text: The Tet system has advantages over Cre, FRT, and ER (estrogen receptor) conditional gene expression systems. In the Cre and FRT systems, activation or knockout of the gene is irreversible once recombination is accomplished, whereas, in Tet and ER systems, it is reversible. The Tet system has very tight control on expression, whereas ER system is somewhat leaky. However, the Tet system, which depends on transcription and subsequent translation of a target gene, is not as fast-acting as the ER system, which stabilizes the already-expressed target protein upon hormone administration.  Also, since the 19bp tet-o sequence is naturally absent from mammalian cells, pleiotropy is thought to be minimized compared to hormonal methods of control. When using the Tet system in cell culture, it is important to confirm that each batch of fetal bovine serum is tested to confirm that contaminating tetracyclines are absent or are too low to interfere with inducibility.

text: The Tet system has advantages over

entity_name: Cre recombinase

text: Cre

entity_name: FLP-FRT recombination

text: FRT

text: , and

entity_name: Estrogen receptor

text: ER

text: (estrogen receptor) conditional gene expression systems. In the Cre and FRT systems, activation or knockout of the gene is irreversible once recombination is accomplished, whereas, in Tet and ER systems, it is reversible. The Tet system has very tight control on expression, whereas ER system is somewhat leaky. However, the Tet system, which depends on transcription and subsequent translation of a target gene, is not as fast-acting as the ER system, which stabilizes the already-expressed target protein upon hormone administration.  Also, since the 19bp tet-o sequence is naturally absent from mammalian cells,

entity_name: Pleiotropy

text: pleiotropy

text: is thought to be minimized compared to hormonal methods of control. When using the Tet system in cell culture, it is important to confirm that each batch of

entity_name: Fetal bovine serum

text: fetal bovine serum

text: is tested to confirm that contaminating

entity_name: Tetracycline antibiotics

text: tetracyclines

text: are absent or are too low to interfere with inducibility.

text: In negative feedback systems, the dominant closed-loop response is often well-modeled by a second-order system. The phase margin of the open-loop system sets the quality factor Q of the closed-loop system; as the phase margin decreases, the approximate second-order closed-loop system is made more oscillatory (i.e., has a higher quality factor).

text: In

entity_name: Negative feedback

text: negative feedback

text: systems, the dominant closed-loop response is often well-modeled by a second-order system. The

entity_name: Phase margin

text: phase margin

text: of the open-loop system sets the quality factor Q of the closed-loop system; as the phase margin decreases, the approximate second-order closed-loop system is made more oscillatory (i.e., has a higher quality factor).

text: The above description clearly indicates that Leydig recognized the specific morphology of those cells: only recently, have their endocrine nature and ultrastructure been fully understood.

text: The above description clearly indicates that Leydig recognized the specific

entity_name: Morphology (biology)

text: morphology

text: of those cells: only recently, have their

entity_name: Endocrine system

text: endocrine

text: nature and ultrastructure been fully understood.

text: Gastroenterology, Hematology, Nephrology, Endocrine/Diabetes internal medicine, Neurology, Respirology, Surgery, Orthopedics, Dermatology, Urology, Gynecology & Obstetrics, Pediatrics, Ophthalmology, Otolaryngology, Radiology, Dentistry/Oral surgery, Anesthesiology

text: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a chain of endocrine structures that are activated during the body's response to stressors of various sorts.  The HPA axis involves three structure, the hypothalamus which release CRH that stimulates the pituitary gland to release ACTH which stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol.  Cortisol has a negative feedback effect on the pituitary gland and hypothalamus.  In depressed patients the often shows increased activation in depressed people, but the mechanism behind this is not yet known. Increased basal cortisol levels and abnormal response to dexamethasone challenges have been observed in patients with depression.  Early life stress has been hypothesized as a potential cause of HPA dysfunction.  HPA axis regulation may be examined through a dexamethasone suppression tests, which tests the feedback mechanisms.  Non-suppression of dexamethasone is a common finding in depression, but is not consistent enough to be used as a diagnostic tool.  HPA axis changes by be responsible for some of the changes such as decreased bone mineral density and increased weight found in patients with MDD.  One drug, ketoconazole, currently under development has shown promise in treating MDD.

text: The

entity_name: Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

text: is a chain of

text: endocrine

text: structures that are activated during the body's response to stressors of various sorts.  The HPA axis involves three structure, the hypothalamus which release

entity_name: CRH

text: CRH

text: that stimulates the pituitary gland to release

entity_name: Adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: ACTH

text: which stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol.  Cortisol has a negative feedback effect on the pituitary gland and hypothalamus.  In depressed patients the often shows increased activation in depressed people, but the mechanism behind this is not yet known. Increased basal cortisol levels and abnormal response to dexamethasone challenges have been observed in patients with depression.  Early life stress has been hypothesized as a potential cause of HPA dysfunction.  HPA axis regulation may be examined through a dexamethasone suppression tests, which tests the feedback mechanisms.  Non-suppression of dexamethasone is a common finding in depression, but is not consistent enough to be used as a diagnostic tool.  HPA axis changes by be responsible for some of the changes such as decreased bone mineral density and increased weight found in patients with MDD.  One drug, ketoconazole, currently under development has shown promise in treating MDD.

method: UNH-qee

text: Endocrine surgery has developed as a sub-specialty surgical category because of the technical nature of these operations and the associated risks of operating in the neck. Beginning in 1978, specialty training became available in the United Kingdom and later in the USA  to help train surgeons within this highly specialized field.The early training center was the Hammersmith Hospital London where under the guidance of Professor Dick Welbourne and Mr John Lynn a large number of Endocrine Surgeons were trained. It is well established that complications are much less common if performed by surgeons who do at least 100 thyroid operations per year.In the United Kingdom most thyroid surgery is performed by surgeons doing less than 20 thyroid operations per year. This results in a high risk of permanent voice change (up to 2%) and a high risk of parathyroid damage. In expert hands these risks should be nearer 0.5%.Permanent damage to both voice box nerves is an extreme rarity and needs in most cases a permanent tracheotomy.

text: AVPR1B is found in different parts of the body and thus has several influences and regulatory actions. Arginine vasopressin influences several symptoms related to affective disorders including significant memory processes, pain sensitivity, synchronization of biological rhythms and the timing and quality of REM sleep. Studies have shown that AVPR1B deficiencies produce behavioral changes that can be reversed when the peptide is replaced. These effects are expressed through contact with specific plasma membrane receptors. AVPR1B is responsible for fueling the effects of vasopressin on ACTH release. This interaction takes place as Arginine Vasopressin works with corticotropin releasing hormone to stimulate the pituitary gland to secrete ACTH. AVPR1b is then responsible for mediating the stimulatory effect of vasopressin on ACTH release. Several G proteins are also involved in the signal transduction pathways linked with AVPR1B.  These relationships depend on the level of receptor expression and concentration of vasopressin. For example, AVPR1B causes secretion of ACTH from the anterior pituitary cells in a dose-dependent relationship by activating protein kinase C via the Gq/11 protein.

text: The pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine (i.e., hormone-producing) cells, discovered in 1869 by German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans. New studies show that the pancreatic islets constitute approximately 4.5% of the pancreas volume and receive 10-15% of its blood flow. The islets of Langerhans are arranged in density routes throughout the healthy human pancreas.

text: The pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans are the regions of the

entity_name: Pancreas

text: pancreas

text: that contain its

text: endocrine

text: (i.e., hormone-producing) cells, discovered in 1869 by

entity_name: Germans

text: German

text: pathological anatomist

entity_name: Paul Langerhans

text: Paul Langerhans

text: . New studies show that the pancreatic islets constitute approximately 4.5% of the pancreas volume and receive 10-15% of its blood flow. The islets of Langerhans are arranged in density routes throughout the healthy human pancreas.

text: The hypothalamus receives many inputs from the brainstem, the most notable from the nucleus of the solitary tract, the locus coeruleus, and the ventrolateral medulla.

text: The hypothalamus receives many inputs from the

entity_name: Brainstem

text: brainstem

text: , the most notable from the

entity_name: Solitary nucleus

text: nucleus of the solitary tract

text: , the

entity_name: Locus coeruleus

text: locus coeruleus

text: , and the

entity_name: Anatomical terms of location

text: ventrolateral

entity_name: Medulla oblongata

text: medulla

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The pancreas is a major organ functioning as an accessory digestive gland in the digestive system. It is both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland. The endocrine part secretes insulin when the blood sugar becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The endocrine part releases glucagon when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into glucose by the liver in order to re–balance the sugar levels. The pancreas produces and releases important digestive enzymes in the pancreatic juice that it delivers to the duodenum. The pancreas lies below and at the back of the stomach. It connects to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct which it joins near to the bile duct's connection where both the bile and pancreatic juice can act on the chyme that is released from the stomach into the duodenum. Aqueous pancreatic secretions from pancreatic duct cells contain bicarbonate ions which are alkaline and help with the bile to neutralise the acidic chyme that is churned out by the stomach.

text: The

text: pancreas

text: is a major organ functioning as an accessory digestive gland in the digestive system. It is both an

entity_name: Endocrine gland

text: endocrine gland

text: and an

entity_name: Exocrine gland

text: exocrine gland

text: . The endocrine part secretes

entity_name: Insulin

text: insulin

text: when the

entity_name: Blood sugar

text: blood sugar

text: becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The endocrine part releases

entity_name: Glucagon

text: glucagon

text: when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into

entity_name: Glucose

text: glucose

text: by the liver in order to re–balance the sugar levels. The pancreas produces and releases important digestive enzymes in the

entity_name: Pancreatic juice

text: pancreatic juice

text: that it delivers to the duodenum. The pancreas lies below and at the back of the stomach. It connects to the duodenum via the

entity_name: Pancreatic duct

text: pancreatic duct

text: which it joins near to the bile duct's connection where both the bile and pancreatic juice can act on the

entity_name: Chyme

text: chyme

text: that is released from the stomach into the duodenum. Aqueous pancreatic secretions from

entity_name: Centroacinar cell

text: pancreatic duct cell

text: s contain

entity_name: Bicarbonate

text: bicarbonate

text: ions which are alkaline and help with the bile to neutralise the acidic chyme that is churned out by the stomach.

method: UNH-ecn

text: The endocrine system is the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs. The phenomenon of biochemical processes' serving to regulate distant tissues by means of secretions directly into the circulatory system is called endocrine signaling. The major endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, and adrenal glands.  The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using ducts. The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different.  The endocrine system's effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a few hours up to weeks.  The nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived.  In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.

text: The endocrine system is the collection of

entity_name: Gland

text: gland

text: s of an organism that

entity_name: Secretion

text: secrete

entity_name: Hormone

text: hormone

text: s directly into the

entity_name: Circulatory system

text: circulatory system

text: to be carried towards distant target organs. The phenomenon of biochemical processes' serving to regulate distant tissues by means of secretions directly into the circulatory system is called endocrine signaling. The major

text: endocrine gland

text: s include the

entity_name: Pineal gland

text: pineal gland

entity_name: Pituitary gland

text: pituitary gland

text: pancreas

entity_name: Ovary

text: ovaries

entity_name: Testicle

text: testes

entity_name: Thyroid

text: thyroid gland

entity_name: Parathyroid gland

text: parathyroid gland

text: , and

entity_name: Adrenal gland

text: adrenal gland

text: s.  The endocrine system is in contrast to the

text: exocrine system

text: , which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using

entity_name: Duct (anatomy)

text: ducts

text: . The endocrine system is an information signal system like the nervous system, yet its effects and mechanism are classifiably different.  The endocrine system's effects are slow to initiate, and prolonged in their response, lasting from a few hours up to weeks.  The nervous system sends information very quickly, and responses are generally short lived.  In

entity_name: Vertebrate

text: vertebrate

text: s, the

entity_name: Hypothalamus

text: hypothalamus

text: is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is

entity_name: Endocrinology

text: endocrinology

text: , a branch of

entity_name: Internal medicine

text: internal medicine

text: .Special features of

text: endocrine gland

text: s are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast,

text: exocrine gland

text: s, such as

entity_name: Salivary gland

text: salivary gland

text: s,

entity_name: Sweat gland

text: sweat gland

text: s, and

text: glands

text: within the

entity_name: Gastrointestinal tract

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow

entity_name: Lumen (anatomy)

text: lumen

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: The dorsolateral striatum is associated with the acquisition of habits and is the main neuronal cell nucleus linked to procedural memory. Connecting excitatory afferent nerve fibers help in the regulation of activity in the basal ganglia circuit. Essentially, two parallel information processing pathways diverge from the striatum, both acting in opposition to each other in the control of movement, they allow for association with other needed functional structures One pathway is direct while the other is indirect and all pathways work together to allow for a functional neural feedback loop. Many looping circuits connect back at the striatum from other areas of the brain; including those from the emotion-center linked limbic cortex, the reward-center linked ventral striatum and other important motor regions related to movement. The main looping circuit involved in the motor skill part of procedural memory is usually called the cortex-basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex loop.

text: The

text: dorsolateral

text: striatum is associated with the acquisition of habits and is the main neuronal cell nucleus linked to procedural memory. Connecting excitatory

text: afferent nerve fiber

text: s help in the regulation of activity in the basal ganglia circuit. Essentially, two parallel information processing pathways diverge from the striatum, both acting in opposition to each other in the control of movement, they allow for association with other needed functional structures One pathway is direct while the other is indirect and all pathways work together to allow for a functional neural feedback loop. Many looping circuits connect back at the striatum from other areas of the brain; including those from the emotion-center linked limbic cortex, the reward-center linked

text: ventral striatum

text: and other important motor regions related to movement. The main looping circuit involved in the motor skill part of procedural memory is usually called the cortex-basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex loop.

text: The primary function is to determine loop dynamics, also called stability.  This is how the loop responds to disturbances, such as changes in the reference frequency, changes of the feedback divider, or at startup.  Common considerations are the range over which the loop can achieve lock (pull-in range, lock range or capture range), how fast the loop achieves lock (lock time, lock-up time or settling time) and damping behavior.  Depending on the application, this may require one or more of the following: a simple proportion (gain or attenuation), an integral (low pass filter) and/or derivative (high pass filter).  Loop parameters commonly examined for this are the loop's gain margin and phase margin.  Common concepts in control theory including the PID controller are used to design this function.

text: The primary function is to determine loop dynamics, also called

text: stability

text: .  This is how the loop responds to disturbances, such as changes in the reference frequency, changes of the feedback divider, or at startup.  Common considerations are the range over which the loop can achieve lock (pull-in range, lock range or capture range), how fast the loop achieves lock (lock time, lock-up time or

text: settling time

text: ) and

text: damping

text: behavior.  Depending on the application, this may require one or more of the following: a simple proportion (gain or attenuation), an

text: integral

text: (low pass filter) and/or

text: derivative

text: high pass filter

text: ).  Loop parameters commonly examined for this are the loop's

text: gain margin

text: and

text: phase margin

text: .  Common concepts in

text: control theory

text: including the

text: PID controller

text: are used to design this function.

text: Ovulation is based on a monthly cycle; the 14th day is the most fertile. On days one to four, menstruation and production of estrogen and progesterone decreases, and the endometrium starts thinning. The endometrium is sloughed off for the next three to six days. Once menstruation ends, the cycle begins again with an FSH surge from the pituitary gland. Days five to thirteen are known as the pre-ovulatory stage. During this stage, the pituitary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). A negative feedback loop is enacted when estrogen is secreted to inhibit the release of FSH. Estrogen thickens the endometrium of the uterus. A surge of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) triggers ovulation. On day 14, the LH surge causes a Graafian follicle to surface the ovary. The follicle ruptures and the ripe ovum is expelled into the abdominal cavity. The fallopian tubes pick up the ovum with the fimbria. The cervical mucus changes to aid the movement of sperm. On days 15 to 28—the post-ovulatory stage, the Graafian follicle—now called the corpus luteum—secretes estrogen. Production of progesterone increases, inhibiting LH release. The endometrium thickens to prepare for implantation, and the ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the ovum is not fertilized and does not implant, menstruation begins.

text: Ovulation is based on a monthly cycle; the 14th day is the most fertile. On days one to four, menstruation and production of estrogen and progesterone decreases, and the endometrium starts thinning. The endometrium is sloughed off for the next three to six days. Once menstruation ends, the cycle begins again with an FSH surge from the pituitary gland. Days five to thirteen are known as the pre-ovulatory stage. During this stage, the pituitary gland secretes

text: follicle-stimulating hormone

text: (FSH). A negative feedback loop is enacted when estrogen is secreted to inhibit the release of FSH. Estrogen thickens the endometrium of the uterus. A surge of

text: Luteinizing Hormone

text: (LH) triggers ovulation. On day 14, the LH surge causes a Graafian follicle to surface the ovary. The follicle ruptures and the ripe ovum is expelled into the abdominal cavity. The fallopian tubes pick up the ovum with the

text: fimbria

text: . The cervical mucus changes to aid the movement of sperm. On days 15 to 28—the post-ovulatory stage, the Graafian follicle—now called the

text: corpus luteum

text: —secretes estrogen. Production of progesterone increases, inhibiting LH release. The endometrium thickens to prepare for implantation, and the ovum travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus. If the ovum is not fertilized and does not implant, menstruation begins.

text: Hoff wrote more than 500 papers on psychiatry and neurology, including ten books. In his scientific work, he focused on experimental encephalitis studies, postural reflexes, psychosomatic problems, the influence of hypnotic orders on gastric and intestinal function, the psycho-vegetative circuit, the influence of endocrine glands by psychological factors, and the function of the hypothalamus , The central nervous system of the metabolism and the endocrine glands, brainpathological phenomena, the function of the frontal, thalamic and cerebellum, time lapse phenomena, nervous vascular regulation, sleep studies, adrenal disturbances in infectious diseases, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, psychopathy, The alcoholism.

text: 24. Veldhuis JD, Roemmich JN, Richmond EJ, Rogol AD, Lovejoy JC, Sheffield-Moore M, Mauras N, Bowers CY. Endocrine Control of Body Composition in Infancy, Childhood, and Puberty. Endoc Rev 2005; 26:114-146.

text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) (also known as "Pheochromocytoma and amyloid producing medullary thyroid carcinoma", "PTC syndrome," and "Sipple syndrome") is a group of medical disorders associated with tumors of the endocrine system. The tumors may be benign or malignant (cancer).  They generally occur in endocrine organs (e.g. thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenals), but may also occur in endocrine tissues of organs not classically thought of as endocrine.

text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2) (also known as "

text: Pheochromocytoma

text: and amyloid producing medullary thyroid carcinoma", "PTC syndrome," and "Sipple syndrome") is a group of medical disorders associated with

text: tumors

text: of the

text: endocrine system

text: . The tumors may be

text: benign

text: or malignant (

text: cancer

text: ).  They generally occur in endocrine organs (e.g.

text: thyroid

text: parathyroid

text: , and

text: adrenals

text: ), but may also occur in endocrine tissues of organs not classically thought of as endocrine.

text: For steroid or thyroid hormones, their receptors are located inside the cell within the cytoplasm of the target cell. These receptors belong to the  nuclear receptor family of ligand-activated transcription factors. To bind their receptors, these hormones must first cross the cell membrane. They can do so because they are lipid-soluble. The combined hormone-receptor complex then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific DNA sequences, regulating the expression of certain genes, and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located inside the cell. Some are associated with the plasma membrane.

text: For

text: steroid

text: or

text: thyroid

text: hormones, their

text: receptors

text: are located

text: inside the cell

text: within the

text: cytoplasm

text: of the target cell. These receptors belong to the

text: nuclear receptor

text: family of ligand-activated

text: transcription factor

text: s. To bind their receptors, these hormones must first cross the cell membrane. They can do so because they are lipid-soluble. The combined hormone-receptor

text: complex

text: then moves across the nuclear membrane into the nucleus of the cell, where it binds to specific

text: DNA sequences

text: , regulating the expression of certain

text: genes

text: , and thereby increasing the levels of the proteins encoded by these genes. However, it has been shown that not all steroid receptors are located inside the cell. Some are associated with the

text: plasma membrane

text: Some in the scientific community are concerned that exposure to endocrine disruptors in the womb or early in life may be  associated with neurodevelopmental disorders including reduced IQ, ADHD, and autism. Certain cancers and uterine abnormalities in women are associated with exposure to Diethylstilbestrol (DES) in the womb due to DES used as a medical treatment.

text: Some in the scientific community are concerned that exposure to endocrine disruptors in the womb or early in life may be  associated with neurodevelopmental disorders including reduced IQ,

entity_name: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: ADHD

text: , and

text: autism

text: . Certain cancers and uterine abnormalities in women are associated with exposure to

text: Diethylstilbestrol

text: (DES) in the womb due to DES used as a medical treatment.

text: Today, neuroendocrinology embraces a wide range of topics that arose directly or indirectly from the core concept of neuroendocrine neurons. Neuroendocrine neurons control the gonads, whose steroids, in turn, influence the brain, as do corticosteroids secreted from the adrenal gland under the influence of adrenocorticotrophic hormone. The study of these feedbacks became the province of neuroendocrinologists. The peptides secreted by hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons into the blood proved to be released also into the brain, and the central actions often appeared to complement the peripheral actions. So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the peripheral nervous system, regulating, for instance, digestion. The cells in the adrenal medulla that release adrenaline and noradrenaline proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for instance for the study of the molecular mechanisms of exocytosis. And these, too, have become, by extension, neuroendocrine systems.

text: Today, neuroendocrinology embraces a wide range of topics that arose directly or indirectly from the core concept of neuroendocrine neurons. Neuroendocrine neurons control the

text: gonads

text: , whose

text: steroids

text: , in turn, influence the brain, as do

text: corticosteroids

text: secreted from the

text: adrenal gland

text: under the influence of adrenocorticotrophic hormone. The study of these feedbacks became the province of neuroendocrinologists. The peptides secreted by hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons into the blood proved to be released also into the brain, and the central actions often appeared to complement the peripheral actions. So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , regulating, for instance,

text: digestion

text: . The cells in the

text: adrenal medulla

text: that release

text: adrenaline

text: and

text: noradrenaline

text: proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for instance for the study of the molecular mechanisms of

text: exocytosis

text: . And these, too, have become, by extension, neuroendocrine systems.

text: One use of feedback is to make a system (say T) self-regulating to minimize the effect of a disturbance (say D). Using a negative feedback loop, a measurement of some variable (for example, a  process variable, say E) is subtracted from a required value (the 'set point') to estimate an operational error in system status, which is then used by a regulator (say R) to reduce the gap between the measurement and the required value. The regulator modifies the input to the system T according to its interpretation of the error in the status of the system.  This error may be introduced by a variety of possible disturbances or 'upsets', some slow and some rapid. The regulation in such systems can range from a simple 'on-off' control to a more complex processing of the error signal.

text: One use of feedback is to make a system (say T)

text: self-regulating

text: to minimize the effect of a disturbance (say D). Using a negative feedback loop, a measurement of some variable (for example, a

text: process variable

text: , say E) is

text: subtracted

text: from a required value (the

text: 'set point'

text: ) to estimate an operational error in system status, which is then used by a

text: regulator

text: (say R) to reduce the gap between the measurement and the required value. The regulator modifies the input to the system T according to its interpretation of the error in the status of the system.  This error may be introduced by a variety of possible disturbances or 'upsets', some slow and some rapid. The

text: regulation

text: in such systems can range from a simple 'on-off' control to a more complex processing of the error signal.

text: Arup Ratan Choudhury (born 23 January 1952) is a Bangladeshi dental specialist and media personality. He is currently the head and senior consultant at the Department of Dentistry, Bangladesh Institute of Research and Rehabilitation for Diabetes, Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders (BIRDEM).

text: Arup Ratan Choudhury (born 23 January 1952) is a Bangladeshi dental specialist and media personality. He is currently the head and senior consultant at the Department of Dentistry,

text: Bangladesh Institute of Research and Rehabilitation for Diabetes, Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders

text: (BIRDEM).

text: Endocrine myopathies – thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pituitary disorders

text: Feedback is extensively used in control theory, using a variety of methods including state space (controls), full state feedback (also known as pole placement), and so forth. Note that in the context of control theory, "feedback" is traditionally assumed to specify "negative feedback".The most common general-purpose controller using a control-loop feedback mechanism is a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the present error, the integral term on the accumulation of past errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of future error, based on current rate of change.

text: Feedback is extensively used in control theory, using a variety of methods including

text: state space (controls)

text: full state feedback

text: (also known as pole placement), and so forth. Note that in the context of control theory, "feedback" is traditionally assumed to specify "negative feedback".The most common general-purpose

text: controller

text: using a control-loop feedback mechanism is a

text: proportional-integral-derivative

text: (PID) controller. Heuristically, the terms of a PID controller can be interpreted as corresponding to time: the proportional term depends on the present error, the integral term on the accumulation of past errors, and the derivative term is a prediction of future error, based on current rate of change.

text: The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.

text: The typical mode of

text: cell signaling

text: in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and

text: neuroendocrine

text: signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between

text: neurons

text: , on the other hand, belongs completely to the

text: nervous system

text: Boussora left Tunisia in 1988, and moved to France. In 1991 he moved to Montreal, Quebec, Canada on a student visa, where he attended the Assuna Mosque, and may have met with Raouf Hannachi. Living in a Montreal suite, he continued making routine trips back home to Tunisia until 1999, when he received Canadian citizenship, and left Canada for an undisclosed location. Believed to have a serious pituitary gland illness causing "extremely poor health", authorities allege he trained at an Afghan training camp before subsequently returning to Canada.

text: Boussora left Tunisia in 1988, and moved to France. In 1991 he moved to

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: Canada

text: on a

text: student visa

text: , where he attended the

text: Assuna Mosque

text: , and may have met with

text: Raouf Hannachi

text: . Living in a Montreal

text: suite

text: , he continued making routine trips back home to Tunisia until 1999, when he received

text: Canadian citizen

text: ship, and left Canada for an undisclosed location. Believed to have a serious

text: pituitary gland

text: illness causing "extremely poor health", authorities allege he trained at an

text: Afghan training camp

text: before subsequently returning to Canada.

text: The feedback loop can be summarized in a list, including phenomena belonging to each part of the loop:

text: Oxytocin and vasopressin (also called anti-diuretic hormone), the two peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary gland (the neurohypophysis), are secreted from the nerve endings of magnocellular neuroendocrine cells into the systemic circulation. The cell bodies of the oxytocin and vasopressin neurons are in the paraventricular nucleus and supraoptic nucleus, respectively, and the electrical activity of these neurons is regulated by afferent synaptic inputs from other brain regions. By contrast, the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland (the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (adrenocorticotrophic hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, prolactin, and growth hormone) remains under the control of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary gland via releasing factors and release-inhibiting factors; these are blood-borne substances  [author means via bloodstream and not by the lymphatic system nor air, nor any other modes of transport] released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels at the base of the brain, at the median eminence. These vessels, the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels, carry the hypothalamic factors to the anterior pituitary, where they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the hormone-producing cells.

text: Oxytocin

text: and

text: vasopressin

text: (also called anti-diuretic hormone), the two

text: peptide hormones

text: of the

text: posterior pituitary gland

text: (the neurohypophysis), are secreted from the nerve endings of magnocellular

text: neuroendocrine cell

text: s into the systemic circulation. The cell bodies of the oxytocin and vasopressin neurons are in the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: and

text: supraoptic nucleus

text: , respectively, and the electrical activity of these neurons is regulated by

text: afferent synaptic inputs

text: from other brain regions. By contrast, the hormones of the

text: anterior pituitary gland

text: (the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (

text: adrenocorticotrophic hormone

text: , luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone,

text: prolactin

text: , and

text: growth hormone

text: ) remains under the control of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary gland via releasing factors and release-inhibiting factors; these are blood-borne substances  [author means via bloodstream and not by the lymphatic system nor air, nor any other modes of transport] released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels at the base of the brain, at the

text: median eminence

text: . These vessels, the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels, carry the hypothalamic factors to the anterior pituitary, where they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the hormone-producing cells.

text: Receptors for most peptide as well as many eicosanoid hormones are embedded in the plasma membrane at the surface of the cell and the majority of these receptors belong to the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) class of seven alpha helix transmembrane proteins.  The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell, often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as secondary messengers (e.g., cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.

text: Receptors for most

text: peptide

text: as well as many

text: eicosanoid

text: hormones are embedded in the

text: plasma membrane

text: at the surface of the cell and the majority of these receptors belong to the

text: G protein-coupled receptor

text: (GPCR) class of seven

text: alpha helix

text: transmembrane

text: proteins.  The interaction of hormone and receptor typically triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the

text: cytoplasm

text: of the cell, often involving

text: phosphorylation

text: or dephosphorylation of various other cytoplasmic proteins, changes in

text: ion channel

text: permeability, or increased concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as

text: secondary messengers

text: (e.g.,

text: cyclic AMP

text: ). Some

text: protein hormone

text: s also interact with

text: intracellular

text: receptors located in the

text: cytoplasm

text: or

text: nucleus

text: by an

text: intracrine

text: mechanism.

text: A feedback closed-loop system has a feed-back mechanism that directly relates the input and output signals. The feed-back mechanism monitors the output variable and determines if additional correction is required. The output variable value that is fed backward is used to initiate that corrective action on a regulator.   Most control loops in the industry are of the feedback type.

text: Four of the six anterior pituitary hormones are tropic hormones that regulate the function of other endocrine organs. Most anterior pituitary hormones exhibit a diurnal rhythm of release, which is subject to modification by stimuli influencing the hypothalamus.

text: Four of the six anterior pituitary hormones are

text: tropic hormone

text: s that regulate the function of other endocrine organs. Most anterior pituitary hormones exhibit a diurnal rhythm of release, which is subject to modification by stimuli influencing the hypothalamus.

text: The pituitary gland, in humans, is a pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica. It is composed of three lobes: anterior, intermediate, and posterior. In many animals, these three lobes are distinct. The intermediate lobe is present in many species, in particular in rodents, mice and rats, that have been used extensively to study pituitary development and function. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary, which is an extension of the hypothalamus.

text: The pituitary gland, in humans, is a pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the

text: sella turcica

text: . It is composed of three lobes:

text: anterior

text: intermediate

text: , and

text: posterior

text: . In many animals, these three lobes are distinct. The intermediate lobe is present in many species, in particular in rodents, mice and rats, that have been used extensively to study pituitary development and function. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular

text: anterior pituitary

text: is distinct from the neural composition of the

text: posterior pituitary

text: , which is an extension of the

text: hypothalamus

text: Ketu is considered responsible for moksha, sannyasa, self-realization, gnana, a wavering nature, restlessness, the endocrine system and slender physique.

text: Ketu is considered responsible for

text: moksha

text: sannyasa

text: , self-realization,

text: gnana

text: , a wavering nature, restlessness, the endocrine system and slender physique.

text: The pancreas is composed of two sections: the smaller endocrine portion, which is responsible for producing hormones such as insulin, somatostatin, and glucagon, and the larger, exocrine portion, which produces enzymes needed for the digestion of food. Acinar cells make up 82% of the total pancreas; these cells are responsible for the production of the digestive enzymes.

text: The pancreas is composed of two sections: the smaller

text: endocrine

text: portion, which is responsible for producing

text: hormone

text: s such as

text: insulin

text: somatostatin

text: , and

text: glucagon

text: , and the larger,

text: exocrine

text: portion, which produces

text: enzyme

text: s needed for the

text: digestion

text: of food.

text: Acinar cells

text: make up 82% of the total pancreas; these cells are responsible for the production of the digestive enzymes.

text: The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica (Turkish chair/saddle). It is composed of three lobes: the anterior, intermediate, and posterior lobes. In many animals, these lobes are distinct. However, in humans, the intermediate lobe is but a few cell layers thick and indistinct; as a result, it is often considered as part of the anterior pituitary. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary.

text: The

text: pituitary gland

text: is a pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the

text: sella turcica

text: (Turkish chair/saddle). It is composed of three lobes: the anterior, intermediate, and posterior lobes. In many animals, these lobes are distinct. However, in humans, the intermediate lobe is but a few cell layers thick and indistinct; as a result, it is often considered as part of the anterior pituitary. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the

text: neural

text: composition of the

text: posterior pituitary

text: Condition such as pancreatic cancer or ovarian cancer can be considered endocrine tumors, or classified under other systems.

text: Condition such as

text: pancreatic cancer

text: or

text: ovarian cancer

text: can be considered endocrine tumors, or classified under other systems.

text: Feedback loops can be used for amplification (positive) or self-correction (negative). The right combination of positive and negative feedback loops can generate ultrasensitivity and bistability, which in turn can generate decisive transitions and oscillations.

text: In the hypothalamus, oxytocin is made in magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, and is stored in Herring bodies at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland. These axons (likely, but dendrites have not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate neurons in the nucleus accumbens, a brain structure where oxytocin receptors are expressed. The endocrine effects of hormonal oxytocin and the cognitive or behavioral effects of oxytocin neuropeptides are thought to be coordinated through its common release through these collaterals. Oxytocin is also produced by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord. Depending on the species, oxytocin receptor-expressing cells are located in other areas, including the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis.

text: In the

text: hypothalamus

text: , oxytocin is made in

text: magnocellular neurosecretory cell

text: s of the

text: supraoptic

text: and

text: paraventricular

text: nuclei, and is stored in

text: Herring bodies

text: at the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary. It is then released into the blood from the

text: posterior lobe

text: neurohypophysis

text: ) of the

text: pituitary gland

text: . These

text: axons

text: (likely, but

text: dendrites

text: have not been ruled out) have collaterals that innervate neurons in the

text: nucleus accumbens

text: , a brain structure where oxytocin receptors are expressed. The

text: endocrine

text: effects of hormonal oxytocin and the cognitive or behavioral effects of oxytocin

text: neuropeptide

text: s are thought to be coordinated through its common release through these collaterals. Oxytocin is also produced by some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord. Depending on the species, oxytocin receptor-expressing cells are located in other areas, including the

text: amygdala

text: and

entity_section: Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST)

text: bed nucleus

text: of the

text: stria terminalis

text: Classic hormones circulate in nanomolar (10 M) concentrations that usually vary by less than one order of magnitude. In contrast, some cytokines (such as IL-6) circulate in picomolar (10 M) concentrations that can increase up to 1,000-fold during trauma or infection. The widespread distribution of cellular sources for cytokines may be a feature that differentiates them from hormones. Virtually all nucleated cells, but especially endo/epithelial cells and resident macrophages (many near the interface with the external environment) are potent producers of IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α. In contrast, classic hormones, such as insulin, are secreted from discrete glands (e.g., the pancreas). As of 2008, the current terminology refers to cytokines as immunomodulating agents. However, more research is needed in this area of defining cytokines and hormones.

text: Classic hormones circulate in nanomolar (10 M) concentrations that usually vary by less than one order of magnitude. In contrast, some cytokines (such as IL-6) circulate in picomolar (10 M) concentrations that can increase up to 1,000-fold during trauma or infection. The widespread distribution of cellular sources for cytokines may be a feature that differentiates them from hormones. Virtually all nucleated cells, but especially endo/epithelial cells and resident

text: macrophage

text: s (many near the interface with the external environment) are potent producers of

text: , and

text: TNF-α

text: . In contrast, classic hormones, such as insulin, are secreted from discrete glands (e.g., the

text: pancrea

text: s). As of 2008, the current terminology refers to cytokines as immunomodulating agents. However, more research is needed in this area of defining cytokines and hormones.

text: Found in many household and industrial products, endocrine disruptors are substances that "interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for development, behavior, fertility, and maintenance of homeostasis (normal cell metabolism)." They are sometimes also referred to as hormonally active agents, endocrine disrupting chemicals, or endocrine disrupting compounds.

text: Found in many household and industrial products, endocrine disruptors are substances that "interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or elimination of natural

text: hormone

text: s in the body that are responsible for development, behavior, fertility, and maintenance of homeostasis (normal cell metabolism)." They are sometimes also referred to as hormonally active agents, endocrine disrupting chemicals, or endocrine disrupting compounds.

text: Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Physiology studies how for example nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact.

text: Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into

text: plant physiology

text: and

text: animal physiology

text: , but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular

text: organism

text: is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of

text: yeast

text: cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of

text: human physiology

text: to non-human species. Physiology studies how for example

text: nervous

text: immune

text: endocrine

text: respiratory

text: , and

text: circulatory

text: systems, function and interact.

text: All people are exposed to chemicals with estrogenic effects in their everyday life, because endocrine disrupting chemicals are found in low doses in thousands of products. Chemicals commonly detected in people include DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), bisphenol A (BPA), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE's), and a variety of phthalates. In fact, almost all plastic products, including those advertised as "BPA free", have been found to leach endocrine-disrupting chemicals.  In a 2011, study it was found that some "BPA-free" products released more endocrine active chemicals than the BPA-containing products.

text: All people are exposed to chemicals with estrogenic effects in their everyday life, because endocrine disrupting chemicals are found in low doses in thousands of products. Chemicals commonly detected in people include

text: DDT

text: polychlorinated biphenyl

text: s (PCB's),

text: bisphenol A

text: (BPA),

text: polybrominated diphenyl ethers

text: (PBDE's), and a variety of

text: phthalate

text: s. In fact, almost all plastic products, including those advertised as "BPA free", have been found to leach endocrine-disrupting chemicals.  In a 2011, study it was found that some "BPA-free" products released more endocrine active chemicals than the BPA-containing products.

text: As with most things related to the reproductive system, folliculogenesis is controlled by the endocrine system. Five hormones participate in an intricate process of positive and negative feedback to regulate folliculogenesis. They are:

text: As with most things related to the reproductive system, folliculogenesis is controlled by the

text: endocrine system

text: . Five hormones participate in an intricate process of positive and negative feedback to regulate folliculogenesis. They are:

text: There is some evidence that major depression may be caused in part by an overactive hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) that results in an effect similar to the neuro-endocrine response to stress. Investigations reveal increased levels of the hormone cortisol and enlarged pituitary and adrenal glands, suggesting disturbances of the endocrine system may play a role in some psychiatric disorders, including major depression. Oversecretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus is thought to drive this, and is implicated in the cognitive and arousal symptoms.

text: There is some evidence that major depression may be caused in part by an overactive

text: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

text: (HPA axis) that results in an effect similar to the neuro-endocrine response to stress. Investigations reveal increased levels of the hormone

text: cortisol

text: and enlarged pituitary and adrenal glands, suggesting disturbances of the

text: endocrine system

text: may play a role in some psychiatric disorders, including major depression. Oversecretion of

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: from the

text: hypothalamus

text: is thought to drive this, and is implicated in the cognitive and arousal symptoms.

text: In the late 1960s, Alexander Schauss, Director of Life Sciences at the American Institute for Biosocial Research in Tacoma, Washington, did studies on psychological and physiological responses to the color pink.  Schauss had read studies by the Swiss psychiatrist Max Luscher, who believed that color preferences provided clues about one's personality.  Luscher noticed that color preferences shifted according to psychological and physiological fluctuations in his patients.   Luscher asserted that color choice reflects emotional states.  He theorized that one's color choices reflect corresponding changes in the endocrine system, which produces hormones.

text: In the late 1960s,

text: Alexander Schauss

text: , Director of Life Sciences at the American Institute for Biosocial Research in

text: Tacoma, Washington

text: , did studies on psychological and physiological responses to the

text: color

text: pink

text: .  Schauss had read studies by the Swiss psychiatrist

text: Max Luscher

text: , who believed that color preferences provided clues about one's

text: personality

text: .  Luscher noticed that color preferences shifted according to psychological and physiological fluctuations in his patients.   Luscher asserted that color choice reflects emotional states.  He theorized that one's color choices reflect corresponding changes in the

text: endocrine system

text: , which produces

text: hormones

text: While it has been difficult to establish specific health effects in humans due to the lack of controlled dose experiments, studies in animals have shown that dioxin causes a wide variety of toxic effects. In particular, TCDD (see this) has been shown to be teratogenic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic, and hepatotoxic. Furthermore, alterations in multiple endocrine and growth factor systems have been reported. The most sensitive effects, observed in multiple species, appear to be developmental, including effects on the developing immune, nervous, and reproductive systems. The most sensitive effects are caused at body burdens relatively close to those reported in humans.

text: While it has been difficult to establish specific health effects in humans due to the lack of controlled dose experiments, studies in animals have shown that dioxin causes a wide variety of toxic effects. In particular,

text: TCDD

text: (see this) has been shown to be

text: teratogenic

text: mutagenic

text: carcinogenic

text: immunotoxic

text: , and

text: hepatotoxic

text: . Furthermore, alterations in multiple

text: endocrine

text: and

text: growth factor

text: systems have been reported. The most sensitive effects, observed in multiple species, appear to be developmental, including effects on the developing

text: immune

text: nervous

text: , and

text: reproductive system

text: s. The most sensitive effects are caused at

text: body burden

text: s relatively close to those reported in humans.

text: Assessment of the stability of a closed-loop negative feedback system is done by applying the Nyquist stability criterion to the Nyquist plot of the open-loop system (i.e. the same system without its feedback loop). This method is easily applicable even for systems with delays and other non-rational transfer functions, which may appear difficult to analyze by means of other methods. Stability is determined by looking at the number of encirclements of the point at (-1,0). The range of gains over which the system will be stable can be determined by looking at crossings of the real axis.

text: Assessment of the stability of a closed-loop

text: negative feedback

text: system is done by applying the

text: Nyquist stability criterion

text: to the Nyquist plot of the open-loop system (i.e. the same system without its

text: feedback loop

text: ). This method is easily applicable even for systems with delays and other non-rational transfer functions, which may appear difficult to analyze by means of other methods. Stability is determined by looking at the number of encirclements of the point at (-1,0). The range of gains over which the system will be stable can be determined by looking at crossings of the real axis.

text: Nongoitrous congenital hypothyroidism has been described as the "most prevalent inborn endocrine disorder".

text: Upon secretion, certain hormones, including protein hormones and catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. Other hormones, including steroid and thyroid hormones, are lipid-soluble; to allow for their widespread distribution, these hormones must bond to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to form ligand-protein complexes. Some hormones are completely active when released into the bloodstream (as is the case for insulin and growth hormones), while others are prohormones that must be activated in specific cells through a series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated. The endocrine system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream typically into fenestrated capillaries, whereas the exocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly using ducts. Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial spaces to nearby target tissue.

text: Upon secretion, certain hormones, including protein hormones and catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the circulatory system. Other hormones, including steroid and thyroid hormones, are lipid-soluble; to allow for their widespread distribution, these hormones must bond to

text: carrier plasma glycoprotein

text: s (e.g.,

text: thyroxine-binding globulin

text: (TBG)) to form

text: ligand

text: -protein complexes. Some hormones are completely active when released into the bloodstream (as is the case for insulin and growth hormones), while others are

text: prohormone

text: s that must be activated in specific cells through a series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated. The

text: endocrine system

text: secrete

text: s hormones directly into the

text: bloodstream

text: typically into

text: fenestrated capillaries

text: , whereas the

text: exocrine system

text: secretes its hormones indirectly using

text: ducts

text: . Hormones with

text: paracrine

text: function diffuse through the

text: interstitial space

text: s to nearby target tissue.

text: The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG axis) refers to the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonadal glands as if these individual endocrine glands were a single entity. Because these glands often act in concert, physiologists and endocrinologists find it convenient and descriptive to speak of them as a single system.

text: The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG axis) refers to the

text: hypothalamus

text: pituitary gland

text: , and

text: gonadal glands

text: as if these individual

text: endocrine gland

text: s were a single entity. Because these glands often act in concert,

text: physiologists

text: and

text: endocrinologists

text: find it convenient and descriptive to speak of them as a single system.

text: The New American Diet describes obesogens as natural and artificial endocrine-disrupting chemicals found in the American food and water supply. These include certain plastic-based compounds, pesticides, naturally occurring chemicals found in soy products, and growth hormones fed to livestock. By disrupting the delicate balance of the endocrine (hormonal) system within the human body, obesogens can trigger an unnatural increase in fat cells, as well as interfering with the body's ability to process leptin, the hormone that triggers feelings of satiation. As a solution, the authors propose a prescriptive diet plan based around environmentally conscious meats, fish, produce and dairy products. In a test, 400 volunteers signed up for the diet plan. Those who stuck with the plan for six weeks reported an average weight loss of 15 pounds.

text: The New American Diet describes obesogens as natural and artificial endocrine-disrupting chemicals found in the American food and water supply. These include certain plastic-based compounds,

text: pesticides

text: , naturally occurring chemicals found in soy products, and growth hormones fed to livestock. By disrupting the delicate balance of the

text: endocrine (hormonal) system

text: within the human body, obesogens can trigger an unnatural increase in fat cells, as well as interfering with the body's ability to process leptin, the hormone that triggers feelings of satiation. As a solution, the authors propose a prescriptive diet plan based around environmentally conscious meats, fish, produce and dairy products. In a test, 400 volunteers signed up for the diet plan. Those who stuck with the plan for six weeks reported an average weight loss of 15 pounds.

text: The pituitary gland is formed within the rostral neural plate. The Rathke’s pouch, a cavity of ectodermal cells of the oropharynx, forms between the fourth and fifth week of gestation and upon full development, it gives rise to the anterior pituitary gland. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary vascular system begins to develop. During the first 12 weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary undergoes cellular differentiation. At 20 weeks of gestation, the hypophyseal portal system has developed. The Rathke’s pouch grows towards the third ventricle and fuses with the diverticulum. This eliminates the lumen and the structure becomes Rathke’s cleft. The posterior pituitary lobe is formed from the diverticulum. Portions of the pituitary tissue may remain in the nasopharyngeal midline. In rare cases this results in functioning ectopic hormone-secreting tumors in the nasopharynx.

text: The

text: pituitary gland

text: is formed within the rostral neural plate. The Rathke’s pouch, a cavity of ectodermal cells of the

text: oropharynx

text: , forms between the fourth and fifth week of gestation and upon full development, it gives rise to the anterior pituitary gland. By seven weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary vascular system begins to develop. During the first 12 weeks of gestation, the anterior pituitary undergoes cellular differentiation. At 20 weeks of gestation, the

text: hypophyseal portal system

text: has developed. The Rathke’s pouch grows towards the third ventricle and fuses with the diverticulum. This eliminates the lumen and the structure becomes Rathke’s cleft. The posterior pituitary lobe is formed from the diverticulum. Portions of the pituitary tissue may remain in the nasopharyngeal midline. In rare cases this results in functioning ectopic hormone-secreting tumors in the nasopharynx.

text: Commercial CNC metalworking machines use closed loop feedback controls for axis movement.  In a closed loop system, the control is aware of the actual position of the axis at all times.  With proper control programming, this will reduce the possibility of a crash, but it is still up to the operator and programmer to ensure that the machine is operated in a safe manner. However, during the 2000s and 2010s, the software for machining simulation has been maturing rapidly, and it is no longer uncommon for the entire machine tool envelope (including all axes, spindles, chucks, turrets, tool holders, tailstocks, fixtures, clamps, and stock) to be modeled accurately with 3D solid models, which allows the simulation software to predict fairly accurately whether a cycle will involve a crash. Although such simulation is not new, its accuracy and market penetration are changing considerably because of computing advancements.

text: Commercial CNC metalworking machines use closed loop feedback controls for axis movement.  In a closed loop system, the control is aware of the actual position of the axis at all times.  With proper control programming, this will reduce the possibility of a crash, but it is still up to the operator and programmer to ensure that the machine is operated in a safe manner. However, during the 2000s and 2010s, the software for machining simulation has been maturing rapidly, and it is no longer uncommon for the entire machine tool envelope (including all axes, spindles, chucks, turrets, tool holders, tailstocks, fixtures, clamps, and stock) to be modeled accurately with

text: 3D solid models

text: , which allows the simulation software to predict fairly accurately whether a cycle will involve a crash. Although such simulation is not new, its accuracy and market penetration are changing considerably because of computing advancements.

text: 1st order filter in feedback loop

text: 1st order filter in feedback loop

text: T cell– T-3– T-cell depletion– T-cell lymphoma– T138067– T4N5 liposomal lotion– T900607– TAC-101– tacrolimus– TAG-72 antigen– talampanel– talaporfin sodium– tamoxifen– tariquidar– taurolidine– taxane– technetium tc 99m dextran– technetium tc 99m sulfur colloid– tegafur– teicoplanin– telangiectasia– temoporfin– temozolomide– teniposide– TENS– teratoma– terminal disease– tetanus toxoid– tetrahydrouridine– TG4010– theophylline– thermal ablation– thermography– thiotepa– third-line therapy– thoracentesis– thoracoscopy– thoracotomy– thrombocyte– thrombocytopenia– thrombohemorrhagic event– thrombophlebitis– thrombopoietin– thymidine– thymidylate synthase inhibitor– thymoma– Thyrogen– thyroglobulin– thyroid follicular cell– thyroid hormone– thyroid-stimulating hormone– thyroidectomy– thyrotropin alfa– tiazofurin– time to progression– tin ethyl etiopurpurin– tin Sn 117m DTPA– tinidazole– tioguanine– tipifarnib– tirapazamine– tissue plasminogen activator– TLK286– TM– TNF– TNFerade– TNM staging system– TNP-470– tocladesine– tomography– topical chemotherapy– topoisomerase inhibitor– topotecan– toremifene– tositumomab– total androgen blockade– total estrogen blockade– total nodal irradiation– total parenteral nutrition– total-body irradiation– TP-38 immunotoxin– tPA– TPA– trabecular cancer– transabdominal ultrasound– transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation– transdermal– transferrin-CRM107– transitional cell– transitional cell carcinoma– transperineal biopsy– transrectal biopsy– transrectal ultrasound– transurethral biopsy– transurethral needle ablation– transurethral resection– transurethral resection of the prostate– transvaginal ultrasound– trastuzumab– Traumeel S– treosulfan– tretinoin– triacetyluridine– triamcinolone– Triapine– tributyrin– trichothiodystrophy– triiodothyronine– trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole– trimetrexate glucuronate– triptorelin– troglitazone– tropisetron– troxacitabine– TRUS– tuberous sclerosis– tubulovillous adenoma– tumor– tumor antigen vaccine– tumor board review– tumor burden– tumor debulking– tumor infiltrating lymphocyte– tumor load– tumor marker– tumor model– tumor necrosis factor– tumor suppressor gene– tumor-derived– tumor-specific antigen– TUR– TURP– TVS– tympanites– Type I and type II errors– tyrosinase peptide– tyrosine kinase inhibitor– TZT-1027

text: T cell

text: T-cell depletion

text: T-cell lymphoma

text: T4N5 liposomal lotion

text: tacrolimus

text: TAG-72 antigen

text: talampanel

text: talaporfin sodium

text: tamoxifen

text: tariquidar

text: taurolidine

text: taxane

text: technetium tc 99m dextran

text: technetium tc 99m sulfur colloid

text: tegafur

text: teicoplanin

text: telangiectasia

text: temoporfin

text: temozolomide

text: teniposide

entity_name: Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation

text: TENS

text: teratoma

text: terminal disease

text: tetanus toxoid

text: tetrahydrouridine

text: theophylline

text: thermal ablation

text: thermography

text: thiotepa

text: third-line therapy

text: thoracentesis

text: thoracoscopy

text: thoracotomy

text: thrombocyte

text: thrombocytopenia

text: thrombohemorrhagic event

text: thrombophlebitis

text: thrombopoietin

text: thymidine

text: thymidylate synthase inhibitor

text: thymoma

text: Thyrogen

text: thyroglobulin

text: thyroid follicular cell

text: thyroid hormone

text: thyroid-stimulating hormone

text: thyroidectomy

text: thyrotropin alfa

text: tiazofurin

text: time to progression

text: tin ethyl etiopurpurin

text: tin Sn 117m DTPA

text: tinidazole

text: tioguanine

text: tipifarnib

text: tirapazamine

text: tissue plasminogen activator

text: TM

text: TNF

text: TNFerade

text: TNM staging system

text: tocladesine

text: tomography

text: topical chemotherapy

text: topoisomerase inhibitor

text: topotecan

text: toremifene

text: tositumomab

text: total androgen blockade

text: total estrogen blockade

text: total nodal irradiation

text: total parenteral nutrition

text: total-body irradiation

text: TP-38 immunotoxin

text: tPA

text: TPA

text: trabecular cancer

text: transabdominal ultrasound

text: transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation

text: transdermal

text: transitional cell

text: transitional cell carcinoma

text: transperineal biopsy

text: transrectal biopsy

text: transrectal ultrasound

text: transurethral biopsy

entity_name: Transurethral needle ablation of the prostate

text: transurethral needle ablation

text: transurethral resection

text: transurethral resection of the prostate

text: transvaginal ultrasound

text: trastuzumab

text: Traumeel S

text: treosulfan

text: tretinoin

text: triacetyluridine

text: triamcinolone

text: Triapine

text: tributyrin

text: trichothiodystrophy

text: triiodothyronine

text: trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole

text: trimetrexate glucuronate

text: triptorelin

text: troglitazone

text: tropisetron

text: troxacitabine

text: TRUS

text: tuberous sclerosis

text: tubulovillous adenoma

text: tumor

text: tumor antigen vaccine

text: tumor board review

text: tumor burden

text: tumor debulking

text: tumor infiltrating lymphocyte

text: tumor load

text: tumor marker

text: tumor model

text: tumor necrosis factor

text: tumor suppressor gene

text: tumor-derived

text: tumor-specific antigen

text: TUR

text: TURP

text: TVS

text: tympanites

text: Type I and type II errors

text: tyrosinase peptide

text: tyrosine kinase inhibitor

text: Eigen made several assumptions about conditions that led to the formation of the first hypercycles. Some of them were the consequence of the lack of knowledge about ribozymes, which were discovered a few years after the introduction of the hypercycle concept and negated Eigen's assumptions in the strict sense. The primary of them was that the formation of hypercycles had required the availability of both types of chains: nucleic acids forming a quasispecies population and proteins with enzymatic functions. Nowadays, taking into account the knowledge about ribozymes, it may be assumed that a hypercycle’s members were selected from the quasispecies population and the enzymatic function was performed by RNA. According to the hypercycle theory, the first primitive polymerase emerged precisely from this population. As a consequence, the catalysed replication could exceed the uncatalysed reactions, and the system could grow faster. However, this rapid growth was a threat to the emerging system, as the whole system could lose control over the relative amount of the RNAs with enzymatic function. The system required more reliable control of its constituents—for example, by incorporating the coupling of essential RNAs into a positive feedback loop. Without this feedback loop, the replicating system would be lost. These positive feedback loops formed the first hypercycles.

text: In biological systems, temporal feedback is a ubiquitous signal transduction motif that allows systems to convert graded inputs into decisive, all-or-none digital outputs. A system with interlinked fast and slow feedback loops produces a dual-time switch, which is rapidly inducible and robust to noise during stimulus. In contrast, a single fast or slow loop is separately responsible for the speed of switching and the stability of switches. Computer simulation studies have shown that linking two loops of the same kind brings no overall advantage over having a single loop, however the dual-loop switch performs in a monostable regime. Both single and dual loops can behave as a bistable switch.  Several computational models have been produced to demonstrate the responses of single and dual positive feedback loop switches to stimuli.

text: In biological systems, temporal feedback is a ubiquitous

text: signal transduction

text: motif that allows systems to convert graded inputs into decisive, all-or-none digital outputs. A system with interlinked fast and slow feedback loops produces a dual-time switch, which is rapidly inducible and robust to noise during stimulus. In contrast, a single fast or slow loop is separately responsible for the speed of switching and the stability of switches. Computer simulation studies have shown that linking two loops of the same kind brings no overall advantage over having a single loop, however the dual-loop switch performs in a monostable regime. Both single and dual loops can behave as a bistable switch.  Several computational models have been produced to demonstrate the responses of single and dual positive feedback loop switches to stimuli.

text: A VIPoma (also known as Verner–Morrison syndrome, after the physicians who first described it) is a rare (1 per 10,000,000 per year) endocrine tumor, usually (about 90%) originating from non-β islet cell of the pancreas, that produce vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). It may be associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1.

text: A VIPoma (also known as Verner–Morrison syndrome, after the physicians who first described it) is a rare (1 per 10,000,000 per year)

text: endocrine

text: tumor

text: , usually (about 90%) originating from non-β

text: islet cell

text: of the

text: pancreas

text: , that produce

text: vasoactive intestinal peptide

text: (VIP). It may be associated with

text: multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1

text: Endocrine disorder is more common in women than men, as it is associated with menstrual disorders. Thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, adrenal and pancreases are common are part of the endocrine system and therefore are associated with bone disease. Some common endocrine disorders are hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, Paget’s disease, Osteoporosis, and diabetes. The thyroid gland produces thyroxin (T3, and T4) which is necessary for normal development of nervous system, it function includes: promoting growth, increasing  basal metabolic rate and controls body temperature. Adequate Iodine, found in salt fish water, shrimp is necessary for the production of thyroid hormone. According to Payton R. G et al., common disorder of the thyroid gland is hypothyroidism which is common in women than men. Symptoms of hypothyroidism include cold intolerance, weight gain, fatigue, anemia, difficulty concentrating, amenorrhea, bradycardia (low heart rate) and goitre.  Another hormone that is secreted by Para follicular cells of the thyroid gland is calcitonin. Calcitonin works in an antagonistic fashion with parathyroid hormone (PTH): both regulate the level of calcium in the blood. Blood calcium level is tightly regulated by these two hormones. The cells of our bone that is involved in bone formation and bone breakdown is osteoblast and osteoclast respectively. Osteoclasts are cells of bones that promote bone demineralization or bone resorption. In contrast, Osteoblast promotes calcium absorption by the bone therefore, promoting bone mineralization and formation of new bones. Thus Calcitonin activates osteoblasts, therefore decrease blood calcium levels by decreasing bone breakdown (resorption) by inhibiting osteoclast. Whereas, PTH activates osteoclast and thereby increases blood calcium.  The hormone produced by the thyroid gland has big impact on bone density, blood calcium levee.  Abnormalities of the thyroid gland impact bone disease such as osteoporosis, a condition that is common in women but men can be diagnosed with this silent disease as well as it mainly affects elderly individual.

text: Endocrine disorder is more common in women than men, as it is associated with menstrual disorders. Thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, adrenal and pancreases are common are part of the

text: endocrine system

text: and therefore are associated with bone disease. Some common endocrine disorders are hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism,

text: Paget’s disease

text: , Osteoporosis, and diabetes. The thyroid gland produces thyroxin (T3, and T4) which is necessary for normal development of nervous system, it function includes: promoting growth, increasing  basal metabolic rate and controls body temperature. Adequate Iodine, found in salt fish water, shrimp is necessary for the production of thyroid hormone. According to Payton R. G et al., common disorder of the thyroid gland is hypothyroidism which is common in women than men. Symptoms of hypothyroidism include cold intolerance, weight gain, fatigue, anemia, difficulty concentrating, amenorrhea, bradycardia (low heart rate) and goitre.  Another hormone that is secreted by Para follicular cells of the thyroid gland is calcitonin. Calcitonin works in an antagonistic fashion with parathyroid hormone (PTH): both regulate the level of calcium in the blood.

text: Blood calcium

text: level is tightly regulated by these two hormones. The cells of our bone that is involved in bone formation and bone breakdown is osteoblast and osteoclast respectively. Osteoclasts are cells of bones that promote bone demineralization or bone

text: resorption

text: . In contrast, Osteoblast promotes

text: calcium

text: absorption

text: by the bone therefore, promoting bone mineralization and formation of new bones. Thus Calcitonin activates osteoblasts, therefore decrease blood calcium levels by decreasing bone breakdown (resorption) by inhibiting osteoclast. Whereas, PTH activates osteoclast and thereby increases blood calcium.  The hormone produced by the

text: thyroid gland

text: has big impact on bone density, blood calcium levee.  Abnormalities of the thyroid gland impact bone disease such as osteoporosis, a condition that is common in women but men can be diagnosed with this silent disease as well as it mainly affects

text: elderly

text: individual.

text: Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are chemicals that, at certain doses, can interfere with the endocrine system in mammals.  Work on possible neurotoxic effects of endocrine disruptors, and their possible effects on sexual orientation when a fetus is exposed to them, is in its infancy: "we mostly know about the relationship between EDC exposure and neurobehavioral function through an examination of outcomes within a limited sphere of questions."   While studies have found that xenoestrogens and xenoandrogens can alter the brain's sexual differentiation in a number of species used as animal models, from the data in hand to date, it is "misleading ...to expect EDCs to produce profiles of effects, such as sexually dimorphic behaviors, as literal copies of those produced by native hormones. Such agents are not hormones. They should not be expected to act precisely as hormones."

text: Endocrine disrupting chemicals

text: (EDCs) are chemicals that, at certain doses, can interfere with the endocrine system in mammals.  Work on possible

text: neurotoxic

text: effects of endocrine disruptors, and their possible effects on sexual orientation when a fetus is exposed to them, is in its infancy: "we mostly know about the relationship between EDC exposure and neurobehavioral function through an examination of outcomes within a limited sphere of questions."   While studies have found that

text: xenoestrogens

text: and

text: xenoandrogens

text: can alter the brain's sexual differentiation in a number of species used as

text: animal models

text: , from the data in hand to date, it is "misleading ...to expect EDCs to produce profiles of effects, such as sexually dimorphic behaviors, as literal copies of those produced by native hormones. Such agents are not hormones. They should not be expected to act precisely as hormones."

text: Endocrine disruptors are molecules that alter the structure or function of the endocrine system like DDT, BPA etc. Prenatal BPA exposure is associated with aggression and neurobehaviour changes.

text: An increase in sympathetic nervous system stimulation causes the heart rate to increase, both by the direct action of sympathetic nerve fibers on the heart and by causing the endocrine system to release hormones such as epinephrine (adrenaline), which have a similar effect.  Increased sympathetic stimulation is usually due to physical or psychological stress.  This is the basis for the so-called fight-or-flight response, but such stimulation can also be induced by stimulants such as ephedrine, amphetamines or cocaine.  Certain endocrine disorders such as pheochromocytoma can also cause epinephrine release and can result in tachycardia independent of nervous system stimulation. Hyperthyroidism can also cause tachycardia. The upper limit of normal rate for sinus tachycardia is thought to be 220 bpm minus age.

text: An increase in

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: stimulation causes the heart rate to increase, both by the direct action of

text: sympathetic nerve

text: fibers on the heart and by causing the

text: endocrine

text: system to release

text: hormone

text: s such as

text: epinephrine (adrenaline)

text: , which have a similar effect.  Increased sympathetic stimulation is usually due to physical or psychological stress.  This is the basis for the so-called

text: fight-or-flight response

text: , but such stimulation can also be induced by

text: stimulant

text: s such as

text: ephedrine

text: amphetamines

text: or

text: cocaine

text: .  Certain

text: endocrine disorders

text: such as

text: pheochromocytoma

text: can also cause epinephrine release and can result in tachycardia independent of nervous system stimulation.

text: Hyperthyroidism

text: can also cause tachycardia. The upper limit of normal rate for sinus tachycardia is thought to be 220 bpm minus age.

text: In electronics and control system theory, loop gain is the sum of the gain, expressed as a ratio or in decibels, around a feedback loop.   Feedback loops are widely used in electronics in amplifiers and oscillators, and more generally in both electronic and nonelectronic industrial control systems to control industrial plant and equipment.  The concept is also used in biology.  In a feedback loop, the output of a device, process or plant is sampled and applied to alter the input, to better control the output.  The loop gain, along with the related concept of loop phase shift, determines the behavior of the device, and particularly whether the output is stable, or unstable, which can result in oscillation.  The importance of loop gain as a parameter for characterizing electronic feedback amplifiers was first recognized by Heinrich Barkhausen in 1921, and was developed further by Hendrik Wade Bode and Harry Nyquist at Bell Labs in the 1930s.

text: In

text: electronics

text: and

text: control system theory

text: , loop gain is the sum of the

text: gain

text: , expressed as a ratio or in

text: decibel

text: s, around a

text: feedback loop

text: .   Feedback loops are widely used in electronics in

text: amplifier

text: s and

text: oscillators

text: , and more generally in both electronic and nonelectronic industrial

text: control system

text: s to control industrial plant and equipment.  The concept is also used in

text: biology

text: .  In a feedback loop, the output of a device, process or plant is sampled and applied to alter the input, to better control the output.  The loop gain, along with the related concept of loop

text: phase shift

text: , determines the behavior of the device, and particularly whether the output is

text: stable

text: , or unstable, which can result in

text: oscillation

text: .  The importance of loop gain as a parameter for characterizing electronic feedback amplifiers was first recognized by

text: Heinrich Barkhausen

text: in 1921, and was developed further by

text: Hendrik Wade Bode

text: and

text: Harry Nyquist

text: at

text: Bell Labs

text: in the 1930s.

text: The urinary system is regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.

text: The urinary system is regulated by the

text: endocrine system

text: by

text: hormone

text: s such as

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: aldosterone

text: , and

text: parathyroid hormone

text: A large scale study on cadavers done in Sweden, performed biopsies on hundreds of pituitary glands.  The study indicated that perhaps as much as 5% of the population experiences some amount of autoimmune pituitary destruction.  It is further hypothesized that perhaps half that many show, or may experience, clinical manifestations.

text: A large scale study on

text: cadavers

text: done in

text: Sweden

text: , performed biopsies on hundreds of pituitary glands.  The study indicated that perhaps as much as 5% of the population experiences some amount of autoimmune pituitary destruction.  It is further hypothesized that perhaps half that many show, or may experience, clinical manifestations.

text: The chief cells play a large role in the endocrine system, as they secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in calcium homeostasis.  PTH is an 84-amino acid hormone, initially synthesized as 115- amino acid preproPTH.  PTH is further received by the calcium-sensing receptor (CaR), triggering the calcium pathway.

text: The chief cells play a large role in the endocrine system, as they secrete

text: parathyroid hormone

text: (PTH), which is involved in calcium homeostasis.  PTH is an 84-amino acid hormone, initially synthesized as 115- amino acid preproPTH.  PTH is further received by the

text: calcium-sensing receptor

text: (CaR), triggering the calcium pathway.

text: Learning the structure and optimized functionality of such feedback loops is critical for all autonomous systems. Thus, understanding the principles of perception-action loops in diverse instantiations of autonomous systems will be one common theme across the research groups of the institute.

text: Learning the structure and optimized functionality of such feedback loops is critical for all

text: autonomous systems

text: . Thus, understanding the principles of perception-action loops in diverse instantiations of autonomous systems will be one common theme across the research groups of the institute.

text: These disorders greatly increase the risk of developing multiple cancerous and noncancerous tumors in glands such as the parathyroid, pituitary, and pancreas. Multiple endocrine neoplasia occurs when tumors are found in at least two of the three main endocrine glands (parathyroid, pituitary, and pancreatico-duodenum). Tumors can also develop in organs and tissues other than endocrine glands. If the tumors become cancerous, some cases can be life-threatening. The disorder affects 1 in 30,000 people.

text: These disorders greatly increase the risk of developing multiple

text: cancer

text: ous and noncancerous

text: tumor

text: s in glands such as the

text: parathyroid

text: pituitary

text: , and

text: pancreas

text: . Multiple endocrine neoplasia occurs when tumors are found in at least two of the three main endocrine glands (parathyroid, pituitary, and pancreatico-

text: duodenum

text: ). Tumors can also develop in organs and tissues other than endocrine glands. If the tumors become cancerous, some cases can be life-threatening. The disorder affects 1 in 30,000 people.

text: Carboxypeptidase E is found in brain and throughout the neuroendocrine system, including the endocrine pancreas, pituitary, and adrenal gland chromaffin cells. Within cells, carboxypeptidase E is present in the secretory granules along with its peptide substrates and products. Carboxypeptidase E is a  glycoprotein that exists in both membrane-associated and soluble forms. The membrane-binding is due to an amphiphilic α-helix within the C-terminal region of the protein.

text: Carboxypeptidase E is found in brain and throughout the neuroendocrine system, including the endocrine pancreas, pituitary, and

text: adrenal gland

text: chromaffin cell

text: s. Within cells, carboxypeptidase E is present in the secretory granules along with its peptide substrates and products. Carboxypeptidase E is a

text: glycoprotein

text: that exists in both membrane-associated and soluble forms. The membrane-binding is due to an

text: amphiphilic

text: α-helix within the C-terminal region of the protein.

text: In the intestine, following the secretion of lipases and bile, triglycerides are split into monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids in a process called lipolysis. They are subsequently moved to absorptive enterocyte cells lining the intestines. The triglycerides are rebuilt in the enterocytes from their fragments and packaged together with cholesterol and proteins to form chylomicrons. These are excreted from the cells and collected by the lymph system and transported to the large vessels near the heart before being mixed into the blood. Various tissues can capture the chylomicrons, releasing the triglycerides to be used as a source of energy. Liver cells can synthesize and store triglycerides. When the body requires fatty acids as an energy source, the hormone glucagon signals the breakdown of the triglycerides by hormone-sensitive lipase to release free fatty acids. As the brain cannot utilize fatty acids as an energy source (unless converted to a ketone), the glycerol component of triglycerides can be converted into glucose, via gluconeogenesis by conversion into dihydroxyacetone phosphate and then into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, for brain fuel when it is broken down. Fat cells may also be broken down for that reason, if the brain's needs ever outweigh the body's.

text: In the

text: intestine

text: , following the secretion of

text: lipase

text: s and

text: bile

text: , triglycerides are split into monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids in a process called

text: lipolysis

text: . They are subsequently moved to absorptive

text: enterocyte

text: cells lining the intestines. The triglycerides are rebuilt in the enterocytes from their fragments and packaged together with

text: cholesterol

text: and proteins to form

text: chylomicron

text: s. These are excreted from the cells and collected by the lymph system and transported to the large vessels near the heart before being mixed into the blood. Various tissues can capture the chylomicrons, releasing the triglycerides to be used as a source of energy. Liver cells can synthesize and store triglycerides. When the body requires

text: fatty acid

text: s as an energy source, the hormone

text: glucagon

text: signals the breakdown of the triglycerides by hormone-sensitive

text: lipase

text: to release free fatty acids. As the

text: brain

text: cannot utilize fatty acids as an energy source (unless converted to a

text: ketone

text: ), the

text: glycerol

text: component of triglycerides can be converted into

text: glucose

text: , via

text: gluconeogenesis

text: by conversion into

text: dihydroxyacetone phosphate

text: and then into

text: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

text: , for brain fuel when it is broken down. Fat cells may also be broken down for that reason, if the brain's needs ever outweigh the body's.

text: A feedback loop (FBL), sometimes called a complaint feedback loop, is an inter-organizational form of feedback by which a Mailbox Provider (MP) forwards the complaints originating from their users to the sender's organizations. MPs can receive users' complaints by placing report spam buttons on their webmail pages, or in their email client, or via help desks. The message sender's organization, often an email service provider, has to come to an agreement with each MP from which they want to collect users' complaints.

text: A feedback loop (FBL), sometimes called a complaint feedback loop, is an inter-organizational form of

text: feedback

text: by which a

text: Mailbox Provider

text: (MP) forwards the complaints originating from their users to the sender's organizations. MPs can receive users' complaints by placing report spam buttons on their

text: webmail

text: pages, or in their

text: email client

text: , or via

text: help desk

text: s. The message sender's

text: organization

text: , often an

text: email service provider

text: , has to come to an agreement with each MP from which they want to collect users' complaints.

text: The term human biocomputer, coined by John C. Lilly, refers to the "hardware" of the human anatomy. This would include the brain, internal organs, and other human organ systems such as cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, immune, integumentary, lymphatic, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, skeletal, and urinary systems. The biocomputer has stored program properties, and self-metaprogramming properties, with limits determinable and to be determined.

text: The term human biocomputer, coined by

text: John C. Lilly

text: , refers to the "hardware" of the

text: human anatomy

text: . This would include the

text: brain

text: internal organs

text: , and other human organ systems such as

text: cardiovascular

text: digestive

text: endocrine

text: immune

text: integumentary

text: lymphatic

text: muscular

text: nervous

text: reproductive

text: respiratory

text: skeletal

text: , and

text: urinary

text: systems. The biocomputer has stored program properties, and self-metaprogramming properties, with limits determinable and to be determined.

text: In systems theory, an open system is a feed forward system that does not have any feedback loop to control its output. In contrast, a closed system uses on a feedback loop to control the operation of the system.  In an open system, the output of the system is not fed back into the input to the system for control or operation.

text: In

text: systems theory

text: , an open system is a feed forward system that does not have any

text: feedback loop

text: to control its output. In contrast, a

text: closed system

text: uses on a feedback loop to control the operation of the system.  In an open system, the output of the system is not fed back into the input to the system for control or operation.

text: In the non-inverting amplifier on the right, the presence of negative feedback via the voltage divider R, R determines the closed-loop gain A = V / V. Equilibrium will be established when V is just sufficient to "reach around and pull" the inverting input to the same voltage as V. The voltage gain of the entire circuit is thus 1 + R/R. As a simple example, if V = 1 V and R = R, V will be 2 V, exactly the amount required to keep V at 1 V. Because of the feedback provided by the R, R network, this is a closed loop circuit.

text: In the non-inverting amplifier on the right, the presence of negative feedback via the

text: voltage divider

text: R, R determines the closed-loop gain A = V / V. Equilibrium will be established when V is just sufficient to "reach around and pull" the inverting input to the same voltage as V. The voltage gain of the entire circuit is thus 1 + R/R. As a simple example, if V = 1 V and R = R, V will be 2 V, exactly the amount required to keep V at 1 V. Because of the feedback provided by the R, R network, this is a closed loop circuit.

text: There are several important exocrine (digestive) and endocrine (hormonal) functions of the pancreas, but it is the lack of insulin production which is the motivation to develop a substitute.  While the current state of insulin replacement therapy is appreciated for      its life-saving capability, the task of manually managing the blood sugar level with insulin alone is arduous and inadequate.

text: There are several important exocrine (digestive) and endocrine (hormonal) functions of the pancreas, but it is the lack of

text: insulin

text: production which is the motivation to develop a substitute.  While the current state of insulin replacement therapy is appreciated for      its life-saving capability, the task of manually managing the blood sugar level with insulin alone is arduous and inadequate.

text: Connexons are also associated with both Type I and Type II diabetes. Cx36 (connexin 36) subunit mediates insulin excretion and glucose-induced insulin release from gap junctions of the liver and pancreas. Homeostasis in the liver and pancreatic organs are supported by an intricate system of cellular interactions called endocrine signaling. The secretion of hormones into the blood stream to target distant organs. However, endocrine signaling in the pancreas and liver operates along short distances in the cellular membrane by way of signaling pathways, ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, tyrosine-kinase receptors, and cell-to-cell contact. The gap junctions in these tissues supported by endocrine signaling arbitrate intracellular signals between cells and larger organ systems by connecting adjacent cells to each other in a tight fit. The Tight fit of the gap junction is such that cells in the tissue can communicate more efficiently and maintain homeostasis. Thus the purpose of the gap junction is to regulate the passage of ions, nutrients, metabolites, second messengers, and small biological molecules. In diabetes the subsequent loss or degradation of Cx36 substantially inhibits insulin production in the pancreas and glucose in the liver which is vital for the production of energy for the entire body. A deficiency of Cx36 adversely affects the ability of the gap junction to operate within these tissues leading a reduction in function and possible disease. Similar symptoms associated with the loss or degradation of the gap junction have been observed in type II diabetes, however, the function of Cx36 in Type 1 and type II diabetes in humans is still unknown. Additionally, the Cx36 connexin is coded for by GJD2 gene, which has a predisposition on the gene locus for type II diabetes, and diabetic syndrome.

text: Connexons are also associated with both

text: Type I

text: and

text: Type II

text: diabetes. Cx36 (connexin 36) subunit mediates

text: insulin

text: excretion and glucose-induced insulin release from gap junctions of the liver and pancreas. Homeostasis in the liver and pancreatic organs are supported by an intricate system of cellular interactions called endocrine signaling. The secretion of hormones into the blood stream to target distant organs. However, endocrine signaling in the pancreas and liver operates along short distances in the cellular membrane by way of signaling pathways, ion channels,

text: G-protein coupled receptors

text: tyrosine-kinase receptors

text: The two exceptions mentioned above are postganglionic neurons of sweat glands and chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla.  Postganglionic neurons of sweat glands release acetylcholine for the activation of muscarinic receptors, except for areas of thick skin, the palms and the plantar surfaces of the feet, where norepinephrine is released and acts on adrenergic receptors. Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are analogous to post-ganglionic neurons; the adrenal medulla develops in tandem with the sympathetic nervous system and acts as a modified sympathetic ganglion. Within this endocrine gland, pre-ganglionic neurons synapse with chromaffin cells, stimulating the chromaffin to release norepinephrine and epinephrine directly into the blood.

text: The two exceptions mentioned above are postganglionic neurons of sweat glands and

text: chromaffin cells

text: of the

text: adrenal medulla

text: .  Postganglionic neurons of sweat glands release acetylcholine for the activation of

text: muscarinic receptors

text: , except for areas of thick skin, the palms and the plantar surfaces of the feet, where norepinephrine is released and acts on adrenergic receptors. Chromaffin cells of the

text: adrenal medulla

text: are analogous to post-ganglionic neurons; the adrenal medulla develops in tandem with the sympathetic nervous system and acts as a modified sympathetic ganglion. Within this endocrine gland, pre-ganglionic neurons synapse with chromaffin cells, stimulating the chromaffin to release

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: epinephrine

text: directly into the blood.

text: The endocrine reproductive system becomes functional by the end of the first trimester of fetal life. The testes and ovaries become briefly inactive around the time of birth but resume hormonal activity until several months after birth, when incompletely understood mechanisms in the brain begin to suppress the activity of the arcuate nucleus. This has been referred to as maturation of the prepubertal "gonadostat," which becomes sensitive to negative feedback by sex steroids. The period of hormonal activity until several months after birth, followed by suppression of activity, may correspond to the period of infant sexuality, followed by a latency stage, which Sigmund Freud described.

text: The

text: endocrine reproductive system

text: becomes functional by the end of the first

text: trimester

text: of fetal life. The testes and ovaries become briefly inactive around the time of birth but resume hormonal activity until several months after birth, when incompletely understood mechanisms in the brain begin to suppress the activity of the arcuate nucleus. This has been referred to as maturation of the prepubertal "gonadostat," which becomes sensitive to negative feedback by

text: sex steroid

text: s. The period of hormonal activity until several months after birth, followed by suppression of activity, may correspond to the period of infant sexuality, followed by a

text: latency stage

text: , which

text: Sigmund Freud

text: described.

text: Deficiency of ACTH is a sign of secondary adrenal insufficiency (suppressed production of ACTH due to a impairment of the pituitary gland or hypothalamus, cf. hypopituitarism) or tertiary adrenal insufficiency (disease of the hypothalamus, with a decrease in the release of corticotropin releasing hormone CRH). Conversely, chronically elevated ACTH levels occur in primary adrenal insufficiency (e.g. Addison's disease) when adrenal gland production of cortisol is chronically deficient. In Cushing's disease a pituitary tumor is the cause of elevated ACTH (from the anterior pituitary) and an excess of cortisol (hypercortisolism) – this constellation of signs and symptoms is known as Cushing's syndrome.

text: Deficiency of ACTH is a sign of secondary

text: adrenal insufficiency

text: (suppressed production of ACTH due to a impairment of the

text: pituitary gland

text: or

text: hypothalamus

text: , cf.

text: hypopituitarism

text: ) or tertiary adrenal insufficiency (disease of the hypothalamus, with a decrease in the release of

text: corticotropin releasing hormone CRH

text: ). Conversely, chronically elevated ACTH levels occur in primary adrenal insufficiency (e.g.

text: Addison's disease

text: ) when adrenal gland production of

text: cortisol

text: is chronically deficient. In Cushing's disease a pituitary tumor is the cause of elevated ACTH (from the anterior pituitary) and an excess of cortisol (hypercortisolism) – this constellation of signs and symptoms is known as

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: Feedback loops can lead to frequent ties if enforced too strictly. See also Dynamic game difficulty balancing.

text: Feedback loops can lead to frequent

text: ties

text: if enforced too strictly. See also

text: Dynamic game difficulty balancing

text: Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules (hormones) to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration. An example of a neuroendocrine cell is a cell of the adrenal medulla (innermost part of the adrenal gland), which releases adrenaline to the blood. The adrenal medullary cells are controlled by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. These cells are modified postganglionic neurons. Autonomic nerve fibers lead directly to them from the central nervous system. The adrenal medullary hormones are kept in vesicles much in the same way neurotransmitters are kept in neuronal vesicles. Hormonal effects can last up to ten times longer than those of neurotransmitters. Sympathetic nerve fiber impulses stimulate the release of adrenal medullary hormones. In this way the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and the medullary secretions function together.

text: Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (

text: neurotransmitter

text: s released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules (

text: hormones

text: ) to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the

text: nervous system

text: and the

text: endocrine system

text: , a process known as neuroendocrine integration. An example of a neuroendocrine cell is a cell of the

text: adrenal medulla

text: (innermost part of the

text: adrenal gland

text: ), which releases

text: adrenaline

text: to the blood. The adrenal medullary cells are controlled by the

text: sympathetic division

text: of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . These cells are modified

text: postganglionic neuron

text: s. Autonomic nerve fibers lead directly to them from the central nervous system. The adrenal medullary hormones are kept in vesicles much in the same way neurotransmitters are kept in neuronal vesicles. Hormonal effects can last up to ten times longer than those of neurotransmitters. Sympathetic

text: nerve

text: fiber impulses stimulate the release of adrenal medullary hormones. In this way the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and the medullary secretions function together.

text: In his 2006 book The Revenge of Gaia, Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system, the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop.

text: In his 2006 book

text: The Revenge of Gaia

text: , Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system, the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a

text: positive feedback loop

text: The lateral hypothalamus, also called the lateral hypothalamic area, contains the primary orexinergic nucleus within the hypothalamus that widely projects throughout the nervous system; this system of neurons mediates an array of cognitive and physical processes, such as promoting feeding behavior and arousal, reducing pain perception, and regulating body temperature, digestive functions, and blood pressure, among many others. Clinically significant disorders that involve dysfunctions of the orexinergic projection system include narcolepsy, motility disorders or functional gastrointestinal disorders involving visceral hypersensitivity (e.g., irritable bowel syndrome), and eating disorders.

text: The lateral hypothalamus, also called the lateral hypothalamic area, contains the primary

text: orexinergic

text: nucleus within the

text: hypothalamus

text: that widely projects throughout the

text: nervous system

text: ; this system of neurons mediates an array of cognitive and physical processes, such as promoting feeding behavior and arousal, reducing

text: pain perception

text: , and

text: regulating body temperature

text: , digestive functions, and blood pressure, among many others. Clinically significant disorders that involve dysfunctions of the orexinergic projection system include

text: narcolepsy

text: motility disorder

text: s or

text: functional gastrointestinal disorder

text: s involving

text: visceral hypersensitivity

text: (e.g.,

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: ), and eating disorders.

text: Pituitary prolactin secretion is regulated by endocrine neurons in the hypothalamus. The most important ones are the neurosecretory tuberoinfundibulum (TIDA) neurons of the arcuate nucleus

text: Pituitary prolactin secretion is regulated by endocrine neurons in the

text: hypothalamus

text: . The most important ones are the neurosecretory

text: tuberoinfundibulum

text: (TIDA) neurons of the

text: arcuate nucleus

text: Within the oral mucosa (a mucous membrane) lining the mouth and also on the tongue and palates and mouth floor, are the minor salivary glands; their secretions are mainly mucous and are innervated by the facial nerve (the seventh cranial nerve). The glands also secrete amylase a first stage in the breakdown of food acting on the carbohydrate in the food to transform the starch content into maltose. There are other glands on the surface of the tongue that encircle taste buds on the back part of the tongue and these also produce lingual lipase. Lipase is a digestive enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids (fats). These glands are termed Von Ebner's glands which have also been shown to have another function in the secretion of histatins which offer an early defense (outside of the immune system) against microbes in food, when it makes contact with these glands on the tongue tissue. Sensory information can stimulate the secretion of saliva providing the necessary fluid for the tongue to work with and also to ease swallowing of the food.

text: Within the

text: oral mucosa

text: (a

text: mucous membrane

text: ) lining the mouth and also on the tongue and palates and mouth floor, are the minor salivary glands; their secretions are mainly mucous and are innervated by the

text: facial nerve

text: (the seventh

text: cranial nerve

text: ). The glands also secrete

text: amylase

text: a first stage in the breakdown of food acting on the carbohydrate in the food to transform the starch content into maltose. There are other glands on the surface of the tongue that encircle

text: taste bud

text: s on the back part of the tongue and these also produce lingual lipase.

text: Lipase

text: is a

text: digestive enzyme

text: that catalyses the

text: hydrolysis

text: of

text: lipid

text: s (fats). These glands are termed

text: Von Ebner's glands

text: which have also been shown to have another function in the secretion of

text: histatin

text: s which offer an early defense (outside of the immune system) against microbes in food, when it makes contact with these glands on the tongue tissue. Sensory information can stimulate the secretion of saliva providing the necessary fluid for the tongue to work with and also to ease swallowing of the food.

text: Although many different types of hormone-producing tumors are associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia, tumors of the parathyroid gland, pituitary gland, and pancreas are most frequent in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. MEN1-associated overactivity of these three endocrine organs are briefly described here:

text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN-1 syndrome) or Wermer's syndrome is part of a group of disorders, the multiple endocrine neoplasias, that affect the endocrine system through development of neoplastic lesions in pituitary, parathyroid gland and pancreas.

text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN-1 syndrome) or Wermer's syndrome is part of a group of disorders, the

text: multiple endocrine neoplasia

text: s, that affect the

text: endocrine system

text: through development of neoplastic lesions in

text: pituitary

text: parathyroid

text: gland and

text: pancreas

text: Substance P  is a key first responder to most noxious/extreme stimuli (stressors), i.e., those with a potential to compromise biological integrity. SP is thus regarded as an immediate defense, stress, repair, survival system.   The molecule, which is rapidly inactivated (or at times further activated by peptidases) is rapidly released – repetitively and chronically, as warranted, in the presence of a stressor.   Unique among biological processes, SP release (and expression of its NK1 Receptor (through autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine-like processes) may not naturally subside in diseases marked by chronic inflammation (including cancer). The SP or its NK1R, as well as similar neuropeptides, appear to be vital targets capable of satisfying many unmet medical needs.  The failure of clinical proof of concept studies, designed to confirm various preclinical predictions of efficacy, is currently a source of frustration and confusion  among biomedical researchers.

text: Endocrine conditions often present with cutaneous findings as the skin interacts with the endocrine system in many ways.

text: Endocrine conditions often present with cutaneous findings as the

text: skin

text: interacts with the

text: endocrine system

text: in many ways.

text: Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree (see the adjacent table) and can thus be selected for by animal breeding. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism; another is the doppelender or "double muscling" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality.

text: Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree (see the adjacent table) and can thus be selected for by

text: animal breeding

text: . In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by

text: recessive genes

text: which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is

text: dwarfism

text: ; another is the doppelender or "

text: double muscling

text: " condition, which causes

text: muscle hypertrophy

text: and thereby increases the animal's commercial value.

text: Genetic analysis

text: continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the

text: endocrine system

text: and, through it, meat growth and quality.

text: In 1976 Utian co-determined the first internationally accepted definitions of menopause and time-related events.In 1985 Utian publicly disagreed with the medical definition of menopause agreed upon by the International Menopause Society. He believed menopause to be a potential endocrinopathy (disease of the endocrine system), with potential adverse physical effects on pelvic and extra-pelvic organs such as bone, cardiovascular system, brain, skin and sensory organs. He has written that menopause has been recognized by society as a stage of life as far back as Biblical times. Utian has stated that the symptoms women experience when their ovaries shut down are due to an evolutionary lag, as the endocrine system of the human female has not kept pace with the increase in life expectancy human beings have experienced recently. Utian is known as the world's most prolific author of studies in the field of menopause, including 26 authored or co-authored articles during the first ten years of the field's existence and more than 200 over his career.

text: The endocrine system is affected largely by many internal and external stimuli. One internal stimulus that causes hormone release is blood pressure. Hypotension, or low blood pressure, is a large driving force for the release of vasopressin, a hormone which causes the retention of water in the kidneys. This process also increases an individuals thirst. By fluid retention or by consuming fluids, if an individual's blood pressure returns to normal, vasopressin release slows and less fluid is retained by the kidneys. Hypovolemia, or low fluid levels in the body, can also act as a stimulus to cause this response.

text: The

text: endocrine system

text: is affected largely by many internal and external stimuli. One internal stimulus that causes

text: hormone

text: release is

text: blood pressure

text: Hypotension

text: , or low blood pressure, is a large driving force for the release of

text: vasopressin

text: , a hormone which causes the retention of water in the kidneys. This process also increases an individuals thirst. By fluid retention or by consuming fluids, if an individual's blood pressure returns to normal, vasopressin release slows and less fluid is retained by the kidneys.

text: Hypovolemia

text: , or low fluid levels in the body, can also act as a stimulus to cause this response.

text: The syndrome appears to be due to mutations in the gene tetratricopeptide repeat domain 37 (TTC37) which encodes the protein Thespin. This gene is expressed is in the adrenal gland, amniotic fluid, bladder, blood, bone, bone marrow, brain, cervix, connective tissue, ear, epididymis, eye, heart, intestine, kidney, liver, lung, lymph nodes, mammary glands, mouth, muscle, nerve, oesophagus, ovary, pancreas, pharynx, placenta, prostate, pituitary gland, salivary gland, testis, thyroid, tonsil, thymus, trachea, skin, uterus, spleen, spinal cord, stomach and vascular tissue. It is also expressed in ascites and various embryonic tissues. It is expressed at high level in the intestine, lung, lymph nodes, pituitary and vascular tissues. This gene is also known as KIAA0372, MGC32587 and TPR repeat protein 37.

text: The syndrome appears to be due to mutations in the gene

text: tetratricopeptide repeat domain 37

text: (TTC37) which encodes the protein

text: Thespin

text: . This gene is expressed is in the

text: adrenal gland

text: amniotic fluid

text: bladder

text: blood

text: bone

text: bone marrow

text: brain

text: cervix

text: connective tissue

text: ear

text: epididymis

text: eye

text: heart

text: intestine

text: kidney

text: liver

text: lung

text: lymph node

text: s,

text: mammary gland

text: s,

text: mouth

text: muscle

text: nerve

text: oesophagus

text: ovary

text: pancreas

text: pharynx

text: placenta

text: prostate

text: pituitary gland

text: salivary gland

text: testis

text: thyroid

text: tonsil

text: thymus

text: trachea

text: skin

text: uterus

text: spleen

text: spinal cord

text: stomach

text: and vascular tissue. It is also expressed in

text: ascites

text: and various embryonic tissues. It is expressed at high level in the intestine, lung, lymph nodes, pituitary and vascular tissues. This gene is also known as KIAA0372, MGC32587 and TPR repeat protein 37.

text: Zondek was one of the proponents of the inter-dependence of the endocrine glands under the control of the pituitary. His studies on pituitary-ovary interaction were instrumental in establishing this fundamental tenet. He discovered that the chorionic tissue of the placenta had endocrine capacity and this led to diagnostic techniques important for the recognition and treatment of hydatidiform mole and chorionic carcinoma.

text: Mahapragya started writing when he was 22 and did not cease until his death. He authored more than 300 books. These works deal with meditation and spirituality, the mind, the human psyche and its traits, the roots of emotions and their manifestation through behaviour, Mantra saadhana, Yog, Anekantavada, Non violence, and Jain philosophy and history.. His main achievement was in bringing together the Jain concepts of karma and human behavior with the findings of modern biology in areas such as genetics, DNA, hormones and the endocrine system.

text: Mahapragya started writing when he was 22 and did not cease until his death. He authored more than 300 books. These works deal with meditation and spirituality, the mind, the human psyche and its traits, the roots of emotions and their manifestation through behaviour,

text: Mantra

text: saadhana,

text: Yog

text: Anekantavada

text: , Non violence, and Jain philosophy and history.. His main achievement was in bringing together the Jain concepts of karma and human behavior with the findings of modern biology in areas such as genetics, DNA, hormones and the endocrine system.

text: Science of Living (Jeevan Vigyan; Jeevan = Life and Vigyan = Science) is a detailed program that complements the current educational approach with spiritual and value based learning. While both mental and physical development is needed for a student's growth, Jeevan Vigyan adds a third pillar – that of emotional intelligence and morality (or values) – to education in schools and colleges. A combination of theory and practice, Jeevan Vigyan draws on the findings of various life-sciences as well as nutritional sciences. Our parasympathetic nervous system and endocrinal system are known to be the drivers of our emotions and our behavior. These biological centers can be influenced Science of Living through a system of yogic exercises, breathing exercises, medication and contemplation. Science of Living's source of inspiration is Jain Acharya Ganadhipati Shri Tulsi (1914–1997). His thoughts were further developed and expanded by Acharya Shri Mahapragya (1920 - 2010). Currently Muni Shri Kishan Lal Ji, under the leadership of Acharya Shri Mahashraman, is the Principal of SOL.;

text: In mammals, insulin is synthesized in the pancreas within the β-cells of the islets of Langerhans. One million to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the endocrine part of the pancreas, which is primarily an exocrine gland. The endocrine portion accounts for only 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 65–80% of all the cells.

text: In mammals, insulin is synthesized in the pancreas within the

text: β-cells

text: of the

text: islets of Langerhans

text: . One million to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the

text: endocrine

text: part of the pancreas, which is primarily an

text: exocrine

text: gland

text: . The endocrine portion accounts for only 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 65–80% of all the cells.

text: Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need lifelong care. Some of the most common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and the metabolic syndrome. Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician–patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.

text: Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are

text: chronic disease

text: s that need lifelong care. Some of the most common endocrine diseases include

text: diabetes

text: mellitus,

text: hypothyroidism

text: and the

text: metabolic syndrome

text: . Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician–patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.

text: In many way, chief cell hyperplasia is similar to parathyroid adenoma.  The hyperplasia is seen as an enlargement of all four of the parathyroid glands, as opposed to a parathyroid adenoma is viewed as an enlargement of one gland.  Chief cell hyperplasia is a common disorder in individuals with other endocrine abnormalities, though it may still occur sporadically.  A chief cell hyperplasia can develop from either a primary or secondary cause.

text: In small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC), the cells contain dense neurosecretory granules (vesicles containing neuroendocrine hormones), which give this tumor an endocrine/paraneoplastic syndrome association. Most cases arise in the larger airways (primary and secondary bronchi). Sixty to seventy percent have extensive disease (which cannot be targeted within a single radiation therapy field) at presentation.

text: In

text: small-cell lung carcinoma

text: (SCLC), the cells contain dense neurosecretory granules (

text: vesicles

text: containing

text: neuroendocrine

text: hormone

text: s), which give this tumor an endocrine/paraneoplastic syndrome association. Most cases arise in the larger airways (primary and secondary

text: bronchi

text: ). Sixty to seventy percent have extensive disease (which cannot be targeted within a single radiation therapy field) at presentation.

text: AL amyloidosis can affect a wide range of organs, and consequently present with a range of symptoms. The kidneys are the most commonly affected organ in AL amyloidosis. Symptoms of kidney disease and renal failure can include fluid retention, swelling, and shortness of breath.In addition to kidneys, AL amyloidosis may affect the heart, peripheral nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, blood, lungs and skin. Heart complications, which affect more than a third of AL patients, include heart failure and irregular heart beat. Other symptoms can include stroke, gastrointestinal disorders, enlarged liver, diminished spleen function, diminished function of the adrenal and other endocrine glands, skin color change or growths, lung problems, bleeding and bruising problems, fatigue and weight loss.

text: The conditions for feedback follow the Barkhausen stability criterion, namely that, with sufficiently high gain, a stable oscillation can (and usually will) occur in a feedback loop whose frequency is such that the phase delay is an integer multiple of 360 degrees and the gain at that frequency is equal to 1. If the small signal gain is  greater than 1 for some frequency then the system will start to oscillate at that frequency because noise at that frequency will be amplified. Sound will be produced without anyone actually playing. The sound level will increase until the output starts clipping, reducing the loop gain to exactly unity. This is the principle upon which electronic oscillators are based; although in that case the feedback loop is purely electronic, the principle is the same. If the gain is large, but slightly less than 1, then high-pitched slowly decaying feedback tones will be created, but only with some input sound.

text: The conditions for feedback follow the

text: Barkhausen stability criterion

text: , namely that, with sufficiently high gain, a stable

text: oscillation

text: can (and usually will) occur in a feedback loop whose frequency is such that the phase delay is an

text: integer

text: multiple of 360

text: degree

text: s and the

text: gain

text: at that frequency is equal to 1. If the small signal gain is  greater than 1 for some frequency then the system will start to oscillate at that frequency because noise at that frequency will be amplified. Sound will be produced without anyone actually playing. The sound level will increase until the output starts

text: clipping

text: , reducing the loop gain to exactly unity. This is the principle upon which

text: electronic oscillator

text: s are based; although in that case the feedback loop is purely electronic, the principle is the same. If the gain is large, but slightly less than 1, then high-pitched slowly decaying feedback tones will be created, but only with some input sound.

text: Symptoms include rapid weight gain, particularly of the trunk and face with sparing of the limbs (central obesity). Common signs include the growth of fat pads along the collarbone, on the back of the neck ("buffalo hump" or lipodystrophy), and on the face ("moon face"). Other symptoms include excess sweating, dilation of capillaries, thinning of the skin (which causes easy bruising and dryness, particularly the hands) and mucous membranes, purple or red striae (the weight gain in Cushing's syndrome stretches the skin, which is thin and weakened, causing it to hemorrhage) on the trunk, buttocks, arms, legs, or breasts, proximal muscle weakness (hips, shoulders), and hirsutism (facial male-pattern hair growth), baldness and/or extremely dry and brittle hair. In rare cases, Cushing's can cause hypocalcemia. The excess cortisol may also affect other endocrine systems and cause, for example, insomnia, inhibited aromatase, reduced libido, impotence in men, and amenorrhoea/oligomenorrhea and infertility in women due to elevations in androgens. Studies have also shown that the resultant amenorrhea is due to hypercortisolism, which feeds back onto the hypothalamus resulting in decreased levels of GnRH release.

text: Symptoms include rapid

text: weight gain

text: , particularly of the trunk and face with sparing of the limbs (

text: central obesity

text: ). Common signs include the growth of fat pads along the

text: collarbone

text: , on the back of the neck ("buffalo hump" or

text: lipodystrophy

text: ), and on the face ("

text: moon face

text: "). Other symptoms include

text: excess sweating

text: dilation of capillaries

text: , thinning of the skin (which causes easy bruising and dryness, particularly the hands) and mucous membranes, purple or red

text: striae

text: (the weight gain in Cushing's syndrome stretches the skin, which is thin and weakened, causing it to hemorrhage) on the trunk, buttocks, arms, legs, or breasts, proximal muscle weakness (hips, shoulders), and

text: hirsutism

text: (facial male-pattern hair growth),

text: baldness

text: and/or extremely dry and brittle hair. In rare cases, Cushing's can cause

text: hypocalcemia

text: . The excess cortisol may also affect other endocrine systems and cause, for example,

text: insomnia

text: , inhibited

text: aromatase

text: , reduced

text: libido

text: impotence

text: in men, and

text: amenorrhoea

text: oligomenorrhea

text: and

text: infertility

text: in women due to elevations in

text: androgens

text: . Studies have also shown that the resultant amenorrhea is due to hypercortisolism, which feeds back onto the hypothalamus resulting in decreased levels of

text: GnRH

text: release.

text: The ASRG is sporadically active, as little evolves in the anti-spam landscape, with most activity happening on the mailing list. In 2008 the ASRG worked on Internet Drafts about DNSBLs, in 2010 on the standardization of Feedback loop (email).

text: The ASRG is sporadically active, as little evolves in the anti-spam landscape, with most activity happening on the mailing list. In 2008 the ASRG worked on Internet Drafts about

text: DNSBL

text: s, in 2010 on the standardization of

text: Feedback loop (email)

text: The thyroid gland, or simply the thyroid , is an endocrine gland in the neck, and consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus. It is found at the front of the neck, below the Adam's apple. The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, which primarily influence the metabolic rate and protein synthesis. The hormones also have many other effects including those on development. The thyroid hormones T and T are synthesized from iodine and tyrosine. The thyroid also produces the hormone calcitonin, which plays a role in calcium homeostasis.

text: The thyroid gland, or simply the thyroid , is an

text: endocrine gland

text: in the

text: neck

text: , and consists of two

text: lobes

text: connected by an

text: isthmus

text: . It is found at the front of the

text: neck

text: , below the

text: Adam's apple

text: . The thyroid gland secretes

text: thyroid hormone

text: s, which primarily influence the

text: metabolic rate

text: and

text: protein synthesis

text: . The hormones also have many other effects including those on development. The thyroid hormones

text: T

text: and

text: T

text: are

text: synthesized

text: from

text: iodine

text: and

text: tyrosine

text: . The thyroid also produces the

text: hormone

text: calcitonin

text: , which plays a role in

text: calcium homeostasis

text: The endocrine system is under the direct supervision of the nervous system, using the negative feedback principal of homeostasis, to create hormones which act as chemical instant messengers. The hypothalamus connects directly to the pituitary gland, both through the circulatory system and by direct connection of neurons. Also, within the cranium, the pineal gland, which attaches to the thalamus, controls the body's 24-hour rhythms circadian rhythm through the release of melatonin. Endocrine indicates that the secretion is used within the body. Endocrine glands are termed as ductless and release their secretions directly into the blood.

text: The

text: endocrine system

text: is under the direct supervision of the

text: nervous system

text: , using the

text: negative feedback

text: principal of

text: homeostasis

text: , to create hormones which act as chemical instant messengers. The

text: hypothalamus

text: connects directly to the

text: pituitary gland

text: , both through the

text: circulatory system

text: and by direct connection of neurons. Also, within the

text: cranium

text: , the

text: pineal gland

text: , which attaches to the

text: thalamus

text: , controls the body's 24-hour rhythms

text: circadian rhythm

text: through the release of

text: melatonin

text: Endocrine

text: indicates that the secretion is used within the body. Endocrine glands are termed as ductless and release their secretions directly into the blood.

text: The multipotent pancreatic progenitor cells have the capacity to differentiate into any of the pancreatic cells: acinar cells, endocrine cells, and ductal cells. These progenitor cells are characterised by the co-expression of the transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6-1. Under the influence of neurogenin-3 and ISL1, but in the absence of notch receptor signaling, these cells differentiate to form two lines of committed endocrine precursor cells. The first line, under the direction of a Pax gene, forms α- and γ- cells, which produce glucagon and pancreatic polypeptides, respectively. The second line, influenced by Pax-6, produces beta cells (β-) and delta cells (δ-), which secrete insulin and somatostatin, respectively.

text: The multipotent

text: pancreatic progenitor cells

text: have the capacity to differentiate into any of the pancreatic cells: acinar cells, endocrine cells, and ductal cells. These progenitor cells are characterised by the co-expression of the transcription factors

text: and

text: . Under the influence of

text: and

text: , but in the absence of

text: notch receptor signaling

text: , these cells differentiate to form two lines of committed endocrine precursor cells. The first line, under the direction of a

text: Pax gene

text: , forms α- and γ- cells, which produce

text: glucagon

text: and

text: pancreatic polypeptide

text: s, respectively. The second line, influenced by

text: , produces

text: beta cell

text: s (β-) and

text: delta cell

text: s (δ-), which secrete

text: insulin

text: and

text: somatostatin

text: , respectively.

text: The hypothalamus is a small portion of the brain located below the thalamus and above the brainstem. One of its most important functions is to help link together the body's nervous and endocrine systems. This structure has many bidirectional neural inputs and outputs from and to various other brain regions. These connections help to regulate the hypothalamus' ability to secrete hormones into the body's blood stream, having far-reaching and long-lasting effects on physiological processes such as metabolism. During a stress response, the hypothalamus secretes various hormones, namely corticotropin-releasing hormone, which stimulates the body's pituitary gland and initiates a heavily regulated stress response pathway.

text: The

text: hypothalamus

text: is a small portion of the brain located below the

text: thalamus

text: and above the

text: brainstem

text: . One of its most important functions is to help link together the body's nervous and endocrine systems. This structure has many bidirectional neural inputs and outputs from and to various other brain regions. These connections help to regulate the hypothalamus' ability to secrete

text: hormones

text: into the body's

text: blood stream

text: , having far-reaching and long-lasting effects on physiological processes such as

text: metabolism

text: . During a stress response, the hypothalamus secretes various hormones, namely

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: , which stimulates the body's pituitary gland and initiates a heavily regulated stress response pathway.

text: The fetal endocrine system is one of the first systems to develop during prenatal development.

text: are connected in a feedback loop, then the closed loop system is input-output stable if

text: Theca cells with granulosa cells help form the corpus luteum. Theca cells are only correlated with developing ovarian follicles. They are the leading cause of endocrine-based infertility, as either hyperactivity or hypoactivity of the theca cells can lead to fertility problems; hyperactivity of theca cells causes hyperandrogenism, and hypoactivity leads to a lack of estrogen. Granulosa cell tumors, while rare (less than 5% of ovarian cancers), involve both the granulosa cells and the theca cells.

text: Theca cells with granulosa cells help form the

text: corpus luteum

text: . Theca cells are only correlated with developing ovarian follicles. They are the leading cause of endocrine-based infertility, as either hyperactivity or hypoactivity of the theca cells can lead to fertility problems; hyperactivity of theca cells causes hyperandrogenism, and hypoactivity leads to a lack of estrogen. Granulosa cell tumors, while rare (less than 5% of ovarian cancers), involve both the granulosa cells and the theca cells.

text: When a stressor acts upon the body, the endocrine system is triggered by the release of the neurotransmitter noradrenaline by the autonomic nervous system. Noradrenaline stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) which processes the information about the stressor in the hypothalamus. This quickly signals the pituitary gland and finally triggers the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex responds by signaling the release of the corticosteroids cortisol and corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) directly into the bloodstream.

text: When a stressor acts upon the body, the

text: endocrine system

text: is triggered by the release of the

text: neurotransmitter

text: noradrenaline by the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . Noradrenaline stimulates the

text: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

text: (HPA) which processes the information about the stressor in the

text: hypothalamus

text: . This quickly signals the

text: pituitary gland

text: and finally triggers the

text: adrenal cortex

text: . The adrenal cortex responds by signaling the release of the

text: corticosteroids

text: cortisol

text: and

text: corticotropin releasing hormone

text: (CRH) directly into the bloodstream.

text: BPA affects growth, reproduction, and development in aquatic organisms. Among freshwater organisms, fish appear to be the most sensitive species. Evidence of endocrine-related effects in fish, aquatic invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles has been reported at environmentally relevant exposure levels lower than those required for acute toxicity. There is a widespread variation in reported values for endocrine-related effects, but many fall in the range of 1μg/L to 1 mg/L.

text: The ESP’s Working Groups allow ESP members with a common interest or subspecialty to share expertise and knowledge. Main activities of the Working Groups include preparing proposals for Congress programs, providing ideas for educational programs, and representing the ESP in affiliated learned societies and their major meetings. There are currently 20 Working Groups in the following areas: Breast Pathology; Cytopathology; Dermatopathology; Digestive Diseases; Electron Microscopy; Endocrine Pathology; Gynaecological Pathology; Head and Neck Pathology; History of Pathology; Infectious Diseases; IT (Computational); Molecular Pathology; Nephropathology; Paediatric and Perinatal Pathology; Pathology in Favor of Developing Countries; Pulmonary Pathology; Soft Tissue and Bone Pathology; Thymic and Mediastinal Pathology; Uropathology; Autopsy Pathology.

text: The ESP’s Working Groups allow ESP members with a common interest or subspecialty to share expertise and knowledge. Main activities of the Working Groups include preparing proposals for Congress programs, providing ideas for educational programs, and representing the ESP in affiliated learned societies and their major meetings. There are currently 20 Working Groups in the following areas: Breast Pathology;

text: Cytopathology

text: Dermatopathology

text: Digestive Diseases

text: Electron Microscopy

text: Endocrine Pathology

text: ; Gynaecological Pathology;

text: Head and Neck Pathology

text: ; History of Pathology; Infectious Diseases; IT (Computational);

text: Molecular Pathology

text: ; Nephropathology;

text: Paediatric and Perinatal Pathology

text: ; Pathology in Favor of

text: Developing Countries

text: Pulmonary Pathology

text: ; Soft Tissue and Bone Pathology; Thymic and Mediastinal Pathology; Uropathology;

text: Autopsy

text: Pathology.

text: The endocrine system consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function.

text: The

text: endocrine system

text: consists of the principal endocrine glands: the

text: pituitary

text: thyroid

text: adrenal

text: s,

text: pancreas

text: parathyroid

text: s, and

text: gonad

text: s, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine

text: hormone

text: s as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function.

text: Neurosecretion is the storage, synthesis and release of hormones from neurons. These neurohormones, produced by neurosecretory cells, are normally secreted from nerve cells in the brain that then circulate into the blood. These neurohormones are similar to nonneural endocrine cells and glands in that they also regulate both endocrine and nonendocrine cells. Neurosecretion cells also release their product farther than normal neurons, which only secrete short distances, into the extracellular space some distance from the target cell.

text: Neurosecretion is the storage, synthesis and release of

text: hormone

text: s from

text: neuron

text: s. These neurohormones, produced by neurosecretory cells, are normally secreted from nerve cells in the brain that then circulate into the blood. These

text: neurohormone

text: s are similar to nonneural

text: endocrine

text: cells and glands in that they also regulate both endocrine and

text: nonendocrine

text: cells. Neurosecretion cells also release their product farther than normal neurons, which only secrete short distances, into the

text: extracellular space

text: some distance from the

text: target cell

text: The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland which is part of the endocrine system. The posterior pituitary is not glandular as is the anterior pituitary. Instead, it is largely a collection of axonal projections from the hypothalamus that terminate behind the anterior pituitary which serves as a site for the secretion of neurohypophysial hormones (oxytocin and vasopressin) directly into the blood.  The hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system is composed of the hypothalamus (the paraventricular nucleus and supraoptic nucleus), posterior pituitary, and these axonal projections.

text: The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is the

text: posterior

text: lobe of the

text: pituitary gland

text: which is part of the

text: endocrine system

text: . The posterior pituitary is not glandular as is the

text: anterior pituitary

text: . Instead, it is largely a collection of

text: axonal projection

text: s from the

text: hypothalamus

text: that terminate behind the anterior pituitary which serves as a site for the secretion of

text: neurohypophysial hormone

text: s (

text: oxytocin

text: and

text: vasopressin

text: ) directly into the blood.  The hypothalamic–neurohypophyseal system is composed of the hypothalamus (the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: and

text: supraoptic nucleus

text: ), posterior pituitary, and these axonal projections.

text: Arne Semb-Johansson (20 September 1919 – 22 February 2001) was a Norwegian zoologist. He was born in Kristiania. He was assigned as professor of zoology at the University of Oslo from 1959. Among his early works were studies of the nervous system and endocrine system of insects. He edited the six volume encyclopedia Cappelens Dyreleksikon, published 1979–1981. He was decorated Knight, First Class of the Order of St. Olav in 1987.

text: Arne Semb-Johansson (20 September 1919 – 22 February 2001) was a Norwegian

text: zoologist

text: . He was born in

text: Kristiania

text: . He was assigned as professor of zoology at the

text: University of Oslo

text: from 1959. Among his early works were studies of the

text: nervous system

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: of

text: insects

text: . He edited the six volume encyclopedia Cappelens Dyreleksikon, published 1979–1981. He was decorated Knight, First Class of the

text: Order of St. Olav

text: in 1987.

text: One proposed mechanism of pseudoextinction is endocrine disruption (changing hormone levels). Additionally, when the primary sex-ratio (male to female ratio of a population) is male-biased, predicted levels of pseudoextinction increase. Because the variance of the population size increases with time, the probability of pseudoextinction increases with the length of the time horizon used.

text: Analogs of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) can be used to induce a chemical castration, that is, complete suppression of the production of estrogen and progesterone from the female ovaries, or complete suppression of testosterone production from the male testes. This is due to a negative feedback effect of continuous stimulation of  the pituitary gland by these hormones. Leuprorelin and goserelin are GnRH analogs which are used primarily for the treatment of hormone-responsive prostate cancer. Because the initial endocrine response to GnRH analogs is actually hypersecretion of gonadal steroids, hormone receptor antagonists such as flutamide are typically used to prevent a transient boost in tumor growth.

text: Analogs of

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone

text: (GnRH) can be used to induce a

text: chemical castration

text: , that is, complete suppression of the production of estrogen and progesterone from the female

text: ovaries

text: , or complete suppression of

text: testosterone

text: production from the male

text: testes

text: . This is due to a negative feedback effect of continuous stimulation of  the

text: pituitary

text: gland by these hormones.

text: Leuprorelin

text: and

text: goserelin

text: are GnRH analogs which are used primarily for the treatment of hormone-responsive

text: prostate cancer

text: . Because the initial

text: endocrine

text: response to GnRH analogs is actually hypersecretion of gonadal steroids, hormone receptor antagonists such as

text: flutamide

text: are typically used to prevent a transient boost in tumor growth.

text: Exocrine glands are glands that produce and secrete substances onto an epithelial surface by way of a duct. Examples of exocrine glands include sweat, salivary, mammary, ceruminous, lacrimal, sebaceous, and mucous. Exocrine glands are one of two types of glands in the human body, the other being endocrine glands, which secrete their products directly into the bloodstream. The liver and pancreas are both exocrine and endocrine glands; they are exocrine glands because they secrete products—bile and pancreatic juice—into the gastrointestinal tract through a series of ducts, and endocrine because they secrete other substances directly into the bloodstream

text: Exocrine glands are

text: gland

text: s that produce and secrete substances onto an

text: epithelial

text: surface by way of a

text: duct

text: . Examples of exocrine glands include

text: sweat

text: salivary

text: mammary

text: ceruminous

text: lacrimal

text: sebaceous

text: , and

text: mucous

text: . Exocrine glands are one of two types of glands in the human body, the other being

text: endocrine gland

text: s, which secrete their products directly into the

text: bloodstream

text: . The

text: liver

text: and

text: pancreas

text: are both exocrine and endocrine glands; they are exocrine glands because they secrete products—

text: bile

text: and

text: pancreatic juice

text: —into the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: through a series of ducts, and endocrine because they secrete other substances directly into the bloodstream

text: Over the following two years, research projects were initiated, lab workers appointed, and a Management Committee established.  Research during the early years was dominated by endocrinology, fostered by the presence of the State Reference Laboratory for endocrine assays.  A hormone radioimmunoassay service at Garvan in 1964-1965, which was a significant component of the research activity and provided a steady source of funds, an important consideration before regular research grants were available. The late 1960s and 1970s saw the expansion of scientific staff at the Institute, including the arrival of a critical mass of key senior researchers, many of whom are now recognised as ground breakers in their field.

text: The concept of the Control–Feedback–Abort (CFA) loop is based upon another concept called the ‘Control – Feedback Loop. The Control – Feedback Loop has been around for many years and was the key concept in the development of many electronic designs such as Phase-Lock Loops. The core of the CFA loop concept was based on a major need that corporate executives and staff can anticipate the operation of systems, processes, products and services they use and create before they are developed.

text: The concept of the Control–Feedback–Abort (CFA) loop is based upon another concept called the

text: ‘Control – Feedback Loop

text: . The Control – Feedback Loop has been around for many years and was the key concept in the development of many electronic designs such as Phase-Lock Loops. The core of the CFA loop concept was based on a major need that corporate executives and staff can anticipate the operation of systems, processes, products and services they use and create before they are developed.

text: Pituicytoma is a rare brain tumor. It grows at the base of the brain from the pituitary gland. This tumor is thought to be derived from the parenchymal cells of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, called pituicytes. Some researchers believe that they arise from the folliculostellate cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary.  As such, it is a low-grade glioma. It occurs in adults and symptoms include visual disturbance and endocrine dysfunction. They are often mistaken for pituitary adenomas which have a similar presentation and occur in the same location. The treatment consists of surgical resection, which is curative in most cases.

text: Pituicytoma is a rare

text: brain tumor

text: . It grows at the base of the brain from the

text: pituitary gland

text: . This tumor is thought to be derived from the

text: parenchymal cells

text: of the

text: posterior lobe

text: of the pituitary gland, called

text: pituicytes

text: . Some researchers believe that they arise from the

text: folliculostellate cells

text: in the

text: anterior lobe

text: of the pituitary.  As such, it is a low-grade

text: glioma

text: . It occurs in adults and symptoms include

text: visual disturbance

text: and

text: endocrine dysfunction

text: . They are often mistaken for

text: pituitary adenoma

text: s which have a similar presentation and occur in the same location. The treatment consists of surgical resection, which is curative in most cases.

text: In most cases, as the body is exposed to physical activity, the core temperature of the body tends to rise as heat gain becomes larger than the amount of heat lost. “The factors that contribute to heat gain during exercise include anything that stimulate metabolic rate, anything from the external environment that causes heat gain, and the ability of the body to dissipate heat under any given set of circumstances”. In response to an increase in core temperature, there are a variety of factors which adapt in order to help restore heat balance. The main physiological response to an increase in body temperature is mediated by the thermal regulatory center located in the hypothalamus of the brain which connects to thermal receptors and effectors. There are numerous thermal effectors including sweat glands, smooth muscles of blood vessels, some endocrine glands, and skeletal muscle. With an increase in the core temperature, the thermal regulatory center will stimulate the arterioles supplying blood to the skin to dilate along with the release of sweat on the skin surface to reduce temperature through evaporation. In addition to the involuntary regulation of temperature, the hypothalamus is able to communicate with the cerebral cortex to initiate voluntary control such as removing clothing or drinking cold water. With all regulations taken into account, the body is able to maintain core temperature within about two or three degrees Celsius during exercise.

text: In most cases, as the body is exposed to physical activity, the core temperature of the body tends to rise as heat gain becomes larger than the amount of heat lost. “The factors that contribute to heat gain during exercise include anything that stimulate metabolic rate, anything from the external environment that causes heat gain, and the ability of the body to dissipate heat under any given set of circumstances”. In response to an increase in core temperature, there are a variety of factors which adapt in order to help restore heat balance. The main physiological response to an increase in body temperature is mediated by the thermal regulatory center located in the

text: hypothalamus

text: of the brain which connects to thermal

text: receptors

text: and

text: effector

text: s. There are numerous thermal effectors including

text: sweat glands

text: smooth muscles

text: of blood vessels, some

text: endocrine glands

text: , and

text: skeletal muscle

text: . With an increase in the core temperature, the thermal regulatory center will stimulate the arterioles supplying blood to the skin to dilate along with the release of sweat on the skin surface to reduce temperature through evaporation. In addition to the involuntary regulation of temperature, the hypothalamus is able to communicate with the cerebral cortex to initiate voluntary control such as removing clothing or drinking cold water. With all regulations taken into account, the body is able to maintain core temperature within about two or three degrees Celsius during exercise.

text: Dating to approximately the year 1550, outbreeding in Charles II's lineage had ceased (see also pedigree collapse). From then on, all his ancestors were in one way or another descendants of Joanna and Philip I of Castile, and among these just the royal houses of Spain, Austria and Bavaria. Charles II's genome was actually more homozygous than that of a child whose parents are siblings. He was born physically and mentally disabled, and disfigured. Possibly through affliction with mandibular prognathism, he was barely able to chew. His tongue was so large that his speech could barely be understood, and he frequently drooled. It has been suggested that he suffered from the endocrine disease acromegaly, or his inbred lineage may have led to a combination of rare genetic disorders such as combined pituitary hormone deficiency and distal renal tubular acidosis.

text: Dating to approximately the year 1550,

text: outbreeding

text: in Charles II's lineage had ceased (see also

text: pedigree collapse

text: ). From then on, all his ancestors were in one way or another descendants of Joanna and Philip I of Castile, and among these just the royal houses of Spain, Austria and Bavaria. Charles II's

text: genome

text: was actually more

text: homozygous

text: than that of a child whose parents are siblings. He was born physically and mentally disabled, and

text: disfigured

text: . Possibly through affliction with

text: mandibular prognathism

text: , he was barely able to chew. His tongue was so large that his speech could barely be understood, and he frequently drooled. It has been suggested that he suffered from the endocrine disease

text: acromegaly

text: , or his inbred lineage may have led to a combination of rare genetic disorders such as

text: combined pituitary hormone deficiency

text: and distal

text: renal tubular acidosis

text: Four endocrine centers have been identified:

text: Four

text: endocrine

text: centers have been identified:

text: The first differentiation of the hESCs that form the embryo proper, is into three cell types known as the germ layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. The ectoderm eventually forms the skin (including hair and nails), mucous membranes and nervous system. The mesoderm forms the skeleton and muscles, heart and circulatory system, urinary and reproductive systems, and connective tissues inside the body. The endoderm forms the gastrointestinal tract (stomach and intestines), the respiratory tract, and the endocrine system (liver and endocrine glands).

text: Treatment is problematic unless an underlying endocrine disorder can be successfully diagnosed and treated.

text: The parathyroid gland is part of the endocrine system.  Most individuals display four parathyroid glands adjacent to the thyroid gland anterior in the neck.  The chief cells are organized as dense cords surrounding the capillaries in the parathyroid.  The thyroid gland and parathyroid gland are closely tied together in the calcium pathway.  The thyroid gland secretes three hormones:  T3, T4, and calcitonin.  When the calcium level in the blood is too high, calcitonin is secreted, and the level is lowered.  Calcitonin does this by depositing calcium in the bones.  PTH works inversely from calcitonin.  When the level of calcium in the blood is too low, PTH is released, and the level of calcium is raised.  Calcium is released from the bone storage.  This trigger also retains calcium from the urine, and alerts the intestines to absorb more calcium from ingested nutrients.  Too much of either hormone can be an indicator of disease.

text: The parathyroid gland is part of the endocrine system.  Most individuals display four parathyroid glands adjacent to the

text: thyroid gland

text: anterior in the neck.  The chief cells are organized as dense cords surrounding the capillaries in the parathyroid.  The thyroid gland and parathyroid gland are closely tied together in the calcium pathway.  The thyroid gland secretes three hormones:

text: , and

text: calcitonin

text: .  When the calcium level in the blood is too high, calcitonin is secreted, and the level is lowered.  Calcitonin does this by depositing calcium in the bones.  PTH works inversely from calcitonin.  When the level of calcium in the blood is too low, PTH is released, and the level of calcium is raised.  Calcium is released from the bone storage.  This trigger also retains calcium from the urine, and alerts the intestines to absorb more calcium from ingested nutrients.  Too much of either hormone can be an indicator of disease.

text: Recently , many organizations have implemented feedback loops that allow them to capture feedback at the point of experience. For example, National Express has invited passengers to send text messages whilst riding the bus. This has been shown to be useful, as it allows companies to improve their customer service before the customer defects, thus making it far more likely that the customer will return next time.  Technology has made it increasingly easier for companies to obtain feedback from their customers. Community blogs and forums give customers the ability to give detailed explanations of both negative as well as positive experiences with a company/organization.

text: Recently , many organizations have implemented feedback loops that allow them to capture feedback at the point of experience. For example,

text: National Express

text: has invited passengers to send text messages whilst riding the bus. This has been shown to be useful, as it allows companies to improve their customer service before the customer defects, thus making it far more likely that the customer will return next time.  Technology has made it increasingly easier for companies to obtain feedback from their customers. Community blogs and forums give customers the ability to give detailed explanations of both negative as well as positive experiences with a company/organization.

text: To overcome the limitations of the open-loop controller, classical control theory introduces feedback. A closed-loop controller uses feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamical system. Its name comes from the information path in the system: process inputs (e.g., voltage applied to an electric motor) have an effect on the process outputs (e.g., speed or torque of the motor), which is measured with sensors and processed by the controller; the result (the control signal) is "fed back" as input to the process, closing the loop.

text: To overcome the limitations of the

text: open-loop controller

text: , classical control theory introduces

text: feedback

text: . A

text: closed-loop controller

text: uses feedback to control

text: states

text: or

text: output

text: s of a

text: dynamical system

text: . Its name comes from the information path in the system: process inputs (e.g.,

text: voltage

text: applied to an

text: electric motor

text: ) have an effect on the process outputs (e.g., speed or torque of the motor), which is measured with

text: sensor

text: s and processed by the controller; the result (the control signal) is "fed back" as input to the process, closing the loop.

text: In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as bone, kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.

text: In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as

text: bone

text: kidney

text: liver

text: heart

text: and

text: gonad

text: s, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as

text: erythropoietin

text: and

text: renin

text: . Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes,

text: steroid

text: s,

text: eicosanoid

text: s,

text: leukotriene

text: s, or

text: prostaglandin

text: s.

text: There are many different mechanisms through which steroid hormones affect their target cells. All of these different pathways can be classified as having either a genomic effect, or a non-genomic effect. Genomic pathways are slow and result in altering transcription levels of certain proteins in the cell; non-genomic pathways are much faster.

text: Psychoneuroendocrinology is the clinical study of hormone fluctuations and their relationship to human behavior.  It may be viewed from the perspective of psychiatry, where in certain mood disorders, there are associated neuroendocrine or hormonal changes affecting the brain.  It may also be viewed from the perspective of endocrinology, where certain endocrine disorders can be associated with psychiatric illness. Brain dysfunctions such as in the hypothalamus can affect the endocrine system, which in turn can result in psychiatric symptoms. This complex blend of psychiatry, neurology and endocrinology is needed to comprehensively understand and treat psychiatric illnesses (see neurobiological brain disorder).

text: Psychoneuroendocrinology is the clinical study of

text: hormone

text: fluctuations and their relationship to

text: human behavior

text: .  It may be viewed from the perspective of

text: psychiatry

text: , where in certain

text: mood disorder

text: s, there are associated

text: neuroendocrine

text: or hormonal changes affecting the brain.  It may also be viewed from the perspective of

text: endocrinology

text: , where certain

text: endocrine disorder

text: s can be associated with

text: psychiatric illness

text: . Brain dysfunctions such as in the

text: hypothalamus

text: can affect the endocrine system, which in turn can result in psychiatric symptoms. This complex blend of psychiatry, neurology and endocrinology is needed to comprehensively understand and treat psychiatric illnesses (see

text: neurobiological brain disorder

text: The nine key IC systems are (alphabetically): cardiovascular system, central nervous system, endocrine system, gastro-intestinal tract (and nutritional condition), hematology, microbiology (including sepsis status), peripheries (and skin), renal (and metabolic), and respiratory system.

text: The nine key IC systems are (alphabetically):

text: cardiovascular system

text: central nervous system

text: endocrine system

text: gastro-intestinal tract

text: (and nutritional condition),

text: hematology

text: microbiology

text: (including sepsis status), peripheries (and skin),

text: renal

text: (and metabolic), and

text: respiratory system

text: climate sensitivity has a component directly due to radiative forcing by , and a further contribution arising from climate feedbacks, both positive and negative.  "Without any feedbacks, a doubling of  (which amounts to a forcing of 3.7 W/m) would result in 1 °C global warming, which is easy to calculate and is undisputed. The remaining uncertainty is due entirely to feedbacks in the system, namely, the water vapor feedback, the ice-albedo feedback, the cloud feedback, and the lapse rate feedback"; addition of these feedbacks leads to a value of the sensitivity to  doubling of approximately 3 °C ± 1.5 °C, which corresponds to  a value of λ of 0.8 K/(W/m).

text: climate sensitivity has a component directly due to radiative forcing by , and a further contribution arising from

text: climate feedbacks

text: , both positive and negative.  "Without any feedbacks, a doubling of  (which amounts to a forcing of 3.7 W/m) would result in 1 °C

text: global warming

text: , which is easy to calculate and is undisputed. The remaining uncertainty is due entirely to feedbacks in the system, namely,

text: the water vapor feedback

text: , the

text: ice-albedo feedback

text: , the

text: cloud feedback

text: , and the lapse rate feedback"; addition of these feedbacks leads to a value of the sensitivity to  doubling of approximately 3 °C ± 1.5 °C, which corresponds to  a value of λ of 0.8 K/(W/m).

text: Diet, physical inactivity and obesity are related to up to 30–35% of cancer deaths. In the United States excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 14–20%  of cancer deaths. A UK study including data on over 5 million people showed higher body mass index to be related to at least 10 types of cancer and responsible for around 12,000 cases each year in that country. Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk, not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on the immune system and endocrine system. More than half of the effect from diet is due to overnutrition (eating too much), rather than from eating too few vegetables or other healthful foods.

text: Diet,

text: physical inactivity

text: and

text: obesity

text: are related to up to 30–35% of cancer deaths. In the United States excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 14–20%  of cancer deaths. A UK study including data on over 5 million people showed higher

text: body mass index

text: to be related to at least 10 types of cancer and responsible for around 12,000 cases each year in that country. Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk, not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on the

text: immune system

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: . More than half of the effect from diet is due to

text: overnutrition

text: (eating too much), rather than from eating too few vegetables or other healthful foods.

text: Endocrine glands derive from all three germ layers. Those derived from mesoderm produce steroidal hormones; the others produce the amino acid–based hormones.

text: In hearing aids, feedback arises when a part of the receiver (loudspeaker) signal is captured by the hearing aid microphone(s), gets amplified in the device and starts to loop around through the system. When feedback occurs, it results in a disturbingly loud tonal signal. Feedback is more likely to occur when the hearing aid volume is increased, when the hearing aid fitting is not in its proper position or when the hearing aid is brought close to a reflecting surface (e.g. when using a mobile phone). Adaptive feedback cancellation algorithms are techniques that estimate the transmission path between loudspeaker and microphone(s). This estimate is then used to implement a neutralizing electronic feedback path that suppresses the tonal feedback signal.

text: Other diseases affecting dogs include endocrine diseases, immune-mediated diseases, and reproductive diseases.  Diabetes mellitus, Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, and hypothyroidism are the most common endocrine diseases.  Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia is a devastating disease that causes severe anemia in dogs through destruction by the immune system.  It has been associated with vaccinations and certain drugs, although many cases are idiopathic.  A similar but less severe immune disease is immune-mediated thrombocytopenia, characterized by destruction of platelets by the immune system.  Clinical signs include bruising and petechiae (pinpoint bruising, often seen in the mouth).  Common reproductive diseases include pyometra (distension of the uterus with pus), mammary tumors, and benign prostatic hyperplasia.

text: Other diseases affecting dogs include

text: endocrine

text: diseases,

text: immune-mediated disease

text: s, and reproductive diseases.

text: Diabetes mellitus

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: Addison's disease

text: , and

text: hypothyroidism

text: are the most common endocrine diseases.

text: Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia

text: is a devastating disease that causes severe

text: anemia

text: in dogs through destruction by the immune system.  It has been associated with vaccinations and certain drugs, although many cases are

text: idiopathic

text: .  A similar but less severe immune disease is

text: immune-mediated thrombocytopenia

text: , characterized by destruction of

text: platelet

text: s by the immune system.  Clinical signs include bruising and

text: petechia

text: e (pinpoint bruising, often seen in the mouth).  Common reproductive diseases include

text: pyometra

text: (distension of the

text: uterus

text: with pus),

text: mammary tumor

text: s, and

text: benign prostatic hyperplasia

text: The pituitary gland lies between the two paired cavernous sinuses. An abnormally growing pituitary adenoma, sitting on the bony sella turcica, will expand in the direction of least resistance and eventually compress the cavernous sinus. Cavernous sinus syndrome may result from mass effect of these tumors and cause ophthalmoplegia (from compression of the oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, and abducens nerve), ophthalmic sensory loss (from compression of the ophthalmic nerve), and maxillary sensory loss (from compression of the maxillary nerve). A complete lesion of the cavernous sinus disrupts CN III, IV, and VI, causing total ophthalmoplegia, usually accompanied by a fixed, dilated pupil. Involvement of CN V (V and variable involvement of V) causes sensory loss in these divisions of the trigeminal nerve.  Horner's syndrome can also occur due to involvement of the carotid ocular sympathetics, but may be difficult to appreciate in the setting of a complete third nerve injury.

text: The

text: pituitary gland

text: lies between the two paired cavernous sinuses. An abnormally growing

text: pituitary adenoma

text: , sitting on the bony

text: sella turcica

text: , will expand in the direction of least resistance and eventually compress the cavernous sinus. Cavernous sinus syndrome may result from mass effect of these tumors and cause

text: ophthalmoplegia

text: (from compression of the oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, and abducens nerve), ophthalmic sensory loss (from compression of the ophthalmic nerve), and maxillary sensory loss (from compression of the maxillary nerve). A complete lesion of the cavernous sinus disrupts CN III, IV, and VI, causing total ophthalmoplegia, usually accompanied by a fixed, dilated pupil. Involvement of CN V (V and variable involvement of V) causes sensory loss in these divisions of the trigeminal nerve.  Horner's syndrome can also occur due to involvement of the carotid ocular sympathetics, but may be difficult to appreciate in the setting of a complete third nerve injury.

text: In 1928, Ernst Scharrer hypothesized that neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus of teleost fish, Phoxinus laevis, had secretory activity similar to that of endocrine gland cells. As more became known about neurosecretory cells, the difference between the actions of nerve communication and endocrine hormone release become less clear. Like the average neuron, these cells conduct electrical impulses along the axon but unlike theses neurons, neurosecretion produces neurohormones that are released into the body’s circulation. Combining the properties of the nervous and endocrine, these cells have the capacity to affect nerves through chemical messengers. Neurosecretion is a broad area of study and must be further observed to be better understood.

text: The main cause of male infertility is low semen quality. In men who have the necessary reproductive organs to procreate, infertility can be caused by low sperm count due to endocrine problems, drugs, radiation, or infection.  There may be testicular malformations, hormone imbalance, or blockage of the man's duct system. Although many of these can be treated through surgery or hormonal substitutions, some may be indefinite.Infertility associated with viable, but immotile sperm may be caused by primary ciliary dyskinesia.

text: The main cause of male infertility is low

text: semen quality

text: . In men who have the necessary reproductive organs to procreate, infertility can be caused by low sperm count due to endocrine problems, drugs, radiation, or infection.  There may be testicular malformations, hormone imbalance, or blockage of the man's duct system. Although many of these can be treated through surgery or hormonal substitutions, some may be indefinite.Infertility associated with viable, but immotile sperm may be caused by

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: In vertebrate anatomy, the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing  in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain. The hypophysis rests upon the hypophysial fossa of the sphenoid bone in the center of the middle cranial fossa and is surrounded by a small bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold  (diaphragma sellae). The anterior pituitary (or adenohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that regulates several physiological processes (including stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation).  The intermediate lobe synthesizes and secretes melanocyte-stimulating hormone. The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the pituitary stalk (also called the infundibular stalk or the infundibulum).

text: In

text: vertebrate

text: anatomy

text: , the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an

text: endocrine gland

text: about the size of a

text: pea

text: and weighing  in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the

text: hypothalamus

text: at the base of the

text: brain

text: . The hypophysis rests upon the

text: hypophysial fossa

text: of the

text: sphenoid bone

text: in the center of the

text: middle cranial fossa

text: and is surrounded by a small bony cavity (

text: sella turcica

text: ) covered by a

text: dural

text: fold  (

text: diaphragma sellae

text: ). The

text: anterior pituitary

text: (or adenohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that regulates several physiological processes (including stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation).  The

text: intermediate lobe

text: synthesizes and secretes

text: melanocyte-stimulating hormone

text: . The

text: posterior pituitary

text: (or neurohypophysis) is a lobe of the gland that is functionally connected to the

text: hypothalamus

text: by the

text: median eminence

text: via a small tube called the

text: pituitary stalk

text: (also called the infundibular stalk or the infundibulum).

text: The hazardous by-products are then carried in PVC and can be distributed globally by currents of water and wind. These by-products of PVC are bioaccumulative because they are often fat-soluble and can build up in tissues of organisms. The bioaccumulative substances can then move up the food chain so that when it reaches a species higher up on the food chain, like humans, these substances can be at a concentration that's a million times what is in the ambient environment. The by-products and additives released during the lifecycle of PVC can cause various health hazards, sometimes even in low dosages, including: endocrine system disruption, cancer, reproductive impairment, neurotoxicity, birth and developmental defects, and suppression of the immune system.

text: The hazardous by-products are then carried in PVC and can be distributed globally by currents of water and wind. These by-products of PVC are

text: bioaccumulative

text: because they are often

text: fat-soluble

text: and can build up in tissues of organisms. The bioaccumulative substances can then move up the food chain so that when it reaches a species higher up on the food chain, like humans, these substances can be at a concentration that's a million times what is in the ambient environment. The by-products and additives released during the lifecycle of PVC can cause various health hazards, sometimes even in low dosages, including: endocrine system disruption,

text: cancer

text: , reproductive impairment,

text: neurotoxicity

text: , birth and developmental defects, and suppression of the immune system.

text: Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as thyrotropin, thyrotropic hormone, TSH, or hTSH for human TSH) is a pituitary hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine (T), and then triiodothyronine (T) which stimulates the metabolism of almost every tissue in the body. It is a glycoprotein hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland, which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid. In 1916, Bennett M. Allen and Philip E. Smith found that the pituitary contained a thyrotropic substance.

text: Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as thyrotropin, thyrotropic hormone, TSH, or hTSH for human TSH) is a

text: pituitary hormone

text: that stimulates the

text: thyroid

text: gland to produce

text: thyroxine

text: (T), and then

text: triiodothyronine

text: (T) which stimulates the metabolism of almost every tissue in the body. It is a

text: glycoprotein

text: hormone synthesized and secreted by

text: thyrotrope

text: cells in the

text: anterior pituitary gland

text: , which regulates the endocrine function of the

text: thyroid

text: . In 1916, Bennett M. Allen and Philip E. Smith found that the pituitary contained a thyrotropic substance.

text: Extracellular glutamate in Drosophila brains has been found to regulate postsynaptic glutamate receptor clustering, via a process involving receptor desensitization. A gene expressed in glial cells actively transports glutamate into the extracellular space, while, in the nucleus accumbens-stimulating group II metabotropic glutamate receptors, this gene was found to reduce extracellular glutamate levels. This raises the possibility that this extracellular glutamate plays an "endocrine-like" role as part of a larger homeostatic system.

text: Extracellular glutamate in

text: Drosophila

text: brains has been found to regulate postsynaptic glutamate receptor clustering, via a process involving receptor desensitization. A gene expressed in

text: glial cell

text: s actively transports glutamate into the

text: extracellular space

text: , while, in the

text: nucleus accumbens

text: -stimulating group II metabotropic glutamate receptors, this gene was found to reduce extracellular glutamate levels. This raises the possibility that this extracellular glutamate plays an "endocrine-like" role as part of a larger homeostatic system.

text: The hypothalamus is responsive to:

text: The hypothalamus is responsive to:

text: Because the open-loop gain A is plotted and not the product β A, the condition A = 1 / β decides f. The feedback gain at low frequencies and for large A is A ≈ 1 / β (look at the formula for the feedback gain at the beginning of this section for the case of large gain A), so an equivalent way to find f is to look where the feedback gain intersects the open-loop gain. (Frequency f is needed later to find the phase margin.)

text: Emissaries of Divine Light practice Attunement as a form of energy medicine. Attunement practitioners believe that universal life energy is conveyed to the client through the hands of the practitioner. The primary contact points for the client receiving the Attunement are the endocrine glands. Attunement practitioners teach that the endocrine glands are portals for universal life energy that operates through the physical body, and through the mental and emotional function of the individual.

text: The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at each end of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage").  The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate. Bone growth in length is stimulated by the production of growth hormone (GH), a secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

text: The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of

text: bone

text: s: long,

text: short

text: flat

text: irregular

text: and

text: sesamoid

text: . Long bones, especially the

text: femur

text: and

text: tibia

text: , are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the

text: diaphysis

text: , with an

text: epiphysis

text: at each end of the growing

text: bone

text: . The ends of epiphyses are covered with

text: hyaline cartilage

text: ("articular cartilage").  The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of

text: endochondral ossification

text: at the

text: epiphyseal plate

text: . Bone growth in length is stimulated by the production of

text: growth hormone

text: (GH), a secretion of the

text: anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

text: It is now well accepted that the immune, nervous and endocrine systems communicate and interact to control and modulate inflammation and tissue repair. One of the neuroendocrine pathways, when activated, results in the release of immune regulating peptides from the submandibular gland upon neuronal stimulation from sympathetic nerves.  This pathway or communication is referred to as the cervical sympathetic trunk-submandibular gland (CST-SMG) axis, a regulatory system that plays a role in the systemic control of inflammation.

text: It is now well accepted that the immune, nervous and

text: endocrine

text: systems communicate and interact to control and modulate

text: inflammation

text: and

text: tissue

text: repair. One of the neuroendocrine pathways, when activated, results in the release of immune regulating peptides from the submandibular gland upon neuronal stimulation from

text: sympathetic

text: nerves.  This pathway or communication is referred to as the cervical sympathetic trunk-submandibular gland (CST-SMG) axis, a regulatory system that plays a role in the systemic control of inflammation.

text: During a call one or more parameters of the signal in the channel in the source cell are monitored and assessed in order to decide when a handover may be necessary. The downlink (forward link) and/or uplink (reverse link) directions may be monitored. The handover may be requested by the phone or by the base station (BTS) of its source cell and, in some systems, by a BTS of a neighboring cell. The phone and the BTSes of the neighboring cells monitor each other's signals and the best target candidates are selected among the neighboring cells. In some systems, mainly based on CDMA, a target candidate may be selected among the cells which are not in the neighbor list. This is done in an effort to reduce the probability of interference due to the aforementioned near-far effect.

text: During a call one or more parameters of the signal in the channel in the source cell are monitored and assessed in order to decide when a handover may be necessary. The downlink (forward link) and/or uplink (reverse link) directions may be monitored. The handover may be requested by the phone or by the

text: base station

text: (BTS) of its source cell and, in some systems, by a BTS of a neighboring cell. The phone and the BTSes of the neighboring cells monitor each other's signals and the best target candidates are selected among the neighboring cells. In some systems, mainly based on CDMA, a target candidate may be selected among the cells which are not in the neighbor list. This is done in an effort to reduce the probability of interference due to the aforementioned near-far effect.

text: In November 2014, the Copenhagen-based Nordic Council of Ministers released its own independent report that estimated the impact of environmental EDCs on male reproductive health, and the resulting cost to public health systems. It concluded that EDCs likely cost health systems across the EU anywhere from 59 million to 1.18 billion Euros a year, noting that even this represented only "a fraction of the endocrine related diseases".

text: In November 2014, the

text: Copenhagen

text: -based

text: Nordic Council of Ministers

text: released its own independent report that estimated the impact of environmental EDCs on male reproductive health, and the resulting cost to public health systems. It concluded that EDCs likely cost health systems across the EU anywhere from 59 million to 1.18 billion Euros a year, noting that even this represented only "a fraction of the endocrine related diseases".

text: Testicular diseases can be classified as endocrine disorders or as a disorders of the reproductive system.

text: Testicular diseases can be classified as

text: endocrine disorder

text: s or as a disorders of the

text: reproductive system

text: Endocrine-Related Cancer is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering cancers in endocrine organs — such as the breast, prostate, pituitary, testes, ovaries, and neuroendocrine system — and hormone-dependent cancers occurring elsewhere in the body. Its scope covers basic, translational, clinical and experimental studies.

text: Endocrine-Related Cancer is a monthly

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: covering

text: cancer

text: s in

text: endocrine organ

text: s — such as the

text: breast

text: prostate

text: pituitary

text: testes

text: ovaries

text: , and

text: neuroendocrine system

text: — and hormone-dependent cancers occurring elsewhere in the body. Its scope covers

text: basic

text: translational

text: clinical

text: and experimental studies.

text: The amygdalofugal pathway (Latin for "fleeing from the amygdala" and commonly distinguished as the ventral amygdalofugal pathway) is one of the three major efferent pathways of the amygdala, meaning that it is one of the three principal pathways by which fibers leave the amygdala. It leads from the basolateral nucleus and central nucleus of the amygdala. The amygdala is a limbic structure in the medial temporal lobe of the brain. The other main efferent pathways from the amygdala are the stria terminalis and anterior commissure.While the stria terminalis carries information primarily from the corticomedian nuclei of the amygdala, the ventral amygdalofugal pathway carries output from the central and basolateral nuclei and delivers it a number of targets; namely, the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the basal forebrain, the brain stem, septal nuclei and nucleus accumbens.  Both the amygdalofugal pathway and the stria terminalis project to the septal region, the hypothalamus, and the thalamus, but the stria terminalis reaches the septal region and the hypothalamus in a much longer and less direct path. While the stria terminalis follows a C-shaped pathway along the lateral ventricles, the ventral amygdalofugal pathway is more direct and contains a higher proportion of myelinated axons, causing the pathway to appear darker upon observation in stained crossection.

text: The amygdalofugal pathway (

text: Latin

text: for "fleeing from the amygdala" and commonly distinguished as the ventral amygdalofugal pathway) is one of the three major

text: efferent pathways

text: of the

text: amygdala

text: , meaning that it is one of the three principal pathways by which fibers leave the amygdala. It leads from the

text: basolateral nucleus

text: and

text: central nucleus

text: of the amygdala. The amygdala is a

text: limbic

text: structure in the

text: medial temporal lobe

text: of the

text: brain

text: . The other main efferent pathways from the amygdala are the

text: stria terminalis

text: and

text: anterior commissure

text: .While the stria terminalis carries information primarily from the corticomedian nuclei of the amygdala, the ventral amygdalofugal pathway carries output from the central and basolateral nuclei and delivers it a number of targets; namely, the medial dorsal nucleus of the

text: thalamus

text: , the

text: hypothalamus

text: , the basal forebrain, the brain stem,

text: septal nuclei

text: and

text: nucleus accumbens

text: .  Both the amygdalofugal pathway and the stria terminalis project to the

text: septal region

text: , the

text: hypothalamus

text: , and the

text: thalamus

text: , but the stria terminalis reaches the septal region and the hypothalamus in a much longer and less direct path. While the stria terminalis follows a C-shaped pathway along the lateral ventricles, the ventral amygdalofugal pathway is more direct and contains a higher proportion of

text: myelin

text: ated

text: axon

text: s, causing the pathway to appear darker upon observation in stained crossection.

text: In contrast, positive feedback is feedback in which the system responds so as to increase the magnitude of any particular perturbation, resulting in amplification of the original signal instead of stabilization. Any system in which there is positive feedback together with a gain greater than one will result in a runaway situation. Both positive and negative feedback require a feedback loop to operate.

text: In contrast,

text: positive feedback

text: is feedback in which the system responds so as to increase the magnitude of any particular perturbation, resulting in amplification of the original signal instead of stabilization. Any system in which there is positive feedback together with a gain greater than one will result in a runaway situation. Both positive and negative feedback require a feedback loop to operate.

text: Endocrine diseases are disorders of the endocrine system. The branch of medicine associated with endocrine disorders is known as endocrinology.

text: Endocrine diseases are disorders of the

text: endocrine system

text: . The branch of

text: medicine

text: associated with endocrine disorders is known as

text: endocrinology

text: Uncovering leverage points involves understanding feedback loops that link variables, or factors, that cause behavior in other variables. Feedback loops are either self-reinforcing (good or bad) or goal-seeking (seeking equilibrium). Synthesis of improved courses of action arises from mitigating bad (vicious circles) self-reinforcing feedback loops, exploiting good (virtuous circles) and goal-seeking feedback loops, and iteratively optimizing them, typically using parameter-driven simulations. Leverage point models accomplish this simulation capability in software tools that follow system dynamics conventions. These conventions capture model structure and attach algebraic relationships to all the variables appearing in a diagram, including time span and steps.

text: The ACE Self-Assessment Program (ASAP) is a continuing medical educational (CME) program that provides a full curriculum with up-to-date information about the evaluation, diagnosis, treatment and management of endocrine system diseases. ASAP assists endocrinologists in preparation and maintenance of their sub-specialty certification.

text: It is also known that disruption of the endocrine system by certain chemicals adversely affects the development of the reproductive system and can cause vaginal cancer. Many other reproductive diseases have also been link to exposure to synthetic and environmental chemicals. Common chemicals with known links to reproductive disorders include: lead, dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, styrene, toluene, BPA (Bisphenol A) and pesticides.

text: It is also known that

text: disruption of the endocrine system

text: by certain chemicals adversely affects the development of the reproductive system and can cause vaginal

text: cancer

text: . Many other reproductive diseases have also been link to exposure to synthetic and environmental chemicals. Common chemicals with known links to reproductive disorders include:

text: lead

text: dioxins and dioxin-like compounds

text: styrene

text: toluene

text: , BPA (Bisphenol A) and

text: pesticide

text: s.

text: The most important cause of lactation failure is an insufficient secretion of prolactin from the pituitary gland. D receptor antagonists, which are used to treat lactation failure, correct this insufficiency by blocking D receptors in the anterior pituitary, which in turn disinhibits prolactin release. Differential diagnosis of lactation failure when prolactin levels are normal or high includes lymphocytic hypophysitis (inflammation of the pituitary gland due to autoimmunity), Sheehan's syndrome (postpartum hypopituitarism due to ischemic necrosis from blood loss and hypovolemia during and after childbirth), and adult growth hormone deficiency, all of which may cause lactation failure in part or full by lack of sufficient GH secretion. Hypopituitarism in general can impair secretion of pituitary hormones such as prolactin and growth hormone (GH) and in turn result in lactation failure.

text: The most important cause of lactation failure is an insufficient secretion of

text: prolactin

text: from the

text: pituitary gland

text: D receptor

text: antagonist

text: s, which are used to treat lactation failure, correct this insufficiency by blocking D receptors in the

text: anterior pituitary

text: , which in turn disinhibits prolactin release.

text: Differential diagnosis

text: of lactation failure when prolactin levels are normal or high includes

text: lymphocytic hypophysitis

text: (inflammation of the pituitary gland due to

text: autoimmunity

text: Sheehan's syndrome

text: postpartum

text: hypopituitarism

text: due to

text: ischemic

text: necrosis

text: from

text: blood loss

text: and

text: hypovolemia

text: during and after

text: childbirth

text: ), and adult

text: growth hormone deficiency

text: , all of which may cause lactation failure in part or full by lack of sufficient GH secretion. Hypopituitarism in general can impair secretion of

text: pituitary hormone

text: s such as prolactin and

text: growth hormone

text: (GH) and in turn result in lactation failure.

text: mGRs have been implicated in the rapid effects of glucocorticoids in the early central stress response via modulating neuronal activity in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, among other areas. In accordance, glucocorticoids are known to affect cognition, stress-adaptive behavior, and neuroendocrine output (e.g., suppression of oxytocin and vasopressin secretion) within minutes. mGRs appear to be partially involved in the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant effects of glucocorticoids. mGRs are present in and appear to regulate many major bodily systems and organs, including the cardiovascular, immune, endocrine, and nervous systems, smooth and skeletal muscle, the liver, and fat tissue. mGRs appear to cooperate with, complement, and synergize with classical nuclear GRs in various ways.

text: mGRs have been implicated in the rapid effects of glucocorticoids in the early

text: central

text: stress response

text: via modulating

text: neuronal activity

text: in the

text: hypothalamus

text: hippocampus

text: amygdala

text: , and

text: prefrontal cortex

text: , among other areas. In accordance, glucocorticoids are known to affect

text: cognition

text: stress-adaptive behavior

text: , and

text: neuroendocrine

text: output (e.g., suppression of

text: oxytocin

text: and

text: vasopressin

text: secretion

text: ) within minutes. mGRs appear to be partially involved in the

text: anti-inflammatory

text: and

text: immunosuppressant

text: effects of glucocorticoids. mGRs are present in and appear to regulate many major bodily systems and organs, including the

text: cardiovascular

text: immune

text: endocrine

text: , and

text: nervous system

text: s,

text: smooth

text: and

text: skeletal muscle

text: , the

text: liver

text: , and

text: fat tissue

text: . mGRs appear to cooperate with, complement, and synergize with classical nuclear GRs in various ways.

text: One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production of other endocrine glands.  For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output of thyroid hormones.

text: One special group of hormones is the

text: tropic hormone

text: s that stimulate the hormone production of other

text: endocrine glands

text: .  For example,

text: thyroid-stimulating hormone

text: (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the

text: thyroid

text: , which increases output of

text: thyroid hormone

text: s.

text: Feedback is also central to the operations of genes and gene regulatory networks. Repressor (see Lac repressor) and activator proteins are used to create genetic operons, which were identified by Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod in 1961 as feedback loops. These feedback loops may be positive (as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative (as is often the case in metabolic consumption).

text: Feedback is also central to the operations of

text: gene

text: s and

text: gene regulatory network

text: s.

text: Repressor

text: (see

text: Lac repressor

text: ) and

text: activator

text: protein

text: s are used to create genetic

text: operon

text: s, which were identified by

text: Francois Jacob

text: and

text: Jacques Monod

text: in 1961 as feedback loops. These feedback loops may be positive (as in the case of the coupling between a sugar molecule and the proteins that import sugar into a bacterial cell), or negative (as is often the case in

text: metabolic

text: consumption).

text: An insect’s sensory, motor and physiological processes are controlled by the central nervous system along with the endocrine system. Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a brain, a ventral nerve cord and a subesophageal ganglion. This is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the oesophagus.

text: An insect’s sensory,

text: motor

text: and physiological processes are controlled by the

text: central nervous system

text: along with the

text: endocrine system

text: . Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a

text: brain

text: , a

text: ventral nerve cord

text: and a

text: subesophageal ganglion

text: . This is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the

text: oesophagus

text: While there are many approaches and models of systems thinking, provide an open system (systems theory) that analyzes a system by its (a) inputs, (b) throughputs or transformations, (c) outputs, (d) feedback, and (e) environment. This model has been adapted for use in analyzing each of the organizational teams as a system through their (a) inputs, (b) transformations, (c) outputs, (d) feedback loops, (e) goals, and (f) environment.

text: While there are many approaches and models of systems thinking, provide an

text: open system (systems theory)

text: that analyzes a system by its (a) inputs, (b) throughputs or transformations, (c) outputs, (d) feedback, and (e) environment. This model has been adapted for use in analyzing each of the organizational teams as a system through their (a) inputs, (b) transformations, (c) outputs, (d) feedback loops, (e) goals, and (f) environment.

text: Hypothalamus connections hormonally regulate hunger and the digestive system.

text: Stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) is a receptor that can bind with stimulative signal molecules, while inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri) is a receptor that can bind with inhibitory signal molecules.

text: Internal-combustion engines are feedback systems, which, once started, rely on the inertia from each cycle to initiate the next cycle. In a four-stroke engine, the third stroke releases energy from the fuel, powering the fourth (exhaust) stroke and also the first two (intake, compression) strokes of the next cycle, as well as powering the engine's external load. To start the first cycle at the beginning of any particular session, the first two strokes must be powered in some other way than from the engine itself. The starter motor is used for this purpose and is not required once the engine starts running and its feedback loop becomes self-sustaining.

text: Internal-combustion engines are feedback systems, which, once started, rely on the inertia from each cycle to initiate the next cycle. In a

text: four-stroke engine

text: , the third stroke releases energy from the fuel, powering the fourth (exhaust) stroke and also the first two (intake, compression) strokes of the next cycle, as well as powering the engine's external load. To start the first cycle at the beginning of any particular session, the first two strokes must be powered in some other way than from the engine itself. The starter motor is used for this purpose and is not required once the engine starts running and its feedback loop becomes self-sustaining.

text: Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with the endocrine (hormone) system.

text: Endocrine disruptor

text: s are chemicals that interfere with the

text: endocrine

text: (hormone) system.

text: Iodine's main role in animal biology is as constituents of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These are made from addition condensation products of the amino acid tyrosine, and are stored prior to release in an iodine-containing protein called thyroglobulin. T4 and T3 contain four and three atoms of iodine per molecule, respectively. The thyroid gland actively absorbs iodine from the blood to make and release these hormones into the blood, actions which are regulated by a second hormone TSH from the pituitary. Thyroid hormones are phylogenetically very old molecules which are synthesized by most multicellular organisms, and which even have some effect on unicellular organisms.

text: Iodine's main role in animal biology is as constituents of the

text: thyroid

text: hormone

text: s,

text: thyroxine

text: (T4) and

text: triiodothyronine

text: (T3). These are made from addition condensation products of the amino acid

text: tyrosine

text: , and are stored prior to release in an iodine-containing

text: protein

text: called

text: thyroglobulin

text: . T4 and T3 contain four and three

text: atoms

text: of iodine per

text: molecule

text: , respectively. The

text: thyroid gland

text: actively absorbs iodine from the

text: blood

text: to make and release these hormones into the blood, actions which are regulated by a second hormone

text: TSH

text: from the

text: pituitary

text: . Thyroid hormones are

text: phylogenetic

text: ally very old molecules which are synthesized by most

text: multicellular

text: organisms

text: , and which even have some effect on

text: unicellular

text: organisms.

text: This disease can lead to excess pressure on the spine, causing pain and discomfort. If the spine is bent too far, a patient may have difficulties breathing in the future because of the pressure of the spine pressed against the lungs. Camptocormia may also lead to aging, muscle weakness in the upper back, arthritis and other bone degeneration diseases. Due to loss of bone strength, injury to the spine and slipped discs become increasingly significant. Camptocormia can lead to infection, tumors, diseases of the endocrine system and connective tissues.The success of the treatment method is largely dependent on the patient, but response to therapeutic methods is generally low.

text: This disease can lead to excess pressure on the spine, causing pain and discomfort. If the spine is bent too far, a patient may have difficulties breathing in the future because of the pressure of the spine pressed against the lungs. Camptocormia may also lead to aging, muscle weakness in the upper back,

text: arthritis

text: and other bone degeneration diseases. Due to loss of bone strength, injury to the spine and slipped discs become increasingly significant. Camptocormia can lead to infection, tumors, diseases of the endocrine system and connective tissues.The success of the treatment method is largely dependent on the patient, but response to therapeutic methods is generally low.

text: One study conducted in Italian women showed that nonylphenol was one of the highest contaminants at a concentration of 32 ng/mL in breast milk when compared to other alkyl phenols, such as octylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxylate, and two octylphenol ethoxylates. The study also found a positive correlation between fish consumption and the concentration of nonylphenol in breast milk. This is a large problem because breast milk is the main source of nourishment for newborns, who are in early stages of development where hormones are very influential. Elevated levels of endocrine disruptors in breast milk have been associated with negative effects on neurological development, growth, and memory function.

text: One study conducted in Italian women showed that nonylphenol was one of the highest contaminants at a concentration of 32 ng/mL in

text: breast milk

text: when compared to other alkyl phenols, such as octylphenol, nonylphenol monoethoxylate, and two octylphenol ethoxylates. The study also found a positive correlation between fish consumption and the concentration of nonylphenol in breast milk. This is a large problem because breast milk is the main source of nourishment for newborns, who are in early stages of development where hormones are very influential. Elevated levels of endocrine disruptors in breast milk have been associated with negative effects on

text: neurological development

text: , growth, and memory function.

text: National endocrine societies

text: National endocrine societies

text: Besides their role in the nervous system development, proneural genes are also involved in processes related to trophoblast invasion, endocrine cell differentiation (namely in pancreas and adenohypophysis), sex determination and lungs, thyroid, adrenal and salivary glands and gastrointestinal system development.

text: Besides their role in the

text: nervous system

text: development, proneural genes are also involved in processes related to

text: trophoblast invasion

text: endocrine

text: cell differentiation (namely in

text: pancreas

text: and

text: adenohypophysis

text: sex determination

text: and

text: lungs

text: thyroid

text: adrenal

text: and

text: salivary

text: glands and gastrointestinal system development.

text: A 2001 studyconfirmed in victims of the disaster, that dioxin is carcinogenic to humans and corroborate its association with cardiovascular- and endocrine-related effects. In 2009, an update including 5 more years (up to 1996) found an increase in "lymphatic and hematopoietic tissue neoplasms" and increased breast cancer.

text: A 2001 studyconfirmed in victims of the disaster, that dioxin is carcinogenic to humans and corroborate its association with

text: cardiovascular

text: - and

text: endocrine

text: -related effects. In 2009, an update including 5 more years (up to 1996) found an increase in "lymphatic and hematopoietic tissue neoplasms" and increased breast cancer.

text: APUD cells constitute a group of apparently unrelated endocrine cells, which were named by the scientist A.G.E. Pearse, who developed the APUD concept in the early 1960s. These cells share the common function of secreting a low molecular weight polypeptide hormone. There are several different types which secrete the hormones secretin, cholecystokinin and several others. The name is derived from an acronym, referring to the following:

text: APUD cells constitute a group of apparently unrelated

text: endocrine cell

text: s, which were named by the

text: scientist

text: A.G.E. Pearse

text: , who developed the APUD concept in the early 1960s. These cells share the common function of secreting a low molecular weight

text: polypeptide hormone

text: . There are several different types which secrete the hormones

text: secretin

text: cholecystokinin

text: and several others. The name is derived from an

text: acronym

text: , referring to the following:

text: The pituitary is subdivided into two principal lobes, anterior and posterior, the latter of which is also known as the neurohypophysis. Each one functions as a separate endocrine organ. The posterior pituitary is made up by a stalk, the infundibulum, which consists of axonal projections that extend from the hypothalamus. It is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone at the base of the skull.

text: The pituitary is subdivided into two principal lobes, anterior and posterior, the latter of which is also known as the neurohypophysis. Each one functions as a separate

text: endocrine organ.

text: The posterior pituitary is made up by a stalk, the infundibulum, which consists of axonal projections that extend from the

text: hypothalamus

text: . It is located in the

text: sella turcica

text: of the

text: sphenoid bone

text: at the base of the skull.

text: Many cell signals are carried by molecules that are released by one cell and move to make contact with another cell. Endocrine signals are called hormones. Hormones are produced by endocrine cells and they travel through the blood to reach all parts of the body. Specificity of signaling can be controlled if only some cells can respond to a particular hormone. Paracrine signals such as retinoic acid target only cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell. Neurotransmitters represent another example of a paracrine signal. Some signaling molecules can function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. For example, epinephrine and norepinephrine can function as hormones when released from the adrenal gland and are transported to the heart by way of the blood stream. Norepinephrine can also be produced by neurons to function as a neurotransmitter within the brain. Estrogen can be released by the ovary and function as a hormone or act locally via paracrine or autocrine signaling. Active species of oxygen and nitric oxide can also act as cellular messengers. This process is dubbed redox signaling.

text: Many cell signals are carried by molecules that are released by one cell and move to make contact with another cell.

text: Endocrine

text: signals are called

text: hormone

text: s. Hormones are produced by endocrine cells and they travel through the

text: blood

text: to reach all parts of the body. Specificity of signaling can be controlled if only some cells can respond to a particular hormone.

text: Paracrine

text: signals such as

text: retinoic acid

text: target only cells in the vicinity of the emitting cell.

text: Neurotransmitter

text: s represent another example of a paracrine signal. Some signaling molecules can function as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter. For example,

text: epinephrine

text: and

text: norepinephrine

text: can function as hormones when released from the

text: adrenal gland

text: and are transported to the heart by way of the blood stream. Norepinephrine can also be produced by

text: neuron

text: s to function as a neurotransmitter within the brain.

text: Estrogen

text: can be released by the

text: ovary

text: and function as a hormone or act locally via paracrine or

text: autocrine

text: signaling. Active species of oxygen and

text: nitric oxide

text: can also act as cellular messengers. This process is dubbed

text: redox signaling

text: Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as insulin, and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function.

text: Pancreas is both an

text: endocrine

text: and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as

text: insulin

text: , and

text: glucagon

text: ), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function.

text: Reception occurs when the target cell (any cell with a receptor protein specific to the signal molecule) detects a signal, usually in the form of a small, water-soluble molecule, via binding to receptor protein. Reception is the target cell's detection of a signal via binding of a signaling molecule, or ligand. Receptor proteins span the cell’s plasma membrane and provide specific sites for water-soluble signaling molecules to bind to. These trans-membrane receptors are able to transmit information from outside the cell to the inside because they change conformation when a specific ligand binds to it. By looking at three major types of receptors, (G protein coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, and ion channel receptors) scientists are able to see how trans-membrane receptors contribute to the complexity of cells and the work that these cells do. Cell surface receptors play an essential role in the biological systems of single- and multi-cellular organisms and malfunction or damage to these proteins is associated with cancer, heart disease, and asthma.

text: Reception occurs when the target cell (any cell with a

text: receptor protein

text: specific to the

text: signal molecule

text: ) detects a signal, usually in the form of a small, water-soluble molecule, via binding to receptor protein. Reception is the target cell's detection of a signal via binding of a signaling molecule, or

text: ligand

text: . Receptor proteins span the cell’s plasma membrane and provide specific sites for water-soluble signaling molecules to bind to. These

text: trans-membrane

text: receptors are able to transmit information from outside the cell to the inside because they

text: change conformation

text: when a specific ligand binds to it. By looking at three major types of receptors, (

text: G protein coupled receptors

text: receptor tyrosine kinase

text: s, and

text: ion channel receptors

text: ) scientists are able to see how trans-membrane receptors contribute to the complexity of cells and the work that these cells do. Cell surface receptors play an essential role in the biological systems of single- and multi-cellular organisms and malfunction or damage to these proteins is associated with cancer, heart disease, and asthma.

text: RNA splicing errors can have drastic effects on how proteins function, including the hormones secreted by the endocrine system. These effects on hormones have been identified as the cause of many endocrine disorders including thyroid-related pathological conditions, rickets, hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia and congenital adrenal hyperplasia.  One specific example of a splicing error causing an endocrine disease that has been studied using minigenes is a type of growth hormone deficiency called isolated growth hormone deficiency (IGHD), a disease that results in growth failure. IGHD type II is an autosomal dominant form caused by a mutation in the intervening sequence (IVS) adjacent to exon 3 of the gene encoding growth hormone 1, the GH-1 gene. This mutated form of IVS3 causes exon 3 to be skipped in the mRNA product. The mRNA (-E3) encodes a truncated form of hGH that then inhibits normal hGH secretion.  Minigenes were used to determine that a point mutation within an intron splice enhancer (ISE) embedded in IVS3 was to blame for the skipping of E3.  Moreover, it was determined that the function of the ISE is influenced by a nearby transposable AC element, revealing that this particular splicing error is caused by a trans-acting factor.

text: RNA splicing errors can have drastic effects on how proteins function, including the hormones secreted by the

text: endocrine system

text: . These effects on hormones have been identified as the cause of many endocrine disorders including thyroid-related pathological conditions,

text: rickets

text: hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia

text: and

text: congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: .  One specific example of a splicing error causing an endocrine disease that has been studied using minigenes is a type of

text: growth hormone deficiency

text: called isolated growth hormone deficiency (IGHD), a disease that results in growth failure. IGHD type II is an autosomal dominant form caused by a mutation in the intervening sequence (IVS) adjacent to exon 3 of the gene encoding growth hormone 1, the GH-1 gene. This mutated form of IVS3 causes exon 3 to be skipped in the mRNA product. The mRNA (-E3) encodes a truncated form of hGH that then inhibits normal hGH secretion.  Minigenes were used to determine that a

text: point mutation

text: within an intron splice enhancer (ISE) embedded in IVS3 was to blame for the skipping of E3.  Moreover, it was determined that the function of the ISE is influenced by a nearby

entity_name: Ac/Ds Activator/Dissociation Transposable Element

text: transposable AC element

text: , revealing that this particular splicing error is caused by a trans-acting factor.

text: The Barkhausen criterion mentioned above does not determine the amplitude of oscillation.  An oscillator circuit with only linear components is unstable with respect to amplitude.  As long as the loop gain is exactly one, the amplitude of the sine wave would be constant, but the slightest increase in gain, due to a drift in the value of components will cause the amplitude to increase exponentially without limit.  Similarly, the slightest decrease will cause the sine wave to die out exponentially to zero.  Therefore all practical oscillators must have a nonlinear component in the feedback loop, to reduce the gain as the amplitude increases, leading to stable operation at the amplitude where the loop gain is unity.

text: The Barkhausen criterion mentioned above does not determine the amplitude of oscillation.  An oscillator circuit with only

text: linear

text: components is unstable with respect to amplitude.  As long as the loop gain is exactly one, the amplitude of the sine wave would be constant, but the slightest increase in gain, due to a drift in the value of components will cause the amplitude to increase exponentially without limit.  Similarly, the slightest decrease will cause the sine wave to die out exponentially to zero.  Therefore all practical oscillators must have a nonlinear component in the feedback loop, to reduce the gain as the amplitude increases, leading to stable operation at the amplitude where the loop gain is unity.

text: In order to have efficient eradication of cancer cells, the immune system cells should be able to both populate in the secondary lymphoid organs for a long-lasting effect and target a shared variety of tumor cells as opposed to one, specific cancer cell. In the ALECSAT method, several different cells are activated to accomplish this.  Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are activated to target the cells that present proteins characteristic of tumor cells Some tumor cells, however, do not present an antigen due to lack of a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and therefore cannot be recognized by the CTLs.  The cells that do not present an antigen are targeted by activated NK cells, leaving little opportunity for any cancer cells to escape.  CTLs and NK cells are both effector cells so helper T-cells (T) are also prepared in order to create memory cells for long term resistance toward tumor cells. T helper 1 (TH1) cells, when injected with overexpressed tumor antigens, have been shown to enhance migration of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) into the draining lymph node in mice, further enhancing immune response through activation of CTLs.

text: In order to have efficient eradication of

text: cancer cells

text: , the immune system cells should be able to both populate in the

text: secondary lymphoid organs

text: for a long-lasting effect and target a shared variety of tumor cells as opposed to one, specific cancer cell. In the ALECSAT method, several different cells are activated to accomplish this.  Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) are activated to target the cells that present

text: protein

text: s characteristic of tumor cells Some tumor cells, however, do not present an

text: antigen

text: due to lack of a

text: major histocompatibility complex

text: (MHC) and therefore cannot be recognized by the CTLs.  The cells that do not present an antigen are targeted by activated NK cells, leaving little opportunity for any cancer cells to escape.  CTLs and NK cells are both

text: effector cells

text: so helper T-cells (T) are also prepared in order to create

text: memory cells

text: for long term resistance toward tumor cells. T helper 1 (TH1) cells, when injected with overexpressed tumor antigens, have been shown to enhance migration of

text: antigen-presenting cell

text: s (APCs) into the draining

text: lymph node

text: in mice, further enhancing immune response through activation of CTLs.

text: McCune–Albright syndrome has different levels of severity. For example, one child with McCune–Albright syndrome may be entirely healthy, with no outward evidence of bone or endocrine problems, enter puberty at close to the normal age, and have no unusual skin pigmentation. Diagnosis may be made only after decades. In other cases, children are diagnosed in early infancy, show obvious bone disease, and obvious increased endocrine secretions from several glands.

text: Hormones work at very small doses (part per billion ranges).  Endocrine disruption can thereby also occur from low-dose exposure to exogenous hormones or hormonally active chemicals that can interfere with receptors for other hormonally mediated processes. Furthermore, since endogenous hormones are already present in the body in biologically active concentrations, additional exposure to relatively small amounts of exogenous hormonally active substances can disrupt the proper functioning of the body's endocrine system. Thus, an endocrine disruptor can elicit adverse effects at much lower doses than a toxicity, acting through a different mechanism.

text: Hormones work at very small doses (part per billion ranges).  Endocrine disruption can thereby also occur from low-dose exposure to exogenous hormones or hormonally active chemicals that can interfere with receptors for other hormonally mediated processes. Furthermore, since

text: endogenous

text: hormones are already present in the body in biologically active concentrations, additional exposure to relatively small amounts of

text: exogenous

text: hormonally active substances can disrupt the proper functioning of the body's endocrine system. Thus, an endocrine disruptor can elicit adverse effects at much lower doses than a toxicity, acting through a different mechanism.

text: A negative feedback loop which includes a delay (mediated here by process A) is a general mechanism for producing oscillations in many physical systems, but is very rare in nonbiological homogeneous chemical systems. (The BZ oscillating reaction has a somewhat similar feedback loop.)

text: A negative feedback loop which includes a delay (mediated here by process A) is a general mechanism for producing oscillations in many physical systems, but is very rare in nonbiological homogeneous chemical systems. (The

text: BZ oscillating reaction

text: has a somewhat similar feedback loop.)

text: The pylorus also contains scattered parietal cells and neuroendocrine cells. These endocrine cells including G cells, which produce gastrin, which stimulates gastric acid production, and D cells, which release somatostatin. (responsible for shutting off acid secretion. There is a second hormone-sensitive population near the fundus.)

text: The pylorus also contains scattered

text: parietal cell

text: s and

text: neuroendocrine cell

text: s. These

text: endocrine

text: cells including

text: G cell

text: s, which produce

text: gastrin

text: , which stimulates gastric acid production, and

text: D cells

text: , which release

text: somatostatin

text: . (responsible for shutting off acid secretion. There is a second hormone-sensitive population near the

text: fundus

text: The object to be weighed is placed on one plate, and calibrated masses are added to and subtracted from the other plate until level is reached. The mass of the object is equal to the mass of the calibrated masses regardless of where on the plates items are placed. Since the vertical beams are always vertical, and the weighing platforms always horizontal, the potential energy lost by a weight as its platform goes down a certain distance will always be the same, so it makes no difference where the weight is placed.  For maximum accuracy, Roberval balances require that their top fulcrum be placed on the line between the left and right pivot so that tipping will not result in the net transfer of weight to either the left or right side of the scale: a fulcrum placed below the idea pivot point will tend to cause a net shift in the direction of any downward-moving vertical column (in a kind of positive feedback loop); likewise, a fulcrum placed above this point will tend to level out the arms of the balance rather than respond to small changes in weight (in a negative feedback loop).

text: The object to be weighed is placed on one plate, and calibrated masses are added to and subtracted from the other plate until level is reached. The mass of the object is equal to the mass of the calibrated masses regardless of where on the plates items are placed. Since the vertical beams are always vertical, and the weighing platforms always horizontal, the potential energy lost by a weight as its platform goes down a certain distance will always be the same, so it makes no difference where the weight is placed.  For maximum accuracy, Roberval balances require that their top

text: fulcrum

text: be placed on the line between the left and right pivot so that tipping will not result in the net transfer of weight to either the left or right side of the scale: a fulcrum placed below the idea pivot point will tend to cause a net shift in the direction of any downward-moving vertical column (in a kind of

text: positive feedback loop

text: ); likewise, a fulcrum placed above this point will tend to level out the arms of the balance rather than respond to small changes in weight (in a

text: negative feedback loop

text: She currently is an Ex-Officio at the Endocrine Society in Washington, D.C.

text: Endocrine treatment may be beneficial for patients with hormone receptor positive breast tumors.

text: If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have negative feedback; otherwise, the feedback is said to be positive. Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the stability and accuracy of a system by correcting or reducing the influence of unwanted changes.  This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it.  When this happens, the lag in arrival of the correcting signal can result in overcorrection, causing the output to oscillate or "hunt". While often an unwanted consequence of system behaviour, this effect is used deliberately in electronic oscillators.

text: If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have

text: negative feedback

text: ; otherwise, the feedback is said to be positive. Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the

text: stability

text: and accuracy of a system by correcting or reducing the influence of unwanted changes.  This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it.  When this happens, the lag in arrival of the correcting signal can result in overcorrection, causing the output to

text: oscillate

text: or "hunt". While often an unwanted consequence of system behaviour, this effect is used deliberately in electronic oscillators.

text: Exocrine glands secrete their products through a duct onto an outer surface of the body, such as the skin or the gastrointestinal tract. Secretion is directly onto the apical surface. The glands in this group can be divided into three groups:

text: Exocrine gland

text: s secrete their products through a duct onto an outer surface of the body, such as the skin or the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . Secretion is directly onto the

text: apical

text: surface. The glands in this group can be divided into three groups:

text: Endocrine disorders are often quite complex, involving a mixed picture of hyposecretion and hypersecretion because of the feedback mechanisms involved in the endocrine system. For example, most forms of hyperthyroidism are associated with an excess of thyroid hormone and a low level of thyroid stimulating hormone.

text: Endocrine disorders are often quite complex, involving a mixed picture of hyposecretion and hypersecretion because of the feedback mechanisms involved in the endocrine system. For example, most forms of

text: hyperthyroidism

text: are associated with an excess of

text: thyroid hormone

text: and a low level of

text: thyroid stimulating hormone

text: HAART– hairy cell leukemia– halofuginone hydrobromide– Halsted radical mastectomy– hamartoma– hand-foot syndrome– head and neck cancer– Hedyotis diffusa– HeLa– helical computed tomography– helper T cell– hemagglutinin-neuraminidase– hemangiopericytoma– hemangiosarcoma– hematogenous– hematologic malignancy– hematologist– hematopoiesis– hematopoietic growth factor– hematopoietic tissue– hematoporphyrin derivative– hemilaryngectomy– heparin– hepatectomy– hepatic– hepatic arterial infusion– hepatic artery– hepatic portal vein– hepatic veno-occlusive disease– hepatoblastoma– hepatocellular carcinoma– hepatocyte– hepatoma– hepatomegaly– HER1– HER2/neu– HER2/neu gene– herba scutellaria barbatae– hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer syndrome– hereditary mutation– hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer– herpesvirus– heterogenic– hexyl 5-aminolevulinate– high-dose chemotherapy– high-dose-rate remote brachytherapy– high-dose-rate remote radiation therapy– high-energy photon therapy– high-grade lymphoma– high grade squamous intraepithelial lesion– high-risk cancer– highly active antiretroviral therapy– hilar– histamine dihydrochloride– histiocytic lymphoma– histologic examination– histology– histone– histone deacetylase– historic cohort study– historical control subject– HLA– HNPCC– Hodgkin's disease– Hodgkin's lymphoma– holmium Ho 166 DOTMP– homoharringtonine– hormonal therapy– hormone receptor– hormone receptor test– hormone replacement therapy– hormone responsive– hormone therapy– Horner's syndrome– host cell– hot nodule– HPPH– HPV– HRT– HTLV-1– hu14.18-interleukin-2 fusion protein– Huang Lian– human epidermal growth factor receptor 2– human leukocyte antigen– human lymphocyte antigen– human papillomavirus– human T-cell leukemia virus type 1– Hürthle cell neoplasm– hydrazine sulfate– hydromorphone– hydronephrosis– hydroureter– hydroxychloroquine– hydroxyurea– hypercalcemia– hyperfractionation– hyperglycemia– hypericum perforatum– hypernephroma– hyperplasia– hypersensitivity– hyperthermia therapy– hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemoperfusion– hyperthermic perfusion– hyperthyroidism– hyperuricemia– hypervascular– hypoglycemia– hypopharynx– hypotension– hypothalamus– hypothesis– hypothyroidism– hypoxia– hypoxic– hysterectomy

text: HAART

text: hairy cell leukemia

text: halofuginone hydrobromide

text: Halsted radical mastectomy

text: hamartoma

text: hand-foot syndrome

text: head and neck cancer

text: Hedyotis diffusa

text: HeLa

text: helical computed tomography

text: helper T cell

text: hemagglutinin-neuraminidase

text: hemangiopericytoma

text: hemangiosarcoma

text: hematogenous

entity_name: Tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues

text: hematologic malignancy

text: hematologist

text: hematopoiesis

text: hematopoietic growth factor

text: hematopoietic tissue

text: hematoporphyrin derivative

text: hemilaryngectomy

text: heparin

text: hepatectomy

text: hepatic

text: hepatic arterial infusion

text: hepatic artery

text: hepatic portal vein

text: hepatic veno-occlusive disease

text: hepatoblastoma

text: hepatocellular carcinoma

text: hepatocyte

text: hepatoma

text: hepatomegaly

text: HER2/neu gene

text: herba scutellaria barbatae

entity_name: Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer syndrome

text: hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer syndrome

text: hereditary mutation

entity_name: Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer

text: hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer

text: herpesvirus

text: heterogenic

text: hexyl 5-aminolevulinate

text: high-dose chemotherapy

text: high-dose-rate remote brachytherapy

text: high-dose-rate remote radiation therapy

text: high-energy photon therapy

text: high-grade lymphoma

text: high grade squamous intraepithelial lesion

text: high-risk cancer

text: highly active antiretroviral therapy

text: hilar

text: histamine dihydrochloride

text: histiocytic lymphoma

text: histologic examination

text: histology

text: histone

text: histone deacetylase

text: historic cohort study

text: historical control subject

text: HLA

text: HNPCC

text: Hodgkin's disease

text: Hodgkin's lymphoma

text: holmium Ho 166 DOTMP

text: homoharringtonine

text: hormonal therapy

text: hormone receptor

text: hormone receptor test

text: hormone replacement therapy

text: hormone responsive

text: hormone therapy

text: Horner's syndrome

text: host cell

text: hot nodule

text: HPPH

text: HPV

text: HRT

text: hu14.18-interleukin-2 fusion protein

text: Huang Lian

text: human epidermal growth factor receptor 2

text: human leukocyte antigen

text: human lymphocyte antigen

text: human papillomavirus

text: human T-cell leukemia virus type 1

text: Hürthle cell neoplasm

text: hydrazine sulfate

text: hydromorphone

text: hydronephrosis

text: hydroureter

text: hydroxychloroquine

text: hydroxyurea

text: hypercalcemia

text: hyperfractionation

text: hyperglycemia

text: hypericum perforatum

text: hypernephroma

text: hyperplasia

text: hypersensitivity

text: hyperthermia therapy

text: hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemoperfusion

text: hyperthermic perfusion

text: hyperthyroidism

text: hyperuricemia

text: hypervascular

text: hypoglycemia

text: hypopharynx

text: hypotension

text: hypothalamus

text: hypothesis

text: hypothyroidism

text: hypoxia

text: hypoxic

text: hysterectomy

text: Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris, thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land. Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to bioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates. Floating debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT and PAHs.  Aside from toxic effects, when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal brain for estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.

text: Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can

text: leach

text: out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne

text: hydrophobic

text: pollutants

text: collect and magnify on the surface

text: of plastic debris, thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land. Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to

text: bioaccumulate

text: in fatty tissues,

text: biomagnifying

text: up the food chain and putting pressure on

text: apex predator

text: s. Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the

text: endocrine system

text: when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates. Floating debris can also absorb

text: persistent organic pollutant

text: s from seawater, including

text: PCBs

text: DDT

text: and

text: PAHs

text: .  Aside from toxic effects, when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal brain for

text: estradiol

text: , causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.

text: E. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals

text: E. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals

text: Integral windup was more of a problem in analog controllers.  Within modern Distributed Control Systems and Programmable Logic Controllers, it is much easier to prevent integral windup by either limiting the controller output, or by using external reset feedback, which is a means of feeding back the selected output to the integral circuit of all controllers in the selection scheme so that a closed loop is maintained.

text: Integral windup was more of a problem in

text: analog

text: controllers.  Within modern

text: Distributed Control System

text: s and

text: Programmable Logic Controller

text: s, it is much easier to prevent integral windup by either limiting the controller output, or by using external reset feedback, which is a means of feeding back the selected output to the integral circuit of all controllers in the selection scheme so that a

text: closed loop

text: is maintained.

text: However, negative feedback systems can still be subject to oscillations. This is caused by the slight delays around any loop. Due to these delays the feedback signal of some frequencies can arrive one half cycle later which will have a similar effect to positive feedback and these frequencies can reinforce themselves and grow over time. This problem is often dealt with by attenuating or changing the phase of the problematic frequencies. Unless the system naturally has sufficient damping, many negative feedback systems have low pass filters or dampers fitted.

text: However, negative feedback systems can still be subject to oscillations. This is caused by the slight delays around any loop. Due to these delays the feedback signal of some frequencies can arrive one half cycle later which will have a similar effect to positive feedback and these frequencies can reinforce themselves and grow over time. This problem is often dealt with by attenuating or changing the phase of the problematic frequencies. Unless the system naturally has sufficient damping, many negative feedback systems have

text: low pass filter

text: s or

text: dampers

text: fitted.

text: The pituitary is sometimes referred to as the “master gland” because it has a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and guiding the activity of other glands. The posterior lobe stores and releases oxytocin and vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which are produced in the hypothalamus.

text: The pituitary is sometimes referred to as the “master gland” because it has a crucial role in maintaining

text: homeostasis

text: and guiding the activity of other glands. The posterior lobe stores and releases

text: oxytocin

text: and

text: vasopressin

text: , also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which are produced in the hypothalamus.

text: Decreased inhibin feedback after hysterectomy is hypothesized to contribute to increased ovarian stimulation and earlier menopause. Hastened ovarian aging has been observed after endometrial ablation. While it is difficult to prove that these surgeries are causative, it has been hypothesized that the endometrium may be producing endocrine factors contributing to the endocrine feedback and regulation of the ovarian stimulation. Elimination of this factors contributes to faster depletion of the ovarian reserve. Reduced blood supply to the ovaries that may occur as a consequence of hysterectomy and uterine artery embolisation has been hypothesized to contribute to this effect.

text: Decreased inhibin feedback after

text: hysterectomy

text: is hypothesized to contribute to increased ovarian stimulation and earlier menopause. Hastened ovarian aging has been observed after

text: endometrial ablation

text: . While it is difficult to prove that these surgeries are causative, it has been hypothesized that the

text: endometrium

text: may be producing endocrine factors contributing to the endocrine feedback and regulation of the ovarian stimulation. Elimination of this factors contributes to faster depletion of the ovarian reserve. Reduced blood supply to the ovaries that may occur as a consequence of hysterectomy and

text: uterine artery embolisation

text: has been hypothesized to contribute to this effect.

text: The adrenal gland is a major organ of the endocrine system that is located directly on top of the kidneys and is chiefly responsible for the synthesis of stress hormones that are released into the blood stream during a stress response. Cortisol is the major stress hormone released by the adrenal gland.

text: The

text: adrenal gland

text: is a major organ of the endocrine system that is located directly on top of the

text: kidneys

text: and is chiefly responsible for the synthesis of stress hormones that are released into the blood stream during a stress response.

text: Cortisol

text: is the major stress hormone released by the adrenal gland.

text: The posterior pituitary is innervated by the hypothalamus; the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin are synthesized by neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus and stored at the nerves' ends in the posterior pituitary. They are secreted directly into systemic circulation by the hypothalamic neurons.

text: The posterior pituitary is innervated by the hypothalamus; the hormones

text: oxytocin

text: and

text: vasopressin

text: are synthesized by neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus and stored at the nerves' ends in the posterior pituitary. They are secreted directly into

text: systemic circulation

text: by the hypothalamic neurons.

text: Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system in the human body. This is a system of glands which secrete hormones. Hormones are chemicals which affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include thyroid hormone, growth hormone, and insulin. The endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone (such as thyroid stimulating hormone) will control the action or release of another secondary hormone (such as thyroid hormone). If there is too much of the secondary hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone, maintaining homeostasis.

text: Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system in the human body. This is a system of glands which secrete hormones. Hormones are chemicals which affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include

text: thyroid hormone

text: growth hormone

text: , and

text: insulin

text: . The endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone (such as

text: thyroid stimulating hormone

text: ) will control the action or release of another secondary hormone (such as

text: thyroid hormone

text: ). If there is too much of the secondary hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone, maintaining

text: homeostasis

text: These glands are part of the endocrine system:

text: Figure 1 shows a model of the CFA loop. The CFA loop consists of three main elements – The Control element, the Feedback element and the Abort element. Within any system, the lack of any one of these three elements will result in the system failing at some point in time. The term ‘system’ used in this document can represent any environment, task, process, procedure or system in a physical, organizational or natural structure where an entity will respond to influences. It has been found, through experience, that even trees appear to follow the CFA model. The diagram in Figure 1 can be used as an analysis diagram by inserting functions of the controls, feedbacks and aborts in each of the related circles defining the system being analyzed. (Example: Control – Workflow requests, Feedback – Results of requests, Aborts – Requests that failed, workflow exception path)

text: The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO), also known as the intermediate nucleus of the preoptic area (IPA), is a small cluster of neurons situated in the anterior hypothalamus, sitting just above and to the side of the optic chiasm in the brain of humans and other animals. The VLPO, together with the reticular activating system and the widely projecting orexin neuronal system that originates in the lateral hypothalamus, are the interconnected neural systems which control states of arousal, sleep, and transitions between these two states. The VLPO is active during sleep, primarily during non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep), and releases inhibitory neurotransmitters, mainly GABA and galanin, which inhibit neurons of the reticular activating system that are involved in wakefulness and arousal. The VLPO is in turn innervated by neurons from the aforementioned neural systems. The VLPO is activated by the sleep-inducing neurotransmitters serotonin and adenosine. and endosomnogens; Prostaglandin D2 The VLPO is inhibited during wakefulness by the arousal-inducing neurotransmitters norepinephrine and acetylcholine. The role of the VLPO in sleep and wakefulness, and its association with sleep disorders - particularly insomnia and narcolepsy - is a growing area of neuroscience research.

text: The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO), also known as the intermediate nucleus of the preoptic area (IPA), is a small cluster of

text: neuron

text: s situated in the anterior

text: hypothalamus

text: , sitting just above and to the side of the

text: optic chiasm

text: in the brain of humans and other animals. The VLPO, together with the reticular activating system and the widely projecting

text: orexin neuronal system

text: that originates in the

text: lateral hypothalamus

text: , are the interconnected neural systems which control states of arousal, sleep, and transitions between these two states. The VLPO is active during

text: sleep

text: , primarily during

text: non-rapid eye movement sleep

text: (NREM sleep), and releases inhibitory

text: neurotransmitter

text: s, mainly

text: GABA

text: and

text: galanin

text: , which inhibit neurons of the

text: reticular activating system

text: that are involved in

text: wakefulness

text: and arousal. The VLPO is in turn innervated by neurons from the aforementioned neural systems. The VLPO is activated by the sleep-inducing

text: neurotransmitter

text: s

text: serotonin

text: and

text: adenosine

text: . and endosomnogens;

text: Prostaglandin D2

text: The VLPO is inhibited during wakefulness by the arousal-inducing neurotransmitters

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: acetylcholine

text: . The role of the VLPO in sleep and wakefulness, and its association with

text: sleep disorder

text: s - particularly

text: insomnia

text: and

text: narcolepsy

text: - is a growing area of neuroscience research.

text: Another recent discovery is endocrine disruptors. Endocrine disruptors can replace or disturb the balance of hormones within an organism and have been found to be occurring in waters with a concentration in the ng/L level for certain compounds. Some possible effects of endocrine disruptors are male and female sterility, feminization of males, masculinization of females and abnormal testes growth among many others. The exact pathway of occurrence of endocrine disruptors is not completely certain, however several pathways have been proposed.

text: Another recent discovery is

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s. Endocrine disruptors can replace or disturb the balance of hormones within an organism and have been found to be occurring in waters with a concentration in the ng/L level for certain compounds. Some possible effects of endocrine disruptors are male and female sterility, feminization of males, masculinization of females and abnormal testes growth among many others. The exact pathway of occurrence of endocrine disruptors is not completely certain, however several pathways have been proposed.

text: In the developing pancreas, transcription factor ngn3’marks the populations of cells that are in transit from undifferentiated epithelial progenitor cells to mature endocrine cells (precursors of pancreatic endocrine cells), and thus that do not express hormones yet, which suggests that this gene is turned off in differentiated hormone-positive. ngn3’’ is both necessary and sufficient to drive the formation of islet cells during pancreatic development, in a manner similar to the specification of neural fate in neuroectoderm.

text: In the developing pancreas,

text: transcription factor

text: ’marks the populations of cells that are in transit from undifferentiated epithelial progenitor cells to mature

text: endocrine

text: cells (precursors of pancreatic endocrine cells), and thus that do not express

text: hormone

text: s yet, which suggests that this gene is turned off in differentiated hormone-positive.

text: ’’ is both necessary and sufficient to drive the formation of

text: islet cells

text: during pancreatic development, in a manner similar to the specification of neural fate in

text: neuroectoderm

text: This is the most common cause of anovulation and is thought to account for about 70% of all cases. About half the women with hormonal imbalances do not produce enough follicles to ensure the development of an ovule, possibly due to poor hormonal secretions from the pituitary gland or the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland controls most other hormonal glands in the human body. Therefore, any pituitary malfunctioning affects other glands under its influence, including the ovaries. This occurs in around 10% of cases. The mammary glands are also controlled by the pituitary gland, so lactation can also be affected. The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus. In 10% of cases, alterations in the chemical signals from the hypothalamus can easily seriously affect the ovaries.

text: This is the most common cause of anovulation and is thought to account for about 70% of all cases. About half the women with hormonal imbalances do not produce enough follicles to ensure the development of an

text: ovule

text: , possibly due to poor hormonal secretions from the

text: pituitary gland

text: or the

text: hypothalamus

text: . The

text: pituitary gland

text: controls most other hormonal glands in the human body. Therefore, any pituitary malfunctioning affects other glands under its influence, including the

text: ovaries

text: . This occurs in around 10% of cases. The

text: mammary glands

text: are also controlled by the pituitary gland, so

text: lactation

text: can also be affected. The

text: pituitary gland

text: is controlled by the

text: hypothalamus

text: . In 10% of cases, alterations in the chemical signals from the

text: hypothalamus

text: can easily seriously affect the

text: ovaries

text: The core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain linking the endocrine system to the nervous system, and more specifically by the anterior hypothalamic nucleus and the adjacent preoptic area regions of the hypothalamus.  As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).

text: The core temperature of a human is regulated and stabilized primarily by the

text: hypothalamus

text: , a region of the brain linking the

text: endocrine system

text: to the nervous system, and more specifically by the

text: anterior hypothalamic nucleus

text: and the adjacent

text: preoptic area

text: regions of the hypothalamus.  As core temperature varies from the set point, endocrine production initiates control mechanisms to increase or decrease energy production/dissipation as needed to return the temperature toward the set point (see figure).

text: Ajna is described as a transparent lotus flower with two white petals, said to represent the nadis (psychic channels) Ida and Pingala, which meet the central Sushumna nadi before rising to the crown chakra, Sahasrara. The letter "ham" (हं) is written in white on the left petal and represents Shiva, while the letter "ksham" (क्षं) is written in white on the right petal and represents Shakti. These two petals also represent the manifest and the unmanifest mind, which are sometimes said to represent the pineal and pituitary glands.

text: Ajna is described as a transparent

text: lotus flower

text: with two white petals, said to represent the

text: nadis

text: (psychic channels) Ida and Pingala, which meet the central Sushumna nadi before rising to the crown chakra,

text: Sahasrara

text: . The letter "ham" (हं) is written in white on the left petal and represents

text: Shiva

text: , while the letter "ksham" (क्षं) is written in white on the right petal and represents

text: Shakti

text: . These two petals also represent the manifest and the unmanifest mind, which are sometimes said to represent the pineal and

text: pituitary gland

text: s.

text: Answers to these questions are embedded in the management system.  All environmental systems are open systems with throughputs of matter and energy whilst maintaining structure and permanence in the medium term.  A conservation management system will become part of this ecosystem with linkages to several feedback mechanisms, some positive and some negative, so that feedback loops can be unpredictable.  This situation makes it virtually impossible to map the system as a whole, and usually the feedback is only revealed as an unpexected response, once management has commenced.  It is in this sense that a management plan can be considered as the first stage of a research project, and the plan is changed in response to its outcomes.

text: Answers to these questions are embedded in the management system.  All environmental systems are open systems with throughputs of matter and energy whilst maintaining structure and permanence in the medium term.  A conservation management system will become part of this ecosystem with linkages to several

text: feedback mechanisms

text: , some

text: positive

text: and some

text: negative

text: , so that feedback loops can be unpredictable.  This situation makes it virtually impossible to map the system as a whole, and usually the feedback is only revealed as an unpexected response, once management has commenced.  It is in this sense that a management plan can be considered as the first stage of a research project, and the plan is changed in response to its outcomes.

text: The endocrine glands belong to the body's control system.  The hormones which they produce help to regulate the functions of cells and tissues throughout the body.  Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural or hormonal stimuli. Negative feedback is important in regulating hormone levels in the blood.

text: The endocrine glands belong to the body's control system.  The hormones which they produce help to regulate the functions of cells and tissues throughout the body.  Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural or hormonal stimuli. Negative feedback is important in regulating

text: hormone

text: levels in the blood.

text: If there is an excess of growth hormone, it is usually because of over-secretion of somatotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland.  A significant amount of excess somatotrope secretion before puberty or before the end of new bone tissue growth can lead to gigantism, a disease that causes excess growth of body (e.g. being over 7 ft. tall) and unusually long limbs. An excess of secretion of growth hormone after puberty can lead to acromegaly. This is a disease that causes abnormal growth in the hands, head, jaw, and tongue. Some symptoms associated with acromegaly include heavy sweating, oily skin, improper processing of sugars in the diet (diabetes), high blood pressure, increased calcium in urine and swelling of the thyroid gland and arthritis.

text: If there is an excess of growth hormone, it is usually because of over-secretion of somatotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland.  A significant amount of excess somatotrope secretion before puberty or before the end of new bone tissue growth can lead to

text: gigantism

text: , a disease that causes excess growth of body (e.g. being over 7 ft. tall) and unusually long limbs. An excess of secretion of growth hormone after puberty can lead to

text: acromegaly

text: . This is a disease that causes abnormal growth in the hands, head, jaw, and tongue. Some symptoms associated with

text: acromegaly

text: include heavy sweating, oily skin, improper processing of sugars in the diet (

text: diabetes

text: high blood pressure

text: , increased calcium in urine and swelling of the

text: thyroid gland

text: and

text: arthritis

text: In the system dynamics methodology, a problem or a system (e.g., ecosystem, political system or mechanical system) is first represented as a causal loop diagram. A causal loop diagram is a simple map of a system with all its constituent components and their interactions. By capturing interactions and consequently the feedback loops (see figure below), a causal loop diagram reveals the structure of a system. By understanding the structure of a system, it becomes possible to ascertain a system’s behavior over a certain time period.

text: In the system dynamics methodology, a problem or a system (e.g., ecosystem, political system or mechanical system) is first represented as a

text: causal loop diagram

text: . A causal loop diagram is a simple map of a system with all its constituent components and their interactions. By capturing interactions and consequently the feedback loops (see figure below), a causal loop diagram reveals the structure of a system. By understanding the structure of a system, it becomes possible to ascertain a system’s behavior over a certain time period.

text: C8orf46 has been associated with breast cancer in humans. The gene has been researched in connection with estrogen receptor 1- enhancer (ESR1), whose expression determines if a breast cancer patient receives endocrine therapy. It is predicted that C8orf46 has ESR1 enhancer regions that become hypermethylated and promote acquired endocrine resistance in breast cancer.

text: C8orf46 has been associated with

text: breast cancer

text: in humans. The gene has been researched in connection with estrogen receptor 1- enhancer (ESR1), whose expression determines if a breast cancer patient receives endocrine therapy. It is predicted that C8orf46 has ESR1 enhancer regions that become hypermethylated and promote acquired endocrine resistance in breast cancer.

text: PTHrP acts as an endocrine, autocrine, paracrine, and intracrine hormone. It regulates endochondral bone development by maintaining the endochondral growth plate at a constant width. It also regulates epithelial-mesenchymal interactions during the formation of the mammary glands.

text: PTHrP acts as an

text: endocrine

text: autocrine

text: paracrine

text: , and

text: intracrine

text: hormone. It regulates

text: endochondral

text: bone development by maintaining the endochondral growth plate at a constant width. It also regulates

text: epithelial-mesenchymal interaction

text: s during the formation of the mammary glands.

text: An essential part of a closed-loop system is feedback; that is, the output of the system is measured continually through the item controlled, and the input is modified to reduce any difference or error toward zero. Many of the patterns of information flow in organizations are found to have the nature of closed loops, which use feedback. The reason for such a condition is apparent when one recognizes that any system, if it is to achieve a predetermined goal, must have available to it at all times an indication of its degree of attainment. In general, every goal-seeking system employs feedback.

text: The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.

text: The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by

text: laboratory

text: tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of

text: clinical chemistry

text: and

text: biochemistry

text: to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.

text: The primary molecular mechanism behind an oscillating gene is best described as a transcription/translation feedback loop. This loop contains both positive regulators, which increase gene expression, and negative regulators, which decrease gene expression. The fundamental elements of these loops are found across different phyla. In the mammalian circadian clock, for example, transcription factors CLOCK and BMAL1 are the positive regulators. CLOCK and BMAL1 bind to the E-box of oscillating genes, such as Per1, Per2, and Per3 and Cry1 and Cry2, and upregulate their transcription. When the PERs and CRYs form a heterocomplex in the cytoplasm and enter the nucleus again, they inhibit their own transcription.  This means that over time the mRNA and protein levels of PERs and CRYs, or any other oscillating gene under this mechanism, will oscillate.

text: The primary molecular mechanism behind an oscillating gene is best described as a transcription/translation feedback loop. This loop contains both positive regulators, which increase gene expression, and negative regulators, which decrease gene expression. The fundamental elements of these loops are found across different phyla. In the mammalian circadian clock, for example, transcription factors

text: CLOCK

text: and

text: are the positive regulators. CLOCK and BMAL1 bind to the

text: E-box

text: of oscillating genes, such as Per1, Per2, and Per3 and Cry1 and Cry2, and upregulate their transcription. When the PERs and CRYs form a heterocomplex in the cytoplasm and enter the nucleus again, they inhibit their own transcription.  This means that over time the mRNA and protein levels of PERs and CRYs, or any other oscillating gene under this mechanism, will oscillate.

text: Occasionally, an anxiety disorder may be a side-effect of an underlying endocrine disease that causes nervous system hyperactivity, such as pheochromocytoma or hyperthyroidism.

text: Occasionally, an anxiety disorder may be a side-effect of an underlying

text: endocrine

text: disease that causes nervous system hyperactivity, such as

text: pheochromocytoma

text: or

text: hyperthyroidism

text: Endocrine insufficiency of the pancreas occurs with JBS, though it is sometimes less common and less pronounced than the more prominent effects on exocrine function. The islets of Langerhans are ducts in the pancreas where endocrine activity such as the release of hormones glucagon, somatostatin and insulin takes place. Pancreatic endocrine insufficiency in JBS can be associated with either a buildup of connective tissue in the islet regions, congenital replacement of the islets with fatty tissue, or improper nerve signalling to the islets. Endocrine dysfunction of the pancreas often results in diabetes mellitus. Both insulin resistance and diabetes have been observed with JBS, and it is suggested that diabetes should be considered as a complication of JBS and its course.

text: Endocrine insufficiency of the pancreas occurs with JBS, though it is sometimes less common and less pronounced than the more prominent effects on exocrine function. The

text: islets of Langerhans

text: are ducts in the pancreas where endocrine activity such as the release of

text: hormone

text: s glucagon,

text: somatostatin

text: and insulin takes place. Pancreatic endocrine insufficiency in JBS can be associated with either a buildup of

text: connective tissue

text: in the islet regions, congenital replacement of the islets with fatty tissue, or improper

text: nerve

text: signalling to the islets. Endocrine dysfunction of the pancreas often results in

text: diabetes mellitus

text: . Both

text: insulin resistance

text: and diabetes have been observed with JBS, and it is suggested that diabetes should be considered as a complication of JBS and its course.

text: The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland (a pea-shaped structure located below the thalamus), and the adrenal (also called "suprarenal") glands (small, conical organs on top of the kidneys).

text: The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and

text: feedback

text: interactions among three

text: endocrine gland

text: s: the

text: hypothalamus

text: , the

text: pituitary gland

text: (a pea-shaped structure located below the thalamus), and the

text: adrenal

text: (also called "suprarenal") glands (small, conical organs on top of the kidneys).

text: There are no currently known causes of this disease. There are studies currently proposing several theories of the causes which include inflammation of the adipose tissue, nervous system malfunction and endocrine malfunction. None of the theories that are currently proposed have been found viable. Since little is known about Dercum's Disease, there are currently no known modes of prevention. Some theories state that maintaining a healthy weight and diet can help prevent Dercum's although it has not been proven.

text: Freiwirtschaft claims that current monetary systems are flawed. In mainstream economics, prices convey information. For example, dropping prices on a product mean that there is less demand or more supply of that product. This leads to a buyer buying more, or a seller/producer starting to sell/produce something else, thereby reducing the supply of that product. As a reaction, assuming constant desirability, the price of the product rises again. So, the price, together with the market participants, builds up a feedback loop around a stable, "ideal" price. At this stable price, the market is ideal, no one pays too much or earns too little, and there are no tendencies from either party to change that price. The "wobbling" around that ideal price is called self-stabilizing.

text: Freiwirtschaft claims that current monetary systems are flawed. In mainstream economics, prices convey information. For example, dropping prices on a product mean that there is less demand or more supply of that product. This leads to a buyer buying more, or a seller/producer starting to sell/produce something else, thereby reducing the supply of that product. As a reaction, assuming constant desirability, the price of the product rises again. So, the price, together with the market participants, builds up a

text: feedback

text: loop around a stable, "ideal" price. At this stable price, the market is ideal, no one pays too much or earns too little, and there are no tendencies from either party to change that price. The "wobbling" around that ideal price is called self-stabilizing.

text: Most toxicants, including endocrine disruptors, follow a U-shaped dose response curve. This means that very low and very high levels have more effects than mid-level exposure to a toxicant.Endocrine disrupting effects have been noted in animals exposed to environmentally relevant levels of some chemicals. For example, a common flame retardant, BDE-47, affects the reproductive system and thyroid gland of female rats in doses of the order of those to which humans are exposed.Low concentrations of endocrine disruptors can also have synergistic effects in amphibians, but it is not clear that this is an effect mediated through the endocrine system.

text: Most toxicants, including endocrine disruptors, follow a U-shaped

text: dose response curve

text: . This means that very low and very high levels have more effects than mid-level exposure to a toxicant.Endocrine disrupting effects have been noted in animals exposed to environmentally relevant levels of some chemicals. For example, a common

text: flame retardant

text: BDE

text: -47, affects the reproductive system and thyroid gland of female rats in doses of the order of those to which humans are exposed.Low concentrations of endocrine disruptors can also have synergistic effects in amphibians, but it is not clear that this is an effect mediated through the endocrine system.

text: Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, coma or death. Developmental effects have been associated with pesticides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America, such as leukemia, may be a result of somatic cell mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effects on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alterations have been observed in exposees. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer. Fetal DDT exposure reduces male penis size in animals and can produce undescended testicles. Pesticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes.

text: Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to

text: birth defect

text: s, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders,

text: endocrine disruption

text: coma

text: or death. Developmental effects have been associated with pesticides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America, such as

text: leukemia

text: , may be a result of

text: somatic cell

text: mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effects on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alterations have been observed in exposees. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to

text: breast cancer

text: . Fetal DDT exposure reduces male

text: penis

text: size in animals and can produce undescended

text: testicle

text: s. Pesticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes.

text: There is now sufficient data to conclude that immune modulation by psychosocial stressors and/or interventions can lead to actual health changes. Although changes related to infectious disease and wound healing have provided the strongest evidence to date, the clinical importance of immunological dysregulation is highlighted by increased risks across diverse conditions and diseases. For example, stressors can produce profound health consequences. In one epidemiological study, all-cause mortality increased in the month following a severe stressor – the death of a spouse. Theorists propose that stressful events trigger cognitive and affective responses which, in turn, induce sympathetic nervous system and endocrine changes, and these ultimately impair immune function. Potential health consequences are broad, but include rates of infection HIV progression cancer incidence and progression, and high rates of infant mortality.

text: There is now sufficient data to conclude that immune modulation by psychosocial stressors and/or interventions can lead to actual health changes. Although changes related to

text: infectious disease

text: and

text: wound

text: healing have provided the strongest evidence to date, the clinical importance of immunological dysregulation is highlighted by increased risks across diverse conditions and diseases. For example, stressors can produce profound health consequences. In one epidemiological study, all-cause mortality increased in the month following a severe stressor – the death of a spouse. Theorists propose that stressful events trigger cognitive and affective responses which, in turn, induce sympathetic nervous system and endocrine changes, and these ultimately impair immune function. Potential health consequences are broad, but include rates of infection HIV progression cancer incidence and progression, and high rates of infant mortality.

text: Noise music musicians may create feedback loops within mixers, creating an instrument known as a no-input mixer. The tones generated from a no-input mixer are created by connecting an output of the mixer into an input channel and manipulating the pitch with the mixer's dials.

text: Noise music

text: musicians may create feedback loops within mixers, creating an instrument known as a no-input mixer. The tones generated from a no-input mixer are created by connecting an output of the mixer into an input channel and manipulating the pitch with the mixer's dials.

text: Presence of an ovarian tumour plus hormonal disturbances suggests a Leydig cell tumour, granulosa cell tumour or thecoma.  However, hormonal disturbances, in Leydig tumours, is present in only 2/3 of cases.  A conclusive diagnosis is made via histology, as part of a pathology report made during or after surgery.  Reinke crystals are classically found in these tumours and help confirm the diagnosis, although they are seen in less than half of all Leydig cell tumours.  See also Sex cord-stromal tumour.

text: Presence of an ovarian tumour plus hormonal disturbances suggests a Leydig cell tumour,

text: granulosa cell tumour

text: or

text: thecoma

text: .  However, hormonal disturbances, in Leydig tumours, is present in only 2/3 of cases.  A conclusive diagnosis is made via

text: histology

text: , as part of a pathology report made during or after surgery.

text: Reinke crystals

text: are classically found in these tumours and help confirm the diagnosis, although they are seen in less than half of all Leydig cell tumours.  See also

text: Sex cord-stromal tumour

text: A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the throttle position of a vehicle.  The sensor is usually located on the butterfly spindle/shaft so that it can directly monitor the position of the throttle. More advanced forms of the sensor are also used, for example an extra closed throttle position sensor (CTPS) may be employed to indicate that the throttle is completely closed. Some engine control units (ECUs) also control the throttle position electronic throttle control (ETC) or "drive by wire" systems and if that is done the position sensor is used in a feedback loop to enable that control.

text: A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a

text: sensor

text: used to monitor the throttle position of a vehicle.  The sensor is usually located on the

text: butterfly

text: spindle/shaft so that it can directly monitor the position of the throttle. More advanced forms of the sensor are also used, for example an extra closed throttle position sensor (CTPS) may be employed to indicate that the throttle is completely closed. Some

text: engine control unit

text: s (ECUs) also control the throttle position

text: electronic throttle control (ETC)

text: or "

text: drive by wire

text: " systems and if that is done the position sensor is used in a

text: feedback loop

text: to enable that control.

text: A functioning tumor is a tumor that is found in endocrine tissue and makes hormones (chemicals that travel in the bloodstream and control the actions of other cells or organs).

text: A functioning tumor is a

text: tumor

text: that is found in

text: endocrine

text: tissue and makes

text: hormones

text: (chemicals that travel in the

text: bloodstream

text: and control the actions of other cells or organs).

text: A major organ of the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior), is the glandular, anterior lobe that together with the posterior lobe (posterior pituitary, or the neurohypophysis) makes up the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes including stress, growth, reproduction and lactation. Proper functioning of the anterior pituitary and of the organs it regulates can often be ascertained via blood tests that measure hormone levels.

text: A major

text: organ

text: of the

text: endocrine system

text: , the anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior), is the

text: glandular

text: anterior

text: lobe that together with the

text: posterior

text: lobe (

text: posterior pituitary

text: , or the neurohypophysis) makes up the

text: pituitary gland

text: (hypophysis). The anterior pituitary regulates several

text: physiological

text: processes including

text: stress

text: growth

text: reproduction

text: and

text: lactation

text: . Proper functioning of the anterior pituitary and of the organs it regulates can often be ascertained via

text: blood test

text: s that measure

text: hormone

text: levels.

text: Eukaryotic cell cycle consists of various checkpoints and feedback loops to ensure faithful and successful cell division. During mitosis for example, when duplicated chromosomes are improperly attached to mitotic spindle, spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) proteins including Mad and Bub inhibit APC-Cdc20 to delay entry into anaphase and B-type cyclin degradations. In addition, when mitotic spindles are misaligned, MEN and subsequently Cdc14 are inhibited in a Bub2 and Bfa1-dependent manner to prevent degradation of mitotic cyclins and anaphase entry. Sic1 is a nice example demonstrating how systems-level feedbacks interact to sense the environmental conditions and trigger cell cycle transitions. Even though actual M-G1 transition is vastly complex with numerous proteins and regulations involved, dynamical systems approach allows simplification of this complex system into bistable input/output relation with two saddle-node bifurcations in which the output (mitotic exit) depends on critical concentration of Sic1. Using one-dimensional analysis, it might be possible to explain many of the irreversible transition points in the eukaryotic cell cycle that are governed by systems-level control and feedback. Other examples of irreversible transition points include Start (irreversible commitment to a new cell division cycle) that can be explained by irreversible bistable switch whose control parameter is tightly regulated by the systemic feedbacks involving Cln2, Whi5, and SBF.

text: Eukaryotic cell cycle consists of various checkpoints and feedback loops to ensure faithful and successful cell division. During mitosis for example, when duplicated chromosomes are improperly attached to mitotic spindle,

text: spindle assembly checkpoint

text: Logically the word parabiosis would be equally applicable to various forms of parasitism such as the obligate parasitic reproduction of Anglerfish of the family Ceratiidae, in which the circulatory systems of the males and females unite completely. Without the attachment of males to a female, the endocrine functions cannot mature, the individuals fail to develop properly and die young and without reproducing.

text: Logically the word parabiosis would be equally applicable to various forms of parasitism such as the

text: obligate

text: parasitic reproduction of

text: Anglerfish

text: of the family

text: Ceratiidae

text: , in which the circulatory systems of the males and females unite completely. Without the attachment of males to a female, the endocrine functions cannot mature, the individuals fail to develop properly and die young and without reproducing.

text: Nevertheless, basic scientific research shows that estrogens (and xenoestrogens) may also exert actions through nonnuclear steroid hormone receptors (e.g., membrane ERs), nonsteroid receptors (e.g., neurotransmitter receptors such as the serotonin receptor, dopamine receptor, norepinephrine receptor), orphan receptors (e.g., aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)), enzymatic pathways involved in steroid biosynthesis and/or metabolism, and numerous other mechanisms that converge upon endocrine and reproductive systems.

text: Nevertheless, basic scientific research shows that estrogens (and xenoestrogens) may also exert actions through nonnuclear steroid hormone receptors (e.g., membrane ERs), nonsteroid receptors (e.g., neurotransmitter receptors such as the

text: serotonin receptor

text: dopamine receptor

text: norepinephrine receptor

text: orphan receptor

text: s (e.g.,

text: aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)

text: ), enzymatic pathways involved in steroid biosynthesis and/or metabolism, and numerous other mechanisms that converge upon endocrine and reproductive systems.

text: Klinefelter studied first at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville and then at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. After his graduation in 1937 he continued his training in internal medicine at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Klinefelter worked at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston from 1941-1942; under the supervision of Fuller Albright he described a group of nine men with "gynecomastia, aspermatogenesis without aleydigism, and increased excretion of follicle-stimulating hormone", the first description of what would be called the Klinefelter syndrome. Initially he suspected this to be endocrine disorder and postulated the presence of a second testicular hormone, but later recognized the chromosomal cause.

text: Klinefelter studied first at the

text: University of Virginia

text: , Charlottesville and then at

text: Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

text: . After his graduation in 1937 he continued his training in internal medicine at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Klinefelter worked at the

text: Massachusetts General Hospital

text: in Boston from 1941-1942; under the supervision of

text: Fuller Albright

text: he described a group of nine men with "

text: gynecomastia

text: aspermatogenesis

text: without aleydigism, and increased excretion of

text: follicle-stimulating hormone

text: ", the first description of what would be called the

text: Klinefelter syndrome

text: . Initially he suspected this to be endocrine disorder and postulated the presence of a second testicular hormone, but later recognized the chromosomal cause.

text: Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating hormones. First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during puberty. Estrogen promotes branching differentiation, whereas in males testosterone inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland comes into being by bifurcation of duct terminal end buds (TEB), secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts and proper duct lumen formation. These processes are tightly modulated by components of mammary epithelial ECM interacting with systemic hormones and local secreting factors. However, for each mechanism the epithelial cells' "niche" can be delicately unique with different membrane receptor profiles and basement membrane thickness from specific branching area to area, so as to regulate cell growth or differentiation sub-locally. Important players include beta-1 integrin, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), laminin-1/5, collagen-IV, matrix metalloproteinase(MMPs), heparan sulfate proteoglycans, and others. Elevated circulating level of growth hormone and estrogen get to multipotent cap cells on TEB tips through a thin, leaky layer of basement membrane. These hormones promote specific gene expression. Hence cap cells can differentiate into myoepithelial and luminal (duct) epithelial cells, and the increased amount of activated MMPs can degrade surrounding ECM helping duct buds to reach further in the fat pads. On the other hand, basement membrane along the mature mammary ducts is thicker, with strong adhesion to epithelial cells via binding to integrin and non-integrin receptors. When side branches develop, it is a much more “pushing-forward” working process including extending through myoepithelial cells, degrading basement membrane and then invading into a periductal layer of fibrous stromal tissue. Degraded basement membrane fragments (laminin-5) roles to lead the way of mammary epithelial cells migration. Whereas, laminin-1 interacts with non-integrin receptor dystroglycan negatively regulates this side branching process in case of cancer. These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult.

text: Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating

text: hormones

text: . First development is frequently seen during pre- and postnatal stages, and later during

text: puberty

text: Estrogen

text: promotes branching differentiation, whereas in males

text: testosterone

text: inhibits it. A mature duct tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland comes into being by bifurcation of duct

text: terminal end buds

text: (TEB), secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts and proper duct lumen formation. These processes are tightly modulated by components of mammary epithelial ECM interacting with systemic hormones and local secreting factors. However, for each mechanism the epithelial cells' "

text: niche

text: " can be delicately unique with different membrane receptor profiles and basement membrane thickness from specific branching area to area, so as to regulate cell growth or differentiation sub-locally. Important players include

text: beta-1 integrin

text: epidermal growth factor receptor

text: (EGFR),

text: collagen-IV

text: matrix metalloproteinase

text: (MMPs),

text: heparan sulfate proteoglycans

text: , and others. Elevated circulating level of growth hormone and estrogen get to

text: multipotent

text: cap cells on TEB tips through a thin, leaky layer of basement membrane. These hormones promote specific gene expression. Hence cap cells can differentiate into

text: myoepithelial

text: and luminal (duct) epithelial cells, and the increased amount of activated MMPs can degrade surrounding ECM helping duct buds to reach further in the fat pads. On the other hand, basement membrane along the mature mammary ducts is thicker, with strong adhesion to epithelial cells via binding to

text: integrin

text: and non-integrin receptors. When side branches develop, it is a much more “pushing-forward” working process including extending through myoepithelial cells, degrading basement membrane and then invading into a periductal layer of fibrous stromal tissue. Degraded basement membrane fragments (laminin-5) roles to lead the way of mammary epithelial cells migration. Whereas,

text: laminin

text: -1 interacts with non-integrin receptor

text: dystroglycan

text: negatively regulates this side branching process in case of

text: cancer

text: . These complex "Yin-yang" balancing crosstalks between mammary ECM and epithelial cells "instruct" healthy mammary gland development until adult.

text: A gland is an organ in an animal's body that synthesizes substances (such as hormones) for release into the bloodstream (endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (exocrine gland).

text: A gland is an

text: organ

text: in an animal's body that synthesizes substances (such as

text: hormone

text: s) for release into the

text: blood

text: stream (

text: endocrine gland

text: ) or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (

text: exocrine gland

text: Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public. The Hormone Foundation is the public education affiliate of The Endocrine Society and provides information on all endocrine-related conditions.  Other educational organizations that focus on one or more endocrine-related conditions include the American Diabetes Association, Human Growth Foundation, American Menopause Foundation, Inc., and Thyroid Foundation of America.

text: Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public.

text: The Hormone Foundation

text: is the public education affiliate of

text: The Endocrine Society

text: and provides information on all endocrine-related conditions.  Other educational organizations that focus on one or more endocrine-related conditions include the

text: American Diabetes Association

text: , Human Growth Foundation, American Menopause Foundation, Inc., and Thyroid Foundation of America.

text: When a character makes a judgment roll in this system, the Gamemaster designates an "Assignment skill" (指定特技). If the Assignment skill is the same as the player character's Strong Skill, the target number for roll success is 5. Players have to roll over the target number on 2d6 and get the total number as more than or equal to the target number to succeed in the judgment role. When the Assignment skill is different from the Strong skill, count Skill table cell from the nearest Strong skill, and add the cell numbers to 5 is the target number. Incidentally, the skills table may usually not have joined attribute 6 to attribute 1, and cell 12 to cell 2. For example, the target number of the above table, "Domination" is 7,  "Recovery" is 8, and "Paralysis tolerance" is 7. The Skill table's coordinates use to randomize an Assignment skill.

text: When a character makes a judgment roll in this system, the

text: Gamemaster

text: designates an "Assignment skill" (指定特技). If the Assignment skill is the same as the player character's Strong Skill, the target number for roll success is 5. Players have to roll over the target number on

text: and get the total number as more than or equal to the target number to succeed in the judgment role. When the Assignment skill is different from the Strong skill, count Skill table cell from the nearest Strong skill, and add the cell numbers to 5 is the target number. Incidentally, the skills table may usually not have joined attribute 6 to attribute 1, and cell 12 to cell 2. For example, the target number of the above table, "Domination" is 7,  "Recovery" is 8, and "Paralysis tolerance" is 7. The Skill table's coordinates use to randomize an Assignment skill.

text: In the case of linear feedback systems, a control loop, including sensors, control algorithms and actuators, is arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a variable at a setpoint or reference value. An example of this may increase the fuel supply to a furnace when a measured temperature drops. PID controllers are common and effective in cases such as this. Control systems that include some sensing of the results they are trying to achieve are making use of feedback and so can, to some extent, adapt to varying circumstances. Open-loop control systems do not make use of feedback, and run only in pre-arranged ways.

text: In the case of linear

text: feedback

text: systems, a control loop, including

text: sensor

text: s, control algorithms and actuators, is arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a variable at a

text: setpoint

text: or

text: reference value

text: . An example of this may increase the fuel supply to a furnace when a measured temperature drops.

text: PID controller

text: s are common and effective in cases such as this. Control systems that include some sensing of the results they are trying to achieve are making use of feedback and so can, to some extent, adapt to varying circumstances.

text: Open-loop control systems

text: do not make use of feedback, and run only in pre-arranged ways.

text: Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as local messengers, or transmit them to the enteric nervous system to activate nervous responses. Enteroendocrine cells of the intestine are the most numerous endocrine cells of the body. They constitute an enteric endocrine system as a subset of the endocrine system just as the enteric nervous system is a subset of the nervous system. In a sense they are known to act as chemoreceptors, initiating digestive actions and detecting harmful substances and initiating protective responses.  Enteroendocrine cells are located in the stomach, in the intestine and in the pancreas.

text: Enteroendocrine cells are specialized

text: cell

text: s of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: and

text: pancreas

text: with

text: endocrine

text: function. They produce

text: gastrointestinal hormone

text: s or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as

text: local messengers

text: , or transmit them to the

text: enteric nervous system

text: to activate nervous responses. Enteroendocrine cells of the intestine are the most numerous endocrine cells of the body. They constitute an enteric endocrine system as a subset of the

text: endocrine system

text: just as the

text: enteric nervous system

text: is a subset of the

text: nervous system

text: . In a sense they are known to act as

text: chemoreceptor

text: s, initiating digestive actions and detecting harmful substances and initiating protective responses.  Enteroendocrine cells are located in the stomach, in the intestine and in the pancreas.

text: Endocrine (subtitle: International Journal of Basic and Clinical Endocrinology) is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering endocrinology. It was established in 1993 as the Endocrine Journal, and obtained its current name the following year. The editor-in-chief is Andrea Giustina (University of Brescia). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2014 impact factor of 3.878.

text: Endocrine (subtitle: International Journal of Basic and Clinical Endocrinology) is a

text: peer-review

text: ed

text: medical journal

text: covering

text: endocrinology

text: . It was established in 1993 as the Endocrine Journal, and obtained its current name the following year. The

text: editor-in-chief

text: is Andrea Giustina (

text: University of Brescia

text: ). According to the

text: Journal Citation Reports

text: , the journal has a 2014

text: impact factor

text: of 3.878.

text: Jeffrey was baptised in Oakham in Rutland on 14 June 1619. His parents, three brothers, and a half-sister were all of typical size. Hudson's father John was keeper of the baiting bulls for George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. Jeffrey's marvellous smallness and normal proportions became apparent in early childhood. Various theories existed for his size, including that his mother choked on a gherkin while pregnant, but he in fact suffered from a growth hormone deficiency caused by a misfiring pituitary gland.

text: Jeffrey was baptised in

text: Oakham

text: in

text: Rutland

text: on 14 June 1619. His parents, three brothers, and a half-sister were all of typical size. Hudson's father John was keeper of the

text: baiting bulls

text: for

text: George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham

text: . Jeffrey's marvellous smallness and normal proportions became apparent in early childhood. Various theories existed for his size, including that his mother choked on a gherkin while pregnant, but he in fact suffered from a growth hormone deficiency caused by a misfiring pituitary gland.

text: For example, in most motion control systems, in order to accelerate a mechanical load under control, more force is required from the actuator. If a velocity loop PID controller is being used to control the speed of the load and command the force being applied by the actuator, then it is beneficial to take the desired instantaneous acceleration, scale that value appropriately and add it to the output of the PID velocity loop controller. This means that whenever the load is being accelerated or decelerated, a proportional amount of force is commanded from the actuator regardless of the feedback value. The PID loop in this situation uses the feedback information to change the combined output to reduce the remaining difference between the process setpoint and the feedback value. Working together, the combined open-loop feed-forward controller and closed-loop PID controller can provide a more responsive control system.

text: Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology. The human body consists of the legs, the torso, the arms, the neck, and the head. An adult human body consists of about 100 trillion (10) cells. The most commonly defined body systems in humans are the nervous, the cardiovascular, the circulatory, the digestive, the endocrine, the immune, the integumentary, the lymphatic, the muscoskeletal, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system.

text: Most aspects of human physiology are closely

text: homologous

text: to corresponding aspects of

text: animal

text: physiology. The human body consists of the

text: legs

text: , the

text: torso

text: , the

text: arm

text: s, the

text: neck

text: , and the

text: head

text: . An

text: adult

text: human body

text: consists of about 100 trillion (10)

text: cell

text: s. The most commonly defined

text: body systems

text: in humans are the

text: nervous

text: , the

text: cardiovascular

text: , the

text: circulatory

text: , the

text: digestive

text: , the

text: endocrine

text: , the

text: immune

text: , the

text: integumentary

text: , the

text: lymphatic

text: , the

text: muscoskeletal

text: , the

text: reproductive

text: , the

text: respiratory

text: , and the

text: urinary system

text: Fetal entities: First twin 17-30%; Second twin 28-39%; Stillborn 26%; Prader-Willi syndrome 50%, Werdnig-Hoffman syndrome 10%; Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome 40%; Fetal alcohol syndrome 40%; Potter anomaly 36%; Zellweger syndrome 27%; Myotonic dystrophy 21%, 13 trisomy syndrome 12%; 18 trisomy syndrome 43%; 21 trisomy syndrome 5%; de Lange syndrome 10%; Anencephalus 6-18%, Spina bifida 20-30%; Congenital Hydrocephalus 24-37%; Osteogenesis imperfecta 33.3%; Amyoplasia 33.3%; Achondrogenesis 33.3%; Amelia 50%; Craniosynostosis 8%; Sacral agenesis 30.4%; Arthrogriposis multiplex congenita 33.3; Congenital dislocation of the hip 33.3%; Hereditary sensory neuropathy type III 25%; Centronuclear myoptathy 16.7%; Multiple pituitary hormone deficiency 50%; Isolated pituitary hormone deficiency 20%; Ectopic posterior pituitary gland 33.3%; Congenital bilateral perisilvian syndrome 33.3; Symmetric fetal growth restriction 40%; Asymmetric fetal growth restriction 40%; Nonimmune hydrops fetalis 15%; Atresio ani 18.2%; Microcephalus 15.4%; Omphalocele 12.5%; Prematurity 40%

text: The endocrine disrupting activity of dioxins is thought to occur as a down-stream function of AH receptor activation, with thyroid status in particular being a sensitive marker of exposure. It is important to note that TCDD, along with the other PCDDs, PCDFs and dioxin-like coplanar PCBs are not direct agonists or antagonists of hormones, and are not active in assays which directly screen for these activities such as ER-CALUX and AR-CALUX. These compounds have also not been shown to have any direct mutagenic or genotoxic activity. Their main action in causing cancer is cancer promotion. A mixture of PCBs such as Aroclor may contain PCB compounds which are known estrogen agonists, but on the other hand are not classified as dioxin-like in terms of toxicity.  Mutagenic effects have been established for some lower chlorinated chemicals such as 3-chlorodibenzofuran, which is neither persistent nor an AH receptor agonist.

text: The endocrine disrupting activity of dioxins is thought to occur as a down-stream function of AH receptor activation, with thyroid status in particular being a sensitive marker of exposure. It is important to note that TCDD, along with the other PCDDs, PCDFs and dioxin-like coplanar PCBs are not direct agonists or antagonists of hormones, and are not active in assays which directly screen for these activities such as

text: ER-CALUX

text: and

text: AR-CALUX

text: . These compounds have also not been shown to have any direct

text: mutagenic

text: or

text: genotoxic

text: activity. Their main action in causing cancer is cancer promotion. A mixture of PCBs such as

text: Aroclor

text: may contain PCB compounds which are known

text: estrogen agonists

text: , but on the other hand are not classified as dioxin-like in terms of toxicity.  Mutagenic effects have been established for some lower chlorinated chemicals such as 3-chlorodibenzofuran, which is neither persistent nor an AH receptor agonist.

text: Over- or under-function as well as insufficiencies of the hypothalamus or the pituitary gland can cause a negative effect on the ability of the hypophyseal portal system to exchange hormones between both structures rapidly. This can have major effects on the respective target glands, making it impossible for them to carry out their functions properly. Occlusions and other issues in the blood vessels of the hypophysial portal system can also cause complications in the exchange of hormones between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

text: Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones.

text: Endocrinology

text: is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the

text: endocrine system

text: and its specific secretions called

text: hormone

text: s.

text: In 1924, the Soviet neurologist Nikolai Mikhailovich Itsenko reported two patients with pituitary adenoma. The resulting excessive adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion led to the production of large amounts of cortisol by the adrenal glands. The disease associated with this increased secretion of cortisol was described by the American neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing in 1932, after he was presented with a unique case of the disease in 1910, a 23-year-old woman called Minnie G. whose symptoms included painful obesity, amenorrhea, hypertrichosis (abnormal hair growth), underdevelopment of secondary sexual characteristics, hydrocephalus and cerebral tension. This combination of symptoms was not yet described by any medical disorder at the time. However, Cushing was confident that Minnie’s symptoms were due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland, and resembled those associated with an adrenal tumor. Given this conviction, and his knowledge of the three anterior pituitary cell types, Cushing hypothesized that if acidophil hyperpituitarism (excess secretion from the acidophil cells) caused acromegaly, then an excess of basophil cells must be involved in another pituitary disorder that involves sexual dysfunction (amenorrhea in females and erectile dysfunction in males) and could explain Minnie's symptoms. Experimental evidence and case reports by Cushing led to his publication in 1932 on pituitary basophilism as the cause of Cushing's disease. In this publication, the clinical symptoms of the disease, named after Cushing, were described. Out of the 12 cases with hypercortisolism described in Cushing’s monograph on the pituitary body, 67% died within a few years after symptom presentation, whereas Minnie G. survived for more than 40 years after symptom presentation, despite the fact that she did not receive any treatments for a pituitary tumor. The prolonged survival led to the uniqueness of Minnie's case. The reason behind this survival remains a mystery, since an autopsy of Minnie was refused after her death. However, the most likely explanation, proposed by J. Aidan Carney and based on statistical evidence, was that the basophil adenoma Minnie might have harbored underwent partial infarction, leading to symptom regression. The other hypothesis was that Minnie might have suffered from Primary Pigmented Nodular Adrenocortical Disease (PPNAD), which when associated with Cushing's syndrome (Carney complex) can infrequently cause spontaneous symptom regression of the latter.

text: In 1924, the Soviet neurologist Nikolai Mikhailovich Itsenko reported two patients with

text: pituitary adenoma

text: . The resulting excessive adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion led to the production of large amounts of

text: cortisol

text: by the

text: adrenal glands

text: . The disease associated with this increased secretion of cortisol was described by the American neurosurgeon

text: Harvey Cushing

text: in 1932, after he was presented with a unique case of the disease in 1910, a 23-year-old woman called Minnie G. whose symptoms included painful

text: obesity

text: amenorrhea

text: hypertrichosis

text: (abnormal hair growth), underdevelopment of secondary sexual characteristics,

text: hydrocephalus

text: and cerebral tension. This combination of symptoms was not yet described by any medical disorder at the time. However, Cushing was confident that Minnie’s symptoms were due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland, and resembled those associated with an

text: adrenal tumor

text: . Given this conviction, and his knowledge of the three

text: anterior pituitary

text: cell types, Cushing hypothesized that if acidophil

text: hyperpituitarism

text: (excess secretion from the acidophil cells) caused

text: acromegaly

text: , then an excess of

text: basophil cell

text: s must be involved in another pituitary disorder that involves sexual dysfunction (

text: amenorrhea

text: in females and

text: erectile dysfunction

text: in males) and could explain Minnie's symptoms. Experimental evidence and case reports by Cushing led to his publication in 1932 on pituitary basophilism as the cause of Cushing's disease. In this publication, the clinical symptoms of the disease, named after Cushing, were described. Out of the 12 cases with

text: hypercortisolism

text: described in Cushing’s monograph on the pituitary body, 67% died within a few years after symptom presentation, whereas Minnie G. survived for more than 40 years after symptom presentation, despite the fact that she did not receive any treatments for a pituitary tumor. The prolonged survival led to the uniqueness of Minnie's case. The reason behind this survival remains a mystery, since an

text: autopsy

text: of Minnie was refused after her death. However, the most likely explanation, proposed by J. Aidan Carney and based on statistical evidence, was that the

text: basophil

text: adenoma

text: Minnie might have harbored underwent partial

text: infarction

text: , leading to symptom regression. The other hypothesis was that Minnie might have suffered from Primary Pigmented Nodular Adrenocortical Disease (PPNAD), which when associated with Cushing's syndrome (

text: Carney complex

text: ) can infrequently cause spontaneous symptom regression of the latter.

text: Sexual dimorphism in humans is the subject of much controversy, especially relating to mental ability and psychological gender. (For a discussion, see biology of gender, sex and intelligence, gender, and transgender.) Obvious differences between men and women include all the features related to reproductive role, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physical, psychological and behavioral effects. Although sex is a binary dichotomy, with "male" and "female" representing opposite and complementary sex categories for the purpose of reproduction, a small number of individuals have an anatomy that does not conform to either male or female standards, or contains features closely associated with both. Such individuals, described as intersexuals, are sometimes infertile but are often capable of reproducing.  The current estimated rate for intersexuality is about 1 in 1500 to 1 in 2000 births.  There are a greater number of individuals, however, who have a subtler variation of their assigned sex.  These variations are not always present at birth.  Intersexuality is not often discussed or witnessed in Western culture because when an intersexual baby is born, surgery is usually performed within the first 24 hours to assign a sex to the baby.

text: Sexual dimorphism in humans is the subject of much controversy, especially relating to mental ability and psychological gender. (For a discussion, see

text: biology of gender

text: sex and intelligence

text: gender

text: , and

text: transgender

text: .) Obvious differences between men and women include all the features related to reproductive role, notably the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physical, psychological and behavioral effects. Although sex is a binary dichotomy, with "male" and "female" representing opposite and complementary sex categories for the purpose of reproduction, a small number of individuals have an anatomy that does not conform to either male or female standards, or contains features closely associated with both. Such individuals, described as

text: intersexuals

text: , are sometimes infertile but are often capable of reproducing.  The current estimated rate for intersexuality is about 1 in 1500 to 1 in 2000 births.  There are a greater number of individuals, however, who have a subtler variation of their assigned sex.  These variations are not always present at birth.  Intersexuality is not often discussed or witnessed in Western culture because when an intersexual baby is born, surgery is usually performed within the first 24 hours to assign a sex to the baby.

text: PCOS is a common disorder involving dysfunction of the endocrine system associated with female reproduction. PCOS involves discrepancies in the Hyphophyseal-pituitary-gonadal endocrine axis which can result in hormonal dysfunction, excess androgens (e.g. testosterone) and frequent anovulatory menstrual cycles. Therefore, it is common for women suffering from PCOS to require assistance in order to conceive. In these patients IVM can be used to mature oocytes and aid conception.

text: PCOS is a common disorder involving dysfunction of the

text: endocrine system

text: associated with female reproduction. PCOS involves discrepancies in the

text: Hyphophyseal-pituitary-gonadal endocrine axis

text: which can result in hormonal dysfunction, excess

text: androgen

text: s (e.g. testosterone) and frequent anovulatory menstrual cycles. Therefore, it is common for women suffering from PCOS to require assistance in order to conceive. In these patients IVM can be used to mature oocytes and aid conception.

text: The development of ichthyosis in adulthood can be a manifestation of systemic disease, and it has been described in association with malignancies, drugs, endocrine and metabolic disease, HIV, infection, and autoimmune conditions.

text: A patient typically presents a set of complaints (the symptoms) to the physician, who then performs a diagnostic procedure, which generally includes obtaining further information about the patient's symptoms, previous state of health, living conditions, and so forth. The physician then makes a review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry, which is a set of ordered questions about each major body system in order: general (such as weight loss), endocrine, cardio-respiratory, etc. Next comes the actual physical examination and other medical tests; the findings are recorded, leading to a list of possible diagnoses. These will be investigated in order of probability.

text: A patient typically presents a set of complaints (the

text: symptom

text: s) to the physician, who then performs a

text: diagnostic procedure

text: , which generally includes obtaining further information about the patient's symptoms, previous state of health, living conditions, and so forth. The physician then makes a review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry, which is a set of ordered questions about each major body system in order: general (such as weight loss), endocrine, cardio-respiratory, etc. Next comes the actual

text: physical examination

text: and other

text: medical test

text: s; the findings are recorded, leading to a list of possible

text: diagnoses

text: . These will be investigated in order of probability.

text: Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the brain, lungs, heart, intestine, skin, and the kidney), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the endocrine organs, meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion.  These organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and  pancreas.

text: Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the

text: brain

text: lungs

text: heart

text: intestine

text: skin

text: , and the

text: kidney

text: ), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the endocrine organs, meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion.  These organs include the

text: pituitary

text: thyroid

text: adrenal

text: s,

text: ovaries

text: testes

text: , and

text: pancreas

text: Typical manifestations of Pickardt–Fahlbusch syndrome are hypothyroidism with reduced TSH values and functional hyperprolactinemia (which is caused by disinhibition of prolactin release). Other endocrine disorders that are usually associated with Pickardt syndrome are suprasellar failures like secondary hypogonadism, reduced levels of growth hormone and, in more severe cases, secondary adrenal insufficiency.

text: Typical manifestations of Pickardt–Fahlbusch syndrome are hypothyroidism with reduced

text: TSH

text: values and functional

text: hyperprolactinemia

text: (which is caused by disinhibition of

text: prolactin

text: release). Other

text: endocrine

text: disorders that are usually associated with Pickardt syndrome are suprasellar failures like secondary

text: hypogonadism

text: , reduced levels of

text: growth hormone

text: and, in more severe cases, secondary

text: adrenal insufficiency

text: Bistability can be generated by a positive feedback loop with an ultrasensitive regulatory step.  Positive feedback loops, such as the simple X activates Y and Y activates X motif, essentially links output signals to their input signals and have been noted to be an important regulatory motif in cellular signal transduction because positive feedback loops can create switches with an all-or-nothing decision.  Studies have shown that numerous biological systems, such as Xenopus oocyte maturation, mammalian calcium signal transduction, and polarity in budding yeast, incorporate temporal (slow and fast) positive feedback loops, or more than one feedback loop that occurs at different times. Having two different temporal positive feedback loops or “dual-time switches” allows for (a) increased regulation: two switches that have independent changeable activation and deactivation times; and (b) linked feedback loops on multiple timescales can filter noise.

text: Many other regulatory systems are involved in the transition of cartilage to bone and in bone maintenance. A particularly important bone-targeted hormonal regulator is parathyroid hormone (PTH). Parathyroid hormone is a protein made by the parathyroid gland under the control of serum calcium activity. PTH also has important systemic functions, including to keep serum calcium concentrations nearly constant regardless of calcium intake. Increasing dietary calcium results in minor increases in blood calcium. However, this is not a significant mechanism supporting osteoblast bone formation, except in the condition of low dietary calcium; further, abnormally high dietary calcium raises the risk of serious health consequences not directly related to bone mass including heart attack and stroke. Intermittent PTH stimulation increases osteoblast activity, although PTH is bifunctional and mediates bone matrix degradation at higher concentrations.

text: Many other regulatory systems are involved in the transition of cartilage to bone and in bone maintenance. A particularly important bone-targeted hormonal regulator is

text: parathyroid hormone

text: (PTH). Parathyroid hormone is a protein made by the

text: parathyroid

text: gland under the control of serum calcium activity. PTH also has important systemic functions, including to keep serum calcium concentrations nearly constant regardless of calcium intake. Increasing dietary calcium results in minor increases in blood calcium. However, this is not a significant mechanism supporting osteoblast bone formation, except in the condition of low dietary calcium; further, abnormally high dietary calcium raises the risk of serious health consequences not directly related to bone mass including

text: heart attack

text: and

text: stroke

text: . Intermittent PTH stimulation increases osteoblast activity, although PTH is bifunctional and mediates bone matrix degradation at higher concentrations.

text: Insects play a large role in what is known about neurosecretion. In simpler organisms neurosecretion mechanisms regulate the heart, the process of metamorphosis, and directly influences the development of the gonadal function. In more advanced organisms the gonadal function is manipulated by the intermediary endocrine processes. Axons from neurosecretory cells trace to corpora cardiac and corpora allata and produce and secrete a brain hormone which insect physiologists suspect is bound to a large carrier protein. Although the function is unknown, there are a multitude of these cells found in the ventral ganglia of the nerve cord. Neurosecretory cells, found in clusters in the medial and lateral parts of the brain, control corpora allata activity by producing juvenile hormone during the larval or nymphal instars, the phase between periods of molting in insects. The production of this hormone inhibits the insect during the conversion to maturity and reactivating once the fully-grown adult is prepared for reproduction. The 3rd International Symposium on Neurosecretion at the University of Bristol discussed the intracellular structure of the neurosecretory cells and the migration path to the target organs or vascular fluid areas by neurosecretory granules. More is being discovered on the identification of granules in hormones and the linking of their development with the organism’s physiologic state.

text: The American Medical Association House of Delegates granted delegate status to AACE in 1996. The creation of the Endocrine Section Council in 2000 allows AACE to represent endocrine interests on a large scale with some of the most instrumental medical policymakers in the world.

text: The

text: American Medical Association House of Delegates

text: granted delegate status to AACE in 1996. The creation of the Endocrine Section Council in 2000 allows AACE to represent endocrine interests on a large scale with some of the most instrumental medical policymakers in the world.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system. Nervous System: An organ system that coordinates the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, skin, digestive system, immune system, hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal, endocrine system, blood and reproductive system. Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system.

text: Nervous System

text: : An

text: organ

text: system that

text: coordinate

text: s the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the

text: cardiovascular system

text: respiratory system

text: skin

text: digestive system

text: immune system

text: , hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal,

text: endocrine system

text: , blood and

text: reproductive system

text: . Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: Endocrine pathology is the subspecialty of surgical pathology which deals with the diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of organs of the endocrine system, including the thyroid, parathyroids, exocrine pancreas, and adrenal glands.

text: Endocrine pathology is the subspecialty of

text: surgical pathology

text: which deals with the

text: diagnosis

text: and characterization of

text: neoplastic

text: and non-neoplastic

text: disease

text: s of organs of the

text: endocrine system

text: , including the

text: thyroid

text: parathyroid

text: s, exocrine

text: pancreas

text: , and

text: adrenal gland

text: s.

text: Hypothalamus midbrain

text: Hypothalamus midbrain

text: Part of the difficulty with distinguishing cytokines from hormones is that some of the immunomodulating effects of cytokines are systemic rather than local. For instance, to use hormone terminology, the action of cytokines may be autocrine or paracrine in chemotaxis or chemokinesis and endocrine as a pyrogen. Further, as molecules, cytokines are not limited to their immunomodulatory role.

text: Part of the difficulty with distinguishing cytokines from hormones is that some of the immunomodulating effects of cytokines are systemic rather than local. For instance, to use hormone terminology, the action of cytokines may be

text: autocrine

text: or

text: paracrine

text: in

text: chemotaxis

text: or

text: chemokinesis

text: and

text: endocrine

text: as a

text: pyrogen

text: . Further, as molecules, cytokines are not limited to their immunomodulatory role.

text: Iopanoic acid is an iodine-containing radiocontrast medium used in cholecystography. Both iopanoic acid and ipodate sodium are potent inhibitors of thyroid hormone release from thyroid gland, as well as of peripheral conversion of thyroxine (T) to triiodothyronine (T). These compounds inhibit 5'deiodinase (5'DID-1 and 5'DID-2) enzymes, which catalyse T-T conversion in the thyroid cell, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, heart, brain, pituitary. This accounts for the dramatic improvement in both subjective and objective symptoms of hyperthyroidism, particularly when they are used as an adjunctive therapy with thioamides (propylthiouracil, carbimazole). They can be used in the treatment of patients with severe thyrotoxicosis (thyroid storm) and significant morbidity (e.g., myocardial infarction, or stroke) for rapid control of elevated plasma triiodothyronine concentrations.  The use of iopanoic acid for treatment of thyrotoxicosis has been discontinued in the United States.

text: Iopanoic acid is an

text: iodine

text: -containing

text: radiocontrast medium

text: used in

text: cholecystography

text: . Both iopanoic acid and

text: ipodate sodium

text: are potent inhibitors of

text: thyroid hormone

text: release from

text: thyroid gland

text: , as well as of peripheral conversion of

text: thyroxine

text: (T) to

text: triiodothyronine

text: (T). These compounds inhibit 5'deiodinase (5'DID-1 and 5'DID-2) enzymes, which catalyse T-T conversion in the thyroid cell, liver, kidney, skeletal muscle, heart, brain, pituitary. This accounts for the dramatic improvement in both subjective and objective symptoms of

text: hyperthyroidism

text: , particularly when they are used as an adjunctive therapy with

text: thioamide

text: s (

text: propylthiouracil

text: carbimazole

text: ). They can be used in the treatment of patients with severe

text: thyrotoxicosis

text: (thyroid storm) and significant morbidity (e.g.,

text: myocardial infarction

text: , or stroke) for rapid control of elevated plasma triiodothyronine concentrations.  The use of iopanoic acid for treatment of thyrotoxicosis has been discontinued in the United States.

text: The Growth and Underinvestment Archetype can be considered to be an elaboration o the Limits to Success archetype. It adds another feedback loop which effectively elaborates the Limiting State part of the Limits to Success archetype.

text: Endocrine: hyperthyroidism, hypo-, hyperglycemia

text: The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that regulates function and responds to stress.  When the brain perceives environmental danger, the amygdala fires a nerve impulse to the hypothalamus to initiate the body's fight-or-flight mode through the sympathetic nervous system.  The stress response starts with the hypothalamus stimulating the pituitary gland, which releases the adrenocorticotropic hormone.  This signals the release of cortisol, the stress hormone, initiating a multitude of physical effects on the body to aid in survival.  The negative feedback loop is then needed to return the body to its resting state by signaling the parasympathetic nervous system.

text: The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that regulates function and responds to stress.  When the brain perceives environmental danger, the

text: amygdala

text: fires a nerve impulse to the

text: hypothalamus

text: to initiate the body's fight-or-flight mode through the sympathetic nervous system.  The stress response starts with the hypothalamus stimulating the

text: pituitary gland

text: , which releases the

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: .  This signals the release of

text: cortisol

text: , the stress hormone, initiating a multitude of physical effects on the body to aid in survival.  The

text: negative feedback loop

text: is then needed to return the body to its resting state by signaling the parasympathetic nervous system.

text: The kidney participates in whole-body homeostasis, regulating acid-base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide, among others.

text: The kidney participates in whole-body

text: homeostasis

text: , regulating

text: acid-base balance

text: electrolyte

text: concentrations,

text: extracellular fluid volume

text: , and

text: blood pressure

text: . The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the

text: endocrine system

text: . Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include

text: renin

text: angiotensin II

text: aldosterone

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: , and

text: atrial natriuretic peptide

text: , among others.

text: Endocrine

text: Endocrine

text: The pituitary gland is divided into two sections: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary's hormone secretion by sending trophic hormones down the hypothalamohypophysial portal system. For example, thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone by the anterior pituitary.

text: The pituitary gland is divided into two sections: the

text: anterior pituitary

text: and the

text: posterior pituitary

text: . The hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary's hormone secretion by sending

text: trophic hormone

text: s down the hypothalamohypophysial portal system. For example,

text: thyrotropin-releasing hormone

text: stimulates the secretion of

text: thyroid-stimulating hormone

text: by the anterior pituitary.

text: Insect growth and metamorphosis are controlled by hormones synthesized by endocrine glands near the front of the body (anterior). Neurosecretory cells in an insect's brain secrete a hormone, the prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) that activates prothoracic glands, which secrete a second hormone, usually ecdysone (an ecdysteroid), that induces ecdysis.

text: Insect

text: growth and metamorphosis are controlled by

text: hormone

text: s synthesized by

text: endocrine gland

text: s near the front of the body (

text: anterior

text: ). Neurosecretory cells in an

text: insect's brain

text: secrete a hormone, the

text: prothoracicotropic hormone

text: (PTTH) that activates prothoracic glands, which secrete a second hormone, usually

text: ecdysone

text: (an

text: ecdysteroid

text: ), that induces ecdysis.

text: In 1891 Gley was the first to discover the importance of the parathyroid glands, which are four (or more) small endocrine glands lying close or embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. These glands had been recently discovered as an anatomical entity in 1880, however their importance was not understood at the time. Gley realized that the cause of tetany after thyroid operations was the inadvertent destruction of the parathyroid glands. He demonstrated this by removing the parathyroid glands from laboratory animals and witnessing their deaths from tetany. Because of his discovery, parathyroid glands have sometimes been referred to as "Gley's glands".

text: In 1891 Gley was the first to discover the importance of the

text: parathyroid glands

text: , which are four (or more) small

text: endocrine

text: glands lying close or embedded in the posterior surface of the

text: thyroid gland

text: . These

text: gland

text: s had been recently discovered as an anatomical entity in 1880, however their importance was not understood at the time. Gley realized that the cause of

text: tetany

text: after thyroid operations was the inadvertent destruction of the parathyroid glands. He demonstrated this by removing the parathyroid glands from laboratory animals and witnessing their deaths from tetany. Because of his discovery, parathyroid glands have sometimes been referred to as "Gley's glands".

text: Chakras and their importance are posited to reside in the psyche. However, there are those who believe that chakras have a physical manifestation as well. Gary Osborn, for instance, has described the chakras as metaphysical counterparts to the endocrine glands, while Anodea Judith noted a marked similarity between the positions of the two and the roles described for each. Stephen Sturgess also links the lower six chakras to specific nerve plexuses along the spinal cord as well as glands. C.W. Leadbeater associated the Ajna chakra with the pineal gland, which is a part of the endocrine system. These associations remain speculative, however, and have yet to be empirically validated.

text: Chakras and their importance are posited to reside in the psyche. However, there are those who believe that chakras have a physical manifestation as well. Gary Osborn, for instance, has described the chakras as

text: metaphysical

text: counterparts to the

text: endocrine glands

text: , while

text: Anodea Judith

text: noted a marked similarity between the positions of the two and the roles described for each. Stephen Sturgess also links the lower six chakras to specific nerve plexuses along the spinal cord as well as glands. C.W. Leadbeater associated the Ajna chakra with the

text: pineal gland

text: , which is a part of the endocrine system. These associations remain speculative, however, and have yet to be empirically validated.

text: Tuberculosis, endocrinal disorders with mainly iodine deficiency disorders, iron deficiency, and diarrheal diseases are more common. A sewage system has yet to be fully established, while electricity and water supplies are still faulty. These factors are a hindrance in developing a strong health care system..

text: Tuberculosis

text: endocrinal

text: disorders with mainly

text: iodine deficiency

text: disorders,

text: iron deficiency

text: , and

text: diarrheal diseases

text: are more common. A sewage system has yet to be fully established, while electricity and water supplies are still faulty. These factors are a hindrance in developing a strong health care system..

text: Endocrine/environmental

text: Endocrine/environmental

text: Without negative feedback, and perhaps with positive feedback for regeneration, an op-amp acts as a comparator. If the inverting input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor R, and the input voltage V applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum positive; if V is negative, the output will be maximum negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open loop circuit acting as a comparator.

text: Without

text: negative feedback

text: , and perhaps with

text: positive feedback

text: for

text: regeneration

text: , an op-amp acts as a

text: comparator

text: . If the inverting input is held at ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor R, and the input voltage V applied to the non-inverting input is positive, the output will be maximum positive; if V is negative, the output will be maximum negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an

text: open loop

text: circuit acting as a

text: comparator

text: Atrazine's effects in humans and animals primarily involve the endocrine system. Studies suggest that atrazine is an endocrine disruptor that can cause hormone imbalance.

text: Atrazine's effects in humans and animals primarily involve the

text: endocrine system

text: . Studies suggest that atrazine is an

text: endocrine disruptor

text: that can cause

text: hormone imbalance

text: In addition to these there are also the Immune-mediated endocrine diseases with a heritable factor, such as:

text: In addition to these there are also the

text: Immune-mediated

text: endocrine

text: diseases with a heritable factor, such as:

text: A hormone (from the Greek participle “ὁρμῶν”) is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by  glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour.  Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).

text: A hormone (from the

text: Greek

text: participle “ὁρμῶν”) is any member of a class of

text: signaling molecules

text: produced by

text: gland

text: s in

text: multicellular organism

text: s that are transported by the

text: circulatory system

text: to target distant organs to regulate

text: physiology

text: and

text: behaviour

text: .  Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes:

text: eicosanoid

text: s,

text: steroid

text: s, and

text: amino acid

text: derivatives (

text: amine

text: s,

text: peptide

text: s, and

text: protein

text: s). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the

text: endocrine signaling system

text: . The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (

text: autocrine

text: or

text: intracrine signalling

text: ) or nearby cells (

text: paracrine signalling

text: After five years studying at the University of Montpellier for a teaching degree in Language and Philosophy, he started working for the French National Education System. In 1938, life events led him to meet Cajzoran Ali, a thirty-five-year-old North-American woman who had published a book about Yoga in New York ten years earlier entitled, Divine Posture Influence upon Endocrine Glands.

text: Hormones are used by both plant and animal cells for long-distance signaling. In animal cells, specialized cells release these hormones and send them through the circulatory system to other parts of the body.  They then reach target cells, which can recognize and respond to the hormones and produce a result. This is also known as endocrine signaling. Plant growth regulators, or plant hormones, move through cells or by diffusing through the air as a gas to reach their targets.

text: When elements are connected in a topologically circular way, they exert an influence on their own rate of synthesis and they form a feedback loop. A feedback loop is positive or negative according to whether it contains an even or odd number of negative interactions. In a positive loop, each element of the system exerts a positive effect on its own rate of synthesis, whereas in a simple negative loop, each element has a negative effect on its own rate of synthesis. A simple positive feedback loop results in epigenetic regulation and have multiple steady states and a simple negative feedback loop results in homeostatic regulation.

text: Endocrine progenitor cells develop from Pancreatic Progenitor cells under the influence of Ngn3 (neurogenin 3). This cell fate commitment is due to the expression of Sox9 (Sry-related HMB box transcription factor 9) and suppression of Notch signaling. Pancreatic Progenitor cells are hence Ngn3+/NeuroD+/IA1+/Isl1+/Pax6+ cells. These cells then develop into Beta cell pro-precursors under the influence of Pax4. Beta cell pro-precursors are MafB+/Pdx1+/Nkx2.2+ cells. These beta cell pro-precursors are determined to form beta cell precursors expressing Pax1. Finally, beta-cell precursors mature into mature adult beta cells which are Pdx1+/Nkx2.2+/Nkx6.1+/Pax6+/NeuroD+/MafA+.

text: Endocrine progenitor cells develop from Pancreatic Progenitor cells under the influence of Ngn3 (neurogenin 3). This cell fate commitment is due to the expression of

text: (Sry-related HMB box transcription factor 9) and suppression of Notch signaling. Pancreatic Progenitor cells are hence Ngn3+/NeuroD+/IA1+/Isl1+/Pax6+ cells. These cells then develop into Beta cell pro-precursors under the influence of Pax4. Beta cell pro-precursors are MafB+/Pdx1+/Nkx2.2+ cells. These beta cell pro-precursors are determined to form beta cell precursors expressing Pax1. Finally, beta-cell precursors mature into mature adult beta cells which are Pdx1+/Nkx2.2+/Nkx6.1+/Pax6+/NeuroD+/MafA+.

text: Approximately every 28 days, the pituitary gland releases a hormone that stimulates some of the ova to develop and grow. One ovum is released and it passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. Hormones produced by the ovaries prepare the uterus to receive the ovum.  The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through the process of menstruation. If the ovum is fertilized by sperm, it attaches to the endometrium and the fetus develops.

text: Approximately

text: every 28 days

text: , the

text: pituitary gland

text: releases a

text: hormone

text: that stimulates some of the ova to develop and grow. One ovum is released and it passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. Hormones produced by the ovaries prepare the uterus to receive the ovum.  The lining of the uterus, called the

text: endometrium

text: , and unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through the process of

text: menstruation

text: . If the ovum is fertilized by sperm, it attaches to the endometrium and the fetus develops.

text: Many body organs not normally considered endocrine organs contain isolated cell clusters that secrete hormones. Examples include the heart (atrial natriuretic peptide); gastrointestinal tract organs (gastrin, secretin, and others); the placenta (hormones of pregnancy—estrogen, progesterone, and others); the kidneys (erythropoietin and renin); the thymus; skin (cholecalciferol); and adipose tissue (leptin and resistin).

text: Many body organs not normally considered endocrine organs contain isolated cell clusters that secrete hormones. Examples include the

text: heart

text: atrial natriuretic peptide

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: organs (

text: gastrin

text: secretin

text: , and others); the

text: placenta

text: (hormones of pregnancy—

text: estrogen

text: progesterone

text: , and others); the

text: kidney

text: s (

text: erythropoietin

text: and

text: renin

text: ); the

text: thymus

text: skin

text: cholecalciferol

text: ); and

text: adipose tissue

text: leptin

text: and

text: resistin

text: Attunement servers believe they transmit universal life energy through their hands to the servee. The primary connecting points on the servee are the endocrine glands.  Attunement servers teach that the endocrine glands are portals for universal life energy that operates through the physical body, and through the mental and emotional function of the individual, and that the servee has the opportunity to open more fully to the life energy within them through receiving an Attunement.

text: HMGA2 protein specifically targets the promoter of ERCC1, thus reducing expression of this DNA repair gene. ERCC1 protein expression was deficient in 100% of 47 evaluated colon cancers (though the extent to which HGMA2 was involved is not known). A 2012 study showed that in normal tissues, HGMA1 and HMGA2 genes are targeted (and thus strongly reduced in expression) by miR-15, miR-16, miR-26a, miR-196a2 and Let-7a. However, each of these HMGA-targeting miRNAs are drastically reduced in almost all human pituitary adenomas studied, when compared with the normal pituitary gland. Consistent with the down-regulation of these HMGA-targeting miRNAs, an increase in the HMGA1 and HMGA2-specific mRNAs was observed. Three of these microRNAs (miR-16, miR-196a and Let-7a) have methylated promoters and therefore low expression in colon cancer. For two of these, miR-15 and miR-16, the coding regions are epigenetically silenced in cancer due to histone deacetylase activity. When these microRNAs are expressed at a low level, then HMGA1 and HMGA2 proteins are expressed at a high level. HMGA1 and HMGA2 target (reduce expression of) BRCA1 and ERCC1 DNA repair  genes. Thus DNA repair can be reduced, likely contributing to cancer progression.

text: HMGA2 protein specifically targets the promoter of

text: , thus reducing expression of this DNA repair gene. ERCC1 protein expression was deficient in 100% of 47 evaluated colon cancers (though the extent to which HGMA2 was involved is not known). A 2012 study showed that in normal tissues, HGMA1 and HMGA2 genes are targeted (and thus strongly reduced in expression) by miR-15, miR-16, miR-26a, miR-196a2 and Let-7a. However, each of these HMGA-targeting miRNAs are drastically reduced in almost all human pituitary adenomas studied, when compared with the normal pituitary gland. Consistent with the down-regulation of these HMGA-targeting miRNAs, an increase in the HMGA1 and HMGA2-specific mRNAs was observed. Three of these microRNAs (miR-16, miR-196a and Let-7a) have methylated promoters and therefore low expression in colon cancer. For two of these, miR-15 and miR-16, the coding regions are epigenetically silenced in cancer due to histone deacetylase activity. When these microRNAs are expressed at a low level, then HMGA1 and HMGA2 proteins are expressed at a high level. HMGA1 and HMGA2 target (reduce expression of) BRCA1 and ERCC1 DNA repair  genes. Thus DNA repair can be reduced, likely contributing to cancer progression.

text: The discovery of nerve growth factor by Rita Levi-Montalcini in 1954, and epidermal growth factor by Stanley Cohen in 1962, led to more detailed insights into the molecular basis of cell signalling, in particular growth factors. Their work, together with Earl Wilbur Sutherland's discovery of cyclic AMP in 1956, prompted the redefinition of endocrine signalling to include only signalling from glands, while the terms autocrine and paracrine began to be used. Sutherland was awarded the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, while Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared it in 1986.

text: The discovery of

text: nerve growth factor

text: by

text: Rita Levi-Montalcini

text: in 1954, and

text: epidermal growth factor

text: by

text: Stanley Cohen

text: in 1962, led to more detailed insights into the molecular basis of cell signalling, in particular

text: growth factor

text: s. Their work, together with

text: Earl Wilbur Sutherland

text: 's discovery of

text: cyclic AMP

text: in 1956, prompted the redefinition of

text: endocrine signalling

text: to include only signalling from glands, while the terms

text: autocrine

text: and

text: paracrine

text: began to be used. Sutherland was awarded the 1971

text: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

text: , while Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared it in 1986.

text: The pancreatic islets make up the endocrine part of the pancreas, and synthesize and secrete hormones including insulin into the bloodstream. There is evidence that the beta cells in the islets that synthesize insulin contain dopamine receptors, and that dopamine acts to reduce the amount of insulin they release. The source of their dopamine input is not clearly established—it may come from dopamine that circulates in the bloodstream and derives from the sympathetic nervous system, or it may be synthesized locally by other types of pancreatic cells.

text: The

text: pancreatic islets

text: make up the endocrine part of the pancreas, and synthesize and secrete hormones including

text: insulin

text: into the bloodstream. There is evidence that the

text: beta cell

text: s in the islets that synthesize insulin contain dopamine receptors, and that dopamine acts to reduce the amount of insulin they release. The source of their dopamine input is not clearly established—it may come from dopamine that circulates in the bloodstream and derives from the sympathetic nervous system, or it may be synthesized locally by other types of pancreatic cells.

text: The most commonly included disorders of the endocrine system are congenital hypothyroidism (CH) and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).  Testing for both disorders can be done using blood samples collected on the standard newborn screening card.  Screening for CH is done by measuring thyroxin (T4), thyrotropin (TSH) or a combination of both analytes.  Elevated 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) is the primary marker used when screening for CAH, most commonly done using enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays, with many programs using a second tier tandem mass spectrometry test to reduce the number of false positive results.  Careful analysis of screening results for CAH may also identify cases of congenital adrenal hypoplasia, which presents with extremely low levels of 17OHP.

text: The most commonly included disorders of the

text: endocrine system

text: are

text: congenital hypothyroidism

text: (CH) and

text: congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: (CAH).  Testing for both disorders can be done using blood samples collected on the standard newborn screening card.  Screening for CH is done by measuring

text: thyroxin

text: thyrotropin

text: (TSH) or a combination of both analytes.  Elevated

text: (17OHP) is the primary marker used when screening for CAH, most commonly done using

text: enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays

text: , with many programs using a second tier

text: tandem mass spectrometry

text: test to reduce the number of

text: false positive

text: results.  Careful analysis of screening results for CAH may also identify cases of

text: congenital adrenal hypoplasia

text: , which presents with extremely low levels of 17OHP.

text: The urinary system is under influence of circulatory system, nervous system and endocrine system.

text: The urinary system is under influence of

text: circulatory system

text: nervous system

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: Upon digestion of carbohydrates, glucose levels in the blood will begin to rise.  As the blood and glucose flow into the pancreas, insulin and amylin are co-secreted by the pancreatic beta cells directly into the bloodstream in response to elevated blood glucose levels. In the presence of glucose these insulin responses are almost exclusively delivered in boluses every 4 to 6 minutes. Insulin causes blood glucose to be removed from the bloodstream and stored in the liver and muscle cells. As the blood sugar goes higher, additional insulin will bring the blood sugar back down in a classic negative feedback loop.  As insulin is released from the beta cells, amylin is also released into the bloodstream.  Amylin slows gastric emptying, and also inhibits the release of glucagon from the pancreatic alpha cells.  The effect of amylin is to spread out the blood glucose peak after eating, reducing the quantity of insulin needed.  As the blood sugar level comes back toward normal, the beta cells will stop spurting insulin and amylin.  As the glucose level approaches a low mark, the pancreatic alpha cells will release glucagon directly into the bloodstream.  Glucagon causes the liver to release stored glucose back into the bloodstream.  Increased glucagon will increase blood glucose levels to produce a positive error in the negative feedback loop.  Together, the three endocrine hormones work as a system to maintain the blood glucose level between high and low boundaries. By delivering the insulin in boluses as presented by a non-diabetic pancreas, the goal of an artificial pancreas can be achieved.

text: Upon digestion of carbohydrates, glucose levels in the blood will begin to rise.  As the blood and glucose flow into the pancreas, insulin and amylin are co-secreted by the pancreatic

text: beta cells

text: directly into the bloodstream in response to elevated blood glucose levels. In the presence of glucose these insulin responses are almost exclusively delivered in boluses every 4 to 6 minutes. Insulin causes blood glucose to be removed from the bloodstream and stored in the liver and muscle cells. As the blood sugar goes higher, additional insulin will bring the blood sugar back down in a classic negative feedback loop.  As insulin is released from the beta cells, amylin is also released into the bloodstream.  Amylin slows gastric emptying, and also inhibits the release of glucagon from the pancreatic alpha cells.  The effect of amylin is to spread out the blood glucose peak after eating, reducing the quantity of insulin needed.  As the blood sugar level comes back toward normal, the beta cells will stop spurting insulin and amylin.  As the glucose level approaches a low mark, the pancreatic

text: alpha cells

text: will release glucagon directly into the bloodstream.  Glucagon causes the liver to release stored glucose back into the bloodstream.  Increased glucagon will increase blood glucose levels to produce a positive error in the negative feedback loop.  Together, the three endocrine hormones work as a system to maintain the blood glucose level between high and low boundaries. By delivering the insulin in boluses as presented by a non-diabetic pancreas, the goal of an artificial pancreas can be achieved.

text: The term multiple endocrine neoplasia is used when two or more endocrine tumor types, known to occur as a part of one of the defined MEN syndromes, occurs in a single patient and there is evidence for either a causative mutation or hereditary transmission. The presence of two or more tumor types in a single patient does not automatically designate that individual as having MEN because there is a small statistical chance that development of two "sporadic" tumors that occur in one of the MEN syndromes could occur by chance.

text: Parotid hormone. Assuming that the hypothalamic factor was mediated through one of the major salivary glands, they found that this factor was biologically active when administered to rats with intact parotid glands but was wholly ineffective in rats that had the parotid glands removed. There was no involvement of the other salivary glands. They concluded that the direct regulation of DFT was therefore secreted by the parotid glands and this endocrine function was controlled by the hypothalamus.

text: Parotid hormone. Assuming that the hypothalamic factor was mediated through one of the major salivary glands, they found that this factor was biologically active when administered to rats with intact

text: parotid gland

text: s but was wholly ineffective in rats that had the parotid glands removed. There was no involvement of the other salivary glands. They concluded that the direct regulation of DFT was therefore secreted by the parotid glands and this endocrine function was controlled by the hypothalamus.

text: This approach is the most common and useful technique of endoscopic endonasal surgery and was first described in 1910 concurrently by Harvey Cushing and Oskar Hirsch. This procedure allows the surgeon to access the sellar space, or sella turcica. The sella is a cradle where the pituitary gland sits. Under normal circumstances, a surgeon would use this approach on a patient with a pituitary adenoma. The surgeon starts with the transnasal approach prior to using the transsphenoidal approach. This allows access to the sphenoid ostium and sphenoid sinus. The sphenoid ostium is located on the anterosuperior surface of the sphenoid sinus. The anterior wall of the sphenoid sinus and the sphenoid rostrum is then removed to allow the surgeon a panoramic view of the surgical area. This procedure also requires the removal of the posterior septum to allow the use of both nostrils for tools during surgery. There are several triangles of blood vessels traversing this region, which are just very delicate areas of blood vessels that can be deadly if injured. A surgeon uses stereotactic imaging and a micro Doppler to visualize the surgical field.

text: This approach is the most common and useful technique of endoscopic endonasal surgery and was first described in 1910 concurrently by

text: Harvey Cushing

text: and

text: Oskar Hirsch

text: . This procedure allows the surgeon to access the sellar space, or

text: sella turcica

text: . The sella is a cradle where the pituitary gland sits. Under normal circumstances, a surgeon would use this approach on a patient with a pituitary adenoma. The surgeon starts with the transnasal approach prior to using the transsphenoidal approach. This allows access to the sphenoid ostium and sphenoid sinus. The sphenoid

text: ostium

text: is located on the anterosuperior surface of the sphenoid sinus. The anterior wall of the sphenoid sinus and the sphenoid

text: rostrum

text: is then removed to allow the surgeon a panoramic view of the surgical area. This procedure also requires the removal of the posterior

text: septum

text: to allow the use of both nostrils for tools during surgery. There are several triangles of blood vessels traversing this region, which are just very delicate areas of blood vessels that can be deadly if injured. A surgeon uses stereotactic imaging and a micro Doppler to visualize the surgical field.

text: Addison's disease, whether in dogs or humans, is an endocrine system disorder that occurs when the adrenal glands fail to produce enough hormones for normal function. The adrenal glands  – located above the kidneys – secrete glucocorticoids such as cortisol  and mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone; when proper amounts of these are not produced, the metabolic and electrolyte balance is upset.  Mineralocorticoids control the amount of potassium, salt and water in the body.  The disease is also known as hypoadrenocorticism, adrenal insufficiency, or hypocortisolism, and is fatal if left untreated.

text: Addison's disease, whether in dogs or humans, is an

text: endocrine system

text: disorder that occurs when the

text: adrenal gland

text: s fail to produce enough

text: hormone

text: s for normal function. The adrenal glands  – located above the

text: kidney

text: s – secrete

text: glucocorticoid

text: s such as

text: cortisol

text: and

text: mineralocorticoid

text: s such as

text: aldosterone

text: ; when proper amounts of these are not produced, the metabolic and

text: electrolyte

text: balance is upset.  Mineralocorticoids control the amount of

text: potassium

text: , salt and water in the body.  The disease is also known as

text: hypoadrenocorticism

text: , adrenal insufficiency, or

text: hypocortisolism

text: , and is fatal if left untreated.

text: Cysts associated with hypothyroidism or other endocrine problems are managed by treating the underlying condition.

text: In the female, estradiol acts as a growth hormone for tissue of the reproductive organs, supporting the lining of the vagina, the cervical glands, the endometrium, and the lining of the fallopian tubes. It enhances growth of the myometrium. Estradiol appears necessary to maintain oocytes in the ovary. During the menstrual cycle, estradiol produced by the growing follicle triggers, via a positive feedback system, the hypothalamic-pituitary events that lead to the luteinizing hormone surge, inducing ovulation. In the luteal phase, estradiol, in conjunction with progesterone, prepares the endometrium for implantation. During pregnancy, estradiol increases due to placental production. The effect of estradiol, together with estrone and estriol, in pregnancy is less clear. They may promote uterine blood flow, myometrial growth, stimulate breast growth and at term, promote cervical softening and expression of myometrial oxytocin receptors. In baboons, blocking of estrogen production leads to pregnancy loss, suggesting estradiol has a role in the maintenance of pregnancy. Research is investigating the role of estrogens in the process of initiation of labor. Actions of estradiol are required before the exposure of progesterone in the luteal phase.

text: In the female, estradiol acts as a growth hormone for tissue of the reproductive organs, supporting the lining of the

text: vagina

text: , the cervical glands, the

text: endometrium

text: , and the lining of the fallopian tubes. It enhances growth of the

text: myometrium

text: . Estradiol appears necessary to maintain

text: oocyte

text: s in the

text: ovary

text: . During the

text: menstrual cycle

text: , estradiol produced by the growing follicle triggers, via a positive feedback system, the hypothalamic-pituitary events that lead to the

text: luteinizing hormone

text: surge, inducing ovulation. In the luteal phase, estradiol, in conjunction with

text: progesterone

text: , prepares the endometrium for

text: implantation

text: . During

text: pregnancy

text: , estradiol increases due to

text: placenta

text: l production. The effect of estradiol, together with

text: estrone

text: and

text: estriol

text: , in

text: pregnancy

text: is less clear. They may promote uterine blood flow, myometrial growth, stimulate breast growth and at term, promote cervical softening and expression of myometrial

text: oxytocin

text: receptors. In baboons, blocking of estrogen production leads to pregnancy loss, suggesting estradiol has a role in the maintenance of pregnancy. Research is investigating the role of estrogens in the process of initiation of

text: labor

text: . Actions of estradiol are required before the exposure of progesterone in the luteal phase.

text: The arcuate nucleus and the periventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus have dopamine neurons that form an important projection—the tuberoinfundibular pathway which goes to the pituitary gland, where it influences the secretion of the hormone prolactin.  Dopamine is the primary neuroendocrine inhibitor of the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland. Dopamine produced by neurons in the arcuate nucleus is secreted into the hypophyseal portal system of the median eminence, which supplies the pituitary gland. The prolactin cells that produce prolactin, in the absence of dopamine, secrete prolactin continuously; dopamine inhibits this secretion. In the context of regulating prolactin secretion, dopamine is occasionally called prolactin-inhibiting factor, prolactin-inhibiting hormone, or prolactostatin.

text: The

text: arcuate nucleus

text: and the

text: periventricular nucleus

text: of the hypothalamus have dopamine neurons that form an important projection—the

text: tuberoinfundibular pathway

text: which goes to the

text: pituitary gland

text: , where it influences the secretion of the hormone

text: prolactin

text: .  Dopamine is the primary

text: neuroendocrine

text: inhibitor of the secretion of

text: prolactin

text: from the

text: anterior pituitary

text: gland. Dopamine produced by neurons in the arcuate nucleus is secreted into the

text: hypophyseal portal system

text: of the

text: median eminence

text: , which supplies the

text: pituitary gland

text: . The

text: prolactin cell

text: s that produce

text: prolactin

text: , in the absence of dopamine, secrete prolactin continuously; dopamine inhibits this secretion. In the context of regulating prolactin secretion, dopamine is occasionally called prolactin-inhibiting factor, prolactin-inhibiting hormone, or prolactostatin.

text: In the 1860s, descriptions of boys who grew progressively weaker, lost the ability to walk, and died at an early age became more prominent in medical journals. In the following decade, French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne gave a comprehensive account of the most common and severe form of the disease, which now carries his name—Duchenne MD.It soon became evident that the disease had more than one form. The other major forms are Becker, limb-girdle, congenital, facioscapulohumeral, myotonic, oculopharyngeal, distal, and EDMD. Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies, being caused by a mutation of a gene located on the X chromosome, predominantly affect males, although females can sometimes have severe symptoms, as well. Most types of MD are multisystem disorders with manifestations in body systems including the heart, gastrointestinal system, nervous system, endocrine glands, eyes, and brain.

text: In the 1860s, descriptions of boys who grew progressively weaker, lost the ability to walk, and died at an early age became more prominent in medical journals. In the following decade, French neurologist

text: Guillaume Duchenne

text: gave a comprehensive account of the most common and severe form of the disease, which now carries his name—Duchenne MD.It soon became evident that the disease had more than one form. The other major forms are Becker, limb-girdle, congenital, facioscapulohumeral, myotonic, oculopharyngeal, distal, and EDMD. Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies, being caused by a mutation of a gene located on the X chromosome, predominantly affect males, although females can sometimes have severe symptoms, as well. Most types of MD are multisystem disorders with manifestations in body systems including the heart, gastrointestinal system, nervous system, endocrine glands, eyes, and brain.

text: Both open-loop and closed-loop models of optimal control have been studied; the former generally ignores the role of sensory feedback, while the latter attempts to incorporate sensory feedback, which includes delays and uncertainty associated with the sensory systems involved in movement. Open-loop models are simpler but have severe limitations—they model a movement as prerecorded in the nervous system, ignoring sensory feedback, and also fail to model variability between movements with the same task-goal. In both models, the primary difficulty is identifying the cost associated with a movement. A mix of cost variables such as minimum energy expenditure and a "smoothness" function is the most likely choice for a common performance criterion.

text: Both open-loop and closed-loop models of optimal control have been studied; the former generally ignores the role of sensory feedback, while the latter attempts to incorporate sensory

text: feedback

text: , which includes delays and uncertainty associated with the sensory systems involved in movement. Open-loop models are simpler but have severe limitations—they model a movement as prerecorded in the nervous system, ignoring sensory feedback, and also fail to model variability between movements with the same task-goal. In both models, the primary difficulty is identifying the

text: cost

text: associated with a movement. A mix of cost variables such as minimum energy expenditure and a "smoothness" function is the most likely choice for a common performance criterion.

text: Endocrine glands secrete substances that circulate through the blood stream. These glands that secrete their products through the basal lamina into the blood stream and lack a duct system. These glands often secrete hormones, and play an important role in maintaining homeostasis. The pineal gland, thymus gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, and the two adrenal glands are all endocrine glands.

text: Endocrine gland

text: s secrete substances that circulate through the blood stream. These glands that secrete their products through the

text: basal lamina

text: into the blood stream and lack a duct system. These glands often secrete

text: hormone

text: s, and play an important role in maintaining

text: homeostasis

text: . The

text: pineal gland

text: thymus gland

text: pituitary gland

text: thyroid gland

text: , and the two

text: adrenal gland

text: s are all endocrine glands.

text: The endocrine precursors are a committed group of progenitors that develop into all of the endocrine cells in the pancreas. Endocrine lineages develop into Delta cells, PP-cells, Epsilon cells, Beta cells and Alpha cells. Alpha cells produce glucagon and beta cells produce insulin. Insulin and glucagon antagonistically regulate the glucose homeostasis in the mammalian body. PP-cells produce pancreatic polypeptide which is a regulator of endocrine and exocrine secretions in the pancreas and gut. Delta cells which produce somatostatin which is a growth hormone inhibiting hormone and has important function in the regulation of hormone production from the anterior pituitary gland. Epsilon cells produce Ghrelin (hunger hormone) which is a neuropeptide that acts on the hypothalmic center of the brain, where it couples with GHSR (growth hormone secretagogue receptors) and mediates hunger.

text: The endocrine precursors are a committed group of progenitors that develop into all of the endocrine cells in the pancreas. Endocrine lineages develop into

text: Delta cells

text: , PP-cells, Epsilon cells,

text: Beta cells

text: and

text: Alpha cells

text: . Alpha cells produce

text: glucagon

text: and beta cells produce

text: insulin

text: . Insulin and glucagon antagonistically regulate the glucose homeostasis in the mammalian body. PP-cells produce pancreatic polypeptide which is a regulator of endocrine and exocrine secretions in the pancreas and gut. Delta cells which produce

text: somatostatin

text: which is a growth hormone inhibiting hormone and has important function in the regulation of hormone production from the

text: anterior pituitary

text: gland. Epsilon cells produce

text: Ghrelin

text: (hunger hormone) which is a neuropeptide that acts on the

text: hypothalmic

text: center of the brain, where it couples with

text: GHSR

text: (growth hormone secretagogue receptors) and mediates hunger.

text: The discovery of hormones and endocrine signaling occurred during studies of how the digestive system regulates its activities, as explained at Secretin § Discovery.

text: The discovery of hormones and endocrine signaling occurred during studies of how the digestive system regulates its activities, as explained at

text: Secretin § Discovery

text: Although the thymus is usually classified with the immune system, thymic diseases are classified with endocrine disorders in ICD-9 and ICD-10.

text: Although the

text: thymus

text: is usually classified with the

text: immune system

text: , thymic diseases are classified with

text: endocrine disorder

text: s in

text: and

text: The hypothalamus coordinates many hormonal and behavioural circadian rhythms, complex patterns of neuroendocrine outputs, complex homeostatic mechanisms, and important behaviours. The hypothalamus must, therefore, respond to many different signals, some of which generated externally and some internally. Delta wave signalling arising either in the thalamus or in the cortex influences the secretion of releasing hormones; GHRH and prolactin are stimulated whilst TRH is inhibited.

text: The hypothalamus coordinates many hormonal and behavioural circadian rhythms, complex patterns of

text: neuroendocrine

text: outputs, complex

text: homeostatic

text: mechanisms, and important behaviours. The hypothalamus must, therefore, respond to many different signals, some of which generated externally and some internally.

text: Delta wave

text: signalling arising either in the thalamus or in the cortex influences the secretion of releasing hormones;

text: GHRH

text: and

text: prolactin

text: are stimulated whilst

text: TRH

text: is inhibited.

text: Although initially taught in a Modular system-based format, innovative changes were introduced into the curriculum at JUST in 1999. Balancing basic science principles, clinical skills, and psychosocial concepts, the new curriculum placed the student at the centre. Rather than relying on the teacher to deliver knowledge, students were empowered to become more self-directed in their learning.During the first year and a half of their program, students are taught basic science in a traditional format. In an integratedmodule fashion, the next year and half is devoted to studying nine body systems: cardiovascular, respiratory, hematopoietic, digestive, endocrine, musculoskeletal, neuroscience 1 and 2, and reproductive and urinary. Towards the end of the third year students begin direct contact with patients in hospital settings. The last three years are spent in supervised inpatient and outpatient settings to develop their diagnostic and treatment competencies; the clinical years begin fully at the beginning of year 4 where students rotate through various areas of general clinical medicine. Year 5 continues this pattern focusing more on specialized areas of medicine and surgery. In total, students are required to complete 257 hours of classes divided among compulsory and elective courses. After completion of their 6th year, students are required to complete internship (imtiaz), which is a one-year term in general practice for which they are not compensated for.

text: Although initially taught in a Modular system-based format, innovative changes were introduced into the curriculum at JUST in 1999. Balancing basic science principles, clinical skills, and psychosocial concepts, the new curriculum placed the student at the centre. Rather than relying on the teacher to deliver knowledge, students were empowered to become more self-directed in their learning.During the first year and a half of their program, students are taught basic science in a traditional format. In an integratedmodule fashion, the next year and half is devoted to studying nine

text: body systems

text: cardiovascular

text: respiratory

text: hematopoietic

text: digestive

text: endocrine

text: musculoskeletal

text: neuroscience

text: 1 and 2, and

text: reproductive

text: and

text: urinary

text: . Towards the end of the third year students begin direct contact with patients in hospital settings. The last three years are spent in supervised inpatient and outpatient settings to develop their diagnostic and treatment competencies; the clinical years begin fully at the beginning of year 4 where students rotate through various areas of general clinical medicine. Year 5 continues this pattern focusing more on specialized areas of medicine and surgery. In total, students are required to complete 257 hours of classes divided among compulsory and elective courses. After completion of their 6th year, students are required to complete internship (imtiaz), which is a one-year term in general practice for which they are not compensated for.

text: -Pro)which is found in a variety of foods, with particularly high concentrations in fish and fish products.  It is well absorbed orally, and crosses the blood–brain barrier via a non-saturable mechanism.  It also occurs in humans as a metabolite from the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and exhibits a wide variety of central nervous system, endocrine, electrophysiological, and cardiovascular effects.  Derivatives of cyclo(L-His-L-Pro) have been studied extensively to develop therapeutic agents for neurodegeneration.

text: -Pro)which is found in a variety of foods, with particularly high concentrations in fish and fish products.  It is well absorbed orally, and crosses the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: via a non-saturable mechanism.  It also occurs in humans as a metabolite from the

text: thyrotropin-releasing hormone

text: (TRH) and exhibits a wide variety of central nervous system, endocrine, electrophysiological, and cardiovascular effects.  Derivatives of cyclo(L-His-L-Pro) have been studied extensively to develop therapeutic agents for

text: neurodegeneration

text: In regulating the level of vitamin D, this enzyme plays a role in calcium homeostasis and the vitamin D endocrine system.

text: Disturbances in the endocrine system that lead to an increase in the ratio of estrogens/androgens are thought to be responsible for the development of gynecomastia. This may occur even if the levels of estrogens and androgens are both appropriate but the ratio is altered. The disorder is usually diagnosed by a physician after a detailed history and physical examination. Conservative management of gynecomastia is often appropriate as the condition commonly resolves on its own. Medical treatment of gynecomastia that has persisted beyond two years is often ineffective. Medications such as aromatase inhibitors have been found to be effective in rare cases of gynecomastia from disorders such as aromatase excess syndrome or Peutz–Jeghers syndrome, but surgical removal of the excess tissue is usually required.

text: Disturbances in the endocrine system that lead to an increase in the ratio of

text: estrogen

text: s/

text: androgen

text: s are thought to be responsible for the development of gynecomastia. This may occur even if the levels of estrogens and androgens are both appropriate but the ratio is altered. The disorder is usually diagnosed by a

text: physician

text: after a detailed history and physical examination. Conservative management of gynecomastia is often appropriate as the condition commonly resolves on its own. Medical treatment of gynecomastia that has persisted beyond two years is often ineffective. Medications such as

text: aromatase inhibitor

text: s have been found to be effective in rare cases of gynecomastia from disorders such as

text: aromatase excess syndrome

text: or

text: Peutz–Jeghers syndrome

text: , but surgical removal of the excess tissue is usually required.

text: The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three zones: zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis.

text: The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are

text: endocrine gland

text: s that produce a variety of hormones including

text: adrenaline

text: and the steroids

text: aldosterone

text: and

text: cortisol

text: . They are found above the

text: kidney

text: s. Each gland has an outer

text: cortex

text: which produces

text: steroid hormone

text: s and an inner

text: medulla

text: . The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three zones:

text: zona glomerulosa

text: , the

text: zona fasciculata

text: and the

text: zona reticularis

text: The endocrine system could be a regulating system for begging behavior.  Altricial nestlings are known to produce their own testosterone, starting even before hatching and have rapidly increasing testosterone production throughout the nestling period. Elevated levels of nestling testosterone are correlated with more intense begging displays in canarys, slender-billed prions (Pachyptila belcheri) and European pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca). Testosterone affects the length of begging displays. Maternal testosterone levels deposited into egg yolks have been found to affect the hierarchy of begging chicks. Corticosterone increases begging effort and food provisioning rates by parents. Corticosterone implanted chicks beg more frequently than non-implanted chicks. When there is a shortage of food, corticosterone levels increase, leading to begging.  The ultimate function of begging is to obtain more food and thereby the fitness of the begging bird. Birds evolved the behaviour of begging so they could gain more attention from their parents and be fed. This is evolutionarily beneficial to the parents because they will have greater reproductive success and contribute more of their genes to further generations.

text: The

text: endocrine system

text: could be a regulating system for begging behavior.

text: Altricial

text: nestlings are known to produce their own

text: testosterone

text: , starting even before hatching and have rapidly increasing testosterone production throughout the nestling period. Elevated levels of nestling testosterone are correlated with more intense begging displays in canarys,

text: slender-billed prion

text: s (Pachyptila belcheri) and

text: European pied flycatcher

text: s (Ficedula hypoleuca). Testosterone affects the length of begging displays. Maternal testosterone levels deposited into egg yolks have been found to affect the hierarchy of begging chicks.

text: Corticosterone

text: increases begging effort and food provisioning rates by parents. Corticosterone implanted chicks beg more frequently than non-implanted chicks. When there is a shortage of food, corticosterone levels increase, leading to begging.  The ultimate function of begging is to obtain more food and thereby the fitness of the begging bird. Birds evolved the behaviour of begging so they could gain more attention from their parents and be fed. This is evolutionarily beneficial to the parents because they will have greater reproductive success and contribute more of their genes to further generations.

text: The prothoracic glands are either of a pair of endocrine glands located in the prothorax of certain insects that regulate molting. They have an ectodermal origin and secrete ecdysteroids, such as ecdysone and 20-hydroxyecdysone.

text: The prothoracic glands are either of a pair of

text: endocrine gland

text: s located in the

text: prothorax

text: of certain insects that regulate

text: molting

text: . They have an ectodermal origin and secrete ecdysteroids, such as ecdysone and 20-hydroxyecdysone.

text: The regenerative receiver, invented by Edwin Armstrong  in 1913 when he was a 23-year-old college student,  was used very widely until the late 1920s particularly by hobbyists who could only afford a single-tube radio. Today transistor versions of the circuit are still used in a few inexpensive applications like walkie-talkies.  In the regenerative receiver the gain (amplification) of a vacuum tube or transistor is increased by using regeneration (positive feedback); some of the energy from the tube's output  circuit is fed back into the input circuit with a feedback loop.  The early vacuum tubes had very low gain (around 5).  Regeneration could not only increase the gain of the tube enormously, by a factor of 15,000 or more, it also increased the Q factor of the tuned circuit, decreasing (sharpening) the bandwidth of the receiver by the same factor, improving selectivity greatly. The receiver had a control to adjust the feedback.   The tube also acted as a grid-leak detector to rectify the AM signal.

text: The

text: regenerative receiver

text: , invented by

text: Edwin Armstrong

text: in 1913 when he was a 23-year-old college student,  was used very widely until the late 1920s particularly by hobbyists who could only afford a single-tube radio. Today transistor versions of the circuit are still used in a few inexpensive applications like

text: walkie-talkie

text: s.  In the regenerative receiver the

text: gain

text: (amplification) of a

text: vacuum tube

text: or transistor is increased by using regeneration (

text: positive feedback

text: ); some of the energy from the tube's output  circuit is fed back into the input circuit with a

text: feedback loop

text: .  The early vacuum tubes had very low gain (around 5).  Regeneration could not only increase the gain of the tube enormously, by a factor of 15,000 or more, it also increased the

text: Q factor

text: of the tuned circuit, decreasing (sharpening) the

text: bandwidth

text: of the receiver by the same factor, improving

text: selectivity

text: greatly. The receiver had a control to adjust the feedback.   The tube also acted as a

text: grid-leak detector

text: to rectify the AM signal.

text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B (also known as "MEN2B", "Mucosal neuromata with endocrine tumors", "Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 3", and "Wagenmann–Froboese syndrome") is a genetic disease that causes multiple tumors on the mouth, eyes, and endocrine glands. It is the most severe type of multiple endocrine neoplasia, differentiated by the presence of benign oral and submucosal tumors in addition to endocrine malignancies. It was first described by Wagenmann in 1922, and was first recognized as a syndrome in 1965-1966 by E.D. Williams and D.J. Pollock.

text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B (also known as "MEN2B", "Mucosal neuromata with endocrine tumors", "Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 3", and "Wagenmann–Froboese syndrome") is a genetic disease that causes multiple tumors on the mouth, eyes, and

text: endocrine

text: glands. It is the most severe type of

text: multiple endocrine neoplasia

text: , differentiated by the presence of benign oral and submucosal tumors in addition to endocrine malignancies. It was first described by

text: Wagenmann

text: in 1922, and was first recognized as a syndrome in 1965-1966 by E.D. Williams and D.J. Pollock.

text: Net Promoter System also requires a process to close the loop. Closing the loop is a process by which the provider actively intervenes to learn more from customers who have provided feedback, and also to change a negative perception, often converting a Detractor into a Promoter. In order to do this, the survey respondent can not be anonymous (something that can have a negative impact in the willingness to take the survey or to give low grades). The Net Promoter survey will identify customers who need some follow-up, including Detractors, and should automatically alert the provider to contact the consumer and manage the followup and actions from that point.

text: In 2013, the principal cause of death for women in Croatia were diseased of circulatory system at 54.3%, followed by tumors at 23.6%. Other significant causes of death are injuries, poisonings and other external causes (4.3%), respiratory system diseases (3.5%), digestive system diseases (3.3%), and endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (2.8%).

text: Guidelines for management of patients up to 18 years with Langerhans cell histiocytosis has been suggested. Treatment is guided by extent of disease. Solitary bone lesion may be amenable through excision or limited radiation, dosage of 5-10 Gys for children, 24-30 Gys for adults. However systemic diseases often require chemotherapy. Use of systemic steroid is common, singly or adjunct to chemotherapy. Local steroid cream is applied to skin lesions. Endocrine deficiency often require lifelong supplement e.g. desmopressin for diabetes insipidus which can be applied as nasal drop. Chemotherapeutic agents such as alkylating agents, antimetabolites, vinca alkaloids either singly or in combination can lead to complete remission in diffuse disease.

text: Guidelines for management of patients up to 18 years with Langerhans cell histiocytosis has been suggested. Treatment is guided by extent of disease. Solitary bone lesion may be amenable through excision or limited radiation, dosage of 5-10 Gys for children, 24-30 Gys for adults. However systemic diseases often require chemotherapy. Use of systemic steroid is common, singly or adjunct to chemotherapy. Local steroid cream is applied to skin lesions. Endocrine deficiency often require lifelong supplement e.g.

text: desmopressin

text: for diabetes insipidus which can be applied as nasal drop.

text: Chemotherapeutic

text: agents such as

text: alkylating agents

text: antimetabolites

text: vinca alkaloids

text: either singly or in combination can lead to complete remission in diffuse disease.

text: Minor loop feedback is a classical method used to design stable robust linear feedback control systems using feedback loops around sub-systems within the overall feedback loop. The method is sometimes called minor loop synthesis in college text books, some government documents.

text: Minor loop feedback is a classical method used to design stable robust linear

text: feedback

text: control systems using feedback loops around sub-systems within the overall feedback loop. The method is sometimes called minor loop synthesis in college text books, some government documents.

text: Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, both positive and negative. As in other contexts, positive and negative do not imply that the feedback causes good or bad effects. A negative feedback loop is one that tends to slow down a process, whereas the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it. The mirror neurons are part of a social feedback system, when an observed action is "mirrored" by the brain—like a self-performed action.

text: Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, both positive and negative. As in other contexts, positive and negative do not imply that the feedback causes good or bad effects. A negative feedback loop is one that tends to slow down a process, whereas the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it. The

text: mirror neuron

text: s are part of a social feedback system, when an observed action is "mirrored" by the brain—like a self-performed action.

text: There are studies of cell cultures, laboratory animals, wildlife, and accidentally exposed humans that show that environmental chemicals cause a wide range of reproductive, developmental, growth, and behavior effects, and so while "endocrine disruption in humans by pollutant chemicals remains largely undemonstrated, the underlying science is sound and the potential for such effects is real." While compounds that produce estrogenic, androgenic, antiandrogenic, and antithyroid actions have been studied, less is known about interactions with other hormones.

text: During early G1, the transcriptional repressors Rb (retinoblastoma), p107 and p130, known as pocket proteins, bind to the E2F transcription factors to prevent G1-to-S transition. Rb binds and represses activator E2F transcription factors (E2F1-3), while p107 and p130 bind E2F4 and E2F5 to form complexes which repress transcription of G1-to-S promoting factors. Upon the decision to progress past the G1 checkpoint, cyclin D levels rise, and cyclin D forms a complex with CDK4 and CDK6, which in turn phosphorylate the pocket proteins. Phosphorylation of the pocket proteins causes the release of their bound targets, thereby relieving the repression of the E2F1-3 activators and translocating repressors E2F4 and E2F5 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. This results in the transcriptional activation of downstream targets, which promote the G1-to-S transition, including another cyclin, known as cyclin E, which forms a complex with CDK2. The formation of the cyclin E-CDK2 complex then promotes a positive feedback loop which creates an “all or nothing” switch from which the cell can not return.  Following entry to S-phase and initiation of DNA replication, S-phase cyclin A, a transcriptional target of E2F1-3, forms a complex with CDK2 which phosphorylates E2F1-3 and prevents its ability to bind to DNA, thus forming a negative feedback loop. In another negative feedback loop, E2F1-3 promote the transcription of E2F6-8, which in turn repress G1-S transition.

text: It is associated with human milk production. In fish it is thought to be related to control of water and salt balance. Prolactin also acts in a cytokine-like manner and as an important regulator of the immune system. It has important cell cycle-related functions as a growth-, differentiating- and anti-apoptotic factor. As a growth factor, binding to cytokine-like receptors, it influences hematopoiesis, angiogenesis and is involved in the regulation of blood clotting through several pathways. The hormone acts in endocrine, autocrine and paracrine manner through the prolactin receptor and a large number of cytokine receptors.

text: It is associated with human milk production. In fish it is thought to be related to control of water and salt balance. Prolactin also acts in a

text: cytokine

text: -like manner and as an important regulator of the

text: immune system

text: . It has important cell cycle-related functions as a growth-, differentiating- and anti-

text: apoptotic

text: factor. As a growth factor, binding to cytokine-like receptors, it influences

text: hematopoiesis

text: angiogenesis

text: and is involved in the regulation of blood clotting through several pathways. The hormone acts in

text: endocrine

text: autocrine

text: and

text: paracrine

text: manner through the

text: prolactin receptor

text: and a large number of

text: cytokine receptor

text: s.

text: In addition to the use of medication to produce tumor-suppressing endocrine alterations, destruction of endocrine organs through surgery or radiation therapy are also possible. Surgical castration, or removal of the testes in males and ovaries in females, have been widely used in the past to treat hormone-responsive prostate cancer and breast cancer respectively. However, these invasive methods have been widely supplanted by the use of GnRH agonists, and other forms of pharmacologic castration.

text: In addition to the use of medication to produce tumor-suppressing endocrine alterations, destruction of endocrine organs through

text: surgery

text: or

text: radiation therapy

text: are also possible. Surgical

text: castration

text: , or removal of the

text: testes

text: in males and

text: ovaries

text: in females, have been widely used in the past to treat hormone-responsive

text: prostate cancer

text: and

text: breast cancer

text: respectively. However, these invasive methods have been widely supplanted by the use of GnRH agonists, and other forms of pharmacologic castration.

text: in  dollars) per copy and was packaged in a hinged box designed to look like Fab laundry detergent, were various leaflets and booklets, one of which was a commentary on rock and roll by Lou Reed, another an EPI promotional newspaper. Also enclosed was a 2-sided flexi disk, side one produced by Peter Walker, a musical associate of Timothy Leary, and side two titled "Loop", credited to the Velvet Underground but actually recorded by Cale alone. "Loop", a recording solely of pulsating audio feedback culminating in a locked groove, was "a precursor to [Reed's] Metal Machine Music", say Velvets archivists M.C. Kostek and Phil Milstein in the book The Velvet Underground Companion. "Loop" also predates much industrial music.

text: in  dollars) per copy and was packaged in a hinged box designed to look like Fab laundry detergent, were various leaflets and booklets, one of which was a commentary on rock and roll by Lou Reed, another an EPI promotional newspaper. Also enclosed was a 2-sided

text: flexi disk

text: , side one produced by

text: Peter Walker

text: , a musical associate of

text: Timothy Leary

text: , and side two titled "Loop", credited to the Velvet Underground but actually recorded by Cale alone. "Loop", a recording solely of pulsating

text: audio feedback

text: culminating in a

text: locked groove

text: , was "a precursor to [Reed's]

text: Metal Machine Music

text: ", say Velvets archivists M.C. Kostek and Phil Milstein in the book The Velvet Underground Companion. "Loop" also predates much

text: industrial music

text: Science of Living education system is an effort to implement value-based education and moral education. Its goal and approach is overall development of student and not simply just the intellectual development. Mere intellectual development can't help in building real experience and character of the student. It aims for a balanced emotional, intellectual and physical development. It gives more emphasis on practical training as compared to mere philosophy. The model includes Yoga, Pranayam, Postures, Meditation, contemplation techniques, etc. Scientific techniques of Science of Living helps in balancing the emotions of the student. It helps in balanced functioning of the neuro-endocrine system in body. It works for the transformation of emotions, inculcate positive attitude and integrated development of personality.

text: Science of Living education system

text: is an effort to implement value-based education and moral education. Its goal and approach is overall development of student and not simply just the intellectual development. Mere intellectual development can't help in building real experience and character of the student. It aims for a balanced emotional, intellectual and physical development. It gives more emphasis on practical training as compared to mere philosophy. The model includes

text: Yoga

text: Pranayam

text: , Postures, Meditation, contemplation techniques, etc. Scientific techniques of Science of Living helps in balancing the emotions of the student. It helps in balanced functioning of the neuro-endocrine system in

text: body

text: . It works for the transformation of emotions, inculcate positive attitude and integrated development of personality.

text: FOXA1 in breast cancer is highly correlated with ERα, GATA3, and PR protein expression as well as endocrine signaling. FOXA1 acts as a pioneer factor for ERa in ERα breast cancer, and its expression might identify ERα cancers that undergo rapid reprogramming of ERa signaling that is associated with poor outcomes and treatment resistance. Conversely, in ERα breast cancer FOXA1 is highly correlated with low-grade morphology and improved disease free survival. FOXA1 is a downstream target of GATA3 in the mammary gland. Expression in ERα cancers may identify a subset of tumors that is responsive to other endocrine therapies such as androgen receptor antagonist treatment.

text: FOXA1 in

text: breast cancer

text: is highly correlated with

text: ERα

text: , and

text: PR

text: protein expression

text: as well as

text: endocrine signaling

text: . FOXA1 acts as a

text: pioneer factor

text: for ERa in ERα breast cancer, and its expression might identify ERα cancers that undergo rapid reprogramming of ERa signaling that is associated with poor outcomes and treatment resistance. Conversely, in ERα breast cancer FOXA1 is highly correlated with low-grade morphology and improved disease free survival. FOXA1 is a downstream target of

text: in the mammary gland. Expression in ERα cancers may identify a subset of tumors that is responsive to other endocrine therapies such as

text: androgen receptor

text: antagonist treatment.

text: The heavy metal cadmium has been shown to be especially detrimental to T. carnifex even at a level of concentration that falls within the freshwater safety values of 5 µg/L established by the Italian Ministry of Health and the European Community. Chronic exposure to these levels of cadmium was found to significantly decrease adrenal gland activity in T. carnifex, resulting in an endocrine-disrupting effect and affecting hormone production, which is suggested as a possible explanation for the decline of the species. Cadmium is known to be present in the environment due to industrial and consumer waste entering into aquatic and terrestrial systems, and has a very long half-life of around thirty years. It is also genotoxic, meaning it builds up in the kidneys and liver, thus accumulating in the food chain. It can damage physiological processes or tissues in aquatic organisms even at concentrations significantly below the lethal level, and is embryotoxic – that is, it causes various malformations in embryos and lethality in all forms of animals.

text: The heavy metal

text: cadmium

text: has been shown to be especially detrimental to T. carnifex even at a level of concentration that falls within the freshwater safety values of 5 µg/L established by the Italian Ministry of Health and the European Community. Chronic exposure to these levels of cadmium was found to significantly decrease adrenal gland activity in T. carnifex, resulting in an endocrine-disrupting effect and affecting hormone production, which is suggested as a possible explanation for the decline of the species. Cadmium is known to be present in the environment due to industrial and consumer waste entering into aquatic and terrestrial systems, and has a very long half-life of around thirty years. It is also

text: genotoxic

text: , meaning it builds up in the kidneys and liver, thus accumulating in the food chain. It can damage physiological processes or tissues in aquatic organisms even at concentrations significantly below the lethal level, and is

text: embryotoxic

text: – that is, it causes various malformations in embryos and lethality in all forms of animals.

text: Many electronic circuits, especially amplifiers, incorporate negative feedback. This reduces their gain, but improves their linearity, input impedance, output impedance, and bandwidth, and stabilises all of these parameters, including the closed-loop gain. These parameters also become less dependent on the details of the amplifying device itself, and more dependent on the feedback components, which are less likely to vary with manufacturing tolerance, age and temperature. The difference between positive and negative feedback for AC signals is one of phase: if the signal is fed back out of phase, the feedback is negative and if it is in phase the feedback is positive. One problem for amplifier designers who use negative feedback is that some of the components of the circuit will introduce phase shift in the feedback path. If there is a frequency (usually a high frequency) where the phase shift reaches 180°, then the designer must ensure that the amplifier gain at that frequency is very low (usually by low-pass filtering). If the loop gain (the product of the amplifier gain and the extent of the positive feedback) at any frequency is greater than one, then the amplifier will oscillate at that frequency (Barkhausen stability criterion). Such oscillations are sometimes called parasitic oscillations. An amplifier that is stable in one set of conditions can break into parasitic oscillation in another. This may be due to changes in temperature, supply voltage, adjustment of front-panel controls, or even the proximity of a person or other conductive item.

text: Many electronic circuits, especially amplifiers, incorporate

text: negative feedback

text: . This reduces their gain, but improves their linearity,

text: input impedance

text: output impedance

text: , and

text: bandwidth

text: , and stabilises all of these parameters, including the closed-loop gain. These parameters also become less dependent on the details of the amplifying device itself, and more dependent on the feedback components, which are less likely to vary with manufacturing tolerance, age and temperature. The difference between positive and negative feedback for

text: AC

text: signals is one of

text: phase

text: : if the signal is fed back out of phase, the feedback is negative and if it is in phase the feedback is positive. One problem for amplifier designers who use negative feedback is that some of the components of the circuit will introduce

text: phase shift

text: in the feedback path. If there is a frequency (usually a high frequency) where the phase shift reaches 180°, then the designer must ensure that the amplifier gain at that frequency is very low (usually by

text: low-pass filter

text: ing). If the

text: loop gain

text: (the product of the amplifier gain and the extent of the positive feedback) at any frequency is greater than one, then the amplifier will oscillate at that frequency (

text: Barkhausen stability criterion

text: ). Such oscillations are sometimes called

text: parasitic oscillation

text: s. An amplifier that is stable in one set of conditions can break into parasitic oscillation in another. This may be due to changes in temperature, supply voltage, adjustment of front-panel controls, or even the proximity of a person or other conductive item.

text: The pituitary gland is found in all vertebrates, but its structure varies among different groups.

text: Oscillations are an important type of cell signaling characterized by the periodic change of the system in time. Oscillations can take place in a biological system in a multitude of ways. Positive feedback loops, on their own or in combination with negative feedback are a common feature of oscillating biological systems.

text: Oscillations are an important type of

text: cell signaling

text: characterized by the periodic change of the system in time. Oscillations can take place in a

text: biological system

text: in a multitude of ways. Positive

text: feedback loops

text: , on their own or in combination with negative feedback are a common feature of oscillating biological systems.

text: Adenomas of the anterior pituitary gland are a major clinical feature of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1), a rare inherited endocrine syndrome that affects 1 person in every 30,000. MEN causes various combinations of benign or malignant tumors in various glands in the endocrine system or may cause the glands to become enlarged without forming tumors. It often affects the parathyroid glands, pancreatic islet cells, and anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. MEN1 may also cause non-endocrine tumors such as facial angiofibromas, collagenomas, lipomas, meningiomas, ependymomas, and leiomyomas. Approximately 25 percent of patients with MEN1 develop pituitary adenomas.

text: Adenomas of the anterior pituitary gland are a major clinical feature of

text: multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1

text: (MEN1), a rare inherited endocrine syndrome that affects 1 person in every 30,000. MEN causes various combinations of benign or malignant tumors in various glands in the endocrine system or may cause the glands to become

text: enlarged

text: without forming tumors. It often affects the

text: parathyroid gland

text: s, pancreatic islet cells, and anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. MEN1 may also cause non-endocrine tumors such as facial

text: angiofibroma

text: s,

text: collagenoma

text: s,

text: lipoma

text: s,

text: meningiomas

text: ependymoma

text: s, and

text: leiomyomas

text: . Approximately 25 percent of patients with MEN1 develop pituitary adenomas.

text: Deferoxamine is administered via intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous injections. Oral administration is not possible as deferoxamine is rapidly metabolized by enzymes and is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. The required parenteral administration represents one of deferoxamine’s downfalls as it is harder for patients to follow up with their therapy due to the financial and emotional burdens experienced.Deferoxamine was proven to cure many clinical complications and diseases that result from iron overload. It beneficially affects cardiac disease, such as myocardial disease which occurs as a result of iron accumulation in the heart.  Deferoxamine was also shown to improve liver function by arresting the development of hepatic fibrosis which occurs as a result of iron accumulation in the liver.  Deferoxamine also has positive effects on endocrine function and growth. Endocrine abnormalities in thalassemic patients involve the overloaded iron interfering with the production of insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), as well as stimulating hypogonadism, both of which cause poor pubertal growth. A study showed that 90% of patients who were regularly treated with deferoxamine since childhood had normal pubertal growth, which fell to 38% for patients treated only with low doses of deferoxamine since their teens. Another endocrine abnormality that thalassemic patients face is diabetes mellitus, which results from iron overload in the pancreas impairing insulin secretion. Studies have shown that patients who were regularly treated with deferoxamine have a reduced risk of developing diabetes mellitus.

text: Deferoxamine is administered via

text: intravenous

text: intramuscular

text: , or

text: subcutaneous injection

text: s. Oral administration is not possible as deferoxamine is rapidly metabolized by enzymes and is poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. The required

text: parenteral

text: administration represents one of deferoxamine’s downfalls as it is harder for patients to follow up with their therapy due to the financial and emotional burdens experienced.Deferoxamine was proven to cure many clinical complications and diseases that result from iron overload. It beneficially affects

text: cardiac disease

text: , such as myocardial disease which occurs as a result of iron accumulation in the heart.  Deferoxamine was also shown to improve liver function by arresting the development of

text: hepatic fibrosis

text: which occurs as a result of iron accumulation in the liver.  Deferoxamine also has positive effects on

text: endocrine

text: function and growth. Endocrine abnormalities in thalassemic patients involve the overloaded iron interfering with the production of insulin-like growth factor (

text: ), as well as stimulating

text: hypogonadism

text: , both of which cause poor pubertal growth. A study showed that 90% of patients who were regularly treated with deferoxamine since childhood had normal pubertal growth, which fell to 38% for patients treated only with low doses of deferoxamine since their teens. Another endocrine abnormality that thalassemic patients face is

text: diabetes mellitus

text: , which results from iron overload in the pancreas impairing

text: insulin

text: secretion. Studies have shown that patients who were regularly treated with deferoxamine have a reduced risk of developing diabetes mellitus.

text: Congenital heart disease is associated with 13q deletion syndrome. Common defects include atrial septal defect, tetralogy of Fallot, ventricular septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus, pulmonary stenosis, and coarctation of the aorta. Defects of the endocrine system, digestive system, and genitourinary system are also common. These include underdevelopment or agenesis of the pancreas, adrenal glands, thymus, gallbladder, and thyroid; Hirschsprung's disease; gastric reflux, imperforate anus, retention testis, ectopic kidney, renal agenesis, and hydronephrosis.

text: Congenital heart disease

text: is associated with 13q deletion syndrome. Common defects include

text: atrial septal defect

text: tetralogy of Fallot

text: ventricular septal defect

text: patent ductus arteriosus

text: pulmonary stenosis

text: , and

text: coarctation of the aorta

text: . Defects of the endocrine system, digestive system, and genitourinary system are also common. These include underdevelopment or agenesis of the

text: pancreas

text: adrenal glands

text: thymus

text: gallbladder

text: , and

text: thyroid

text: Hirschsprung's disease

text: gastric reflux

text: imperforate anus

text: retention testis

text: ectopic kidney

text: renal agenesis

text: , and

text: hydronephrosis

text: It happens rarely, but it is possible for a pancreatitis attack to activate the endocrine portion of the organ back into being capable of producing insulin once again in dogs. It is possible for acute pancreatitis to cause a temporary, or transient diabetes, most likely due to damage to the endocrine portion's beta cells. Insulin resistance that can follow a pancreatitis attack may last for some time thereafter. Pancreatitis can damage the endocrine pancreas to the point where the diabetes is permanent.

text: It happens rarely, but it is possible for a

text: pancreatitis

text: attack to activate the endocrine portion of the organ back into being capable of producing insulin once again in dogs. It is possible for acute pancreatitis to cause a temporary, or transient diabetes, most likely due to damage to the endocrine portion's beta cells. Insulin resistance that can follow a pancreatitis attack may last for some time thereafter. Pancreatitis can damage the endocrine pancreas to the point where the diabetes is permanent.

text: The symptoms depend on what part of the pituitary is affected.  Lymphocytic adenohypophysitis (LAH) occurs when the anterior pituitary cells are affected by autoimmune inflammation resulting in either no symptoms, adrenal insufficiency (if the ACTH producing cells are affected), hypothyroidism (if the TSH producing cells are damaged), or hypogonadism (if the LH and/or FSH producing cells are involved). In some cases, the presence of inflammation within the pituitary gland leads to interruption of dopamine flow from the hypothalamus into the pituitary causing high levels of the hormone prolactin and, often as a consequence, milk production from the breasts (in older girls and women).  Lymphocytic Infundibuloneurohypophysitis (LINH) occurs when the posterior pituitary is affected resulting in diabetes insipidus. Both LAH and LINH may also lead to symptoms of an intracranial mass such as headache or disturbance of vision, i.e. bitemporal hemianopia.The pituitary produces multiple hormones relating to various metabolic functions. Sufficiently low production of certain pituitary hormones can be fatal resulting in the failure of the thyroid or adrenal glands.

text: The symptoms depend on what part of the pituitary is affected.  Lymphocytic adenohypophysitis (LAH) occurs when the

text: anterior pituitary

text: cells are affected by

text: autoimmune

text: inflammation

text: resulting in either no symptoms,

text: adrenal insufficiency

text: (if the

text: ACTH

text: producing cells are affected),

text: hypothyroidism

text: (if the

text: TSH

text: producing cells are damaged), or

text: hypogonadism

text: (if the

text: LH

text: and/or

text: FSH

text: producing cells are involved). In some cases, the presence of inflammation within the pituitary gland leads to interruption of

text: dopamine

text: flow from the

text: hypothalamus

text: into the pituitary causing high levels of the hormone

text: prolactin

text: and, often as a consequence, milk production from the breasts (in older girls and women).  Lymphocytic Infundibuloneurohypophysitis (LINH) occurs when the

text: posterior pituitary

text: is affected resulting in

text: diabetes insipidus

text: . Both LAH and LINH may also lead to symptoms of an intracranial mass such as headache or disturbance of vision, i.e.

text: bitemporal hemianopia

text: .The

text: pituitary

text: produces multiple

text: hormones

text: relating to various

text: metabolic functions

text: . Sufficiently low production of certain

text: pituitary hormones

text: can be fatal resulting in the failure of the

text: thyroid

text: or

text: adrenal glands

text: The ImSAIDs were discovered by scientists evaluating biological properties of the submandibular gland and saliva. Early work in this area demonstrated that the submandibular gland released a host of factors that regulate systemic inflammatory responses and modulate systemic immune and inflammatory reactions. It is now well accepted that the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems communicate and interact to control and modulate inflammation and tissue repair. One of the neuroendocrine pathways, when activated, results in the release of immune-regulating peptides from the submandibular gland upon neuronal stimulation from sympathetic nerves. This pathway or communication is referred to as the cervical sympathetic trunk-submandibular gland (CST-SMG) axis, a regulatory system that plays a role in the systemic control of inflammation.

text: The ImSAIDs were discovered by scientists evaluating biological properties of the

text: submandibular gland

text: and

text: saliva

text: . Early work in this area demonstrated that the submandibular gland released a host of factors that regulate systemic inflammatory responses and modulate systemic immune and inflammatory reactions. It is now well accepted that the immune, nervous, and

text: endocrine

text: inflammation

text: and

text: tissue

text: repair. One of the neuroendocrine pathways, when activated, results in the release of immune-regulating peptides from the submandibular gland upon neuronal stimulation from

text: sympathetic

text: nerves. This pathway or communication is referred to as the cervical sympathetic trunk-submandibular gland (CST-SMG) axis, a regulatory system that plays a role in the systemic control of inflammation.

text: Metallibure (INN) (brand names Aimax, Suisynchron, Turisynchron; former developmental code names ICI-33,828, AY-61122, NSC-69536), or methallibure (USAN, BAN) is a non-steroidal antigonadotropin that was introduced in 1973 and is used in veterinary medicine to synchronize estrus. It was withdrawn in the United States and Europe due to teratogenicity and has been replaced with altrenogest. The precise mechanism of action of metallibure is unknown. However, it appears to act directly on the pituitary gland and/or hypothalamus to suppress gonadotropin secretion.

text: Metallibure (

text: INN

text: ) (brand names Aimax, Suisynchron, Turisynchron; former developmental code names ICI-33,828, AY-61122, NSC-69536), or methallibure (

text: USAN

text: BAN

text: ) is a

text: non-steroidal

text: antigonadotropin

text: that was introduced in 1973 and is used in

text: veterinary medicine

text: to synchronize

text: estrus

text: . It was

text: withdrawn

text: in the

text: United States

text: and

text: Europe

text: due to

text: teratogen

text: icity and has been replaced with

text: altrenogest

text: . The precise

text: mechanism of action

text: of metallibure is unknown. However, it appears to act directly on the

text: pituitary gland

text: and/or

text: hypothalamus

text: to suppress

text: gonadotropin

text: secretion

text: Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that, at certain doses, can interfere with endocrine (or hormone) systems. These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders.  Any system in the body controlled by hormones can be derailed by hormone disruptors. Specifically, endocrine disruptors  may be associated with the development of learning disabilities, severe attention deficit disorder, cognitive and brain development problems; deformations of the body (including limbs); breast cancer, prostate cancer, thyroid and other cancers; sexual development problems such as feminizing of males or masculinizing effects on females, etc. Recently The Endocrine Society released a statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) specifically listing obesity, diabetes, female reproduction, male reproduction, hormone-sensitive cancers in females, prostate cancer in males, thyroid, and neurodevelopment and neuroendocrine systems as being affected biological aspects of being exposed to EDCs. The critical period of development for most organisms is between the transition from a fertilized egg into a fully formed infant.  As the cells begin to grow and differentiate, there are critical balances of hormones and protein changes that must occur.  Therefore, a dose of disrupting chemicals may do substantial damage to a developing fetus.  The same dose may not significantly affect adult mothers.

text: Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that, at certain doses, can interfere with

text: endocrine

text: (or hormone) systems. These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders.  Any system in the body controlled by hormones can be derailed by hormone disruptors. Specifically, endocrine disruptors  may be associated with the development of

text: learning disabilities

text: , severe

text: attention deficit disorder

text: cognitive

text: and brain development problems; deformations of the body (including limbs); breast cancer, prostate cancer, thyroid and other cancers; sexual development problems such as

text: feminizing

text: of males or

text: masculinizing

text: effects on females, etc. Recently The Endocrine Society released a statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) specifically listing obesity, diabetes, female reproduction, male reproduction, hormone-sensitive cancers in females, prostate cancer in males, thyroid, and neurodevelopment and neuroendocrine systems as being affected biological aspects of being exposed to EDCs. The critical period of development for most organisms is between the transition from a fertilized egg into a fully formed infant.  As the cells begin to grow and differentiate, there are critical balances of hormones and protein changes that must occur.  Therefore, a dose of disrupting chemicals may do substantial damage to a developing

text: fetus

text: .  The same dose may not significantly affect adult mothers.

text: The hypothalamus has a central neuroendocrine function, most notably by its control of the anterior pituitary, which in turn regulates various endocrine glands and organs. Releasing hormones (also called releasing factors) are produced in hypothalamic nuclei then transported along axons to either the median eminence or the posterior pituitary, where they are stored and released as needed.

text: The hypothalamus has a central

text: neuroendocrine

text: function, most notably by its control of the

text: anterior pituitary

text: , which in turn regulates various endocrine glands and organs.

text: Releasing hormone

text: s (also called releasing factors) are produced in hypothalamic nuclei then transported along

text: axons

text: to either the

text: median eminence

text: or the

text: posterior pituitary

text: , where they are stored and released as needed.

text: An endocrine gland neoplasm is a neoplasm affecting one or more glands of the endocrine system.

text: An endocrine gland neoplasm is a

text: neoplasm

text: affecting one or more glands of the

text: endocrine system

text: The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis. Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system, the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop.

text: The book introduces the concept of the

text: anti-CLAW hypothesis

text: . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system, the components of the

text: CLAW hypothesis

text: may act to create a

text: positive feedback loop

text: These tumors can form a pattern with other endocrine gland cancers which is labeled multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN). Pheochromocytoma may occur in patients with MEN 2 and MEN 3 (MEN 2B). Von Hippel Lindau patients may also develop these tumors.

text: These tumors can form a pattern with other endocrine gland cancers which is labeled

text: multiple endocrine neoplasia

text: (MEN). Pheochromocytoma may occur in patients with MEN 2 and MEN 3 (MEN 2B).

text: Von Hippel Lindau

text: patients may also develop these tumors.

text: Correlated color temperature (CCT) dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task since binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output. Feedback loop systems are used for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control the color output of multiple color mixing LEDs.

text: Correlated color temperature

text: (CCT) dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task since binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output. Feedback loop systems are used for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control the color output of multiple color mixing LEDs.

text: Multistep-feedback loop mechanism also leads to ultrasensitivity. There is paper introducing that engineering synthetic feedback loops using yeast mating mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway as a model system.

text: Nail technicians use beauty products like nail polish, nail polish removers, artificial nails, adhesives, and disinfectants throughout the day. Compared to the average individual, they are exposed to the chemical ingredients the products contain on a much higher magnitude. Some of the more potent chemicals are toluene, formaldehyde, ethyl methacrylate(EMA), and dibutyl phthalate(DBP). Nearly all chemicals are reported to be eye, skin, nose, and throat irritants. Some, like toluene and dibutyl phthalatesare known endocrine disruptors. According to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with endocrine system, which is regulated by hormones. These hormonal disruptors can potentially lead to tumors, birth defects, reproductive harm, neurological, developmental, and immune degradation. Research has suggested that endocrine disruptors pose the greatest risk during prenatal and postnatal development.

text: Nail technicians use beauty products like nail polish, nail polish removers, artificial nails, adhesives, and disinfectants throughout the day. Compared to the average individual, they are exposed to the chemical ingredients the products contain on a much higher magnitude. Some of the more potent chemicals are

text: toluene

text: formaldehyde

text: ethyl methacrylate

text: (EMA), and

text: dibutyl phthalate

text: (DBP). Nearly all chemicals are reported to be eye, skin, nose, and throat irritants. Some, like toluene and dibutyl phthalatesare known

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s. According to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), endocrine disruptors are chemicals that interfere with endocrine system, which is regulated by hormones. These hormonal disruptors can potentially lead to tumors, birth defects, reproductive harm, neurological, developmental, and immune degradation. Research has suggested that endocrine disruptors pose the greatest risk during prenatal and postnatal development.

text: Because NF-κB controls many genes involved in inflammation, it is not surprising that NF-κB is found to be chronically active in many inflammatory diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, arthritis, sepsis, gastritis, asthma, atherosclerosis and others. It is important to note though, that elevation of some NF-κB activators, such as osteoprotegerin (OPG), are associated with elevated mortality, especially from cardiovascular diseases. Elevated NF-κB has also been associated with schizophrenia. Recently, NF-κB activation has been suggested as a possible molecular mechanism for the catabolic effects of cigarette smoke in skeletal muscle and sarcopenia.Research has shown that during inflammation the function of a cell depends on signals it activates in response to contact with adjacent cells and to combinations of hormones, especially cytokines that act on it through specific receptors. A cells’ phenotype within a tissue develops through mutual stimulation of feedback signals that coordinate its function with other cells; this is especially evident during reprogramming of cell function when a tissue is exposed to inflammation, because cells alter their phenotype, and gradually express combinations of genes that prepare the tissue for regeneration after the cause of inflammation is removed. Particularly important are feedback responses that develop between tissue resident cells, and circulating cells of the immune system. Fidelity of feedback responses between diverse cell types and the immune system depends on the integrity of mechanisms that limit the range of genes activated by NF-κB, allowing only expression of genes which contribute to an effective immune response and subsequently, a complete restoration of tissue function after resolution of inflammation.  In cancer, mechanisms that regulate gene expression in response to inflammatory stimuli are altered to the point that a cell ceases to link its survival with the mechanisms that coordinate its phenotype and its function with the rest of the tissue. This is often evident in severely compromised regulation of NF-κB activity, which allows cancer cells to express abnormal cohorts of NF-κB target genes. This results in not only the cancer cells functioning abnormally: cells of surrounding tissue alter their function and cease to support the organism exclusively. Additionally, several types of cells in the microenvironment of cancer may change their phenotypes to support cancer growth. Inflammation, therefore, is a process that tests the fidelity of tissue components because the process that leads to tissue regeneration requires coordination of gene expression between diverse cell types.

text: Because NF-κB controls many genes involved in inflammation, it is not surprising that NF-κB is found to be chronically active in many inflammatory diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, arthritis, sepsis, gastritis, asthma, atherosclerosis and others. It is important to note though, that elevation of some NF-κB activators, such as

text: osteoprotegerin

text: (OPG), are associated with elevated mortality, especially from

text: cardiovascular diseases

text: . Elevated NF-κB has also been associated with

text: schizophrenia

text: . Recently, NF-κB activation has been suggested as a possible molecular mechanism for the catabolic effects of cigarette smoke in skeletal muscle and

text: sarcopenia

text: When a rectangular jet impinges on a sharp edged object such as a wedge, a feedback loop can be established resulting in a nearly pure tone. The figure on the right shows schematically the circulation of two vortices as they pass the wedge.  This simple diagram suggests that there is a force applied to the wedge whose angle varies as the vortices pass.

text: The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as hunger, thirst and maternal bonding. This is regulated partly through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of the individual.

text: The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as

text: hunger

text: thirst

text: and

text: maternal bond

text: ing. This is regulated partly through control of secretion of

text: hormone

text: s from the

text: pituitary gland

text: . Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in

text: motivation

text: and many other behaviors of the individual.

text: Myths, therefore, are (very) early attempts at articulating what, in 1945, Aldous Huxley called Perennial Philosophy, and simultaneously mystical and practical in their origins.  Much of the practical aim of a myth is instruction in what Sansonese calls "the art of dying," a narrative prefiguring of the literal experience of somatic death, which is a matter of the practical mastery of an endocrinal event that he suggestively describes as a "pituitary catastrophe," in the sense that the pituitary gland initiates it.  In Nigro Sansonese's view, death is an event triggered by the endocrine system. In sum,  Nigro Sansonese defines an "authentic myth" as "an esoteric description of a heightened proprioception," meaning a verbal description, albeit a necessarily imperfect one, of a literal experience undergone by an adept while in a trance state, which, very critically, must be distinguished from mere symbolism or metaphor.  Understanding religious practice (praxis) eclipses understanding religious belief (dogma) in understanding both the origin and the meaning of a specific myth of sufficient antiquity.

text: Myths, therefore, are (very) early attempts at articulating what, in 1945,

text: Aldous Huxley

text: called

text: Perennial Philosophy

text: , and simultaneously

text: mystical

text: and

text: practical

text: in their origins.  Much of the practical aim of a myth is instruction in what Sansonese calls "the art of dying," a narrative prefiguring of the literal experience of

text: somatic

text: death

text: , which is a matter of the practical mastery of an endocrinal event that he suggestively describes as a "

text: pituitary

text: catastrophe," in the sense that the pituitary gland initiates it.  In Nigro Sansonese's view, death is an event triggered by the

text: endocrine system

text: . In sum,  Nigro Sansonese defines an "authentic myth" as "an esoteric description of a heightened proprioception," meaning a verbal description, albeit a necessarily imperfect one, of a literal experience undergone by an adept while in a trance state, which, very critically, must be distinguished from mere

text: symbol

text: ism or

text: metaphor

text: .  Understanding religious practice (praxis) eclipses understanding religious belief (dogma) in understanding both the origin and the meaning of a specific myth of sufficient antiquity.

text: Perhaps the biggest event in the history of pesticide use is the widespread use of DDT to control various pests, including mosquitoes and lice. Its long-term effects had not been sufficiently documented and thus it was assumed to be of low toxicity. Over time the widespread use of DDT began to have serious environmental and human health consequences. Organisms further up the food chain showed significant amounts of DDT in their tissues and this presence had adverse health effects, for example, the weakening of predatory bird eggshells and fish kills. Adverse effects among humans included endocrine system disruption which can lead to reproductive complications.

text: Perhaps the biggest event in the history of pesticide use is the widespread use of

text: DDT

text: to control various pests, including mosquitoes and lice. Its long-term effects had not been sufficiently documented and thus it was assumed to be of low toxicity. Over time the widespread use of DDT began to have serious environmental and human health consequences. Organisms further up the food chain showed significant amounts of DDT in their tissues and this presence had adverse health effects, for example, the weakening of predatory bird eggshells and fish kills. Adverse effects among humans included endocrine system disruption which can lead to reproductive complications.

text: An endocrinologist is a physician who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and many others (see list of diseases below).

text: An endocrinologist is a

text: physician

text: who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as

text: diabetes

text: hyperthyroidism

text: , and many others (see list of diseases below).

text: The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) receives its circadian information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus and senses leptin and other feeding cues, but it is also very possible that it contains its own feeding-entrained oscillator (FEO). This still has yet to be proven in vitro. The DMH sends information to the ventrolateral preoptic area, locus coeruleus, and orexin neurons in order to aid in the regulation of wakefulness. The DMH is also involved in the regulation of hypothalamic outflow to the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Almost all major nuclei and areas of the hypothalamus feed information to the DMH. The inhibition of neuronal activation using muscimol in the DMH inhibited 85% of heart rate response and 68% of blood pressure response to air stress. This displays that the DMH also plays a role in the increase of heart rate and blood pressure as cardiovascular responses to stress. The DMH is also a part of the pathway corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) takes when it is secreted by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, and it is involved in the flow from the sympathetic nervous system to the adrenal gland.

text: The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) receives its circadian information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus and senses leptin and other feeding cues, but it is also very possible that it contains its own feeding-entrained oscillator (FEO). This still has yet to be proven in vitro. The DMH sends information to the ventrolateral preoptic area,

text: locus coeruleus

text: , and

text: orexin

text: neurons in order to aid in the regulation of wakefulness. The DMH is also involved in the regulation of hypothalamic outflow to the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Almost all major nuclei and areas of the hypothalamus feed information to the DMH. The inhibition of neuronal activation using muscimol in the DMH inhibited 85% of heart rate response and 68% of blood pressure response to air stress. This displays that the DMH also plays a role in the increase of heart rate and blood pressure as cardiovascular responses to stress. The DMH is also a part of the pathway corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) takes when it is secreted by the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: of the hypothalamus, and it is involved in the flow from the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: to the

text: adrenal gland

text: Hofstadter's thesis about consciousness, first expressed in Gödel, Escher, Bach (GEB) but also present in several of his later books, is that it is an emergent consequence of seething lower-level activity in the brain. In GEB he draws an analogy between the social organization of a colony of ants and the mind seen as a coherent "colony" of neurons. In particular, Hofstadter claims that our sense of having (or being) an "I" comes from the abstract pattern he terms a "strange loop", which is an abstract cousin of such concrete phenomena as audio and video feedback, and which Hofstadter has defined as "a level-crossing feedback loop". The prototypical example of this abstract notion is the self-referential structure at the core of Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Hofstadter's 2007 book I Am a Strange Loop carries his vision of consciousness considerably further, including the idea that each human "I" is distributed over numerous brains, rather than being limited to precisely one brain.

text: Hofstadter's thesis about consciousness, first expressed in

text: Gödel, Escher, Bach

text: (GEB) but also present in several of his later books, is that it is an emergent consequence of seething lower-level activity in the brain. In GEB he draws an analogy between the social organization of a colony of ants and the mind seen as a coherent "colony" of neurons. In particular, Hofstadter claims that our sense of having (or being) an "I" comes from the abstract pattern he terms a "

text: strange loop

text: ", which is an abstract cousin of such concrete phenomena as

text: audio

text: and

text: video feedback

text: , and which Hofstadter has defined as "a level-crossing feedback loop". The prototypical example of this abstract notion is the self-referential structure at the core of

text: Gödel's incompleteness theorems

text: . Hofstadter's 2007 book

text: I Am a Strange Loop

text: carries his vision of consciousness considerably further, including the idea that each human "I" is distributed over numerous brains, rather than being limited to precisely one brain.

text: Delmadinone acetate (INN, USAN, BAN) (brand names Delmate, Estrex, Tardak, Tardastren, Tardastrex, Vetadinon, Zenadrex), sometimes abbreviated as DMA, and also known as 1,6-bisdehydro-6-chloro-17α-acetoxyprogesterone, is a steroidal progestin with antigonadotropic (and hence, antiandrogenic and antiestrogenic) properties which is used to treat androgen-associated conditions in veterinary medicine. It must be used with care as it has the potential to cause adrenal insufficiency via inhibition of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion from the pituitary gland.

text: Delmadinone acetate (

text: INN

text: USAN

text: BAN

text: ) (brand names Delmate, Estrex, Tardak, Tardastren, Tardastrex, Vetadinon, Zenadrex), sometimes abbreviated as DMA, and also known as 1,6-bisdehydro-6-chloro-17α-acetoxyprogesterone, is a

text: steroid

text: al

text: progestin

text: with

text: antigonadotropic

text: (and hence,

text: antiandrogen

text: ic and

text: antiestrogen

text: ic) properties which is used to treat

text: androgen

text: -associated conditions in

text: veterinary medicine

text: . It must be used with care as it has the potential to cause

text: adrenal insufficiency

text: via inhibition of

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: (ACTH) secretion from the

text: pituitary gland

text: There are several different kinds of high-voltage-gated calcium channels (HVGCCs). They are structurally homologous among varying types; they are all similar, but not structurally identical. In the laboratory, it is possible to tell them apart by studying their physiological roles and/or inhibition by specific toxins. High-voltage-gated calcium channels include the neural N-type channel blocked by ω-conotoxinGVIA, the R-type channel (R stands for Resistant to the other blockers and toxins, except SNX-482) involved in poorly defined processes in the brain, the closely related P/Q-type channel blocked by ω-agatoxins, and the dihydropyridine-sensitive L-type channels responsible for excitation-contraction coupling of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle and for hormone secretion in endocrine cells.

text: There are several different kinds of high-voltage-gated calcium channels (HVGCCs). They are structurally homologous among varying types; they are all similar, but not structurally identical. In the laboratory, it is possible to tell them apart by studying their physiological roles and/or inhibition by specific

text: toxin

text: s. High-voltage-gated calcium channels include the

text: neural

text: N-type channel blocked by ω-

text: conotoxin

text: GVIA, the R-type channel (R stands for Resistant to the other blockers and toxins, except

text: ) involved in poorly defined processes in the

text: brain

text: , the closely related P/Q-type channel blocked by ω-agatoxins, and the dihydropyridine-sensitive L-type channels responsible for excitation-contraction coupling of

text: skeletal

text: smooth

text: , and

text: cardiac muscle

text: and for hormone secretion in endocrine cells.

text: In general, feedback systems can have many signals fed back and the feedback loop frequently contain mixtures of positive and negative feedback where positive and negative feedback can dominate at different frequencies or different points in the state space of a system.

text: The adrenal cortex is composed of three distinct layers of endocrine cells which produce critical steroid hormones. These include the glucocorticoids which are critical for regulation of blood sugar and the immune system, as well as response to physiological stress, the mineralcorticoid aldosterone, which regulates blood pressure and kidney function, and certain sex hormones. Both benign and malignant tumors of the adrenal cortex may produce steroid hormones, with important clinical consequences.

text: The

text: adrenal cortex

text: is composed of three distinct layers of

text: endocrine

text: cells which produce critical

text: steroid hormone

text: s. These include the

text: glucocorticoid

text: s which are critical for regulation of

text: blood sugar

text: and the

text: immune system

text: , as well as response to physiological

text: stress

text: , the

text: mineralcorticoid

text: aldosterone

text: , which regulates

text: blood pressure

text: and

text: kidney

text: function, and certain

text: sex hormone

text: s. Both

text: benign

text: and

text: malignant

text: tumors of the adrenal cortex may produce steroid hormones, with important clinical consequences.

text: Tacit knowledge has been described as "know-how" – as opposed to "know-that" (facts). This distinction is usually taken to date back to a paper by Gilbert Ryle, given to the Aristotelian society in London in 1945. In this paper Ryle argues against the (intellectualist) position that all knowledge is knowledge of propositions ("know-that"), and the view that some knowledge can only be defined as "know-how" has therefore, in some contexts, come to be called "anti-intellectualist". There are further distinctions: "know-why" (science), or "know-who" (networking). Tacit knowledge involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written down. On this account knowing-how or embodied knowledge is characteristic of the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth without explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved. The expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or she just performs skillfully without deliberation or focused attention Embodied knowledge represents a learned capability of a human body's nervous and endocrine systems .

text: Tacit knowledge has been described as "

text: know-how

text: " – as opposed to "know-that" (

text: fact

text: s). This distinction is usually taken to date back to a paper by Gilbert Ryle, given to the Aristotelian society in London in 1945. In this paper Ryle argues against the (intellectualist) position that all knowledge is knowledge of propositions ("know-that"), and the view that some knowledge can only be defined as "know-how" has therefore, in some contexts, come to be called "anti-intellectualist". There are further distinctions: "know-why" (science), or "know-who" (networking). Tacit knowledge involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written down. On this account knowing-how or

text: embodied knowledge

text: is characteristic of the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth without explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved. The expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or she just performs skillfully without deliberation or focused attention Embodied knowledge represents a learned capability of a human body's

text: nervous

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: s .

text: The hypothalamus is highly interconnected with other parts of the central nervous system, in particular the brainstem and its reticular formation. As part of the limbic system, it has connections to other limbic structures including the amygdala and septum, and is also connected with areas of the autonomous nervous system.

text: The hypothalamus is highly interconnected with other parts of the

text: central nervous system

text: , in particular the brainstem and its

text: reticular formation

text: . As part of the

text: limbic system

text: , it has connections to other limbic structures including the

text: amygdala

text: and

text: septum

text: , and is also connected with areas of the

text: autonomous nervous system

text: Studies have raised the issue that 4-MBC acts an endocrine disruptor. There is controversy about the estrogenic effects of 4-MBC and while one study showed only a relatively minor effect, a study in Switzerland showed significant uterine growth in immature rodents. In addition, there is some evidence that 4-MBC may suppress the pituitary-thyroid axis leading to hypothyroidism.

text: Studies have raised the issue that 4-MBC acts an

text: endocrine disruptor

text: . There is controversy about the

text: estrogen

text: ic effects of 4-MBC and while one study showed only a relatively minor effect, a study in Switzerland showed significant uterine growth in immature rodents. In addition, there is some evidence that 4-MBC may suppress the pituitary-thyroid axis leading to

text: hypothyroidism

text: Glandular tissue is the type of epithelium that forms the glands from the infolding of epithelium and subsequent growth in the underlying connective tissue. There are two major classifications of glands: endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Endocrine glands secrete their product into the extracellular space where it is rapidly taken up by the blood vascular system. Exocrine glands secrete their products into a duct that then delivers the product to the lumen of an organ or onto the free surface of the epithelium.

text: Glandular tissue is the type of epithelium that forms the

text: glands

text: from the infolding of epithelium and subsequent growth in the underlying connective tissue. There are two major classifications of glands:

text: endocrine gland

text: s and

text: exocrine gland

text: s. Endocrine glands secrete their product into the extracellular space where it is rapidly taken up by the blood vascular system. Exocrine glands secrete their products into a duct that then delivers the product to the lumen of an organ or onto the free surface of the epithelium.

text: Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).

text: Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the

text: neuroendocrine system

text: . The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via

text: nerve impulse

text: s and

text: neurotransmitter

text: s. At the same time, the

text: endocrine system

text: releases hormones, such as to help regulate

text: blood pressure

text: and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (

text: pH

text: After being taken to the Los Angeles County Jail, Gay Sr. was held on a $100,000 bail. The bail was eventually reduced to $30,000, and Gay Sr.'s estranged wife Alberta posted the bond via a bondsman. Aware of Gay Sr.'s failing health, doctors examined him in May and discovered a benign walnut-sized brain tumor in his pituitary gland. The brain tumor would later play a factor in preliminary hearings of the trial against him, with his lawyers stating that the tumor might have played a part in Gay Sr. shooting his son. However, judges in the case argued that Gay Sr. was competent enough to stand trial and that he knew what he had done. After results of Gaye's autopsy showed that he had traces of cocaine and PCP (angel dust) in his system and pictures of Gay Sr. taken after he was brought into custody showing injuries, possibly from his final fight with his son, Judge Gordon Ringer agreed to let Gay enter a plea bargain. Gay Sr. pleaded no contest to a charge of voluntary manslaughter on September 20, 1984.

text: After being taken to the

text: Los Angeles County Jail

text: , Gay Sr. was held on a $100,000 bail. The bail was eventually reduced to $30,000, and Gay Sr.'s estranged wife Alberta posted the bond via a bondsman. Aware of Gay Sr.'s failing health, doctors examined him in May and discovered a benign walnut-sized

text: brain tumor

text: in his pituitary gland. The brain tumor would later play a factor in preliminary hearings of the trial against him, with his lawyers stating that the tumor might have played a part in Gay Sr. shooting his son. However, judges in the case argued that Gay Sr. was competent enough to stand trial and that he knew what he had done. After results of Gaye's autopsy showed that he had traces of

text: cocaine

text: and

text: PCP

text: (angel dust) in his system and pictures of Gay Sr. taken after he was brought into custody showing injuries, possibly from his final fight with his son, Judge Gordon Ringer agreed to let Gay enter a

text: plea bargain

text: . Gay Sr. pleaded

text: no contest

text: to a charge of

text: voluntary manslaughter

text: on September 20, 1984.

text: Endocrine (cretinism, hypopituitarism, Cushing's)

text: Endocrine/metabolic disease

text: Endocrine/metabolic disease

text: Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.

text: Stress can have many profound effects on the human biological systems.  Biology primarily attempts to explain major concepts of stress using a stimulus-response paradigm, broadly comparable to how a psychobiological sensory system operates. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) plays a crucial role in the body's stress-related mechanisms. Whether one should interpret these mechanisms as the body's response to a stressor or embody the act of stress itself is part of the ambiguity in defining what exactly stress is. Nevertheless, the central nervous system works closely with the body's endocrine system to regulate these mechanisms. The sympathetic nervous system becomes primarily active during a stress response, regulating many of the body's physiological functions in ways that ought to make an organism more adaptive to its environment. Below there follows a brief biological background of  neuroanatomy and neurochemistry and how they relate to stress.

text: Stress can have many profound effects on the human biological systems.  Biology primarily attempts to explain major concepts of stress using a stimulus-response paradigm, broadly comparable to how a

text: psychobiological

text: sensory system operates. The

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and spinal cord) plays a crucial role in the body's stress-related mechanisms. Whether one should interpret these mechanisms as the body's response to a

text: stressor

text: or embody the act of stress itself is part of the ambiguity in defining what exactly stress is. Nevertheless, the central nervous system works closely with the body's

text: endocrine system

text: to regulate these mechanisms. The

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: becomes primarily active during a

text: stress response

text: , regulating many of the body's

text: physiological

text: functions in ways that ought to make an organism more

text: adaptive

text: to its environment. Below there follows a brief biological background of

text: neuroanatomy

text: and

text: neurochemistry

text: and how they relate to stress.

text: In evolutionary biology, people often speak of the four Fs which are said to be the four basic drives (motivations or instincts) that animals (including humans) are evolutionarily adapted to have, follow, and achieve: fighting, fleeing, feeding and fucking. In the case of vertebrates, this list corresponds to the motivational behaviours that drive the activity in the hypothalamus, which responds to these motivations by regulating activity in the endocrine system and releasing hormones to alter the behaviour of the animal.

text: In

text: evolutionary biology

text: , people often speak of the four Fs which are said to be the four basic drives (

text: motivation

text: s or

text: instincts

text: ) that

text: animal

text: s (including humans) are

text: evolutionarily

text: adapted

text: to have, follow, and achieve:

text: fighting, fleeing

text: feeding

text: and

text: fucking

text: . In the case of

text: vertebrate

text: s, this list corresponds to the motivational behaviours that drive the activity in the

text: hypothalamus

text: , which responds to these motivations by regulating activity in the

text: endocrine system

text: and

text: releasing hormone

text: s to alter the

text: behaviour

text: of the animal.

text: In 1998 the EPA announced the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program by establishment of a framework for priority setting, screening and testing more than 85,000 chemicals in commerce.  The basic concept behind the program is that prioritization will be based on existing information about chemical uses, production volume, structure-activity and toxicity.  Screening is done by use of in vitro test systems (by examining, for instance, if an agent interacts with the estrogen receptor or the androgen receptor) and via the use of in animal models, such as development of tadpoles and uterine growth in prepubertal rodents.  Full scale testing will examine effects not only in mammals (rats) but also in a number of other species (frogs, fish, birds and invertebrates).  Since the theory involves the effects of these substances on a functioning system, animal testing is essential for scientific validity, but has been opposed by animal rights groups.  Similarly, proof that these effects occur in humans would require human testing, and such testing also has opposition.

text: In 1998 the EPA announced the

text: Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program

text: by establishment of a framework for priority setting, screening and testing more than 85,000 chemicals in commerce.  The basic concept behind the program is that prioritization will be based on existing information about chemical uses, production volume, structure-activity and toxicity.  Screening is done by use of in vitro test systems (by examining, for instance, if an agent interacts with the

text: estrogen receptor

text: or the

text: androgen receptor

text: ) and via the use of in animal models, such as development of tadpoles and uterine growth in prepubertal rodents.  Full scale testing will examine effects not only in mammals (rats) but also in a number of other species (frogs, fish, birds and invertebrates).  Since the theory involves the effects of these substances on a functioning system, animal testing is essential for scientific validity, but has been opposed by

text: animal rights

text: groups.  Similarly, proof that these effects occur in humans would require human testing, and such testing also has opposition.

text: Two applications of frequency response analysis are related but have different objectives.  For an audio system, the objective may be to reproduce the input signal with no distortion.  That would require a uniform (flat) magnitude of response up to the bandwidth limitation of the system, with the signal delayed by precisely the same amount of time at all frequencies.  That amount of time could be seconds, or weeks or months in the case of recorded media.  In contrast, for a feedback apparatus used to control a dynamic system, the objective is to give the closed-loop system improved response as compared to the uncompensated system.  The feedback generally needs to respond to system dynamics within a very small number of cycles of oscillation (usually less than one full cycle), and with a definite phase angle relative to the commanded control input.  For feedback of sufficient amplification, getting the phase angle wrong can lead to instability for an open-loop stable system, or failure to stabilize a system that is open-loop unstable.  Digital filters may be used for both audio systems and feedback control systems, but since the objectives are different, generally the phase characteristics of the filters will be significantly different for the two applications.

text: Two applications of frequency response analysis are related but have different objectives.  For an audio system, the objective may be to reproduce the input signal with no distortion.  That would require a uniform (flat) magnitude of response up to the

text: bandwidth

text: limitation of the system, with the signal delayed by precisely the same amount of time at all frequencies.  That amount of time could be seconds, or weeks or months in the case of recorded media.  In contrast, for a feedback apparatus used to control a dynamic system, the objective is to give the closed-loop system improved response as compared to the uncompensated system.  The feedback generally needs to respond to system dynamics within a very small number of cycles of oscillation (usually less than one full cycle), and with a definite phase angle relative to the commanded control input.  For feedback of sufficient amplification, getting the phase angle wrong can lead to instability for an open-loop stable system, or failure to stabilize a system that is open-loop unstable.  Digital filters may be used for both audio systems and feedback control systems, but since the objectives are different, generally the phase characteristics of the filters will be significantly different for the two applications.

text: The pituitary gland is important for mediating the stress response, via the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. Critically, pituitary gland growth during adolescence can be altered by early life stress such as childhood maltreatment or maternal dysphoric behavior.

text: Three types of Toxics in Biota studies are performed by WDFW, usually in sequential order. Baseline Assessment Studies examine temporal tends in contaminants. Focus studies are performed in regions where Baseline Studies indicate contamination. Focus Studies provide specific spatial distributions of contaminants in Puget Sound regions and their effects on biota. Pilot Studies are used to test the assumptions of the two former studies. For example, a Baseline Study indicating high concentrations of PCBs in rockfish may lead to a Focus Study determining that endocrine systems of rockfish in that region may be disrupted by PAHs at these concentrations. Pilot Studies would then examine the extent to which factors like age influence disruption of rockfish endocrine systems. Pilot Studies are only necessary if there is no literature available to address the assumptions of Baseline and Focus Studies.

text: Covian's main achievement in neurophysiology was the systematic study, with a large group of collaborators, of the neural basis of thirst, of neuroendocrine regulation  of  hydroelectrolytic homeostasis, and of appetitive behavior, i.e., the behavior which permit animals to seek and to ingest particular foodstuffs or diet components, an activity which depends on many external and internal factors. The animal model used by Covian's group was the selective ingestion of water versus salt water in albino Norwegian rats, which they investigated with many approaches and tools, such as after lesions and stimulations of the central nervous system, measurement of metabolic activity, manipulation of the activity of the endocrine system, the effect of several kinds of drugs, etc. He also studied the role of the limbic system (particularly the septal area) on many behaviors and functions, such as the control of blood pressure, the neuroendocrine regulation of reproductive behavior, etc.

text: Covian's main achievement in neurophysiology was the systematic study, with a large group of collaborators, of the neural basis of

text: thirst

text: , of

text: neuroendocrine

text: regulation  of  hydroelectrolytic

text: homeostasis

text: , and of

text: appetitive behavior

text: , i.e., the behavior which permit animals to seek and to ingest particular foodstuffs or

text: diet

text: components, an activity which depends on many external and internal factors. The

text: animal model

text: used by Covian's group was the selective ingestion of

text: water

text: versus

text: salt water

text: in albino

text: Norwegian rat

text: s, which they investigated with many approaches and tools, such as after lesions and stimulations of the

text: central nervous system

text: , measurement of

text: metabolic

text: activity, manipulation of the activity of the

text: endocrine system

text: , the effect of several kinds of

text: drugs

text: , etc. He also studied the role of the

text: limbic system

text: (particularly the

text: septal area

text: ) on many behaviors and functions, such as the control of

text: blood pressure

text: , the neuroendocrine regulation of

text: reproductive behavior

text: , etc.

text: The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, and intimately connected with the hypothalamus. It consists of two lobes: the posterior pituitary, which consists of nervous tissue branching out of the hypothalamus, and the anterior pituitary, which consists of hormone-producing epithelium. The posterior pituitary secretes antidiuretic hormone, which regulates osmolarity of the blood, and oxytocin, which causes contractions of the uterus in childbirth and participates in breastfeeding.

text: The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, and intimately connected with the

text: hypothalamus

text: . It consists of two lobes: the posterior pituitary, which consists of

text: nervous tissue

text: branching out of the hypothalamus, and the anterior pituitary, which consists of hormone-producing

text: epithelium

text: . The posterior pituitary secretes

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: , which regulates

text: osmolarity

text: of the blood, and

text: oxytocin

text: , which causes

text: contractions

text: of the

text: uterus

text: in childbirth and participates in

text: breastfeeding

text: Triclocarban has a hazard quotient rating of greater than one. Hazard quotients greater than one indicate the potential for adverse effects on organisms due to toxicity. As triclocarban is found in high concentrations in aquatic environments, there are concerns regarding its toxicity to aquatic species. Specifically, triclocarban has been shown to be toxic to amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and aquatic plants, and traces of the compound have been found in Atlantic dolphins. The antibacterial components of triclocarban may disrupt hormones critical to the developmental and endocrine processes in exposed animal wildlife. The neurological and reproductive systems are particularly affected through contact with this compound. Triclocarban may also affect animal wildlife behavior. For example, triclosan and triclocarban are 100-1,000 times more effective in inhibiting and killing algae, crustaceans and fish than they are in killing microbes. Triclocarban and triclosan have been observed in multiple organisms, including algae, aquatic blackworms, fish, and dolphins.

text: Triclocarban has a

text: hazard quotient

text: rating of greater than one. Hazard quotients greater than one indicate the potential for adverse effects on organisms due to toxicity. As triclocarban is found in high concentrations in aquatic environments, there are concerns regarding its toxicity to aquatic species. Specifically, triclocarban has been shown to be toxic to amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and aquatic plants, and traces of the compound have been found in Atlantic dolphins. The antibacterial components of triclocarban may disrupt hormones critical to the developmental and endocrine processes in exposed animal wildlife. The

text: neurological

text: and

text: reproductive

text: systems are particularly affected through contact with this compound. Triclocarban may also affect animal wildlife behavior. For example, triclosan and triclocarban are 100-1,000 times more effective in inhibiting and killing algae, crustaceans and fish than they are in killing microbes. Triclocarban and triclosan have been observed in multiple organisms, including algae, aquatic blackworms, fish, and dolphins.

text: First the loaded open-loop gain is found. The feedback is turned off by setting g = g = 0. The idea is to find how much the amplifier gain is changed because of the resistors in the feedback network by themselves, with the feedback turned off. This calculation is pretty easy because R, R, and r all are in parallel and v = v. Let R = R // R // r. In addition, i = −(β+1) i. The result for the open-loop current gain A is:

text: The endocrine system consists of several glands, all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.

text: The endocrine system consists of several

text: glands

text: , all in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.

text: In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.

text: In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the

text: hypothalamus

text: , a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the

text: pituitary gland

text: , a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.

text: A number of endocrine diseases involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to Cushing's syndrome, whereas insufficient production is associated with Addison's disease. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of tumors can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in medical imaging when searching for other diseases.

text: A number of

text: endocrine disease

text: s involve dysfunctions of the adrenal gland. Overproduction of cortisol leads to

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: , whereas insufficient production is associated with

text: Addison's disease

text: Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

text: is a genetic disease produced by dysregulation of endocrine control mechanisms. A variety of

text: tumors

text: can arise from adrenal tissue and are commonly found in

text: medical imaging

text: when searching for other diseases.

text: While leptin and ghrelin are produced peripherally, they control appetite through their actions on the central nervous system. In particular, they and other appetite-related hormones act on the hypothalamus, a region of the brain central to the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure. There are several circuits within the hypothalamus that contribute to its role in integrating appetite, the melanocortin pathway being the most well understood. The circuit begins with an area of the hypothalamus, the arcuate nucleus, that has outputs to the lateral hypothalamus (LH) and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), the brain's feeding and satiety centers, respectively.

text: While leptin and ghrelin are produced peripherally, they control appetite through their actions on the

text: central nervous system

text: . In particular, they and other appetite-related hormones act on the

text: hypothalamus

text: , a region of the brain central to the regulation of food intake and energy expenditure. There are several circuits within the hypothalamus that contribute to its role in integrating appetite, the

text: melanocortin

text: pathway being the most well understood. The circuit begins with an area of the hypothalamus, the

text: arcuate nucleus

text: , that has outputs to the

text: lateral hypothalamus

text: (LH) and

entity_name: Ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus

text: ventromedial hypothalamus

text: (VMH), the brain's feeding and satiety centers, respectively.

text: Salt-and-pepper chromatin is typically seen in endocrine tumours such as medullary thyroid carcinoma, neuroendocrine tumours and pheochromocytoma.

text: Salt-and-pepper chromatin is typically seen in endocrine tumours such as

text: medullary thyroid carcinoma

text: neuroendocrine tumour

text: s and

text: pheochromocytoma

text: The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system.  In the terminology of neuroanatomy, it forms the ventral part of the diencephalon.  All vertebrate brains contain a hypothalamus. In humans, it is the size of an almond.

text: The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the

text: limbic system

text: .  In the terminology of

text: neuroanatomy

text: , it forms the

text: ventral

text: part of the

text: diencephalon

text: .  All

text: vertebrate

text: brains contain a hypothalamus. In humans, it is the size of an

text: almond

text: The skin of the vulva is more delicate than other areas of skin.Pubic hair is much coarser than other body hair. It appears at puberty and is considered a secondary sex characteristic. The mons pubis and the labia majora become covered by pubic hair and it can also grow on the inner thighs and perineum. Pubarche is the first appearance of pubic hair and can occur independently of puberty. Premature pubarche may indicate underlying endocrine conditions. Apocrine sweat glands secrete sweat into the pubic hair follicles. This is broken down by bacteria on the skin and produces an odor, which some consider to act as a sex pheromone (sexual attractant).

text: The

text: skin

text: of the vulva is more delicate than other areas of skin.

text: Pubic hair

text: is much coarser than other body hair. It appears at puberty and is considered a

text: secondary sex characteristic

text: . The mons pubis and the labia majora become covered by pubic hair and it can also grow on the inner thighs and perineum.

text: Pubarche

text: is the first appearance of pubic hair and can occur independently of puberty. Premature pubarche may indicate underlying

text: endocrine conditions

text: Apocrine sweat gland

text: s secrete

text: sweat

text: into the pubic hair follicles. This is broken down by bacteria on the skin and produces an odor, which some consider to act as a

text: sex pheromone

text: (sexual attractant).

text: CRH is produced by parvocellular neuroendocrine cells within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and is released at the median eminence from neurosecretory terminals of these neurons into the primary capillary plexus of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system. The portal system carries the CRH to the anterior lobe of the pituitary, where it stimulates corticotropes to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and other biologically-active substances (β-endorphin). ACTH stimulates the synthesis of cortisol, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and DHEA.

text: CRH is produced by

text: parvocellular neuroendocrine cell

text: s within the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: of the

text: hypothalamus

text: and is released at the

text: median eminence

text: from neurosecretory terminals of these neurons into the primary capillary plexus of the

text: hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

text: . The portal system carries the CRH to the

text: anterior lobe

text: of the

text: pituitary

text: , where it stimulates

text: corticotrope

text: s to secrete

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: ACTH

text: ) and other biologically-active substances (

text: β-endorphin

text: ). ACTH stimulates the synthesis of

text: cortisol

text: glucocorticoids

text: mineralocorticoids

text: and

text: DHEA

text: The pancreas is an organ of endodermal origin. The endoderm is amongst the three germ layers that make up the developing embryo. The origination of the pancreatic tissue is from the dorsal and ventral aspects of the posterior foregut. They can be observed at E9.0 to E9.5 during embryonic development. Fusion of these buds occurs during rotation of the developing gut. The fused and developed pancreas consists of pancreatic enzyme secreting cells (exocrine cells), digestive enzyme transporting cells (ductal cells) and hormone producing cells (endocrine cells). These endocrine cells develop in discrete areas within the pancreas known as the islets.

text: The

text: pancreas

text: is an organ of endodermal origin. The

text: endoderm

text: is amongst the three

text: germ layers

text: that make up the developing

text: embryo

text: . The origination of the pancreatic tissue is from the dorsal and ventral aspects of the posterior foregut. They can be observed at E9.0 to E9.5 during

text: embryonic development

text: . Fusion of these buds occurs during rotation of the developing gut. The fused and developed pancreas consists of pancreatic enzyme secreting cells (

text: exocrine

text: cells), digestive enzyme transporting cells (ductal cells) and hormone producing cells (

text: endocrine

text: cells). These endocrine cells develop in discrete areas within the pancreas known as the islets.

text: Ovarian diseases can be classified as endocrine disorders or as a disorders of the reproductive system.

text: Ovarian disease

text: s can be classified as

text: endocrine disorder

text: s or as a disorders of the

text: reproductive system

text: In essence, it tests to see the source of the raised ACTH levels in a patient with diagnosed Cushing's syndrome and high or normal serum ACTH levels. The inferior petrosal sinus is where the pituitary gland drains. Therefore, a sample from here showing raised ACTH compared to the periphery suggests that it is a pituitary cause of Cushing's, i.e. Cushing's disease. Equivocal levels of ACTH indicate ectopic or Paraneoplastic Cushing's Syndrome. The sample is usually taken after administration of Corticotropin-releasing hormone or, more recently, DDAVP, which have been shown to increase ACTH production in active ACTH-producing pituitary tumors.  Increasingly, it is known as a gold-standard method for diagnosing Cushing's disease.

text: In essence, it tests to see the source of the raised

text: ACTH

text: levels in a patient with diagnosed Cushing's syndrome and high or normal serum ACTH levels. The

text: inferior petrosal sinus

text: is where the

text: pituitary gland

text: drains. Therefore, a sample from here showing raised

text: ACTH

text: compared to the periphery suggests that it is a

text: pituitary

text: cause of Cushing's, i.e.

text: Cushing's disease

text: . Equivocal levels of ACTH indicate ectopic or

text: Paraneoplastic

text: Cushing's Syndrome. The sample is usually taken after administration of

text: Corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: or, more recently,

text: DDAVP

text: , which have been shown to increase ACTH production in active ACTH-producing pituitary tumors.  Increasingly, it is known as a gold-standard method for diagnosing

text: Cushing's disease

text: A feeling of involvement is also necessary for BIRGing to occur. It is frequently seen as a cognitive process that affects behavior. In Bernhardt's et al. (1998) study, researchers examined physiological processes related to Basking in Reflected Glory, specifically, changes in the production of endocrine hormones. Endocrine system Fans watched their favorite sports teams (basketball and soccer) win or lose. The men's testosterone levels increased while watching their team win, but decreased while watching their team lose. Thus, this study shows that physiological processes may be involved with BIRGing, in addition to the known changes in self-esteem and cognition.

text: A feeling of involvement is also necessary for BIRGing to occur. It is frequently seen as a cognitive process that affects behavior. In Bernhardt's et al. (1998) study, researchers examined physiological processes related to Basking in Reflected Glory, specifically, changes in the production of endocrine hormones.

text: Endocrine system

text: Fans watched their favorite sports teams (basketball and soccer) win or lose. The men's testosterone levels increased while watching their team win, but decreased while watching their team lose. Thus, this study shows that physiological processes may be involved with BIRGing, in addition to the known changes in self-esteem and cognition.

text: Calbindin-D28k was first shown to be present in the intestine in birds and then found in the mammalian kidney. It is also expressed in a number of neuronal and endocrine cells, particularly in the cerebellum. It is encoded in humans by the CALB1 gene.

text: Calbindin-D28k was first shown to be present in the intestine in birds and then found in the mammalian kidney. It is also expressed in a number of neuronal and endocrine cells, particularly in the

text: cerebellum

text: . It is encoded in humans by the CALB1 gene.

text: The endocrine system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. From the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy (the second and third trimesters), a woman's body produces hormones that stimulate the growth of the breast's milk duct system. Progesterone influences the growth in size of alveoli and lobes; high levels of progesterone, estrogen, prolactin and other hormones inhibit lactation before birth; hormone levels drop after birth, triggering milk production. After birth, the hormone oxytocin contracts the smooth muscle layer of cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze milk into the duct system. Oxytocin is also necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down to occur. Let-down occurs in response to the baby's suckling, though it also may be a conditioned response, e.g. to the cry of the baby. Lactation can also be induced by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs or by a combination of these methods.

text: The endocrine system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. From the twenty-fourth week of pregnancy (the second and third

text: trimester

text: s), a woman's body produces

text: hormone

text: s that stimulate the growth of the breast's

text: milk duct

text: system.

text: Progesterone

text: influences the growth in size of

text: alveoli

text: and lobes; high levels of progesterone,

text: estrogen

text: prolactin

text: and other hormones inhibit lactation before birth; hormone levels drop after birth, triggering milk production. After birth, the hormone

text: oxytocin

text: contracts the smooth muscle layer of cells surrounding the alveoli to squeeze milk into the duct system. Oxytocin is also necessary for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down to occur. Let-down occurs in response to the baby's suckling, though it also may be a conditioned response, e.g. to the cry of the baby. Lactation can also be induced by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs or by a combination of these methods.

text: Hormones travel throughout the body and act as chemical messengers. Hormones interface with cells that contain matching receptors in or on their surfaces. The hormone binds with the receptor, much like a key would fit into a lock. The endocrine system regulates adjustments through slower internal processes, using hormones as messengers. The endocrine system secretes hormones in response to environmental stimuli and to orchestrate developmental and reproductive changes. The adjustments brought on by the endocrine system are biochemical, changing the cell's internal and external chemistry to bring about a long term change in the body. These systems work together to maintain the proper functioning of the body through its entire life cycle. Sex steroids such as estrogens and androgens, as well as thyroid hormones, are subject to feedback regulation, which tends to limit the sensitivity of these glands.

text: Hormones travel throughout the body and act as chemical messengers. Hormones interface with cells that contain matching receptors in or on their surfaces. The hormone binds with the receptor, much like a key would fit into a lock. The endocrine system regulates adjustments through slower internal processes, using hormones as messengers. The endocrine system secretes hormones in response to environmental stimuli and to orchestrate developmental and reproductive changes. The adjustments brought on by the endocrine system are biochemical, changing the cell's internal and external chemistry to bring about a long term change in the body. These systems work together to maintain the proper functioning of the body through its entire life cycle.

text: Sex steroids

text: such as

text: estrogens

text: and

text: androgens

text: , as well as

text: thyroid

text: hormones, are subject to

text: feedback

text: regulation, which tends to limit the sensitivity of these glands.

text: They are different from hormones, which are also important cell signaling molecules, in that hormones circulate in less variable concentrations and hormones tend to be made by specific kinds of cells.

text: Hormonal therapy in oncology is hormone therapy for cancer and is one of the major modalities of medical oncology (pharmacotherapy for cancer), others being cytotoxic chemotherapy and targeted therapy (biotherapeutics). It involves the manipulation of the endocrine system through exogenous administration of specific hormones, particularly steroid hormones, or drugs which inhibit the production or activity of such hormones (hormone antagonists). Because steroid hormones are powerful drivers of gene expression in certain cancer cells, changing the levels or activity of certain hormones can cause certain cancers to cease growing, or even undergo cell death. Surgical removal of endocrine organs, such as orchiectomy and oophorectomy can also be employed as a form of hormonal therapy.

text: Hormonal therapy in oncology is

text: hormone therapy

text: for

text: cancer

text: and is one of the major modalities of

text: medical oncology

text: pharmacotherapy

text: for

text: cancer

text: ), others being

text: cytotoxic chemotherapy

text: and

text: targeted therapy

text: (biotherapeutics). It involves the manipulation of the

text: endocrine system

text: through exogenous administration of specific

text: hormone

text: s, particularly

text: steroid hormone

text: s, or drugs which inhibit the production or activity of such hormones (

text: hormone antagonist

text: s). Because steroid hormones are powerful drivers of

text: gene expression

text: in certain cancer

text: cells

text: , changing the levels or activity of certain hormones can cause certain cancers to cease growing, or even undergo

text: cell death

text: . Surgical removal of endocrine organs, such as

text: orchiectomy

text: and

text: oophorectomy

text: can also be employed as a form of hormonal therapy.

text: Through the diverse outputs of the orexin system, the orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus mediate an array of functions.  Two of the most commonly noted functions of orexin peptides in the lateral hypothalamus are the promotion of feeding behavior and arousal (i.e., wakefulness). More generally, the lateral hypothalamus is involved in thermoregulation, regulating gastrointestinal motility and gastrointestinal function by way of the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve, reducing pain and nociception through several output structures (e.g., periaqueductal gray matter), modulating the rewarding property of stimuli through the ventral tegmental area projections and other outputs in the reward system, regulating energy homeostasis and neuroendocrine functions (e.g., HPA axis, HPG axis, and HPT axis) through other hypothalamic outputs, and regulating visceral functions (e.g., respiration, blood pressure, and micturition) via a group of structures in the brain stem, among other functions.

text: Through the diverse outputs of the orexin system, the orexin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus mediate an array of functions.  Two of the most commonly noted functions of orexin peptides in the lateral hypothalamus are the promotion of feeding behavior and arousal (i.e., wakefulness). More generally, the lateral hypothalamus is involved in

text: thermoregulation

text: , regulating

text: gastrointestinal motility

text: and gastrointestinal function by way of the

text: dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve

text: , reducing pain and

text: nociception

text: through several output structures (e.g., periaqueductal gray matter), modulating the

text: rewarding

text: property of stimuli through the ventral tegmental area projections and other outputs in the

text: reward system

text: , regulating

text: energy homeostasis

text: and neuroendocrine functions (e.g.,

text: HPA axis

text: HPG axis

text: , and

text: HPT axis

text: ) through other hypothalamic outputs, and regulating

text: visceral functions

text: (e.g., respiration, blood pressure, and

text: micturition

text: ) via a group of structures in the brain stem, among other functions.

text: Schauss then wondered if the reverse might also be true. Could color cause emotional and hormonal changes? Could various wavelengths of light trigger profound and measurable responses in the endocrine system?

text: The structures of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex. The limbic system operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system. It is highly interconnected with the nucleus accumbens, which plays a role in sexual arousal and the "high" derived from certain recreational drugs. These responses are heavily modulated by dopaminergic projections from the limbic system. In 1954, Olds and Milner found that rats with metal electrodes implanted into their nucleus accumbens, as well as their septal nuclei, repeatedly pressed a lever activating this region, and did so in preference to eating and drinking, eventually dying of exhaustion.The limbic system also includes the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are a set of subcortical structures that direct intentional movements. The basal ganglia are located near the thalamus and hypothalamus. They receive input from the cerebral cortex, which sends outputs to the motor centers in the brain stem. A part of the basal ganglia called the striatum controls posture and movement. Recent studies indicate that, if there is an inadequate supply of dopamine, the striatum is affected, which can lead to visible behavioral symptoms of Parkinson's disease.

text: The structures of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex. The limbic system operates by influencing the

text: endocrine system

text: and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . It is highly interconnected with the

text: nucleus accumbens

text: , which plays a role in

text: sexual arousal

text: and the "high" derived from certain

text: recreational drugs

text: . These responses are heavily modulated by

text: dopamine

text: rgic projections from the limbic system. In 1954,

text: Olds

text: and Milner found that

text: rat

text: s with metal

text: electrode

text: s implanted into their

text: nucleus accumbens

text: , as well as their

text: septal nuclei

text: , repeatedly pressed a lever activating this region, and did so in preference to eating and drinking, eventually dying of exhaustion.The limbic system also includes the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are a set of subcortical structures that direct intentional movements. The basal ganglia are located near the thalamus and hypothalamus. They receive input from the cerebral cortex, which sends outputs to the motor centers in the brain stem. A part of the basal ganglia called the striatum controls posture and movement. Recent studies indicate that, if there is an inadequate supply of dopamine, the striatum is affected, which can lead to visible behavioral symptoms of

text: Parkinson's disease

text: Like all endocrine hormones, it is transported by blood.

text: Like all

text: endocrine

text: hormones

text: , it is transported by blood.

text: Theodora Emily Colborn(née Decker; March 28, 1927 – December 14, 2014) was Founder and President Emeritus of The Endocrine Disruption Exchange (TEDX), based in Paonia, Colorado, and Professor Emeritus of Zoology at the University of Florida, Gainesville. She was an environmental health analyst, and best known for her studies on the health effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals. She died in 2014.

text: Theodora Emily Colborn(née Decker; March 28, 1927 – December 14, 2014) was Founder and President Emeritus of The Endocrine Disruption Exchange (TEDX), based in

text: Paonia, Colorado

text: , and Professor Emeritus of

text: Zoology

text: at the

text: University of Florida, Gainesville

text: . She was an

text: environmental health

text: analyst, and best known for her studies on the health effects of

text: endocrine disrupting

text: chemicals. She died in 2014.

text: PGE2 is the ultimate mediator of the febrile response. The set point temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present. PGE2 acts on neurons in the preoptic area (POA) through the prostaglandin E receptor 3 (EP3). EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH), the rostral raphe pallidus nucleus in the medulla oblongata (rRPa), and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus . Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of the sympathetic output system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface. It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involving pituitary gland and various endocrine organs.

text: PGE2 is the ultimate mediator of the febrile response. The set point temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present. PGE2 acts on neurons in the

text: preoptic area

text: (POA) through the

text: prostaglandin E receptor 3

text: (EP3). EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate the

text: dorsomedial hypothalamus

text: (DMH), the rostral

text: raphe

text: pallidus nucleus in the

text: medulla oblongata

text: (rRPa), and the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: (PVN) of the

text: hypothalamus

text: . Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of the

text: sympathetic

text: output system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface. It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involving

text: pituitary gland

text: and various

text: endocrine organs

text: A feedback loop can contain further feedback loops within itself, or it can provide a pathway inside another feedback loop, provided its 'input' and 'output' are defined.

text: Patients with fluctuating insulin requirements may benefit from a closed-loop predictive modeling approach. As an extension on "carb counting", in this closed-loop predictive modeling approach, the four daily insulin dosages needed to reach the target blood sugar levels for the “normal” daily carbohydrate consumption and amount of physical activity, are continuously adjusted based on the pre-meal and pre-night blood sugar level readings. Each new blood sugar reading provides the feedback to fine-tune and track the body’s insulin requirements. Within this strategy the key patient specific factors, which have to be determined experimentally, are the blood sugar correction factor and the carbohydrate ratio. The blood sugar correction factor sets both the “proportional gain” and “integral gain” factors for the four feedback loops. When taken too low, deviations from the target blood sugar level are not corrected for effectively, when taken too high, the blood sugar regulation will become unstable. Since in this approach, the carbohydrate ratio is only used to account for non-standard carbohydrate intakes, it is usually not required to work with meal specific ratios.

text: Patients with fluctuating insulin requirements may benefit from a closed-loop

text: predictive modeling

text: approach. As an extension on "carb counting", in this closed-loop predictive modeling approach, the four daily insulin dosages needed to reach the target blood sugar levels for the “normal” daily carbohydrate consumption and amount of physical activity, are continuously adjusted based on the pre-meal and pre-night blood sugar level readings. Each new blood sugar reading provides the feedback to fine-tune and track the body’s insulin requirements. Within this strategy the key patient specific factors, which have to be determined experimentally, are the blood sugar correction factor and the carbohydrate ratio. The blood sugar correction factor sets both the “proportional gain” and “integral gain” factors for the four

text: feedback loops

text: . When taken too low, deviations from the target blood sugar level are not corrected for effectively, when taken too high, the blood sugar regulation will become unstable. Since in this approach, the carbohydrate ratio is only used to account for non-standard carbohydrate intakes, it is usually not required to work with meal specific ratios.

text: Granulomas in the pituitary gland, which produces numerous hormones, is rare but leads to any of the symptoms of hypopituitarism: amenorrhoea (cessation of the menstrual cycle), diabetes insipidus (dehydration due to inability to concentrate the urine), hypothyroidism (decreased activity of the thyroid) or hypocortisolism (deficiency of cortisol).

text: Granulomas in the

text: pituitary gland

text: , which produces numerous

text: hormone

text: s, is rare but leads to any of the symptoms of

text: hypopituitarism

text: amenorrhoea

text: (cessation of the

text: menstrual cycle

text: diabetes insipidus

text: (dehydration due to inability to concentrate the urine),

text: hypothyroidism

text: (decreased activity of the

text: thyroid

text: ) or

text: hypocortisolism

text: (deficiency of

text: cortisol

text: There are three types of APS or (in terms that mean the same thing) three APSs, and there are a number of other diseases which have endocrine autoimmunity as one of their features.

text: The hypothalamus (from Greek ὑπό, "under" and θάλαμος, thalamus) is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis).

text: The hypothalamus (from

text: Greek

text: ὑπό, "under" and θάλαμος,

text: thalamus

text: ) is a portion of the

text: brain

text: that contains a number of small

text: nuclei

text: with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the

text: nervous system

text: to the

text: endocrine system

text: via the

text: pituitary gland

text: (hypophysis).

text: Many biological circuits produce complex outputs by exploiting one or more feedback loops. In a sequence of biochemical events, feedback would refer to a downstream element in the sequence (B in the image on the left) affecting some upstream component (A in the image on the left) to affect its own production or activation (output) in the future. If this element acts to enhance its own output, then it engages in positive feedback (blue arrow). A positive feedback loop is also known as a self-reinforcing loop, and it is possible that these loops can be part of a larger loop, as this is characteristic of regulatory circuits.

text: Many biological circuits produce complex outputs by exploiting one or more

text: feedback

text: loops. In a sequence of biochemical events, feedback would refer to a downstream element in the sequence (B in the image on the left) affecting some upstream component (A in the image on the left) to affect its own production or activation (output) in the future. If this element acts to enhance its own output, then it engages in

text: positive feedback

text: (blue arrow). A positive feedback loop is also known as a self-reinforcing loop, and it is possible that these loops can be part of a larger loop, as this is characteristic of regulatory circuits.

text: Symptoms include sudden permanent blindness, but may occur more slowly over several days, weeks or months, dilated pupils. Pupillary light reflexes  are usually reduced but present; the slow phase mediated by melanopsin in retinal ganglion cells is retained. Other symptoms commonly seen are similar to those seen with Cushing's disease and include increased water consumption and urination, weight gain, confusion, restlessness, behavioral changes and lethargy. These symptoms may develop over a few months preceding the onset of SARD.  Despite similar symptoms and blood test results to Cushing's disease, evaluation of dogs with SARD did not reveal any tumors in the pituitary or adrenal glands. However, endocrine testing (i.e., Canine Adrenal Panel at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine Endocrinology Service) often shows elevations in adrenal sex hormones. Clinical signs and disease progression vary markedly among individual animals, depending on the number and type of hormones that are increased, the degree of hormone elevation, and the age of the dog. Autoimmune disease as a cause has also been called into question because of a lack of antiretinal autoantibodies in dogs with SARD in one study.

text: Symptoms include sudden permanent blindness, but may occur more slowly over several days, weeks or months, dilated

text: pupil

text: s. Pupillary light reflexes  are usually reduced but present; the slow phase mediated by melanopsin in retinal ganglion cells is retained. Other symptoms commonly seen are similar to those seen with Cushing's disease and include increased water consumption and urination, weight gain, confusion, restlessness, behavioral changes and lethargy. These symptoms may develop over a few months preceding the onset of SARD.  Despite similar symptoms and blood test results to Cushing's disease, evaluation of dogs with SARD did not reveal any tumors in the

text: pituitary

text: or

text: adrenal gland

text: s. However, endocrine testing (i.e., Canine Adrenal Panel at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine Endocrinology Service) often shows elevations in adrenal sex hormones. Clinical signs and disease progression vary markedly among individual animals, depending on the number and type of hormones that are increased, the degree of hormone elevation, and the age of the dog. Autoimmune disease as a cause has also been called into question because of a lack of antiretinal

text: autoantibodies

text: in dogs with SARD in one study.

text: Deaths from cancer were 5.8 million in 1990. Deaths have been increasing primarily due to longer lifespans and lifestyle changes in the developing world. The most significant risk factor for developing cancer is age. Although it is possible for cancer to strike at any age, most patients with invasive cancer are over 65. According to cancer researcher Robert A. Weinberg, "If we lived long enough, sooner or later we all would get cancer." Some of the association between aging and cancer is attributed to immunosenescence, errors accumulated in DNA over a lifetime and age-related changes in the endocrine system. Aging's effect on cancer is complicated  by factors such as DNA damage and inflammation promoting it and factors such as vascular aging and endocrine changes inhibiting it.

text: Deaths from cancer were 5.8 million in 1990. Deaths have been increasing primarily due to longer lifespans and lifestyle changes in the developing world. The most significant

text: risk factor

text: for developing cancer is age. Although it is possible for cancer to strike at any age, most patients with invasive cancer are over 65. According to cancer researcher

text: Robert A. Weinberg

text: , "If we lived long enough, sooner or later we all would get cancer." Some of the association between aging and cancer is attributed to

text: immunosenescence

text: , errors accumulated in

text: DNA

text: over a lifetime and age-related changes in the

text: endocrine system

text: . Aging's effect on cancer is complicated  by factors such as DNA damage and inflammation promoting it and factors such as vascular aging and endocrine changes inhibiting it.

text: The pituitary gland is a small organ that is located at the base of the brain just under the hypothalamus. This gland releases various hormones that play significant roles in regulating homeostasis.During a stress response, the pituitary gland releases hormones into the blood stream, namely adrenocorticotropic hormone, which modulates a heavily regulated stress response system.

text: The

text: pituitary gland

text: is a small organ that is located at the base of the brain just under the hypothalamus. This gland releases various hormones that play significant roles in regulating

text: homeostasis

text: .During a stress response, the pituitary gland releases hormones into the blood stream, namely

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: , which modulates a heavily regulated stress response system.

text: Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome can cause brain damage and results from a Vitamin B deficiency. This syndrome presents with two conditions, Wernicke’s encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis. Typically Wernicke’s encephalopathy proceeds symptoms of Korsakoff psychosis. Wernicke’s encephalopathy causes bleeding in the thalamus or hypothalamus, which controls the nervous and endocrine system. Due to the bleeding, brain damage occurs causing problems with vision, coordination and balance. Korsakoff psychosis typically follow after the symptoms of Wernicke’s decrease and result from chronic brain damage. Korsakoff psychosis affect memory. Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome is typically caused by chronic alcohol abuse or by conditions that affect nutritional absorption, including colon cancer, eating disorders and gastric bypass.

text: Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

text: can cause brain damage and results from a Vitamin B deficiency. This syndrome presents with two conditions, Wernicke’s encephalopathy and

text: Korsakoff psychosis

text: . Typically Wernicke’s encephalopathy proceeds symptoms of

text: Korsakoff psychosis

text: . Wernicke’s encephalopathy causes bleeding in the thalamus or hypothalamus, which controls the nervous and endocrine system. Due to the bleeding, brain damage occurs causing problems with vision, coordination and balance.

text: Korsakoff psychosis

text: typically follow after the symptoms of Wernicke’s decrease and result from chronic brain damage.

text: Korsakoff psychosis

text: affect memory.

text: Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

text: is typically caused by chronic alcohol abuse or by conditions that affect nutritional absorption, including colon cancer, eating disorders and gastric bypass.

text: To overcome the limitations of the open-loop controller, control theory introduces feedback.A closed-loop controller uses feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamical system. Its name comes from the information path in the system: process inputs (e.g., voltage applied to an electric motor) have an effect on the process outputs (e.g., speed or torque of the motor), which is measured with sensors and processed by the controller; the result (the control signal) is "fed back" as input to the process, closing the loop.

text: To overcome the limitations of the

text: open-loop controller

text: , control theory introduces

text: feedback

text: .A

text: closed-loop controller

text: uses feedback to control

text: states

text: or

text: output

text: s of a

text: dynamical system

text: voltage

text: applied to an

text: electric motor

text: sensor

text: If the system is originally open-loop unstable, feedback is necessary to stabilize the system.  Right-half-plane (RHP) poles represent that instability.  For closed-loop stability of a system, the number of closed-loop roots in the right half of the s-plane must be zero. Hence, the number of counter-clockwise encirclements about

text: The architecture of generic Dynamic Voltage Scaling system has a performance manager, a Phase-locked loop and a Voltage regulator.The performance manager block uses a software interface in order to predict the performance requirements of the next task.Once the determination of the power requirement is done, the voltage and frequency are set by the performance Manager in order to finish the task.The Phase-locked loop accomplishes the frequency scaling depending on the target frequency set by the performance manager.Similarly the Voltage regulator is programmed to scale the supply voltage so as to achieve the target voltage for the task.Thus, the characterization of the systems employing DVS requires characterization at at least two ends of operating range.In fact the characterization of DVS systems depends on the underlying voltage scaling methodology. The basic operation of both open loop DVS systems (the conventional DVS systems) and the closed loop DVS systems (Adaptive voltage systems) is same with the difference lying in the selection of the target voltage-frequency relationship.The Open-loop DVS systems employ the one-to-one mapping of the voltage to frequency to perform the voltage scaling.The frequency-voltage pairs are stored in Lookup table and are obtained as per the determined task needs.In case of the Open-loop DVS systems the frequency-voltage relationship is determined by considering the chip characterization at worst case conditions so as to guarantee the robust operation under the temperature and process variations.Thus in order to accommodate for the worst case variations there is a lot of power margin left by the open loop DVS systems for power scaling.This margin is not lost in closed loop systems because they employ a feedback mechanism that keeps probing the actual on chip conditions and according to that the target voltage and frequency are determined.The most important design parameters are to be considered while choosing between the Open-loop and closed loop configurations is stability against temperature fluctuations.The temperature stability is guaranteed in the conventional Open-loop systems because they are chosen for worst case conditions.But the energy savings are drastically reduced due to the large margins considered.

text: The architecture of generic Dynamic Voltage Scaling system has a performance manager, a

text: Phase-locked loop

text: and a

text: Voltage regulator

text: .The performance manager block uses a software interface in order to predict the performance requirements of the next task.Once the determination of the power requirement is done, the voltage and frequency are set by the performance Manager in order to finish the task.The

text: Phase-locked loop

text: accomplishes the frequency scaling depending on the target frequency set by the performance manager.Similarly the

text: Voltage regulator

text: is programmed to scale the supply voltage so as to achieve the target voltage for the task.Thus, the characterization of the systems employing DVS requires characterization at at least two ends of operating range.In fact the characterization of DVS systems depends on the underlying voltage scaling methodology. The basic operation of both open loop DVS systems (the conventional DVS systems) and the closed loop DVS systems (Adaptive voltage systems) is same with the difference lying in the selection of the target voltage-frequency relationship.The Open-loop DVS systems employ the one-to-one mapping of the voltage to frequency to perform the voltage scaling.The frequency-voltage pairs are stored in

text: Lookup table

text: and are obtained as per the determined task needs.In case of the Open-loop DVS systems the frequency-voltage relationship is determined by considering the chip characterization at worst case conditions so as to guarantee the robust operation under the temperature and process variations.Thus in order to accommodate for the worst case variations there is a lot of power margin left by the open loop DVS systems for power scaling.This margin is not lost in closed loop systems because they employ a feedback mechanism that keeps probing the actual on chip conditions and according to that the target voltage and frequency are determined.The most important design parameters are to be considered while choosing between the Open-loop and closed loop configurations is stability against temperature fluctuations.The temperature stability is guaranteed in the conventional Open-loop systems because they are chosen for worst case conditions.But the energy savings are drastically reduced due to the large margins considered.

text: Physiology studies how for example nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with medically oriented disciplines such as neurology and immunology.

text: Physiology studies how for example

text: nervous

text: immune

text: endocrine

text: respiratory

text: , and

text: circulatory

text: systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with

text: medically

text: oriented disciplines such as

text: neurology

text: and

text: immunology

text: The hypothalamus is in the brain and the pituitary gland sits just below it. The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropin (ACTH).  ACTH travels via the blood to the adrenal gland, where it stimulates the release of cortisol. Cortisol is secreted by the cortex of the adrenal gland from a region called the zona fasciculata in response to ACTH. Elevated levels of cortisol exert negative feedback on CRH in the hypothalamus, which decreases the amount of ACTH released from the anterior pituitary gland.

text: The

text: hypothalamus

text: is in the brain and the

text: pituitary gland

text: sits just below it. The paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus releases

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: (CRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropin (

text: ACTH

text: ).  ACTH travels via the blood to the adrenal gland, where it stimulates the release of

text: cortisol

text: . Cortisol is secreted by the cortex of the

text: adrenal gland

text: from a region called the

text: zona fasciculata

text: in response to ACTH. Elevated levels of cortisol exert

text: negative feedback

text: on CRH in the hypothalamus, which decreases the amount of ACTH released from the anterior pituitary gland.

text: Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are trophic hormones (Greek: trophe, “nourishment”)   and tropic hormones. Trophic hormones directly affect growth either as hyperplasia or hypertrophy on the tissue it is stimulating. Tropic hormones are named for their ability to act directly on target tissues or other endocrine glands to release hormones, causing numerous cascading physiological responses.

text: Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are

text: trophic hormone

text: s (Greek: trophe, “nourishment”)   and

text: tropic hormone

text: s. Trophic hormones directly affect growth either as hyperplasia or hypertrophy on the tissue it is stimulating. Tropic hormones are named for their ability to act directly on target tissues or other endocrine glands to release hormones, causing numerous cascading physiological responses.

text: Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into the blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs. Local chemical messengers, not generally considered part of the endocrine system, include autocrines, which act on the cells that secrete them, and paracrines, which act on a different cell type nearby.

text: Endocrine glands are glands of the

text: endocrine system

text: that secrete their products,

text: hormone

text: s, directly into the

text: blood

text: rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the

text: pineal gland

text: pituitary gland

text: pancreas

text: ovaries

text: testes

text: thyroid gland

text: parathyroid gland

text: hypothalamus

text: and

text: adrenal gland

text: s. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are

text: neuroendocrine

text: organ

text: s. Local chemical messengers, not generally considered part of the endocrine system, include

text: autocrine

text: s, which act on the cells that secrete them, and

text: paracrine

text: s, which act on a different cell type nearby.

text: There is evidence of a correlation between sexual orientation and traits that are determined in utero. Williams et al. (2000) found that finger length ratio, a characteristic controlled by prenatal hormones, is different in lesbians than in straight women.  However, they found no difference between gay and straight men.   Another study by McFadden in 1998 found that auditory systems in the brain, another physical trait influenced by prenatal hormones is different in those of differing orientations; likewise the suprachiasmatic nucleus was found by Swaab and Hofman to be larger in homosexual men than in heterosexual men.  The suprachiasmatic nucleus is also known to be larger in men than in women. An analysis of the hypothalamus by Swaab and Hofmann (1990;2007) found that the volume of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in homosexual men was 1.7 times larger than a reference group of male subjects, and contained 2.1 times as many cells. During development, the volume of the SCN and the cell counts reach peak value at approximately 13 to 16 months after birth; at this age, the SCN contains the same number of cells as was found in adult male homosexuals, yet in a reference group of heterosexual males the cell numbers begin to decline to the adult value of 35% of the peak value.  These results have yet to be replicated, however; there also has yet to be a meaningful interpretation of these results provided in the context of human sexual orientation. Gay men have also been shown to have higher levels of circulating androgens and larger penises, on average, than hetero men.

text: There is evidence of a correlation between sexual orientation and traits that are determined

text: in utero

text: . Williams et al. (2000) found that

text: finger length ratio

text: , a characteristic controlled by prenatal hormones, is different in lesbians than in straight women.  However, they found no difference between gay and straight men.   Another study by McFadden in 1998 found that auditory systems in the

text: brain

text: , another physical trait influenced by prenatal hormones is different in those of differing orientations; likewise the

text: suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: was found by Swaab and Hofman to be larger in homosexual men than in heterosexual men.  The suprachiasmatic nucleus is also known to be larger in men than in women. An analysis of the hypothalamus by Swaab and Hofmann (1990;2007) found that the volume of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in homosexual men was 1.7 times larger than a reference group of male subjects, and contained 2.1 times as many cells. During development, the volume of the SCN and the cell counts reach peak value at approximately 13 to 16 months after birth; at this age, the SCN contains the same number of cells as was found in adult male homosexuals, yet in a reference group of heterosexual males the cell numbers begin to decline to the adult value of 35% of the peak value.  These results have yet to be replicated, however; there also has yet to be a meaningful interpretation of these results provided in the context of human sexual orientation. Gay men have also been shown to have higher levels of circulating androgens and larger penises, on average, than hetero men.

text: They give rise to both the endocrine and exocrine cells. Exocrine cells constitute the acinar cells and the ductal cells. The endocrine cells constitute the beta cells which make insulin, alpha cells which secrete glucagon, delta cells which secrete somatostatin and the PP-cells which secrete pancreatic polypeptide.

text: They give rise to both the endocrine and exocrine cells.

text: Exocrine

text: cells constitute the

text: acinar cells

text: and the

text: ductal cells

text: . The endocrine cells constitute the

text: beta cells

text: which make

text: insulin

text: alpha cells

text: which secrete

text: glucagon

text: , delta cells which secrete

text: somatostatin

text: and the PP-cells which secrete

text: pancreatic polypeptide

text: Research on alcohol’s effects on cortisol dates back to the 1950s. Many studies showed a relation between the two, however they were limited to short-term alcohol ingestion. The first human study to assess the long-term effects of alcohol ingestion on cortisol was conducted in 1966 (Mendelson et al.). They found heightened cortisol levels in both alcoholics and non-alcoholics while actively drinking. Cortisol was overall higher in alcoholics than non-alcoholics, indicating that alcohol has long-term effects on the endocrine system. Also, alcoholics had the highest cortisol levels after drinking stopped, demonstrating symptoms of withdrawal (a hormonal marker of alcohol addiction).

text: Fluorosurfactants tend to bioaccumulate, since they are extremely stable and can be stored in the bodies of both humans and animals. Examples include PFOA  and PFOS, frequently present in water resistant textiles and sprays conferring water resistant properties to textiles and fire-fighting foam.  Data from animal studies of PFOA indicate that it can cause several types of tumors and neonatal death and may have toxic effects on the immune, liver, and endocrine systems.  data on the human health effects of PFOA were sparse.

text: Fluorosurfactants tend to

text: bioaccumulate

text: , since they are extremely stable and can be stored in the bodies of both humans and animals. Examples include PFOA  and PFOS, frequently present in water resistant textiles and sprays conferring water resistant properties to textiles and

text: fire-fighting foam

text: .  Data from animal studies of PFOA indicate that it can cause several types of tumors and neonatal death and may have toxic effects on the immune, liver, and endocrine systems.  data on the human health effects of PFOA were sparse.

text: The median eminence is a part of the hypothalamus from which regulatory hormones are released. It is of great physiological importance, as it is integral to the hypophyseal portal system, which connects the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland. The pars nervosa (part of the posterior pituitary gland) is continuous with the median eminence of the hypothalamus via the infundibular stalk.  Parvocellular neurons from the hypothalamus terminate in the median eminence of the hypothalamus. To be specific, it is in the median eminence that the secretions of the hypothalamus (releasing and inhibiting regulatory hormones, known as "hypophysiotropic hormones") collect before entering the portal system. Such hypophysiotropic hormones include: CRF (corticotropin-releasing factor), GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone), TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone), GHRH (growth hormone-releasing hormone), and DA (dopamine). These hypophysiotropic hormones go on to stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.

text: The median eminence is a part of the hypothalamus from which regulatory hormones are released. It is of great physiological importance, as it is integral to the

text: hypophyseal portal system

text: , which connects the

text: hypothalamus

text: with the pituitary gland. The pars nervosa (part of the posterior pituitary gland) is continuous with the median eminence of the hypothalamus via the infundibular stalk.  Parvocellular neurons from the hypothalamus terminate in the median eminence of the hypothalamus. To be specific, it is in the median eminence that the secretions of the hypothalamus (releasing and inhibiting regulatory hormones, known as "hypophysiotropic hormones") collect before entering the portal system. Such hypophysiotropic hormones include: CRF (

text: corticotropin-releasing factor

text: ), GnRH (

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone

text: ), TRH (

text: thyrotropin-releasing hormone

text: ), GHRH (

text: growth hormone-releasing hormone

text: ), and DA (

text: dopamine

text: ). These hypophysiotropic hormones go on to stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.

text: Neural stimuli of the hypothalamus. The next question was, what physiological factors normally stimulate the secretion of the parotid hormone? Feeding pigs a standard pig chow proved to effectively stimulate parotid hormone secretion along with the copious secretion of saliva. Surprisingly, pigs fed nonnutritive substances and exposed to auditory, olfactory and visual cues salivated profusely but these cues did not change the fasting level of the parotid hormone. This demonstrated that, although the endocrine and exocrine functions of the parotid glands occur concurrently, they must be controlled by different mechanisms. The nutritive composition thus proved to be critical for the secretion of the parotid hormone. Apparently nutritive substrates activate neural stimuli going to the hypothalamus, which in turn activates the hypothalamic-parotid gland endocrine axis that then stimulates the dentinal fluid transport mechanism.

text: Neural stimuli of the

text: hypothalamus

text: . The next question was, what physiological factors normally stimulate the secretion of the parotid hormone? Feeding pigs a standard pig chow proved to effectively stimulate parotid hormone secretion along with the copious secretion of saliva. Surprisingly, pigs fed nonnutritive substances and exposed to auditory, olfactory and visual cues salivated profusely but these cues did not change the fasting level of the parotid hormone. This demonstrated that, although the endocrine and exocrine functions of the parotid glands occur concurrently, they must be controlled by different mechanisms. The nutritive composition thus proved to be critical for the secretion of the parotid hormone. Apparently nutritive substrates activate neural stimuli going to the hypothalamus, which in turn activates the hypothalamic-parotid gland endocrine axis that then stimulates the dentinal fluid transport mechanism.

text: The most common examples of "shrubbing" include mispronunciation of the  sound in words such as "shop" and "hashish", the  sound in words such as "is" and "has" and the  sound in words such as "intend" or "endocrine". Following these examples, a person may mispronounce "shop" as  instead of , "hashish" as  instead of , "is" as  instead of , "has" as  instead of  and "endocrine" as  instead of . The word "intend" may be mispronounced as  instead of , while its past participle "intended" may be mispronounced as  (inteded) or  (intendend) instead of .

text: Eicosanoids are signaling molecules made by the enzymatic or non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid or other polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are, like arachidonic acid, 20 carbon units in length. They are a sub-category of Oxylipins, i.e. oxidized fatty acids of diverse carbon units in length but are further distinguished from other oxylipins by their overwhelming importance as cell signaling molecules. Eicosanoids function in diverse physiological and pathological systems including those: mounting or inhibiting inflammation, allergy, fever and other immune responses; influencing the abortion of pregnancy and normal childbirth; contributing to the perception of pain; regulating cell growth; controlling blood pressure; and modulating the regional flow of blood to tissues. In performing these tasks, eicosanoids most often act as autocrine signaling agents to impact their cells of origin or as paracrine signaling agents to impact cells near to their cells of origin.  However, they can also act as endocrine agents to control the function of distant cells.

text: Eicosanoids are

text: signaling molecules

text: made by the

text: enzymatic

text: or non-enzymatic

text: oxidation

text: of arachidonic acid or other

text: polyunsaturated fatty acid

text: s (PUFAs) that are, like arachidonic acid, 20 carbon units in length. They are a sub-category of

text: Oxylipin

text: s, i.e. oxidized fatty acids of diverse carbon units in length but are further distinguished from other oxylipins by their overwhelming importance as

text: cell signal

text: ing molecules. Eicosanoids function in diverse physiological and pathological systems including those: mounting or inhibiting

text: inflammation

text: allergy

text: fever

text: and other

text: immune responses

text: ; influencing the

text: abortion

text: of pregnancy and normal

text: childbirth

text: ; contributing to the perception of

text: pain

text: ; regulating

text: cell growth

text: ; controlling

text: blood pressure

text: ; and modulating the regional flow of blood to tissues. In performing these tasks, eicosanoids most often act as

text: autocrine signaling

text: agents to impact their cells of origin or as

text: paracrine signaling

text: agents to impact cells near to their cells of origin.  However, they can also act as

text: endocrine

text: agents to control the function of distant cells.

text: At the request of his father, Economo began his study of mechanical engineering at the Polytechnic University of Vienna in 1893 but switched to medicine after two years. His first scientific work,  "Zur Entwicklung der Vogelhypophyse"  ("On the Development of the Pituitary Gland in Birds") was published in 1899. Economo worked as an assistant for Sigmund Exner from 1900 until 1903. He received his medical degree in 1901.

text: At the request of his father, Economo began his study of mechanical engineering at the Polytechnic University of Vienna in 1893 but switched to medicine after two years. His first scientific work,  "Zur Entwicklung der Vogelhypophyse"  ("On the Development of the

text: Pituitary Gland

text: in Birds") was published in 1899. Economo worked as an assistant for

text: Sigmund Exner

text: from 1900 until 1903. He received his medical degree in 1901.

text: The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.

text: The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via

text: feedback loop

text: s. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.

text: The pituitary gland or hypophysis is often referred to as the "master gland" of the human body. Part of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, it controls most of the body's endocrine functions via the secretion of various hormones into the circulatory system. The pituitary gland is located below the brain in a depression (fossa) of the sphenoid bone known as the sella turcica. Although anatomically and functionally connected to the brain, the pituitary gland sits outside the blood–brain barrier. It is separated from the subarachnoid space by the diaphragma sella, therefore the arachnoid mater and thus cerebral spinal fluid cannot enter the sella turcica.

text: The pituitary gland or hypophysis is often referred to as the "master gland" of the human body. Part of the

text: hypothalamic-pituitary axis

text: , it controls most of the body's

text: endocrine

text: functions via the secretion of various

text: hormone

text: s into the

text: circulatory system

text: . The pituitary gland is located below the brain in a depression (

text: fossa

text: ) of the

text: sphenoid bone

text: known as the

text: sella turcica

text: . Although anatomically and functionally connected to the brain, the pituitary gland sits outside the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: . It is separated from the

text: subarachnoid space

text: by the

text: diaphragma sella

text: , therefore the

text: arachnoid mater

text: and thus

text: cerebral spinal fluid

text: cannot enter the sella turcica.

text: Endocrine and metabolic: hypertriglyceridemia

text: Harvester ant populations operate without a centralized control system by means of a decentralized chemical communication system, through the process of chemical signalling. Foraging is regulated using positive and negative feedback loops. Ants returning to the colony stimulates outgoing foraging. When ants return to the colony at a higher rate with seeds, this in turn causes the outgoing rate of foragers to increase. As fewer ants bearing seeds return to the colony, the rate of outgoing foragers decreases. The result is foraging regulation relative to the abundance of available food at any given time. The interactions between returning and outgoing foragers operates on a timescale of seconds. It typically only took three to eight seconds for an outgoing forager to leave the nest as a result of an increase in successful returning foragers.

text: Harvester ant

text: populations operate without a centralized control system by means of a decentralized chemical communication system, through the process of chemical signalling. Foraging is regulated using positive and negative feedback loops. Ants returning to the colony stimulates outgoing foraging. When ants return to the colony at a higher rate with seeds, this in turn causes the outgoing rate of foragers to increase. As fewer ants bearing seeds return to the colony, the rate of outgoing foragers decreases. The result is foraging regulation relative to the abundance of available food at any given time. The interactions between returning and outgoing foragers operates on a timescale of seconds. It typically only took three to eight seconds for an outgoing forager to leave the nest as a result of an increase in successful returning foragers.

text: The posterior pituitary stores and secretes (but does not synthesize) the following important endocrine hormones:

text: Important to the function of the HPA axis are some of the feedback loops:

text: Endocrine disrupting chemicals can interfere with the endocrine system in a number of ways including hormone synthesis, storage/release, transport and clearance, receptor recognition and binding, and postreceptor activation.

text: Endocrine disrupting chemicals can interfere with the

text: endocrine system

text: in a number of ways including hormone synthesis, storage/release, transport and clearance, receptor recognition and binding, and postreceptor activation.

text: In 1918, Bailey claimed that  assess radium added to drinking water could be used to treat dozens of conditions, from mental illness and headaches to diabetes, anemia, constipation, and asthma. Bailey became rich from the sale of Radithor, a well known patent medicine/snake oil that is possibly the best known example of radioactive quackery. Bailey created Radithor by dissolving radium salts in water to deliver 1 microcurie of radiation from each of Ra and Ra, claiming its curative properties were due to stimulation of the endocrine system. Radithor was advertised as "A Cure for the Living Dead" as well as "Perpetual Sunshine"

text: In 1918, Bailey claimed that  assess radium added to drinking water could be used to treat dozens of conditions, from mental illness and headaches to diabetes, anemia, constipation, and asthma. Bailey became rich from the sale of

text: Radithor

text: , a well known

text: patent medicine

text: snake oil

text: that is possibly the best known example of

entity_name: Quackery involving radioactive substances

text: radioactive quackery

text: . Bailey created Radithor by dissolving radium salts in water to deliver 1 microcurie of radiation from each of Ra and Ra, claiming its curative properties were due to stimulation of the

text: endocrine system

text: . Radithor was advertised as "A Cure for the Living Dead" as well as "Perpetual Sunshine"

text: NETs are believed to arise from various neuroendocrine cells whose normal function is to serve at the neuroendocrine interface. Neuroendocrine cells are present not only in endocrine glands throughout the body that produce hormones, but are found in all body tissues.

text: NETs are believed to arise from various

text: neuroendocrine cell

text: s whose normal function is to serve at the

text: neuroendocrine

text: interface. Neuroendocrine cells are present not only in

text: endocrine

text: glands throughout the body that produce

text: hormone

text: s, but are found in all body tissues.

text: The leading causes of mortality for all age groups are cerebrovascular diseases (11.6%); ischemic heart disease (9.9%); immunity disorders (7.1%); diseases of the respiratory system (6.8%); diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease (6.6%); endocrine and metabolic diseases (5.5%); diseases of other parts of the Digestive System (5.2%); violence (5.1%); certain condition originating in the prenatal period (4.3%); and hypertensive diseases (3.9%). The ten leading causes of morbidity for all age groups are, in decreasing order: malaria; acute respiratory infections; symptoms, signs and ill defined or unknown conditions; hypertension; accident and injuries; acute diarrhoeal disease; diabetes mellitus; worm infestation; rheumatic arthritis; and mental and nervous disorders.

text: Neuroglobin is a member of the vertebrate globin family involved in cellular oxygen homeostasis. It is an intracellular hemoprotein expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system, cerebrospinal fluid, retina and endocrine tissues. Neuroglobin is a monomer that reversibly binds oxygen with an affinity higher than that of hemoglobin. It also increases oxygen availability to brain tissue and provides protection under hypoxic or ischemic conditions, potentially limiting brain damage. Neuroglobin were in the past found only in vertebrate neurons, but recently in 2013, were found in the neurons of unrelated protostomes, like photosynthesis acoel and jelly fish. In addition to neurons, neuroglobin is present in astrocytes in certain pathologies of the rodent brain and in the physiological seal brain. This is thought to be due to convergent evolution. It is of ancient evolutionary origin, and is homologous to nerve globins of invertebrates. Recent research on Neuroglobin presence confirmed that Human neuroglobin protein in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

text: Neuroglobin is a member of the vertebrate

text: globin

text: family involved in cellular oxygen

text: homeostasis

text: . It is an intracellular

text: hemoprotein

text: expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system,

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: retina

text: and

text: endocrine

text: tissues. Neuroglobin is a

text: monomer

text: that reversibly binds oxygen with an affinity higher than that of

text: hemoglobin

text: . It also increases oxygen availability to brain tissue and provides protection under

text: hypoxic

text: or

text: ischemic

text: conditions, potentially limiting brain damage. Neuroglobin were in the past found only in vertebrate neurons, but recently in 2013, were found in the neurons of unrelated

text: protostome

text: s, like

text: photosynthesis

text: acoel

text: and

text: jelly fish

text: . In addition to neurons, neuroglobin is present in

text: astrocytes

text: in certain pathologies of the rodent brain and in the physiological

text: seal

text: brain. This is thought to be due to

text: convergent evolution

text: . It is of ancient evolutionary origin, and is homologous to nerve globins of invertebrates. Recent research on Neuroglobin presence confirmed that Human neuroglobin protein in

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF).

text: Both feedback loops act simultaneously, but at different times they may have different strengths.  Thus one would expect growing sales in the initial years, and then declining sales in the later years.

text: The classical definition of a closed loop system for human movement comes from Jack A. Adams (1971) : „ A closed loop system has feedback, error detection and error correction as key elements. There is a reference that specifies the desired value for the system, and the output of the system is fed back and compared to the reference for error detection and, if necessary corrected..... A closed loop system is self regulating by compensating for deviating from the reference.”Most movements that are carried out during day-to-day activity are formed using a continual process of accessing sensory information and using it to more accurately continue the motion. This type of motor control is called feedback control, as it relies on sensory feedback to control movements. Feedback control is a situated form of motor control, relying on sensory information about performance and specific sensory input from the environment in which the movement is carried out. This sensory input, while processed, does not necessarily cause conscious awareness of the action.  Closed loop control is a feedback based mechanism of motor control, where any act on the environment creates some sort of change that affects future performance through feedback. Closed loop motor control is best suited to continuously controlled actions, but does not work quickly enough for ballistic actions. Ballistic actions are actions that continue to the end without thinking about it, even when they no longer are appropriate.Because feedback control relies on sensory information, it is as slow as sensory processing. These movements are subject to a speed/accuracy trade-off, because sensory processing is being used to control the movement, the faster the movement is carried out, the less accurate it becomes.

text: The classical definition of a closed loop system for human movement comes from Jack A. Adams (1971) : „ A closed loop system has feedback, error detection and error correction as key elements. There is a reference that specifies the desired value for the system, and the output of the system is fed back and compared to the reference for error detection and, if necessary corrected..... A closed loop system is self regulating by compensating for deviating from the reference.”Most movements that are carried out during day-to-day activity are formed using a continual process of accessing sensory information and using it to more accurately continue the motion. This type of motor control is called

text: feedback control

text: , as it relies on sensory feedback to control movements. Feedback control is a situated form of motor control, relying on sensory information about performance and specific sensory input from the environment in which the movement is carried out. This sensory input, while processed, does not necessarily cause conscious awareness of the action.  Closed loop control is a feedback based mechanism of motor control, where any act on the environment creates some sort of change that affects future performance through feedback. Closed loop motor control is best suited to continuously controlled actions, but does not work quickly enough for ballistic actions. Ballistic actions are actions that continue to the end without thinking about it, even when they no longer are appropriate.Because feedback control relies on sensory information, it is as slow as sensory processing. These movements are subject to a speed/accuracy trade-off, because sensory processing is being used to control the movement, the faster the movement is carried out, the less accurate it becomes.

text: Large-cell neuroendocrine cancer refers to the large-cell type of neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) that arise from cells of the endocrine (hormonal) and nervous systems. They can be benign or malignant, and can occur:

text: Large-cell neuroendocrine cancer refers to the large-cell type of

text: neuroendocrine tumor

text: s (NETs) that arise from cells of the

text: endocrine

text: hormonal

text: ) and

text: nervous system

text: s. They can be

text: benign

text: or

text: malignant

text: , and can occur:

text: There has been controversy over endocrine disruptors, with some groups calling for swift action by regulators to remove them from the market, and regulators and other scientists calling for further study. Some endocrine disruptors have been identified and removed from the market (for example, a drug called diethylstilbestrol), but it is uncertain whether some endocrine disruptors on the market actually harm humans and wildlife at the doses to which wildlife and humans are exposed. Additionally, a key scientific paper, published in the journal Science, which helped launch the movement of those opposed to endocrine disruptors, was retracted and its author found to have committed scientific misconduct.

text: There has been controversy over endocrine disruptors, with some groups calling for swift action by regulators to remove them from the market, and regulators and other scientists calling for further study. Some endocrine disruptors have been identified and removed from the market (for example, a drug called

text: diethylstilbestrol

text: ), but it is uncertain whether some endocrine disruptors on the market actually harm humans and wildlife at the doses to which wildlife and humans are exposed. Additionally, a key scientific paper, published in the journal

text: Science

text: , which helped launch the movement of those opposed to endocrine disruptors, was retracted and its author found to have committed scientific misconduct.

text: There can be feedforward paths within the system in parallel with one or more of the feedback loops of the system so that the system output is a compound of the outputs of the feedback loops and of the parallel feedforward paths. Feedforward and feedback often occur in one and the same system. It makes sense to speak of a control system only if it contains at least one feedforward path; the presence or absence of feedback is contingent.

text: There can be feedforward paths within the system in parallel with one or more of the

text: feedback loops

text: of the system so that the system output is a compound of the outputs of the feedback loops and of the parallel feedforward paths. Feedforward and feedback often occur in one and the same system. It makes sense to speak of a

text: control system

text: only if it contains at least one feedforward path; the presence or absence of feedback is contingent.

text: The pancreas, located in the abdomen close to the stomach, is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland. The alpha and beta cells are the endocrine cells in the pancreatic islets that release insulin and glucagon and smaller amounts of other hormones into the blood.

text: The pancreas, located in the abdomen close to the stomach, is both an

text: exocrine

text: and an endocrine gland. The

text: alpha

text: and

text: beta cell

text: s are the endocrine cells in the

text: pancreatic islets

text: that release

text: insulin

text: and

text: glucagon

text: and smaller amounts of other hormones into the blood.

text: As a result of this feedback loop and short supply chain, LWD does not have the overstock problems that beset larger, traditional clothing retailers, with accumulations of unsold product on shelves and in warehouses. While warning that LWD's system isn't perfect—"[t]here are all kinds of early demand indicators that could be wrong"—Mulpuru sees lots of upside. "[Y]our chances of picking a hit are going to be better, and you will have fewer markdowns."

text: As a result of this feedback loop and short

text: supply chain

text: , LWD does not have the

text: overstock

text: problems that beset larger, traditional clothing retailers, with accumulations of unsold product on shelves and in warehouses. While warning that LWD's system isn't perfect—"[t]here are all kinds of early

text: demand

text: indicators that could be wrong"—Mulpuru sees lots of upside. "[Y]our chances of picking a hit are going to be better, and you will have fewer markdowns."

text: Neuroendocrine cells in the human prostate contain a diverse array of secretory products: serotonin (which is present in virtually all neuroendocrine prostatic cells, chromogranin A (CgA), synaptophysin and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) (three proteins that are used as markers for neuroendocrine cells) calcitonin and other peptides of the calcitonin family (calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and katacalcin, which colocalize to the calcitonin-containing cells), bombesin/gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), thyroid stimulating hormone-like peptide, parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), alpha-human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), somatostatin, cholecystokinin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and adrenomedullin. The physiology of their secretion and its regulation is incompletely understood. Regulatory cues might come through endocrine, paracrine (from neighboring neuroendocrine cells), autocrine or neurocrine routes. The open type cells may in addition receive regulatory signals from luminal moleculesThe developmental origin of these cells is as yet unknown. They are thought to arise from a different precursor than other epithelial prostatic cells, possibly through a neurogenic lineage of their own, which is therefore distinct from the secretory and basal cells that derive from urogenital sinus.

text: Neuroendocrine cells in the human prostate contain a diverse array of secretory products:

text: serotonin

text: (which is present in virtually all neuroendocrine prostatic cells,

text: chromogranin A (CgA)

text: synaptophysin

text: and

text: neuron-specific enolase (NSE)

text: (three proteins that are used as markers for neuroendocrine cells)

text: calcitonin

text: and other peptides of the calcitonin family (

text: calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)

text: and katacalcin, which colocalize to the calcitonin-containing cells),

text: bombesin/gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)

text: thyroid stimulating hormone

text: -like peptide,

text: parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP)

text: , alpha-

text: human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

text: somatostatin

text: cholecystokinin

text: vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

text: neuropeptide Y

text: vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)

text: , and

text: adrenomedullin

text: . The physiology of their secretion and its regulation is incompletely understood. Regulatory cues might come through endocrine, paracrine (from neighboring neuroendocrine cells), autocrine or neurocrine routes. The open type cells may in addition receive regulatory signals from luminal moleculesThe developmental origin of these cells is as yet unknown. They are thought to arise from a different precursor than other epithelial prostatic cells, possibly through a neurogenic lineage of their own, which is therefore distinct from the secretory and basal cells that derive from urogenital sinus.

text: Somatostatinoma is a malignant tumor of the delta cells of the endocrine pancreas that produces somatostatin. Increased levels of somatostatin inhibit pancreatic hormones and gastrointestinal hormones. Thus somatostatinomas are associated with mild diabetes mellitus (due to inhibition of insulin release), steatorrhoea and gallstones (due to inhibition of cholecystokinin release), and achlorhydria (due to inhibition of gastrin release). Somatostatinomas are commonly found in head of pancreas.

text: Somatostatinoma is a

text: malignant tumor

text: of the

text: delta cells

text: of the

text: endocrine pancreas

text: that produces

text: somatostatin

text: . Increased levels of somatostatin inhibit

text: pancreatic hormones

text: and

text: gastrointestinal hormones

text: . Thus somatostatinomas are associated with mild

text: diabetes mellitus

text: (due to inhibition of

text: insulin

text: release),

text: steatorrhoea

text: and

text: gallstones

text: (due to inhibition of

text: cholecystokinin

text: release), and achlorhydria (due to inhibition of

text: gastrin

text: release). Somatostatinomas are commonly found in

text: head of pancreas

text: The main disorders involving the pituitary gland are:

text: The pituitary gland is located in a recess in the skull base known as the sella turcica ("Turkish saddle", after its shape). It is attached to the hypothalamus, a part of the brain, by a stalk that also contains the blood vessels that supply the gland. It is unclear why pituitary tumors are five times more likely to bleed than other tumors in the brain. There are various proposed mechanisms by which a tumor can increase the risk of either infarction (insufficient blood supply leading to tissue dysfunction) or hemorrhage. The pituitary gland normally derives its blood supply from vessels that pass through the hypothalamus, but tumors develop a blood supply from the nearby inferior hypophyseal artery that generates a higher blood pressure, possibly accounting for the risk of bleeding. Tumors may also be more sensitive to fluctuations in blood pressure, and the blood vessels may show structural abnormalities that make them vulnerable to damage. It has been suggested that infarction alone causes milder symptoms than either hemorrhage or hemorrhagic infarction (infarction followed by hemorrhage into the damaged tissue). Larger tumors are more prone to bleeding, and more rapidly growing lesions (as evidenced by detection of increased levels of the protein PCNA) may also be at a higher risk of apoplexy.

text: The pituitary gland is located in a recess in the

text: skull base

text: known as the

text: sella turcica

text: ("Turkish saddle", after its shape). It is attached to the

text: hypothalamus

text: , a part of the brain, by a stalk that also contains the blood vessels that supply the gland. It is unclear why pituitary tumors are five times more likely to bleed than other tumors in the brain. There are various proposed mechanisms by which a tumor can increase the risk of either infarction (insufficient blood supply leading to tissue dysfunction) or hemorrhage. The pituitary gland normally derives its blood supply from vessels that pass through the hypothalamus, but tumors develop a blood supply from the nearby

text: inferior hypophyseal artery

text: that generates a higher

text: blood pressure

text: , possibly accounting for the risk of bleeding. Tumors may also be more sensitive to fluctuations in blood pressure, and the blood vessels may show structural abnormalities that make them vulnerable to damage. It has been suggested that infarction alone causes milder symptoms than either hemorrhage or hemorrhagic infarction (infarction followed by hemorrhage into the damaged tissue). Larger tumors are more prone to bleeding, and more rapidly growing lesions (as evidenced by detection of increased levels of the protein

text: PCNA

text: ) may also be at a higher risk of apoplexy.

text: Pan-European sub-specialist endocrine societies

text: MEAs have been used to interface neuronal networks with non-biological systems as a controller. For example, a neural-computer interface can be created using MEAs. Dissociated rat cortical neurons were integrated into a closed stimulus-response feedback loop to control an animat in a virtual environment. A closed-loop stimulus-response system has also been constructed using an MEA by Dr. Potter, Dr. Mandhavan, and Dr. DeMarse, and by Mark Hammond, Kevin Warwick, and Ben Whalley in the University of Reading. About 300,000 dissociated rat neurons were plated on an MEA, which was connected to motors and ultrasound sensors on a robot, and was conditioned to avoid obstacles when sensed. Along these lines, Shimon Marom and colleagues in the Technion hooked dissociated neuronal networks growing on MEAs to a  Lego Mindstorms robot; the visual field of the robot was classified by the network, and commands were delivered to the robot wheels such that it completely avoids bumping into obstacles . link to movie. Interestingly, this "Braitenberg Vehicle" was used to demonstrate the indeterminacy of reverse neuro-engineering  showing that even in a simple setup with practically unlimited access to every piece of relevant information, it was impossible to deduce with certainty the specific neural coding scheme that was used to drive the robots behavior.

text: MEAs have been used to interface neuronal networks with non-biological systems as a controller. For example, a neural-computer interface can be created using MEAs. Dissociated rat

text: cortical

text: neurons were integrated into a closed stimulus-response feedback loop to control an animat in a virtual environment. A

text: closed-loop

text: stimulus-response system has also been constructed using an MEA by Dr. Potter, Dr. Mandhavan, and Dr. DeMarse, and by Mark Hammond,

text: Kevin Warwick

text: , and Ben Whalley in the

text: University of Reading

text: . About 300,000 dissociated rat neurons were plated on an MEA, which was connected to motors and

text: ultrasound

text: sensors on a robot, and was conditioned to avoid obstacles when sensed. Along these lines, Shimon Marom and colleagues in the

entity_name: Technion – Israel Institute of Technology

text: Technion

text: hooked dissociated neuronal networks growing on MEAs to a

text: Lego Mindstorms

text: robot; the visual field of the robot was classified by the network, and commands were delivered to the robot wheels such that it completely avoids bumping into obstacles . link to movie. Interestingly, this

text: "Braitenberg Vehicle"

text: was used to demonstrate the

text: indeterminacy

text: of reverse neuro-engineering  showing that even in a simple setup with practically unlimited access to every piece of relevant information, it was impossible to deduce with certainty the specific

text: neural coding

text: scheme that was used to drive the robots behavior.

text: Several mammalian clock genes have been identified and characterized through experiments on animals harboring naturally occurring, chemically induced, and targeted knockout mutations, and various comparative genomic approaches. The majority of identified clock components are transcriptional activators or repressors that modulate protein stability and nuclear translocation, and create two interlocking feedback loops. In the primary feedback loop, members of the basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH)-PAS (Period-Arnt-Single-minded) transcription factor family, CLOCK and BMAL1, heterodimerize in the cytoplasm to form a complex that, following translocation to the nucleus, initiates transcription of target genes such as the core clock genes 'period' genes (PER1, PER2, and PER3) and two cryptochrome genes (CRY1 and CRY2). Negative feedback is achieved by PER:CRY heterodimers that translocate back to the nucleus to repress their own transcription by inhibiting the activity of the CLOCK:BMAL1 complexes. Another regulatory loop is induced when CLOCK:BMAL1 heterodimers activate the transcription of Rev-ErbA and Rora, two retinoic acid-related orphan nuclear receptors. REV-ERBa and RORa subsequently compete to bind retinoic acid-related orphan receptor response elements (ROREs) present in Bmal1 promoter. Through the subsequent binding of ROREs, members of ROR and REV-ERB are able to regulate Bmal1. While RORs activate transcription of Bmal1, REV-ERBs repress the same transcription process. Hence, the circadian oscillation of Bmal1 is both positively and negatively regulated by RORs and REV-ERBs.

text: Several mammalian clock genes have been identified and characterized through experiments on animals harboring naturally occurring, chemically induced, and targeted knockout mutations, and various comparative genomic approaches. The majority of identified clock components are transcriptional activators or repressors that modulate protein stability and nuclear translocation, and create two interlocking feedback loops. In the primary feedback loop, members of the

text: basic helix-loop-helix

text: (bHLH)-PAS (Period-Arnt-Single-minded) transcription factor family,

text: CLOCK

text: and

text: heterodimer

text: ize in the cytoplasm to form a complex that, following translocation to the nucleus, initiates transcription of target genes such as the core clock genes 'period' genes (

text: , and

text: ) and two cryptochrome genes (

text: and

text: ). Negative feedback is achieved by PER:CRY heterodimers that translocate back to the nucleus to repress their own transcription by inhibiting the activity of the CLOCK:BMAL1 complexes. Another regulatory loop is induced when CLOCK:BMAL1 heterodimers activate the transcription of

text: Rev-ErbA

text: and Rora, two retinoic acid-related orphan nuclear receptors. REV-ERBa and RORa subsequently compete to bind retinoic acid-related orphan receptor response elements (ROREs) present in Bmal1 promoter. Through the subsequent binding of ROREs, members of ROR and REV-ERB are able to regulate Bmal1. While RORs activate transcription of Bmal1, REV-ERBs repress the same transcription process. Hence, the circadian oscillation of Bmal1 is both positively and negatively regulated by RORs and REV-ERBs.

text: Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.  Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic responses where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.

text: Hormones are used to communicate between

text: organs

text: and tissues for

text: physiological

text: regulation and

text: behavioral

text: activities, such as digestion,

text: metabolism

text: respiration

text: tissue

text: function,

text: sensory perception

text: sleep

text: excretion

text: lactation

text: stress

text: growth and development

text: movement

text: reproduction

text: , and

text: mood

text: .  Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific

text: receptor

text: proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a

text: signal transduction

text: pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower

text: genomic

text: responses

text: where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene

text: transcription

text: resulting in increased

text: expression

text: of target proteins. Amino acid–based hormones (

text: amines

text: and

text: peptide or protein hormones

text: ) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via

text: second messengers

text: steroid hormone

text: s, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both

text: cytoplasmic

text: and

text: nuclear

text: ) to act within their

text: nuclei

text: A full endocrine workup will be required to measure the levels of the other pituitary hormones, especially prolactin, to check that the pituitary gland is working correctly. There can be other general health issues such as being overweight or having an underlying chronic or acute illness which could cause a delay of puberty. This makes it essential for a patient to get a full endocrine review to distinguish between a case of KS/HH and another cause for the pubertal delay.

text: A full

text: endocrine

text: workup will be required to measure the levels of the other

text: pituitary hormones

text: , especially

text: prolactin

text: , to check that the

text: pituitary gland

text: is working correctly. There can be other general health issues such as being overweight or having an underlying

text: chronic

text: or

text: acute

text: illness which could cause a delay of puberty. This makes it essential for a patient to get a full endocrine review to distinguish between a case of KS/HH and another cause for the pubertal delay.

text: A myokine is one of several hundred cytokines or other small proteins (~5–20 kDa) and proteoglycan peptides that are produced and released by muscle cells (myocytes) in response to muscular contractions. They have autocrine, paracrine and/or endocrine effects; their systemic effects occur at picomolar concentrations.

text: A myokine is one of several hundred

text: cytokine

text: s or other small

text: protein

text: s (~5–20 kDa) and

text: proteoglycan

text: peptide

text: s that are produced and released by muscle cells (

text: myocytes

text: ) in response to

text: muscular contractions

text: . They have

text: autocrine

text: paracrine

text: and/or

text: endocrine

text: effects; their systemic effects occur at

text: picomolar

text: concentrations.

text: Most endocrine glands, such as the gonads, pancreas, and adrenal glands, produce non-tropic hormones. Those released from the pituitary gland in the brain include:

text: Most endocrine glands, such as the

text: gonad

text: s,

text: pancreas

text: , and

text: adrenal gland

text: s, produce non-tropic hormones. Those released from the

text: pituitary gland

text: in the brain include:

text: The main therapeutic factors in the mildly acidic thermal water are carbon, low-mineralized silicates, sulfates, magnesi-hydrocarbons and sulfide silt mud, which are reputed to effectively treat diseases of the metabolism and the digestive, circulatory, respiratory, urinary and endocrine systems. The waters range in temperature from 11-45°C. The waters belong to Class 1 of the classification system of V. A. Alexandrova because of their high carbolic acid gas content.

text: Additionally, when teams are continuously executing a broad set of continuous tests throughout the SDLC, they amass metrics regarding the quality of the process as well as the state of the software. The resulting metrics can be used to re-examine and optimize the process itself, including the effectiveness of those tests. This information can be used to establish a feedback loop that helps teams incrementally improve the process. Frequent measurement, tight feedback loops, and continuous improvement are key principles of DevOps.

text: Additionally, when teams are continuously executing a broad set of continuous tests throughout the SDLC, they amass metrics regarding the quality of the process as well as the state of the software. The resulting metrics can be used to re-examine and optimize the process itself, including the effectiveness of those tests. This information can be used to establish a feedback loop that helps teams incrementally improve the process. Frequent measurement, tight feedback loops, and continuous improvement are key principles of

text: DevOps

text: The expression of VMAT1 in healthy endocrine cells was compared to VMAT1 expression in infants with hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia and adults with pancreatic endocrine tumors.  Through immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH), they found VMAT1 and VMAT2 were located in mutually exclusive cell types, and that in insulinomas VMAT2 activity disappeared, suggesting that if only VMAT1 activity is present in the endocrine system, this type of cancer is likely.

text: The expression of VMAT1 in healthy endocrine cells was compared to VMAT1 expression in infants with

text: hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia

text: and adults with pancreatic endocrine tumors.  Through

text: immunohistochemistry

text: (IHC) and

text: in situ hybridization

text: (ISH), they found VMAT1 and VMAT2 were located in mutually exclusive cell types, and that in insulinomas VMAT2 activity disappeared, suggesting that if only VMAT1 activity is present in the endocrine system, this type of cancer is likely.

text: Regina Vasilatos-Younken, (Professor of Endocrine Physiology and Nutrition, Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition, Penn State) is senior associate dean of The Graduate School. Dr. Vasilatos-Younken is responsible for operations and planning at the Graduate School.

text: Regina Vasilatos-Younken

text: , (Professor of Endocrine Physiology and Nutrition, Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition, Penn State) is senior associate dean of The Graduate School. Dr. Vasilatos-Younken is responsible for operations and planning at the Graduate School.

text: Another class of molecules used for transmitting signals in the cell is hormones. Caged derivates of estradiol were shown to induce gene expression upon uncaging other caged hormones were used to study receptor – ligand interactions.

text: Another class of molecules used for transmitting signals in the cell is

text: hormones

text: . Caged derivates of

text: estradiol

text: were shown to induce

text: gene expression

text: upon uncaging other caged hormones were used to study

text: receptor

text: ligand

text: interactions.

text: Some studies suggest that TBBPA may be an endocrine disruptor and immunotoxicant. As an endocrine disruptor, TBBPA may interfere with both estrogens and androgens. Further, TBBPA structurally mimics the thyroid hormone thyroxin (T) and can bind more strongly to the transport protein transthyretin than T does, likely interfering with normal T activity. TBBPA likely also suppresses immune responses by inhibiting expression of CD25 receptors on T cells, preventing their activation, and by reducing natural killer cell activity.

text: Some studies suggest that TBBPA may be an

text: endocrine disruptor

text: and immunotoxicant. As an endocrine disruptor, TBBPA may interfere with both

text: estrogen

text: s and

text: androgen

text: s. Further, TBBPA structurally mimics the thyroid hormone

text: thyroxin

text: (T) and can bind more strongly to the transport protein

text: transthyretin

text: than T does, likely interfering with normal T activity. TBBPA likely also suppresses immune responses by inhibiting expression of

text: receptors on

text: T cell

text: s, preventing their activation, and by reducing

text: natural killer cell

text: activity.

text: Other examples include the poverty cycle, sharecropping, and the intensification of drought. In climate change science, feedback loops involve positive feedbacks and negative feedbacks that respectively serve to intensify or dampen the effects of global warming.

text: Other examples include the

text: poverty cycle

text: sharecropping

text: , and the intensification of

text: drought

text: . In

text: climate change

text: science,

text: feedback loops

text: involve

text: positive feedback

text: s and

text: negative feedback

text: s that respectively serve to intensify or dampen the

text: effects of global warming

text: A feedback loop needs within itself both a feedforward element and a feedback element. For example, the feedforward element (for example a transistor) in an amplifier has access to a controlled power reservoir and provides power gain for the loop and is therefore called an active element. The feedback element is often, but not always, passive (for example a resistor). It makes sense to speak of a feedback loop only when referring to a loop with a well-defined active feedforward element. Without this, a loop does not have a definite sense (clockwise or anti-clockwise) of signal circulation by which one could distinguish its feedforward and feedback elements. Without this definite sense of signal circulation one is looking at a mere mesh in a network, and it makes no sense to speak of a feedback loop.

text: A feedback loop needs within itself both a feedforward element and a feedback element. For example, the feedforward element (for example a transistor) in an amplifier has access to a controlled power reservoir and provides

text: power gain

text: for the loop and is therefore called an active element. The feedback element is often, but not always, passive (for example a resistor). It makes sense to speak of a feedback loop only when referring to a loop with a well-defined active feedforward element. Without this, a loop does not have a definite sense (clockwise or

text: anti-clockwise

text: ) of signal circulation by which one could distinguish its feedforward and feedback elements. Without this definite sense of signal circulation one is looking at a mere mesh in a network, and it makes no sense to speak of a feedback loop.

text: Feedback loops provide generic mechanisms for controlling the running, maintenance, and evolution of software and computing systems. Feedback-loops are important models in the engineering of adaptive software, as they define the behaviour of the interactions among the control elements over the adaptation process, to guarantee system properties at run-time. Feedback loops and foundations of control theory have been successfully applied to computing systems. In particular, they have been applied to the development of products such as IBM's Universal Database server and IBM Tivoli. From a software perspective, the autonomic (MAPE, monitor analyze plan execute) loop proposed by researchers of IBM is another valuable contribution to the application of feedback loops to the control of dynamic properties and the design and evolution of autonomic software systems.

text: Feedback loops provide generic mechanisms for controlling the running, maintenance, and evolution of software and computing systems. Feedback-loops are important models in the engineering of adaptive software, as they define the behaviour of the interactions among the control elements over the adaptation process, to guarantee system properties at run-time. Feedback loops and foundations of control theory have been successfully applied to computing systems. In particular, they have been applied to the development of products such as

text: IBM's Universal Database server

text: and

text: IBM Tivoli

text: . From a software perspective, the

text: autonomic

text: (MAPE, monitor analyze plan execute) loop proposed by researchers of IBM is another valuable contribution to the application of feedback loops to the control of dynamic properties and the design and evolution of autonomic software systems.

text: The median preoptic nucleus is located dorsal to the other three nuclei of the preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is located just beneath the thalamus, the main sensory relay station of the nervous system, and is considered part of the limbic system, which also includes structures such as the hippocampus and the amygdala. The hypothalamus is highly involved in maintaining homeostasis of the body, and the median preoptic nucleus is no exception, contributing to regulation of blood composition, body temperature, and non-REM sleep.

text: The median preoptic nucleus is located dorsal to the other three nuclei of the

text: preoptic area

text: of the

text: anterior

text: hypothalamus

text: . The hypothalamus is located just beneath the

text: thalamus

text: , the main sensory relay station of the

text: nervous system

text: , and is considered part of the

text: limbic system

text: , which also includes structures such as the

text: hippocampus

text: and the

text: amygdala

text: . The hypothalamus is highly involved in maintaining

text: homeostasis

text: of the body, and the median preoptic nucleus is no exception, contributing to regulation of blood composition,

text: body temperature

text: , and

text: non-REM sleep

text: There exists a number of meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, savīrya-dhyāna, etc. In padāstha dhyāna one focuses on Mantra. A Mantra could be either a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All Jain followers irrespective of their sect, whether Digambara or Svetambara, practice mantra. Mantra chanting is an important part of daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or silently in mind. Yogasana and Pranayama has been an important practice undertaken since ages. Pranayama – breathing exercises – are performed to strengthen the five Pranas or vital energy. Yogasana and Pranayama balances the functioning of neuro-endocrine system of body and helps in achieving good physical, mental and emotional health.

text: There exists a number of meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, savīrya-dhyāna, etc. In padāstha dhyāna one focuses on

text: Mantra

text: . A Mantra could be either a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All Jain followers irrespective of their sect, whether

text: Digambar

text: a or

text: Svetambara

text: , practice mantra. Mantra chanting is an important part of daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or silently in mind.

text: Yogasana

text: and Pranayama has been an important practice undertaken since ages. Pranayama – breathing exercises – are performed to strengthen the five Pranas or vital energy. Yogasana and Pranayama balances the functioning of neuro-endocrine system of body and helps in achieving good physical, mental and emotional health.

text: In 1985, research by neuropharmacologist Candace Pert, of the National Institutes of Health at Georgetown University, revealed that neuropeptide-specific receptors are present on the cell walls of both the brain and the immune system. The discovery that neuropeptides and neurotransmitters act directly upon the immune system shows their close association with emotions and suggests mechanisms through which emotions, from the limbic system, and immunology are deeply interdependent. Showing that the immune and endocrine systems are modulated not only by the brain but also by the central nervous system itself affected the understanding of emotions, as well as disease.

text: In 1985, research by

text: neuropharmacologist

text: Candace Pert

text: , of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: at

text: Georgetown University

text: , revealed that

text: neuropeptide

text: -specific receptors are present on the cell walls of both the brain and the immune system. The discovery that neuropeptides and neurotransmitters act directly upon the immune system shows their close association with

text: emotions

text: and suggests mechanisms through which emotions, from the

text: limbic system

text: , and immunology are deeply interdependent. Showing that the immune and

text: endocrine

text: systems are modulated not only by the brain but also by the

text: central nervous system

text: itself affected the understanding of emotions, as well as disease.

text: The pituitary gland hangs from the base of the brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It consists of a hormone-producing glandular portion (anterior pituitary) and a neural portion (posterior pituitary), which is an extension of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus regulates the hormonal output of the anterior pituitary and synthesizes two hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary for storage and later release.

text: The

text: pituitary gland

text: hangs from the base of the

text: brain

text: by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It consists of a hormone-producing glandular portion (

text: anterior

text: pituitary

text: ) and a neural portion (

text: posterior

text: pituitary), which is an extension of the

text: hypothalamus

text: . The hypothalamus regulates the hormonal output of the anterior pituitary and synthesizes two hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary for storage and later release.

text: Endocrine disruption may also directly decrease fertility, such as changed levels of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, gonadotropins (especially an increase in luteinizing hormone), hyperandrogenemia, and hyperinsulinemia. Gonadotropins are released by gonadotroph cells in pituary gland, and these cells appear to harbor insulin receptors, which are affected by elevated insulin levels. A reason that insulin sensitizers work in increasing fertility is that they lower total insulin levels in body as metabolic tissues regain sensitivity to the hormone. This reduces the overstimulation of gonadotroph cells in pituitary.

text: Endocrine disruption may also directly decrease fertility, such as changed levels of

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone

text: gonadotropins

text: (especially an increase in

text: luteinizing hormone

text: hyperandrogenemia

text: , and

text: hyperinsulinemia

text: Gonadotropins

text: are released by gonadotroph cells in

text: pituary gland

text: , and these cells appear to harbor insulin receptors, which are affected by elevated insulin levels. A reason that insulin sensitizers work in increasing fertility is that they lower total insulin levels in body as metabolic tissues regain sensitivity to the hormone. This reduces the overstimulation of gonadotroph cells in pituitary.

text: Closed loop feedback systems use an electronic controller that operates in much the same way as in a petrol fuel injection systems, using an oxygen sensor to effectively measure the air/fuel mixture by measuring the oxygen content of the exhaust and control valve on the converter or in the vapour line to adjust the mixture. Mixer type systems that do not have a closed loop feedback fitted are sometimes referred to as open loop systems.

text: Closed loop feedback systems use an electronic controller that operates in much the same way as in a petrol

text: fuel injection

text: systems, using an

text: oxygen sensor

text: to effectively measure the air/fuel mixture by measuring the oxygen content of the exhaust and control valve on the converter or in the vapour line to adjust the mixture. Mixer type systems that do not have a closed loop feedback fitted are sometimes referred to as open loop systems.

text: In 1958, Lazarus was one of the founders of the Endocrine Society of Australia and in 1982, he was made a Life Member of the Endocrine Society of Australia. In 1988, he was appointed an Officer in the Order of Australia (AO) "For service to medicine, particularly in the field of medical research". In 1993, he was the Roman Travelling Lecturer of the Australasian Association of Clinical Biochemists. In this role he visited all of the Australian and New Zealand capital cities to give the Roman Lecture for 1993, on "The Clinical Biochemist as Information Scientist".

text: In 1958, Lazarus was one of the founders of the Endocrine Society of Australia and in 1982, he was made a Life Member of the Endocrine Society of Australia. In 1988, he was appointed an Officer in the

text: Order of Australia

text: (AO) "For service to medicine, particularly in the field of medical research". In 1993, he was the Roman Travelling Lecturer of the Australasian Association of Clinical Biochemists. In this role he visited all of the Australian and New Zealand capital cities to give the Roman Lecture for 1993, on "The Clinical Biochemist as Information Scientist".

text: Although the text was written over 40 years ago, the topics covered in the text are quite similar to those that would be covered in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how much further along the study of phoniatry was compared to other subdivisions of Speech Language Pathology at the time. For example, topics covered in this text included: speech acoustics, observational methods, treatment of laryngeal electromyography, physiology of respiration and voice production, genetic factors in voice, development of voice throughout the lifespan, professional voice, voice therapy; pathology of the larynx, nodules, asymetries, genetic defects of voice and laryngeal web, sulcus glottides, voice related endocrine problems, the effects of peripheral nerve lesions, the sympathetic nervous system; laryngeal myopathy, central lesions of the nervous system, laryngeal trauma, cordectomy, joint disorders, alaryngeal voice, vasomotor effects on vocal fold function, functional dysphonias, contact ulcers, ventricular voice, and psychogenic voice disorders.

text: Although the text was written over 40 years ago, the topics covered in the text are quite similar to those that would be covered in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how much further along the study of

text: phoniatry

text: was compared to other subdivisions of

text: Speech Language Pathology

text: at the time. For example, topics covered in this text included:

text: speech

text: acoustics

text: observational methods

text: , treatment of

text: laryngeal electromyography

text: , physiology of

text: respiration

text: and voice production,

text: genetic

text: factors in voice, development of voice throughout the lifespan, professional voice,

text: voice therapy

text: ; pathology of the

text: larynx

text: nodules

text: asymetries

text: , genetic defects of voice and

text: laryngeal web

text: sulcus glottides

text: , voice related

text: endocrine

text: problems, the effects of

text: peripheral nerve lesions

text: , the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: laryngeal myopathy

text: , central lesions of the nervous system,

text: laryngeal trauma

text: cordectomy

text: joint disorder

text: s,

text: alaryngeal voice

text: vasomotor effect

text: s on vocal fold function,

text: functional dysphonias

text: contact ulcer

text: s,

text: ventricular voice

text: , and

text: psychogenic voice disorder

text: s.

text: Electronic feedback loops are used to control the output of electronic devices, such as amplifiers. A feedback loop is created when all or some portion of the output is fed back to the input. A device is said to be operating open loop if no output feedback is being employed and closed loop if feedback is being used.

text: Electronic feedback loops are used to control the output of

text: electronic

text: devices, such as

text: amplifiers

text: . A feedback loop is created when all or some portion of the output is fed back to the input. A device is said to be operating open loop if no output feedback is being employed and closed loop if feedback is being used.

text: 80% of patients with pituitary antibodies also have antibodies to thyroid gland or its hormones. Likewise, 20% of autoimmune thyroid patients also have pituitary antibodies.  It follows that a subset of thyroid patients may have a disease related to autoimmune hypophysitis.  Recent research has focused on a defect at the CTLA-4 gene which, coupled with other factors, may result in autoimmunity primarily focusing on certain endocrine glands including the pituitary and thyroid.

text: 80% of patients with pituitary antibodies also have antibodies to thyroid gland or its hormones. Likewise, 20% of autoimmune thyroid patients also have pituitary antibodies.  It follows that a subset of thyroid patients may have a disease related to autoimmune hypophysitis.  Recent research has focused on a defect at the

text: gene which, coupled with other factors, may result in autoimmunity primarily focusing on certain endocrine glands including the pituitary and thyroid.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the physiological processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus, controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the

text: nervous system

text: and the

text: endocrine system

text: , including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called

text: neuroendocrine integration

text: , to regulate the

text: physiological

text: processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the

text: hypothalamus

text: , controls secretion of

text: pituitary gland

text: hormone

text: s, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Acute megacolon develops because of abnormal intestinal motility. Normal colonic motility requires integration of myogenic, neural, and hormonal influences. The enteric nervous system is independent but is connected to the central nervous system by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The targets of the enteric neurons are muscle cells, secretory cells, endocrine cells, microvasculature, and inflammatory cells. The neurons in the enteric plexuses are stimulated by a food bolus, which both distends the gut and stimulates the mucosal surface, leading to the release of factors that stimulate interneurons. The stimulated interneurons transmit excitatory signals proximally, which cause contraction and inhibitory signals distally, and these in turn cause relaxation. These signals are transmitted by the neurotransmitters acetylcholine and serotonin, among others.

text: United States EPA intends to use a Weight of Evidence (WoE) approach for assessing EDSP Tier 1 results.  While the Agency issued WOE Guidelines, no actual WOE assessments have yet been conducted and released to the registrants.  The PBTFII has conducted a WoE analysis for PBO that is consistent with United States EPA’s Guidelines.  The WoE analysis for PBO examines each EDSP Tier 1 assay conducted for PBO.  It discusses the purpose of the assay, and summarizes the study design and results and provides an overall conclusion for each assay.  All 11 individual assays are then considered together to arrive at an overall conclusion for the outcome of the Tier 1 battery.  For some assays, Other Scientifically Relevant Information (OSRI) is also considered as part of the assessment. The purpose of the WoE analysis is to determine whether PBO has the potential to interact with the endocrine system, as determined by EDSP Tier 1 assays, the Tier 1 battery as a whole and OSRI.  A determination that a chemical has the potential to interact with the endocrine system would trigger a need for EDSP Tier 2 testing. The United States EPA is planning to issue their WOE assessment in late 2014 or early 2015.

text: Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system. The functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems.

text: Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a

text: biological system

text: or body system. The functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the

text: nervous

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: both operate via a shared organ, the

text: hypothalamus

text: . For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the

text: neuroendocrine system

text: . The same is true for the

text: musculoskeletal system

text: because of the relationship between the

text: muscular

text: and

text: skeletal

text: systems.

text: Familial isolated pituitary adenoma (FIPA) is a term that used to identify a condition that displays an autosomal dominant inheritance and is characterised by the presence of two or more related patients affected by adenomas of the pituitary gland only, with no other associated symptoms that occur in Multiple endocrine neoplasia Type 1 or Carney complex.

text: Familial isolated pituitary adenoma (FIPA) is a term that used to identify a condition that displays an

text: autosomal dominant

text: inheritance and is characterised by the presence of two or more related patients affected by adenomas of the pituitary gland only, with no other associated symptoms that occur in Multiple endocrine neoplasia Type 1 or

text: Carney complex

text: is referred to as the closed-loop transfer function of the system. The numerator is the forward (open-loop) gain from r to y, and the denominator is one plus the gain in going around the feedback loop, the so-called loop gain. If

text: CGRP mediates its effects through a heteromeric receptor composed of a G protein-coupled receptor called calcitonin receptor-like receptor (CALCRL) and a receptor activity-modifying protein (RAMP1). CGRP receptors are found throughout the body, suggesting that the protein may modulate a variety of physiological functions in all major systems (e.g., respiratory, endocrine, gastrointestinal, immune, and cardiovascular).

text: CGRP mediates its effects through a

text: heteromeric

text: receptor composed of a

text: G protein-coupled receptor

text: called calcitonin receptor-like receptor (

text: CALCRL

text: ) and a

text: receptor activity-modifying protein

text: CGRP receptor

text: s are found throughout the body, suggesting that the protein may modulate a variety of physiological functions in all major systems (e.g.,

text: respiratory

text: endocrine

text: gastrointestinal

text: immune

text: , and

text: cardiovascular

text: Lactation unrelated to pregnancy can occur as galactorrhea (spontaneous milk flow) from the adverse effects of drugs (e.g. antipsychotic medications), extreme physical stress, or endocrine disorders. In a newborn infant, the capability of lactation is a consequence of the mother's circulating hormones (prolactin, oxytocin, etc.) in his or her blood stream, which were introduced by the shared circulatory system of the placenta. In men, the mammary glands are also present in the body, but normally remain undeveloped because of the hormone testosterone, however, when male lactation occurs, it is considered a pathological symptom of a disorder of the pituitary gland.

text: Lactation unrelated to pregnancy can occur as

text: galactorrhea

text: (spontaneous milk flow) from the

text: adverse effect

text: s of drugs (e.g.

text: antipsychotic medications

text: ), extreme physical stress, or

text: endocrine

text: disorders. In a newborn infant, the capability of lactation is a consequence of the mother's circulating hormones (

text: prolactin

text: oxytocin

text: , etc.) in his or her blood stream, which were introduced by the shared circulatory system of the

text: placenta

text: . In men, the mammary glands are also present in the body, but normally remain undeveloped because of the hormone

text: testosterone

text: , however, when

text: male lactation

text: occurs, it is considered a pathological symptom of a disorder of the

text: pituitary gland

text: Cushing’s syndrome arises from the repeated hypersecretion of glucocorticoids. It can be caused by either an adrenal tumor or by hypersecretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary gland. It is predominantly due to an excess of the glucocorticoid cortisol. Secretion is typically regulated by the hypothalamus which secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) to the pituitary gland, stimulating the pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then travels to the adrenal glands and induces the release of cortisol into the bloodstream. In Cushing’s syndrome, this process occurs in excess. Some symptoms of an individual with Cushing’s syndrome include low tissue protein levels, due to muscle and bone atrophy, and high blood glucose levels. Sodium levels also see an increase which results in fluid retention in tissues and elevated blood pressure. In addition to hypersecretion of cortisol, excess androgens are secreted. In females, increased secretion of androgens, such as testosterone, results in masculinization which may present as facial hair growth and a deepened voice.

text: Cushing’s syndrome

text: arises from the repeated

text: hypersecretion

text: of

text: glucocorticoids

text: . It can be caused by either an

text: adrenal tumor

text: or by

text: hypersecretion

text: of

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: (ACTH) from the

text: anterior pituitary gland

text: . It is predominantly due to an excess of the

text: glucocorticoid

text: cortisol

text: . Secretion is typically regulated by the

text: hypothalamus

text: which secretes

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: (CRH) to the

text: pituitary gland

text: , stimulating the

text: pituitary

text: to secrete

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: (ACTH).

text: ACTH

text: then travels to the

text: adrenal glands

text: and induces the release of

text: cortisol

text: into the bloodstream. In

text: Cushing’s syndrome

text: , this process occurs in excess. Some symptoms of an individual with

text: Cushing’s syndrome

text: include low tissue protein levels, due to muscle and bone atrophy, and high blood glucose levels. Sodium levels also see an increase which results in fluid retention in tissues and elevated blood pressure. In addition to

text: hypersecretion

text: of

text: cortisol

text: , excess

text: androgens

text: are secreted. In females, increased secretion of

text: androgens

text: , such as

text: testosterone

text: , results in

text: masculinization

text: which may present as facial hair growth and a deepened voice.

text: Likewise, the hypothalamus has a role in social defeat: Nuclei in medial zone are also mobilized during an encounter with an aggressive conspecific. The defeated animal has an increase in Fos levels in sexually dimorphic structures, such as the medial pre-optic nucleus, the ventrolateral part of ventromedial nucleus, and the ventral premammilary nucleus. Such structures are important in other social behaviors, such as sexual and aggressive behaviors. Moreover, the premammillary nucleus also is mobilized, the dorsomedial part but not the ventrolateral part. Lesions in this nucleus abolish passive defensive behavior, like freezing and the "on-the-back" posture.

text: Likewise, the hypothalamus has a role in

text: social defeat

text: : Nuclei in medial zone are also mobilized during an encounter with an aggressive conspecific. The defeated animal has an increase in Fos levels in sexually dimorphic structures, such as the medial pre-optic nucleus, the ventrolateral part of ventromedial nucleus, and the ventral premammilary nucleus. Such structures are important in other social behaviors, such as sexual and aggressive behaviors. Moreover, the premammillary nucleus also is mobilized, the dorsomedial part but not the ventrolateral part. Lesions in this nucleus abolish passive defensive behavior, like freezing and the "on-the-back" posture.

text: The spotty skin pigmentation and lentigines occur most commonly on the face, especially on the lips, eyelids, conjunctiva, and oral mucosa.  Cardiac myxomas may lead to embolic strokes and heart failure and may present with fever, joint pain, shortness of breath, diastolic rumble, and tumor plop. Myxomas may also occur outside the heart, usually in the skin and breast. Endocrine tumors may manifest as disorders such as Cushing syndrome. The most common endocrine gland manifestation is an ACTH-independent Cushing's syndrome due to primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD).

text: The spotty skin pigmentation and lentigines occur most commonly on the face, especially on the lips, eyelids,

text: conjunctiva

text: , and oral mucosa.  Cardiac myxomas may lead to

text: embolic strokes

text: and

text: heart failure

text: and may present with fever, joint pain, shortness of breath, diastolic rumble, and tumor plop. Myxomas may also occur outside the heart, usually in the skin and breast. Endocrine tumors may manifest as disorders such as

text: Cushing syndrome

text: . The most common endocrine gland manifestation is an ACTH-independent Cushing's syndrome due to primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD).

text: An endocrine bone disease is a bone disease associated with a disorder of the endocrine system. An example is osteitis fibrosa cystica.

text: An endocrine bone disease is a

text: bone disease

text: associated with a disorder of the

text: endocrine system

text: . An example is

text: osteitis fibrosa cystica

text: Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either cell membrane associated or intracellular receptors. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different signal transduction pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.

text: Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially binding to either

text: cell membrane associated

text: or

text: intracellular

text: receptor

text: s. A cell may have several different receptor types that recognize the same hormone but activate different

text: signal transduction

text: pathways, or a cell may have several different receptors that recognize different hormones and activate the same biochemical pathway.

text: Hypothalamic disease is a disorder presenting primarily in the hypothalamus, which may be caused by damage resulting from malnutrition, including anorexia and bulimia eating disorders, genetic disorders, radiation, surgery, head trauma, lesion, tumour or other physical injury to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the control center for several endocrine functions. Endocrine systems controlled by the hypothalamus are regulated by anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), corticotropin-releasing hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, growth hormone-releasing hormone, oxytocin, all of which are secreted by the hypothalamus. Damage to the hypothalamus may impact any of these hormones and the related endocrine systems. Many of these hypothalamic hormones act on the pituitary gland. Hypothalamic disease therefore affects the functioning of the pituitary and the target organs controlled by the pituitary, including the adrenal glands, ovaries and testes, and the thyroid gland.

text: Hypothalamic disease is a disorder presenting primarily in the

text: hypothalamus

text: , which may be caused by damage resulting from malnutrition, including

text: anorexia

text: and

text: bulimia

text: eating disorders, genetic disorders, radiation, surgery, head trauma, lesion, tumour or other physical injury to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the control center for several endocrine functions.

text: Endocrine systems

text: controlled by the hypothalamus are regulated by

text: anti-diuretic hormone

text: (ADH),

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone

text: growth hormone-releasing hormone

text: oxytocin

text: , all of which are secreted by the hypothalamus. Damage to the hypothalamus may impact any of these hormones and the related endocrine systems. Many of these hypothalamic hormones act on the

text: pituitary gland

text: . Hypothalamic disease therefore affects the functioning of the pituitary and the target organs controlled by the pituitary, including the

text: adrenal glands

text: ovaries

text: and

text: testes

text: , and the

text: thyroid gland

text: In 1990, Rosbash, Hall, and Hardin discovered the role of the period gene (per) in the Drosophila circadian oscillator. They found that PER protein levels fluctuate in light dark cycles, and these fluctuations persist in constant darkness. Similarly, per mRNA abundance also has rhythmic expression that entrains to light dark cycles. In the fly head, per mRNA levels oscillate in both 12-hour light, 12-hour dark cycles as well as in constant darkness. Per mRNA levels peaked at the beginning of the subjective night followed by a peak in PER protein levels about 6 hours later. Mutated per genes affected the cycling of per mRNA. From this experimental data, Rosbash, Hall, and Hardin hypothesized that PER protein is involved in a negative feedback loop that controls per mRNA levels, and that this transcription-translation feedback loop is a central feature of the Drosophila circadian clock.

text: In 1990, Rosbash, Hall, and Hardin discovered the role of the

text: period

text: gene (per) in the Drosophila circadian oscillator. They found that PER protein levels fluctuate in light dark cycles, and these fluctuations persist in constant darkness. Similarly, per mRNA abundance also has rhythmic expression that entrains to light dark cycles. In the fly head, per mRNA levels oscillate in both 12-hour light, 12-hour dark cycles as well as in constant darkness. Per mRNA levels peaked at the beginning of the subjective night followed by a peak in PER protein levels about 6 hours later. Mutated per genes affected the cycling of per mRNA. From this experimental data, Rosbash, Hall, and Hardin hypothesized that PER protein is involved in a negative feedback loop that controls per mRNA levels, and that this transcription-translation feedback loop is a central feature of the Drosophila circadian clock.

text: Gynecological Endocrinology is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering experimental, clinical, and therapeutic aspects of the discipline. The journal includes papers related to the control and function of the different endocrine glands in women, the effects of reproductive events on the endocrine system, and the consequences of endocrine disorders on reproduction. It is the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology.

text: Gynecological Endocrinology is a monthly

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: covering experimental, clinical, and therapeutic aspects of the discipline. The journal includes papers related to the control and function of the different

text: endocrine glands

text: in women, the effects of reproductive events on the endocrine system, and the consequences of endocrine disorders on reproduction. It is the official journal of the

text: International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology

text: In chapter four ("Microscopic Cybernetics") the author starts out by repeating the characteristic of extreme specificity of enzymes and the extreme efficiency of the chemical machinery in living organisms. The large scale coordination among cells provided by the nervous and endocrine system is brought to the readers’ attention. The rest of the chapter is a discussion of the principles that cell metabolism works by. Monod first brings up allosteric enzymes that are capable of recognizing compounds other than a substrate whose association with the enzyme protein has a modifying effect of heightening or inhibiting the enzyme activity with respect to the substrate. Monod lists and defines four regulatory patterns. The first is feedback inhibition. Feedback activation is when the enzyme is activated by a product of degradation of the terminal metabolite. Parallel activation takes place when the first enzyme of a metabolic sequence is activated by a metabolite synthesized by an independent parallel sequence. Activation through a precursor is defined as when an enzyme is activated by a precursor of its substrate and a particularly frequent case of this is activation of the enzyme by the substrate itself. Allosteric enzymes are usually under the simultaneous control of several allosteric effectors. Next Monod makes reference to his own research and talks about the S shaped non-linear curve that is characteristic of allosteric enzymes when activity is plotted against concentration of an effector (including the substrate). Allosteric interactions are mediated by discrete shifts in the proteins structure and this allows certain proteins to assume different conformational states. Cooperative and antagonistic interactions of ligands are indirect: ligands interact with the protein not with other ligands. Allosteric proteins are oligomeric (made up of identical protomer subunits) and each protomer has a receptor for each of the ligands. As a consequence of protomer assembly each subunit is constrained by its neighbor. Upon dissociation each protomer can assume a relaxed state and this concerted response of each protomer accounts for the nonlinearity of enzyme activity: a ligand molecule that stabilizes the relaxed state of one of the monomers prevents the others from returning to the associated state. These simple molecular mechanisms account for the integrative properties of allosteric enzymes. Monod again references his own work as he talks about the lactose system (consisting of three proteins) in Escherica coli. He explains that galactoside permease (one of the proteins in the lactose system) enables the galactoside sugars to penetrate and accumulate within the cell. When Escherica coli are grown in a medium with no galactosides the three proteins are synthesized very slowly (about one molecule every five generations). About two minutes after adding a galactoside inducer the rate of synthesis of the three proteins increases a thousandfold. Monod explains that the rate of mRNA synthesis from the lactose operon determines the rate of the proteins synthesis. He lists the components of the regulatory system as i, the regulator gene that directs constant synthesis of the repressor protein (R), o, the operator segment of DNA that the repressor specifically recognizes and forms a stable complex with, and p, the DNA promoter where RNA polymerase binds. Synthesis of mRNA is blocked when the repressor is bound to the operator. When the repressor is in the free state it is able to recognize and bind beta galactosides thus dissociating the operator repressor complex and permitting synthesis of the mRNA and protein. Monod spends some time stressing that there need be no chemical relationship between a substrate and an allosteric ligand and it is this "gratuity" that has allowed molecular evolution to make a huge network of interconnections and make each organism an autonomous functional unit. In the last part of the chapter Monod criticizes "holists" who challenge the value to analytically complex systems such as living organisms and that complex systems cannot be reduced to the sum of their parts. Monod first gives an example of dissecting a computer and then points out how teleonomic performances can be seen on a molecular level. He also states that the complexity of the cybernetic network in living beings is far too complex to study by the overall behavior of whole organisms.

text: The pancreas  is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach.  It is an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide which circulate in the blood.  The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.

text: The pancreas  is a

text: gland

text: ular

text: organ

text: in the

text: digestive system

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: of

text: vertebrate

text: s. In humans, it is located in the

text: abdominal cavity

text: behind the

text: stomach

text: .  It is an

text: endocrine gland

text: producing several important

text: hormone

text: s, including

text: insulin

text: glucagon

text: somatostatin

text: , and

text: pancreatic polypeptide

text: which circulate in the blood.  The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting

text: pancreatic juice

text: containing

text: digestive enzyme

text: s that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the

text: small intestine

text: . These

text: enzyme

text: s help to further break down the

text: carbohydrates

text: protein

text: s, and

text: lipids

text: in the

text: chyme

text: Peptide hormones and protein hormones are hormones whose molecules are peptides or proteins, respectively. The latter have longer amino acid chain lengths than the former. These hormones have an effect on the endocrine system of animals, including humans. Most hormones can be classified as either amino acid–based hormones (amine, peptide, or protein) or steroid hormones. The former are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; the latter, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.

text: Peptide hormones and protein hormones are

text: hormone

text: s whose

text: molecule

text: s are

text: peptide

text: s or

text: protein

text: s, respectively. The latter have longer

text: amino acid

text: chain lengths than the former. These hormones have an effect on the

text: endocrine system

text: of

text: animal

text: s, including

text: human

text: s. Most hormones can be classified as either amino acid–based hormones (amine, peptide, or protein) or

text: steroid hormone

text: s. The former are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via

text: second messengers

text: ; the latter, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both

text: cytoplasmic

text: and

text: nuclear

text: ) to act within their

text: nuclei

text: The pituitary gland consists of three parts: the pars nervosa, the pars intermedia, and the pars distalis. The most critical structure to PPID, the pars intermedia, is regulated by the hypothalamus. The neurons of the hypothalamus innervate cells known as melanotropes within the pars intermedia, releasing dopamine which then binds to dopamine receptors on the melanotropes. Activation of these dopamine receptors leads to the inhibition of proopiomelanocortin (POMC) production from these cells.

text: The pituitary gland consists of three parts: the pars nervosa, the pars intermedia, and the pars distalis. The most critical structure to PPID, the pars intermedia, is regulated by the

text: hypothalamus

text: . The neurons of the hypothalamus innervate cells known as melanotropes within the pars intermedia, releasing

text: dopamine

text: which then binds to dopamine receptors on the melanotropes. Activation of these dopamine receptors leads to the inhibition of

text: proopiomelanocortin

text: (POMC) production from these cells.

text: The major glands of the endocrine system, excluding ovaries and testes.

text: The major glands of the

text: endocrine

text: system, excluding ovaries and testes.

text: Estradiol is produced especially within the follicles of the female ovaries, but also in other endocrine (i.e., hormone-producing) and non-endocrine tissues (e.g., including fat, liver, adrenal, breast, and neural tissues). Estradiol is biosynthesized from cholesterol through a series of chemical intermediates. One principal pathway involves the generation of 4-androstenedione, which is converted into estrone by aromatase and then by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase into estradiol. Alternatively, 4-androstenedione can be converted into testosterone, an androgen and the primary male sex hormone, which in turn can be aromatized into estradiol.

text: Estradiol is produced especially within the

text: follicles

text: of the female

text: ovaries

text: , but also in other

text: endocrine

text: (i.e.,

text: hormone

text: -producing) and non-endocrine tissues (e.g., including fat,

text: liver

text: adrenal

text: breast

text: , and

text: neural tissue

text: s). Estradiol is

text: biosynthesized

text: from

text: cholesterol

text: through a series of

text: chemical intermediate

text: s. One principal

text: pathway

text: involves the generation of

text: , which is converted into

text: estrone

text: by

text: aromatase

text: and then by

text: 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase

text: into estradiol. Alternatively, 4-androstenedione can be converted into

text: testosterone

text: , an

text: androgen

text: and the primary

text: male

text: sex hormone, which in turn can be aromatized into estradiol.

text: Gonadotropic cells are endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce the gonadotropins, such as the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).  Release of FSH and LH by gonadotropes is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus.

text: Gonadotropic cells are

text: endocrine

text: cells

text: in the

text: anterior pituitary

text: that produce the

text: gonadotropins

text: , such as the

text: follicle-stimulating hormone

text: (FSH) and

text: luteinizing hormone

text: (LH).  Release of FSH and LH by gonadotropes is regulated by

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone

text: (GnRH) from the

text: hypothalamus

text: The average onset age of menopause after hysterectomy with ovarian conservation is 3.7 years earlier than average. This has been suggested to be due to the disruption of blood supply to the ovaries after a hysterectomy or due to missing endocrine feedback of the uterus. The function of the remaining ovaries is significantly affected in about 40% of women, some of them even require hormone replacement treatment. Surprisingly, a similar and only slightly weaker effect has been observed for endometrial ablation which is often considered as an alternative to hysterectomy.

text: The average onset age of

text: menopause

text: after hysterectomy with ovarian conservation is 3.7 years earlier than average. This has been suggested to be due to the disruption of blood supply to the ovaries after a hysterectomy or due to missing endocrine feedback of the uterus. The function of the remaining ovaries is significantly affected in about 40% of women, some of them even require hormone replacement treatment. Surprisingly, a similar and only slightly weaker effect has been observed for

text: endometrial ablation

text: which is often considered as an alternative to hysterectomy.

text: The hypothalamus functions as a type of thermostat for the body.  It sets a desired body temperature, and stimulates either heat production and retention to raise the blood temperature to a higher setting or sweating and vasodilation to cool the blood to a lower temperature.  All fevers result from a raised setting in the hypothalamus; elevated body temperatures due to any other cause are classified as hyperthermia.  Rarely, direct damage to the hypothalamus, such as from a stroke, will cause a fever; this is sometimes called a hypothalamic fever. However, it is more common for such damage to cause abnormally low body temperatures.

text: The hypothalamus functions as a type of

text: thermostat

text: for the body.  It sets a desired body temperature, and stimulates either heat production and retention to raise the blood temperature to a higher setting or sweating and

text: vasodilation

text: to cool the blood to a lower temperature.  All

text: fever

text: s result from a raised setting in the hypothalamus; elevated body temperatures due to any other cause are classified as

text: hyperthermia

text: .  Rarely, direct damage to the hypothalamus, such as from a

text: stroke

text: , will cause a fever; this is sometimes called a hypothalamic fever. However, it is more common for such damage to cause abnormally low body temperatures.

text: Dysregulation of the endocrine system may present with various neuropsychiatric symptoms; irregularities in the hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal (HPA) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis have been shown in patients with primary depression.

text: Dysregulation of the

text: endocrine system

text: may present with various neuropsychiatric symptoms; irregularities in the

text: hypothalamic

text: pituitary

text: adrenal

text: (HPA) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-

text: thyroid

text: (HPT) axis have been shown in patients with primary depression.

text: Not all cells undergo a complete EMT, i.e. losing their cell-cell adhesion and gaining solitary migration characteristics. Instead, most cells undergo partial EMT, a state in which they retain some cell-cell adhesion, and gain migratory traits, thus cells in this hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal phenotype are endowed with special properties such as collective cell migration.  In the first mathematical modeling work on partial EMT, Tian et al proposed a coupled bistable switches mechanism, in which the SNAIL1/miR-34 double-negative feedback loop is responsible for the reversible switch and regulates the transition between epithelial and partial EMT, whereas the ZEB/miR-200 feedback loop is accountable for the irreversible switch and controls the transition between partial EMT and mesenchymal.  Later, they verified their predictions in MCF10A cell line.

text: The system described in the Growth and Underinvestment Archetype consists of three feedback loops. Each feedback loop can be one of two types:

text: Robert Earl Hughes, Jr. was born in Baylis, Illinois, in 1926. He was the son of farmer and entertainer, Robert Earl Hughes, Sr. (1890 - 1974) and Margaret G. Robinson (1893 - 1993). At the age of six, Robert, Jr. weighed about ; at twelve, he weighed . His excessive weight was attributed to a malfunctioning pituitary gland.  His chest was measured at , and he weighed an estimated 485 kg (1069 lbs) at his heaviest.

text: Robert Earl Hughes, Jr. was born in

text: Baylis, Illinois

text: , in 1926. He was the son of farmer and entertainer, Robert Earl Hughes, Sr. (1890 - 1974) and Margaret G. Robinson (1893 - 1993). At the age of six, Robert, Jr. weighed about ; at twelve, he weighed . His excessive weight was attributed to a malfunctioning

text: pituitary gland

text: .  His chest was measured at , and he weighed an estimated 485 kg (1069 lbs) at his heaviest.

text: As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, other signaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling diffuse over a relatively short distance.

text: As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, other signaling molecules, such as

text: paracrine

text: factors involved in

text: paracrine signalling

text: diffuse over a relatively short distance.

text: Practitioners believe that the endocrine glands translate seven aspects of the universal life energy into the human experience. They name these as the Seven Spirits.

text: Although the term was originally used to refer to processes within living organisms, it is frequently applied to technological control systems such as thermostats. A homeostat has an absolute requirement for a sensor to detect changes in the controlled entity's value, as well as an effector mechanism that reverses any detected deviation from the desired value (or “setpoint”) of the regulated entity. Since the correction of any error detected by the sensor is always in the opposite direction to the error, a homeostat relies on what is known as a negative feedback connection between the sensor and effector. The effector's corrective effects are monitored by the sensor, which turns the corrective measures off when setpoint conditions have been restored. Negative feedback systems are therefore referred to as "closed loop", or "negative feedback loops", to distinguish them from "open loop" systems where a stimulus (acting on a sensor) results in an, often, all-or-none response that is not subject to modification once it has been set in motion.

text: Although the term was originally used to refer to processes within

text: living organisms

text: , it is frequently applied to technological

text: control system

text: s such as

text: thermostat

text: s. A homeostat has an absolute requirement for a

text: sensor

text: to detect changes in the controlled entity's value, as well as an

text: effector mechanism

text: that reverses any detected deviation from the desired value (or “

text: setpoint

text: ”) of the regulated entity. Since the correction of any error detected by the sensor is always in the opposite direction to the error, a homeostat relies on what is known as a

text: negative feedback

text: connection between the sensor and effector. The effector's corrective effects are monitored by the sensor, which turns the corrective measures off when setpoint conditions have been restored. Negative feedback systems are therefore referred to as "closed loop", or "negative feedback loops", to distinguish them from "open loop" systems where a stimulus (acting on a sensor) results in an, often, all-or-none response that is not subject to modification once it has been set in motion.

text: L-377,202– L-778,123– L-carnitine (see Carnitine)– laboratory study– laboratory test– lacrimal gland– lactate dehydrogenase– lactic acid dehydrogenase– LAK cell– lamina propria– lamivudine– lamotrigine– laparoscope– laparoscopic prostatectomy– laparoscopic-assisted colectomy– laparoscopy– laparotomy– lappa– large cell carcinoma– large granular lymphocyte– laryngectomy– laser surgery– laser therapy– LCIS– LDH– lectin– leflunomide– leiomyoma– leiomyosarcoma– lentinan– lepirudin– leptomeningeal– leptomeningeal cancer– leptomeningeal metastases– leridistim– lerisetron– Leser-Trélat– letrozole– leucovorin– leukapheresis– leukemia– leukocyte– leukopenia– leukoplakia– leuprolide– leuvectin– levamisole– levocarnitine– levofloxacin– LGD1069– LH-RH– Lhermitte's sign– Li-Fraumeni syndrome– liarozole– ligation– light-emitting diode therapy– lignan– limb perfusion– limited-stage small cell lung cancer– linac– liothyronine sodium– lipophilic– liposarcoma– liposomal– lisofylline– Hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer)– liver metastases– liver scan– LMB-1 immunotoxin– LMB-2 immunotoxin– LMB-7 immunotoxin– LMB-9 immunotoxin– lobaplatin– lobectomy– lobradimil– lobular carcinoma in situ– lobule– local cancer– local therapy– localized gallbladder cancer– locally advanced cancer– lometrexol– lomustine– lonafarnib– loop electrosurgical excision procedure– loop excision– loperamide hydrochloride– losoxantrone– low-grade lymphoma– lower GI series– LU 79553– LU-103793– lubricant– lumbar puncture– lumpectomy– lung metastases– lurtotecan– luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone– luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonist– lutetium texaphyrin– LY231514– LY293111– LY317615– LY335979– LY353381 hydrochloride– lycopene– lymph gland– lymph node– lymph node dissection– lymph node drainage– lymph node mapping– lymph vessel– lymphadenectomy– lymphadenopathy– lymphangiogram– lymphangiography– lymphangiosarcoma– lymphatic fluid– lymphatic mapping– lymphatic system– lymphatic vessel– lymphedema– lymphoblast– lymphocyte– lymphocytic– lymphocytic leukemia– lymphoepithelioma– lymphography– lymphoid– lymphokine-activated killer cell– lymphoma– lymphomatoid granulomatosis– lymphoproliferative disorder– lymphosarcoma– lymphoscintigraphy– Lynch syndrome– lysis– lysosome– lytic– lytic lesion

text: – L-carnitine (see

text: Carnitine

text: laboratory study

text: laboratory test

text: lacrimal gland

text: lactate dehydrogenase

text: lactic acid dehydrogenase

text: LAK cell

text: lamina propria

text: lamivudine

text: lamotrigine

text: laparoscope

text: laparoscopic prostatectomy

text: laparoscopic-assisted colectomy

text: laparoscopy

text: laparotomy

text: lappa

text: large cell carcinoma

text: large granular lymphocyte

text: laryngectomy

text: laser surgery

text: laser therapy

text: LCIS

text: LDH

text: lectin

text: leflunomide

text: leiomyoma

text: leiomyosarcoma

text: lentinan

text: lepirudin

text: leptomeningeal

text: leptomeningeal cancer

text: leptomeningeal metastases

text: leridistim

text: lerisetron

text: Leser-Trélat

text: letrozole

text: leucovorin

text: leukapheresis

text: leukemia

text: leukocyte

text: leukopenia

text: leukoplakia

text: leuprolide

text: leuvectin

text: levamisole

text: levocarnitine

text: levofloxacin

text: LH-RH

text: Lhermitte's sign

text: Li-Fraumeni syndrome

text: liarozole

text: ligation

text: light-emitting diode therapy

text: lignan

text: limb perfusion

text: limited-stage small cell lung cancer

text: linac

text: liothyronine sodium

text: lipophilic

text: liposarcoma

text: liposomal

text: lisofylline

text: Hepatocellular carcinoma

text: (liver cancer)–

text: liver metastases

text: liver scan

text: LMB-1 immunotoxin

text: LMB-2 immunotoxin

text: LMB-7 immunotoxin

text: LMB-9 immunotoxin

text: lobaplatin

text: lobectomy

text: lobradimil

text: lobular carcinoma in situ

text: lobule

text: local cancer

text: local therapy

text: localized gallbladder cancer

text: locally advanced cancer

text: lometrexol

text: lomustine

text: lonafarnib

text: loop electrosurgical excision procedure

text: loop excision

text: loperamide hydrochloride

text: losoxantrone

text: low-grade lymphoma

text: lower GI series

text: LU 79553

text: lubricant

text: lumbar puncture

text: lumpectomy

text: lung metastases

text: lurtotecan

text: luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone

text: luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonist

text: lutetium texaphyrin

text: LY353381 hydrochloride

text: lycopene

text: lymph gland

text: lymph node

text: lymph node dissection

text: lymph node drainage

text: lymph node mapping

text: lymph vessel

text: lymphadenectomy

text: lymphadenopathy

text: lymphangiogram

text: lymphangiography

text: lymphangiosarcoma

text: lymphatic fluid

text: lymphatic mapping

text: lymphatic system

text: lymphatic vessel

text: lymphedema

text: lymphoblast

text: lymphocyte

text: lymphocytic

text: lymphocytic leukemia

text: lymphoepithelioma

text: lymphography

text: lymphoid

text: lymphokine-activated killer cell

text: lymphoma

text: lymphomatoid granulomatosis

text: lymphoproliferative disorder

text: lymphosarcoma

text: lymphoscintigraphy

text: Lynch syndrome

text: lysis

text: lysosome

text: lytic

text: lytic lesion

text: The Transducer was invented in the year 2500 by a woman named Maeve. She invented it to be a tool of healing. After The Great Disaster occurred in the year 2500, the Transducer was mass-produced and the people were taught how to use it. It was to be used as a tool to rebuild the planet. A replica of the original Transducer is held in the Science Dome in the year 3000. The Transducer functions by enhancing and magnifying the telepathic function of the pituitary gland, by doing this the user is able to levitate objects and heal wounds. If used in the wrong way the Transducer can be used as a weapon to destroy things; this is why the people of the year 3000 are taught from an early age to control their emotions.

text: The Transducer was invented in the year 2500 by a woman named Maeve. She invented it to be a tool of healing. After The Great Disaster occurred in the year 2500, the Transducer was mass-produced and the people were taught how to use it. It was to be used as a tool to rebuild the planet. A

text: replica

text: of the original Transducer is held in the Science Dome in the year 3000. The Transducer functions by enhancing and magnifying the

text: telepathic

text: function of the

text: pituitary gland

text: , by doing this the user is able to levitate objects and heal wounds. If used in the wrong way the Transducer can be used as a weapon to destroy things; this is why the people of the year 3000 are taught from an early age to control their emotions.

text: Figure 3 – CFA Loop – Feedback Element

text: Figure 3 – CFA Loop – Feedback Element

text: Born into a cultured family in Bucharest, his parents were physician Eraclie Sterian and his wife Alexandrina (née Gulimănescu); he was married to Margareta Sterian. From 1910 to 1917, Sterian attended the applied school of the society for the education of the Romanian people, followed by Gheorghe Lazăr High School from 1918 to 1921. From 1921 to 1924, he studied at the philosophy and law faculty of the University of Bucharest. He earned a degree magna cum laude, with a thesis on the emotions and the endocrine glands, applying a theory by Constantin Ion Parhon. Also at Bucharest, he took a doctorate in public law, his dissertation dealing with copyright. From 1926 to 1929, he studied at the University of Paris; Sterian's second doctoral thesis, in law and economics, had to do with Romania and World War I reparations. In Paris, upon the recommendation of Mircea Vulcănescu, Ilarie Voronca and Benjamin Fondane, he worked for an insurance firm.

text: Born into a cultured family in

text: Bucharest

text: , his parents were physician

text: Eraclie Sterian

text: and his wife Alexandrina (née Gulimănescu); he was married to

text: Margareta Sterian

text: . From 1910 to 1917, Sterian attended the applied school of the society for the education of the Romanian people, followed by

entity_name: Gheorghe Lazăr National College (Bucharest)

text: Gheorghe Lazăr High School

text: from 1918 to 1921. From 1921 to 1924, he studied at the philosophy and law faculty of the

text: University of Bucharest

text: . He earned a degree magna cum laude, with a thesis on the emotions and the

text: endocrine gland

text: s, applying a theory by

text: Constantin Ion Parhon

text: . Also at Bucharest, he took a doctorate in public law, his dissertation dealing with copyright. From 1926 to 1929, he studied at the

text: University of Paris

text: ; Sterian's second doctoral thesis, in law and economics, had to do with Romania and

text: World War I reparations

text: . In Paris, upon the recommendation of

text: Mircea Vulcănescu

text: Ilarie Voronca

text: and

text: Benjamin Fondane

text: , he worked for an insurance firm.

text: In non-mammals, chromaffin cells are found in a variety of places, generally not organized as an individual organ, and may be without innervation, relying only on endocrine or paracrine signals for secretion.

text: In non-mammals, chromaffin cells are found in a variety of places, generally not organized as an individual organ, and may be without innervation, relying only on

text: endocrine

text: or

text: paracrine

text: signals for secretion.

text: Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PanNETs, PETs, or PNETs), often referred to as "islet cell tumors", or "pancreatic endocrine tumors" are neuroendocrine neoplasms that arise from cells of the endocrine (hormonal) and nervous system within the pancreas.

text: Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PanNETs, PETs, or PNETs), often referred to as "islet cell tumors", or "pancreatic endocrine tumors" are

text: neuroendocrine

text: neoplasm

text: s that arise from

text: cell

text: s of the

text: endocrine

text: hormonal

text: ) and

text: nervous system

text: within the

text: pancreas

text: Exposure to antiandrogens can occur unintentionally due to natural or anthropogenic compounds in the environment. Environmental compounds affecting the endocrine system, termed endocrine disruptors, that antagonistically affect androgen receptors and androgen production can negatively affect animals that come in contact with the compounds as well as their future generations. Certain pesticides and insecticides as well as industrial chemicals possess antiandrogen properties. Some species of plants produce phytochemicals with antiandrogenic effects. Exposure to these environmental antiandrogens has resulted in adverse effects on animals that allude to human health risks.

text: Exposure to antiandrogens can occur unintentionally due to natural or anthropogenic compounds in the environment. Environmental compounds affecting the endocrine system, termed

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s, that antagonistically affect androgen receptors and androgen production can negatively affect animals that come in contact with the compounds as well as their future generations. Certain pesticides and insecticides as well as industrial chemicals possess antiandrogen properties. Some species of plants produce phytochemicals with antiandrogenic effects. Exposure to these environmental antiandrogens has resulted in adverse effects on animals that allude to human health risks.

text: Several hypotheses have been put forward about the meaning of The Creation of Adams highly original composition, many of them taking Michelangelo's well-documented expertise in human anatomy as their starting point. In 1990, an Anderson, Indiana physician, Frank  Meshberger, noted in the Journal of the American Medical Association that the background figures and shapes portrayed behind the figure of God appeared to be an anatomically accurate picture of the human brain. On close examination, borders in the painting correlate with major sulci of the cerebrum in the inner and outer surface of the brain, the brain stem, the frontal lobe, the basilar artery, the pituitary gland and the optic chiasm.

text: Several hypotheses have been put forward about the meaning of The Creation of Adams highly original composition, many of them taking Michelangelo's well-documented expertise in human anatomy as their starting point. In 1990, an

text: Anderson, Indiana

text: physician

text: , Frank  Meshberger, noted in the

text: Journal of the American Medical Association

text: that the background figures and shapes portrayed behind the figure of God appeared to be an anatomically accurate picture of the

text: human brain

text: . On close examination, borders in the painting correlate with major

text: sulci

text: of the

text: cerebrum

text: in the inner and outer surface of the brain, the

text: brain stem

text: , the

text: frontal lobe

text: , the basilar artery, the

text: pituitary gland

text: and the

text: optic chiasm

text: STTD is one of numerous open loop transmit diversity schemes which also include Phase Switched Transmit Diversity (PSTD), Time Switched Diversity (TSTD), Orthogonal Transmit Diversity (OTD) and Space Time Spreading (STS) [1].  The aim of all of these schemes is to smooth the Rayleigh fading and drop out effects observed when using only a single antenna at both ends of a radio link in a Multipath propagation environment.  Diversity improves link reliability for each user over time, especially near cell edges (in the absence of soft handoff), and also the average performance of an ensemble of users at any particular instant.  Not being reliant on slow channel-state feedback from the mobile (i.e. user equipment) means that open loop STTD is almost immune to Doppler shifts associated with high UE speeds and is the preferred method for this scenario.  However, an open loop transmit diversity scheme must not degrade performance for a user close to the base station where the channels may be line of sight and nearly ideal.  Since STTD is an orthogonal coding system this is also guaranteed. <br>

text: STTD is one of numerous open loop transmit

text: diversity scheme

text: s which also include Phase Switched Transmit Diversity (PSTD), Time Switched Diversity (TSTD), Orthogonal Transmit Diversity (OTD) and Space Time Spreading (STS) [1].  The aim of all of these schemes is to smooth the

text: Rayleigh fading

text: and drop out effects observed when using only a single antenna at both ends of a radio link in a

text: Multipath propagation

text: environment.  Diversity improves link reliability for each user over time, especially near cell edges (in the absence of

text: soft handoff

text: ), and also the average performance of an ensemble of users at any particular instant.  Not being reliant on slow channel-state feedback from the mobile (i.e. user equipment) means that open loop STTD is almost immune to

text: Doppler shift

text: s associated with high UE speeds and is the preferred method for this scenario.  However, an open loop transmit diversity scheme must not degrade performance for a user close to the base station where the channels may be line of sight and nearly ideal.  Since STTD is an orthogonal coding system this is also guaranteed. <br>

text: Hormones produced in the pancreatic islets are secreted directly into the blood flow by (at least) five types of cells. In rat islets, endocrine cell subsets are distributed as follows:

text: Deficiency of vitamin B (niacin) and zinc can cause problems with the endocrine system, which may cause taste loss or alteration. Disorders of the endocrine system, such as Cushing's syndrome, hypothyroidism and diabetes mellitus, can cause similar problems. Ageusia can also be caused by medicinal side-effects from antirheumatic drugs such as penicillamine, antiproliferative drugs such as cisplatin, ACE inhibitors, and other drugs including azelastine, clarithromycin, terbinafine, and zopiclone.

text: Deficiency of

text: vitamin

text: B (

text: niacin

text: ) and

text: zinc

text: can cause problems with the

text: endocrine system

text: , which may cause taste loss or alteration. Disorders of the endocrine system, such as

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: hypothyroidism

text: and

text: diabetes mellitus

text: , can cause similar problems. Ageusia can also be caused by medicinal

text: side-effect

text: s from

text: antirheumatic drugs

text: such as

text: penicillamine

text: antiproliferative drugs

text: such as

text: cisplatin

text: ACE inhibitor

text: s, and other drugs including

text: azelastine

text: clarithromycin

text: terbinafine

text: , and

text: zopiclone

text: The median preoptic nucleus is located in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus. Forming a critical part of the anteroventral third ventricle and the midline of the lamina terminalis, the median preoptic nucleus occupies an anatomical position that allows it to play an important role in many aspects of homeostatic regulation. This region is important in cardiovascular, blood pressure, and blood composition regulation, and receives inputs from the subfornical organ (SFO) and the organum vasculosum terminalis (OVLT), which lie outside the blood brain barrier and relay information concerning blood osmolality and levels of endocrine signals such as atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).

text: The median preoptic nucleus is located in the

text: preoptic area

text: of the

text: hypothalamus

text: . Forming a critical part of the anteroventral

text: third ventricle

text: and the midline of the

text: lamina terminalis

text: , the median preoptic nucleus occupies an anatomical position that allows it to play an important role in many aspects of

text: homeostatic

text: regulation. This region is important in

text: cardiovascular

text: blood pressure

text: , and

text: blood composition

text: regulation, and receives inputs from the

text: subfornical organ

text: (SFO) and the organum vasculosum terminalis (OVLT), which lie outside the

text: blood brain barrier

text: and relay information concerning

text: blood osmolality

text: and levels of

text: endocrine

text: signals such as atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).

text: Hormones or substances with hormone disrupting capability may interfere with pubertal development by actions at different levels – hypothalamic-pituitary axis, gonads, peripheral target organs such as the breast, hair follicles and genitals.  Exogenous man made chemicals that mimic estrogen can alter the functions of the endocrine system and cause various health defects by interfering with synthesis, metabolism, binding or cellular responses of natural estrogens.

text: Jay Forrester was an early pioneer in cybernetic systems who believed that brains, cities and even societies live in networks of feedback loops that control them, and he thought computers could determine the effects of the feedback loops. Cybernetics therefore viewed humans as nodes in networks, as machines.

text: Jay Forrester

text: was an early pioneer in

text: cybernetic system

text: s who believed that brains, cities and even societies live in networks of feedback loops that control them, and he thought computers could determine the effects of the

text: feedback loop

text: s. Cybernetics therefore viewed humans as nodes in networks, as machines.

text: While shortness of breath is generally caused by disorders of the cardiac or respiratory system, other systems such as  neurological, musculoskeletal, endocrine, hematologic, and psychiatric may be the cause. DiagnosisPro, an online medical expert system, listed 497 distinct causes in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure while common pulmonary causes include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumothorax, pulmonary edema and pneumonia. On a pathophysiological basis the causes can be divided into: (1) an increased awareness of normal breathing such as during an anxiety attack, (2) an increase in the work of breathing and (3) an abnormality in the ventilatory system.

text: While shortness of breath is generally caused by disorders of the

text: cardiac

text: or

text: respiratory system

text: , other systems such as

text: neurological

text: musculoskeletal

text: endocrine

text: hematologic

text: , and psychiatric may be the cause.

text: DiagnosisPro

text: , an online medical expert system, listed 497 distinct causes in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are

text: acute myocardial infarction

text: and

text: congestive heart failure

text: while common pulmonary causes include

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: asthma

text: pneumothorax

text: , pulmonary edema and

text: pneumonia

text: . On a pathophysiological basis the causes can be divided into: (1) an increased awareness of normal breathing such as during an anxiety attack, (2) an increase in the work of breathing and (3) an abnormality in the ventilatory system.

text: The pituitary gland consists of two parts, the anterior (front) and posterior (back) pituitary. Both parts release hormones that control numerous other organs. In pituitary apoplexy, the main initial problem is a lack of secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, corticotropin), which stimulates the secretion of cortisol by the adrenal gland. This occurs in 70% of those with pituitary apoplexy. A sudden lack of cortisol in the body leads to a constellation of symptoms called "adrenal crisis" or "Addisonian crisis" (after a complication of Addison's disease, the main cause of adrenal dysfunction and low cortisol levels). The main problems are low blood pressure (particularly on standing), low blood sugars (which can lead to coma) and abdominal pain; the low blood pressure can be life-threatening and requires immediate medical attention.

text: The pituitary gland consists of two parts, the

text: anterior

text: (front) and

text: posterior

text: (back) pituitary. Both parts release

text: hormone

text: s that control numerous other organs. In pituitary apoplexy, the main initial problem is a lack of secretion of

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: (ACTH, corticotropin), which stimulates the secretion of

text: cortisol

text: by the

text: adrenal gland

text: . This occurs in 70% of those with pituitary apoplexy. A sudden lack of cortisol in the body leads to a constellation of symptoms called "adrenal crisis" or "Addisonian crisis" (after a complication of

text: Addison's disease

text: , the main cause of adrenal dysfunction and low cortisol levels). The main problems are

text: low blood pressure

text: (particularly on standing),

text: low blood sugars

text: (which can lead to

text: coma

text: ) and

text: abdominal pain

text: ; the low blood pressure can be life-threatening and requires immediate medical attention.

text: The hypothalamus is a highly important structure that is involved with the regulation of bodily functions. These include endocrine, autonomic, and behavioral functions. It produces a wide variety of hormones. These control body temperature, hunger, moods, sex drive, sleep, thirst, and release of other hormones. There are dozens of peptides within the hypothalamus that have been discovered in recent years. The hypothalamus also influences daily physiologic cycles and plays a role in regulating emotional responses. Many of these functions can be described as homeostatic. It is the most ventral part of the diencephalon and contains three regions: the supraoptic region, the tuberal region, and the mammillary region.

text: The hypothalamus is a highly important structure that is involved with the regulation of bodily functions. These include

text: endocrine

text: autonomic

text: , and behavioral functions. It produces a wide variety of

text: hormones

text: . These control body temperature, hunger, moods, sex drive, sleep, thirst, and release of other hormones. There are dozens of peptides within the hypothalamus that have been discovered in recent years. The hypothalamus also influences daily

text: physiologic

text: cycles and plays a role in regulating

text: emotional

text: responses. Many of these functions can be described as

text: homeostatic

text: . It is the most ventral part of the

text: diencephalon

text: and contains three regions: the supraoptic region, the tuberal region, and the mammillary region.

text: Non-tropic hormones are hormones that directly stimulate target cells to induce effects. This differs from the tropic hormones, which act on another endocrine gland.Non-tropic hormones are those that act directly on targeted tissues or cells, and not on other endocrine gland to stimulate release of other hormones. Many hormones act in a chain reaction. Tropic hormones usually act in the beginning of the reaction stimulating other endocrine gland to eventually release non-tropic hormones. These are the ones that act in the end of the chain reaction on other cells that are not part of other endocrine gland. The Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a perfect example of this chain reaction. The reaction begins in the hypothalamus with a release of corticotropin-releasing hormone/factor (CRH/F; tropic). This stimulates the anterior pituitary and causes it to release Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; tropic) to the adrenal glands. Lastly, cortisol (non-tropic) is secreted from the adrenal glands and goes into the bloodstream where it can have more widespread effects on organs and tissues. Since cortisol is what finally reaches other tissues in the body, it is a non-tropic hormone. CRH an ACTH are tropic hormones because they act on the anterior pituitary gland and adrenal glands, respectively, both of which are endocrine glands. Non-tropic hormones are thus often the last piece of a larger process and chain of hormone secretion. Both tropic and non-tropic hormones are necessary for proper endocrine function. For example, if ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin hormone; a tropic hormone) is inhibited, cortisol can no longer be released because the chain reaction has been interrupted. Some examples of non-tropic hormones are:

text: Non-tropic hormones are hormones that directly stimulate target cells to induce effects. This differs from the

text: tropic hormone

text: s, which act on another

text: endocrine gland

text: .Non-tropic hormones are those that act directly on targeted tissues or cells, and not on other

text: endocrine gland

text: to stimulate release of other hormones. Many hormones act in a chain reaction.

text: Tropic hormone

text: s usually act in the beginning of the reaction stimulating other

text: endocrine gland

text: to eventually release non-tropic hormones. These are the ones that act in the end of the chain reaction on other cells that are not part of other

text: endocrine gland

text: . The

text: Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

text: is a perfect example of this chain reaction. The reaction begins in the

text: hypothalamus

text: with a release of

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: /factor (CRH/F; tropic). This stimulates the anterior pituitary and causes it to release

text: Adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: (ACTH; tropic) to the

text: adrenal glands

text: . Lastly,

text: cortisol

text: (non-tropic) is secreted from the

text: adrenal glands

text: and goes into the bloodstream where it can have more widespread effects on organs and tissues. Since cortisol is what finally reaches other tissues in the body, it is a non-tropic hormone. CRH an ACTH are tropic hormones because they act on the

text: anterior pituitary gland

text: and adrenal glands, respectively, both of which are endocrine glands. Non-tropic hormones are thus often the last piece of a larger process and chain of hormone secretion. Both tropic and non-tropic hormones are necessary for proper endocrine function. For example, if ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin hormone; a tropic hormone) is inhibited, cortisol can no longer be released because the chain reaction has been interrupted. Some examples of non-tropic hormones are:

text: Balloon loops enable higher line capacity (faster turnaround of a larger number of trams) and also allow the use of single-ended trams which have several advantages, including lower cost and more seating when doors are on one side only. However, double-ended trams also benefit from the capacity advantage of balloon loops, for example on the former Sydney tram system where loops were used from 1881 until the system's closure in 1961. Initially the Sydney system was operated by single-ended steam trams and then, from the 1890s, by double-ended electric trams. Lines were looped in the Sydney CBD and the other busiest areas of operation, such as the La Perouse, New South Wales and other eastern suburbs lines, as they provided greater turn-around capacity on this very busy system. The Sydney system was possibly the first major example of a looped tramway system. European systems were extensively converted to looped operation in the early twentieth century and most of them changed to single-ended trams. Looped operation with single-ended trams was also used on many North American streetcar systems.

text: Balloon loops enable higher line capacity (faster turnaround of a larger number of trams) and also allow the use of single-ended trams which have several advantages, including lower cost and more seating when doors are on one side only. However, double-ended trams also benefit from the capacity advantage of balloon loops, for example on the former

text: Sydney

text: tram system where loops were used from 1881 until the system's closure in 1961. Initially the Sydney system was operated by single-ended

text: steam trams

text: and then, from the 1890s, by double-ended electric trams. Lines were looped in the Sydney CBD and the other busiest areas of operation, such as the

text: La Perouse, New South Wales

text: and other eastern suburbs lines, as they provided greater turn-around capacity on this very busy system. The Sydney system was possibly the first major example of a looped tramway system. European systems were extensively converted to looped operation in the early twentieth century and most of them changed to single-ended trams. Looped operation with single-ended trams was also used on many North American streetcar systems.

text: Epsilon cells (ε-cells) are endocrine cells found in the Islets of Langerhans and produce the hormone ghrelin. They were discovered in mice.

text: Epsilon cells (ε-cells) are

text: endocrine

text: cells

text: found in the

text: Islets of Langerhans

text: and produce the hormone

text: ghrelin

text: . They were discovered in mice.

text: VGF or VGF nerve growth factor inducible is a protein and neuropeptide that may play a role in regulating energy homeostasis, metabolism and synaptic plasticity. The protein was first discovered in 1985 by Levi et al. in an experiment with PC12 cells and its name is non-acronymic. VGF gene encodes a precursor which is divided by proteolysis to polypeptides of different mass, which have a variety of functions, the best studied of which is the role of TLQP-21 in the control of appetite and inflammation. The expression of VGF and VGF-derived peptides is detected in a subset of neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems and specific populations of endocrine cells in the adenohypophysis, adrenal medulla, gastrointestinal tract, and pancreas. VGF expression is induced by NGF, CREB and BDNF and regulated by neurotrophin-3. Physical exercise significantly increases VGF expression in mice hippocampal tissue and upregulates a neurotrophic signaling cascade thought to underlie the action of antidepressants.

text: VGF or VGF nerve growth factor inducible is a protein and

text: neuropeptide

text: that may play a role in regulating energy homeostasis,

text: metabolism

text: and

text: synaptic plasticity

text: . The protein was first discovered in 1985 by Levi et al. in an experiment with

text: PC12 cells

text: and its name is non-

text: acronym

text: ic. VGF gene encodes a precursor which is divided by

text: proteolysis

text: to

text: polypeptide

text: s of different mass, which have a variety of functions, the best studied of which is the role of

text: in the control of appetite and inflammation. The expression of VGF and VGF-derived peptides is detected in a subset of neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems and specific populations of endocrine cells in the

text: adenohypophysis

text: adrenal medulla

text: , gastrointestinal tract, and

text: pancreas

text: . VGF expression is induced by

text: NGF

text: CREB

text: and

text: BDNF

text: and regulated by

text: Physical exercise

text: significantly increases VGF expression in mice

text: hippocampal

text: tissue and upregulates a neurotrophic signaling cascade thought to underlie the action of

text: antidepressant

text: s.

text: Cytokines (cyto, from Greek "κύτταρο" kyttaro "cell" + kines, from Greek "κίνηση" kinisi "movement") are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling. Their release has an effect on the behavior of cells around them. It can be said that cytokines are involved in autocrine signalling, paracrine signalling and endocrine signalling as immunomodulating agents. Their definite distinction from hormones is still part of ongoing research. Cytokines include chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, and tumour necrosis factors but generally not hormones or growth factors (despite some overlap in the terminology). Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes and mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various stromal cells; a given cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell.

text: Cytokines (cyto, from

text: Greek

text: "κύτταρο" kyttaro "cell" + kines, from Greek "κίνηση" kinisi "movement") are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20

text: kDa

text: ) that are important in

text: cell signaling

text: . Their release has an effect on the behavior of cells around them. It can be said that cytokines are involved in

text: autocrine signalling

text: paracrine signalling

text: and

text: endocrine signalling

text: as immunomodulating agents. Their definite distinction from hormones is still part of ongoing research. Cytokines include

text: chemokine

text: s,

text: interferon

text: s,

text: interleukin

text: s,

text: lymphokine

text: s, and

text: tumour necrosis factor

text: s but generally not

text: hormone

text: s or

text: growth factor

text: s (despite some

text: overlap in the terminology

text: ). Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like

text: macrophage

text: s,

text: B lymphocytes

text: T lymphocytes

text: and

text: mast cell

text: s, as well as

text: endothelial cells

text: fibroblast

text: s, and various

text: stromal cell

text: s; a given cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell.

text: Member, Endocrine Society, 2014–Present

text: Member,

text: Endocrine Society

text: , 2014–Present

text: The primary mechanism of action for androgen receptors is direct regulation of gene transcription.  The binding of an androgen to the androgen receptor results in a conformational change in the receptor that, in turn, causes dissociation of heat shock proteins, transport from the cytosol into the cell nucleus, and dimerization.  The androgen receptor dimer binds to a specific sequence of DNA known as a hormone response element.  Androgen receptors interact with other proteins in the nucleus, resulting in up- or down-regulation of specific gene transcription.  Up-regulation or activation of transcription results in increased synthesis of messenger RNA, which, in turn, is translated by ribosomes to produce specific proteins. One of the known target genes of androgen receptor activation is the insulin-like growth factor I receptor (IGF-1R). Thus, changes in levels of specific proteins in cells is one way that androgen receptors control cell behavior.

text: The primary mechanism of action for androgen receptors is direct regulation of

text: gene transcription

text: .  The binding of an

text: androgen

text: to the androgen receptor results in a conformational change in the receptor that, in turn, causes dissociation of

text: heat shock protein

text: s, transport from the

text: cytosol

text: into the

text: cell nucleus

text: , and dimerization.  The androgen receptor dimer binds to a specific sequence of

text: DNA

text: known as a

text: hormone response element

text: .  Androgen receptors interact with other proteins in the nucleus, resulting in up- or down-regulation of specific

text: gene

text: transcription

text: .  Up-regulation or activation of transcription results in increased synthesis of

text: messenger RNA

text: , which, in turn, is translated by

text: ribosomes

text: to produce specific proteins. One of the known target genes of androgen receptor activation is the insulin-like growth factor I receptor (

text: ). Thus, changes in levels of specific proteins in cells is one way that androgen receptors control cell behavior.

text: must be equal to the number of open-loop poles in the RHP.  Any clockwise encirclements of the critical point by the open-loop frequency response (when judged from low frequency to high frequency) would indicate that the feedback control system would be destabilizing if the loop were closed.  (Using RHP zeros to "cancel out" RHP poles does not remove the instability, but rather ensures that the system will remain unstable even in the presence of feedback, since the closed-loop roots travel between open-loop poles and zeros in the presence of feedback. In fact, the RHP zero can make the unstable pole unobservable and therefore not stabilizable through feedback.)

text: Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)  is a releasing hormone found mainly in the paraventricular nucleus of the mammalian hypothalamus that regulates the release of corticotropin (ACTH) from the pituitary gland. The paraventricular nucleus transports CRH to the anterior pituitary, stimulating adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release via CRH type 1 receptors, thereby activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and, thus, glucocorticoid release.

text: Corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: (CRH)  is a

text: releasing hormone

text: found mainly in the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: of the mammalian

text: hypothalamus

text: that regulates the release of

text: corticotropin

text: (ACTH) from the

text: pituitary gland

text: . The paraventricular nucleus transports CRH to the

text: anterior pituitary

text: , stimulating

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: (ACTH) release via

entity_name: Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1

text: CRH type 1 receptor

text: s, thereby activating the

text: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

text: (HPA) and, thus,

text: glucocorticoid

text: release.

text: Motilin is secreted by endocrine M cells (these are not the same as the microfold cells (M cells) that are in Peyer's patches) that are numerous in crypts of the small intestine, especially in the duodenum and jejunum. It is released into the general circulation in humans at about 100-min intervals during the inter-digestive state and is the most important factor in controlling the inter-digestive migrating contractions; and it also stimulates endogenous release of the endocrine pancreas. Based on amino acid sequence, motilin is unrelated to other hormones. Because of its ability to stimulate gastric activity, it was named "motilin". Apart from in humans, the motilin receptor has been identified in the gastrointestinal tracts of pigs, rats, cows, and cats, and in the central nervous system of rabbits.

text: Motilin is secreted by

text: endocrine

text: M cells (these are not the same as the

text: microfold cell

text: s (M cells) that are in Peyer's patches) that are numerous in crypts of the

text: small intestine

text: , especially in the

text: duodenum

text: and

text: jejunum

text: . It is released into the general circulation in humans at about 100-min intervals during the inter-digestive state and is the most important factor in controlling the inter-digestive migrating contractions; and it also stimulates endogenous release of the endocrine pancreas. Based on amino acid sequence, motilin is unrelated to other hormones. Because of its ability to stimulate gastric activity, it was named "motilin". Apart from in humans, the

text: motilin receptor

text: has been identified in the

text: gastrointestinal tracts

text: of

text: pig

text: s,

text: rat

text: s,

text: cow

text: s, and

text: cat

text: s, and in the central nervous system of

text: rabbits

text: Endocrine abnormalities in other areas have also been present with the disorder. These include hypothyroidism, growth hormone deficiency and hypopituitarism. Findings affecting pituitary function in some JBS patients have included such anomalies as the formation of a glial hamartoma (a neoplasm, or tumor composed of glial cells) on a lobe of the pituitary gland, as well congenital underdevelopment of the anterior pituitary. Growth failure and associated short stature (dwarfism) in JBS can be attributed to growth hormone deficiency caused by diminished anterior pituitary function, with malabsorption of fats playing a subsequent role.

text: Endocrine abnormalities in other areas have also been present with the disorder. These include

text: hypothyroidism

text: growth hormone deficiency

text: and

text: hypopituitarism

text: . Findings affecting pituitary function in some JBS patients have included such anomalies as the formation of a

text: glial hamartoma

text: (a

text: neoplasm

text: , or

text: tumor

text: composed of

text: glial cell

text: s) on a lobe of the

text: pituitary gland

text: , as well congenital underdevelopment of the

text: anterior pituitary

text: . Growth failure and associated

text: short stature

text: dwarfism

text: ) in JBS can be attributed to growth hormone deficiency caused by diminished anterior pituitary function, with malabsorption of fats playing a subsequent role.

text: Kisspeptin is involved in the regulation of endocrine function and the onset of puberty, with activation of the kisspeptin receptor triggering release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), and release of kisspeptin itself being inhibited by oestradiol but enhanced by GnRH. Reductions in kisspeptin levels with age may conversely be one of the reasons behind age-related declines in levels of other endocrine hormones such as luteinizing hormone.

text: Kisspeptin is involved in the regulation of endocrine function and the onset of

text: puberty

text: , with activation of the kisspeptin receptor triggering release of

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone

text: (GnRH), and release of kisspeptin itself being inhibited by

text: oestradiol

text: but enhanced by GnRH. Reductions in kisspeptin levels with age may conversely be one of the reasons behind age-related declines in levels of other endocrine hormones such as

text: luteinizing hormone

text: CART is an anorectic peptide and is widely expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, particularly concentrated in the hypothalamus. CART is outside of the nervous system also expressed in pituitary endocrine cells, adrenomedullary cells, islet somatostatin cells, and in rat antral gastrin cells. Other structures and pathways associated with CART expression include the mesolimbic pathway (linking the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens) and amygdala.

text: CART is an

text: anorectic

text: peptide and is widely expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, particularly concentrated in the

text: hypothalamus

text: . CART is outside of the nervous system also expressed in

text: pituitary

text: endocrine cells,

text: adrenomedullary

text: cells, islet

text: somatostatin

text: cells, and in rat antral

text: gastrin

text: cells. Other structures and pathways associated with CART expression include the

text: mesolimbic pathway

text: (linking the

text: ventral tegmental area

text: to the

text: nucleus accumbens

text: ) and

text: amygdala

text: Human activities have affected stocks of many species of teleost, through overfishing, pollution and global warming. Among many recorded instances, overfishing caused the complete collapse of the Atlantic cod population off Newfoundland in 1992, leading to Canada's indefinite closure of the fishery. Such commercial extinction does not however signify extinction of the species. Pollution, especially in rivers and along coasts, has harmed teleosts as sewage, pesticides and herbicides have entered the water. Many pollutants, such as heavy metals, organochlorines, and carbamates interfere with teleost reproduction, often by disrupting their endocrine systems. In the roach, river pollution has caused the intersex condition, in which an individual's gonads contain both cells that can make male gametes (such as spermatogonia) and cells that can make female gametes (such as oogonia). Since endocrine disruption also affects humans, teleosts are used to indicate the presence of such chemicals in water.  Water pollution caused local extinction of teleost populations in many northern European lakes in the second half of the twentieth century.

text: Human activities have affected stocks of many species of teleost, through

text: overfishing

text: pollution

text: and

text: global warming

text: . Among many recorded instances, overfishing caused the complete collapse of the

text: Atlantic cod

text: population off

text: Newfoundland

text: in 1992, leading to Canada's indefinite closure of the fishery. Such commercial extinction does not however signify extinction of the species. Pollution, especially in rivers and along coasts, has harmed teleosts as sewage, pesticides and herbicides have entered the water. Many pollutants, such as

text: heavy metals

text: organochlorine

text: s, and

text: carbamate

text: s interfere with teleost reproduction, often by disrupting their

text: endocrine

text: systems. In the

text: roach

text: , river pollution has caused the intersex condition, in which an individual's gonads contain both cells that can make male gametes (such as

text: spermatogonia

text: ) and cells that can make female gametes (such as

text: oogonia

text: ). Since endocrine disruption also affects humans, teleosts are used to indicate the presence of such chemicals in water.  Water pollution caused local extinction of teleost populations in many northern European lakes in the second half of the twentieth century.

text: The hypothalamus plays an important role in thermoregulation. It connects to thermal receptors in the dermis, and detects changes in surrounding blood to make decisions of whether to stimulate internal heat production, or to stimulate evaporation.

text: The hypothalamus plays an important role in thermoregulation. It connects to thermal receptors in the

text: dermis

text: , and detects changes in surrounding blood to make decisions of whether to stimulate internal heat production, or to stimulate evaporation.

text: Some systemic diseases can become symptomatic as a skin disorder. These include many endocrine (hormonal) abnormalities, such as hypothyroidism, Cushing's Syndrome (hyperadrenalcorticism), and tumors of the ovaries or testicles.

text: Some systemic diseases can become symptomatic as a skin disorder. These include many

text: endocrine

text: (hormonal) abnormalities, such as

text: hypothyroidism

text: Cushing's Syndrome

text: (hyperadrenalcorticism), and

text: tumor

text: s of the

text: ovaries

text: or

text: testicles

text: Chondrodysplasia Blomstrand (also known as Blomstrand's lethal chondrodysplasia) is a rare disorder caused by mutation of the parathyroid hormone receptor resulting in the absence of a functioning PTHR1. It results in ossification of the endocrine system and intermembraneous tissues and advanced skeletal maturation

text: Chondrodysplasia Blomstrand (also known as Blomstrand's lethal chondrodysplasia) is a rare disorder caused by

text: mutation

text: of the

text: parathyroid hormone receptor

text: resulting in the absence of a functioning

text: . It results in

text: ossification

text: of the

text: endocrine system

text: and intermembraneous tissues and advanced skeletal maturation

text: Treatment of hyperandrogenism varies with the underlying condition that causes it. As a hormonal symptom of polycystic ovary syndrome, menopause, and other endocrine disorders, it is primarily treated as a symptom of these disorders. Systemically, it is treated with antiandrogens such as cyproterone acetate, flutamide and spironolactone to control the androgen levels in the patient's body. For Hyperandrogenism caused by Late-Onset Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH), treatment is primarily focused on providing the patient with Glucocorticoids to combat the low cortisol production and the corresponding increase in androgens caused by the swelling of the Adrenal Glands. Oestrogen-based oral contraceptives are used to treat both CAH and PCOS caused hyperandrogenism. These hormonal treatments have been found to reduce the androgen excess and suppress adrenal androgen production and cause a significant decrease in hirsutism.

text: Treatment of hyperandrogenism varies with the underlying condition that causes it. As a hormonal symptom of

text: polycystic ovary syndrome

text: menopause

text: , and other endocrine disorders, it is primarily treated as a symptom of these disorders. Systemically, it is treated with

text: antiandrogens

text: such as

text: cyproterone acetate

text: flutamide

text: and

text: spironolactone

text: to control the androgen levels in the patient's body. For Hyperandrogenism caused by

text: Late-Onset Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

text: , treatment is primarily focused on providing the patient with Glucocorticoids to combat the low cortisol production and the corresponding increase in androgens caused by the swelling of the Adrenal Glands.

text: Oestrogen

text: -based

text: oral contraceptives

text: are used to treat both CAH and PCOS caused hyperandrogenism. These hormonal treatments have been found to reduce the androgen excess and suppress adrenal androgen production and cause a significant decrease in hirsutism.

text: Perceptual control theory (PCT) is a psychological theory of animal and human behavior originated by maverick scientist William T. Powers. In contrast with other theories of psychology and behavior, which assume that behavior is a function of perception — that perceptual inputs determine or cause behavior — PCT postulates that an organism's behavior is a means of controlling its perceptions. In contrast with engineering control theory, the reference variable for each negative feedback control loop in a control hierarchy is set from within the system (the organism), rather than by an external agent changing the setpoint of the controller. PCT also applies to nonliving autonomic systems.

text: Perceptual control theory (PCT) is a psychological theory of animal and

text: human behavior

text: originated by maverick scientist

text: William T. Powers

text: . In contrast with other theories of psychology and behavior, which assume that behavior is a function of perception — that perceptual inputs determine or cause behavior — PCT postulates that an organism's behavior is a means of controlling its perceptions. In contrast with

text: engineering control theory

text: , the reference variable for each

text: negative feedback

text: control loop in a control hierarchy is set from within the system (the organism), rather than by an external agent changing the

text: setpoint

text: of the

text: controller

text: . PCT also applies to nonliving

text: autonomic systems

text: On March 24, Schoolboy Q announced #TheGroovyTour; a month-long tour with Ab-Soul accompanying him the entire way. The tour began on April 20, at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco, California. On April 6, 2012, Ab-Soul liberated a song titled "Terrorist Threats". The song features frequent collaborator Jhené Aiko and fellow American rapper Danny Brown, who proclaimed on Twitter that "Black Hippy the new Beatles and I'm Harry Nilsson". On April 17, 2012, Ab-Soul revealed the album's title to be Control System and unveiled the release date to be May 11, 2012. That same day, he also released a music video for "Pineal Gland", a song inspired by the psychedelic drug DMT and of course the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain. On April 24, 2012, Stevens released another song, "SOPA". The song, produced by Nez & Rio, references the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), a United States bill introduced by U.S. Representative Lamar S. Smith, that would have allowed the U.S. government to control the Internet.

text: On March 24, Schoolboy Q announced #TheGroovyTour; a month-long tour with Ab-Soul accompanying him the entire way. The tour began on April 20, at the

text: Bill Graham Civic Auditorium

text: in

text: San Francisco

text: , California. On April 6, 2012, Ab-Soul liberated a song titled "Terrorist Threats". The song features frequent collaborator

text: Jhené Aiko

text: and fellow American rapper

text: Danny Brown

text: , who proclaimed on

text: Twitter

text: that "Black Hippy the new

text: Beatles

text: and I'm

text: Harry Nilsson

text: ". On April 17, 2012, Ab-Soul revealed the album's title to be

text: Control System

text: and unveiled the release date to be May 11, 2012. That same day, he also released a

text: music video

text: for "Pineal Gland", a song inspired by the

text: psychedelic drug

text: DMT

text: and of course the

text: pineal gland

text: , a small

text: endocrine

text: gland in the

text: vertebrate

text: brain

text: . On April 24, 2012, Stevens released another song, "SOPA". The song, produced by Nez & Rio, references the

text: Stop Online Piracy Act

text: (SOPA), a United States

text: bill

text: introduced by

text: U.S. Representative

text: Lamar S. Smith

text: , that would have allowed the

text: U.S. government

text: to control the

text: Internet

text: Schreck has provided a series of contributions to our knowledge of fish biology and to the field of comparative endocrinology. He was among the first to publish about the notion of allostasis, although he did not coin the term. Most of his work has involving using salmonids as a model, but he has also published findings on a number of other species. He has helped to define stress in fishes, and to describe its mechanisms and effects at the organism level. For example, he contributed some of the early work describing the negative effects of cortisol and stress on immune function and disease resistance in fish, and has helped develop an understanding of the interactions between the endocrine system and the immune system. He has also contributed a number of papers on the effects of different rearing conditions, handling, and transport practices on indices of stress, endocrine function, and performance in juvenile Pacific salmon. Some of his work has also examined the interplay between endocrine variables and behaviour, notably the capacity for predator avoidance. Because of the volume of his contributions on the effects of hatchery practices on fish stress and performance, Schreck could be considered one of the world authorities on fish stress in the context of aquaculture. Some of Dr. Schreck’s other contributions to comparative endocrinology include work on reproductive endocrinology – particularly in the early part of his career. As part of his PhD work, in 1973 Schreck published the first use of the radioimmunoassay for measuring hormones in fish blood, the laboratory method most commonly and widely used since that time for measuring hormones (e.g., cortisol) in the blood of fishes.

text: Schreck has provided a series of contributions to our knowledge of fish biology and to the field of comparative endocrinology. He was among the first to publish about the notion of

text: allostasis

text: , although he did not coin the term. Most of his work has involving using

text: salmonids

text: as a model, but he has also published findings on a number of other species. He has helped to define

text: stress

text: in fishes, and to describe its mechanisms and effects at the organism level. For example, he contributed some of the early work describing the negative effects of

text: cortisol

text: and stress on immune function and disease resistance in fish, and has helped develop an understanding of the interactions between the endocrine system and the immune system. He has also contributed a number of papers on the effects of different rearing conditions, handling, and transport practices on indices of stress, endocrine function, and performance in juvenile Pacific salmon. Some of his work has also examined the interplay between endocrine variables and behaviour, notably the capacity for predator avoidance. Because of the volume of his contributions on the effects of hatchery practices on fish stress and performance, Schreck could be considered one of the world authorities on fish stress in the context of aquaculture. Some of Dr. Schreck’s other contributions to comparative endocrinology include work on reproductive endocrinology – particularly in the early part of his career. As part of his PhD work, in 1973 Schreck published the first use of the

text: radioimmunoassay

text: for measuring hormones in fish blood, the laboratory method most commonly and widely used since that time for measuring hormones (e.g., cortisol) in the blood of fishes.

text: °Endocrine advice (Warsaw);

text: °Endocrine advice (

text: Warsaw

text: After a newborn baby rapidly ages into an 80-year-old man, Fringe division agent Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv) and consultants Peter (Joshua Jackson) and Walter Bishop (John Noble) investigate. They tie the case to the murders of young women, who have all had their pituitary glands removed. It is revealed that Dr. Claus Penrose (Mark Blum), an expert in progeria, is working to help his son Christopher (Derek Cecil) stay alive, as he suffers from rapid aging syndrome.

text: After a newborn baby rapidly ages into an 80-year-old man, Fringe division agent

text: Olivia Dunham

text: Anna Torv

text: ) and consultants

text: Peter

text: Joshua Jackson

text: ) and

text: Walter Bishop

text: John Noble

text: ) investigate. They tie the case to the murders of young women, who have all had their

text: pituitary gland

text: s removed. It is revealed that Dr. Claus Penrose (

text: Mark Blum

text: ), an expert in

text: progeria

text: , is working to help his son Christopher (

text: Derek Cecil

text: ) stay alive, as he suffers from rapid aging syndrome.

text: On April 17, 2012, Ab-Soul revealed the album's title to be Control System and unveiled the release date to be May 11, 2012. That same day he also released a music video for "Pineal Gland", a song inspired by the psychedelic drug DMT and of course the pineal gland, a small endocrine gland in the vertebrate brain theorized to store natural reserves of DMT in mammals. On April 24, 2012, another single, by the title of "SOPA" was released. The song, produced by Nez & Rio, references Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA), a United States bill introduced by US Representative Lamar S. Smith, that would've allowed the US government controversial control over the internet.

text: On April 17, 2012, Ab-Soul revealed the album's title to be Control System and unveiled the release date to be May 11, 2012. That same day he also released a

text: music video

text: psychedelic drug

text: DMT

text: and of course the

text: pineal gland

text: , a small

text: endocrine

text: gland in the

text: vertebrate

text: brain

text: theorized to store natural reserves of DMT in mammals. On April 24, 2012, another

text: single

text: , by the title of "SOPA" was released. The song, produced by

text: Nez & Rio

text: , references

text: Stop Online Piracy Act

text: (SOPA), a United States

text: bill

text: introduced by

text: US Representative

text: Lamar S. Smith

text: , that would've allowed the

text: US government

text: controversial control over the

text: internet

text: The ability of pioneer factors to respond to extracellular signals to differentiate cell type has been studied as a potential component of hormone-dependent cancers.  Hormones such as estrogen and IGFI are shown to increase pioneer factor concentration leading to a change in transcription.  Known pioneer factors such as FoxA1, PBX1, TLE, AP2, GATA factors 2/3/4, and PU.1 have been associated with hormone-dependent cancer .  FoxA1 is necessary for estrogen and androgen mediated hepatocarcinogenesis and is a defining gene for ER luminal breast cancer, as is another pioneer factor GATA3.  FOXA1 particularly is expressed in 90% of breast cancer metastases and 89% of metastic prostate cancers.  In the breast cancer cell line, MCF-7, it was found that FoxA1 was bound to 50% of estrogen receptor binding sites independent of estrogen presence.  High expression of pioneer factors is associated with poor prognosis with the exception of breast cancer where FoxA1 is associated with a stronger outcome.<br>The correlation between pioneer factors and cancer has led to prospective therapeutic targeting.  In knockdown studies in the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line it was found that decreasing pioneer factors FoxA1 and AP2 decreased ER signalling.  Other fork head proteins have been associated with cancer, including FoxO3 and FoxM that repress the cell survival pathways Ras and PPI3K/AKT/IKK.  Drugs such as Paclitaxel, Imatinib, and doxorubicin which activate FoxO3a or its targets are being used.  Modification to modulate related factors with pioneer activity is a topic of interest in the early stages as knocking down pioneer factors may have toxic effects through alteration of the lineage pathways of healthy cells.

text: The ability of pioneer factors to respond to extracellular signals to differentiate cell type has been studied as a potential component of hormone-dependent cancers.  Hormones such as

text: estrogen

text: and

text: IGFI

text: are shown to increase pioneer factor concentration leading to a change in transcription.  Known pioneer factors such as FoxA1,

text: , TLE,

text: , GATA factors

text: , and PU.1 have been associated with hormone-dependent cancer .  FoxA1 is necessary for estrogen and androgen mediated hepatocarcinogenesis and is a defining gene for ER luminal breast cancer, as is another pioneer factor GATA3.  FOXA1 particularly is expressed in 90% of breast cancer metastases and 89% of metastic prostate cancers.  In the breast cancer cell line,

text: , it was found that FoxA1 was bound to 50% of estrogen receptor binding sites independent of estrogen presence.  High expression of pioneer factors is associated with poor prognosis with the exception of breast cancer where FoxA1 is associated with a stronger outcome.<br>The correlation between pioneer factors and cancer has led to prospective therapeutic targeting.  In knockdown studies in the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line it was found that decreasing pioneer factors FoxA1 and AP2 decreased ER signalling.  Other fork head proteins have been associated with cancer, including

text: and FoxM that repress the cell survival pathways

text: Ras

text: and PPI3K/AKT/IKK.  Drugs such as

text: Paclitaxel

text: Imatinib

text: , and

text: doxorubicin

text: which activate FoxO3a or its targets are being used.  Modification to modulate related factors with pioneer activity is a topic of interest in the early stages as knocking down pioneer factors may have toxic effects through alteration of the lineage pathways of healthy cells.

text: Neuroendocrine:  Of, relating to, or involving the interaction between the nervous system and the hormones of the endocrine glands.

text: Ablating lysosomal acid lipase (Lal-/-) in mice led to aberrant expansion of myeloid-derived suppressive cells (MDSCs) (>40% in the blood, and >70% in the bone marrow) that arise from dysregulated production of myeloid progenitor cells in the bone marrow. Ly6G + MDSCs in Lal-/- mice show strong immunosuppression on T cells, which contributes to impaired T cell proliferation and function in vivo. GPR84 was 9.1 fold upregulated in the MDSCs of Lal-/- mice. GPR84 is normally expressed at low levels in myeloid cells and can be induced in vitro by stimulating macrophage or microglial cells with LPS, TNFα, or PMA. Elevated expression of GPR84 was also observed during the demyelination phase of the reversible Cuprizone-Induced Demyelinating Disease  mouse model. Finally, it has also shown that GPR84 expression is increased in both the normal appearing white matter and plaque in brains from human Multiple Sclerosis patients. Expression of GPR84 increases in mouse whole brain samples from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis before the onset of clinical disease. In cultured microglia in response to simulated blast overpressure the expression of GPR84 was increased 2.9 fold. In ageing TgSwe mice were subjected to traumatic brain injury GPR84 was upregulated by 6.3 fold. GPR84 expression was increased by 49.9 times in M1 type macrophages isolated from aortic atherosclerotic lesions of LDLR-/- mice were fed a western diet. GPR84 is important in regulating the expression of cytokines: CD4+ T cells from GPR84-/- mice show increase IL-4 secretion in the presence of anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 antibodies; GPR84 potentiates LPS-induced IL12p40 secretion in RAW264.7 cells.Recent work by Nagasaki et al. explored 3T3-L1 adipocytes cocultured with RAW264.7 cells to examine this potential interaction. RAW264.7 coculture increases GPR84 expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and incubation with capric acid can inhibit TNFα-induced adiponectin release. Adiponectin regulates many metabolic processes associated with glucose and fatty acids, including insulin sensitivity and lipid breakdown. Furthermore, a high-fat diet can increase GPR84 expression. The authors suggest that GPR84 may explain the relationship between diabetes and obesity. As adipocytes release fatty acids in the presence of macrophages, the loop of increased GPR84 expression and its stimulation prevent the release of regulating hormones. The work on GPR84 is still very early and needs to be expanded in the context of pathophysiology and immune regulation. Some people presume the role of GPR84 in food intake too. GPR84 is expressed in the gastric corpus mucosa and this receptor can be an important luminal sensors of food intake and are most likely expressed on entero-endocrine cells, where it stimulates the release of peptide hormones including incretins glucagon-like peptide (GLP) 1 and 2.

text: Ablating

text: lysosomal acid lipase

text: (Lal-/-) in mice led to aberrant expansion of

text: myeloid

text: -derived suppressive cells (MDSCs) (>40% in the blood, and >70% in the bone marrow) that arise from dysregulated production of myeloid progenitor cells in the bone marrow. Ly6G + MDSCs in Lal-/- mice show strong immunosuppression on T cells, which contributes to impaired T cell proliferation and function in vivo. GPR84 was 9.1 fold upregulated in the MDSCs of Lal-/- mice. GPR84 is normally expressed at low levels in myeloid cells and can be induced in vitro by stimulating macrophage or microglial cells with LPS, TNFα, or PMA. Elevated expression of GPR84 was also observed during the demyelination phase of the reversible Cuprizone-Induced Demyelinating Disease  mouse model. Finally, it has also shown that GPR84 expression is increased in both the normal appearing white matter and plaque in brains from human Multiple Sclerosis patients. Expression of GPR84 increases in mouse whole brain samples from

text: experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

text: The CLAW hypothesis, inspired by the Gaia hypothesis, proposes a feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth's climate.  The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing, and that these responses lead to a negative feedback loop that acts to stabilise the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere.

text: The

text: CLAW hypothesis

text: , inspired by the Gaia hypothesis, proposes a

text: feedback loop

text: that operates between

text: ocean

text: ecosystem

text: s and the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: climate

text: .  The

text: hypothesis

text: specifically proposes that particular

text: phytoplankton

text: that produce

text: dimethyl sulfide

text: are responsive to variations in

text: climate forcing

text: , and that these responses lead to a

text: negative feedback loop

text: that acts to stabilise the

text: temperature

text: of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: In April 2011, a review article in the New England Journal of Medicine discussed the health consequences of the spill.  According to the review, at high doses some crude-oil components cause respiratory, hepatic (liver), renal (urinary system), endocrine (hormonal system), neurologic, hematologic (vascular system), and other systemic effects, while even very low doses can cause mutagenic effects, with cancer  of particular concern. The carcinogens of concern in crude oil are benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are present in oil and in the air as a result of offshore controlled burning of crude oil.  During the 2010 BP/Deepwater Horizon Gulf oil spill, an estimated one of every 20 barrels of spilled oil was deliberately burned off.Routes of exposure include contact and inhalation. The EPA obtained hundreds of air samples during the spill and a review showed that none of the samples showed concentrations of benzene or other volatile organic hydrocarbons to be above health-based standards. However, the review noted that "although the monitoring was extensive, no monitoring scheme could cover all potentially affected locales".

text: In April 2011, a

text: review article

text: in the

text: New England Journal of Medicine

text: discussed the health consequences of the spill.  According to the review, at high doses some crude-oil components cause respiratory, hepatic (liver), renal (urinary system), endocrine (hormonal system), neurologic, hematologic (vascular system), and other systemic effects, while even very low doses can cause

text: mutagenic

text: effects, with cancer  of particular concern. The carcinogens of concern in crude oil are benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are present in oil and in the air as a result of offshore controlled burning of crude oil.  During the 2010 BP/Deepwater Horizon Gulf oil spill, an estimated one of every 20 barrels of spilled oil was deliberately burned off.Routes of exposure include contact and inhalation. The EPA obtained hundreds of air samples during the spill and a review showed that none of the samples showed concentrations of benzene or other volatile organic hydrocarbons to be above health-based standards. However, the review noted that "although the monitoring was extensive, no monitoring scheme could cover all potentially affected locales".

text: The pollutant methylmercury is a globally distributed neurotoxin and an endocrine system disruptor. In the Everglades ecosystem, human pollution has led to increased concentrations of methylmercury, which have impacted the behaviors of the American white ibis. Hormone levels in males are affected, leading to a decrease in the rates of key courtship behavior, and fewer approaches by females during the mating season. In addition, methylmercury also increased male-male pairing behaviors by 55%. Both the chemically induced "homosexual" behavior and the diminished ability to attract females by males have reduced reproduction rates in affected populations. Exposure of American white ibises to methylmercury causes reduced foraging efficiency and it also makes them more likely to abandon nests owing to the disruptive effect of the pollutant on the bird's hormone systems, which in turn affects parental care behavior. Tests on captive birds have not shown a decreased survival of American white ibis exposed to methylmercury.

text: The pollutant

text: methylmercury

text: is a globally distributed

text: neurotoxin

text: and an

text: endocrine system

text: disruptor. In the

text: Everglades

text: ecosystem, human pollution has led to increased concentrations of methylmercury, which have impacted the behaviors of the American white ibis.

text: Hormone

text: levels in males are affected, leading to a decrease in the rates of key courtship behavior, and fewer approaches by females during the mating season. In addition, methylmercury also increased male-male pairing behaviors by 55%. Both the chemically induced "homosexual" behavior and the diminished ability to attract females by males have reduced reproduction rates in affected populations. Exposure of American white ibises to methylmercury causes reduced foraging efficiency and it also makes them more likely to abandon nests owing to the disruptive effect of the pollutant on the bird's hormone systems, which in turn affects parental care behavior. Tests on captive birds have not shown a decreased survival of American white ibis exposed to methylmercury.

text: Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by parvocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamic capillaries leading to infundibular blood vessels, which in turn lead to a second capillary bed in the anterior pituitary. This vascular relationship constitutes the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system. Diffusing out of the second capillary bed, the hypothalamic releasing hormones then bind to anterior pituitary endocrine cells, upregulating or downregulating their release of hormones.

text: Endocrine cells

text: of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by

text: parvocellular neurosecretory cell

text: s in the hypothalamic capillaries leading to infundibular blood vessels, which in turn lead to a second capillary bed in the anterior pituitary. This vascular relationship constitutes the

text: hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

text: . Diffusing out of the second capillary bed, the hypothalamic

text: releasing hormone

text: s then bind to anterior pituitary endocrine cells, upregulating or downregulating their release of hormones.

text: Endocrine-Related Cancer is abstracted and indexed in:

text: Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. For instance, serum calcium concentration affects parathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar (serum glucose concentration) affects insulin synthesis; and because the outputs of the stomach and exocrine pancreas (the amounts of gastric juice and pancreatic juice) become the input of the small intestine, the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate or inhibit the stomach and pancreas based on how busy it is. Regulation of hormone synthesis of gonadal hormones, adrenocortical hormones, and thyroid hormones is often dependent on complex sets of direct influence and feedback interactions involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), -gonadal (HPG), and -thyroid (HPT) axes.

text: Hormone

text: secretion

text: may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones. Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide range of regulatory systems. For instance,

text: serum calcium

text: concentration affects

text: parathyroid hormone

text: synthesis;

text: blood sugar

text: (serum glucose concentration) affects

text: insulin

text: synthesis; and because the outputs of the

text: stomach

text: and exocrine

text: pancreas

text: (the amounts of

text: gastric juice

text: and

text: pancreatic juice

text: ) become the input of the

text: small intestine

text: , the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate or inhibit the stomach and pancreas based on how busy it is. Regulation of hormone synthesis of

text: gonadal hormones

text: adrenocortical hormone

text: s, and

text: thyroid hormone

text: s is often dependent on complex sets of direct influence and feedback interactions involving the

text: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal

text: (HPA),

text: -gonadal

text: (HPG), and

text: -thyroid

text: (HPT) axes.

text: Functional medicine is a form of alternative medicine which proponents say focuses on interactions between the environment and the gastrointestinal, endocrine, and immune systems. Practitioners attempt to develop individual treatment plans for people they treat. Functional medicine encompasses a number of unproven and disproven methods and treatments, and has been criticized for being pseudoscientific.

text: Functional medicine is a form of

text: alternative medicine

text: which proponents say focuses on interactions between the environment and the gastrointestinal, endocrine, and immune systems. Practitioners attempt to develop individual treatment plans for people they treat. Functional medicine encompasses a number of unproven and disproven methods and treatments, and has been criticized for being

text: pseudoscientific

text: Importantly, the use of drugs (whether chemotherapy, hormonal therapy or targeted therapy) constitutes "systemic therapy" for cancer in that they are introduced into the blood stream and are therefore in principle able to address cancer at any anatomic location in the body. Systemic therapy is often used in conjunction with other modalities that constitute "local therapy" (i.e. treatments whose efficacy is confined to the anatomic area where they are applied) for cancer such as radiation therapy, surgery, and/or hyperthermia therapy.

text: Importantly, the use of drugs (whether chemotherapy, hormonal therapy or targeted therapy) constitutes "systemic therapy" for cancer in that they are introduced into the blood stream and are therefore in principle able to address cancer at any anatomic location in the body. Systemic therapy is often used in conjunction with other modalities that constitute "local therapy" (i.e. treatments whose efficacy is confined to the anatomic area where they are applied) for cancer such as

text: radiation therapy

text: surgery

text: , and/or

text: hyperthermia therapy

text: The Greek physician Galen referred to the pituitary gland by only using the (Ancient Greek) name ἀδήν, gland. He described the pituitary gland as part of a series of secretory organs for the excretion of nasal mucus. Anatomist Andreas Vesalius translated ἀδήν with glans, in quam pituita destillat, "gland in which slime (pituita) drips". Besides this 'descriptive' name, Vesalius used glandula pituitaria, from which the English name pituitary gland  is ultimately derived.

text: The Greek

text: physician

text: Galen

text: referred to the pituitary gland by only using the (

text: Ancient Greek

text: ) name ἀδήν, gland. He described the pituitary gland as part of a series of secretory organs for the excretion of

text: nasal mucus

text: . Anatomist

text: Andreas Vesalius

text: translated ἀδήν with glans, in quam pituita destillat, "gland in which slime (pituita) drips". Besides this 'descriptive' name, Vesalius used glandula pituitaria, from which the English name pituitary gland  is ultimately derived.

text: Conversely, if this element leads to its own inhibition through upstream elements, this is canonically negative feedback (red blunt arrow). A negative feedback loop is also known as a balancing loop, and it may be common to see oscillations in which a delayed negative feedback signal is used to maintain homeostatic balance in the system.

text: Conversely, if this element leads to its own inhibition through upstream elements, this is canonically

text: negative feedback

text: (red blunt arrow). A negative feedback loop is also known as a balancing loop, and it may be common to see oscillations in which a delayed negative feedback signal is used to maintain homeostatic balance in the system.

text: At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory. In other words, they address how these neural circuits function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does vision work? How do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? How does the somatosensory system process tactile information? The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors. Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively. Despite many advancements, the way networks of neurons produce complex cognitions and behaviors is still poorly understood.

text: At the systems level, the questions addressed in

text: systems neuroscience

text: include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as

text: reflex

text: es,

text: multisensory integration

text: motor coordination

text: circadian rhythm

text: s,

text: emotional responses

text: learning

text: , and

text: memory

text: . In other words, they address how these neural circuits function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does

text: vision

text: work? How do

text: songbirds

text: learn new songs and

text: bat

text: s localize with

text: ultrasound

text: ? How does the

text: somatosensory system

text: process tactile information? The related fields of

text: neuroethology

text: and

text: neuropsychology

text: address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific

text: animal

text: and

text: human

text: behaviors.

text: Neuroendocrinology

text: and

text: psychoneuroimmunology

text: examine interactions between the nervous system and the

text: endocrine

text: and

text: immune

text: systems, respectively. Despite many advancements, the way

text: networks of neurons

text: produce complex

text: cognition

text: s and behaviors is still poorly understood.

text: The colony-stimulating factors are soluble(permeable), in contrast to other, membrane-bound substances of the hematopoietic microenvironment. This is sometimes used as the definition of CSFs. They transduce by paracrine, endocrine, or autocrine signaling.

text: The colony-stimulating factors are soluble(permeable), in contrast to other, membrane-bound substances of the

text: hematopoietic microenvironment

text: . This is sometimes used as the definition of CSFs. They transduce by

text: paracrine

text: endocrine

text: , or

text: autocrine

text: signaling.

text: The pituitary gland is also called hypophysis, or master gland. It secretes hormones that directly impact the body as well as hormones that indirectly control body functions because they activate other endocrine glands, such as the adrenal cortex (ACTH) and the thyroid gland (TSH). These two glands when stimulated by pituitary hormones then release their own hormones.The pituitary gland has two lobes, the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe secretes: growth hormone (GH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Prolactin (PRL), and the posterior lobe secretes: Antidieuretic hormone (ADH), and Oxytocin (OT). There is an intermediate lobe, in adult humans it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary, nearly indistinguishable from the anterior lobe. The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH).

text: The

text: pituitary gland

text: is also called hypophysis, or master gland. It secretes

text: hormone

text: s that directly impact the body as well as hormones that indirectly control body functions because they activate other endocrine glands, such as the

text: adrenal cortex

text: (ACTH) and the

text: thyroid gland

text: (TSH). These two glands when stimulated by pituitary hormones then release their own hormones.The pituitary gland has two lobes, the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe secretes:

text: growth hormone

text: (GH),

text: Luteinizing hormone

text: (LH),

text: Follicle stimulating hormone

text: (FSH),

text: Adrenocorticotropic hormone

text: (ACTH),

text: Thyroid-stimulating hormone

text: (TSH),

text: Prolactin

text: (PRL), and the posterior lobe secretes: Antidieuretic hormone (ADH), and

text: Oxytocin

text: (OT). There is an intermediate lobe, in adult humans it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary, nearly indistinguishable from the anterior lobe. The intermediate lobe produces

text: melanocyte-stimulating hormone

text: (MSH).

text: Based on endocrine disturbances such as:

text: Based on

text: endocrine

text: disturbances such as:

text: E7070– E7389– EBV– ecchymosis– echocardiography– ecteinascidin 743– ectocervical– edatrexate– edotecarin– edrecolomab– EF5– efaproxiral– effector cell– efficacy– eflornithine– EGb761– EGFR– EKB-569– electroacupuncture– electrodesiccation– electrolarynx– electroporation therapy– eligibility criteria– embolism– embolization– embryoma– embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma– embryonal tumor– embryonic– EMD 121974– emitefur– emodin– enalapril– encephalopathy– enchondroma– endocervical curettage– endocrine cancer– endocrine pancreas cell– endocrine therapy– endometrial– endometrial biopsy– endometrial disorder– endometrial hyperplasia– Endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia– endometriosis– endometrium– endorectal ultrasound– endoscope– endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography– endoscopic ultrasound– endoscopy– endostatin– endothelial cell– endothelin receptor antagonist– endothelin-1 protein receptor antagonists– eniluracil– enoxaparin– ENT– enterostomal therapist– enucleation– enveloped virus– eosinophil– eosinophilia– EP-2101– ependymal tumor– ependymoma– epidemiology– epidermal growth factor receptor– epidermoid carcinoma– epigastric– epiglottis– epinephrine– epipodophyllotoxin– epirubicin– epithelial– epithelial carcinoma– epithelial ovarian cancer– epithelium– epitope– EPO906– epoetin alfa– epoetin beta– epothilone– epothilone B– epothilone D– epratuzumab– Epstein-Barr virus– EPT– ER– ER+– ER-– ERA-923– erb-38 immunotoxin– ErbB1– ERCP– erlotinib– ERT– ERUS– erythema– erythrocyte– erythrocyte sedimentation rate– erythrodysplasia– erythroid dysplasia– erythroleukemia– erythroleukoplakia– erythroplakia– erythropoietin– esophageal– esophagectomy– esophagitis– esophagoscopy– esophagram– esophagus– ESR– essential thrombocythemia– essential thrombocytosis– estradiol– estramustine– estrogen– estrogen receptor– estrogen receptor negative– estrogen receptor positive– estrogen receptor test– estrogen replacement therapy– etanercept– etanidazole– ethynyluracil– etidronate– etiology– etoposide– etoposide phosphate– ETS– evaluable disease– evaluable patients– everolimus– Ewing's family of tumors– Ewing's sarcoma– exatecan mesylate– excision– excisional biopsy– exemestane– exisulind– exocrine pancreas cell– expanded access trial– extensive-stage small cell lung cancer– external radiation– external-beam radiation– extrahepatic– extrapleural pneumonectomy

text: EBV

text: ecchymosis

text: echocardiography

text: ecteinascidin 743

text: ectocervical

text: edatrexate

text: edotecarin

text: edrecolomab

text: efaproxiral

text: effector cell

text: efficacy

text: eflornithine

text: EGFR

text: electroacupuncture

text: electrodesiccation

text: electrolarynx

text: electroporation therapy

text: eligibility criteria

text: embolism

text: embolization

text: embryoma

text: embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma

text: embryonal tumor

text: embryo

text: nic–

text: EMD 121974

text: emitefur

text: emodin

text: enalapril

text: encephalopathy

text: enchondroma

text: endocervical curettage

text: endocrine cancer

text: endocrine pancreas cell

text: endocrine therapy

text: endometrial

text: endometrial biopsy

text: endometrial disorder

text: endometrial hyperplasia

text: Endometrial intraepithelial neoplasia

text: endometriosis

text: endometrium

text: endorectal ultrasound

text: endoscope

text: endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

text: endoscopic ultrasound

text: endoscopy

text: endostatin

text: endothelial cell

text: endothelin receptor antagonist

text: endothelin-1 protein receptor antagonists

text: eniluracil

text: enoxaparin

text: ENT

text: enterostomal therapist

text: enucleation

text: enveloped virus

text: eosinophil

text: eosinophilia

text: ependymal tumor

text: ependymoma

text: epidemiology

text: epidermal growth factor receptor

text: epidermoid carcinoma

text: epigastric

text: epiglottis

text: epinephrine

text: epipodophyllotoxin

text: epirubicin

text: epithelial

text: epithelial carcinoma

text: epithelial ovarian cancer

text: epithelium

text: epitope

text: epoetin alfa

text: epoetin beta

text: epothilone

text: epothilone B

text: epothilone D

text: epratuzumab

text: Epstein-Barr virus

text: EPT

text: ER

text: ER+

text: ER-

text: erb-38 immunotoxin

text: ERCP

text: erlotinib

text: ERT

text: ERUS

text: erythema

text: erythrocyte

text: erythrocyte sedimentation rate

text: erythrodysplasia

text: erythroid dysplasia

text: erythroleukemia

text: erythroleukoplakia

text: erythroplakia

text: erythropoietin

text: esophageal

text: esophagectomy

text: esophagitis

text: esophagoscopy

text: esophagram

text: esophagus

text: ESR

text: essential thrombocythemia

text: essential thrombocytosis

text: estradiol

text: estramustine

text: estrogen

text: estrogen receptor

text: estrogen receptor negative

text: estrogen receptor positive

text: estrogen receptor test

text: estrogen replacement therapy

text: etanercept

text: etanidazole

text: ethynyluracil

text: etidronate

text: etiology

text: etoposide

text: etoposide phosphate

text: ETS

text: evaluable disease

text: evaluable patients

text: everolimus

text: Ewing's family of tumors

text: Ewing's sarcoma

text: exatecan mesylate

text: excision

text: excisional biopsy

text: exemestane

text: exisulind

text: exocrine pancreas cell

text: expanded access trial

text: extensive-stage small cell lung cancer

text: external radiation

text: external-beam radiation

text: extrahepatic

text: extrapleural pneumonectomy

text: Hormone cells are typically of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular endocrine gland, such as the thyroid gland, ovaries, and testes. Hormones exit their cell of origin via exocytosis or another means of membrane transport. The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for insulin, which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal.

text: Hormone cells are typically of a specialized cell type, residing within a particular

text: endocrine gland

text: , such as the

text: thyroid gland

text: ovaries

text: , and

text: testes

text: . Hormones exit their cell of origin via

text: exocytosis

text: or another means of

text: membrane transport

text: . The hierarchical model is an oversimplification of the hormonal signaling process. Cellular recipients of a particular hormonal signal may be one of several cell types that reside within a number of different tissues, as is the case for

text: insulin

text: , which triggers a diverse range of systemic physiological effects. Different tissue types may also respond differently to the same hormonal signal.

text: For J.B. Hagen, the maximum power principle, and the stability principle could be easily translated into the language of homeostasis and cybernetics systems. Hagen claims that the feedback loops in ecosystems, were, for Odum, analogous to the kinds of feedback loops diagrammed in  electronic circuits and cybernetic systems (Ibid.). This approach represented the migration of cybernetic ideas into ecology and led to the formulation of systems ecology. In Odum's work these concepts form part of what Hagen called an, "ambitious and idiosyncratic attempt to create a universal science of systems" (Ibid).

text: For J.B. Hagen, the maximum power principle, and the stability principle could be easily translated into the language of

text: homeostasis

text: and

text: cybernetics

text: systems. Hagen claims that the feedback loops in ecosystems, were, for Odum, analogous to the kinds of feedback loops diagrammed in  electronic circuits and cybernetic systems (Ibid.). This approach represented the migration of cybernetic ideas into ecology and led to the formulation of systems ecology. In Odum's work these concepts form part of what Hagen called an, "ambitious and idiosyncratic attempt to create a universal science of systems" (Ibid).

text: Several phthalates are "plausibly" endocrine disruptors. In studies of rodents exposed to certain phthalates, high doses have been shown to change hormone levels and cause birth defects. A British study showed that the phthalate di(n-butyl) phthalate (DBP) or its metabolite monobutyl phthalate (MBP) suppresses steroidogenesis by fetal-type Leydig cells in primates as in rodents.  And fly models have shown disruptions in insulin and glucagon signaling.

text: Several phthalates are "plausibly"

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s. In studies of rodents exposed to certain phthalates, high doses have been shown to change hormone levels and cause birth defects. A British study showed that the phthalate di(n-butyl) phthalate (DBP) or its metabolite monobutyl phthalate (MBP) suppresses

text: steroidogenesis

text: by fetal-type

text: Leydig cells

text: in primates as in rodents.  And fly models have shown disruptions in

text: insulin

text: and

text: glucagon

text: signaling.

text: In constant interaction mode (often referred to as "in feedback"), a feedback loop is used to physically move the probe closer to or further from the surface (in the z axis) under study to maintain a constant interaction. This interaction depends on the type of SPM, for scanning tunneling microscopy the interaction is the tunnel current, for contact mode AFM or MFM it is the cantilever deflection, etc. The type of feedback loop used is usually a PI-loop, which is a PID-loop where the differential gain has been set to zero (as it amplifies noise). The z position of the tip (scanning plane is the xy-plane) is recorded periodically and displayed as a heat map. This is normally referred to as a topography image.

text: In constant interaction mode (often referred to as "in feedback"), a feedback loop is used to physically move the probe closer to or further from the surface (in the z axis) under study to maintain a constant interaction. This interaction depends on the type of SPM, for scanning tunneling microscopy the interaction is the tunnel current, for contact mode AFM or MFM it is the

text: cantilever

text: deflection, etc. The type of feedback loop used is usually a PI-loop, which is a

text: PID-loop

text: where the differential gain has been set to zero (as it amplifies noise). The z position of the tip (scanning plane is the xy-plane) is recorded periodically and displayed as a heat map. This is normally referred to as a topography image.

text: Most fundamentally, the WHI did not address the major indication for MHT use, relief of symptoms.  On the other hand, the stated goal of the HT component was to test the long-term cardiovascular-protective effects (rather than treatment of menopausal symptoms) of HT in postmenopausal women, which had been supported by previous observational studies in terms of how it reduces atherosclerotic diseases by lowering serum lipid levels and promoting vasodilation.  In an expert consensus statement from The Endocrine Society, evidence from the WHI trial was weighted less than that of a randomized controlled trial according to the GRADE system criteria because of mitigating factors: large dropout rate; lack of adequate representation of applicable group of women (i.e. those initiating therapy at the time of menopause); and modifying influences from prior hormone use.  However, the editor of one of the journals which published the results of the WHI called it a "landmark" study.  The double blinding limited validity of study results due to its effects on patient exclusion criteria. The dominant majority of participants were Caucasian, and tended to be slightly overweight and former smokers, with the necessary health risks for which these demographics predispose.  Furthermore, the focus of the WHI study was disease prevention.  Most women take hormone therapy to treat symptoms of menopause rather than for disease prevention and therefore the risks and benefits of hormone therapy in the general population differ from the women included in the WHI.  Despite these concerns, the original findings of the WHI trial have been accepted by reputable journals, and have withstood the scrutiny of subsequent reanalysis of the study data.

text: Most fundamentally, the WHI did not address the major indication for MHT use, relief of symptoms.  On the other hand, the stated goal of the HT component was to test the long-term cardiovascular-protective effects (rather than treatment of menopausal symptoms) of HT in postmenopausal women, which had been supported by previous observational studies in terms of how it reduces atherosclerotic diseases by lowering serum lipid levels and promoting vasodilation.  In an expert consensus statement from

text: The Endocrine Society

text: When she died, she was the senior woman Fellow of the Royal Society living in Britain (the senior woman Fellow, Martha Vogt, was then living in San Diego).  She was also a member of the British Society for Endocrinology, the American Endocrine Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

text: When she died, she was the senior woman Fellow of the Royal Society living in Britain (the senior woman Fellow,

text: Martha Vogt

text: , was then living in San Diego).  She was also a member of the British

text: Society for Endocrinology

text: , the American

text: Endocrine Society

text: and the

entity_name: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: This is considered to be a hybrid between an exocrine and endocrine tumor derived from crypt cells of the appendix. Histologically, it forms clusters of goblet cells containing mucin with a minor admixture of Paneth cells and endocrine cells. The growth pattern is distinctive: typically producing a concentric band of tumor nests interspersed among the muscle and stroma of the appendiceal wall extending up the shaft of the appendix. This makes the lesion difficult to suspect grossly and difficult to measure. Small tumor nests may be camouflaged amongst the muscle or in periappendiceal fat; cytokeratin preparations best demonstrate the tumor cells; mucin stains are also helpful in identifying them. They behave in a more aggressive manner than do classical appendiceal carcinoids. Spread is usually to regional lymph nodes, peritoneum, and particularly the ovary. They do not produce sufficient hormonal substances to cause the carcinoid or other endocrine syndromes. In fact, they more closely resemble exocrine than endocrine tumors. The term 'crypt cell carcinoma' has been used for them, and though perhaps more accurate than considering them carcinoids, has not been a successful competitor.

text: This is considered to be a hybrid between an

text: exocrine

text: and

text: endocrine

text: tumor derived from crypt cells of the appendix. Histologically, it forms clusters of goblet cells containing mucin with a minor admixture of Paneth cells and endocrine cells. The growth pattern is distinctive: typically producing a concentric band of tumor nests interspersed among the

text: muscle

text: and

text: stroma

text: of the appendiceal wall extending up the shaft of the appendix. This makes the lesion difficult to suspect grossly and difficult to measure. Small tumor nests may be camouflaged amongst the muscle or in periappendiceal fat;

text: cytokeratin

text: preparations best demonstrate the tumor cells;

text: mucin

text: stains are also helpful in identifying them. They behave in a more aggressive manner than do classical appendiceal carcinoids. Spread is usually to regional lymph nodes,

text: peritoneum

text: , and particularly the ovary. They do not produce sufficient hormonal substances to cause the carcinoid or other endocrine syndromes. In fact, they more closely resemble exocrine than endocrine tumors. The term 'crypt cell carcinoma' has been used for them, and though perhaps more accurate than considering them carcinoids, has not been a successful competitor.

text: The biological effects produced by intracellular actions are referred as intracrine effects, whereas those produced by binding to cell surface receptors are called endocrine, autocrine, or paracrine effects, depending on the origin of the hormone. The intracrine effect of some of the peptide/protein hormones are similar to their endocrine, autocrine, or paracrine effects; however, these effects are different for some other hormones.

text: The biological effects produced by intracellular actions are referred as intracrine effects, whereas those produced by binding to cell surface receptors are called endocrine,

text: autocrine

text: , or

text: paracrine

text: effects, depending on the origin of the hormone. The intracrine effect of some of the peptide/protein hormones are similar to their endocrine, autocrine, or paracrine effects; however, these effects are different for some other hormones.

text: a. A salt extraction system with a countercurrent multiplication mechanism, where salt is actively pumped from the blood 'veinules' (small veins) into the gland tubules. Although the fluid in the tubules is with a higher concentration of salt than the blood, the flow is arranged in a countercurrent exchange, so that the blood with a high concentration of salt enters the system close to where the gland tubules exit and connect to the main canal. Thus, all along the gland, there is only a small gradient to climb, in order to push the salt from the blood to the salty fluid with active transport powered by ATP.

text: a. A salt extraction system with a countercurrent multiplication mechanism, where salt is actively pumped from the blood 'veinules' (small veins) into the gland tubules. Although the fluid in the tubules is with a higher concentration of salt than the blood, the flow is arranged in a countercurrent exchange, so that the blood with a high concentration of salt enters the system close to where the gland tubules exit and connect to the main canal. Thus, all along the gland, there is only a small gradient to climb, in order to push the salt from the blood to the salty fluid with

text: active transport

text: powered by

text: ATP

text: The endocrine reproductive system consists of the hypothalamus, the pituitary, the gonads, and the adrenal glands, with input and regulation from many other body systems. True puberty is often termed "central puberty" because it begins as a process of the central nervous system. A simple description of hormonal puberty is as follows:

text: The endocrine

text: reproductive

text: system consists of the

text: hypothalamus

text: , the

text: pituitary

text: , the

text: gonad

text: s, and the

text: adrenal gland

text: s, with input and regulation from many other body systems. True puberty is often termed "central puberty" because it begins as a process of the

text: central nervous system

text: . A simple description of hormonal puberty is as follows:

text: In system dynamics this is described by a circles of causality (Fig. 1) as a system consisting of two feedback loops. One is the balancing feedback loop B1 of the corrective action, the second is the reinforcing feedback loop R2 of the unintended consequences. These influence the problem with a delay and therefore make it difficult to recognize the source of the new rise of the problem.

text: In

text: system dynamics

text: this is described by a

text: circles of causality

text: (Fig. 1) as a system consisting of two

text: feedback

text: loops. One is the

text: balancing feedback

text: loop B1 of the corrective action, the second is the

text: reinforcing feedback

text: loop R2 of the unintended consequences. These influence the problem with a delay and therefore make it difficult to recognize the source of the new rise of the problem.

text: Parathyroid glands are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans and other tetrapods that produce parathyroid hormone. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, variably located on the back of the thyroid gland — considerable variation exists. Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin (one of the hormones made by the thyroid gland) have key roles in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.

text: Parathyroid glands are small

text: endocrine

text: gland

text: s in the neck of humans and other

text: tetrapod

text: s that produce

text: parathyroid hormone

text: . Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, variably located on the back of the

text: thyroid gland

text: — considerable variation exists. Parathyroid hormone and

text: calcitonin

text: (one of the hormones made by the thyroid gland) have key roles in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones.

text: In 2009 a further 89 substances were added to the SIN List (Version 1.1), before in 2011 another 22 chemicals were added (Version 2.0) for fulfilling the REACH 57(f) criterion of equivalent concern as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The 2011 EDC additions were made in consultation with TEDX, the US endocrine-disruption research NGO founded by Professor Theo Colborn, and coincided with EU plans over 2011-2012 to develop accepted criteria for identifying endocrine disrupting chemicals.

text: In 2009 a further 89 substances were added to the SIN List (Version 1.1), before in 2011 another 22 chemicals were added (Version 2.0) for fulfilling the REACH 57(f) criterion of equivalent concern as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The 2011 EDC additions were made in consultation with TEDX, the US endocrine-disruption research NGO founded by

text: Professor Theo Colborn

text: , and coincided with EU plans over 2011-2012 to develop accepted criteria for identifying

text: endocrine disrupting chemicals

text: Positive feedback loops have been used to describe aspects of the dynamics of change in biological evolution.  For example, beginning at the macro level, Alfred J. Lotka (1945) argued that the evolution of the species was most essentially a matter of selection that fed back energy flows to capture more and more energy for use by living systems.  At the human level, Richard Alexander (1989) proposed that social competition between and within human groups fed back to the selection of intelligence thus constantly producing more and more refined human intelligence.  Crespi (2004) discussed several other examples of positive feedback loops in evolution.  The analogy of Evolutionary arms races provide further examples of positive feedback in biological systems.

text: Positive feedback loops have been used to describe aspects of the dynamics of change in biological

text: evolution

text: .  For example, beginning at the macro level,

text: Alfred J. Lotka

text: (1945) argued that the evolution of the species was most essentially a matter of selection that fed back energy flows to capture more and more energy for use by living systems.  At the human level,

text: Richard Alexander

text: (1989) proposed that social competition between and within human groups fed back to the selection of intelligence thus constantly producing more and more refined human intelligence.  Crespi (2004) discussed several other examples of positive feedback loops in evolution.  The analogy of

text: Evolutionary arms race

text: s provide further examples of positive feedback in biological systems.

text: The ability of a target cell to respond to a hormone depends on the presence of receptors, within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to which the hormone can bind.

text: Temperature is ultimately regulated in the hypothalamus. A trigger of the fever, called a pyrogen, causes a release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). PGE2 then in turn acts on the hypothalamus, which generates a systemic response back to the rest of the body, causing heat-creating effects to match a new temperature level.

text: Temperature is ultimately regulated in the

text: hypothalamus

text: . A trigger of the fever, called a pyrogen, causes a release of

text: prostaglandin E2

text: (PGE2). PGE2 then in turn acts on the hypothalamus, which generates a systemic response back to the rest of the body, causing heat-creating effects to match a new temperature level.

text: The majority of POPs are known to disrupt normal functioning of the endocrine system, for example all of the dirty dozen are endocrine disruptors. Low level exposure to POPs during critical developmental periods of fetus, newborn and child can have a lasting effect throughout its lifespan. A 2002 study synthesizes data on endocrine disruption and health complications from exposure to POPs during critical developmental stages in an organism’s lifespan. The study aimed to answer the question whether or not chronic, low level exposure to POPs can have a health impact on the endocrine system and development of organisms from different species. The study found that exposure of POPs during a critical developmental time frame can produce a permanent changes in the organisms path of development. Exposure of POPs during non-critical developmental time frames may not lead to detectable diseases and health complications later in their life. In wildlife, the critical development time frames are in utero, in ovo, and during reproductive periods. In humans, the critical development timeframe is during fetal development.

text: The majority of POPs are known to disrupt normal functioning of the endocrine system, for example all of the dirty dozen are endocrine disruptors. Low level exposure to POPs during critical

text: developmental

text: periods of fetus, newborn and child can have a lasting effect throughout its lifespan. A 2002 study synthesizes data on endocrine disruption and health complications from exposure to POPs during critical developmental stages in an organism’s lifespan. The study aimed to answer the question whether or not chronic, low level exposure to POPs can have a health impact on the endocrine system and development of organisms from different species. The study found that exposure of POPs during a critical developmental time frame can produce a permanent changes in the organisms path of development. Exposure of POPs during non-critical developmental time frames may not lead to detectable diseases and health complications later in their life. In wildlife, the critical development time frames are

text: in utero

text: in ovo

text: , and during reproductive periods. In humans, the critical development timeframe is during

text: fetal development

text: In the endocrine system, Anahata is associated with the thymus gland, located in the chest. This gland produces T-cells, that combat disease, and bring equilibrium to the body. The functioning of the thymus is greatest before puberty and is impaired by the appearance of sex hormones in the blood stream from puberty onwards.

text: In the

text: endocrine system

text: Anahata

text: is associated with the

text: thymus

text: gland, located in the chest. This gland produces

text: T-cells

text: , that combat disease, and bring equilibrium to the body. The functioning of the

text: thymus

text: is greatest before

text: puberty

text: and is impaired by the appearance of

text: sex hormones

text: in the blood stream from

text: puberty

text: onwards.

text: He died at the age of 44 in his hometown of Joliet, Illinois of cancer of his pituitary gland, and is interred at Elmhurst Cemetery.

text: He died at the age of 44 in his hometown of

text: Joliet, Illinois

text: of cancer of his

text: pituitary gland

text: , and is interred at Elmhurst Cemetery.

text: M protein– macroglobulinemia– macrophage– mafosfamide– MAGE-3– magnetic resonance imaging– magnetic resonance perfusion imaging– magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging– magnetic-targeted carrier– maintenance therapy– malabsorption syndrome– malignancy– malignant– malignant ascites– malignant fibrous cytoma– malignant fibrous histiocytoma– malignant meningioma– malignant mesothelioma– malignant mixed Müllerian tumor– malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor– malondialdehyde– MALT lymphoma– mammary– mammogram– mammography– Mammotome– mantle field– marimastat– mast cell– mastectomy– mastocytoma– matrix metalloproteinase– MDL 101,731– MDX-060– mean survival time– measurable disease– mechlorethamine– MEDI-507– medial supraclavicular lymph node– median survival time– mediastinal pleura– mediastinoscopy– mediastinum– medical castration– medical oncologist– medroxyprogesterone– medullary breast carcinoma– medullary thyroid cancer– medulloblastoma– mega-voltage linear accelerator– megestrol– meiosis– melanocyte– melanoma– melanoma vaccine– melphalan– MEN-10755– MEN1 syndrome– meningeal– meningeal metastases– meningioma– menopausal hormone therapy– mercaptopurine– mercury– Merkel cell cancer– mesenchymal– mesenteric membrane– mesna– mesonephroma– mesothelioma– metaplasia– metaplastic carcinoma– metastasectomy– metastasis– metastasize– metastatic– metastatic cancer– metasynchronous– meteorism– methotrexate– methoxsalen– Methoxy polyethylene glycol-epoetin beta– methyl-5-aminolevulinate– methylphenidate– methylprednisolone– metoclopramide– metronidazole– metronomic therapy– Mexican valerian– MG98– microcalcification– micrometastases– micromolar– microsatellite– microsatellite instability– microstaging– microwave therapy– microwave thermotherapy– mifepristone– Miraluma test– misoprostol– mistletoe lectin– mitochondria– mitolactol– mitomycin– mitosis– mitotane– mitotic activity– mitotic index– mitotic inhibitor– mitoxantrone– mivobulin isethionate– mixed glioma– MLN2704– modafinil– modality– modified radical mastectomy– Mohs surgery– molar pregnancy– molecular risk assessment– molecularly targeted therapy– monoclonal antibody– monoclonal antibody 3F8– monocyte– Montanide ISA-51– Morinda citrifolia– morphology– motexafin gadolinium– moxifloxacin– MPNST– MRI– MRSI– MS 209– MS-275– mucinous carcinoma– mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma– muJ591 monoclonal antibody– Müllerian tumor– multicenter study– multicentric breast cancer– multidrug resistance– multidrug resistance inhibition– multifocal breast cancer– multimodality treatment– multiple endocrine adenomatosis– multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome– multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndrome– multiple myeloma– multiple sclerosis– multiplicity– muromonab-CD3 monoclonal antibody– musculoskeletal– mycophenolate mofetil– mycosis fungoides– mycostatin– myelin– myeloablation– myelodysplasia– myelodysplastic syndrome– myelofibrosis– myelogenous– myelogram– myeloid– myeloma– myeloproliferative disorder– myelosclerosis with myeloid metaplasia– myelosuppression– myelosuppressive therapy– myometrium

text: M protein

text: macroglobulinemia

text: macrophage

text: mafosfamide

text: magnetic resonance imaging

text: magnetic resonance perfusion imaging

entity_name: Magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging

text: magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging

text: magnetic-targeted carrier

text: maintenance therapy

text: malabsorption syndrome

text: malignancy

text: malignant

text: malignant ascites

text: malignant fibrous cytoma

text: malignant fibrous histiocytoma

text: malignant meningioma

text: malignant mesothelioma

text: malignant mixed Müllerian tumor

text: malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor

text: malondialdehyde

text: MALT lymphoma

text: mammary

text: mammogram

text: mammography

text: Mammotome

text: mantle field

text: marimastat

text: mast cell

text: mastectomy

text: mastocytoma

text: matrix metalloproteinase

text: MDL 101,731

text: mean survival time

text: measurable disease

text: mechlorethamine

text: medial supraclavicular lymph node

text: median survival time

text: mediastinal pleura

text: mediastinoscopy

text: mediastinum

text: medical castration

text: medical oncologist

text: medroxyprogesterone

text: medullary breast carcinoma

text: medullary thyroid cancer

text: medulloblastoma

text: mega-voltage linear accelerator

text: megestrol

text: meiosis

text: melanocyte

text: melanoma

text: melanoma vaccine

text: melphalan

text: MEN1 syndrome

text: meningeal

text: meningeal metastases

text: meningioma

text: menopausal hormone therapy

text: mercaptopurine

text: mercury

text: Merkel cell cancer

text: mesenchymal

text: mesenteric membrane

text: mesna

text: mesonephroma

text: mesothelioma

text: metaplasia

text: metaplastic carcinoma

text: metastasectomy

text: metastasis

text: metastasize

text: metastatic

text: metastatic cancer

text: metasynchronous

text: meteorism

text: methotrexate

text: methoxsalen

entity_name: Methoxy polyethylene glycol-epoetin beta

text: Methoxy polyethylene glycol-epoetin beta

text: methylphenidate

text: methylprednisolone

text: metoclopramide

text: metronidazole

text: metronomic therapy

text: Mexican valerian

text: microcalcification

text: micrometastases

text: micromolar

text: microsatellite

text: microsatellite instability

text: microstaging

text: microwave therapy

text: microwave thermotherapy

text: mifepristone

text: Miraluma test

text: misoprostol

text: mistletoe lectin

text: mitochondria

text: mitolactol

text: mitomycin

text: mitosis

text: mitotane

text: mitotic activity

text: mitotic index

text: mitotic inhibitor

text: mitoxantrone

text: mivobulin isethionate

text: mixed glioma

text: modafinil

text: modality

text: modified radical mastectomy

text: Mohs surgery

text: molar pregnancy

text: molecular risk assessment

text: molecularly targeted therapy

text: monoclonal antibody

text: monoclonal antibody 3F8

text: monocyte

text: Montanide ISA-51

text: Morinda citrifolia

text: morphology

text: motexafin gadolinium

text: moxifloxacin

text: MPNST

text: MRI

text: MRSI

text: MS 209

text: mucinous carcinoma

text: mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma

text: muJ591 monoclonal antibody

text: Müllerian tumor

text: multicenter study

text: multicentric breast cancer

text: multidrug resistance

text: multidrug resistance inhibition

text: multifocal breast cancer

text: multimodality treatment

text: multiple endocrine adenomatosis

text: multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome

text: multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndrome

text: multiple myeloma

text: multiple sclerosis

text: multiplicity

text: muromonab-CD3 monoclonal antibody

text: musculoskeletal

text: mycophenolate mofetil

text: mycosis fungoides

text: mycostatin

text: myelin

text: myeloablation

text: myelodysplasia

text: myelodysplastic syndrome

text: myelofibrosis

text: myelogenous

text: myelogram

text: myeloid

text: myeloma

text: myeloproliferative disorder

text: myelosclerosis with myeloid metaplasia

text: myelosuppression

text: myelosuppressive therapy

text: myometrium

text: Multiple endocrine neoplasia or MEN is part of a group of disorders that affect the body's network of hormone-producing glands (the endocrine system). Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream and regulate the function of cells and tissues throughout the body. Multiple endocrine neoplasia involves tumors in at least two endocrine glands; tumors can also develop in other organs and tissues. These growths can be noncancerous (benign) or cancerous (malignant). If the tumors become cancerous, some cases can be life-threatening.

text: The endocrine system coincides with the menstrual cycle and goes through thirteen cycles (and thus thirteen LH spikes) during the course of normal folliculogenesis. However, coordinated enzyme signalling and the time-specific expression of hormonal receptors ensures that follicle growth does not become disregulated during these premature spikes.

text: Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant, and occur in extremely low concentrations. Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and, moved to other locations, in other functional parts of the plant. Hormones also determine the formation of flowers, stems, leaves, the shedding of leaves, and the development and ripening of fruit.  Plants, unlike animals, lack glands that produce and secrete hormones.  Instead, each cell is capable of producing hormones. Plant hormones shape the plant, affecting seed growth, time of flowering, the sex of flowers, senescence of leaves, and fruits. They affect which tissues grow upward and which grow downward, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening, plant longevity, and even plant death. Hormones are vital to plant growth, and, lacking them, plants would be mostly a mass of undifferentiated cells. So they are also known as growth factors or growth hormones. The term 'Phytohormone' was coined by Thimann in 1948.

text: Plant

text: hormones

text: are

text: signal molecule

text: s produced within the

text: plant

text: , and occur in extremely low

text: concentration

text: s. Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted

text: cells

text: locally and, moved to other locations, in other functional parts of the plant.

text: Hormones

text: also determine the formation of

text: flowers

text: stems

text: leaves

text: , the

text: shedding

text: of

text: leaves

text: , and the development and ripening of

text: fruit

text: .  Plants, unlike

text: animal

text: s, lack

text: gland

text: s that produce and

text: secrete

text: hormones.  Instead, each cell is capable of producing hormones. Plant hormones shape the plant, affecting seed growth, time of

text: flowering

text: , the sex of flowers,

text: senescence

text: of leaves, and fruits. They affect which tissues grow upward and which grow downward, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening, plant

text: longevity

text: , and even plant

text: death

text: . Hormones are vital to plant growth, and, lacking them, plants would be mostly a mass of undifferentiated cells. So they are also known as growth factors or growth hormones. The term 'Phytohormone' was coined by

text: Thimann

text: in 1948.

text: Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.

text: Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is

text: somatostatin

text: which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.

text: Extensive bidirectional interactions exist between the endocrine system and the immune system. Cortisol has major immunosuppressive effects, and dopamine has immunomodulatory functions. On the other hand, cytokines produced during inflammation activate the HPA axis at all three levels, sensible to negative feedback. Moreover, cytokines stimulate hepcidin release from the liver, which is eventually responsible for the anemia of chronic disease.

text: Extensive bidirectional interactions exist between the endocrine system and the

text: immune system

text: . Cortisol has major

text: immunosuppressive

text: effects, and

text: dopamine

text: has immunomodulatory functions. On the other hand,

text: cytokine

text: s produced during inflammation activate the HPA axis at all three levels, sensible to negative feedback. Moreover, cytokines stimulate

text: hepcidin

text: release from the liver, which is eventually responsible for the

text: anemia of chronic disease

text: - Students will study how the endocrine system contributes to homeostasis. They will focus on pituitary hormones, as well as hormonal feedback loops that regulate glucose, calcium and metabolic levels.

text: This example is representative of a SFG (signal-flow graph) used to represent a servo control system and illustrates several features of SFGs.  Some of the loops (loop 3, loop 4 and loop 5) are extrinsic intentionally designed feedback loops.  These are shown with dotted lines.  There are also intrinsic loops (loop 0, loop1, loop2) that are not intentional feedback loops, although they can be analyzed as though they were.  These loops are shown with solid lines.  Loop 3 and loop 4 are also known as minor loops because they are inside a larger loop.

text: Endocrine testing by National Veterinary Diagnostic Services (the only laboratory that offers the endocrine-immune blood test developed by Alfred Plechner, DVM) revealed that some pets with SARDS had endocrine-immune abnormalities and physiological doses of cortisone and thyroid hormone were anecdotally shown to be beneficial to their overall health and vision. "Adrenal exhaustion" is a syndrome put forth by Ms. C. Levin, a lay person, who subscribes to the theories of  Dr. Plechner. However, "adrenal exhaustion" (not to be confused with Addison's disease) is not recognized as a legitimate medical disorder in veterinary medicine and the condition has not been described in dogs (or cats). Moreover, this experimental hormone replacement therapy has not been approved or evaluated for efficacy and safety by the veterinary community, nor has it undergone scientific peer review in the mainstream veterinary literature.Some owners notice a more obvious "eye shine" in photographs due to the dilated pupils and retinal atrophy creating what is described as a "hyper-reflective tapetum".

text: Environmental hormones are chemical compounds that resemble endocrine hormones. They may be either of natural origin, such as phytoestrogens, or of synthetic origin.  These compounds are able to activate the same endocrine receptors as their natural counterparts and can thus disrupt hormonal activity.

text: Environmental hormones are chemical compounds that resemble

text: endocrine

text: hormone

text: s. They may be either of natural origin, such as

text: phytoestrogen

text: s, or of synthetic origin.  These compounds are able to activate the same endocrine

text: receptors

text: as their natural counterparts and can thus disrupt hormonal activity.

text: In insect physiology, the corpus  allatum (plural: corpora allata)  is an endocrine gland which generates juvenile hormone; as such, it plays a crucial role in metamorphosis. Surgical removal of the corpora allata (an allatectomy) can cause an immature larva to pupate at its next molt, resulting in a miniature adult. Similarly, transplantation of corpora allata from a young larva to a fully mature larva can greatly extend the larval stage, resulting in an equivalent to gigantism.

text: In

text: insect physiology

text: , the corpus  allatum (plural: corpora allata)  is an

text: endocrine gland

text: which generates

text: juvenile hormone

text: ; as such, it plays a crucial role in

text: metamorphosis

text: . Surgical removal of the corpora allata (an allatectomy) can cause an immature

text: larva

text: to

text: pupate

text: at its next

text: molt

text: , resulting in a miniature adult. Similarly,

text: transplantation

text: of corpora allata from a young larva to a fully mature larva can greatly extend the larval stage, resulting in an equivalent to

text: gigantism

text: – Endocrine Disruptors

text: – Endocrine Disruptors

text: In the endocrine system, Manipura is said to be associated with the pancreas and the outer adrenal glands (the adrenal cortex). These glands create important hormones involved in digestion, converting food into energy for the body, in the same way that Manipura radiates Prana throughout the body.

text: In the

text: endocrine

text: system, Manipura is said to be associated with the

text: pancreas

text: and the outer adrenal glands (the

text: adrenal cortex

text: ). These glands create important hormones involved in digestion, converting food into energy for the body, in the same way that Manipura radiates Prana throughout the body.

text: The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing  in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity (sella turcica) covered by a dural fold  (diaphragma sellae). The pituitary is functionally connected to the hypothalamus by the median eminence via a small tube called the infundibular stem or pituitary stalk. .

text: The

text: pituitary gland

text: (or hypophysis) is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing  in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the

text: hypothalamus

text: at the base of the

text: brain

text: , and rests in a small, bony cavity (

text: sella turcica

text: ) covered by a

text: dural

text: fold  (

text: diaphragma sellae

text: ). The pituitary is functionally connected to the

text: hypothalamus

text: by the

text: median eminence

text: via a small tube called the infundibular stem or

text: pituitary stalk

text: Although all three G1 cyclins are necessary for normal regulation of Start and the G1-S transition, Cln3 activity seems to be the deciding factor in S-phase initiation, with Cln1 and Cln2 serving to actuate the Cln3-based decision to transit Start. It was found early on that Cln3 activity induced expression of Cln1 and Cln2. Furthermore, Cln3 was a stronger activator Start transit than Cln1 and Cln2, even though Cln3-CDK had an inherently weaker kinase activity than the other Clns. This indicated that Cln3 was an upstream regulator of Cln1 and Cln2. Furthermore, it was found, as shown in Figure 1, that Cln1 and Cln2 could activate their own transcription via SBF, completing a positive feedback loop that could contribute to rapid activation and S-phase entry. Thus, Start transit seems to rely on reaching a sufficient level of Cln3-CDK activity to induce the Cln1,2 positive feedback loop, which rapidly increases SBF/MBF and Cln1,2 activity, allowing a switch-like G1-S transition. The role of positive feedback in this process has been challenged,  but recent experiments have confirmed its importance for rapid inactivation and nuclear export of Whi5,  which is the molecular basis of commitment to S-phase.

text: Although all three

text: G1 cyclins

text: are necessary for normal regulation of Start and the G1-S transition, Cln3 activity seems to be the deciding factor in S-phase initiation, with Cln1 and Cln2 serving to actuate the Cln3-based decision to transit Start. It was found early on that Cln3 activity induced expression of Cln1 and Cln2. Furthermore, Cln3 was a stronger activator Start transit than Cln1 and Cln2, even though Cln3-CDK had an inherently weaker

text: kinase

text: activity than the other Clns. This indicated that Cln3 was an upstream regulator of Cln1 and Cln2. Furthermore, it was found, as shown in Figure 1, that Cln1 and Cln2 could activate their own transcription via SBF, completing a positive feedback loop that could contribute to rapid activation and S-phase entry. Thus, Start transit seems to rely on reaching a sufficient level of Cln3-CDK activity to induce the Cln1,2 positive feedback loop, which rapidly increases SBF/MBF and Cln1,2 activity, allowing a switch-like G1-S transition. The role of positive feedback in this process has been challenged,  but recent experiments have confirmed its importance for rapid inactivation and nuclear export of Whi5,  which is the molecular basis of commitment to S-phase.

text: The basic, open-loop accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a spring. The mass is constrained to move only in-line with the spring. Acceleration causes deflection of the mass and the offset distance is measured. The acceleration is derived from the values of deflection distance, mass, and the spring constant. The system must also be damped to avoid oscillation.A closed-loop accelerometer achieves higher performance by using a feedback loop to cancel the deflection, thus keeping the mass nearly stationary. Whenever the mass deflects, the feedback loop causes an electric coil to apply an equally negative force on the mass, canceling the motion. Acceleration is derived from the amount of negative force applied. Because the mass barely moves, the non-linearities of the spring and damping system are greatly reduced. In addition, this accelerometer provides for increased bandwidth past the natural frequency of the sensing element.

text: With Rainer's help, Popa received a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship in 1925. He had a direct experience of America, and of what he liked to call its "guided democracy", which was rare among Romanians of his generation, and which he recorded in detail in diaries he intended for publishing. He spent the first year in Chicago, the second at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole and finishing by studying Anatomy and Embryology in 1927-1928 at University College Hospital Medical School, under Grafton Elliot Smith. His scientific activity, after his work on the dura mater, focused on three areas: the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, the reform of medical education at the university level, and the physiology of spontaneous movement (motility) in spermatozoa. Regarding the first area, he worked in London alongside the Australian Una Fielding; together they discovered the vascular link between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, publishing their findings on the hypophyseal portal system in medical journals between 1930 and 1935, presenting them before the Royal Medical Society in 1935. Working alongside his Romanian colleague, Eugen Lucinescu, Popa also returned to anatomy with a study on the "mechanostructure" of the pericardium.

text: With Rainer's help, Popa received a

text: Rockefeller Foundation

text: fellowship in 1925. He had a direct experience of America, and of what he liked to call its "

text: guided democracy

text: ", which was rare among Romanians of his generation, and which he recorded in detail in diaries he intended for publishing. He spent the first year in

text: Chicago

text: , the second at the

text: Marine Biological Laboratory

text: in

text: Woods Hole

text: and finishing by studying Anatomy and Embryology in 1927-1928 at

text: University College Hospital Medical School

text: , under

text: Grafton Elliot Smith

text: . His scientific activity, after his work on the dura mater, focused on three areas: the

text: hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: , the reform of medical education at the university level, and the

text: physiology

text: of spontaneous movement (

text: motility

text: ) in

text: spermatozoa

text: . Regarding the first area, he worked in

text: London

text: alongside the

text: Australia

text: n

text: Una Fielding

text: ; together they discovered the vascular link between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, publishing their findings on the

text: hypophyseal portal system

text: in medical journals between 1930 and 1935, presenting them before the

text: Royal Medical Society

text: in 1935. Working alongside his Romanian colleague, Eugen Lucinescu, Popa also returned to anatomy with a study on the "mechanostructure" of the

text: pericardium

text: The appendix is attached to the inferior surface of the cecum, and contains a small amount of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue which gives the appendix an undetermined role in immunity. However, the appendix is known to be important in fetal life as it contains endocrine cells that release biogenic amines and peptide hormones important for homeostasis during early growth and development. The appendix can be removed with no apparent damage or consequence to the patient.

text: The

text: appendix

text: is attached to the inferior surface of the cecum, and contains a small amount of

text: mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

text: which gives the appendix an undetermined role in immunity. However, the appendix is known to be important in fetal life as it contains

text: endocrine

text: cells that release biogenic amines and peptide hormones important for

text: homeostasis

text: during early growth and development. The appendix can be removed with no apparent damage or consequence to the patient.

text: Audio feedback (also known as acoustic feedback, simply as feedback, or the Larsen effect) is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input (for example, a microphone or guitar pickup) and an audio output (for example, a loudly-amplified loudspeaker). In this example, a signal received by the microphone is amplified and passed out of the loudspeaker. The sound from the loudspeaker can then be received by the microphone again, amplified further, and then passed out through the loudspeaker again.  The frequency of the resulting sound is determined by resonance frequencies in the microphone, amplifier, and loudspeaker, the acoustics of the room, the directional pick-up and emission patterns of the microphone and loudspeaker, and the distance between them. For small PA systems the sound is readily recognized as a loud squeal or screech.

text: Audio feedback

text: (also known as acoustic feedback, simply as feedback, or the Larsen effect) is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input (for example, a

text: microphone

text: or

text: guitar pickup

text: ) and an audio output (for example, a loudly-amplified

text: loudspeaker

text: ). In this example, a signal received by the microphone is

text: amplified

text: and passed out of the loudspeaker. The sound from the loudspeaker can then be received by the microphone again, amplified further, and then passed out through the loudspeaker again.  The

text: frequency

text: of the resulting sound is determined by resonance frequencies in the microphone, amplifier, and loudspeaker, the acoustics of the room, the directional pick-up and emission patterns of the microphone and loudspeaker, and the distance between them. For small

text: PA system

text: s the sound is readily recognized as a loud squeal or screech.

text: GIP is also thought to have significant effects on fatty acid metabolism through stimulation of lipoprotein lipase activity in adipocytes. GIP release has been demonstrated in the ruminant animal and may play a role in nutrient partitioning in milk production (lipid metabolism). GIP is secreted in response to the first maternal feed (colostrum) in goat kids—GIP being measured via umbilical vein before its closure. For ethical reasons, GIP secretion has been demonstrated in humans only at approx 10 days of age. With respect to the role of GIP in lipid metabolism, supraphysiological levels have shown a lipogenic action, however the action of collagenase in experimental protocols is known to degrade GIP/ GIP receptors. GIP is part of the diffuse endocrine system and, as a consequence, difficult to demonstrate physiological or clinical effects. In comparison to insulin its effects are very subtle.

text: GIP is also thought to have significant effects on

text: fatty acid metabolism

text: through stimulation of

text: lipoprotein lipase

text: activity in

text: adipocyte

text: s. GIP release has been demonstrated in the ruminant animal and may play a role in nutrient partitioning in milk production (lipid metabolism). GIP is secreted in response to the first maternal feed (colostrum) in goat kids—GIP being measured via umbilical vein before its closure. For ethical reasons, GIP secretion has been demonstrated in humans only at approx 10 days of age. With respect to the role of GIP in lipid metabolism, supraphysiological levels have shown a lipogenic action, however the action of collagenase in experimental protocols is known to degrade GIP/ GIP receptors. GIP is part of the diffuse endocrine system and, as a consequence, difficult to demonstrate physiological or clinical effects. In comparison to insulin its effects are very subtle.

text: A prostitute is abandoned by an unknown man at a hospital, dangerously in labor. She dies as the doctors perform a caesarean section, but the child ages rapidly in minutes, soon dead having aged to the likes of an 90-year-old man. Olivia Dunham (Anna Torv), Peter Bishop (Joshua Jackson), and Walter Bishop (John Noble), new members of the Fringe division, are called to investigate by division head Phillip Broyles (Lance Reddick), believing the case to be part of "The Pattern", a string of mysterious incidents. The woman is identified as having recently left a local motel, and Olivia finds evidence that points to a past serial murder case she and her former partner John Scott were not able to solve. Olivia explains to Peter that their murderer would paralyze his victims, young women, then make an incision along their face to extract a piece of brain material, killing the victim in the process. Walter takes both corpses back to his lab and determines that the woman had only been pregnant minutes before giving birth, her child having accelerated aging disease. Walter is reminded of having previously done work in this field, and remembers where he stashed his car that contains the related files. Once they are retrieved, Olivia makes a connection to the pituitary gland which controls growth in humans, and informs Charlie Francis (Kirk Acevedo) to monitor recent cases where the victims' pituitary gland has been removed.

text: A prostitute is abandoned by an unknown man at a hospital, dangerously in labor. She dies as the doctors perform a

text: caesarean section

text: , but the child ages rapidly in minutes, soon dead having aged to the likes of an 90-year-old man.

text: Olivia Dunham

text: Anna Torv

text: Peter Bishop

text: Joshua Jackson

text: ), and

text: Walter Bishop

text: John Noble

text: ), new members of the Fringe division, are called to investigate by division head

text: Phillip Broyles

text: Lance Reddick

text: ), believing the case to be part of "The Pattern", a string of mysterious incidents. The woman is identified as having recently left a local motel, and Olivia finds evidence that points to a past serial murder case she and her former partner John Scott were not able to solve. Olivia explains to Peter that their murderer would paralyze his victims, young women, then make an incision along their face to extract a piece of brain material, killing the victim in the process. Walter takes both corpses back to his lab and determines that the woman had only been pregnant minutes before giving birth, her child having

text: accelerated aging disease

text: . Walter is reminded of having previously done work in this field, and remembers where he stashed his car that contains the related files. Once they are retrieved, Olivia makes a connection to the

text: pituitary gland

text: which controls growth in humans, and informs

text: Charlie Francis

text: Kirk Acevedo

text: ) to monitor recent cases where the victims' pituitary gland has been removed.

text: Endocrinology also involves study of the diseases of the endocrine system. These diseases may relate to too little or too much secretion of a hormone, too little or too much action of a hormone, or problems with receiving the hormone.

text: Because coumestrol is an estrogen mimic, it is an endocrine disruptor with the potential to affect all organ systems that are regulated hormonally via estrogens.

text: Because coumestrol is an estrogen mimic, it is an

text: endocrine disruptor

text: with the potential to affect all organ systems that are regulated hormonally via estrogens.

text: Many xenoestrogens (industrially made estrogenic compounds) and other endocrine disruptors are potential risk factors of breast cancer.

text: Many

text: xenoestrogen

text: s (industrially made

text: estrogenic

text: compounds) and other

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s are potential risk factors of breast cancer.

text: In the ear aids (ITE) devices fit in the outer ear bowl (called the concha); they are sometimes visible when standing face to face with someone. ITE hearing aids are custom made to fit each individual's ear. They can be used in mild to some severe hearing losses. Feedback, a squealing/whistling caused by sound (particularly high frequency sound) leaking and being amplified again, may be a problem for severe hearing losses. Some modern circuits are able to provide feedback regulation or cancellation to assist with this.Venting may also cause feedback. A vent is a tube primarily placed to offer pressure equalization. However, different vent styles and sizes can be used to influence and prevent feedback.Traditionally, ITEs have not been recommended for young children because their fit could not be as easily modified as the earmold for a BTE, and thus the aid had to be replaced frequently as the child grew. However, there are new ITEs made from a silicone type material that mitigates the need for costly replacements.ITE hearing aids can be connected wirelessly to FM systems, for instance with a body-worn FM receiver with induction neck-loop which transmits the audio signal from the FM transmitter inductively to the telecoil inside the hearing instrument.

text: In the ear aids (ITE) devices fit in the outer ear bowl (called the

text: concha

text: ); they are sometimes visible when standing face to face with someone. ITE hearing aids are custom made to fit each individual's ear. They can be used in mild to some severe hearing losses.

text: Feedback

text: , a squealing/whistling caused by sound (particularly high frequency sound) leaking and being amplified again, may be a problem for severe hearing losses. Some modern circuits are able to provide feedback regulation or cancellation to assist with this.Venting may also cause feedback. A

text: vent

text: is a tube primarily placed to offer pressure equalization. However, different vent styles and sizes can be used to influence and prevent feedback.Traditionally, ITEs have not been recommended for young children because their fit could not be as easily modified as the earmold for a BTE, and thus the aid had to be replaced frequently as the child grew. However, there are new ITEs made from a

text: silicone

text: type material that mitigates the need for costly replacements.ITE hearing aids can be connected wirelessly to FM systems, for instance with a body-worn FM receiver with induction neck-loop which transmits the audio signal from the FM transmitter inductively to the telecoil inside the hearing instrument.

text: The endocrine system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete hormones of diverse chemical structure, including peptides, steroids, and neuroamines. Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes.

text: The

text: endocrine

text: system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete

text: hormones

text: of diverse chemical structure, including

text: peptides

text: steroids

text: , and

text: neuroamines

text: . Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes.

text: The hypothalamus  is a portion of the brain that contains a number of 'nuclei' (discrete groups of cell bodies of neurons). The hypothalamus is known to be involved in sex differences in reproductive behavior, mediating responses in menstrual cycles in women and specifically the anterior hypothalamus of the brain helps regulate male-typical sexual behavior. Recently, the hypothalamus has been linked to gender identity and sexual orientation.

text: The

text: hypothalamus

text: is a portion of the brain that contains a number of '

text: nuclei

text: ' (discrete groups of

text: cell bodies

text: of

text: neuron

text: s). The hypothalamus is known to be involved in sex differences in reproductive behavior, mediating responses in menstrual cycles in women and specifically the anterior hypothalamus of the brain helps regulate male-typical sexual behavior. Recently, the hypothalamus has been linked to gender identity and sexual orientation.

text: When the ovaries are removed, a woman is at a seven times greater risk of cardiovascular disease, but the mechanisms are not precisely known. The hormone production of the ovaries currently cannot be sufficiently mimicked by drug therapy. The ovaries produce hormones a woman needs throughout her entire life, in the quantity they are needed, at the time they are needed in response to and as part of the complex endocrine system.

text: Surgical stress is the systemic response to surgical injury and is characterized by activation of the sympathetic nervous system, endocrine responses as well as immunological and haematological changes. Measurement of surgical stress is used in anaesthesia, physiology and surgery.

text: Surgical stress is the systemic response to surgical injury and is characterized by activation of the sympathetic nervous system, endocrine responses as well as immunological and haematological changes. Measurement of surgical stress is used in

text: anaesthesia

text: physiology

text: and

text: surgery

text: This example is slightly simplified (no gears between the motor and the load) from the control system for the Harlan J. Smith Telescope at the McDonald Observatory.  In the figure there are three feedback loops: current control loop, velocity control loop and position control loop. The last is the main loop. The other two are minor loops. The forward path, considering only the forward path without the minor loop feedback, has three unavoidable phase shifting stages. The motor inductance and winding resistance form a low-pass filter with a bandwidth around 200 Hz. Acceleration to velocity is an integrator and velocity to position is an integrator. This would have a total phase shift of 180 to 270 degrees. Simply connecting position feedback would almost always result in unstable behaviour.

text: This example is slightly simplified (no gears between the motor and the load) from the control system for the

text: Harlan J. Smith Telescope

text: at the

text: McDonald Observatory

text: .  In the figure there are three feedback loops: current control loop, velocity control loop and position control loop. The last is the main loop. The other two are minor loops. The forward path, considering only the forward path without the minor loop feedback, has three unavoidable phase shifting stages. The motor inductance and winding resistance form a

text: low-pass filter

text: with a bandwidth around 200 Hz. Acceleration to velocity is an

text: integrator

text: and velocity to position is an integrator. This would have a total

text: phase shift

text: of 180 to 270 degrees. Simply connecting position feedback would almost always result in unstable behaviour.

text: Several molecular isoforms of GH exist in the pituitary gland and are released to blood. In particular, a variant of approximately 20 kDa originated by an alternative splicing is present in a rather constant 1:9 ratio, while recently an additional variant of ~ 23-24 kDa has also been reported in post-exercise states at higher proportions. This variant has not been identified, but it has been suggested to coincide with a 22 kDa glycosylated variant of 23 kDa identified in the pituitary gland. Furthermore, these variants circulate partially bound to a protein (growth hormone-binding protein, GHBP), which is the truncated part of the growth hormone receptor, and an acid-labile subunit (ALS).

text: Several

text: molecular

text: isoforms of GH exist in the pituitary gland and are released to blood. In particular, a variant of approximately 20 kDa originated by an alternative splicing is present in a rather constant 1:9 ratio, while recently an additional variant of ~ 23-24 kDa has also been reported in post-exercise states at higher proportions. This variant has not been identified, but it has been suggested to coincide with a 22 kDa glycosylated variant of 23 kDa identified in the pituitary gland. Furthermore, these variants circulate partially bound to a protein (

text: growth hormone-binding protein

text: , GHBP), which is the truncated part of the

text: growth hormone receptor

text: , and an acid-labile subunit (ALS).

text: Yates’ career has included investigations that have been experimental, clinical, and theoretical in congestive heart failure, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-cortical feedback systems, computer modeling of endocrine and metabolic systems, biology especially in regard to self-organizing systems, aging, temporal organization of living systems, and circadian rhythms.

text: Much of the current research on effects of phthalate exposure has been focused on children and men's health. However, women may be at higher risk for potential adverse health effects of phthalates due to increased cosmetic use.  Diethyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate are especially ubiquitous in cosmetics and personal care products in some countries (NB: DBP is banned in cosmetics in the European Union under Directive 76/768/EEC 1976) According to in vivo and observational studies by Davis et al. (1994) and Lopez-Carillo et al. (2010), there is an association between phthalate exposure and endocrine disruption leading to development of breast cancer.  Furthermore, it has been well-documented that endocrine disruptors such as phthalates can be additive, so even very small amounts can interact with other chemicals to have cumulative, adverse "cocktail effects"

text: Much of the current research on effects of phthalate exposure has been focused on children and men's health. However, women may be at higher risk for potential adverse health effects of phthalates due to increased cosmetic use.  Diethyl phthalate and dibutyl phthalate are especially ubiquitous in

text: cosmetics

text: and personal care products in some countries (NB: DBP is banned in cosmetics in the European Union under Directive 76/768/EEC 1976) According to in vivo and observational studies by Davis et al. (1994) and Lopez-Carillo et al. (2010), there is an association between phthalate exposure and endocrine disruption leading to development of breast cancer.  Furthermore, it has been well-documented that endocrine disruptors such as phthalates can be additive, so even very small amounts can interact with other chemicals to have cumulative, adverse "cocktail effects"

text: Diseases of the endocrine system are common, including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity.Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling  (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.

text: Diseases of the endocrine system

text: are common, including conditions such as

text: diabetes mellitus

text: thyroid

text: disease, and

text: obesity

text: .Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive

text: pituitary adenoma

text: ), inappropriate response to signaling  (

text: hypothyroidism

text: ), lack of a gland (

text: diabetes mellitus type 1

text: , diminished

text: erythropoiesis

text: in

text: chronic renal failure

text: ), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (

text: toxic multinodular goitre

text: ). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion,

text: agenesis

text: , atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression,

text: hyperplastic

text: or

text: neoplastic

text: change, or hyperstimulation.

text: Note that there are two feedback loops.  The outer control loop feeds the output back to the input, as usual. However, this loop alone would not provide satisfactory control, because of the delay; this loop is feeding back outdated information.  Intuitively, for the k seconds during which no fresh information is available, the system is controlled by the inner loop which contains a predictor of what the (unobservable) output of the plant G currently is.

text: Plant hormones are signalling molecules produced within the plant (i.e. they are endogenous). Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and can be moved to other parts of the plant.  Examples of plant hormones are auxins, cytokins,gibberellin, ethylene, abscisic acid, salicylic acid and jasmonates.  Hormones naturally occur in extremely low, finely balanced, concentrations.

text: Plant hormone

text: s are signalling molecules produced within the plant (i.e. they are endogenous). Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and can be moved to other parts of the plant.  Examples of plant hormones are auxins, cytokins,gibberellin, ethylene, abscisic acid, salicylic acid and jasmonates.  Hormones naturally occur in extremely low, finely balanced, concentrations.

text: In the most specific usage (narrowest sense), the glandular origin or traits are exocrine; endocrine gland tumors, such as a VIPoma, an insulinoma, or a pheochromocytoma, are typically not referred to as adenocarcinomas but rather are often called neuroendocrine tumors. Epithelial tissue sometimes includes, but is not limited to, the surface layer of skin, glands, and a variety of other tissue that lines the cavities and organs of the body. Epithelial tissue can be derived embryologically from any of the germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, or mesoderm). To be classified as adenocarcinoma, the cells do not necessarily need to be part of a gland, as long as they have secretory properties. Adenocarcinoma is the malignant counterpart to adenoma, which is the benign form of such tumors. Sometimes adenomas transform into adenocarcinomas, but most do not.

text: In the most specific

text: usage

text: (narrowest

text: sense

text: ), the glandular origin or traits are

text: exocrine

text: endocrine gland

text: tumors, such as a

text: VIPoma

text: , an

text: insulinoma

text: , or a

text: pheochromocytoma

text: , are typically not referred to as adenocarcinomas but rather are often called

text: neuroendocrine tumor

text: s. Epithelial tissue sometimes includes, but is not limited to, the surface layer of skin, glands, and a variety of other tissue that lines the cavities and organs of the body. Epithelial tissue can be derived embryologically from any of the

text: germ layer

text: s (

text: ectoderm

text: endoderm

text: , or

text: mesoderm

text: ). To be classified as adenocarcinoma, the cells do not necessarily need to be part of a

text: gland

text: , as long as they have secretory properties. Adenocarcinoma is the

text: malignant

text: counterpart to

text: adenoma

text: , which is the

text: benign

text: form of such

text: tumors

text: . Sometimes adenomas

text: transform

text: into adenocarcinomas, but most do not.

text: The interview leads Olivia and Broyles to Reverend Marcus (David Nykl), who gave up a career as a physician in order to establish a local church. Working through the congregation list, Olivia talks to one member, Wyatt Toomy (Will Rothhaar), a garbageman. When Olivia spots a child's toy within his apartment, Wyatt realizes he is caught and attempts to escape, but Olivia captures him. She soon finds Max in a hidden room with a not-yet-activated device on the back of his head near the pituitary gland. She frees the boy, accidentally telling him she is an FBI agent.

text: The interview leads Olivia and Broyles to Reverend Marcus (

text: David Nykl

text: ), who gave up a career as a physician in order to establish a local church. Working through the congregation list, Olivia talks to one member, Wyatt Toomy (

text: Will Rothhaar

text: ), a garbageman. When Olivia spots a child's toy within his apartment, Wyatt realizes he is caught and attempts to escape, but Olivia captures him. She soon finds Max in a hidden room with a not-yet-activated device on the back of his head near the pituitary gland. She frees the boy, accidentally telling him she is an

text: FBI

text: agent.

text: Broadly speaking, endocrine disorders may be subdivided into three groups:

text: The corpuscles of Stannius are special endocrine organs in the kidney in fish and are responsible for maintaining calcium balance. They are found only in bony fishes. They were discovered and described by a German anatomist Hermann Friedrich Stannius in 1839. Stannius considered them as functionally similar to adrenal glands in mammals. But they have later been found to be anatomically different as they are derived from different tissues of the embryo. Structurally the corpuscles are a large number of spherical bodies separated from each other by loose connective tissues. Each body or lobule is in turn composed of several columnar cells, which contain secretory granules and are, thus, secretory in function. Each Secretory granule is spherical in shape and measures 0.5 to 1 μm in diameter. Their possible endocrine nature, i.e. producing hormone, was suspected from the complete anatomical description, and it was believed to be responsible for regulating calcium level in the blood. The hormone was identified as stanniocalcin.

text: The corpuscles of Stannius are special

text: endocrine organs

text: in the kidney in fish and are responsible for maintaining

text: calcium balance

text: . They are found only in

text: bony fishes

text: . They were discovered and described by a German anatomist

text: Hermann Friedrich Stannius

text: in 1839. Stannius considered them as functionally similar to

text: adrenal glands

text: in mammals. But they have later been found to be anatomically different as they are derived from different tissues of the embryo. Structurally the corpuscles are a large number of spherical bodies separated from each other by loose

text: connective tissues

text: . Each body or lobule is in turn composed of several columnar cells, which contain secretory granules and are, thus, secretory in function. Each Secretory granule is spherical in shape and measures 0.5 to 1 μm in diameter. Their possible endocrine nature, i.e. producing hormone, was suspected from the complete anatomical description, and it was believed to be responsible for regulating calcium level in the blood. The hormone was identified as

text: stanniocalcin

text: The anterior lobe of the pituitary can be divided into the pars tuberalis (pars glandularis) and pars distalis (pars glandularis) that constitutes ~80% of the gland. The pars intermedia (the intermediate lobe) lies between the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis, and is rudimentary in the human, although in other species it is more developed.  It develops from a depression in the dorsal wall of the pharynx (stomal part) known as Rathke's pouch.

text: The anterior lobe of the pituitary can be divided into the

text: pars tuberalis

text: (pars glandularis) and

text: pars distalis

text: (pars glandularis) that constitutes ~80% of the gland. The

text: pars intermedia

text: (the intermediate lobe) lies between the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis, and is rudimentary in the human, although in other species it is more developed.  It develops from a depression in the dorsal wall of the

text: pharynx

text: (stomal part) known as

text: Rathke's pouch

text: Alpha cells (more commonly alpha-cells or α-cells) are endocrine cells in the pancreatic islets of the pancreas. They make up to 20% of the human islet cells  synthesizing and secreting the peptide hormone glucagon, which elevates the glucose levels in the blood.

text: Alpha cells (more commonly alpha-cells or α-cells) are

text: endocrine

text: cell

text: s in the

text: pancreatic islets

text: of the

text: pancreas

text: . They make up to 20% of the human islet cells  synthesizing and secreting the

text: peptide

text: hormone

text: glucagon

text: , which elevates the

text: glucose

text: levels in the

text: blood

text: Pioneer of minimalism Terry Riley began employing tape loops at the end of the 1950s. Using simple Wollensak tape recorders, he recorded piano music, speech and other sound samples, which he would reproduce on speakers surrounding the audience along with live performance, creating "orchestral textures", as Edward Strickland puts it. With assistance of Richard Maxfield and Ramon Sender, Riley combined tape loops with echoplex devices, producing an "acid trip" piece Mescalin Mix (1961), made from sound samples from his earlier works. Later, he experimented with combining different tapes together, producing pieces such as Music for the Gift (1963) and culminating in his use of a tape delay/feedback system employing two tape recorders (collectively described by Riley as the "time lag accumulator") in live solo performances ; .

text: Pioneer of

text: minimalism

text: Terry Riley

text: began employing tape loops at the end of the 1950s. Using simple

text: Wollensak

text: tape recorders, he recorded piano music, speech and other sound samples, which he would reproduce on speakers surrounding the audience along with live performance, creating "orchestral textures", as Edward Strickland puts it. With assistance of

text: Richard Maxfield

text: and

text: Ramon Sender

text: , Riley combined tape loops with

text: echoplex

text: devices, producing an "acid trip" piece Mescalin Mix (1961), made from sound samples from his earlier works. Later, he experimented with combining different tapes together, producing pieces such as

text: Music for the Gift

text: (1963) and culminating in his use of a tape delay/feedback system employing two

text: tape recorder

text: s (collectively described by Riley as the "time lag accumulator") in live solo performances ; .

text: Ordinary membership is open to researchers, clinicians and students in the field of endocrinology and hormonal systems. Affiliated societies membership is open to national endocrine societies and sub-specialist endocrine societies in Europe. Corporate membership is open to companies working in the field of endocrinology.  Honorary membership is for persons of special distinction in endocrinology or who have performed outstanding service to the Society.

text: Ordinary membership is open to researchers, clinicians and students in the field of endocrinology and

text: hormonal systems

text: . Affiliated societies membership is open to national endocrine societies and sub-specialist endocrine societies in Europe. Corporate membership is open to companies working in the field of endocrinology.  Honorary membership is for persons of special distinction in endocrinology or who have performed outstanding service to the Society.

text: A number of transmembrane receptors for small molecules and peptide hormones as well as intracellular receptors for steroid hormones exist, giving cells the ability to respond to a great number of hormonal and pharmacological stimuli. In diseases, often, proteins that interact with receptors are aberrantly activated, resulting in constitutively activated downstream signals.

text: Inspired by her husband's diagnosis, Katharine was determined to find a cure. Believing that Stanley's illness was a defective adrenal gland, and could be treated with hormone treatment., she established the Neuroendocrine Research Foundation from 1927 to 1947 at Harvard Medical School, and subsidized the publication of the journal Endocrinology. Originally called the " Stanley R. McCormick Memorial Foundation for Neuro- Endocrine Research Corporation", it was the first U.S institute to launch research on the link between endocrinology and mental illness. In addition, Katharine also created a research center for the care of the mentally ill at Worcester State Hospital. Katharine's mother Josephine died on November 16, 1937 at age 91 leaving Katharine an estate of more than 10 million dollars. Stanley died on January 19, 1947 at age 72 leaving an estate of over 35 million dollars to Katharine. She spent five years settling his estate, 85% of which went to pay inheritance taxes.

text: Inspired by her husband's diagnosis, Katharine was determined to find a cure. Believing that Stanley's illness was a defective adrenal gland, and could be treated with hormone treatment., she established the Neuroendocrine Research Foundation from 1927 to 1947 at

text: Harvard Medical School

text: , and subsidized the publication of the journal Endocrinology. Originally called the " Stanley R. McCormick Memorial Foundation for Neuro- Endocrine Research Corporation", it was the first U.S institute to launch research on the link between endocrinology and mental illness. In addition, Katharine also created a research center for the care of the mentally ill at Worcester State Hospital. Katharine's mother Josephine died on November 16, 1937 at age 91 leaving Katharine an estate of more than 10 million dollars. Stanley died on January 19, 1947 at age 72 leaving an estate of over 35 million dollars to Katharine. She spent five years settling his estate, 85% of which went to pay inheritance taxes.

text: The feedback sets the overall (closed-loop) amplifier gain at a value:

text: Endocrine surgery is a surgical sub-speciality focusing on surgery of the endocrine glands, including the thyroid gland, the parathyroid glands, the adrenal glands, glands of the endocrine pancreas, and some neuroendocrine glands.

text: The pituitary gland is divided into two lobes, the anterior lobe (which accounts for two thirds of the volume of the gland), and the posterior lobe (one third of the volume) separated by the pars intermedia.

text: The pituitary gland is divided into two lobes, the anterior lobe (which accounts for two thirds of the volume of the gland), and the posterior lobe (one third of the volume) separated by the

text: pars intermedia

text: The term endocrine disruptor was coined at the Wingspread Conference Centre in Wisconsin, in 1991. One of the early papers on the phenomenon was by Theo Colborn in 1993.  In this paper, she stated that environmental chemicals disrupt the development of the endocrine system, and that effects of exposure during development are often permanent.Although the endocrine disruption has been disputed by some, work sessions from 1992 to 1999 have generated consensus statements from scientists  regarding the hazard from endocrine disruptors, particularly in wildlife and also in humans. The Endocrine Society released a scientific  statement outlining mechanisms and effects of endocrine disruptors on “male and female reproduction, breast development and cancer, prostate cancer, neuroendocrinology, thyroid, metabolism and obesity, and cardiovascular endocrinology,” and showing how experimental and epidemiological studies converge with human clinical observations “to implicate EDCs as a significant concern to public health.”  The statement noted that it is difficult to show that endocrine disruptors cause human diseases, and it recommended  that the precautionary principle should be followed. A concurrent statement expresses policy concerns.

text: The term endocrine disruptor was coined at the Wingspread Conference Centre in Wisconsin, in 1991. One of the early papers on the phenomenon was by

text: Theo Colborn

text: in 1993.  In this paper, she stated that environmental chemicals disrupt the development of the endocrine system, and that effects of exposure during development are often permanent.Although the endocrine disruption has been disputed by some, work sessions from 1992 to 1999 have generated consensus statements from scientists  regarding the hazard from endocrine disruptors, particularly in wildlife and also in humans.

text: The Endocrine Society

text: released a scientific  statement outlining mechanisms and effects of endocrine disruptors on “male and female reproduction, breast development and cancer, prostate cancer, neuroendocrinology, thyroid, metabolism and obesity, and cardiovascular endocrinology,” and showing how experimental and epidemiological studies converge with human clinical observations “to implicate EDCs as a significant concern to public health.”  The statement noted that it is difficult to show that endocrine disruptors cause human diseases, and it recommended  that the

text: precautionary principle

text: should be followed. A concurrent statement expresses policy concerns.

text: The hormonal endocrine control system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days after the birth. When the milk supply is more firmly established, autocrine (or local) control system begins.

text: The hormonal

text: endocrine

text: control system drives milk production during pregnancy and the first few days

text: after the birth

text: . When the milk supply is more firmly established,

text: autocrine

text: (or local) control system begins.

text: This relaxation oscillator is a hysteretic oscillator, named this way because of the hysteresis created by the positive feedback loop implemented with the comparator (similar to, but different from, an op-amp). A circuit that implements this form of hysteretic switching is known as a Schmitt trigger. Alone, the trigger is a bistable multivibrator. However, the slow negative feedback added to the trigger by the RC circuit causes the circuit to oscillate automatically. That is, the addition of the RC circuit turns the hysteretic bistable multivibrator into an astable multivibrator.

text: This relaxation oscillator is a hysteretic oscillator, named this way because of the

text: hysteresis

text: created by the

text: positive feedback

text: loop implemented with the

text: comparator

text: (similar to, but different from, an

text: op-amp

text: ). A circuit that implements this form of hysteretic switching is known as a

text: Schmitt trigger

text: . Alone, the trigger is a

text: bistable multivibrator

text: . However, the slow

text: negative feedback

text: added to the trigger by the RC circuit causes the circuit to oscillate automatically. That is, the addition of the RC circuit turns the hysteretic bistable

text: multivibrator

text: into an

text: astable multivibrator

text: There is only one study that has measured the prevalence (total number of cases in a population) and incidence (annual number of new cases) of hypopituitarism. This study was conducted in Northern Spain and used hospital records in a well-defined population.  The study showed that 45.5 people out of 100,000 had been diagnosed with hypopituitarism, with 4.2 new cases per year. 61% were due to tumors of the pituitary gland, 9% due to other types of lesions, and 19% due to other causes; in 11% no cause could be identified.

text: There is only one study that has measured the

text: prevalence

text: (total number of cases in a population) and

text: incidence

text: (annual number of new cases) of hypopituitarism. This study was conducted in Northern Spain and used hospital records in a well-defined population.  The study showed that 45.5 people out of 100,000 had been diagnosed with hypopituitarism, with 4.2 new cases per year. 61% were due to tumors of the pituitary gland, 9% due to other types of lesions, and 19% due to other causes; in 11% no cause could be identified.

text: The Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) of 1996 required the United States EPA to address the issue of endocrine disruption.  Since the passage of the FQPA, United States EPA has developed a two-tiered Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP) designed to examine potential effects of substances on the Estrogenic, Androgenic and Thyroid (EAT) hormone systems in both humans and wildlife.  Tier 1 consists of 11 assays, and is designed to determine whether a substance has the potential to interact with the (EAT) hormone systems.  If results indicate a relationship, the chemical progresses to Tier 2 testing.  The purpose of Tier 2 is to determine whether a substance that interacts with the EAT hormone system exerts an adverse effect in humans or wildlife, and to develop a dose-response that, in association with exposure data, can be used to assess risk.PBO is one of the chemicals selected by United States EPA to be part of the initial effort under the EDSP.  United States EPA’s issued its first list of chemicals for EDSP testing in 2009, consisting of over 60 pesticide chemicals, including the insecticide synergist PBO.  It is important to note that the first list of chemicals for EDSP screening is not based on a potential for endocrine activity or a potential for adverse effects.  Rather, the list is based on a United States EPA prioritization regarding exposure potential. PBO was added to this list because of its wide use pattern (1500 products registered with United States EPA), people may be exposed to low levels of PBO in the diet, from treated surfaces in the home (e.g., carpet), and in certain occupations (e.g., pest control operator).

text: Several different cells from the mesenchyme can give rise to sex-cord or stromal tumors. These include fibroblasts and endocrine cells. The symptoms of a sex-cord or stromal ovarian tumor can differ from other types of ovarian cancer. Common signs and symptoms include ovarian torsion, hemorrhage from or rupture of the tumor, an abdominal mass, and hormonal disruption. In children, isosexual precocious pseudopuberty may occur with granulosa cell tumors since they produce estrogen. These tumors cause abnormalities in menstruation (excessive bleeding, infrequent menstruation, or no menstruation) or postmenopausal bleeding. Because these tumors produce estrogen, they can cause or occur at the same time as endometrial cancer or breast cancer. Other sex-cord/stromal tumors present with distinct symptoms. Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors cause virilization and excessive hair growth due to the production of testosterone and androstenedione, which can also cause Cushing's syndrome in rare cases. Also, sex-cord stromal tumors occur that do not cause a hormonal imbalance, including benign fibromas, which cause ascites and hydrothorax. With germ cell tumors, sex cord-stromal tumors are the most common ovarian cancer diagnosed in women under 20.

text: Several different cells from the

text: mesenchyme

text: can give rise to sex-cord or stromal tumors. These include

text: fibroblast

text: s and endocrine cells. The symptoms of a sex-cord or stromal ovarian tumor can differ from other types of ovarian cancer. Common signs and symptoms include

text: ovarian torsion

text: hemorrhage

text: from or rupture of the tumor, an abdominal mass, and hormonal disruption. In children,

text: isosexual precocious pseudopuberty

text: may occur with granulosa cell tumors since they produce estrogen. These tumors cause abnormalities in menstruation (

text: excessive bleeding

text: infrequent menstruation

text: , or

text: no menstruation

text: ) or postmenopausal bleeding. Because these tumors produce estrogen, they can cause or occur at the same time as

text: endometrial cancer

text: or

text: breast cancer

text: . Other sex-cord/stromal tumors present with distinct symptoms. Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors cause

text: virilization

text: and

text: excessive hair growth

text: due to the production of

text: testosterone

text: and

text: androstenedione

text: , which can also cause

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: in rare cases. Also, sex-cord stromal tumors occur that do not cause a hormonal imbalance, including benign fibromas, which cause ascites and

text: hydrothorax

text: . With germ cell tumors, sex cord-stromal tumors are the most common ovarian cancer diagnosed in women under 20.

text: It has been suggested that differences in penis size between individuals are caused not only by genetics, but also by environmental factors such as culture, diet, and chemical or pollution exposure. Endocrine disruption resulting from chemical exposure has been linked to genital deformation in both sexes (among many other problems). Chemicals from both synthetic (e.g., pesticides, anti-bacterial triclosan, plasticizers for plastics) and natural (e.g., chemicals found in tea tree oil and lavender oil) sources have been linked to various degrees of endocrine disruption. Both PCBs and the plasticizer DEHP have been associated with smaller penis size. DEHP metabolites measured from the urine of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testicles of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals. Approximately 25% of US women have phthalate levels similar to those in the study. A 2007 study by University of Ankara, Faculty of Medicine found that penile size may decrease as a result of some hormonal therapy combined with external beam radiation therapy.  In addition, some estrogen-based fertility drugs like diethylstilbestrol (DES) have been linked to genital abnormalities and/or a smaller than normal penis (microphallus).

text: It has been suggested that differences in penis size between individuals are caused not only by

text: genetics

text: , but also by environmental factors such as

text: culture

text: diet

text: , and chemical or pollution exposure.

text: Endocrine disruption

text: resulting from chemical exposure has been linked to genital deformation in both sexes (among many other problems). Chemicals from both synthetic (e.g., pesticides, anti-bacterial

text: triclosan

text: plasticizer

text: s for plastics) and natural (e.g., chemicals found in tea tree oil and lavender oil) sources have been linked to various degrees of endocrine disruption. Both

text: PCBs

text: and the plasticizer

text: DEHP

text: have been associated with smaller penis size. DEHP metabolites measured from the urine of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter

text: anogenital distance

text: , and the incomplete descent of

text: testicle

text: s of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals. Approximately 25% of US women have

text: phthalate

text: levels similar to those in the study. A 2007 study by

text: University of Ankara

text: , Faculty of Medicine found that penile size may decrease as a result of some

text: hormonal therapy

text: combined with external beam

text: radiation therapy

text: .  In addition, some estrogen-based

text: fertility drugs

text: like

text: diethylstilbestrol

text: (DES) have been linked to genital abnormalities and/or a smaller than normal penis (microphallus).

text: Granins (chromogranins or secretogranins) are acidic proteins and are present in the secretory granules of a wide variety of endocrine and neuro-endocrine cells. The exact function(s) of these proteins is not yet settled but there is evidence that granins function as pro-hormones, giving rise to an array of peptide fragments for which autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine activities have been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo.  The intracellular biochemistry of granins includes binding of Ca, ATP and catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) within the hormone storage vesicle core.  There is also evidence that CgA, and perhaps other granins, regulate the biogenesis of dense-core secretory vesicles and hormone sequestration in neuroendocrine cells.

text: Granins (chromogranins or secretogranins) are acidic proteins and are present in the secretory granules of a wide variety of

text: endocrine

text: and

text: neuro-endocrine

text: cells. The exact function(s) of these proteins is not yet settled but there is evidence that granins function as

text: pro-hormone

text: s, giving rise to an array of peptide fragments for which

text: autocrine

text: paracrine

text: , and

text: endocrine

text: activities have been demonstrated

text: in vitro

text: and

text: in vivo

text: .  The intracellular biochemistry of granins includes binding of Ca, ATP and

text: catecholamines

text: epinephrine

text: norepinephrine

text: ) within the hormone storage vesicle core.  There is also evidence that CgA, and perhaps other granins, regulate the biogenesis of dense-core secretory vesicles and hormone sequestration in

text: neuroendocrine

text: cells.

text: In anatomy, the G cell is a type of cell in the stomach and duodenum that secretes gastrin. It works in conjunction with gastric chief cells and parietal cells. G cells are found deep within the pyloric glands of the stomach antrum, and occasionally in the pancreas and duodenum. The vagus nerve innervates the G cells. Gastrin-releasing peptide is released by the post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve onto G cells during parasympathetic stimulation. The peptide hormone bombesin also stimulates gastrin from G cells. Gastrin-releasing peptide, as well as the presence of amino acids in the stomach, stimulates the release of gastrin from the G cells. Gastrin stimulates enterochromaffin-like cells to secrete histamine. Gastrin also targets parietal cells by increasing the amount of histamine and the direct stimulation by gastrin, causing the parietal cells to increase HCl secretion in the stomach.

text: In

text: anatomy

text: , the G cell is a type of cell in the stomach and duodenum that secretes

text: gastrin

text: . It works in conjunction with

text: gastric chief cell

text: s and

text: parietal cells

text: . G cells are found deep within the

text: pyloric glands

text: of the

text: stomach

text: antrum

text: , and occasionally in the

text: pancreas

text: and

text: duodenum

text: . The

text: vagus nerve

text: innervates the G cells.

text: Gastrin-releasing peptide

text: is released by the post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve onto G cells during

text: parasympathetic

text: stimulation. The peptide hormone

text: bombesin

text: also stimulates gastrin from G cells. Gastrin-releasing peptide, as well as the presence of

text: amino acids

text: in the stomach, stimulates the release of gastrin from the G cells. Gastrin stimulates

text: enterochromaffin-like cell

text: s to secrete

text: histamine

text: . Gastrin also targets

text: parietal cell

text: s by increasing the amount of histamine and the direct stimulation by gastrin, causing the parietal cells to increase

text: HCl

text: secretion in the stomach.

text: The hypothalamus is a brain structure made up of distinct nuclei as well as less anatomically distinct areas. It is found in all vertebrate nervous systems. In mammals, magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus produce neurohypophysial hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin. These hormones are released into the blood in the posterior pituitary. Much smaller parvocellular neurosecretory cells, neurons of the paraventricular nucleus, release corticotropin-releasing hormone and other hormones into the hypophyseal portal system, where these hormones diffuse to the anterior pituitary.

text: The hypothalamus is a brain structure made up of distinct nuclei as well as less anatomically distinct areas. It is found in all vertebrate nervous systems. In mammals,

text: magnocellular neurosecretory cell

text: s in the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: and the

text: supraoptic nucleus

text: of the hypothalamus produce

text: neurohypophysial hormone

text: s,

text: oxytocin

text: and

text: vasopressin

text: . These hormones are released into the blood in the

text: posterior pituitary

text: . Much smaller

text: parvocellular neurosecretory cell

text: s, neurons of the paraventricular nucleus, release

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone

text: and other hormones into the

text: hypophyseal portal system

text: , where these hormones diffuse to the

text: anterior pituitary

text: "Mood disorder due to a general medical condition" is used to describe manic or depressive episodes which occur secondary to a medical condition. There are many medical conditions that can trigger mood episodes, including neurological disorders (e.g. dementias), metabolic disorders (e.g. electrolyte disturbances), gastrointestinal diseases (e.g. cirrhosis), endocrine disease (e.g. thyroid abnormalities), cardiovascular disease (e.g. heart attack), pulmonary disease (e.g. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), cancer, and autoimmune diseases (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis).

text: "Mood disorder due to a general medical condition" is used to describe manic or depressive episodes which occur secondary to a medical condition. There are many medical conditions that can trigger mood episodes, including

text: neurological disorder

text: s (e.g.

text: dementia

text: s),

text: metabolic disorder

text: s (e.g. electrolyte disturbances),

text: gastrointestinal diseases

text: (e.g.

text: cirrhosis

text: endocrine disease

text: (e.g. thyroid abnormalities),

text: cardiovascular disease

text: (e.g.

text: heart attack

text: pulmonary disease

text: (e.g.

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: cancer

text: , and

text: autoimmune disease

text: s (e.g.

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: Positive and negative feedback loops do not always operate distinctly. In the mechanism of biochemical switches, they work together to create a flexible system. For example, according to Pfeuty & Kaneko (2009), to overcome a drawback in biochemical systems, positive feedback regulation loops may interact with negative regulation loops to facilitate escape from stable states. The coexistence of two stable states is known as bistability, which is often the result of positive feedback regulations.

text: where A is the gain of the amplifier with feedback (the closed-loop gain), β is the feedback factor and A is the gain without feedback (the open-loop gain). The gain A is a complex function of frequency, with both magnitude and phase. Examination of this relation shows the possibility of infinite gain (interpreted as instability) if the product βA = −1. (That is, the magnitude of βA is unity and its phase is −180°, the so-called Barkhausen stability criterion). Bode plots are used to determine just how close an amplifier comes to satisfying this condition.

text: where A is the gain of the amplifier with feedback (the closed-loop gain), β is the feedback factor and A is the gain without feedback (the open-loop gain). The gain A is a complex function of frequency, with both magnitude and phase. Examination of this relation shows the possibility of infinite gain (interpreted as instability) if the product βA = −1. (That is, the magnitude of βA is unity and its phase is −180°, the so-called

text: Barkhausen stability criterion

text: ). Bode plots are used to determine just how close an amplifier comes to satisfying this condition.

text: Endocrine systems are found in most varieties of animals. The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones, and receptors that detect and react to the hormones.

text: Endocrine systems are found in most varieties of

text: animal

text: s. The endocrine system consists of

text: gland

text: s that secrete

text: hormone

text: s, and

text: receptors

text: that detect and react to the hormones.

text: Typically the open-loop phase lag (relative to input) varies with frequency, progressively increasing to exceed 180°, at which frequency the output signal becomes inverted, or antiphase in relation to the input.  The PM will be positive but decreasing at frequencies less than the frequency at which inversion sets in (at which PM = 0), and PM is negative (PM < 0) at higher frequencies. In the presence of negative feedback, a zero or negative PM at a frequency where the loop gain exceeds unity (1) guarantees instability. Thus positive PM is a "safety margin" that ensures proper (non-oscillatory) operation of the circuit. This applies to amplifier circuits as well as more generally, to active filters, under various load conditions (e.g. reactive loads). In its simplest form, involving ideal negative feedback voltage amplifiers with non-reactive feedback, the phase margin is measured at the frequency where the open-loop voltage gain of the amplifier equals the desired closed-loop DC voltage gain.

text: Typically the

text: open-loop

text: phase lag (relative to input) varies with frequency, progressively increasing to exceed 180°, at which frequency the output signal becomes inverted, or

text: antiphase

text: in relation to the input.  The PM will be positive but decreasing at frequencies less than the frequency at which inversion sets in (at which PM = 0), and PM is negative (PM < 0) at higher frequencies. In the presence of

text: negative feedback

text: , a zero or negative PM at a frequency where the

text: loop gain

text: exceeds unity (1) guarantees instability. Thus positive PM is a "safety margin" that ensures proper (non-oscillatory) operation of the circuit. This applies to amplifier circuits as well as more generally, to

text: active filters

text: , under various

text: load

text: conditions (e.g. reactive loads). In its simplest form, involving ideal

text: negative feedback

text: voltage amplifiers with non-

text: reactive

text: feedback, the phase margin is measured at the frequency where the

text: open-loop voltage gain

text: of the amplifier equals the desired

text: closed-loop

text: DC

text: voltage

text: gain

text: Forskolin (coleonol) is a labdane diterpene that is produced by the Indian Coleus plant (Plectranthus barbatus). Forskolin is commonly used as a tool in biochemistry to raise levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP) in the study and research of cell physiology.  Forskolin activates the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and increases intracellular levels of cAMP. cAMP is an important second messenger necessary for the proper biological response of cells to hormones and other extracellular signals. It is required for cell communication in the hypothalamus/pituitary gland axis and for the feedback control of hormones. Cyclic AMP acts by activating cAMP-sensitive pathways such as protein kinase A and Epac.

text: Forskolin (coleonol) is a

text: labdane

text: diterpene

text: that is produced by the

text: Indian Coleus

text: plant (Plectranthus barbatus). Forskolin is commonly used as a tool in biochemistry to raise levels of

text: cyclic AMP

text: (cAMP) in the study and research of

text: cell

text: physiology.  Forskolin activates the enzyme

text: adenylyl cyclase

text: and increases intracellular levels of cAMP. cAMP is an important second messenger necessary for the proper biological response of cells to hormones and other extracellular signals. It is required for cell communication in the hypothalamus/pituitary gland axis and for the feedback control of hormones. Cyclic AMP acts by activating cAMP-sensitive pathways such as

text: protein kinase A

text: and

text: Epac

text: For hormone secretion regulated by the negative feedback loop: when gland X releases hormone X, this stimulates target cells to release hormone Y. When there is an excess of hormone Y, gland X "senses" this and inhibits its release of hormone X. As shown in the figure, most endocrine hormones are controlled by a physiologic negative feedback inhibition loop, such as the glucocorticoids secreted by the adrenal cortex.  The hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which directs the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).  In turn, ACTH directs the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, such as cortisol.  Glucocorticoids not only perform their respective functions throughout the body but also negatively affect the release of further stimulating secretions of both the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, effectively reducing the output of glucocorticoids once a sufficient amount has been released.

text: For hormone secretion regulated by the negative feedback loop: when gland X releases hormone X, this stimulates target cells to release hormone Y. When there is an excess of hormone Y, gland X "senses" this and inhibits its release of hormone X. As shown in the figure, most

text: endocrine

text: hormone

text: s are controlled by a

text: physiologic

text: negative feedback inhibition loop, such as the

text: glucocorticoid

text: s secreted by the

text: adrenal cortex

text: .  The

text: hypothalamus

text: secretes

text: corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

text: , which directs the

text: anterior pituitary gland

text: to secrete

text: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

text: .  In turn, ACTH directs the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids, such as

text: cortisol

text: .  Glucocorticoids not only perform their respective functions throughout the body but also negatively affect the release of further stimulating secretions of both the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, effectively reducing the output of glucocorticoids once a sufficient amount has been released.

text: Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones are hormones whose main purpose is to control the release of other hormones, either by stimulating or inhibiting their release. They are also called liberins () and statins () (respectively), or releasing factors and inhibiting factors. The principal examples are hypothalamic-pituitary hormones that can be classified from several viewpoints: they are hypothalamic hormones (originating in the hypothalamus), they are hypophysiotropic hormones (affecting the hypophysis, that is, the pituitary gland), and they are tropic hormones (having other endocrine glands as their target).

text: Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones are

text: hormone

text: s whose main purpose is to control the release of other hormones, either by stimulating or inhibiting their release. They are also called liberins () and statins () (respectively), or releasing factors and inhibiting factors. The principal examples are

text: hypothalamic-pituitary hormone

text: s that can be classified from several viewpoints: they are hypothalamic hormones (originating in the

text: hypothalamus

text: ), they are hypophysiotropic hormones (affecting the hypophysis, that is, the

text: pituitary gland

text: ), and they are

text: tropic hormone

text: s (having other endocrine glands as their target).

text: Two reviews have been published on the toxicity of POEA to humans.  The earlier, published in 2000, evaluated studies that were performed for regulatory purposes as well as published research reports. It found that "no significant toxicity occurred in acute, subchronic, and chronic studies. Direct ocular exposure to the concentrated Roundup formulation can result in transient irritation, while normal spray dilutions cause, at most, only minimal effects. The genotoxicity data for glyphosate and Roundup were assessed using a weight-of-evidence approach and standard evaluation criteria. There was no convincing evidence for direct DNA damage in vitro or in vivo, and it was concluded that Roundup and its components do not pose a risk for the production of heritable/somatic mutations in humans. ...Glyphosate, AMPA, and POEA were not teratogenic or developmentally toxic....Likewise there were no adverse effects in reproductive tissues from animals treated with glyphosate, AMPA, or POEA in chronic and/or subchronic studies. Results from standard studies with these materials also failed to show any effects indicative of endocrine modulation. Therefore, it is concluded that the use of Roundup herbicide does not result in adverse effects on development, reproduction, or endocrine systems in humans and other mammals. ... It was concluded that, under present and expected conditions of use, Roundup herbicide does not pose a health risk to humans."

text: The lateral hypothalamus is a portion of the hypothalamus, and brain stimulation to this area of the reward system produces the highest response rates and subsequently the highest reward potency.  Lesions in this region or along its boundary cause a loss of positive drive-reward behaviors as well as all other operant drive behaviors.

text: The

text: lateral hypothalamus

text: is a portion of the hypothalamus, and brain stimulation to this area of the reward system produces the highest response rates and subsequently the highest reward potency.  Lesions in this region or along its boundary cause a loss of positive drive-reward behaviors as well as all other operant drive behaviors.

text: Electromyographical biofeedback or myofeedback could provide patients who suffer from central facial palsy the ability to create myo-electrical potentials that they can interpret. This method provides patients with information about muscle contraction that is normally subliminal.  Electromyographical biofeedback enables the patient to regain control of muscles that are involved in facial expression that have been atrophied. Brener’s model was one of the first models to describe the circuitry of the role of feedback for voluntary control of physiological processes. His method allows images of feedback that can produce effects on the voluntary control of motor responses, it involves two central systems: an effector mechanism and feedback loops. There are central systems that are the central sensory integration system and the central motor system. The interaction of both of these systems enables the central motor pathways and a central feedback loop that determine the activity of the effector system when it is innervated by the motor nerve (figure 1).

text: Electromyographical

text: biofeedback

text: or

text: myofeedback

text: could provide patients who suffer from central facial palsy the ability to create myo-electrical potentials that they can interpret. This method provides patients with information about muscle contraction that is normally subliminal.  Electromyographical biofeedback enables the patient to regain control of muscles that are involved in facial expression that have been

text: atrophied

text: . Brener’s model was one of the first models to describe the circuitry of the role of feedback for voluntary control of physiological processes. His method allows images of feedback that can produce effects on the voluntary control of motor responses, it involves two central systems: an effector mechanism and feedback loops. There are central systems that are the central sensory integration system and the central motor system. The interaction of both of these systems enables the central motor pathways and a central feedback loop that determine the activity of the effector system when it is innervated by the motor nerve (figure 1).

text: Salivary gland heterotopia is where salivary gland acini cells are present in an abnormal location without any duct system.  The most common location is the cervical lymph nodes. Other reported sites of heterotopic salivary gland tissue are the middle ear, parathyroid glands, thyroid gland, pituitary gland, cerebellar pontine angle, soft tissue medial to sternocleidomastoid, stomach, rectum and vulva. Salivary gland neoplasm occurrence within heterotopic salivary gland tissue is rare.

text: Salivary gland heterotopia is where salivary gland

text: acini

text: cells are present in an abnormal location without any duct system.  The most common location is the cervical

text: lymph node

text: s. Other reported sites of heterotopic salivary gland tissue are the

text: middle ear

text: parathyroid gland

text: s,

text: thyroid gland

text: pituitary gland

text: cerebellar pontine angle

text: , soft tissue medial to

text: sternocleidomastoid

text: stomach

text: rectum

text: and

text: vulva

text: Salivary gland neoplasm

text: occurrence within heterotopic salivary gland tissue is rare.

text: The other central method through which drugs act is by affecting communications between cells through hormones.  Neurotransmitters can usually only travel a microscopic distance before reaching their target at the other side of the synaptic cleft, while hormones can travel long distances before reaching target cells anywhere in the body.  Thus, the endocrine system is a critical focus of psychopharmacology because 1) drugs can alter the secretion of many hormones; 2) hormones may alter the behavioral responses to drugs; 3) hormones themselves sometimes have psychoactive properties; and 4) the secretion of some hormones, especially those dependent on the pituitary gland, is controlled by neurotransmitter systems in the brain.

text: The other central method through which drugs act is by affecting communications between cells through

text: hormones

text: .  Neurotransmitters can usually only travel a microscopic distance before reaching their target at the other side of the

text: synaptic cleft

text: , while hormones can travel long distances before reaching target cells anywhere in the body.  Thus, the

text: endocrine system

text: is a critical focus of psychopharmacology because 1) drugs can alter the secretion of many hormones; 2) hormones may alter the behavioral responses to drugs; 3) hormones themselves sometimes have psychoactive properties; and 4) the secretion of some hormones, especially those dependent on the

text: pituitary gland

text: , is controlled by neurotransmitter systems in the brain.

text: The Endocrine Society does not recommend endocrine treatment of prepubertal children because clinical experience suggests that GID can be reliably assessed only after the first signs of puberty. It recommends treating transsexual adolescents by suppressing puberty with puberty blockers until age 16 years old, after which cross-sex hormones may be given.

text: The

text: Endocrine Society

text: does not recommend endocrine treatment of prepubertal children because clinical experience suggests that GID can be reliably assessed only after the first signs of puberty. It recommends treating transsexual adolescents by suppressing puberty with puberty blockers until age 16 years old, after which cross-sex hormones may be given.

text: Audio feedback (also known as acoustic feedback, simply as feedback, or the Larsen effect) is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input (for example, a microphone or guitar pickup) and an audio output (for example, a loudspeaker). In this example, a signal received by the microphone is amplified and passed out of the loudspeaker. The sound from the loudspeaker can then be received by the microphone again, amplified further, and then passed out through the loudspeaker again.  The frequency of the resulting sound is determined by resonance frequencies in the microphone, amplifier, and loudspeaker, the acoustics of the room, the directional pick-up and emission patterns of the microphone and loudspeaker, and the distance between them. For small PA systems the sound is readily recognized as a loud squeal or screech.

text: Audio feedback (also known as acoustic feedback, simply as feedback, or the Larsen effect) is a special kind of

text: positive feedback

text: which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input (for example, a

text: microphone

text: or

text: guitar pickup

text: ) and an audio output (for example, a

text: loudspeaker

text: amplified

text: frequency

text: PA system

text: Grumbach has made many seminal contributions toward our understanding of pediatric endocrinology including extensive studies on the development and function of the endocrine and neuroendocrine systems from fetal life through puberty, as well as studies of the hormonal and genetic effects on growth, bone maturation, puberty, sex determination and differentiation (and their disorders) and disease-causing pathology. He is a past president of the Endocrine Society, the American Pediatric Society, the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society, the Association of Medical School Pediatric Department Chairmen, and honorary president of the International Endocrine Society. He died on October 4, 2016 of a heart attack.

text: Grumbach has made many seminal contributions toward our understanding of pediatric endocrinology including extensive studies on the development and function of the endocrine and neuroendocrine systems from fetal life through puberty, as well as studies of the hormonal and genetic effects on growth, bone maturation, puberty, sex determination and differentiation (and their disorders) and disease-causing pathology. He is a past president of the

text: Endocrine Society

text: , the

text: American Pediatric Society

text: , the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society, the Association of Medical School Pediatric Department Chairmen, and honorary president of the International Endocrine Society. He died on October 4, 2016 of a heart attack.

text: Hyōgo Prefecture is the largest prefecture in Kansai, and there are some different dialects in the prefecture. As mentioned above, Tajima-ben (但馬弁) spoken in northern Hyōgo, former Tajima Province, is included in Chūgoku dialect as well as Tango-ben. Ancient vowel sequence /au/ changed  in many Japanese dialects, but in Tajima, Tottori and Izumo dialects, /au/ changed . Accordingly, Kansai word ahō "idiot" is pronounced ahaa in Tajima-ben.

text: Hyōgo Prefecture

text: is the largest prefecture in Kansai, and there are some different dialects in the prefecture. As mentioned above, Tajima-ben (

text: 但馬弁

text: ) spoken in northern Hyōgo, former

text: Tajima Province

text: , is included in

text: Chūgoku dialect

text: as well as Tango-ben. Ancient vowel sequence /au/ changed  in many Japanese dialects, but in Tajima,

text: Tottori

text: and

text: Izumo

text: dialects, /au/ changed . Accordingly, Kansai word ahō "idiot" is pronounced ahaa in Tajima-ben.

text: Mathematically, positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect. That is, positive feedback is in phase with the input, in the sense that it adds to make the input larger.Positive feedback tends to cause system instability. When the loop gain is positive and above 1, there will typically be exponential growth, increasing oscillations, chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium. System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values, which may damage or destroy the system, or may end with the system latched into a new stable state. Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered, damped, or limited, or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback.

text: Mathematically, positive feedback is defined as a positive

text: loop gain

text: around a closed loop of cause and effect. That is, positive feedback is

text: in phase with

text: the input, in the sense that it adds to make the input larger.Positive feedback tends to cause

text: system instability

text: . When the loop gain is positive and above 1, there will typically be

text: exponential growth

text: , increasing

text: oscillation

text: s,

text: chaotic behavior

text: or other divergences from

text: equilibrium

text: . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values, which may damage or destroy the system, or may end with the system

text: latched

text: into a new stable state. Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being

text: filtered

text: damped

text: , or

text: limited

text: , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback.

text: Treasury Hotel is a heritage-listed hotel at 175 George Street, Brisbane City, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by John Hall & Son and built from 1887 to 1888 by Abraham James.  It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 4 November 1993.

text: Treasury Hotel is a heritage-listed

text: hotel

text: at 175

text: George Street

text: Brisbane City

text: City of Brisbane

text: Queensland

text: , Australia. It was designed by

text: John Hall & Son

text: and built from 1887 to 1888 by Abraham James.  It was added to the

text: Queensland Heritage Register

text: on 4 November 1993.

text: The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system. It synthesizes and secretes certain neurohormones, called releasing hormones or hypothalamic hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones.The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, important aspects of parenting and attachment behaviors, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.

text: The hypothalamus is responsible for certain

text: metabolic

text: processes

text: and other activities of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . It

text: synthesizes

text: and secretes certain

text: neurohormone

text: s, called

text: releasing hormone

text: s or hypothalamic hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of

text: pituitary

text: hormones

text: .The hypothalamus controls

text: body temperature

text: hunger

text: , important aspects of parenting and

text: attachment behaviors

text: thirst

text: fatigue

text: sleep

text: , and

text: circadian rhythm

text: s.

text: In humans, the hypothalamus regulates metabolism, and hence the basal metabolic rate. Amongst its functions is the regulation of body temperature. The core body temperature is also one of the classic phase markers for measuring the timing of an individual's Circadian rhythm.

text: In humans, the

text: hypothalamus

text: regulates

text: metabolism

text: , and hence the

text: basal metabolic rate

text: . Amongst its functions is the regulation of body temperature. The core body temperature is also one of the classic phase markers for measuring the timing of an individual's

text: Circadian rhythm

text: Some of the variability in behavior and morphology among pupfishes may be a response to harsh environmental conditions mediated by endocrine systems. Studies of specific endocrine systems which foster phenotypic plasticity in fishes and the evolution of endocrine pathways are underway.

text: Some of the variability in behavior and morphology among pupfishes may be a response to harsh environmental conditions mediated by

text: endocrine system

text: s. Studies of specific endocrine systems which foster

text: phenotypic plasticity

text: in fishes and the evolution of endocrine pathways are underway.

text: Presently, Turek's research interests revolve around the genetic, molecular, and neural basis for sleep and circadian rhythms. He focuses most of his attention on the role of sleep and circadian clock systems for energy balance, obesity, premature birth, gastrointestinal function, and depression specifically. The Turek laboratory investigates cellular events involved in the entrainment, generation, and expression of circadian rhythms arising from a biological clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus; the genetics of the circadian clock system; the molecular genetic mechanisms underlying the sleep-wake cycle; the effects of advanced age on the expression of behavioral and endocrine rhythms and on the expression of circadian clock genes; the links between sleep, circadian rhythms, and energy metabolism; the role of melatonin in sleep and circadian rhythms; and other topics regarding sleep and circadian rhythms.

text: Presently, Turek's research interests revolve around the genetic, molecular, and neural basis for

text: sleep

text: and

text: circadian rhythms

text: . He focuses most of his attention on the role of sleep and

text: circadian clock

text: systems for

text: energy balance

text: obesity

text: premature birth

text: gastrointestinal function

text: , and

text: depression

text: specifically. The Turek laboratory investigates cellular events involved in the entrainment, generation, and expression of circadian rhythms arising from a

text: biological clock

text: located in the

text: suprachiasmatic nucleus

text: of the

text: hypothalamus

text: ; the genetics of the circadian clock system; the molecular genetic mechanisms underlying the

text: sleep-wake cycle

text: ; the effects of advanced age on the expression of behavioral and

text: endocrine

text: rhythms and on the expression of circadian clock genes; the links between sleep, circadian rhythms, and energy metabolism; the role of

text: melatonin

text: in sleep and circadian rhythms; and other topics regarding sleep and circadian rhythms.

text: The album was originally meant to be a Six-Two album, completely produced by Dr. Dre and released through Aftermath Entertainment. However, D.O.C. and Dre argued over whether D.O.C. should be rapping on the album. The D.O.C.'s presence on this album is minimal however, making an appearance to introduce tracks or perform in skits such as "My Prayer" and "Souliloquy". Deuce focuses primarily on showcasing other artists on D.O.C.'s Silverback Records label, including U.P.-T.I.G.H.T., El Dorado, and in particular, Six-Two.

text: The album was originally meant to be a Six-Two album, completely produced by

text: Dr. Dre

text: and released through

text: Aftermath Entertainment

text: . However, D.O.C. and Dre argued over whether D.O.C. should be rapping on the album. The D.O.C.'s presence on this album is minimal however, making an appearance to introduce tracks or perform in skits such as "My Prayer" and "Souliloquy". Deuce focuses primarily on showcasing other artists on D.O.C.'s Silverback Records label, including U.P.-T.I.G.H.T., El Dorado, and in particular, Six-Two.

text: Tropic hormones are hormones that have other endocrine glands as their target. Most tropic hormones are produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary. The hypothalamus secretes tropic hormones that target the anterior pituitary, and the thyroid gland secretes thyroxine, which targets the hypothalamus and therefore can be considered a tropic hormone.

text: Tropic hormones are

text: hormone

text: s that have other

text: endocrine gland

text: s as their target. Most tropic hormones are produced and secreted by the

text: anterior pituitary

text: . The

text: hypothalamus

text: secretes tropic hormones that target the anterior pituitary, and the

text: thyroid gland

text: secretes

text: thyroxine

text: , which targets the

text: hypothalamus

text: and therefore can be considered a tropic hormone.

text: Small cell ovarian cancer (SCCO) are generally classified into epithelial tumors associated with distinctive endocrine features.

text: Born in Dumfries, Gibson started his senior career with hometown club Queen of the South. Gibson made his debut on the final day of the season as Queen of the South were defeated 1–0 by Queen's Park. He played in 93 league matches for the Dumfries club without scoring a goal. Gibson did score his solitary goal for Queens during his first spell with a 50th-minute winner in a 2–1 Scottish Cup third round match versus Montrose on 8 January 2005.

text: Born in

text: Dumfries

text: , Gibson started his senior career with hometown club

text: Queen of the South

text: . Gibson made his debut on the final day of the season as Queen of the South were defeated 1–0 by

text: Queen's Park

text: . He played in 93 league matches for the Dumfries club without scoring a goal. Gibson did score his solitary goal for Queens during his first spell with a 50th-minute winner in a 2–1

text: Scottish Cup

text: third round match versus

text: Montrose

text: on 8 January 2005.

text: No evidence suggests that PBO disrupts the normal functioning of the endocrine system.  This includes the recently developed data to assess the possible interaction of PBO with the endocrine system.  The Piperonyl Butoxide Task Force II, a group of companies that produces or markets PBO-containing products, has conducted all 11 EDSP Tier 1 screens and has submitted all required documentation and study reports.

text: No evidence suggests that PBO disrupts the normal functioning of the

text: endocrine system

text: .  This includes the recently developed data to assess the possible interaction of PBO with the endocrine system.  The Piperonyl Butoxide Task Force II, a group of companies that produces or markets PBO-containing products, has conducted all 11 EDSP Tier 1 screens and has submitted all required documentation and study reports.

text: Recent work suggests that, like BPA, BPS also has endocrine disrupting properties. What makes BPS, and BPA, endocrine disruptors is the presence of the alcohol group on the benzene ring. This is called a phenol ring and it allows BPA and BPS to mimic estradiol. In a study of human urine, BPS was found in 81% of the samples tested. This percentage is comparable to BPA  which  was found in 95% of urine samples. Another study done on thermal receipt paper shows that 88% of human exposure to BPS is through receipts.

text: Recent work suggests that, like BPA, BPS also has endocrine disrupting properties. What makes BPS, and BPA, endocrine disruptors is the presence of the alcohol group on the benzene ring. This is called a phenol ring and it allows BPA and BPS to mimic

text: estradiol

text: . In a study of human urine, BPS was found in 81% of the samples tested. This percentage is comparable to BPA  which  was found in 95% of urine samples. Another study done on thermal receipt paper shows that 88% of human exposure to BPS is through receipts.

text: He died on May 14, 1944, during exile in Switzerland. Harry Benjamin, in a June 1944 obituary for his colleague, attributed the melancholy of his final years to his enforced exile in Zürich and the ‘unjust criticism’ of his rejuvenations and emphasised the ‘enormous impetus’ his work had for biochemists to concern themselves with all the endocrine glands.

text: Endocrine disruption as a mode of action for xenobiotics was brought into awareness by Our Stolen Future by Theo Colborn. Endocrine disrupting chemicals are known to accumulate in body tissue and are highly persistent in the environment. Many toxicants are known EDCs including pesticides, phthalates, phytoestrogens, some industrial/commercial products, and pharmaceuticals. These chemicals are known to cause endocrine disruption via a few different mechanisms. While the mechanism associated with the thyroid hormone receptor is not well understood, two more established mechanisms involve the inhibition of the androgen receptor and activation of the estrogen receptor.

text: Endocrine disruption as a

text: mode of action

text: for

text: xenobiotic

text: s was brought into awareness by

text: Our Stolen Future

text: by Theo Colborn. Endocrine disrupting chemicals are known to accumulate in body tissue and are highly persistent in the environment. Many toxicants are known EDCs including

text: pesticide

text: s,

text: phthalate

text: s,

text: phytoestrogens

text: , some industrial/commercial products, and

text: pharmaceuticals

text: . These chemicals are known to cause endocrine disruption via a few different mechanisms. While the mechanism associated with the thyroid hormone receptor is not well understood, two more established mechanisms involve the inhibition of the androgen receptor and activation of the estrogen receptor.

text: On October 30, 2015 the Government of Ontario announced that David Collenette would be the Special Advisor for High-Speed Rail in the Windsor - Toronto corridor.

text: On October 30, 2015 the Government of Ontario announced that David Collenette would be the Special Advisor for

entity_section: Windsor .E2.80.93 London - Kitchener-Waterloo .E2.80.93 Toronto

text: High-Speed Rail

text: in the Windsor - Toronto corridor.

text: While simple systems can sometimes be described as one or the other type, many systems with feedback loops cannot be so easily designated as simply positive or negative, and this is especially true when multiple loops are present.