text: After find out the OMACs was dismembered droid, Captain Atom was struck by Magog who simply scoffs at the notion and states that he has come to kill Captain Atom at the behest of Max. In their battle, Captain Atom manages to convince Magog he is being manipulated by Max. Magog stops the attacks as he remembers Max's existence and Captain Atom is prepared to help him. However, Max is on hand and forces Magog to kill himself with his spear. Max uses his powers to manipulate everyone into believing that Captain Atom has killed Magog before leaving. Captain Atom realizes Magog's spear is about to explode with energy. Captain Atom tries to absorb as much as he can, thrusting him into the time stream again as a crater is left behind.

text: After find out the OMACs was dismembered droid, Captain Atom was struck by

entity_name: Magog (comics)

text: Magog

text: who simply scoffs at the notion and states that he has come to kill Captain Atom at the behest of Max. In their battle, Captain Atom manages to convince Magog he is being manipulated by Max. Magog stops the attacks as he remembers Max's existence and Captain Atom is prepared to help him. However, Max is on hand and forces Magog to kill himself with his spear. Max uses his powers to manipulate everyone into believing that Captain Atom has killed Magog before leaving. Captain Atom realizes Magog's spear is about to explode with energy. Captain Atom tries to absorb as much as he can, thrusting him into the time stream again as a crater is left behind.

text: An interesting situation happens with a shape where about halfof the solutions are integrable, but the remainder are not. A simple shape where this happens is with the regular hexagon. If the wavepacket describing a quantum billiard ball is made up of only the closed-form solutions, its motion will not be chaotic, but if any amount of non-closed-form solutions are included, the quantum billiard motion becomes chaotic. Another simple shape where this happens is with an "L" shape made by reflecting a square down, then to the right.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: However, near the end of 19th century, physicists discovered that Dalton's atoms are not, in fact, the fundamental particles of nature, but conglomerates of even smaller particles. Electron was discovered between 1879 and 1897 in works of William Crookes, Arthur Schuster, J. J. Thomson, and other physicists; its charge was carefully measured by Robert Andrews Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in their oil drop experiment of 1909. Physicists theorized that negatively charged electrons are constituent part of "atoms", along with some (yet unknown) positively charged substance, and it was later confirmed. Electron became the first elementary, truly fundamental particle discovered.

text: However, near the end of 19th century, physicists discovered that Dalton's atoms are not, in fact, the fundamental particles of nature, but conglomerates of even smaller particles.

entity_name: Electron

text: Electron

text: was discovered between 1879 and 1897 in works of

entity_name: William Crookes

text: William Crookes

entity_name: Arthur Schuster

text: Arthur Schuster

entity_name: J. J. Thomson

text: J. J. Thomson

text: , and other physicists; its charge was carefully measured by

entity_name: Robert Andrews Millikan

text: Robert Andrews Millikan

text: and

entity_name: Harvey Fletcher

text: Harvey Fletcher

text: in their

entity_name: Oil drop experiment

text: oil drop experiment

text: of 1909. Physicists theorized that

entity_name: Electric charge

text: negatively charged

text: electrons are constituent part of "

entity_name: Atom

text: atom

text: s", along with some (yet unknown) positively charged substance, and it was later confirmed. Electron became the first elementary, truly fundamental particle discovered.

text: A famed psychologist announces that crime is a psychologically-based personal inefficiency which can be cured by therapy, and he chooses the Dalton Brothers as his test subjects. But the story experiences a major twist: not only does the experiment fail spectacularly, the doc also decides to participate in the Daltons' exploits! Once more it is up to Lucky Luke to remedy this delicate situation.

text: A famed psychologist announces that crime is a psychologically-based personal inefficiency which can be cured by therapy, and he chooses the

entity_name: The Daltons (Lucky Luke)

text: Dalton Brothers

text: as his test subjects. But the story experiences a major twist: not only does the experiment fail spectacularly, the doc also decides to participate in the Daltons' exploits! Once more it is up to Lucky Luke to remedy this delicate situation.

text: The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old one, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. However, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. Because of this, they could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, as the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that could easily be explained using the concept of atoms.

text: John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis presumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, giving the atomic mass of oxygen was 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the diatomic elemental molecules in those gases.

entity_name: John Dalton

text: John Dalton

text: 's original

entity_name: Atomic theory

entity_section: Earliest empirical evidence

text: atomic hypothesis

text: presumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, giving the

entity_name: Atomic mass

text: atomic mass

text: of oxygen was 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. In 1805,

entity_name: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

text: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

text: and

entity_name: Alexander von Humboldt

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811

entity_name: Amedeo Avogadro

text: Amedeo Avogadro

text: had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called

entity_name: Avogadro's law

text: Avogadro's law

text: and the diatomic elemental molecules in those gases.

method: UNH-ecn

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Later in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr's theory. These results refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these experiments, atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today.

text: Later in the same year

entity_name: Henry Moseley

text: Henry Moseley

text: provided additional experimental evidence in favor of

entity_name: Bohr model

text: Niels Bohr's theory

text: . These results refined

entity_name: Ernest Rutherford

text: Ernest Rutherford

text: 's and

entity_name: Antonius van den Broek

text: Antonius Van den Broek

text: 's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its

entity_name: Atomic nucleus

text: nucleus

text: a number of positive

entity_name: Effective nuclear charge

text: nuclear charge

text: s that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these experiments,

entity_name: Atomic number

text: atomic number

text: was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today.

text: The Dalton Convention Center is a multi-purpose venue in Dalton, Georgia built in 1991.  Owned by the city of Dalton and by Whitfield County. The Convention Center is operated by the General Manager and Director of Tourism, Doug Phipps and Brett Huske.

text: The Dalton Convention Center is a multi-purpose venue in

entity_name: Dalton, Georgia

text: Dalton, Georgia

text: built in 1991.  Owned by the city of Dalton and by

entity_name: Whitfield County, Georgia

text: Whitfield County

text: . The Convention Center is operated by the General Manager and Director of Tourism, Doug Phipps and Brett Huske.

text: In chemical bonds, an orbital overlap is the concentration of orbitals on adjacent atoms in the same regions of space.  Orbital overlap can lead to bond formation. The importance of orbital overlap was emphasized by Linus Pauling to explain the molecular bond angles observed through experimentation and is the basis for the concept of orbital hybridization.  Since s orbitals are spherical (and have no directionality) and p orbitals are oriented 90° to each other, a theory was needed to explain why molecules such as methane (CH) had observed bond angles of 109.5°.  Pauling proposed that s and p orbitals on the carbon atom  can combine to form hybrids (sp in the case of methane) which are directed toward the hydrogen atoms. The carbon hybrid orbitals have greater overlap with the hydrogen orbitals, and can therefore form stronger C–H bonds.

text: In

entity_name: Chemical bond

text: chemical bond

text: s, an orbital overlap is the concentration of orbitals on adjacent atoms in the same regions of space.  Orbital overlap can lead to bond formation. The importance of orbital overlap was emphasized by

entity_name: Linus Pauling

text: Linus Pauling

text: to explain the molecular

entity_name: Molecular geometry

text: bond angle

text: s observed through experimentation and is the basis for the concept of

entity_name: Orbital hybridisation

text: orbital hybridization

text: .  Since s orbitals are spherical (and have no directionality) and p orbitals are oriented 90° to each other, a theory was needed to explain why molecules such as

entity_name: Methane

text: methane

text: (CH) had observed bond angles of 109.5°.  Pauling proposed that s and p orbitals on the carbon atom  can combine to form hybrids (sp in the case of methane) which are directed toward the hydrogen atoms. The carbon hybrid orbitals have greater overlap with the hydrogen orbitals, and can therefore form stronger C–H bonds.

text: In connection with the quantum theory of atomic structure, John C. Slater defined the integral of three spherical harmonics as a coefficient

text: In connection with the

entity_name: Quantum mechanics

text: quantum theory

text: of

text: atomic structure

entity_name: John C. Slater

text: John C. Slater

text: defined the integral of three spherical harmonics as a coefficient

text: It was played in a long alley with an iron hoop suspended over the ground at the end. The object was to strike a boxwood ball of unknown circumference (a modern croquet ball is normally  in diameter, which equates to approx , in circumference) with a heavy wooden mallet, down the alley and through the hoop with the fewest hits possible.  Many references tell us that the ball was about 12 inches or 30 cm in diameter.  However, it is known that this is not correct, as a ball of that size would be far, far too heavy to lift to a high height with a small mallet.  Note the ball in the engraving.  It is thought that the ball was likely in the region of  or slightly larger.  It differed from trucco especially in its more extreme length of playing area, suggesting a closer relationship to golf than other derivatives of ground billiards.

text: It was played in a long

entity_name: Alley

text: alley

text: with an iron hoop suspended over the ground at the end. The object was to strike a

entity_name: Buxus

text: boxwood

text: ball of unknown

entity_name: Circumference

text: circumference

text: (a modern

entity_name: Croquet

text: croquet

text: ball is normally  in diameter, which equates to approx , in circumference) with a heavy wooden mallet, down the alley and through the hoop with the fewest hits possible.  Many references tell us that the ball was about 12 inches or 30 cm in diameter.  However, it is known that this is not correct, as a ball of that size would be far, far too heavy to lift to a high height with a small mallet.  Note the ball in the engraving.  It is thought that the ball was likely in the region of  or slightly larger.  It differed from trucco especially in its more extreme length of playing area, suggesting a closer relationship to

entity_name: Golf

text: golf

text: than other derivatives of

entity_name: Trucco

text: ground billiards

text: In chemistry, valence bond (VB) theory is one of two basic theories, along with molecular orbital (MO) theory, that were developed to use the methods of quantum mechanics to explain chemical bonding. It focuses on how the atomic orbitals of the dissociated atoms combine to give individual chemical bonds when a molecule is formed. In contrast, molecular orbital theory has orbitals that cover the whole molecule.

text: In

entity_name: Chemistry

text: chemistry

text: , valence bond (VB) theory is one of two basic

entity_name: Chemical bonding model

text: theories

text: , along with

entity_name: Molecular orbital theory

text: molecular orbital (MO) theory

text: , that were developed to use the methods of

text: quantum mechanics

text: to explain

text: chemical bond

text: ing. It focuses on how the

entity_name: Atomic orbital

text: atomic orbital

text: s of the dissociated atoms combine to give individual chemical bonds when a molecule is formed. In contrast, molecular orbital theory has orbitals that cover the whole molecule.

text: Around 420 BC, Empedocles stated that all matter is made up of four elemental substances—earth, fire, air and water. The early theory of atomism can be traced back to ancient Greece and ancient India. Greek atomism dates back to the Greek philosopher Democritus, who declared that matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible atoms around 380 BC. Leucippus also declared that atoms were the most indivisible part of matter. This coincided with a similar declaration by Indian philosopher Kanada in his Vaisheshika sutras around the same time period. In much the same fashion he discussed the existence of gases. What Kanada declared by sutra, Democritus declared by philosophical musing. Both suffered from a lack of empirical data. Without scientific proof, the existence of atoms was easy to deny. Aristotle opposed the existence of atoms in 330 BC. Earlier, in 380 BC, a Greek text attributed to Polybus argues that the human body is composed of four humours. Around 300 BC, Epicurus postulated a universe of indestructible atoms in which man himself is responsible for achieving a balanced life.

text: Around 420 BC,

entity_name: Empedocles

text: Empedocles

text: stated that all matter is made up of

entity_name: Classical element

text: four elemental substances

text: —earth, fire, air and water. The early theory of

entity_name: Atomism

text: atomism

text: can be traced back to

entity_name: Ancient Greece

text: ancient Greece

text: and

entity_name: History of India

text: ancient India

text: . Greek atomism dates back to the Greek philosopher

entity_name: Democritus

text: Democritus

text: , who declared that matter is composed of indivisible and indestructible atoms around 380 BC.

entity_name: Leucippus

text: Leucippus

text: also declared that atoms were the most indivisible part of matter. This coincided with a similar declaration by

entity_name: Indian philosophy

text: Indian

text: philosopher

entity_name: Kanada (philosopher)

text: Kanada

text: in his

entity_name: Vaisheshika

text: Vaisheshika

entity_name: Sutra

text: sutra

text: s around the same time period. In much the same fashion he discussed the existence of

entity_name: Gas

text: gas

text: es. What Kanada declared by sutra, Democritus declared by philosophical musing. Both suffered from a lack of

entity_name: Empiricism

text: empirical

text: data. Without scientific proof, the existence of atoms was easy to deny.

entity_name: Aristotle

text: Aristotle

text: opposed the existence of atoms in 330 BC. Earlier, in 380 BC, a Greek text attributed to

entity_name: Polybus (physician)

text: Polybus

text: argues that the human body is composed of four humours. Around 300 BC,

entity_name: Epicurus

text: Epicurus

text: postulated a universe of indestructible atoms in which man himself is responsible for achieving a balanced life.

text: It is also possible to avoid electromagnetism and use well tuned experiments of thought involving well-trained physicists throwing billiard balls, utilizing knowledge of the velocity addition formula and assuming conservation of momentum. This too gives only the -vector part.

text: It is also possible to avoid electromagnetism and use well tuned experiments of thought involving well-trained physicists throwing billiard balls, utilizing knowledge of the

entity_name: Velocity-addition formula

text: velocity addition formula

text: and assuming conservation of momentum. This too gives only the -vector part.

text: In addition, high-energy (high-speed) neutrons have the ability to directly ionize atoms. One mechanism by which high energy neutrons ionize atoms is to strike the nucleus of an atom and knock the atom out of a molecule, leaving one or more electrons behind as the chemical bond is broken. This leads to production of chemical free radicals. In addition, very high energy neutrons can cause ionizing radiation by "neutron spallation" or knockout, wherein neutrons cause emission of high-energy protons from atomic nuclei (especially hydrogen nuclei) on impact. The last process imparts most of the neutron's energy to the proton, much like one billiard ball striking another. The charged protons, and other products from such reactions are directly ionizing.

text: In addition, high-energy (high-speed) neutrons have the ability to directly ionize atoms. One mechanism by which high energy neutrons ionize atoms is to strike the nucleus of an atom and knock the atom out of a molecule, leaving one or more electrons behind as the

text: chemical bond

text: is broken. This leads to production of chemical

entity_name: Radical (chemistry)

text: free radical

text: s. In addition, very high energy neutrons can cause ionizing radiation by "neutron spallation" or knockout, wherein neutrons cause emission of high-energy protons from atomic nuclei (especially hydrogen nuclei) on impact. The last process imparts most of the neutron's energy to the proton, much like one

entity_name: Billiard ball

text: billiard ball

text: striking another. The charged protons, and other products from such reactions are directly ionizing.

text: Importance: Topic Creator, Breakthrough, Influence. The book was one of the first to describe a modern atomic theory, a theory that lies at the basis of modern chemistry. It is the first to introduce a table of atomic and molecular weights. Surprisingly, given the period in which the book was written, of the five properties of atoms that Dalton listed, only two have been shown to be incorrect.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: The metal addenda atoms linked by oxygen atoms form a cluster with the hetero-atom inside bonded via oxygen atoms. Examples with more than one type of metal addenda atom in the cluster are well known. The conjugate anion of a heteropoly acid is known as a polyoxometalate.

text: The metal addenda atoms linked by oxygen atoms form a cluster with the hetero-atom inside bonded via oxygen atoms. Examples with more than one type of metal addenda atom in the cluster are well known. The conjugate anion of a heteropoly acid is known as a

entity_name: Polyoxometalate

text: polyoxometalate

text: Dulong and Petit did not state their law in terms of the gas constant R (which was not then known). Instead, they measured the values of heat capacities (per weight) of substances and found them smaller for substances of greater atomic weight as inferred by Dalton and other early atomists. Dulong and Petit then found that when multiplied by these atomic weights, the value for the heat capacity (which would now be the heat capacity per mole in modern terms) was nearly constant, and equal to a value which was later recognized to be 3 R.

text: Dulong and Petit did not state their law in terms of the

entity_name: Gas constant

text: gas constant

text: R (which was not then known). Instead, they measured the values of heat capacities (per weight) of substances and found them smaller for substances of greater atomic weight as inferred by Dalton and other early atomists. Dulong and Petit then found that when multiplied by these atomic weights, the value for the heat capacity (which would now be the heat capacity per

entity_name: Mole (unit)

text: mole

text: in modern terms) was nearly constant, and equal to a value which was later recognized to be 3 R.

text: . To reintroduce some generality,

text: . To reintroduce some generality,

text: The triple bond is very strong with a bond strength of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol and the second pi-bond of 202 kJ/mol bond strength. Bonding usually discussed in the context of molecular orbital theory, which recognizes the triple bond as arising from overlap of s and p orbitals. In the language of valence bond theory, the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are sp hybridized: they each have two unhybridized p orbitals and two sp hybrid orbitals. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp–sp sigma bond. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two pi bonds, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom, for example to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom.

text: The

text: triple bond

text: is very strong with a

text: bond strength

text: of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol and the second pi-bond of 202 kJ/mol bond strength. Bonding usually discussed in the context of

text: molecular orbital theory

text: , which recognizes the triple bond as arising from overlap of s and p orbitals. In the language of

text: valence bond theory

text: , the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are

text: sp hybridized

text: : they each have two unhybridized

text: p orbital

text: s and two

text: sp hybrid orbitals

text: . Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp–sp

text: sigma bond

text: . Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two

text: pi bond

text: s, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom, for example to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom.

text: The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs: for example, all copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature, and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry.

text: The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what

text: chemical element

text: the atom belongs: for example, all

text: copper

text: atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the

text: isotope

text: of the element. The number of electrons influences the

text: magnetic

text: properties of an atom. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by

text: chemical bond

text: s to form

text: chemical compounds

text: such as

text: molecule

text: s. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature, and is the subject of the discipline of

text: chemistry

text: The theory of the atomists appears to be more nearly aligned with that of modern science than any other theory of antiquity. However, the similarity with modern concepts of science can be confusing when trying to understand where the hypothesis came from. It is obvious that classical atomists would never have had a solid empirical basis for modern concepts of atoms and molecules.

text: The third and dominant contribution is the dispersion or London force (fluctuating dipole-induced dipole), which arises due to the non-zero instantaneous dipole moments of all atoms and molecules. Such polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds in non-polar molecules. Thus, London interactions are caused by random fluctuations of electron density in an electron cloud.  An atom with a large number of electrons will have a greater associated London force than an atom with fewer electrons. The dispersion (London) force is the most important component because all materials are polarizable, whereas Keesom and Debye forces require permanent dipoles. The London interaction is universal and is present in atom-atom interactions as well. For various reasons, London interactions (dispersion) have been considered relevant for interactions between macroscopic bodies in condensed systems. Hamaker developed the theory of van der Waals between macroscopic bodies in 1937 and showed that the additivity of these interactions renders them considerably more long-range.

text: The third and dominant contribution is the dispersion or London force (fluctuating dipole-induced dipole), which arises due to the non-zero instantaneous dipole moments of all atoms and molecules. Such polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds in non-polar molecules. Thus, London interactions are caused by random fluctuations of electron density in an electron cloud.  An atom with a large number of electrons will have a greater associated London force than an atom with fewer electrons. The dispersion (London) force is the most important component because all materials are polarizable, whereas Keesom and Debye forces require permanent dipoles. The London interaction is universal and is present in atom-atom interactions as well. For various reasons, London interactions (dispersion) have been considered relevant for interactions between macroscopic bodies in condensed systems.

text: Hamaker

text: developed the theory of van der Waals between macroscopic bodies in 1937 and showed that the additivity of these interactions renders them considerably more long-range.

text: A magneto-optical trap (MOT) is commonly used for cooling and trapping a substance by doppler cooling. In the process of doppler cooling, the red detuning light would be absorbed by atoms from one certain direction and reemitted at a random direction. The electron of the atoms would decay to an alternative ground states if the atoms have more than one hyperfine ground levels. There is the case of all the atoms in the other ground states rather than the ground states of doppler cooling, then system can't cool the atoms anymore. In order to solve this problem, the other repumping light would be incident into the system to repopulate the atoms to restart doppler cooling process. This would induced higher fluorescence reemitted from atoms and the fluorescence can be absorbed by atoms which would act as a repulsion force on atoms. Due to this problem, the doppler limit would increase and easy to meet. When there is a dark spot or lines on the shape of the repumping light, the atoms in the mid of the atomic gas would not be excited by the repumping light which can decrease the repulsion force from the previous cases.

text: A

text: magneto-optical trap

text: (MOT) is commonly used for cooling and trapping a substance by doppler cooling. In the process of doppler cooling, the red detuning light would be absorbed by atoms from one certain direction and reemitted at a random direction. The electron of the atoms would decay to an alternative ground states if the atoms have more than one hyperfine ground levels. There is the case of all the atoms in the other ground states rather than the ground states of doppler cooling, then system can't cool the atoms anymore. In order to solve this problem, the other repumping light would be incident into the system to repopulate the atoms to restart doppler cooling process. This would induced higher fluorescence reemitted from atoms and the fluorescence can be absorbed by atoms which would act as a repulsion force on atoms. Due to this problem, the doppler limit would increase and easy to meet. When there is a dark spot or lines on the shape of the repumping light, the atoms in the mid of the atomic gas would not be excited by the repumping light which can decrease the repulsion force from the previous cases.

text: Although the game has existed for a long time, its popularity has risen in recent years as a result of concerns that nine-ball has suffered as a result of flaws in its fundamental structure (particularly the ease with which players can often make balls from the break). The World Pool-billiard Association (WPA) World Standardized Rules for 10-ball are very similar to those for nine-ball, but with key changes to ensure the difficulty of the game and its marketability as an alternative to nine-ball.

text: Although the game has existed for a long time, its popularity has risen in recent years as a result of concerns that nine-ball has suffered as a result of flaws in its fundamental structure (particularly the ease with which players can often make balls from the break). The

text: World Pool-billiard Association

text: (WPA) World Standardized Rules for 10-ball are very similar to those for nine-ball, but with key changes to ensure the difficulty of the game and its marketability as an alternative to nine-ball.

text: Moseley's law advanced atomic physics by providing the first experimental evidence in favour of Niels Bohr's theory, aside from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to reproduce. That theory refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. This remains the accepted model today.

text: Moseley's law advanced atomic physics by providing the first experimental evidence in favour of

text: Niels Bohr's theory

text: , aside from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to reproduce. That theory refined

text: Ernest Rutherford

text: 's and

text: Antonius van den Broek

text: 's model, which proposed that the

text: atom

text: contains in its

text: nucleus

text: a number of positive

text: nuclear charge

text: s that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. This remains the accepted model today.

text: Description: This book explained Dalton's theory of atoms and its applications to chemistry.

text: Dalton (named after John Dalton) is an ab initio quantum chemistry computer program. It is capable of calculating various molecular properties using the Hartree–Fock, MP2, MCSCF and coupled cluster theories. Version 2.0 of DALTON added support for density functional theory calculations. There are many authors, including Trygve Helgaker, Poul Jørgensen and Kenneth Ruud.

text: Dalton (named after

text: John Dalton

text: ) is an

text: ab initio

text: quantum chemistry

text: computer program. It is capable of calculating various molecular properties using the

text: Hartree–Fock

text: MCSCF

text: and

text: coupled cluster

text: theories. Version 2.0 of DALTON added support for

text: density functional theory

text: calculations. There are many authors, including

text: Trygve Helgaker

text: Poul Jørgensen

text: and

text: Kenneth Ruud

text: A more proper term would be "relative molecular mass". However the adjective 'relative' is omitted as it is universally assumed that atomic and molecular masses are relative to the mass of C. Relative atomic and molecular mass values are dimensionless but are given the "unit" Dalton (formerly atomic mass unit) to indicate that the number is equal to the mass of one molecule divided by  of the mass of one atom of C. The mass of 1 mol of substance is designated as molar mass. By definition, it has the unit gram.

text: A more proper term would be "relative molecular mass". However the adjective 'relative' is omitted as it is universally assumed that atomic and molecular masses are relative to the mass of C. Relative atomic and molecular mass values are

text: dimensionless

text: but are given the "unit"

text: Dalton

text: (formerly

text: atomic mass unit

text: ) to indicate that the number is equal to the mass of one molecule divided by  of the mass of one atom of C. The mass of 1

text: mol

text: of substance is designated as

text: molar mass

text: . By definition, it has the unit

text: gram

text: In the summer of 1986, NBC was doing quite well in the ratings with its Thursday night lineup but was still experimenting on other nights. One such experiment was the anthology series The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents featuring new stories introduced by colorized vintage footage of Alfred Hitchcock. After just one season on the network, the show was cancelled abruptly after the July 20, 1986 airing of two repeat episodes placed 55th for the week in the Nielsen ratings against 5th-rated Murder, She Wrote on CBS.  Needing an inexpensive replacement on short notice as a fill-in until the 1986-87 television season started in September, NBC began airing one-hour episodes of Dalton, re-titled Dalton's Code of Vengeance, in a four-episode limited run beginning on July 27, 1986.

text: In the summer of 1986, NBC was doing quite well in the ratings with its

text: Thursday night lineup

text: but was still experimenting on other nights. One such experiment was the anthology series

entity_name: Alfred Hitchcock Presents (1985 TV series)

text: The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents

text: featuring new stories introduced by colorized vintage footage of

text: Alfred Hitchcock

text: . After just one season on the network, the show was cancelled abruptly after the July 20, 1986 airing of two repeat episodes placed 55th for the week in the

text: Nielsen ratings

text: against 5th-rated

text: Murder, She Wrote

text: on

text: CBS

text: .  Needing an inexpensive replacement on short notice as a fill-in until the

entity_name: 1986–87 United States network television schedule

text: 1986-87 television season

text: started in September, NBC began airing one-hour episodes of Dalton, re-titled Dalton's Code of Vengeance, in a four-episode limited run beginning on July 27, 1986.

text: By 1900, it had been generally accepted that proteins were composed of amino acids; however, whether proteins were colloids or macromolecules was still under debate. One protein being investigated at the time was hemoglobin. It was determined to have 712 carbon, 1,130 hydrogen, 243 oxygen, two sulfur atoms, and at least one iron atom. This gave hemoglobin a resulting weight of approximately 16,000 dalton (Da) but it was uncertain whether this value was a multiple of one or four (dependent upon the number of iron atoms present).

text: By 1900, it had been generally accepted that proteins were composed of amino acids; however, whether proteins were colloids or

text: macromolecule

text: s was still under debate. One protein being investigated at the time was

text: hemoglobin

text: . It was determined to have 712 carbon, 1,130 hydrogen, 243 oxygen, two sulfur atoms, and at least one iron atom. This gave hemoglobin a resulting weight of approximately 16,000

text: dalton

text: (Da) but it was uncertain whether this value was a multiple of one or four (dependent upon the number of iron atoms present).

text: A billiard ball is a small, hard ball used in cue sports, such as carom billiards, pool, and snooker.  The number, type, diameter, color, and pattern of the balls differ depending upon the specific game being played.  Various particular ball properties such as hardness, friction coefficient and resilience are important to accuracy.

text: A billiard ball is a small, hard

text: ball

text: used in

text: cue sports

text: , such as

text: carom billiards

text: pool

text: , and

text: snooker

text: .  The number, type, diameter, color, and pattern of the balls differ depending upon the specific game being played.  Various particular ball properties such as

text: hardness

text: friction coefficient

text: and

text: resilience

text: are important to accuracy.

text: One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed of atoms, in modern terms the basic unit of a chemical element. This theory was developed by John Dalton in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were - although they could be described and classified by their observable properties in bulk; summarized by the developing periodic table, by John Newlands and Dmitri Mendeleyev around the mid to late 19th century.

text: One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed of atoms, in modern terms the basic unit of a

text: chemical element

text: . This theory was developed by

text: John Dalton

text: in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were - although they could be described and classified by their observable properties in bulk; summarized by the developing

text: periodic table

text: , by

text: John Newlands

text: and

text: Dmitri Mendeleyev

text: around the mid to late 19th century.

text: In 1989 it was demonstrated how light-sensitive chemical reactions could perform image processing. This led to an upsurge in the field of chemical computing.Andrew Adamatzky at the University of the West of England has demonstrated simple logic gates using reaction-diffusion processes. Furthermore, he has theoretically shown how a hypothetical "2 medium" modelled as a cellular automaton can perform computation.  Adamatzky was inspired by a theoretical article on computation by using balls on a billiard table to transfer this principle to the BZ-chemicals and replace the billiard balls with waves: if two waves meet in the solution, they create a third wave which is registered as a 1. He has tested the theory in practice and is working to produce some thousand chemical versions of logic gates to create a chemical pocket calculator.One of the problems with the present version of this technology is the speed of the waves; they only spread at a rate of a few millimeters per minute. According to Adamatzky, this problem can be eliminated by placing the gates very close to each other, to make sure the signals are transferred quickly. Another possibility could be new chemical reactions where waves propagate much faster.

text: In 1989 it was demonstrated how light-sensitive chemical reactions could perform

text: image processing

text: . This led to an upsurge in the field of chemical computing.

text: Andrew Adamatzky

text: at the

text: University of the West of England

text: has demonstrated simple logic gates using

text: reaction-diffusion

text: processes. Furthermore, he has theoretically shown how a hypothetical "2 medium" modelled as a

text: cellular automaton

text: can perform computation.  Adamatzky was inspired by a theoretical article on

text: computation by using balls on a billiard table

text: to transfer this principle to the BZ-chemicals and replace the billiard balls with waves: if two waves meet in the solution, they create a third wave which is registered as a 1. He has tested the theory in practice and is working to produce some thousand chemical versions of logic gates to create a chemical pocket calculator.One of the problems with the present version of this technology is the speed of the waves; they only spread at a rate of a few millimeters per minute. According to

text: Adamatzky

text: , this problem can be eliminated by placing the gates very close to each other, to make sure the signals are transferred quickly. Another possibility could be new chemical reactions where waves propagate much faster.

text: The bronze bust of John Dalton, located along the corridor on the first floor of Burlington House, was created by Miss Levick(also creator of the Humphry Davy bust) and donated to the Chemical Society in 1903 by former president Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe (1845-1925), as also attested by the inscription engraved on the bust's base: "John Dalton presented by T.E. Thorpe CB. L.L.D. F.R.S. past president in commemoration of the centenary of the enunciation of the atomic theory".

text: The bronze bust of

text: John Dalton

text: , located along the corridor on the first floor of

text: Burlington House

text: , was created by Miss Levick(also creator of the

text: Humphry Davy bust

text: ) and donated to the

text: Chemical Society

text: in 1903 by former president

text: Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe

text: (1845-1925), as also attested by the inscription engraved on the bust's base: "John Dalton presented by T.E. Thorpe CB. L.L.D. F.R.S. past president in commemoration of the centenary of the enunciation of the atomic theory".

text: At around 450 B.C.E. Democritus, a later Greek philosopher, developed an atomic theory that was remarkably similar to our modern atomic theory. His mentor, Leucippus, is credited with this same theory. The hypothesis of Leucippus and Democritus held everything to be composed of atoms. But these atoms, called "atomos", were  indivisible, and indestructible. He presciently stated that between atoms lies empty space, and that atoms are constantly in motion. He was incorrect only in stating that atoms come in different sizes and shapes. Each object had its own shaped and sized atom.

text: At around 450 B.C.E.

text: Democritus

text: , a later Greek philosopher, developed an

text: atomic theory

text: that was remarkably similar to our modern atomic theory. His mentor, Leucippus, is credited with this same theory. The hypothesis of Leucippus and Democritus held everything to be composed of

text: atoms

text: . But these atoms, called "atomos", were  indivisible, and indestructible. He presciently stated that between atoms lies empty space, and that atoms are constantly in motion. He was incorrect only in stating that atoms come in different sizes and shapes. Each object had its own shaped and sized atom.

text: Billiard balls of 1 through 8 are used to represent stateless people, indigenous ethnic groups without a certain nationality, or ethnicities lacking a definitive flag. For example, the 1 ball (yellow) represents East Asians, the 7 ball (maroon) represents Native Americans and the 8 ball (black) represents Africans or black people in general. Extraterrestrials are represented by the 6 ball (green).

text: Billiard balls

text: of 1 through 8 are used to represent

text: stateless

text: people, indigenous ethnic groups without a certain nationality, or ethnicities lacking a definitive flag. For example, the 1 ball (yellow) represents East Asians, the 7 ball (maroon) represents

text: Native Americans

text: and the 8 ball (black) represents Africans or black people in general.

text: Extraterrestrials

text: are represented by the 6 ball (green).

text: John Dalton studied and expanded upon this previous work and developed the law of multiple proportions: if two elements can be combined to form a number of possible compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers.  For example: Proust had studied tin oxides and found that their masses were either 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen or 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these were tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton found that an atomic theory of matter could elegantly explain this common pattern in chemistry. In the case of Proust's tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.

text: John Dalton

text: studied and expanded upon this previous work and developed the

text: law of multiple proportions

text: : if two elements can be combined to form a number of possible compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers.  For example: Proust had studied

text: tin oxide

text: s and found that their masses were either 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen or 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these were

text: tin(II) oxide

text: and

text: tin dioxide

text: respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton found that an atomic theory of matter could elegantly explain this common pattern in chemistry. In the case of Proust's tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.

text: This approach proved to be a double-edged sword. Film critics and fans of Fleming's original novels welcomed a more serious interpretation after more than a decade of Moore's approach. However, Dalton's films were criticised for their comparative lack of humour. Dalton's serious interpretation was not only in portraying the character, but also in performing most of the stunts of the action scenes himself.

text: Bertrand Russell's theory of logical atomism consists of three interworking parts: the atomic proposition, the atomic fact, and the atomic complex. An atomic proposition, also known as an elemental judgement, is a fundamental statement describing a single entity. Russell refers to this entity as an atomic fact, and recognizes a range of elements within each fact that he refers to as particulars and universals. A particular denotes a signifier such as a name, many of which may apply to a single atomic fact, while a universal lends quality to these particulars, e.g. color, shape, disposition. In Russell's Theory of Acquaintance, awareness of these particulars and universals comes through sense data. Every system consists of many atomic propositions and their corresponding atomic facts, known together as an atomic complex. In respect to the nomenclature that Russell used for his theory, these complexes are also known as molecular facts in that they possess many atoms. Rather than decoding the complex in a top-down manner, logical atomism analyzes its propositions individually before considering their collective effect. According to Russell, the atomic complex is a product of human thought and ideation that combines the various atomic facts in a logical manner.

text: Bertrand Russell's theory of logical atomism consists of three interworking parts: the atomic proposition, the atomic fact, and the atomic complex. An atomic proposition, also known as an elemental judgement, is a fundamental statement describing a single entity. Russell refers to this entity as an atomic fact, and recognizes a range of elements within each fact that he refers to as particulars and universals. A particular denotes a signifier such as a name, many of which may apply to a single atomic fact, while a universal lends quality to these particulars, e.g. color, shape, disposition. In Russell's

text: Theory of Acquaintance

text: , awareness of these particulars and universals comes through

text: sense data

text: . Every system consists of many atomic propositions and their corresponding atomic facts, known together as an atomic complex. In respect to the nomenclature that Russell used for his theory, these complexes are also known as molecular facts in that they possess many atoms. Rather than decoding the complex in a top-down manner, logical atomism analyzes its propositions individually before considering their collective effect. According to Russell, the atomic complex is a product of human thought and ideation that combines the various atomic facts in a logical manner.

text: Her publication Models and Analogies in Science is a widely cited and accessible introduction to the topic. Hesse argues, contra Duhem, that models and analogies are integral to understanding scientific practice in general and scientific advancement in particular, especially how the domain of a scientific theory is extended and how theories generate genuinely novel predictions. Examples of such models include the famous billiard ball model of the dynamical theory of gases and models of light based on analogies to sound and water waves.

text: Her publication Models and Analogies in Science is a widely cited and accessible introduction to the topic. Hesse argues, contra

text: Duhem

text: , that

text: models

text: and

text: analogies

text: are integral to understanding

text: scientific practice

text: in general and scientific advancement in particular, especially how the domain of a scientific theory is extended and how theories generate genuinely novel

text: prediction

text: s. Examples of such models include the famous

text: billiard ball model

text: of the dynamical theory of gases and models of light based on analogies to sound and

text: water waves

text: Around the same time as the Pythagoreans, Plato described a theory of matter in which the five elements (earth, air, fire, water and spirit) each comprised tiny copies of one of the five regular solids. Matter was built up from a mixture of these polyhedra, with each substance having different proportions in the mix. Two thousand years later Dalton's atomic theory would show this idea to be along the right lines, though not related directly to the regular solids.

text: Around the same time as the Pythagoreans, Plato described a theory of matter in which the five elements (earth, air, fire, water and spirit) each comprised tiny copies of one of the five regular solids. Matter was built up from a mixture of these polyhedra, with each substance having different proportions in the mix. Two thousand years later

text: Dalton's atomic theory

text: would show this idea to be along the right lines, though not related directly to the regular solids.

text: LET can be visualized as a billiard ball hitting another in the manner of the conservation of momentum, sending both away with the energy of the first ball divided between the two unequally. When a charged nucleus strikes a relatively slow-moving nucleus of an object in space, LET occurs and neutrons, alpha particles, low-energy protons, and other nuclei will be released by the collisions and contribute to the total absorbed dose of tissue.

text: LET can be visualized as a billiard ball hitting another in the manner of the

text: conservation of momentum

text: , sending both away with the energy of the first ball divided between the two unequally. When a charged nucleus strikes a relatively slow-moving nucleus of an object in space, LET occurs and neutrons, alpha particles, low-energy protons, and other nuclei will be released by the collisions and contribute to the total absorbed dose of tissue.

text: Atomism is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as  Leucippus and Democritus, and later the Epicureans, by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later atomic theory. Until experimental proof of atoms was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.

text: Atomism

text: is a central part of today's relationship between thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Ancient thinkers such as

text: Leucippus

text: and

text: Democritus

text: , and later the

text: Epicureans

text: , by advancing atomism, laid the foundations for the later

text: atomic theory

text: . Until experimental proof of

text: atoms

text: was later provided in the 20th century, the atomic theory was driven largely by philosophical considerations and scientific intuition.

text: Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game, including clay, wood, ivory, plastics (including celluloid, Bakelite, crystalate, and phenolic resin, polyester and acrylic) and even steel. The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid-20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute material. The first viable substitute was celluloid billiard balls, invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868, but the material was volatile and highly inflammable, sometimes exploding during manufacture.

text: Billiard balls have been made from many different materials throughout the history of the game, including

text: clay

text: wood

text: ivory

text: , plastics (including

text: celluloid

text: Bakelite

text: , crystalate, and

text: phenolic resin

text: polyester

text: and

text: acrylic

text: ) and even

text: steel

text: . The dominant material from 1627 until the early- to mid-20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute material. The first viable substitute was celluloid billiard balls, invented by

text: John Wesley Hyatt

text: in 1868, but the material was volatile and highly inflammable, sometimes exploding during manufacture.

text: Bigger's current girlfriend Bessie suspects him of having done something to Mary. Bigger goes back to work. Mr. Dalton has called a private detective, Mr. Britten. Britten interrogates Bigger accusingly, but Mr. Dalton vouches for Bigger. Bigger relates the events of the previous evening in a way calculated to throw suspicion on Jan, knowing Mr. Dalton dislikes Jan because he is a Communist. When Britten finds Jan, he puts the boy and Bigger in the same room and confronts them with their conflicting stories. Jan is surprised by Bigger's story but offers him help.

text: Ruhlman co-founded a small company in 2011 that manufactures and finds unique and hard to find cooking tools. He teamed up with a childhood friend, Mac Dalton to form Dalton-Ruhlman LLC. The company designs and self-manufactures unique tools that have emerged from brainstorming in the kitchen. The focus is on high quality products that enhance the craft of cooking in the home. It has also located, and occasionally promotes products that are manufactured by others but only when they meet the criteria of being unique, hard to find and extremely utilitarian for the home cook or professional chef. While the lure of retail distribution in box stores around America is ever present the company has chosen to build its customer base directly from its own online store Dalton-Ruhlman Store.

text: The chemical structure of a molecule is intimately related to its properties and reactivity. Valence bond theory proposes that molecular structures are due to covalent bonds between the atoms and that each bond consists of two overlapping and typically hybridised atomic orbitals. Traditionally, p-block elements in molecules are assumed to hybridise strictly as sp, where n is either 1, 2, or 3. In addition, the hybrid orbitals are all assumed to be equivalent (i.e. the  sp orbitals have the same p character). Results from this approach are usually good, but they can be improved upon by allowing isovalent hybridization, in which the hybridised orbitals may have noninteger and unequal p character. Bent's rule provides a qualitative estimate as to how these hybridised orbitals should be constructed. Bent's rule is that in a molecule, a central atom bonded to multiple groups will hybridise so that orbitals with more s character are directed towards electropositive groups, while orbitals with more p character will be directed towards groups that are more electronegative.  By removing the assumption that all hybrid orbitals are equivalent sp orbitals, better predictions and explanations of properties such as molecular geometry and bond strength can be obtained.

text: The

text: chemical structure

text: of a

text: molecule

text: is intimately related to its properties and reactivity.

text: Valence bond theory

text: proposes that molecular structures are due to

text: covalent bond

text: s between the

text: atom

text: s and that each bond consists of two overlapping and typically

text: hybridised

text: atomic orbital

text: s. Traditionally,

text: p-block

text: elements in molecules are assumed to

text: hybridise

text: strictly as sp, where n is either 1, 2, or 3. In addition, the hybrid orbitals are all assumed to be equivalent (i.e. the  sp orbitals have the same p character). Results from this approach are usually good, but they can be improved upon by allowing

text: isovalent hybridization

text: , in which the hybridised orbitals may have noninteger and unequal p character. Bent's rule provides a qualitative estimate as to how these hybridised orbitals should be constructed. Bent's rule is that in a molecule, a central atom bonded to multiple groups will hybridise so that orbitals with more s character are directed towards electropositive groups, while orbitals with more p character will be directed towards groups that are more electronegative.  By removing the assumption that all hybrid orbitals are equivalent sp orbitals, better predictions and explanations of properties such as

text: molecular geometry

text: and bond strength can be obtained.

text: With the rise of scholasticism and the decline of the Roman Empire, the atomic theory was abandoned for many ages in favor of the various four element theories and later alchemical theories. The 17th century, however, saw a resurgence in the atomic theory primarily through the works of Gassendi, and Newton. Among other scientists of that time Gassendi deeply studied ancient history, wrote major works about Epicurus natural philosophy and was a persuasive propagandist of it. He reasoned that to account for the size and shape of atoms moving in a void could account for the properties of matter.  Heat was due to small, round atoms; cold, to pyramidal atoms with sharp points, which accounted for the pricking sensation of severe cold; and solids were held together by interlacing hooks. Newton, though he acknowledged the various atom attachment theories in vogue at the time, i.e. “hooked atoms”, “glued atoms” (bodies at rest), and the “stick together by conspiring motions” theory, rather believed, as famously stated in "Query 31" of his 1704 Opticks, that particles attract one another by some force, which “in immediate contact is extremely strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from particles with any sensible effect.” <ref>(a) Isaac Newton, (1704). Opticks. (pg. 389). New York: Dover.

text: With the rise of

text: scholasticism

text: and the decline of the Roman Empire, the atomic theory was abandoned for many ages in favor of the various four element theories and later alchemical theories. The 17th century, however, saw a resurgence in the atomic theory primarily through the works of

text: Gassendi

text: , and

text: Newton

text: . Among other scientists of that time Gassendi deeply studied ancient history, wrote major works about

text: Epicurus

text: natural philosophy and was a persuasive propagandist of it. He reasoned that to account for the size and shape of atoms moving in a void could account for the properties of matter.  Heat was due to small, round atoms; cold, to pyramidal atoms with sharp points, which accounted for the pricking sensation of severe cold; and solids were held together by interlacing hooks. Newton, though he acknowledged the various atom attachment theories in vogue at the time, i.e. “hooked atoms”, “glued atoms” (bodies at rest), and the “stick together by conspiring motions” theory, rather believed, as famously stated in "Query 31" of his 1704

text: Opticks

text: , that particles attract one another by some force, which “in immediate contact is extremely strong, at small distances performs the chemical operations, and reaches not far from particles with any sensible effect.” <ref>(a)

text: Isaac Newton

text: , (1704).

text: Opticks

text: . (pg. 389). New York: Dover.

text: Dalton suffered a minor stroke in 1837, and a second one in 1838 left him with a speech impairment, though he remained able to perform experiments. In May 1844 he had yet another stroke; on 26 July 1844 he recorded with trembling hand his last meteorological observation. On 27 July 1844, in Manchester, Dalton fell from his bed and was found lifeless by his attendant.

text: Although the nearly free electron approximation is able to describe many properties of electron band structures, one consequence of this theory is that it predicts the same number of electrons in each unit cell. If the number of electrons is odd, we would then expect that there is an unpaired electron in each unit cell, and thus that the valence band is not fully occupied, making the material a conductor. However, materials such as CoO that have an odd number of electrons per unit cell are insulators, in direct conflict with this result. This kind of material is known as a Mott insulator, and requires inclusion of detailed electron-electron interactions (treated only as an averaged effect on the crystal potential in band theory) to explain the discrepancy. The Hubbard model is an approximate theory that can include these interactions. It can be treated non-perturbatively within the so-called dynamical mean field theory, which attempts to bridge the gap between the nearly free electron approximation and the atomic limit. Formally, however, the states are not non-interacting in this case and the concept of a band structure is not adequate to describe these cases.

text: Although the nearly free electron approximation is able to describe many properties of electron band structures, one consequence of this theory is that it predicts the same number of electrons in each unit cell. If the number of electrons is odd, we would then expect that there is an unpaired electron in each unit cell, and thus that the valence band is not fully occupied, making the material a conductor. However, materials such as

text: CoO

text: that have an odd number of electrons per unit cell are insulators, in direct conflict with this result. This kind of material is known as a

text: Mott insulator

text: , and requires inclusion of detailed electron-electron interactions (treated only as an averaged effect on the crystal potential in band theory) to explain the discrepancy. The

text: Hubbard model

text: is an approximate theory that can include these interactions. It can be treated non-perturbatively within the so-called

text: dynamical mean field theory

text: , which attempts to bridge the gap between the nearly free electron approximation and the atomic limit. Formally, however, the states are not non-interacting in this case and the concept of a band structure is not adequate to describe these cases.

text: The International Nuclear Library Network was founded in 2005 by the IAEA Library and the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) Library. In its initial years, it counted a total of five members (in addition to the initiators, the National Atomic Energy Commission of Argentina, the Turkish Atomic Energy Agency and the Institute of Nuclear Physics of Uzbekistan Academy of Science. In 2006, the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) also joined the network. In 2007, the INLN welcomed four new members: the China Nuclear Information Centre, the Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority, the Obninsk State Technical University for Nuclear Power Engineering in the Russian Federation, and the Russian Association of Nuclear Science and Education (RANSE), thus increasing the membership to ten participants. In 2008, at the meeting of INLN Members and prospective members, during the 34th International Nuclear Information System (INIS) Liaison Officers Meeting in Vienna, a large number of nuclear libraries from around the world expressed their interest and subsequently joined the INLN: the Belarus INIS Center, Chair of Ecological Information Systems, the Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc of Czech Republic, the Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA), the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission Library, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) of India, the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares (ININ), Centro de Información y Documentación Nuclear (CIDN) of Mexico, the Centre National de l' Energie des Sciences et des Techniques Nucléaires (CNESTEN) of Morocco, the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) at the University of Science and Technology (South Korea), the Vinca Nuclear Institute of Serbia,  the Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucléaires (CNSTN) of Tunisia. In November of the same year, the Library Network of the Brazilian Nuclear Energy Commission (Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear – CNEN), consisting of seven nuclear libraries, became an INLN official member. In January 2009, the Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique (CEA) - Centre de Saclay - Centre de Ressources Documentaires joined the Network, while in 2010, the National Atomic Energy Commission, the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, and the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology decided to become INLN members. The Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency of Indonesia - Badan Pengawas Tenaga Nuklir and the New Zealand Institute of Environmental Science and Research – National Radiation Laboratory are the newest members, raising the total number of Nuclear Libraries/Information Centres participating in the INLN to 37.

text: The International Nuclear Library Network was founded in 2005 by the IAEA Library and the

text: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited

text: (AECL) Library. In its initial years, it counted a total of five members (in addition to the initiators, the

text: National Atomic Energy Commission

text: of Argentina, the

text: Turkish Atomic Energy Agency

text: and the

text: Institute of Nuclear Physics of Uzbekistan Academy of Science

text: . In 2006, the

entity_name: Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation

text: Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation

text: (ANSTO) also joined the network. In 2007, the INLN welcomed four new members: the

text: China Nuclear Information Centre

text: , the

text: Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority

text: , the

entity_name: Obninsk Institute for Nuclear Power Engineering

text: Obninsk State Technical University for Nuclear Power Engineering

text: in the Russian Federation, and the

text: Russian Association of Nuclear Science and Education

text: (RANSE), thus increasing the membership to ten participants. In 2008, at the meeting of INLN Members and prospective members, during the 34th

entity_name: International Nuclear Information System

text: International Nuclear Information System

text: (INIS) Liaison Officers Meeting in Vienna, a large number of nuclear libraries from around the world expressed their interest and subsequently joined the INLN: the

text: Belarus INIS Center, Chair of Ecological Information Systems

text: , the

text: Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc of Czech Republic

text: , the

text: Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority

text: (EAEA), the

text: Ghana Atomic Energy Commission Library

text: , the

text: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: (BARC) of India, the

entity_name: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland

text: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland

text: , the

text: Japan Atomic Energy Agency

text: (JAEA), the

text: Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares

text: (ININ),

text: Centro de Información y Documentación Nuclear

text: (CIDN) of Mexico, the

text: Centre National de l' Energie des Sciences et des Techniques Nucléaires

text: (CNESTEN) of Morocco, the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) at the

entity_name: Korea University of Science and Technology

text: University of Science and Technology (South Korea)

text: , the

text: Vinca Nuclear Institute

text: of Serbia,  the Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucléaires (CNSTN) of Tunisia. In November of the same year, the Library Network of the

text: Brazilian Nuclear Energy Commission

text: (Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear – CNEN), consisting of seven nuclear libraries, became an INLN official member. In January 2009, the

entity_name: French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission

text: Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique

text: (CEA) - Centre de Saclay - Centre de Ressources Documentaires joined the Network, while in 2010, the

text: National Atomic Energy Commission

text: , the

entity_name: Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority

text: Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority

text: , and the

entity_name: Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology

text: Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology

text: decided to become INLN members. The Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency of Indonesia -

text: Badan Pengawas Tenaga Nuklir

text: and the New Zealand

entity_name: Institute of Environmental Science and Research

text: Institute of Environmental Science and Research

text: – National Radiation Laboratory are the newest members, raising the total number of Nuclear Libraries/Information Centres participating in the INLN to 37.

text: Kaisa or karoliina is a cue sport mainly played in Finland. The game originated in Russia, where it is still played to some extent, and is a close cousin to Russian pyramid. Compared to most other billiards-type games, both use similar large 68 mm ( in) balls, small pockets barely large enough for a ball to enter, and long and heavy cue sticks.  Kaisa tables are usually 10 feet long and thus 2 feet shorter than Russian pyramid tables which are usually 12 feet long.  It is a two-player or -team game. As with many carom billiards games, both players have their own  used to shoot at the other balls, and usually differentiated by one cue ball having a dot or other marking on it. In all, five balls are used: the yellow  (called the kaisa in Finnish), two red object balls, and the two white cue balls (each of which serves as an object ball for the opponent). The game is played to 60 , in a rather elaborate scoring system, reminiscent of those used in snooker and English billiards, with points being awarded for various types of shots. Like both Russian and English billiards, which are also played on large pocket billiards tables, kaisa is a hybrid of carom and pocket billiards game styles.  Kaisa is principally a recreational game, without professional players. However, the first kaisa world championship tournament was held in April 2010. Participants came from 33 countries, and the main tournament was held in Kotka. A Finnish player, Marko Rautiainen, won the championship title.  Amateur competition in Finland is widespread and popular, with matches being shown on a dedicated Web show on blip.tv.

text: Kaisa or karoliina is a

text: cue sport

text: mainly played in

text: Finland

text: . The game originated in

text: Russia

text: , where it is still played to some extent, and is a close cousin to

text: Russian pyramid

text: . Compared to most other billiards-type games, both use similar large 68 mm ( in) balls, small pockets barely large enough for a ball to enter, and long and heavy

text: cue stick

text: s.  Kaisa tables are usually 10 feet long and thus 2 feet shorter than Russian pyramid tables which are usually 12 feet long.  It is a two-player or -team game. As with many

text: carom billiards

text: games, both players have their own  used to shoot at the other balls, and usually differentiated by one cue ball having a dot or other marking on it. In all, five balls are used: the yellow  (called the kaisa in

text: Finnish

text: ), two red object balls, and the two white cue balls (each of which serves as an object ball for the opponent). The game is played to 60 , in a rather elaborate scoring system, reminiscent of those used in

text: snooker

text: and

text: English billiards

text: , with points being awarded for various types of shots. Like both Russian and English billiards, which are also played on large

text: pocket billiards

text: tables, kaisa is a hybrid of carom and

text: pocket billiards

text: game styles.  Kaisa is principally a recreational game, without professional players. However, the first kaisa world championship tournament was held in April 2010. Participants came from 33 countries, and the main tournament was held in

text: Kotka

text: . A Finnish player, Marko Rautiainen, won the championship title.  Amateur competition in Finland is widespread and popular, with matches being shown on a dedicated

text: Web show

text: on

text: blip.tv

text: Sport Lisboa e Benfica is a semi-professional billiards team based in Lisbon, Portugal. Benfica compete in the Portuguese Billiards League, in carom billiards (three-cushion), pool (eight-ball and nine-ball), and snooker events. The team is almost exclusively composed of Portuguese players. They play at the Estádio da Luz in a 202 square meters room with 4 professional pool tables and a 50 people stand.

text: Sport Lisboa e Benfica is a semi-professional

text: billiards

text: team based in

text: Lisbon

text: , Portugal.

text: Benfica

text: compete in the Portuguese Billiards League, in

text: carom billiards

text: three-cushion

text: pool

text: eight-ball

text: and

text: nine-ball

text: ), and

text: snooker

text: events. The team is almost exclusively composed of Portuguese players. They play at the

text: Estádio da Luz

text: in a 202 square meters room with 4 professional

text: pool tables

text: and a 50 people stand.

text: Dalton was known to work on the front lines of military combat and often marched with his men, carrying their weapons when they grew fatigued.  Dalton was known to drive his jeep, often against orders, to the front lines of combat in order to hear confessions.

text: When divided by unified atomic mass units or daltons to form a pure number ratio, the atomic mass of an atom becomes a dimensionless number called the relative isotopic mass (see section below). Thus, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is 12 u or 12 daltons (Da), but the relative isotopic mass of a carbon-12 atom is simply 12.

text: When divided by

text: unified atomic mass units

text: or

text: daltons

text: to form a pure number ratio, the atomic mass of an atom becomes a

text: dimensionless number

text: called the relative isotopic mass (see section below). Thus, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is 12

text: u

text: or 12 daltons (Da), but the relative isotopic mass of a carbon-12 atom is simply 12.

text: The origins of the BCA began with the National Billiard Association of America (NBAA), founded July 25, 1921. The organization rapidly became the de facto governing body of the sport in the United States, with 35,000 members by 1928, and was closely tied to the Brunswick-Balke-Collender company, a major equipment manufacturer. After a decline in influence in the late 1930s, in part owing to a dispute with world carom champion Willie Hoppe, the NBAA reformed in 1941 as the Billiard Association of America (BAA or BA of A).  Headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, and calling itself "the Governing Body of Billiards", the BAA produced a concise, portable, inexpensive rulebook of carom and pocket billiards games, that was to serve as the model for future BCA releases.  The BAA in turn became the BCA, 1947–1948.  The BCA formed with, and for several years shared offices with, the promotional trade association National Billiard Council (NBC), now defunct. Early BCA rulebooks were essentially identical to the 1946 BAA edition, including the cover art and the absence of the increasingly popular game nine-ball from the ruleset. (Nine-ball still did not appear in the 1963 rulebook, despite being one of the pool gambling games of choice by that era, but did appear in the 1967 and all subsequent editions.)  The BCA rulebooks have remained in near-annual continuous publication to the present day.

text: The origins of the BCA began with the National Billiard Association of America (NBAA), founded July 25, 1921. The organization rapidly became the de facto governing body of the sport in the United States, with 35,000 members by 1928, and was closely tied to the

text: Brunswick-Balke-Collender

text: company, a major equipment manufacturer. After a decline in influence in the late 1930s, in part owing to a dispute with world

text: carom

text: champion

text: Willie Hoppe

text: , the NBAA reformed in 1941 as the Billiard Association of America (BAA or BA of A).  Headquartered in

text: Chicago, Illinois

text: , and calling itself "the Governing Body of Billiards", the BAA produced a concise, portable, inexpensive rulebook of carom and

text: pocket billiards

text: games, that was to serve as the model for future BCA releases.  The BAA in turn became the BCA, 1947–1948.  The BCA formed with, and for several years shared offices with, the promotional

text: trade association

text: National Billiard Council (NBC), now defunct. Early BCA rulebooks were essentially identical to the 1946 BAA edition, including the cover art and the absence of the increasingly popular game

text: nine-ball

text: from the ruleset. (Nine-ball still did not appear in the 1963 rulebook, despite being one of the pool gambling games of choice by that era, but did appear in the 1967 and all subsequent editions.)  The BCA rulebooks have remained in near-annual continuous publication to the present day.

text: Unlike the atomism of Leucippus, Democritus, and Epicurus, and also unlike the later atomic theory of John Dalton, the Aristotelian natural minimum was not conceptualized as physically indivisible--"atomic" in the contemporary sense. Instead, the concept was rooted in Aristotle's hylomorphic worldview, which held that every physical thing is a compound of matter (Greek hyle) and an immaterial substantial form (Greek morphe) that imparts its essential nature and structure. For instance, a rubber ball for a hylomorphist like Aristotle would be rubber (matter) structured by spherical shape (form).

text: Unlike the atomism of

text: Leucippus

text: Democritus

text: , and

text: Epicurus

text: , and also unlike the later

text: atomic theory

text: of

text: John Dalton

text: , the Aristotelian natural minimum was not conceptualized as physically indivisible--"atomic" in the contemporary sense. Instead, the concept was rooted in Aristotle's

text: hylomorphic

text: worldview, which held that every physical thing is a compound of matter (Greek hyle) and an immaterial

text: substantial form

text: (Greek morphe) that imparts its essential nature and structure. For instance, a rubber ball for a hylomorphist like Aristotle would be rubber (matter) structured by spherical shape (form).

text: In the DC New 52 universe, Captain Atom is a being whose atoms are constantly splitting and then reforming just as quickly, releasing massive amounts of energy. This surplus of power can be manipulated in a number of ways such as flight and the ability to transmute physical matter. Captain Atom has been seen to transform lava into snow by willing it and has been able to remove cancer from a human being. He can also absorb massive amounts of energy.

text: The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape as predicted by the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) with an experimentally determined bond angle of 106.7°. The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom. This gives a total of eight electrons, or four electron pairs that are arranged tetrahedrally. Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs, which leaves one lone pair of electrons. The lone pair of electrons repel more strongly than bond pairs, therefore the bond angle is not 109.5°, as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but 106.7°. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lone electron pair, which makes ammonia a base, a proton acceptor. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar. The molecule's polarity and, especially, its ability to form hydrogen bonds, makes ammonia highly miscible with water. Ammonia is moderately basic, a 1.0 M aqueous solution has a pH of 11.6 and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral (pH = 7), 99.4% of the ammonia molecules are protonated. Temperature and salinity also affect the proportion of NH. The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and is isoelectronic with methane.

text: The ammonia molecule has a

text: trigonal pyramidal

text: shape as predicted by the

text: valence shell electron pair repulsion theory

text: (VSEPR theory) with an experimentally determined bond angle of 106.7°. The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom. This gives a total of eight electrons, or four electron pairs that are arranged tetrahedrally. Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs, which leaves one lone pair of electrons. The lone pair of electrons repel more strongly than bond pairs, therefore the bond angle is not 109.5°, as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but 106.7°. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a

text: lone electron pair

text: , which makes ammonia a

text: base

text: , a proton acceptor. This shape gives the molecule a

text: dipole

text: moment and makes it

text: polar

text: . The molecule's polarity and, especially, its ability to form

text: hydrogen bond

text: s, makes ammonia highly miscible with

text: water

text: . Ammonia is moderately basic, a 1.0 M aqueous solution has a pH of 11.6 and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral (pH = 7), 99.4% of the ammonia molecules are

text: protonated

text: . Temperature and

text: salinity

text: also affect the proportion of NH. The latter has the shape of a regular

text: tetrahedron

text: and is

text: isoelectronic

text: with

text: methane

text: In 1921 en 1922 Parkhurst explained the theory of the Dalton Plan in a series of articles published in “The Times Educational Supplement” and in her book “Education on the Dalton Plan”. It can be reconstructed as follows. The Dalton Plan is an “efficiency measure”: “a simple and economic reorganization of the school” (Parkhurst, 1922, 46). Lockstep teaching is not efficient, because: it is the teacher who does all the work. The Dalton Plan “creates conditions which enable ... the learner to learn” (34). Learning is the same as experience: “Experience is the best and indeed the only real teacher” (152). The school has to provide for sufficient experience. This cannot be achieved by keeping students as passive recipients, separating them from one another, holding them in one place, requiring them to remain silent, making them learn lessons by heart and subjecting them to whole class recitation. We can provide for experience through the “liberation of the pupil” and the “socialization of the school” (46). In the Dalton Plan, freedom is the opportunity to do the schoolwork oneself, to organize it oneself (how where and when) and to carry it out at one’s own pace, particularly to do it undisturbed and to work with commitment and concentration. Self-activity brings about experience. Something similar applies in the Dalton Plan to interaction and co-operation. When students are permitted to interact and work freely with one another and with teachers, in varying groups, in varied locations, with varied resources and materials, they come into contact with one another, the teachers, the subject matter and the learning materials in different ways. This means more experience and consequently more learning.

text: However, Lucretius, describing atomism in his De rerum natura, gives very clear and compelling empirical arguments for the original atomist theory. He observes that any material is subject to irreversible decay. Through time, even hard rocks are slowly worn down by drops of water. Things have the tendency to get mixed up: Mix water with soil and mud will result, seldom disintegrating by itself. Wood decays. However, there are mechanisms in nature and technology to recreate "pure" materials like water, air, and metals. The seed of an oak will grow out into an oak tree, made of similar wood as historical oak trees, the wood of which has already decayed. The conclusion is that many properties of materials must derive from something inside, that will itself never decay, something that stores for eternity the same inherent, indivisible properties. The basic question is: Why has everything in the world not yet decayed, and how can exactly some of the same materials, plants, and animals be recreated again and again? One obvious solution to explain how indivisible properties can be conveyed in a way not easily visible to human senses, is to hypothesize the existence of "atoms". These classical "atoms" are nearer to humans' modern concept of "molecule" than to the atoms of modern science. The other central point of classical atomism is that there must be considerable open space between these "atoms": the void. Lucretius gives reasonable arguments that the void is absolutely necessary to explain how gasses and liquids can flow and change shape, while metals can be molded without their basic material properties changing.

text: However,

text: Lucretius

text: , describing atomism in his

text: De rerum natura

text: Similar to these views, in 1803 John Dalton took the atomic weight of hydrogen, the lightest element, as unity, and determined, for example, that the ratio for nitrous anhydride was 2 to 3 which gives the formula NO.  Interestingly, Dalton incorrectly imagined that atoms “hooked” together to form molecules. Later, in 1808, Dalton published his famous diagram of combined "atoms":

text: Similar to these views, in 1803

text: John Dalton

text: took the atomic weight of hydrogen, the lightest element, as unity, and determined, for example, that the ratio for

text: nitrous anhydride

text: was 2 to 3 which gives the formula NO.  Interestingly, Dalton incorrectly imagined that atoms “hooked” together to form molecules. Later, in 1808, Dalton published his famous diagram of combined "atoms":

text: Margolus' original application for the block cellular automaton model was to the billiard ball model of reversible computation, in which Boolean logic signals are simulated by moving particles and logic gates are simulated by elastic collisions of those particles. It is possible, for instance, to perform billiard-ball computations in the two-dimensional Margolus model, with two states per cell, and with the number of live cells conserved by the evolution of the model. In the "BBM" rule that simulates the billiard-ball model in this way, signals consist of single live cells, moving diagonally. To accomplish this motion, the block transition function replaces a block containing a single live cell with another block in which the cell has been moved to the opposite corner of the block. Similarly, elastic collisions may be performed by a block transition function that replaces two diagonally opposite live cells by the other two cells of the block. In all other configurations of a block, the block transition function makes no change to its state. In this model,  rectangles of live cells (carefully aligned with respect to the partition) remain stable, and may be used as mirrors to guide the paths of the moving particles. For instance, the illustration of the Margolus neighborhood shows four particles and a mirror; if the next step uses the blue partition, then two particles are moving towards the mirror while the other two are about to collide, whereas if the next step uses the red partition, then two particles are moving away from the mirror and the other two have just collided and will move apart from each other.

text: Margolus' original application for the block cellular automaton model was to the

text: billiard ball model

text: of reversible computation, in which

text: Boolean logic

text: signals are simulated by moving particles and logic gates are simulated by

text: elastic collision

text: Any mass defect due to nuclear binding energy is experimentally a small fraction (less than 1%) of the mass of equal number of free nucleons. When compared to the average mass per nucleon in carbon-12, which is moderately strongly-bound compared with other atoms, the mass defect of binding for most atoms is an even smaller fraction of a dalton (unified atomic mass unit, based on carbon-12). Since free protons and neutrons differ from each other in mass by a small fraction of a dalton (about 0.0014 u), rounding the relative isotopic mass, or the atomic mass of any given nuclide given in daltons to the nearest whole number always gives the nucleon count, or mass number. Additionally, the neutron count (neutron number) may then be derived by subtracting the number of protons (atomic number) from the mass number (nucleon count).

text: Any

text: mass defect

text: due to

text: nuclear binding energy

text: is experimentally a small fraction (less than 1%) of the mass of equal number of free nucleons. When compared to the average mass per nucleon in carbon-12, which is moderately strongly-bound compared with other atoms, the mass defect of binding for most atoms is an even smaller fraction of a dalton (

text: unified atomic mass unit

text: , based on carbon-12). Since free protons and neutrons differ from each other in mass by a small fraction of a dalton (about 0.0014

text: u

text: ), rounding the relative isotopic mass, or the atomic mass of any given nuclide given in daltons to the nearest whole number always gives the nucleon count, or mass number. Additionally, the neutron count (

text: neutron number

text: ) may then be derived by subtracting the number of protons (

text: atomic number

text: ) from the mass number (nucleon count).

text: Two decades later, Atom was revamped by Jerry Ordway and re-introduced in The Power of Shazam! #23, Mister Atom's modern origin was roughly the same as his Golden Age origin. His appearance was modified, however: the humanoid cyborg design of the original gave way to a more mechanical giant robot look. In his new origin story, Atom, at first not a villain, was told by Dr. Langley before he died to find a suitable woman to take care of him. Mister Atom interpreted Mary Marvel as a suitable woman and kidnapped her, until Captain Marvel found Dr. Langley's assistant to watch over the robot.

text: Two decades later, Atom was revamped by

text: Jerry Ordway

text: and re-introduced in

text: The Power of Shazam!

text: #23, Mister Atom's modern origin was roughly the same as his Golden Age origin. His appearance was modified, however: the humanoid cyborg design of the original gave way to a more mechanical giant robot look. In his new origin story, Atom, at first not a villain, was told by Dr. Langley before he died to find a suitable woman to take care of him. Mister Atom interpreted

text: Mary Marvel

text: as a suitable woman and kidnapped her, until Captain Marvel found Dr. Langley's assistant to watch over the robot.

text: Despite the uncertainty at the heart of Dalton's atomic theory, the principles of the theory survived. To be sure, the conviction that atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed into smaller particles when they are combined, separated, or rearranged in chemical reactions is inconsistent with the existence of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission, but such processes are nuclear reactions and not chemical reactions. In addition, the idea that all atoms of a given element are identical in their physical and chemical properties is not precisely  true, as we now know that different isotopes of an element have slightly varying weights. However, Dalton had created a theory of immense power and importance. Indeed, Dalton's innovation was fully as important for the future of the science as Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's oxygen-based chemistry had been.

text: Despite the uncertainty at the heart of Dalton's atomic theory, the principles of the theory survived. To be sure, the conviction that atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed into smaller particles when they are combined, separated, or rearranged in chemical reactions is inconsistent with the existence of

text: nuclear fusion

text: and

text: nuclear fission

text: , but such processes are nuclear reactions and not chemical reactions. In addition, the idea that all atoms of a given element are identical in their physical and chemical properties is not precisely  true, as we now know that different

text: isotope

text: s of an element have slightly varying weights. However, Dalton had created a theory of immense power and importance. Indeed, Dalton's innovation was fully as important for the future of the science as

text: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

text: 's oxygen-based chemistry had been.

text: Bar billiards is played on a unique table with no side or corner pockets but with nine holes in the playing surface which are assigned various point values ranging from 10 to 200.There are eight balls in all, seven white and one red. Potting the red ball in any hole scores double points.On the playfield are normally placed three pegs or mushrooms. There are two white pegs, one in front of each of the 50 holes, with one black peg in front of the 200 hole. Earliest versions of the game used wooden mushrooms instead of pegs which have a thin curved stalk and a flattish rounded cap. These were normally placed in front of the 50 and 200 holes often with a fourth mushroom in front of the 100 hole. This version was often referred to as Russian billiards, probably named after the very similar French and Belgian game billard russe which has a longer history, neither are to be confused with the common billiards game in Russia. There are a couple of leagues that still play this version in East Anglia in the Norwich and Sudbury areas.

text: Crane was the benefactress of the prestigious Dalton School, which took its name from the location of the Crane family estate, "Sugar Hill", in Dalton, Massachusetts.  She was the original sponsor for implementing the Dalton Plan in 1920, a much-copied experiment in education.

text: Crane was the benefactress of the prestigious

text: Dalton School

text: , which took its name from the location of the Crane family estate, "Sugar Hill", in

text: Dalton, Massachusetts

text: .  She was the original sponsor for implementing the

text: Dalton Plan

text: in 1920, a much-copied experiment in education.

text: For example, the relative isotopic mass of a carbon-12 atom is exactly 12. For comparison, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 daltons or 12 unified atomic mass units. Alternately, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom may be expressed in any other mass units: for example, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is about 1.998467052 x 10 kilogram.

text: For example, the relative isotopic mass of a carbon-12 atom is exactly 12. For comparison, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is exactly 12

text: daltons

text: or 12

text: unified atomic mass units

text: . Alternately, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom may be expressed in any other mass units: for example, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is about 1.998467052 x 10 kilogram.

text: Developing the approximate theory of CFE from metals above is comparatively easy, for the following reasons. (1) Sommerfeld's free-electron theory, with its particular assumptions about the distribution of internal electron states in energy, applies adequately to many metals as a first approximation. (2) Most of the time, metals have no surface states and (in many cases) metal wave-functions have no significant "surface resonances". (3) Metals have a high density of states at the Fermi level, so the charge that generates/screens external electric fields lies mainly on the outside of the top atomic layer, and no meaningful "field penetration" occurs. (4) Metals have high electrical conductivity: no significant voltage drops occur inside metal emitters: this means that there are no factors obstructing the supply of electrons to the emitting surface, and that the electrons in this region can be both in effective local thermodynamic equilibrium and in effective thermodynamic equilibrium with the electrons in the metal support structure on which the emitter is mounted. (5) Atomic-level effects are disregarded.

text: Developing the approximate theory of CFE from metals above is comparatively easy, for the following reasons. (1)

text: Sommerfeld's free-electron theory

text: , with its particular assumptions about the distribution of internal electron states in energy, applies adequately to many metals as a first approximation. (2) Most of the time, metals have no

text: surface states

text: and (in many cases) metal

text: wave-functions

text: have no significant "

text: surface resonances

text: ". (3) Metals have a high

text: density of states

text: at the Fermi level, so the charge that generates/screens external electric fields lies mainly on the outside of the top atomic layer, and no meaningful "field penetration" occurs. (4) Metals have high

text: electrical conductivity

text: : no significant voltage drops occur inside metal emitters: this means that there are no factors obstructing the supply of electrons to the emitting surface, and that the electrons in this region can be both in effective local

text: thermodynamic equilibrium

text: and in effective thermodynamic equilibrium with the electrons in the metal support structure on which the emitter is mounted. (5) Atomic-level effects are disregarded.

text: Golf billiards (also referred to as simply golf in clear context, and sometimes called golf pool or golf pocket billiards) is a pocket billiards game usually played for money. Unlike the majority of such games, it allows more than two people to play without compromises or rule changes. The game borrows concepts from the outdoor game of golf, which is historically related to the cue sports. It is usually played on 10–foot or 12–foot snooker tables as their size and structure are more appropriate (even in billiard halls in the United States where it is in fact more popular than snooker itself, according to the Billiard Congress of America).

text: Golf billiards (also referred to as simply golf in clear context, and sometimes called golf pool or golf pocket billiards) is a

text: pocket billiards

text: game usually

text: played for money

text: . Unlike the majority of such games, it allows more than two people to play without compromises or rule changes. The game borrows concepts from the outdoor game of

text: golf

text: , which is historically related to the

text: cue sport

text: s. It is usually played on 10–foot or 12–foot

text: snooker tables

text: as their size and structure are more appropriate (even in

text: billiard hall

text: s in the United States where it is in fact more popular than

text: snooker

text: itself, according to the

text: Billiard Congress of America

text: As a competitive sport, pool is governed internationally by the World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA), which has multi-national, regional affiliates comprising the All Africa Pool Association (AAPA), Asian Pocket Billiard Union (APBU, including the Middle East), Billiard Congress of America (BCA, Canada and the US), Confederation Panamerica of Billiards (CPB, Latin America and Caribbean), European Pocket Billiard Federation (EPBF, including Russia and the Near East), and Oceania Pocket Billiard Association (OPBA, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific islands)The WPA represents pool in the World Confederation of Billiard Sports, which in turn represents all forms of cue sports (including carom billiards and snooker) in the International Olympic Committee.

text: As a competitive sport, pool is governed internationally by the

text: World Pool-Billiard Association

text: (WPA), which has multi-national, regional affiliates comprising the

text: All Africa Pool Association

text: (AAPA), Asian Pocket Billiard Union (APBU, including the Middle East),

text: Billiard Congress of America

text: (BCA, Canada and the US),

text: Confederation Panamerica of Billiards

text: (CPB, Latin America and Caribbean),

text: European Pocket Billiard Federation

text: (EPBF, including Russia and the Near East), and Oceania Pocket Billiard Association (OPBA, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific islands)The WPA represents pool in the

text: World Confederation of Billiard Sports

text: , which in turn represents all forms of

text: cue sports

text: (including

text: carom billiards

text: and

text: snooker

text: ) in the

text: International Olympic Committee

text: In 1916, G. N. Lewis proposed that a chemical bond forms by the interaction of two shared bonding electrons, with the representation of molecules as Lewis structures.  In 1927 the Heitler–London theory was formulated which for the first time enabled the calculation of bonding properties of the hydrogen molecule H based on quantum mechanical considerations.  Specifically, Walter Heitler determined how to use Schrödinger's wave equation (1926) to show how two hydrogen atom wavefunctions join together, with plus, minus, and exchange terms, to form a covalent bond.  He then called up his associate Fritz London and they worked out the details of the theory over the course of the night.  Later, Linus Pauling used the pair bonding ideas of Lewis together with Heitler–London theory to develop two other key concepts in VB theory: resonance (1928) and orbital hybridization (1930).  According to Charles Coulson, author of the noted 1952 book Valence, this period marks the start of "modern valence bond theory", as contrasted with older valence bond theories, which are essentially electronic theories of valence couched in pre-wave-mechanical terms. Resonance theory was criticized as imperfect by Soviet chemists during the 1950s.

text: In 1916,

text: G. N. Lewis

text: proposed that a chemical bond forms by the interaction of two shared bonding electrons, with the representation of molecules as

text: Lewis structure

text: s.  In 1927 the

text: Heitler

text: London

text: theory was formulated which for the first time enabled the calculation of bonding properties of the

text: hydrogen

text: molecule H based on quantum mechanical considerations.  Specifically,

text: Walter Heitler

text: determined how to use

text: Schrödinger's wave equation

text: (1926) to show how two hydrogen atom

text: wavefunction

text: s join together, with plus, minus, and exchange terms, to form a

text: covalent bond

text: .  He then called up his associate

text: Fritz London

text: and they worked out the details of the theory over the course of the night.  Later,

text: Linus Pauling

text: used the pair bonding ideas of Lewis together with Heitler–London theory to develop two other key concepts in VB theory:

text: resonance

text: (1928) and

text: orbital hybridization

text: (1930).  According to

text: Charles Coulson

text: , author of the noted 1952 book Valence, this period marks the start of "modern valence bond theory", as contrasted with older valence bond theories, which are essentially electronic theories of

text: valence

text: couched in pre-wave-mechanical terms. Resonance theory was criticized as imperfect by Soviet chemists during the 1950s.

text: Thomson was a Scottish chemist and mineralogist who invented a saccharometer for assessing sugar content of the fermenting must. He accorded an effective support to Dalton's atomic theory.

text: Thomson was a Scottish chemist and mineralogist who invented a saccharometer for assessing sugar content of the fermenting must. He accorded an effective support to

text: Dalton's atomic theory

text: The early croquet-like games eventually led to the development of the carom or carambole billiards category – what most non-Commonwealth and non-US speakers mean by the word "billiards". These games, which once completely dominated the cue sports world but have declined markedly in many areas over the last few generations, are games played with three or sometimes four balls, on a table without holes (and without obstructions or targets in most cases), in which the goal is generally to strike one  with a , then have the cue ball rebound off of one or more of the cushions and strike a second object ball. Variations include three-cushion, straight rail and the balkline variants, cushion caroms, five-pins, and four-ball, among others.

text: The early croquet-like games eventually led to the development of the

text: carom or carambole billiards

text: category – what most non-

text: Commonwealth

text: and non-US speakers mean by the word "billiards". These games, which once completely dominated the cue sports world but have declined markedly in many areas over the last few generations, are games played with three or sometimes four balls, on a table without holes (and without obstructions or targets in most cases), in which the goal is generally to strike one  with a , then have the cue ball rebound off of one or more of the cushions and strike a second object ball. Variations include

text: three-cushion

text: straight rail and the balkline variants

text: cushion caroms

text: five-pins

text: , and

text: four-ball

text: , among others.

text: In the early 1800s, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). For instance, there are two types of tin oxide: one is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen and the other is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2, a ratio of small whole numbers. This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units—in other words, atoms. In the case of tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.

text: In the early 1800s,

text: John Dalton

text: used the concept of atoms to explain why

text: elements

text: always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the

text: law of multiple proportions

text: ). For instance, there are two types of

text: tin oxide

text: : one is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen and the other is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (

text: tin(II) oxide

text: and

text: tin dioxide

text: respectively). This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2, a ratio of small whole numbers. This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units—in other words, atoms. In the case of tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.

text: Modern valence bond theory now complements molecular orbital theory, which does not adhere to the valence bond idea that electron pairs are localized between two specific atoms in a molecule but that they are distributed in sets of molecular orbitals which can extend over the entire molecule. Molecular orbital theory can predict magnetic and ionization properties in a straightforward manner, while valence bond theory gives similar results but is more complicated. Modern valence bond theory views aromatic properties of molecules as due to spin coupling of the π orbitals. This is essentially still the old idea of resonance between Kekulé and Dewar structures. In contrast, molecular orbital theory views aromaticity as delocalization of the π-electrons. Valence bond treatments are restricted to relatively small molecules, largely due to the lack of orthogonality between valence bond orbitals and between valence bond structures, while molecular orbitals are orthogonal. On the other hand, valence bond theory provides a much more accurate picture of the reorganization of electronic charge that takes place when bonds are broken and formed during the course of a chemical reaction. In particular, valence bond theory correctly predicts the dissociation of homonuclear diatomic molecules into separate atoms, while simple molecular orbital theory predicts dissociation into a mixture of atoms and ions. For example the molecular orbital function for dihydrogen is an equal mixture of the covalent and ionic valence bond structures and so predicts incorrectly that the molecule would dissociate into an equal mixture of hydrogen atoms and hydrogen positive and negative ions.

text: Modern valence bond theory

text: now complements

text: molecular orbital

text: theory, which does not adhere to the valence bond idea that electron pairs are localized between two specific atoms in a molecule but that they are distributed in sets of

text: molecular orbital

text: s which can extend over the entire molecule. Molecular orbital theory can predict

text: magnetic

text: and ionization properties in a straightforward manner, while valence bond theory gives similar results but is more complicated. Modern valence bond theory views

text: aromatic

text: properties of molecules as due to

text: spin coupling

text: of the

text: π orbitals

text: . This is essentially still the old idea of resonance between

text: Kekulé

text: and

text: Dewar

text: structures. In contrast, molecular orbital theory views aromaticity as delocalization of the π-electrons. Valence bond treatments are restricted to relatively small molecules, largely due to the lack of orthogonality between valence bond orbitals and between valence bond structures, while molecular orbitals are orthogonal. On the other hand, valence bond theory provides a much more accurate picture of the reorganization of electronic charge that takes place when bonds are broken and formed during the course of a chemical reaction. In particular, valence bond theory correctly predicts the dissociation of homonuclear diatomic molecules into separate atoms, while simple molecular orbital theory predicts dissociation into a mixture of atoms and ions. For example the molecular orbital function for

text: dihydrogen

text: is an equal mixture of the covalent and ionic valence bond structures and so predicts incorrectly that the molecule would dissociate into an equal mixture of hydrogen atoms and hydrogen positive and negative ions.

text: Michael Witzel refers to Ehret’s model "which stresses the osmosis, or a "billiard ball," or Mallory’s Kulturkugel, effect of cultural transmission." According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relatively easy in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.

text: Michael Witzel refers to Ehret’s model "which stresses the

text: osmosis

text: , or a "billiard ball," or Mallory’s Kulturkugel, effect of cultural transmission." According to Ehret, ethnicity and language can shift with relatively easy in small societies, due to the cultural, economic and military choices made by the local population in question. The group bringing new traits may initially be small, contributing features that can be fewer in number than those of the already local culture. The emerging combined group may then initiate a recurrent, expansionist process of ethnic and language shift.

text: The exact inception, however, of the theory of chemical valencies can be traced to an 1852 paper by Edward Frankland, in which he combined the older theories of free radicals with thoughts on chemical affinity to show that certain elements have the tendency to combine with other elements to form compounds containing 3, i.e., in the 3-atom groups (e.g., NO, NH, NI, etc.) or 5, i.e., in the 5-atom groups (e.g., NO, NHO, PO, etc.), equivalents of the attached elements. It is in this manner, according to Frankland, that their affinities are best satisfied. Following these examples and postulates, Frankland declares how obvious it is that

text: The exact inception, however, of the theory of chemical valencies can be traced to an 1852 paper by

text: Edward Frankland

text: , in which he combined the older theories of

text: free radical

text: s with thoughts on

text: chemical affinity

text: to show that certain elements have the tendency to combine with other elements to form compounds containing 3, i.e., in the 3-atom groups (e.g., NO, NH, NI, etc.) or 5, i.e., in the 5-atom groups (e.g., NO, NHO, PO, etc.), equivalents of the attached elements. It is in this manner, according to Frankland, that their affinities are best satisfied. Following these examples and postulates, Frankland declares how obvious it is that

text: In chemistry, hybridisation (or hybridization) is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds in valence bond theory. Hybrid orbitals are very useful in the explanation of molecular geometry and atomic bonding properties. Although sometimes taught together with the valence shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, valence bond and hybridisation are in fact not related to the VSEPR model.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , hybridisation (or

text: hybridization

text: ) is the concept of mixing

text: atomic orbital

text: s into new hybrid orbitals (with different energies, shapes, etc., than the component atomic orbitals) suitable for the pairing of electrons to form

text: chemical bond

text: s in

text: valence bond theory

text: . Hybrid orbitals are very useful in the explanation of

text: molecular geometry

text: and atomic bonding properties. Although sometimes taught together with the

text: valence shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory

text: , valence bond and hybridisation are in fact not related to the VSEPR model.

text: The first table of relative atomic mass (atomic weight) was published by John Dalton (1766–1844) in 1805, based on a system in which the relative atomic mass of hydrogen was defined as 1. These relative atomic masses were based on the stoichiometric proportions of chemical reaction and compounds, a fact that greatly aided their acceptance: It was not necessary for a chemist to subscribe to atomic theory (an unproven hypothesis at the time) to make practical use of the tables. This would lead to some confusion between atomic masses (promoted by proponents of atomic theory) and equivalent weights (promoted by its opponents and which sometimes differed from relative atomic masses by an integer factor), which would last throughout much of the nineteenth century.

text: The first table of

text: relative atomic mass

text: (atomic weight) was published by

text: John Dalton

text: (1766–1844) in 1805, based on a system in which the relative atomic mass of

text: hydrogen

text: was defined as 1. These relative atomic masses were based on the

text: stoichiometric

text: proportions of chemical reaction and compounds, a fact that greatly aided their acceptance: It was not necessary for a chemist to subscribe to

text: atomic theory

text: (an unproven hypothesis at the time) to make practical use of the tables. This would lead to some confusion between atomic masses (promoted by proponents of atomic theory) and

text: equivalent weight

text: s (promoted by its opponents and which sometimes differed from relative atomic masses by an integer factor), which would last throughout much of the nineteenth century.

text: In the 1911 Rutherford model, the atom consisted of a small massive nucleus with positive charge surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged electrons.  This model had been developed from the extraordinary finding that alpha particles were on occasion scattered to high angle when passing through gold foil, indicating the alpha particles were occasionally reflecting from a small, but dense, component of atoms.  Rutherford and others noted the disparity between the atomic number of an atom, or number of positive charges, and its mass computed in atomic mass units.  The atomic number of an atom is usually about half its atomic mass.  In 1920 Rutherford suggested that the disparity could be explained by the existence of a neutrally charged particle within the atomic nucleus.  Since at the time no such particle was known to exist, yet the mass of such a particle had to be about equal to that of the proton, Rutherford considered the required particle to be a neutral double consisting of an electron closely orbiting a proton.  The mass of protons is about 1800 times greater than that of electrons.

text: In the 1911 Rutherford model, the atom consisted of a small massive nucleus with positive charge surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged

text: electron

text: s.  This model had been developed from the extraordinary finding that

text: alpha particle

text: s were on occasion

text: scattered

text: to high angle when passing through

text: gold foil

text: , indicating the alpha particles were occasionally reflecting from a small, but dense, component of atoms.  Rutherford and others noted the disparity between the atomic number of an atom, or number of positive charges, and its mass computed in atomic mass units.  The atomic number of an atom is usually about half its atomic mass.  In 1920 Rutherford suggested that the disparity could be explained by the existence of a neutrally charged particle within the atomic nucleus.  Since at the time no such particle was known to exist, yet the mass of such a particle had to be about equal to that of the proton, Rutherford considered the required particle to be a neutral double consisting of an electron closely orbiting a proton.  The mass of protons is about 1800 times greater than that of electrons.

text: The problem comprises drawing lines from two points in a circle meeting at a third point on its circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular billiard table at which a cue ball at a given point must be aimed in order to carom off the edge of the table and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, "Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer." This leads to an equation of the fourth degree.

text: The problem comprises drawing lines from two points in a circle meeting at a third point on its

text: circumference

text: and making equal angles with the

text: normal

text: at that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular

text: billiard table

text: at which a cue ball at a given point must be aimed in order to carom off the edge of the table and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, "Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer." This leads to an

text: equation of the fourth degree

text: The creation starts with the vibration in the Mool Prakriti. As a result of the vibration, the gunas of Prakriti combine in different proportions to give, rise to a variety of substances. Each guna is present in active or dormant form in all the substances created. The gunas of Prakriti are analogous with the fundamental particles of atom. According to science, all the physical substances are made up of atoms consisting of electrons, protons and neutrons in specific numbers. The properties of the fundamental particles are similar to those of gunas. Furthermore, the creation of universe a result of a 'big bang' in the cosmic egg, and the theory of oscillating universe propounded by modem science, is strikingly similar to the views of great Indian seers.

text: The idea of the cue initially was to try to strike the cue-ball as centrally as possible to avoid a . The concept of  on the cue ball was discovered before cue-tips had been invented; e.g. striking the bottom of the cue ball to make it go backwards upon contact with an . François Mingaud was studying the game of billiards while being held in Paris as a political prisoner, and experimented with a leather cue tip. In 1807, he was released and demonstrated his invention. Mingaud is also credited with the discovery that by raising the cue vertically, to the position adopted by the mace, he could perform what is now known as a  shot.

text: The idea of the cue initially was to try to strike the cue-ball as centrally as possible to avoid a . The concept of  on the cue ball was discovered before cue-tips had been invented; e.g. striking the bottom of the cue ball to make it go backwards upon contact with an .

text: François Mingaud

text: was studying the game of billiards while being held in

text: Paris

text: as a political prisoner, and experimented with a leather cue tip. In 1807, he was released and demonstrated his invention. Mingaud is also credited with the discovery that by raising the cue vertically, to the position adopted by the mace, he could perform what is now known as a  shot.

text: The atomic mass or relative isotopic mass refers to the mass of a single particle, and is fundamentally different from the quantities elemental atomic weight (also called "relative atomic mass") and standard atomic weight, both of which refer to averages (mathematical means) of naturally occurring atomic mass values for samples of elements. Most elements have more than one stable nuclide; for those elements, such an average depends on the mix of nuclides present, which may vary to some limited extent depending on the source of the sample, as each nuclide has a different mass. (However, a typical value can be established, which is called the standard atomic weight.) By contrast, atomic mass figures refer to an individual particle species: as atoms of the same species are identical, atomic mass values are expected to have no intrinsic variance at all. Atomic mass figures are thus commonly reported to many more significant figures than atomic weights. Standard atomic weight is related to atomic mass by the abundance ranking of isotopes for each element. It is usually about the same value as the atomic mass of the most abundant isotope, other than what looks like (but is not actually) a rounding difference.

text: The atomic mass or relative isotopic mass refers to the mass of a single particle, and is fundamentally different from the quantities elemental atomic weight (also called "

text: relative atomic mass

text: ") and

text: standard atomic weight

text: , both of which refer to averages (mathematical

text: mean

text: s) of naturally occurring atomic mass values for samples of elements. Most elements have more than one stable

text: nuclide

text: ; for those elements, such an average depends on the mix of nuclides present, which may vary to some limited extent depending on the source of the sample, as each nuclide has a different mass. (However, a typical value can be established, which is called the standard atomic weight.) By contrast, atomic mass figures refer to an individual particle species: as atoms of the same species are identical, atomic mass values are expected to have no intrinsic variance at all. Atomic mass figures are thus commonly reported to many more significant figures than atomic weights. Standard atomic weight is related to atomic mass by the abundance ranking of isotopes for each element. It is usually about the same value as the atomic mass of the most abundant isotope, other than what looks like (but is not actually) a

text: rounding

text: difference.

text: Moore and Willis became traveling partners following their match, often accompanied on the road by future six-time world champion Luther "Wimpy" Lassiter. Given his skill and prominent road partners, Moore's name began to be known in the billiard world. In 1940, the World Pocket Billiards (straight pool) titleholder of that year, Andrew Ponzi, sought out Moore looking for a challenge. At the match ultimately arranged, Moore first beat Ponzi out of $80 playing nine-ball, and then beat him at his own game of choice, straight pool, with Moore scoring 125 points to Ponzi's 82.

text: Moore and Willis became traveling partners following their match, often accompanied on the road by future six-time world champion

text: Luther "Wimpy" Lassiter

text: . Given his skill and prominent road partners, Moore's name began to be known in the billiard world. In 1940, the World Pocket Billiards (straight pool) titleholder of that year,

text: Andrew Ponzi

text: , sought out Moore looking for a challenge. At the match ultimately arranged, Moore first beat Ponzi out of $80 playing

text: nine-ball

text: , and then beat him at his own game of choice, straight pool, with Moore scoring 125 points to Ponzi's 82.

text: In physical simulation, we wish to conduct experiments, such as playing billiards. The physics of bouncing billiard balls are well understood, under the umbrella of rigid body motion and elastic collisions. An initial description of the situation would be given, with a very precise physical description of the billiard table and balls, as well as initial positions of all the balls. Given a force applied to the cue ball (probably resulting from a player hitting the ball with his or her cue stick), we want to calculate the trajectories, precise motion, and eventual resting places of all the balls with a computer program. A program to simulate this game would consist of several portions, one of which would be responsible for calculating the precise impacts between the billiard balls. This particular example also turns out to be ill conditioned: a small error in any calculation will cause drastic changes in the final position of the billiard balls.

text: In physical simulation, we wish to conduct experiments, such as playing

text: billiards

text: . The

text: physics

text: of bouncing billiard balls are well understood, under the umbrella of

text: rigid body motion

text: and

text: elastic collision

text: s. An initial description of the situation would be given, with a very precise physical description of the billiard table and balls, as well as initial positions of all the balls. Given a force applied to the cue ball (probably resulting from a player hitting the ball with his or her cue stick), we want to calculate the trajectories, precise motion, and eventual resting places of all the balls with a

text: computer program

text: . A program to simulate this game would consist of several portions, one of which would be responsible for calculating the precise impacts between the billiard balls. This particular example also turns out to be

text: ill conditioned

text: : a small error in any calculation will cause drastic changes in the final position of the billiard balls.

text: Modern billiard balls are made from highly resilient plastics with a typical diameter of .  They are significantly larger and heavier than their pocket billiards counterparts, ranging between  with a typical weight of . While UMB, the International Olympic Committee-recognized world carom billiards authority, technically permits balls as small as , no major manufacturer produces such balls any longer, and the de facto standard is . The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of a completely white cue ball, a second cue ball with typically a red or black dot on it (to aid in differentiation between the two cue balls), and a third, red ball. In some sets of balls, however, the second cue ball is solid yellow.  Both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play.

text: Modern billiard balls are made from highly resilient

text: plastic

text: s with a typical diameter of .  They are significantly larger and heavier than their pocket billiards counterparts, ranging between  with a typical weight of . While UMB, the

text: International Olympic Committee

text: -recognized world carom billiards authority, technically permits balls as small as , no major manufacturer produces such balls any longer, and the de facto standard is . The three standard balls in most carom billiards games consist of a completely white cue ball, a second cue ball with typically a red or black dot on it (to aid in differentiation between the two cue balls), and a third, red ball. In some sets of balls, however, the second cue ball is solid yellow.  Both types of ball sets are permitted in tournament play.

text: While the 19th century had seen the success of the wave theory at describing light, it had also witnessed the rise of the atomic theory at describing matter. Antoine Lavoisier deduced the law of conservation of mass and categorized many new chemical elements and compounds; and Joseph Louis Proust advanced chemistry towards the atom by showing that elements combined in definite proportions. This led John Dalton to propose that elements were invisible sub components; Amedeo Avogadro  discovered diatomic gases and completed the basic atomic theory, allowing the correct molecular formulae of most known compounds—as well as the correct weights of atoms—to be deduced and categorized in a consistent manner. Dimitri Mendeleev saw an order in recurring chemical properties, and created a table presenting the elements in unprecedented order and symmetry.

text: While the 19th century had seen the success of the wave theory at describing light, it had also witnessed the rise of the

text: atomic theory

text: at describing matter.

text: Antoine Lavoisier

text: deduced the law of

text: conservation of mass

text: and categorized many new chemical elements and compounds; and

text: Joseph Louis Proust

text: advanced chemistry towards the atom by showing that elements combined in

text: definite proportions

text: . This led

text: John Dalton

text: to propose that elements were invisible sub components;

text: Amedeo Avogadro

text: discovered diatomic gases and completed the basic atomic theory, allowing the correct molecular formulae of most known compounds—as well as the correct weights of atoms—to be deduced and categorized in a consistent manner.

text: Dimitri Mendeleev

text: saw an order in

text: recurring chemical properties

text: , and created a

text: table

text: presenting the elements in unprecedented order and symmetry.

text: Precisely, atoms are identifiers of strings stored in the server. They are similar to the identifiers of resources (Windows, Pixmaps, etc.) but differ from them in two ways. First, the identifiers of atoms are chosen by the server, not by the client. In other words, when a client requests the creation of a new atom, it only sends the server the string to be stored, not its identifier; this identifier is chosen by the server and sent back as a reply to the client. The second important difference between resources and atoms is that atoms are not associated with clients. Once created, an atom survives until the server quits or resets (this is not the default behavior of resources).

text: Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion () atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of  contains about 10 sextillion (10) atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.

text: Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of

text: light

text: nm

text: ) so they cannot be viewed using an

text: optical microscope

text: . However, individual atoms can be observed using a

text: scanning tunneling microscope

text: . To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2

text: sextillion

text: () atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single

text: carat

text: diamond

text: with a mass of  contains about 10 sextillion (10) atoms of

text: carbon

text: . If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.

text: The disease would bad enough that he asked Captain Atom for help (Captain Atom #39). He attempted to use Captain Atom's atomic energy to stop the disease which worked successfully but at a price: Megala became blind. Fearing that Eiling would eventually turn on him, Megala set up a contingency plan which would make public all secrets of the project once his heart ceased functioning. His heart did stop when Megala was killed while fighting Ghost/Alec Rois. His plan proved to be a mere bluff but Captain Atom decided to become the actual whistleblower of the product and confessed the truth on national television.

text: Richards was the first to show, by chemical analysis, that an element could have different atomic weights. He was asked to analyze samples of naturally occurring lead and lead produced by radioactive decay.  His measurements showed that the two samples had different atomic weights, supporting the concepts of isotopes.

text: Richards was the first to show, by chemical analysis, that an element could have different atomic weights. He was asked to analyze samples of naturally occurring

text: lead

text: and lead produced by radioactive decay.  His measurements showed that the two samples had different atomic weights, supporting the concepts of

text: isotopes

text: The cue sports of snooker, English billiards, and three-cushion carom for men, as well as eight-ball and nine-ball pool for both men and women, were contested at the 2006 Asian Games in Doha, Qatar from December 4 to December 11. All events were held at the Al-Sadd Multi-Purpose Hall.

text: The

text: cue sport

text: s of

text: snooker

text: English billiards

text: , and

text: three-cushion

text: carom

text: for men, as well as

text: eight-ball

text: and

text: nine-ball

text: pool

text: for both men and women, were contested at the

text: 2006 Asian Games

text: in

text: Doha

text: Qatar

text: from December 4 to December 11. All events were held at the Al-Sadd Multi-Purpose Hall.

text: The idea of the direct correlation of the charge of the atom nucleus and the periodic table was contained in his paper published in Nature on July 20, 1911, just one month after Rutherford published the results of his experiments that showed the existence of a small charged nucleus in an atom (see Rutherford model). However, Rutherford's original paper noted only that the charge on the nucleus was large, on the order of about half of the atomic weight of the atom, in whole number units of hydrogen mass. Rutherford on this basis made the tentative suggestion that atomic nuclei are composed of numbers of helium nuclei, each with a charge corresponding to half of its atomic weight. This would make the nuclear charge nearly equal to atomic number in smaller atoms, with some deviation from this rule for the largest atoms, such as gold. For example, Rutherford found the charge on gold to be about 100 units and thought perhaps that it might be exactly 98 (which would be close to half its atomic weight). But gold's place in the periodic table (and thus its atomic number) was known to be 79.

text: The idea of the direct correlation of the charge of the atom nucleus and the periodic table was contained in his paper published in

text: Nature

text: on July 20, 1911, just one month after

text: Rutherford

text: published the results of his experiments that showed the existence of a small charged nucleus in an atom (see

text: Rutherford model

text: ). However, Rutherford's original paper noted only that the charge on the nucleus was large, on the order of about half of the atomic weight of the atom, in whole number units of hydrogen mass. Rutherford on this basis made the tentative suggestion that atomic nuclei are composed of numbers of helium nuclei, each with a charge corresponding to half of its atomic weight. This would make the nuclear charge nearly equal to atomic number in smaller atoms, with some deviation from this rule for the largest atoms, such as gold. For example, Rutherford found the charge on gold to be about 100 units and thought perhaps that it might be exactly 98 (which would be close to half its atomic weight). But gold's place in the periodic table (and thus its atomic number) was known to be 79.

text: To compensate for the discrepancy, the frequency standard on board each satellite is given a rate offset prior to launch, making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth; specifically, at 10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz. Since the atomic clocks on board the GPS satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment. Placing atomic clocks on artificial satellites to test Einstein's general theory was proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg in 1955.

text: To compensate for the discrepancy, the frequency standard on board each satellite is given a rate offset prior to launch, making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth; specifically, at 10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz. Since the atomic clocks on board the GPS satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment. Placing atomic clocks on artificial satellites to test Einstein's general theory was proposed by

text: Friedwardt Winterberg

text: in 1955.

text: John Dalton (1766-1844) was an English chemist best known for his development of atomic theory.

text: John Dalton

text: (1766-1844) was an English chemist best known for his development of atomic theory.

text: The Township of Dalton was a municipality located in the northwest corner of the former Victoria County, now the city of Kawartha Lakes, in the Canadian province of Ontario. It was named after Dr. John Dalton (1766–1844), an English scientist who contributed to the foundations of atomic theory.

text: The Township of Dalton was a

text: municipality

text: located in the northwest corner of the former

text: Victoria County

text: , now the city of

text: Kawartha Lakes

text: , in the

text: Canadian

text: province of

text: Ontario

text: . It was named after

text: Dr. John Dalton

text: (1766–1844), an English scientist who contributed to the foundations of atomic theory.

text: For elements that combined in multiple ratios, their combinations were assumed to be the simplest ones possible. Two combinations resulted in a binary and a ternary compound. This was merely an assumption, derived from faith in the simplicity of nature. No evidence was then available to scientists to deduce how many atoms of each element combine to form compound molecules. But this or some other such rule was absolutely necessary to any incipient theory, since one needed an assumed molecular formula in order to calculate relative atomic weights. In any case, Dalton's "rule of greatest simplicity" caused him to assume that the formula for water was OH and ammonia was NH, quite different from our modern understanding (HO, NH).

text: For elements that combined in multiple ratios, their combinations were assumed to be the simplest ones possible. Two combinations resulted in a binary and a ternary compound. This was merely an assumption, derived from faith in the simplicity of nature. No evidence was then available to scientists to deduce how many atoms of each element combine to form compound molecules. But this or some other such rule was absolutely necessary to any incipient theory, since one needed an assumed molecular formula in order to calculate relative atomic weights. In any case, Dalton's "rule of greatest simplicity" caused him to assume that the formula for water was OH and

text: ammonia

text: was NH, quite different from our modern understanding (HO, NH).

text: John Dalton, was born in Cumberland in 1766, a promising young scientist he moved to Manchester in 1793. He hypothesised the idea of "colour blindness", a theory which was alien to all as it had not been formally talked about before. Dalton hypothesised the idea from his own experience, as he suffered from discoloured eyesight himself. Dalton would go on to propose the Dalton atomic theory in which he hypothesised that elements were made of small particles called atoms.

text: John Dalton

text: , was born in

text: Cumberland

text: in 1766, a promising young scientist he moved to Manchester in 1793. He hypothesised the idea of "

text: colour blindness

text: ", a theory which was alien to all as it had not been formally talked about before. Dalton hypothesised the idea from his own experience, as he suffered from discoloured eyesight himself. Dalton would go on to propose the

text: Dalton atomic theory

text: in which he hypothesised that elements were made of small particles called

text: atoms

text: The Rutherford model of the nuclear atom (1911) showed that the exterior of an atom is occupied by electrons, which suggests that electrons are responsible for the interaction of atoms and the formation of chemical bonds. In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis explained valence and chemical bonding in terms of a tendency of (main-group) atoms to achieve a stable octet of 8 valence-shell electrons. According to Lewis, covalent bonding leads to octets by the sharing of electrons, and ionic bonding leads to octets by the transfer of electrons from one atom to the other. The term covalence is attributed to Irving Langmuir, who stated in 1919 that "the number of pairs of electrons which any given atom shares with the adjacent atoms is called the covalence of that atom". The prefix co- means "together", so that a co-valent bond means that the atoms share a valence. Subsequent to that, it is now more common to speak of covalent bonds rather than "valence", which has fallen out of use in higher-level work from the advances in the theory of chemical bonding, but it is still widely used in elementary studies, where it provides a heuristic introduction to the subject.

text: The

text: Rutherford model

text: of the nuclear atom (1911) showed that the exterior of an atom is occupied by

text: electron

text: s, which suggests that electrons are responsible for the interaction of atoms and the formation of chemical bonds. In 1916,

text: Gilbert N. Lewis

text: explained valence and chemical bonding in terms of a tendency of (main-group) atoms to achieve a

text: stable octet

text: of 8 valence-shell electrons. According to Lewis,

text: covalent bond

text: ing leads to octets by the sharing of electrons, and

text: ionic bonding

text: leads to octets by the transfer of electrons from one atom to the other. The term covalence is attributed to

text: Irving Langmuir

text: , who stated in 1919 that "the number of pairs of

text: electron

text: s which any given atom shares with the adjacent atoms is called the covalence of that atom". The prefix co- means "together", so that a co-valent bond means that the atoms share a valence. Subsequent to that, it is now more common to speak of

text: covalent bond

text: s rather than "valence", which has fallen out of use in higher-level work from the advances in the theory of chemical bonding, but it is still widely used in elementary studies, where it provides a

text: heuristic

text: introduction to the subject.

text: In the spring of 1913, Niels Bohr, of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, submitted his theory of the Bohr atomic model for publication.  Later that year, Ewald attended the Birmingham meeting of the British Association where he heard accounts and discussions of  James Jeans’ review on radiation theory and Bohr’s model.  This ignited a major new area of research for Sommerfeld and his students – the study and interpretation of atomic spectra and molecular band spectroscopy and theoretical modeling of atomic and molecular structure.

text: In the spring of 1913,

text: Niels Bohr

text: , of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the

text: University of Copenhagen

text: , submitted his theory of the

text: Bohr atomic model

text: for publication.  Later that year, Ewald attended the Birmingham meeting of the British Association where he heard accounts and discussions of

text: James Jeans’

text: review on radiation theory and Bohr’s model.  This ignited a major new area of research for Sommerfeld and his students – the study and interpretation of atomic spectra and molecular band spectroscopy and theoretical modeling of atomic and molecular structure.

text: Avogadro developed this hypothesis in order to reconcile Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac's 1808 law on volumes and combining gases with Dalton's 1803 atomic theory. The greatest difficulty Avogadro had to resolve was the huge confusion at that time regarding atoms and molecules—one of the most important contributions of Avogadro's work was clearly distinguishing one from the other, admitting that simple particles too could be composed of molecules, and that these are composed of atoms. Dalton, by contrast, did not consider this possibility.  Curiously, Avogadro considers only molecules containing even numbers of atoms; he does not say why odd numbers are left out.

text: Avogadro developed this hypothesis in order to reconcile

text: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac

text: 's 1808

text: law on volumes and combining gases

text: with Dalton's 1803

text: atomic theory

text: . The greatest difficulty Avogadro had to resolve was the huge confusion at that time regarding atoms and molecules—one of the most important contributions of Avogadro's work was clearly distinguishing one from the other, admitting that simple particles too could be composed of molecules, and that these are composed of atoms. Dalton, by contrast, did not consider this possibility.  Curiously, Avogadro considers only molecules containing even numbers of atoms; he does not say why odd numbers are left out.

text: In the beginning of 1940, the paved section near Lake Burton was expanded slightly. By October, US 76/SR 2 were paved from east of the location of the current SR 197 intersection to Clayton. At the end of the year, US 76/SR 2 were paved from Hiawassee to the approximate location of where the Appalachian Trail crosses the highway today. In 1946, US 76 was designated along SR 2 from Dalton to Chatsworth. By the middle of 1948, SR 2 was paved from Clayton to about halfway between there and the South Carolina state line. The beginning of the next year found US 76 was designated along the section of SR 3 from Ringgold to Dalton. SR 2 was moved to an alignment near the Tennessee state line, traveling through modern-day Varnell and Crandall. SR 52 took its place between Dalton and Ellijay (it already was concurrent with SR 3 from the Ringgold area to Dalton and SR 5 from Ellijay to Blue Ridge). The entire section of US 76/SR 52, from Chatsworth to Ellijay, was paved.

text: In the beginning of 1940, the paved section near Lake Burton was expanded slightly. By October, US 76/SR 2 were paved from east of the location of the current SR 197 intersection to Clayton. At the end of the year, US 76/SR 2 were paved from Hiawassee to the approximate location of where the Appalachian Trail crosses the highway today. In 1946, US 76 was designated along SR 2 from Dalton to Chatsworth. By the middle of 1948, SR 2 was paved from Clayton to about halfway between there and the South Carolina state line. The beginning of the next year found US 76 was designated along the section of SR 3 from Ringgold to Dalton. SR 2 was moved to an alignment near the Tennessee state line, traveling through modern-day

text: Varnell

text: and

text: Crandall

text: . SR 52 took its place between Dalton and Ellijay (it already was concurrent with SR 3 from the Ringgold area to Dalton and SR 5 from Ellijay to Blue Ridge). The entire section of US 76/SR 52, from Chatsworth to Ellijay, was paved.

text: Dalton's atomic theory remained controversial throughout the 19th century. Whilst the Law of definite proportion was accepted, the hypothesis that this was due to atoms was not so widely accepted. For example, in 1826 when Sir Humphry Davy presented Dalton the Royal Medal from the Royal Society, Davy said that the theory only became useful when the atomic conjecture was ignored. Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie in 1866 published the first part of his Calculus of Chemical Operations  as a non-atomic alternative to the Atomic Theory.  He described atomic theory as a 'Thoroughly materialistic bit of joiners work'. Alexander Williamson used his Presidential Address to the London Chemical Society in 1869  to defend the Atomic Theory against its critics and doubters. This in turn led to further meetings at which the positivists again attacked the supposition that there were atoms. The matter was finally resolved in Dalton's favour in the early 20th century with the rise of atomic physics.

text: Dalton's

text: atomic theory

text: remained controversial throughout the 19th century. Whilst the Law of definite proportion was accepted, the hypothesis that this was due to atoms was not so widely accepted. For example, in 1826 when

text: Sir Humphry Davy

text: presented Dalton the

text: Royal Medal

text: from the

text: Royal Society

text: , Davy said that the theory only became useful when the atomic conjecture was ignored.

entity_name: Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 2nd Baronet

text: Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie

text: in 1866 published the first part of his Calculus of Chemical Operations  as a non-atomic alternative to the Atomic Theory.  He described atomic theory as a 'Thoroughly materialistic bit of joiners work'.

text: Alexander Williamson

text: used his Presidential Address to the London Chemical Society in 1869  to defend the Atomic Theory against its critics and doubters. This in turn led to further meetings at which the positivists again attacked the supposition that there were atoms. The matter was finally resolved in Dalton's favour in the early 20th century with the rise of

text: atomic physics

text: It wasn't long, however, before Grat Dalton began looking for an easier way to make a living. He lost his job as a Deputy Marshal in 1890, being suspected for cattle rustling, and formed his gang. Its first members were his brother Bob Dalton, Charley Pierce, George "Bittercreek" Newcomb, Charlie "Blackface" Bryant, and Richard L. "Dick" Broadwell. Emmett Dalton would later join also. Newcomb and Pierce would later be members of the much more successful Doolin Dalton gang, formed and led by Bill Doolin and Dalton brother Bill Dalton.

text: It wasn't long, however, before Grat Dalton began looking for an easier way to make a living. He lost his job as a Deputy Marshal in 1890, being suspected for

text: cattle rustling

text: , and formed his gang. Its first members were his brother

text: Bob Dalton

text: Charley Pierce

text: George "Bittercreek" Newcomb

text: , Charlie "Blackface" Bryant, and Richard L. "Dick" Broadwell.

text: Emmett Dalton

text: would later join also. Newcomb and Pierce would later be members of the much more successful

text: Doolin Dalton

text: gang, formed and led by

text: Bill Doolin

text: and Dalton brother

text: Bill Dalton

text: In crystallographic terms, the Co atoms occupy the 8c sites, while the As atoms occupy the 24g sites. The position of the Co atoms within the unit cell is fixed, while the positions of the As atoms are determined by the parameters x and y. It has been shown that for the As-rings to be fully square, these parameters must satisfy the Oftedahl relation x + y = 1/2. Any deviation from this relation yields a rectangular configuration of the As atoms; indeed, this is the case for all known compounds with this structure, and the As atoms do not form a perfect octahedra.

text: Various other games have their own variants of billiard balls.  Russian pyramid use a set of fifteen numbered but otherwise all-white balls, and a red or yellow cue ball, that may be even larger than carom billiards balls, at 68 mm (2⁄ in) or 72 mm (2⁄ in). The related Finnish/Russian game kaisa has the same pocket and ball dimensions but it has only five balls: one yellow, two reds and two cue balls, one for each player.  Bumper pool requires four white and four red object balls, and two special balls, one red with a white spot and the other the opposite; all are usually  inch (approximately 52.5 mm) in diameter.

text: Various other games have their own variants of billiard balls.

text: Russian pyramid

text: use a set of fifteen numbered but otherwise all-white balls, and a red or yellow cue ball, that may be even larger than carom billiards balls, at 68 mm (2⁄ in) or 72 mm (2⁄ in). The related Finnish/Russian game

text: kaisa

text: has the same pocket and ball dimensions but it has only five balls: one yellow, two reds and two cue balls, one for each player.

text: Bumper pool

text: requires four white and four red object balls, and two special balls, one red with a white spot and the other the opposite; all are usually  inch (approximately 52.5 mm) in diameter.

text: One mole of a substance always contains almost exactly the relative atomic mass or molar mass of that substance; however, this may or may not be true for the atomic mass, depending on whether or not the element exists naturally in more than one isotope. For example, the relative atomic mass of iron is 55.847 g/mol, and therefore one mole of iron as commonly found on earth has a mass of 55.847 grams. The atomic mass of the Fe isotope is 55.935 u and one mole of Fe atoms would then in theory have a mass of 55.935 g, but such amounts of pure Fe have never been found (or separated out) on Earth. However, there are 22 mononuclidic elements of which essentially only a single isotope is found in nature (common examples are fluorine, sodium, aluminum and phosphorus) and for these elements the relative atomic mass and atomic mass are the same. Samples of these elements therefore may serve as reference standards for certain atomic mass values.

text: One mole of a substance always contains almost exactly the

text: relative atomic mass

text: or

text: molar mass

text: of that substance; however, this may or may not be true for the atomic mass, depending on whether or not the element exists naturally in more than one isotope. For example, the

text: relative atomic mass

text: of

text: iron

text: is 55.847 g/mol, and therefore one mole of iron as commonly found on earth has a mass of 55.847 grams. The atomic mass of the Fe isotope is 55.935 u and one mole of Fe atoms would then in theory have a mass of 55.935 g, but such amounts of pure Fe have never been found (or separated out) on Earth. However, there are 22

text: mononuclidic element

text: s of which essentially only a single isotope is found in nature (common examples are fluorine, sodium, aluminum and phosphorus) and for these elements the

text: relative atomic mass

text: and atomic mass are the same. Samples of these elements therefore may serve as reference standards for certain atomic mass values.

text: FooBillard supports several kinds of billiard games:  (Three-cushion billiards), Snooker, and Pool billiard (pocket billiards) in the Eight-ball and Nine-ball variant.

text: FooBillard supports several kinds of billiard games:  (

text: Three-cushion billiards

text: Snooker

text: , and

text: Pool

text: billiard (pocket billiards) in the

text: Eight-ball

text: and

text: Nine-ball

text: variant.

text: A molecular orbital diagram, or MO diagram, is a qualitative descriptive tool explaining chemical bonding in molecules in terms of molecular orbital theory in general and the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) molecular orbital method in particular.   A fundamental principle of these theories is that as atoms bond to form molecules, a certain number of atomic orbitals combine to form the same number of molecular orbitals, although the electrons involved may be redistributed among the orbitals.  This tool is very well suited for simple diatomic molecules such as dihydrogen, dioxygen, and carbon monoxide but becomes more complex when discussing even comparatively simple polyatomic molecules, such as methane.  MO diagrams can explain why some molecules exist and others do not. They can also predict bond strength, as well as the electronic transitions that can take place.

text: A molecular orbital diagram, or MO diagram, is a qualitative descriptive tool explaining

text: chemical bonding

text: in

text: molecule

text: s in terms of

text: molecular orbital theory

text: in general and the

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: (LCAO) molecular orbital method in particular.   A fundamental principle of these theories is that as atoms bond to form molecules, a certain number of

text: atomic orbital

text: s combine to form the same number of

text: molecular orbital

text: s, although the

text: electron

text: s involved may be redistributed among the orbitals.  This tool is very well suited for simple

text: diatomic molecule

text: s such as

text: dihydrogen

text: dioxygen

text: , and

text: carbon monoxide

text: but becomes more complex when discussing even comparatively simple polyatomic molecules, such as

text: methane

text: .  MO diagrams can explain why some molecules exist and others do not. They can also predict bond strength, as well as the

text: electronic transition

text: s that can take place.

text: Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation  brought understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.

text: Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the

text: hydrogen atom

text: , together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of

text: atom

text: ic structure. Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation

text: brought understanding of the nature of the

text: chemical bond

text: , which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.

text: The term transmutation dates back to alchemy. Alchemists pursued the philosopher's stone, capable of chrysopoeia – the transformation of base metals into gold. While alchemists often understood chrysopoeia as a metaphor for a mystical, or religious process, some practitioners adopted a literal interpretation, and tried to make gold through physical experiment. The impossibility of the metallic transmutation had been debated amongst alchemists, philosophers and scientists since the Middle Ages. Pseudo-alchemical transmutation was outlawed and publicly mocked beginning in the fourteenth century.  Alchemists like Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote tracts exposing fraudulent claims of gold making.  By the 1720s, there were no longer any respectable figures pursuing the physical transmutation of substances into gold. Antoine Lavoisier, in the 18th century, replaced the alchemical theory of elements with the modern theory of chemical elements, and John Dalton further developed the notion of atoms (from the alchemical theory of corpuscles) to explain various chemical processes. The disintegration of atoms is a distinct process involving much greater energies than could be achieved by alchemists.

text: The term transmutation dates back to

text: alchemy

text: . Alchemists pursued the

text: philosopher's stone

text: , capable of

text: chrysopoeia

text: – the transformation of

text: base metal

text: s into gold. While alchemists often understood chrysopoeia as a metaphor for a mystical, or religious process, some practitioners adopted a literal interpretation, and tried to make gold through physical experiment. The impossibility of the metallic transmutation had been debated amongst alchemists, philosophers and scientists since the Middle Ages. Pseudo-alchemical transmutation was outlawed and publicly mocked beginning in the fourteenth century.  Alchemists like

text: Michael Maier

text: and

text: Heinrich Khunrath

text: wrote tracts exposing fraudulent claims of gold making.  By the 1720s, there were no longer any respectable figures pursuing the physical transmutation of substances into gold.

text: Antoine Lavoisier

text: , in the 18th century, replaced the

text: alchemical theory of elements

text: with the modern theory of chemical elements, and

text: John Dalton

text: further developed the notion of atoms (from the alchemical theory of

text: corpuscles

text: ) to explain various chemical processes. The disintegration of atoms is a distinct process involving much greater energies than could be achieved by alchemists.

text: This wealth fuelled the development of science and education in Manchester. The Manchester Academy had moved to York in 1803 and, though it returned in 1840, in 1853 it moved again to London, eventually becoming Harris Manchester College, Oxford. However, a Mechanics' Institute, later to become UMIST, was founded in 1824 by among others, John Dalton the "father of atomic theory". In 1851 Owens College was founded by the trustees of John Owens, a textile merchant who had left a bequest for that purpose. Owens College was to become the first constituent college of the Victoria University which was granted its Royal Charter in 1880. This flowering of radicalism and reform took place within the context of a ferment in Manchester's cultural and intellectual life. John Dalton lectured on his atomic theory at the Literary and Philosophical Society in 1803. The establishment of the Portico Library in 1806, the Royal Manchester Institution (later the Art Gallery) in 1823, and the Manchester Botanical and Horticultural Society in 1827 are evidences of this.

text: This wealth fuelled the development of science and education in Manchester. The Manchester Academy had moved to

text: York

text: in 1803 and, though it returned in 1840, in 1853 it moved again to London, eventually becoming

text: Harris Manchester College, Oxford

text: . However, a

text: Mechanics' Institute

text: , later to become

entity_name: University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology

text: UMIST

text: , was founded in 1824 by among others,

text: John Dalton

text: the "father of atomic theory". In 1851

text: Owens College

text: was founded by the trustees of

text: John Owens

text: , a textile merchant who had left a bequest for that purpose. Owens College was to become the first constituent college of the

text: Victoria University

text: which was granted its Royal Charter in 1880. This flowering of radicalism and reform took place within the context of a ferment in Manchester's cultural and intellectual life.

text: John Dalton

text: lectured on his

text: atomic theory

text: at the

entity_name: Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society

text: Literary and Philosophical Society

text: in 1803. The establishment of the

text: Portico Library

text: in 1806, the

text: Royal Manchester Institution

text: (later the Art Gallery) in 1823, and the Manchester Botanical and Horticultural Society in 1827 are evidences of this.

text: By the end of its first year of publication, the editors realized they had erred in starting off with an odd-months issue, so they took the opportunity to rectify this and also to redesign the cover and rename the magazine. The cover of the first issue of the second year carried a new and sleeker logo featuring the shortened name The Snap Magazine. While covers of earlier issues centered on photos of well-known and up-and-coming players, with the new design the publishers also initiated a policy of creating humorous and/or historically significant covers. These covers, many of which became famous among billiard aficionados, included such staged scenes as: a Neanderthal couple playing pool on a stone table using rocks for balls (history issue); a grizzled lobsterman checking his catch of 9-balls in an authentic lobster trap (New England issue); and a group of yuppie gamblers playing at a pool/craps table with 9-ball and 8-ball dice and a croupier using a modified cue stick to rake in the chips (gambling issue). Two of the most famous covers were for the Johnston City and collectible cues issues. On the former, rare photos of the famous "Pit" at Johnston City and a well-preserved copy of a Johnston City program appeared. The latter featured a photo of one of the rarest billiard cue-and-case combinations, with a cue built by master cue builder Gus Szamboti and a matching case by Fellini.

text: By the end of its first year of publication, the editors realized they had erred in starting off with an odd-months issue, so they took the opportunity to rectify this and also to redesign the cover and rename the magazine. The cover of the first issue of the second year carried a new and sleeker logo featuring the shortened name The Snap Magazine. While covers of earlier issues centered on photos of well-known and up-and-coming players, with the new design the publishers also initiated a policy of creating humorous and/or historically significant covers. These covers, many of which became famous among billiard aficionados, included such staged scenes as: a Neanderthal couple playing pool on a stone table using rocks for balls (history issue); a grizzled lobsterman checking his catch of 9-balls in an authentic lobster trap (

text: New England

text: issue); and a group of yuppie gamblers playing at a pool/craps table with 9-ball and 8-ball dice and a croupier using a modified cue stick to rake in the chips (gambling issue). Two of the most famous covers were for the

text: Johnston City

text: and collectible cues issues. On the former, rare photos of the famous "Pit" at Johnston City and a well-preserved copy of a Johnston City program appeared. The latter featured a photo of one of the rarest billiard cue-and-case combinations, with a cue built by master cue builder

text: Gus Szamboti

text: and a matching case by Fellini.

text: Tetrahedral numbers can be modelled by stacking spheres. For example, the fifth tetrahedral number (T = 35) can be modelled with 35 billiard balls and the standard triangular billiards ball frame that holds 15 balls in place. Then 10 more balls are stacked on top of those, then another 6, then another three and one ball at the top completes the tetrahedron.

text: Tetrahedral numbers can be modelled by stacking spheres. For example, the fifth tetrahedral number (T = 35) can be modelled with 35

text: billiard ball

text: s and the standard triangular billiards ball frame that holds 15 balls in place. Then 10 more balls are stacked on top of those, then another 6, then another three and one ball at the top completes the tetrahedron.

text: Murray County is part of the Dalton, GA Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Chattanooga-Cleveland-Dalton, TN-GA-AL Combined Statistical Area.

text: Murray County is part of the

text: Dalton

text: , GA

text: Metropolitan Statistical Area

text: , which is also included in the

text: Chattanooga

text: Cleveland

text: -Dalton,

text: TN

text: -GA-

text: AL

entity_name: Chattanooga-Cleveland-Dalton, TN-GA-AL Combined Statistical Area

text: Combined Statistical Area

text: Nahar completed her undergraduate education in Physics and M.Sc. in Theoretical Physics at the University of Dhaka, and earned an M.A. in Quantum Optics and Ph.D. in Atomic Theory at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan.

text: Nahar completed her undergraduate education in Physics and M.Sc. in

text: Theoretical Physics

text: at the

text: University of Dhaka

text: , and earned an M.A. in

text: Quantum Optics

text: and Ph.D. in

text: Atomic Theory

text: at

text: Wayne State University

text: in

text: Detroit

text: Michigan

text: Dalton suggested that everything in the universe was made of atoms, and that there are as many kinds of atoms as there are elements, each one with its own signature weight.  Based on these ideas, working completely alone, Dalton attempted to impose some order on the elements by drawing up a list, where each element was represented by an alchemical-looking symbol, ordered by atomic weight.

text: Dalton suggested that everything in the universe was made of atoms, and that there are as many kinds of atoms as there are elements, each one with its own signature weight.  Based on these ideas, working completely alone, Dalton attempted to impose some order on the elements by drawing up a list, where each element was represented by an alchemical-looking symbol, ordered by

text: atomic weight

text: Ascham is one of the few schools worldwide to follow the 'Dalton Plan', an educational philosophy created by Helen Parkhurst in 1916. The 'Dalton Plan' aims to produce independent and confident leaders.

text: Ascham is one of the few schools worldwide to follow the '

text: Dalton Plan

text: ', an educational philosophy created by

text: Helen Parkhurst

text: in 1916. The 'Dalton Plan' aims to produce independent and confident leaders.

text: It was in connection with a possible post at St. George's that William Dalton, an Evangelical Anglican clergyman from Ulster first visited Wolverhampton. He returned in 1835, after marrying Sarah Marsh, the widow of a Bilston ironmaster, to take up the living of St. Paul's, yet another chapel of ease on the south-western edge of the town. Dalton began a lifelong campaign to build more churches to serve the growing population. Dalton's agitation had a venomously anti-Catholic edge, attacking both Anglo-Catholicism and Roman Catholicism, but his church-building campaign won wide support. It further undermined the relevance of the dean and the Royal Peculiar.  St. Peter's itself and all the new chapels already operated as parish churches in all but name, but were hampered by lack of funds. The deanery was a sinecure that took £600 a year out of the town - largely the product of coal mining on deanery lands.

text: It was in connection with a possible post at St. George's that William Dalton, an

text: Evangelical

text: Anglican clergyman from

text: Ulster

text: first visited Wolverhampton. He returned in 1835, after marrying Sarah Marsh, the widow of a Bilston ironmaster, to take up the living of St. Paul's, yet another chapel of ease on the south-western edge of the town. Dalton began a lifelong campaign to build more churches to serve the growing population. Dalton's agitation had a venomously anti-Catholic edge, attacking both

text: Anglo-Catholicism

text: and

text: Roman Catholicism

text: , but his church-building campaign won wide support. It further undermined the relevance of the dean and the Royal Peculiar.  St. Peter's itself and all the new chapels already operated as parish churches in all but name, but were hampered by lack of funds. The deanery was a

text: sinecure

text: that took £600 a year out of the town - largely the product of coal mining on deanery lands.

text: In the case of Boolean algebras which are not complete and atomic we can still generalize the power set representation by considering fields of sets instead of whole power sets. To do this we first observe that the atoms of a finite Boolean algebra correspond to its ultrafilters and that an atom is below an element of a finite Boolean algebra if and only if that element is contained in the ultrafilter corresponding to the atom. This leads us to construct a representation of a Boolean algebra by taking its set of ultrafilters and forming complexes by associating with each element of the Boolean algebra the set of ultrafilters containing that element. This construction does indeed produce a representation of the Boolean algebra as a field of sets and is known as the Stone representation. It is the basis of Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras and an example of a completion procedure in order theory based on ideals or filters, similar to Dedekind cuts.

text: In the case of Boolean algebras which are not complete and atomic we can still generalize the power set representation by considering fields of sets instead of whole power sets. To do this we first observe that the atoms of a finite Boolean algebra correspond to its

text: ultrafilter

text: s and that an atom is below an element of a finite Boolean algebra if and only if that element is contained in the ultrafilter corresponding to the atom. This leads us to construct a representation of a Boolean algebra by taking its set of ultrafilters and forming complexes by associating with each element of the Boolean algebra the set of ultrafilters containing that element. This construction does indeed produce a representation of the Boolean algebra as a field of sets and is known as the Stone representation. It is the basis of

entity_name: Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras

text: Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras

text: and an example of a completion procedure in

text: order theory

text: based on

text: ideal

text: s or

text: filter

text: s, similar to

text: Dedekind cut

text: s.

text: Bennett Holiday meets with U.S. Attorney Donald Farish III (David Clennon), who is convinced that Killen bribed someone to get the drilling rights in Kazakhstan. While investigating Connex-Killen's records, Holiday discovers a wire transfer of funds that leads back to a transaction between Texas oilman and Killen Co. colleague Danny Dalton (Tim Blake Nelson) and Kazakh officials. Holiday tells Connex-Killen of his discovery, and they pretend not to have known about it. Holiday advises Dalton that he will likely be charged with corruption in order to serve as a "body" to get the DOJ off the back of the rest of Connex-Killen; Dalton responds with a fervent defense of how corruption is simply the way of competition and how America "wins" against the rest of the corrupt world. Farish then strong-arms Holiday into giving the DOJ information about illegal activities he has discovered. Holiday gives up Dalton, but Farish says this is not enough. Holiday meets with the CEO of Killen Oil, Jimmy Pope (Chris Cooper), and informs him that the DOJ needs a second body in order to drop the investigation. Pope asks Holiday whether a person at Holiday's firm above him would be sufficient as the additional body. Holiday acknowledges that if the name were big enough, the DOJ would stop the investigation and allow the merger.

text: Bennett Holiday meets with

text: U.S. Attorney

text: Donald Farish III (

text: David Clennon

text: ), who is convinced that Killen bribed someone to get the drilling rights in

text: Kazakhstan

text: . While investigating Connex-Killen's records, Holiday discovers a

text: wire transfer

text: of funds that leads back to a transaction between Texas oilman and Killen Co. colleague Danny Dalton (

text: Tim Blake Nelson

text: ) and Kazakh officials. Holiday tells Connex-Killen of his discovery, and they pretend not to have known about it. Holiday advises Dalton that he will likely be charged with corruption in order to serve as a "body" to get the DOJ off the back of the rest of Connex-Killen; Dalton responds with a fervent defense of how corruption is simply the way of competition and how America "wins" against the rest of the corrupt world. Farish then strong-arms Holiday into giving the DOJ information about illegal activities he has discovered. Holiday gives up Dalton, but Farish says this is not enough. Holiday meets with the

text: CEO

text: of Killen Oil, Jimmy Pope (

text: Chris Cooper

text: ), and informs him that the DOJ needs a second body in order to drop the investigation. Pope asks Holiday whether a person at Holiday's firm above him would be sufficient as the additional body. Holiday acknowledges that if the name were big enough, the DOJ would stop the investigation and allow the merger.

text: The concept was formulated in 1904 by German chemist Richard Abegg.  Gilbert N. Lewis was one of the first to refer to the concept as "Abegg’s rule" when he used it as a basis of argument in Gilbert N. Lewis’ 1916 famous article "The Atom and the Molecule", to develop his cubical atom theory, which developed into the octet rule.  "The Atom and the Molecule" article helped inspire Linus Pauling to write the famous 1938 textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.

text: The concept was formulated in 1904 by German chemist

text: Richard Abegg

text: Gilbert N. Lewis

text: was one of the first to refer to the concept as "Abegg’s rule" when he used it as a basis of argument in

text: Gilbert N. Lewis

text: ’ 1916 famous article "The Atom and the Molecule", to develop his

text: cubical atom

text: theory, which developed into the

text: octet rule

text: .  "The Atom and the Molecule" article helped inspire

text: Linus Pauling

text: to write the famous 1938 textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.

text: Buck Page's and Jack Dalton's band derived the name from the title of a Zane Grey novel. In 1932 (when Jack Dalton formed his Riders of the Purple Sage), Buck Page was nine years old, and at 13 when he formed his "Riders of the Purple Sage" coast to coast radio was nonexistent. With Page on the East Coast and Dalton on the West Coast, it is uncertain if either would have had reason to know of each other's band.When Page and his "Riders" were forced to case their instruments to serve in the military, they did so during the peak of their successful live performances and radio appearances. Page's "Riders of the Purple Sage" are credited with establishing great momentum in what was becoming a very popular genre of music in the late 1930s and 1940s.

text: Buck Page's and Jack Dalton's band derived the name from the title of a

text: Zane Grey

text: novel

text: . In 1932 (when Jack Dalton formed his Riders of the Purple Sage), Buck Page was nine years old, and at 13 when he formed his "Riders of the Purple Sage" coast to coast radio was nonexistent. With Page on the East Coast and Dalton on the West Coast, it is uncertain if either would have had reason to know of each other's band.When Page and his "Riders" were forced to case their instruments to serve in the military, they did so during the peak of their successful live performances and radio appearances. Page's "Riders of the Purple Sage" are credited with establishing great momentum in what was becoming a very popular genre of music in the late 1930s and 1940s.

text: Instead, Dalton inferred proportions of elements in compounds by taking ratios of the weights of reactants, setting the atomic weight of hydrogen to be identically one. Following Jeremias Benjamin Richter (known for introducing the term stoichiometry), he proposed that chemical elements combine in integral ratios. This is known as the law of multiple proportions or Dalton's law, and Dalton included a clear description of the law in his New System of Chemical Philosophy. The law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry used to establish the atomic theory. Despite the importance of the work as the first view of atoms as physically real entities and introduction of a system of chemical symbols, New System of Chemical Philosophy devoted almost as much space to the caloric theory as to atomism.

text: Instead, Dalton inferred proportions of elements in compounds by taking ratios of the weights of reactants, setting the atomic weight of hydrogen to be identically one. Following

text: Jeremias Benjamin Richter

text: (known for introducing the term

text: stoichiometry

text: ), he proposed that chemical elements combine in integral ratios. This is known as the

text: law of multiple proportions

text: or Dalton's law, and Dalton included a clear description of the law in his New System of Chemical Philosophy. The law of multiple proportions is one of the basic laws of stoichiometry used to establish the atomic theory. Despite the importance of the work as the first view of atoms as physically real entities and introduction of a system of chemical symbols, New System of Chemical Philosophy devoted almost as much space to the caloric theory as to atomism.

text: In their article in which they coin the term 'critical data studies,' Dalton and Thatcher also provide several justifications as to why data studies is a discipline worthy of a critical approach. Firstly, 'big data' is an important aspect of modern, twenty-first century, society, and the analysis of 'big data' allows for a deeper understanding of what is happening and for what reasons. Furthermore, big data as a technological tool and the information that it yields is not neutral, according to Dalton and Thatcher, and as a result is worthy of critical analysis in order to account for any potential biases. Building off this idea, another justification for a critical approach is that the relationship between big data and society is an important one, and therefore worthy of study.  Dalton and Thatcher stress how the relationship is not an example of technological determinism, but rather how big data can shape the lives of individuals. Big data technology is capable of enhancing material changes in society's structure and in the everyday lives of people, and being a product of society, big data technology is worthy of critical thought. Moreover, data sets are almost never completely raw, that is to say without any influences. Dalton and Thatcher describe how data are shaped by the vision or goals of a research team, and during the data collection process, certain things are quantified, stored, sorted and even discarded by the research team. A critical approach is thus necessary in order to understand and reveal the intent behind the information being presented. Dalton and Thatcher also argue how data alone cannot speak for itself; in order to possess any concrete meaning, data must be accompanied by theoretical insight or be accompanied by alternative quantitative or qualitative research measures. This further necessitates a critical approach to data. Penultimately, Dalton and Thatcher argue that if one were to only think of data in terms of its exploitative power, there is no possibility of using data for revolutionary, liberatory purposes. Critically thinking about data significantly increases its potential uses. Finally, Dalton and Thatcher present that a critical approach in studying data allows for 'big data' to be combined with older, 'small data,' and thus create more thorough research, and opens up more opportunities, questions and topics to be explored.

text: In their article in which they coin the term 'critical data studies,' Dalton and Thatcher also provide several justifications as to why data studies is a discipline worthy of a critical approach. Firstly, '

text: big data

text: ' is an important aspect of modern, twenty-first century, society, and the analysis of 'big data' allows for a deeper understanding of what is happening and for what reasons. Furthermore, big data as a technological tool and the information that it yields is not neutral, according to Dalton and Thatcher, and as a result is worthy of critical analysis in order to account for any potential biases. Building off this idea, another justification for a critical approach is that the relationship between big data and society is an important one, and therefore worthy of study.  Dalton and Thatcher stress how the relationship is not an example of

text: technological determinism

text: The nitrite ion has a symmetrical structure (C symmetry), with both N–O bonds having equal length. In valence bond theory, it is described as a resonance hybrid with equal contributions from two canonical forms that are mirror images of each other. In molecular orbital theory, there is a sigma bond between each oxygen atom and the nitrogen atom, and a delocalized pi bond made from the p orbitals on nitrogen and oxygen atoms which is perpendicular to the plane of the molecule. The negative charge of the ion is equally distributed on the two oxygen atoms. Both nitrogen and oxygen atoms carry a lone pair of electrons. Therefore, the nitrite ion is a Lewis base. Moreover, it can act as an ambidentate ligand towards a metal ion, donating a pair of electrons from either nitrogen or oxygen atoms.

text: The nitrite ion has a symmetrical structure (C

text: symmetry

text: ), with both N–O bonds having equal length. In

text: valence bond theory

text: , it is described as a

text: resonance hybrid

text: with equal contributions from two canonical forms that are mirror images of each other. In

text: molecular orbital theory

text: , there is a

text: sigma bond

text: between each oxygen atom and the nitrogen atom, and a delocalized

text: pi bond

text: made from the

text: p orbitals

text: on nitrogen and oxygen atoms which is perpendicular to the plane of the molecule. The negative charge of the ion is equally distributed on the two oxygen atoms. Both nitrogen and oxygen atoms carry a

text: lone pair

text: of electrons. Therefore, the nitrite ion is a

text: Lewis base

text: . Moreover, it can act as an

text: ambidentate ligand

text: towards a metal ion, donating a pair of electrons from either nitrogen or oxygen atoms.

text: Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.  A decisive moment came when 'chemistry' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work.  Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

text: Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.  A decisive moment came when 'chemistry' was distinguished from

text: alchemy

text: by

text: Robert Boyle

text: in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work.  Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like

text: William Cullen

text: Joseph Black

text: Torbern Bergman

text: and

text: Pierre Macquer

text: and through the work of

text: Antoine Lavoisier

text: Father of Modern Chemistry

text: ) on

text: oxygen

text: and the law of

text: conservation of mass

text: , which refuted

text: phlogiston theory

text: . The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by

text: John Dalton

text: in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869,

text: Dmitri Mendeleev

text: composed his

text: periodic table

text: of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

text: Because the collisions between billiard balls are nearly elastic, and the balls roll on a surface that produces low rolling friction, their behavior is often used to illustrate Newton's laws of motion. Idealized, frictionless billiard balls are a staple of mathematical theorems and physics models, and figure in dynamical billiards, scattering theory, Lissajous knots, billiard ball computing and reversible cellular automata, Polchinski's paradox, contact dynamics, collision detection, the illumination problem, atomic ultracooling, quantum mirages and elsewhere in these fields.

text: Because the

text: collisions between billiard balls

text: are nearly

text: elastic

text: , and the balls roll on a surface that produces low

text: rolling friction

text: , their behavior is often used to illustrate

text: Newton's laws of motion

text: . Idealized, frictionless billiard balls are a staple of

text: mathematical

text: theorems and

text: physics

text: models, and figure in

text: dynamical billiards

text: scattering theory

text: Lissajous knots

text: billiard ball computing

text: and

text: reversible cellular automata

text: Polchinski's paradox

text: contact dynamics

text: collision detection

text: , the

text: illumination problem

text: atomic ultracooling

text: quantum mirage

text: s and elsewhere in these fields.

text: Gerda Hofstatter (born 9 February 1971 in Friesach, Austria), nicknamed "G-Force", is a professional pool player and nine-ball champion. She won the World Nine-ball Championship in 1995; She is European Champion ten times; 1997 U.S. National Champion; and won the Austrian Championship seventeen times. She was the player of the year twice in Europe and the Austrian Sportswoman of the Year in 1995. Hofstatter now plays on the International Pool Tour (IPT) as a pro eight-ball player and with the Women's Professional Billiard Association as a professional nine-ball player.

text: Gerda Hofstatter (born 9 February 1971 in

text: Friesach

text: Austria

text: ), nicknamed "G-Force", is a professional

text: pool

text: player and

text: nine-ball

text: champion. She won the World Nine-ball Championship in 1995; She is European Champion ten times; 1997 U.S. National Champion; and won the Austrian Championship seventeen times. She was the player of the year twice in Europe and the Austrian Sportswoman of the Year in 1995. Hofstatter now plays on the

text: International Pool Tour

text: (IPT) as a pro

text: eight-ball

text: player and with the

entity_name: Women's Professional Billiard Association

text: Women's Professional Billiard Association

text: as a professional nine-ball player.

text: Dalton estimated the atomic weights according to the mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen atom taken as unity. However, Dalton did not conceive that with some elements atoms exist in molecules—e.g. pure oxygen exists as O. He also mistakenly believed that the simplest compound between any two elements is always one atom of each (so he thought water was HO, not HO). This, in addition to the crudity of his equipment, flawed his results. For instance, in 1803 he believed that oxygen atoms were 5.5 times heavier than hydrogen atoms, because in water he measured 5.5 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram of hydrogen and believed the formula for water was HO.  Adopting better data, in 1806 he concluded that the atomic weight of oxygen must actually be 7 rather than 5.5, and he retained this weight for the rest of his life.  Others at this time had already concluded that the oxygen atom must weigh 8 relative to hydrogen equals 1, if one assumes Dalton's formula for the water molecule (HO), or 16 if one assumes the modern water formula (HO).

text: For example, Dalton knew that the element carbon forms two oxides by combining with oxygen in different proportions. A fixed mass of carbon, say 100 grams, may react with 133 grams of oxygen to produce one oxide, or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce the other. The ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266:133 = 2:1, a ratio of small whole numbers. Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for each carbon atom. In modern notation the first is CO (carbon monoxide) and the second is CO (carbon dioxide).

text: For example, Dalton knew that the element

text: carbon

text: forms two

text: oxide

text: s by combining with

text: oxygen

text: in different proportions. A fixed mass of carbon, say 100 grams, may react with 133 grams of oxygen to produce one oxide, or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce the other. The ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266:133 = 2:1, a ratio of small whole numbers. Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for each carbon atom. In modern notation the first is CO (

text: carbon monoxide

text: ) and the second is CO (

text: carbon dioxide

text: An early precursor to the idea of bonded "combinations of atoms", was the theory of "combination via chemical affinity".  For example, in 1718, building on Boyle’s conception of combinations of clusters, the French chemist Étienne François Geoffroy developed theories of chemical affinity to explain combinations of particles, reasoning that a certain alchemical “force” draws certain alchemical components together.  Geoffroy's name is best known in connection with his tables of "affinities" (tables des rapports), which he presented to the French Academy in 1718 and 1720.

text: An early precursor to the idea of bonded "combinations of atoms", was the theory of "combination via

text: chemical affinity

text: ".  For example, in 1718, building on Boyle’s conception of combinations of clusters, the French chemist

text: Étienne François Geoffroy

text: developed theories of

text: chemical affinity

text: to explain combinations of particles, reasoning that a certain alchemical “force” draws certain alchemical components together.  Geoffroy's name is best known in connection with his tables of "

text: affinities

text: " (tables des rapports), which he presented to the

text: French Academy

text: in 1718 and 1720.

text: The nominal first international International Ten-ball Championship (previously, for six years, the event has existed but been known as the Florida Open Ten-ball Championship) was held in 2007. The sanctioning organization is the United States Professional Poolplayers Association (UPA), using WPA/BCA rules. The World Pool-Billiard Association itself separately started its own inaugural WPA World Ten-Ball Championship (WTBC) in 2008, in Manila, Philippines. The events are essentially competitors, but many players compete in both.  The UPA event is known for sponsorship purposes as the Predator International.

text: The nominal first international International Ten-ball Championship (previously, for six years, the event has existed but been known as the Florida Open Ten-ball Championship) was held in 2007. The

text: sanctioning organization

text: is the

entity_name: United States Professional Poolplayers Association

text: United States Professional Poolplayers Association

text: (UPA), using

text: WPA

text: BCA

text: rules. The

text: World Pool-Billiard Association

text: itself separately started its own inaugural WPA World Ten-Ball Championship (WTBC) in 2008, in

text: Manila, Philippines

text: . The events are essentially competitors, but many players compete in both.  The UPA event is known for sponsorship purposes as the

text: Predator

text: International.

text: The atomic mass (relative isotopic mass) is defined as the mass of a single atom, which can only be one isotope (nuclide) at a time, and is not an abundance-weighted average, as in the case of relative atomic mass/atomic weight. The atomic mass or relative isotopic mass of each isotope and nuclide of a chemical element is therefore a number that can in principle be measured to a very great precision, since every specimen of such a nuclide is expected to be exactly identical to every other specimen, as all atoms of a given type in the same energy state, and every specimen of a particular nuclide, are expected to be exactly identical in mass to every other specimen of that nuclide. For example, every atom of oxygen-16 is expected to have exactly the same atomic mass (relative isotopic mass) as every other atom of oxygen-16.

text: The atomic mass (relative isotopic mass) is defined as the mass of a single atom, which can only be one

text: isotope

text: (nuclide) at a time, and is not an abundance-weighted average, as in the case of relative atomic mass/atomic weight. The atomic mass or relative isotopic mass of each isotope and nuclide of a chemical element is therefore a number that can in principle be measured to a very great precision, since every specimen of such a nuclide is expected to be exactly identical to every other specimen, as all atoms of a given type in the same energy state, and every specimen of a particular nuclide, are expected to be exactly identical in mass to every other specimen of that nuclide. For example, every atom of oxygen-16 is expected to have exactly the same atomic mass (relative isotopic mass) as every other atom of oxygen-16.

text: A model M of the theory is called atomic if every n-tuple of elements of M satisfies a complete formula.

text: The existence of nonradioactive isotopes of lighter elements had been suspected in studies of neon as early as 1913, and proven by mass spectrometry of light elements in 1920. The prevailing theory at the time, however, was that the isotopes were due to the existence of differing numbers of "nuclear electrons" in different atoms of an element. It was expected that hydrogen, with a measured average atomic mass very close to , the known mass of the proton, always had a nucleus composed of a single proton (a known particle), and therefore could not contain any nuclear electrons without losing its charge entirely. Thus, hydrogen could have no heavy isotopes.

text: As dioxygen, two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other. The bond can be variously described based on level of theory, but is reasonably and simply described as a covalent double bond that results from the filling of molecular orbitals formed from the atomic orbitals of the individual oxygen atoms, the filling of which results in a bond order of two. More specifically, the double bond is the result of sequential, low-to-high energy, or Aufbau, filling of orbitals, and the resulting cancellation of contributions from the 2s electrons, after sequential filling of the low σ and σ orbitals; σ overlap of the two atomic 2p orbitals that lie along the O-O molecular axis and  overlap of two pairs of atomic 2p orbitals perpendicular to the O-O molecular axis, and then cancellation of contributions from the remaining two of the six 2p electrons after their partial filling of the lowest  and  orbitals.

text: As dioxygen, two oxygen atoms are

text: chemically bound

text: to each other. The bond can be variously described based on level of theory, but is reasonably and simply described as a covalent

text: double bond

text: that results from the filling of

text: molecular orbitals

text: formed from the

text: atomic orbital

text: s of the individual oxygen atoms, the filling of which results in a

text: bond order

text: of two. More specifically, the double bond is the result of sequential, low-to-high energy, or

text: Aufbau

text: , filling of orbitals, and the resulting cancellation of contributions from the 2s electrons, after sequential filling of the low σ and σ orbitals; σ overlap of the two atomic 2p orbitals that lie along the O-O molecular axis and  overlap of two pairs of atomic 2p orbitals perpendicular to the O-O molecular axis, and then cancellation of contributions from the remaining two of the six 2p electrons after their partial filling of the lowest  and  orbitals.

text: After describing experiments to ascertain the pressure of steam at various points between 0 and 100 °C (32 and 212 °F), Dalton concluded from observations on the vapour pressure of six different liquids, that the variation of vapour pressure for all liquids is equivalent, for the same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapour of any given pressure.

text: After describing experiments to ascertain the pressure of steam at various points between 0 and 100 °C (32 and 212 °F), Dalton concluded from observations on the

text: vapour pressure

text: of six different liquids, that the variation of vapour pressure for all liquids is equivalent, for the same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapour of any given pressure.

text: Former Detective Superintendent Terry Dalton brings an experience from over 30 years in the field with NSW Police. Dalton mostly presents the Petty Theft cases and brings with it a slight comedic twist to the show. Dalton once said in a case of a string of burglaries on a Sydney University that "these crooks are studying how to become a criminal... And they're failing at it" because the criminals were in full view of the security cameras.

text: A narrator begins the piece by relating what an atom is and how atomic energy can be harnessed by man to produce "limitless" energy. Dr. Atom (a caricature with an atom for a head) then explains the similarities between the solar system and atomic structure. He then goes on to relate how the atom is made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. After this, the narrator explains how there are more than 90 elements with many possible isotopes for each.

text: A narrator begins the piece by relating what an atom is and how atomic energy can be harnessed by man to produce "limitless" energy. Dr. Atom (a caricature with an atom for a head) then explains the similarities between the solar system and atomic structure. He then goes on to relate how the atom is made up of

text: protons

text: neutrons

text: , and

text: electrons

text: . After this, the narrator explains how there are more than

text: 90 elements

text: with many possible

text: isotopes

text: for each.

text: John Dalton  FRS (6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He is best known for his pioneering work in the development of modern atomic theory; and his research into colour blindness, sometimes referred to as Daltonism, in his honour.

text: John Dalton

text: FRS

text: (6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844) was an English

text: chemist

text: physicist

text: , and

text: meteorologist

text: . He is best known for his pioneering work in the development of modern

text: atomic theory

text: ; and his research into

text: colour blindness

text: , sometimes referred to as

text: Daltonism

text: , in his honour.

text: Dalton High School is a public high school located in Dalton, Whitfield County, Georgia, USA. It  is one of two high schools operated by Dalton Public Schools.

text: Dalton High School is a public high school located in

text: Dalton

text: Whitfield County, Georgia

text: , USA. It  is one of two high schools operated by

text: Dalton Public Schools

text: After he causes Scratlantis to be sucked down the plughole, Scrat wanders through the landscape with a new acorn in hand. Inadvertently, he falls through into a cave and spots a place to stick his acorn in. Upon placing it, the whole cave melts, revealing that he is inside a spaceship (resembling the one inside the ice cave's walls in the first film). Scrat pulls the leaver that the acorn is on only for the ship to suddenly take off, the ship zooms into space and crashes into the Moon, causing it to hit several other planets causing them to bounce around and bump into each other as if they were billiard balls (the Moon is the cue ball) which ends up forming the Solar System which incidentally gives two planets new appearances (Jupiter's Great Red Spot is formed when Mars bumps into it, leaving a red splotch-like bruise on its surface; while Saturn is bumped into its rings as if it were a billiard ball falling into a pocket), as well as causing a green planet to be shot off into space and toward some constellations and two more extra planets to collide with each other, shattering both worlds and forming the Asteroid Belt.

text: Dalton Town with Newton is a civil parish in the Borough of Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria, England.  It contains 70 listed buildings that are recorded in the National Heritage List for England.  Of these, one is listed at Grade I, the highest of the three grades, two are at Grade II*, the middle grade, and the others are at Grade II, the lowest grade.  The parish contains the market town of Dalton-in-Furness and surrounding countryside.  Most of the listed buildings are houses and shops in or near the centre of the town.  The oldest listed building is Dalton Castle, a free-standing tower in the centre of the town.  Other listed buildings include a country house and associated structures, a farm and farm buildings, public houses, churches, a lime kiln, a pinfold, a market cross, public buildings, schools, a bank, and a war memorial.__NOTOC__

text: Dalton Town with Newton is a

text: civil parish

text: in the

text: Borough of Barrow-in-Furness

text: in

text: Cumbria

text: , England.  It contains 70

text: listed buildings

text: that are recorded in the

text: National Heritage List for England

text: .  Of these, one is listed at Grade I, the highest of the three grades, two are at Grade II*, the middle grade, and the others are at Grade II, the lowest grade.  The parish contains the market town of

text: Dalton-in-Furness

text: and surrounding countryside.  Most of the listed buildings are houses and shops in or near the centre of the town.  The oldest listed building is

text: Dalton Castle

text: , a free-standing tower in the centre of the town.  Other listed buildings include a

text: country house

text: and associated structures, a farm and farm buildings, public houses, churches, a

text: lime kiln

text: , a

text: pinfold

text: , a market cross, public buildings, schools, a bank, and a war memorial.__NOTOC__

text: The Intel Atom, released in 2008, is the first Intel product to feature 2-way SMT (marketed as Hyper-Threading) without supporting instruction reordering, speculative execution, or register renaming. Intel reintroduced Hyper-Threading with the Nehalem microarchitecture, after its absence on the Core microarchitecture.

text: The

text: Intel

text: Atom

text: , released in 2008, is the first Intel product to feature 2-way SMT (marketed as Hyper-Threading) without supporting instruction reordering, speculative execution, or register renaming. Intel reintroduced Hyper-Threading with the

text: Nehalem microarchitecture

text: , after its absence on the

text: Core microarchitecture

text: In response, Democritus expounded the atomic theory, in which indivisible bits of matter are in constant motion through the void. In the absence of something to perturb them they fall evenly through space.

text: In response, Democritus expounded the

text: atomic theory

text: , in which indivisible bits of matter are in constant motion through the void. In the absence of something to perturb them they fall evenly through space.

text: John Dalton was an English chemist best known for his development of atomic theory.

text: John Dalton was an English chemist best known for his development of

text: atomic theory

text: Captain Atom was canceled as of #57 in 1991 because Atom was slated to become the hero-turned-villain Monarch in DC's Armageddon 2001 crossover event; however, when word of this leaked out, DC changed the ending at the last minute.  Atom and the Monarch character continue battling through time in Armageddon: The Alien Agenda limited series, until he is returned to his own time at the conclusion. Captain Atom then returns to the League, involved in the Zero Hour Crisis in 1994, founding an offshoot team, Extreme Justice in 1995. While leading Extreme Justice, Captain Atom comes across another version of Monarch, this one claiming to be the real Nathaniel Adam. Later in 1999, he is a member of the poorly received team known as the Living Assault Weapons or L.A.W., the members of whom are all previously Charlton Comics characters. In 2003, he again teams up with several former members of the Justice League as the "Super Buddies" in the humorous limited series Formerly Known as the Justice League. Around this time, various stories reintroduce Atom's conflict between his role in the superhero community and his responsibilities as a government agent.

text: Captain Atom was canceled as of #57 in 1991 because Atom was slated to become the hero-turned-villain

text: Monarch

text: in DC's

text: Armageddon 2001

text: crossover event; however, when word of this leaked out, DC changed the ending at the last minute.  Atom and the Monarch character continue battling through time in

text: Armageddon: The Alien Agenda

text: limited series

text: , until he is returned to his own time at the conclusion. Captain Atom then returns to the League, involved in the Zero Hour Crisis in 1994, founding an offshoot team,

text: Extreme Justice

text: in 1995. While leading Extreme Justice, Captain Atom comes across another version of Monarch, this one claiming to be the real Nathaniel Adam. Later in 1999, he is a member of the poorly received team known as the Living Assault Weapons or

text: L.A.W.

text: , the members of whom are all previously Charlton Comics characters. In 2003, he again teams up with several former members of the Justice League as the "

text: Super Buddies

text: " in the humorous

text: limited series

text: Formerly Known as the Justice League. Around this time, various stories reintroduce Atom's conflict between his role in the superhero community and his responsibilities as a government agent.

text: An urban legend received cultural attention to many saying, "If the Earth were the size of a billiard ball, it would be smoother". It was used in 2008's Discover Magazine, but mistook the diameter tolerance for smoothness, If the Earth were reduced to the size of a billiard ball, much of it, excluding the Himalayas and Mariana Trench, would be smoother. (see also: Earth's Shape)

text: An urban legend received cultural attention to many saying, "If the

text: Earth

text: were the size of a billiard ball, it would be smoother". It was used in 2008's Discover Magazine, but mistook the diameter tolerance for smoothness, If the Earth were reduced to the size of a billiard ball, much of it, excluding the

text: Himalayas

text: and

text: Mariana Trench

text: , would be smoother. (see also:

text: Earth's Shape

text: The number of protons within the atom's nucleus is called atomic number and is equal to the number of electrons in the neutral (non-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of neutrons. The number of nucleons (both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom's mass number, and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number.

text: The number of protons within the

text: atom's nucleus

text: is called

text: atomic number

text: and is equal to the number of

text: electron

text: s in the neutral (non-ionized) atom. Each atomic number identifies a specific element, but not the isotope; an atom of a given element may have a wide range in its number of

text: neutron

text: s. The number of

text: nucleon

text: s (both protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is the atom's

text: mass number

text: , and each isotope of a given element has a different mass number.

text: The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of the hydrogen atom, compared to the valence shell atom. As a theory, it can be derived as a first-order approximation of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be an obsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics or energy level diagrams before moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related model was originally proposed by Arthur Erich Haas in 1910, but was rejected. The quantum theory of the period between Planck's discovery of the quantum (1900) and the advent of a full-blown quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as the old quantum theory.

text: The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of the

text: hydrogen atom

text: , compared to the

text: valence shell atom

text: . As a theory, it can be derived as a

text: first-order approximation

text: of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate

text: quantum mechanics

text: and thus may be considered to be an

text: obsolete scientific theory

text: . However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to

text: quantum mechanics

text: or

text: energy level diagrams

text: before moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related model was originally proposed by

text: Arthur Erich Haas

text: in 1910, but was rejected. The quantum theory of the period between

text: Planck's discovery of the quantum

text: (1900) and the advent of a full-blown

text: quantum mechanics

text: (1925) is often referred to as the

text: old quantum theory

text: At the close of the 19th century, the reductionism of atomic theory began to advance into the atom itself; determining, through physics, the nature of the atom and the operation of chemical reactions. Electricity, first thought to be a fluid, was now understood to consist of particles called electrons. This was first demonstrated by J. J. Thomson in 1897 when, using a cathode ray tube, he found that an electrical charge would travel across a vacuum (which would possess infinite resistance in classical theory). Since the vacuum offered no medium for an electric fluid to travel, this discovery could only be explained via a particle carrying a negative charge and moving through the vacuum. This electron flew in the face of classical electrodynamics, which had successfully treated electricity as a fluid for many years (leading to the invention of batteries, electric motors, dynamos, and arc lamps). More importantly, the intimate relation between electric charge and electromagnetism had been well documented following the discoveries of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. Since electromagnetism was known to be a wave generated by a changing electric or magnetic field (a continuous, wave-like entity itself) an atomic/particle description of electricity and charge was a non sequitur. Furthermore, classical electrodynamics was not the only classical theory rendered incomplete.

text: At the close of the 19th century, the reductionism of atomic theory began to advance into the atom itself; determining, through physics, the nature of the atom and the operation of chemical reactions. Electricity, first thought to be a fluid, was now understood to consist of particles called

text: electron

text: s. This was first demonstrated by

text: J. J. Thomson

text: in 1897 when, using a

text: cathode ray tube

text: , he found that an electrical charge would travel across a vacuum (which would possess infinite resistance in classical theory). Since the vacuum offered no medium for an electric fluid to travel, this discovery could only be explained via a particle carrying a negative charge and moving through the vacuum. This electron flew in the face of classical electrodynamics, which had successfully treated electricity as a fluid for many years (leading to the invention of

text: batteries

text: electric motor

text: s,

text: dynamo

text: s, and

text: arc lamp

text: s). More importantly, the intimate relation between electric charge and electromagnetism had been well documented following the discoveries of

text: Michael Faraday

text: and

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: . Since electromagnetism was known to be a wave generated by a changing electric or magnetic field (a continuous, wave-like entity itself) an atomic/particle description of electricity and charge was a

text: non sequitur

text: . Furthermore, classical electrodynamics was not the only classical theory rendered incomplete.

text: In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: and

text: physics

text: , atomic theory is a

text: scientific theory

text: of the nature of

text: matter

text: , which states that matter is composed of discrete units called

text: atom

text: s. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.

text: The unified atomic mass unit and the dalton are different names for the same unit of measure.  As with other unit names such as watt and newton, "dalton" is not capitalized in English, but its symbol Da is capitalized. With the introduction of the name "dalton", there has been a gradual change towards using that name in preference to the name "unified atomic mass unit":

text: These concepts have emerged naturally from Maxwell's equations and Planck's and Einstein's theories. They have been found to be true for many other physical systems. In fact, the typical program is to assume the concepts of this section and then to infer the unknown dynamics of a physical system. This was done, for instance, with the dynamics of electrons. In that case, working back from the principles in this section, the quantum dynamics of particles were inferred, leading to Schrödinger's equation, a departure from Newtonian mechanics. The solution of this equation for atoms led to the explanation of the Balmer series for atomic spectra and consequently formed a basis for all of atomic physics and chemistry.

text: These concepts have emerged naturally from

text: Maxwell's equations

text: and Planck's and Einstein's theories. They have been found to be true for many other physical systems. In fact, the typical program is to assume the concepts of this section and then to infer the unknown dynamics of a physical system. This was done, for instance, with the dynamics of electrons. In that case, working back from the principles in this section, the quantum dynamics of particles were inferred, leading to

text: Schrödinger's equation

text: , a departure from

text: Newtonian mechanics

text: . The solution of this equation for atoms led to the explanation of the

text: Balmer series

text: for atomic spectra and consequently formed a basis for all of atomic physics and chemistry.

text: Established during the late 1860s by Herbert Dalton, Daltons Weekly was initially a single broadsheet listing 'Accommodation for Gentleman' in the then fashionable middle class suburbs around Vauxhall in South London. The paper proved very successful, but within two years of starting the paper, Dalton died, leaving it to his brother, who was a butcher and had no interest in publishing. The brother sold the paper to two brothers by the name of 'Hebert', for £100. For the next 102 years, Daltons Weekly remained a family business owned by the Heberts.

text: Established during the late 1860s by Herbert Dalton, Daltons Weekly was initially a single

text: broadsheet

text: listing 'Accommodation for Gentleman' in the then fashionable middle class suburbs around

text: Vauxhall

text: in

text: South London

text: . The paper proved very successful, but within two years of starting the paper, Dalton died, leaving it to his brother, who was a butcher and had no interest in publishing. The brother sold the paper to two brothers by the name of 'Hebert', for £100. For the next 102 years, Daltons Weekly remained a family business owned by the Heberts.

text: The relative atomic mass (atomic weight) scale has traditionally been a relative scale, that is without an explicit unit, with the first relative atomic mass basis suggested by John Dalton in 1803 as H. Despite the initial mass of H being used as the natural unit for relative atomic mass, it was suggested by Wilhelm Ostwald that relative atomic mass would be best expressed in terms of units of 1/16 mass of oxygen. This evaluation was made prior to the discovery of the existence of elemental isotopes, which occurred in 1912.

text: The

text: relative atomic mass

text: (atomic weight) scale has traditionally been a relative scale, that is without an explicit unit, with the first relative atomic mass basis suggested by

text: John Dalton

text: in 1803 as H. Despite the initial mass of H being used as the natural unit for relative atomic mass, it was suggested by

text: Wilhelm Ostwald

text: that relative atomic mass would be best expressed in terms of units of 1/16 mass of oxygen. This evaluation was made prior to the discovery of the existence of elemental isotopes, which occurred in 1912.

text: For these and other reasons, the reference standard for both physics and chemistry was changed to carbon-12 in 1961. The choice of carbon-12 was made to minimise further divergence with prior literature. The new and current unit was referred to as the "unified atomic mass unit" u. and given a new symbol, "u," which replaced the now deprecated "amu" that had been connected to the old oxygen-based system. The Dalton (Da) is another name for the unified atomic mass unit.

text: For these and other reasons, the reference standard for both physics and chemistry was changed to

text: in 1961. The choice of carbon-12 was made to minimise further divergence with prior literature. The new and current unit was referred to as the "unified atomic mass unit" u. and given a new symbol, "u," which replaced the now deprecated "amu" that had been connected to the old oxygen-based system. The Dalton (Da) is another name for the unified atomic mass unit.

text: proposed the billiard-ball computer as part of their investigations into reversible computing. A billiard-ball computer consists of a system of synchronized particles (the billiard balls) moving in tracks and guided by a fixed set of obstacles. When the particles collide with each other or with the obstacles, they undergo an elastic collision much as real billiard balls would do. The input to the computer is encoded using the presence or absence of particles on certain input tracks, and its output is similarly encoded using the presence or absence of particles on output tracks. The tracks themselves may be envisioned as wires, and the particles as being Boolean signals transported on those wires. When a particle hits an obstacle, it reflects from it. This reflection may be interpreted as a change in direction of the wire the particle is following. Two particles on different tracks may collide, forming a logic gate at their collision point.

text: proposed the

text: billiard-ball computer

text: as part of their investigations into

text: reversible computing

text: . A billiard-ball computer consists of a system of synchronized particles (the billiard balls) moving in tracks and guided by a fixed set of obstacles. When the particles collide with each other or with the obstacles, they undergo an

text: elastic collision

text: much as real

text: billiard balls

text: would do. The input to the computer is encoded using the presence or absence of particles on certain input tracks, and its output is similarly encoded using the presence or absence of particles on output tracks. The tracks themselves may be envisioned as wires, and the particles as being Boolean signals transported on those wires. When a particle hits an obstacle, it reflects from it. This reflection may be interpreted as a change in direction of the wire the particle is following. Two particles on different tracks may collide, forming a logic gate at their collision point.

text: The overall geometry is further refined by distinguishing between bonding and nonbonding electron pairs. The bonding electron pair shared in a sigma bond with an adjacent atom lies further from the central atom than a nonbonding (lone) pair of that atom, which is held close to its positively charged nucleus. VSEPR theory therefore views repulsion by the lone pair to be greater than the repulsion by a bonding pair. As such, when a molecule has 2 interactions with different degrees of repulsion, VSEPR theory predicts the structure where lone pairs occupy positions that allow them to experience less repulsion. Lone pair–lone pair (lp–lp) repulsions are considered stronger than lone pair–bonding pair (lp–bp) repulsions, which in turn are considered stronger than bonding pair–bonding pair (bp–bp) repulsions, distinctions that then guide decisions about overall geometry when 2 or more non-equivalent positions are possible. For instance, when 5 valence electron pairs surround a central atom, they adopt a trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry with two collinear axial positions and three equatorial positions. An electron pair in an axial position has three close equatorial neighbors only 90° away and a fourth much farther at 180°, while an equatorial electron pair has only two adjacent pairs at 90° and two at 120°. The repulsion from the close neighbors at 90° is more important, so that the axial positions experience more repulsion than the equatorial positions; hence, when there are lone pairs, they tend to occupy equatorial positions as shown in the diagrams of the next section for steric number five.

text: The overall geometry is further refined by distinguishing between bonding and nonbonding electron pairs. The bonding electron pair shared in a

text: sigma bond

text: with an adjacent atom lies further from the central atom than a nonbonding (lone) pair of that atom, which is held close to its positively charged nucleus. VSEPR theory therefore views repulsion by the lone pair to be greater than the repulsion by a bonding pair. As such, when a molecule has 2 interactions with different degrees of repulsion, VSEPR theory predicts the structure where lone pairs occupy positions that allow them to experience less repulsion. Lone pair–lone pair (lp–lp) repulsions are considered stronger than lone pair–bonding pair (lp–bp) repulsions, which in turn are considered stronger than bonding pair–bonding pair (bp–bp) repulsions, distinctions that then guide decisions about overall geometry when 2 or more non-equivalent positions are possible. For instance, when 5 valence electron pairs surround a central atom, they adopt a

text: trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry

text: with two collinear axial positions and three equatorial positions. An electron pair in an axial position has three close equatorial neighbors only 90° away and a fourth much farther at 180°, while an equatorial electron pair has only two adjacent pairs at 90° and two at 120°. The repulsion from the close neighbors at 90° is more important, so that the axial positions experience more repulsion than the equatorial positions; hence, when there are lone pairs, they tend to occupy equatorial positions as shown in the diagrams of the next section for steric number five.

text: Atomic orbitals can be the hydrogen-like "orbitals" which are exact solutions to the Schrödinger equation for a hydrogen-like "atom" (i.e., an atom with one electron). Alternatively, atomic orbitals refer to functions that depend on the coordinates of one electron (i.e., orbitals) but are used as starting points for approximating wave functions that depend on the simultaneous coordinates of all the electrons in an atom or molecule. The coordinate systems chosen for atomic orbitals are usually spherical coordinates  in atoms and cartesians  in polyatomic molecules. The advantage of spherical coordinates (for atoms) is that an orbital wave function is a product of three factors each dependent on a single coordinate: . The angular factors of atomic orbitals  generate s, p, d, etc. functions as real combinations of spherical harmonics  (where  and  are quantum numbers). There are typically three mathematical forms for the radial functions  which can be chosen as a starting point for the calculation of the properties of atoms and molecules with many electrons:

text: Atomic orbitals can be the hydrogen-like "orbitals" which are exact solutions to the

text: Schrödinger equation

text: for a

text: hydrogen-like "atom"

text: (i.e., an atom with one electron). Alternatively, atomic orbitals refer to functions that depend on the coordinates of one electron (i.e., orbitals) but are used as starting points for approximating wave functions that depend on the simultaneous coordinates of all the electrons in an atom or molecule. The

text: coordinate system

text: s chosen for atomic orbitals are usually

text: spherical coordinates

text: in atoms and

text: cartesians

text: in polyatomic molecules. The advantage of spherical coordinates (for atoms) is that an orbital wave function is a product of three factors each dependent on a single coordinate: . The angular factors of atomic orbitals  generate s, p, d, etc. functions as

text: real combinations

text: of

text: spherical harmonics

text: (where  and  are quantum numbers). There are typically three mathematical forms for the radial functions  which can be chosen as a starting point for the calculation of the properties of atoms and molecules with many electrons:

text: Thomas Thomson (12 April 1773 – 2 July 1852) was a Scottish chemist and mineralogist whose writings contributed to the early spread of Dalton's atomic theory.

text: Thomas Thomson (12 April 1773 – 2 July 1852) was a Scottish chemist and mineralogist whose writings contributed to the early spread of

text: Dalton's

text: atomic theory.

text: Pool balls are used to play various pool (pocket billiards or pool billiards) games, such as eight-ball, nine-ball and one-pocket. In North America, they are sometimes referred to simply as "billiard balls" (except among carom players), and in the UK they are commonly referred to as kelly pool or American balls.  These balls, used the most widely throughout the world, are considerably smaller than carom billiards balls, slightly larger than British-style pool balls and substantially larger than those for snooker.  According to WPA/BCA equipment specifications, the weight may be from 5.5 to 6 oz (156–170 g) with a diameter of 2.250 inch (57.15 mm), plus or minus 0.005 inch (0.127 mm).  These are often referred to as  inch balls. The balls are numbered and colored as follows:In baseball pocket billiards, the ball set is extended to 21 balls, in which the 16 ball is black and white, while balls 17 through 21 have no special design, but look exactly like balls 9 through 13, respectively, except for their numbers.

text: Pool balls are used to play various

text: pool

text: (pocket billiards or pool billiards) games, such as

text: eight-ball

text: nine-ball

text: and

text: one-pocket

text: . In North America, they are sometimes referred to simply as "billiard balls" (except among carom players), and in the UK they are commonly referred to as

text: kelly pool

text: or American balls.  These balls, used the most widely throughout the world, are considerably smaller than carom billiards balls, slightly larger than British-style pool balls and substantially larger than those for snooker.  According to

text: WPA

text: BCA

text: equipment specifications, the weight may be from 5.5 to 6 oz (156–170 g) with a diameter of 2.250 inch (57.15 mm), plus or minus 0.005 inch (0.127 mm).  These are often referred to as  inch balls. The balls are numbered and colored as follows:In

text: baseball pocket billiards

text: , the ball set is extended to 21 balls, in which the 16 ball is black and white, while balls 17 through 21 have no special design, but look exactly like balls 9 through 13, respectively, except for their numbers.

text: The formerly alcohol-free, 26-table venue, described as "retro", "classic" and "unadorned", was intentionally designed to be open and bright, to avoid the stereotypical dingy pool hall atmosphere. It has a beer and wine bar and food service as of 2010. The hall is equipped for pool (pocket billiards) games such as eight-ball, nine-ball and straight pool, with 19 classic 1960s Brunswick Gold Crown II tables among others, as well as for carom billiards games such as three-cushion.  The hall hosts American Poolplayers Association member league play.  The business has also long provided table soccer tables.

text: The formerly

text: alcohol

text: -free, 26-

text: table

text: venue, described as "retro", "classic" and "unadorned", was intentionally designed to be open and bright, to avoid the stereotypical dingy pool hall atmosphere. It has a beer and wine bar and food service as of 2010. The hall is equipped for

text: pool

text: (pocket billiards) games such as

text: eight-ball

text: nine-ball

text: and

text: straight pool

text: , with 19 classic 1960s

text: Brunswick

text: Gold Crown II tables among others, as well as for

text: carom billiards

text: games such as

text: three-cushion

text: .  The hall hosts

text: American Poolplayers Association

text: member league play.  The business has also long provided

text: table soccer

text: tables.

text: The law of definite proportions contributed to, and was placed on a firm theoretical basis by, the atomic theory that John Dalton promoted beginning in 1803, which explained matter as consisting of discrete atoms, that there was one type of atom for each element, and that the compounds were made of combinations of different types of atoms in fixed proportions.

text: The law of definite proportions contributed to, and was placed on a firm theoretical basis by, the

text: atomic theory

text: that

text: John Dalton

text: promoted beginning in 1803, which explained matter as consisting of discrete

text: atom

text: s, that there was one type of atom for each element, and that the compounds were made of combinations of different types of atoms in fixed proportions.

text: Besides classical mechanics and thermodynamics, another great field of experimental inquiry within physics was the nature of electricity. Observations in the 17th and eighteenth century by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray, and Benjamin Franklin created a foundation for later work. These observations also established our basic understanding of electrical charge and current. By 1808 John Dalton had discovered that atoms of different elements have different weights and proposed the modern theory of the atom.

text: Besides classical mechanics and thermodynamics, another great field of experimental inquiry within physics was the nature of

text: electricity

text: . Observations in the 17th and eighteenth century by scientists such as

text: Robert Boyle

text: Stephen Gray

text: , and

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: created a foundation for later work. These observations also established our basic understanding of electrical charge and

text: current

text: . By 1808

text: John Dalton

text: had discovered that atoms of different elements have different weights and proposed the modern

text: theory of the atom

text: Significant quantities of cotton began to be used after about 1600, firstly in linen/cotton fustians, but by around 1750 pure cotton fabrics were being produced and cotton had overtaken wool in importance. The Irwell and Mersey were made navigable by 1736, opening a route from Manchester to the sea docks on the Mersey. The Bridgewater Canal, Britain's first wholly artificial waterway, was opened in 1761, bringing coal from mines at Worsley to central Manchester. The canal was extended to the Mersey at Runcorn by 1776. The combination of competition and improved efficiency halved the cost of coal and halved the transport cost of raw cotton. Manchester became the dominant marketplace for textiles produced in the surrounding towns. A commodities exchange, opened in 1729, and numerous large warehouses, aided commerce. In 1780, Richard Arkwright began construction of Manchester's first cotton mill. In the early 1800s, John Dalton formulated his atomic theory in Manchester.

text: Significant quantities of cotton began to be used after about 1600, firstly in linen/cotton

text: fustian

text: s, but by around 1750 pure cotton fabrics were being produced and cotton had overtaken wool in importance. The Irwell and Mersey were made navigable by 1736, opening a route from Manchester to the sea docks on the Mersey. The

text: Bridgewater Canal

text: , Britain's first wholly artificial waterway, was opened in 1761, bringing coal from mines at

text: Worsley

text: to central Manchester. The canal was extended to the Mersey at

text: Runcorn

text: by 1776. The combination of competition and improved efficiency halved the cost of coal and halved the transport cost of raw cotton. Manchester became the dominant marketplace for textiles produced in the surrounding towns. A

text: commodities exchange

text: , opened in 1729, and numerous large warehouses, aided commerce. In 1780,

text: Richard Arkwright

text: began construction of Manchester's first cotton mill. In the early 1800s,

text: John Dalton

text: formulated his atomic theory in Manchester.

text: In chemistry, molecular orbital (MO) theory is a method for determining molecular structure in which electrons are not assigned to individual bonds between atoms, but are treated as moving under the influence of the nuclei in the whole molecule. The spatial and energetic properties of electrons within atoms are fixed by quantum mechanics to form orbitals that contain these electrons. While atomic orbitals contain electrons ascribed to a single atom, molecular orbitals, which surround a number of atoms in a molecule, contain valence electrons between atoms. Molecular orbital theory, which was proposed in the early twentieth century, revolutionized the study of bonding by approximating the positions of bonded electrons—the molecular orbitals—as linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO). These approximations are now made by applying the density functional theory (DFT) or Hartree–Fock (HF) models to the Schrödinger equation.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , molecular orbital (MO) theory is a

text: method

text: for determining molecular structure in which

text: electron

text: s are not assigned to individual

text: bond

text: s between

text: atom

text: s, but are treated as moving under the influence of the

text: nuclei

text: in the whole molecule. The spatial and energetic properties of electrons within atoms are fixed by

text: quantum mechanics

text: to form orbitals that contain these electrons. While

text: atomic orbital

text: s contain electrons ascribed to a single atom, molecular orbitals, which surround a number of atoms in a molecule, contain

text: valence electrons

text: between atoms. Molecular orbital theory, which was proposed in the early twentieth century, revolutionized the study of bonding by approximating the positions of bonded electrons—the molecular orbitals—as linear combinations of atomic orbitals (

text: LCAO

text: ). These approximations are now made by applying the

text: density functional theory

text: (DFT) or

text: Hartree–Fock

text: (HF) models to the Schrödinger equation.

text: Dalton was chosen as Chairman of the Energy and Environment Committee, focusing on an issue that he felt was important both statewide and particularly in his own district. During his first term in the Senate, Dalton pushed for passage of the "Worker and Community Right to Know" law, which requires notification and details of chemicals and other toxic substances used in the workplace. Dalton was chosen to be the majority leader in 1990 and was tasked with leading the enactment of several initiatives pushed by Governor Florio, including the creation of the Joint Underwriting Association, an insurance pool for high-risk drivers that ended up insuring a significant portion of all New Jersey drivers, passage of the Quality Education Act, which increased school aid for students in urban districts, as well as income tax increases and an assault weapons ban.

text: The resonance structures in the VB model are particularly useful in predicting the effect of substituents on π systems such as benzene. They lead to the models of resonance structures for an electron-withdrawing group and electron-releasing group on benzene. The utility of MO theory is that a quantitative indication of the charge from the π system on an atom can be obtained from the squares of the weighting coefficient c on atom C. Charge q ≈ c. The reason for squaring the coefficient is that if an electron is described by an AO, then the square of the AO gives the electron density. The AOs are adjusted (normalized) so that AO = 1, and q ≈ (cAO) ≈ c. In benzene, q = 1 on each C atom. With an electron-withdrawing group q < 1 on the ortho and para C atoms and q > 1 for an electron-releasing group.

text: The resonance structures in the VB model are particularly useful in predicting the effect of

text: substituents

text: on π systems such as benzene. They lead to the models of resonance structures for an

text: electron-withdrawing group

text: and

text: electron-releasing group

text: on benzene. The utility of MO theory is that a quantitative indication of the charge from the π system on an atom can be obtained from the squares of the weighting coefficient c on atom C. Charge q ≈ c. The reason for squaring the coefficient is that if an electron is described by an AO, then the square of the AO gives the

text: electron density

text: . The AOs are adjusted (

text: normalized

text: ) so that AO = 1, and q ≈ (cAO) ≈ c. In benzene, q = 1 on each C atom. With an

text: electron-withdrawing group

text: q < 1 on the ortho and para C atoms and q > 1 for an

text: electron-releasing group

text: He served as a surgeon in the national service from 1861 to 1864. Prior to his resignation in 1864, Dalton was a prominent member in the medicals corps of the national service. It should be noted that he served in the 7th New York regiment in 1861. Dr. Dalton joined the national services as soon as the civil commenced. He was primarily a surgeon during this time, and spent a lot of time treating the wounded. John was originally in the navy, with the rank of medical officer. However, he spend time in the army corps as well where he served as the medical inspector in the 6th army corps. He was transferred to the Army of the Potomac where he was made chief medical inspector of the field-hospitals. Once Dr. Dalton resigned in 1865, he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel as well as colonel of volunteers. He wrote many different literatures in regards to physiology, one of which would be his book known as "The Treatise on Human Physiology." Another book he contributed to the field of physiology is "Topographical Anatomy of the Brain." The Academy of Sciences decided to elect Dr. Dalton as a member in 1864.

text: In Mexico, a minority of players rack with the 8 ball rather than the apex ball on the foot spot, a trait in common with British-style blackball/8-ball pool.  Pocketing the 8 ball on the  shot is an instant win, as it usually is in American bar pool, but is not in the international rules.  Because Mexican pool, except near the US border, is almost always played on open-pocket pool-hall-style tables, rather than coin-operated tables that trap object balls, any of one's own balls pocketed on a foul are ted (but how they are spotted varies widely, with the balls often placed against the  on the , and adjacent to nearby  if more than one must be spotted, instead of on the foot spot, but sometimes even to the side at  diamonds, due to the influence of coyote, a Mexican variant of Chicago; foot-spot spotting is neither common nor uncommon.)  Pool itself is not considered a very serious game in the country other than in the northern states; in most of Mexico, three-cushion billiards is the serious game, while pool is mostly played by youths, by groups of friends (including many young women) as a bar game to pass the time, and by older working-class men as an after-work activity. In many recreation halls, dominoes is more popular than pool.

text: In Mexico, a minority of players rack with the 8 ball rather than the apex ball on the foot spot, a trait in common with British-style

text: blackball/8-ball pool

text: .  Pocketing the 8 ball on the  shot is an instant win, as it usually is in American bar pool, but is not in the international rules.  Because Mexican pool, except near the US border, is almost always played on open-pocket

text: pool-hall

text: -style tables, rather than coin-operated tables that trap object balls, any of one's own balls pocketed on a foul are ted (but how they are spotted varies widely, with the balls often placed against the  on the , and adjacent to nearby  if more than one must be spotted, instead of on the foot spot, but sometimes even to the side at  diamonds, due to the influence of

text: coyote

text: , a Mexican variant of

text: Chicago

text: ; foot-spot spotting is neither common nor uncommon.)  Pool itself is not considered a very serious game in the country other than in the northern

text: states

text: ; in most of Mexico,

text: three-cushion billiards

text: is the serious game, while pool is mostly played by youths, by groups of friends (including many young women) as a bar game to pass the time, and by older working-class men as an after-work activity. In many recreation halls,

text: dominoes

text: is more popular than pool.

text: X-ray diffraction confirms that all six carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are the same length, 140 pm (1.40 Å) – intermediate between the bond lengths of single (154 pm) and double (134 pm) carbon-carbon bonds.  This is consistent with delocalization of the electrons from the double bonds in Kekulé's structures equally between each of the six carbon atoms which form a planar ring.  The molecular orbital theory description involves the formation of three delocalized π orbitals spanning all six carbon atoms, while the valence bond theory description involves a superposition of resonance structures.  This electronic structure provides benzene with unusual stability and contributes to the molecular and chemical properties which are now known as aromaticity.  To accurately reflect the nature of the bonding as having neither single nor double bonds, but rather something in between, benzene is often depicted with a circle inside a hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms, similar to the structure first illustrated by Thiele.

text: X-ray diffraction

text: confirms that all six carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are the same length, 140

text: pm

text: Å

text: ) – intermediate between the

text: bond length

text: s of single (154 pm) and double (134 pm) carbon-carbon bonds.  This is consistent with

text: delocalization

text: of the electrons from the double bonds in Kekulé's structures equally between each of the six carbon atoms which form a planar ring.  The

text: molecular orbital theory

text: description involves the formation of three delocalized

text: π orbitals

text: spanning all six carbon atoms, while the

text: valence bond theory

text: description involves a superposition of resonance structures.  This electronic structure provides benzene with unusual stability and contributes to the molecular and chemical properties which are now known as

text: aromaticity

text: .  To accurately reflect the nature of the bonding as having neither single nor double bonds, but rather something in between, benzene is often depicted with a circle inside a hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms, similar to the structure first illustrated by Thiele.

text: Presuming that J. Frank Dalton was Jesse James then stealing the identity of someone that might bring him unwanted attention seems foolhardy, but could have had to do with wanting to be the good guy, as Jesse James reportedly intended to change his ways while planning one last robbery around the time of his murder. It seems the Dalton boys held Jesse James in honor (as among thieves), so this theory suggests that upon being flattered by such respect Jesse assumed the identity of the most honorable and reputable of the Dalton boys, Frank Dalton.  It would have been an aspiration he kept mostly to himself for 50 years since that's how long it took until J. Frank Dalton claimed to be the original Frank Dalton from whom he assumed the name.

text: While serving as US Naval Reserve Pilot, Dalton took an interest in slide-rule flight computers.  His first models were designed in the early 1930s but it was not until 1932 that the first revision of the E-6B, originally known as the "Dalton Dead Reckoning Computer", came into existence.

text: While serving as US Naval Reserve Pilot, Dalton took an interest in slide-rule flight computers.  His first models were designed in the early 1930s but it was not until 1932 that the first revision of the E-6B, originally known as the "Dalton

text: Dead Reckoning

text: Computer", came into existence.

text: Dalton used his own symbols to visually represent the atomic structure of compounds. These were depicted in theNew System of Chemical Philosophy, where Dalton listed twenty elements and seventeen simple molecules.

text: Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin. On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right). Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm.

text: Atoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an

text: atomic radius

text: . This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a

text: chemical bond

text: . The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (

text: coordination number

text: ) and a

text: quantum mechanical

text: property known as

text: spin

text: . On the

text: periodic table

text: of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right). Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32

text: pm

text: , while one of the largest is

text: caesium

text: at 225 pm.

text: In the elastic scattering interaction, a neutrino collides with an atomic electron and imparts some of its energy to the electron. All three neutrinos can participate in this interaction through the exchange of the neutral Z boson, and electron neutrinos can also participate with the exchange of a charged W boson. For this reason this interaction is dominated by electron neutrinos, and this is the channel through which the Super-Kamiokande (Super-K) detector can observe solar neutrinos. This interaction is the relativistic equivalent of billiards, and for this reason the electrons produced usually point in the direction that the neutrino was travelling (away from the sun). Because this interaction takes place on atomic electrons it occurs with the same rate in both the heavy and light water.

text: In the

text: elastic scattering

text: interaction, a neutrino collides with an atomic electron and imparts some of its energy to the electron. All three neutrinos can participate in this interaction through the exchange of the neutral

text: Z boson

text: , and electron neutrinos can also participate with the exchange of a charged

text: W boson

text: . For this reason this interaction is dominated by electron neutrinos, and this is the channel through which the

text: Super-Kamiokande

text: (Super-K) detector can observe solar neutrinos. This interaction is the relativistic equivalent of

text: billiards

text: , and for this reason the electrons produced usually point in the direction that the neutrino was travelling (away from the sun). Because this interaction takes place on atomic electrons it occurs with the same rate in both the heavy and light water.

text: The SI Brochure (8th edition) implicitly defines the dalton as  where the value of N is determined by experiment. The proposal fixes N, so if the Avogadro constant and Avogadro's number are to be numerically identical, the dalton must be related to either the mass of a single carbon atom or to the kilogram—it cannot be related to both.

text: Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions. For example, he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases' respective particles, and carbon dioxide molecules (CO) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N).

text: Dalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions. For example, he found that water absorbs

text: carbon dioxide

text: far better than it absorbs

text: nitrogen

text: . Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases' respective particles, and carbon dioxide molecules (CO) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N).

text: XKCY denotes X thousand Daltons of molecular mass and Y carbon atoms.

text: XKCY denotes X thousand

text: Daltons

text: of

text: molecular mass

text: and Y

text: carbon

text: atoms.

text: Diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element, atom, and molecule in the 19th century, because some of the most common elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, occur as diatomic molecules. John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed water's formula to be HO, giving the atomic weight of oxygen as eight times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. As a consequence, confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century.

text: Diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element, atom, and molecule in the 19th century, because some of the most common elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, occur as diatomic molecules.

text: John Dalton

text: 's original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed water's formula to be HO, giving the atomic weight of oxygen as eight times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. As a consequence, confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century.

text: The upper molecular-weight limit for a small molecule is approximately 900 daltons, which allows for the possibility to rapidly diffuse across cell membranes so that they can reach intracellular sites of action. In addition, this molecular weight cutoff is a necessary but insufficient condition for oral bioavailability. Finally, a lower molecular weight cutoff of 500 daltons (as part of the "rule of five") has been recommended for small molecule drug development candidates based on the observation that clinical attrition rates are significantly reduced if the molecular weight is kept below this 500 dalton limit.

text: The upper

text: molecular-weight

text: limit for a small molecule is approximately 900 daltons, which allows for the possibility to rapidly diffuse across cell membranes so that they can reach

text: intracellular

text: sites of action. In addition, this molecular weight cutoff is a necessary but insufficient condition for oral

text: bioavailability

text: . Finally, a lower molecular weight cutoff of 500 daltons (as part of the "

text: rule of five

text: ") has been recommended for small molecule drug development candidates based on the observation that clinical attrition rates are significantly reduced if the molecular weight is kept below this 500 dalton limit.

text: Margolus was one of the organizers of a seminal research meeting on the connections between physics and computation theory, held on Mosquito Island in 1982. He is known for inventing the block cellular automaton and the Margolus neighborhood for block cellular automata, which he used to develop cellular automaton simulations of billiard-ball computers. In the same work, Margolus also showed that the billiard ball model could be simulated by a second order cellular automaton, a different type of cellular automaton invented by his thesis advisor, Edward Fredkin. These two simulations were among the first cellular automata that were both reversible (able to be run backwards as well as forwards for any number of time steps, without ambiguity) and universal (able to simulate the operations of any computer program); this combination of properties is important in low-energy computing, as it has been shown that the energy dissipation of computing devices may be made arbitrarily small if and only if they are reversible. In connection with this issue, Margolus and his co-author  Lev B. Levitin proved the Margolus–Levitin theorem showing that the speed of any computer is limited by the fundamental laws of physics to be at most proportional to its energy use; this implies that ultra-low-energy computers must run more slowly than conventional computers.

text: Margolus was one of the organizers of a seminal research meeting on the connections between physics and computation theory, held on

text: Mosquito Island

text: in 1982. He is known for inventing the

text: block cellular automaton

text: and the Margolus neighborhood for block cellular automata, which he used to develop cellular automaton simulations of

text: billiard-ball computer

text: s. In the same work, Margolus also showed that the billiard ball model could be simulated by a

text: second order cellular automaton

text: , a different type of cellular automaton invented by his thesis advisor,

text: Edward Fredkin

text: . These two simulations were among the first cellular automata that were both reversible (able to be run backwards as well as forwards for any number of time steps, without ambiguity) and

text: universal

text: (able to simulate the operations of any computer program); this combination of properties is important in low-energy computing, as it has been shown that the energy dissipation of computing devices may be made arbitrarily small if and only if they are reversible. In connection with this issue, Margolus and his co-author  Lev B. Levitin proved the

text: Margolus–Levitin theorem

text: showing that the speed of any computer is limited by the fundamental laws of physics to be at most proportional to its energy use; this implies that ultra-low-energy computers must run more slowly than conventional computers.

text: Dalton also proposed a modern atomic theory in 1803 which stated that all matter was composed of small indivisible particles termed atoms, atoms of a given element possess unique characteristics and weight, and three types of atoms exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules). In 1808, Dalton first published New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808-1827), in which he outlined the first modern scientific description of the atomic theory. This work identified chemical elements as a specific type of atom, therefore rejecting Newton's theory of chemical affinities.

text: Dalton also proposed a modern

text: atomic theory

text: in 1803 which stated that all matter was composed of small indivisible particles termed atoms, atoms of a given element possess unique characteristics and weight, and three types of atoms exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex (complex molecules). In 1808, Dalton first published New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808-1827), in which he outlined the first modern scientific description of the atomic theory. This work identified chemical elements as a specific type of atom, therefore rejecting

text: Newton

text: 's theory of chemical affinities.

text: Kristen Dalton, who came in first-runner up at the 2005 Miss North Carolina Teen USA pageant to Nikkie Groat, went on to win Miss North Carolina USA in 2009, and won the title of Miss USA 2009. She represented the United States at the Miss Universe pageant in August 2009. Her younger sister Kenzie Dalton, who was first-runner up at the 2006 Miss North Carolina Teen USA pageant, became engaged to actor Chad Michael Murray the same year she placed first-runner up to Melissa Lingafelt (who placed first-runner to Katie Blair of Montana at Miss Teen USA 2006.) Their mother, Jeannie Dalton (Boger) was Miss North Carolina USA 1982, and their sister Julia Dalton was Miss North Carolina Teen USA 2008, and placed second-runner up to Stevi Perry of Arkansas at Miss Teen USA 2008. Julia was Miss North Carolina USA in 2015 and didn't place at the Miss USA 2015 pageant.

text: Kristen Dalton

text: , who came in first-runner up at the 2005 Miss North Carolina Teen USA pageant to

text: Nikkie Groat

text: , went on to win

text: Miss North Carolina USA

text: in 2009, and won the title of

text: Miss USA 2009

text: . She represented the United States at the

text: Miss Universe

text: pageant in August 2009. Her younger sister Kenzie Dalton, who was first-runner up at the 2006 Miss North Carolina Teen USA pageant, became engaged to actor

text: Chad Michael Murray

text: the same year she placed first-runner up to Melissa Lingafelt (who placed first-runner to

text: Katie Blair

text: of

text: Montana

text: at

text: Miss Teen USA 2006

text: .) Their mother,

text: Jeannie Dalton

text: (Boger) was Miss North Carolina USA 1982, and their sister

text: Julia Dalton

text: was Miss North Carolina Teen USA 2008, and placed second-runner up to

text: Stevi Perry

text: of

text: Arkansas

text: at

text: Miss Teen USA 2008

text: . Julia was

text: Miss North Carolina USA

text: in 2015 and didn't place at the

text: Miss USA 2015

text: pageant.

text: ABC-Transporter Genes - abl gene - acetic acid - acetyl CoA - acetylcholine - acetylcysteine - acid - acidic fibroblast growth factor - acrosin - actin - action potential - activation energy - active site - active transport - adenosine - adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - adenosine monophosphate (AMP) - adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - adenovirus - adrenergic receptor - adrenodoxin - aequorin - aerobic respiration - agonist - alanine - albumin - alcohol - alcoholic fermentation - alicyclic compound - aliphatic compound - alkali - Allosteric site - allostery - allotrope - allotropy - alpha adrenergic receptor - Alpha helix - alpha-1 adrenergic receptor - alpha-2 adrenergic receptor - alpha-beta T-cell antigen receptor - alpha-fetoprotein - alpha-globulin - alpha-macroglobulin - alpha-MSH - Ames test - amide - amine - amino - amino acid - amino acid receptor - amino acid sequence - amino acid sequence homology - aminobutyric acid - ammonia - AMPA receptor - amyloid - anabolism - anaerobic respiration - analytical chemistry - androgen receptor - angiotensin - angiotensin II - angiotensin receptor - ankyrin - annexin II - antibiotic - antibody - apoenzyme - apolipoprotein - apoptosis - aquaporin - archaea - arginine - argipressin - aromatic amine - aromatic compound - arrestin - Arrhenius equation - aryl hydrocarbon receptor - asparagine - aspartic acid - atom - atomic absorption spectroscopy - atomic mass - atomic mass unit - atomic nucleus - atomic number - atomic orbital - atomic radius - Atomic weight - ATP synthase - ATPase - atrial natriuretic factor - atrial natriuretic factor receptor - Avogadro's number - axon -

text: ABC-Transporter Genes

text: abl gene

text: acetic acid

text: acetyl CoA

text: acetylcholine

text: acetylcysteine

text: acid

text: acidic fibroblast growth factor

text: acrosin

text: actin

text: action potential

text: activation energy

text: active site

text: active transport

text: adenosine

text: adenosine diphosphate

text: (ADP) -

text: adenosine monophosphate

text: (AMP) -

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: (ATP) -

text: adenovirus

text: adrenergic receptor

text: adrenodoxin

text: aequorin

text: aerobic respiration

text: agonist

text: alanine

text: albumin

text: alcohol

text: alcoholic fermentation

text: alicyclic compound

text: aliphatic compound

text: alkali

text: Allosteric site

text: allostery

text: allotrope

text: allotropy

text: alpha adrenergic receptor

text: Alpha helix

text: alpha-1 adrenergic receptor

text: alpha-2 adrenergic receptor

text: alpha-beta T-cell antigen receptor

text: alpha-fetoprotein

text: alpha-globulin

text: alpha-macroglobulin

text: alpha-MSH

text: Ames test

text: amide

text: amine

text: amino

text: amino acid

text: amino acid receptor

text: amino acid sequence

text: amino acid sequence homology

text: aminobutyric acid

text: ammonia

text: AMPA receptor

text: amyloid

text: anabolism

text: anaerobic respiration

text: analytical chemistry

text: androgen receptor

text: angiotensin

text: angiotensin II

text: angiotensin receptor

text: ankyrin

text: annexin II

text: antibiotic

text: antibody

text: apoenzyme

text: apolipoprotein

text: apoptosis

text: aquaporin

text: archaea

text: arginine

text: argipressin

text: aromatic amine

text: aromatic compound

text: arrestin

text: Arrhenius equation

text: aryl hydrocarbon receptor

text: asparagine

text: aspartic acid

text: atom

text: atomic absorption spectroscopy

text: atomic mass

text: atomic mass unit

text: atomic nucleus

text: atomic number

text: atomic orbital

text: atomic radius

text: Atomic weight

text: ATP synthase

text: ATPase

text: atrial natriuretic factor

text: atrial natriuretic factor receptor

text: Avogadro's number

text: axon

text: In June 1974, Dalton was arrested for the killing of John Doucet, a taxi driver. Dalton admitted the killing and was committed once again to the Louisiana Training Institute. In a later statement about the incident Dalton stated that he and two friends called a cab with the intention of robbing the driver. One of his companions was carrying a gun. The three directed the driver to a quiet part of town and persuaded him to stop while they searched for an address. Dalton insisted on taking the gun from his companion because the other youth appeared to be nervous. Dalton approached the driver, and believing that the driver was reaching for a gun of his own, fired twice and began running. While fleeing he told a passerby to call an ambulance because someone had been shot. Dalton later turned himself in to the police and admitted that he had killed the driver.

text: The chemical elements were discovered in identified minerals and with the help of the identified elements the mineral crystal structure could be described. Georgius Agricola is considered the 'father of mineralogy'. One milestone was the discovery of the geometrical law of crystallization by René Just Haüy, a further development of the work by Nicolas Steno and Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle (the characterisation of a crystalline mineral needs knowledge on crystallography). Other milestones were the notion that metals are elements too (Antoine Lavoisier) and the periodic table of the elements by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. The overview of the organic bonds by Kekulé was necessary to understand the silicates, first refinements described by Bragg and Machatschki; and it was only possibly to understand a crystal structure with Dalton's atomic theory and Goldschmidt's explanations. Specific gravity, streak (streak color and mineral hardness) and X-ray powder diffraction are quite specific for a Nickel-Strunz identifier (9 ed./10 ed.). Nowadays, non-destructive electron microprobe analysis is used to get the empirical formula of a mineral. Finally, the International Zeolite Association (IZA) took care of the zeolite frameworks (part of molecular sieves and/or molecular cages).

text: The

text: chemical elements

text: were discovered in identified

text: mineral

text: s and with the help of the identified elements the mineral

text: crystal structure

text: could be described.

text: Georgius Agricola

text: is considered the 'father of

text: mineralogy

text: '. One milestone was the discovery of the geometrical law of

text: crystallization

text: by

text: René Just Haüy

text: , a further development of the work by

text: Nicolas Steno

text: and

text: Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle

text: (the characterisation of a

text: crystalline

text: mineral needs knowledge on

text: crystallography

text: ). Other milestones were the notion that

text: metal

text: s are elements too (

text: Antoine Lavoisier

text: ) and the

text: periodic table

text: of the elements by

text: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

text: . The overview of the organic

text: bonds

text: by

text: Kekulé

text: was necessary to understand the

text: silicate

text: s, first refinements described by

text: Bragg

text: and

text: Machatschki

text: ; and it was only possibly to understand a crystal structure with

text: Dalton

text: 's

text: atomic theory

text: and

text: Goldschmidt

text: 's explanations.

text: Specific gravity

text: streak

text: (streak color and

text: mineral hardness

text: ) and

text: X-ray powder diffraction

text: are quite specific for a

text: Nickel-Strunz identifier

text: (9 ed./10 ed.). Nowadays, non-destructive

text: electron microprobe

text: analysis is used to get the

text: empirical formula

text: of a mineral. Finally, the International Zeolite Association (IZA) took care of the

text: zeolite

text: frameworks (part of

text: molecular sieve

text: s and/or molecular cages).

text: Although all elements are the product of nuclear fusion of hydrogen into higher elements, it is now understood that atoms consist of both protons (hydrogen nuclei) and neutrons. The modern version of Prout's rule is that the atomic mass of an isotope of proton number (atomic number) Z and neutron number N is equal to sum of the masses of its constituent protons and neutrons, minus the mass of the nuclear binding energy, the mass defect. According to the whole number rule proposed by Francis Aston, the mass of an isotope is roughly, but not exactly, its mass number A = Z + N times an atomic mass unit (u), plus or minus binding energy discrepancy – atomic mass unit being the modern approximation for "mass of a proton, neutron, or hydrogen atom". For example iron-56 atoms (which have among the highest binding-energies) weigh only about 99.1% as much as 56 hydrogen atoms. The missing 0.9% of mass represents the energy lost when the nucleus of iron was made from hydrogen inside a star. (See stellar nucleosynthesis).

text: Although all elements are the product of

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen into higher elements, it is now understood that atoms consist of both

text: proton

text: s (hydrogen nuclei) and

text: neutron

text: s. The modern version of Prout's rule is that the

text: atomic mass

text: of an

text: isotope

text: of

text: proton number

text: (atomic number) Z and

text: neutron number

text: N is equal to sum of the masses of its constituent protons and neutrons, minus the mass of the nuclear binding energy, the

text: mass defect

text: . According to the

text: whole number rule

text: proposed by

text: Francis Aston

text: , the mass of an isotope is roughly, but not exactly, its

text: mass number

text: A = Z + N times an

text: atomic mass unit

text: (u), plus or minus binding energy discrepancy – atomic mass unit being the modern approximation for "mass of a proton, neutron, or hydrogen atom". For example

text: atoms (which have among the highest binding-energies) weigh only about 99.1% as much as 56 hydrogen atoms. The missing 0.9% of mass represents the energy lost when the nucleus of iron was made from hydrogen inside a star. (See

text: stellar nucleosynthesis

text: In molecular orbital theory, the main alternative to valence bond theory, the equivalent of the symmetry-adapted linear combination role of resonance is the linear combination of atomic orbitals. In MO theory, the molecular orbitals (MOs) are approximated as sums of all the atomic orbitals (AOs) on all the atoms; there are as many MOs as AOs. Each AO has a weighting coefficient c that indicates the AO's contribution to a particular MO. For example, in benzene, the MO model gives us 6 π MOs which are combinations of the 2p AOs on each of the 6 C atoms. Thus, each π MO is delocalized over the whole benzene molecule and any electron occupying an MO will be delocalized over the whole molecule. This MO interpretation has inspired the picture of the benzene ring as a hexagon with a circle inside. When describing benzene, the VB concept of localized sigma 'bonds' and the MO concept of 'delocalized' π electrons are frequently combined in elementary chemistry courses.

text: In

text: molecular orbital theory

text: , the main alternative to

text: valence bond theory

text: , the equivalent of the symmetry-adapted linear combination role of resonance is the

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: . In MO theory, the molecular orbitals (MOs) are approximated as sums of all the atomic orbitals (AOs) on all the atoms; there are as many MOs as AOs. Each AO has a weighting coefficient c that indicates the AO's contribution to a particular MO. For example, in benzene, the MO model gives us 6 π MOs which are combinations of the 2p AOs on each of the 6 C atoms. Thus, each π MO is delocalized over the whole benzene molecule and any electron occupying an MO will be delocalized over the whole molecule. This MO interpretation has inspired the picture of the benzene ring as a hexagon with a circle inside. When describing benzene, the VB concept of localized sigma 'bonds' and the MO concept of 'delocalized' π electrons are frequently combined in elementary chemistry courses.

text: In billiards, there are just three balls: a white cue-ball for each player and one red ball. Points are scored by potting the balls, by sending the cue-ball into a pocket ‘in off’ one of the other balls, or by getting the cue-ball to hit both the other balls (a cannon). The winner is the player who reaches an agreed score first, or who has the highest score after a certain time.

text: In

text: billiards

text: , there are just three balls: a white cue-ball for each player and one red ball. Points are scored by potting the balls, by sending the cue-ball into a pocket ‘in off’ one of the other balls, or by getting the cue-ball to hit both the other balls (a cannon). The winner is the player who reaches an agreed score first, or who has the highest score after a certain time.

text: Dalton Transactions is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing original (primary) research and review articles on all aspects of the chemistry of inorganic, bioinorganic, and organometallic compounds. It is published weekly by the Royal Society of Chemistry. The journal was named after the English chemist, John Dalton, best known for his work on modern atomic theory. Authors can elect to have accepted articles published as open access. The editor is Sarah Ruthven. Dalton Transactions was named a "rising star" by In-cites from Thomson Scientific in 2006.

text: Dalton Transactions is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: publishing

text: original (primary) research

text: and

text: review articles

text: on all aspects of the

text: chemistry

text: of

text: inorganic

text: bioinorganic

text: , and

text: organometallic

text: compounds. It is published weekly by the

text: Royal Society of Chemistry

text: . The journal was named after the English chemist,

text: John Dalton

text: , best known for his work on modern

text: atomic theory

text: . Authors can elect to have accepted articles published as open access. The

text: editor

text: is Sarah Ruthven. Dalton Transactions was named a "rising star" by In-cites from

text: Thomson Scientific

text: in 2006.

text: Lavoisier's work was not immediately accepted and it took several decades for it gain momentum.  This transition was aided by the work of  Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who came up with a simplified shorthand to describe chemical compounds based on John Dalton's theory of atomic weights. Many people credit Lavoisier and his overthrow of phlogiston theory as the traditional chemical revolution, with Lavoisier marking the beginning of the revolution and John Dalton marking its culmination.

text: Lavoisier's work was not immediately accepted and it took several decades for it gain momentum.  This transition was aided by the work of

text: Jöns Jakob Berzelius

text: , who came up with a simplified shorthand to describe chemical compounds based on

text: John Dalton

text: 's theory of atomic weights. Many people credit Lavoisier and his overthrow of

text: phlogiston theory

text: as the traditional chemical revolution, with Lavoisier marking the beginning of the revolution and John Dalton marking its culmination.

text: Tristram Dalton is the namesake of Dalton, Massachusetts, Dalton, New Hampshire and Dalton, Georgia.

text: Tristram Dalton is the namesake of

text: Dalton, Massachusetts

text: Dalton, New Hampshire

text: and

text: Dalton, Georgia

text: Molar mass is closely related to the relative molar mass (M) of a compound, to the older term formula weight (F.W.), and to the standard atomic masses of its constituent elements. However, it should be distinguished from the molecular mass (also known as molecular weight), which is the mass of one molecule (of any single isotopic composition) and is not directly related to the atomic mass, the mass of one atom (of any single isotope). The dalton, symbol Da, is also sometimes used as a unit of molar mass, especially in biochemistry, with the definition 1 Da = 1 g/mol, despite the fact that it is strictly a unit of mass (1 Da = 1 u = 1.660 538 921(73)×10 kg).

text: Molar mass is closely related to the relative molar mass (M) of a compound, to the older term formula weight (F.W.), and to the

text: standard atomic masses

text: of its constituent elements. However, it should be distinguished from the

text: molecular mass

text: (also known as molecular weight), which is the mass of one molecule (of any single isotopic composition) and is not directly related to the

text: atomic mass

text: , the mass of one atom (of any single isotope). The

text: dalton

text: , symbol Da, is also sometimes used as a unit of molar mass, especially in

text: biochemistry

text: , with the definition 1 Da = 1 g/mol, despite the fact that it is strictly a unit of mass (1 Da = 1 u = 1.660 538 921(73)×10 kg).

text: Each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. However, in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.

text: Each particle of matter has a corresponding

text: antimatter

text: particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the

text: positron

text: is a positively charged

text: antielectron

text: and the

text: antiproton

text: is a negatively charged equivalent of a

text: proton

text: . When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of

text: baryogenesis

text: may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. However, in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (

text: antihydrogen

text: ) was synthesized at the

text: CERN

text: laboratory in

text: Geneva

text: The system is  particularly important in that in 1963, Yakov Sinai, in studying Sinai's billiards as a model of the classical ensemble of a Boltzmann–Gibbs gas, was able to show that the motion of the atoms in the gas follow the trajectories in the Hadamard dynamical system.

text: The system is  particularly important in that in 1963,

text: Yakov Sinai

text: , in studying

text: Sinai's billiards

text: as a model of the classical ensemble of a Boltzmann–Gibbs gas, was able to show that the motion of the atoms in the gas follow the trajectories in the Hadamard dynamical system.

text: Their second album, Desperado, took Old West outlaws for its theme, drawing comparisons between their lifestyles and modern rock stars. This album was the first to showcase the group's penchant for conceptual songwriting. It was during these recording sessions Henley and Frey first began writing together. They co-wrote eight of the album's eleven songs, including "Tequila Sunrise" and "Desperado", two of the group's most popular songs. The bluegrass songs "Twenty-One", "Doolin–Dalton", and the ballad "Saturday Night" showcase guitarist Bernie Leadon's abilities on the banjo, guitar, and mandolin. The story of the notorious Wild West "Doolin–Dalton" gang is the main thematic focus of the album, as seen in the songs "Doolin–Dalton", "Desperado", "Certain Kind of Fool", Outlaw Man", and "Bitter Creek". The album was less successful than the group's first, reaching only number 41 on the US Billboard 200 and yielding two singles, "Tequila Sunrise", which reached number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 and "Outlaw Man", which peaked at number 59. With Henley and Frey co-writing the bulk of the album—a pattern that would continue for years to come—the album marked a significant change for the band. The pair also began to dominate in terms of leadership; the early assumption had been that Leadon and Meisner as veteran musicians would have a greater influence on the band.

text: Their second album,

text: Desperado

text: , took

text: Old West

text: outlaws for its theme, drawing comparisons between their lifestyles and modern rock stars. This album was the first to showcase the group's penchant for conceptual songwriting. It was during these recording sessions Henley and Frey first began writing together. They co-wrote eight of the album's eleven songs, including "

text: Tequila Sunrise

text: " and "

text: Desperado

text: ", two of the group's most popular songs. The bluegrass songs "Twenty-One", "

text: Doolin–Dalton

text: ", and the ballad "Saturday Night" showcase guitarist Bernie Leadon's abilities on the banjo, guitar, and mandolin. The story of the notorious Wild West "

text: Doolin–Dalton

text: " gang is the main thematic focus of the album, as seen in the songs "Doolin–Dalton", "Desperado", "Certain Kind of Fool",

text: Outlaw Man

text: ", and "Bitter Creek". The album was less successful than the group's first, reaching only number 41 on the US

text: Billboard 200

text: and yielding two singles, "Tequila Sunrise", which reached number 61 on the

text: Billboard Hot 100

text: and "Outlaw Man", which peaked at number 59. With Henley and Frey co-writing the bulk of the album—a pattern that would continue for years to come—the album marked a significant change for the band. The pair also began to dominate in terms of leadership; the early assumption had been that Leadon and Meisner as veteran musicians would have a greater influence on the band.

text: Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his own lifetime, the thorough and methodical nature of his research into his own visual problem was so broadly recognized that Daltonism became a common term for colour blindness. Examination of his preserved eyeball in 1995 demonstrated that Dalton actually had a less common kind of colour blindness, deuteroanopia, in which medium wavelength sensitive cones are missing (rather than functioning with a mutated form of their pigment, as in the most common type of colour blindness, deuteroanomaly). Besides the blue and purple of the optical spectrum he was able to recognize only one colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper,

text: Although Dalton's theory lost credence in his own lifetime, the thorough and methodical nature of his research into his own visual problem was so broadly recognized that Daltonism became a common term for colour blindness. Examination of his preserved eyeball in 1995 demonstrated that Dalton actually had a less common kind of colour blindness,

text: deuteroanopia

text: , in which medium wavelength sensitive cones are missing (rather than functioning with a mutated form of their pigment, as in the most common type of colour blindness,

text: deuteroanomaly

text: ). Besides the blue and purple of the optical spectrum he was able to recognize only one colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper,

text: For example, in the image below, the skeletal formula of hexane is shown. The carbon atom labeled C appears to have only one bond, so there must also be three hydrogens bonded to it, in order to make its total number of bonds four.  The carbon atom labelled C has two bonds to other carbons and is therefore bonded to two hydrogen atoms as well. A ball-and-stick model of the actual molecular structure of hexane, as determined by X-ray crystallography, is shown for comparison, in which carbon atoms are depicted as black balls and hydrogen atoms as white ones.

text: For example, in the image below, the skeletal formula of

text: hexane

text: is shown. The carbon atom labeled C appears to have only one bond, so there must also be three hydrogens bonded to it, in order to make its total number of bonds four.  The carbon atom labelled C has two bonds to other carbons and is therefore bonded to two hydrogen atoms as well. A

text: ball-and-stick model

text: of the actual molecular structure of hexane, as determined by

text: X-ray crystallography

text: , is shown for comparison, in which carbon atoms are depicted as black balls and hydrogen atoms as white ones.

text: Byrne's unusual mix of talents as a writer, engineer and billiard player formed the right skill set to create what would become one of the definitive instructional works on cue sports. Byrne’s Standard Book of Pool and Billiards, published in 1978 and expanded in 1998, has sold over 500,000 copies.  It is one of the very few such works that includes diagrams that are mathematically and physically accurate, plotting the path of the center of the balls, which never quite reach the cushions of the table. Byrne coined the pool jargon term "" in this book, defining the deflection effect that sends the  toward the right when struck with left , and vice versa.

text: Byrne's unusual mix of talents as a writer, engineer and billiard player formed the right skill set to create what would become one of the definitive instructional works on

text: cue sports

text: . Byrne’s Standard Book of Pool and Billiards, published in 1978 and expanded in 1998, has sold over 500,000 copies.  It is one of the very few such works that includes diagrams that are mathematically and physically accurate, plotting the path of the center of the balls, which never quite reach the cushions of the table. Byrne coined the

text: pool jargon

text: term "" in this book, defining the deflection effect that sends the  toward the right when struck with left , and vice versa.

text: Again Atom was brought back to Earth, this time by Mr. Mind, who employed him to attach his head to an atomic racecar and challenge Captain Marvel to an auto race in Indianapolis with the threat that he'd level the city with an atomic blast. When Captain Marvel won the race using a Shazam lightning-powered car, and destroyed Atom's car, Atom re-attached his head to his body and attacked Marvel, who hit him hard enough to achieve escape velocity and send Mr. Atom into orbit around the sun. Mr Mind was meanwhile captured by Uncle Marvel using a geiger counter. Captain Marvel then threw the racer into the Sun. Again Mr. Mind retrieved Atom with help from the Evil God of magic Oggar and enlisted him as a member of his Monster Society of Evil. During the Society's assault on the Rock of Eternity, Mr. Atom was shoved off the rock into another universe where life never developed, and he could do no harm.

text: Again Atom was brought back to Earth, this time by

entity_name: Mister Mind and the Monster Society of Evil

text: Mr. Mind

text: , who employed him to attach his head to an atomic racecar and challenge Captain Marvel to an auto race in

text: Indianapolis

text: with the threat that he'd level the city with an atomic blast. When Captain Marvel won the race using a Shazam lightning-powered car, and destroyed Atom's car, Atom re-attached his head to his body and attacked Marvel, who hit him hard enough to achieve

text: escape velocity

text: and send Mr. Atom into orbit around the sun. Mr Mind was meanwhile captured by Uncle Marvel using a geiger counter. Captain Marvel then threw the racer into the Sun. Again Mr. Mind retrieved Atom with help from the Evil God of magic Oggar and enlisted him as a member of his

text: Monster Society of Evil

text: . During the Society's assault on the

text: Rock of Eternity

text: , Mr. Atom was shoved off the rock into another universe where life never developed, and he could do no harm.

text: Wherefore the Mutakallimun had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter. To that end, they adopted the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter.

text: Wherefore the Mutakallimun had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter. To that end, they adopted the

text: theory of atoms

text: as enunciated by

text: Democritus

text: . They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter.

text: In valence bond theory, two atoms each contribute an atomic orbital and the electrons in the orbital overlap form a covalent bond. Atoms do not usually contribute a pure hydrogen-like orbital to bonds. If atoms could only contribute hydrogen-like orbitals, then the experimentally confirmed tetrahedral structure of methane would not be possible as the 2s and 2p orbitals of carbon do not have that geometry. That and other contradictions led to the proposing of orbital hybridisation. In that framework, atomic orbitals are allowed to mix to produce an equivalent number of orbitals of differing shapes and energies. In the aforementioned case of methane, the 2s and three 2p orbitals of carbon are hybridized to yield four equivalent sp orbitals, which resolves the structure discrepancy. Orbital hybridisation allowed valence bond theory to successfully explain the geometry and properties of a vast number of molecules.

text: In valence bond theory, two atoms each contribute an atomic orbital and the electrons in the orbital overlap form a covalent bond. Atoms do not usually contribute a pure

text: hydrogen-like orbital

text: to bonds. If atoms could only contribute hydrogen-like orbitals, then the experimentally confirmed tetrahedral structure of

text: methane

text: would not be possible as the 2s and 2p orbitals of carbon do not have that geometry. That and other contradictions led to the proposing of

text: orbital hybridisation

text: . In that framework, atomic orbitals are allowed to mix to produce an equivalent number of orbitals of differing shapes and energies. In the aforementioned case of methane, the 2s and three 2p orbitals of carbon are hybridized to yield four equivalent sp orbitals, which resolves the structure discrepancy. Orbital hybridisation allowed valence bond theory to successfully explain the geometry and properties of a vast number of molecules.

text: Appeals to simplicity were used to argue against the phenomena of meteorites, ball lightning, continental drift, and reverse transcriptase. One can argue for atomic building blocks for matter, because it provides a simpler explanation for the observed reversibility of both mixing and chemical reactions as simple separation and rearrangements of atomic building blocks. At the time, however, the atomic theory was considered more complex because it implied the existence of invisible particles that had not been directly detected. Ernst Mach and the logical positivists rejected John Dalton's atomic theory until the reality of atoms was more evident in Brownian motion, as shown by Albert Einstein.

text: Appeals to simplicity were used to argue against the phenomena of meteorites,

text: ball lightning

text: continental drift

text: , and

text: reverse transcriptase

text: . One can argue for atomic building blocks for matter, because it provides a simpler explanation for the observed reversibility of both mixing and chemical reactions as simple separation and rearrangements of atomic building blocks. At the time, however, the

text: atomic theory

text: was considered more complex because it implied the existence of invisible particles that had not been directly detected.

text: Ernst Mach

text: and the logical positivists rejected

text: John Dalton

text: 's

text: atomic theory

text: until the reality of atoms was more evident in

text: Brownian motion

text: , as shown by

text: Albert Einstein

text: In 1993, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) approved the use of the dalton as an alternative to the unified atomic mass unit with the qualification that the GCPM had not given its approval. This approval has since been given. Following the proposal to redefine the mole by fixing the value of the Avogadro number, Brian Leonard of the University of Akron, writing in Metrologia proposed that the dalton (Da) be redefined as an SI derived unit exactly equal to (1/1000N) kg; but that the unified atomic mass unit (m) retain its current definition based on the mass of C, ceasing to be SI.  This would result in the dalton and the atomic mass unit potentially differing from each other with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10 .

text: In 1993, the

entity_name: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

text: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

text: (IUPAC) approved the use of the

text: dalton

text: as an alternative to the

text: unified atomic mass unit

text: with the qualification that the GCPM had not given its approval. This approval has since been given. Following the proposal to redefine the mole by fixing the value of the Avogadro number, Brian Leonard of the

text: University of Akron

text: , writing in

text: Metrologia

text: proposed that the dalton (Da) be redefined as an SI derived unit exactly equal to (1/1000N) kg; but that the unified atomic mass unit (m) retain its current definition based on the mass of C, ceasing to be SI.  This would result in the dalton and the atomic mass unit potentially differing from each other with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10 .

text: A two-part segment entitled "Starfall" aired on November 24 and December 1, 1960, with guest stars John Anderson, Edgar Buchanan, Pippa Scott, Cloris Leachman, James Millhollin, William Shatner, and Jack Warden.Johnny Washbrook, the child actor from My Friend Flicka appeared as Vince Nickels, along with character actor J. Pat O'Malley in the 1960 episode "The Quiet Killer". In another two-parter on January 26 and February 2, 1961, entitled "The Daltons Must Die", Charles Carlson, Robert Lansing, and Larry Pennell played the Dalton brothers, Grat, Frank, and Robert Dalton, respectively. In December 1960, Clegg Hoyt played the role of Isham Dart in "The Quiet Killer."

text: A two-part segment entitled "Starfall" aired on November 24 and December 1, 1960, with guest stars John Anderson, Edgar Buchanan, Pippa Scott, Cloris Leachman,

text: James Millhollin

text: , William Shatner, and Jack Warden.

text: Johnny Washbrook

text: , the

text: child actor

text: from

text: My Friend Flicka

text: appeared as Vince Nickels, along with character actor

text: J. Pat O'Malley

text: in the 1960 episode "The Quiet Killer". In another two-parter on January 26 and February 2, 1961, entitled "The Daltons Must Die",

text: Charles Carlson

text: , Robert Lansing, and Larry Pennell played the

text: Dalton brothers

text: Grat

text: Frank

text: , and Robert Dalton, respectively. In December 1960,

text: Clegg Hoyt

text: played the role of Isham Dart in "The Quiet Killer."

text: Dalton is the daughter of Jeannine Dalton (Boger) who was Miss North Carolina USA 1982.  Her younger sister Kenzie Dalton was engaged to Chad Michael Murray and also competed in the Miss North Carolina Teen USA pageant and placed 1st runner-up. The third Dalton sister, Julia Dalton, was Miss North Carolina Teen USA 2008 and placed second runner-up at Miss Teen USA 2008. Julia won the title of Miss North Carolina USA 2015 and competed at Miss USA 2015.  The Dalton family is the only family to have a mother and two daughters win the same title.  Dalton is of English and German ancestry.

text: Dalton is the daughter of

text: Jeannine Dalton

text: (Boger) who was

text: Miss North Carolina USA

text: 1982.  Her younger sister Kenzie Dalton was engaged to

text: Chad Michael Murray

text: and also competed in the

text: Miss North Carolina Teen USA

text: pageant and placed 1st runner-up. The third Dalton sister,

text: Julia Dalton

text: , was

text: Miss North Carolina Teen USA

text: 2008 and placed second runner-up at

text: Miss Teen USA 2008

text: . Julia won the title of Miss North Carolina USA 2015 and competed at Miss USA 2015.  The Dalton family is the only family to have a mother and two daughters win the same title.  Dalton is of

text: English

text: and

text: German

text: ancestry.

text: Gary Arnold of The Washington Times wrote that a number of factors "fail to prevent the finished product from jamming and misfiring with disillusioning frequency". Arnold opined that "demanding that he [Dalton] play Bond's wrathfulness in a transparently seething and hotheaded manner" means that Dalton "seems to waste away on this second outing as Bond." Overall Arnold sees that there is a "failure to recognize that Bond productions are simply too extravagant to permit an uncompromised return to first principles." The critic for The New York Times, Caryn James, thought Dalton was "the first James Bond with angst, a moody spy for the fin de siecle", and that Licence to Kill "retains its familiar, effective mix of despicably powerful villains, suspiciously tantalizing women and ever-wilder special effects", but was impressed that "Dalton's glowering presence adds a darker tone". James concluded that "for all its clever updatings, stylish action and witty escapism, Licence to Kill ... is still a little too much by the book."

text: Gary Arnold of

text: The Washington Times

text: wrote that a number of factors "fail to prevent the finished product from jamming and misfiring with disillusioning frequency". Arnold opined that "demanding that he [Dalton] play Bond's wrathfulness in a transparently seething and hotheaded manner" means that Dalton "seems to waste away on this second outing as Bond." Overall Arnold sees that there is a "failure to recognize that Bond productions are simply too extravagant to permit an uncompromised return to first principles." The critic for

text: The New York Times

text: , Caryn James, thought Dalton was "the first James Bond with angst, a moody spy for the fin de siecle", and that Licence to Kill "retains its familiar, effective mix of despicably powerful villains, suspiciously tantalizing women and ever-wilder special effects", but was impressed that "Dalton's glowering presence adds a darker tone". James concluded that "for all its clever updatings, stylish action and witty escapism, Licence to Kill ... is still a little too much by the book."

text: In Indian philosophy, Maharishi Kanada was the first to systematically develop a theory of atomism around 200 BCE though some authors have allotted him an earlier era in the 6th century BCE. It was further elaborated by the Buddhist atomists Dharmakirti and Dignāga during the 1st millennium CE. Pakudha Kaccayana, a 6th-century BCE Indian philosopher and contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. These philosophers believed that other elements (except ether) were physically palpable and hence comprised minuscule particles of matter. The last minuscule particle of matter that could not be subdivided further was termed Parmanu. These philosophers considered the atom to be indestructible and hence eternal. The Buddhists thought atoms to be minute objects unable to be seen to the naked eye that come into being and vanish in an instant. The Vaisheshika school of philosophers believed that an atom was a mere point in space. Indian theories about the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as they were based on logic and not on personal experience or experimentation. In Indian astronomy, Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (499 CE) proposed the Earth's rotation, while Nilakantha Somayaji (1444–1544) of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics proposed a semi-heliocentric model resembling the Tychonic system.

text: In

text: Indian philosophy

text: , Maharishi

text: Kanada

text: was the first to systematically develop a theory of atomism around 200 BCE though some authors have allotted him an earlier era in the 6th century BCE. It was further elaborated by the

text: Buddhist atomists

text: Dharmakirti

text: and

text: Dignāga

text: during the 1st millennium CE.

text: Pakudha Kaccayana

text: , a 6th-century BCE Indian philosopher and contemporary of

text: Gautama Buddha

text: , had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. These philosophers believed that other elements (except ether) were physically palpable and hence comprised minuscule particles of matter. The last minuscule particle of matter that could not be subdivided further was termed

text: Parmanu

text: . These philosophers considered the atom to be indestructible and hence eternal. The Buddhists thought atoms to be minute objects unable to be seen to the naked eye that come into being and vanish in an instant. The

text: Vaisheshika

text: school of philosophers believed that an atom was a mere point in

text: space

text: . Indian theories about the atom are greatly abstract and enmeshed in philosophy as they were based on logic and not on personal experience or experimentation. In

text: Indian astronomy

text: Aryabhata

text: 's

text: Aryabhatiya

text: (499 CE) proposed the

text: Earth's rotation

text: , while

text: Nilakantha Somayaji

text: (1444–1544) of the

entity_name: Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

text: Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

text: proposed a semi-heliocentric model resembling the

text: Tychonic system

text: Loree Jon Hasson (formerly Loree Jon Jones or Loree Jon Ogonowski) began playing billiards at the age of 4 at her home in Garwood, New Jersey. Recognizing her talent, her father built wooden boxes around the table so she would be the correct height for him to teach her the sport. Her father was her instructor, and her mother became her daily practice partner. She ran her first rack of balls at age 5. LoreeJon performed her first trick shot at age 6 in Chicago at a men's World Straight Pool tournament. She knew at that moment she would be doing this the rest of her life. At age 11, she became a pro player with the Women's Professional Billiard Association (WPBA) and came to be known as "Queen of the Hill." At age 15, she won the World Straight Pool Tournament, becoming the youngest player, male or female, ever to win a world title, a feat noted by the Guinness Book of World Records. From 1987 to 1993, she won 18 tournaments, including her third WPBA National Championship. When she won the World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA) World Championship, she had held every title possible in women's professional pocket billiards. Her greatest victories are eight World Championships, three National Championships, and three WPBA US Open titles. At the time of her 2002 induction into the Billiard Congress of America Hall of Fame, and 2008 Women's Professional Billiard Association Hall of Fame, she held over 50 major titles, and over the course of her career was recognized five times as "Player of the Year" by Pool & Billiards Magazine and Billiards Digest.

text: Loree Jon Hasson (formerly Loree Jon Jones or Loree Jon Ogonowski) began playing

text: billiards

text: at the age of 4 at her home in

text: Garwood, New Jersey

text: . Recognizing her talent, her father built wooden boxes around the table so she would be the correct height for him to teach her the sport. Her father was her instructor, and her mother became her daily practice partner. She ran her first

text: rack

text: of balls at age 5. LoreeJon performed her first trick shot at age 6 in Chicago at a men's World Straight Pool tournament. She knew at that moment she would be doing this the rest of her life. At age 11, she became a pro player with the

text: (WPBA) and came to be known as "Queen of the Hill." At age 15, she won the

text: World Straight Pool Tournament

text: , becoming the youngest player, male or female, ever to win a world title, a feat noted by the Guinness Book of World Records. From 1987 to 1993, she won 18 tournaments, including her third

text: WPBA National Championship

text: . When she won the

text: World Pool-Billiard Association

text: (WPA)

text: World Championship

text: , she had held every title possible in women's professional pocket billiards. Her greatest victories are eight World Championships, three

text: National Championships

text: , and three

text: WPBA US Open

text: titles. At the time of her 2002 induction into the

entity_name: Billiard Congress of America Hall of Fame

text: Billiard Congress of America Hall of Fame

text: , and 2008 Women's Professional Billiard Association Hall of Fame, she held over 50 major titles, and over the course of her career was recognized five times as "Player of the Year" by Pool & Billiards Magazine and Billiards Digest.

text: In 1907, the reality of atoms was still disputed but Albert Einstein and Marian Smoluchowski had both recently given accounts of Brownian motion in liquids, strongly supporting the atomic theory. Though Theodor Svedberg had made important demonstrations of Brownian motion in colloids, Ehrenhaft extended the work to make observations of particles of silver in air. The greater mean free path of air made for a sterner test of the reality of atoms. Ehrenhaft was awarded the Lieben Prize of the Vienna Academy of Sciences for his work.

text: In 1907, the reality of

text: atom

text: s was still disputed but

text: Albert Einstein

text: and

text: Marian Smoluchowski

text: had both recently given accounts of

text: Brownian motion

text: in

text: liquid

text: s, strongly supporting the

text: atom

text: ic theory. Though

text: Theodor Svedberg

text: had made important demonstrations of

text: Brownian motion

text: in

text: colloid

text: s, Ehrenhaft extended the work to make observations of particles of

text: silver

text: in

text: air

text: . The greater

text: mean free path

text: of

text: air

text: made for a sterner test of the reality of

text: atom

text: s. Ehrenhaft was awarded the

text: Lieben Prize

text: of the

text: Vienna Academy of Sciences

text: for his work.

text: Epicureanism emphasizes the neutrality of the gods, that they do not interfere with human lives. It states that gods, matter, and souls are all made up of atoms. Souls are made from atoms, and gods possess souls, but their souls adhere to their bodies without escaping. Humans have the same kind of souls, but the forces binding human atoms together do not hold the soul forever. The Epicureans also used the atomist theories of Democritus and Leucippus to assert that man has free will. They held that all thoughts are merely atoms swerving randomly.

text: Epicureanism emphasizes the neutrality of the gods, that they do not interfere with human lives. It states that gods, matter, and souls are all made up of

text: atom

text: s. Souls are made from atoms, and gods possess souls, but their souls adhere to their bodies without escaping. Humans have the same kind of souls, but the forces binding human atoms together do not hold the soul forever. The Epicureans also used the

text: atomist

text: theories of

text: Democritus

text: and

text: Leucippus

text: to assert that man has free will. They held that all thoughts are merely atoms swerving randomly.

text: The rights to Captain Atom and most other Charlton characters were purchased by DC Comics in the early 1980s.  Originally, these Charlton characters were to be reintroduced in writer Alan Moore's limited series Watchmen; however, this was deemed to render the characters unusable for future stories, and characters inspired by the Charlton originals were used instead.  Watchmens Doctor Manhattan is based on Captain Atom, and like Captain Atom, gained similar powers through a similar scientific mishap.

text: The rights to Captain Atom and most other Charlton characters were purchased by DC Comics in the early 1980s.  Originally, these Charlton characters were to be reintroduced in writer

text: Alan Moore

text: 's

text: limited series

text: Watchmen; however, this was deemed to render the characters unusable for future stories, and characters inspired by the Charlton originals were used instead.  Watchmens

text: Doctor Manhattan

text: is based on Captain Atom, and like Captain Atom, gained similar powers through a similar scientific mishap.

text: The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. The word "atom" was coined by ancient Greek philosophers. However, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. As a result, their views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect. They also could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, when the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain.

text: By Groth's time, Dalton's atomic theory was already well established.  In 1888, Groth was the first to suggest the possibility that spherical atoms reside at equivalent positions of space lattices, which gave a physical significance to this still somewhat abstract idea of the regular and symmetric partitioning of space.  The German physicist Leonhard Sohncke (1842–1897) had previously derived the 65 chiral space groups (i.e. those lacking an inversion center, mirror planes, or improper axes of rotation that invert the handedness of a crystal).  The mathematical descriptions of the complete set of 230 space groups, including their symmetry elements, were thereafter derived independently by Schönflies, Fedorov, and Barlow.  Finally, in 1922, Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff (1897–1994) authored The Analytical Expression of the Results of the Theory of Space Groups, a book which contained, among other things, tables with the positional coordinates, both general and special, permitted by the symmetry elements.

text: By Groth's time, Dalton's atomic theory was already well established.  In 1888, Groth was the first to suggest the possibility that spherical atoms reside at equivalent positions of space lattices, which gave a physical significance to this still somewhat abstract idea of the regular and symmetric partitioning of space.  The German physicist

text: Leonhard Sohncke

text: (1842–1897) had previously derived the 65 chiral space groups (i.e. those lacking an inversion center, mirror planes, or improper axes of rotation that invert the handedness of a crystal).  The mathematical descriptions of the complete set of 230 space groups, including their symmetry elements, were thereafter derived independently by

text: Schönflies

text: Fedorov

text: , and

text: Barlow

text: .  Finally, in 1922,

text: Ralph Walter Graystone Wyckoff (1897–1994)

text: authored The Analytical Expression of the Results of the Theory of Space Groups, a book which contained, among other things, tables with the positional coordinates, both general and special, permitted by the symmetry elements.

text: John Dalton (1766–1844) was a scientist who pioneered modern atomic theory.

text: John Dalton

text: (1766–1844) was a scientist who pioneered modern atomic theory.

text: The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories  and discoveries of Michael Faraday, Andre-Marie Ampere, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry - and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about: Thomas Alva Edison gave the world a practical everyday lightbulb. Nikola Tesla pioneered the induction motor, high frequency transmission of electricity, and remote control. Other new inventions were electrical telegraphy and the telephone.

text: The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by

text: William Whewell

text: , which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of

text: Charles Darwin

text: (alongside the independent researches of

text: Alfred Russel Wallace

text: ), who in 1859 published the book

text: The Origin of Species

text: , which introduced the idea of

text: evolution

text: by

text: natural selection

text: . Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the

text: germ theory of disease

text: . Following this,

text: Louis Pasteur

text: made the first

text: vaccine

text: against

text: rabies

text: , and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the

text: asymmetry of crystals

text: . In chemistry,

text: Dmitri Mendeleev

text: , following the

text: atomic theory

text: of

text: John Dalton

text: , created the first

text: periodic table

text: of

text: elements

text: . In physics, the experiments, theories  and discoveries of

text: Michael Faraday

text: Andre-Marie Ampere

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: , and their contemporaries led to the creation of

text: electromagnetism

text: as a new branch of science.

text: Thermodynamics

text: led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry - and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of

text: hypercomplex number

text: s.

text: Karl Weierstrass

text: and others carried out the

text: arithmetization of analysis

text: for functions of

text: real

text: and

text: complex variable

text: s. It also saw rise to

text: new progress in geometry

text: beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about:

text: Thomas Alva Edison

text: gave the world a practical everyday

text: lightbulb

text: . Nikola Tesla pioneered the

text: induction motor

text: , high frequency transmission of electricity, and remote control. Other new inventions were electrical telegraphy and the telephone.

text: Atoms can only be displaced if, upon bombardment, the energy they receive exceeds a threshold energy E. Likewise, when a moving atom collides with a stationary atom, both atoms will have energy greater than E after the collision only if the original moving atom had an energy exceeding 2E. Thus, only PKAs with an energy greater than 2E can continue to displace more atoms and increase the total number of displaced atoms. In cases where the PKA does have sufficient energy to displace further atoms, the same truth holds for any subsequently displaced atom.

text: In a ball-and-stick model, the radius of the spheres is usually much smaller than the rod lengths, in order to provide a clearer view of the atoms and bonds throughout the model.  As a consequence, the model does not provide a clear insight about the space occupied by the model.  In this aspect, ball-and-stick models are distinct from space-filling (Calotte) models, where the sphere radii are proportional to the atomic radii in the same scale as the atom distances, and therefore show the occupied space but not the bonds.

text: In a ball-and-stick model, the radius of the spheres is usually much smaller than the rod lengths, in order to provide a clearer view of the atoms and bonds throughout the model.  As a consequence, the model does not provide a clear insight about the space occupied by the model.  In this aspect, ball-and-stick models are distinct from

text: space-filling (Calotte) models

text: , where the sphere radii are proportional to the

text: atomic radii

text: in the same scale as the atom distances, and therefore show the occupied space but not the bonds.

text: The first experiment allowed detection of three atoms of Cn but also seemingly detected 1 atom of Fl. This result was a surprise given the transport time of the product atoms is ~2 s, so the flerovium atoms produced should have decayed to copernicium before adsorption. In the second reaction, 2 atoms of Fl and possibly 1 atom of Fl were detected. Two of the three atoms displayed adsorption characteristics associated with a volatile, noble-gas-like element, which has been suggested but is not predicted by more recent calculations. These experiments provided independent confirmation for the discovery of copernicium, flerovium, and livermorium via comparison with published decay data. Further experiments in 2008 to confirm this important result detected a single atom of Fl, and supported previous data showing flerovium having a noble-gas-like interaction with gold.

text: It is possible to simulate billiard-ball computers on several types of reversible cellular automaton, including block cellular automata and second-order cellular automata. In these simulations, the balls are only allowed to move at a constant speed in an axis-parallel direction, assumptions that in any case were already present in the use of the billiard ball model to simulate logic circuits. Both the balls and the buffers are simulated by certain patterns of live cells, and the field across which the balls move is simulated by regions of dead cells, in these cellular automaton simulations.

text: It is possible to simulate billiard-ball computers on several types of

text: reversible cellular automaton

text: , including

text: block cellular automata

text: and

text: second-order cellular automata

text: . In these simulations, the balls are only allowed to move at a constant speed in an axis-parallel direction, assumptions that in any case were already present in the use of the billiard ball model to simulate logic circuits. Both the balls and the buffers are simulated by certain patterns of live cells, and the field across which the balls move is simulated by regions of dead cells, in these cellular automaton simulations.

text: Dalton is a city in Whitfield County, Georgia, United States. It is the county seat of Whitfield County and the principal city of the Dalton, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses all of Murray and Whitfield counties.

text: Dalton is a city in

text: Whitfield County

text: Georgia

text: , United States. It is the

text: county seat

text: of

text: Whitfield County

text: and the principal city of the Dalton, Georgia

text: Metropolitan Statistical Area

text: , which encompasses all of

text: Murray

text: and Whitfield counties.

text: Ardwick Cemetery was established in the 1830s as a prestigious place for fashionable burials. John Dalton, the chemist and physicist best known for his advocacy of atomic theory, is amongst those buried there. The cemetery has since been converted into a school playing field.

text: Ardwick Cemetery was established in the 1830s as a prestigious place for fashionable burials.

text: John Dalton

text: , the chemist and physicist best known for his advocacy of atomic theory, is amongst those buried there. The cemetery has since been converted into a school playing field.

text: Scattering theory is a framework for studying and understanding the scattering of waves and particles.  Prosaically, wave scattering corresponds to the collision and scattering of a wave with some material object, for instance sunlight scattered by rain drops to form a rainbow. Scattering also includes the interaction of billiard balls on a table, the Rutherford scattering (or angle change) of alpha particles by gold nuclei, the Bragg scattering (or diffraction) of electrons and X-rays by a cluster of atoms, and the inelastic scattering of a fission fragment as it traverses a thin foil. More precisely, scattering consists of the study of how solutions of partial differential equations, propagating freely "in the distant past", come together and interact with one another or with a boundary condition, and then propagate away "to the distant future".

text: Scattering theory

text: is a framework for studying and understanding the scattering of

text: waves

text: and

text: particles

text: .  Prosaically, wave scattering corresponds to the collision and scattering of a wave with some material object, for instance

text: sunlight

text: scattered by

text: rain drop

text: s to form a

text: rainbow

text: . Scattering also includes the interaction of

text: billiard balls

text: on a table, the

text: Rutherford scattering

text: (or angle change) of

text: alpha particle

text: s by

text: gold

text: nuclei

text: , the Bragg scattering (or diffraction) of electrons and X-rays by a cluster of atoms, and the

text: inelastic scattering

text: of a fission fragment as it traverses a thin foil. More precisely, scattering consists of the study of how solutions of

text: partial differential equations

text: , propagating freely "in the distant past", come together and interact with one another or with a

text: boundary condition

text: , and then propagate away "to the distant future".

text: In 1958, Dreiding invented a molecular model used primarily in stereochemistry, named the Dreiding Stereomodel. It was a so-called skeletal model, which consisted of slim stainless steel tubes and rods. Unlike the older ball-and-stick models, the atoms were not represented by a ball, but rather by the point of intersection of the steel tubes. The intersection area was painted with a color to indicate the identity of the atom. As the tubes represented the bonds, the model focused on the geometry of the bonds between atoms rather than the atoms themselves. The Dreiding Stereomodel was not the first skeletal model, but was the first to do away with the connectors that had been used in e.g. John Kendrew's earlier protein models. Instead, the Dreiding Stereomodels used a valency of the bonds/steel tubes to facilitate connections; they were either a hollow tube or a slightly narrower solid rod, which fit into the tube. A tube not connected to another tube represented a hydrogen atom, and the bond from the other atom (for example carbon, oxygen or nitrogen) to the hydrogen atoms. This gave the Dreiding Stereomodels a very neat look, and made the assembly much quicker than for earlier skeletal models. They were also quite precise in representing the molecular geometry, so they could be used to determine inter-atomic distances and angles by rulers.

text: In 1958, Dreiding invented a

text: molecular model

text: used primarily in

text: stereochemistry

text: , named the Dreiding Stereomodel. It was a so-called

text: skeletal model

text: , which consisted of slim stainless steel tubes and rods. Unlike the older

text: ball-and-stick model

text: s, the atoms were not represented by a ball, but rather by the point of intersection of the steel tubes. The intersection area was painted with a color to indicate the identity of the atom. As the tubes represented the bonds, the model focused on the geometry of the bonds between atoms rather than the atoms themselves. The Dreiding Stereomodel was not the first skeletal model, but was the first to do away with the connectors that had been used in e.g.

text: John Kendrew

text: 's earlier

text: protein

text: models. Instead, the Dreiding Stereomodels used a valency of the bonds/steel tubes to facilitate connections; they were either a hollow tube or a slightly narrower solid rod, which fit into the tube. A tube not connected to another tube represented a

text: hydrogen

text: atom, and the bond from the other atom (for example

text: carbon

text: oxygen

text: or

text: nitrogen

text: ) to the hydrogen atoms. This gave the Dreiding Stereomodels a very neat look, and made the assembly much quicker than for earlier skeletal models. They were also quite precise in representing the molecular geometry, so they could be used to determine inter-atomic distances and angles by rulers.

text: The owner of a pool hall collects the billiard balls of his tables as he calls out "closing time".  As some of the customers leave, a couple of guys give the owner a hassle over letting one of the guys stay, one Jesse Cardiff.  Jesse, of whom one guy says "he thinks he's the next Fats Brown", slams a double shot.  Instead of enjoying completing such a difficult shot, Jesse complains about being compared to Fats Brown.  He off-handedly remarks that if he were alive and in the room, he'd show Fats Brown that he could beat him.  He turns around to see a portly gentleman sitting down.  The man says, "At your service."

text: The owner of a

text: pool hall

text: collects the

text: billiard

text: balls of his tables as he calls out "closing time".  As some of the customers leave, a couple of guys give the owner a hassle over letting one of the guys stay, one Jesse Cardiff.  Jesse, of whom one guy says "he thinks he's the next Fats Brown", slams a double shot.  Instead of enjoying completing such a difficult shot, Jesse complains about being compared to Fats Brown.  He off-handedly remarks that if he were alive and in the room, he'd show Fats Brown that he could beat him.  He turns around to see a portly gentleman sitting down.  The man says, "At your service."

text: The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element.

text: The

text: atomic number

text: of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their

text: atomic nucleus

text: ; so the atomic number of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as

text: isotope

text: s of the element.

text: Dalton regularly holidayed in the Lake District where his study of meteorology involved a lot of mountain climbing: until the advent of aeroplanes and weather balloons, the only way to make measurements of temperature and humidity at altitude was to climb a mountain. The altitude achieved was estimated using a barometer. This meant that, until the Ordnance Survey started publishing their maps for the Lake District in the 1860s, Dalton was one of the few sources of such information. Dalton was often accompanied by Jonathan Otley, who was one of the few other authorities on the heights of the Lake District mountains. He became both an assistant and a friend.

text: Dalton regularly holidayed in the

text: Lake District

text: where his study of meteorology involved a lot of mountain climbing: until the advent of aeroplanes and weather balloons, the only way to make measurements of temperature and humidity at altitude was to climb a mountain. The altitude achieved was estimated using a barometer. This meant that, until the Ordnance Survey started publishing their maps for the Lake District in the 1860s, Dalton was one of the few sources of such information. Dalton was often accompanied by Jonathan Otley, who was one of the few other authorities on the heights of the Lake District mountains. He became both an assistant and a friend.

text: Edward Turner FRS FRSE (24 June 1796 – 12 February 1837) was a Jamaican born, British chemist, known for his work on atomic weights, and as a populariser of the atomic theory of Dalton. He was the author of a popular Chemistry textbook that was the first to incorporate chemical symbols and formulae as well as organic chemistry.

text: Edward Turner

text: FRS

text: FRSE

text: (24 June 1796 – 12 February 1837) was a Jamaican born, British chemist, known for his work on

text: atomic weight

text: s, and as a populariser of the

text: atomic theory

text: of Dalton. He was the author of a popular Chemistry textbook that was the first to incorporate chemical symbols and formulae as well as organic chemistry.

text: Following the death of Garrett, the question was asked, "Who is [Grant Ward] without someone telling him what to do?" Dalton answered that "he can follow commands really well. He can do and make tough choices and he can sometimes do unpleasant things in the name of something that he feels he believes in. But...I don’t think that Ward knows the answer to that question himself." Dalton called the character a 'wildcard', since he was loyal to Garrett as a father figure rather than Hydra, "and he was more about his teammates rather than the team", later elaborating that "It’s not quite good guy, it’s not quite bad guy. It’s not trying to get in with S.H.I.E.L.D. again, it’s not trying to get in with Hydra. He’s really on his own path. He’s living by his code at this particular point in life." Explaining Ward's relationship with Palamas, Dalton stated

text: Dalton concluded that the fixed proportions of elements by weight suggested that the atoms of one element combined with only a limited number of atoms of the other elements to form the substances that he listed.

text: Bent's rule provides an additional level of accuracy to valence bond theory. Valence bond theory proposes that covalent bonds consist of two electrons lying in overlapping, usually hybridised, atomic orbitals from two bonding atoms. The assumption that a covalent bond is a linear combination of atomic orbitals of just the two bonding atoms is an approximation (see molecular orbital theory), but valence bond theory is accurate enough that it has had and continues to have a major impact on how bonding is understood.

text: Bent's rule provides an additional level of accuracy to

text: valence bond theory

text: . Valence bond theory proposes that covalent bonds consist of two electrons lying in overlapping, usually hybridised, atomic orbitals from two bonding atoms. The assumption that a covalent bond is a

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: of just the two bonding atoms is an approximation (see

text: molecular orbital theory

text: ), but valence bond theory is accurate enough that it has had and continues to have a major impact on how bonding is understood.

text: The theory of metals in their solid state helps to explain the unusually high electrical conductivity of copper. In a copper atom, the outermost 4s energy zone, or conduction band, is only half filled, so many electrons are able to carry electric current. When an electric field is applied to a copper wire, the conduction of electrons accelerates towards the electropositive end, thereby creating a current. These electrons encounter resistance to their passage by colliding with impurity atoms, vacancies, lattice ions, and imperfections. The average distance travelled between collisions, defined as the “mean free path,” is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the metal. What is unique about copper is its long mean free path (approximately 100 atomic spacings at room temperature). This mean free path increases rapidly as copper is chilled.

text: The theory of metals in their solid state helps to explain the unusually high electrical conductivity of copper. In a copper

text: atom

text: , the outermost 4s energy zone, or

text: conduction band

text: , is only half filled, so many

text: electron

text: s are able to carry

text: electric current

text: . When an

text: electric field

text: is applied to a copper wire, the conduction of electrons accelerates towards the

text: electropositive

text: end, thereby creating a current. These electrons encounter resistance to their passage by colliding with impurity atoms, vacancies, lattice ions, and imperfections. The average distance travelled between collisions, defined as the “

text: mean free path

text: ,” is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the metal. What is unique about copper is its long mean free path (approximately 100 atomic spacings at room temperature). This mean free path increases rapidly as copper is chilled.

text: In the realm of carom (or carambole) games, billiard balls are the three (sometimes four) balls used to play straight-rail, three-cushion, balkline, and related games on pocketless billiards tables, as well as English billiards which is played on a table with pockets.  The predominantly Asian game four-ball uses four balls (the name literally means "four-balls").  Carom balls are not numbered, and at 61–61.5 mm (between approximately  and  in) in diameter are larger than pool balls.  The 61.5 mm size are more common.  They are typically colored as follows:

text: In the realm of

text: carom

text: (or carambole) games, billiard balls are the three (sometimes four) balls used to play

text: straight-rail

text: three-cushion

text: balkline

text: , and related games on pocketless

text: billiards table

text: s, as well as

text: English billiards

text: which is played on a table with pockets.  The predominantly Asian game

text: four-ball

text: uses four balls (the name literally means "four-balls").  Carom balls are not numbered, and at 61–61.5 mm (between approximately  and  in) in diameter are larger than pool balls.  The 61.5 mm size are more common.  They are typically colored as follows:

text: One consequence of this change is that the current defined relationship between the mass of the C atom, the dalton, the kilogram, and Avogadro's number will no longer be valid. One of the following must change:

text: One consequence of this change is that the current defined relationship between the mass of the C atom, the

text: dalton

text: , the kilogram, and Avogadro's number will no longer be valid. One of the following must change:

text: A hadronic atom is an atom in which one or more of the orbital electrons is replaced by a negatively charged hadron. Possible hadrons include mesons such as the pion or kaon, yielding a pionic atom or a kaonic atom (see Kaonic hydrogen), collectively called mesonic atoms; antiprotons, yielding an antiprotonic atom; and the  particle, yielding a  or sigmaonic atom.

text: A hadronic atom is an atom in which one or more of the

text: orbital electrons

text: is replaced by a negatively charged

text: hadron

text: . Possible hadrons include

text: meson

text: s such as the

text: pion

text: or

text: kaon

text: , yielding a pionic atom or a kaonic atom (see

text: Kaonic hydrogen

text: ), collectively called mesonic atoms;

text: antiproton

text: s, yielding an antiprotonic atom; and the  particle, yielding a  or sigmaonic atom.

text: On 1 July 2006, Airman 1st Class Carl Jerome Ware Jr. of the 886th Expeditionary Security Force Squadron assigned to Camp Bucca died of non-combat related injuries. Initial reports stated that the airmen was killed by an accidental discharge of a gun being cleaned by another airman; however in February 2007, it was reported that Airman 1st Class Kyle J. Dalton, of the 15th Security Forces Squadron, Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii, had been charged on 30 November 2007 with one count of murder and failure to obey a lawful order in relation to the shooting. Dalton also faced a charge of assault for a separate incident that occurred on 30 June 2006 involving Ware and another airman. Dalton, who was deployed in the Middle East at the time the charges were brought, had an Article 32 hearing and was Court-martialed on 23 April 2007 at Langley Air Force Base. As part of a plea bargain deal, Dalton pleaded guilty to involuntary manslaughter and violating a lawful general regulation by drawing or aiming a firearm when deadly force was unnecessary. Dalton was sentenced to 10 years in prison, given a dishonorable discharge, reduced in rank from Senior Airman to Airman Basic and ordered to forfeit all pay and allowances. Dalton admitted to the court that he tracked Ware with his pistol in the barracks and pulled the trigger thinking the weapon was unloaded. He also admitted that he had previously aimed a loaded M-4 carbine at another airman.

text: On 1 July 2006, Airman 1st Class Carl Jerome Ware Jr. of the

entity_name: 886 Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron

text: 886th Expeditionary Security Force Squadron

text: assigned to Camp Bucca died of non-combat related injuries. Initial reports stated that the airmen was killed by an accidental discharge of a gun being cleaned by another airman; however in February 2007, it was reported that Airman 1st Class Kyle J. Dalton, of the 15th Security Forces Squadron,

text: Hickam Air Force Base

text: Hawaii

text: , had been charged on 30 November 2007 with one count of

text: murder

text: and failure to obey a

text: lawful order

text: in relation to the shooting. Dalton also faced a charge of

text: assault

text: for a separate incident that occurred on 30 June 2006 involving Ware and another airman. Dalton, who was deployed in the

text: Middle East

text: at the time the charges were brought, had an

text: Article 32 hearing

text: and was

text: Court-martialed

text: on 23 April 2007 at

text: Langley Air Force Base

text: . As part of a plea bargain deal, Dalton pleaded guilty to involuntary manslaughter and violating a lawful general regulation by drawing or aiming a firearm when deadly force was unnecessary. Dalton was sentenced to 10 years in prison, given a

text: dishonorable discharge

text: , reduced in rank from

text: Senior Airman

text: to

text: Airman Basic

text: and ordered to forfeit all pay and allowances. Dalton admitted to the court that he tracked Ware with his pistol in the barracks and pulled the trigger thinking the weapon was unloaded. He also admitted that he had previously aimed a loaded

text: M-4 carbine

text: at another airman.

text: The main points of Dalton's atomic theory were:

text: The popular theory of atomic structure at the time of Rutherford's experiment was the "plum pudding model". This model was devised by Lord Kelvin and further developed by J. J. Thomson. Thomson was the scientist who discovered the electron, and that it was a component of every atom. Thomson believed the atom was a sphere of positive charge throughout which the electrons were distributed, a bit like plums in a Christmas pudding. The existence of protons and neutrons was unknown at this time. They knew atoms were very tiny (Rutherford assumed they were in the order of 10 m in radius).  This model was based entirely on classical (Newtonian) physics; the current accepted model uses quantum mechanics.

text: The popular theory of atomic structure at the time of Rutherford's experiment was the "

text: plum pudding model

text: ". This model was devised by

text: Lord Kelvin

text: and further developed by

text: J. J. Thomson

text: . Thomson was the scientist who discovered the

text: electron

text: , and that it was a component of every atom. Thomson believed the atom was a sphere of positive charge throughout which the electrons were distributed, a bit like plums in a

text: Christmas pudding

text: . The existence of

text: proton

text: s and

text: neutron

text: s was unknown at this time. They knew atoms were very tiny (Rutherford assumed they were in the order of 10 m in radius).  This model was based entirely on classical (Newtonian) physics; the current accepted model uses

text: quantum mechanics

text: The subscription to the company was largely taken up by the Duke and the Earl, and their associates; although there were some local subscribers - Henry Schneider was on the company's provisional committee - failure to attract local capital meant that the original intention to serve Ulverston was dropped. The company's Bill was not opposed in Parliament and the Act was given Royal Assent on 23 May 1844. A further Act in 1846 authorised extensions from Kirkby to Broughton-in-Furness, and from Dalton to Ulverston. Goods traffic began running between Dalton and Barrow in June 1846, operated by a single locomotive.  The line was passed for passenger use early in August 1846; by the end of the month passenger trains were running from Dalton to Piel pier, connecting with a steamer to Fleetwood. At a celebratory excursion and dinner for the directors and friends held at the end of October 1846, it was remarked that the mineral traffic was limited by a shortage of wagons (which prevented the Dalton branch handling more than 2,000 tons of iron ore a day) and of locomotives (which meant that the Kirkby branch was not yet being worked), and that ten thousand of the twelve thousand passengers carried so far were excursionists from Fleetwood or Blackpool.  Passenger services ceased after about two months, and the line between Dalton and Rampside Junction was doubled to remove the difficulties experienced in working both mineral and passenger traffic on a single track line. In 1847 differences between the railway company and the owner of Piel pier saw the Fleetwood steamer running to Barrow; it returned to Piel pier in 1848 ; subsequently steamers also ran between Piel pier and Poulton-le-Sands, connecting with the "Little" North Western Railway. Periodic disagreements and reconciliations saw the steamer service terminal switch between Piel and Barrow on a number of occasions until (1853) the Furness Railway bought the pier.

text: The subscription to the company was largely taken up by the Duke and the Earl, and their associates; although there were some local subscribers -

text: Henry Schneider

text: was on the company's provisional committee - failure to attract local capital meant that the original intention to serve Ulverston was dropped. The company's Bill was not opposed in Parliament and the Act was given Royal Assent on 23 May 1844. A further Act in 1846 authorised extensions from Kirkby to

text: Broughton-in-Furness

text: , and from Dalton to Ulverston. Goods traffic began running between Dalton and Barrow in June 1846, operated by a single locomotive.  The line was passed for passenger use early in August 1846; by the end of the month passenger trains were running from Dalton to Piel pier, connecting with a steamer to

text: Fleetwood

text: . At a celebratory excursion and dinner for the directors and friends held at the end of October 1846, it was remarked that the mineral traffic was limited by a shortage of wagons (which prevented the Dalton branch handling more than 2,000 tons of iron ore a day) and of locomotives (which meant that the Kirkby branch was not yet being worked), and that ten thousand of the twelve thousand passengers carried so far were excursionists from Fleetwood or Blackpool.  Passenger services ceased after about two months, and the line between Dalton and Rampside Junction was doubled to remove the difficulties experienced in working both mineral and passenger traffic on a single track line. In 1847 differences between the railway company and the owner of Piel pier saw the Fleetwood steamer running to Barrow; it returned to Piel pier in 1848 ; subsequently steamers also ran between Piel pier and

text: Poulton-le-Sands

text: , connecting with the

text: "Little" North Western Railway

text: . Periodic disagreements and reconciliations saw the steamer service terminal switch between Piel and Barrow on a number of occasions until (1853) the Furness Railway bought the pier.

text: Throughout the 19th century, chemistry was divided between those who followed the atomic theory of John Dalton and those who did not, such as Wilhelm Ostwald and Ernst Mach. Although such proponents of the atomic theory as Amedeo Avogadro and Ludwig Boltzmann made great advances in explaining the behavior of gases, this dispute was not finally settled until Jean Perrin's experimental investigation of Einstein's atomic explanation of Brownian motion in the first decade of the 20th century.

text: Throughout the 19th century, chemistry was divided between those who followed the atomic theory of

text: John Dalton

text: and those who did not, such as

text: Wilhelm Ostwald

text: and

text: Ernst Mach

text: . Although such proponents of the atomic theory as

text: Amedeo Avogadro

text: and

text: Ludwig Boltzmann

text: made great advances in explaining the behavior of

text: gas

text: es, this dispute was not finally settled until

text: Jean Perrin

text: 's experimental investigation of

text: Einstein

text: 's atomic explanation of

text: Brownian motion

text: in the first decade of the 20th century.

text: Atom (known as Astro Boy or just Astro in English) originally appeared as a supporting character in the comic Atom Taishi (Ambassador Atom, sometimes referred to as Captain Atom), which appeared in Shonen, a monthly magazine for boys, in April 1951. Tezuka then created a comic series in which Astro was the main character.

text: Following the rewriting of history due to the Flashpoint event, the mainstream DC Universe is altered considerably. Captain Atom is reintroduced with altered powers, appearance and origin. He is still USAF pilot Nathaniel Adam. In the new reality, Adam volunteers to participate in an experiment conducted by a research facility called the Continuum. At this facility, Dr. Megala's research is focused on the quantum field and on "dimensional transfer through M Theory". Adam is asked to pilot the dimensional-transfer vessel by Dr. Megala, who is now presented as a particle physicist working out of Colorado, but is seemingly atomized during the experiment. Soon afterwards, he reappears, now an energy-based life form. According to Dr. Megala, Captain Atom's abilities are largely nuclear in nature and involve tapping into the strong nuclear force, the energy that binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Adam's physical atoms are constantly splitting apart, giving him incredible power. His body maintains integrity by instantly re-merging these atoms, but extreme use of his powers can interfere with this process and cause Captain Atom's form to become unstable. This leads to a fear that at some point Captain Atom's brain might lose its molecular stability and he won't be able to fix it before it impairs his consciousness or causes him to suffer some form of brain death.

text: Following the rewriting of history due to the

text: Flashpoint

text: event, the mainstream DC Universe is altered considerably. Captain Atom is reintroduced with altered powers, appearance and origin. He is still USAF pilot Nathaniel Adam. In the new reality, Adam volunteers to participate in an experiment conducted by a research facility called the Continuum. At this facility, Dr. Megala's research is focused on the quantum field and on "dimensional transfer through

text: M Theory

text: ". Adam is asked to pilot the dimensional-transfer vessel by Dr. Megala, who is now presented as a particle physicist working out of Colorado, but is seemingly atomized during the experiment. Soon afterwards, he reappears, now an energy-based life form. According to Dr. Megala, Captain Atom's abilities are largely nuclear in nature and involve tapping into the

text: strong nuclear force

text: , the energy that binds protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Adam's physical atoms are constantly splitting apart, giving him incredible power. His body maintains integrity by instantly re-merging these atoms, but extreme use of his powers can interfere with this process and cause Captain Atom's form to become unstable. This leads to a fear that at some point Captain Atom's brain might lose its molecular stability and he won't be able to fix it before it impairs his consciousness or causes him to suffer some form of brain death.

text:
The nature and definition of matter - like other key concepts in science and philosophy - have occasioned much debate. Is there a single kind of matter (hyle) which everything is made of, or multiple kinds? Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (hylomorphism), or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (atomism)?<ref>"Atomism: Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century" Dictionary of the History of Ideas
"Atomism in the Seventeenth Century" Dictionary of the History of Ideas
Article by a philosopher who opposes atomism
Information on Buddhist atomism
Article on traditional Greek atomism

text: The nature and definition of matter - like other key concepts in science and philosophy - have occasioned much debate. Is there a single kind of matter (

text: hyle

text: ) which everything is made of, or multiple kinds? Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (

text: hylomorphism

text: ), or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (

text: atomism

text:
)?<ref>"Atomism: Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century" Dictionary of the History of Ideas
"Atomism in the Seventeenth Century" Dictionary of the History of Ideas
Article by a philosopher who opposes atomism
Information on Buddhist atomism
Article on traditional Greek atomism

text: Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explicable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease rightward along each period (row) of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group (column).  The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period.  These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory.

text: Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explicable manner across the

text: periodic table

text: . For instance, the radii generally decrease rightward along each period (row) of the table, from the

text: alkali metal

text: s to the

text: noble gases

text: ; and increase down each group (column).  The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period.  These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the

text: electron shell

text: theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of

text: quantum theory

text: In MO theory molecular orbitals form by the overlap of atomic orbitals. Because σ bonds feature greater overlap than π bonds, σ and σ* bonding and antibonding orbitals feature greater energy splitting (separation) than π and π* orbitals. The atomic orbital energy correlates with electronegativity as more electronegative atoms hold their electrons more tightly, lowering their energies. MO modelling is only valid when the atomic orbitals have comparable energy; when the energies differ greatly the mode of bonding becomes ionic.  A second condition for overlapping atomic orbitals is that they have the same symmetry.

text: In MO theory molecular orbitals form by the overlap of atomic orbitals. Because σ bonds feature greater overlap than π bonds, σ and σ* bonding and antibonding orbitals feature greater energy splitting (separation) than π and π* orbitals. The atomic orbital energy correlates with

text: electronegativity

text: as more electronegative atoms hold their electrons more tightly, lowering their energies. MO modelling is only valid when the atomic orbitals have comparable energy; when the energies differ greatly the mode of bonding becomes

text: ionic

text: .  A second condition for overlapping atomic orbitals is that they have the same symmetry.

text: Leucippus (; , Leúkippos; fl. 5th cent. BCE) is reported in some ancient sources to have been a philosopher who was the earliest Greek to develop the theory of atomism—the idea that everything is composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms. Leucippus often appears as the master to his pupil Democritus, a philosopher also touted as the originator of the atomic theory. However, a brief notice in Diogenes Laertius’s life of Epicurus says that on the testimony of Epicurus, Leucippus never existed. As the philosophical heir of Democritus, Epicurus's word has some weight, and indeed a controversy over this matter raged in German scholarship for many years at the close of the 19th century. Furthermore, in his Corpus Democriteum, Thrasyllus of Alexandria, an astrologer and writer living under the emperor Tiberius (14–37 CE), compiled a list of writings on atomism that he attributed to Democritus to the exclusion of Leucippus. The present consensus among the world's historians of philosophy is that this Leucippus is historical. The matter must remain moot unless more information is forthcoming from the record.

text: Leucippus (; , Leúkippos; fl. 5th cent. BCE) is reported in some ancient sources to have been a philosopher who was the earliest Greek to develop the theory of

text: atomism

text: —the idea that everything is composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called

text: atom

text: s. Leucippus often appears as the master to his pupil

text: Democritus

text: , a philosopher also touted as the originator of the atomic theory. However, a brief notice in

text: Diogenes Laertius

text: ’s life of

text: Epicurus

text: says that on the testimony of

text: Epicurus

text: , Leucippus never existed. As the philosophical heir of Democritus, Epicurus's word has some weight, and indeed a controversy over this matter raged in German scholarship for many years at the close of the 19th century. Furthermore, in his Corpus Democriteum,

text: Thrasyllus of Alexandria

text: , an astrologer and writer living under the emperor

text: Tiberius

text: (14–37 CE), compiled a list of writings on atomism that he attributed to Democritus to the exclusion of Leucippus. The present consensus among the world's historians of philosophy is that this Leucippus is historical. The matter must remain moot unless more information is forthcoming from the record.

text: Russian pyramid, also known as Russian billiard (, russky bilyard) or pyramid billiards, is a cue sport that has several differences from Western pool, although game play is still dominated by attempts to  () billiard balls. It is played in Russia and also in countries of the former Soviet Union. A variant with colored balls modeled on those of Western pool is called Russian pool.  Another variant, kaisa, is popular in Finland.

text: Russian pyramid, also known as Russian billiard (, russky bilyard) or pyramid billiards, is a

text: cue sport

text: that has several differences from Western

text: pool

text: , although game play is still dominated by attempts to  ()

text: billiard ball

text: s. It is played in

text: Russia

text: and also in countries of the former

text: Soviet Union

text: . A variant with colored balls modeled on those of

text: Western pool

text: is called Russian pool.  Another variant,

text: kaisa

text: , is popular in

text: Finland

text: The principal quantum number was first created for use in the semiclassical Bohr model of the atom, distinguishing between different energy levels. With the development of modern quantum mechanics, the simple Bohr model was replaced with a more complex theory of atomic orbitals. However, modern theory still requires the principal quantum number. Apart from the principal quantum number, the other quantum numbers for bound electrons are the azimuthal quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number.

text: The principal quantum number was first created for use in the

text: semiclassical Bohr model of the atom

text: , distinguishing between different

text: energy level

text: s. With the development of modern quantum mechanics, the simple Bohr model was replaced with a more complex theory of

text: atomic orbital

text: s. However, modern theory still requires the principal quantum number. Apart from the principal quantum number, the other quantum numbers for

text: bound

text: electrons are the

text: azimuthal quantum number

text: , the

text: magnetic quantum number

text: , and the

text: spin quantum number

text: After Albert Einstein published (1905) his theoretical explanation of Brownian motion in terms of atoms, Perrin did the experimental work to test and verify Einstein's predictions, thereby settling the century-long dispute about John Dalton's atomic theory. Carl Benedicks argued Perrin should receive the Nobel Prize in Physics; Perrin received the award in 1926 for this and other work on the discontinuous structure of matter, which put a definite end to the long struggle regarding the question of the physical reality of molecules.

text: After

text: Albert Einstein

text: published (1905) his theoretical explanation of

text: Brownian motion

text: in terms of

text: atom

text: s, Perrin did the experimental work to test and verify Einstein's predictions, thereby settling the century-long dispute about

text: John Dalton

text: 's

text: atomic theory

text: Carl Benedicks

text: argued Perrin should receive the

text: Nobel Prize in Physics

text: ; Perrin received the award in 1926 for this and other work on the discontinuous structure of matter, which put a definite end to the

text: long struggle

text: regarding the question of the physical reality of molecules.

text: The series began as a six-issue limited series published by Red 5 Comics starting in October 2007. It was nominated in the "Best Limited Series" category of the 2008 Eisner Awards, won by The Umbrella Academy.  Colorist Ronda Pattison was also nominated in the "Best Coloring" category subsequently won by Dave Stewart. The first six issues of the series have been collected  as Atomic Robo Volume 1: Atomic Robo and the Fightin' Scientists of Tesladyne. Atomic Robo Volume 2: Atomic Robo and the Dogs of War was released as a trade paperback on February 18, 2009. The third series, Atomic Robo Volume 3: Atomic Robo and the Shadow From Beyond Time, was released in trade on December 23, 2009, and a fourth, Atomic Robo Volume 4: Atomic Robo and Other Strangeness, has been released in issue format and will be published in trade in the summer of 2010. A fifth volume, Atomic Robo and the Deadly Art of Science, was released in November 2010 and came to its conclusion in May 2011. In April 2012 Atomic Robo Volume 6: The Ghost of Station X became the second Atomic Robo miniseries to be nominated for an Eisner Award for Best Limited Series. With the release of Volume 10, Clevinger announced that the collected volumes will no longer be numbered. Given the non-linear nature of the volumes there was no necessary reading order, thus it was no longer necessary to number volumes as each volume is designed to be a jumping on point for new readers.

text: The series began as a six-issue

text: limited series

text: published by

text: Red 5 Comics

text: starting in October 2007. It was nominated in the "Best Limited Series" category of the 2008

text: Eisner Awards

text: , won by

text: The Umbrella Academy

text: .  Colorist

text: Ronda Pattison

text: was also nominated in the "Best Coloring" category subsequently won by

text: Dave Stewart

text: . The first six issues of the series have been collected  as Atomic Robo Volume 1: Atomic Robo and the Fightin' Scientists of Tesladyne. Atomic Robo Volume 2: Atomic Robo and the Dogs of War was released as a

text: trade paperback

text: on February 18, 2009. The third series, Atomic Robo Volume 3: Atomic Robo and the Shadow From Beyond Time, was released in trade on December 23, 2009, and a fourth, Atomic Robo Volume 4: Atomic Robo and Other Strangeness, has been released in issue format and will be published in trade in the summer of 2010. A fifth volume, Atomic Robo and the Deadly Art of Science, was released in November 2010 and came to its conclusion in May 2011. In April 2012 Atomic Robo Volume 6: The Ghost of Station X became the second Atomic Robo miniseries to be nominated for an Eisner Award for Best Limited Series. With the release of Volume 10, Clevinger announced that the collected volumes will no longer be numbered. Given the non-linear nature of the volumes there was no necessary reading order, thus it was no longer necessary to number volumes as each volume is designed to be a jumping on point for new readers.

text: "Behind the eight ball" (or "behind the eight") is a common idiom meaning to be in trouble, stymied or thwarted, in an awkward position or out of luck. It is often assumed that the expression derives from the inability to use the 8 ball in a combination in the game of eight-ball—if the cue ball is directly behind the 8 ball a player has no direct shot route. However, numerous billiards-specific and etymological publications state that the expression derives instead from kelly pool, or an early version of kelly pool called kelly rotation.

text: "Behind the eight ball" (or "behind the eight") is a common

text: idiom

text: meaning to be in trouble, stymied or thwarted, in an awkward position or out of luck. It is often assumed that the expression derives from the inability to use the 8 ball in a combination in the game of

text: eight-ball

text: —if the cue ball is directly behind the 8 ball a player has no direct shot route. However, numerous billiards-specific and etymological publications state that the expression derives instead from kelly pool, or an early version of kelly pool called kelly rotation.

text: Dalton was elected to the Continental Congress in 1783 and 1784, but did not attend.  He was elected as a delegate to the state convention on the adoption of the United States Constitution, in which he advocated for its adoption.  In 1788 he was elected as one of the state's first United States Senators, along with Caleb Strong.  Strong won the draw for the longer of the two terms, leaving Dalton with a short two-year term.  He served from March 4, 1789 to March 4, 1791.  In the 1791 election (US Senators were then chosen by vote of the state legislature), Dalton ran a distant fourth against George Cabot, the eventual victor, and others.

text: Dalton was elected to the

text: Continental Congress

text: in 1783 and 1784, but did not attend.  He was elected as a delegate to the state convention on the adoption of the

text: United States Constitution

text: , in which he advocated for its adoption.  In 1788 he was elected as one of the state's first

text: United States Senator

text: s, along with

text: Caleb Strong

text: .  Strong won the draw for the longer of the two terms, leaving Dalton with a short two-year term.  He served from March 4, 1789 to March 4, 1791.  In the 1791 election (US Senators were then chosen by vote of the state legislature), Dalton ran a distant fourth against

text: George Cabot

text: , the eventual victor, and others.

text: The Swedish scientist Berzelius was one of the few scientists who strongly believed in the idea of atomic weights, and thought that knowing as much as possible about their weights was vitally important. When he heard of Dalton’s theory, he set about the gargantuan task of measuring the atomic weight of every single known element – without any proof that Dalton’s atoms actually existed.

text: The Swedish scientist

text: Berzelius

text: was one of the few scientists who strongly believed in the idea of atomic weights, and thought that knowing as much as possible about their weights was vitally important. When he heard of Dalton’s theory, he set about the gargantuan task of measuring the atomic weight of every single known element – without any proof that Dalton’s atoms actually existed.

text: The atomic theory of matter had been proposed again in the early 19th century by the chemist John Dalton and became one of the hypotheses of the kinetic-molecular theory of gases developed by Clausius and James Clerk Maxwell to explain the laws of thermodynamics. The kinetic theory in turn led to the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) and Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), which held that energy (including heat) was a measure of the speed of particles.  Interrelating the statistical likelihood of certain states of organization of these particles with the energy of those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation of energy to be the statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term "entropy" to describe the disorganization of a state). The statistical versus absolute interpretations of the second law of thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several decades (producing arguments such as "Maxwell's demon"), and that would not be held to be definitively resolved until the behavior of atoms was firmly established in the early 20th century. In 1902, James Jeans found the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium.

text: The atomic theory of matter had been proposed again in the early 19th century by the chemist

text: John Dalton

text: and became one of the hypotheses of the kinetic-molecular theory of gases developed by Clausius and James Clerk Maxwell to explain the laws of thermodynamics. The kinetic theory in turn led to the statistical mechanics of

text: Ludwig Boltzmann

text: (1844–1906) and

text: Josiah Willard Gibbs

text: (1839–1903), which held that energy (including heat) was a measure of the speed of particles.  Interrelating the statistical likelihood of certain states of organization of these particles with the energy of those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation of energy to be the statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term "

text: entropy

text: " to describe the disorganization of a state). The statistical versus absolute interpretations of the second law of thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several decades (producing arguments such as "

text: Maxwell's demon

text: "), and that would not be held to be definitively resolved until the behavior of atoms was firmly established in the early 20th century. In 1902,

text: James Jeans

text: found the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium.

text: Dalton was given command of the 161st in the closing days of the Guadalcanal Campaign after its previous commander, Colonel Clarence Orndorff, was ordered back to the United States through illness. Initially the 161st was a National Guard regiment, but having seen combat in the Guadalcanal campaign and taken in veteran replacements the regiment had lost that title. After Guadalcanal the 161st was ordered to New Georgia Island to link up with the 145th and 148th Infantry Regiments, in an attempt to take out the Japanese airfield at Munda Point. On arrival at New Georgia Island on July 22, 1943, Dalton's regiment was placed under the command of General Robert S. Beightler. In a difficult campaign, in which his regiment was unable to make gains due to heavy enemy defensive positions, Dalton's regiment was also blamed by Colonel Baxter of the 148th for failures in the field. Beighter, although a fellow Ohio Guardsman of Baxter, decided that Dalton's command was sound and was able to remove Baxter from his position through a fortuitous element of Baxter's ill health.

text: Dalton was given command of the 161st in the closing days of the Guadalcanal Campaign after its previous commander, Colonel Clarence Orndorff, was ordered back to the United States through illness. Initially the 161st was a National Guard regiment, but having seen combat in the Guadalcanal campaign and taken in veteran replacements the regiment had lost that title. After Guadalcanal the 161st was ordered to

text: New Georgia Island

text: to link up with the 145th and 148th Infantry Regiments, in an attempt to take out the Japanese airfield at Munda Point. On arrival at New Georgia Island on July 22, 1943, Dalton's regiment was placed under the command of General

text: Robert S. Beightler

text: . In a difficult campaign, in which his regiment was unable to make gains due to heavy enemy defensive positions, Dalton's regiment was also blamed by Colonel Baxter of the 148th for failures in the field. Beighter, although a fellow Ohio Guardsman of Baxter, decided that Dalton's command was sound and was able to remove Baxter from his position through a fortuitous element of Baxter's ill health.

text: Molecular geometry is determined by the quantum mechanical behavior of the electrons. Using the valence bond approximation this can be understood by the type of bonds between the atoms that make up the molecule. When atoms interact to form a chemical bond, the atomic orbitals of each atom are said to combine in a process called orbital hybridisation.  The two most common types of bonds are sigma bonds (usually formed by hybrid orbitals) and pi bonds (formed by unhybridized p orbitals for atoms of main group elements).  The geometry can also be understood by molecular orbital theory where the electrons are delocalised.

text: Molecular geometry is determined by the

text: quantum mechanical

text: behavior of the electrons. Using the

text: valence bond approximation

text: this can be understood by the type of bonds between the atoms that make up the molecule. When atoms interact to form a

text: chemical bond

text: , the atomic orbitals of each atom are said to combine in a process called

text: orbital hybridisation

text: .  The two most common types of bonds are

text: sigma bond

text: s (usually formed by hybrid orbitals) and

text: pi bond

text: s (formed by unhybridized p orbitals for atoms of

text: main group element

text: s).  The geometry can also be understood by

text: molecular orbital theory

text: where the electrons are delocalised.

text: Ivory was never so important after the end of the Middle Ages, but continued to be used for plaques, small figures, especially the "corpus" or body on a crucifix, fans, elaborate handles for cutlery, and a great range of other objects.  Dieppe in France became an important centre, specializing in ornate openwork and model ships, and Erbach in Germany. Kholmogory has been for centuries a centre for the Russian style of carving, once in mammoth ivory but now mostly in bone.  Scrimshaw, usually a form of engraving rather than carving, is a type of mostly naïve art practised by whalers and sailors on sperm whale teeth and other marine ivory, mainly in the 18th and 19th centuries.  Ivory was used for the balls for table ball games such as billiards and snooker until the late 19th century, even as they games became far more widely played. Other uses were for the white keys of keyboard instruments and the handles of cutlery, sometimes elaborately carved.

text: Ivory was never so important after the end of the Middle Ages, but continued to be used for plaques, small figures, especially the "corpus" or body on a

text: crucifix

text: , fans, elaborate handles for cutlery, and a great range of other objects.

text: Dieppe

text: in France became an important centre, specializing in ornate

text: openwork

text: and model ships, and

text: Erbach

text: in Germany.

text: Kholmogory

text: has been for centuries a centre for the Russian style of carving, once in mammoth ivory but now mostly in bone.

text: Scrimshaw

text: , usually a form of

text: engraving

text: rather than carving, is a type of mostly

text: naïve art

text: practised by whalers and sailors on sperm whale teeth and other marine ivory, mainly in the 18th and 19th centuries.  Ivory was used for the balls for table ball games such as

text: billiards

text: and

text: snooker

text: until the late 19th century, even as they games became far more widely played. Other uses were for the white keys of

text: keyboard instruments

text: and the handles of

text: cutlery

text: , sometimes elaborately carved.

text: According to molecular orbital theory, molecular orbitals are formed from the linear combination of atomic orbitals.  In a simple diatomic molecule such as hydrogen fluoride (chemical formula: HF), one atom may have many more electrons than the other.  A sigma bonding orbital is created between the atomic orbitals with like symmetry.  Some orbitals (e.g. p and p orbitals from the fluorine in HF) may not have any other orbitals to combine with and become non-bonding molecular orbitals.  In the HF example, the p and p orbitals remain p and p orbitals in shape but when viewed as molecular orbitals are thought of as non-bonding.  The energy of the orbital does not depend on the length of any bond within the molecule.  Its occupation neither increases nor decreases the stability of the molecule, relative to the atoms, since its energy is the same in the molecule as in one of the atoms.  For example, there are two rigorously non-bonding orbitals that are occupied in the ground state of the hydrogen fluoride diatomic molecule; these molecular orbitals are localized on the fluorine atom and are composed of p-type atomic orbitals whose orientation is perpendicular to the internuclear axis. They are therefore unable to overlap and interact with the s-type valence orbital on the hydrogen atom.

text: According to molecular orbital theory, molecular orbitals are formed from the

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: .  In a simple diatomic molecule such as

text: hydrogen fluoride

text: chemical formula

text: : HF), one atom may have many more electrons than the other.  A sigma bonding orbital is created between the atomic orbitals with like symmetry.  Some orbitals (e.g. p and p orbitals from the fluorine in HF) may not have any other orbitals to combine with and become non-bonding molecular orbitals.  In the HF example, the p and p orbitals remain p and p orbitals in shape but when viewed as molecular orbitals are thought of as non-bonding.  The energy of the orbital does not depend on the length of any bond within the molecule.  Its occupation neither increases nor decreases the stability of the molecule, relative to the atoms, since its energy is the same in the molecule as in one of the atoms.  For example, there are two rigorously non-bonding orbitals that are occupied in the ground state of the hydrogen fluoride diatomic molecule; these molecular orbitals are localized on the fluorine atom and are composed of p-type

text: atomic orbital

text: s whose orientation is perpendicular to the internuclear axis. They are therefore unable to overlap and interact with the s-type valence orbital on the hydrogen atom.

text: Heating table beds is an old practice. Queen Victoria had a billiard table that was heated using zinc tubes, although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then-used ivory balls from warping. The first use of electric heating was for an 18.2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between Welker Cochran and Jacob Schaefer, Jr. The New York Times announced it with fanfare: "For the first time in the history of world's championship balkline billiards a heated table will be used..."

text: Heating table beds is an old practice.

text: Queen Victoria

text: had a billiard table that was heated using

text: zinc

text: tubes, although the aim at that time was chiefly to keep the then-used

text: ivory

text: balls from warping. The first use of electric heating was for an 18.2 balkline tournament held in December 1927 between

text: Welker Cochran

text: and

text: Jacob Schaefer, Jr.

text: The New York Times announced it with fanfare: "For the first time in the history of world's championship balkline billiards a heated table will be used..."

text: In chemistry, a tetravalence is the state of an atom with four electrons available for covalent chemical bonding in its valence (outermost electron shell). An example is methane (CH): the tetravalent carbon atom forms a covalent bond with four hydrogen atoms. The carbon atom is called tetravalent because it forms 4 covalent bonds.A carbon atom has a total of six electrons occupying the first two shells, i.e., the K-shell has two electrons and the L-shell has four electrons. This distribution indicates that in the outermost shell there are one completely filled 's' orbital and two half-filled 'p' orbitals, showing carbon to be a divalent atom. But in actuality, carbon displays tetravalency in the combined state. Therefore, a carbon atom has four valence electrons. It could gain four electrons to form the C anion or lose four electrons to form the C cation. Both these conditions would take carbon far away from achieving stability by the octet rule. To overcome this problem carbon undergoes bonding by sharing its valence electrons. This allows it to be covalently bonded to one, two, three or four carbon atoms or atoms of other elements or groups of atoms. Let us see how carbon forms the single, double and triple bonds in the following examples.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , a tetravalence is the state of an

text: atom

text: with four

text: electron

text: s available for

text: covalent

text: chemical bond

text: ing in its

text: valence

text: (outermost

text: electron shell

text: ). An example is

text: methane

text: (CH): the tetravalent

text: carbon

text: atom forms a covalent bond with four

text: hydrogen atom

text: s. The carbon atom is called tetravalent because it forms 4 covalent bonds.A carbon atom has a total of six electrons occupying the first two shells, i.e., the K-shell has two electrons and the L-shell has four electrons. This distribution indicates that in the outermost shell there are one completely filled 's' orbital and two half-filled 'p' orbitals, showing carbon to be a

text: divalent atom

text: . But in actuality, carbon displays tetravalency in the combined state. Therefore, a carbon atom has four valence electrons. It could gain four electrons to form the C

text: anion

text: or lose four electrons to form the C

text: cation

text: . Both these conditions would take carbon far away from achieving stability by the

text: octet rule

text: . To overcome this problem carbon undergoes bonding by sharing its valence electrons. This allows it to be covalently bonded to one, two, three or four carbon atoms or atoms of other elements or groups of atoms. Let us see how carbon forms the single, double and triple bonds in the following examples.

text: Billiard balls vary from game to game, in size, design and quantity.

text: The Fredkin gate (also CSWAP gate) is a 3-bit gate that performs a controlled swap. It is universal for classical computation. As with the Toffoli gate it has the useful property that the numbers of 0s and 1s are conserved throughout, which in the billiard ball model means the same number of balls are output as input.

text: The Fredkin gate (also CSWAP gate) is a 3-bit gate that performs a

text: controlled

text: swap

text: . It is

text: universal

text: for classical computation. As with the Toffoli gate it has the useful property that the numbers of 0s and 1s are conserved throughout, which in the

text: billiard ball model

text: means the same number of balls are output as input.

text: After Dalton published his atomic theory in 1808, certain of his central ideas were soon adopted by most chemists. However, uncertainty persisted for half a century about how atomic theory was to be configured and applied to concrete situations; chemists in different countries developed several different incompatible atomistic systems. A paper that suggested a way out of this difficult situation was published as early as 1811 by the Italian physicist Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856), who hypothesized that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules, from which it followed that relative molecular weights of any two gases are the same as the ratio of the densities of the two gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Avogadro also reasoned that simple gases were not formed of solitary atoms but were instead compound molecules of two or more atoms. Thus Avogadro was able to overcome the difficulty that Dalton and others had encountered when Gay-Lussac reported that above 100 °C the volume of water vapor was twice the volume of the oxygen used to form it. According to Avogadro, the molecule of oxygen had split into two atoms in the course of forming water vapor.

text: After Dalton published his atomic theory in 1808, certain of his central ideas were soon adopted by most chemists. However, uncertainty persisted for half a century about how atomic theory was to be configured and applied to concrete situations; chemists in different countries developed several different incompatible atomistic systems. A paper that suggested a way out of this difficult situation was published as early as 1811 by the Italian physicist

text: Amedeo Avogadro

text: (1776-1856), who hypothesized that equal volumes of gases at the same

text: temperature

text: and

text: pressure

text: contain equal numbers of molecules, from which it followed that relative

text: molecular weight

text: s of any two gases are the same as the ratio of the densities of the two gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Avogadro also reasoned that simple gases were not formed of solitary atoms but were instead compound molecules of two or more atoms. Thus Avogadro was able to overcome the difficulty that Dalton and others had encountered when Gay-Lussac reported that above 100 °C the volume of water vapor was twice the volume of the oxygen used to form it. According to Avogadro, the molecule of oxygen had split into two atoms in the course of forming water vapor.

text: In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that the wavelength of this ultraviolet light corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr. Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged. In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was "completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr’s theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once". On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.".

text: In a second paper presented in May 1914, Franck and Hertz reported on the light emission by the mercury atoms that had absorbed energy from collisions. They showed that the

text: wavelength

text: of this

text: ultraviolet

text: light corresponded exactly to the 4.9 eV of energy that the flying electron had lost. The relationship of energy and wavelength had also been predicted by Bohr. Franck and Hertz completed their last paper together in December 1918. In it, they reconciled the discrepancies between their results and Bohr's theory, which they now acknowledged. In his Nobel lecture, Franck admitted that it was "completely incomprehensible that we had failed to recognise the fundamental significance of Bohr’s theory, so much so, that we never even mentioned it once". On 10 December 1926, Franck and Hertz were awarded the 1925

text: Nobel Prize in Physics

text: "for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom.".

text: Jeffreys promoted the Dalton Plan, which was at that time still quite new, at Bryanston. The Dalton Plan was originally developed by the American teacher Helen Parkhurst at Dalton High School in Massachusetts in the 1920s. It combined old and new approaches, hence the school motto.

text: Jeffreys promoted the

text: Dalton Plan

text: , which was at that time still quite new, at Bryanston. The Dalton Plan was originally developed by the

text: American

text: teacher

text: Helen Parkhurst

text: at

text: Dalton

text: High School

text: in

text: Massachusetts

text: in the 1920s. It combined old and new approaches, hence the school motto.

text: Sometime before 330 B.C.E. Aristotle asserted that the elements of fire, air, earth, and water were not made of atoms, but were continuous.  Aristotle considered the existence of a void, which was required by atomic theories, to violate physical principles. Change took place not by the rearrangement of atoms to make new structures, but by transformation of matter from what it was in potential to a new actuality. A piece of wet clay, when acted upon by a potter, takes on its potential to be an actual drinking mug.  Aristotle has often been criticized for rejecting atomism, but in ancient Greece the atomic theories of Democritus remained "pure speculations, incapable of being put to any experimental test.  Granted that atomism was, in the long run, to prove far more fruitful than any qualitative theory of matter, in the short run the theory that Aristotle proposed must have seemed in some respects more promising".

text: Sometime before 330 B.C.E.

text: Aristotle

text: asserted that the elements of fire, air, earth, and water were not made of atoms, but were continuous.  Aristotle considered the existence of a void, which was required by atomic theories, to violate physical principles. Change took place not by the rearrangement of atoms to make new structures, but by

text: transformation of matter from what it was in potential to a new actuality

text: . A piece of wet clay, when acted upon by a potter, takes on its potential to be an actual drinking mug.  Aristotle has often been criticized for rejecting atomism, but in ancient Greece the atomic theories of Democritus remained "pure speculations, incapable of being put to any experimental test.  Granted that atomism was, in the long run, to prove far more fruitful than any qualitative theory of matter, in the short run the theory that Aristotle proposed must have seemed in some respects more promising".

text: Luke heads out to find the Daltons, who offer to make a deal with him. If he refuses to help them, they will kill him. If he accepts, he gets a share of the inheritance (a ruse by the Daltons, who plan to still kill Luke if he helps them). Luke agrees to help supervise the killings and offers to help kill the judge and jury as well. However, he reveals to his horse, Jolly Jumper, and to the audience, that he was only attempting to deceive the Dalton brothers when he said that.

text: Luke heads out to find the Daltons, who offer to make a deal with him. If he refuses to help them, they will kill him. If he accepts, he gets a share of the inheritance (a ruse by the Daltons, who plan to still kill Luke if he helps them). Luke agrees to help supervise the killings and offers to help kill the judge and jury as well. However, he reveals to his horse,

text: Jolly Jumper

text: , and to the audience, that he was only attempting to deceive the Dalton brothers when he said that.

text: In the early 1780s William assisted in making all the experiments detailed in his uncle Bryan Higgins’ Experiments and Observations Relating to Acetous Acid.  In 1785 William undertook a mineralogical tour through England, also visiting a number of chemical manufacturers.  In 1788 he entered Pembroke College, Oxford but did not complete his degree.  His next four years after that were spent in London, where he published two editions of his most important work, the Comparative View of Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic Theories which laid out much of Dalton's atomic theory 19 years earlier.

text: In the early 1780s William assisted in making all the experiments detailed in his uncle Bryan Higgins’ Experiments and Observations Relating to

text: Acetous Acid

text: .  In 1785 William undertook a mineralogical tour through England, also visiting a number of chemical manufacturers.  In 1788 he entered

text: Pembroke College, Oxford

text: but did not complete his degree.  His next four years after that were spent in London, where he published two editions of his most important work, the Comparative View of Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic Theories which laid out much of

text: Dalton

text: 's atomic theory 19 years earlier.

text: In 1827, botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically, a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In 1905 Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion. French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.

text: In 1827,

text: botanist

entity_name: Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)

text: Robert Brown

text: used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically, a phenomenon that became known as "

text: Brownian motion

text: ". This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In 1905

text: Albert Einstein

text: proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first

text: Statistical physics

text: analysis of

text: Brownian motion

text: . French physicist

text: Jean Perrin

text: used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying

text: Dalton's atomic theory

text: This model can be used to simulate Boolean circuits in which the wires of the circuit correspond to paths on which one of the balls may travel, the signal on a wire is encoded by the presence or absence of a ball on that path, and the gates of the circuit are simulated by collisions of balls at points where their paths cross. In particular, it is possible to set up the paths of the balls and the buffers around them to form a reversible Toffoli gate, from which any other Boolean logic gate may be simulated. Therefore, suitably configured billiard-ball computers may be used to perform any computational task.

text: This model can be used to simulate

text: Boolean circuit

text: s in which the wires of the circuit correspond to paths on which one of the balls may travel, the signal on a wire is encoded by the presence or absence of a ball on that path, and the gates of the circuit are simulated by collisions of balls at points where their paths cross. In particular, it is possible to set up the paths of the balls and the buffers around them to form a reversible

text: Toffoli gate

text: , from which any other Boolean logic gate may be simulated. Therefore, suitably configured billiard-ball computers may be used to perform any computational task.

text: Thus Rutherford did not make the proposal that the number of charges in the nucleus of an atom might be exactly equal to its place on the periodic table (atomic number). This is the idea put forward by Van den Broek. The number of the place of an element in the periodic table (or atomic number) at that time was not thought by most physicists to be a physical property. It was not until the work of Henry Moseley working with the Bohr model of the atom with the explicit idea of testing Van den Broek's theory, that it was realized that atomic number was indeed a purely physical property (the charge of the nucleus) which could be measured, and that Van den Broek's original guess had been correct, or very close to being correct. Moseley's work actually found (see Moseley's law) the nuclear charge best described by the Bohr equation and a charge of Z-1, where Z is the atomic number).

text: Thus Rutherford did not make the proposal that the number of charges in the nucleus of an atom might be exactly equal to its place on the periodic table (atomic number). This is the idea put forward by Van den Broek. The number of the place of an element in the periodic table (or

text: atomic number

text: ) at that time was not thought by most physicists to be a physical property. It was not until the work of

text: Henry Moseley

text: working with the

text: Bohr model

text: of the atom with the explicit idea of testing Van den Broek's theory, that it was realized that atomic number was indeed a purely physical property (the charge of the nucleus) which could be measured, and that Van den Broek's original guess had been correct, or very close to being correct. Moseley's work actually found (see

text: Moseley's law

text: ) the nuclear charge best described by the Bohr equation and a charge of Z-1, where Z is the

text: atomic number

text: When John Dalton's atomic theory of matter superseded Descartes' philosophy of infinite divisibility at the beginning of the 19th century, preformationism was struck a further blow. There was not enough space at the bottom of the spectrum to accommodate infinitely stacked animalcules, without bumping into the constituent parts of matter. (Gee 43)

text: When

text: John Dalton

text: 's

text: atomic theory

text: of matter

text: superseded

text: Descartes' philosophy of

text: infinite divisibility

text: at the beginning of the 19th century, preformationism was struck a further blow. There was not enough space at the bottom of the spectrum to accommodate infinitely stacked animalcules, without bumping into the constituent parts of matter. (Gee 43)

text: The Whitfield County School District is a public school district in Whitfield County, Georgia, United States, based in Dalton. It serves the communities of Cohutta, Dalton, Tunnel Hill, and Varnell.

text: The Whitfield County School District is a public school district in

text: Whitfield County

text: Georgia

text: , United States, based in

text: Dalton

text: . It serves the communities of

text: Cohutta

text: Dalton

text: Tunnel Hill

text: , and

text: Varnell

text: The American teacher Helen Parkhurst (1886-1973) developed at the beginning of the twentieth century the Dalton Plan to reform the then current pedagogics and the then usual manner of classroom management. She wanted to break the teacher-centered lockstep teaching. During her first experiment, which she implemented in a small elementary school as a young teacher in 1904, she noticed that when students are given freedom for self-direction and self-pacing and to help one another, their motivation increases considerably and they learn a lot more. In a later experiment in 1911 and 1912 Parkhurst re-organized the education in a large school for nine to fourteen year-olds. Instead of each grade, each subject was appointed its own teacher and its own classroom. The subject teachers made assignments: they converted the subject matter for each grade into learning assignments. In this way, learning became the students’ own work; they could carry out their work independently, work at their own pace and plan their work themselves. The classroom turned into a laboratory, a place where students are working, furnished and equipped as work spaces, tailored to meet the requirements of specific subjects. Useful and attractive learning materials, instruments and reference books were put within the students’ reach. The benches were replaced by large tables to facilitate co-operation and group instruction. This second experiment formed the basis for the next experiments, those in Dalton and New York, from 1919 onwards. The only addition was the use of graphs, charts enabling students to keep track of their own progress in each subject. From now on it was called the Dalton Plan.

text: One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composedof atoms. It forms a part of the texts written in 6th century BC to 2nd century BC such as those of Democritus or Vaisheshika Sutra written by Kanad. This theory was later developed in the modern sense of the basic unit of a chemical element by the British chemist and physicist John Dalton in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were although they could be described and classified by their properties (in bulk). The invention of the periodic system of elements by Mendeleev was another great step forward.

text: One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composedof atoms. It forms a part of the texts written in 6th century BC to 2nd century BC such as those of

text: Democritus

text: or

text: Vaisheshika Sutra

text: written by

text: Kanad

text: . This theory was later developed in the modern sense of the basic unit of a

text: chemical element

text: by the British chemist and physicist

text: John Dalton

text: in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were although they could be described and classified by their properties (in bulk). The invention of the

text: periodic system of elements

text: by

text: Mendeleev

text: was another great step forward.

text: In the early modern period, Aristotelian hylomorphism fell out of favor with the rise of the "mechanical philosophy" of thinkers like Descartes and John Locke, who were more sympathetic to the ancient Greek atomism of Democritus than to the natural minima of Aristotle. However, the concept of minima naturalia continued to shape philosophical thinking even among these mechanistic philosophers in the transitional centuries between the Aristotelianism of the medieval Scholastics and the worked-out atomic theory of modern scientists like Dalton.

text: In the early modern period, Aristotelian hylomorphism fell out of favor with the rise of the

text: "mechanical philosophy"

text: of thinkers like

text: Descartes

text: and

text: John Locke

text: , who were more sympathetic to the ancient Greek atomism of Democritus than to the natural minima of Aristotle. However, the concept of minima naturalia continued to shape philosophical thinking even among these mechanistic philosophers in the transitional centuries between the Aristotelianism of the medieval Scholastics and the worked-out atomic theory of modern scientists like Dalton.

text: After speaking about the atomic theory of Democritus, Maxwell goes on to tell us that the word 'molecule' is a modern word.  He states, "it does not occur in Johnson's Dictionary.  The ideas it embodies are those belonging to modern chemistry."  We are told that an 'atom' is a material point, invested and surrounded by 'potential forces' and that when 'flying molecules' strike against a solid body in constant succession it causes what is called pressure of air and other gases.  At this point, however, Maxwell notes that no one has ever seen or handled a molecule.

text: After speaking about the

text: atomic theory

text: of

text: Democritus

text: , Maxwell goes on to tell us that the word 'molecule' is a modern word.  He states, "it does not occur in

text: Johnson's Dictionary

text: .  The ideas it embodies are those belonging to modern chemistry."  We are told that an 'atom' is a material point, invested and surrounded by 'potential forces' and that when 'flying molecules' strike against a solid body in constant succession it causes what is called

text: pressure

text: of air and other gases.  At this point, however, Maxwell notes that no one has ever seen or handled a molecule.

text: A Swedish chemist and disciple of Dalton, Jöns Jacob Berzelius embarked on a systematic program to try to make accurate and precise quantitative measurements and insure the purity of chemicals. Along with Lavoisier, Boyle, and Dalton, Berzelius is known as the father of modern chemistry. In 1828 he compiled a table of relative atomic weights, where oxygen was set to 100, and which included all of the elements known at the time. This work provided evidence in favor of Dalton's atomic theory: that inorganic chemical compounds are composed of atoms combined in whole number amounts. He determined the exact elementary constituents of large numbers of compounds. The results strongly confirmed Proust's Law of Definite Proportions. In his weights, he used oxygen as a standard, setting its weight equal to exactly 100. He also measured the weights of 43 elements. In discovering that atomic weights are not integer multiples of the weight of hydrogen, Berzelius also disproved Prout's hypothesis that elements are built up from atoms of hydrogen.

text: A Swedish chemist and disciple of Dalton,

text: Jöns Jacob Berzelius

text: embarked on a systematic program to try to make accurate and precise quantitative measurements and insure the purity of chemicals. Along with Lavoisier, Boyle, and Dalton, Berzelius is known as the father of modern chemistry. In 1828 he compiled a table of relative atomic weights, where

text: oxygen

text: was set to 100, and which included all of the elements known at the time. This work provided evidence in favor of Dalton's atomic theory: that inorganic chemical compounds are composed of atoms combined in

text: whole number amounts

text: . He determined the exact elementary constituents of large numbers of compounds. The results strongly confirmed Proust's Law of Definite Proportions. In his weights, he used oxygen as a standard, setting its weight equal to exactly 100. He also measured the weights of 43 elements. In discovering that atomic weights are not integer multiples of the weight of hydrogen, Berzelius also disproved

text: Prout's hypothesis

text: that elements are built up from atoms of hydrogen.

text: Stephen Dalton, reviewing for The Hollywood Reporter, said, "A strikingly original historical thriller spiced with occult mysticism and mind-warping hallucinations, British director Ben Wheatley's fourth feature has all the midnight-movie intensity of a future cult classic." Dalton noted flaws in the film but said that beside them, A Field in England is a rich, strange, hauntingly intense work from a highly original writer-director team." Peter Debruge of Variety called A Field in England "a defiantly unclassifiable cross-genre experiment... that simultaneously reinvents and regurgitates low-budget British cinema as it goes". Debruge said of the director's approach, "Clearly, Wheatley is bored with the paint-by-numbers approach of his horror contemporaries, but has swung so far in the opposite direction here, the result feels almost amateurishly avant garde at times, guilty of the sort of indulgences one barely tolerates in student films."

text: Stephen Dalton, reviewing for

text: The Hollywood Reporter

text: , said, "A strikingly original historical thriller spiced with occult mysticism and mind-warping hallucinations, British director Ben Wheatley's fourth feature has all the midnight-movie intensity of a future cult classic." Dalton noted flaws in the film but said that beside them, A Field in England is a rich, strange, hauntingly intense work from a highly original writer-director team." Peter Debruge of

text: Variety

text: called A Field in England "a defiantly unclassifiable cross-genre experiment... that simultaneously reinvents and regurgitates low-budget British cinema as it goes". Debruge said of the director's approach, "Clearly, Wheatley is bored with the paint-by-numbers approach of his horror contemporaries, but has swung so far in the opposite direction here, the result feels almost amateurishly avant garde at times, guilty of the sort of indulgences one barely tolerates in student films."

text: Captain Atom can also convert energy to matter in the same manner he manipulates energy. Originally, he needed a pair of gloves invented by Blue Beetle to do so, but he has since learned to do so without them. He is capable of manipulating matter on an atomic or sub-atomic level at a limited scale. He has used his atomic transmutation powers to turn both Maul and Engineer back to their human forms. This power can be used instinctively or through concentration, though Atom has conceded he is not very good at it. In the same way, he learned to access weak force energy. As a consequence of his energy manipulation abilities, he is able to telepathically interface with computer networks. He has on occasion used this to repel telepathic intrusions by downloading information directly into other telepaths. With focus and effort, Captain Atom can increase any of his abilities to match his current willpower, up to an unknown level. As Monarch prior to absorbing the Captain Atom Brigade his powers and abilities were increased to such a level that he was capable of effortlessly containing several versions of powerful heroes such as Superman, Wonder Woman and several Green Lanterns.

text: Captain Atom can also convert energy to matter in the same manner he manipulates energy. Originally, he needed a pair of gloves invented by

text: Blue Beetle

text: to do so, but he has since learned to do so without them. He is capable of manipulating matter on an atomic or sub-atomic level at a limited scale. He has used his atomic transmutation powers to turn both

text: Maul

text: and

text: Engineer

text: back to their human forms. This power can be used instinctively or through concentration, though Atom has conceded he is not very good at it. In the same way, he learned to access

text: weak force

text: energy. As a consequence of his energy manipulation abilities, he is able to telepathically interface with computer networks. He has on occasion used this to repel telepathic intrusions by downloading information directly into other telepaths. With focus and effort, Captain Atom can increase any of his abilities to match his current willpower, up to an unknown level. As Monarch prior to absorbing the Captain Atom Brigade his powers and abilities were increased to such a level that he was capable of effortlessly containing several versions of powerful heroes such as Superman, Wonder Woman and several Green Lanterns.

text: With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or positron). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).

text: With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or

text: positron

text: ). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high energy photons (gamma decay).

text: The trend in the ionization energy of atoms is often used to demonstrate the periodic behavior of atoms with respect to the atomic number, as summarized by ordering atoms in  Mendeleev's table. This is a valuable tool for establishing and understanding the ordering of electrons in atomic orbitals without going into the details of wave functions or the ionization process. An example is presented in figure 1. The periodic abrupt decrease in ionization potential after rare gas atoms, for instance, indicates the emergence of a new shell in alkali metals. In addition, the local maximums in the ionization energy plot, moving from left to right in a row, are indicative of s, p, d, and f sub-shells.

text: The trend in the

text: ionization energy

text: of atoms is often used to demonstrate the periodic behavior of atoms with respect to the atomic number, as summarized by ordering atoms in

text: Mendeleev's table

text: . This is a valuable tool for establishing and understanding the ordering of electrons in

text: atomic orbitals

text: without going into the details of wave functions or the ionization process. An example is presented in figure 1. The periodic abrupt decrease in ionization potential after rare gas atoms, for instance, indicates the emergence of a new shell in

text: alkali metals

text: . In addition, the local maximums in the ionization energy plot, moving from left to right in a row, are indicative of s, p, d, and f sub-shells.

text: Bagatelle (from the Château de Bagatelle) is a billiards-derived indoor table game, the object of which is to get a number of balls (set at nine in the 19th century) past wooden pins (which act as obstacles) into holes that are guarded by wooden pegs; penalties are incurred if the pegs are knocked over.  It probably developed from the table made with raised sides for trou madame, which was also played with ivory balls and continued to be popular into the later nineteenth century, after which it developed into bar billiards, with influences from the French/Belgian game billard russe (with supposed Russian origins). A bagatelle variant using fixed metal pins, billard japonais, eventually led to the development of pachinko and pinball. Bagatelle is also laterally related to miniature golf.

text: Bagatelle (from the

text: Château de Bagatelle

text: ) is a

text: billiards

text: -derived indoor table game, the object of which is to get a number of balls (set at nine in the 19th century) past wooden pins (which act as obstacles) into holes that are guarded by wooden pegs; penalties are incurred if the pegs are knocked over.  It probably developed from the table made with raised sides for trou madame, which was also played with ivory balls and continued to be popular into the later nineteenth century, after which it developed into

text: bar billiards

text: , with influences from the French/Belgian game billard russe (with supposed Russian origins). A bagatelle variant using fixed metal pins,

text: billard japonais

text: , eventually led to the development of

text: pachinko

text: and

text: pinball

text: . Bagatelle is also laterally related to

text: miniature golf

text: . For example, in a billiard game, after glancing and seeing the eight ball moving towards us, we may abduce that the cue ball struck the eight ball. The strike of the cue ball would account for the movement of the eight ball. It serves as a hypothesis that explains our observation. Given the many possible explanations for the movement of the eight ball, our abduction does not leave us certain that the cue ball in fact struck the eight ball, but our abduction, still useful, can serve to orient us in our surroundings. Despite many possible explanations for any physical process that we observe, we tend to abduce a single explanation (or a few explanations) for this process in the expectation that we can better orient ourselves in our surroundings and disregard some possibilities. Properly used, abductive reasoning can be a useful source of priors in Bayesian statistics.

text: . For example, in a billiard game, after glancing and seeing the eight ball moving towards us, we may abduce that the cue ball struck the eight ball. The strike of the cue ball would account for the movement of the eight ball. It serves as a hypothesis that explains our observation. Given the many possible explanations for the movement of the eight ball, our abduction does not leave us certain that the cue ball in fact struck the eight ball, but our abduction, still useful, can serve to orient us in our surroundings. Despite many possible explanations for any physical process that we observe, we tend to abduce a single explanation (or a few explanations) for this process in the expectation that we can better orient ourselves in our surroundings and disregard some possibilities. Properly used, abductive reasoning can be a useful source of

text: priors

text: in

text: Bayesian statistics

text: The idea of the proof of Vaught's theorem is as follows. If there are at most countably many  countable models, then there is a smallest one: the atomic model, and a largest one, the saturated model, which are different if there is more than one model. If they are different, the saturated model must realize  some n-type omitted by the atomic model. Then one can show that an atomic model of the theory of structures realizing this n-type (in a language expanded by finitely many constants) is a third model, not isomorphic to either the atomic or the saturated model. In the example above with 3 models, the atomic model is the one where the sequence is unbounded, the saturated model is the one where the sequence does not converge, and an example of a type not realized by the atomic model is an element greater than all elements of the sequence.

text: The idea of the proof of Vaught's theorem is as follows. If there are at most countably many  countable models, then there is a smallest one: the

text: atomic model

text: , and a largest one, the

text: saturated model

text: , which are different if there is more than one model. If they are different, the saturated model must realize  some n-type omitted by the atomic model. Then one can show that an atomic model of the theory of structures realizing this n-type (in a language expanded by finitely many constants) is a third model, not isomorphic to either the atomic or the saturated model. In the example above with 3 models, the atomic model is the one where the sequence is unbounded, the saturated model is the one where the sequence does not converge, and an example of a type not realized by the atomic model is an element greater than all elements of the sequence.

text: Though Dalton proposed setting the atomic weight of hydrogen as unity in 1803, many other proposals were popular throughout the 19th century. By the end of the 19th century, two scales gained popular support: H=1 and O=16. This situation was undesired in science and in October 1899, the inaugural task of the International Commission on Atomic Weights was to decide on the international scale and the oxygen scale became the international standard. The endorsement of the oxygen scale created significant backlash in the chemistry community, and the inaugural Atomic Weights Report was thus published using both scales. This practice soon ceded and the oxygen scale remained the international standard for decades to come. Nevertheless, when the Commission joined the IUPAC in 1920, it was asked to revert to the H=1 scale, which it rejected.

text: Dalton was reportedly acting irrationally and driving erratically before the first shooting, according to a woman who said in a Facebook post that her fiancé had gotten a ride from Dalton late Saturday afternoon. She explained that her fiancé was picked up by an Uber driver named Jason, who sideswiped a car, was running through traffic signals at high speeds, and was weaving through traffic. She also posted an Uber-supplied photo of the man, which matched the police mugshot of Dalton. She also said he was driving a Chevrolet Equinox, which fit with Kalamazoo Gazette photos later showing police searching an Equinox. The woman said in her post that 9-1-1 was called "but surprisingly they didn't seem all that concerned."

text: Dalton was reportedly acting irrationally and driving erratically before the first shooting, according to a woman who said in a

text: Facebook

text: post that her fiancé had gotten a ride from Dalton late Saturday afternoon. She explained that her fiancé was picked up by an Uber driver named Jason, who sideswiped a car, was running through

text: traffic signal

text: s at high speeds, and was weaving through traffic. She also posted an Uber-supplied photo of the man, which matched the police mugshot of Dalton. She also said he was driving a

text: Chevrolet Equinox

text: , which fit with

text: Kalamazoo Gazette

text: photos later showing police searching an Equinox. The woman said in her post that 9-1-1 was called "but surprisingly they didn't seem all that concerned."

text: Covalent bonds are better understood by valence bond theory or molecular orbital theory. The properties of the atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as oxidation number. The electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms. In valence bond theory, the two electrons on the two atoms are coupled together with the bond strength depending on the overlap between them. In molecular orbital theory, the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) helps describe the delocalized molecular orbital structures and energies based on the atomic orbitals of the atoms they came from. Unlike pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds may have directed anisotropic properties. These may have their own names, such as sigma bond and pi bond.

text: Covalent bonds are better understood by

text: valence bond theory

text: or

text: molecular orbital theory

text: . The properties of the atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as

text: oxidation number

text: . The electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized between atoms. In valence bond theory, the two electrons on the two atoms are coupled together with the bond strength depending on the overlap between them. In molecular orbital theory, the

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: (LCAO) helps describe the delocalized molecular orbital structures and energies based on the atomic orbitals of the atoms they came from. Unlike pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds may have directed

text: anisotropic

text: properties. These may have their own names, such as

text: sigma bond

text: and

text: pi bond

text: The mathematical theory is not dependent on such physical ideas on a technical level, but there are examples of mutual influence (see for example Mark Kac's question Can you hear the shape of a drum?). Hilbert's adoption of the term "spectrum" has been attributed to an 1897 paper of Wilhelm Wirtinger on Hill differential equation (by Jean Dieudonné), and it was taken up by his students during the first decade of the twentieth century, among them Erhard Schmidt and Hermann Weyl. The conceptual basis for Hilbert space was developed from Hilbert's ideas by Erhard Schmidt and Frigyes Riesz.  It was almost twenty years later, when quantum mechanics was formulated in terms of the Schrödinger equation, that the connection was made to atomic spectra; a connection with the mathematical physics of vibration had been suspected before, as remarked by Henri Poincaré, but rejected for simple quantitative reasons, absent an explanation of the Balmer series. The later discovery in quantum mechanics that spectral theory could explain features of atomic spectra was therefore fortuitous, rather than being an object of Hilbert's spectral theory.

text: The mathematical theory is not dependent on such physical ideas on a technical level, but there are examples of mutual influence (see for example

text: Mark Kac

text: 's question

text: Can you hear the shape of a drum?

text: ). Hilbert's adoption of the term "spectrum" has been attributed to an 1897 paper of

text: Wilhelm Wirtinger

text: on

text: Hill differential equation

text: (by

text: Jean Dieudonné

text: ), and it was taken up by his students during the first decade of the twentieth century, among them

text: Erhard Schmidt

text: and

text: Hermann Weyl

text: . The conceptual basis for

text: Hilbert space

text: was developed from Hilbert's ideas by

text: Erhard Schmidt

text: and

text: Frigyes Riesz

text: .  It was almost twenty years later, when

text: quantum mechanics

text: was formulated in terms of the

text: Schrödinger equation

text: , that the connection was made to

text: atomic spectra

text: ; a connection with the mathematical physics of vibration had been suspected before, as remarked by

text: Henri Poincaré

text: , but rejected for simple quantitative reasons, absent an explanation of the

text: Balmer series

text: . The later discovery in quantum mechanics that spectral theory could explain features of atomic spectra was therefore fortuitous, rather than being an object of Hilbert's spectral theory.

text: In 1648, Blaise Pascal rediscovered that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere. In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published Hydrodynamics, initiating the Kinetic theory of gases and established the basic laws for the theory of gases. In 1761, Joseph Black discovered that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen, which he called phlogisticated air, and together they developed the phlogiston theory. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier discovered oxygen and developed an explanation for combustion. In 1783, in Lavoisier's essay "Reflexions sur le phlogistique", he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory. In 1804, Sir John Leslie observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black body radiation. In 1808, John Dalton defended caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight. In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzed the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics.

text: In 1648,

text: Blaise Pascal

text: rediscovered that

text: atmospheric pressure

text: decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere. In 1738,

text: Daniel Bernoulli

text: published Hydrodynamics, initiating the

text: Kinetic theory of gases

text: and established the basic laws for the theory of gases. In 1761,

text: Joseph Black

text: discovered that

text: ice

text: absorbs

text: heat

text: without changing its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student

text: Daniel Rutherford

text: discovered

text: nitrogen

text: , which he called phlogisticated air, and together they developed the

text: phlogiston theory

text: . In 1777,

text: Antoine Lavoisier

text: discovered

text: oxygen

text: and developed an explanation for combustion. In 1783, in Lavoisier's essay "Reflexions sur le phlogistique", he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a

text: caloric theory

text: . In 1804, Sir

text: John Leslie

text: observed that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of

text: black body radiation

text: . In 1808,

text: John Dalton

text: defended caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the

text: heat capacity

text: of gases varies inversely with

text: atomic weight

text: . In 1824,

text: Sadi Carnot

text: analyzed the efficiency of

text: steam engine

text: s using caloric theory; he developed the notion of a

text: reversible process

text: and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the

text: second law of thermodynamics

text: The most elaborate and well-preserved Indian theory of atomism comes from the philosophy of the Jaina school, dating back to at least the 6th century BC.  Some of the Jain texts that refer to matter and atoms are Pancastikayasara, Kalpasutra, Tattvarthasutra and Pannavana Suttam. The Jains envisioned the world as consisting wholly of atoms, except for souls.  Paramāņus or atoms were considered as the basic building blocks of all matter. Their concept of atoms was very similar to classical atomism, differing primarily in the specific properties of atoms.  Each atom, according to Jain philosophy, has one kind of taste, one smell, one color, and two kinds of touch, though it is unclear what was meant by "kind of touch".  Atoms can exist in one of two states: subtle, in which case they can fit in infinitesimally small spaces, and gross, in which case they have extension and occupy a finite space.  Certain characteristics of Paramāņu correspond with that sub-atomic particles. For example, Paramāņu is characterized by continuous motion either in a straight line or in case of attractions from other Paramāņus, it follows a curved path. This corresponds with the description of orbit of electrons across the Nucleus. Ultimate particles are also described as particles with positive (Snigdha i.e. smooth charge) and negative  (Rūksa – rough) charges that provide them the binding force. Although atoms are made of the same basic substance, they can combine based on their eternal properties to produce any of six "aggregates", which seem to correspond with the Greek concept of "elements": earth, water, shadow, sense objects, karmic matter, and unfit matter.  To the Jains, karma was real, but was a naturalistic, mechanistic phenomenon caused by buildups of subtle karmic matter within the soul.  They also had detailed theories of how atoms could combine, react, vibrate, move, and perform other actions, all of which were thoroughly deterministic.

text: The most elaborate and well-preserved Indian theory of atomism comes from the philosophy of the

text: Jaina

text: school, dating back to at least the 6th century BC.  Some of the Jain texts that refer to matter and atoms are

text: Pancastikayasara

text: Kalpasutra

text: Tattvarthasutra

text: and Pannavana Suttam. The Jains envisioned the world as consisting wholly of atoms, except for souls.  Paramāņus or atoms were considered as the basic building blocks of all matter. Their concept of atoms was very similar to classical atomism, differing primarily in the specific properties of atoms.  Each atom, according to

text: Jain philosophy

text: Atomic bombs are based on the theory of nuclear fission, that when a large atom splits it releases a massive amount of energy. Hydrogen bombs use the energy from an initial fission explosion to create an even more powerful fusion explosion.

text: Atomic bombs are based on the theory of

text: nuclear fission

text: , that when a large atom splits it releases a massive amount of energy.

text: Hydrogen bomb

text: s use the energy from an initial

text: fission

text: explosion to create an even more powerful

text: fusion

text: explosion.

text: The general rules the game is played under are fairly consistent and usually do not stray too far from the format set forth in the Billiard Congress of America (BCA) BCA World Standardized Rules for Nine Ball, which have merged with those of the World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA), to form the World Standardised Rules, although amateur league play may be governed by similar but slightly different rules promulgated by the American Poolplayers Association (APA) and other organizations.

text: The general rules the game is played under are fairly consistent and usually do not stray too far from the format set forth in the

text: Billiard Congress of America

text: (BCA) BCA World Standardized Rules for Nine Ball, which have merged with those of the

text: World Pool-Billiard Association

text: (WPA), to form the World Standardised Rules, although amateur league play may be governed by similar but slightly different rules promulgated by the

text: American Poolplayers Association

text: (APA) and other organizations.

text: Atoms are identifiers and are therefore unique. However, an atom and a resource identifier can coincide. The string associated with an atom is called the atom name. The name of an atom cannot be changed after creation, and no two atoms can have the same name. As a result, the name of an atom is commonly used to indicate the atom: “the atom ABCD” means, more precisely, “the atom whose associated string is ABCD.” or “the atom whose name is ABCD.” A client can request the creation of a new atom and can request for the atom (the identifier) of a given string. Some atoms are predefined (created by the server with given identifier and string).

text: John Dalton first expressed this observation in 1804. A few years previously, the French chemist Joseph Proust had proposed the law of definite proportions, which expressed that the elements combined to form compounds in certain well-defined proportions, rather than mixing in just any proportion; and Antoine Lavoisier proved the law of conservation of mass, which helped out Dalton. Careful study of the actual numerical values of these proportions led Dalton to propose his law of multiple proportions. This was an important step toward the atomic theory that he would propose later that year, and it laid the basis for chemical formulas for compounds.

text: John Dalton first expressed this observation in 1804. A few years previously, the

text: French

text: chemist

text: Joseph Proust

text: had proposed the law of definite proportions, which expressed that the elements combined to form compounds in certain well-defined proportions, rather than mixing in just any proportion; and

text: Antoine Lavoisier

text: proved the law of conservation of mass, which helped out

text: Dalton

text: . Careful study of the actual numerical values of these proportions led Dalton to propose his law of multiple proportions. This was an important step toward the

text: atomic theory

text: that he would propose later that year, and it laid the basis for

text: chemical formula

text: s for compounds.

text: Born in Granger, Utah to Richard W. Winder and Barbara Woodhead, Tanner grew up on the Winder family homestead at Winder Dairy.  She earned a degree in humanitites from Brigham Young University. She was called by LDS Church president Gordon B. Hinckley as the general president of the Young Women organization on October 5, 2002, succeeding Margaret D. Nadauld. As president of the Young Women, Tanner was an ex officio member of the church's Boards of Trustees/Education. From 2002 to 2007, Tanner's counselors in the Young Women general presidency were Julie B. Beck and Elaine S. Dalton. In 2007, Beck was called as the general president of the Relief Society; as a result, from 2007 to 2008, Dalton served as Tanner's first counselor and Mary N. Cook served as her second counselor. In 2008, Tanner was succeeded as president of the Young Women by Dalton.

text: Born in

text: Granger

text: Utah

text: to

text: Richard W. Winder

text: and

text: Barbara Woodhead

text: , Tanner grew up on the

text: Winder

text: family homestead at

text: Winder Dairy

text: .  She earned a degree in humanitites from

text: Brigham Young University

text: . She was called by LDS Church

text: president

text: Gordon B. Hinckley

text: as the general president of the Young Women organization on October 5, 2002, succeeding

text: Margaret D. Nadauld

text: . As president of the Young Women, Tanner was an

text: ex officio

text: member of the church's

entity_section: Church Board of Education and Board of Trustees

text: Boards of Trustees/Education

text: . From 2002 to 2007, Tanner's counselors in the Young Women general presidency were

text: Julie B. Beck

text: and

text: Elaine S. Dalton

text: . In 2007, Beck was called as the general president of the

text: Relief Society

text: ; as a result, from 2007 to 2008, Dalton served as Tanner's first counselor and

text: Mary N. Cook

text: served as her second counselor. In 2008, Tanner was succeeded as president of the Young Women by Dalton.

text: Dulong and Petit predicted in 1818  that the product of solid substance density and specific heat capacity (ρc) would be constant for all solids. This amounted to a prediction that volumetric heat capacity in solids would be constant. In 1819 they found that volumetric heat capacities were not quite constant, but that the most constant quantity was the heat capacity of solids adjusted by the presumed weight of the atoms of the substance, as defined by Dalton (the Dulong–Petit law). This quantity was proportional to the heat capacity per atomic weight (or per molar mass), which suggested that it is the heat capacity per atom (not per unit of volume) which is closest to being a constant in solids. Eventually (see the discussion in heat capacity) it became clear that heat capacities per particle for all substances in all states are the same, to within a factor of two, so long as temperatures are not in the cryogenic range. For very cold temperatures, heat capacities fall drastically and eventually approach zero as temperature approaches zero.

text: Dulong

text: and

text: Petit

text: predicted in 1818  that the product of solid substance density and specific heat capacity (ρc) would be constant for all solids. This amounted to a prediction that volumetric heat capacity in solids would be constant. In 1819 they found that volumetric heat capacities were not quite constant, but that the most constant quantity was the heat capacity of solids adjusted by the presumed weight of the atoms of the substance, as defined by Dalton (the

text: Dulong–Petit law

text: ). This quantity was proportional to the heat capacity per

text: atomic weight

text: (or per

text: molar mass

text: ), which suggested that it is the heat capacity per atom (not per unit of volume) which is closest to being a constant in solids. Eventually (see the discussion in

text: heat capacity

text: ) it became clear that heat capacities per particle for all substances in all states are the same, to within a factor of two, so long as temperatures are not in the cryogenic range. For very cold temperatures, heat capacities fall drastically and eventually approach zero as temperature approaches zero.

text: Echeverria, Klinkhammer and Thorne published a paper discussing these results in 1991; in addition, they reported that they had tried to see if they could find any initial conditions for the billiard ball for which there were no self-consistent extensions, but were unable to do so. Thus it is plausible that there exist self-consistent extensions for every possible initial trajectory, although this has not been proven. The lack of constraints on initial conditions only applies to spacetime outside of the chronology-violating region of spacetime; the constraints on the chronology-violating region might prove to be paradoxical, but this is not yet known.

text: The theory of Democritus held that everything is composed of "atoms", which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible; that between atoms, there lies empty space; that atoms are indestructible, and have always been and always will be in motion; that there is an infinite number of atoms and of kinds of atoms, which differ in shape and size. Of the mass of atoms, Democritus said, "The more any indivisible exceeds, the heavier it is". But his exact position on atomic weight is disputed.

text: He claimed, in his own modesty, to owe much to Montessori, Pestalozzi, Fröbel and Dewey. Helen Parkhurst of the Dalton Plan would draw on his experience years later in New York City. He founded Bedales in January 1893 in an old Elizabethan manor at Haywards Heath, then in 1898 at the insistence of his wife Amy, an ardent suffragette, he took further risk of engaging in a 'preposterous experiment' which led to Bedales becoming a fully coeducational boarding school. In May 1899 this pioneering headmaster started building a new complex which still serves the school today at Steep, Petersfield, Hampshire.

text: He claimed, in his own modesty, to owe much to

text: Montessori

text: Pestalozzi

text: Fröbel

text: and

text: Dewey

text: Helen Parkhurst

text: of the

text: Dalton Plan

text: would draw on his experience years later in

text: New York City

text: . He founded Bedales in January 1893 in an old Elizabethan manor at Haywards Heath, then in 1898 at the insistence of his wife Amy, an ardent suffragette, he took further risk of engaging in a 'preposterous experiment' which led to Bedales becoming a fully coeducational boarding school. In May 1899 this pioneering headmaster started building a new complex which still serves the school today at Steep, Petersfield, Hampshire.

text: The spatial modulation of the XSW field, described by the dynamical theory of X-ray diffraction, undergoes a pronounced change when the sample is scanned through the Bragg condition. Due to a relative phase variation between the incoming and reflected beams, the nodal planes of the XSW field shift by half the XSW period. Depending on the position of the atoms within this wave field, the measured element-specific absorption of X-rays varies in a characteristic way. Therefore, measurement of the absorption (via X-ray fluorescence or photoelectron yield) can reveal the position of the atoms relative to the reflecting planes. The absorbing atoms can be thought of as "detecting" the phase of the XSW; thus, this method overcomes the phase problem of X-ray crystallography.

text: The spatial modulation of the XSW field, described by the

text: dynamical theory of X-ray diffraction

text: , undergoes a pronounced change when the sample is scanned through the Bragg condition. Due to a relative phase variation between the incoming and reflected beams, the nodal planes of the XSW field shift by half the XSW period. Depending on the position of the atoms within this wave field, the measured element-specific absorption of X-rays varies in a characteristic way. Therefore, measurement of the absorption (via

text: X-ray fluorescence

text: or

text: photoelectron

text: yield) can reveal the position of the atoms relative to the reflecting planes. The absorbing atoms can be thought of as "detecting" the phase of the XSW; thus, this method overcomes the

text: phase problem

text: of X-ray crystallography.

text: The difference between the rest mass of a bound system and of the unbound parts is the binding energy of the system, if this energy has been removed after binding. For example, a water molecule weighs a little less than two free hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom. The minuscule mass difference is the energy needed to split the molecule into three individual atoms (divided by ), which was given off as heat when the molecule formed (this heat had mass). Likewise, a stick of dynamite in theory weighs a little bit more than the fragments after the explosion, but this is true only so long as the fragments are cooled and the heat removed. In this case the mass difference is the energy/heat that is released when the dynamite explodes, and when this heat escapes, the mass associated with it escapes, only to be deposited in the surroundings, which absorb the heat (so that total mass is conserved).

text: The difference between the rest mass of a bound system and of the unbound parts is the

text: binding energy

text: of the system, if this energy has been removed after binding. For example, a water molecule weighs a little less than two free hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom. The minuscule mass difference is the energy needed to split the molecule into three individual atoms (divided by ), which was given off as heat when the molecule formed (this heat had mass). Likewise, a stick of dynamite in theory weighs a little bit more than the fragments after the explosion, but this is true only so long as the fragments are cooled and the heat removed. In this case the mass difference is the energy/heat that is released when the dynamite explodes, and when this heat escapes, the mass associated with it escapes, only to be deposited in the surroundings, which absorb the heat (so that total mass is conserved).

text: Boccette is a billiards-type game played in Italy. A variation of the game of five-pins, it is played on a less (carom) billiard table with nine balls (typically four white, four red, and one blue). Cue sticks are not used; the balls are manipulated with the hands directly, as in finger billiards.

text: Boccette is a

text: billiards-type game

text: played in

text: Italy

text: . A variation of the game of

text: five-pins

text: , it is played on a less (

text: carom

text: billiard table

text: with nine

text: balls

text: (typically four white, four red, and one blue).

text: Cue stick

text: s are not used; the balls are manipulated with the hands directly, as in

text: finger billiards

text: Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics - as if they were billiard balls, for example - gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects. Through the development of physics, atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior.

text: Atoms

text: are small enough

text: that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics - as if they were billiard balls, for example - gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to

text: quantum effects

text: . Through the development of physics, atomic models have incorporated

text: quantum principles

text: to better explain and predict the behavior.

text: In The New 52 (a reboot of the DC Comics universe), General Wade Eiling and his men in radiation suits flank Captain Atom. General Eiling tells Captain Atom to fall in line as he is a super-weapon that will keep America on the top. When Captain Atom tells them that he will be just another atomic bomb for them, General Eiling attempts to quarantine Captain Atom. While stating that he can't eat or drink, Captain Atom counters everything that the military throws at him.

text: In

text: The New 52

text: (a reboot of the DC Comics universe), General Wade Eiling and his men in radiation suits flank Captain Atom. General Eiling tells Captain Atom to fall in line as he is a super-weapon that will keep America on the top. When Captain Atom tells them that he will be just another atomic bomb for them, General Eiling attempts to quarantine Captain Atom. While stating that he can't eat or drink, Captain Atom counters everything that the military throws at him.

text: The balls range from  in diameter to  in diameter.  Under the WPA/BCA (see below) equipment specifications, the weight may be from 5.5 to 6 oz. (156–170 g) with a diameter of 2.25 in. (57.15 mm), plus or minus 0.005 in. (0.127 mm). Modern coin-operated pool tables generally use one of three methods to distinguish and return the cue ball to the front of the table while the numbered balls return to an inaccessible receptacle until paid for again: the cue ball is larger and heavier than the other balls, or denser and heavier, or has a magnetic core. 	Modern cue sticks are generally  long for pool while cues prior to 1980 were designed for straight pool and had an average length of . By comparison, carom billiards cues are generally shorter with larger tips, and snooker cues longer with smaller tips.

text: The

text: balls

text: range from  in diameter to  in diameter.  Under the

text: WPA

text: BCA

text: (see below) equipment specifications, the weight may be from 5.5 to 6 oz. (156–170 g) with a diameter of 2.25 in. (57.15 mm), plus or minus 0.005 in. (0.127 mm). Modern coin-operated pool tables generally use one of three methods to distinguish and return the cue ball to the front of the table while the numbered balls return to an inaccessible receptacle until paid for again: the cue ball is larger and heavier than the other balls, or denser and heavier, or has a magnetic core. 	Modern

text: cue stick

text: s are generally  long for pool while cues prior to 1980 were designed for straight pool and had an average length of . By comparison, carom billiards cues are generally shorter with larger tips, and snooker cues longer with smaller tips.

text: Later in 2003, writer Jeph Loeb returns Captain Atom to his roots as he went back to work for the government, this time for President Lex Luthor in the first story arc of the Superman/Batman series. Atom seemingly sacrifices his life to save Superman and Earth by piloting a starship to destroy a Kryptonite meteor, but as it had previously been established that this type of accident could not kill him, he soon returns to life and to the background of the DC Universe. In a 2005 issue of Superman/Batman it is made clear that Captain Atom survived the collision with the Kryptonite meteor, but has absorbed massive amounts of radiation and become a super villain described as a "Kryptonite Man."  The radiation is siphoned out of Captain Atom using a device made by Hiro Okamura, the new Toyman, which returns Captain Atom to his usual self (if somewhat confused).

text: Later in 2003, writer

text: Jeph Loeb

text: returns Captain Atom to his roots as he went back to work for the government, this time for President

text: Lex Luthor

text: in the first story arc of the

text: Superman/Batman

text: series. Atom seemingly sacrifices his life to save Superman and Earth by piloting a starship to destroy a Kryptonite meteor, but as it had previously been established that this type of accident could not kill him, he soon returns to life and to the background of the DC Universe. In a 2005 issue of

text: Superman/Batman

text: it is made clear that Captain Atom survived the collision with the Kryptonite meteor, but has absorbed massive amounts of radiation and become a super villain described as a "

text: Kryptonite Man

text: ."  The radiation is siphoned out of Captain Atom using a device made by

text: Hiro Okamura

text: , the new

text: Toyman

text: , which returns Captain Atom to his usual self (if somewhat confused).

text: The array of problems encountered concentrated on the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Poincaré swiftly proposed the idea that it is the ether modifying itself, and not the bodies acquiring mass, which came to contradict the older theories (based on a perfectly immovable ether). Overall, Poincaré shed light on the Zeeman effect, caused by discontinuous emissions of electrons. The problem of discontinuous matter forced the formulation of a minimally-destabilizing model of the atom. In 1913, Niels Bohr presented his atomic model which was based on the concept of electron orbits, and which explained spectroscopy as well as the stability of the atom. But, in 1905, the problem with all attempts to define the behavior of the microscopic world was that no one then knew if they needed to consider a similar model to the one known for the macroscopic objects (the model of classical mechanics), or if they should try to develop an entirely new model to give account of new facts. The latter idea, which was followed with the quantum theory, also implied definitively abandoning the unity already found in prior theories of mechanics.

text: The array of problems encountered concentrated on the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Poincaré swiftly proposed the idea that it is the ether modifying itself, and not the bodies acquiring mass, which came to contradict the older theories (based on a perfectly immovable ether). Overall, Poincaré shed light on the

text: Zeeman effect

text: , caused by discontinuous emissions of electrons. The problem of discontinuous matter forced the formulation of a minimally-destabilizing model of the atom. In 1913,

text: Niels Bohr

text: presented his

text: atomic model

text: which was based on the concept of electron orbits, and which explained

text: spectroscopy

text: as well as the stability of the atom. But, in 1905, the problem with all attempts to define the behavior of the microscopic world was that no one then knew if they needed to consider a similar model to the one known for the macroscopic objects (the model of classical mechanics), or if they should try to develop an entirely new model to give account of new facts. The latter idea, which was followed with the quantum theory, also implied definitively abandoning the unity already found in prior theories of mechanics.

text: The A595 is the main coastal route, designated a primary route, connecting Dalton and Carlisle via the Cumbrian Coast. Its southern end is two miles (3 km) south of Askam at the junction with the A590 Dalton-in-Furness bypass although formerly continued into Dalton. The area is served by Stagecoach Cumbria service, 7A and X7 as well as various school services. There are plans to construct a crossing over the Duddon between Askam and Millom to reduce the long journey times between Furness and Copeland, due to the circuitous route of the A595 around the estuary. A scheme to build such a 'Duddon Crossing' remains at the planning stage, but is nominated as a future project in county transport planning.

text: The

text: is the main coastal route, designated a

text: primary route

text: , connecting

text: Dalton

text: and

text: Carlisle

text: via the Cumbrian Coast. Its southern end is two miles (3 km) south of Askam at the junction with the

text: Dalton-in-Furness bypass although formerly continued into Dalton. The area is served by

text: Stagecoach Cumbria

text: service, 7A and X7 as well as various school services. There are plans to construct a crossing over the Duddon between Askam and

text: Millom

text: to reduce the long journey times between

text: Furness

text: and

text: Copeland

text: , due to the circuitous route of the A595 around the estuary. A scheme to build such a 'Duddon Crossing' remains at the planning stage, but is nominated as a future project in county transport planning.

text: On 17 March 2013 he won the final of the first Lausanne Billiard Masters in Lausanne, Switzerland against Frédéric Caudron from Belgium. Zanetti was winning on the last ball with a fluke to 40-33. In the semi-final, opponent was Torbjörn Blomdahl, he was playing the highest run of the tournament with 15 balls which gave him an extra bonus of 400 €. Finally he has been paid 6,700 € for his victory. Just one week later he was winning the AGIPI Billiard Masters in Schiltigheim, again Caudron was his opponent. On 14 April he won the CEB European Three-cushion Championship. In the final he beats German ex-1996-World-Champion Christian Rudolph with 40-10. In the semi-final, he won third time in row against Caudron, although the Belgian was equalizing world record in High-Run of 28 points. Zanetti also made the new European record in General-Average of 2,500.

text: On 17 March 2013 he won the final of the first Lausanne Billiard Masters in

text: Lausanne

text: , Switzerland against

text: Frédéric Caudron

text: from Belgium. Zanetti was winning on the last ball with a fluke to 40-33. In the semi-final, opponent was Torbjörn Blomdahl, he was playing the highest run of the tournament with 15 balls which gave him an extra bonus of 400 €. Finally he has been paid 6,700 € for his victory. Just one week later he was winning the

text: AGIPI Billiard Masters

text: in

text: Schiltigheim

text: , again Caudron was his opponent. On 14 April he won the

text: CEB European Three-cushion Championship

text: . In the final he beats German ex-1996-World-Champion Christian Rudolph with 40-10. In the semi-final, he won third time in row against Caudron, although the Belgian was equalizing world record in High-Run of 28 points. Zanetti also made the new European record in General-Average of 2,500.

text: The most important of all Dalton's investigations are those concerned with the atomic theory in chemistry. While his name is inseparably associated with this theory, the origin of Dalton's atomic theory is not fully understood.  It has been proposed that this theory was suggested to him either by researches on ethylene (olefiant gas) and methane (carburetted hydrogen) or by analysis of nitrous oxide (protoxide of azote) and nitrogen dioxide (deutoxide of azote), both views resting on the authority of Thomas Thomson. However, a study of Dalton's own laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the Lit & Phil, concluded that so far from Dalton being led by his search for an explanation of the law of multiple proportions to the idea that chemical combination consists in the interaction of atoms of definite and characteristic weight, the idea of atoms arose in his mind as a purely physical concept, forced upon him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere and other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to be found at the end of his paper on the absorption of gases already mentioned, which was read on 21 October 1803, though not published until 1805. Here he says:

text: The most important of all Dalton's investigations are those concerned with the

text: atomic theory

text: in chemistry. While his name is inseparably associated with this theory, the origin of Dalton's atomic theory is not fully understood.  It has been proposed that this theory was suggested to him either by researches on

text: ethylene

text: (olefiant gas) and

text: methane

text: (carburetted hydrogen) or by analysis of

text: nitrous oxide

text: (protoxide of azote) and

text: nitrogen dioxide

text: (deutoxide of azote), both views resting on the authority of

text: Thomas Thomson

text: . However, a study of Dalton's own laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the Lit & Phil, concluded that so far from Dalton being led by his search for an explanation of the

text: law of multiple proportions

text: to the idea that chemical combination consists in the interaction of atoms of definite and characteristic weight, the idea of atoms arose in his mind as a purely physical concept, forced upon him by study of the physical properties of the

text: atmosphere

text: and other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to be found at the end of his paper on the absorption of gases already mentioned, which was read on 21 October 1803, though not published until 1805. Here he says:

text: Not long after arriving to Stockholm he wrote a chemistry textbook for his medical students, from which point a long and fruitful career in chemistry began. In 1813 he published an essay on the proportions of elements in compounds.  The essay commenced with a general description, introduced his new symbolism, examined all the known elements, included a table of specific weights and finished with a selection of compounds written in his new formalisation.  In 1818 he compiled a table of relative atomic weights, where oxygen was set to 100, and which included all of the elements known at the time. This work provided evidence in favour of the atomic theory proposed by John Dalton: that inorganic chemical compounds are composed of atoms combined in whole number amounts. In discovering that atomic weights are not integer multiples of the weight of hydrogen, Berzelius also disproved Prout's hypothesis that elements are built up from atoms of hydrogen.

text: Not long after arriving to Stockholm he wrote a chemistry textbook for his medical students, from which point a long and fruitful career in chemistry began. In 1813 he published an essay on the proportions of elements in compounds.  The essay commenced with a general description, introduced his new symbolism, examined all the known elements, included a table of specific weights and finished with a selection of compounds written in his new formalisation.  In 1818 he compiled a table of relative atomic weights, where

text: oxygen

text: was set to 100, and which included all of the elements known at the time. This work provided evidence in favour of the

text: atomic theory

text: proposed by

text: John Dalton

text: : that inorganic chemical compounds are composed of atoms combined in

text: whole number amounts

text: . In discovering that atomic weights are not integer multiples of the weight of hydrogen, Berzelius also disproved

text: Prout's hypothesis

text: The creation of a vacancy can be simply modeled by considering the energy required to break the bonds between an atom inside the crystal and its nearest neighbor atoms. Once that atom is removed from the lattice site, it is put back on the surface of the crystal and some energy is retrieved because new bonds are established with other atoms on the surface. However, there is a net input of energy because there are fewer bonds between surface atoms than between atoms in the interior of the crystal.

text: The atomic mass and relative isotopic mass are sometimes confused, or incorrectly used, as synonyms of relative atomic mass (also known as atomic weight) and the standard atomic weight (a particular variety of atomic weight, in the sense that is a standardized atomic weight). However, as noted in the introduction, atomic weight and standard atomic weight represent terms for (abundance-weighted) averages of atomic masses in elemental samples, not for single nuclides. As such, atomic weight and standard atomic weight often differ numerically from relative isotopic mass and atomic mass, and they can also have different units than atomic mass when this quantity is not expressed in unified atomic mass units (see the linked article for atomic weight).

text: The atomic mass and relative isotopic mass are sometimes confused, or incorrectly used, as synonyms of

text: relative atomic mass

text: (also known as atomic weight) and the standard atomic weight (a particular variety of atomic weight, in the sense that is a standardized atomic weight). However, as noted in the introduction, atomic weight and standard atomic weight represent terms for (abundance-weighted) averages of atomic masses in elemental samples, not for single nuclides. As such, atomic weight and standard atomic weight often differ numerically from relative isotopic mass and atomic mass, and they can also have different units than atomic mass when this quantity is not expressed in

text: unified atomic mass units

text: (see the linked article for

text: atomic weight

text: John Dalton represented compounds as aggregations of circular atoms, and although Johann Josef Loschmidt did not create physical models, his diagrams based on circles are two-dimensional analogues of later models. August Wilhelm von Hofmann is credited with the first physical molecular model around 1860 (Fig. 1). Note how the size of the carbon appears smaller than the hydrogen. The  importance of stereochemistry was not then recognised and the model is essentially topological (it should be a 3-dimensional tetrahedron).

text: John Dalton

text: represented compounds as aggregations of circular atoms, and although

text: Johann Josef Loschmidt

text: did not create physical models, his diagrams based on circles are two-dimensional analogues of later models.

text: August Wilhelm von Hofmann

text: is credited with the first physical molecular model around 1860 (Fig. 1). Note how the size of the carbon appears smaller than the hydrogen. The  importance of

text: stereochemistry

text: was not then recognised and the model is essentially topological (it should be a 3-dimensional

text: tetrahedron

text: In light of the Libyan conflict, Dalton warned that there "was a heck of a lot to be doing" and that the military was nearing the point of "exhaustion". The RAF became the first part of the military to bring in the cuts when it spelled out its plans for 2,700 lay-offs in April 2011, following the Strategic Defence and Security Review in 2010, and Dalton admitted that some were likely to be compulsory. On 24 June 2011 The Daily Telegraph confirmed that Dalton, in common with the First Sea Lord and the Chief of the General Staff, would lose his position on the Defence Board, the highest non-ministerial Ministry of Defence committee, which makes decisions on all aspect of military policy.  He retired in July 2013.

text: In light of the

text: Libyan conflict

text: , Dalton warned that there "was a heck of a lot to be doing" and that the military was nearing the point of "exhaustion". The RAF became the first part of the military to bring in the cuts when it spelled out its plans for 2,700 lay-offs in April 2011, following the Strategic Defence and Security Review in 2010, and Dalton admitted that some were likely to be compulsory. On 24 June 2011

text: The Daily Telegraph

text: confirmed that Dalton, in common with the

text: First Sea Lord

text: and the

entity_name: Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)

text: Chief of the General Staff

text: , would lose his position on the Defence Board, the highest non-ministerial Ministry of Defence committee, which makes decisions on all aspect of military policy.  He retired in July 2013.

text: Rotation, sometimes called rotation pool or 61, is a pocket billiards game, requiring a standard pool table,  and triangular rack of fifteen pool balls, in which the lowest-numbered  on the table must be always struck by the cue ball first, to attempt to  () numbered balls for .  Rotation is similar in many ways to nine-ball, but its scoring system is not unlike that of snooker and eight-ball.

text: Rotation, sometimes called rotation pool or 61, is a

text: pocket billiards

text: game, requiring a standard

text: pool table

text: ,  and triangular

text: rack

text: of fifteen

text: pool balls

text: , in which the lowest-numbered  on the table must be always struck by the cue ball first, to attempt to  () numbered balls for .  Rotation is similar in many ways to

text: nine-ball

text: , but its scoring system is not unlike that of

text: snooker

text: and

text: eight-ball

text: A third major interest that originated during Lewis’ Harvard years was his valence theory. In 1902, while trying to explain the laws of valence to his students, Lewis conceived the idea that atoms were built up of a concentric series of cubes with electrons at each corner. This “cubic atom” explained the cycle of eight elements in the periodic table and was in accord with the widely accepted belief that chemical bonds were formed by transfer of electrons to give each atom a complete set of eight. This electrochemical theory of valence found its most elaborate expression in the work of Richard Abegg in 1904, but Lewis’ version of this theory was the only one to be embodied in a concrete atomic model. Again Lewis’ theory did not interest his Harvard mentors, who, like most American chemists of that time, had no taste for such speculation. Lewis did not publish his theory of the cubic atom, but in 1916 it became an important part of his theory of the shared electron pair bond.

text: However, Mister Atom was re-introduced in 1976, by which time DC Comics had purchased the rights to use the Captain Marvel characters; Captain Marvel's enemy King Kull used his advanced scientific acumen to bring Atom back to having been told by Shazam the 20th century and employed his help battling Shazam's Squadron of Justice. Atom's first appearance in a DC comic was in Justice League of America #137, a crossover issue depicting Captain Marvel's first meeting of Superman. With Brainiac projecting a force field around him a much larger Mr Atom attempts to wreck a futuristic city on Earth-One called Tomorrow. Destroying the city meant the three super-speedsters had to repair it, which was causing increased rotation of the Earth. Atom easily withstood the efforts of the Golden and Silver Age Green Lanterns and Flashes, the god Mercury and Ibis the Invincible to subdue him, even when Brainiac's forcefield around him was turned off and Brainiac had been defeated, but when he tried to use Ibis's Ibistick to send Ibis to a faraway star, having stunned Ibis from an energy blast, he found the stick had a failsafe that caused any commands that would harm Ibis to backfire on the user, and Atom was the one propelled far into space.

text: However, Mister Atom was re-introduced in 1976, by which time

text: DC Comics

text: had purchased the rights to use the Captain Marvel characters; Captain Marvel's enemy

text: King Kull

text: used his advanced scientific acumen to bring Atom back to having been told by Shazam the 20th century and employed his help battling

text: Shazam's Squadron of Justice

text: . Atom's first appearance in a DC comic was in Justice League of America #137, a crossover issue depicting Captain Marvel's first meeting of

text: Superman

text: . With Brainiac projecting a force field around him a much larger Mr Atom attempts to wreck a futuristic city on Earth-One called Tomorrow. Destroying the city meant the three super-speedsters had to repair it, which was causing increased rotation of the Earth. Atom easily withstood the efforts of the

text: Golden

text: and

text: Silver Age

text: Green Lantern

text: s and

text: Flashes

text: , the god Mercury and

text: Ibis the Invincible

text: to subdue him, even when Brainiac's forcefield around him was turned off and Brainiac had been defeated, but when he tried to use Ibis's Ibistick to send Ibis to a faraway star, having stunned Ibis from an energy blast, he found the stick had a

text: failsafe

text: that caused any commands that would harm Ibis to backfire on the user, and Atom was the one propelled far into space.

text: As noted at the beginning, the effects of the atomic structure of materials are disregarded in the relatively simple treatments of field electron emission discussed here. Taking atomic structure properly into account is a very difficult problem, and only limited progress has been made. However, it seems probable that the main influences on the theory of Fowler-Nordheim tunneling will (in effect) be to change the values of P and ν in eq. (15), by amounts that cannot easily be estimated at present.

text: The uranyl ion is linear and symmetrical, with both U–O bond lengths of about 180 pm. The bond lengths are indicative of the presence of multiple bonding between the uranium and oxygen atoms. Since uranium(VI) has the electronic configuration [ radon ], the electrons used in forming the U-O bonds are supplied by the oxygen atoms. The electrons are donated into empty atomic orbitals on the uranium atom. The empty orbitals of lowest energy are 7s, 5f and 6d. In terms of valence bond theory the sigma bonds may be formed using d and f to construct sd, sf and df hybrid orbitals (the z-axis passes through the oxygen atoms). (d, d) and (f and f) may be used to form pi bonds. Since the pair of d or f orbitals used in bonding are doubly degenerate this equates to an overall bond order of three.

text: The uranyl ion is linear and symmetrical, with both U–O bond lengths of about 180 pm. The bond lengths are indicative of the presence of multiple bonding between the uranium and oxygen atoms. Since uranium(VI) has the

text: electronic configuration

text: radon

text: ], the electrons used in forming the U-O bonds are supplied by the oxygen atoms. The electrons are donated into empty

text: atomic orbitals

text: on the uranium atom. The empty orbitals of lowest energy are 7s, 5f and 6d. In terms of

text: valence bond theory

text: the

text: sigma bond

text: s may be formed using d and f to construct sd, sf and df

text: hybrid orbitals

text: (the z-axis passes through the oxygen atoms). (d, d) and (f and f) may be used to form

text: pi bond

text: s. Since the pair of d or f orbitals used in bonding are

text: doubly degenerate

text: this equates to an overall

text: bond order

text: of three.

text: Dalton gave its name to the Dalton Plan educational concept and the Dalton School (see Helen Parkhurst). {}

text: Dalton gave its name to the

text: Dalton Plan

text: educational concept and the

text: Dalton School

text: (see

text: Helen Parkhurst

text: Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). This marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical fashion.

text: Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures (

text: chemical compound

text: s). This marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical fashion.

text: Under this paradigm, scientists believed that chemical reactions (such as the combination of water and alcohol) did not necessarily occur in fixed proportion. This belief was ultimately overturned by Dalton’s atomic theory, which asserted that atoms can only combine in simple, whole-number ratios. Under this new paradigm, any reaction which did not occur in fixed proportion could not be a chemical process. This type world-view transition among the scientific community exemplifies Kuhn's paradigm shift.

text: Under this paradigm, scientists believed that chemical reactions (such as the combination of water and alcohol) did not necessarily occur in fixed proportion. This belief was ultimately overturned by

text: Dalton’s

text: atomic theory

text: , which asserted that atoms can only combine in simple, whole-number ratios. Under this new paradigm, any reaction which did not occur in fixed proportion could not be a chemical process. This type world-view transition among the scientific community exemplifies Kuhn's paradigm shift.

text: Jeu de mail or jeu de maille (Middle French for 'game of [the] mallet', or sometimes interpreted as 'straw game') is a now-obsolete lawn game originating in the Late Middle Ages and mostly played in France, surviving in some locales into the 20th century.  It is a form of ground billiards, using one or more balls, a stick with a mallet-like head, and usually featuring one or more targets such as hoops or holes. Jeu de mail was ancestral to the games palle-malle and croquet, and (by moving it indoors and playing on a table with smaller equipment), billiards.

text: Jeu de mail or jeu de maille (

text: Middle French

text: for 'game of [the] mallet', or sometimes interpreted as 'straw game') is a now-obsolete

text: lawn game

text: originating in the

text: Late Middle Ages

text: and mostly played in France, surviving in some locales into the 20th century.  It is a form of

text: ground billiards

text: , using one or more

text: ball

text: s, a stick with a

text: mallet

text: -like head, and usually featuring one or more targets such as hoops or holes. Jeu de mail was ancestral to the games

text: palle-malle

text: and

text: croquet

text: , and (by moving it indoors and playing on a table with smaller equipment),

text: billiards

text: The bronze bust of John Dalton, located along the corridor on the first floor, was also created by Ruby Levick and was donated to the Chemical Society in 1903 by its former President Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe, as also attested by the inscription engraved on the bust's base: "John Dalton presented by T.E. Thorpe CB. L.L.D. F.R.S. past President in commemoration of the centenary of the enunciation of the atomic theory".

text: The bronze bust of

text: John Dalton

text: , located along the corridor on the first floor, was also created by Ruby Levick and was donated to the

text: Chemical Society

text: in 1903 by its former President Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe, as also attested by the inscription engraved on the bust's base: "John Dalton presented by T.E. Thorpe CB. L.L.D. F.R.S. past President in commemoration of the centenary of the enunciation of the atomic theory".

text: Strongly chaotic billiard with oscillating boundary can serve as a paradigm for driven chaotic systems. In the experimental arena this topic arises in the theory of nuclear friction ,and more recently in the studies of cold atoms that are trapped in optical billiards.  The driving induces diffusion in energy ,and consequently the absorption coefficient is determined by the Kubo formula.

text: A billiard-ball computer, also known as a conservative logic circuit, is an idealized model of a reversible mechanical computer based on Newtonian dynamics, proposed in 1982 by Edward Fredkin and Tommaso Toffoli. Instead of using electronic signals like a conventional computer, it relies on the motion of spherical billiard balls in a friction-free environment made of buffers against which the balls bounce perfectly. It was devised to investigate the relation between computation and reversible processes in physics.

text: A billiard-ball computer, also known as a conservative logic circuit, is an idealized model of a

text: reversible

text: mechanical computer

text: based on

text: Newtonian dynamics

text: , proposed in 1982 by

text: Edward Fredkin

text: and

text: Tommaso Toffoli

text: . Instead of using electronic signals like a conventional

text: computer

text: , it relies on the motion of spherical

text: billiard ball

text: s in a friction-free environment made of buffers against which the balls bounce perfectly. It was devised to investigate the relation between computation and

text: reversible processes

text: in physics.

text: English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory of atoms; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.

text: English scientist

text: John Dalton

text: proposed the modern

text: theory of atoms

text: ; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.

text: The alkali metals all have the same crystal structure (body-centred cubic) and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight of all the elements in their period and having the largest atomic radius for their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table. Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water: in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at room temperature.

text: The alkali metals all have the same

text: crystal structure

text: body-centred cubic

text: room temperature

text: In mathematics and physics, scattering theory is a framework for studying and understanding the scattering of waves and particles. Wave scattering corresponds to the collision and scattering of a wave with some material object, for instance sunlight scattered by rain drops to form a rainbow. Scattering also includes the interaction of billiard balls on a table, the Rutherford scattering (or angle change) of alpha particles by gold nuclei, the Bragg scattering (or diffraction) of electrons and X-rays by a cluster of atoms, and the inelastic scattering of a fission fragment as it traverses a thin foil. More precisely, scattering consists of the study of how solutions of partial differential equations, propagating freely "in the distant past", come together and interact with one another or with a boundary condition, and then propagate away "to the distant future".  The direct scattering problem is the problem of determining the distribution of scattered radiation/particle flux basing on the characteristics of the scatterer. The inverse scattering problem is the problem of determining the characteristics of an object (e.g., its shape, internal constitution) from measurement data of radiation or particles scattered from the object.

text: In

text: mathematics

text: and

text: physics

text: , scattering theory is a framework for studying and understanding the

text: scattering

text: of

text: waves

text: and

text: particles

text: . Wave scattering corresponds to the collision and scattering of a wave with some material object, for instance

text: sunlight

text: scattered by

text: rain drop

text: s to form a

text: rainbow

text: billiard balls

text: on a table, the

text: Rutherford scattering

text: (or angle change) of

text: alpha particle

text: s by

text: gold

text: nuclei

text: inelastic scattering

text: partial differential equations

text: boundary condition

text: , and then propagate away "to the distant future".  The direct scattering problem is the problem of determining the distribution of scattered radiation/particle flux basing on the characteristics of the

text: scatterer

text: . The

text: inverse scattering problem

text: is the problem of determining the characteristics of an object (e.g., its shape, internal constitution) from measurement data of radiation or particles scattered from the object.

text: The energy required to remove an atom from the surface depends on the number of bonds to other surface atoms which must be broken.  For a simple cubic lattice in this model, each atom is treated as a cube and bonding occurs at each face, giving a coordination number of 6 nearest neighbors.  Second-nearest neighbors in this cubic model are those that share an edge and third-nearest neighbors are those that share corners.  The number of neighbors, second-nearest neighbors, and third-nearest neighbors for each of the different atom positions are given in Table 1.

text: The energy required to remove an atom from the surface depends on the number of bonds to other surface atoms which must be broken.  For a simple cubic lattice in this model, each atom is treated as a cube and bonding occurs at each face, giving a

text: coordination number

text: of 6 nearest neighbors.  Second-nearest neighbors in this cubic model are those that share an edge and third-nearest neighbors are those that share corners.  The number of neighbors, second-nearest neighbors, and third-nearest neighbors for each of the different atom positions are given in Table 1.

text: Diborane adopts a D structure containing four terminal and two bridging hydrogen atoms. The model determined by molecular orbital theory indicates that the bonds between boron and the terminal hydrogen atoms are conventional 2-center, 2-electron covalent bonds. The bonding between the boron atoms and the bridging hydrogen atoms is, however, different from that in molecules such as hydrocarbons. Having used two electrons in bonding to the terminal hydrogen atoms, each boron has one valence electron remaining for additional bonding. The bridging hydrogen atoms provide one electron each. Thus the BH ring is held together by four electrons, an example of 3-center 2-electron bonding. This type of bond is sometimes called a 'banana bond'. The lengths of the B-H bonds and the B-H bonds are 1.33 and 1.19 Å respectively, and this difference in the lengths of these bonds reflects the difference in their strengths, the B-H bonds being relatively weaker.  The weakness of the B-H vs B-H bonds is indicated by their vibrational signatures in the infrared spectrum, being ~2100 and 2500 cm, respectively. The structure is isoelectronic with CH, which would arise from the diprotonation of the planar molecule ethene. Diborane is one of many compounds with such unusual bonding.<ref>{{ cite journal | author = Laszlo, P. | title = A Diborane Story | journal= Angewandte Chemie International Edition | year = 2000  | volume = 39 | issue = 12 | pages = 2071–2072 | doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20000616)39:12

text: Diborane adopts a D structure containing four terminal and two bridging hydrogen atoms. The model determined by

text: molecular orbital theory

text: indicates that the bonds between boron and the terminal hydrogen atoms are conventional 2-center, 2-electron

text: covalent bond

text: s. The bonding between the boron atoms and the bridging hydrogen atoms is, however, different from that in molecules such as hydrocarbons. Having used two electrons in bonding to the terminal hydrogen atoms, each boron has one

text: valence electron

text: remaining for additional bonding. The bridging hydrogen atoms provide one electron each. Thus the BH ring is held together by four electrons, an example of

text: 3-center 2-electron bonding

text: . This type of bond is sometimes called a 'banana bond'. The lengths of the B-H bonds and the B-H bonds are 1.33 and 1.19 Å respectively, and this difference in the lengths of these bonds reflects the difference in their strengths, the B-H bonds being relatively weaker.  The weakness of the B-H vs B-H bonds is indicated by their vibrational signatures in the

text: infrared spectrum

text: , being ~2100 and 2500 cm, respectively. The structure is

text: isoelectronic

text: with CH, which would arise from the diprotonation of the planar molecule

text: ethene

text: . Diborane is one of many compounds with such unusual bonding.<ref>{{ cite journal | author = Laszlo, P. | title = A Diborane Story | journal= Angewandte Chemie International Edition | year = 2000  | volume = 39 | issue = 12 | pages = 2071–2072 | doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20000616)39:12

text: In coincident site lattice (CSL) theory, the degree of fit (Σ) between the structures of the two grains is described by the reciprocal of the ratio of coincidence sites to the total number of sites. In this framework, it is possible to draw the lattice for the 2 grains and count the number of atoms that are shared (coincidence sites), and the total number of atoms on the boundary (total number of site). For example, when Σ=3 there will be one atom each 3 that will be shared between the two lattices. Thus a boundary with high Σ might be expected to have a higher energy than one with low Σ. Low-angle boundaries, where the distortion is entirely accommodated by dislocations, are Σ1. Some other low-Σ boundaries have special properties, especially when the boundary plane is one that contains a high density of coincident sites. Examples include coherent twin boundaries (Σ3) and high-mobility boundaries in FCC materials (Σ7). Deviations from the ideal CSL orientation may be accommodated by local atomic relaxation or the inclusion of dislocations into the boundary.

text: In coincident site lattice (CSL) theory, the degree of fit (Σ) between the structures of the two grains is described by the

text: reciprocal

text: of the ratio of coincidence sites to the total number of sites. In this framework, it is possible to draw the lattice for the 2 grains and count the number of atoms that are shared (coincidence sites), and the total number of atoms on the boundary (total number of site). For example, when Σ=3 there will be one atom each 3 that will be shared between the two lattices. Thus a boundary with high Σ might be expected to have a higher energy than one with low Σ. Low-angle boundaries, where the distortion is entirely accommodated by dislocations, are Σ1. Some other low-Σ boundaries have special properties, especially when the boundary plane is one that contains a high density of coincident sites. Examples include coherent twin boundaries (Σ3) and high-mobility boundaries in FCC materials (Σ7). Deviations from the ideal CSL orientation may be accommodated by local atomic relaxation or the inclusion of dislocations into the boundary.

text: Dalton proceeded to print his first published table of relative atomic weights. Six elements appear in this table, namely hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus, with the atom of hydrogen conventionally assumed to weigh 1. Dalton provided no indication in this first paper how he had arrived at these numbers. However, in his laboratory notebook under the date 6 September 1803 there appears a list in which he sets out the relative weights of the atoms of a number of elements, derived from analysis of water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc. by chemists of the time.

text: Dalton proceeded to print his first published table of relative

text: atomic weight

text: s. Six elements appear in this table, namely hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus, with the atom of hydrogen conventionally assumed to weigh 1. Dalton provided no indication in this first paper how he had arrived at these numbers. However, in his laboratory notebook under the date 6 September 1803 there appears a list in which he sets out the relative weights of the atoms of a number of elements, derived from analysis of water,

text: ammonia

text: carbon dioxide

text: , etc. by chemists of the time.

text: If a cue ball is sliding at the time it contacts an object ball at an angle (i.e. on a  — not a center-to-center impact), the cue ball will travel in a line tangential to the point of impact between both balls — the . Because Billiard balls are somewhat elastic, the resulting tangent line is slightly less than 90 degrees from perpendicular to a line formed by the contact point between the balls.

text: If a cue ball is sliding at the time it contacts an object ball at an angle (i.e. on a  — not a center-to-center impact), the cue ball will travel in a line tangential to the point of impact between both balls — the . Because Billiard balls are somewhat

text: elastic

text: , the resulting tangent line is slightly less than 90 degrees from perpendicular to a line formed by the contact point between the balls.

text: Well before the dispute had been settled, many had already applied the concept of atomism to chemistry.  A major example was the ion theory of Svante Arrhenius which anticipated ideas about atomic substructure that did not fully develop until the 20th century. Michael Faraday was another early worker, whose major contribution to chemistry was electrochemistry, in which (among other things) a certain quantity of electricity during electrolysis or electrodeposition of metals was shown to be associated with certain quantities of chemical elements, and fixed quantities of the elements therefore with each other, in specific ratios. These findings, like those of Dalton's combining ratios, were early clues to the atomic nature of matter.

text: Well before the dispute had been settled, many had already applied the concept of atomism to chemistry.  A major example was the

text: ion

text: theory of

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: which anticipated ideas about atomic substructure that did not fully develop until the 20th century.

text: Michael Faraday

text: was another early worker, whose major contribution to chemistry was

text: electrochemistry

text: , in which (among other things) a certain quantity of electricity during

text: electrolysis

text: or

text: electrodeposition

text: of metals was shown to be associated with certain quantities of chemical elements, and fixed quantities of the elements therefore with each other, in specific ratios. These findings, like those of Dalton's combining ratios, were early clues to the atomic nature of matter.

text: In mathematical logic, a literal is an atomic formula (atom) or its negation. The definition mostly appears in proof theory (of classical logic), e.g. in conjunctive normal form and the method of resolution.

text: In

text: mathematical logic

text: , a literal is an

text: atomic formula

text: (atom) or its

text: negation

text: . The definition mostly appears in

text: proof theory

text: (of

text: classical logic

text: ), e.g. in

text: conjunctive normal form

text: and the method of

text: resolution

text: As  showed, billiard-ball computers may be simulated using a two-state reversible block cellular automaton with the Margolus neighborhood. In this automaton's update rule, blocks with exactly one live cell rotate by 180°, blocks with two diagonally opposite live cells rotate by 90°, and all other blocks remain unchanged. These rules cause isolated live cells to behave like billiard balls, moving on diagonal trajectories. Connected groups of  more than one live cell behave instead like the fixed obstacles of the billiard-ball computer. In an appendix, Margolus also showed that a three-state second-order cellular automaton using the two-dimensional Moore neighborhood could simulate billiard-ball computers.

text: As  showed, billiard-ball computers may be simulated using a two-state reversible block cellular automaton with the Margolus neighborhood. In this automaton's update rule, blocks with exactly one live cell rotate by 180°, blocks with two diagonally opposite live cells rotate by 90°, and all other blocks remain unchanged. These rules cause isolated live cells to behave like billiard balls, moving on diagonal trajectories. Connected groups of  more than one live cell behave instead like the fixed obstacles of the billiard-ball computer. In an appendix, Margolus also showed that a three-state second-order cellular automaton using the two-dimensional

text: Moore neighborhood

text: could simulate billiard-ball computers.

text: As an investigator, Dalton was often content with rough and inaccurate instruments, even though better ones were obtainable. Sir Humphry Davy described him as "a very coarse experimenter", who almost always found the results he required, trusting to his head rather than his hands. On the other hand, historians who have replicated some of his crucial experiments have confirmed Dalton's skill and precision.

text: As an investigator, Dalton was often content with rough and

text: inaccurate

text: instruments, even though better ones were obtainable. Sir

text: Humphry Davy

text: described him as "a very coarse experimenter", who almost always found the results he required, trusting to his head rather than his hands. On the other hand, historians who have replicated some of his crucial experiments have confirmed Dalton's skill and precision.

text: The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus, a diminutive of nux ("nut"), meaning the kernel (i.e., the "small nut") inside a watery type of fruit (like a peach). In 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis stated, in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell"

text: The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus, a diminutive of

text: nux

text: ("nut"), meaning the kernel (i.e., the "small nut") inside a watery type of fruit (like a peach). In 1844,

text: Michael Faraday

text: used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example,

text: Gilbert N. Lewis

text: stated, in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell"

text: The law of definite proportions was formulated by Joseph Proust around 1800 and states that all samples of a chemical compound will have the same elemental composition by mass. The atomic theory of John Dalton expanded this concept and explained matter as consisting of discrete atoms with one kind of atom for each element combined in fixed proportions to form compounds.

text: The

text: law of definite proportions

text: was formulated by

text: Joseph Proust

text: around 1800 and states that all samples of a chemical compound will have the same elemental composition by mass. The

text: atomic theory

text: of

text: John Dalton

text: expanded this concept and explained matter as consisting of discrete

text: atom

text: s with one kind of atom for each element combined in fixed proportions to form compounds.

text: Rosa Basstt was instrumental in the first application of the Dalton Plan of teaching within an English secondary school. She contributed a chapter to Helen Parkhurst's book on the Plan, as well as writing the introduction to a book of Dalton Plan class assignments prepared by the staff within her school.

text: Rosa Basstt was instrumental in the first application of the

text: Dalton Plan

text: of teaching within an English

text: secondary school

text: . She contributed a chapter to

text: Helen Parkhurst

text: 's book on the Plan, as well as writing the introduction to a book of Dalton Plan class assignments prepared by the staff within her school.

text: Typically, the mass of objects is measured in relation to that of the kilogram, which is defined as the mass of the international prototype kilogram (IPK), a platinum alloy cylinder stored in an environmentally-monitored safe secured in a vault at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. However, the IPK is not convenient for measuring the masses of atoms and particles of similar scale, as it contains trillions of trillions of atoms, and has most certainly lost or gained a little mass over time despite the best efforts to prevent this. It is much easier to precisely compare an atom's mass to that of another atom, thus scientists developed the atomic mass unit (or Dalton). By definition, 1 u is exactly one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, and by extension a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 u.  This definition, however, might be changed by the proposed redefinition of SI base units, which will leave the Dalton very close to one, but no longer exactly equal to it.

text: Typically, the mass of objects is measured in relation to that of the kilogram, which is defined as the mass of the

text: international prototype kilogram

text: (IPK), a platinum alloy cylinder stored in an environmentally-monitored safe secured in a vault at the

entity_name: International Bureau of Weights and Measures

text: International Bureau of Weights and Measures

text: in France. However, the IPK is not convenient for measuring the masses of atoms and particles of similar scale, as it contains trillions of trillions of atoms, and has most certainly lost or gained a little mass over time despite the best efforts to prevent this. It is much easier to precisely compare an atom's mass to that of another atom, thus scientists developed the

text: atomic mass unit

text: (or Dalton). By definition, 1 u is exactly one twelfth of the mass of a

text: atom, and by extension a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 u.  This definition, however, might be changed by the

text: proposed redefinition of SI base units

text: , which will leave the Dalton very close to one, but no longer exactly equal to it.

text: All bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but, in practice, simplification rules allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The octet rule and VSEPR theory are two examples. More sophisticated theories are valence bond theory which includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and molecular orbital theory which includes linear combination of atomic orbitals and ligand field theory. Electrostatics are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances.

text: All bonds can be explained by

text: quantum theory

text: , but, in practice, simplification rules allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The

text: octet rule

text: and

text: VSEPR theory

text: are two examples. More sophisticated theories are

text: valence bond theory

text: which includes

text: orbital hybridization

text: and

text: resonance

text: , and

text: molecular orbital theory

text: which includes

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: and

text: ligand field theory

text: Electrostatics

text: are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances.

text: A number of authors have published criticisms of the revised definitions—in particular that proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the mole and the kilogram, the dalton and the unified atomic mass unit, and the Avogadro constant and Avogadro's number.

text: A number of authors have published criticisms of the revised definitions—in particular that proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the

text: mole

text: and the

text: kilogram

text: , the

text: dalton

text: and the

text: unified atomic mass unit

text: , and the

text: Avogadro constant

text: and

text: Avogadro's number

text: Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single atom is a real number giving the mass of a particular isotope (or "nuclide") of the element, expressed in atomic mass units (u). In general, the mass number of a given nuclide differs in value slightly from its atomic mass, since the mass of each proton and neutron is not exactly 1 u; since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number; and (finally) because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 u. However, the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number (always within 1%). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is C, which by definition has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.

text: Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the

text: atomic mass

text: of a single atom is a

text: real number

text: giving the mass of a particular isotope (or "nuclide") of the element, expressed in

text: atomic mass unit

text: s (u). In general, the mass number of a given nuclide differs in value slightly from its atomic mass, since the mass of each proton and neutron is not exactly 1 u; since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number; and (finally) because of the

text: nuclear binding energy

text: . For example, the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 u. However, the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number (always within 1%). The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a

text: natural number

text: is C, which by definition has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.

text: Dating to approximately 1800, English billiards, called simply billiards in many former British colonies and in the UK where it originated, was originally called the winning and losing carambole game, folding in the names of three predecessor games, the winning game, the losing game and the carambole game (an early form of straight rail), that combined to form it. The game features both  (caroms) and the pocketing of balls as objects of play. English billiards requires two  and a red . The object of the game is to score either a fixed number of points, or score the most points within a set time frame, determined at the start of the game.

text: Dating to approximately 1800, English billiards, called simply billiards in many

text: former British colonies

text: and in the UK where it originated, was originally called the winning and losing carambole game, folding in the names of three predecessor games, the winning game, the losing game and the carambole game (an early form of

text: straight rail

text: ), that combined to form it. The game features both  (caroms) and the pocketing of balls as objects of play. English billiards requires two  and a red . The object of the game is to score either a fixed number of points, or score the most points within a set time frame, determined at the start of the game.

text: Moseley's law is an empirical law concerning the characteristic x-rays that are emitted by atoms. The law was discovered and published by the English physicist Henry Moseley in 1913. It is historically important in quantitatively justifying the conception of the nuclear model of the atom, with all, or nearly all, positive charges of the atom located in the nucleus, and associated on an integer basis with atomic number. Until Moseley's work, "atomic number" was merely an element's place in the periodic table, and was not known to be associated with any measureable physical quantity. Moseley was able to show that the frequencies of certain characteristic X-rays emitted from chemical elements are proportional to the square of a number which was close to the element's atomic number; a finding which supported Van den Broek and Bohr's model of the atom in which the atomic number is the same as the number of positive charges in the nucleus of the atom. In brief, the law states that the square root of the frequency of the emitted x-ray is proportional to the atomic number.

text: Moseley's law is an

text: empirical law

text: concerning the characteristic

text: x-rays

text: that are emitted by

text: atom

text: s. The law was discovered and published by the English physicist

text: Henry Moseley

text: in 1913. It is historically important in quantitatively justifying the conception of the nuclear model of the atom, with all, or nearly all, positive charges of the atom located in the nucleus, and associated on an integer basis with

text: atomic number

text: . Until Moseley's work, "atomic number" was merely an element's place in the periodic table, and was not known to be associated with any measureable physical quantity. Moseley was able to show that the frequencies of certain characteristic X-rays emitted from chemical elements are proportional to the square of a number which was close to the element's atomic number; a finding which supported

text: Van den Broek

text: and

text: Bohr

text: 's model of the atom in which the atomic number is the same as the number of positive charges in the nucleus of the atom. In brief, the law states that the square root of the frequency of the emitted x-ray is proportional to the atomic number.

text: The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of Saadia Gaon (892-942), Emunot ve-Deot, "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ex nihilo, just as the Bible attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter.

text: The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of

text: Saadia Gaon

text: Emunot ve-Deot

text: , "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world

text: ex nihilo

text: , just as the

text: Bible

text: attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter.

text: The BCA publishes a rule book that includes rules merged with the WPA World Standardized Rules for games such as nine-ball, eight-ball, and straight pool, as well as rules for other games that are not presently the subject of international competition, such as cowboy pool, rotation, American snooker, and Chicago among many others. The BCA holds an annual trade show, the International Billiards & Home Recreation Expo.  Also annually, it inducts great players, and those who have made great contributions to the sport, into the BCA Hall of Fame.

text: The BCA publishes a rule book that includes rules merged with the WPA World Standardized Rules for games such as

text: nine-ball

text: eight-ball

text: , and

text: straight pool

text: , as well as rules for other games that are not presently the subject of international competition, such as

text: cowboy pool

text: rotation

text: American snooker

text: , and

text: Chicago

text: among many others. The BCA holds an annual

text: trade show

text: , the International Billiards & Home Recreation Expo.  Also annually, it inducts great players, and those who have made great contributions to the sport, into the

text: BCA Hall of Fame

text: The precise semantic interpretation of an atomic formula and an atomic sentence will vary from theory to theory.

text: The nomenclature can also be applied to the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms. A hydrogen atom attached to an alpha carbon atom is called an alpha-hydrogen atom, a hydrogen atom on the beta-carbon atom is a beta hydrogen atom, and so on.

text: The nomenclature can also be applied to the

text: hydrogen

text: atoms attached to the carbon atoms. A hydrogen atom attached to an alpha carbon atom is called an alpha-hydrogen atom, a hydrogen atom on the beta-carbon atom is a beta hydrogen atom, and so on.

text: The flaw in Dalton's theory was corrected in principle in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies). Avogadro's law allowed him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance: since two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of water. Thus, Avogadro was able to offer more accurate estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules and atoms.

text: The flaw in Dalton's theory was corrected in principle in 1811 by

text: Amedeo Avogadro

text: . Avogadro had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies).

text: Avogadro's law

text: allowed him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance: since two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of water. Thus, Avogadro was able to offer more accurate estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules and atoms.

text: carom billiard balls of equal diameter: a red , a  for the first player or team, and another cue ball for the second player or team. Ball sets vary by manufacturer, but typically are white for first and yellow for second (they may be plain or spotted), or plain white for first and white with a spot for second. The balls are 61.5 mm (2-3/8 [2.4] in) in diameter and weigh between 205 and 220 g (7.23–7.75 oz; 7.5 oz is average).

text: carom

text: billiard balls

text: of equal diameter: a red , a  for the first player or team, and another cue ball for the second player or team. Ball sets vary by manufacturer, but typically are white for first and yellow for second (they may be plain or spotted), or plain white for first and white with a spot for second. The balls are 61.5 mm (2-3/8 [2.4] in) in diameter and weigh between 205 and 220 g (7.23–7.75 oz; 7.5 oz is average).

text: The unified atomic mass unit (symbol: u) is the standard unit that is used for indicating mass on an atomic or molecular scale (atomic mass).  The dalton (symbol: Da) is equivalent to the unified atomic mass unit. One unified atomic mass unit is approximately the mass of one a single proton or neutron. The unified atomic mass unit has a value of . The amu without the "unified" prefix is an obsolete unit based on oxygen, which was replaced in 1961.

text: The

text: unified atomic mass unit

text: (symbol: u) is the standard

text: unit

text: that is used for indicating

text: mass

text: on an atomic or molecular scale (

text: atomic mass

text: ).  The dalton (symbol: Da) is equivalent to the unified atomic mass unit. One unified atomic mass unit is approximately the mass of one a single proton or neutron. The unified atomic mass unit has a value of . The amu without the "unified" prefix is an obsolete unit based on oxygen, which was replaced in 1961.

text: Liquid-sampling sources include flames and sparks (atom source), inductively-coupled plasma (atom and ion source), graphite furnace (atom source), microwave plasma (atom and ion source), and direct-current plasma (atom and ion source). Solid-sampling sources include lasers (atom and vapor source), glow discharge (atom and ion source), arc (atom and ion source), spark (atom and ion source), and graphite furnace (atom and vapor source). Gas-sampling sources include flame (atom source), inductively-coupled plasma (atom and ion source), microwave plasma (atom and ion source), direct-current plasma (atom and ion source), and glow discharge (atom and ion source).

text: Dalton is mentioned in medieval literature and documents discovered in the Cairo Geniza.  In the Geniza there is a portion of a letter sent from Dalton to Egypt which is signed by "Shlomo HaKohen from the city of Dalton, son of Yosef."  Also, regarding the wise man Eliyahu HaKohen who died in Tyre in 1063, it is written that all of Israel carried his body on their shoulders to a mountain in the Galilee, to Dalton atop the mountain. According to local tradition, Rabbi Yosi HaGlili and his son Yishmael are buried in Dalton.  The former's ohel is located here.  The editors of a Hebrew book "Holy Places and Graves of Righteous Men in the Land of Israel" believe that Yosi Haglili's son is really Rabbie El'azar, a fourth-generation Tanna, and not Rabbi Yishma'el. The mistake apparently derives from the fact that there was also a Tanna named Rabbi Yishmael ben Rabbi Yose, but he was a fifth-generation Tanna. Rabbi Yosi Haglili was a third-generation Tanna at the beginning of the 2nd century CE and was one of the scholars of Yavne.

text: Dalton is mentioned in medieval literature and documents discovered in the

text: Cairo Geniza

text: .  In the Geniza there is a portion of a letter sent from Dalton to

text: Egypt

text: which is signed by "Shlomo HaKohen from the city of Dalton, son of Yosef."  Also, regarding the wise man Eliyahu HaKohen who died in

text: Tyre

text: in 1063, it is written that all of Israel carried his body on their shoulders to a mountain in the Galilee, to Dalton atop the mountain. According to local tradition, Rabbi

text: Yosi HaGlili

text: and his son Yishmael are buried in Dalton.  The former's

text: ohel

text: is located here.  The editors of a Hebrew book "Holy Places and Graves of Righteous Men in the Land of Israel" believe that Yosi Haglili's son is really Rabbie El'azar, a fourth-generation

text: Tanna

text: , and not Rabbi Yishma'el. The mistake apparently derives from the fact that there was also a Tanna named

text: Rabbi Yishmael ben Rabbi Yose

text: , but he was a fifth-generation Tanna. Rabbi Yosi Haglili was a third-generation Tanna at the beginning of the 2nd century CE and was one of the scholars of

text: Yavne

text: Crotching was quickly banned in 1862. Under the prohibitive rule (the first use of a balk space), the crotch was defined as the triangular region found by connecting a line between the points measuring 4½ inches down each rail forming the corner, and in which only three counts could be scored before at least one ball had to be driven away. The no crotching rule is still in place in the official rules for straight rail promulgated by the Billiard Congress of America, the governing body of billiards in the United States.

text: Crotching was quickly banned in 1862. Under the prohibitive rule (the first use of a balk space), the crotch was defined as the triangular region found by connecting a line between the points measuring 4½ inches down each rail forming the corner, and in which only three counts could be scored before at least one ball had to be driven away. The no crotching rule is still in place in the official rules for straight rail promulgated by the

text: Billiard Congress of America

text: , the governing body of

text: billiards

text: in the United States.

text: Atomic holography has evolved out of the development of the basic elements of atom optics. With the Fresnel diffraction lens and atomic mirrors atomic holography follows a natural step in the development of the physics (and applications) of atomic beams. Recent developments including atomic mirrors and especially ridged mirrors have provided the tools necessary for the creation of atomic holograms, although such holograms have not yet been commercialized.

text: Atomic holography has evolved out of the development of the basic elements of

text: atom optics

text: . With the Fresnel diffraction lens and

text: atomic mirrors

text: atomic holography follows a natural step in the development of the physics (and applications) of atomic beams. Recent developments including

text: atomic mirrors

text: and especially

text: ridged mirror

text: s have provided the tools necessary for the creation of atomic holograms, although such holograms have not yet been commercialized.

text: In the 19th century, John Dalton, through his work on stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Dalton and his contemporaries believed those were the fundamental particles of nature and thus named them atoms, after the Greek word atomos, meaning "indivisible" or "uncut".

text: In the 19th century,

text: John Dalton

text: , through his work on

text: stoichiometry

text: , concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of particle. Dalton and his contemporaries believed those were the fundamental particles of nature and thus named them atoms, after the Greek word

text: atomos

text: , meaning "indivisible" or "uncut".

text: In two papers outlining his "theory of atomicity of the elements" (1857–58), Friedrich August Kekulé was the first to offer a theory of how every atom in an organic molecule was bonded to every other atom.  He proposed that carbon atoms were tetravalent, and could bond to themselves to form the carbon skeletons of organic molecules.

text: In two papers outlining his "theory of atomicity of the elements" (1857–58),

text: Friedrich August Kekulé

text: was the first to offer a theory of how every atom in an organic molecule was bonded to every other atom.  He proposed that carbon atoms were tetravalent, and could bond to themselves to form the carbon skeletons of organic molecules.

text: On May 4, 2010, the magazine Contrapunto published an interview with Jorge Meléndez, at the time the director of Civil Protection, and known during the civil war as Commander Jonas.  During the interview he said with respect to the murder,  “I was there and know that which transpired there.” Although the comments by Tomás André, the correspondent for Contrapunto who conducted the interview are not known, the historical importance of the interview can be certainly discerned by the depth and extraordinary nature of the encounter that Melendez was well aware of the nature of the process that resulted in the assassination of Dalton and his friend Pancho.  To those who knew the author, the answer by Roque Dalton to the statements by this man could be easily imagined.  What is clear is that Roque Dalton would have not been displeased if anyone had then said that even now, the murderers are afraid of him, and that the accusations of CIA collaboration were then and now a simple after the fact excuse of a group of terrorists fully aware of the hideous nature of their acts.  ("Yo, Roque Dalton", 2012).

text: In 1964, he founded the theoretical chemistry division at Yale.  During his tenure at Yale, he developed the "Many Electron Theory of Atoms and Molecules" (1961), "Solvophobic Theory" (1964), "Network Theory" (1974), "Microthermodynamic surface tension"(1981), and "Valency Interaction Formula Theory" (1983). He developed a revolutionary method called "Sinanoğlu Made Simple" from his own mathematical theories and published in 1988. With the help of this research system, and using simple pictures and periodic table, chemists could predict the ways in which chemicals combine in the laboratory, and solve other complex problems of chemistry.  After 37 years on the Yale faculty, Sinanoğlu retired in 1997.  During his time at Yale, Sinanoğlu served as a frequent consultant to several Turkish universities and to the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) as well as to the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). In 1962, the Board of Trustees of Middle East Technical University in Ankara dignified him with the title "consulting professor", for the first time and unique only for him.

text: In 1964, he founded the

text: theoretical chemistry

text: division at Yale.  During his tenure at Yale, he developed the "Many Electron Theory of Atoms and Molecules" (1961), "Solvophobic Theory" (1964), "Network Theory" (1974), "Microthermodynamic surface tension"(1981), and "Valency Interaction Formula Theory" (1983). He developed a revolutionary method called "Sinanoğlu Made Simple" from his own mathematical theories and published in 1988. With the help of this research system, and using simple pictures and

text: periodic table

text: , chemists could predict the ways in which chemicals combine in the laboratory, and solve other complex problems of chemistry.  After 37 years on the Yale faculty, Sinanoğlu retired in 1997.  During his time at Yale, Sinanoğlu served as a frequent consultant to several Turkish universities and to the

entity_name: Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey

text: Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey

text: (TÜBİTAK) as well as to the

entity_name: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science

text: Japan Society for the Promotion of Science

text: (JSPS). In 1962, the Board of Trustees of

text: Middle East Technical University

text: in Ankara dignified him with the title "consulting professor", for the first time and unique only for him.

text: defines a sequence of graphs called -atoms, with the property that a graph has Grundy number at least  if and only if it contains a -atom.Each -atom is formed from an independent set and a -atom, by adding one edge from each vertex of the -atom to a vertex of the independent set, in such a way that each member of the independent set has at least one edge incident to it.A Grundy coloring of a -atom can be obtained by coloring the independent set first with the smallest-numbered color, and then coloring the remaining -atom with an additional  colors.For instance, the only 1-atom is a single vertex, and the only 2-atom is a single edge, but there are two possible 3-atoms: a triangle and a four-vertex path.

text: defines a sequence of graphs called -atoms, with the property that a graph has Grundy number at least  if and only if it contains a -atom.Each -atom is formed from an

text: independent set

text: and a -atom, by adding one edge from each vertex of the -atom to a vertex of the independent set, in such a way that each member of the independent set has at least one edge incident to it.A Grundy coloring of a -atom can be obtained by coloring the independent set first with the smallest-numbered color, and then coloring the remaining -atom with an additional  colors.For instance, the only 1-atom is a single vertex, and the only 2-atom is a single edge, but there are two possible 3-atoms: a triangle and a four-vertex path.

text: Luther Lassiter (November 5, 1918 – October 25, 1988), born  Luther Clement Lassiter, Jr. and nicknamed Wimpy, was a world-renowned American pool player from Elizabeth City, North Carolina. The winner of six world championships and numerous other titles, Lassiter is most well known for his wizardry in the game of nine-ball at which he is widely considered one of the greatest players in history, if not the greatest. He was inducted into the Billiards Congress of America's Hall of Fame in 1983. That same year, he was also inducted into the North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame. He was ranked number 9 on the Billiards Digest 50 Greatest Players of the Century.

text: Luther Lassiter (November 5, 1918 – October 25, 1988), born  Luther Clement Lassiter, Jr. and nicknamed Wimpy, was a world-renowned

text: American

text: pool

text: player from

text: Elizabeth City, North Carolina

text: . The winner of six world championships and numerous other titles, Lassiter is most well known for his wizardry in the game of

text: nine-ball

text: at which he is widely considered one of the greatest players in history, if not the greatest. He was inducted into the

text: Billiards Congress of America

text: 's

text: Hall of Fame

text: in 1983. That same year, he was also inducted into the

text: North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame

text: . He was ranked number 9 on the Billiards Digest 50 Greatest Players of the Century.

text: Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explicable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease along each period (row) of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group (column).  The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period.  These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory. The atomic radii decrease across the Periodic Table because as the atomic number increases, the number of protons increases across the period, but the extra electrons are only added to the same quantum shell. Therefore, the effective nuclear charge towards the outermost electrons increases, drawing the outermost electrons closer. As a result, the electron cloud contracts and the atomic radius decreases.

text: periodic table

text: . For instance, the radii generally decrease along each period (row) of the table, from the

text: alkali metal

text: s to the

text: noble gases

text: electron shell

text: quantum theory

text: . The atomic radii decrease across the Periodic Table because as the atomic number increases, the number of protons increases across the period, but the extra electrons are only added to the same quantum shell. Therefore, the effective nuclear charge towards the outermost electrons increases, drawing the outermost electrons closer. As a result, the electron cloud contracts and the atomic radius decreases.

text: In Zermelo set theory one can model the ramified type theory of PM as follows. One picks a set ι to be the type of individuals. For example, ι might be the set of natural numbers, or the set of atoms (in a set theory with atoms) or any other set one is interested in. Then if τ,...,τ are types, the  type (τ,...,τ) is the power set of the product τ×...×τ, which can also be thought of informally as the set of (propositional predicative) functions from this product to a 2-element set {true,false}. The ramified type (τ,...,τ|σ,...,σ) can be modeled  as the product of the type (τ,...,τ,σ,...,σ) with the set of sequences of n quantifiers (∀ or ∃) indicating which quantifier should be applied to each variable σ. (One can vary this slightly by allowing the σs to be quantified in any order, or allowing them to occur before some of the τs, but this makes little difference except to the bookkeeping.)

text: The Big Bang model, or theory,  is now the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe and was first proposed by Belgian priest Georges Lemaitre, astronomer and professor of physics at the Catholic University of Louvain, with a PhD from MIT. Lemaître was a pioneer in applying Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity to cosmology. Bill Bryson wrote that the idea was decades ahead of its time, and that Lemaitre was the first to bring together Einstein's theory of relativity with Edwin Hubble's cosmological observations, combining them in his own "fire-works theory". Lemaitre theorized in the 1920s that the universe began as a geometrical point which he called a "primeval atom", which exploded out and has been moving apart ever since. The idea became established theory only decades later with the discovery of cosmic background radiation by American scientists.

text: The

text: Big Bang

text: model, or theory,  is now the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe and was first proposed by Belgian priest

text: Georges Lemaitre

text: , astronomer and professor of physics at the

entity_name: Catholic University of Leuven (1834–1968)

text: Catholic University of Louvain

text: , with a PhD from

text: MIT

text: . Lemaître was a pioneer in applying Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity to cosmology.

text: Bill Bryson

text: wrote that the idea was decades ahead of its time, and that Lemaitre was the first to bring together Einstein's theory of relativity with

text: Edwin Hubble

text: 's cosmological observations, combining them in his own "fire-works theory". Lemaitre theorized in the 1920s that the universe began as a geometrical point which he called a "primeval atom", which exploded out and has been moving apart ever since. The idea became established theory only decades later with the discovery of

text: cosmic background radiation

text: by American scientists.

text: As of 2010, the Riviera had a near-monopoly on championship-level North American and international amateur pool (pocket billiards) tournaments held in the United States, aside from the Florida-based U.S. Amateur Championship. The hotel's convention center hosted the Billiard Congress of America, American Poolplayers Association, Valley National 8-Ball Association and American Cuesports Alliance pool leagues' annual international championships, and various related events. BCA scheduled their 2011 and 2012 amateur championships at the Riviera, as well as the 2011 professional U.S. Open Ten-ball Championship. BCA moved their 2013 events to Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino VNEA announced in May 2010 that their event would move to Bally's, further down the Strip, in 2011.

text: As of 2010, the Riviera had a near-monopoly on championship-level North American and international amateur

text: pool

text: (pocket billiards) tournaments held in the United States, aside from the Florida-based U.S. Amateur Championship. The hotel's convention center hosted the

text: Billiard Congress of America

text: American Poolplayers Association

entity_name: Valley National 8-Ball League Association

text: Valley National 8-Ball Association

text: and

text: American Cuesports Alliance

text: pool leagues' annual international championships, and various related events. BCA scheduled their 2011 and 2012 amateur championships at the Riviera, as well as the 2011 professional

text: U.S. Open Ten-ball Championship

text: . BCA moved their 2013 events to

text: Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino

text: VNEA announced in May 2010 that their event would move to

text: Bally's

text: , further down the Strip, in 2011.

text: It should be noted that the relative atomic mass of the electron A(e) is measured relative to the mass of a carbon-12 atom (divided by 12). When the Avogadro constant is set in the new SI, atomic masses might be measured in dalton (by fixing the Avogadro constant), instead of atomic mass units (by fixing the mass of carbon-12), thus resulting in a difference between the values of the relative atomic mass and the atomic mass in units of dalton.

text: As the scale varies, it is as if one is changing the magnifying power of a notional microscope viewing the system. In so-called renormalizable theories, the system at one scale will generally be seen to consist of self-similar copies of itself when viewed at a smaller scale, with different parameters describing the components of the system. The components, or fundamental variables, may  relate to atoms, elementary particles, atomic spins, etc.  The parameters of the theory typically describe the interactions of the components. These may be variable "couplings" which measure the strength of various forces, or mass parameters themselves. The components themselves may appear to be composed of more of the self-same components as one goes to shorter distances.

text: As the scale varies, it is as if one is changing the magnifying power of a notional microscope viewing the system. In so-called renormalizable theories, the system at one scale will generally be seen to consist of self-similar copies of itself when viewed at a smaller scale, with different parameters describing the components of the system. The components, or fundamental variables, may  relate to atoms, elementary particles, atomic spins, etc.  The parameters of the theory typically describe the interactions of the components. These may be variable "

text: couplings

text: " which measure the strength of various forces, or mass parameters themselves. The components themselves may appear to be composed of more of the self-same components as one goes to shorter distances.

text: Dalton believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in different proportions - for example, he found that water absorbed carbon dioxide far better than it absorbed nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences in mass and complexity of the gases' respective particles. Indeed, carbon dioxide molecules (CO) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N).

text: Dalton believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in different proportions - for example, he found that water absorbed

text: carbon dioxide

text: far better than it absorbed

text: nitrogen

text: . Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences in mass and complexity of the gases' respective particles. Indeed, carbon dioxide molecules (CO) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N).

text: John Dalton's first table of atomic weights (1808) suggested a reference point, at least for the elements: taking the equivalent weight of hydrogen to be one unit of mass. However, Dalton's atomic theory was far from universally accepted in the early 19th century. One of the greatest problems was the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to produce water. One gram of hydrogen reacts with eight grams of oxygen to produce nine grams of water, so the equivalent weight of oxygen was defined as eight grams. Since Dalton supposed (incorrectly) that a water molecule consisted of one hydrogen and one oxygen atom, this would imply an atomic weight of oxygen equal to eight. However, expressing the reaction in terms of gas volumes following Gay-Lussac's law of combining gas volumes, two volumes of hydrogen react with one volume of oxygen to produce two volumes of water, suggesting (correctly) that the atomic weight of oxygen is sixteen. The work of Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816–56), Henri Victor Regnault (1810–78) and Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910) helped to rationalise this and many similar paradoxes, but the problem was still the subject of debate at the Karlsruhe Congress (1860).

text: John Dalton

text: 's first table of atomic weights (1808) suggested a reference point, at least for the

text: elements

text: : taking the equivalent weight of

text: hydrogen

text: to be one unit of mass. However,

text: Dalton's atomic theory

text: was far from universally accepted in the early 19th century. One of the greatest problems was the reaction of hydrogen with

text: oxygen

text: to produce

text: water

text: . One gram of hydrogen reacts with eight grams of oxygen to produce nine grams of water, so the equivalent weight of oxygen was defined as eight grams. Since Dalton supposed (incorrectly) that a water molecule consisted of one hydrogen and one oxygen atom, this would imply an atomic weight of oxygen equal to eight. However, expressing the reaction in terms of gas volumes following

text: Gay-Lussac's law

text: of combining gas volumes, two volumes of hydrogen react with one volume of oxygen to produce two volumes of water, suggesting (correctly) that the atomic weight of oxygen is sixteen. The work of

text: Charles Frédéric Gerhardt

text: Henri Victor Regnault

text: (1810–78) and

text: Stanislao Cannizzaro

text: (1826–1910) helped to rationalise this and many similar paradoxes, but the problem was still the subject of debate at the

text: Karlsruhe Congress

text: Centuries of empirical investigation have proven that all the ancient systems were incorrect explanations of the physical world.  It is now known that atomic theory is a correct explanation, and that atoms can be classified into more than a hundred chemical elements such as oxygen, iron, and mercury.  These elements form chemical compounds and mixtures, and under different temperatures and pressures, these substances can adopt different states of matter.  The most commonly observed states of solid, liquid, gas, and plasma share many attributes with the classical elements of earth, water, air, and fire, respectively, but it is now known that these states are due to similar behavior of different types of atoms at similar energy levels, and not due to containing a certain type of atom or a certain type of infinitely divisible substance or energy.

text: Centuries of empirical investigation have proven that all the ancient systems were incorrect explanations of the physical world.  It is now known that

text: atomic theory

text: is a correct explanation, and that atoms can be classified into more than a hundred

text: chemical element

text: s such as

text: oxygen

text: iron

text: , and

text: mercury

text: .  These elements form

text: chemical compound

text: s and

text: mixtures

text: , and under different temperatures and pressures, these substances can adopt different

text: states of matter

text: .  The most commonly observed states of

text: solid

text: liquid

text: gas

text: , and

text: plasma

text: share many attributes with the classical elements of earth, water, air, and fire, respectively, but it is now known that these states are due to similar behavior of different types of atoms at similar energy levels, and not due to containing a certain type of atom or a certain type of infinitely divisible substance or energy.

text: Blackball is an internationally standardised variation of the popular bar and club game eightball pool (a.k.a. eight-ball pool or 8-ball pool), closely related to the originally American and now professionally internationalised game eight-ball. The two main sets of playing rules are those of the World Pool-Billiard Association (WPA, the International Olympic Committee-recognised governing body of pool) and its affiliate the European Blackball Association (EBA), known as "blackball rules", and the older code of the World Eightball Pool Federation (WEPF), often referred to as "world rules" or the "eightball pool rules".

text: Blackball is an internationally standardised variation of the popular bar and club game eightball pool (a.k.a. eight-ball pool or 8-ball pool), closely related to the originally American and now professionally internationalised game

text: eight-ball

text: . The two main sets of playing rules are those of the

text: World Pool-Billiard Association

text: (WPA, the

text: International Olympic Committee

text: -recognised

text: governing body

text: of pool) and its affiliate the

text: European Blackball Association

text: (EBA), known as "blackball rules", and the older code of the

text: World Eightball Pool Federation

text: (WEPF), often referred to as "world rules" or the "eightball pool rules".

text: It has the useful property that the numbers of 0s and 1s are conserved throughout, which in the billiard ball model means the same number of balls are output as input. This corresponds nicely to the conservation of mass in physics, and helps to show that the model is not wasteful.

text: It has the useful property that the numbers of 0s and 1s are conserved throughout, which in the

text: billiard ball model

text: means the same number of balls are output as input. This corresponds nicely to the

text: conservation of mass

text: in physics, and helps to show that the model is not wasteful.

text: Lewis proposed that an atom forms enough covalent bonds to form a full (or closed) outer electron shell. In the methane diagram shown here, the carbon atom has a valence of four and is, therefore, surrounded by eight electrons (the octet rule), four from the carbon itself and four from the hydrogens bonded to it. Each hydrogen has a valence of one and is surrounded by two electrons (a duet rule) – its own one electron plus one from the carbon. The numbers of electrons correspond to full shells in the quantum theory of the atom; the outer shell of a carbon atom is the n = 2 shell, which can hold eight electrons, whereas the outer (and only) shell of a hydrogen atom is the n = 1 shell, which can hold only two.

text: Lewis proposed that an atom forms enough covalent bonds to form a full (or closed) outer electron shell. In the methane diagram shown here, the carbon atom has a valence of four and is, therefore, surrounded by eight electrons (the

text: octet rule

text: ), four from the carbon itself and four from the hydrogens bonded to it. Each hydrogen has a valence of one and is surrounded by two electrons (a duet rule) – its own one electron plus one from the carbon. The numbers of electrons correspond to full shells in the quantum theory of the atom; the outer shell of a carbon atom is the n = 2 shell, which can hold eight electrons, whereas the outer (and only) shell of a hydrogen atom is the n = 1 shell, which can hold only two.

text: Born in Lucknow, India to Rev. Joseph & Sarah Jane (Lauck) Parson, Alfred received his BS in chemistry from Oxford University.  Between 1913 and 1915 he was a visiting graduate student at Harvard and the University of California, Berkeley, where coincidentally Gilbert N. Lewis was working as the chair of the department of chemistry.  During these years, Lewis read a paper by Parson, which argued that the electron, in the Bohr model, might be a ring of negative electricity spinning with a high velocity about its axis and that a chemical bond results from two electrons being shared between two atoms.  Parson published the final draft of his theory in 1915.  Stimulated by this paper, Lewis published his famous 1916 article "The Atom and the Molecule", in which a chemical bond forms owing to the sharing of pairs of electrons.  Several other physicists of the time, including Arthur H. Compton, Clinton Davisson, Lars O. Grondahl, David L. Webster, and H. Stanley Allen, developed Parson's ideas further using a toroidal ring model for the atom.

text: Born in

text: Lucknow

text: India

text: to Rev. Joseph & Sarah Jane (Lauck) Parson, Alfred received his BS in

text: chemistry

text: from

text: Oxford University

text: .  Between 1913 and 1915 he was a visiting graduate student at

text: Harvard

text: and the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: , where coincidentally

text: Gilbert N. Lewis

text: was working as the chair of the department of

text: chemistry

text: .  During these years,

text: Lewis

text: read a paper by Parson, which argued that the electron, in the

text: Bohr model

text: , might be a ring of negative

text: electricity

text: spinning with a high velocity about its axis and that a

text: chemical bond

text: results from two

text: electrons

text: being shared between two

text: atoms

text: .  Parson published the final draft of his theory in 1915.  Stimulated by this paper,

text: Lewis

text: published his famous 1916 article "The Atom and the Molecule", in which a

text: chemical bond

text: forms owing to the sharing of pairs of electrons.  Several other physicists of the time, including

text: Arthur H. Compton

text: Clinton Davisson

text: , Lars O. Grondahl,

text: David L. Webster

text: , and

text: H. Stanley Allen

text: , developed Parson's ideas further using a

text: toroidal ring model

text: for the

text: atom

text: During the starting point of the uses of perturbation theory, the applications using the method were based on nondegenerate many-body perturbation theory (MBPT). MBPT is a reasonable method for atomic and molecular system which a single non-degenerate Slater determinant can represent zeroth-order electronic description. Therefore, MBPT method would exclude atomic and molecular states, especially excited states, which cannot be represented in zeroth order as single Slater determinants. Moreover, the perturbation expansion would converges very slowly or not at all if the state is degenerate or near degenerate. Such degenerate states are often the case of atomic and molecular valence states. To counter the restrictions, there was an attempt to implement second-order perturbation theory in conjunction with complete active space self-consistent field (CASSCF) wave functions. At the time, it was rather difficult to compute three- and four-particle density matrices which are needed for matrix elements involving internal and semi-internal excitations. The results was rather disappointing with little or no improvement from usual CASSCF results. Another attempt was made in 1990, where the full interacting space was included in the first-order wave function while zeroth-order Hamiltonian was constructed from a Fock-type one-electron operator. For cases which has no active orbitals, the Fock-type one-electron operator that reduces to the Møller–Plesset-Plesset Hartree-Fock (HF) operator. A diagonal Fock operator was also used to  make a computer implementation simple and effective.

text: During the starting point of the uses of perturbation theory, the applications using the method were based on nondegenerate many-body perturbation theory (MBPT). MBPT is a reasonable method for atomic and molecular system which a single non-degenerate

text: Slater determinant

text: can represent zeroth-order electronic description. Therefore, MBPT method would exclude atomic and molecular states, especially

text: excited state

text: s, which cannot be represented in zeroth order as single Slater determinants. Moreover, the perturbation expansion would converges very slowly or not at all if the state is degenerate or near degenerate. Such degenerate states are often the case of atomic and molecular valence states. To counter the restrictions, there was an attempt to implement second-order perturbation theory in conjunction with complete active space self-consistent field (CASSCF) wave functions. At the time, it was rather difficult to compute three- and four-particle density matrices which are needed for matrix elements involving internal and semi-internal excitations. The results was rather disappointing with little or no improvement from usual CASSCF results. Another attempt was made in 1990, where the full interacting space was included in the first-order wave function while zeroth-order Hamiltonian was constructed from a Fock-type one-electron operator. For cases which has no active orbitals, the Fock-type one-electron operator that reduces to the

text: Møller–Plesset-Plesset Hartree-Fock

text: (HF) operator. A diagonal Fock operator was also used to  make a computer implementation simple and effective.

text: Brodie did important original work on peroxides in his private laboratory  where he taught Nevil Story Maskelyne chemistry. He was secretary of the Chemical Society from 1850–1854 and its president in 1860. However, he opposed the Atomic Theory and proposed in 1866 his Calculus of Chemical Operations  as a non-atomic alternative to the Atomic Theory. He saw an advertisement for wooden balls and wire for building models of molecules. This provoked him into describing atomic theory as a "thoroughly materialistic bit of joiner's work".

text: Brodie did important original work on

text: peroxide

text: s in his private laboratory  where he taught

text: Nevil Story Maskelyne

text: chemistry. He was secretary of the

text: Chemical Society

text: from 1850–1854 and its president in 1860. However, he opposed the

text: Atomic Theory

text: and proposed in 1866 his Calculus of Chemical Operations  as a non-atomic alternative to the Atomic Theory. He saw an advertisement for wooden balls and wire for building models of molecules. This provoked him into describing atomic theory as a "thoroughly materialistic bit of joiner's work".

text: Crystalate was based on Bonzoline, a plastic produced by John Wesley Hyatt's US-based Albany Billiard Ball Company. Birt, a former Albany employee, began manufacturing what was essentially Bonzoline in the UK in 1900 as crystalate with Percy Warnford-Davis, under the Endolithic name. While Crystalate as a plastic material is obsolete and no longer manufactured, like Celluloid and Bakelite it is commonly encountered by collectors of vintage and antique goods, because many products were made using the substance. The plastic was even mandated in the UK for making billiard balls by the Billiards Association and Control Council in 1926.

text: Crystalate was based on

text: Bonzoline

text: , a plastic produced by

text: John Wesley Hyatt

text: 's US-based

text: Albany Billiard Ball Company

text: . Birt, a former Albany employee, began manufacturing what was essentially Bonzoline in the UK in 1900 as crystalate with Percy Warnford-Davis, under the Endolithic name. While Crystalate as a plastic material is obsolete and no longer manufactured, like

text: Celluloid

text: and

text: Bakelite

text: it is commonly encountered by collectors of vintage and antique goods, because many products were made using the substance. The plastic was even mandated in the UK for making billiard balls by the Billiards Association and Control Council in 1926.

text: Pockets, usually rimmed at the back with leather or plastic, may have leather mesh or cloth bags or plastic cups, or elongated wire racks, to catch the balls, common in home billiard rooms and pool halls, or in the coin-operated tables found in bars/pubs may instead lead to ball-return troughs inside the table, which channel the balls into a collection chamber on one side of the table (or, in non-coin-op models, on the racking end of the table). A disadvantage to pockets with bags or cups is that if too many balls go into the same pocket, it will fill up the receptacle and prevent any more balls from going in that pocket, requiring that some be moved out of the pocket manually before shooting again.

text: Pockets, usually rimmed at the back with leather or plastic, may have leather mesh or cloth bags or plastic cups, or elongated wire racks, to catch the balls, common in home

text: billiard room

text: s and

text: pool hall

text: s, or in the coin-operated tables found in bars/pubs may instead lead to ball-return troughs inside the table, which channel the balls into a collection chamber on one side of the table (or, in non-coin-op models, on the racking end of the table). A disadvantage to pockets with bags or cups is that if too many balls go into the same pocket, it will fill up the receptacle and prevent any more balls from going in that pocket, requiring that some be moved out of the pocket manually before shooting again.

text: The unified atomic mass unit (symbol: u) or dalton (symbol: Da) is the standard unit that is used for indicating mass on an atomic or molecular scale (atomic mass). One unified atomic mass unit is approximately the mass of one nucleon (either a single proton or neutron) and is numerically equivalent to 1g/mol. It is defined as one twelfth of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state, and has a value of . The CIPM has categorised it as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI, and whose value in SI units must be obtained experimentally.

text: The unified atomic mass unit (symbol: u) or dalton (symbol: Da) is the standard

text: unit

text: that is used for indicating

text: mass

text: on an atomic or molecular scale (

text: atomic mass

text: ). One unified atomic mass unit is approximately the mass of one

text: nucleon

text: (either a single

text: proton

text: or

text: neutron

text: ) and is numerically equivalent to 1

text: g/mol

text: . It is defined as one twelfth of the mass of an

text: unbound

text: neutral atom of

text: in its nuclear and electronic

text: ground state

text: , and has a value of . The

entity_name: International Committee for Weights and Measures

text: CIPM

text: has categorised it as a non-

text: SI

text: unit accepted for use with the SI, and whose value in SI units must be obtained experimentally.

text: The West Tower was built in 1969 and the East Tower in 1973. It was designed by the Cleveland architectural firm Dalton-Dalton-Newport-Little, which at one time was one of the most prominent firms in the world, so much so that in 1984, Dalton was acquired by URS Corp of San Francisco.  Its design was influenced by Le Corbusier's modernist residential housing development Unité d'Habitation. This style almost approaches Brutalism in its simplicity and showing of building utilities, though it is a bit more refined than that style of urban planning. The West Tower contained an Embassy Suites Hotel for a number of years, until it closed in 2012 and was converted back to apartments.

text: The West Tower was built in 1969 and the East Tower in 1973. It was designed by the Cleveland architectural firm Dalton-Dalton-Newport-Little, which at one time was one of the most prominent firms in the world, so much so that in 1984, Dalton was acquired by

text: URS

text: Corp of

text: San Francisco

text: .  Its design was influenced by

text: Le Corbusier

text: 's modernist residential housing development

text: Unité d'Habitation

text: . This style almost approaches

text: Brutalism

text: in its simplicity and showing of building utilities, though it is a bit more refined than that style of urban planning. The West Tower contained an Embassy Suites Hotel for a number of years, until it closed in 2012 and was converted back to apartments.

text: The theory describing the elastic fields of the defects was originally developed by Vito Volterra in 1907, but the term 'dislocation' to refer to a defect on the atomic scale was coined by G. I. Taylor in 1934. Some types of dislocations can be visualized as being caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the surrounding planes are not straight, but instead they bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: If half of a piece of paper is inserted into a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is noticeable only at the edge of the half sheet.

text: The theory describing the elastic fields of the defects was originally developed by

text: Vito Volterra

text: in 1907, but the term 'dislocation' to refer to a defect on the atomic scale was coined by

text: G. I. Taylor

text: in 1934. Some types of dislocations can be visualized as being caused by the termination of a plane of

text: atom

text: s in the middle of a

text: crystal

text: . In such a case, the surrounding

text: planes

text: are not straight, but instead they bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side. The analogy with a stack of paper is apt: If half of a piece of paper is inserted into a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is noticeable only at the edge of the half sheet.

text: In 1803, William had a leave of absence from the Dublin Society, which enabled him to sit on a London committee selecting a hydrometer to measure the strength of alcoholic drinks for revenue purposes.  It was in London that William met Humphry Davy, a protégé of his uncle.  Davy was one of William’s proposers to the Royal Society in 1806.    William and Humphry’s relationship flourished from 1810 on, when Humphry promoted William’s claims to the discovery of the chemical atomic theory over those of their rival John Dalton.  William’s claims to the discovery of the chemical atomic theory is found in Comparative View.  William sought to make clear the mechanisms of possible reactions between ultimate particles by using diagrams of the reacting particles and the affinity forces between them.

text: In 1803, William had a leave of absence from the Dublin Society, which enabled him to sit on a London committee selecting a hydrometer to measure the strength of alcoholic drinks for revenue purposes.  It was in London that William met

text: Humphry Davy

text: , a protégé of his uncle.  Davy was one of William’s proposers to the Royal Society in 1806.    William and Humphry’s relationship flourished from 1810 on, when Humphry promoted William’s claims to the discovery of the chemical atomic theory over those of their rival John Dalton.  William’s claims to the discovery of the chemical atomic theory is found in Comparative View.  William sought to make clear the mechanisms of possible reactions between ultimate particles by using diagrams of the reacting particles and the affinity forces between them.

text: One of the first studies of condensed states of matter was by English chemist Humphry Davy, in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Davy observed that of the forty chemical elements known at the time, twenty-six had metallic properties such as lustre, ductility and high electrical and thermal conductivity. This indicated that the atoms in Dalton's atomic theory were not indivisible as Dalton claimed, but had inner structure. Davy further claimed that elements that were then believed to be gases, such as nitrogen and hydrogen could be liquefied under the right conditions and would then behave as metals.

text: One of the first studies of condensed states of matter was by

text: English

text: chemist

text: Humphry Davy

text: , in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Davy observed that of the forty

text: chemical element

text: s known at the time, twenty-six had

text: metal

text: lic properties such as

text: lustre

text: ductility

text: and high electrical and thermal conductivity. This indicated that the atoms in

text: Dalton

text: 's

text: atomic theory

text: were not indivisible as Dalton claimed, but had inner structure. Davy further claimed that elements that were then believed to be gases, such as

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: could be liquefied under the right conditions and would then behave as metals.

text: Atomism or social atomism is a sociological theory arising from the scientific notion atomic theory, coined by the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus and the Roman philosopher Lucretius.  In the scientific rendering of the word, atomism refers to the notion that all matter in the universe is composed of basic indivisible components, or atoms. When placed into the field of sociology, atomism assigns the individual as the basic unit of analysis for all implications of social life.  Therefore, all social values, institutions, developments and procedures evolve entirely out of the interests and actions of the individuals who inhabit any particular society.  The individual is the ‘atom’ of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis.

text: Atomism or social atomism is a

text: sociological

text: theory arising from the scientific notion

text: atomic theory

text: , coined by the ancient Greek philosopher

text: Democritus

text: and the Roman philosopher

text: Lucretius

text: .  In the scientific rendering of the word, atomism refers to the notion that all matter in the universe is composed of basic indivisible components, or

text: atom

text: s. When placed into the field of sociology, atomism assigns the

text: individual

text: as the basic unit of analysis for all implications of social life.  Therefore, all social values, institutions, developments and procedures evolve entirely out of the interests and actions of the individuals who inhabit any particular society.  The individual is the ‘atom’ of society and therefore the only true object of concern and analysis.

text: The muon was the first elementary particle discovered that does not appear in ordinary atoms. Negative muons can, however, form muonic atoms (also called mu-mesic atoms), by replacing an electron in ordinary atoms. Muonic hydrogen atoms are much smaller than typical hydrogen atoms because the much larger mass of the muon gives it a much more localized ground-state wavefunction than is observed for the electron. In multi-electron atoms, when only one of the electrons is replaced by a muon, the size of the atom continues to be determined by the other electrons, and the atomic size is nearly unchanged. However, in such cases the orbital of the muon continues to be smaller and far closer to the nucleus than the atomic orbitals of the electrons.

text: The muon was the first

text: elementary particle

text: discovered that does not appear in ordinary

text: atom

text: s. Negative muons can, however, form muonic atoms (also called

text: mu-mesic atoms

text: ), by replacing an electron in ordinary atoms. Muonic hydrogen atoms are much smaller than typical hydrogen atoms because the much larger mass of the muon gives it a much more localized

text: ground-state

text: wavefunction

text: than is observed for the electron. In multi-electron atoms, when only one of the electrons is replaced by a muon, the size of the atom continues to be determined by the other electrons, and the atomic size is nearly unchanged. However, in such cases the orbital of the muon continues to be smaller and far closer to the nucleus than the

text: atomic orbital

text: s of the electrons.

text: In 1803 Dalton orally presented his first list of relative atomic weights for a number of substances. This paper was published in 1805, but he did not discuss there exactly how he obtained these figures. The method was first revealed in 1807 by his acquaintance Thomas Thomson, in the third edition of Thomson's textbook, A System of Chemistry. Finally, Dalton published a full account in his own textbook, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808 and 1810.

text: In 1803 Dalton orally presented his first list of relative atomic weights for a number of substances. This paper was published in 1805, but he did not discuss there exactly how he obtained these figures. The method was first revealed in 1807 by his acquaintance

text: Thomas Thomson

text: , in the third edition of Thomson's textbook, A System of Chemistry. Finally, Dalton published a full account in his own textbook, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808 and 1810.

text: In chemistry, the valence or valency of an element is a measure of its combining power with other atoms when it forms chemical compounds or molecules. The concept of  valence was developed in the second half of the 19th century and was successful in explaining the molecular structure of inorganic and organic compounds. The quest for the underlying causes of valence led to the modern theories of chemical bonding, including the cubical atom (1902), Lewis structures (1916), valence bond theory (1927), molecular orbitals (1928), valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (1958), and all of the advanced methods of quantum chemistry.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , the valence or valency of an

text: element

text: is a measure of its combining power with other atoms when it forms

text: chemical compound

text: s or

text: molecule

text: s. The concept of  valence was developed in the second half of the 19th century and was successful in explaining the molecular structure of inorganic and organic compounds. The quest for the underlying causes of valence led to the modern theories of chemical bonding, including the

text: cubical atom

text: Lewis structure

text: s (1916),

text: valence bond theory

text: molecular orbital

text: s (1928),

text: (1958), and all of the advanced methods of

text: quantum chemistry

text: In 2003, Pagulayan went on the road in the United States with Canadian pool player Ronnie Wiseman to compete in pocket billiard tournaments.  They scored a double victory at the Carolinas Open at Fast Eddie's in Goldsboro, North Carolina, with Wiseman winning the one-pocket tournament and Pagulayan winning the nine-ball event. Later in 2003, Pagulayan reached the finals of the World Nine-ball Championship but was beaten by Thorsten Hohmann 10-17.

text: In 2003, Pagulayan went on the road in the United States with Canadian pool player

text: Ronnie Wiseman

text: to compete in pocket billiard tournaments.  They scored a double victory at the

text: Carolinas Open

text: at Fast Eddie's in

text: Goldsboro, North Carolina

text: , with Wiseman winning the

text: one-pocket

text: tournament and Pagulayan winning the nine-ball event. Later in 2003, Pagulayan reached the finals of the World Nine-ball Championship but was beaten by

text: Thorsten Hohmann

text: 'Naturalistic' tendencies never developed and took an extension in India as they did in Greece under the influence of physical philosophers. In particular, atomism (not in the modern sense of "atoms" and "elementary particles", but in the classical signification related to the existence of indivisible items from which the entire corporeal world is supposedly built) is a conception formally opposed to the Veda, notably in connection with the theory of five elements. Classical atomism states that "an atom, or anu, partakes, potentially at least, the nature of one or other of the elements, and it is from the grouping together of atoms of various kinds, under the action of a force said to be 'non perceptible' or adrishta that all bodies are supposed to be formed". The error of atomism comes from the fact that these atoms are supposed to exist within the corporeal order whereas all that is bodily is necessarily composite "being always divisible by the fact that it is extended, that is to say subject to the spatial condition" (although in the corporeal domain, divisibility has necessarily its limits).

text: 'Naturalistic' tendencies never developed and took an extension in India as they did in Greece under the influence of physical philosophers. In particular,

text: atomism

text: (not in the modern sense of "atoms" and "elementary particles", but in the classical signification related to the existence of indivisible items from which the entire corporeal world is supposedly built) is a conception formally opposed to the Veda, notably in connection with the theory of five elements. Classical atomism states that "an atom, or anu, partakes, potentially at least, the nature of one or other of the elements, and it is from the grouping together of atoms of various kinds, under the action of a force said to be 'non perceptible' or

text: adrishta

text: that all bodies are supposed to be formed". The error of atomism comes from the fact that these atoms are supposed to exist within the corporeal order whereas all that is bodily is necessarily composite "being always divisible by the fact that it is extended, that is to say subject to the spatial condition" (although in the corporeal domain, divisibility has necessarily its limits).

text: The surface finish of baize is not very fine (and thus increases friction, perceptibly slowing the balls down, from a player's perspective).  Baize is available with and without a perceptible nap. Snooker, in which understanding of the effects of the nap is part of the game, uses the nappy variety, while pool (pocket billiards) and carom billiards use the napless type. Table baize is available in many grades, with pool halls preferring smooth, "fast" worsted woollen baize, while rather more fuzzy, "slow" cloth is commonly used for .

text: The surface finish of baize is not very fine (and thus increases friction, perceptibly slowing the

text: balls

text: down, from a player's perspective).  Baize is available with and without a perceptible

text: nap

text: Snooker

text: , in which understanding of the effects of the nap is part of the game, uses the nappy variety, while

text: pool

text: (pocket billiards) and

text: carom billiards

text: use the napless type. Table baize is available in many grades, with

text: pool hall

text: s preferring smooth, "fast"

text: worsted

text: woollen baize, while rather more fuzzy, "slow" cloth is commonly used for .

text: Most central lectures and briefings are conducted in the auditorium, which has modern audio visual aid for the conduct of such activity. This auditorium is temporarily housed at its present location awaiting completion of construction work of a more spacious and modern premises.

text: Karin Knapp was the defending champion, but withdrew before the tournament began.

text: Karin Knapp

text: was the defending champion, but withdrew before the tournament began.

text: It is located between the Eskişehir Road (D-200 Eskişehir Yolu) and Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo. Many of the city's newest skyscrapers and shopping malls such as the Armada Tower & Mall are in Söğütözü, which is served by a subway station on the M2 line of the Ankara Metro, and a light rail station on the A1 line of Ankaray.

text: It is located between the

text: Eskişehir

text: Road

text: D-200 Eskişehir Yolu

text: ) and

text: Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo

text: . Many of the city's newest

text: skyscrapers

text: and

text: shopping malls

text: such as the Armada Tower & Mall are in Söğütözü, which is served by a

text: subway

text: station on the

text: M2 line

text: of the

text: Ankara Metro

text: , and a

text: light rail

text: station on the

text: A1 line

text: of

text: Ankaray

text: Art-Piteus 84. Blanes

text: Art-Piteus 84. Blanes

text: Another three-episode OVA series by AIC, Parasite Dolls, was released in 2003.

text: In 2012, the main office shifted to Bagmane Constellation Business Park near Doddanekkundi, Bangalore.[INSAT|,INSAT].

text: In 2012, the main office shifted to Bagmane Constellation Business Park near Doddanekkundi,

text: Bangalore

text: .[INSAT|,INSAT].

text: During 2014, the Fayetteville Airport Commission, airport management, and the Fayetteville City Council began exploring options for expansion of the terminal at the airport.  This expansion will involve the removal of the original Concourse A, which is an older-style ground level concourse that was part of the original design.  It will be replaced with an elevated concourse that matches the current Concourse B.  This will create a new total of 8 gates, all of which will be fitted with jet-bridges, and two of which will be fitted with adjustable-height jet bridges capable of accommodating larger jet aircraft, as well as expanded seating areas and new restrooms and dining facilities. The expansion will also provide expanded facilities for the Transportation Security Administration to allow for multiple security lanes, replacing the current single security line format.  Additional airline counter space would be created by relocating TSA baggage operations from the main ticketing lobby to the rear service area. These terminal renovations and expansions will make it possible for Fayetteville to be served by additional air carriers in the future, with a goal of adding hub connections and destinations to make travel easier for passengers from the Fayetteville metro area.

text: During 2014, the Fayetteville Airport Commission, airport management, and the Fayetteville City Council began exploring options for expansion of the terminal at the airport.  This expansion will involve the removal of the original Concourse A, which is an older-style ground level concourse that was part of the original design.  It will be replaced with an elevated concourse that matches the current Concourse B.  This will create a new total of 8 gates, all of which will be fitted with jet-bridges, and two of which will be fitted with adjustable-height

text: jet bridge

text: s capable of accommodating larger jet aircraft, as well as expanded seating areas and new restrooms and dining facilities. The expansion will also provide expanded facilities for the

text: Transportation Security Administration

text: to allow for multiple security lanes, replacing the current single security line format.  Additional airline counter space would be created by relocating

text: TSA

text: baggage operations from the main ticketing lobby to the rear service area. These terminal renovations and expansions will make it possible for Fayetteville to be served by additional air carriers in the future, with a goal of adding

text: hub

text: connections and destinations to make travel easier for passengers from the Fayetteville

text: metro

text: area.

text: Blackburn with Darwen services is a service station located on the M65 in Lancashire.

text: Blackburn with Darwen services is a service station located on the M65 in

text: Lancashire

text: The group was notable in the Australian context in that they played mainly originals. One of their hits, "Undecided" (1967), was revived by Silverchair in 1997, and their well known song "Because I Love You" has been revived many times, including its use in an Australian jeans commercial in the late 1980s. Swedish progressive metal band Opeth named the track "Master's Apprentices" from their 2002 album Deliverance in honour of the band; Opeth frontman Mikael Åkerfeldt is a fan.

text: The group was notable in the Australian context in that they played mainly originals. One of their hits, "Undecided" (1967), was revived by

text: Silverchair

text: in 1997, and their well known song "Because I Love You" has been revived many times, including its use in an Australian jeans commercial in the late 1980s.

text: Swedish

text: progressive metal

text: band

text: Opeth

text: named the track "Master's Apprentices" from their 2002 album

text: Deliverance

text: in honour of the band; Opeth frontman

text: Mikael Åkerfeldt

text: is a fan.

text: Regarding technology, instead of it being subservient to humanity, "human beings have to adapt to it, and accept total change."  As an example, Ellul offered the diminished value of the humanities to a technological society.  As people begin to question the value of learning ancient languages and history, they question those things which, on the surface, do little to advance their financial and technical state. According to Ellul, this misplaced emphasis is one of the problems with modern education, as it produces a situation in which immense stress is placed on information in our schools. The focus in those schools is to prepare young people to enter the world of information, to be able to work with computers but knowing only their reasoning, their language, their combinations, and the connections between them. This movement is invading the whole intellectual domain and also that of conscience.

text: Regarding technology, instead of it being subservient to humanity, "human beings have to adapt to it, and accept total change."  As an example, Ellul offered the diminished value of the

text: humanities

text: to a technological society.  As people begin to question the value of learning ancient languages and history, they question those things which, on the surface, do little to advance their financial and technical state. According to Ellul, this misplaced emphasis is one of the problems with modern education, as it produces a situation in which immense stress is placed on information in our schools. The focus in those schools is to prepare young people to enter the world of information, to be able to work with computers but knowing only their reasoning, their language, their combinations, and the connections between them. This movement is invading the whole intellectual domain and also that of conscience.

text: In 1952 Walter White, president of the NAACP, set up the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of civil rights, civic, labor, religious, and fraternal organizations to manage political operations in Washington for civil rights. Roy Wilkins, NAACP executive director, served as chairman of the LCCR, and Mitchell was appointed as legislative chairman. "He directed the strategy that resulted in the fulfillment of the goals of the modern civil rights movement." The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was a step toward securing the constitutional rights of all citizens.

text: In 1952

text: Walter White

text: , president of the NAACP, set up the

entity_name: Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights

text: Leadership Conference on Civil Rights

text: , a coalition of civil rights, civic, labor, religious, and fraternal organizations to manage political operations in Washington for civil rights.

text: Roy Wilkins

text: , NAACP executive director, served as chairman of the LCCR, and Mitchell was appointed as legislative chairman. "He directed the strategy that resulted in the fulfillment of the goals of the modern civil rights movement." The

text: Civil Rights Act of 1957

text: was a step toward securing the constitutional rights of all citizens.

text: Students are placed in one of four houses according to their admission number.They compete each year to win the Inter-house Competitions.

text: The election was held using the multiple round system. In order to win in the first round of voting, Nkurunziza was required to receive at least two-thirds of the vote (108 votes).

text: The band released a 12" EP, Demolition Derby, in Belgium in February 1985, and their first full overseas album, You Get What You Deserve, in the UK in July 1985 on their manager's Karbon label, followed by the "You Only Live Twice"/"If It's The Last Thing I Do" 7" in September. Owing to contractual disputes with Au Go Go, different mixes of some tracks appeared in Australia as the mini-album Atom Bomb Baby, with the "Atom Bomb Baby/Backwards Man" 7" and a compilation LP Heading For a Trauma (comprising Demolition Derby with rare, radio and live tracks) being released with it in July 1985.

text: The band released a 12" EP, Demolition Derby, in Belgium in February 1985, and their first full overseas album, You Get What You Deserve, in the UK in July 1985 on their manager's Karbon label, followed by the "

text: You Only Live Twice

text: "/"If It's The Last Thing I Do" 7" in September. Owing to contractual disputes with Au Go Go, different mixes of some tracks appeared in Australia as the mini-album Atom Bomb Baby, with the "Atom Bomb Baby/Backwards Man" 7" and a compilation LP Heading For a Trauma (comprising Demolition Derby with rare, radio and live tracks) being released with it in July 1985.

text: The Men's uneven bars Gymnastics at the 2015 Summer Universiade in Gwangju was held on 7 July at the Gwangju Women's University Universiade Gymnasium.

text: The Men's

text: uneven bars

text: Gymnastics

text: at the

text: 2015 Summer Universiade

text: in

text: Gwangju

text: was held on 7 July at the Gwangju Women's University Universiade Gymnasium.

text: Descendants of Seru Epenisa Cakobau  Cakobau was the Fijian monarch who unified the nation in 1871, and ceded it to Britain in 1874.  Many twentieth-century politicians are direct descendants of his.

text: Descendants of

text: Seru Epenisa Cakobau

text: Cakobau was the Fijian

text: monarch

text: who unified the nation in 1871, and ceded it to Britain in 1874.  Many twentieth-century politicians are direct descendants of his.

text: On 2 June 2010, the Province of Quebec unanimously passed bill 390, "Memorial Day Act on the great Ukrainian famine and genocide (the Holodomor)".

text: On 2 June 2010, the Province of

text: Quebec

text: unanimously passed bill 390, "Memorial Day Act on the great Ukrainian famine and genocide (the Holodomor)".

text: Tyrie is a hamlet and parish in the Buchan district of Aberdeenshire, north-east Scotland. Tyrie is located on the A98 road, around  south-west of Fraserburgh. Tyrie parish includes the larger settlement of New Pitsligo,  to the south. There is a primary school in the village. Tyrie parish church was built in 1800 and is a category B listed building. The church contains a Pictish symbol stone known as the Raven Stone, which was discovered on the site of the old parish church. The ecclesiastical parish was united with Strichen parish in 2002.

text: Tyrie is a hamlet and

text: parish

text: in the

text: Buchan

text: district of

text: Aberdeenshire

text: , north-east Scotland. Tyrie is located on the

text: A98 road

text: , around  south-west of

text: Fraserburgh

text: . Tyrie parish includes the larger settlement of

text: New Pitsligo

text: ,  to the south. There is a primary school in the village. Tyrie parish church was built in 1800 and is a

text: category B listed building

text: . The church contains a

text: Pictish symbol stone

text: known as the Raven Stone, which was discovered on the site of the old parish church. The ecclesiastical parish was united with

text: Strichen

text: parish in 2002.

text: where n are the stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants in the equilibrium equation, and m are the coefficients of the products. The value of δG for these reactions is a function of the chemical potentials of all the species.

text: where n are the

text: stoichiometric coefficient

text: s of the reactants in the equilibrium equation, and m are the coefficients of the products. The value of δG for these reactions is a function of the chemical potentials of all the species.

text: Later, Madanlal Pahwa led the police to the Marina Hotel where Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte had been staying and also to Sharief Hotel where all other gang members had been staying. Everyone had left by that time and the police were only able to recover some letters and clothes which had the initials "NVG" on it. By this time they were able to ascertain that the members of that team were from Maharashtra; however they were not able to establish the identity and the involvement of Nathuram Godse.

text: Later, Madanlal Pahwa led the police to the Marina Hotel where Nathuram Godse and Narayan Apte had been staying and also to Sharief Hotel where all other gang members had been staying. Everyone had left by that time and the police were only able to recover some letters and clothes which had the initials "NVG" on it. By this time they were able to ascertain that the members of that team were from

text: Maharashtra

text: ; however they were not able to establish the identity and the involvement of Nathuram Godse.

text: Zirconium phosphate crystal structure was elucidated by Clearfield and coworkers in 1968 by the single-crystal method.  The layered structure of α-Zirconium phosphate consists of Zr(IV) ions situated alternately slightly above and below the ab plane, forming an octahedron with the oxygen atoms of the tetrahedral phosphate groups.  Of the four oxygen atoms in the phosphate groups, three are bonded to three different Zr atoms, forming a cross-linked covalent network.  The fourth oxygen atom of the phosphate is perpendicular to the layer pointed toward the interlayer region.  In the interlayer region is localized a zeolitic cavity where a basal water molecule resides, forming a hydrogen bond with the OH group of the phosphate that is perpendicular to the layer.  The alpha phase of zirconium phosphate is under the  P21/n space group, with cell dimensions of a = 9.060 Å, b = 5.297 Å, c = 15.414 Å, α = γ = 90°, β = 101.71° and Z = 4.21  The basal interlayer distance for the α-Zirconium phosphate is 7.6 Å, where 6.6 Å is the layer thickness and the remaining 1 Å space is occupied by the interstitial water molecules in the interlayer gallery.  The distance between adjacent orthophosphates on one side of the layer is 5.3 Å.  There are two phosphates in each ab plane in the surface layer forming a “free area” of 24 Å associated to each phosphate group.

text: April 17, Pabellón Príncipe Felipe, Zaragoza|}

text: April 17,

text: Pabellón Príncipe Felipe

text: Zaragoza

text: A skilled arranger and composer, he sometimes tried a change of pace. Between 1973 and 1975 he toured Europe with the Louis Falco Dance Company. Ruggedly attractive, possessing an imposing Brando-like set of wry frowns and challenging smiles, Bobby was married and divorced several times. His trademark was his strong, jangling piano style (Erroll Garner being an influence) and his unique, rasping delivery which was evidence of his cigarette habit and the nearly forty years spent in smoky nightclubs.

text: A skilled arranger and composer, he sometimes tried a change of pace. Between 1973 and 1975 he toured Europe with the

text: Louis Falco

text: Dance Company. Ruggedly attractive, possessing an imposing

text: Brando

text: -like set of wry frowns and challenging smiles, Bobby was married and divorced several times. His trademark was his strong, jangling piano style (

text: Erroll Garner

text: being an influence) and his unique, rasping delivery which was evidence of his cigarette habit and the nearly forty years spent in smoky nightclubs.

text: At the turn of the century, Sorabji was also actively involved in social reforms. She was associated with the Bengal branch of the National Council for Women in India, the Federation of University Women, and the Bengal League of Social Service for Women. For her services to the Indian nation, she was awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Gold Medal in 1909. Although an Anglophile, Sorabji had no desire to see "the wholesale imposition of a British legal system on Indian society any more than she sought the transplantation of other Western values." Early in her career, Sorabji had supported the campaign for Indian Independence, relating women's rights to the capacity for self-government. Although she greatly supported traditional Indian life and culture, Sorabji did a great deal to promote the movement to reform Hindu laws regarding child marriage and the position of widows. She often worked alongside fellow reformer and friend Pandita Ramabai. Nevertheless, she believed that the true impetus behind social change was education and that, until the majority of illiterate women had access to it, the suffrage movement would be a failure.

text: At the turn of the century, Sorabji was also actively involved in social reforms. She was associated with the Bengal branch of the National Council for Women in India, the Federation of University Women, and the Bengal League of Social Service for Women. For her services to the Indian nation, she was awarded the

text: Kaisar-i-Hind Gold Medal

text: in 1909. Although an

text: Anglophile

text: , Sorabji had no desire to see "the wholesale imposition of a British legal system on Indian society any more than she sought the transplantation of other Western values." Early in her career, Sorabji had supported the campaign for

text: Indian Independence

text: , relating women's rights to the capacity for self-government. Although she greatly supported traditional Indian life and culture, Sorabji did a great deal to promote the movement to reform Hindu laws regarding child marriage and the position of widows. She often worked alongside fellow reformer and friend

text: Pandita Ramabai

text: . Nevertheless, she believed that the true impetus behind social change was education and that, until the majority of illiterate women had access to it, the suffrage movement would be a failure.

text: Menorah/Mejora is a self-produced EP by Say Anything. It was released for free on the band's website in the middle of October 2002.

text: Menorah/Mejora is a self-produced EP by

text: Say Anything

text: . It was released for free on the band's website in the middle of October 2002.

text: Romper Room was a rare case of a series being franchised and syndicated, so local affiliates—Los Angeles and New York were prime examples—could produce their own versions of the show instead of airing the national telecast. For some time local shows all over the world used the same script but with local children. Kids would be on waiting lists for years (sometimes before birth) to be on the show. It was called "an actual kindergarten". Originally filmed in Baltimore from its inception in 1953 Romper Room eventually moved its broadcast facilities to Chicago then moved back to Baltimore in 1981.

text: Romper Room was a rare case of a series being

text: franchised

text: and

text: syndicated

text: , so local affiliates—Los Angeles and New York were prime examples—could produce their own versions of the show instead of airing the national telecast. For some time local shows all over the world used the same script but with local children. Kids would be on waiting lists for years (sometimes before birth) to be on the show. It was called "an actual kindergarten". Originally filmed in

text: Baltimore

text: from its inception in 1953 Romper Room eventually moved its broadcast facilities to

text: Chicago

text: then moved back to Baltimore in 1981.

text: A caricature of Dalton appeared in the 1954 Lucky Luke album Hors-la-loi where he's depicted as the tallest of the Dalton brothers. In the album the disastrous double bank robbery of Coffeyville, Kansas is depicted but, differently from what actually happened, Emmett Dalton is seen killed along with his brothers, including Bill Dalton who actually never took part in the raid. Emmet's grave is pictured in the final panel of the story alongside his brothers and a sign that says "The Daltons died with their boots on". Each grave has the hat of the respective owner placed on the crucifix with Bill Dalton being shredded with bullet holes. Emmett reappears on a wanted poster in Les Cousins Dalton, his character of tallest of the Dalton Brothers being taken over by Averell Dalton.

text: A caricature of Dalton appeared in the 1954

text: Lucky Luke

text: album

text: Hors-la-loi

text: where he's depicted as the tallest of the Dalton brothers. In the album the disastrous double bank robbery of Coffeyville, Kansas is depicted but, differently from what actually happened, Emmett Dalton is seen killed along with his brothers, including

text: Bill Dalton

text: who actually never took part in the raid. Emmet's grave is pictured in the final panel of the story alongside his brothers and a sign that says "The Daltons died with their boots on". Each grave has the hat of the respective owner placed on the crucifix with

text: Bill Dalton

text: being shredded with bullet holes. Emmett reappears on a wanted poster in

text: Les Cousins Dalton

text: , his character of tallest of the Dalton Brothers being taken over by

text: Averell Dalton

text: There are two types of irregularities at the grain level of the microstructure that are responsible for the hardness of the material. These irregularities are point defects and line defects. A point defect is an irregularity located at a single lattice site inside of the overall three-dimensional lattice of the grain. There are three main point defects. If there is an atom missing from the array, a vacancy defect is formed. If there is a different type of atom at the lattice site that should normally be occupied by a metal atom, a substitutional defect is formed. If there exists an atom in a site where there should normally not be, an interstitial defect is formed. This is possible because space exists between atoms in a crystal lattice. While point defects are irregularities at a single site in the crystal lattice, line defects are irregularities on a plane of atoms. Dislocations are a type of line defect involving the misalignment of these planes. In the case of an edge dislocation, a half plane of atoms is wedged between two planes of atoms. In the case of a screw dislocation two planes of atoms are offset with a helical array running between them.

text: There are two types of irregularities at the grain level of the microstructure that are responsible for the hardness of the material. These irregularities are point defects and line defects. A point defect is an irregularity located at a single lattice site inside of the overall three-dimensional lattice of the grain. There are three main point defects. If there is an atom missing from the array, a

text: vacancy defect

text: is formed. If there is a different type of atom at the lattice site that should normally be occupied by a metal atom, a substitutional defect is formed. If there exists an atom in a site where there should normally not be, an

text: interstitial defect

text: is formed. This is possible because space exists between atoms in a crystal lattice. While point defects are irregularities at a single site in the crystal lattice, line defects are irregularities on a plane of atoms.

text: Dislocations

text: are a type of line defect involving the misalignment of these planes. In the case of an edge dislocation, a half plane of atoms is wedged between two planes of atoms. In the case of a screw dislocation two planes of atoms are offset with a helical array running between them.

text: Edith Eunice Therrel Wilmans (December 21, 1882 – March 21, 1966) was a Texas lawyer and politician.  She was the first woman elected to the Texas State Legislature, in 1922.

text: Edith Eunice Therrel Wilmans (December 21, 1882 – March 21, 1966) was a

text: Texas

text: lawyer and politician.  She was the first woman elected to the

text: Texas State Legislature

text: , in 1922.

text: Various elements of the 4th through 9th Divisions remained on active duty until those divisions' full activation prior to World War II.

text: The public e'terafat in Iran are not simply confessions, but "political and ideological recantation(s)." They come in  a variety of forms, "pretrial testimonials; in chest-beating letters; in mea culpa memoirs; press conferences,` debates`, and `roundtable discussions`", but most commonly in videotaped `interviews` and `conversations` aired on prime-time television." The standard form taken in the time of Ayatollah Khomeini began with an introduction hailing the Imam Khomeini with all of his titles (Founder of the Islamic Republic, leader of the Islamic Revolution, etc.) The recanter "emphasized the interview was entirely voluntary and that the speaker had come forth willingly to warn others of the pitfalls awaiting them if they deviated from the Khatt-e Imam [line of the Imam] Then followed condemnation of the prisoners organization, beliefs, comrades. Ended with a thanks to the wardens [for the opportunity to] see the light. It hoped that the sincere repentance and the Imam's compassion would pave the way for forgiveness, redemption, ... [however, if] the Imam chose not to forgive, that too would be understandable in light of the enormity of the crimes."

text: The most widely used typology was defined John Hayes in his book Late Roman Pottery, where the ware is called "Late Roman C" according to the name given by Frederick Waagé in his publication of the Antioch excavations. The supplement to that volume established the name "Phocaean Red Slip". Hayes form 3 and Hayes form 10 are the most widely exported forms, appearing in the western Mediterranean and also in the British Isles.

text: The most widely used typology was defined John Hayes in his book Late Roman Pottery, where the ware is called "Late Roman C" according to the name given by

text: Frederick Waagé

text: in his publication of the

text: Antioch

text: excavations. The supplement to that volume established the name "Phocaean Red Slip". Hayes form 3 and Hayes form 10 are the most widely exported forms, appearing in the western Mediterranean and also in the British Isles.

text: Light Behind The Back. (ISBN 978-1448617128) Hanna Concern Publishing. This book includes a large collection of short stories united by a common theme – existence of the non-human world. Species living in this world are unable to communicate with humans because they live in different dimensions, times, and systems of coordinates or simply have a communications mechanism different from that of humans.

text: The 66ers joined the Amateur Athletic Union -which featured best basketball players at that time- in 1921.

text: The 66ers joined the

entity_name: Amateur Athletic Association (basketball)

text: Amateur Athletic Union

text: -which featured best basketball players at that time- in 1921.

text: In 1661, Robert Boyle proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle's view of the four elements nor Paracelsus' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements. The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric. By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869.

text: In 1661,

text: Robert Boyle

text: proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle's view of the four elements nor

text: Paracelsus

text: ' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements. The first modern list of chemical elements was given in

text: Antoine Lavoisier

text: 's 1789

text: Elements of Chemistry

text: , which contained thirty-three elements, including

text: light

text: and caloric. By 1818,

text: Jöns Jakob Berzelius

text: had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted elements.

text: Dmitri Mendeleev

text: had sixty-six elements in his

text: periodic table

text: of 1869.

text: The full-page advertisement depicts a sad-looking little girl captioned with the words “I’m a girl. Don’t teach me to question if I’m a boy, transsexual, transgendered, intersexed or two spirited” [sic]. It also quotes a few lines from the actual curriculum, seemingly out of context as it claims that these lessons are mandatory. The ad opposes the proposed curriculum for sexual education in Ontario schools which includes teaching children between junior kindergarten and Grade 3  about gay, lesbian, queer, bisexual, and transsexual orientations and especially targets transsexual and intersex people. The ICV claims that such teachings would be confusing to children and likely to have a corrupting influence, even calling on political figures like Dalton McGuinty, Tim Hudak, and Andrea Horwath to take action. Hudak seems to have responded to the cause, as he has since defended similarly-themed flyers handed out by the Ontario conservative party.

text: The full-page advertisement depicts a sad-looking little girl captioned with the words “I’m a girl. Don’t teach me to question if I’m a boy, transsexual, transgendered, intersexed or two spirited” [sic]. It also quotes a few lines from the actual curriculum, seemingly out of context as it claims that these lessons are mandatory. The ad opposes the proposed curriculum for sexual education in Ontario schools which includes teaching children between junior kindergarten and Grade 3  about gay, lesbian, queer, bisexual, and transsexual orientations and especially targets transsexual and intersex people. The ICV claims that such teachings would be confusing to children and likely to have a corrupting influence, even calling on political figures like

text: Dalton McGuinty

text: Tim Hudak

text: , and

text: Andrea Horwath

text: to take action. Hudak seems to have responded to the cause, as he has since defended similarly-themed flyers handed out by the Ontario conservative party.

text: Dalton (1904) writes that he purchased the tablet in an antique store in London's dock district in about the year 1900. It was "said to have been in the family of its recent owner more than thirty years; if the statement is correct, it must have been among the first of its class to reach Europe". It may have been part of one of several lost collections of tablets. Dalton presented it to the British Museum on 25 November 1903.

text: Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). The "Greenwich Atomic" (GA) scale began in 1955 at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The International Time Bureau (BIH) began a time scale, T or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals. The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale  13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado.   Both the BIH scale and A.1 were defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958: it was set to read Julian Date 2436204.5 (1 January 1958 00:00:00) at the corresponding UT2 instant. The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1963 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969.  This synchronisation was inevitably imperfect, depending as it did on the astronomical realisation of UT2.  At the time, UT2 as published by various observatories differed by several hundredths of a second.

text: Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the

entity_name: National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)

text: National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL)

text: . The "Greenwich Atomic" (GA) scale began in 1955 at the

text: Royal Greenwich Observatory

text: . The

text: International Time Bureau

text: (BIH) began a time scale, T or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of

text: VLF

text: radio signals. The

text: United States Naval Observatory

text: began the A.1 scale  13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards,

text: Boulder, Colorado

text: .   Both the BIH scale and A.1 were defined by an

text: epoch

text: at the beginning of 1958: it was set to read Julian Date 2436204.5 (1 January 1958 00:00:00) at the corresponding

text: instant. The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1963 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969.  This synchronisation was inevitably imperfect, depending as it did on the

text: astronomical

text: realisation of UT2.  At the time, UT2 as published by various observatories differed by several hundredths of a second.