text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1993–1999) began production as The Next Generation was ending. The eponymous Deep Space Nine space station took Sternbach and Herman Zimmerman several months to design. The show's producers insisted that it look "weird" and distinctly non-Starfleet. Every episode of Deep Space Nine includes shots of the  shooting model. Sternbach and Jim Martin designed the show's runabout vessel, conceived as a way to allow the station's crew to continue with Star Treks main themes of exploration in a show set on an immobile space station. Seven weeks went into the creation of the ship's cockpit—however, when an episode of The Next Generation needed to depict the runabout's living quarters, designer Richard James and set decorator Jim Mees had only nine days to both design and build the set. Martin also designed the USS Defiant under the direction of Gary Hutzel and Zimmerman. The Defiant was introduced in the third season to give the show's character greater range and capabilities when leaving the station. Starting with the show's third season, spacecraft exteriors began to be computer-generated. The studio VisionArt created computer models for several Deep Space Nine ships, including the Defiant, the runabouts, and Jem'Hadar vessels. VisionArt also created a CGI model of the Deep Space Nine, which was used for the final shot of the series finale. Digital Muse and Foundation Imaging also contributed toward Deep Space Nines special effects and computer modeling. Although the production designers gave the new spin-off a distinct look, Deep Space Nine used numerous ship models created for The Next Generation and, later, Star Trek: First Contact (1996).

entity_name: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: (1993–1999) began production as The Next Generation was ending. The eponymous

entity_name: Deep Space Nine (fictional space station)

text: Deep Space Nine space station

text: took Sternbach and

entity_name: Herman F. Zimmerman

text: Herman Zimmerman

text: several months to design. The show's producers insisted that it look "weird" and distinctly non-Starfleet. Every episode of Deep Space Nine includes shots of the  shooting model. Sternbach and Jim Martin designed the show's

entity_name: Runabout (Star Trek)

text: runabout

text: vessel, conceived as a way to allow the station's crew to continue with Star Treks main themes of exploration in a show set on an immobile space station. Seven weeks went into the creation of the ship's cockpit—however, when an episode of The Next Generation needed to depict the runabout's living quarters, designer Richard James and set decorator

entity_name: Jim Mees

text: Jim Mees

text: had only nine days to both design and build the set. Martin also designed the

entity_name: USS Defiant

text: USS Defiant

text: under the direction of

entity_name: Gary Hutzel

text: Gary Hutzel

text: and Zimmerman. The Defiant was introduced in the third season to give the show's character greater range and capabilities when leaving the station. Starting with the show's third season, spacecraft exteriors began to be computer-generated. The studio VisionArt created computer models for several Deep Space Nine ships, including the Defiant, the runabouts, and

entity_name: List of Star Trek races

entity_section: Jem'Hadar

text: Jem'Hadar

text: vessels. VisionArt also created a CGI model of the Deep Space Nine, which was used for the final shot of the series finale. Digital Muse and

entity_name: Foundation Imaging

text: Foundation Imaging

text: also contributed toward Deep Space Nines special effects and computer modeling. Although the production designers gave the new spin-off a distinct look, Deep Space Nine used numerous ship models created for The Next Generation and, later,

entity_name: Star Trek: First Contact

text: Star Trek: First Contact

text: The International Space Station (ISS) is the only permanently inhabited structure currently in space.  It is the size of an American football field and has a crew of six.  With a living volume of 358 m³, it has more interior room than the cargo beds of two American  18-wheeler trucks.  However, because of the microgravity environment of the space station, there are not always well-defined walls, floors, and ceilings and all pressurized areas can be utilized as living and working space.  The International Space Station is still under construction.  Modules were primarily launched using the Space Shuttle until its deactivation and were assembled by its crew with the help of the working crew on board the space station.  ISS modules were often designed and built to barely fit inside the shuttle's payload bay, which is cylindrical with a 4.6 meter diameter.

text: NASA has applied some of Gunderson’s research to space exploration and used the results to help with development of training programs and psychological evaluations for flight crews of long-duration space missions, in particular to study missions to Mars. The studies done by Gunderson and his colleagues at early Antarctic research stations were particularly relevant to behavior and performance on long-duration spaceflights because the harsh, extreme conditions found at the early Antarctic research stations were similar to those conditions expected to be found during space exploration. Data from these studies has been used in developing screening criteria for selection of personnel for long-duration missions in space.

entity_name: NASA

text: NASA

text: has applied some of Gunderson’s research to

entity_name: Space exploration

text: space exploration

text: and used the results to help with development of training programs and psychological evaluations for flight crews of long-duration space missions, in particular to study missions to

entity_name: Mars

text: Mars

text: . The studies done by Gunderson and his colleagues at early Antarctic research stations were particularly relevant to behavior and performance on long-duration spaceflights because the harsh, extreme conditions found at the early Antarctic research stations were similar to those conditions expected to be found during space exploration. Data from these studies has been used in developing screening criteria for selection of personnel for long-duration missions in space.

text: The Small Explorer (SMEX) program is an effort within NASA to fund space exploration missions that cost no more than . started in 1989. The first set of three SMEX missions were launched between 1992 and 1998. The second set of two missions were launched in 1998 and 1999. These missions were managed by the Small Explorer Project Office at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). In early 1999, that office was closed and with the announcement of opportunity for the third set of SMEX missions NASA converted the program so that each mission was managed by its Principal Investigator, with oversight by the GSFC Explorers Project.

text: The Small Explorer (SMEX) program is an effort within

text: NASA

text: to fund

text: space exploration

text: missions that cost no more than . started in 1989. The first set of three SMEX missions were launched between 1992 and 1998. The second set of two missions were launched in 1998 and 1999. These missions were managed by the Small Explorer Project Office at NASA's

entity_name: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: (GSFC). In early 1999, that office was closed and with the announcement of opportunity for the third set of SMEX missions NASA converted the program so that each mission was managed by its Principal Investigator, with oversight by the GSFC Explorers Project.

text: The Soviet space program, founded by Sergey Korolev, was especially successful. On 4 October 1957 Soviet Union launched the first space satellite Sputnik. On 12 April 1961 Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship Vostok 1. Other achievements of Russian space program include: the first photo of the far side of the Moon; exploration of Venus; the first spacewalk by Alexey Leonov; first female spaceflight by Valentina Tereshkova. More recently, the Soviet Union produced the world's first space station, Salyut which in 1986 was replaced by Mir, the first consistently inhabited long-term space station, that served from 1986 to 2001.

text: The

entity_name: Soviet space program

text: Soviet space program

text: , founded by

entity_name: Sergei Korolev

text: Sergey Korolev

text: , was especially successful. On 4 October 1957 Soviet Union launched the first

entity_name: Satellite

text: space satellite

entity_name: Sputnik 1

text: Sputnik

text: . On 12 April 1961

entity_name: Yuri Gagarin

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship

entity_name: Vostok 1

text: Vostok 1

text: . Other achievements of Russian space program include: the first photo of the

entity_name: Far side of the Moon

text: far side of the Moon

text: ; exploration of

entity_name: Venus

text: Venus

text: ; the first

entity_name: Extravehicular activity

text: spacewalk

text: by

entity_name: Alexey Leonov

text: Alexey Leonov

text: ; first female spaceflight by

entity_name: Valentina Tereshkova

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: . More recently, the Soviet Union produced the world's first space station,

entity_name: Salyut programme

text: Salyut

text: which in 1986 was replaced by

entity_name: Mir

text: Mir

text: , the first consistently inhabited long-term space station, that served from 1986 to 2001.

text: In early 2006, he joined the Atlanta firm of SpaceWorks Enterprises, Inc. (SEI) as an affiliate and technical advisor (on a non-exclusive basis). Dr. Chiao assists the firm on space technologies and operating processes for future space exploration concepts and research on the commercialization of space. In July 2006, Chiao accepted a position as the Executive Vice President for Space Operations and a Director of Excalibur Almaz Limited. He was responsible for operational aspects of spaceflight, including training for both the capsule and space station. The company assembled a team from the Isle of Man, the United States, Russia, the Ukraine, and Continental Europe to begin work towards refurbishing and flying a capsule in space based upon the design of the Almaz capsules.

text: In early 2006, he joined the Atlanta firm of

entity_name: SpaceWorks Enterprises

text: SpaceWorks Enterprises, Inc.

text: (SEI) as an affiliate and technical advisor (on a non-exclusive basis). Dr. Chiao assists the firm on space technologies and operating processes for future space exploration concepts and research on the

entity_name: Commercial use of space

text: commercialization of space

text: . In July 2006, Chiao accepted a position as the Executive Vice President for Space Operations and a Director of

entity_name: Excalibur Almaz

text: Excalibur Almaz

text: Limited. He was responsible for operational aspects of spaceflight, including training for both the capsule and space station. The company assembled a team from the Isle of Man, the United States, Russia, the Ukraine, and Continental Europe to begin work towards refurbishing and flying a capsule in space based upon the design of the Almaz capsules.

text: By this time the UCL group had been involved in providing instrumentation for over 100 rocket launches, mainly from the Woomera Test Range in Australia, but with the recent founding of the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), with Massey as chairman, they were increasing involved with European as well as American projects. They produced the electron spectrometer for NASA's Cassini mission, the spectrometer for ESA's Herschel Space Observatory and the UV/Optical Telescope for the Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer.

text: By this time the UCL group had been involved in providing instrumentation for over 100 rocket launches, mainly from the

entity_name: Woomera Test Range

text: Woomera Test Range

text: in

entity_name: Australia

text: Australia

text: , but with the recent founding of the

entity_name: European Space Research Organisation

text: European Space Research Organisation

text: (ESRO), with Massey as chairman, they were increasing involved with European as well as American projects. They produced the electron spectrometer for

text: NASA

text: 's

entity_name: Cassini–Huygens

text: Cassini mission

text: , the spectrometer for

entity_name: European Space Agency

text: ESA

text: 's

entity_name: Herschel Space Observatory

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: and the UV/Optical Telescope for the

entity_name: Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission

text: Swift Gamma Ray Burst Explorer

text: As a concept wide range of technologies and architectures have been examined. The use of technology from the James Webb Space Telescope was also explored.

text: A space observatory is any instrument, such as a telescope, in outer space which is used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. In 1946, American theoretical astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer was the first to conceive the idea of a telescope in outer space, a decade before the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik into orbit. Spitzer's proposal called for a large telescope that would not be hindered by Earth's atmosphere. After lobbying in the 1960s and 1970s for such a system to be built, Spitzer's vision ultimately materialized into the world's first space-based optical telescope, Hubble Space Telescope, which was launched on April 20, 1990 by the Space Shuttle Discovery (STS-31).

text: A space observatory is any instrument, such as a telescope, in outer space which is used for observation of distant

entity_name: Planet

text: planets

entity_name: Galaxy

text: galaxies

text: , and other

entity_name: Outer space

text: outer space

text: objects. In 1946, American theoretical astrophysicist

entity_name: Lyman Spitzer

text: Lyman Spitzer

text: was the first to conceive the idea of a telescope in outer space, a decade before the

entity_name: Soviet Union

text: Soviet Union

text: launched the first

text: artificial satellite

text: Sputnik

text: into orbit. Spitzer's proposal called for a large telescope that would not be hindered by Earth's

entity_name: Atmosphere

text: atmosphere

text: . After lobbying in the 1960s and 1970s for such a system to be built, Spitzer's vision ultimately materialized into the world's first space-based optical telescope,

entity_name: Hubble Space Telescope

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , which was launched on April 20, 1990 by the

entity_name: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: Solar cells were first used in a prominent application when they were proposed and flown on the Vanguard satellite in 1958, as an alternative power source to the primary battery power source. By adding cells to the outside of the body, the mission time could be extended with no major changes to the spacecraft or its power systems. In 1959 the United States launched Explorer 6, featuring large wing-shaped solar arrays, which became a common feature in satellites. These arrays consisted of 9600 Hoffman solar cells.

text: Solar cells were first used in a prominent application when they were proposed and flown on the Vanguard satellite in 1958, as an alternative power source to the

entity_name: Primary cell

text: primary battery

text: power source. By adding cells to the outside of the body, the mission time could be extended with no major changes to the spacecraft or its power systems. In 1959 the United States launched

entity_name: Explorer 6

text: Explorer 6

text: , featuring large wing-shaped solar arrays, which became a common feature in satellites. These arrays consisted of 9600

entity_name: Les Hoffman

text: Hoffman solar cells

text: During the summer of 2011 Duke collaborated with his friend Hu Davis (SolarHigh.org and Vehicle Manager Lunar Capsule 5, "Eagle", Apollo 11 and a participant in the 1980 space policy preparations; and a group of high school students led by Evan Gray from RAM STEM Academy in San Antonio, Texas on the future of space exploration including Space-Based Solar Power, Lunar, and Mars missions. During the “Solar Summer of 2011”, Duke led the high school team through a process that yielded the following thinking about the future: The “cloud” (cyber) and space are energy. The rockets, satellites, receiving stations,electrical grid, cars, homes and businesses that consume space-based solar power are all robots. Thus, space-based solar power is one platform (the cloud) for energy, computing, communications, and robotics: Cloud 2.0. Duke’s intellectual gift was a deep and impassioned ability to think, dream, imagine,question, reason, plan, and share his vision so that others could carry these designs into the future.

text: Lori Glaze is a scientist and Deputy Division Director at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. Glaze was a member of the Inner Planets Panel during the most recent Planetary Science Decadal Survey, and has had a role on the Executive Committee of NASA's Venus Exploration Analysis Group (VEXAG) for several years, serving as the group's Chair since 2013.  She has been involved with many NASA-sponsored Venus mission concept formulation studies, including as a member of the Venus Flagship Science and Technology Definition Team (2009), as Science Champion for the Venus Mobile Explorer (2010), and Co-Science Champion for the Venus Intrepid Tessera Lander (2010). Glaze has been an advocate for women in science and for the importance of understanding Venus in our quest to better understand Earth. Glaze has more than 15 years of scientific management experience, including over ten years as the Vice President of Proxemy Research, Inc. She also spent three years as Associate Laboratory Chief and three years as Deputy Director in the Solar System Exploration Division at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

text: Lori Glaze is a scientist and Deputy Division Director at

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: . Glaze was a member of the Inner Planets Panel during the most recent

entity_name: Planetary Science Decadal Survey

text: Planetary Science Decadal Survey

text: , and has had a role on the Executive Committee of NASA's Venus Exploration Analysis Group (VEXAG) for several years, serving as the group's Chair since 2013.  She has been involved with many NASA-sponsored Venus mission concept formulation studies, including as a member of the Venus Flagship Science and Technology Definition Team (2009), as Science Champion for the Venus Mobile Explorer (2010), and Co-Science Champion for the Venus Intrepid Tessera Lander (2010). Glaze has been an advocate for women in science and for the importance of understanding Venus in our quest to better understand Earth. Glaze has more than 15 years of scientific management experience, including over ten years as the Vice President of Proxemy Research, Inc. She also spent three years as Associate Laboratory Chief and three years as Deputy Director in the Solar System Exploration Division at

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.

text: The

entity_name: International Space Station

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) combines NASA's

entity_name: Space Station Freedom

text: Space Station Freedom

text: project with the Soviet/Russian

text: station, the European

entity_name: Columbus (ISS module)

text: Columbus

text: station, and the Japanese

entity_name: Kibo (ISS module)

text: Kibō

text: laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the

entity_name: Roscosmos State Corporation

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: (RKA), the

entity_name: JAXA

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA), the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA), and the

entity_name: Canadian Space Agency

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external

entity_name: Integrated Truss Structure

text: trusses

entity_name: Photovoltaic system

text: solar arrays

text: and other components, which have been launched by Russian

entity_name: Proton (rocket family)

text: Proton

text: and

entity_name: Soyuz (rocket family)

text: Soyuz

text: rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is

entity_name: Assembly of the International Space Station

text: currently being assembled

text: in

entity_name: Low Earth orbit

text: Low Earth Orbit

text: . The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the

entity_name: US Orbital Segment

text: US Orbital Segment

text: occurred in 2011 and the completion of the

entity_name: Russian Orbital Segment

text: Russian Orbital Segment

text: is expected by 2016. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow

entity_name: Russia

text: Russia

text: to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.

text: It was part of the Soviet Salyut programme, and launched on 19 April 1982 on a Proton rocket from Site 200/40 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in what was then the Soviet Union. Salyut 7 was part of the transition from "monolithic" to "modular" space stations, acting as a testbed for docking of additional modules and expanded station operations. It was the tenth space station of any kind launched. Salyut 7 was the last Space Station of the Salyut Program, which was replaced by Mir.

text: It was part of the

text: Soviet

text: Salyut programme

text: , and launched on 19 April 1982 on a

text: Proton rocket

text: from

entity_name: Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 200

text: Site 200/40

text: at the

entity_name: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: in what was then the

text: Soviet Union

text: . Salyut 7 was part of the transition from "monolithic" to "modular" space stations, acting as a testbed for docking of additional modules and expanded station operations. It was the tenth space station of any kind launched. Salyut 7 was the last Space Station of the Salyut Program, which was replaced by

text: Mir

text: In order to get the Shuttle approved, NASA over-promised its economies and utility. To justify its very large fixed operational program cost, NASA initially forced all domestic, internal, and Department of Defense payloads to the shuttle. When that proved impossible (after the Challenger disaster), NASA used the International Space Station (ISS) as a justification for the shuttle. Some speculate that, had NASA avoided the Shuttle program and instead continued to use Saturn and commercially available boosters, costs might have been lower, freeing funds for manned exploration and more unmanned space science.  In particular, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin argued in a 2007 paper that the Saturn program, if continued, could have provided six manned launches per year — two of them to the moon — at the same cost as the Shuttle program, with an additional ability to loft infrastructure for further missions:

text: In order to get the Shuttle approved, NASA over-promised its economies and utility. To justify its very large fixed operational program cost, NASA initially forced all domestic, internal, and

text: Department of Defense

text: payloads to the shuttle. When that proved impossible (after the Challenger disaster), NASA used the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) as a justification for the shuttle. Some speculate that, had NASA avoided the Shuttle program and instead continued to use

text: Saturn

text: and commercially available boosters, costs might have been lower, freeing funds for manned exploration and more unmanned space science.  In particular,

text: NASA administrator

text: Michael D. Griffin

text: argued in a 2007 paper that the Saturn program, if continued, could have provided six manned launches per year — two of them to the moon — at the same cost as the Shuttle program, with an additional ability to loft infrastructure for further missions:

text: Space exploration – use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft.

text: Space exploration

text: – use of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: space technology

text: to explore

text: outer space

text: . Physical

text: exploration

text: of space is conducted both by

text: human spaceflight

text: s and by

text: robotic spacecraft

text: The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, dubbed Freedom. The USSR launched three Almaz military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of Mir, the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. Mir orbited at an altitude of , at a 51.6° inclination. It was occupied for 4,592 days, and made a controlled reentry in 2001.

text: The two nations continued to compete rather than cooperate in space, as the US turned to developing the Space Shuttle and planning the space station, dubbed

text: Freedom

text: . The USSR launched three

text: Almaz

text: military sortie stations from 1973 to 1977, disguised as Salyuts. They followed Salyut with the development of

text: Mir

text: , the first modular, semi-permanent space station, the construction of which took place from 1986 to 1996. Mir orbited at an altitude of , at a 51.6° inclination. It was occupied for 4,592 days, and made a controlled reentry in 2001.

text: In November 2010, Nye became the face of a new permanent exhibition at the Chabot Space & Science Center in Oakland, California. Bill Nye’s Climate Lab features Nye as commander of the Clean Energy Space Station, and invites visitors on an urgent mission to thwart climate change. Beginning with a view of Planet Earth from space, visitors explore air, water, and land galleries to discover how climate change affects Earth’s connected systems, and how to use the Sun, wind, land, and water to generate clean energy. In an interview about the exhibit, Nye said, “Everything in the exhibit is geared to showing you that the size of the problem of climate change is big. Showing you a lot about energy use ... It’s a huge opportunity ... We need young people, entrepreneurs, young inventors, young innovators to change the world.”

text: In November 2010, Nye became the face of a new permanent exhibition at the

text: Chabot Space & Science Center

text: in Oakland, California. Bill Nye’s Climate Lab features Nye as commander of the Clean Energy Space Station, and invites visitors on an urgent mission to thwart climate change. Beginning with a view of Planet Earth from space, visitors explore air, water, and land galleries to discover how climate change affects Earth’s connected systems, and how to use the Sun, wind, land, and water to generate clean energy. In an interview about the exhibit, Nye said, “Everything in the exhibit is geared to showing you that the size of the problem of climate change is big. Showing you a lot about energy use ... It’s a huge opportunity ... We need young people, entrepreneurs, young inventors, young innovators to change the world.”

text: As with the 9/11 disaster discussed above, cycles attach themselves to celebrities or national catastrophes such as the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, the death of Michael Jackson, and the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. These cycles arise regularly as a response to terrible unexpected events which command the national news. An in-depth analysis of the Challenger joke cycle documents a change in the type of humour circulated following the disaster, from February to March 1986. "It shows that the jokes appeared in distinct 'waves', the first responding to the disaster with clever wordplay and the second playing with grim and troubling images associated with the event…The primary social function of disaster jokes appears to be to provide closure to an event that provoked communal grieving, by signaling that it was time to move on and pay attention to more immediate concerns."

text: As with the

text: disaster discussed above, cycles attach themselves to celebrities or national catastrophes such as the

text: death of Diana, Princess of Wales

text: , the

text: death of Michael Jackson

text: , and the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: . These cycles arise regularly as a response to terrible unexpected events which command the national news. An in-depth analysis of the Challenger joke cycle documents a change in the type of humour circulated following the disaster, from February to March 1986. "It shows that the jokes appeared in distinct 'waves', the first responding to the disaster with clever wordplay and the second playing with grim and troubling images associated with the event…The primary social function of disaster jokes appears to be to provide closure to an event that provoked communal grieving, by signaling that it was time to move on and pay attention to more immediate concerns."

text: Following his separation from the service, Hickam worked as an engineer for the United States Army Aviation and Missile Command from 1971 to 1978, assigned to Huntsville. Between 1978 and 1981, he was an engineer for the 7th Army Training Command in Germany.  After returning to the United States in 1981, Hickam was employed by National Aeronautics and Space Administration at Marshall Space Flight Center as an aerospace engineer. During his NASA career, Hickam worked in spacecraft design and crew training. His specialties at NASA included training astronauts in regard to science payloads and extra-vehicular activities (EVA). Additionally, Hickam trained astronaut crews for numerous Spacelab and Space Shuttle missions, including the Hubble Space Telescope deployment mission, the first two Hubble repair missions, Spacelab-J (with the first Japanese astronauts), and the Solar Max repair mission. Prior to his retirement from NASA in 1998, Hickam was the Payload Training Manager for the International Space Station Program.

text: Following his separation from the service, Hickam worked as an engineer for the

entity_name: United States Army Aviation and Missile Command

text: United States Army Aviation and Missile Command

text: from 1971 to 1978, assigned to

text: Huntsville

text: . Between 1978 and 1981, he was an engineer for the 7th Army Training Command in Germany.  After returning to the United States in 1981, Hickam was employed by

text: National Aeronautics and Space Administration

text: at

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: as an aerospace engineer. During his NASA career, Hickam worked in spacecraft design and crew training. His specialties at NASA included training

text: astronaut

text: s in regard to science payloads and

text: extra-vehicular activities

text: (EVA). Additionally, Hickam trained astronaut crews for numerous

text: Spacelab

text: and

text: Space Shuttle

text: missions, including the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: deployment mission, the first two Hubble repair missions,

text: Spacelab-J

text: (with the first Japanese astronauts), and the

text: Solar Max

text: repair mission. Prior to his retirement from NASA in 1998, Hickam was the Payload Training Manager for the

text: International Space Station Program

text: The proposal for a larger aircraft-mounted telescope was officially presented in 1984 and called for a Boeing 747 to carry a three-meter telescope. The preliminary system concept was published in 1987 in a Red Book. It was agreed that Germany would contribute 20% of the total cost and provide the telescope. However, the reunification of Germany and budget cuts at NASA led to a five-year slide in the project. NASA then contracted the work out to the Universities Space Research Association (USRA), and in 1996, NASA and DLR (the German Space Agency or Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt) signed a memorandum of understanding to build and operate SOFIA.

text: The proposal for a larger aircraft-mounted telescope was officially presented in 1984 and called for a

text: Boeing 747

text: to carry a three-meter telescope. The preliminary system concept was published in 1987 in a Red Book. It was agreed that Germany would contribute 20% of the total cost and provide the telescope. However, the reunification of Germany and budget cuts at NASA led to a five-year slide in the project. NASA then contracted the work out to the Universities Space Research Association (USRA), and in 1996, NASA and DLR (the German Space Agency or Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft- und Raumfahrt) signed a memorandum of understanding to build and operate SOFIA.

text: Space law involves a specific set of international treaties, along with national commercialization laws. The system and framework for international and domestic laws were established through the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. The rules, terms and agreements that space law authorities consider to be part of the active body of international space law are the five international space treaties and five UN declarations. Approximately 100 nations and institutions were involved in negotiations.  The space treaties cover many major issues such as arms control, non-appropriation of space, freedom of exploration, liability for damages, safety and rescue of astronauts and spacecraft, prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, notification and registration of space activities, and the settlement of disputes. In exchange for assurances from the space power, the nonspacefaring nations acquiesced to U.S. and Soviet proposals to treat outer space as a commons (res communis) territory which belonged to no one state.

text: Using archival footage, this film explores the American space program, from the Mercury program through Gemini program through the return to space after the Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster.

text: Using archival footage, this film explores the American space program, from the

text: Mercury program

text: through

text: Gemini program

text: through the return to space after the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster

text: Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle, or simply Shuttle-Derived Vehicle (SDV), is a term describing one of a wide array of concepts that have been developed for creating space launch vehicles from the components, technology and infrastructure of the Space Shuttle program.  SDVs have also been part of NASA's plans several times in the past.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, NASA formally studied a cargo-only vehicle, Shuttle-C, that would have supplemented the crewed Space Shuttle in orbiting payloads.

text: Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle, or simply Shuttle-Derived Vehicle (SDV), is a term describing one of a wide array of concepts that have been developed for creating space

text: launch vehicle

text: s from the components, technology and infrastructure of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: .  SDVs have also been part of NASA's plans several times in the past.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, NASA formally studied a cargo-only vehicle,

text: Shuttle-C

text: , that would have supplemented the crewed Space Shuttle in orbiting payloads.

text: The 'International Space Station (ISS) is a space station in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest artificial body in orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets as well as American Space Shuttles.

text: The 'International Space Station (ISS) is a

text: space station

text: in

text: low Earth orbit

text: . Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest artificial body in orbit and can often be seen with the

text: naked eye

text: from Earth. The ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses,

text: solar arrays

text: and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian

text: Proton

text: and

text: Soyuz

text: rockets as well as American

text: Space Shuttle

text: s.

text: After 2004, NASA had been shifting its focus towards space exploration as mandated by the Vision for Space Exploration. Because of this, it was perceived by some that regional NASA centers like Glenn, which focus on research and technology, were becoming more and more marginalized in terms of resources and relevance. However, on May 13, 2006, it was announced that NASA Glenn Research Center had secured management of the Crew Exploration Vehicle's service module, which promised to generate billions of dollars and hundreds of jobs for the center.  This work secured the center's future in the near term, and signalled a shift in priority for the center from aeronautical research to space exploration, aligning itself closer with NASA's new mission.

text: After 2004, NASA had been shifting its focus towards space exploration as mandated by the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: . Because of this, it was perceived by some that regional NASA centers like Glenn, which focus on research and technology, were becoming more and more marginalized in terms of resources and relevance. However, on May 13, 2006, it was announced that NASA Glenn Research Center had secured management of the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: 's service module, which promised to generate billions of dollars and hundreds of jobs for the center.  This work secured the center's future in the near term, and signalled a shift in priority for the center from aeronautical research to space exploration, aligning itself closer with NASA's new mission.

text: Although the Sun will probably not be physically explored at all, the study of the Sun has nevertheless been a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earth's magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface. The Sun generates most space weather, which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective. Solar Probe Plus, planned for a 2018 launch, will approach the Sun to within 1/8th the orbit of Mercury.

text: Although the

text: Sun

text: will probably not be physically explored at all, the study of the Sun has nevertheless been a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earth's magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach Earth's surface. The Sun generates most

text: space weather

text: , which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective.

text: Solar Probe Plus

text: , planned for a 2018 launch, will approach the Sun to within 1/8th the orbit of Mercury.

text: CNSA's logo is a similar design to that of China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation. The arrow in the middle is similar to the Chinese character 人 which means 'human' or 'people', to state that humans are the center of all space exploration.  The three concentric ellipses stand for three types of Escape Velocity (minimum speed needed to reach sustainable orbits, to escape the earth system, and to escape the solar system) which are milestones of space exploration. The second ring is drawn with a bold line, to state that China has passed the first stage of exploration (earth system) and is undergoing the second stage exploration (within the solar system). The 人 character stands above the three rings to emphasize humanity's capability to escape and explore. Olive branches were added to state that China's space exploration is peaceful in nature.

text: CNSA's logo is a similar design to that of

entity_name: China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation

text: China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation

text: . The arrow in the middle is similar to the Chinese character 人 which means 'human' or 'people', to state that humans are the center of all space exploration.  The three concentric ellipses stand for three types of

text: Escape Velocity

text: (minimum speed needed to reach sustainable orbits, to escape the earth system, and to escape the solar system) which are milestones of space exploration. The second ring is drawn with a bold line, to state that China has passed the first stage of exploration (earth system) and is undergoing the second stage exploration (within the solar system). The 人 character stands above the three rings to emphasize humanity's capability to escape and explore.

text: Olive branch

text: es were added to state that China's space exploration is peaceful in nature.

text: The main purpose of Space Shuttle Mission 2007 is to allow the gamer to experience real historical NASA Space Shuttle missions from liftoff (T-00:01:50:00) to landing. Initially, Space Shuttle Mission 2007 was released with a set of 11 missions but as time passed, the development team has been releasing new missions as free add-ons. The missions include satellite deployment and servicing (including the Hubble Telescope), building and servicing the International Space Station, numerous extra-vehicular activities and landing at Kennedy Space Center and Edwards Air Force Base.

text: The main purpose of Space Shuttle Mission 2007 is to allow the gamer to experience real historical

text: NASA

text: Space Shuttle

text: missions from liftoff (T-00:01:50:00) to landing. Initially, Space Shuttle Mission 2007 was released with a set of 11 missions but as time passed, the development team has been releasing new missions as free add-ons. The missions include

text: satellite

text: deployment and servicing (including the

text: Hubble Telescope

text: ), building and servicing the

text: International Space Station

text: , numerous

text: extra-vehicular activities

text: and landing at

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: and

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: It is unforeseen how the first human landing on Mars will change the current policies regarding the exploration of space and occupancy of celestial bodies. In the 1967, United Nations Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, it was determined that no country may take claim to space or its inhabitants.  Since the planet Mars offers a challenging environment and dangerous obstacles for humans to overcome, the laws and culture on the planet will most likely be very different from those on Earth.  With Elon Musk announcing his plans for travel to Mars, it is uncertain how to the dynamic of a private company possibly being the first to put a human on Mars will play out on a national and global scale. With NASA having recently taken a cut in funding, it is no longer certain that they will be a leading force in the journey to Mars. It is likely that the values and culture on Mars will be determined by the group that establishes human contact with the planet first.

text: Performing astronomy from ground-based observatories on Earth is limited by the filtering and distortion of electromagnetic radiation (scintillation or twinkling) due to the atmosphere. Some terrestrial telescopes can reduce atmospheric effects with adaptive optics. A telescope orbiting Earth outside the atmosphere is subject neither to twinkling nor to light pollution from artificial light sources on Earth. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture.

text: Performing

text: astronomy

text: from

text: ground-based observatories

text: on Earth is limited by the filtering and distortion of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: scintillation

text: or twinkling) due to the

text: atmosphere

text: . Some terrestrial telescopes can reduce atmospheric effects with

text: adaptive optics

text: . A telescope orbiting Earth outside the atmosphere is subject neither to twinkling nor to

text: light pollution

text: from artificial light sources on Earth. As a result, the

text: angular resolution

text: of space telescopes is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar

text: aperture

text: The Columbia disaster was caused by impact damage when a chunk of polyurethane foam impacted the carbon fibre composite wing of the space shuttle. Although tests had been conducted before the disaster, the test chunks were much smaller than the chunk that fell away from the booster rocket and hit the exposed wing.

text: The

text: Columbia disaster

text: was caused by impact damage when a chunk of

text: polyurethane

text: foam

text: impacted the

text: carbon fibre

text: composite

text: wing of the

text: space shuttle

text: . Although tests had been conducted before the disaster, the test chunks were much smaller than the chunk that fell away from the booster rocket and hit the exposed wing.

text: In support of human space systems, Orbital is one of two companies providing commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station for NASA. Orbital's medium-class rocket- Antares is used to launch the Cygnus advanced maneuvering spacecraft to deliver cargo to the ISS. Under the Commercial Resupply Services contract with NASA, Orbital will perform eight cargo missions to the ISS. Operational flights began in 2013 from the new Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport at Wallops Island in Virginia. In addition, the company is exploring opportunities to adapt the Cygnus design for other possible space exploration applications.

text: In support of human space systems, Orbital is one of two companies providing commercial cargo resupply services to the

text: International Space Station

text: for

text: NASA

text: . Orbital's medium-class rocket-

text: Antares

text: is used to launch the

text: Cygnus

text: advanced maneuvering spacecraft to deliver cargo to the ISS. Under the

text: Commercial Resupply Services

text: contract with NASA, Orbital will perform eight cargo missions to the ISS. Operational flights began in 2013 from the new

text: Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

text: at Wallops Island in Virginia. In addition, the company is exploring opportunities to adapt the Cygnus design for other possible space exploration applications.

text: The Space Shuttle was originally designed to utilize on-board turbofan engines for propulsion within the atmosphere, both upon re-entry and for ferry flights between landing sites, such as Edwards Air Force Base, the White Sands Missile Range, or contingency landing sites such as Easter Island, to the launch site at Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral. When the air-breathing engines were deleted from the Shuttle design due to cost and weight concerns, a requirement arose for a transport aircraft capable of carrying the Shuttle from landing sites back to the Kennedy Space Center. One early design for a shuttle carrier aircraft was proposed by John M. Conroy, developer of the Pregnant Guppy and Super Guppy oversized cargo aircraft, in cooperation with the NASA Langley Research Center; named Virtus, a contract was issued for design and development work in 1974.

text: The Space Shuttle was originally designed to utilize on-board

text: turbofan

text: engines for propulsion within the atmosphere, both upon

text: re-entry

text: and for ferry flights between landing sites, such as

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: , the

text: White Sands Missile Range

text: , or contingency landing sites such as

text: Easter Island

text: , to the launch site at

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: at

text: Cape Canaveral

text: . When the air-breathing engines were deleted from the Shuttle design due to cost and weight concerns, a requirement arose for a transport aircraft capable of carrying the Shuttle from landing sites back to the Kennedy Space Center. One early design for a shuttle carrier aircraft was proposed by

text: John M. Conroy

text: , developer of the

text: Pregnant Guppy

text: and

text: Super Guppy

text: oversized cargo aircraft, in cooperation with the

text: NASA Langley Research Center

text: ; named Virtus, a contract was issued for design and development work in 1974.

text: Although its pace slowed, space exploration continued after the end of the Space Race. The United States launched the first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, on the 20th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, April 12, 1981. On November 15, 1988, the Soviet Union duplicated this with an unmanned flight of the Buran shuttle, its first and only reusable spacecraft. It was never used again after the first flight; instead the Soviet Union continued to develop space stations using the Soyuz craft as the crew shuttle.

text: Although its pace slowed, space exploration continued after the end of the Space Race. The United States launched the first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, on the 20th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, April 12, 1981. On November 15, 1988, the Soviet Union duplicated this with an unmanned flight of the

text: Buran

text: shuttle, its first and only reusable spacecraft. It was never used again after the first flight; instead the Soviet Union continued to develop space stations using the Soyuz craft as the crew shuttle.

text: An internal NASA risk assessment study (conducted by the Shuttle Program Safety and Mission Assurance Office at Johnson Space Center) released in late 2010 or early 2011 concluded that the agency had seriously underestimated the level of risk involved in operating the Shuttle. The report assessed that there was a 1 in 9 chance of a catastrophic disaster during the first nine flights of the Shuttle but that safety improvements had later improved the risk ratio to 1 in 90.

text: An internal NASA risk assessment study (conducted by the Shuttle Program Safety and Mission Assurance Office at

text: Johnson Space Center

text: ) released in late 2010 or early 2011 concluded that the agency had seriously underestimated the level of risk involved in operating the Shuttle. The report assessed that there was a 1 in 9 chance of a catastrophic disaster during the first nine flights of the Shuttle but that safety improvements had later improved the risk ratio to 1 in 90.

text: STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the 4th shuttle launch since the Challenger Disaster and the first shuttle mission since the disaster to have a female astronaut on board. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May. During the mission, Atlantis deployed the Venus-bound Magellan probe into orbit.

text: STS-30 was the 29th

text: NASA

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission and the fourth mission for

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: . It was the 4th shuttle launch since the

text: Challenger Disaster

text: and the first shuttle mission since the disaster to have a female astronaut on board. The mission launched from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: , on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May. During the mission, Atlantis deployed the

text: Venus

text: -bound

text: Magellan

text: probe into orbit.

text: Walker has been an industry member of the NASA Microgravity Material Science Assessment Task Force, the NASA Space Station Office Quick-is Beautiful/Rapid Response Research Study Group, and the NASA Space Station Operations Task Force. He has been a member of the National Research Council's Space Applications Board. Walker was Faculty Course Advisor and lecturer for the International Space university 1988 summer session. He was a participant in the 1988 Center for Strategic and International Studies civil Space policy study. He served on the AIAA steering committee formulating the strategic plan for NASA's office of Commercial Programs. Walker has served as a founding board member of the Astronauts Memorial Foundation. He was the organizing committee chairman for the 1992 World Space Congress. He has been a national panel member of the NASA/Industry Manned Flight Awareness Program and the NASA/Industry Education Initiative. Walker advised the NASA/Purdue University space life support research center, a NASA/Penn State space commercial development center and a U.S. Department of Education/Ohio State University science education center. He has been a board director of the Challenger Center for Space Science Education. Walker has served as the volunteer chairman of the board of directors of Spacecause, and is past president and board director of the National Space Society. He has also been a board director of the Association of Space Explorers. As an advisor Walker works with commercial space firms Space Adventures, Ltd and Deep Space Industries, Inc., and the Commercial Spaceflight Federation. Walker is a professional engineer registered in California. He has been an expert witness testifying before committees of the U.S. Congress. He has authored several papers and book contributions on the EOS electrophoresis program, space development, commercialization, and space history. Walker has also written columns and articles appearing in national newspapers and numerous other publications.

text: Walker has been an industry member of the NASA Microgravity Material Science Assessment Task Force, the NASA Space Station Office Quick-is Beautiful/Rapid Response Research Study Group, and the NASA Space Station Operations Task Force. He has been a member of the National Research Council's Space Applications Board. Walker was Faculty Course Advisor and lecturer for the International Space university 1988 summer session. He was a participant in the 1988 Center for Strategic and International Studies civil Space policy study. He served on the AIAA steering committee formulating the strategic plan for NASA's office of Commercial Programs. Walker has served as a founding board member of the

text: Astronauts Memorial Foundation

text: . He was the organizing committee chairman for the 1992

text: World Space Congress

text: . He has been a national panel member of the NASA/Industry Manned Flight Awareness Program and the NASA/Industry Education Initiative. Walker advised the NASA/Purdue University space life support research center, a NASA/Penn State space commercial development center and a

text: U.S. Department of Education

text: Ohio State University

text: science education center. He has been a board director of the

entity_name: Challenger Center for Space Science Education

text: Challenger Center for Space Science Education

text: . Walker has served as the volunteer chairman of the board of directors of Spacecause, and is past president and board director of the

text: National Space Society

text: . He has also been a board director of the

text: Association of Space Explorers

text: . As an advisor Walker works with commercial space firms Space Adventures, Ltd and Deep Space Industries, Inc., and the Commercial Spaceflight Federation. Walker is a professional engineer registered in California. He has been an expert witness testifying before committees of the U.S. Congress. He has authored several papers and book contributions on the EOS electrophoresis program, space development, commercialization, and space history. Walker has also written columns and articles appearing in national newspapers and numerous other publications.

text: In 2002, Lounge became Director of Space Shuttle and Space Station Program Development for Boeing. Two years later he became Director for Business Development for integrated defense systems and space exploration.

text: In 2002, Lounge became Director of Space Shuttle and Space Station Program Development for

text: Boeing

text: . Two years later he became Director for Business Development for integrated defense systems and space exploration.

text: A number of American space exploration "firsts" were launched from CCAFS, including the first U.S. Earth satellite (1958), first U.S. astronaut (1961), first U.S. astronaut in orbit (1962), first two-man U.S. spacecraft (1965), first U.S. unmanned lunar landing (1966), and first three-man U.S. spacecraft (1968). It was also the launch site for all of the first spacecraft to (separately) fly past each of the planets in the Solar System (1962–1977), the first spacecraft to orbit Mars (1971) and roam its surface (1996), the first American spacecraft to orbit and land on Venus (1978), the first spacecraft to orbit Saturn (2004), and to orbit Mercury (2011), and the first spacecraft to leave the Solar System (1977).

text: A number of American space exploration "firsts" were launched from CCAFS, including

text: the first U.S. Earth satellite

text: first U.S. astronaut

text: first U.S. astronaut in orbit

text: first two-man U.S. spacecraft

text: first U.S. unmanned lunar landing

text: (1966), and

text: first three-man U.S. spacecraft

text: (1968). It was also the launch site for all of the first spacecraft to (separately)

text: fly past each of the planets

text: in the Solar System (1962–1977), the

text: first spacecraft to orbit Mars

text: (1971) and

text: roam its surface

text: (1996), the first

text: American spacecraft to orbit and land on Venus

text: (1978), the

text: first spacecraft to orbit Saturn

text: (2004), and

text: to orbit Mercury

text: (2011), and

text: the first spacecraft to leave the Solar System

text: The service module's main engine for Exploration Mission 1 will be a Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engine left over from the Space Shuttle program, in which it flew on 19 missions and carried out 89 burns.

text: The service module's main engine for Exploration Mission 1 will be a

entity_name: Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System

text: Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System

text: (OMS) engine left over from the Space Shuttle program, in which it flew on 19 missions and carried out 89 burns.

text: The Spitzer Space Telescope (SST), formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), is an infrared space telescope launched in 2003. It is the fourth and final of the NASA Great Observatories program.

text: The Spitzer Space Telescope (SST), formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), is an

text: infrared

text: space telescope

text: launched in 2003. It is the fourth and final of the

text: NASA

text: Great Observatories program

text: When the space shuttle was in service on missions to the International Space Station, the beta angle of the space station's orbit was a crucial consideration; periods referred to as "beta cutout", during which the shuttle could not safely be launched to the ISS, were a direct result of the beta angle of the space station at those times.  When the orbiter was in-flight (not docked to ISS) and it flew to a beta angle greater than 60 degrees, the orbiter went into "rotisserie" mode, and slowly rotated around its X-axis (nose to tail axis). For flights to ISS, the shuttle could launch during an ISS beta cutout if the ISS would be at a beta less than 60 degrees at dock, and throughout the docked phase. Therefore, the mission duration affected launch timing when the beta cutout dates were approaching.

text: When the

text: space shuttle

text: was in service on missions to the

text: International Space Station

text: , the beta angle of the space station's orbit was a crucial consideration; periods referred to as "beta cutout", during which the shuttle could not safely be launched to the ISS, were a direct result of the beta angle of the space station at those times.  When the orbiter was in-flight (not docked to ISS) and it flew to a beta angle greater than 60 degrees, the orbiter went into "rotisserie" mode, and slowly rotated around its X-axis (nose to tail axis). For flights to ISS, the shuttle could launch during an ISS beta cutout if the ISS would be at a beta less than 60 degrees at dock, and throughout the docked phase. Therefore, the mission duration affected launch timing when the beta cutout dates were approaching.

text: The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003. While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss. NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.

text: The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters:

text: Challenger

text: in 1986, and Columbia in 2003. While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the

text: second loss

text: . NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.

text: Michael Najjar's "outer space" work series deals with the latest developments in space exploration and the way they will shape our future life on Earth, in Earth’s near orbit and on other planets.The cultural dimension represented by emergent cutting-edge space technologies is very much at the center of Najjars´s work – in terms of the deeper knowledge these new technologies will impart about the universe, their impact on space travel, and the way they will influence and shape our lives and work on Earth. This ongoing series started in 2011 with the final launch of the American Space Shuttle Atlantis and currently comprises 24 photographic artworks and 4 video works. The artist has traveled to the world´s most important spaceports like the Kennedy Space Center, Baikonour Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan and the Guiana Space Centre near Kourou in French Guiana. He has met with numerous scientists, engineers and astronauts, and visited space laboratories around the globe constructing new spacecrafts, satellites and telescopes. He traveled to the Atacama Desert in Chile to photograph the world´s most powerful telescopes located at sites across high altitude plateaus in the Andes. His collaboration with leading scientists and space agencies has given him privileged access to locations which are usually unknown to and unseen by the public. The present series blends documentary and fictive scenarios to create visionary enactments of current and future space exploration.

text: The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 is a U.S. law which authorizes NASA appropriations for fiscal years 2011–2013 with the same top-line budget values as requested by President of the United States Barack Obama. The law supports an overall growth in science, aeronautics, and space technology and defines a long-term goal for human spaceflight to expand a permanent human presence beyond low Earth orbit. Key objectives of this goal include full utilization of the International Space Station (ISS), determining the ability of humans to live in outer space for extended periods of time, maximizing the role of space exploration and space technology in current and future missions, advancing knowledge and inspiring young people into higher education, and building upon international partnerships.

text: The

text: NASA

text: Authorization Act of 2010 is a U.S. law which authorizes NASA appropriations for

text: fiscal year

text: s 2011–2013 with the same top-line budget values as requested by

text: President of the United States

text: Barack Obama

text: . The law supports an overall growth in

text: science

text: aeronautics

text: , and

text: space technology

text: and defines a long-term goal for

text: human spaceflight

text: to expand a permanent human presence

text: beyond low Earth orbit

text: . Key objectives of this goal include full utilization of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), determining the ability of humans to live in

text: outer space

text: for extended periods of time, maximizing the role of

text: space exploration

text: and

text: space technology

text: in current and future missions, advancing knowledge and inspiring young people into

text: higher education

text: , and building upon international partnerships.

text: The sixth story, "Come Live With Me," is one of the last stories written by Tiptree. It is the only story in this collection regarding the far future and deep space. It's a quick, simple tale of a deep-space exploration crew's encounter with a mind-controlling lily, mainly from the plant's perspective. The plant has never encountered a being more intelligent than a space beaver, so meeting humans and their egos is a big change.

text: The sixth story, "Come Live With Me," is one of the last stories written by Tiptree. It is the only story in this collection regarding the far future and deep space. It's a quick, simple tale of a

text: deep-space exploration

text: crew's encounter with a

text: mind-controlling

text: lily

text: , mainly from the plant's perspective. The plant has never encountered a being more intelligent than a space

text: beaver

text: , so meeting humans and their

text: egos

text: is a big change.

text: 2003's Discovery theme produced six sets related to past and present NASA efforts at the time, including the Apollo Program, the Space Shuttle, the International Space Station, and the Mars Exploration Rover mission.

text: Discovery

text: theme produced six sets related to past and present

text: NASA

text: efforts at the time, including the

text: Apollo Program

text: , the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , the

text: International Space Station

text: , and the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: mission.

text: Grant Archer, a young astrophysicist and recently married man dreams of exploring collapsing stars, in hope that one day he would be able to find a way in creating wormholes, to create instantaneous transportation. However, upon graduating he finds out that he must go to Jupiter on a four-year public service, enforced by the ultraconservative religious organization the "New Morality". His orders are to spy on the scientists of the space station "Gold"; where it is believed, and feared that they have found new living species living in a liquid ocean, deep below Jupiter's clouds.As Archer's anger and frustration wears off, he soon finds himself befriending the crew, and drawn to the station's super-secret project; a select few wearing bioimplants in their legs, and a mysterious spacecraft attached to the space station.

text: The modern, balanced approach to exploring an extraterrestrial destination involves several phases of exploration, each of which needs to produce rationale for progressing to the next phase.  The phase immediately preceding human exploration can be described as anthropocentric sensing, that is, sensing designed to give humans as realistic a feeling as possible of actually exploring in person.  More, the line between a human system and a robotic system in space is not always going to be clear.  As a general rule, the more formidable the environment, the more essential robotic technology is.  Robotic systems can be broadly considered part of space architecture when their purpose is to facilitate the habitation of space or extend the range of the physiological senses into space.

text: The modern, balanced approach to exploring an extraterrestrial destination involves several phases of exploration, each of which needs to produce rationale for progressing to the next phase.  The phase immediately preceding human exploration can be described as anthropocentric sensing, that is, sensing designed to give humans as realistic a feeling as possible of actually exploring in person.  More, the line between a human system and a robotic system in space is not always going to be clear.  As a general rule, the more formidable the environment, the more essential robotic technology is.  Robotic systems can be broadly considered part of space architecture when their purpose is to facilitate the habitation of space or extend the range of the physiological

text: senses

text: into space.

text: While solar power is much more commonly used, nuclear power offers great advantages in many areas. Solar cells, although efficient, can only supply energy to spacecraft in orbits where the solar flux is sufficiently high, such as low Earth orbit and interplanetary destinations close enough to the Sun. Unlike solar cells, nuclear power systems function independently of sunlight, which is necessary for deep space exploration. Nuclear reactors are especially beneficial in space because of their lower weight-to-capacity ratio than solar cells. Therefore, nuclear power systems take up much less space than solar power systems. Compact spacecraft are easier to orient and direct in space when precision is needed. Estimates of nuclear power, which can power both life support and propulsion systems, suggest that use of these systems can effectively reduce both cost and flight time.

text: While

text: solar power

text: is much more commonly used, nuclear power offers great advantages in many areas. Solar cells, although efficient, can only supply energy to spacecraft in orbits where the solar flux is sufficiently high, such as low Earth orbit and interplanetary destinations close enough to the Sun. Unlike solar cells, nuclear power systems function independently of sunlight, which is necessary for

text: deep space exploration

text: . Nuclear reactors are especially beneficial in space because of their lower weight-to-capacity ratio than solar cells. Therefore, nuclear power systems take up much less space than solar power systems. Compact spacecraft are easier to orient and direct in space when precision is needed. Estimates of nuclear power, which can power both life support and propulsion systems, suggest that use of these systems can effectively reduce both cost and flight time.

text: Planet Earth explores geoscience and how discoveries of the early and mid-1980s were revolutionizing mankind's understanding of the Earth's past, present, and future. It also highlights scientific discoveries not yet fully understood and still under study in the mid-1980s. The series explores the Earth's origins, history, and structure; the forces that operate continually to alter its surface; its oceans; its climate; its natural resources; its biosphere and the effects of life on the physical world; its relationship to the Sun and other bodies in the solar system; and its possible future in the face of pressures the growing human population places on the natural world.

text: Planet Earth explores

text: geoscience

text: and how discoveries of the early and mid-1980s were revolutionizing mankind's understanding of the Earth's past, present, and future. It also highlights scientific discoveries not yet fully understood and still under study in the mid-1980s. The series explores the Earth's origins, history, and structure; the forces that operate continually to alter its surface; its oceans; its climate; its

text: natural resources

text: ; its

text: biosphere

text: and the effects of life on the physical world; its relationship to the

text: Sun

text: and other bodies in the

text: solar system

text: ; and its possible future in the face of pressures the growing human population places on the natural world.

text: The Lab-on-a-Chip Applications Development (LOCAD) element is a set of related lab-on-a-chip projects at NASA. The projects develop integrated lab-on-a-chip products in three areas related to space exploration: Environmental Control and Life Systems Support (ECLSS), Medical Systems, and Remote Exploration. NASA conducts activities related to these projects both at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and aboard the International Space Station (ISS).

text: The Lab-on-a-Chip Applications Development (LOCAD) element is a set of related

text: lab-on-a-chip

text: projects at

text: NASA

text: . The projects develop integrated lab-on-a-chip products in three areas related to

text: space exploration

text: Environmental Control and Life Systems Support

text: (ECLSS), Medical Systems, and Remote Exploration. NASA conducts activities related to these projects both at NASA

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: and aboard the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS).

text: The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998. Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of Rassvet. All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required installation by ISS and shuttle crewmembers using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and EVAs; , they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles. The beta angle of the station had to be considered at all times during construction, as the station's beta angle is directly related to the percentage of its orbit that the station (as well as any docked or docking spacecraft) is exposed to the sun; the Space Shuttle would not perform optimally above a limit called the "beta cutoff". Many of the modules that launched on the Space Shuttle were integrated and tested on the ground at the Space Station Processing Facility to find and correct issues prior to launch.

text: The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in

text: space architecture

text: , began in November 1998. Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of

text: Rassvet

text: . All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required installation by ISS and shuttle crewmembers using the

text: (SSRMS) and

entity_name: List of International Space Station spacewalks

text: EVAs

text: ; , they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA. 127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles. The

text: beta angle

text: of the station had to be considered at all times during construction, as the station's beta angle is directly related to the percentage of its orbit that the station (as well as any docked or docking spacecraft) is exposed to the sun; the Space Shuttle would not perform optimally above a limit called the "beta cutoff". Many of the modules that launched on the Space Shuttle were

text: integrated and tested on the ground

text: at the

text: Space Station Processing Facility

text: to find and correct issues prior to launch.

text: In the Microsoft Windows operating systems, My Network Places is the network browser feature in Windows Explorer from Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows 2000, Windows Me, Internet Explorer 6.0, Internet Explorer 5.5 and Internet Explorer 5.0 onwards. It superseded the Network Neighborhood feature from Windows 95, Windows NT 4.0, Windows 98 and Internet Explorer 4.0.

text: In the

text: Microsoft Windows

text: operating systems

text: , My Network Places is the

text: network browser

text: feature in

text: Windows Explorer

text: from

text: Windows XP

text: Windows Server 2003

text: Windows 2000

text: Windows Me

text: Internet Explorer 6.0

text: Internet Explorer 5.5

text: and

text: Internet Explorer 5.0

text: onwards. It superseded the Network Neighborhood feature from

text: Windows 95

text: Windows NT 4.0

text: Windows 98

text: and

text: Internet Explorer 4.0

text: Rendezvous in Space is a 1964 documentary film about the future of space exploration, directed by Frank Capra. It is notable for being the final film that Frank Capra directed. The film was funded by Martin Marietta and was shown at the Hall of Science Pavilion of the 1964-1965 New York World's Fair. Animated sections illustrate the invention of gunpowder, a space shuttle resupplying a space station, and the problems to be overcome living for long periods in space.

text: Rendezvous in Space is a 1964 documentary film about the future of

text: space exploration

text: , directed by

text: Frank Capra

text: . It is notable for being the final film that Frank Capra directed. The film was funded by

text: Martin Marietta

text: and was shown at the

text: Hall of Science Pavilion

text: of the

text: 1964-1965 New York World's Fair

text: . Animated sections illustrate the invention of gunpowder, a space shuttle resupplying a space station, and the problems to be overcome living for long periods in space.

text: The stories span approximately one thousand years of future history, from the first human explorations of the Solar System to the colonization of dozens of nearby systems. Late in the series, Known Space is an irregularly shaped "bubble" about 60 light-years across.

text: The stories span approximately one thousand years of

text: future history

text: , from the first human explorations of the

text: Solar System

text: to the colonization of dozens of

text: nearby systems

text: . Late in the series, Known Space is an irregularly shaped "bubble" about 60

text: light-year

text: s across.

text: Fast Infrared Exoplanet Spectroscopy Survey Explorer  (FINESSE) is a proposed NASA mission and space observatory in the explorer program consisting of a space telescope focused on studying the atmospheres of over 200 planets outside the Solar System  with the goal of gaining understanding of the processes responsible for their composition, and how the Solar System fits into the larger family of planets.

text: Fast Infrared Exoplanet Spectroscopy Survey Explorer  (FINESSE) is a proposed

text: NASA

text: mission and

text: space observatory

text: in the

text: explorer program

text: consisting of a space telescope focused on studying the atmospheres of over 200

text: planets outside the Solar System

text: with the goal of gaining understanding of the processes responsible for their composition, and how the Solar System fits into the larger family of planets.

text: The NASA mission of the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) is to use infrared light to scan the entire sky for millions of hidden objects, including asteroids, failed stars and powerful galaxies . Launched on December 14, 2009, the data from WISE will serve as a navigation tool for other probes in space missions, such as NASA's Hubble telescope and the Spitzer Space Telescope. The first image was presented at the 215th annual AAS meeting. An infrared snapshot of a region in the constellation Carina, near the Milky Way was taken shortly after the survey telescope ejected its cover. In a patch of sky three times larger than the moon, the picture shows about 3,000 stars in the Carina constellation.

text: The

text: NASA

text: mission of the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: (WISE) is to use infrared light to scan the entire sky for millions of hidden objects, including

text: asteroid

text: s, failed stars and powerful

text: galaxies

text: . Launched on December 14, 2009, the data from WISE will serve as a navigation tool for other probes in

text: space mission

text: s, such as NASA's

text: Hubble telescope

text: and the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: . The first image was presented at the 215th annual AAS meeting. An

text: infrared

text: snapshot of a region in the constellation

text: Carina

text: , near the Milky Way was taken shortly after the survey

text: telescope

text: ejected its cover. In a patch of sky three times larger than the moon, the picture shows about 3,000 stars in the Carina constellation.

text: The Cosmosphere museum begins with the earliest experiments in rocketry during the World War II era, explores through the Space Race and Cold War, and continues through modern times with the Space Shuttle and International Space Station, as well as SpaceShipOne and commercial spaceflight.

text: The Cosmosphere museum begins with the earliest experiments in rocketry during the

text: World War II

text: era, explores through the

text: Space Race

text: and

text: Cold War

text: , and continues through modern times with the

text: Space Shuttle

text: and

text: International Space Station

text: , as well as

text: SpaceShipOne

text: and

text: commercial spaceflight

text: Wheels Stop: The Tragedies and Triumphs of the Space Shuttle Program, 1986-2011 is a 2013 nonfiction book by Rick Houston. Wheels Stop tells the stirring story of how, after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, the space shuttle not only recovered but went on to perform its greatest missions.

text: Wheels Stop: The Tragedies and Triumphs of the Space Shuttle Program, 1986-2011 is a 2013 nonfiction book by Rick Houston. Wheels Stop tells the stirring story of how, after the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , the

text: space shuttle

text: not only recovered but went on to perform its greatest missions.

text: Bold They Rise: The Space Shuttle Early Years (1972-1986) is a 2014 non-fiction book by David Hitt and Heather R. Smith. Bold They Rise tells the story of the space shuttle through the personal experiences of the astronauts, engineers, and scientists who made it happen—in space and on the ground, from the days of research and design through the heroic accomplishments of the program to the tragic last minutes of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.

text: Bold They Rise: The Space Shuttle Early Years (1972-1986) is a 2014 non-fiction book by

text: David Hitt

text: and Heather R. Smith. Bold They Rise tells the story of the

text: space shuttle

text: through the personal experiences of the astronauts, engineers, and scientists who made it happen—in space and on the ground, from the days of research and design through the heroic accomplishments of the program to the tragic last minutes of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: However, no further effort toward establishing a set of constants was forthcoming until 1950. An IAU Symposium on the system of constants was held at Paris in 1963, partially in response to recent developments in space exploration. The attendees finally decided at that time to establish a consistent set of constants. Resolution 1 stated that

text: The Exploration Systems Architecture Study concluded that the cost and safety of the Ares was superior to that of either of the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELVs). The cost estimates in the study were based on the assumption that new launch pads would be needed for human-rated EELVs.  The facilities for the current EELVs (LC-37 for Delta IV, LC-41 for Atlas V) are in place and could be modified, but this may not have been the most cost effective solution as LC-37 is a contractor owned and operated (COGO) facility and modifications for the Delta IV H were determined to be similar to those required for Ares I. The ESAS launch safety estimates for the Ares were based on the Space Shuttle, despite the differences, and included only launches after the post-Challenger Space Shuttle redesign. The estimate counted each Shuttle launch as two safe launches of the Ares booster. The safety of the Atlas V and Delta IV was estimated from the failure rates of all Delta II, Atlas-Centaur, and Titan launches since 1992, although they are not similar designs.

text: The Exploration Systems Architecture Study concluded that the cost and safety of the Ares was superior to that of either of the

text: Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

text: (EELVs). The cost estimates in the study were based on the assumption that new launch pads would be needed for

text: human-rated

text: EELVs.  The facilities for the current EELVs (LC-37 for Delta IV, LC-41 for Atlas V) are in place and could be modified, but this may not have been the most cost effective solution as LC-37 is a contractor owned and operated (COGO) facility and modifications for the Delta IV H were determined to be similar to those required for Ares I. The ESAS launch safety estimates for the Ares were based on the Space Shuttle, despite the differences, and included only launches after the post-Challenger Space Shuttle redesign. The estimate counted each Shuttle launch as two safe launches of the Ares booster. The safety of the

text: Atlas V

text: and

text: Delta IV

text: was estimated from the failure rates of all

text: Delta II

text: Atlas-Centaur

text: , and Titan launches since 1992, although they are not similar designs.

text: NASA facilities exist across the United States, but also across the world. NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC provides overall guidance and political leadership to the agency. There are 10 NASA field centers, which provide leadership for and execution of NASA's work. These field centers are: Ames (Research), Armstrong (Flight Research), Glenn (Research), Goddard (Space Flight), JPL (Space Flight), Johnson (Space), Kennedy (Space), Langley (Research), Marshall (Space Flight), Stennis (Space). All other facilities fall under the leadership of at least one of these field centers. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA has used or supported various observatories and telescopes, and an example of this is the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility.  In 2013 a NASA Office of the Inspector General's (OIG) Report recommended a Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) style organization to consolidate NASA's little used facilities. The OIG determined at least 33 of NASA's 155 facilities were underutilized.

text: NASA facilities exist across the

text: United States

text: , but also across the world.

text: NASA Headquarters

text: in Washington, DC provides overall guidance and political leadership to the agency. There are 10 NASA field centers, which provide leadership for and execution of NASA's work. These field centers are:

text: Ames (Research)

text: Armstrong (Flight Research)

text: Glenn (Research)

text: Goddard (Space Flight)

text: JPL (Space Flight)

text: Johnson (Space)

text: Kennedy (Space)

text: Langley (Research)

text: Marshall (Space Flight)

text: Stennis (Space)

text: . All other facilities fall under the leadership of at least one of these field centers. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA has used or supported various observatories and telescopes, and an example of this is the

text: NASA Infrared Telescope Facility

text: .  In 2013 a NASA Office of the Inspector General's (OIG) Report recommended a

text: Base Realignment and Closure Commission

text: (BRAC) style organization to consolidate NASA's little used facilities. The OIG determined at least 33 of NASA's 155 facilities were underutilized.

text: This was the first version of Plus! and had an initial cost of US$ 49.99. It included Space Cadet Pinball, the Internet Jumpstart Kit (which was the introduction of Internet Explorer 1.0), DriveSpace 3 and Compression Agent disk compression utilities, the initial release of theme support along with a set of 12 themes, dial-up networking server, dial-up scripting tool, and the graphical improvements such as anti-aliased screen fonts, full-window drag, the ability to stretch or shrink the wallpaper to fit the screen and highcolor icons. Task Scheduler as it is present in later Windows versions was included as System Agent. A utility to notify the user of low disk space (DiskAlm.exe) also ran as part of System Agent. Plus! for Windows 95 was initially marketed for adding features for "high-performance computers", the minimum system requirements were an 80386 CPU with 8 megabytes of RAM. Later releases of Windows 95 (OSR2 and onwards) included DriveSpace 3 and Internet Explorer 3.0. Windows 98 included all of the enhancements included in Plus! for Windows 95. The Pinball game was not installed by default, but included on the Windows 98 CD.

text: This was the first version of Plus! and had an initial cost of US$ 49.99. It included

text: Space Cadet Pinball

text: , the Internet Jumpstart Kit (which was the introduction of

text: Internet Explorer 1.0

text: DriveSpace

text: 3 and Compression Agent disk compression utilities, the initial release of

text: theme

text: support along with a set of 12 themes, dial-up networking server, dial-up scripting tool, and the graphical improvements such as anti-aliased screen fonts, full-window drag, the ability to stretch or shrink the wallpaper to fit the screen and

text: highcolor

text: icons.

text: Task Scheduler

text: as it is present in later Windows versions was included as System Agent. A utility to notify the user of low disk space (DiskAlm.exe) also ran as part of System Agent. Plus! for

text: Windows 95

text: was initially marketed for adding features for "high-performance computers", the minimum system requirements were an

text: CPU with 8

text: megabyte

text: s of

text: RAM

text: . Later releases of Windows 95 (OSR2 and onwards) included DriveSpace 3 and

text: Internet Explorer 3.0

text: . Windows 98 included all of the enhancements included in Plus! for Windows 95. The Pinball game was not installed by default, but included on the Windows 98 CD.

text: Readdy joined NASA's Johnson Space Center in October 1986 as a research pilot at Ellington Field, Houston, Texas, where he served as program manager for the highly modified Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. He was selected as an astronaut in the 1987 Group. He served in numerous support roles including: Training Officer; Safety Officer; Operations Development Branch Chief; NASA Director of Operations, Star City, Russia; Stafford Task Force; and the first manager of Space Shuttle Program Development charged with upgrading the Space Shuttle. Readdy served as Associate Administrator, NASA HQ Office of Space Flight that has oversight for the Marshall, Kennedy, Stennis and Johnson Space Centers as well as programmatic oversight for International Space Station, Space Shuttle, Space Communications and Space Launch Vehicles.

text: Readdy joined NASA's

text: Johnson Space Center

text: in October 1986 as a research pilot at

text: Ellington Field

text: Houston, Texas

text: , where he served as program manager for the highly modified

text: Boeing 747

text: Shuttle Carrier Aircraft

text: . He was selected as an

text: astronaut

text: in the 1987 Group. He served in numerous support roles including: Training Officer; Safety Officer; Operations Development Branch Chief; NASA Director of Operations,

text: Star City, Russia

text: ; Stafford Task Force; and the first manager of

text: Space Shuttle

text: Program Development charged with upgrading the Space Shuttle. Readdy served as Associate Administrator, NASA HQ Office of Space Flight that has oversight for the

text: Marshall

text: Kennedy

text: Stennis

text: and

text: Johnson

text: Space Center

text: s as well as programmatic oversight for

text: International Space Station

text: , Space Shuttle, Space Communications and Space Launch Vehicles.

text: The Planetary Report is a quarterly magazine published by the Planetary Society, featuring articles and photos of Solar System exploration, planetary missions, spacefaring nations, intrepid explorers, planetary science controversies and the latest findings in space exploration and related subjects.

text: The Planetary Report is a quarterly

text: magazine

text: published by the

text: Planetary Society

text: , featuring articles and photos of

entity_name: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System

text: Solar System exploration

text: planet

text: ary

text: mission

text: s, spacefaring nations, intrepid explorers,

text: planetary science

text: controversies and the latest findings in space exploration and related subjects.

text: The Space Shuttle Atlantis (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV‑104) is a Space Shuttle orbiter belonging to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the spaceflight and space exploration agency of the United States. Constructed by the Rockwell International company in Southern California and delivered to the Kennedy Space Center in Eastern Florida in April 1985, Atlantis is the fourth operational and the second-to-last Space Shuttle built. Its maiden flight was STS-51-J from 3 to 7 October 1985.

text: The Space Shuttle Atlantis (

text: Orbiter Vehicle Designation

text: : OV‑104) is a

text: Space Shuttle orbiter

text: belonging to the

text: (NASA), the

text: spaceflight

text: and

text: space exploration

text: agency of the United States. Constructed by the

text: Rockwell International

text: company in

text: Southern California

text: and delivered to the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: in Eastern

text: Florida

text: in April 1985, Atlantis is the fourth operational and the second-to-last Space Shuttle built. Its maiden flight was

text: from 3 to 7 October 1985.

text: Development of technologies will result in technical solutions that improve thrust levels, Isp, power, specific mass, (or specific power), volume, system mass, system complexity, operational complexity, commonality with other spacecraft systems, manufacturability, durability, and cost. These types of improvements will yield decreased transit times, increased payload mass, safer spacecraft, and decreased costs. In some instances, development of technologies within this TA will result in mission- enabling breakthroughs that will revolutionize space exploration. There is no single propulsion technology that will benefit all missions or mission types. The requirements for in-space propulsion vary widely due according to their intended application. The described technologies should support everything from small satellites and robotic deep space exploration to space stations and human missions to Mars applications.

text: Development of technologies will result in technical solutions that improve thrust levels, Isp, power,

text: specific mass

text: , (or

text: specific power

text: ), volume, system mass, system complexity, operational complexity, commonality with other spacecraft systems, manufacturability, durability, and cost. These types of improvements will yield decreased transit times, increased payload mass, safer spacecraft, and decreased costs. In some instances, development of technologies within this TA will result in mission- enabling breakthroughs that will revolutionize space exploration. There is no single propulsion technology that will benefit all missions or mission types. The requirements for in-space propulsion vary widely due according to their intended application. The described technologies should support everything from small

text: satellite

text: s and

text: robotic deep space exploration

text: to

text: space stations

text: and

text: human missions to Mars applications

text: The SLS launch vehicle is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. Its initial Block 1 version is to lift a payload of 70 metric tons to low Earth orbit (LEO), which will be increased with the debut of Block 1B and the Exploration Upper Stage. Block 2 will replace the initial Shuttle-derived boosters with advanced boosters and is planned to have a LEO capability of more than 130 metric tons to meet the congressional requirement.  These upgrades will allow the SLS to lift astronauts and hardware to destinations beyond LEO: on a circumlunar trajectory, as part of Exploration Mission 1, with Block 1; to a near-Earth asteroid, in Exploration Mission 2, with Block 1B; and to Mars, with Block 2. The SLS will launch the Orion Crew and Service Module and may support trips to the International Space Station if necessary. SLS will use the ground operations and launch facilities at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

text: The SLS launch vehicle is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. Its initial Block 1 version is to lift a

text: payload

text: of 70

text: metric ton

text: s to

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO), which will be increased with the debut of Block 1B and the

text: Exploration Upper Stage

text: . Block 2 will replace the initial Shuttle-derived boosters with advanced boosters and is planned to have a LEO capability of more than 130 metric tons to meet the congressional requirement.  These upgrades will allow the SLS to lift astronauts and hardware to destinations beyond LEO: on a

text: circumlunar trajectory

text: , as part of

text: Exploration Mission 1

text: , with Block 1; to a near-Earth asteroid, in

text: Exploration Mission 2

text: , with Block 1B; and to

text: Mars

text: , with Block 2. The SLS will launch the

text: Orion Crew and Service Module

text: and may support trips to the

text: International Space Station

text: if necessary. SLS will use the ground operations and launch facilities at NASA's

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: , Florida.

text: JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) evacuated the Tsukuba Space Center in Tsukuba, Ibaraki. The Center, which houses a control room for part of the International Space Station, was shut down and some damage was reported.The Tsukuba control center resumed full operations for the space station's Kibo laboratory and the HTV cargo craft on 21 March 2011.

text: JAXA

text: (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) evacuated the

text: Tsukuba Space Center

text: in

text: Tsukuba, Ibaraki

text: . The Center, which houses a control room for part of the

text: International Space Station

text: , was shut down and some damage was reported.The Tsukuba control center resumed full operations for the space station's Kibo laboratory and the HTV cargo craft on 21 March 2011.

text: The planetarium opened in 1970 and has 62 seats. It currently attracts about 90,000 people per year. Shows cover various aspects of space science, including the Solar System, space exploration and has special children's shows.

text: Space exploration is the ongoing discovery and exploration of celestial structures in outer space by means of continuously evolving and growing space technology. While the study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned robotic probes and human spaceflight.

text: Space exploration is the ongoing

text: discovery

text: and

text: exploration

text: of

text: celestial

text: structures in

text: outer space

text: by means of continuously evolving and growing

text: space technology

text: . While the study of space is carried out mainly by

text: astronomer

text: s with

text: telescope

text: s, the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned

text: robotic probes

text: and

text: human spaceflight

text: From an early age, Gorman wanted to be both an astrophysicist and an archaeologist. While she ended up pursuing a career in archaeology, she has reconciled the two by turning her research focus onto the archaeology of space exploration, or simply space archaeology (for the use of satellite imagery to examine archaeological sites and landscapes, see remote sensing). In 2003, she took part in the first conference session on space archaeology at the 5th World Archaeological Congress with John Campbell and Beth Laura O'Leary. Since the mid-00s, she has produced a number of publications on space archaeology and is credited for pioneering the concept of space as a cultural landscape and the application of cultural significance assessment to "space junk". She has also considered the contribution of Indigenous people to global space exploration and the archaeological signatures of this interaction. Gorman's space archaeology research includes the oldest satellite still in orbit, Vanguard 1, the Woomera and Kourou terrestrial launch sites, and the Orroral Valley NASA Tracking Station. In 2013, Gorman received recognition for her work on the archaeology of space when she was invited to present at TEDx Sydney.

text: From an early age, Gorman wanted to be both an astrophysicist and an archaeologist. While she ended up pursuing a career in archaeology, she has reconciled the two by turning her research focus onto the archaeology of space exploration, or simply

text: space archaeology

text: (for the use of satellite imagery to examine archaeological sites and landscapes, see

text: remote sensing

text: ). In 2003, she took part in the first conference session on space archaeology at the 5th World Archaeological Congress with John Campbell and Beth Laura O'Leary. Since the mid-00s, she has produced a number of publications on space archaeology and is credited for pioneering the concept of space as a cultural landscape and the application of cultural significance assessment to "space junk". She has also considered the contribution of Indigenous people to global space exploration and the archaeological signatures of this interaction. Gorman's space archaeology research includes the oldest satellite still in orbit, Vanguard 1, the Woomera and Kourou terrestrial launch sites, and the Orroral Valley NASA Tracking Station. In 2013, Gorman received recognition for her work on the archaeology of space when she was invited to present at

text: TEDx Sydney

text: The Columbia Hills are a range of low hills inside Gusev crater on Mars. They were observed by the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit when it landed within the crater in 2004. They were promptly given an unofficial name by NASA since they were the most striking nearby feature on the surface. The hills lie approximately  away from the rover's original landing position. The range is named to memorialize the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. On February 2, 2004, the individual peaks of the Columbia Hills were named after the seven astronauts who died in the disaster. Spirit spent a few years exploring the Columbia Hills until it ceased to function in 2010. It is also considered a potential landing site for the Mars 2020 rover.

text: The Columbia Hills are a range of low hills inside

text: Gusev crater

text: on

text: Mars

text: . They were observed by the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: Spirit

text: when it landed within the crater in 2004. They were promptly given an unofficial name by

text: NASA

text: since they were the most striking nearby feature on the surface. The hills lie approximately  away from the rover's original landing position. The range is named to memorialize the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: . On February 2, 2004, the individual peaks of the Columbia Hills were named after the seven astronauts who died in the disaster. Spirit spent a few years exploring the Columbia Hills until it ceased to function in 2010. It is also considered a potential landing site for the

text: Mars 2020

text: rover.

text: Fract OSC is presented to the player in the first-person view. As a nameless avatar, the player explores the game's world with little guidance besides visual and audio clues. The game begins on an empty space which, as the player discovers while playing the game, is a giant music synthesizer, initially defunct. A portal on this level leads to a game's main world space, the insides of this synthesizer. This world is an abstract landscape, comparable to the visuals of Tron, that includes many large structures along with the unique environmental features. At any time, the player can switch to a special "engagement mode" view that reveals any special virtual controls in the nearby area that can be used to manipulate the game's world. One feature of the world are a number of travel stations, from which the player can rapidly travel to any other previously-opened station. While the player can fall into a lethal liquid at the base of the world, or be crushed by objects in the game world, they are respawned without penalty near a recent checkpoint they passed. The world is divided roughly into three sectors based on colors, red, green, and blue, representing lead, pad, and bass voices, respectively.

text: Fract OSC is presented to the player in the first-person view. As a nameless avatar, the player explores the game's world with little guidance besides visual and audio clues. The game begins on an empty space which, as the player discovers while playing the game, is a giant

text: music synthesizer

text: , initially defunct. A portal on this level leads to a game's main world space, the insides of this synthesizer. This world is an abstract landscape, comparable to the visuals of

text: Tron

text: , that includes many large structures along with the unique environmental features. At any time, the player can switch to a special "engagement mode" view that reveals any special virtual controls in the nearby area that can be used to manipulate the game's world. One feature of the world are a number of travel stations, from which the player can rapidly travel to any other previously-opened station. While the player can fall into a lethal liquid at the base of the world, or be crushed by objects in the game world, they are respawned without penalty near a recent checkpoint they passed. The world is divided roughly into three sectors based on colors, red, green, and blue, representing

text: lead, pad, and bass voices

text: , respectively.

text: Space science or Astronomy is the study of everything in outer space. This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields, such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine), space archaeology and science performed in outer space (see space research).

text: Space science or Astronomy is the study of everything in outer space. This has sometimes been called

text: astronomy

text: , but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields, such as studying issues related to

text: space travel

text: and

text: space exploration

text: (including

text: space medicine

text: space archaeology

text: and science performed in

text: outer space

text: (see

text: space research

text: Mr. Woodruff has over 45 years experience designing optical systems for United States space program missions. He has made significant contributions to projects ranging from Skylab, Nimbus, Apollo-Soyuz, Galileo, SIRTF/Spitzer, microgravity science, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF), Beyond Einstein, Exo-planet detection, Kepler, as well as others. He has wide and varied experience in the definition of optical space-borne telescopes and instruments. His technical specialties are optical physic, optics design, and optical system engineering. He has served in various technical roles in optical design, system engineering, system test, and system calibration in the development of more than 20 flight hardware instruments, so one or more of his designs have been operational in space continuously for nearly 40 years. Among his accomplishments, two activities standout: 1) He helped fix the Hubble Space Telescope spherical aberration flaw and 2) He conceived and generated the optical concept and design for the Kepler mission. He is the author or co-author of well over 25 published or presented papers. He is also an Associate of Center for Astrophysics and Space Astronomy (CASA) of the University of Colorado in Boulder, CO. Recently he retired from Lockheed Martin as a Technical Fellow in the position of Chief Scientist for Optical Systems.

text: STS-89 was a space shuttle mission to the Mir space station flown by Space Shuttle  Endeavour, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 22 January 1998.

text: STS-89 was a

text: space shuttle

text: mission to the

text: Mir

text: space station flown by Space Shuttle

text: Endeavour

text: , and launched from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: , Florida on 22 January 1998.

text: A Ritchey–Chrétien telescope (RCT or simply RC) is a specialized variant of the Cassegrain telescope that has a hyperbolic primary mirror and a hyperbolic secondary mirror designed to eliminate off-axis optical errors (coma). The RCT has a wider field of view free of optical errors compared to a more traditional reflecting telescope configuration. Since the mid 20th century, a majority of large professional research telescopes have been Ritchey–Chrétien configurations; some well-known examples are the Hubble Space Telescope, the Keck telescopes and the ESO Very Large Telescope.

text: A Ritchey–Chrétien telescope (RCT or simply RC) is a specialized variant of the

text: Cassegrain telescope

text: that has a

text: hyperbolic

text: primary mirror

text: and a hyperbolic

text: secondary mirror

text: designed to eliminate off-axis optical errors (

text: coma

text: ). The RCT has a wider field of view free of optical errors compared to a more traditional

text: reflecting telescope

text: configuration. Since the mid 20th century, a majority of large professional research telescopes have been Ritchey–Chrétien configurations; some well-known examples are the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Keck telescopes

text: and the ESO

text: Very Large Telescope

text: Remote control vehicles have various scientific uses including hazardous environments, working in the deep ocean, and space exploration. The majority of the probes to the other planets in our solar system have been remote control vehicles, although some of the more recent ones were partially autonomous. The sophistication of these devices has fueled greater debate on the need for manned spaceflight and exploration. The Voyager I spacecraft is the first craft of any kind to leave the solar system. The martian explorers Spirit and Opportunity have provided continuous data about the surface of Mars since January 3, 2004.

text: Remote control vehicles have various scientific uses including hazardous environments, working in the deep ocean, and space exploration. The majority of the probes to the other planets in our solar system have been remote control vehicles, although some of the more recent ones were partially autonomous. The sophistication of these devices has fueled greater debate on the need for manned spaceflight and exploration. The

text: Voyager I

text: spacecraft is the first craft of any kind to leave the solar system. The martian explorers

text: Spirit

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: have provided continuous data about the surface of Mars since January 3, 2004.

text: All Space Shuttle missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The weather criteria used for launch included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by lightning. Aircraft are often struck by lightning with no adverse effects because the electricity of the strike is dissipated through its conductive structure and the aircraft is not electrically grounded. Like most jet airliners, the Shuttle was mainly constructed of conductive aluminum, which would normally shield and protect the internal systems. However, upon liftoff the Shuttle sent out a long exhaust plume as it ascended, and this plume could have triggered lightning by providing a current path to ground. The NASA Anvil Rule for a Shuttle launch stated that an anvil cloud could not appear within a distance of 10 nautical miles. The Shuttle Launch Weather Officer monitored conditions until the final decision to scrub a launch was announced. In addition, the weather conditions had to be acceptable at one of the Transatlantic Abort Landing sites (one of several Space Shuttle abort modes) to launch as well as the solid rocket booster recovery area. While the Shuttle might have safely endured a lightning strike, a similar strike caused problems on Apollo 12, so for safety NASA chose not to launch the Shuttle if lightning was possible (NPR8715.5).

text: All Space Shuttle missions were launched from Kennedy Space Center (KSC). The

text: weather criteria used for launch

text: included, but were not limited to: precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by

text: lightning

text: . Aircraft are often struck by lightning with no adverse effects because the electricity of the strike is dissipated through its conductive structure and the aircraft is not electrically

text: grounded

text: . Like most jet airliners, the Shuttle was mainly constructed of conductive aluminum, which would normally shield and protect the internal systems. However, upon liftoff the Shuttle sent out a long exhaust plume as it ascended, and this plume could have triggered lightning by providing a current path to ground. The NASA Anvil Rule for a Shuttle launch stated that an

text: anvil cloud

text: could not appear within a distance of 10

text: nautical miles

text: . The Shuttle Launch Weather Officer monitored conditions until the final decision to scrub a launch was announced. In addition, the weather conditions had to be acceptable at one of the Transatlantic Abort Landing sites (one of several

text: Space Shuttle abort modes

text: ) to launch as well as the solid rocket booster recovery area. While the Shuttle might have safely endured a lightning strike, a

text: similar strike caused problems on Apollo 12

text: , so for safety

text: NASA

text: chose not to launch the Shuttle if lightning was possible (NPR8715.5).

text: ASU is also involved with NASA in the field of space exploration. In order to meet the needs of NASA programs, ASU built the LEED Gold Certified, 298,000-square-foot Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building IV (ISTB 4) at a cost of $110 million in 2012. The building includes space for the School of Earth and Space Exploration (SESE) and includes labs and other facilities for the Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering. One of the main projects at ISTB 4 includes the OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer (OTES). Although ASU built the spectrometers aboard the Martian rovers Spirit and Opportunity, OTES will be the first major scientific instrument completely designed and built at ASU for a NASA space mission. Phil Christensen, the principal investigator for the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES), is a Regents' Professor at ASU. He also serves as the principal investigator for the Mars Odyssey THEMIS instruments, as well as co-investigator for the Mars Exploration Rovers. ASU scientists are responsible for the Mini-TES instruments aboard the Mars Exploration Rovers. The Center for Meteorite Studies, which is home to rare Martian meteorites and exotic fragments from space, and the Mars Space Flight Facility are both located on ASU's Tempe campus.

text: ASU is also involved with

text: NASA

text: in the field of

text: space exploration

text: . In order to meet the needs of NASA programs, ASU built the

entity_name: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

text: LEED

text: Gold Certified, 298,000-square-foot Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building IV (ISTB 4) at a cost of $110 million in 2012. The building includes space for the School of Earth and Space Exploration (SESE) and includes labs and other facilities for the

text: Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering

text: . One of the main projects at ISTB 4 includes the

text: OSIRIS-REx

text: Thermal Emission Spectrometer

text: (OTES). Although ASU built the

text: spectrometers

text: aboard the

text: Martian rovers

text: Spirit

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: , OTES will be the first major scientific instrument completely designed and built at ASU for a NASA

text: space mission

text: Phil Christensen

text: , the

text: principal investigator

text: for the

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: Thermal Emission Spectrometer

text: (TES), is a

text: Regents' Professor

text: at ASU. He also serves as the principal investigator for the

text: Mars Odyssey

text: THEMIS

text: instruments, as well as co-investigator for the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: s. ASU scientists are responsible for the

text: Mini-TES

text: instruments aboard the Mars Exploration Rovers. The

text: Center for Meteorite Studies

text: , which is home to rare

text: Martian

text: meteorite

text: s and exotic fragments from space, and the

text: Mars Space Flight Facility

text: are both located on ASU's Tempe campus.

text: Progress in space exploration has recently broadened the phrase moon landing to include other moons in the Solar System as well. The Huygens probe of the Cassini–Huygens mission to Saturn performed a successful unmanned moon landing on Titan in 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probe Phobos 2 came within  of performing an unmanned moon landing on Mars' moon Phobos in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission called Fobos-Grunt ("grunt" means "soil" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low-earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future moon landing on Jupiter's Europa moon to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.

text: Progress in

text: space exploration

text: has recently broadened the phrase moon landing to include other moons in the

text: Solar System

text: as well. The

text: Huygens probe

text: of the

text: Cassini–Huygens

text: mission to

text: Saturn

text: performed a successful unmanned moon landing on

text: Titan

text: in 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probe

text: Phobos 2

text: came within  of performing an unmanned moon landing on

text: Mars

text: ' moon

text: Phobos

text: in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission called

text: Fobos-Grunt

text: ("grunt" means "soil" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low-earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future moon landing on

text: Jupiter

text: 's

text: Europa moon

text: to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.

text: The HS-376 was a very successful satellite platform with 58 satellites ordered, built and launched. It was also the first satellite to launch from the Space Shuttle.

text: The HS-376 was a very successful satellite platform with 58 satellites ordered, built and launched. It was also the first satellite to launch from the

text: Space Shuttle

text: The use for orbital maintenance could be especially critical for damaged atmospheric spacecraft, which are at great risk during reentry into the atmosphere, as was shown during the Columbia disaster. In the wake of the disaster, NASA improvised repairs to shuttles while in flight, a procedure which would have been much easier with a dedicated orbital facility. The use of a major space dock as a construction facility would also be required for the construction of an interstellar colonization starship built with current or near-term technology.

text: The use for orbital maintenance could be especially critical for damaged atmospheric spacecraft, which are at great risk during reentry into the atmosphere, as was shown during the

text: Columbia disaster

text: . In the wake of the disaster,

text: NASA

text: improvised repairs to shuttles while in flight, a procedure which would have been much easier with a dedicated orbital facility. The use of a major space dock as a construction facility would also be required for the construction of an interstellar colonization

text: starship

text: built with current or near-term technology.

text: The telescope was designed from the start to be operated in real time, rather than by remote control. This required that it would be launched into a geosynchronous orbit – that is, one with a period equal to one sidereal day of 23h 56m. A satellite in such an orbit remains visible from a given point on the Earth's surface for many hours at a time, and can thus transmit to a single ground station for a long period of time. Most space observatories in Earth orbit, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, are in a low orbit in which they spend most of their time operating autonomously because only a small fraction of the Earth's surface can see them at a given time. Hubble, for example, orbits the Earth at an altitude of approximately 600 km, while a geosynchronous orbit has an average altitude of 36,000 km.

text: The telescope was designed from the start to be operated in real time, rather than by remote control. This required that it would be launched into a

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: – that is, one with a period equal to one

text: sidereal day

text: of 23h 56m. A satellite in such an orbit remains visible from a given point on the Earth's surface for many hours at a time, and can thus transmit to a single ground station for a long period of time. Most space observatories in Earth orbit, such as the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , are in a low orbit in which they spend most of their time operating autonomously because only a small fraction of the Earth's surface can see them at a given time. Hubble, for example, orbits the Earth at an altitude of approximately 600 km, while a geosynchronous orbit has an average altitude of 36,000 km.

text: In January 2006 he returned to the Boeing Company's Houston campus, and was then acting as the Vice President & General Manager of the Space Exploration division which controls Boeing's International Space Station and Space Shuttle programs.

text: is a Japanese aeronautical engineer and a JAXA astronaut. His first spaceflight was as a Mission Specialist aboard STS-114 on 26 July 2005 for NASA's first "return to flight" Space Shuttle mission after the Columbia disaster. He was most recently in space as part of the Soyuz TMA-17 crew and Expedition 22 to the International Space Station, returning to Earth on 2 June 2010. He is the fifth Japanese astronaut to fly in space and the fourth to fly on the space shuttle.

text: is a

text: Japan

text: ese

text: aeronautical engineer

text: and a

text: JAXA

text: astronaut

text: . His first spaceflight was as a Mission Specialist aboard

text: on 26 July 2005 for

text: NASA

text: 's first "return to flight"

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission after the

text: Columbia disaster

text: . He was most recently in space as part of the

text: Soyuz TMA-17

text: crew and

text: Expedition 22

text: to the International Space Station, returning to Earth on 2 June 2010. He is the fifth Japanese astronaut to fly in space and the fourth to fly on the space shuttle.

text: ROH2 had a commitment to providing a space where artists could take creative risks and explore new ideas.

text: Regular orbital boosts are also needed by the Hubble Space Telescope, though on a longer time scale, due to its much higher altitude. However, orbital decay is also a limiting factor to the length of time the Hubble can go without a maintenance rendezvous, the most recent performed successfully by STS-125, with space shuttle Atlantis launching May 11, 2009, though newer telescopes are in much higher orbits or in some cases in solar orbit, so orbital boosting may not be needed.

text: Regular orbital boosts are also needed by the Hubble Space Telescope, though on a longer time scale, due to its much higher altitude. However, orbital decay is also a limiting factor to the length of time the Hubble can go without a maintenance rendezvous, the most recent performed successfully by

text: , with space shuttle Atlantis launching May 11, 2009, though newer telescopes are in much higher orbits or in some cases in solar orbit, so orbital boosting may not be needed.

text: Ehricke promoted a philosophical concept called the "Extraterrestrial Imperative." This idea refers to Ehricke's belief that it was the responsibility of humanity to explore space and exploit the resources of the Solar System, in order to sustain the development of the species. There are no external "limits to growth," Ehricke insisted, because while the Earth is a "closed system," the exploration of space opens the universe to humanity.  For Ehricke, human creativity has no limits.

text: Ehricke promoted a

text: philosophical

text: concept called the "Extraterrestrial Imperative." This idea refers to Ehricke's belief that it was the responsibility of humanity to explore space and exploit the resources of the

text: Solar System

text: , in order to sustain the development of the species. There are no external "limits to growth," Ehricke insisted, because while the Earth is a "closed system," the exploration of space opens the universe to humanity.  For Ehricke, human creativity has no limits.

text: During the 1970s, when studies were underway which led to the specification of the Space Shuttle, most leading US aerospace contractors explored orbital spaceplane designs, some based on a two-stage design.  The most serious of these was the Lockheed HGV under the X-24C program, which was a manned hypersonic vehicle dropped from underwing a B-52, even to the point of rumors that it had actually been flight tested, according to Encyclopedia Astronautica. With the adoption of the Space Shuttle design, these avenues appear to have been abandoned. The use of a spaceplane as part of the launching system to replace the Space Shuttle has been suggested in programs such as VentureStar.

text: During the 1970s, when studies were underway which led to the specification of the Space Shuttle, most leading US aerospace contractors explored orbital spaceplane designs, some based on a two-stage design.  The most serious of these was the

text: Lockheed

text: HGV under the

text: program, which was a manned hypersonic vehicle dropped from underwing a

text: , even to the point of rumors that it had actually been flight tested, according to

text: Encyclopedia Astronautica

text: . With the adoption of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: design, these avenues appear to have been abandoned. The use of a spaceplane as part of the launching system to replace the Space Shuttle has been suggested in programs such as

text: VentureStar

text: The game launched with 10 planets: Tatooine, Naboo, Corellia, Talus, Rori, Dantooine, Lok, Yavin IV, the forest moon of Endor, and Dathomir. In the second expansion, Rage of the Wookiees, the Wookiee home planet Kashyyyk was added. In the third expansion, Trials of Obi-Wan, the planet Mustafar was added. Each of the original 10 planets are represented by approximately 225 square kilometers (15 km x 15 km maps) of game space. In contrast, the expansion planets of Kashyyyk and Mustafar are smaller, constructed differently (e.g. instances) and in some cases imposed different rules than the original, such as terrain that is not traversable (i.e. mountains or hills that cannot be climbed over). In addition to the 12 planets, there are 12 space zones, each encompassing approximately 3400 cubic kilometers (15 km cubes) of fully navigable space. Nine of them are associated with one or more of the playable planets: Tattoo (Tatooine), Naboo (Naboo and Rori), Corellia (Corellia and Talus), Dantooine, Karthakk (Lok), Yavin, Endor, Dathomir, and Kashyyyk. (Mustafar has no associated space zone.)  Kessel and Deep Space have no planets and are used for high-level gameplay and player-versus-player combat. The Ord Mantell sector was released in January 2008 as a new space-only zone, though there is a space station there (called Nova Orion) where pilots can land and acquire quests. The planet Hoth was added in November 2008 as part of an instance, but could only be explored during the events of the Battle of Echo Base.

text: The game launched with 10 planets:

text: Tatooine

text: Naboo

text: Corellia

text: Talus

text: Rori

text: Dantooine

text: Lok

text: Yavin IV

text: , the

text: forest moon of Endor

text: , and

text: Dathomir

text: . In the second

text: expansion

text: , Rage of the Wookiees, the Wookiee home planet

text: Kashyyyk

text: was added. In the third expansion, Trials of Obi-Wan, the planet

text: Mustafar

text: was added. Each of the original 10 planets are represented by approximately 225 square kilometers (15 km x 15 km maps) of game space. In contrast, the expansion planets of Kashyyyk and Mustafar are smaller, constructed differently (e.g.

text: instances

text: ) and in some cases imposed different rules than the original, such as terrain that is not traversable (i.e. mountains or hills that cannot be climbed over). In addition to the 12 planets, there are 12 space zones, each encompassing approximately 3400 cubic kilometers (15 km cubes) of fully navigable space. Nine of them are associated with one or more of the playable planets: Tattoo (Tatooine), Naboo (Naboo and Rori), Corellia (Corellia and Talus), Dantooine, Karthakk (Lok), Yavin, Endor, Dathomir, and Kashyyyk. (Mustafar has no associated space zone.)

text: Kessel

text: and Deep Space have no planets and are used for high-level gameplay and player-versus-player combat. The

text: Ord Mantell

text: sector was released in January 2008 as a new space-only zone, though there is a space station there (called Nova Orion) where pilots can land and acquire quests. The planet

text: Hoth

text: was added in November 2008 as part of an instance, but could only be explored during the events of the Battle of Echo Base.

text: Darling’s most recently organized exhibition Before & After'' runs May 7, 2016–Jun 18, 2017 at the MCA Chicago. The artists featured in Above, Before & After manipulate form and space to explore the relationship between art and the viewer.

text: The mock modular form h is holomorphic but not quite modular, while h + g is modular but not quite holomorphic. The space of mock modular forms of weight k contains the space of nearly modular forms ("modular forms that may be meromorphic at cusps") of weight k as a subspace. The quotient is (antilinearly) isomorphic to the space of holomorphic modular forms of weight 2 − k. The weight-(2 − k) modular form g corresponding to a mock modular form h is called its shadow. It is quite common for different mock theta functions to have the same shadow. For example, the 10 mock theta functions of order 5 found by Ramanujan fall into two groups of 5, where all the functions in each group have the same shadow (up to multiplication by a constant).

text: President George H. W. Bush continued to support space development, announcing the bold Space Exploration Initiative, and ordering a 20 percent increase in NASA's budget in a tight budget era. The Bush administration also commissioned another report on the future of NASA, the Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program, also known as the Augustine Report.

text: President George H. W. Bush

text: continued to support space development, announcing the bold

text: Space Exploration Initiative

text: , and ordering a 20 percent increase in NASA's budget in a tight budget era. The Bush administration also commissioned another report on the future of NASA, the

entity_name: Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program

text: Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program

text: , also known as the Augustine Report.

text: Prior to launch, Soyuz 1 engineers are said to have reported 203 design faults to party leaders, but their concerns "were overruled by political pressures for a series of space feats to mark the anniversary of Lenin's birthday."  It is not clear how much of this pressure resulted from the need to continue beating the United States in the Space Race and have Soviets first on the Moon, or to take advantage of the recent setbacks in the U.S. space program with the Apollo 1 disaster.

text: Prior to launch, Soyuz 1 engineers are said to have reported 203 design faults to party leaders, but their concerns "were overruled by political pressures for a series of space feats to mark the anniversary of Lenin's birthday."  It is not clear how much of this pressure resulted from the need to continue beating the United States in the

text: Space Race

text: and have Soviets first on the

text: Moon

text: , or to take advantage of the recent setbacks in the U.S. space program with the

text: Apollo 1

text: disaster.

text: The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in April 1990, but gave flawed images. It had been designed at MSFC, but used a primary mirror that had spherical aberration due to incorrect grinding and polishing by the contractor. The defect was found when the telescope was in orbit. The design was such that repairs were possible, and three maintenance missions were flown in Shuttles during the 1990s. Another servicing mission (STS-109) was flown on March 1, 2002. Each mission resulted in considerable improvements, with the images receiving worldwide attention from astronomers as well as the public.

text: The

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: was launched in April 1990, but gave flawed images. It had been designed at MSFC, but used a primary mirror that had

text: spherical aberration

text: due to incorrect grinding and polishing by the contractor. The defect was found when the telescope was in orbit. The design was such that repairs were possible, and three maintenance missions were flown in Shuttles during the 1990s. Another servicing mission (STS-109) was flown on March 1, 2002. Each mission resulted in considerable improvements, with the images receiving worldwide attention from astronomers as well as the public.

text: The organisation has a commitment to the theme of space exploration. Since 1999, they have presented a variety of projects that explore sub-orbital space, outer space, the International Space Station (ISS), and more recently, the moon. Their work in zero gravity includes projects with Kitsou Dubois and the MIR (Microgravity Interdisciplinary Research) consortium (2000 to 2004). They were recently commissioned by the European Space Agency to develop a cultural policy for the orbiting International Space Station. In 2006, Arts Catalyst presented Space Soon: Art and Human Spaceflight, a five-day event at the Roundhouse (venue), London, that included new work by Aleksandra Mir, N55 (art collective)/Neal White, and London Fieldworks, with talks by astronaut turned artist Alan Bean, the fourth man to walk on the moon, NASA artist in residence Laurie Anderson and many others. In 2008, The Arts Catalyst presented 'Less Remote: The Futures of Space Exploration - An Arts and Humanities Symposium' at the 59th International Astronautical Congress in Glasgow, Scotland. In 2011, Arts Catalyst organised the exhibition, Republic of the Moon, with FACT Liverpool, about reimagining the future of the Moon.

text: The organisation has a commitment to the theme of space exploration. Since 1999, they have presented a variety of projects that explore sub-orbital space, outer space, the International Space Station (ISS), and more recently, the moon. Their work in zero gravity includes projects with Kitsou Dubois and the MIR (Microgravity Interdisciplinary Research) consortium (2000 to 2004). They were recently commissioned by the European Space Agency to develop a cultural policy for the orbiting International Space Station. In 2006, Arts Catalyst presented Space Soon: Art and Human Spaceflight, a five-day event at the

text: Roundhouse (venue)

text: , London, that included new work by

text: Aleksandra Mir

text: N55 (art collective)

text: /Neal White, and London Fieldworks, with talks by astronaut turned artist

text: Alan Bean

text: , the fourth man to walk on the moon, NASA artist in residence

text: Laurie Anderson

text: and many others. In 2008, The Arts Catalyst presented 'Less Remote: The Futures of Space Exploration - An Arts and Humanities Symposium' at the 59th

text: International Astronautical Congress

text: in Glasgow, Scotland. In 2011, Arts Catalyst organised the exhibition, Republic of the Moon, with FACT Liverpool, about reimagining the future of the Moon.

text: Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) is a NASA program using a public-private partnership model that seeks commercial development of deep space exploration capabilities to support more extensive human space flight missions in the Proving Ground around and beyond cislunar space—the space near Earth that extends just beyond the moon.

text: Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) is a

text: NASA

text: program using a public-private partnership model that seeks commercial development of deep space exploration capabilities to support more extensive human space flight missions in the Proving Ground around and beyond cislunar space—the space near Earth that extends just beyond the moon.

text: The Tel Aviv University Ultraviolet Explorer (TAUVEX) is a space telescope array conceived by Noah Brosch of Tel Aviv University. It was eventually designed and constructed for the University by El-Op. TAUVEX is a cluster of three bore-sighted  20-cm telescopes for observation in the ultra-violet funded by the Israel Space Agency. It was due to be launched by India on board the ISRO satellite GSAT-4 satellite but due to a mis-match between the capabilities of the launched and the mass of the satellite, ISRO decided unilaterally to remove TAUVEX from GSAT-4. The telescope ended up in a limbo of constant delays. In 2012 ISA decided to terminate the TAUVEX project.

text: The Tel Aviv University Ultraviolet Explorer (TAUVEX) is a space telescope array conceived by

text: Noah Brosch

text: of

text: Tel Aviv University

text: . It was eventually designed and constructed for the University by El-Op. TAUVEX is a cluster of three bore-sighted  20-cm telescopes for observation in the ultra-violet funded by the Israel Space Agency. It was due to be launched by India on board the ISRO satellite

text: satellite but due to a mis-match between the capabilities of the launched and the mass of the satellite, ISRO decided unilaterally to remove TAUVEX from GSAT-4. The telescope ended up in a limbo of constant delays. In 2012 ISA decided to terminate the TAUVEX project.

text: The completion of all the major objectives, as well as some that were not considered vital, upgraded the telescope to its most technologically advanced state since its launch nineteen years ago, and made it more powerful than ever. The upgrades will also help Hubble to see deeper into the universe, and farther into the past, closer to the time of the Big Bang. Hubble's importance to science is not just seen in the dramatic images it provides, but also in the volume of work it has generated – an average of fourteen scientific articles are published each week based on data gathered from the telescope. Officially, the upgrades should extend Hubble's life through 2014, but Hubble Space Telescope Senior Scientist David Leckrone noted prior to the mission that if all of the mission's objectives were successful, the telescope could easily last longer than that. The next large telescope scheduled to be launched is the James Webb Space Telescope in 2018, which is infrared-only, so to have Hubble, which has ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared capabilities, still operational after 2018 would be of great benefit to the scientific community.

text: The completion of all the major objectives, as well as some that were not considered vital, upgraded the telescope to its most technologically advanced state since its launch nineteen years ago, and made it more powerful than ever. The upgrades will also help Hubble to see deeper into the universe, and farther into the past, closer to the time of the

text: Big Bang

text: . Hubble's importance to science is not just seen in the dramatic images it provides, but also in the volume of work it has generated – an average of fourteen scientific articles are published each week based on data gathered from the telescope. Officially, the upgrades should extend Hubble's life through 2014, but Hubble Space Telescope Senior Scientist David Leckrone noted prior to the mission that if all of the mission's objectives were successful, the telescope could easily last longer than that. The next large telescope scheduled to be launched is the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: in 2018, which is infrared-only, so to have Hubble, which has ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared capabilities, still operational after 2018 would be of great benefit to the scientific community.

text: Human error has been cited as a primary cause or contributing factor in disasters and accidents in industries as diverse as nuclear power (e.g., the Three Mile Island accident), aviation (see pilot error), space exploration (e.g., the Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster and Space Shuttle Columbia disaster), and medicine (see medical error). Prevention of human error is generally seen as a major contributor to reliability and safety of (complex) systems.

text: Human error has been cited as a primary cause or contributing factor in disasters and accidents in industries as diverse as nuclear power (e.g., the

text: Three Mile Island accident

text: ), aviation (see

text: pilot error

text: ), space exploration (e.g., the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster

text: and

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: ), and medicine (see

text: medical error

text: ). Prevention of human error is generally seen as a major contributor to

text: reliability

text: and

text: safety

text: of (complex) systems.

text: Zeiss is currently in the process of designing the optical components for the James Webb Space Telescope set to replace the Hubble Space Telescope sometime in 2018.

text: Zeiss is currently in the process of designing the optical components for the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: set to replace the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: sometime in 2018.

text: Six electric driven propeller engines are installed on the wings that generate a combined thrust of 250 lbf at sea level. Although the power output remains constant as altitude increases the propellers lose their effectiveness but are still able to provide cruising speed of 152 km/h at altitude for the Explorer and 100 km/h for the Pioneer. The electrical motors are powered by internal batteries during night and solar panels during daytime. The solar panels generate 2800W for the Explorer and 1800W for the Pioneer.

text: 1986  Modular space station

text: Modular space station

text: Ham has served as CAPCOM for Space Shuttle ascent/entry and orbit, as well as the International Space Station (ISS). His most recent CAPCOM assignment was for NASA's "return to flight" mission, STS-114, of the Space Shuttle. He made his first spaceflight as pilot of STS-124, in which Discovery flew to the International Space Station in June 2008. He also flew as the commander of mission STS-132, which launched on May 14, 2010 and landed on May 26, 2010.

text: Ham has served as

text: CAPCOM

text: for

text: Space Shuttle

text: ascent/entry and orbit, as well as the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). His most recent CAPCOM assignment was for

text: NASA

text: 's "return to flight" mission,

text: , of the Space Shuttle. He made his first spaceflight as pilot of

text: , in which

text: Discovery

text: flew to the International Space Station in June 2008. He also flew as the commander of mission

text: , which launched on May 14, 2010 and landed on May 26, 2010.

text: Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold War. The early era of space exploration was driven by a "Space Race" between the Soviet Union and the United States. The launch of the first human-made object to orbit Earth, the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station (Salyut 1) in 1971.

text: Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the

text: Cold War

text: . The early era of space exploration was driven by a "

text: Space Race

text: " between the

text: Soviet Union

text: and the

text: United States

text: . The launch of the first human-made object to orbit

text: Earth

text: , the Soviet Union's

text: Sputnik 1

text: , on 4 October 1957, and the first

text: Moon landing

text: by the American

text: Apollo 11

text: mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The

text: Soviet space program

text: achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first

text: human spaceflight

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: aboard

text: Vostok 1

text: ) in 1961, the first

text: spacewalk

text: (by

text: Aleksei Leonov

text: ) on 18 March 1965, the

text: first automatic landing

text: on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: ) in 1971.

text: Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996.  It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. Until 21 March 2001 it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station after Mir's orbit decayed. The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space.

text: Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996.  It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. Until 21 March 2001 it was the largest

text: artificial satellite

text: in orbit, succeeded by the

text: International Space Station

text: after Mir's

text: orbit decayed

text: . The station served as a

text: microgravity

text: research

text: laboratory

text: in which crews conducted

text: experiment

text: s in

text: biology

text: human biology

text: physics

text: astronomy

text: meteorology

text: and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space.

text: It all started in 1983, when plans were being made by the Boy Scouts of America for the 1984 National Exploring Conference. The steering group for the Science and Engineering Cluster wanted to do something related to space. Nobody on the committee knew much about space. However, Evelyn Murray from the Society of Women Engineers knew Anita Gale, who worked on the Space Shuttle program. Letters followed, recommending and expanding ideas, and concluding with a telephone call between Gale in California and Rob Kolstad (a member of the steering group) in Texas. During that conversation, they brainstormed and created the basic structure of the event, that it would be both a design competition and a management simulation game. Gale and Dick Edwards wrote the materials for the game. The first Space Settlement Design Competition was conducted at Ohio State University (between thunderstorms and tornadoes) in August 1984, with about 75 participants. It was wildly successful. Even astronaut Story Musgrave stopped by to watch design presentations.

text: Deep space exploration (also deep-space exploration) is the term used for the exploration of deep space, within or away from the Solar System. It is the branch of astronomy, astronautics and space technology that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep-space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft.

text: Deep space exploration (also deep-space exploration) is the term used for the exploration of

text: deep space

text: , within or away from the

text: Solar System

text: . It is the branch of

text: astronomy

text: astronautics

text: and

text: space technology

text: that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space. Physical

text: exploration of space

text: is conducted both by

text: human spaceflight

text: s (deep-space astronautics) and by

text: robotic spacecraft

text: The Vision for Space Exploration, announced by President Bush in 2004, mandated that NASA must use the space shuttle to finish construction of the International Space Station by the end of 2010. By June 2006, due to ongoing concerns with the safety of the Shuttle in the wake of the Columbia disaster, only one flight had been performed. Per the Presidential mandate of the Vision for Space Exploration, Griffin mandated that 18 more shuttle flights be performed in the remaining four and a half years.

text: The

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , announced by President Bush in 2004, mandated that NASA must use the space shuttle to finish construction of the International Space Station by the end of 2010. By June 2006, due to ongoing concerns with the safety of the Shuttle in the wake of the

text: Columbia

text: disaster, only one flight had been performed. Per the Presidential mandate of the Vision for Space Exploration, Griffin mandated that 18 more shuttle flights be performed in the remaining four and a half years.

text: In 2002, a planned space telescope, originally called the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), was renamed the James Webb Space Telescope as a tribute to Webb.

text: In 2002, a planned

text: space telescope

text: , originally called the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), was renamed the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: as a tribute to Webb.

text: CSTS (Crew Space Transportation System) or ACTS (Advanced Crew Transportation System) is a human spaceflight system proposal.  It was originally a joint project between the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Space Agency (FKA), but is now solely an ESA project.  It aims to design a spacecraft for low Earth orbit operations such as servicing the International Space Station but also capable of exploration of the Moon and beyond. This study was conceived as a basic strategic plan to keep a viable European human space program alive because NASA officials had announced that NASA's Vision for Space Exploration Orion spacecraft, subsequently cancelled, would be developed without participation of international partners.

text: CSTS (Crew Space Transportation System) or ACTS (Advanced Crew Transportation System) is a

text: human spaceflight

text: system proposal.  It was originally a joint project between the

text: European Space Agency (ESA)

text: and the

text: Russian Space Agency (FKA)

text: , but is now solely an ESA project.  It aims to design a spacecraft for

text: low Earth orbit

text: operations such as servicing the

text: International Space Station

text: but also capable of exploration of the Moon and beyond. This study was conceived as a basic strategic plan to keep a viable European human space program alive because NASA officials had announced that NASA's

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: Orion spacecraft

text: , subsequently cancelled, would be developed without participation of international partners.

text: History was made in April 2000 when the world’s first and still only privately funded manned mission to orbit was launched. Two cosmonauts, commander Sergei Zalyotin and Alexander Kalery traveled to the dormant space station Mir, opened it up and returned the station to normal life. During the more than 70-day mission, a number of critical firsts were achieved: the first commercially funded space walk, the first space mission without government funding, and the first space explorers to be paid fully by a private company.

text: History was made in April 2000 when the world’s first and still only privately funded manned mission to orbit was launched. Two cosmonauts, commander

text: Sergei Zalyotin

text: and

text: Alexander Kalery

text: traveled to the dormant space station Mir, opened it up and returned the station to normal life. During the more than 70-day mission, a number of critical firsts were achieved: the first commercially funded

text: space walk

text: , the first space mission without government funding, and the first space explorers to be paid fully by a private company.

text: The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981, the 20th anniversary of the first known human space flight.

text: The

text: Space Shuttle

text: became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch,

text: Columbia

text: , did so on April 12, 1981, the 20th anniversary of the first known human space flight.

text: In February 1977, the  OV-101 test vehicle began glide tests. OV-101 was christened space shuttle Enterprise after a concerted letter-writing campaign by Star Trek fans. Like the shuttlecraft of Star Trek: The Original Series, the Space Shuttle orbiters were used interchangeably to carry crew, cargo or exploration payloads. In orbital missions from 1981 to 2011, the Space Shuttle became symbolic of humanity's reach into Space.

text: In February 1977, the  OV-101 test vehicle began glide tests. OV-101 was christened

text: space shuttle Enterprise

text: after a concerted letter-writing campaign by Star Trek fans. Like the shuttlecraft of Star Trek: The Original Series, the Space Shuttle orbiters were used interchangeably to carry crew, cargo or exploration payloads. In orbital missions from 1981 to 2011, the

text: Space Shuttle

text: became symbolic of humanity's reach into Space.

text: Prior to the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003, NASA investigated the replacement of the current 4-segment SRBs with either a 5-segment SRB design or replacing them altogether with liquid "flyback" boosters using either Atlas V or Delta IV EELV technologies. The 5-segment SRB, which would have required little change to the current shuttle infrastructure, would have allowed the space shuttle to carry an additional  of payload in an International Space Station-inclination orbit, eliminate the dangerous "Return-to-Launch Site" (RTLS) and "Trans-Oceanic Abort" (TAL) modes, and, by using a so-called "dog-leg maneuver", fly south-to-north polar orbiting flights from Kennedy Space Center. After the destruction of Columbia, NASA shelved the 5-segment SRB for the Shuttle Program, and the three surviving Orbiters, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour were retired in 2011 after the completion of the International Space Station.

text: Prior to the destruction of the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia

text: in 2003, NASA investigated the replacement of the current 4-segment SRBs with either a 5-segment SRB design or replacing them altogether with liquid "flyback" boosters using either

text: Atlas V

text: or

text: Delta IV

text: EELV technologies. The 5-segment SRB, which would have required little change to the current shuttle infrastructure, would have allowed the space shuttle to carry an additional  of payload in an

text: International Space Station

text: -inclination orbit, eliminate the dangerous

text: "Return-to-Launch Site" (RTLS) and "Trans-Oceanic Abort

text: " (TAL) modes, and, by using a so-called "dog-leg maneuver", fly south-to-north polar orbiting flights from Kennedy Space Center. After the destruction of Columbia, NASA shelved the 5-segment SRB for the Shuttle Program, and the three surviving Orbiters,

text: Discovery

text: Atlantis

text: , and

text: Endeavour

text: were retired in 2011 after the completion of the

text: International Space Station

text: , 28 astronauts have been honored with the award. Seventeen were honored posthumously: 14 died in either the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster or the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, and the other three died in the Apollo 1 fire. An asterisk indicates a posthumous award.

text: , 28 astronauts have been honored with the award. Seventeen were honored posthumously: 14 died in either the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: or the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , and the other three died in the

text: Apollo 1

text: fire. An asterisk indicates a posthumous award.

text: Rear Admiral Craig E. Steidle, USN, Ret., served as the first Associate Administrator of the Office of Exploration Systems at NASA (now known as the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate), an organization formed to implement NASA's human exploration of the solar system as announced in the Vision for Space Exploration.  Admiral Steidle also served as Program Manager of the Joint Strike Fighter Program.  He is currently serving as a Distinguished Visiting Professor in Aerospace Engineering at the U.S. Naval Academy.

text: Rear Admiral Craig E. Steidle, USN, Ret., served as the first Associate Administrator of the Office of Exploration Systems at NASA (now known as the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate), an organization formed to implement NASA's human exploration of the solar system as announced in the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: .  Admiral Steidle also served as Program Manager of the Joint Strike Fighter Program.  He is currently serving as a Distinguished Visiting Professor in Aerospace Engineering at the

text: U.S. Naval Academy

text: Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at Nasa have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS)

text: As is the case for visible light telescopes, space is the ideal place for infrared telescopes. In space, images from infrared telescopes can achieve higher resolution, as they do not suffer from blurring caused by the Earth's atmosphere, and are also free from absorption caused by the Earth's atmosphere. Current infrared telescopes in space include the Herschel Space Observatory, the Spitzer Space Telescope, and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. Since putting telescopes in orbit is expensive, there are also airborne observatories, such as the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy and the Kuiper Airborne Observatory. These observatories place telescopes above most, but not all, of the atmosphere, which means there is absorption of infrared light from space by water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: As is the case for visible light telescopes, space is the ideal place for infrared telescopes. In space, images from infrared telescopes can achieve higher resolution, as they do not suffer from

text: blurring

text: caused by the Earth's atmosphere, and are also free from absorption caused by the Earth's atmosphere. Current infrared telescopes in space include the Herschel Space Observatory, the Spitzer Space Telescope, and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: . Since putting telescopes in orbit is expensive, there are also airborne observatories, such as the

entity_name: Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy

text: Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy

text: and the

text: Kuiper Airborne Observatory

text: . These observatories place telescopes above most, but not all, of the atmosphere, which means there is absorption of infrared light from space by water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) was opened officially on 2 May 2012 as Ghana’s first space science, space exploration, astronomy and technology space agency. GSSTC and Ghana Space Agency (GhSA) aims to become an arena of excellence in space science, space exploration and space technology through teaching, learning, private spaceflight and space research commercialisation. The centre and space agency will also allow scientists and astronauts to conduct research into natural resource management, weather forecasting, agriculture and national security.

text: The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) was opened officially on 2 May 2012 as Ghana’s first

text: space science

text: space exploration

text: astronomy

text: and technology

text: space agency

text: . GSSTC and Ghana Space Agency (GhSA) aims to become an arena of excellence in space science, space exploration and

text: space technology

text: through teaching, learning,

text: private spaceflight

text: and space research commercialisation. The centre and

text: space agency

text: will also allow scientists and astronauts to conduct research into natural resource management, weather forecasting, agriculture and national security.

text: After ten years of negotiations between nearly 100 nations, the Outer Space Treaty opened for signature on January 27, 1966. It entered into force as the constitution for outer space on October 10, 1967.  The Outer Space Treaty was well received; it was ratified by ninety-six nations and signed by an additional twenty-seven states. The outcome has been that the basic foundation of international space law consists of five (arguably four)  international space treaties, along with various written resolutions and declarations. The main international treaty is the Outer Space Treaty of 1967; it is generally viewed as the “Constitution" for outer space. By ratifying the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, ninety-eight nations agreed that outer space would belong to the “province of mankind”, that all nations would have the freedom to “use” and “explore” outer space, and that both these provisions must be done in a way to “benefit all mankind.” The province of mankind principle and the other key terms have not yet been specifically defined (Jasentuliyana, 1992). Critics have complained that the Outer Space Treaty is vague. Yet, international space law has worked well and has served space commercial industries and interests for many decades. The taking away and extraction of Moon rocks, for example, has been treated as being legally permissible.

text: West Market has undergone several projects to expand its facilities as well as its mission work. Currently plans are underway to begin renovating a property to serve as a space for a coffee shop, a space for the youth, and other undecided uses. If all goes as planned, this space could open up over a span of the next few years. Further mission work is underway, including trips to Africa to explore possibilities of sending more teams at a later time. One goal that the church has established for its outreach program is to have a presence in every populated continent. The contemporary service has greatly expanded recently, and growing it is a continued focus of the church.

text: West Market has undergone several projects to expand its facilities as well as its mission work. Currently plans are underway to begin renovating a property to serve as a space for a coffee shop, a space for the youth, and other undecided uses. If all goes as planned, this space could open up over a span of the next few years. Further mission work is underway, including trips to

text: Africa

text: to explore possibilities of sending more teams at a later time. One goal that the church has established for its outreach program is to have a presence in every populated continent. The contemporary service has greatly expanded recently, and growing it is a continued focus of the church.

text: The ISS is a third generation modular space station. Modular stations can allow the mission to be changed over time and new modules can be added or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility.

text: Throughout his career, Henning has been involved in large cooperative research projects, such as instrument-building for the ESA space telescope Herschel, for the James Webb Space Telescope and for the telescopes of the European Southern Observatory; construction of the Large Binocular Telescope in Arizona; the Spitzer Legacy Project "Formation of Planetary Systems", several Herschel legacy projects, the Pan-STARRS survey and the HAT-South transit network. Henning is a member of several astronomical steering and advisory committees, including the ESO Council, the German National COSPAR committee, the CAHA board, the boards of directors of the LBT and of PS1, and the scientific advisory council of the Thüringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg. He is also chair of the ERC Advanced Grants committee "Universe Science" and a member of the Dutch Academy Professorship Review Committee.

text: Throughout his career, Henning has been involved in large cooperative research projects, such as instrument-building for the

text: ESA

text: space telescope

text: Herschel

text: , for the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: and for the telescopes of the

text: European Southern Observatory

text: ; construction of the

text: Large Binocular Telescope

text: in

text: Arizona

text: ; the

text: Spitzer

text: Legacy Project "Formation of Planetary Systems", several Herschel legacy projects, the

text: Pan-STARRS

text: survey and the HAT-South transit network. Henning is a member of several astronomical steering and advisory committees, including the

text: ESO

text: Council, the German National

text: COSPAR

text: committee, the

text: CAHA

text: board, the boards of directors of the

text: LBT

text: and of

text: , and the scientific advisory council of the

text: Thüringer Landessternwarte Tautenburg

text: . He is also chair of the

text: ERC

text: Advanced Grants committee "Universe Science" and a member of the

entity_name: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: Dutch Academy

text: Professorship Review Committee.

text: The region has traditionally had a strong focus on tourism through the space industry, and the industry accounted for as much as 15% of the tourism in the region, but with a reduction in shuttle launches this dropped to under 5% by 2005. Accordingly, the office had to move their focus to alternative tourism operations, selling "beaches, cruise ships and nature tourism", and after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003, the Space Shuttle was dropped from their advertising campaigns. Although the Discovery's launch in 2005 did see a return of astronaut imagery, the region's dependency on the space industry was much reduced, and by 2011 when the final Space Shuttle mission took place, the Space Coast Office of Tourism argued that the reduced dependency on the industry would allow the region to cope with the expected economic downfall.

text: The region has traditionally had a strong focus on tourism through the space industry, and the industry accounted for as much as 15% of the tourism in the region, but with a reduction in

text: shuttle launches

text: this dropped to under 5% by 2005. Accordingly, the office had to move their focus to alternative tourism operations, selling "beaches, cruise ships and nature tourism", and after the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: in 2003, the Space Shuttle was dropped from their advertising campaigns. Although the

text: Discovery's

text: launch in 2005 did see a return of astronaut imagery, the region's dependency on the space industry was much reduced, and by 2011 when the

text: final Space Shuttle mission

text: took place, the Space Coast Office of Tourism argued that the reduced dependency on the industry would allow the region to cope with the expected economic downfall.

text: Earth exploration-satellite service (also: meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service) is – according to Article 1.51 of the International Telecommunication Union´s (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR) – defined as «A radiocommunication service between earth stations and one or more space stations, which may include links between space stations, in which:

text: Earth exploration-satellite service (also: meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service) is – according to Article 1.51 of the

text: International Telecommunication Union´s

text: (ITU)

text: Radio Regulations

text: (RR) – defined as «A radiocommunication service between

text: earth station

text: s and one or more

text: space station

text: s, which may include links between space stations, in which:

text: In the 2003 Space Shuttle Colombia disaster the crew was lost on re-entry including the female astronauts Kalpana Chawla (also the mission commander) and Laurel Clark Laurel Clark was an astronaut mother who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, leaving behind her husband and son. Years later, her husband noted how his son helped him through the loss of his wife.

text: In the 2003 Space Shuttle Colombia disaster the crew was lost on re-entry including the female astronauts

text: Kalpana Chawla

text: (also the mission commander) and

text: Laurel Clark

text: Laurel Clark was an astronaut mother who died in the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , leaving behind her husband and son. Years later, her husband noted how his son helped him through the loss of his wife.

text: Each NASA space shuttle designation was composed of a prefix and suffix separated by a dash.  The prefix for operational shuttles is OV, for Orbiter Vehicle.

text: Each

text: NASA

text: space shuttle

text: designation was composed of a prefix and suffix separated by a dash.  The prefix for operational shuttles is OV, for Orbiter Vehicle.

text: The Griffins find out that Chris is not doing well in school and worries about his future. As they discuss him, he overhears and feels insulted when they do not believe he is smart. To boost Chris' self-esteem, Peter and Lois allow him to go to a camp of his choosing; determined to show he's not stupid, he picks a space camp with NASA. However, Chris has trouble fitting in and calls for his parents to come pick him up. When the Griffins arrive, Chris gives them a tour of the space shuttle before they leave and Stewie accidentally launches them into space. As they worry about being stuck in space, Chris thinks he is responsible for getting them stuck. As word spreads about their possible fate, the Griffins explore the shuttle. Mission Control radios that they can get them back but the signal is lost and Peter destroys the radio trying to fix it. They try to land the shuttle themselves and Chris slows down the shuttle using what he learned in space camp. Unfortunately, the shuttle spins out of control, but Chris manages to stabilize it by allowing the autopilot to engage. They land to the cheers of the center and Chris is proclaimed a hero for saving his family.

text: Bigelow Aerospace has stated they intend to create a modular set of space habitats for creating or expanding space stations. Many journalists have commented that Bigelow is taking risks by trying to compete "in a capital-intensive, highly-regulated industry like spaceflight."

text: Bigelow Aerospace has stated they intend to create a modular set of

text: space habitat

text: s for creating or expanding

text: space stations

text: . Many journalists have commented that Bigelow is taking risks by trying to compete "in a capital-intensive, highly-

text: regulated

text: industry like

text: spaceflight

text: |-id=823| 51823 Rickhusband ||  || Rick Husband, American astronaut, commander of the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=824| 51824 Mikeanderson ||  || Michael P. Anderson, American astronaut, payload commander of the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=825| 51825 Davidbrown ||  || David M. Brown, American astronaut, mission specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=826| 51826 Kalpanachawla ||  || Kalpana Chawla, American astronaut, mission specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=827| 51827 Laurelclark ||  || Laurel B. Clark, American astronaut, mission specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=828| 51828 Ilanramon ||  || Ilan Ramon, Israeli astronaut, payload specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=829| 51829 Williemccool ||  || William C. "Willie" McCool, American astronaut, pilot of the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=895| 51895 Biblialexa ||  || Bibliotheca Alexandrina, a revival of the old library at Alexandria |}

text: 51823 Rickhusband

text: Rick Husband

text: , American astronaut, commander of the

text: space shuttle Columbia (STS-107)

text: † |-id=824|

text: 51824 Mikeanderson

text: Michael P. Anderson

text: , American astronaut, payload commander of the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=825|

text: 51825 Davidbrown

text: David M. Brown

text: , American astronaut, mission specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=826|

text: 51826 Kalpanachawla

text: Kalpana Chawla

text: , American astronaut, mission specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=827|

text: 51827 Laurelclark

text: Laurel B. Clark

text: , American astronaut, mission specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=828|

text: 51828 Ilanramon

text: Ilan Ramon

text: , Israeli astronaut, payload specialist on board the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=829|

text: 51829 Williemccool

text: William C. "Willie" McCool

text: , American astronaut, pilot of the space shuttle Columbia (STS-107) † |-id=895|

text: 51895 Biblialexa

text: Bibliotheca Alexandrina

text: , a revival of the old

text: library at Alexandria

text: Source counts were important tasks for the recent infrared missions like 2MASS or the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), and is still one of the most important questions the current and near future infrared space instruments (the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Herschel Space Observatory). While ISO was able to resolve about 3-10% of the total CIB light into individual sources (depending on the wavelength), Spitzer measurements have already detected ~30% of the CIB as sources, and this ratio is expected to be ~90% at some wavelengths with the Herschel Space Observatory.

text: Source counts were important tasks for the recent infrared missions like

text: or the

text: Infrared Space Observatory

text: (ISO), and is still one of the most important questions the current and near future infrared space instruments (the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: and the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: ). While ISO was able to resolve about 3-10% of the total CIB light into individual sources (depending on the wavelength), Spitzer measurements have already detected ~30% of the CIB as sources, and this ratio is expected to be ~90% at some wavelengths with the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System is observation, visitation, and increase in knowledge and understanding of Earth's "cosmic neighborhood". This includes the Sun, Earth and the Moon, the major planets including Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, their satellites, as well as smaller bodies including comets, asteroids, and dust.

text: Currently he is a program officer at the Space Studies Board of the National Research Council in Washington, D.C.  In that capacity he has served as a study director for several studies for NASA.  These studies include "Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration," "Building a Better NASA Workforce: Meeting the Workforce Needs for the National Vision for Space Exploration," "Grading NASA's Solar System Exploration Program: A Midterm Report," "Opening New Frontiers in Space: Choices for the Next New Frontiers Announcement of Opportunity," and "Science Opportunities Provided by NASA's Constellation System."  He was recently the study director of a study to assess detection and mitigation strategies for near-Earth object hazards which produced the report "Defending Planet Earth: Near-Earth-Object Survey and Hazard Mitigation Strategies," and co-study director of an analysis of radioisotope power systems for robotic spacecraft.  He is currently assistant study director of the planetary science decadal survey.  He is also currently study director of a study on the future of NASA's spaceflight crew office, and a study of NASA's flight research projects, both for the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board.

text: Currently he is a program officer at the Space Studies Board of the

entity_name: National Research Council (United States)

text: National Research Council

text: in Washington, D.C.  In that capacity he has served as a study director for several studies for NASA.  These studies include "Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration," "Building a Better NASA Workforce: Meeting the Workforce Needs for the National Vision for Space Exploration," "Grading NASA's Solar System Exploration Program: A Midterm Report," "Opening New Frontiers in Space: Choices for the Next New Frontiers Announcement of Opportunity," and "Science Opportunities Provided by NASA's Constellation System."  He was recently the study director of a study to assess detection and mitigation strategies for near-Earth object hazards which produced the report "Defending Planet Earth: Near-Earth-Object Survey and Hazard Mitigation Strategies," and co-study director of an analysis of radioisotope power systems for robotic spacecraft.  He is currently assistant study director of the planetary science decadal survey.  He is also currently study director of a study on the future of NASA's spaceflight crew office, and a study of NASA's flight research projects, both for the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board.

text: The basic cause of the disaster was determined to be an O-ring failure in the right SRB; cold weather was a contributing factor. The redesign effort, directed by MSFC, involved an extensive test program to verify that the SRBs were safe. There were no Space Shuttle missions in the remainder of 1986 or in 1987. Flights resumed in September 1988, with sequential numbering starting with STS-26.

text: The basic cause of the disaster was determined to be an

text: O-ring

text: failure in the right SRB; cold weather was a contributing factor. The redesign effort, directed by MSFC, involved an extensive test program to verify that the SRBs were safe. There were no Space Shuttle missions in the remainder of 1986 or in 1987. Flights resumed in September 1988, with sequential numbering starting with

text: After the Moon, Venus was the second object in the Solar System to be explored by radar from the Earth.  The first studies were carried out in 1961 at NASA's Goldstone Observatory, part of the Deep Space Network. At successive inferior conjunctions, Venus was observed both by Goldstone and the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center in Arecibo. The studies carried out were similar to the earlier measurement of transits of the meridian, which had revealed in 1963 that the rotation of Venus was retrograde (it rotates in the opposite direction to that in which it orbits the Sun). The radar observations also allowed astronomers to determine that the rotation period of Venus was 243.1 days, and that its axis of rotation was almost perpendicular to its orbital plane. It was also established that the radius of the planet was , some  less than the best previous figure obtained with terrestrial telescopes.

text: After the Moon, Venus was the second object in the

text: Solar System

text: to be explored by radar from the Earth.  The first studies were carried out in 1961 at

text: NASA

text: 's

entity_name: Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex

text: Goldstone Observatory

text: , part of the

text: Deep Space Network

text: . At successive

text: inferior conjunctions

text: , Venus was observed both by Goldstone and the

text: National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center

text: in

text: Arecibo

text: . The studies carried out were similar to the earlier measurement of transits of the

text: meridian

text: , which had revealed in 1963 that the rotation of Venus was

text: retrograde

text: (it rotates in the opposite direction to that in which it orbits the Sun). The radar observations also allowed astronomers to determine that the

text: rotation period

text: of Venus was 243.1 days, and that its

text: axis of rotation

text: was almost perpendicular to its

text: orbital plane

text: . It was also established that the

text: radius

text: of the planet was , some  less than the best previous figure obtained with terrestrial telescopes.

text: Although the concept had been explored since the late 1960s, the program formally commenced in 1972, and was the sole focus of NASA's manned operations after the final Apollo and Skylab flights in the mid-1970s. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low Earth orbit during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for a U.S. space station evolved into the International Space Station and was formally initiated in 1983 by U.S. President Ronald Reagan, but the ISS  suffered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs  and forced the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired — serving twice as long than it was originally designed to do. In 2004, according to the President George W. Bush's Vision for Space Exploration, use of the Space Shuttle was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of the ISS, which was far behind schedule at that point.

text: Although the concept had been explored since the late 1960s, the program formally commenced in 1972, and was the sole focus of NASA's manned operations after the final

text: Apollo

text: and

text: Skylab

text: flights in the mid-1970s. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in

text: low Earth orbit

text: during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for a U.S. space station evolved into the

text: International Space Station

text: and was formally initiated in 1983 by U.S. President

text: Ronald Reagan

text: , but the ISS  suffered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs  and forced the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired — serving twice as long than it was originally designed to do. In 2004, according to the President George W. Bush's

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , use of the Space Shuttle was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of the ISS, which was far behind schedule at that point.

text: In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of public and private industries. For example, several countries have a civilian space program funded by the government through tax collection, such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration in the United States, European Space Agency in Europe, the Canadian Space Agency in Canada, Indian Space Research Organisation in India, Japanese Aeronautics Exploration Agency in Japan, RKA in Russia, China National Space Administration in China, SUPARCO in Pakistan, Iranian Space Agency in Iran, and Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) in South Korea.

text: In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of public and private industries. For example, several countries have a civilian

text: space program

text: funded by the

text: government

text: through tax collection, such as

text: in the United States,

text: European Space Agency

text: in Europe, the

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: in Canada,

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: in India,

text: Japanese Aeronautics Exploration Agency

text: in Japan,

text: RKA

text: in Russia,

text: China National Space Administration

text: in China,

entity_name: Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission

text: SUPARCO

text: in Pakistan,

text: Iranian Space Agency

text: in Iran, and

text: Korea Aerospace Research Institute

text: (KARI) in South Korea.

text: Several infrared space telescopes have continued and greatly expanded the study of the infrared Universe, such as the Infrared Space Observatory launched in 1995, the Spitzer Space Telescope launched in 2003, and the Akari Space Telescope launched in 2006.

text: Several infrared space telescopes have continued and greatly expanded the study of the infrared Universe, such as the

text: Infrared Space Observatory

text: launched in 1995, the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: launched in 2003, and the

text: Akari

text: Space Telescope launched in 2006.

text: Proposed in-space propulsion technologies describe the propulsion technologies that could meet future space science and exploration needs. These propulsion technologies are intended to provide effective exploration of our Solar System and will permit mission designers to plan missions to “fly anytime, anywhere, and complete a host of science objectives at the destinations” and with greater reliability and safety. With a wide range of possible missions and candidate propulsion technologies, the question of which technologies are “best” for future missions is a difficult one. A portfolio of propulsion technologies should be developed to provide optimum solutions for a diverse set of missions and destinations.

text: Proposed in-space propulsion technologies describe the propulsion technologies that could meet future

text: space science and exploration

text: needs. These propulsion technologies are intended to provide effective

text: exploration

text: of our

text: Solar System

text: and will permit mission designers to plan missions to “fly anytime, anywhere, and complete a host of science objectives at the destinations” and with greater reliability and safety. With a wide range of possible missions and candidate propulsion technologies, the question of which technologies are “best” for future missions is a difficult one. A portfolio of propulsion technologies should be developed to provide optimum solutions for a diverse set of missions and destinations.

text: Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is a NASA Explorers program Solar and space exploration mission to study matter comprising energetic particles from the solar wind, the interplanetary medium, and other sources. Real-time data from ACE is used by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center to improve forecasts and warnings of solar storms. The ACE robotic spacecraft was launched August 25, 1997 and entered a Lissajous orbit close to the  Lagrangian point (which lies between the Sun and the Earth at a distance of some 1.5 million km from the latter) on December 12, 1997. The spacecraft is currently operating at that orbit. Because ACE is in a non-Keplerian orbit, and has regular station-keeping maneuvers, the orbital parameters in the adjacent information box are only approximate.  The spacecraft is still in generally good condition in 2015, and is projected to have enough fuel to maintain its orbit until 2024.  NASA Goddard Space Flight Center managed the development and integration of the ACE spacecraft.

text: Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is a

text: NASA

text: Explorers program

text: Solar and

text: space exploration

text: mission to study

text: matter

text: comprising energetic particles from the

text: solar wind

text: , the

text: interplanetary medium

text: , and other sources. Real-time data from ACE is used by the

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: NOAA

text: Space Weather Prediction Center

text: to improve forecasts and warnings of solar storms. The ACE

text: robotic spacecraft

text: was launched August 25, 1997 and entered a

text: Lissajous orbit

text: close to the

text: Lagrangian point

text: (which lies between the Sun and the Earth at a distance of some 1.5 million km from the latter) on December 12, 1997. The spacecraft is currently operating at that orbit. Because ACE is in a non-Keplerian orbit, and has regular station-keeping maneuvers, the orbital parameters in the adjacent information box are only approximate.  The spacecraft is still in generally good condition in 2015, and is projected to have enough fuel to maintain its orbit until 2024.  NASA

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: managed the development and integration of the ACE spacecraft.

text: On September 29, 1995, NASA's Ames Research Center, responsible for managing the project, issued a press release that began, "After nearly 22 years of exploration out to the farthest reaches of the Solar System, one of the most durable and productive space missions in history will come to a close."  It indicated NASA would use its Deep Space Network antennas to listen "once or twice a month" for the spacecraft's signal, until "some time in late 1996" when "its transmitter will fall silent altogether."  NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin characterized Pioneer 11 as "the little spacecraft that could, a venerable explorer that has taught us a great deal about the Solar System and, in the end, about our own innate drive to learn. Pioneer 11 is what NASA is all about – exploration beyond the frontier." Besides announcing the end of operations, the dispatch provided a historical list of Pioneer 11 mission achievements.

text: On September 29, 1995, NASA's

text: Ames Research Center

text: , responsible for managing the project, issued a press release that began, "After nearly 22 years of exploration out to the farthest reaches of the Solar System, one of the most durable and productive space missions in history will come to a close."  It indicated NASA would use its

text: Deep Space Network

text: antennas to listen "once or twice a month" for the spacecraft's signal, until "some time in late 1996" when "its transmitter will fall silent altogether."  NASA Administrator

text: Daniel Goldin

text: characterized Pioneer 11 as "the little spacecraft that could, a venerable explorer that has taught us a great deal about the Solar System and, in the end, about our own innate drive to learn. Pioneer 11 is what NASA is all about – exploration beyond the frontier." Besides announcing the end of operations, the dispatch provided a historical list of Pioneer 11 mission achievements.

text: The secondary strategy of the game is to explore the solar system by launching your bunnies into space in ships. Once in space, the bunnies collect Carrot markers and journey to the planet Jupiter (hence the game's title).

text: Marchis was born in France.  He is currently a Principal Investigator at the SETI Institute. He received his Ph.D. in 2000 from university of Toulouse, France in planetary science. Although his thesis was performed while living in several places: Mexico, France, Great-Britain; the main part of his studies were made while working at La Silla observatory in Chile for the European Southern Observatory, an intergovernmental organization aiming to develop astronomy in the southern hemisphere. He participated in the development of observations with the first adaptive optics system available to a large community (called ADONIS on the 3.6m telescope). He moved to California shortly after receiving his Ph.D. in November 2000 through a postdoctoral position  at UC Berkeley.Since then, he has dedicated most of his activity monitoring Io's volcanism with the Keck-10m telescope and the support of CfAO, an NSF science and technology center. In 2003, he was hired as an assistant researcher at UC Berkeley to conduct his research more independently and expanded it to a broader field, but still based on high angular resolution capabilities. In 2007, he was appointed as a Planetary Scientist at the Carl Sagan Center of the SETI Institute where he expanded his research on multiple asteroids using space-telescope facilities (HST, Spitzer telescope) and participating to development of space mission concepts to explore these new worlds. In June 2011, he took a full-time position at the Carl Sagan Center to lead the development of space mission concepts and new high-resolution & high contrast instruments for ground-based telescopes. He currently leads the Education and public outreach program of the Gemini Planet Imager, an instrument dedicated to the search of exoplanets, using direct imaging, spectroscopy and polarimetry which initiated its search campaign in March 2015.He has also taught on several occasions "The Planets" class at UC-Berkeley (Astro 12) and several classes in Spanish in Chile. He is an associate astronomer at Observatoire de Paris since June 2003, IMCCE. (ref [1]). He has appeared and has been a science advisor of several TV shows and documentaries linked to his work on the search for life in our universe and the study of Io's volcanism and asteroids.

text: Marchis was born in France.  He is currently a Principal Investigator at the

text: SETI Institute

text: . He received his Ph.D. in 2000 from university of Toulouse, France in planetary science. Although his thesis was performed while living in several places: Mexico, France, Great-Britain; the main part of his studies were made while working at

text: La Silla

text: observatory in Chile for the

text: European Southern Observatory

text: , an intergovernmental organization aiming to develop astronomy in the southern hemisphere. He participated in the development of observations with the first

text: adaptive optics

text: system available to a large community (called

text: ADONIS

text: on the 3.6m telescope). He moved to California shortly after receiving his Ph.D. in November 2000 through a postdoctoral position  at UC Berkeley.Since then, he has dedicated most of his activity monitoring Io's volcanism with the

text: Keck

text: -10m telescope and the support of

text: CfAO

text: , an NSF science and technology center. In 2003, he was hired as an assistant researcher at UC Berkeley to conduct his research more independently and expanded it to a broader field, but still based on high angular resolution capabilities. In 2007, he was appointed as a Planetary Scientist at the Carl Sagan Center of the SETI Institute where he expanded his research on multiple asteroids using space-telescope facilities (HST, Spitzer telescope) and participating to development of space mission concepts to explore these new worlds. In June 2011, he took a full-time position at the Carl Sagan Center to lead the development of space mission concepts and new high-resolution & high contrast instruments for ground-based telescopes. He currently leads the Education and public outreach program of the

text: Gemini Planet Imager

text: , an instrument dedicated to the search of exoplanets, using direct imaging, spectroscopy and polarimetry which initiated its search campaign in March 2015.He has also taught on several occasions "The Planets" class at UC-Berkeley (Astro 12) and several classes in Spanish in Chile. He is an associate astronomer at

text: Observatoire de Paris

text: since June 2003,

entity_name: Institut de mécanique céleste et de calcul des éphémérides

text: IMCCE

text: . (ref [1]). He has appeared and has been a science advisor of several TV shows and documentaries linked to his work on the search for life in our universe and the study of Io's volcanism and asteroids.

text: Use of night-glider mode had been proposed at NASA Lewis early in the space station's history, but was only implemented in 2003, after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, when the ability of the space shuttle to bring propellant to the station for orbital maintenance was removed while the space shuttle program went through a period of redesign.  The implementation of drag-reducing flight modes of the space station resulted in saving about 1,000 kg of orbital-maintenance propellant per year.

text: Use of night-glider mode had been proposed at NASA Lewis early in the space station's history, but was only implemented in 2003, after the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , when the ability of the

text: space shuttle

text: to bring propellant to the station for orbital maintenance was removed while the space shuttle program went through a period of redesign.  The implementation of drag-reducing flight modes of the space station resulted in saving about 1,000 kg of orbital-maintenance propellant per year.

text: The initial plans for the Space Station envisaged a small, low-cost Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) that would provide emergency evacuation capability. The 1986 Challenger disaster led planners to consider a more capable spacecraft. The Orbital Space Plane (OSP) development got underway in 2001, with an early version expected to enter service by 2010. With the initiation of the Constellation program in 2004, the knowledge gained on the OSP was transferred to Johnson Space Center (JSC) for use in the development of the Crew Exploration Vehicle. No operational OSP was ever built.

text: The initial plans for the Space Station envisaged a small, low-cost

text: Crew Return Vehicle

text: (CRV) that would provide emergency evacuation capability. The 1986 Challenger disaster led planners to consider a more capable spacecraft. The

text: Orbital Space Plane

text: (OSP) development got underway in 2001, with an early version expected to enter service by 2010. With the initiation of the Constellation program in 2004, the knowledge gained on the OSP was transferred to Johnson Space Center (JSC) for use in the development of the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: . No operational OSP was ever built.

text: Space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope has signified a new era of detailed observations of faint objects from afar in all of the electromagnetic spectrum. This includes faint objects in the Solar system, such as Neptune. Adaptive optics technology has also allowed for detailed observations of faint objects from ground-based telescopes and this technology has been used since 1997 to obtain scientific information on Neptune and its atmosphere. These image recordings now exceed the capability of HST by far and in some instances even the Voyager images, such as Uranus. Ground-based observations are however always limited in their registration of electromagnetic waves of certain wavelengths, due to the inevitable atmospheric absorption, in particular of high energy waves.

text: Space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope has signified a new era of detailed observations of faint objects from afar in all of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . This includes faint objects in the Solar system, such as Neptune.

text: Adaptive optics

text: technology has also allowed for detailed observations of faint objects from ground-based telescopes and this technology has been used since 1997 to obtain scientific information on Neptune and its atmosphere. These image recordings now exceed the capability of HST by far and in some instances even the Voyager images, such as Uranus. Ground-based observations are however always limited in their registration of electromagnetic waves of certain wavelengths, due to the inevitable

text: atmospheric absorption

text: , in particular of high energy waves.

text: The Space Shuttle first launched in 1981, during Ronald Reagan's administration.  Reagan in 1982 announced a renewed active space effort, which included initiatives such the construction of Space Station Freedom, and the military Strategic Defense Initiative, and, later in his term, a 30 percent increase in NASA's budget.  The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in January 1986 led to a reevaluation of the future of the national space program in the National Commission on Space report and the Ride Report.

text: The Space Shuttle first launched in 1981, during

text: Ronald Reagan's administration

text: .  Reagan in 1982 announced a renewed active space effort, which included initiatives such the construction of

text: Space Station Freedom

text: , and the military

text: Strategic Defense Initiative

text: , and, later in his term, a 30 percent increase in NASA's budget.  The

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: in January 1986 led to a reevaluation of the future of the national space program in the

text: National Commission on Space

text: report and the

text: Ride Report

text: The Stafford Air & Space Museum is located in Weatherford, Oklahoma, United States. The museum was named a Smithsonian Affiliate in June 2010. The museum features exhibits about aviation, space exploration and rocketry, and a collection of over 20 historic aircraft.  Displays include artifacts from the Space Shuttle program, Hubble Space Telescope and the Mir Space Station, a Moon rock, a Titan II missile, a Mark 6 Re-entry vehicle and a Gemini spacecraft.

text: The Stafford Air & Space Museum is located in

text: Weatherford

text: Oklahoma

text: , United States. The museum was named a Smithsonian Affiliate in June 2010. The museum features exhibits about aviation, space exploration and rocketry, and a collection of over 20 historic aircraft.  Displays include artifacts from the

text: Space Shuttle

text: program,

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and the

text: Mir Space Station

text: , a Moon rock, a

text: Titan II missile

text: , a Mark 6

text: Re-entry vehicle

text: and a

text: Gemini spacecraft

text: The most frequent use of the term modular equation is in relation to the moduli problems for elliptic curves. In that case the moduli space itself is of dimension one. That implies that any two rational functions F and G, in the function field of the modular curve, will satisfy a modular equation P(F,G) = 0 with P a non-zero polynomial of two variables over the complex numbers. For suitable non-degenerate choice of F and G, the equation P(X,Y) = 0 will actually define the modular curve.

text: The most frequent use of the term modular equation is in relation to the moduli problems for

text: elliptic curve

text: s. In that case the moduli space itself is of dimension one. That implies that any two

text: rational function

text: s F and G, in the

text: function field

text: of the modular curve, will satisfy a modular equation P(F,G) = 0 with P a non-zero

text: polynomial

text: of two variables over the

text: complex number

text: s. For suitable non-degenerate choice of F and G, the equation P(X,Y) = 0 will actually define the modular curve.

text: In the 1990s NASA developed several conceptual level human Mars exploration architectures. One of these was NASA Design reference mission 3.0 (DRM 3.0). It was a study performed by the NASA Mars Exploration Team at the NASA's Johnson Space Center (JSC) in the 1990s. Personnel representing several NASA field centers formulated a "Reference Mission" addressing human exploration of Mars. The plan describes a human mission to Mars with concepts of operations and technologies to be used as a first cut at an architecture. The architecture for the Mars Reference Mission builds on previous work, principally on the work of the Synthesis Group (1991) and Zubrin's (1991) concepts for the use of propellants derived from the Martian atmosphere. The primary purpose of the Reference Mission was to stimulate further thought and development of alternative approaches, which can improve effectiveness, reduce risks, and reduce cost. Improvements can be made at several levels; for example, in the architectural, mission, and system levels.

text: In the 1990s NASA developed several conceptual level human Mars exploration architectures. One of these was NASA

text: Design reference mission 3.0

text: (DRM 3.0). It was a study performed by the NASA Mars Exploration Team at the NASA's Johnson Space Center (JSC) in the 1990s. Personnel representing several NASA field centers formulated a "Reference Mission" addressing human exploration of Mars. The plan describes a human mission to Mars with concepts of operations and technologies to be used as a first cut at an architecture. The architecture for the Mars Reference Mission builds on previous work, principally on the work of the Synthesis Group (1991) and Zubrin's (1991) concepts for the use of propellants derived from the Martian atmosphere. The primary purpose of the Reference Mission was to stimulate further thought and development of alternative approaches, which can improve effectiveness, reduce risks, and reduce cost. Improvements can be made at several levels; for example, in the architectural, mission, and system levels.

text: Mir (, ; lit. Peace or World) was a Soviet and later Russian space station, operational in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001.With a mass greater than that of any previous space station, Mir was constructed from 1986 to 1996 with a modular design, the first to be assembled in this way. The station was the largest artificial satellite orbiting the Earth until its deorbit on 21 March 2001, a record now surpassed by the International Space Station (ISS). Mir served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology and spacecraft systems in order to develop technologies required for the permanent occupation of space.

text: Mir (, ; lit. Peace or World) was a

text: Soviet

text: and later

text: Russia

text: n

text: space station

text: , operational in

text: low Earth orbit

text: from 1986 to 2001.With a mass greater than that of any previous space station,

text: Mir

text: was constructed from 1986 to 1996 with a modular design, the first to be assembled in this way. The station was the largest artificial

text: satellite

text: orbiting the Earth until its

text: deorbit

text: on 21 March 2001, a record now surpassed by the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). Mir served as a

text: microgravity

text: research

text: laboratory

text: in which crews conducted

text: experiment

text: s in

text: biology

text: human biology

text: physics

text: astronomy

text: meteorology

text: and spacecraft systems in order to develop technologies required for the permanent occupation of

text: space

text: Distributed Creativity has recently been used to describe network performance practices, especially by composers and performers working in the area of network music performance. With the idea of distributing performers across the globe, also come considerations of how people listen when in different spaces, which has been explored under the theme of networked listening. A special issue in the 2009 publication of Contemporary Music Review on network performance investigated the topic of network music.Theorists are considering how distributing performers and audiences in a performance space impacts on the experience of music making on behlaf of the performers but also on the audience. Discussions on how each performance or concert space is built or set up are discussed under the theme of network dramaturgy.There are several centres around the world that have dedicated network performance spaces and teams researching how to make music with people in distributed environments, for instance SoundWIRE Research Group at CCRMA, Stanford University and the Sonic Arts Research Centre in Belfast.

text: Distributed Creativity has recently been used to describe

text: network performance practices

text: , especially by composers and performers working in the area of network music performance. With the idea of distributing performers across the globe, also come considerations of how people listen when in different spaces, which has been explored under the theme of networked listening. A special issue in the 2009 publication of Contemporary Music Review on network performance investigated the topic of network music.Theorists are considering how distributing performers and audiences in a performance space impacts on the experience of music making on behlaf of the performers but also on the audience. Discussions on how each performance or concert space is built or set up are discussed under the theme of network dramaturgy.There are several centres around the world that have dedicated network performance spaces and teams researching how to make music with people in distributed environments, for instance

text: SoundWIRE Research Group at CCRMA

text: , Stanford University and the

text: Sonic Arts Research Centre in Belfast

text: Because of the enormous chemical energy in rocket propellants (greater energy by weight than explosives, but lower than gasoline), consequences of accidents can be severe. Most space missions have some problems. In 1986, following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, American physicist Richard Feynman, having served on the Rogers Commission estimated that the chance of an unsafe condition for a launch of the Shuttle was very roughly 1%; more recently the historical per person-flight risk in orbital spaceflight has been calculated to be around 2% or 4%.

text: Because of the enormous chemical energy in

text: rocket propellant

text: s (greater energy by weight than explosives, but lower than

text: gasoline

text: ), consequences of accidents can be severe. Most space missions have some problems. In 1986, following the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , American physicist

text: Richard Feynman

text: , having served on the

text: Rogers Commission

text: estimated that the chance of an unsafe condition for a launch of the Shuttle was very roughly 1%; more recently the historical per person-flight risk in orbital spaceflight has been calculated to be around 2% or 4%.

text: In 2012, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency announced the award of $500,000 to former astronaut Mae Jemison to fund a project with the goal of sending future astronauts out of the Solar System. Jemison aims to increase public interest in future deep space exploration projects. Upon awarding the money to Jemison, a "100 Year Starship" symposium was held in Houston, Texas to discuss interstellar travel. Topics discussed include "time-distance solutions; life sciences in space exploration; destinations and habitats; becoming an interstellar civilization; space technologies enhancing life on earth; and commercial opportunities from interstellar efforts".

text: In 2012, the

text: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

text: announced the award of $500,000 to former astronaut

text: Mae Jemison

text: to fund a project with the goal of sending future astronauts out of the Solar System. Jemison aims to increase public interest in future deep space exploration projects. Upon awarding the money to Jemison, a "

text: 100 Year Starship

text: " symposium was held in

text: Houston, Texas

text: to discuss interstellar travel. Topics discussed include "time-distance solutions; life sciences in space exploration; destinations and habitats; becoming an interstellar civilization; space technologies enhancing life on earth; and commercial opportunities from interstellar efforts".

text: The show also explores how Star Trek popularized the notion of the user-friendly personal computer, and how Trek fan Ed Roberts, invented the first home computer, the Altair 8800, named after the solar system Altair (Altair 6) in the Star Trek episode Amok Time. This led to Bill Gates writing the computer programming language BASIC for the Altair and forming Microsoft.

text: The show also explores how Star Trek popularized the notion of the

text: user-friendly

text: personal computer

text: , and how Trek fan

text: Ed Roberts

text: , invented the first home computer, the

text: Altair 8800

text: , named after the solar system Altair (Altair 6) in the Star Trek episode

text: Amok Time

text: . This led to

text: Bill Gates

text: writing the computer programming language

text: BASIC

text: for the Altair and forming

text: Microsoft

text: Space Surveillance Telescope is a telescope for detecting and tracking orbital debris. It has a 3.5 meter (138″) aperture mirror and came online in 2011.

text: Space Surveillance Telescope is a telescope for detecting and tracking

text: orbital debris

text: . It has a 3.5 meter (138″) aperture mirror and came online in 2011.

text: As a reusable space-launch vehicle, the space shuttles carried a wide variety of payloads – from scientific research equipment to highly classified military satellites. The flights were assigned a Space Transportation System (STS) number, in general sequenced by the planned launch date. The Wikipedia list of space shuttle missions shows all flights, their missions, and other information.

text: As a reusable space-launch vehicle, the space shuttles carried a wide variety of payloads – from scientific research equipment to highly classified military satellites. The flights were assigned a Space Transportation System (STS) number, in general sequenced by the planned launch date. The Wikipedia

text: list of space shuttle missions

text: shows all flights, their missions, and other information.

text: Space Industries was founded in Houston, Texas by Maxime Faget, who had recently retired as chief of engineering and operations at NASA, as well as entrepreneurs James Calaway, Guillermo Trotti, and Larry Bell. Their plan was to build a space station that would feed off the life support system of the space shuttle when it visited, but would not maintain continuous life support between shuttle visits. Faget proposed this plan because maintaining continuous life support would be cost prohibitive.

text: Space Industries was founded in

text: Houston

text: Texas

text: by

text: Maxime Faget

text: , who had recently retired as chief of engineering and operations at

text: NASA

text: , as well as entrepreneurs James Calaway, Guillermo Trotti, and Larry Bell. Their plan was to build a space station that would feed off the

text: life support system

text: of the

text: space shuttle

text: when it visited, but would not maintain continuous life support between shuttle visits. Faget proposed this plan because maintaining continuous life support would be cost prohibitive.

text: The United States Air Force (USAF) and the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) of the United States Department of Defense (DoD) participated in the development of the Space Shuttle from its official inception in 1969. To save money, the shuttle was intended to serve as the United States' national launch system for all civilian, military, and classified payloads. The DoD influenced key aspects of the shuttle's design such as the size of its cargo bay, and Congress reportedly told DoD that it would not pay for satellites not designed to fit into the bay. The USAF in the 1970s hoped to buy up to three shuttles and fly them with all-military crews. As with the earlier X-20 Dyna-Soar and Manned Orbiting Laboratory, budget concerns ended the "Blue Shuttle" program, but the USAF gained the use of up to one third of all launches and the right to requisition the next available launch for high-priority payloads. It renovated an existing launch site at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California to send shuttles into polar orbits and established the Manned Spaceflight Control Squadron. Its personnel monitored military shuttle flights from a secret floor of NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston, ahead of a future DoD mission control center in Colorado that would monitor an expected 12 to 14 flights each year.

text: The

text: United States Air Force

text: (USAF) and the

text: National Reconnaissance Office

text: (NRO) of the

text: United States Department of Defense

text: (DoD) participated in the development of the Space Shuttle from

text: its official inception in 1969

text: . To save money, the shuttle was intended to serve as the United States' national launch system for all civilian, military, and classified payloads. The DoD influenced key aspects of the shuttle's design such as the size of its cargo bay, and Congress reportedly told DoD that it would not pay for satellites not designed to fit into the bay. The USAF in the 1970s hoped to buy up to three shuttles and fly them with all-military crews. As with the earlier

text: X-20 Dyna-Soar

text: and

text: Manned Orbiting Laboratory

text: , budget concerns ended the "Blue Shuttle" program, but the USAF gained the use of up to one third of all launches and the right to requisition the next available launch for high-priority payloads. It renovated

text: an existing launch site

text: at

text: Vandenberg Air Force Base

text: in California to send shuttles into

text: polar orbit

text: s and established the Manned Spaceflight Control Squadron. Its personnel monitored military shuttle flights from a secret floor of NASA's

entity_name: Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center

text: Mission Control Center

text: in Houston, ahead of a future DoD mission control center in Colorado that would monitor an expected 12 to 14 flights each year.

text: In 2000, Chawla was selected for her second flight as part of the crew of STS-107. This mission was repeatedly delayed due to scheduling conflicts and technical problems such as the July 2002 discovery of cracks in the shuttle engine flow liners. On January 16, 2003, Chawla finally returned to space aboard Space Shuttle Columbia on the ill-fated STS-107 mission. Chawla's responsibilities included the microgravity experiments, for which the crew conducted nearly 80 experiments studying earth and space science, advanced technology development, and astronaut health and safety. During the launch of STS-107, Columbias 28th mission, a piece of foam insulation broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the left wing of the orbiter. A few previous shuttle launches had seen minor damage from foam shedding, but some engineers suspected that the damage to Columbia was more serious. NASA managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. When Columbia re-entered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the spacecraft to become unstable and slowly break apart. After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the Challenger disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was put on hold; the station relied entirely on the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation for resupply for 29 months until Shuttle flights resumed with STS-114 and 41 months for crew rotation until STS-121.

text: In 2000, Chawla was selected for her second flight as part of the crew of

text: . This mission was repeatedly delayed due to scheduling conflicts and technical problems such as the July 2002 discovery of cracks in the shuttle engine flow liners. On January 16, 2003, Chawla finally returned to space aboard

text: Space Shuttle Columbia

text: on the

text: ill-fated STS-107 mission

text: . Chawla's responsibilities included the

text: microgravity

text: experiments, for which the crew conducted nearly 80 experiments studying earth and

text: space science

text: , advanced technology development, and astronaut health and safety. During the launch of

text: , Columbias 28th mission, a piece of foam insulation broke off from the

text: Space Shuttle external tank

text: and struck the left wing of the

text: orbiter

text: . A few previous shuttle launches had seen minor damage from foam shedding, but some engineers suspected that the damage to Columbia was more serious.

text: NASA

text: managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed. When Columbia re-entered the

text: atmosphere of Earth

text: , the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the spacecraft to become unstable and slowly break apart. After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the

text: Challenger disaster

text: . Construction of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) was put on hold; the station relied entirely on the Russian

text: Roscosmos State Corporation

text: for resupply for 29 months until Shuttle flights resumed with

text: and 41 months for crew rotation until

text: Politics of the International Space Station  begins with the 1972 milestone in co-operation between the United States and the Soviet Union in space, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. This cooperative venture resulted in the July 1975 docking of Soyuz 19 with an Apollo spacecraft. From 1978 to 1987, the USSR's Interkosmos programme included allied Warsaw Pact countries, and countries which were not Soviet allies, such as India, Syria and France, in manned and unmanned missions to Space stations Salyut 6 and 7. In 1986 the USSR extended this co-operation to a dozen countries in the Mir programme. From 1994 to 1998, NASA Space Shuttles and crew visited MIR in the Shuttle–Mir Programme. In 1998, assembly of the International Space Station began.

text: Politics of the International Space Station  begins with the 1972 milestone in co-operation between the United States and the Soviet Union in space, the

text: Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

text: . This cooperative venture resulted in the July 1975 docking of

text: Soyuz 19

text: with an

text: Apollo

text: spacecraft. From 1978 to 1987, the USSR's

text: Interkosmos

text: programme included allied Warsaw Pact countries, and countries which were not Soviet allies, such as India, Syria and France, in manned and unmanned missions to Space stations Salyut 6 and 7. In 1986 the USSR extended this co-operation to a dozen countries in the

text: Mir

text: programme. From 1994 to 1998, NASA Space Shuttles and crew visited MIR in the

text: Shuttle–Mir Program

text: me. In 1998, assembly of the

text: International Space Station

text: began.

text: Instruments used by SETI Institute scientists include the ground-based Allen Telescope Array, several ground-based optical telescopes such as the Shane telescope at Lick Observatory, the W.M. Keck telescopes & IRTF in Hawaii, the Very Large Telescopes in Chile. SETI researchers also use space telescope facilities, mostly  the Hubble Space Telescope, the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Herschel Space Telescope. SETI scientists are also involved in space missions, the New Horizons mission toward Pluto, the Cassini mission, currently in orbit around Saturn, and the Mars Rovers Opportunity and Curiosity.

text: Instruments used by SETI Institute scientists include the ground-based

text: Allen Telescope Array

text: , several ground-based optical telescopes such as the

text: Shane telescope

text: at

text: Lick Observatory

text: , the W.M.

text: Keck telescopes

text: IRTF

text: in Hawaii, the

text: Very Large Telescope

text: s in Chile. SETI researchers also use space telescope facilities, mostly  the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: and the

text: Herschel Space Telescope

text: . SETI scientists are also involved in space missions, the

text: New Horizons

text: mission toward Pluto, the

text: Cassini

text: mission, currently in orbit around Saturn, and the Mars Rovers

text: Opportunity

text: and

text: Curiosity

text: The telescope was conceived in 1965, as part of the Soviet Cloud Space Station, which evolved into the Multi-module Orbital Complex (MOK).When work on Gamma finally began in 1972, it was intended to create a Gamma observatory, the first space station module for MOK, the first modular space station in the Salyut programme.For this, it was designed to add the scientific instruments of the observatory to a spacecraft derived from the Progress spacecraft – with the Progress in turn being a Soyuz spacecraft derivate – and that this spacecraft would dock to a MOK space station. However, in 1974, at the time it became a joint venture with France, the MOK space station project was canceled, and in February 1976, the Soviet space program was reconfigured.When on 16 February 1979 production of the telescope was authorized, the plans for the Soviet space station modules had evolved to use the Functional Cargo Block of the TKS spacecraft instead, with the Kvant-1 Roentgen observatory eventually becoming the first such module for Mir – as a result of these changes the Gamma observatory was redesigned as the free flying Gamma satellite.At that time the telescope was authorized in 1979, it was planned to be launched in 1984, but the actual launch was delayed until 1990.

text: The telescope was conceived in 1965, as part of the Soviet

text: Cloud Space Station

text: , which evolved into the Multi-module Orbital Complex (MOK).When work on Gamma finally began in 1972, it was intended to create a Gamma observatory, the first space station module for MOK, the first modular space station in the

text: Salyut programme

text: .For this, it was designed to add the scientific instruments of the observatory to a spacecraft derived from the

text: Progress spacecraft

text: – with the Progress in turn being a

text: Soyuz spacecraft

text: derivate – and that this spacecraft would dock to a MOK space station. However, in 1974, at the time it became a joint venture with

text: France

text: , the MOK space station project was canceled, and in February 1976, the Soviet space program was reconfigured.When on 16 February 1979 production of the telescope was authorized, the plans for the Soviet space station modules had evolved to use the

text: Functional Cargo Block

text: of the

text: TKS spacecraft

text: instead, with the

text: Roentgen observatory eventually becoming the first such module for

text: Mir

text: – as a result of these changes the Gamma observatory was redesigned as the free flying Gamma satellite.At that time the telescope was authorized in 1979, it was planned to be launched in 1984, but the actual launch was delayed until 1990.

text: A space station, also known as an orbital station or an orbital space station, is a spacecraft capable of supporting crewmembers, which is designed to remain in space (most commonly as an artificial satellite in low Earth orbit) for an extended period of time and for other spacecraft to dock. A space station is distinguished from other spacecraft used for human spaceflight by lack of major propulsion or landing systems. Instead, other vehicles transport people and cargo to and from the station.  three space stations are in orbit: the International Space Station, which is permanently manned, China's Tiangong-1 (defunct) and Tiangong-2 (launched 15 September 2016, not permanently manned). Previous stations include the Almaz and Salyut series, Skylab, and most recently Mir.

text: A space station, also known as an orbital station or an orbital space station, is a

text: spacecraft

text: capable of supporting crewmembers, which is designed to remain in

text: space

text: (most commonly as an

text: artificial satellite

text: in

text: low Earth orbit

text: ) for an extended period of time and for other spacecraft to dock. A space station is distinguished from other spacecraft used for

text: human spaceflight

text: by lack of major

text: propulsion

text: or

text: landing

text: systems. Instead, other vehicles transport people and cargo to and from the station.  three space stations are in orbit: the

text: International Space Station

text: , which is permanently manned, China's

text: (defunct) and

text: (launched 15 September 2016, not permanently manned). Previous stations include the

text: Almaz

text: and

text: Salyut series

text: Skylab

text: , and most recently

text: Mir

text: As of October 2016, one of Trump's policy advisors declared that, under Trump, NASA would recreate National Space Council, pursue a goal of “human exploration of the solar system by the end of the century,” to drive technology developments to a stronger degree than a manned mission to Mars. Other goals would include shifting budget to deep space exploration from Earth science and climate research, pursuit of small satellites and hypersonic technology. A possibility of China joining International Space Station is also considered. A stronger role of manned Lunar exploration is possible in NASA's quest for a manned mission to Mars. Prior to that statement, the Trump campaign appeared to have little to no space policy at all.

text: As of October 2016, one of Trump's policy advisors declared that, under Trump, NASA would recreate

text: National Space Council

text: , pursue a goal of “human exploration of the solar system by the end of the century,” to drive technology developments to a stronger degree than a manned mission to Mars. Other goals would include shifting budget to deep space exploration from Earth science and climate research, pursuit of small satellites and hypersonic technology. A possibility of China joining International Space Station is also considered. A stronger role of manned Lunar exploration is possible in NASA's quest for a manned mission to Mars. Prior to that statement, the Trump campaign appeared to have little to no space policy at all.

text: Her essays have appeared in The New York Times, Smithsonian, Parade, The New Yorker, National Geographic, and many other journals. Her research has taken her to such diverse locales as Mata Atlantic in Brazil (working with endangered golden lion tamarins), Patagonia (right whales), Hawaii (humpback whales), California (tagging monarch butterflies at their overwintering sites), French Frigate Shoals (monk seals), Toroshima, Japan (short-tailed albatross), Texas (with Bat Conservation International), the Amazon rainforest, and Antarctica (penguins). In 1986, she was a semi-finalist for NASA's Journalist-in-Space Project—this program was cancelled after the Space Shuttle Challenger (carrying Christa McAuliffe as a payload specialist with the Teacher in Space Project) disaster.  A molecule has been named after her—dianeackerone—a crocodilian sex pheromone.

text: Her essays have appeared in

text: The New York Times

text: Smithsonian

text: Parade

text: The New Yorker

text: National Geographic

text: , and many other journals. Her research has taken her to such diverse locales as Mata Atlantic in

text: Brazil

text: (working with endangered

text: golden lion tamarins

text: Patagonia

text: right whales

text: Hawaii

text: humpback whales

text: ), California (tagging

text: monarch butterflies

text: at their overwintering sites),

text: French Frigate Shoals

text: monk seals

text: ), Toroshima,

text: Japan

text: short-tailed albatross

text: ), Texas (with

text: Bat Conservation International

text: ), the

text: Amazon rainforest

text: , and

text: Antarctica

text: penguins

text: ). In 1986, she was a semi-finalist for

text: NASA

text: 's Journalist-in-Space Project—this program was cancelled after the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: (carrying

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: as a

text: payload specialist

text: with the

text: Teacher in Space Project

text: ) disaster.  A molecule has been named after her—dianeackerone—a

text: crocodilia

text: n

text: sex pheromone

text: The website went online in the summer of 2005, just before the first "Return to Flight" Space Shuttle mission (STS-114) following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: The website went online in the summer of 2005, just before the first "Return to Flight"

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission (

text: ) following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: The Space Solar Telescope (SST) is a planned Chinese optical space solar telescope.

text: The Space Solar Telescope (SST) is a planned Chinese

text: optical

text: space

text: solar telescope

text: Mir was constructed between 1986 and 1996 and was the world's first modular space station. It was the first consistently inhabited long-term research station in space, and previously held the record for longest continuous human presence in space, at eight days short of ten years. Mir's purpose was to provide a large and habitable scientific laboratory in space, and, through a number of collaborations, including Intercosmos and Shuttle-Mir, was made internationally accessible to cosmonauts and astronauts of many different countries. The station existed until March 23, 2001, at which point it was deliberately deorbited, and broke apart during atmospheric re-entry.

text: Mir was constructed between 1986 and 1996 and was the world's first modular space station. It was the first consistently inhabited long-term

text: research station

text: in space, and previously held the record for longest continuous human presence in space, at eight days short of ten years. Mir's purpose was to provide a large and habitable scientific laboratory in space, and, through a number of collaborations, including

text: Intercosmos

text: and Shuttle-Mir, was made internationally accessible to cosmonauts and astronauts of many different countries. The station existed until March 23, 2001, at which point it was deliberately deorbited, and broke apart during atmospheric re-entry.

text: The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) is a camera formerly installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. The camera was built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and is roughly the size of a baby grand piano. It was installed by servicing mission 1 (STS-61) in 1993, replacing the telescope's original Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC).  WFPC2 was used to image the Hubble Deep Field in 1995, the Hourglass Nebula and Egg Nebula in 1996, and the Hubble Deep Field South in 1998. During STS-125, WFPC2 was removed and replaced with the Wide Field Camera 3 as part of the mission's first spacewalk on May 14, 2009. After returning to Earth, the camera was displayed briefly at the National Air and Space Museum and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory before returning to its final home at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum.

text: The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) is a

text: camera

text: formerly installed on the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . The camera was built by the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: and is roughly the size of a

text: baby grand piano

text: . It was installed by servicing mission 1 (

text: ) in 1993, replacing the telescope's original

text: Wide Field and Planetary Camera

text: (WF/PC).  WFPC2 was used to image the

text: Hubble Deep Field

text: in 1995, the

text: Hourglass Nebula

text: and

text: Egg Nebula

text: in 1996, and the

text: Hubble Deep Field South

text: in 1998. During

text: , WFPC2 was removed and replaced with the

text: Wide Field Camera 3

text: as part of the mission's first spacewalk on May 14, 2009. After returning to Earth, the camera was displayed briefly at the

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: and the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: before returning to its final home at the Smithsonian's

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: After tragedy struck again in 2003 with the destruction of the Columbia Shuttle, the Bush Administration tried to reinvigorate NASA with the Constellation Program. The program was designed to build a heavy lifting capability rocket similar to the Saturn 5, establish a moon base from which further missions to Mars and beyond would follow. President Bush stated, “Today I announce a new plan to explore space and extend a human presence across our solar system. We will begin the effort quickly, using existing programs and personnel. We'll make steady progress -- one mission, one voyage, one landing at a time.” The planned called for a new rocket to be in place and usable in 2015, return to the moon by 2017 and start a permanent lunar base by 2020.

text: During the post-landing briefing, NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin reported that the International Space Station was approximately 60% completed following STS-118. Griffin also stressed the importance of space exploration, and added that the damaged tile on the underside of the orbiter did very well during re-entry.

text: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990, and remains in operation. Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy. The HST is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble, and is one of NASA's Great Observatories, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope.

text: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a

text: space telescope

text: that was launched into

text: low Earth orbit

text: in 1990, and remains in operation. Although not the

text: first space telescope

text: , Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for

text: astronomy

text: . The HST is named after the

text: astronomer

text: Edwin Hubble

text: , and is one of NASA's

text: Great Observatories

text: , along with the

text: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: , the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: , and the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: Cassutt is also an experienced writer of non-fiction, not only contributing articles to such magazines as Space Illustrated, Space World, Air & Space and books such as Magill's Survey of Science: Space Exploration Series, but as the author of the  biographical encyclopedia, Who's Who in Space. The book contains biographies and photos of seven hundred astronauts and cosmonauts from around the world, for which Cassutt conducted dozens of interviews over a period of ten years.

text: The Laser Dynamic Range Imager (LDRI) is a LIDAR range imaging device developed by Sandia National Laboratories for the US Space Shuttle program.  The sensor was developed as part of NASA's "Return to Flight" effort following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster to provide 2-D and 3-D images of the Thermal Protection System on the Space Shuttle Orbiter.

text: The Laser Dynamic Range Imager (LDRI) is a

text: LIDAR

text: range imaging

text: device

text: developed by

text: Sandia National Laboratories

text: for the US

text: Space Shuttle program

text: .  The sensor was developed as part of

text: NASA

text: 's "Return to Flight" effort following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: to provide 2-D and 3-D images of the

text: Thermal Protection System

text: on the Space Shuttle Orbiter.

text: JPL has been recognized four times by the Space Foundation: with the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award, which is given annually to an individual or organization that has made significant contributions to public awareness of space programs, in 1998; and with the John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration on three occasions – in 2009 (as part of NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander Team), 2006 and 2005.

text: JPL has been recognized four times by the

text: Space Foundation

text: : with the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award, which is given annually to an individual or organization that has made significant contributions to public awareness of space programs, in 1998; and with the John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration on three occasions – in 2009 (as part of NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander Team), 2006 and 2005.

text: The Department of Defense (DoD) and NASA cooperated closely in many areas of space. In September 1963, NASA and the DoD agreed to cooperate in building a space station. The DoD wanted its own manned facility, however, and in December it announced Manned Orbital Laboratory (MOL), a small space station primarily intended for photo reconnaissance using large telescopes directed by a two-man crew. The station was the same diameter as a Titan II upper stage, and would be launched with the crew riding atop in a modified Gemini capsule with a hatch cut into the heat shield on the bottom of the capsule. MOL competed for funding with a NASA station for the next five years and politicians and other officials often suggested that NASA participate in MOL or use the DoD design. The military project led to changes to the NASA plans so that they would resemble MOL less.

text: The

text: Department of Defense

text: (DoD) and NASA cooperated closely in many areas of space. In September 1963, NASA and the DoD agreed to cooperate in building a space station. The DoD wanted its own manned facility, however, and in December it announced

text: Manned Orbital Laboratory

text: (MOL), a small space station primarily intended for photo reconnaissance using large telescopes directed by a two-man crew. The station was the same diameter as a

text: Titan II

text: upper stage, and would be launched with the crew riding atop in a modified Gemini capsule with a hatch cut into the

text: heat shield

text: on the bottom of the capsule. MOL competed for funding with a NASA station for the next five years and politicians and other officials often suggested that NASA participate in MOL or use the DoD design. The military project led to changes to the NASA plans so that they would resemble MOL less.

text: The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of selected atmospheric windows. This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for infrared astronomy.

text: The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of selected

text: atmospheric window

text: s. This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for infrared astronomy.

text: Selected by NASA as an astronaut candidate in June 1985, Cabana completed initial astronaut training in July 1986, qualifying for assignment as a pilot on future Space Shuttle flight crews. His initial assignment was as the Astronaut Office Space Shuttle flight software coordinator until November 1986. At that time he was assigned as the Deputy Chief of Aircraft Operations for the Johnson Space Center where he served for 2-1/2 years. He then served as the lead astronaut in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) where the Orbiter's flight software is tested prior to flight. Cabana has served as a spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) in Mission Control during Space Shuttle missions, and as Chief of Astronaut Appearances. Prior to his assignment to command STS-88, Cabana served three years as NASA’s Chief of the Astronaut Office. Following STS-88, Cabana served as the Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations. After joining the ISS Program in October 1999, Cabana served as Manager for International Operations. From August 2001 to September 2002, he served as Director, Human Space Flight Programs, Russia. As NASA's lead representative to the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Rosaviakosmos) and its contractors, he provided oversight of all human space flight operations, logistics, and technical functions, including NASA's mission operations in Korolev and crew training at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia. Upon his return to Houston, Cabana was assigned briefly as the Deputy Manager, International Space Station (ISS) Program. From November 2000 to March 2004 he served as Director, Flight Crew Operations Directorate, responsible for directing the day-to-day activities of the directorate, including the NASA Astronaut Corps and aircraft operations at Ellington Field. From October 2007 through October 2008 Cabana served as Director, John C. Stennis Space Center.  In October 2008 he was reassigned as Director of the John F. Kennedy Space Center.

text: Selected by NASA as an astronaut candidate in June 1985, Cabana completed initial astronaut training in July 1986, qualifying for assignment as a pilot on future

text: Space Shuttle

text: flight crews. His initial assignment was as the Astronaut Office Space Shuttle flight software coordinator until November 1986. At that time he was assigned as the Deputy Chief of Aircraft Operations for the

text: Johnson Space Center

text: where he served for 2-1/2 years. He then served as the lead astronaut in the

text: Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory

text: (SAIL) where the

text: Orbiter

text: 's flight software is tested prior to flight. Cabana has served as a spacecraft communicator (

text: CAPCOM

text: ) in Mission Control during Space Shuttle missions, and as Chief of Astronaut Appearances. Prior to his assignment to command

text: , Cabana served three years as NASA’s

text: Chief of the Astronaut Office

text: . Following STS-88, Cabana served as the Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations. After joining the

text: ISS

text: Program in October 1999, Cabana served as Manager for International Operations. From August 2001 to September 2002, he served as Director, Human Space Flight Programs, Russia. As NASA's lead representative to the

text: Russian Aviation and Space Agency

text: (Rosaviakosmos) and its contractors, he provided oversight of all human space flight operations, logistics, and technical functions, including NASA's mission operations in

text: Korolev

text: and crew training at the

text: Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center

text: in

text: Star City, Russia

text: . Upon his return to

text: Houston

text: , Cabana was assigned briefly as the Deputy Manager, International Space Station (ISS) Program. From November 2000 to March 2004 he served as Director, Flight Crew Operations Directorate, responsible for directing the day-to-day activities of the directorate, including the

text: NASA Astronaut Corps

text: and aircraft operations at

text: Ellington Field

text: . From October 2007 through October 2008 Cabana served as Director,

text: John C. Stennis Space Center

text: .  In October 2008 he was reassigned as Director of the

text: John F. Kennedy Space Center

text: Space travel forms an important aspect of gameplay.  When traveling within a single solar system, the ship and its surroundings are viewed from a third-person perspective on an "In System Travel Screen."  Navigation takes place in real-time as the player maneuvers the ship between explorable worlds, visits a gas giant to refuel, or engages in combat with other spaceships.  Some solar systems contain more than one explorable planet, but most such planets in the game may be reached only after the player's spaceship has been outfitted with a "jump drive" capable of interstellar travel and accompanying computer software to control it.

text: Space travel forms an important aspect of gameplay.  When traveling within a single solar system, the ship and its surroundings are viewed from a third-person perspective on an "In System Travel Screen."  Navigation takes place in real-time as the player maneuvers the ship between explorable worlds, visits a

text: gas giant

text: to refuel, or engages in combat with other spaceships.  Some solar systems contain more than one explorable planet, but most such planets in the game may be reached only after the player's spaceship has been outfitted with a "jump drive" capable of interstellar travel and accompanying computer software to control it.

text: Windows on Earth is a museum exhibit, Web site, and exploration tool, developed by TERC, Inc. (Technical Education Research Centers, an educational non-profit organization), and the Association of Space Explorers, that enables the public to explore an interactive, virtual view of Earth from space. In addition, the tool has been selected by NASA to help astronauts identify targets for photography from the International Space Station (ISS).

text: Windows on Earth is a museum exhibit, Web site, and exploration tool, developed by TERC, Inc. (

text: Technical Education Research Centers

text: , an educational non-profit organization), and the

text: Association of Space Explorers

text: , that enables the public to explore an interactive, virtual view of Earth from space. In addition, the tool has been selected by NASA to help astronauts identify targets for photography from the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS).

text: On his fourth flight, Covey commanded a crew of seven aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour on the STS-61 Hubble Space Telescope (HST) servicing and repair mission. STS-61 launched at night from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on December 2, 1993. During the 11-day flight, the HST was captured and restored to full capacity through a record five space walks by four astronauts. After having traveled 4,433,772 miles (7,135,464 km) in 163 orbits of the Earth, Covey landed the Endeavour at night on the runway at the Kennedy Space Center on December 13, 1993.

text: On his fourth flight, Covey commanded a crew of seven aboard the

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: on the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST) servicing and repair mission. STS-61 launched at night from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on December 2, 1993. During the 11-day flight, the HST was captured and restored to full capacity through a record five

text: space walk

text: s by four astronauts. After having traveled 4,433,772 miles (7,135,464 km) in 163 orbits of the Earth, Covey landed the Endeavour at night on the runway at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: on December 13, 1993.

text: Theorized by Lyman Spitzer in 1946, the first operational space telescopes were the American Orbiting Astronomical Observatory OAO-2 launched in 1968 and the Soviet Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope aboard space station Salyut 1 in 1971.

text: Theorized by

text: Lyman Spitzer

text: in 1946, the first operational space telescopes were the American

text: Orbiting Astronomical Observatory

text: OAO-2 launched in 1968 and the Soviet

text: Orion 1 ultraviolet telescope

text: aboard space station

text: Salyut 1

text: in 1971.

text: 2007 also saw the continued assembly of the International Space Station, by US Space Shuttle flights. On 8 June  made the first Shuttle launch of the year, STS-117, with seven astronauts, and the S3/4 truss segment of the ISS. It was the first Shuttle to launch from Complex 39A at the Kennedy Space Center since STS-107 in 2003. Launch had previously been delayed from February due to Hail damage to the External Tank, which required a rollback to repair in the Vehicle Assembly Building. In August,  launched on its first mission since 2002, STS-118. This carried the S5 truss segment, and marked the final flight of the Spacehab module, which was used to carry supplies. NASA's first Educator Astronaut, Barbara Morgan flew aboard STS-118. Morgan had previously been a backup for Christa McAuliffe, who was killed in the Challenger accident in 1986. STS-120, launched on 23 October using , carried the Harmony node, the first pressurised ISS component to be launched since Pirs in September 2001. Attempts to launch Atlantis in December on STS-122 were scrubbed, and the launch was delayed to 2008 after ECO sensors in the External Tank failed.

text: 2007 also saw the continued assembly of the International Space Station, by US

text: Space Shuttle

text: flights. On 8 June  made the first Shuttle launch of the year,

text: , with seven

text: astronaut

text: s, and the

text: S3/4 truss segment

text: of the ISS. It was the first Shuttle to launch from

text: Complex 39A

text: at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: since

text: in 2003. Launch had previously been delayed from February due to

text: Hail

text: damage to the

text: External Tank

text: , which required a

text: rollback

text: to repair in the

text: Vehicle Assembly Building

text: . In August,  launched on its first mission since 2002,

text: . This carried the S5 truss segment, and marked the final flight of the

text: Spacehab module

text: , which was used to carry supplies. NASA's first

text: Educator Astronaut

text: Barbara Morgan

text: flew aboard STS-118. Morgan had previously been a backup for

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: , who was killed in the

text: Challenger accident

text: in 1986.

text: , launched on 23 October using , carried the

text: Harmony

text: node, the first pressurised ISS component to be launched since

text: Pirs

text: in

text: September 2001

text: . Attempts to launch Atlantis in December on

text: were

text: scrubbed

text: , and the launch was delayed to 2008 after

text: ECO sensor

text: s in the External Tank failed.

text: It failed in the goal of achieving reliable access to space, partly due to multi-year interruptions in launches following Shuttle failures. NASA budget pressures caused by the chronically high NASA Space Shuttle program costs have eliminated NASA manned space flight beyond low earth orbit since Apollo, and severely curtailed use of unmanned probes. NASA's promotion of and reliance on the Shuttle slowed domestic commercial expendable launch vehicle (ELV) programs until after the 1986 Challenger disaster.

text: It failed in the goal of achieving reliable access to space, partly due to multi-year interruptions in launches following Shuttle failures. NASA budget pressures caused by the chronically high NASA Space Shuttle program costs have eliminated NASA manned space flight beyond low earth orbit since Apollo, and severely curtailed use of unmanned probes. NASA's promotion of and reliance on the Shuttle slowed domestic commercial

text: expendable launch vehicle

text: (ELV) programs until after the 1986

text: Challenger disaster

text: |-id=534| 58534 Logos ||  || Logos and Zoe ((58534) Logos I Zoe), a paired emanation of the deity in the Gnostic tradition, and part of its creation myth |-id=535| 58535 Pattillo || 1997 DP || Leonard Pattillo, American founding member and former officer of the Fort Bend Astronomy Club |-id=569| 58569 Eboshiyamakouen ||  || Eboshiyama Kouen, the name of the park in the southern part of Nanyo city, Yamagata. |-id=572| 58572 Romanella ||  || Russell Romanella (born 1958) is an experienced space engineer involved in human space exploration activities such as the Space Shuttle, International Space Station and Constellation projects |-id=573| 58573 Serpieri ||  || Arrigo Serpieri, Italian agricultural economist |-id=578| 58578 Žídek ||  || Ivo Žídek, Czech opera singer †|-id=579| 58579 Ehrenberg ||  || Eleonora Gayerová z Ehrenberku (Eleonora Gayerová of Ehrenberg), Czech soprano opera singer, who lived in Vila Leonora at Ondřejov and was instrumental in the establishment of the Ondřejov Observatory † ‡|-id=595| 58595 Joepollock ||  || Joseph T. Pollock (b. 1950), a professor of astronomy at the Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina. |-id=600| 58600 Iwamuroonsen ||  || Iwamuroonsen is a town of the southwest of Niigata City |}

text: 58534 Logos

text: Logos

text: and

text: Zoe

text: (58534) Logos I Zoe

text: ), a paired emanation of the deity in the

text: Gnostic

text: tradition, and part of its creation myth |-id=535|

text: 58535 Pattillo

text: || 1997 DP ||

text: Leonard Pattillo

text: , American founding member and former officer of the

text: Fort Bend Astronomy Club

text: 58569 Eboshiyamakouen

text: ||  || Eboshiyama Kouen, the name of the park in the southern part of

text: Nanyo city

text: Yamagata

text: . |-id=572|

text: 58572 Romanella

text: ||  || Russell Romanella (born 1958) is an experienced space engineer involved in human space exploration activities such as the Space Shuttle, International Space Station and Constellation projects |-id=573|

text: 58573 Serpieri

text: Arrigo Serpieri

text: , Italian agricultural economist |-id=578|

text: 58578 Žídek

text: Ivo Žídek

text: , Czech opera singer †|-id=579|

text: 58579 Ehrenberg

text: Eleonora Gayerová z Ehrenberku

text: (Eleonora Gayerová of Ehrenberg), Czech soprano opera singer, who lived in Vila Leonora at Ondřejov and was instrumental in the establishment of the Ondřejov Observatory † ‡|-id=595|

text: 58595 Joepollock

text: ||  || Joseph T. Pollock (b. 1950), a professor of astronomy at the

text: Appalachian State University

text: Boone, North Carolina

text: . |-id=600|

text: 58600 Iwamuroonsen

text: Iwamuroonsen

text: is a town of the southwest of

text: Niigata City

text: Dr. Ryan Stone (Sandra Bullock), a biomedical engineer from Lake Zurich, Illinois, is aboard the NASA space shuttle Explorer for her first space mission, STS-157. Veteran astronaut Matt Kowalski (George Clooney) is commanding his final mission. During a spacewalk to service the Hubble Space Telescope, Mission Control in Houston warns the team about a Russian missile strike on a defunct satellite, which has inadvertently caused a chain reaction forming a cloud of debris in space. Mission Control orders that the mission be aborted and the crew begin re-entry immediately because the debris is speeding towards the shuttle. Communication with Mission Control is lost shortly thereafter.

text: Dr. Ryan Stone (

text: Sandra Bullock

text: ), a

text: biomedical engineer

text: from

text: Lake Zurich, Illinois

text: , is aboard the NASA space shuttle Explorer for her first space mission,

text: STS

text: -157. Veteran astronaut Matt Kowalski (

text: George Clooney

text: ) is commanding his final mission. During a

text: spacewalk

text: to service the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: Mission Control

text: in

text: Houston

text: warns the team about a Russian

text: missile strike on a defunct satellite

text: , which has inadvertently caused a

text: chain reaction

text: forming a cloud of debris in space. Mission Control orders that the mission be aborted and the crew begin re-entry immediately because the debris is speeding towards the shuttle. Communication with Mission Control is lost shortly thereafter.

text: In the months after the disaster, the largest-ever organized ground search took place.Thousands of volunteers descended upon Texas to participate in the effort to gather the Shuttle’s remains. According to Mike Ciannilli, Project Manager of the Columbia Research and Preservation Office, "[these people] put their life on hold to help out the nation’s space program,” showing “what space means to people.”NASA issued warnings to the public that any debris could contain hazardous chemicals, that it should be left untouched, its location reported to local emergency services or government authorities, and that anyone in unauthorized possession of debris would be prosecuted. Because of the widespread area, volunteer amateur radio operators accompanied the search teams to provide communications support.

text: In the months after the disaster, the largest-ever organized ground search took place.Thousands of volunteers descended upon Texas to participate in the effort to gather the Shuttle’s remains. According to Mike Ciannilli, Project Manager of the Columbia Research and Preservation Office, "[these people] put their life on hold to help out the nation’s space program,” showing “what space means to people.”NASA issued warnings to the public that any debris could contain hazardous chemicals, that it should be left untouched, its location reported to local

text: emergency services

text: or government authorities, and that anyone in unauthorized possession of debris would be prosecuted. Because of the widespread area, volunteer

text: amateur radio operator

text: s accompanied the search teams to provide communications support.

text: STS-37, the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle Atlantis, was a six-day mission with the primary objective of launching the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), the second of the Great Observatories program which included the visible-spectrum Hubble Space Telescope, the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the infrared Spitzer Space Telescope. The mission also featured two spacewalks, the first since 1985.

text: STS-37, the eighth flight of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: Atlantis

text: , was a six-day mission with the primary objective of launching the

text: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: (GRO), the second of the

text: Great Observatories program

text: which included the visible-spectrum

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: and the infrared

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: . The mission also featured two spacewalks, the first since 1985.

text: SEXTANT (Station Explorer for X-ray Timing and Navigation Technology) is a NASA-funded project being developed at the Goddard Space Flight Center that will test XNAV on-orbit on board the International Space Station in connection with the NICER project. It is currently planned for 2017.

text: SEXTANT (Station Explorer for X-ray Timing and Navigation Technology) is a

text: NASA

text: -funded project being developed at the

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: that will test XNAV on-orbit on board the

text: International Space Station

text: in connection with the

entity_name: Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer

text: NICER

text: project. It is currently planned for 2017.

text: The space telescopes were to observe in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. As well as studying extrasolar planets, the telescopes would probably have been useful for general purpose imaging, producing very high resolution (i.e. milliarcsecond) infrared images, allowing detailed study of a variety of astrophysical processes.

text: The space telescopes were to observe in the

text: infrared

text: part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . As well as studying

text: extrasolar planet

text: s, the telescopes would probably have been useful for general purpose imaging, producing very high resolution (i.e.

text: milliarcsecond

text: ) infrared images, allowing detailed study of a variety of astrophysical processes.

text: On May 21, 1981, the Post Office released the Space Achievement commemorative issue, 18-cent stamps, in a block of eight format, one image being shared by four individual stamps, with four more aside them depicting various space exploration imagery. First day of issue occurred at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The four central stamps depict the Space Shuttle in its various modes of operation. The central theme of this issue involves the first actual 'in space' flights of the Space Shuttle and also pays tribute to twenty years of U.S. manned space exploration. The other stamps to the left and right sides are honoring the efforts of those who partook in the historical Moon walk, Skylab, and Pioneer 11 missions. The images were modeled by Clarance Holbert. The stamp design by Robert T. McCall.

text: On May 21, 1981, the Post Office released the Space Achievement commemorative issue, 18-cent stamps, in a block of eight format, one image being shared by four individual stamps, with four more aside them depicting various space exploration imagery. First day of issue occurred at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The four central stamps depict the

text: Space Shuttle

text: in its various modes of operation. The central theme of this issue involves the first actual 'in space' flights of the Space Shuttle and also pays tribute to twenty years of U.S. manned space exploration. The other stamps to the left and right sides are honoring the efforts of those who partook in the historical Moon walk,

text: Skylab

text: , and

text: Pioneer 11

text: missions. The images were modeled by Clarance Holbert. The stamp design by Robert T. McCall.

text: Criticism of the Space Shuttle program stemmed from claims that NASA's Shuttle program failed to achieve its promised cost and utility goals, as well as design, cost, management, and safety issues. More specifically, it failed in the goal of reducing the cost of space access. Space Shuttle incremental per-pound launch costs ultimately turned out to be considerably higher than those of expendable launchers: by 2011, the incremental cost per flight of the Space Shuttle was estimated at $450 million, or $18,000 per kilogram (approximately $8,000 per pound) to low Earth orbit (LEO). By comparison, Russian Proton expendable cargo launchers (Atlas V rocket counterpart), still largely based on the design that dates back to 1965, are said to cost as little as $110 million, or around $5,000/kg (approximately $2,300 per pound) to LEO. When all design and maintenance costs are taken into account, the final cost of the Space Shuttle program, averaged over all missions and adjusted for inflation, was estimated to come out to $1.5 billion per launch, or $60,000/kg (approximately $27,000 per pound) to LEO. This should be contrasted with the originally envisioned costs of $118 per pound of payload in 1972 dollars (approximately $657 per pound adjusting for inflation to 2013).

text: Criticism of the Space Shuttle program stemmed from claims that

text: NASA's

text: Shuttle program

text: failed to achieve its promised cost and utility goals, as well as design, cost, management, and safety issues. More specifically, it failed in the goal of reducing the cost of space access. Space Shuttle incremental per-pound launch costs ultimately turned out to be considerably higher than those of expendable launchers: by 2011, the incremental cost per flight of the Space Shuttle was estimated at $450 million, or $18,000 per kilogram (approximately $8,000 per pound) to

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO). By comparison, Russian

text: Proton

text: expendable cargo launchers (Atlas V rocket counterpart), still largely based on the design that dates back to 1965, are said to cost as little as $110 million, or around $5,000/kg (approximately $2,300 per pound) to LEO. When all design and maintenance costs are taken into account, the final cost of the Space Shuttle program, averaged over all missions and adjusted for inflation, was estimated to come out to $1.5 billion per launch, or $60,000/kg (approximately $27,000 per pound) to LEO. This should be contrasted with the originally envisioned costs of $118 per pound of payload in 1972 dollars (approximately $657 per pound adjusting for inflation to 2013).

text: For testing the prototype system, it was set up on an area recently occupied by Japan along the coast of China. The system operated between 4.0-7.5 MHz (75–40 m) and involved a number of widely spaced stations; this formed a radio screen that could detect the presence (but nothing more) of an aircraft at distances up to . The BDID was the Imperial Army’s first deployed radio-based detection system, placed into operation in early 1941.

text: The Soviet space program comprised the rocketry and space exploration programs conducted by the former Soviet Union (USSR) from the 1930s until its dissolution in 1991. Over its sixty-year history, this primarily classified military program was responsible for a number of pioneering accomplishments in space flight, including the first intercontinental ballistic missile (R-7), first satellite (Sputnik 1), first animal in Earth orbit (the dog Laika on Sputnik 2), first human in space and Earth orbit (cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1), first woman in space and Earth orbit (cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova on Vostok 6), first spacewalk (cosmonaut Alexey Leonov on Voskhod 2), first Moon impact (Luna 2), first image of the far side of the moon (Luna 3) and unmanned lunar soft landing (Luna 9), first space rover (Lunokhod 1), first sample of lunar soil automatically extracted and brought to Earth (Luna 16), and first space station (Salyut 1). Further notable records included the first interplanetary probes: Venera 1 and Mars 1 to fly by Venus and Mars, respectively, Venera 3 and Mars 2 to impact the respective planet surface, and Venera 7 and Mars 3 to make soft landings on these planets.

text: The Soviet space program comprised the

text: rocketry

text: and

text: space exploration

text: programs conducted by the former

text: Soviet Union

text: (USSR) from the 1930s until

text: its dissolution

text: in 1991. Over its sixty-year history, this primarily

text: classified

text: military program was responsible for a number of pioneering accomplishments in space flight, including the first

text: intercontinental ballistic missile

text: ), first satellite (

text: Sputnik 1

text: ), first animal in

text: Earth orbit

text: (the dog

text: Laika

text: on

text: Sputnik 2

text: ), first human in space and Earth orbit (

text: cosmonaut

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: on

text: Vostok 1

text: ), first woman in space and Earth orbit (

text: cosmonaut

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: on

text: Vostok 6

text: ), first

text: spacewalk

text: cosmonaut

text: Alexey Leonov

text: on

text: Voskhod 2

text: ), first

text: Moon

text: impact (

text: Luna 2

text: ), first image of the far side of the moon (

text: Luna 3

text: ) and unmanned lunar soft landing (

text: Luna 9

text: ), first

text: space rover

text: Lunokhod 1

text: ), first sample of

text: lunar soil

text: automatically extracted and brought to Earth (

text: Luna 16

text: ), and first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: ). Further notable records included the first

text: interplanetary probe

text: s:

text: Venera 1

text: and

text: Mars 1

text: to fly by

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mars

text: , respectively,

text: Venera 3

text: and

text: Mars 2

text: to impact the respective planet surface, and

text: Venera 7

text: and

text: Mars 3

text: to make soft landings on these planets.

text: However,  after the Japanese government reorganized their space exploration efforts under the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Fuji was proposed as a candidate for space missions. The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003 also raised questions about the safety of reusable systems, and JAXA felt that the Fuji design, relying on a disposable capsule, would be possible to develop in relatively short span of eight years.

text: However,  after the Japanese government reorganized their space exploration efforts under the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA), Fuji was proposed as a candidate for space missions. The

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: in 2003 also raised questions about the safety of reusable systems, and JAXA felt that the Fuji design, relying on a disposable capsule, would be possible to develop in relatively short span of eight years.

text: An attempt was made to photograph the individual components of this binary using the Hubble Space Telescope, but the stars proved too close to resolve. Recent measurements with the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer space telescope gave a more accurate orbital period of . The inclination of this system's orbital plane is believed to be nearly edge-on (90°) as seen from the Earth. If so it may be possible to observe an eclipse.

text: An attempt was made to photograph the individual components of this binary using the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , but the stars proved too close to resolve. Recent measurements with the

text: Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer

text: space telescope

text: gave a more accurate orbital period of . The

text: inclination

text: of this system's

text: orbital plane

text: is believed to be nearly edge-on (90°) as seen from the Earth. If so it may be possible to observe an

text: eclipse

text: Peake noted that with increasing constraints on space programs around the world, collaborative initiatives such as ISS will be necessary for future endeavours. "I think [the ISS] really has to be the model for future space exploration because with budgets becoming more and more constrained, then, really one nation is not going to have the capability to expand exploration out into the solar system, to Mars and beyond. We are going to have to work together on projects."

text: Peake noted that with increasing constraints on space programs around the world, collaborative initiatives such as ISS will be necessary for future endeavours. "I think [the ISS] really has to be the model for future space exploration because with budgets becoming more and more constrained, then, really one nation is not going to have the capability to expand exploration out into the

text: solar system

text: , to

text: Mars

text: and beyond. We are going to have to work together on projects."

text: Jean-Jacques Dordain, ESA's Director General, put the refusal to fund the study into context: "It is not a question of member states for and member states against.  I think the decision could not be taken for reasons that are not linked to Clipper itself.  The decision could not be taken because of budgetary restraints."  Dordain concluded that he was convinced that European support for Kliper was vital for ESA's future involvement in space transport and that a favourable decision can be achieved until June 2006. In concluding "We need two transportation systems in the world", Dordain also outlined shortly after the European Space Summit that the primary requirement of Europe's involvement in the Kliper project was to rely on two separate systems to support the ISS as had been proven vital after the Columbia Space Shuttle disaster in 2003.

text: Jean-Jacques Dordain

text: , ESA's Director General, put the refusal to fund the study into context: "It is not a question of member states for and member states against.  I think the decision could not be taken for reasons that are not linked to Clipper itself.  The decision could not be taken because of budgetary restraints."  Dordain concluded that he was convinced that European support for Kliper was vital for ESA's future involvement in space transport and that a favourable decision can be achieved until June 2006. In concluding "We need two transportation systems in the world", Dordain also outlined shortly after the European Space Summit that the primary requirement of Europe's involvement in the Kliper project was to rely on two separate systems to support the

text: ISS

text: as had been proven vital after the

text: Columbia

text: Space Shuttle disaster in 2003.

text: O'Keefe became NASA administrator on December 21, 2001 after the United States Senate confirmed his nomination. He came to NASA without formal training in science or engineering (as was the case with James E. Webb who was NASA administrator from 1961 to 1968). O'Keefe's tenure at NASA can be divided into roughly three equal periods, each marked by a single problem or event of overriding importance:; in the period December 2001 through January 2003, O'Keefe eliminated a $5 billion cost overrun in the construction of the International Space Station. In 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia accident and its aftermath. From January 2004 through February 2005, O'Keefe re-organized NASA to start working on President George W. Bush's newly announced Vision for Space Exploration to send humans to the Moon and Mars.

text: O'Keefe became NASA administrator on December 21, 2001 after the

text: United States Senate

text: confirmed his nomination. He came to NASA without formal training in science or engineering (as was the case with

text: James E. Webb

text: who was NASA administrator from 1961 to 1968). O'Keefe's tenure at NASA can be divided into roughly three equal periods, each marked by a single problem or event of overriding importance:; in the period December 2001 through January 2003, O'Keefe eliminated a $5 billion

text: cost overrun

text: in the construction of the

text: International Space Station

text: . In 2003

text: Space Shuttle Columbia accident

text: and its aftermath. From January 2004 through February 2005, O'Keefe re-organized NASA to start working on President George W. Bush's newly announced

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: to send humans to the Moon and Mars.

text: NSSDC is part of the Solar System Exploration Data Services Office (SSEDSO) in the Solar System Exploration Division at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. NSSDC is sponsored by the Heliophysics Division of NASA's Science Mission Directorate. NSSDC acts in concert with various NASA discipline data systems in providing certain data and services.

text: NSSDC is part of the Solar System Exploration Data Services Office (SSEDSO) in the Solar System Exploration Division at NASA's

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: . NSSDC is sponsored by the Heliophysics Division of NASA's Science Mission Directorate. NSSDC acts in concert with various NASA discipline data systems in providing certain data and services.

text: Logsdon is a professor emeritus of political science and international affairs, and has been on the GW faculty since 1970. He is also on the faculty of the International Space University In 1992–1993 he held the first Chair in Space History at the National Air and Space Museum and in 2008–2009 was Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History at that museum. Logsdon authored the entry on space exploration for the latest edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica and many articles and commentaries. He is author of The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest (MIT Press, 1970), and the general editor of the seven-volume series Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program (MIT Press, 1970). Dr. Logsdon is the author more recently of the award-winning John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010) and After Apollo? Richard Nixon and the American Space Program (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).

text: Logsdon is a professor emeritus of political science and international affairs, and has been on the GW faculty since 1970. He is also on the faculty of the

text: International Space University

text: In 1992–1993 he held the first Chair in Space History at the

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: and in 2008–2009 was

entity_name: Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History

text: Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History

text: at that museum. Logsdon authored the entry on

text: space exploration

text: for the latest edition of the

text: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: and many articles and commentaries. He is author of The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest (MIT Press, 1970), and the general editor of the seven-volume series Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program (MIT Press, 1970). Dr. Logsdon is the author more recently of the award-winning John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon (

text: Palgrave Macmillan

text: , 2010) and After Apollo? Richard Nixon and the American Space Program (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).

text: Her more recent installation art explores both natural and architectural themes. Recent pieces incorporate unfired clay objects placed in darkened space; the pieces are then activated by dramatic lighting and visual projections. According to Chambers, her contrasting style is intended to disorient the viewer, as "these installations are intended to intervene into compemporary architecture with the intent of inserting a different kind of aesthetic into spaces that are usually unornamented and designed to be quite neutral."

text: On September 15, 2010, Microsoft released a public beta of Internet Explorer 9.  With Google's popular Chrome browser steadily gaining popularity at Internet Explorer's expense due to its speed, simplicity, and support of newer technologies like HTML5, Microsoft decided to market its new Internet Explorer as showcasing the "Beauty of the Web;" Internet Explorer 9 offered features intended to enhance web browsing, such as partial HTML5 support, hardware acceleration, and better Windows integration.  Further contributing to the desirability of Microsoft's new browser, Adobe released a beta version of Flash 10.2 tailored to take advantage of Internet Explorer 9's built-in hardware acceleration capabilities on November 30, 2010.  The Internet Explorer 9 beta removed support for Microsoft's popular Windows XP operating system, a move that was met with a lot of public disapproval (as of December 2010 approximately 44% of all computers still ran some version of Windows XP). Microsoft tried to make Internet Explorer simpler to use (and thus more desirable) than its competitors, and added features such as the ability to drag URLs and bookmarks to the Windows Taskbar, a unified downloads manager, a redesigned new tab page featuring your most recently visited sites, and the ability to "tear" tabs away from a window, or drag them away vertically to create their own window. All of these functions already existed on some other browsers though, such as Opera, Google Chrome and Firefox, and a lot of these functions look similar to what other browsers already had.

text: Stewart provided live coverage of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster as the details of the tragedy unfolded. A two-minute newsflash became an unscripted, one-hour special programme. He also anchored, with Sandy Gall, the award-winning coverage on ITN on the night of the bombing of the Pan Am jet over Lockerbie and presented the ITV network coverage of the memorial service for the victims.

text: Stewart provided live coverage of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: as the details of the tragedy unfolded. A two-minute newsflash became an unscripted, one-hour special programme. He also anchored, with

text: Sandy Gall

text: , the award-winning coverage on ITN on the night of the bombing of the

text: Pan Am jet over Lockerbie

text: and presented the ITV network coverage of the memorial service for the victims.

text: In July 2015 Campbell was invited by The Barbican, London, to be part of Station To Station, a month-long live art happening, where Campbell continued her ongoing explorations about concrete and its effects on the psyche. In a week long-studio residency open to the public, this featured a modular synth tutorial by Ben Edwards (John Foxx, Wrangler), an on-site 12-inch vinyl pressing of new song "Fear Colours", and culminated in a performance in the gallery space accompanied by wrap-around audio-visual projections.

text: In July 2015 Campbell was invited by

text: The Barbican

text: , London, to be part of Station To Station, a month-long live art happening, where Campbell continued her ongoing explorations about concrete and its effects on the psyche. In a week long-studio residency open to the public, this featured a modular synth tutorial by Ben Edwards (John Foxx, Wrangler), an on-site 12-inch vinyl pressing of new song "Fear Colours", and culminated in a performance in the gallery space accompanied by wrap-around audio-visual projections.

text: In addition to his tenure with Apple, Inc. and Open Door, Oppenheimer has co-written several books. Published in 1990, Inside AppleTalk explores the protocol architecture of the AppleTalk network system. Co-authored with Charles Whitaker, Internet Security for Your Macintosh: A Guide for the Rest of Us is a beginners guide to personal Macintosh security for both Mac OS 9 and OS X. And, Oppenheimer recently co-wrote an e-book companion to the Art Authority app called Exploring Art with Art Authority.

text: Started in 1989, the newsletter reports on recent space launches, International Space Station activities and space craft developments. McDowell's report occasionally corrects NASA's official web sites, or provides additional data on classified launches that aren't available elsewhere.

text: Started in 1989, the newsletter reports on recent space launches,

text: International Space Station

text: activities and space craft developments. McDowell's report occasionally corrects

text: NASA

text: 's official web sites, or provides additional data on classified launches that aren't available elsewhere.

text: Algebras of Hecke operators are called Hecke algebras, and  are commutative rings. Other, related, mathematical rings are called Hecke algebras, although the link to Hecke operators is not entirely obvious. These algebras include certain quotients of the group algebras of braid groups. The presence of this commutative operator algebra plays a significant role in the harmonic analysis of modular forms and generalisations. In the classical elliptic modular form theory,  the Hecke operators T with n coprime to the level acting on the space of cusp forms of a given weight are self-adjoint with respect to the Petersson inner product. Therefore, the spectral theorem implies that there is a basis of modular forms that are eigenfunctions for these Hecke operators. Each of these basic forms possesses an Euler product. More precisely, its Mellin transform is the Dirichlet series that has Euler products with the local factor for each prime p is the inverse of the Hecke polynomial, a quadratic polynomial in p. In the case treated by Mordell, the space of cusp forms of weight 12 with respect to the full modular group is one-dimensional. It follows that the Ramanujan form has an Euler product and establishes the multiplicativity of τ(n).

text: Algebras of Hecke operators are called Hecke algebras, and  are

text: commutative ring

text: s. Other, related, mathematical rings are called

text: Hecke algebras

text: , although the link to Hecke operators is not entirely obvious. These algebras include certain quotients of the

text: group algebra

text: s of

text: braid group

text: s. The presence of this commutative operator algebra plays a significant role in the

text: harmonic analysis

text: of modular forms and generalisations. In the classical

text: elliptic modular form

text: theory,  the Hecke operators T with n coprime to the level acting on the space of cusp forms of a given weight are

text: self-adjoint

text: with respect to the

text: Petersson inner product

text: . Therefore, the

text: spectral theorem

text: implies that there is a basis of modular forms that are

text: eigenfunction

text: s for these Hecke operators. Each of these basic forms possesses an

text: Euler product

text: . More precisely, its

text: Mellin transform

text: is the

text: Dirichlet series

text: that has

text: Euler product

text: s with the local factor for each prime p is the inverse of the Hecke polynomial, a quadratic polynomial in p. In the case treated by Mordell, the space of cusp forms of weight 12 with respect to the full modular group is one-dimensional. It follows that the Ramanujan form has an Euler product and establishes the multiplicativity of τ(n).

text: The primary payload, the Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), was deployed on flight day 3. GRO's high-gain antenna failed to deploy on command; it was finally freed and manually deployed by Ross and Apt during an unscheduled contingency space walk, the first since April 1985. The following day, the two astronauts performed the first scheduled space walk since November 1985 to test means for astronauts to move themselves and equipment about while maintaining the then-planned Space Station Freedom. GRO science instruments were Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL), Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope (EGRET) and Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment (OSSE). GRO was the second of NASA's four Great Observatories. The Hubble Space Telescope, deployed during Mission STS-31 in April 1990, was the first. GRO was launched on a two-year mission to search for the high-energy celestial gamma ray emissions, which cannot penetrate Earth's atmosphere. At about 35,000 pounds, GRO was the heaviest satellite to be deployed into low-Earth orbit from the Shuttle. It was also designed to be the first satellite that could be refueled in orbit by Shuttle crews. Five months after deployment, NASA renamed the satellite the Arthur Holly Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, or Compton Observatory, after the Nobel Prize-winning physicist who did important work in gamma ray astronomy.

text: The primary payload, the

text: Gamma Ray Observatory

text: (GRO), was deployed on flight day 3. GRO's high-gain antenna failed to deploy on command; it was finally freed and manually deployed by Ross and Apt during an unscheduled contingency

text: space walk

text: , the first since April 1985. The following day, the two astronauts performed the first scheduled space walk since November 1985 to test means for astronauts to move themselves and equipment about while maintaining the then-planned Space Station Freedom. GRO science instruments were Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE), Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL),

entity_name: Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope

text: Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope

text: (EGRET) and Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment (OSSE). GRO was the second of

text: NASA

text: 's four

text: Great Observatories

text: . The

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , deployed during Mission

text: in April 1990, was the first. GRO was launched on a two-year mission to search for the high-energy celestial gamma ray emissions, which cannot penetrate Earth's atmosphere. At about 35,000 pounds, GRO was the heaviest

text: satellite

text: to be deployed into low-Earth

text: orbit

text: from the Shuttle. It was also designed to be the first satellite that could be refueled in orbit by Shuttle crews. Five months after deployment, NASA renamed the satellite the

text: Arthur Holly Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: , or Compton Observatory, after the

text: Nobel Prize-winning physicist

text: who did important work in

text: gamma ray astronomy

text: The CSS will be a third generation, modular space station. First generation space stations, such as early Salyut (fireworks), Almaz (diamond), and Skylab, were single piece stations and not designed for resupply. Second generation Salyut 6 and 7, and Tiangong 1 and 2 stations, are designed for mid-mission resupply. Third generation stations such as Mir, the International Space Station, OPSEK and the CSS are modular space stations, assembled on-orbit from pieces launched separately. Modularised design methods can greatly improve reliability, reduce costs, shorten development cycle, and meet diversified task requirements.

text: The CSS will be a third generation, modular

text: space station

text: . First generation space stations, such as early Salyut (fireworks), Almaz (diamond), and Skylab, were single piece stations and not designed for resupply. Second generation Salyut 6 and 7, and Tiangong 1 and 2 stations, are designed for mid-mission resupply. Third generation stations such as

text: Mir

text: , the

text: International Space Station

entity_name: Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex

text: OPSEK

text: and the CSS are modular space stations, assembled on-orbit from pieces launched separately. Modularised design methods can greatly improve reliability, reduce costs, shorten development cycle, and meet diversified task requirements.

text: Far infrared observations including submillimeter astronomy have revealed a number of sources at cosmological distances. With the exception of a few atmospheric windows, most of infrared light is blocked by the atmosphere, the observations generally take place from balloon or space-based instruments. Current observational experiments in the infrared include NICMOS, the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph, the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Keck Interferometer, the Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy, and the Herschel Space Observatory. The next large space telescope planned by NASA, the James Webb Space Telescope will also explore in the infrared.

text: Far

text: infrared

text: observations including

text: submillimeter astronomy

text: have revealed a number of sources at cosmological distances. With the exception of a few

text: atmospheric window

text: s, most of infrared light is blocked by the atmosphere, the observations generally take place from balloon or space-based instruments. Current observational experiments in the infrared include

entity_name: Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer

text: NICMOS

text: , the

text: Cosmic Origins Spectrograph

text: , the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Keck Interferometer

text: , the

text: Stratospheric Observatory For Infrared Astronomy

text: , and the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: . The next large space telescope planned by NASA, the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: will also explore in the infrared.

text: The movie was produced and shot 15–18 months before the Challenger disaster, and includes appearances by two astronauts who died in the accident; Francis Scobee and Judith Resnik. Challenger itself is featured prominently in the film. Many of the themes and tone of the documentary regarded the normalization of travel to space using the shuttle while giving only passing mention to the dangers. The Challenger disaster would dramatically curtail this belief and subsequent experience would show that the shuttle would not make space travel more accessible or affordable.

text: The movie was produced and shot 15–18 months before the

text: Challenger disaster

text: , and includes appearances by two astronauts who died in the accident;

text: Francis Scobee

text: and

text: Judith Resnik

text: . Challenger itself is featured prominently in the film. Many of the themes and tone of the documentary regarded the normalization of travel to space using the shuttle while giving only passing mention to the dangers. The Challenger disaster would dramatically curtail this belief and subsequent experience would show that the shuttle would not make space travel more accessible or affordable.

text: STS-88 was the first Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS). It was flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour, and took the first American module, the Unity node, to the station.

text: STS-88 was the first

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). It was flown by Space Shuttle

text: Endeavour

text: , and took the first American module, the

text: Unity node

text: , to the station.

text: Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to humans as it the primary habitat of the species, which has evolved to move over land and breathe air. Human space exploration and space colonization therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of the Earth and Moon. The vast distances of space and the complexities of makes direct exploration of even Near-Earth objects dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via Space probes.

text: Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to

text: human

text: s as it the primary

text: habitat

text: of the species, which has

text: evolved

text: to move over land

text: and

text: breathe

text: air

text: . Human

text: space exploration

text: and

text: space colonization

text: therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of the Earth and Moon. The vast distances of space and the complexities of makes direct exploration of even

text: Near-Earth object

text: s dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via

text: Space probe

text: s.

text: Smith was equally adept at in-depth knowledge of quantum mechanics and physics, including deep space astronomy and gravitational waves. His recent writing includes the fusion of poetry and physics to explore the meaning of the universe.

text: Lambert served as a B-52 instructor pilot, and was Director of Battle Staff for a B-52 wing. He rose from scientific analyst to division chief within the Air Force Studies and Analyses Agency at The Pentagon and worked on policy studies for major military systems including bomber and intercontinental ballistic missile forces. He was Deputy Defense Intelligence Officer for Europe in the Defense Intelligence Agency. Lambert worked as an attaché at several international postings, serving as the air attaché and Deputy Chief of Military Assistance Program, in Amman, Jordan, and as the defense attaché and Chief of the Office of Defense Cooperation, Stockholm, Sweden. He was assigned to Air Force Space Command in 2001 as Deputy Director of the Space Analysis Division, where his duties included support for investigation of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: Lambert served as a

text: instructor pilot, and was Director of Battle Staff for a B-52 wing. He rose from scientific analyst to division chief within the Air Force Studies and Analyses Agency at

text: The Pentagon

text: and worked on policy studies for major military systems including bomber and

text: intercontinental ballistic missile

text: forces. He was Deputy Defense Intelligence Officer for Europe in the

text: Defense Intelligence Agency

text: . Lambert worked as an attaché at several international postings, serving as the air attaché and Deputy Chief of Military Assistance Program, in

text: Amman

text: Jordan

text: , and as the defense attaché and Chief of the Office of Defense Cooperation,

text: Stockholm

text: Sweden

text: . He was assigned to

text: Air Force Space Command

text: in 2001 as Deputy Director of the Space Analysis Division, where his duties included support for investigation of the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: STS-29 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, during which Space Shuttle Discovery inserted a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) into Earth orbit. It was the third shuttle mission following the Challenger disaster of 1986, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989. STS-29 was the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall; its planned predecessor, STS-28, was delayed until August 1989.

text: STS-29 was a

text: NASA

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission, during which

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: inserted a

text: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

text: (TDRS) into Earth orbit. It was the third shuttle mission following the

text: Challenger disaster

text: of 1986, and launched from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: , on 13 March 1989. STS-29 was the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall; its planned predecessor,

text: , was delayed until August 1989.

text: UNISPACE and Senior Executive Space ForumDr. Webb served as Chairman, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) in Consultative Status with the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna Austria, August 9–21, 1982 (UNISPACE 82). He organized a 12-day program with 120 speakers from around the world covering a broad range of topics incorporating most aspects of space exploration and development. Topics included: international satellite communications; technical issues associated with space exploration; energy from and in space from orbiting and lunar-based solar power satellites and free-flying power platforms; a global, U.N. owned and operated remote sensing satellite system that would provide both national security and environmental information to all nations. (1981–82).During the early 1990s, Dr. David Webb served as Chairman of the Senior Executive Space Forum. The Forum is held contemporaneously with the Annual Conference of the U.S. Space Foundation in Colorado Springs. It brings together senior executives from the major aerospace corporations, Members of Congress, Chiefs of Staff, and military advisers of all three armed Services, Directors and senior researchers of the major Federal Research Laboratories and senior management representatives from NASA Headquarters and Centers. The purpose of the meeting is to discuss, openly and frankly, but off-the-record, the goals, objectives, technology development issues and problem areas associated with the U.S. space program.

text: UNISPACE and Senior Executive Space ForumDr. Webb served as Chairman, Non-Governmental Organizations (

text: NGO

text: ) in Consultative Status with the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna Austria, August 9–21, 1982 (UNISPACE 82). He organized a 12-day program with 120 speakers from around the world covering a broad range of topics incorporating most aspects of space exploration and development. Topics included: international satellite communications; technical issues associated with space exploration; energy from and in space from orbiting and lunar-based solar power satellites and free-flying power platforms; a global, U.N. owned and operated remote sensing satellite system that would provide both national security and environmental information to all nations. (1981–82).During the early 1990s, Dr. David Webb served as Chairman of the Senior Executive Space Forum. The Forum is held contemporaneously with the Annual Conference of the U.S. Space Foundation in

text: Colorado Springs

text: . It brings together senior executives from the major aerospace corporations, Members of Congress, Chiefs of Staff, and military advisers of all three armed Services, Directors and senior researchers of the major Federal Research Laboratories and senior management representatives from NASA Headquarters and Centers. The purpose of the meeting is to discuss, openly and frankly, but off-the-record, the goals, objectives, technology development issues and problem areas associated with the U.S. space program.

text: The Citadis tram, flagship of the French manufacturer Alstom, enjoys an innovative design combining lighter bogies with a modular concept for carriages offering more choices in the types of windows and the number of cars and doors. The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to 100 km/h, is suitable for stop spacings ranging from 500 m to 5 km. Dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections.

text: The

text: Citadis

text: tram, flagship of the French manufacturer Alstom, enjoys an innovative design combining lighter bogies with a modular concept for carriages offering more choices in the types of windows and the number of cars and doors. The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to 100 km/h, is suitable for stop spacings ranging from 500 m to 5 km. Dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections.

text: The galaxy was identified by a team studying data from the Hubble Space Telescope's Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey (CANDELS) and Spitzer Space Telescope's Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey-North (GOODS-North). The research team used Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3 to measure the distance to GN-z11 spectroscopically, by splitting the light into its component colors to measure the redshift caused by the expansion of the universe. The findings, which were announced in March 2016, revealed the galaxy to be farther away than originally thought, at the distance limit of what the Hubble Telescope can observe. GN-z11 is around 150 million years older than the previous record-holder EGSY8p7, and is observed (shortly after but) "very close to the end of the so-called Dark Ages of the universe", and (during but) "near the very beginning" of the reionization era.

text: The galaxy was identified by a team studying data from the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: 's

entity_name: Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey

text: Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey

text: (CANDELS) and

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: 's

text: Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey

text: -North (GOODS-North). The research team used Hubble's

text: Wide Field Camera 3

text: to measure the distance to GN-z11 spectroscopically, by splitting the light into its component colors to measure the redshift caused by the

text: expansion of the universe

text: . The findings, which were announced in March 2016, revealed the galaxy to be farther away than originally thought, at the distance limit of what the Hubble Telescope can observe. GN-z11 is around 150 million years older than the previous record-holder

text: , and is observed (shortly after but) "very close to the end of the so-called

text: Dark Ages of the universe

text: ", and (during but) "near the very beginning" of the

text: reionization era

text: The Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) is the official title of a large-scale, system level study released by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in November 2005 in response to American president George W. Bush's announcement on January 14, 2004 of his goal of returning astronauts to the Moon and eventually Mars — known as the Vision for Space Exploration (and unofficially as "Moon, Mars and Beyond" in some aerospace circles, though the specifics of a manned "beyond" program remain vague).

text: The Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) is the official title of a large-scale, system level study released by the

text: (NASA) in November 2005 in response to American president

text: George W. Bush

text: 's announcement on January 14, 2004 of his goal of returning

text: astronauts

text: to the

text: Moon

text: and eventually

text: Mars

text: — known as the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: (and unofficially as "Moon, Mars and Beyond" in some aerospace circles, though the specifics of a manned "beyond" program remain vague).

text: Some projects to equip telescopes with planet-imaging-capable instruments include the ground-based telescopes Gemini Planet Imager, VLT-SPHERE, Subaru-HiCIAO, Palomar Project 1640, and the space telescope WFIRST-AFTA. The New Worlds Mission proposes a large occulter in space designed to block the light of nearby stars in order to observe their orbiting planets. This could be used with existing, already planned or new, purpose-built, telescopes.

text: Some projects to equip telescopes with planet-imaging-capable instruments include the ground-based telescopes

text: Gemini Planet Imager

entity_name: Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research

text: VLT-SPHERE

text: Subaru-HiCIAO

text: Palomar Project 1640

text: , and the space telescope

text: WFIRST-AFTA

text: . The

text: New Worlds Mission

text: proposes a large occulter in space designed to block the light of nearby stars in order to observe their orbiting planets. This could be used with existing, already planned or new, purpose-built, telescopes.

text: Ehricke was an accomplished practitioner in the field of astrodynamics and its applications.  His two-volume work entitled Space Flight is probably the most complete and surely the most useful introduction to this complex subject ever written.  It focuses on methods for exploration of the solar system.  He clearly demonstrated the so-called "gravity assist" method for utilizing hyperbolic encounters with an intermediate planet to increase (or decrease) the velocity and orbital elements of a space vehicle.  This technique had opened the entire solar system to robotic exploration by using what he called "Instrumented Comets."  Examples include the Voyager missions to the outer planets and the recent successful New Horizons mission to Pluto. His contribution to this important field of exploration has been neglected for many decades and incorrect claims of "invention" of what is now called gravity assist were made by Minovitch.

text: The Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program (also known as the Augustine Commission) was a 1990 space policy group requested by Vice President Dan Quayle, chairman of the National Space Council. The objective of the committee was to evaluate the long-term future of NASA and the United States civilian space program. The committee's final report (known as the Augustine Report) recommended that the space program should comprise five activities—space science, earth science, human spaceflight, space technology and space transportation—with space science as the highest priority for funding. It also proposed an unmanned launch vehicle to replace some space shuttle launches, and a scaled-back redesign of space station Freedom.

text: The Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program (also known as the Augustine Commission) was a 1990

text: space policy

text: group requested by Vice President

text: Dan Quayle

text: , chairman of the

text: National Space Council

text: . The objective of the committee was to evaluate the long-term future of

text: NASA

text: and the United States civilian space program. The committee's final report (known as the Augustine Report) recommended that the space program should comprise five activities—

text: space science

text: earth science

text: human spaceflight

text: space technology

text: and

text: space transportation

text: —with space science as the highest priority for funding. It also proposed an unmanned launch vehicle to replace some

text: space shuttle

text: launches, and a scaled-back redesign of space station

text: Freedom

text: After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, the remains of the seven astronauts were transferred to Dover AFB. It is one of only seven airports in the country that served as launch abort facilities for the Space Shuttle.

text: After the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , the remains of the seven astronauts were transferred to Dover AFB. It is one of only seven airports in the country that served as launch abort facilities for the

text: Space Shuttle

text: The Japanese Aeronautical Exploration Agency has commissioned Watson to write some haiku to keep Japanese astronauts amused on the International Space Station.

text: The

text: Japanese Aeronautical Exploration Agency

text: has commissioned Watson to write some

text: haiku

text: to keep Japanese astronauts amused on the

text: International Space Station

text: Fischer was selected in June 2009 as a member of the NASA Astronaut Group 20 and qualified as an astronaut in 2011.Fischer has worked in the as Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) Soyuz, International Space Station Operations, International Space Station Integration, and Exploration branches of the Astronaut Office.

text: Fischer was selected in June 2009 as a member of the

text: NASA Astronaut Group 20

text: and qualified as an astronaut in 2011.Fischer has worked in the as Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) Soyuz, International Space Station Operations, International Space Station Integration, and Exploration branches of the Astronaut Office.

text: The spacing of the molybdenum and silicon layers on each telescope's mirror is the primary determinant of the telescope's photon energy response function. The ALEXIS multilayer mirrors also employ a "wavetrap" feature to significantly reduce the mirror's reflectance for He II 304 Angstrom geocoronal radiation which can be a significant background source for space borne EUV telescopes. These mirrors, produced by Ovonyx, Inc., are highly curved yet have been shown to have very uniform multilayer coatings and hence have very uniform EUV reflecting properties over their entire surfaces. The efforts in designing, producing and calibrating the ALEXIS telescope mirrors have been previously described in Smith et al., 1990.

text: Stamatios (Tom) M. Krimigis () is a Greek-American scientist in space exploration. He has contributed to many of the United States' unmanned space exploration programs of the Solar System and beyond. He has contributed to exploration missions to almost every planet of the Solar System. In 1999, the International Astronomical Union named the asteroid 8323 Krimigis (previously 1979 UH) in his honor.

text: Stamatios (Tom) M. Krimigis () is a Greek-American scientist in

text: space exploration

text: . He has contributed to many of the United States' unmanned space exploration programs of the

text: Solar System

text: and beyond. He has contributed to exploration missions to almost every planet of the Solar System. In 1999, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: named the asteroid

text: 8323 Krimigis

text: (previously 1979 UH) in his honor.

text: The Goddard Visitor Center is open to the public Tuesdays through Sundays, free of charge, and features displays of spacecraft and technologies developed there.  The Hubble Space Telescope is represented by models and deep space imagery from recent missions. The center also features a Science On a Sphere projection system.

text: The Goddard Visitor Center is open to the public Tuesdays through Sundays, free of charge, and features displays of spacecraft and technologies developed there.  The Hubble Space Telescope is represented by models and deep space imagery from recent missions. The center also features a

text: Science On a Sphere

text: projection system.

text: Planetary Radio is a weekly 30-minute radio show devoted to space exploration and astronomy, hosted and produced by Mat Kaplan and The Planetary Society. The show's programming consists mostly of interviews and telephone-based conversations with scientists, engineers, project managers, artists, writers, astronauts and many other professionals who can provide some insight or perspective into the current state of space exploration. It made its debut on November 25, 2002 with an interview with Planetary Society executive director Louis D. Friedman, airing on Windows Media and local radio station KUCI. The show became available in MP3 format for download in early July 2004, and became available as a podcast in May 2005.

text: Planetary Radio is a weekly 30-minute

text: radio show

text: devoted to

text: space exploration

text: and

text: astronomy

text: , hosted and produced by

text: Mat Kaplan

text: and

text: The Planetary Society

text: . The show's programming consists mostly of interviews and telephone-based conversations with scientists, engineers, project managers, artists, writers,

text: astronauts

text: and many other professionals who can provide some insight or perspective into the current state of space exploration. It made its debut on November 25, 2002 with an interview with Planetary Society executive director

text: Louis D. Friedman

text: , airing on

text: Windows Media

text: and local radio station

text: KUCI

text: . The show became available in MP3 format for download in early July 2004, and became available as a

text: podcast

text: in May 2005.

text: Placing infrared telescopes in space completely eliminates the interference from the Earth's atmosphere.  One of the most significant infrared telescope projects was the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) that launched in 1983.  It revealed information about other galaxies, as well as information about the center of our galaxy the Milky Way. NASA presently has solar-powered spacecraft in space with an infrared telescope called the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE).  It was launched on December 14, 2009.

text: Placing infrared telescopes in space completely eliminates the interference from the Earth's atmosphere.  One of the most significant infrared telescope projects was the

text: Infrared Astronomical Satellite

text: (IRAS) that launched in 1983.  It revealed information about other galaxies, as well as information about the center of our galaxy the Milky Way. NASA presently has solar-powered spacecraft in space with an infrared telescope called the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: (WISE).  It was launched on December 14, 2009.

text: The game involves the exploration of four solar systems with over 30 planets and dozens of characters. It is viewed entirely from a first-person perspective, with 3D polygon graphics used to represent outdoor environments, trees, benches, buildings, and other objects, as well as enemies. The gameplay can vary depending on the environment.

text: The game involves the exploration of four solar systems with over 30 planets and dozens of characters. It is viewed entirely from a

text: first-person perspective

text: , with

text: 3D polygon graphics

text: used to represent outdoor environments, trees, benches, buildings, and other objects, as well as enemies. The gameplay can vary depending on the environment.

text: Selected by NASA in January 1990, Halsell became an astronaut in July 1991. A five flight veteran, Halsell has logged over 1,250 hours in space. He was the pilot on STS-65 (July 8-23, 1994) and STS-74 (November 12-20, 1995), and commanded STS-83 (Apr 4-8, 1997), STS-94 (July 1-17, 1997) and STS-101 (May 19-29, 2000). From February-August 1998, he served as NASA Director of Operations at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center, Star City, Russia. Halsell also served as Manager, Shuttle Launch Integration, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, from July 2000-January 2003. Halsell was Space Shuttle Program manager for launch integration at the Kennedy Space Center from 2000–2002, responsible for giving the "go for launch" on 13 Shuttle missions.  After the Columbia accident, he led the NASA Return to Flight Planning Team, responsible for converting the recommendations of the accident investigation board into Shuttle Program actions that resulted in resumption of missions in 2005. Following the Columbia accident, Halsell led NASA’s Space Shuttle Return-to-Flight Planning Team. He then served as the Assistant Director for Aircraft Operations, Flight Crew Operations Directorate. Halsell retired from NASA in November 2006 to accept a position with  ATK Launch Systems where he served as Vice President, Space Exploration Systems, and was the ATK site manager at Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL.

text: Since the 1980s Kahn has been steadfast in his commitment to the redemptive possibilities of art. His miniature sacred spaces (what he calls shrines) explore the correspondence between the initimate and the monumental. His first full-scale shrine, Shalev, realized outdoors in New Harmony, Indiana, was commissioned by the Jane Owen and Robert Lee Blaffer Trust. While his early work draws on the tradition of American visionary landscape painting, his more recent pieces reflect his fascination with contemporary science, inspired by the micro-images of cell formations and satellite photography.

text: The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by automated spacecraft. It began with the arrival of Pioneer 10 into the Jovian system in 1973, and, , has continued with eight further spacecraft missions. All of these missions were undertaken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the probe landing or entering orbit. These probes make Jupiter the most visited of the Solar System's outer planets as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time. On 5th July 2016, spacecraft Juno arrived and entered the planet's orbit—the second craft ever to do so. Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties, especially due to the probes' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet's harsh radiation environment.

text: The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by

text: automated spacecraft

text: . It began with the arrival of

text: Pioneer 10

text: into the

text: Jovian system

text: in 1973, and, , has continued with eight further spacecraft missions. All of these missions were undertaken by the

text: (NASA), and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the

text: probe

text: landing or entering orbit. These probes make

text: Jupiter

text: the most visited of the

text: Solar System

text: 's

text: outer planets

text: as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time. On 5th July 2016, spacecraft

text: Juno

text: arrived and entered the planet's orbit—the second craft ever to do so. Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties, especially due to the probes' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet's harsh radiation environment.

text: President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958. Since that time, most U.S. space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

text: President

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958. Since that time, most U.S. space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the

text: Apollo

text: moon-landing

text: missions, the

text: Skylab

text: space station, and later the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . Currently, NASA is supporting the

text: International Space Station

text: and is overseeing the development of the

text: Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

text: , the

text: Space Launch System

text: and

text: Commercial Crew

text: vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the

text: Launch Services Program

text: (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

text: Men Into Space was advertised as being (for its era) an extremely accurate preview of manned spaceflight, based on scientific studies  and buttressed by technical assistance from the USAF's ballistic missile and space medicine offices. The spacecraft designs, however, veered inconsistently between early 1950s Wernher Von Braun concept vehicles, and later, totally scaled-down spacecraft proposals. Visual backdrops and conceptual designs of spacecraft, space stations, and a Moon base depended somewhat on contributions from notable astronautics and science fiction artist Chesley Bonestell. The series also availed itself of extensive documentary footage of early missile launches, notably the Atlas missile. It evoked the earlier Disney space exploration documentaries, which in turn owed their look and feel to a widely read, early 1950s series on the subject in the old Collier's Weekly magazine, where Bonestell's art also held sway.  At one point in production, a scale model and poster of an Atlas derived design missile with the series spacecraft as the payload was built, with publicity photos of Lundigen holding the model in front of the large poster.  Several scenes used footage from the cancelled Navajo missile program to depict spacecraft landings on a desert runway.  The distinctive design of the X-10 Navajo (different from the close up depictions of the series spacecraft) can be seen in the desert landing sequences X-10 Navajo missile.

text: Men Into Space was advertised as being (for its era) an extremely accurate preview of manned spaceflight, based on scientific studies  and buttressed by technical assistance from the USAF's

text: ballistic missile

text: and space medicine offices. The spacecraft designs, however, veered inconsistently between early 1950s

text: Wernher Von Braun

text: concept vehicles, and later, totally scaled-down spacecraft proposals. Visual backdrops and conceptual designs of spacecraft, space stations, and a

text: Moon base

text: depended somewhat on contributions from notable

text: astronautics

text: and science fiction artist

text: Chesley Bonestell

text: . The series also availed itself of extensive

text: documentary

text: footage of early missile launches, notably the Atlas missile. It evoked the earlier

text: Disney

text: space exploration documentaries, which in turn owed their look and feel to a widely read, early 1950s series on the subject in the old

text: Collier's Weekly

text: magazine, where Bonestell's art also held sway.  At one point in production, a scale model and poster of an Atlas derived design missile with the series spacecraft as the payload was built, with publicity photos of Lundigen holding the model in front of the large poster.  Several scenes used footage from the cancelled Navajo missile program to depict spacecraft landings on a desert runway.  The distinctive design of the X-10 Navajo (different from the close up depictions of the series spacecraft) can be seen in the desert landing sequences

text: X-10 Navajo missile

text: Colonel Benjamin Alvin Drew (born November 5, 1962) is a United States Air Force officer and a NASA astronaut. He has been on two spaceflights; the first was the Space Shuttle mission STS-118 to the International Space Station, in August 2007. Drew's second spaceflight took place in March 2011 on STS-133, another mission to the International Space Station. STS-133 was Space Shuttle Discovery's final mission. Drew took part in two spacewalks while docked to the station. Drew was the final African-American to fly on board a Space Shuttle, as the final two Space Shuttle missions, STS-134 and STS-135, had no African-American crew members.

text: Colonel Benjamin Alvin Drew (born November 5, 1962) is a

text: United States Air Force

text: officer and a

text: NASA

text: astronaut

text: . He has been on two

text: spaceflight

text: s; the first was the

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission

text: to the

text: International Space Station

text: , in August 2007. Drew's second spaceflight took place in March 2011 on

text: , another mission to the International Space Station. STS-133 was Space Shuttle

text: Discovery

text: 's final mission. Drew took part in two

text: spacewalks

text: while docked to the station. Drew was the final

text: African-American

text: to fly on board a Space Shuttle, as the final two Space Shuttle missions,

text: and

text: , had no African-American crew members.

text: For long term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient. Mining and refining the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of matter will need to be launched into space for interplanetary exploration in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.

text: For long term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient.

text: Mining

text: and

text: refining

text: the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of matter will need to be launched into space for interplanetary

text: exploration

text: in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.

text: The Expedition 4 crew launched on December 5, 2001 aboard STS-108 and docked with the International Space Station on December 7, 2001. During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Carl Walz and crew mate Dan Bursch. Wearing the Russian Orlan space suit, Walz logged 11 hours and 52 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition 4 crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111, with Endeavour landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on June 19, 2002.

text: The

text: Expedition 4

text: crew launched on December 5, 2001 aboard

text: and docked with the

text: International Space Station

text: on December 7, 2001. During a 6½ month stay aboard the Space Station, the crew of three (two American astronauts and one Russian cosmonaut) performed flight tests of the station hardware, conducted internal and external maintenance tasks, and developed the capability of the station to support the addition of science experiments. The crew spent 196 days in space establishing a U.S. space flight endurance record for Carl Walz and crew mate Dan Bursch. Wearing the Russian

text: Orlan space suit

text: , Walz logged 11 hours and 52 minutes of EVA time in two separate spacewalks. The Expedition 4 crew returned to Earth aboard STS-111, with

text: Endeavour

text: landing at

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: , California, on June 19, 2002.

text: The deorbit of Mir was the controlled atmospheric re-entry of the modular Russian space station Mir carried out on 23 March 2001. Major components ranged from about 5 to 15 years in age, and included the Mir Core Module, Kvant-1, Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr, Priroda, and Docking Module. Although Russia was optimistic about Mirs future, the country's commitments to the International Space Station project left no funding to support Mir.

text: The deorbit of Mir was the controlled

text: atmospheric re-entry

text: of the modular Russian space station

text: Mir

text: carried out on 23 March 2001. Major components ranged from about 5 to 15 years in age, and included the

text: Mir Core Module

text: Kristall

text: Spektr

text: Priroda

text: , and

text: Docking Module

text: . Although

text: Russia

text: was optimistic about Mirs future, the country's commitments to the

text: International Space Station

text: project left no funding to support Mir.

text: The final episode of the second season was notable for centering on the very recent, real-life Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Punky and her classmates watched the live coverage of the shuttle launch in Mike Fulton's class. After the accident occurred, Punky is traumatized; her dreams of becoming an astronaut are crushed. She writes a letter to NASA, and is visited by special guest star Buzz Aldrin. Although the episode received high ratings, NBC cancelled the show soon after.

text: The final episode of the second season was notable for centering on the very recent, real-life

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: . Punky and her classmates watched the live coverage of the shuttle launch in Mike Fulton's class. After the accident occurred, Punky is traumatized; her dreams of becoming an astronaut are crushed. She writes a letter to

text: NASA

text: , and is visited by special guest star

text: Buzz Aldrin

text: . Although the episode received high ratings, NBC cancelled the show soon after.

text: The Tel Aviv University Ultraviolet Explorer, or TAUVEX, is a space telescope array conceived by Noah Brosch of Tel Aviv University and designed and constructed in Israel for Tel Aviv University by El-Op, Electro-Optical Industries, Ltd. (a division of Elbit systems) acting as Prime Contractor, for the exploration of the ultraviolet (UV) sky. TAUVEX was selected in 1988 by the Israel Space Agency (ISA) as its first priority scientific payload. Although originally slated to fly on a national Israeli satellite of the Ofeq series, TAUVEX was shifted in 1991 to fly as part of a Spektr-RG international observatory, a collaboration of a large number of countries with the Soviet Union (Space Research Institute) leading.

text: The Tel Aviv University Ultraviolet Explorer, or TAUVEX, is a space telescope array conceived by

text: Noah Brosch

text: of

text: Tel Aviv University

text: and designed and constructed in

text: Israel

text: for

text: Tel Aviv University

text: by El-Op, Electro-Optical Industries, Ltd. (a division of Elbit systems) acting as Prime Contractor, for the exploration of the

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) sky. TAUVEX was selected in 1988 by the

text: Israel Space Agency

text: (ISA) as its first priority scientific payload. Although originally slated to fly on a national Israeli satellite of the

text: Ofeq

text: series, TAUVEX was shifted in 1991 to fly as part of a

text: Spektr-RG

text: international observatory, a collaboration of a large number of countries with the

text: Soviet Union

text: Space Research Institute

text: ) leading.

text: The Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey or GOODS is an astronomical survey combining deep observations from three of NASA's Great Observatories: the Hubble Space Telescope, the Spitzer Space Telescope , and the Chandra X-ray Observatory, along with data from other space-based telescopes, such as XMM Newton, and some of the worlds most powerful ground-based telescopes.

text: The Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey or GOODS is an

text: astronomical survey

text: combining deep observations from three of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Great Observatories

text: : the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: , and the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: , along with data from other

text: space-based telescopes

text: , such as

text: XMM Newton

text: , and some of the worlds most powerful ground-based telescopes.

text: The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 SCA and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was Columbia, followed by Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Endeavour was built to replace Challenger when it was lost in January 1986. Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.

text: The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, a winged non-capsule, the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: 's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space.

text: Enterprise

text: was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a

text: Boeing 747 SCA

text: and gliding to deadstick landings at

text: Edwards AFB, California

text: . The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was

text: Columbia

text: , followed by

text: Challenger

text: Discovery

text: Atlantis

text: , and

text: Endeavour

text: . Endeavour was built to replace Challenger when it was

text: lost

text: in January 1986. Columbia

text: broke up

text: during reentry in February 2003.

text: Internet Explorer 11 (IE11) is the last version of the Internet Explorer web browser by Microsoft. It was officially released on 17 October 2013 for Windows 8.1 and on 7 November 2013 for Windows 7. The browser was also shipped with Windows 10 on its release on 29 July 2015, but Microsoft Edge is the default browser in this version of Windows. After 12 January 2016 only the most recent version of Internet Explorer to be offered for installation on any given Windows operating system will continue to be supported with security updates, lasting until the end of the support lifecycle for that Windows operating system.  On Windows 7, 8.1, and 10, only Internet Explorer 11 will receive security updates for the remainder of those Windows versions' support lifecycles.

text: Internet Explorer 11 (IE11) is the last version of the

text: Internet Explorer

text: web browser

text: by

text: Microsoft

text: . It was officially released on 17 October 2013 for

text: Windows 8.1

text: and on 7 November 2013 for

text: Windows 7

text: . The browser was also shipped with

text: Windows 10

text: on its release on 29 July 2015, but

text: Microsoft Edge

text: is the default browser in this version of Windows. After 12 January 2016 only the most recent version of Internet Explorer to be offered for installation on any given Windows operating system will continue to be supported with security updates, lasting until the end of the support lifecycle for that Windows operating system.  On Windows 7, 8.1, and 10, only Internet Explorer 11 will receive security updates for the remainder of those Windows versions' support lifecycles.

text: The Space Shuttle (and prior program) flight controllers worked relatively brief periods: The several minutes of ascent, the few days the vehicle was in orbit, and reentry. The duration of operations for Space Shuttle flight controllers was short and time-critical. A failure on the Shuttle could leave flight controllers little time for talking, putting pressure on them to respond quickly to potential failures. The Space Shuttle flight controllers generally had limited capability to send commands to the shuttle for system reconfigurations.

text: The New Frontiers program is a series of space exploration missions being conducted by NASA with the purpose of researching several of the Solar System bodies, including the dwarf planet Pluto.

text: The New Frontiers program is

text: a series of space exploration missions being conducted by NASA

text: with the purpose of researching several of the

text: Solar System

text: bodies, including the

text: dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: Ham's actions and decisions, along with those of several other senior NASA managers involved in mission STS-107, were discussed repeatedly in the official Columbia Accident Investigation Board report, often in the context of management actions, practices, or culture that contributed to the disaster. Neither she nor anyone else was individually blamed in the report for the deaths of the seven Columbia astronauts, but she was singled out for exhibiting an attitude of avoiding inspection and assessment of actual shuttle damage. After the report's release, Ham was demoted and transferred out of her management position in the space shuttle program.

text: Ham's actions and decisions, along with those of several other senior NASA managers involved in mission STS-107, were discussed repeatedly in the official

text: Columbia Accident Investigation Board

text: report, often in the context of management actions, practices, or culture that contributed to the disaster. Neither she nor anyone else was individually blamed in the report for the deaths of the seven Columbia astronauts, but she was singled out for exhibiting an attitude of avoiding inspection and assessment of actual shuttle damage. After the report's release, Ham was demoted and transferred out of her management position in the space shuttle program.

text: The Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) was the conceptual component of the U.S. NASA Vision for Space Exploration that later became known as the Orion spacecraft. The Orion CEV was part of NASA's Constellation Program to send human explorers back to the Moon, and then onward to Mars and other destinations in the solar system.

text: The Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) was the conceptual component of the U.S.

text: NASA

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: that later became known as the

text: Orion

text: spacecraft. The Orion CEV was part of NASA's

text: Constellation Program

text: to send human explorers back to the

text: Moon

text: , and then onward to

text: Mars

text: and other destinations in the

text: solar system

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour launched at 3:35:34 am EST from the Kennedy Space Center’s Launch Pad 39A. STS-88 was the first shuttle flight to the International Space Station. After launch, the crew opened the shuttle’s payload bay doors, deployed the Ku-Band antenna, and activated the shuttle’s Hitchhiker payload. The crew also started preparing for the multiple engine firings that will be performed to bring shuttle Endeavour within the Shuttle Remote Manipulator System’s reach of the Zarya FGB. At launch, Zarya was 240 statute miles above the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), and the module was on its 222nd orbit of the Earth since its launch.

text: Space Shuttle

text: Endeavour

text: launched at 3:35:34 am

text: EST

text: from the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: ’s

text: Launch Pad 39A

text: . STS-88 was the first shuttle flight to the

text: International Space Station

text: . After launch, the crew opened the shuttle’s payload bay doors, deployed the

text: Ku-Band

text: antenna

text: , and activated the shuttle’s Hitchhiker payload. The crew also started preparing for the multiple engine firings that will be performed to bring shuttle Endeavour within the

text: Shuttle Remote Manipulator System

text: ’s reach of the

text: Zarya FGB

text: . At launch, Zarya was 240 statute miles above the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), and the module was on its 222nd orbit of the Earth since its launch.

text: Andrew Jay "Drew" Feustel (; born August 25, 1965) is an American geophysicist and a NASA astronaut. His first spaceflight in May 2009, STS-125, lasted just under 13 days. This was a mission with six other astronauts to repair the Hubble Space Telescope, aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis. Feustel performed three spacewalks during the mission. Following several years working as a geophysicist, Feustel was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in July 2000. His second spaceflight was STS-134, which launched on May 16, 2011 and landed on June 1, 2011; that mission was the penultimate Space Shuttle flight.

text: Andrew Jay "Drew" Feustel (; born August 25, 1965) is an

text: American

text: geophysicist

text: and a

text: NASA

text: astronaut

text: . His first

text: spaceflight

text: in May 2009,

text: , lasted just under 13 days. This was a mission with six other astronauts to repair the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , aboard

text: Space Shuttle

text: Atlantis

text: . Feustel performed three

text: spacewalks

text: during the mission. Following several years working as a geophysicist, Feustel was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in July 2000. His second spaceflight was

text: , which launched on May 16, 2011 and landed on June 1, 2011; that mission was the penultimate Space Shuttle flight.

text: The station has free parking, with 190 spaces, with congestion at the parking lot requiring that an extension be built less than a year after the station originally opened. This extension was opened on 30 April 2007. The mayor of the town admitted that more parking was needed although the extension had recently been built; the next phase of expansion involves building 120 new spaces.

text: With the onset of the Space Age, planetary probes cast increasing doubt on the likelihood of extraterrestrial life in the Solar System, at least life of any magnitude greater than organisms such as bacteria. By the mid-1960s, it was firmly established that life could have no foothold on the hostile surfaces of Mercury or Venus, and that Mars could hardly support any macroscopic life forms on its surface, much less an advanced civilization.  In the 1980s it was shown that the surfaces of Jupiter's moons were just as hostile to life.More recent fiction focused on the Solar System has thus tended to address its exploration for purposes such as terraforming, the engineering of planets for human habitation, than the possibility of any existing life.

text: With the onset of the

text: Space Age

text: planetary probes

text: cast increasing doubt on the likelihood of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: in the Solar System, at least life of any magnitude greater than

text: organism

text: s such as

text: bacteria

text: . By the mid-1960s, it was firmly established that life could have no foothold on the hostile surfaces of Mercury or Venus, and that Mars could hardly support any macroscopic life forms on its surface, much less an advanced civilization.  In the 1980s it was shown that the surfaces of Jupiter's moons were just as hostile to life.More recent fiction focused on the Solar System has thus tended to address its exploration for purposes such as

text: terraforming

text: , the engineering of planets for human habitation, than the possibility of any existing life.

text: Following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in early 2003 President George W. Bush, announced his Vision for Space Exploration which called for the completion of the American portion of the International Space Station by 2010 (due to delays this would not happen until 2011), the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet following its completion, to return to the moon by 2020 and one day to Mars. A new vehicle would need be developed, it eventually was named the Orion spacecraft, a six-person variant would have serviced the ISS and a four-person variant would have traveled to the Moon. The Ares I would have launched Orion, and the Ares V heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) would have launched all other hardware. The Altair lunar lander would have landed crew and cargo onto the moon. The Constellation program experienced many cost overruns and schedule delays, and was openly criticized by the subsequent U.S. President, Barack Obama.

text: Following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , in early 2003 President

text: George W. Bush

text: , announced his

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: which called for the completion of the American portion of the International Space Station by 2010 (due to delays this would not happen until 2011), the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet following its completion, to return to the moon by 2020 and one day to Mars. A new vehicle would need be developed, it eventually was named the

text: Orion spacecraft

text: , a six-person variant would have serviced the ISS and a four-person variant would have traveled to the Moon. The

text: Ares I

text: would have launched Orion, and the

text: Ares V

text: heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) would have launched all other hardware. The

text: Altair lunar lander

text: would have landed crew and cargo onto the moon. The Constellation program experienced many cost overruns and schedule delays, and was openly criticized by the subsequent U.S. President,

text: Barack Obama

text: The Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE), is a series of experiments mounted externally on the International Space Station (ISS) that investigates the effects of long-term exposure of materials to the harsh space environment.

text: The Materials International Space Station Experiment (MISSE), is a series of experiments mounted externally on the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) that investigates the effects of long-term exposure of materials to the harsh space environment.

text: The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the NASA Space Shuttle orbiter Challenger (OV-099) (mission STS-51-L) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members. Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster (SRB) failed at liftoff.

text: The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the

text: NASA

text: Space Shuttle orbiter

text: Challenger (OV-099)

text: (mission

text: ) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members. Disintegration of the vehicle began after an

text: O-ring

text: seal in its right

text: solid rocket booster

text: (SRB) failed at liftoff.

text: In the case  Hans Petersson introduced a metric on the space of modular forms, called the Petersson metric (also see Weil-Petersson metric). This conjecture was named after him. Under the Petersson metric it is shown that we can define the orthogonality on the space of modular forms as the space of cusp forms and its orthogonal space and they have finite dimensions. Furthermore, we can concretely calculate the dimension of the space of holomorphic modular forms, using the Riemann-Roch theorem (see the dimensions of modular forms).

text: In the case

text: Hans Petersson

text: introduced a metric on the space of modular forms, called the

text: Petersson metric

text: (also see

text: Weil-Petersson metric

text: ). This conjecture was named after him. Under the Petersson metric it is shown that we can define the orthogonality on the space of modular forms as the space of

text: cusp form

text: s and its orthogonal space and they have finite dimensions. Furthermore, we can concretely calculate the dimension of the space of holomorphic modular forms, using the

text: Riemann-Roch theorem

text: (see

text: the dimensions of modular forms

text: The laser broom uses a ground-based laser to ablate the front of the debris, producing a rocket-like thrust which slows the object. With continued application, the debris would fall enough to be influenced by atmospheric drag. During the late 1990s, the U.S. Air Force's Project Orion was a laser-broom design. Although a test-bed device was scheduled to launch on a Space Shuttle in 2003, international agreements banning powerful laser testing in orbit limited its use to measurements. The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster postponed the project and according to Nicholas Johnson, chief scientist and program manager for NASA's Orbital Debris Program Office, "There are lots of little gotchas in the Orion final report. There's a reason why it's been sitting on the shelf for more than a decade."

text: The

text: laser broom

text: uses a ground-based

text: laser

text: to

text: ablate

text: the front of the debris, producing a rocket-like thrust which slows the object. With continued application, the debris would fall enough to be influenced by atmospheric drag. During the late 1990s, the U.S. Air Force's Project Orion was a laser-broom design. Although a test-bed device was scheduled to launch on a Space Shuttle in 2003, international agreements banning powerful laser testing in orbit limited its use to measurements. The

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: postponed the project and according to Nicholas Johnson, chief scientist and program manager for NASA's Orbital Debris Program Office, "There are lots of little gotchas in the Orion final report. There's a reason why it's been sitting on the shelf for more than a decade."

text: Following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in February 2003, Montgomery headed up a White House working group to monitor all facets of the accident investigation. This ultimately led to the process that developed the President's vision for space exploration. For this effort, Montgomery was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in June 2004.

text: Following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: in February 2003, Montgomery headed up a White House working group to monitor all facets of the accident investigation. This ultimately led to the process that developed the President's vision for space exploration. For this effort, Montgomery was awarded the

text: NASA Exceptional Service Medal

text: in June 2004.

text: Players must navigate their characters through a number of environments while completing story-based objectives in order to advance the plot. Players can assume the role of one of seven characters, each with their own strengths, weaknesses, and back stories, and become involved in the narrative by interacting with non-player characters and exploring dangerous areas. During the game, players will explore towns which can be used to gather information and purchase goods to aid them on their journey before setting off for the wilds. Unlike previous SaGa series games, rather than freely roaming through dungeons, forests, and other environments, the game is structured like a board game, referred to as the "Map Movement System", where players must move space by space to reach the end. On some spaces, the player may encounter objects such traps or locked doors that can be overcome by using the "Reel System", a device resembling a roulette wheel that may result in a good or bad outcome. While navigating the game board, the player will also encounter enemy monsters that must be defeated in order to advance.

text: Players must navigate their characters through a number of environments while completing story-based objectives in order to advance the plot. Players can assume the role of one of seven characters, each with their own strengths, weaknesses, and back stories, and become involved in the narrative by interacting with non-player characters and exploring dangerous areas. During the game, players will explore towns which can be used to gather information and purchase goods to aid them on their journey before setting off for the wilds. Unlike previous

text: SaGa

text: series games, rather than freely roaming through dungeons, forests, and other environments, the game is structured like a

text: board game

text: , referred to as the "Map Movement System", where players must move space by space to reach the end. On some spaces, the player may encounter objects such traps or locked doors that can be overcome by using the "Reel System", a device resembling a

text: roulette

text: wheel that may result in a good or bad outcome. While navigating the game board, the player will also encounter enemy monsters that must be defeated in order to advance.

text: STS-117 crew patch symbolizes the continued construction of the space station and ongoing human presence in space. The ISS is shown orbiting high above the Earth. Gold is used to highlight the portion of the ISS that will be installed by the STS-117 crew. The names of the STS-117 crew are located above and below the orbiting outpost. The two gold astronaut office symbols, emanating from the '117' at the bottom of the patch, represent the concerted efforts of the shuttle and station programs toward the completion of the station. The orbiter and unfurled banner of red, white, and blue represent the renewed patriotism of the American Nation as they continue to explore the universe.

text: The International Space Station program is tied together by a complex set of legal, political and financial agreements between the fifteen nations involved in the project, governing ownership of the various components, rights to crewing and utilization, and responsibilities for crew rotation and station resupply.  These agreements tie together the five space agencies and their respective International Space Station Programs and govern how they interact with each other on a daily basis to maintain station operations, from traffic control of spacecraft to and from the station, to utilization of space and crew time.   In spring 2010, the International Space Station Program Managers from each of the five partner agencies were presented with Aviation Week's Laureate Award in the Space category, and NASA's International Space Station Program was awarded the 2009 Collier Trophy.

text: The

text: International Space Station

text: program is tied together by a complex set of legal, political and financial agreements between the fifteen nations involved in the project, governing ownership of the various components, rights to crewing and utilization, and responsibilities for crew rotation and station resupply.  These agreements tie together the five space agencies and their respective International Space Station Programs and govern how they interact with each other on a daily basis to maintain station operations, from traffic control of spacecraft to and from the station, to utilization of space and crew time.   In spring 2010, the International Space Station Program Managers from each of the five partner agencies were presented with

text: Aviation Week

text: 's

text: Laureate Award

text: in the Space category, and NASA's International Space Station Program was awarded the 2009

text: Collier Trophy

text: The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the NASA Space Shuttle orbiter Challenger (OV-099) (mission STS-51-L) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members, which included five NASA astronauts and two Payload Specialists. The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 11:39 EST (16:39 UTC). Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster (SRB) failed at liftoff. The O-ring was not designed to fly under unusually cold conditions as in this launch. Its failure caused a breach in the SRB joint it sealed, allowing pressurized burning gas from within the solid rocket motor to reach the outside and impinge upon the adjacent SRB aft field joint attachment hardware and external fuel tank. This led to the separation of the right-hand SRB's aft field joint attachment and the structural failure of the external tank. Aerodynamic forces broke up the orbiter.

text: NASA

text: Space Shuttle orbiter

text: Challenger (OV-099)

text: (mission

text: ) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members, which included five NASA

text: astronaut

text: s and two

text: Payload Specialist

text: s. The spacecraft disintegrated over the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , off the coast of

text: Cape Canaveral

text: Florida

text: , at 11:39

text: EST

text: UTC

text: ). Disintegration of the vehicle began after an

text: O-ring

text: seal in its right

text: solid rocket booster

text: (SRB) failed at liftoff. The O-ring was not designed to fly under unusually cold conditions as in this launch. Its failure caused a breach in the SRB joint it sealed, allowing pressurized burning gas from within the solid rocket motor to reach the outside and impinge upon the adjacent SRB aft field joint attachment hardware and

text: external fuel tank

text: . This led to the separation of the right-hand SRB's aft field joint attachment and the

text: structural failure

text: of the external tank.

text: Aerodynamic

text: forces broke up the orbiter.

text: STS-123 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) which was flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour. STS-123 was the 1J/A ISS assembly mission. The original launch target date was 14 February 2008 but after the delay of STS-122, the shuttle was launched on 11 March 2008. It was the twenty-fifth shuttle mission to visit the ISS, and delivered the first module of the Japanese laboratory, Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō), and the Canadian Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator, (SPDM) Dextre robotics system to the station. The mission duration was 15 days and 18 hours, and it was the first mission to fully utilize the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System (SSPTS), allowing space station power to augment the shuttle power systems. The mission set a record for a shuttle's longest stay at the ISS.

text: STS-123 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) which was flown by

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: . STS-123 was the 1J/A

text: ISS assembly

text: mission. The original launch target date was 14 February 2008 but after the delay of

text: , the shuttle was launched on 11 March 2008. It was the twenty-fifth shuttle mission to visit the ISS, and delivered the first module of the Japanese laboratory,

text: Japanese Experiment Module

text: (Kibō), and the Canadian

text: Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator

text: , (SPDM) Dextre robotics system to the station. The mission duration was 15 days and 18 hours, and it was the first mission to fully utilize the

entity_name: Electrical system of the International Space Station

text: Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System

text: (SSPTS), allowing space station power to augment the shuttle power systems. The mission set a record for a shuttle's longest stay at the ISS.

text: The James Webb Space Telescope is the next generation in deep space imaging systems. The James Webb Space Telescope seeks to provide a better understanding of the origins of the earth and life in the universe. This telescope is significant to future scientific breakthroughs and through the RealWorld-InWorld Engineering Design Challenge students use the engineering design process to solve problems related to the James Webb Space Telescope.

text: He became astronaut training manager for the IMAX Space Team in 1988.  He was responsible for training space shuttle crews, and later space station crews, on the use and operation of the IMAX film cameras. Neihouse has trained more than 130 NASA astronauts and 20 Russian cosmonauts on 20 space shuttle flights and 6 Space Station Expeditions to film in space aboard the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station.  He also oversees and assists in IMAX hardware integration into the NASA space flight system.

text: He became astronaut training manager for the IMAX Space Team in 1988.  He was responsible for training space shuttle crews, and later space station crews, on the use and operation of the IMAX film cameras. Neihouse has trained more than 130

text: NASA

text: astronauts

text: and 20 Russian

text: cosmonauts

text: on 20

text: space shuttle

text: flights and 6 Space Station Expeditions to film in space aboard the

text: Space Shuttle

text: and the

text: International Space Station

text: .  He also oversees and assists in IMAX hardware integration into the NASA space flight system.

text: Jupiter was designed to be a high-commonality family of rockets, adapted closely from existing Space Shuttle systems. Each Jupiter launch vehicle would use a "common core stage" consisting of a tank structure based closely on the existing Space Shuttle External Tank with a pair of standard four-segment Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) mounted at the sides as on the Space Shuttle.  Up to four Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) from the Space Shuttle Orbiter would be attached to the bottom of the tank and would be deorbited to burn up in Earth atmosphere along with the expended tank.  For heavier payloads a proposed Jupiter Upper Stage (JUS) would be added atop the tank structure.  For extra-planetary expeditions, the JUS would serve in a role similar to the Earth Departure Stage planned for Ares V.  DIRECT have purposefully specified existing components for their launch vehicles, but contend that they could incorporate improvements such as the more powerful five-segment SRB or the J-2X upper stage engine, had the J-2X development not ended partly due to the cancelation of the Constellation program.

text: Jupiter was designed to be a high-commonality family of rockets, adapted closely from existing Space Shuttle systems. Each Jupiter launch vehicle would use a "common core stage" consisting of a tank structure based closely on the existing

text: Space Shuttle External Tank

text: with a pair of standard four-segment

text: Solid Rocket Boosters

text: (SRBs) mounted at the sides as on the

text: Space Shuttle

text: .  Up to four

text: Space Shuttle Main Engine

text: s (SSMEs) from the

text: Space Shuttle Orbiter

text: would be attached to the bottom of the tank and would be deorbited to burn up in Earth atmosphere along with the expended tank.  For heavier payloads a proposed Jupiter Upper Stage (JUS) would be added atop the tank structure.  For extra-planetary expeditions, the JUS would serve in a role similar to the

text: Earth Departure Stage

text: planned for Ares V.  DIRECT have purposefully specified existing components for their launch vehicles, but contend that they could incorporate improvements such as the more powerful five-segment SRB or the

text: upper stage engine, had the J-2X development not ended partly due to the cancelation of the Constellation program.

text: In response to a presidential initiative, NASA made a study of a project for human lunar- and Mars exploration as a proposed follow-on to the International Space Station project.  This resulted in a report, called the 90-day study, in which the agency proposed a long-term plan consisting of completing the Space Station as "a critical next step in all our space endeavors," returning to the moon and establishing a permanent base, and then sending astronauts to Mars. This report was widely criticized as too elaborate and expensive, and all funding for human exploration beyond Earth orbit was canceled by Congress.

text: In response to a presidential initiative, NASA made a study of a project for human lunar- and Mars exploration as a proposed follow-on to the

text: International Space Station

text: project.  This resulted in a report, called the

text: 90-day study

text: , in which the agency proposed a long-term plan consisting of completing the Space Station as "a critical next step in all our space endeavors," returning to the moon and establishing a permanent base, and then sending astronauts to Mars. This report was widely criticized as too elaborate and expensive, and all funding for human exploration beyond Earth orbit was canceled by Congress.

text: The Space Shuttle program, officially called the Space Transportation System (STS), was the United States government's manned launch vehicle program from 1981 to 2011, administered by NASA and officially beginning in 1972. The Space Shuttle system—composed of an orbiter launched with two reusable solid rocket boosters and a disposable external fuel tank— carried up to eight astronauts and up to  of payload into low Earth orbit (LEO). When its mission was complete, the orbiter would re-enter the Earth's atmosphere and land like a glider at either the Kennedy Space Center or  Edwards Air Force Base.

text: The Space Shuttle program, officially called the Space Transportation System (STS), was the

text: United States

text: government's

text: manned

text: launch vehicle

text: program from 1981 to 2011, administered by

text: NASA

text: and officially beginning in 1972. The

text: Space Shuttle

text: system—composed of an

text: orbiter

text: launched with two reusable

text: solid rocket boosters

text: and a disposable

text: external fuel tank

text: — carried up to eight

text: astronaut

text: s and up to  of

text: payload

text: into

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO). When its mission was complete, the orbiter would

text: re-enter

text: the

text: Earth

text: 's atmosphere and land like a

text: glider

text: at either the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: or

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: The Station's sixth crew was launched to the Station aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour STS-113 in November 2002. The mission was expected to be a four-month mission that was to end in March 2003 when Atlantis STS-114 was to fly to the Station with the Expedition 7 crew. The Columbia disaster, which occurred during the mission on 1 Feb. 2003, and resulted in the indefinite suspension of shuttle flights, changed plans and the crew stayed on the station until May 2003. They returned to earth on Soyuz TMA-1 and a reduced Expedition 7 crew with just two members was delivered to the ISS on Soyuz TMA-2. The Space Shuttle was expected to be grounded for up to two years. Ongoing logistical support for the ISS would have to be carried out by Soyuz and Progress flights until the Space Shuttle returned to flight.

text: The Station's sixth crew was launched to the Station aboard

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: in November 2002. The mission was expected to be a four-month mission that was to end in March 2003 when

text: Atlantis

text: was to fly to the Station with the

text: Expedition 7

text: crew. The

text: Columbia disaster

text: , which occurred during the mission on 1 Feb. 2003, and resulted in the indefinite suspension of shuttle flights, changed plans and the crew stayed on the station until May 2003. They returned to earth on

text: Soyuz TMA-1

text: and a reduced

text: Expedition 7

text: crew with just two members was delivered to the ISS on

text: Soyuz TMA-2

text: . The Space Shuttle was expected to be grounded for up to two years. Ongoing logistical support for the ISS would have to be carried out by Soyuz and Progress flights until the Space Shuttle returned to flight.

text: As wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to interact with electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny antenna). The near-infrared can be collected much like visible light, however in the far-infrared and submillimetre range,  telescopes can operate more like a radio telescope. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 2000 μm (2 mm), but uses a parabolic aluminum antenna. On the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from about 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 180 μm (0.18 mm) uses a mirror (reflecting optics). Also using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the frequency range from about 0.2 μm (0.0002 mm) to 1.7 μm (0.0017 mm) (from ultra-violet to infrared light).

text: As wavelengths become longer, it becomes easier to use antenna technology to interact with electromagnetic radiation (although it is possible to make very tiny antenna). The near-infrared can be collected much like visible light, however in the far-infrared and submillimetre range,  telescopes can operate more like a radio telescope. For example, the

text: James Clerk Maxwell Telescope

text: observes from wavelengths from 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 2000 μm (2 mm), but uses a parabolic aluminum antenna. On the other hand, the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: , observing from about 3 μm (0.003 mm) to 180 μm (0.18 mm) uses a mirror (reflecting optics). Also using reflecting optics, the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: with

text: Wide Field Camera 3

text: can observe in the frequency range from about 0.2 μm (0.0002 mm) to 1.7 μm (0.0017 mm) (from ultra-violet to infrared light).

text: The Space Shuttle's thermal protection system received a number of controls and modifications after the disaster.  They were applied to the three remaining shuttles, Discovery, Atlantis and Endeavour in preparation for subsequent mission launches into space.

text: The

text: Space Shuttle

text: 's thermal protection system received a number of controls and modifications after the disaster.  They were applied to the three remaining shuttles,

text: Discovery

text: Atlantis

text: and

text: Endeavour

text: in preparation for subsequent mission launches into space.

text: More recent BC Space exhibitions include: “Homeless in Paradise” (2011), featuring photographs of the homeless in Southern California; Capital Crime$ (2012), a mixed media exhibition including work by more than 60 artists, exploring the use and misuse of money in our culture; and  “Autumnal Recollections With Our Friend Paul” (2013), an artistic retrospective of the 92-year-old Laguna Beach icon, Paul Darrow, a painter, assemblage artist, photographer, cartoonist, sailor and musician; he was included in Getty Foundation sponsored 2011-2012 Pacific Standard Time exhibitions at the Pasadena Museum of California Art and at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. From February 25 through April 26, 2014, BC Space presents “Silent But Deadly: Chernobyl-Fukushima-San Onofre,” addressing the fact that some 400 commercial nuclear power reactors are operational around the world, 100 of them in the United States. (See Chernobyl disaster, Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station.)

text: More recent BC Space exhibitions include: “Homeless in Paradise” (2011), featuring photographs of the homeless in Southern California; Capital Crime$ (2012), a mixed media exhibition including work by more than 60 artists, exploring the use and misuse of money in our culture; and  “Autumnal Recollections With Our Friend Paul” (2013), an artistic retrospective of the 92-year-old Laguna Beach icon, Paul Darrow, a painter, assemblage artist, photographer, cartoonist, sailor and musician; he was included in Getty Foundation sponsored 2011-2012 Pacific Standard Time exhibitions at the Pasadena Museum of California Art and at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. From February 25 through April 26, 2014, BC Space presents “Silent But Deadly: Chernobyl-Fukushima-San Onofre,” addressing the fact that some 400 commercial nuclear power reactors are operational around the world, 100 of them in the United States. (See

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

text: San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station

text: The Society is dedicated to the exploration of the Solar System, the search for near-Earth objects, and the search for extraterrestrial life. The society's mission is stated as: "To empower the world's citizens to advance space science and exploration".  The Planetary Society is also a strong advocate for space funding and missions of exploration within NASA. They actively lobby Congress and engage their membership in the United States to write and call their representatives in support of NASA funding.

text: The Society is dedicated to the

text: exploration of the Solar System

text: , the search for

text: near-Earth object

text: s, and the search for

text: extraterrestrial life

text: . The society's mission is stated as: "To empower the world's citizens to advance space science and exploration".  The Planetary Society is also a strong advocate for space funding and missions of exploration within NASA. They actively lobby Congress and engage their membership in the United States to write and call their representatives in support of NASA funding.

text: The first official study of the concept was conducted in 1986 by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in the aftermath of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. It was promoted as one of the alternatives for launching unmanned cargo and would have potentially allowed a restarted lunar program as well. There were, however, no funds available to NASA for building any new vehicles while the Space Shuttle program continued.  The idea was shelved and NASA concentrated on fixing and operating the Space Shuttle instead.

text: The first official study of the concept was conducted in 1986 by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: in the aftermath of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: . It was promoted as one of the alternatives for launching unmanned cargo and would have potentially allowed a restarted lunar program as well. There were, however, no funds available to NASA for building any new vehicles while the Space Shuttle program continued.  The idea was shelved and NASA concentrated on fixing and operating the Space Shuttle instead.

text: Space research is scientific studies carried out using scientific equipment in outer space.  It includes the use of space technology for a broad spectrum of research disciplines, including Earth science, materials science, biology, medicine, and physics.  The term includes scientific payloads everywhere from deep space to low Earth orbit, and is frequently defined to include research in the upper atmosphere using sounding rockets and high-altitude balloons.  Space science and space exploration involve the study of outer space itself, which is only part of the broader field of space research. Major Space Research Agencies in the World.

text: Space research is scientific studies carried out using

text: scientific equipment

text: in

text: outer space

text: .  It includes the use of

text: space technology

text: for a broad spectrum of research disciplines, including

text: Earth science

text: materials science

text: biology

text: medicine

text: , and

text: physics

text: .  The term includes scientific payloads everywhere from

text: deep space

text: to

text: low Earth orbit

text: , and is frequently defined to include research in the

text: upper atmosphere

text: using

text: sounding rocket

text: s and

text: high-altitude balloon

text: s.

text: Space science

text: and

text: space exploration

text: involve the study of outer space itself, which is only part of the broader field of space research. Major Space Research Agencies in the World.

text: More recently Danielson has been exploring the legalization of online poker in the state of Iowa.  The most recent legislation signed by Governor Terry Branstad explores the online gaming by instructing Iowa's Racing and Gaming Commission to submit a report on the issue.

text: More recently Danielson has been exploring the legalization of online poker in the state of Iowa.  The most recent legislation signed by Governor

text: Terry Branstad

text: explores the online gaming by instructing Iowa's Racing and Gaming Commission to submit a report on the issue.

text: The STS-82 mission was the second in a series of planned servicing missions to the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope ("HST"), which had been placed in orbit on 24 April 1990 by Discovery during STS-31. The first servicing mission was done by Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-61. Work performed by Discovery's crew significantly upgraded the scientific capabilities of the HST and helped to keep the telescope functioning smoothly until the next scheduled servicing missions, which were STS-103 in 1999 and STS-109 in 2002.

text: The STS-82 mission was the second in a series of planned servicing missions to the orbiting

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: ("HST"), which had been placed in orbit on 24 April 1990 by Discovery during

text: . The first servicing mission was done by Space Shuttle

text: Endeavour

text: on

text: . Work performed by Discovery's crew significantly upgraded the scientific capabilities of the HST and helped to keep the telescope functioning smoothly until the next scheduled servicing missions, which were

text: in 1999 and

text: in 2002.

text: After the success of Mission One, the station was outfitted for an expanded mission during the following summer in what was known as the NASA Challenge Mission . The Challenge Mission ran concurrently with the Space Shuttle Mission STS-95, the mission which featured veteran astronaut John Glenn. At the launch of the Space Shuttle, the Scott Carpenter Station Mission Commander, Dennis Chamberland and his crew embarked for an unbroken 11-day stay on the seafloor for the same period the Space Shuttle was in space. Following the flight, visitors to the seafloor station included motion picture director James Cameron, who conferenced with students in Pond Inlet, Nunavut via satellite phone,  as well as producer Eugene Roddenberry II and Mount Everest Explorer–climber, Tom Whittaker. In 1997, the station logged more than 36 days of manned missions on the seafloor.

text: After the success of Mission One, the station was outfitted for an expanded mission during the following summer in what was known as the NASA Challenge Mission . The Challenge Mission ran concurrently with the

text: Space Shuttle

text: Mission

text: , the mission which featured veteran astronaut

text: John Glenn

text: . At the launch of the Space Shuttle, the Scott Carpenter Station Mission Commander, Dennis Chamberland and his crew embarked for an unbroken 11-day stay on the seafloor for the same period the Space Shuttle was in space. Following the flight, visitors to the seafloor station included motion picture director

text: James Cameron

text: , who conferenced with students in Pond Inlet, Nunavut via satellite phone,  as well as producer

text: Eugene Roddenberry II

text: and

text: Mount Everest

text: Explorer–climber,

text: Tom Whittaker

text: . In 1997, the station logged more than 36 days of manned missions on the seafloor.

text: The diving tank is  in length,  wide, and  deep, and contains 6.2 million gallons (23.5 million litres) of water. The NBL contains full-scale mock-ups of International Space Station (ISS) modules and payloads, as well as visiting vehicles such as the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) HTV, the European Space Agency ATV, the SpaceX Dragon, and the Orbital Sciences Corporation Cygnus. Full-scale mock-ups of equipment such as the Space Shuttle payload bay and Hubble Space Telescope have been removed, as they are no longer needed for training.

text: The diving tank is  in length,  wide, and  deep, and contains 6.2 million gallons (23.5 million litres) of water. The NBL contains full-scale mock-ups of

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) modules and payloads, as well as visiting vehicles such as the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA)

text: HTV

text: , the

text: European Space Agency

text: ATV

text: , the

text: SpaceX Dragon

text: , and the

text: Orbital Sciences Corporation

text: Cygnus

text: . Full-scale mock-ups of equipment such as the

text: Space Shuttle

text: payload bay and Hubble Space Telescope have been removed, as they are no longer needed for training.

text: Stamatios "Tom" Krimigis, head of the Applied Physics Laboratory's space division, one of many entrants in the New Frontiers Program competition, formed the New Horizons team with Alan Stern in December 2000.  Appointed as the project's principal investigator, Stern was described by Krimigis as "the personification of the Pluto mission". New Horizons was based largely on Stern's work since Pluto 350 and involved most of the team from Pluto Kuiper Express. The New Horizons proposal was one of five that were officially submitted to NASA. It was later selected as one of two finalists to be subject to a three-month concept study, in June 2001. The other finalist, POSSE (Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer), was a separate, but similar Pluto mission concept by the University of Colorado Boulder, led by principal investigator Larry W. Esposito, and supported by the JPL, Lockheed Martin and the University of California. However, the APL, in addition to being supported by Pluto Kuiper Express developers at the Goddard Space Flight Center and Stanford University, were at an advantage; they had recently developed NEAR Shoemaker for NASA, which had successfully entered orbit around 433 Eros earlier in the year, and would later land on the asteroid to scientific and engineering fanfare.

text: Stamatios "Tom" Krimigis, head of the

text: Applied Physics Laboratory

text: 's space division, one of many entrants in the New Frontiers Program competition, formed the New Horizons team with Alan Stern in December 2000.  Appointed as the project's

text: principal investigator

text: , Stern was described by Krimigis as "the personification of the Pluto mission". New Horizons was based largely on Stern's work since Pluto 350 and involved most of the team from Pluto Kuiper Express. The New Horizons proposal was one of five that were officially submitted to NASA. It was later selected as one of two finalists to be subject to a three-month concept study, in June 2001. The other finalist, POSSE (Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer), was a separate, but similar Pluto mission concept by the

text: University of Colorado Boulder

text: , led by principal investigator

text: Larry W. Esposito

text: , and supported by the JPL,

text: Lockheed Martin

text: and the

text: University of California

text: . However, the APL, in addition to being supported by Pluto Kuiper Express developers at the Goddard Space Flight Center and

text: Stanford University

text: , were at an advantage; they had recently developed NEAR Shoemaker for NASA, which had successfully entered orbit around

text: 433 Eros

text: earlier in the year, and would later land on the asteroid to scientific and engineering fanfare.

text: In the distant past the Farus Di Kanon Empire, now commonly known as the "Super Empire", controlled all 4 solar systems of the Joker Cluster. They enjoyed a level of technology much higher than is currently known and sent explorers to the far reaches of the Joker Cluster. Around the year 9000 AD (Ammon Duul) the empire collapsed due to internal strife. The explorers were called home and what remained of civilization focused mainly on survival. Much technology and knowledge was lost by the time the imperial families of Amaterasu, Fillmore and Hathuha gathered and established the JC era. JC stands for "Joker Calendar" and was meant to give a common frame of reference to all nations to help foster a lasting peace. The JC calendar was adopted but the dream of peace was never realized.

text: The United States has participated in the International Space Station beginning in the 1990s, the Space Shuttle program has continued, although the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster has led to the planned retirement of the Space Shuttle in mid-2011.  There is a current debate on the post-Space Shuttle future of the civilian space program: the Constellation program of the George W. Bush administration directed NASA to create a set of new spacecraft with the goal of sending astronauts to the Moon and Mars, but the Obama administration cancelled the Constellation program, opting instead to emphasize development of commercial rocket systems.

text: The United States has participated in the

text: International Space Station

text: beginning in the 1990s, the Space Shuttle program has continued, although the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: has led to the planned

text: retirement of the Space Shuttle

text: in mid-2011.  There is a current debate on the post-Space Shuttle future of the civilian space program: the

text: Constellation program

text: of the

text: George W. Bush administration

text: directed NASA to create a set of new spacecraft with the goal of sending astronauts to the Moon and Mars, but the

text: Obama administration

text: cancelled the Constellation program, opting instead to emphasize development of commercial rocket systems.

text: In 1982, Dr. Burton Edelson was appointed by President Reagan as Associate Administrator for Space, Science, and Applications.At NASA, he championed international cooperation, advanced scientific research, and unmanned spaceflight. He played a leading role in the Mars exploration missions and the Hubble Space Telescope, and was associated with other programs such as the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite program, the Halley's Comet Intercept, as well as Mission to Planet Earth,."When he came to NASA, the space science budget was at a low," said Neil Helm, deputy director of George Washington University's Institute for Applied Space Research, which Edelson founded after retiring from NASA in 1987. "But he managed to increase the budget significantly, and established a number of programs that helped reinvigorate space science at NASA.""There had been some talk about the Hubble telescope project at NASA before he got there, but he was the one that really got it going." AT NASA, Edelson pursued the research related to the hole in the ozone layer in the 1980s which resulted in the banning of certain chemicals in aerosols.

text: In 1982, Dr. Burton Edelson was appointed by

text: President Reagan

text: as Associate Administrator for Space, Science, and Applications.At NASA, he championed international cooperation, advanced scientific research, and unmanned spaceflight. He played a leading role in the Mars exploration missions and the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , and was associated with other programs such as the

text: Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

text: (ACTS), the

text: Cosmic Background Explorer

text: satellite program, the

text: Halley's Comet Intercept

text: , as well as

text: Mission to Planet Earth

text: ,."When he came to NASA, the space science budget was at a low," said Neil Helm, deputy director of George Washington University's Institute for Applied Space Research, which Edelson founded after retiring from NASA in 1987. "But he managed to increase the budget significantly, and established a number of programs that helped reinvigorate space science at NASA.""There had been some talk about the Hubble telescope project at NASA before he got there, but he was the one that really got it going." AT NASA, Edelson pursued the research related to the hole in the ozone layer in the 1980s which resulted in the banning of certain chemicals in aerosols.

text: Ripley attempts to find help, but is confronted by Axel, a survivor who explains that Sevastopol is out of control due to a "monster" loose aboard the station. Although Ripley convinces him to help her in exchange for a ride off the station aboard the Torrens, Axel is soon killed by the monster in question, an alien creature. While exploring the station, Ripley finds the Nostromos flight recorder but discovers, to her dismay, that it contains no data. After contacting Samuels and recovering medical supplies from the station's medical bay to treat an injured Taylor, Ripley reunites with the station's marshal, Waits, and his deputy, Ricardo. Waits explains that the alien was brought on board the station by Anesidora captain Henry Marlow, who is now in Waits' custody. After speaking with Marlow, Ripley learns that the Anesidora crew discovered the flight recorder near the planetoid LV-426, where they also found a derelict ship previously found by the Nostromo crew and the nest of alien eggs contained within. While exploring the ship, Marlow's wife was attacked by a facehugger. Marlow then brought her aboard Sevastopol for emergency medical treatment, but an alien ultimately hatched from her. Waits convinces Ripley to help him contain the alien by luring it into a remote section of the station and sealing it inside. Ripley is successful, but Waits truly plotted to use Ripley as bait, and ejects the module from the station. As the module careens into space, Ripley manages to space-jump back to Sevastopol using an EVA suit.

text: Ripley attempts to find help, but is confronted by Axel, a survivor who explains that Sevastopol is out of control due to a "monster" loose aboard the station. Although Ripley convinces him to help her in exchange for a ride off the station aboard the Torrens, Axel is soon killed by the monster in question, an alien creature. While exploring the station, Ripley finds the Nostromos flight recorder but discovers, to her dismay, that it contains no data. After contacting Samuels and recovering medical supplies from the station's medical bay to treat an injured Taylor, Ripley reunites with the station's marshal, Waits, and his deputy, Ricardo. Waits explains that the alien was brought on board the station by Anesidora captain Henry Marlow, who is now in Waits' custody. After speaking with Marlow, Ripley learns that the Anesidora crew discovered the flight recorder near the planetoid LV-426, where they also found a derelict ship previously found by the Nostromo crew and the nest of alien eggs contained within. While exploring the ship, Marlow's wife was attacked by a

text: facehugger

text: . Marlow then brought her aboard Sevastopol for emergency medical treatment, but an alien ultimately hatched from her. Waits convinces Ripley to help him contain the alien by luring it into a remote section of the station and sealing it inside. Ripley is successful, but Waits truly plotted to use Ripley as bait, and ejects the module from the station. As the module careens into space, Ripley manages to space-jump back to Sevastopol using an EVA suit.

text: STS-115 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle  Atlantis. It was the first assembly mission to the ISS after the Columbia disaster, following the two successful Return to Flight missions, STS-114 and STS-121. STS-115 launched from Pad 39-B at the Kennedy Space Center on 9 September 2006 at 11:14:55 EDT (15:14:55 UTC).

text: STS-115 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) flown by

text: Space Shuttle  Atlantis

text: . It was the first

text: assembly mission

text: to the ISS after the

text: Columbia disaster

text: , following the two successful Return to Flight missions,

text: and

text: . STS-115 launched from

text: Pad 39-B

text: at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: on 9 September 2006 at 11:14:55

text: EDT

text: UTC

text: Space Shuttle Challenger (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-099) was the second orbiter of NASA's space shuttle program to be put into service following Columbia. The shuttle was built by Rockwell International's Space Transportation Systems Division in Downey, California. Its maiden flight, STS-6, started on April 4, 1983. It launched and landed nine times before breaking apart 73 seconds into its tenth mission, STS-51-L, on January 28, 1986, resulting in the death of all seven crew members, including a civilian school teacher. It was the first of two shuttles to be destroyed in flight, the other being Columbia in 2003. The accident led to a two-and-a-half year grounding of the shuttle fleet; flights resumed in 1988 with STS-26 flown by Discovery. Challenger itself was replaced by Endeavour which was built using structural spares ordered by NASA as part of the construction contracts for Discovery and Atlantis.

text: Space Shuttle Challenger (

text: Orbiter Vehicle Designation

text: : OV-099) was the second

text: orbiter

text: of

text: NASA

text: 's space shuttle program to be put into service following

text: Columbia

text: . The shuttle was built by

text: Rockwell International

text: 's Space Transportation Systems Division in

text: Downey, California

text: . Its maiden flight,

text: , started on April 4, 1983. It launched and landed nine times before

text: breaking apart 73 seconds into its tenth mission

text: , on January 28, 1986, resulting in the death of all seven crew members, including a civilian school teacher. It was the first of two shuttles to be destroyed in flight, the other being

text: Columbia

text: in 2003. The accident led to a two-and-a-half year grounding of the shuttle fleet; flights resumed in 1988 with

text: flown by

text: Discovery

text: . Challenger itself was replaced by

text: Endeavour

text: which was built using structural spares ordered by NASA as part of the construction contracts for Discovery and

text: Atlantis

text: Attached to the sides are two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5 G and G+) solid rocket boosters (SRBs or EAPs from the French Étages d’Accélération à Poudre), each weighing about 277 tonnes full and delivering a thrust of about . They are fueled by a mix of ammonium perchlorate (68%) and aluminum fuel (18%) and polybutadiene (14%). They each burn for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs are usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but like the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters they can be recovered with parachutes, and this has occasionally been done for post-flight analysis. (Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs Ariane 5 boosters are not reused.) The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003.

text: Attached to the sides are two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5 G and G+)

text: solid rocket booster

text: s (SRBs or EAPs from the French Étages d’Accélération à Poudre), each weighing about 277 tonnes full and delivering a thrust of about . They are fueled by a mix of ammonium perchlorate (68%) and aluminum fuel (18%) and polybutadiene (14%). They each burn for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs are usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but like the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: s they can be recovered with parachutes, and this has occasionally been done for post-flight analysis. (Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs Ariane 5 boosters are not reused.) The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003.

text: The first serious theoretical work published on space travel by means of rocket power was by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1903.  Besides being the father of astronautics he conceived such ideas as the space elevator (inspired by the Eiffel Tower), a rotating space station that created artificial gravity along the outer circumference, airlocks, space suits for extra-vehicular activity (EVA), closed ecosystems to provide food and oxygen, and solar power in space.  Tsiolkovsky believed human occupation of space was the inevitable path for our species.  In 1952 Wernher von Braun published his own inhabited space station concept in a series of magazine articles.  His design was an upgrade of earlier concepts but he took the unique step in going directly to the public with it.  The spinning space station would have three decks and was to function as a navigational aid, meteorological station, Earth observatory, military platform, and way point for further exploration missions to outer space.  It is said that the space station depicted in 2001: A Space Odyssey traces its design heritage to Von Braun's work.  Wernher von Braun went on to devise mission schemes to the Moon and Mars, each time publishing his grand plans in Collier's Weekly.

text: The first serious theoretical work published on space travel by means of rocket power was by

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: in 1903.  Besides being the father of astronautics he conceived such ideas as the

text: space elevator

text: (inspired by the Eiffel Tower), a rotating space station that created

text: artificial gravity

text: along the outer circumference,

text: airlock

text: s, space suits for

text: extra-vehicular activity

text: (EVA), closed ecosystems to provide food and oxygen, and solar power in space.  Tsiolkovsky believed human occupation of space was the inevitable path for our species.  In 1952 Wernher von Braun published his own inhabited space station concept in a series of magazine articles.  His design was an upgrade of earlier concepts but he took the unique step in going directly to the public with it.  The

text: spinning space station

text: would have three decks and was to function as a navigational aid, meteorological station, Earth observatory, military platform, and way point for further exploration missions to outer space.  It is said that

entity_name: List of spacecraft from the Space Odyssey series

text: the space station

text: depicted in

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: traces its design heritage to Von Braun's work.  Wernher von Braun went on to devise mission schemes to the Moon and Mars, each time publishing his grand plans in

text: Collier's Weekly

text: A fine guidance sensor (FGS) is an interferometric instrument on board a space telescope that provides high-precision pointing information as input to the observatory's attitude control systems. FGSs have been deployed on the Hubble Space Telescope, and will be deployed with a different technical approach on the James Webb Space Telescope.

text: A fine guidance sensor (FGS) is an interferometric instrument on board a space telescope that provides high-precision pointing information as input to the observatory's attitude control systems. FGSs have been deployed on the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , and will be deployed with a different technical approach on the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: The DIRECT team produced a 131-page DIRECT v2.0 exploration architecture study that was released on September 19, 2007 at the AIAA "Space 2007" Conference in Long Beach, California.  According to the group, this paper was created within a nine-month study. The paper provided detail on how the launch vehicles would be one component of a wider-reaching architecture for enabling the US to maintain the International Space Station (ISS), fly lunar missions, and provide additional capabilities for the NASA human spaceflight program.  These capabilities included missions to Mars, Lagrangian point staging architecture options, and mission architectures for visiting Near-Earth object destinations.

text: The DIRECT team produced a 131-page DIRECT v2.0 exploration architecture study that was released on September 19, 2007 at the

entity_name: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

text: AIAA

text: "Space 2007" Conference in Long Beach, California.  According to the group, this paper was created within a nine-month study. The paper provided detail on how the launch vehicles would be one component of a wider-reaching architecture for enabling the US to maintain the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), fly lunar missions, and provide additional capabilities for the NASA human spaceflight program.  These capabilities included missions to Mars,

text: Lagrangian point

text: staging architecture options, and mission architectures for visiting

text: Near-Earth object

text: destinations.

text: Space physics did not begin in earnest, however, until the first in situ measurements in the early 1950s, when a team led by Van Allen launched the first rockets to a height around 110 km. In 1958, a Geiger counter on board the first US satellite, Explorer 1 detected the Earth's radiation belts, later named the Van Allen belts. The boundary between the Earth's magnetic field and interplanetary space was studied by Explorer 10. Future space craft would travel outside Earth orbit and study the composition and structure of the solar wind in much greater detail. These include WIND (spacecraft), (1994), Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), Ulysses, the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) in 2008, and Solar Probe+. Other spacecraft would study the sun, such as STEREO and Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO).

text: Space physics did not begin in earnest, however, until the first in situ measurements in the early 1950s, when a team led by

text: Van Allen

text: launched the first rockets to a height around 110 km. In 1958, a Geiger counter on board the first US satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: detected the Earth's radiation belts, later named the

text: Van Allen belts

text: . The boundary between the Earth's magnetic field and interplanetary space was studied by

text: Explorer 10

text: . Future space craft would travel outside Earth orbit and study the composition and structure of the solar wind in much greater detail. These include

text: WIND (spacecraft)

text: , (1994),

text: Advanced Composition Explorer

text: (ACE),

text: Ulysses

text: , the

text: Interstellar Boundary Explorer

text: (IBEX) in 2008, and

text: Solar Probe+

text: . Other spacecraft would study the sun, such as

text: STEREO

text: and

text: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

text: (SOHO).

text: Walker began her professional career with the Rockwell Space Operations Company at the Johnson Space Center in 1987 as a robotics flight controller for the Space Shuttle Program. She worked several Space Shuttle missions as a flight controller in the Mission Control Center, including STS-27, STS-32, STS-51, STS-56, STS-60, STS-61, and STS-66. From 1990 to 1993, Walker took a leave of absence from the Johnson Space Center to attend graduate school, where her area of study was the solar wind interaction with the Venusian atmosphere. In 1995 she joined the NASA civil service and began working in the International Space Station (ISS) Program at the Johnson Space Center. Dr. Walker worked in the area robotics integration, working with the ISS International Partners in the design and construction of the robotics hardware for the Space Station. In 1998 she joined the ISS Mission Evaluation Room (MER) as a manager for coordinating on-orbit problem resolution for the International Space Station. In 1999, Walker moved to Moscow, Russia to work with the Russian Space Agency and its contractors in the areas of avionics integration for the ISS as well as integrated problem solving for the ISS. She returned to Houston in 2000 after a year in Russia and became the technical lead for the ISS MER as well as the Deputy Manager of the On-Orbit Engineering Office. Most recently, prior to selection as an astronaut candidate, Walker was the Acting Manager of the On-Orbit Engineering Office.

text: Walker began her professional career with the Rockwell Space Operations Company at the

text: Johnson Space Center

text: A number of women have traveled into space. Although the first woman flew into space in 1963, very early in crewed space exploration, it would not be until almost 20 years later that another flew.

text: A number of women have traveled into space. Although the first woman flew into space in 1963, very early in

text: crewed space exploration

text: , it would not be until almost 20 years later that another flew.

text: Tiangong-3 () will be a Chinese space station module, part of the Tiangong space station program. The China National Space Agency was originally expected to launch Tiangong-3 around 2015, following the launch of the Tiangong-2 laboratory module originally planned for 2013. , it is expected to launch in 2022. Tiangong-3's design will form the basis of Chinese large modular space station, which is expected to launch in the 2020s.

text: Tiangong-3 () will be a

text: Chinese

text: space station

text: module, part of the

text: Tiangong space station program

text: . The

text: China National Space Agency

text: was originally expected to launch Tiangong-3 around 2015, following the launch of the

text: laboratory module originally planned for 2013. , it is expected to launch in 2022. Tiangong-3's design will form the basis of

text: Chinese large modular space station

text: , which is expected to launch in the 2020s.

text: Sakigake was developed by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science for the National Space Development Agency (both of which are now part of the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, or JAXA).  It became a part of the Halley Armada together with Suisei, the Soviet/French Vega probes, the ESA Giotto and the NASA International Cometary Explorer, to explore Halley's Comet during its 1986 sojourn through the inner solar system.

text: Sakigake was developed by the

entity_name: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

text: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

text: for the

entity_name: National Space Development Agency of Japan

text: National Space Development Agency

text: (both of which are now part of the

text: Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: , or JAXA).  It became a part of the

text: Halley Armada

text: together with Suisei, the

text: Soviet

text: French

text: Vega

text: probes, the

text: ESA

text: Giotto

text: and the

text: NASA

text: International Cometary Explorer

text: , to explore

text: Halley's Comet

text: during its 1986 sojourn through the inner solar system.

text: A manned space station had long been in the plans of visionaries. Wernhar von Braun, in his widely read Collier's Magazine 1953 article, envisioned this to be a huge wheel, rotating to produce gravity-like forces on the occupants. In Project Horizon, prepared by the U.S. Army in 1959, a space station would be built by assembling spent booster rockets. Following this same basic concept, in 1973 MSFC used a modified stage of Saturn V to put into orbit Skylab, but this was preceded by the Soviet Union's Salyut in 1971, then followed by their Mir in 1986. Even during Skylab, MSFC began plans for a much more complete space station. President Ronald Reagan announced plans to build Space Station Freedom in 1984. Luther B. Powell was MSFC's space station program manager.

text: A manned space station had long been in the plans of visionaries. Wernhar von Braun, in his widely read Collier's Magazine 1953 article, envisioned this to be a huge wheel, rotating to produce gravity-like forces on the occupants. In

text: Project Horizon

text: , prepared by the U.S. Army in 1959, a space station would be built by assembling spent booster rockets. Following this same basic concept, in 1973 MSFC used a modified stage of Saturn V to put into orbit

text: Skylab

text: , but this was preceded by the Soviet Union's

text: Salyut

text: in 1971, then followed by their

text: Mir

text: in 1986. Even during Skylab, MSFC began plans for a much more complete space station. President

text: Ronald Reagan

text: announced plans to build

text: Space Station Freedom

text: in 1984. Luther B. Powell was MSFC's space station program manager.

text: perpendicular to the motion of the lens while the difference in the time of peak amplification yields the component parallel to the motion of the lens. This direct measurement was recently reported using the Spitzer Space Telescope.  In extreme cases, the differences may even be measurable from small differences seen from telescopes at different locations on the earth.

text: perpendicular to the motion of the lens while the difference in the time of peak amplification yields the component parallel to the motion of the lens. This direct measurement was recently reported using the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: .  In extreme cases, the differences may even be measurable from small differences seen from telescopes at different locations on the earth.

text: After securing a traveling NASA exhibit of the Hubble Space Telescope, the museum opened the new exhibit space in November 2012. Renovations of the former exhibit space at Rock Creek and additional improvements at the Civic Center are planned to be completed at a later time. After the departure of the exhibit Hubble Space Telescope: New Views of the Universe in May 2013, a new featured exhibit on the history of the development of the Silicon Forest in Washington County was installed, opening in April 2014. An exhibit exploring the history of the Bracero Program is also a featured exhibit. To coincide with the inaugural season of the Hillsboro Hops minor league baseball team, the museum opened an exhibit in June 2013 spotlighting the history of baseball in the county.

text: After securing a traveling

text: NASA

text: exhibit of the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , the museum opened the new exhibit space in November 2012. Renovations of the former exhibit space at Rock Creek and additional improvements at the Civic Center are planned to be completed at a later time. After the departure of the exhibit Hubble Space Telescope: New Views of the Universe in May 2013, a new featured exhibit on the history of the development of the Silicon Forest in Washington County was installed, opening in April 2014. An exhibit exploring the history of the

text: Bracero Program

text: is also a featured exhibit. To coincide with the inaugural season of the

text: Hillsboro Hops

text: minor league baseball team, the museum opened an exhibit in June 2013 spotlighting the history of baseball in the county.

text: Solar System exploration and manned spaceflights are major space technologies in the public eye. Since Sakigake, the first interplanetary probe in Asia, was launched in 1985, Japan has completed the most planetary exploration, but other nations are catching up.

text: Solar System exploration

text: and manned spaceflights are major space technologies in the public eye. Since

text: Sakigake

text: , the first interplanetary probe in Asia, was launched in 1985, Japan has completed the most planetary exploration, but other nations are catching up.

text: The 3.67-meter telescope, known as the Advanced Electro-Optical System (AEOS), owned by the Department of Defense, is the United States' largest optical telescope designed for tracking satellites. The 75-ton AEOS telescope points and tracks very accurately, yet is fast enough to track both low-Earth satellites and ballistic missiles. AEOS can be used simultaneously by many groups or institutions because its light can be channeled through a series of mirrors to seven independent coudé rooms below the telescope. Employing sophisticated sensors that include an adaptive optics system, radiometer, spectrograph, and long-wave infrared imager, the telescope tracks man-made objects in deep space and performs space object identification data collection.

text: The 3.67-meter telescope, known as the

entity_name: 3.67 m Advanced Electro Optical System Telescope

text: Advanced Electro-Optical System

text: (AEOS), owned by the

text: Department of Defense

text: , is the United States' largest optical telescope designed for tracking satellites. The 75-ton AEOS telescope points and tracks very accurately, yet is fast enough to track both low-Earth satellites and

text: ballistic missile

text: s. AEOS can be used simultaneously by many groups or institutions because its light can be channeled through a series of mirrors to seven independent coudé rooms below the telescope. Employing sophisticated sensors that include an adaptive optics system,

text: radiometer

text: spectrograph

text: , and long-wave infrared imager, the telescope tracks man-made objects in deep space and performs space object identification data collection.

text: After discussing the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster the executive summary of the committee's report recommended, "saving the Space Shuttle for those missions requiring human presence."

text: After discussing the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: the executive summary of the committee's report recommended, "saving the Space Shuttle for those missions requiring human presence."

text: With a visual magnitude of 17.3, Haumea is the third-brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope. However, because the planets and most small Solar System bodies share a common orbital alignment from their formation in the primordial disk of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the ecliptic. As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower mean motions across the sky. These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic.

text: With a

text: visual magnitude

text: of 17.3, Haumea is the

entity_name: List of the brightest Kuiper belt objects

text: third-brightest object

text: in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope. However, because the planets and most

text: small Solar System bodies

text: share a

text: common orbital alignment

text: from their

entity_name: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: formation

text: in the

text: primordial disk

text: of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the

text: ecliptic

text: . As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower

text: mean motion

text: s across the sky. These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic.

text: The Shuttle was originally billed as a space vehicle that would be able to launch once a week and give low launch costs through amortization. Development costs were expected to be recouped through frequent access to space. These claims were made in an effort to obtain budgetary funding from the United States Congress. Beginning in 1981, the space shuttle began to be used for space travel. However, by the mid-1980s the concept of flying that many shuttle missions proved unrealistic and scheduled launch expectations were reduced 50%. Following the Challenger accident in 1986, missions were halted pending safety review. This hiatus became lengthy and ultimately lasted almost three years as arguments over funding and the safety of the program continued. Eventually the military resumed the use of expendable launch vehicles instead. Missions were put on hold again after the loss of Columbia in 2003. Overall, 135 missions were launched during the 30 years after the first orbital flight of Columbia, averaging approximately one every 3 months.

text: The Shuttle was originally billed as a space vehicle that would be able to launch once a week and give low launch costs through

text: amortization

text: . Development costs were expected to be recouped through frequent access to space. These claims were made in an effort to obtain budgetary funding from the

text: United States Congress

text: . Beginning in 1981, the space shuttle began to be used for space travel. However, by the mid-1980s the concept of flying that many shuttle missions proved unrealistic and scheduled launch expectations were reduced 50%. Following the Challenger accident in 1986, missions were halted pending safety review. This hiatus became lengthy and ultimately lasted almost three years as arguments over funding and the safety of the program continued. Eventually the military resumed the use of expendable launch vehicles instead. Missions were put on hold again after the loss of Columbia in 2003. Overall, 135 missions were launched during the 30 years after the first orbital flight of Columbia, averaging approximately one every 3 months.

text: Gingrich is an advocate of space exploration technology, and has stated that the United States should place more emphasis on realizing landmark achievements in space exploration. He has been a vocal critic of NASA, which he has described as too bureaucratic, inefficient, and no longer able to foster ambitious projects such as the 1969 moon landing. He has cited the building of the International Space Station as an example of a program that developed too slowly and was too expensive and the Space Launch System as a pork barrel project. Gingrich advocates greater reliance on the private sector and recommends incentivizing innovation through tax credits and by allocating 10 percent of the Nasa budget for prizes. He also supports initiating federally regulated commercial launch services. According to Gingrich, these changes would allow NASA to focus on advanced technological development and exploratory research. Gingrich's vision for the future of American space programs includes further solar system exploration, space travel for consumers and a sustained civilization beyond earth. He got the nickname of Newt Skywalker for his ideas.

text: Gingrich is an advocate of space exploration technology, and has stated that the United States should place more emphasis on realizing landmark achievements in space exploration. He has been a vocal critic of

text: NASA

text: , which he has described as too bureaucratic, inefficient, and no longer able to foster ambitious projects such as the 1969 moon landing. He has cited the building of the

text: International Space Station

text: as an example of a program that developed too slowly and was too expensive and the

text: Space Launch System

text: as a

text: pork barrel

text: project. Gingrich advocates greater reliance on the private sector and recommends incentivizing innovation through tax credits and by allocating 10 percent of the Nasa budget for prizes. He also supports initiating federally regulated commercial launch services. According to Gingrich, these changes would allow NASA to focus on advanced technological development and exploratory research. Gingrich's vision for the future of American space programs includes further solar system exploration, space travel for consumers and a sustained civilization beyond earth. He got the nickname of Newt Skywalker for his ideas.

text: Visitors can experience the hands-on space gallery, "Space Quest: Exploring the Moon, Mars & Beyond," presented by Langley Federal Credit Union. This gallery includes four different exhibits; Our Solar System, Living and Working in Space, Mars and the Moon, and Visions of Space Exploration.

text: Visitors can experience the hands-on space gallery, "Space Quest: Exploring the Moon, Mars & Beyond," presented by Langley Federal Credit Union. This gallery includes four different exhibits; Our

text: Solar System

text: , Living and Working in Space,

text: Mars

text: and the

text: Moon

text: , and Visions of Space Exploration.

text: Among advocates of space exploration, he was noted for his opposition to a space program centered on the use of human astronauts. Charlene Anderson recalls, "In personal discussions, he could be particularly vociferous on the topic of human versus robotic exploration. Norm argued that human exploration could only interfere with scientific exploration and confuse the public as to why we should explore space. In his view, science should drive the endeavor, not a lust for adventure."

text: The JWST is a collaborative effort between NASA,the European Space Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency. The project is currently being managed by the NASA Goddard Space Center. The contracting company involved in the development is Northrup Grumman. After launch the telescope will be operated by the Space Telescope Science Institute. The project was formerly known as the "Next Generation Space Telescope" but was renamed after James Webb in 2002.

text: The JWST is a collaborative effort between

text: NASA

text: ,the

text: European Space Agency

text: , and the

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: . The project is currently being managed by the

text: NASA Goddard Space Center

text: . The contracting company involved in the development is

text: Northrup Grumman

text: . After launch the telescope will be operated by the

text: Space Telescope Science Institute

text: . The project was formerly known as the "

text: Next Generation Space Telescope

text: " but was renamed after James Webb in 2002.

text: Leshin served as the Deputy Associate Administrator for NASA’s Exploration Systems Mission Directorate where she played a leading role in NASA's future human spaceflight endeavors.  Her duties included oversight of the planning and execution of the next generation of human exploration systems, as well as the research, robotic and future capabilities development activities that support them.  She was also engaged in initiating the development of commercial human spaceflight capabilities to low earth orbit.  Prior to joining NASA Exploration, Leshin was the Deputy Director for Science and Technology at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. She oversaw strategy development at the Center, leading an inclusive process to formulate future science and technology goals, and an integrated program of investments aligned to meet those goals. With other NASA Goddard senior managers, she was responsible for effectively executing the Centers’ $3B in programs, and ensuring the scientific integrity of Earth observing missions, space-based telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope, and instruments exploring the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Mars, Saturn, comets and more.  At NASA Goddard she also served as Director of Sciences & Exploration, overseeing science activities at NASA's largest science Center.

text: Leshin served as the Deputy Associate Administrator for

text: NASA’s

text: Exploration Systems Mission Directorate where she played a leading role in NASA's future human spaceflight endeavors.  Her duties included oversight of the planning and execution of the next generation of human exploration systems, as well as the research, robotic and future capabilities development activities that support them.  She was also engaged in initiating the development of commercial human spaceflight capabilities to low earth orbit.  Prior to joining NASA Exploration, Leshin was the Deputy Director for Science and Technology at

text: NASA’s

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: in

text: Greenbelt, Maryland

text: . She oversaw strategy development at the Center, leading an inclusive process to formulate future science and technology goals, and an integrated program of investments aligned to meet those goals. With other NASA Goddard senior managers, she was responsible for effectively executing the Centers’ $3B in programs, and ensuring the scientific integrity of

text: Earth

text: observing missions, space-based telescopes such as the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: , and instruments exploring the

text: Sun

text: Moon

text: Mercury

text: Mars

text: Saturn

text: comet

text: s and more.  At NASA Goddard she also served as Director of Sciences & Exploration, overseeing science activities at NASA's largest science Center.

text: Amid this negative climate and seeing no future for themselves after the permanent shutdown of the space program or for the decadent future of humanity, a small team of scientists and astronauts must persuade NASA to fund a manned mission to Titan to confirm findings of life from the Cassini and to rejuvenate interest in space exploration to the world. They do so by recycling older spacecraft for several purposes: space shuttle Atlantis is refitted to carry cargo into orbit as well as a restored Saturn V for construction of the main ship (a heavily modified version of Discovery using ion drive propulsion and powered by a TOPAZ nuclear reactor), using habitat modules from the mothballed International Space Station, and Apollo re-entry capsules are adapted to become Titan landers. On the day of the last launch to begin the mission, with the shuttle Endeavour ready to carry the crew to space, an insane USAF general driven by shallow militarism and hatred for space exploration tries to shoot down the shuttle during lift off. Despite damage sustained from an anti-satellite missile fired from a restored X-15, Endeavour successfully makes it into orbit, and the five crew members begin their six-year journey to Saturn by following the gravity-assisted Interplanetary Transport Network.

text: Amid this negative climate and seeing no future for themselves after the permanent shutdown of the space program or for the decadent future of humanity, a small team of scientists and astronauts must persuade NASA to fund a manned mission to

text: Titan

text: to confirm findings of life from the

text: Cassini

text: and to rejuvenate interest in space exploration to the world. They do so by recycling older spacecraft for several purposes: space shuttle

text: Atlantis

text: is

text: refitted to carry cargo

text: into orbit as well as a restored

text: Saturn V

text: for construction of the main ship (a heavily modified version of

text: Discovery

text: using

text: ion drive

text: propulsion and powered by a

text: TOPAZ nuclear reactor

text: ), using habitat modules from the mothballed

text: International Space Station

text: , and

text: Apollo

text: re-entry capsules are adapted to become Titan landers. On the day of the last launch to begin the mission, with the shuttle

text: Endeavour

text: ready to carry the crew to space, an insane

text: USAF

text: general driven by shallow militarism and hatred for space exploration tries to shoot down the shuttle during lift off. Despite damage sustained from an

text: anti-satellite missile

text: fired from a restored

text: , Endeavour successfully makes it into orbit, and the five crew members begin their six-year journey to Saturn by following the gravity-assisted

text: Interplanetary Transport Network

text: For example, the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1. These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the hole in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

text: For example, the existence of the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: . These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the

text: hole in the ozone layer

text: was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

text: An unmanned side-mounted concept of the Space Shuttle named Shuttle-C was the subject of various concepts that were investigated between 1984 and 1995. After the Space Shuttle Columbia accident a two-year industry study was prepared in 2004 and 2005 to further investigate the concept in order to replace the Space Shuttle. The Exploration Systems Architecture Study (ESAS) in 2005 also investigated a Shuttle-C option for Project Constellation, however again only in an unmanned version. All these concepts included the side-mounted carrier to be an autonomous spacecraft which would detach from the External Tank after main engine cut-off similarly to the Space Shuttle. Some of the studies included the reuseability of the Space Shuttle Main Engines on this side-mounted carrier. None of the concepts involved in-ascent fairing separation.

text: An unmanned side-mounted concept of the Space Shuttle named Shuttle-C was the subject of various concepts that were investigated between 1984 and 1995. After the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia accident

text: a two-year industry study was prepared in 2004 and 2005 to further investigate the concept in order to replace the Space Shuttle. The

text: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

text: (ESAS) in 2005 also investigated a Shuttle-C option for Project Constellation, however again only in an unmanned version. All these concepts included the side-mounted carrier to be an autonomous spacecraft which would detach from the External Tank after main engine cut-off similarly to the Space Shuttle. Some of the studies included the reuseability of the Space Shuttle Main Engines on this side-mounted carrier. None of the concepts involved in-ascent fairing separation.

text: The US government determined to begin a process to purchase orbital launch services for cargo deliveries to the International Space Station (ISS) beginning in the mid-2000s, rather than operate the launch and delivery services as they had with the Space Shuttle, which was to retire in less than half a decade, and ultimately did retire in 2011.  On 18 January 2006, NASA announced an opportunity for US commercial providers to demonstrate orbital transportation services. As of 2008, NASA planned to spend $500 million through 2010 to finance development of private sector capability to transport payloads to the International Space Station (ISS). This was considered more challenging than then-available commercial space transportation because it would require precision orbit insertion, rendezvous and possibly docking with another spacecraft. The commercial vendors competed in specific service areas.

text: The

text: US government

text: determined to begin a process to purchase

text: orbital launch

text: services for cargo deliveries to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) beginning in the mid-2000s, rather than operate the launch and delivery services as they had with the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , which was to retire in less than half a decade, and ultimately did retire in 2011.  On 18 January 2006, NASA announced an opportunity for US commercial providers to demonstrate orbital transportation services. As of 2008, NASA planned to spend $500 million through 2010 to finance development of

text: private sector

text: capability to transport payloads to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). This was considered more challenging than then-available commercial space transportation because it would require precision

text: orbit insertion

text: rendezvous

text: and possibly docking with another spacecraft. The commercial vendors competed in specific service areas.

text: Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian MIR, the International Space Station, Tiangong 3, and the Chinese space station. The first space station, Salyut 1, and other one-piece or "monolithic" first generation space stations, such as Salyut 2,3,4,5, DOS 2, Kosmos 557, Almaz, and NASA's Skylab station, were not designed for re-supply. Generally, each crew had to depart the station to free the only docking port for the next crew to arrive. Skylab had more than one docking port but was not designed for resupply. Salyut 6 and 7 had more than one docking port and were designed to be resupplied routinely during crewed operation. Modular stations can allow the mission to be changed over time and new modules can be added or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility.

text: Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian MIR, the

text: International Space Station

text: Tiangong 3

text: , and the

text: Chinese space station

text: . The first space station,

text: Salyut 1

text: , and other one-piece or "monolithic" first generation space stations, such as Salyut 2,3,4,5, DOS 2, Kosmos 557, Almaz, and NASA's

text: Skylab

text: station, were not designed for re-supply. Generally, each crew had to depart the station to free the only docking port for the next crew to arrive. Skylab had more than one docking port but was not designed for resupply. Salyut 6 and 7 had more than one docking port and were designed to be resupplied routinely during crewed operation. Modular stations can allow the mission to be changed over time and new modules can be added or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility.

text: In 2005, NASA decided to develop the Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles, based in part on highly modified Shuttle components to replace the Space Shuttle, and enable exploration of the Moon and Mars.  The agency also studied a third such vehicle, the Ares IV.  As of April 2011, NASA's replacement vehicle for the Space Shuttle is an SDV, the Space Launch System.

text: In 2005, NASA decided to develop the

text: Ares I

text: and

text: Ares V

text: launch vehicles, based in part on highly modified Shuttle components to replace the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , and enable exploration of the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Mars

text: .  The agency also studied a third such vehicle, the

text: Ares IV

text: .  As of April 2011, NASA's replacement vehicle for the Space Shuttle is an SDV, the

text: Space Launch System

text: Beachum's original ideas were to recreate the Apollo 13 and 2001: A Space Odyssey "spirit of space exploration" in an uncontrollable environment, and to make an objective-less open world game where exploration would satiate the player's questions without feeling "aimless". Beachum took cues from The Legend of Zelda: Wind Wakers non-player characters that would tell tales of distant lands as to entice the player to explore those areas for themselves. The game also uses the camping motif heavily, as Beachum himself is an avid backpacker, while also emphasizing that the player-character is far from his home and alone in this galaxy. Journalists have positively compared Outer Wildss time loop mechanics to that of The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask; Beachum notes that in contrast to Majora's Mask the gameplay in Outer Wilds is less about trying to alter the causality of events, but instead to use the time loop in a diegetic manner on larger dynamic systems.

text: Beachum's original ideas were to recreate the

text: Apollo 13

text: and

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: "spirit of space exploration" in an uncontrollable environment, and to make an objective-less

text: open world

text: game where exploration would satiate the player's questions without feeling "aimless". Beachum took cues from

text: The Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker

text: s non-player characters that would tell tales of distant lands as to entice the player to explore those areas for themselves. The game also uses the camping motif heavily, as Beachum himself is an avid backpacker, while also emphasizing that the player-character is far from his home and alone in this galaxy. Journalists have positively compared Outer Wildss time loop mechanics to that of

text: The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask

text: ; Beachum notes that in contrast to Majora's Mask the gameplay in Outer Wilds is less about trying to alter the causality of events, but instead to use the time loop in a

text: diegetic

text: manner on larger dynamic systems.

text: The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as part of the Space Shuttle program.  Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982.  Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST); conducted science experiments in orbit; and participated in construction and servicing of the International Space Station.  The Shuttle fleet's total mission time was 1322 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes and 23 seconds.

text: The Space Shuttle was a partially

text: reusable

text: low Earth orbit

text: al

text: spacecraft

text: system operated by the U.S.

text: (NASA), as part of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: .  Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for

text: a system of reusable spacecraft

text: of which it was the only item funded for development. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982.  Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, launched from the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: (KSC) in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, and the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST); conducted science experiments in orbit; and participated in construction and servicing of the

text: International Space Station

text: .  The Shuttle fleet's total mission time was 1322 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes and 23 seconds.

text: NASA re-initiated analysis of expandable module technology for a variety of potential missions beginning in early 2010. Various options were considered, including procurement from commercial provider Bigelow Aerospace, for providing what in 2010 was proposed to be a torus-shaped storage module for the International Space Station. One application of the toroidal BEAM design was as a centrifuge demo preceding further developments of the NASA Nautilus-X multi-mission exploration concept vehicle. In January 2011, Bigelow projected that the BEAM module could be built and made flight-ready 24 months after a build contract was secured.

text: NASA re-initiated analysis of expandable module technology for a variety of potential missions beginning in early 2010. Various options were considered, including procurement from commercial provider Bigelow Aerospace, for providing what in 2010 was proposed to be a

text: torus-shaped

text: storage module for the

text: International Space Station

text: . One application of the toroidal BEAM design was as a

text: centrifuge

text: demo preceding further developments of the NASA

text: Nautilus-X

text: multi-mission exploration concept vehicle. In January 2011, Bigelow projected that the BEAM module could be built and made flight-ready 24 months after a build contract was secured.

text: At present the furthest space probe mankind has constructed and launched from Earth is Voyager 1, which was announced on December 5, 2011 to have reached the outer edge of the Solar system, and entered interstellar space on August 25, 2012. Deep space exploration further than this vessel's capacity is not yet possible due to limitations in the space-engine technology currently available.

text: At present the furthest space probe mankind has constructed and launched from Earth is

text: Voyager 1

text: , which was announced on December 5, 2011 to have reached the outer edge of the Solar system, and entered

text: interstellar space

text: on August 25, 2012. Deep space exploration further than this vessel's capacity is not yet possible due to limitations in the space-engine technology currently available.

text: The project is led by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the telescope will be launched on JAXA's next-generation flagship launch vehicle (H3). The Ritchey-Chrétien telescope's 2.5-metre mirror (similar size to that of the Herschel Space Observatory) is to be made of silicon carbide, possibly by the European Space Agency (ESA) given their experience with Herschel. Currently planned to be launched in 2025, the spacecraft's main mission will be the study of star and planetary formation.  It will be able to detect stellar nurseries in galaxies, protoplanetary discs around young stars, and exoplanets, helped by its own coronograph for the latter two types of objects.

text: The project is led by the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA), and the telescope will be launched on JAXA's

text: next-generation flagship launch vehicle

text: (H3). The

text: Ritchey-Chrétien telescope

text: 's 2.5-metre mirror (similar size to that of the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: ) is to be made of

text: silicon carbide

text: , possibly by the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) given their experience with Herschel. Currently planned to be launched in 2025, the spacecraft's main mission will be the study of

text: star

text: and

text: planetary formation

text: .  It will be able to detect

text: stellar nurser

text: ies in

text: galaxies

text: protoplanetary disc

text: s around young

text: star

text: s, and

text: exoplanets

text: , helped by its own

text: coronograph

text: for the latter two types of objects.

text: On February 1, 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated upon re-entry to the Earth over parts of Texas and Louisiana during STS-107, resulting in the deaths of all seven astronauts. The incident resulted from a piece of foam insulation that fell off during launch, which struck the shuttle, creating a hole that allowed hot gases to penetrate the shuttle during re-entry. In the aftermath of the disaster, the space shuttle program was suspended for 29 months as NASA investigated the incident and made plans to prevent future tragedies.

text: On February 1, 2003, the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia

text: disintegrated

text: upon re-entry to the Earth over parts of Texas and Louisiana during

text: , resulting in the deaths of all seven astronauts. The incident resulted from a piece of foam insulation that fell off during launch, which struck the shuttle, creating a hole that allowed hot gases to penetrate the shuttle during re-entry. In the aftermath of the disaster, the

text: space shuttle program

text: was suspended for 29 months as

text: NASA

text: investigated the incident and made plans to prevent future tragedies.

text: Mt. Abu Observatory is equipped with a 1.2m Infrared Telescope along with the following back-end instruments: NICMOS Infrared Camera and Spectrograph, Imaging Fabry-Perot Spectrometer, large format optical CCDs, Optical Imaging Polarimeter and Fibre-linked Grating Spectrograph. A new high resolution optical spectrometer, PRL Advanced Radial-velocity All-sky Search (PARAS) to detect extrasolar planets using the radial velocity technique began observation in April 2012.In addition to these, a 50 cm telescope, Automated Telescope for Variability Study (ATVS), is now functional to monitor variable sources, eg AGNs, variable stars, Comets etc. MIRO has its own aluminizing plant for polishing of the telescope mirrors, a liquid nitrogen plant for providing liquid nitrogen to cool the IR detectors to reduce thermal noise.A new facility, created by LEOS, ISRO will become operational next year. This facility will have a one-metre diameter telescope with sophisticated optics and back-end instruments assembled by the Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS), Bengaluru.  The new facility, known as the Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (EODSS) system, will track space debris,  mainly consisting of inactive satellites, electronic parts of instruments, leftovers from rocket launch and other such junk in space.  It will help ISRO to better handle their future missions, including re-entry capable space shuttles.

text: In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa learning science facts. Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists,  including  Melton and Landauer & Bjork, explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time, Pimsleur language courses pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973 Sebastian Leitner devised his "Leitner system", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on flashcards.

text: In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa learning science facts. Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists,  including  Melton and Landauer & Bjork, explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time,

text: Pimsleur language courses

text: pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973

text: Sebastian Leitner

text: devised his "

text: Leitner system

text: ", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on

text: flashcard

text: s.

text: The Exploration Systems Architecture Study that followed the Vision for Space Exploration of 2004 recommended the development of a new class of vehicles that have similar capabilities to their Apollo predecessors with several key differences.  In part to retain some of the Space Shuttle program workforce and ground infrastructure, the launch vehicles were to use Shuttle-derived technologies.  Secondly, rather than launching the crew and cargo on the same rocket, the smaller Ares I was to launch the crew with the larger Ares V to handle the heavier cargo.  The two payloads were to rendezvous in low Earth orbit and then head to the Moon from there.   The Apollo Lunar Module could not carry enough fuel to reach the polar regions of the Moon but the Altair lunar lander was intended to access any part of the Moon.  While the Altair and surface systems would have been equally necessary for Project Constellation to reach fruition, the focus was on developing the Orion spacecraft to shorten the gap in US access to orbit following the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2010.

text: The

text: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

text: that followed the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: of 2004 recommended the development of a new class of vehicles that have similar capabilities to their Apollo predecessors with several key differences.  In part to retain some of the Space Shuttle program workforce and ground infrastructure, the launch vehicles were to use

text: Shuttle-derived

text: technologies.  Secondly, rather than launching the crew and cargo on the same rocket, the smaller

text: Ares I

text: was to launch the crew with the larger

text: Ares V

text: to handle the heavier cargo.  The two payloads were to

text: rendezvous in low Earth orbit

text: and then head to the Moon from there.   The Apollo Lunar Module could not carry enough fuel to reach the polar regions of the Moon but the

text: Altair lunar lander

text: was intended to access any part of the Moon.  While the Altair and surface systems would have been equally necessary for

text: Project Constellation

text: to reach fruition, the focus was on developing the

text: Orion spacecraft

text: to shorten the gap in US access to orbit following the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2010.

text: The Sydeian Coalition books garnered a cult following on the web following Brown's decision along with his co-author Paul Taylor to make the first few chapters freely available to readers a tactic repeated with The Shattered Cog. The completed novel was published in early 2009 by YouWriteOn and Lightning Press. The book met with a warm reception from readers but was noted to have suffered due to a lack of proof-reading, editing and mistakes in listing by the publishers (to this day the book is found under the wrong title and author name in many places). The books are set in an alternative history where in 1866 the British had mastered space exploration indadvertantly sparking an interplanetary conflict between previously unknown inhabitants of the solar system. The story follows the lives of Captain Sydeian, a disgraced army veteran and William Percival as they try to figure out how to defeat this new enemy.

text: On January 14, 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush announced the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) as part of the Vision for Space Exploration. The CEV was partly a reaction to the Space Shuttle Columbia accident, the subsequent findings and report by the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB), and the White House's review of the American space program. The CEV effectively replaced the conceptual Orbital Space Plane (OSP), which was proposed after the cancellation of the Lockheed Martin X-33 program to produce a replacement for the space shuttle. As the Vision for Space Exploration was developed into the Constellation program under NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe, the Crew Exploration Vehicle was renamed the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, after the constellation of the same name.

text: On January 14, 2004, U.S. President

text: George W. Bush

text: announced the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: (CEV) as part of the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: . The CEV was partly a reaction to the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia accident

text: , the subsequent findings and report by the

text: Columbia Accident Investigation Board

text: (CAIB), and the

text: White House

text: 's review of the American space program. The CEV effectively replaced the conceptual

text: Orbital Space Plane

text: (OSP), which was proposed after the cancellation of the

text: Lockheed Martin X-33

text: program to produce a replacement for the space shuttle. As the Vision for Space Exploration was developed into the

text: Constellation program

text: under NASA administrator

text: Sean O'Keefe

text: , the Crew Exploration Vehicle was renamed the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, after the

text: constellation of the same name

text: See List of active Solar System probes for a list of active probes; the space agencies of the USSR (now Russia and Ukraine), the United States, the European Union, Japan, China and India  have in the aggregate launched probes to several planets and moons of the Solar System as well as to a number of asteroids and comets. Approximately fifteen missions are currently operational.

text: See

text: List of active Solar System probes

text: for a list of active probes; the

text: space agencies

text: of the

text: USSR

text: (now

text: Russia

text: and

text: Ukraine

text: ), the

text: United States

text: , the

text: European Union

text: Japan

text: China

text: and

text: India

text: have in the aggregate launched probes to several

text: planet

text: s and

text: moons

text: of the

text: Solar System

text: as well as to a number of

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s. Approximately fifteen missions are currently operational.

text: The first images from space were taken on sub-orbital flights. The U.S-launched V-2 flight on October 24, 1946 took one image every 1.5 seconds. With an apogee of 65 miles (105 km), these photos were from five times higher than the previous record, the 13.7 miles (22 km) by the Explorer II balloon mission in 1935. The first satellite (orbital) photographs of Earth were made on August 14, 1959 by the U.S. Explorer 6. The first satellite photographs of the Moon might have been made on October 6, 1959 by the Soviet satellite Luna 3, on a mission to photograph the far side of the Moon. The Blue Marble photograph was taken from space in 1972, and has become very popular in the media and among the public. Also in 1972 the United States started the Landsat program, the largest program for acquisition of imagery of Earth from space. Landsat Data Continuity Mission, the most recent Landsat satellite, was launched on 11 February 2013. In 1977, the first real time satellite imagery was acquired by the United States's KH-11 satellite system.

text: The first images from space were taken on

text: sub-orbital flights

text: . The U.S-launched

text: flight on October 24, 1946 took one image every 1.5 seconds. With an apogee of 65 miles (105 km), these photos were from five times higher than the previous record, the 13.7 miles (22 km) by the Explorer II balloon mission in 1935. The first satellite (orbital) photographs of Earth were made on August 14, 1959 by the U.S.

text: Explorer 6

text: . The first satellite photographs of the

text: Moon

text: might have been made on October 6, 1959 by the Soviet satellite

text: Luna 3

text: , on a mission to photograph the far side of the Moon.

text: The Blue Marble

text: photograph was taken from space in 1972, and has become very popular in the media and among the public. Also in 1972 the United States started the

text: Landsat program

text: , the largest program for acquisition of imagery of Earth from space.

text: Landsat Data Continuity Mission

text: , the most recent Landsat satellite, was launched on 11 February 2013. In 1977, the first real time satellite imagery was acquired by the United States's

text: satellite system.

text:
International Space Station Medical Project
Space Radiation Program Element
Human Health Countermeasures
Exploration Medical Capability
Behavioral Health and Performance
Space Human Factors and Habitability
Science Management Office

text: The neighborhood's commercial, residential, and artistic venues began to thrive. The commercial district on Charles Street is anchored by the Charles Theatre, a popular art house multiplex that also serves as the anchor venue for the annual Maryland Film Festival each May, as well as Scapescape (a music and arts festival) each Labor Day weekend,The Station North Arts Cafe Gallery, the Station North Arts Underground, The Metro Gallery, Tapas Teatro, Club Charles, The Yellow Sign Theater, The Strand Theater, Single Carrot Theater, and Sofi's Crepes; one block away is the Charm City Art Space which serves as a Music Venue, and Art Gallery.  In recent years, the North Avenue corridor has become a hub of activity with Joe Squared Restaurant, The Wind Up Space (an arts venue and bar), Liam Flynn's Ale House, and The Chicken Box, a Station North Arts District sponsored multiuse arts space opened in mid-2013. The Chicken Box is also home to the Baltimore Annex Theater.

text: The neighborhood's commercial, residential, and artistic venues began to thrive. The commercial district on Charles Street is anchored by the

text: Charles Theatre

text: , a popular art house multiplex that also serves as the anchor venue for the annual

text: Maryland Film Festival

text: each May, as well as Scapescape (a music and arts festival) each Labor Day weekend,The Station North Arts Cafe Gallery, the Station North Arts Underground, The Metro Gallery, Tapas Teatro, Club Charles, The Yellow Sign Theater, The Strand Theater, Single Carrot Theater, and Sofi's Crepes; one block away is the

text: Charm City Art Space

text: which serves as a Music Venue, and Art Gallery.  In recent years, the North Avenue corridor has become a hub of activity with Joe Squared Restaurant, The Wind Up Space (an arts venue and bar), Liam Flynn's Ale House, and The Chicken Box, a Station North Arts District sponsored multiuse arts space opened in mid-2013. The Chicken Box is also home to the Baltimore Annex Theater.

text: , a recent test phase of the VX-200 has demonstrated a ten percent increase in efficiency at intermediate levels of specific impulse, indicating that an operational version would both increase payload mass and decrease trip times.  The "efficiency improvements were achieved through design improvements in critical engine components, 'fine-tuning' the radio-frequency power system settings, and upgrades to the software that controls the engine during startup and firing."The company continues to aim for a "prospective 2015 test flight of a Vasimr prototype, either to the International Space Station or on a free-flyer, for three years of in-space characterization."

text: Currently the priest performs live at 6 am every Sunday Mass in Your Home transmitted by Rede Globo television, and at 09:00 am the Mass is transmitted by the site www.padremarcelorossi.com.br. Marcelo is also the Life Network every Saturday at 15 hours Mass Sanctuary Mother of God, and above station also features the Byzantine Rosary program. On Radio Globo runs from 9 to 10 hours from Monday to Saturday Faith Moment Program – considered by many journalists as an audience phenomenon of modern radio, with more than 3 million listeners / minute across the country.Padre Marcelo Rossi suffered an accident while doing exercises on a treadmill and had to lead the celebration of 9 May, on the banks of the Guarapiranga Reservoir, São Paulo, in a wheelchair because of the incident that made it impossible to set foot in floor. The rest of time required for recovery brought inspiration to write his recent books: "agape" with more than 10 million copies sold and the "Kairos" with more than 2 million copies sold, which reached record sales in Editora Globo's history and currently Rossi is in first place in the ranking of best-selling books in Brazil, according to Veja magazine. surpassing the "Da Vinci Code" by Dan Brown and all the books of the saga "Twilight". All proceeds from the book are donated to the construction of the Santuário da Mãe de Deus Theotokos.He preaches at the Santuário do Terço Bizantino to enormous and enthusiastic crowds, and has promoted the use of the so-called Byzantine rosary for praying. In 2003, one of his masses, celebrated at soccer stadium, was held for the fourteen NASA astronauts who lost their lives in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster 17 years earlier on 28 January 1986 and the more-recent Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, and had more than 70,000 attendees.

text: Santuário do Terço Bizantino

text: to enormous and enthusiastic crowds, and has promoted the use of the so-called

text: Byzantine rosary

text: for praying. In 2003, one of his masses, celebrated at

text: soccer stadium

text: , was held for the fourteen

text: NASA

text: astronauts

text: who lost their lives in the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: 17 years earlier on 28 January 1986 and the more-recent

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , and had more than 70,000 attendees.

text: While Bigelow architecture is still modular, the inflatable configuration allows for much more interior volume than rigid modules.  The BA 330, Bigelow's full-scale production model, has more than twice the volume of the largest module on the ISS.  Inflatable modules can be docked to rigid modules and are especially well suited for crew living and working quarters.  NASA is considering attaching a Bigelow module to the ISS, after abandoning the Transhab concept more than a decade ago.  The modules will likely have a solid inner core for structural support.  Surrounding usable space could be partitioned into different rooms and floors.  Bigelow Aerospace may choose to launch many of their modules independently, leasing their use to a wide variety of companies, organizations, and countries that can't afford their own space programs.  Possible uses of this space include microgravity research and space manufacturing.  Or we may see a private space hotel composed of numerous Bigelow modules for rooms, observatories, or even a recreational padded gymnasium.  There is the option of using such modules for habitation quarters on long-term space missions in the Solar System.  One amazing aspect of spaceflight is that once a craft leaves an atmosphere, aerodynamic shape is a non-issue.  For instance it's possible to apply a Trans Lunar Injection to an entire space station and send it to fly by the Moon.  Bigelow has expressed the possibility of their modules being modified for lunar and Martian surface systems as well.

text: While Bigelow architecture is still modular, the inflatable configuration allows for much more interior volume than rigid modules.  The BA 330, Bigelow's full-scale production model, has more than twice the volume of the largest module on the ISS.  Inflatable modules can be docked to rigid modules and are especially well suited for crew living and working quarters.  NASA is considering attaching a Bigelow module to the ISS, after abandoning the Transhab concept more than a decade ago.  The modules will likely have a solid inner core for structural support.  Surrounding usable space could be partitioned into different rooms and floors.  Bigelow Aerospace may choose to launch many of their modules independently, leasing their use to a wide variety of companies, organizations, and countries that can't afford their own space programs.  Possible uses of this space include microgravity research and

text: space manufacturing

text: .  Or we may see a private space hotel composed of numerous Bigelow modules for rooms, observatories, or even a recreational padded gymnasium.  There is the option of using such modules for habitation quarters on long-term space missions in the Solar System.  One amazing aspect of spaceflight is that once a craft leaves an atmosphere, aerodynamic shape is a non-issue.  For instance it's possible to apply a

text: Trans Lunar Injection

text: to an entire space station and send it to fly by the Moon.  Bigelow has expressed the possibility of their modules being modified for lunar and Martian surface systems as well.

text: STS-91 was the final Space Shuttle mission to the Mir space station. It was flown by Space Shuttle Discovery, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 2 June 1998.

text: STS-91 was the final

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: Mir

text: space station. It was flown by

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: , and launched from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: , Florida, on 2 June 1998.

text: NASA's Space Shuttle, officially called "Space Transportation System" (STS), is the United States government's most recent manned launch vehicle and is retired from service . The winged Space Shuttle orbiter is launched vertically, usually carrying five to seven astronauts (although eight have been carried) and up to 50,000 lb  (22 700 kg) of payload into low earth orbit. When its mission is complete, the shuttle can independently move itself out of orbit (by means of making a 180-degree turn and firing its main engines, thus slowing it down) and  re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. During descent and landing, the orbiter acts as a glider and makes a completely unpowered landing.

text: NASA's Space Shuttle, officially called "Space Transportation System" (STS), is the United States government's most recent manned launch vehicle and is retired from service . The winged

text: Space Shuttle orbiter

text: is launched vertically, usually carrying five to seven

text: astronaut

text: s (although eight have been carried) and up to 50,000

text: lb

text: (22 700

text: kg

text: ) of payload into

text: low earth orbit

text: . When its mission is complete, the

text: shuttle

text: can independently move itself out of orbit (by means of making a 180-degree turn and firing its main engines, thus slowing it down) and

text: re-enter

text: the

text: Earth

text: 's atmosphere. During descent and landing, the orbiter acts as a glider and makes a completely unpowered landing.

text: In the early 1980s there were only upper limits available for the CIB. The real observations of the CIB began after the era of astronomical satellites working in the infrared, started by the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS), and followed by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) and by the Spitzer Space Telescope. Exploration of the CIB was continued by the Herschel Space Observatory, launched in 2009.

text: In the early 1980s there were only upper limits available for the CIB. The real observations of the CIB began after the era of astronomical satellites working in the infrared, started by the

text: Infrared Astronomy Satellite

text: (IRAS), and followed by the

text: Cosmic Background Explorer

text: (COBE), the

text: Infrared Space Observatory

text: (ISO) and by the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: . Exploration of the CIB was continued by the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: , launched in 2009.

text: Scientific research on the International Space Station is a collection of experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present in low Earth orbit. The primary fields of research include human research, space medicine, life sciences, physical sciences, astronomy and meteorology. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the American segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector.

text: Scientific research on the

text: International Space Station

text: is a collection of experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present in

text: low Earth orbit

text: . The primary fields of research include

text: human research

text: space medicine

text: life science

text: s,

text: physical science

text: s,

text: astronomy

text: and

text: meteorology

text: . The

text: 2005 NASA Authorization Act

text: designated the American segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector.

text: The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable human spaceflight vehicle capable of reaching low Earth orbit, commissioned and operated by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from 1981 to 2011. It resulted from shuttle design studies conducted by NASA and the US Air Force in the 1960s and was first proposed for development as part of an ambitious second-generation Space Transportation System (STS) of space vehicles to follow the Apollo program in a September 1969 report of a Space Task Group headed by Vice President Spiro Agnew to President Richard Nixon. Nixon's post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all system components except the Shuttle, to which NASA applied the STS name.

text: The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable

text: human spaceflight

text: vehicle capable of reaching

text: low Earth orbit

text: , commissioned and operated by the US

text: (NASA) from 1981 to 2011. It resulted from shuttle design studies conducted by NASA and the US Air Force in the 1960s and was first proposed for development as part of an ambitious second-generation

text: Space Transportation System

text: (STS) of space vehicles to follow the

text: Apollo program

text: in a September 1969 report of a Space Task Group headed by Vice President

text: Spiro Agnew

text: to President

text: Richard Nixon

text: . Nixon's post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all system components except the Shuttle, to which NASA applied the STS name.

text: The Space Shuttle is likely the most complex spacecraft ever built. Although MSFC was not responsible for developing the centerpiece – the Orbiter Vehicle (OV) – it was responsible for all of the rocket propulsion elements: the OV's three main engines, the External Tank (ET), and the Solid-Rocket Boosters (SRBs). MSFC was also responsible for Spacelab, the research facility carried in the Shuttle's cargo bay on certain flights. From the start of the program in 1972, the management and development of Space Shuttle propulsion was a major activity at MSFC. Alex A. McCool, Jr. was manager of MSFC's Space Shuttle Projects Office.

text: The

text: Space Shuttle

text: is likely the most complex spacecraft ever built. Although MSFC was not responsible for developing the centerpiece – the

text: Orbiter Vehicle

text: (OV) – it was responsible for all of the rocket propulsion elements: the OV's three main engines, the

text: External Tank

text: (ET), and the

text: Solid-Rocket Boosters

text: (SRBs). MSFC was also responsible for

text: Spacelab

text: , the research facility carried in the Shuttle's cargo bay on certain flights. From the start of the program in 1972, the management and development of Space Shuttle propulsion was a major activity at MSFC.

text: Alex A. McCool, Jr.

text: was manager of MSFC's Space Shuttle Projects Office.

text: The novel is a future history, set from 1994 to 2194. It tells the story, with chapters at 50-year intervals, of the exploration of the solar system, with space stations in Earth orbit, then moon bases, and landings on Mars in 2094, Venus in 2144, and the asteroids. This is told through the Troon family, several members of which play an important part in the exploration of space, since they all feel "the outward urge", the desire to travel further into space. They all "hear the thin gnat-voices cry, star to faint star across the sky", a quote from The Jolly Company by Rupert Brooke.

text: The novel is a future history, set from 1994 to 2194. It tells the story, with chapters at 50-year intervals, of the exploration of the solar system, with space stations in Earth orbit, then moon bases, and landings on

text: Mars

text: in 2094,

text: Venus

text: in 2144, and the asteroids. This is told through the Troon family, several members of which play an important part in the exploration of space, since they all feel "the outward urge", the desire to travel further into space. They all "hear the thin gnat-voices cry, star to faint star across the sky", a quote from The Jolly Company by

text: Rupert Brooke

text: Larklight is a space opera set in an alternate Victorian era, in which mankind has been exploring the solar system for at least a century, and wherein most of the planets are inhabitable. Protagonist Art Mumby narrates an attack on the British Empire and the solar system at large by an ancient, arachnid-like extraterrestrial race, against which he and his family play a central role, aided by the pirate Jack Havock and his crew.

text: Larklight is a

text: space opera

text: set in an alternate

text: Victorian era

text: , in which mankind has been exploring the

text: solar system

text: for at least a century, and wherein most of the planets are inhabitable. Protagonist Art Mumby narrates an attack on the

text: British Empire

text: and the solar system at large by an ancient,

text: arachnid

text: -like extraterrestrial race, against which he and his family play a central role, aided by the pirate Jack Havock and his crew.

text: Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.

text: Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in

text: outer space

text: , many in

text: orbit

text: around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is

text: opaque

text: to

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation,

text: X-rays

text: , and

text: gamma rays

text: and is partially opaque to

text: infrared

text: radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the

text: angular resolution

text: of space telescopes such as the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar

text: aperture

text: . However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the

text: Space Shuttle

text: while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.

text: Optically, the HST is a Cassegrain reflector of Ritchey–Chrétien design, as are most large professional telescopes. This design, with two hyperbolic mirrors, is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view, with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test. The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance, and they were designed to exacting specifications. Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet (shorter wavelengths) and was specified to be diffraction limited to take full advantage of the space environment. Therefore, its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10 nanometers, or about 1/65 of the wavelength of red light. On the long wavelength end, the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind—for example, the mirrors are kept at stable (and warm, about 15 °C) temperatures by heaters. This limits Hubble's performance as an infrared telescope.

text: Optically, the HST is a

text: Cassegrain reflector

text: of

text: Ritchey–Chrétien design

text: , as are most large professional telescopes. This design, with two hyperbolic mirrors, is known for good imaging performance over a wide field of view, with the disadvantage that the mirrors have shapes that are hard to fabricate and test. The mirror and optical systems of the telescope determine the final performance, and they were designed to exacting specifications. Optical telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an

text: accuracy

text: of about a tenth of the

text: wavelength

text: of

text: visible light

text: , but the Space Telescope was to be used for observations from the visible through the ultraviolet (shorter wavelengths) and was specified to be

text: diffraction limited

text: to take full advantage of the space environment. Therefore, its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 10

text: nanometers

text: , or about 1/65 of the wavelength of red light. On the long wavelength end, the OTA was not designed with optimum IR performance in mind—for example, the mirrors are kept at stable (and warm, about 15 °C) temperatures by heaters. This limits Hubble's performance as an infrared telescope.

text: DustPedia is a project funded by the European Union for exploitation of space science and exploration data. It is a collaboration of six European institutes with a primary goal of exploiting existing data in the Herschel Space Observatory and  Planck Telescope databases. This data will be combined with other available data from both ground based and space based  telescopes to make the most extensive and intensive study of galaxies in the nearby Universe.

text: DustPedia is a project funded by the

text: European Union

text: for exploitation of space science and exploration data. It is a collaboration of six European institutes with a primary goal of exploiting existing data in the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: and

text: Planck Telescope

text: databases. This data will be combined with other available data from both ground based and space based  telescopes to make the most extensive and intensive study of

text: galaxies

text: in the nearby Universe.

text: Huyghe has been working with time-based situations and has explored the exhibition process from the '90s. His works imply such diverse forms as living systems, objects, films, photographs, drawings and music.In recent years, he has created self-generating systems, including living entities and artifacts, in which emergence and rhythm are indeterminate and exist beyond our presence.Taking the exhibition and its ritual as an object in itself, Pierre Huyghe has worked to change the paradigm of this encounter, exploring the possibility of this dynamic experience.

text: There are many applications for ULE, but by far the most common is for mirrors and lenses for telescopes in both space and terrestrial settings. One of the most well known examples of the use of ULE is in the Hubble telescope's mirror. Another good example of its application is in the Gemini telescope's mirror bank. this type of material is needed for this application because the mirrors on telescopes, especially the very large and precise ones, cannot bend or lose their shape even slightly. If this were to happen, the telescope would be out of focus. some other examples and uses of ULE are:

text: There are many applications for ULE, but by far the most common is for mirrors and lenses for telescopes in both space and terrestrial settings. One of the most well known examples of the use of ULE is in the

text: Hubble telescope

text: 's mirror. Another good example of its application is in the

text: Gemini telescope

text: 's mirror bank. this type of material is needed for this application because the mirrors on telescopes, especially the very large and precise ones, cannot bend or lose their shape even slightly. If this were to happen, the telescope would be out of focus. some other examples and uses of ULE are:

text: Space telescopes. Since the beginning of space exploration, telescopes have been sent to space, where they work at wavelengths shorter than UV, which are completely absorbed by the atmosphere, and where flares may be very bright. Since the 1970s, the GOES series of satellites observe the Sun in soft X-rays, and their observations became the standard measure of flares, diminishing the importance of the Hα classification. Hard X-rays were observed by many different instruments, the most important today being the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI). Nonetheless, UV observations are today the stars of solar imaging with their incredible fine details that reveal the complexity of the solar corona. Spacecraft may also bring radio detectors at extremely long wavelengths (as long as a few kilometers) that cannot propagate through the ionosphere.

text: Space telescopes. Since the beginning of

text: space exploration

text: , telescopes have been sent to space, where they work at wavelengths shorter than UV, which are completely absorbed by the atmosphere, and where flares may be very bright. Since the 1970s, the

entity_name: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: GOES

text: series of satellites observe the Sun in soft X-rays, and their observations became the standard measure of flares, diminishing the importance of the

text: Hα

text: classification. Hard X-rays were observed by many different instruments, the most important today being the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (

entity_name: Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager

text: RHESSI

text: ). Nonetheless, UV observations are today the stars of solar imaging with their incredible fine details that reveal the complexity of the

text: solar corona

text: . Spacecraft may also bring radio detectors at extremely long wavelengths (as long as a few kilometers) that cannot propagate through the

text: ionosphere

text: Space stations have been envisaged since at least as early as 1869 when Edward Everett Hale wrote "The Brick Moon". The first to give serious consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in the early 20th century and Hermann Oberth about two decades later. In 1929 Herman Potočnik's The Problem of Space Travel was published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to create artificial gravity.

text: Space stations have been envisaged since at least as early as 1869 when

text: Edward Everett Hale

text: wrote "

text: The Brick Moon

text: ". The first to give serious consideration to space stations were

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: in the early 20th century and

text: Hermann Oberth

text: about two decades later. In 1929

text: Herman Potočnik

text: 's

text: The Problem of Space Travel

text: was published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to create artificial gravity.

text: The minor planet was named after American space physicist, Geoffrey A. Briggs, director of the Solar System Exploration Division at NASA Headquarters during the 1980s. He was instrumental for the formation of the U.S.–Soviet Joint Working Group for Solar System Exploration and became its co-chairman. He was on the imaging teams for the Mariner, Viking and Voyager missions. Briggs continued to promote Space related accomplishments to the public at the Air and Space Museum. Naming citation was published on 27 June 1991 (M.P.C. 18456).

text: The minor planet was named after American

text: space physicist

text: Geoffrey A. Briggs

text: , director of the Solar System Exploration Division at NASA Headquarters during the 1980s. He was instrumental for the formation of the U.S.–Soviet Joint Working Group for Solar System Exploration and became its co-chairman. He was on the imaging teams for the

text: Mariner

text: Viking

text: and

text: Voyager

text: missions. Briggs continued to promote Space related accomplishments to the public at the

text: Air and Space Museum

text: . Naming citation was published on 27 June 1991 (

text: M.P.C.

text: After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, the United States Air Force (USAF) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducted a joint Advanced Launch System study (1987-1990).  Hughes Aircraft and Boeing dusted off the earlier Saturn C-3 design and submitted their proposal for the Jarvis launch vehicle.  <br>The Jarvis would be a three-stage rocket, 58 m (190 ft) in height and 8.38 m (27.5 ft) in diameter.  Designed to lift 38 tons to LEO, it would utilize F-1 and J-2 rocket engines and tooling in storage from the Saturn V rocket program along with more recent Shuttle-era technologies to provide lower launch costs.

text: After the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , the United States Air Force (USAF) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) conducted a joint

text: Advanced Launch System

text: study (1987-1990).  Hughes Aircraft and Boeing dusted off the earlier Saturn C-3 design and submitted their proposal for the

text: Jarvis

text: launch vehicle.  <br>The Jarvis would be a three-stage rocket, 58 m (190 ft) in height and 8.38 m (27.5 ft) in diameter.  Designed to lift 38 tons to LEO, it would utilize F-1 and J-2 rocket engines and tooling in storage from the Saturn V rocket program along with more recent Shuttle-era technologies to provide lower launch costs.

text: When the disaster occurred, the Air Force had performed extensive modifications of its Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6, pronounced as "Slick Six") at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, for launch and landing operations of classified Shuttle launches of satellites in polar orbit, and was planning its first polar flight for October 15, 1986. Originally built for the Manned Orbital Laboratory project cancelled in 1969, the modifications were proving problematic and expensive, costing over $4 billion. The Challenger loss motivated the Air Force to set in motion a chain of events that finally led to the May 13, 1988 decision to cancel its Vandenberg Shuttle launch plans, in favor of the Titan IV unmanned launch vehicle.

text: When the disaster occurred, the Air Force had performed extensive modifications of its

text: Space Launch Complex 6

text: (SLC-6, pronounced as "Slick Six") at

text: Vandenberg Air Force Base

text: in California, for launch and landing operations of classified Shuttle launches of satellites in polar orbit, and was planning its first polar flight for October 15, 1986. Originally built for the

text: Manned Orbital Laboratory

text: project cancelled in 1969, the modifications were proving problematic and expensive, costing over $4 billion. The Challenger loss motivated the Air Force to set in motion a chain of events that finally led to the May 13, 1988 decision to cancel its Vandenberg Shuttle launch plans, in favor of the

text: Titan IV

text: unmanned launch vehicle.

text: Research in deep space is ongoing and rapidly developing. In 2011, after the retirement of the space shuttle, NASA announced its intentions to invest money into developing three technologies vital to deep space exploration. The "must-have technologies" include a deep space atomic clock, a large solar sail and a more advanced laser communications system to improve communication, navigation, and propulsion in future missions. In June 2013, NASA announced the selection of eight American astronauts that will begin to train for future deep space missions beyond low Earth orbit. NASA intends that these eight astronauts to train for future Mars or asteroid travel.

text: Research in deep space is ongoing and rapidly developing. In 2011, after the retirement of the

text: space shuttle

text: , NASA announced its intentions to invest money into developing three technologies vital to deep space exploration. The "must-have technologies" include a deep space atomic clock, a large solar sail and a more advanced laser communications system to improve communication, navigation, and propulsion in future missions. In June 2013, NASA announced the selection of eight American astronauts that will begin to train for future deep space missions beyond low Earth orbit. NASA intends that these eight astronauts to train for future Mars or asteroid travel.

text: In the 27th century, centuries of peace have allowed great scientific progress in the development of the first interstellar warp drive. Two research ships, designated Explorer-1 and Explorer-2, are outfitted with the experimental drives and sent to find new planets of colonization. Only Explorer-2 returns to Earth out of the two Explorers. Refitted as a colony vessel, the Explorer-2 is once again ready to embark when, suddenly, peace is disrupted and the humans were ripped apart from each other. At this same time, a planet-wide rebellion stages a great coup and overthrows the Earthen government, throwing the world into chaos and severing the union. The Explorer-2, crewed by a loyalist space crew, barely escapes the rebellion and leaves the Solar System. Years later after the rebellion, the Explorer-2 arrives damaged at its destination and a colony is set up, naming it "New Earth". After many generations of being separated from Earth, the colony is self-sufficient enough to develop a mission only the best can tread: Explore nearby space, research new technologies, harvest resources, develop a space fleet and eventually... reconquer and reunify Earth, leading to the greatest reunion the universe has ever set its eyes on.

text: In the 27th century, centuries of peace have allowed great scientific progress in the development of the first interstellar warp drive. Two research ships, designated Explorer-1 and Explorer-2, are outfitted with the experimental drives and sent to find new planets of colonization. Only Explorer-2 returns to

text: Earth

text: out of the two Explorers. Refitted as a colony vessel, the Explorer-2 is once again ready to embark when, suddenly, peace is disrupted and the humans were ripped apart from each other. At this same time, a planet-wide rebellion stages a great coup and overthrows the Earthen government, throwing the world into chaos and severing the union. The Explorer-2, crewed by a loyalist space crew, barely escapes the rebellion and leaves the Solar System. Years later after the rebellion, the Explorer-2 arrives damaged at its destination and a colony is set up, naming it "New Earth". After many generations of being separated from Earth, the colony is self-sufficient enough to develop a mission only the best can tread: Explore nearby space, research new technologies, harvest resources, develop a space fleet and eventually... reconquer and reunify Earth, leading to the greatest reunion the universe has ever set its eyes on.

text: In May 2009, DTN was deployed to a payload on board the ISS.  NASA and BioServe Space Technologies, a research group at the University of Colorado, have been continuously testing DTN on two Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA) payloads. CGBA-4 and CGBA-5 serve as computational and communications platforms which are remotely controlled from BioServe's Payload Operations Control Center (POCC) in Boulder, CO. In October 2012 ISS Station commander Sunita Williams remotely operated Mocup (Meteron Operations and Communications Prototype), a "cat-sized" Lego Mindstorms robot fitted with a BeagleBoard computer and webcam, located in the European Space Operations Centre in Germany in an experiment using DTN. These initial experiments provide insight into future missions where DTN will enable the extension of networks into deep space to explore other planets and solar system points of interest. Seen as necessary for space exploration, DTN enables timeliness of data return from operating assets which results in reduced risk and cost, increased crew safety, and improved operational awareness and science return for NASA and additional space agencies.

text: In May 2009, DTN was deployed to a payload on board the

text: ISS

text: .  NASA and BioServe Space Technologies, a research group at the University of Colorado, have been continuously testing DTN on two Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA) payloads. CGBA-4 and CGBA-5 serve as computational and communications platforms which are remotely controlled from BioServe's Payload Operations Control Center (POCC) in Boulder, CO. In October 2012 ISS Station commander

text: Sunita Williams

text: remotely operated Mocup (Meteron Operations and Communications Prototype), a "cat-sized"

text: Lego Mindstorms

text: robot fitted with a

text: BeagleBoard

text: computer and webcam, located in the

text: European Space Operations Centre

text: in Germany in an experiment using DTN. These initial experiments provide insight into future missions where DTN will enable the extension of networks into deep space to explore other planets and solar system points of interest. Seen as necessary for space exploration, DTN enables timeliness of data return from operating assets which results in reduced risk and cost, increased crew safety, and improved operational awareness and science return for NASA and additional space agencies.

text: The series covers topics concerning space exploration, the Solar System, and astronomical objects in the universe. It shows CGI renderings of these aforementioned, video footage, photographs, and views from scientists, project managers, engineers, advocates, writers and other experts.  The episode "7 Wonders of the Solar System", and Season 6 were produced in 3D.

text: The series covers topics concerning

text: space exploration

text: , the

text: Solar System

text: , and

text: astronomical objects

text: in the universe. It shows

text: CGI

text: renderings of these aforementioned, video footage, photographs, and views from scientists, project managers, engineers, advocates, writers and other experts.  The episode "

text: 7 Wonders of the Solar System

text: ", and Season 6 were produced in 3D.

text: In November 2012, NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), and their international partners selected two veteran spacefarers for a one-year mission aboard the International Space Station in 2015. The mission includes collecting scientific data important to future human exploration of the Solar System. Kelly and Korniyenko already had a connection; Kelly was a backup crew member for the station's Expedition 23/24 crews, where Korniyenko served as a flight engineer.

text: In November 2012,

text: NASA

text: , the

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: (Roscosmos), and their international partners selected two veteran spacefarers for a one-year mission aboard the International Space Station in 2015. The mission includes collecting scientific data important to future

text: human exploration

text: of the Solar System. Kelly and Korniyenko already had a connection; Kelly was a backup crew member for the station's

text: Expedition 23

text: crews, where Korniyenko served as a flight engineer.

text: Direct exploration of the Solar System has yielded no evidence indicating a visit by aliens or their probes. Detailed exploration of areas of the Solar System where resources would be plentiful may yet produce evidence of alien exploration, though the entirety of the Solar System is vast and difficult to investigate.  Attempts to signal, attract, or activate hypothetical Bracewell probes in Earth's vicinity have not succeeded.

text: The 1990 Space Exploration Initiative called for the construction of the Space Station Freedom. Following the presidential announcement, NASA began a set of studies to determine the potential uses for the space station, both in research and in industry, in the U.S. or overseas. This led to the creation of a database of thousands of possible missions and payloads; studies were also carried out with a view to supporting potential planetary missions, as well as those in low-earth orbit.

text: The 1990

text: Space Exploration Initiative

text: called for the construction of the Space Station Freedom. Following the presidential announcement, NASA began a set of studies to determine the potential uses for the space station, both in research and in industry, in the U.S. or overseas. This led to the creation of a database of thousands of possible missions and payloads; studies were also carried out with a view to supporting potential planetary missions, as well as those in low-earth orbit.

text: Dr. Thomas David "Tom" Jones (b. January 22, 1955) is a strategic adviser to B612,  member of the NASA Advisory Council and a former U.S. astronaut and planetary scientist who has studied asteroids for NASA, engineered intelligence-gathering systems for the CIA, and helped develop advanced mission concepts to explore the Solar System. In his 11 years with NASA he flew on four space shuttle missions, logging a total of 53 days in space. His flight time included three spacewalks to install the centerpiece science module of the International Space Station (ISS). His publications include Planetology: Unlocking the Secrets of the Solar System.

text: Dr. Thomas David "Tom" Jones (b. January 22, 1955) is a strategic adviser to B612,  member of the

entity_name: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

text: NASA Advisory Council

text: and a former U.S. astronaut and planetary scientist who has studied asteroids for

text: NASA

text: , engineered intelligence-gathering systems for the CIA, and helped develop advanced mission concepts to explore the Solar System. In his 11 years with NASA he flew on four

text: space shuttle

text: missions, logging a total of 53 days in space. His flight time included three spacewalks to install the centerpiece science module of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). His publications include Planetology: Unlocking the Secrets of the Solar System.

text: Current projects in the field of space science include LISA Pathfinder, for which UK industry is the prime contractor and UK universities are building major payload elements; the astrometry Gaia mission, for which UK industry is supplying the detectors, avionics, software and data processing electronics; and the James Webb Space Telescope, for which a UK consortium led by the UK Astronomy Technology Centre is building the European part of the Mid Infra Red Instrument (MIRI). The UK has contributed the SPIRE instrument for the Herschel Space Observatory and detector and cooling system technology for the Planck cosmic microwave background mission. In the field of Earth observation, projects include the ESA ADM-Aeolus wind profiling mission, for which UK industry is the prime contractor and CryoSat-2 which is directed by UK scientist Professor Duncan Wingham of University College London. Recent BNSC activities include the Mosaic small satellite programme, which led to the launch of the TopSat high resolution EO mission and also the Disaster Monitoring Constellation.

text: Current projects in the field of space science include

text: LISA Pathfinder

text: , for which UK industry is the prime contractor and UK universities are building major payload elements; the astrometry

text: Gaia mission

text: , for which UK industry is supplying the detectors, avionics, software and data processing electronics; and the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: , for which a UK consortium led by the

text: UK Astronomy Technology Centre

text: is building the European part of the Mid Infra Red Instrument (MIRI). The UK has contributed the SPIRE instrument for the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: and detector and cooling system technology for the

text: Planck

text: cosmic microwave background

text: mission. In the field of Earth observation, projects include the ESA

text: ADM-Aeolus

text: wind profiling mission, for which UK industry is the prime contractor and

text: which is directed by UK scientist Professor Duncan Wingham of

text: University College London

text: . Recent BNSC activities include the Mosaic small satellite programme, which led to the launch of the

text: TopSat

text: high resolution EO mission and also the

text: Disaster Monitoring Constellation

text: The types of commentary and controversy presented in science fiction films often illustrate the particular concerns of the periods in which they were produced. Early science fiction films expressed fears about automation replacing workers and the dehumanization of society through science and technology. For example, The Man in the White Suit (1951) used a science fiction concept as a means to satirize postwar British "establishment" conservatism, industrial capitalists, and trade unions. Another example is HAL 9000 from 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968). He controls the shuttle, and later harms its crew. "Kubrick's vision reveals technology as a competitive force that must be defeated in order for humans to evolve." Later films explored the fears of environmental catastrophe, technology-created disasters, or overpopulation, and how they would impact society and individuals (e.g. Soylent Green, Elysium).

text: The types of commentary and controversy presented in science fiction films often illustrate the particular concerns of the periods in which they were produced. Early science fiction films expressed fears about automation replacing workers and the dehumanization of society through science and technology. For example,

text: The Man in the White Suit

text: (1951) used a science fiction concept as a means to satirize postwar British "establishment" conservatism, industrial capitalists, and trade unions. Another example is

text: HAL 9000

text: from

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: (1968). He controls the shuttle, and later harms its crew. "Kubrick's vision reveals technology as a competitive force that must be defeated in order for humans to evolve." Later films explored the fears of environmental catastrophe, technology-created disasters, or overpopulation, and how they would impact society and individuals (e.g.

text: Soylent Green

text: Elysium

text: Tiangong-3 is a 'third generation' or modular space station project. Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian Mir, the International Space Station (ISS) and the planned Russian OPSEK. The 'monolithic' first-generation space stations, such as the Soviet Salyut 1, Salyut 3, Salyut 4 and Salyut 5 and NASA's Skylab stations, were not designed for resupply, possessing only one docking port. Second-generation station projects, such as Soviet Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and Tiangong-2, feature a second docking port, allowing for resupply and multiple crewed missions. Modular stations allow new modules to be added or removed from the existing structure over time, saving considerable costs and allowing greater flexibility.

text: Tiangong-3 is a 'third generation' or modular space station project. Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian

text: Mir

text: , the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) and the planned Russian

text: OPSEK

text: . The 'monolithic' first-generation space stations, such as the Soviet

text: Salyut 1

text: Salyut 3

text: Salyut 4

text: and

text: Salyut 5

text: and NASA's

text: Skylab

text: stations, were not designed for resupply, possessing only one docking port. Second-generation station projects, such as Soviet

text: Salyut 6

text: Salyut 7

text: and

text: , feature a second docking port, allowing for resupply and multiple crewed missions. Modular stations allow new modules to be added or removed from the existing structure over time, saving considerable costs and allowing greater flexibility.

text: Herrington was selected as a Mission Specialist for STS-113, the sixteenth Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station. Endeavour was launched from Kennedy Space Center on November 23, 2002 to deliver the P1 Truss segment, which provides structural support for the Space Station radiators. Endeavour also delivered a new Expedition 6 crew to the Station, returning to Earth on December 7, 2002 with the Expedition 5 crew ending their 6-month stay in space. The total mission duration was 13 days, 18 hours and 47 minutes.

text: Herrington was selected as a Mission Specialist for STS-113, the sixteenth

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: Endeavour

text: was launched from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: on November 23, 2002 to deliver the

text: P1 Truss

text: segment, which provides structural support for the Space Station radiators. Endeavour also delivered a new

text: Expedition 6

text: crew to the Station, returning to Earth on December 7, 2002 with the

text: Expedition 5

text: crew ending their 6-month stay in space. The total mission duration was 13 days, 18 hours and 47 minutes.

text: Given that records of solar activity are accurate, solar activity may have contributed to part of the modern warming that peaked in the 1930s, in addition to the 60-year temperature cycles that result in roughly 0.5 °C of warming during the increasing temperature phase. However, solar cycles fail to account for warming observed since the 1980s to the present day . Events such as the opening of the Northwest Passage and recent record low ice minima of the modern Arctic shrinkage have not taken place for at least several centuries, as early explorers were all unable to make an Arctic crossing, even in summer. Shifts in biomes and habitat ranges are also unprecedented, occurring at rates that do not coincide with known climate oscillations . The extinction of many tropical amphibian species, especially in cloud forests, have been attributed to changing global temperatures, fungal disease and possible influence from unusually extreme phases of oceanic climate oscillations.

text: Given that records of solar activity are accurate, solar activity may have contributed to part of the modern warming that peaked in the 1930s, in addition to the 60-year temperature cycles that result in roughly 0.5 °C of warming during the increasing temperature phase. However, solar cycles fail to account for warming observed since the 1980s to the present day . Events such as the opening of the

text: Northwest Passage

text: and recent record low ice minima of the modern

text: Arctic shrinkage

text: have not taken place for at least several centuries, as early explorers were all unable to make an Arctic crossing, even in summer. Shifts in

text: biome

text: s and habitat ranges are also unprecedented, occurring at rates that do not coincide with known climate oscillations . The extinction of many tropical

text: amphibian

text: species, especially in

text: cloud forest

text: s, have been attributed to changing global temperatures, fungal disease and possible influence from unusually extreme phases of oceanic climate oscillations.

text: Due to International Space Station involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the manned space program . Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.

text: Due to

text: International Space Station

text: involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the manned space program . Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.

text: Perhaps the most significant aspect of the new engine’s design was the number of variations of the engine that could be made to suit different needs. This resulted in the creation of an entire family of engines consisting not only of designs utilizing single- or dual-overhead camshaft configurations, different displacements and different block materials, but also different cylinder counts. In addition to the various eight-cylinder engines produced, ten-cylinder engines eventually entered production. Six-cylinder derivatives were also explored, though never built. With the wide array of engine configurations possible within this architecture, Ford developed a new, modular tooling system for producing different engines quickly and efficiently in the same factory. Referring to this method of production, the name Modular was given to the new engine family. Despite all the different engines that would be built over the years, one of the major unifying aspects present in all engines based on the Modular architecture, and required by the engine’s tooling for production purposes, was a common bore spacing of 100 mm (3.937 in).

text: Perhaps the most significant aspect of the new engine’s design was the number of variations of the engine that could be made to suit different needs. This resulted in the creation of an entire family of engines consisting not only of designs utilizing single- or dual-overhead camshaft configurations, different displacements and different block materials, but also different

text: cylinder counts

text: . In addition to the various eight-cylinder engines produced, ten-cylinder engines eventually entered production. Six-cylinder derivatives were also explored, though never built. With the wide array of engine configurations possible within this architecture, Ford developed a new, modular tooling system for producing different engines quickly and efficiently in the same factory. Referring to this method of production, the name Modular was given to the new engine family. Despite all the different engines that would be built over the years, one of the major unifying aspects present in all engines based on the Modular architecture, and required by the engine’s tooling for production purposes, was a common bore spacing of 100 mm (3.937 in).

text: The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).  Its official program name was Space Transportation System, taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development. Operational missions launched numerous satellites (including the Hubble Space Telescope), conducted science experiments in orbit, and participated in construction and servicing of the International Space Station (ISS). The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982.

text: The

text: Space Shuttle

text: was a partially reusable

text: low Earth orbit

text: al

text: spacecraft

text: system operated by the U.S.

text: (NASA).  Its official program name was Space Transportation System, taken from a 1969 plan for

text: a system of reusable spacecraft

text: of which it was the only item funded for development. Operational missions launched numerous

text: satellite

text: s (including the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: ), conducted science experiments in orbit, and participated in construction and servicing of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982.

text: Spring was selected as an astronaut in May 1980. His technical assignments have included software verification at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory and Flight Simulation Laboratory; vehicle and satellite integration at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, for STS-5, 6, 7, 8, and 9; Astronaut Office EVA (Extra-vehicular activity) expert; and Space Station construction, EVA maintenance, and design. Spring served as a mission specialist on STS-61-B which flew November 26, 1985 through December 3, 1985. During that mission he was responsible for launching three communications satellites and performed two EVAs. During the EVAs, which totaled more than 12 hours, Spring investigated Space Station construction techniques, large structure manipulation while on the end of the remote arm, and a time and motion study for comparison between Earth training and Space performance, with the EASE/ACCESS experiment. With the completion of STS-61-B, he has logged a total of 165 hours in space. After the Space Shuttle Challenger accident, Spring participated in the Kennedy Space Center Tiger Team for accident investigation, then led the Astronaut Office EVA (Extra Vehicle Activity) program until 1988.

text: Spring was selected as an astronaut in May 1980. His technical assignments have included software verification at the

text: Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory

text: and

text: Flight Simulation Laboratory

text: ; vehicle and satellite integration at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: , for

text: , and

text: ; Astronaut Office EVA (

text: Extra-vehicular activity

text: ) expert; and Space Station construction, EVA maintenance, and design. Spring served as a mission specialist on

text: which flew November 26, 1985 through December 3, 1985. During that mission he was responsible for launching three communications satellites and performed two EVAs. During the EVAs, which totaled more than 12 hours, Spring investigated Space Station construction techniques, large structure manipulation while on the end of the remote arm, and a time and motion study for comparison between Earth training and Space performance, with the

text: EASE/ACCESS

text: experiment. With the completion of STS-61-B, he has logged a total of 165 hours in space. After the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger accident

text: , Spring participated in the Kennedy Space Center

text: Tiger Team

text: for accident investigation, then led the Astronaut Office EVA (Extra Vehicle Activity) program until 1988.

text: Russian Modular or 'next generation' space stations differ from 'Monolithic' single piece stations by allowing reconfiguration of the station to suit changing needs. According to a 2009 report, RKK Energia is considering methods to remove from the station some modules of the Russian Orbital Segment when the end of mission is reached for the ISS and use them as a basis for a new station, known as the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex. None of these modules would have reached the end of their useful lives in 2016 or 2020. The report presents a statement from an unnamed Russian engineer who believes that, based on the experience from Mir, a thirty-year life should be possible, except for micrometeorite damage, because the Russian modules have been built with on-orbit refurbishment in mind.

text: Russian Modular or 'next generation' space stations differ from 'Monolithic' single piece stations by allowing reconfiguration of the station to suit changing needs. According to a 2009 report,

entity_name: S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia

text: RKK Energia

text: is considering methods to remove from the station some modules of the Russian Orbital Segment when the end of mission is reached for the

text: ISS

text: and use them as a basis for a new station, known as the

text: Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex

text: . None of these modules would have reached the end of their useful lives in 2016 or 2020. The report presents a statement from an unnamed Russian engineer who believes that, based on the experience from Mir, a thirty-year life should be possible, except for micrometeorite damage, because the Russian modules have been built with on-orbit refurbishment in mind.

text: Both kinetic energy and directed energy weapons are often portrayed, along with various military space vessels. The Lensman series by E. E. Smith is an early example, which also inspired the term Space Opera due to the grandiose scales of the stories. The Ender's Game series by Orson Scott Card is a notable example in that it makes conjecture as to what sort of tactics and training would be required for war in outer space.  Other science fiction authors have also delved into the tactics of space combat, such as David Weber in his Honorverse series as well as Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle in their Mote in God's Eye series. A more recent example would be Alastair Reynolds' Revelation Space universe, which explores combat at relativistic speeds. Robert A. Heinlein's Starship Troopers is perhaps one of the best-known and earliest explorations of the "space marine" idea.

text: Both

text: kinetic energy

text: and

text: directed energy weapons

text: are often portrayed, along with various military space vessels. The

text: Lensman

text: series by

text: E. E. Smith

text: is an early example, which also inspired the term

text: Space Opera

text: due to the grandiose scales of the stories. The

text: Ender's Game

text: series by

text: Orson Scott Card

text: is a notable example in that it makes conjecture as to what sort of tactics and training would be required for war in outer space.  Other science fiction authors have also delved into the tactics of space combat, such as

text: David Weber

text: in his

text: Honorverse

text: series as well as

text: Larry Niven

text: and

text: Jerry Pournelle

text: in their

text: Mote in God's Eye

text: series. A more recent example would be

text: Alastair Reynolds

text: Revelation Space universe

text: , which explores combat at

text: relativistic speeds

text: Robert A. Heinlein

text: 's

text: Starship Troopers

text: is perhaps one of the best-known and earliest explorations of the "

text: space marine

text: " idea.

text: The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s.  The National Aeronautics and Space Act creating NASA was passed in 1958, after the launch of the Soviet Sputnik 1 satellite. Thereafter, in response to the flight of Yuri Gagarin as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade.  Although the costs of the Vietnam War and the programs of the Great Society forced cuts to NASA's budget as early as 1965, the first Moon landing occurred in 1969, early in Richard Nixon's presidency.  Under the Nixon administration NASA's budget continued to decline and three of the planned Apollo Moon landings were cancelled.  The Nixon administration approved the beginning of the Space Shuttle program in 1972, but did not support funding of other projects such as a Mars landing, colonization of the Moon, or a permanent space station.

text: The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet

text: Space Race

text: of the 1960s.  The

text: National Aeronautics and Space Act

text: creating NASA was passed in 1958, after the launch of the Soviet

text: Sputnik 1

text: satellite. Thereafter, in response to the flight of

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to

text: landing a man on the Moon

text: by the end of the decade.  Although the costs of the

text: Vietnam War

text: and the programs of the

text: Great Society

text: forced cuts to NASA's budget as early as 1965,

text: the first Moon landing

text: occurred in 1969, early in

text: Richard Nixon's presidency

text: .  Under the Nixon administration NASA's budget continued to decline and three of the planned Apollo Moon landings

text: were cancelled

text: .  The Nixon administration approved the beginning of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: in 1972, but did not support funding of other projects such as a

text: Mars landing

text: colonization of the Moon

text: , or a permanent

text: space station

text: NASA began the plan to build a space station in 1984. The station was named Freedom in 1988, and changed to the International Space Station (ISS) in 1992. The ISS is composed in modules, and the assembly in orbit started with the delivery of Russian module Zarya in November 1998. This was followed in December by the first U.S. module, Unity also called Node 1, built by Boeing in facilities at MSFC.

text: NASA began the plan to build a space station in 1984. The station was named Freedom in 1988, and changed to the International Space Station (ISS) in 1992. The ISS is composed in modules, and the assembly in orbit started with the delivery of Russian module

text: Zarya

text: in November 1998. This was followed in December by the first U.S. module, Unity also called Node 1, built by Boeing in facilities at MSFC.

text: The International Space Station is a partnership of the United States, Russian, European, Japanese, and Canadian Space Agencies. The station has continuously had human occupants since November 2, 2000. Orbiting 16 times daily at an average altitude of about 250 mi (400 km), it passes over some 90 percent of the world's surface. It weighs over 800,000 lb (350,000 kg), and a crew of six conducts research and prepares the way for future explorations.

text: The

text: International Space Station

text: is a partnership of the United States, Russian, European, Japanese, and Canadian Space Agencies. The station has continuously had human occupants since November 2, 2000. Orbiting 16 times daily at an average altitude of about 250 mi (400 km), it passes over some 90 percent of the world's surface. It weighs over 800,000 lb (350,000 kg), and a crew of six conducts research and prepares the way for future explorations.

text: In addition to deep space and solar system exploration ESAC hosts the data processing of SMOS, a satellite observing the earth, as well as the Space Situation Awareness (SSA) programme.

text: In addition to deep space and solar system exploration ESAC hosts the data processing of

text: SMOS

text: , a satellite observing the earth, as well as the Space Situation Awareness (SSA) programme.

text: Byerly worked in the Office of Communications and Public Affairs as a NASA spokesperson and served as one of the "voices of NASA", providing commentary from inside Mission Control during space shuttle and International Space Station missions. He has served as commentator on several shuttle missions, including the final space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope and several to the International Space Station. He was ascent commentator for STS-133, the final launch of Space Shuttle Discovery on February 24, 2011. Byerly's voice appears in the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum as part of the Space Shuttle Discovery exhibit.

text: Byerly worked in the Office of Communications and Public Affairs as a NASA spokesperson and served as one of the "voices of NASA", providing commentary from inside

text: Mission Control

text: during

text: space shuttle

text: and

text: International Space Station

text: missions. He has served as commentator on several shuttle missions, including the final space shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope and several to the International Space Station. He was ascent commentator for STS-133, the final launch of Space Shuttle Discovery on February 24, 2011. Byerly's voice appears in the Smithsonian's

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: as part of the

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: exhibit.

text: Poole's best-known book is "Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth" (Yale University Press, 2008), a study of the first views of Earth from space and their impact, which has been identified as one of the key works of the 'new aerospace history'. He has lectured on 'Earthrise' and the cultural history of the space age in London, Washington, DC, Lucerne, Paris, Berlin and Copenhagen, broadcast on US public radio, and in July 2009 wrote the op ed piece for the 'LA Times' on the fortieth anniversary of the Moon landing . Subsequent articles have explored the science fiction writer and techno-prophet Arthur C. Clarke, the 'apeman, spaceman' theme in '2001: a Space Odyssey', and the myth of progress in '2001: a Space Odyssey'. Another recent article, 'What was Whole about the Whole Earth?', provides a missing chapter to 'Earthrise'. In early 2016 he enjoyed a Short-Term Visitor Award at the Smithsonian Institution, National Air and Space Museum, to look at the recently-acquired papers of Arthur C. Clarke.

text: The expansion schedule was interrupted by the  disaster in 2003, with the resulting two year hiatus in the Space Shuttle programme halting station assembly. The space shuttle was grounded until 2005 with STS-114 flown by Discovery.

text: The expansion schedule was interrupted by the

text: disaster

text: in 2003, with the resulting two year hiatus in the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: me halting station assembly. The space shuttle was grounded until 2005 with

text: flown by Discovery.

text: In 2012, NASA researchers Metzger, Muscatello, Mueller, and Mantovani argued for a bootstrapping approach to start self-replicating factories in space. They developed this concept on the basis of In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) technologies that NASA has been developing to "live off the land" on the Moon or Mars. Their modeling showed that in just 20 to 40 years this industry could become self-sufficient then grow to large size, enabling greater exploration in space as well as providing benefits back to Earth. In 2014, Thomas Kalil of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy published on the White House blog an interview with Metzger on bootstrapping solar system civilization through self-replicating space industry. Kalil requested the public submit ideas for how "the Administration, the private sector, philanthropists, the research community, and storytellers can further these goals." Kalil connected this concept to what NASA Chief Scientist Mason Peck has dubbed "Massless Exploration", the ability to make everything in space so that you do not need to launch it from Earth. Peck has said, "...all the mass we need to explore the solar system is already in space. It's just in the wrong shape." In 2016, Metzger argued that fully self-replicating industry can be started over several decades by astronauts at a lunar outpost for a total cost (outpost plus starting the industry) of about a third of the space budgets of the International Space Station partner nations, and that this industry would solve Earth's energy and environmental problems in addition to providing massless exploration.

text: In 2012, NASA researchers Metzger, Muscatello, Mueller, and Mantovani argued for a bootstrapping approach to start self-replicating factories in space. They developed this concept on the basis of

text: In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU)

text: technologies that NASA has been developing to "live off the land" on the Moon or Mars. Their modeling showed that in just 20 to 40 years this industry could become self-sufficient then grow to large size, enabling greater exploration in space as well as providing benefits back to Earth. In 2014,

text: Thomas Kalil

text: of the White House

text: Office of Science and Technology Policy

text: published on the White House blog an interview with Metzger on bootstrapping solar system civilization through self-replicating space industry. Kalil requested the public submit ideas for how "the Administration, the private sector, philanthropists, the research community, and storytellers can further these goals." Kalil connected this concept to what NASA Chief Scientist

text: Mason Peck

text: has dubbed "Massless Exploration", the ability to make everything in space so that you do not need to launch it from Earth. Peck has said, "...all the mass we need to explore the solar system is already in space. It's just in the wrong shape." In 2016, Metzger argued that fully self-replicating industry can be started over several decades by astronauts at a lunar outpost for a total cost (outpost plus starting the industry) of about a third of the space budgets of the

text: International Space Station

text: partner nations, and that this industry would solve Earth's energy and environmental problems in addition to providing massless exploration.

text: In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimated that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of human space exploration has been many times the initial public investment. A review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spin-offs is actually "astoundingly bad", except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.

text: In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimated that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of

text: human space exploration

text: has been many times the initial public investment. A review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spin-offs is actually "astoundingly bad", except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.

text: Former NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin says the International Space Station has a role to play as NASA moves forward with a new focus for the manned space programme, which is to go out beyond Earth orbit for purposes of human exploration and scientific discovery. "The International Space Station is now a stepping stone on the way, rather than being the end of the line," Griffin said. Griffin has said that station crews will not only continue to learn how to live and work in space, but also will learn how to build hardware that can survive and function for the years required to make the round-trip voyage from Earth to Mars.

text: Former

text: NASA Administrator

text: Michael D. Griffin

text: says the International Space Station has a role to play as NASA moves forward with a new focus for the manned space programme, which is to go out beyond Earth orbit for purposes of human exploration and scientific discovery. "The International Space Station is now a stepping stone on the way, rather than being the end of the line," Griffin said. Griffin has said that station crews will not only continue to learn how to live and work in space, but also will learn how to build hardware that can survive and function for the years required to make the round-trip voyage from Earth to Mars.

text: The Solar System has now been relatively well-studied, and a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of this planetary system exists. However, there are large numbers of unsolved questions, and the rate of new discoveries is very high, partly due to the large number of interplanetary spacecraft currently exploring the Solar System.

text: Challenger is a 1990 American disaster drama television film based on the events surrounding the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.  Its production was somewhat controversial as the families of the astronauts generally objected to it. The film concentrates on the safety inspections and arguments surrounding the  O-rings that ultimately were blamed for the explosion of Challenger. While doing this, it also aims to show the personal humanity of the seven crew members. Generally, the film supports the Space Shuttle program and the dedication of NASA personnel in general while criticizing NASA management.

text: Challenger is a 1990 American

text: disaster

text: drama

text: television film

text: based on the events surrounding the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: .  Its production was somewhat controversial as the families of the astronauts generally objected to it. The film concentrates on the safety inspections and arguments surrounding the

text: O-ring

text: s that ultimately were blamed for the explosion of

text: Challenger

text: . While doing this, it also aims to show the personal humanity of the seven crew members. Generally, the film supports the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: and the dedication of NASA personnel in general while criticizing NASA management.

text: For both human and robotic exploration, traversing the solar system is a struggle against time and distance. The most distant planets are 4.5–6 billion kilometers from the Sun and to reach them in any reasonable time requires much more capable propulsion systems than conventional chemical rockets. Rapid inner solar system missions with flexible launch dates are difficult, requiring propulsion systems that are beyond today's current state of the art. The logistics, and therefore the total system mass required to support sustained human exploration beyond Earth to destinations such as the Moon, Mars or Near Earth Objects,are daunting unless more efficient in-space propulsion technologies are developed and fielded.

text: He was also a member of the Stafford-Covey Return to Flight Task Group, which helped set policies to return the space shuttle to flight after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: He was also a member of the

text: Stafford-Covey Return to Flight Task Group

text: , which helped set policies to return the

text: space shuttle

text: to flight after the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: Varying degrees of criticism exist regarding international space law. Some critics accept the Outer Space Treaty, but reject the Moon Agreement. Therefore, it is important to note that even the Moon Agreement with its common heritage of mankind clause, allows space mining, extraction, private property rights and exclusive ownership rights over natural outer space resources, if removed from their natural place. The Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement allow private property rights for outer space natural resources once removed from the surface, subsurface or subsoil of the moon and other celestial bodies in outer space. Thus, international space law is capable of managing newly emerging space mining activities, private space transportation, commercial spaceports and commercial space stations/habitats/settlements. Space mining involving the extraction and removal of natural resources from their natural location is without question allowable under the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement. Once removed, those natural resources can be reduced to possession, sold, traded and explored or used for scientific purposes. International space law allows space mining, specifically the extraction of natural resources. It is generally understood within the space law authorities that extracting space resources is allowable, even by private companies for profit. However, international space law prohibits property rights over territories and outer space land.

text: Until the age of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. The best modern ground-based telescopes and the Earth-orbiting Hubble Space Telescope can resolve a small amount of detail on the surfaces of the largest asteroids, but even these mostly remain little more than fuzzy blobs. Limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their light curves (their variation in brightness as they rotate) and their spectral properties, and asteroid sizes can be estimated by timing the lengths of star occulations (when an asteroid passes directly in front of a star). Radar imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters, especially for near-Earth asteroids. In terms of delta-v and propellant requirements, NEOs are more easily accessible than the Moon.

text: Until the age of

text: space travel

text: , objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. The best modern ground-based telescopes and the Earth-orbiting

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: can resolve a small amount of detail on the surfaces of the largest asteroids, but even these mostly remain little more than fuzzy blobs. Limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their

text: light curve

text: s (their variation in brightness as they rotate) and their spectral properties, and asteroid sizes can be estimated by timing the lengths of star occulations (when an asteroid passes directly in front of a star).

text: Radar

text: imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters, especially for near-Earth asteroids. In terms of

text: delta-v

text: and propellant requirements, NEOs are more easily accessible than the Moon.

text: The Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) was a plan for space exploration announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush. It was conceived as a response to the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, the state of human spaceflight at NASA, and as a way to regain public enthusiasm for space exploration. It was replaced by the space policy of the Barack Obama administration in June 2010.

text: The Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) was a plan for space exploration announced on January 14, 2004 by President

text: George W. Bush

text: . It was conceived as a response to the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , the state of

text: human spaceflight

text: at

text: NASA

text: , and as a way to regain public enthusiasm for

text: space exploration

text: . It was replaced by the

entity_name: Space policy of the Barack Obama administration

text: space policy of the Barack Obama administration

text: in June 2010.

text: The first space station, Salyut 1, and other one-piece or 'monolithic' first generation space stations, such as Salyut 2,3,4,5, DOS 2, Kosmos 557, Almaz and NASA's Skylab stations were not designed for re-supply. Generally, each crew had to depart the station to free the only docking port for the next crew to arrive, Skylab had more than one docking port but was not designed for resupply. Salyut 6 and 7 had more than one docking port and were designed to be resupplied routinely during crewed operation. Modular stations can allow the mission to be changed over time and new modules can be added or removed from the existing structure, allowing greater flexibility. The CCM is designed for replenishment of consumables and has a service life of at least 10 years. Length of the module is 18.1m, it is cylindrical with a maximum diameter of 4.2m and an on orbit mass between 20 and 22 thousand kilograms.

text: STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the 37th shuttle mission, and carried a classified payload for the U.S. Department of Defense. It was the 7th flight for Atlantis and the 7th flight dedicated to the Department of Defense. The mission was a 4-day mission that traveled more than 2 million miles and completed 79 revolutions. Atlantis landed at Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Landing Facility's runway 33. The launch was originally scheduled for July 1990, but was rescheduled due to a hydrogen leak found on  during the STS-35 countdown. During a rollback to the Orbiter Processing Facility Atlantis was damaged during a hail storm. The eventual launch date of 15 November 1990 was set due to a payload problem. The launch window was between 18:30 and 22:30 EST. The launch occurred at 18:48 EST.

text: STS-38 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission by

text: NASA

text: using the

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: . It was the 37th shuttle mission, and carried a

entity_name: Classified information in the United States

text: classified

text: payload for the

text: U.S. Department of Defense

text: . It was the 7th flight for Atlantis and the 7th flight dedicated to the Department of Defense. The mission was a 4-day mission that traveled more than 2 million miles and completed 79 revolutions. Atlantis landed at

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: 's

text: Shuttle Landing Facility

text: 's runway 33. The launch was originally scheduled for July 1990, but was rescheduled due to a hydrogen leak found on  during the

text: countdown. During a rollback to the

text: Orbiter Processing Facility

text: Atlantis was damaged during a hail storm. The eventual launch date of 15 November 1990 was set due to a payload problem. The launch window was between 18:30 and 22:30 EST. The launch occurred at 18:48 EST.

text: Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station Mir had a modular design; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that.  This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle. Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.

text: Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station

text: Mir

text: had a

text: modular

text: design; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that.  This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful

text: launch vehicle

text: . Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.

text: This documentary takes audiences on a journey deep into space through real images captured by the world’s most powerful telescopes. High-resolution images of space allow moviegoers to explore the earliest galaxies, watch stars being born in vivid clouds of gas and dust, tour the surface of Mars and witness images of distant celestial structures including stunning views of the Sun. These new images offer fresh insight into the origins and evolution of the universe.

text: This documentary takes audiences on a journey deep into space through real images captured by the world’s most powerful

text: telescope

text: s. High-resolution images of space allow moviegoers to explore the earliest

text: galaxies

text: , watch

text: star

text: s being born in vivid clouds of gas and dust, tour the surface of

text: Mars

text: and witness images of distant celestial structures including stunning views of the

text: Sun

text: . These new images offer fresh insight into the origins and evolution of the universe.

text: On January 14, 2004 President George W. Bush requested that NASA develop a proposal for continued manned space exploration after the completion of the International Space Station and the planned retirement of the Space Shuttle program in 2010. This proposal was to be a way to "establish an extended human presence on the Moon" to "vastly reduce the costs of further space exploration." Included in this would be the "harvesting and processing of lunar soil into rocket fuel or breathable air." According to Bush, experience gained could help "develop and test new approaches and technologies and systems" to begin a "sustainable course of long-term exploration."

text: On January 14, 2004 President

text: George W. Bush

text: requested that NASA develop a proposal for continued manned space exploration after the completion of the

text: International Space Station

text: and the planned retirement of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: program in 2010. This proposal was to be a way to "establish an extended human presence on the Moon" to "vastly reduce the costs of further space exploration." Included in this would be the "harvesting and processing of

text: lunar soil

text: into rocket fuel or breathable air." According to Bush, experience gained could help "develop and test new approaches and technologies and systems" to begin a "sustainable course of long-term exploration."

text: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that was carried into orbit by a Space Shuttle in April 1990. It is named after American astronomer Edwin Hubble. Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy. The HST is a collaboration between NASA and the European Space Agency, and is one of NASA's Great Observatories, along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope. The HST's success has paved the way for greater collaboration between the agencies.

text: The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a

text: space telescope

text: that was carried into

text: orbit

text: by a Space Shuttle in April 1990. It is named after American

text: astronomer

text: Edwin Hubble

text: . Although not the first space telescope, Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile, and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for

text: astronomy

text: . The HST is a collaboration between NASA and the

text: European Space Agency

text: , and is one of NASA's

text: Great Observatories

text: , along with the

text: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: , the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: , and the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: . The HST's success has paved the way for greater collaboration between the agencies.

text: The Doctor refers to humanity's first venture outside the Solar System as taking place in the time of Captain Adelaide Brooke's granddaughter. In the classic series episode The Invisible Enemy, the Fourth Doctor states that this milestone occurred in the 51st century. However, this contradicted a number of previous episodes where the First and Third Doctors visited human explorers and colonies in other star systems as early as the 25th century, and has been contradicted by many episodes since.

text: The Doctor refers to humanity's first venture outside the Solar System as taking place in the time of Captain Adelaide Brooke's granddaughter. In the classic series episode

text: The Invisible Enemy

text: , the

text: Fourth Doctor

text: states that this milestone occurred in the 51st century. However, this contradicted a number of previous episodes where the

text: First

text: and

text: Third

text: Doctors visited human explorers and colonies in other star systems as early as the 25th century, and has been contradicted by many episodes since.

text: A world leader in space exploration, Canada’s technological innovations include a robotic Canadarm used aboard US shuttle missions and the Mobile Servicing System foe the International Space Station.

text: During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing, Bush announced a vision to complete Space Station Freedom, resume exploration of the Moon and begin exploration of Mars. Although a space station was eventually constructed–work on the International Space Station began in 1998–other work has been confounded by NASA budgetary issues. In 1998, Bush received the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement's National Space Trophy for his pioneering leadership of the U.S. space program.

text: During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the

text: Apollo 11

text: moon landing, Bush announced a vision to complete

text: Space Station Freedom

text: , resume exploration of the

text: Moon

text: and begin exploration of

text: Mars

text: . Although a space station was eventually constructed–work on the

text: International Space Station

text: began in 1998–other work has been confounded by NASA budgetary issues. In 1998, Bush received the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement's National Space Trophy for his pioneering leadership of the U.S. space program.

text: Rocket engineer Wernher von Braun, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke, and other early advocates of manned space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of influential articles in Collier's magazine from 1952 to 1954, titled "Man Will Conquer Space Soon!". He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet (75m) in diameter that would rotate to generate artificial gravity and require a fleet of 7,000-ton (6,500-metric ton) space shuttles for construction in orbit. The 80 men aboard the station would include astronomers operating a telescope, meteorologists to forecast the weather, and soldiers to conduct surveillance. Von Braun expected that future expeditions to the Moon and Mars would leave from the station.

text: Rocket

text: engineer

text: Wernher von Braun

text: science fiction

text: writer

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: , and other early advocates of manned space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of influential articles in

text: Collier's

text: magazine from 1952 to 1954, titled "

text: Man Will Conquer Space Soon!

text: ". He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet (75m) in diameter that would rotate to generate

text: artificial gravity

text: and require a fleet of 7,000-ton (6,500-metric ton)

text: space shuttle

text: s for construction in orbit. The 80 men aboard the station would include astronomers operating a telescope, meteorologists to forecast the weather, and soldiers to conduct surveillance. Von Braun expected that future expeditions to the Moon and Mars would leave from the station.

text: The U.S. and Russia agreed to cooperate in terms of space exploration by working more as a team, rather than against one another. The U.S. and Russia agreed on several occasions to attempt to build one space station together, the International Space Station, to further improve space shuttle designs, and cooperative U.S. and Russian space technology research. The leaders of the space cooperation agreements of the Gore-Chernomyrdin Commission included NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin and General Director of the Russian Space Agency Yuri Koptev.

text: The U.S. and Russia agreed to cooperate in terms of space exploration by working more as a team, rather than against one another. The U.S. and Russia agreed on several occasions to attempt to build one space station together, the

text: International Space Station

text: , to further improve space shuttle designs, and cooperative U.S. and Russian space technology research. The leaders of the space cooperation agreements of the Gore-Chernomyrdin Commission included NASA Administrator

text: Daniel Goldin

text: and General Director of the Russian Space Agency

text: Yuri Koptev

text: The International Space Station programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies: NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RSA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), European Space Agency (ESA), and Canadian Space Agency (CSA). National budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects into the International Space Station. In 1993 the partially built components for a Soviet/Russian space station Mir-2, the proposed American Freedom, and the proposed European Columbus merged into this multinational programme. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The ISS is arguably the most expensive single item ever constructed, and may be one of the most significant instances of international cooperation in modern history.

text: The

text: International Space Station program

text: me is a joint project among five participating space agencies:

text: NASA

text: , the

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: (RSA),

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA),

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA), and

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: (CSA). National budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects into the

text: International Space Station

text: . In 1993 the partially built components for a Soviet/Russian space station

text: , the proposed American

text: Freedom

text: , and the proposed European

text: Columbus

text: merged into this multinational programme. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The ISS is arguably the most expensive single item ever constructed, and may be one of the most significant instances of international cooperation in modern history.

text: Space Station V is a fictional space station seen in the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey. Operational, it is a large, international, rotating wheel space station used as a transfer point from Low Earth orbit to the moon and other planets. It also functions as an orbital hotel. Rotation of the station provides artificial gravity for people aboard the station. The station contains two bays for docking spacecraft, placed on its rotational axis at opposite sides of the construction. At the time of events depicted in the film, it is still under construction with an incomplete second wheel. A Hilton hotel is located on board the film version of the vessel, the company's logo visible on-screen in several scenes. The station is served by shuttle service from the Earth's surface by Pan American World Airways and Aeroflot, the logos of both companies being depicted in the film; the former is seen on an Orion III shuttle spacecraft, and the latter is shown on the hand luggage of Russian scientists stopping at the station en route back to Earth.

text: Space Station V is a fictional

text: space station

text: seen in the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey. Operational, it is a large, international,

text: rotating wheel space station

text: used as a transfer point from

text: Low Earth orbit

text: to the moon and other

text: planet

text: s. It also functions as an orbital hotel. Rotation of the station provides

text: artificial gravity

text: for people aboard the station. The station contains two bays for docking spacecraft, placed on its rotational axis at opposite sides of the construction. At the time of events depicted in the film, it is still under construction with an incomplete second wheel. A

text: Hilton

text: hotel is located on board the film version of the vessel, the company's logo visible on-screen in several scenes. The station is served by shuttle service from the Earth's surface by

text: Pan American World Airways

text: and

text: Aeroflot

text: , the logos of both companies being depicted in the film; the former is seen on an Orion III shuttle spacecraft, and the latter is shown on the hand luggage of Russian scientists stopping at the station en route back to Earth.

text: He also played an active role launching NASA’s Teacher in Space Project to connect schoolchildren with science and space exploration. Christa McAuliffe, the first teacher in space, died in the space shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986.

text: He also played an active role launching NASA’s

text: Teacher in Space Project

text: to connect schoolchildren with science and space exploration.

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: , the first teacher in space, died in the

text: space shuttle Challenger disaster

text: in 1986.

text: Humans have developed specialized tools and strategies to explore specific areas of the Earth, including the arctic, caves, deserts, oceans, urban environments, as well as the Moon. With robotic machines, humans have also explored many parts of the heliosphere, and through measurements, beyond the Solar System and the Milky Way as part of an ongoing global space exploration initiative.

text: Humans have developed specialized tools and strategies to explore specific areas of the Earth, including the

text: arctic

text: caves

text: deserts

text: oceans

text: urban

text: environments, as well as the

text: Moon

text: . With robotic machines, humans have also explored many parts of the

text: heliosphere

text: , and through measurements, beyond the

text: Solar System

text: and the

text: Milky Way

text: as part of an ongoing global

text: space exploration

text: initiative.

text: The project had further evolved with space station "Modulny" ("Modular") based on the TKS design outline, reworked to dock with Salyut 7, Mir and ISS space stations. This development was designated FGB, or Functional Cargo Block.

text: The project had further evolved with space station "Modulny" ("Modular") based on the TKS design outline, reworked to dock with

text: Salyut 7

text: Mir

text: and

text: ISS

text: space stations. This development was designated FGB, or

text: Functional Cargo Block

text: In mathematics, overconvergent modular forms are special p-adic modular forms that are elements of certain  p-adic Banach spaces (usually infinite dimensional) containing classical spaces of modular forms as subspaces.  They were introduced by Nicholas M. Katz in 1972.

text: In

text: mathematics

text: , overconvergent modular forms are special

text: p-adic modular form

text: s that are elements of certain  p-adic Banach spaces (usually infinite dimensional) containing classical spaces of

text: modular form

text: s as subspaces.  They were introduced by

text: Nicholas M. Katz

text: in 1972.

text: Limitations on NASA's budget include a mandated continuation of the Space Shuttle program, including safety upgrades and testing; the mandated construction of the International Space Station; the mandated development of the Vision for Space Exploration architecture; programs outside of human spaceflight, consisting of science research and aeronautics research; and an ever-increasing share of NASA's budget devoted to line-item earmarks sometimes characterized as pork barrel spending.

text: Limitations on NASA's budget include a mandated continuation of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: program, including safety upgrades and testing; the mandated construction of the

text: International Space Station

text: ; the mandated development of the Vision for Space Exploration architecture; programs outside of human spaceflight, consisting of science research and aeronautics research; and an ever-increasing share of NASA's budget devoted to line-item earmarks sometimes characterized as

text: pork barrel

text: spending.

text: Jonathan Clark, NASA flight surgeon on six Space Shuttle missions—and whose wife, Laurel Clark, died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on shuttle mission STS-107—is a consultant on spacesuit and crew biological environment design for Excalibur Almaz.

text: Jonathan Clark, NASA

text: flight surgeon

text: on six

text: Space Shuttle

text: missions—and whose wife,

text: Laurel Clark

text: , died in the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: on shuttle mission

text: —is a consultant on

text: spacesuit

text: and crew biological environment design for Excalibur Almaz.

text: |-id=903| 8903 Paulcruikshank ||  || Paul Shammim Cruikshank (1964–2015), an American-Afghan humorist and musician |-id=904| 8904 Yoshihara || 1995 VY || Masahiro Yoshihara, Japanese amateur astronomer, independent discoverer of the outburst of the recurrent nova T Coronae Borealis. |-id=905| 8905 Bankakuko || 1995 WJ || Kakuko Ban, Japanese staff member of the planetarium section of the Hiroshima Children's Museum. |-id=906| 8906 Yano ||  || Hajime Yano (b. 1967), an expert in cosmic dust research and solar system exploration and a pioneer of in-situ studies of meteoroid and orbital debris in space. He also led the Japanese team for airborne observations of the 1998-2002 Leonid meteor storms and developed the sampling device for ISAS' MUSES-C mission. |-id=907| 8907 Takaji ||  || Takaji Kato (b. 1947), an associate professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=909| 8909 Ohnishitaka ||  || Takafumi Ohnishi (b. 1971), a systems engineer at Fujitsu Limited. |-id=911| 8911 Kawaguchijun || 1995 YA || Kawaguchi Jun'ichiro (b. 1955), project manager of the MUSES-C mission, designed to deliver the world's first sample-and-return spacecraft. |-id=912| 8912 Ohshimatake ||  || Takeshi Oshima (b. 1966) helped develop the MIC (Mars imaging camera) and SICPU (CPU board for science instruments) loaded on the first Japanese Mars exploration spacecraft "Nozomi". As a systems manager of NTSpace Ltd., he also helped develop the first Japanese sample-return Spacecraft, MUSES-C. |-id=914| 8914 Nickjames ||  || Nick James (b. 1962), a leading CCD imager and photometrist who has produced large numbers of precision light curves of cataclysmic variables and images of unusual variables stars and comets. |-id=915| 8915 Sawaishujiro ||  || Shujiro Sawai (b. 1966), an engineer in charge of the chemical propulsion system of MUSES-C, the Japanese sample-return mission. |-id=919| 8919 Ouyangziyuan ||  || Ouyang Ziyuan (b. 1935) is a Chinese cosmochemist, geochemist and space advocate. As Chief Scientist for China's Lunar Exploration Program (LEP), he has been responsible for the development of the long-term strategic plans for China's LEP.|-id=922| 8922 Kumanodake ||  || Zao Kumanodake, located between Miyagi and Yamagata prefectures in the northern part of mainland Japan. |-id=923| 8923 Yamakawa ||  || Hiroshi Yamakawa (b. 1965), an interplanetary trajectory and mission designer at ISAS. |-id=924| 8924 Iruma ||  || The Iruma area, Saitama prefecture, Japan. |-id=925| 8925 Boattini ||  || Andrea Boattini, Italian astronomer. |-id=926| 8926 Abemasanao || 1996 YK || Masanao Abe (b. 1967), a planetary scientist at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=927| 8927 Ryojiro || 1996 YT || Ryojiro Akiba (b. 1930), a professor of astronautics and former director-general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=929| 8929 Haginoshinji ||  || Shinji Hagino (b. 1959), an engineer who worked on the system design of Japanese scientific satellites such as HALCA (space VLBI satellite) and Akebono (aurora observation satellite). |-id=930| 8930 Kubota ||  || Takashi Kubota (b. 1960) works on intelligent robotics exploration at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. He was engaged in developing guidance, navigation and control for touchdown and asteroidal surface exploration by a rover in the Hayabusa sample return mission from (25143) Itokawa. |-id=931| 8931 Hirokimatsuo ||  || Hiroki Matsuo, former director general at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=932| 8932 Nagatomo ||  || Makoto Nagatomo (b. 1937), a pioneer in the field of electric propulsion. |-id=933| 8933 Kurobe ||  || The Kurobe ravine, in Toyama prefecture, is the largest and deepest in Japan. |-id=934| 8934 Nishimurajun ||  || Jun Nishimura (b. 1927) works in the fields of cosmic-ray physics and space systems engineering, including scientific ballooning. He served as the director general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science between 1988 and 1992, when the Japanese government approved the development of the M-V rocket. |-id=935| 8935 Beccaria ||  || Cesare Beccaria, Italian Enlightenment thinker †|-id=936| 8936 Gianni ||  || Named in honor of Gianni Ierman (b. 1955), Italian amateur astronomer, who was the first member to join the Farra d´Isonzo observatory club in 1969. He was the owner of the first club telescope and was the club president in the 1980s.|-id=937| 8937 Gassan ||  || Gassan, a volcanic mountain in central Yamagata prefecture. |-id=939| 8939 Onodajunjiro ||  || Junjiro Onoda (b. 1946), director of the Mu-series satellite launcher program of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=940| 8940 Yakushimaru ||  || Hiroko Yakushimaru (b. 1964), a Japanese actress and singer. |-id=941| 8941 Junsaito ||  || Jun Saito (b. 1962), a Japan mineralogist and planetologist. |-id=942| 8942 Takagi ||  || Yasuhiko Takagi, Japanese planetary scientist. |-id=943| 8943 Stefanozavka ||  || Stefano Zavka, 20th-century Italian Alpine guide, who disappeared during his second descent from the summit of K2 |-id=944| 8944 Ortigara ||  || Mount Ortigara, located near the Asiago Astrophysical Observatory, is one of the highest peaks in the Asiago Tableland and was the location of one of the most famous and bloodiest alpine battles of World War I. |-id=945| 8945 Cavaradossi || 1997 CM || Named for a character in Puccini's opera Tosca. Cavaradossi, a revolutionary and fighter against despotism, is imprisoned and condemned to die. |-id=946| 8946 Yoshimitsu || 1997 CO || Tetsuo Yoshimitsu (b. 1970) works on research and development of planetary rovers and is the chief engineer of the asteroid surface explorer MINERVA for the Hayabusa mission. The novel technology resulting from his studies of mobile systems on minor-planet surfaces in a microgravity environment was installed in MINERVA. |-id=947| 8947 Mizutani ||  || Hitoshi Mizutani (b. 1944) works mainly on the origin and evolution of the solar system and internal structures of planets. He has been a professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and played a leading role in Japanese lunar and planetary exploration. |-id=952| 8952 ODAS ||  || OCA-DLR Asteroid Survey. |-id=954| 8954 Baral ||  || Jessika Baral (born 1999) is a finalist in the 2012 Broadcom MASTERS, a math and science competition for middle-school students, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science, and microbiology project. |-id=957| 8957 Koujounotsuki ||  || Koujounotsuki, musical piece composed by Rentaro Taki. |-id=958| 8958 Stargazer ||  || This name honors in general those who since time immemorial have gazed up at the night sky in wonderment. It honors in particular the noble pursuit of amateur astronomy. |-id=959| 8959 Oenanthe || 2550 P-L || The wheatear, or Oenanthe oenanthe. |-id=960| 8960 Luscinioides || 2575 P-L || The Savi's warbler, or Locustella luscinioides. |-id=961| 8961 Schoenobaenus || 2702 P-L || The sedge warbler, or Acrocephalus schoenobaenus. |-id=962| 8962 Noctua || 2771 P-L || The little owl, or Athene noctua. |-id=963| 8963 Collurio || 4651 P-L || The red-backed shrike, or Lanius collurio. |-id=964| 8964 Corax || 7643 P-L || The raven, or Corvus corax. |-id=965| 8965 Citrinella || 9511 P-L || The yellowhammer, or Emberiza citrinella. |-id=966| 8966 Hortulana || 3287 T-1 || The ortolan bunting, or Emberiza hortulana. |-id=967| 8967 Calandra || 4878 T-1 || The corn bunting, or Miliaria calandra. |-id=968| 8968 Europaeus || 1212 T-2 || The nightjar, or Caprimulgus europaeus. |-id=969| 8969 Alexandrinus || 1218 T-2 || The Kentish plover, or Charadrius alexandrinus. |-id=970| 8970 Islandica || 1355 T-2 || The Barrow's goldeneye, or Bucephala islandica. |-id=971| 8971 Leucocephala || 2256 T-2 || The white-headed duck, or Oxyura leucocephala. |-id=972| 8972 Sylvatica || 2319 T-2 || The Andalusian hemipode, or Turnix sylvatica. |-id=973| 8973 Pratincola || 3297 T-2 || The wading bird Glareola pratincola, or collared pratincole. |-id=974| 8974 Gregaria || 3357 T-2 || The sociable plover, or Chettusia gregaria. |-id=975| 8975 Atthis || 4076 T-2 || The kingfisher, or Alcedo atthis. |-id=976| 8976 Leucura || 4221 T-2 || The black wheatear, or Oenanthe leucura. |-id=977| 8977 Paludicola || 4272 T-2 || The aquatic warbler, or Acrocephalus paludicola. |-id=978| 8978 Barbatus || 3109 T-3 || The lammergeier, or Gypaetus barbatus. |-id=979| 8979 Clanga || 3476 T-3 || The greater spotted eagle, or Aquila clanga. |-id=980| 8980 Heliaca || 4190 T-3 || The imperial eagle, or Aquila heliaca. |-id=982| 8982 Oreshek ||  || Oreshek, an ancient Russian fortress built in 1323. |-id=983| 8983 Rayakazakova ||  || Raisa Konstantinovna Kazakova, a celestial mechanician at the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics. |-id=984| 8984 Derevyanko ||  || Tatiana Timofeevna Derevyanko, a cinema-artist and director of the Dovzhenko Museum at the Dovzhenko Film Studio in Kiev. |-id=985| 8985 Tula ||  || Tula, a city in Russian Federation, the administrative focus of the region and prominent industrial and cultural center. |-id=986| 8986 Kineyayasuyo ||  || Yasuyo Kineya, elder sister of the discoverer|-id=990| 8990 Compassion || 1980 DN || Compassion (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=991| 8991 Solidarity ||  || Solidarity (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=992| 8992 Magnanimity ||  || Magnanimity (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=993| 8993 Ingstad || 1980 UL || Helge Ingstad, Norwegian explorer and scientist. |-id=994| 8994 Kashkashian || 1980 VG || Kim Kashkashian, a classical violinist. |-id=995| 8995 Rachelstevenson ||  || Rachel Stevenson (b. 1984), a postdoctoral fellow at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=996| 8996 Waynedwards ||  || Wayne N. Edwards (b. 1977), a research scientist with the Canadian Hazards Information Service. |-id=997| 8997 Davidblewett ||  || David T. Blewett (b. 1959), a senior staff member at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. |-id=998| 8998 Matthewizawa ||  || Matthew Richard Mitsuomi Izawa (b. 1979), a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Winnipeg. |-id=999| 8999 Tashadunn ||  || Tasha L. Dunn (b. 1978), a professor in the Department of Geology at Colby College. |-id=000| 9000 Hal || 1981 JO || HAL 9000, fictional computer in Space Odyssey series|}

text: 8903 Paulcruikshank

text: ||  || Paul Shammim Cruikshank (1964–2015), an American-Afghan humorist and musician |-id=904|

text: 8904 Yoshihara

text: || 1995 VY || Masahiro Yoshihara, Japanese amateur astronomer, independent discoverer of the outburst of the recurrent nova

text: T Coronae Borealis

text: . |-id=905|

text: 8905 Bankakuko

text: || 1995 WJ || Kakuko Ban, Japanese staff member of the planetarium section of the

text: Hiroshima Children's Museum

text: . |-id=906|

text: 8906 Yano

text: ||  || Hajime Yano (b. 1967), an expert in cosmic dust research and solar system exploration and a pioneer of in-situ studies of meteoroid and orbital debris in space. He also led the Japanese team for airborne observations of the 1998-2002 Leonid meteor storms and developed the sampling device for ISAS' MUSES-C mission. |-id=907|

text: 8907 Takaji

text: ||  || Takaji Kato (b. 1947), an associate professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=909|

text: 8909 Ohnishitaka

text: ||  || Takafumi Ohnishi (b. 1971), a systems engineer at Fujitsu Limited. |-id=911|

text: 8911 Kawaguchijun

text: || 1995 YA || Kawaguchi Jun'ichiro (b. 1955), project manager of the MUSES-C mission, designed to deliver the world's first sample-and-return spacecraft. |-id=912|

text: 8912 Ohshimatake

text: ||  || Takeshi Oshima (b. 1966) helped develop the MIC (Mars imaging camera) and SICPU (CPU board for science instruments) loaded on the first Japanese Mars exploration spacecraft "Nozomi". As a systems manager of NTSpace Ltd., he also helped develop the first Japanese sample-return Spacecraft, MUSES-C. |-id=914|

text: 8914 Nickjames

text: ||  || Nick James (b. 1962), a leading CCD imager and photometrist who has produced large numbers of precision light curves of cataclysmic variables and images of unusual variables stars and comets. |-id=915|

text: 8915 Sawaishujiro

text: ||  || Shujiro Sawai (b. 1966), an engineer in charge of the chemical propulsion system of MUSES-C, the Japanese sample-return mission. |-id=919|

text: 8919 Ouyangziyuan

text: ||  || Ouyang Ziyuan (b. 1935) is a Chinese cosmochemist, geochemist and space advocate. As Chief Scientist for China's Lunar Exploration Program (LEP), he has been responsible for the development of the long-term strategic plans for China's LEP.|-id=922|

text: 8922 Kumanodake

text: Zao Kumanodake

text: , located between Miyagi and Yamagata prefectures in the northern part of mainland Japan. |-id=923|

text: 8923 Yamakawa

text: ||  || Hiroshi Yamakawa (b. 1965), an interplanetary trajectory and mission designer at ISAS. |-id=924|

text: 8924 Iruma

text: ||  || The Iruma area,

text: Saitama prefecture

text: , Japan. |-id=925|

text: 8925 Boattini

text: Andrea Boattini

text: , Italian astronomer. |-id=926|

text: 8926 Abemasanao

text: || 1996 YK || Masanao Abe (b. 1967), a planetary scientist at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=927|

text: 8927 Ryojiro

text: || 1996 YT || Ryojiro Akiba (b. 1930), a professor of astronautics and former director-general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=929|

text: 8929 Haginoshinji

text: ||  || Shinji Hagino (b. 1959), an engineer who worked on the system design of Japanese scientific satellites such as HALCA (space VLBI satellite) and Akebono (aurora observation satellite). |-id=930|

text: 8930 Kubota

text: ||  || Takashi Kubota (b. 1960) works on intelligent robotics exploration at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. He was engaged in developing guidance, navigation and control for touchdown and asteroidal surface exploration by a rover in the Hayabusa sample return mission from (25143) Itokawa. |-id=931|

text: 8931 Hirokimatsuo

text: ||  || Hiroki Matsuo, former director general at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=932|

text: 8932 Nagatomo

text: ||  || Makoto Nagatomo (b. 1937), a pioneer in the field of electric propulsion. |-id=933|

text: 8933 Kurobe

text: ||  || The Kurobe ravine, in Toyama prefecture, is the largest and deepest in Japan. |-id=934|

text: 8934 Nishimurajun

text: ||  || Jun Nishimura (b. 1927) works in the fields of cosmic-ray physics and space systems engineering, including scientific ballooning. He served as the director general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science between 1988 and 1992, when the Japanese government approved the development of the M-V rocket. |-id=935|

text: 8935 Beccaria

text: Cesare Beccaria

text: , Italian Enlightenment thinker †|-id=936|

text: 8936 Gianni

text: ||  || Named in honor of Gianni Ierman (b. 1955), Italian amateur astronomer, who was the first member to join the Farra d´Isonzo observatory club in 1969. He was the owner of the first club telescope and was the club president in the 1980s.|-id=937|

text: 8937 Gassan

text: Gassan

text: , a volcanic mountain in central Yamagata prefecture. |-id=939|

text: 8939 Onodajunjiro

text: ||  || Junjiro Onoda (b. 1946), director of the Mu-series satellite launcher program of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=940|

text: 8940 Yakushimaru

text: Hiroko Yakushimaru

text: (b. 1964), a Japanese actress and singer. |-id=941|

text: 8941 Junsaito

text: ||  || Jun Saito (b. 1962), a Japan mineralogist and planetologist. |-id=942|

text: 8942 Takagi

text: ||  || Yasuhiko Takagi, Japanese planetary scientist. |-id=943|

text: 8943 Stefanozavka

text: ||  || Stefano Zavka, 20th-century Italian Alpine guide, who disappeared during his second descent from the summit of

text: 8944 Ortigara

text: Mount Ortigara

text: , located near the Asiago Astrophysical Observatory, is one of the highest peaks in the Asiago Tableland and was the location of one of the most famous and bloodiest alpine battles of World War I. |-id=945|

text: 8945 Cavaradossi

text: || 1997 CM || Named for a character in Puccini's opera

text: Tosca

text: . Cavaradossi, a revolutionary and fighter against despotism, is imprisoned and condemned to die. |-id=946|

text: 8946 Yoshimitsu

text: || 1997 CO || Tetsuo Yoshimitsu (b. 1970) works on research and development of planetary rovers and is the chief engineer of the asteroid surface explorer MINERVA for the Hayabusa mission. The novel technology resulting from his studies of mobile systems on minor-planet surfaces in a microgravity environment was installed in MINERVA. |-id=947|

text: 8947 Mizutani

text: ||  || Hitoshi Mizutani (b. 1944) works mainly on the origin and evolution of the solar system and internal structures of planets. He has been a professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and played a leading role in Japanese lunar and planetary exploration. |-id=952|

text: 8952 ODAS

text: OCA-DLR Asteroid Survey

text: . |-id=954|

text: 8954 Baral

text: ||  || Jessika Baral (born 1999) is a finalist in the 2012 Broadcom MASTERS, a math and science competition for middle-school students, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science, and microbiology project. |-id=957|

text: 8957 Koujounotsuki

text: Koujounotsuki

text: , musical piece composed by

text: Rentaro Taki

text: . |-id=958|

text: 8958 Stargazer

text: ||  || This name honors in general those who since time immemorial have gazed up at the night sky in wonderment. It honors in particular the noble pursuit of amateur astronomy. |-id=959|

text: 8959 Oenanthe

text: || 2550 P-L || The

text: wheatear

text: , or Oenanthe oenanthe. |-id=960|

text: 8960 Luscinioides

text: || 2575 P-L || The

text: Savi's warbler

text: , or Locustella luscinioides. |-id=961|

text: 8961 Schoenobaenus

text: || 2702 P-L || The

text: sedge warbler

text: , or Acrocephalus schoenobaenus. |-id=962|

text: 8962 Noctua

text: || 2771 P-L || The

text: little owl

text: , or Athene noctua. |-id=963|

text: 8963 Collurio

text: || 4651 P-L || The

text: red-backed shrike

text: , or Lanius collurio. |-id=964|

text: 8964 Corax

text: || 7643 P-L || The

text: raven

text: , or Corvus corax. |-id=965|

text: 8965 Citrinella

text: || 9511 P-L || The

text: yellowhammer

text: , or Emberiza citrinella. |-id=966|

text: 8966 Hortulana

text: || 3287 T-1 || The

text: ortolan bunting

text: , or Emberiza hortulana. |-id=967|

text: 8967 Calandra

text: || 4878 T-1 || The

text: corn bunting

text: , or Miliaria calandra. |-id=968|

text: 8968 Europaeus

text: || 1212 T-2 || The

text: nightjar

text: , or Caprimulgus europaeus. |-id=969|

text: 8969 Alexandrinus

text: || 1218 T-2 || The

text: Kentish plover

text: , or Charadrius alexandrinus. |-id=970|

text: 8970 Islandica

text: || 1355 T-2 || The

text: Barrow's goldeneye

text: , or Bucephala islandica. |-id=971|

text: 8971 Leucocephala

text: || 2256 T-2 || The

text: white-headed duck

text: , or Oxyura leucocephala. |-id=972|

text: 8972 Sylvatica

text: || 2319 T-2 || The

text: Andalusian hemipode

text: , or Turnix sylvatica. |-id=973|

text: 8973 Pratincola

text: || 3297 T-2 || The wading bird

text: Glareola pratincola

text: , or

text: collared pratincole

text: . |-id=974|

text: 8974 Gregaria

text: || 3357 T-2 || The

text: sociable plover

text: , or Chettusia gregaria. |-id=975|

text: 8975 Atthis

text: || 4076 T-2 || The

text: kingfisher

text: , or Alcedo atthis. |-id=976|

text: 8976 Leucura

text: || 4221 T-2 || The

text: black wheatear

text: , or Oenanthe leucura. |-id=977|

text: 8977 Paludicola

text: || 4272 T-2 || The

text: aquatic warbler

text: , or Acrocephalus paludicola. |-id=978|

text: 8978 Barbatus

text: || 3109 T-3 || The

text: lammergeier

text: , or Gypaetus barbatus. |-id=979|

text: 8979 Clanga

text: || 3476 T-3 || The

text: greater spotted eagle

text: , or Aquila clanga. |-id=980|

text: 8980 Heliaca

text: || 4190 T-3 || The

text: imperial eagle

text: , or Aquila heliaca. |-id=982|

text: 8982 Oreshek

text: Oreshek

text: , an ancient Russian fortress built in 1323. |-id=983|

text: 8983 Rayakazakova

text: ||  || Raisa Konstantinovna Kazakova, a celestial mechanician at the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics. |-id=984|

text: 8984 Derevyanko

text: ||  || Tatiana Timofeevna Derevyanko, a cinema-artist and director of the Dovzhenko Museum at the Dovzhenko Film Studio in Kiev. |-id=985|

text: 8985 Tula

text: Tula

text: , a city in Russian Federation, the administrative focus of the region and prominent industrial and cultural center. |-id=986|

text: 8986 Kineyayasuyo

text: Yasuyo Kineya

text: , elder sister of the discoverer|-id=990|

text: 8990 Compassion

text: || 1980 DN ||

text: Compassion

text: (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=991|

text: 8991 Solidarity

text: Solidarity

text: (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=992|

text: 8992 Magnanimity

text: Magnanimity

text: (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=993|

text: 8993 Ingstad

text: || 1980 UL ||

text: Helge Ingstad

text: Norwegian

text: explorer and scientist. |-id=994|

text: 8994 Kashkashian

text: || 1980 VG ||

text: Kim Kashkashian

text: , a classical violinist. |-id=995|

text: 8995 Rachelstevenson

text: ||  || Rachel Stevenson (b. 1984), a postdoctoral fellow at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=996|

text: 8996 Waynedwards

text: ||  || Wayne N. Edwards (b. 1977), a research scientist with the Canadian Hazards Information Service. |-id=997|

text: 8997 Davidblewett

text: ||  || David T. Blewett (b. 1959), a senior staff member at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. |-id=998|

text: 8998 Matthewizawa

text: ||  || Matthew Richard Mitsuomi Izawa (b. 1979), a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Winnipeg. |-id=999|

text: 8999 Tashadunn

text: ||  || Tasha L. Dunn (b. 1978), a professor in the Department of Geology at Colby College. |-id=000|

text: 9000 Hal

text: || 1981 JO ||

text: HAL 9000

text: , fictional computer in

text: Space Odyssey

text: series|}

text: The H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV), also called , is an automated cargo spacecraft used to resupply the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) and the International Space Station (ISS). The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has been working on the design since the early 1990s. The first mission, HTV-1, was originally intended to be launched in 2001. It launched at 17:01 UTC on 10 September 2009 on an H-IIB launch vehicle. The name Kounotori was chosen for the HTV by JAXA because "a white stork carries an image of conveying an important thing (a baby, happiness, and other joyful things), therefore, it precisely expresses the HTV's mission to transport essential materials to the ISS". It is the vehicle of choice to complete the ACES program, a project designed to put two atomic clocks in space—on the ISS.

text: The H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV), also called , is an

text: automated cargo spacecraft

text: used to resupply the

text: Kibō Japanese Experiment Module

text: (JEM) and the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (

text: JAXA

text: ) has been working on the design since the early 1990s. The first mission,

text: , was originally intended to be launched in 2001. It launched at 17:01 UTC on 10 September 2009 on an

text: H-IIB

text: launch vehicle. The name Kounotori was chosen for the HTV by JAXA because "a white stork carries an image of conveying an important thing (a baby, happiness, and other joyful things), therefore, it precisely expresses the HTV's mission to transport essential materials to the ISS". It is the vehicle of choice to complete the

text: ACES

text: program, a project designed to put two atomic clocks in space—on the ISS.

text: For example, the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters were equipped with explosive charges so that the boosters could be destroyed in the event that control was lost on launch and a populated area was in danger.  This feature can be seen in videos of the Challenger disaster.  After the initial disintegration of the shuttle, the two solid rocket boosters continued firing until they exploded simultaneously 37 seconds later.  This occurred when the Range Safety Officer decided that the separated boosters had the potential to endanger those on the ground and activated the self-destruct system.

text: For example, the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: s were equipped with explosive charges so that the boosters could be destroyed in the event that control was lost on launch and a populated area was in danger.  This feature can be seen in videos of the

text: Challenger disaster

text: .  After the initial disintegration of the shuttle, the two solid rocket boosters continued firing until they exploded simultaneously 37 seconds later.  This occurred when the

text: Range Safety Officer

text: decided that the separated boosters had the potential to endanger those on the ground and activated the self-destruct system.

text: It is still early in mankind's expansion into space, and exploration has reached little beyond 40 light years from Earth. As of the time period of the game, each of the three Arms is saddled with a particular difficulty. The French Arm is the route along which the alien Kafer are pushing an aggressive invasion into Human space. The Chinese Arm is beset by an insurgent terrorist faction. The American Arm has reached a dead end, further expansion along it impossible under available technology.

text: The Expedition 3 mission patch depicts the book of space history, turning from the chapter with the Russian space station Mir and the space shuttle to the next chapter, one that will be written on the blank pages of the future by space explorers working for the benefit of the entire world. Above the book is a layout of what the station will look like when completed, docked with the space shuttle.

text: In the section "Exploration of the Solar System", the report points out that there are too few planetary exploration missions planned. It proposes some new missions, such as a cometary mission, an extended Cassini mission (including three probes; one for the study of the atmosphere of Saturn, one atmospheric Titan probe and one to land on Titan) and a Mars sample return mission.

text: In the section "Exploration of the Solar System", the report points out that there are too few

text: planetary exploration

text: missions planned. It proposes some new missions, such as a cometary mission, an extended

text: Cassini

text: mission (including three probes; one for the study of the atmosphere of

text: Saturn

text: , one atmospheric

text: Titan

text: probe and one to land on Titan) and a

text: Mars

text: sample return mission.

text: A space station is a manned satellite designed to remain in low Earth orbit for a long period of time. In general, space stations have the ability for other spacecraft to dock to them.  , the International Space Station and Tiangong 1 are the only operational space stations currently in orbit. Previous stations include the Salyut and Almaz series, Skylab, and, most recently, Mir.

text: A

text: space station

text: is a manned

text: satellite

text: designed to remain in

text: low Earth orbit

text: for a long period of time. In general, space stations have the ability for other

text: spacecraft

text: to dock to them.  , the

text: International Space Station

text: and

text: Tiangong 1

text: are the only operational space stations currently in orbit. Previous stations include the

text: Salyut

text: and

text: Almaz

text: series,

text: Skylab

text: , and, most recently,

text: Mir

text: Astronauts who had recently returned from space missions to the Hubble Space Telescope, the International Space Station and Mir Space Station, to name a few, reported seeing the LF under different conditions. In order of decreasing frequency of reporting in a survey, they saw the LF in the dark, in dim light, in bright light and one reported that he saw them regardless of light level and light adaptation. They were seen mainly before sleeping.

text: The Space Shuttle program was extended several times beyond its originally envisioned 15-year life span because of the delays in building the United States space station in low Earth orbit — a project which eventually evolved into the International Space Station. It was formally scheduled for mandatory retirement in 2010 in accord with the directives President George W. Bush issued on January 14, 2004 in his Vision for Space Exploration.

text: The Space Shuttle program was extended several times beyond its originally envisioned 15-year life span because of the delays in building the United States space station in low Earth orbit — a project which eventually evolved into the

text: International Space Station

text: . It was formally scheduled for mandatory retirement in 2010 in accord with the directives President George W. Bush issued on January 14, 2004 in his Vision for Space Exploration.

text: STS-109 Columbia (March 1–12, 2002). STS-109 was the fourth Hubble Space Telescope (HST) servicing mission. The STS-109 crew successfully upgraded the Hubble Space Telescope leaving it with a new power unit, a new camera and new solar arrays. HST servicing and upgrade was accomplished by four crewmembers during a total of 5 EVAs in 5 consecutive days. The space walkers were assisted by crewmates inside Space Shuttle Columbia. STS-109 orbited the Earth 165 times, and covered 3.9 million miles in over 262 hours, culminating in a night landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

text: Columbia

text: (March 1–12, 2002). STS-109 was the fourth

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST) servicing mission. The STS-109 crew successfully upgraded the Hubble Space Telescope leaving it with a new power unit, a new camera and new solar arrays. HST servicing and upgrade was accomplished by four crewmembers during a total of 5 EVAs in 5 consecutive days. The

text: space walkers

text: were assisted by crewmates inside Space Shuttle Columbia. STS-109 orbited the Earth 165 times, and covered 3.9 million miles in over 262 hours, culminating in a night landing at

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: The Space Shuttle program has been criticized for failing to achieve its promised cost and utility goals, as well as design, cost, management, and safety issues. Others have argued that the Shuttle program was a step backwards from the Apollo Program, which, while extremely dangerous, accomplished far more scientific and space exploration endeavors than the Shuttle ever could.

text: The Space Shuttle was fitted with ejection seats for the two pilots in the initial "shakedown" flights, but these were removed once the vehicle was deemed operational and carried additional crew members, which could not be provided with escape hatches. Following the Challenger disaster, all surviving orbiters were fitted to allow for crew evacuation through the main ingress/egress hatch, only when the Shuttle was in a controlled glide, as the crew would have had to reach the exit from their seats and jump out.

text: The

text: Space Shuttle

text: was fitted with ejection seats for the two pilots in the initial "shakedown" flights, but these were removed once the vehicle was deemed operational and carried additional crew members, which could not be provided with escape hatches. Following the

text: Challenger disaster

text: , all surviving orbiters were fitted to allow for crew evacuation through the main ingress/egress hatch, only when the Shuttle was in a controlled glide, as the crew would have had to reach the exit from their seats and jump out.

text: After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the Challenger disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was put on hold; the station relied entirely on the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation for resupply for 29 months until Shuttle flights resumed with STS-114 and 41 months for crew rotation until STS-121.

text: After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the

text: Challenger disaster

text: . Construction of the

text: International Space Station

text: Roscosmos State Corporation

text: and 41 months for crew rotation until

text: NASA's budget for 2005 allocated 30%, or $5 billion, to space shuttle operations; this was decreased in 2006 to a request of $4.3 billion. Non-launch costs account for a significant part of the program budget: for example, during fiscal years 2004 to 2006, NASA spent around $13 billion on the space shuttle program, even though the fleet was grounded in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster and there were a total of three launches during this period of time. In fiscal year 2009, NASA budget allocated $2.98 billion for 5 launches to the program, including $490 million for "program integration", $1.03 billion for "flight and ground operations", and $1.46 billion for "flight hardware" (which includes maintenance of orbiters, engines, and the external tank between flights.)

text: NASA's budget

text: for 2005 allocated 30%, or $5 billion, to space shuttle operations; this was decreased in 2006 to a request of $4.3 billion. Non-launch costs account for a significant part of the program budget: for example, during fiscal years 2004 to 2006, NASA spent around $13 billion on the space shuttle program, even though the fleet was grounded in the aftermath of the Columbia disaster and there were a total of three launches during this period of time. In fiscal year 2009, NASA budget allocated $2.98 billion for 5 launches to the program, including $490 million for "program integration", $1.03 billion for "flight and ground operations", and $1.46 billion for "flight hardware" (which includes maintenance of orbiters, engines, and the external tank between flights.)

text: As the Apollo build-out started to wind down in 1966, NASA started looking at their future through and after the 1970s. In the short term a number of different uses of surplus Saturn hardware were grouped together into the Apollo Applications Program office, rounding out missions into the mid 1970s. Beyond that, NASA evolved an aggressive program that included a permanently manned space station, a small lunar base, and eventually a manned mission to Mars. Almost as an afterthough, the idea of a "logistics vehicle" developed in order to lower the cost of space station operations. The vehicle was dedicated to changing crews on the space station on a weekly basis, or as Walter Dornberger put it, "an economical space plane capable of putting a fresh egg, every morning, on the table of every crew member of a space station circling the globe."

text: As the Apollo build-out started to wind down in 1966, NASA started looking at their future through and after the 1970s. In the short term a number of different uses of surplus Saturn hardware were grouped together into the

text: Apollo Applications Program

text: office, rounding out missions into the mid 1970s. Beyond that, NASA evolved an aggressive program that included a permanently manned

text: space station

text: , a small lunar base, and eventually a manned mission to Mars. Almost as an afterthough, the idea of a "logistics vehicle" developed in order to lower the cost of space station operations. The vehicle was dedicated to changing crews on the space station on a weekly basis, or as

text: Walter Dornberger

text: put it, "an economical space plane capable of putting a fresh egg, every morning, on the table of every crew member of a space station circling the globe."

text: The Enterprise was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 13, 2013, reference number 13000071, in recognition of its role in the development of the Space Shuttle Program. The historic significance criteria are in space exploration, transportation, and engineering.

text: The Enterprise was listed on the

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: on March 13, 2013, reference number 13000071, in recognition of its role in the development of the Space Shuttle Program. The historic significance criteria are in space exploration, transportation, and engineering.

text: The policy reaffirms a continuing European commitment to the International Space Station (ISS), and describes ESA participation in future international exploration programmes as being important.

text: The policy reaffirms a continuing European commitment to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), and describes ESA participation in future international exploration programmes as being important.

text: This is for a timeline of space exploration including notable achievements and first accomplishments in humanity's exploration of outer space.

text: This is for a timeline of

text: space exploration

text: including notable achievements and first accomplishments in humanity's exploration of

text: outer space

text: Manned and unmanned vehicles have been used to explore the Moon and other planets in the solar system. On the last three missions of the Apollo program in 1971 and 1972, astronauts drove silver-oxide battery-powered Lunar Roving Vehicles distances up to  on the lunar surface. Unmanned, solar-powered rovers have explored the Moon and Mars.

text: Manned and unmanned vehicles have been used to explore the

text: Moon

text: and other planets in the

text: solar system

text: . On the last three missions of the

text: Apollo program

text: in 1971 and 1972, astronauts drove

text: silver-oxide battery

text: -powered

text: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: s distances up to  on the lunar surface. Unmanned,

text: solar-powered

text: rovers have explored the Moon and

text: Mars

text: In 1991, the primary was found to have an excess of infrared emission, implying that it has a circumstellar debris disk. Observations using the Near-Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer aboard the Hubble Space Telescope in 2007 indicated that the dust had a reddish spectrum similar to that of tholins. The disk was resolved with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2009, confirming that it exists. Based on these images, the disk has a radius of 75 AU and a width of less than 18.5 AU. It may have some asymmetries and the center appears to be slightly offset from the star. The dust in the disk is likely the result of collisions between larger particles. In 2011, observations of the ring offset by the Subaru Telescope implies that one or more planets would likely exist within gaps tugging at its dust grains. With a new image in 2014, the configuration and alignment of the dust ring and HR4796A has been nicknamed "Eye of Sauron".

text: In 1991, the primary was found to have an

text: excess of infrared emission

text: , implying that it has a circumstellar

text: debris disk

text: . Observations using the Near-Infrared Multi-Object Spectrometer aboard the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: in 2007 indicated that the dust had a reddish spectrum similar to that of

text: tholin

text: s. The disk was resolved with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2009, confirming that it exists. Based on these images, the disk has a radius of 75 AU and a width of less than 18.5 AU. It may have some asymmetries and the center appears to be slightly offset from the star. The dust in the disk is likely the result of collisions between larger particles. In 2011, observations of the ring offset by the

text: Subaru Telescope

text: implies that one or more planets would likely exist within gaps tugging at its dust grains. With a new image in 2014, the configuration and alignment of the dust ring and HR4796A has been nicknamed "

text: Eye of Sauron

text: After previous engineering tests with the Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 space stations (and temporarily attached TKS derived space station modules like Kosmos 1267, Kosmos 1443 and Kosmos 1686) it became the first space station module to be attached semipermanently to the first modular space station in the history of space flight.Kvant-1 was originally planned to be docked to the Salyut 7 space station, the plans however evolved to launch to Mir, initially considered on board the Soviet Buran space shuttle, which finally changed to a launch to Mir by the Proton-K rocket.

text: After previous engineering tests with the

text: Salyut 6

text: and

text: Salyut 7

text: space stations (and temporarily attached TKS derived space station modules like

text: Kosmos 1267

text: Kosmos 1443

text: and

text: Kosmos 1686

text: ) it became the first space station module to be attached semipermanently to the first modular space station in the history of space flight.Kvant-1 was originally planned to be docked to the Salyut 7 space station, the plans however evolved to launch to Mir, initially considered on board the Soviet

text: Buran

text: space shuttle

text: , which finally changed to a launch to Mir by the

text: Proton-K

text: rocket.

text: Shuttle is a  space flight simulator game developed by Vektor Grafix and published by Virgin Games. It has been praised as a reasonably accurate simulation game of piloting the NASA Space Shuttle.

text: Shuttle is a

text: space flight simulator game

text: developed by

text: Vektor Grafix

text: and published by

text: Virgin Games

text: . It has been praised as a reasonably accurate simulation game of piloting the

text: NASA

text: Space Shuttle

text: The OTC station’s eight years of communications support for the Carnarvon Tracking Station began on 4 February 1967, three weeks after Intelsat-2B was launched. A larger parabolic antenna was commissioned in late 1969 to upgrade the support for the later Apollo missions. OTC continued to provide communications support for NASA space programs until the NASA station closed early in 1975. Thereafter it tracked some NASA missions on its own account.

text: The OTC station’s eight years of communications support for the

text: Carnarvon Tracking Station

text: began on 4 February 1967, three weeks after Intelsat-2B was launched. A larger parabolic antenna was commissioned in late 1969 to upgrade the support for the later Apollo missions. OTC continued to provide communications support for

text: NASA

text: space programs until the

text: NASA station

text: closed early in 1975. Thereafter it tracked some NASA missions on its own account.

text: Envihab® is a medical research facility of the Institute of Aerospace Medicine of the German Aerospace Center (DLR'''®''') where the effects of diverse environmental conditions on humans are being analyzed and explored as well as possible countermeasures are being developed. The name Envihab is a combination of the words “environment” and “habitat” (Latin: home/living space). The concept of Envihab is to deal with complex problems of a life support system and the interaction between humans and the environment from a medical, biological and psychological point of view. Major focus will be put on research topics that deal with providing for health and performance of humans. The modular house-in-house concept makes it possible to use the different units and the technical equipment without leaving the building. 12 test persons can permanently be exposed to equal and controlled environmental conditions. Total floor space of :envihab is approx. 3.500 square meters.

text: Envihab® is a medical research facility of the

text: Institute of Aerospace Medicine

text: of the

text: German Aerospace Center

text: (DLR'''®''') where the effects of diverse environmental conditions on humans are being analyzed and explored as well as possible countermeasures are being developed. The name Envihab is a combination of the words “environment” and “habitat” (Latin: home/living space). The concept of Envihab is to deal with complex problems of a

text: life support system

text: and the interaction between humans and the environment from a medical, biological and psychological point of view. Major focus will be put on research topics that deal with providing for health and performance of humans. The modular house-in-house concept makes it possible to use the different units and the technical equipment without leaving the building. 12 test persons can permanently be exposed to equal and controlled environmental conditions. Total floor space of :envihab is approx. 3.500 square meters.

text: In part because of Star Trek, the term space shuttle has permanently entered Earth's vocabulary as a vehicle for traveling between a planetary surface and space. Wernher Von Braun in the 1950s conceived of a reusable winged spacecraft as a ferry rocket. Plans for such vehicles were referred to as "DC-3" by spacecraft designer Maxime Faget and Integrated Launch and Reentry Vehicle (ILRV) by NASA. During the late 1960s, while Star Trek: The Original Series was being broadcast, these concepts became known as Space Shuttle. In a speech given to the British Interplanetary Society in August 1968 George Mueller, head of the NASA Office of Manned Space Flight, mentioned the need for a Space Shuttle. This was the earliest known official use of the term.

text: In part because of Star Trek, the term space shuttle has permanently entered Earth's vocabulary as a vehicle for traveling between a planetary surface and space.

text: Wernher Von Braun

text: in the 1950s conceived of a reusable winged spacecraft as a

text: ferry rocket

text: . Plans for such vehicles were referred to as "DC-3" by spacecraft designer

text: Maxime Faget

text: and Integrated Launch and Reentry Vehicle (ILRV) by

text: NASA

text: . During the late 1960s, while

text: Star Trek: The Original Series

text: was being broadcast, these concepts became known as

text: Space Shuttle

text: . In a speech given to the

text: British Interplanetary Society

text: in August 1968

text: George Mueller

text: , head of the NASA Office of Manned Space Flight, mentioned the need for a Space Shuttle. This was the earliest known official use of the term.

text: Closing the book are two missions that explore the edges of space and time. The Hubble Space Telescope has embedded itself deeply into the consciousness of the general public and has contributed to every area of astrophysics. In particular it has quantified the limits of our vision, a region 46 billion light years in any direction, which contains roughly 100 billion galaxies. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe was a specialist mission to map the microwave sky and pin down physical conditions in the infant universe. By confirming the big bang model in great detail, this microwave satellite has shown that there are likely innumerable distant worlds out there whose light has not yet reached us in the time since the big bang.

text: Closing the book are two missions that explore the edges of space and time. The

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: has embedded itself deeply into the consciousness of the general public and has contributed to every area of

text: astrophysics

text: . In particular it has quantified the limits of our vision, a region 46 billion

text: light years

text: in any direction, which contains roughly 100 billion galaxies. The

text: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe

text: was a specialist mission to map the microwave sky and pin down physical conditions in the infant universe. By confirming the

text: big bang

text: model in great detail, this microwave satellite has shown that there are likely innumerable distant worlds out there whose light has not yet reached us in the time since the big bang.

text: NASA's Discovery Program (as compared to New Frontiers or Flagship Programs) is a series of lower-cost, highly focused American scientific space missions that are exploring the Solar System. It was founded in 1992 to implement then-NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin's vision of "faster, better, cheaper" planetary missions. Discovery missions differ from traditional NASA missions where targets and objectives are pre-specified. Instead, these cost-capped missions are proposed and led by a scientist called the Principal Investigator (PI). Proposing teams may include people from industry, small businesses, government laboratories, and universities. Proposals are selected through a competitive peer review process. All of the completed Discovery missions are accomplishing ground-breaking science and adding significantly to the body of knowledge about the Solar System.

text: NASA

text: 's Discovery Program (as compared to

text: New Frontiers

text: or

text: Flagship

text: Programs) is a series of lower-cost, highly focused American scientific space missions that are exploring the Solar System. It was founded in 1992 to implement then-NASA Administrator

text: Daniel S. Goldin

text: 's vision of "faster, better, cheaper" planetary missions. Discovery missions differ from traditional NASA missions where targets and objectives are pre-specified. Instead, these cost-capped missions are proposed and led by a scientist called the

text: Principal Investigator

text: (PI). Proposing teams may include people from industry, small businesses, government laboratories, and universities. Proposals are selected through a competitive peer review process. All of the completed Discovery missions are accomplishing ground-breaking science and adding significantly to the body of knowledge about the Solar System.

text: In June 1992, American President George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to co-operate on space exploration by signing the Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes. This agreement called for setting up a short, joint space project, during which one American astronaut would board the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts would board a Space Shuttle.

text: In June 1992,

text: American President

text: George H. W. Bush

text: and

text: Russian president

text: Boris Yeltsin

text: agreed to co-operate on

text: space exploration

text: by signing the Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes. This agreement called for setting up a short, joint space project, during which one American

text: astronaut

text: would board the Russian space station Mir and two Russian

text: cosmonauts

text: would board a Space Shuttle.

text: Along with developing an off road racing program under Off-Road International, they also worked to create Scientific Exploration Vehicles as well as a line of off road accessories. In 2007, Racefab Inc., working with NASA was contracted to work on the design and construction of two Lunar Electric Rovers under the Advanced Explorations Systems Program. These were constructed for the planned 2020 Orion Missions for the planned return to the moon. In 2009, the Racefab Inc. built rovers participated in the First inauguration of Barack Obama concluding the ceremonies. The rovers were later featured in an episode of Top Gear as well as many other print publications. After the Orion program was cancelled, the rovers were reclassified as Space Exploration Vehicles and given new missions for the future including Mars Exploration as well as asteroid landings. The rovers can be seen in action on Mars before they launch however in the movie The Martian (film) starring Matt Damon.

text: Along with developing an off road racing program under Off-Road International, they also worked to create Scientific Exploration Vehicles as well as a line of off road accessories. In 2007, Racefab Inc., working with

text: NASA

text: was contracted to work on the design and construction of two

text: Lunar Electric Rover

text: s under the Advanced Explorations Systems Program. These were constructed for the planned 2020 Orion Missions for the planned return to the moon. In 2009, the Racefab Inc. built rovers participated in the

text: First inauguration of Barack Obama

text: concluding the ceremonies. The rovers were later featured in an episode of

text: Top Gear

text: as well as many other print publications. After the Orion program was cancelled, the rovers were reclassified as Space Exploration Vehicles and given new missions for the future including Mars Exploration as well as asteroid landings. The rovers can be seen in action on Mars before they launch however in the movie

text: The Martian (film)

text: starring

text: Matt Damon

text: However, infrared telescope have an achilles heelthey need to stay extremely cold, and longer the wavelength of infrared, they colder they need to be. If not, the background heat of the device itself overwhelms the detectors, making it effectively blind. This can be overcome by careful spacecraft design, in particular placing the telescope in dewar with an extremely cold substance, such as liquid helium. This has meant most infrared telescope have a lifespan limited by their coolant, as short as few months, maybe a few year at most.  In 1985 the Space Shuttle Infrared Telescope (IRT) was launched in 1985 with that advantage that the helium dewar that kept it cold could be re-filled after the mission, however, much of the longer-wavelength data was corrupted in part by heat emissions from the Space Shuttle. It has been possible to maintain a temperature low enough through the design of the spacecraft to enable near-infrared observations without a supply of coolant, such as the extended missions of Spitzer or NEOWISE. Another examples is Hubble's NICMOS instrument, which started using a block of nitrogen ice that depleted after a couple years, but was then converted to a crycooler that worked continuously. The James Webb Space Telescope is designed to cool itself without a dewar, using a combination of sun-shield and radiators and the mid-infrared instrument using an additional crycooler.

text: Moonwatch complemented the professional system of satellite tracking stations that Fred Whipple organized around the globe. These two networks – one composed of amateurs and the other of seasoned professionals – helped further Whipple’s personal goals of expanding his own astronomical empire. Operation Moonwatch was the most successful amateur activity of the IGY and it became the public face of a satellite tracking network that expanded the Smithsonian’s global reach. Whipple used satellite tracking as a gateway for his observatory to participate in new research opportunities that appeared in the early years of space exploration.

text: Recent technology has allowed prototypes for laser communications and visible light communication in outer space. The communication range of free-space optical communication is currently of the order of several thousand kilometers, but has the potential to bridge interplanetary distances of millions of kilometers, using optical telescopes as beam expanders.

text: Recent technology has allowed prototypes for

text: laser communication

text: s and

text: visible light communication

text: in

text: outer space

text: . The communication range of free-space optical communication is currently of the order of several thousand kilometers, but has the potential to bridge interplanetary distances of millions of kilometers, using optical telescopes as

text: beam expander

text: s.

text: The 3.67-meter telescope, known as the Advanced Electro-Optical System (AEOS), owned by the Department of Defense, is the United States' largest optical telescope designed for tracking satellites. The 75-ton AEOS telescope points and tracks very accurately, yet is fast enough to track both low-Earth satellites and ballistic missiles. It can slew at nearly 20 degrees per second. It is an f/200 and has an extremely narrow field of view. AEOS can be used simultaneously by many groups or institutions because its light can be channeled through a series of mirrors to seven independent coudé rooms below the telescope. Employing sophisticated sensors that include an adaptive optics system, radiometer, spectrograph, and long-wave infrared imager, the telescope tracks man-made objects in deep space and performs space object identification data collection.

text: The 3.67-meter telescope, known as the Advanced Electro-Optical System (AEOS), owned by the

text: Department of Defense

text: , is the

text: United States

text: ' largest optical telescope designed for tracking satellites. The 75-ton AEOS telescope points and tracks very accurately, yet is fast enough to track both low-Earth satellites and

text: ballistic missile

text: s. It can slew at nearly 20 degrees per second. It is an f/200 and has an extremely narrow field of view. AEOS can be used simultaneously by many groups or institutions because its light can be channeled through a series of mirrors to seven independent coudé rooms below the telescope. Employing sophisticated sensors that include an adaptive optics system,

text: radiometer

text: spectrograph

text: GSFC manages operations for many NASA and international missions including the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the Explorer program, the Discovery Program, the Earth Observing System (EOS), INTEGRAL, MAVEN, OSIRIS-REx, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), and Swift. Past missions managed by GSFC include the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE), Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, SMM, COBE, IUE, and ROSAT. Typically, unmanned earth observation missions and observatories in Earth orbit are managed by GSFC, while unmanned planetary missions are managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California.

text: GSFC manages operations for many NASA and international missions including the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST), the

text: Explorer program

text: , the

text: Discovery Program

text: , the

text: Earth Observing System

text: (EOS),

text: INTEGRAL

text: MAVEN

text: OSIRIS-REx

text: , the

text: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

text: (SOHO), the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO), and

text: Swift

text: . Past missions managed by GSFC include the

text: Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer

text: (RXTE),

text: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: SMM

text: COBE

text: IUE

text: , and

text: ROSAT

text: . Typically, unmanned earth observation missions and observatories in Earth orbit are managed by GSFC, while unmanned planetary missions are managed by the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: (JPL) in

text: Pasadena, California

text: SERENDIP (Search for Extraterrestrial Radio Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent Populations) is a SETI program launched in 1979 by the University of California, Berkeley. SERENDIP takes advantage of ongoing "mainstream" radio telescope observations as a "piggy-back" or "commensal" program, using large radio telescopes including the NRAO 90m telescope at Green Bank and the Arecibo 305m telescope. Rather than having its own observation program, SERENDIP analyzes deep space radio telescope data that it obtains while other astronomers are using the telescopes.

text: SERENDIP (Search for Extraterrestrial Radio Emissions from Nearby Developed Intelligent Populations) is a SETI program launched in 1979 by the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: . SERENDIP takes advantage of ongoing "mainstream"

text: radio telescope

text: observations as a "

text: piggy-back

text: " or "

text: commensal

text: " program, using large radio telescopes including the NRAO 90m telescope at Green Bank and the

text: Arecibo 305m telescope

text: . Rather than having its own observation program, SERENDIP analyzes

text: deep space

text: radio telescope data that it obtains while other

text: astronomer

text: s are using the telescopes.

text: The challenge of getting anything at all to space, due to launch constraints, has had a profound effect on the physical shapes of space architecture.  All space habitats to date have used modular architecture design.  Payload fairing dimensions (typically the width but also the height) of modern launch vehicles limit the size of rigid components launched into space.  This approach to building large scale structures in space involves launching multiple modules separately and then manually assembling them afterward.  Modular architecture results in a layout similar to a tunnel system where passage through several modules is often required to reach any particular destination.  It also tends to standardize the internal diameter or width of pressurized rooms, with machinery and furniture placed along the circumference.  These types of space stations and surface bases can generally only grow by adding additional modules in one or more direction.  Finding adequate working and living space is often a major challenge with modular architecture.  As a solution, flexible furniture (collapsible tables, curtains on rails, deployable beds) can be used to transform interiors for different functions and change the partitioning between private and group space.  For more discussion of the factors that influence shape in space architecture, see the Varieties section.

text: The challenge of getting anything at all to space, due to launch constraints, has had a profound effect on the physical shapes of space architecture.  All space habitats to date have used modular architecture design.  Payload fairing dimensions (typically the width but also the height) of modern

text: launch vehicle

text: s limit the size of rigid components launched into space.  This approach to building large scale structures in space involves launching multiple modules separately and then manually assembling them afterward.  Modular architecture results in a layout similar to a tunnel system where passage through several modules is often required to reach any particular destination.  It also tends to standardize the internal diameter or width of pressurized rooms, with machinery and furniture placed along the circumference.  These types of space stations and surface bases can generally only grow by adding additional modules in one or more direction.  Finding adequate working and living space is often a major challenge with modular architecture.  As a solution, flexible furniture (collapsible tables, curtains on rails, deployable beds) can be used to transform interiors for different functions and change the partitioning between private and group space.  For more discussion of the factors that influence shape in space architecture, see the

text: Varieties section

text: The Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident—also known as the Rogers Commission—was formed to investigate the disaster. It determined that the accident was due to a failure of rubber O-rings made by Morton-Thiokol that provided a pressure seal in the aft field joint of the shuttle's right Solid Rocket Booster. The failure of the O-rings was attributed to a design flaw, as their performance could be too easily compromised by factors that included the low temperature on the day of launch. The Commission found that O-ring resiliency is directly related to temperature and due to the low temperature at launch—36 degrees Fahrenheit or 15 degrees lower than the next coldest previous launch—it was probable the O-rings had not provided a proper seal.

text: The

text: Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident

text: —also known as the Rogers Commission—was formed to investigate the disaster. It determined that the accident was due to a failure of rubber

text: O-ring

text: s made by

text: Morton-Thiokol

text: that provided a pressure seal in the aft field joint of the shuttle's right

text: Solid Rocket Booster

text: . The failure of the O-rings was attributed to a design flaw, as their performance could be too easily compromised by factors that included the low temperature on the day of launch. The Commission found that O-ring resiliency is directly related to temperature and due to the low temperature at launch—36 degrees Fahrenheit or 15 degrees lower than the next coldest previous launch—it was probable the O-rings had not provided a proper seal.

text: Research into extrasolar planets – planets located outside our solar system – is strong at Exeter. A team of international scientists led by Exeter University are exploring the atmospheric conditions of exoplanets using the Hubble Space Telescope. Other international astronomical facilities available to Exeter University to facilitate the detection of exoplanets include the VLT Survey Telescope, the Gemini Observatory and the Spitzer Space Telescope. The university has developed links with the Met Office, also based in Exeter, to build sophisticated climate prediction models.

text: Research into

text: extrasolar planets

text: – planets located outside our solar system – is strong at Exeter. A team of international scientists led by Exeter University are exploring the atmospheric conditions of

text: exoplanets

text: using the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . Other international astronomical facilities available to Exeter University to facilitate the detection of exoplanets include the

text: VLT Survey Telescope

text: , the

text: Gemini Observatory

text: and the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: . The university has developed links with the

text: Met Office

text: , also based in Exeter, to build sophisticated climate prediction models.

text: Nagel became a NASA astronaut in August 1979. His technical assignments included: backup T-38 chase pilot for STS-1; support crew and backup entry spacecraft (CAPCOM) for STS-2; support crew and primary entry CAPCOM for STS-3; software verification at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) and the Flight Simulation Laboratory (FSL); representing the Astronaut Office in the development of a crew escape system for the Space Shuttle; Acting Chief of the Astronaut Office. With the completion of his fourth flight, Nagel had logged a total of 723 hours in space. Nagel retired from the Air Force, effective February 28, 1995. He retired from the Astronaut Office, effective March 1, 1995, to assume the full-time position of Deputy Director for Operations Development, Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Office, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. In September 1996, Nagel transferred to Aircraft Operations Division where he performs duties as a Research Pilot. Nagel was a veteran of four space flights (STS-51-G and STS-61-A in 1985, STS-37 in 1991, and STS-55 in 1993) as described below:

text: Nagel became a NASA astronaut in August 1979. His technical assignments included: backup

text: chase pilot

text: for

text: ; support crew and backup entry spacecraft (

text: CAPCOM

text: ) for

text: ; support crew and primary entry CAPCOM for

text: ; software verification at the

text: Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory

text: (SAIL) and the Flight Simulation Laboratory (FSL); representing the Astronaut Office in the development of a crew escape system for the Space Shuttle; Acting

text: Chief of the Astronaut Office

text: . With the completion of his fourth flight, Nagel had logged a total of 723 hours in

text: space

text: . Nagel retired from the Air Force, effective February 28, 1995. He retired from the Astronaut Office, effective March 1, 1995, to assume the full-time position of Deputy Director for Operations Development, Safety, Reliability, and Quality Assurance Office,

text: Johnson Space Center

text: Houston, Texas

text: . In September 1996, Nagel transferred to Aircraft Operations Division where he performs duties as a Research Pilot. Nagel was a veteran of four space flights (

text: and

text: in 1985,

text: in 1991, and

text: in 1993) as described below:

text: As science fiction became established in the early 20th century, destinations such as the Moon, Mars, Venus, and other bodies within the Solar System began to seem stale. Authors invoked a variety of mechanisms for superluminal travel (or generation starships) and placed their stories on worlds in planetary systems around other stars, an innovation that gave them the freedom to construct exotic fictional planets and themes. This tendency became predominant once the exploration of the Solar System was complete enough to conclusively demonstrate the unlikelihood of any highly developed form of extraterrestrial life here, aside from Humans on Earth.

text: As

text: science fiction

text: became established in the early 20th century, destinations such as

text: the Moon

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and other bodies within the

text: Solar System

text: began to seem stale. Authors invoked a variety of mechanisms for

text: superluminal

text: travel (or

text: generation starship

text: s) and placed their stories on worlds in

text: planetary system

text: s around other stars, an innovation that gave them the freedom to construct exotic

text: fictional planets

text: and themes. This tendency became predominant once the exploration of the Solar System was complete enough to conclusively demonstrate the unlikelihood of any highly developed form of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: here, aside from

text: Humans

text: on

text: Earth

text: Two 6.5 hour spacewalks were conducted by three astronauts to test hardware and tools to be used in the assembly of the International Space Station starting in late 1998. EVA-1 on flight day five consisted of Crewmembers Leroy Chiao (EV1) and Dan Barry (EV2). After taking a few minutes to acclimate themselves in the payload bay, first-time spacewalkers Chiao and Barry attached a portable work platform to the end of the robot arm, operated by Pilot Brent Jett and Mission Specialist Koichi Wakata. Jett used the arm to grapple various pieces of hardware designed to hold large modular components, mimicking the way equipment boxes and avionics gear will be moved back and forth in assembling the Space Station. Chiao and Barry unfolded a cable tray diagonally across the forward portion of the cargo bay housing simulated electrical and fluid lines similar to those which would later connect modules and nodes of the Space Station. The rigid umbilical, as it is known, was tested for its ease of handling and the ability of the astronauts to hook up the lines to connectors on the side of Endeavour's bay. While Chiao unraveled various lengths of cable from a caddy device, Barry spent time practicing the hookup of the various cables in the rigid umbilical to connectors in the bay, testing his ability to manipulate tiny bolts and screws in weightlessness. He reported that most tasks could be accomplished with little difficulty. Barry and Chiao then traded places, as Barry mounted the portable work platform to evaluate its worth. The first EVA lasted 6 hours, 9 minutes. EVA-2 on Flight Day 7 consisted of Leroy Chiao (EV1) and Winston Scott (EV2), lasting 6 hours, 53 minutes. Chiao and Scott worked with utility boxes, slidewires and a portable work stanchion affixed to Endeavour's robot arm to gather additional data on methods and procedures which would be incorporated in the techniques used to assemble the International Space Station. Late in the spacewalk, Scott climbed into foot restraints on the OAST-Flyer satellite platform for a thermal evaluation exercise. Endeavour was maneuvered to the coldest position possible, with its payload bay facing out toward deep space and allowing temperatures to dip to about 104 degrees below zero at the point where Scott was positioned to test the ability of his spacesuit to repel the bitter cold temperature of space.

text: Two 6.5 hour spacewalks were conducted by three astronauts to test hardware and tools to be used in the assembly of the

text: International Space Station

text: The bill would authorize programs, activities, and reports respecting NASA, including those with regard to human exploration of space, the Space Launch System, the Orion multipurpose crew vehicle, the commercial crew program, the International Space Station (ISS), radioisotope thermoelectric generators, extrasolar planet exploration, the James Webb Space Telescope, the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope, Near-Earth objects, space weather, the Deep Space Climate Observatory, land imaging remote sensing data, aeronautics research, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, project and program reserves, and orbital debris mitigation.

text: The bill would authorize programs, activities, and reports respecting NASA, including those with regard to human exploration of space, the

text: Space Launch System

text: , the

text: Orion multipurpose crew vehicle

text: , the commercial crew program, the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS),

text: radioisotope thermoelectric generators

text: extrasolar planet

text: exploration, the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope

text: Near-Earth objects

text: space weather

text: , the

text: Deep Space Climate Observatory

text: , land imaging remote sensing data,

text: aeronautics

text: research,

text: science

text: technology

text: engineering

text: , and

text: mathematics

entity_name: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

text: STEM

text: ) education, project and program reserves, and

text: orbital debris

text: mitigation.

text: The space station would have large modules with diameters of —much larger than the  diameter of International Space Station modules or the  diameter of the original Skylab. This large diameter would lead to a module volume of about , allowing for a large amount of space for both storage and habitation. This large interior volume, in turn, would make Skylab II suitable for its deep-space location, where resupply missions would be rare and astronauts would have to store the food they received from each mission for months at a time. The supplies themselves could be carried in a variety of vehicles, such as the existing Progress and Dragon, or perhaps a new, SLS-derived logistics module, which could resupply the whole station in one mission.

text: The space station would have large modules with diameters of —much larger than the  diameter of

text: International Space Station

text: modules or the  diameter of the original Skylab. This large diameter would lead to a module volume of about , allowing for a large amount of space for both storage and habitation. This large interior volume, in turn, would make Skylab II suitable for its deep-space location, where resupply missions would be rare and astronauts would have to store the food they received from each mission for months at a time. The supplies themselves could be carried in a variety of vehicles, such as the existing

text: Progress

text: and

text: Dragon

text: , or perhaps a new, SLS-derived logistics module, which could resupply the whole station in one mission.

text: The VSE budget required termination the Space Shuttle by 2010 and of any US role in the International Space Station by 2017. This would have required, even in the most optimistic plans, in a period of years without human spaceflight capability from the US. Termination of the Space Shuttle program, without any planned alternatives, in 2011 ended virtually all US capability for reusable launch vehicles.  This severely limited any future of low earth orbit or deep space exploration.  Ultimately, the lack of proper funding caused the VSE to fall short of its original goals, leaving many projects behind schedule as President George W. Bush's term in office ended.

text: The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, and operated until early 2012.

text: The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) is an

text: orbit

text: ing

text: ultraviolet

text: space telescope

text: launched on April 28, 2003, and operated until early 2012.

text: LTC Ellison Onizuka became the first Asian American (and third person of East Asian descent) when he made his first space flight aboard STS-51-C in 1985. Onizuka later died aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986. Taylor Gun-Jin Wang became the first person of Chinese ethnicity and first Chinese American, in space in 1985; he has since been followed by Leroy Chiao in 1994, and Ed Lu in 1997. In 1986, Franklin Chang-Diaz became the first Asian Latin American in space. Eugene H. Trinh became the first Vietnamese American in space in 1992. In 2001, Mark L. Polansky, a Jewish Korean American, made his first of three flights into space. In 2003, Kalpana Chawla became the first Indian American in space, but died aboard the ill fated Space Shuttle Columbia. She has since been followed by CDR Sunita Williams in 2006.

text: LTC

text: Ellison Onizuka

text: became the first Asian American (and third person of East Asian descent) when he made his first space flight aboard

text: in 1985. Onizuka later died aboard the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: in

text: Taylor Gun-Jin Wang

text: became the first person of

text: Chinese ethnicity

text: and first Chinese American, in space in

text: ; he has since been followed by

text: Leroy Chiao

text: in

text: , and

text: Ed Lu

text: in

text: . In

text: Franklin Chang-Diaz

text: became the first

text: Asian Latin American

text: in space.

text: Eugene H. Trinh

text: became the first Vietnamese American in space in

text: . In

text: Mark L. Polansky

text: , a

text: Jewish

text: Korean American, made his first of three flights into space. In

text: Kalpana Chawla

text: became the first

text: Indian American

text: in space, but died aboard the

text: ill fated

text: Space Shuttle Columbia

text: . She has since been followed by

text: CDR

text: Sunita Williams

text: in

text: Tabasco appeared on the menu of NASA's space shuttle program and went into orbit on the shuttles.  It was on Skylab and on the International Space Station and is popular with astronauts as a means of countering the bland food they frequently are provided in space.

text: Tabasco appeared on the menu of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: space shuttle

text: program and went into orbit on the shuttles.  It was on

text: Skylab

text: and on the

text: International Space Station

text: and is popular with astronauts as a means of countering the bland food they frequently are provided in space.

text: The Vision for Space Exploration sought to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond; extend human presence across the solar system, starting with a human return to the Moon by the year 2020, in preparation for human exploration of Mars and other destinations; develop the innovative technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures both to explore and to support decisions about the destinations for human exploration; and to promote international and commercial participation in exploration to further U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests.

text: In California alone, there are over 27,000 Plug in Electric Vehicles (PEV) with about 2,000 being added every month.  While most PEV charging is done at home, the public charging infrastructure is also expanding, with 6218 public charging stations as of July 2013. Although the number of PEVs is still a small portion of the cars on the road, and the number of PEVs with Handicap placards is much smaller still, the  needs of handicap PEV drivers must be integrated with public charging spaces. Guidelines are that 1 in 25 PEV Charging Stations be made ADA space compliant,   Although not intuitively obvious, it's important to recognize that a PEV charging station is not parking space, rather a charging service, in the same manner that gas station fill up spots are not parking spaces.  Electric vehicle charging stations that meet the ADA space requirements are not to be reserved exclusively for the use of persons with disabilities, they are shared by any PEV needing to charge.  Further more any PEV charging space, ADA space compliant or not, cannot be used by non-PEV vehicles, including those with handicap placards.  Recommended signage, along with common courtesy, ask that ADA space compliant charging stations are to be used last.

text: The topic of mothers in space gained prominence in 1986, when the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded less than 2 minutes after launch with the loss of all hands. One of the crew, Christa McAuliffe, was a wife and mother of two. One way the disaster is linked to motherhood in space is that McAuliffe's mother had supported her dreams to be the first teacher in space, and she noted that although her daughter had trained for any number of emergencies on the Shuttle, no one had anticipated a disaster of that scope.

text: The topic of mothers in space gained prominence in 1986, when the Space Shuttle Challenger

text: exploded

text: less than 2 minutes after launch with the loss of all hands. One of the crew,

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: , was a wife and mother of two. One way the disaster is linked to motherhood in space is that McAuliffe's mother had supported her dreams to be the first teacher in space, and she noted that although her daughter had trained for any number of emergencies on the Shuttle, no one had anticipated a disaster of that scope.

text: STS-51-L was the twenty-fifth flight in the American Space Shuttle program, and marked the first time a civilian had flown aboard the Space Shuttle. The mission used Space Shuttle Challenger, which lifted off from launch pad 39B on January 28, 1986, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission ended in disaster following the destruction of Challenger 73 seconds after lift-off, because of the failure of an O-ring seal on Challenger

text: was the twenty-fifth flight in the American

text: Space Shuttle program

text: , and marked the first time a civilian had flown aboard the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . The mission used

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: , which lifted off from

text: launch pad 39B

text: on January 28, 1986, from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: . The mission ended in disaster following the

text: destruction

text: of Challenger 73 seconds after lift-off, because of the failure of an

text: O-ring

text: seal on Challenger

text: The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make Freedom a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. A fifth shuttle, Endeavour, was built to replace Challenger which was destroyed in an accident during launch which killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. Twenty-two Shuttle flights carried a European Space Agency sortie space station called Spacelab in the payload bay from 1983 to 1998.

text: The Space Shuttle started flying in 1981, but the US Congress failed to approve sufficient funds to make Freedom a reality. A fleet of four shuttles was built:

text: Columbia

text: Challenger

text: Discovery

text: , and

text: Atlantis

text: . A fifth shuttle,

text: Endeavour

text: , was built to replace Challenger which was destroyed in

text: an accident during launch

text: which killed 7 astronauts on 28 January 1986. Twenty-two Shuttle flights carried a

text: European Space Agency

text: sortie space station called

text: Spacelab

text: in the payload bay from 1983 to 1998.

text: The Coalition for Deep Space Exploration is a United States space advocacy organization for space industry businesses and non-profit groups supporting continued government investment in space exploration.

text: The Coalition for Deep Space Exploration is a United States

text: space advocacy

text: organization for

text: space industry

text: businesses and non-profit groups supporting continued

text: government investment

text: in

text: space exploration

text: Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923. Hubble was funded in the 1970s, with a proposed launch in 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the Challenger disaster (1986). When finally launched in 1990, Hubble's main mirror was found to have been ground incorrectly, compromising the telescope's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993.

text: Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923. Hubble was funded in the 1970s, with a proposed launch in 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the

text: Challenger disaster

text: (1986). When finally launched in 1990, Hubble's main mirror was found to have been ground incorrectly, compromising the telescope's capabilities. The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a

text: servicing mission

text: in 1993.

text: The Interplanetary Transport System (ITS), formerly known as the Mars Colonial Transporter (MCT), is SpaceX's privately funded development project to design and build a system of spaceflight technology and remote human settlements on Mars— including reusable launch vehicles and spacecraft; Earth infrastructure for rapid launch and relaunch; low Earth orbit, zero-gravity propellant transfer technology; and extraterrestrial technology to enable human colonization of Mars.  The technology is also envisioned to eventually support exploration missions to other locations in the Solar System including the moons of Jupiter and Saturn.

text: The Interplanetary Transport System (ITS), formerly known as the Mars Colonial Transporter (MCT), is

text: SpaceX

text: 's

text: privately funded

text: development project

text: to design and build a

text: system

text: of spaceflight technology and remote

text: human settlements

text: on

text: Mars

text: — including

entity_name: SpaceX reusable launch system development program

text: reusable

text: launch vehicle

text: s and

text: spacecraft

text: ; Earth infrastructure for rapid

text: launch

text: and

text: relaunch

text: low Earth orbit

text: zero-gravity

text: propellant transfer technology

text: ; and extraterrestrial technology to enable

text: human colonization of Mars

text: .  The technology is also envisioned to eventually support

text: exploration missions

text: to other locations in the

text: Solar System

text: including the moons of

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: Space Shuttle Independence, formerly known as Explorer, is a full-scale, high-fidelity replica of the Space Shuttle. It was built by Guard-Lee in Apopka, Florida, installed at Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in 1993, and moved to Space Center Houston in 2012. It was built using schematics, blueprints and archival documents provided by NASA and by shuttle contractors such as Rockwell International. While many of the features on the replica are simulated, some parts, including the landing gear's Michelin tires, have been used in the Space Shuttle program. The model is  long,  high, has a  wingspan, and weighs .

text: Space Shuttle Independence, formerly known as Explorer, is a full-scale, high-fidelity replica of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . It was built by

text: Guard-Lee

text: in

text: Apopka, Florida

text: , installed at

text: Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex

text: in 1993, and moved to

text: Space Center Houston

text: in 2012. It was built using schematics, blueprints and archival documents provided by NASA and by shuttle contractors such as

text: Rockwell International

text: . While many of the features on the replica are simulated, some parts, including the landing gear's

text: Michelin

text: tires, have been used in the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: . The model is  long,  high, has a  wingspan, and weighs .

text: In 1959, von Braun, head of the Development Operations Division at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, submitted his final Project Horizon plans to the U.S. Army. The overall goal of Horizon was to place men on the Moon, a mission that would soon be taken over by the rapidly forming NASA. Although concentrating on the Moon missions, von Braun also detailed an orbiting laboratory built out of a Horizon upper stage, an idea used for Skylab. A number of NASA centers studied various space station designs in the early 1960s. Studies generally looked at platforms launched by the Saturn V, followed up by crews launched on Saturn IB using an Apollo Command/Service Module, or a Gemini capsule on a Titan II-C, the latter being much less expensive in the case where cargo was not needed. Proposals ranged from an Apollo-based station with two to three men, or a small "canister" for four men with Gemini capsules resupplying it, to a large, rotating station with 24 men and an operating lifetime of about five years. A proposal to study the use of a Saturn S-IVB as a manned space laboratory was documented in 1962 by the Douglas Aircraft Company.

text: In 1959, von Braun, head of the Development Operations Division at the

text: Army Ballistic Missile Agency

text: , submitted his final

text: Project Horizon

text: plans to the

text: U.S. Army

text: . The overall goal of Horizon was to place men on the

text: Moon

text: , a mission that would soon be taken over by the rapidly forming NASA. Although concentrating on the Moon missions, von Braun also detailed an orbiting laboratory built out of a Horizon upper stage, an idea used for Skylab. A number of NASA centers studied various space station designs in the early 1960s. Studies generally looked at platforms launched by the Saturn V, followed up by crews launched on Saturn IB using an

text: Apollo Command/Service Module

text: , or a

text: Gemini capsule

text: on a

text: Titan II-C

text: , the latter being much less expensive in the case where cargo was not needed. Proposals ranged from an Apollo-based station with two to three men, or a small "canister" for four men with Gemini capsules resupplying it, to a large, rotating station with 24 men and an operating lifetime of about five years. A proposal to study the use of a Saturn

text: S-IVB

text: as a manned space laboratory was documented in 1962 by the

text: Douglas Aircraft

text: Company.

text: Mars Outpost is a concept for a human base on the planet Mars that was developed by the United States in the 1980s. The components and design were based on an earlier lunar test bed outpost. Development would go through several phases over four years, from an 'Emplacement Phase' to a 'Consolidation Phase', after which full use by its crew could commence. Components of the base would include a habitat module, pressurized rover dock/equipment lock, airlocks, and a  constructed habitat. The 16 m habitat would be constructed in situ. Other technology for the base design includes a meteorological balloon, unpressurized rover, storage/work area, an area for geophysical experiments, and an area antenna. The Mars Outpost would be designed for a crew of 7 astronauts. Their main tasks would be to do research on mining of Mars and Phobos, life sciences, technology, and solar system exploration. The Office of Space Exploration did case studies that include establishing a human presence on another planet in 1988 and 1989. An objective of the Mars Evolution 1989 study was, "Emplace a permanent, largely self-sufficient outpost on the surface of Mars."

text: Mars Outpost is a concept for a human

text: base

text: on the

text: planet

text: Mars

text: that was developed by the

text: United States

text: in the 1980s. The components and design were based on an earlier

text: lunar

text: test bed outpost. Development would go through several phases over four years, from an 'Emplacement Phase' to a 'Consolidation Phase', after which full use by its crew could commence. Components of the base would include a

text: habitat

text: module, pressurized rover dock/equipment lock,

text: airlock

text: s, and a  constructed habitat. The 16 m habitat would be constructed

text: in situ

text: . Other

text: technology

text: for the base design includes a

text: meteorological balloon

text: , unpressurized rover, storage/work area, an area for

text: geophysical

text: experiments, and an area

text: antenna

text: . The Mars Outpost would be designed for a crew of 7

text: astronaut

text: s. Their main tasks would be to do research on

text: mining

text: of Mars and

text: Phobos

text: life science

text: s, technology, and

text: solar system

text: exploration. The Office of Space Exploration did case studies that include establishing a human presence on another planet in 1988 and 1989. An objective of the Mars Evolution 1989 study was, "Emplace a permanent, largely self-sufficient outpost on the surface of Mars."

text: But the main unsolved problem for a launch from the surface of the Earth was thought to be nuclear fallout. Freeman Dyson, group leader on the project, estimated back in the 1960s that with conventional nuclear weapons each launch would statistically cause on average between 0.1 and 1 fatal cancers from the fallout.  That estimate is based on no threshold model assumptions, a method often used in estimates of statistical deaths from other industrial activities. Each few million dollars of efficiency indirectly gained or lost in the world economy may statistically average lives saved or lost, in terms of opportunity gains versus costs.  Indirect effects could matter for whether the overall influence of an Orion-based space program on future human global mortality would be a net increase or a net decrease, including if change in launch costs and capabilities affected space exploration, space colonization, the odds of long-term human species survival, space-based solar power, or other hypotheticals.

text: But the main unsolved problem for a launch from the surface of the Earth was thought to be

text: nuclear fallout

text: . Freeman Dyson, group leader on the project, estimated back in the 1960s that with conventional

text: nuclear weapons

text: each launch would statistically cause on average between 0.1 and 1 fatal cancers from the fallout.  That estimate is based on

text: no threshold

text: model assumptions, a method often used in estimates of statistical deaths from other industrial activities. Each few million dollars of efficiency indirectly gained or lost in the world economy may statistically average lives saved or lost, in terms of opportunity gains versus costs.  Indirect effects could matter for whether the overall influence of an Orion-based space program on future human global mortality would be a net increase or a net decrease, including if change in launch costs and capabilities affected

text: space exploration

text: space colonization

text: , the odds of

text: long-term human species survival

text: space-based solar power

text: , or other hypotheticals.

text: The desire for a large infrared space telescope traces back decades; in the United State's the  Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility was planned while the Space Shuttle was in development and the potential for infrared astronomy was acknowledged at that time. Compared to ground telescopes, space observatories were free from atmospheric absorption of infrared light: it would be a whole "new sky" for astronomers.

text: During the first explorations, Paolo Orsi could identify a system of defensive walls spaced at intervals by projections of rock along the northwest edge of the hill.

text: During the first explorations, Paolo Orsi could identify a system of

text: defensive wall

text: s spaced at intervals by projections of rock along the northwest edge of the hill.

text: The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is the science operations center for the Hubble Space Telescope (HST; in orbit since 1990) and for the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST; scheduled to be launched in 2018). STScI is located on the Johns Hopkins University Homewood Campus in Baltimore, Maryland and was established in 1981 as a community-based science center that is operated for NASA by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA). Today, in addition to performing continuing science operations of HST and preparing for scientific exploration with JWST, STScI manages and operates the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), the Data Management Center for the Kepler mission and a number of other activities benefiting from its expertise in and infrastructure for supporting the operations of space-based astronomical observatories. Most of the funding for STScI activities comes from contracts with NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center but there are smaller activities funded by NASA's Ames Research Center, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the European Space Agency (ESA). The staff at STScI consists of scientists (mostly astronomers and astrophysicists), software engineers, data management and telescope operations personnel, education and public outreach experts, and administrative and business support personnel. There are approximately 100 Ph.D. scientists working at STScI, 15 of which are ESA staff who are on assignment to the HST project. The total STScI staff consists of about 450 people.

text: The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is the science operations center for the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST; in orbit since 1990) and for the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: (JWST; scheduled to be launched in 2018). STScI is located on the

text: Johns Hopkins University

entity_name: Homewood Campus of Johns Hopkins University

text: Homewood Campus

text: in

text: Baltimore

text: Maryland

text: and was established in 1981 as a community-based science center that is operated for

text: NASA

text: by the

entity_name: Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy

text: Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy

text: (AURA). Today, in addition to performing continuing science operations of HST and preparing for scientific exploration with JWST, STScI manages and operates the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), the Data Management Center for the

text: Kepler mission

text: and a number of other activities benefiting from its expertise in and infrastructure for supporting the operations of space-based astronomical observatories. Most of the funding for STScI activities comes from contracts with NASA's

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: but there are smaller activities funded by NASA's

text: Ames Research Center

text: , NASA’s

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: , and the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA). The staff at STScI consists of scientists (mostly astronomers and astrophysicists), software engineers, data management and telescope operations personnel, education and public outreach experts, and administrative and business support personnel. There are approximately 100 Ph.D. scientists working at STScI, 15 of which are ESA staff who are on assignment to the HST project. The total STScI staff consists of about 450 people.

text: The US Orbital Segment (USOS) is the name given to the components of the International Space Station (ISS) constructed and operated by the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA), Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The segment currently consists of eleven pressurized components and various external elements, all of which were delivered by the Space Shuttle.

text: The US Orbital Segment (USOS) is the name given to the components of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) constructed and operated by the

text: United States

text: (NASA),

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA),

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: (CSA) and

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA). The segment currently consists of eleven pressurized components and various external elements, all of which were delivered by the

text: Space Shuttle

text: No manned missions have been sent to any planet of the Solar System.  NASA's Apollo program, however, landed twelve people on the Moon and returned them to Earth.  The American Vision for Space Exploration, originally introduced by President George W. Bush and put into practice through the Constellation program, had as a long-term goal to eventually send human astronauts to Mars. However, on February 1, 2010, President Barack Obama proposed cancelling the program in Fiscal Year 2011.  An earlier project which received some significant planning by NASA included a manned fly-by of Venus in the Manned Venus Flyby mission, but was cancelled when the Apollo Applications Program was terminated due to NASA budget cuts in the late 1960s.

text: No manned missions have been sent to any planet of the Solar System.

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Apollo program

text: , however, landed twelve people on the

text: Moon

text: and returned them to

text: Earth

text: .  The American

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , originally introduced by President

text: George W. Bush

text: and put into practice through the

text: Constellation program

text: , had as a long-term goal to eventually send human astronauts to Mars. However, on February 1, 2010, President Barack Obama proposed cancelling the program in Fiscal Year 2011.  An earlier project which received some significant planning by NASA included a manned fly-by of Venus in the

text: Manned Venus Flyby

text: mission, but was cancelled when the

text: Apollo Applications Program

text: was terminated due to NASA budget cuts in the late 1960s.

text: Prior to the first flight of the Space Shuttle, he provided astronaut support in Orbiter engineering development and testing. He was a T-38 chase pilot for the second and third Shuttle flights and support crewman for the first operational Shuttle flight, STS-5. Covey also served as Mission Control spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) for Shuttle Missions STS-5, 6, 61-B, 61-C, and 51-L (it was his voice that said the now infamous words, "Challenger, go with throttle up" shortly before the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster). During 1989, he was Chairman of NASA's Space Flight Safety Panel. He has held additional technical assignments within the NASA Astronaut Office, and has also served as Acting Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office, and Acting Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations.

text: Prior to the first flight of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , he provided astronaut support in

text: Orbiter

text: engineering development and testing. He was a

text: chase pilot

text: for the second and third Shuttle flights and support crewman for the first operational Shuttle flight,

text: . Covey also served as Mission Control spacecraft communicator (

text: CAPCOM

text: ) for Shuttle Missions STS-5,

text: , and

text: (it was his voice that said the now infamous words, "

text: Challenger

text: , go with throttle up" shortly before the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: ). During 1989, he was Chairman of NASA's Space Flight Safety Panel. He has held additional technical assignments within the NASA

text: Astronaut Office

text: , and has also served as Acting Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office, and Acting Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations.

text: Many modern telescopes and observatories are located in space to observe astronomical objects in wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere (such as ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays) and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes.Being above the atmosphere, these space observatories can also avoid the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground based telescopes, although new generations of adaptive optics telescopes have since then dramatically improved the situation on the ground. The space high vacuum environment also frees the detectors from the ancestral diurnal cycle due to the atmospheric blue light background of the sky, thereby increasing significantly the observation time.

text: Many modern telescopes and observatories are located in space to observe astronomical objects in

text: wavelength

text: s of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere (such as

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation,

text: X-rays

text: , and

text: gamma rays

text: ) and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes.Being above the atmosphere, these

text: space observatories

text: can also avoid the effects of

text: atmospheric turbulence

text: that plague ground based telescopes, although new generations of

text: adaptive optic

text: s telescopes have since then dramatically improved the situation on the ground. The space high vacuum environment also frees the detectors from the ancestral

text: diurnal cycle

text: due to the atmospheric blue light background of the sky, thereby increasing significantly the observation time.

text: The runway was first used by a space shuttle on 11 February 1984, when the STS-41-B mission returned to Earth.  This also marked the first-ever landing of a spacecraft at its launch site.  Prior to this, all shuttle landings were performed at Edwards Air Force Base in California (with the exception of STS-3, which landed at White Sands Space Harbor) while the landing facility continued testing and shuttle crews developed landing skills at White Sands and Edwards, where the margin for error is much greater than SLF and its water hazards.  On Sept. 22, 1993, Discovery was the first space shuttle to land at night at the SLF. A total of 78 shuttle missions landed at the SLF.

text: The runway was first used by a space shuttle on 11 February 1984, when the

text: mission returned to Earth.  This also marked the first-ever landing of a spacecraft at its launch site.  Prior to this, all shuttle landings were performed at

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: in

text: California

text: (with the exception of

text: , which landed at

text: White Sands Space Harbor

text: ) while the landing facility continued testing and shuttle crews developed landing skills at White Sands and Edwards, where the margin for error is much greater than SLF and its water hazards.  On Sept. 22, 1993,

text: Discovery

text: was the first space shuttle to land at night at the SLF. A total of 78 shuttle missions landed at the SLF.

text: In the early 1980s, with the Space Shuttle completed, NASA proposed the creation of a large, permanently manned space station, which then-NASA-Administrator James M. Beggs called "the next logical step" in space.  In some ways it was meant to be the U.S. answer to the Soviet Mir.  NASA plans called for the station, which was later dubbed Space Station Freedom, to function as an orbiting repair shop for satellites, an assembly point for spacecraft, an observation post for astronomers, a microgravity laboratory for scientists, and a microgravity factory for companies.

text: In the early 1980s, with the

text: Space Shuttle

text: completed,

text: NASA

text: proposed the creation of a large, permanently manned space station, which then-NASA-Administrator

text: James M. Beggs

text: called "the next logical step" in space.  In some ways it was meant to be the U.S. answer to the Soviet

text: Mir

text: .  NASA plans called for the station, which was later dubbed Space Station Freedom, to function as an orbiting repair shop for

text: satellite

text: s, an assembly point for

text: spacecraft

text: , an observation post for

text: astronomer

text: s, a

text: microgravity

text: laboratory

text: for scientists, and a microgravity factory for companies.

text: On July 22, 2015, Kononenko launched to the International Space Station as Soyuz Commander, together with NASA astronaut Kjell Lindgren and Kimiya Yui from the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) on Soyuz-TMA-17M. They spent 5 months on the International Space Station as members of the Expedition 44 and Expedition 45 Crews. The trio returned to Earth in rare night landing on December 11, 2015, when their Soyuz TMA-17m landed safely on the steppe of Kazakhstan. Kononenko spent 142 days in space on his third mission.

text: On July 22, 2015, Kononenko launched to the International Space Station as Soyuz Commander, together with NASA astronaut

text: Kjell Lindgren

text: and

text: Kimiya Yui

text: from the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) on

text: . They spent 5 months on the International Space Station as members of the

text: Expedition 44

text: and

text: Expedition 45

text: Crews. The trio returned to Earth in rare night landing on December 11, 2015, when their

text: Soyuz TMA-17m

text: landed safely on the steppe of Kazakhstan. Kononenko spent 142 days in space on his third mission.

text: In the words of former NASA Administrator, Michael D. Griffin, "The goal isn't just scientific exploration.... It's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the Solar System as we go forward in time.... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive.... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets ... colonize the Solar System and one day go beyond."

text: In the words of former NASA Administrator,

text: Michael D. Griffin

text: , "The goal isn't just scientific exploration.... It's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the

text: Solar System

text: as we go forward in time.... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive.... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets ... colonize the Solar System and one day go beyond."

text: In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. In 1984 the ESA was invited to participate in Space Station Freedom, and the ESA approved the Columbus laboratory by 1987. The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), or Kibō, was announced in 1985, as part of the Freedom space station in response to a NASA request in 1982.

text: In the early 1980s,

text: NASA

text: planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir

text: space station

text: s. In 1984 the ESA was invited to participate in Space Station Freedom, and the ESA approved the Columbus laboratory by 1987. The

text: Japanese Experiment Module

text: (JEM), or Kibō, was announced in 1985, as part of the Freedom space station in response to a NASA request in 1982.

text: Once in orbit, the Shuttle usually flew at an altitude of 320 kilometers (200 miles), and occasionally as high as 650 kilometers. In the 1980s and 1990s, many flights involved space science missions on the NASA/ESA Spacelab, or launching various types of satellites and science probes. By the 1990s and 2000s the focus shifted more to servicing the space station, with fewer satellite launches. Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the Extended Duration Orbiter add-on or when attached to a space station.

text: Once in orbit, the Shuttle usually flew at an altitude of 320 kilometers (200 miles), and occasionally as high as 650 kilometers. In the 1980s and 1990s, many flights involved space science missions on the NASA/ESA Spacelab, or launching various types of satellites and science probes. By the 1990s and 2000s the focus shifted more to servicing the space station, with fewer satellite launches. Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the

text: Extended Duration Orbiter

text: add-on or when attached to a space station.

text: The simple design is also included in circumstances such as NASA’s space shuttle launches. NASA honed the idea in a different way, they used the bipod system to create a launch pad for their rocket ships to launch off, it basically acted as a track for the rocket to propel on. The bipod launch system revolutionized the way space shuttles lift off into space, in a straight vertical line. More recently, rockets have scaled to a much smaller size, thus leading to a new hobby of model rocket building. The design of the toy is very simple, it includes a silver launch pad at the bottom and two metal rods that act as a bipod for the scaled rocket to launch.

text: The simple design is also included in circumstances such as

text: NASA

text: ’s space shuttle launches.

text: NASA

text: honed the idea in a different way, they used the bipod system to create a

text: launch pad

text: for their rocket ships to launch off, it basically acted as a

text: track

text: for the rocket to propel on. The bipod launch system revolutionized the way space shuttles lift off into space, in a straight vertical line. More recently, rockets have

text: scaled

text: to a much smaller size, thus leading to a new hobby of

text: model

text: rocket building. The design of the toy is very simple, it includes a silver

text: launch pad

text: at the bottom and two metal rods that act as a bipod for the scaled rocket to launch.

text: An international crew of three were the fourth crew to live aboard the International Space Station. The team was led by Russian Yuri I. Onufrienko and joined by American crewmates Daniel W. Bursch and Carl E. Walz, both flight engineers. As a part of the STS-108 mission, Endeavour delivered the Expedition 4 crew to the station. They returned to Earth 19 June 2002, aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour following the STS-111 mission.

text: The penultimate episode focuses on the flights of the Space Shuttle, beginning with Columbia's maiden voyage on April 12, 1981 (the twentieth anniversary of the first human spaceflight, Vostok 1). The STS-1 crew, commander John Young, and pilot Bob Crippen, are interviewed. Bruce McCandless's untethered spacewalk on STS-41-B - the first in history - is shown digitally remastered in high-definition. The episode also documents the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster that occurred 73 seconds after lift-off on mission STS-51-L, on January 28, 1986, and the subsequent halt of the Space Shuttle program. The episode ends with the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 on mission STS-31 and the subsequent discovery of its defective mirror.

text: The penultimate episode focuses on the flights of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , beginning with

text: Columbia's

text: maiden voyage

text: on April 12, 1981 (the twentieth anniversary of the first human spaceflight,

text: Vostok 1

text: ). The

text: crew, commander

text: John Young

text: , and pilot

text: Bob Crippen

text: , are interviewed.

text: Bruce McCandless

text: 's untethered spacewalk on

text: - the first in history - is shown digitally remastered in high-definition. The episode also documents the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: disaster

text: that occurred 73 seconds after lift-off on mission

text: , on January 28, 1986, and the subsequent halt of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: . The episode ends with the launch of the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: in 1990 on mission

text: and the subsequent discovery of its defective mirror.

text: The Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST) is an  8 to 16.8-meter (26 to 55-foot) UV-optical-NIR space telescope proposed by Space Telescope Science Institute, the science operations center for the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). If launched, ATLAST would be a replacement and successor for the HST, with the ability to obtain spectroscopic and imaging observations of astronomical objects in the ultraviolet, optical, and infrared wavelengths, but with substantially better resolution than either HST or the planned James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Like JWST, ATLAST will be launched to the Sun-Earth L Lagrange point.

text: The Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST) is an  8 to 16.8-meter (26 to 55-foot) UV-optical-NIR space

text: telescope

text: proposed by

text: Space Telescope Science Institute

text: , the science operations center for the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST). If launched, ATLAST would be a replacement and successor for the HST, with the ability to obtain spectroscopic and imaging observations of astronomical objects in the

text: ultraviolet

text: optical

text: , and

text: infrared wavelength

text: s, but with substantially better resolution than either HST or the planned

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: (JWST). Like JWST, ATLAST will be launched to the

text: Sun

text: Earth

text: L Lagrange point

text: Dr. Wernher von Braun first brought up the concept of space lifeboats in a 1966 article, and then later NASA planners developed a number of early concepts for a space station lifeboat:

text: Dr. Wernher von Braun

text: first brought up the concept of space lifeboats in a 1966 article, and then later

text: NASA

text: planners developed a number of early concepts for a space station lifeboat:

text: The January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster led to the Rogers Commission Report on the causes of the disaster, and the National Commission on Space report and Ride Report on the future of the national space program.

text: The January 1986

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: led to the

text: Rogers Commission Report

text: on the causes of the disaster, and the

text: National Commission on Space

text: report and

text: Ride Report

text: on the future of the national space program.

text: Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is a NASA satellite that is making a map of the boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space. The mission is part of NASA's Small Explorer program and launched with a Pegasus-XL rocket on October 19, 2008.

text: Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is a

text: NASA

text: satellite that is making a map of the boundary between the

text: Solar System

text: and

text: interstellar space

text: . The mission is part of NASA's

text: Small Explorer program

text: and launched with a

text: Pegasus-XL

text: rocket on October 19, 2008.

text: Cameron flew his first mission as Pilot on STS-37. This mission was launched on April 5, 1991, and featured the deployment of the Gamma Ray Observatory for the purpose of exploring gamma ray sources throughout the universe. Space Shuttle Atlantis landed on April 11, 1991. On his second mission, he was spacecraft commander on STS-56, carrying ATLAS-2. During this nine-day mission, the crew of Space Shuttle Discovery conducted atmospheric and solar studies in order to better understand the effect of solar activity on the Earth’s climate and environment, and deployed and retrieved the autonomous observatory Spartan. STS-56 launched on April 8, 1993, and landed at Kennedy Space Center on April 17, 1993. On his third mission, Cameron commanded Atlantis on STS-74, NASA’s second Space Shuttle mission to rendezvous and dock with the Russian space station Mir, and the first mission to use the Shuttle to assemble a module and attach it to a space station. STS-74 launched on November 12, 1995, and landed at Kennedy Space Center on November 20, 1995.

text: Cameron flew his first mission as Pilot on

text: . This mission was launched on April 5, 1991, and featured the deployment of the

text: Gamma Ray

text: Observatory for the purpose of exploring gamma ray sources throughout the

text: universe

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: landed on April 11, 1991. On his second mission, he was spacecraft commander on

text: , carrying ATLAS-2. During this nine-day mission, the crew of Space Shuttle

text: Discovery

text: conducted

text: atmospheric

text: and

text: solar

text: studies in order to better understand the effect of solar activity on the

text: Earth

text: ’s

text: climate

text: and

text: environment

text: , and deployed and retrieved the

text: autonomous

text: observatory Spartan. STS-56 launched on April 8, 1993, and landed at Kennedy Space Center on April 17, 1993. On his third mission, Cameron commanded Atlantis on

text: , NASA’s second

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to rendezvous and dock with the Russian

text: space station

text: Mir

text: , and the first mission to use the Shuttle to assemble a module and attach it to a space station. STS-74 launched on November 12, 1995, and landed at Kennedy Space Center on November 20, 1995.

text: The launch of the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, an Explorer-class satellite designed to conduct the first infrared survey of the sky led to anticipation of an instrument using new infrared detector technology.  By September 1983 NASA was considering the "possibility of a long duration [free-flyer] SIRTF mission."  The 1985 Spacelab-2 flight aboard STS-51-F confirmed the Shuttle environment was not well suited to an onboard infrared telescope, and a free-flying design was better.  The first word of the name was changed from Shuttle so it would be called the Space Infrared Telescope Facility.

text: The launch of the

text: Infrared Astronomical Satellite

text: , an Explorer-class satellite designed to conduct the first infrared survey of the sky led to anticipation of an instrument using new infrared detector technology.  By September 1983 NASA was considering the "possibility of a long duration [free-flyer] SIRTF mission."  The 1985 Spacelab-2 flight aboard

text: confirmed the Shuttle environment was not well suited to an onboard infrared telescope, and a free-flying design was better.  The first word of the name was changed from Shuttle so it would be called the Space Infrared Telescope Facility.

text: From 2009 until his death, Puttkamer provided management leadership at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., on the programs of the International Space Station (ISS), for which he held special responsibilities as a Russia expert for the Russian segment and activities and daily on-orbit operation/increments, the Space Shuttle and, since 2004, President George W. Bush's Vision for Space Exploration, was stationed in the HQ Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD).

text: From 2009 until his death, Puttkamer provided management leadership at NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., on the programs of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), for which he held special responsibilities as a Russia expert for the Russian segment and activities and daily on-orbit operation/increments, the

text: Space Shuttle

text: and, since 2004, President

text: George W. Bush

text: 's

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , was stationed in the HQ Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD).

text: STS-61-M was a proposed Space Shuttle mission, planned for July 1986 but canceled following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (STS-51-L).

text: STS-61-M was a proposed

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission, planned for July 1986 but canceled following the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: disaster (

text: As a result of the company's backing, the RSC Energia officials boosted the Mir into a higher orbit, thus postponing the deorbit that had been agreed to by the Russian Space Agency in discussions with NASA. Manber later explained that the business model for the venture was fashioned after that of air travel, where Boeing may build the planes but commercial agents such as United or British Airways sells the tickets. The intent was to have marketing experts sell the space program, and let the space manufacturer, RSC Energia, focus on the safe operations of the station. Manber explained that in the aviation world, it was not the manufacturers who sold the tickets; it was the marketing companies. MirCorp and RSC Energia were the first to use this strategy for space exploration, which has emerged again more recently with Sir Richard Branson’s announcement to market Scaled Composites StarShip suborbital flights.

text: As a result of the company's backing, the RSC Energia officials boosted the Mir into a higher orbit, thus postponing the

text: deorbit

text: that had been agreed to by the Russian Space Agency in discussions with NASA. Manber later explained that the business model for the venture was fashioned after that of

text: air travel

text: , where

text: Boeing

text: may build the planes but commercial agents such as United or

text: British Airways

text: sells the tickets. The intent was to have marketing experts sell the space program, and let the space manufacturer, RSC Energia, focus on the safe operations of the station. Manber explained that in the aviation world, it was not the manufacturers who sold the tickets; it was the marketing companies. MirCorp and RSC Energia were the first to use this strategy for space exploration, which has emerged again more recently with Sir

text: Richard Branson

text: ’s announcement to market

text: Scaled Composites

text: StarShip

text: suborbital flights.

text: The Shuttle-C concept would theoretically cut development costs for a heavy launch vehicle by re-using technology developed for the shuttle program. The proposal involved using, at various times, existing spaceframes, Space Shuttle Main Engines that had reached maintenance lifetime limits, and spare navigation computers. One proposal even involved converting the Columbia or Enterprise into a single-use cargo launcher. Before the loss of Space Shuttle Challenger, NASA had expected about 14 shuttle flights a year. In the aftermath of the Challenger incident, it became clear that this launch rate was not feasible for a variety of reasons. With the Shuttle-C, it was thought that the lower maintenance and safety requirements for the unmanned vehicle would allow a higher flight rate.

text: The Shuttle-C concept would theoretically cut development costs for a heavy launch vehicle by re-using technology developed for the shuttle program. The proposal involved using, at various times, existing spaceframes, Space Shuttle Main Engines that had reached maintenance lifetime limits, and spare navigation computers. One proposal even involved converting the

text: Columbia

text: or

text: Enterprise

text: into a single-use cargo launcher. Before the

text: loss of Space Shuttle Challenger

text: , NASA had expected about 14 shuttle flights a year. In the aftermath of the Challenger incident, it became clear that this launch rate was not feasible for a variety of reasons. With the Shuttle-C, it was thought that the lower maintenance and safety requirements for the unmanned vehicle would allow a higher flight rate.

text: A notable application is SPIKE, the scheduling system for the Hubble Space Telescope. SPIKE was developed on Texas Instruments Explorer workstations.

text: The Neutral Buoyancy Simulator was a neutral buoyancy pool located at NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC).  Engineers and astronauts developed hardware and practiced procedures in this tank from its completion in 1968 through its decommissioning in 1997. Marshall recognized the need for underwater simulations of extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) and developed three successively larger tanks for the purpose.  The Neutral Buoyancy Simulator contributed significantly to the American manned space program. Skylab, the Space Shuttle, Hubble Space Telescope, and the International Space Station have all benefited from the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator. Until Johnson Space Center constructed the Weightless Environment Test Facility in the mid-1970s, MSFC had the only NASA-owned test facility that allowed engineers and astronauts to become familiar with the dynamics of body motion under weightless conditions.

text: The Neutral Buoyancy Simulator was a

text: neutral buoyancy pool

text: located at NASA's

text: George C. Marshall Space Flight Center

text: (MSFC).

text: Engineer

text: s and astronauts developed hardware and practiced procedures in this tank from its completion in 1968 through its decommissioning in 1997. Marshall recognized the need for underwater simulations of

text: extra-vehicular activities

text: (EVAs) and developed three successively larger tanks for the purpose.  The Neutral Buoyancy Simulator contributed significantly to the American manned space program.

text: Skylab

text: , the

text: Space Shuttle

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , and the

text: International Space Station

text: have all benefited from the Neutral Buoyancy Simulator. Until

text: Johnson Space Center

text: constructed the Weightless Environment Test Facility in the mid-1970s, MSFC had the only NASA-owned test facility that allowed engineers and astronauts to become familiar with the dynamics of body motion under weightless conditions.

text: In 1981, Gen Richardson teamed up with Lt Gen Daniel O. Graham USA (ret) on a Heritage Foundation project called High Frontier to formulate a long-term national strategy and plan to build a U.S. space-based missile defense.  This plan, “High Frontier: A New National Strategy,” was the foundation for President Ronald Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative.  Gen Richardson went on to serve as Deputy Directory for the High Frontier non-profit organization from 1981 to 2003 that not only advocated the maximum use of U.S. space technology for missile defense but also for the industrial and commercial use of space.  Over the two decades he was with High Frontier, Gen Richardson successfully advocated for President Ronald Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative, established the Space Transportation Association, advocated the single-stage-to-orbit (or SSTO) vehicle as a follow-on to the Space Shuttle, and more recently, helped develop a long-term strategy to colonize the Moon.

text: In 1981, Gen Richardson teamed up with

text: Lt Gen Daniel O. Graham USA (ret)

text: on a

text: Heritage Foundation

text: project called

text: High Frontier

text: to formulate a long-term national strategy and plan to build a U.S. space-based missile defense.  This plan, “High Frontier: A New National Strategy,” was the foundation for President

text: Ronald Reagan

text: ’s

text: Strategic Defense Initiative

text: .  Gen Richardson went on to serve as Deputy Directory for the High Frontier non-profit organization from 1981 to 2003 that not only advocated the maximum use of U.S. space technology for missile defense but also for the industrial and commercial use of space.  Over the two decades he was with High Frontier, Gen Richardson successfully advocated for President

text: Ronald Reagan

text: ’s

text: Strategic Defense Initiative

text: , established the Space Transportation Association, advocated the

text: single-stage-to-orbit

text: (or SSTO) vehicle as a follow-on to the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , and more recently, helped develop a long-term strategy to colonize the Moon.

text: The book starts in the Solar System with Mars and the Viking landers. The Vikings dashed hopes that Mars might be habitable but they opened up the modern age of exploration of the red planet. Nearly three decades later, the Mars Exploration Rovers were embraced by the public as they traversed Mars and gathered evidence for a warmer and wetter planet in the distant past. Next come two spacecraft that made a Grand Tour of the outer Solar System during the 1970s. The Voyagers painted detailed portraits of the four gas giant planets and their moons. More recently, Cassini has explored Saturn and its fascinating moon system. Together, these missions have recast our understanding of the frigid realm beyond the asteroid belt.

text: The book starts in the

text: Solar System

text: with

text: Mars

text: and the

text: Viking landers

text: . The Vikings dashed hopes that Mars might be

text: habitable

text: but they opened up the modern age of exploration of the red planet. Nearly three decades later, the

text: Mars Exploration Rovers

text: were embraced by the public as they traversed Mars and gathered evidence for a warmer and wetter planet in the distant past. Next come two spacecraft that made a

text: Grand Tour

text: of the outer Solar System during the 1970s. The

text: Voyagers

text: painted detailed portraits of the four

text: gas giant planets

text: and their moons. More recently,

text: Cassini

text: has explored

text: Saturn

text: and its fascinating moon system. Together, these missions have recast our understanding of the frigid realm beyond the

text: asteroid belt

text: The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of , is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station. The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year-long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz. The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.

text: The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of , is the largest artificial satellite in

text: Earth

text: orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station. The

text: Soyuz

text: spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year-long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian

text: Progress spacecraft

text: which has done so since 2000, the European

text: Automated Transfer Vehicle

text: (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese

text: H-II Transfer Vehicle

text: (HTV) since 2009, the American

text: Dragon spacecraft

text: since 2012, and the American

text: Cygnus spacecraft

text: since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz. The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.

text: Higginbotham began her career in 1987 at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, as a Payload Electrical Engineer in the Electrical and Telecommunications Systems Division. Within six months she became the lead for the Orbiter Experiments (OEX) on OV-102, the Space Shuttle Columbia. She later worked on the Shuttle payload bay reconfiguration for all Shuttle missions and conducted electrical compatibility tests for all payloads flown aboard the Shuttle. She was also tasked by KSC management to undertake several special assignments where she served as the Executive Staff Assistant to the Director of Shuttle Operations and Management, led a team of engineers in performing critical analysis for the Space Shuttle flow in support of a simulation model tool, and worked on an interactive display detailing the Space Shuttle processing procedures at Spaceport USA (Kennedy Space Center’s Visitors Center). Higginbotham then served as backup orbiter project engineer for OV-104, Space Shuttle Atlantis, where she participated in the integration of the orbiter docking station (ODS) into the space shuttle used during Shuttle/Mir docking missions. Two years later, she was promoted to lead orbiter project engineer for OV-102, Space Shuttle Columbia. In this position, she held the technical lead government engineering position in the firing room where she supported and managed the integration of vehicle testing and troubleshooting. She actively participated in 53 space shuttle launches during her 9-year tenure at Kennedy Space Center.

text: Since construction started, the International Space Station (ISS) programme has had to deal with several maintenance issues, unexpected problems and failures. These incidents have affected the assembly timeline, led to periods of reduced capabilities of the station and in some cases could have forced the crew to abandon the space station for safety reasons, had these problems not been resolved.

text: Since construction started, the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) programme has had to deal with several maintenance issues, unexpected problems and failures. These incidents have affected the

text: assembly

text: timeline, led to periods of reduced capabilities of the station and in some cases could have forced the crew to abandon the space station for safety reasons, had these problems not been resolved.

text: Fellow, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics; Fellow, American Astronautical Society; President, Association of Space Explorers - USA; Member, International Academy of Astronautics; Vice President, International Astronautical Federation; Served 4 terms as International Co-President of the Association of Space Explorers.  Trustee, Washington State University Foundation.  Trustee, Phi Sigma Kappa Foundation. Served with the Presidential Commission Investigating the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident and the Presidential Commission on Design of the International Space Station.  Member of NASA Advisory Committees on the Joint US-Russian Space Shuttle - MIR Program and the International Space Station.  Member, Advisory Committee, Georgia Tech Research Institute.

text: Fellow,

text: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

text: ; Fellow, American Astronautical Society; President, Association of Space Explorers - USA; Member, International Academy of Astronautics; Vice President, International Astronautical Federation; Served 4 terms as International Co-President of the Association of Space Explorers.  Trustee, Washington State University Foundation.  Trustee, Phi Sigma Kappa Foundation. Served with the Presidential Commission Investigating the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident and the Presidential Commission on Design of the International Space Station.  Member of NASA Advisory Committees on the Joint US-Russian Space Shuttle - MIR Program and the International Space Station.  Member, Advisory Committee, Georgia Tech Research Institute.

text: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System –

text: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System

text: After the second generation, plans for the next generation of Salyut stations called for the cores DOS-7 and DOS-8 to allow, for the first time in spaceflight, the addition of several modules to a station core and to create a modular space station.For this, the DOS modules were to be equipped with a total of four docking ports: one docking port at the aft of the station as in the second generation Salyuts, and the replacement of the front docking port with a "docking sphere" containing a front port and starboard docking port.

text: Each Space Shuttle had three RS-25 engines, installed in the aft structure of the Space Shuttle orbiter in the Orbiter Processing Facility prior to the orbiter being transferred to the Vehicle Assembly Building. If necessary the engines could be changed on the pad. The engines, drawing propellant from the Space Shuttle external tank (ET) via the orbiter's main propulsion system (MPS), were ignited at T-6.6 seconds prior to liftoff (with each ignition staggered by 120 ms), which allowed their performance to be checked prior to ignition of the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs), which committed the shuttle to the launch. At launch, the engines would be operating at 100% RPL, throttling up to 104.5% immediately following liftoff. The engines would maintain this power level until around T+40 seconds, where they would be throttled back to around 70% to reduce aerodynamic loads on the shuttle stack as it passed through the region of maximum dynamic pressure, or max Q. The engines would then be throttled back up until around T+8 minutes, at which point they would be gradually throttled back down to 67% to prevent the stack exceeding 3 g of acceleration as it became progressively lighter due to propellant consumption. The engines were then shut down, a procedure known as main engine cutoff (MECO), at around T+8.5 minutes.

text: Each Space Shuttle had three RS-25 engines, installed in the aft structure of the

text: Space Shuttle orbiter

text: in the

text: Orbiter Processing Facility

text: prior to the orbiter being transferred to the

text: Vehicle Assembly Building

text: . If necessary the engines could be changed on the pad. The engines, drawing propellant from the Space Shuttle external tank (ET) via the orbiter's main propulsion system (MPS), were ignited at T-6.6 seconds prior to liftoff (with each ignition staggered by 120

text: ms

text: ), which allowed their performance to be checked prior to ignition of the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: s (SRBs), which committed the shuttle to the launch. At launch, the engines would be operating at 100% RPL, throttling up to 104.5% immediately following liftoff. The engines would maintain this power level until around T+40 seconds, where they would be throttled back to around 70% to reduce aerodynamic loads on the shuttle stack as it passed through the region of maximum dynamic pressure, or

text: max Q

text: . The engines would then be throttled back up until around T+8 minutes, at which point they would be gradually throttled back down to 67% to prevent the stack exceeding 3

text: g

text: of acceleration as it became progressively lighter due to propellant consumption. The engines were then shut down, a procedure known as main engine cutoff (MECO), at around T+8.5 minutes.

text: Ross flew as a mission specialist on STS 61-B (1985), STS-27 (1988) and STS-37 (1991), was the Payload Commander on STS-55/Spacelab-D2 (1993), and again served as a mission specialist on the second Space Shuttle to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station Mir, STS-74 (1995), the first International Space Station assembly mission, STS-88 (1998) and STS-110 (2002). A veteran of seven space flights, Ross has over 1,393 hours in space, including 58 hours and 18 minutes on nine EVA

text: Ross flew as a

text: mission specialist

text: on

text: STS 61-B

text: (1988) and

text: (1991), was the

text: Payload Commander

text: on

text: Spacelab

text: -D2 (1993), and again served as a mission specialist on the second Space Shuttle to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station

text: Mir

text: (1995), the first

text: International Space Station

text: assembly mission,

text: (1998) and

text: (2002). A veteran of seven space flights, Ross has over 1,393 hours in space, including 58 hours and 18 minutes on nine

text: EVA

text: The Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" may be awarded to foreign citizens for outstanding achievements in the development of space technology in the Russian Federation.

text: The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), previously known as Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), is a Flagship-class space observatory under construction and scheduled to launch in October 2018. The JWST will offer unprecedented resolution and sensitivity from long-wavelength (orange-red) visible light, through near-infrared to the mid-infrared (0.6 to 27 micrometers). While Hubble has a  mirror, the JWST features a larger and segmented  primary mirror and will be located near the Earth–Sun L point. A large sunshield will keep its mirror and four science instruments below .

text: The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), previously known as Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), is a

text: Flagship-class

text: space observatory

text: under construction and scheduled to launch in October 2018. The JWST will offer unprecedented resolution and sensitivity from long-wavelength (orange-red) visible light, through near-infrared to the

text: mid-infrared

text: (0.6 to 27 micrometers). While Hubble has a  mirror, the JWST features a larger and segmented

text: primary mirror

text: and will be located near the Earth–Sun

text: L

text: point. A large

text: sunshield

text: will keep its

text: mirror

text: and four science instruments below .

text: Following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in January 1986, the GPS Program Office replanned the first eight Block II satellites for flights on the new Delta II expendable Medium Launch Vehicle in lieu of the Space Shuttle.  Space Division awarded the Medium Launch Vehicle (MLV) contract to McDonnell-Douglas Astronautics Company on 21 January 1987.  However, unlike earlier commercial arrangements, the company would no longer be under contract to NASA. Under the new Commercial Expendable Launch Vehicle program encouraged by president Ronald Reagan since 1983, McDonnell-Douglas would be responsible for producing, marketing and launching its commercial Delta IIs. The Air Force would be responsible for ensuring safety and environmental standards for commercial as well as military launches, but McDonnell-Douglas would have greater responsibility in meeting those standards (including quality control). Both launch pads (17A and 17B) would be equipped to handle commercial and Defense Department missions. McDonnell-Douglas and its subcontractors were soon hard at work preparing the pads for the new Delta II vehicles.

text: Following the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: in January 1986, the GPS Program Office replanned the first eight Block II satellites for flights on the new

text: Delta II

text: expendable Medium Launch Vehicle in lieu of the Space Shuttle.  Space Division awarded the Medium Launch Vehicle (MLV) contract to

text: McDonnell-Douglas

text: Astronautics Company on 21 January 1987.  However, unlike earlier commercial arrangements, the company would no longer be under contract to NASA. Under the new Commercial Expendable Launch Vehicle program encouraged by president

text: Ronald Reagan

text: since 1983, McDonnell-Douglas would be responsible for producing, marketing and launching its commercial Delta IIs. The Air Force would be responsible for ensuring safety and environmental standards for commercial as well as military launches, but McDonnell-Douglas would have greater responsibility in meeting those standards (including quality control). Both launch pads (17A and 17B) would be equipped to handle commercial and Defense Department missions. McDonnell-Douglas and its subcontractors were soon hard at work preparing the pads for the new Delta II vehicles.

text: The 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and 2010 Space Launch System program resulted in renewed proposals for Saturn C-3 derivatives using the Rocketdyne F-1A engines with existing booster cores and tooling (10m - Saturn S-IC stage; 8.4m - Space Shuttle external tank; 5.1m - Delta IV Common Booster Core).

text: The 1986

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: and 2010

text: Space Launch System

text: program resulted in renewed proposals for Saturn C-3 derivatives using the Rocketdyne F-1A engines with existing booster cores and tooling (10m - Saturn

text: S-IC

text: stage; 8.4m -

text: Space Shuttle external tank

text: ; 5.1m -

text: Delta IV Common Booster Core

text: After having just recently retired a successful shuttle program NASA is once again looking into deep space (where no human has gone), only not to probe but to actually go. The spacecraft (currently labeled Orion) must first reach orbit before attempting a journey to mars. Nasa has designed what they call the S.L.S. or space launch system to perform this first critical task. Much like the space shuttle booster rockets, the S.L.S. will be assembled at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then transported to the launch location. The S.L.S. will be more powerful than any other similar system Nasa has designed with an expected 8.4 million pounds of thrust at launch. This larger scale and thrust meant facility wide upgrades at the Michoud Assembly location would be required. The task of removing the existing concrete silos, originally built for assembling the space shuttle booster rockets, to make way for larger SLS core stage assembly towers was estimated to take three months. Bluegrass was called in to regain schedule for the overall project eventually completing the demolition of cells B and C in a month.

text: When Engineering Fails is a 1998 film written and presented by Henry Petroski.  It examines the causes of major disasters, including the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger, and compares the risks of computer-assisted design with those of traditional engineering methods.  The original title of the film was To Engineer Is Human, the title of Petroski's non-fiction book about design failures.

text: When Engineering Fails is a 1998 film written and presented by

text: Henry Petroski

text: .  It examines the causes of major disasters, including the explosion of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: , and compares the risks of computer-assisted design with those of traditional engineering methods.  The original title of the film was

text: To Engineer Is Human

text: , the title of Petroski's non-fiction book about design failures.

text: In 2005, NASA decided to pursue the design and construction of two new launchers, both based on technology and infrastructure developed for the US Space Shuttle program.  These launchers would replace the Space Shuttle and supply the launch services necessary to fulfill the Vision for Space Exploration.  NASA has given the name "Project Constellation" for the manned Crew Launch Vehicle project.

text: In 2005, NASA decided to pursue the design and construction of two new launchers, both based on technology and infrastructure developed for the US

text: Space Shuttle program

text: .  These launchers would replace the Space Shuttle and supply the launch services necessary to fulfill the Vision for Space Exploration.  NASA has given the name "

text: Project Constellation

text: " for the manned Crew Launch Vehicle project.

text: Marc Postman served on several science working groups exploring the capabilities of future large optical / near infrared telescopes on the ground and in space. He is the Principal Investigator for a NASA Strategic Mission Concept Study called the Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope, a possible successor to the Hubble Space Telescope. He was a member of the Hubble Space Telescope Advanced Camera for Surveys investigation team and project scientist for the STScI Digitized Sky Survey program. He has also served on the Council of the American Astronomical Society and on the Committee for the Status of Women in Astronomy. Postman is also the Principal Investigator of the HST multi-cycle treasury program Cluster Lensing and Supernova survey with Hubble, a study of dark matter in clusters of galaxies.

text: Marc Postman served on several science working groups exploring the capabilities of future large optical / near infrared telescopes on the ground and in space. He is the Principal Investigator for a

text: NASA

text: Strategic Mission Concept Study called the

entity_name: Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope

text: Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope

text: , a possible successor to the Hubble Space Telescope. He was a member of the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: Advanced Camera for Surveys

text: investigation team and project scientist for the STScI

text: Digitized Sky Survey

text: program. He has also served on the Council of the

text: American Astronomical Society

text: and on the Committee for the Status of Women in Astronomy. Postman is also the Principal Investigator of the HST multi-cycle treasury program

entity_name: Cluster Lensing and Supernova survey with Hubble

text: Cluster Lensing and Supernova survey with Hubble

text: , a study of

text: dark matter

text: in clusters of galaxies.

text: An earlier space station, CSS Skywalker (Commercial Space Station Skywalker), was Bigelow's 2005 concept for the first space hotel. The Skywalker was to be composed of multiple Nautilus habitat modules, which would be expanded and connected upon reaching orbit. An MDPM (Multi-Directional Propulsion Module) would allow the Skywalker to be moved into interplanetary or lunar trajectories.

text: An earlier space station,

text: CSS Skywalker

text: (Commercial Space Station Skywalker), was Bigelow's 2005 concept for the first space hotel. The Skywalker was to be composed of multiple

text: Nautilus habitat modules

text: , which would be expanded and connected upon reaching orbit. An MDPM (Multi-Directional Propulsion Module) would allow the Skywalker to be moved into interplanetary or lunar trajectories.

text: While Zomeworks has been known mainly for exploring passive solar strategies and equipment, some of the equipment the company has developed more recently, for solar-driven space cooling, has used active-solar principles.

text: While Zomeworks has been known mainly for exploring

text: passive solar

text: strategies and equipment, some of the equipment the company has developed more recently, for solar-driven space cooling, has used active-solar principles.

text: The Pioneer program is a series of NASA unmanned space missions that was designed for planetary exploration. There were a number of such missions in the program, but the most notable were Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11, which explored the outer planets and left the solar system. Both carry a golden plaque, depicting a man and a woman and information about the origin and the creators of the probes, should any extraterrestrials find them someday.

text: The Pioneer program is a series of NASA

text: unmanned space missions

text: that was designed for planetary exploration. There were a number of such missions in the program, but the most notable were

text: Pioneer 10

text: and

text: Pioneer 11

text: , which explored the outer planets and left the

text: solar system

text: . Both carry a golden

text: plaque

text: , depicting a man and a woman and information about the origin and the creators of the probes, should any

text: extraterrestrials

text: find them someday.

text: According to Easterbrook, the billions of dollars that a lunar colony might cost should instead be devoted to exploring the solar system with space probes; space observatories; and protecting the Earth from near-Earth asteroids.

text: According to Easterbrook, the billions of dollars that a lunar colony might cost should instead be devoted to exploring the solar system with

text: space probe

text: s;

text: space observatories

text: ; and protecting the Earth from

text: near-Earth asteroid

text: s.

text: Project Constellation included an Orion Mars Mission.(Then United States President) George W. Bush announced an initiative of manned space exploration on January 14, 2004, known as the Vision for Space Exploration. It included developing preliminary plans for a lunar outpost by 2012 and establishing an outpost by 2020. Precursor missions that would help develop the needed technology during the 2010-2020 decade were tentatively outlined by Adringa and others. On September 24, 2007, Michael Griffin, then NASA Administrator, hinted that NASA may be able to launch a human mission to Mars by 2037. The needed funds were to be generated by diverting $11 billion from space science missions to the vision for human exploration.

text: Project Constellation

text: included an

text: Orion Mars Mission

text: .(Then United States President)

text: George W. Bush

text: announced an initiative of manned space exploration on January 14, 2004, known as the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: . It included developing preliminary plans for a lunar outpost by 2012 and establishing an outpost by 2020. Precursor missions that would help develop the needed technology during the 2010-2020 decade were tentatively outlined by Adringa and others. On September 24, 2007, Michael Griffin, then NASA Administrator, hinted that NASA may be able to launch a human mission to Mars by 2037. The needed funds were to be generated by

text: diverting $11 billion

text: from space science missions to the vision for human exploration.

text: Another media incident started during the New Hampshire primary September 27, 2003, when Clark was asked by space shuttle astronaut Jay C. Buckey what his vision for the space program was after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Clark responded he was a great believer in the exploration of space but wanted a vision well beyond that of a new shuttle or space plane. "I would like to see mankind get off this planet. I'd like to know what's out there beyond the solar system." Clark thought such a vision could probably require a lifetime of research and development in various fields of science and technology. Then at the end of his remarks, Clark dropped a bombshell when he said "I still believe in E = mc². But I can't believe that in all of human history we'll never ever be able to go beyond the speed of light to reach where we want to go. I happen to believe that mankind can do it. I've argued with physicists about it. I've argued with best friends about it. I just have to believe it. It's my only faith-based initiative." This led to a series of headlines deriding the response, such as "Beam Us Up, General Clark" in The New York Times, "Clark is Light-Years Ahead of the Competition" in The Washington Post, "General Relativity (Retired)" on the U.S. News & World Report website, and "Clark Campaigns at Light Speed" in Wired magazine.

text: Another media incident started during the New Hampshire primary September 27, 2003, when Clark was asked by

text: space shuttle

text: astronaut

text: Jay C. Buckey

text: what his vision for the space program was after the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: . Clark responded he was a great believer in the exploration of space but wanted a vision well beyond that of a new shuttle or space plane. "I would like to see mankind get off this planet. I'd like to know what's out there beyond the solar system." Clark thought such a vision could probably require a lifetime of research and development in various fields of science and technology. Then at the end of his remarks, Clark dropped a bombshell when he said "I still believe in

text: E = mc²

text: . But I can't believe that in all of human history we'll never ever be able to go beyond the speed of light to reach where we want to go. I happen to believe that mankind can do it. I've argued with physicists about it. I've argued with best friends about it. I just have to believe it. It's my only faith-based initiative." This led to a series of headlines deriding the response, such as "Beam Us Up, General Clark" in The New York Times, "Clark is Light-Years Ahead of the Competition" in The Washington Post, "General Relativity (Retired)" on the

text: U.S. News & World Report

text: website, and "Clark Campaigns at Light Speed" in

text: Wired

text: magazine.

text: The Citadis tram, flagship of the French manufacturer Alstom, enjoys an innovative design combining lighter bogies with a modular concept for carriages providing more choices in the types of windows and the number of cars and doors. The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to , is suitable for stop spacings ranging from  to . Dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections.

text: The

text: Citadis

text: tram, flagship of the French manufacturer Alstom, enjoys an innovative design combining lighter bogies with a

text: modular concept

text: for carriages providing more choices in the types of windows and the number of cars and doors. The recent Citadis-Dualis, intended to run at up to , is suitable for stop spacings ranging from  to . Dualis is a strictly modular partial low-floor car, with all doors in the low-floor sections.

text: The STS-3xx missions were developed in the aftermath of the loss of Columbia. However, NASA spent some effort researching rescue options even before the disaster. Before the ISS was launched, or in the event of the shuttle being unable to reach the station, shuttle crews would have had to transfer directly between shuttles. The orbiters would have been unable to dock, so while they used their RMS arms to grapple each other, the crew would have made an EVA between the shuttles. This would have been carried out using the two EVA-designated mission specialists wearing the Shuttle/ISS Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) spacesuits, while the remaining crew would have been sealed up in pressurized Personal Rescue Enclosure and carried over either by hand, or using a pulley system (akin to that of a clothesline pulley) like that employed in the Apollo program for lifting samples from the Moon's surface into the Lunar Module.

text: The STS-3xx missions were developed in the aftermath of the

text: loss of Columbia

text: . However, NASA spent some effort researching rescue options even before the disaster. Before the ISS was launched, or in the event of the shuttle being unable to reach the station, shuttle crews would have had to transfer directly between shuttles. The orbiters would have been unable to dock, so while they used their RMS arms to grapple each other, the crew would have made an

text: EVA

text: between the shuttles. This would have been carried out using the two EVA-designated mission specialists wearing the

text: Shuttle/ISS Extravehicular Mobility Unit

text: (EMU) spacesuits, while the remaining crew would have been sealed up in pressurized

text: Personal Rescue Enclosure

text: and carried over either by hand, or using a pulley system (akin to that of a clothesline pulley) like that employed in the

text: Apollo

text: program for lifting samples from the Moon's surface into the

text: Lunar Module

text: There is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the Kármán line, at an altitude of  above sea level, is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. The framework for international space law was established by the Outer Space Treaty, which was passed by the United Nations in 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of national sovereignty and permits all states to freely explore outer space. Despite the drafting of UN resolutions for the peaceful uses of outer space, anti-satellite weapons have been tested in Earth orbit.

text: There is no firm boundary where outer space starts. However the

text: Kármán line

text: , at an altitude of  above sea level, is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. The framework for international

text: space law

text: was established by the

text: Outer Space Treaty

text: , which was passed by the

text: United Nations

text: in 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of

text: national sovereignty

text: and permits all states to freely

text: explore outer space

text: . Despite the drafting of

text: UN resolution

text: s for the peaceful uses of outer space,

text: anti-satellite weapon

text: s have been tested in Earth orbit.

text: Claude Nicollier (born 2 September 1944 in Vevey, Switzerland) is the first astronaut from Switzerland, and has flown on four Space Shuttle missions. His first spaceflight (STS-46) was in 1992, and his final spaceflight (STS-103) was in 1999. He took part in two servicing missions to the Hubble Space Telescope (called STS-61 and STS-103). During his final spaceflight he participated in a spacewalk, becoming the first European Space Agency astronaut to do so during a Space Shuttle mission (previous ESA astronauts conducted spacewalks aboard Mir, see List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999). In 2000 he was assigned to the Astronaut Office Extravehicular Activity Branch, while maintaining a position as Lead ESA Astronaut in Houston. Nicollier retired from ESA in April 2007.

text: Claude Nicollier (born 2 September 1944 in

text: Vevey

text: Switzerland

text: ) is the first

text: astronaut

text: from

text: Switzerland

text: , and has flown on four

text: Space Shuttle

text: missions. His first

text: spaceflight

text: ) was in 1992, and his final spaceflight (

text: ) was in 1999. He took part in two servicing missions to the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (called

text: and STS-103). During his final spaceflight he participated in a

text: spacewalk

text: , becoming the first

text: European Space Agency

text: astronaut to do so during a Space Shuttle mission (previous ESA astronauts conducted spacewalks aboard

text: Mir

text: , see

entity_name: List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999

text: List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999

text: ). In 2000 he was assigned to the Astronaut Office Extravehicular Activity Branch, while maintaining a position as Lead ESA Astronaut in

text: Houston

text: . Nicollier retired from ESA in April 2007.

text: Exponent has been involved in the investigations of many well known incidents including the now debunked report aired on Dateline in 1993 about fires and explosions involving sidesaddle fuel tanks on Chevrolet C/K trucks, the disputed Consumer Reports finding on Suzuki roll-over safety, the 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls, the crash of American Airlines Flight 587 among many other aviation accidents, and the Exxon Valdez oil spill. The Federal Emergency Management Agency also hired Exponent to examine the Oklahoma City bombing damage aftermath, specifically the damage to the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building. NASA hired Exponent in 1986 to determine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. In 2003, Exponent was hired by the U.S. government to investigate the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: Exponent has been involved in the investigations of many well known incidents including the now debunked

text: report aired on Dateline in 1993

text: about fires and explosions involving sidesaddle

text: fuel tank

text: s on

text: Chevrolet C/K

text: truck

text: s, the disputed Consumer Reports finding on

text: Suzuki

text: roll-over safety, the

text: 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls

text: , the crash of

text: American Airlines Flight 587

text: among many other aviation accidents, and the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil spill

text: . The

text: Federal Emergency Management Agency

text: also hired Exponent to examine the

text: Oklahoma City bombing

text: damage aftermath, specifically the damage to the

text: Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building

text: NASA

text: hired Exponent in 1986 to determine the causes of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: . In 2003, Exponent was hired by the

text: U.S. government

text: to investigate the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: The launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 started the Space Age, and on July 20, 1969 Apollo 11 achieved the first manned moon landing. In April 1981, the Space Shuttle Columbia launched, the start of regular manned access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with "Mir" in 1986 and is continued by the "International Space Station". Space commercialization and space tourism are more recent focuses in aerospace.

text: The launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 started the

text: Space Age

text: , and on July 20, 1969

text: Apollo 11

text: achieved the first manned moon landing. In April 1981, the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia

text: launched, the start of regular manned access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with "

text: Mir

text: " in 1986 and is continued by the "

text: International Space Station

text: Space commercialization

text: and

text: space tourism

text: are more recent focuses in aerospace.

text: The novels do not share any characters and do not form a strict chronological series; the later novels are not sequels to the earlier ones.  Yet together they form an expanded story arc of space exploration.   The first novel, Rocket Ship Galileo, is about an effort to reach the Moon. The next few (through The Rolling Stones) revolve around interplanetary travel within the solar system.  The next few (Starman Jones through Time for the Stars) revolve around various versions of the early phase of interstellar travel. In the next novel (Citizen of the Galaxy), interstellar travel is well-established and easy for humans, and the central problem is one of the maintenance of law and order in the galaxy. The protagonist of the next and last Scribner's juvenile, Have Space Suit—Will Travel, travels to the Lesser Magellanic Cloud and interacts with an intergalactic civilization. The last book submitted to Scribner's, Starship Troopers, portrays an interstellar war between mankind and several other species.

text: The novels do not share any characters and do not form a strict chronological series; the later novels are not sequels to the earlier ones.  Yet together they form an expanded story arc of space exploration.   The first novel,

text: Rocket Ship Galileo

text: , is about an effort to reach

text: the Moon

text: . The next few (through

text: The Rolling Stones

text: ) revolve around

text: interplanetary travel

text: within the

text: solar system

text: .  The next few (

text: Starman Jones

text: through

text: Time for the Stars

text: ) revolve around various versions of the early phase of

text: interstellar travel

text: . In the next novel (

text: Citizen of the Galaxy

text: ), interstellar travel is well-established and easy for humans, and the central problem is one of the maintenance of law and order in the galaxy. The protagonist of the next and last Scribner's juvenile,

text: Have Space Suit—Will Travel

text: , travels to the

text: Lesser Magellanic Cloud

text: and interacts with an

text: intergalactic

text: civilization. The last book submitted to Scribner's,

text: Starship Troopers

text: , portrays an interstellar war between mankind and several other species.

text: Kosmonavtlar is a space-programme-themed station of the Tashkent Metro on Oʻzbekiston Line which was opened on 8 December 1984 partly in honour of cosmonaut Vladimir Dzhanibekov. Column-type station with two underground vestibules.The architectural decoration of the station on the theme of space. The interior is decorated with blue ceramic medallions with images of Ulugbek, Icarus, Valentina Tereshkova, Yuri Gagarin, Vyacheslav Volkov and Vladimir Dzhanibekov. The ceiling resembles the Milky Way, which shone glass stars. Travel wall platform floor-to-ceiling windows throughout the length of the platform is gradually moving from azure to dark blue, recalling the atmosphere of the Earth. Round tower platform covered with glass, and metal, granite and marble-trimmed lobbies stations, lobbies finish is, as the station, on the theme of space exploration.

text: Kosmonavtlar is a space-programme-themed station of the

text: Tashkent Metro

text: on

text: Oʻzbekiston Line

text: which was opened on 8 December 1984 partly in honour of cosmonaut

text: Vladimir Dzhanibekov

text: . Column-type station with two underground vestibules.The architectural decoration of the station on the theme of space. The interior is decorated with blue ceramic medallions with images of

text: Ulugbek

text: Icarus

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: Vyacheslav Volkov

text: and

text: Vladimir Dzhanibekov

text: . The ceiling resembles the Milky Way, which shone glass stars. Travel wall platform floor-to-ceiling windows throughout the length of the platform is gradually moving from azure to dark blue, recalling the atmosphere of the

text: Earth

text: . Round tower platform covered with

text: glass

text: , and

text: metal

text: granite

text: and marble-trimmed lobbies stations, lobbies finish is, as the station, on the theme of space exploration.

text: Moreover, such methods are completely blind to molecules that have no dipole. For example, by far the most common molecule in the universe is H (hydrogen gas), but it does not have a dipole moment, so it is invisible to radio telescopes. Moreover, such methods cannot detect species that are not in the gas-phase. Since dense molecular clouds are very cold (), most molecules in them (other than hydrogen) are frozen, i.e. solid. Instead, hydrogen and these other molecules are detected using other wavelengths of light. Hydrogen is easily detected in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible ranges from its absorption and emission of light (the hydrogen line). Moreover, most organic compounds absorb and emit light in the infrared (IR) so, for example, the  detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars was achieved using an IR ground-based telescope, NASA's 3-meter Infrared Telescope Facility atop Mauna Kea, Hawaii. NASA's researchers use airborne IR telescope SOFIA and space telescope Spitzer for their observations, researches and scientific operations.  Somewhat related to the recent detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars. Christopher Oze, of the University of Canterbury in New Zealand and his colleagues reported, in June 2012, that measuring the ratio of hydrogen and methane levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of life on Mars. According to the scientists, "...low H/CH ratios (less than approximately 40) indicate that life is likely present and active."  Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in extraterrestrial atmospheres.

text: Moreover, such methods are completely blind to molecules that have no

text: dipole

text: . For example, by far the most common molecule in the universe is H (

text: hydrogen

text: gas), but it does not have a dipole moment, so it is invisible to radio telescopes. Moreover, such methods cannot detect species that are not in the gas-phase. Since dense molecular clouds are very cold (), most molecules in them (other than hydrogen) are frozen, i.e. solid. Instead, hydrogen and these other molecules are detected using other wavelengths of light. Hydrogen is easily detected in the ultraviolet (UV) and visible ranges from its absorption and emission of light (the

text: hydrogen line

text: ). Moreover, most organic compounds absorb and emit light in the infrared (IR) so, for example, the  detection of

text: methane

text: in the atmosphere of Mars was achieved using an IR ground-based telescope, NASA's 3-meter

text: Infrared Telescope Facility

text: atop Mauna Kea, Hawaii. NASA's researchers use airborne IR telescope

text: SOFIA

text: and space telescope

text: Spitzer

text: for their observations, researches and scientific operations.  Somewhat related to the recent detection of

text: methane

text: in the

text: atmosphere of Mars

text: . Christopher Oze, of the

text: University of Canterbury

text: in

text: New Zealand

text: and his colleagues reported, in June 2012, that measuring the ratio of

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: methane

text: levels on Mars may help determine the likelihood of

text: life on Mars

text: . According to the scientists, "...low H/CH ratios (less than approximately 40) indicate that life is likely present and active."  Other scientists have recently reported methods of detecting hydrogen and methane in

text: extraterrestrial atmospheres

text: Not long after inception, Microgramma was widely appropriated for use in science fiction film, depicting advanced technology and space exploration.

text: Not long after inception, Microgramma was widely appropriated for use in

text: science fiction

text: film, depicting advanced

text: technology

text: and

text: space exploration

text: Further concepts for advanced 21st-century space telescopes include the Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope, a conceptualized 8- to 16-meter (320- to 640-inch) optical space telescope that if realized could be a more direct successor to HST, with the ability to observe and photograph astronomical objects in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with substantially better resolution than Hubble or the Spitzer Space telescope. This effort is being planned for the 2025–2035 time frame.

text: Further concepts for advanced 21st-century space telescopes include the

text: , a conceptualized 8- to 16-meter (320- to 640-inch) optical space telescope that if realized could be a more direct successor to HST, with the ability to observe and photograph astronomical objects in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with substantially better resolution than Hubble or the

text: Spitzer Space telescope

text: . This effort is being planned for the 2025–2035 time frame.

text: In 1999, Foale was a member of space shuttle mission STS-103, during which he conducted an eight-hour spacewalk to replace components of the Hubble Space Telescope. In 2003, Foale was named commander of International Space Station Expedition 8 with cosmonaut Aleksandr Kaleri. Their six-month tour of duty on the station ended on April 29, 2004. For about a year, Foale was Deputy Associate Administrator for Exploration Operations at NASA HQ, Washington D.C. He then supported Soyuz and ISS operations and spacesuit development for NASA in Houston.

text: In 1999, Foale was a member of space shuttle mission

text: , during which he conducted an eight-hour

text: spacewalk

text: to replace components of the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . In 2003, Foale was named commander of

text: International Space Station

text: Expedition 8

text: with cosmonaut

text: Aleksandr Kaleri

text: . Their six-month tour of duty on the station ended on April 29, 2004. For about a year, Foale was Deputy Associate Administrator for Exploration Operations at NASA HQ,

text: Washington D.C.

text: He then supported Soyuz and ISS operations and

text: spacesuit

text: development for NASA in Houston.

text: The NASA Tracking Station at Devil's Ashpit and the Cable & Wireless Earth Station at Donkey Plain were built in the mid-1960s for space operations and communications, including the latter's use for transmitting "microwave borne data via the Early Bird Satellite back to the NASA facility at Andover, Maine."

text: The NASA Tracking Station at Devil's Ashpit and the

text: Cable & Wireless

text: Earth Station at

text: Donkey Plain

text: were built in the mid-1960s for space operations and communications, including the latter's use for transmitting "microwave borne data via the

text: Early Bird Satellite

text: back to the NASA facility at

text: Andover, Maine

text: In June 2008, David King, director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center stated that NASA has considered DIRECT as well as many other rocket proposals, and that the Ares family was the right set of rockets for the mission. "DIRECT v2.0 falls significantly short of the lunar lander performance requirement for exploration missions as specifically outlined in Constellation Program ground rules. The concept also overshoots the requirements for early missions to the International Space Station in the coming decade. These shortcomings would necessitate rushed development of a more expensive launch system with too little capability in the long run, and would actually increase the gap between space shuttle retirement and development of a new vehicle. Even more importantly, the Ares approach offers a much greater margin of crew safety - paramount to every mission NASA puts into space."

text: In June 2008,

text: David King

text: , director of NASA's

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: stated that NASA has considered DIRECT as well as many other rocket proposals, and that the

text: Ares family

text: was the right set of rockets for the mission. "DIRECT v2.0 falls significantly short of the lunar lander performance requirement for exploration missions as specifically outlined in Constellation Program ground rules. The concept also overshoots the requirements for early missions to the International Space Station in the coming decade. These shortcomings would necessitate rushed development of a more expensive launch system with too little capability in the long run, and would actually increase the gap between space shuttle retirement and development of a new vehicle. Even more importantly, the Ares approach offers a much greater margin of crew safety - paramount to every mission NASA puts into space."

text: The next generation of launch vehicles will carry humans into space and, ultimately, enable exploration of the moon and beyond, beginning with servicing the International Space Station following the retirement of the space shuttle in 2010.

text: The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, while reentering Earth's atmosphere over Louisiana and Texas. The shuttle unexpectedly disintegrated, resulting in the death of all seven astronauts on board. The cause was later discovered to be damage to thermal shielding tiles from impact with a falling piece of foam insulation of an external tank during launch. It was the seventh known instance of this particular piece breaking free during launch. As the shuttle re-entered Earth's atmosphere at a speed of Mach 23 (23 times faster than the speed of sound), the wing experienced temperatures of . The damage from the insulation strike experienced during launch proved fatal as the shuttle disintegrated during the mission return. NASA's investigation team found melted aluminum on the thermal tiles and inside edges of the left wing of the spacecraft, supporting the notion that the Columbia's destruction was due to hot gases that penetrated the damaged spot on the wing.

text: The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, while reentering Earth's atmosphere over

text: Louisiana

text: and

text: Texas

text: . The shuttle unexpectedly disintegrated, resulting in the death of all seven astronauts on board. The cause was later discovered to be damage to thermal shielding tiles from impact with a falling piece of foam insulation of an external tank during launch. It was the seventh known instance of this particular piece breaking free during launch. As the shuttle re-entered Earth's atmosphere at a speed of Mach 23 (23 times faster than the speed of sound), the wing experienced temperatures of . The damage from the insulation strike experienced during launch proved fatal as the shuttle disintegrated during the mission return. NASA's investigation team found melted aluminum on the thermal tiles and inside edges of the left wing of the spacecraft, supporting the notion that the Columbia's destruction was due to hot gases that penetrated the damaged spot on the wing.

text: Former "Director of Solar System Exploration Division and Mars Exploration" and "Director, Applied Engineering & Technology" (as the "Director of Engineering" he managed the full scope of engineering activities at Goddard) at Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland.

text: In Russia, cosmonaut Yuri Baturin, described at the time by Space.com as "Russia's only cosmonaut/politician", became a senior aide to President Boris Yeltsin and served as one of that nation's leading space policy advisors. All four female Russian astronauts have gone on to serve in the State Duma. Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, entered politics in the days of the Soviet Union, serving in parliament and as a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. Svetlana Savitskaya, the second woman in space, was elected to the State Duma in 1996 and currently serves as Deputy Chair of the Committee on Defense, in addition to being a member of the Commission on Safety, Defense, and the Fight Against Crime in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union of Belarus and Russia. Yelena Kondakova served in the Duma as a member of the Fatherland - All Russia party, and after the party dissolved, as member of United Russia. However she left United Russia in 2011 as a result of her dissatisfaction with results of internal party elections. Most recently, Yelena Serova, the first female Russian cosmonaut to visit the International Space Station, was elected to serve in the Duma in 2016.

text: In

text: Russia

text: , cosmonaut

text: Yuri Baturin

text: , described at the time by

text: Space.com

text: as "Russia's only cosmonaut/politician", became a senior aide to President

text: Boris Yeltsin

text: and served as one of that nation's leading space policy advisors. All four female Russian astronauts have gone on to serve in the

text: State Duma

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: , the first woman in space, entered politics in the days of the

text: Soviet Union

text: , serving in parliament and as a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party.

text: Svetlana Savitskaya

text: , the second woman in space, was elected to the State Duma in 1996 and currently serves as Deputy Chair of the Committee on Defense, in addition to being a member of the Commission on Safety, Defense, and the Fight Against Crime in

text: the Parliamentary Assembly of the Union of Belarus and Russia

text: Yelena Kondakova

text: served in the Duma as a member of the

text: Fatherland - All Russia

text: party, and after the party dissolved, as member of

text: United Russia

text: . However she left United Russia in 2011 as a result of her dissatisfaction with results of internal party elections. Most recently,

text: Yelena Serova

text: , the first female Russian cosmonaut to visit the

text: International Space Station

text: , was elected to serve in the Duma in 2016.

text: The Tianhe (), code name TH, or Core Cabin Module (CCM) is the foundation element of the Chinese space station, as the final stage of Project 921 Tiangong program, part of the Chinese space program. The CCM follows the Salyut and Almaz series, Cosmos 557, Skylab, Mir, ISS, Tiangong 1 and Tiangong 2 space stations. It is the first part of a third generation modular space station. Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian Mir, Russian OPSEK and International Space Station. Operations will be controlled from the Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center in the People's Republic of China.

text: The Tianhe (), code name TH, or Core Cabin Module (CCM) is the foundation element of the

text: Chinese space station

text: , as the final stage of

text: Project 921

text: Tiangong program

text: , part of the

text: Chinese space program

text: . The CCM follows the Salyut and Almaz series, Cosmos 557, Skylab, Mir, ISS, Tiangong 1 and Tiangong 2 space stations. It is the first part of a third generation modular space station. Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian

text: Mir

text: , Russian

text: OPSEK

text: and

text: International Space Station

text: . Operations will be controlled from the

entity_name: Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center

text: Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center

text: in the

text: People's Republic of China

text: On 22 January 1998, Thomas launched aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour as part of the STS-89 crew to dock with the Mir Space Station. He served aboard Mir as Flight Engineer 2 and returned to earth with the crew of STS-91 aboard Space Shuttle Discovery on 12 June 1998, completing 141 days in space and 2,250 orbits of the earth.

text: On 22 January 1998, Thomas launched aboard Space Shuttle

text: Endeavour

text: as part of the

text: crew to dock with the

text: Mir Space Station

text: . He served aboard Mir as Flight Engineer 2 and returned to earth with the crew of

text: aboard Space Shuttle

text: Discovery

text: on 12 June 1998, completing 141 days in space and 2,250 orbits of the earth.

text: NASA performed a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration) regarding the future exploration of the Solar System. The target chosen was Callisto due to its distance from Jupiter, and thus the planet's harmful radiation. It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System.

text: NASA performed a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration) regarding the future exploration of the Solar System. The target chosen was

text: Callisto

text: due to its distance from Jupiter, and thus the planet's harmful radiation. It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System.

text: In mathematics, modular symbols, introduced independently by Bryan John Birch and by , span a vector space closely related to a space of modular forms, on which the action of the Hecke algebra can be described explicitly.  This makes them useful for computing with spaces of modular forms.

text: In mathematics, modular symbols, introduced independently by

text: Bryan John Birch

text: and by , span a

text: vector space

text: closely related to a space of

text: modular form

text: s, on which the

text: action

text: of the

text: Hecke algebra

text: can be described explicitly.  This makes them useful for computing with spaces of modular forms.

text: The International Space Station is used as reference for the Space Camp not only or being one of the largest scientific and technological projects in history but also because it is an example of overcoming difficulties (international, intercultural, becoming then a great example for the youth.

text: The

text: International Space Station

text: is used as reference for the Space Camp not only or being one of the largest scientific and technological projects in history but also because it is an example of overcoming difficulties (international, intercultural, becoming then a great example for the youth.

text: SiGe has been used as a material in RTGs since 1976. Each mission that has used RTG technology involves exploration of far-reaching regions of the solar system. The most recent mission, New Horizons (2005), was originally set for a 3-year exploration, but was extended to 17 years.

text: The Bodies in the space environment (BISE) project is an 18-month-long project on the International Space Station (ISS) that is exploring the perceived direction of up during long duration exposure to microgravity. This project is part of an ongoing project that has been exploring the perception of up during short duration microgravity exposure on flights similar to the Vomit Comet.

text: The Bodies in the space environment (BISE) project is an 18-month-long project on the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) that is exploring the perceived direction of up during long duration exposure to

text: microgravity

text: . This project is part of an ongoing project that has been exploring the perception of up during short duration microgravity exposure on flights similar to the

text: Vomit Comet

text: Taking a less hands-on approach to economic development than his predecessor, Barthelemy preferred to let the private sector be the primary engine of growth. This preference in favor of for-profit actors extended to affordable housing issues, highlighted by Barthelemy's proposal to privatize and demolish much of the city's public housing. The plan was received with great skepticism among community activists and ultimately abandoned. Though Barthelemy took a pro-business stance, his unfocused, laissez-faire approach to attacking the city's problems was harmful in the post-Oil Bust period; it was during his and his successor's mayoralties that New Orleans lost much of its remaining attractiveness as a center for corporate white collar employment. As recently as the late 1970s and early 1980s, downtown New Orleans had experienced a building boom, with multiple office towers constructed to house the headquarters, or large regional offices, for companies such as Freeport-McMoRan, Pan American Life Insurance, Exxon, Chevron, Gulf Oil, Amoco, Mobil, Murphy Oil and Texaco.  In the mid-80s these firms, along with other large employers such as Royal Dutch Shell, Louisiana Land and Exploration and McDermott International, employed thousands of white collar workers downtown, with thousands more employed by others providing services to them. Out of the above group, only Shell and Pan American Life Insurance remain as significant employers in downtown New Orleans today.  Though Barthelemy probably couldn't have averted the consolidation of Big Oil white collar employment to Houston, he was unsuccessful in creating an economic climate sufficiently conducive to the growth of replacement white collar employers downtown, or elsewhere in the city.  A big disappointment occurred in 1988, when defense and space contractor Martin Marietta lost its bid to construct the crew modules for NASA's Space Station Freedom.  Martin Marietta would have fabricated the space station hardware at its Michoud Assembly Facility in Eastern New Orleans, already the manufacturing location of the Space Shuttle's external tank.  The contract, won by Boeing, resulted in thousands of jobs created at that company's chosen assembly site, Huntsville, Alabama.  More disappointment followed the creation of the Metrovision regional economic development partnership, as that body largely failed to diversify or attract additional investment to Metro New Orleans' economy.

text: Taking a less hands-on approach to economic development than his predecessor, Barthelemy preferred to let the private sector be the primary engine of growth. This preference in favor of for-profit actors extended to affordable housing issues, highlighted by Barthelemy's proposal to privatize and demolish much of the city's public housing. The plan was received with great skepticism among community activists and ultimately abandoned. Though Barthelemy took a pro-business stance, his unfocused, laissez-faire approach to attacking the city's problems was harmful in the post-Oil Bust period; it was during his and

text: his successor's

text: mayoralties that New Orleans lost much of its remaining attractiveness as a center for corporate white collar employment. As recently as the late 1970s and early 1980s,

text: downtown New Orleans

text: had experienced a building boom, with

entity_name: List of tallest buildings in New Orleans

text: multiple office towers constructed

text: to house the headquarters, or large regional offices, for companies such as

text: Freeport-McMoRan

text: Pan American Life Insurance

text: Exxon

text: Chevron

text: Gulf Oil

text: Amoco

text: Mobil

text: Murphy Oil

text: and

text: Texaco

text: .  In the mid-80s these firms, along with other large employers such as

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: Louisiana Land and Exploration

text: and McDermott International, employed thousands of white collar workers downtown, with thousands more employed by others providing services to them. Out of the above group, only

text: Shell

text: and Pan American Life Insurance remain as significant employers in downtown New Orleans today.  Though Barthelemy probably couldn't have averted the consolidation of Big Oil white collar employment to

text: Houston

text: , he was unsuccessful in creating an economic climate sufficiently conducive to the growth of replacement white collar employers downtown, or elsewhere in the city.  A big disappointment occurred in 1988, when defense and space contractor

text: Martin Marietta

text: lost its bid to construct the crew modules for NASA's

text: Space Station Freedom

text: .  Martin Marietta would have fabricated the space station hardware at its

text: Michoud Assembly Facility

text: in

text: Eastern New Orleans

text: , already the manufacturing location of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: 's

text: external tank

text: .  The contract, won by

text: Boeing

text: , resulted in thousands of jobs created at that company's chosen assembly site,

text: Huntsville, Alabama

text: .  More disappointment followed the creation of the Metrovision regional economic development partnership, as that body largely failed to diversify or attract additional investment to

text: Metro New Orleans'

text: economy.

text: Following the intentional deorbiting of Mir on 23 March 2001, the ISS became the only space station in orbit around Earth. It retained that distinction until the launch of Chinese Tiangong-1 space laboratory on 29 September 2011.  Mirs legacy lives on in the station, bringing together five space agencies in the cause of exploration and allowing those space agencies to prepare for their next leap into space, to the Moon, Mars and beyond.

text: Following the intentional deorbiting of Mir on 23 March 2001, the ISS became the only space station in orbit around Earth. It retained that distinction until the launch of Chinese

text: space laboratory on 29 September 2011.  Mirs legacy lives on in the station, bringing together five space agencies in the cause of exploration and allowing those space agencies to prepare for their next leap into space, to the Moon, Mars and beyond.

text: After the collapse of the Soviet Union, some government-funded space exploration programs, including the Buran space shuttle program, were cancelled or delayed, while participation of the Russian space industry in commercial activities and international cooperation intensified.Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher. After the United States Space Shuttle program ended in 2011, Soyuz rockets became the only provider of transport for astronauts at the International Space Station.

text: After the

text: collapse of the Soviet Union

text: , some government-funded space exploration programs, including the

text: Buran

text: space shuttle program, were cancelled or delayed, while participation of the Russian space industry in commercial activities and international cooperation intensified.Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher. After the United States

text: Space Shuttle

text: program ended in 2011,

text: Soyuz rockets

text: became the only provider of transport for astronauts at the

text: International Space Station

text: Constellation began in response to the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration under NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe. O'Keefe's successor, Michael D. Griffin, ordered a complete review, termed the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, which reshaped how NASA would pursue the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration, and its findings were formalized by the NASA Authorization Act of 2005. The Act directed NASA to "develop a sustained human presence on the Moon, including a robust precursor program to promote exploration, science, commerce and US preeminence in space, and as a stepping stone to future exploration of Mars and other destinations." Work began on this revised Constellation Program, to send astronauts first to the International Space Station, then to the Moon, and then to Mars and beyond.

text: Constellation began in response to the goals laid out in the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: under NASA Administrator

text: Sean O'Keefe

text: . O'Keefe's successor,

text: Michael D. Griffin

text: , ordered a complete review, termed the

text: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

text: , which reshaped how NASA would pursue the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration, and its findings were formalized by the

text: NASA Authorization Act of 2005

text: . The Act directed NASA to "develop a sustained human presence on the Moon, including a robust precursor program to promote exploration, science, commerce and US preeminence in space, and as a stepping stone to future exploration of Mars and other destinations." Work began on this revised Constellation Program, to send astronauts first to the

text: International Space Station

text: , then to the

text: Moon

text: , and then to

text: Mars

text: and beyond.

text: In 2003, Bass began serving as World Space Week's Youth Spokesman. Bass has stated that he believes young people becoming more interested in space exploration "will help the future of our planet". From 2003 to 2005, Bass spent World Space Week traveling to American high schools speaking with students about space exploration and encouraging them to explore careers in the fields of science and mathematics. Bass is a member of the National Space Society, a non-profit educational space advocacy organization founded by Dr. Wernher Von Braun. Bass has served on the National Space Society's Board of Governors since October 2004, alongside other space advocates such as actor Tom Hanks and author and futurist Sir Arthur C. Clarke. In a 2007 interview with GQ magazine, Bass stated that he "absolutely" still intends on going to space, and that he hopes to work on a space documentary. Bass has also retained fluency in Russian, which he was required to learn during his training.

text: In 2003, Bass began serving as

text: World Space Week

text: 's Youth Spokesman. Bass has stated that he believes young people becoming more interested in

text: space exploration

text: "will help the future of our planet". From 2003 to 2005, Bass spent World Space Week traveling to American high schools speaking with students about space exploration and encouraging them to explore careers in the fields of science and mathematics. Bass is a member of the

text: National Space Society

text: , a non-profit educational

text: space advocacy

text: organization founded by Dr. Wernher Von Braun. Bass has served on the National Space Society's

text: Board of Governors

text: since October 2004, alongside other space advocates such as actor

text: Tom Hanks

text: and author and

text: futurist

text: Sir

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: . In a 2007 interview with

text: GQ

text: magazine, Bass stated that he "absolutely" still intends on going to space, and that he hopes to work on a space documentary. Bass has also retained fluency in Russian, which he was required to learn during his training.

text: More recently, NASA has explored plans for a Nautilus X centrifuge demonstration project. If flown, this would add a centrifuge sleep quarters module to the ISS. This makes it possible to experiment with artificial gravity without destroying the usefulness of the ISS for zero g experiments. It could lead to deep space missions under full g in centrifuge sleeping quarters following the same approach.

text: More recently, NASA has explored plans for a

text: Nautilus X centrifuge demonstration project

text: . If flown, this would add a centrifuge sleep quarters module to the ISS. This makes it possible to experiment with artificial gravity without destroying the usefulness of the ISS for zero g experiments. It could lead to deep space missions under full g in centrifuge sleeping quarters following the same approach.

text: The Andover station will be the terminus of the line but plans exist for extending the Lackawanna Cut-Off line west of Andover. Anticipated construction at the site includes a station and platform with a car park featuring 125 parking spaces (increased from the initially planned 65 spaces). Preparation to restore trackage between Port Morris and Andover was originally slated to begin in 2010 but was delayed until early 2011 due to a dispute over the exact location of the Andover Station area. Final completion of the track construction is awaiting final permitting and approval and service is not expected to start until late 2018.

text: He is seen conversing about space exploration to a friend. He is briefly seen in the round-robin 'Challenge' limited series.

text: C. elegans made news when specimens were discovered to have survived the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in February 2003. Later, in January 2009, live samples of C. elegans from the University of Nottingham were announced to be spending two weeks on the International Space Station that October, in a space research project to explore the effects of zero gravity on muscle development and physiology. The research was primarily about genetic basis of muscle atrophy, which relates to spaceflight or being bed-ridden, geriatric, or diabetic. Descendants of the worms aboard Columbia in 2003 were launched into space on Endeavour for the STS-134 mission.

text: C. elegans made news when specimens were discovered to have survived the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: in February 2003. Later, in January 2009, live samples of C. elegans from the

text: University of Nottingham

text: were announced to be spending two weeks on the

text: International Space Station

text: that October, in a

text: space research

text: project to explore the effects of

text: zero gravity

text: on muscle development and physiology. The research was primarily about genetic basis of

text: muscle atrophy

text: , which relates to

text: spaceflight

text: or being bed-ridden,

text: geriatric

text: , or

text: diabetic

text: . Descendants of the worms aboard Columbia in 2003 were launched into space on

text: Endeavour

text: for the

text: mission.

text: The Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA) was a NASA training vehicle that duplicated the Space Shuttle's approach profile and handling qualities, allowing Space Shuttle pilots to simulate Shuttle landings under controlled conditions before attempting the task on board the orbiter.

text: The Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA) was a

text: NASA

text: training vehicle that duplicated the

text: Space Shuttle

text: 's approach profile and handling qualities, allowing

text: Space Shuttle

text: pilots to simulate Shuttle landings under controlled conditions before attempting the task on board the orbiter.

text: A NASA multi-center Technology Applications Assessment Team led from the Johnson Spaceflight Center, has as of January 2011 described "Nautilus-X", a concept study for a multi-mission space exploration vehicle useful for missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), of up to 24 months duration for a crew of up to six.  Although Nautilus-X is adaptable to a variety of mission-specific propulsion units of various low-thrust, high specific impulse (I) designs, nuclear ion-electric drive is shown for illustrative purposes.  It is intended for integration and checkout at the International Space Station (ISS), and would be suitable for deep-space missions from the ISS to and beyond the Moon, including Earth/Moon L1, Sun/Earth L2, near-Earth asteroidal, and Mars orbital destinations.  It incorporates a reduced-g centrifuge providing artificial gravity for crew health to ameliorate the effects of long-term 0g exposure, and the capability to mitigate the space radiation environment.

text: A NASA multi-center Technology Applications Assessment Team led from the

text: Johnson Spaceflight Center

text: , has as of January 2011 described "Nautilus-X", a concept study for a multi-mission space exploration vehicle useful for missions beyond

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO), of up to 24 months duration for a crew of up to six.  Although

text: Nautilus-X

text: is adaptable to a variety of mission-specific propulsion units of various low-thrust, high

text: specific impulse

text: (I) designs, nuclear ion-electric drive is shown for illustrative purposes.  It is intended for integration and checkout at the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), and would be suitable for deep-space missions from the ISS to and beyond the Moon, including

text: Earth/Moon L1

text: Sun/Earth L2

text: near-Earth asteroidal

text: , and Mars orbital destinations.  It incorporates a reduced-g centrifuge providing artificial gravity for crew health to ameliorate the effects of long-term 0g exposure, and the capability to mitigate the space radiation environment.

text: Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by Space X's Dragon V2 and Boeing's CST-100 Starliner no later than 2017. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Space Launch System and SpaceX's Falcon Heavy.

text: Per the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by

text: Space X

text: 's

text: Dragon V2

text: and

text: Boeing

text: 's

text: CST-100 Starliner

text: no later than 2017. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the

text: Space Launch System

text: and SpaceX's

text: Falcon Heavy

text: MACS0647-JD was announced in November 2012, but by the next month UDFj-39546284, which was previously thought to be z = 10.3, was said to be at z = 11.9, although more recent analyses have suggested the latter is likely to be at a lower redshift. Spectroscopic confirmation of the redshift of MACS0647-JD likely awaits the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope expected in 2018.

text: MACS0647-JD was announced in November 2012, but by the next month

text: , which was previously thought to be z = 10.3, was said to be at z = 11.9, although more recent analyses have suggested the latter is likely to be at a lower redshift. Spectroscopic confirmation of the redshift of MACS0647-JD likely awaits the launch of the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: expected in 2018.

text: Since leaving NASA fifteen years earlier, Dr. Paine had been a vocal spokesman for an expansive future of Space exploration. The National Commission on Space took most of a year to prepare its report, conducting public hearings throughout the United States. The Commission report, Pioneering the Space Frontier, was published in May 1986. It espoused "a pioneering mission for 21st-century America... to lead the exploration and development of the space frontier, advancing science, technology, and enterprise, and building institutions and systems that make accessible vast new resources and support human settlements beyond Earth orbit, from the highlands of the Moon to the plains of Mars." The report also contained a "Declaration for Space" that included a rationale for exploring and settling the solar system and outlined a long-range space program for the United States.

text: The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (, Orbital'nyj Pilotirujemyj Sborochno-Eksperimental'nyj Kompleks) (ОПСЭК, OPSEK) is a Russian proposed third-generation modular space station in Low Earth orbit. OPSEK would initially consist of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment of the International Space Station (ISS).

text: The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (, Orbital'nyj Pilotirujemyj Sborochno-Eksperimental'nyj Kompleks) (ОПСЭК, OPSEK) is a

text: Russia

text: n proposed third-generation modular

text: space station

text: in

text: Low Earth orbit

text: . OPSEK would initially consist of modules from the

text: Russian Orbital Segment

text: of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS).

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis lifted off on its maiden voyage on 3 October 1985, on mission STS-51-J, the second dedicated Department of Defense flight. It flew one other mission, STS-61-B, the second night launch in the shuttle program, before the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster temporarily grounded the shuttle fleet in 1986. Among the five Space Shuttles flown into space, Atlantis conducted a subsequent mission in the shortest time after the previous mission (turnaround time) when it launched in November 1985 on STS-61-B, only 50 days after its previous mission, STS-51-J in October 1985. Atlantis was then used for ten flights between 1988 and 1992. Two of these, both flown in 1989, deployed the planetary probes Magellan to Venus (on STS-30) and Galileo to Jupiter (on STS-34). With STS-30 Atlantis became the first shuttle to launch an interplanetary probe. During another mission, STS-37 flown in 1991, Atlantis deployed the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Beginning in 1995 with STS-71, Atlantis made seven straight flights to the former Russian space station Mir as part of the Shuttle-Mir Program. STS-71 marked a number of firsts in human spaceflight: 100th U.S. manned space flight; first U.S. shuttle-Russian Space Station Mir docking and joint on-orbit operations; and first on-orbit changeout of shuttle crew. When linked, Atlantis and Mir together formed the largest spacecraft in orbit at the time.

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis lifted off on its maiden voyage on 3 October 1985, on mission

text: , the second dedicated Department of Defense flight. It flew one other mission,

text: , the second night launch in the shuttle program, before the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: temporarily grounded the shuttle fleet in 1986. Among the five Space Shuttles flown into space, Atlantis conducted a subsequent mission in the shortest time after the previous mission (turnaround time) when it launched in November 1985 on STS-61-B, only 50 days after its previous mission, STS-51-J in October 1985. Atlantis was then used for ten flights between 1988 and 1992. Two of these, both flown in 1989, deployed the planetary probes

text: Magellan

text: to

text: Venus

text: (on

text: ) and

text: Galileo

text: to

text: Jupiter

text: (on

text: ). With STS-30 Atlantis became the first shuttle to launch an interplanetary probe. During another mission,

text: flown in 1991, Atlantis deployed the

text: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: . Beginning in 1995 with

text: , Atlantis made seven straight flights to the former

text: Russia

text: n

text: space station

text: Mir

text: as part of the

text: Shuttle-Mir Program

text: . STS-71 marked a number of firsts in human spaceflight: 100th U.S. manned space flight; first U.S. shuttle-Russian Space Station Mir docking and joint on-orbit operations; and first on-orbit changeout of shuttle crew. When linked, Atlantis and Mir together formed the largest spacecraft in orbit at the time.

text: A space probe is a scientific space exploration mission in which a spacecraft leaves Earth and explores space. It may approach the Moon, enter interplanetary, flyby or orbit other bodies, or approach interstellar space.

text: A space probe is a scientific

text: space exploration

text: mission in which a spacecraft leaves Earth and explores space. It may approach the Moon, enter interplanetary, flyby or orbit other bodies, or approach interstellar space.

text: McCuistion was NASA's third and longest-running "Mars Czar", leading the NASA Mars Exploration Program from NASA Headquarters for 8.5 years.  Under his leadership the Mars Reconnaissance Orbtier (MRO), Phoenix Lander, and Mars Science Laboratory/Curiosity rover were completed and launched, and the MAVEN mission nearly ready for its 2013 launch. He led expansive international program efforts during his tenure, including a multi-national Mars Sample Return study called iMARS, and a merging of the NASA and European Space Agency's (ESA) Mars programs (which was later dissolved due to US financial constraints). Prior to his taking the helm of the NASA Mars Exploration Program, he was the Director of Flight Programs for NASA's Earth Science Enterprise. Prior to coming to NASA Headquarters McCuistion held management and engineering positions in Earth and space science at the Goddard Space Flight Center, working on the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), Geosynchronous Operations Environmental Satellite (GOES), Landsat, NEXUS (a James Webb Space Telescope precursor), and as a Deputy Director in the Information Systems engineering division. Prior to his career at NASA, McCuistion was a commissioned officer in the U. S. Navy flying F-14 Tomcats and worked on the Navy's Geodetic Satellite (GEOSAT) Follow-On mission. He retired from the U. S. Navy at the rank of Commander in 1998. Recently he has written about international collaboration in Mars exploration and education and public outreach efforts in planetary science.

text: McCuistion was NASA's third and longest-running "Mars Czar", leading the NASA Mars Exploration Program from NASA Headquarters for 8.5 years.  Under his leadership the Mars Reconnaissance Orbtier (MRO), Phoenix Lander, and Mars Science Laboratory/Curiosity rover were completed and launched, and the MAVEN mission nearly ready for its 2013 launch. He led expansive international program efforts during his tenure, including a multi-national Mars Sample Return study called iMARS, and a merging of the NASA and European Space Agency's (ESA) Mars programs (which was later dissolved due to US financial constraints). Prior to his taking the helm of the NASA Mars Exploration Program, he was the Director of Flight Programs for NASA's

text: Earth Science Enterprise

text: . Prior to coming to NASA Headquarters McCuistion held management and engineering positions in Earth and space science at the

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: , working on the

text: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

text: (TDRS), Geosynchronous Operations Environmental Satellite (GOES),

text: Landsat

text: , NEXUS (a

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: precursor), and as a Deputy Director in the Information Systems engineering division. Prior to his career at NASA, McCuistion was a commissioned officer in the U. S. Navy flying

text: F-14 Tomcats

text: and worked on the Navy's Geodetic Satellite (GEOSAT) Follow-On mission. He retired from the U. S. Navy at the rank of Commander in 1998. Recently he has written about international collaboration in Mars exploration and education and public outreach efforts in planetary science.

text: This list of space telescopes (astronomical space observatories) is grouped by major frequency ranges: gamma ray, x-ray, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwave and radio. Telescopes that work in multiple frequency bands are included in all of the appropriate sections. Space telescopes that collect particles, such as cosmic ray nuclei and/or electrons, as well as instruments that aim to detect gravitational waves, are also listed. Missions with specific targets within the Solar System (e.g. our Sun and its planets), are excluded; see List of Solar System probes for these, and List of Earth observation satellites for missions targeting our planet.

text: This list of space telescopes (

text: astronomical

text: space observatories

text: ) is grouped by major

text: frequency range

text: s:

text: gamma ray

text: x-ray

text: ultraviolet

text: visible

text: infrared

text: microwave

text: and

text: radio

text: . Telescopes that work in multiple frequency bands are included in all of the appropriate sections. Space telescopes that collect particles, such as

text: cosmic ray

text: nuclei and/or electrons, as well as instruments that aim to detect

text: gravitational waves

text: , are also listed. Missions with specific targets within the

text: Solar System

text: (e.g. our

text: Sun

text: and its

text: planet

text: s), are excluded; see

text: List of Solar System probes

text: for these, and

text: List of Earth observation satellites

text: for missions targeting

text: our planet

text: Before the end of the next decade, NASA astronauts will begin an extensive exploration of the surface of the moon. The objective is to establish a lunar research outpost where astronauts will learn how to live and work in space for extended periods of time before venturing further into the solar system. Building on the best of Apollo and shuttle technology, NASA's Constellation Program is creating a 21st-century human and robotic exploration system that will be affordable, reliable, versatile and safe.

text: A next generation of infrared space telescopes began when NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer launched on 14 December 2009 aboard a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base. Known as WISE, the telescope provided results hundreds of times more sensitive than IRAS at the shorter wavelengths; it also had an extended mission dubbed NEOWISE beginning in October 2010 after its coolant supply ran out.

text: A next generation of infrared space telescopes began when NASA's

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: launched on 14 December 2009 aboard a

text: Delta II

text: rocket from

text: Vandenberg Air Force Base

text: . Known as WISE, the telescope provided results hundreds of times more sensitive than IRAS at the shorter wavelengths; it also had an extended mission dubbed

text: NEOWISE

text: beginning in October 2010 after its coolant supply ran out.

text: By the late 1990s, planning for four different stations were underway: the American Freedom, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the European Columbus, and the Japanese Kibō. In June 1992, with the Cold War over, American President George H. W. Bush and Russian President Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration. Then in September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station. In November, plans for Freedom, Mir-2, and the European and Japanese modules were incorporated into a single International Space Station. Boeing began as NASA's prime contractor for U.S. hardware in January 1995.

text: By the late 1990s, planning for four different stations were underway: the American Freedom, the Soviet/Russian

text: , the European Columbus, and the Japanese

text: Kibō

text: . In June 1992, with the

text: Cold War

text: over, American President

text: George H. W. Bush

text: and Russian President

text: Boris Yeltsin

text: agreed to cooperate on space exploration. Then in September 1993, American Vice-President

text: Al Gore, Jr.

text: , and Russian Prime Minister

text: Viktor Chernomyrdin

text: announced plans for a new space station. In November, plans for Freedom, Mir-2, and the European and Japanese modules were incorporated into a single

text: International Space Station

text: . Boeing began as NASA's prime contractor for U.S. hardware in January 1995.

text: The telescope has participated in Soviet space program since 1978 for the exploration of deep space:

text: The telescope has participated in

text: Soviet space program

text: since 1978 for the

text: exploration of deep space

text: As the shuttle program expanded in the early 1980s, NASA began a Space Flight Participant program to allow citizens without scientific or governmental roles to fly. Christa McAuliffe was chosen as the first Teacher in Space in July 1985 from 11,400 applicants. 1,700 applied for the Journalist in Space program, including Walter Cronkite, Tom Brokaw, Tom Wolfe, and Sam Donaldson. An Artist in Space program was considered, and NASA expected that after McAuliffe's flight two to three civilians a year would fly on the shuttle. After McAuliffe was killed in the Challenger disaster in January 1986 the programs were canceled. McAuliffe's backup, Barbara Morgan, eventually got hired in 1998 as a professional astronaut and flew on STS-118 as a mission specialist. A second journalist-in-space program, in which NASA green-lighted Miles O'Brien to fly on the space shuttle, was scheduled to be announced in 2003. That program was canceled in the wake of the Columbia disaster on STS-107 and subsequent emphasis on finishing the International Space Station before retiring the space shuttle.

text: As the shuttle program expanded in the early 1980s, NASA began a Space Flight Participant program to allow citizens without scientific or governmental roles to fly.

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: was chosen as the first

text: Teacher in Space

text: in July 1985 from 11,400 applicants. 1,700 applied for the Journalist in Space program, including

text: Walter Cronkite

text: Tom Brokaw

text: Tom Wolfe

text: , and

text: Sam Donaldson

text: . An Artist in Space program was considered, and NASA expected that after McAuliffe's flight two to three civilians a year would fly on the shuttle. After McAuliffe was killed in the

text: Challenger disaster

text: in January 1986 the programs were canceled. McAuliffe's backup,

text: Barbara Morgan

text: , eventually got hired in 1998 as a professional astronaut and flew on

text: as a

text: mission specialist

text: . A second journalist-in-space program, in which NASA green-lighted

text: Miles O'Brien

text: to fly on the space shuttle, was scheduled to be announced in 2003. That program was canceled in the wake of the

text: Columbia disaster

text: on

text: and subsequent emphasis on finishing the International Space Station before retiring the space shuttle.

text: A space-based unit, the characters and toys were released around the time of the second wave of enthusiasm for space travel and exploration at the start of the shuttle orbiter program (in 1981) during the space-friendly Reagan administration and the Star Wars era. The range was small and limited in scope.

text: A

text: space

text: -based unit, the characters and toys were released around the time of the second wave of enthusiasm for space travel and exploration at the start of the

text: shuttle orbiter program

text: (in 1981) during the space-friendly

text: Reagan administration

text: and the

text: Star Wars

text: era. The range was small and limited in scope.

text: Less than a year after the accident, President Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, calling for the space shuttle fleet to complete the ISS, with retirement by the year 2010 following the completion of the ISS, to be replaced by a newly developed Crew Exploration Vehicle for travel to the Moon and Mars. NASA planned to return the space shuttle to service around September 2004; that date was pushed back to July 2005.

text: Less than a year after the accident, President Bush announced the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , calling for the space shuttle fleet to complete the ISS, with retirement by the year 2010 following the completion of the ISS, to be replaced by a newly developed

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: for travel to the Moon and Mars. NASA planned to return the space shuttle to service around September 2004; that date was pushed back to July 2005.

text: Reagan was the only president to have postponed his State of the Union Address. On January 28, 1986, he planned to give his address, but after learning of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, he postponed it for a week and addressed the nation on the day's events. This was the only time that the State of the Union address had to be postponed because of a catastrophe.

text: Reagan was the only president to have postponed his State of the Union Address. On January 28, 1986, he planned to give his address, but after learning of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , he postponed it for a week and addressed the nation on the day's events. This was the only time that the State of the Union address had to be postponed because of a catastrophe.

text: The Aurora programme (sometimes called Aurora Exploration Programme, or simply Exploration Programme) is a human spaceflight programme of the European Space Agency (ESA) established in 2001. The objective is to formulate and then to implement a European long-term plan for exploration of the Solar System using robotic spacecraft and human spaceflight to investigate bodies holding promise for traces of life beyond the Earth.

text: The Aurora programme (sometimes called Aurora Exploration Programme, or simply Exploration Programme) is a

text: human spaceflight

text: programme

text: of the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) established in 2001. The objective is to formulate and then to implement a European long-term plan for

text: exploration

text: of the

text: Solar System

text: using

text: robotic spacecraft

text: and

text: human spaceflight

text: to investigate bodies holding promise for traces of

text: life beyond the Earth

text: Grunsfeld was selected by NASA in March 1992 as an astronaut candidate and reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1992. He completed one year of training and qualified for flight selection as a mission specialist. Grunsfeld was initially detailed to the Astronaut Office Mission Development Branch and was assigned as the lead for portable computers for use in space. Following his first flight, he led a team of engineers and computer programmers tasked with defining and producing the crew displays for command and control of the International Space Station (ISS). As part of this activity he directed an effort combining the resources of the Mission Control Center (MCC) Display Team and the Space Station Training Facility. The result was the creation of the Common Display Development Facility (CDDF), responsible for the onboard and MCC displays for the International Space Station, using object-oriented programming techniques. Following his second flight, he was assigned as Chief of the Computer Support Branch in the Astronaut Office supporting Space Shuttle and International Space Station Programs and advanced technology development. Following STS-103, he served as Chief of the Extravehicular Activity Branch in the Astronaut Office. Following STS-109, Grunsfeld served as an instructor in the Extravehicular Activity Branch, and worked on the Orbital Space Plane, exploration concepts, and technologies for use beyond low earth orbit in the Advanced Programs Branch. He served as NASA Chief Scientist assigned to NASA Headquarters from 2003 to 2004.  In January 2012, he became the associate administrator for the Science Mission Directorate at NASA's headquarters in Washington, replacing Ed Weiler.

text: Grunsfeld was selected by NASA in March 1992 as an astronaut candidate and reported to the

text: Johnson Space Center

text: in August 1992. He completed one year of training and qualified for flight selection as a mission specialist. Grunsfeld was initially detailed to the Astronaut Office Mission Development Branch and was assigned as the lead for portable computers for use in space. Following his first flight, he led a team of engineers and computer programmers tasked with defining and producing the crew displays for command and control of the International Space Station (ISS). As part of this activity he directed an effort combining the resources of the Mission Control Center (MCC) Display Team and the Space Station Training Facility. The result was the creation of the Common Display Development Facility (CDDF), responsible for the onboard and MCC displays for the

text: International Space Station

text: , using

text: object-oriented programming

text: techniques. Following his second flight, he was assigned as Chief of the Computer Support Branch in the Astronaut Office supporting

text: Space Shuttle

text: and International Space Station Programs and advanced technology development. Following STS-103, he served as Chief of the Extravehicular Activity Branch in the Astronaut Office. Following

text: , Grunsfeld served as an instructor in the Extravehicular Activity Branch, and worked on the Orbital Space Plane, exploration concepts, and technologies for use beyond low earth orbit in the Advanced Programs Branch. He served as

text: NASA Chief Scientist

text: assigned to NASA Headquarters from 2003 to 2004.  In January 2012, he became the associate administrator for the Science Mission Directorate at NASA's headquarters in Washington, replacing

text: Ed Weiler

text: With the exception of the Apollo program most space exploration has been conducted with telerobotic space probes. Most space-based astronomy, for example, has been conducted with telerobotic telescopes. The Russian Lunokhod-1 mission, for example, put a remotely driven rover on the moon, which was driven in real time (with a 2.5-second lightspeed time delay) by human operators on the ground. Robotic planetary exploration programs use spacecraft that are programmed by humans at ground stations, essentially achieving a long-time-delay form of telerobotic operation. Recent noteworthy examples include the Mars exploration rovers (MER) and the Curiosity rover. In the case of the MER mission, the spacecraft and the rover operated on stored programs, with the rover drivers on the ground programming each day's operation. The International Space Station (ISS) uses a two-armed telemanipulator called Dextre. More recently, a humanoid robot Robonaut has been added to the space station for telerobotic experiments.

text: With the exception of the

text: Apollo program

text: most

text: space exploration

text: has been conducted with telerobotic

text: space probes

text: . Most space-based

text: astronomy

text: , for example, has been conducted with telerobotic

text: telescopes

text: . The Russian

text: Lunokhod-1 mission

text: , for example, put a remotely driven rover on the moon, which was driven in real time (with a 2.5-second lightspeed time delay) by human operators on the ground. Robotic planetary exploration programs use spacecraft that are programmed by humans at ground stations, essentially achieving a long-time-delay form of telerobotic operation. Recent noteworthy examples include the

text: Mars exploration rovers

text: (MER) and the

text: Curiosity rover

text: . In the case of the MER mission, the spacecraft and the rover operated on stored programs, with the rover drivers on the ground programming each day's operation. The

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) uses a two-armed telemanipulator called

text: Dextre

text: . More recently, a humanoid robot

text: Robonaut

text: has been added to the space station for telerobotic experiments.

text: In the 2000s, several plans for space exploration were announced; both government entities and the private sector have space exploration objectives. China has announced plans to have a 60-ton multi-module space station in orbit by 2020.

text: Eugene F. Lally (August 14, 1934 – July 28, 2014) was American aerospace engineer. He worked in the early 1960s on U.S. interplanetary space programs. Beside his space programs he was also an inventor and developed non-space products with his own company Dynamic Development Co. which he founded in the early 1960s. He later became an active amateur photographer and  lubrication product entrepreneur. Lally contributed articles for popular space, astrobiology, photography, travel, and archaeology magazines. He was also a speaker at local space exploration and extraterrestrial intelligence (UFO) society meetings where he gave first-hand accounts of the early U.S. space program, commentaries on current U.S. space exploration activities and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

text: Eugene F. Lally (August 14, 1934 – July 28, 2014) was American

text: aerospace

text: engineer

text: . He worked in the early 1960s on U.S.

text: interplanetary

text: space programs. Beside his space programs he was also an inventor and developed non-space products with his own company Dynamic Development Co. which he founded in the early 1960s. He later became an active

text: amateur photographer

text: and

text: lubrication

text: product

text: entrepreneur

text: . Lally contributed articles for popular

text: space

text: astrobiology

text: photography

text: , travel, and

text: archaeology

text: magazine

text: s. He was also a speaker at local

text: space exploration

text: and

text: extraterrestrial intelligence

text: UFO

text: ) society meetings where he gave first-hand accounts of the early U.S. space program, commentaries on current U.S. space exploration activities and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

text: Baire space is a topological space on infinite sequences of natural numbers. The infinite continued fraction provides a homeomorphism from Baire space to the space of irrational real numbers (with the subspace topology inherited from the usual topology on the reals). The infinite continued fraction also provides a map between the quadratic irrationals and the dyadic rationals, and from other irrationals to the set of infinite strings of binary numbers (i.e. the Cantor set); this map is called the Minkowski question mark function. The mapping has interesting self-similar fractal properties; these are given by the modular group, which is the subgroup of Mobius transformations having integer values in the transform. Roughly speaking, continued fraction convergents can be taken to be Mobius transformations acting on the (hyperbolic) upper half-plane; this is what leads to the fractal self-symmetry.

text: Baire space

text: is a topological space on infinite sequences of natural numbers. The infinite continued fraction provides a

text: homeomorphism

text: from Baire space to the space of irrational real numbers (with the subspace topology inherited from the

text: usual topology

text: on the reals). The infinite continued fraction also provides a map between the

text: quadratic irrational

text: s and the

text: dyadic rational

text: s, and from other irrationals to the set of infinite strings of binary numbers (i.e. the

text: Cantor set

text: ); this map is called the

text: Minkowski question mark

text: function. The mapping has interesting self-similar

text: fractal

text: properties; these are given by the

text: modular group

text: , which is the subgroup of

text: Mobius transformation

text: s having integer values in the transform. Roughly speaking, continued fraction convergents can be taken to be Mobius transformations acting on the (hyperbolic)

text: upper half-plane

text: ; this is what leads to the fractal self-symmetry.

text: Bowersox was born in Portsmouth, Virginia, but considers Bedford, Indiana his home town. As a young boy, his family lived in Oxnard, California for seven years and he attended Rio Real elementary. Bowersox is an Eagle Scout  and earned a degree in aerospace engineering from the United States Naval Academy before receiving his commission in 1978. He attended the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School and graduated with class 85A. He served as a test pilot on A-7E and F/A-18 aircraft, and was selected as an astronaut candidate in 1987. Bowersox holds the rank of Captain in the United States Navy. Bowersox first flew as a pilot on the Space Shuttle missions STS-50 and STS-61, he commanded missions STS-73, a microgravity research mission and STS-82, a Hubble Space Telescope repair mission. He then launched on STS-113 with Don Pettit and Nikolai Budarin for an extended stay aboard the ISS as the commander of ISS Expedition 6 in 2002 and 2003, returning aboard Soyuz TMA-1 rather than the Space Shuttle as a result of the fleet's grounding following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, which occurred during Bowersox's tour aboard the Station.

text: Bowersox was born in

text: Portsmouth, Virginia

text: , but considers

text: Bedford, Indiana

text: his home town. As a young boy, his family lived in

text: Oxnard, California

text: for seven years and he attended Rio Real elementary. Bowersox is an

text: Eagle Scout

text: and earned a degree in aerospace engineering from the

text: United States Naval Academy

text: before receiving his commission in 1978. He attended the

text: U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School

text: and graduated with class 85A. He served as a

text: test pilot

text: on

text: and

text: aircraft, and was selected as an astronaut candidate in 1987. Bowersox holds the rank of

text: Captain

text: in the

text: United States Navy

text: . Bowersox first flew as a pilot on the

text: Space Shuttle

text: missions

text: and

text: , he commanded missions

text: , a

text: microgravity

text: research mission and

text: , a

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: repair mission. He then launched on

text: with

text: Don Pettit

text: and

text: Nikolai Budarin

text: for an extended stay aboard the ISS as the commander of ISS

text: Expedition 6

text: in 2002 and 2003, returning aboard

text: Soyuz TMA-1

text: rather than the Space Shuttle as a result of the fleet's grounding following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , which occurred during Bowersox's tour aboard the Station.

text: Many astronomers, geologists and biologists believe that exploration of the Solar System provides knowledge that could not be gained by observations from Earth's surface or from orbit around Earth. But they disagree about whether manned missions make a useful scientific contribution — some think robotic probes are cheaper and safer, while others argue that either astronauts advised by Earth-based scientists, or spacefaring scientists advised by Earth-based scientists, can respond more flexibly and intelligently to new or unexpected features of the region they are exploring.

text: The Arecibo Observatory is the largest single-unit radio telescope ever constructed and one of the world's most powerful radar-radio telescopes. The observatory's purpose is to support scientific studies. It has attracted several Hollywood directors who have filmed there; most recently GoldenEye and Contact. The radio telescope was used in 1974 to send the Arecibo message to space.

text: The Arecibo Observatory is the largest single-unit radio telescope ever constructed and one of the world's most powerful radar-radio telescopes. The observatory's purpose is to support scientific studies. It has attracted several

text: Hollywood

text: directors who have filmed there; most recently

text: GoldenEye

text: and

text: Contact

text: . The radio telescope was used in 1974 to send the

text: Arecibo message

text: to space.

text: The first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. Like all the early space stations, it was "monolithic", intended to be constructed and launched in one piece, and then manned by a crew later. As such, monolithic stations generally contained all their supplies and experimental equipment when launched, and were considered "expended", and then abandoned, when these were used up.

text: The first space station was

text: Salyut 1

text: , which was launched by the

text: Soviet Union

text: on April 19, 1971. Like all the early space stations, it was "monolithic", intended to be constructed and launched in one piece, and then manned by a crew later. As such, monolithic stations generally contained all their supplies and experimental equipment when launched, and were considered "expended", and then abandoned, when these were used up.

text: As Director of the Physical Sciences Research Division at NASA, Trinh leads the effort to develop an innovative peer-reviewed scientific program focusing on the effects of gravity on physical, chemical, and biological systems. The results of this program will enable the human exploration and development of space, providing the scientific basis for technologies permitting humankind to explore the vast expanses of our solar system and beyond.

text: The L.M.S. Explorer has an energy shield that completely surrounds the ship, protecting it from space debris. The ship is also outfitted with a large GeoScanner, the Rock Raiders use this device whenever they find a new planet. Rather than deploying shuttles, the L.M.S. Explorer has a teleportation system to transport Rock Raiders between planets and to and from the ship.

text: Goddard Space Flight Center remained involved in the manned space flight program, providing computer support and radar tracking of flights through a worldwide network of ground stations called the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STDN). However, the Center focused primarily on designing unmanned satellites and spacecraft for scientific research missions. Goddard pioneered several fields of spacecraft development, including modular spacecraft design, which reduced costs and made it possible to repair satellites in orbit. Goddard's Solar Max satellite, launched in 1980, was repaired by astronauts on the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1984. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, remains in service and continues to grow in capability thanks to its modular design and multiple servicing missions by the Space Shuttle.

text: Goddard Space Flight Center remained involved in the manned space flight program, providing computer support and radar tracking of flights through a worldwide network of

text: ground station

text: s called the

text: Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network

text: (STDN). However, the Center focused primarily on designing unmanned

text: satellite

text: s and

text: spacecraft

text: for scientific research missions. Goddard pioneered several fields of spacecraft development, including

text: modular

text: spacecraft design, which reduced costs and made it possible to

text: repair

text: satellites in orbit. Goddard's

text: Solar Max

text: satellite, launched in 1980, was repaired by astronauts on the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: in 1984. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, remains in service and continues to grow in capability thanks to its modular design and multiple servicing missions by the Space Shuttle.

text: After a year of training following his selection by NASA in January 1990, Jones became an astronaut in July 1991. In 1994 he flew as a mission specialist on successive flights of space shuttle Endeavour. First, in April 1994, he ran science operations on the "night shift" during STS-59, the first flight of the Space Radar Laboratory (SRL-1). Then, in October 1994, he was the payload commander on the SRL-2 mission, STS-68. Jones next flew in late 1996 on Columbia. Mission STS-80 successfully deployed and retrieved 2 science satellites, ORFEUS/SPAS and the Wake Shield Facility. While helping set a Shuttle endurance record of nearly 18 days in orbit, Jones used Columbia's robot arm to release the Wake Shield satellite and later grapple it from orbit. His latest space flight was aboard Atlantis on STS-98, in February 2001. Jones and his crew delivered the U.S. Destiny Laboratory Module to the International Space Station, (ISS) and he helped install the Lab in a series of 3 space walks lasting over 19 hours. The successful addition of Destiny gave the first Expedition Crew the largest space outpost in history and marked the start of onboard scientific research at the ISS. A veteran of four space flights, Jones has logged over 52 days (1,272 hours) in space, including 3 space walks totaling over 19 hours.

text: After a year of training following his selection by NASA in January 1990, Jones became an astronaut in July 1991. In 1994 he flew as a

text: mission specialist

text: on successive flights of

text: space shuttle Endeavour

text: . First, in April 1994, he ran science operations on the "night shift" during

text: , the first flight of the Space Radar Laboratory (SRL-1). Then, in October 1994, he was the payload commander on the SRL-2 mission,

text: . Jones next flew in late 1996 on

text: Columbia

text: . Mission

text: successfully deployed and retrieved 2 science satellites, ORFEUS/SPAS and the

text: Wake Shield Facility

text: . While helping set a Shuttle endurance record of nearly 18 days in orbit, Jones used Columbia's robot arm to release the Wake Shield satellite and later grapple it from orbit. His latest space flight was aboard

text: Atlantis

text: on

text: , in February 2001. Jones and his crew delivered the U.S.

text: Destiny Laboratory Module

text: to the

text: International Space Station

text: , (ISS) and he helped install the Lab in a series of 3 space walks lasting over 19 hours. The successful addition of Destiny gave the first Expedition Crew the largest space outpost in history and marked the start of onboard scientific research at the ISS. A veteran of four space flights, Jones has logged over 52 days (1,272 hours) in space, including 3

text: space walk

text: s totaling over 19 hours.

text: The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex is a proposed third-generation modular space station in Low Earth orbit. OPSEK would initially consist of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment of the International Space Station (ISS) from 2024.

text: The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex is a proposed third-generation modular

text: space station

text: in

text: Low Earth orbit

text: Russian Orbital Segment

text: of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) from 2024.

text: STS-96 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle  Discovery, and the first shuttle flight to dock with the International Space Station. The shuttle carried the Spacehab module in the payload, filled with cargo for station outfitting. STS-96 launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 May 1999 at 06:49:42 AM EDT.

text: STS-96 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) flown by

text: Space Shuttle  Discovery

text: , and the first shuttle flight to dock with the International Space Station. The shuttle carried the

text: Spacehab

text: module in the payload, filled with cargo for station outfitting. STS-96 launched from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: , Florida, on 27 May 1999 at 06:49:42 AM EDT.

text: List of proposed space observatories: examples of past and present space observatory plans, concepts, and proposals. For observatories in orbit, List of space telescopes. Unlike that list, this list includes concept and proposals that were not and in all likelihood will not ever be launched as they may have been cancelled or were only ever proposals.

text: List of proposed space observatories: examples of past and present space observatory plans, concepts, and proposals. For observatories in orbit,

text: List of space telescopes

text: . Unlike that list, this list includes concept and proposals that were not and in all likelihood will not ever be launched as they may have been cancelled or were only ever proposals.

text: Ted Baker is beginning his fourth year at the Space Academy, which is to take place on the earth orbiting space station. On his trip to the station from Earth, he is accompanied by a recent graduate of the Academy, Jack Talbot, who is to be part of the first expedition to the moon as a backup member. On arrival at the station, Ted discovers that Jack's collarbone was injured during the launch to the station. Fearing that Jack's injury could endanger the other men on the expedition, he confronts Jack about his injury. Jack refuses to give up his chance at glory, forcing Ted into a physical confrontation. Jack is knocked unconscious, and Ted hurredly boards the moon rocket to inform the expedition of Jack's injury. Unfortunately, the countdown has already begun, and can't be stopped. Ted is now the fifth man of the expedition.

text: In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to Mir, while the Soviets were planning to construct Mir-2 in the 1990s as a replacement for the station. Because of budget and design constraints, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests and, with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Space Race, the project was nearly cancelled entirely by the United States House of Representatives. The post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia also led to the cancellation of Mir-2, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been constructed. Similar budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station projects, which prompted the U.S. government to negotiate with European states, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative project. In June 1992, American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration. The resulting Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short joint space programme with one American astronaut deployed to the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts deployed to a Space Shuttle.

text: In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called

text: Freedom

text: as a counterpart to Mir, while the Soviets were planning to construct

text: in the 1990s as a replacement for the station. Because of budget and design constraints, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests and, with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the

text: Space Race

text: , the project was nearly cancelled entirely by the

text: United States House of Representatives

text: . The

text: post-Soviet economic chaos

text: in Russia also led to the cancellation of Mir-2, though only after its base block,

text: , had been constructed. Similar budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station projects, which prompted the U.S. government to negotiate with European states, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative project. In June 1992, American president

text: George H. W. Bush

text: and Russian president

text: Boris Yeltsin

text: agreed to cooperate on

text: space exploration

text: . The resulting Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short joint space programme with one American

text: astronaut

text: deployed to the Russian space station Mir and two Russian

text: cosmonauts

text: deployed to a Space Shuttle.

text: Before the opening of the rebuilt station, 100 parking spaces were needed. At the opening of the station there were about 500 parking spaces. The number of parking spaces at the station was recently increased from around 1,000 to around 1,500 by the construction of a parking garage.

text: George's greatest achievement is, perhaps, the development of underlying theory and the design of a complex adaptive logistic system for delivery of astronauts and cargo to the International Space Station.  The system replaced a team of several hundred highly qualified engineers, improved performance and rapidly restored supply of cargo to the Space Station after recent catastrophic rocket explosions interrupted the lifeline to Space Station crew.  The system is a unique network of cooperating real-time schedulers working as a critical mission link.

text: Expected to cost US$12.5 million each, Virtus was a twin-fuselage design powered by four large jet engines; it was intended for these to be Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans. Conroy proposed extensive use of 'off the shelf' military parts in the design to reduce costs; this included the use of fuselages from Boeing B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers to form the aircraft's main fuselage pods, added to the new-design wing and tail section. The Space Shuttle Orbiter would be carried under the center section of the Virtus aircraft's wing, between the fuselages; other large cargos, including the Space Shuttle external tank, the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, or dedicated cargo pods, could be alternatively carried.

text: Expected to cost

text: US$

text: 12.5 million each, Virtus was a twin-fuselage design powered by four large jet engines; it was intended for these to be

text: Pratt & Whitney JT9D

text: turbofans. Conroy proposed extensive use of 'off the shelf' military parts in the design to reduce costs; this included the use of fuselages from

text: Boeing B-52 Stratofortress

text: strategic bombers to form the aircraft's main fuselage pods, added to the new-design wing and tail section. The

text: Space Shuttle Orbiter

text: would be carried under the center section of the Virtus aircraft's wing, between the fuselages; other large cargos, including the

text: Space Shuttle external tank

text: , the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: s, or dedicated cargo pods, could be alternatively carried.

text: McMonagle was selected as an astronaut by NASA in June 1987. A veteran of three space flights, McMonagle has logged over 605 hours in space. McMonagle flew as a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery on Department of Defense mission STS-39 in April 1991. During this highly successful 8-day mission, the seven-man crew deployed, operated, and retrieved a remotely controlled spacecraft and conducted several science experiments to include research of both natural and induced phenomena in the Earth's atmosphere. In January 1993, McMonagle served as pilot on STS-54 aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The 6-day mission featured the deployment of a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), and the collection of information about celestial x-rays using a Diffuse X-Ray Spectrometer. McMonagle commanded a crew of six aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-66 Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-3 (ATLAS-3) 11-day mission in November 1994. In January 1996 McMonagle was assigned the task to establish a new Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) Project Office responsible for managing all NASA resources associated with space suits and tools used to conduct space walks in support of Space Shuttle and the International Space Station. This role included responsibility for developing and implementing a plan for research and development of next generation space suits to support future human space exploration.

text: McMonagle was selected as an

text: astronaut

text: by

text: NASA

text: in June 1987. A veteran of three space flights, McMonagle has logged over 605 hours in space. McMonagle flew as a mission specialist aboard the

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: on

text: Department of Defense

text: mission STS-39 in April 1991. During this highly successful 8-day mission, the seven-man crew deployed, operated, and retrieved a remotely controlled spacecraft and conducted several science experiments to include research of both natural and induced phenomena in the Earth's atmosphere. In January 1993, McMonagle served as pilot on STS-54 aboard the

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: . The 6-day mission featured the deployment of a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), and the collection of information about celestial x-rays using a Diffuse X-Ray Spectrometer. McMonagle commanded a crew of six aboard

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: on the STS-66 Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-3 (ATLAS-3) 11-day mission in November 1994. In January 1996 McMonagle was assigned the task to establish a new Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) Project Office responsible for managing all NASA resources associated with space suits and tools used to conduct space walks in support of Space Shuttle and the International Space Station. This role included responsibility for developing and implementing a plan for research and development of next generation space suits to support future human space exploration.

text: Brotherton's specialty is studying supermassive black holes in the centers of galaxies and how they shine when in their active phase. Brotherton's research seeks to improve our understanding of active galactic nuclei and their relationship to host galaxies, and their mutual evolution. His work is primarily observational in nature, the bulk of which rests on optical and infrared spectroscopy. He uses a wide assortment of telescopes/observatories operating across the electromagnetic spectrum including the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM-Newton, Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE), the Hubble Space Telescope, the Infrared Telescope Facility, and the Very Large Array, and optical telescopes including Keck, Lick, and Kitt Peak.  He works both on large samples that enable the phenomenology to be explored for an entire active galactic nuclei population, as well as individual objects of special interest that may reveal important physics because of their extreme nature.

text: Brotherton's specialty is studying

text: supermassive black holes

text: in the centers of galaxies and how they shine when in their active phase. Brotherton's research seeks to improve our understanding of

text: active galactic nuclei

text: and their relationship to host galaxies, and their mutual evolution. His work is primarily observational in nature, the bulk of which rests on

text: optical

text: and

text: infrared

text: spectroscopy

text: . He uses a wide assortment of telescopes/observatories operating across the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: including the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: XMM-Newton

text: Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer

text: (FUSE), the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Infrared Telescope Facility

text: , and the

text: Very Large Array

text: , and optical telescopes including

text: Keck

text: Lick

text: , and

text: Kitt Peak

text: .  He works both on large samples that enable the

text: phenomenology

text: to be explored for an entire active galactic nuclei population, as well as individual objects of special interest that may reveal important physics because of their extreme nature.

text: The JWST originated in 1996 as the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST). In 2002 it was renamed after NASA's second administrator (1961–1968) James E. Webb (1906–1992), noted for playing a key role in the Apollo program and establishing scientific research as a core NASA activity. The JWST is a project of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the United States space agency, with international collaboration from the European Space Agency and the Canadian Space Agency.

text: The JWST originated in 1996 as the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST). In 2002 it was renamed after NASA's second administrator (1961–1968)

text: James E. Webb

text: (1906–1992), noted for playing a key role in the

text: Apollo program

text: and establishing scientific research as a core NASA activity. The JWST is a project of the

text: , the

text: United States

text: space agency

text: , with international collaboration from the

text: European Space Agency

text: and the

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: The Aurora programme was a response to Europe's Strategy for space which  was endorsed by European Union Council of Research and the ESA Council. Europe strategy for space had three main points including:"explore the solar system and the Universe", "stimulate new technology", and "inspire the young people of Europe to take a greater interest in science and technology".  One of the foundational principles of the Aurora program is recognising the interdependence of technology and exploration;.

text: The Aurora programme was a response to Europe's Strategy for space which  was endorsed by

text: European Union Council of Research

text: and the ESA Council. Europe strategy for space had three main points including:"explore the solar system and the Universe", "stimulate new technology", and "inspire the young people of Europe to take a greater interest in science and technology".  One of the foundational principles of the Aurora program is recognising the interdependence of technology and exploration;.

text: A distant planet such as this would reflect little light, but, because it is hypothesized to be a large body, it would still be cooling from its formation with an estimated temperature of 47 K. At this temperature the peak of its emissions would be at infrared wavelengths. This radiation signature could be detected by Earth-based infrared telescopes, such as ALMA, and a search could be conducted by cosmic microwave background experiments operating at mm wavelengths. Additionally, Jim Green of NASA is optimistic that the James Webb Space Telescope, which will be the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope and is expected to launch in 2018, could find it.

text: A distant planet such as this would reflect little light, but, because it is hypothesized to be a large body, it would still be cooling from its formation with an estimated temperature of 47 K. At this temperature the peak of its emissions would be at infrared wavelengths. This radiation signature could be detected by Earth-based infrared telescopes, such as

text: ALMA

text: , and a search could be conducted by cosmic microwave background experiments operating at mm wavelengths. Additionally, Jim Green of

text: NASA

text: is optimistic that the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: , which will be the successor to the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and is expected to launch in 2018, could find it.

text: The high cost of space transportation coupled with unreliability currently discourages access to space as an everyday environment. When space transportation becomes safe and affordable for ordinary people numerous possibilities and opportunities can be envisioned. The vision is guided by possibilities such as living and working in space, exploring new worlds, and vacationing off the Earth. In a similar context opportunities for business and pleasure are added multiples.

text: Samples available on Earth can be analyzed in laboratories, so we can further our understanding and knowledge as part of the discovery and exploration of the Solar System.  Until now many important scientific discoveries about the Solar System were made remotely with telescopes, and some Solar System bodies were visited by orbiting or even landing spacecraft with instruments capable of remote sensing or sample analysis. While such an investigation of the Solar System is technically easier than a sample-return mission, the scientific tools available here on Earth to study such samples are far more advanced and diverse than those that can go on spacecraft. Analysis of samples on Earth allows to follow up any findings with different tools, including tools that have yet to be developed; in contrast, a spacecraft can carry only a limited set of analytic tools, and these have to be chosen and built long before launch.

text: Samples available on Earth can be analyzed in laboratories, so we can further our understanding and knowledge as part of the

text: discovery and exploration of the Solar System

text: .  Until now many important scientific discoveries about the

text: Solar System

text: were made remotely with telescopes, and some Solar System bodies were visited by orbiting or even landing spacecraft with instruments capable of

text: remote sensing

text: or sample analysis. While such an investigation of the Solar System is technically easier than a sample-return mission, the scientific tools available here on Earth to study such samples are far more advanced and diverse than those that can go on spacecraft. Analysis of samples on Earth allows to follow up any findings with different tools, including tools that have yet to be developed; in contrast, a spacecraft can carry only a limited set of analytic tools, and these have to be chosen and built long before launch.

text: During powered flight of the space shuttle, crew escape was not possible. Launch escape systems were considered several times during shuttle development, but NASA's conclusion was that the shuttle's expected high reliability would preclude the need for one. Modified SR-71 Blackbird ejection seats and full pressure suits were used for the two-man crews on the first four shuttle orbital missions, which were considered test flights, but they were removed for the "operational" missions that followed. (The Columbia Accident Investigation Board later declared, after the 2003 Columbia re-entry disaster, that the space shuttle system should never have been declared operational because it is experimental by nature due to the limited number of flights as compared to certified commercial aircraft.) The multi-deck design of the crew cabin precluded use of such ejection seats for larger crews. Providing some sort of launch escape system had been considered, but deemed impractical due to "limited utility, technical complexity and excessive cost in dollars, weight or schedule delays."

text: During powered flight of the space shuttle, crew escape was not possible. Launch escape systems were considered several times during shuttle development, but NASA's conclusion was that the shuttle's expected high reliability would preclude the need for one. Modified

text: SR-71 Blackbird

text: ejection seat

text: s and full

text: pressure suit

text: s were used for the two-man crews on the first four shuttle orbital missions, which were considered test flights, but they were removed for the "operational" missions that followed. (The

text: Columbia Accident Investigation Board

text: later declared, after the 2003

text: Columbia re-entry disaster

text: , that the space shuttle system should never have been declared operational because it is experimental by nature due to the limited number of flights as compared to certified commercial aircraft.) The multi-deck design of the crew cabin precluded use of such ejection seats for larger crews. Providing some sort of launch escape system had been considered, but deemed impractical due to "limited utility, technical complexity and excessive cost in dollars, weight or schedule delays."

text: Astronauts from recent times, mostly using the Space Shuttle.

text: Astronauts from recent times, mostly using the

text: Space Shuttle

text: Tanner performed two space walks as a member of the STS-82 crew to service the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in February, 1997. The STS-82 crew of seven launched aboard Space Shuttle Discovery on February 11 and returned to a night landing at Kennedy Space Center on February 21. During the flight the crew completed a total of 5 space walks to improve the science capability of the telescope and replace aging support equipment, restoring HST to near perfect working condition. The crew boosted HST’s orbit by 8 nautical miles (15 km) before releasing it to once again study the Universe. Tanner’s two space walks totaled 14 hours and 01 minutes. The flight orbited the earth 150 times covering 4.1 million miles (6,600,000 km) in 9 days, 23 hours, 37 minutes.

text: Tanner performed two space walks as a member of the

text: crew to service the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST) in February, 1997. The STS-82 crew of seven launched aboard Space Shuttle

text: Discovery

text: on February 11 and returned to a night landing at

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: on February 21. During the flight the crew completed a total of 5 space walks to improve the science capability of the telescope and replace aging support equipment, restoring HST to near perfect working condition. The crew boosted HST’s orbit by 8 nautical miles (15 km) before releasing it to once again study the

text: Universe

text: . Tanner’s two

text: space walks

text: totaled 14 hours and 01 minutes. The flight orbited the earth 150 times covering 4.1 million miles (6,600,000 km) in 9 days, 23 hours, 37 minutes.

text: James Milton Heflin Jr. (b. May 28, 1943 in Fairfax, Oklahoma) is a retired NASA official, who recently served as the associate director for technical activities at Johnson Space Center in Houston. Heflin also served as lead flight director for seven high-profile space shuttle missions, including the first to service and repair the controversial Hubble Space Telescope and three that deployed inter-planetary probes.

text: James Milton Heflin Jr. (b. May 28, 1943 in Fairfax, Oklahoma) is a retired NASA official, who recently served as the associate director for technical activities at

text: Johnson Space Center

text: in Houston. Heflin also served as lead flight director for seven high-profile space shuttle missions, including the first to service and repair the controversial

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and three that deployed inter-planetary probes.

text: Due to its distance from Jupiter's powerful radiation belt, Callisto is subject to only 0.01 rem a day. When NASA carried out a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration) regarding the future exploration of the Solar System, the target chosen was Callisto. It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System.

text: Due to its distance from Jupiter's powerful radiation belt, Callisto is subject to only 0.01 rem a day. When

text: NASA

text: carried out a study called HOPE (Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration) regarding the future exploration of the Solar System, the target chosen was

text: Callisto

text: . It could be possible to build a surface base that would produce fuel for further exploration of the Solar System.

text: Progress has supported space stations as early as Salyut 6 and as recently as the International Space Station. Each year there are between three and four Progress flights to the ISS. A Progress remains docked until shortly before being replaced with a new one or a Soyuz (which will use the same docking port). Then it is filled with waste, disconnected, and de-orbited, at which point it burns up in the atmosphere. Due to the variation in Progress vehicles flown to the ISS, NASA uses its own nomenclature where "ISS 1P" means the first Progress spacecraft to ISS.

text: Progress has supported space stations as early as

text: Salyut 6

text: and as recently as the

text: International Space Station

text: . Each year there are between three and four Progress flights to the ISS. A Progress remains docked until shortly before being replaced with a new one or a Soyuz (which will use the same docking port). Then it is filled with waste, disconnected, and de-orbited, at which point it burns up in the atmosphere. Due to the variation in Progress vehicles flown to the ISS, NASA uses its own nomenclature where "ISS 1P" means the first Progress spacecraft to ISS.

text: Early in the space shuttle program, NASA used the Plane Mate system of mobile lounge to move astronauts directly from the orbiter to crew facilities. A modified vehicle obtained from Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport in Baltimore,  Maryland was used for shuttle landings at Edwards Air Force Base. A similar vehicle was used at the Kennedy Space Center to take astronauts directly from the orbiter to the Operations and Checkout building, where the vehicle was again lifted up for the astronauts to exit directly onto the 2nd floor of the facility.

text: Early in the space shuttle program, NASA used the Plane Mate system of mobile lounge to move

text: astronaut

text: s directly from the orbiter to crew facilities. A modified vehicle obtained from

text: Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport

text: in

text: Baltimore

text: Maryland

text: was used for shuttle landings at

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: . A similar vehicle was used at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: to take astronauts directly from the orbiter to the

text: Operations and Checkout building

text: , where the vehicle was again lifted up for the astronauts to exit directly onto the 2nd floor of the facility.

text: As a graduate student in 1999, he used a 4-inch telescope to make the first detection of an exoplanet eclipsing (or transiting) its parent star, which yielded the first ever constraint on the composition of a planet outside the Solar system. Charbonneau was a founding member of the Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey, which used a worldwide network of humble automated telescopes to survey hundreds of thousands of stars to detect 5 more exoplanets by this technique. Charbonneau also pioneered the use of space-based observatories to undertake the first studies of the atmospheres of these distant worlds:  In 2001 he used the Hubble Space Telescope to study directly the chemical make-up of the atmosphere enshrouding one of these exoplanets, and in 2005, he led the team that used the Spitzer Space Telescope to make the first direct detection of the light emitted by an exoplanet.  He is currently leading the NSF-funded MEarth Project and is a member of the NASA Kepler Mission Team. Each of these projects aims to detect Earth-like planets that might be suitable abodes for life beyond the Solar system.

text: As a graduate student in 1999, he used a 4-inch telescope to make the first detection of an exoplanet eclipsing (or transiting) its parent star, which yielded the first ever constraint on the composition of a planet outside the Solar system. Charbonneau was a founding member of the

text: Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey

text: , which used a worldwide network of humble automated telescopes to survey hundreds of thousands of stars to detect 5 more exoplanets by this technique. Charbonneau also pioneered the use of space-based observatories to undertake the first studies of the atmospheres of these distant worlds:  In 2001 he used the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: to study directly the chemical make-up of the atmosphere enshrouding one of these exoplanets, and in 2005, he led the team that used the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: to make the first direct detection of the light emitted by an exoplanet.  He is currently leading the NSF-funded

text: MEarth Project

text: and is a member of the NASA

text: Kepler Mission

text: Team. Each of these projects aims to detect Earth-like planets that might be suitable abodes for life beyond the Solar system.

text: During the launch of STS-107, Columbias 28th mission, a piece of foam insulation broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the left wing of the orbiter. A few previous shuttle launches had seen minor damage from foam shedding, but some engineers suspected that the damage to Columbia was more serious. NASA managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed.

text: During the launch of

text: Space Shuttle external tank

text: and struck the left wing of the

text: orbiter

text: NASA

text: managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed.

text: The Space Shuttle Challenger Memorial was dedicated on May 20, 1986, in memory of the crew of flight STS-51-L, who died during launch on January 28, 1986. Transcribed on the back of the stone is the text of the John Gillespie Magee, Jr. poem High Flight, which was quoted by then President Ronald Reagan when he addressed the disaster. Although many remains were identified and returned to the families for private burial, some were not, and were laid to rest under the marker. Two crew members, Scobee and Smith, are buried in Arlington. On February 1, 2004, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe dedicated a similar memorial to those who died when the Shuttle Columbia broke apart during reentry on February 1, 2003. Astronauts Laurel Clark, David Brown and Michael Anderson, who were killed in the Columbia disaster, are also buried in Arlington.

text: The

text: Space Shuttle

text: Challenger

text: Memorial was dedicated on May 20, 1986, in memory of the crew of flight

text: , who

text: died during launch

text: on January 28, 1986. Transcribed on the back of the stone is the text of the

text: John Gillespie Magee, Jr.

text: poem High Flight, which was quoted by then President

text: Ronald Reagan

text: when he addressed the disaster. Although many remains were identified and returned to the families for private burial, some were not, and were laid to rest under the marker. Two crew members,

text: Scobee

text: and

text: Smith

text: , are buried in Arlington. On February 1, 2004,

text: NASA

text: Administrator

text: Sean O'Keefe

text: dedicated a similar memorial to those who died when the Shuttle

text: Columbia

text: broke apart during reentry

text: on February 1, 2003. Astronauts

text: Laurel Clark

text: David Brown

text: and

text: Michael Anderson

text: , who were killed in the Columbia disaster, are also buried in Arlington.

text: Following the development of the FGB for the TKS spacecraft, the FGB (without VA spacecraft) formed the basis for space station modules in the Soviet and Russian space program – these space station modules are to some extent called Functional Cargo Block (FGB) as well, like the Zarya FGB module.

text: Following the development of the FGB for the TKS spacecraft, the FGB (without VA spacecraft) formed the basis for

text: space station

text: modules in the Soviet and Russian space program – these space station modules are to some extent called Functional Cargo Block (FGB) as well, like the

text: Zarya

text: FGB module.

text: In 2003, following the cancellation of the X-38 program due to the International Space Station program's financial woes, Mr. Muratore was named Manager, Space Shuttle Systems Engineering and Integration Office, Space Shuttle Program. Most recently he has served as Lead Engineer for the Space Shuttle Program.

text: The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred early in George W. Bush's term, leading to the report of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board being released in August 2003.  The Vision for Space Exploration, announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush, was seen as a response to the Columbia disaster, the state of human spaceflight at NASA, and a way to regain public enthusiasm for space exploration.  The Vision for Space Exploration sought to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond; extend human presence across the solar system, starting with a human return to the Moon by the year 2020, in preparation for human exploration of Mars and other destinations; develop the innovative technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures both to explore and to support decisions about the destinations for human exploration; and to promote international and commercial participation in exploration to further U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests

text: The

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: occurred early in George W. Bush's term, leading to the report of the

text: Columbia Accident Investigation Board

text: being released in August 2003.  The Vision for Space Exploration, announced on January 14, 2004 by President

text: George W. Bush

text: , was seen as a response to the Columbia disaster, the state of

text: human spaceflight

text: at

text: NASA

text: , and a way to regain public enthusiasm for

text: space exploration

text: .  The Vision for Space Exploration sought to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond; extend human presence across the solar system, starting with a human return to the Moon by the year 2020, in preparation for human exploration of Mars and other destinations; develop the innovative technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures both to explore and to support decisions about the destinations for human exploration; and to promote international and commercial participation in exploration to further U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests

text: The following individuals are recipients of the Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration":

text: The Planetarium features the 12.5m diameter Cosmic Skydome (hemispherical planetarium theatre) with a recently upgraded, state of the art Sky-Skan digital dome projection system, console and refurbished seats for a maximum concentric seating capacity of 133. An observatory contains a permanently mounted Zeiss 15cm refractor and a Meade 25.4cm "Go To" Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope. Extensive space exploration and astronomy displays in the Planetarium's Foyer and Gallery include the 1969 Moon landing with a replica of Neil Armstrong's space suit and numerous models of spacecraft and astronomical instruments. A mini-theatre usually features a regularly updated Space Telescope Science Institute web feed.

text: The Planetarium features the 12.5m diameter Cosmic Skydome (hemispherical planetarium theatre) with a recently upgraded, state of the art Sky-Skan digital dome projection system, console and refurbished seats for a maximum concentric seating capacity of 133. An

text: observatory

text: contains a permanently mounted Zeiss 15cm

text: refractor

text: and a Meade 25.4cm "Go To"

text: Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope

text: . Extensive space exploration and astronomy displays in the Planetarium's Foyer and Gallery include the 1969 Moon landing with a replica of Neil Armstrong's space suit and numerous models of spacecraft and astronomical instruments. A mini-theatre usually features a regularly updated Space Telescope Science Institute web feed.

text: The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest artificial body in orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and American Space Shuttles.

text: The International Space Station (ISS) is a

text: space station

text: , or a habitable

text: artificial satellite

text: , in

text: low Earth orbit

text: naked eye

text: solar arrays

text: , and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian

text: Proton

text: and

text: Soyuz

text: rockets, and American

text: Space Shuttle

text: s.

text: Space telescopes are not affected by the Earth's atmosphere but are diffraction limited. For example, the Hubble space telescope can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1″. Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground. Adaptive optics, for example, can produce images around 0.05 arcsecond on a 10 m class telescope.

text: Space telescopes are not affected by the Earth's atmosphere but are

text: diffraction limited

text: . For example, the

text: Hubble space telescope

text: can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1″. Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground.

text: Adaptive optics

text: , for example, can produce images around 0.05 arcsecond on a 10 m class telescope.

text: In 1957 the Soviet Union opened the Space Age by launching the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued: the first human spaceflight performed by Yury Gagarin on Vostok 1 in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, in 1963; the first spacewalk by Alexey Leonov in 1965; the first space exploration rover, Lunokhod-1, on the Moon in 1970, and the first space station, Salyut 1, launched in 1971.

text: In 1957 the Soviet Union opened the

text: Space Age

text: by launching the first Earth-orbiting artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: . Many other Soviet and Russian

text: space exploration records

text: ensued: the first

text: human spaceflight

text: performed by

text: Yury Gagarin

text: on

text: Vostok 1

text: in 1961; the first woman in space,

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: , in 1963; the first

text: spacewalk

text: by

text: Alexey Leonov

text: in 1965; the first

text: space exploration rover

text: , on the

text: Moon

text: in 1970, and the first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: , launched in 1971.

text: Beebe spent many years helping to plan and manage NASA missions, including the Voyager program missions to the giant planets. Her specific research interest was the atmospheres of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. She designed experiments to the study and measure the clouds and winds of the giant planets. She worked interpreting the Galileo and Cassini data and used the Hubble Space Telescope to obtain additional atmospheric data on Jupiter and Saturn. She was a member of the Shoemaker/Levy team at the Space Telescope Science Institute in 1994 when the comet struck Jupiter. Formerly, she chaired the Committee for Planetary and Lunar Exploration (COMPLEX), which is the principal space committee of the United States National Research Council. More recently she was involved with organizing the data about the giant planets in NASA's Planetary Data System.  She is in charge of the Atmospheres Discipline Node of that program. her planetary data archiving skills have also been employed by the European Space Agency.  She serves on the steering committee of the International Planetary Data Alliance.

text: Beebe spent many years helping to plan and manage NASA missions, including the

text: Voyager program

text: missions to the giant planets. Her specific research interest was the atmospheres of Jupiter, Saturn,

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: . She designed experiments to the study and measure the clouds and winds of the giant planets. She worked interpreting the

text: Galileo

text: and

text: Cassini

text: data and used the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: to obtain additional atmospheric data on Jupiter and Saturn. She was a member of the

text: Shoemaker/Levy

text: team at the

text: Space Telescope Science Institute

text: in 1994 when the comet struck Jupiter. Formerly, she chaired the Committee for Planetary and Lunar Exploration (COMPLEX), which is the principal space committee of the

text: United States National Research Council

text: . More recently she was involved with organizing the data about the giant planets in NASA's

text: Planetary Data System

text: .  She is in charge of the Atmospheres Discipline Node of that program. her planetary data archiving skills have also been employed by the

text: European Space Agency

text: .  She serves on the steering committee of the

text: International Planetary Data Alliance

text: John N. Bahcall (BS 1956) worked on the Standard Solar Model and the Hubble Space Telescope, resulting in a National Medal of Science. Peter Smith (BS 1969) was the principal investigator and project leader for the $420 million NASA robotic explorer Phoenix, which physically confirmed the presence of water on the planet Mars for the first time. Astronauts James van Hoften (BS 1966), Margaret Rhea Seddon (BA 1970), Leroy Chiao (BS 1983), and Rex Walheim (BS 1984) have physically reached out to the stars, orbiting the earth in NASA's fleet of space shuttles.

text: John N. Bahcall

text: (BS 1956) worked on the

text: Standard Solar Model

text: and the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , resulting in a

text: National Medal of Science

text: Peter Smith

text: (BS 1969) was the

text: principal investigator

text: and project leader for the $420 million

text: NASA

text: robotic explorer

text: Phoenix

text: , which physically confirmed the presence of water on the planet

text: Mars

text: for the first time. Astronauts

text: James van Hoften

text: (BS 1966),

text: Margaret Rhea Seddon

text: (BA 1970),

text: Leroy Chiao

text: (BS 1983), and

text: Rex Walheim

text: (BS 1984) have physically reached out to the stars, orbiting the earth in NASA's fleet of

text: space shuttle

text: s.

text: Space Shuttles have been features of fiction and nonfiction, from children's movies to documentaries. Early examples include the 1979 James Bond film, Moonraker, the 1982 Activision videogame Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space (1982) and G. Harry Stine's 1981 novel Shuttle Down. In the 1986 film SpaceCamp, Atlantis accidentally launched into space with a group of U.S. Space Camp participants as its crew. The 1998 film Armageddon portrayed a combined crew of offshore oil rig workers and US military staff who pilot two modified Shuttles to avert the destruction of Earth by an asteroid. Retired American test pilots visited a Russian satellite in the 2000 Clint Eastwood adventure film Space Cowboys. In the 2003 film The Core, the Endeavours landing is disrupted by the earth's magnetic core, and its crew is selected to pilot the vehicle designed to restart the core. The 2004 Bollywood movie Swades, where a Space Shuttle was used to launch a special rainfall monitoring satellite, was filmed at Kennedy Space Center in the year following the Columbia disaster that had taken the life of Indian-American astronaut KC Chawla. On television, the 1996 drama The Cape portrayed the lives of a group of NASA astronauts as they prepared for and flew Shuttle missions. Odyssey 5 was a short lived sci-fi series that featured the crew of a Space Shuttle as the last survivors of a disaster that destroyed Earth.  The 1997- 2007 Sci-fi series Stargate SG-1 had a shuttle rescue written into an episode.  The 2013 film Gravity features the fictional space shuttle Explorer, whose crew are killed or left stranded after it is destroyed by a shower of high speed orbital debris.

text: Space Shuttles have been features of fiction and nonfiction, from children's movies to documentaries. Early examples include the 1979

text: James Bond

text: film,

text: Moonraker

text: , the 1982

text: Activision

text: videogame Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space (1982) and

text: G. Harry Stine

text: 's 1981 novel

text: Shuttle Down

text: . In the 1986 film

text: SpaceCamp

text: , Atlantis accidentally launched into space with a group of

text: U.S. Space Camp

text: participants as its crew. The 1998 film

text: Armageddon

text: portrayed a combined crew of offshore oil rig workers and US military staff who pilot two modified Shuttles to avert the destruction of Earth by an asteroid. Retired American test pilots visited a Russian satellite in the 2000

text: Clint Eastwood

text: adventure film

text: Space Cowboys

text: . In the 2003 film The Core, the Endeavours landing is disrupted by the earth's magnetic core, and its crew is selected to pilot the vehicle designed to restart the core. The 2004 Bollywood movie

text: Swades

text: , where a Space Shuttle was used to launch a special rainfall monitoring satellite, was filmed at Kennedy Space Center in the year following the

text: Columbia disaster

text: that had taken the life of Indian-American astronaut

text: KC Chawla

text: . On television, the 1996 drama

text: The Cape

text: portrayed the lives of a group of NASA astronauts as they prepared for and flew Shuttle missions.

text: Odyssey 5

text: was a short lived sci-fi series that featured the crew of a Space Shuttle as the last survivors of a disaster that destroyed Earth.  The 1997- 2007 Sci-fi series Stargate SG-1 had a shuttle rescue written into an episode.  The 2013 film

text: Gravity

text: features the fictional space shuttle Explorer, whose crew are killed or left stranded after it is destroyed by a shower of high speed orbital debris.

text: The Soviet Union began the Almaz () program in the early 1960s. This program involved placing space stations in Earth orbit as an alternative to satellites. Three stations were launched between 1973 and 1976: Salyut 2, Salyut 3 and Salyut 5. Following Salyut 5, the Soviet Ministry of Defence judged in 1978 that the time consumed by station maintenance outweighed the benefits relative to automatic reconnaissance satellites.

text: The

text: Soviet Union

text: began the

text: Almaz

text: () program in the early 1960s. This program involved placing space stations in Earth orbit as an alternative to satellites. Three stations were launched between 1973 and 1976:

text: Salyut 2

text: Salyut 3

text: and

text: Salyut 5

text: . Following Salyut 5, the Soviet Ministry of Defence judged in 1978 that the time consumed by station maintenance outweighed the benefits relative to automatic reconnaissance satellites.

text: The team's goals are to build and deploy a robotic lander that will deliver exploration as well as scientific payloads to the moon. The new lander/spacecraft has been dubbed "MoonOne (M-1)". These efforts have been contracted to MacDonald Dettwiler, a Canadian corporation with a successful history of providing technical space solutions for several NASA projects including the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station.

text: The team's goals are to build and deploy a robotic lander that will deliver exploration as well as scientific payloads to the moon. The new lander/spacecraft has been dubbed "MoonOne (M-1)". These efforts have been contracted to

text: MacDonald Dettwiler

text: , a Canadian corporation with a successful history of providing technical space solutions for several

text: NASA

text: projects including the

text: Space Shuttle

text: and the

text: International Space Station

text: Nixon appointed his Vice President Spiro Agnew to head a Space Task Group in 1969 to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious Space Transportation System based on a reusable Space Shuttle which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched by a similar, but larger kerosene-fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the Kennedy Space Center launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent modular space station, reusable space tug and nuclear interplanetary ferry, leading to a human expedition to Mars as early as 1986, or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support Congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station. Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted flyback booster with two reusable solid rocket boosters, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable external propellant tank to feed its hydrogen-fueled main engines. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.

text: Nixon appointed his Vice President

text: Spiro Agnew

text: to head a Space Task Group in 1969 to recommend follow-on human spaceflight programs after Apollo. The group proposed an ambitious

text: Space Transportation System

text: based on a

text: reusable Space Shuttle

text: which consisted of a winged, internally fueled orbiter stage burning liquid hydrogen, launched by a similar, but larger

text: kerosene

text: -fueled booster stage, each equipped with airbreathing jet engines for powered return to a runway at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: launch site. Other components of the system included a permanent modular space station, reusable

text: space tug

text: and

text: nuclear

text: interplanetary ferry, leading to a

text: human expedition to Mars

text: as early as 1986, or as late as 2000, depending on the level of funding allocated. However, Nixon knew the American political climate would not support Congressional funding for such an ambition, and killed proposals for all but the Shuttle, possibly to be followed by the space station.

text: Plans for the Shuttle were scaled back

text: to reduce development risk, cost, and time, replacing the piloted flyback booster with two reusable

text: solid rocket booster

text: s, and the smaller orbiter would use an expendable

text: external propellant tank

text: to feed its hydrogen-fueled

text: main engine

text: s. The orbiter would have to make unpowered landings.

text: While vector spaces are modular and affine spaces are "almost" modular (i.e. everywhere locally modular), algebraically closed fields are examples of the other extremity, not being even locally modular (i.e. none of the localizations is modular).

text: 138. "Dynamics of a Modular Space Station," J. Astr. Sc., Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 381–400, 1985. (With R. R. Ryan)

text: Among the parameters that were considered in the course of the review were "crew and mission safety, life-cycle costs, development time, national space industrial base impacts, potential to spur innovation and encourage competition, and the implications and impacts of transitioning from current human space flight systems".  The review considered the appropriate amounts of research and development and "complementary robotic activity necessary to support various human space flight activities".  It was tasked to also "explore options for extending International Space Station operations beyond 2016".

text: Mass is also the prime attribute by which planets are distinguished from stars. The upper mass limit for planethood is roughly 13 times Jupiter's mass for objects with solar-type isotopic abundance, beyond which it achieves conditions suitable for nuclear fusion. Other than the Sun, no objects of such mass exist in the Solar System; but there are exoplanets of this size. The 13-Jupiter-mass limit is not universally agreed upon and the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 20 Jupiter masses, and the Exoplanet Data Explorer up to 24 Jupiter masses.

text: Mass is also the prime attribute by which planets are distinguished from

text: star

text: s. The upper mass limit for planethood is roughly 13 times Jupiter's mass for objects with solar-type

text: isotopic abundance

text: , beyond which it achieves conditions suitable for

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Other than the Sun, no objects of such mass exist in the Solar System; but there are exoplanets of this size. The 13-Jupiter-mass limit is not universally agreed upon and the

text: Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia

text: includes objects up to 20 Jupiter masses, and the

text: Exoplanet Data Explorer

text: up to 24 Jupiter masses.

text: A space telescope or space observatory is an instrument located in outer space to observe distant planets, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Space telescopes avoid many of the problems of ground-based observatories, such as light pollution and distortion of electromagnetic radiation (scintillation). In addition, ultraviolet frequencies, X-rays and gamma rays are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere, so they can only be observed from space.

text: A space telescope or space observatory is an instrument located in

text: outer space

text: to observe distant

text: planet

text: s,

text: galaxies

text: and other

text: astronomical object

text: s. Space telescopes avoid many of the problems of

text: ground-based observatories

text: , such as

text: light pollution

text: and distortion of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: scintillation

text: ). In addition,

text: ultraviolet

text: frequencies,

text: X-rays

text: and

text: gamma rays

text: are blocked by the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , so they can only be observed from space.

text: Due to his love of flying, he was attracted to NASA and became dedicated to America's work in outer space. He conscientiously worked to help bring into being the "Citizens in Space" program. Denver received the NASA Public Service Medal, in 1985 for "helping to increase awareness of space exploration by the peoples of the world," an award usually restricted to spaceflight engineers and designers. Also in 1985, Denver passed NASA's rigorous physical exam and was in line for a space flight, a finalist for the first citizen's trip on the Space Shuttle in 1986, but he was not chosen. After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster with teacher Christa McAuliffe aboard, Denver dedicated his song "Flying for Me" to all astronauts, and he continued to support NASA.

text: Due to his love of flying, he was attracted to

text: NASA

text: and became dedicated to America's work in outer space. He conscientiously worked to help bring into being the "Citizens in Space" program. Denver received the

text: NASA Public Service Medal

text: , in 1985 for "helping to increase awareness of space exploration by the peoples of the world," an award usually restricted to spaceflight engineers and designers. Also in 1985, Denver passed NASA's rigorous physical exam and was in line for a space flight, a finalist for the first citizen's trip on the Space Shuttle in 1986, but he was not chosen. After the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: with teacher

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: aboard, Denver dedicated his song "Flying for Me" to all astronauts, and he continued to support NASA.

text: The Sahara Forest Project designed by the firm Exploration Architecture is a greenhouse that aims to rely on solar energy alone to operate as a zero waste system.  The project is on the ecosystem level because its many components work together in a cyclical system. After finding that the deserts used to be covered by forests, Exploration decided to intervene at the forest and desert boundaries to reverse desertification. The project mimics the Namibian desert beetle to combat climate change in an arid environment.  It draws upon the beetle’s ability to self-regulate its body temperature by accumulating heat by day and to collect water droplets that form on its wings. The greenhouse structure uses saltwater to provide evaporative cooling and humidification. The evaporated air condenses to fresh water allowing the greenhouse to remain heated at night. This system produces more water than the interior plants need so the excess is spewed out for the surrounding plants to grow. Solar power plants work off of the idea that symbiotic relationships are important in nature, collecting sun while providing shade for plants to grow. The project is currently in its pilot phase.

text: The

text: Sahara Forest Project

text: designed by the firm Exploration Architecture is a greenhouse that aims to rely on solar energy alone to operate as a zero waste system.  The project is on the ecosystem level because its many components work together in a cyclical system. After finding that the deserts used to be covered by forests, Exploration decided to intervene at the forest and desert boundaries to reverse desertification. The project mimics the Namibian desert beetle to combat climate change in an arid environment.  It draws upon the beetle’s ability to self-regulate its body temperature by accumulating heat by day and to collect water droplets that form on its wings. The greenhouse structure uses saltwater to provide evaporative cooling and humidification. The evaporated air condenses to fresh water allowing the greenhouse to remain heated at night. This system produces more water than the interior plants need so the excess is spewed out for the surrounding plants to grow. Solar power plants work off of the idea that symbiotic relationships are important in nature, collecting sun while providing shade for plants to grow. The project is currently in its pilot phase.

text: MSFC is involved in some of the most advanced space research of our time. Scientist/Astronaut researchers aboard the International Space Station are engaged in hundreds of advanced experiments, most of which could not be conducted except for the zero-gravity environment. The deep-space images from the Hubble Space Telescope and the Chandra X-ray Observatory are made possible in part by the people and facilities at Marshall. The Center was not only responsible for the design, development, and construction of these telescopes, but it is also now home to the only facility in the world for testing large telescope mirrors in a space-simulated environment. Preliminary work has started on a Hubble successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST); this will be the largest primary mirror ever assembled in space. In the future, the facility will likely be used for another successor, the Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (AT-LAST).

text: MSFC is involved in some of the most advanced space research of our time. Scientist/Astronaut researchers aboard the

text: International Space Station

text: are engaged in hundreds of advanced experiments, most of which could not be conducted except for the zero-gravity environment. The deep-space images from the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: are made possible in part by the people and facilities at Marshall. The Center was not only responsible for the design, development, and construction of these telescopes, but it is also now home to the only facility in the world for testing large telescope mirrors in a space-simulated environment. Preliminary work has started on a Hubble successor, the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: (JWST); this will be the largest primary mirror ever assembled in space. In the future, the facility will likely be used for another successor, the

text: (AT-LAST).

text: Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of Apollo program astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for space exploration is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in synch. The International Space Station normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

text: Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of

text: Apollo program

text: astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for

text: space exploration

text: is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in synch. The

text: International Space Station

text: normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

text: At one point, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS. The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on 1 February 2003, the subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.

text: At one point, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS. The

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: on 1 February 2003, the subsequent two and a half-year suspension of the U.S.

text: Space Shuttle program

text: , followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, were major obstacles.

text: The disadvantage of one launcher for two very different roles was pointed out by David King, director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center. "DIRECT v2.0 falls significantly short of the lunar lander performance requirement for exploration missions as specifically outlined in Constellation Program ground rules. The concept also overshoots the requirements for early missions to the International Space Station in the coming decade. These shortcomings would necessitate rushed development of a more expensive launch system with too little capability in the long run, and would actually increase the gap between space shuttle retirement and development of a new vehicle. Even more importantly, the Ares approach offers a much greater margin of crew safety - paramount to every mission NASA puts into space."

text: The disadvantage of one launcher for two very different roles was pointed out by

text: David King

text: , director of NASA's

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: . "DIRECT v2.0 falls significantly short of the lunar lander performance requirement for exploration missions as specifically outlined in Constellation Program ground rules. The concept also overshoots the requirements for early missions to the International Space Station in the coming decade. These shortcomings would necessitate rushed development of a more expensive launch system with too little capability in the long run, and would actually increase the gap between space shuttle retirement and development of a new vehicle. Even more importantly, the Ares approach offers a much greater margin of crew safety - paramount to every mission NASA puts into space."

text: As part of the Mars Direct plan, Mars exploration advocate Robert Zubrin and other baselined an "inline" SDV concept developed by engineers at NASA and Martin Marietta.  The rocket consisted of a large upper stage and payload shroud mounted on top of the Space Shuttle external tank, and the Orbiter replaced by a simple engine pod.  The rocket would launch crews and vehicles directly to Mars.  The term "Mars Direct" reflected the idea of launching crews and habitats directly to Mars, without assembly or significant loiter in low Earth orbit. NASA's planned Ares V vehicle would superficially resemble this vehicle due to its "inline" setup, although the Mars Direct Ares used side-mounted Space Shuttle Main Engines and a core with the Shuttle External Tank's diameter for greater commonality with Space Shuttle infrastructure.

text: As part of the Mars Direct plan,

text: Mars

text: exploration advocate

text: Robert Zubrin

text: and other baselined an "inline" SDV concept developed by engineers at NASA and Martin Marietta.  The rocket consisted of a large upper stage and payload shroud mounted on top of the Space Shuttle external tank, and the Orbiter replaced by a simple engine pod.  The rocket would launch crews and vehicles directly to Mars.  The term "Mars Direct" reflected the idea of launching crews and habitats directly to Mars, without assembly or significant loiter in low Earth orbit. NASA's planned Ares V vehicle would superficially resemble this vehicle due to its "inline" setup, although the Mars Direct Ares used side-mounted Space Shuttle Main Engines and a core with the Shuttle External Tank's diameter for greater commonality with Space Shuttle infrastructure.

text: The John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration recognizes extraordinary accomplishment by a company, space agency or corsortium of organizations in the realm of space exploration and disccovery. The award honors the memory of astronaut John L. 'Jack' Swigert, Jr., one of the inspirations for creating the Space Foundation. Winners of the John L. Jack Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration include:

text: The John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration recognizes extraordinary accomplishment by a company, space agency or corsortium of organizations in the realm of space exploration and disccovery. The award honors the memory of astronaut John L. 'Jack' Swigert, Jr., one of the inspirations for creating the Space Foundation. Winners of the John L.

text: Jack Swigert

text: , Jr., Award for Space Exploration include:

text: The success of IRAS lead to interest in the 1985 Infrared Telescope (IRT) mission on the Space Shuttle, and the planned Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility which eventually transformed into the Space Infrared Telescope Facility, SIRTF, which in turn was developed into the Spitzer Space Telescope, launched in 2009.  The success of early infrared space astronomy led to further missions, such as the Infrared Space Observatory (1990s) and the Hubble Space Telescope NICMOS instrument.

text: The success of IRAS lead to interest in the 1985 Infrared Telescope (IRT) mission on the Space Shuttle, and the planned Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility which eventually transformed into the Space Infrared Telescope Facility, SIRTF, which in turn was developed into the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: , launched in 2009.  The success of early infrared space astronomy led to further missions, such as the

text: Infrared Space Observatory

text: (1990s) and the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: NICMOS

text: instrument.

text: Widnall was a member of the board of investigation into the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: Widnall was a member of the

text: board of investigation

text: into the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: The existence of Reuleaux polygons shows that diameter measurements alone cannot verify that an object has a circular cross-section. Overlooking this fact may have played a role in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, as the roundness of sections of the rocket in that launch was tested only by measuring different diameters, and off-round shapes may cause unusually high stresses that could have been one of the factors causing the disaster.

text: The existence of Reuleaux polygons shows that diameter measurements alone cannot verify that an object has a circular cross-section. Overlooking this fact may have played a role in the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , as the roundness of sections of the rocket in that launch was tested only by measuring different diameters, and off-round shapes may cause unusually high stresses that could have been one of the factors causing the disaster.

text: The song has been used on four occasions as the music selected for wake-up calls on space missions. The first was on 16 June 2002 for the Space Shuttle Endeavour during mission STS-111 to the International Space Station. It was again used on 2 August 2005 for mission STS-114, the first mission of the Space Shuttle programme following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. It was broadcast to the seven crew of the Space Shuttle Discovery, and had been chosen as a surprise for the crew by Deputy Shuttle Programme Manager Wayne Hale. NASA astronaut Richard Mastracchio selected "Where My Heart Will Take Me" for broadcast on 9 August 2007 onboard Endeavour for STS-118. The final broadcast on board a Space Shuttle was on 23 May 2009 during STS-125, the final Space Shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope. On this occasion it was broadcast to the crew of the Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the third science fiction themed wake-up call in a row, the previous day having been the Cantina Band composition by John Williams for Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, and two days prior was Alexander Courage's Theme from Star Trek.

text: The song has been used on four occasions as the music selected for wake-up calls on space missions. The first was on 16 June 2002 for the

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: during mission

text: to the

text: International Space Station

text: . It was again used on 2 August 2005 for mission

text: , the first mission of the Space Shuttle programme following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: . It was broadcast to the seven crew of the

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: , and had been chosen as a surprise for the crew by Deputy Shuttle Programme Manager

text: Wayne Hale

text: NASA

text: astronaut

text: Richard Mastracchio

text: selected "Where My Heart Will Take Me" for broadcast on 9 August 2007 onboard Endeavour for

text: . The final broadcast on board a Space Shuttle was on 23 May 2009 during

text: , the final Space Shuttle servicing mission to the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . On this occasion it was broadcast to the crew of the

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: . It was the third science fiction themed wake-up call in a row, the previous day having been the

text: Cantina Band

text: composition by

text: John Williams

text: for

text: Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

text: , and two days prior was

text: Alexander Courage

text: 's

text: Theme from Star Trek

text: Many traditionally monolithic kernels are now at least adding (if not actively exploiting) the module capability. The most well known of these kernels is the Linux kernel. The modular kernel essentially can have parts of it that are built into the core kernel binary or binaries that load into memory on demand. It is important to note that a code tainted module has the potential to destabilize a running kernel. Many people become confused on this point when discussing micro kernels. It is possible to write a driver for a microkernel in a completely separate memory space and test it before "going" live. When a kernel module is loaded, it accesses the monolithic portion's memory space by adding to it what it needs, therefore, opening the doorway to possible pollution. A few advantages to the modular (or) Hybrid kernel are:

text: The concepts of space stations and habitats are common in modern culture. While space stations have become reality, there are as yet no true space habitats. Writers, filmmakers, and other artists have produced vivid renditions of the idea of a space station or habitat, and these iterations can be categorized by some of the basic scientific concepts from which they are derived.

text: The concepts of space stations and habitats are common in modern culture. While

text: space station

text: s have become reality, there are as yet no true

text: space habitat

text: s. Writers, filmmakers, and other artists have produced vivid renditions of the idea of a space station or habitat, and these iterations can be categorized by some of the basic scientific concepts from which they are derived.

text: The militarization of space is the placement and development of weaponry and military technology in outer space. The early exploration of space in the mid-20th century had, in part, a military motivation, as the United States and the Soviet Union used it as an opportunity to demonstrate ballistic missile technology and other technologies having the potential for military application. Outer space has since been used as an operating location for military spacecraft such as imaging and communications satellites, and some ballistic missiles pass through outer space during their flight. As yet, however, weapons have not been stationed in space, with the exception of the Almaz space station and small handguns carried by Russian cosmonauts (for post-landing, pre-recovery use).

text: The militarization of space is the placement and development of weaponry and military technology in

text: outer space

text: . The early exploration of space in the mid-20th century had, in part, a military motivation, as the United States and the

text: Soviet Union

text: used it as an opportunity to demonstrate

text: ballistic missile

text: technology and other technologies having the potential for military application. Outer space has since been used as an operating location for

text: military spacecraft

text: such as imaging and communications satellites, and some ballistic missiles pass through outer space during their flight. As yet, however, weapons have not been stationed in space, with the exception of the

text: Almaz

text: space station and small

text: handguns carried by Russian cosmonauts

text: (for post-landing, pre-recovery use).

text: The exhibit includes a reproduction of the Millennium Falcons cockpit, which features a four-and-a-half minute experience about real-world space exploration, particularly the unmanned exploration of the farther planets of our solar system, and the hundreds of exoplanets that have been discovered. The experience is narrated by Anthony Daniels, who played C-3PO, and with a few added effects in the cockpit (rumbling seats, fans, and lights) is meant to simulate the appearance of actually traveling through space and looking out the cockpit viewscreen. This exhibit was not included in the version at the Powerhouse Museum.

text: The exhibit includes a reproduction of the

text: Millennium Falcon

text: s cockpit, which features a four-and-a-half minute experience about real-world space exploration, particularly the unmanned exploration of the farther planets of our solar system, and the hundreds of

text: exoplanets

text: that have been discovered. The experience is narrated by Anthony Daniels, who played

text: , and with a few added effects in the cockpit (rumbling seats, fans, and lights) is meant to simulate the appearance of actually traveling through space and looking out the cockpit viewscreen. This exhibit was not included in the version at the

text: Powerhouse Museum

text: OPSEK will follow the Salyut and Almaz series, Cosmos 557, and Mir as the 12th Russian space station launched. OPSEK is a third generation modular space station.

text: OPSEK will follow the

text: Salyut

text: and

text: Almaz

text: series,

text: Cosmos 557

text: , and

text: Mir

text: as the 12th Russian space station launched. OPSEK is a third generation modular space station.

text: Robert A. Woodruff (born September 1943) is an American physicist who is known principally for having designed and worked on a wide variety of instruments for space telescopes. These include Skylab (1967–1970), Apollo-Soyuz (1970s), Galileo(~1980), SIRTF and MIPS (1970s-1990s), and Hubble Space Telescope instruments [1977–present] (GHRS, STIS, COSTAR, ACS, COS, WFC3); JWST (1995–2000), Kepler (mid-1990s), TPF (2001 to present), and Destiny (2003–present).  He has had one or more instruments flying continuously in space since the early 1970s.

text: Robert A. Woodruff (born September 1943) is an American

text: physicist

text: who is known principally for having designed and worked on a wide variety of instruments for space telescopes. These include

text: Skylab

text: (1967–1970), Apollo-Soyuz (1970s), Galileo(~1980),

text: SIRTF

text: and MIPS (1970s-1990s), and

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: instruments [1977–present] (GHRS, STIS,

entity_name: Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement

text: COSTAR

text: , ACS, COS, WFC3);

text: JWST

text: (1995–2000), Kepler (mid-1990s),

text: TPF

text: (2001 to present), and

text: Destiny

text: (2003–present).  He has had one or more instruments flying continuously in space since the early 1970s.

text: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008. Japan's plans in space exploration include: launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki; developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2016; and building a moon base by 2030.

text: The

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) is Japan's

text: space agency

text: ; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the

text: International Space Station

text: : the

text: Japanese Experiment Module

text: (Kibo) was added to the station during

text: Space Shuttle

text: assembly flights in 2008. Japan's plans in

text: space exploration

text: include: launching a

text: space probe

text: to

text: Venus

text: Akatsuki

text: ; developing the

text: Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter

text: to be launched in 2016; and building a

text: moon base

text: by 2030.

text: Space stations have been used for both military and civilian purposes. The first military-use space station was Salyut 2, which was launched by the Soviet Almaz program in 1973.  The Soviet Union also claimed the first civilian space station with the launch of Salyut 1.  , Russia, China, and private companies are building space stations.

text: Space stations have been used for both military and civilian purposes. The first military-use space station was

text: Salyut 2

text: , which was launched by the Soviet

text: Almaz

text: program in 1973.  The Soviet Union also claimed the first civilian space station with the launch of Salyut 1.  ,

text: Russia

text: China

text: , and

text: private

text: companies are building space stations.

text: STS-51 was a Space Shuttle Discovery mission that launched the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) in September 1993. The flight also featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of Discovery in space. A spacewalk was also performed during the mission to evaluate tools and techniques for the STS-61 Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission later that year. STS-51 was the first shuttle mission to fly a GPS receiver, a Trimble TANS Quadrex. It was mounted in an overhead window where limited field of view and signal attenuation from the glass severely impacted receiver performance. (Full triple-redundant 3-string GPS would not happen until 14 years later with STS-118.)

text: STS-51 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: Discovery

text: mission that launched the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) in September 1993. The flight also featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of Discovery in space. A

text: spacewalk

text: was also performed during the mission to evaluate tools and techniques for the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: servicing mission later that year. STS-51 was the first shuttle mission to fly a

text: GPS

text: receiver, a

text: Trimble

text: TANS Quadrex. It was mounted in an overhead window where limited

text: field of view

text: and

text: signal attenuation

text: from the glass severely impacted receiver performance. (Full

text: triple-redundant

text: 3-string GPS would not happen until 14 years later with

text: The Alliance for Space Development is a space advocacy organization dedicated to influencing space policy towards the goal of permanent human settlements in space.  The founding executive members of the Alliance are the National Space Society and the Space Frontier Foundation. Member organizations of the Alliance are the Lifeboat Foundation, Mars Foundation, Mars Society, Space Development Steering Committee, Space Tourism Society, Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, Students on Capitol Hill, Tea Party in Space, and the Texas Space Alliance. The primary goals of the Alliance are to elevate the growth of the space industry, reduce the cost of accessing space, and to clearly define space settlement as the reason for sending humans to space.

text: The Alliance for Space Development is a

text: space advocacy

text: organization dedicated to influencing

text: space policy

text: towards the goal of permanent human

text: settlements in space

text: .  The founding executive members of the Alliance are the

text: National Space Society

text: and the

text: Space Frontier Foundation

text: . Member organizations of the Alliance are the

text: Lifeboat Foundation

text: , Mars Foundation,

text: Mars Society

text: Space Development Steering Committee

text: Space Tourism Society

text: Students for the Exploration and Development of Space

text: , Students on Capitol Hill, Tea Party in Space, and the Texas Space Alliance. The primary goals of the Alliance are to elevate the growth of the space industry, reduce the cost of accessing space, and to clearly define space settlement as the reason for sending humans to space.

text: Telescope for Habitable Exoplanets and Interstellar/Intergalactic Astronomy (THEIA) is a NASA-proposed 4-metre optical/ultraviolet space telescope that would succeed the Hubble Space Telescope and complement the infrared-James Webb Space Telescope. THEIA would use a 40-metre occulter to block starlight so as to directly image exoplanets.

text: Telescope for Habitable Exoplanets and Interstellar/Intergalactic Astronomy (THEIA) is a

text: NASA

text: -proposed 4-metre optical/ultraviolet

text: space telescope

text: that would succeed the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and complement the infrared-

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: . THEIA would use a 40-metre

text: occulter

text: to block starlight so as to directly image

text: exoplanets

text: Starflight 2: Trade Routes of the Cloud Nebula is a 1989 science fiction video game developed by Binary Systems and published by Electronic Arts as the sequel to the successful Starflight.  It features a combination of space exploration, role-playing and strategy within a futuristic setting.  The player commands a spaceship capable of traveling to the game world's 150 solar systems, communicating with or attacking other spaceships, and landing on planetary surfaces which may be explored with a manned rover for plot clues, minerals and alien lifeforms.  Game mechanics and the overall look and feel closely resemble the earlier Starflight game, but many new features are introduced including an interstellar trade-based economy, new sentient alien races, and new spacecraft accessories and artifacts.  The player is tasked with discovering the ultimate source of the advanced spacecraft technology and unlimited fuel supply which provide a military advantage to the Spemin, a hostile alien race threatening to annihilate or enslave humanity.  A major part of the game consists of earning enough money to pay for spaceship upgrades and crew training by engaging in interstellar trade and barter with various alien cultures at their planetary trading posts.

text: Starflight 2: Trade Routes of the Cloud Nebula is a 1989

text: science fiction

text: video game

text: developed

text: by

text: Binary Systems

text: and

text: published

text: by

text: Electronic Arts

text: as the sequel to the successful

text: Starflight

text: .  It features a combination of

text: space exploration

text: role-playing

text: and

text: strategy

text: within a futuristic setting.  The player commands a spaceship capable of traveling to the

text: game world

text: 's 150

text: solar system

text: s, communicating with or attacking other spaceships, and landing on planetary surfaces which may be explored with a manned rover for plot clues, minerals and

text: alien lifeforms

text: Game mechanics

text: and the overall

text: look and feel

text: closely resemble the earlier Starflight game, but many new features are introduced including an

text: interstellar trade

text: -based economy, new

text: sentient

text: alien races, and new spacecraft accessories and artifacts.  The player is tasked with discovering the ultimate source of the advanced spacecraft technology and unlimited fuel supply which provide a military advantage to the Spemin, a hostile alien race threatening to annihilate or enslave humanity.  A major part of the game consists of earning enough money to pay for spaceship upgrades and crew training by engaging in

text: interstellar

text: trade and

text: barter

text: with various alien cultures at their planetary trading posts.

text: The Space Shuttle was a major national asset, and its high cost (far more than a single expendable launch vehicle) and presence of a crew require stringent "man rated" flight safety precautions that increased launch and payload costs. Only five orbiters were built, and the loss of two (Challenger and Columbia) significantly impacted the capacity and viability of the Shuttle program. Each loss also resulted in an extended hiatus in Shuttle flights compared to that following most expendable launch failures, each of which impacted only that model of launcher.

text: The Space Shuttle was a major national asset, and its high cost (far more than a single expendable launch vehicle) and presence of a crew require stringent "man rated" flight safety precautions that increased launch and payload costs. Only five orbiters were built, and the loss of two (

text: Challenger

text: and

text: Columbia

text: ) significantly impacted the capacity and viability of the Shuttle program. Each loss also resulted in an extended hiatus in Shuttle flights compared to that following most expendable launch failures, each of which impacted only that model of launcher.

text: Williams (2013) suggests the need for a variety of methods for observing Io in the future: "Future Io exploration is recommended to include: 1) a Jupiter-orbiting Io Observer spacecraft of either Discovery-class or New Frontiers-class; 2) a space-based UV telescope with diffraction-limited capability; 3) space-based missions that enable long-term monitoring of Io over a variety of time scales (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years); and 4) expanded time for Io observation on ground-based 8- to 10-m class telescopes, particularly those with nighttime Adaptive Optics capability."

text: The show premiered on January 28, 1986, the day of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Perhaps in part due to the tragedy, the premiere episode ranked as the lowest-rated program of the week, and CBS immediately pulled the show from its schedule. The remaining episodes were later aired during the summer.

text: The show premiered on January 28, 1986, the day of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: . Perhaps in part due to the tragedy, the premiere episode ranked as the lowest-rated program of the week, and CBS immediately pulled the show from its schedule. The remaining episodes were later aired during the summer.

text: This is a list of spacewalks conducted from the Salyut space stations. Salyut was a Soviet programme which consisted of a number of early space stations, including the first space station to be launched, Salyut 1. Six of the space stations launched as part of the Salyut programme were manned, and spacewalks were made from two of these, Salyut 6 and Salyut 7. A total of sixteen spacewalks were made in the Salyut programme; three from Salyut 6 and thirteen from Salyut 7. Each involved two cosmonauts. Fifteen different cosmonauts performed the spacewalks, with several performing multiple EVAs. Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov each performed eight EVAs, the most of any cosmonauts in the programme.

text: This is a list of

text: spacewalk

text: s conducted from the

text: Salyut

text: space stations. Salyut was a

text: Soviet

text: programme which consisted of a number of early

text: space stations

text: , including the first space station to be launched,

text: Salyut 1

text: . Six of the space stations launched as part of the Salyut programme were manned, and spacewalks were made from two of these,

text: Salyut 6

text: and

text: Salyut 7

text: . A total of sixteen spacewalks were made in the Salyut programme; three from Salyut 6 and thirteen from Salyut 7. Each involved two cosmonauts. Fifteen different cosmonauts performed the spacewalks, with several performing multiple EVAs.

text: Leonid Kizim

text: and

text: Vladimir Solovyov

text: each performed eight EVAs, the most of any cosmonauts in the programme.

text: Space Dock is used for launching interplanetary missions, including Ultra Probe (in 1996) and Meta Probe (in 1999), as well as providing a stop-over point for travellers to and from the Moon. Modular in construction, it comprises a cylindrical core, with two sets of "arms" projecting outwards from both ends. Re-fuelling and maintenance facilities are available, as are accommodation and dining. In "Dragon's Domain", an Eagle Transporter landing platform is also seen. Although not explicitly stated in the series itself, a fleet of Mark IX Hawk, as seen in "War Games", is probably stationed at Space Dock.

text: Space Dock is used for launching interplanetary missions, including

text: Ultra Probe

text: (in 1996) and

text: Meta Probe

text: (in 1999), as well as providing a stop-over point for travellers to and from the Moon. Modular in construction, it comprises a cylindrical core, with two sets of "arms" projecting outwards from both ends. Re-fuelling and maintenance facilities are available, as are accommodation and dining. In "Dragon's Domain", an

text: Eagle Transporter

text: landing platform is also seen. Although not explicitly stated in the series itself, a fleet of

text: Mark IX Hawk

text: , as seen in "

text: War Games

text: ", is probably stationed at Space Dock.

text: With the space shuttle fleet grounded as a result of the January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, there was government instruction that the excess product — that was to be used to improve Shuttle launches and which was owned by the United States federal government or its prime contractors — would be stored in customer-owned aluminum bins as customer-owned material at the PEPCON plant.  Ammonium perchlorate manufactured for other United States government programs was not held at the PEPCON plant during this period.  High-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic and steel drums were used for in-process and additional storage at the time of the accident, as they had been for many years prior to the Challenger accident.  An estimated 4500 metric tons of the finished product were stored at the facility at the time of the disaster.

text: With the space shuttle fleet grounded as a result of the January 1986

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , there was government instruction that the excess product — that was to be used to improve Shuttle launches and which was owned by the United States federal government or its prime contractors — would be stored in customer-owned aluminum bins as customer-owned material at the PEPCON plant.  Ammonium perchlorate manufactured for other United States government programs was not held at the PEPCON plant during this period.

text: High-density polyethylene

text: (HDPE) plastic and steel drums were used for in-process and additional storage at the time of the accident, as they had been for many years prior to the Challenger accident.  An estimated 4500 metric tons of the finished product were stored at the facility at the time of the disaster.

text: It has been argued that flashbulb memories are not very stable over time.  A study conducted on the recollection of flashbulb memories for the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster sampled two independent groups of subjects on a date close to the disaster, and another eight months later. Very few subjects had flashbulb memories for the disaster after eight months. Considering only the participants who could recall the source of the news, ongoing activity, and place, researchers reported that less than 35% had detailed memories. Another study examining participants' memories for the Challenger Space Shuttle explosion found that although participants were highly confident about their memories for the event, their memories were not very accurate three years after the event had occurred. A third study conducted on the O.J. Simpson murder case found that although participants' confidence in their memories remained strong, the accuracy of their memories declined 15 months after the event, and continued to decline 32 months after the event.

text: It has been argued that flashbulb memories are not very stable over time.  A study conducted on the recollection of flashbulb memories for the

text: Challenger Space Shuttle

text: disaster sampled two independent groups of subjects on a date close to the disaster, and another eight months later. Very few subjects had flashbulb memories for the disaster after eight months. Considering only the participants who could recall the source of the news, ongoing activity, and place, researchers reported that less than 35% had detailed memories. Another study examining participants' memories for the Challenger Space Shuttle explosion found that although participants were highly confident about their memories for the event, their memories were not very accurate three years after the event had occurred. A third study conducted on the

text: O.J. Simpson murder case

text: found that although participants' confidence in their memories remained strong, the accuracy of their memories declined 15 months after the event, and continued to decline 32 months after the event.

text: Space debris, along with defunct spaceships, satellites as well as other small objects can present a hazard to operating spacecraft. Built by the Japan Space Forum (JSF) with contributions by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, all expenses of the center are covered by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA). The telescopes which keep track of any space debris are manned by members of the Japan Spaceguard Association. Besides the spaceguard center, the facility also includes the Bisei Astronomical Observatory (BAO).

text: Space debris, along with

text: defunct

text: spaceships

text: satellites

text: as well as other small objects can present a hazard to operating spacecraft. Built by the Japan Space Forum (JSF) with contributions by the

entity_name: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

text: Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology

text: , all expenses of the center are covered by the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA). The telescopes which keep track of any space debris are manned by members of the

text: Japan Spaceguard Association

text: . Besides the spaceguard center, the facility also includes the Bisei Astronomical Observatory (BAO).

text: Bartoe is a member of the Association of Space Explorers, and is Chairman of the Space Stations Committee of the International Astronautical Federation. His awards include the NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal, the Navy Distinguished Civilian Service Award, the Flight Achievement Award of the American Astronautical Society, the NASA Space Flight Medal, and the NASA Skylab Achievement Award.

text: Bartoe is a member of the

text: Association of Space Explorers

text: , and is Chairman of the Space Stations Committee of the

text: International Astronautical Federation

text: . His awards include the

text: NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal

text: , the

entity_name: Navy Distinguished Civilian Service Award

text: Navy Distinguished Civilian Service Award

text: , the Flight Achievement Award of the

text: American Astronautical Society

text: , the

text: NASA Space Flight Medal

text: , and the

text: NASA Skylab Achievement Award

text: Origins of the International Space Station covers the origins of ISS. The International Space Station programme represents a combination of three national space station projects: the Russian/Soviet Mir-2, NASA's Freedom including the Japanese Kibō laboratory, and the European Columbus space stations. Canadian robotics supplement these projects.

text: Origins of the International Space Station covers the origins of ISS. The

text: International Space Station program

text: me represents a combination of three national space station projects: the Russian/Soviet Mir-2, NASA's Freedom including the Japanese Kibō laboratory, and the European Columbus space stations. Canadian robotics supplement these projects.

text: Space Shuttle Mission 2007 has been developed by a team of space exploration enthusiasts whose idea was to bring the old and venerable Virgin Shuttle Simulator alive again and match the new PC technology by re-designing a new Space Shuttle simulator from the ground up and adding better graphics and more features. The team planned to develop Space Shuttle Mission 2007 as a freeware game, but as the project became more ambitious and significant resources had to be invested to meet the new design requirements, the team decided to release the simulator as a commercial indie project. Initially released as a DRM downloadable, in 2011 it has been released as a CD boxed edition under the title Space Shuttle Mission Simulator: The Collector's Edition (or SSMS:TCE), in EU and USA, fully localized in English, German and French. The 2011 boxed edition includes all the new content, features and missions released for the 2008 edition and printed manual. In December 2011, the development team announced the plan to release a new version titled "Space Shuttle Mission Simulator 2: The Legacy Continues", around December 2012. According to the initial announcement, the new version will have dramatically increased Earth resolution, enhanced scenery, fully active 3D cockpit, enhanced ISS,  fully modeled ISS interior and more missions, etc.

text: Space Shuttle Mission 2007 has been developed by a team of

text: space exploration

text: enthusiasts whose idea was to bring the old and venerable

text: Virgin Shuttle Simulator

text: alive again and match the new PC technology by re-designing a new Space Shuttle simulator from the ground up and adding better graphics and more features. The team planned to develop Space Shuttle Mission 2007 as a

text: freeware

text: game, but as the project became more ambitious and significant resources had to be invested to meet the new design requirements, the team decided to release the simulator as a commercial

text: indie

text: project. Initially released as a DRM downloadable, in 2011 it has been released as a CD boxed edition under the title Space Shuttle Mission Simulator: The Collector's Edition (or SSMS:TCE), in EU and USA, fully localized in English, German and French. The 2011 boxed edition includes all the new content, features and missions released for the 2008 edition and printed manual. In December 2011, the development team announced the plan to release a new version titled "Space Shuttle Mission Simulator 2: The Legacy Continues", around December 2012. According to the initial announcement, the new version will have dramatically increased Earth resolution, enhanced scenery, fully active 3D cockpit, enhanced ISS,  fully modeled ISS interior and more missions, etc.

text: The first exploration of the Solar System was conducted by telescope, when astronomers first began to map those objects too faint to be seen with the naked eye.

text: The first exploration of the Solar System was conducted by

text: telescope

text: , when

text: astronomers

text: first began to map those objects too faint to be seen with the naked eye.

text: Pete Worden has long been a proponent of robotic and, more recently, crewed space missions to near-earth objects. This class of mission is thought by a growing number of space enthusiasts and professionals to have scientific, technological, political and sociological merit as an alternate to the lunar component of the vision for space exploration.

text: Pete Worden has long been a proponent of robotic and, more recently, crewed space missions to

text: near-earth object

text: s. This class of mission is thought by a growing number of space enthusiasts and professionals to have scientific, technological, political and sociological merit as an alternate to the lunar component of the

text: vision for space exploration

text: The Magic School Bus Explores the Solar System is the first software game developed based on the Magic School Bus series (The Magic School Bus Explores the Human Body was released the same year.) In the game, Ms. Frizzle is lost as soon as the bus flies off into space and the goal of the game is to locate her using the clues she provides. The Friz's hiding place varies throughout the game.

text: The Magic School Bus Explores the Solar System is the first

text: software

text: game developed based on the Magic School Bus series (The Magic School Bus Explores the Human Body was released the same year.) In the game, Ms. Frizzle is lost as soon as the bus flies off into space and the goal of the game is to locate her using the clues she provides. The Friz's hiding place varies throughout the game.

text: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of space and satellites.  It has developed a series of rockets, the latest and the most powerful of which is H-IIB.  H-IIA/B rockets which have the capability of carrying 8-ton payload to the GTO at maximum are now managed by the private-own company Mitsubishi Heavy Industry.  It also built the Japanese Experiment Module, which was launched and added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008 and the HTV to transfer payloads to the station in 2009.

text: The

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of space and satellites.  It has developed a series of rockets, the latest and the most powerful of which is

text: H-IIB

text: H-IIA

text: /B rockets which have the capability of carrying 8-ton payload to the

text: GTO

text: at maximum are now managed by the private-own company

text: Mitsubishi Heavy Industry

text: .  It also built the

text: Japanese Experiment Module

text: , which was launched and added to the

text: International Space Station

text: during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008 and the

text: HTV

text: to transfer payloads to the station in 2009.

text: MirCorp was a commercial space company created in 1999 by space entrepreneurs and involving the Russian space program that successfully undertook a number of firsts in the business of space exploration by using the aging Russian space station Mir as a commercial platform. Its actions were highly controversial as it created a roadblock to the planned International Space Station in creating a viable, low cost alternative.

text: MirCorp was a commercial space company created in 1999 by space entrepreneurs and involving the Russian space program that successfully undertook a number of firsts in the business of

text: space exploration

text: by using the aging Russian space station

text: Mir

text: as a commercial platform. Its actions were highly controversial as it created a roadblock to the planned

text: International Space Station

text: in creating a viable, low cost alternative.

text: Crewed exploration of the Solar System is currently confined to Earth's immediate environs. The first human being to reach space (defined as an altitude of over 100 km) and to orbit Earth was Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut who was launched in Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961. The first human to walk on the surface of another Solar System body was Neil Armstrong, who stepped onto the Moon on July 21, 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission; five more Moon landings occurred through 1972. The United States' Space Shuttle, which debuted in 1981, is the only reusable spacecraft to successfully make multiple orbital flights. The five shuttles that have been built have flown a total of 121 missions, with two of the craft destroyed in accidents. The first orbital space station to host more than one crew was NASA's Skylab, which successfully held three crews from 1973 to 1974. The first true human settlement in space was the Soviet space station Mir, which was continuously occupied for close to ten years, from 1989 to 1999. It was decommissioned in 2001, and its successor, the International Space Station, has maintained a continuous human presence in space since then. In 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded vehicle to reach space on a suborbital flight. That year, U.S. President George W. Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, which called for a replacement for the aging Shuttle, a return to the Moon and, ultimately, a crewed mission to Mars.

text: Crewed exploration of the Solar System is currently confined to Earth's immediate environs. The first human being to reach space (defined as an

text: altitude of over 100 km

text: ) and to orbit Earth was

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , a

text: Soviet

text: cosmonaut

text: who was launched in

text: Vostok 1

text: on April 12, 1961. The first human to walk on the surface of another Solar System body was

text: Neil Armstrong

text: , who stepped onto the

text: Moon

text: on July 21, 1969 during the

text: Apollo 11

text: mission; five more Moon landings occurred through 1972. The United States'

text: Space Shuttle

text: , which debuted in 1981, is the only reusable spacecraft to successfully make multiple orbital flights. The five shuttles that have been built have flown a total of 121 missions, with two of the craft destroyed in accidents. The first orbital

text: space station

text: to host more than one crew was

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Skylab

text: , which successfully held three crews from 1973 to 1974. The first true human settlement in space was the Soviet space station

text: Mir

text: , which was continuously occupied for close to ten years, from 1989 to 1999. It was decommissioned in 2001, and its successor, the

text: International Space Station

text: , has maintained a continuous human presence in space since then. In 2004,

text: SpaceShipOne

text: became the first privately funded vehicle to reach space on a suborbital flight. That year, U.S. President

text: George W. Bush

text: announced the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , which called for a replacement for the aging Shuttle, a return to the Moon and, ultimately, a crewed mission to Mars.

text: For these reasons it is generally agreed that the Space Shuttle did not deliver on its original promise to reduce the costs of constructing and launching payloads into orbit. The Shuttle was originally intended to replace expendable launchers in the launching of satellites, but after the loss of Challenger the Shuttle was reserved for previously planned missions and those requiring a crew.

text: For these reasons it is generally agreed that the Space Shuttle

text: did not deliver

text: on its original promise to reduce the costs of constructing and launching payloads into orbit. The Shuttle was originally intended to replace expendable launchers in the launching of satellites, but after the loss of Challenger the Shuttle was reserved for previously planned missions and those requiring a crew.

text: After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS).

text: After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: , and from competition to cooperation as with the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS).

text: One of 35 candidates selected by NASA in January 1978 for the new Space Shuttle program, Walker became an astronaut in August 1979. Among his technical assignments, he served as Astronaut Office Safety Officer; technical assistant to the Director of Flight Crew Operations in 1981; a chase pilot on STS-1; software verification at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL); mission support group leader for STS-5 and STS-6; Assistant to the Director, Flight Crew Operations; leader of the astronaut support team at Kennedy Space Center in 1985; Branch Chief, Space Station Design and Development; and Special Manager for Assembly, Space Station Project Office. From July 1993 to June 1994, Walker was Chief of the Station/Exploration Support Office, Flight Crew Operations Directorate, after which he chaired the JSC Safety Review Board.

text: One of 35 candidates selected by NASA in January 1978 for the new

text: Space Shuttle program

text: , Walker became an astronaut in August 1979. Among his technical assignments, he served as Astronaut Office Safety Officer; technical assistant to the Director of Flight Crew Operations in 1981; a

text: chase pilot

text: on

text: ; software verification at the

text: Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory

text: (SAIL); mission support group leader for

text: and

text: ; Assistant to the Director, Flight Crew Operations; leader of the astronaut support team at

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: in 1985; Branch Chief, Space Station Design and Development; and Special Manager for Assembly, Space Station Project Office. From July 1993 to June 1994, Walker was Chief of the Station/Exploration Support Office, Flight Crew Operations Directorate, after which he chaired the JSC Safety Review Board.

text: There are two toilets on the International Space Station, located in the Zvezda and Tranquility modules. They use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle WCS. Liquid waste is collected in  containers. Solid waste is collected in individual micro-perforated bags which are stored in an aluminum container. Full containers are transferred to Progress for disposal. An additional Waste and Hygiene Compartment is part of the Tranquility module launched in 2010.  In 2007, NASA purchased a Russian-made toilet similar to the one already aboard ISS rather than develop one internally.

text: There are two toilets on the

text: International Space Station

text: , located in the

text: Zvezda

text: and

text: Tranquility

text: modules. They use a fan-driven suction system similar to the

text: Space Shuttle

text: WCS. Liquid waste is collected in  containers. Solid waste is collected in individual micro-perforated bags which are stored in an aluminum container. Full containers are transferred to

text: Progress

text: for disposal. An additional Waste and Hygiene Compartment is part of the

text: Tranquility

text: module launched in 2010.  In 2007, NASA purchased a Russian-made toilet similar to the one already aboard ISS rather than develop one internally.

text: The assembly method of the station can be compared with the Soviet-Russian Mir space station and the Russian orbital segment of the International space station, if the station is  constructed, China will be the second nation to develop and use automatic rendezvous and docking for modular space station construction. Shenzhou spacecraft and space stations use a domestically made docking mechanism similar to, or compatible with, the Russian designed APAS docking adapter.

text: The assembly method of the station can be compared with the Soviet-Russian

text: Mir

text: space station and the

text: Russian orbital segment

text: of the

text: International space station

text: , if the station is  constructed, China will be the second nation to develop and use automatic rendezvous and docking for modular space station construction.

text: Shenzhou

text: spacecraft and space stations use a domestically made docking mechanism similar to, or compatible with, the Russian designed APAS docking adapter.

text: The flexible path was a set of destinations for further manned space exploration in the inner Solar System proposed in the Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee of 2009 and was envisioned as alternative to the Moon-first and Mars-first approaches.

text: The flexible path was a set of destinations for further

text: manned

text: space exploration

text: in the

text: inner Solar System

text: proposed in the

entity_name: Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee

text: Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee

text: of 2009 and was envisioned as alternative to the

text: Moon

text: -first and

text: Mars

text: -first approaches.

text: Namespace extensions are used by Explorer to either display some data – which are not persisted as files – in a folder-like view or to present data in a way that is different from their organization on the file system. This feature can be exploited by a relational file system like liquidFOLDERs or Tabbles, clones of the ill-fated Microsoft WinFS. Special Folders, such as My Computer and Network Places in Windows Explorer are implemented this way, as are Explorer views that let items in a mobile phone or digital camera be explored. Source-control systems that use Explorer to browse source repositories also use Namespace extensions to allow Explorer to browse the revisions. To implement a namespace extension, the IPersistFolder, IShellView, IShellFolder, IShellBrowser and IOleWindow interfaces needs to be implemented and registered. The implementation needs to provide the logic for navigating the data store as well as describing the presentation. Windows Explorer will instantiate the COM objects as required.

text: Namespace extensions are used by Explorer to either display some data – which are not persisted as files – in a folder-like view or to present data in a way that is different from their organization on the file system. This feature can be exploited by a relational file system like liquidFOLDERs or

text: Tabbles

text: , clones of the ill-fated Microsoft

text: WinFS

text: Special Folders

text: , such as My Computer and Network Places in Windows Explorer are implemented this way, as are Explorer views that let items in a

text: mobile phone

text: or

text: digital camera

text: be explored.

text: Source-control systems

text: that use Explorer to browse source repositories also use Namespace extensions to allow Explorer to browse the revisions. To implement a namespace extension, the IPersistFolder, IShellView, IShellFolder, IShellBrowser and IOleWindow

text: interfaces

text: needs to be implemented and registered. The implementation needs to provide the logic for navigating the data store as well as describing the presentation. Windows Explorer will instantiate the COM objects as required.

text: In 1977, a series of drop tests of the Space Shuttle Enterprise were conducted to test the Space Shuttle's flight characteristics.  Because the Space Shuttle is designed to glide unpowered during its descent and landing, a series of drop tests using a test orbiter were used to demonstrate that the orbiter could be successfully controlled in unpowered flight.  These drop tests, known as the Approach and Landing Test program, used a modified Boeing 747, known as the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft or SCA, to carry Enterprise to an altitude of 15,000 to 30,000 feet.  After a series of captive-flight tests in which the orbiter was not released, five free-flight tests were performed in August through October 1977.

text: In 1977, a series of drop tests of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: Enterprise

text: were conducted to test the Space Shuttle's flight characteristics.  Because the Space Shuttle is designed to glide unpowered during its descent and landing, a series of drop tests using a test orbiter were used to demonstrate that the orbiter could be successfully controlled in unpowered flight.  These drop tests, known as the

text: Approach and Landing Test

text: program, used a modified

text: Boeing 747

text: , known as the

text: Shuttle Carrier Aircraft

text: or SCA, to carry Enterprise to an altitude of 15,000 to 30,000 feet.  After a series of captive-flight tests in which the orbiter was not released, five free-flight tests were performed in August through October 1977.

text: Within four hours of the burst's detection, observations made by BATSE and the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer were able to determine the burst's position of α = 77.38 ± 0.04, δ = 11.30 ± 0.05. This rapid determination allowed astronomers to conduct follow-up studies using optical and X-ray telescopes. Other instruments which detected GRB 991216 included the Chandra X-ray Observatory, the MDM Observatory, and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph on board the Hubble Space Telescope. This was the first use of the Chandra X-ray Observatory for the purpose of gamma-ray burst detection.

text: Within four hours of the burst's detection, observations made by BATSE and the

text: Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer

text: were able to determine the burst's position of

text: α

text: = 77.38 ± 0.04,

text: δ

text: = 11.30 ± 0.05. This rapid determination allowed astronomers to conduct follow-up studies using optical and X-ray telescopes. Other instruments which detected GRB 991216 included the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: , the

text: MDM Observatory

text: , and the

text: Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph

text: on board the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . This was the first use of the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: for the purpose of gamma-ray burst detection.

text: Both the spaceship and the explorer vessel feature cockpits containing icons through which orders are given to various crew members such as the navigator and biotech officer.  Players command both craft in real-time from a first-person perspective by selecting an icon representing the commander's control pad, which translates movement of the mouse into corresponding motions of the spaceship or explorer vessel.  During combat the mouse buttons are used to control the selection and firing of the ship's weapons.  Some encounters with other spaceships result in peaceful conversations which yield important clues or provide opportunities for the player to befriend one of the region's native alien races.  The player's spaceship is capable of hopping between solar systems via hyperpath tunnels, making regional journeys within a solar system, and making short-range maneuvers in circumstances such as spaceship combat.  It may enter orbit around any planet in a solar system and perform a scan to gain information on that planet's general characteristics and topography.  Using the topographic map generated by a scan, the player can choose a landing site.  After doing so, the spaceship's crew transfers to the explorer vessel which undocks from the orbiting spaceship and lands on the planet.  The player drives the explorer vessel around on the planet's surface to collect saleable minerals and lifeforms and, on inhabited worlds, to locate alien trading posts at which the player may barter with the alien race to whom the planet belongs.

text: Both the spaceship and the explorer vessel feature

text: cockpit

text: s containing

text: icon

text: s through which orders are given to various crew members such as the navigator and biotech officer.  Players command both craft in real-time from a first-person perspective by selecting an icon representing the commander's control pad, which translates movement of the

text: mouse

text: into corresponding motions of the spaceship or explorer vessel.  During combat the mouse buttons are used to control the selection and firing of the ship's weapons.  Some encounters with other spaceships result in peaceful conversations which yield important clues or provide opportunities for the player to befriend one of the region's native alien races.  The player's spaceship is capable of hopping between solar systems via

text: hyperpath tunnels

text: , making regional journeys within a solar system, and making short-range maneuvers in circumstances such as spaceship combat.  It may enter orbit around any planet in a solar system and perform a scan to gain information on that planet's general characteristics and

text: topography

text: .  Using the

text: topographic map

text: generated by a scan, the player can choose a landing site.  After doing so, the spaceship's crew transfers to the explorer vessel which undocks from the orbiting spaceship and lands on the planet.  The player drives the explorer vessel around on the planet's surface to collect saleable minerals and lifeforms and, on inhabited worlds, to locate alien trading posts at which the player may barter with the alien race to whom the planet belongs.

text: Formed in 1954, the American Astronautical Society (AAS) is an independent scientific and technical group in the United States dedicated to the advancement of space science and exploration. AAS supports NASA's Vision for Space Exploration and is a member of the Coalition for Space Exploration and the Space Exploration Alliance. The AAS also focuses on strengthening the global space program through cooperation with international space organizations.

text: Formed in 1954, the American Astronautical Society (AAS) is an independent scientific and technical group in the

text: United States

text: dedicated to the advancement of

text: space science

text: and

text: exploration

text: . AAS supports

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: and is a member of the

text: Coalition for Space Exploration

text: and the

text: Space Exploration Alliance

text: . The AAS also focuses on strengthening the global space program through cooperation with international space organizations.

text: SADs are typically observed using soft X-ray and Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) telescopes that cover a wavelength range of roughly 10 to 1500 Angstroms (Å) and are sensitive to the high-temperature (100,000 to 10,000,000 K) coronal plasma through which the downflows move. These emissions are blocked by Earth’s atmosphere, so observations are made using space observatories. The first detection was made by the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) onboard Yohkoh (1991—2001). Observations soon followed from the Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE, 1998–2010), an EUV imaging satellite, and the spectroscopic SUMER instrument on board the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO, 1995—2016). More recently, studies on SADs have used data from the X-Ray Telescope (XRT) onboard Hinode (2006—present) and the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO, 2010—present). In addition to EUV and X-ray instruments, SADs may also be seen by white light coronagraphs such as the Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) onboard SOHO, though these observations are less common.

text: SADs are typically observed using soft

text: X-ray

text: and

text: Extreme Ultraviolet

text: (EUV)

text: telescope

text: s that cover a

text: wavelength

text: range of roughly 10 to 1500

text: Angstroms (

text: Å) and are sensitive to the high-temperature (100,000 to 10,000,000

text: K

text: corona

text: l

text: plasma

text: through which the downflows move. These emissions are blocked by

text: Earth’s atmosphere

text: , so observations are made using

text: space observatories

text: . The first detection was made by the Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) onboard

text: Yohkoh

text: (1991—2001). Observations soon followed from the

text: Transition Region and Coronal Explorer

text: (TRACE, 1998–2010), an

text: EUV

text: imaging satellite, and the

text: spectroscopic

text: SUMER instrument on board the

text: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

text: (SOHO, 1995—2016). More recently, studies on SADs have used data from the X-Ray Telescope (XRT) onboard

text: Hinode

text: (2006—present) and the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on board the

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO, 2010—present). In addition to EUV and X-ray instruments, SADs may also be seen by

text: white light

text: coronagraph

text: s such as the

entity_name: Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph

text: Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph

text: (LASCO) onboard

text: SOHO

text: , though these observations are less common.

text: His book I Have Been to the Village includes a quote by Einstein, who wrote: "Dr. Dan Q. Posin's book bears eloquent witness to the sincere and self-sacrificing way in which the ablest among the scientists try to fulfill their duty toward the community."  Posin authored over 30 books, including Dr. Posin's Giants: Men of Science, Out of This World, Mendeleyev: The Story of a Great Scientist, Exploring and Understanding Our Solar System, What is a star (The What is it series), What is Chemistry, What is Electronic Communication, Science in the Age of Space, Chemistry for the Space Age, Find Out! First Step to the Future, and PHYSICS: Its Marvels and Mysteries.

text: Claude Poher has also directed several space research programs conducted in international cooperation, including lunar exploration, the space stations, and exploration of planets. He was in charge of the French national studies for application of the nuclear energy to future civilian space missions. Poher was also chairman of numerous sessions of international congresses about astronautics, in the domain of astronomical research, advanced missions studies, and interstellar missions. Poher is a private pilot with 45 years experience.

text: Claude Poher has also directed several space research programs conducted in international cooperation, including lunar exploration, the

text: space station

text: s, and exploration of planets. He was in charge of the French national studies for application of the

text: nuclear energy

text: to future civilian

text: space missions

text: . Poher was also chairman of numerous sessions of international congresses about astronautics, in the domain of astronomical research, advanced missions studies, and interstellar missions. Poher is a

text: private pilot

text: with 45 years experience.

text: The Space Shuttle has also been the subject of toys and models; for example, a large Lego Space Shuttle model was constructed by visitors at Kennedy Space Center, and smaller models have been sold commercially as a standard "LegoLand" set. A 1980 pinball machine Space Shuttle was produced by Zaccaria and a 1984 pinball machine Space Shuttle: Pinball Adventure was produced by Williams and features a plastic Space Shuttle model among other artwork of astronauts on the play field. The Space Shuttle also appears in a number of flight simulator and space flight simulator games such as Microsoft Space Simulator, Orbiter, FlightGear, X-Plane and Space Shuttle Mission 2007. Several Transformers toys were modeled after the Space Shuttle.

text: The Space Shuttle has also been the subject of toys and models; for example, a large

text: Lego

text: Space Shuttle model was constructed by visitors at Kennedy Space Center, and smaller models have been sold commercially as a standard "LegoLand" set. A 1980 pinball machine Space Shuttle was produced by

text: Zaccaria

text: and a 1984 pinball machine

text: Space Shuttle: Pinball Adventure

text: was produced by

text: Williams

text: and features a plastic Space Shuttle model among other artwork of astronauts on the play field. The Space Shuttle also appears in a number of

text: flight simulator

text: and

text: space flight simulator game

text: s such as

text: Microsoft Space Simulator

text: Orbiter

text: FlightGear

text: X-Plane

text: and

text: Space Shuttle Mission 2007

text: . Several

text: Transformers toys

text: were modeled after the Space Shuttle.

text: From an early age, Lavery was obsessed with space exploration. With his eyesight being too poor to become an astronaut, he set about to use machines as his proxy for exploring the solar system. He attended Virginia Tech, where he obtained a bachelor's degree in Computer Science.

text: From an early age, Lavery was obsessed with space exploration. With his eyesight being too poor to become an astronaut, he set about to use machines as his proxy for exploring the solar system. He attended

text: Virginia Tech

text: , where he obtained a bachelor's degree in Computer Science.

text: In addition to her scientific research, Noble is a painter, and much of her artistic work is inspired by space exploration and alien worlds.

text: The Lunar Infrastructure for Exploration (LIFE) is a project to build a space telescope on the far side of the Moon, and is actively promoted by EADS Astrium Space Transportation of Germany and the Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy ASTRON. The project was presented for the first time publicly at the 2005 IAF Congress in Fukuoka.

text: The Lunar Infrastructure for Exploration (LIFE) is a project to build a

text: space telescope

text: on the far side of the

text: Moon

text: , and is actively promoted by

text: EADS Astrium Space Transportation

text: of

text: Germany

text: and the

text: Netherlands

text: Foundation for Research in Astronomy

text: ASTRON

text: . The project was presented for the first time publicly at the 2005

text: IAF

text: Congress in

text: Fukuoka

text: BeppoSAX functioned until 2002 and CGRO (with BATSE) was deorbited in 2000. However, the revolution in the study of gamma-ray bursts motivated the development of a number of additional instruments designed specifically to explore the nature of GRBs, especially in the earliest moments following the explosion. The first such mission, HETE-2, launched in 2000 and functioned until 2006, providing most of the major discoveries during this period. One of the most successful space missions to date, Swift, was launched in 2004 and as of 2016 is still operational. Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma ray detector as well as on-board X-ray and optical telescopes, which can be rapidly and automatically slewed to observe afterglow emission following a burst. More recently, the Fermi mission was launched carrying the Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor, which detects bursts at a rate of several hundred per year, some of which are bright enough to be observed at extremely high energies with Fermi's Large Area Telescope. Meanwhile, on the ground, numerous optical telescopes have been built or modified to incorporate robotic control software that responds immediately to signals sent through the Gamma-ray Burst Coordinates Network. This allows the telescopes to rapidly repoint towards a GRB, often within seconds of receiving the signal and while the gamma-ray emission itself is still ongoing.

text: BeppoSAX functioned until 2002 and

text: CGRO

text: (with BATSE) was deorbited in 2000. However, the revolution in the study of gamma-ray bursts motivated the development of a number of additional instruments designed specifically to explore the nature of GRBs, especially in the earliest moments following the explosion. The first such mission,

text: , launched in 2000 and functioned until 2006, providing most of the major discoveries during this period. One of the most successful space missions to date,

text: Swift

text: , was launched in 2004 and as of 2016 is still operational. Swift is equipped with a very sensitive gamma ray detector as well as on-board X-ray and optical telescopes, which can be rapidly and automatically

text: slewed

text: to observe afterglow emission following a burst. More recently, the

text: Fermi

text: mission was launched carrying the

text: Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor

text: , which detects bursts at a rate of several hundred per year, some of which are bright enough to be observed at extremely high energies with Fermi's

text: Large Area Telescope

text: . Meanwhile, on the ground, numerous optical telescopes have been built or modified to incorporate robotic control software that responds immediately to signals sent through the

text: Gamma-ray Burst Coordinates Network

text: . This allows the telescopes to rapidly repoint towards a GRB, often within seconds of receiving the signal and while the gamma-ray emission itself is still ongoing.

text: In January 1985, Robert W. Smith of NASA's Space Telescope History Project interviewed Bulkin, who reviewed several of the design and management issues that had arisen to that time.  The disaster that engulfed the Space Shuttle Challenger led to a review of the entire space-shuttle program, delaying the launch of the Hubble from 1986 to 1990.

text: In January 1985, Robert W. Smith of

text: NASA

text: 's Space Telescope History Project interviewed Bulkin, who reviewed several of the design and management issues that had arisen to that time.  The disaster that engulfed the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: led to a review of the entire space-shuttle program, delaying the launch of the Hubble from 1986 to 1990.

text: Not simply a Historic Route 66 roadside tourist attraction, the caverns are the location of ongoing scientific work related not only to cave exploration, but to space exploration as well. A cosmic ray telescope was installed in 1979 under  of solid limestone by the Department of Physics and Astronomy of the University of New Mexico. The purpose of the telescope is to study interstellar cosmic rays that constantly bombard the earth from deep space, penetrating solid rock.

text: Nobody knows what the long-term human future in space will be.  Perhaps after gaining experience with routine spaceflight by exploring different worlds in the Solar System and deflecting a few asteroids, the possibility of constructing non-modular space habitats and infrastructure will be within capability.  Such possibilities include mass drivers on the Moon, which launch payloads into space using only electricity, and spinning space colonies with closed ecological systems.  A Mars in the early stages of terraformation, where inhabitants only need simple oxygen masks to walk out on the surface, may be seen.  In any case, such futures require space architecture.

text: Nobody knows what the long-term human future in space will be.  Perhaps after gaining experience with routine spaceflight by exploring different worlds in the Solar System and deflecting a few asteroids, the possibility of constructing non-modular space habitats and infrastructure will be within capability.  Such possibilities include

text: mass drivers

text: on the Moon, which launch payloads into space using only electricity, and spinning space colonies with

text: closed ecological system

text: s.  A Mars in the early stages of

text: terraformation

text: , where inhabitants only need simple oxygen masks to walk out on the surface, may be seen.  In any case, such futures require space architecture.

text: The first US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the Space Race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects. A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.

text: The first US unmanned satellite was

text: Explorer 1

text: , which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the

text: Space Race

text: . It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the

text: solar wind

text: , among other aspects. A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.

text: The Educator Astronaut Project is a NASA program designed to educate students and spur excitement in math, science, and space exploration. It is a successor to the Teacher in Space Project of the 1980s that was cancelled after Christa McAuliffe died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (STS-51-L). NASA halted the teachers project amid concerns surrounding the risk of sending civilians to space.

text: The Educator Astronaut Project is a

text: NASA

text: program designed to educate students and spur excitement in

text: math

text: , science, and

text: space exploration

text: . It is a successor to the

text: Teacher in Space Project

text: of the 1980s that was cancelled after

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: died in the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: disaster

text: ). NASA halted the teachers project amid concerns surrounding the risk of sending civilians to space.

text: If the locally compact group G acts transitively on a space G/H, one can ask if this space has an invariant measure, or more generally a relatively invariant measure with the property that μ(gE) = χ(g)μ(E) for some character χ of G. A necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of such a measure is that χ=Δ/δ on H, where Δ and δ are the modular functions of G and H. In particular an invariant measure on Q exists if and only if the modular function of G restricted to H is the modular function of H.

text: This project is a massive $1.5 billion undertaking involving 500 scientists from 56 institutions and 16 countries. After the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, NASA announced that the Shuttle was to be retired by 2010 and that AMS-02 was not on the manifest of any of the remaining Shuttle flights. Dr. Ting was forced to (successfully) lobby the United States Congress and the public to secure an additional Shuttle flight dedicated to this project. Also during this time, Ting had to deal with numerous technical problems in fabricating and qualifying the large, extremely sensitive and delicate detector module for space. AMS-02 was successfully launched on Shuttle mission STS-134 on 16 May 2011 and was installed on the International Space Station on 19 May 2011.

text: This project is a massive $1.5 billion undertaking involving 500 scientists from 56 institutions and 16 countries. After the 2003

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: NASA

text: announced that the Shuttle was to be retired by 2010 and that AMS-02 was not on the manifest of any of the remaining Shuttle flights. Dr. Ting was forced to (successfully) lobby the

text: United States Congress

text: and the public to secure an additional Shuttle flight dedicated to this project. Also during this time, Ting had to deal with numerous technical problems in fabricating and qualifying the large, extremely sensitive and delicate detector module for space. AMS-02 was successfully launched on Shuttle mission

text: on 16 May 2011 and was installed on the

text: International Space Station

text: on 19 May 2011.

text: Spacecraft from four different space agencies visit the ISS, serving a variety of purposes. The Automated Transfer Vehicle from the European Space Agency, the Russian Roskosmos Progress spacecraft and the H-II Transfer Vehicle from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency have provided resupply services to the station. In addition, Russia supplies a Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, which is replaced every six months. Finally, the US serviced the ISS through its Space Shuttle program, providing resupply missions, assembly and logistics flights, and crew rotation until the program was retired in 2011.

text: Spacecraft from four different space agencies visit the ISS, serving a variety of purposes. The

text: Automated Transfer Vehicle

text: from the European Space Agency, the Russian Roskosmos Progress spacecraft and the

text: H-II Transfer Vehicle

text: from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency have provided resupply services to the station. In addition, Russia supplies a Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, which is replaced every six months. Finally, the US serviced the ISS through its

text: Space Shuttle program

text: , providing resupply missions, assembly and logistics flights, and crew rotation until the program was retired in 2011.

text: Parsons served as Space Shuttle Program Manager from 2003 to 2005, and was instrumental in the space shuttle program's return to flight in 2005 following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: Parsons served as Space Shuttle Program Manager from 2003 to 2005, and was instrumental in the

text: space shuttle program

text: 's return to flight in 2005 following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: By the early 1970s, astronomers began to consider the possibility of placing an infrared telescope above the obscuring effects of Earth's atmosphere.In 1979, a report from the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences, A Strategy for Space Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s, identified a Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) as "one of two major astrophysics facilities [to be developed] for Spacelab", a Shuttle-borne platform. Anticipating the major results from an upcoming Explorer satellite and from the Shuttle mission, the report also favored the "study and development of ... long-duration spaceflights of infrared telescopes cooled to cryogenic temperatures."

text: By the early 1970s, astronomers began to consider the possibility of placing an

text: infrared telescope

text: above the obscuring effects of Earth's atmosphere.In 1979, a report from the National Research Council of the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: , A Strategy for Space Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s, identified a Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) as "one of two major astrophysics facilities [to be developed] for

text: Spacelab

text: ", a Shuttle-borne platform. Anticipating the major results from an upcoming Explorer satellite and from the Shuttle mission, the report also favored the "study and development of ... long-duration spaceflights of infrared telescopes cooled to cryogenic temperatures."

text: NASA's Discovery Program (as compared to New Frontiers, Explorers, or Flagship Programs) is a series of lower-cost, highly focused American scientific space missions that are exploring the Solar System. It was founded in 1992 to implement then-NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin's vision of "faster, better, cheaper" planetary missions. Discovery missions differ from traditional NASA missions where targets and objectives are pre-specified. Instead, these cost-capped missions are proposed and led by a scientist called the Principal Investigator (PI). Proposing teams may include people from industry, small businesses, government laboratories, and universities. Proposals are selected through a competitive peer review process. All of the completed Discovery missions are accomplishing ground-breaking science and adding significantly to the body of knowledge about the Solar System.

text: NASA's Discovery Program (as compared to

text: New Frontiers

text: Explorer

text: s, or

text: Flagship

text: Daniel S. Goldin

text: Principal Investigator

text: The idea for the runabout came from the need to provide a way for characters to move away from Deep Space Nine, and also allowed the show to explore Star Treks themes of exploration and discovery despite DS9 being set on an immobile space station. In order to help the new show establish its own identity separate from The Next Generation, the decision was made to have something larger and more capable than the shuttlecraft seen in previous series of Star Trek. The series bible describes the Danube class vessels as "the symbol of the Federation presence in [Deep Space Nines] sector". The Starfleet design elements were intended as a touch of familiarity for the characters (and in turn, the viewers) in environments dominated by alien designs and structures, specifically the Cardassians and Bajorans.

text: The idea for the runabout came from the need to provide a way for characters to move away from Deep Space Nine, and also allowed the show to explore Star Treks themes of exploration and discovery despite DS9 being set on an immobile space station. In order to help the new show establish its own identity separate from The Next Generation, the decision was made to have something larger and more capable than the

text: shuttlecraft

text: seen in previous series of Star Trek. The

text: series bible

text: describes the Danube class vessels as "the symbol of the

text: Federation

text: presence in [Deep Space Nines] sector". The

text: Starfleet

text: design elements were intended as a touch of familiarity for the characters (and in turn, the viewers) in environments dominated by alien designs and structures, specifically the

text: Cardassian

text: s and

text: Bajoran

text: s.

text: After Space Shuttle Columbia became the first shuttle launched into orbit on April 12, 1981, it returned to Edwards for landing. The airbase's immense lakebeds and its proximity to Plant 42, where the shuttle was serviced before relaunch, were important factors in its selection and it continued to serve as the primary landing area for the space shuttle until 1991. After that time, Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida was favored. This saved the considerable cost of transporting the shuttle from California back to Florida, but Edwards AFB and White Sands Space Harbor continued to serve as backups for the duration of the shuttle program. Shuttles landed at Edwards as recently as August 9, 2005 (STS-114), June 22, 2007 (STS-117), November 30, 2008 (STS-126),  May 24, 2009 (STS-125), and September 11, 2009 (STS-128) due to rain and ceiling events at the KSC Shuttle Landing Facility. STS-126 was the only mission to land on temporary runway 04 at Edwards, as the refurbished main runway was operational from STS-119 through to the retirement of the shuttles.

text: After Space Shuttle

text: Columbia

text: became the first shuttle launched into orbit on April 12, 1981, it returned to Edwards for landing. The airbase's immense lakebeds and its proximity to

text: Plant 42

text: , where the shuttle was serviced before relaunch, were important factors in its selection and it continued to serve as the primary landing area for the space shuttle until 1991. After that time,

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: (KSC) in

text: Florida

text: was favored. This saved the considerable cost of transporting the shuttle from California back to Florida, but Edwards AFB and

text: White Sands Space Harbor

text: continued to serve as backups for the duration of the shuttle program. Shuttles landed at Edwards as recently as August 9, 2005 (

text: ), June 22, 2007 (

text: ), November 30, 2008 (

text: ),  May 24, 2009 (

text: ), and September 11, 2009 (

text: ) due to rain and ceiling events at the KSC

text: Shuttle Landing Facility

text: . STS-126 was the only mission to land on temporary runway 04 at Edwards, as the refurbished main runway was operational from

text: through to the retirement of the shuttles.

text: The album's cover art is a modified Hubble Space Telescope photo of the Hourglass Nebula. Hubble Space Telescope photos of the Helix Nebula and Eagle Nebula are also featured in the inside cover and liner notes for this album, respectively. The photos were used with the permission of NASA. Regarding the artwork, Ament said, "The reason that we went with Tchad [Blake] is because he provides an amazing atmosphere to songs....So, I think we wanted the artwork to represent that....One of the themes that we've been exploring...is just realizing that in the big scheme of things, even the music that we make when we come together, no matter how powerful it is, it's still pretty minuscule. I think for me the whole space theme has a lot to do with scale. You know, you look at some of those pictures, and there are thirteen light years in four inches in that picture."

text: The album's cover art is a modified

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: photo of the

text: Hourglass Nebula

text: . Hubble Space Telescope photos of the

text: Helix Nebula

text: and

text: Eagle Nebula

text: are also featured in the inside cover and

text: liner notes

text: for this album, respectively. The photos were used with the permission of

text: NASA

text: . Regarding the artwork, Ament said, "The reason that we went with Tchad [Blake] is because he provides an amazing atmosphere to songs....So, I think we wanted the artwork to represent that....One of the themes that we've been exploring...is just realizing that in the big scheme of things, even the music that we make when we come together, no matter how powerful it is, it's still pretty minuscule. I think for me the whole space theme has a lot to do with scale. You know, you look at some of those pictures, and there are thirteen light years in four inches in that picture."

text: Jovian Chronicles follows the exploration of the solar system in the 23rd century and the conflicts that arise between the Earth and the space colonies.

text: Jovian Chronicles

text: follows the exploration of the

text: solar system

text: in the 23rd century and the conflicts that arise between the Earth and the space colonies.

text: The main objective of the Asteroid Redirect Mission is to develop deep space exploration capabilities needed in preparation for a human mission to Mars and other Solar System destinations per NASA's Journey to Mars flexible pathways.

text: The main objective of the Asteroid Redirect Mission is to develop deep space exploration capabilities needed in preparation for a human mission to Mars and other Solar System destinations per NASA's

text: Journey to Mars

text: flexible pathways.

text: The space station (to be constructed using rockets with recoverable and reusable ascent stages) would be a toroid structure, with a diameter of ; this built on the concept of a rotating wheel-shaped station introduced in 1929 by Herman Potočnik in his book The Problem of Space Travel – The Rocket Motor. The space station would spin around a central docking nave to provide artificial gravity, and would be assembled in a  two-hour, high-inclination Earth orbit allowing observation of essentially every point on Earth on at least a daily basis. The ultimate purpose of the space station would be to provide an assembly platform for manned lunar expeditions. More than a decade later, the movie version of 2001: A Space Odyssey would draw heavily on the design concept in its visualization of an orbital space station.

text: The space station (to be constructed using rockets with recoverable and reusable ascent stages) would be a

text: toroid

text: structure, with a diameter of ; this built on the concept of a

text: rotating wheel-shaped station

text: introduced in 1929 by

text: Herman Potočnik

text: in his book The Problem of Space Travel – The Rocket Motor. The space station would spin around a central docking nave to provide

text: artificial gravity

text: , and would be assembled in a  two-hour, high-inclination

text: Earth orbit

text: allowing observation of essentially every point on Earth on at least a daily basis. The ultimate purpose of the space station would be to provide an assembly platform for manned

text: lunar

text: expeditions. More than a decade later, the movie version of

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: would draw heavily on the design concept in its visualization of an orbital space station.

text: The Pioneer 9 and Explorer 34 used a configuration similar to Explorer 33 to survey the magnetic field within Earth's solar orbit. Explorer 35 was the first of its type to enter stable orbit around the moon, this proved important because with the sensitive triaxial magnetometer on board, it was found the moon effectively had no magnetic field, no radiation belt, and solar winds directly impacted the moon. Lunar Prospector surveyed for surface magnetism around the moon (1998–99), using the triaxial (extended) magnetometers. With Apollo 12 improved magnetometers were placed on the moon as part of the Lunar Module/Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package(ALSEP). The magnetometer continued to work several months after that return module departed. As part of the Apollo 14 ALSEP, there was a portable magnetometer.

text: The

text: Pioneer 9

text: and

text: Explorer 34

text: used a configuration similar to Explorer 33 to survey the magnetic field within Earth's solar orbit.

text: Explorer 35

text: was the first of its type to enter stable orbit around the moon, this proved important because with the sensitive triaxial magnetometer on board, it was found the moon effectively had no magnetic field, no radiation belt, and solar winds directly impacted the moon.

text: Lunar Prospector

text: surveyed for surface magnetism around the moon (1998–99), using the triaxial (extended) magnetometers. With Apollo 12 improved magnetometers were placed on the moon as part of the

text: Lunar Module

entity_name: Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package

text: Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package

text: (ALSEP). The magnetometer continued to work several months after that return module departed. As part of the

text: Apollo 14

text: ALSEP, there was a portable magnetometer.

text: Exploring Space is a historical gallery, filled with rockets and exhibits that tell the story of human space exploration and the benefits that space exploration has brought us (particularly in the world of telecommunications).

text: Exploring Space is a historical gallery, filled with rockets and exhibits that tell the story of human

text: space exploration

text: and the benefits that space exploration has brought us (particularly in the world of

text: telecommunications

text: By its last mission, Discovery had flown 149 million miles (238 million km) in 39 missions, completed 5,830 orbits, and spent 365 days in orbit over 27 years. Discovery flew more flights than any other Orbiter Shuttle, including four in 1985 alone. Discovery flew all three "return to flight" missions after the Challenger and Columbia disasters: STS-26 in 1988, STS-114 in 2005, and STS-121 in 2006. Discovery flew the ante-penultimate mission of the Space Shuttle program, STS-133, having launched on February 24, 2011. Endeavour flew STS-134 and Atlantis performed STS-135, NASA's last Space Shuttle mission. On February 24, 2011, Space Shuttle Discovery launched from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A to begin its final orbital flight.

text: By its last mission, Discovery had flown 149 million miles (238 million km) in 39 missions, completed 5,830 orbits, and spent 365 days in orbit over 27 years. Discovery flew

text: more flights

text: than any other Orbiter Shuttle, including four in 1985 alone. Discovery flew all three "return to flight" missions after the

text: Challenger

text: and

text: Columbia

text: disasters:

text: in 1988,

text: in 2005, and

text: in 2006. Discovery flew the ante-penultimate mission of the Space Shuttle program,

text: , having launched on February 24, 2011. Endeavour flew

text: and Atlantis performed

text: , NASA's last Space Shuttle mission. On February 24, 2011, Space Shuttle Discovery launched from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A to begin its final orbital flight.

text: STS-106 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle  Atlantis.

text: STS-106 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) flown by

text: Space Shuttle  Atlantis

text: Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved.

text: Managed for

text: NASA

text: by the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by

text: Ball Space Systems

text: and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the

text: University of Colorado

text: where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved.

text: In the wake of the Columbia space shuttle disaster on January 14, 2004, Bush announced a major re-direction for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Known as the Vision for Space Exploration, the policy called for the completion of the International Space Station by 2010 and the retirement of the space shuttle, while developing a new spacecraft called the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) under the title Project Constellation. The CEV would be used to return American astronauts to the Moon by 2018.

text: In the wake of the

text: Columbia space shuttle disaster

text: on January 14, 2004, Bush announced a major re-direction for the

text: . Known as the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , the policy called for the completion of the

text: International Space Station

text: by 2010 and the retirement of the

text: space shuttle

text: , while developing a new spacecraft called the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: (CEV) under the title

text: Project Constellation

text: . The CEV would be used to return American astronauts to the Moon by 2018.

text: Launch Command was released in 1995 as a Lego Town subtheme. It was the first dedicated Lego theme that attempted to depict real-life contemporary efforts of space exploration. Prior to the theme's official launch in 1995, two sets were released in preceding years that are considered predecessors to the theme. Space Shuttle Launch, released in 1990, featured NASA logo, unlike subsequent releases. Shuttle Launching Crew, released in 1992, featured the characteristic "V" pattern seen on Launch Command sets released in 1995. The two shuttles released in 1995 were in fact labeled "2" and "3", leading one to believe that shuttle 1 was contained in 6346 Shuttle Launching Crew.

text: Launch Command was released in 1995 as a

text: Lego Town

text: subtheme. It was the first dedicated Lego theme that attempted to depict real-life contemporary efforts of space exploration. Prior to the theme's official launch in 1995, two sets were released in preceding years that are considered predecessors to the theme. Space Shuttle Launch, released in 1990, featured

text: NASA

text: logo, unlike subsequent releases. Shuttle Launching Crew, released in 1992, featured the characteristic "V" pattern seen on Launch Command sets released in 1995. The two shuttles released in 1995 were in fact labeled "2" and "3", leading one to believe that shuttle 1 was contained in 6346 Shuttle Launching Crew.

text: Orbiter is a realistic physics simulator which allows users to explore the solar system in a number of spacecraft, both realistic, such as the Space Shuttle Atlantis; and fictional, such as the "Delta-Glider." Schweiger has included fictional spacecraft to allow for easier flights for less experienced users. The simulator is realistic enough to re-enact historical space flights, and the ability to fly fictional ships also allows the player to reach areas of the solar system that cannot be reached by manned spaceflight at the present time.

text: Orbiter is a realistic physics simulator which allows users to explore the

text: solar system

text: in a number of

text: spacecraft

text: , both realistic, such as the

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: ; and fictional, such as the "Delta-Glider." Schweiger has included fictional spacecraft to allow for easier flights for less experienced users. The simulator is realistic enough to re-enact historical space flights, and the ability to fly fictional ships also allows the player to reach areas of the solar system that cannot be reached by manned spaceflight at the present time.

text: Many office buildings now use access flooring to create more flexible and sustainable spaces.  When underfloor air is designed into a building from the start of the project, the building can be less expensive to build and less expensive to operate over the life of the building.  Underfloor air requires less space per floor, thereby reducing the overall height of the building, which in turn reduces the cost of the building facade.  The blowers and air handlers required for underfloor air are much smaller and require less energy, since hot air rises naturally through the space as it comes in contact with people and equipment that warm the air and it rises to the ceiling.  Additionally, when buildings are designed to combine modular electrical, modular walls, and access floor, the space within the building can be reconfigured in a few hours, as compared to historical means of demolishing walls and drilling holes in the floor to route electrical and other services.  As more companies construct or renovate buildings to meet LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) underfloor air and access floor usage will continue to grow.  The USGBC (United States Green Building Council) states that 40-48% of new nonresidential construction is green.

text: WSGT went online in 1978, just in time for the space shuttle’s planned debut in early 1979. STGT became operational in 1994, completing the system after Flight-6’s on-orbit checkout earlier in the year. Additionally, after completion of the second terminal, NASA held a contest to name the two stations. Local middle school students chose Cacique (kah-see-keh), meaning “leader” for WSGT, and Danzante meaning “dancer” for STGT. These names seem to have been for publicity purposes only, for official NASA documentation use WSGT and STGT or WSC as designators.

text: The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, when Columbia disintegrated over Texas and Louisiana as it re-entered Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven crew members.

text: The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, when

text: Columbia

text: disintegrated over

text: Texas

text: and

text: Louisiana

text: as it

text: re-entered

text: Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven crew members.

text: Mir (, ; lit. Peace or World) was a Soviet and later Russian space station, operational in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001. With a mass greater than that of any previous space station, Mir was the first of the non-monolithic, third generation of space stations, constructed from 1986 to 1996 with a modular design. The station was the largest artificial satellite orbiting the Earth until its deorbit on 21 March 2001, a record now surpassed by the International Space Station (ISS). Mir served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology and spacecraft systems in order to develop technologies required for the permanent occupation of space.

text: Mir (, ; lit. Peace or World) was a

text: Soviet

text: and later

text: Russia

text: n

text: space station

text: , operational in

text: low Earth orbit

text: from 1986 to 2001. With a mass greater than that of any previous space station,

text: Mir

text: was the first of the non-monolithic, third generation of space stations, constructed from 1986 to 1996 with a modular design. The station was the largest artificial

text: satellite

text: orbiting the Earth until its deorbit on 21 March 2001, a record now surpassed by the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). Mir served as a

text: microgravity

text: research

text: laboratory

text: in which crews conducted

text: experiment

text: s in

text: biology

text: human biology

text: physics

text: astronomy

text: meteorology

text: space

text: STS-109 (SM3B) was a Space Shuttle mission that launched from the Kennedy Space Center on 1 March 2002. It was the 108th mission of the Space Shuttle program, the 27th flight of the orbiter Columbia and the fourth servicing of the Hubble Space Telescope. It was also the last successful mission of the orbiter Columbia before the ill-fated STS-107 mission, which culminated in the Columbia disaster.

text: STS-109 (SM3B) was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission that launched from the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: on 1 March 2002. It was the 108th mission of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: , the 27th flight of the orbiter

text: Columbia

text: and the fourth servicing of the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . It was also the last successful mission of the orbiter Columbia before the ill-fated

text: mission, which culminated in the

text: Columbia disaster

text: Rendez-vous Houston: A City in Concert was a live performance by musician Jean Michel Jarre amidst the skyscrapers of downtown Houston on the evening of April 5, 1986, coinciding with the release of the Rendez-Vous album. For a period of time, it held a place in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest outdoor "rock concert" in history, with figures varying from 1 to 1.5 million in attendance. Rendez-vous Houston is remembered for being the concert which celebrated the astronauts of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, which had happened only two and a half months earlier. One of Jarre's friends, astronaut Ron McNair, had been killed in the disaster. He was supposed to play the saxophone from space during the track "Last Rendez-Vous"; his substitute for the concert was Houston native Kirk Whalum.

text: Rendez-vous Houston: A City in Concert was a live performance by musician

text: Jean Michel Jarre

text: amidst the skyscrapers of

text: downtown

text: Houston

text: on the evening of April 5, 1986, coinciding with the release of the

text: Rendez-Vous

text: album. For a period of time, it held a place in the

text: Guinness Book of Records

text: as the largest outdoor "rock concert" in history, with figures varying from 1 to 1.5 million in attendance. Rendez-vous Houston is remembered for being the concert which celebrated the astronauts of the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , which had happened only two and a half months earlier. One of Jarre's friends, astronaut

text: Ron McNair

text: , had been killed in the disaster. He was supposed to play the

text: saxophone

text: from space during the track "Last Rendez-Vous"; his substitute for the concert was Houston native

text: Kirk Whalum

text: Telescopes: Through the Looking Glass presents the technology used to gather information about our Universe. The exhibition shows how these amazing instruments have changed our concepts of the Universe and our place in it. Telescopes: Through the Looking Glass has recently received a new addition that explores the South Pole Telescope. Located at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica, this extreme weather instrument was designed to explore light emitted from the Universe billions of years ago.

text: The International Docking System Standard (IDSS), is an international standard for spacecraft docking adapters. It was created by the International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board, on behalf of the International Space Station partner organizations; NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, and the Canadian Space Agency.

text: The International Docking System Standard (IDSS), is an international standard for

text: spacecraft docking adapter

text: s. It was created by the

entity_name: International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board

text: International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board

text: , on behalf of the

text: International Space Station

text: partner organizations;

text: NASA

text: Roscosmos

text: JAXA

text: ESA

text: , and the

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: In the original space station design, emergencies were intended to be dealt with by having a "safe area" on the station that the crew could evacuate to, pending a rescue from a U.S. Space Shuttle. However, the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and the subsequent grounding of the shuttle fleet caused station planners to rethink this concept. Planners foresaw the need for a CRV to address three specific scenarios:

text: In the original space station design, emergencies were intended to be dealt with by having a "safe area" on the station that the crew could evacuate to, pending a rescue from a U.S.

text: Space Shuttle

text: . However, the 1986

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: and the subsequent grounding of the shuttle fleet caused station planners to rethink this concept. Planners foresaw the need for a CRV to address three specific scenarios:

text: Remotely guided space probes have flown by all of the planets of the Solar System from Mercury to Neptune, with the New Horizons probe having flown by the dwarf planet Pluto and the Dawn spacecraft currently orbiting the dwarf planet Ceres.   The most distant spacecraft, Voyager 1, has left the Solar System, while Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Voyager 2 and New Horizons are on course to leave it.

text: Remotely guided

text: space probe

text: s have flown by all of the planets of the Solar System from Mercury to Neptune, with the

text: New Horizons

text: probe having flown by the dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: and the

text: Dawn spacecraft

text: currently orbiting the dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: .   The most distant spacecraft,

text: Voyager 1

text: , has left the Solar System, while

text: Pioneer 10

text: Pioneer 11

text: Voyager 2

text: and

text: New Horizons

text: are on course to leave it.

text: Space is explored not by short-sighted governments, but by the Earth Company, a private corporation which becomes enormously wealthy and powerful as a result. Nine star systems are found to lack planets suitable for colonization, so space stations are built in orbit instead, stepping-stones for further exploration. Then, Pell's World is found to be not only habitable, but already populated by the gentle, sentient (if technologically backward) Hisa. Pell Station is built. The planet is nicknamed "Downbelow" by the stationers, who also start to call their home "Downbelow Station".

text: Space is explored not by short-sighted governments, but by the Earth Company, a private corporation which becomes enormously wealthy and powerful as a result. Nine star systems are found to lack

text: planet

text: s suitable for colonization, so space stations are built in orbit instead, stepping-stones for further exploration. Then, Pell's World is found to be not only habitable, but already populated by the gentle, sentient (if technologically backward)

text: Hisa

text: . Pell Station is built. The planet is nicknamed "

text: Downbelow

text: " by the stationers, who also start to call their home "Downbelow Station".

text: The film is a showcase of the daily lives of astronauts in space, as they fix instruments and take measurements. The film includes two space shuttle launches and several cargo bay scenes, including an astronaut repairing the Hubble space telescope. CGI recreations of the surface of Venus and Mars based on satellite data from JPL are also featured. The film looks at the future of human space exploration and what future generations might accomplish in the years to come.

text: The film is a showcase of the daily lives of

text: astronauts

text: in space, as they fix instruments and take measurements. The film includes two

text: space shuttle

text: launches and several cargo bay scenes, including an astronaut repairing the

text: Hubble space telescope

text: CGI

text: recreations of the surface of Venus and Mars based on satellite data from

text: JPL

text: are also featured. The film looks at the future of human

text: space exploration

text: and what future generations might accomplish in the years to come.

text: The International Space Station, founded on decades of international experience, and incorporating permanent and long-term human presence in space, also requires the leap from human to humane environment onboard. Everyday life in microgravity is turned upside down. The seat restraint component of this Astronaut Workstation was tested in microgravity on the International Space Station in 2007 - 2010. The human body itself follows completely different static and motion schemes than those of a 1g environment. Every item used must be prevented from floating away. Minimal mass and multi-functionality are not aesthetic guidelines but a simple necessity.The microgravity projects, conducted since 1998 in collaboration with the department for astronautics, Prof. Dr. Eduard Igenbergs, at TU Munich and NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, put their main emphasis on the formulation of design criteria for the functional organization of workplaces and leisure areas onboard the ISS. Individual groups proposed solutions for standardized sanitary, sleeping and living racks within the habitation module.

text: The Bigelow Next-Generation Commercial Space Station is a private orbital space station currently under development by Bigelow Aerospace.  The space station may be constructed of two B330 expandable spacecraft modules as well as a central docking node, propulsion, solar arrays, and attached crew capsules, though other possibilities like attaching a B330 to the International Space Station or flying a B330 alone have been suggested by Robert Bigelow.

text: The Bigelow Next-Generation Commercial Space Station is a

text: private

text: orbital

text: space station

text: currently under development by

text: Bigelow Aerospace

text: .  The space station may be constructed of two

text: expandable spacecraft modules as well as a central

text: docking node

text: propulsion

text: solar arrays

text: , and attached

text: crew capsules

text: , though other possibilities like attaching a B330 to the

text: International Space Station

text: or flying a B330 alone have been suggested by Robert Bigelow.

text: The Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV) is a modular multi-mission vehicle concept developed by NASA. It would consist of a pressurized cabin that can be mated either with a wheeled chassis to form a rover for planetary surface exploration (on the Moon and elsewhere) or to a flying platform for open space missions such as servicing satellites and missions to near-Earth asteroids. The concept evolved from the Lunar Electric Rover (LER) concept, which in turn was a development of the Small Pressurized Rover (SPR) concept.

text: The Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV) is a

text: modular

text: multi-mission vehicle concept developed by

text: NASA

text: . It would consist of a pressurized cabin that can be mated either with a wheeled

text: chassis

text: to form a

text: rover

text: for planetary surface exploration (on the

text: Moon

text: and elsewhere) or to a flying platform for open space missions such as servicing satellites and missions to

text: near-Earth asteroids

text: . The concept evolved from the Lunar Electric Rover (LER) concept, which in turn was a development of the Small Pressurized Rover (SPR) concept.

text: Abramson also served as the president and chief operating officer of Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, where he oversaw a $130 million redevelopment initiative that included opening the Apollo/Saturn V Center, International Space Station Center and Launch Complex 39 Observation Gantry. Additionally, he managed the opening of several educational programs and exhibits, such as Astronaut Encounter, Mad Mission to Mars 2025, Early Space Exploration, Exploration in the New Millennium, and the Dr. Kurt H. Debus Conference Facility.

text: Abramson also served as the president and chief operating officer of

text: Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex

text: , where he oversaw a $130 million redevelopment initiative that included opening the Apollo/Saturn V Center, International Space Station Center and Launch Complex 39 Observation Gantry. Additionally, he managed the opening of several educational programs and exhibits, such as Astronaut Encounter, Mad Mission to Mars 2025, Early Space Exploration, Exploration in the New Millennium, and the Dr. Kurt H. Debus Conference Facility.

text: In the mid-1980s, Childress was being considered (together with a number of other journalists) as a candidate for the Civilians in Space program, which aimed to put a journalist aboard the U.S. Space Shuttle.  However, the tragic 1986 death of teacher Christa McAuliffe in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster put an end to the Civilians In Space program.

text: In the mid-1980s, Childress was being considered (together with a number of other journalists) as a candidate for the

text: Civilians in Space

text: program, which aimed to put a journalist aboard the U.S.

text: Space Shuttle

text: .  However, the tragic 1986 death of teacher

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: in the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: put an end to the Civilians In Space program.

text: The other major landmark that year was the launch of the Nonesuch Explorer Series by the American Elektra Records label. This first Explorer LP, a collection of Balinese folk music entitled Music from the Morning of the World, launched a growing catalogue of high-fidelity field recordings of the music of other cultures. The Nonesuch Explorer series is now recognised as one of the most important commercial collections of world music and several excerpts from Nonesuch recordings were included on the Voyager Golden Record that was sent into deep space aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 space probes in 1977.

text: The other major landmark that year was the launch of the

text: Nonesuch

text: Explorer Series by the American

text: Elektra Records

text: label. This first Explorer LP, a collection of

text: Bali

text: nese folk music entitled

text: Music from the Morning of the World

text: , launched a growing catalogue of high-fidelity field recordings of the music of other cultures. The Nonesuch Explorer series is now recognised as one of the most important commercial collections of world music and several excerpts from Nonesuch recordings were included on the

text: Voyager Golden Record

text: that was sent into deep space aboard the

text: Voyager 1

text: and

text: Voyager 2

text: space probes in 1977.

text: Michael L. Weiss is an American engineer who is known for his contributions to on-orbit satellite servicing missions, particular of the Hubble Space Telescope.  Weiss most recently served as deputy program director on the Hubble Space Telescope program at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.

text: Michael L. Weiss is an American engineer who is known for his contributions to on-orbit satellite servicing missions, particular of the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: .  Weiss most recently served as deputy program director on the Hubble Space Telescope program at NASA's

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: in Greenbelt, Maryland.

text: • proposes completing the International Space Station, retiring the shuttle by 2010, and focusing on a new space exploration vehicle capable of new space exploration missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

text: The Intelligent Systems Division  is NASA's leading R&D Division developing advanced intelligent software and systems for all of NASA Mission Directorates. It provides software expertise for aeronautics, space science missions, International Space Station, and the Crewed Exploration Vehicle (CEV. The first AI in space (Deep Space 1) was developed from Code TI, as is the MAPGEN software that daily plans the activities for the Mars Exploration Rovers, the same core reasoner is used for Ensemble to operate Phoenix Lander, and the planning system for the International Space Station's solar arrays. Integrated System Health Management for the International Space Station's control moment gyroscopes, collaborative systems with semantic search tools, and robust software engineering round out the scope of Code TI's work.

text: The Intelligent Systems Division  is NASA's leading R&D Division developing advanced intelligent software and systems for all of NASA Mission Directorates. It provides software expertise for aeronautics, space science missions,

text: International Space Station

text: , and the Crewed Exploration Vehicle (

text: CEV

text: . The first AI in space (

text: Deep Space 1

text: ) was developed from Code TI, as is the MAPGEN software that daily plans the activities for the

text: Mars Exploration Rovers

text: , the same core reasoner is used for Ensemble to operate

text: Phoenix Lander

text: , and the planning system for the

text: International Space Station

text: 's solar arrays. Integrated System Health Management for the

text: International Space Station

text: 's control moment gyroscopes, collaborative systems with semantic search tools, and robust software engineering round out the scope of Code TI's work.

text: The series greatly influenced public interest in the US Space Program and in education on the topic of space exploration. Star Trek: The Original Series ran from 1966 to 1969 benefited from the popularity of the televised Apollo 11 moon landing. The association between Star Trek and NASA grew stronger over time - the first NASA orbiter shuttle, Space Shuttle Enterprise, was named after the USS Enterprise of Star Trek fame. The IXS Enterprise, NASA's conceptual design for a superluminal spacecraft, was similarly named after the USS Enterprise in 2014.

text: The series greatly influenced public interest in the US Space Program and in education on the topic of space exploration. Star Trek: The Original Series ran from 1966 to 1969 benefited from the popularity of the televised

text: Apollo 11

text: moon landing. The association between Star Trek and NASA grew stronger over time - the first NASA orbiter shuttle,

text: Space Shuttle Enterprise

text: , was named after the USS Enterprise of Star Trek fame. The

text: IXS Enterprise

text: , NASA's conceptual design for a

text: superluminal

text: spacecraft

text: , was similarly named after the USS Enterprise in 2014.

text: GOES spacecraft also provide a platform for the Solar X-Ray Imager (SXI), and space environment monitoring (SEM) instruments. The SEM measures in situ the effect of the sun on the near-earth solar-terrestrial electromagnetic environment, providing real-time data to the Space Environment Services Center (SESC). The SESC, as the nation’s “space weather” service, receives, monitors, and interprets a wide variety of solar-terrestrial data, and issues reports, alerts and forecasts for special events such as solar flares or geomagnetic storms. This information is important to the operation of military and civilian radio wave and satellite communication and navigation systems, as well as electric power networks, and to the mission of geophysical explorers, Shuttle and Space Station astronauts, high-altitude aviators, and scientific researchers. The SXI provides high-cadence monitoring of large scale solar structures to supports SESC's monitoring mission.  However, the SXI unit on GOES-12 has been rendered inoperable from malfunctions, and the unit on GOES-13 was damaged by a solar flare in 2006.

text: Mathematically, orbifolds arose first as surfaces with singular points long before they were formally defined. One of the first classical examples arose in the theory of modular forms with the action of the modular group SL(2,Z) on the upper half-plane: a version of the Riemann–Roch theorem holds after the quotient is compactified by the addition of two orbifold cusp points. In 3-manifold theory, the theory of Seifert fiber spaces, initiated by Seifert, can be phrased in terms of 2-dimensional orbifolds. In geometric group theory, post-Gromov, discrete groups have been studied in terms of the local curvature properties of orbihedra and their covering spaces.

text: Mathematically, orbifolds arose first as surfaces with

text: singular points

text: long before they were formally defined. One of the first classical examples arose in the theory of

text: modular forms

text: with the action of the

text: modular group

text: SL(2,Z) on the

text: upper half-plane

text: : a version of the

text: Riemann–Roch theorem

text: holds after the quotient is compactified by the addition of two orbifold cusp points. In

text: theory, the theory of

text: Seifert fiber spaces

text: , initiated by

text: Seifert

text: , can be phrased in terms of 2-dimensional orbifolds. In

text: geometric group theory

text: , post-Gromov, discrete groups have been studied in terms of the local curvature properties of orbihedra and their covering spaces.

text: Hank Henshaw was an astronaut at NASA until a solar flare hit his space shuttle during an experiment in space, damaging the ship and the crew. Henshaw and the crew found that their bodies had begun to mutate and, after returning to Earth, Henshaw's entire crew (including his wife) eventually committed suicide. After learning that Superman had thrown the Eradicator into the sun in a battle during the space shuttle experiment, Henshaw blamed Superman for the solar flare and the accident. Before his body completely disintegrated due to the radiation exposure, Henshaw was able to save his consciousness. Using NASA communications equipment, Henshaw beams his mind into the birthing matrix which had carried Superman from Krypton to Earth as an infant. He creates a small exploration craft from the birthing matrix and departs into outer space alone. Becoming increasingly mentally unstable, Henshaw used Superman's birthing matrix to create a body identical to Superman's, albeit with cybernetic parts. He returned to Earth to kill Superman, only to discover that Superman had already died during Henshaw's absence. Following Superman's eventual resurrection, Henshaw would not only become a recurring adversary of Superman but of Green Lantern as well. Hank Henshaw became a member of the Sinestro Corps during the Blackest Night.

text: Hank Henshaw was an astronaut at

text: NASA

text: until a solar flare hit his space shuttle during an experiment in space, damaging the ship and the crew. Henshaw and the crew found that their bodies had begun to mutate and, after returning to Earth, Henshaw's entire crew (including his wife) eventually committed suicide. After learning that

text: Superman

text: had thrown

text: the Eradicator

text: into the sun in a battle during the space shuttle experiment, Henshaw blamed Superman for the solar flare and the accident. Before his body completely disintegrated due to the radiation exposure, Henshaw was able to save his consciousness. Using NASA communications equipment, Henshaw beams his mind into the birthing matrix which had carried Superman from

text: Krypton

text: to Earth as an infant. He creates a small exploration craft from the birthing matrix and departs into outer space alone. Becoming increasingly mentally unstable, Henshaw used Superman's birthing matrix to create a body identical to Superman's, albeit with cybernetic parts. He returned to Earth to kill Superman, only to discover that

text: Superman had already died

text: during Henshaw's absence. Following Superman's eventual resurrection, Henshaw would not only become a recurring adversary of Superman but of

text: Green Lantern

text: as well. Hank Henshaw became a member of the

text: Sinestro Corps

text: during the

text: Blackest Night

text: Various landforms studied by the Mars Exploration Rovers are given temporary names or nicknames to identify them during exploration and investigation. However, it is hoped that the International Astronomical Union will make permanent the names of certain major features, such as the Columbia Hills, which were named after the seven astronauts who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: Various landforms studied by the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: s are given temporary names or nicknames to identify them during exploration and investigation. However, it is hoped that the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: will make permanent the names of certain major features, such as the

text: Columbia Hills

text: , which were named after the seven astronauts who died in the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: Two aims of recent excavations at Azoria have been to understand the early history of the site and to explore stratigraphically the changes in the form of the settlement in the transition from the Early Iron Age (or Greek Dark Age) (Late Minoan IIIC-Late Geometric; c. 1200-700 BC) and Orientalizing  (c. 700-600 BC) to Archaic periods (c. 600-500 BC). Excavation has identified stratification (archaeology) showing a distinct phase of architectural renovation involving significant changes in the way that the settlement was used and how public and private space was organized. This transition appears to have occurred sometime in the early 6th century BC. In foundation deposits of buildings it is difficult to identify material later than 600 BC, suggesting that changes to the settlement had occurred by the end of Late Orientalizing (c. 640-600 BC). In this phase transition, there is evidence for broad-sweeping alterations to the landscape of the site, the construction of monumental buildings, and the reorganization of both civic and domestic space, suggesting aspects of town planning.

text: Two aims of recent excavations at Azoria have been to understand the early history of the site and to explore stratigraphically the changes in the form of the settlement in the transition from the Early Iron Age (or

text: Greek Dark Age

text: ) (Late Minoan IIIC-Late Geometric; c. 1200-700 BC) and

text: Orientalizing

text: (c. 700-600 BC) to

text: Archaic

text: periods (c. 600-500 BC). Excavation has identified

text: stratification (archaeology)

text: showing a distinct phase of architectural renovation involving significant changes in the way that the settlement was used and how public and private space was organized. This transition appears to have occurred sometime in the early 6th century BC. In foundation deposits of buildings it is difficult to identify material later than 600 BC, suggesting that changes to the settlement had occurred by the end of Late Orientalizing (c. 640-600 BC). In this phase transition, there is evidence for broad-sweeping alterations to the landscape of the site, the construction of monumental buildings, and the reorganization of both civic and domestic space, suggesting aspects of town planning.

text: The architectural approach to spacecraft design addresses the total built environment. It is mainly based on the field of engineering (especially aerospace engineering), but also involves diverse disciplines such as physiology, psychology, and sociology.  Like architecture on Earth, the attempt is to go beyond the component elements and systems and gain a broad understanding of the issues that affect design success.  Much space architecture work has been in designing concepts for orbital space stations and lunar and Martian exploration ships and surface bases for the world's space agencies, chiefly NASA.

text: The architectural approach to

text: spacecraft design

text: addresses the total built environment. It is mainly based on the field of

text: engineering

text: (especially

text: aerospace engineering

text: ), but also involves diverse disciplines such as

text: physiology

text: psychology

text: , and

text: sociology

text: .  Like architecture on Earth, the attempt is to go beyond the component elements and systems and gain a broad understanding of the issues that affect design success.  Much space architecture work has been in designing concepts for

text: orbital

text: space stations and

text: lunar

text: and

text: Martian

text: exploration ships and surface bases for the world's space agencies, chiefly

text: NASA

text: The  disaster on 1 February 2003 (during STS-107, a non-ISS mission) resulted in a two-and-a-half-year suspension of the US Space Shuttle program. Another one-year suspension following STS-114 (because of continued foam shedding on the external tank) led to some uncertainty about the future of the International Space Station. All crew exchanges between February 2003 and July 2006 were carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft; a STS-114 visit in July 2005 was purely logistical. Starting with Expedition 7, caretaker crews of just two astronauts were launched, in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a space shuttle for over three years, more waste had accumulated than anticipated, which temporarily hindered station operations in 2004.  Automated Progress transports and the STS-114 mission were able to eliminate this waste build-up.

text: The

text: disaster

text: on 1 February 2003 (during

text: , a non-ISS mission) resulted in a two-and-a-half-year suspension of the US

text: Space Shuttle program

text: . Another one-year suspension following

text: (because of continued foam shedding on the

text: external tank

text: ) led to some uncertainty about the future of the International Space Station. All crew exchanges between February 2003 and July 2006 were carried out using the Russian

text: Soyuz spacecraft

text: ; a STS-114 visit in July 2005 was purely logistical. Starting with

text: Expedition 7

text: , caretaker crews of just two astronauts were launched, in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a space shuttle for over three years, more waste had accumulated than anticipated, which temporarily hindered station operations in 2004.  Automated

text: Progress

text: transports and the

text: mission were able to eliminate this waste build-up.

text: In pursuit of these goals, the Vision called for the space program to complete the International Space Station by 2010; retire the Space Shuttle by 2010; develop a new Crew Exploration Vehicle (later renamed Orion) by 2008, and conduct its first human spaceflight mission by 2014; explore the Moon with robotic spacecraft missions by 2008 and crewed missions by 2020, and use lunar exploration to develop and test new approaches and technologies useful for supporting sustained exploration of Mars and beyond; explore Mars and other destinations with robotic and crewed missions; pursue commercial transportation to support the International Space Station and missions beyond low Earth orbit.

text: In pursuit of these goals, the Vision called for the space program to complete the

text: International Space Station

text: by 2010; retire the

text: Space Shuttle

text: by 2010; develop a new

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: (later renamed

text: Orion

text: ) by 2008, and conduct its first human spaceflight mission by 2014; explore the

text: Moon

text: with

text: robotic spacecraft

text: missions by 2008 and crewed missions by 2020, and use lunar exploration to develop and test new approaches and technologies useful for supporting sustained exploration of Mars and beyond; explore

text: Mars

text: and other destinations with robotic and crewed missions; pursue commercial transportation to support the International Space Station and missions beyond low Earth orbit.

text: The Canadian Space Society (CSS) is a national non-profit organization made up of professionals and enthusiasts pursuing the human exploration and development of the Solar System and beyond. Its principal objective is to stimulate the Canadian space industry through its technical and outreach projects and promote the involvement of Canadians in the development of space.

text: The Canadian Space Society (CSS) is a national non-profit organization made up of professionals and enthusiasts pursuing the human exploration and development of the

text: Solar System

text: and beyond. Its principal objective is to stimulate the Canadian space industry through its technical and outreach projects and promote the involvement of Canadians in the development of space.

text: Spaceflight (also written space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.

text: Spaceflight (also written space flight) is

text: ballistic

text: flight

text: into or through

text: outer space

text: . Spaceflight can occur with

text: spacecraft

text: with or without humans on board. Examples of

text: human spaceflight

text: include the

text: U.S.

text: Apollo Moon landing

text: and

text: Space Shuttle program

text: s and the

text: Russia

text: n

text: Soyuz program

text: , as well as the ongoing

text: International Space Station

text: . Examples of unmanned spaceflight include

text: space probe

text: s that leave

text: Earth orbit

text: , as well as

text: satellite

text: s in

text: orbit

text: around

text: Earth

text: , such as

text: communications satellite

text: s. These operate either by

text: telerobotic

text: control or are fully

text: autonomous

text: The U.S.S. Enterprise is headed to Starbase 12 for shore leave, supplies and repairs. Food is running low and the engines need servicing. A distress signal diverts the ship to a solar system on the outer edge of explored space. Upon hearing of the emergency mission, Dr. McCoy expresses his concern about the mental health of the crew to Kirk. In Dr. McCoy's opinion, the Enterprise has been on patrol for such a long period of time that the crew is in danger of developing a form of space madness known as cafard.

text: The

text: U.S.S. Enterprise

text: is headed to Starbase 12 for shore leave, supplies and repairs. Food is running low and the engines need servicing. A distress signal diverts the ship to a solar system on the outer edge of explored space. Upon hearing of the emergency mission, Dr. McCoy expresses his concern about the mental health of the crew to Kirk. In Dr. McCoy's opinion, the Enterprise has been on patrol for such a long period of time that the crew is in danger of developing a form of space madness known as cafard.

text: The Single Aperture Far-Infrared Observatory (SAFIR), a proposed cryogenic space telescope, is tentatively set to launch in 2015 with the hopes of exploring "the formation of the first stars and galaxies" in deep space. The telescope will be more than 1000 times more sensitive than two current telescope spacecrafts, the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Herschel Space Observatory. NASA hopes to use SAFIR to learn about black holes, galaxy formation and evolution and the formation of star systems in the far reaches of space.

text: The Single Aperture Far-Infrared Observatory (

text: SAFIR

text: ), a proposed cryogenic space telescope, is tentatively set to launch in 2015 with the hopes of exploring "the formation of the first stars and galaxies" in deep space. The telescope will be more than 1000 times more sensitive than two current telescope spacecrafts, the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: and the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: . NASA hopes to use SAFIR to learn about black holes,

text: galaxy formation and evolution

text: and the formation of

text: star system

text: s in the far reaches of space.

text: The final section of the book turns to the far future, where we might one day leave the planet and the Solar System. This will require ambitious new propulsion systems, capable of accelerating a payload to a few percent of the speed of light. The potential of exploration by sentient nanobots is considered, along with the obstacles to achieving teleportation. At the end of the book, the prospects of finding intelligent, technological civilizations elsewhere are discussed. Based on recent estimated of 20 billion habitable worlds in the Milky Way, it's likely that such civilizations exist and some of them are likely to have developed capabilities far beyond our own. We are just venturing off-world for the first time, with an exciting future in space ahead of us.

text: The final section of the book turns to the far future, where we might one day leave the planet and the Solar System. This will require ambitious new propulsion systems, capable of accelerating a payload to a few percent of the

text: speed of light

text: . The potential of exploration by

text: sentient

text: nanobots

text: is considered, along with the obstacles to achieving

text: teleportation

text: . At the end of the book, the prospects of finding intelligent, technological civilizations elsewhere are discussed. Based on recent estimated of 20 billion habitable worlds in the

text: Milky Way

text: , it's likely that such civilizations exist and some of them are likely to have developed capabilities far beyond our own. We are just venturing off-world for the first time, with an exciting future in space ahead of us.

text: A larger basic permanent space station (基本型空间站) would be the third and last phase of Project 921. This will be a modular design with an eventual weight of around 60 tons, to be completed sometime before 2020. The first section, designated Tiangong 3, is scheduled for launch after Tiangong 2. Tiangong 3 will weigh 22 tons and be 18.1 metres long. Additional modules will be connected over several missions to build the space station.

text: A larger basic permanent space station (基本型空间站) would be the third and last phase of Project 921. This will be a modular design with an eventual weight of around 60 tons, to be completed sometime before 2020. The first section, designated

text: Tiangong 3

text: , is scheduled for launch after Tiangong 2. Tiangong 3 will weigh 22 tons and be 18.1 metres long. Additional modules will be connected over several missions to build the space station.

text: The Shuttle was presented to the public in 1972 as a "space truck" which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low earth orbit in the early 1990s and then be replaced by a new vehicle. When the concept of the U.S. space station evolved into that of the International Space Station, which suffered from long delays and design changes before it could be completed, the service life of the Space Shuttle was extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired.

text: The Shuttle was presented to the public in 1972 as a "space truck" which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in

text: low earth orbit

text: in the early 1990s and then be replaced by a new vehicle. When the concept of the U.S. space station evolved into that of the

text: International Space Station

text: , which suffered from long delays and design changes before it could be completed, the service life of the Space Shuttle was extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired.

text: To date, none of the SSBRP's payloads have been flown to the International Space Station, in part due to an interruption in Space Shuttle flights after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: To date, none of the SSBRP's payloads have been flown to the International Space Station, in part due to an interruption in Space Shuttle flights after the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: Bartlett, in his youth, played in several bar bands in Albany and Rochester, New York, ran a lighting design and stage management company and managed a record store.  His experience also includes booking and concert promotion and theatrical scoring.  He scored the world premiere of Toni Morrison's play Dreaming Emmett, as well as creating scores for New York's Circle Rep, the Nikolais Dance Theatre Company, and the Empire State Youth Theatre Institute. He wrote and performed the soundtrack for Christa McAuliffe: Reach for the Stars, an internationally released documentary on Christa McAuliffe and the space shuttle Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, as well as thousands of commercials.  Bartlett even scored the numbers and alphabet for Sesame Street.

text: Bartlett, in his youth, played in several bar bands in Albany and

text: Rochester, New York

text: , ran a lighting design and stage management company and managed a record store.  His experience also includes booking and concert promotion and theatrical scoring.  He scored the world premiere of

text: Toni Morrison

text: 's play

text: Dreaming Emmett

text: , as well as creating scores for New York's Circle Rep, the Nikolais Dance Theatre Company, and the Empire State Youth Theatre Institute. He wrote and performed the soundtrack for

text: Christa McAuliffe: Reach for the Stars

text: , an internationally released documentary on

text: Christa McAuliffe

text: and the space shuttle

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , as well as thousands of commercials.  Bartlett even scored the numbers and alphabet for

text: Sesame Street

text: The cancellation of GEMS marks the end of a multi-year-long binge of cancellations and attempted cancellations of current and future missions: it was at the time the last funded future U.S. space telescope besides JWST. The cancellation of GEMS may have jeopardized the  Pegasus XL launcher. (The Pegasus XL has successfully launched other small explorer missions)

text: The cancellation of GEMS marks the end of a multi-year-long binge of cancellations and attempted cancellations of current and future missions: it was at the time the last funded future U.S. space telescope besides JWST. The cancellation of GEMS may have jeopardized the

text: Pegasus XL

text: launcher. (The Pegasus XL has successfully launched other small explorer missions)

text: While nearly all CubeSats are deployed from a launch vehicle or the International Space Station, some are deployed by the primary payloads themselves. For example, FASTSAT deployed the NanoSail-D2, a 3U CubeSat. This was done again with the Cygnus Mass Simulator as the primary payload launched on the maiden flight of the Antares rocket, carrying and later deploying four CubeSats. For CubeSat applications beyond Earth's orbit, the method of deploying the satellites from the primary payload will also be adopted. Eleven CubeSats are planned to be launched on the Space Launch System's Exploration Mission 1, which would place them in the vicinity of the Moon. Insight, a planned Mars lander, will also bring CubeSats beyond Earth orbit to use them as relay communications satellites. Known as MarCO A and B, they would be the first CubeSats sent beyond the Earth–Moon system.

text: While nearly all CubeSats are deployed from a launch vehicle or the International Space Station, some are deployed by the primary payloads themselves. For example,

text: FASTSAT

text: deployed the

text: , a 3U CubeSat. This was done again with the

text: Cygnus Mass Simulator

text: as the primary payload launched on the maiden flight of the

text: Antares

text: rocket, carrying and later deploying four CubeSats. For CubeSat applications beyond Earth's orbit, the method of deploying the satellites from the primary payload will also be adopted. Eleven CubeSats are planned to be launched on the

text: Space Launch System

text: 's

text: Exploration Mission 1

text: , which would place them in the vicinity of the

text: Moon

text: Insight

text: , a planned

text: Mars

text: lander

text: , will also bring CubeSats beyond Earth orbit to use them as

text: relay communications satellites

text: . Known as

text: MarCO

text: A and B, they would be the first CubeSats sent beyond the

text: Earth–Moon system

text: Long-duration flights to the International Space Station are broken into expeditions. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year, and they commence following the official handover of the station from one Expedition commander to another. Expeditions 1 through 6 consisted of three-person crews, but the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster led to a reduction to two crew members for Expeditions 7 to 12. Expedition 13 saw the restoration of the station crew to three. While only three crew members are permanently on the station, several expeditions, such as Expedition 16, have consisted of up to six  astronauts or cosmonauts.  Only 3 members were active at any given time, one of the 'seats' was rotated out during separate flights.

text: Long-duration flights to the International Space Station are broken into expeditions. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year, and they commence following the official handover of the station from one Expedition commander to another. Expeditions 1 through 6 consisted of three-person crews, but the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: led to a reduction to two crew members for Expeditions 7 to 12.

text: Expedition 13

text: saw the restoration of the station crew to three. While only three crew members are permanently on the station, several expeditions, such as

text: Expedition 16

text: , have consisted of up to six  astronauts or cosmonauts.  Only 3 members were active at any given time, one of the 'seats' was rotated out during separate flights.

text: The Chinese large modular space station, "Tiangong / Tianhe Space Station", is a planned space station to be placed in Low Earth orbit. It is a third-generation modular space station part of the Chinese space program, with comparable size and weight to the Soviet/Russian Mir of the 1980s–1990s. Operations will be controlled from the Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center in China. The planned launching date of the Mir like Core module is around 2018 according to CCTV news reports in 2016. In 2017 the Chinese will launch the Tianzhou-1 cargo craft, based on the Tiangong 1 & 2 space labs. Tianzhou with a life span of 4-5 years will likely be the first element to dock with Tianhe.

text: The Chinese large modular space station, "Tiangong / Tianhe Space Station", is a planned

text: space station

text: to be placed in

text: Low Earth orbit

text: . It is a third-generation modular space station part of the

text: Chinese space program

text: , with comparable size and weight to the Soviet/Russian

text: Mir

text: of the 1980s–1990s. Operations will be controlled from the

text: in

text: China

text: . The planned launching date of the Mir like Core module is around 2018 according to CCTV news reports in 2016. In 2017 the Chinese will launch the Tianzhou-1 cargo craft, based on the Tiangong 1 & 2 space labs. Tianzhou with a life span of 4-5 years will likely be the first element to dock with Tianhe.

text: Each Space Shuttle was a reusable launch system composed of three main assemblies: the reusable OV, the expendable ET, and the two reusable SRBs. Only the OV entered orbit shortly after the tank and boosters are jettisoned. The vehicle was launched vertically like a conventional rocket, and the orbiter glided to a horizontal landing like an airplane, after which it was refurbished for reuse. The SRBs parachuted to splashdown in the ocean where they were towed back to shore and refurbished for later Shuttle missions.

text: Each Space Shuttle was a

text: reusable launch system

text: composed of three main assemblies: the reusable OV, the expendable ET, and the two reusable SRBs. Only the OV entered orbit shortly after the tank and boosters are jettisoned. The vehicle was launched vertically like a conventional rocket, and the orbiter glided to a horizontal landing like an airplane, after which it was refurbished for reuse. The SRBs parachuted to splashdown in the ocean where they were towed back to shore and refurbished for later Shuttle missions.

text: Wright takes an interest in infrared astronomy and cosmology. He has studied fractal dust grains which are able to absorb and emit efficiently at millimeter wavelengths, and other aspects that may be important factors in drawing secrets from the cosmic microwave background. As an interdisciplinary scientist on the Space InfraRed Telescope Facility (SIRTF) Science Working Group, Wright has worked on the SIRTF project (renamed the Spitzer Space Telescope) since 1976. He was an active member of the teams working on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) since 1978. He is the principal investigator of the Wide field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) project. Wright is also a member of the  current science team on the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), which was launched in June 2001. WMAP is a mission to follow up the COBE discovery of early fluctuations in the developing Universe.

text: Wright takes an interest in

text: infrared astronomy

text: and cosmology. He has studied fractal dust grains which are able to absorb and emit efficiently at millimeter wavelengths, and other aspects that may be important factors in drawing secrets from the

text: cosmic microwave background

text: . As an interdisciplinary scientist on the Space InfraRed Telescope Facility (

text: SIRTF

text: ) Science Working Group, Wright has worked on the SIRTF project (renamed the Spitzer Space Telescope) since 1976. He was an active member of the teams working on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) since 1978. He is the principal investigator of the Wide field Infrared Survey Explorer (

text: WISE

text: ) project. Wright is also a member of the  current science team on the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (

text: WMAP

text: ), which was launched in June 2001. WMAP is a mission to follow up the COBE discovery of early fluctuations in the developing

text: Universe

text: It will use the first flight model of the Tianzhou. It is a Chinese automated cargo spacecraft developed from the Tiangong-1 to resupply its future modular space station.

text: It will use the first flight model of the

text: Tianzhou

text: . It is a Chinese

text: automated cargo spacecraft

text: developed from the

text: to resupply its

text: future modular space station

text: The space movement seeks the betterment of humanity and a greater future for everyone.  According to Mark Hopkins from the National Space Society, each space organization has a different priority and short-term objective, but all organizations share the ultimate goal of building space settlements. Most of the leading non-profit space organizations joined together to form the Space Exploration Alliance. The Alliance was formed to "advocate for the exploration and development of outer space" to members of Congress.  The Alliance organizes the annual Legislative Blitz to lobby members of Congress for space exploration, and every space enthusiast is encouraged to participate in the Legislative Blitz by calling, emailing, or personally visiting their Congressperson's office.

text: The space movement seeks the betterment of humanity and a greater future for everyone.  According to Mark Hopkins from the

text: National Space Society

text: , each space organization has a different priority and short-term objective, but all organizations share the ultimate goal of building

text: space settlements

text: . Most of the leading non-profit space organizations joined together to form the

text: Space Exploration Alliance

text: . The Alliance was formed to "advocate for the exploration and development of outer space" to members of Congress.  The Alliance organizes the annual Legislative Blitz to lobby members of Congress for space exploration, and every space enthusiast is encouraged to participate in the Legislative Blitz by calling, emailing, or personally visiting their Congressperson's office.

text: Internal to the laboratory are racks, rack stand-offs, and vestibule jumpers. The lab racks house the system hardware in removable modular units. The stand-offs provide space for electrical connections, data management systems cabling for computers, air conditioning ducts, thermal control tubes and more, all of which support the space station's equipment racks. The racks interface to the piping and wiring in the standoff via outlets and ports located in the standoffs at the base end of each rack location.

text: However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.

text: However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the

text: Space Shuttle

text: STS-61 was the first Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The mission restored the spaceborne observatory's vision, marred by spherical aberration, with the installation of a new main camera and a corrective optics package. This correction occurred more than three and a half years after the Hubble was launched aboard STS-31 in April 1990. The flight also brought instrument upgrades and new solar arrays to the telescope. With its very heavy workload, the STS-61 mission was one of the most complex in the Shuttle's history. It lasted almost 11 days, and crew members made five spacewalks (EVAs), an all-time record. Even the re-positioning of Intelsat VI on STS-49 in May 1992 required only four. The flight plan allowed for two additional EVAs, which could have raised the total number to seven. The final two contingency EVAs were not made. In order to complete the mission without too much fatigue, the five extravehicular working sessions were shared between two pairs of different astronauts alternating their shifts.

text: STS-61 was the first

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: . The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: in Florida. The mission restored the spaceborne observatory's vision,

text: marred by spherical aberration

text: , with the installation of a new main camera and a corrective optics package. This correction occurred more than three and a half years after the Hubble was launched aboard

text: in April 1990. The flight also brought instrument upgrades and new solar arrays to the telescope. With its very heavy workload, the STS-61 mission was one of the most complex in the Shuttle's history. It lasted almost 11 days, and crew members made five spacewalks (

text: EVA

text: s), an all-time record. Even the re-positioning of

text: Intelsat VI

text: on

text: in May 1992 required only four. The flight plan allowed for two additional EVAs, which could have raised the total number to seven. The final two contingency EVAs were not made. In order to complete the mission without too much fatigue, the five extravehicular working sessions were shared between two pairs of different astronauts alternating their shifts.

text: The Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics (also known as the Memorial Museum of Astronautics (in English) or Memorial Museum of Space Exploration) is a museum in Moscow, Russia,  dedicated to space exploration. It is located within the base of the Monument to the Conquerors of Space in the north-east of the city.The museum contains a wide variety of Soviet and Russian space-related exhibits and models which explore the history of flight; astronomy; space exploration; space technology; and space in the arts. According to the Russian tourist board, the museum's collection holds approximately 85,000 different items, primarily from the Soviet period, and receives approximately 300,000 visitors yearly.

text: The Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics (also known as the Memorial Museum of Astronautics (in English) or Memorial Museum of Space Exploration) is a

text: museum

text: in

text: Moscow

text: Russia

text: ,  dedicated to

text: space exploration

text: . It is located within the base of the

text: Monument to the Conquerors of Space

text: in the north-east of the city.The museum contains a wide variety of Soviet and Russian space-related exhibits and models which explore the

text: history of flight

text: astronomy

text: space exploration

text: space technology

text: ; and space in the arts. According to the Russian tourist board, the museum's collection holds approximately 85,000 different items, primarily from the Soviet period, and receives approximately 300,000 visitors yearly.

text: This is a timeline of Solar System exploration ordered by date of spacecraft launch. It includes:

text: This is a timeline of Solar System exploration ordered by date of

text: spacecraft

text: launch. It includes:

text: In 1946, he was one of the more than two thousand German specialists forcibly (at gunpoint) brought to Russia under Operation Osoaviakhim. He was then one of the more than 170 German specialists – headed by Helmut Gröttrup -  brought to Branch 1 of NII-88 on Gorodomlya Island in Lake Seliger. From 1946–1952, he was an engineer and manager of a radar electronics lab, working on the hardware for a new radar guidance system for the early Soviet rocket program.  He also worked on a design for a 6-dish (array) deep-space tracking station for the early Soviet space program. In 1960, Russia implemented the full 8-dish (with 60-foot diameter dishes) deep-space tracking station called Pluton in the Crimea.

text: In 1946, he was one of the more than two thousand German specialists forcibly (at gunpoint) brought to Russia under

text: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: . He was then one of the more than 170 German specialists – headed by

text: Helmut Gröttrup

text: -  brought to Branch 1 of NII-88 on

text: Gorodomlya Island

text: in

text: Lake Seliger

text: . From 1946–1952, he was an engineer and manager of a radar electronics lab, working on the hardware for a new radar guidance system for the early Soviet rocket program.  He also worked on a design for a 6-dish (array) deep-space tracking station for the early

text: Soviet space program

text: . In 1960, Russia implemented the full 8-dish (with 60-foot diameter dishes) deep-space tracking station called

text: Pluton

text: in the

text: Crimea

text: At Mission Control the operators, unaware of the buddies, discover an incompletely filled third tank. Given ten hours until the ship's supply runs out, they scramble to navigate the Vision 1 to the R.R.S.S. (Russian Research Space Station), an old Soviet space station. They contact the cosmonaut living there, Yuri (Diedrich Bader), instructing him to refuel the Vision 1. Upon its docking, the dogs decide to explore, and meet a dog called Spudnick (Jason Earles) under Yuri's care. Yuri is quite content to stay in space, however Spudnick disagrees and explains he wishes to go home. Yuri finds the dogs in amazement, so he traps them in the kitchen, leaving them to wait. Spudnick returns to rescue them, but a connected fuel pipe has already started leaking. The puppies rush back to Vision 1 to escape as Yuri tries to block them. As he bangs on the control switches, however, electricity triggers the leak to combust, and everyone on-board escapes one way or another; Yuri barely manages using an escape vessel.

text: At Mission Control the operators, unaware of the buddies, discover an incompletely filled third tank. Given ten hours until the ship's supply runs out, they scramble to navigate the Vision 1 to the R.R.S.S. (Russian Research Space Station), an old

text: Soviet

text: space station

text: . They contact the

text: cosmonaut

text: living there, Yuri (

text: Diedrich Bader

text: ), instructing him to refuel the Vision 1. Upon its docking, the dogs decide to explore, and meet a dog called Spudnick (

text: Jason Earles

text: ) under Yuri's care. Yuri is quite content to stay in space, however Spudnick disagrees and explains he wishes to go home. Yuri finds the dogs in amazement, so he traps them in the kitchen, leaving them to wait. Spudnick returns to rescue them, but a connected fuel pipe has already started leaking. The puppies rush back to Vision 1 to escape as Yuri tries to block them. As he bangs on the control switches, however, electricity triggers the leak to combust, and everyone on-board escapes one way or another; Yuri barely manages using an escape vessel.

text: The U.S. Space Shuttle stamp of 1995 depicts the famous liftoff of the Space Shuttle Endeavour, Mission STS-57, which took place on June 21, 1993, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. This issue was designed by Phil Jordan of Falls Church, Virginia.  As an extra security measure, elliptical perforations were used on sheets of stamps to identify genuine issues from those that might be counterfeited. The postage stamps were manufactured by Ashton-Potter (USA) Ltd. in the offset/intaglio process.

text: The U.S. Space Shuttle stamp of 1995 depicts the famous liftoff of the

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: , Mission STS-57, which took place on June 21, 1993, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. This issue was designed by Phil Jordan of Falls Church, Virginia.  As an extra security measure, elliptical perforations were used on sheets of stamps to identify genuine issues from those that might be counterfeited. The postage stamps were manufactured by Ashton-Potter (USA) Ltd. in the offset/intaglio process.

text: In 1991, Apt flew on the STS-37 mission aboard shuttle Atlantis. He made two spacewalks with Jerry Ross, manually deploying the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory's radio antenna when it failed to do so automatically; on the next day their second spacewalk tested hardware later used on the International Space Station. During the second Extra Vehicular Activity the palm-bar in Apt's right glove punctured the suit. Apt's hand conformed to the puncture, filling the hole before any noticeable depressurization could occur. Apt was unaware of the puncture until the glove was examined after the mission. Despite being partially exposed to vacuum he only sustained a minor scar. In 1992, Apt flew on STS-47 aboard shuttle Endeavour as the flight engineer, and commander of one of the two shifts in this round-the-clock mission. In 1994, Apt was again a shift commander of the first Space Radar Laboratory mission, STS-59 aboard shuttle Endeavour. This lab studied the Earth. In 1996, Apt flew on STS-79 aboard shuttle Atlantis and visited the Russian Mir space station.

text: In 1991, Apt flew on the

text: mission aboard

text: shuttle Atlantis

text: . He made two

text: spacewalks

text: with

text: Jerry Ross

text: , manually deploying the

text: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: 's radio antenna when it failed to do so automatically; on the next day their second spacewalk tested hardware later used on the International Space Station. During the second Extra Vehicular Activity the palm-bar in Apt's right glove punctured the suit. Apt's hand conformed to the puncture, filling the hole before any noticeable depressurization could occur. Apt was unaware of the puncture until the glove was examined after the mission. Despite being partially exposed to vacuum he only sustained a minor scar. In 1992, Apt flew on

text: aboard

text: shuttle Endeavour

text: as the flight engineer, and commander of one of the two shifts in this round-the-clock mission. In 1994, Apt was again a shift commander of the first Space Radar Laboratory mission,

text: aboard shuttle Endeavour. This lab studied the

text: Earth

text: . In 1996, Apt flew on

text: aboard shuttle Atlantis and visited the Russian

text: Mir space station

text: Grunsfeld has been actively engaged in communicating space science topics to the public through interviews, public lectures, and television appearances. He was recently interviewed by NASA's Astrobiology Magazine about the James Webb Telescope and at the Science with Hubble Space Telescope III conference in Venice, Italy, about carrying out repairs and upgrades on the Hubble Space Telescope. Recent public lectures include Hugging Hubble at the Space Telescope Science Institute's May 2010 Symposium, Big Science Questions at the 50th anniversary celebration of the Aspen Center for Physics and The Hubble Story presented as a special public lecture at Oxford University's Department of Physics. He has made several television appearances to discuss the successful landing of the Mars Curiosity Rover in August 2012 and its mission, including appearances on the PBS NewsHour with Judy Woodruff, the Colbert Report, and on NASAtelevision.

text: Grunsfeld has been actively engaged in communicating space science topics to the public through interviews, public lectures, and television appearances. He was recently interviewed by NASA's Astrobiology Magazine about the James Webb Telescope and at the Science with Hubble Space Telescope III conference in

text: Venice

text: Italy

text: , about carrying out repairs and upgrades on the Hubble Space Telescope. Recent public lectures include Hugging Hubble at the Space Telescope Science Institute's May 2010 Symposium, Big Science Questions at the 50th anniversary celebration of the Aspen Center for Physics and The Hubble Story presented as a special public lecture at

text: Oxford University

text: 's Department of Physics. He has made several television appearances to discuss the successful landing of the

text: Mars Curiosity Rover

text: in August 2012 and its mission, including appearances on the

text: PBS NewsHour

text: with

text: Judy Woodruff

text: , the

text: Colbert Report

text: , and on

text: NASAtelevision

text: NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array) is a space-based X-ray telescope that uses a conical approximation to a Wolter telescope to focus high energy X-rays from astrophysical sources, especially for nuclear spectroscopy, and operates in the range of 3 to 79 keV. It is the eleventh mission of the  NASA Small Explorer satellite program (SMEX-11) and the first space-based direct-imaging X-ray telescope at energies beyond those of the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton. It was successfully launched on 13 June 2012, having previously been delayed from 21 March due to software issues with the launch vehicle.

text: NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array) is a space-based

text: X-ray

text: telescope that uses a conical approximation to a

text: Wolter telescope

text: to focus high energy X-rays from

text: astrophysical

text: sources, especially for

text: nuclear spectroscopy

text: , and operates in the range of 3 to 79

text: keV

text: . It is the eleventh mission of the

text: NASA

text: Small Explorer

text: satellite program (SMEX-11) and the first space-based direct-imaging

text: X-ray telescope

text: at energies beyond those of the

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: and

text: XMM-Newton

text: . It was successfully launched on 13 June 2012, having previously been delayed from 21 March due to software issues with the launch vehicle.

text: Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

text: Since that time, most US

text: space exploration

text: efforts have been led by NASA, including the

text: Apollo

text: moon-landing

text: missions, the

text: Skylab

text: space station, and later the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . Currently, NASA is supporting the

text: International Space Station

text: Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

text: , the

text: Space Launch System

text: and

text: Commercial Crew

text: Launch Services Program

text: In the early 2000s 20 spaces in the station's lot were equipped with plug-in recharging stations for electric cars as part of a pilot program to encourage their use. Drivers of those vehicles were guaranteed access to one of those spaces. Three years later, during a $1.1 million renovation of the station, the owners of Café La Track resorted to an online petition to successfully prevent themselves from being replaced by a Dunkin' Donuts franchise.

text: In the early 2000s 20 spaces in the station's lot were equipped with plug-in recharging stations for

text: electric car

text: s as part of a

text: pilot program

text: to encourage their use. Drivers of those vehicles were guaranteed access to one of those spaces. Three years later, during a $1.1 million renovation of the station, the owners of Café La Track resorted to an

text: online petition

text: to successfully prevent themselves from being replaced by a

text: Dunkin' Donuts

text: franchise.

text: Deep space exploration is the term used for the exploration of deep space, and which is usually described as being at far distances from Earth and either within or away from the Solar System. It is the branch of astronomy, astronautics and space technology that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep-space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft.

text: Deep space exploration is the term used for the exploration of

text: deep space

text: , and which is usually described as being at far distances from Earth and either within or away from the Solar System. It is the branch of

text: astronomy

text: astronautics

text: and

text: space technology

text: that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by

text: human spaceflight

text: s (deep-space astronautics) and by

text: robotic spacecraft

text: Shuttle Atlantis also delivered several vital components for the construction of the International Space Station (ISS). During the February 2001 mission STS-98 to the ISS, Atlantis delivered the Destiny Module, the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS. The five hour 25 minute third spacewalk performed by astronauts Robert Curbeam and Thomas Jones during STS-98 marked NASA's 100th extra vehicular activity in space. The Quest Joint Airlock, was flown and installed to the ISS by Atlantis during the mission STS-104 in July 2001. The successful installation of the airlock gave on-board space station crews the ability to stage repair and maintenance spacewalks outside the ISS using U.S. EMU or Russian Orlan space suits. The first mission flown by Atlantis after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster was STS-115, conducted during September 2006. The mission carried the P3/P4 truss segments and solar arrays to the ISS. On ISS assembly flight STS-122 in February 2008, Atlantis delivered the Columbus laboratory to the ISS. Columbus laboratory is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA).

text: Shuttle Atlantis also delivered several vital components for the construction of the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS). During the February 2001 mission

text: to the ISS, Atlantis delivered the

text: Destiny Module

text: , the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS. The five hour 25 minute third spacewalk performed by astronauts

text: Robert Curbeam

text: and

text: Thomas Jones

text: during STS-98 marked NASA's 100th extra vehicular activity in space. The

text: Quest Joint Airlock

text: , was flown and installed to the ISS by Atlantis during the mission

text: in July 2001. The successful installation of the airlock gave on-board space station crews the ability to stage repair and maintenance spacewalks outside the ISS using U.S.

text: EMU

text: or Russian

text: Orlan

text: space suits. The first mission flown by Atlantis after the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: was

text: , conducted during September 2006. The mission carried the

text: P3/P4 truss

text: segments and solar arrays to the ISS. On ISS assembly flight

text: in February 2008, Atlantis delivered the

text: Columbus laboratory

text: to the ISS. Columbus laboratory is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA).

text: In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched; in 1961 on 12 April the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yury Gagarin; and many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued, including the first spacewalk performed by Alexey Leonov, the first space exploration rover Lunokhod-1 and the first space station Salyut 1. Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher and the only provider of transport for space tourism services.

text: In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: , was launched; in 1961 on

text: 12 April

text: the first human trip into space was successfully made by

text: Yury Gagarin

text: ; and many other Soviet and Russian

text: space exploration records

text: ensued, including the first

text: spacewalk

text: performed by

text: Alexey Leonov

text: , the first space exploration

text: rover

text: and the first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: . Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher and the only provider of transport for

text: space tourism

text: services.

text: The ISS follows Salyut and Almaz series, Skylab, and Mir as the 11th space station launched, as the Genesis prototypes were never intended to be manned. Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian Mir and the planned Russian OPSEK and Chinese space station. First generation space stations, such as early Salyuts and NASA's Skylab were not designed for re-supply. Generally, each crew had to depart the station to free the only docking port for the next crew to arrive, Skylab had more than one docking port but was not designed for resupply. Salyut 6 and 7 had more than one docking port and were designed to be resupplied routinely during crewed operation.

text: The ISS follows

text: Salyut

text: and

text: Almaz

text: series,

text: Skylab

text: , and

text: Mir

text: as the 11th space station launched, as the

text: Genesis

text: prototypes were never intended to be manned. Other examples of modular station projects include the Soviet/Russian Mir and the planned Russian

text: OPSEK

text: and

text: Chinese space station

text: . First generation space stations, such as early Salyuts and NASA's Skylab were not designed for re-supply. Generally, each crew had to depart the station to free the only docking port for the next crew to arrive, Skylab had more than one docking port but was not designed for resupply.

text: Salyut 6

text: and

text: had more than one docking port and were designed to be resupplied routinely during crewed operation.

text: Ricepaper was created in 1995 by Jim Wong-Chu, founder of the Asian Canadian Writers’ Workshop, as a newsletter for its members. Much of the early editorial content explored the marginalized Asian experience in Canada. Over time, the newsletter has grown into a full-fledged magazine which has evolved along with its reader base to provide a forum for creative works, interviews, profiles and reviews of the contemporary Asian-Canadian community. The content of each issue is informed by a "theme". Recent issues have focused on space/culture/place, aesthetics, language and cities. In April 2016 the magazine ended its print publication and went on online.

text: Ricepaper was created in 1995 by Jim Wong-Chu, founder of the Asian Canadian Writers’ Workshop, as a newsletter for its members. Much of the early editorial content explored the marginalized Asian experience in Canada. Over time, the newsletter has grown into a full-fledged magazine which has evolved along with its reader base to provide a forum for creative works, interviews, profiles and reviews of the contemporary

text: Asian-Canadian

text: community. The content of each issue is informed by a "theme". Recent issues have focused on space/culture/place, aesthetics, language and cities. In April 2016 the magazine ended its print publication and went on online.

text: Star Sonata is a space trading game, where players explore space and trade goods from one space station to another for economic gain. Players also control automated ships through programmed command sequences in order to patrol areas, assist in combat or engage in trade of commodities even while a player is offline. At higher levels, players build custom space stations on planets and moons to extract resources. Items can be manufactured on player-controlled space stations and bought from colonies on planets with ancient ruins.

text: The STO has a major Park And Ride facility of over 500 parking spaces in proximity the mall. It has also recently rebuilt the transit terminal and built a new client service centre inside the mall. The client service centre has since moved to La Cite Station when the Rapibus Transit Corridor was opened on October 19, 2013. The number of Park and Ride spaces was also significantly reduced. Transit accessibility was greatly improved with the opening of the Rapibus station on the north side of the mall.

text: The Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI) is an X-ray slit camera aboard the International Space Station.  The device is part of the Japanese Experiment Module.It was developed by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Tsukuba, Japan, designed to continuously monitor X-ray sources and variability as the International Space Station (ISS) orbits Earth.

text: The Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI) is an

text: X-ray

text: slit camera aboard the

text: International Space Station

text: .  The device is part of the

text: Japanese Experiment Module

text: .It was developed by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Tsukuba, Japan, designed to continuously monitor X-ray sources and variability as the International Space Station (ISS) orbits Earth.

text: This magazine reaches over 40,000 members of The Planetary Society all over the world, with news about planetary missions, spacefaring nations, space explorers, planetary science controversies, and the latest findings in humankind's exploration of the solar system.

text: This magazine reaches over 40,000 members of The Planetary Society all over the world, with news about

text: planet

text: ary missions, spacefaring nations, space explorers, planetary science controversies, and the latest findings in humankind's exploration of the

text: solar system

text: The electrical system of the International Space Station is a critical resource for the International Space Station (ISS) because it allows the crew to live comfortably, to safely operate the station, and to perform scientific experiments. The ISS electrical system uses solar cells to directly convert sunlight to electricity. Large numbers of cells are assembled in arrays to produce high power levels. This method of harnessing solar power is called photovoltaics.

text: The electrical system of the International Space Station is a critical resource for the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) because it allows the crew to live comfortably, to safely operate the station, and to perform scientific experiments. The ISS electrical system uses

text: solar cell

text: s to directly convert sunlight to

text: electricity

text: . Large numbers of cells are assembled in arrays to produce high power levels. This method of harnessing

text: solar power

text: is called

text: photovoltaic

text: s.

text: Rothblatt is an advocate for space,  public speaker on the advantageous of investing in space settlements, and President of the Florida Space Development Council, the National Space Society's local chapter. In a talk hosted by students from SEDS, at the University of Michigan, Rothblatt advocated that space exploration should not resemble the space race but should be an endeavor of international collaboration. In a congressional debate, Rothblatt stated that he believes missions to the moon, mars, and asteroids should be a priority, and under the right plan a 1,000 people could be in space within a decade. Space was such a significant part of Rothblatt's campaign BBC News ran a story covering both candidates position on space and titled it Florida's space race: The politicians battling over the cosmos. Lisa Miller, from New York magazine, wrote that the first item on Rothblatt's platform is "space." Rothblatt has written on various space topics including spacesteading and panspermia.

text: Rothblatt is an

text: advocate for space

text: ,  public speaker on the advantageous of investing in

text: space settlements

text: , and President of the Florida Space Development Council, the

text: National Space Society's

text: local chapter. In a talk hosted by students from

text: SEDS

text: , at the

text: University of Michigan

text: , Rothblatt advocated that space exploration should not resemble the

text: space race

text: but should be an endeavor of international collaboration. In a congressional debate, Rothblatt stated that he believes missions to the moon, mars, and asteroids should be a priority, and under the right plan a 1,000 people could be in space within a decade. Space was such a significant part of Rothblatt's campaign

text: BBC News

text: ran a story covering both candidates position on space and titled it Florida's space race: The politicians battling over the cosmos. Lisa Miller, from

text: New York

text: magazine, wrote that the first item on Rothblatt's platform is "space." Rothblatt has written on various space topics including spacesteading and

text: panspermia

text: The April 2004 issue of Men's Journal with Robert Redford on the cover was carried into space on the STS-114 Space Shuttle mission. The STS-114 mission was the first mission following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

text: The April 2004 issue of Men's Journal with Robert Redford on the cover was carried into space on the

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission. The STS-114 mission was the first mission following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: In 1987 Robert Richards founded the International Space University (ISU) together with Todd B. Hawley and Peter Diamandis and he served as the university's first Associate Administrator for Strategic Planning and chaired the board's administrative and strategic planning committees during ISU's first phase of development. In 2005 Robert Richards received a Doctorate of Space Achievement (honoris causa) from the International Space University for “distinguished accomplishments in support of humanity’s exploration and use of space.”

text: In 1987 Robert Richards founded the

text: International Space University

text: (ISU) together with

text: Todd B. Hawley

text: and

text: Peter Diamandis

text: and he served as the university's first Associate Administrator for Strategic Planning and chaired the board's administrative and strategic planning committees during ISU's first phase of development. In 2005 Robert Richards received a Doctorate of Space Achievement (honoris causa) from the International Space University for “distinguished accomplishments in support of humanity’s exploration and use of space.”

text: Robert Franklyn "Bob" Overmyer (July 14, 1936 – March 22, 1996), (Col, USMC), was an American test pilot, naval aviator, aeronautical engineer, physicist, United States Marine Corps officer, and USAF/NASA astronaut. He was born in Lorain, Ohio, but considered Westlake, Ohio his hometown. Overmyer was selected by the United States Air Force as an astronaut for its Manned Orbiting Laboratory in 1966. Upon cancellation of this program in 1969, he became a NASA astronaut and served support crew duties for the Skylab program and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. In 1976, he was assigned to the Space Shuttle program, and flew as pilot on STS-5 in 1982, and as commander on STS-51-B in 1985. He was selected as a lead investigator into the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, and retired from NASA in 1986.

text: Robert Franklyn "Bob" Overmyer (July 14, 1936 – March 22, 1996), (

text: Col

text: USMC

text: ), was an

text: American

text: test pilot

text: naval aviator

text: aeronautical engineer

text: physicist

text: United States Marine Corps officer

text: , and

text: USAF

text: NASA

text: astronaut

text: . He was born in

text: Lorain, Ohio

text: , but considered

text: Westlake, Ohio

text: his hometown. Overmyer was selected by the

text: United States Air Force

text: as an astronaut for its

text: Manned Orbiting Laboratory

text: in 1966. Upon cancellation of this program in 1969, he became a NASA astronaut and served support crew duties for the

text: Skylab

text: program and

text: Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

text: . In 1976, he was assigned to the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: , and flew as pilot on

text: in 1982, and as commander on

text: in 1985. He was selected as a lead investigator into the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: , and retired from NASA in 1986.

text: The Hubble Space Telescope and FUSE have been the most recent major space telescopes to view the near and far UV spectrum of the sky, though other UV instruments have flown on sounding rockets and the Space Shuttle.

text: The

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and

text: FUSE

text: have been the most recent major

text: space telescope

text: s to view the near and far UV

text: spectrum

text: of the sky, though other UV instruments have flown on

text: sounding rockets

text: and the

text: Space Shuttle

text: Some home buyers and some lending institutions resist consideration of modular homes as equivalent in value to site-built homes.  While the homes themselves may be of equivalent quality, entrenched zoning regulations and psychological marketplace factors may create hurdles for buyers or builders of modular homes and should be considered as part of the decision-making process when exploring this type of home as a living and/or investment option.  In the UK and Australia, modular homes have become accepted in some regional areas; however, they are not commonly built in major cities. Modular homes are becoming increasingly common in Japanese urban areas, due to improvements in design and quality, speed and compactness of onsite assembly, as well as due to lowering costs and ease of repair after earthquakes. Recent innovations allow modular buildings to be indistinguishable from site-built structures. Surveys have shown that individuals can rarely tell the difference between a modular home and a site-built home.

text: STS-122 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS), flown by the Space Shuttle Atlantis. STS-122 marked the 24th shuttle mission to the ISS, and the 121st space shuttle flight overall.

text: STS-122 was a

text: NASA

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), flown by the

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: . STS-122 marked the 24th shuttle mission to the ISS, and the 121st space shuttle flight overall.

text: The following are lists of devices categorized as types of telescopes or devices associated with telescopes. They are broken into major classifications with many variations due to professional, amateur, and commercial sub-types. Telescopes can be classified by optical design or mechanical design/construction. Telescopes can also be classified by where they are placed, such as space telescopes. One major determining factor is type of light, or particle being observed including devices referred to as "telescopes" that do not form an image or use optics. Some telescopes are classified by the task they perform; for example Solar telescopes are all designs that look at the Sun, Dobsonian telescopes are designed to be low cost and portable, Aerial telescopes overcame the optical shortcomings of 17th century objective lenses, etc.

text: The following are lists of devices categorized as types of telescopes or devices associated with

text: telescope

text: s. They are broken into major classifications with many variations due to professional, amateur, and commercial sub-types. Telescopes can be classified by optical design or mechanical design/construction. Telescopes can also be classified by where they are placed, such as

text: space telescope

text: s. One major determining factor is type of light, or particle being observed including devices referred to as "telescopes" that do not form an image or use optics. Some telescopes are classified by the task they perform; for example

text: Solar telescope

text: s are all designs that look at the

text: Sun

text: Dobsonian telescope

text: s are designed to be low cost and portable,

text: Aerial telescope

text: s overcame the optical shortcomings of 17th century objective lenses, etc.

text: |-id=514| 249514 Donaldroyer ||  || Donald Royer (b. 1942), an expert in the systems needed to operate and communicate with NASA space missions. He served as the mission operations systems manager for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=515| 249515 Heinrichsen ||  || Ingolf Heinrichsen (b. 1964), an expert in the systems engineering, operations, and management of space telescopes, including the Kepler mission, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and the Spitzer Space Telescope. |-id=516| 249516 Aretha ||  || Aretha Franklin (b. 1942), an American singer known as the Queen of Soul who has won 17 Grammy Awards and has influenced countless singers. |-id=519| 249519 Whitneyclavin ||  || Whitney Clavin (b. 1971), a science writer who works to inform the public about results from NASA astronomy missions such as the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Kepler mission and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=521| 249521 Truth ||  || Sojourner Truth (c. 1797–1883), an American abolitionist and advocate for women’s rights. |-id=522| 249522 Johndailey ||  || John Dailey (b. 1978), a software engineer who was the lead developer for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer’s moving object processing system for identifying minor planets in the project’s infrared images. |-id=523| 249523 Friedan ||  || Betty Friedan (1921-2006), an author and social activist who wrote The Feminine Mystique, a book that made an enormous impact on women's lives.  |-id=530| 249530 Ericrice ||  || Eric Rice (b. 1979), a systems engineer specializing in fault protection. He has served as the fault protection engineer for several NASA spacecraft, including the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=539| 249539 Pedrosevilla ||  || Pedro Sevilla (b. 1967), an engineer who worked on the payload electronics and focal planes of the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=540| 249540 Eugeniescott ||  || Eugenie Scott (b. 1946), an American physical anthropologist. |-id=541| 249541 Steinem ||  || Gloria Steinem (b. 1934), a writer and journalist who co-founded Ms. Magazine and the Ms. Foundation for Women. |-id=544| 249544 Ianmclean ||  || Ian McLean (b. 1949), a professor of astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles. |}

text: 249514 Donaldroyer

text: ||  || Donald Royer (b. 1942), an expert in the systems needed to operate and communicate with NASA space missions. He served as the mission operations systems manager for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=515|

text: 249515 Heinrichsen

text: ||  || Ingolf Heinrichsen (b. 1964), an expert in the systems engineering, operations, and management of space telescopes, including the Kepler mission, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and the Spitzer Space Telescope. |-id=516|

text: 249516 Aretha

text: Aretha Franklin

text: (b. 1942), an American singer known as the Queen of Soul who has won 17 Grammy Awards and has influenced countless singers. |-id=519|

text: 249519 Whitneyclavin

text: ||  || Whitney Clavin (b. 1971), a science writer who works to inform the public about results from NASA astronomy missions such as the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Kepler mission and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=521|

text: 249521 Truth

text: Sojourner Truth

text: (c. 1797–1883), an American abolitionist and advocate for women’s rights. |-id=522|

text: 249522 Johndailey

text: ||  || John Dailey (b. 1978), a software engineer who was the lead developer for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer’s moving object processing system for identifying minor planets in the project’s infrared images. |-id=523|

text: 249523 Friedan

text: Betty Friedan

text: (1921-2006), an author and social activist who wrote

text: The Feminine Mystique

text: , a book that made an enormous impact on women's lives.  |-id=530|

text: 249530 Ericrice

text: ||  || Eric Rice (b. 1979), a systems engineer specializing in fault protection. He has served as the fault protection engineer for several NASA spacecraft, including the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=539|

text: 249539 Pedrosevilla

text: ||  || Pedro Sevilla (b. 1967), an engineer who worked on the payload electronics and focal planes of the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=540|

text: 249540 Eugeniescott

text: Eugenie Scott

text: (b. 1946), an American physical anthropologist. |-id=541|

text: 249541 Steinem

text: ||  || Gloria Steinem (b. 1934), a writer and journalist who co-founded Ms. Magazine and the Ms. Foundation for Women. |-id=544|

text: 249544 Ianmclean

text: ||  || Ian McLean (b. 1949), a professor of astronomy at the

text: University of California

text: , Los Angeles. |}

text: The Space Telescope Science Institute is located on the Homewood Campus and controls, analyzes, and collects data from the Hubble Space Telescope.

text: The

text: Space Telescope Science Institute

text: is located on the Homewood Campus and controls, analyzes, and collects data from the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: DOS-7 continued to be developed during Salyut 7, becoming the Mir Core Module of the Mir space station – the first modular space station, with crewed operations lasting from 1986 to 2000.

text: DOS-7 continued to be developed during Salyut 7, becoming the Mir Core Module of the

text: Mir

text: space station – the first modular space station, with crewed operations lasting from 1986 to 2000.

text: Designated a Challenger Learning Center, the museum has a variety of camps, workshops, and other monthly events to generate interest in STEM in addition to hands on exhibits. Now 20,000 square feet, the two-story building features a robotics lab, HD computer lab, and a wide range of interactive exhibits that provide engaging insights into Space Shuttle operations, living and working on the International Space Station, exploration of our solar system, aerospace engineering, and the range of fields of study and jobs related to human and robotic space exploration.

text: Designated a

text: Challenger Learning Center

text: , the museum has a variety of camps, workshops, and other monthly events to generate interest in

text: STEM

text: in addition to hands on exhibits. Now 20,000 square feet, the two-story building features a

text: robotics

text: lab,

text: HD

text: computer lab, and a wide range of interactive exhibits that provide engaging insights into

text: Space Shuttle

text: operations, living and working on the

text: International Space Station

text: , exploration of our

text: solar system

text: aerospace engineering

text: , and the range of fields of study and jobs related to

text: human

text: and robotic

text: space exploration

text: The shuttle is the only winged manned spacecraft to achieve orbit and land, and the only reusable space vehicle that has ever made multiple flights into orbit. Its missions involve carrying large payloads to various orbits (including segments to be added to the International Space Station), providing crew rotation for the International Space Station, and performing service missions. The orbiter can also recover satellites and other payloads from orbit and return them to Earth, but its use in this capacity is rare. However, the shuttle has previously been used to return large payloads from the ISS to Earth, as the Russian Soyuz spacecraft has limited capacity for return payloads. Each vehicle was designed with a projected lifespan of 100 launches, or 10 years' operational life.

text: The shuttle is the only winged manned spacecraft to achieve orbit and land, and the only reusable space vehicle that has ever made multiple flights into orbit. Its

text: missions

text: involve carrying large payloads to various orbits (including segments to be added to the

text: International Space Station

text: ), providing crew rotation for the International Space Station, and performing service missions. The orbiter can also recover

text: satellite

text: s and other payloads from orbit and return them to

text: Earth

text: , but its use in this capacity is rare. However, the shuttle has previously been used to return large payloads from the ISS to Earth, as the Russian

text: Soyuz spacecraft

text: has limited capacity for return payloads. Each vehicle was designed with a projected lifespan of 100 launches, or 10 years' operational life.

text: The 2012 National Reconnaissance Office space telescope donation to NASA was the declassification and donation to NASA of two identical space telescopes by the United States National Reconnaissance Office. The donation has been described by scientists as a substantial improvement over NASA's current Hubble Space Telescope. Although the telescopes themselves are being given to NASA at no cost, the space agency must still pay for the cost of instruments and electronics for the telescopes, as well as the launch of the telescopes. Scientists plan to use one of the telescopes as the basis for an improved version of the proposed Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST).

text: The 2012 National Reconnaissance Office space telescope donation to NASA was the

text: declassification

text: and donation to

text: NASA

text: of two identical

text: space telescope

text: s by the United States

text: National Reconnaissance Office

text: . The donation has been described by scientists as a substantial improvement over NASA's current

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . Although the telescopes themselves are being given to NASA at no cost, the space agency must still pay for the cost of instruments and electronics for the telescopes, as well as the launch of the telescopes. Scientists plan to use one of the telescopes as the basis for an improved version of the proposed

text: Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope

text: (WFIRST).

text: Space policy regarding a country's civilian space program, as well as its policy on both military use and commercial use of outer space, intersects with science policy, since national space programs often perform or fund research in space science, and also with defense policy, for applications such as spy satellites and anti-satellite weapons.  It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial communications satellites and private spaceflight as well as the creation and application of space law and space advocacy organizations that exist to support the cause of space exploration.

text: Space policy

text: regarding a country's

text: civilian space program

text: , as well as its policy on both

text: military use

text: and

text: commercial use

text: of outer space, intersects with

text: science policy

text: , since national space programs often perform or

text: fund research

text: in

text: space science

text: , and also with

text: defense policy

text: , for applications such as

text: spy satellite

text: s and

text: anti-satellite weapon

text: s.  It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial

text: communications satellite

text: s and

text: private spaceflight

text: as well as the creation and application of

text: space law

text: and

text: space advocacy

text: organizations that exist to support the cause of space exploration.

text: For the International Space Station, there have been periods of time when downmass capability was severely restricted.  For example, for approximately ten months from the time of the retirement of the Space Shuttle following the STS-135 mission in July 2011—and the resultant loss of the Space Shuttle's ability to return payload mass—an increasing concern became returning downmass cargo from low-Earth orbit to Earth for subsequent use or analysis.During this period of time, of the four space vehicles capable of reaching and delivering cargo to the International Space Station, only the Russian Soyuz vehicle could return even a very small cargo payload to Earth. The Soyuz cargo downmass capability was limited as the entire space capsule was filled to capacity with the three ISS crew members who return on each Soyuz return.  None of the remaining cargo resupply vehicles — the Russian Space Agency Progress, the European Space Agency (ESA) ATV, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) HTV — can return any downmass cargo for terrestrial use or examination.

text: For the

text: International Space Station

text: , there have been periods of time when downmass capability was severely restricted.  For example, for approximately ten months from the time of the retirement of the Space Shuttle following the

text: mission in July 2011—and the resultant loss of the Space Shuttle's ability to return payload mass—an increasing concern became returning downmass cargo from

text: low-Earth orbit

text: to Earth for subsequent use or analysis.During this period of time, of the four space vehicles capable of reaching and delivering cargo to the International Space Station, only the Russian

text: Soyuz

text: vehicle could return even a very small cargo payload to Earth. The Soyuz cargo downmass capability was limited as the entire

text: space capsule

text: was filled to capacity with the three ISS crew members who return on each Soyuz return.  None of the remaining

entity_name: Comparison of space station cargo vehicles

text: cargo resupply vehicles

text: — the

text: Russian Space Agency

text: Progress

text: , the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA)

text: ATV

text: , the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA)

text: HTV

text: — can return any downmass cargo for terrestrial use or examination.

text: STS-108 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle  Endeavour. Its primary objective was to deliver supplies to and help maintain the ISS.

text: STS-108 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) flown by

text: Space Shuttle  Endeavour

text: . Its primary objective was to deliver supplies to and help maintain the ISS.

text: A rather imaginative recent undertaking is one by the Mars Society, an international non-profit space advocacy organization and its Canadian branch, the Mars Society of Canada, which established the Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station (FMARS) as part of their Mars Analogue Research Station Programme near the Haughton Meteor Impact Crater on Devon Island, Nunavut in 2002. Designed to develop procedures for an eventual manned mission to Mars, the "crew members" inhabit a simulated Mars base and wear simulated space suits to conduct microbiological and geological studies and simulated Mars field explorations.

text: A rather imaginative recent undertaking is one by the

text: Mars Society

text: , an international non-profit space advocacy organization and its Canadian branch, the Mars Society of Canada, which established the

text: Flashline Mars Arctic Research Station

text: (FMARS) as part of their Mars Analogue Research Station Programme near the Haughton Meteor Impact Crater on Devon Island, Nunavut in 2002. Designed to develop procedures for an eventual manned mission to Mars, the "crew members" inhabit a simulated Mars base and wear simulated space suits to conduct microbiological and geological studies and simulated Mars field explorations.

text: This changed after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union: the end of Cold War and Space Race resulted in funding for the US modular space station (originally named Freedom), which was planned since the early 1980s, being slashed. Similar budgetary difficulties were being faced by other nations with space station projects, prompting American government officials to start negotiations with partners in Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative, multi-national, space station project.In the Russian Federation, as the successor to much of the Soviet Union and its space program, the deteriorating economic situation in the post-Soviet economic chaos lead to growing financial problems of the now Russian space station program. The construction of the Mir-2 space station as a replacement for the aging Mir became illusionary, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been built. These developments resulted in bringing the former adversaries together with the Shuttle–Mir Program, which would pave the way to the International Space Station, a joint project with several international partners.

text: This changed after the

text: Dissolution of the Soviet Union

text: : the end of Cold War and

text: Space Race

text: resulted in funding for the US modular space station (originally named

text: Freedom

text: ), which was planned since the early 1980s, being slashed. Similar budgetary difficulties were being faced by other nations with space station projects, prompting American government officials to start negotiations with partners in Europe, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative, multi-national, space station project.In the

text: Russian Federation

text: , as the successor to much of the

text: Soviet Union

text: and its space program, the deteriorating economic situation in the

text: post-Soviet economic chaos

text: lead to growing financial problems of the now Russian space station program. The construction of the

text: space station as a replacement for the aging Mir became illusionary, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been built. These developments resulted in bringing the former adversaries together with the Shuttle–Mir Program, which would pave the way to the

text: International Space Station

text: , a joint project with several international partners.

text: The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) is a planned space telescope for NASA's Explorers program, designed to search for exoplanets using the transit method. It is planned for launch in December 2017.

text: The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) is a planned

text: space telescope

text: for

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Explorers program

text: , designed to search for

text: exoplanet

text: s using the

text: transit method

text: . It is planned for launch in December 2017.

text: DarkSpace establishes a fictional series of events detailing humanity's future progress into space. In the near future colonies are established on Luna and Mars, which then rebel and claim sovereignty. The United Galactics Trade Organization (UGTO) is formed and does a "complete survey, exploration, and colonization of the Sol system". In 2049 the UGTO sends three ships to explore the Centauri system, where a small outpost is established. Many years of space exploration follow, with humans visiting 11 solar systems and colonizing 10.

text: DarkSpace establishes a fictional series of events detailing humanity's future progress into

text: space

text: . In the near future colonies are established on

text: Luna

text: and

text: Mars

text: , which then rebel and claim sovereignty. The United Galactics Trade Organization (UGTO) is formed and does a "complete survey, exploration, and colonization of the Sol system". In 2049 the UGTO sends three ships to explore the Centauri system, where a small outpost is established. Many years of space exploration follow, with humans visiting 11 solar systems and colonizing 10.

text: Mir (, ; lit. peace) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, run by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station after Mir's orbit decayed. The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space.

text: Mir (, ; lit. peace) was a

text: space station

text: that operated in

text: low Earth orbit

text: from 1986 to 2001, run by the

text: Soviet Union

text: and later by

text: Russia

text: . Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest

text: artificial satellite

text: in orbit, succeeded by the

text: International Space Station

text: after Mir's

text: orbit decayed

text: . The station served as a

text: microgravity

text: research

text: laboratory

text: in which crews conducted

text: experiment

text: s in

text: biology

text: human biology

text: physics

text: astronomy

text: meteorology

text: and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of

text: space

text: NASA's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System (STS), is the United States government's most recent manned launch vehicle. A total of five usable orbiters were built, of which three were in use until the program's retirement in 2011. The winged shuttle Orbiter is launched vertically, usually carrying five to seven astronauts (although eight have been carried and eleven could be accommodated in an emergency) along with up to  of payload into low earth orbit. When its mission is complete, it fires its manoeuvring thrusters to drop out of orbit and re-enters the Earth's atmosphere. During the descent and landing, the shuttle Orbiter acts as a glider and makes a completely unpowered landing.

text: NASA

text: 's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System (STS), is the

text: United States

text: government's most recent

text: manned

text: launch vehicle

text: . A total of five usable orbiters were built, of which three were in use until the program's retirement in 2011. The winged shuttle

text: Orbiter

text: astronaut

text: s (although eight have been carried and eleven could be accommodated in an emergency) along with up to  of payload into

text: low earth orbit

text: . When its mission is complete, it fires its manoeuvring thrusters to drop out of orbit and

text: re-enters

text: the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . During the descent and landing, the shuttle Orbiter acts as a

text: glider

text: and makes a completely unpowered landing.

text: Another media incident started during the New Hampshire primary September 27, 2003, when Clark was asked by space shuttle astronaut Jay C. Buckey what his vision for the space program was after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Clark responded he was a great believer in the exploration of space but wanted a vision well beyond that of a new shuttle or space plane. "I would like to see mankind get off this planet. I'd like to know what's out there beyond the solar system." Clark thought such a vision could probably require a lifetime of research and development in various fields of science and technology. Then at the end of his remarks, Clark dropped a bombshell when he said "I still believe in  mc²}}. But I can't believe that in all of human history we'll never ever be able to go beyond the speed of light to reach where we want to go. I happen to believe that mankind can do it. I've argued with physicists about it. I've argued with best friends about it. I just have to believe it. It's my only faith-based initiative." These comments prompted a series of derisive headlines, such as "Beam Us Up, General Clark" in The New York Times, "Clark is Light-Years Ahead of the Competition" in The Washington Post, "General Relativity (Retired)" on the U.S. News & World Report website, and "Clark Campaigns at Light Speed" in Wired magazine.

text: space shuttle

text: astronaut

text: Jay C. Buckey

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: . But I can't believe that in all of human history we'll never ever be able to go beyond the speed of light to reach where we want to go. I happen to believe that mankind can do it. I've argued with physicists about it. I've argued with best friends about it. I just have to believe it. It's my only faith-based initiative." These comments prompted a series of derisive headlines, such as "Beam Us Up, General Clark" in The New York Times, "Clark is Light-Years Ahead of the Competition" in The Washington Post, "General Relativity (Retired)" on the

text: U.S. News & World Report

text: Wired

text: magazine.

text: The Watumull library provides a vast collection of books and periodicals, which include university prescribed text books and reference material. The library subscribes to all major technical journals and magazines and some major non-technical magazines as well. The library has recently been digitally catalogued, thereby making it simpler to locate a book. Apart from books, the college also has thousands of CDs and DVDs pertaining to engineering.

text: In 2012, she made her Bollywood debut in film Cocktail, and was praised for her song "Luttna". In 2016, she recorded her first song "Naina Roye", for Pakistani film Maalik, that was heavily praised. In a same year she made her Coke Studio debut as a featured artist in season 9, as a part of team Faakhir.

text: In 2012, she made her Bollywood debut in film

text: Cocktail

text: , and was praised for her song "Luttna". In 2016, she recorded her first song "Naina Roye", for Pakistani film

text: Maalik

text: , that was heavily praised. In a same year she made her

text: Coke Studio

text: debut as a featured artist in

text: season 9

text: , as a part of team

text: Faakhir

text: In the first round at Derby, Derbyshire batsmen Alan Hill and Iain Anderson put on a then record partnership for any wicket in limited overs cricket. 286, for the 2nd wicket versus Cornwall. The semi-final between Worcestershire and Sussex at Worcester took three days to complete due to bad weather. Sussex won by 5 wickets and Imran Khan was the man of the match. At The Oval, Lancashire won by 4 runs Trevor Jesty scored 112 and was man of the match for Surrey.

text: In the first round at

text: Derby

text: Derbyshire

text: batsmen

text: Alan Hill

text: and

text: Iain Anderson

text: put on a then record partnership for any wicket in limited overs cricket. 286, for the 2nd wicket versus

text: Cornwall

text: . The semi-final between

text: Worcestershire

text: and

text: Sussex

text: at Worcester took three days to complete due to bad weather. Sussex won by 5 wickets and

text: Imran Khan

text: was the man of the match. At

text: The Oval

text: , Lancashire won by 4 runs

text: Trevor Jesty

text: scored 112 and was man of the match for Surrey.

text: Monmouth University has a variety of on-campus clubs and organizations, including the campus television station HawkTV, the college radio station WMCX-FM, one of the last media outlets to interview Bob Marley, and the first media outlet in America to announce his death, and the student-run newspaper ''The Outlook'', which has been published since 1933.

text: Monmouth University has a variety of on-campus clubs and organizations, including the campus television station HawkTV, the

text: college radio

text: station

text: WMCX-FM

text: , one of the last media outlets to interview

text: Bob Marley

text: , and the first media outlet in America to announce his death, and the student-run newspaper ''The Outlook'', which has been published since 1933.

text: Throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, Ayr produced players of international standard. One who played and went on to be capped out of London Scottish was Alistair Boyle. Although supplying players to the Glasgow side (and Glasgow clubs) Ayr had to wait until 1977 for the first home-grown player to gain international honours. Winger David Ashton won his B cap against France and in the following year John Brown was in the B side at full back in the same fixture.

text: Throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, Ayr produced players of international standard. One who played and went on to be capped out of London Scottish was

text: Alistair Boyle

text: . Although supplying players to the Glasgow side (and Glasgow clubs) Ayr had to wait until 1977 for the first home-grown player to gain international honours. Winger David Ashton won his B cap against France and in the following year John Brown was in the B side at full back in the same fixture.

text: Across town later that day, Betty and Walter are at the Christmas party for the store where he works. They have their photo taken with Walter's boss and his wife. The wife of Walter's boss tells her that she used to work in Manhattan too, but they’re Queens' girls and this is where they belong. Betty stares at Walter and his boss with a less than enthusiastic feeling. Betty asks the woman when she knew that her husband was the one. She just knew; when did Betty know Walter was? She's not sure yet.

text: The common name and Latin binomial commemorate the Australian polar explorer and ornithologist Captain Sir George Hubert Wilkins.

text: The common name and Latin binomial commemorate the Australian polar explorer and ornithologist Captain Sir

text: George Hubert Wilkins

text: As World War II started in the Asia-Pacific region, Japan started occupying New Guinea in 1942. In an effort to win the war, some naval bases and military airbases were built there. This also happened in Biak, particularly at Ambroben county, where Mokmer Airfield was built. It had a 2,000 X 40 m runway and was built by Romusha workers.

text: As

text: World War II

text: started in the Asia-Pacific region, Japan started occupying New Guinea in 1942. In an effort to win the war, some naval bases and military airbases were built there. This also happened in Biak, particularly at Ambroben county, where Mokmer Airfield was built. It had a 2,000 X 40 m runway and was built by

text: Romusha

text: workers.

text: Dawson's fingers spread along, and from, large periventricular collecting veins, and are attributed to perivenular inflammation.

text: We'll fight forever, Cactus High

text: We'll fight forever, Cactus High

text: In rock climbing, the offset water knot is a favored knot for joining two ropes for a rappel longer than half the length of the  ropes.  (Although it can fail by capsizing under high loads, abseiling/rappelling doesn't generate such forces, and the knot, being on one side of the twin lines used in abseil, sees only half of this force.)  American climbers, presumably believing the knot to be used only in hay bales or otherwise too vulnerable to flyping (inversion by capsizing), came to refer to it as the European Death Knot, abbreviated to EDK.  But such capsizing is actually highly unlikely, and with the tails left long—and that is common advice—capsizing will likely make the knot tighter.

text: In

text: rock climbing

text: , the offset water knot is a favored knot for joining two ropes for a

text: rappel

text: longer than half the length of the

text: ropes

text: .  (Although it can fail by

text: capsizing

text: under high loads, abseiling/rappelling doesn't generate such forces, and the knot, being on one side of the twin lines used in abseil, sees only half of this force.)  American climbers, presumably believing the knot to be used only in hay bales or otherwise too vulnerable to flyping (inversion by capsizing), came to refer to it as the European Death Knot, abbreviated to EDK.  But such capsizing is actually highly unlikely, and with the tails left long—and that is common advice—capsizing will likely make the knot tighter.

text: STS-92 was a Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station (ISS) flown by Space Shuttle  Discovery. STS-92 marked the 100th mission of the Space Shuttle. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, 11 October 2000.

text: STS-92 was a

text: Space Shuttle

text: mission to the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) flown by

text: Space Shuttle  Discovery

text: . STS-92 marked the 100th mission of the Space Shuttle. It was launched from

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: , Florida, 11 October 2000.

text: From Langwith Junction the line ran northwards parallel to the Midland Railway's Nottingham Midland to Worksop line for about two miles, then veered north west to Creswell.Curiously, "Elmton and Creswell" station was nearer Welbeck than "Creswell and Welbeck" station which was in turn nearer Elmton than "Elmton and Creswell".

text: From

text: Langwith Junction

text: the line ran northwards parallel to the

text: Midland Railway

text: 's

text: Nottingham Midland

text: to

text: Worksop

text: line for about two miles, then veered north west to Creswell.Curiously, "Elmton and Creswell" station was nearer Welbeck than "Creswell and Welbeck" station which was in turn nearer Elmton than "Elmton and Creswell".

text: He was expected to fight on an It's Showtime card in Yokohama, Japan, on November 17, 2012, but the event was cancelled following the promotion's acquisition by Glory and so he was transferred to Glory 2: Brussels in Belgium and put up against Nordin Benmoh. Once again, he stopped his opponent with a left hook. A rematch between Ristie and Hinata Watanabe was booked as the reserve fight for the Shoot Boxing World Tournament 2012 in Tokyo, Japan on November 17, 2012, and ended like the pair's first match ten months earlier: Hinata was cut early on and dropped with punches twice shortly after, resulting in a referee stoppage and a first-round technical knockout win for Ristie.

text: He was expected to fight on an It's Showtime card in

text: Yokohama

text: Japan

text: , on November 17, 2012, but the event was cancelled following the promotion's acquisition by

text: Glory

text: and so he was transferred to

text: Glory 2: Brussels

text: in Belgium and put up against Nordin Benmoh. Once again, he stopped his opponent with a left hook. A rematch between Ristie and Hinata Watanabe was booked as the reserve fight for the

text: Shoot Boxing World Tournament 2012

text: in

text: Tokyo

text: , Japan on November 17, 2012, and ended like the pair's first match ten months earlier: Hinata was

text: cut

text: early on and dropped with

text: punches

text: twice shortly after, resulting in a referee stoppage and a first-round

text: technical knockout

text: win for Ristie.

text: 23) Jozef Cardijn, priest, cardinal and humanitarian. Founder of the Young Christian Workers.

text: Jozef Cardijn

text: , priest, cardinal and humanitarian. Founder of the

text: Young Christian Workers

text: On July 23, 2006, a Sex in Space panel was held at the Space Frontier Foundation's annual conference. Speakers were science journalist-author Laura Woodmansee, who presented her book Sex in Space; Jim Logan, the first graduate of a new aerospace medicine residency program to be hired by NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston; and Vanna Bonta, an American poet, novelist, and actress who had recently flown in zero gravity and had agreed to an interview for Woodmansee's book. The speakers made presentations that explored "the biological, emotional, and ... physical issues that will confront people moving [off Earth] into the space environment." NBC science journalist Alan Boyle reported on the panel, opening a world discussion of a topic previously considered taboo.

text: On July 23, 2006, a Sex in Space panel was held at the

text: Space Frontier Foundation

text: 's annual conference. Speakers were science journalist-author Laura Woodmansee, who presented her book Sex in Space; Jim Logan, the first graduate of a new aerospace medicine residency program to be hired by NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston; and Vanna Bonta, an American poet, novelist, and actress who had recently flown in

text: zero gravity

text: and had agreed to an interview for Woodmansee's book. The speakers made presentations that explored "the biological, emotional, and ... physical issues that will confront people moving [off Earth] into the space environment." NBC science journalist Alan Boyle reported on the panel, opening a world discussion of a topic previously considered taboo.

text: The new timetables were fairly successful, with adjustments made as the engines proved better timekeeping with lighter loads, and as the fixed-set policy simplified shunting at Spencer Street station.

text: The album received 4 and 5 star reviews in Mojo, Bust, Allmusic and Lesinrocks amongst others. Passerby was No 1 added to CMJ radio in its week of release.  Dave Di Martino wrote in Rolling Stone USA that the record is a  "timeless, quietly special set" and that "Passerby is gorgeous and refined through and through"

text: The album received 4 and 5 star reviews in

text: Mojo

text: Bust

text: Allmusic

text: and Lesinrocks amongst others. Passerby was No 1 added to CMJ radio in its week of release.  Dave Di Martino wrote in Rolling Stone USA that the record is a  "timeless, quietly special set" and that "Passerby is gorgeous and refined through and through"

text: Jim Balent is an American comic book writer, artist, and publisher from Pennsylvania. He is best known for his long run on Catwoman between 1993 and 1999. Balent has also drawn Batman and Lobo for DC Comics, as well as some of the issues of Purgatori for the independent comic book publisher Chaos! Comics.

text: Jim Balent is an

text: American

text: comic book writer, artist, and publisher from Pennsylvania. He is best known for his long run on

text: Catwoman

text: between 1993 and 1999. Balent has also drawn

text: Batman

text: and

text: Lobo

text: for

text: DC Comics

text: , as well as some of the issues of

text: Purgatori

text: for the independent comic book publisher

text: Chaos! Comics

text: Agnam Civol has been twinned with the town of

text: J. Doyne Farmer (born 22 June 1952) is an American complex systems scientist and entrepreneur with interests in chaos theory, complexity and econophysics. He is a Professor of Mathematics at Oxford University, where he is Director of Complexity Economics at the Institute for New Economic Thinking at the Oxford Martin School, and is also an external professor at the Santa Fe Institute.  His current research is on complexity economics, focusing on systemic risk in financial markets and technological progress.  During his career he has made important contributions to complex systems, chaos, artificial life, theoretical biology, time series forecasting and econophysics.  He co-founded Prediction Company, one of the first companies to do fully automated quantitative trading.  While a graduate student he led a group that called itself Eudaemonic Enterprises and built the first wearable digital computer, which was used to beat the game of roulette.

text: J. Doyne Farmer (born 22 June 1952) is an

text: American

text: complex systems

text: scientist and

text: entrepreneur

text: with interests in

text: chaos theory

text: complexity

text: and

text: econophysics

text: . He is a Professor of Mathematics at

text: Oxford University

text: , where he is Director of Complexity Economics at the Institute for New Economic Thinking at the

text: Oxford Martin School

text: , and is also an external professor at the

text: Santa Fe Institute

text: .  His current research is on

text: complexity economics

text: , focusing on

text: systemic risk

text: in financial markets and technological progress.  During his career he has made important contributions to

text: complex systems

text: chaos

text: artificial life

text: theoretical biology

text: time series forecasting

text: and

text: econophysics

text: .  He co-founded

text: Prediction Company

text: , one of the first companies to do fully automated

text: quantitative trading

text: .  While a graduate student he led a group that called itself Eudaemonic Enterprises and built the first wearable digital computer, which was used to beat the game of roulette.

text: Cairnpapple Hill is a hill with a dominating position in central lowland Scotland with views from coast to coast. It was used and re-used as a major ritual site over about 4000 years, and in its day would have been comparable to better known sites like the Standing Stones of Stenness. The summit lies 312 m above sea level, and is about 2 miles (3 km) north of Bathgate. In the 19th century the site was completely concealed by trees, then in 1947–1948 excavations by Stuart Piggott found a series of ritual monuments from successive prehistoric periods. In 1998, Gordon Barclay re-interpreted the site for Historic Scotland.

text: Cairnpapple Hill is a

text: hill

text: with a dominating position in central lowland Scotland with views from coast to coast. It was used and re-used as a major

text: ritual

text: site over about 4000 years, and in its day would have been comparable to better known sites like the

text: Standing Stones of Stenness

text: . The summit lies 312 m

text: above sea level

text: , and is about 2 miles (3 km) north of

text: Bathgate

text: . In the 19th century the site was completely concealed by trees, then in 1947–1948 excavations by

text: Stuart Piggott

text: found a series of ritual monuments from successive prehistoric periods. In 1998,

text: Gordon Barclay

text: re-interpreted the site for

text: Historic Scotland

text: When Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India in 1984, it encouraged a new wave of negotiation. Laldenga met him on 15 February 1985, and peace settlement was on its way. On June 30, 1986 the official document entitled Mizoram Accord, 1986, Memorandum of Settlement was then signed by Ladenga, R. D. Pradhan, Home Secretary, and Lalkhama, Chief secretary. Ladenga became an interim Chief Minister, as the sitting Chief Minister Lalthanhawla stepped down to Deputy Chief Minister. Under the terms of the accord, Mizoram was granted statehood in February 1987. Laldenga and his party MNF won the first elections to the state legislature. However, defections toppled him from office in 1988.

text: When

text: Rajiv Gandhi

text: became the

text: Prime Minister of India

text: in 1984, it encouraged a new wave of negotiation. Laldenga met him on 15 February 1985, and peace settlement was on its way. On June 30, 1986 the official document entitled Mizoram Accord, 1986, Memorandum of Settlement was then signed by Ladenga,

text: R. D. Pradhan

text: , Home Secretary, and Lalkhama, Chief secretary. Ladenga became an interim Chief Minister, as the sitting Chief Minister

text: Lalthanhawla

text: stepped down to Deputy Chief Minister. Under the terms of the accord, Mizoram was granted statehood in February 1987. Laldenga and his party MNF won the first elections to the state legislature. However, defections toppled him from office in 1988.

text: For the amusement of the public, Kinney hired aviators to do aerial stunts over the beach. One of them, movie aviator and Venice airport owner B. H. DeLay, implemented the first lighted airport in the United States on DeLay Field (previously known as Ince Field). He also initiated the first aerial police in the nation, after a marine rescue attempt was thwarted. DeLay also performed many of the world's first aerial stunts for motion pictures in Venice.

text: For the amusement of the public, Kinney hired aviators to do aerial stunts over the beach. One of them, movie

text: aviator

text: and Venice airport owner

text: B. H. DeLay

text: , implemented the first lighted airport in the United States on DeLay Field (previously known as Ince Field). He also initiated the first aerial police in the nation, after a marine rescue attempt was thwarted. DeLay also performed many of the world's first aerial stunts for motion pictures in Venice.

text: For the business market, a different system of Nespresso pods exists. These pad-shaped capsules are not interchangeable with the consumer capsules.

text: The retirement of NASA's Space Shuttle fleet took place from March to July 2011. Discovery was the first of the three active space shuttles to be retired, completing its final mission on March 9, 2011; Endeavour did so on June 1. The final shuttle mission was completed with the landing of Atlantis on July 21, 2011, closing the 30-year Space Shuttle program.

text: The retirement of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Space Shuttle

text: fleet took place from March to July 2011.

text: Discovery

text: was the first of the three active space shuttles to be retired, completing its

text: final mission

text: on March 9, 2011;

text: Endeavour

text: did so

text: on June 1. The

text: final shuttle mission

text: was completed with the landing of

text: Atlantis

text: on July 21, 2011, closing the 30-year

text: Space Shuttle program

text: The events of A.C.E. 3 are mainly centered on a device called the Baldora Drive, which was originally planned as a teleportation device for outer space travel in Earth A and the invasion of the space colonies in Earth B. Both sides abandoned the use of the Baldora Drive 18 years ago, but recently brought it back into service when they obtained the means to repair it. Through this device, a wormhole is created in space between the two Earths, which allows the protagonists to travel between them. However, as the wormhole expands due to the effect of the Baldora Charge (which is used to power the device) obtained from various sources of energy, the wormhole grows large enough to make the two earths collide with one another due to gravitational attraction, which will destroy all mankind on both Earths. In order to stop this, heroes from both sides must band together and find a way to stop the device before the wormhole fully expands.

text: The events of A.C.E. 3 are mainly centered on a device called the Baldora Drive, which was originally planned as a teleportation device for outer space travel in Earth A and the invasion of the space colonies in Earth B. Both sides abandoned the use of the Baldora Drive 18 years ago, but recently brought it back into service when they obtained the means to repair it. Through this device, a

text: wormhole

text: is created in space between the two Earths, which allows the protagonists to travel between them. However, as the wormhole expands due to the effect of the Baldora Charge (which is used to power the device) obtained from various sources of energy, the wormhole grows large enough to make the two earths collide with one another due to gravitational attraction, which will destroy all mankind on both Earths. In order to stop this, heroes from both sides must band together and find a way to stop the device before the wormhole fully expands.

text: The Orangetown Resolutions were adopted in 1774 at the home of Yoast Mabie. The Dutch colonial house was built by his brother Casparus Mabie in Tappan. When Great Britain imposed duties on the colonies and closed the port of Boston, local inhabitants passed resolutions calling for a boycott of British imports and exports on Monday, July 4, 1774, two years to the day before the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed.

text: The

text: Orangetown Resolutions

text: were adopted in 1774 at the home of Yoast Mabie. The Dutch colonial house was built by his brother Casparus Mabie in Tappan. When

text: Great Britain

text: imposed duties on the colonies and closed the port of

text: Boston

text: , local inhabitants passed resolutions calling for a boycott of British imports and exports on Monday, July 4, 1774, two years to the day before the

entity_name: United States Declaration of Independence

text: Declaration of Independence

text: was proclaimed.

text: The Base of the statue contains the following inscription:

text: His son Aleksandr played football professionally, often in the teams his father coached.

text: His son

entity_name: Aleksandr Averyanov (footballer, born 1969)

text: Aleksandr

text: played football professionally, often in the teams his father coached.

text: Key: Q = Qualified, WR = World record

text: Key: Q = Qualified, WR = World record

text: Gérin ran as a Union Nationale candidate in the provincial district of Stanstead in the by-election held on November 2, 1938 and won.  He was defeated in the 1939 election.

text: Gérin ran as a

text: Union Nationale

text: candidate in the provincial district of

entity_name: Stanstead (provincial electoral district)

text: Stanstead

text: in the

text: by-election

text: held on November 2, 1938 and won.  He was defeated in the

text: 1939 election

text: Vlado Pilja is a singer. Vlado was evicted on Day 99.

text: There have also been works created after the 1980s which attempt to create a post-wuxia genre. Yu Hua, one of the more notable writers from this period, published a counter-genre short story titled Blood and Plum Blossoms, in which the protagonist goes on a quest to avenge his murdered father.

text: There have also been works created after the 1980s which attempt to create a post-wuxia genre.

text: Yu Hua

text: , one of the more notable writers from this period, published a counter-genre short story titled

text: Blood and Plum Blossoms

text: , in which the protagonist goes on a quest to avenge his murdered father.

text: Recent space exploration has proceeded, to some extent in worldwide cooperation, the high point of which was the construction and operation of the International Space Station (ISS). At the same time, the international space race between smaller space powers since the end of the 20th century can be considered the foundation and expansion of markets of commercial rocket launches and space tourism.

text: Recent space exploration has proceeded, to some extent in worldwide cooperation, the high point of which was the construction and operation of the International Space Station (ISS). At the same time, the international space race between smaller space powers since the end of the 20th century can be considered the foundation and expansion of markets of commercial rocket launches and

text: space tourism

text: The Anglian collection is a collection of Anglo-Saxon  royal genealogies and regnal lists. These survive in four manuscripts; two of which now reside in the British Library. The remaining two belong to the libraries of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge and Rochester Cathedral, the latter now deposited with the Medway Archives.

text: The Anglian collection is a collection of

text: Anglo-Saxon  royal genealogies

text: and regnal lists. These survive in four manuscripts; two of which now reside in the

text: British Library

text: . The remaining two belong to the libraries of

text: Corpus Christi College, Cambridge

text: and

text: Rochester Cathedral

text: , the latter now deposited with the

text: Medway Archives

text: The station was launched as part of the Soviet Union's manned spaceflight programme effort to maintain a long-term research outpost in space, and following the collapse of the USSR, was operated by the new Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA). As a result, most of the station' occupants were Soviet; however, through international collaborations such as the Intercosmos, Euromir and Shuttle-Mir programmes, the station was made accessible to space travelers from several Asian, European and North American nations. Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut off. The cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $4.2 billion over its lifetime (including development, assembly and orbital operation).

text: The station was launched as part of the Soviet Union's

text: manned spaceflight programme

text: effort to maintain a long-term research outpost in space, and following the collapse of the USSR, was operated by the new

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: (RKA). As a result, most of the station' occupants were Soviet; however, through international collaborations such as the Intercosmos, Euromir and Shuttle-Mir programmes, the station was made accessible to space travelers from several Asian, European and North American nations. Mir

text: was deorbited

text: in March 2001 after funding was cut off. The cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director

text: Yuri Koptev

text: in 2001 as $4.2 billion over its lifetime (including development, assembly and orbital operation).

text: New South Wales failed to capitalise on their chances, crossing the Queensland line twice. First winger Rod Wishart stepped into touch after taking a cross-field kick from Andrew Johns. Then in the second half, Blues centre Terry Hill was held up by Queensland debutante winger Matt Sing over the line with 17 minutes to play. It was the lowest ever score in a representative game in Australia, yet still a compelling spectacle as the underdog Maroons repelled the New South Wales attack time and time again.

text: New South Wales failed to capitalise on their chances, crossing the Queensland line twice. First winger

text: Rod Wishart

text: stepped into touch after taking a cross-field kick from

text: Andrew Johns

text: . Then in the second half, Blues centre

text: Terry Hill

text: was held up by Queensland debutante winger

text: Matt Sing

text: over the line with 17 minutes to play. It was the lowest ever score in a representative game in Australia, yet still a compelling spectacle as the underdog Maroons repelled the New South Wales attack time and time again.

text: In the event that only one player was left to play the Final Challenge, he/she could either play the round or skip it entirely. If the player decided to play the round, he/she chose one of the three questions and wagered a portion of his/her score. A correct answer paid off the wager at the appropriate odds, and the player could then stop or continue with a different questions. Play continued in this fashion until the player either chose to stop, answered all three questions, or gave an incorrect answer to any question.

text: The primary of June 13, 2006, ended with Mike Campbell receiving 47 percent of the vote, Andre Bauer 37%, and Henry Jordan 18%. As Campbell did not win a majority, he faced Bauer in a runoff election on June 27 for the Republican nomination. Bauer won the runoff with slightly over 51 percent of vote. He then narrowly defeated Democrat Robert A. Barber, Jr., a former state representative, attorney and lobbyist in the General Election. Bauer received 543,414 votes (50.08%), while Barber received 540,306 votes (49.79%).

text: The primary of June 13, 2006, ended with Mike Campbell receiving 47 percent of the vote, Andre Bauer 37%, and Henry Jordan 18%. As Campbell did not win a majority, he faced Bauer in a runoff election on June 27 for the Republican nomination. Bauer won the runoff with slightly over 51 percent of vote. He then narrowly defeated Democrat

text: Robert A. Barber, Jr.

text: , a former state representative, attorney and lobbyist in the General Election. Bauer received 543,414 votes (50.08%), while Barber received 540,306 votes (49.79%).

text: After returning home, he was appointed Professor of painting and composition at his old alma mater, the School of Fine Arts. From 1911 to 1929, he served as Director. During his thirty years as a teacher, his students included Nicolae Tonitza, Ștefan Dimitrescu, Camil Ressu and Aurel Băeșu.

text: After returning home, he was appointed Professor of painting and composition at his old alma mater, the School of Fine Arts. From 1911 to 1929, he served as Director. During his thirty years as a teacher, his students included

text: Nicolae Tonitza

text: Ștefan Dimitrescu

text: Camil Ressu

text: and

text: Aurel Băeșu

text: Columbia carried to orbit the second reusable German Spacelab on the STS-55 mission and demonstrated the shuttle's ability for international cooperation, exploration, and scientific research in space. The Spacelab Module and an exterior experiment support structure contained in Columbia’s payload bay comprised the Spacelab D-2 payload. (The first German Spacelab flight, D-1, flew Shuttle mission 61-A in October 1985.) The U.S. and Germany gained valuable experience for future space station operations.

text: Columbia carried to orbit the second reusable German

text: Spacelab

text: on the STS-55 mission and demonstrated the shuttle's ability for international cooperation, exploration, and scientific research in space. The Spacelab Module and an exterior experiment support structure contained in Columbia’s payload bay comprised the Spacelab D-2 payload. (The first German Spacelab flight, D-1, flew Shuttle mission

text: in October 1985.) The U.S. and Germany gained valuable experience for future space station operations.

text: Despite the fact that Jiro hates children and is more interested in getting back into racing than helping out at the orphanage, he nonetheless agrees to be the orphanage's driver in exchange for being allowed to live there.

text: A Marcus Gunn pupil is distinguished from a total CN II lesion, in which the affected eye perceives no light.  In that case, shining the light in the affected eye produces no effect.

text: A Marcus Gunn pupil is distinguished from a total

text: CN II

text: lesion, in which the affected eye perceives no light.  In that case, shining the light in the affected eye produces no effect.

text: The median amount of income that Salvadorans earn per household is about $36,850 and about 30% of all families are at or below poverty level. Almost 50% of Salvadorans over 25 have not graduated high school and about 7% have graduated from college within 4 years or have a degree higher than a bachelor's degree. An estimated 95% speak Spanish at home and 53.5% speak English "less than well". Pico Union and the El Salvador Community Corridor, a part of Vermont Avenue, have the highest concentration of Salvadorans in Los Angeles.

text: In the spring of 2001, KNSD moved its operations into the NBC Building, a high-rise office building in downtown San Diego that was redeveloped to serve as its studio and office facilities, which includes a glass-enclosed street-level news studio resembling that of the streetside studio at Rockefeller Center in New York City used by NBC's Today. In February 2013, LIN Media withdrew itself from the Station Venture Operations joint venture as part of a corporate reorganization. As a result, NBC regained full ownership in KNSD and gained full ownership of KXAS.

text: In the spring of 2001, KNSD moved its operations into the

text: NBC Building

text: , a high-rise office building in downtown San Diego that was redeveloped to serve as its studio and office facilities, which includes a glass-enclosed street-level news studio resembling that of the streetside studio at

text: Rockefeller Center

text: in

text: New York City

text: used by NBC's

text: Today

text: . In February 2013, LIN Media withdrew itself from the Station Venture Operations joint venture as part of a corporate reorganization. As a result, NBC regained full ownership in KNSD and gained full ownership of KXAS.

text: The pipeline is owned by Gassled partners and operated by Gassco. The technical service provider is Statoil.

text: The pipeline is owned by

text: Gassled

text: partners and operated by

text: Gassco

text: . The technical service provider is

text: Statoil

text: George was a member of the Australian Test touring squad in 2010, first being called in as an emergency replacement midway through the 2009-10 tour of New Zealand after a series of injuries to Australian pacemen, then joining the team for the 2010 series against Pakistan in England and the 2010-11 tour of India. He played his only Test in the Second Test against India in Bangalore, taking two wickets.

text: George was a member of the Australian Test touring squad in 2010, first being called in as an emergency replacement midway through the

entity_name: Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 2009–10

text: 2009-10 tour of New Zealand

text: after a series of injuries to Australian pacemen, then joining the team for the

entity_name: Australian cricket team against Pakistan in England in 2010

text: 2010 series against Pakistan in England

text: and the

entity_name: Australian cricket team in India in 2010–11

text: 2010-11 tour of India

text: . He played his only Test in the Second Test against India in Bangalore, taking two wickets.

text: Reynolds encourages his readers to send him copies of pork-cutting letters they send to their representatives and Senators, along with the responses from the elected officials. He then posts these on his website under the heading "Porkbusters Update".

text: Turbonilla terminuslevis is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Pyramidellidae, the pyrams and their allies.

text: Turbonilla terminuslevis is a

text: species

text: of

text: sea snail

text: , a

text: marine

text: gastropod

text: mollusk

text: in the

text: family

text: Pyramidellidae

text: , the pyrams and their allies.

text: These organisations originated in the IST but have significantly changed their political orientation.

text: Ferguson would go on to play for such teams as the Hamilton Steelers of the Canadian Soccer League and the Cleveland Force/Cleveland Crunch of the Major Indoor Soccer League.

text: Ferguson would go on to play for such teams as the

text: Hamilton Steelers

text: of the

text: Canadian Soccer League

text: and the

text: Cleveland Force

text: Cleveland Crunch

text: of the

text: Major Indoor Soccer League

text: The planned line, which would carry 7.64 terawatt-hours of renewable electricity per year, would lower  emissions by 6,800 tonnes,  emissions by 10,800 tonnes and  emissions by nearly 37 million tonnes during the first decade of operation.

text: The planned line, which would carry 7.64 terawatt-hours of renewable electricity per year, would lower  emissions by 6,800

text: tonne

text: s,  emissions by 10,800 tonnes and  emissions by nearly 37 million tonnes during the first decade of operation.

text: Ba-Cong (巴賨) / BA-DI (巴氐) was an ethnic group, originally known as the Ba. They lived in Hubei, China. In Cao-Wei, a branch moved to Lueyang 略陽 (east of Tianshui, Gansu,). In Western Jin, its Li 李 clan led their people to Sichuan, where they founded Cheng-Han.

text: Ba-Cong (巴賨) / BA-DI (巴氐) was an ethnic group, originally known as the Ba. They lived in

text: Hubei

text: , China. In

text: Cao-Wei

text: , a branch moved to

text: Lueyang

text: 略陽 (east of

text: Tianshui

text: Gansu

text: ,). In

text: Western Jin

text: , its Li 李 clan led their people to

text: Sichuan

text: , where they founded

text: Cheng-Han

text: Peter Aschwanden (October 4, 1942 – December 3, 2005) was a New Mexican artist and illustrator whose work was emblematic of the 1960s generation's freewheeling spirit.

text: Peter Aschwanden (October 4, 1942 – December 3, 2005) was a

text: New Mexican

text: artist and illustrator whose work was emblematic of the

text: 1960s generation

text: 's freewheeling spirit.

text: Maithan Public School (MPS) was established in 2015 at Kamalpur in Dhanbad, India by the Pioneer Society. MPS is an initiative of academicians of the society. It is located at Kamalpur, Near Professor Colony, Maithan.

text: Maithan Public School (MPS) was established in 2015 at Kamalpur in

text: Dhanbad

text: India

text: by the Pioneer Society. MPS is an initiative of academicians of the society. It is located at Kamalpur, Near Professor Colony, Maithan.

text: Rendez-Vous was created over a period of about two months and, as with Zoolook, contains elements of his 1983 album Musique pour Supermarché. Its three movements represent Houston's development, from a rural economy to its role as a leader in space technology. Baroque in style, the album uses a mixture of French horns, trombones, and violins; and it features heavy use of the Elka Synthex, notably so on "Third Rendez-Vous", a track Jarre often performs using a laser harp. Jarre worked with several Houston-based astronauts, including Bruce McCandless II and Ronald McNair, an accomplished musician who was to have played the saxophone on "Rendez-Vous VI", recorded in the weightless environment of space. The live performance was curtailed by McNair's death in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on 28 January 1986. Consideration was given to the cancellation of the concert; but McCandless contacted Jarre and urged him to proceed, in memory of the shuttle's crew. McNair's saxophone piece was recorded by Kirk Whalum and retitled "Ron's Piece".

text: Rendez-Vous

text: was created over a period of about two months and, as with Zoolook, contains elements of his 1983 album Musique pour Supermarché. Its three movements represent Houston's development, from a rural economy to its role as a leader in space technology.

text: Baroque

text: in style, the album uses a mixture of

text: French horn

text: s,

text: trombone

text: s, and

text: violin

text: s; and it features heavy use of the

text: Elka Synthex

text: , notably so on "Third Rendez-Vous", a track Jarre often performs using a

text: laser harp

text: . Jarre worked with several Houston-based

text: astronaut

text: s, including

text: Bruce McCandless II

text: and

text: Ronald McNair

text: , an accomplished musician who was to have played the

text: saxophone

text: on "Rendez-Vous VI", recorded in the weightless environment of space. The live performance was curtailed by McNair's death in the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: on 28 January 1986. Consideration was given to the cancellation of the concert; but McCandless contacted Jarre and urged him to proceed, in memory of the shuttle's crew. McNair's saxophone piece was recorded by

text: Kirk Whalum

text: and retitled "Ron's Piece".

text: A school-wide ceremony is held in the spring of each year to recognize the recipients and is often attended by past recipients and other members of the community. The Distinguished Patrick Countian Award is considered the highest honor a citizen of Patrick County can receive.

text: The village lies at an altitude of 127 metres and covers an area of 19.611 km². The municipality has a population of about 1140 people.

text: The

text: village

text: lies at an

text: altitude

text: of 127 metres and covers an

text: area

text: of 19.611 km². The

text: municipality

text: has a

text: population

text: of about 1140 people.

text:
1 – New Krypton #1 (Also included in Superman: Brainiac TPB)
2 – Superman #681
3 – Guardian Special #1
4 – Action Comics #871
5 – Supergirl #35
6 – Superman #682
7 – Action Comics #872
8 – Supergirl #36
9 – Superman #683
10 – Action Comics #873
11 – Supergirl #37 (no shield number on cover)
12 – Superman #684
13 – Action Comics #874
14 – Supergirl #38
15 – Superman #685 (no shield number on cover)
16 – World of New Krypton #1
17 – Action Comics #875
18 – Supergirl #39
19 – Superman #686
20 – World of New Krypton #2
21 – Action Comics #876
22 – Supergirl #40
23 – Superman #687
24 – World of New Krypton #3
25 – Action Comics #877
26 – Supergirl #41
27 – Superman #688
28 – World of New Krypton #4
29 – Action Comics #878
30 – Supergirl #42
31 – Superman #689
32 – World of New Krypton #5
33 – Action Comics #879
34 – Supergirl #43
35 – Superman #690

text: As a result of Shrimpton's child pornography charges (see below), in April 2013 the Bar Standards Board revoked his ability to participate in cases involving children.  Following his November 2014 conviction for a nuclear bomb threat hoax, the Board completely suspended him from practice pending conclusion of professional misconduct proceedings.

text: As a result of Shrimpton's

text: child pornography

text: charges (see below), in April 2013 the

text: Bar Standards Board

text: revoked his ability to participate in cases involving children.  Following his November 2014 conviction for a nuclear bomb threat hoax, the Board completely suspended him from practice pending conclusion of professional misconduct proceedings.

text: The single B-side on the original 2009 release was another Brief Encounters track, "Secret Lover", a slow-paced piano song. On 2010 maxi single a remixed version of "Doin' Fine" was released.

text: Bogurodzica is a prayer hymn whose first stanza contains an invocation to Christ through the intercession of Mary. It begins with an apostrophe to her - to the Mother of Christ, the Virgin, praised by God, the chosen one. After the apostrophe, there is an appeal to Mary to win favour for people from her Son.

text: Speed limits vary throughout the road. North of Hemlock Road, the speed limit is  with two lanes. Between Hemlock Road and McArthur Avenue, the speed limit is  on four lanes of traffic. Then, from McArthur Avenue south to Tremblay Road, it increases to . Then from Tremblay Road until Smyth Road, it reaches its highest speed limit of . From there to its end, the limit reduces once more to 50 km/h.

text: Speed limits vary throughout the road. North of

text: Hemlock Road

text: , the speed limit is  with two lanes. Between Hemlock Road and

text: McArthur Avenue

text: , the speed limit is  on four lanes of traffic. Then, from McArthur Avenue south to

text: Tremblay Road

text: , it increases to . Then from Tremblay Road until

text: Smyth Road

text: , it reaches its highest speed limit of . From there to its end, the limit reduces once more to 50 km/h.

text: In September 1988, Dean joined ABC News as a correspondent and covered the return to space following the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.

text: In September 1988, Dean joined ABC News as a correspondent and covered the return to space following the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: Special and general relativistic effects can combine (as seen with ISS astronauts).

text: Special and general relativistic effects can combine (as seen with

text: ISS

text: astronauts).

text: On September 29, 2008, Zhang Jianqi (张建启), Vice Director of China manned space engineering, announced in an interview of China Central Television  that Tiangong-1, an 8-ton "target vehicle", would be launched in 2010 (now 2011), and that Shenzhou 8, Shenzhou 9 and Shenzhou 10 were all intended to dock with it.

text: On September 29, 2008,

text: Zhang Jianqi

text: (张建启), Vice Director of

text: China manned space engineering

text: , announced in an interview of

text: China Central Television

text: that

text: , an 8-ton "target vehicle", would be launched in 2010 (now 2011), and that Shenzhou 8,

text: Shenzhou 9

text: and

text: Shenzhou 10

text: were all intended to dock with it.

text: Infrared light can penetrate the cosmic dust clouds, allowing us to peer into regions of star formation and the centers of galaxies. NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope is the largest infrared telescope ever launched into space. The Spitzer Space Telescope (formerly SIRTF, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility) was launched into space by a Delta rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida on 25 August 2003. During its mission, Spitzer will obtain images and spectra by detecting the infrared energy, or heat, radiated by objects in space between wavelengths of 3 and 180 micrometres. Most of this infrared radiation is blocked by the Earth's atmosphere and cannot be observed from the ground. The findings from the Spitzer already revitalized the studies of cosmic dust. A recent report from a Spitzer team shows some evidence that cosmic dust is formed near a supermassive black hole.

text: Infrared light can penetrate the cosmic dust clouds, allowing us to peer into regions of star formation and the centers of galaxies.

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: is the largest infrared telescope ever launched into space. The Spitzer Space Telescope (formerly SIRTF, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility) was launched into space by a Delta rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida on 25 August 2003. During its mission, Spitzer will obtain images and spectra by detecting the infrared energy, or heat, radiated by objects in space between wavelengths of 3 and 180 micrometres. Most of this infrared radiation is blocked by the Earth's atmosphere and cannot be observed from the ground. The findings from the Spitzer already revitalized the studies of cosmic dust. A recent report from a Spitzer team shows some evidence that cosmic dust is formed near a supermassive black hole.

text: Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appeal to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus are selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment.  Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula.On Earth, the average American uses about 35 gallons (132 liters) of water every day.  On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three gallons (11 liters) per day.