi, a new type of electron source that enabled much higher optical quality than had previously been possible.  This gun, combined with inventions in electron lenses and detection, led to the development of the highest resolution microscope at that time.  In 1970 his field emission scanning transmission electron microscope succeeded in taking images individual atom (though not the first, this achievement usually being credited to Erwin Muller).  In 1975 he was successful in obtaining the first motion pictures of atoms, providing new insight into atomic interaction and material formation.

text: In 1964 Crewe developed the first

text: field emission electron gun

text: in collaboration with Hitachi, a new type of electron source that enabled much higher optical quality than had previously been possible.  This gun, combined with inventions in electron lenses and detection, led to the development of the highest resolution microscope at that time.  In 1970 his field emission

entity_name: Scanning transmission electron microscopy

text: scanning transmission electron microscope

text: succeeded in taking images individual atom (though not the first, this achievement usually being credited to

text: Erwin Muller

text: ).  In 1975 he was successful in obtaining the first motion pictures of atoms, providing new insight into atomic interaction and material formation.

text: Bacteria and protists were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field of microbiology.

text: Bacteria

text: and

text: protist

text: s were first observed with a

text: microscope

text: by

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: in 1676, initiating the scientific field of

text: microbiology

text: Dutch draper and pioneering microbiologist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), a contemporary of artist Vermeer (and an executor for Vermeer when he died in 1675) in Delft was known to have exceptional lens making skills, having created single small lenses capable of 200x magnification, far exceeding those of more complex compound microscopes of the period. Indeed, his feats of lens making were not matched for a considerable time as he kept aspects of their construction secret; in the 1950s, C.L. Stong used thin glass thread fusing instead of polishing to recreate Leeuwenhoek design microscopes.  It was long believed that Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was a master lens grinder (a notion repeated in the recent BBC television documentary "Cell"). However, it is now believed that he came upon a relatively simple method of making small, high quality glass spheres by heating and manipulating a small rod of soda lime glass.

text: Dutch draper and pioneering microbiologist

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: (1632–1723), a contemporary of artist Vermeer (and an executor for Vermeer when he died in 1675) in Delft was known to have exceptional lens making skills, having created single small lenses capable of 200x magnification, far exceeding those of more complex compound microscopes of the period. Indeed, his feats of lens making were not matched for a considerable time as he kept aspects of their construction secret; in the 1950s, C.L. Stong used thin glass thread fusing instead of polishing to recreate Leeuwenhoek design microscopes.  It was long believed that Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was a master lens grinder (a notion repeated in the recent BBC television documentary "Cell"). However, it is now believed that he came upon a relatively simple method of making small, high quality glass spheres by heating and manipulating a small rod of soda lime glass.

text: In modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of mechanical components. It applies the physics of stress and strain, in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies. Fractography is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real life failures. The prediction of crack growth is at the heart of the damage tolerance discipline.

text: In modern

text: materials science

text: , fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the mechanical performance of mechanical components. It applies the

text: physics

text: of

text: stress

text: and

text: strain

text: , in particular the theories of

text: elasticity

text: and

text: plasticity

text: , to the microscopic

text: crystallographic defect

text: s found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic mechanical failure of bodies.

text: Fractography

text: is widely used with fracture mechanics to understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with real life failures. The prediction of crack growth is at the heart of the

text: damage tolerance

text: discipline.

text: The cell was  first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation.The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: The cell was  first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of

text: Theodor Schwann

text: and

text: Matthias Jakob Schleiden

text: in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called

text: protoplasm

text: and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time,

text: colloidal chemistry

text: began its development, and the concepts of

text: bound water

text: emerged. A

text: colloid

text: being something between a

text: solution

text: and a

text: suspension

text: , where

text: Brownian motion

text: is sufficient to prevent

text: sedimentation

text: .The idea of a

text: semipermeable membrane

text: , a barrier that is permeable to

text: solvent

text: but impermeable to

text: solute

text: molecules

text: was developed at about the same time. The term

text: osmosis

text: originated in 1827 and its importance to

text: physiological

text: phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the

text: botanist

text: Pfeffer

text: proposed the

text: membrane theory

text: of

text: cell physiology

text: . In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the

text: plasma membrane

text: , and cell water and solutes such as a

text: potassium

text: ion

text: existed in a physical state like that of a

text: dilute solution

text: . In 1889 Hamburger used

text: hemolysis

text: of

text: erythrocytes

text: to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: In 1658 Dutch naturalist Jan Swammerdam was the first person to observe red blood cells under a microscope and in 1695, microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, also Dutch, was the first to draw an illustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further blood cells were discovered until 1842 when the platelets were discovered.

text: In 1658 Dutch naturalist

text: Jan Swammerdam

text: was the first person to observe

text: red blood cells

text: under a microscope and in 1695,

text: microscopist

text: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

text: , also Dutch, was the first to draw an illustration of "red corpuscles", as they were called. No further

text: blood cells

text: were discovered until 1842 when the

text: platelets

text: were discovered.

text: In the first half of the 18th century botany was beginning to move beyond descriptive science into experimental science. Although the microscope was invented in 1590 it was only in the late 17th century that lens grinding by Antony van Leeuwenhoek provided the resolution needed to make major discoveries. Important general biological observations were made by Robert Hooke (1635–1703) but the foundations of plant anatomy were laid by Italian Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) of the University of Bologna in his Anatome Plantarum (1675) and Royal Society Englishman Nehemiah Grew (1628–1711) in his The Anatomy of Plants Begun (1671) and Anatomy of Plants (1682). These botanists explored what is now called developmental anatomy and morphology by carefully observing, describing and drawing the developmental transition from seed to mature plant, recording stem and wood formation. This work included the discovery and naming of parenchyma and stomata.

text: In the first half of the 18th century botany was beginning to move beyond descriptive science into experimental science. Although the

text: microscope

text: was invented in 1590 it was only in the late 17th century that lens grinding by

text: Antony van Leeuwenhoek

text: provided the resolution needed to make major discoveries. Important general biological observations were made by

text: Robert Hooke

text: (1635–1703) but the foundations of plant anatomy were laid by Italian

text: Marcello Malpighi

text: (1628–1694) of the University of Bologna in his Anatome Plantarum (1675) and Royal Society Englishman

text: Nehemiah Grew

text: (1628–1711) in his The Anatomy of Plants Begun (1671) and Anatomy of Plants (1682). These botanists explored what is now called developmental anatomy and morphology by carefully observing, describing and drawing the developmental transition from seed to mature plant, recording stem and wood formation. This work included the discovery and naming of

text: parenchyma

text: and

text: stomata

text: It is important that the patient attend periodic follow-up checks, because even after careful microscopic surgical removal, cholesteatomas may recur.  Such recurrence may arise many years, or even decades, after treatment.

text: Insects were not the only organisms entering the laboratories as test subjects.  Bacteria had also been introduced and with the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 by Ernst Ruska, a whole new field of microbiology was born.  This invention allowed microbiologists to see objects that were far too small to be seen by any light microscope and thus viruses which had perplexed biologists of many fields for years, now came under scientific scrutiny.  In 1932 Wendell Stanley began a direct competition with Carl G. Vinson to be the first to completely isolate the Tobacco Mosaic Virus, a virus that had been until then invisibly killing tobacco plants across England.  It was Stanley who would accomplish this task first by changing the pH to one a more acidic one.  In doing so he was able to conclude that the virus was either a protein or closely related to one, thus benefiting experimental research.

text: Insects were not the only organisms entering the laboratories as test subjects.  Bacteria had also been introduced and with the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 by

text: Ernst Ruska

text: , a whole new field of microbiology was born.  This invention allowed microbiologists to see objects that were far too small to be seen by any light microscope and thus viruses which had perplexed biologists of many fields for years, now came under scientific scrutiny.  In 1932

text: Wendell Stanley

text: began a direct competition with

text: Carl G. Vinson

text: to be the first to completely isolate the Tobacco Mosaic Virus, a virus that had been until then invisibly killing tobacco plants across England.  It was Stanley who would accomplish this task first by changing the pH to one a more acidic one.  In doing so he was able to conclude that the virus was either a protein or closely related to one, thus benefiting experimental research.

text: There followed, during the 1980s, a series of important refining techniques.  In 1980 he invented a method for the correction of spherical aberration in electron optical systems using sextupoles and, in 1996, Crewe invented a new type of focusing lens for low voltage scanning microscopes.  He held 19 patents for his inventions, and had more than 275 publications, most of them concerned with electron optics and electron microscopes.

text: After the biopsy is performed, the sample of tissue that was removed from the patient is sent to the pathology laboratory. A pathologist who specializes in diagnosing diseases (such as cancer) by examining tissue under a microscope. When the laboratory (see Histology) receives the biopsy sample, the tissue is processed and an extremely thin slice of tissue is removed from the sample and attached to a glass slide. Any remaining tissue is saved for use in later studies, if required. The slide with the tissue attached is treated with dyes that stain the tissue, which allows the individual cells in the tissue to be seen more clearly. The slide is then given to the pathologist, who examines the tissue under a microscope, looking for any abnormal findings. The pathologist then prepares a report that lists any abnormal or important findings from the biopsy. This report is sent to the physician who originally performed the biopsy on the patient.

text: After the biopsy is performed, the sample of tissue that was removed from the patient is sent to the

text: pathology

text: laboratory

text: . A

text: pathologist

text: who specializes in diagnosing

text: diseases

text: (such as

text: cancer

text: ) by examining tissue under a

text: microscope

text: . When the laboratory (see

text: Histology

text: ) receives the biopsy sample, the tissue is processed and an extremely thin slice of

text: tissue

text: is removed from the sample and attached to a glass slide. Any remaining tissue is saved for use in later studies, if required. The slide with the tissue attached is treated with dyes that stain the tissue, which allows the individual

text: cell

text: s in the tissue to be seen more clearly. The slide is then given to the pathologist, who examines the tissue under a microscope, looking for any abnormal findings. The pathologist then prepares a report that lists any abnormal or important findings from the biopsy. This report is sent to the physician who originally performed the biopsy on the patient.

text: In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first to use a refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician, Giovanni Demisiani, at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of his Accademia dei Lincei. The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects. By 1624 Galileo had used a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, and in September he sent another to Prince Cesi. The Linceans played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member Giovanni Faber coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope". Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of a compound microscope.

text: In 1609, Galileo was, along with Englishman

text: Thomas Harriot

text: and others, among the first to use a

text: refracting telescope

text: as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was coined for Galileo's instrument by a Greek mathematician,

text: Giovanni Demisiani

text: , at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince

text: Federico Cesi

text: to make Galileo a member of his

text: Accademia dei Lincei

text: . The name was derived from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'. In 1610, he used a telescope at close range to magnify the parts of insects. By 1624 Galileo had used a compound

text: microscope

text: . He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, and in September he sent another to Prince Cesi. The

text: Linceans

text: played a role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow academy member

text: Giovanni Faber

text: coined the word for Galileo's invention from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with "telescope". Illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes, and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the

text: use of a compound microscope

text: Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells and some algal cells, enabling transport and communication between them. Plasmodesmata evolved independently in several lineages, and species that have these structures include members of the Charophyceae, Charales, Coleochaetales and Phaeophyceae (which are all algae), as well as all embryophytes, better known as land plants. Unlike animal cells, almost every plant cell is surrounded by a polysaccharide cell wall. Neighbouring plant cells are therefore separated by a pair of cell walls and the intervening middle lamella, forming an extracellular domain known as the apoplast. Although cell walls are permeable to small soluble proteins and other solutes, plasmodesmata enable direct, regulated, symplastic intercellular transport of substances between cells. There are two forms of plasmodesmata: primary plasmodesmata, which are formed during cell division, and secondary plasmodesmata, which can form between mature cells.

text: Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are microscopic channels which traverse the

text: cell wall

text: s of

text: plant cells

text: and some

text: algal

text: cells, enabling transport and communication between them. Plasmodesmata evolved independently in several lineages, and species that have these structures include members of the

text: Charophyceae

text: Charales

text: Coleochaetales

text: and

text: Phaeophyceae

text: (which are all algae), as well as all

text: embryophytes

text: , better known as land plants. Unlike

text: animal cell

text: s, almost every

text: plant cell

text: is surrounded by a

text: polysaccharide

text: cell wall

text: . Neighbouring plant cells are therefore separated by a pair of cell walls and the intervening

text: middle lamella

text: , forming an extracellular domain known as the

text: apoplast

text: . Although cell walls are permeable to small soluble proteins and other

text: solutes

text: , plasmodesmata enable direct, regulated,

text: symplast

text: ic intercellular transport of substances between cells. There are two forms of plasmodesmata: primary plasmodesmata, which are formed during cell division, and secondary plasmodesmata, which can form between mature cells.

text: Most fluorescence microscopes in use are epifluorescence microscopes, where excitation of the fluorophore and detection of the fluorescence are done through the same light path (i.e. through the objective). These microscopes are widely used in biology and are the basis for more advanced microscope designs, such as the confocal microscope and the total internal reflection fluorescence microscope (TIRF).

text: Most fluorescence microscopes in use are epifluorescence microscopes, where excitation of the fluorophore and detection of the fluorescence are done through the same light path (i.e. through the objective). These microscopes are widely used in biology and are the basis for more advanced microscope designs, such as the

text: confocal microscope

text: and the

entity_name: Total internal reflection fluorescence microscope

text: total internal reflection fluorescence microscope

text: (TIRF).

text: Unfortunately, thermodynamics provides little insight into what is happening at a microscopic level. Statistical mechanics is a physical theory which explains thermodynamics in microscopic terms. It explains thermodynamics in terms of the possible detailed microscopic situations the system may be in when the thermodynamic variables of the system are known. These are known as "microstates" while the description of the system in thermodynamic terms specifies the "macrostate" of the system. Many different microstates can yield the same macrostate. It is important to understand that statistical mechanics does not define temperature, pressure, entropy, etc. They are already defined by thermodynamics. Statistical mechanics serves to explain thermodynamics in terms of microscopic behavior of the atoms and molecules in the system.

text: Unfortunately, thermodynamics provides little insight into what is happening at a microscopic level.

text: Statistical mechanics

text: is a physical theory which explains thermodynamics in microscopic terms. It explains thermodynamics in terms of the possible detailed microscopic situations the system may be in when the thermodynamic variables of the system are known. These are known as "microstates" while the description of the system in thermodynamic terms specifies the "macrostate" of the system. Many different microstates can yield the same macrostate. It is important to understand that statistical mechanics does not define temperature, pressure, entropy, etc. They are already defined by thermodynamics. Statistical mechanics serves to explain thermodynamics in terms of microscopic behavior of the atoms and molecules in the system.

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1724) is credited with bringing the microscope to the attention of biologists, even though simple magnifying lenses were already being produced in the 16th century. Van Leeuwenhoek's home-made microscopes were simple microscopes, with a single very small, yet strong lens. They were awkward in use, but enabled van Leeuwenhoek to see detailed images. It took about 150 years of optical development before the compound microscope was able to provide the same quality image as van Leeuwenhoek's simple microscopes, due to difficulties in configuring multiple lenses.

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: (1632–1724) is credited with bringing the microscope to the attention of biologists, even though simple magnifying lenses were already being produced in the 16th century. Van Leeuwenhoek's home-made microscopes were simple microscopes, with a single very small, yet strong lens. They were awkward in use, but enabled van Leeuwenhoek to see detailed images. It took about 150 years of optical development before the compound microscope was able to provide the same quality image as van Leeuwenhoek's simple microscopes, due to difficulties in configuring multiple lenses.

text: The first microscope was made around 1595 in Middelburg in the Dutch Republic. Three different eyeglass makers have been given credit for the invention: Hans Lippershey (who also developed the first real telescope); Hans Janssen; and his son, Zacharias. The coining of the name "microscope" has been credited to Giovanni Faber, who gave that name to Galileo Galilei's compound microscope in 1625.

text: The first microscope was made around 1595 in

text: Middelburg

text: in the

text: Dutch Republic

text: . Three different

text: eyeglass

text: makers have been given credit for the invention:

text: Hans Lippershey

text: (who also developed the first real

text: telescope

text: Hans Janssen

text: ; and his son,

text: Zacharias

text: . The coining of the name "microscope" has been credited to

text: Giovanni Faber

text: , who gave that name to

text: Galileo Galilei

text: 's compound microscope in 1625.

text: In 1995, he accepted a post doctoral position at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, working in the group of Yves Chabal, in the Physical Sciences research laboratory, headed by Horst Stormer.  He studied the surface oxidation of silicon and the science of wafer bonding and splitting by hydrogen implantation, winning multiple awards for his work.  He was offered a position as a Member of Technical Staff in the Materials Research laboratory run by Alastair Glass, working for Mark Cardillo to study the microscopic physics and chemistry of sol-gel.

text: In 1995, he accepted a post doctoral position at Bell Labs in Murray Hill, working in the group of Yves Chabal, in the Physical Sciences research laboratory, headed by

text: Horst Stormer

text: .  He studied the surface oxidation of silicon and the science of wafer bonding and splitting by hydrogen implantation, winning multiple awards for his work.  He was offered a position as a Member of Technical Staff in the Materials Research laboratory run by Alastair Glass, working for Mark Cardillo to study the microscopic physics and chemistry of sol-gel.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek used samples and measurements to estimate numbers of microorganisms in units of water. He also made good use of the huge lead provided by his method. He studied a broad range of microscopic phenomena, and shared the resulting observations freely with groups such as the British Royal Society. Such work firmly established his place in history as one of the first and most important explorers of the microscopic world. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe cells, much like Robert Hooke.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek used samples and measurements to estimate numbers of microorganisms in units of water. He also made good use of the huge lead provided by his method. He studied a broad range of microscopic phenomena, and shared the resulting observations freely with groups such as the British

text: Royal Society

text: . Such work firmly established his place in history as one of the first and most important explorers of the microscopic world. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe cells, much like

text: Robert Hooke

text: Vacuuming an infested object can remove pests. It is important to ensure that the “materials are not fragile or deteriorated" if they are to be vacuumed. Vacuuming should remove all of the hatched pest, but some eggs may remain as they can be microscopic. After the object has been vacuumed, it should be placed in a plastic bag isolating the object. During the isolation, the objects should be monitored to make sure that no pests remain on the object, and after the pests life cycle is completed the cleaning process may needed to be repeated.

text: Robert Hooke's 1667 book, Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and Inquiries thereupon, illustrated a human louse, drawn as seen down an early microscope.

text: Robert Hooke

text: 's 1667 book,

text: Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and Inquiries thereupon

text: , illustrated a human louse, drawn as seen down an early

text: microscope

text: Shortly after graduation, Livingston became the first female resident physician at a New York hospital where she was assigned to treat prostitutes infected with venereal diseases. While there, Livingston became interested in the study of tuberculosis and leprosy, and later scleroderma, a disease affecting the tissues and skin. After studying scleroderma tissues with the darkfield microscope, she claimed to find an acid-fast organism that consistently appeared in her slides. Thinking that scleroderma had some characteristics that were like cancer, Livingston then began studying malignant tissues and subsequently claimed to find evidence of acid-fast organisms in every sample. It was this early research that prompted the young physician to devote her career to the study of a specific microorganism involved in cancer.

text: Shortly after graduation, Livingston became the first female resident physician at a New York hospital where she was assigned to treat prostitutes infected with venereal diseases. While there, Livingston became interested in the study of

text: tuberculosis

text: and

text: leprosy

text: , and later

text: scleroderma

text: , a disease affecting the tissues and skin. After studying scleroderma tissues with the darkfield microscope, she claimed to find an

text: acid-fast

text: organism that consistently appeared in her slides. Thinking that scleroderma had some characteristics that were like cancer, Livingston then began studying malignant tissues and subsequently claimed to find evidence of acid-fast organisms in every sample. It was this early research that prompted the young physician to devote her career to the study of a specific microorganism involved in cancer.

text: Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope, or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.

text: Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is

text: microscopy

text: . Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound

text: light microscope

text: , or with instruments as complex as an

text: electron microscope

text: . Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with

text: biochemical

text: staining

text: techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with

text: antibody

text: based techniques. For example, the use of

text: antibodies

text: made artificially

text: fluorescent

text: (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific

text: antigen

text: s present on a pathogen. A

text: fluorescence microscope

text: is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.

text: The Poincaré recurrence theorem considers a theoretical microscopic description of an isolated physical system. This may be considered as a model of a thermodynamic system after a thermodynamic operation has removed an internal wall. The system will, after a sufficiently long time, return to a microscopically defined state very close to the initial one. The Poincaré recurrence time is the length of time elapsed until the return. It is exceedingly long, likely longer than the life of the universe, and depends sensitively on the geometry of the wall that was removed by the thermodynamic operation. The recurrence theorem may be perceived as apparently contradicting the second law of thermodynamics. More obviously, however, it is simply a microscopic model of thermodynamic equilibrium in an isolated system formed by removal of a wall between two systems. For a typical thermodynamical system, the recurrence time is so large (many many times longer than the lifetime of the universe) that, for all practical purposes, one cannot observe the recurrence. One might wish, nevertheless, to imagine that one could wait for the Poincaré recurrence, and then re-insert the wall that was removed by the thermodynamic operation. It is then evident that the appearance of irreversibility is due to the utter unpredictability of the Poincaré recurrence given only that the initial state was one of thermodynamic equilibrium, as is the case in macroscopic thermodynamics. Even if one could wait for it, one has no practical possibility of picking the right instant at which to re-insert the wall. The Poincaré recurrence theorem provides a solution to Loschmidt's paradox. If an isolated thermodynamic system could be monitored over increasingly many multiples of the average Poincaré recurrence time, the thermodynamic behavior of the system would become invariant under time reversal.

text: The

text: Poincaré recurrence theorem

text: The terms gingival hyperplasia and gingival hypertrophy have been used to describe this topic in the past.  These are not precise descriptions of gingival enlargement because these terms are strictly histologic diagnoses, and such diagnoses require microscopic analysis of a tissue sample. Hyperplasia refers to an increased number of cells, and hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of individual cells. As these identifications obviously cannot be performed with a clinical examination and evaluation of the tissue, the term gingival enlargement is more properly applied. Gingival enlargement has been classified according to etiology into 5 general groups:

text: The terms gingival

text: hyperplasia

text: and gingival

text: hypertrophy

text: have been used to describe this topic in the past.  These are not precise descriptions of gingival enlargement because these terms are strictly

text: histologic

text: diagnoses

text: , and such diagnoses require

text: microscopic

text: analysis of a tissue sample. Hyperplasia refers to an increased number of

text: cell

text: s, and hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of individual cells. As these identifications obviously cannot be performed with a clinical examination and evaluation of the tissue, the term gingival enlargement is more properly applied. Gingival enlargement has been classified according to etiology into 5 general groups:

text: There is evidence of a tetragonal phase, observed in X-ray powder tests and later under a microscope. When tested two meteorites gave d-values that could "be indexed on the basis of a tetragonal unit cell, but not on the basis of a cubic or hexagonal unit cell". It has been speculated to be e-iron, a hexagonal polymorph of iron.

text: The fish hook or similar device has been made by man for many thousands of years. Neolithic fish hooks have been recorded from Palestine about 7000 BC. In 2011, archaeologists in the Jerimalai cave in East Timor discovered what was then the world's oldest fish hook, a shell hook between 16,000 and 23,000 years old.However finds also made from sea snails some 23,000 years ago and predating the East Timor finds were reported from Okinawa.  An early written reference to a fish hook is found with reference to the Leviathan in the Book of Job 41:1; Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook? Fish hooks have been crafted from all sorts of materials including wood, animal and human bone, horn, shells, stone, bronze, iron up to present day materials. In many cases, hooks were created from multiple materials to leverage the strength and positive characteristics of each material. Norwegians as late as the 1950s still used juniper wood to craft Burbot hooks. Quality steel hooks began to make their appearance in Europe in the 17th century and hook making became a task for specialists.

text: The fish hook or similar device has been made by man for many thousands of years.

text: Neolithic

text: fish hooks have been recorded from

text: Palestine

text: about 7000

text: BC

text: . In 2011, archaeologists in the Jerimalai cave in

text: East Timor

text: discovered what was then the world's oldest fish hook, a shell hook between 16,000 and 23,000 years old.However finds also made from sea snails some 23,000 years ago and predating the East Timor finds were reported from

text: Okinawa

text: .  An early written reference to a fish hook is found with reference to the

text: Leviathan

text: in the

text: Book of Job

text: 41:1; Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook? Fish hooks have been crafted from all sorts of materials including wood, animal and human bone, horn, shells, stone, bronze, iron up to present day materials. In many cases, hooks were created from multiple materials to leverage the strength and positive characteristics of each material.

text: Norwegians

text: as late as the 1950s still used juniper wood to craft Burbot hooks. Quality steel hooks began to make their appearance in Europe in the 17th century and hook making became a task for specialists.

text: [[File:Chicxulub shockedquartz.png|300px|thumb|right|Sample of shocked quartz found at Well #2, Chicxulub crater]]Shocked quartz is a form of quartz that has a microscopic structure that is different from normal quartz. Under intense pressure (but limited temperature), the crystalline structure of quartz is deformed along planes inside the crystal. These planes, which show up as lines under a microscope, are called planar deformation features (PDFs), or shock lamellae.

text: [[File:Chicxulub shockedquartz.png|300px|thumb|right|Sample of shocked quartz found at Well #2,

text: Chicxulub crater

text: ]]Shocked quartz is a form of

text: quartz

text: that has a microscopic structure that is different from normal quartz. Under intense pressure (but limited temperature), the crystalline structure of quartz is deformed along planes inside the crystal. These planes, which show up as lines under a microscope, are called

text: planar deformation features

text: (PDFs), or shock lamellae.

text: is determined by calibrating the microscope with a suitable sample, DDM can be employed also for SLS experiments. Alternative algorithms for data analysis are suggested in.

text: is determined by calibrating the microscope with a suitable sample, DDM can be employed also for

text: SLS

text: experiments. Alternative algorithms for data analysis are suggested in.

text: In order to identify Pythium irregulare it is necessary to isolate the organism and observe it microscopically. First, it is important to identify that the microbe is an oomycete by looking for characteristics that are specific to oomycetes, such as coenocytic hyphae, zoospores, and oospores. After that, one can identify the microbe as being in the genera Pythium by observing disease symptoms, host range, as well as the presence of a vesicle, where zoospores form, which is attached to the sporangia. In contrast, most other oomycetes do not have a vesicle and the zoospores form in the sporangia. Finally, once the genera has been identified, it is helpful to use a dichotomous key to identify the species, such as the one at http://plantpath.psu.edu/pythium/module-3/plaats-niterink-key-pythium. Some of the key identifiers for P. irregulare include oogonia with irregular shaped, cylindrical projections, sporangia that occur singly, sporangia that are not filamentous, and oogonia smaller than 30 μm. There are also many genomic tests that can be done to determine species based on specific DNA markers. It is also important to note that many diagnosticians do not identify to the species level because it can be difficult to find all necessary microscopic structures and many management techniques can be applied to all Pythium species.

text: In order to identify Pythium irregulare it is necessary to isolate the organism and observe it microscopically. First, it is important to identify that the microbe is an oomycete by looking for characteristics that are specific to oomycetes, such as coenocytic hyphae, zoospores, and oospores. After that, one can identify the microbe as being in the genera Pythium by observing disease symptoms, host range, as well as the presence of a vesicle, where zoospores form, which is attached to the

text: sporangia

text: . In contrast, most other oomycetes do not have a vesicle and the zoospores form in the sporangia. Finally, once the genera has been identified, it is helpful to use a dichotomous key to identify the species, such as the one at http://plantpath.psu.edu/pythium/module-3/plaats-niterink-key-pythium. Some of the key identifiers for P. irregulare include oogonia with irregular shaped, cylindrical projections, sporangia that occur singly, sporangia that are not filamentous, and oogonia smaller than 30 μm. There are also many genomic tests that can be done to determine species based on specific DNA markers. It is also important to note that many diagnosticians do not identify to the species level because it can be difficult to find all necessary microscopic structures and many management techniques can be applied to all Pythium species.

text: Müller joined the faculty at Pennsylvania State University in 1952, where he remained until his death in 1977. He co-invented the Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope at Penn State in 1967.  He died in Washington D.C..

text: Müller joined the faculty at

text: Pennsylvania State University

text: in 1952, where he remained until his death in 1977. He co-invented the

text: Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope

text: at Penn State in 1967.  He died in

text: Washington D.C.

text: In 1989 Rick Dickinson, Christopher Curry (Acorn Computers), and Keith Dunning had a re-think of the famous MacArthur field microscope and Rick designed the Lensman microscope, a portable field microscope. In 1991 the Lensman microscope won the BBC design awards, The Prince Of Wales Award For Industrial Innovation And Production, Archimedes award for Engineering Excellence.

text: In 1989 Rick Dickinson,

text: Christopher Curry

text: Acorn Computers

text: ), and

text: Keith Dunning

text: had a re-think of the famous

text: MacArthur field microscope

text: and Rick designed the Lensman microscope, a portable field microscope. In 1991 the

text: Lensman microscope

text: won the

text: BBC design awards

text: The Prince Of Wales Award For Industrial Innovation And Production

text: Archimedes award for Engineering Excellence

text: Pearse’s main contributions lie in the structure of coated vesicles. Pearse first purified coated vesicles; she also discovered the clathrin coat molecule in 1975. Coated pits and vesicles were first seen in thin sections of tissue in the electron microscope by Thomas Roth and Keith Porter in 1964. The importance of them for the clearance of LDL from blood was discovered by R. G. Anderson, Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein in 1976.

text: Pearse’s main contributions lie in the structure of coated

text: vesicle

text: s. Pearse first purified coated vesicles; she also discovered the

text: clathrin

text: coat molecule in 1975. Coated pits and vesicles were first seen in thin sections of tissue in the electron microscope by Thomas Roth and Keith Porter in 1964. The importance of them for the clearance of

text: LDL

text: from blood was discovered by R. G. Anderson,

text: Michael S. Brown

text: and

text: Joseph L. Goldstein

text: in 1976.

text: Harvey's epigenesis, more mechanistic and less vitalist than the Aristotelian version, was, thus, more compatible with the natural philosophy of the time. Still, the idea that unorganized matter could ultimately self-organize into life challenged the mechanistic framework of Cartesianism, which had become dominant in the Scientific Revolution. Because of technological limitations, there was no available mechanical explanation for epigenesis.  It was simpler and more convenient to postulate preformed miniature organisms that expanded in accordance with mechanical laws. So convincing was this explanation that some naturalists claimed to actually see miniature preformed animals (animalcules) in eggs and miniature plants in seeds. In the case of humans, the term homunculus was used.

text: Harvey's epigenesis, more mechanistic and less vitalist than the Aristotelian version, was, thus, more compatible with the

text: natural philosophy

text: of the time. Still, the idea that unorganized matter could ultimately self-organize into life challenged the

text: mechanistic

text: framework of

text: Cartesianism

text: , which had become dominant in the

text: Scientific Revolution

text: . Because of technological limitations, there was no available mechanical explanation for epigenesis.  It was simpler and more convenient to postulate preformed miniature organisms that expanded in accordance with mechanical laws. So convincing was this explanation that some naturalists claimed to actually see miniature preformed animals (

text: animalcule

text: s) in eggs and miniature plants in seeds. In the case of humans, the term

text: homunculus

text: was used.

text: 1986 Atomic force microscope

text: Atomic force microscope

text: As is evident from their name, sessile serrated and traditional serrated adenomas (TSAs) have a serrated appearance and can be difficult to distinguish microscopically from hyperplastic polyps. Making this distinction is important, however, since SSAs and TSAs have the potential to become cancers,  while hyperplastic polyps do not.

text: German physicist Ernst Ruska and the electrical engineer Max Knoll constructed the prototype electron microscope in 1931, capable of four-hundred-power magnification; the apparatus was the first demonstration of the principles of electron microscopy. Two years later, in 1933, Ruska built an electron microscope that exceeded the resolution attainable with an optical (light) microscope. Moreover, Reinhold Rudenberg, the scientific director of Siemens-Schuckertwerke, obtained the patent for the electron microscope in May 1931.

text: German physicist

text: Ernst Ruska

text: and the electrical engineer

text: Max Knoll

text: constructed the

text: prototype

text: electron microscope in 1931, capable of four-hundred-power magnification; the apparatus was the first demonstration of the principles of electron microscopy. Two years later, in 1933, Ruska built an electron microscope that exceeded the resolution attainable with an optical (light) microscope. Moreover,

text: Reinhold Rudenberg

text: , the scientific director of

text: Siemens-Schuckertwerke

text: , obtained the patent for the electron microscope in May 1931.

text: Place a few drops of the cell suspension onto a microscope slide and let air dry overnight. The following day, immerse the slide in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for several minutes.

text: Place a few drops of the cell suspension onto a microscope slide and let air dry overnight. The following day, immerse the slide in

text: phosphate buffered saline

text: (PBS) for several minutes.

text: To visualize microscopic structures, it is necessary to combine an interferometer with the optics of a microscope. Such an arrangement is shown in Figure 3. This setup is similar to a standard optical microscope. The only differences are an interferometric objective lens and an accurate positioning stage (a piezoelectric actuator) to move the objective vertically. The optical magnification of the image on the CCD does not depend on the distance between tube lens and objective lens if the microscope images the object at infinity. The interference objective is the most important part of such a microscope. Different types of objectives are available. With a Mirau objective, as shown in Figure 3, the reference beam is reflected back in the direction of the objective front lens by a beam splitter. On the front lens there is a miniaturized mirror the same size as the illuminated surface on the object. Therefore, for high magnifications, the mirror is so small that its shadowing effect can be ignored. Moving the interference objective modifies the length of the measurement arm. The interference signal of a pixel has maximum modulation when the optical path length of light impinging on the pixel is exactly the same for the reference and the object beams. As before, the z-value for the point on the surface imaged by this pixel corresponds to the z-value of the positioning stage when the modulation of the correlogram is greatest.

text: To visualize microscopic structures, it is necessary to combine an interferometer with the optics of a

text: microscope

text: . Such an arrangement is shown in Figure 3. This setup is similar to a standard optical microscope. The only differences are an interferometric objective lens and an accurate positioning stage (a

text: piezoelectric

text: actuator) to move the objective vertically. The optical magnification of the image on the CCD does not depend on the distance between tube lens and objective lens if the microscope images the object at infinity. The interference objective is the most important part of such a microscope. Different types of objectives are available. With a

text: Mirau

text: objective, as shown in Figure 3, the reference beam is reflected back in the direction of the objective front lens by a beam splitter. On the front lens there is a miniaturized mirror the same size as the illuminated surface on the object. Therefore, for high magnifications, the mirror is so small that its shadowing effect can be ignored. Moving the interference objective modifies the length of the measurement arm. The interference signal of a pixel has maximum modulation when the optical path length of light impinging on the pixel is exactly the same for the reference and the object beams. As before, the z-value for the point on the surface imaged by this pixel corresponds to the z-value of the positioning stage when the modulation of the correlogram is greatest.

text: Members include amateurs, professionals, beginners and experts with an interest in microscopes, microscopy or microscope slides.

text: Abbe is credited by many for discovering the resolution limit of the microscope, and the formula (published in 1873)

text: Microscopic techniques have revealed a lot about the glycosome in the cell and have indeed proven that there is a membrane-bound organelle in the cell for glycogen and its processes. Paul Erlich's findings as early as 1883 noted that from the microscope he could tell that glycogen in the cell was always found with what he called a carrier, later known to be protein. The glycogen itself was also always seen in the cell towards the lower pole in one group, fixed. When scientists tried to stain what was assumed was simple glycogen molecules, the staining had different outcomes. This is due to the fact that they weren't free glycogen molecules but really a glycosome. The glycosome was studied in the microscope by examining the glycosome that was stained with uranyl acetate. The U/Pb that was seen stained was the protein that was part of the glycosome. The glycogen in the glycosome in the cells is normally associated with protein that is two to four times the weight of the glycogen. The glycogen itself however, after purified, is found with very little protein, less than three percent normally, showing that the glycosome is responsible and functions by having the proteins and enzymes needed for the glycogen in the glycosome. With the uranyl staining, as an acid, it would cause dissociation of the protein from the glycogen. The glycogen without the protein would form large aggregates and the stain would be the protein. This gives the illusion of glycogen disappearing as it is not stained, but it dissociates from the protein that it is normally associated with in the glycosome.

text: Microscopic techniques have revealed a lot about the glycosome in the cell and have indeed proven that there is a membrane-bound organelle in the cell for glycogen and its processes. Paul Erlich's findings as early as 1883 noted that from the microscope he could tell that glycogen in the cell was always found with what he called a carrier, later known to be protein. The glycogen itself was also always seen in the cell towards the lower pole in one group, fixed. When scientists tried to

text: stain

text: what was assumed was simple glycogen molecules, the staining had different outcomes. This is due to the fact that they weren't free glycogen molecules but really a glycosome. The glycosome was studied in the microscope by examining the glycosome that was stained with

text: uranyl acetate

text: . The U/Pb that was seen stained was the protein that was part of the glycosome. The glycogen in the glycosome in the cells is normally associated with protein that is two to four times the weight of the glycogen. The glycogen itself however, after purified, is found with very little protein, less than three percent normally, showing that the glycosome is responsible and functions by having the proteins and enzymes needed for the glycogen in the glycosome. With the uranyl staining, as an acid, it would cause dissociation of the protein from the glycogen. The glycogen without the protein would form large aggregates and the stain would be the protein. This gives the illusion of glycogen disappearing as it is not stained, but it dissociates from the protein that it is normally associated with in the glycosome.

text: High spatial resolution for arbitrary three-dimensional shape formation with modular robots can be accomplished using lattice system with large quantities of very small, prospectively microscopic modules. At small scales, and with large quantities of modules, deterministic control over reconfiguration of individual modules will become unfeasible, while stochastic mechanisms will naturally prevail. Microscopic size of modules will make the use of electromagnetic actuation and interconnection prohibitive, as well, as the use of on-board power storage.

text: The room houses two electron microscopes (1947–1950) and related equipment (gold vaporiser, lens, object holders, a cooler, a goniometer), a collection of compound and specimen microscopes (some binocular) (1840–1870) plus accompanying microscope lamps and a tool box, a binocular polarisation microscope (1850), several microtomes (a.o. a cryomicrotome) and ultramicrotomes, a phase contrast microscope, a fluorescence microscope (plus several epi-illuminators, to exploit the difference between emitted and reflected light frequencies that some substances display), compound microscope with transformer in camera installation, a photomicroscope (photo camera with inverted microscope), a boxed collection of microscopic specimens (1870).

text: The room houses two

text: electron microscopes

text: (1947–1950) and related equipment (gold vaporiser, lens, object holders, a cooler, a

text: goniometer

text: ), a collection of compound and specimen microscopes (some

text: binocular

text: ) (1840–1870) plus accompanying microscope lamps and a tool box, a binocular

text: polarisation microscope

text: (1850), several

text: microtome

text: s (a.o. a

text: cryomicrotome

text: ) and

text: ultramicrotomes

text: , a

text: phase contrast microscope

text: , a

text: fluorescence microscope

text: (plus several

text: epi-illuminator

text: s, to exploit the difference between emitted and reflected light frequencies that some substances display), compound microscope with transformer in camera installation, a photomicroscope (photo camera with inverted microscope), a boxed collection of microscopic

text: specimen

text: s (1870).

text: The radial distribution function is of fundamental importance since it can be used, using the Kirkwood–Buff solution theory, to link the microscopic details to macroscopic properties. Moreover, by the reversion of the Kirkwood-Buff theory, it is possible to attain the microscopic details of the radial distribution function from the macroscopic properties.

text: The radial distribution function is of fundamental importance since it can be used, using the

text: Kirkwood–Buff solution theory

text: , to link the microscopic details to macroscopic properties. Moreover, by the reversion of the Kirkwood-Buff theory, it is possible to attain the microscopic details of the radial distribution function from the macroscopic properties.

text: In biology, cell theory is a scientific theory which describes the properties of cells. These cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory. Cell theory has become the foundation of biology and is the most widely accepted explanation of the function of cells.

text: In

text: biology

text: , cell theory is a

text: scientific theory

text: which describes the properties of

text: cell

text: s. These cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to

text: microscope

text: s over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to

text: Robert Hooke

text: , and began the scientific study of cells, also known as

text: cell biology

text: . Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to

text: Matthias Schleiden

text: and

text: Theodor Schwann

text: . However, many other scientists like

text: Rudolf Virchow

text: contributed to the theory. Cell theory has become the foundation of biology and is the most widely accepted explanation of the function of cells.

text: In breathing entities, cells – i.e., the smallest unit of life – were first observed in the 17th century, when the multifaceted equipment microscope was conceived. Before that period, the individual organisms were studied as a whole in a field known as organismic biology; that area of research remains an important component of the biological sciences.<ref>"biology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2016. Web. 19 Jan. 2016

text: In 1837, Charles Cagniard de la Tour, a physicist, and Theodor Schwann, one of the founders of cell theory, published their independent discovery of yeast in alcoholic fermentation.  They used the microscope to examine foam left over from the process of brewing beer.  Where Leeuwenhoek described "small spheroid globules", they observed yeast cells undergo cell division.  Fermentation would not occur when sterile air or pure oxygen was introduced if yeast were not present.  This suggested that airborne microorganisms, not spontaneous generation, was responsible.

text: In 1837,

text: Charles Cagniard de la Tour

text: , a physicist, and

text: Theodor Schwann

text: , one of the founders of cell theory, published their independent discovery of

text: yeast

text: in

text: alcoholic fermentation

text: .  They used the

text: microscope

text: to examine foam left over from the process of brewing

text: beer

text: .  Where

text: Leeuwenhoek

text: described "small spheroid globules", they observed yeast cells undergo

text: cell division

text: .  Fermentation would not occur when sterile air or pure oxygen was introduced if yeast were not present.  This suggested that airborne

text: microorganisms

text: , not spontaneous generation, was responsible.

text: The name of the western constellation in modern Chinese is 顯微鏡座 (xiǎn wēi jìng zuò), meaning "the microscope constellation".

text: The image from an optical microscope can be captured by normal light-sensitive cameras to generate a micrograph. Originally images were captured by photographic film but modern developments in CMOS and charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras allow the capture of digital images. Purely digital microscopes are now available which use a CCD camera to examine a sample, showing the resulting image directly on a computer screen without the need for eyepieces.

text: The image from an optical microscope can be captured by normal light-sensitive cameras to generate a

text: micrograph

text: . Originally images were captured by

text: photographic film

text: but modern developments in

text: CMOS

text: and

text: charge-coupled device

text: (CCD) cameras allow the capture of

text: digital image

text: s. Purely

text: digital microscope

text: s are now available which use a CCD camera to examine a sample, showing the resulting image directly on a computer screen without the need for eyepieces.

text: Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classed on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscope and transmission electron microscopes).

text: Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e.,

text: light

text: or

text: photons

text: (optical microscopes),

text: electron

text: s (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classed on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscope and transmission electron microscopes).

text: He was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses. One of his books contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation – "Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, investigated by Microscope." Here, he wrote "who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms." He also noted that putrid material is full of innumerable creeping animalcule. These observations antedate Robert Hooke's Micrographia by nearly 20 years and were published some 29 years before van Leeuwenhoek saw protozoa and 37 years before he described having seen bacteria. Joseph Lister was the first person who said infectious diseases are caused by micro-organism and was first person who used phenol as disinfectant on the open wounds of patients.

text: He was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses. One of his books contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation – "Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, investigated by Microscope." Here, he wrote "who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms." He also noted that putrid material is full of innumerable creeping animalcule. These observations antedate Robert Hooke's Micrographia by nearly 20 years and were published some 29 years before van Leeuwenhoek saw protozoa and 37 years before he described having seen bacteria.

text: Joseph Lister

text: was the first person who said infectious diseases are caused by micro-organism and was first person who used phenol as disinfectant on the open wounds of patients.

text: He discovered a new type of cell, which was subsequently named after him: the interstitial cell of Cajal (ICC). This cell is found interleaved among neurons embedded within the smooth muscles lining the gut, serving as the generator and pacemaker of the slow waves of contraction that move material along the gastrointestinal tract, mediating neurotransmission from motor neurons to smooth muscle cells.

text: He discovered a new type of cell, which was subsequently named after him: the

text: interstitial cell of Cajal

text: (ICC). This cell is found interleaved among neurons embedded within the

text: smooth muscles

text: lining the

text: gut

text: , serving as the generator and pacemaker of the

text: slow waves of contraction

text: that move

text: material

text: along the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , mediating neurotransmission from motor neurons to smooth muscle cells.

text: In 1674, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, often called the "father of microscopy", sent the Royal Society of London a copy of his first observations of microscopic single-celled organisms. Until then, the existence of such microscopic organisms was entirely unknown. Despite this, Linnaeus did not include any microscopic creatures in his original taxonomy.

text: In 1674,

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: , often called the "father of microscopy", sent the

text: Royal Society

text: of London a copy of his first observations of microscopic single-celled organisms. Until then, the existence of such microscopic organisms was entirely unknown. Despite this, Linnaeus did not include any microscopic creatures in his original taxonomy.

text: A Kerr microscope relies on the MOKE in order to image differences in the magnetization on a surface of magnetic material. In a Kerr microscope, the illuminating light is first passed through a polarizer filter, then reflects from the sample and passes through an analyzer polarizing filter, before going through a regular optical microscope.   Because the different MOKE geometries require different polarized light, the polarizer should have the option to change the polarization of the incident light (circular, linear, and elliptical). When the polarized light is reflected off the sample material, a change in any combination of the following may occur: Kerr rotation, Kerr ellipticity, or polarized amplitude. The changes in polarization are converted by the analyzer into changes in light intensity, which are visible.  A computer system is often used to create an image of the magnetic field on the surface from these changes in polarization.

text: A Kerr microscope relies on the MOKE in order to image differences in the magnetization on a surface of magnetic material. In a Kerr microscope, the illuminating light is first passed through a

text: polarizer

text: filter, then reflects from the sample and passes through an analyzer polarizing filter, before going through a regular optical microscope.   Because the different MOKE geometries require different polarized light, the polarizer should have the option to change the polarization of the incident light (circular, linear, and elliptical). When the polarized light is reflected off the sample material, a change in any combination of the following may occur: Kerr rotation, Kerr ellipticity, or polarized amplitude. The changes in polarization are converted by the analyzer into changes in light intensity, which are visible.  A computer system is often used to create an image of the magnetic field on the surface from these changes in polarization.

text: The combination of the microscopic examination of the peripheral blood and analysis of the lymphocytes by flow cytometry to confirm clonality and marker molecule expression is needed to establish the diagnosis of CLL. Both are easily accomplished on a small amount of blood. A flow cytometer instrument  can examine the expression of molecules on individual cells in fluids. This requires the use of specific antibodies to marker molecules with fluorescent tags recognized by the instrument. In CLL, the lymphocytes are genetically clonal, of the B cell lineage (expressing marker molecules clusters of differentiation 19 and 20), and  characteristically express the marker molecules CD5 and CD23. These B cells resemble normal lymphocytes under the microscope, although slightly smaller, and are fragile when smeared onto a glass slide, giving rise to many broken cells, which are called "smudge" or "smear" cells.

text: The combination of the microscopic examination of the peripheral blood and analysis of the lymphocytes by

text: flow cytometry

text: to confirm clonality and marker molecule expression is needed to establish the diagnosis of CLL. Both are easily accomplished on a small amount of blood. A

text: flow cytometer

text: instrument  can examine the expression of molecules on individual cells in fluids. This requires the use of specific antibodies to marker molecules with fluorescent tags recognized by the instrument. In CLL, the lymphocytes are genetically clonal, of the B cell lineage (expressing marker molecules clusters of differentiation

text: and

text: ), and  characteristically express the marker molecules CD5 and CD23. These B cells resemble normal lymphocytes under the microscope, although slightly smaller, and are fragile when smeared onto a glass slide, giving rise to many broken cells, which are called "smudge" or "smear" cells.

text: In 1866, he became a research director at the Zeiss Optical Works, and in 1868 he invented the apochromatic lens, a microscope lens which eliminates both the primary and secondary color distortion. By 1870, Abbe invented the Abbe condenser, used for microscope illumination. In 1871, he designed the first refractometer, which he described in a booklet published in 1874.  He developed the laws of image of non-luminous objects by 1872. Zeiss Optical Works began selling his improved microscopes in 1872, by 1877 they were selling microscopes with homogenous immersion objective, and in 1886 his apochromatic objective microscopes were being sold. He created the Abbe number, a measure of any transparent material's variation of refractive index with wavelength and Abbe's criterion, which tests the hypothesis, that a systematic trend exists in a set of observations (in terms of resolving power this criterion stipulates that an angular separation cannot be less than the ratio of the wavelength to the aperture diameter, see angular resolution). Already a professor in Jena, he was hired by Carl Zeiss to improve the manufacturing process of optical instruments, which back then was largely based on trial and error.

text: In 1866, he became a research director at the

text: Zeiss Optical Works

text: , and in 1868 he invented the

text: apochromatic lens

text: , a microscope lens which eliminates both the primary and secondary color distortion. By 1870, Abbe invented the

text: Abbe condenser

text: , used for microscope illumination. In 1871, he designed the first

text: refractometer

text: , which he described in a booklet published in 1874.  He developed the laws of image of non-luminous objects by 1872. Zeiss Optical Works began selling his improved microscopes in 1872, by 1877 they were selling microscopes with homogenous immersion objective, and in 1886 his apochromatic objective microscopes were being sold. He created the

text: Abbe number

text: , a measure of any

text: transparent

text: material's variation of

text: refractive index

text: with

text: wavelength

text: and Abbe's criterion, which tests the hypothesis, that a systematic trend exists in a set of observations (in terms of resolving power this criterion stipulates that an angular separation cannot be less than the ratio of the wavelength to the aperture diameter, see

text: angular resolution

text: ). Already a professor in

text: Jena

text: , he was hired by

text: Carl Zeiss

text: to improve the manufacturing process of optical instruments, which back then was largely based on trial and error.

text: Philip O. Gravelle, a chemist, developed a comparison microscope for use in the identification of fired bullets and cartridge cases with the support and guidance of forensic ballistics pioneer Calvin Goddard. It was a significant advance in the science of firearms identification in forensic science. The firearm from which a bullet or cartridge case has been fired is identified by the comparison of the unique striae left on the bullet or cartridge case from the worn, machined metal of the barrel, breach block, extractor, or firing pin in the gun. It was Gravelle who mistrusted his memory. "As long as he could inspect only one bullet at a time with his microscope, and had to keep the picture of it in his memory until he placed the comparison bullet under the microscope, scientific precision could not be attained. He therefore developed the comparison microscope and Goddard made it work." Calvin Goddard perfected the comparison microscope and subsequently popularized its use.Sir Sydney Smith also appreciated the idea, emphasizing its importance in forensic science and firearms identification. He took the comparison microscope to Scotland and introduced it to the European scientists for firearms identification and other forensic science needs.

text: Philip O. Gravelle, a

text: chemist

text: , developed a comparison microscope for use in the identification of fired

text: bullets

text: and

text: cartridge cases

text: with the support and guidance of forensic ballistics pioneer Calvin Goddard. It was a significant advance in the science of

text: firearms

text: identification in

text: forensic science

text: . The firearm from which a bullet or cartridge case has been fired is identified by the comparison of the unique striae left on the bullet or cartridge case from the worn, machined metal of the

text: barrel

text: , breach block,

text: extractor

text: , or

text: firing pin

text: in the

text: gun

text: . It was Gravelle who mistrusted his memory. "As long as he could inspect only one bullet at a time with his microscope, and had to keep the picture of it in his memory until he placed the comparison bullet under the microscope, scientific precision could not be attained. He therefore developed the comparison microscope and Goddard made it work." Calvin Goddard perfected the comparison microscope and subsequently popularized its use.

text: Sir Sydney Smith

text: also appreciated the idea, emphasizing its importance in forensic science and firearms identification. He took the comparison microscope to

text: Scotland

text: and introduced it to the European scientists for firearms identification and other forensic science needs.

text: The late part of the 19th century in comparative anatomy was heavily influenced by the work of Charles Darwin in the On the Origin of Species in 1859. This work completely changed the views of comparative anatomists. Within 8 years of Darwin's release of the Origin of Species, his views on descent from a common ancestor were widely accepted. This led to a shift in trying to understand how different parts of the brain evolved. The next major innovation that helped to bring about paleoneurology was the microscope.  Although the microscope was invented in the 17th century, it was only used in biology in the beginning in the late 19th century. The techniques of observing brain cells under a microscope took a long time to refine. In 1873, with this tool in hand, Camillo Golgi began to cellularly detail the brain and employ techniques to perfect axonal microscoping. Ludwig Edinger took advantage of this and came up with a new branch of anatomy called comparative neuroanatomy. Edinger held that vertebrates evolved in a linear progressive series. He also thought that changes in the brain were based on a series of additions and differentiations and that the most highly, complex brains were those that were the most encephalized. The period of 1885-1935 was an explosion of ideas in comparative neuroanatomy. This era culminated in the publication of "The Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System" by Arienns, Kappers, Huber, and Cosby. This paper influenced Tilly Edinger and she later became to founder of Paleoneurology.

text: The late part of the 19th century in comparative anatomy was heavily influenced by the work of

text: Charles Darwin

text: in the

text: On the Origin of Species

text: in 1859. This work completely changed the views of comparative anatomists. Within 8 years of Darwin's release of the Origin of Species, his views on descent from a common ancestor were widely accepted. This led to a shift in trying to understand how different parts of the brain evolved. The next major innovation that helped to bring about paleoneurology was the

text: microscope

text: .  Although the microscope was invented in the 17th century, it was only used in biology in the beginning in the late 19th century. The techniques of observing brain cells under a microscope took a long time to refine. In 1873, with this tool in hand,

text: Camillo Golgi

text: began to cellularly detail the brain and employ techniques to perfect axonal microscoping.

text: Ludwig Edinger

text: took advantage of this and came up with a new branch of anatomy called comparative neuroanatomy. Edinger held that vertebrates evolved in a linear progressive series. He also thought that changes in the brain were based on a series of additions and differentiations and that the most highly, complex brains were those that were the most encephalized. The period of 1885-1935 was an explosion of ideas in comparative neuroanatomy. This era culminated in the publication of "The Comparative Anatomy of the Nervous System" by Arienns, Kappers, Huber, and Cosby. This paper influenced Tilly Edinger and she later became to founder of Paleoneurology.

text: Culture techniques will often use a microscopic examination to help in the identification of the microbe. Instruments such as compound light microscopes can be used to assess critical aspects of the organism. This can be performed immediately after the sample is taken from the patient and is used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, allowing for resolution of cellular features. Electron microscopes and fluorescence microscopes are also used for observing microbes in greater detail for research.

text: Culture techniques

text: will often use a microscopic examination to help in the identification of the microbe. Instruments such as

text: compound light microscope

text: s can be used to assess critical aspects of the organism. This can be performed immediately after the sample is taken from the patient and is used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, allowing for resolution of cellular features.

text: Electron microscopes

text: and

text: fluorescence microscope

text: s are also used for observing microbes in greater detail for research.

text: Several blood tests involve red blood cells, including the RBC count (the number of red blood cells per volume of blood), the hematocrit (percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells), and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Many diseases involving red blood cells are diagnosed with a blood film (or peripheral blood smear), where a thin layer of blood is smeared on a microscope slide. The blood type needs to be determined to prepare for a blood transfusion or an organ transplantation.

text: Several

text: blood test

text: s involve red blood cells, including the RBC count (the number of red blood cells per volume of blood), the

text: hematocrit

text: (percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells), and the

text: erythrocyte sedimentation rate

text: . Many diseases involving red blood cells are diagnosed with a

text: blood film

text: (or peripheral blood smear), where a thin layer of blood is smeared on a microscope slide. The

text: blood type

text: needs to be determined to prepare for a

text: blood transfusion

text: or an

text: organ transplantation

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive. His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.

text: The cell was first discovered by

text: Robert Hooke

text: in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book

text: Micrographia

text: . In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive. His cell observations gave no indication of the

text: nucleus

text: and other

text: organelle

text: s found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old

text: Aristotelian theory

text: still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until

text: Leeuwenhoek

text: later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.

text: Brittain was born at Sheffield on 2 January 1806. He was educated at a private school. He was engaged during the greater part of his life as a professional accountant, but became interested in natural science, and was very skillful in the preparation of diagrams and in the mounting of objects for the microscope. In 1842, he moved to Manchester, where he spent the rest of his life.  In some contributions to Axon's Field Naturalist, he told the story of his scientific studies from the time of his first microscope, which he obtained in 1834. In December 1858 he was one of the promoters of a Manchester Microscopical Society, which ultimately became a section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. When a second Manchester Microscopical Society - a more popular association - was established in 1879, he repeatedly held the office of vice-president, and was afterwards president. On his retirement, from failing health and advanced years, he was presented with an address at the Manchester Athenæum, 4 October 1883.

text: Brittain was born at Sheffield on 2 January 1806. He was educated at a private school. He was engaged during the greater part of his life as a professional accountant, but became interested in natural science, and was very skillful in the preparation of diagrams and in the mounting of objects for the microscope. In 1842, he moved to Manchester, where he spent the rest of his life.  In some contributions to Axon's Field Naturalist, he told the story of his scientific studies from the time of his first microscope, which he obtained in 1834. In December 1858 he was one of the promoters of a

text: Manchester Microscopical Society

text: , which ultimately became a section of the

entity_name: Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

text: Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

text: . When a second Manchester Microscopical Society - a more popular association - was established in 1879, he repeatedly held the office of vice-president, and was afterwards president. On his retirement, from failing health and advanced years, he was presented with an address at the

text: Manchester Athenæum

text: , 4 October 1883.

text: A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic living organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, using a microscope of his own design.

text: A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic

text: living

text: organism

text: , which may be

text: single-celled

text: or

text: multicellular

text: . The study of microorganisms is called

text: microbiology

text: , a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: , using a

text: microscope

text: of his own design.

text: Various microscopic characteristics may be used to help identify the fungus from other morphologically similar species. A spore print of P. stipticus, made by depositing a large number of spores in a small area, reveals their color to be white. Viewed with a microscope, the spores are smooth-walled, elliptical to nearly allantoid (sausage-shaped), with dimensions of 3–6 by 2–3 µm. Spores are amyloid, meaning that they will absorb iodine and become bluish-black when stained with Melzer's reagent, but this staining reaction has been described as "relatively weak".

text: Various microscopic characteristics may be used to help identify the fungus from other

text: morphologically

text: similar species. A

text: spore print

text: of P. stipticus, made by depositing a large number of spores in a small area, reveals their color to be white. Viewed with a

text: microscope

text: , the spores are smooth-walled, elliptical to nearly

text: allantoid

text: (sausage-shaped), with dimensions of 3–6 by 2–3

text: µm

text: . Spores are

text: amyloid

text: , meaning that they will absorb

text: iodine

text: and become bluish-black when stained with

text: Melzer's reagent

text: , but this staining reaction has been described as "relatively weak".

text: The calcifying odotogenic cyst or the Gorlin cyst, now known in the WHO Classification of Tumours as the calcifying cystic odontogenic tumor, is a benign odontogenic tumor of cystic type most likely to affect the anterior areas of the jaws.  It is most common in people in their second to third decades but can be seen at almost any age.  On radiographs, the calcifying odontogenic cyst appears as a unilocular radiolucency (dark area).  In one-third of cases, an impacted tooth is involved. Microscopically, there are many cells that are described as "ghost cells", enlarged eosinophilic epithelial cells without nuclei.

text: The calcifying odotogenic cyst or the Gorlin cyst, now known in the

text: WHO Classification of Tumours

text: as the calcifying cystic odontogenic tumor, is a benign

text: odontogenic tumor

text: of

text: cyst

text: ic type most likely to affect the anterior areas of the

text: jaw

text: s.  It is most common in people in their second to third decades but can be seen at almost any age.  On

text: radiograph

text: s, the calcifying odontogenic cyst appears as a unilocular radiolucency (dark area).  In one-third of cases, an impacted tooth is involved.

text: Microscopically

text: , there are many

text: cell

text: s that are described as "

text: ghost cells

text: ", enlarged eosinophilic epithelial cells without nuclei.

text: A histopathologist will then examine the sample under a microscope, who will then issue a pathology report (pending extra tests that may be requested by the pathologist).

text: A

text: histopathologist

text: will then examine the sample under a microscope, who will then issue a pathology report (pending extra tests that may be requested by the pathologist).

text: Van Leeuwenhoek's observations were recreated, using a single-lens microscope of the kind he used, by British microbiologist Brian J. Ford, who showed how clearly one could view Giardia through a primitive microscope.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek's observations were recreated, using a single-lens microscope of the kind he used, by British microbiologist

text: Brian J. Ford

text: , who showed how clearly one could view Giardia through a primitive microscope.

text: A small volume of the hybridization mixture is placed onto a coverslip and then placed gently onto the microscope slide which contains the fixed cells.

text: In research, purified antibodies are used in many applications. Antibodies for research applications can be found directly from antibody suppliers, or through use of a specialist search engine. Research antibodies are most commonly used to identify and locate intracellular and extracellular proteins. Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express; different types of cell express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on their surface, and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins. They are also used in immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them (co-immunoprecipitation) from other molecules in a cell lysate, in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis, and in immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a microscope. Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies, using ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.

text: In research, purified antibodies are used in many applications. Antibodies for research applications can be found directly from antibody suppliers, or through use of a specialist search engine. Research antibodies are most commonly used to identify and locate

text: intracellular

text: and

text: extracellular

text: proteins. Antibodies are used in

text: flow cytometry

text: to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express; different types of cell express different combinations of

text: cluster of differentiation

text: molecules on their surface, and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins. They are also used in

text: immunoprecipitation

text: to separate proteins and anything bound to them (co-immunoprecipitation) from other molecules in a

text: cell lysate

text: , in

text: Western blot

text: analyses to identify proteins separated by

text: electrophoresis

text: , and in

text: immunohistochemistry

text: or

text: immunofluorescence

text: to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a

text: microscope

text: . Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies, using

text: ELISA

text: and

text: ELISPOT

text: techniques.

text: In anatomy, a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension of an organ (as seen for example in the brain, the lung, liver or the kidney) that can be determined without the use of a microscope at the gross anatomy level. This is in contrast to the much smaller lobule, which is a clear division only visible under the microscope.

text: In

text: anatomy

text: , a lobe is a clear anatomical division or extension of an

text: organ

text: (as seen for example in the

text: brain

text: , the

text: lung

text: liver

text: or the

text: kidney

text: ) that can be determined without the use of a

text: microscope

text: at the

text: gross anatomy

text: level. This is in contrast to the much smaller lobule, which is a clear division only visible

text: under the microscope

text: At the time of the invention of his revolutionary illumination scheme as a graduate student at the University of Giessen, Köhler was working on overcoming problems with microphotography. Microscopes were illuminated by gas lamps, mirrors or other primitive light sources, resulting in an uneven specimen illumination unsuited for producing good quality photomicrographs using the slow-speed emulsions available at the time. Over the course of his work for his doctorate degree, Köhler developed a microscope configuration that allowed for an evenly illuminated field of view and reduced optical glare from the light source. It involved a collector lens for the lamp that allowed the light source to be focused on the front aperture of the condenser. This in turn allowed the condenser to be focused on the specimen using a field diaphragm and condenser focus control. This superior illumination scheme is still widely used in modern microscopes and forms the basis for phase contrast, differential interference contrast, epifluorescence, and confocal microscopy.

text: At the time of the invention of his revolutionary illumination scheme as a graduate student at the University of Giessen, Köhler was working on overcoming problems with microphotography. Microscopes were illuminated by

text: gas lamp

text: s, mirrors or other primitive light sources, resulting in an uneven specimen illumination unsuited for producing good quality

text: photomicrograph

text: s using the slow-speed

text: emulsion

text: s available at the time. Over the course of his work for his doctorate degree, Köhler developed a microscope configuration that allowed for an evenly illuminated field of view and reduced optical glare from the light source. It involved a collector lens for the lamp that allowed the light source to be focused on the front

text: aperture

text: of the

text: condenser

text: . This in turn allowed the condenser to be focused on the specimen using a field

text: diaphragm

text: and condenser focus control. This superior illumination scheme is still widely used in modern microscopes and forms the basis for

text: phase contrast

entity_name: Differential interference contrast microscopy

text: differential interference contrast

text: epifluorescence

text: , and

text: confocal microscopy

text: Since microbes were not known until the Early Modern period, they appear in earlier literature indirectly, through descriptions of baking and brewing. Only with the invention of the microscope, as used by Robert Hooke in his 1665 book Micrographia, and by Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670s, the germ theory of disease, and progress in microbiology in the 19th century were microbes observed directly, identified as living organisms, and put to use on a scientific basis. The same knowledge also allowed microbes to appear explicitly in literature and the arts.

text: Since microbes were not known until the

text: Early Modern

text: period, they appear in earlier literature indirectly, through descriptions of

text: baking

text: and

text: brewing

text: . Only with the invention of the

text: microscope

text: , as used by

text: Robert Hooke

text: in his 1665 book

text: Micrographia

text: , and by

text: Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek

text: in the 1670s, the

text: germ theory of disease

text: , and progress in

text: microbiology

text: in the 19th century were microbes observed directly, identified as living organisms, and put to use on a scientific basis. The same knowledge also allowed microbes to appear explicitly in literature and the arts.

text: A lost poem, entitled, Microscope written by Louis Ginsberg was found in a copy of the seventeenth edition of Simon Henry Gage's book, The Microscope in the Rare and Manuscript Collections at Cornell University.

text: A lost poem, entitled, Microscope written by Louis Ginsberg was found in a copy of the seventeenth edition of

text: Simon Henry Gage

text: 's book, The Microscope in the Rare and Manuscript Collections at

text: Cornell University

text: Blood tests are also used in diagnosis. Primary myelofibrosis can begin with a blood picture similar to that found in polycythemia vera or chronic myelogenous leukemia. Most people with myelofibrosis have moderate to severe anemia. Eventually thrombocytopenia, a decrease of blood platelets develops. When viewed through a microscope, a blood smear will appear markedly abnormal, with presentation of pancytopenia, which is a reduction in the number of all blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells may show abnormalities including bizarre shapes, such as teardrop-shaped cells, and nucleated red blood cell precursors may appear in the blood smear. (Normally, mature red blood cells in adults do not have a cell nucleus, and the presence of nucleated red blood cells suggests that immature cells are being released into the bloodstream in response to a very high demand for the bone marrow to produce new red blood cells.) Immature white cells are also seen in blood samples, and basophil counts are increased.

text: Blood tests are also used in diagnosis. Primary myelofibrosis can begin with a blood picture similar to that found in

text: polycythemia vera

text: or

text: chronic myelogenous leukemia

text: . Most people with myelofibrosis have moderate to severe anemia. Eventually

text: thrombocytopenia

text: , a decrease of

text: blood platelets

text: develops. When viewed through a microscope, a

text: blood smear

text: will appear markedly abnormal, with presentation of

text: pancytopenia

text: , which is a reduction in the number of all blood cell types:

text: red blood cell

text: s,

text: white blood cell

text: s, and platelets. Red blood cells may show abnormalities including

text: bizarre shapes

text: , such as

text: teardrop-shaped cells

text: , and

text: nucleated red blood cell

text: precursors may appear in the blood smear. (Normally, mature red blood cells in adults do not have a cell nucleus, and the presence of nucleated red blood cells suggests that immature cells are being released into the bloodstream in response to a very high demand for the bone marrow to produce new red blood cells.) Immature white cells are also seen in blood samples, and

text: basophil

text: counts are increased.

text: In a 1932 report in Science, Mayo Clinic physician Edward C. Rosenow wrote that in addition to other small particles viewable with the standard lab microscope, small turquoise bodies termed 'eberthella typhi' not visible with the standard lab microscopes were seen in filtrate using a Rife microscope. Rosenow attributed their detection to "the ingenious methods employed rather than excessively high magnification". Subsequently, details of one of Rife's microscopes, as well as obtained micrographs, were included in the 1944 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.

text: In a 1932 report in

text: Science

text: , Mayo Clinic physician Edward C. Rosenow wrote that in addition to other small particles viewable with the standard lab

text: microscope

text: , small turquoise bodies termed 'eberthella typhi' not visible with the standard lab microscopes were seen in filtrate using a Rife microscope. Rosenow attributed their detection to "the ingenious methods employed rather than excessively high magnification". Subsequently, details of one of Rife's microscopes, as well as obtained micrographs, were included in the 1944 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.

text: |- bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14701 Aizu ||  || January 7, 2000 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || |-id=702 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14702 Benclark ||  || January 7, 2000 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || |-id=703 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14703 ||  || January 7, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=704 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14704 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=705 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14705 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=706 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14706 ||  || February 4, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=707 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 14707 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=708 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14708 Slaven ||  || February 2, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=709 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14709 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=710 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14710 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=711 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14711 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=712 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14712 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=713 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14713 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=714 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14714 ||  || February 4, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=715 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14715 ||  || February 7, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=716 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14716 ||  || February 4, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=717 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14717 ||  || February 4, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=718 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14718 ||  || February 4, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=719 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14719 Sobey ||  || February 4, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=720 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14720 ||  || February 4, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=721 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14721 ||  || February 6, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=722 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14722 ||  || February 6, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=723 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14723 ||  || February 6, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=724 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14724 SNO ||  || February 10, 2000 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || |-id=725 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14725 ||  || February 27, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=726 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14726 ||  || February 27, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=727 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14727 Suggs ||  || February 27, 2000 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || |-id=728 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14728 Schuchardt ||  || February 26, 2000 || Catalina || CSS || |-id=729 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14729 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević ||  —|-id=730 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14730 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=731 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14731 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=732 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14732 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=733 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14733 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=734 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14734 Susanstoker ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=735 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14735 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=736 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14736 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=737 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14737 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=738 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14738 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=739 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14739 Edgarchavez ||  || March 3, 2000 || Catalina || CSS || |-id=740 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14740 ||  || March 5, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=741 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14741 Teamequinox ||  || March 9, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=742 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14742 ||  || March 8, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=743 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14743 || 2016 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=744 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14744 || 2092 P-L || September 26, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=745 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14745 || 2154 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=746 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14746 || 2164 P-L || September 26, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=747 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14747 || 2541 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=748 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14748 || 2620 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=749 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14749 || 2626 P-L || September 26, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=750 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14750 || 2654 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=751 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14751 || 2688 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=752 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14752 || 3005 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=753 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14753 || 4592 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=754 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14754 || 4806 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=755 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14755 || 6069 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=756 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14756 || 6232 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=757 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14757 || 6309 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=758 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14758 || 6519 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=759 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14759 || 6520 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=760 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14760 || 6595 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=761 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14761 || 6608 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=762 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14762 || 6647 P-L || September 26, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=763 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14763 || 6793 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=764 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14764 Kilauea || 7072 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=765 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14765 || 9519 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=766 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14766 || 9594 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=767 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14767 || 1137 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=768 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14768 || 1238 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=769 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14769 || 2175 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=770 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14770 || 2198 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=771 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14771 || 4105 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=772 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14772 || 4195 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=773 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14773 || 4264 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=774 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14774 || 4845 T-1 || May 13, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=775 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14775 || 1139 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=776 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14776 || 1282 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=777 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14777 || 2078 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=778 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14778 || 2216 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=779 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14779 || 3072 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=780 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14780 || 1078 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=781 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14781 || 1107 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=782 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14782 || 3149 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=783 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14783 || 3152 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=784 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14784 || 3268 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=785 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14785 || 3508 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=786 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14786 || 4052 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=787 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14787 || 5038 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=788 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14788 || 5172 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=789 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14789 GAISH ||  || October 8, 1969 || Nauchnij || L. I. Chernykh || |-id=790 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14790 Beletskij || 1970 OF || July 30, 1970 || Nauchnij || T. M. Smirnova || |-id=791 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 14791 Atreus || 1973 SU || September 19, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=792 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 14792 Thyestes ||  || September 24, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=793 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14793 ||  || September 30, 1975 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=794 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14794 Konetskiy ||  || September 24, 1976 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=795 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14795 Syoyou ||  || March 12, 1977 || Kiso || H. Kosai, K. Furukawa || |-id=796 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14796 ||  || December 7, 1977 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=797 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14797 ||  || December 7, 1977 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=798 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14798 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=799 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14799 ||  || June 25, 1979 || Siding Spring || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=800 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14800 ||  || June 25, 1979 || Siding Spring || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|}

text: |- bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14701 Aizu ||  || January 7, 2000 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: LONEOS

text: || |-id=702 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14702 Benclark ||  || January 7, 2000 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || |-id=703 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14703 ||  || January 7, 2000 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: ||  —|-id=704 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14704 ||  || February 2, 2000 ||

text: Oizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=705 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14705 ||  || February 2, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=706 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14706 ||  || February 4, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=707 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 14707 ||  || February 2, 2000 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: Kitt Peak

text: Spacewatch

text: || |-id=725 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14725 ||  || February 27, 2000 ||

text: Oizumi

text: T. Kobayashi

text: ||  —|-id=726 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14726 ||  || February 27, 2000 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi ||  —|-id=727 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14727 Suggs ||  || February 27, 2000 ||

text: Kitt Peak

text: Spacewatch

text: || |-id=728 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14728 Schuchardt ||  || February 26, 2000 ||

text: Catalina

text: CSS

text: || |-id=729 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14729 ||  || February 29, 2000 ||

text: Višnjan Observatory

text: K. Korlević

text: ||  —|-id=730 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14730 ||  || February 29, 2000 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: ||  —|-id=731 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14731 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=732 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14732 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=733 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14733 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=734 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14734 Susanstoker ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=735 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14735 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=736 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14736 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=737 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14737 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=738 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14738 ||  || February 29, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=739 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14739 Edgarchavez ||  || March 3, 2000 ||

text: Catalina

text: CSS

text: || |-id=740 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14740 ||  || March 5, 2000 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: ||  —|-id=741 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14741 Teamequinox ||  || March 9, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=742 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14742 ||  || March 8, 2000 || Socorro || LINEAR ||  —|-id=743 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14743 || 2016 P-L || September 24, 1960 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: Nauchnij

text: L. I. Chernykh

text: || |-id=790 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14790 Beletskij || 1970 OF || July 30, 1970 || Nauchnij ||

text: T. M. Smirnova

text: || |-id=791 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 14791 Atreus || 1973 SU || September 19, 1973 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: || |-id=792 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 14792 Thyestes ||  || September 24, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=793 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14793 ||  || September 30, 1975 || Palomar ||

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=794 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14794 Konetskiy ||  || September 24, 1976 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=795 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14795 Syoyou ||  || March 12, 1977 ||

text: Kiso

text: H. Kosai

text: K. Furukawa

text: || |-id=796 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14796 ||  || December 7, 1977 ||

text: Palomar

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=797 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 14797 ||  || December 7, 1977 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=798 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14798 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar ||

text: C. M. Olmstead

text: ||  —|-id=799 bgcolor=#fefefe| 14799 ||  || June 25, 1979 ||

text: Siding Spring

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=800 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 14800 ||  || June 25, 1979 || Siding Spring || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|}

text: Modern light, high powered microscopes have an internal light source, allowing illuminaton with both transmitted and reflected light. These microscopes can provide a magnification of up to x1000: good enough to provide clear images of starch granules as small as a few micrometres in diameter.

text: Modern light, high powered

text: microscope

text: s have an internal light source, allowing illuminaton with both transmitted and reflected light. These microscopes can provide a magnification of up to x1000: good enough to provide clear images of starch

text: granules

text: as small as a few micrometres in diameter.

text: Inertial cavitation can also occur in the presence of an acoustic field. Microscopic gas bubbles that are generally present in a liquid will be forced to oscillate due to an applied acoustic field. If the acoustic intensity is sufficiently high, the bubbles will first grow in size and then rapidly collapse. Hence, inertial cavitation can occur even if the rarefaction in the liquid is insufficient for a Rayleigh-like void to occur. High-power ultrasonics usually utilize the inertial cavitation of microscopic vacuum bubbles for treatment of surfaces, liquids, and slurries.

text: Inertial cavitation can also occur in the presence of an acoustic field. Microscopic gas bubbles that are generally present in a liquid will be forced to oscillate due to an applied acoustic field. If the acoustic intensity is sufficiently high, the bubbles will first grow in size and then rapidly collapse. Hence, inertial cavitation can occur even if the

text: rarefaction

text: in the liquid is insufficient for a Rayleigh-like void to occur. High-power

text: ultrasonics

text: usually utilize the inertial cavitation of microscopic vacuum bubbles for treatment of surfaces, liquids, and slurries.

text: Marcello Malpighi (10 March 1628 – 29 November 1694) was an Italian biologist and physician, who is referred to as the "Father of microscopical anatomy, histology, physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name bears to several physiological features related to the biological excretory system, such as the Malpighian corpuscles and Malpighian pyramids of the kidneys and the Malpighian tubule system of insects. The splenic lymphoid nodules are often called the "Malpighian bodies of the spleen" or Malpighian corpuscles. The botanical family Malpighiaceae is also named after him. He was the first person to see capillaries in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded William Harvey and Malpighi has been the earliest person to observe red blood cells under a microscope. His treatise De polypo cordis (1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots. In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the heart.

text: Marcello Malpighi (10 March 1628 – 29 November 1694) was an

text: Italian

text: biologist

text: and

text: physician

text: , who is referred to as the "Father of microscopical anatomy, histology, physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name bears to several physiological features related to the biological

text: excretory system

text: , such as the

text: Malpighian corpuscles

text: and

text: Malpighian pyramids

text: of the

text: kidney

text: s and the

text: Malpighian tubule system

text: of

text: insects

text: . The

text: splenic lymphoid nodules

text: are often called the "Malpighian bodies of the spleen" or

text: Malpighian corpuscles

text: . The botanical family

text: Malpighiaceae

text: is also named after him. He was the first person to see capillaries in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded

text: William Harvey

text: and Malpighi has been the earliest person to observe red blood cells under a microscope. His treatise De polypo cordis (1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots. In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the

text: heart

text: The structural differential consists of three basic objects. The parabola represents a domain beyond our direct observation, the sub-microscopic, dynamic world of molecules, atoms, electrons, protons, quarks, and so on; a world known to us only inferentially from science. Korzybski described it as an 'event' in the sense of "an instantaneous cross-section of a process." Thus the 'event' or parabola  represents the sub-microscopic 'stuff' that, at any given moment, constitutes an apple.  In other words, the parabola represents the "external" cause of what we experience.

text: In 1590 the Dutchmen Hans and Zacharias Janssen (father and son) is sometimes claimed to have invented the first compound microscope.

text: In 1590 the Dutchmen

text: Hans and Zacharias Janssen

text: (father and son) is sometimes claimed to have invented the first

text: compound microscope

text: LIMON (Light MicrOscopical nanosizing microscopy) was invented in 2001 at the University of Heidelberg and combines localization microscopy and spatially modulated illumination to the 3D super resolution microscopy.

text: For identification of infection, the only method clinically available in most areas is the Ova and Parasite (O&P) exam, which identifies the presence of the organism by microscopic examination of a chemically preserved stool specimen.  This method is sometimes called "Direct Microscopy".  In the United States, pathologists are required to report the presence of Blastocystis when found during an O&P exam, so a special test does not have to be ordered. Direct Microscopy is inexpensive, as the same test can identify a variety of gastrointestinal infections, such as Giardia, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium.  However one laboratory director noted that pathologists using conventional microscopes failed to identify many Blastocystis infections, and indicated the necessity for special microscopic equipment for identification.  The following table shows the sensitivity of Direct Microscopy in detecting Blastocystis when compared to stool culture, a more sensitive technique.  Stool culture was considered by some researchers to be the most reliable technique, but a recent study found stool culture only detected 83% of individuals infected when compared to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing.

text: For identification of infection, the only method clinically available in most areas is the Ova and Parasite (O&P) exam, which identifies the presence of the organism by microscopic examination of a chemically preserved stool specimen.  This method is sometimes called "Direct Microscopy".  In the United States, pathologists are required to report the presence of Blastocystis when found during an O&P exam, so a special test does not have to be ordered. Direct Microscopy is inexpensive, as the same test can identify a variety of gastrointestinal infections, such as

text: Giardia

text: Entamoeba histolytica

text: Cryptosporidium

text: .  However one laboratory director noted that pathologists using conventional microscopes failed to identify many Blastocystis infections, and indicated the necessity for special microscopic equipment for identification.  The following table shows the sensitivity of Direct Microscopy in detecting Blastocystis when compared to stool culture, a more sensitive technique.  Stool culture was considered by some researchers to be the most reliable technique, but a recent study found stool culture only detected 83% of individuals infected when compared to

text: polymerase chain reaction

text: (PCR) testing.

text: The idea for a photoionization microscope that could image the wave-function of an atom stemmed out of an experiment proposed by Demakov and colleagues in the early 1980s. The researchers suggested that electron waves could be imaged when interacting with a static electric field as long as the de Broglie Wavelength of these electrons was large enough. It was not until 1996 that anything resembling the microscopy images proposed by Demakov and colleagues came to fruition. In 1996 a team of French researchers developed the first photo detachment microscope. The development of this microscope allowed for a direct observation of the oscillatory structure of a wave function to become possible. Photodetachment is the removal of electrons from an atom using interactions with photons or other particles. Photodetachment microscopy made it possible to image the spatial distribution of the ejected electron. The microscope developed in 1996 was the first to image photodetachment rings of a negative Bromine (Br-) ion. These images revealed interference between two electron waves on their way to the detector.

text: The idea for a photoionization microscope that could image the wave-function of an atom stemmed out of an experiment proposed by Demakov and colleagues in the early 1980s. The researchers suggested that electron waves could be imaged when interacting with a static electric field as long as the

text: de Broglie Wavelength

text: of these electrons was large enough. It was not until 1996 that anything resembling the microscopy images proposed by Demakov and colleagues came to fruition. In 1996 a team of French researchers developed the first photo detachment microscope. The development of this microscope allowed for a direct observation of the oscillatory structure of a wave function to become possible. Photodetachment is the removal of electrons from an atom using interactions with photons or other particles. Photodetachment microscopy made it possible to image the spatial distribution of the ejected electron. The microscope developed in 1996 was the first to image photodetachment rings of a negative Bromine (Br-) ion. These images revealed interference between two electron waves on their way to the detector.

text: Product categories include Virtual microscopes, Light microscopes, products for Confocal Microscopy, Surgical Microscopes, Stereo Microscopes & Macroscopes, Digital microscopes, Microscope Software, Microscope Cameras, Histology Systems, Novocastra Reagents, Electron microscope Sample Preparation Equipment

text: Product categories include

text: Virtual microscope

text: s,

text: Light microscope

text: s, products for

text: Confocal Microscopy

text: , Surgical Microscopes,

text: Stereo Microscope

text: s &

text: Macroscope

text: s,

text: Digital microscope

text: s, Microscope Software, Microscope Cameras,

text: Histology

text: Systems, Novocastra

text: Reagents

text: Electron microscope

text: Sample Preparation Equipment

text: Chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) is a cytogenetic technique that combines the chromogenic signal detection method of immunohistochemistry (IHC) techniques with in situ hybridization. It was developed around the year 2000 as an alternative to fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for detection of HER-2/neu oncogene amplification. CISH is similar to FISH in that they are both in situ hybridization techniques used to detect the presence or absence of specific regions of DNA. However, CISH is much more practical in diagnostic laboratories because it uses bright-field microscopes rather than the more expensive and complicated fluorescence microscopes used in FISH.

text: Chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) is a cytogenetic technique that combines the chromogenic signal detection method of

text: immunohistochemistry (IHC)

text: techniques with in situ hybridization. It was developed around the year 2000 as an alternative to

text: fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH)

text: for detection of HER-2/neu oncogene amplification. CISH is similar to FISH in that they are both in situ hybridization techniques used to detect the presence or absence of specific regions of DNA. However, CISH is much more practical in diagnostic laboratories because it uses bright-field microscopes rather than the more expensive and complicated fluorescence microscopes used in FISH.

text: The idea for creating a low-cost microscope came to Prakash in 2011 while he was at a field station in Thailand. He remarked that the station had a very expensive microscope but that everyone was afraid to use it because it was fragile and worth more than most people's salaries. He wanted to create a microscope that anyone could afford and that would be versatile and sturdy enough to work in field conditions. He also wanted to create a device that people felt they had ownership of, which is part of the reason the Foldscope comes in a kit to be assembled. He developed the first prototype in 2014.

text: The idea for creating a low-cost microscope came to Prakash in 2011 while he was at a field station in

text: Thailand

text: . He remarked that the station had a very expensive microscope but that everyone was afraid to use it because it was fragile and worth more than most people's salaries. He wanted to create a microscope that anyone could afford and that would be versatile and sturdy enough to work in field conditions. He also wanted to create a device that people felt they had ownership of, which is part of the reason the Foldscope comes in a kit to be assembled. He developed the first

text: prototype

text: in 2014.

text: Although one typically thinks of an image as planar, or two-dimensional, the imaging system will produce a three-dimensional intensity distribution in image space that in principle can be measured. e.g. a two-dimensional sensor could be translated to capture a three-dimensional intensity distribution. The image of a point source is also a three dimensional (3D) intensity distribution which can be represented by a 3D point-spread function. As an example, the figure on the right shows the 3D point-spread function in object space of a wide-field microscope (a) alongside that of a confocal microscope (c). Although the same microscope objective with a numerical aperture of 1.49 is used, it is clear that the confocal point spread function is more compact both in the lateral dimensions (x,y) and the axial dimension (z). One could rightly conclude that the resolution of a confocal microscope is superior to that of a wide-field microscope in all three dimensions.

text: In 1830 Bordon invented a new apparatus for accurately measuring the base line for the upcoming Massachusetts' Trigonometrical Survey. It was 50 feet long, enclosed in a tube, and used with four compound microscopes. The tube and microscopes were mounted on trestles, and adjustable to any direction.

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x. Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria. Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x. Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to

text: The Royal Society

text: on October 9, 1676, he states that

text: motility

text: is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of

text: microorganisms

text: . Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included

text: protozoa

text: and other unicellular organisms, like

text: bacteria

text: . Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the

text: sperm cells

text: of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the

text: egg cell

text: . This put an end to the previous theory of

text: spontaneous generation

text: . After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.

text: Although rocks are now studied principally in microscopic sections the investigation of fine crushed rock powders, which was the first branch of microscopic petrology to receive attention, is by no means discontinued.  The modern optical methods are perfectly applicable to transparent mineral fragments of any kind.  Minerals are almost as easily determined in powder as in section, but it is otherwise with rocks, as the structure or relation of the components to one another, which is an element of great importance in the study of the history and classification of rocks, is almost completely destroyed by grinding them to powder.

text: A simple microscope is a microscope that uses a lens or set of lenses to enlarge an object through angular magnification alone, giving the viewer an erect enlarged virtual image. Simple microscopes are not capable of high magnification. The use of a single convex lens or groups of lenses are still found in simple magnification devices such as the magnifying glass, loupes, and eyepieces for telescopes and microscopes.

text: A simple microscope is a microscope that uses a lens or set of lenses to enlarge an object through angular magnification alone, giving the viewer an erect enlarged

text: virtual image

text: . Simple microscopes are not capable of high magnification. The use of a single convex lens or groups of lenses are still found in simple magnification devices such as the

text: magnifying glass

text: loupe

text: s, and

text: eyepiece

text: s for telescopes and microscopes.

text: The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the biological unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, that all cells come from preexisting cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.

text: The cell was discovered by

text: Robert Hooke

text: in 1665, who named the biological unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by

text: Christian monks

text: in a monastery.

text: Cell theory

text: , first developed in 1839 by

text: Matthias Jakob Schleiden

text: and

text: Theodor Schwann

text: , states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, that all cells come from preexisting cells, and that all cells contain the

text: hereditary information

text: necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago.

text: There are numerous hot springs on the island. The microscopic animal Limnognathia, the only known member of its phylum, was discovered in these springs.

text: There are numerous

text: hot spring

text: s on the island. The microscopic animal

text: Limnognathia

text: , the only known member of its phylum, was discovered in these springs.

text: Colonna became interested in the recently invented telescope and microscope, corresponding with Galileo Galilei and other Lincean academics on astronomy.

text: Colonna became interested in the recently invented

text: telescope

text: and

text: microscope

text: , corresponding with

text: Galileo Galilei

text: and other Lincean academics on astronomy.

text: In 1981 the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London. They were found to be of high quality, and were all well preserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of microscopes, adding to our knowledge of Leeuwenhoek's work.

text: In 1981 the British microscopist

text: Brian J. Ford

text: found that Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London. They were found to be of high quality, and were all well preserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of microscopes, adding to our knowledge of Leeuwenhoek's work.

text: Upon examination of a slide made from a smear of the patient's vaginal fluid, Papanicolaou discovered that abnormal cancer cells could be plainly observed under a microscope. "The first observation of cancer cells in the smear of the uterine cervix," he later wrote, "gave me one of the greatest thrills I ever experienced during my scientific career."

text: A microscope (from the , mikrós, "small" and σκοπεῖν, skopeîn, "to look" or "see") is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.

text: A microscope (from the , mikrós, "small" and σκοπεῖν, skopeîn, "to look" or "see") is an

text: instrument

text: used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called

text: microscopy

text: Microscopic

text: means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.

text: The first person to describe red blood cells was the young Dutch biologist Jan Swammerdam, who had used an early microscope in 1658 to study the blood of a frog. Unaware of this work, Anton van Leeuwenhoek provided another microscopic description in 1674, this time providing a more precise description of red blood cells, even approximating their size, "25,000 times smaller than a fine grain of sand".

text: The first person to describe red blood cells was the young

text: Dutch

text: biologist

text: Jan Swammerdam

text: , who had used an early

text: microscope

text: in 1658 to study the blood of a frog. Unaware of this work,

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: provided another microscopic description in 1674, this time providing a more precise description of red blood cells, even approximating their size, "25,000 times smaller than a fine grain of sand".

text: Microdiscectomy is a minimally invasive surgical procedure in which a portion of a herniated nucleus pulpolsus is removed by way of a surgical instrument or laser while using an operating microscope or loupe for magnification.

text: Before Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food would spoil. Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but using a microscope, he did establish that there were signs of life that were not visible to the naked eye. Leeuwenhoek's discovery, along with subsequent observations by Spallanzani and Pasteur, ended the long-held belief that life  spontaneously appeared from non-living substances during the process of spoilage.

text: Before Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, it had been a mystery why

text: grape

text: s could be turned into

text: wine

text: milk

text: into

text: cheese

text: , or why food would spoil. Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but using a microscope, he did establish that there were signs of life that were not visible to the naked eye. Leeuwenhoek's discovery, along with subsequent observations by Spallanzani and Pasteur, ended the long-held belief that life

text: spontaneously appear

text: ed from non-living substances during the process of spoilage.

text: The model has two forms, a geometric formalism, and a microscope analogy.  A microscope which has many knobs to adjust the lenses to obtain a sharp image has little chance of obtaining an optimally functioning image by randomly turning the knobs. The chances of a clear image are not so bad if the number of knobs is low, but the chances will decrease dramatically if the number of adjustable parameters (knobs) is larger than two or three. Fisher introduced a geometric metaphor, which eventually became known as Fisher's geometric model.

text: The model has two forms, a geometric formalism, and a

text: microscope

text: analogy.  A microscope which has many knobs to adjust the lenses to obtain a sharp image has little chance of obtaining an optimally functioning image by randomly turning the knobs. The chances of a clear image are not so bad if the number of knobs is low, but the chances will decrease dramatically if the number of adjustable

text: parameter

text: s (knobs) is larger than two or three. Fisher introduced a geometric metaphor, which eventually became known as Fisher's geometric model.

text: Microscope Publications, a division of the McCrone Research Institute, is publisher and provider of microscopy textbooks, handbooks, and atlases including The Particle Atlas, the world’s first atlas of microscopic particles, The Microscope Series Handbooks, and the international journal, The Microscope, founded in 1937.

text: He was credited with building his own microscope and became a member of Hackney Microscopical Society in 1884, and the Quekett Microscopical Club in 1892.

text: He was credited with building his own microscope and became a member of Hackney Microscopical Society in 1884, and the

text: Quekett Microscopical Club

text: in 1892.

text: Xylene is used in the laboratory to make baths with dry ice to cool reaction vessels, and as a solvent to remove synthetic immersion oil from the microscope objective in light microscopy. In histology, xylene is the most widely used clearing agent. Xylene is used to remove paraffin from dried microscope slides prior to staining. After staining, microscope slides are put in xylene prior to mounting with a coverslip.

text: Xylene is used in the laboratory to make baths with dry ice to cool reaction vessels, and as a

text: solvent

text: to remove synthetic

text: immersion oil

text: from the microscope

text: objective

text: in

text: light microscopy

text: . In

text: histology

text: , xylene is the most widely used clearing agent. Xylene is used to remove paraffin from dried microscope slides prior to staining. After staining, microscope slides are put in xylene prior to mounting with a coverslip.

text: Up to now, the best quality in a 4Pi microscope was reached in conjunction with the stimulated emission depletion microscope (STED) principle. Using a 4Pi microscope with appropriate excitation and de-excitation beams, it was possible to create a uniformly 50 nm sized spot, which corresponds to a decreased focal volume compared to confocal microscopy by a factor of 150–200 in fixed cells. With the combination of 4Pi microscopy and RESOLFT microscopy with switchable proteins, it is now possible to take images of living cells at low light levels with isotropic resolutions below 40 nm.

text: Up to now, the best quality in a 4Pi microscope was reached in conjunction with the

text: stimulated emission depletion microscope

text: (STED) principle. Using a 4Pi microscope with appropriate excitation and de-excitation beams, it was possible to create a uniformly 50 nm sized spot, which corresponds to a decreased focal volume compared to confocal microscopy by a factor of 150–200 in fixed cells. With the combination of 4Pi microscopy and

text: RESOLFT

text: microscopy with switchable proteins, it is now possible to take images of living cells at low light levels with isotropic resolutions below 40 nm.

text: Fruit bodies are gelatinous, pale to dark brown, sometimes purple-brown to almost black, up to 20 cm (8 in) across, and seaweed-like (with branched, undulating fronds). Microscopically, the hyphae are clamped and occur in a dense gelatinous matrix. Haustorial cells arise on the hyphae, producing filaments that attach to and penetrate the hyphae of the host. The basidia are tremelloid (globose to ellipsoid, with oblique to vertical septa), 10 to 19 by 8 to 14 μm, usually unstalked. The basidiospores are mostly ellipsoid, smooth, 6.5 to 10 by 4.5 to 8 μm, and germinate by hyphal tube or by yeast cells.

text: Fruit bodies are gelatinous, pale to dark brown, sometimes purple-brown to almost black, up to 20 cm (8 in) across, and seaweed-like (with branched, undulating fronds). Microscopically, the

text: hyphae

text: are

text: clamped

text: and occur in a dense gelatinous matrix.

text: Haustorial cells

text: arise on the hyphae, producing filaments that attach to and penetrate the hyphae of the host. The

text: basidia

text: are tremelloid (globose to ellipsoid, with oblique to vertical septa), 10 to 19 by 8 to 14

text: μm

text: , usually unstalked. The

text: basidiospores

text: are mostly ellipsoid, smooth, 6.5 to 10 by 4.5 to 8 μm, and germinate by hyphal tube or by

text: yeast

text: cells.

text: Bacteria were first detected under the microscopes of Antony van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.  Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, performed many experiments testing and observing bacteria.  He observed plaque on his own teeth— “a little white matter” as he called it.  Under microscopes he saw “that in the said matter there were many very little living animalcules, very prettily a-moving,” which was the first sighting of oral bacteria as we know it.  Leeuwenhoek tested the mouths of others, as well as his own.  Two men that he tested had never cleaned their teeth in their lives and Leeuwenhoek found “an unbelievably great company of living animalcules…in such enormous numbers, that all the water…seemed to be alive.”  Thus Leeuwenhoek discovered oral bacteria or “animalcules,” the name he gave bacteria in general.

text: Bacteria were first detected under the microscopes of

text: Antony van Leeuwenhoek

text: in the 17th century.  Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, performed many experiments testing and observing bacteria.  He observed plaque on his own teeth— “a little white matter” as he called it.  Under microscopes he saw “that in the said matter there were many very little living animalcules, very prettily a-moving,” which was the first sighting of oral bacteria as we know it.  Leeuwenhoek tested the mouths of others, as well as his own.  Two men that he tested had never cleaned their teeth in their lives and Leeuwenhoek found “an unbelievably great company of living animalcules…in such enormous numbers, that all the water…seemed to be alive.”  Thus Leeuwenhoek discovered oral bacteria or “animalcules,” the name he gave bacteria in general.

text: Human anatomy – scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. It is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy.  Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision.  Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with microscopes, and includes histology (the study of the organization of tissues), and cytology (the study of cells).

text: Human anatomy

text: – scientific study of the

text: morphology

text: of the adult

text: human

text: . It is subdivided into

text: gross anatomy

text: and

text: microscopic anatomy

text: .  Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision.  Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with

text: microscope

text: s, and includes

text: histology

text: (the study of the organization of tissues), and

text: cytology

text: (the study of cells).

text: In the beginnings of light microscope development, sections from plants and animals were manually prepared using razor blades. It was found that to observe the structure of the specimen under observation it was important to make clean reproducible cuts on the order of 100 µm, through which light can be transmitted. This allowed for the observation of samples using light microscopes in a transmission mode.

text: In the beginnings of

text: light microscope

text: development, sections from plants and animals were manually prepared using razor blades. It was found that to observe the structure of the specimen under observation it was important to make clean reproducible cuts on the order of 100 µm, through which light can be transmitted. This allowed for the observation of samples using light microscopes in a transmission mode.

text: Historically, the calculation of glass properties is directly related to the founding of glass science. At the end of the 19th century the physicist Ernst Abbe developed equations that allow calculating the design of optimized optical microscopes in Jena, Germany, stimulated by co-operation with the optical workshop of Carl Zeiss. Before Ernst Abbe's time the building of microscopes was mainly a work of art and experienced craftsmanship, resulting in very expensive optical microscopes with variable quality. Now Ernst Abbe knew exactly how to construct an excellent microscope, but unfortunately, the required lenses and prisms with specific ratios of refractive index and dispersion did not exist. Ernst Abbe was not able to find answers to his needs from glass artists and engineers; glass making was not based on science at this time.

text: Historically, the calculation of glass properties is directly related to the founding of glass

text: science

text: . At the end of the 19th century the physicist

text: Ernst Abbe

text: developed equations that allow calculating the design of optimized optical

text: microscope

text: s in

text: Jena

text: Germany

text: , stimulated by co-operation with the optical workshop of

text: Carl Zeiss

text: . Before Ernst Abbe's time the building of

text: microscope

text: s was mainly a work of art and experienced craftsmanship, resulting in very expensive optical

text: microscope

text: s with variable quality. Now Ernst Abbe knew exactly how to construct an excellent microscope, but unfortunately, the required

text: lenses

text: and

text: prisms

text: with specific ratios of

text: refractive index

text: and

text: dispersion

text: did not exist. Ernst Abbe was not able to find answers to his needs from glass artists and engineers; glass making was not based on science at this time.

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. It was not until the 1590s when a Dutch spectacle maker Zacharias Jansen began to test lenses that progress had been made to microscopes. Jansen was able to obtain about 9x magnification, but the objects appeared to be blurry. In 1595, Jansen and his father built the first compound microscope. While simple glasses were able to magnify objects, they were not considered to be a microscope. A compound microscope was defined by having two or more lenses in a hollow tube. In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the

text: glass

text: . In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. It was not until the 1590s when a Dutch spectacle maker

text: Zacharias Jansen

text: began to test lenses that progress had been made to microscopes. Jansen was able to obtain about 9x magnification, but the objects appeared to be blurry. In 1595, Jansen and his father built the first

text: compound microscope

text: . While simple glasses were able to magnify objects, they were not considered to be a microscope. A compound microscope was defined by having two or more lenses in a hollow tube. In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book

text: Micrographia

text: . Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.

text: a microscopic dissociation constant (used in modern forms of the equation, and equivalent to an

text: At the microscopic level, there are three primary features of the thyroid—follicles, follicular cells, and parafollicular cells, first discovered by Geoffery Websterson in 1664.

text: At the

text: microscopic level

text: , there are three primary features of the thyroid—follicles, follicular cells, and parafollicular cells, first discovered by Geoffery Websterson in 1664.

text: In 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who lived most of his life in Delft, Holland, observed bacteria and other microorganisms using a single-lens microscope of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made the first recorded microscopic observation, of the fruiting bodies ofmoulds, in 1665. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe micro-organisms.

text: In 1676,

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: , who lived most of his life in

text: Delft

text: , Holland, observed

text: bacteria

text: and other microorganisms using a single-lens microscope of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes,

text: Robert Hooke

text: made the first recorded microscopic observation, of the fruiting bodies of

text: mould

text: s, in 1665. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called

text: Athanasius Kircher

text: was the first to observe micro-organisms.

text: Microscopic material failure is defined in terms of crack propagation and initiation. Such methodologies are useful for gaining insight in the cracking of specimens and simple structures under well defined global load distributions. Microscopic failure considers the initiation and propagation of a crack. Failure criteria in this case are related to microscopic fracture. Some of the most popular failure models in this area are the micromechanical failure models, which combine the advantages of continuum mechanics and classical fracture mechanics. Such models are based on the concept that during plastic deformation, microvoids nucleate and grow until a local plastic neck or fracture of the intervoid matrix occurs, which causes the coalescence of neighbouring voids. Such a model, proposed by Gurson and extended by Tvergaard and Needleman, is known as GTN. Another approach, proposed by Rousselier, is based on continuum damage mechanics (CDM) and thermodynamics. Both models form a modification of the von Mises yield potential by introducing a scalar damage quantity, which represents the void volume fraction of cavities, the porosity f.

text: Microscopic material failure is defined in terms of crack propagation and initiation. Such methodologies are useful for gaining insight in the cracking of specimens and simple structures under well defined global load distributions. Microscopic failure considers the initiation and propagation of a crack. Failure criteria in this case are related to microscopic fracture. Some of the most popular failure models in this area are the micromechanical failure models, which combine the advantages of

text: continuum mechanics

text: and classical

text: fracture mechanics

text: . Such models are based on the concept that during

text: plastic deformation

text: , microvoids nucleate and grow until a local plastic neck or fracture of the intervoid matrix occurs, which causes the coalescence of neighbouring voids. Such a model, proposed by Gurson and extended by Tvergaard and

text: Needleman

text: , is known as GTN. Another approach, proposed by Rousselier, is based on continuum

text: damage mechanics

text: (CDM) and

text: thermodynamics

text: . Both models form a modification of the von Mises yield potential by introducing a scalar damage quantity, which represents the void volume fraction of cavities, the porosity f.

text: Histology is the study of the microscopic anatomy (microanatomy) of cells and tissues of plants and animals. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues under a light microscope or electron microscope, the specimen having been sectioned (cut into a thin cross section with a microtome), stained, and mounted on a microscope slide. Histological studies may be conducted using tissue culture, where live human or animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of histological stains. Histology is an essential tool of biology and medicine.

text: Histology is the study of the microscopic

text: anatomy

text: (microanatomy) of

text: cells

text: and

text: tissues

text: of

text: plant

text: s and

text: animal

text: s. It is commonly performed by examining cells and tissues under a

text: light microscope

text: or

text: electron microscope

text: , the

text: specimen

text: having been sectioned (cut into a thin cross section with a

text: microtome

text: stained

text: , and mounted on a

text: microscope slide

text: . Histological studies may be conducted using

text: tissue culture

text: , where live human or animal cells are isolated and maintained in an artificial environment for various research projects. The ability to visualize or differentially identify microscopic structures is frequently enhanced through the use of

text: histological stains

text: . Histology is an essential tool of

text: biology

text: and

text: medicine

text: Hopwood was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1979  and delivered their Leeuwenhoek Lecture in 1987. He is also the author of Streptomyces in Nature and Medicine: The Antibiotic Makers

text: Hopwood was elected a

text: Fellow of the Royal Society

text: in 1979  and delivered their

text: Leeuwenhoek Lecture

text: in 1987. He is also the author of Streptomyces in Nature and Medicine: The Antibiotic Makers

text: At the end of the 1800s, the development of very thin and consistently thin samples by microtomy, together with the selective staining of important cell components or molecules allowed for the visualisation of microscope details.

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is often considered to be the father of microbiology. Robert Hooke is cited as the first to record microscopic observation of the fruiting bodies of molds, in 1665. However, the first observation of microbes using a microscope is generally credited to van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1670s, he observed and researched bacteria and other microorganisms, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: is often considered to be the

entity_name: List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field

text: father

text: of

text: microbiology

text: Robert Hooke

text: is cited as the first to record microscopic observation of the fruiting bodies of

text: mold

text: s, in 1665. However, the first observation of

text: microbe

text: s using a microscope is generally credited to van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1670s, he observed and researched bacteria and other

text: microorganism

text: s, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.

text: Paul Ehrlich was a bacteriologist studying staining, a procedure that is used in many microscopic studies to make fine biological structures visible using chemical dyes. As Ehrlich injected some of these dyes (notably the aniline dyes that were then widely used), the dye stained all of the organs of some kinds of animals except for their brains. At that time, Ehrlich attributed this lack of staining to the brain simply not picking up as much of the dye.

text: Paul Ehrlich

text: was a

text: bacteriologist

text: studying

text: staining

text: , a procedure that is used in many microscopic studies to make fine biological structures visible using chemical dyes. As Ehrlich injected some of these dyes (notably the

text: aniline dye

text: s that were then widely used), the dye stained all of the

text: organs

text: of some kinds of animals except for their

text: brain

text: s. At that time, Ehrlich attributed this lack of staining to the brain simply not picking up as much of the dye.

text: On 24 October 2016, Google commemorated Van Leeuwenhoek's 384th birthday with a Doodle that depicted his discovery of "little animals" or animalcules, now known as bacteria.

text: On 24 October 2016, Google commemorated Van Leeuwenhoek's 384th birthday with a

text: Doodle

text: that depicted his discovery of "little animals" or animalcules, now known as bacteria.

text: Dornwell excelled in her studies. In April 1883 she received the Sir Thomas Elder Prize in Physiology, for which she received a microscope.

text: Dornwell excelled in her studies. In April 1883 she received the

text: Sir Thomas Elder Prize

text: in Physiology, for which she received a microscope.

text: He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1993, was President of the Society for General Microbiology from 1997 to 2000, and was awarded the Leeuwenhoek medal lecture of the Royal Society in 2000. He was named a Knight Bachelor in the 2007 New Years Honours list. He was President of the Marine Biological Association from 2007 to 2008. He died suddenly in Royal Leamington Spa on 12 January 2008.

text: He was elected a

entity_name: List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1993

text: Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1993

text: , was President of the

text: Society for General Microbiology

text: from 1997 to 2000, and was awarded the Leeuwenhoek medal lecture of the Royal Society in 2000. He was named a Knight Bachelor in the

entity_name: Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom

text: New Years Honours

text: list. He was President of the

entity_name: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom

text: Marine Biological Association

text: from 2007 to 2008. He died suddenly in

text: Royal Leamington Spa

text: on 12 January 2008.

text: Alongside developments in inter-disciplinary, clinical and confocal microscope solutions, Nikon’s digital imaging technologies and software solutions support all microscopy and imaging functions, image management and analysis. The Eclipse Ti series of inverted microscopes, for example, allows the simultaneous mounting of confocal, TIRF module and multiple stacked epi-fluorescence filter turrets to make this microscope the ideal live cell imaging platform.  Long term timelapse imaging of living cells is becoming an increasingly important technique – for which Nikon has developed the very latest in Cellogy and Cell Care – the BioStation series.

text: Alongside developments in inter-disciplinary, clinical and

text: confocal microscope

text: solutions, Nikon’s digital imaging technologies and software solutions support all microscopy and imaging functions, image management and analysis. The Eclipse Ti series of inverted microscopes, for example, allows the simultaneous mounting of confocal,

text: TIRF

text: module and multiple stacked epi-fluorescence filter turrets to make this microscope the ideal live cell imaging platform.  Long term timelapse imaging of living cells is becoming an increasingly important technique – for which Nikon has developed the very latest in Cellogy and Cell Care – the BioStation series.

text: The major advantages to static particle imaging systems are the use of standard microscope systems and simplicity of depth of field considerations. Since these systems can be made from any standard optical microscope, they may be a lower cost approach for people who already have microscopes. More important, though, is that microscope-based systems have less depth of field issues generally versus dynamic imaging systems. This is because the sample is placed on a microscope slide, and then usually covered with a cover slip, thus limiting the plane containing the particles relative to the optical axis. This means that more particles will be in acceptable focus at high magnifications.

text: The major advantages to static particle imaging systems are the use of standard microscope systems and simplicity of

text: depth of field

text: considerations. Since these systems can be made from any standard optical microscope, they may be a lower cost approach for people who already have microscopes. More important, though, is that microscope-based systems have less depth of field issues generally versus dynamic imaging systems. This is because the sample is placed on a microscope slide, and then usually covered with a

text: cover slip

text: , thus limiting the plane containing the particles relative to the

text: optical axis

text: . This means that more particles will be in acceptable focus at high magnifications.

text: The stereo microscope should not be confused with a compound microscope equipped with double eyepieces and a binoviewer. In such a microscope, both eyes see the same image, with the two eyepieces serving to provide greater viewing comfort. However, the image in such a microscope is no different from that obtained with a single monocular eyepiece.

text: The stereo microscope should not be confused with a

text: compound microscope

text: equipped with double eyepieces and a

text: binoviewer

text: . In such a microscope, both eyes see the same image, with the two eyepieces serving to provide greater viewing comfort. However, the image in such a microscope is no different from that obtained with a single monocular eyepiece.

text: The life cycle of the protozoa has a tissue phase and an erythrocytic (red blood cell) phase.  The organism goes through asexual reproduction phase that is called schizogony which occurs in the mononuclear phagocytic cells.  In the tissue phase the macrophage cells that are infected often clog venules in organs such as the liver, spleen, lungs, and lymph nodes.  It is this phase that is associated with clinical disease if the schizonts are numerous.  Schizonts next form merozoites that break out of the macrophage cells and infect the red blood cells (erythrocytes).  The erythrocytic disease is not as important for clinical disease but is often used to diagnose C. felis because you can see piroplasms (erythrocytes that have phagocytized merozoites) on a peripheral blood smear under the microscope.

text: Hobbs has popularly defined structural geology as the study of "the way in which rocks get buried and deformed and metamorphosed." Hobbs has described his research career as moving "from being very fine-scale, like microscopic or even electron microscopic, to the much larger scale of almost the whole Earth now, trying to understand what goes on within the Earth." His latter interest has been described as "developing computer applications that simulate mechanical behaviour, fluid flow, heat flow and chemical reactions governing ore body formation. The goal is to produce a predictive modelling capability that enhances our ability to discover new ore bodies."

text: Hobbs has popularly defined

text: structural geology

text: as the study of "the way in which rocks get buried and deformed and metamorphosed." Hobbs has described his research career as moving "from being very fine-scale, like microscopic or even electron microscopic, to the much larger scale of almost the whole Earth now, trying to understand what goes on within the Earth." His latter interest has been described as "developing computer applications that simulate mechanical behaviour, fluid flow, heat flow and chemical reactions governing ore body formation. The goal is to produce a predictive modelling capability that enhances our ability to discover new ore bodies."

text: A microscope slide is a thin flat piece of glass, typically 75 by 26 mm (3 by 1 inches) and about 1 mm thick, used to hold objects for examination under a microscope.  Typically the object is placed or secured ("mounted") on the slide, and then both are inserted together in the microscope for viewing.  This arrangement allows several slide-mounted objects to be quickly inserted and removed from the microscope, labeled,  transported, and stored in appropriate slide cases or folders.

text: A microscope slide is a thin flat piece of

text: glass

text: , typically 75 by 26 mm (3 by 1 inches) and about 1 mm thick, used to hold objects for examination under a

text: microscope

text: .  Typically the object is placed or secured ("mounted") on the slide, and then both are inserted together in the microscope for viewing.  This arrangement allows several slide-mounted objects to be quickly inserted and removed from the microscope, labeled,  transported, and stored in appropriate

text: slide cases

text: or

text: folders

text: In optical mineralogy and petrography, a thin section (or petrographic thin section) is a laboratory preparation of a rock, mineral, soil, pottery, bones, or even metal sample for use with a polarizing petrographic microscope, electron microscope and electron microprobe. A thin sliver of rock is cut from the sample with a diamond saw and ground optically flat. It is then mounted on a glass slide and then ground smooth using progressively finer abrasive grit until the sample is only 30 μm thick. The method involved using the Michel-Lévy interference colour chart. Typically quartz is used as the gauge to determine thickness as it is one of the most abundant minerals.

text: In

text: optical mineralogy

text: and

text: petrography

text: , a thin section (or petrographic thin section) is a

text: laboratory

text: preparation of a

text: rock

text: mineral

text: soil

text: , pottery, bones, or even metal sample for use with a

text: polarizing

text: petrographic microscope

text: electron microscope

text: and

text: electron microprobe

text: . A thin sliver of rock is cut from the sample with a

text: diamond saw

text: and ground optically flat. It is then mounted on a glass

text: slide

text: and then ground smooth using progressively finer abrasive grit until the sample is only 30

text: μm

text: thick. The method involved using the Michel-Lévy interference colour chart. Typically quartz is used as the gauge to determine thickness as it is one of the most abundant minerals.

text: A human colonization ship crash-lands on a distant planet which is earth-like but whose only landmass is completely covered in shallow puddles of water and mostly microscope life forms.  Normal humans could not survive on this planet, so the crew must genetically engineer their descendants into something that can survive.  (Blish coined the term pantropy to refer to this concept.)  They decide to create a race of microscopic aquatic humanoids to complete their mission and colonize the planet.

text: A human colonization ship crash-lands on a distant planet which is earth-like but whose only landmass is completely covered in shallow puddles of water and mostly microscope life forms.  Normal humans could not survive on this planet, so the crew must genetically engineer their descendants into something that can survive.  (Blish coined the term

text: pantropy

text: to refer to this concept.)  They decide to create a race of microscopic aquatic humanoids to complete their mission and colonize the planet.

text: This method allowed them to study in exquisite detail the branching processes of nerve cells (axons and dendrites) and how they seemed to interconnect among themselves, forming chains and neural networks which could explain the physiological mechanisms underlying the phenomena of information transfer between neurons. Waldeyer learned Spanish in order to absorb Cajal's extraordinary detailed studies using Golgi's method and became his friend, mentor and promoter in the German-dominated field of microscopic anatomy. The theory was published in a series of papers in the main medical journal of Germany, Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift, which became extremely influential. However, as Cajal points out, though Waldeyer "supported the theory with the prestige of his authority, he did not contribute a single personal observation. He limited himself to a short brilliant exposition of the objective proofs, adduced by His, Kölliker, Retzius, van Gehuchten and myself, and he invented the fortunate term neuron. "   Cajal's continuing hard work on the following decade was able to prove many aspects of the neuron theory, including the directionality of synaptic transmission, and ultimately Cajal won over Golgi on their dispute of the neuron doctrine vs. the syncytium theory.

text: This method allowed them to study in exquisite detail the branching processes of nerve cells (

text: axon

text: s and

text: dendrite

text: s) and how they seemed to interconnect among themselves, forming chains and

text: neural network

text: s which could explain the

text: physiological

text: mechanisms underlying the phenomena of information transfer between neurons. Waldeyer learned

text: Spanish

text: in order to absorb Cajal's extraordinary detailed studies using Golgi's method and became his friend, mentor and promoter in the German-dominated field of microscopic anatomy. The theory was published in a series of papers in the main medical journal of Germany,

text: Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift

text: , which became extremely influential. However, as Cajal points out, though Waldeyer "supported the theory with the prestige of his authority, he did not contribute a single personal observation. He limited himself to a short brilliant exposition of the objective proofs, adduced by

text: His

text: Kölliker

text: Retzius

text: van Gehuchten

text: and

text: myself

text: , and he invented the fortunate term neuron. "   Cajal's continuing hard work on the following decade was able to prove many aspects of the neuron theory, including the directionality of

text: synaptic transmission

text: , and ultimately Cajal won over Golgi on their dispute of the neuron doctrine vs. the syncytium theory.

text: The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells.

text: The discipline of anatomy is divided into

text: macroscopic

text: and

text: microscopic anatomy

text: . Macroscopic anatomy, or

text: gross anatomy

text: , is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided

text: eyesight

text: . Gross anatomy also includes the branch of

text: superficial anatomy

text: . Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the

text: tissues

text: of various structures, known as

text: histology

text: , and also in the study of

text: cells

text: In 1932, Ernst Lubcke of Siemens & Halske built and obtained images from a prototype electron microscope, applying concepts described in the Rudenberg patent applications. Five years later (1937), the firm financed the work of Ernst Ruska and Bodo von Borries, and employed Helmut Ruska (Ernst’s brother) to develop applications for the microscope, especially with biological specimens. Also in 1937, Manfred von Ardenne pioneered the scanning electron microscope. The first commercial electron microscope was produced in 1938 by Siemens. The first North American electron microscope was constructed in 1938, at the University of Toronto, by Eli Franklin Burton and students Cecil Hall, James Hillier, and Albert Prebus; and Siemens produced a transmission electron microscope (TEM) in 1939. Although contemporary transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million-power magnification, as scientific instruments, they remain based upon Ruska’s prototype.

text: In 1932, Ernst Lubcke of

text: Siemens & Halske

text: built and obtained images from a prototype electron microscope, applying concepts described in the Rudenberg patent applications. Five years later (1937), the firm financed the work of Ernst Ruska and

text: Bodo von Borries

text: , and employed

text: Helmut Ruska

text: (Ernst’s brother) to develop applications for the microscope, especially with biological specimens. Also in 1937,

text: Manfred von Ardenne

text: pioneered the

text: scanning electron microscope

text: . The first commercial electron microscope was produced in 1938 by Siemens. The first North American electron microscope was constructed in 1938, at the

text: University of Toronto

text: , by

text: Eli Franklin Burton

text: and students Cecil Hall,

text: James Hillier

text: , and Albert Prebus; and Siemens produced a transmission electron microscope (TEM) in 1939. Although contemporary transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million-power magnification, as scientific instruments, they remain based upon Ruska’s

text: prototype

text: In 1679, van Leeuwenhoek used a microscopes to assess tophaceous material and found that gouty tophi consist of aggregates of needle-shaped crystals, and not globules of chalk as was previously believed.

text: In 1679, van Leeuwenhoek used a microscopes to assess tophaceous material and found that

text: gouty tophi

text: consist of aggregates of needle-shaped crystals, and not globules of chalk as was previously believed.

text: USB microscopes are most useful when examining flat objects such as coins, printed circuit boards, or documents such as banknotes, but can be used on surfaces of irregular shape such as fibres owing to the high depth of field. Their use is generally similar to that of a reflection optical microscope or a stereo microscope. USB microscopes offer the advantage of being much less bulky than a conventional stereo microscope,  so they can be used in the field attached to a laptop computer. They are also useful in examining large items in situ where use of a conventional microscope would be difficult, if not impossible.

text: USB microscopes are most useful when examining flat objects such as

text: coin

text: s,

text: printed circuit board

text: s, or documents such as

text: banknote

text: s, but can be used on surfaces of irregular shape such as

text: fibre

text: s owing to the high

text: depth of field

text: . Their use is generally similar to that of a reflection

text: optical microscope

text: or a

text: stereo microscope

text: . USB microscopes offer the advantage of being much less bulky than a conventional stereo microscope,  so they can be used in the field attached to a

text: laptop computer

text: . They are also useful in examining large items in situ where use of a conventional microscope would be difficult, if not impossible.

text: In 1901, Pearson accepted the chair of biology and geology at the State Normal and Industrial College in Greensboro (now the University of North Carolina at Greensboro).  He took his classes on walks in the outdoors, believing this to be as important as laboratory work with a microscope.  During this period, he published his first book, Stories of Bird Life.  The founder and first president of the National Association of Audubon Societies, William Dutcher, saw this book and encouraged Pearson to organize an Audubon Society in North Carolina.  This he did in 1902, launching himself upon a course that would lead to influential work in state and national legislation.

text: In 1901, Pearson accepted the chair of biology and geology at the State Normal and Industrial College in Greensboro (now the

entity_name: University of North Carolina at Greensboro

text: University of North Carolina at Greensboro

text: ).  He took his classes on walks in the outdoors, believing this to be as important as laboratory work with a microscope.  During this period, he published his first book, Stories of Bird Life.  The founder and first president of the National Association of Audubon Societies, William Dutcher, saw this book and encouraged Pearson to organize an Audubon Society in North Carolina.  This he did in 1902, launching himself upon a course that would lead to influential work in state and national legislation.

text: He contributed many memoirs to the Transactions of the Royal Society. Among his publications were The Microscope made Easy (1743), Employment for the Microscope (1753), where he noted down the presence of dinoflagellates for the first time as "Animalcules which cause the Sparkling Light in Sea Water", and several volumes of verse, original and translated, including The Universe, a Poem intended to restrain the Pride of Man (1727).

text: He contributed many memoirs to the

entity_name: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society

text: Transactions of the Royal Society

text: . Among his publications were The Microscope made Easy (1743), Employment for the Microscope (1753), where he noted down the presence of

text: dinoflagellates

text: for the first time as "Animalcules which cause the Sparkling Light in Sea Water", and several volumes of verse, original and translated, including The Universe, a Poem intended to restrain the Pride of Man (1727).

text: However, early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative, and not based on microscopic observation. Actual observation and discovery of microbes had to await the invention of the microscope in the 17th century.

text: However, early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative, and not based on microscopic observation. Actual observation and discovery of microbes had to await the invention of the

text: microscope

text: in the 17th century.

text: After World War II, Ruska resumed work at Siemens, where he continued to develop the electron microscope, producing the first microscope with 100k magnification. The fundamental structure of this microscope design, with multi-stage beam preparation optics, is still used in modern microscopes. The worldwide electron microscopy community advanced with electron microscopes being manufactured in Manchester UK, the USA (RCA), Germany (Siemens) and Japan (JEOL). The first international conference in electron microscopy was in Delft in 1949, with more than one hundred attendees. Later conferences included the "First" international conference in Paris, 1950 and then in London in 1954.

text: After World War II, Ruska resumed work at Siemens, where he continued to develop the electron microscope, producing the first microscope with 100k magnification. The fundamental structure of this microscope design, with multi-stage beam preparation optics, is still used in modern microscopes. The worldwide electron microscopy community advanced with electron microscopes being manufactured in Manchester UK, the USA (RCA), Germany (Siemens) and Japan (JEOL). The first international conference in electron microscopy was in

text: Delft

text: in 1949, with more than one hundred attendees. Later conferences included the "First" international conference in Paris, 1950 and then in London in 1954.

text: of each individual monomer (with i varying from 1 to N). In its solvent, the ideal chain is constantly subject to shocks from moving solvent molecules, and each of these shocks sends the system from its current microscopic state to another, very similar microscopic state. For an ideal polymer, as will be shown below, there are more microscopic states compatible with a short end-to-end distance than there are microscopic states compatible with a large end-to-end distance. Thus, for an ideal chain, maximizing its entropy means reducing the distance between its two free ends. Consequently, a force that tends to collapse the chain is exerted by the ideal chain between its two free ends.

text: of each individual monomer (with i varying from 1 to N). In its solvent, the ideal chain is constantly subject to shocks from moving solvent molecules, and each of these shocks sends the system from its current microscopic state to another, very similar microscopic state. For an ideal polymer, as will be shown below, there are more microscopic states compatible with a short end-to-end distance than there are microscopic states compatible with a large end-to-end distance. Thus, for an ideal chain, maximizing its

text: entropy

text: means reducing the distance between its two free ends. Consequently, a force that tends to collapse the chain is exerted by the ideal chain between its two free ends.

text: He served as an assistant to Marcello Malpighi, beginning in Bologna in 1691 and following him to Rome the next year when Malpighi was named chief personal physician ("archiater") to the pope. While serving under Malpighi, Baglivi performed experiments on the circulation of blood in frogs; he also injected various medicines into dogs' veins and spinal canals and experimented on their pneumogastric nerves. He utilized a microscope to study the structure of muscles and the brain. Following Malpighi's death in 1694, Baglivi performed his autopsy and gave an thorough description of the cerebral apoplexy that killed him. While in Rome, he befriended Bellini, Lancisi, Redi, Tozzi, and Trionfetti. In 1695, he became second physician to Pope  and, in 1696, was elected professor of anatomy at the College of Sapienza. He received memberships in Rome's Academy of the Arcadians (1699) and the Tuscan Fisiocriti (1700). He continued as a personal physician to  and was named the Sapienza's professor of theoretical medicine in 1701. He continued his observations by microscope as professor of theoretical medicine at the Sapienza, as well as examining the properties of saliva, bile, and blood. His lectures, demonstrations, and consultations became famed across Europe: he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in England in July 1698, a member of the Holy Roman Empire's Academy of the Curious in 1699, and an "honorary member" (membre d'honneur) of the French Academy. For a time he was surrounded in controversy following charges of plagiarism by Antonio Pacchioni, but Baglivi successfully defended the primacy of his own work.

text: He served as an assistant to

text: Marcello Malpighi

text: , beginning in Bologna in 1691 and following him to

text: Rome

text: the next year when Malpighi was named chief personal physician ("archiater") to the

text: pope

text: . While serving under Malpighi, Baglivi performed experiments on the

text: circulation of blood

text: in

text: frog

text: s; he also injected various medicines into dogs'

text: vein

text: s and

text: spinal canal

text: s and experimented on their

text: pneumogastric nerve

text: s. He utilized a

text: microscope

text: to study the structure of

text: muscles

text: and the

text: brain

text: . Following Malpighi's death in 1694, Baglivi performed his

text: autopsy

text: and gave an thorough description of the

text: cerebral apoplexy

text: that killed him. While in Rome, he befriended

text: Bellini

text: Lancisi

text: Redi

text: Tozzi

text: , and

text: Trionfetti

text: . In 1695, he became second physician to

text: Pope

text: and, in 1696, was elected professor of anatomy at the

text: College of Sapienza

text: . He received memberships in Rome's

text: Academy of the Arcadians

text: (1699) and the

text: Tuscan

text: Fisiocriti

text: (1700). He continued as a personal physician to  and was named the Sapienza's professor of theoretical medicine in 1701. He continued his observations by microscope as professor of theoretical medicine at the Sapienza, as well as examining the properties of

text: saliva

text: bile

text: , and

text: blood

text: . His lectures, demonstrations, and consultations became famed across Europe: he was elected a

text: Fellow of the Royal Society

text: in

text: England

text: in July 1698, a member of the

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: 's

text: Academy of the Curious

text: in 1699, and an "honorary member" (membre d'honneur) of the

text: French Academy

text: . For a time he was surrounded in controversy following charges of

text: plagiarism

text: by

text: Antonio Pacchioni

text: , but Baglivi successfully defended the primacy of his own work.

text: In 1985, Binnig invented the atomic force microscope (AFM)  and Binnig, Christoph Gerber and Calvin Quate went on to develop a working version of this new microscope for insulating surfaces.

text: In 1985, Binnig invented the

text: atomic force microscope

text: (AFM)  and Binnig,

text: Christoph Gerber

text: and

text: Calvin Quate

text: went on to develop a working version of this new microscope for insulating surfaces.

text: In 1978, the first theoretical ideas had been developed to break the Abbe limit using a 4Pi Microscope as a confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope where the light is focused ideally from all sides to a common focus that is used to scan the object by 'point-by-point' excitation combined with 'point-by-point' detection.

text: In 1978, the first theoretical ideas had been developed to break the

entity_section: The Abbe diffraction limit for a microscope

text: Abbe limit

text: using a

text: 4Pi Microscope

text: as a confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope where the light is focused ideally from all sides to a common focus that is used to scan the object by 'point-by-point' excitation combined with 'point-by-point' detection.

text: An experienced businessman, Van Leeuwenhoek believed that if his simple method for creating the critically important lens was revealed, the scientific community of his time would likely disregard or even forget his role in microscopy. He therefore allowed others to believe that he was laboriously spending most of his nights and free time grinding increasingly tiny lenses to use in microscopes, even though this belief conflicted both with his construction of hundreds of microscopes and his habit of building a new microscope whenever he chanced upon an interesting specimen that he wanted to preserve. He made about 200 microscopes with different magnification.

text: Invention of the USB port resulted in a multitude of USB microscopes ranging in quality and magnification. They continue to fall in price, especially compared with traditional optical microscopes. They offer high resolution images which are normally recorded directly to a computer, and which also use the computer power for their built-in LED light source. The resolution is directly related to the number of megapixels available on a specific model, from 1.3 MP, 2 MP, 5 MP and upwards.

text: Invention of the

text: USB

text: port resulted in a multitude of

text: USB microscope

text: s ranging in quality and magnification. They continue to fall in price, especially compared with traditional optical microscopes. They offer high resolution images which are normally recorded directly to a computer, and which also use the computer power for their built-in LED light source. The resolution is directly related to the number of megapixels available on a specific model, from 1.3 MP, 2 MP, 5 MP and upwards.

text: Staining is an auxiliary technique  used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic image. Stains and dyes are frequently used in biology and medicine to highlight structures in biological tissues for viewing, often with the aid of different microscopes. Stains may be used to define and examine bulk tissues (highlighting, for example, muscle fibers or connective tissue), cell populations (classifying different blood cells, for instance), or organelles within individual cells.

text: Staining is an auxiliary technique  used in

text: microscopy

text: to enhance contrast in the

text: microscopic

text: image. Stains and

text: dye

text: s are frequently used in

text: biology

text: and

text: medicine

text: to highlight structures in

text: biological tissue

text: s for viewing, often with the aid of different

text: microscope

text: s. Stains may be used to define and examine bulk tissues (highlighting, for example,

text: muscle fiber

text: s or

text: connective tissue

text: cell

text: populations (classifying different

text: blood cell

text: s, for instance), or

text: organelle

text: s within individual cells.

text: Two kinds of optical microscope are generally used to examine flat, polished and etched specimens: a reflection microscope and an inverted microscope. Recording the image is achieved using a digital camera working through the eyepiece.

text: Two kinds of optical microscope are generally used to examine flat, polished and etched specimens: a reflection microscope and an

text: inverted microscope

text: . Recording the image is achieved using a digital camera working through the eyepiece.

text: Onions have particularly large cells that are readily observed under low magnification. Forming a single layer of cells, the bulb epidermis is easy to separate for educational, experimental, and breeding purposes.Onions are, therefore, commonly employed in science education to teach the use of a microscope for observing cell structure.

text: Onions have particularly large

text: cells

text: that are readily observed under low magnification. Forming a single layer of cells, the bulb epidermis is easy to separate for educational, experimental, and

text: breeding

text: purposes.Onions are, therefore, commonly employed in

text: science education

text: to teach the use of a

text: microscope

text: for observing cell structure.

text: International morphological terminology is used by the colleges of medicine and dentistry and other areas of the health sciences. It facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of research, teaching and medical care. The international morphological terminology refers to morphological sciences as a biological sciences' branch. In this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism. It is descriptive and functional. Basically, it covers the gross anatomy and the microscopic (histology and cytology) of living beings. It involves both development anatomy (embryology) and the anatomy of the adult. It also includes comparative anatomy between different species. The vocabulary is extensive, varied and complex, and requires a systematic presentation.

text: International morphological terminology is used by the

text: colleges

text: of

text: medicine

text: and

text: dentistry

text: and other areas of the

text: health sciences

text: . It facilitates communication and exchanges between scientists from different countries of the world and it is used daily in the fields of

text: research

text: teaching

text: and

text: medical care

text: . The international morphological terminology refers to

text: morphological sciences

text: as a

text: biological sciences

text: ' branch. In this field, the form and structure are examined as well as the changes or developments in the organism. It is

text: descriptive

text: and

text: functional

text: . Basically, it covers the

text: gross anatomy

text: and the

text: microscopic

text: histology

text: and

text: cytology

text: ) of living beings. It involves both

text: development anatomy

text: embryology

text: ) and the anatomy of the adult. It also includes

text: comparative anatomy

text: between different species. The vocabulary is extensive, varied and complex, and requires a systematic presentation.

text: Using fluorescent samples more techniques are available. Examples include Vertico SMI, near field scanning optical microscopy which uses evanescent waves, and stimulated emission depletion. In 2005, a microscope capable of detecting a single molecule was described as a teaching tool.

text: Using fluorescent samples more techniques are available. Examples include

entity_name: Vertico spatially modulated illumination

text: Vertico SMI

text: near field scanning optical microscopy

text: which uses

text: evanescent waves

text: , and

text: stimulated emission depletion

text: . In 2005, a microscope capable of detecting a single molecule was described as a teaching tool.

text: Phase contrast and differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy are important tools in biology and medicine. Most animal cells and single-celled organisms have very little color, and their intracellular organelles are almost totally invisible under simple bright field illumination. These structures can be made visible by staining the specimens, but staining procedures are time-consuming and kill the cells. As seen in Figs. 24 and 25, phase contrast and DIC microscopes allow unstained, living cells to be studied. DIC also has non-biological applications, for example in the analysis of planar silicon semiconductor processing.

text: Phase contrast

text: and

text: differential interference contrast

text: (DIC) microscopy are important tools in biology and medicine. Most animal cells and single-celled organisms have very little color, and their intracellular organelles are almost totally invisible under simple

text: bright field illumination

text: . These structures can be made visible by

text: staining

text: the specimens, but staining procedures are time-consuming and kill the cells. As seen in Figs. 24 and 25, phase contrast and DIC microscopes allow unstained, living cells to be studied. DIC also has non-biological applications, for example in the

text: analysis of planar silicon semiconductor processing

text: The Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy at McMaster is home to the world's most advanced microscope. The titan 80-300 cubed microscope has a magnification of 14 million and is used for material, medical and nano-research.

text: |- bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17301 || 4609 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=302 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17302 || 4610 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=303 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17303 || 4629 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=304 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17304 || 4637 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=305 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17305 Caniff || 4652 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=306 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17306 || 4865 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=307 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17307 || 4895 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=308 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17308 || 6079 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=309 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17309 || 6528 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=310 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17310 || 6574 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=311 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17311 || 6584 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=312 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17312 || 7622 P-L || October 22, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=313 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17313 || 9542 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=314 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 17314 Aisakos || 1024 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=315 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17315 || 1089 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=316 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17316 || 1198 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=317 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17317 || 1208 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=318 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17318 || 2091 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=319 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17319 || 3078 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=320 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17320 || 3182 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=321 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17321 || 3188 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=322 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17322 || 3274 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=323 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17323 || 3284 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=324 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17324 || 3292 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=325 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17325 || 3300 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=326 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17326 || 4023 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=327 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17327 || 4155 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=328 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17328 || 1176 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=329 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17329 || 1277 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=330 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17330 || 1358 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=331 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17331 || 2056 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=332 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17332 || 2120 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=333 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17333 || 2174 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=334 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17334 || 2275 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=335 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17335 || 2281 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=336 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17336 || 3193 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=337 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17337 || 3198 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=338 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17338 || 3212 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=339 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17339 || 4060 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=340 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17340 || 4096 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=341 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17341 || 4120 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=342 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17342 || 5185 T-2 || September 25, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=343 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17343 || 1111 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=344 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17344 || 1120 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=345 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17345 || 2216 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=346 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17346 || 2395 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=347 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17347 || 3449 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=348 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17348 || 4166 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=349 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17349 || 4353 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=350 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17350 || 1968 OJ || July 18, 1968 || Cerro El Roble || C. Torres, S. Cofré ||  —|-id=351 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 17351 Pheidippos || 1973 SV || September 19, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=352 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17352 ||  || September 30, 1975 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=353 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17353 || 1975 TE || October 10, 1975 || Anderson Mesa || H. L. Giclas ||  —|-id=354 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17354 Matrosov ||  || March 13, 1977 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=355 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17355 || 1978 NK || July 10, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, E. M. Shoemaker ||  —|-id=356 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17356 Vityazev ||  || August 9, 1978 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=357 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17357 Lucataliano ||  || August 23, 1978 || Mount Stromlo || G. DeSanctis, V. Zappalà || |-id=358 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17358 Lozino-Lozinskij ||  || September 27, 1978 || Nauchnij || L. I. Chernykh || |-id=359 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17359 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=360 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17360 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=361 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17361 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=362 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17362 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=363 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17363 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=364 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17364 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=365 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 17365 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=366 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17366 ||  || July 24, 1979 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=367 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17367 ||  || July 26, 1979 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=368 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17368 ||  || August 22, 1979 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist ||  —|-id=369 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17369 ||  || August 22, 1979 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist ||  —|-id=370 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17370 || 1980 CJ || February 13, 1980 || Harvard Observatory || Harvard Obs. ||  —|-id=371 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17371 || 1981 DT || February 28, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=372 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17372 || 1981 DV || February 28, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=373 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17373 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=374 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17374 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=375 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17375 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=376 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17376 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=377 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17377 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=378 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17378 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=379 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17379 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=380 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17380 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=381 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17381 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=382 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17382 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=383 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17383 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=384 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17384 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=385 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17385 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=386 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17386 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=387 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17387 ||  || March 3, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=388 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17388 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=389 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17389 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=390 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17390 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=391 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17391 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=392 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17392 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=393 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17393 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=394 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17394 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=395 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17395 ||  || March 6, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=396 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17396 ||  || March 1, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=397 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17397 ||  || March 6, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=398 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17398 ||  || October 20, 1982 || Kitt Peak || G. Aldering ||  —|-id=399 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17399 Andysanto || 1983 RL || September 6, 1983 || Palomar || C. S. Shoemaker, E. M. Shoemaker || |-id=400 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17400 ||  || August 13, 1985 || Harvard Observatory || Oak Ridge Observatory ||  —|}

text: |- bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17301 || 4609 P-L || September 24, 1960 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: Cerro El Roble

text: C. Torres

text: S. Cofré

text: ||  —|-id=351 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 17351 Pheidippos || 1973 SV || September 19, 1973 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: || |-id=352 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17352 ||  || September 30, 1975 || Palomar ||

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=353 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17353 || 1975 TE || October 10, 1975 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: H. L. Giclas

text: ||  —|-id=354 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17354 Matrosov ||  || March 13, 1977 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=355 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17355 || 1978 NK || July 10, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: E. F. Helin

text: E. M. Shoemaker

text: ||  —|-id=356 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17356 Vityazev ||  || August 9, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=357 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17357 Lucataliano ||  || August 23, 1978 ||

text: Mount Stromlo

text: G. DeSanctis

text: V. Zappalà

text: || |-id=358 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17358 Lozino-Lozinskij ||  || September 27, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. I. Chernykh

text: || |-id=359 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17359 ||  || October 27, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. M. Olmstead

text: ||  —|-id=360 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17360 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=361 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17361 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=362 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17362 ||  || October 27, 1978 || Palomar || C. M. Olmstead ||  —|-id=363 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17363 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar ||

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=364 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17364 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=365 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 17365 ||  || November 7, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=366 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17366 ||  || July 24, 1979 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=367 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 17367 ||  || July 26, 1979 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=368 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17368 ||  || August 22, 1979 ||

text: La Silla

text: C.-I. Lagerkvist

text: ||  —|-id=369 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17369 ||  || August 22, 1979 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist ||  —|-id=370 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17370 || 1980 CJ || February 13, 1980 ||

text: Harvard Observatory

text: Harvard Obs.

text: ||  —|-id=371 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17371 || 1981 DT || February 28, 1981 ||

text: Siding Spring

text: S. J. Bus

text: Kitt Peak

text: G. Aldering

text: ||  —|-id=399 bgcolor=#fefefe| 17399 Andysanto || 1983 RL || September 6, 1983 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. S. Shoemaker

text: E. M. Shoemaker

text: || |-id=400 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 17400 ||  || August 13, 1985 ||

text: Harvard Observatory

text: Oak Ridge Observatory

text: Van Leeuwenhoek maintained throughout his life that there are aspects of microscope construction "which I only keep for myself", in particular his most critical secret of how he made the lenses. For many years no-one was able to reconstruct Van Leeuwenhoek's design techniques. However, in 1957, C.L. Stong used thin glass thread fusing instead of polishing, and successfully created some working samples of a Van Leeuwenhoek design microscope. Such a method was also discovered independently by A. Mosolov and A. Belkin at the Russian Novosibirsk State Medical Institute.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek maintained throughout his life that there are aspects of microscope construction "which I only keep for myself", in particular his most critical secret of how he made the lenses. For many years no-one was able to reconstruct Van Leeuwenhoek's design techniques. However, in 1957, C.L. Stong used thin glass thread fusing instead of polishing, and successfully created some working samples of a Van Leeuwenhoek design microscope. Such a method was also discovered independently by A. Mosolov and A. Belkin at the Russian

text: Novosibirsk State Medical Institute

text: One interesting observation about the species, in particular the males, is the morphology of the spermatozoa. They develop falciform (sickle-shaped) heads after meiosis and before spermiation (release during ejaculation). The hook located at the tip of the head adheres to the surface of the head prior to deployment. Propidium iodide staining revealed that only the basal surface of the hook is of nuclear origin.  These apical hooks are deployed in female reproductive tract (mechanism responsible involved the remodeling of actin filaments in the hook).  Deployed apical hooks combine with apical hooks and flagella of other spermatozoa. The aggregates of spermatozoa that result form "mobile trains", which have experimentally been determined to possess better motility in the female reproductive tract.  The mobility of these mobile trains was also found to be influenced by premature acrosome reactions, altruistic acts performed by some spermatozoa for the benefit of other genetically similar gametocytes. This altruism follows a "green beard" mechanism in which spermatozoa discern the genetic similarity of surrounding gametocytes (such mechanisms are rare because they must code for a recognizable phenotype, as well as response mechanisms). Once spermatozoa of similar genotypes are identified, altruism genes are turned on to elicit a response that seeks to conserve the genes present in the other cell, even if it results in the destruction of the cell performing the action.

text: One interesting observation about the species, in particular the males, is the morphology of the

text: spermatozoa

text: . They develop falciform (sickle-shaped) heads after

text: meiosis

text: and before

text: spermiation

text: (release during

text: ejaculation

text: ). The hook located at the tip of the head adheres to the surface of the head prior to deployment. Propidium iodide staining revealed that only the basal surface of the hook is of nuclear origin.  These apical hooks are deployed in female reproductive tract (mechanism responsible involved the remodeling of actin filaments in the hook).  Deployed apical hooks combine with apical hooks and flagella of other spermatozoa. The aggregates of spermatozoa that result form "mobile trains", which have experimentally been determined to possess better motility in the female reproductive tract.  The mobility of these mobile trains was also found to be influenced by premature acrosome reactions,

text: altruistic

text: acts performed by some spermatozoa for the benefit of other genetically similar

text: gametocyte

text: s. This altruism follows a "

text: green beard

text: " mechanism in which spermatozoa discern the genetic similarity of surrounding gametocytes (such mechanisms are rare because they must code for a recognizable phenotype, as well as response mechanisms). Once spermatozoa of similar genotypes are identified, altruism genes are turned on to elicit a response that seeks to conserve the genes present in the other cell, even if it results in the destruction of the cell performing the action.

text: The invention of the microscope allowed preparations of nerves to be viewed at high magnification, showing that they are not hollow.

text: The invention of the

text: microscope

text: allowed preparations of nerves to be viewed at high magnification, showing that they are not hollow.

text: TEMs are capable of imaging at a significantly higher resolution than light microscopes, owing to the small de Broglie wavelength of electrons. This enables the instrument's user to examine fine detail—even as small as a single column of atoms, which is thousands of times smaller than the smallest resolvable object in a light microscope. TEM forms a major analysis method in a range of scientific fields, in physical, chemical and biological sciences. TEMs find application in cancer research, virology, materials science as well as pollution, nanotechnology, and semiconductor research.

text: TEMs are capable of imaging at a significantly higher

text: resolution

text: than

text: light microscopes

text: , owing to the small

text: de Broglie wavelength

text: of electrons. This enables the instrument's user to examine fine detail—even as small as a single column of atoms, which is thousands of times smaller than the smallest resolvable object in a light microscope. TEM forms a major analysis method in a range of scientific fields, in physical, chemical and biological sciences. TEMs find application in

text: cancer research

text: virology

text: materials science

text: as well as

text: pollution

text: nanotechnology

text: , and

text: semiconductor

text: research.

text: Diamond is notorious for having a relatively large lattice strain. Strain splits and shifts optical transitions from individual centers resulting in broad lines in the ensembles of centers. Special care is taken to produce extremely sharp N-V lines (line width ~10 MHz) required for most experiments: high-quality, pure natural or better synthetic diamonds (type IIa) are selected. Many of them already have sufficient concentrations of grown-in N-V centers and are suitable for applications. If not, they are irradiated by high-energy particles and annealed. Selection of a certain irradiation dose allows tuning the concentration of produced N-V centers such that individual N-V centers are separated by micrometre-large distances. Then, individual N-V centers can be studied with standard optical microscopes or, better, near-field scanning optical microscopes having sub-micrometre resolution.

text: Diamond is notorious for having a relatively large lattice strain. Strain splits and shifts optical transitions from individual centers resulting in broad lines in the ensembles of centers. Special care is taken to produce extremely sharp N-V lines (line width ~10 MHz) required for most experiments: high-quality, pure natural or better synthetic diamonds (type IIa) are selected. Many of them already have sufficient concentrations of grown-in N-V centers and are suitable for applications. If not, they are irradiated by high-energy particles and annealed. Selection of a certain irradiation dose allows tuning the concentration of produced N-V centers such that individual N-V centers are separated by micrometre-large distances. Then, individual N-V centers can be studied with standard

text: optical microscope

text: s or, better,

text: near-field scanning optical microscope

text: s having sub-micrometre resolution.

text: Low cost alternative is dedicated table top low voltage transmission electron microscope. While its architecture is very similar to a conventional transmission electron microscope, it has a few key changes that enable it to take advantage of a 5 keV electron source, but trading off many advantages of higher voltage operations, including higher resolution,  possibility of X-ray microanalysis and EELS, etc... Recently a new low voltage transmission electron microscope has been introduced that operates at variable voltage ranges between 6-25kV.

text: Low cost alternative is dedicated table top low voltage transmission electron microscope. While its architecture is very similar to a conventional

text: transmission electron microscope

text: , it has a few key changes that enable it to take advantage of a 5 keV electron source, but trading off many advantages of higher voltage operations, including higher resolution,  possibility of X-ray microanalysis and EELS, etc... Recently a new low voltage transmission electron microscope has been introduced that operates at variable voltage ranges between 6-25kV.

text: Fruit bodies of Exidia thuretiana are similarly coloured, but are typically more opaque and often appear pleated. They do not (or very rarely) contain white, granular inclusions. Microscopically, E. thuretiana can be distinguished by its sessile (not stalked) basidia. Fruit bodies of several gelatinous Tremella species may also appear similar, but never contain granular inclusions. All can be distinguished microscopically by their non-allantoid spores.

text: Fruit bodies of

text: Exidia thuretiana

text: are similarly coloured, but are typically more opaque and often appear pleated. They do not (or very rarely) contain white, granular inclusions. Microscopically, E. thuretiana can be distinguished by its sessile (not stalked) basidia. Fruit bodies of several gelatinous

text: Tremella

text: species may also appear similar, but never contain granular inclusions. All can be distinguished microscopically by their non-

text: allantoid

text: spores.

text: Mounting usually involves attaching the samples to a glass microscope slide for observation and analysis.  In some cases, cells may be grown directly on a slide.  For samples of loose cells (as with a blood smear or a pap smear) the sample can be directly applied to a slide.  For larger pieces of tissue, thin sections (slices) are made using a microtome; these slices can then be mounted and inspected.

text: Mounting

text: usually involves attaching the samples to a glass microscope slide for observation and analysis.  In some cases, cells may be grown directly on a slide.  For samples of loose cells (as with a blood smear or a

text: pap smear

text: ) the sample can be directly applied to a slide.  For larger pieces of tissue, thin sections (slices) are made using a

text: microtome

text: ; these slices can then be mounted and inspected.

text: Biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.

text: Biology began to quickly develop and grow with

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: 's dramatic improvement of the

text: microscope

text: . It was then that scholars discovered

text: spermatozoa

text: bacteria

text: infusoria

text: and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by

text: Jan Swammerdam

text: led to new interest in

text: entomology

text: and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic

text: dissection

text: and

text: staining

text: Most of the "animalcules" are now referred to as unicellular organisms, though he observed multicellular organisms in pond water. He was also the first to document microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries. Van Leeuwenhoek did not write any books; his discoveries came to light through correspondence with the Royal Society, which published his letters.

text: Most of the "animalcules" are now referred to as

text: unicellular organism

text: s, though he observed multicellular organisms in pond water. He was also the first to document microscopic observations of

text: muscle

text: fibers,

text: bacteria

text: spermatozoa

text: , and

text: blood

text: flow in

text: capillaries

text: . Van Leeuwenhoek did not write any books; his discoveries came to light through correspondence with the

text: Royal Society

text: , which published his letters.

text: Even when the operation appears to have been successful, cancerous cells are often found around the edges ("margins") of the removed tissue,  when a pathologist  examines them microscopically (this will always be done), indicating the cancer has not been entirely removed. Furthermore, cancer stem cells are usually not evident microscopically, and if they are present they may continue to develop and spread. An exploratory laparoscopy (a small, camera-guided surgical procedure) may therefore be performed to gain a clearer idea of the outcome of a full operation.

text: Even when the operation appears to have been successful, cancerous cells are often found around the edges ("

text: margins

text: ") of the removed tissue,  when a pathologist  examines them microscopically (this will always be done), indicating the cancer has not been entirely removed. Furthermore,

text: cancer stem cells

text: are usually not evident microscopically, and if they are present they may continue to develop and spread. An exploratory

text: laparoscopy

text: (a small, camera-guided surgical procedure) may therefore be performed to gain a clearer idea of the outcome of a full operation.

text: Bacteria were first observed by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, using a single-lens microscope of his own design. He called them "animalcules" and published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society. O. F. Müller (1773, 1786) described eight species of the genus Vibrio (in Infusoria), three of which were spirilliforms. The term Bacterium (a genus) was introduced much later, by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg in 1838.

text: Bacteria were first observed by

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: in 1676, using a single-lens

text: microscope

text: of his own design. He called them "

text: animalcules

text: " and published his observations in a series of letters to the

text: Royal Society

text: O. F. Müller

text: (1773, 1786) described eight species of the genus

text: Vibrio

text: (in

text: Infusoria

text: ), three of which were spirilliforms. The term

text: Bacterium

text: (a genus) was introduced much later, by

text: Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg

text: in 1838.

text: Although a Dutch spectacle maker created the compound lens and inserted it in a microscope around the turn of the 17th century, and Galileo had applied the principle of the compound lens to the making of his microscope patented in 1609, its possibilities as a microscope had remained unexploited for half a century, until Robert Hooke improved the instrument. Following this, Marcello Malpighi, Hooke, and two other early investigators associated with the Royal Society, Nehemiah Grew and Antoine van Leeuwenhoek were fortunate to have a virtually untried tool in their hands as they began their investigations.

text: Although a Dutch spectacle maker created the compound lens and inserted it in a microscope around the turn of the 17th century, and

text: Galileo

text: had applied the principle of the compound lens to the making of his microscope patented in 1609, its possibilities as a microscope had remained unexploited for half a century, until

text: Robert Hooke

text: improved the instrument. Following this, Marcello Malpighi, Hooke, and two other early investigators associated with the Royal Society,

text: Nehemiah Grew

text: and

text: Antoine van Leeuwenhoek

text: were fortunate to have a virtually untried tool in their hands as they began their investigations.

text: In 1851 John Benjamin Dancer invented microphotographs using a collodion process  and a microscope converted to a camera. This resulted in a microphotograph about  in area. The main disadvantage of Dancer's method was that the viewing of the microphotographs required a microscope which was at the time an expensive instrument. In 1857 Dagron solved the problem by inventing a method of mounting the microphotographs at the end of a small cylindrical lens. Dagron modified the Stanhope lens by sectioning the normally biconvex Stanhope lens and introducing a planar section so that the plane was located at the focal length of the convex side of the cylindrical lens. This produced a plano-convex lens, where Dagron was able to mount the microscopic photograph on the flat side of the lens using Canada balsam as adhesive. This arrangement enabled the picture to be focused.

text: In 1851

text: John Benjamin Dancer

text: invented microphotographs using a

text: collodion

text: process  and a microscope converted to a camera. This resulted in a microphotograph about  in area. The main disadvantage of Dancer's method was that the viewing of the microphotographs required a microscope which was at the time an expensive instrument. In 1857 Dagron solved the problem by inventing a method of mounting the microphotographs at the end of a small cylindrical lens. Dagron modified the Stanhope lens by sectioning the normally

text: biconvex

text: Stanhope lens and introducing a planar section so that the plane was located at the

text: focal length

text: of the convex side of the cylindrical lens. This produced a

text: plano-convex

text: lens, where Dagron was able to mount the microscopic photograph on the flat side of the lens using

text: Canada balsam

text: as adhesive. This arrangement enabled the picture to be focused.

text: In 1720, Benjamin Marten proposed in A New Theory of Consumptions more Especially of Phthisis or Consumption of the Lungs that the cause of tuberculosis was some type of animacula—microscopic living beings that are able to survive in a new body (similar to the ones described by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1695). The theory was roundly rejected and it took another 162 years before Robert Koch demonstrated it to be true.

text: In 1720,

text: Benjamin Marten

text: proposed in A New Theory of Consumptions more Especially of Phthisis or Consumption of the Lungs that the cause of tuberculosis was some type of animacula—microscopic living beings that are able to survive in a new body (similar to the ones described by

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: in 1695). The theory was roundly rejected and it took another 162 years before Robert Koch demonstrated it to be true.

text: In optical mineralogy, a petrographic microscope and cross-polarised light are often used to view the interference pattern. The thin section containing the mineral to be investigated is placed on the microscope stage, above one linear polariser, but with a second (the "analyser") between the objective lens and the eyepiece. The microscope's condenser is brought up close underneath the specimen to produce a wide divergence of polarised rays through a small point, and light intensity increased as much as possible (e.g., turning up the bulb and opening the diaphragm). A high power objective lens is typically used. This both maximises the solid angle subtended by the lens, and hence the angular variation of the light intercepted, and also increases the likelihood that only a single crystal will be viewed at any given time.

text: In

text: optical mineralogy

text: , a

text: petrographic microscope

text: and cross-

text: polarised light

text: are often used to view the interference pattern. The

text: thin section

text: containing the mineral to be investigated is placed on the microscope

text: stage

text: , above one

text: linear polariser

text: , but with a second (the "analyser") between the

text: objective lens

text: and the

text: eyepiece

text: . The microscope's

text: condenser

text: is brought up close underneath the specimen to produce a wide divergence of polarised rays through a small point, and light intensity increased as much as possible (e.g., turning up the bulb and opening the diaphragm). A high power objective lens is typically used. This both maximises the solid angle subtended by the lens, and hence the angular variation of the light intercepted, and also increases the likelihood that only a single crystal will be viewed at any given time.

text: Historically, there are several scientific approaches to the explanation of temperature: the classical thermodynamic description based on macroscopic empirical variables that can be measured in a laboratory; the kinetic theory of gases which relates the macroscopic description to the probability distribution of the energy of motion of gas particles; and a microscopic explanation based on statistical physics and quantum mechanics. In addition, rigorous and purely mathematical treatments have provided an axiomatic approach to classical thermodynamics and temperature. Statistical physics provides a deeper understanding by describing the atomic behavior of matter, and derives macroscopic properties from statistical averages of microscopic states, including both classical and quantum states. In the fundamental physical description, using natural units, temperature may be measured directly in units of energy. However, in the practical systems of measurement for science, technology, and commerce, such as the modern metric system of units, the macroscopic and the microscopic descriptions are interrelated by the Boltzmann constant, a proportionality factor that scales temperature to the microscopic mean kinetic energy.

text: Historically, there are several scientific approaches to the explanation of temperature: the classical thermodynamic description based on macroscopic empirical variables that can be measured in a laboratory; the

text: kinetic theory of gases

text: which relates the macroscopic description to the probability distribution of the energy of motion of gas particles; and a microscopic explanation based on

text: statistical physics

text: and

text: quantum mechanics

text: . In addition, rigorous and purely mathematical treatments have provided an axiomatic approach to classical thermodynamics and temperature. Statistical physics provides a deeper understanding by describing the atomic behavior of matter, and derives macroscopic properties from statistical averages of microscopic states, including both classical and quantum states. In the fundamental physical description, using

text: natural units

text: , temperature may be measured directly in units of energy. However, in the practical systems of measurement for science, technology, and commerce, such as the modern

text: metric system

text: of units, the macroscopic and the microscopic descriptions are interrelated by the

text: Boltzmann constant

text: , a proportionality factor that scales temperature to the microscopic mean kinetic energy.

text: The typical DDM data is a time sequence of microscope images (movie) acquired at some height within the sample (typically at its mid-plane). If the image intensity is locally proportional to the concentration of particles or molecules to be studied (possibly convoluted with the microscope point spread function (PSF)), each movie can be analyzed in the Fourier space to obtain information about the dynamics of concentration Fourier modes, independent on the fact that the particles/molecules can be individually optically resolved or not. After suitable calibration also information about the Fourier amplitude of the concentration modes can be extracted.

text: The typical DDM data is a time sequence of microscope images (movie) acquired at some height within the sample (typically at its mid-plane). If the image intensity is locally proportional to the concentration of particles or molecules to be studied (possibly convoluted with the microscope

text: point spread function (PSF)

text: ), each movie can be analyzed in the Fourier space to obtain information about the dynamics of concentration Fourier modes, independent on the fact that the particles/molecules can be individually optically resolved or not. After suitable calibration also information about the Fourier amplitude of the concentration modes can be extracted.

text: Her studies have concerned investigating the role of surface tension depressants in immunological systems, the first complement fixation with a bacteria-free virus, the first report of wound botulism, geotrichum mycemia, nasal carriage of Clostridium tetani, antibiotic cure of rhinoscleroma, antibiotic sensitivity testing of Coccidiodes immitis, and electron microscope studies of Peptococci. The most in-depth studies relate to L Forms spontaneously occurring in vivo and in vitro.

text: Her studies have concerned investigating the role of

text: surface tension depressants

text: in

text: immunological systems

text: , the first complement fixation with a bacteria-free virus, the first report of wound

text: botulism

text: geotrichum mycemia

text: , nasal carriage of

text: Clostridium tetani

text: antibiotic

text: cure of

text: rhinoscleroma

text: , antibiotic sensitivity testing of

text: Coccidiodes immitis

text: , and

text: electron microscope

text: studies of

text: Peptococci

text: . The most in-depth studies relate to L Forms spontaneously occurring in vivo and in vitro.

text: Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) was a famous astronomer, physicist and mathematician. He invented the pendulum clock, which was a major step forward towards exact timekeeping. Among his contributions to astronomy was his explanation of Saturn's planetary rings. He also contributed to the field of optics. The most famous Dutch scientist in the area of optics is Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who was the first to methodically study microscopic life—he was the first person to describe bacteria—thus laying the foundations for the field of microbiology. The "microscopes" were simple magnifiers, not compound microscopes. His skill in grinding lenses (some as small as 1mm in diameter) resulted in a magnification as high as 245x. Today, grinding and polishing is done with machinery or in-house tooling to create optics for microscopes and other optics.

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: (1629–1695) was a famous

text: astronomer

text: physicist

text: and

text: mathematician

text: . He invented the

text: pendulum clock

text: , which was a major step forward towards exact timekeeping. Among his contributions to astronomy was his explanation of Saturn's

text: planetary ring

text: s. He also contributed to the field of

text: optics

text: . The most famous Dutch scientist in the area of optics is

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: , who was the first to methodically study microscopic life—he was the first person to describe bacteria—thus laying the foundations for the field of

text: microbiology

text: . The "microscopes" were simple magnifiers, not compound microscopes. His skill in grinding lenses (some as small as 1mm in diameter) resulted in a magnification as high as 245x. Today, grinding and polishing is done with machinery or in-house tooling to create optics for microscopes and other optics.

text: In industrial use, binocular microscopes are common. Aside from applications needing true depth perception, the use of dual eyepieces reduces eye strain associated with long workdays at a microscopy station. In certain applications, long-working-distance or long-focus microscopes are beneficial.  An item may need to be examined behind a window, or industrial subjects may be a hazard to the objective.  Such optics resemble telescopes with close-focus capabilities.

text: In industrial use, binocular microscopes are common. Aside from applications needing true

text: depth perception

text: , the use of dual eyepieces reduces

text: eye strain

text: associated with long workdays at a microscopy station. In certain applications, long-working-distance or long-focus microscopes are beneficial.  An item may need to be examined behind a

text: window

text: , or industrial subjects may be a hazard to the objective.  Such optics resemble telescopes with close-focus capabilities.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek was visited by Leibniz, William III of Orange and his wife, and the burgemeester (mayor) Johan Huydecoper of Amsterdam, the latter being very interested in collecting and growing plants for the Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam, and all gazed at the tiny creatures. In 1698, Van Leeuwenhoek was invited to visit the Tsar Peter the Great in his boat. On this occasion Van Leeuwenhoek presented the Tsar an "eel-viewer", so Peter could study the blood circulation whenever he wanted.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek was visited by

text: Leibniz

text: William III of Orange

text: and

text: his wife

text: , and the burgemeester (mayor)

text: Johan Huydecoper

text: of Amsterdam, the latter being very interested in collecting and growing plants for the

text: Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam

text: , and all gazed at the tiny creatures. In 1698, Van Leeuwenhoek was invited to visit the Tsar

text: Peter the Great

text: in his boat. On this occasion Van Leeuwenhoek presented the Tsar an "eel-viewer", so Peter could study the blood circulation whenever he wanted.

text: In the 17th century, Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek both developed techniques to make small glass lenses for use with their microscopes. Hooke melted small filaments of Venetian glass and allowed the surface tension in the molten glass to form the smooth spherical surfaces required for lenses, then mounting and grinding the lenses using conventional methods. The principle has been repeated by performing photolithography into materials such as photoresist or UV curable epoxy  and melting the polymer to form arrays of multiple lenses. More recently microlens arrays have been fabricated using convective assembly of colloidal particles from suspension.

text: In the 17th century,

text: Robert Hooke

text: and

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: both developed techniques to make small glass lenses for use with their

text: microscope

text: s. Hooke melted small filaments of

text: Venetian glass

text: and allowed the

text: surface tension

text: in the molten glass to form the smooth spherical surfaces required for lenses, then mounting and grinding the lenses using conventional methods. The principle has been repeated by performing

text: photolithography

text: into materials such as

text: photoresist

text: or

text: UV

text: curable

text: epoxy

text: and melting the polymer to form arrays of multiple lenses. More recently microlens arrays have been fabricated using convective assembly of colloidal particles from suspension.

text: Much current research (in the early 21st century) on optical microscope techniques is focused on development of superresolution analysis of fluorescently labelled samples. Structured illumination can improve resolution by around two to four times and techniques like stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy are approaching the resolution of electron microscopes.

text: Much current research (in the early 21st century) on optical microscope techniques is focused on development of

text: superresolution

text: analysis of fluorescently labelled samples.

text: Structured illumination

text: can improve resolution by around two to four times and techniques like

text: stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy

text: are approaching the resolution of electron microscopes.

text: Renal histology studies the microscopic structure of the kidney. Distinct cell types include:

text: Renal

text: histology

text: studies the

text: microscopic

text: structure of the kidney. Distinct

text: cell type

text: s include:

text: Since the beginning, the company has also been a manufacturer of microscopes and optics for specialised needs, such as medical use. The first microscope manufactured at Olympus was called the Asahi. Currently, Olympus is a worldwide renowned manufacturer of microscopes. Olympus offers a complete range of microscopes, which covers applications from education and routine studies up to state of the art research imaging systems both in life science and materials science.

text: With current optical microscopes, scientists can only make out relatively large structures within a cell, such as its nucleus and mitochondria. With a superlens, optical microscopes could one day reveal the movements of individual proteins traveling along the microtubules that make up a cell's skeleton, the researchers said. Optical microscopes can capture an entire frame with a single snapshot in a fraction of a second. With superlenses this opens up nanoscale imaging to living materials, which can help biologists better understand cell structure and function in real time.

text: A higher incidence of autoimmune diseases, for example arthritis, Sjögren's syndrome, thyroid disorders, and coeliac disease, has been reported in patients with microscopic colitis. Associations with various drugs have been found, especially proton pump inhibitors, H blockers, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Bile acid diarrhea is found in 41% of patients with collagenous colitis and 29% with lymphocytic colitis. Additionally, smoking has been identified as a significant risk factor of microscopic colitis.

text: A higher incidence of

text: autoimmune disease

text: s, for example

text: arthritis

text: Sjögren's syndrome

text: thyroid disorders

text: , and

text: coeliac disease

text: , has been reported in patients with microscopic colitis. Associations with various drugs have been found, especially

text: proton pump inhibitors

text: H blockers

text: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

text: s (SSRIs), and

text: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

text: (NSAIDs).

text: Bile acid diarrhea

text: is found in 41% of patients with collagenous colitis and 29% with lymphocytic colitis. Additionally, smoking has been identified as a significant risk factor of microscopic colitis.

text: De Mestral first conceptualized hook and loop after returning from a hunting trip with his dog in the Alps in 1941. After removing several of the burdock burrs (seeds) that kept sticking to his clothes and his dog's fur, he became curious as to how it worked. He examined them under a microscope, and noted hundreds of "hooks" that caught on anything with a loop, such as clothing, animal fur, or hair. He saw the possibility of binding two materials reversibly in a simple fashion, if he could figure out how to duplicate the hooks and loops.

text: De Mestral first conceptualized hook and loop after returning from a hunting trip with his dog in the Alps in 1941. After removing several of the

text: burdock

text: burrs

text: (seeds) that kept sticking to his clothes and his dog's fur, he became curious as to how it worked. He examined them under a microscope, and noted hundreds of "hooks" that caught on anything with a loop, such as clothing, animal fur, or hair. He saw the possibility of binding two materials reversibly in a simple fashion, if he could figure out how to duplicate the hooks and loops.

text: Alec Broers began his research career in the Engineering Department of the University of Cambridge in 1961 working with Professor Oatley, and later with Dr William C Nixon, on the in situ study of surfaces undergoing ion etching in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The microscope he used had originally been built by Oatley and had then been modified Garry Stewart who had also added an ion source that focussed ions onto the sample surface. Garry Stewart, who was another of Professor Oatley's students, then moved to the Cambridge Instrument Company where he oversaw the design and building of the world's first commercial SEM, the Stereoscan. During his PhD Alec rebuilt the SEM fitting a magnetic final lens in place of the original electrostatic lens thereby improving the microscope's resolution to about 10 nm, and after examining ion etched surfaces, used the microscope's electron beam for the first time to write patterns, subsequently using ion etching to transfer these patterns into gold, tungsten and silicon structures as small as 40 nm. These were the first man-made nanostructures in materials suitable for microelectronic circuits opening up the possibility for the extreme miniaturization of electronic circuits that was to occur in the decades to come.

text: Alec Broers began his research career in the Engineering Department of the University of Cambridge in 1961 working with

text: Professor Oatley

text: , and later with Dr William C Nixon, on the in situ study of surfaces undergoing ion etching in the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The microscope he used had originally been built by Oatley and had then been modified Garry Stewart who had also added an ion source that focussed ions onto the sample surface. Garry Stewart, who was another of Professor Oatley's students, then moved to the Cambridge Instrument Company where he oversaw the design and building of the world's first commercial SEM, the Stereoscan. During his PhD Alec rebuilt the SEM fitting a magnetic final lens in place of the original electrostatic lens thereby improving the microscope's resolution to about 10 nm, and after examining ion etched surfaces, used the microscope's electron beam for the first time to write patterns, subsequently using ion etching to transfer these patterns into gold, tungsten and silicon structures as small as 40 nm. These were the first man-made nanostructures in materials suitable for microelectronic circuits opening up the possibility for the extreme miniaturization of electronic circuits that was to occur in the decades to come.

text: Pasteur's observations of tiny organisms under the microscope caused him to doubt spontaneous generation. He designed an experiment to test it. His hypothesis was that life could not arise from where there is no life. He took care to control possible confounding factors. For example, he needed to make sure there was no life, even microscopic, in the flasks of broth he used as a test medium. He decided to kill any microscopic organisms already present by boiling the broth until he was confident that any microorganisms present were killed. Pasteur also needed to make sure that no microscopic organisms entered the broth after boiling, yet the broth needed exposure to air to properly test the theory.  A colleague suggested a flask with a neck the shape of an "S" turned sideways. Dust (which Pasteur thought contained microorganisms) would be trapped at the bottom of the first curve, but the air would flow freely through.

text: Pasteur's observations of tiny

text: organisms

text: under the

text: microscope

text: caused him to doubt spontaneous generation. He designed an experiment to test it. His

text: hypothesis

text: was that life could not arise from where there is no life. He took care to control possible confounding factors. For example, he needed to make sure there was no life, even microscopic, in the flasks of broth he used as a test medium. He decided to kill any microscopic organisms already present by boiling the broth until he was confident that any microorganisms present were killed. Pasteur also needed to make sure that no microscopic organisms entered the broth after boiling, yet the broth needed exposure to air to properly test the theory.  A colleague suggested a flask with a neck the shape of an "S" turned sideways. Dust (which Pasteur thought contained microorganisms) would be trapped at the bottom of the first curve, but the air would flow freely through.

text: Under a microscope using a software interface, a tissue section (typically 5-50 micrometres thick) is viewed and individual cells or clusters of cells are identified either manually or in semi-automated or more fully automated ways allowing the imaging and then automatic selection of targets for isolation.  Currently six primary isolation/collection technologies exist using a microscope and device for cell isolation.  Four of these typically use an ultraviolet pulsed laser (355 nm) for the cutting of the tissues directly or the membranes/film, and sometimes in combination with an IR laser responsible for heating/melting a sticky polymer for cellular adhesion and isolation. IR laser provides a more gentle approach to microdissection. A fifth ultraviolet laser based technology uses special slides coated with an energy transfer coating which, when activated by the laser pulse, propels the tissue or cells into a collection cap.

text: Under a

text: microscope

text: using a software interface, a tissue section (typically 5-50 micrometres thick) is viewed and individual cells or clusters of cells are identified either manually or in semi-automated or more fully automated ways allowing the imaging and then automatic selection of targets for isolation.  Currently six primary isolation/collection technologies exist using a microscope and device for cell isolation.  Four of these typically use an ultraviolet pulsed laser (355 nm) for the cutting of the tissues directly or the membranes/film, and sometimes in combination with an

text: IR

text: laser responsible for heating/melting a sticky polymer for cellular adhesion and isolation. IR laser provides a more gentle approach to microdissection. A fifth ultraviolet laser based technology uses special slides coated with an energy transfer coating which, when activated by the laser pulse, propels the tissue or cells into a collection cap.

text: Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). Resolution in these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.

text: Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (

text: optics

text: for light microscopes and

text: electromagnet

text: lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a

text: wave

text: transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are

text: electromagnetic

text: (in

text: optical microscope

text: s) or

text: electron

text: beams (in

text: electron microscopes

text: Resolution

text: in these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.

text: It may not be obvious why the partition function, as we have defined it above, is an important quantity. First, let us consider what goes into it. The partition function is a function of the temperature T and the microstate energies E, E, E, etc. The microstate energies are determined by other thermodynamic variables, such as the number of particles and the volume, as well as microscopic quantities like the mass of the constituent particles. This dependence on microscopic variables is the central point of statistical mechanics. With a model of the microscopic constituents of a system, one can calculate the microstate energies, and thus the partition function, which will then allow us to calculate all the other thermodynamic properties of the system.

text: Spencer’s first microscopes were available for purchase in 1838. Previous to Spencer’s invention, European manufacturers held a monopoly on research-quality microscopic equipment. At least one of Spencer’s microscopes survives and is currently held by the Smithsonian Institution.

text: This theory can be applied not only to other organism associations but also at the microscopic level such as the case in host-bacteria relationships. For example, the relationship between bacteria and phages has also fallen under escape and radiate coevolution. Bacteria were able to diversify and escape through resistance to phages. The diversity among the hosts and parasites differed among the range of infection and resistance. The implication of this study to humans is its important to understanding the evolution of infectious organisms, and preventing diseases. This illustrates the significance of escape and radiate coevolution at a microscopic level, but with enormous consequences at a macroscale level.

text: High Field Consultants has created a museum to preserve the legacy of the Field Emission Microscope and its progenies, the Field Ion Microscope and the Atom-Probe. The Field Emission Microscope was introduced in 1936. It was the first microscope to achieve nanometer resolution. In 1951 its progeny; the Field Ion Microscope, was introduced and in 1956 it became the first microscope to image isolated atoms on a metal surface. In 1967 the Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope was introduced and extended the capability of the microscope by determining the chemical identity of the imaged atoms. In 1973 the paradigm shifted away from the Field Ion Microscope with the introduction of the 10 cm Atom Probe. Patented and dubbed the Imaging Atom-Probe in 1975, it became the progenitor of future atom probes. Today, the Atom-Probe is a commercial tool in the arsenal of instruments used to develop new materials for technology and industry.

text: High Field Consultants has created a museum to preserve the legacy of the

text: Field Emission Microscope

text: and its progenies, the

text: Field Ion Microscope

text: and the

text: Atom-Probe

text: . The Field Emission Microscope was introduced in 1936. It was the first microscope to achieve nanometer resolution. In 1951 its progeny; the Field Ion Microscope, was introduced and in 1956 it became the first microscope to image isolated atoms on a metal surface. In 1967 the Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope was introduced and extended the capability of the microscope by determining the chemical identity of the imaged atoms. In 1973 the paradigm shifted away from the Field Ion Microscope with the introduction of the 10 cm Atom Probe. Patented and dubbed the Imaging Atom-Probe in 1975, it became the progenitor of future atom probes. Today, the Atom-Probe is a commercial tool in the arsenal of instruments used to develop new materials for technology and industry.

text: Second-harmonic imaging microscopy (SHIM) is based on a nonlinear optical effect known as second-harmonic generation (SHG).  SHIM has been established as a viable microscope imaging contrast mechanism for visualization of cell and tissue structure and function.  A second-harmonic microscope obtains contrasts from variations in a specimen’s ability to generate second-harmonic light from the incident light while a conventional optical microscope obtains its contrast by detecting variations in optical density, path length, or refractive index of the specimen.  SHG requires intense laser light passing through a material with a noncentrosymmetric molecular structure.  Second-harmonic light emerging from an SHG material is exactly half the wavelength (frequency doubled) of the light entering the material.  While two-photon-excited fluorescence (TPEF) is also a two photon process, TPEF loses some energy during the relaxation of the excited state, and SHG is energy conserving. Typically, an inorganic crystal is used to produce SHG light such as lithium niobate (LiNbO), potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP = KTiOPO), and lithium triborate (LBO = LiBO).  Though SHG requires a material to have specific molecular orientation in order for the incident light to be frequency doubled, some biological materials can be highly polarizable, and assemble into fairly ordered, large noncentrosymmetric structures.  Biological materials such as collagen, microtubules, and muscle myosin can produce SHG signals.  The SHG pattern is mainly determined by the phase matching condition.  A common setup for an SHG imaging system will have a laser scanning microscope with a titanium sapphire mode-locked laser as the excitation source.  The SHG signal is propagated in the forward direction.  However, some experiments have shown that objects on the order of about a tenth of the wavelength of the SHG produced signal will produce nearly equal forward and backward signals.

text: Second-harmonic imaging microscopy (SHIM) is based on a

text: nonlinear

text: optical effect known as

text: second-harmonic generation

text: (SHG).  SHIM has been established as a viable

text: microscope

text: imaging contrast mechanism for visualization of

text: cell

text: and

text: tissue

text: structure and function.  A second-harmonic microscope obtains contrasts from variations in a specimen’s ability to generate second-harmonic light from the incident light while a conventional optical microscope obtains its contrast by detecting variations in

text: optical density

text: , path length, or

text: refractive index

text: of the specimen.  SHG requires intense

text: laser

text: light passing through a material with a

text: noncentrosymmetric

text: molecular structure.  Second-harmonic light emerging from an SHG material is exactly half the wavelength (frequency doubled) of the light entering the material.  While

text: two-photon-excited fluorescence

text: (TPEF) is also a two photon process, TPEF loses some energy during the relaxation of the excited state, and SHG is energy conserving. Typically, an inorganic crystal is used to produce SHG light such as

text: lithium niobate

text: (LiNbO),

text: potassium titanyl phosphate

text: (KTP = KTiOPO), and

text: lithium triborate

text: (LBO = LiBO).  Though SHG requires a material to have specific molecular orientation in order for the incident light to be frequency doubled, some biological materials can be highly polarizable, and assemble into fairly ordered, large noncentrosymmetric structures.  Biological materials such as collagen,

text: microtubules

text: , and muscle

text: myosin

text: can produce SHG signals.  The SHG pattern is mainly determined by the phase matching condition.  A common setup for an SHG imaging system will have a

text: laser scanning microscope

text: with a

text: titanium sapphire

text: mode-locked

text: laser as the excitation source.  The SHG signal is propagated in the forward direction.  However, some experiments have shown that objects on the order of about a tenth of the

text: wavelength

text: of the SHG produced signal will produce nearly equal forward and backward signals.

text: Starch grains are typically microscopically identified with either optical or electron microscopy. Starch grains can become clearer if they are stained a darker color with Iodine Stains. Logol's Iodine is one, used for staining starch because iodine reagents easily bind to starch but less easily to other materials. Features that allow identification of starch grains include:  presence of hilum (core of the grain), lamellae (or growth layers), birefringence, and extinction cross (a cross shape, visible on grains under revolving polarized light) which are visible with a microscope and shape and size.

text: Starch grains are typically microscopically identified with either optical or electron microscopy. Starch grains can become clearer if they are stained a darker color with

text: Iodine

text: Stains. Logol's Iodine is one, used for

text: staining

text: starch because iodine reagents easily bind to starch but less easily to other materials. Features that allow identification of starch grains include:  presence of hilum (core of the grain), lamellae (or growth layers), birefringence, and extinction cross (a cross shape, visible on grains under revolving polarized light) which are visible with a

text: microscope

text: and shape and size.

text: is the number of cells in the hook

text: is the number of cells in the hook

text: Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image. As these microscopes do not use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to the same resolution limit as the optical and electron microscopes described above.

text: The experiment for which Buchner won the Nobel Prize consisted of producing a cell-free extract of yeast cells and showing that this "press juice" could ferment sugar. This dealt yet another blow to vitalism by showing that the presence of living yeast cells was not needed for fermentation. The cell-free extract was produced by combining dry yeast cells, quartz and kieselguhr and then pulverizing the yeast cells with a pestle and mortar. This mixture would then become moist as the yeast cells' contents would come out of the cells. Once this step was done, the moist mixture would be put through a press and the resulting "press juice" had glucose, fructose, or maltose added and carbon dioxide was seen to evolve, sometimes for days. Microscopic investigation revealed no living yeast cells in the extract. Buchner hypothesized that yeast cells secrete proteins into their environment in order to ferment sugars, but it was later found that fermentation occurs inside the yeast cells. Maria Manasseina claimed to have discovered free-cell fermentation a generation earlier than Buchner.

text: The experiment for which Buchner won the Nobel Prize consisted of producing a cell-free extract of

text: yeast

text: cells and showing that this "press juice" could ferment sugar. This dealt yet another blow to

text: vitalism

text: by showing that the presence of living yeast cells was not needed for fermentation. The cell-free extract was produced by combining dry yeast cells,

text: quartz

text: and

text: kieselguhr

text: and then pulverizing the yeast cells with a pestle and mortar. This mixture would then become moist as the yeast cells' contents would come out of the cells. Once this step was done, the moist mixture would be put through a press and the resulting "press juice" had

text: glucose

text: fructose

text: , or

text: maltose

text: added and

text: carbon dioxide

text: was seen to evolve, sometimes for days. Microscopic investigation revealed no living yeast cells in the extract. Buchner hypothesized that yeast cells secrete proteins into their environment in order to ferment sugars, but it was later found that fermentation occurs inside the yeast cells.

text: Maria Manasseina

text: claimed to have discovered free-cell fermentation a generation earlier than Buchner.

text: The company manufactures products for applications requiring microscopic imaging, measurement and analysis. It also offers system solutions in the areas of Life Science including biotechnology and medicine, as well as the science of raw materials and industrial quality assurance.

text: The rotifers (Rotifera, commonly called wheel animals) make up a phylum of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate animals.

text: The rotifers (Rotifera, commonly called wheel animals) make up a

text: phylum

text: of microscopic and near-microscopic

text: pseudocoelomate

text: animal

text: s.

text: If we evaluate the molecular revolution within the context of biological history, it is easy to note that it is the culmination of a long process which began with the first observations through a microscope. The aim of these early researchers was to understand the functioning of living organisms by describing their organization at the microscopic level. From the end of the 18th century, the characterization of the chemical molecules which make up living beings gained increasingly greater attention, along with the birth of physiological chemistry in the 19th century, developed by the German chemist Justus von Liebig and following the birth of biochemistry at the beginning of the 20th, thanks to another German chemist Eduard Buchner. Between the molecules studied by chemists and the tiny structures visible under the optical microscope, such as the cellular nucleus or the chromosomes, there was an obscure zone, "the world of the ignored dimensions," as it was called by the chemical-physicist Wolfgang Ostwald. This world is populated by colloids, chemical compounds whose structure and properties were not well defined.

text: If we evaluate the molecular revolution within the context of biological history, it is easy to note that it is the culmination of a long process which began with the first observations through a microscope. The aim of these early researchers was to understand the functioning of living organisms by describing their organization at the microscopic level. From the end of the 18th century, the characterization of the chemical molecules which make up living beings gained increasingly greater attention, along with the birth of

text: physiological chemistry

text: in the 19th century, developed by the German chemist

text: Justus von Liebig

text: and following the birth of biochemistry at the beginning of the 20th, thanks to another German chemist

text: Eduard Buchner

text: . Between the molecules studied by chemists and the tiny structures visible under the optical microscope, such as the cellular nucleus or the chromosomes, there was an obscure zone, "the world of the ignored dimensions," as it was called by the chemical-physicist

text: Wolfgang Ostwald

text: . This world is populated by

text: colloids

text: , chemical compounds whose structure and properties were not well defined.

text: Strobell and Foot are best known for their studies of the egg of Allolobophora foetida, mainly due to the innovated research techniques they developed in the process. They invented a method to make very thin samples of material at low temperatures so that they could be viewed under a microscope. In addition, they were some of the first to photograph their samples rather than drawing them based on what they saw under the microscope.

text: Thirdly, plant morphology studies plant structure at a range of scales.  At the smallest scales are ultrastructure, the general structural features of cells visible only with the aid of an electron microscope, and cytology, the study of cells using optical microscopy.  At this scale, plant morphology overlaps with plant anatomy as a field of study.  At the largest scale is the study of plant growth habit, the overall architecture of a plant.  The pattern of branching in a tree will vary from species to species, as will the appearance of a plant as a tree, herb, or grass.

text: Thirdly, plant morphology studies plant structure at a range of scales.  At the smallest scales are

text: ultrastructure

text: , the general structural features of cells visible only with the aid of an

text: electron microscope

text: , and

text: cytology

text: , the study of cells using

text: optical microscopy

text: .  At this scale, plant morphology overlaps with

text: plant anatomy

text: as a field of study.  At the largest scale is the study of plant growth habit, the overall architecture of a plant.  The pattern of branching in a

text: tree

text: will vary from species to species, as will the appearance of a plant as a

text: tree

text: herb

text: , or

text: grass

text: Laurdan was designed as a substitute for other dyes, such as previously modified lipids that were inadequate to observe the membrane lipid bilayer because of their interaction with other compounds within the membrane lipid bilayer. Laurdan was designed specifically to study dipolar relaxation on cell membranes. Laurdan shows this effect more evidently because of its polar characteristics. Laurdan was first applied to study membrane fluidity of live cells with a 2-Photon fluorescence microscope in 1994  and it was found that the plasma membrane of cells is more rigid than that of the nuclear membrane.

text: Laurdan was designed as a substitute for other dyes, such as previously modified

text: lipid

text: s that were inadequate to observe the membrane

text: lipid bilayer

text: because of their interaction with other compounds within the membrane lipid bilayer. Laurdan was designed specifically to study

text: dipolar relaxation

text: on cell membranes. Laurdan shows this effect more evidently because of its

text: polar

text: characteristics. Laurdan was first applied to study membrane fluidity of live cells with a 2-Photon fluorescence microscope in 1994  and it was found that the plasma membrane of cells is more rigid than that of the nuclear membrane.

text: |- bgcolor=#fefefe| 12601 Tiffanyswann ||  || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=602 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12602 Tammytam ||  || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=603 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12603 Tanchunghee ||  || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=604 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12604 Lisatate ||  || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=605 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12605 || 1999 SK || September 17, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || Višnjan Obs. ||  —|-id=606 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12606 Apuleius || 2043 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=607 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12607 Alcaeus || 2058 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=608 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12608 Aesop || 2091 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=609 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12609 Apollodoros || 2155 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=610 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12610 Hãfez || 2551 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=611 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12611 Ingres || 2555 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=612 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12612 Daumier || 2592 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=613 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12613 Hogarth || 4024 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=614 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12614 Hokusai || 4119 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=615 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12615 Mendesdeleon || 4626 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=616 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12616 Lochner || 4874 P-L || September 26, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=617 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12617 Angelusilesius || 5568 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=618 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12618 Cellarius || 6217 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=619 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12619 Anubelshunu || 6242 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=620 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12620 Simaqian || 6335 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=621 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12621 Alsufi || 6585 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=622 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12622 Doppelmayr || 6614 P-L || September 24, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=623 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12623 Tawaddud || 9544 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=624 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12624 Mariacunitia || 9565 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=625 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12625 Koopman || 9578 P-L || October 17, 1960 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=626 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12626 Timmerman || 1116 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=627 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12627 Maryedwards || 1230 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=628 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12628 Ackworthorr || 2120 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=629 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12629 Jandeboer || 2168 T-1 || March 25, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=630 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12630 Verstappen || 3033 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=631 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12631 Mariekebaan || 3051 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=632 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12632 Mignonette || 3105 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=633 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12633 Warmenhoven || 3119 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=634 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12634 LOFAR || 3178 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=635 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12635 Hennylamers || 4220 T-1 || March 26, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=636 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12636 Padrielli || 4854 T-1 || May 13, 1971 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=637 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12637 Gustavleonhardt || 1053 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=638 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12638 Fransbrüggen || 1063 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=639 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12639 Tonkoopman || 1105 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=640 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12640 Reinbertdeleeuw || 1231 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=641 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12641 Hubertushenrichs || 1310 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=642 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12642 Davidjansen || 1348 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=643 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12643 Henkolthof || 3180 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=644 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12644 Robertwielinga || 3285 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=645 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12645 Jacobrosales || 4240 T-2 || September 29, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=646 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12646 Avercamp || 5175 T-2 || September 25, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=647 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12647 Pauluspotter || 5332 T-2 || September 30, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=648 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12648 || 1135 T-3 || October 17, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=649 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 12649 Ascanios || 2035 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=650 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12650 || 2247 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=651 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12651 || 2268 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=652 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12652 || 2622 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=653 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12653 || 2664 T-3 || October 11, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=654 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12654 || 4118 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=655 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12655 || 5041 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=656 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12656 || 5170 T-3 || October 16, 1977 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels ||  —|-id=657 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12657 Bonch-Bruevich ||  || August 30, 1971 || Nauchnij || T. M. Smirnova || |-id=658 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 12658 Peiraios || 1973 SL || September 19, 1973 || Palomar || C. J. van Houten, I. van Houten-Groeneveld, T. Gehrels || |-id=659 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12659 Schlegel ||  || October 27, 1973 || Tautenburg Observatory || F. Börngen || |-id=660 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12660 || 1975 NC || July 15, 1975 || Cerro El Roble || C. Torres, S. Barros ||  —|-id=661 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12661 Schelling ||  || February 27, 1976 || Tautenburg Observatory || F. Börngen || |-id=662 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12662 || 1978 CK || February 2, 1978 || Palomar || J. Gibson ||  —|-id=663 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12663 ||  || September 2, 1978 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist ||  —|-id=664 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12664 Sonisenia ||  || September 27, 1978 || Nauchnij || L. I. Chernykh || |-id=665 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12665 ||  || November 6, 1978 || Palomar || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=666 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12666 || 1978 XW || December 6, 1978 || Palomar || E. Bowell, A. Warnock ||  —|-id=667 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12667 || 1979 DF || February 28, 1979 || Anderson Mesa || N. G. Thomas ||  —|-id=668 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12668 ||  || June 25, 1979 || Siding Spring || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=669 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12669 ||  || June 25, 1979 || Siding Spring || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=670 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12670 Passargea ||  || September 22, 1979 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=671 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12671 Thörnqvist || 1980 FU || March 16, 1980 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist || |-id=672 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12672 Nygårdh ||  || March 16, 1980 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist || |-id=673 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12673 Kiselman ||  || March 16, 1980 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist || |-id=674 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12674 Rybalka ||  || September 7, 1980 || Nauchnij || N. S. Chernykh || |-id=675 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12675 Chabot ||  || October 9, 1980 || Palomar || C. S. Shoemaker, E. M. Shoemaker || |-id=676 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12676 ||  || February 28, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=677 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12677 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=678 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12678 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=679 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12679 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=680 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12680 Bogdanovich ||  || May 6, 1981 || Palomar || C. S. Shoemaker || |-id=681 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12681 ||  || October 24, 1981 || Palomar || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=682 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12682 Kawada ||  || November 14, 1982 || Kiso || H. Kosai, K. Furukawa || |-id=683 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12683 ||  || September 2, 1983 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=684 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12684 || 1984 DQ || February 23, 1984 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=685 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12685 || 1985 VE || November 14, 1985 || Brorfelde || P. Jensen ||  —|-id=686 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12686 Bezuglyj ||  || October 3, 1986 || Nauchnij || L. G. Karachkina || |-id=687 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12687 de Valory ||  || December 17, 1987 || La Silla || E. W. Elst, G. Pizarro || |-id=688 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12688 Baekeland ||  || February 13, 1988 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=689 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12689 ||  || September 8, 1988 || Brorfelde || P. Jensen ||  —|-id=690 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12690 Kochimiraikagaku ||  || November 5, 1988 || Geisei || T. Seki || |-id=691 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12691 ||  || November 7, 1988 || Yatsugatake || Y. Kushida, M. Inoue ||  —|-id=692 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12692 ||  || January 29, 1989 || Kleť || A. Mrkos ||  —|-id=693 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12693 || 1989 EZ || March 9, 1989 || Gekko || Y. Oshima ||  —|-id=694 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12694 Schleiermacher ||  || March 7, 1989 || Tautenburg Observatory || F. Börngen || |-id=695 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12695 Utrecht ||  || April 1, 1989 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=696 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12696 Camus ||  || September 26, 1989 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=697 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12697 Verhaeren ||  || September 26, 1989 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=698 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12698 ||  || October 22, 1989 || Kleť || A. Mrkos ||  —|-id=699 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12699 ||  || February 24, 1990 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=700 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12700 || 1990 FH || March 23, 1990 || Palomar || E. F. Helin ||  —|}

text: |- bgcolor=#fefefe| 12601 Tiffanyswann ||  || September 9, 1999 ||

text: Socorro

text: LINEAR

text: || |-id=602 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12602 Tammytam ||  || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=603 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12603 Tanchunghee ||  || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=604 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12604 Lisatate ||  || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || |-id=605 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12605 || 1999 SK || September 17, 1999 ||

text: Višnjan Observatory

text: Višnjan Obs.

text: ||  —|-id=606 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12606 Apuleius || 2043 P-L || September 24, 1960 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: 12621 Alsufi

text: Nauchnij

text: T. M. Smirnova

text: || |-id=658 bgcolor=#C2FFFF| 12658 Peiraios || 1973 SL || September 19, 1973 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. J. van Houten

text: I. van Houten-Groeneveld

text: T. Gehrels

text: || |-id=659 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12659 Schlegel ||  || October 27, 1973 ||

text: Tautenburg Observatory

text: F. Börngen

text: || |-id=660 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12660 || 1975 NC || July 15, 1975 ||

text: Cerro El Roble

text: C. Torres

text: S. Barros

text: ||  —|-id=661 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12661 Schelling ||  || February 27, 1976 ||

text: Tautenburg Observatory

text: F. Börngen

text: || |-id=662 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12662 || 1978 CK || February 2, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: J. Gibson

text: ||  —|-id=663 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12663 ||  || September 2, 1978 ||

text: La Silla

text: C.-I. Lagerkvist

text: ||  —|-id=664 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12664 Sonisenia ||  || September 27, 1978 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. I. Chernykh

text: || |-id=665 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12665 ||  || November 6, 1978 ||

text: Palomar

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=666 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12666 || 1978 XW || December 6, 1978 || Palomar ||

text: E. Bowell

text: A. Warnock

text: ||  —|-id=667 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12667 || 1979 DF || February 28, 1979 ||

text: Anderson Mesa

text: N. G. Thomas

text: ||  —|-id=668 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12668 ||  || June 25, 1979 ||

text: Siding Spring

text: E. F. Helin

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=669 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12669 ||  || June 25, 1979 || Siding Spring || E. F. Helin, S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=670 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12670 Passargea ||  || September 22, 1979 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=671 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12671 Thörnqvist || 1980 FU || March 16, 1980 ||

text: La Silla

text: C.-I. Lagerkvist

text: || |-id=672 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12672 Nygårdh ||  || March 16, 1980 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist || |-id=673 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12673 Kiselman ||  || March 16, 1980 || La Silla || C.-I. Lagerkvist || |-id=674 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12674 Rybalka ||  || September 7, 1980 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: N. S. Chernykh

text: || |-id=675 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12675 Chabot ||  || October 9, 1980 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. S. Shoemaker

text: E. M. Shoemaker

text: || |-id=676 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12676 ||  || February 28, 1981 ||

text: Siding Spring

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=677 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12677 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=678 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12678 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=679 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12679 ||  || March 2, 1981 || Siding Spring || S. J. Bus ||  —|-id=680 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12680 Bogdanovich ||  || May 6, 1981 ||

text: Palomar

text: C. S. Shoemaker

text: || |-id=681 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12681 ||  || October 24, 1981 || Palomar ||

text: S. J. Bus

text: ||  —|-id=682 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12682 Kawada ||  || November 14, 1982 ||

text: Kiso

text: H. Kosai

text: K. Furukawa

text: || |-id=683 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12683 ||  || September 2, 1983 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: ||  —|-id=684 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12684 || 1984 DQ || February 23, 1984 || La Silla || H. Debehogne ||  —|-id=685 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12685 || 1985 VE || November 14, 1985 ||

text: Brorfelde

text: P. Jensen

text: ||  —|-id=686 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12686 Bezuglyj ||  || October 3, 1986 ||

text: Nauchnij

text: L. G. Karachkina

text: || |-id=687 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12687 de Valory ||  || December 17, 1987 ||

text: La Silla

text: E. W. Elst

text: G. Pizarro

text: || |-id=688 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12688 Baekeland ||  || February 13, 1988 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=689 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12689 ||  || September 8, 1988 ||

text: Brorfelde

text: P. Jensen

text: ||  —|-id=690 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12690 Kochimiraikagaku ||  || November 5, 1988 ||

text: Geisei

text: T. Seki

text: || |-id=691 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12691 ||  || November 7, 1988 ||

text: Yatsugatake

text: Y. Kushida

text: M. Inoue

text: ||  —|-id=692 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12692 ||  || January 29, 1989 ||

text: Kleť

text: A. Mrkos

text: ||  —|-id=693 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12693 || 1989 EZ || March 9, 1989 ||

text: Gekko

text: Y. Oshima

text: ||  —|-id=694 bgcolor=#d6d6d6| 12694 Schleiermacher ||  || March 7, 1989 ||

text: Tautenburg Observatory

text: F. Börngen

text: || |-id=695 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12695 Utrecht ||  || April 1, 1989 ||

text: La Silla

text: E. W. Elst

text: || |-id=696 bgcolor=#E9E9E9|

text: 12696 Camus

text: ||  || September 26, 1989 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=697 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12697 Verhaeren ||  || September 26, 1989 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || |-id=698 bgcolor=#E9E9E9| 12698 ||  || October 22, 1989 ||

text: Kleť

text: A. Mrkos

text: ||  —|-id=699 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12699 ||  || February 24, 1990 ||

text: La Silla

text: H. Debehogne

text: ||  —|-id=700 bgcolor=#fefefe| 12700 || 1990 FH || March 23, 1990 ||

text: Palomar

text: E. F. Helin

text: Leeuwenhoek discovered that the origin of semen was the testicles and was a committed preformationist and spermist. He reasoned that the movement of spermatozoa was evidence of animal life, which presumed a complex structure and, for human sperm, a soul. (Friedman 79)

text: Lung cancers are classified according to histological type. This classification is important for determining management and predicting outcomes of the disease. Lung cancers are carcinomas—malignancies that arise from epithelial cells. Lung carcinomas are categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a microscope. For therapeutic purposes, two broad classes are distinguished: non-small-cell lung carcinoma and small-cell lung carcinoma.

text: Lung cancers are classified according to

text: histological type

text: . This classification is important for determining management and predicting outcomes of the disease. Lung cancers are

text: carcinoma

text: s—malignancies that arise from

text: epithelial cell

text: s. Lung carcinomas are categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a

text: microscope

text: . For therapeutic purposes, two broad classes are distinguished:

text: non-small-cell lung carcinoma

text: and

text: small-cell lung carcinoma

text: 8. Final: 'En route pour la lune!' (Chorus, Microscope, Vlan, Caprice.), Chorus des artilleurs: 'Nous sommes les petits artilleurs' (Chorus, Vlan, Microscope, Caprice.)

text: Giovanni Faber has been credited with giving the microscope its name. In 1609 fellow Lincean Galileo developed a compound microscope with a convex and a concave lens which he called the occhiolino, the "little eye". In 1624 Galileo presents his occhiolino to Prince Federico Cesi, founder of the Accademia dei Lincei. One year later Giovanni Faber coined the word microscope from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with telescope, another word coined by the Linceans.

text: Giovanni Faber has been credited with giving the microscope its name. In 1609 fellow

text: Lincean

text: Galileo developed a compound microscope with a convex and a concave lens which he called the occhiolino, the "little eye". In 1624 Galileo presents his occhiolino to Prince

text: Federico Cesi

text: , founder of the Accademia dei Lincei. One year later Giovanni Faber coined the word microscope from the

text: Greek

text: words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at". The word was meant to be analogous with

text: telescope

text: , another word coined by the Linceans.

text: In July 2005, Danaher Announces Definitive Agreement To Acquire Leica Microsystems. The company manufactures a broad range of products for numerous applications requiring microscopic imaging, measurement and analysis. It also offers system solutions in the areas of Life Science including biotechnology and medicine, as well as the science of raw materials and industrial quality assurance.

text: In July 2005, Danaher Announces Definitive Agreement To Acquire

text: Leica Microsystems

text: . The company manufactures a broad range of products for numerous applications requiring microscopic imaging, measurement and analysis. It also offers system solutions in the areas of Life Science including biotechnology and medicine, as well as the science of raw materials and industrial quality assurance.

text: The hospital is named after Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), who is primarily known in the medical community as one of the first successful developers of microscopes.

text: The hospital is named after

text: Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

text: (1632–1723), who is primarily known in the medical community as one of the first successful developers of

text: microscope

text: s.

text: In physical and chemical kinetics, T-symmetry of the mechanical microscopic equations implies two important laws: the principle of detailed balance and the Onsager reciprocal relations. T-symmetry of the microscopic description together with its kinetic consequences are called microscopic reversibility.

text: In physical and

text: chemical kinetics

text: , T-symmetry of the mechanical microscopic equations implies two important laws: the principle of

text: detailed balance

text: and the

text: Onsager reciprocal relations

text: . T-symmetry of the microscopic description together with its kinetic consequences are called

text: microscopic reversibility

text: Microfauna are microscopic or very small animals (usually including protozoans and very small animals such as rotifers).

text: Microfauna are microscopic or very small animals (usually including

text: protozoa

text: ns and very small animals such as

text: rotifer

text: s).

text: In 2012, biologist Fred Sander used the play "as a 'hook' to explore the ethics and science of cloning" in his book Created In Our Own Images.com.  Sander wrote: "Gilbert’s drama not only anticipates psychoanalysis in the 20th century, but also, written a hundred years before the discovery of stem cells, it metaphorically resonates with the 21st century of genomic medicine. ... Gilbert's comedy ... points to new biological, psychological, social, and ethical issues raised by the ... sequencing of the genome and the explosion of stem cell research."

text: Van Leeuwenhoek's main discoveries are:

text: Van Leeuwenhoek's main discoveries are:

text: Erwin Wilhelm Müller (or Mueller) (June 13, 1911 – May 17, 1977) was a German physicist who invented the Field Emission Electron Microscope (FEEM), the Field Ion Microscope (FIM), and the Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope. He and his student, Kanwar Bahadur, were the first people to experimentally observe atoms.

text: Erwin Wilhelm Müller (or Mueller) (June 13, 1911 – May 17, 1977) was a

text: German

text: physicist

text: who invented the

text: Field Emission Electron Microscope (FEEM)

text: , the

text: Field Ion Microscope (FIM)

text: , and the

text: Atom-Probe Field Ion Microscope

text: . He and his student, Kanwar Bahadur, were the first people to experimentally observe

text: atom

text: s.

text: In recent years, micro- and nanotribology have been gaining ground. Frictional interactions in microscopically small components are becoming increasingly important for the development of new products in electronics, life sciences, chemistry, sensors and by extension for all modern technology.

text: In recent years, micro- and

text: nanotribology

text: have been gaining ground. Frictional interactions in microscopically small components are becoming increasingly important for the development of new products in

text: electronics

text: , life sciences,

text: chemistry

text: , sensors and by extension for all modern technology.

text: Modern microscopes allow more than just observation of transmitted light image of a sample; there are many techniques which can be used to extract other kinds of data. Most of these require additional equipment in addition to a basic compound microscope.

text: The most common test used to diagnose Paget's disease is the biopsy, removal of a tissue sample from the affected area which is then examined under the microscope by a pathologist, who distinguishes Paget cells from other cell types by staining tissues to identify specific cells (immunohistochemistry).  Samples of nipple discharge may also be examined under the microscope to determine whether Paget cells are present.

text: The most common test used to diagnose Paget's disease is the

text: biopsy

text: , removal of a tissue sample from the affected area which is then examined under the microscope by a

text: pathologist

text: , who distinguishes Paget cells from other cell types by staining tissues to identify specific cells (

text: immunohistochemistry

text: ).  Samples of nipple discharge may also be examined under the microscope to determine whether Paget cells are present.

text: Microscopic units and measurements are used to classify and describe very small objects.  One common microscopic length scale unit is the Micrometer (μm) - one millionth of 1 meter.

text: Microscopic units and measurements are used to classify and describe very small objects.  One common microscopic

text: length scale

text: unit is the

text: Micrometer

text: (μm) - one millionth of 1 meter.

text: Traditionally the natural world was classified as animal, vegetable, or mineral as in Systema Naturae. After the development of the microscope, attempts were made to fit microscopic organisms into either the plant or animal kingdoms.In 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and called them "animalcules," assigning them to the class Vermes of the Animalia. Due to the limited tools — the sole references for this group were shape, behaviour, and habitat — the description of genera and their classification was extremely limited, which was accentuated by the perceived lack of importance of the group.

text: Traditionally the natural world was classified as animal, vegetable, or mineral as in

text: Systema Naturae

text: . After the development of the

text: microscope

text: , attempts were made to fit microscopic organisms into either the plant or animal kingdoms.In 1676,

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: discovered bacteria and called them "animalcules," assigning them to the class Vermes of the Animalia. Due to the limited tools — the sole references for this group were shape, behaviour, and habitat — the description of genera and their classification was extremely limited, which was accentuated by the perceived lack of importance of the group.

text: Synapses are functional connections between neurons, or between neurons and other types of cells.  A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses, although there are some types that make far fewer.  Most synapses connect axons to dendrites, but there are also other types of connections, including axon-to-cell-body, axon-to-axon, and dendrite-to-dendrite. Synapses are generally too small to be recognizable using a light microscope except as points where the membranes of two cells appear to touch, but their cellular elements can be visualized clearly using an electron microscope.

text: Synapses are functional connections between neurons, or between neurons and other types of cells.  A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses, although there are some types that make far fewer.  Most synapses connect

text: axon

text: s to

text: dendrite

text: s, but there are also other types of connections, including axon-to-cell-body, axon-to-axon, and

text: dendrite-to-dendrite

text: . Synapses are generally too small to be recognizable using a

text: light microscope

text: except as points where the membranes of two cells appear to touch, but their cellular elements can be visualized clearly using an

text: electron microscope

text: A microorganism (or microbe) is a microscopic living organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. Microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some species of fungi, algae, and certain microscopic animals, such as rotifers.

text: A

text: microorganism

text: (or microbe) is a

text: microscopic

text: living

text: organism

text: , which may be

text: single-celled

text: or

text: multicellular

text: . Microorganisms are very diverse and include all

text: bacteria

text: archaea

text: and most

text: protozoa

text: . This group also contains some species of

text: fungi

text: algae

text: , and certain microscopic animals, such as

text: rotifer

text: s.

text: First, the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 which provided unprecedented visualization of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. Binnig, Quate and Gerber also invented the analogous atomic force microscope that year.

text: First, the invention of the

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: in 1981 which provided unprecedented visualization of individual atoms and bonds, and was successfully used to manipulate individual atoms in 1989. The microscope's developers

text: Gerd Binnig

text: and

text: Heinrich Rohrer

text: at

text: IBM Zurich Research Laboratory

text: received a

text: Nobel Prize in Physics

text: in 1986. Binnig,

text: Quate

text: and Gerber also invented the analogous

text: atomic force microscope

text: that year.

text: Nanosurf AG, headquartered in Liestal, Switzerland, is a manufacturer and supplier of nano-microscopes for industrial and academic research, as well as for educational purposes. Nanosurf’s  atomic force microscopes (AFM) and scanning tunneling microscopes (STM) are used for metrological surface inspections and for the visualization of structures on the nanometer scale.

text: Nanosurf AG, headquartered in

text: Liestal

text: Switzerland

text: , is a manufacturer and supplier of

text: nano

text: microscopes

text: for

text: industrial

text: and

text: academic research

text: , as well as for educational purposes. Nanosurf’s

text: atomic force microscopes

text: AFM

text: ) and

text: scanning tunneling microscopes

text: STM

text: ) are used for metrological surface inspections and for the visualization of structures on the

text: nanometer

text: scale.

text: By placing the middle of a small rod of soda lime glass in a hot flame, Van Leeuwenhoek could pull the hot section apart to create two long whiskers of glass. Then, by reinserting the end of one whisker into the flame, he could create a very small, high-quality glass sphere. These spheres became the lenses of his microscopes, with the smallest spheres providing the highest magnifications.

text: A three-dimensional optical transfer function can be calculated as the three-dimensional Fourier transform of the 3D point-spread function. Its color-coded magnitude is plotted in panels (b) and (d), corresponding to the point-spread functions shown in panels (a) and (c), respectively. The transfer function of the wide-field microscope has a support that is half of that of the confocal microscope in all three-dimensions, confirming the previously noted lower resolution of the wide-field microscope. Note that along the z-axis, for x=y=0, the transfer function is zero everywhere except at the origin. This missing cone is a well-known problem that prevents optical sectioning using a wide-field microscope.

text: A three-dimensional optical transfer function can be calculated as the three-dimensional Fourier transform of the 3D point-spread function. Its color-coded magnitude is plotted in panels (b) and (d), corresponding to the point-spread functions shown in panels (a) and (c), respectively. The transfer function of the wide-field microscope has a

text: support

text: that is half of that of the confocal microscope in all three-dimensions, confirming the previously noted lower resolution of the wide-field microscope. Note that along the z-axis, for x=y=0, the transfer function is zero everywhere except at the origin. This missing cone is a well-known problem that prevents optical sectioning using a wide-field microscope.

text: Since the invention of the microscope in the seventeenth century it has been known that plant and animal tissue is composed of cells : the cell was discovered by Robert Hooke. The plant cell wall was easily visible even with these early microscopes but no similar barrier was visible on animal cells, though it stood to reason that one must exist. By the mid 19th century, this question was being actively investigated and Moritz Traube noted that this outer layer must be semipermeable to allow transport of ions. Traube had no direct evidence for the composition of this film, though, and incorrectly asserted that it was formed by an interfacial reaction of the cell protoplasm with the extracellular fluid.<ref 1879">Permeability of pellicle precipitates." Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. (1879) 2. 592.</ref>

text: Since the invention of the microscope in the seventeenth century it has been known that plant and animal tissue is composed of

text: cells

text: : the cell was discovered by

text: Robert Hooke

text: . The plant

text: cell wall

text: was easily visible even with these early microscopes but no similar barrier was visible on animal cells, though it stood to reason that one must exist. By the mid 19th century, this question was being actively investigated and

text: Moritz Traube

text: noted that this outer layer must be semipermeable to allow transport of ions. Traube had no direct evidence for the composition of this film, though, and incorrectly asserted that it was formed by an interfacial reaction of the cell protoplasm with the extracellular fluid.<ref 1879">Permeability of pellicle precipitates." Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. (1879) 2. 592.</ref>

text: Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) was one of the first people to observe microorganisms, using microscopes of his own design.  Robert Hooke, a contemporary of Leeuwenhoek, also used microscopes to observe microbial life; his 1665 book Micrographia describes these observations and coined the term cell.

text: Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek

text: (1632–1723) was one of the first people to observe microorganisms, using microscopes of his own design.

text: Robert Hooke

text: , a contemporary of Leeuwenhoek, also used microscopes to observe microbial life; his 1665 book

text: Micrographia

text: describes these observations and coined the term

text: cell

text: From the thick film, an experienced microscopist can detect all parasites they encounter. Microscopic diagnosis can be difficult because the early trophozoites ("ring form") of all four species look identical and it is never possible to diagnose species on the basis of a single ring form; species identification is always based on several trophozoites. Please refer to the chapters on each parasite for their microscopic appearances: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae.

text: From the thick film, an experienced microscopist can detect all parasites they encounter. Microscopic diagnosis can be difficult because the early trophozoites ("ring form") of all four species look identical and it is never possible to diagnose species on the basis of a single ring form; species identification is always based on several trophozoites. Please refer to the chapters on each parasite for their microscopic appearances:

text: P. falciparum

text: P. vivax

text: P. ovale

text: P. malariae

text: , but the hook-length formula is particularly simple and elegant.The hook-length formula was discovered in 1954 by J. S. Frame, G. de B. Robinson, and R. M. Thrall by improving a less convenient formula expressing

text: , but the hook-length formula is particularly simple and elegant.The hook-length formula was discovered in 1954 by J. S. Frame,

text: G. de B. Robinson

text: , and R. M. Thrall by improving a less convenient formula expressing

text: The Field ion microscope (FIM) was invented by Müller in 1951 It is a type of microscope that can be used to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip.

text: The Field ion microscope (FIM) was invented by

text: Müller

text: in 1951 It is a type of

text: microscope

text: that can be used to image the arrangement of

text: atom

text: s at the surface of a sharp metal tip.

text: The Hirox Digital Microscope System supports magnifications of up to 7000×.  A primary difference between an optical and a digital microscope is the magnification. With an optical microscope the magnification is the lens magnification multiplied by the eyepiece magnification. The magnification for a digital microscope is defined as the ratio of the size of image on the monitor to the subject size. The Hirox Digital Microscope System has a 15" monitor.

text: The Hirox Digital Microscope System supports magnifications of up to 7000×.  A primary difference between an optical and a digital microscope is the

text: magnification

text: . With an optical microscope the magnification is the lens magnification multiplied by the eyepiece magnification. The magnification for a digital microscope is defined as the ratio of the size of image on the monitor to the subject size. The Hirox Digital Microscope System has a 15" monitor.

text: Charles Thomas Hudson (11 March 1828 – 23 October 1903) was an English naturalist, particularly interested in microscopical research, and in the microscopic animal rotifer.

text: Charles Thomas Hudson (11 March 1828 – 23 October 1903) was an English naturalist, particularly interested in microscopical research, and in the microscopic animal

text: rotifer

text: Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek

text: Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek

text: If different macroscopic processes are sampled from the same elementary microscopic events then macroscopic detailed balance may be violated even when microscopic detailed balance holds.

text: In the early 17th century, the micro-world of zoology was just beginning to open up. A few lensmakers and natural philosophers had been creating crude microscopes since the late 16th century, and Robert Hooke published the seminal Micrographia based on observations with his own compound microscope in 1665. But it was not until Antony van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvements in lensmaking beginning in the 1670s—ultimately producing up to 200-fold magnification with a single lens—that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the sheer strangeness and diversity of microscopic life. Similar investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.

text: In the early 17th century, the micro-world of zoology was just beginning to open up. A few lensmakers and natural philosophers had been creating crude

text: microscope

text: s since the late 16th century, and

text: Robert Hooke

text: published the seminal

text: Micrographia

text: based on observations with his own compound microscope in 1665. But it was not until

text: Antony van Leeuwenhoek

text: 's dramatic improvements in lensmaking beginning in the 1670s—ultimately producing up to 200-fold magnification with a single lens—that scholars discovered

text: spermatozoa

text: bacteria

text: infusoria

text: and the sheer strangeness and diversity of microscopic life. Similar investigations by

text: Jan Swammerdam

text: led to new interest in

text: entomology

text: and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and

text: staining

text: By the end of the 17th century, Van Leeuwenhoek had a virtual monopoly on microscopic study and discovery. His contemporary Robert Hooke, an early microscope pioneer, bemoaned that the field had come to rest entirely on one man's shoulders. He was visited over the years by many notable individuals, such as the Russian Tsar Peter the Great. To the disappointment of his guests, Leeuwenhoek refused to reveal the cutting-edge microscopes he relied on for his discoveries, instead showing visitors a collection of average-quality lenses.

text: By the end of the 17th century, Van Leeuwenhoek had a virtual monopoly on microscopic study and discovery. His contemporary

text: Robert Hooke

text: , an early microscope pioneer, bemoaned that the field had come to rest entirely on one man's shoulders. He was visited over the years by many notable individuals, such as the Russian Tsar

text: Peter the Great

text: . To the disappointment of his guests, Leeuwenhoek refused to reveal the cutting-edge microscopes he relied on for his discoveries, instead showing visitors a collection of average-quality lenses.

text: An inverted microscope is a microscope with its light source and condenser on the top, above the stage pointing down, while the objectives and turret are below the stage pointing up. It was invented in 1850 by J. Lawrence Smith, a faculty member of Tulane University (then named the Medical College of Louisiana).

text: An inverted microscope is a

text: microscope

text: with its

text: light source

text: and

text: condenser

text: on the top, above the stage pointing down, while the

text: objectives

text: and turret are below the stage pointing up. It was invented in 1850 by J. Lawrence Smith, a faculty member of

text: Tulane University

text: (then named the Medical College of Louisiana).

text: Jacob Sadé's research dealt with the subjects that interested him clinically, leading to new surgical techniques and new concepts. Sadé was the first to describe the mucus-ciliary system of the middle ear – studies which demonstrated that the function of these microscopic organelles depends on the presence of mucus and its biochemical composition. Likewise he found that middle ear mucus hyper secretion is the most frequent cause of hearing deficit, especially in children. These findings led to further studies related to middle ear pressure vacillation and problems of middle ear aeration and gas composition.

text: Jacob Sadé's research dealt with the subjects that interested him clinically, leading to new surgical techniques and new concepts. Sadé was the first to describe the mucus-ciliary system of the middle ear – studies which demonstrated that the function of these microscopic organelles depends on the presence of

text: mucus

text: and its biochemical composition. Likewise he found that middle ear mucus hyper secretion is the most frequent cause of

text: hearing deficit

text: , especially in children. These findings led to further studies related to middle ear pressure vacillation and problems of middle ear

text: aeration

text: and

text: gas

text: composition.

text: Electron microscopes are used to investigate the ultrastructure of a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including microorganisms, cells, large molecules, biopsy samples, metals, and crystals. Industrially, electron microscopes are often used for quality control and failure analysis. Modern electron microscopes produce electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame grabbers to capture the image.

text: Electron microscopes are used to investigate the

text: ultrastructure

text: of a wide range of biological and inorganic specimens including

text: microorganisms

text: cells

text: , large

text: molecules

text: biopsy

text: samples,

text: metals

text: , and

text: crystals

text: . Industrially, electron microscopes are often used for quality control and

text: failure analysis

text: . Modern electron microscopes produce electron

text: micrograph

text: s using specialized digital cameras and

text: frame grabber

text: s to capture the image.

text: In 1949 at Cambridge University, Francis Crick and Arthur Hughes demonstrated a novel use of the technique, calling it "The Magnetic Particle Method." The idea, which originally came from Dr. Honor Fell, was that tiny magnetic beads, phagocytoced by whole cells grown in culture, could be manipulated by an external magnetic field  The tissue culture was allowed to grow in the presence of the magnetic material, and cells that contained a magnetic particle could be seen with a high power microscope. As the magnetic particle was moved through the cell by a magnetic field, measurements about the physical properties of the cytoplasm were made. Although some of their methods and measurements were self-admittedly crude, their work demonstrated the usefulness of magnetic field particle manipulation and paved the way for further developments of this technique. The magnetic particle phagocytosis method continued to be used for many years to research cytoplasm rheology and other physical properties in whole cells.

text: In 1949 at Cambridge University,

text: Francis Crick

text: and Arthur Hughes demonstrated a novel use of the technique, calling it "The Magnetic Particle Method." The idea, which originally came from Dr.

text: Honor Fell

text: , was that tiny magnetic beads,

text: phagocytoced

text: by whole cells grown in culture, could be manipulated by an external magnetic field  The tissue culture was allowed to grow in the presence of the magnetic material, and cells that contained a magnetic particle could be seen with a high power microscope. As the magnetic particle was moved through the cell by a magnetic field, measurements about the physical properties of the

text: cytoplasm

text: were made. Although some of their methods and measurements were self-admittedly crude, their work demonstrated the usefulness of magnetic field particle manipulation and paved the way for further developments of this technique. The magnetic particle phagocytosis method continued to be used for many years to research cytoplasm

text: rheology

text: and other physical properties in whole cells.

text: The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition).

text: The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or

text: macroscopic

text: anatomy and

text: microscopic

text: anatomy.

text: Gross anatomy

text: is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes

text: superficial anatomy

text: or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features.

text: Microscopic anatomy

text: is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including

text: histology

text: (the study of tissues), and

text: embryology

text: (the study of an organism in its immature condition).

text: Digital microscopes are commonly low priced commercial microscopes designed for use with a computer, although advanced systems that do not require a separate computer can cost tens of thousands of dollars.  The low price commercial microscopes normally omit the optics for illumination (for example Köhler illumination and phase contrast illumination) and are more akin to webcams with a macro lens. For information about stereo microscopes with a digital camera in research and development, see optical microscope.

text: Digital microscopes are commonly low priced commercial microscopes designed for use with a computer, although advanced systems that do not require a separate computer can cost tens of thousands of dollars.  The low price commercial microscopes normally omit the optics for illumination (for example

text: Köhler illumination

text: and

text: phase contrast

text: illumination) and are more akin to

text: webcam

text: s with a

text: macro lens

text: . For information about stereo microscopes with a digital camera in research and development, see

text: optical microscope

text: While running his draper's shop, Van Leeuwenhoek wanted to see the quality of the thread better than the then-current magnifying lenses available allowed. He began to develop an interest in lensmaking, although few records exist of his early activity. Van Leeuwenhoek's interest in microscopes and a familiarity with glass processing led to one of the most significant, and simultaneously well-hidden, technical insights in the history of science.

text: The Piute Ponds have been studied extensively by ornithologists such as Kimball Garrett who collected data here over many years. Studies conducted in the late 1990s estimated that the marshes of Piute were home to over 150,000 frogs. In 1990, vertebrate fossils were unearthed from lacustrine silts and sands at the site. The Mojave Environmental Education Consortium (MEEC) provides education kits for children for field studies in the ponds, with a night sounds CD, casting kits, owl pellet kits, a field press and dryers, magnifying glasses, vials, and microscopes and other equipment.

text: The Piute Ponds have been studied extensively by ornithologists such as

text: Kimball Garrett

text: who collected data here over many years. Studies conducted in the late 1990s estimated that the marshes of Piute were home to over 150,000 frogs. In 1990, vertebrate fossils were unearthed from

text: lacustrine

text: silts and sands at the site. The Mojave Environmental Education Consortium (MEEC) provides education kits for children for field studies in the ponds, with a night sounds CD, casting kits, owl pellet kits, a field press and dryers, magnifying glasses, vials, and microscopes and other equipment.

text: The objective lens of a microscope is the one at the bottom near the sample. At its simplest, it is a very high-powered magnifying glass, with very short focal length. This is brought very close to the specimen being examined so that the light from the specimen comes to a focus inside the microscope tube. The objective itself is usually a cylinder containing one or more lenses that are typically made of glass; its function is to collect light from the sample.

text: The objective lens of a microscope is the one at the bottom near the sample. At its simplest, it is a very high-powered

text: magnifying glass

text: , with very short

text: focal length

text: . This is brought very close to the specimen being examined so that the light from the specimen comes to a focus inside the microscope tube. The objective itself is usually a cylinder containing one or more lenses that are typically made of glass; its function is to collect light from the sample.

text: Founders of microscopy, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke, used the newly invented microscope to observe for the first time small material particles that were suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens and waterborne diseases.

text: Founders of

text: microscopy

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: and

text: Robert Hooke

text: , used the newly invented

text: microscope

text: to observe for the first time small material particles that were suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens and

text: waterborne diseases

text: The invention of the microscope in the 1590s by Zacharias Janssen assisted in stimulating the study of cells. Cells that were once invisible to the naked eye became visible. Robert Hooke was the first person to term the building block of all living organisms as "cells" after looking at cork. The cell theory states that all living things are made up cells. The theory also states that both plants and animals are composed of cells which was confirmed by plant scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist, Theodor Schwann in 1839. 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow contributed to the cell theory, arguing that all cells come from the division of preexisting cells. In recent years, there have been many studies which question the cell theory. Scientists have struggled to decide whether viruses are alive or not. Viruses lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell organelles, and the ability to reproduce by themselves. Viruses range from 0.005 to .03 microns in size whereas Bacteria range from 1-5 microns. The late 19th century indicates the birth of cytology. Modern day cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, to derive treatments and other medications, etc. The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Advancement in microscopic techniques and technology such as fluorescence microscopy, phase-contrast microscopy, dark field microscopy, confocal microscopy, cytometry, transmission electron microscopy, etc. have allowed scientists to get a better idea of the structure of cells.

text: The invention of the microscope in the 1590s by

text: Zacharias Janssen

text: assisted in stimulating the study of cells. Cells that were once invisible to the naked eye became visible.

text: Robert Hooke

text: was the first person to term the building block of all living organisms as "cells" after looking at

text: cork

text: . The cell theory states that all living things are made up cells. The theory also states that both plants and animals are composed of cells which was confirmed by plant scientist,

text: Matthias Schleiden

text: and animal scientist,

text: Theodor Schwann

text: in 1839. 19 years later,

text: Rudolf Virchow

text: contributed to the cell theory, arguing that all cells come from the division of preexisting cells. In recent years, there have been many studies which question the cell theory. Scientists have struggled to decide whether

text: virus

text: es are alive or not. Viruses lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell

text: organelle

text: s, and the ability to reproduce by themselves. Viruses range from 0.005 to .03 microns in size whereas

text: Bacteria

text: range from 1-5 microns. The late 19th century indicates the birth of cytology. Modern day cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, to derive treatments and other medications, etc. The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Advancement in microscopic techniques and technology such as

text: fluorescence microscopy

text: phase-contrast microscopy

text: dark field microscopy

text: confocal microscopy

text: cytometry

text: transmission electron microscopy

text: , etc. have allowed scientists to get a better idea of the structure of cells.

text: AFM has several advantages over the scanning electron microscope (SEM).  Unlike the electron microscope, which provides a two-dimensional projection or a two-dimensional image of a sample, the AFM provides a three-dimensional surface profile.  In addition, samples viewed by AFM do not require any special treatments (such as metal/carbon coatings) that would irreversibly change or damage the sample, and does not typically suffer from charging artifacts in the final image.  While an electron microscope needs an expensive vacuum environment for proper operation, most AFM modes can work perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment.  This makes it possible to study biological macromolecules and even living organisms.  In principle, AFM can provide higher resolution than SEM.  It has been shown to give true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) and, more recently, in liquid environments.  High resolution AFM is comparable in resolution to scanning tunneling microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. AFM can also be combined with a variety of optical microscopy techniques such as fluorescent microscopy, further expanding its applicability. Combined AFM-optical instruments have been applied primarily in the biological sciences but have also found a niche in some materials applications, especially those involving photovoltaics research.

text: AFM has several advantages over the

text: scanning electron microscope

text: (SEM).  Unlike the electron microscope, which provides a two-dimensional projection or a two-dimensional image of a sample, the AFM provides a three-dimensional surface profile.  In addition, samples viewed by AFM do not require any special treatments (such as metal/carbon coatings) that would irreversibly change or damage the sample, and does not typically suffer from charging artifacts in the final image.  While an electron microscope needs an expensive

text: vacuum

text: environment for proper operation, most AFM modes can work perfectly well in ambient air or even a liquid environment.  This makes it possible to study biological macromolecules and even living organisms.  In principle, AFM can provide higher resolution than SEM.  It has been shown to give true atomic resolution in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) and, more recently, in liquid environments.  High resolution AFM is comparable in resolution to

text: scanning tunneling microscopy

text: and

text: transmission electron microscopy

text: . AFM can also be combined with a variety of optical microscopy techniques such as fluorescent microscopy, further expanding its applicability. Combined AFM-optical instruments have been applied primarily in the biological sciences but have also found a niche in some materials applications, especially those involving photovoltaics research.

text: A vaginal yeast infection results from overgrowth of candida albicans, or yeast, in the vagina. This is a relatively common infection, with over 75% of women having experienced at least one yeast infection at some point in their life. Risk factors for yeast infections include recent antibiotic use, diabetes, immunosuppression, increased estrogen levels, and use of certain contraceptive devices including intrauterine devices, diaphragms, or sponges. It is not a sexually transmitted infection. Candida vaginal infections are common; an estimated 75% of women will have at least one yeast infection in their lifetime. Vaginal discharge is not always present in yeast infections, but when occurring it is typically odorless, thick, white, and clumpy. Vaginal itching is the most common symptom of candida vulvovaginitis. Women may also experience burning, soreness, irritation, pain during urination, or pain during sex. The diagnosis of Candida vulvovaginitis is made by looking at a sample taken from the vagina under the microscope that shows hyphae (yeast), or from a culture. It is important to note that the symptoms described above may be present in other vaginal infections, so microscopic diagnosis or culture is needed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment is with intra-vaginal or oral anti-fungal medications.

text: A

text: vaginal yeast infection

text: Modern approaches to trace a neuron started when digitized pictures of neurons were acquired using microscopes. Initially this was done in 2D. Quickly after the advanced 3D imaging, especially the fluorescence imaging and electron microscopic imaging, there were a huge demand of tracing neuron morphology from these imaging data.

text: Modern approaches to trace a neuron started when digitized pictures of neurons were acquired using microscopes. Initially this was done in 2D. Quickly after the advanced 3D imaging, especially the

text: fluorescence imaging

text: and

text: electron microscopic imaging

text: , there were a huge demand of tracing neuron morphology from these imaging data.

text: The MicroScope Awards for Channel Excellence (MicroScope ACEs) begun in 2007 with the aim of rewarding the achievements of resellers and distributors across the channel.

text: One of the most important English makers of scientific instruments (particularly optical instruments) of the 18th century. Perfected the compound microscope with side-pillar, producing an instrument that later bore his name and marked a decisive stage in the history of the microscope.

text: One of the most important English makers of scientific instruments (particularly optical instruments) of the 18th century. Perfected the compound

text: microscope

text: with side-pillar, producing an instrument that later bore his name and marked a decisive stage in the history of the microscope.

text: Montmorillonite is a very soft phyllosilicate group of minerals that form when they precipitate from water solution as microscopic crystals, known as clay. It is named after Montmorillon in France. Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite group, is a 2:1 clay, meaning that it has two tetrahedral sheets of silica sandwiching a central octahedral sheet of alumina. The particles are plate-shaped with an average diameter around 1 μm and a thickness of 9.6 nm; magnification of about 25,000 times, using an electron microscope, is required to "see" individual clay particles. Members of this group include saponite.

text: Montmorillonite is a very soft

text: phyllosilicate

text: group of minerals that form when they precipitate from water solution as microscopic

text: crystal

text: s, known as

text: clay

text: . It is named after

text: Montmorillon

text: in

text: France

text: . Montmorillonite, a member of the

text: smectite

text: group, is a 2:1 clay, meaning that it has two

text: tetrahedral

text: sheets of

text: silica

text: sandwiching a central

text: octahedral

text: sheet of

text: alumina

text: . The particles are plate-shaped with an average diameter around 1

text: μm

text: and a thickness of 9.6

text: nm

text: ; magnification of about 25,000 times, using an electron microscope, is required to "see" individual clay particles. Members of this group include

text: saponite

text: Cross-cutting relationships may be seen cartographically, megascopically, and microscopically. In other words, these relationships have various scales. A cartographic crosscutting relationship might look like, for example, a large fault dissecting the landscape on a large map. Megascopic cross-cutting relationships are features like igneous dikes, as mentioned above, which would be seen on an outcrop or in a limited geographic area. Microscopic cross-cutting relationships are those that require study by magnification or other close scrutiny. For example, penetration of a fossil shell by the drilling action of a boring organism is an example of such a relationship.

text: Cross-cutting relationships may be seen

text: cartographically

text: megascopically

text: , and

text: microscopically

text: . In other words, these relationships have various scales. A cartographic crosscutting relationship might look like, for example, a large fault dissecting the landscape on a large map. Megascopic cross-cutting relationships are features like igneous dikes, as mentioned above, which would be seen on an outcrop or in a limited geographic area. Microscopic cross-cutting relationships are those that require study by magnification or other close scrutiny. For example, penetration of a fossil shell by the drilling action of a boring organism is an example of such a relationship.

text: In the late 1800s, amateur microscopy became a popular hobby in the United States and Europe. Several 'professional amateurs' were being paid for their sampling trips and microscopic explorations by philanthropists, to keep them amused on the Sunday afternoon (e.g., the diatom specialist A. Grunow, being paid by (among others) a Belgian industrialist). Professor John Phin published "Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Microscope (Second Edition, 1878)," and was also the editor of the "American Journal of Microscopy."

text: In the late 1800s, amateur microscopy became a popular hobby in the United States and Europe. Several 'professional amateurs' were being paid for their sampling trips and microscopic explorations by philanthropists, to keep them amused on the Sunday afternoon (e.g., the diatom specialist A. Grunow, being paid by (among others) a Belgian industrialist). Professor

text: John Phin

text: published "Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Microscope (Second Edition, 1878)," and was also the editor of the "American Journal of Microscopy."

text: Local oxidation experiments can be performed with almost any kind of atomic force microscope. The key requirement is the possibility to apply voltage pulses between the tip and the sample. It is recommendable to enclose the microscope in a chamber where the atmosphere is controlled. In the simplest case, the oxidant is water vapor, which is naturally present in the air. Controlling the relative humidity generally helps to obtain more reproducible results. The size of the fabricated features depends on a number of parameters, such as the distance between the sample and the tip, the amplitude and the duration of the voltage pulse, and the relative humidity of the atmosphere.

text: Local oxidation experiments can be performed with almost any kind of

text: atomic force microscope

text: . The key requirement is the possibility to apply

text: voltage

text: pulses between the tip and the sample. It is recommendable to enclose the microscope in a chamber where the atmosphere is controlled. In the simplest case, the

text: oxidant

text: is

text: water vapor

text: , which is naturally present in the

text: air

text: . Controlling the

text: relative humidity

text: generally helps to obtain more reproducible results. The size of the fabricated features depends on a number of parameters, such as the distance between the sample and the tip, the amplitude and the duration of the voltage pulse, and the relative humidity of the atmosphere.

text: Currently only microscopically small objects could possibly appear transparent.

text: Hooke also required strategies for ensuring his readers knew these were images of the microscopic realm, an observation at least one observer failed to grasp from images Neri found in the newly discovered notebook. Hooke used both textual and visual reminders. For example: "all of Micrographia's observations contain a phrase such as 'being look'd upon with a Microscope ... by always italicizing the new word 'microscope,' Hooke emphasized the instrument's presence at the scene of disciplined seeing."  Additionally: "Hooke often enclosed the objects he presented within a round frame, thus offering viewers an evocation of the experience of looking through the lens of a microscope."

text: Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic properties using metallography, a technique invented by Henry Clifton Sorby. In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. The sample is then examined in an optical or electron microscope, and the image contrast provides details on the composition, mechanical properties, and processing history.

text: Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic properties using

text: metallography

text: , a technique invented by

text: Henry Clifton Sorby

text: . In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. The sample is then examined in an optical or

text: electron microscope

text: , and the image contrast provides details on the composition, mechanical properties, and processing history.

text: He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1981 and delivered their Leeuwenhoek Lecture in 1993. He was awarded an OBE in 1999.

text: He was elected a

text: Fellow of the Royal Society

text: in 1981 and delivered their

text: Leeuwenhoek Lecture

text: in 1993. He was awarded an

text: OBE

text: in 1999.

text: Van Leeuwenhoek's single-lens microscopes were relatively small devices, the biggest being about 5 cm long. They are used by placing the lens very close in front of the eye, while looking in the direction of the sun. The other side of the microscope had a pin, where the sample was attached in order to stay close to the lens. There were also three screws to move the pin and the sample, along three axes: one axis to change the focus, and the two other axes to navigate through the sample.

text: The name of the tumour comes from the similarity (under the microscope) between the small cells of the tumour and secondary spermatocytes.

text: The name of the tumour comes from the similarity (under the

text: microscope

text: ) between the small cells of the tumour and

text: secondary spermatocyte

text: s.

text: Bacterial spores are extremely resistant. Spores of tetanus and anthrax, for example, can survive in the soil for many years. The origin of these spores was discovered in the 19th century, when a biologist noticed, under the microscope, a small, round, bright body inside bacterial cells. This survived even when the bacteria were boiled for five minutes. This killed the bacteria, but not the spores. They germinated when conditions were right. Because spores are so resistant, they are highly transmissible. This makes them a very problematic aspect of spore-forming pathogens such as Clostridium difficile.

text: Bacterial spores are extremely resistant. Spores of

text: tetanus

text: and

text: anthrax

text: , for example, can survive in the soil for many years. The origin of these spores was discovered in the 19th century, when a biologist noticed, under the microscope, a small, round, bright body inside bacterial cells. This survived even when the bacteria were boiled for five minutes. This killed the bacteria, but not the spores. They

text: germinated

text: when conditions were right. Because spores are so resistant, they are highly transmissible. This makes them a very problematic aspect of spore-forming pathogens such as

text: Clostridium difficile

text: The anatomy of arteries can be separated into gross anatomy, at the macroscopic level, and microscopic anatomy, which must be studied with the aid of a microscope. The arterial system of the human body is divided into systemic arteries, carrying blood from the heart to the whole body, and pulmonary arteries, carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

text: The anatomy of arteries can be separated into

text: gross anatomy

text: , at the macroscopic level, and

text: microscopic anatomy

text: , which must be studied with the aid of a

text: microscope

text: . The arterial system of the

text: human body

text: is divided into

text: systemic arteries

text: , carrying blood from the heart to the whole body, and

text: pulmonary arteries

text: , carrying deoxygenated blood from the

text: heart

text: to the

text: lung

text: s.

text: By injecting fibers that were identified to be sensitive to infrasound with HRP (Horseradish Peroxidase), the location and morphology of the stained fibers can be observed in sections under a microscope. Infrasound sensitive fibers are found to be simple bipolar cells in the auditory ganglion with a diameter of 1.6-2.2 µm at the axon and 0.9-1.2 µm at the dendrites. They originate in the apical end of the cochlea and they are located near fibers that transmit low frequency sounds in the acoustic range. Unlike the ordinary acoustic fibers which terminate on the neural limbus, the infrasonic ones terminate on cells on the free basilar membrane. Furthermore, infrasonic fibers terminate on 2-9 hair cells while normal acoustic fibers connect to only one. Such characteristics would make these fibers analogous to fibers connecting to the outer hair cells in mammals, except that mammalian outer hair cells are known to have efferent fibers only and no afferents. These observations suggest that the infrasound sensitive fibers are in a class separate from ordinary acoustic fibers.

text: By injecting fibers that were identified to be sensitive to infrasound with HRP (Horseradish Peroxidase), the location and morphology of the stained fibers can be observed in sections under a microscope. Infrasound sensitive fibers are found to be simple bipolar cells in the

text: auditory ganglion

text: with a diameter of 1.6-2.2 µm at the axon and 0.9-1.2 µm at the dendrites. They originate in the apical end of the cochlea and they are located near fibers that transmit low frequency sounds in the acoustic range. Unlike the ordinary acoustic fibers which terminate on the neural limbus, the infrasonic ones terminate on cells on the free basilar membrane. Furthermore, infrasonic fibers terminate on 2-9 hair cells while normal acoustic fibers connect to only one. Such characteristics would make these fibers analogous to fibers connecting to the outer hair cells in mammals, except that mammalian outer hair cells are known to have efferent fibers only and no afferents. These observations suggest that the infrasound sensitive fibers are in a class separate from ordinary acoustic fibers.

text: In 1885 he received the Leeuwenhoek Medal.

text: In 1885 he received the

text: Leeuwenhoek Medal

text: Virions consist of a capsid. Virus capsid is not enveloped. Capsid/nucleocapsid is elongated with helical symmetry. The capsid is filamentous, flexuous with a clear modal length with a length of 740 nm and a width of 13 nm. Axial canal is indistinct. Basic helix is obscure. Electron microscopic preparation and references: Virus preparation contains few virions. Reference for electron microscopic methods: Fujisawa et al. (1983, Howell and Mink (1985).

text: Ultraviolet microscopes have two main purposes. The first is to utilize the shorter wavelength of ultraviolet electromagnetic energy to improve the image resolution beyond that of the diffraction limit of standard optical microscopes. This technique is used for non-destructive inspection of devices with very small features such as those found in modern semiconductors. The second application for UV microscopes is contrast enhancement where the response of individual samples is enhanced, relative to their surrounding, due to the interaction of light with the molecules within the sample itself. One example is in the growth of protein crystals. Protein crystals are formed in salt solutions. As salt and protein crystals are both formed in the growth process, and both are commonly transparent to the human eye, they cannot be differentiated with a standard optical microscope. As the tryptophan of protein absorbs light at 280 nm, imaging with a UV microscope with 280 nm bandpass filters makes it simple to differentiate between the two types of crystals. The protein crystals appear dark while the salt crystals are transparent.

text: Ultraviolet microscopes have two main purposes. The first is to utilize the shorter wavelength of ultraviolet electromagnetic energy to improve the image resolution beyond that of the diffraction limit of standard optical microscopes. This technique is used for non-destructive inspection of devices with very small features such as those found in modern semiconductors. The second application for UV microscopes is contrast enhancement where the response of individual samples is enhanced, relative to their surrounding, due to the interaction of light with the molecules within the sample itself. One example is in the growth of

text: protein crystals

text: . Protein crystals are formed in salt solutions. As salt and protein crystals are both formed in the growth process, and both are commonly transparent to the human eye, they cannot be differentiated with a standard optical microscope. As the

text: tryptophan

text: of

text: protein

text: absorbs light at 280 nm, imaging with a UV microscope with 280 nm bandpass filters makes it simple to differentiate between the two types of crystals. The protein crystals appear dark while the salt crystals are transparent.

text: An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons, electron microscopes have a higher resolving power than light microscopes and can reveal the structure of smaller objects. A transmission electron microscope can achieve better than 50 pm resolution and magnifications of up to about 10,000,000x whereas most light microscopes are limited by diffraction to about 200 nm resolution and useful magnifications below 2000x.

text: An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated

text: electron

text: s as a source of illumination. As the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light

text: photon

text: s, electron microscopes have a higher

text: resolving power

text: than

text: light microscope

text: s and can reveal the structure of smaller objects. A transmission electron microscope can achieve better than 50

text: pm

text: resolution and

text: magnification

text: s of up to about 10,000,000x whereas most

text: light microscope

text: s are limited by

text: diffraction

text: to about 200

text: nm

text: resolution and useful magnifications below 2000x.

text: The labels [usually seven or eight are linked together in a chain, with the last one attached back to the parabola, but here we see just one] are shaped like suitcase labels, and represent the static world of words, e.g., "apple", giving imperfect accounts of dynamic reality. An object called an "apple" left in a jar for months becomes a putrid liquid (because of its underlying, dynamic, sub-microscopic structure), but the label "apple" does not change. The word "steak", at a lower verbal order,  may imply "something to eat" at a higher verbal order, but in the sub-microscopic domain, a particular steak may be contaminated with poisons created by harmful bacteria that we could see only on microscopic levels. Thus the differential sets up a hierarchy of order, with the submicroscopic domain of dynamic change coming first, the relatively stable universe conveyed non-verbally by our senses coming next, and then the verbal levels. A label is what we attach to a non-verbal experience in order to identify this experience in verbal terms; when we identify an "apple", we attribute to this identification various non-verbal experiences.

text: Generally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics, prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, nurses, and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope.

text: Generally, students of certain

text: biological sciences

text: paramedic

text: s, prosthetists and orthotists,

text: physiotherapists

text: occupational therapists

text: nurses

text: , and

text: medical students

text: learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of

text: dissection

text: and inspection of

text: cadaver

text: s. The study of microscopic anatomy (or

text: histology

text: ) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a

text: microscope

text: In 1986, the super-resolution optical microscope based on stimulated emission was patented by Okhonin.

text: In recent years, microscopic and other diagnostic techniques have improved dramatically. For this reason, it is now possible to determine the primary site in about four out of five cases initially diagnosed as CUP.  In some cases, the part of the body where cancer cells are first discovered helps the doctor decide which diagnostic tests will be most helpful.  Additional clues which may be helpful in determining the primary site include the pattern of spread, and the cell type, which is based on its appearance under a microscope (histology).

text: In recent years, microscopic and other diagnostic techniques have improved dramatically. For this reason, it is now possible to determine the primary site in about four out of five cases initially diagnosed as CUP.  In some cases, the part of the body where cancer cells are first discovered helps the doctor decide which diagnostic tests will be most helpful.  Additional clues which may be helpful in determining the primary site include the pattern of spread, and the cell type, which is based on its appearance under a microscope (

text: histology

text: A digital microscope is a variation of a traditional optical microscope that uses optics and a digital camera to output an image to a monitor, sometimes by means of software running on a computer. A digital microscope often has its own in-built LED light source, and differs from an optical microscope in that there is no provision to observe the sample directly through an eyepiece. Since the image is focussed on the digital circuit the entire system is designed for the monitor image. The optics for the human eye are omitted.

text: A digital microscope is a variation of a traditional optical microscope that uses

text: optics

text: and a digital camera to output an image to a

text: monitor

text: , sometimes by means of software running on a

text: computer

text: . A digital microscope often has its own in-built

text: LED

text: light source, and differs from an optical microscope in that there is no provision to observe the sample directly through an eyepiece. Since the image is focussed on the digital circuit the entire system is designed for the monitor image. The optics for the human eye are omitted.

text: Eventually, in the face of Van Leeuwenhoek's insistence, the Royal Society arranged for Alexander Petrie, minister to the English Reformed Church in Delft; Benedict Haan, at that time Lutheran minister at Delft; and Henrik Cordes, then Lutheran minister at the Hague, accompanied by Sir Robert Gordon and four others, to determine whether it was in fact Van Leeuwenhoek's ability to observe and reason clearly, or perhaps the Royal Society's theories of life itself that might require reform. Finally in 1677, Van Leeuwenhoek's observations were fully vindicated by the Royal Society.

text: Eventually, in the face of Van Leeuwenhoek's insistence, the Royal Society arranged for Alexander Petrie, minister to the English Reformed Church in Delft; Benedict Haan, at that time Lutheran minister at Delft; and Henrik Cordes, then Lutheran minister at the Hague, accompanied by

text: Sir Robert Gordon

text: and four others, to determine whether it was in fact Van Leeuwenhoek's ability to observe and reason clearly, or perhaps the Royal Society's theories of life itself that might require reform. Finally in 1677, Van Leeuwenhoek's observations were fully vindicated by the Royal Society.

text: The FluidFM technology is typically used on top of an inverted microscope. In addition to standard AFM experiments, FluidFM provides the possibility to perform countless other applications, such as single cell injection and adhesion as well as nanolithography and spotting.

text: The FluidFM technology is typically used on top of an inverted microscope. In addition to standard

text: AFM experiments

text: , FluidFM provides the possibility to perform countless other applications, such as single cell injection and adhesion as well as nanolithography and spotting.

text: The anemia is moderate to severe and dimorphic. Microscopic viewing of the red blood cells will reveal marked unequal cell size and abnormal cell shape. Basophilic stippling is marked and target cells are common. Pappenheimer bodies are present in the red blood cells. The mean cell volume is commonly decreased (i.e., a microcytic anemia), but MCV may also be normal or even high. The RDW is increased with the red blood cell histogram shifted to the left. Leukocytes and platelets are normal. Bone marrow shows erythroid hyperplasia with a maturation arrest.

text: The anemia is moderate to severe and dimorphic. Microscopic viewing of the red blood cells will reveal marked

text: unequal cell size

text: and

text: abnormal cell shape

text: Basophilic stippling

text: is marked and

text: target cells

text: are common.

text: Pappenheimer bodies

text: are present in the red blood cells. The

text: mean cell volume

text: is commonly decreased (i.e., a

text: microcytic anemia

text: ), but MCV may also be normal or even high. The

text: RDW

text: is increased with the

text: red blood cell

text: histogram shifted to the left.

text: Leukocyte

text: s and

text: platelet

text: s are normal. Bone marrow shows erythroid hyperplasia with a maturation arrest.

text: The first microscope to be developed was the optical microscope, although the original inventor is not easy to identify. Evidence points to the first compound microscope appearing in the Netherlands by the 1620s, with a likely inventor being Cornelis Drebbel. Counter claims include it being invented by Hans Lippershey (who obtained the first telescope patent) and what may be a dubious claim by Zacharias Janssen's son that his father invented the microscope and telescope. Giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for Galileo Galilei's compound microscope in 1625  (Galileo had called it the "occhiolino" or "little eye").

text: The first microscope to be developed was the optical microscope, although the original inventor is not easy to identify. Evidence points to the first compound microscope appearing in the

text: Netherlands

text: by the 1620s, with a likely inventor being

text: Cornelis Drebbel

text: . Counter claims include it being invented by

text: Hans Lippershey

text: (who obtained the first

text: telescope

text: patent) and what may be a dubious claim by

text: Zacharias Janssen

text: 's son that his father invented the microscope and telescope.

text: Giovanni Faber

text: coined the name microscope for

text: Galileo Galilei

text: 's compound microscope in 1625  (Galileo had called it the "occhiolino" or "little eye").

text: Microscopic characteristics of rhabdoid cells include:

text: Giovanni Gasbarrini contribution to the scientific literature is outstanding. He published more than 1000 peer-reviewed articles in international journals, which were cited over 36800 times, and he has h-index 96 at December 2015, which is very high considering that a significant part of his scientific articles were published before the internet era. He is in the list of the top Italian scientists of the VIA academy. He has been a member of many editorial boards and has served as editor of several gastroenterological journals. Among his scientific contributions are: the first electron microscopic studies of intestinal mucosa in coeliac disease  and other malabsorption syndromes; studies of the role of Helicobacter pylori in autoimmune thrombocytopenia; research on the pathogenesis of biliary tract stones; studies of drug-induced and viral hepatitis and studies on small intestinal bacterial overgrowth.

text: This is a sub-diffraction technique. Examples of scanning probe microscopes are the atomic force microscope (AFM), the Scanning tunneling microscope, the photonic force microscope and the recurrence tracking microscope. All such methods use the physical contact of a solid probe tip to scan the surface of an object, which is supposed to be almost flat.

text: This is a sub-diffraction technique. Examples of scanning probe microscopes are the

text: atomic force microscope

text: (AFM), the

text: Scanning tunneling microscope

text: , the

text: photonic force microscope

text: and the

text: recurrence tracking microscope

text: . All such methods use the physical contact of a solid probe tip to scan the surface of an object, which is supposed to be almost flat.

text: There are two basic configurations of the conventional optical microscope: the simple microscope and the compound microscope. The vast majority of modern research microscopes are compound microscopes while some cheaper commercial digital microscopes are simple single lens microscopes. A magnifying glass is, in essence, a single lens simple microscope. In general, microscope optics are static; to focus at different focal depths the lens to sample distance is adjusted, and to get a wider or narrower field of view a different magnification objective lens must be used. Most modern research microscopes also have a separate set of optics for illuminating the sample.

text: There are two basic configurations of the conventional optical microscope: the simple microscope and the compound microscope. The vast majority of modern

text: research

text: microscopes are compound microscopes while some cheaper commercial

text: digital microscope

text: s are simple single lens microscopes. A

text: magnifying glass

text: is, in essence, a single lens simple microscope. In general, microscope optics are static; to focus at different focal depths the lens to sample distance is adjusted, and to get a wider or narrower field of view a different magnification objective lens must be used. Most modern research microscopes also have a separate set of optics for illuminating the sample.

text: In 1847 Carl Zeiss started making microscopes full-time. His first innovation was simpler single-lens microscopes intended for dissecting work. He sold 23 of them during the first year of production. Zeiss decided he needed a new challenge, so he began making compound microscopes. He created the Stand I which went to market in 1857.

text: In 1847 Carl Zeiss started making microscopes full-time. His first

text: innovation

text: was simpler single-lens microscopes intended for

text: dissecting

text: work. He sold 23 of them during the first year of production. Zeiss decided he needed a new challenge, so he began making compound microscopes. He created the

text: Stand I

text: which went to market in 1857.

text: The journal was established in 1853 as the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (Q. J. Microsc. Sci., ). The founding editors were Edwin Lankester and George Busk. The publisher of the early issues was Samuel Highley of Fleet Street, London, with John Churchill and Sons (later J. & A. Churchill) taking over from 1856. The journal's original aims, as described in a preface to the first issue, were not limited to biology, but encompassed all branches of science related to the microscope:

text: The journal was established in 1853 as the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (Q. J. Microsc. Sci., ). The founding

text: editors

text: were

text: Edwin Lankester

text: and

text: George Busk

text: . The publisher of the early issues was Samuel Highley of

text: Fleet Street

text: London

text: , with

text: John Churchill and Sons

text: (later J. & A. Churchill) taking over from 1856. The journal's original aims, as described in a preface to the first issue, were not limited to biology, but encompassed all branches of science related to the

text: microscope

text: A resident of Delft, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, used a high-power single-lens simple microscope to discover the world of micro-organisms. His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-ground lenses were capable of magnification up to 275 times. Using these he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which now referred to as micro-organisms or microbes.

text: A resident of Delft,

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: , used a high-power single-lens simple microscope to discover the world of

text: micro-organisms

text: . His simple microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-ground lenses were capable of magnification up to 275 times. Using these he was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules, and which now referred to as

text: micro-organisms

text: or

text: microbe

text: s.

text: Fathers of microscopy, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Robert Hooke, used the newly invented microscope to observe for the first time small material particles that lay suspended in the water, laying the groundwork for the future understanding of waterborne pathogens.

text: Fathers of

text: microscopy

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: and

text: Robert Hooke

text: , used the newly invented

text: microscope

text: Prominent Matsudaira in the present day include Ryūmon Matsudaira (actor), Sadatomo Matsudaira (anchor for NHK), and Professor Paul Matsudaira, head of the Life Sciences department at the National University of Singapore (also owner of a $6 million electron microscope), among others.

text: Prominent Matsudaira in the present day include

text: Ryūmon Matsudaira

text: (actor),

text: Sadatomo Matsudaira

text: (anchor for

text: NHK

text: ), and Professor

text: Paul Matsudaira

text: , head of the Life Sciences department at the National University of Singapore (also owner of a $6 million electron microscope), among others.

text: In microscopy, the development and refinement of the confocal microscope, the fluorescence microscope, and the total internal reflection fluorescence microscope all belong to the field of biophotonics.

text: In

text: microscopy

text: , the development and refinement of the

text: confocal microscope

text: , the

text: fluorescence microscope

text: , and the

text: all belong to the field of biophotonics.

text: After developing his method for creating powerful lenses and applying them to the study of the microscopic world, Van Leeuwenhoek introduced his work to his friend, the prominent Dutch physician Reinier de Graaf. When the Royal Society in London published the groundbreaking work of an Italian lensmaker in their journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, De Graaf wrote to the journal's editor Henry Oldenburg with a ringing endorsement of Van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes which, he claimed, "far surpass those which we have hitherto seen". In response the Society published in 1673 a letter from Van Leeuwenhoek, which included his microscopic observations on mold, bees, and lice.

text: After developing his method for creating powerful lenses and applying them to the study of the microscopic world, Van Leeuwenhoek introduced his work to his friend, the prominent Dutch physician

text: Reinier de Graaf

text: . When the

text: Royal Society

text: in London published the groundbreaking work of an Italian lensmaker in their journal

text: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society

text: , De Graaf wrote to the journal's editor

text: Henry Oldenburg

text: with a ringing endorsement of Van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes which, he claimed, "far surpass those which we have hitherto seen". In response the Society published in 1673 a letter from Van Leeuwenhoek, which included his microscopic observations on mold, bees, and lice.

text: The implementation in a microscope is very similar to stimulated emission depletion microscopy, however it can operate with only one wavelength for excitation and depletion. Using an appropriate ring-like focal spot for the light that switches the molecules into the dark state, the fluorescence can be quenched at the outer part of the focal spot. Therefore, fluorescence only still takes place at the center of the microscope's focal spot and the spatial resolution is increased.

text: The implementation in a microscope is very similar to

text: stimulated emission depletion microscopy

text: , however it can operate with only one wavelength for excitation and depletion. Using an appropriate ring-like focal spot for the light that switches the molecules into the dark state, the fluorescence can be quenched at the outer part of the focal spot. Therefore, fluorescence only still takes place at the center of the microscope's focal spot and the spatial resolution is increased.

text: Cellular interactions occur at a microscopic level and cannot be easily observed even with the advanced microscopes available today. Due to difficulties observing reactions at the molecular level, indirect methods are used which greatly limits the scope of the understanding that can be gained by studying these processes essential to life.  Advances in the material industry has evolved a new field known as nanobiotechnology, that uses nanoparticles to study interactions at the biomolecular level.

text: Since nanorobots would be microscopic in size, it would probably be necessary for very large numbers of them to work together to perform microscopic and macroscopic tasks. These nanorobot swarms, both those unable to replicate (as in utility fog) and those able to replicate unconstrainedly in the natural environment (as in grey goo and its less common variants, such as synthetic biology or utility fog), are found in many science fiction stories, such as the Borg nanoprobes in Star Trek and The Outer Limits episode The New Breed.

text: Since nanorobots would be microscopic in size, it would probably be necessary for very large numbers of them to work together to perform microscopic and macroscopic tasks. These nanorobot swarms, both those unable to

text: replicate

text: (as in

text: utility fog

text: ) and those able to replicate unconstrainedly in the natural environment (as in

text: grey goo

text: and its less common variants, such as

text: synthetic biology

text: or

text: utility fog

text: ), are found in many science fiction stories, such as the

text: Borg

text: nanoprobes

text: in

text: Star Trek

text: and

text: The Outer Limits

text: episode

text: The New Breed

text: In addition to the spore shape, the species is readily identified with the use of a microscope because of its setae. Setae are a kind of unusual cystidia unique to the family Hymenochaetaceae, and, in P. ellipsoideus, are found in the hymenium. In shape, the setae are ventricose, with distinctive hooks on their tips. In colour, they are yellow-brown, and they have thick cell walls. They measure 20 to 30 by 10 to 14 μm. Neither more standard cystidia nor cystidioles (underdeveloped cystidia) can be found in the species, but there are a number of rhomboid crystals throughout the hymenium and the flesh.

text: In addition to the spore shape, the species is readily identified with the use of a microscope because of its

text: setae

text: . Setae are a kind of unusual

text: cystidia

text: unique to the family Hymenochaetaceae, and, in P. ellipsoideus, are found in the hymenium. In shape, the setae are

text: ventricose

text: , with distinctive hooks on their tips. In colour, they are yellow-brown, and they have thick cell walls. They measure 20 to 30 by 10 to 14 μm. Neither more standard cystidia nor

text: cystidiole

text: s (underdeveloped cystidia) can be found in the species, but there are a number of

text: rhomboid

text: crystals throughout the hymenium and the flesh.

text: For a 200 kV microscope, with partly corrected spherical aberrations ("to the third order") and a C value of 1 µm, a theoretical cut-off value might be 1/q = 42 pm. The same microscope without a corrector would have C = 0.5 mm and thus a 200-pm cut-off. The spherical aberrations are suppressed to the third or fifth order in the "aberration-corrected" microscopes. Their resolution is however limited by electron source geometry and brightness and chromatic aberrations in the objective lens system.

text: For a 200 kV microscope, with partly corrected spherical aberrations ("to the third order") and a C value of 1 µm, a theoretical cut-off value might be 1/q = 42

text: pm

text: . The same microscope without a corrector would have C = 0.5 mm and thus a 200-pm cut-off. The spherical aberrations are suppressed to the third or fifth order in the "

entity_name: Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope

text: aberration-corrected

text: " microscopes. Their resolution is however limited by electron source geometry and brightness and chromatic aberrations in the objective lens system.

text: McLeod syndrome was discovered in 1961 and, as with the Kell antigen system, was named after the first patient in which it was found: Harvard dental student Hugh McLeod, whose red blood cells were observed to have weak expression of Kell system antigens during blood donation, and his red cells were found to be acanthocytic (spiky) under the microscope.

text: McLeod syndrome was discovered in 1961 and, as with the

text: Kell antigen system

text: , was named after the first patient in which it was found:

text: Harvard

text: dental student Hugh McLeod, whose

text: red blood cell

text: s were observed to have weak expression of Kell system antigens during

text: blood donation

text: , and his red cells were found to be

text: acanthocytic

text: (spiky) under the microscope.

text: Cable had recently built a small . home in Freehold.  Together with a college friend, he built two scanning tunneling microscopes for DuPont in his bedroom.  The first microscope sold for about $50,000, leaving $20,000 of profit after expenses.  Cable hoped to make a business out of it, entering the emerging market for the newly-invented microscope.  Cable's second microscope was less profitable. The business did not appear to be viable due to limited customers and limited working capital, so Cable abandoned the idea.  Instead, he took "a more traditional approach", buying a milling machine which he used to design and build optomechanical parts.  Selling the parts proved fruitful and also more enjoyable for Cable.  In November 1989, he left Bell Labs to pursue the business full time, naming it Thorlabs.  He returned to Sussex County, and has made an effort to keep the business headquartered there due to his love for the area.

text: Cable had recently built a small . home in Freehold.  Together with a college friend, he built two

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: s for

text: DuPont

text: in his bedroom.  The first microscope sold for about $50,000, leaving $20,000 of profit after expenses.  Cable hoped to make a business out of it, entering the emerging market for the newly-invented microscope.  Cable's second microscope was less profitable. The business did not appear to be viable due to limited customers and limited working capital, so Cable abandoned the idea.  Instead, he took "a more traditional approach", buying a

text: milling machine

text: which he used to design and build

text: optomechanical

text: parts.  Selling the parts proved fruitful and also more enjoyable for Cable.  In November 1989, he left Bell Labs to pursue the business full time, naming it

text: Thorlabs

text: .  He returned to Sussex County, and has made an effort to keep the business headquartered there due to his love for the area.

text: The term "microbiologist" comes from the Greek mīkros meaning "small" βίος, and bios, meaning "life" -λογία, combined with -logia meaning one who studies.  A microbiologist (from Greek μῑκρος) is a biological scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes or works in the field of microbiology. Microbiologists investigate the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors. They contribute much to the field by trying to understand and learn about the interaction between these microbes and the environment and also among themselves and other organisms. Most microbiologists are qualified to work in offices and/or research facilities, such as a laboratory as well as in the academia. There, they conduct experiments that help them analyze microbes and their importance. A microbiologist's work is often repeated or improved in order to establish accurate research. Most microbiologists specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, industrial or medical aspects of  microbiology including: virology (the study of viruses); immunology (the study of mechanisms that fight infections); bioinformatics (the methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data) and Bioremediation (using microbes as environmental mitigation strategies). Many microbiologists use biotechnology to advance the understanding of cell reproduction and human disease. Some microbiologists have contributed to knowledge of pathogens and disease-causing microbes.  While others, study their interaction with the environment and their use as potential environmental pollution cleaners.

text: The term "microbiologist" comes from the Greek mīkros meaning "small" βίος, and bios, meaning "

text: life

text: " -λογία, combined with

text: -logia

text: meaning one who studies.  A microbiologist (from

text: Greek

text: μῑκρος) is a biological

text: scientist

text: who studies

text: microscopic

text: life forms and processes or works in the field of

text: microbiology

text: . Microbiologists investigate the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as

text: bacteria

text: algae

text: fungi

text: , and some types of parasites and their vectors. They contribute much to the field by trying to understand and learn about the interaction between these microbes and the environment and also among themselves and other organisms. Most microbiologists are qualified to work in offices and/or research facilities, such as a laboratory as well as in the academia. There, they conduct experiments that help them analyze microbes and their importance. A microbiologist's work is often repeated or improved in order to establish accurate research. Most microbiologists specialize in environmental, food, agricultural, industrial or medical aspects of  microbiology including:

text: virology

text: (the study of viruses);

text: immunology

text: (the study of mechanisms that fight infections);

text: bioinformatics

text: (the methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data) and

text: Bioremediation

text: (using microbes as environmental mitigation strategies). Many microbiologists use

text: biotechnology

text: to advance the understanding of

text: cell reproduction

text: and human

text: disease

text: . Some

text: microbiologists

text: have contributed to knowledge of pathogens and disease-causing microbes.  While others, study their interaction with the environment and their use as potential environmental pollution cleaners.

text: The rise of fluorescence microscopy drove the development of a major modern microscope design, the confocal microscope. The principle was patented in 1957 by Marvin Minsky, although laser technology limited practical application of the technique. It was not until 1978 when Thomas and Christoph Cremer developed the first practical confocal laser scanning microscope and the technique rapidly gained popularity through the 1980s.

text: The rise of fluorescence microscopy drove the development of a major modern microscope design, the

text: confocal microscope

text: . The principle was patented in 1957 by

text: Marvin Minsky

text: , although

text: laser

text: technology limited practical application of the technique. It was not until 1978 when

text: Thomas

text: and

text: Christoph Cremer

text: developed the first practical

text: confocal laser scanning microscope

text: and the technique rapidly gained popularity through the 1980s.

text: Only a few years after James Watson and Francis Crick deduced the structure of DNA, and nearly two decades before Frederick Sanger published the first method for rapid DNA sequencing, Richard Feynman, an American physicist, envisioned the electron microscope as the tool that would one day allow biologists to “see the order of bases in the DNA chain”. Feynman believed that if the electron microscope could be made powerful enough, then it would become possible to visualize the atomic structure of any and all chemical compounds, including DNA.

text: Only a few years after

text: James Watson

text: and

text: Francis Crick

text: deduced the

entity_name: Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid

text: structure of DNA

text: , and nearly two decades before

text: Frederick Sanger

text: published the first method for rapid

text: DNA sequencing

text: Richard Feynman

text: , an American physicist, envisioned the

text: electron microscope

text: as the tool that would one day allow biologists to “see the order of

text: bases

text: in the

text: DNA

text: chain”. Feynman believed that if the electron microscope could be made powerful enough, then it would become possible to visualize the atomic structure of any and all chemical compounds, including DNA.

text: Raised in Delft, in the Netherlands, Van Leeuwenhoek worked as a draper in his youth, and founded his own shop in 1654. He made a name for himself in municipal politics, and eventually developed an interest in lensmaking. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe microorganisms, which he originally referred to as animalcules (from Latin animalculum = "tiny animal").

text: Raised in

text: Delft

text: , in the Netherlands, Van Leeuwenhoek worked as a

text: draper

text: in his youth, and founded his own shop in 1654. He made a name for himself in municipal politics, and eventually developed an interest in lensmaking. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe

text: microorganisms

text: , which he originally referred to as

text: animalcules

text: (from Latin animalculum = "tiny animal").

text: Several improvements in microscopy techniques have been invented in the 20th century and have resulted in increased resolution and contrast to some extent. However they did not overcome the diffraction limit. In 1978 first theoretical ideas have been developed to break this barrier by using a 4Pi microscope as a confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope where the light is focused ideally from all sides to a common focus which is used to scan the object by 'point-by-point' excitation combined with 'point-by-point' detection.However, the first experimental demonstration of the 4pi microscope took place in 1994. 4Pi microscopy maximizes the amount of available focusing directions by using two opposing objective lenses or Two-photon excitation microscopy using redshifted light and multi-photon excitation.

text: Several improvements in microscopy techniques have been invented in the 20th century and have resulted in increased resolution and contrast to some extent. However they did not overcome the diffraction limit. In 1978 first theoretical ideas have been developed to break this barrier by using a 4Pi microscope as a confocal laser scanning fluorescence microscope where the light is focused ideally from all sides to a common focus which is used to scan the object by 'point-by-point' excitation combined with 'point-by-point' detection.However, the first experimental demonstration of the 4pi microscope took place in 1994.

text: 4Pi microscopy

text: maximizes the amount of available focusing directions by using two opposing objective lenses or

text: Two-photon excitation microscopy

text: using redshifted light and multi-photon excitation.

text: Diagnosis is most commonly done with the identification of bacteria in the lesions by a microscope observation. Ticks, biting flies, and contact with other infected animals also causes the spread of rainscald. A scab will be taken from the affected animal and stained so that the bacteria are visible under a microscope inspection. A positive diagnosis of rainscald can be confirmed if filamentous bacteria are observed with as well as chains of small, spherical bacteria. If a diagnosis cannot be confirmed with a microscope, blood agar cultures can be grown to confirm the presence of D. congolensis. The resulting colonies have filaments and are yellow in colour.

text: Direct observation of friction and wear at the nanoscale started with the first Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM), which can obtain three-dimensional images of surfaces with atomic resolution; this instrument was developed by Gerd Binnig and Henrich Rohrer in 1981. STM can study only conductive materials, but in 1985 with the invention of the Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) by Binning and his colleagues, also non conductive surfaces can be observed. Afterwards, AFMs were modified to obtain data on normal and frictional forces: these modified microscopes are called Friction Force Microscopes (FFM) or Lateral Force Microscopes (LFM).

text: Direct observation of friction and wear at the nanoscale started with the first Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM), which can obtain three-dimensional images of surfaces with atomic resolution; this instrument was developed by

text: Gerd Binnig

text: and

text: Henrich Rohrer

text: in 1981. STM can study only

text: conductive

text: materials, but in 1985 with the invention of the Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) by Binning and his colleagues, also non conductive surfaces can be observed. Afterwards, AFMs were modified to obtain data on

text: normal

text: and frictional forces: these modified microscopes are called

text: Friction Force Microscopes

text: (FFM) or Lateral Force Microscopes (LFM).

text: In statistical mechanics, the correlation function is a measure of the order in a system, as characterized by a mathematical correlation function. Correlation functions describe how microscopic variables, such as spin and density, at different positions are related. More specifically, correlation functions quantify how microscopic variables co-vary with one another on average across space and time. A classic example of such spatial correlations is in ferro- and antiferromagnetic materials, where the spins prefer to align parallel and antiparallel with their nearest neighbors, respectively. The spatial correlation between spins in such materials is shown in the figure to the right.

text: In

text: statistical mechanics

text: , the correlation function is a measure of the order in a system, as characterized by a mathematical

text: correlation function

text: . Correlation functions describe how microscopic variables, such as spin and density, at different positions are related. More specifically, correlation functions quantify how microscopic variables co-vary with one another on average across space and time. A classic example of such spatial correlations is in ferro- and antiferromagnetic materials, where the spins prefer to align parallel and antiparallel with their nearest neighbors, respectively. The spatial correlation between spins in such materials is shown in the figure to the right.

text: This discovery contradicted the conventional belief of the time that the blood flows from the heart via the arteries as well as the veins. It is obvious that this hypothesis was supported by the fact that the network of arteries and veins becomes thinner and thinner as they get farther from the heart. It was also assumed that the networks are not connected, so the blood cannot pass from one network to the other. (The microscope was not yet invented, so one could not view capillary arteries without aid.)

text: CL color and intensity are dependent on the characteristics of the sample and on the working conditions of the electron gun. Here, acceleration voltage and beam current of the electron beam are of major importance. Today, two types of CL microscopes are in use. One is working with a "cold cathode" generating an electron beam by a corona discharge tube, the other one produces a beam using a "hot cathode". Cold-cathode CL microscopes are the simplest and most economic type. Unlike other electron bombardment techniques like electron microscopy, cold cathodoluminecence microscopy provides positive ions along with the electrons which neutralize surface charge buildup and eliminate the need for conductive coatings to be applied to the specimens. The "hot cathode" type generates an electron beam by an electron gun with tungsten filament. The advantage of a hot cathode is the precisely controllable high beam intensity allowing to stimulate the emission of light even on weakly luminescing materials (e.g. quartz – see picture). To prevent charging of the sample, the surface must be coated with a conductive layer of gold or carbon. This is usually done by a sputter deposition device or a carbon coater.

text: CL color and intensity are dependent on the characteristics of the sample and on the working conditions of the

text: electron gun

text: . Here,

text: acceleration voltage

text: and beam current of the

text: electron beam

text: are of major importance. Today, two types of CL microscopes are in use. One is working with a "

text: cold cathode

text: " generating an electron beam by a

text: corona discharge

text: tube, the other one produces a beam using a "

text: hot cathode

text: ". Cold-cathode CL microscopes are the simplest and most economic type. Unlike other electron bombardment techniques like

text: electron microscopy

text: , cold cathodoluminecence microscopy provides positive ions along with the electrons which neutralize surface charge buildup and eliminate the need for conductive coatings to be applied to the specimens. The "hot cathode" type generates an electron beam by an electron gun with tungsten filament. The advantage of a hot cathode is the precisely controllable high beam intensity allowing to stimulate the emission of light even on weakly luminescing materials (e.g.

text: quartz

text: – see picture). To prevent charging of the sample, the surface must be coated with a conductive layer of

text: gold

text: or

text: carbon

text: . This is usually done by a

text: sputter deposition

text: device or a carbon coater.

text: Some better-known animalcules include:

text: Some better-known animalcules include:

text: In 2013, scientists at the Institute of Scientific Instruments (ISI) and the university of St Andrews succeeded in creating a tractor beam that pulls objects on a microscopic level. The new study states that while this technique is new, it may have potential for bio-medical research. Professor Zemanek said: “The whole team have spent a number of years investigating various configurations of particles delivery by light. Dr Brzobohaty said: “These methods are opening new opportunities for fundamental photonics as well as applications for life-sciences.”Dr Cizmar said: “Because of the similarities between optical and acoustic particle manipulation we anticipate that this concept will provide inspiration for exciting future studies in areas outside the field of photonics.”

text: In the 17 century, Italian Marcello Malpighi invented one of the first microscopes for studying tiny biological entities. Malpighi analysed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. Malpighi, while studying the structure of the lung, noticed its membranous alveoli and the hair-like connections between veins and arteries, which he named capillaries. His discovery established how the oxygen we breathe enters the blood stream and serves the body.

text: In the 17 century,

text: Italian

text: Marcello Malpighi

text: invented one of the first microscopes for studying tiny biological entities. Malpighi analysed several parts of the organs of bats, frogs and other animals under the microscope. Malpighi, while studying the structure of the lung, noticed its membranous alveoli and the hair-like connections between veins and arteries, which he named capillaries. His discovery established how the oxygen we breathe enters the blood stream and serves the body.

text: He was born in Brașov (Kronstadt) in Transylvania, then Hungary, and studied medicine at the University of Leipzig, receiving an M.D. in 1759. He then practiced as a physician for the next twenty years, during which time he pursued botany as a hobby, collecting in the morning before work and then studying his accumulation in the evening. He also acquired a microscope and a small library.

text: He was born in

text: Brașov

text: (Kronstadt) in

text: Transylvania

text: , then

text: Hungary

text: , and studied medicine at the

text: University of Leipzig

text: , receiving an M.D. in 1759. He then practiced as a physician for the next twenty years, during which time he pursued

text: botany

text: as a hobby, collecting in the morning before work and then studying his accumulation in the evening. He also acquired a

text: microscope

text: and a small library.

text: Before the introduction of the phase contrast microscope it was difficult to observe living cells. As living cells are translucent they must be stained to be visible in a traditional light microscope. Unfortunately, the process of staining cells generally kill the cells. With the invention of the phase contrast microscopy it became possible to observe unstained living cells in detail. After its introduction in the 1940s, live cell imaging rapidly became popular using phase contrast microscopy. The phase contrast microscope was popularized through a series of time-lapse movies (Video 1), recorded using a photographic film camera. Its inventor, Frits Zernike, was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1953. Other later phase contrast techniques used to observe unstained cells are Hoffman modulation and differential interference contrast microscopy.

text: Before the introduction of the phase contrast microscope it was difficult to observe living cells. As living cells are translucent they must be

text: stained

text: to be visible in a traditional

text: light microscope

text: . Unfortunately, the process of

text: staining cells

text: generally kill the cells. With the invention of the phase contrast microscopy it became possible to observe unstained living cells in detail. After its introduction in the 1940s, live cell imaging rapidly became popular using phase contrast microscopy. The phase contrast microscope was popularized through a series of time-lapse movies (Video 1), recorded using a photographic film camera. Its inventor,

text: Frits Zernike

text: , was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1953. Other later phase contrast techniques used to observe unstained cells are

text: Hoffman modulation

text: and

text: differential interference

text: contrast microscopy.

text: Micrometers are also used in telescopes or microscopes to measure the apparent diameter of celestial bodies or microscopic objects. The micrometer used with a telescope was invented about 1638 by William Gascoigne, an English astronomer.

text: Micrometers are also used in telescopes or microscopes to measure the apparent diameter of celestial bodies or microscopic objects. The micrometer used with a telescope was invented about 1638 by

text: William Gascoigne

text: , an English astronomer.

text: A fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope that uses fluorescence and phosphorescence instead of, or in addition to, reflection and absorption to study properties of organic or inorganic substances. The "fluorescence microscope" refers to any microscope that uses fluorescence to generate an image, whether it is a more simple set up like an epifluorescence microscope, or a more complicated design such as a confocal microscope, which uses optical sectioning to get better resolution of the fluorescent image.

text: A fluorescence microscope is an

text: optical microscope

text: that uses

text: fluorescence

text: and

text: phosphorescence

text: instead of, or in addition to,

text: reflection

text: and

text: absorption

text: to study properties of organic or

text: inorganic

text: substances. The "fluorescence microscope" refers to any microscope that uses fluorescence to generate an image, whether it is a more simple set up like an epifluorescence microscope, or a more complicated design such as a

text: confocal microscope

text: , which uses

text: optical sectioning

text: to get better resolution of the fluorescent image.

text: This condenser is composed of two lenses a plano-convex lens somewhat larger than a hemisphere and a large bi-convex lens serving as a collecting lens to the first. The focus of the first lens is traditionally about 2mm away from the plane face coinciding with the sample plane. A pinhole cap can be used to align the optical axis of the condenser with that of the microscope. The Abbe condenser is still the basis for most modern light microscope condenser designs, even though its optical performance is poor.

text: The LBSP was founded in 1984 in the Leeuwenhoek area west of Leiden Central Station, between the Faculty of Science of the Leiden University and the former Academic Medical Hospital, known as the LUMC. The municipality decided that this area should primarily be focused on biotechnology.

text: The LBSP was founded in 1984 in the Leeuwenhoek area west of

text: Leiden Central Station

text: , between the Faculty of Science of the

text: Leiden University

text: and the former Academic Medical Hospital, known as the

text: LUMC

text: . The municipality decided that this area should primarily be focused on biotechnology.

text: Ceramic microstructures are most often analyzed by reflected visible-light microscopy in brightfield.  Darkfield is used in limited circumstances, e.g., to reveal cracks.  Polarized transmitted light is used with thin sections, where the contrast between grains comes from birefringence. Very fine microstructures may require the higher magnification and resolution of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) or confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM).  The cathodoluminescence microscope (CLM) is useful for distinguishing phases of refractories.  The transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) have specialty applications in ceramography.

text: Ceramic microstructures are most often analyzed by reflected visible-light

text: microscopy

text: in

text: brightfield

text: Darkfield

text: is used in limited circumstances, e.g., to reveal cracks.

text: Polarized

text: transmitted light is used with thin sections, where the contrast between grains comes from

text: birefringence

text: . Very fine microstructures may require the higher

text: magnification

text: and

text: resolution

text: of a

text: scanning electron microscope

text: (SEM) or

text: confocal laser scanning microscope

text: (CLSM).  The

text: cathodoluminescence microscope

text: (CLM) is useful for distinguishing phases of refractories.  The

text: transmission electron microscope

text: (TEM) and

text: scanning acoustic microscope

text: (SAM) have specialty applications in ceramography.

text: Nicolaas Hartsoeker (26 March 1656, Gouda – 10 December 1725, Utrecht) was a Dutch mathematician and physicist who invented the screw-barrel simple microscope  circa 1694.

text: Nicolaas Hartsoeker (26 March 1656,

text: Gouda

text: – 10 December 1725,

text: Utrecht

text: ) was a

text: Dutch

text: mathematician

text: and

text: physicist

text: who invented the

text: screw-barrel

text: simple

text: microscope

text: circa

text: The number of fluorescence applications in the biomedical, biological and related sciences continuously expands. Methods of analysis in these fields are also growing, often with nomenclature in the form of acronyms such as: FLIM, FLI, FLIP, CALI, FLIE, FRET, FRAP, FCS, PFRAP, smFRET, FIONA, FRIPS, SHREK, SHRIMP or TIRF. Most of these techniques rely on fluorescence microscopes, which use high intensity light sources, usually mercury or xenon lamps, LEDs, or lasers, to excite fluorescence in the samples under observation. Optical filters then separate excitation light from emitted fluorescence to be detected by eye or with a (CCD) camera or other light detector (e.g., photomultiplier tubes, spectrographs). Considerable research is underway to improve the capabilities of such microscopes, the fluorescent probes used, and the applications they are applied to. Of particular note are confocal microscopes, which use a pinhole to achieve optical sectioning, which affords a quantitative, 3D view of the sample.

text: The number of fluorescence applications in the biomedical, biological and related sciences continuously expands. Methods of analysis in these fields are also growing, often with nomenclature in the form of acronyms such as:

text: FLIM

text: , FLI,

text: FLIP

text: , CALI, FLIE,

text: FRET

entity_name: Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching

text: FRAP

text: FCS

text: , PFRAP, smFRET, FIONA, FRIPS, SHREK, SHRIMP or

text: TIRF

text: . Most of these techniques rely on fluorescence microscopes, which use high intensity light sources, usually mercury or xenon lamps, LEDs, or lasers, to excite fluorescence in the samples under observation. Optical filters then separate excitation light from emitted fluorescence to be detected by eye or with a (CCD) camera or other light detector (e.g., photomultiplier tubes, spectrographs). Considerable research is underway to improve the capabilities of such microscopes, the fluorescent probes used, and the applications they are applied to. Of particular note are confocal microscopes, which use a pinhole to achieve

text: optical sectioning

text: , which affords a quantitative, 3D view of the sample.

text: With the invention and subsequent development of Stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy and related microscopy methods, he was able to show that one can substantially improve the resolving power of the fluorescence microscope, previously limited to half the wavelength of the employed light (> 200 nanometers). A microscope's resolution is its most important property. Hell was the first to demonstrate, both theoretically and experimentally, how one can decouple the resolution of the fluorescence microscope from diffraction and increase it to a fraction of the wavelength of light (to the nanometer scale). Ever since the work of Ernst Karl Abbe in 1873, this feat was not thought possible. For this achievement and its significance for other fields of science, such as the life-sciences and medical research, he received the 10th German Innovation Award (Deutscher Zukunftspreis) on November 23, 2006. He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2014.

text: With the invention and subsequent development of

text: Stimulated Emission Depletion microscopy

text: and

text: related microscopy methods

text: , he was able to show that one can substantially improve the resolving power of the fluorescence microscope, previously limited to half the wavelength of the employed light (> 200 nanometers). A microscope's

text: resolution

text: is its most important property. Hell was the first to demonstrate, both theoretically and experimentally, how one can decouple the resolution of the fluorescence microscope from diffraction and increase it to a fraction of the wavelength of light (to the nanometer scale). Ever since the work of

text: Ernst Karl Abbe

text: in 1873, this feat was not thought possible. For this achievement and its significance for other fields of science, such as the life-sciences and medical research, he received the 10th German Innovation Award (Deutscher Zukunftspreis) on November 23, 2006. He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2014.

text: Claude received travel grants from Belgian government for his doctoral thesis on the transplantation of mouse cancers into rats. With this he worked his postdoctoral research in Berlin during the winter of 1928-1929, first at the Institut für Krebsforschung, and then at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology, Dahlem, in the laboratory of tissues culture of Prof. Albert Fischer. Back in Belgium he received fellowship in 1929 from the Belgian American Educational Foundation (Commission for Relief in Belgium, CRB) for research in the United States. He applied for the Rockefeller Institute (now the Rockefeller University) in New York, USA. Simon Flexner, then Director, accepted his proposal to work on the isolation and identification of the Rous sarcoma virus. In September 1929 he joined the Rockefeller Institute. In 1930, he discovered the process of cell fractionation, which was groundbreaking in his time. The process consists of grinding up cells to break the membrane and release the cell's contents. He then filtered out the cell membranes and placed the remaining cell contents in a centrifuge to separate them according to mass. He divided the centrifuged contents into fractions, each of a specific mass, and discovered that particular fractions were responsible for particular cell functions. In 1938 he identified and purified for the first time component of Rous sarcoma virus, the causal agent of carcinoma, as "ribose nucleoprotein" (eventually named RNA). He was the first to use electron microscope to study biological cells. Earlier electron microscopes were used only in physical researches. His first electron microscopic study was on the structure of mitochondria in 1945. He was given American citizenship in 1941. He discovered that mitochondria are the "power houses" of all cells. He also discovered cytoplasmic granules full of RNA and named them "microsomes", which were later renamed ribosomes, the protein synthesizing machineries of cell. With his associate, Keith Porter, he found a "lace-work" structure that was eventually proven to be the major structural feature of the interior of all eukaryotic cells. This was the discovery of endoplasmic reticulum (a Latin for "fishnet").

text: Claude received travel grants from Belgian government for his doctoral thesis on the

text: transplantation

text: of mouse cancers into rats. With this he worked his postdoctoral research in

text: Berlin

text: during the winter of 1928-1929, first at the Institut für Krebsforschung, and then at the

text: Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology

text: Dahlem

text: , in the laboratory of tissues culture of Prof. Albert Fischer. Back in Belgium he received fellowship in 1929 from the

text: Belgian American Educational Foundation

text: (Commission for Relief in Belgium, CRB) for research in the

text: United States

text: . He applied for the Rockefeller Institute (now the

text: Rockefeller University

text: ) in New York, USA.

text: Simon Flexner

text: , then Director, accepted his proposal to work on the isolation and identification of the Rous sarcoma virus. In September 1929 he joined the Rockefeller Institute. In 1930, he discovered the process of

text: cell fractionation

text: , which was groundbreaking in his time. The process consists of grinding up cells to break the membrane and release the cell's contents. He then filtered out the cell membranes and placed the remaining cell contents in a

text: centrifuge

text: to separate them according to mass. He divided the

text: centrifuged

text: contents into fractions, each of a specific mass, and discovered that particular fractions were responsible for particular cell functions. In 1938 he identified and purified for the first time component of Rous sarcoma virus, the causal agent of

text: carcinoma

text: , as "ribose nucleoprotein" (eventually named

text: RNA

text: ). He was the first to use

text: electron microscope

text: to study

text: biological cells

text: . Earlier electron microscopes were used only in physical researches. His first electron microscopic study was on the structure of mitochondria in 1945. He was given

text: American citizenship

text: in 1941. He discovered that mitochondria are the "power houses" of all cells. He also discovered cytoplasmic granules full of RNA and named them "microsomes", which were later renamed ribosomes, the protein synthesizing machineries of cell. With his associate,

text: Keith Porter

text: , he found a "lace-work" structure that was eventually proven to be the major structural feature of the interior of all

text: eukaryotic cells

text: . This was the discovery of endoplasmic reticulum (a Latin for "fishnet").

text: In the 17th century the microscope was an important technical advance.

text: In the 17th century the

text: microscope

text: was an important technical advance.

text: On microscopic inspection, the tumor cells are readily recognized. Individual tumor cells are polygonal to oval and are arranged in distinctive cell balls, called Zellballen.  These cell balls are separated by fibrovascular stroma and surrounded by sustentacular cells.

text: On microscopic inspection, the tumor cells are readily recognized. Individual tumor cells are polygonal to oval and are arranged in distinctive cell balls, called

text: Zellballen

text: .  These cell balls are separated by fibrovascular stroma and surrounded by sustentacular cells.

text: Stephen Kevan has made numerous important contributions to condensed matter physics and physical chemistry in the understanding how microscopic interactions and fluctuations conspire to produce novel material properties, particularly in the context of surface and thin film physics and exotic magnetism.  His early Fermiology studies using photoemission verified experimentally the Fermi surface nesting mechanism for the spin density wave ground state of chromium and also contributed to our understanding of electronic instabilities in charge density wave materials and surface reconstructions.  He also characterized the role of non-adiabatic damping of adsorbate vibrations and the spin-splitting of surface bands by the Rashba (spin-orbit) effect.  More recently his interest in probing the microscopic-macroscopic connection has made him a leader in developing tools to study microscopic magnetic fluctuations using coherent soft x-ray beams.   His current emphasis is to probe, on the scale of a few domains, intermittent dynamics and memory effects in field- and thermally driven magnetization reversal is highly regarded.  Understanding the impact of newly discovered hidden symmetries on these cascades is important to our understanding of microscopic intermittency in a much broader context.

text: Stephen Kevan has made numerous important contributions to

text: condensed matter physics

text: and

text: physical chemistry

text: in the understanding how microscopic interactions and fluctuations conspire to produce novel material properties, particularly in the context of surface and thin film physics and exotic magnetism.  His early Fermiology studies using

text: photoemission

text: verified experimentally the Fermi surface nesting mechanism for the spin density wave ground state of chromium and also contributed to our understanding of electronic instabilities in charge density wave materials and surface reconstructions.  He also characterized the role of non-adiabatic damping of adsorbate vibrations and the spin-splitting of surface bands by the Rashba (spin-orbit) effect.  More recently his interest in probing the microscopic-macroscopic connection has made him a leader in developing tools to study microscopic magnetic fluctuations using coherent soft x-ray beams.   His current emphasis is to probe, on the scale of a few domains, intermittent dynamics and memory effects in field- and thermally driven magnetization reversal is highly regarded.  Understanding the impact of newly discovered hidden symmetries on these cascades is important to our understanding of microscopic intermittency in a much broader context.

text: A further refinement of microscopic methods consists of the use of strongly convergent polarized light (konoscopic methods).  This is obtained by a wide angled achromatic condenser above the polarizer, and a high power microscopic objective.  Those sections are most useful which are perpendicular to an optic axis, and consequently remain dark on rotation.  If they belong to uniaxial crystals they show a dark cross or convergent light between crossed nicols, the bars of which remain parallel to the wires in the field of the eyepiece.  Sections perpendicular to an optic axis of a biaxial mineral under the same conditions show a dark bar which on rotation becomes curved to a hyperbolic shape.  If the section is perpendicular to a "bisectrix" (see Crystallography) a black cross is seen which on rotation opens out to form two hyperbolas, the apices of which are turned towards one another.  The optic axes emerge at the apices of the hyperbolas and may be surrounded by colored rings, though owing to the thinness of minerals in rock sections these are only seen when the double refraction of the mineral is strong.  The distance between the axes as seen in the field of the microscope depends partly on the axial angle of the crystal and partly on the numerical aperture of the objective.  If it is measured by means of eye-piece micrometer, the optic axial angle of the mineral can be found by a simple calculation.  The quartz wedge, quarter mica plate or selenite plate permit the determination of the positive or negative character of the crystal by the changes in the color or shape of the figures observed in the field.  These operations are precisely similar to those employed by the mineralogist in the examination of plates cut from crystals.  It is sufficient to point out that the petrological microscope in its modern development is an optical instrument of great precision, enabling us to determine physical constants of crystallized substances as well as serving to produce magnified images like the ordinary microscope.  A great variety of accessory apparatus has been devised to fit it for these special uses.

text: A further refinement of microscopic methods consists of the use of strongly convergent polarized light (konoscopic methods).  This is obtained by a wide angled achromatic condenser above the polarizer, and a high power microscopic objective.  Those sections are most useful which are perpendicular to an optic axis, and consequently remain dark on rotation.  If they belong to uniaxial crystals they show a dark cross or convergent light between crossed nicols, the bars of which remain parallel to the wires in the field of the eyepiece.  Sections perpendicular to an optic axis of a biaxial mineral under the same conditions show a dark bar which on rotation becomes curved to a hyperbolic shape.  If the section is perpendicular to a "bisectrix" (see

text: Crystallography

text: Viruses are among the smallest infectious agents, and most of them can only be seen by electron microscopy. Most viruses cannot be seen by light microscopy (in other words, they are sub-microscopic); their sizes range from 20 to 300 nm. They are so small that it would take 30,000 to 750,000 of them, side by side, to stretch to one cm. By contrast bacterial sizes are typically around 1 micrometre (1000 nm) in diameter, and the cells of higher organisms a few tens of micrometres. Some viruses such as  megaviruses and pandoraviruses are relatively large. At around 1 micrometer, these viruses, which infect amoebae, were discovered in 2003 and 2013. They are around a thousand times larger than influenza viruses and the discovery of these "giant" viruses astonished scientists.

text: Viruses are among the smallest infectious agents, and most of them can only be seen by

text: electron microscopy

text: . Most viruses cannot be seen by light microscopy (in other words, they are

text: sub-microscopic

text: ); their sizes range from 20 to 300

text: nm

text: . They are so small that it would take 30,000 to 750,000 of them, side by side, to stretch to one cm. By contrast

text: bacteria

text: l sizes are typically around 1 micrometre (1000 nm) in diameter, and the

text: cells

text: of higher organisms a few tens of micrometres. Some viruses such as

text: megavirus

text: es and

text: pandoravirus

text: es are relatively large. At around 1

text: micrometer

text: , these viruses, which infect

text: amoeba

text: e, were discovered in 2003 and 2013. They are around a thousand times larger than

text: influenza virus

text: es and the discovery of these "giant" viruses astonished scientists.

text: Microscopically, MGN is characterized by a thickened glomerular basement membrane without a hyperproliferation of the glomerular cells. Immunofluorescence demonstrates diffuse granular uptake of IgG. The basement membrane may completely surround the granular deposits, forming a "spike and dome" pattern. Tubules also display the symptoms of a typical Type III hypersensitivity reaction, which causes the endothelial cells to proliferate, which can be seen under a light microscope with a PAS stain.

text: Microscopically, MGN is characterized by a thickened

text: glomerular basement membrane

text: without a hyperproliferation of the glomerular cells.

text: Immunofluorescence

text: demonstrates diffuse granular uptake of

text: IgG

text: . The basement membrane may completely surround the granular deposits, forming a "spike and dome" pattern. Tubules also display the symptoms of a typical Type III hypersensitivity reaction, which causes the endothelial cells to proliferate, which can be seen under a light microscope with a PAS stain.

text: On a microscopic scale dendrites form on the surface finish, which trap light and increase absorptivity. Because of this property the coating is used in aerospace, microscopy and other optical applications to minimise light reflection.

text: On a microscopic scale

text: dendrites

text: form on the surface finish, which trap light and increase

text: absorptivity

text: . Because of this property the coating is used in

text: aerospace

text: microscopy

text: and other optical applications to minimise light reflection.

text: Phosphatic fossilization has occurred in unusual circumstances to preserve some extremely high-resolution microfossils in which careful preparation can even reveal preserved cellular structures. Such microscopic fossils are only visible under the scanning electron microscope.

text: Phosphatic fossilization has occurred in unusual circumstances to preserve some extremely high-resolution

text: microfossils

text: in which careful preparation can even reveal preserved cellular structures. Such microscopic fossils are only visible under the

text: scanning electron microscope

text: Class I  disease (minimal mesangial glomerulonephritis) in its histology has a normal appearance under a light microscope, but mesangial deposits are visible under an electron microscope. At this stage urinalysis is normal.

text: Class I  disease (

text: minimal mesangial glomerulonephritis

text: ) in its

text: histology

text: has a normal appearance under a

text: light microscope

text: , but

text: mesangial

text: deposits are visible under an

text: electron microscope

text: . At this stage

text: urinalysis

text: is normal.

text: The first scanning electron microscope (SEM) image was an image of electron channeling contrast in silicon steel. However, practical uses for the technique are limited because only a thin layer of abrasion damage or amorphous coating is generally adequate to obscure the contrast. If the specimen had to be given a conductive coating before examination to prevent charging, this too could obscure the contrast. On cleaved surfaces, and surfaces self-assembled on the atomic scale, electron channeling patterns are likely to see growing application with modern microscopes in the years ahead.

text: The first

text: scanning electron microscope

text: (SEM) image was an image of electron channeling contrast in

text: silicon steel

text: . However, practical uses for the technique are limited because only a thin layer of abrasion damage or amorphous coating is generally adequate to obscure the contrast. If the specimen had to be given a conductive coating before examination to prevent charging, this too could obscure the contrast. On cleaved surfaces, and surfaces self-assembled on the atomic scale, electron channeling patterns are likely to see growing application with modern microscopes in the years ahead.

text: Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding places for larval forms of larger fish and foraging places for invertebrates.

text: Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates. Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the niche occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic algae in the ocean, such as Sargassum and kelp, which are commonly known as seaweeds that create kelp forests.

text: Microscopic algae and plants provide important habitats for life, sometimes acting as hiding and foraging places for larval forms of larger fish and invertebrates. Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the world's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Most of the

text: niche

text: occupied by sub plants on land is actually occupied by macroscopic

text: algae

text: in the ocean, such as

text: Sargassum

text: and

text: kelp

text: , which are commonly known as

text: seaweed

text: s that create

text: kelp forest

text: s.

text: Straight or smoothly curved filaments 1.5 µm in diameter and 100 to more than 500 µm in length are formed by rod-shaped cells with clear septa growing within a long, tubular sheath.  An adhesive basal element at one end of the filament can aid attachment to solid surfaces.  The sheath offers some protection from predators, and the ability to anchor in flowing water allows access to a passing stream of food and nutrients.  Individual mature cells swarm out of the protective tube to colonize new sites.  Each motile mature cell has an intertwined bundle of flagella appearing as a single flagellum consisting of a long filament with a short hook and a basal body complex, but it is distinguishable by electron microscope as 10 to 30 strands with diameters of 12.5 to 16 nm each. S. natans stores reserves of poly- beta -hydroxybutyrate as internal globules making up 30 to 40% of the dry weight of a colony.   Gram and Neisser staining reactions are negative.

text: Straight or smoothly curved filaments 1.5 µm in diameter and 100 to more than 500 µm in length are formed by rod-shaped cells with clear

text: septa

text: growing within a long, tubular sheath.  An adhesive basal element at one end of the filament can aid attachment to solid surfaces.  The sheath offers some protection from predators, and the ability to anchor in flowing water allows access to a passing stream of food and nutrients.  Individual mature cells swarm out of the protective tube to colonize new sites.  Each motile mature cell has an intertwined bundle of

text: flagella

text: appearing as a single flagellum consisting of a long filament with a short hook and a basal body complex, but it is distinguishable by

text: electron microscope

text: as 10 to 30 strands with diameters of 12.5 to 16 nm each. S. natans stores reserves of

text: poly- beta -hydroxybutyrate

text: as internal globules making up 30 to 40% of the dry weight of a colony.   Gram and Neisser staining reactions are negative.

text: Köhler's groundbreaking work on microscope illumination was published in the Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie in 1893 in Germany, followed by an English summary of his work in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society one year later. Its significance was not noted until several years later when Köhler was invited to join the Carl Zeiss AG company based on his invention. A century after its first publication, a translation of Köhler's original article, A New System of Illumination for Photomicrographic Purposes, was reprinted in the Köhler Illumination Centenary commemorative issue by the Royal Microscopical Society in 1994. Today, the Köhler illumination is considered one of the most important principles in achieving the best optical resolution on a light microscope.

text: Köhler's groundbreaking work on microscope illumination was published in the

text: Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie

text: in 1893 in

text: Germany

text: , followed by an English summary of his work in the

text: Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society

text: one year later. Its significance was not noted until several years later when Köhler was invited to join the

text: Carl Zeiss AG

text: company based on his invention. A century after its first publication, a translation of Köhler's original article, A New System of Illumination for Photomicrographic Purposes, was reprinted in the Köhler Illumination Centenary commemorative issue by the

text: Royal Microscopical Society

text: in 1994. Today, the Köhler illumination is considered one of the most important principles in achieving the best optical resolution on a light microscope.

text: The electron microscope has the capacity to obtain a resolution of up to 100 pm, whereby microscopic biomolecules and structures such as viruses, ribosomes, proteins, lipids, small molecules and even single atoms can be observed.

text: The

text: electron microscope

text: has the capacity to obtain a resolution of up to 100 pm, whereby microscopic biomolecules and structures such as viruses, ribosomes, proteins, lipids, small molecules and even single atoms can be observed.

text: Petrographic microscopes are constructed with optical parts that do not add unwanted polarizing effects due to strained glass, or polarization by reflection in prisms and mirrors. These special parts add to the cost and complexity of the microscope. However, a "simple polarizing" microscope is easily made by adding inexpensive polarizing filters to a standard biological microscope, often with one in a filter holder beneath the condenser, and a second inserted beneath the head or eyepiece. These might be sufficient for many non-quantitative purposes.

text: The Netherlands is the country of philosophers Erasmus of Rotterdam and Spinoza. All of Descartes' major work was done in the Netherlands. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.

text: The Netherlands is the country of philosophers

text: Erasmus of Rotterdam

text: and

text: Spinoza

text: . All of

text: Descartes

text: ' major work was done in the Netherlands. The Dutch scientist

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: (1629–1695) discovered

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Titan

text: , argued that light travelled as waves, invented the

text: pendulum clock

text: and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae.

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: was the first to observe and describe

text: single-celled organisms

text: with a

text: microscope

text: While David was still serving in the Air Force, Prof. Aharon Katzir from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, asked David to rebuild the Institute's electron microscope which had been damaged while researchers tried to activate it. For a few months, David was working as a military doctor during the day and at the Weizmann Institute of Science at night.  In 1955, upon his completion of military service, he began working in the Department of Polymers of the Weizmann Institute. In addition to restoring the function of the electron microscope, he developed and prepared the microtome and other devices necessary for the operation of the electron microscope. Later he founded the Electron Microscopy Laboratory at the Weizmann Institute. His pearly research in the Institute's Electron Microscopy Laboratory involved the membrane structure of erythrocytes, their adherence and thrombocytes. In 1957, while working at the Weizmann Institute David Danon founded with Dr. Kalman the Department of Physiology and Anatomy of Animals, at the Faculty of Agriculture in Rehovot where he taught until 1962. His research during this period continued to focus on erythrocytes and thrombocytes, as well as the interaction between these cells and the influenza virus.  In 1964 he was appointed head of the Section for Biological Ultrastructure at the Weizmann Institute.  In 1967 he was assigned the title of "professor of biology."  Prof. Danon was the founder and first President of the Israeli Society for Electron Microscopy and President of the Israeli Society of Hematology and Blood Transfusion. At this time he developed and built Fragiligraph,  – a device that enables automatic registration of osmotic fragility curve of erythrocytes, later produced by "Elron".. In later years, Prof. Danon became interested in the process of aging of erythrocytes, and joined the Israeli Association of Gerontology.  In 1975 he was elected president of the International Association of Gerontology, and was the first and only Israeli scientist to date to serve in this position (1975-1978). Between the years 1978 to 1987, Prof. Danon served as the Chief Scientist of the Israeli Ministry of Health. In 1979, he was appointed director of the Center for Research on Aging at the Weizmann Institute, a position he held until his retirement from the Institute in 1987. During a Sabbatical in geriatric medicine at Montefiore Hospital in New York in 1984-1985, he devoted major efforts to alleviating the suffering of patients with pressure ulcers. Between the years 1998 to 1991 he served as scientific advisor to the Israeli Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. Upon his retirement from Weizmann Institute, Prof. Danon was the director of the Waldenberg Gerontology Research Center in New Orleans, Louisiana from 1987 to 1992. At that time while continuing his research on the healing of pressure ulcers, he discovered the critical role of macrophages (a special type of white blood cell) in wound healing.  He discovered that the injection of macrophages from young mice, accelerated the healing of wounds in old mice. From 1993 onwards Prof. Danon devoted himself entirely to the development of a unique, remarkably simple, yet new method for the treatment of severe wounds, based on the injection of "activated" macrophages.  In this method, Macrophages were prepared from blood units of standard donated blood, using white blood cells that are typically considered undesirable in routine blood transfusions.  Macrophages were prepared from a blood unit in a closed sterile system that consisted of a number of interconnected plastic bags. According to the method developed by Prof. Danon, macrophages activation is done by the "hypo-osmotic shock" without any of the toxic materials usually used to activate cells. This work was carried out in the laboratories of Magen David Adom (the Israeli blood bank), and after many years of work the project was crowned with success.  As of 1998, the Israeli Ministry of Health has approved the use of activated macrophage injections for the treatment of serious pressure ulcers and other difficult wounds that are not responsive to standard treatments.  The method has been so effective, that it is included as covered within Israel's government health coverage plan.

text: While David was still serving in the Air Force, Prof.

text: Aharon Katzir

text: from the Weizmann Institute of Science in

text: Rehovot

text: erythrocyte

text: s, and joined the Israeli Association of Gerontology.  In 1975 he was elected president of the International Association of Gerontology, and was the first and only Israeli scientist to date to serve in this position (1975-1978). Between the years 1978 to 1987, Prof. Danon served as the Chief Scientist of the Israeli Ministry of Health. In 1979, he was appointed director of the Center for Research on Aging at the Weizmann Institute, a position he held until his retirement from the Institute in 1987. During a Sabbatical in geriatric medicine at Montefiore Hospital in New York in 1984-1985, he devoted major efforts to alleviating the suffering of patients with pressure ulcers. Between the years 1998 to 1991 he served as scientific advisor to the Israeli Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. Upon his retirement from Weizmann Institute, Prof. Danon was the director of the Waldenberg Gerontology Research Center in New Orleans, Louisiana from 1987 to 1992. At that time while continuing his research on the healing of pressure ulcers, he discovered the critical role of macrophages (a special type of white blood cell) in wound healing.  He discovered that the injection of

text: macrophages

text: The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the digital microscope. In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the eyepieces, a type of sensor similar to those used in a digital camera is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor. These sensors may use CMOS or charge-coupled device (CCD) technology, depending on the application.

text: The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the

text: digital microscope

text: . In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the

text: eyepiece

text: s, a type of sensor similar to those used in a

text: digital camera

text: is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor. These sensors may use

text: CMOS

text: or

text: charge-coupled device

text: (CCD) technology, depending on the application.

text: There are several important modern developments. The atomic force microscope (AFM) and the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are other types of scanning probe microscopy. Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.

text: There are several important modern developments. The

text: atomic force microscope

text: (AFM) and the

text: Scanning Tunneling Microscope

text: (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are other types of

text: scanning probe microscopy

text: . Although conceptually similar to the scanning

text: confocal microscope

text: developed by

text: Marvin Minsky

text: in 1961 and the

text: scanning acoustic microscope

text: (SAM) developed by

text: Calvin Quate

text: and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.

text: The micronucleus tests provide important information about a chemical's ability to interfere with chromosome structure and function. For instance, many known human carcinogens test positive in mammalian micronucleus tests. In these tests, organisms are treated with a chemical and the resulting frequency of micronucleated calls is measured. If there is a marked increase in the number of cells with micronuclei, it can be concluded that the chemical induces structural and/or numerical chromosomal damage. Since micronucleus tests must be performed on actively dividing cells, bone marrow stem cells and the erythrocytes they produce through cell divisions are ideal candidates. These cells experience constant, rapid turnover and the lack of a true nucleus in erythrocytes makes micronuclei easily visible under a microscope.

text: Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (e.g., Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus) were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin. The first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria. In 1817, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to organisms such as ciliates and corals. After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae. The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals. The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined as a “kingdom of primitive forms”.

text: Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by

text: Linnaeus

text: except for some genera (e.g.,

text: Vorticella

text: Chaos

text: Volvox

text: Corallina

text: Conferva

text: Ulva

text: Chara

text: Fucus

text: ) were

text: Leeuwenhoek

text: O. F. Müller

text: C. G. Ehrenberg

text: and

text: Félix Dujardin

text: . The first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the

text: Animalcules

text: and the

text: Infusoria

text: . In 1817, the German naturalist

text: Georg August Goldfuss

text: introduced the word

text: Protozoa

text: to refer to organisms such as

text: ciliate

text: s and

text: coral

text: s. After the

text: cell theory

text: of

text: Schwann

text: and

text: Schleiden

text: (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by

text: Carl von Siebold

text: to include only

text: animal-like unicellular organisms

text: , such as

text: foraminifera

text: and

text: amoebae

text: . The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early 1860s by

text: John Hogg

text: , who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals. The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: , leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined as a “kingdom of primitive forms”.

text: Since the digital microscope has the image projected directly on to the CCD camera, it is possible to have higher quality recorded images than with an optical microscope. With the optical microscope, the lenses are designed for the optics of the eye. Attaching a CCD camera to an optical microscope will result in an image that has compromises due to the eyepiece.

text: The use of achromats was an important step in the development of the optical microscope and in telescopes.

text: The use of achromats was an important step in the development of the

text: optical microscope

text: and in

text: telescopes

text: The forge-workers finish their work when Vlan and Caprice arrive 8 days later.  Microscope unveils his means of getting to the moon : a shell launched by a cannon.  Due to the probability that the mission will go wrong, Microscope is forced to accompany Caprice. Vlan accedes to his son's insistent demands and also joins them on the trip.

text: The forge-workers finish their work when Vlan and Caprice arrive 8 days later.  Microscope unveils his means of getting to the moon : a

text: shell

text: launched by a cannon.  Due to the probability that the mission will go wrong, Microscope is forced to accompany Caprice. Vlan accedes to his son's insistent demands and also joins them on the trip.

text: The Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope (KESM) was invented and patented in the late 1990s by Bruce McCormick at Texas A&M University. The microscope is intended to produce high-resolution data sets in order to reconstruct 3D cellular structures.

text: The Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope (KESM) was invented and patented in the late 1990s by

text: Bruce McCormick

text: at

text: Texas A&M University

text: . The microscope is intended to produce high-resolution data sets in order to reconstruct 3D cellular structures.

text: He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1968 and delivered their Leeuwenhoek Lecture in 1971.  He was made a CBE in 1974 and was knighted in 1980.

text: He was elected a

text: Fellow of the Royal Society

text: in 1968 and delivered their

text: Leeuwenhoek Lecture

text: in 1971.  He was made a

text: CBE

text: in 1974 and was knighted in 1980.

text: Fetal adenocarcinoma (FA) of the lung is a rare subtype of pulmonary adenocarcinoma that exhibits tissue architecture and cell characteristics that resemble fetal lung tissue upon microscopic examination. It is currently considered a variant of solid adenocarcinoma with mucin production.

text: Fetal adenocarcinoma (FA) of the lung is a rare subtype of

text: pulmonary

text: adenocarcinoma

text: that exhibits tissue architecture and

text: cell

text: characteristics that resemble fetal lung tissue upon microscopic examination. It is currently considered a variant of

text: solid adenocarcinoma with mucin production

text: The nonlinear capacitance of a microscope probe scanned along a ferroelectric surface is used to study the domain structure of ferroelectric materials.

text: From a non-relativistic microscopic point of view, it may be divided into microscopic potential energy, , and microscopic kinetic energy, , components:

text: He published a description of this cell in 1865. The cell was discovered by Sertoli with a Belthle microscope purchased in 1862, which he used while studying medicine.

text: Another contribution to science was the stagnation-point flow experiment in which processes of initial interaction of fresh flowing blood with an artificial surface can be directly visualized under a high-power microscope. This technique has become an important method for experimentally studying this vital interaction and led to a variety of circulatory prostheses, including the artificial heart.

text: Immunofluorescence can be used on tissue sections, cultured cell lines, or individual cells, and may be used to analyze the distribution of proteins, glycans, and small biological and non-biological molecules. Immunofluoresence can be used in combination with other, non-antibody methods of fluorescent staining, for example, use of DAPI to label DNA. Several microscope designs can be used for analysis of immunofluorescence samples; the simplest is the epifluorescence microscope, and the confocal microscope is also widely used. Various super-resolution microscope designs that are capable of much higher resolution can also be used.

text: Immunofluorescence can be used on tissue sections, cultured

text: cell lines

text: , or individual cells, and may be used to analyze the distribution of

text: protein

text: s,

text: glycan

text: s, and small biological and non-biological molecules. Immunofluoresence can be used in combination with other, non-antibody methods of fluorescent staining, for example, use of

text: DAPI

text: to label

text: DNA

text: . Several microscope designs can be used for analysis of immunofluorescence samples; the simplest is the

text: epifluorescence microscope

text: , and the

text: confocal microscope

text: is also widely used. Various

text: super-resolution

text: microscope designs that are capable of much higher resolution can also be used.

text: Janssen has been associated with the invention of the single-lens (simple) optical microscope and the compound (2 or more lens) 9x magnification optical microscope, sometimes claimed to have been devised with the help of his father (or sometimes said to have been built entirely by his father) with a date of invention commonly given as 1590 (or sometimes 1595), while trying to find a way to make magnification even greater to help people with seriously poor eyesight.

text: Janssen has been associated with the invention of the single-lens (simple)

text: optical microscope

text: and the compound (2 or more lens) 9x

text: magnification

text: optical microscope, sometimes claimed to have been devised with the help of his father (or sometimes said to have been built entirely by his father) with a date of invention commonly given as 1590 (or sometimes 1595), while trying to find a way to make magnification even greater to help people with seriously poor eyesight.

text: The creation of careful and accurate micrographs requires a microscopical technique using a monocular eyepiece. It is essential that both eyes are open and that the eye that is not observing down the microscope is instead concentrated on a sheet of paper on the bench besides the microscope. With practice, and without moving the head or eyes, it is possible to accurately record the observed details by tracing round the observed shapes by simultaneously "seeing" the pencil point in the microscopical image.

text: Pritchard set up as an optician, and also sold microscopes and microslide preparations. These slides he prepared by studying the microscopic organisms that he saw, and identifying and labelling them. Starting in 1830, he collaborated with C.R. Goring to produce beautifully illustrated books showing the "animalcules" visible through the microscope. His shops were in central London, more towards The City than the West End, variously at 162 Fleet Street, Pickett Street and 312 & 263 The Strand. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography says his List of 2000 Microscopic Objects (1835) "is very important in the history of microscopy... his History of the Infusoria (1841) was long a standard work, and the impetus it gave to the study of biological science cannot be overestimated." ("Infusoria" is a term then current for aquatic micro-organisms.) This latter book was enlarged and revised by John Ralfs and other botanists; Pritchard in turn condensed Ralfs's contribution on the diatomaceæ (diatoms, a type of phytoplankton), and wrote many books and articles on "natural history as seen through the microscope, on optical instruments, and on patents"

text: Pritchard set up as an optician, and also sold

text: microscopes

text: and microslide preparations. These slides he prepared by studying the microscopic organisms that he saw, and identifying and labelling them. Starting in 1830, he collaborated with C.R. Goring to produce beautifully illustrated books showing the "

text: animalcules

text: " visible through the microscope. His shops were in

text: central London

text: , more towards

text: The City

text: than the

text: West End

text: , variously at 162

text: Fleet Street

text: , Pickett Street and 312 & 263

text: The Strand

text: . The

text: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

text: says his List of 2000 Microscopic Objects (1835) "is very important in the history of microscopy... his History of the Infusoria (1841) was long a

text: standard work

text: , and the impetus it gave to the study of biological science cannot be overestimated." ("

text: Infusoria

text: " is a term then current for aquatic micro-organisms.) This latter book was enlarged and revised by

text: John Ralfs

text: and other botanists; Pritchard in turn condensed Ralfs's contribution on the diatomaceæ (

text: diatom

text: s, a type of

text: phytoplankton

text: ), and wrote many books and articles on "natural history as seen through the microscope, on optical instruments, and on patents"

text: During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" (homunculus) inside each sperm. These scientists formed a school of thought known as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb. An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception.

text: During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: (1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" (

text: homunculus

text: ) inside each

text: sperm

text: . These scientists formed a school of thought known as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb. An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception.

text: A petrographic microscope is a type of optical microscope used in petrology and optical mineralogy to identify rocks and minerals in thin sections. The microscope is used in optical mineralogy and petrography, a branch of petrology which focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. The method is called "polarized light microscopy" (PLM).Depending on the grade of observation required, petrological microscopes are derived from conventional brightfield microscopes of similar basic capabilities by:

text: A petrographic microscope is a type of

text: optical microscope

text: used in

text: petrology

text: and

text: optical mineralogy

text: to identify

text: rocks

text: and

text: mineral

text: s in

text: thin section

text: s. The microscope is used in

text: optical mineralogy

text: and

text: petrography

text: , a branch of

text: petrology

text: which focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. The method is called "

text: polarized light microscopy

text: " (PLM).Depending on the grade of observation required, petrological microscopes are derived from conventional brightfield microscopes of similar basic capabilities by:

text: It is difficult to say who invented the compound microscope. The Dutch spectacle-maker Zacharias Janssen is sometimes claimed to have invented it in 1590 (a claim made by his son and fellow countrymen, in different testimony in 1634 and 1655). Another claim is that Janssen's competitor, Hans Lippershey, invented the compound microscope. Another favorite for the title of 'inventor of the microscope' was Galileo Galilei. He developed an occhiolino or compound microscope with a convex and a concave lens in 1609. Galileo's microscope was celebrated in the Accademia dei Lincei in 1624 and was the first such device to be given the name "microscope" a year later by fellow Lincean Giovanni Faber. Faber coined the name from the Greek words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at", a name meant to be analogous with "telescope", another word coined by the Linceans.

text: It is difficult to say who invented the compound microscope. The

text: Dutch

text: spectacle-maker

text: Zacharias Janssen

text: is sometimes claimed to have invented it in 1590 (a claim made by his son and fellow countrymen, in different testimony in 1634 and 1655). Another claim is that Janssen's competitor,

text: Hans Lippershey

text: , invented the compound microscope. Another favorite for the title of 'inventor of the microscope' was

text: Galileo Galilei

text: . He developed an occhiolino or compound microscope with a convex and a concave lens in 1609. Galileo's microscope was celebrated in the

text: Accademia dei Lincei

text: in 1624 and was the first such device to be given the name "microscope" a year later by fellow Lincean

text: Giovanni Faber

text: . Faber coined the name from the

text: Greek

text: words μικρόν (micron) meaning "small", and σκοπεῖν (skopein) meaning "to look at", a name meant to be analogous with "

text: telescope

text: ", another word coined by the Linceans.

text: Feynman considered a number of interesting ramifications of a general ability to manipulate matter on an atomic scale. He was particularly interested in the possibilities of denser computer circuitry, and microscopes that could see things much smaller than is possible with scanning electron microscopes. These ideas were later realized by the use of the scanning tunneling microscope, the atomic force microscope and other examples of scanning probe microscopy and storage systems such as Millipede, created by researchers at IBM.

text: Feynman considered a number of interesting ramifications of a general ability to manipulate matter on an atomic scale. He was particularly interested in the possibilities of denser

text: computer

text: circuitry, and

text: microscope

text: s that could see things much smaller than is possible with

text: scanning electron microscope

text: s. These ideas were later realized by the use of the

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: , the

text: atomic force microscope

text: and other examples of

text: scanning probe microscopy

text: and storage systems such as

text: Millipede

text: , created by researchers at

text: IBM

text: Given the above, the primary method for imaging particle analysis is using optical microscopy. While optical microscopes have been around and used for particle analysis since the 1600s, the "analysis" in the past has been accomplished by humans using the human visual system. As such, much of this analysis is subjective, or qualitative in nature. Even when some sort of qualitative tools are available, such as a measuring reticle in the microscope, it has still required a human to determine and record those measurements.

text: Given the above, the primary method for imaging particle analysis is using optical microscopy. While

text: optical microscope

text: s have been around and used for particle analysis since the 1600s, the "analysis" in the past has been accomplished by humans using the human

text: visual system

text: . As such, much of this analysis is subjective, or qualitative in nature. Even when some sort of qualitative tools are available, such as a measuring

text: reticle

text: in the microscope, it has still required a human to determine and record those measurements.

text: In 1665 Hooke published Micrographia, a book describing observations made with microscopes and telescopes, as well as some original work in biology.  Hooke coined the term cell for describing biological organisms, the term being suggested by the resemblance of plant cells to cells of a honeycomb.  The hand-crafted, leather and gold-tooled microscope he used to make the observations for Micrographia, originally constructed by Christopher White in London, is on display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, DC.

text: In 1665 Hooke published

text: Micrographia

text: , a book describing observations made with

text: microscope

text: s and

text: telescope

text: s, as well as some original work in

text: biology

text: .  Hooke coined the term

text: cell

text: for describing biological organisms, the term being suggested by the resemblance of plant cells to cells of a honeycomb.  The hand-crafted, leather and gold-tooled microscope he used to make the observations for Micrographia, originally constructed by Christopher White in London, is on display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, DC.

text: In 1999, he was appointed as Director of Research and Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Netherlands Cancer Institute/Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital from which he retired at the end of 2011.

text: However no real progress was made in the scientific study of algae until the invention of the microscope — in about 1600. It was Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) who discovered bacteria and saw the cell structure of plants. His unsystematic glimpses of plant structure, reported to the Royal Society between 1678 and his death in 1723, produced no significant advances (Morton, 1981 p. 180).

text: However no real progress was made in the scientific study of algae until the invention of the

text: microscope

text: — in about 1600. It was

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: (1632–1723) who discovered

text: bacteria

text: and saw the cell structure of plants. His unsystematic glimpses of plant structure, reported to the

text: Royal Society

text: between 1678 and his death in 1723, produced no significant advances (Morton, 1981 p. 180).

text: The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope. This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have refractive glass and occasionally of plastic or quartz, to focus light into the eye or another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1250x with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres. This limits the practical magnification limit to ~1500x.  Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as the ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope.

text: The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the

text: optical microscope

text: . This is an

text: optical

text: instrument

text: containing one or more

text: lenses

text: producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have

text: refractive

text: glass and occasionally of plastic or

text: quartz

text: , to focus light into the eye or another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1250x with a theoretical

text: resolution limit

text: of around 0.250

text: micrometre

text: s or 250

text: nanometre

text: s. This limits the practical magnification limit to ~1500x.  Specialized techniques (e.g.,

text: scanning confocal microscopy

text: Vertico SMI

text: ) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is

text: diffraction

text: limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as the ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the

text: near-field scanning optical microscope

text: All current is fundamentally the same, microscopically. Nevertheless, there are often practical reasons for wanting to treat bound current differently from free current. For example, the bound current usually originates over atomic dimensions, and one may wish to take advantage of a simpler theory intended for larger dimensions. The result is that the more microscopic Ampère's circuital law, expressed in terms of  and the microscopic current (which includes free, magnetization and polarization currents), is sometimes put into the equivalent form below in terms of  and the free current only. For a detailed definition of free current and bound current, and the proof that the two formulations are equivalent, see the "proof" section below.

text: All current is fundamentally the same, microscopically. Nevertheless, there are often practical reasons for wanting to treat bound current differently from free current. For example, the bound current usually originates over atomic dimensions, and one may wish to take advantage of a simpler theory intended for larger dimensions. The result is that the more microscopic Ampère's circuital law, expressed in terms of  and the microscopic current (which includes free, magnetization and polarization currents), is sometimes put into the equivalent form below in terms of  and the free current only. For a detailed definition of free current and bound current, and the proof that the two formulations are equivalent, see the "

text: proof

text: " section below.

text: Double fertilization was discovered more than a century ago by Sergei Nawaschin in Kiev,  Russian Empire, and Léon Guignard in France. Each made the discovery independently of the other. Lilium martagon and Fritillaria tenella were used in the first observations of double fertilization, which were made using the classical light microscope. Due to the limitations of the light microscope, there were many unanswered questions regarding the process of double fertilization. However, with the development of the electron microscope, many of the questions were answered. Most notably, the observations made by the group of W. Jensen showed that the male gametes did not have any cell walls and that the plasma membrane of the gametes is close to the plasma membrane of the cell that surrounds them inside the pollen grain.

text: Double fertilization was discovered more than a century ago by

text: Sergei Nawaschin

text: in

text: Kiev

text: Russian Empire

text: , and Léon Guignard in

text: France

text: . Each made the discovery independently of the other.

text: Lilium martagon

text: and

text: Fritillaria

text: tenella

text: were used in the first observations of double fertilization, which were made using the classical

text: light microscope

text: . Due to the limitations of the light microscope, there were many unanswered questions regarding the process of double fertilization. However, with the development of the

text: electron microscope

text: , many of the questions were answered. Most notably, the observations made by the group of W. Jensen showed that the male gametes did not have any cell walls and that the plasma membrane of the gametes is close to the plasma membrane of the cell that surrounds them inside the pollen grain.

text: In 1981, the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that Van Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London. They were found to be of high quality, and were all well preserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of single-lens microscopes, adding to our knowledge of Van Leeuwenhoek's work.

text: In 1981, the British microscopist

text: Brian J. Ford

text: found that Van Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London. They were found to be of high quality, and were all well preserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of single-lens microscopes, adding to our knowledge of Van Leeuwenhoek's work.

text: Paramecia were among the first ciliates to be seen by microscopists, in the late 17th century.  They were probably known to the Dutch pioneer of protozoology, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, and were clearly described by his contemporary Christiaan Huygens in a letter of 1678. In 1718, the French mathematics teacher and microscopist Louis Joblot published a description and illustration of a microscopic "poisson" (fish), which he discovered in an infusion of oak bark in water.  Joblot gave this creature the name "Chausson," or "Slipper," and the phrase "slipper animalcule" remained in use as a colloquial epithet for Paramecium, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The name "Paramecium"—constructed from the Greek παραμήκης (paramēkēs, "oblong") -- was coined in 1752 by the English microscopist John Hill, who applied the name generally to "Animalcules which have no visible limbs or tails, and are of an irregularly oblong figure."  In 1773, O. F. Müller, the first researcher to place the genus within the Linnaean system of taxonomy, adopted the name Paramecium, but changed the spelling to Paramœcium.  C. G. Ehrenberg, in a major study of the infusoria published in 1838, restored Hill's original spelling for the genus name, and most researchers have followed his lead.

text: Paramecia were among the first ciliates to be seen by

text: microscopists

text: , in the late 17th century.  They were probably known to the Dutch pioneer of

text: protozoology

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: , and were clearly described by his contemporary

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: in a letter of 1678. In 1718, the French mathematics teacher and microscopist

text: Louis Joblot

text: published a description and illustration of a microscopic "poisson" (fish), which he discovered in an

text: infusion

text: of oak bark in water.  Joblot gave this creature the name "Chausson," or "Slipper," and the phrase "slipper animalcule" remained in use as a colloquial epithet for Paramecium, throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The name "Paramecium"—constructed from the Greek παραμήκης (paramēkēs, "oblong") -- was coined in 1752 by the English microscopist

text: John Hill

text: , who applied the name generally to "Animalcules which have no visible limbs or tails, and are of an irregularly oblong figure."  In 1773,

text: O. F. Müller

text: , the first researcher to place the genus within the

text: Linnaean

text: system of

text: taxonomy

text: , adopted the name Paramecium, but changed the spelling to Paramœcium.

text: C. G. Ehrenberg

text: , in a major study of the

text: infusoria

text: published in 1838, restored Hill's original spelling for the genus name, and most researchers have followed his lead.

text: Paracellular permeability depends on transport through the spaces that exist between epithelial cells. It is regulated by cellular junctions that are localized in the laminal membranes of the cells. This is the main route of passive flow of water and solutes across the intestinal epithelium. Regulation depends on the intercellular tight junctions which have the most influence on paracellular transport.  Studies using the electron microscope showed that the electrical resistance of epithelial layers depends on the complexity and number of filaments within the tight junction transmembrane protein complexes. Also, the plasma membrane resistance and variable transmembrane conductance of the epithelial cells can also modulate paracellular pathway function.

text: Paracellular permeability depends on transport through the spaces that exist between epithelial cells. It is regulated by cellular junctions that are localized in the laminal membranes of the cells. This is the main route of passive flow of water and solutes across the intestinal epithelium. Regulation depends on the intercellular tight junctions which have the most influence on paracellular transport.  Studies using the electron microscope showed that the electrical resistance of epithelial layers depends on the complexity and number of filaments within the tight junction transmembrane protein complexes. Also, the

text: plasma membrane

text: resistance and variable transmembrane conductance of the epithelial cells can also modulate paracellular pathway function.

text: The company produced a range of precision microscopes and survey equipment including theodolites and it manufactured one of the first usable interference microscopes. A 1950 catalogue listed the following range of microscopes:

text: The company produced a range of precision

text: microscopes

text: and survey equipment including

text: theodolites

text: and it manufactured one of the first usable

text: interference microscopes

text: . A 1950 catalogue listed the following range of microscopes:

text: The prevalence has been estimated as 35 per 100,000, and may be considerably higher if clinically silent tumors are included. An autopsy study of the pancreas in people who died from unrelated causes discovered a remarkably high incidence of tiny asymptomatic NETs. Routine microscopic study of three random sections of the pancreas found NETs in 1.6%, and multiple sections identified NETs in 10%. As diagnostic imaging increases in sensitivity, such as endoscopic ultrasonography, very small, clinically insignificant NETs may be coincidentally discovered; being unrelated to symptoms, such neoplasms may not require surgical excision.

text: The

text: prevalence

text: has been estimated as 35 per 100,000, and may be considerably higher if clinically silent tumors are included. An

text: autopsy

text: study of the pancreas in people who died from unrelated causes discovered a remarkably high incidence of tiny asymptomatic NETs. Routine microscopic study of three random sections of the pancreas found NETs in 1.6%, and multiple sections identified NETs in 10%. As diagnostic imaging increases in sensitivity, such as

text: endoscopic

text: ultrasonography

text: , very small, clinically insignificant NETs may be coincidentally discovered; being unrelated to symptoms, such neoplasms may not require surgical excision.

text: Analysis of trace materials most often begins with a visual examination of the evidence usually involving macrophotography. This is then usually followed by microscopic analysis, of which a number of different types are available depending on the type of material to be analysed, such as a stereomicroscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM) or comparison microscope. SEM is especially useful because X-ray analysis can be conducted on selected areas of the sample, so is a form of microanalysis. It is useful where chemical residues can show unusual elements present which may indicate chemical attack of the product. A car accident caused by a diesel fuel leak, for example, showed traces of sulfur on the cracked tube indicative of attack by sulfuric acid from the battery.

text: Analysis of trace materials most often begins with a visual examination of the evidence usually involving

text: macrophotography

text: . This is then usually followed by

text: microscopic analysis

text: , of which a number of different types are available depending on the type of material to be analysed, such as a

text: stereomicroscope

text: scanning electron microscope

text: (SEM) or

text: comparison microscope

text: . SEM is especially useful because X-ray analysis can be conducted on selected areas of the sample, so is a form of

text: microanalysis

text: . It is useful where chemical residues can show unusual elements present which may indicate chemical attack of the product. A car accident caused by a diesel fuel leak, for example, showed traces of

text: sulfur

text: on the cracked tube indicative of attack by

text: sulfuric acid

text: from the battery.

text: The microscope has been mainly used for scientific discovery. It has also been linked to the arts since its invention in the 17th century. At first scientists used the microscope to view and draw objects not visible with the unaided eye. Early adopters of the microscope, such as Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, were excellent illustrators. After the invention of photography in the 1820s the microscope was later combined with the camera to take pictures instead of relying on an artistic rendering.

text: The microscope has been mainly used for scientific discovery. It has also been linked to the arts since its invention in the 17th century. At first scientists used the microscope to view and draw objects not visible with the unaided eye. Early adopters of the microscope, such as

text: Robert Hooke

text: and

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: , were excellent illustrators. After the invention of

text: photography

text: in the 1820s the microscope was later combined with the camera to take pictures instead of relying on an artistic rendering.

text: Sperm were first observed in 1677 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek using a microscope, he described them as being animalcules (little animals), probably due to his belief in preformationism, which thought that each sperm contained a fully formed but small human.

text: Sperm were first observed in 1677 by

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: using a

text: microscope

text: , he described them as being

text: animalcule

text: s (little animals), probably due to his belief in

text: preformationism

text: , which thought that each sperm contained a fully formed but small human.

text: Ryudamon

text: Ryudamon

text: A biopsy is a medical test commonly performed by a surgeon, interventional radiologist, or an interventional cardiologist involving extraction of sample cells or tissues for examination to determine the presence or extent of a disease. The tissue is generally examined under a microscope by a pathologist, and can also be analyzed chemically. When an entire lump or suspicious area is removed, the procedure is called an excisional biopsy. When only a sample of tissue is removed with preservation of the histological architecture of the tissue’s cells, the procedure is called an incisional biopsy or core biopsy. When a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle in such a way that cells are removed without preserving the histological architecture of the tissue cells, the procedure is called a needle aspiration biopsy. Biopsies are most commonly performed for insight into possible cancerous and inflammatory conditions.

text: A biopsy is a

text: medical test

text: commonly performed by a

text: surgeon

text: interventional radiologist

text: , or an

text: interventional cardiologist

text: involving extraction of

text: sample

text: cells

text: or

text: tissue

text: s for examination to determine the presence or extent of a disease. The tissue is generally examined under a

text: microscope

text: by a

text: pathologist

text: , and can also be analyzed chemically. When an entire lump or suspicious area is removed, the procedure is called an excisional biopsy. When only a sample of tissue is removed with preservation of the

text: histological

text: architecture of the tissue’s cells, the procedure is called an incisional biopsy or core biopsy. When a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle in such a way that cells are removed without preserving the histological architecture of the tissue cells, the procedure is called a

text: needle aspiration biopsy

text: . Biopsies are most commonly performed for insight into possible cancerous and inflammatory conditions.

text: In 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria and other microorganisms, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.

text: In 1676,

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek

text: observed bacteria and other microorganisms, using a single-lens

text: microscope

text: of his own design.

text: The optical components of a modern microscope are very complex and for a microscope to work well, the whole optical path has to be very accurately set up and controlled. Despite this, the basic operating principles of a microscope are quite simple.

text: Venneri ran for the Montrealers' Party in the 1994 municipal election and finished third against Vittorio Capparelli, who had by this time joined the Vision Montreal (VM) party. The Montrealers' Party dissolved the following year, with Venneri remarking that its questionable financial strategies had doomed it from the start.

text: Venneri ran for the Montrealers' Party in the 1994 municipal election and finished third against Vittorio Capparelli, who had by this time joined the

text: Vision Montreal

text: (VM) party. The Montrealers' Party dissolved the following year, with Venneri remarking that its questionable financial strategies had doomed it from the start.

text: The Boston Garden was a frequent host of Vince McMahon's WWF for many years throughout the 1970s and 1980s, in the form of wrestling "house shows", and superstars like Hulk Hogan, André the Giant, Randy "Macho Man" Savage, Tito Santana, Ricky "The Dragon" Steamboat and many others would regularly appear there. But despite this relationship, the Boston Garden was host to only one pro wrestling pay-per-view in its history: the 1993 Survivor Series. The WWF held their final house show in the Boston Garden on May 13, 1995.

text: The Boston Garden was a frequent host of Vince McMahon's

text: WWF

text: for many years throughout the 1970s and 1980s, in the form of wrestling "

text: house show

text: s", and superstars like

text: Hulk Hogan

text: André the Giant

text: Randy "Macho Man" Savage

text: Tito Santana

text: Ricky "The Dragon" Steamboat

text: and many others would regularly appear there. But despite this relationship, the Boston Garden was host to only one pro wrestling pay-per-view in its history:

text: the 1993 Survivor Series

text: . The WWF held their final house show in the Boston Garden on May 13, 1995.

text: <ref>{{cite journal|author1=E.T. den Braber |author2=H.V. Jansen |author3=M.J. de Boer |author4=H.J.E. Croes |author5=M. Elwenspoek |author6=J.A. Jansen  |last-author-amp=yes |title=Scanning electron microscopic, transmission electron microscopic, and confocal laser scanning microscopic observation of fibroblasts cultured on microgrooved surfaces of bulk titanium substrata|journal= J. Biomed. Mater. Res. |year=1998|volume= 40|pages= 425–433|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(19980605)40:3

text: 38 tornadoes were reported in the U.S. in August.

text: Production occurred in Lithuania, at a cost of €1.3 million (US$1.8 million), making it the most expensive film ever made in Lithuania.

text: Pablo Abián finished first in the European Ranking in the season 2010/2011.

text: In 1943 he married Rosemary Cowan; they had two sons.

text: Live cells or tissues with intact cell membranes are not coloured.  Since cells are very selective in the compounds that pass through the membrane, in a viable cell trypan blue is not absorbed; however, it traverses the membrane in a dead cell. Hence, dead cells are shown as a distinctive blue colour under a microscope. Since live cells are excluded from staining, this staining method is also described as a dye exclusion method. This dye may be a cause of certain birth defects such as encephalocele.

text: Live cells or tissues with intact

text: cell membrane

text: s are not coloured.  Since cells are very selective in the compounds that pass through the membrane, in a viable cell trypan blue is not absorbed; however, it traverses the membrane in a dead cell. Hence, dead cells are shown as a distinctive blue colour under a microscope. Since live cells are excluded from staining, this staining method is also described as a dye exclusion method. This dye may be a cause of certain birth defects such as

text: encephalocele

text: In 1980, Dio sang the tracks "To Live for the King" and "Mask of the Great Deceiver" on Kerry Livgren's solo album, Seeds of Change.

text: In 1980, Dio sang the tracks "To Live for the King" and "Mask of the Great Deceiver" on

text: Kerry Livgren

text: 's solo album,

text: Seeds of Change

text: In 1841 Eyre led the first expedition to cross the Nullarbor Plain, east to west, with Baxter as his overseer. The small party reached Eucla, at the head of the Bight, on 11 March 1841. Heading further west, the harsh terrain became even more arid.

text: In 1841

text: Eyre

text: led the first expedition to cross the

text: Nullarbor Plain

text: , east to west, with Baxter as his overseer. The small party reached

text: Eucla

text: , at the head of the Bight, on 11 March 1841. Heading further west, the harsh terrain became even more arid.

text: Aristoi Classical Academy, formerly West Houston Charter School, is a state charter school in Katy, Texas. The school, which serves grades K-12, is limited by the State of Texas to have up to 440 students. The school may accept students residing in the following school districts: Alief, Cypress-Fairbanks, Fort Bend, Houston, Katy ISD, Lamar Consolidated, and Royal. It does not accept residents of the Sealy Independent School District. At one time the school had a high school program.

text: Aristoi Classical Academy, formerly West Houston Charter School, is a state charter school in

text: Katy, Texas

text: . The school, which serves grades K-12, is limited by the State of Texas to have up to 440 students. The school may accept students residing in the following school districts:

text: Alief

entity_name: Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District

text: Cypress-Fairbanks

text: Fort Bend

text: Houston

text: Katy ISD

entity_name: Lamar Consolidated Independent School District

text: Lamar Consolidated

text: , and

text: Royal

text: . It does not accept residents of the

text: Sealy Independent School District

text: . At one time the school had a high school program.

text: Amateur Microscopy is the investigation and observation of biological and non-biological specimens for recreational purposes. Collectors of minerals, insects, seashells, and plants may use microscopes as tools to uncover features that help them classify their collected items. Other amateurs may be interested in observing the life found in pond water and of other samples. Microscopes may also prove useful for the water quality assessment for people that keep a home aquarium. Photographic documentation and drawing of the microscopic images are additional tasks that augment the spectrum of tasks of the amateur. There are even competitions for photomicrograph art. Participants of this pastime may either use commercially prepared microscopic slides or engage in the task of specimen preparation.

text: Amateur Microscopy is the investigation and observation of

text: biological

text: and non-biological specimens for recreational purposes. Collectors of

text: mineral

text: s,

text: insect

text: s,

text: seashell

text: s, and

text: plant

text: s may use

text: microscope

text: s as tools to uncover features that help them

text: classify

text: their collected items. Other amateurs may be interested in observing the life found in pond water and of other samples. Microscopes may also prove useful for the water quality assessment for people that keep a

text: home aquarium

text: . Photographic documentation and drawing of the microscopic images are additional tasks that augment the spectrum of tasks of the amateur. There are even competitions for

text: photomicrograph

text: art. Participants of this pastime may either use commercially prepared microscopic slides or engage in the task of specimen preparation.

text: The Big Ore () is a 1964 drama film directed by Vasiliy Ordynskiy and based on the novel by Georgi Vladimov.

text: The Big Ore () is a 1964

text: drama film

text: directed by Vasiliy Ordynskiy and based on the novel by

text: Georgi Vladimov

text: Rockbrook is an unincorporated community in Albemarle County, Virginia.

text: Rockbrook is an

text: unincorporated community

text: in

text: Albemarle County

text: Virginia

text: It was experimentally observed microscopically in 1982.

text: Besides considering the resolution of the optics, one must also maximize visibility by maximizing image contrast. A microscope with excellent resolution may not be able to image a structure, that is there is no visibility, if image contrast is poor. Image contrast depends upon the quality of the optics, coatings on the lenses, and reduction of flare and glare; but, it also requires proper specimen preparation and good etching techniques. So, obtaining good images requires maximum resolution and image contrast.

text: Besides considering the resolution of the optics, one must also maximize visibility by maximizing image

text: contrast

text: . A microscope with excellent resolution may not be able to image a structure, that is there is no visibility, if image contrast is poor. Image contrast depends upon the quality of the optics, coatings on the lenses, and reduction of flare and

text: glare

text: ; but, it also requires proper specimen preparation and good etching techniques. So, obtaining good images requires maximum resolution and image contrast.

text: By combining laser, detector and optical tweezers, ULTRA provides molecular dynamics to study physical and life sciences. The multiple arrays of ULTRA allow great flexibility to combine multiple beams across the spectrum in different timing and pulse lengths. Ultra manipulates microscopic particles suspended in liquid in such a way that the forces are not intrusive or destructive.

text: By combining laser, detector and

text: optical tweezers

text: , ULTRA provides molecular dynamics to study physical and life sciences. The multiple arrays of ULTRA allow great flexibility to combine multiple beams across the spectrum in different timing and pulse lengths. Ultra manipulates microscopic particles suspended in liquid in such a way that the forces are not intrusive or destructive.