text: In 2010, Transocean was implicated in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulting from the explosion of one of its oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: In 2010, Transocean was implicated in the

entity_name: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: resulting from the explosion of one of its oil rigs in the

entity_name: Gulf of Mexico

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: The oil spill framework in the U.S. employs a multilateral system of governance where the federal authorities, NGO’s and private parties are all actively involved in response and cleanup procedures. Although the U.S. government plays an important role in regulating oil spills, it does not entirely command and control every aspect of the process. 	Due to the complex nature of oil and gas operations and limited technical expertise by the government in such industries, industry standard setting and self-policing play a significant role in the governing process of oil spills. This has inevitably led to the network governance approach used to govern oil spills. The insufficient expertise and specialist technical knowledge in the public sector makes it difficult for the government to rely entirely on its personnel hence resulting in public-private partnership known as a type II partnership. This style of new public management to oil spill governance is common in other aspects of environmental governance (e.g. climate change) in the U.S. and differs from the typical bureaucratic role of enforcement the federal government usually play. 	The governance process of oil spills relies on input from national, private and international institutions. To effectively implement response, prevention and cleanup procedures a number of public authorities were given responsibility under different jurisdictions. Since the 1970s the number of institutions governing oil spills has increased, indicating a steady shift from state led government approach to a broader and multi layered governance process. The implementation of international oil spill treaties into domestic legislation discussed earlier provides further evidence of the shift to a more governance based approach.

text: The oil spill framework in the U.S. employs a multilateral system of governance where the federal authorities,

entity_name: Non-governmental organization

text: NGO

method: UNH-qee

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: International conventions have played an important role in creating external networks for governing oil spills in the U.S. international treaties when signed by the U.S. are on the same level as federal law, hence signatory parties must implement domestic legislation to reflect the agreement. This mechanism helps to engineer a number of federal laws governing oil spills such as the intervention on the High Sea Act of 1974.   International conventions serve a key role in developing standards for oil carrying vessels from different nations into the U.S. The two major conventions which have contributed to oil spill governance are the 1969 International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (the Intervention Convention) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78).

text: In 1978, a United States Coast Guard helicopter on a routine patrol discovered the Greenpoint oil spill, a discharge that lasted another 30 years that spilled three times the oil of the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: In 1978, a

entity_name: United States Coast Guard

text: United States Coast Guard

text: helicopter on a routine patrol discovered the

entity_name: Greenpoint oil spill

text: Greenpoint oil spill

text: , a discharge that lasted another 30 years that spilled three times the oil of the

entity_name: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: On the morning of April 22, Coast Guard Petty Officer Ashley Butler stated that "oil was leaking from the rig at the rate of about  of crude per day." That afternoon Coast Guard Senior Chief Petty Officer Michael O'Berry used the same figure. Two remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) were unsuccessfully sent down to attempt to cap the well. Butler warned of a leak of up to  of diesel fuel, and BP Vice President David Rainey termed the incident as being a potential "major spill." On April 23 a ROV reportedly found no oil leaking from the sunken rig and no oil flowing from the well. Coast Guard Rear Admiral  Mary Landry expressed cautious optimism of zero environmental impact, stating that no oil was emanating from either the wellhead or the broken pipes and that oil spilled from the explosion and sinking was being contained. On April 24 Landry announced that a damaged wellhead was indeed leaking oil into the Gulf and described it as "a very serious spill".

text: On the morning of April 22, Coast Guard Petty Officer Ashley Butler stated that "oil was leaking from the rig at the rate of about  of crude per day." That afternoon Coast Guard Senior Chief Petty Officer Michael O'Berry used the same figure. Two

entity_name: Remotely operated underwater vehicle

text: remotely operated underwater vehicle

text: s (ROVs) were unsuccessfully sent down to attempt to cap the well. Butler warned of a leak of up to  of diesel fuel, and BP Vice President David Rainey termed the incident as being a potential "major spill." On April 23 a ROV reportedly found no oil leaking from the sunken rig and no oil flowing from the well. Coast Guard

entity_name: Rear admiral (United States)

text: Rear Admiral

entity_name: Mary Landry

text: Mary Landry

text: expressed cautious optimism of zero environmental impact, stating that no oil was emanating from either the wellhead or the broken pipes and that oil spilled from the explosion and sinking was being contained. On April 24 Landry announced that a damaged wellhead was indeed leaking oil into the Gulf and described it as "a very serious spill".

text: A chemical explosion injured several workers at the Y-12 facility on December 8, 1999, when NaK was cleaned up after an accidental spill, inappropriately treated with mineral oil, and inadvertently ignited when the surface coating of potassium superoxide was scratched by a metal tool.

text: A chemical explosion injured several workers at the Y-12 facility on December 8, 1999, when

entity_name: NaK

text: NaK

text: was cleaned up after an accidental spill, inappropriately treated with mineral oil, and inadvertently ignited when the surface coating of

entity_name: Potassium superoxide

text: potassium superoxide

text: was scratched by a metal tool.

text: On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, located in the Mississippi Canyon about  off the Louisiana coast, suffered a catastrophic explosion; it sank a day-and-a-half later. It was in the process of being sealed with cement for temporary abandonment, to avoid environmental problems. Although initial reports indicated that relatively little oil had leaked, by April 24, it was claimed by BP that approximately  of oil per day were issuing from the wellhead, about  below the surface on the ocean floor. On April 29, the U.S. government revealed that approximately  per day, five times the original estimate, were pouring into the Gulf from the wellhead.  The resulting oil slick quickly expanded to cover hundreds of square miles of ocean surface, posing a serious threat to marine life and adjacent coastal wetlands, and to the livelihoods of Gulf Coast shrimpers and fishermen. Coast Guard Rear Adm. Sally Brice O'Hare stated that the U.S. government will be "employing booms, skimmers, chemical dispersants and controlled burns" to combat the oil spill. By May 1, 2010, the oil spill cleanup efforts were underway, but hampered by rough seas and the "tea like" consistency of the oil. Cleanup operations were resumed after conditions became favorable. On May 27, 2010, The USGS had revised the estimate of the leak from  to 12,000– an increase from earlier estimates. On July 15, 2010, BP announced that the leak stopped for the first time in 88 days.

text: On April 20, 2010, the

entity_name: Deepwater Horizon

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: oil platform, located in the

entity_name: Mississippi Canyon

text: Mississippi Canyon

text: about  off the Louisiana coast, suffered a catastrophic explosion; it sank a day-and-a-half later. It was in the process of being sealed with cement for temporary abandonment, to avoid environmental problems. Although initial reports indicated that relatively little oil had leaked, by April 24, it was claimed by BP that approximately  of oil per day were issuing from the

entity_name: Wellhead

text: wellhead

text: , about  below the surface on the ocean floor. On April 29, the U.S. government revealed that approximately  per day, five times the original estimate, were pouring into the Gulf from the wellhead.  The resulting

entity_name: Oil spill

text: oil slick

text: quickly expanded to cover hundreds of square miles of ocean surface, posing a serious threat to

entity_name: Marine biology

entity_section: Lifeforms

text: marine life

text: and adjacent

entity_name: Salt marsh

text: coastal wetlands

text: , and to the livelihoods of Gulf Coast shrimpers and fishermen. Coast Guard Rear Adm. Sally Brice O'Hare stated that the U.S. government will be "employing booms, skimmers, chemical dispersants and controlled burns" to combat the oil spill. By May 1, 2010, the oil spill cleanup efforts were underway, but hampered by rough seas and the "tea like" consistency of the oil. Cleanup operations were resumed after conditions became favorable. On May 27, 2010, The

entity_name: United States Geological Survey

text: USGS

text: had revised the estimate of the leak from  to 12,000– an

entity_section: Spill flow rate

text: increase from earlier estimates

text: . On July 15, 2010, BP announced that the leak stopped for the first time in 88 days.

text: These explosions were financed by various ministries: 51 explosions were financed by the Ministry for Geology, 26 explosions were financed by the Ministry for Natural Gas, 13 explosions were financed by the Ministry for Oil, 19 explosions were financed by the MinSredMash itself (the predecessor of the Federal Atomic Energy Agency). There were two large explosions of 140 kilotons and 105 kilotons; all others were relatively small with an average yield of 12.5 kilotons. For example, one 30 kiloton explosion was used to close the Uzbekistan Urtabulak gas well in 1966 that had been blowing since 1963, and a few months later a 47 kiloton explosive was used to seal a higher pressure blowout at the nearby Pamuk gas field, successful experiments later cited as possible precedents for stopping the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: These explosions were financed by various ministries: 51 explosions were financed by the Ministry for Geology, 26 explosions were financed by the Ministry for Natural Gas, 13 explosions were financed by the Ministry for Oil, 19 explosions were financed by the

entity_name: Ministry of Medium Machine Building

text: MinSredMash

text: itself (the predecessor of the

entity_name: Federal Agency on Atomic Energy (Russia)

text: Federal Atomic Energy Agency

text: ). There were two large explosions of 140 kilotons and 105 kilotons; all others were relatively small with an average yield of 12.5

entity_name: Ton

entity_section: Ton of TNT

text: kilotons

text: . For example, one 30 kiloton explosion was used to close the

entity_name: Uzbekistan

text: Uzbekistan

text: Urtabulak gas well in 1966 that had been blowing since 1963, and a few months later a 47 kiloton explosive was used to seal a higher pressure blowout at the nearby Pamuk gas field, successful experiments later cited as possible precedents for stopping the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: The theory behind the cleanup hitter is that at the beginning of the game, at least one of the first three batters will reach base with a single-base hit, walk or equivalent in the first inning, enabling the cleanup hitter a chance to drive in a run. This theory is backed up by sabermetric research, which postulates that the cleanup hitter should be the best hitter on the team with power.

text: The theory behind the cleanup hitter is that at the beginning of the game, at least one of the first three batters will reach base with a

entity_name: Hit (baseball)

text: single-base hit

entity_name: Base on balls

text: walk

text: or equivalent in the first inning, enabling the cleanup hitter a chance to drive in a run. This theory is backed up by

entity_name: Sabermetrics

text: sabermetric

text: research, which postulates that the cleanup hitter should be the best hitter on the team with power.

text: The Health consequences of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill are health effects related to the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico on April 20, 2010.  An oil discharge continued for 84 days, resulting in the largest oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, estimated at approximately 206 million gallons (4.9 million barrels).  The spill exposed thousands of area residents and cleanup workers  to risks associated with oil fumes, particulate matter from controlled burns, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals.

text: The Health consequences of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill are health effects related to the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: on April 20, 2010.  An oil discharge continued for 84 days, resulting in the largest oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, estimated at approximately 206 million gallons (4.9 million barrels).  The spill exposed thousands of area residents and cleanup workers  to risks associated with oil fumes, particulate matter from controlled burns,

entity_name: Volatile organic compound

text: volatile organic compounds

text: (VOCs),

entity_name: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs), and

entity_name: Heavy metals

text: heavy metals

text: Oil spills are a major issue. The Prestige oil spill in 2002 spilt more oil than the Exxon Valdez in Alaska.

text: Oil spills are a major issue. The

entity_name: Prestige oil spill

text: Prestige oil spill

text: in 2002 spilt more oil than the

entity_name: Exxon Valdez

text: Exxon Valdez

text: in

entity_name: Alaska

text: Alaska

text: Cancer is the world’s leading cause of death, claiming the lives of an estimated 7.9 million people in 2007 alone. Experts expect these numbers to double before 2030. The unsafe handling of hazardous drugs used to treat many forms of cancer has been recognized since the 1970s as a significant health hazard to workers. Studies have shown that workers can be at risk of exposure to these drugs throughout their lifecycle—from manufacture to distribution to use in the clinical or home  care environment and all the way through to waste disposal. Healthcare workers who handle these drugs may be exposed  by inhaling aerosols or dust generated during pharmacy preparation and nursing administration, or by direct contact with the skin during accidental needlesticks, spills, or spill cleanup.

text: The Gulf killifish plays an important role in scientific research concerning the disaster resulting from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The spill occurred in April 2010 and resulted in an estimated 53,000 barrels per day of Macondo-252 crude oil being spilled from the well before it was capped in September 2010. The spill affected the Gulf coast area about a year and was finally determined to be maintained in October 2011. Several coastal reconstruction projects are still underway  to try to restore the ecosystems of the Gulf.

text: The term conscious business implies that a business will seek to be conscious of its impact on the world in various spheres, and continue this inquiry over time. It is concerned with both its impact on a human’s inner and outer world as well as animal and environmental well-being.  Furthermore, a conscious business considers both short-term and long-term effects of its actions or inactions.  A conscious business evolves as does the methods that a business can and chooses to be of benefit to the world and to function with awareness. Therefore, though conscious businesses will be socially responsible, the term "conscious business" holds larger connotations for the businesses' actions than does social responsibility.

text: On April 20, 2010, an off shore oil drilling rig, the Deepwater Horizon, exploded and burned off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Dozens of workers fled the flames and were rescued by lifeboats and helicopters, however 11 were killed and 17 were injured in the incident. The rig burned for 36 hours before sinking. On April 24, it was discovered that a damaged wellhead was leaking oil into the Gulf of Mexico at a rapid rate. For approximately 90 days, tens of thousands of barrels of oil leaked into the ocean every day, resulting in the largest oil spill in United States history. The wellhead was successfully contained in mid-July, stopping the flow, and efforts are ongoing to cap the wellhead and create a replacement well. Despite significant efforts to protect coastlines, the spill has had devastating impacts on the environment and the economies of the Gulf Coast states. The Obama administration has ordered well operator BP responsible for all cleanup costs, which are expected to run in the tens of billions of dollars. The spill has resulted in negative public approval ratings of the U.S. government, the Obama administration, and BP, for their handling of the spill, with BP suffering the worst ratings.

text: On April 20, 2010, an

entity_name: Offshore drilling

text: off shore oil drilling

text: rig, the

text: Deepwater Horizon

entity_name: Deepwater Horizon explosion

text: exploded and burned

text: off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Dozens of workers fled the flames and were rescued by lifeboats and helicopters, however 11 were killed and 17 were injured in the incident. The rig burned for 36 hours before sinking. On April 24, it was discovered that a damaged wellhead was leaking oil into the Gulf of Mexico at a rapid rate. For approximately 90 days, tens of thousands of barrels of oil leaked into the ocean every day, resulting in the largest oil spill in United States history. The wellhead was successfully contained in mid-July, stopping the flow, and efforts are ongoing to cap the wellhead and create a replacement well. Despite significant efforts to protect coastlines, the spill has had devastating impacts on the environment and the economies of the Gulf Coast states. The Obama administration has ordered well operator

entity_name: BP

text: BP

text: responsible for all cleanup costs, which are expected to run in the tens of billions of dollars. The spill has resulted in negative public approval ratings of the U.S. government, the Obama administration, and BP, for their handling of the spill, with BP suffering the worst ratings.

text: Cameron became an expert on deep-sea exploration in conjunction with his research and underwater filming for The Abyss (1989) and Titanic (1997). In June 2010, Cameron met in Washington with the EPA to discuss possible solutions to the 2010 Deepwater Horizon (BP) oil spill. Later that week at the All Things Digital Conference, he attracted some notoriety when he stated, "Over the last few weeks I've watched...and been thinking, 'Those morons don't know what they're doing'." Reportedly, Cameron had offered BP help to plug the oil well, but it declined. The oil spill was eventually stopped using techniques similar to those Cameron recommended.

text: Cameron became an expert on deep-sea exploration in conjunction with his research and underwater filming for

entity_name: The Abyss

text: The Abyss (1989)

text: and

entity_name: Titanic (1997 film)

text: Titanic (1997)

text: . In June 2010, Cameron met in Washington with the

text: EPA

text: to discuss possible solutions to the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon (BP) oil spill

text: . Later that week at the All Things Digital Conference, he attracted some notoriety when he stated, "Over the last few weeks I've watched...and been thinking, 'Those morons don't know what they're doing'." Reportedly, Cameron had offered

text: BP

text: help to plug the oil well, but it declined. The oil spill was eventually stopped using techniques similar to those Cameron recommended.

text: As the largest oil exporter in OPEC, Saudi Arabia contributes to the immense environmental impacts associated with oil drilling. This includes hydraulic fracturing, oil spills, and air pollution. Saudi Arabia contributed to the world's most severe spill, the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. The environmental impacts from oil spills are long lasting and often irreversible. The Gulf War spill directly affected the Saudi Arabian shoreline. While initial research found miniscule long-term impacts, recent studies show oil persistence in ocean habitats. Oil persistence affects ecosystem relationships and the livelihood of all marine animals. The Gulf Coast spill increased the toxicity of Saudi Arabia's coastline. During the initial aftermath, only visible oil was removed from the Gulf. The rest of the spill has remained in the ocean for the past 25 years and contributes to high-risk amounts of hydrocarbons in the environment. Saudi Arabia's salt marshes have has a hard time recovering from past spills. Thick oil coverage permanently changed the biodiversity and chemical compositions of many ocean related habitats. This environmental damage will take decades to reverse.

text: As the largest oil exporter in

entity_name: OPEC

text: OPEC

text: , Saudi Arabia contributes to the immense environmental impacts associated with oil drilling. This includes

entity_name: Hydraulic fracturing

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: , oil spills, and air pollution. Saudi Arabia contributed to the world's most severe spill, the 1991

entity_name: Gulf War oil spill

text: Gulf War Oil Spill

text: . The environmental impacts from oil spills are long lasting and often irreversible. The

entity_name: Gulf War

text: Gulf War

text: spill directly affected the Saudi Arabian shoreline. While initial research found miniscule long-term impacts, recent studies show oil persistence in ocean habitats. Oil persistence affects ecosystem relationships and the livelihood of all marine animals. The Gulf Coast spill increased the toxicity of Saudi Arabia's coastline. During the initial aftermath, only visible oil was removed from the Gulf. The rest of the spill has remained in the ocean for the past 25 years and contributes to high-risk amounts of

entity_name: Hydrocarbon

text: hydrocarbon

text: s in the environment. Saudi Arabia's

text: salt marsh

text: es have has a hard time recovering from past spills. Thick oil coverage permanently changed the

entity_name: Biodiversity

text: biodiversity

text: and chemical compositions of many ocean related habitats. This environmental damage will take decades to reverse.

text: Litigation commenced almost immediately after the explosion and oil spill. By May 27, 2010, Transocean, which owned the Deepwater Horizon, said in testimony before the U.S. House Judiciary Committee that it was defendant in 120 lawsuits, of which more than 80 were class actions seeking payment for financial losses covered by the Oil Spill Pollution Act. The company said that most of these early plaintiffs were "fishermen, hotel operators, landowners, rental companies, restaurants and seafood processors, who claim a current or potential future loss of business in the aftermath of the oil spill."

text: Litigation commenced almost immediately after the explosion and oil spill. By May 27, 2010,

text: Transocean

text: , which owned the Deepwater Horizon, said in testimony before the

entity_name: United States House Committee on the Judiciary

text: U.S. House Judiciary Committee

text: that it was defendant in 120 lawsuits, of which more than 80 were class actions seeking payment for financial losses covered by the Oil Spill Pollution Act. The company said that most of these early plaintiffs were "fishermen, hotel operators, landowners, rental companies, restaurants and seafood processors, who claim a current or potential future loss of business in the aftermath of the oil spill."

text: Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.

text: Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways.

text: Oil spills

text: can have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life,

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs), found in

text: crude oil

text: , are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the

text: sediment

text: and marine environment.

text: The IUCN describes the significant threats to sea otters as oil pollution, predation by orcas, poaching, and conflicts with fisheries. Sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear. They can also be stressed by well-meaning human watchers who approach too closely. The most significant threat to sea otters is oil spills. Sea otters are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animal quickly dies from hypothermia. The liver, kidneys, and lungs of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming.

text: The

entity_name: International Union for Conservation of Nature

text: IUCN

text: describes the significant threats to sea otters as

text: oil pollution

text: , predation by

text: orcas

text: , poaching, and conflicts with fisheries. Sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear. They can also be stressed by well-meaning human watchers who approach too closely. The most significant threat to sea otters is

text: oil spill

text: s. Sea otters are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animal quickly dies from

text: hypothermia

text: . The

text: liver

text: kidneys

text: , and

text: lungs

text: of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming.

text: The purpose of mitigation is not only to minimize the loss of property damage, but minimize environmental damages due to development. To avoid impacts by not taking or limiting actions, to reduce or rectify impacts by rehabilitation or restoring the affected environments or instituting long-term maintenance operations and compensating for impacts by replacing or providing substitute environments for resourcesStructural mitigation is the current solution to eroding beaches and movement of sand is the use of engineered structures along the coast have been short lived and are only an illusion of safety to the public that result in long term damage of the coastline.  Structural management deals with the use of the following: groins which are man-made solution to longshore current movements up and down the coast. The use of groins are efficient to some extent yet cause erosion and sand build up further down the beaches. Bulkheads are man-made structures that help protect the homes built along the coast and other bodies of water that actually induce erosion in the long run. Jetties are structures built to protect sand movement into the inlets where boats for fishing and recreation move through.The use of nonstructural mitigation is the practice of using organic and soft structures for solutions to protect against coastal hazards. These include: artificial dunes, which are used to create dunes that have been either developed on or eroded. There needs to be at least two lines of dunes before any development can occur. Beach Nourishment is a major source of nonstructural mitigation to ensure that beaches are present for the communities and for the protection of the coastline. Vegetation is a key factor when protecting from erosion, specifically for to help stabilize dune erosion.

text: The purpose of

text: mitigation

text: is not only to minimize the loss of property damage, but minimize environmental damages due to development. To avoid impacts by not taking or limiting actions, to reduce or rectify impacts by rehabilitation or restoring the affected environments or instituting long-term maintenance operations and compensating for impacts by replacing or providing substitute environments for resourcesStructural mitigation is the current solution to eroding beaches and movement of sand is the use of engineered structures along the coast have been short lived and are only an illusion of safety to the public that result in long term damage of the coastline.  Structural management deals with the use of the following: groins which are man-made solution to

text: longshore current

text: movements up and down the coast. The use of groins are efficient to some extent yet cause erosion and sand build up further down the beaches. Bulkheads are man-made structures that help protect the homes built along the coast and other bodies of water that actually induce erosion in the long run. Jetties are structures built to protect sand movement into the inlets where boats for fishing and recreation move through.The use of nonstructural mitigation is the practice of using organic and soft structures for solutions to protect against coastal hazards. These include: artificial dunes, which are used to create dunes that have been either developed on or eroded. There needs to be at least two lines of dunes before any development can occur. Beach Nourishment is a major source of nonstructural mitigation to ensure that beaches are present for the communities and for the protection of the coastline. Vegetation is a key factor when protecting from erosion, specifically for to help stabilize dune erosion.

text: Oil spills are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries. Oil spills, amounting to as much as 7.56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year, occur due to damaged equipment or human error.

text: Oil spills

text: are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries. Oil spills, amounting to as much as 7.56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year, occur due to damaged equipment or human error.

text: In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the preparations and response to oil spills in inland waters, with the United States Coast Guard responding to spills in coastal waters. The EPA oil spill program is further broken down into two segments with different responsibilities. The Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure works with facilities that may leak oil into local rivers, streams, or other bodies of water to prevent said leakage. The Facility Response Plan requires at-risk facilities to have a plan to follow in the event of an oil spill. Both were created to plug holes left in the Clean Water Act, in an amendment called the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.

text: In the United States, the

text: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

text: regulates the preparations and response to oil spills in inland waters, with the United States Coast Guard responding to spills in coastal waters. The EPA oil spill program is further broken down into two segments with different responsibilities. The Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure works with facilities that may leak oil into local rivers, streams, or other bodies of water to prevent said leakage. The Facility Response Plan requires at-risk facilities to have a plan to follow in the event of an oil spill. Both were created to plug holes left in the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , in an amendment called the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: On June 23, 2010, oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill landed on Pensacola Beach and Navarre Beach, damaging the fishing and tourism industries, and prompting a massive clean-up effort.

text: On June 23, 2010, oil from the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: oil spill landed on Pensacola Beach and Navarre Beach, damaging the fishing and tourism industries, and prompting a massive clean-up effort.

text: President Bush also predicted that the enactment of the OPA could lead to larger oil shipping companies to be replaced by the smaller shipping companies to avoid being held liable. The issue with President Bush’s prediction is that more often than not, smaller companies with limited resources would not have the financial backing to pay for the remediation of oil spills disasters. Owners and operators of vessel would also be held liable for an case of an oil spill and faced with a significant increase in financial responsibility. This increase in liability under the OPA for vessel owners has resulted in the uprising of fear and concerns from the vast majority of the shipping industry. More uncertainty for the vessel owners stems from the fact that additional oil spill penalties imposed by the states are not subject to OPA limitations of the Limitation of Liability Act of 1851. Ultimately, the threat of unlimited liability under the OPA and other state statutes has lead countless oil shipping companies to reduce oil trade to and from the ports of the United States.

text: President Bush also predicted that the enactment of the OPA could lead to larger oil shipping companies to be replaced by the smaller shipping companies to avoid being held liable. The issue with President Bush’s prediction is that more often than not, smaller companies with limited resources would not have the financial backing to pay for the remediation of oil spills disasters. Owners and operators of vessel would also be held liable for an case of an oil spill and faced with a significant increase in financial responsibility. This increase in liability under the OPA for vessel owners has resulted in the uprising of fear and concerns from the vast majority of the shipping industry. More uncertainty for the vessel owners stems from the fact that additional oil spill penalties imposed by the states are not subject to OPA limitations of the

text: Limitation of Liability Act of 1851

text: . Ultimately, the threat of unlimited liability under the OPA and other state statutes has lead countless oil shipping companies to reduce oil trade to and from the ports of the United States.

text: Centrifugal oil–water separators are used for waste water processing and for cleanup of oil spills on sea or on lake.

text: Centrifugal oil–water separators are used for

text: waste water

text: processing and for cleanup of

text: oil spill

text: s on sea or on lake.

text: In 1981, Sir John Franklin was used to test Coast Guard procedures in the oil spill exercise called "Baffin Island Oil Spill".  In 1987, the ship escorted the Arctic cargo ship/oil tanker  to Nanisivik. In July 1989, the icebreaker again attempted to transit the Northwest Passage but was forced to break off the attempt after ice conditions were found to be too severe. In June 1994, at the height of the Turbot War, Sir John Franklin was among the Coast Guard vessels sent to monitor the European fishing fleets on the Grand Banks. The ship was kept just out of sight but within radar range of foreign fishing trawlers. These actions led to the detainment and seizure of the Spanish fishing trawler Estai.

text: In 1981, Sir John Franklin was used to test Coast Guard procedures in the oil spill exercise called "Baffin Island Oil Spill".  In 1987, the ship escorted the Arctic cargo ship/

text: oil tanker

text: to

text: Nanisivik

text: . In July 1989, the icebreaker again attempted to transit the Northwest Passage but was forced to break off the attempt after ice conditions were found to be too severe. In June 1994, at the height of the

text: Turbot War

text: , Sir John Franklin was among the Coast Guard vessels sent to monitor the European fishing fleets on the

text: Grand Banks

text: . The ship was kept just out of sight but within radar range of foreign fishing trawlers. These actions led to the detainment and seizure of the Spanish fishing trawler Estai.

text: Spilled hot cooking oil can also cause severe third degree burns, In the worst-case scenario, severe burns can be fatal. The higher temperatures and tendency of oil to stick to the skin make spilled hot cooking oil far more dangerous than spilled hot water. Children can accidentally place their hands on top of the stove, playing with the materials while being cooked, or accidentally pull the pot down, which can cause significant injury. The utmost care should be used when deep frying when children are present, to protect their safety at all times.

text: Spilled hot cooking oil can also cause severe

text: third degree burn

text: s, In the worst-case scenario, severe burns can be fatal. The higher temperatures and tendency of oil to stick to the skin make spilled hot cooking oil far more dangerous than spilled hot water. Children can accidentally place their hands on top of the stove, playing with the materials while being cooked, or accidentally pull the pot down, which can cause significant injury. The utmost care should be used when deep frying when children are present, to protect their safety at all times.

text: Even with reduced impact per visitor, the increasing number of visitors could still have a considerable effect on the environment. Monitoring of impacts at specific sites can be used to determine whether tourists should be allowed to continue to visit a particular area. Although visits are usually short, they are concentrated into a small number of landing sites and have the potential to destroy parts of a unique environment and to jeopardize scientific research.

text: Oil at or near the site of the spill following well closure has suggested to some that there is continued or recurrent leakage. NBC Nightly News reported the slick on March 22, 2011. In August 2011, oil and oil sheen covering several square miles of water were again reported surfacing not far from BP’s Macondo well. Scientific analysis confirmed that the oil is a chemical match for Macondo 252. The USCG said the oil was too dispersed to recover and posed no threat to the coastline.

text: Oil at or near the site of the spill following well closure has suggested to some that there is continued or recurrent leakage.

text: NBC Nightly News

text: reported the slick on March 22, 2011. In August 2011, oil and oil sheen covering several square miles of water were again reported surfacing not far from BP’s Macondo well. Scientific analysis confirmed that the oil is a chemical match for Macondo 252. The USCG said the oil was too dispersed to recover and posed no threat to the coastline.

text: On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil well, a 9-year-old semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling unit owned by BP,exploded in the Gulf of Mexico. The well spilled for three months, causing the world’s largest accidental release of oil into marine waters.  Federal science and engineering teams estimate that 53,000 barrels of oil a day poured from the well just before BP was able to cap it on July 15. They also estimate that the daily flow rate diminished over time, starting at about 62,000 barrels a day and decreasing as the reservoir of hydrocarbons feeding the gusher was gradually depleted.

text: Love Opera, Hate Oil Spills

text: Love Opera, Hate Oil Spills

text: The MT Hebei Spirit oil spill was a major oil spill in South Korea that began on the morning of 7 December 2007 local time, with ongoing environmental and economic effects. Government officials called it South Korea's worst oil spill ever, surpassing a spill that took place in 1995. This oil spill was about one-third of the size of the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: The MT Hebei Spirit oil spill was a major

text: oil spill

text: in

text: South Korea

text: that began on the morning of 7 December 2007 local time, with ongoing environmental and economic effects. Government officials called it South Korea's worst oil spill ever, surpassing a spill that took place in 1995. This oil spill was about one-third of the size of the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: McIlrath was inspired to write the lyrics for the song following a trip he took to New Orleans. While he had initially gone to discuss with local musicians how to merge politics and music, he was able to visit several areas affected by Hurricane Katrina and the subsequent flood, such as the Lower Ninth Ward. As McIlrath had felt that news outlets were quick to discuss other less important stories following the disaster, he compiled his thoughts and wrote the song's lyrics. McIlrath also noted that his criticism of the United States government for its handling of various disasters influenced the lyrics; he called Hurricane Katrina "as much a man-made disaster as it was a natural disaster", and lambasted the fact that no legislation was passed to prevent another oil spill following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.

text: McIlrath was inspired to write the lyrics for the song following a trip he took to

text: New Orleans

text: . While he had initially gone to discuss with local musicians how to merge politics and music, he was able to visit several areas affected by

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: and the

entity_name: 2005 levee failures in Greater New Orleans

text: subsequent flood

text: , such as the

text: Lower Ninth Ward

text: . As McIlrath had felt that news outlets were quick to discuss other less important stories following the disaster, he compiled his thoughts and wrote the song's lyrics. McIlrath also noted that his criticism of the

text: United States government

text: for its handling of various disasters influenced the lyrics; he called Hurricane Katrina "as much a man-made disaster as it was a natural disaster", and lambasted the fact that no legislation was passed to prevent another

text: oil spill

text: following the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010.

text: SS Arrow was built by Bethlehem Steel Company, Sparrows Point, Baltimore, Maryland in 1948 as the tanker Olympic Games. Renamed the Sea Robin in 1960 and finally to Arrow in 1962, the ship was a Liberian-registered tanker. At 551.2 feet (167.9 metres) in length, 68.3 feet (20.7 metres) in width, and a draft of 29.9 feet (9.1 metres), she was an enlarged version of the standard American wartime tanker design and one of the oldest tankers in the fleet of Aristotle Onassis, owned by the Sun Navigation Company. It remains the most significant oil spill off Canada’s East Coast (with some 10,000 tonnes or about 25% of the amount spilled by the Exxon Valdez in Alaska in 1989.) Only the MV Kurdistan comes close when that vessel spilled about 6,000 tons of oil after breaking apart just south of Cabot Strait on March 15, 1979.

text: SS Arrow was built by

text: Bethlehem Steel Company

text: Sparrows Point

text: , Baltimore, Maryland in 1948 as the tanker Olympic Games. Renamed the Sea Robin in 1960 and finally to Arrow in 1962, the ship was a Liberian-registered tanker. At 551.2 feet (167.9 metres) in length, 68.3 feet (20.7 metres) in width, and a draft of 29.9 feet (9.1 metres), she was an enlarged version of the standard American wartime tanker design and one of the oldest tankers in the fleet of Aristotle Onassis, owned by the Sun Navigation Company. It remains the most significant

text: oil spill

text: off Canada’s East Coast (with some 10,000 tonnes or about 25% of the amount spilled by the Exxon Valdez in Alaska in 1989.) Only the MV Kurdistan comes close when that vessel spilled about 6,000 tons of oil after breaking apart just south of

text: Cabot Strait

text: on March 15, 1979.

text: In addition to chemical explosives, there are a number of more exotic explosive materials, and exotic methods of causing explosions. Examples include nuclear explosives,  and abruptly heating a substance to a plasma state with a high-intensity laser or electric arc.

text: In addition to chemical explosives, there are a number of more exotic explosive materials, and exotic methods of causing explosions. Examples include

text: nuclear explosive

text: s,  and abruptly heating a substance to a

text: plasma

text: state with a high-intensity

text: laser

text: or

text: electric arc

text: Another pressing environmental concern South Maury Island faces is oil spills. Although they are not directly related to the Glacier Northwest mining controversy, oil spills add to the sensitivity of the area as an aquatic reserve. On October 14, 2004, an oil spill occurred in the Dalco Passage at around 1 AM. An estimated 1,000 gallons spilled into the waterways surrounding Vashon/Maury Island. The source of the oil was initially unknown, but tests carried out by the Coast Guard and Washington Department of Ecology determined that the source was the Polar Texas oil tanker owned by ConocoPhillips. (Washington State Department of Ecology Web Page: Dalco Passage Spill)

text: Another pressing environmental concern South Maury Island faces is oil spills. Although they are not directly related to the Glacier Northwest mining controversy, oil spills add to the sensitivity of the area as an aquatic reserve. On October 14, 2004, an oil spill occurred in the Dalco Passage at around 1 AM. An estimated 1,000 gallons spilled into the waterways surrounding Vashon/Maury Island. The source of the oil was initially unknown, but tests carried out by the

text: Coast Guard

text: and Washington Department of Ecology determined that the source was the Polar Texas oil tanker owned by

text: ConocoPhillips

text: . (Washington State Department of Ecology Web Page: Dalco Passage Spill)

text: As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment, along with indirect impacts. The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which lead to the misconception that it’s the opposite, since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage. For example, particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine, are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition. Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts. The synergetic consequences of transport activities. They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem. Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human made factors. 15% of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector.

text: As listed above direct impacts such as

text: noise

text: and

text: carbon monoxide

text: emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment, along with indirect impacts. The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which lead to the misconception that it’s the opposite, since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage. For example, particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine, are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition. Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts. The synergetic consequences of transport activities. They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem.

text: Climate change

text: is the sum total impact of several natural and human made factors. 15% of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector.

text: MV Jessica was an oil tanker that was involved in an oil spill in the Galápagos Islands, a chain of islands  west of continental Ecuador, of which they are a part. The ship was registered in Ecuador and owned by Acotramar. On the evening of 16 January 2001, Jessica ran aground at Wreck Bay, at the entrance to the port of Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, the capital of the Galápagos Province, located on the southwestern coast of San Cristóbal Island. The ship was carrying 600 tons (160,000 gallons) of diesel oil and 300 tons (80,000 gallons) of intermediate fuel oil. The diesel was destined for the fuel dispatch station on Baltra Island, while the fuel oil was destined for the tourist vessel Galapagos Explorer.

text: MV Jessica was an

text: oil tanker

text: that was involved in an

text: oil spill

text: in the

text: Galápagos Islands

text: , a chain of islands  west of continental

text: Ecuador

text: , of which they are a part. The ship was registered in Ecuador and owned by

text: Acotramar

text: . On the evening of 16 January 2001, Jessica ran aground at Wreck Bay, at the entrance to the port of

text: Puerto Baquerizo Moreno

text: , the capital of the

text: Galápagos Province

text: , located on the southwestern coast of

text: San Cristóbal Island

text: . The ship was carrying 600 tons (160,000 gallons) of

text: diesel oil

text: and 300 tons (80,000 gallons) of intermediate

text: fuel oil

text: . The diesel was destined for the fuel dispatch station on

text: Baltra Island

text: , while the fuel oil was destined for the tourist vessel Galapagos Explorer.

text: In a 2011 assessment of over 200 locations in Ogoniland by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), they found that impacts of the 50 years of oil production in the region extended deeper than previously thought. Because of oil spills, oil flaring, and waste discharge, the alluvial soil of the Niger Delta is no longer viable for agriculture. Furthermore, in many areas that seemed to be unaffected, groundwater was found to have high levels of hydrocarbons or were contaminated with benzene, a carcinogen, at 900 levels above WHO guidelines.

text: In a 2011 assessment of over 200 locations in Ogoniland by the United Nations Environment Programme (

text: UNEP

text: ), they found that impacts of the 50 years of oil production in the region extended deeper than previously thought. Because of oil spills, oil flaring, and waste discharge, the alluvial soil of the Niger Delta is no longer viable for agriculture. Furthermore, in many areas that seemed to be unaffected, groundwater was found to have high levels of hydrocarbons or were contaminated with benzene, a

text: carcinogen

text: , at 900 levels above

text: WHO

text: guidelines.

text: The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g.,

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

text: Atlantic Empress

text: Amoco Cadiz

text: ). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: There have been a number of major oil spills around the coast of Britain. The wreck of the Torrey Canyon in March 1967 resulted in the first major oil spill. The ship grounded on the Seven Stones reef between Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. The ship was bombed to break it up and detergent used to disperse the 700 km² oil slick. It is estimated that 15,000 birds were killed and there was also a large effect on marine life. As a result of this incident many lessons were learned on how to handle such problems and it led to changes in regulations. The grounding of MV Braer in January 1993 in the Shetlands led to the loss of 84,700 tons of light crude oil. There was again a large effect on wildlife, both birds and mammals. Because of the stormy conditions, the oil slick became broken up and had dispersed by October 1994. The Sea Empress hit a rock off Milford Haven in February 1996. Some 730,00 tons of oil were spilt, resulting in an estimated 5,000 birds being killed with much oil being washed up on beaches. It is estimated that the cost of the spill was £60 million.

text: There have been a number of major

text: oil spill

text: s around the coast of Britain. The wreck of the

text: Torrey Canyon

text: in March 1967 resulted in the first major

text: oil

text: spill. The ship grounded on the

text: Seven Stones reef

text: between Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. The ship was bombed to break it up and

text: detergent

text: used to disperse the 700 km² oil slick. It is estimated that 15,000 birds were killed and there was also a large effect on

text: marine life

text: . As a result of this incident many lessons were learned on how to handle such problems and it led to changes in regulations. The grounding of

text: MV Braer

text: in January 1993 in the

text: Shetland

text: s led to the loss of 84,700 tons of

text: light crude oil

text: . There was again a large effect on wildlife, both birds and mammals. Because of the stormy conditions, the oil slick became broken up and had dispersed by October 1994. The

text: Sea Empress

text: hit a rock off Milford Haven in February 1996. Some 730,00 tons of oil were spilt, resulting in an estimated 5,000 birds being killed with much oil being washed up on beaches. It is estimated that the cost of the spill was £60 million.

text: A real explosion was created during the filming of the episodes. Pickard said the explosion was "the biggest explosion I've ever seen in my life", explaining that he "watched from a safe distance" but he could still feel the heat due to the size of the explosion. On filming the explosion, Bowman said: "all the crew were put about four miles back behind cones, then the stunt double team were put about 10, 15 metres from the explosion, and then the sixth formers, including me, were the same distance as the stunt guys". She explained that she had to face away from the explosion and that the director instructed her not to "mess up" the continuity of the scene. She was instructed to "leap away from the explosion" which she initially felt would be easy but when the explosion played out she "just flew". Bowman explained that she could not see and could only feel the "burning heat" and hear a "horrendous explosion". Moss added that everything the audience see during the explosion is authentic.

text: Although the spill has resulted in anecdotal evidence of sickness experienced by coastal residents and workers involved in the cleanup, scientific evidence has been scant.  The spill differed from previous spills in that the leak was at the ocean floor rather than on the surface and the volume of oil spilled and the amount of dispersant used was unprecedented.  The Louisiana state health officer stated, "This is more than a spill. This is ongoing leakage of a chemical, and adding chemicals to stop the chemicals. We're feeling like we're in a research lab." Moreover, the proximity to populated communities, the number of potentially exposed workers and community members, and the duration of the spill were far greater than any previously studied oil spills. Of more than 40 prior major oil spills, only 8 led to studies of health effects and only two of them included any long-term follow-up.  According to the researchers at the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, early data from the two long-term studies "suggested that respiratory and genotoxicity effects were important to capture, as well as mental health outcomes commonly associated with disasters of this scale."

text: Although the spill has resulted in anecdotal evidence of sickness experienced by coastal residents and workers involved in the cleanup, scientific evidence has been scant.  The spill differed from previous spills in that the leak was at the ocean floor rather than on the surface and the volume of oil spilled and the amount of dispersant used was unprecedented.  The Louisiana state health officer stated, "This is more than a spill. This is ongoing leakage of a chemical, and adding chemicals to stop the chemicals. We're feeling like we're in a research lab." Moreover, the proximity to populated communities, the number of potentially exposed workers and community members, and the duration of the spill were far greater than any previously studied oil spills. Of more than 40 prior major oil spills, only 8 led to studies of health effects and only two of them included any long-term follow-up.  According to the researchers at the

entity_name: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

text: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

text: , early data from the two long-term studies "suggested that respiratory and genotoxicity effects were important to capture, as well as mental health outcomes commonly associated with disasters of this scale."

text: The long term effects from a nearby burst are more dangerous. Gamma rays cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving oxygen and nitrogen molecules, creating first nitrogen oxide then nitrogen dioxide gas. The nitrogen oxides cause dangerous effects on three levels. First, they deplete ozone, with models showing a possible global reduction of 25-35%, with as much as 75% in certain locations, an effect that would last for years. This reduction is enough to cause a dangerously elevated UV index at the surface. Secondly, the nitrogen oxides cause photochemical smog, which darkens the sky and blocks out parts of the sunlight spectrum. This would affect photosynthesis, but models show only about a 1% reduction of the total sunlight spectrum, lasting a few years. However, the smog could potentially cause a cooling effect on Earth's climate, producing a "cosmic winter" (similar to an impact winter, but without an impact), but only if it occurs simultaneously with a global climate instability. Thirdly, the elevated nitrogen levels in the atmosphere would wash out and produce nitric acid rain. Nitric acid is toxic to a variety of organisms, including amphibian life, but models show that it cannot reach levels that would cause a serious global effect. The nitrates might in fact be of benefit to some plants.

text: The long term effects from a nearby burst are more dangerous. Gamma rays cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving

text: oxygen

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: molecules

text: , creating first

text: nitrogen oxide

text: then

text: nitrogen dioxide

text: gas. The nitrogen oxides cause dangerous effects on three levels. First, they deplete

text: ozone

text: , with models showing a possible global reduction of 25-35%, with as much as 75% in certain locations, an effect that would last for years. This reduction is enough to cause a dangerously elevated

text: UV index

text: at the surface. Secondly, the nitrogen oxides cause

text: photochemical smog

text: , which darkens the sky and blocks out parts of the

text: sunlight

text: spectrum. This would affect

text: photosynthesis

text: , but models show only about a 1% reduction of the total sunlight spectrum, lasting a few years. However, the smog could potentially cause a cooling effect on Earth's climate, producing a "cosmic winter" (similar to an

text: impact winter

text: , but without an impact), but only if it occurs simultaneously with a global climate instability. Thirdly, the elevated nitrogen levels in the atmosphere would wash out and produce

text: nitric acid rain

text: Nitric acid

text: is toxic to a variety of organisms, including amphibian life, but models show that it cannot reach levels that would cause a serious global effect. The

text: nitrates

text: might in fact be of benefit to some plants.

text: An extensive cleaning initiative was implemented for the areas affected and damaged by the oil companies. Within 5 days of the spill over 90% of the impacted beaches and mainland had been cleaned. Although damage to wild life was still evident with turtles and sea birds covered in oil. Small oil spills are frequent in the area due to a number of offshore drilling sites. There are over 180 oil rigs operating in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez which accounts for a large percentage of the economy.

text: An extensive cleaning initiative was implemented for the areas affected and damaged by the oil companies. Within 5 days of the spill over 90% of the impacted beaches and mainland had been cleaned. Although damage to wild life was still evident with

text: turtle

text: s and

text: sea bird

text: s covered in oil. Small oil spills are frequent in the area due to a number of offshore drilling sites. There are over 180 oil rigs operating in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez which accounts for a large percentage of the economy.

text: An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution.  The term is usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land.  Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, pipelines, railcars, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

text: An oil spill is the release of a

text: liquid

text: petroleum

text: hydrocarbon

text: into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution.  The term is usually applied to

text: marine

text: oil spills, where oil is released into the

text: ocean

text: or

text: coastal waters

text: , but spills may also occur on land.  Oil spills may be due to releases of

text: crude oil

text: from

text: tankers

text: , pipelines, railcars,

text: offshore platforms

text: drilling rig

text: s and

text: wells

text: , as well as spills of

text: refined petroleum products

text: (such as

text: gasoline

text: diesel

text: ) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as

text: bunker fuel

text: , or the spill of any oily refuse or

text: waste oil

text: Explosive velocity, also known as detonation velocity or velocity of detonation (VoD), is the velocity at which the shock wave front travels through a detonated explosive. The data listed for a specific substance is usually a rough prediction based upon gas behavior theory (see Chapman-Jouguet condition), as in practice it is difficult to measure.  Explosive velocities are always faster than the local speed of sound in the material.

text: Explosive velocity, also known as detonation velocity or velocity of detonation (VoD), is the

text: velocity

text: at which the

text: shock wave

text: front travels through a

text: detonated

text: explosive

text: . The data listed for a specific substance is usually a rough prediction based upon

text: gas behavior theory

text: (see

text: Chapman-Jouguet condition

text: ), as in practice it is difficult to measure.  Explosive velocities are always faster than the local

text: speed of sound

text: in the material.

text: Maritime Safety Queensland has had to respond to a number of oil spills.  These include the 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill and the 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill. In 2006, response teams from MSQ coordinated cleanup efforts after the Global Peace leaked oil from damaged fuel tanks into Gladstone Harbour.

text: Maritime Safety Queensland has had to respond to a number of oil spills.  These include the

text: 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill

text: and the

text: 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill

text: . In 2006, response teams from MSQ coordinated cleanup efforts after the Global Peace leaked oil from damaged fuel tanks into Gladstone Harbour.

text: The oil's spread was initially increased by strong southerly winds caused by an impending cold front. By 25 April 2010, the spill covered  and was only  from the ecologically sensitive Chandeleur Islands. An 30 April 2010, estimate placed the total spread of the oil at . The spill quickly approached the Delta National Wildlife Refuge and Breton National Wildlife Refuge. On 19 May 2010, both NOAA and other scientists monitoring the spill with the European Space Agency Envisat radar satellite stated that oil had reached the Loop Current, which flows clockwise around the Gulf of Mexico towards Florida and then joins the Gulf Stream along the U.S. east coast. On 29 June 2010, NOAA determined that the oil slick was no longer a threat to the loop current and stopped tracking offshore oil predictions that include the loop currents region. The omission is noted prominently on the ongoing nearshore surface oil forecasts that are posted daily on NOAA's website.

text: The oil's spread was initially increased by strong southerly winds caused by an impending

text: cold front

text: . By 25 April 2010, the spill covered  and was only  from the ecologically sensitive

text: Chandeleur Islands

text: . An 30 April 2010, estimate placed the total spread of the oil at . The spill quickly approached the

text: Delta National Wildlife Refuge

text: and

text: Breton National Wildlife Refuge

text: . On 19 May 2010, both NOAA and other scientists monitoring the spill with the

text: European Space Agency

text: Envisat radar satellite stated that oil had reached the

text: Loop Current

text: , which flows clockwise around the Gulf of Mexico towards Florida and then joins the

text: Gulf Stream

text: along the U.S. east coast. On 29 June 2010, NOAA determined that the oil slick was no longer a threat to the loop current and stopped tracking offshore oil predictions that include the loop currents region. The omission is noted prominently on the ongoing nearshore surface oil forecasts that are posted daily on NOAA's website.

text: However, several oil spills from facilities on the field brought Greka media attention.  In 2007, Greka paid a fine of $17,500 for a tank leak at the Zaca field in which oil and produced water reached Zaca Creek.

text: Dispersant was used in an attempt to clean up the Exxon Valdez oil spill though its use was discontinued as there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water. Dispersant Corexit 9500 was used on the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Dispersant Corexit 9527 was used to disperse an oil slick in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979 (Ixtoc), used over one thousand square miles of sea.

text: Dispersant was used in an attempt to clean up the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: though its use was discontinued as there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water. Dispersant

text: Corexit

text: 9500 was used on the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . Dispersant Corexit 9527 was used to disperse an oil slick in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979 (

text: Ixtoc

text: ), used over one thousand square miles of sea.

text: An explosion may occur under two general conditions: the first, unconfined, as in the open air where the pressure (atmospheric) is constant; the second, confined, as in a closed chamber where the volume is constant. The same amount of heat energy is liberated in each case, but in the unconfined explosion, a certain amount is used as work energy in pushing back the surrounding air, and therefore is lost as heat. In a confined explosion, where the explosive volume is small (such as occurs in the powder chamber of a firearm), practically all the heat of explosion is conserved as useful energy. If the quantity of heat liberated at constant volume under adiabatic conditions is calculated and converted from heat units to equivalent work units, the potential or capacity for work results.

text: The Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion was the April 20, 2010 explosion and subsequent fire on the Deepwater Horizon semi-submersible Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (MODU), which was owned and operated by Transocean and drilling for BP in the Macondo Prospect oil field about  southeast of the Louisiana coast. The explosion and subsequent fire resulted in the sinking of the Deepwater Horizon and the deaths of 11 workers; 17 others were injured. The same blowout that caused the explosion also caused a massive offshore oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, considered the largest accidental marine oil spill in the world, and the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history.

text: The Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion was the April 20, 2010 explosion and subsequent fire on the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: semi-submersible Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit

text: (MODU), which was owned and operated by

text: Transocean

text: and drilling for

text: BP

text: in the

text: Macondo Prospect

text: oil field

text: about  southeast of the

text: Louisiana

text: coast. The explosion and subsequent fire resulted in the sinking of the Deepwater Horizon and the deaths of 11 workers; 17 others were injured. The same

text: blowout

text: that caused the explosion also caused a massive

text: offshore oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , considered the largest accidental marine oil spill in the world, and the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history.

text: The Dos Bocas oil fire was a 1908 blowout and oil fire that took place in Veracruz, Mexico. The fire started after a blowout occurred, causing crude oil to make contact with the flames that powered the oil derrick. The fire continued from 4 July 1908 to 30 August 1908 - until the oil deposit was burnt out. For the nearly two months that the fire burned, nearly 90000 barrels of oil flowed into the surrounding landscape each day. Ultimately, the Dos Bocas blowout (named for the two gaping black holes it left it the ground - "two mouths") ended up being one of the largest oil spills in the history of the oil industry. The two large craters formed in the ground around the oil well were caused by the pressure of the oilfield. It was impossible to stop the flow of oil because the well casing had been blown off during the gush.The heat exacerbated the difficulties workers faced when trying to stop the flow of oil. Temperatures were high which caused those working to put out the fire and contain the spill to be unable to go closer than a few hundred feet. The oil coming out was a 200 feet tall column and the fire burned at over 1,000°F.  Twenty-seven kilometers away from the fire, town residents said that they were able to read a newspaper at night by the light of the flames.

text: The Dos Bocas oil fire was a 1908

text: blowout

text: and

text: oil fire

text: that took place in

text: Veracruz, Mexico

text: . The fire started after a blowout occurred, causing

text: crude oil

text: to make contact with the flames that powered the

text: oil derrick

text: . The fire continued from 4 July 1908 to 30 August 1908 - until the oil deposit was burnt out. For the nearly two months that the fire burned, nearly 90000 barrels of oil flowed into the surrounding landscape each day. Ultimately, the Dos Bocas blowout (named for the two gaping black holes it left it the ground - "two mouths") ended up being one of the largest oil spills in the history of the oil industry. The two large craters formed in the ground around the oil well were caused by the pressure of the oilfield. It was impossible to stop the flow of oil because the well casing had been blown off during the gush.The heat exacerbated the difficulties workers faced when trying to stop the flow of oil. Temperatures were high which caused those working to put out the fire and contain the spill to be unable to go closer than a few hundred feet. The oil coming out was a 200 feet tall column and the fire burned at over 1,000°F.  Twenty-seven kilometers away from the fire, town residents said that they were able to read a newspaper at night by the light of the flames.

text: In distilling the crude oil, it is important not to subject the crude oil to temperatures above 370 to 380 °C because the high molecular weight components in the crude oil will undergo thermal cracking and form petroleum coke at temperatures above that. Formation of coke would result in plugging the tubes in the furnace that heats the feed stream to the crude oil distillation column. Plugging would also occur in the piping from the furnace to the distillation column as well as in the column itself.

text: In distilling the crude oil, it is important not to subject the crude oil to temperatures above 370 to 380 °C because the high

text: molecular weight

text: components in the crude oil will undergo

text: thermal cracking

text: and form

text: petroleum coke

text: at temperatures above that. Formation of coke would result in plugging the tubes in the

text: furnace

text: that heats the feed stream to the crude oil distillation column. Plugging would also occur in the

text: piping

text: from the furnace to the distillation column as well as in the column itself.

text: A cleanup clause is a contractual provision in a loan agreement which provides that all loans must be repaid within a specified period, after which no further loans will be made available to the debtor for a specified "cleanup" period.

text: A cleanup clause is a

text: contract

text: ual provision in a

text: loan agreement

text: which provides that all loans must be repaid within a specified period, after which no further loans will be made available to the

text: debtor

text: for a specified "cleanup" period.

text: On October 13, 2016 just after 1 a.m a Texas-owned articulated tug/barge—a 28-metre tugboat, the Nathan E Stewart, secured to the stern of an empty 90-metre petroleum barge DBL 55—ran hard aground on the Edge Reef off Athlone Island at the entrance to Seaforth Channel in the Heiltsuk Nation's traditional territorial waters. contaminating the Seaforth Channel area with "more than 100,000 litres of fuel." The Nathan E Stewart held approximately 200,000 litres of industrial oils including diesel. Although the Seaforth Channel is part of the Voluntary Tanker Exclusion Zone, the Nathan E. Stewart which is a U.S. vessel under 10,000 gross tonnage was allowed to operate by the Pacific Pilotage Authority, "without a local pilot on the West Coast of Canada." This is a common practice "if the crew meets a minimum standard of experience and licensing." None of the seven-member crew of the Nathan E Stewart were injured. The fuel spill was about 20 kilometres west of Bella Bella, the core community of the Heiltsuk Nation. The fuel spill threatens "dozens of species that are harvested in the area, including manila clam beds that provide income of up to $150,000 per year for the community." A shellfish harvesting ban was imposed on October 14. The fuel spill is in the environmentally sensitive Great Bear Rainforest - the largest intact old-growth forest in the world. The operator responsible for the tug and barge are Kirby Offshore Marine, a Texas-based operator. In 2011 when the Nathan E Stewart lost power and was set adrift in rough waters of Alaska, journalists at the time drew attention to the Pacific Pilotage Authority waiver that exempted the barge which makes routine weekly runs "between Vancouver and Alaska through the Inside Passage" "from the requirement of having Canadian pilots on board." Following the October incident, the Pacific Pilotage Authority revoked the barge's waiver. The Canadian Coast Guard who were leading the cleanup, arrived on scene at 2:19 a.m. at CCG Station Bella Bella. They called in the Western Canada Marine Response Corporation (WCMRC) at 4:30 am and their vessels and crew from Vancouver and Prince Rupert arrived on site at 5:30 pm. A "mobile skimming vessel, boom skiff, work boat, and tug, along with a total of 2,500 feet of boom" were on site. The tugboat "settled under nine metres of water in Seaforth Channel." By October 26 the tanks of fuel on the submerged tug had been pumped out and "110,131 litres of an oil-water mixture" were recovered but oil was discovered in at "least three coves in Seaforth Channel." Bad weather prevented the salvage operation. Resolve Pioneer, a salvage vessel arrived in Bella Bella on November 8. and the damaged Nathan E. Stewart was raised from the sea floor on November 14. It was hauled to Surrey, B.C. on November 19 but cleanup continued. The Heiltsuk, B.C. Premier Christy Clark and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau criticized the oil spill response as "inadequate" and "unacceptable." The incident highlighted concerns about lack of capacity of existing response teams as on the eve of proposed pipelines which would lead to even more tanker traffic on the Inside Passage. On November 6 in Bella Bella Federal Minister of Transportation Marc Garneau met briefly with Heiltsuk hereditary and elected chiefs and on November 7 in Vancouver Prime Minister Trudeau announced a $1.5B ocean protection plan which will "creating a marine safety system, restoring marine ecosystems and research into oil spill cleanup methods."

text: On October 13, 2016 just after 1 a.m a Texas-owned articulated tug/barge—a 28-metre tugboat, the Nathan E Stewart, secured to the stern of an empty 90-metre petroleum barge DBL 55—ran hard aground on the Edge Reef off Athlone Island at the entrance to Seaforth Channel in the

text: Heiltsuk Nation

text: 's traditional territorial waters. contaminating the Seaforth Channel area with "more than 100,000 litres of fuel." The Nathan E Stewart held approximately 200,000 litres of industrial oils including diesel. Although the Seaforth Channel is part of the Voluntary Tanker Exclusion Zone, the Nathan E. Stewart which is a U.S. vessel under 10,000 gross tonnage was allowed to operate by the Pacific Pilotage Authority, "without a local pilot on the West Coast of Canada." This is a common practice "if the crew meets a minimum standard of experience and licensing." None of the seven-member crew of the Nathan E Stewart were injured. The fuel spill was about 20 kilometres west of Bella Bella, the core community of the

text: Heiltsuk Nation

text: . The fuel spill threatens "dozens of species that are harvested in the area, including manila clam beds that provide income of up to $150,000 per year for the community." A shellfish harvesting ban was imposed on October 14. The fuel spill is in the environmentally sensitive

text: Great Bear Rainforest

text: - the largest intact

text: old-growth forest

text: in the world. The operator responsible for the tug and barge are Kirby Offshore Marine, a Texas-based operator. In 2011 when the Nathan E Stewart lost power and was set adrift in rough waters of Alaska, journalists at the time drew attention to the Pacific Pilotage Authority waiver that exempted the barge which makes routine weekly runs "between Vancouver and Alaska through the Inside Passage" "from the requirement of having Canadian pilots on board." Following the October incident, the Pacific Pilotage Authority revoked the barge's waiver. The

text: Canadian Coast Guard

text: who were leading the cleanup, arrived on scene at 2:19 a.m. at CCG Station Bella Bella. They called in the Western Canada Marine Response Corporation (WCMRC) at 4:30 am and their vessels and crew from Vancouver and Prince Rupert arrived on site at 5:30 pm. A "mobile skimming vessel, boom skiff, work boat, and tug, along with a total of 2,500 feet of boom" were on site. The tugboat "settled under nine metres of water in Seaforth Channel." By October 26 the tanks of fuel on the submerged tug had been pumped out and "110,131 litres of an oil-water mixture" were recovered but oil was discovered in at "least three coves in Seaforth Channel." Bad weather prevented the salvage operation. Resolve Pioneer, a salvage vessel arrived in Bella Bella on November 8. and the damaged Nathan E. Stewart was raised from the sea floor on November 14. It was hauled to Surrey, B.C. on November 19 but cleanup continued. The Heiltsuk, B.C. Premier

text: Christy Clark

text: and Prime Minister

text: Justin Trudeau

text: criticized the oil spill response as "inadequate" and "unacceptable." The incident highlighted concerns about lack of capacity of existing response teams as on the eve of proposed pipelines which would lead to even more tanker traffic on the Inside Passage. On November 6 in Bella Bella Federal Minister of Transportation Marc Garneau met briefly with Heiltsuk hereditary and elected chiefs and on November 7 in Vancouver Prime Minister Trudeau announced a $1.5B ocean protection plan which will "creating a marine safety system, restoring marine ecosystems and research into oil spill cleanup methods."

text: Unlike conventional crude, unstabilized dilbit floats briefly in water but heavier components sink as light components evaporate. The remaining bitumen can make cleaning up a dilbit spill more difficult than a conventional oil spill, particularly if dredging is considered too ecologically damaging. During the Kalamazoo River oil spill, the heavier components sank to the bottom of the water column, making cleanup difficult. Cleanup of the spill was still underway three years after the event, and officials at the Michigan Department of Natural Resources' Fishery Division stated that it will "be many more years before the agency can measure the full impact on fish and other animals' reproductive cycles."  However, studies show that dilbit does not increase the risk of corrosion occurring within a pipeline or otherwise increase the risk of a release occurring.

text: Unlike conventional

text: crude

text: , unstabilized dilbit floats briefly in water but heavier components sink as light components

text: evaporate

text: . The remaining bitumen can make cleaning up a dilbit spill more difficult than a conventional oil spill, particularly if dredging is considered too ecologically damaging. During the

text: Kalamazoo River oil spill

text: , the heavier components sank to the bottom of the

text: water column

text: , making cleanup difficult. Cleanup of the spill was still underway three years after the event, and officials at the Michigan Department of Natural Resources' Fishery Division stated that it will "be many more years before the agency can measure the full impact on fish and other animals' reproductive cycles."  However, studies show that dilbit does not increase the risk of corrosion occurring within a pipeline or otherwise increase the risk of a release occurring.

text: Oil Spill With Bird, 2013

text: Oil Spill With Bird, 2013

text: The operation later in November 2009 to finally plug the well after the leak was stopped involved pumping a 1,400 metre cement plug from the West Triton rig down the relief well to the bottom of the 2.5 kilometre well. Once completed, the West Triton relief rig was demobilised and returned to Singapore.

text: On October 2002, near the port of Al Mukalla, suicide bombers rammed an explosive-laden boat into the Limburg, a French oil tanker, killing a Bulgarian crew member and spilling  of oil into the Gulf of Aden. Saudi born Abdulraheem al-Nashiri, prime suspect of the USS Cole bombing, paid $40,000 to fund the Limburg attack. With that money, the former Al Qaida leader Abu Ali al-Harithi bought the explosives and transported them from his house in Shabwa to Mukalla in Hadramut.

text: On October 2002, near the port of

text: Al Mukalla

text: suicide bombers

text: rammed an explosive-laden boat into the

text: Limburg

text: , a French oil tanker, killing a Bulgarian crew member and spilling  of oil into the

text: Gulf of Aden

text: . Saudi born

text: Abdulraheem al-Nashiri

text: , prime suspect of the USS Cole bombing, paid $40,000 to fund the Limburg attack. With that money, the former Al Qaida leader

text: Abu Ali al-Harithi

text: bought the explosives and transported them from his house in

text: Shabwa

text: to

text: Mukalla

text: in

text: Hadramut

text: DOGGR also maintains a database of active wells, expired wells, surveyed lands and leases on California land, coastal waters (0–3 miles) and federal Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). When a well is no longer needed, either because the oil or gas reservoir becomes depleted, or because no oil or gas was found (called a dry-hole), the well is plugged and abandoned. A well is plugged by placing cement in the well-bore or casing at certain intervals as specified in California laws or regulations. The purpose of the cement is to seal the wellbore or casing and prevent fluid from migrating between underground rock layers. Cement plugs are required to be placed across the oil or gas reservoir (zone plug), across the base-of-fresh-water (BFW plug), and at the surface (surface plug). Other cement plugs may be required at the bottom of a string of open casing (shoe plug), on top of tools that may become stuck down hole (junk plug), on top of cut casing (stub plug), or anywhere else where  a cement plug may be needed. Also, the hole is filled with drilling mud to help prevent the migration of fluids.

text: DOGGR also maintains a database of active wells, expired wells, surveyed lands and leases on

text: California

text: land, coastal waters (0–3 miles) and federal

text: Outer Continental Shelf

text: (OCS). When a well is no longer needed, either because the oil or gas

text: reservoir

text: becomes depleted, or because no oil or gas was found (called a dry-hole), the well is plugged and abandoned. A well is plugged by placing

text: cement

text: in the well-bore or

text: casing

text: at certain intervals as specified in California laws or regulations. The purpose of the cement is to seal the wellbore or casing and prevent fluid from migrating between underground rock layers. Cement plugs are required to be placed across the oil or gas reservoir (zone plug), across the base-of-fresh-water (BFW plug), and at the surface (surface plug). Other cement plugs may be required at the bottom of a string of open casing (shoe plug), on top of tools that may become stuck down hole (junk plug), on top of cut casing (stub plug), or anywhere else where  a cement plug may be needed. Also, the hole is filled with

text: drilling mud

text: to help prevent the migration of fluids.

text: The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption. This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but by also making the full cycle of production, use and disposal more sustainable. Consumption of goods and services can be analysed and managed at all scales through the chain of consumption, starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns, through to the resource demands of specific goods and services, the impacts of economic sectors, through national economies to the global economy. Analysis of consumption patterns relates resource use to the environmental, social and economic impacts at the scale or context under investigation. The ideas of embodied resource use (the total resources needed to produce a product or service), resource intensity, and resource productivity are important tools for understanding the impacts of consumption. Key resource categories relating to human needs are food, energy, materials and water.

text: The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption. This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but by also making the full cycle of production, use and disposal more sustainable. Consumption of goods and services can be analysed and managed at all scales through the chain of consumption, starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns, through to the resource demands of specific goods and services, the impacts of economic sectors, through national economies to the global economy. Analysis of consumption patterns relates resource use to the environmental, social and economic impacts at the scale or context under investigation. The ideas of embodied resource use (the total resources needed to produce a product or service),

text: resource intensity

text: , and

text: resource productivity

text: are important tools for understanding the impacts of consumption. Key resource categories relating to human needs are

text: food

text: energy

text: , materials and water.

text: At the beginning of the Gulf spill, the proprietary composition was not public, but the manufacturer's own safety data sheet identified the main components as 2-butoxyethanol and a proprietary organic sulfonate with a small concentration of propylene glycol. Warnings from the Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet for 2-butoxyethanol include: "Cancer Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may be a carcinogen in humans since it has been shown to cause liver cancer in animals. Many scientists believe there is no safe level of exposure to a carcinogen....Reproductive Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the developing fetus. There is limited evidence that 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the male reproductive system (including decreasing the sperm count) in animals and may affect female fertility in animals". 2-butoxyethanol was identified as a causal agent in the health problems experienced by cleanup workers after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill.  According to the Alaska Community Action on Toxics, the use of Corexit during the spill caused people "respiratory, nervous system, liver, kidney and blood disorders".

text: At the beginning of the Gulf spill, the proprietary composition was not public, but the manufacturer's own

text: safety data sheet

text: identified the main components as

text: and a proprietary

text: organic

text: sulfonate

text: with a small concentration of

text: propylene glycol

text: . Warnings from the Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet for 2-butoxyethanol include: "Cancer Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may be a

text: carcinogen

text: in humans since it has been shown to cause liver cancer in animals. Many scientists believe there is no safe level of exposure to a carcinogen....Reproductive Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the developing fetus. There is limited evidence that 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the male reproductive system (including decreasing the sperm count) in animals and may affect female fertility in animals". 2-butoxyethanol was identified as a causal agent in the health problems experienced by cleanup workers after the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: .  According to the Alaska Community Action on Toxics, the use of Corexit during the spill caused people "respiratory, nervous system, liver, kidney and blood disorders".

text: The effects of the spill were not as bad as initially predicted. This was due in part to the time of year when the spill occurred. In February, many migratory animals had not yet arrived back in Pembrokeshire for breeding. Along with stormy weather which helped break-up and naturally disperse the oil, the effect on wildlife would have been much worse if the spill had occurred just a month later. The spill would undoubtedly have been catastrophic for both the environment and local economy if it had occurred during the summer months.

text: Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

text: Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin

text: oil slick

text: which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly

text: bulldozed

text: around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

text: In 1990, in the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Congress enacted the Oil Pollution Act to consolidate various oil spill and oil pollution statutes into a single unified law, and to provide for a statutory regime for handling oil spill cleanup. This law was challenged as a bill of attainder by the shipping division of ExxonMobil.

text: In 1990, in the wake of the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , Congress enacted the

text: Oil Pollution Act

text: to consolidate various oil spill and oil pollution statutes into a single unified law, and to provide for a statutory regime for handling oil spill cleanup. This law was challenged as a bill of attainder by the shipping division of

text: ExxonMobil

text: Dishwashing liquid has been used to treat birds affected by oil spills. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, the International Bird Rescue Research Center received hundreds of cases of dishwashing liquid that were used to clean up birds and other animals contaminated with spilled oil. More dishwashing liquid was donated during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill to the International Bird Rescue Research Center and the Marine Mammal Center. Some dishwashing soap brands donated to support oiled birds during the Deepwater Horizon spill have received criticism for being petroleum-based.

text: Dishwashing liquid has been used to treat

text: birds affected

text: by

text: oil spill

text: s. After the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: in 1989, the

text: International Bird Rescue

text: Research Center received hundreds of cases of dishwashing liquid that were used to clean up birds and other animals contaminated with spilled oil. More dishwashing liquid was donated during the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: to the International Bird Rescue Research Center and the Marine Mammal Center. Some dishwashing soap brands donated to support oiled birds during the Deepwater Horizon spill have received criticism for being petroleum-based.

text: Though recent spills have been minor, there is concern that Washington does not have the capacity to respond to a big oil spill in the future, which would devastate the environment and have significant impacts on the surrounding community, wildlife, and fisheries. Efforts are being made to strengthen the community, State, and Coast Guard partnership in preventing and responding to oil spills effectively. Washington is also working to improve Tug Escorts for loaded tankers, enhance oil spill contingency plans, and remedy environmental damage already cased by oil spills. (Washington State Department of Ecology Web Page: Spill Prevention, Preparedness, and Response)

text: Though recent spills have been minor, there is concern that

text: Washington

text: does not have the capacity to respond to a big oil spill in the future, which would devastate the environment and have significant impacts on the surrounding community,

text: wildlife

text: , and

text: fisheries

text: . Efforts are being made to strengthen the community, State, and Coast Guard partnership in preventing and responding to oil spills effectively. Washington is also working to improve

text: Tug Escorts

text: for loaded tankers, enhance oil spill contingency plans, and remedy environmental damage already cased by oil spills. (Washington State Department of Ecology Web Page: Spill Prevention, Preparedness, and Response)

text: The wreck of New Carissa caused one of the most serious oil spills to affect the state of Oregon, and the worst since a 1984 spill near Longview, Washington that dumped  of oil into the Columbia River. As Oregon has no significant oil refinery facilities, oil tankers do not often dock at its ports, making the state relatively safe from oil spills. Analysis conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined that over 3,000 shorebirds and seabirds perished. The birds belonged to more than 50 species. Among the birds killed were 262 threatened marbled murrelets and between four and eight endangered western snowy plovers. Harbor seals, fish, and shellfish were also killed or affected. Several beaches were fouled, with tarballs continuing to wash up for more than a month after the wreck.

text: The wreck of New Carissa caused one of the most serious

text: oil spill

text: s to affect the state of Oregon, and the worst since a 1984 spill near

text: Longview, Washington

text: that dumped  of oil into the

text: Columbia River

text: . As Oregon has no significant

text: oil refinery

text: facilities,

text: oil tanker

text: s do not often dock at its ports, making the state relatively safe from oil spills. Analysis conducted by the

text: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

text: determined that over 3,000

text: shorebirds

text: and

text: seabird

text: s perished. The birds belonged to more than 50 species. Among the birds killed were 262

text: threatened

text: marbled murrelet

text: s and between four and eight

text: endangered

text: western snowy plovers

text: Harbor seal

text: s, fish, and

text: shellfish

text: were also killed or affected. Several beaches were fouled, with

text: tarballs

text: continuing to wash up for more than a month after the wreck.

text: In 2010, Mighty Servant 3 was outfitted with oil skimming equipment and used in the cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: In 2010, Mighty Servant 3 was outfitted with

text: oil skimming

text: equipment and used in the cleanup of the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: Company founder Jim O'Brien fought his first oil spill in 1969 as an officer with the United States Coast Guard.  In 1983 he retired to form his own company, O'Brien's Oil Pollution Service, known as "OOPS Inc.", in Slidell, Louisiana.  O'Brien soon gained fame in the 1980s as the "Red Adair of oil spill cleanup".  O'Brien also helped manage the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989.  Following that event the United States enacted the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, requiring ships to carry sufficient insurance and hire a management company to handle any oil spill.

text: Company founder Jim O'Brien fought his first oil spill in 1969 as an officer with the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: .  In 1983 he retired to form his own company, O'Brien's Oil Pollution Service, known as "OOPS Inc.", in

text: Slidell, Louisiana

text: .  O'Brien soon gained fame in the 1980s as the "

text: Red Adair

text: of oil spill cleanup".  O'Brien also helped manage the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: of 1989.  Following that event the United States enacted the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: , requiring ships to carry sufficient insurance and hire a management company to handle any oil spill.

text: Gazprom's oil drilling in the Arctic has drawn protests from environmental groups, particularly Greenpeace. Greenpeace has opposed oil drilling in the Arctic on the grounds that oil drilling would cause damage to the Arctic ecosystem and that there are no safety plans in place to prevent oil spills.

text: Gazprom's oil drilling in the Arctic has drawn protests from environmental groups, particularly

text: Greenpeace

text: . Greenpeace has opposed oil drilling in the Arctic on the grounds that oil drilling would cause damage to the Arctic ecosystem and that there are no safety plans in place to prevent oil spills.

text: for spill cleanup (gloves, respirators, etc.) and an explanation of their proper use;

text: In December 1993 Berry Petroleum had a leak in one of their oil pipelines, resulting in a spill into marine waters. The company had acquired the 40-year-old pipeline from Chevron in 1990 after it had been abandoned for some ten years. The line had been used to transport natural gas, yet Berry began to pump crude oil through it without making any upgrades. Moreover, it was revealed that ten months before the oil spill occurred, a safety valve that might have prevented the leak had broken, and no one supervising the pipeline bothered to repair it.

text: The arrival of humans in an area, to live or to conduct agriculture, necessarily has environmental impacts. These range from simple crowding out of wild plants in favor of more desirable cultivars to larger scale impacts such as reducing biodiversity by reducing food availability of native species, which can propagate across food chains. The use of agricultural chemicals such as fertilizer and pesticides magnify those impacts. While advances in agrochemistry have reduced those impacts, for example by the replacement of long-lived chemicals with those that reliably degrade, even in the best case they remain substantial. These effects are magnified by the use of older chemistries and poor management practices.

text: The arrival of humans in an area, to live or to conduct agriculture, necessarily has environmental impacts. These range from simple crowding out of wild plants in favor of more desirable cultivars to larger scale impacts such as reducing

text: biodiversity

text: by reducing food availability of native species, which can propagate across food chains. The use of

text: agricultural chemical

text: s such as

text: fertilizer

text: and pesticides magnify those impacts. While advances in

text: agrochemistry

text: have reduced those impacts, for example by the replacement of long-lived chemicals with those that reliably degrade, even in the best case they remain substantial. These effects are magnified by the use of older chemistries and poor management practices.

text: Helix Producer 1 has a Disconectable Transfer system (DTS) designed and supplied by Flexible Engineered Solutions LTD (FES), UK, and consists of a riser buoy supporting sub-sea risers and control umbilicals that would be connected to a deep water well and can be released from the hull, allowing the vessel to move out of the way of an approaching hurricane. After the storm, the vessel would return to the site and reconnect the buoy resuming normal oil extraction. It is  operated by the Helix Energy Solutions Group and was scheduled to operate on the Phoenix Oil Field in the Gulf of Mexico, but on June 14, 2010 Helix announced that the ship would be directed to assist BP at the Deepwater Horizon oil spill site.

text: Helix Producer 1 has a Disconectable Transfer system (DTS) designed and supplied by Flexible Engineered Solutions LTD (FES), UK, and consists of a riser buoy supporting sub-sea risers and control umbilicals that would be connected to a deep water well and can be released from the hull, allowing the vessel to move out of the way of an approaching

text: hurricane

text: . After the storm, the vessel would return to the site and reconnect the buoy resuming normal oil extraction. It is  operated by the

text: Helix Energy Solutions Group

text: and was scheduled to operate on the

text: Phoenix Oil Field

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , but on June 14, 2010 Helix announced that the ship would be directed to assist

text: BP

text: at the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: site.

text: The National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling is a bipartisan presidential commission, established by Executive Order 13543 signed by Barack Obama on May 21, 2010, that is “tasked with providing recommendations on how the United States can prevent and mitigate the impact of any future spills that result from offshore drilling.”  It came about as a result of the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill.  The first public hearings, held on July 12 and 13, 2010 in New Orleans, included scheduled testimony from  Federal government officials and representatives of BP on the status of the spill and clean-up efforts, as well as from local officials, community leaders, and scientists on the economic, cultural, and ecological impacts of the oil spill on Gulf Coast communities and ecosystems.

text: The National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling is a

text: bipartisan

text: presidential commission

text: , established by

text: Executive Order

text: signed by

text: Barack Obama

text: on May 21, 2010, that is “tasked with providing recommendations on how the United States can prevent and mitigate the impact of any future spills that result from offshore drilling.”  It came about as a result of the April 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: .  The first public hearings, held on July 12 and 13, 2010 in New Orleans, included scheduled testimony from  Federal government officials and representatives of BP on the status of the spill and clean-up efforts, as well as from local officials, community leaders, and scientists on the economic, cultural, and ecological impacts of the oil spill on Gulf Coast communities and ecosystems.

text: In the Gulf of Mexico, Royal Dutch Shell evacuated 125 personnel from its oil rigs on July 20, and evacuated another 60 on July 21. Diamond Offshore Drilling removed non-essential employees from some of its rigs, and the Rowan Companies also evacuated one of their eight oil rigs in the Gulf. Also on July 21, Chevron announced that it was evacuating some of its workers from its oil rigs in the Gulf, but did not disclose how many were removed. On July 22, BP announced the evacuation of non-essential personnel from two of its rigs, and on July 23, Petróleos Mexicanos evacuated 66 people from one of its rigs. In spite of this, oil production was not expected to be affected by Dolly.

text: In the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: evacuated 125 personnel from its oil rigs on July 20, and evacuated another 60 on July 21.

text: Diamond Offshore Drilling

text: removed non-essential employees from some of its rigs, and the

text: Rowan Companies

text: also evacuated one of their eight

text: oil rig

text: s in the Gulf. Also on July 21,

text: Chevron

text: announced that it was evacuating some of its workers from its oil rigs in the Gulf, but did not disclose how many were removed. On July 22,

text: BP

text: announced the evacuation of non-essential personnel from two of its rigs, and on July 23,

text: Petróleos Mexicanos

text: evacuated 66 people from one of its rigs. In spite of this, oil production was not expected to be affected by Dolly.

text: In 2000, for the 312 reported oil spills allegedly attributed to Koch and its subsidiaries that had taken place across six states, Koch paid what was at the time the largest civil fine ever imposed on a company under any federal environmental law for the illegal discharge of crude oil and petroleum products.  It was the first time the government had ever aggregated several spills over a number of years under one combined lawsuit against a company.  Koch disputed the EPA figures, saying the EPA did not file claims in over half of the 312 alleged cases, and further, that "Many of these alleged spills are not even listed in the EPA's own oil spill data base."  In a settlement with the U.S. Justice Department and the state of Texas which included "leaks that occurred as the result of third party actions, like digging," the company agreed to pay a "$30 million civil penalty, improve its leak-prevention programs and spend $5 million on environmental projects."

text: In 2000, for the 312 reported oil spills allegedly attributed to Koch and its subsidiaries that had taken place across six states, Koch paid what was at the time the largest civil fine ever imposed on a company under any federal

text: environmental law

text: for the illegal discharge of crude oil and petroleum products.  It was the first time the government had ever aggregated several spills over a number of years under one combined lawsuit against a company.  Koch disputed the EPA figures, saying the EPA did not file claims in over half of the 312 alleged cases, and further, that "Many of these alleged spills are not even listed in the EPA's own oil spill data base."  In a settlement with the

text: U.S. Justice Department

text: and the state of Texas which included "leaks that occurred as the result of third party actions, like digging," the company agreed to pay a "$30 million civil penalty, improve its leak-prevention programs and spend $5 million on environmental projects."

text: govern the removal of pollution or contaminants from environmental media such as soil, sediment, surface water, or ground water. Unlike pollution control laws, cleanup laws are designed to respond after-the-fact to environmental contamination, and consequently must often define not only the necessary response actions, but also the parties who may be responsible for undertaking (or paying for) such actions. Regulatory requirements may include rules for emergency response, liability allocation, site assessment, remedial investigation, feasibility studies, remedial action, post-remedial monitoring, and site reuse.

text: govern the removal of

text: pollution

text: or

text: contaminant

text: s from environmental media such as

text: soil

text: sediment

text: surface water

text: , or

text: ground water

text: . Unlike pollution control laws, cleanup laws are designed to respond after-the-fact to environmental contamination, and consequently must often define not only the necessary response actions, but also the parties who may be responsible for undertaking (or paying for) such actions. Regulatory requirements may include rules for emergency response, liability allocation, site assessment, remedial investigation, feasibility studies, remedial action, post-remedial monitoring, and site reuse.

text: A spill occurred in 2006 that resulted in approximately 31,000 gallons of oil released. Approximately 119,448 gallons of oil-water mixture were recovered and stored. Approximately 477,234 pounds of oil absorbents and other contaminated solids were removed during the cleanup.

text: Initially, the strait was crossed by ferries.  The first swing bridge crossing Lennox Passage to connect with Isle Madame was constructed beginning in 1916, and opened in 1919.  The Grandique Ferry service also crossed the passage between Martinique and Louisdale.  In 1970, following the grounding and subsequent breakup of the Liberian tanker Arrow in Chedabucto Bay spilling her cargo of heavy bunker C oil, the Government of Nova Scotia built a causeway between Burnt Point and Burnt Island to prevent the spilled oil from further damaging the fishing area of the Passage. Following the oil spill cleanup in the early 1970s, the old bridge was demolished and the ferry service was terminated after a new combined causeway and single-leaf bascule bridge (the Burnt Island Bridge) was built across Lennox Passage.

text: Initially, the strait was crossed by

text: ferries

text: .  The first

text: swing bridge

text: crossing Lennox Passage to connect with Isle Madame was constructed beginning in 1916, and opened in 1919.  The

text: Grandique Ferry

text: service also crossed the passage between Martinique and Louisdale.  In 1970, following the grounding and subsequent breakup of the Liberian tanker Arrow in

text: Chedabucto Bay

text: spilling her cargo of heavy

text: bunker C

text: oil, the

text: Government of Nova Scotia

text: built a

text: causeway

text: between Burnt Point and Burnt Island to prevent the spilled oil from further damaging the fishing area of the Passage. Following the oil spill cleanup in the early 1970s, the old bridge was demolished and the ferry service was terminated after a new combined

text: causeway

text: and single-leaf

text: bascule bridge

text: (the Burnt Island Bridge) was built across Lennox Passage.

text: Despite researcher’s knowledge about the adverse health effects these pollutants can have on humans and the environment, it’s challenging to fully understand the direct health impacts that are a result from fracking and assess the potential long term health and environmental effects. This is  because the oil and gas industry is legally protected from disclosing what is in the chemical compounds they use for fracking. “Policies are also lacking in requiring full health impact assessments to be required before companies are given the go-ahead to drill”

text: On August 11, 2006, a Petron oil tanker, the Solar 1, carrying fuel oil sank, causing the Guimaras oil spill, the biggest oil spill in Philippine history.

text: On August 11, 2006, a Petron

text: oil tanker

text: , the Solar 1, carrying

text: fuel oil

text: sank, causing the

text: Guimaras oil spill

text: , the biggest

text: oil spill

text: in Philippine history.

text: In 2011,  the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services launched the  Gulf Long-term Follow-up Study through the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. As the largest, most comprehensive study of long-term health effects from an oil spill, the GuLF Study will collect health data on cleanup workers and track them for at least 5 years. The study is trying to identify the exposure of workers to a variety of chemicals linked to health problems contained in the oil and natural gas released during the accident, including benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene, and the chemicals contained in dispersants used during the spill. The team will look at long-term problems such as cancer, birth defects, and psychosocial issues. Dale Sandler, chief epidemiologist for the National Institutes of Health,  said she is working to design a study that draws the strongest possible corollaries, even if absolute causation is not possible to determine: "I want to be able to say that workers who did this particular job are more likely to suffer this particular consequence."In 2013 it was reported that the agency had completed telephone interviews with more than 32,000 workers, and home visits with 9,967 of those.  Preliminary results of testing show that workers are carrying biomarkers  of chemicals contained in the oil in their bodies.

text: In 2011,  the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services launched the

text: Gulf Long-term Follow-up Study

text: through the

text: . As the largest, most comprehensive study of long-term health effects from an oil spill, the

text: GuLF Study

text: will collect health data on cleanup workers and track them for at least 5 years. The study is trying to identify the exposure of workers to a variety of chemicals linked to health problems contained in the oil and natural gas released during the accident, including benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene, and the chemicals contained in dispersants used during the spill. The team will look at long-term problems such as cancer, birth defects, and psychosocial issues. Dale Sandler, chief epidemiologist for the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: ,  said she is working to design a study that draws the strongest possible corollaries, even if absolute causation is not possible to determine: "I want to be able to say that workers who did this particular job are more likely to suffer this particular consequence."In 2013 it was reported that the agency had completed telephone interviews with more than 32,000 workers, and home visits with 9,967 of those.  Preliminary results of testing show that workers are carrying

text: biomarkers

text: of chemicals contained in the oil in their bodies.

text: Some commentators have suggested that increased immigration has a negative effect on the environment, especially as the level of economic development of the United States (and by extension, its energy, water and other needs that underpin its prosperity) means that the impact of a larger population is greater than what would be experienced in other countries.

text: Oils spills, when they occur, are detrimental to the surrounding environment, humans, and native wildlife. This type of spill is statistically rare, given how much oil is pumped, refined, transported, and stored each day. In 1999, according to US Coast Guard data, of over 3.2 billion barrels of oil transported by oil tanker in the US, fewer than 200 barrels were spilled. The occurrence of oil spills has decreased in the current decades, with approximately 77% less oil spilled since the 1970s. This is due to increased awareness and improved technology.

text: Oils spills

text: , when they occur, are detrimental to the surrounding environment, humans, and native wildlife. This type of spill is statistically rare, given how much oil is pumped, refined, transported, and stored each day. In 1999, according to US Coast Guard data, of over 3.2 billion barrels of oil transported by oil tanker in the US, fewer than 200 barrels were spilled. The occurrence of oil spills has decreased in the current decades, with approximately 77% less oil spilled since the 1970s. This is due to increased awareness and improved technology.

text: The Explosion left the UIFL after the 2012 season. The team remained idle for about a month, while fielding offers to join four different leagues. Owner Bill Stafford ultimately decided to join the Continental Indoor Football League (CIFL). Liotta needed to replace McKenna, who had left Erie for the Saginaw Sting (also of the CIFL). Liotta chose rookie Aaron Smetanka to lead the Explosion offense, and he did not disappoint. The Explosion finished with an undefeated regular season record of 10-0 securing the 2013 CIFL regular season championship and the #1 seed in the leagues playoff format. The Explosion hosted the Kentucky Xtreme in a league Semi-Final game May 5, 2013. They defeated the Xtreme 55-6. The Explosion defense held the leagues number 1 offense to 1 first down in the first half. The Xtreme did not score until 13 minutes remained in the game. The defensive charge was led by Ricardo Kemp who had 2 interceptions in the game. The Erie Explosion hosted the CIFL championship game on Mothers Day, May 12, 2013, where they beat the Sting, 37-36, to win the 2013 CIFL Championship Game. The 2013 CIFL Championship is the Erie Explosion's first championship, as well as the city of Erie's first championship in any league of indoor football.

text: The Explosion left the UIFL after the 2012 season. The team remained idle for about a month, while fielding offers to join four different leagues. Owner Bill Stafford ultimately decided to join the

text: Continental Indoor Football League

text: (CIFL). Liotta needed to replace McKenna, who had left Erie for the

text: Saginaw Sting

text: (also of the CIFL). Liotta chose rookie Aaron Smetanka to lead the Explosion offense, and he did not disappoint. The Explosion finished with an undefeated regular season record of 10-0 securing the 2013 CIFL regular season championship and the #1 seed in the leagues playoff format. The Explosion hosted the

text: Kentucky Xtreme

text: in a league Semi-Final game May 5, 2013. They defeated the Xtreme 55-6. The Explosion defense held the leagues number 1 offense to 1 first down in the first half. The Xtreme did not score until 13 minutes remained in the game. The defensive charge was led by Ricardo Kemp who had 2 interceptions in the game. The Erie Explosion hosted the CIFL championship game on Mothers Day, May 12, 2013, where they beat the Sting, 37-36, to win the 2013

text: CIFL Championship Game

text: . The 2013 CIFL Championship is the Erie Explosion's first championship, as well as the city of Erie's first championship in any league of indoor football.

text: The Prestige oil spill was an oil spill in Galicia caused by the sinking of the oil tanker MV Prestige in 2002. The spill polluted thousands of kilometers of coastline and more than one thousand beaches on the Spanish, French and Portuguese coast, as well as causing great harm to the local fishing industry.

text: The Prestige oil spill was an

text: oil spill

text: in

text: Galicia

text: caused by the sinking of the

text: oil tanker

text: MV Prestige

text: in 2002. The spill polluted thousands of kilometers of

text: coastline

text: and more than one thousand

text: beach

text: es on the

text: Spanish

text: French

text: and

text: Portuguese

text: coast, as well as causing great harm to the local

text: fishing industry

text: Pugh was outspoken on the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. In a feature in Business Day he said:

text: Pugh was outspoken on the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . In a feature in

text: Business Day

text: he said:

text: Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant environmental degradation resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated drill cuttings, but also from oil spills. While the oil gusher involved in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico originates from a wellhead only 1500 meters below the ocean surface, it nevertheless illustrates the kind of environmental disaster that can result from mishaps related to offshore drilling for oil and gas.

text: Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant

text: environmental degradation

text: resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated

text: drill cuttings

text: , but also from

text: oil spill

text: s. While the

text: oil gusher

text: involved in the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: originates from a

text: wellhead

text: only 1500 meters below the ocean surface, it nevertheless illustrates the kind of

text: environmental disaster

text: that can result from mishaps related to

text: offshore drilling

text: for oil and gas.

text: Unlike the crew aboard the Emily S., the governments of the United States and Puerto Rico were well prepared to deal with the spill. The two countries also met most of the requirements that were set forth by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. For example, a spill response plan for the area had been developed and it was executed to near perfection. Millions of dollars of oil cleanup equipment was already stationed in Puerto Rico and was deployed into action within a matter of hours after the spill. As mentioned earlier, despite the overall success of Puerto Rico's oil spill response plans there were still some areas for improvement. For example, there were some mechanical failures with some skimmer boats, inappropriate use of oil soaking materials, and an insufficient number of properly trained personnel. There were also problems with communication between agencies as well as some organizational issues during the cleanup process. The Berman spill served as a field test of how well the plans set forth by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 worked, and provided many examples on how future spill response efforts could be improved. Several, though not all, of the things learned during this spill affected response efforts for future spills such as the BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.

text: Unlike the crew aboard the Emily S., the governments of the

text: United States

text: BP Oil Spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: in 2010.

text: The pipeline has at times been damaged due to sabotage, human error, maintenance failures, and natural disasters. By law, Alyeska is required to report significant oil spills to regulatory authorities. The Exxon Valdez oil spill is the best-known accident involving Alaska oil, but it did not involve the pipeline itself. Following the spill, Alyeska created a rapid response force that is paid for by the oil companies, including ExxonMobil, which was found liable for the spill.

text: The pipeline has at times been damaged due to sabotage, human error, maintenance failures, and natural disasters. By law, Alyeska is required to report significant oil spills to regulatory authorities. The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: is the best-known accident involving Alaska oil, but it did not involve the pipeline itself. Following the spill, Alyeska created a rapid response force that is paid for by the oil companies, including

text: ExxonMobil

text: , which was found liable for the spill.

text: Although double-hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea and spills from a double-hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the Mid-Deck Tanker, the Coulombi Egg Tanker and even a pre-MARPOL tanker, as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches hydrostatic balance sooner.

text: Although double-hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea and spills from a double-hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the

text: Mid-Deck Tanker

text: , the

text: Coulombi Egg Tanker

text: and even a pre-MARPOL tanker, as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches

text: hydrostatic balance

text: sooner.

text: Dr. Halanych has also been a collaborator from Auburn University regarding the possible consequenses of and solutions to the 2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill

text: In 2006, the Pacific States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force selected the Marine Exchange of Alaska as the recipient of its annual Legacy Award for Oil Spill Prevention, Preparedness, and Response. The award was “in recognition of the organization’s development of the Automated Secure Vessel Tracking System (ASVTS) that has served as an exemplary oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response tool for Alaska with applications throughout the Pacific and nationwide.”In 2010 the Marine Exchange of Alaska received the Meritorious Public Service Award, “one of the highest civilian awards offered by the U.S. Coast Guard,” recognizing the organization for its Alaskan AIS network. The award was presented to the Marine Exchange of Alaska by Rear Adm. Christopher Colvin, 17th District commander on February 4, 2010. Letters of congratulations from the Governor of Alaska, Sean Parnell and United States Senator Mark Begich were received following the ceremony.

text: In 2006, the Pacific States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force selected the Marine Exchange of Alaska as the recipient of its annual Legacy Award for

entity_name: Offshore oil spill prevention and response

text: Oil Spill Prevention, Preparedness, and Response

text: . The award was “in recognition of the organization’s development of the Automated Secure Vessel Tracking System (ASVTS) that has served as an exemplary oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response tool for Alaska with applications throughout the Pacific and nationwide.”In 2010 the Marine Exchange of Alaska received the Meritorious Public Service Award, “one of the highest

text: civilian awards

text: offered by the U.S. Coast Guard,” recognizing the organization for its Alaskan AIS network. The award was presented to the Marine Exchange of Alaska by Rear Adm. Christopher Colvin,

entity_name: List of United States Coast Guard stations

text: 17th District

text: commander on February 4, 2010. Letters of congratulations from the

text: Governor of Alaska

text: Sean Parnell

text: and

text: United States Senator

text: Mark Begich

text: were received following the ceremony.

text: Public concerns have particularly focused on the risk of a spill under the Straits of Mackinac, and the difficulty of controlling any spill that might occur. According to Enbridge, the pipes under the straits have never leaked, are monitored 24 hours a day, and are regularly inspected by underwater autonomous vehicles.  However, there have been numerous spills elsewhere in Michigan from Enbridge pipelines, including a major Line 5 spill at Crystal Falls in 1999, as well as the 2010 Kalamazoo River oil spill on Line 6.

text: Public concerns have particularly focused on the risk of a spill under the Straits of Mackinac, and the difficulty of controlling any spill that might occur. According to Enbridge, the pipes under the straits have never leaked, are monitored 24 hours a day, and are regularly inspected by

text: underwater autonomous vehicle

text: s.  However, there have been numerous spills elsewhere in Michigan from Enbridge pipelines, including a major Line 5 spill at

text: Crystal Falls

text: in 1999, as well as the 2010

text: Kalamazoo River oil spill

text: on Line 6.

text: Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution events. However, while a tanker wreck may result in extensive newspaper headlines, much of the oil in the world’s seas comes from other smaller sources, such as tankers discharging ballast water from oil tanks used on return ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of down sewers.

text: A VLCC tanker can carry  of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez oil spill. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped  of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organisations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s."

text: A VLCC tanker can carry  of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: . In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped  of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000

text: seabirds

text: , about 1,000

text: sea otters

text: , and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organisations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The

entity_name: International Association of Independent Tanker Owners

text: International Association of Independent Tanker Owners

text: has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s."

text: On July 26, 2010, 840,000 gallons of dilbit crude oil leaked from the pipeline in Calhoun County, Michigan, spilling into Talmadge Creek that flows into the Kalamazoo River. Despite alarms at Edmonton headquarters it took eighteen hours and a report from a Michigan utilities employee before the pipeline company acted to halt the flow finally. Enbridge reached a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice and Environmental Protection Agency for a total of $177 million in response to the spill, along with an additional spill in Romeoville, Illinois later that year. This settlement included $110 million in spill prevention, $62 million in Clean Water Act violations, and $5.4 million in cleanup costs. In addition, the company was fined $3.7 million by the United States Department of Transportation due to 24 violations in pipeline safety regulation. By 2014, the cost of cleanup to the company totaled to $1.21 billion.

text: On July 26, 2010, 840,000 gallons of

text: dilbit

text: crude oil leaked from the pipeline in

text: Calhoun County, Michigan

text: , spilling into Talmadge Creek that flows into the

text: Kalamazoo River

text: . Despite alarms at Edmonton headquarters it took eighteen hours and a report from a Michigan utilities employee before the pipeline company acted to halt the flow finally. Enbridge reached a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice and Environmental Protection Agency for a total of $177 million in response to the spill, along with an additional spill in Romeoville, Illinois later that year. This settlement included $110 million in spill prevention, $62 million in Clean Water Act violations, and $5.4 million in cleanup costs. In addition, the company was fined $3.7 million by the

entity_name: United States Department of Transportation

text: United States Department of Transportation

text: due to 24 violations in pipeline safety regulation. By 2014, the cost of cleanup to the company totaled to $1.21 billion.

text: With the advent of the Unit Deployment Program, on September 1, 1978, HMM-164 returned home to MCAS Santa Ana, California. In September 1978, the squadron rejoined Marine Aircraft Group 36 (MAG-36) at MCAS(H) Futenma for a six-month tour beginning in August 1979 and returning to MCAS(H) Tustin in February 1980. On November 1, 1980, HMM-164 became the first unit on the West Coast to receive the "E" model CH-46. By March 1981, the squadron had received its full complement of "Echo" helicopters.  During the summer of 1989, the squadron simultaneously supported oil spill cleanup efforts in Valdez, Alaska and an Air Contingency Force at Soto Cano Air Base, Honduras.

text: With the advent of the

text: Unit Deployment Program

text: , on September 1, 1978, HMM-164 returned home to MCAS Santa Ana, California. In September 1978, the squadron rejoined

text: Marine Aircraft Group 36

text: (MAG-36) at MCAS(H) Futenma for a six-month tour beginning in August 1979 and returning to

text: MCAS(H) Tustin

text: in February 1980. On November 1, 1980, HMM-164 became the first unit on the West Coast to receive the "E" model CH-46. By March 1981, the squadron had received its full complement of "Echo" helicopters.  During the summer of 1989, the squadron simultaneously supported oil spill cleanup efforts in

text: Valdez, Alaska

text: and an Air Contingency Force at Soto Cano Air Base, Honduras.

text: Title II is entitled "Security, Enforcement, and Investigations." It makes appropriations for: (1) U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), including for border security fencing, infrastructure, and technology; (2) U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), including to reimburse other federal agencies for the costs associated with the care, maintenance, and repatriation of smuggled aliens unlawfully present in the United States, to identify and remove from the United States aliens convicted of a crime once they are judged deportable, and for detention and removal operations; (3) the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), including for aviation security (including explosives detection systems), surface transportation security, screening programs of the Office of Transportation Threat Assessment and Credentialing, transportation security support and intelligence, and the Federal Air Marshals; (4) the Coast Guard, including funding derived from the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund for prevention, removal, and enforcement related to oil discharges, funding for environmental compliance and restoration functions, and funding for the Coast Guard Reserve; and (5) the U.S. Secret Service.

text: Title II is entitled "Security, Enforcement, and Investigations." It makes appropriations for: (1)

text: U.S. Customs and Border Protection

text: (CBP), including for border security fencing, infrastructure, and technology; (2)

entity_name: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

text: U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

text: (ICE), including to reimburse other federal agencies for the costs associated with the care, maintenance, and repatriation of smuggled aliens unlawfully present in the United States, to identify and remove from the United States aliens convicted of a crime once they are judged deportable, and for detention and removal operations; (3) the

text: Transportation Security Administration

text: (TSA), including for aviation security (including explosives detection systems), surface transportation security, screening programs of the

text: Office of Transportation Threat Assessment and Credentialing

text: , transportation security support and intelligence, and the

text: Federal Air Marshals

text: ; (4) the

text: Coast Guard

text: , including funding derived from the

text: Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund

text: for prevention, removal, and enforcement related to oil discharges, funding for environmental compliance and restoration functions, and funding for the

text: Coast Guard Reserve

text: ; and (5) the

text: U.S. Secret Service

text: The Prestige was an oil tanker whose sinking in 2002 off the Galician coast caused a large oil spill. The spill polluted thousands of kilometers of coastline and more than one thousand beaches on the Spanish and French coast, as well as causing great damage to the local fishing industry.

text: The Prestige was an

text: oil tanker

text: whose sinking in 2002 off the

text: Galician

text: coast caused a large

text: oil spill

text: . The spill polluted thousands of kilometers of

text: coastline

text: and more than one thousand

text: beach

text: es on the

text: Spanish

text: and

text: French

text: coast, as well as causing great damage to the local

text: fishing industry

text: The Vietnamese living along the Gulf of Mexico were affected by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.

text: The Vietnamese living along the Gulf of Mexico were affected by the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010.

text: The light crude oil spilled in the Mega Borg incident was brown and evaporated much quicker than the heavy crude oil in spills such as the Exxon Valdez. This means that the oil is less likely to heavily coat nearby beaches, flora and fauna, however the tanker was carrying more oil than the Exxon Valdez incident spilled in total, so there was a lot of concern about the oil not being able to evaporate if the slick became too thick.

text: The

text: light crude oil

text: spilled in the Mega Borg incident was brown and

text: evaporated

text: much quicker than the

text: heavy crude oil

text: in spills such as the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: . This means that the oil is less likely to heavily coat nearby beaches, flora and fauna, however the tanker was carrying more oil than the Exxon Valdez incident spilled in total, so there was a lot of concern about the oil not being able to evaporate if the slick became too thick.

text: Major oil spills include the Kuwaiti oil fires, Kuwaiti oil lakes, Lakeview Gusher, Gulf War oil spill, and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Spilt oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

text: Major oil spills include the

text: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Kuwaiti oil lakes

text: Lakeview Gusher

text: Gulf War oil spill

text: , and the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . Spilt oil penetrates into the structure of the

text: plumage

text: of birds and the

text: fur

text: of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less

text: buoyant

text: in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

text: BP has been directly involved in several major environmental and safety incidents. Among them were the 2005 Texas City Refinery explosion, which caused the death of 15 workers and resulted in a record-setting OSHA fine; Britain's largest oil spill, the wreck of Torrey Canyon; and the 2006 Prudhoe Bay oil spill, the largest oil spill on Alaska's North Slope, which resulted in a US$25 million civil penalty, the largest per-barrel penalty at that time for an oil spill.

text: BP has been directly involved in several major environmental and safety incidents. Among them were the 2005

text: Texas City Refinery explosion

text: , which caused the death of 15 workers and resulted in a record-setting

entity_name: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

text: OSHA

text: fine; Britain's largest oil spill, the wreck of

text: Torrey Canyon

text: ; and the 2006

text: Prudhoe Bay oil spill

text: , the largest oil spill on

text: Alaska's North Slope

text: , which resulted in a US$25 million civil penalty, the largest per-barrel penalty at that time for an oil spill.

text: For more than 50 years, there were oil spills every year in the Niger Delta, with nothing done to prevent new spills. The contamination was never cleaned, thereby leaving the water undrinkable, the lands infertile and causing the death of wildlife and aquatic lives. The conditions were compared to the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: For more than 50 years, there were oil spills every year in the Niger Delta, with nothing done to prevent new spills. The contamination was never cleaned, thereby leaving the water undrinkable, the lands infertile and causing the death of wildlife and aquatic lives. The conditions were compared to the

text: BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico

text: However bleak this situation may seem for the Niger Delta region there are clearly alternatives that can be implemented to save it from future contamination. Satellite imagery combined with the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can be put to work to quickly identify and track spilled oil. To hasten the cleanup of spills, regional cleanup sites along the problem areas could help contain spills more quickly. To make these tasks feasible more funding must be provided by the stakeholders of the oil industry.  Nongovernmental organizations will keep fighting the damaging effects of oil, but will not win the battle alone.

text: However bleak this situation may seem for the Niger Delta region there are clearly alternatives that can be implemented to save it from future contamination. Satellite imagery combined with the use of

text: Geographical Information Systems

text: (GIS) can be put to work to quickly identify and track spilled oil. To hasten the cleanup of spills, regional cleanup sites along the problem areas could help contain spills more quickly. To make these tasks feasible more funding must be provided by the stakeholders of the oil industry.  Nongovernmental organizations will keep fighting the damaging effects of oil, but will not win the battle alone.

text: Adriaens worked as a consultant on both the Exxon Valdez oil spill and the Gulf War oil spill, and has been interviewed about other oil spills in his capacity as an environmental engineer. He has also been interviewed on entrepreneurship issues, such as the valuation of newly public companies. At times he has been interviewed about the intersection between both engineering and entrepreneurship, in addition to the cleantech industry. Adriaens is a director of the Watershed Capital Group. Adriaens has made contributions to the field of Environmental Finance, especially in the field of cleantech clusters. He is the founder of Global CleanTech LLC, and a Director for CleanTech Acceleration Partners as well as for the Global CleanTech Cluster Association. In addition, he is appointed at Limnotech as academic in residence and director of Asian operations.

text: Adriaens worked as a consultant on both the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: and the

text: Gulf War oil spill

text: , and has been interviewed about other oil spills in his capacity as an environmental engineer. He has also been interviewed on entrepreneurship issues, such as the valuation of newly public companies. At times he has been interviewed about the intersection between both engineering and entrepreneurship, in addition to the cleantech industry. Adriaens is a director of the Watershed Capital Group. Adriaens has made contributions to the field of Environmental Finance, especially in the field of cleantech clusters. He is the founder of Global CleanTech LLC, and a Director for CleanTech Acceleration Partners as well as for the Global CleanTech Cluster Association. In addition, he is appointed at Limnotech as academic in residence and director of Asian operations.

text: A variety of techniques were used to address fundamental strategies for addressing the spilled oil, which were: to contain oil on the surface, dispersal, and removal. While most of the oil drilled off Louisiana is a lighter crude, the leaking oil was of a heavier blend which contained asphalt-like substances. According to Ed Overton, who heads a federal chemical hazard assessment team for oil spills, this type of oil emulsifies well. Once it becomes emulsified, it no longer evaporates as quickly as regular oil, does not rinse off as easily, cannot be eaten by microbes as easily, and does not burn as well. "That type of mixture essentially removes all the best oil clean-up weapons", Overton said.

text: A variety of techniques were used to address fundamental strategies for addressing the spilled oil, which were: to contain oil on the surface, dispersal, and removal. While most of the oil drilled off Louisiana is a lighter crude, the leaking oil was of a heavier blend which contained

text: asphalt

text: -like substances. According to Ed Overton, who heads a federal chemical hazard assessment team for oil spills, this type of oil

text: emulsifies

text: well. Once it becomes emulsified, it no longer evaporates as quickly as regular oil, does not rinse off as easily, cannot be eaten by microbes as easily, and does not burn as well. "That type of mixture essentially removes all the best oil clean-up weapons", Overton said.

text: On 11 March 2011, the US Department of Justice formed the "Deepwater Horizon Task Force" to consolidate several federal agencies' investigations into possible criminal charges stemming the explosion and spill.  On 14 November 2012, the DOJ announced that BP and the DOJ had reached a $4 billion settlement of all federal criminal charges related to the explosion and spill, the largest of its kind in US history.  Under the settlement, BP agreed to plead guilty to 11 felony counts of manslaughter, two misdemeanors, and a felony count of lying to Congress and agreed to four years of government monitoring of its safety practices and ethics.  BP also paid  $525 million to settle civil charges by the Securities and Exchange Commission that it misled investors about the flow rate of oil from the well. As part of the announcement of the settlement, BP said it was increasing its reserve for a trust fund to pay costs and claims related to the spill to about $42 billion.  On the same day, the US government filed criminal charges against three BP employees; two site managers were charged with manslaughter and negligence, and one former vice president with obstruction.

text: On 11 March 2011, the US

text: Department of Justice

text: formed the "Deepwater Horizon Task Force" to consolidate several federal agencies' investigations into possible criminal charges stemming the explosion and spill.  On 14 November 2012, the DOJ announced that BP and the DOJ had reached a $4 billion settlement of all federal criminal charges related to the explosion and spill, the largest of its kind in US history.  Under the settlement, BP agreed to plead guilty to 11 felony counts of manslaughter, two misdemeanors, and a felony count of lying to Congress and agreed to four years of government monitoring of its safety practices and ethics.  BP also paid  $525 million to settle civil charges by the Securities and Exchange Commission that it misled investors about the flow rate of oil from the well. As part of the announcement of the settlement, BP said it was increasing its reserve for a trust fund to pay costs and claims related to the spill to about $42 billion.  On the same day, the US government filed criminal charges against three BP employees; two site managers were charged with manslaughter and negligence, and one former vice president with obstruction.

text: Changes and regulatory policies became the order of the day for the government following the oil spill.  Transforming the way government performed its regulatory measures were address.  One of the main changes that occurred was the enhanced precision by which the governing and the oil industries handle the environmental requirements for incidents such as this oil spill. The government changed their regulations and demanded Risk Management and an Emergency Plan to be put in place. Every oil institution must execute “oil Pollution Risk Assessment”.

text: At about 12:25 P.M. on January 29, 1975, the ship was entering the Port of Leixões in Portugal, while entering the Danish tanker hit sandbar and cause the ship to spill massive amounts of oil into the ocean followed by a few explosions inside the engine room. The cause of this infamous disaster was because of human error. 7 of those 17 crew members died in that explosion, the majority of deaths were engineers.

text: The recovery tanks, equipped with heating and an inert gas system that uses nitrogen to displace explosive gases, have a total capacity of 1,200 cubic metres for spilled oil and 200 cubic metres for chemicals. In addition to recovery equipment the vessel carries  of heavy duty oil boom.

text: The recovery tanks, equipped with heating and an

text: inert gas system

text: that uses

text: nitrogen

text: to displace explosive gases, have a total capacity of 1,200 cubic metres for spilled oil and 200 cubic metres for chemicals. In addition to recovery equipment the vessel carries  of heavy duty oil boom.

text: Ink uses up non-renewable oils and metals, which have a negative impact on the environment.

text: Determine the properties, distribution, and extent of the oil spill and dispersants.Conduct baseline studies and impact assessments to provide the basis for long-term monitoring.Contribute to an integrated coastal and ocean observing system, and improve modeling capabilities for forecasting environmental impacts related to the oil spill.Develop and implement systems for data integration, synthesis, sharing, and dissemination.Develop and implement strategies to protect and restore habitats and species.Priority will be given to projects that are collaborative between two or more FIO members and/or the Northern Gulf Institute and Louisiana State University, which also received BP funding for initial research.

text: Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

text: oil slick

text: which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly

text: bulldozed

text: Rubin had been involved in some activism prior to 1969. However, the turning point for her came during the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, which began on January 28, 1969 and became the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history at the time. The spill, which lasted for eleven days and polluted the Santa Barbara Channel with almost 100,000 barrels of crude oil, killed thousands of seabirds and other aquatic wildlife. She, along with thousands of other volunteers, responded to the spill, which galvanized her environmental activism. In 1970, she successfully led a voter campaign to preserve the Gaviota Coast of California from a proposal to build 1,535 condos in the area.

text: Rubin had been involved in some activism prior to 1969. However, the turning point for her came during the

text: 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill

text: , which began on January 28, 1969 and became the largest

text: environmental disaster

text: in U.S. history at the time. The spill, which lasted for eleven days and polluted the

text: Santa Barbara Channel

text: with almost 100,000 barrels of

text: crude oil

text: , killed thousands of seabirds and other aquatic wildlife. She, along with thousands of other volunteers, responded to the spill, which galvanized her environmental activism. In 1970, she successfully led a voter campaign to preserve the

text: Gaviota Coast

text: of

text: California

text: from a proposal to build 1,535 condos in the area.

text: The fruit of the Ceiba tree contains a fiber that is eight time lighter than cotton and five times more buoyant than cork. As such it was used as the flotation for early life preservers. In addition to these attributes, the fiber fully repels water, has a low thermal conductivity and is resistant to rot. A little known fact is that before synthetics were used for insulation materials, mattresses and pillows, these were stuffed with the fiber of the Ceiba tree fruit. It was recently discovered that the absorption capacity of this fiber is also higher than that of the polypropylene material normally used in the cleanup of environmental oil spills. "The wood of the Ceiba tree is exceedingly lightweight and easily worked. However, because it lacks durability and is susceptible to insects and decay, it was mostly used for the construction of large canoes by the indigenous inhabitants of the region." Canoes made of Ceiba tree trunks were able to seat over 100 men.

text: The fruit of the Ceiba tree contains a fiber that is eight time lighter than cotton and five times more

text: buoyant

text: than cork. As such it was used as the flotation for early life preservers. In addition to these attributes, the fiber fully repels water, has a low thermal conductivity and is resistant to rot. A little known fact is that before synthetics were used for insulation materials, mattresses and pillows, these were stuffed with the fiber of the Ceiba tree fruit. It was recently discovered that the absorption capacity of this fiber is also higher than that of the polypropylene material normally used in the cleanup of environmental

text: oil spill

text: s. "The wood of the Ceiba tree is exceedingly lightweight and easily worked. However, because it lacks durability and is susceptible to insects and decay, it was mostly used for the construction of large canoes by the indigenous inhabitants of the region." Canoes made of Ceiba tree trunks were able to seat over 100 men.

text: Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval replenishment oiler, a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel. Combination ore-bulk-oil carriers and permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high-profile oil spills. As a result, they are subject to stringent design and operational regulations.

text: Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval

text: replenishment oiler

text: , a tanker which can

text: fuel a moving vessel

text: . Combination

text: ore-bulk-oil carrier

text: s and permanently moored

entity_name: Floating production storage and offloading

text: floating storage units

text: are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high-profile

text: oil spill

text: s. As a result, they are subject to stringent design and operational regulations.

text: Hundreds of oiled birds and large numbers of dead lobsters, surf clams, and sea stars were recovered in the weeks following the spill. US federal and Rhode Island state governments undertook considerable work to clean up the spill and restore lost fishery stocks and coastal marine habitat. The  North Cape oil spill is considered a significant legal precedent in that it was the first major oil spill in the continental U.S. after the passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, resulting from the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska on March 24, 1989.

text: Hundreds of oiled birds and large numbers of dead lobsters, surf clams, and sea stars were recovered in the weeks following the spill. US federal and

text: Rhode Island

text: state governments undertook considerable work to clean up the spill and restore lost fishery stocks and coastal marine habitat. The  North Cape oil spill is considered a significant legal precedent in that it was the first major oil spill in the continental U.S. after the passage of the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: , resulting from the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: in

text: Alaska

text: on March 24, 1989.

text: On June 14, 2010, Murray was appointed by Barack Obama to the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling in the wake of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: On June 14, 2010, Murray was appointed by

text: Barack Obama

text: to the

entity_name: National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling

text: National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling

text: in the wake of the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: The spill was also notable for the volume of Corexit oil dispersant used, as well as the methods of application which that time were "purely experimental".  Although usage of dispersants was described as "most effective and fast moving tool for minimizing shoreline impact", this use of dispersant was questioned at the time and its effects continue to be questioned and investigated.  Altogether,  of dispersants were used; of this  were used subsea at the wellhead.

text: The spill was also notable for the volume of

text: Corexit

text: oil dispersant

text: used, as well as the methods of application which that time were "purely experimental".  Although usage of dispersants was described as "most effective and fast moving tool for minimizing shoreline impact", this use of dispersant was questioned at the time and its effects continue to be questioned and investigated.  Altogether,  of dispersants were used; of this  were used subsea at the wellhead.

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) (101 H.R.1465, P.L. 101-380) was passed by the 101st United States Congress and signed by President George H. W. Bush. The Oil Pollution Act works to avoid oil spills from vessels and facilities by enforcing removal of spilled oil and assigning liability for the cost of cleanup and damages. The act requires specific operating procedures; defines responsible parties and financial liability; implements processes for measuring damages; specifies damages for which violators are liable; and establishes a fund for damages, cleanup, and removal costs. This statute has resulted in instrumental changes in the oil production, transportation, and distribution industries.

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) (101 H.R.1465, P.L. 101-380) was passed by the

text: 101st United States Congress

text: and signed by President

text: George H. W. Bush

text: . The Oil Pollution Act works to avoid oil spills from vessels and facilities by enforcing removal of spilled oil and assigning liability for the cost of cleanup and damages. The act requires specific operating procedures; defines responsible parties and financial liability; implements processes for measuring damages; specifies damages for which violators are liable; and establishes a fund for damages, cleanup, and removal costs. This statute has resulted in instrumental changes in the oil production, transportation, and distribution industries.

text: Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes impacts on biophysical environments, biodiversity, and other resources. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity. The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist Alexey Pavlov, and was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in reference to human influences on climax plant communities. The atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen introduced the term "anthropocene" in the mid-1970s. The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are produced as a result of human activities but applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.

text: Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes impacts on

text: biophysical environments

text: biodiversity

text: , and other resources. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from

text: human activity

text: . The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist

text: Alexey Pavlov

text: , and was first used in English by British ecologist

text: Arthur Tansley

text: in reference to human influences on

text: climax

text: plant communities. The atmospheric scientist

text: Paul Crutzen

text: introduced the term "

text: anthropocene

text: " in the mid-1970s. The term is sometimes used in the context of

text: pollution

text: emissions that are produced as a result of human activities but applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment.

text: Oil spills, as well daily oil runoff from urbanized areas can lead to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) entering marine ecosystems. Once PAHs  enter the marine environment, fish can be exposed to them via ingestion, ventilation of the gills, and dermal uptake. The major route of uptake will depend on the behavior of the species of fish and the physicochemical properties of the PAH of concern. Habitat can be a major deciding factor for the route of exposure. For example, demersal fish or fish that consume demersal fish are highly likely to ingest PAHs that have sorbed to the sediment, whereas fish that swim at the surface are at a higher risk for dermal exposure. Upon coming in contact with a PAH, bioavailability will effect how readily the PAH is taken up. The EPA identifies 16 major PAHs of concern and each of these PAHs has a different degree of bioavailability. For instance, PAHs with lower molecular weight are more bioavailable because they dissolve more readily in water and are therefore more bioavailable for fish within the water column. Similarly, hydrophilic PAHs are more bioavailable for uptake by fish. For this reason, usage of oil dispersants, like Corexit, to treat oil spills can increase the uptake of PAHs by increasing their solubility in water and making them more available for uptake via the gills. Once a PAH is taken up, the fish's metabolism can affect the duration and intensity of the exposure to target tissues. Fish are able to readily metabolize 99% of PAHs to a more hydrophilic metabolite through their hepato-bilary system. This allows for the excretion of PAHs. The rate of metabolism of PAHs will depend on the sex and size of the species. The ability to metabolize PAHs into a more hydrophillic form can prevent bioaccumulation and halt PAHs from being passed on to organisms further up the food web. Because oil can persist in the environment long after oil spills via sedimentation, demersal fish are likely to be continually exposed to PAHs many years after oil spills. This has been proven by looking at the biliary PAH metabolites of bottom dwelling fish. For instance, bottom dwelling fish still showed elevated levels of low molecular weight PAH metabolites 10 years after Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: Oil spills, as well daily oil runoff from urbanized areas can lead to

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: (PAHs) entering marine ecosystems. Once PAHs  enter the marine environment, fish can be exposed to them via ingestion, ventilation of the gills, and dermal uptake. The major route of uptake will depend on the behavior of the species of fish and the physicochemical properties of the PAH of concern. Habitat can be a major deciding factor for the route of exposure. For example, demersal fish or fish that consume demersal fish are highly likely to ingest PAHs that have sorbed to the sediment, whereas fish that swim at the surface are at a higher risk for dermal exposure. Upon coming in contact with a PAH,

text: bioavailability

text: will effect how readily the PAH is taken up. The EPA identifies 16 major PAHs of concern and each of these PAHs has a different degree of bioavailability. For instance, PAHs with lower molecular weight are more bioavailable because they dissolve more readily in water and are therefore more bioavailable for fish within the water column. Similarly,

text: hydrophilic

text: PAHs are more bioavailable for uptake by fish. For this reason, usage of

text: oil dispersants

text: , like

text: Corexit

text: , to treat oil spills can increase the uptake of PAHs by increasing their solubility in water and making them more available for uptake via the gills. Once a PAH is taken up, the fish's metabolism can affect the duration and intensity of the exposure to target tissues. Fish are able to readily metabolize 99% of PAHs to a more hydrophilic

text: metabolite

text: through their hepato-bilary system. This allows for the excretion of PAHs. The rate of metabolism of PAHs will depend on the sex and size of the species. The ability to metabolize PAHs into a more hydrophillic form can prevent

text: bioaccumulation

text: and halt PAHs from being passed on to organisms further up the food web. Because oil can persist in the environment long after oil spills via sedimentation, demersal fish are likely to be continually exposed to PAHs many years after oil spills. This has been proven by looking at the biliary PAH metabolites of bottom dwelling fish. For instance, bottom dwelling fish still showed elevated levels of low molecular weight PAH metabolites 10 years after Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: The third and final maritime safety package addressed civil liability and flag states. The Prestige oil spill showed that the existing regulations were inadequate, according to the Parliament member that guided the legislation.  "We could have avoided the Prestige oil spill," said Loyola de Palacio, vice-president in charge of Transport and Energy, claiming that the spill would not have happened if the European Commission's Erika I and II proposals had been fully adopted and implemented.

text: The third and final maritime safety package addressed civil liability and

text: flag states

text: . The

text: Prestige oil spill

text: showed that the existing regulations were inadequate, according to the Parliament member that guided the legislation.  "We could have avoided the Prestige oil spill," said Loyola de Palacio, vice-president in charge of Transport and Energy, claiming that the spill would not have happened if the European Commission's Erika I and II proposals had been fully adopted and implemented.

text: Project Deep Spill was the first intentional deepwater oil spill, in order to study how crude oil behaved in-depth. A Joint Industry Project comprising 23 oil companies and the Minerals Management Service performed a sea trial in late June 2000 in the Helland Hansen region of the Norwegian Sea. The trial made several releases of varying combinations of crude oil (750 barrels), marine diesel, methane (18 cubic metres) and nitrogen gas from the seabed at 840 metres below sea-level.

text: Project Deep Spill was the first intentional deepwater

text: oil spill

text: , in order to study how crude oil behaved in-depth. A

text: Joint Industry Project

text: comprising 23 oil companies and the

text: Minerals Management Service

text: performed a sea trial in late June 2000 in the Helland Hansen region of the

text: Norwegian Sea

text: . The trial made several releases of varying combinations of crude oil (750 barrels), marine diesel, methane (18 cubic metres) and nitrogen gas from the seabed at 840 metres below sea-level.

text: One equation for the modeling of oil spills is:

text: Due to the threat of large swells, several oil rigs along the Texas coastline were evacuated as a precautionary measure. Workers from the Chevron Corporation and the Anadarko Petroleum Corporation were evacuated from offshore platforms while those working for ConocoPhillips and ExxonMobil remained on site. The Louisiana Offshore Oil Port was also shut down on November 9 as a result of Ida's passage. As a result of the decreased oil production, the price of oil rose more than $1 to $78 per barrel.  Among the rigs that were damaged was the Transocean Marianas which was drilling the Macondo well.  That vessel would be replaced on the Macondo Well by the Deepwater Horizon, which caused the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.

text: Due to the threat of large swells, several oil rigs along the Texas coastline were evacuated as a precautionary measure. Workers from the

text: Chevron Corporation

text: and the

text: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation

text: were evacuated from offshore platforms while those working for

text: ConocoPhillips

text: and

text: ExxonMobil

text: remained on site. The

text: Louisiana Offshore Oil Port

text: was also shut down on November 9 as a result of Ida's passage. As a result of the decreased oil production, the price of oil rose more than $1 to $78 per barrel.  Among the rigs that were damaged was the

text: Transocean Marianas

text: which was drilling the

text: Macondo well

text: .  That vessel would be replaced on the Macondo Well by the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: , which caused the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010.

text: The Galician coast was an extremely vital source of income for Spain and the fishermen. Popular catch was crab, lobster, salmon farming, and their main profit came from their production of shellfish. Soon after the oil spill, Spain ordered a study of the ecosystem in order to evaluate the damage done to the benthic fauna in the region, and muddy sediments. This study was enforced due to the fact that an earlier oil spill had occurred in the same area; on May 12, 1976, the supertanker Urquiola scraped the bottom of the channel entrance in A Coruña, causing the ship to spill its cargo of 107,000 tons of oil. This, in turn, affected sea life as well as subtidal sediments, but the surviving sea life developed a defense mechanism which allowed them to survive such a crisis. The sea life in A Coruña seemed normal, but a second spilled occurred on December 3, 1993, this being Aegean Sea, which affected sea life once again. To determine the damage done to the sea life, a study was designed by determining the species richness, abundance, and biomass. Scientist analyzed the change from December 1992 to November 1996, and realized that the macrobenthic communities living in the coast of the affected areas displayed a similar trend as the original organisms in Urquiolas oil spill. Amphipods seemed to be affected the hardest by the oil spill, and experienced a high mortality rate up to the spring of 1995; also, a low abundance rate was experienced throughout this time Soon after, the species seemed to recover until the end of 1996. towards the end of the study, a trend was discovered in which resistant species dominated the ecosystem. A third oil spill occurred around the same area in A Coruña in which a tanker, Prestige, carrying 77,000 tons of oil crack into two and spilled its cargo. 10,000 tons of oil was spilled but the sunken hull of Prestige is still leaking oil from her tanks to this day.

text: The Galician coast was an extremely vital source of income for Spain and the fishermen. Popular catch was crab, lobster, salmon farming, and their main profit came from their production of shellfish. Soon after the oil spill, Spain ordered a study of the ecosystem in order to evaluate the damage done to the benthic fauna in the region, and muddy sediments. This study was enforced due to the fact that an earlier oil spill had occurred in the same area; on May 12, 1976, the supertanker Urquiola scraped the bottom of the channel entrance in A Coruña, causing the ship to spill its cargo of 107,000 tons of oil. This, in turn, affected sea life as well as subtidal sediments, but the surviving sea life developed a defense mechanism which allowed them to survive such a crisis. The sea life in A Coruña seemed normal, but a second spilled occurred on December 3, 1993, this being Aegean Sea, which affected sea life once again. To determine the damage done to the sea life, a study was designed by determining the species richness, abundance, and biomass. Scientist analyzed the change from December 1992 to November 1996, and realized that the

text: macrobenthic

text: communities living in the coast of the affected areas displayed a similar trend as the original organisms in Urquiolas oil spill.

text: Amphipods

text: seemed to be affected the hardest by the oil spill, and experienced a high mortality rate up to the spring of 1995; also, a low abundance rate was experienced throughout this time Soon after, the species seemed to recover until the end of 1996. towards the end of the study, a trend was discovered in which resistant species dominated the ecosystem. A third oil spill occurred around the same area in A Coruña in which a tanker,

text: Prestige

text: , carrying 77,000 tons of oil crack into two and spilled its cargo. 10,000 tons of oil was spilled but the sunken hull of Prestige is still leaking oil from her tanks to this day.

text: The severity of damage directly correlates with the amount of oil spilled and the animal's exposure to oil. However, a small spill at a more sensitive season or environment may have more drastic impacts than a large spill in a less sensitive season or environment. External exposure to oil often leads to destroyed insulating fur or feathers, resulting in death from hypothermia. Contact with oil can also result in blindness, which impairs animals' ability to compete for food or to avoid predators.

text: Overall, long-term environmental effects of the spill seemed to be minimal.  In a "no strings attached" study funded by the Western Oil and Gas Association, through the Allan Hancock Foundation at the University of Southern California, the authors suggested several hypotheses for the lack of environmental damage to biologic resources in the Channel aside from pelagic birds and intertidal organisms.  First, creatures there may have evolved a tolerance to oil in the water due to the presence of natural seeps in the vicinity for at least tens of thousands of years; the area around Coal Oil Point has one of the most active natural underwater oil seeps in the world.  Second, the abundance of oil-eating bacteria in the water may be greater because of that routine presence of oil in the water.  Third, the spill happened between two large Pacific storms; the storms broke up the oil, scattering it more quickly than happens in many other oil spills, and additionally the sediment load in the seawater from freshwater runoff would have been greater, and this assisted the oil in quickly sinking.  Fourth, Santa Barbara Channel crude oil is heavy, having API gravity between 10 and 13, and is both minimally soluble in water, and sinks relatively easily.  Therefore, fish and other organisms were exposed to the oil for a shorter time than was the case with other oil spills, such as the 1967 Torrey Canyon spill in which the crude was lighter, and emulsified during treatment with massive quantities of toxic dispersants and detergents, causing it to remain in place longer.

text: Overall, long-term environmental effects of the spill seemed to be minimal.  In a "no strings attached" study funded by the Western Oil and Gas Association, through the

text: Allan Hancock

text: Foundation at the

text: University of Southern California

text: , the authors suggested several hypotheses for the lack of environmental damage to biologic resources in the Channel aside from

text: pelagic

text: birds and intertidal organisms.  First, creatures there may have evolved a tolerance to oil in the water due to the presence of natural seeps in the vicinity for at least tens of thousands of years; the area around Coal Oil Point has one of the most active natural underwater oil seeps in the world.  Second, the abundance of oil-eating bacteria in the water may be greater because of that routine presence of oil in the water.  Third, the spill happened between two large Pacific storms; the storms broke up the oil, scattering it more quickly than happens in many other oil spills, and additionally the sediment load in the seawater from freshwater runoff would have been greater, and this assisted the oil in quickly sinking.  Fourth, Santa Barbara Channel crude oil is heavy, having

text: API gravity

text: between 10 and 13, and is both minimally soluble in water, and sinks relatively easily.  Therefore, fish and other organisms were exposed to the oil for a shorter time than was the case with other oil spills, such as the 1967

text: Torrey Canyon

text: spill in which the crude was lighter, and emulsified during treatment with massive quantities of toxic dispersants and detergents, causing it to remain in place longer.

text: The Council was formed after the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989 by citizens of the region to provide a voice for communities affected by oil industry decisions in Prince William Sound, the Gulf of Alaska, and Cook Inlet. As part of a 1990 contract with the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, the Council receives funding but remains absolutely independent from Alyeska as long as oil flows through the trans-Alaska pipeline.  Under the terms of its contract with Alyeska, the Council reviews, monitors, and comments on various aspects of the company's operations, namely: oil spill prevention and response plans, environmental protection capabilities, and actual and potential environmental impacts of terminal and tanker operations.

text: The Council was formed after the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: of 1989 by citizens of the region to provide a voice for communities affected by oil industry decisions in

text: Prince William Sound

text: , the

text: Gulf of Alaska

text: , and

text: Cook Inlet

text: . As part of a 1990 contract with the

text: Alyeska Pipeline Service Company

text: , the Council receives funding but remains absolutely independent from Alyeska as long as oil flows through the trans-Alaska pipeline.  Under the terms of its contract with Alyeska, the Council reviews, monitors, and comments on various aspects of the company's operations, namely: oil spill prevention and response plans, environmental protection capabilities, and actual and potential environmental impacts of terminal and tanker operations.

text: Both the long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied. Immediate effects included the deaths of 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300 harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and an unknown number of salmon and herring.

text: Both the long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied. Immediate effects included the deaths of 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800

text: sea otter

text: s, approximately 12

text: river otters

text: , 300

text: harbor seals

text: , 247

text: bald eagle

text: s, and 22

text: orcas

text: , and an unknown number of salmon and herring.

text: The above legislations were the principle governing instruments of oil spills incidents prior to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Several attempts by congress to establish more encompassing and elaborate oil pollution laws were hindered by belligerent issues which mostly produced stalemates. One such conflict was federal law limiting a state’s ability to enforce requirements and liability for parties responsible for causing oil spills. The focus of the debates was mostly centred on party liability. An example of the type of debates is illustrated in the question “who is liable in the case of a vessel spill?” The cargo owner or the ship operator/ owner? Another significant issue was the interaction of domestic legislation and international measures. In 1980’s, international agreements being considered would take over oil spills federal and state laws adding further complexity to party liability.

text: The series opens with news anchor Will participating in a debate and giving a controversial speech on America's recent decline as a nation, shocking all those present. He then goes on vacation for two weeks to let the dust settle, and comes back to work only to find that his executive producer and most of his team are leaving him for another news anchor. He also discovers that his boss, Charlie Skinner, has hired him a new executive producer, Mackenzie MacHale, with whom Will has bad history. He protests, but Charlie is adamant, insisting that Mackenzie will build on his performance at Northwestern and help develop a new, improved news broadcast. Will eventually allows Mackenzie to work with him but only under the condition that he can fire her at the end of each week. Meanwhile, a news alert comes in about an explosion off the Gulf of Mexico, but no one in the newsroom believes it to be worth pursuing. Thanks to an anonymous tip given to one of Mackenzie's team members, Jim, they start to realize that the fire is actually an oil rig explosion that occurred relatively near to the Louisiana coast and that the oil spill has yet to be plugged. Will decides to take up the case and the Louisiana oil spill ends up being the main piece of news for the evening show. Their show ends up being the only one to do the piece on the oil spill; all other news stations had not realized the severity of the situation and based their shows on the iPhone prototype.

text: The series opens with news anchor Will participating in a debate and giving a controversial speech on America's recent decline as a nation, shocking all those present. He then goes on vacation for two weeks to let the dust settle, and comes back to work only to find that his executive producer and most of his team are leaving him for another news anchor. He also discovers that his boss, Charlie Skinner, has hired him a new executive producer, Mackenzie MacHale, with whom Will has bad history. He protests, but Charlie is adamant, insisting that Mackenzie will build on his performance at Northwestern and help develop a new, improved news broadcast. Will eventually allows Mackenzie to work with him but only under the condition that he can fire her at the end of each week. Meanwhile, a news alert comes in about an

text: explosion off the Gulf of Mexico

text: , but no one in the newsroom believes it to be worth pursuing. Thanks to an anonymous tip given to one of Mackenzie's team members, Jim, they start to realize that the fire is actually an oil rig explosion that occurred relatively near to the Louisiana coast and that the oil spill has yet to be plugged. Will decides to take up the case and the Louisiana oil spill ends up being the main piece of news for the evening show. Their show ends up being the only one to do the piece on the oil spill; all other news stations had not realized the severity of the situation and based their shows on the iPhone prototype.

text: Then a torpedo struck Attack amidships and blew her into two pieces, both of which sank with five to seven minutes. The explosion ruptured Attacks bunkers, spilling tons of thick, black bunker fuel oil into the sea as she sank. Hundreds of men were in the water, and many of them became covered in oil or overcome by its fumes.

text: Then a torpedo struck Attack amidships and blew her into two pieces, both of which sank with five to seven minutes. The explosion ruptured Attacks bunkers, spilling tons of thick, black

text: bunker fuel

text: oil into the sea as she sank. Hundreds of men were in the water, and many of them became covered in oil or overcome by its fumes.

text: At 11:30 PM on the evening of Saturday June 8, 1990, an explosion in the cargo room of the Norwegian oil tanker the Mega Borg “ruptured the bulkhead between the pump room and the engine room”, causing the ship to catch fire and begin to leak oil. The 853-foot-long, 15-year-old vessel was about 50 miles off the coast of Galveston, Texas when the explosion occurred. The weather at the time was calm and the tanker had easily passed Coast Guard safety inspections in April earlier that year. While the direct cause of the engine room explosion remains unknown, the initial blast occurred during a lightening process in which the Mega Borg was transferring oil onto a smaller Italian tanker, the Fraqmura, in order to then transport the oil to Houston. This transfer was necessary, as the Mega Borg was too large to dock at the Texas port. Three million gallons of the total 38 million gallons of light Angolan Palanca crude oil on board the tanker were able to be transferred to the Fraqmura before the blast.Two days after the initial blast, there were five successive explosions in a ten-minute window. These explosions greatly increased the rate of the spill from the tanker into the water. By the end of that day (June 11) the tanker stern had dropped 58 feet and had stabilized five feet above the water line. This was either due to shifting cargo or the tanker taking on water, which would be an indication of the vessel’s imminent sinking.

text: At 11:30 PM on the evening of Saturday June 8, 1990, an explosion in the cargo room of the

text: Norwegian

text: oil tanker the Mega Borg “ruptured the bulkhead between the pump room and the engine room”, causing the ship to catch fire and begin to leak oil. The 853-foot-long, 15-year-old vessel was about 50 miles off the coast of

text: Galveston, Texas

text: when the explosion occurred. The weather at the time was calm and the tanker had easily passed Coast Guard safety inspections in April earlier that year. While the direct cause of the engine room explosion remains unknown, the initial blast occurred during a lightening process in which the Mega Borg was transferring oil onto a smaller Italian tanker, the Fraqmura, in order to then transport the oil to

text: Houston

text: . This transfer was necessary, as the Mega Borg was too large to dock at the Texas port. Three million gallons of the total 38 million gallons of light

text: Angola

text: n Palanca crude oil on board the tanker were able to be transferred to the Fraqmura before the blast.Two days after the initial blast, there were five successive explosions in a ten-minute window. These explosions greatly increased the rate of the spill from the tanker into the water. By the end of that day (June 11) the tanker stern had dropped 58 feet and had stabilized five feet above the water line. This was either due to shifting cargo or the tanker taking on water, which would be an indication of the vessel’s imminent sinking.

text: In 2013, opening on the Keystone XL pipeline proposal, the EPA recommended to the State Department that pipelines that carry dilbit (such as the proposed Keystone XL) should no longer be treated just like pipelines that carry any other oil. "We have learned from the 2010 Enbridge spill of oil sands crude in Michigan that spills of diluted bitumen (dilbit) may require different response actions or equipment from response actions for conventional oil spills. These spills can also have different impacts than spills of conventional oil. ... We recommend that the Final EIS more clearly acknowledge that in the event of a spill to water, it is possible that large portions of dilbit will sink and that submerged oil significantly changes spill response and impacts. We also recommend that the Final EIS include means to address the additional risks of releases that may be greater for spills of dilbit than other crudes. For example, in the Enbridge spill, the local health department issued voluntary evacuation notices based on the level of benzene measured in the air."

text: In 2013, opening on the

text: Keystone XL pipeline

text: proposal, the EPA recommended to the

text: State Department

text: that pipelines that carry dilbit (such as the proposed Keystone XL) should no longer be treated just like pipelines that carry any other oil. "We have learned from the 2010 Enbridge spill of oil sands crude in Michigan that spills of diluted bitumen (dilbit) may require different response actions or equipment from response actions for conventional oil spills. These spills can also have different impacts than spills of conventional oil. ... We recommend that the Final

text: EIS

text: more clearly acknowledge that in the event of a spill to water, it is possible that large portions of dilbit will sink and that submerged oil significantly changes spill response and impacts. We also recommend that the Final EIS include means to address the additional risks of releases that may be greater for spills of dilbit than other crudes. For example, in the Enbridge spill, the local health department issued voluntary evacuation notices based on the level of

text: benzene

text: measured in the air."

text: The theory behind the cleanup hitter is that, at the beginning of the game, if at least one of the first three batters reaches base with a single-base hit or walk, a home run will result in two or more runs rather than just one (a "solo" home run). If all three players reach base, thereby loading the bases, the cleanup hitter has the chance to hit a grand slam, scoring four runs. But even without the grand slam, this batter can extend an inning with a high batting average and frequent walks.

text: The theory behind the cleanup hitter is that, at the beginning of the game, if at least one of the first three batters reaches base with a

text: single-base hit

text: or

text: walk

text: , a home run will result in two or more runs rather than just one (a "solo" home run). If all three players reach base, thereby

text: loading the bases

text: , the cleanup hitter has the chance to hit a

text: grand slam

text: , scoring four runs. But even without the grand slam, this batter can extend an inning with a high batting average and frequent walks.

text: Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling (WOSM) program.  Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source.  This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present.  Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being polyaromatic hydrocarbons.  In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of carbazole, quinoline, and pyridine, are present in many crude oils.  As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine-tune source tracking of petroleum spills.  Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills.

text: Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modelling (WOSM) program.  Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source.  This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present.  Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being

text: polyaromatic hydrocarbons

text: .  In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of

text: carbazole

text: quinoline

text: , and

text: pyridine

text: , are present in many crude oils.  As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine-tune source tracking of petroleum spills.  Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills.

text: In March 2012, the Alaska House and Senate passed legislation urging the Bureau of Land Management to plug the abandoned wells from the US government exploratory program; the resolution said just seven wells have been properly plugged and reclaimed and that the wells are an eyesore and are harming the environment.

text: In March 2012, the Alaska

text: House

text: and

text: Senate

text: passed legislation urging the

text: Bureau of Land Management

text: to plug the abandoned wells from the US government exploratory program; the resolution said just seven wells have been properly plugged and reclaimed and that the wells are an eyesore and are harming the environment.

text: 100,000-year problem- 2005 Malaysian haze- 2006 Abule Egba pipeline explosion- 2006 Alaskan oil spill- 2006 Argentine nuclear reactivation plan- 2006 Atlas Creek pipeline explosion- 2006 Côte d'Ivoire toxic waste spill- 2006 Danvers Chemical Fire- 2006 Mumbai "sweet" seawater incident- 2006 Southeast Asian haze- 2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter- 2007 Korea oil spill- 2010 Biodiversity Target- 2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership- 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference

text: 100,000-year problem

text: 2005 Malaysian haze

text: 2006 Abule Egba pipeline explosion

text: 2006 Alaskan oil spill

entity_name: 2006 Argentine nuclear reactivation plan

text: 2006 Argentine nuclear reactivation plan

text: 2006 Atlas Creek pipeline explosion

text: 2006 Côte d'Ivoire toxic waste spill

text: 2006 Danvers Chemical Fire

text: 2006 Mumbai "sweet" seawater incident

text: 2006 Southeast Asian haze

text: 2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter

text: 2007 Korea oil spill

text: 2010 Biodiversity Target

text: 2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership

entity_name: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference

text: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference

text: While there have been no oil spill environmental disasters of the scale of the Exxon Valdez in the country, Australia has a large oil industry and there have been several large oil spills .  Spills remain a serious threat to the marine environment and Australian coastline.  The largest spill to date was the Kirki tanker in 1991 which dropped 17,280 tonnes of oil off the coast of Western Australia.

text: While there have been no

text: oil spill

text: environmental disasters of the scale of the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: in the country, Australia has a large oil industry and there have been several large oil spills .  Spills remain a serious threat to the marine environment and Australian coastline.  The largest spill to date was the

text: Kirki tanker

text: in 1991 which dropped 17,280 tonnes of oil off the coast of

text: Western Australia

text: Pallop was dismissed from his ISOC deputy-director position after Thawatchai Klinchana, his driver, was found driving a car containing 4.5 kg of explosives near Thaksin's residence. According to Metropolitan Police Bureau commissioner Wiroj Jantharangsee, the explosives were assembled, equipped with a remote sensor and ready to be detonated. Kamthorn Ooycharoen, head of the police bomb-disposal squad at the scene, confirmed that the bomb was ready for detonation. It was composed of a remote control unit, M-8 military fuses, sticks of TNT, C-4 plastic explosives, and nine plastic containers containing ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO).

text: Pallop was dismissed from his ISOC deputy-director position after Thawatchai Klinchana, his driver, was found driving a car containing 4.5 kg of explosives near Thaksin's residence. According to Metropolitan Police Bureau commissioner Wiroj Jantharangsee, the explosives were assembled, equipped with a remote sensor and ready to be detonated. Kamthorn Ooycharoen, head of the police bomb-disposal squad at the scene, confirmed that the bomb was ready for detonation. It was composed of a remote control unit, M-8 military fuses, sticks of

text: TNT

text: plastic explosives

text: , and nine plastic containers containing

text: ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO)

text: The Little Buffalo oil spill on April 29, 2011, resulted in the discharge of 28,000 barrels of oil in an isolated stretch of boreal forest in northern Alberta, approximately  kilometres from Little Buffalo. The spill was caused by a rupture in the Rainbow Pipeline system, owned by Plains Midstream Canada, a unit of Plains All American Pipeline. It was the largest oil spill in Alberta in 36 years. The local school was closed following the oil spill due to concerns about the effects of fumes. In 2013, Alberta's Energy Resource Conservation Board (ERCB) issued a reprimand to Plains Mainstream for operational failures in connection with the oil spill.

text: The Little Buffalo oil spill on April 29, 2011, resulted in the discharge of

text: 28,000 barrels of oil

text: in an isolated stretch of

text: boreal forest

text: in northern

text: Alberta

text: , approximately  kilometres from Little Buffalo. The spill was caused by a rupture in the Rainbow Pipeline system, owned by Plains Midstream Canada, a unit of

text: Plains All American Pipeline

text: . It was the largest

text: oil spill

text: in Alberta in 36 years. The local school was closed following the oil spill due to concerns about the effects of fumes. In 2013, Alberta's Energy Resource Conservation Board (ERCB) issued a reprimand to Plains Mainstream for operational failures in connection with the oil spill.

text: The airline was established in 1983 with a share capital of NOK 50,000, and with Harald Olsen as managing director. In November 1983, they announced to the authorities and the general public plans to establish a fleet of four DHC-6/300 Twin Otters, for the application of dispersant on oil spills at sea as part of the national oil spill protection system, as well as providing an airborne radar surveillance and positioning system. The government was initially favorable to the concept, particularly as an element in improving oil spill protection and response at sea, in conjunction with permitting the oil industry to commence exploration north of the 62nd parallel north, but unfortunately government and departmental politics and the oil companies' unwillingness to contribute to the system, led to the company's demise.

text: The airline was established in 1983 with a share capital of NOK 50,000, and with Harald Olsen as managing director. In November 1983, they announced to the authorities and the general public plans to establish a fleet of four DHC-6/300 Twin Otters, for the application of dispersant on oil spills at sea as part of the national oil spill protection system, as well as providing an airborne radar surveillance and positioning system. The government was initially favorable to the concept, particularly as an element in improving oil spill protection and response at sea, in conjunction with permitting the oil industry to commence exploration north of the

text: 62nd parallel north

text: , but unfortunately government and departmental politics and the oil companies' unwillingness to contribute to the system, led to the company's demise.

text: The impacts of extreme events on the environment and human society will vary. Some impacts will be beneficial—e.g., fewer cold extremes will probably lead to fewer cold deaths. Overall, however, impacts will probably be mostly negative.

text: When the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill eclipsed the loss of the Exxon Valdez as America's largest disaster of this kind, Dr. Ott travelled to the Gulf of Mexico to assess the damage from the spill and to speak with affected communities. She said that people were experiencing severe medical conditions and dying as a result of oil in their blood.  In an interview with Rose Aguilar, she expressed concern about the health issues in the Gulf following the spill, detailing some who had evacuated and criticizing public officials for their response. She cautioned workers involved in cleaning up the mess to be wary of the health effects of going near the oil slick, saying that those who had been affected by the spill from the Exxon Valdez had suffered long-term consequences of a medical nature. She also cautioned workers to guard against the perils of another 'money spill'.

text: When the 2010 BP

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: eclipsed the loss of the Exxon Valdez as America's largest disaster of this kind, Dr. Ott travelled to the Gulf of Mexico to assess the damage from the spill and to speak with affected communities. She said that people were experiencing severe medical conditions and dying as a result of oil in their blood.  In an interview with

text: Rose Aguilar

text: , she expressed concern about the health issues in the Gulf following the spill, detailing some who had evacuated and criticizing public officials for their response. She cautioned workers involved in cleaning up the mess to be wary of the health effects of going near the oil slick, saying that those who had been affected by the spill from the Exxon Valdez had suffered long-term consequences of a medical nature. She also cautioned workers to guard against the perils of another 'money spill'.

text: Television productions like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation have added to the popularity of the term "crime scene cleanup". Australia, Canada and England have added it to their professional cleaning terminology. As a profession, it is growing in popularity because of media exposure and the growth of training programs worldwide.

text: Television productions like

text: CSI: Crime Scene Investigation

text: have added to the popularity of the term "crime scene cleanup". Australia, Canada and England have added it to their professional cleaning terminology. As a profession, it is growing in popularity because of media exposure and the growth of training programs worldwide.

text: The fourth player in the batting order is known as the cleanup hitter, and in modern baseball is almost always one of the best hitters on the team, often the one with the most power and ability to drive in runs with extra-base hits (double, triple, or home run).  Baseball managers tend to place hitters who are most likely to reach base ahead of the clean-up man, so that the fourth batter can "clean" the bases by driving these baserunners home to score runs. His main goal is to drive in runs, although he is expected to score runs as well. Hitting cleanup requires an exceptional level of talent, and the ability to deliver big hits in important situations (such as the bases loaded with two out). Examples of #4 hitters include Lou Gehrig, Eddie Mathews, Willie McCovey, Billy Williams, Tony Pérez, Eddie Murray, Alex Rodriguez, Prince Fielder, David Ortiz, Edgar Martinez, and Ryan Howard.

text: The fourth player in the batting order is known as the

text: cleanup hitter

text: , and in modern baseball is almost always one of the best hitters on the team, often the one with the

text: most power

text: and ability to drive in runs with extra-base hits (double, triple, or home run).  Baseball managers tend to place hitters who are most likely to reach base ahead of the clean-up man, so that the fourth batter can "clean" the bases by driving these baserunners home to score runs. His main goal is to drive in runs, although he is expected to score runs as well. Hitting cleanup requires an exceptional level of talent, and the ability to deliver big hits in important situations (such as the bases loaded with two out). Examples of #4 hitters include

text: Lou Gehrig

text: Eddie Mathews

text: Willie McCovey

text: Billy Williams

text: Tony Pérez

text: Eddie Murray

text: Alex Rodriguez

text: Prince Fielder

text: David Ortiz

text: Edgar Martinez

text: , and

text: Ryan Howard

text: In 2011, Aravosis received a tip that British oil giant BP (British Petroleum) was posting falsified photos to its website during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. He analyzed the photos, then published an article on AMERICAblog proving that the images were doctored electronically. The story received widespread coverage in the media.

text: In 2011, Aravosis received a tip that British oil giant BP (British Petroleum) was posting falsified photos to its website during the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . He analyzed the photos, then published an article on AMERICAblog proving that the images were doctored electronically. The story received widespread coverage in the media.

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the BP oil spill, the BP oil disaster, the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, and the Macondo blowout) began on April 20, 2010, in the Gulf of Mexico on the BP-operated Macondo Prospect.  Eleven people went missing and were never found and it is considered the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, an estimated 8% to 31% larger in volume than the previously largest, the Ixtoc I oil spill. The US Government estimated the total discharge at . After several failed efforts to contain the flow, the well was declared sealed on September 19, 2010. Reports in early 2012 indicated the well site was still leaking.

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the BP oil spill, the BP oil disaster, the Gulf of Mexico oil spill, and the Macondo blowout) began on April 20, 2010, in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: on the

text: BP

text: -operated

text: Macondo Prospect

text: .  Eleven people went missing and were never found and it is considered the largest accidental marine

text: oil spill

text: in the history of the petroleum industry, an estimated 8% to 31% larger in volume than the previously largest, the

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: . The US Government estimated the total discharge at . After several failed efforts to contain the flow, the well was declared sealed on September 19, 2010. Reports in early 2012 indicated the well site was still leaking.

text: Biologists said that the effects of the Montara oil spill could be catastrophic for marine ecosystems, with claims that although it is a lightweight crude oil spilling from the platform, it can still have toxic effects on birds, marine invertebrates, coral and marine algae. The Wilderness Society described the area as a "marine superhighway", and whales and endangered flatback turtles observed in the area are at risk from the spill. By 3 September 2009, fishers observed sick and dying marine life, and an absence of birds in the spill area. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) observed spinner dolphins, sooty terns, spotted sea snake and threatened hawksbill and flatback turtles swimming in the oil slick, and expressed concern about long-term effects. WWF also observed a wax-like residue from the oil spill. The Australian government has acknowledged treating a small number of birds as a result of the spill, including common noddies, brown boobies and a sooty tern.

text: Biologists said that the effects of the Montara oil spill could be catastrophic for

text: marine ecosystems

text: , with claims that although it is a lightweight

text: crude oil

text: spilling from the platform, it can still have toxic effects on birds,

text: marine invertebrates

text: coral

text: and

text: marine algae

text: The Wilderness Society

text: described the area as a "marine superhighway", and

text: whales

text: and endangered

text: flatback turtle

text: s observed in the area are at risk from the spill. By 3 September 2009, fishers observed sick and dying marine life, and an absence of birds in the spill area. The

text: World Wildlife Fund

text: (WWF) observed

text: spinner dolphin

text: s,

text: sooty tern

text: s,

text: spotted sea snake

text: and threatened

text: hawksbill

text: and

text: flatback turtle

text: s swimming in the oil slick, and expressed concern about long-term effects. WWF also observed a wax-like residue from the oil spill. The Australian government has acknowledged treating a small number of birds as a result of the spill, including

text: common noddies

text: brown boobies

text: and a

text: sooty tern

text: On March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker struck Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska and spilled more than  of crude oil. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was the second largest in U.S. history, and in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident, the U.S. Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. An initial award of $5 billion USD punitive was reduced to $507.5 million by the US Supreme Court in June 2008, and distributions of this award have commenced.

text: On March 24, 1989, the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil tanker

text: struck

text: Bligh Reef

text: in

text: Prince William Sound

text: Alaska

text: and spilled more than  of crude oil. The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: was the second largest in U.S. history, and in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident, the

text: U.S. Congress

text: passed the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: . An initial award of $5 billion USD

text: punitive

text: was reduced to $507.5 million by the US Supreme Court in June 2008, and distributions of this award have commenced.

text: In Virginia, Bret produced relatively light rainfall, peaking at  in Big Meadows, a section of Shenandoah National Park. At the time of Bret's landfall, portions of the Mid-Atlantic states were experiencing a strong drought, though the amounts of precipitation were not enough for farmers in Virginia to save their crops. In Virginia Beach, local street flooding and a brief tornado were reported. Minor beach erosion occurred in the area due to tides reaching about  above normal. One fatality was confirmed in North Carolina when a woman was killed after getting stuck in rip currents at Nags Head. Offshore, two boats lost contact with the Coast Guard during the approach to land, one of which washed up at Cape May, New Jersey and the other on the Virginia coast. The Coast Guard began cleanup of an oil spill at Nags Head caused by Bret off the coast. About  of the shoreline was filled with oil, little of which polluted the water. Most of the oil was thin and easily cleanup private contractor. Locally heavy rainfall in western Pennsylvania flooded streets and basements in some areas. The town of Brookville was inundated with up to  of water. Elsewhere, Bret dropped  of precipitation in several states. Overall, no considerable damage was reported.

text: In Virginia, Bret produced relatively light rainfall, peaking at  in

text: Big Meadows

text: , a section of

text: Shenandoah National Park

text: . At the time of Bret's landfall, portions of the Mid-Atlantic states were experiencing a strong drought, though the amounts of precipitation were not enough for farmers in Virginia to save their crops. In Virginia Beach, local street flooding and a brief tornado were reported. Minor beach erosion occurred in the area due to tides reaching about  above normal. One fatality was confirmed in North Carolina when a woman was killed after getting stuck in rip currents at Nags Head. Offshore, two boats lost contact with the

text: Coast Guard

text: during the approach to land, one of which washed up at

text: Cape May, New Jersey

text: and the other on the Virginia coast. The Coast Guard began cleanup of an oil spill at Nags Head caused by Bret off the coast. About  of the shoreline was filled with oil, little of which polluted the water. Most of the oil was thin and easily cleanup private contractor. Locally heavy rainfall in western

text: Pennsylvania

text: flooded streets and basements in some areas. The town of

text: Brookville

text: was inundated with up to  of water. Elsewhere, Bret dropped  of precipitation in several states. Overall, no considerable damage was reported.

text: Journalists attempting to document the impact of the spill were repeatedly refused access to public areas, and photojournalists were prevented from flying over areas of the gulf to document the scope of the disaster. Meanwhile, Phil Radford documented BP's methods of escaping liability and keeping people hired to clean the oil spill out of areas affected by the oil spill. These accusations were leveled at BP, its contractors, local law enforcement, USCG, and other government officials. Scientists also complained about prevention of access to information controlled by BP and government sources. BP stated that its policy was to allow the media and other parties as much access as possible.On 30 June 2010, the USCG put new restrictions in place across the Gulf Coast that prevented vessels from coming within  "of booming operations, boom, or oil spill response operations". In a press briefing, USCG admiral Thad Allen said the new regulation was related to safety issues. On CNN's 360, host Anderson Cooper rejected the motivation for the restrictions outright.The Civil Air Patrol also monitored the spill on behalf of the USCG. 27 May 2010

text: Journalists attempting to document the impact of the spill were repeatedly refused access to public areas, and photojournalists were prevented from flying over areas of the gulf to document the scope of the disaster. Meanwhile,

text: Phil Radford

text: documented BP's methods of escaping liability and keeping people hired to clean the oil spill out of areas affected by the oil spill. These accusations were leveled at BP, its contractors, local law enforcement, USCG, and other government officials. Scientists also complained about prevention of access to information controlled by BP and government sources. BP stated that its policy was to allow the media and other parties as much access as possible.On 30 June 2010, the USCG put new restrictions in place across the Gulf Coast that prevented vessels from coming within  "of booming operations, boom, or oil spill response operations". In a press briefing, USCG admiral

text: Thad Allen

text: said the new regulation was related to safety issues. On

text: CNN

text: 's

text: , host Anderson Cooper rejected the motivation for the restrictions outright.The Civil Air Patrol also monitored the spill on behalf of the USCG. 27 May 2010

text: The presence of radioactive waste in the environment may cause long-term effects due to the activity and half-life of the radionuclides, leading their impact to grow with time. These particles exist in various oxidation states and are found as oxides, coprecipitates, or as organic or inorganic complexes, according to their origin and ways of liberation. Most commonly they are found in oxidized form, which makes them more soluble in water and thus more mobile. Unlike organic contaminants, however, they cannot be destroyed and must be converted into a stable form or extracted from the environment.

text: The presence of radioactive waste in the environment may cause long-term effects due to the

text: activity

text: and

text: half-life

text: of the radionuclides, leading their impact to grow with time. These particles exist in various

text: oxidation states

text: and are found as

text: oxides

text: coprecipitates

text: , or as

text: organic

text: or

text: inorganic

text: complexes, according to their origin and ways of liberation. Most commonly they are found in oxidized form, which makes them more soluble in water and thus more mobile. Unlike organic contaminants, however, they cannot be destroyed and must be converted into a stable form or extracted from the environment.

text: On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef, spilling eleven million gallons of crude oil into the waters of Prince William Sound. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was the largest in United States history.

text: On March 24, 1989, the

text: oil tanker

text: Exxon Valdez

text: ran aground on

text: Bligh Reef

text: , spilling eleven million gallons of crude oil into the waters of

text: Prince William Sound

text: . The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: was the largest in United States history.

text: The cleanup part of the block is always executed. In case an exception is raised by the body part, cleanup is executed immediately before propagating the exception outside the block 'unwind_protect'.

text: In 2011 the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center did a study to compare the acute health impacts of the spill with the acute health impacts reported from previous spills to  predict health impacts in Louisiana as compared with the health impacts reported from prior crude oil spills. The study reported that "Acute health effects in cleanup workers mirrored those reported in cleanup workers following prior oil spills as ranked by systems (and by symptoms)."  The study advised that affected individuals "will require long-term surveillance for chronic adverse health effects including cancer, liver and kidney diseases, mental health disorders, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders."

text: In 2011 the

text: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center

text: did a study to compare the acute health impacts of the spill with the acute health impacts reported from previous spills to  predict health impacts in Louisiana as compared with the health impacts reported from prior crude oil spills. The study reported that "Acute health effects in cleanup workers mirrored those reported in cleanup workers following prior oil spills as ranked by systems (and by symptoms)."  The study advised that affected individuals "will require long-term surveillance for chronic adverse health effects including cancer, liver and kidney diseases, mental health disorders, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders."

text: The most significant threat to sea otters is oil spills. They are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animals can quickly die from hypothermia. The liver, kidneys, and lungs of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming. The Exxon Valdez oil spill of 24 March 1989 killed thousands of sea otters in Prince William Sound, and as of 2006, the lingering oil in the area continues to affect the population. Describing the public sympathy for sea otters that developed from media coverage of the event, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service spokesperson wrote:

text: The most significant threat to sea otters is

text: oil spill

text: s. They are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animals can quickly die from

text: hypothermia

text: . The

text: liver

text: kidney

text: s, and

text: lung

text: s of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming. The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: of 24 March 1989 killed thousands of sea otters in

text: Prince William Sound

text: , and as of 2006, the lingering oil in the area continues to affect the population. Describing the public sympathy for sea otters that developed from media coverage of the event, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service spokesperson wrote:

text: 2010 BP Oil Spill

text: 2010 BP Oil Spill

text: Planning for the explosion scene began six weeks before it was shot, while filming took a total of four hours. The cast and crew underwent a safety drill first, while trained Occupational Health and Safety officers from FremantleMedia were on the set. Thomas Mitchell from TV Week revealed that a filming permit was not required for the explosion scene as it was not shot on public land, rather private land owned by FremantleMedia. To create the explosion, the production team used low-impact explosives and special effects. Two explosions were filmed from different angles, with the scenes then merged during post-production. Jasek said it was "certainly one of the biggest scenes" they had filmed since the car crash storyline. He added that everything went to plan, including the weather.

text: Planning for the explosion scene began six weeks before it was shot, while filming took a total of four hours. The cast and crew underwent a safety drill first, while trained Occupational Health and Safety officers from FremantleMedia were on the set. Thomas Mitchell from

text: TV Week

text: revealed that a filming permit was not required for the explosion scene as it was not shot on public land, rather private land owned by FremantleMedia. To create the explosion, the production team used low-impact explosives and special effects. Two explosions were filmed from different angles, with the scenes then merged during

text: post-production

text: . Jasek said it was "certainly one of the biggest scenes" they had filmed since the car crash storyline. He added that everything went to plan, including the weather.

text: While many technologies are aimed towards preventing oil spills or towards preparation for the spills, there is also technology available that can be quickly implemented in the event of a spill. As was the case with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, it may take a very long time for spills to be contained.

text: While many technologies are aimed towards preventing oil spills or towards preparation for the spills, there is also technology available that can be quickly implemented in the event of a spill. As was the case with the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010, it may take a very long time for spills to be contained.

text: In April 2010, approximately 210 million gallons of oil was released into the Gulf of Mexico marine environment following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. In response, over 2 million gallons of oil dispersant was released, in unprecedented quantities and untested ways, in an effort to break up and sink the oil.

text: In April 2010, approximately 210 million gallons of oil was released into the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: marine environment following the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . In response, over 2 million gallons of

text: oil dispersant

text: was released, in unprecedented quantities and untested ways, in an effort to break up and sink the oil.

text: The Helix fast-response system (HFRS) is a deep-sea oil spill response plan licensed by HWCG LLC, a consortium of 16 independent oil companies, to respond to subsea well incidents. Helix Energy Solutions Group designed the Helix fast-response system based on techniques used to contain the 2010 Gulf of Mexico oil spill. On February 28, 2011 the drilling moratorium imposed as a result of the spill ended when the United States Department of the Interior approved the first drilling permit based on the availability of the HFRS to offshore oil companies.

text: The Helix fast-response system (HFRS) is a

text: deep-sea

text: oil spill

text: response plan licensed by

text: HWCG LLC

text: , a consortium of 16 independent oil companies, to respond to

text: subsea well

text: incidents.

text: Helix Energy Solutions Group

text: designed the Helix fast-response system based on techniques used to contain the 2010 Gulf of Mexico oil spill. On February 28, 2011 the drilling moratorium imposed as a result of the spill ended when the

entity_name: United States Department of the Interior

text: United States Department of the Interior

text: approved the first drilling permit based on the availability of the HFRS to offshore oil companies.

text: The Explosion's bassist, Damian Genuardi, had played in straight edge hardcore band In My Eyes before founding The Explosion in 1998. In My Eyes were signed to Revelation. When Revelation found out about The Explosion's success on Jade Tree Records, they threatened to sue Genaurdi if he was credited on any of The Explosion's records. They believed that The Explosion's success with Jade Tree should belong to them. The Explosion settled the dispute by writing this EP while on the road. As a result of its circumstances, it is not considered The Explosion's best work.

text: The Explosion's

text: bassist

text: Damian Genuardi

text: , had played in straight edge hardcore band

text: In My Eyes

text: before founding The Explosion in 1998. In My Eyes were signed to Revelation. When Revelation found out about The Explosion's success on

text: Jade Tree Records

text: , they threatened to sue Genaurdi if he was credited on any of The Explosion's records. They believed that The Explosion's success with Jade Tree should belong to them. The Explosion settled the dispute by writing this EP while on the road. As a result of its circumstances, it is not considered The Explosion's best work.

text: The New Mexico Environmental Improvement Division said the spill's "short-term and long-term impacts on people and the environment were quite limited." United Nuclear denied claims that the spill caused livestock deaths. The company said in a statement issued by an attorney, "We just don't know of any substance to those claims. Some people aren't going to be satisfied no matter how thoroughly you show it."

text: Official reports said  of oil were spilled, but critics of the oil company and the government say that the spill was much larger and warned of health risks posed both by the spill and by the chemicals being used to disperse the oil.

text: In 2010, through the Schmidt Family Foundation, she offered the prize purse of the Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X Challenge, a challenge award for the efficient capturing of crude oil from seawater motivated by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: In 2010, through the Schmidt Family Foundation, she offered the prize purse of the

text: Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X Challenge

text: , a challenge award for the efficient capturing of

text: crude oil

text: from seawater motivated by the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: Although Al Jazeera compared the scale of the oil spill to that of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, later assessment found that the volume spilled was 30 000 tonnes of the higher estimates compared to 42 000 tonnes For Exxon Valdez oil spill. The coastline affected was between 150–170 km, while the Exxon Valdez oil spill affected 2,100 km of coastline.

text: Although

text: Al Jazeera

text: compared the scale of the oil spill to that of the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , later assessment found that the volume spilled was 30 000 tonnes of the higher estimates compared to 42 000 tonnes For Exxon Valdez oil spill. The coastline affected was between 150–170 km, while the Exxon Valdez oil spill affected 2,100 km of coastline.

text: Oil spill eater II contains the biosurfactants, nutrients and other constituents for complete life cycles and biodegradation. When Oil spill Eater II is added to a spill, the process generally takes a few minutes to several minutes, depending on how heavy the damage is of the spill. As the biosurfactants do their job, the enzymes attach themselves to broken down hydrocarbon structures, forming digestive binding sites.

text: The creation of Al Akhawayn University was largely funded by the King of Saudi Arabia from an endowment intended for the cleanup of an oil spill off the coast of Morocco. The cleanup was never realized as the wind blew the oil spill away and the endowment was used to create the university. Al Akhawayn University was founded by Royal Decree (Dahir) in 1993 and officially inaugurated by the former King Hassan II of Morocco, on January 16, 1995.

text: The creation of Al Akhawayn University was largely funded by the King of Saudi Arabia from an endowment intended for the cleanup of an oil spill off the coast of Morocco. The cleanup was never realized as the wind blew the oil spill away and the endowment was used to create the university. Al Akhawayn University was founded by Royal Decree (

text: Dahir

text: ) in 1993 and officially inaugurated by the former King Hassan II of Morocco, on January 16, 1995.

text: The MT Castillo de Bellver oil spill began on 6 August 1983, when the Spanish tanker caught fire off Saldanha Bay, approximately 70 miles northwest of Cape Town, South Africa. It was carrying  of light crude oil, and was traveling through an environmentally sensitive area known for its seabird rookeries and productive fisheries. The burning vessel was abandoned and broke apart after drifting offshore. The stern capsized and sunk and the bow was sunk using explosives. A total of  of oil entered the sea. Onshore impacts were considered negligible as the slick travelled seaward. The only visible impact was the oiling of 1,500 gannets which were on a nearby island.

text: The MT Castillo de Bellver oil spill began on 6 August 1983, when the Spanish tanker caught fire off

text: Saldanha Bay

text: , approximately 70 miles northwest of

text: Cape Town

text: , South Africa. It was carrying  of

text: light crude oil

text: , and was traveling through an environmentally sensitive area known for its seabird rookeries and productive fisheries. The burning vessel was abandoned and broke apart after drifting offshore. The stern capsized and sunk and the bow was sunk using explosives. A total of  of oil entered the sea. Onshore impacts were considered negligible as the slick travelled seaward. The only visible impact was the oiling of 1,500 gannets which were on a nearby island.

text: In the July 2010 Kalamazoo River oil spill, a leaking pipeline spilled more than  of oil sands crude oil into Talmadge Creek leading to the Kalamazoo River in southwest Michigan on July 26, near Marshall, Michigan. A United States Environmental Protection Agency update of the Kalamazoo River spill concluded the pipeline rupture "caused the largest inland oil spill in Midwest history" and reported the cost of the cleanup at $36.7 million (US) as of November 14, 2011.  The cleanup is unfinished as of March 2013. PHMSA raised concerns in a Corrective Action Order (CAO) about numerous anomalies that had been detected on this pipeline by internal line inspection tools, yet Enbridge had failed to check a number of those anomalies in the field. The Michigan spill affected more than  of waterways and wetlands and about 320 people reported symptoms from crude oil exposure.  The National Transportation Safety Board said at $800 million, it was the costliest onshore spill cleanup in U.S. history.  The NTSB found Enbridge knew of a defect in the pipeline five years before it burst. In June 2013, a Kalamazoo man lodged himself into an Enbridge pipeline in Marshall, MI to protest Enbridge's lack of accountability for the 2010 spill and to encourage landowners along Enbridge's Line 6B expansion to offer increased resistance to construction in 2013.

text: In the July 2010

text: Kalamazoo River oil spill

text: , a leaking pipeline spilled more than  of

text: oil sands crude oil

text: into Talmadge Creek leading to the

text: Kalamazoo River

text: in southwest Michigan on July 26, near

text: Marshall, Michigan

text: . A United States Environmental Protection Agency update of the Kalamazoo River spill concluded the pipeline rupture "caused the largest inland oil spill in Midwest history" and reported the cost of the cleanup at $36.7 million (US) as of November 14, 2011.  The cleanup is unfinished as of March 2013. PHMSA raised concerns in a Corrective Action Order (CAO) about numerous anomalies that had been detected on this pipeline by internal line inspection tools, yet Enbridge had failed to check a number of those anomalies in the field. The Michigan spill affected more than  of waterways and wetlands and about 320 people reported symptoms from crude oil exposure.  The

text: National Transportation Safety Board

text: said at $800 million, it was the costliest onshore spill cleanup in U.S. history.  The NTSB found Enbridge knew of a defect in the pipeline five years before it burst. In June 2013, a Kalamazoo man lodged himself into an Enbridge pipeline in Marshall, MI to protest Enbridge's lack of accountability for the 2010 spill and to encourage landowners along Enbridge's Line 6B expansion to offer increased resistance to construction in 2013.

text: The first explosion occurred on the Red Arrow – 75 years train at the Lubyanka station at approximately 7:56 am local time (03:56 UTC). The train started from Yugo-Zapadnaya, and stopped at Lubyanka station. Once the train doors opened, explosives worn by a woman standing at the second carriage's second exit detonated. The explosive had a force of up to 1.5 kg of trinitrotoluene (TNT). Fifteen people on board the train, and eleven people on the platform, were killed. One victim from the third carriage died from a head injury caused by an  piece of metal.

text: The first explosion occurred on the Red Arrow – 75 years train at the

text: Lubyanka station

text: at approximately 7:56 am local time (03:56

text: UTC

text: ). The train started from

text: Yugo-Zapadnaya

text: , and stopped at Lubyanka station. Once the train doors opened, explosives worn by a woman standing at the second carriage's second exit detonated. The explosive had a force of up to 1.5 kg of

text: trinitrotoluene

text: (TNT). Fifteen people on board the train, and eleven people on the platform, were killed. One victim from the third carriage died from a head injury caused by an  piece of metal.

text: A large number of animal deaths have resulted from the release of the oil. A Center study estimates that over 82,000 birds; about 6,000 sea turtles; and nearly 26,000 marine mammals were killed from either the initial explosion or the oil spill.

text: On March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit aground in the Prince Williams Sound and spilled nearly 11 million gallons of crude oil—the largest marine oil spill in recorded history up to that point.  Soon afterward, in June 1989, three smaller spills occurred within coastal waters of the United States. This was timely evidence that oil spills were not uncommon.

text: On March 24, 1989, the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: hit aground in the

text: Prince Williams Sound

text: and spilled nearly 11 million gallons of crude oil—the largest marine oil spill in recorded history up to that point.  Soon afterward, in June 1989, three smaller spills occurred within coastal waters of the United States. This was timely evidence that oil spills were not uncommon.

text: The terminal is somewhat controversial because of a fear of oil spills, which have occurred. Protests took place in 1999 after an oil spill, and in November 2001 a 60-ton oil spill took place here, angering environmentalists.

text: The terminal is somewhat controversial because of a fear of

text: oil spill

text: s, which have occurred. Protests took place in 1999 after an oil spill, and in November 2001 a 60-ton oil spill took place here, angering environmentalists.

text: RSMAS has focused significant resources to studying the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and its long term environmental effect. The school is an active member of the State of Florida's Oil Spill Academic Task Force that works with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection on spill issues. In the summer of 2010, a CIMAS team working with the research vessel Walton Smith was able to document a  long oil plume extending toward the Dry Tortugas.

text: RSMAS has focused significant resources to studying the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and its long term environmental effect. The school is an active member of the State of Florida's Oil Spill Academic Task Force that works with the

entity_name: Florida Department of Environmental Protection

text: Florida Department of Environmental Protection

text: on spill issues. In the summer of 2010, a CIMAS team working with the research vessel Walton Smith was able to document a  long oil plume extending toward the

text: Dry Tortugas

text: On April 10, 2016, members of the Komi Izvatas (also known as Komi Izhemtsy) Indigenous subgroup reported to the Committee to Save the Pechora that a large oil spill had taken place on the Yagera River near Ukhta. According to the Committee, 400 metric tons of crude oil reached the Izhma River, reportedly causing concerns of effects on Izvatas livelihoods. On April 26, sixteen days later, a possible source of the leak was identified by the Committee on Malyi Voivoizh creek, although government officials could not confirm.Many residents of Izhma district believe that cancers are occurring at an increasing rate of incidence due to pollution. Food sources such as fish have allegedly become contaminated, and reindeer have been poisoned by oil spills on their grazing areas. According to Makliuk, most residents of the district live in poverty. They also claim discriminatory hiring processes that give preference to non-local workers, in spite of the enormous revenues generated from their traditional territories. According to one resident, "we have to live on the disposal dump of [the] oil industry. We can't even sell our houses and move away, because they cost nothing."

text: On April 10, 2016, members of the Komi

text: Izvatas

text: (also known as

text: Komi Izhemtsy

text: ) Indigenous subgroup reported to the Committee to Save the Pechora that a large oil spill had taken place on the Yagera River near

text: Ukhta

text: . According to the Committee, 400 metric tons of crude oil reached the

text: Izhma River

text: , reportedly causing concerns of effects on Izvatas livelihoods. On April 26, sixteen days later, a possible source of the leak was identified by the Committee on Malyi Voivoizh creek, although government officials could not confirm.Many residents of Izhma district believe that cancers are occurring at an increasing rate of incidence due to pollution. Food sources such as fish have allegedly become contaminated, and reindeer have been poisoned by oil spills on their grazing areas. According to Makliuk, most residents of the district live in poverty. They also claim discriminatory hiring processes that give preference to non-local workers, in spite of the enormous revenues generated from their traditional territories. According to one resident, "we have to live on the disposal dump of [the] oil industry. We can't even sell our houses and move away, because they cost nothing."

text: The Petrotrin oil spill was a series of oil spills that occurred on the island of Trinidad and Tobago.

text: The Petrotrin oil spill was a series of oil spills that occurred on the island of

text: Trinidad and Tobago

text: Oriental Nicety, formerly Exxon Valdez, Exxon Mediterranean, SeaRiver Mediterranean, S/R Mediterranean, Mediterranean, and Dong Fang Ocean, was an oil tanker that gained notoriety after running aground in Prince William Sound spilling hundreds of thousands of barrels of crude oil in Alaska. On March 24, 1989, while owned by the former Exxon Shipping Company, and captained by Joseph Hazelwood and First Mate James Kunkel bound for Long Beach, California, the vessel ran aground on the Bligh Reef resulting in the second largest oil spill in United States history.  The size of the spill is estimated to have been , or 257,000 to 750,000 barrels. In 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil spill was listed as the 54th largest spill in history.

text: Oriental Nicety, formerly Exxon Valdez, Exxon Mediterranean, SeaRiver Mediterranean, S/R Mediterranean, Mediterranean, and Dong Fang Ocean, was an

text: oil tanker

text: that gained notoriety after running aground in

text: Prince William Sound

text: spilling hundreds of thousands of

text: barrel

text: s of

text: crude oil

text: in Alaska. On March 24, 1989, while owned by the former

text: Exxon Shipping Company

text: , and captained by

text: Joseph Hazelwood

text: and First Mate James Kunkel bound for

text: Long Beach, California

text: , the vessel ran aground on the

text: Bligh Reef

text: resulting in the

text: second largest oil spill

text: in United States history.  The size of the spill is estimated to have been , or 257,000 to 750,000 barrels. In 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil spill was listed as the 54th

text: largest spill in history

text: According to the structure–conduct–performance paradigm, the market environment has a direct, short-term impact on the market structure. The market structure then has a direct influence on the firm's economic conduct, which in turn affects its market performance. Therein, feedback effects occur such that market performance may impact conduct and structure, or conduct may affect the market structure. Additionally, external factors such as legal or political interventions affect the market framework and, by extension, the structure, conduct and performance of the market.

text: According to the structure–conduct–performance paradigm, the market environment has a direct, short-term impact on the

text: market structure

text: . The market structure then has a direct influence on the firm's economic conduct, which in turn affects its market performance. Therein, feedback effects occur such that market performance may impact conduct and structure, or conduct may affect the market structure. Additionally, external factors such as legal or political interventions affect the market framework and, by extension, the structure, conduct and performance of the market.

text: The Amoco Cadiz spill was one of the most studied oil spills in history. Many studies remain in progress. This was the largest recorded spill in history and was the first spill in which estuarine tidal rivers were oiled. No follow-up mitigation existed to deal with asphalt formation and problems that resulted after the initial aggressive cleanup.

text: The Amoco Cadiz spill was one of the most studied oil spills in history. Many studies remain in progress. This was the largest recorded spill in history and was the first spill in which

text: estuarine

text: tidal rivers were oiled. No follow-up mitigation existed to deal with asphalt formation and problems that resulted after the initial aggressive cleanup.

text: Following the spill, there were significant negative impacts on the Chilean fishermen. The oil spill resulted in the heavy contamination of the waters of straits of Magellan- forcing Chilean Fishermen to other waters. The Straits were often turned to by the fishermen to hunt sea bass when they weren't hunting king crab. As a result of the spill, the fisheries were rendered unusable for an entire year for the Chilean fishermen. In addition, the overall quality of the fish remained poorer for a long time proceeding.

text: Following the spill, there were significant negative impacts on the Chilean fishermen. The oil spill resulted in the heavy contamination of the waters of straits of Magellan- forcing Chilean Fishermen to other waters. The Straits were often turned to by the fishermen to hunt

text: sea bass

text: when they weren't hunting

text: king crab

text: . As a result of the spill, the fisheries were rendered unusable for an entire year for the Chilean fishermen. In addition, the overall quality of the fish remained poorer for a long time proceeding.

text: The Explosion is the self-titled debut EP from The Explosion. It was released in 2000 on Jade Tree Records. All the tracks featured were originally part of a demo sold on The Explosion's tour with Kid Dynamite.

text: The Explosion is the self-titled debut EP from

text: The Explosion

text: . It was released in 2000 on

text: Jade Tree Records

text: . All the tracks featured were originally part of a demo sold on The Explosion's tour with

text: Kid Dynamite

text: An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a large exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive entropy change (great quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, thereby constituting a thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly. Thus, explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. The energetic stability of the gaseous products and hence their generation comes from the formation of strongly bonded species like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and (di)nitrogen, which contain strong double and triple bonds having bond strengths of nearly 1 MJ/mole. Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing -NO, -ONO and -NHNO groups that, when detonated, release gases like the aforementioned (e.g., nitroglycerin, TNT, HMX, PETN, nitrocellulose).

text: An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a large exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive

text: entropy

text: change (great quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, thereby constituting a thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly. Thus, explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in

text: chemical bonds

text: . The energetic stability of the gaseous products and hence their generation comes from the formation of strongly bonded species like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and (di)nitrogen, which contain strong double and triple bonds having bond strengths of nearly 1 MJ/mole. Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing

text: -NO

text: -ONO

text: and

text: -NHNO

text: groups that, when detonated, release gases like the aforementioned (e.g.,

text: nitroglycerin

text: TNT

text: HMX

text: PETN

text: nitrocellulose

text: By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered a threat to the environment. As discussed above, a VLCC tanker can carry  of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped  of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed. Considering the volume of oil carried by sea, however, tanker owners' organisations often argue that the industry's safety record is excellent, with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled. The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that "accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels—one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s—at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s."

text: By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered a threat to the environment. As discussed above, a VLCC tanker can carry  of crude oil. This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known

text: Exxon Valdez incident

text: seabirds

text: , about 1,000

text: sea otters

text: AMSA aims to protect the marine environment by administering programs to prevent and respond to the threat of ship-sourced marine pollution; and together with the Australian Marine Oil Spill Centre, managing Australia's National Plan to combat pollution of the sea by oil and other noxious and hazardous substances.

text: AMSA aims to protect the marine environment by administering programs to prevent and respond to the threat of

text: ship-sourced marine pollution

text: ; and together with the

text: Australian Marine Oil Spill Centre

text: , managing Australia's National Plan to combat

text: pollution of the sea by oil

text: and other noxious and hazardous substances.

text: By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered something of a threat to the environment. An oil tanker can carry  of crude oil, or . This is more than six times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident. In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped  of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed.

text: By the sheer amount of oil carried, modern oil tankers must be considered something of a threat to the environment. An oil tanker can carry  of crude oil, or . This is more than six times the amount spilled in the widely known

text: Exxon Valdez incident

text: . In this spill, the ship ran aground and dumped  of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers, and volunteers, over 400,000

text: seabirds

text: , about 1,000

text: sea otters

text: , and immense numbers of fish were killed.

text: One of the largest land-based oil spills in North America, the Little Buffalo oil spill occurred on April 29, 2011. The Rainbow Pipeline system, owned by Plains Midstream Canada, ruptured, spilling 28,000 barrels of oil in a fairly isolated stretch of boreal forest in northern Alberta, about four miles from the nearest homes in Little Buffalo, Alberta. It was reported to be the largest oil spill in Alberta in 36 years. It was also the second spill in Alberta within a two-week period that year. The local school was closed following the oil spill due to concerns about the effects of fumes.

text: One of the largest land-based oil spills in North America, the

text: Little Buffalo oil spill

text: occurred on April 29, 2011. The Rainbow Pipeline system, owned by Plains Midstream Canada, ruptured, spilling 28,000 barrels of oil in a fairly isolated stretch of

text: boreal forest

text: in northern

text: Alberta

text: , about four miles from the nearest homes in

text: Little Buffalo, Alberta

text: . It was reported to be the largest

text: oil spill

text: in Alberta in 36 years. It was also the second spill in Alberta within a two-week period that year. The local school was closed following the oil spill due to concerns about the effects of fumes.

text: The Division of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources oversees the drilling, operation, maintenance, and the plugging of abandoned oil, natural gas and geothermal wells. DOGGR is also one of the main state sources for information about the state's oil, gas and geothermal industry, with more than 238,000 well records, production and injection statistics, well logs and field maps.

text: The Division of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources oversees the drilling, operation, maintenance, and the plugging of abandoned

text: oil

text: natural gas

text: and

text: geothermal

text: wells. DOGGR is also one of the main state sources for information about the state's oil, gas and geothermal industry, with more than 238,000 well records, production and injection statistics, well logs and field maps.

text: On 3 April 2010, the Chinese ship Shen Neng 1 carrying 950 tonnes of oil, ran aground east of Rockhampton in Central Queensland, Australia, causing the 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill and inflicting the largest damage to the GBR and the Coral Sea so far. The scarred area was roughly  long and  wide, and some parts of it have become completely devoid of marine life. There are concerns that there could be considerable long-term damage and it will take 10 to 20 years for the reef to recover. By 13 April 2010, oil tar balls were washing up on the beaches of North West Island, a significant bird rookery and turtle nesting colony.

text: On 3 April 2010, the Chinese ship

text: Shen Neng 1

text: carrying 950 tonnes of oil, ran aground east of

text: Rockhampton

text: in

text: Central Queensland

text: , Australia, causing the

text: 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill

text: and inflicting the largest damage to the GBR and the Coral Sea so far. The scarred area was roughly  long and  wide, and some parts of it have become completely devoid of marine life. There are concerns that there could be considerable long-term damage and it will take 10 to 20 years for the reef to recover. By 13 April 2010,

text: oil tar balls

text: were washing up on the beaches of

text: North West Island

text: , a significant bird

text: rookery

text: and turtle nesting colony.

text: Hydrocarbons, being an extremely great source of energy due to their strong chemical bonds, were a great source of study in the Aegean Sea oil spill. Chemical markers were placed in a sample of the crude oil spilled, and an interesting data was revealed. Alkanes and acyclic hydrocarbons, both having single bonds, appeared to have deteriorated in only six months, while triterpane and steranane were still present after years of weathering. Both triterpane and steranane have multiple bonds, which is the reason they were still present after so many years. As a conclusion for the study, they stated that chemical markers are a great source to use against oil spills.  Apparently, they allow a scientist to determine how long the oil has contaminated the sea water, and how the sea water affected the oil collected with water. For instance, thousands of cubic meters of oil were collected through oil booms. Meaning, the oil is mixed with water and that a cleansing process must take place in order to use the oil once again. Chemical markers may now be placed into to the oil to determine how much the oil must be cleaned in order for it to be satisfactory.

text: Hydrocarbon

text: s, being an extremely great source of energy due to their strong chemical bonds, were a great source of study in the Aegean Sea oil spill. Chemical markers were placed in a sample of the crude oil spilled, and an interesting data was revealed. Alkanes and acyclic hydrocarbons, both having single bonds, appeared to have deteriorated in only six months, while triterpane and steranane were still present after years of weathering. Both triterpane and steranane have multiple bonds, which is the reason they were still present after so many years. As a conclusion for the study, they stated that chemical markers are a great source to use against oil spills.  Apparently, they allow a scientist to determine how long the oil has contaminated the sea water, and how the sea water affected the oil collected with water. For instance, thousands of cubic meters of oil were collected through oil booms. Meaning, the oil is mixed with water and that a cleansing process must take place in order to use the oil once again. Chemical markers may now be placed into to the oil to determine how much the oil must be cleaned in order for it to be satisfactory.

text: International Bird Rescue saw perhaps the most extensive international attention of its near-40-year existence in 2010 following the explosion of Deepwater Horizon, a semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling unit owned and operated by Transocean and leased by BP on the Macondo Prospect oil field in the Gulf of Mexico. The explosion and resulting fire on April 20, 2010 killed 11 workers and caused a sea-floor oil gusher that spewed 4.9 million barrels of crude oil before the wellhead was capped on July 15, 2010. The disaster remains the largest accidental marine oil spill in petroleum industry history.  International Bird Rescue teamed up with Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, the lead oiled wildlife organization on the ground, to co-manage oiled bird rehabilitation centers in Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida as part of a large-scale response to the incident that involved federal and state agencies, industry, and non-governmental organizations. More than 8,000 oiled birds were captured and collected both dead and alive, according to government figures,  with 1,246 birds released back into the wild.

text: International Bird Rescue saw perhaps the most extensive international attention of its near-40-year existence in 2010 following the explosion of

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: , a semi-submersible mobile offshore drilling unit owned and operated by

text: Transocean

text: and leased by

text: BP

text: on the

text: Macondo Prospect

text: oil field in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . The explosion and resulting fire on April 20, 2010 killed 11 workers and caused a sea-floor oil gusher that spewed 4.9 million barrels of crude oil before the wellhead was capped on July 15, 2010. The disaster remains the largest accidental marine oil spill in petroleum industry history.  International Bird Rescue teamed up with

text: Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research

text: , the lead oiled wildlife organization on the ground, to co-manage oiled bird rehabilitation centers in

text: Louisiana

text: Alabama

text: Mississippi

text: , and

text: Florida

text: as part of a large-scale response to the incident that involved federal and state agencies, industry, and non-governmental organizations. More than 8,000 oiled birds were captured and collected both dead and alive, according to government figures,  with 1,246 birds released back into the wild.

text: In the United States, offshore oil spill prevention contingency plans and emergency response plans are federally mandated requirements for all offshore oil facilities in U.S. Federal waters.  Currently administered by the Minerals Management Service (MMS), these regulatory functions were ordered on May 19, 2010 to be transferred to the United States Department of the Interior's newly created Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement.  Oil spills in inland waters are the responsibility of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), while  oil spills in coastal waters and deepwater ports are the responsibility of the U.S. Coast Guard.

text: In the United States, offshore oil spill prevention contingency plans and emergency response plans are federally mandated requirements for all offshore oil facilities in U.S. Federal waters.  Currently administered by the

text: Minerals Management Service

text: (MMS), these regulatory functions were ordered on May 19, 2010 to be transferred to the

text: 's newly created

entity_name: Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement

text: Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement

text: .  Oil spills in inland waters are the responsibility of the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA), while  oil spills in coastal waters and deepwater ports are the responsibility of the

text: U.S. Coast Guard

text: In November 2010, Jindal published the book Leadership and Crisis, a semi-autobiography significantly influenced by his experiences with the most recent Gulf Oil Spill caused by the Deepwater Horizon explosion.

text: In November 2010, Jindal published the book Leadership and Crisis, a semi-autobiography significantly influenced by his experiences with the most recent

text: Gulf Oil Spill

text: caused by the

text: Deepwater Horizon explosion

text: Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

text: Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the

text: plumage

text: of birds and the

text: fur

text: buoyant

text: The Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis, is one of the largest members of the genus Fundulus; it is capable of growing up to 18 cm in length, whereas the majority of other Fundulus reach a maximum length of 10 cm. Therefore, F. grandis is among the largest minnows preyed upon by many sport fish, such as flounder, speckled trout, and red snapper. Fundulus derives from the Latin meaning "bottom," and grandis means "large".  The Gulf killifish is native the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Florida and the eastern coast of Florida to Cuba in the Atlantic Ocean.  Threats to the survival of the Gulf killifish include extreme changes in salinity, changes in temperatures, and toxic events such as the hypoxic dead zone in Louisiana and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The Gulf killifish is currently being used to test the effects of oil and oil dispersants  on the physiology of marine species affected by these substances. This is significant to conservation biology, because with the continued extraction of oil and other natural resources from North American waters, it has become increasingly important to understand the risks and consequences in worst-case scenarios, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and the lasting effects on the marine ecosystem.

text: The Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis, is one of the largest members of the genus Fundulus; it is capable of growing up to 18 cm in length, whereas the majority of other Fundulus reach a maximum length of 10 cm. Therefore, F. grandis is among the largest minnows preyed upon by many sport fish, such as flounder, speckled trout, and red snapper. Fundulus derives from the Latin meaning "bottom," and grandis means "large".  The Gulf killifish is native the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Florida and the eastern coast of Florida to Cuba in the Atlantic Ocean.  Threats to the survival of the Gulf killifish include extreme changes in salinity, changes in temperatures, and toxic events such as the

text: hypoxic dead zone

text: in Louisiana and the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . The Gulf killifish is currently being used to test the effects of oil and

text: oil dispersants

text: on the physiology of marine species affected by these substances. This is significant to

text: conservation biology

text: , because with the continued extraction of oil and other natural resources from North American waters, it has become increasingly important to understand the risks and consequences in worst-case scenarios, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and the lasting effects on the marine ecosystem.

text: President Barack Obama cautiously welcomed the news that the leak had been stopped, though stressing, "it is important we don't get ahead of ourselves". If the cap holds for the planned 48 hours, its valves will be reopened temporarily in order to allow for seismic tests to ensure that oil is not escaping into the bedrock. At the time of the stoppage, oil had been leaking continuously into the Gulf of Mexico for 85 days, 16 hours and 25 minutes since the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig exploded on April 20, 2010.

text: President

text: Barack Obama

text: cautiously welcomed the news that the leak had been stopped, though stressing, "it is important we don't get ahead of ourselves". If the cap holds for the planned 48 hours, its valves will be reopened temporarily in order to allow for seismic tests to ensure that oil is not escaping into the bedrock. At the time of the stoppage, oil had been leaking continuously into the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: for 85 days, 16 hours and 25 minutes since the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: drilling rig

text: exploded

text: on April 20, 2010.

text: The aftermath of the BP oil spill in 2010 produced a significant amount of damage to the coral reef systems present throughout the Gulf of Mexico. In response to the damage, Ocean Conservancy developed a Gulf Restoration Program, led by senior conservation biologists and ecologists to try to help reverse the damage. Through this program, scientists were able to discover “deep sea” coral damage that was initially overlooked in the original projections of the costs of restoration. These deep sea corals have been in some cases developing for thousands of years, implying that they have a very slow growth rate and are especially vulnerable to disturbances such as oil spills. Taking this damage into account, the Gulf Restoration Program pressed for more compensation from the liable parties (the oil company as well as the rig company) and the government to offset the additional costs of restoration. The program funds monitoring of the damages as well as gulf restoration efforts. The organization projects that full restoration of the Gulf to its former state will require decades of work.

text: The aftermath of the

text: BP oil spill

text: in 2010 produced a significant amount of damage to the coral reef systems present throughout the Gulf of Mexico. In response to the damage, Ocean Conservancy developed a Gulf Restoration Program, led by senior conservation biologists and ecologists to try to help reverse the damage. Through this program, scientists were able to discover “deep sea” coral damage that was initially overlooked in the original projections of the costs of restoration. These deep sea corals have been in some cases developing for thousands of years, implying that they have a very slow growth rate and are especially vulnerable to disturbances such as oil spills. Taking this damage into account, the Gulf Restoration Program pressed for more compensation from the liable parties (the oil company as well as the rig company) and the government to offset the additional costs of restoration. The program funds monitoring of the damages as well as gulf restoration efforts. The organization projects that full restoration of the Gulf to its former state will require decades of work.

text: The spill was also notable for the volume of Corexit oil dispersant used and for application methods that were "purely experimental." Altogether,  of dispersants were used; of this  were released at the wellhead. Subsea injection had never previously been tried but due to the spill's unprecedented nature BP together with USCG and EPA decided to use it. Over 400 sorties were flown to release the product. Although usage of dispersants was described as "the most effective and fast moving tool for minimizing shoreline impact", the approach continues to be investigated.

text: Corexit

text: oil dispersant

text: used and for application methods that were "purely experimental." Altogether,  of dispersants were used; of this  were released at the wellhead. Subsea injection had never previously been tried but due to the spill's unprecedented nature BP together with USCG and EPA decided to use it. Over 400 sorties were flown to release the product. Although usage of dispersants was described as "the most effective and fast moving tool for minimizing shoreline impact", the approach continues to be investigated.

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was vital toe in the cleanup process at Magnolia, Arkansas after this oil spill. Low temperatures and inclement weather initially delayed the cleanup procedures, but the EPA was eventually able to send out crews to various locations within the affected area.

text: The

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) was vital toe in the cleanup process at

text: Magnolia, Arkansas

text: after this oil spill. Low temperatures and inclement weather initially delayed the cleanup procedures, but the EPA was eventually able to send out crews to various locations within the affected area.

text: Odyssey, which previously went by the name Oriental Phoenix, was an oil tanker in operation from 1971 to November 10, 1988, when an explosion caused it to sink in the North Atlantic off the coast of Canada. The resulting spill remains one of the largest oil spills in world history. The tanker was  off the coast of the Canadian province of Nova Scotia when it sank and released 132,157 tons (43 million gallons) of oil into the ocean. By way of comparison, 4.3 times as much oil was spilled by the Odyssey as from the much more famous Exxon Valdez.

text: Odyssey, which previously went by the name Oriental Phoenix, was an oil tanker in operation from 1971 to November 10, 1988, when an explosion caused it to sink in the

text: North Atlantic

text: off the coast of

text: Canada

text: . The resulting spill remains one of the largest

text: oil spills

text: in world history. The tanker was  off the coast of the Canadian province of

text: Nova Scotia

text: when it sank and released 132,157 tons (43 million gallons) of oil into the ocean. By way of comparison, 4.3 times as much oil was spilled by the Odyssey as from the much more famous

text: Exxon Valdez

text: In the next nine months, experts and divers including Red Adair were brought in to contain and cap the oil well. An average of approximately  per day were discharged into the Gulf until it was finally capped on 23 March 1980, nearly 10 months later. In similarity to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill 31 years later, the list of methods attempted to remediate the leak included lowering a cap over the well, plugging the leak with mud and "junk", use of dispersants, and spending months attempting to drill relief wells.

text: In the next nine months, experts and divers including

text: Red Adair

text: were brought in to contain and cap the oil well. An average of approximately  per day were discharged into the Gulf until it was finally capped on 23 March 1980, nearly 10 months later. In similarity to the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: 31 years later, the list of methods attempted to remediate the leak included lowering a cap over the well, plugging the leak with mud and "junk", use of dispersants, and spending months attempting to drill relief wells.

text: It should be noted that if an oil spill akin to that of the Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico (2010) occurred in the Basin, the environmental repercussions could be even worse. The Deepwater spill was due to the failure of the blowout preventer - a failure which may be attributed to the great depth of the well. The current Chevron well in the Basin is almost twice as deep as the Deepwater Horizon well in the Gulf, possibly posing increased risk for blowout preventer failure. Methane hydrate crystals, which form in low temperatures and high pressure, formed and prevented early attempts to plug the Gulf well. This pressure is doubled in the Basin due to the increased ocean depth. Any rigs to drill a relief well in the event of similar spill in the Basin would have to be brought in from other areas, such as the Gulf of Mexico. This increased wait time for a relief well to be drilled as well as the typically harsh weather conditions of the North Atlantic would make a spill in this region particularly difficult.

text: It should be noted that if an oil spill akin to that of the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: (2010) occurred in the Basin, the environmental repercussions could be even worse. The Deepwater spill was due to the failure of the

text: blowout preventer

text: - a failure which may be attributed to the great depth of the well. The current

text: Chevron

text: well in the Basin is almost twice as deep as the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: well in the Gulf, possibly posing increased risk for

text: blowout preventer

text: failure.

text: Methane hydrate

text: crystals, which form in low temperatures and high pressure, formed and prevented early attempts to plug the Gulf well. This pressure is doubled in the Basin due to the increased ocean depth. Any rigs to drill a

text: relief well

text: in the event of similar spill in the Basin would have to be brought in from other areas, such as the Gulf of Mexico. This increased wait time for a relief well to be drilled as well as the typically harsh weather conditions of the North Atlantic would make a spill in this region particularly difficult.

text: The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico has been described as the worst environmental disaster in the United States, releasing about  of crude oil making it the largest marine oil spill.  Both the spill and the cleanup efforts had effects on the environment.

text: The 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: has been described as the worst

text: environmental disaster

text: in the

text: United States

text: , releasing about  of

text: crude oil

text: making it the largest marine oil spill.  Both the spill and the cleanup efforts had effects on the

text: environment

text: "The cleanup for the Rena Oil spill will take time," said New Zealand scientist Dr. Norm Duke. "Petroleum oil will naturally break down - but this takes time and oxygenation. So, the longer the oil remains floating at sea - the safer it becomes. And, the rougher the weather - the better also."

text: "The cleanup for the Rena Oil spill will take time," said New Zealand scientist Dr. Norm Duke. "

text: Petroleum oil

text: will naturally break down - but this takes time and oxygenation. So, the longer the oil remains floating at sea - the safer it becomes. And, the rougher the weather - the better also."

text: Turning from these general principles to the case, Posner states that "we have been given no reason...for believing that a negligence regime is not perfectly adequate to remedy and deter, at reasonable cost, the accidental spillage of acrylonitrile from rail cars." Instead, the court says that under the facts of this case, the chemical spill was caused by the negligence of either (a) the North American Car Corporation in failing to maintain or inspect the rail car properly; (b) American Cyanamid in failing to maintain or inspect the car; or (c) the Missouri Pacific Railroad when it had custody of the rail car.  Under a negligence regime, the role of the courts is to consider the evidence and reach a determination as to which party's negligence caused the spill, and the negligent party would then have to pay the cleanup costs.  Under a strict liability regime, American Cyanamid would have to pay the cleanup costs, even if it did not act negligently, and the court is not convinced that there are compelling reasons to force American Cyanamid to bear the cleanup costs if it was not negligent.

text: In May 2010, McNutt headed the Flow Rate Technical Group which attempted to measure the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Preliminary reports from the group said that the rate of the oil spill was at least twice and possibly up to five times as much as previously acknowledged. Subsequent estimates, based on six independent methodologies, were four times the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. A refined estimate based on new pressure readings, data, and analysis, released by the United States Secretary of Energy Steven Chu and McNutt in August, said that 4.9 million barrels (with uncertainty of plus or minus approximately 10 percent) of oil had leaked from the well until it was capped on July 15. The disaster was the largest ever accidental spill of oil into marine waters.

text: In May 2010, McNutt headed the

text: Flow Rate Technical Group

text: which attempted to measure the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . Preliminary reports from the group said that the rate of the oil spill was at least twice and possibly up to five times as much as previously acknowledged. Subsequent estimates, based on six independent methodologies, were four times the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: . A refined estimate based on new pressure readings, data, and analysis, released by the

text: United States Secretary of Energy

text: Steven Chu

text: and McNutt in August, said that 4.9 million barrels (with uncertainty of plus or minus approximately 10 percent) of oil had leaked from the well until it was capped on July 15. The disaster was the largest ever accidental spill of oil into marine waters.

text: The source of the spill was a blow-out on January 28, 1969,  from the coast on Union Oil's Platform A in the Dos Cuadras Offshore Oil Field.  Within a ten-day period, an estimated  of crude oil spilled into the Channel and onto the beaches of Santa Barbara County in Southern California, fouling the coastline from Goleta to Ventura as well as the northern shores of the four northern Channel Islands.  The spill had a significant impact on marine life in the Channel, killing an estimated 3,500 sea birds, as well as marine animals such as dolphins, elephant seals, and sea lions. The public outrage engendered by the spill, which received prominent media coverage in the United States, resulted in numerous pieces of environmental legislation within the next several years, legislation that forms the legal and regulatory framework for the modern environmental movement in the U.S.

text: The source of the spill was a

text: blow-out

text: on January 28, 1969,  from the coast on

text: Union Oil

text: 's Platform A in the

text: Dos Cuadras Offshore Oil Field

text: .  Within a ten-day period, an estimated  of

text: crude oil

text: spilled into the Channel and onto the beaches of

text: Santa Barbara County

text: in Southern California, fouling the coastline from

text: Goleta

text: to

text: Ventura

text: as well as the northern shores of the four northern

text: Channel Islands

text: .  The spill had a significant impact on marine life in the Channel, killing an estimated 3,500 sea birds, as well as marine animals such as dolphins, elephant seals, and sea lions. The public outrage engendered by the spill, which received prominent media coverage in the United States, resulted in numerous pieces of environmental legislation within the next several years, legislation that forms the legal and regulatory framework for the modern environmental movement in the U.S.

text: Following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill (called the "Gulf oil spill"), the entrance to Perdido Pass was closed, with a barrier system in June 2010, to control tidal flow of oil entering from the Gulf of Mexico. The daily high tide was causing oil-contaminated water to enter Perdido Bay. The barrier system is designed to allow boats to travel through Perdido Pass, during the outflowing tide, but to close during the incoming tide and collect oil deposits in a retention area on the eastern edge of the pass.

text: Following the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: (called the "Gulf oil spill"), the entrance to

text: Perdido Pass

text: was closed, with a barrier system in June 2010, to control tidal flow of oil entering from the Gulf of Mexico. The daily

text: high tide

text: was causing oil-contaminated water to enter Perdido Bay. The barrier system is designed to allow boats to travel through Perdido Pass, during the outflowing tide, but to close during the incoming tide and collect oil deposits in a retention area on the eastern edge of the pass.

text: Few media outlets reported on this oil spill due to the BP oil spill which overshadowed this issue. The BP oil spill which was one of the largest accidental oil spills in history. It happened weeks before the Egypt oil spill had occurred.

text: Few media outlets reported on this oil spill due to the

text: BP oil spill

text: which overshadowed this issue. The

text: BP oil spill

text: which was one of the largest accidental oil spills in history. It happened weeks before the Egypt oil spill had occurred.

text: •2010-2014: Ocean Alliance spends five summers in the Gulf of Mexico in an attempt to determine the long-term toxicological impacts of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: •2010-2014: Ocean Alliance spends five summers in the Gulf of Mexico in an attempt to determine the long-term toxicological impacts of the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: There are many oil wells in the LGA, which is laced with pipelines, with most of the oil installations being operated by Shell Nigeria. However, the local community has seen little benefit from oil extraction, and infrastructure is poor.In the 1990s, the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People began a struggle against the degradation of their lands, which at times erupted into violence. In June 2001 an oil pipeline that passes through the Baraale community ruptured and spilled crude oil into nearby forests, farmlands and houses. There were delays in repair, and in October 2001 the spilled oil caught fire, causing extensive environmental damage.The region suffers from violence, kidnapping and arson.

text: There are many oil wells in the LGA, which is laced with pipelines, with most of the oil installations being operated by

text: Shell Nigeria

text: . However, the local community has seen little benefit from oil extraction, and infrastructure is poor.In the 1990s, the

entity_name: Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People

text: Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People

text: began a struggle against the degradation of their lands, which at times erupted into violence. In June 2001 an oil pipeline that passes through the Baraale community ruptured and spilled crude oil into nearby forests, farmlands and houses. There were delays in repair, and in October 2001 the spilled oil caught fire, causing extensive environmental damage.The region suffers from violence, kidnapping and arson.

text: He also serves as one of two independent trustees of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Trust., a $20 billion fund to pay claims arising from the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: He also serves as one of two independent trustees of the

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Trust

text: ., a $20 billion fund to pay claims arising from the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: Wildlife and environmental groups accused the White House and BP of holding back information about the extent and impact of the growing slick, and urged the White House to order a more direct federal government role in the spill response. Greenpeace Executive Director Phil Radford used a preliminary report from the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling to claim that the White House had blocked efforts by federal scientists to publicly reveal how high the oil spill rate was. However, the preliminary report's findings were strongly disputed by the White House, which issued statements that disproved several of the report's most controversial claims as inaccurate. In prepared testimony for a congressional committee, National Wildlife Federation President Larry Schweiger claimed that BP had failed to disclose results from its tests of chemical dispersants used on the spill, and that BP had tried to withhold video showing the true magnitude of the leak. On 19 May 2010, BP established a live feed, popularly known as spillcam, of the spill after hearings in Congress accused the company of withholding data from the ocean floor and blocking efforts by independent scientists to come up with estimates for the amount of crude flowing into the Gulf each day. On 20 May 2010, United States Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar indicated that the U.S. government would verify how much oil had leaked into the Gulf of Mexico. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Administrator Lisa Jackson and United States Secretary of Homeland Security Janet Napolitano asked for the results of tests looking for traces of oil and dispersant chemicals in the waters of the gulf.

text: Wildlife and environmental groups accused the White House and BP of holding back information about the extent and impact of the growing slick, and urged the White House to order a more direct federal government role in the spill response.

text: Greenpeace

text: Executive Director

text: Phil Radford

text: used a preliminary report from the

text: to claim that the White House had blocked efforts by federal scientists to publicly reveal how high the oil spill rate was. However, the preliminary report's findings were strongly disputed by the White House, which issued statements that disproved several of the report's most controversial claims as inaccurate. In

text: prepared testimony

text: for a congressional committee,

text: National Wildlife Federation

text: President Larry Schweiger claimed that BP had failed to disclose results from its tests of chemical dispersants used on the spill, and that BP had tried to withhold video showing the true magnitude of the leak. On 19 May 2010, BP established a live feed, popularly known as spillcam, of the spill after hearings in Congress accused the company of withholding data from the ocean floor and blocking efforts by independent scientists to come up with estimates for the amount of crude flowing into the Gulf each day. On 20 May 2010, United States Secretary of the Interior

text: Ken Salazar

text: indicated that the U.S. government would verify how much oil had leaked into the Gulf of Mexico.

text: (EPA) Administrator Lisa Jackson and United States Secretary of Homeland Security

text: Janet Napolitano

text: asked for the results of tests looking for traces of oil and dispersant chemicals in the waters of the gulf.

text: The results of the inquiry were announced by the SMRTC on 19 October 1993. Shortly after the accident The Straits Times had reported that an oil spill on the tracks was responsible for the second train's inability to brake in time. Some 50 litres of oil had spilled from a locomotive doing maintenance work on the track in the pre-dawn hours of 5 August. SMRT staff had been alerted to the spill and had dispatched a cleaning crew to the neighbouring Buona Vista, but approval to access the tracks was delayed. Already ten trains had reported difficulty braking on the track that morning. The 11th train had to use its emergency brakes upon reaching Clementi station, and while it was waiting for the brakes to be recharged so that it could move off again, the 12th approached the station and could not brake in time to avoid hitting the 11th train.

text: The results of the inquiry were announced by the SMRTC on 19 October 1993. Shortly after the accident

text: The Straits Times

text: had reported that an

text: oil spill

text: on the tracks was responsible for the second train's inability to brake in time. Some 50 litres of oil had spilled from a locomotive doing maintenance work on the track in the pre-dawn hours of 5 August. SMRT staff had been alerted to the spill and had dispatched a cleaning crew to the neighbouring

text: Buona Vista

text: , but approval to access the tracks was delayed. Already ten trains had reported difficulty braking on the track that morning. The 11th train had to use its emergency brakes upon reaching Clementi station, and while it was waiting for the brakes to be recharged so that it could move off again, the 12th approached the station and could not brake in time to avoid hitting the 11th train.

text: Tri-State staff also cooperate with interns and researchers from universities and institutions in order to conduct bird-related research not directly applicable to oil-spill situations. The organization has assisted the USGS with a study concerning the effects of lead and pesticide exposure on fish-eating birds, as well as surveys of the prevalence of West Nile virus among birds in the region.

text: Tri-State staff also cooperate with interns and researchers from universities and institutions in order to conduct bird-related research not directly applicable to oil-spill situations. The organization has assisted the

text: USGS

text: with a study concerning the effects of lead and pesticide exposure on fish-eating birds, as well as surveys of the prevalence of

text: West Nile virus

text: among birds in the region.

text: In response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the Society with the assistance of researchers at the University of South Florida and environmental sensor company YSI were able to attach and interface a hydrocarbon sensor to the SeaKeeper 1000 environmental monitor in June 2010. SeaKeepers continues to focus on oil spill prevention and works with organizations like CARTHE, Consortium for Advanced Research on the Transport of Hydrocarbon in the Environment,  is a research team dedicated to predicting the fate of oil released into our environment to help inform and guide response teams, thereby protecting and minimizing damage to human health, the economy, and the environment with this research team dedicated to predicting the fate of oil released into the environment.

text: In response to the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: , the Society with the assistance of researchers at the

text: University of South Florida

text: and environmental sensor company YSI were able to attach and interface a hydrocarbon sensor to the SeaKeeper 1000 environmental monitor in June 2010. SeaKeepers continues to focus on oil spill prevention and works with organizations like CARTHE, Consortium for Advanced Research on the Transport of Hydrocarbon in the Environment,  is a research team dedicated to predicting the fate of oil released into our environment to help inform and guide response teams, thereby protecting and minimizing damage to human health, the economy, and the environment with this research team dedicated to predicting the fate of oil released into the environment.

text: On January 28, 1969 an oil rig belonging to Union Oil experienced a blow-out  off the coast of California. The resulting spill was, at the time, the largest oil spill to occur in United States territorial waters. Crews took approximately 11 days to seal the rupture using a cement plug, during which approximately  of crude oil spilled into the Pacific Ocean, creating an oil slick with an area of about . Following the spill, tides carried the oil onto the beaches of the Anacapa, San Miguel, Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz islands.

text: On January 28, 1969 an

text: oil rig

text: belonging to

text: Union Oil

text: experienced a

text: blow-out

text: off the coast of California. The resulting spill was, at the time, the largest oil spill to occur in United States territorial waters. Crews took approximately 11 days to seal the rupture using a cement plug, during which approximately  of

text: crude oil

text: spilled into the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , creating an

text: oil slick

text: with an area of about . Following the spill, tides carried the oil onto the beaches of the Anacapa, San Miguel, Santa Rosa and Santa Cruz islands.

text: Efforts to stem the Deepwater Horizon oil spill were ongoing from the time that the Deepwater Horizon exploded on April 20, 2010 until the well was sealed by a cap on July 15, 2010. Various species of dolphins and other mammals (61 casualties), birds (2,095 casualties), and the endangered sea turtles (467 casualties) have been killed either directly or indirectly by the oil spill. The Deepwater Horizon spill has surpassed in volume the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill as the largest ever to originate in U.S.-controlled waters; it is comparable to the 1979 Ixtoc I oil spill in total volume released (Ixtoc discharged  to ; as of mid-July 2010, Deepwater Horizon has spilled  to ).

text: Efforts to stem the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: were ongoing from the time that the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: exploded

text: on April 20, 2010 until the well was sealed by a cap on July 15, 2010. Various species of

text: dolphin

text: s and other

text: mammal

text: s (61 casualties),

text: bird

text: s (2,095 casualties), and the endangered

text: sea turtle

text: s (467 casualties) have been killed either directly or indirectly by the oil spill. The Deepwater Horizon spill has surpassed in volume the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: as the largest ever to originate in

text: U.S.-controlled waters

text: ; it is comparable to the 1979

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: in

text: total volume released

text: (Ixtoc discharged  to ; as of mid-July 2010, Deepwater Horizon has spilled  to ).

text: On April 2, PHMSA issued a corrective action order to ExxonMobil Pipeline Co. preventing ExxonMobil from restarting operations on the affected segment of the pipeline until it is satisfied with repairs and all safety concerns have been addressed. According to the order: "continued operation of the Pegasus Pipeline would be hazardous to life, property, and the environment." Arkansas' Attorney General Dustin McDaniel promised a state investigation into the cause and impact of the spill. In a letter to ExxonMobil  McDaniel stated: "There are many questions and concerns remaining as to the long-term impacts, environmental or otherwise, from this spill,"  He asked ExxonMobil to preserve records pending his investigation.

text: On April 2, PHMSA issued a corrective action order to ExxonMobil Pipeline Co. preventing ExxonMobil from restarting operations on the affected segment of the pipeline until it is satisfied with repairs and all safety concerns have been addressed. According to the order: "continued operation of the Pegasus Pipeline would be hazardous to life, property, and the environment." Arkansas' Attorney General

text: Dustin McDaniel

text: promised a state investigation into the cause and impact of the spill. In a letter to ExxonMobil  McDaniel stated: "There are many questions and concerns remaining as to the long-term impacts, environmental or otherwise, from this spill,"  He asked ExxonMobil to preserve records pending his investigation.

text: A dramatic break somewhere along the length of an 8,750-foot injection well casing resulted in a gigantic methane eruption from the field on October 23, 2015, spewing on the order of 60 million cubic feet of methane per day at first, before the pressure was reduced. The well, Standard Sesnon 25 ("SS 25") had originally been installed in 1953, and reworked as a gas injection well in 1973, but lacked a blowout prevention valve, as it had not been considered a priority given the well's position, at the time, far from a populated area. Fallout from the methane cloud, in the form of oily droplets and persistent noxious odors, caused the evacuation of approximately 2,000 families, who have relocated to hotels and other rentals at SoCalGas's expense throughout the region.  On Dec. 4, 2015, SoCalGas commenced drilling a relief well to stop the natural gas leak by plugging the leaking well at its base. The relief well intercepted the base of the leaking well on Feb. 11, 2016, and the company began pumping heavy fluids to temporarily control the flow of gas out of the leaking well. SoCalGas was able to plug the leak permanently on February 18, 2016. Overall the well is estimated to have released 80,000 metric tons of methane as well as other hydrocarbons, the largest such release in U.S. history.

text: About  of diesel fuel on board spilled creating a light sheen in the vicinity which dissipated in a few days without cleanup. The vessel owner, Whipple, was fined $2100 for the oil spill.

text: In 1989 the Exxon Valdez oil spill brought oil contamination to the Aniakchak coast. The spill took place on March 24, but oil did not reach the coast of the preserve until July 2. Roughly two thirds of the  of coast were oiled, but not heavily. Cleanup continued from 1989 into 1990.

text: In 1989 the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: brought oil contamination to the Aniakchak coast. The spill took place on March 24, but oil did not reach the coast of the preserve until July 2. Roughly two thirds of the  of coast were oiled, but not heavily. Cleanup continued from 1989 into 1990.

text: Different types of methods were used in the cleanup of the oil spill, two of which included workers loading kelp covered in oil into trucks and vacuuming up pools of oil with specially designed vacuums. In addition, booms were used to keep the oil from entering Cape Town Harbor.

text: Different types of methods were used in the cleanup of the oil spill, two of which included workers loading

text: kelp

text: covered in oil into trucks and vacuuming up pools of oil with specially designed vacuums. In addition,

text: booms

text: were used to keep the oil from entering Cape Town Harbor.

text: The effects of technology on the environment are both obvious and subtle.  The more obvious effects include the depletion of nonrenewable natural resources (such as petroleum, coal, ores), and the added pollution of air, water, and land. The more subtle effects include debates over long-term effects (e.g., global warming, deforestation, natural habitat destruction, coastal wetland loss.)

text: The effects of technology on the environment are both obvious and subtle.  The more obvious effects include the depletion of nonrenewable natural resources (such as petroleum, coal, ores), and the added

text: pollution

text: of air, water, and land. The more subtle effects include debates over long-term effects (e.g., global warming, deforestation, natural habitat destruction, coastal wetland loss.)

text: The Australian Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism estimated that the Montara oil leak could be as high as /day, five times the /day estimated by PTTEP Australasia. A spokesman for Resources Minister, Martin Ferguson, said the  referred to the amount of oil that the well could produce when brought into peak production. After flying over the spill site, Australian Greens Senator Rachel Siewert claimed the spill was far greater than had originally been reported. WWF-Australia also claimed that the spill was worse than originally expected.

text: The Australian

entity_name: Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism

text: Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism

text: estimated that the Montara oil leak could be as high as /day, five times the /day estimated by PTTEP Australasia. A spokesman for Resources Minister, Martin Ferguson, said the  referred to the amount of oil that the well could produce when brought into peak production. After flying over the spill site, Australian Greens Senator

text: Rachel Siewert

text: claimed the spill was far greater than had originally been reported.

text: WWF-Australia

text: also claimed that the spill was worse than originally expected.

text: Another consideration is how vulnerability to climate change varies with scale. At local scales, extreme weather events can have a significant impact, especially in vulnerable locations. Another potentially significant impact is the long-term effect of sea-level rise on low-lying coastal areas.

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was discovered on the afternoon of 22 April 2010 when a large oil slick began to spread at the former rig site. According to the Flow Rate Technical Group, the leak amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill as the largest ever to originate in U.S.-controlled waters and the 1979 Ixtoc I oil spill as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.  BP has challenged this calculation saying that it is overestimated as it includes over  of oil which was collected before it could enter the Gulf waters.

text: The

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: was discovered on the afternoon of 22 April 2010 when a large oil slick began to spread at the former rig site. According to the

text: Flow Rate Technical Group

text: , the leak amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: as the largest ever to originate in

text: U.S.-controlled waters

text: and the 1979

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.  BP has challenged this calculation saying that it is overestimated as it includes over  of oil which was collected before it could enter the Gulf waters.

text: The oil spilled from the Tanio was of low toxicity; thus, environmental effects were somewhat mitigated. Nevertheless, about 1,700 dead birds were found, oyster beds were contaminated, and the seaweed harvest was disrupted.Further contamination was mainly due to a speedy and thorough cleanup process. Within two months of the disaster, cleanup had switched removing oil with skimmers and pumps to the use of high-pressure hoses in rocky areas. In addition, cleanup was not restricted to tourist areas and collection areas, but also included efforts to clean removed or isolated areas, as well as locations where a relatively quick natural cleanup could be expected.

text: The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation. Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes. In the chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals.

text: The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and

text: bioremediation

text: . Bacteria capable of digesting the

text: hydrocarbon

text: s in

text: petroleum

text: are often used to clean up

text: oil spill

text: s. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in

text: Prince William Sound

text: in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: . These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the

text: bioremediation

text: of industrial

text: toxic waste

text: s. In the

text: chemical industry

text: , bacteria are most important in the production of

text: enantiomer

text: ically pure chemicals for use as

text: pharmaceuticals

text: or

text: agrichemical

text: s.

text: Although Chinese government officials reported that as little as 1,500 tonnes of oil spilled, a former University of Alaska marine conservation specialist, Rick Steiner, estimates the spill to have a much higher total, with somewhere in the range of 60,000 to 90,000 tons (18.47 to 27.70 million gallons) of oil spilled into the Yellow Sea. He said that "[i]t's enormous. That's at least as large as the official estimate of the Exxon Valdez disaster." However, a government spokesperson for Dalian refuted this estimate, and referred to a panel of experts assessing the spill's size and environmental effect saying that "[w]e will know w[h]ether it's smaller or bigger than 60,000 tons based on the conclusion made by the panel".

text: Although Chinese government officials reported that as little as 1,500 tonnes of oil spilled, a former University of Alaska marine conservation specialist, Rick Steiner, estimates the spill to have a much higher total, with somewhere in the range of 60,000 to 90,000 tons (18.47 to 27.70 million gallons) of oil spilled into the

text: Yellow Sea

text: . He said that "[i]t's enormous. That's at least as large as the official estimate of the Exxon Valdez disaster." However, a government spokesperson for Dalian refuted this estimate, and referred to a panel of experts assessing the spill's size and environmental effect saying that "[w]e will know w[h]ether it's smaller or bigger than 60,000 tons based on the conclusion made by the panel".

text: Shortly thereafter, a second explosion occurred within Tank 231. Burning petroleum spilled from the tank’s vents into a diked area surrounding the tank. Within the diked area, a second tank (No. 114) just north of Tank 231, containing No. 6 grade fuel oil, also ignited as pipelines within the diked area began to fail. The initial explosion also damaged the pipe manifold outside of the dike wall and petroleum pouring out under pressure ignited.

text: Shortly thereafter, a second explosion occurred within Tank 231. Burning petroleum spilled from the tank’s vents into a

text: diked

text: area surrounding the tank. Within the diked area, a second tank (No. 114) just north of Tank 231, containing No. 6 grade

text: fuel oil

text: , also ignited as pipelines within the diked area began to fail. The initial explosion also damaged the pipe

text: manifold

text: outside of the dike wall and petroleum pouring out under pressure ignited.

text: When a well reaches the end of economic production, it must be plugged according to the terms of a plugging permit.

text: The Community Center was founded in 2006 to serve local residents of St. Bernard Parish after the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita. In St Bernard Parish, the epicenter of devastation, fully 93% of homes were rated as "severely damaged" or "destroyed". This is the only Parish (county) in the history of our country to have been completely inundated by flood waters. In many cases homes and businesses were covered up to the rooftops. One hundred and eighty people in the Parish drowned. It is also the home to the largest residential domestic oil spill in US history, when the Murphy Oil Spill (Chalmette, Louisiana)released more than 1,000,000 gallons of crude oil.

text: The Community Center was founded in 2006 to serve local residents of St. Bernard Parish after the devastation caused by

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: and

text: Hurricane Rita

text: . In

text: St Bernard Parish

text: , the epicenter of devastation, fully 93% of homes were rated as "severely damaged" or "destroyed". This is the only Parish (county) in the history of our country to have been completely inundated by flood waters. In many cases homes and businesses were covered up to the rooftops. One hundred and eighty people in the Parish drowned. It is also the home to the largest residential domestic oil spill in US history, when the

text: Murphy Oil Spill (Chalmette, Louisiana)

text: released more than 1,000,000 gallons of crude oil.

text: H.R. 311 would have no significant net impact on the federal budget, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates. The bill would require the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to modify the Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) rule, which regulates oil discharges into navigable waters and adjoining shorelines. A portion of the SPCC rule, effective as of September 23, 2013, requires certain farmers to develop an oil spill prevention plan that is certified by a professional engineer. Those plans could involve certain infrastructure changes to reduce the possibility of oil spills. Such plans apply to farms that store more than 1,320 gallons of oil products in aboveground containers or more than 42,000 gallons of oil products in buried containers that could reasonably be expected to discharge oil into waters of the United States.

text: H.R. 311 would have no significant net impact on the federal budget, the

text: Congressional Budget Office

text: (CBO) estimates. The bill would require the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to modify the Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) rule, which regulates oil discharges into navigable waters and adjoining shorelines. A portion of the SPCC rule, effective as of September 23, 2013, requires certain farmers to develop an oil spill prevention plan that is certified by a professional engineer. Those plans could involve certain infrastructure changes to reduce the possibility of oil spills. Such plans apply to farms that store more than 1,320 gallons of oil products in aboveground containers or more than 42,000 gallons of oil products in buried containers that could reasonably be expected to discharge oil into waters of the United States.

text: After the Texas City Refinery explosion in 2005, stock prices again fell. By January 2007, the explosion, coupled with a pipeline spill in Alaska and production delays in the Gulf of Mexico, left BP's stock down 4.5% from its position prior to the Texas City explosion. However, by April 2007, stocks had rebounded 13% erasing the 8.3% loss from 2006. Declining oil prices and concerns over oil sustainability also caused shares to fall in value in late 2008.

text: Additional long-term impacts of SOD may be inferred from regeneration patterns in areas that have experienced severe mortality. These patterns may indicate which tree species will replace tanoak in diseased areas. Such transitions will be of particular importance in forest types that were relatively poor in tree species diversity before the introduction of SOD, e.g., redwood forest.  , the only study to comprehensively examine regeneration in SOD-impacted redwood forests found no evidence that other broadleaf tree species are beginning to recruit.  Instead, redwood was colonizing most mortality gaps. However, they also found inadequate regeneration in some areas and concluded that regeneration is continuing. Since this study only considered one site in Marin County, California, these results may not apply to other forests. Other impacts to the local ecology include, among others, the residual effects of spraying heavy pesticides (Agrifos) to treat SOD symptoms, and the heavy mortality of the native pollinator community that occurs as a result. Bee hives situated in areas of heavy Agrifos spraying have incurred significant losses of population in direct correlation to the application of these chemicals. Counties such as Napa and Sonoma may be doing significant damage to their native pollinator populations by virtue of adopting broad-based prophylactic pesticide policies. Such damage to the pollinator populations may have tertiary negative effects on the entire local plant community, compounding the loss of biodiversity, and thus environmental value, attributable to SOD.

text: Additional long-term impacts of SOD may be inferred from regeneration patterns in areas that have experienced severe mortality. These patterns may indicate which tree species will replace tanoak in diseased areas. Such transitions will be of particular importance in forest types that were relatively poor in tree species diversity before the introduction of SOD, e.g., redwood forest.  , the only study to comprehensively examine regeneration in SOD-impacted redwood forests found no evidence that other broadleaf tree species are beginning to recruit.  Instead, redwood was colonizing most mortality gaps. However, they also found inadequate regeneration in some areas and concluded that regeneration is continuing. Since this study only considered one site in

text: Marin County, California

text: , these results may not apply to other forests. Other impacts to the local ecology include, among others, the residual effects of spraying heavy pesticides (Agrifos) to treat SOD symptoms, and the heavy mortality of the native pollinator community that occurs as a result. Bee hives situated in areas of heavy Agrifos spraying have incurred significant losses of population in direct correlation to the application of these chemicals. Counties such as Napa and Sonoma may be doing significant damage to their native pollinator populations by virtue of adopting broad-based prophylactic pesticide policies. Such damage to the pollinator populations may have tertiary negative effects on the entire local plant community, compounding the loss of biodiversity, and thus environmental value, attributable to SOD.

text: The following is a timeline of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the BP oil spill, the Gulf of Mexico oil spill or the Macondo blowout). It was a massive oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the largest offshore spill in U.S. history. It was a result of the well blowout that began with the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion  on April 20, 2010.

text: The following is a timeline of the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: (also referred to as the BP oil spill, the Gulf of Mexico oil spill or the Macondo blowout). It was a massive

text: oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , the largest offshore spill in U.S. history. It was a result of the well blowout that began with the

text: Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion

text: on April 20, 2010.

text: Some emergencies do not immediately endanger life, health or property, but do affect the natural environment and creatures living within it.  Not all agencies consider this a genuine emergency, but it can have far reaching effects on animals and the long term condition of the land.  Examples would include forest fires and marine oil spills.

text: Some emergencies do not immediately endanger life, health or property, but do affect the natural environment and creatures living within it.  Not all agencies consider this a genuine emergency, but it can have far reaching effects on animals and the long term condition of the land.  Examples would include

text: forest fire

text: s and marine

text: oil spill

text: s.

text: The spill was much smaller than the nearby 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill on January 28, 1969 in which an oil rig blow-out spilled an estimated  of crude oil over a ten-day period.

text: The spill was much smaller than the nearby

text: 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill

text: on January 28, 1969 in which an oil rig

text: blow-out

text: spilled an estimated  of

text: crude oil

text: over a ten-day period.

text: Oil spills can occur during transportation of oil or during extraction.  Such spills may dump significant quantities of oil into the ocean and pollute the environment, affecting ecosystems near and far.

text: Oil spills

text: can occur during

text: transportation of oil

text: or

text: during extraction

text: .  Such spills may dump significant quantities of oil into the ocean and pollute the environment, affecting ecosystems near and far.

text: In December 2007, thousands of tonnes of oil were spilled into the North Sea during the loading of a tanker at the Statfjord oil field. The spill, estimated at 21,750 barrels (approx 3,000 metric tons), was the country's second largest ever, according to Norway's oil safety authority. The accident happened in rough weather while the tanker Navion Britannica was loading oil from a storage buoy, according to the operator Statoil.o

text: In total, eleven oil spills occurred between 17 December 2013 and 29 December 2013. The first spill began on 17 December at 4:45 a.m. when the  sea line No 10, operated by the Trinidad's national oil company Petrotrin, ruptured at the bottom of the Gulf of Paria near the company's Pointe-a-Pierre refinery.  It was initially reported as a single oil spill near the southwestern town of La Brea but by the end of the month, ten more oil spills were confirmed.  It is the largest oil spill in the history of Trinidad and Tobago.

text: In total, eleven oil spills occurred between 17 December 2013 and 29 December 2013. The first spill began on 17 December at 4:45 a.m. when the  sea line No 10, operated by the Trinidad's

text: national oil company

text: Petrotrin

text: , ruptured at the bottom of the

text: Gulf of Paria

text: near the company's

text: Pointe-a-Pierre

text: refinery.  It was initially reported as a single oil spill near the southwestern town of

text: La Brea

text: but by the end of the month, ten more oil spills were confirmed.  It is the largest oil spill in the history of Trinidad and Tobago.

text: The oil spill had a dangerous impact on the Brazilian society and the overall Brazilian economy. There was a drastic decrease in the number of fish species living in the bay after the spill, because the bay no longer remained a habitable environment. Almost 4000 fishermen - more than half - that had previously been employed to fish at the Guanabara Bay had to resort to alternative methods of income and working odd jobs to support their families. It was unlikely that after the spill one would be able to catch more than 10 kilos of fish, where in comparison to before the spill, the average of catching fish was almost 100 kilos.  In addition, the quality of the fish from the bay area had also been an issue as many buyers claimed that the quality of the fish had decreased because it was now contaminated. As a result, the fish had been valued less and the prices had been reduced to about half.

text: The oil spill had a dangerous impact on the Brazilian society and the overall

text: Brazilian economy

text: . There was a drastic decrease in the number of fish species living in the bay after the spill, because the bay no longer remained a habitable environment. Almost 4000

text: fishermen

text: - more than half - that had previously been employed to fish at the

text: Guanabara Bay

text: had to resort to alternative methods of income and working odd jobs to support their families. It was unlikely that after the spill one would be able to catch more than 10

text: kilos

text: of fish, where in comparison to before the spill, the average of catching fish was almost 100 kilos.  In addition, the quality of the fish from the bay area had also been an issue as many buyers claimed that the quality of the fish had decreased because it was now

text: contaminate

text: d. As a result, the fish had been valued less and the prices had been reduced to about half.

text: The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has researched 9,351 accidental spills since 1974.  According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil.  91% of the operational oil spills were small, resulting in less than 7 tons per spill. Spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 tons.

text: According to the Africa Partnership Forum, "Although Africa is the continent least responsible for climate change, it is particularly vulnerable to the effects," and the long-term impacts include, "changing rainfall patterns affecting agriculture and reducing food security; worsening water security; decreasing fish resources in large lakes due to rising temperature; shifting vector-borne diseases; rising sea level affecting low-lying coastal areas with large populations; and rising water stress".

text: According to the Africa Partnership Forum, "Although Africa is the continent least responsible for

text: climate change

text: , it is particularly vulnerable to the effects," and the long-term impacts include, "changing rainfall patterns affecting agriculture and reducing food security; worsening water security; decreasing fish resources in large lakes due to rising temperature; shifting vector-borne diseases; rising sea level affecting low-lying coastal areas with large populations; and rising water stress".

text: From the 1920s until the 1940s, a group of mystics, nudists, artists, writers, and hermits known as the "Dunites" inhabited the Dunes. They regarded the Dunes as a center of creative energy and published a magazine called "The Dune Forum."At the same time, oil companies had started buying up Dune land, and in 1948 oil was discovered in the Dunes. Unocal, an oil company, began operating the Guadalupe Oil Field in the 1950s. Over the course of the next forty years, Unocal leaked 18 million gallons of petroleum under the Dunes. In 1994, the company publicly recognized the spill and began cleaning up the  site, which lies in San Luis Obispo County immediately north of the Santa Barbara County line.

text: From the 1920s until the 1940s, a group of mystics, nudists, artists, writers, and hermits known as the "Dunites" inhabited the Dunes. They regarded the Dunes as a center of creative energy and published a magazine called "The Dune Forum."At the same time, oil companies had started buying up Dune land, and in 1948

text: oil

text: was discovered in the Dunes.

text: Unocal

text: , an oil company, began operating the Guadalupe Oil Field in the 1950s. Over the course of the next forty years, Unocal leaked 18 million gallons of

text: petroleum

text: under the Dunes. In 1994, the company publicly recognized the spill and began cleaning up the  site, which lies in San Luis Obispo County immediately north of the Santa Barbara County line.

text: The effects of the product were studied on a beach affected by the  spill]  off the coast of Spain in 2002. A  study concluded that it enhanced the biodegradation rate of specific compounds, but  did not establish whether it had improved the visible aspect of the beach, detached stuck oil, or reduced weathered oil. Other compounds, such as uric acid and lecithin, may be more effective than S-200, but wash off in tidal areas or rain events and must be applied continuously.  In 2006, other researchers summarized the findings of experiments on Prestige-affected coastal areas, concluding that oloephilic substances such as S-200 were of "limited effectiveness.

text: The effects of the product were studied on a beach affected by the  spill]  off the coast of Spain in 2002. A  study concluded that it enhanced the biodegradation rate of specific compounds, but  did not establish whether it had improved the visible aspect of the beach, detached stuck oil, or reduced weathered oil. Other compounds, such as

text: uric acid

text: and

text: lecithin

text: , may be more effective than S-200, but wash off in tidal areas or rain events and must be applied continuously.  In 2006, other researchers summarized the findings of experiments on Prestige-affected coastal areas, concluding that oloephilic substances such as S-200 were of "limited effectiveness.

text: There are somewhere between 400 to 500 different species of marine fish as well as 21 different types of freshwater fish. There are also many mammals, reptiles and amphibians that inhabit the bodies of water that surround Trinidad. The Petrotrin oil spill has had an adverse effect on this diverse ecosystem. The spill has put the country’s marine and freshwater animals that inhabit the bodies of water near the Pointe-a-Pierre base, such as Queen’s beach, Coffee beach and the Caribbean Ocean, in harm’s way. Several fishermen have reported seeing many oil-soaked birds as well as many dead fish near beaches close to the oil spill.

text: Approximately  of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300 oil tankers crossing the sea every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.

text: Approximately  of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250-300

text: oil tanker

text: s crossing the sea every day. Accidental

text: oil spill

text: s happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.

text: In June 2010, JESS3 released the "Black Oil Plug-In" for Firefox, rendering any mention of BP, Transocean, the Gulf Oil Spill and related names and phrases into a dripping, black splotch within a user's browser. That same month, the company also introduced The Ex-Blocker, which enables users to prevent their web browser from showing their ex-lovers' activities and posts on various websites. The application received media coverage internationally, as well as in the U.S. including a mention on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon.  over 8,000 people had installed the Ex-Blocker plug-in.

text: In June 2010, JESS3 released the "Black Oil Plug-In" for

text: Firefox

text: , rendering any mention of

text: BP

text: Transocean

text: , the

text: Gulf Oil Spill

text: and related names and phrases into a dripping, black splotch within a user's browser. That same month, the company also introduced The Ex-Blocker, which enables users to prevent their

text: web browser

text: from showing their ex-lovers' activities and posts on various websites. The application received media coverage internationally, as well as in the U.S. including a mention on

text: Late Night with Jimmy Fallon

text: .  over 8,000 people had installed the Ex-Blocker plug-in.

text: The operator of the cupola is known as the "cupola tender" or "furnace master". During the operation of a tapped cupola (cupolas may vary in this regard) the tender observes the amount of iron rising in the well of the cupola. When the metal level is sufficiently high, the cupola tender opens the "tap hole" to let the metal flow into a ladle or other container to hold the molten metal. When enough metal is drawn off the "tap hole" is plugged with a refractory plug made of clay.

text: The operator of the cupola is known as the "cupola tender" or "furnace master". During the operation of a tapped cupola (cupolas may vary in this regard) the tender observes the amount of iron rising in the well of the cupola. When the metal level is sufficiently high, the cupola tender opens the "tap hole" to let the metal flow into a

text: ladle

text: or other container to hold the molten metal. When enough metal is drawn off the "tap hole" is plugged with a refractory plug made of clay.

text: The immediate questions that have to be answered in deciding to complete a well or to plug and abandon (P&A) it are:

text: Two well-known oil spills exemplify large scale marine bioremediation applications:

text: An explosion is a rapid increase in volume and release of energy in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of gases.  Supersonic explosions created by high explosives are known as detonations and travel via supersonic shock waves. Subsonic explosions are created by low explosives through a slower burning process known as deflagration.  When caused by a man-made device such as an exploding rocket or firework, the audible component of an explosion is referred to as its "report" (which can also be used as a verb, e.g., "the rocket reported loudly upon impact".)

text: An explosion is a rapid increase in

text: volume

text: and release of

text: energy

text: in an extreme manner, usually with the generation of high

text: temperatures

text: and the release of

text: gas

text: es.

text: Supersonic

text: explosions created by

text: high explosive

text: s are known as

text: detonation

text: s and travel via supersonic

text: shock wave

text: s.

text: Subsonic

text: explosions are created by

text: low explosive

text: s through a slower burning process known as

text: deflagration

text: .  When caused by a man-made device such as an exploding rocket or firework, the audible component of an explosion is referred to as its "report" (which can also be used as a verb, e.g., "the rocket reported loudly upon impact".)

text: In 1989, the Exxon Valdez ran aground, spilling 41.6 million liters of crude oil, and launching one of the first major bioremediation efforts for an oil spill. Cleanup of Alaskan shorelines relied in part on fertilizer application to augment bacterial growth.

text: In 1989, the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: ran aground, spilling 41.6 million liters of crude oil, and launching one of the first major bioremediation efforts for an oil spill. Cleanup of Alaskan shorelines relied in part on

text: fertilizer

text: application to augment bacterial growth.

text: This is the only facility of its kind where full-scale oil spill response equipment testing, research, and training can be conducted in a marine environment with oil under controlled environmental conditions.  Variables such as waves, temperature, and oil types are able to be controlled. A benefit of this facility is that it provides an environmentally safe place to conduct objective testing and to develop devices and techniques for the control of oil and hazardous material spills.

text: The Steering Group concluded that although there were local and limited adverse effects the overall impact of the spill had been minimal.

text: Following the oil spill, Queensland Premier Anna Bligh declared two islands and parts of the Sunshine coast as disaster areas. Cleanup efforts were reportedly going to cost at least $100,000 a day and last more than a week as the oil continued to spread. The company in charge of the cargo ship is faced with a possible $1.5 million in fines for the incident. Several search parties have been sent to the spill area to attempt to find the potentially explosive materials that were in the 31 containers. Press reports stated that if the ammonium nitrate were to mix with the heavy fuel, it could ignite the ammonium nitrate and cause a large explosion. If the chemical did not react with the fuel, but still leaked out, marine life could be threatened by large blooms in algae. A team of 88 people were sent out to begin the cleanup process and another 58 were expected to join within the following days. On Moreton Island, a total of 290 people are working to clean up the oil with most of them focusing on Middle Creek and Cape Moreton. Even though hundreds of people were working on cleaning the spill, the average amount cleaned each day was 1 km (0.6 mi). It was not until May of that year that Moreton Island was finally cleared of oil. The cleanup effort was undertaken by 2,500 people and led to the removal of roughly 3,000 tonnes of contaminated sand.

text: Following the oil spill,

text: Queensland Premier Anna Bligh

text: Before 1950, bulk-oil storage facilities near the corner of Manhattan Avenue and Huron Street were spilling petroleum in amounts that were eventually more than the Exxon Valdez oil spill. An underground explosion at the same corner added to the problem. BP, Chevron, and ExxonMobil have since removed half of the spill, about , from the creek and surrounding area, selling the oil that was removed.

text: Before 1950, bulk-oil storage facilities near the corner of

text: Manhattan Avenue

text: and Huron Street were spilling petroleum in amounts that were eventually more than the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: . An underground explosion at the same corner added to the problem.

text: BP

text: Chevron

text: , and

text: ExxonMobil

text: have since removed half of the spill, about , from the creek and surrounding area, selling the oil that was removed.

text: Petroleum exploration is allowed on the refuge. There was an oil spill at one of the well sites in Sabine during the winter of 2002-2003. Most of the spill was cleaned up by burning the oil.

text: Petroleum

text: exploration is allowed on the refuge. There was an oil spill at one of the well sites in Sabine during the

text: winter

text: of 2002-2003. Most of the spill was cleaned up by burning the oil.

text: The Xingang Port oil spill is a spill that occurred in July 2010 caused by a rupture and subsequent explosion of two crude oil pipelines that run to an oil storage depot of the China National Petroleum Corporation in Xingang Harbour, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China. The 1,500 tonnes of oil spilled from the pipes created an  slick in the Yellow Sea that grew to  within a week. By July 21, the spill had spread to , and stretched as far as  along the coast.

text: The Xingang Port oil spill is a spill that occurred in July 2010 caused by a rupture and subsequent explosion of two

text: crude oil

text: pipeline

text: s that run to an oil storage depot of the

text: China National Petroleum Corporation

text: in

text: Xingang Harbour

text: Dalian

text: Liaoning Province

text: China

text: . The 1,500 tonnes of oil spilled from the pipes created an  slick in the Yellow Sea that grew to  within a week. By July 21, the spill had spread to , and stretched as far as  along the coast.

text: There is much less information on the impact of the Ixtoc I spill on benthic species (bottom dwellers). The best studies were on the Texas coast over 1000 km from the spill. Massive kills can occur when oil reaches the benthos in sufficient quantity. The only indication of a massive kill may be the remains of the dead organisms, but if they lack hard parts there will be little evidence.

text: The effects of oil in the fragile Niger Delta communities and environment have been enormous. Local indigenous people have seen little if any improvement in their standard of living while suffering serious damage to their natural environment. According to Nigerian federal government figures, there were more than 7,000 oil spills between 1970 and 2000. It has been estimated that a clean-up of the region, including full restoration of swamps, creeks, fishing grounds and mangroves, could take 25 years.

text: Portable containment berms are another form of secondary spill containment. Portable containment berms are useful for containing mobile equipment such as oil drums, trucks, tankers and trailers. Unlike geotextile berms, portable berms usually do not solidify oil. Portable berms are essentially a basin that can catch many different types of hazardous liquids and chemicals.Many companies involved in fracking use spill containment berms to capture contaminated water that is a by-product of the operation. Each well site has multiple trucks that transport water used in deep well drilling procedure.

text: Portable containment berms are another form of secondary spill containment. Portable containment berms are useful for containing mobile equipment such as

text: oil drums

text: , trucks,

text: tankers

text: and trailers. Unlike

text: geotextile

text: berms, portable berms usually do not solidify oil. Portable berms are essentially a basin that can catch many different types of hazardous liquids and chemicals.Many companies involved in

text: fracking

text: use spill containment berms to capture contaminated water that is a by-product of the operation. Each well site has multiple trucks that transport water used in

text: deep well drilling

text: procedure.

text: Laws governing oil spills in the United States began in 1851 with the Limitation of Liability Act. This statue, in an attempt to protect the shipping industry, stated that vessel owners were liable for incident-related costs up to the post-incident value of their vessel. The shortcomings of this law were revealed in 1967 with the release of over 100,000 tons of crude oil into the English Channel from the Torrey Canyon. Of the $8 million of cleanup-related costs, the owners of the Torrey Canyon were held liable for only $50—the value of the only remaining Torrey Canyon lifeboat. In the meantime, the Oil Pollution Act of 1924 had passed, but this statue only limited liability for deliberate discharge of oil into marine waters.

text: Laws governing oil spills in the

text: United States

text: began in 1851 with the

text: Limitation of Liability Act

text: . This statue, in an attempt to protect the shipping industry, stated that vessel owners were liable for incident-related costs up to the post-incident value of their vessel. The shortcomings of this law were revealed in 1967 with the release of over 100,000 tons of

text: crude oil

text: into the

text: English Channel

text: from the

text: Torrey Canyon

text: . Of the $8 million of cleanup-related costs, the owners of the Torrey Canyon were held liable for only $50—the value of the only remaining Torrey Canyon lifeboat. In the meantime, the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1924

text: had passed, but this statue only limited liability for deliberate discharge of oil into marine waters.

text: In 1970, responding to concern about oil spills such as the Torrey Canyon, two Royal Commissions were ordered "into exploratory and production drilling for petroleum in the area of the Great Barrier Reef".  After the Royal Commissions, the federal and state governments ceased allowing petroleum drilling on the Great Barrier Reef. A study in 1990 concluded that the reef is too young to contain oil reserves. Oil drilling remains prohibited on the Great Barrier Reef, yet oil spills due to shipping routes are still a threat to the reef system, with a total of 282 oil spills between 1987-2002.

text: In 1970, responding to concern about

text: oil spill

text: s such as the

text: Torrey Canyon

text: , two

text: Royal Commission

text: s were ordered "into exploratory and production drilling for petroleum in the area of the Great Barrier Reef".  After the Royal Commissions, the federal and state governments ceased allowing petroleum drilling on the Great Barrier Reef. A study in 1990 concluded that the reef is too young to contain

text: oil reserves

text: . Oil drilling remains prohibited on the Great Barrier Reef, yet oil spills due to shipping routes are still a threat to the reef system, with a total of 282 oil spills between 1987-2002.

text: The emission of dust and particles could have covered the entire surface of the Earth for several years, possibly a decade, creating a harsh environment for living things. The shock production of carbon dioxide caused by the destruction of carbonate rocks would have led to a sudden greenhouse effect. Over a longer period, sunlight would have been blocked from reaching the surface of the Earth by the dust particles in the atmosphere, cooling the surface dramatically. Photosynthesis by plants would also have been interrupted, affecting the entire food chain. A model of the event developed by Lomax et al. (2001) suggests that net primary productivity (NPP) rates may have increased to higher than pre-impact levels over the long term because of the high carbon dioxide concentrations.

text: The emission of dust and particles could have covered the entire surface of the Earth for several years, possibly a decade, creating a harsh environment for living things. The shock production of

text: carbon dioxide

text: caused by the destruction of

text: carbonate

text: rocks would have led to a sudden

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Over a longer period, sunlight would have been blocked from reaching the surface of the Earth by the dust particles in the atmosphere, cooling the surface dramatically.

text: Photosynthesis

text: by plants would also have been interrupted, affecting the entire

text: food chain

text: . A model of the event developed by Lomax et al. (2001) suggests that

text: net primary productivity

text: (NPP) rates may have increased to higher than pre-impact levels over the long term because of the high carbon dioxide concentrations.

text: Relatively small explosions can be produced by pressurizing a container until catastrophic failure such as with a dry ice bomb. Technically, devices that create explosions of this type can not be classified as "bombs" by the definition presented at the top of this article. However, the explosions created by these devices can cause property damage, injury, or death. Flammable liquids, gasses and gas mixtures dispersed in these explosions may also ignite if exposed to a spark or flame.

text: Relatively small explosions can be produced by pressurizing a container until catastrophic failure such as with a

text: dry ice bomb

text: . Technically, devices that create explosions of this type can not be classified as "bombs" by the definition presented at the top of this article. However, the explosions created by these devices can cause property damage, injury, or death. Flammable liquids, gasses and gas mixtures dispersed in these explosions may also ignite if exposed to a spark or flame.

text: In addition to his work as a conservationist, Harte was also a philanthropist. He donated a known 70 million dollars to local Corpus Christi organizations and institutions like universities, colleges, research labs, and environmental groups. It is likely that his philanthropy extended considerably beyond this amount as he often gave anonymous donations to charities and organizations for decades. Some of contributions included a 3.5 million dollar donation towards a new performing arts center at Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi (TAMU-CC), $1.8 million for a library in Flour Bluff, and a $1 million challenge grant to Corpus Christi Metro Ministries which helped save two homeless shelters from closing. In 2000 he established the Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies at TAMU–CC, with a $46 million endowment. The Institute has since played a major role in helping cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: In addition to his work as a conservationist, Harte was also a philanthropist. He donated a known 70 million dollars to local Corpus Christi organizations and institutions like universities, colleges, research labs, and environmental groups. It is likely that his philanthropy extended considerably beyond this amount as he often gave anonymous donations to charities and organizations for decades. Some of contributions included a 3.5 million dollar donation towards a new performing arts center at

text: Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi

text: (TAMU-CC), $1.8 million for a library in

text: Flour Bluff

text: , and a $1 million challenge grant to

text: Corpus Christi Metro Ministries

text: which helped save two homeless shelters from closing. In 2000 he established the

entity_name: Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies

text: Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies

text: at TAMU–CC, with a $46 million endowment. The Institute has since played a major role in helping cleanup of the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: The USCG are the primary federal response authority in coastal water hence having the overall power to ensure the effective cleanup of oil spills and lead actions that prevent further discharge from the spill source. The resulting activities that follow up an oil spill involving federal, state and private parties are co-ordinated by the USCG. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Response and Restoration (NOAA) works closely with the USCG in providing assistance in technical areas such as Consideration of Alternatives, Oil displacement tracking and risk assessments.

text: The USCG are the primary federal response authority in coastal water hence having the overall power to ensure the effective cleanup of oil spills and lead actions that prevent further discharge from the spill source. The resulting activities that follow up an oil spill involving federal, state and private parties are co-ordinated by the USCG. The

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: , Office of Response and Restoration (NOAA) works closely with the USCG in providing assistance in technical areas such as Consideration of Alternatives, Oil displacement tracking and risk assessments.

text: In 2010, he introduced H.R. 5355 to eliminate the cap on oil company liability for the cost of environmental cleanups of spills.

text: In 2012 the company encountered non-commercial reservoirs at its Teak-4A well off Ghana leading to the well having to be plugged and abandoned.

text: There have been many extremely large explosions, accidental and intentional, caused by modern high explosives, boiling liquid expanding vapour explosions (BLEVEs), older explosives such as gunpowder, volatile petroleum-based fuels such as petrol, and other chemical reactions.  This list contains the largest known examples, sorted by date.  An unambiguous ranking in order of severity is not possible; a 1994 study by historian Jay White of 130 large explosions suggested that they need to be ranked by an overall effect of power, quantity, radius, loss of life and property destruction, but concluded that such rankings are difficult to assess.

text: There have been many extremely large explosions, accidental and intentional, caused by modern

text: high explosive

text: s,

entity_name: Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion

text: boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion

text: s (BLEVEs), older explosives such as

text: gunpowder

text: , volatile

text: petroleum

text: -based

text: fuel

text: s such as

text: petrol

text: , and other chemical reactions.  This list contains the largest known examples, sorted by date.  An unambiguous ranking in order of severity is not possible; a 1994 study by historian Jay White of 130 large explosions suggested that they need to be ranked by an overall effect of power, quantity, radius, loss of life and property destruction, but concluded that such rankings are difficult to assess.

text: The actual number of mammal deaths due to the spill may be as much as 50 times higher than the number of recovered carcasses, according to a study published in the Journal Conservation Letters.  "The Deepwater oil spill was the largest in US history, however, the recorded impact on wildlife was relatively low, leading to suggestions that the environmental damage of the disaster was actually modest. This is because reports have implied that the number of carcasses recovered... equals the number of animals killed by the spill" stated Rob Williams from University of British Columbia.

text: The actual number of mammal deaths due to the spill may be as much as 50 times higher than the number of recovered carcasses, according to a study published in the Journal Conservation Letters.  "The Deepwater oil spill was the largest in US history, however, the recorded impact on wildlife was relatively low, leading to suggestions that the environmental damage of the disaster was actually modest. This is because reports have implied that the number of carcasses recovered... equals the number of animals killed by the spill" stated Rob Williams from

text: University of British Columbia

text: ExxonMobil has been criticized for its slow response to cleanup efforts after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska, widely considered to be one of the world's worst oil spills in terms of damage to the environment. ExxonMobil has a history of lobbying for climate change denial and against the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels. The company has also been the target of accusations of improperly dealing with human rights issues, influence on American foreign policy, and its impact on the future of nations.

text: ExxonMobil has been criticized for its slow response to cleanup efforts after the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: in Alaska, widely considered to be one of the world's worst oil spills in terms of damage to the environment. ExxonMobil has a history of

text: lobbying

text: for

text: climate change denial

text: and against the scientific consensus that

text: global warming

text: is caused by the burning of

text: fossil fuel

text: s. The company has also been the target of accusations of improperly dealing with human rights issues, influence on

text: American foreign policy

text: , and its impact on the future of nations.

text: On 16 May 2008 a pipeline explosion occurred in the community of Ijegun, a suburb north of Lagos, Nigeria. The explosion took place after a bulldozer struck an oil pipeline. The Lagos police have stated that the explosion appears to be an accident, and not the work of thieves, as in past pipeline explosions near Lagos. Construction workers accidentally broke an underground pipeline from which fuel started to spill out; moments later an explosion occurred.

text: On 16 May 2008 a pipeline explosion occurred in the community of

text: Ijegun

text: , a suburb north of

text: Lagos

text: Nigeria

text: . The explosion took place after a bulldozer struck an oil pipeline. The Lagos police have stated that the explosion appears to be an accident, and not the work of thieves, as in past pipeline explosions near

text: Lagos

text: . Construction workers accidentally broke an underground pipeline from which fuel started to spill out; moments later an explosion occurred.

text: BP made a huge contribution to the oil spill by contributing a chemical dispersant via airplane with 140 drums of BP 1100x on January 30, 1975, 150 of dispersant on January 31, 1975, provided a team of 5 to clean up the spill as much as possible. It was approximated that 2,000 barrels of dispersant was used to treat the oil spill. The purpose was to try and eliminate the oil on the coast using the waves as assistance to spread the dispersant. Even though it was a somewhat effective method is merely masked the oil in the sand. Later on machinery was brought in to dig up the contaminated sand and clean it using another method.

text: On July 27, 2013, a pipeline owned by PTTGC Plc, a Thai state-owned oil company, burst while oil was being transferred from an undersea well to a tanker. PTTGC then followed the operation procedures for oil spill management. The Company used boats and airplanes to spray oil-spill dispersants, 0,612 litres of Slickgone NS and 6,930 litres of Super-Dispersant 25, which are permitted by the Department of Pollution Control to be used in Thailand, because they have low toxicity, are biodegradable and do not bio-accumulate or cause mutation and degeneration. It released also a boom to contain the spilled oil within the area. However, the boom did not work well due to bad weather.

text: On July 27, 2013, a

text: pipeline

text: owned by

text: PTTGC Plc

text: , a

text: Thai

text: state-owned oil company, burst while oil was being transferred from an undersea well to a tanker. PTTGC then followed the operation procedures for oil spill management. The Company used boats and airplanes to spray oil-spill dispersants, 0,612 litres of Slickgone NS and 6,930 litres of Super-Dispersant 25, which are permitted by the Department of Pollution Control to be used in Thailand, because they have low toxicity, are biodegradable and do not bio-accumulate or cause mutation and degeneration. It released also a boom to contain the spilled oil within the area. However, the boom did not work well due to bad weather.

text: Despite being highly regulated, tankers have been involved in environmental disasters resulting from oil spills. See Amoco Cadiz, , Erika, Exxon Valdez, Prestige oil spill and  for examples of coastal accidents.

text: Despite being highly regulated, tankers have been involved in environmental disasters resulting from

text: oil spill

text: s. See

text: Amoco Cadiz

text: Erika

text: Exxon Valdez

text: Prestige oil spill

text: and  for examples of coastal accidents.

text: An expert on the impact of oil spills, Earle was called upon to lead several research trips during the Persian Gulf War in 1991 to determine environmental damage caused by Iraq's destruction of Kuwaiti oil wells.  Given her past experience with the Exxon Valdez and Mega Borg oil spills, Earle was called to consult during the Deepwater Horizon Disaster in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.

text: An expert on the impact of oil spills, Earle was called upon to lead several research trips during the Persian Gulf War in 1991 to determine environmental damage caused by Iraq's destruction of Kuwaiti oil wells.  Given her past experience with the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: and

text: Mega Borg

text: oil spills, Earle was called to consult during the

text: Deepwater Horizon Disaster

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: in 2010.

text: An oil spill represents an immediate fire hazard.  The Kuwaiti oil fires produced air pollution that caused respiratory distress.  The Deepwater Horizon explosion killed eleven oil rig workers.  The fire resulting from the Lac-Mégantic derailment killed 47 and destroyed half of the town's centre.

text: An oil spill represents an immediate fire hazard.  The

text: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: produced

text: air pollution

text: that caused respiratory distress.  The

text: Deepwater Horizon explosion

text: killed eleven oil rig workers.  The fire resulting from the

text: Lac-Mégantic derailment

text: killed 47 and destroyed half of the town's centre.

text: Two days after the oil spill was discovered, PTT closed their War Room down according to Bangkok Post, and they have consistently since then tried to play down the effects of the spill. A week later they were saying it was safe to go to the beach and that it was clean. Greenpeace is concerned with the use of dispersants and the oil has sunk to the bottom and the full effects of the spill have yet to be understood. Mercury levels have also been reported to be 21 times safe limits. The dispersants also have negative effects and can cause cancers, kidney and liver problems. Some people swimming in the sea have reported dizziness. Bangkok Post reported "In 2012, a study found that Corexit increases the toxicity of oil by 52 times. It can remain in the ecological food chain for many years and cause widespread and long-lasting health impacts."

text: Ms. Schmidt offered the prize purse of the Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X CHALLENGE, a challenge award for the efficient capturing of crude oil from seawater motivated by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: Ms. Schmidt offered the prize purse of the

text: Wendy Schmidt Oil Cleanup X CHALLENGE

text: , a challenge

text: award

text: for the efficient capturing of

text: crude oil

text: from

text: seawater

text: motivated by the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: In June 2010, she received the Sidney Award for her coverage of the BP oil spill in “Depression, Abuse, Suicide: Fishermen's Wives Face Post-Spill Trauma,” published on MotherJones.com.

text: In June 2010, she received

text: the Sidney Award

text: for her coverage of the BP oil spill in “Depression, Abuse, Suicide: Fishermen's Wives Face Post-Spill Trauma,” published on MotherJones.com.

text: Local authorities were called to action and responded quickly to clean up the spill and monitor the damage. Cleanup workers made use of a "vacuum truck", a vehicle used to suck up the oil and water from the creek quickly before making efforts to separate the two liquids. This process was employed to minimize environmental damage to the local shorelines. Beginning oil removal as fast as possible is beneficial to the overall results of the cleanup process. The farther into the environment that the oil seeps, the longer it will take to remove and the more integrated it will become into the food chain, becoming inaccessible.

text: Local authorities were called to action and responded quickly to clean up the spill and monitor the damage. Cleanup workers made use of a "

text: vacuum truck

text: ", a vehicle used to suck up the oil and water from the creek quickly before making efforts to separate the two liquids. This process was employed to minimize environmental damage to the local shorelines. Beginning oil removal as fast as possible is beneficial to the overall results of the cleanup process. The farther into the environment that the oil seeps, the longer it will take to remove and the more integrated it will become into the food chain, becoming inaccessible.

text: C.I.Agent Solutions founder Dan Parker and business partner Dan Koons appeared before the U.S. Senate Committee on Small Business & Entrepreneurship in Washington on June 17, 2010. The hearing, dubbed Harnessing Small Business Innovation: Navigating the Evaluation Process for Gulf Coast Oil Cleanup Proposals, focused on small businesses obtaining contracts from the federal government to support clean up of the Gulf Coast oil spill. Dan Parker and Dan Koons were invited to explain the efforts C.I.Agent Solutions has had to go through to get attention to innovative oil spill cleanup technologies.

text: The GuLF Study, or Gulf Long-term Follow-up Study, is a five-year research project examining the human-health consequences of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in April 2010. The spill followed an explosion on a drilling rig leased by BP, the British oil company, and led to the release of over four million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico, 48 miles off the coast of Louisiana in the United States.

text: The GuLF Study, or Gulf Long-term Follow-up Study, is a five-year research project examining the human-health consequences of the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in April 2010. The spill followed an explosion on a

text: drilling rig

text: leased by

text: BP

text: , the British oil company, and led to the release of over four million

text: barrels

text: of oil into the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , 48 miles off the coast of

text: Louisiana

text: in the United States.

text: Barizo is one of the towns affected by the Prestige oil spill which happened off the Galician coast. Barizo was the most affected town according to a research study done after the Prestige oil spill. The Barizo beach suffered a high amount of Petroleum Hydrocarbon. The fishing industry also suffered a lot.

text: Barizo is one of the towns affected by the

text: Prestige oil spill

text: which happened off the

text: Galician

text: coast. Barizo was the most affected town according to a research study done after the

text: Prestige oil spill

text: . The Barizo beach suffered a high amount of

text: Petroleum Hydrocarbon

text: . The fishing industry also suffered a lot.

text: In baseball, the cleanup hitter is the hitter who bats fourth in the lineup. Although the third man up is generally the hitter with the highest batting average, cleanup hitters often have the most power on the team and are typically the team's best power hitter; their job is to "clean up the bases", hence the name.

text: In

text: baseball

text: , the cleanup hitter is the hitter who bats fourth in the

text: lineup

text: . Although the third man up is generally the hitter with the highest batting average, cleanup hitters often have the most power on the team and are typically the team's best power hitter; their job is to "clean up the bases", hence the name.

text: He publicly defended the need for BP to continue its exploration work in the Gulf of Mexico at the time of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and he supported the initial response of the Japanese authorities to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant emergency. On the other hand, he has questioned the dynamic behind environmental campaigns against pulp and palm-oil producers in Indonesia, and has openly challenged the World Health Organization in relation to their declaration of the 2009 flu pandemic, as well as the British government’s interpretation of the implications of the 2011 England riots. His most recent work proposes that Securitization (international relations) theory is too limited a framework through which to understand the British government's new Prevent Duty.  This latter imposes new obligations on public bodies to tackle so-called Radicalization, which he proposes is better understood as being driven by a process of disengagement.

text: He publicly defended the need for

text: BP

text: to continue its exploration work in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: at the time of the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: , and he supported the initial response of the Japanese authorities to the

text: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant

text: emergency. On the other hand, he has questioned the dynamic behind environmental campaigns against pulp and palm-oil producers in Indonesia, and has openly challenged the

text: World Health Organization

text: in relation to their declaration of the

text: 2009 flu pandemic

text: , as well as the British government’s interpretation of the implications of the

text: 2011 England riots

text: . His most recent work proposes that

text: Securitization (international relations)

text: theory is too limited a framework through which to understand the British government's new Prevent Duty.  This latter imposes new obligations on public bodies to tackle so-called

text: Radicalization

text: , which he proposes is better understood as being driven by a process of disengagement.

text: Aquatic Biomonitoring is important in monitoring marine life and their ecosystems. Monitoring aquatic life can also be beneficial in understanding land ecosystems as well. Before there were tetrapods, there were fish. These fish then evolved into tetrapods that we see today. Because of this, aquatic life still has a major impact on life on land. Aquatic biomonitoring can represent the overall health and status of the environment, detect different environmental trends and how different stressors will affect those trends, and interpret the affect of different environmental activity will have on the overall health of the environment. Pollution and general stresses to aquatic life can have a huge impact on the environment in general. The main sources of pollution to oceans, rivers, and lakes are sewage, oil spills, land runoff, littering, ocean mining, and nuclear waste. These types of pollution cause a huge upset to marine life and can endanger any species in the water or that live close to the water. When aquatic species are affected, it causes a ripple effect. Many aquatic animals are a main food source for many land animals. For example: if a specific species of fish ingest toxins and become sick, the birds that ingest that species of fish will also become sick. Then the animal that ingest that bird will also become sick. This is a problem that can be avoided by monitoring all life and conditions in different bodies of water, including fresh and salt water.

text: The Morris J. Berman oil spill occurred on January 7, 1994, when the Morris J. Berman, a single-hull 302-foot-long barge, with the capacity to carry more than 3 million gallons of oil, collided with a coral reef near San Juan, Puerto Rico, causing the release of 750,000 gallons of heavy grade oil. The spill affected the tourism and fishing industries as well as wildlife along the shores of Puerto Rico, Isla de Culebra, and Isla de Vieques. The spill had major long-lasting impacts on the biological and natural resources of the entire Puerto Rican area. This spill was also the first to occur in U.S. waters after the passing of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.

text: The Morris J. Berman oil spill occurred on January 7, 1994, when the Morris J. Berman, a single-hull 302-foot-long barge, with the capacity to carry more than 3 million gallons of oil, collided with a coral reef near

text: San Juan, Puerto Rico

text: , causing the release of 750,000 gallons of heavy grade oil. The spill affected the tourism and fishing industries as well as wildlife along the shores of

text: Puerto Rico

text: Isla de Culebra

text: , and

text: Isla de Vieques

text: . The spill had major long-lasting impacts on the biological and natural resources of the entire Puerto Rican area. This spill was also the first to occur in U.S. waters after the passing of the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: A hydrostatic bailer functions like a 'vacuum', and is used to suck up unwanted solids from the wellbore. A hydrostatic bailer is generally around 2.5 meters long and is tubular looking, with two 10 mm holes on opposing sides at the top of the tool, and a hole in the bottom. A hydrostatic bailer uses a pinned plug with o-ring seals at the bottom, and a plug at the top to maintain the surface pressure that it was assembled at (nominally around 100 kPa) all the way to the bottom of the well, whereupon it is spudded into the downhole solids, which ideally pushes the shoe into the bottom plug, which shears the pin on the bottom plug. An oil or gas well's pressure downhole is always more than atmospheric pressure at surface, due to the formation pressure, and a combination of depth and hydrostatic weight of wellbore fluids. Sometimes fluid will be added to the wellbore to assist in bailing by bringing up the pressure, and also lubricating the downhole solid. Because the pressure inside the bailer is much less than the downhole wellbore pressure, any solids that are loose enough are 'sucked up' by the vacuum formed when the bottom plug is sheared and travels upwards through the barrel, followed by the solids. At the same time, due to the changed from negative pressure to positive pressure, the top plug pops out (and is caught by the top part of the tool), and excess flow is directed out through the 10 mm ports on the sides of the top of the tool. These ports allow the barrel to fill more readily. Then the bailer is returned to surface where it is taken apart, the solids are emptied, and it is cleaned and serviced with new o-ring seals. Care must be taken when disassembling at surface as the tool is potentially charged with the downhole pressure (possibly many tens of thousands of kpa) and may 'blow apart' when being unthreaded if not bled off first.

text: On February 5, 1970 a mile long oil slick had formed and was heading for Cape Breton Island, the northern side of the bay.  Small aircraft attempted to disperse the oil dropping a chemical dispersant known as COREXIT on the spill, but this failed. The oil spread and washed ashore on many beaches in the bay.  In a week’s span, the oil spread to occupy 75 miles of beachheads and threatened to spread even further. In the end the oil spill claimed 190 miles of shoreline and some amount of pollution still remains to day eating away at the local environment.  The clean-up took months to complete.  The pollution caused by the spill handicapped the fishing industry in the bay. Studies were performed on the pollution by testing local fish and crustacean life in the bay.  Fisherman were catching lobsters and fish completely coated in Bunker C.    The Fisheries Research Board of Canada performed a series of experiments in May 1970 to evaluate the cleanliness of the aquatic life in the bay.  They came up with a series of rules for the commercial fishing business to abide by for the health of humans consuming their products. In all aspects the cost of cleaning the spill and the cost of the environmental impact cost the local government millions.

text: On February 5, 1970 a mile long

text: oil slick

text: had formed and was heading for Cape Breton Island, the northern side of the bay.  Small aircraft attempted to disperse the oil dropping a chemical dispersant known as

text: COREXIT

text: on the spill, but this failed. The oil spread and washed ashore on many beaches in the bay.  In a week’s span, the oil spread to occupy 75 miles of beachheads and threatened to spread even further. In the end the oil spill claimed 190 miles of shoreline and some amount of pollution still remains to day eating away at the local environment.  The clean-up took months to complete.  The pollution caused by the spill handicapped the fishing industry in the bay. Studies were performed on the pollution by testing local fish and crustacean life in the bay.  Fisherman were catching lobsters and fish completely coated in Bunker C.    The Fisheries Research Board of Canada performed a series of experiments in May 1970 to evaluate the cleanliness of the aquatic life in the bay.  They came up with a series of rules for the commercial fishing business to abide by for the health of humans consuming their products. In all aspects the cost of cleaning the spill and the cost of the environmental impact cost the local government millions.

text: Williams wrote and spoke about the impact of the BP oil spill.

text: Williams wrote and spoke about the impact of the

text: BP oil spill

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) guidelines require that facilities that store large quantities of petroleum (products) must have a plan in place to contain a spill. The purpose of the SPCC rule is to establish requirements for facilities to prevent a discharge of oil into navigable waters or adjoining shorelines. Within the electric utility industry, oil-filled transformers are often in need of secondary containment. Outdated secondary containment techniques such as concrete catch-basins are quickly losing ground to modern solutions that offer more cost-effective cleanup in case of a spill or leak. One example of a more cost-effective method involves placing a geotextile boom filled with oil solidifying polymers around a transformer. These geotextile barriers allow for flow of water, but completely solidify oil in the event of a leak and effectively seal the spill. Many electrical utility companies are switching to this method because it saves them significant amounts of money when a spill occurs, because there is no need to employ vac-trucks afterwards to clean up a spill inside a catch-basin.

text: (EPA) Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure (SPCC) guidelines require that facilities that store large quantities of

text: petroleum

text: products

text: ) must have a plan in place to contain a spill. The purpose of the SPCC rule is to establish requirements for facilities to prevent a discharge of oil into navigable waters or adjoining shorelines. Within the

text: electric utility industry

text: , oil-filled

text: transformer

text: s are often in need of secondary containment. Outdated secondary containment techniques such as concrete catch-basins are quickly losing ground to modern solutions that offer more cost-effective cleanup in case of a spill or leak. One example of a more cost-effective method involves placing a

text: geotextile

text: boom filled with oil solidifying

text: polymers

text: around a transformer. These geotextile barriers allow for flow of water, but completely solidify oil in the event of a leak and effectively seal the spill. Many electrical utility companies are switching to this method because it saves them significant amounts of money when a spill occurs, because there is no need to employ

text: vac-trucks

text: afterwards to clean up a spill inside a catch-basin.

text: Since electrons flow in the opposite direction (from "-" to "+" electrode) than electrical current itself (from "+" to "-" electrode), it is actually more often from the surface of the side electrode, that is grounded to "-" electrode of the car battery and alternator, where electrons are ejected from towards central electrode. That's why it is important to have edge shaped area or even more areas there (just like some Bosch spark plugs with two edges in spear-like head), that are least exposed to the erosion forces from combustion process thus keeping ignition system in good working condition as long as possible (10.000 – 25.000 km for common spark plugs). Edge or pike is the area from where the spark jumps off most easily (if there are different options for current with similar gap between "+" and "-" electrode) and with less voltage drop (since the gap creates resistance in the circuit). Therefore, some spark plugs can be easily and sometimes even repeatedly renewed by just mild re-sharping these edges (as long as other vital parts and characteristics of spark plugs are not compromised) to the original working state or even re-modelating the original side electrode design (which is very tricky if you are not qualified electrician or physicist). But one has to be careful with side electrode welded joint while repeated re-adjusting gap between electrodes because of metal fatique, since loosen part of the side electrode in cylinder chamber will result immediate ignition malfunction and almost certainly result in serious damage of special surface-treated cylinder walls or piston sealing rings. The very same problem can cause protruding flakes from poor quality of welding, since they are prone to loosen during prolonged service life of common spark plug. Therefore, present flakes should be treated by rubbing off as well, if spark plug is renewed and used over recommended service life interval.

text: In the two departments where the oil was spilled, the Department of Finistère and the Department of Cotes-du-Nord, now known as Côtes-d'Armor implemented Plan Polmar, the French national oil spill response plan, was implemented. Thus, national army personnel played a role in the cleanup. Furthermore, The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) advised and monitored the situation for the International Oil Pollution Compensation (IOPC) Fund. All together, damage and cleanup costs were over $50 million.

text: In the two departments where the oil was spilled, the Department of

text: Finistère

text: and the Department of Cotes-du-Nord, now known as

text: Côtes-d'Armor

text: implemented

text: Plan Polmar

text: , the French national oil spill response plan, was implemented. Thus, national army personnel played a role in the cleanup. Furthermore, The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) advised and monitored the situation for the International Oil Pollution Compensation (IOPC) Fund. All together, damage and cleanup costs were over $50 million.

text: The oil was contained to a  stretch of the Kalamazoo River as several hundred workers took part in the cleanup. Regional EPA Director Susan Hedman estimated that it would take weeks to remove the bulk of the oil from the river, several months to clear oil from the flood plains, and several more months to clean the oil out of the marsh where the spill originated. However, a year later, a 35-mile stretch of the river remained closed.  Originally estimated at $5 million, by September 2011, cleanup costs passed $585 million and were expected to rise by 20 percent more. The cleanup expense by summer 2012 had totalled $765 million.

text: Oil production in the Gulf of Mexico was down by 24% percent and gas off by 8%, as several major companies (including BP and Shell) evacuated their installations in the eastern part of the basin. Overall, at least 39 (7 percent) of 596 production platforms and eight (11 percent) of 76 Gulf oil rigs were evacuated in the Gulf on August 26. By the evening of August 27, approximately 78% of the Gulf's crude oil production and 48% of its natural gas production had been closed.

text: Oil production in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: was down by 24% percent and gas off by 8%, as several major companies (including

text: BP

text: and

text: Shell

text: ) evacuated their installations in the eastern part of the basin. Overall, at least 39 (7 percent) of 596 production platforms and eight (11 percent) of 76 Gulf oil rigs were evacuated in the Gulf on August 26. By the evening of August 27, approximately 78% of the Gulf's crude oil production and 48% of its natural gas production had been closed.

text: Explosions can occur in nature. Most natural explosions arise from volcanic processes of various sorts. Explosive volcanic eruptions occur when magma rising from below has much dissolved gas in it; the reduction of pressure as the magma rises causes the gas to bubble out of solution, resulting in a rapid increase in volume. Explosions also occur as a result of impact events and in phenomena such as hydrothermal explosions (also due to volcanic processes). Explosions can also occur outside of Earth in the universe in events such as supernova. Explosions frequently occur during bushfires in eucalyptus forests where the volatile oils in the tree tops suddenly combust.

text: Explosions can occur in nature. Most natural explosions arise from

text: volcanic

text: processes of various sorts. Explosive volcanic eruptions occur when

text: magma

text: rising from below has much dissolved gas in it; the reduction of

text: pressure

text: as the magma rises causes the gas to bubble out of solution, resulting in a rapid increase in volume. Explosions also occur as a result of

text: impact event

text: s and in phenomena such as

text: hydrothermal explosion

text: s (also due to volcanic processes). Explosions can also occur outside of Earth in the universe in events such as

text: supernova

text: . Explosions frequently occur during

text: bushfires

text: in

text: eucalyptus

text: forests where the volatile oils in the tree tops suddenly combust.

text: Many locals in the region attest to environmental damage that allegedly developed as a result of the leak. Oil spills in the delta's creeks have been left to fester for decades, polluting the air, soil, and water of impoverished communities. Nigeria sees its future output growth largely in offshore fields and does not want spills there to compound its environmental woes. Checks by Sahara Reporters revealed that the fishermen reportedly hauled in fish killed in the ExxonMobil’s oil spill in a location about 20 kilometers from the shoreline and supplied the bad fish to unsuspecting members of the public. The Nigerian Environmental Rights Action group issued a demand for N51 billion ($100 Million) from ExxonMobil in Nigeria for their failure to compensate fishermen within the coastal areas who suffered devastating losses due to the oil company’s exploration activities and major oil spills. Thick balls of tar have also been sighted washed upon the shoreline as well as oil slicks. The spill has only exacerbated the already growing problem of pollution in the Delta. The Nigerian government estimates there were over 7,000 spills, large and small, between 1970 and 2000, according to the BBC.  That is approximately 300 spills a year, and some spills have been leaking for years. Vast swathes of the Delta have been seen covered with tar and stagnant lakes of crude due to oil spills of the past.

text: Many locals in the region attest to environmental damage that allegedly developed as a result of the leak. Oil spills in the delta's creeks have been left to fester for decades, polluting the air, soil, and water of impoverished communities. Nigeria sees its future output growth largely in offshore fields and does not want spills there to compound its environmental woes. Checks by

text: Sahara Reporters

text: revealed that the fishermen reportedly hauled in fish killed in the ExxonMobil’s oil spill in a location about 20 kilometers from the shoreline and supplied the bad fish to unsuspecting members of the public. The Nigerian Environmental Rights Action group issued a demand for N51 billion ($100 Million) from ExxonMobil in Nigeria for their failure to compensate fishermen within the coastal areas who suffered devastating losses due to the oil company’s exploration activities and major oil spills. Thick balls of tar have also been sighted washed upon the shoreline as well as oil slicks. The spill has only exacerbated the already growing problem of pollution in the Delta. The Nigerian government estimates there were over 7,000 spills, large and small, between 1970 and 2000, according to the

text: BBC

text: .  That is approximately 300 spills a year, and some spills have been leaking for years. Vast swathes of the Delta have been seen covered with tar and stagnant lakes of crude due to oil spills of the past.

text: The BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico affected Florida's number one industry, which is tourism. The lack of a relief well prevented company officials from shutting down the leak immediately. Instead, it took months to drill a new relief well, while millions of gallons of oil gushed into the Gulf each week. In response, Grayson introduced the Emergency Relief Well Act, which would require that an emergency relief well be drilled at the same time as any new exploratory well.

text: The

text: BP oil spill

text: in the Gulf of Mexico affected Florida's number one industry, which is tourism. The lack of a relief well prevented company officials from shutting down the leak immediately. Instead, it took months to drill a new relief well, while millions of gallons of oil gushed into the Gulf each week. In response, Grayson introduced the Emergency Relief Well Act, which would require that an emergency relief well be drilled at the same time as any new exploratory well.

text: At sufficient depths, methane complexes directly with water to form methane hydrates, as was observed during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010. BP engineers developed and deployed a subsea oil recovery system over oil spilling from a deepwater oil well  below sea level to capture escaping oil. This involved placing a  dome over the largest of the well leaks and piping it to a storage vessel on the surface. This option had the potential to collect some 85% of the leaking oil but was previously untested at such depths. BP deployed the system on May 7–8, but it failed due to buildup of methane clathrate inside the dome; with its low density of approximately 0.9 g/cm the methane hydrates accumulated in the dome, adding buoyancy and obstructing flow.

text: At sufficient depths, methane complexes directly with water to form methane hydrates, as was observed during the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010. BP engineers developed and deployed a subsea oil recovery system over oil spilling from a deepwater

text: oil well

text: below

text: sea level

text: to capture escaping oil. This involved placing a  dome over the largest of the well leaks and piping it to a storage vessel on the surface. This option had the potential to collect some 85% of the leaking oil but was previously untested at such depths. BP deployed the system on May 7–8, but it failed due to buildup of methane clathrate inside the dome; with its low density of approximately 0.9 g/cm the methane hydrates accumulated in the dome, adding buoyancy and obstructing flow.

text: The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill severely affected the environment of Prince William Sound, Alaska, United States. In the wake of that spill, the state of Washington passed a law authorizing the state Office of Marine Safety to regulate certain aspects of tanker and oil barge operations when calling on Washington state ports.  Specifically, the Office of Marine Safety adopted regulations requiring tank vessel operators to submit an oil spill prevention plan for state review and approval. The United States Department of Justice led by Attorney General, Janet Reno filed suit against Washington for adopting rules in an area of law in which the United States Coast Guard had long occupied the field of regulatory activity.  The basis of the suit was that the Supremacy Clause of the United States Constitution prohibited states from enacting legislation and rules in fields where the United States Congress intended the Coast Guard to have complete authority, particularly when such regulation could affect interstate and international commerce.

text: The 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: severely affected the environment of Prince William Sound, Alaska, United States. In the wake of that spill, the state of

text: Washington

text: passed a law authorizing the state Office of Marine Safety to regulate certain aspects of tanker and oil barge operations when calling on Washington state ports.  Specifically, the Office of Marine Safety adopted regulations requiring tank vessel operators to submit an oil spill prevention plan for state review and approval. The United States Department of Justice led by Attorney General,

text: Janet Reno

text: filed suit against Washington for adopting rules in an area of law in which the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: had long occupied the field of regulatory activity.  The basis of the suit was that the

text: Supremacy Clause

text: of the

text: United States Constitution

text: prohibited states from enacting legislation and rules in fields where the

text: United States Congress

text: intended the Coast Guard to have complete authority, particularly when such regulation could affect interstate and international commerce.

text: As a response to the environmental dangers that the oil spill created, the federal government under President Barack Obama issued a mandatory moratorium on energy exploration and drilling in the Gulf of Mexico.  The original moratorium, which was issued on May 28, was struck down by a federal court in New Orleans.  A second moratorium was issued on June 12 and was scheduled to continue until the end of November. The nearly 6-month long moratorium was widely not welcomed by Louisianans because of its negative economic effects.  Local officials, lawmakers and oil industry workers feared the moratorium would cost hundreds of thousands of jobs and add insult to injury for a regional economy already battered by the massive spill.

text: UXO cleanup in the US involves over  of land and 1,400 different sites. Estimated cleanup costs are tens of billions of dollars. It costs roughly $1,000 to demolish a UXO on site. Other costs include surveying and mapping, removing vegetation from the site, transportation, and personnel to manually detect UXOs with metal detectors. Searching for UXOs is tedious work and often 100 holes are dug to every 1 UXO found. Other methods of finding UXOs include digital geophysics detection with land and airborne systems.

text: At the Cox Bay facility, cleanup was assisted by oil already contained in earthen berms surrounding the site This is even though one of these reservoirs was filled with water as a result of the hurricane, and was therefore too full to hold more oil from the spill. Even so, this prevented a great deal of the oil from spilling into the Mississippi River, or from directly contaminating the nearby town of St. Palquemines Parish, which contained 20,000 residents who had already sustained significant damage from the hurricane.

text: The Constructicons appear in the Transformers Animated. In their first appearance, "Rise of The Constructicons", the Constructicons initially befriend Bulkhead, but decide to join the Decepticons because they have better tasting oil. After getting the All-Spark from the Autobots, as ordered, a still friendly Bulkhead gives them some oil for the road. However, it turns out to be a trick; it was laced with an explosive. After the explosion, which seems to not have affected them physically, they loses their memories and run away. They return in "Sari, No One's Home", following a trail of oil spilled by Bumblebee to the Autobot's base, thinking it where the "good oil" is. They are eventually scared off by Sari, and run into Blitzwing, who offers them Decepticon oil, and tells them "There's more where that came from." Tasting it, Mixmaster tells Scapper that they've found the delicious oil thye've been searching for.

text: The Constructicons appear in the

text: Transformers Animated

text: . In their first appearance, "Rise of The Constructicons", the Constructicons initially befriend

text: Bulkhead

text: , but decide to join the Decepticons because they have better tasting oil. After getting the All-Spark from the Autobots, as ordered, a still friendly Bulkhead gives them some oil for the road. However, it turns out to be a trick; it was laced with an explosive. After the explosion, which seems to not have affected them physically, they loses their memories and run away. They return in "Sari, No One's Home", following a trail of oil spilled by

text: Bumblebee

text: to the Autobot's base, thinking it where the "good oil" is. They are eventually scared off by

entity_name: List of Transformers: Animated characters

text: Sari

text: , and run into

text: Blitzwing

text: , who offers them Decepticon oil, and tells them "There's more where that came from." Tasting it, Mixmaster tells Scapper that they've found the delicious oil thye've been searching for.

text: The Full City Oil Spill is a major fuel oil spill incident that occurred on July 31, 2009 when the bulk carrier Full City ran aground on the island of Såstein / Saastein south of Langesund, Telemark, Norway. The ship, said to be operated by COSCO (H.K.) Shipping Co. Ltd., spilled around 700,000 kg, or 200 tons,  of IFO-380 heavy fuel oil. The oil contaminated 75 km of Norwegian coastline, including Langesund, Vestfold, and the Lille Såstein Bird Sanctuary.  There were oil slicks in approximately 200 locations along the shoreline between Larvik Municipality andLilles. Thousands of sea birds were covered in oil, and although volunteers made efforts to save them, many of the birds had to be shot due to the irreversible damage to their health. The Institute of Marine Research ran tests on the affected areas to track any significant ecological impacts but noted that the marine and fish life suffered no significant changes. The research was included in a study of four oil spills that occurred in the Norwegian coastal area, including the Rocknes Oil Spill, the Server Oil Spill, and the Godafoss Oil Spill.

text: The Full City Oil Spill is a major fuel oil spill incident that occurred on July 31, 2009 when the

text: bulk carrier

text: Full City

text: ran aground

text: on the island of

text: Såstein / Saastein

text: south of

text: Langesund

text: Telemark

text: Norway

text: . The ship, said to be operated by

text: COSCO (H.K.) Shipping Co. Ltd.

text: , spilled around 700,000 kg, or 200 tons,  of

text: IFO-380 heavy fuel oil

text: . The oil contaminated 75 km of

text: Norwegian

text: coastline

text: , including

text: Langesund

text: Vestfold

text: , and the Lille Såstein

text: Bird Sanctuary

text: .  There were

text: oil slicks

text: in approximately 200 locations along the shoreline between

text: Larvik

text: Municipality

text: andLilles. Thousands of

text: sea birds

text: were covered in oil, and although volunteers made efforts to save them, many of the birds had to be shot due to the irreversible damage to their health. The

text: Institute of Marine Research

text: ran tests on the affected areas to track any significant

text: ecological

text: impacts but noted that the marine and fish life suffered no significant changes. The research was included in a study of four oil spills that occurred in the Norwegian coastal area, including the Rocknes Oil Spill, the Server Oil Spill, and the Godafoss Oil Spill.

text: Because marketing-mix models suggest a marketing tactic has a positive impact on sales doesn't necessarily mean it has a positive impact on long-term brand equity. Different marketing measures impact short-term and long-term brand sales differently and adjusting the marketing portfolio to maximize either the short-term or the long-term alone will be sub-optimal. For example the short-term positive effect of promotions on consumers’ utility induces consumers to switch to the promoted brand, but the adverse impact of promotions on brand equity carries over from period to period. Therefore the net effect of promotions on a brand’s market share and profitability can be negative due to their adverse impact on brand. Determining marketing ROI on the basis of marketing-mix models alone can lead to misleading results. This is because marketing-mix attempts to optimize marketing-mix to increase incremental contribution, but marketing-mix also drives brand-equity, which is not part of the incremental part measured by marketing-mix model- it is part of the baseline. True 'Return on Marketing Investment' is a sum of short-term and long-term ROI. The fact that most firms use marketing-mix models only to measure the short-term ROI can be inferred from an article by Booz Allen Hamilton, which suggests that there is a significant shift away from traditional media to 'below-the-line' spending, driven by the fact that promotional spending is easier to measure. But academic studies have shown that promotional activities are in fact detrimental to long-term marketing ROI (Ataman et al., 2006). Short-term marketing-mix models can be combined with brand-equity models using brand-tracking data to measure 'brand ROI', in both the short- and long-term.

text: Because marketing-mix models suggest a marketing tactic has a positive impact on sales doesn't necessarily mean it has a positive impact on long-term brand equity. Different marketing measures impact short-term and long-term brand sales differently and adjusting the marketing portfolio to maximize either the short-term or the long-term alone will be sub-optimal. For example the short-term positive effect of promotions on consumers’ utility induces consumers to switch to the promoted brand, but the adverse impact of promotions on brand equity carries over from period to period. Therefore the net effect of promotions on a brand’s market share and profitability can be negative due to their adverse impact on brand. Determining marketing ROI on the basis of marketing-mix models alone can lead to misleading results. This is because marketing-mix attempts to optimize marketing-mix to increase incremental contribution, but marketing-mix also drives brand-equity, which is not part of the incremental part measured by marketing-mix model- it is part of the baseline. True '

text: Return on Marketing Investment

text: ' is a sum of short-term and long-term ROI. The fact that most firms use marketing-mix models only to measure the short-term ROI can be inferred from an article by

text: Booz Allen Hamilton

text: , which suggests that there is a significant shift away from traditional media to 'below-the-line' spending, driven by the fact that promotional spending is easier to measure. But academic studies have shown that promotional activities are in fact detrimental to long-term marketing ROI (Ataman et al., 2006). Short-term marketing-mix models can be combined with brand-equity models using brand-tracking data to measure 'brand ROI', in both the short- and long-term.

text: According to the Mexican government, Alex stopped the production of  of oil per day from the Gulf of Mexico, which corresponds to a quarter of the country's total oil production. Pemex evacuated 66 personnel from oil rigs offshore of Tamaulipas and Veracruz, Petrobras evacuated its oil rig in the Gulf, while Royal Dutch Shell evacuated 930 personnel from its rigs in the area. In total, six rigs and 69 production platforms faced evacuations, causing 21% of U.S. Gulf oil output and 14% of U.S. Gulf natural-gas flows to remain offline.

text: According to the Mexican government, Alex stopped the production of  of oil per day from the Gulf of Mexico, which corresponds to a quarter of the country's total oil production.

text: Pemex

text: evacuated 66 personnel from oil rigs offshore of Tamaulipas and

text: Veracruz

text: Petrobras

text: evacuated its oil rig in the Gulf, while

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: evacuated 930 personnel from its rigs in the area. In total, six rigs and 69 production platforms faced evacuations, causing 21% of U.S. Gulf oil output and 14% of U.S. Gulf natural-gas flows to remain offline.

text: In late 2010, Obama administration officials stated that the Deepwater Horizon spill exceeded the Exxon Valdez spill, as they estimated that the gusher had spewed between  and  of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Young claimed that the oil pumping into the Gulf was not an "environmental disaster", stating that it was a "natural phenomena" as "oil has seeped into this ocean for centuries, will continue to do it. During World War II there was over ten million barrels of oil spilt from ships, and no natural catastrophe. We will lose some birds, we will lose some fixed sealife, but overall it will recover." According to the Flow Rate Technical Group, the Deepwater Horizon blowout amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill as the largest ever to originate in U.S.-controlled waters and the 1979 Ixtoc I oil spill as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: In late 2010, Obama administration officials stated that the

text: Deepwater Horizon spill

text: exceeded the Exxon Valdez spill, as they estimated that the gusher had spewed between  and  of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Young claimed that the oil pumping into the Gulf was not an "environmental disaster", stating that it was a "natural phenomena" as "oil has seeped into this ocean for centuries, will continue to do it. During World War II there was over ten million barrels of oil spilt from ships, and no natural catastrophe. We will lose some birds, we will lose some fixed sealife, but overall it will recover." According to the

text: Flow Rate Technical Group

text: , the Deepwater Horizon blowout amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: as the largest ever to originate in

text: U.S.-controlled waters

text: and the 1979

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: Note:  The "flow rate" column applies to leaking wells, pipelines, etc., and is often used to estimate the total amount of oil spilled.  The "full cargo" column applies to vessels, vehicles, etc., and represents the maximum amount of oil that could be spilled.  The "spilled" columns indicate the total amount of oil that has been released to the environment so far, and should be based on official estimates found in referenced sources whenever possible.  When official estimates vary, use the "min tonnes" and "max tonnes" columns to show the range of estimates (minimum and maximum) in metric tonnes (i.e. 1 tonne = 1,000 kg).

text: Note:  The "flow rate" column applies to leaking wells, pipelines, etc., and is often used to estimate the total amount of oil spilled.  The "full cargo" column applies to vessels, vehicles, etc., and represents the maximum amount of oil that could be spilled.  The "spilled" columns indicate the total amount of oil that has been released to the environment so far, and should be based on official estimates found in referenced sources whenever possible.  When official estimates vary, use the "min tonnes" and "max tonnes" columns to show the range of estimates (minimum and maximum) in

text: metric tonnes

text: (i.e. 1 tonne = 1,000 kg).

text: The environmental effects of the spill were immediate and dramatic.  At least 3,686 birds died – those being the ones that were counted; an unknown number died unseen.  Some marine mammals, such as sea lions and elephant seals died, although the numbers are unknown.  Effects on other organisms varied.  Fish populations seemed to be unaffected in the long term, although data from 1969 showed a drop in counts of several species.  Authors of a Marine Fisheries Review study were unwilling to make a firm link with the oil spill, since other variables such as water temperature and a subsequent El Niño year could not be ruled out as causes of the divergence.  Intertidal organisms such as barnacles (chthamalus fissus) were killed in large numbers, with mortality in some areas as high as 80 to 90 percent.

text: The environmental effects of the spill were immediate and dramatic.  At least 3,686 birds died – those being the ones that were counted; an unknown number died unseen.  Some marine mammals, such as sea lions and elephant seals died, although the numbers are unknown.  Effects on other organisms varied.  Fish populations seemed to be unaffected in the long term, although data from 1969 showed a drop in counts of several species.  Authors of a Marine Fisheries Review study were unwilling to make a firm link with the oil spill, since other variables such as water temperature and a subsequent

text: El Niño

text: year could not be ruled out as causes of the divergence.  Intertidal organisms such as barnacles (chthamalus fissus) were killed in large numbers, with mortality in some areas as high as 80 to 90 percent.

text: The town of Macondo is the namesake of the Macondo Prospect, an oil and gas prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, where the Deepwater Horizon oil spill began in April 2010.  In addition to this usage:

text: The town of Macondo is the namesake of the

text: Macondo Prospect

text: , an oil and gas prospect in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , where the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: began in April 2010.  In addition to this usage:

text: On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon, an oil rig located in the Gulf of Mexico that was owned by Transocean and drilling for British Petroleum (BP) exploded, killing 11 workers and injuring 16.  The rig burned for over a day before it sunk into the gulf on April 22, 2010.  Following the explosion, the seafloor oil gusher flowed for 87 days, spilling an estimated 4.9 million barrels of oil into the gulf.

text: On April 20, 2010, the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: , an oil rig located in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: that was owned by

text: Transocean

text: and drilling for British Petroleum (

text: BP

text: ) exploded, killing 11 workers and injuring 16.  The rig burned for over a day before it sunk into the gulf on April 22, 2010.  Following the explosion, the seafloor oil gusher flowed for 87 days, spilling an estimated 4.9 million barrels of oil into the gulf.

text: The Great Ogba Kingdom has two Clans – Egi and Igburu. There are several communities that made up this great Ogba kingdom, namely; Omoku, Obrikom (Egbeku), Obie, Obor, Okpurukpuali,  Ebogoro, Elieta, Okposi, Amah, Egbada, Uju, Elieta, Aknasu, Osiakpu, Ikiri, Elehia, Ohnuga, Obigwe, Ogbidi, Ede, Obite, Ogbogu, Akabuka, Egita, Erema, Oboburu, Obukaegi, Obiebe, Obiozimini, Akapta (1&2), Obagi, Ohna-li-Usomini, Idu (1&2), Kreigani, Ali-igwu excluding two great historic communities Obiodna or Ahiawhor that has gone to extinction with left over artifacts depicting old settlement and one that existed partially (the present NAOC environment) and now joined with Obrikom Community which is called Ohguh. The two clans are rich with oil and gas. A study conducted in Ogbogu located in one of the largest oil producing regions of Nigeria has utilized two plant species to clean up spills. The first stage of cleanup involves Hibiscus cannabinus.

text: The Great Ogba Kingdom has two Clans – Egi and Igburu. There are several communities that made up this great Ogba kingdom, namely; Omoku, Obrikom (Egbeku), Obie, Obor, Okpurukpuali,  Ebogoro, Elieta, Okposi, Amah, Egbada, Uju, Elieta, Aknasu, Osiakpu, Ikiri, Elehia, Ohnuga, Obigwe, Ogbidi, Ede, Obite, Ogbogu, Akabuka, Egita, Erema, Oboburu, Obukaegi, Obiebe, Obiozimini, Akapta (1&2), Obagi, Ohna-li-Usomini, Idu (1&2), Kreigani, Ali-igwu excluding two great historic communities Obiodna or Ahiawhor that has gone to extinction with left over artifacts depicting old settlement and one that existed partially (the present NAOC environment) and now joined with Obrikom Community which is called Ohguh. The two clans are rich with oil and gas. A study conducted in Ogbogu located in one of the largest oil producing regions of Nigeria has utilized two plant species to clean up spills. The first stage of cleanup involves

text: Hibiscus cannabinus

text: In June 2010, at the request of the US Department of Health and Human Services, the U.S. National Academies Institute of Medicine held a workshop to discuss known health effects of previous oil spills and how they might apply to the Gulf spill and to coordinate epidemiological monitoring and ongoing medical research.  On the second day of the meeting the suicide of William Allen Kruse, a charter boat captain working as a BP clean-up worker, intensified previous expert commentary on the current and likely long-term mental health effects of the ongoing crisis.  David Abramson, director of research for Columbia's National Center for Disaster Preparedness, noted the increased risk of mental disorders and stress-related health problems.  In August, the group released their conclusions in a report, "Workshop Summary: Assessing the Effects of the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill on Human Health".

text: In June 2010, at the request of the

entity_name: United States Department of Health and Human Services

text: US Department of Health and Human Services

text: , the

entity_name: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

text: U.S. National Academies

text: Institute of Medicine

text: held a workshop to discuss known health effects of previous oil spills and how they might apply to the Gulf spill and to coordinate epidemiological monitoring and ongoing medical research.  On the second day of the meeting the suicide of William Allen Kruse, a charter boat captain working as a BP clean-up worker, intensified previous expert commentary on the current and likely long-term mental health effects of the ongoing crisis.  David Abramson, director of research for Columbia's National Center for Disaster Preparedness, noted the increased risk of mental disorders and stress-related health problems.  In August, the group released their conclusions in a report, "Workshop Summary: Assessing the Effects of the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill on Human Health".

text: Spills in populated areas often spread out over a wide area, destroying crops and aquacultures through contamination of the groundwater and soils. The consumption of dissolved oxygen by bacteria feeding on the spilled hydrocarbons also contributes to the death of fish. In agricultural communities, often a year's supply of food can be destroyed instantaneously. Because of the careless nature of oil operations in the Delta, the environment is growing increasingly uninhabitable.

text: Spills in populated areas often spread out over a wide area, destroying crops and

text: aquacultures

text: through contamination of the

text: groundwater

text: and soils. The consumption of dissolved oxygen by

text: bacteria

text: feeding on the spilled

text: hydrocarbon

text: s also contributes to the death of

text: fish

text: . In

text: agricultural

text: communities, often a year's supply of food can be destroyed instantaneously. Because of the careless nature of oil operations in the Delta, the environment is growing increasingly uninhabitable.

text: Some of the more high-profile missions the GST has been involved in include responses to Hurricane Katrina, Hurricane Rita and Hurricane Ivan; search and recovery efforts in the wake of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster; responding to the 2011 Mississippi River floods; and the explosion and resulting oil spill that occurred with the Deepwater Horizon disaster.

text: Some of the more high-profile missions the GST has been involved in include responses to

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: Hurricane Rita

text: and

text: Hurricane Ivan

text: ; search and recovery efforts in the wake of the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: ; responding to the

text: 2011 Mississippi River floods

text: ; and the explosion and resulting oil spill that occurred with the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: disaster.

text: Speaking before the Department of the Interior, Susan D. Shaw of the Strategic Sciences Working Group (formed in response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill), discussed mid- to long-term recovery of the Gulf of Mexico.  According to Shaw,  "Chemicals in crude oil and dispersants can cause a wide range of health effects in people and wildlife. Highly toxic chemical ingredients such as benzene and polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) can damage systems in the body, including DNA damage and mutations ... Exposure  occurs through skin contact, inhalation of contaminated air or soil/sand, and ingestion of contaminated water or food ... Crude oil components penetrate the skin and move through cell walls and enter the bloodstream rapidly when they are inhaled or swallowed." Discussing the dispersants used in the spill, Shaw said that they can be more toxic than either oil or solvent alone because dispersants contain solvents thatfacilitate rapid entry of oil into cells and organs,  She stated that "over time, PAH metabolites can be eliminated from the body, but even brief exposure during critical life stages may be sufficient to cause serious long term effects."

text: Speaking before the

text: Department of the Interior

text: Susan D. Shaw

text: of the Strategic Sciences Working Group (formed in response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill), discussed mid- to long-term recovery of the Gulf of Mexico.  According to Shaw,  "Chemicals in crude oil and dispersants can cause a wide range of health effects in people and wildlife. Highly toxic chemical ingredients such as benzene and polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) can damage systems in the body, including DNA damage and mutations ... Exposure  occurs through skin contact, inhalation of contaminated air or soil/sand, and ingestion of contaminated water or food ... Crude oil components penetrate the skin and move through cell walls and enter the bloodstream rapidly when they are inhaled or swallowed." Discussing the dispersants used in the spill, Shaw said that they can be more toxic than either oil or solvent alone because dispersants contain solvents thatfacilitate rapid entry of oil into cells and organs,  She stated that "over time, PAH metabolites can be eliminated from the body, but even brief exposure during critical life stages may be sufficient to cause serious long term effects."

text: Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.

text: Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the

text: sediment

text: and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.

text: Total cleanup time for most of the beaches was about 45 days after the initial spill, although globs of tar continued to wash ashore due to the high seep rate, and bigger patches came ashore during subsequent spills.  Most beaches were open to the public by June 1, although some of the rocky areas on the shore were not cleaned until around August 15.  Yet oil continued to pool and wash up on shore; on August 26, the harbor was so full of oil that once again it had to be closed, with cleanup crews spreading straw from boats to bunch the oil up again, just as they had six months before.  Indeed, oil from the spill persisted in the ocean into 1970, with large areas of crude still being observed.  Since the spill occurred during the stormy season, when beach sand is at its lowest levels (it replenishes during the course of a normal spring and summer), one fear was that regions of oily sand would be revealed during the following winter; however this did not happen.

text: The persistent connection of the MySQLi extension however provides built-in cleanup handling code. The cleanup carried out by MySQLi includes:

text: Environment Act 1986- Environment Act 1995- Environment Agency- Environment and Conservation Organisations of Aotearoa New Zealand- Environment Canada- Environment Hawaii- Environment of China- Environment Victoria- Environment Wales- Environmental accounting- Environmental agreement- Environmental and Social Studies (ESS)- Environmental archaeology- Environmental audits- Environmental benefits of vegetarianism- Environmental biotechnology- Environmental Campus Birkenfeld- Environmental Change Network- Environmental chemistry- Environmental concerns with electricity generation- Environmental consulting- Environmental Control System- Environmental Defense- Environmental degrees- Environmental degree-granting institutions- Environmental design- Environmental determinism- Environmental disaster- Environmental economics- Environmental effects of fishing- Environmental effects on physiology- Environmental engineering- Environmental ethics- Environmental factor- Environmental finance- Environmental geography- Environmental geology- Environmental gradient- Environmental hazard- Environmental health- Environmental history- Environmental humanities- Environmental impact assessment- Environmental impact of aviation- Environmental Impact Report- Environmental Information Regulations 2004- Environmental issues- Environmental issues in Australia- Environmental issues in Canada- Environmental issues in the United States- Environmental journalism- Environmental justice- Environmental law- Environmental Law Service- Environmental Life Force- Environmental management- Environmental management scheme- Environmental Measurements Laboratory- Environmental medicine- Environmental Modeling Center- Environmental movement- Environmental movement in Australia- Environmental movement in New Zealand- Environmental movement in the United States- Environmental policy- Environmental protection in Japan- Environmental psychology- Environmental Quality Improvement Act- Environmental racism- Environmental restoration- Environmental Risk Management Authority- Environmental science- Environmental security- Environmental skepticism- Environmental social science- Environmental sociology- Environmental standard- Environmental statistics- Environmental studies- Environmental suit- Environmental Sustainability Index- Environmental technology- Environmental Technology Laboratory- Environmental Toxins and Fetal Development- Environmental Transport Association- Environmental vandalism- Environmental vegetarianism- Environmentalism- Environmentalist- Environmentally friendly- Environmentally Sensitive Area- Environmentally Sensitive Areas Scheme

text: Environment Act 1986

text: Environment Act 1995

text: Environment Agency

entity_name: Environment and Conservation Organisations of Aotearoa New Zealand

text: Environment and Conservation Organisations of Aotearoa New Zealand

text: Environment Canada

text: Environment Hawaii

text: Environment of China

text: Environment Victoria

text: Environment Wales

text: Environmental accounting

text: Environmental agreement

text: Environmental and Social Studies (ESS)

text: Environmental archaeology

text: Environmental audits

text: Environmental benefits of vegetarianism

text: Environmental biotechnology

text: Environmental Campus Birkenfeld

text: Environmental Change Network

text: Environmental chemistry

entity_name: Environmental impact of electricity generation

text: Environmental concerns with electricity generation

text: Environmental consulting

text: Environmental Control System

text: Environmental Defense

text: Environmental degrees

entity_name: List of environmental degree-granting institutions

text: Environmental degree-granting institutions

text: Environmental design

text: Environmental determinism

text: Environmental disaster

text: Environmental economics

text: Environmental effects of fishing

text: Environmental effects on physiology

text: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental ethics

text: Environmental factor

text: Environmental finance

text: Environmental geography

text: Environmental geology

text: Environmental gradient

text: Environmental hazard

text: Environmental health

text: Environmental history

text: Environmental humanities

text: Environmental impact assessment

text: Environmental impact of aviation

text: Environmental Impact Report

entity_name: Environmental Information Regulations 2004

text: Environmental Information Regulations 2004

text: Environmental issues

text: Environmental issues in Australia

text: Environmental issues in Canada

entity_name: Environmental issues in the United States

text: Environmental issues in the United States

text: Environmental journalism

text: Environmental justice

text: Environmental law

text: Environmental Law Service

text: Environmental Life Force

text: Environmental management

text: Environmental management scheme

text: Environmental Measurements Laboratory

text: Environmental medicine

text: Environmental Modeling Center

text: Environmental movement

text: Environmental movement in Australia

text: Environmental movement in New Zealand

entity_name: Environmental movement in the United States

text: Environmental movement in the United States

text: Environmental policy

text: Environmental protection in Japan

text: Environmental psychology

text: Environmental Quality Improvement Act

text: Environmental racism

text: Environmental restoration

text: Environmental Risk Management Authority

text: Environmental science

text: Environmental security

text: Environmental skepticism

text: Environmental social science

text: Environmental sociology

text: Environmental standard

text: Environmental statistics

text: Environmental studies

text: Environmental suit

text: Environmental Sustainability Index

text: Environmental technology

text: Environmental Technology Laboratory

entity_name: Environmental toxicants and fetal development

text: Environmental Toxins and Fetal Development

text: Environmental Transport Association

text: Environmental vandalism

text: Environmental vegetarianism

text: Environmentalism

text: Environmentalist

text: Environmentally friendly

text: Environmentally Sensitive Area

text: Environmentally Sensitive Areas Scheme

text: The 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill occurred  off the coast of southeast Queensland, Australia on 11 March 2009, when 230 tonnes of fuel oil, 30 tonnes of other fuel and 31 shipping containers containing 620 tonnes of ammonium nitrate spilled into the Coral Sea, north of Moreton Bay during Cyclone Hamish. It happened after unsecured cargo on  damaged other cargo, causing the spillage. Over the following days, the spill washed ashore along  of coastline encompassing the Sunshine Coast, Moreton Bay, Bribie Island and Moreton Island.

text: The 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill occurred  off the coast of southeast

text: Queensland

text: Australia

text: on 11 March 2009, when 230 tonnes of

text: fuel oil

text: , 30 tonnes of other fuel and 31

text: shipping container

text: s containing 620 tonnes of

text: ammonium nitrate

text: spilled into the

text: Coral Sea

text: , north of

text: Moreton Bay

text: during

text: Cyclone Hamish

text: . It happened after unsecured cargo on  damaged other cargo, causing the spillage. Over the following days, the spill washed ashore along  of coastline encompassing the

text: Sunshine Coast

text: Moreton Bay

text: Bribie Island

text: and

text: Moreton Island

text: The Oil Pollution Act (1990): The OPA is the primary legislation that governs oil spills in the U.S. The establishment of the OPA substantiated the federal government’s role in responding to oil spill cleanups. The OPA made amendments to the already existing CWA to provide 3 options to the delegated authorities through the president. The options include conducting immediate cleanup by federal authorities, to monitor the response of the responsible party or commandeer the cleanup activities of the responsible party. Hence giving the federal government the authority to determine the level of cleanup required.

text: The Oil Pollution Act (1990): The

text: OPA

text: is the primary legislation that governs oil spills in the U.S. The establishment of the OPA substantiated the federal government’s role in responding to oil spill cleanups. The OPA made amendments to the already existing CWA to provide 3 options to the delegated authorities through the president. The options include conducting immediate cleanup by federal authorities, to monitor the response of the responsible party or commandeer the cleanup activities of the responsible party. Hence giving the federal government the authority to determine the level of cleanup required.

text: A Coast Guard Strike Team, specially trained to manage oil spills, was flown in from California. A containment boom was placed around the ship, and some of the oil was vacuumed off the beach. The cost of the cleanup was at least $140,000, and oil continued to wash up for several weeks, up to 100 miles from the crash site.

text: A

text: Coast Guard Strike Team

text: , specially trained to manage oil spills, was flown in from California. A

text: containment boom

text: was placed around the ship, and some of the oil was vacuumed off the beach. The cost of the cleanup was at least $140,000, and oil continued to wash up for several weeks, up to 100 miles from the crash site.

text: Due to the sensitive ecology of the Baltic Sea, it has been agreed in the Helsinki Convention (HELCOM) that instead of using dispersants to dissolve the oil slicks, combatting the spills is based on mechanical recovery using oil booms to limit the spill and skimmers to collect the oil from the surface as quickly and completely as possible. For this purpose every Finnish pollution control vessel is equipped with permanently installed built-in recovery equipment and such systems have also been installed on several patrol vessels of the Finnish Border Guard. As the primary mission of the new vessel is pollution prevention, the ship has an extensive array of equipment capable of detecting and recovering spilled oil and chemicals in open water, high seas and ice conditions. Some of the equipment, such as an oil-detecting radar and a thermographic camera in the mast, are used for the first time in a Finnish oil recovery vessel. In addition the ship has a weather station and a wet laboratory capable of analyzing water samples automatically.

text: Due to the sensitive ecology of the Baltic Sea, it has been agreed in the

text: Helsinki Convention

text: (HELCOM) that instead of using

text: dispersants

text: to dissolve the oil slicks, combatting the spills is based on mechanical recovery using oil booms to limit the spill and skimmers to collect the oil from the surface as quickly and completely as possible. For this purpose every Finnish pollution control vessel is equipped with permanently installed built-in recovery equipment and such systems have also been installed on several patrol vessels of the

text: Finnish Border Guard

text: . As the primary mission of the new vessel is pollution prevention, the ship has an extensive array of equipment capable of detecting and recovering spilled oil and chemicals in open water, high seas and ice conditions. Some of the equipment, such as an oil-detecting radar and a

text: thermographic camera

text: in the mast, are used for the first time in a Finnish oil recovery vessel. In addition the ship has a weather station and a

text: wet laboratory

text: capable of analyzing water samples automatically.

text: Offshore oil production involves environmental risks, most notably oil spills from oil tankers or pipelines transporting oil from the platform to onshore facilities, and from leaks and accidents on the platform. Produced water is also generated, which is water brought to the surface along with the oil and gas; it is usually highly saline and may include dissolved or unseparated hydrocarbons.

text: Offshore oil production involves environmental risks, most notably

text: oil spill

text: s from oil tankers or pipelines transporting oil from the platform to onshore facilities, and from leaks and accidents on the platform.

text: Produced water

text: is also generated, which is water brought to the surface along with the oil and gas; it is usually highly saline and may include dissolved or unseparated hydrocarbons.

text: A 2011 study looked at the psychological impacts of the Gulf spill on Florida and Alabama communities.  The study concluded that the current estimates of human health impacts associated with the oil spill may underestimate the psychological impact in Gulf Coast communities that did not experience direct exposure to oil and that income loss after the spill may have a greater psychological health impact than the presence of oil on the immediately adjacent shoreline.

text: On May 19, 2015, a pipeline operated by Plains All American Pipeline ruptured north-west of Santa Barbara, California,. Within 24 hours, oil had polluted approximately nine miles of the Santa Barbara coast . The spill shut down the popular El Capitan Beach and Campground just prior to the beginning of the summer high season (Memorial Day weekend). Most recent estimates of the spill have risen to over . More than  of crude oil is estimated to have spilled into the ocean. The United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce opened an investigation into the oil spill on June 25, 2015 to gather information on maintenance of the line, corrosion management and process of incident-reporting. According to federal regulations, companies are required to  National Response Center and report the release of hazardous-material "at the earliest practicable moment." According to preliminary findings of the federal Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration released in June, corrosion had worn a pipeline section to less than an inch thick. California Governor's Office of Emergency Services (CalOES) director Mark S. Ghilarducci testified at the state legislative hearing on June 25 that it appeared that Plains All American did not meet criteria for prompt notification. By June 2015 the cost of cleanup rose to USD$92 million. Santa Barbara County firefighters were among the first to discover the spill on May 18, 2015 and they "built a rim of rocks to prevent oil from running to the shoreline."  The Coast Guard received the first call about the spill at 12:39 p.m. on May 18, 2015.  The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Coast Guard formed the Unified Command to respond to the spill.

text: On May 19, 2015, a pipeline operated by Plains All American Pipeline ruptured north-west of

text: Santa Barbara, California

text: ,. Within 24 hours, oil had polluted approximately nine miles of the Santa Barbara coast . The spill shut down the popular El Capitan Beach and Campground just prior to the beginning of the summer high season (Memorial Day weekend). Most recent estimates of the spill have risen to over . More than  of crude oil is estimated to have spilled into the ocean. The

entity_name: United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce

text: United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce

text: opened an investigation into the oil spill on June 25, 2015 to gather information on maintenance of the line, corrosion management and process of incident-reporting. According to federal regulations, companies are required to

text: National Response Center

text: and report the release of hazardous-material "at the earliest practicable moment." According to preliminary findings of the federal

entity_name: Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration

text: Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration

text: released in June, corrosion had worn a pipeline section to less than an inch thick.

entity_name: California Governor's Office of Emergency Services

text: California Governor's Office of Emergency Services

text: (CalOES) director Mark S. Ghilarducci testified at the state legislative hearing on June 25 that it appeared that Plains All American did not meet criteria for prompt notification. By June 2015 the cost of cleanup rose to USD$92 million. Santa Barbara County firefighters were among the first to discover the spill on May 18, 2015 and they "built a rim of rocks to prevent oil from running to the shoreline."  The Coast Guard received the first call about the spill at 12:39 p.m. on May 18, 2015.  The

text: (EPA) and the

text: U.S. Coast Guard

text: formed the Unified Command to respond to the spill.

text: The West Triton jackup drilling rig arrived at the Montara Field in an attempt to plug the oil leak on 11 September 2009.  Oil and gas producer, Woodside Petroleum Ltd offered to assist PTTEPAA in cleaning up the oil spill with the use of a rig closer to the spill site. However, PTTEPAA rejected the Woodside offer on the basis of "safety reasons". The Woodside rig was a semisubmersible drilling rig and, as it floats on the sea surface, was not deemed as a suitable platform for the relief well. A jackup rig was required because it could be secured to the sea floor giving better stability and had the capacity to pump large volumes of heavy mud needed to stop the leak.  On 6 September, the plugging of the oil leak was delayed further by a broken towline to the mobile oil rig being towed in from Indonesia by PTTEPAA. On 7 September, the Australian Federal Government announced that it was suspending the normal approval process to fast track stopping the leak at the West Atlas oil rig. PTTEP Australasia initially said it could be just days before the leak was brought under control, but then said that the oil leak would continue for eight weeks until they could bring in another mobile offshore rig, West Triton, to drill a hole into the leaking oil well, and pump mud in to alleviate pressure to stop the oil flow.

text: The West Triton jackup drilling rig arrived at the Montara Field in an attempt to plug the oil leak on 11 September 2009.  Oil and gas producer,

text: Woodside Petroleum

text: Ltd offered to assist PTTEPAA in cleaning up the oil spill with the use of a rig closer to the spill site. However, PTTEPAA rejected the Woodside offer on the basis of "safety reasons". The Woodside rig was a semisubmersible drilling rig and, as it floats on the sea surface, was not deemed as a suitable platform for the relief well. A jackup rig was required because it could be secured to the sea floor giving better stability and had the capacity to pump large volumes of heavy mud needed to stop the leak.  On 6 September, the plugging of the oil leak was delayed further by a broken towline to the mobile oil rig being towed in from Indonesia by PTTEPAA. On 7 September, the Australian Federal Government announced that it was suspending the normal approval process to fast track stopping the leak at the West Atlas oil rig. PTTEP Australasia initially said it could be just days before the leak was brought under control, but then said that the oil leak would continue for eight weeks until they could bring in another mobile offshore rig, West Triton, to drill a hole into the leaking oil well, and pump mud in to alleviate pressure to stop the oil flow.

text: Although the OPA provides a framework for oil spillage governance recent events resulting in the BP deep water oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico suggest more can and should have been done in this area. Evidence of this fact is present in the recommendations and investigations present in the January 2011 report by the recently established National Oil Spill Commission. A further sign of lack of proper governance is implicit in the action of the federal government to rename and reform the Minerals Management Service (MMS) into the now Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement.

text: The shaping of the plug and the nozzle opening allows the angle of the ring to be adjusted. Normally this is shaped so that when the plug is pulled back toward the opening it both partially cuts off the water flow, as well as causing it to spread out to the widest possible angle. This can be used for "misting" plants. When the trigger is pushed down further, the plug moves away from the opening, causing less blockage and disruption of the flow, ultimately allowing the water to form back into a stream.

text: International Bird Rescue has responded to oil spills in countries such as the United States, France, Norway, Spain, South Africa, Australia, Ecuador, Argentina, and New Zealand. Among the most high-profile oiled wildlife response efforts include the 2011 Rena Spill in New Zealand, the 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the 2007 Cosco Busan spill in San Francisco Bay, the 2002 Prestige Spill in Galicia, Spain; the 1999 MV Erika spill in Brittany, France; and the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska.

text: International Bird Rescue has responded to oil spills in countries such as the United States, France, Norway, Spain, South Africa, Australia, Ecuador, Argentina, and New Zealand. Among the most high-profile oiled wildlife response efforts include the 2011

text: Rena Spill

text: in New Zealand, the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the 2007

text: Cosco Busan

text: spill in San Francisco Bay, the 2002

text: Prestige Spill

text: in Galicia, Spain; the 1999

text: MV Erika

text: spill in Brittany, France; and the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez spill

text: in Prince William Sound, Alaska.

text: On 20 April 2010, while drilling at the Macondo Prospect, an uncontrollable blowout caused an explosion on the rig that killed 11 crewmen and ignited a fireball visible from  away. The fire was inextinguishable and, two days later, on 22 April, the Horizon sank, leaving the well gushing at the seabed and causing the largest oil spill in U.S. waters.

text: On 20 April 2010, while drilling at the

text: Macondo Prospect

text: , an uncontrollable

text: blowout

text: caused an

text: explosion on the rig

text: that killed 11 crewmen and ignited a fireball visible from  away. The fire was inextinguishable and, two days later, on 22 April, the Horizon sank, leaving the well gushing at the

text: seabed

text: and causing

text: the largest oil spill in U.S. waters

text: In 2010, Skandi Neptune provided ROV capability during the oil spill following an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: In 2010, Skandi Neptune provided

text: ROV

text: capability during the

text: oil spill

text: following an explosion on the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: In October 2013, Al Jazeera reported that the gulf ecosystem was "in crisis", citing a decline in seafood catches, as well as deformities and lesions found in fish. In Louisiana, 4.6 million pounds of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013, over double the amount collected in 2012. Oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 miles of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013. Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the Florida panhandle, where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand. Researchers looking at sediment, seawater, biota, and seafood found toxic compounds in high concentrations that they said was due to the added oil and dispersants. Although Gulf fisheries recovered in 2011, a 2014 study of the effects of the oil spill on bluefin tuna by researchers at Stanford University and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, published in the journal Science, found that toxins released by the oil spill sent fish into cardiac arrest. The study found that even very low concentrations of crude oil can slow the pace of fish heartbeats. BP disputed the study, which was conducted as part of the federal Natural Resource Damage Assessment process required by the Oil Pollution Act. The study also found that oil already broken down by wave action and chemical dispersants was more toxic than fresh oil. Another peer-reviewed study, released in March 2014 and conducted by 17 scientists from the United States and Australia and published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, found that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs. BP responded that the concentrations of oil in the study were a level rarely seen in the Gulf, but The New York Times reported that the BP statement was contradicted by the study.

text: In October 2013,

text: Al Jazeera

text: reported that the gulf ecosystem was "in crisis", citing a decline in seafood catches, as well as deformities and lesions found in fish. In Louisiana, 4.6 million pounds of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013, over double the amount collected in 2012. Oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 miles of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013. Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the Florida panhandle, where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand. Researchers looking at sediment, seawater, biota, and seafood found toxic compounds in high concentrations that they said was due to the added oil and dispersants. Although Gulf fisheries recovered in 2011, a 2014 study of the effects of the oil spill on

text: bluefin tuna

text: by researchers at

text: Stanford University

text: and the

text: , published in the journal

text: Science

text: , found that toxins released by the oil spill sent fish into cardiac arrest. The study found that even very low concentrations of crude oil can slow the pace of fish heartbeats. BP disputed the study, which was conducted as part of the federal Natural Resource Damage Assessment process required by the Oil Pollution Act. The study also found that oil already broken down by wave action and chemical dispersants was more toxic than fresh oil. Another peer-reviewed study, released in March 2014 and conducted by 17 scientists from the United States and Australia and published in Proceedings of the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: , found that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs. BP responded that the concentrations of oil in the study were a level rarely seen in the Gulf, but The New York Times reported that the BP statement was contradicted by the study.

text: On March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker struck Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, spilling an estimated 260,000 to 750,000 barrels of crude oil. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was a major environmental disaster for the state. Governor Steve Cowper, who held office at the time of the spill, appointed Walter Parker as the chairman of the Alaska Oil Spill Commission in 1989. The Alaska Oil Spill Commission was created by the Alaska state government to investigate the causes of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Under Parker, the Commission issued 52 recommendations to improve national, state and oil industry policies in the wake of the Exxon Valdez disaster. One the recommendations called for a creation of a citizen committee to oversee the oil industry in the Prince William Sound, which led to the formation of the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. The United States Congress adopted 50 of the Committee's 52 recommendations into the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.

text: On March 24, 1989, the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil tanker struck

text: Bligh Reef

text: in

text: Prince William Sound

text: , spilling an estimated 260,000 to 750,000 barrels of

text: crude oil

text: . The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: was a major

text: environmental disaster

text: for the state. Governor

text: Steve Cowper

text: , who held office at the time of the spill, appointed Walter Parker as the chairman of the

text: Alaska Oil Spill Commission

text: in 1989. The Alaska Oil Spill Commission was created by the Alaska state government to investigate the causes of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Under Parker, the Commission issued 52 recommendations to improve national, state and oil industry policies in the wake of the Exxon Valdez disaster. One the recommendations called for a creation of a citizen committee to oversee the oil industry in the Prince William Sound, which led to the formation of the

entity_name: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council

text: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council

text: . The United States Congress adopted 50 of the Committee's 52 recommendations into the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: Image cleanup features include rotation, straightening, color adjustment, transposition, zoom, aligning, page separation, annotations and despeckling.

text: On 10 September 2010, Samantha Joye, a professor in the Department of Marine Sciences at the University of Georgia on a research vessel in the Gulf of Mexico announced her team's findings of a substantial layer of oily sediment stretching for dozens of miles in all directions suggesting that a lot of oil did not evaporate or dissipate but may have settled to the seafloor. She describes seeing layers of oily material covering the bottom of the seafloor, in some places more than  thick on top of normal sediments containing dead shrimp and other organisms. She speculates that the source may be organisms that have broken down the spilled oil and excreted an oily mucus that sinks, taking with it oil droplets that stick to the mucous. "We have to [chemically] fingerprint the oil and link it to the Deepwater Horizon," she says. "But the sheer coverage here is leading us all to come to the conclusion that it has to be sedimented oil from the spill, because it's all over the place."

text: The Jakob Maersk oil spill was the second largest spill at the time which occurred in the second largest city in Portugal. Out of the 40,000 to 50,000 tons of oil that were spilled consumed either by the fire or the ocean, 20,000 to 25,000 tons of that oil drifted into the sea and about 15,000 tons came to shore due to the wind direction during the first few days. The explosion caused thick black smoke to rise. The ship burned for 58 continuous hours.

text: Since completion of the pipeline in 2003, there have been two known oil leaks at the transfer site  off the shore of Cameroon. The first occurred on January 15, 2007. Representatives for COTCO claimed that the leak was contained within a few hours and that the amount of spilled was not sufficient to cause any harm, though local fishermen did claim to have seen traces of the oil ashore. The second oil spill was on April 22, 2010, at the same site. COTCO stated that the leaked oil amounted to less than five barrels. Cameroonian NGOs Relufa and Centre pour l'Environnement et le Développement have brought to light the inefficiencies of the oil-spill preparedness plan, as well as the lack of communication between COTCO and the surrounding communities.

text: Oil spills both on land and in the ocean have been problematic not only for fishing but for tourism as well. When spills happen, the smell of oil can dominate the air of the surrounding areas. Tabasco beaches have been affected by spills that have occurred off of Campeche. Local fishermen have expressed concerns about the viability of their livelihoods due to oil spills including those such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill off the coast of the United States. Paraíso beaches have been closed on occasion due to high toxicity of chemical spills, which negatively affects local tourism. In 2005, PEMEX cleaned twelve tons of pitch and other contaminants off 77 km of Tabasco beaches, including those in Paraíso. The beaches and waters off them are monitored by federal and state authorities for toxicity and aptness for use by tourists.

text: Oil spills both on land and in the ocean have been problematic not only for fishing but for tourism as well. When spills happen, the smell of oil can dominate the air of the surrounding areas. Tabasco beaches have been affected by spills that have occurred off of Campeche. Local fishermen have expressed concerns about the viability of their livelihoods due to oil spills including those such as the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: off the coast of the United States. Paraíso beaches have been closed on occasion due to high toxicity of chemical spills, which negatively affects local tourism. In 2005, PEMEX cleaned twelve tons of pitch and other contaminants off 77 km of Tabasco beaches, including those in Paraíso. The beaches and waters off them are monitored by federal and state authorities for toxicity and aptness for use by tourists.

text: By 21 June 2010, 143 oil spill exposure cases had been reported to the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals; 108 of those cases involved workers in the clean-up efforts, while 35 were reported by gulf residents.  Writing in The Nation, Antonia Juhasz reported that according to the health departments of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, from June to September 2010, when they stopped keeping track, more than 700 people sought health services with complaints "believed to be related to exposure to pollutants from the oil spill."  However, she believed the number to be much higher because  in her numerous interviews covering over two years, most people did "not  know to report their symptoms as related to the oil spill, nor did their physicians ask."

text: By 21 June 2010, 143 oil spill exposure cases had been reported to the

entity_name: Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals

text: Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals

text: ; 108 of those cases involved workers in the clean-up efforts, while 35 were reported by gulf residents.  Writing in The Nation,

text: Antonia Juhasz

text: reported that according to the health departments of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, from June to September 2010, when they stopped keeping track, more than 700 people sought health services with complaints "believed to be related to exposure to pollutants from the oil spill."  However, she believed the number to be much higher because  in her numerous interviews covering over two years, most people did "not  know to report their symptoms as related to the oil spill, nor did their physicians ask."

text: Making the relationship between Santa Barbara and the oil industry even worse was the disaster of January 28, 1969, one of the formative events in the modern environmental movement. A blowout on an offshore oil well at the Dos Cuadras Offshore Oil Field spewed between  of oil, producing an immense oil slick which spread over hundreds of square miles of ocean in the Santa Barbara Channel, contaminating shorelines, killing wildlife, ruining the tourist industry, and appearing on television screens worldwide. The anti-oil group "GOO" (Get Oil Out) formed shortly after the spill, and oil drilling has been a sensitive issue in the area ever since.  Wider consequences of the spill included the 1970 passage of both the National Environmental Policy Act and the California Environmental Quality Act, laws which require assessment of potential environmental impacts of projects before they begin.

text: Making the relationship between Santa Barbara and the oil industry even worse was the

text: disaster of January 28, 1969

text: , one of the formative events in the modern environmental movement. A blowout on an offshore oil well at the

text: Dos Cuadras Offshore Oil Field

text: spewed between  of oil, producing an immense oil slick which spread over hundreds of square miles of ocean in the Santa Barbara Channel, contaminating shorelines, killing wildlife, ruining the tourist industry, and appearing on television screens worldwide. The anti-oil group "GOO" (Get Oil Out) formed shortly after the spill, and oil drilling has been a sensitive issue in the area ever since.  Wider consequences of the spill included the 1970 passage of both the

text: National Environmental Policy Act

text: and the

text: California Environmental Quality Act

text: , laws which require assessment of potential environmental impacts of projects before they begin.

text: On 14 May 2010, the Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills model indicated that about 35% of a hypothetical  spill of light Louisiana crude oil released in conditions similar to those found in the Gulf would evaporate, that 50% to 60% of the oil would remain in or on the water, and the rest would be dispersed in the ocean.  That means that over  of oil remained in the Gulf.

text: On 14 May 2010, the

text: Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills

text: model indicated that about 35% of a hypothetical  spill of light Louisiana crude oil released in conditions similar to those found in the Gulf would evaporate, that 50% to 60% of the oil would remain in or on the water, and the rest would be dispersed in the ocean.  That means that over  of oil remained in the Gulf.

text: On April 20, 2010, a fire was reported on a Transocean-owned semisubmersible drilling rig, Deepwater Horizon. Deepwater Horizon was a Reading & Bates Falcon RBS8D design, a firm that was acquired by Transocean in 2001. The fire broke out at 10:00 p.m. CDT UTC−5 in US waters of Mississippi Canyon 252 in the Gulf of Mexico. The rig was  off the Louisiana coast. The US Coast Guard launched a rescue operation after the explosion which killed 11 workers and critically injured seven of the 126 member crew.

text: On April 20, 2010, a fire was reported on a Transocean-owned

text: semisubmersible

text: drilling rig

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: . Deepwater Horizon was a Reading & Bates Falcon RBS8D design, a firm that was acquired by Transocean in 2001. The fire broke out at 10:00 p.m. CDT

text: in US waters of Mississippi Canyon 252 in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . The rig was  off the

text: Louisiana

text: coast. The

text: US Coast Guard

text: launched a rescue operation after the explosion which killed 11 workers and critically injured seven of the 126 member crew.

text: The Certificate of Financial Responsibility (COFR) program was created to ensure that tankers, barges, and other vessels used to transport oil and chemical-based products on U.S. should bear any ensuing cleanup costs from spills or leaks.  This is based on the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and other environmental statutes.

text: The Certificate of Financial Responsibility (COFR) program was created to ensure that tankers, barges, and other vessels used to transport oil and chemical-based products on U.S. should bear any ensuing cleanup costs from spills or leaks.  This is based on the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: and other environmental statutes.

text: United States law requires payment of 8 cents per barrel of oil to the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund for all oil imported or produced.  For this payment, operators of offshore oil platforms (among others) are limited in liability to $75 million for damages (which can be paid by the fund), but are not indemnified from the cost of cleanup.  As of 2010, before payouts related to the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion, the fund stood at $1.6 billion.

text: United States law requires payment of 8 cents per

text: barrel

text: of oil to the

text: Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund

text: for all oil imported or produced.  For this payment, operators of

text: offshore oil platforms

text: (among others) are limited in liability to $75 million for damages (which can be paid by the fund), but are not indemnified from the cost of cleanup.  As of 2010, before payouts related to the

text: , the fund stood at $1.6 billion.

text: The importance of the SHE value driver becomes apparent when looking at the recent incident with the BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico; the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Poor maintenance is believed to be the cause of one of the biggest oil spills in history, causing massive damage to the environment. Total accumulated consequence costs (both clean-up costs and loss of company value) are estimated on 12 billion.

text: The importance of the SHE value driver becomes apparent when looking at the recent incident with the BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico; the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . Poor maintenance is believed to be the cause of one of the biggest oil spills in history, causing massive damage to the environment. Total accumulated consequence costs (both clean-up costs and loss of company value) are estimated on 12 billion.

text: This technique came to prominence during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill when it was used in an attempt to seal a seafloor oil well after the failure of the blowout preventer. However, it failed to block the flow of oil.

text: This technique came to prominence during the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: when it was used in an attempt to seal a

text: seafloor

text: oil well after the failure of the

text: blowout preventer

text: . However, it failed to block the flow of oil.

text: Jakob Maersk was carrying 88,000 tons of crude oil from Kharg Island in Iran while entering the Port of Leixões in the northern part of Portugal to discharge the oil to the Sacor Refinery. Receiving aid from tug boats, the ship grounded on a sand bank, causing a huge explosion and subsequent fire that burned for days.  The explosion broke the ship apart, spilling crude oil into the water.

text: Jakob Maersk was carrying 88,000 tons of

text: crude oil

text: from

text: Kharg Island

text: in

text: Iran

text: while entering the Port of Leixões in the northern part of Portugal to discharge the oil to the Sacor Refinery. Receiving aid from tug boats, the ship grounded on a

text: sand bank

text: , causing a huge explosion and subsequent fire that burned for days.  The explosion broke the ship apart, spilling crude oil into the water.

text: The use of biosurfactants as a way to remove petroleum from contaminated sites has been studied and found to be safe and effective in the removal of petroleum products from soil. Other studies found that surfactants are often more toxic than the oil that is being dispersed, and the combination of the oil and the surfactant can be more toxic than either alone.  Biosurfactants were not used by BP after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.  However, unprecedented amounts of Corexit (active ingredient: Tween-80), were sprayed directly into the ocean at the leak and on the sea-water's surface, the theory being that the surfactants isolate droplets of oil, making it easier for petroleum-consuming microbes to digest the oil.

text: The use of biosurfactants as a way to remove

text: petroleum

text: from contaminated sites has been studied and found to be safe and effective in the removal of petroleum products from soil. Other studies found that surfactants are often more toxic than the oil that is being dispersed, and the combination of the oil and the surfactant can be more toxic than either alone.  Biosurfactants were not used by

text: BP

text: after the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: .  However, unprecedented amounts of

text: Corexit

text: (active ingredient:

text: ), were sprayed directly into the ocean at the leak and on the sea-water's surface, the theory being that the surfactants isolate droplets of oil, making it easier for petroleum-consuming microbes to digest the oil.

text: According to Primack (2010), there are “lagging” effects on the environment that may not surface for years after the original causes. This “lagging” creates a huge challenge towards understanding the changing of ecosystems. Hence, long term monitoring programs provide an early warning for threats to the functioning of ecosystems and communities of species. Examples as mentioned below, can address the conservation/knowledge gaps and help to refine the management priorities:

text: With 80-90% of oil spill costs invested in shoreline cleanup, there is a search for more efficient and cost-effective methods to extract oil spills from the shorelines. Biodiesel has displayed its capacity to significantly dissolve crude oil, depending on the source of the fatty acids. In a laboratory setting, oiled sediments that simulated polluted shorelines were sprayed with a single coat of biodiesel and exposed to simulated tides. Biodiesel is an effective solvent to oil due to its methyl ester component, which considerably lowers the viscosity of the crude oil. Additionally, it has a higher buoyancy than crude oil, which later aids in its removal. As a result, 80% of oil was removed from cobble and fine sand, 50% in coarse sand, and 30% in gravel. Once the oil is liberated from the shoreline, the oil-biodiesel mixture is manually removed from the water surface with skimmers. Any remaining mixture is easily broken down due to the high biodegradability of biodiesel, and the increased surface area exposure of the mixture.

text: Bears were not directly harmed by the Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, although some were displaced from traditional feeding and traveling areas by cleanup crews. No one was injured by a bear, and no Kodiak bears were killed. To mitigate the adverse impacts of the spill, Exxon reached a settlement with the state and federal governments. Paradoxically, the impacts of the oil spill and the subsequent cleanup and settlement proved to be beneficial to bears on Kodiak. Bear-safety training exposed thousands of workers to factual information about bears, and money from the settlement fund was used for funding land acquisitions. By the close of the 20th century, over 80% of the refuge lands that had been lost as a result of ANCSA and ANILCA were reinstated into the refuge, either through direct purchase or by means of conservation easements. Lands were also purchased in America, Westtown, and Shuyak Islands and transferred into state ownership. The Kodiak Brown Bear Trust coordinated a coalition of sportsmen and other wildlife conservation groups from around the nation to lobby for use of settlement funds to acquire Kodiak lands. The groups also directly contributed funding to protect small parcels of important bear habitat around the islands.

text: Bears were not directly harmed by the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil spill in 1989, although some were displaced from traditional feeding and traveling areas by cleanup crews. No one was injured by a bear, and no Kodiak bears were killed. To mitigate the adverse impacts of the spill, Exxon reached a settlement with the state and federal governments. Paradoxically, the impacts of the oil spill and the subsequent cleanup and settlement proved to be beneficial to bears on Kodiak. Bear-safety training exposed thousands of workers to factual information about bears, and money from the settlement fund was used for funding land acquisitions. By the close of the 20th century, over 80% of the refuge lands that had been lost as a result of ANCSA and ANILCA were reinstated into the refuge, either through direct purchase or by means of conservation easements. Lands were also purchased in America, Westtown, and

text: Shuyak Island

text: s and transferred into state ownership. The Kodiak Brown Bear Trust coordinated a coalition of sportsmen and other wildlife conservation groups from around the nation to lobby for use of settlement funds to acquire Kodiak lands. The groups also directly contributed funding to protect small parcels of important bear habitat around the islands.

text: The first explosion occurred at around 00:56 EET in a nightclub in Sighetu Marmației. Approximately 120 people were in the club at that time. The nightclub, which was located in the basement of the building, had no central gas connection. A club administrator stated that the nightclub was heated with non-fuel-burning heating and air conditioning equipment, and therefore could not have caused the explosion. The police hypothesis was that the explosion occurred due to accumulation of combustible gases coming not from the club, but from a nearby house. According to investigators, 7 young women were smoking in the club's bathroom, which triggered the explosion.

text: The first explosion occurred at around 00:56

text: EET

text: in a nightclub in Sighetu Marmației. Approximately 120 people were in the club at that time. The nightclub, which was located in the basement of the building, had no central gas connection. A club administrator stated that the nightclub was heated with non-fuel-burning heating and air conditioning equipment, and therefore could not have caused the explosion. The police hypothesis was that the explosion occurred due to accumulation of combustible gases coming not from the club, but from a nearby house. According to investigators, 7 young women were smoking in the club's bathroom, which triggered the explosion.

text: Paul voted on multiple occasions in 2007—2012 to block measures that would have eliminated or reduced tax breaks for oil and gas producers. For example, in January 2007, he voted against the Energy Independence and Security Act, which supporters said would have rescinded $14 billion in tax breaks for oil and gas drillers. In February 2008, he voted against the Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Tax Act, which supporters said would have eliminated $18 billion in tax benefits for oil companies and substituted tax credits for wind, solar, and other renewable energy sources. In May 2008, he voted against the Energy Improvement and Extension Act, which supporters said contained provisions to cut tax breaks for oil companies and to expand tax breaks for alternative energies like solar and geothermal power, biodiesel fuels, and plug-in hybrid vehicles. In July 2010, he voted against the Consolidated Land, Energy, and Aquatic Resources Act of 2009, which would have removed federal caps on oil companies' liability for oil spills, and would have cut certain tax breaks for oil companies. In February 2011, he voted against a measure to reinstate royalties assessed for oil drilled when oil prices are high. In March, April, and May 2011, he voted against measures that would have allowed consideration of legislation to eliminate tax breaks for oil companies and promote production and use of alternative energy sources.

text: Paul voted on multiple occasions in 2007—2012 to block measures that would have eliminated or reduced tax breaks for oil and gas producers. For example, in January 2007, he voted against the

entity_name: Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

text: Energy Independence and Security Act

text: , which supporters said would have rescinded $14 billion in tax breaks for oil and gas drillers. In February 2008, he voted against the Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Tax Act, which supporters said would have eliminated $18 billion in tax benefits for oil companies and substituted tax credits for wind, solar, and other renewable energy sources. In May 2008, he voted against the

text: Energy Improvement and Extension Act

text: , which supporters said contained provisions to cut tax breaks for oil companies and to expand tax breaks for alternative energies like solar and geothermal power, biodiesel fuels, and plug-in hybrid vehicles. In July 2010, he voted against the Consolidated Land, Energy, and Aquatic Resources Act of 2009, which would have removed federal caps on oil companies' liability for oil spills, and would have cut certain tax breaks for oil companies. In February 2011, he voted against a measure to reinstate royalties assessed for oil drilled when oil prices are high. In March, April, and May 2011, he voted against measures that would have allowed consideration of legislation to eliminate tax breaks for oil companies and promote production and use of alternative energy sources.

text: Following the oil spill Queensland Premier Anna Bligh declared two islands and parts of the Sunshine Coast disaster areas. Clean-up efforts were reportedly going to cost at least A$100,000 a day and last more than a week as the oil continued to spread. Several search parties have been sent to the spill area to attempt to find the potentially explosive materials that were in the 31 containers. Press reports stated that if the ammonium nitrate were to mix with the heavy fuel, the mixture could ignite and cause a large explosion. If the chemical did not react with the fuel but still leaked out, marine life could be threatened by large blooms of algae. By 15 March, the cost of the spill jumped to $A10 million ($6.6 million USD). A team of 88 people were sent out to begin the clean-up process and a further 58 were expected to join within the following days. On 16 March, the Royal Australian Navy began searching for the 31 containers of ammonium nitrate that were knocked off the ship. A navy minehunter was sent to look for the containers to reduce the amount of impact the chemical could cause.

text: Following the oil spill Queensland Premier

text: Anna Bligh

text: declared two islands and parts of the Sunshine Coast disaster areas. Clean-up efforts were reportedly going to cost at least

text: A$

text: 100,000 a day and last more than a week as the oil continued to spread. Several search parties have been sent to the spill area to attempt to find the potentially explosive materials that were in the 31 containers. Press reports stated that if the ammonium nitrate were to mix with the heavy fuel, the mixture could ignite and cause a large explosion. If the chemical did not react with the fuel but still leaked out, marine life could be threatened by large blooms of algae. By 15 March, the cost of the spill jumped to $A10 million ($6.6 million USD). A team of 88 people were sent out to begin the clean-up process and a further 58 were expected to join within the following days. On 16 March, the Royal Australian Navy began searching for the 31 containers of ammonium nitrate that were knocked off the ship. A navy minehunter was sent to look for the containers to reduce the amount of impact the chemical could cause.

text: Following the oil spill there were many negative after effects on the Brazilian fishermen, on the marine life and the environment. The fishing industry suffered tremendously as survival for the marine animals grew more difficult. Marine animals such as, the fish and crabs were unable to get oxygen and as a result were not able to survive. In addition, the aquatic plant life had also begun to die off and become non existent due to the oil resting on the surface of the water. This resulted in a loss of food for the marine animals as they had no aquatic plants to feed upon. The fishermen - who relied heavily on fishing in the bay for their own survival - were faced with tragic times, as it became more difficult to catch fish.  This resulted in a downfall in the demand for fishermen and lead to a loss of employment for such individuals.

text: Following the oil spill there were many negative after effects on the Brazilian

text: fishermen

text: , on the

text: marine life

text: and the

text: environment

text: . The fishing industry suffered tremendously as survival for the

text: marine animal

text: s grew more difficult. Marine animals such as, the

text: fish

text: and

text: crab

text: s were unable to get oxygen and as a result were not able to survive. In addition, the

text: aquatic plant life

text: had also begun to die off and become non existent due to the oil resting on the surface of the water. This resulted in a loss of food for the

text: marine animal

text: s as they had no

text: aquatic plant

text: s to feed upon. The fishermen - who relied heavily on fishing in the bay for their own survival - were faced with tragic times, as it became more difficult to catch fish.  This resulted in a downfall in the demand for fishermen and lead to a loss of employment for such individuals.

text: During the cleanup step, the active player discards down to his or her maximum hand size(usually 7 (seven)), then simultaneously, all damage marked on permanents is removed and all "until end of turn" and "this turn" effects end. The game then checks for any state based actions that need to be performed or if any triggered abilities are waiting to be put on to the stack, if there are, all state based actions are performed and then all triggered abilities are put on to the stack and the active player gets priority. once the stack is empty and all players pass priority, a new cleanup step begins. If there are no triggered abilities put onto the stack during the cleanup step, no player receives priority during the cleanup step, so no spells can be cast and no activated abilities can be activated.

text: This is a reverse-chronological list of oil spills that have occurred throughout the world and spill(s) that are currently ongoing. Quantities are measured in tonnes of crude oil with one tonne roughly equal to 308 US gallons, 256 Imperial gallons, or 7.33 barrels, or 1165 litres. This calculation uses a median value of 0.858 for the specific gravity of light crude oil; actual values can range from 0.816 to 0.893, so the amounts shown below are inexact.  They are also estimates, because the actual volume of an oil spill is difficult to measure exactly.

text: This is a reverse-chronological list of

text: oil spill

text: s that have occurred throughout the world and spill(s) that are currently ongoing. Quantities are measured in

text: tonne

text: s of

text: crude oil

text: with one tonne roughly equal to 308

text: US gallon

text: s, 256

text: Imperial gallon

text: s, or 7.33

text: barrels

text: , or 1165 litres. This calculation uses a median value of 0.858 for the specific gravity of

text: light crude oil

text: ; actual values can range from 0.816 to 0.893, so the amounts shown below are inexact.  They are also estimates, because the actual volume of an oil spill is difficult to measure exactly.

text: On November 26, 2004,  of crude oil spilled from the Cyprus-flagged oil tanker Athos 1, which was preparing to dock at the Citgo asphalt refinery, after its hull had been punctured by a submerged, discarded anchor. Citgo was cleared of liability in 2011. The oil spill has had lasting impact on the estuary.

text: On November 26, 2004,  of crude oil spilled from the

text: Cyprus-flagged

text: oil tanker

text: Athos 1, which was preparing to dock at the Citgo asphalt refinery, after its hull had been punctured by a submerged, discarded anchor.

text: Citgo

text: was cleared of liability in 2011. The

text: oil spill

text: has had lasting impact on the

text: estuary

text: Construction has been delayed many times on the last segment, between Fullerton Road (just north of I-95) and Rolling Road (SR 638), which will allow traffic on the main part of the parkway to connect directly to the I-95 main lanes. Plans were made here in the late 1980s, and it was to be paid for by a developer who was to build a development on land bought from the U.S. Army's Fort Belvoir. But those plans fell through, and traffic growth necessitated a redesign. Plans were again postponed in the early 2000s due to necessary environmental cleanup of that part of Fort Belvoir, which included unexploded ordnance. The Environmental Protection Agency discovered in 2005 that an oil spill on the property had not been properly cleaned. , the project had been designed as a full freeway but was placed on hold. As of September 2010, this portion of the parkway opened for traffic, closing the gap that once existed.

text: Construction has been delayed many times on the last segment, between Fullerton Road (just north of I-95) and Rolling Road (SR 638), which will allow traffic on the main part of the parkway to connect directly to the I-95 main lanes. Plans were made here in the late 1980s, and it was to be paid for by a developer who was to build a development on land bought from the

text: U.S. Army

text: 's

text: Fort Belvoir

text: . But those plans fell through, and traffic growth necessitated a redesign. Plans were again postponed in the early 2000s due to necessary

text: environmental cleanup

text: of that part of Fort Belvoir, which included

text: unexploded ordnance

text: . The

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: discovered in 2005 that an

text: oil spill

text: on the property had not been properly cleaned. , the project had been designed as a full

text: freeway

text: but was placed on hold. As of September 2010, this portion of the parkway opened for traffic, closing the gap that once existed.

text: The African penguin rescue effort was one of the largest bird rescue missions undertaken thanks to its many volunteers and teams of professionals. The rescue effort consisted of washing and rehabilitating already-oiled birds and capturing non-oiled birds as a preemptive measure. Within ten days of the Treasure spill, 20,251 oiled African penguins were admitted into the rehabilitation center in Cape Town, and 90% of the oiled birds were rehabilitated and released. Another 19,500 non-oiled penguins were relocated successfully.

text: The committee held 80 hearings and briefings, on topics ranging from climate science to the Deepwater Horizon explosion and subsequent oil spill.

text: The committee held 80

text: hearings

text: and briefings, on topics ranging from

text: climate science

text: to the

text: Deepwater Horizon explosion

text: and

text: subsequent oil spill

text: NOAA is heavily involved in environmental cleanups of oil spills as well as other damage to wildlife and coastal environments in the United States largely through their Damage Assessment Remediation and Recovery Program DARRP. efforts lasted in earnest for several years and continued to some degree until 2007 according to a report by the Buzzards Bay National Estuary Program.

text: NOAA

text: is heavily involved in environmental cleanups of oil spills as well as other damage to wildlife and coastal environments in the

text: United States

text: largely through their Damage Assessment Remediation and Recovery Program

text: DARRP

text: . efforts lasted in earnest for several years and continued to some degree until 2007 according to a report by the Buzzards Bay National Estuary Program.

text: Hinchey, in August 2010, voted yes on the “Offshore Drilling and Other Energy Laws Amendments.” This regulates or controls the use of oil and natural gas. It also increases safety on blowout preventers on oil wells, as well as upping the penalty for leaking or spilling of oil or “other hazardous substances” into the Gulf of Mexico.	He also voted to repeal Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell in March 2010.  This makes it illegal to dismiss someone from the army for being homosexual, having engaged in or suspected of engaging in “homosexual acts."	Another bill that Hinchey voted yes on, the Aid to States for Medicaid, Teacher Employment and Other purposes, passed in the House in August 2010. This budgets $10 billion to the Education Jobs Fund to be given to the states for teacher hiring and training. It also increases Federal Medical Assistance Percentages (FMAP) to states in need, and lengthens the period for states to increase their FMAP.

text: Hinchey, in August 2010, voted yes on the “Offshore Drilling and Other Energy Laws Amendments.” This regulates or controls the use of oil and natural gas. It also increases safety on blowout preventers on oil wells, as well as upping the penalty for leaking or spilling of oil or “other hazardous substances” into the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: .	He also voted to repeal

text: Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell

text: in March 2010.  This makes it illegal to dismiss someone from the army for being homosexual, having engaged in or suspected of engaging in “homosexual acts."	Another bill that Hinchey voted yes on, the Aid to States for

text: Medicaid

text: , Teacher Employment and Other purposes, passed in the House in August 2010. This budgets $10 billion to the

text: Education Jobs Fund

text: to be given to the states for teacher hiring and training. It also increases

text: Federal Medical Assistance Percentages

text: (FMAP) to states in need, and lengthens the period for states to increase their FMAP.

text: The scope of human exposure to pharmaceuticals and personal care products from the environment is a complex function of many factors. These factors include the concentrations, types, and distribution of pharmaceuticals in the environment; the pharmacokinetics of each drug; the structural transformation of the chemical compounds either through metabolism or natural degradation processes; and the potential bioaccumulation of the drugs.  More research is needed to determine the effects on humans of long-term exposure to low levels of PPCPs.  The full effects of mixtures of low concentrations of different PPCPs is also unknown.

text: The legal framework for enforcing oil spill governance in the U.S. involves a number of federal authorities. The responsibilities of the agency is split into two categories: (1) oil spill anticipation and prevention and (2) oil spill response and cleanup.

text: On May 2, 2010, Development Driller III started drilling a relief well on Macondo Prospect to stop massive oil spill caused by the explosion and subsequent loss of the Deepwater Horizon.

text: On May 2, 2010, Development Driller III started drilling a relief well on

text: Macondo Prospect

text: to stop

text: massive oil spill

text: caused by the

text: explosion and subsequent loss

text: of the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: In the wake of the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, Treadwell left Yukon and went to Cordova, Alaska to serve as the city's director of spill response. Cordova was badly impacted by the spill, which severely affected the area's fishing industry and disrupted the general ecology of the area. A September 1990 article in the Spartanburg Herald-Journal praised the cleanup efforts, saying that they had come along "quite well". Treadwell expressed optimism about the ecological rebound, cautioning that, while over half of beaches appeared normal and the quantity of commercial fish catches was exceptionally strong, the long-term effects of the spill would not be apparent for "years to come". In a 2006 piece on National Public Radio, Treadwell stated that some harmful effects of the oil spill have persisted.

text: In the wake of the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , Treadwell left Yukon and went to

text: Cordova, Alaska

text: to serve as the city's director of spill response. Cordova was badly impacted by the spill, which severely affected the area's fishing industry and disrupted the general ecology of the area. A September 1990 article in the

text: Spartanburg Herald-Journal

text: praised the cleanup efforts, saying that they had come along "quite well". Treadwell expressed optimism about the ecological rebound, cautioning that, while over half of beaches appeared normal and the quantity of commercial fish catches was exceptionally strong, the long-term effects of the spill would not be apparent for "years to come". In a 2006 piece on National Public Radio, Treadwell stated that some harmful effects of the oil spill have persisted.

text: An oil spill near reactors five and six is detected at 8:00 am, as well as an explosion heard at 2:30 pm near reactor four. TEPCO reports that the explosion was the bursting of an oxygen cylinder damaged by unmanned machinery during debris removal.

text: In the immediate aftermath of the ship's sinking, the oil spill covered an area of  x . A much reduced amount of oil reached shore - in part because of the oil's rapid combustion from the initial explosion and in part because currents carried the spill across the Atlantic, in the direction of England, giving the oil a significant amount of time to dissipate in the rough seas. Because of this, no clean-up operation was mounted.

text: In 2010, Purple Strategies was hired by BP following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Purple Strategies developed online, television, print and radio ads highlighting BP's cleanup efforts in the Gulf of Mexico, featuring a range of BP employees. In late 2010, and throughout 2011 and 2012, Purple Strategies created additional television ads for BP featuring local business owners, detailing the progress made following the oil spill and promoting tourism in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: In 2010, Purple Strategies was hired by

text: BP

text: following the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . Purple Strategies developed online, television, print and radio ads highlighting BP's cleanup efforts in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , featuring a range of BP employees. In late 2010, and throughout 2011 and 2012, Purple Strategies created additional television ads for BP featuring local business owners, detailing the progress made following the oil spill and promoting tourism in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: From the report on the Deepwater Horizon oil spill by the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling:

text: From the report on the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: by the

text: The storm caused oil spills from 44 facilities throughout southeastern Louisiana, which resulted in over  of oil being leaked. Some spills were only a few hundred gallons and most were contained on-site, though some oil entered the ecosystem and residential areas. After a spill at the Murphy Oil refinery, for example, 1,800 homes were oiled in the towns of Chalmette and Meraux. Unlike Hurricane Ivan no offshore oil spills were officially reported after Hurricane Katrina. However, Skytruth reported some signs of surface oil in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: The storm caused

text: oil spill

text: s from 44 facilities throughout southeastern Louisiana, which resulted in over  of

text: oil

text: being leaked. Some spills were only a few hundred gallons and most were contained on-site, though some oil entered the ecosystem and residential areas. After a spill at the

text: Murphy Oil

text: refinery, for example, 1,800 homes were oiled in the towns of

text: Chalmette

text: and

text: Meraux

text: . Unlike

text: Hurricane Ivan

text: no offshore oil spills were officially reported after Hurricane Katrina. However, Skytruth reported some signs of surface oil in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: According to a NALCO manual obtained by GAP, Corexit 9527 is an “eye and skin irritant. Repeated or excessive exposure ... may cause injury to red blood cells (hemolysis), kidney or the liver.” The manual adds: “Excessive exposure may cause central nervous system effects, nausea, vomiting, anesthetic or narcotic effects.” It advises, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” For Corexit 9500 the manual advised, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” “Avoid breathing vapor,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” According to FOIA requests obtained by GAP, neither the protective gear nor the manual were distributed to Gulf oil spill cleanup workers.

text: According to a NALCO manual obtained by

text: GAP

text: , Corexit 9527 is an “eye and skin irritant. Repeated or excessive exposure ... may cause injury to red blood cells (hemolysis), kidney or the liver.” The manual adds: “Excessive exposure may cause central nervous system effects, nausea, vomiting, anesthetic or narcotic effects.” It advises, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” For Corexit 9500 the manual advised, “Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing,” “Avoid breathing vapor,” and “Wear suitable protective clothing.” According to

entity_name: Freedom of Information Act (United States)

text: FOIA

text: requests obtained by GAP, neither the protective gear nor the manual were distributed to Gulf oil spill cleanup workers.

text: The oil clean-up itself caused damage to the fragile environment. Environmentalists and oil spill veterans warned that the various rushed, sometimes untested and unnecessary methods being used in the clean-up was "wreaking havoc". "Absolutely nothing you do to respond to an oil spill is without impacts of its own," said the EPA's Lisa P. Jackson.

text: The oil clean-up itself caused damage to the fragile environment. Environmentalists and oil spill veterans warned that the various rushed, sometimes untested and unnecessary methods being used in the clean-up was "wreaking havoc". "Absolutely nothing you do to respond to an oil spill is without impacts of its own," said the EPA's

text: Lisa P. Jackson

text: Similar situations can be elucitated like in the case of oil spills in the oceans which require cleanup, microbes isolated from oil rich environments like oil wells, oil transfer pipelines...etc. have been found having the potential to degrade oil or use it as an energy source.  Thus they serve as a remedy to oil spills.

text: From the Monongahela River, the oil made its way down into the Ohio River, contaminating the drinking water for about 1 million people throughout Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. About 23,000 residents of Pittsburgh were without water for a week. About 1,200 residents of Jefferson Borough were asked to evacuate due to fear of an explosion in the area from a gasoline leak. Water shortages occurred for areas as far as 200 miles down river. This oil spill was one of the largest inland oil spills at the time of occurrence. The U.S. Government estimated the cost of damages were between $10 and $15 million.

text: From the Monongahela River, the oil made its way down into the Ohio River, contaminating the

text: drinking water

text: for about 1 million people throughout

text: Ohio

text: West Virginia

text: , and Pennsylvania. About 23,000 residents of Pittsburgh were without water for a week. About 1,200 residents of

text: Jefferson Borough

text: were asked to evacuate due to fear of an explosion in the area from a

text: gasoline

text: leak.

text: Water shortage

text: s occurred for areas as far as 200 miles down river. This oil spill was one of the largest inland oil spills at the time of occurrence. The U.S. Government estimated the cost of damages were between $10 and $15 million.

text: The Niger delta is one of the most polluted regions in the world. Oil is spilled more each year than in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Nigerian government reports more than 7,000 spills between 1970 and 2000 and 2,000  major spillage sites.

text: The Niger delta is one of the most polluted regions in the world. Oil is spilled more each year than in the

text: Gulf of Mexico in 2010

text: . Nigerian government reports more than 7,000 spills between 1970 and 2000 and 2,000  major spillage sites.

text: In July 2010, Ocean Alliance, in partnership with the Wise Laboratory of Environmental and Genetic Toxicology, took the RV Odyssey into the area in an effort to determine the, often over-looked, long-term impacts of this environmental catastrophe. After such incidents, people often look no further than the immediate impact: death tolls of particular species are logged, population declines/increases recorded, and these figures are seen as broadly representative of the environmental damage. The toxicological work being conducted by Ocean Alliance and their partners at the Wise Lab was primarily aimed at determining the chronic, long-term impact of the incident-in particular the geno-toxic impacts of oil (and compounds found in oil) and dispersants as they work their way up the trophic food chain. The long-term effects are believed by many to be far more significant than the short-term effects, a belief corroborated by on-going research in the Gulf of Mexico and the fact that the impacts of the Exxon Valdez spill (which occurred in 1985 in Prince William Sound, Alaska) are still being studied over 25 years after the initial accident. In terms of total discharge of oil, this spill was approximately one tenth of the Deepwater Horizon spill. Perhaps the most significant economic impact of the Exxon Valdez disaster-the collapse of the Herring fishery, only collapsed four years after the spill, and to this day is not showing signs of recovery. This makes the kind of long-term focused program Ocean Alliance conducted all the more important. Preliminary analysis has shown potentially damaging levels of genotoxic metals including chromium and nickel in Sperm whales living in the area, significantly higher than the global average. Furthermore, it has shown a correlation between proximity to the spill and levels of these genotoxic metals.

text: Herring

text: fishery, only collapsed four years after the spill, and to this day is not showing signs of recovery. This makes the kind of long-term focused program Ocean Alliance conducted all the more important. Preliminary analysis has shown potentially damaging levels of genotoxic metals including chromium and nickel in Sperm whales living in the area, significantly higher than the global average. Furthermore, it has shown a correlation between proximity to the spill and levels of these genotoxic metals.

text: The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from the Po River. Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea. A further risk is presented by ballast water discharge by ships, especially tankers. Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic Basin, the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries. It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone. An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before, in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences. Since 2006, Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshore LNG terminal in the Gulf of Trieste, as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border. The Slovenian government and municipalities, the municipal council of Trieste, and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism.

text: The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from the

text: Po River

text: . Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea. A further risk is presented by

entity_name: Ballast water discharge and the environment

text: ballast water discharge

text: by ships, especially

text: tankers

text: . Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic Basin, the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries. It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone. An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before, in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences. Since 2006, Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshore

text: LNG

text: terminal in the

text: Gulf of Trieste

text: , as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border. The Slovenian government and municipalities, the municipal council of Trieste, and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism.

text: The positive impact on the environment globally is less clear.  Hans-Werner Sinn, a German economist and chair of the Ifo Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung argues that Germany's renewable energy support reduces world market prices for fossil energy.  Thus, countries like China or the US have an incentive to produce more, and the net effect on the climate is zero.  This effect is known as the green paradox.

text: The positive impact on the environment globally is less clear.

text: Hans-Werner Sinn

text: , a German economist and chair of the

text: Ifo Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung

text: argues that Germany's renewable energy support reduces world market prices for fossil energy.  Thus, countries like China or the US have an incentive to produce more, and the net effect on the climate is zero.  This effect is known as the

text: green paradox

text: The cleanup after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill saw large applications of sand cleaners to the area. Similarly, the Rena oil spill in New Zealand also saw beach cleaners deployed in an effort to remove the affected sand.

text: The cleanup after the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: saw large applications of sand cleaners to the area. Similarly, the Rena oil spill in New Zealand also saw beach cleaners deployed in an effort to remove the affected sand.

text: In the early 1930s the Texas Company developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the brackish coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico. In 1937 Pure Oil Company (now part of Chevron Corporation) and its partner Superior Oil Company (now part of ExxonMobil Corporation) used a fixed platform to develop a field in  of water, one mile (1.6 km) offshore of Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana. In early 1947 Superior Oil erected a drilling/production oil platform in  of water some 18 miles off Vermilion Parish, Louisiana.  It was Kerr-McGee Oil Industries (now Anadarko Petroleum Corporation), as operator for partners Phillips Petroleum (ConocoPhillips) and Stanolind Oil & Gas (BP), that completed its historic Ship Shoal Block 32 well in November 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their Vermilion platform farther offshore. In any case, that made Kerr-McGee's Gulf of Mexico well, Kermac No. 16, the first oil discovery drilled out of sight of land. Forty-four Gulf of Mexico exploratory wells discovered 11 oil and natural gas fields by the end of 1949.During World War II (1939-1945) - control of oil supply from Baku and Middle East played a huge role in the events of the war and the ultimate victory of the allies. Cutting off the oil supply considerably weakened Japan in the latter part of the war.After World War II ended, the countries of the Middle East took the lead in oil production from the United States. Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the introduction of the Drillship, and the growth of a global shipping network for petroleum relying upon oil tankers and pipelines. In 1949, first offshore oil drilling at Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari) in the Caspian Sea off Azerbaijan eventually resulted in a city built on pylons. In the 1960s and 1970s, multi-governmental organizations of oil–producing nations OPEC and OAPEC played a major role in setting petroleum prices and policy. Oil spills and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental, and economic importance.

text: In the early 1930s

text: the Texas Company

text: developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the brackish coastal areas of the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . In 1937

text: Pure Oil Company

text: (now part of

text: Chevron Corporation

text: ) and its partner

text: Superior Oil Company

text: (now part of

text: ExxonMobil Corporation

text: ) used a fixed platform to develop a field in  of water, one mile (1.6 km) offshore of

text: Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana

text: . In early 1947 Superior Oil erected a drilling/production

text: oil platform

text: in  of water some 18 miles off

text: Vermilion Parish, Louisiana

text: .  It was

text: Kerr-McGee

text: Oil Industries (now

text: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation

text: ), as operator for partners

text: Phillips Petroleum

text: ConocoPhillips

text: ) and

text: Stanolind Oil & Gas

text: BP

text: ), that completed its historic Ship Shoal Block 32 well in November 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their Vermilion platform farther offshore. In any case, that made Kerr-McGee's Gulf of Mexico well, Kermac No. 16, the first oil discovery drilled out of sight of land. Forty-four Gulf of Mexico exploratory wells discovered 11 oil and natural gas fields by the end of 1949.During World War II (1939-1945) - control of oil supply from Baku and Middle East played a huge role in the events of the war and the ultimate victory of the allies. Cutting off the oil supply considerably weakened Japan in the latter part of the war.After

text: World War II

text: ended, the countries of the

text: Middle East

text: took the lead in oil production from the United States. Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the introduction of the

text: Drillship

text: , and the growth of a global shipping network for petroleum relying upon oil tankers and pipelines. In 1949, first offshore oil drilling at Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari) in the Caspian Sea off Azerbaijan eventually resulted in a city built on pylons. In the 1960s and 1970s, multi-governmental organizations of oil–producing nations

text: OPEC

text: and

entity_name: Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries

text: OAPEC

text: played a major role in setting petroleum prices and policy.

text: Oil spill

text: s and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental, and economic importance.

text: The spill affected most of the environmental resources present in the shore and offshore areas near San Juan. 1,100 square miles of surface waters along the north coast of Puerto Rico were projected to have felt effects from the oil. It was also projected that 103 miles of ocean shore line and 66 miles of bay shoreline were covered in oil. Seagrasses and sediments were also contaminated in the spill area. It is projected that 40,000 square meters of seagrasses in lagoons near the spill area were impacted by sunken oil. This caused most of the grasses to die. All of the affected areas were covered in varying amounts oil which resulted in large amounts of pollution, loss of tourism, loss of habitat, and the loss of life for living organisms.

text: The spill affected most of the environmental resources present in the shore and offshore areas near San Juan. 1,100 square miles of surface waters along the north coast of Puerto Rico were projected to have felt effects from the oil. It was also projected that 103 miles of ocean shore line and 66 miles of bay shoreline were covered in oil.

text: Seagrasses

text: and sediments were also contaminated in the spill area. It is projected that 40,000 square meters of seagrasses in lagoons near the spill area were impacted by sunken oil. This caused most of the grasses to die. All of the affected areas were covered in varying amounts oil which resulted in large amounts of pollution, loss of tourism, loss of habitat, and the loss of life for living organisms.

text: In the Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010, a large explosion occurred killing workers and spilling oil into the Gulf of Mexico while a BP oil rig was drilling in deep waters.

text: In the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: of 2010, a large explosion occurred killing workers and

text: spilling oil

text: into the Gulf of Mexico while a BP oil rig was drilling in

text: deep waters

text: Containment of the oil spill began with the placement of a floating boom at the harbor entrance.  A straw barrier was placed around the wreck to briefly contain the spill while boats spread dispersants.The owners of the ship and the Shell company met together to decide how the oil spill was going to be clean or treated. The cleanup was the responsibility of the Portuguese Navy, Commandant Casquinno was appointed to clean up the oil spill and came up with a plan.The plan was separated into two actions, the first part of the plan was to clean up as much oil as possible that was in the water and the second part of the plan was to clean the oil that washed ashore.

text: Containment

text: of the oil spill began with the placement of a floating boom at the harbor entrance.  A straw barrier was placed around the wreck to briefly contain the spill while boats spread

text: dispersants

text: .The owners of the ship and the Shell company met together to decide how the oil spill was going to be clean or treated. The cleanup was the responsibility of the Portuguese Navy, Commandant Casquinno was appointed to clean up the oil spill and came up with a plan.The plan was separated into two actions, the first part of the plan was to clean up as much oil as possible that was in the water and the second part of the plan was to clean the oil that washed ashore.

text: A perimeter was established around the affected area, and none of the oil had harmed local wildlife. The collision occurred in a still part of the channel, which helped to limit the flow of oil both upstream or downstream. AET activated their OPA 90 response plan and called upon Resolve Marine to lighter and refloat the damaged vessel while contractors worked to contain the oil spilled. While the section of the waterway the collision occurred in is largely industrial, there are marshes along shorelines in other parts that are susceptible to damage from oil spills. The collision closed the Port Arthur waterway, and Coast Guard personnel couldn't immediately comment on how long it would take to clean the spill or reopen the channel. The only statement made regarding the time it would take to reopen the waterway was that "We're working as quickly as possible to clean up the spill," according to a Coast Guard officer. By the day after the incident, about  of spilled oil had been recovered, and most of the unrecovered oil was contained. However, according to both the Coast Guard and local officials, the possibility of currents in the channel picking up remained, and with it the potential for oil to flow downstream into marshes. Four oil refineries operate in the Port Arthur area, with a total capacity of about  of oil a day. In statements, neither Exxon or Valero, which operate two of the refineries, said they expected operations to be disrupted by the collision. Neither Motiva or Total, which operate the other two refineries, initially publicly responded to the spill. In its response to the incident, the tanker's operator, AET Inc. said it was cooperating with investigators, and was prepared to bear the costs of cleanup, but noted that responsibility for the incident had not been determined. The company also refused to name the pilots in charge of the ship at the time of the collision. On January 27, the tanker was removed from the waterway, and soon after, limited traffic through the channel was allowed to resume. In a statement on January 29, the Coast Guard said they hoped to allow full operations in the waterway to resume within a week

text: A perimeter was established around the affected area, and none of the oil had harmed local wildlife. The collision occurred in a still part of the channel, which helped to limit the flow of oil both upstream or downstream. AET activated their

text: OPA 90

text: response plan and called upon

text: Resolve Marine

text: to lighter and refloat the damaged vessel while contractors worked to contain the oil spilled. While the section of the waterway the collision occurred in is largely industrial, there are marshes along shorelines in other parts that are susceptible to damage from oil spills. The collision closed the Port Arthur waterway, and Coast Guard personnel couldn't immediately comment on how long it would take to clean the spill or reopen the channel. The only statement made regarding the time it would take to reopen the waterway was that "We're working as quickly as possible to clean up the spill," according to a Coast Guard officer. By the day after the incident, about  of spilled oil had been recovered, and most of the unrecovered oil was contained. However, according to both the Coast Guard and local officials, the possibility of currents in the channel picking up remained, and with it the potential for oil to flow downstream into marshes. Four

text: oil refineries

text: operate in the Port Arthur area, with a total capacity of about  of oil a day. In statements, neither Exxon or

text: Valero

text: , which operate two of the refineries, said they expected operations to be disrupted by the collision. Neither

text: Motiva

text: or

text: Total

text: , which operate the other two refineries, initially publicly responded to the spill. In its response to the incident, the tanker's operator, AET Inc. said it was cooperating with investigators, and was prepared to bear the costs of cleanup, but noted that responsibility for the incident had not been determined. The company also refused to name the pilots in charge of the ship at the time of the collision. On January 27, the tanker was removed from the waterway, and soon after, limited traffic through the channel was allowed to resume. In a statement on January 29, the Coast Guard said they hoped to allow full operations in the waterway to resume within a week

text: Development Driller II was deployed in drilling a relief well on the Macondo Prospect to stop the massive oil spill caused by the explosion and subsequent loss of Deepwater Horizon.

text: Development Driller II was deployed in drilling a relief well on the

text: Macondo Prospect

text: to stop the

text: massive oil spill

text: caused by the

text: explosion and subsequent loss

text: of

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: Hayward stated that his job might be at risk as a result of the spill, saying "we made a few little mistakes early on." He received criticism for various statements he had made during the spill, including telling a camera man to "get out of there" during a photo-op on the shores of Louisiana. On 30 May, he told a reporter "we're sorry for the massive disruption it's caused to their lives. There's no one who wants this thing over more than I do, I'd like my life back." He was widely condemned for his comment which was perceived as selfish, and United States Representative Charlie Melancon (D-La.) called on Hayward to resign in the wake of this comment.</ref> He later apologised for the comment on BP America's Facebook Page.On 31 May, Hayward disputed claims of huge underwater plumes of oil suspended in the Gulf, as had been reported by scientists from three universities. Hayward said there was "no evidence" that plumes of oil were suspended under the sea, and that because it is lighter than water any plumes seen are just in the process of rising to the surface. A chemist from Louisiana State University agreed with this assessment. Still other scientists have suggested that the manner of expulsion of the oil from the well and the use of dispersants may have led to an emulsion situation in which the oil is suspended in water for some time.

text: Hayward stated that his job might be at risk as a result of the spill, saying "we made a few little mistakes early on." He received criticism for various statements he had made during the spill, including telling a camera man to "get out of there" during a photo-op on the shores of Louisiana. On 30 May, he told a reporter "we're sorry for the massive disruption it's caused to their lives. There's no one who wants this thing over more than I do, I'd like my life back." He was widely condemned for his comment which was perceived as selfish, and United States Representative

text: Charlie Melancon

text: (D-La.) called on Hayward to resign in the wake of this comment.</ref> He later apologised for the comment on BP America's Facebook Page.On 31 May, Hayward disputed claims of huge underwater plumes of oil suspended in the Gulf, as had been reported by scientists from three universities. Hayward said there was "no evidence" that plumes of oil were suspended under the sea, and that because it is lighter than water any plumes seen are just in the process of rising to the surface. A chemist from

text: Louisiana State University

text: agreed with this assessment. Still other scientists have suggested that the manner of expulsion of the oil from the well and the use of dispersants may have led to an emulsion situation in which the oil is suspended in water for some time.

text: On September 8, 2010, an internal report released by BP into the Deepwater Horizon explosion claimed that poor practices of Halliburton staff had contributed to the disaster. Investigations carried out by the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling found that Halliburton was jointly at fault along with BP and Transocean for the spill. The concrete that Halliburton used was an unstable mixture, and eventually caused hydrocarbons to leak into the well, causing the explosion that started the crisis.

text: On September 8, 2010, an internal report released by

text: BP

text: into the

text: Deepwater Horizon explosion

text: claimed that poor practices of Halliburton staff had contributed to the disaster. Investigations carried out by the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling found that Halliburton was jointly at fault along with BP and Transocean for the spill. The concrete that Halliburton used was an unstable mixture, and eventually caused hydrocarbons to leak into the well, causing the explosion that started the crisis.

text: Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged vulnerable ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France, the Sundarbans, Ogoniland, and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz), but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.

text: Crude oil and refined fuel spills from

text: tanker ship

text: accidents have damaged vulnerable

text: ecosystem

text: s in

text: Alaska

text: , the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: France

text: , the

text: Sundarbans

text: , Ogoniland, and many

text: other places

text: . The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g.,

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

text: Atlantic Empress

text: Amoco Cadiz

text: ), but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.

text: Tri-State oil-spill response staff train volunteers, engage in rehabilitation efforts, and work in concert with other organizations and agencies in order to develop responses to oil-spills. Tri-State staff and affiliates also conduct research regarding methods by which affected wildlife may be rehabilitated.

text: At  CDT on 20 April 2010, during the final phases of drilling the exploratory well at Macondo, a geyser of seawater erupted from the marine riser onto the rig, shooting  into the air.  This was soon followed by the eruption of a slushy combination of drilling mud, methane gas, and water. The gas component of the slushy material quickly transitioned into a fully gaseous state and then ignited into a series of explosions and then a firestorm. An attempt was made to activate the blowout preventer, but it failed. The final defense to prevent an oil spill, a device known as a blind shear ram, was activated but failed to plug the well.

text: At

text: CDT

text: on 20 April 2010, during the final phases of drilling the exploratory well at Macondo, a geyser of seawater erupted from the

text: marine riser

text: onto the rig, shooting  into the air.  This was soon followed by the eruption of a slushy combination of

text: drilling mud

text: methane gas

text: , and water. The gas component of the slushy material quickly transitioned into a fully gaseous state and then ignited into a series of explosions and then a firestorm. An attempt was made to activate the

text: blowout preventer

text: , but it failed. The final defense to prevent an oil spill, a device known as a

text: blind shear ram

text: , was activated but failed to plug the well.

text: Most oil pollution in the sea comes from cities and industry. Oil is dangerous for marine animals. It can clog the feathers of sea birds, reducing their insulating effect and the birds' buoyancy, or be ingested when they preen themselves in an attempt to remove the contaminant. Marine mammals are less seriously affected but may be chilled through the removal of their insulation, blinded, dehydrated, or poisoned. Benthic invertebrates are swamped when the oil sinks, fish are poisoned, and the food chain is disrupted. In the short term, oil spills result in wildlife populations being decreased and unbalanced, leisure activities being affected, and the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea being devastated. The marine environment has self-cleansing properties and naturally occurring bacteria will act over time to remove oil from the sea. In the Gulf of Mexico, where oil-eating bacteria are already present, they take only a few days to consume spilt oil.

text: Most oil pollution in the sea comes from cities and industry. Oil is dangerous for marine animals. It can clog the feathers of sea birds, reducing their insulating effect and the birds' buoyancy, or be ingested when they preen themselves in an attempt to remove the contaminant.

text: Marine mammals

text: are less seriously affected but may be chilled through the removal of their insulation, blinded, dehydrated, or poisoned.

text: Benthic

text: invertebrates are swamped when the oil sinks, fish are poisoned, and the food chain is disrupted. In the short term, oil spills result in wildlife populations being decreased and unbalanced, leisure activities being affected, and the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea being devastated. The marine environment has self-cleansing properties and naturally occurring bacteria will act over time to remove oil from the sea. In the Gulf of Mexico, where oil-eating bacteria are already present, they take only a few days to consume spilt oil.

text: After all this preparation, the well has a few years of production where natural gas is brought to the surface, treated, and carried off. This may be punctuated by workovers during which the well is cleaned and maintained to increase production. When the well has been exhausted, it is plugged. The area around it is restored to the level required by state standards and the agreement with the owner.

text: Code cleanup can also refer to the removal of all comments from source code, or the act of removing temporary files after a program has finished executing.

text: Code cleanup can also refer to the removal of all

text: comments

text: from

text: source code

text: , or the act of removing

text: temporary file

text: s after a program has finished executing.

text: The United States, although having many sites with contaminated soils, has been a leader in defining and implementing standards for cleanup. Each year thousands of sites complete soil contamination cleanup, some by using microbes that “eat up” toxic chemicals in soil, many others by simple excavation and others by soil vapor extraction, air stripping, or solvent extraction, with the choice of method influenced by the nature of the contaminants involved as well as by costs and extent of the contamination.  In 1980 the U.S.Superfund/CERCLA established strict rules on legal liability for soil contamination. Not only did CERCLA stimulate identification and cleanup of thousands of sites, but it stimulated property buyers and sellers to consider soil contamination and its implications when property transfers occur.

text: The United States, although having many sites with contaminated soils, has been a leader in defining and implementing standards for cleanup. Each year thousands of sites complete soil contamination cleanup, some by using microbes that “eat up” toxic chemicals in soil, many others by simple excavation and others by soil vapor extraction, air stripping, or solvent extraction, with the choice of method influenced by the nature of the contaminants involved as well as by costs and extent of the contamination.  In 1980 the U.S.Superfund/

text: CERCLA

text: established strict rules on legal liability for soil contamination. Not only did CERCLA stimulate identification and cleanup of thousands of sites, but it stimulated property buyers and sellers to consider soil contamination and its implications when property transfers occur.

text: In 2010 Greenpeace activists painted "No Arctic Drilling" with spilled BP oil on the side of a ship in the Gulf of Mexico that was en route to explore for Arctic oil for Shell. At the protest, Phil Radford of Greenpeace called for "President Obama [to] ban all offshore oil drilling and call for an end to the use of oil in our cars by 2030."

text: In 2010 Greenpeace activists painted "No Arctic Drilling" with spilled BP oil on the side of a ship in the Gulf of Mexico that was en route to explore for Arctic oil for Shell. At the protest,

text: Phil Radford

text: of Greenpeace called for "President Obama [to] ban all offshore oil drilling and call for an end to the use of oil in our cars by 2030."

text: When an oil spill affects penguins they have in the past been sometimes dressed in knitted sweaters, supposedly to stop them from poisoning themselves by ingesting the oil during preening, and to keep them warm, since the spilled oil destroys their natural oils. The sweaters are removed and discarded as soon as the penguins can be washed.

text: When an

text: oil spill

text: affects penguins they have in the past been sometimes dressed in knitted sweaters, supposedly to stop them from poisoning themselves by ingesting the oil during

text: preening

text: , and to keep them warm, since the spilled oil destroys their natural oils. The sweaters are removed and discarded as soon as the penguins can be washed.

text: The city was the site of an oil spill in 2010, when an oil tanker and barge collided, causing 450,000 gallons of oil to spill into the Sabine/Neches waterway alongside the city.

text: The city was the site of an

text: oil spill

text: in 2010, when an

text: oil tanker

text: and

text: barge

text: collided, causing 450,000 gallons of oil to spill into the Sabine/Neches waterway alongside the city.

text: The March 24, 1989, Exxon Valdez oil spill resulted in the discharge of approximately  of oil into Prince William Sound, oiling  of the remote Alaskan coastline. The Valdez spill is 36th worst oil spill in history in terms of sheer volume.

text: The March 24, 1989,

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: resulted in the discharge of approximately  of oil into

text: Prince William Sound

text: , oiling  of the remote Alaskan coastline. The Valdez spill is 36th worst

text: oil spill

text: in history in terms of sheer volume.

text: The Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills (ADIOS2) software is an oil weathering model provided by NOAA that incorporates a database containing more than a thousand crude oils and refined products, and provides quick estimates of the expected characteristics and behavior of oil spilled into the marine environment. The predictions it makes, presented as both graphics and text, are designed to help answer questions that typically arise during spill response and cleanup.

text: The Automated Data Inquiry for Oil Spills (ADIOS2) software is an oil weathering model provided by

text: NOAA

text: that incorporates a database containing more than a thousand

text: crude oils

text: and refined products, and provides quick estimates of the expected characteristics and behavior of

text: oil spilled

text: into the marine environment. The predictions it makes, presented as both graphics and text, are designed to help answer questions that typically arise during

text: spill response

text: and cleanup.

text: Explosive material may be incorporated in the explosive train of a device or system. An example is a pyrotechnic lead igniting a booster, which causes the main charge to detonate.

text: Explosive material may be incorporated in the

text: explosive train

text: of a device or system. An example is a pyrotechnic lead igniting a booster, which causes the main charge to detonate.

text: There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an air burst, produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground.

text: There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an

text: air burst

text: , produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground.

text: According to the GuLF Study, the duration of the spill, the area affected, the proximity to local communities, and the number of people involved in the clean-up, were all greater than in any other spill that has been studied. Around 180 miles of shoreline were "heavily to moderately oiled," according to a US government report. Additional safety concerns were raised by the use of roughly nine million litres of oil dispersants, Corexit 9527 and 9500, during the clean-up operation. It was the largest known application of such dispersants to date,<ref>Melissa Gaskill, "How Much Damage Did the ''Deepwater Horizon'' Spill Do to the Gulf of Mexico?", Nature, 19 April 2011: "BP added around 9 million litres of chemical dispersants to the oil, roughly a third of it at depth."

text: According to the GuLF Study, the duration of the spill, the area affected, the proximity to local communities, and the number of people involved in the clean-up, were all greater than in any other spill that has been studied. Around 180 miles of shoreline were "heavily to moderately oiled," according to a US government report. Additional safety concerns were raised by the use of roughly nine million litres of

text: oil dispersants

text: Corexit

text: 9527 and 9500, during the clean-up operation. It was the largest known application of such dispersants to date,<ref>Melissa Gaskill, "How Much Damage Did the ''Deepwater Horizon'' Spill Do to the Gulf of Mexico?", Nature, 19 April 2011: "BP added around 9 million litres of chemical dispersants to the oil, roughly a third of it at depth."

text: Cypress promptly responded to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacting the Gulf of Mexico, conducting oil recovery operations and support of the operational commander’s goals.

text: Cypress promptly responded to the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: oil spill impacting the Gulf of Mexico, conducting oil recovery operations and support of the operational commander’s goals.

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill that released more than 4.9 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico between April 20, and July 15, 2010, created a unique opportunity to address many of the long-term issues fundamental to the Gulf’s future sustainability. HRI scientists have and continue to provide leadership in assessing the long-term impacts of the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and are fostering the Gulf’s recovery by helping guide restoration to assure that conservation efforts are effective and long lasting. HRI has already influenced the allocation of billions of dollars toward Gulf restoration and will continue to do so.

text: The

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: that released more than 4.9 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico between April 20, and July 15, 2010, created a unique opportunity to address many of the long-term issues fundamental to the Gulf’s future sustainability. HRI scientists have and continue to provide leadership in assessing the long-term impacts of the largest accidental marine

text: oil spill

text: in the history of the

text: petroleum industry

text: and are fostering the Gulf’s recovery by helping guide restoration to assure that conservation efforts are effective and long lasting. HRI has already influenced the allocation of billions of dollars toward Gulf restoration and will continue to do so.

text: On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef, spilling eleven million gallons of crude oil into the waters of Prince William Sound. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was the second largest in United States history.(second to the BP Gulf oil spill)

text: On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker

text: Exxon Valdez

text: ran aground on Bligh Reef, spilling eleven million gallons of crude oil into the waters of Prince William Sound. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was the second largest in United States history.(second to the BP Gulf oil spill)

text: The explosion happened at about 18:00 during rush hour at Kastryčnickaja station, which provides the sole interchange between the two lines of the Minsk metro. Like nearly every station in Minsk, Kastryčnickaja has an island platform, and during the explosion, trains were located on both tracks. According to the initial investigation, the bomb was located under a bench next to the inbound (Institut Kultury-bound) tracks. The bomb exploded next to the second car of an inbound train. At the moment of the explosion, there were 300 people in the area and an outbound (Uruchye-bound) train passed through the station without stopping. According to witnesses, there was "a flash and a bang" as passengers exited a train which had arrived at the station. The bomb was reported to have been packed with nails and ball-bearings, with an explosive force equivalent to 5 kg of TNT. It was said to be under a bench on the platform and could have been detonated by remote control. Interior Minister Anatoly Kuleshov said the perpetrators sought to "kill as many people as possible."

text: The explosion happened at about 18:00 during

text: rush hour

text: at Kastryčnickaja station, which provides the sole interchange between the two lines of the Minsk metro. Like nearly every station in Minsk, Kastryčnickaja has an

text: island platform

text: , and during the explosion, trains were located on both tracks. According to the initial investigation, the bomb was located under a bench next to the inbound (

text: Institut Kultury

text: -bound) tracks. The bomb exploded next to the second car of an inbound train. At the moment of the explosion, there were 300 people in the area and an outbound (

text: Uruchye

text: -bound) train passed through the station without stopping. According to witnesses, there was "a flash and a bang" as passengers exited a train which had arrived at the station. The bomb was reported to have been packed with nails and

text: ball-bearing

text: s, with an explosive force equivalent to 5 kg of

text: TNT

text: . It was said to be under a bench on the platform and could have been detonated by remote control. Interior Minister

text: Anatoly Kuleshov

text: said the perpetrators sought to "kill as many people as possible."

text: In 2010, Transocean was implicated in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulting from the explosion of one of its oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico that was leased to BP.

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: that was leased to

text: BP

text: Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved.

text: Drastically different reactions about the spill and cleanup efforts are circling. US Representative Jim Matheson believes Chevron “is responding very aggressively to [the spill]… they know there is a heightened concern among people in this country about oil spills…they understand it’s in their best interest to do everything they can to fix this.”  Salt Lake City Mayor, Ralph Becker, attests that he “will do all [he] can to ensure our city’s natural assets are restored…the city is not going to rest until we see the cleanup through."  Local residents, however, are less hopeful. Those who live along the creek saw it turn black over the course of a day. One resident even stated “Whatever is in that creek will die…I have so little faith in the oil companies to take care of this."

text: Drastically different reactions about the spill and cleanup efforts are circling. US Representative

text: Jim Matheson

text: believes Chevron “is responding very aggressively to [the spill]… they know there is a heightened concern among people in this country about oil spills…they understand it’s in their best interest to do everything they can to fix this.”  Salt Lake City Mayor, Ralph Becker, attests that he “will do all [he] can to ensure our city’s natural assets are restored…the city is not going to rest until we see the cleanup through."  Local residents, however, are less hopeful. Those who live along the creek saw it turn black over the course of a day. One resident even stated “Whatever is in that creek will die…I have so little faith in the oil companies to take care of this."

text: Two oil rigs were adrift in the Gulf of Mexico, but crews had prepared to secure both rigs as soon as the water conditions settled.

text: Two oil rigs were adrift in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , but crews had prepared to secure both rigs as soon as the water conditions settled.

text: In 1990, the Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation identified oil leakage from an underground storage tank; the subsequent cleanup effort removed nearly 4,000 gallons of petroleum from the waterway and nearby soil, costing $440,000. The EPA uses the situation as a case study cleanup effort, for local-national cooperation in oil spill cleanup. As of 2007, the lower  of the brook, along which there is significant development, is contaminated by E. coli and other bacteria. In 2011, a sewer interceptor pipe was ruptured during the landfall of Hurricane Irene, and nearly spilled sewage from the town of Brattleboro into the creek.

text: In 1990, the

text: Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation

text: identified oil leakage from an

text: underground storage tank

text: ; the subsequent cleanup effort removed nearly 4,000 gallons of petroleum from the waterway and nearby soil, costing $440,000. The EPA uses the situation as a case study cleanup effort, for local-national cooperation in oil spill cleanup. As of 2007, the lower  of the brook, along which there is significant development, is contaminated by

text: E. coli

text: and other bacteria. In 2011, a sewer interceptor pipe was ruptured during the landfall of

text: Hurricane Irene

text: , and nearly spilled sewage from the town of Brattleboro into the creek.

text: On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil rig off the coast of Louisiana unexpectedly exploded, causing oil to freely flow into the Gulf of Mexico for the next 87 days. NOAA was one of the lead agencies responsible for responding to the oil spill. Lubchenco led NOAA’s response and coordination with 13 other agencies. NOAA provided data from satellites, planes, ships and buoys, and on-the-ground scientists to help track the oil and forecast where it would go; local weather forecasts to inform responders; scientific advice to the U.S. Coast Guard who is in charge of an oil spill in U.S. waters; kept seafood safe by closing fisheries in U.S. waters when oil was present or expected to be present; developed protocols with other agencies to reopen closed areas; protected endangered species such as turtles; and evaluated the impact of the spill on the natural resources of the Gulf and the public’s access to them. Lubchenco was frequently interviewed by the media as a federal science expert, and helped disseminate the working knowledge of the response to the public. NOAA scientists and their academic partners continue to analyze and monitor the effects of the spill on the Gulf of Mexico ecosystem

text: On April 20, 2010, the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: oil rig off the coast of Louisiana unexpectedly exploded, causing oil to freely flow into the Gulf of Mexico for the next 87 days. NOAA was one of the lead agencies responsible for responding to the oil spill. Lubchenco led NOAA’s response and coordination with 13 other agencies. NOAA provided data from satellites, planes, ships and buoys, and on-the-ground scientists to help track the oil and forecast where it would go; local weather forecasts to inform responders; scientific advice to the U.S. Coast Guard who is in charge of an oil spill in U.S. waters; kept seafood safe by closing fisheries in U.S. waters when oil was present or expected to be present; developed protocols with other agencies to reopen closed areas; protected endangered species such as turtles; and evaluated the impact of the spill on the natural resources of the Gulf and the public’s access to them. Lubchenco was frequently interviewed by the media as a federal science expert, and helped disseminate the working knowledge of the response to the public. NOAA scientists and their academic partners continue to analyze and monitor the effects of the spill on the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: ecosystem

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was the world's largest accidental marine oil spill. It began on 20 April 2010 after an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon, a drilling rig leased by BP to drill an exploratory well. Between then and 15 July, when the well was capped, over four million barrels of oil (around 170 million US gallons, or 643 million litres) spilled from a depth of 5,000 ft (1,500 m) into the Gulf of Mexico, 48 miles off the coast of Louisiana.<ref name=UnifiedCommand>"U.S. Scientific Teams Refine Estimates of Oil Flow from BP's Well Prior to Capping", Deepwater Horizon Unified Command, 2 August 2010: "Overall, the scientific teams estimate that approximately 4.9 million barrels of oil have been released from the well. Not all of this oil and gas flowed into the ocean; containment activities conducted by BP under U.S. direction captured approximately 800,000 barrels of oil prior to the capping of the well."

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was the world's largest accidental marine oil spill. It began on 20 April 2010 after an explosion on the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: , a drilling rig leased by BP to drill an exploratory well. Between then and 15 July, when the well was capped, over four million barrels of oil (around 170 million US gallons, or 643 million litres) spilled from a depth of 5,000 ft (1,500 m) into the Gulf of Mexico, 48 miles off the coast of Louisiana.<ref name=UnifiedCommand>"U.S. Scientific Teams Refine Estimates of Oil Flow from BP's Well Prior to Capping",

entity_name: Unified Command (Deepwater Horizon oil spill)

text: Deepwater Horizon Unified Command

text: , 2 August 2010: "Overall, the scientific teams estimate that approximately 4.9 million barrels of oil have been released from the well. Not all of this oil and gas flowed into the ocean; containment activities conducted by BP under U.S. direction captured approximately 800,000 barrels of oil prior to the capping of the well."

text: After Gabriel's message, the foolish virgins (recognised from the rubric fatue) enter and announce that they have spilled the oil for their lamps. The spilling of the oil was probably acted out for dramatic effect, though the bible knows nothing of it. The foolish then plead with the wise to share their oil, capping each strophe with the lamenting refrain Dolentas, chaitivas, trop i avem dormit: "We, wretched in our grief, have slept too long!" The wise virgins turn them away without pity, inviting them to buy oil from the merchants nearby. The foolish (who now seem wise) only blame themselves, but the merchants, who are presented sympathetically, tell them that they cannot help them and advise them to beseech their sisters in God's name. The merchants' eight lines, which are significant to the dramatic movement, are given in Occitan without any comparable Latin. The dramatist builds tension between the foolish, who are repentant, the wise, who are condescending, and the merchants, who are sympathetic to the foolish and trusting of the charity of the wise. The text's English translator, Peter Dronke, praises the dramatist's clever portrayal and insights into human nature.

text: After Gabriel's message, the foolish virgins (recognised from the rubric fatue) enter and announce that they have spilled the oil for their lamps. The spilling of the oil was probably acted out for dramatic effect, though the bible knows nothing of it. The foolish then plead with the wise to share their oil, capping each

text: strophe

text: with the lamenting refrain Dolentas, chaitivas, trop i avem dormit: "We, wretched in our grief, have slept too long!" The wise virgins turn them away without pity, inviting them to buy oil from the

text: merchant

text: s nearby. The foolish (who now seem wise) only blame themselves, but the merchants, who are presented sympathetically, tell them that they cannot help them and advise them to beseech their sisters in God's name. The merchants' eight lines, which are significant to the dramatic movement, are given in Occitan without any comparable Latin. The dramatist builds tension between the foolish, who are repentant, the wise, who are condescending, and the merchants, who are sympathetic to the foolish and trusting of the charity of the wise. The text's English translator,

text: Peter Dronke

text: , praises the dramatist's clever portrayal and insights into

text: human nature

text: Worst Case Discharge (WCD) is a calculation used by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement to determine the maximum flow rate for an offshore oil well in the event of an oil spill. WCD first came to prominence in the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill to determine potential liability if another oil spill were to occur.

text: Worst Case Discharge (WCD) is a calculation used by the

text: Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement

text: to determine the maximum

text: flow rate

text: for an

text: offshore oil well

text: in the event of an

text: oil spill

text: . WCD first came to prominence in the aftermath of the

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

text: to determine potential liability if another oil spill were to occur.

text: Overall, of the more than 3.8 million gallons of oil spilled by Bass Enterprises during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, nearly 3 million gallons of this oil were recovered. The vast majority of the rest of the oil evaporated into the atmosphere, leading to a relatively successful cleanup, especially compared to other, smaller spills in the region.

text: Although it was never intended as a complete measure of environmental impact, it has come under attack as an ineffective means of finding the true environmental impact. For example, a DEFRA report in 2005 undertaken by researchers at AEA Technology Environment, entitled The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development, included findings that "the direct environmental, social and economic costs of food transport are over £9 billion each year, and are dominated by congestion." The report also indicates that it is not only how far the food has travelled but the method of travel in all parts of the food chain that is important to consider. Many trips by personal cars to shopping centres would have a negative environmental impact compared to transporting a few truckloads to neighbourhood stores that can be easily reached by walking or cycling. More emissions are created by the drive to the supermarket to buy air freighted food than was created by the air freighting in the first place. Also, the positive environmental effects of organic farming may be compromised by increased transportation, unless it is produced by local farms.  The Carbon Trust notes that to understand the carbon emissions from food production, all the carbon-emitting processes that occur as a result of getting food from the field to our plates need to be considered, including production, origin, seasonality and home care.

text: Although it was never intended as a complete measure of environmental impact, it has come under attack as an ineffective means of finding the true environmental impact. For example, a

entity_name: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

text: DEFRA

text: report in 2005 undertaken by researchers at

text: AEA Technology

text: Environment, entitled The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development, included findings that "the direct environmental, social and economic costs of food transport are over £9 billion each year, and are dominated by congestion." The report also indicates that it is not only how far the food has travelled but the method of travel in all parts of the food chain that is important to consider. Many trips by personal cars to shopping centres would have a negative environmental impact compared to transporting a few truckloads to neighbourhood stores that can be easily reached by walking or cycling. More emissions are created by the drive to the supermarket to buy air freighted food than was created by the air freighting in the first place. Also, the positive environmental effects of

text: organic farming

text: may be compromised by increased

text: transport

text: ation, unless it is produced by local

text: farm

text: s.  The

text: Carbon Trust

text: notes that to understand the carbon emissions from food production, all the carbon-emitting processes that occur as a result of getting food from the field to our plates need to be considered, including production, origin, seasonality and home care.

text: After the Torrey Canyon grounding in 1967, covering the liabilities, costs and expenses of oil spills became an increasingly important aspect of P&I insurance.

text: After the

text: Torrey Canyon

text: grounding in 1967, covering the liabilities, costs and expenses of

text: oil spills

text: became an increasingly important aspect of P&I insurance.

text: These are used to cover the cylinder valve orifice when the cylinder is not in use to prevent dust, water or other materials from contaminating the orifice. They can also help prevent the O-ring of a yoke type valve from falling out. The plug may be vented so that the leakage of gas from the cylinder does not pressurise the plug, making it difficult to remove.

text: Discharges into the sea can occur either through accidental release (e.g. oil spill) or in the course of normal operations. In 2007, 59 tonnes of oil in total was accidentally released into the marine environment, which, in open sea, will have a negligible environmental impact.

text: Discharges into the sea can occur either through accidental release (e.g.

text: oil spill

text: ) or in the course of normal operations. In 2007, 59 tonnes of oil in total was accidentally released into the marine environment, which, in open sea, will have a negligible environmental impact.

text: The Santa Barbara oil spill occurred in January and February 1969 in the Santa Barbara Channel, near the city of Santa Barbara in Southern California.  It was the largest oil spill in United States waters at the time, and now ranks third after the 2010 Deepwater Horizon and 1989 Exxon Valdez spills.  It remains the largest oil spill to have occurred in the waters off California.

text: The Santa Barbara oil spill occurred in January and February 1969 in the

text: Santa Barbara Channel

text: , near the city of

text: Santa Barbara

text: in Southern California.  It was the largest oil spill in

text: United States waters

text: at the time, and now ranks third after the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: and 1989

text: Exxon Valdez

text: spills.  It remains the largest oil spill to have occurred in the waters off California.

text: Cousteau is working on a documentary highlighting the epic and disastrous 2010 Gulf Oil Spill in which 11 workers were killed during an explosion of deepwater rig  off the coast of Louisiana.

text: Cousteau is working on a

text: documentary

text: highlighting the epic and disastrous

text: 2010 Gulf Oil Spill

text: in which 11 workers were killed during an explosion of deepwater rig  off the coast of Louisiana.

text: As a result of the severe weather during the time of the spill, the oil spread quickly to the deeper levels of water, making clean up a more difficult and the skimming method less effective. Several organizations worked together to create a restoration plan following the spill. The primary organizations involved were the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. This was the first oil spill whose damages were to be assessed by the new federal regulations of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, a law designed to compensate the public for losses resulting from an oil spill. Projects included restocking wildlife populations and protecting and enhancing their habitats. The total project cost was $117 million. This incident and other disturbances have illustrated the need to improve both the ecological and social resilience of coastal environments. Many organizations were involved to find a solution to the disaster, and to find a way to clean up all the oil from the deep levels of the bay.

text: As a result of the severe weather during the time of the spill, the oil spread quickly to the deeper levels of water, making clean up a more difficult and the skimming method less effective. Several organizations worked together to create a restoration plan following the spill. The primary organizations involved were the

text: , the

text: United States Fish and Wildlife Service

text: , and the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. This was the first oil spill whose damages were to be assessed by the new federal regulations of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, a law designed to compensate the public for losses resulting from an oil spill. Projects included restocking wildlife populations and protecting and enhancing their habitats. The total project cost was $117 million. This incident and other disturbances have illustrated the need to improve both the ecological and social resilience of coastal environments. Many organizations were involved to find a solution to the disaster, and to find a way to clean up all the oil from the deep levels of the bay.

text: Two suicide bombers rammed an explosive-laden boat into the oil tanker, killing a Bulgarian crew member and spilling 90,000 barrels of oil into the Gulf of Aden.  This operation was very similar to the attack on the American destroyer USS Cole two years earlier.  Saudi born Abdulraheem al-Nashiri, prime suspect of the USS Cole bombing (currently in the US custody), paid $40,000 to fund the Limburg attack.  With that money, the former Al Qaida leader Abu Ali al-Harithi bought the explosives and transported them from his house in Shabwa to Mukalla in Hadramut. Later in 2002, Al-Harithi was killed by the CIA with a missile fired from a Predator drone.

text: Two

text: suicide bombers

text: rammed an explosive-laden boat into the oil tanker, killing a Bulgarian crew member and spilling 90,000 barrels of oil into the

text: Gulf of Aden

text: .  This operation was very similar to the attack on the American destroyer USS Cole two years earlier.  Saudi born

text: Abdulraheem al-Nashiri

text: , prime suspect of the USS Cole bombing (currently in the US custody), paid $40,000 to fund the Limburg attack.  With that money, the former Al Qaida leader

text: Abu Ali al-Harithi

text: Shabwa

text: to

text: Mukalla

text: in

text: Hadramut

text: . Later in 2002, Al-Harithi was killed by the CIA with a missile fired from a

text: Predator drone

text: The purpose of cleanup is to eliminate mold and remove contaminated materials. Killing mold with a biocide is insufficient, since chemicals and proteins causing reactions in humans remain in dead mold. The following methods are used:

text: The purpose of cleanup is to eliminate mold and remove contaminated materials. Killing mold with a

text: biocide

text: is insufficient, since chemicals and

text: protein

text: s causing reactions in humans remain in dead mold. The following methods are used:

text: The long-term impacts of the spill are unknown, as sedimentation is expected to dilute the pollutants as the spill cloud moves downstream. The acid mine drainage temporarily changed the color of the river to orange.

text: In the wake of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill(BP disaster in the Gulf of Mexico), Murkowski opposed a bill that would have raised the liability cap for oil spills from $75 million to $10 billion. She said that such a large cap would jeopardize various businesses, and that exposing companies to greater risk would make it impossible for smaller companies to compete.

text: In the wake of the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: (BP disaster in the Gulf of Mexico), Murkowski opposed a bill that would have raised the liability cap for oil spills from $75 million to $10 billion. She said that such a large cap would jeopardize various businesses, and that exposing companies to greater risk would make it impossible for smaller companies to compete.

text: The principle behind the fuse plug is that the majority of water that overflows a dam's spillway can be safely dammed except in high flood conditions.  The fuse plug may be a sand-filled container, a steel structure or a concrete block.  Under normal flow conditions the water will spill over the fuse plug and down the spillway.  In high flood conditions, where the water velocity may be so high that the dam itself may be put in danger, the fuse plug simply washes away, and the flood waters safely spill over the dam.

text: The principle behind the fuse plug is that the majority of water that overflows a dam's spillway can be safely dammed except in high flood conditions.  The fuse plug may be a sand-filled container, a

text: steel

text: structure or a

text: concrete

text: block.  Under normal flow conditions the water will spill over the fuse plug and down the spillway.  In high flood conditions, where the water velocity may be so high that the dam itself may be put in danger, the fuse plug simply washes away, and the flood waters safely spill over the dam.

text: The band went on to dedicate time to writing and recording their follow up album to On Being And The Affect. In the summer of 2010, during the recording, Recovery Child's lead singer Ryan McCambridge organized Spill: Songs For Oil Spill Relief, a music compilation to raise money for Oceana and the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill. The compilation featured a number of other Canadian artists such as Dragonette, The Junction, Dinosaur Bones, Lindi Ortega, Spirits, among others. Toro Magazine featured an article praising the compilation.

text: The band went on to dedicate time to writing and recording their follow up album to On Being And The Affect. In the summer of 2010, during the recording, Recovery Child's lead singer Ryan McCambridge organized Spill: Songs For Oil Spill Relief, a music compilation to raise money for

text: Oceana

text: and the

text: Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill

text: . The compilation featured a number of other Canadian artists such as

text: Dragonette

text: The Junction

text: , Dinosaur Bones,

text: Lindi Ortega

text: , Spirits, among others.

text: Toro Magazine

text: featured an article praising the compilation.

text: In any oil spill, the use of a single conventional boom is not effective in protecting environmental resources even with the correct draft and aspect ratio. For speeds of over 1 knot (of the water and hence the oil), the boom will fail to stop the oil because of drainage under the boom. The approaching oil needs to be decelerated before it meets the boom. Drainage failure may be avoided by using a series of well-designed booms.

text: The Guimaras oil spill, that occurred in the Panay Gulf on August 11, 2006, has severely affected the fishing industry. During this spill, considered Philippines' worst, the oil tanker M/T Solar 1 sank during a violent storm, spilling some  of oil which formed an oil slick that drifted through the strait. This spill followed another one in December 2005, when a passenger ship ran aground in the strait. It spilled  of fuel oil, polluting some  of coastline and  of virgin mangrove forests.

text: The

text: Guimaras oil spill

text: , that occurred in the Panay Gulf on August 11, 2006, has severely affected the fishing industry. During this spill, considered Philippines' worst, the oil tanker M/T Solar 1 sank during a violent storm, spilling some  of oil which formed an oil slick that drifted through the strait. This spill followed another one in December 2005, when a passenger ship ran aground in the strait. It spilled  of fuel oil, polluting some  of coastline and  of virgin mangrove forests.

text: The wellbore for a plug-and-perf job is generally composed of standard steel casing, cemented or uncemented, set in the drilled hole. Once the drilling rig has been removed, a wireline truck is used to perforate near the bottom of the well, and then fracturing fluid is pumped. Then the wireline truck sets a plug in the well to temporarily seal off that section so the next section of the wellbore can be treated.  Another stage is pumped, and the process is repeated along the horizontal length of the wellbore.

text: The wellbore for a plug-and-perf job is generally composed of standard steel casing, cemented or uncemented, set in the drilled hole. Once the drilling rig has been removed, a

text: wireline truck

text: is used to

text: perforate

text: near the bottom of the well, and then fracturing fluid is pumped. Then the wireline truck sets a plug in the well to temporarily seal off that section so the next section of the wellbore can be treated.  Another stage is pumped, and the process is repeated along the horizontal length of the wellbore.

text: Corexit 9580 was used during the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster in Alaska. Corexit 7764 and Corexit 9527 were both used during the 1992 Port Bonython oil spill in South Australia. 45,000 litres of Corexit 9500 and 9527 were used in the response to the Montara oil spill off Australia's north-west shelf in 2009 and 2,000 litres of Corexit 9527 were used after the Chinese bulk carrier Shen Neng was grounded on Australia's Great Barrier Reef in 2010. Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were used during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: Corexit 9580 was used during the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: disaster in Alaska. Corexit 7764 and Corexit 9527 were both used during the 1992

text: Port Bonython oil spill

text: in

text: South Australia

text: . 45,000 litres of Corexit 9500 and 9527 were used in the response to the

text: Montara oil spill

text: off Australia's north-west shelf in 2009 and 2,000 litres of Corexit 9527 were used after the Chinese bulk carrier

text: Shen Neng

text: was grounded on Australia's

text: Great Barrier Reef

text: in 2010. Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were used during the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: The forecast of energy demand is the fundamentals of the making of national energy strategies. In China, there are great uncertainties in economy and social development. This situation also brings a lot of troubles in forecasting China’s energy demand. With the rapid development of China’s society and economy, the energy demand of China is very difficult to be mapped. It becomes even more difficult to make certain of the long-term energy development. Energy demand forecast becomes more and more important since the oil crisis (1970s). Based on long-term impact factors of energy demand, this system delivered a dynamic animation to show the changes of China’s energy future. The long-term dynamic forecast model of China’s energy demand can provide a specific energy demand data for each year.

text: Then a torpedo struck Attack amidships and blew her into two pieces, both of which sank with five to seven minutes. The explosion ruptured Attacks bunkers, spilling tons of thick, black bunker fuel oil into the sea as she sank. Hundreds of men were in the water, and many of them became covered in oil or overcome by its fumes. Aragons surviving lifeboats now ferried hundreds of survivors to the two trawlers and other trawlers came out to assist.

text: bunker fuel

text: oil into the sea as she sank. Hundreds of men were in the water, and many of them became covered in oil or overcome by its fumes. Aragons surviving lifeboats now ferried hundreds of survivors to the two trawlers and other trawlers came out to assist.

text: Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the  wreck produced poor results; modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika oil spill.

text: Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the  wreck produced poor results; modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the

text: Prestige oil spill

text: or the

text: Erika

text: oil spill.

text: One of the most significant impacts of the spill was its effect on marine water fowl. A survey conducted between September 14 and 15, 1974 found 408cormorants, 66 penguins, 23 ducks, and 84 seagulls dead because of heavy oiling between Punta Piedra and Punta Anegada. By February 1975 it is estimated that 3000 to 4000 birds may have been killed.  Furthermore, additional ecological damage was heavily noted in the littoral zone, where rich populations of mussels as well as populations of limpets and starfish were found to be heavily oil coated. The value of these organisms as food for other species was highly evident by the number of shell middens prevalent behind many of the local habitations. Thus, the spill had a  negative impact to several food chains of that region. Moreover, two years after the spill, the geographic area still appeared devastated and there were no signs of any regrowth of vegetation.

text: One of the most significant impacts of the spill was its effect on marine water fowl. A survey conducted between September 14 and 15, 1974 found 408cormorants, 66 penguins, 23 ducks, and 84 seagulls dead because of heavy oiling between Punta Piedra and Punta Anegada. By February 1975 it is estimated that 3000 to 4000 birds may have been killed.  Furthermore, additional ecological damage was heavily noted in the littoral zone, where rich populations of mussels as well as populations of

text: limpet

text: s and

text: starfish

text: were found to be heavily oil coated. The value of these organisms as food for other species was highly evident by the number of shell middens prevalent behind many of the local habitations. Thus, the spill had a  negative impact to several food chains of that region. Moreover, two years after the spill, the geographic area still appeared devastated and there were no signs of any regrowth of vegetation.

text: In August 2010, scientists had determined as up to 79% of the spilled oil remained in the Gulf of Mexico, under the surface.  In March 2011, it was reported that thousands of pounds of oil and dispersant were collected each day from highly visible resort areas and that  were collected from a beach in Alabama after a winter storm.

text: The Mingbulak oil spill also known as the Fergana Valley oil spill was the worst terrestrial oil spill in the history of Asia. The oil spill was caused by a blowout on March 2, 1992 at the Mingbulak oil field in the Fergana Valley, Uzbekistan at well #5. The Crude oil released from the well burned for two months.  The blowout resulted in the release of  to  per day. In total,  were collected behind emergency dykes. The oil stopped flowing by itself. A total of 285,000 tons of oil were released, and it was the fifth largest oil spill in history. The spill is considered the largest inland spill in history.

text: The Mingbulak oil spill also known as the Fergana Valley oil spill was the worst terrestrial

text: oil spill

text: in the history of

text: Asia

text: . The oil spill was caused by a

text: blowout

text: on March 2, 1992 at the Mingbulak oil field in the

text: Fergana Valley

text: Uzbekistan

text: at

text: well

text: #5. The Crude oil released from the well burned for two months.  The blowout resulted in the release of  to  per day. In total,  were collected behind emergency

text: dykes

text: . The oil stopped flowing by itself. A total of 285,000 tons of oil were released, and it was the fifth largest oil spill in history. The spill is considered the largest inland spill in history.

text: Disk Cleanup (cleanmgr.exe) is a computer maintenance utility included in Microsoft Windows designed to free up disk space on a computer's hard drive. The utility first searches and analyzes the hard drive for files that are no longer of any use, and then removes the unnecessary files. There are a number of different file categories that Disk Cleanup targets when performing the initial disk analysis:

text: Disk Cleanup (cleanmgr.exe) is a computer maintenance utility included in

text: Microsoft Windows

text: designed to free up disk space on a computer's hard drive. The utility first searches and analyzes the hard drive for files that are no longer of any use, and then removes the unnecessary files. There are a number of different file categories that Disk Cleanup targets when performing the initial disk analysis:

text: The Kirki was a 210 foot long Greek-registered oil tanker which caught fire on 21 July 1991, 18 miles west of the fishing town of Cervantes, Western Australia. The fire resulted in an oil spill initially estimated at 2.9 million gallons. At the time it was the worst oil spill to have occurred in Australian waters. The vessel remained afloat and traveled north to the waters off Cape Preston where oil remaining in the vessel was to be recovered.

text: The Kirki was a 210 foot long

text: Greek

text: -registered

text: oil tanker

text: which caught fire on 21 July 1991, 18 miles west of the fishing town of

text: Cervantes

text: Western Australia

text: . The fire resulted in an

text: oil spill

text: initially estimated at 2.9 million gallons. At the time it was the worst oil spill to have occurred in Australian waters. The vessel remained afloat and traveled north to the waters off Cape Preston where oil remaining in the vessel was to be recovered.

text: Water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation; concern for oil spills from increasing Bosphorus ship traffic.

text: Water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas;

text: deforestation

text: ; concern for oil spills from increasing

text: Bosphorus

text: ship traffic.

text: The Council has been involved with environmental studies related to the finding of invasive species related to oil tanker traffic in the Sound and the impact of the oil spills on local ecosystems. The Council has also campaigned for controlling vapor emissions from the Valdez Marine Terminal and for limiting the use of chemical dispersants in oil spill cleanups.

text: The Council has been involved with environmental studies related to the finding of

text: invasive species

text: related to oil tanker traffic in the Sound and the impact of the oil spills on local ecosystems. The Council has also campaigned for controlling vapor emissions from the Valdez Marine Terminal and for limiting the use of chemical dispersants in oil spill cleanups.

text: In a 1989 live performance of the song, Michael Stipe proclaimed to the audience, "This song goes out to the Exxon Corporation". This performance happened shortly after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, in which the oil tanker Exxon Valdez struck the Bligh Reef and spilled 260,000 to 750,000 barrels of crude oil. This may further elaborate on the environmental message of the album Green.

text: In a 1989 live performance of the song,

text: Michael Stipe

text: proclaimed to the audience, "This song goes out to the

text: Exxon

text: Corporation". This performance happened shortly after the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , in which the oil tanker

text: Exxon Valdez

text: struck the

text: Bligh Reef

text: and

text: spilled

text: 260,000 to 750,000 barrels of

text: crude oil

text: . This may further elaborate on the environmental message of the album Green.

text: In 2006, Daniel Linderman, Monroe's former disciple, began to put into operation the plans to destroy New York City, with (most notably) the help of Angela Petrelli. The plans also involved both Nathan Petrelli and Peter Petrelli, whom Linderman justified by stating, "we all have our roles to play..." Nathan's role was to win the congressional election and eventually become President of the United States and Peter's role was to detonate and explode, destroying all of New York. Linderman's hope was that the explosion would unite the nation behind Nathan, at the cost of .07% of the world's population. These events began to unfold at the beginning of the series, thirty-years after the start of the Company, when Isaac Mendez began painting artwork of the "events to come." The explosion becomes a significant plot point as early as the pilot episode. Throughout season one of the series, it is revealed that the explosion is connected to several characters, many of whom were not clearly associated with the explosion in the beginning. This was the central plot of the entire first season.

text: In 2006,

text: Daniel Linderman

text: , Monroe's former disciple, began to put into operation the plans to destroy

text: New York City

text: , with (most notably) the help of Angela Petrelli. The plans also involved both

text: Nathan Petrelli

text: and

text: Peter Petrelli

text: , whom Linderman justified by stating, "we all have our roles to play..." Nathan's role was to win the congressional election and eventually become

text: President of the United States

text: and Peter's role was to detonate and explode, destroying all of New York. Linderman's hope was that the explosion would unite the nation behind Nathan, at the cost of .07% of the world's population. These events began to unfold at the beginning of the series, thirty-years after the start of the Company, when

text: Isaac Mendez

text: began painting artwork of the "events to come." The explosion becomes a significant plot point as early as the

text: pilot episode

text: . Throughout season one of the series, it is revealed that the explosion is connected to several characters, many of whom were not clearly associated with the explosion in the beginning. This was the central plot of the entire first season.

text: Most commonly associated with ship pollution are oil spills. While less frequent than the pollution that occurs from daily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the components in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the Exxon Valdez incident in Alaska. The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers and volunteers, over 400,000 seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed.

text: Most commonly associated with ship pollution are

text: oil spills

text: . While less frequent than the pollution that occurs from daily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life,

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs), the components in

text: crude oil

text: sediment

text: and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: incident in

text: Alaska

text: . The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers and volunteers, over 400,000

text: seabirds

text: , about 1,000

text: sea otters

text: Information is postulated to enter the long-term store from the short-term store more or less automatically.  As Atkinson and Shiffrin model it, transfer from the short-term store to the long-term store is occurring for as long as the information is being attended to in the short-term store.  In this way, varying amounts of attention result in varying amounts of time in short-term memory.  Ostensibly, the longer an item is held in short-term memory, the stronger its memory trace will be in long-term memory. Some extraneous variables; which are any other variable other than the IV which can cause a change in the DV and therefore effect the results in an unwanted way, these include: Participant differences (Personal ability of an individual, these differentiate each participant and their capacity levels). Demand characteristics (Which is the participants knowledge about experiment and what they bring to the experiment)Experimenter effect (which is the effects the researchers have on participants through their expectations and possibility of bias behavior for self-fulfillment results) Non-standardized instructions and procedures (The effect on participants if they receive different instructions, and if no consistency in procedure, also impacts from variations of conditions).Atkinson and Shiffrin cite evidence for this transfer mechanism in studies by Hebb (1961) and Melton (1963) which show that repeated rote repetition enhances long-term memory. One may also think to the original Ebbinghaus memory experiments showing that forgetting increases for items which are studied fewer times. Finally, the authors note that there are stronger encoding processes than simple rote rehearsal, namely relating the new information to information which has already made its way into the long-term store.

text: Ebbinghaus

text: memory experiments showing that forgetting increases for items which are studied fewer times. Finally, the authors note that there are stronger encoding processes than simple rote rehearsal, namely relating the new information to information which has already made its way into the long-term store.

text: Double hulls' ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including oil tankers by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention. A double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster, when that ship grounded on Bligh Reef outside the port of Valdez, Alaska, the US Government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.

text: Double hulls' ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including

text: oil tankers

text: by the

text: International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

text: or MARPOL Convention. A double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation. After the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: disaster, when that ship grounded on

text: Bligh Reef

text: outside the port of

text: Valdez

text: Alaska

text: , the US Government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.

text: Oil and gas: Reinventing regulationIn 2013, Longitude released a report in collaboration with GL Noble Denton assessing the impact of the US authorities' comprehensive oil and gas regulatory reforms - that followed in the wake of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill - on the sector. The study incorporated the views and experiences of more than 100 oil and gas industry executives.

text: Oil and gas: Reinventing regulationIn 2013, Longitude released a report in collaboration with

text: GL Noble Denton

text: assessing the impact of the US authorities' comprehensive oil and gas regulatory reforms - that followed in the wake of the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: - on the sector. The study incorporated the views and experiences of more than 100 oil and gas industry executives.

text: Installing spill containment measures prior to a spill can result in significant savings in the event of a spill. Cleanup costs are impacted by numerous factors such as location of the spill, type of oil spilled, surrounding sensitive areas, and local regulations. For example, the average cost of cleanup (per ton) after an oil spill is drastically different for a spill in the Gulf of Mexico than it would be in South American waters, where there is a difference of almost $70,000. Instead of paying for a costly cleanup, containment measures reduce the impact on the environment and the surrounding area, and may save some of the resource.

text: The insertion of a plug into a drainage outlet allows the container to be filled with water or other fluids. In contrast to screw on caps, plugs are pushed into the hole and are not put over the hole.

text: The Ashland oil spill was an oil spill that occurred on January 2, 1988 into the Monongahela River near the town of Jefferson Hills, Pennsylvania, approximately 20 miles upstream from the city of Pittsburgh.

text: The Ashland oil spill was an

text: oil spill

text: that occurred on January 2, 1988 into the

text: Monongahela River

text: near the town of

text: Jefferson Hills, Pennsylvania

text: , approximately 20 miles upstream from the city of

text: Pittsburgh

text: The main cause of oil toxicity in wildlife is accidental exposure resulting from oil spills. Oil spills occur most commonly near oil-shipping routes, pipelines, wells and refineries. Oil spills have a more drastic impact in the late winter and early spring months, because large populations of overwintering birds gather near shores. The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (also known as the BP Oil Spill) was estimated to have killed over 8,000 birds, sea turtles and marine mammals from April to September in 2010.

text: The main cause of oil toxicity in wildlife is accidental exposure resulting from

text: oil spill

text: s. Oil spills occur most commonly near oil-shipping routes, pipelines, wells and refineries. Oil spills have a more drastic impact in the late winter and early spring months, because large populations of overwintering birds gather near shores. The

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

text: (also known as the BP Oil Spill) was estimated to have killed over 8,000 birds, sea turtles and marine mammals from April to September in 2010.

text: Late on February 6, the day after the spill washed ashore, President Richard Nixon announced a complete cessation of drilling, as well as production, in federal waters of the Santa Barbara Channel, with the solitary exception of the relief well being drilled to intersect the blown-out borehole.  Still the spill continued to spew from fissures in the ocean floor, undiminished, and by noon on February 7 a $1.3 billion class action lawsuit had been filed against Union Oil and their partners on Platform A.  On the platform itself, workers labored continuously to try to kill the well.  They made their final attempt that afternoon and evening, pumping  of the heaviest available drilling mud into the well at pressures of thousands of pounds per square inch.  They had almost exhausted their supply of mud when the oil and gas boiling up from the ocean began to slow down, and by 8:00 p.m. it had stopped.  Delivering the coup de grâce, the crews rammed over 1,000 sacks of concrete into the well.  Well A-21 would leak no more.  Approximately  of oil had already spilled into the ocean at this point; but there was more to come.

text: Late on February 6, the day after the spill washed ashore, President

text: Richard Nixon

text: announced a complete cessation of drilling, as well as production, in federal waters of the Santa Barbara Channel, with the solitary exception of the

text: relief well

text: being drilled to intersect the blown-out borehole.  Still the spill continued to spew from fissures in the ocean floor, undiminished, and by noon on February 7 a $1.3 billion

text: class action lawsuit

text: had been filed against Union Oil and their partners on Platform A.  On the platform itself, workers labored continuously to try to kill the well.  They made their final attempt that afternoon and evening, pumping  of the heaviest available

text: drilling mud

text: into the well at pressures of thousands of pounds per square inch.  They had almost exhausted their supply of mud when the oil and gas boiling up from the ocean began to slow down, and by 8:00 p.m. it had stopped.  Delivering the coup de grâce, the crews rammed over 1,000 sacks of concrete into the well.  Well A-21 would leak no more.  Approximately  of oil had already spilled into the ocean at this point; but there was more to come.

text: Halliburton may also be implicated in the oil spills in the Timor Sea off Australia in August 2009 and in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010 for improper cementing. Halliburton staff were employed on the Transocean operated Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Mexican Gulf. Halliburton staff completed cementation of the final production well 20 hours prior to the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion, but had not yet set the final cement plug.

text: Halliburton may also be implicated in the oil spills in the

text: Timor Sea

text: off Australia in August 2009 and in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010 for improper cementing. Halliburton staff were employed on the Transocean operated

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: oil rig in the Mexican Gulf. Halliburton staff completed cementation of the final production well 20 hours prior to the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion, but had not yet set the final

text: cement plug

text: The Australian Government in November 2010 released the first results of an independent scientific studies conducted under the long-term environmental monitoring program being funded by PTTEPAA under an agreement with the Australian Government announced in October 2009.The scientific studies issued by the Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (DSEWPaC) on 19 November 2010 found that no oil reached the Australian mainland or Indonesian coast and the maximum surface area of the ocean that had hydrocarbons on it on any one given day during the spill was 11,183 square kilometres.The Australian Government sought independent expert advice on the detail of the environmental monitoring program from organisations such as the Australian Institute of Marine Science, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and State and Territory agencies.Each scientific study conducted under the program is subject to a detailed review by a DSEWPaC technical advisory board.PTTEPAA will fund the comprehensive monitoring program for at least two years, with some studies expected to continue up to five years or longer if required to provide data to measure and address any longer-term impacts should they occur.A PTTEPAA spokesperson said "the commitment to run some of the studies beyond two years does not necessarily indicate long-term impacts but supports the recommendations of independent experts to ensure the best science is in place to monitor the marine environment".The spokesperson said the studies are creating a body of high quality scientific baseline data in key areas of the Timor Sea marine environment which will be an asset for the industry and the community in managing activities in the region.

text: CleanUp(Q): Delete all the elements in list L and tree T.

text: It remains unclear what specifically happens if the pipeline leaks, how residents would know of a leak, why the company asks for a permanent easement of farmland when oil rights can be obtained only for 25 years at a time, who the majority shareholders of Dakota Access are, where Energy Transfer's guarantee of liability for newly established Dakota Access, LLC is, and if it is required to have only a $250,000 bond in case of damages. Sunoco Logistics, the future operator of the pipeline, has spilled crude oil from its onshore pipelines more often since 2010 than any other US pipeline operator, with at least 203 leaks disclosed to the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, with a total of 3406 net barrels of crude oil spilled.

text: It remains unclear what specifically happens if the pipeline leaks, how residents would know of a leak, why the company asks for a permanent

text: easement

text: of farmland when

text: oil rights

text: can be obtained only for 25 years at a time, who the

text: majority shareholder

text: s of Dakota Access are, where Energy Transfer's guarantee of

text: liability

text: for newly established Dakota Access, LLC is, and if it is required to have only a $250,000

text: bond

text: in case of damages. Sunoco Logistics, the future operator of the pipeline, has spilled crude oil from its onshore pipelines more often since 2010 than any other US pipeline operator, with at least 203 leaks disclosed to the

text: , with a total of 3406 net barrels of crude oil spilled.

text: One trial explosion was also conducted during the early stages of the spill to burn the oil, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by another explosion. This attempt is believed to have led to many health problems for a neighboring native village that was downwind of the fumes caused by the explosion. The test was relatively successful, reducing 113,400 liters of oil to 1,134 liters of removable residue, but because of the health consequences, no additional burning was attempted.

text: Audubon was instrumental in bird rescue and Gulf Coast wetlands recovery efforts in the aftermath of the April 20, 2010 BP oil spill  in the Gulf of Mexico, the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry. Audubon recruited over 34,000 volunteers to assist in rescuing, cleaning and releasing injured brown pelicans and other water birds. In addition, Audubon was a leader in pushing for legislation to use BP oil spill penalties to rebuild the Gulf Coast.

text: Audubon was instrumental in bird rescue and Gulf Coast wetlands recovery efforts in the aftermath of the April 20, 2010

text: BP oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , the largest accidental marine

text: oil spill

text: in the history of the

text: petroleum industry

text: . Audubon recruited over 34,000 volunteers to assist in rescuing, cleaning and releasing injured

text: brown pelican

text: s and other water birds. In addition, Audubon was a leader in pushing for legislation to use

text: BP oil spill penalties

text: to rebuild the Gulf Coast.

text: Any animal can come into direct contact with an oil spill. However, marine species are more likely to be impacted by an oil spill.

text: The study is expected to cost $34 million over five years, and has been designed so that it can continue for up to 20 years. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) contributed $10 million to fund the initial phases, and BP contributed an additional $10 million to NIH for this and other projects. The BP funding was made through its Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GRI), a ten-year program to study the effects of the spill.

text: A study into the long-term effect of the oil spill on bird numbers found that certain species, in particular the American coot, had shown a significant decline. However, this could have been due to external factors, such as that year's occurrence of El Niño, so the overall impact of the spill was deemed impossible to determine.

text: A study into the long-term effect of the oil spill on bird numbers found that certain species, in particular the

text: American coot

text: , had shown a significant decline. However, this could have been due to external factors, such as that year's occurrence of

text: El Niño

text: , so the overall impact of the spill was deemed impossible to determine.

text: The first National Contingency Plan was developed and published in 1968 in response to a massive oil spill from the oil tanker Torrey Canyon off the coast of England that occurred a year earlier. More than 37 million gallons of crude oil spilled into the water and caused massive environmental damage. To avoid the problems faced by response officials involved in the incident, U.S. officials developed a coordinated approach to cope with potential spills in U.S. waters. The 1968 plan provided the first comprehensive system of accident reporting, spill containment, and cleanup. It also established a response headquarters, a national reaction team, and regional reaction teams (precursors to the current National Response Team and Regional Response Teams).

text: The first National Contingency Plan was developed and published in 1968 in response to a massive oil spill from the oil tanker

text: Torrey Canyon

text: off the coast of

text: England

text: that occurred a year earlier. More than 37 million gallons of

text: crude oil

text: spilled into the water and caused massive environmental damage. To avoid the problems faced by response officials involved in the incident, U.S. officials developed a coordinated approach to cope with potential spills in U.S. waters. The 1968 plan provided the first comprehensive system of accident reporting, spill containment, and cleanup. It also established a response headquarters, a national reaction team, and regional reaction teams (precursors to the current National Response Team and Regional Response Teams).

text: The flooding and drainage problem of the city requires for both short-term and long-term solutions. Identified short-term solutions include the proper maintenance and repair of existing infrastructure and the expansion of construction projects. Well-thought of, effective and efficient drainage design and work programs are yet to be created. The long-term solution will include the effective rehabilitation of the watershed areas, reforestation, ripropping of riverbanks and maintenance of river easements such that soil erosion and subsequent siltation of the rivers will be reduced if not eliminated. This entails long-term integrated (multi-sectoral) and environment-focused planning, sound policy-making, strong political will and support, effective law enforcement, and vigilant monitoring.

text: The VLCC Metula was a supertanker that was involved in an oil spill in Tierra del Fuego, Chile in 1974. The ship was a Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC), with a length of 1,067 feet, draft of 62 feet and a deadweight ton capacity of 206,000. It was the first VLCC supertanker to be involved in a major oil spill.

text: The VLCC Metula was a

text: supertanker

text: that was involved in an

text: oil spill

text: in

text: Tierra del Fuego

text: Chile

text: in 1974. The ship was a

text: Very Large Crude Carrier

text: (VLCC), with a length of 1,067 feet, draft of 62 feet and a deadweight ton capacity of 206,000. It was the first VLCC supertanker to be involved in a major oil spill.

text: Normally, many years are needed for an ecosystem to recover fully (if at all) from an oil spill, so scientists have been looking into ways to expedite the cleanup of areas affected by an oil spill.  Most efforts so far use direct human involvement/labor to physically remove the oil from the environment.  However, A. borkumensis presents a possible alternative.  Since A. borkumensis naturally breaks down oil molecules to a nonpolluting state, it would help ecosystems to quickly recover from an oil spill disaster.  The organisms also naturally grow in oil-contaminated seawater, thus are a native species.  If the process A. borkumensis uses to break down oil could be sped up or made more efficient, this would aid recovering ecosystems.  Some examples include encouraging the growth of A. borkumensis (through phosphorus and nitrogen fertilization) so more of them are breaking down oil, or encouraging the metabolism of A. borkumensis so they metabolize faster and more.

text: Oil pulling has received little study and there is limited evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates. In one small study, sesame oil was found to be effective at reducing plaque and oral bacterial load, but was less effective than chlorhexidine (an antiseptic mouthwash); the health claims of oil pulling have otherwise failed scientific verification or have not been investigated. Oil pulling is controversial amongst Western health practitioners. The National Center for Health Research states that "it's still unclear whether or how the practice actually works to get rid of bad bacteria in our mouths. It's also unknown what the long term effects on oral and overall health may be."

text: Oil pulling has received little study and there is limited evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates. In one small study, sesame oil was found to be effective at reducing plaque and oral bacterial load, but was less effective than

text: chlorhexidine

text: (an

text: antiseptic

text: mouthwash

text: ); the health claims of oil pulling have otherwise failed scientific verification or have not been investigated. Oil pulling is controversial amongst Western health practitioners. The

text: National Center for Health Research

text: states that "it's still unclear whether or how the practice actually works to get rid of bad bacteria in our mouths. It's also unknown what the long term effects on oral and overall health may be."

text: Ixtoc I was an exploratory oil well  being drilled by the semi-submersible drilling rig Sedco 135-F in the Bay of Campeche of the Gulf of Mexico, about  northwest of Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche in waters  deep. On 3 June 1979, the well suffered a blowout resulting in one of the largest oil spills in history.

text: Ixtoc I was an exploratory oil well  being drilled by the

text: semi-submersible

text: drilling rig

text: Sedco 135-F

text: in the

text: Bay of Campeche

text: of the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , about  northwest of

text: Ciudad del Carmen

text: Campeche

text: in waters  deep. On 3 June 1979, the well suffered a

text: blowout

text: resulting in one of the

text: largest oil spills

text: in history.

text: Concerns were raised about the appearance of underwater, horizontally extended plumes of dissolved oil. Researchers concluded that deep plumes of dissolved oil and gas would likely remain confined to the northern Gulf of Mexico and that the peak impact on dissolved oxygen would be delayed and long lasting.Two weeks after the wellhead was capped on 15 July 2010, the surface oil appeared to have dissipated, while an unknown amount of subsurface oil remained. Estimates of the residual ranged from a 2010 NOAA report that claimed about half of the oil remained below the surface to independent estimates of up to 75%. That means that over  remained in the Gulf. As of January 2011, tar balls, oil sheen trails, fouled wetlands marsh grass and coastal sands were still evident. Subsurface oil remained offshore and in fine silts. In April 2012, oil was still found along as much as  of Louisiana coastline and tar balls continued to wash up on the barrier islands. In 2013, some scientists at the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference said that as much as one-third of the oil may have mixed with deep ocean sediments, where it risks damage to ecosystems and commercial fisheries.

text: In response to the increasing oil transportation in the Gulf of Finland, the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) chartered Kontio for the summer months and fitted her with oil recovery equipment at a cost of 2.2 million euro. The contract, signed on 17 November 2009, was valid for three years starting from 24 July 2010 and had an option of another three years. In April 2013, the option was utilized and the contract was extended by three years. According to the contract, Kontio would remain in constant readiness in the icebreaker base at Katajanokka, Helsinki. During the winter months, she resumed her escort icebreaker duties in the Gulf of Bothnia but maintained a preparedness for oil spill response operation in ice-covered waters.

text: In response to the increasing oil transportation in the

text: Gulf of Finland

text: , the

text: European Maritime Safety Agency

text: (EMSA) chartered Kontio for the summer months and fitted her with oil recovery equipment at a cost of 2.2 million euro. The contract, signed on 17 November 2009, was valid for three years starting from 24 July 2010 and had an option of another three years. In April 2013, the option was utilized and the contract was extended by three years. According to the contract, Kontio would remain in constant readiness in the icebreaker base at Katajanokka, Helsinki. During the winter months, she resumed her escort icebreaker duties in the Gulf of Bothnia but maintained a preparedness for oil spill response operation in ice-covered waters.

text: However, many scientists dispute the report's methodology and figures. Scientists said much oil was still underwater and could not be detected. According to the NOAA report released on 4 August 2010, about half of the oil leaked into the Gulf remains on or below the Gulf's surface. Some scientists are calling the NOAA estimates "ludicrous." According to USF chemical oceanographer David Hollander, while 25% of the oil can be accounted for by burning, skimming, etc., 75% is still unaccounted for. The federal calculations are based on direct measurements for only  of the oil spilled – the oil burned and skimmed. According to Bill Lehr, an author of the NOAA report, the other numbers are "educated scientific guesses," because "it is impossible to measure oil that is dispersed". FSU oceanography professor Ian MacDonald called it "a shaky report" and is unsatisfied with the thoroughness of the presentation and "sweeping assumptions" involved. John Kessler of Texas A&M, who led a National Science Foundation on-site study of the spill, said the report that 75% of the oil is gone is "just not true" and that 50% to 75% of the material that came out of the well remains in the water in a "dissolved or dispersed form". On 16 August 2010, UGA scientists said their analysis of federal estimates show that 80% of the oil the government said was gone from the Gulf of Mexico is still there. The Georgia team said "it is a misinterpretation of data to claim that oil that is dissolved is actually gone".

text: However, many scientists dispute the report's methodology and figures. Scientists said much oil was still underwater and could not be detected. According to the NOAA report released on 4 August 2010, about half of the oil leaked into the Gulf remains on or below the Gulf's surface. Some scientists are calling the NOAA estimates "ludicrous." According to

text: USF

text: chemical oceanographer David Hollander, while 25% of the oil can be accounted for by burning, skimming, etc., 75% is still unaccounted for. The federal calculations are based on direct measurements for only  of the oil spilled – the oil burned and skimmed. According to Bill Lehr, an author of the NOAA report, the other numbers are "educated scientific guesses," because "it is impossible to measure oil that is dispersed". FSU oceanography professor Ian MacDonald called it "a shaky report" and is unsatisfied with the thoroughness of the presentation and "sweeping assumptions" involved. John Kessler of Texas A&M, who led a National Science Foundation on-site study of the spill, said the report that 75% of the oil is gone is "just not true" and that 50% to 75% of the material that came out of the well remains in the water in a "dissolved or dispersed form". On 16 August 2010,

text: UGA

text: scientists said their analysis of federal estimates show that 80% of the oil the government said was gone from the Gulf of Mexico is still there. The Georgia team said "it is a misinterpretation of data to claim that oil that is dissolved is actually gone".

text: In response to the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill at an offshore drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico threatening the coast of Louisiana, Vitter introduced legislation along with Jeff Sessions of Alabama to increase the liability cap of an oil company from $75 million to its most recent annual profits (or $150 million if greater). In the case of BP, the owner of the oil lease, its liability would be $20 billion. Vitter later introduced an amendment that would remove the cap entirely for this particular spill. Competing Democratic proposals would have raised the liability to $10 billion regardless of profits or removed the cap altogether. Sessions argued that large caps unrelated to company profits would harm smaller companies.

text: In response to the April 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: at an offshore

text: drilling rig

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: threatening the coast of Louisiana, Vitter introduced legislation along with

text: Jeff Sessions

text: of

text: Alabama

text: to increase the liability cap of an oil company from $75 million to its most recent annual profits (or $150 million if greater). In the case of

text: BP

text: , the owner of the oil lease, its liability would be $20 billion. Vitter later introduced an amendment that would remove the cap entirely for this particular spill. Competing Democratic proposals would have raised the liability to $10 billion regardless of profits or removed the cap altogether. Sessions argued that large caps unrelated to company profits would harm smaller companies.

text: The real estate prices and a number of transactions in the Gulf of Mexico area decreased significantly during the period of the oil spill. As a result, area officials wanted the state legislature to allow property tax to be paid based on current market value, which according to Florida State Rep. Dave Murzin could mean millions of dollars in losses for each county affected.

text: The real estate prices and a number of transactions in the Gulf of Mexico area decreased significantly during the period of the oil spill. As a result, area officials wanted the state legislature to allow

text: property tax

text: to be paid based on current market value, which according to Florida

text: State Rep.

text: Dave Murzin

text: could mean millions of dollars in losses for each county affected.

text: Mike Mitchell is an American artist known for his pop surrealism and for leading the online grassroots movement in supporting Conan O'Brien during the 2010 Tonight Show conflict. He designed the "I'm with Coco" poster, which was based on a photo, that went viral on the internet in January 2010. The poster has been widely circulated and displayed on the web and at various rallies during the 2010 Tonight Show conflict, and afterwards for O'Brien's The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour. He also designed a poster in response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill depicting a dead SpongeBob SquarePants floating on a polluted sea, with the caption: "Who died in an oil spill because of BP".

text: Mike Mitchell is an

text: American

text: artist

text: known for his

text: pop surrealism

text: and for leading the online grassroots movement in supporting

text: Conan O'Brien

text: during the

text: 2010 Tonight Show conflict

text: . He designed the "I'm with Coco" poster, which was based on a photo, that went viral on the internet in January 2010. The poster has been widely circulated and displayed on the web and at various rallies during the 2010 Tonight Show conflict, and afterwards for O'Brien's

entity_name: The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour

text: The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour

text: . He also designed a poster in response to the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: depicting a dead

text: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: floating on a polluted sea, with the caption: "Who died in an oil spill because of BP".

text: Although scenarios that predicted long-lasting environmental impacts on a global atmospheric level due to the burning oil sources did not transpire, long-lasting ground level oil spill impacts were detrimental to the environment regionally.

text: Although scenarios that predicted long-lasting environmental impacts on a global atmospheric level due to the burning oil sources did not transpire, long-lasting ground level

text: oil spill

text: impacts were detrimental to the environment regionally.

text: Oil spills can be lethal for penguins and other sea birds. Oil is toxic when ingested and penguins' buoyancy and the insulative quality of their plumage is damaged by contact with oil. Little penguin populations have been significantly affected during two major oil spills at sea: the Iron Baron oil spill off Tasmania's north coast in 1995 and the grounding of the Rena off New Zealand in 2011.

text: Oil spills can be lethal for penguins and other sea birds. Oil is toxic when ingested and penguins' buoyancy and the insulative quality of their plumage is damaged by contact with oil. Little penguin populations have been significantly affected during two major oil spills at sea: the

text: Iron Baron oil spill

text: off Tasmania's north coast in 1995 and the

text: grounding of the Rena

text: off New Zealand in 2011.

text: The accident caused an oil spill, releasing at least  of transformer oil which spread over  downstream of Yenisei. The oil, which spilled during the approximately 2-3 hour cutoff of river flow when all the gates of the dam were closed, killed  of cultivated trout in two riverside fisheries, with its impact on wildlife as yet unassessed. On 19 August 2009, the -long spill had reached , where it was cordoned off with floating barriers and chemical sorbents. The oil spill was fully removed by 25 August 2009.

text: The accident caused an

text: oil spill

text: , releasing at least  of

text: transformer oil

text: which spread over  downstream of Yenisei. The oil, which spilled during the approximately 2-3 hour cutoff of river flow when all the gates of the dam were closed, killed  of cultivated

text: trout

text: in two riverside fisheries, with its impact on wildlife as yet unassessed. On 19 August 2009, the -long spill had reached , where it was cordoned off with floating barriers and chemical

text: sorbent

text: s. The oil spill was fully removed by 25 August 2009.

text: The BP oil spill created large amounts of sea snot. Scientists are not sure how exactly the spill caused so much sea snot to form, but one theory asserts that the sea snot could have been the result of a massive kill of microscopic marine life creating a "blizzard" of marine snow. Scientists worry that the mass of sea snot could pose a biohazard to surviving marine life in the area. It is widely believed that the Sea Snot left by the spill directly resulted in the loss of sealife in the Gulf of Mexico based upon [[Environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill#Impacts to marine species#Corals|a dead field of deepwater coral]] 11 kilometers away from the Deepwater Horizion station.

text: The

text: BP oil spill

text: created large amounts of sea snot. Scientists are not sure how exactly the spill caused so much sea snot to form, but one theory asserts that the sea snot could have been the result of a massive kill of microscopic marine life creating a "blizzard" of marine snow. Scientists worry that the mass of sea snot could pose a biohazard to surviving marine life in the area. It is widely believed that the Sea Snot left by the spill directly resulted in the loss of sealife in the Gulf of Mexico based upon [[Environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill#Impacts to marine species#Corals|a dead field of deepwater coral]] 11 kilometers away from the Deepwater Horizion station.

text: On January 19, 1971, two Standard Oil tankers, the Arizona Standard and the Oregon Standard, collided near San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge, resulting in a spill that covered 50 miles of coastline with 2,700 cubic tons of crude oil.  About 7,000 birds were oiled by the spill. Volunteers collected nearly 4,300 of them, mainly western grebes and scoters, and brought them to makeshift rehabilitation centers. Only about 300 were released — in part given the lack of established oiled bird rehabilitation practices at the time.  "There were dying birds everywhere and no one knew what to do. It was as horrible as you can imagine," Jay Holcomb, International Bird Rescue's former executive director, told the San Francisco Chronicle in 2012.  "It was then that we realized there needs to be an organized attempt for their care."

text: On January 19, 1971, two

text: Standard Oil

text: tankers, the Arizona Standard and the Oregon Standard, collided near San Francisco's

text: Golden Gate Bridge

text: , resulting in a spill that covered 50 miles of coastline with 2,700 cubic tons of crude oil.  About 7,000 birds were oiled by the spill. Volunteers collected nearly 4,300 of them, mainly

text: western grebe

text: s and

text: scoter

text: s, and brought them to makeshift rehabilitation centers. Only about 300 were released — in part given the lack of established oiled bird rehabilitation practices at the time.  "There were dying birds everywhere and no one knew what to do. It was as horrible as you can imagine," Jay Holcomb, International Bird Rescue's former executive director, told the

text: San Francisco Chronicle

text: in 2012.  "It was then that we realized there needs to be an organized attempt for their care."

text: Hundreds of animals along the coast were coated with the thick crude oil and many died. State parks and beaches located along the coastline were temporarily closed. While much smaller than the oil rig blowout that resulted in the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, this spill may have greater long term effects due to its potential impact on four state marine protected areas. Due to the unique characteristics of the area, it is one of the most studied marine environments in the United States.

text: Hundreds of animals along the coast were coated with the thick crude oil and many died. State parks and beaches located along the coastline were temporarily closed. While much smaller than the oil rig blowout that resulted in the

text: 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill

text: , this spill may have greater long term effects due to its potential impact on four state

text: marine protected area

text: s. Due to the unique characteristics of the area, it is one of the most studied marine environments in the United States.

text: Oil spills are a common event in Nigeria. Half of all spills occur due to pipeline and tanker accidents (50%), other causes include sabotage (28%) and oil production operations (21%), with 1% of the spills being accounted for by inadequate or non-functional production equipment. Corrosion of pipelines and tankers is the rupturing or leaking of old production infrastructures that often do not receive inspection and maintenance.

text: Oil spill

text: s are a common event in Nigeria. Half of all spills occur due to

text: pipeline

text: and tanker accidents (50%), other causes include sabotage (28%) and oil production operations (21%), with 1% of the spills being accounted for by inadequate or non-functional production equipment. Corrosion of pipelines and tankers is the rupturing or leaking of old production infrastructures that often do not receive inspection and maintenance.

text: The equipment on board is used for containment, recovery, separation and dispersal of pollutants. High tech control systems enable simultaneous tasks to be performed by a single operator. The vessel is be fitted with latest pollution control equipment including two rigid sweeping arms enabling it to contain oil spill whilst in motion. An advanced software would assist in predicting the spread of the complex oil spill pattern. The vessel is designed to recover the lightest to the most viscous oil at the rate of 300 tons per hour. The contaminated water can be pumped on board and analysed in a laboratory. The oil can then be separated and held in storage tanks of 300 tonnes capacity or 1000 tonnes in inflatable barges which can be towed behind the vessel to free up deck space. The vessel is also equipped with fire fighting and salvage systems.

text: An estimated 620 tonnes of ammonium nitrate and 250 tonnes of fuel spilled out of the ship. The spilled fuel initially covered an area about 5.5 km (3.4 mi) long and 500 m (1,600 ft) wide. Although ammonium nitrate is not harmful to the environment, the high concentration was proposed to have the capability of suffocating marine life in the area. The oil spill continued to expand in coverage, affecting five beaches and forcing several other beach areas to shut down. By 13 March, the oil covered an estimated 40 km (25 mi) of coastline and was several centimetres thick in places. The coverage and depth of the spill led Anna Bligh to state that the crew members of the ship were likely understating the amount of fuel that leaked out.

text: The seriousness of the spill became evident the next morning, as a Coast Guard helicopter took Brown along with a State Fish and Game warden out over the platform, where they were able to see a central slick extending for several miles east, west, and south of the platform.  They estimated a total of  covered by oil at 8 a.m., less than 24 hours after the blowout.  An anonymous worker on the drill rig telephoned the Santa Barbara News-Press regarding the blowout, and the newspaper immediately obtained confirmation from Union Oil's headquarters in Los Angeles.  The story was out.  Union Oil Vice President, John Fraser, assured reporters and local officials that the spill was small, with a diameter of , and the well would be quickly controlled; additionally, he gave an estimated spill rate of  per day.  Later estimates put the spill rate in the first days at about .

text: The seriousness of the spill became evident the next morning, as a Coast Guard helicopter took Brown along with a State Fish and Game warden out over the platform, where they were able to see a central slick extending for several miles east, west, and south of the platform.  They estimated a total of  covered by oil at 8 a.m., less than 24 hours after the blowout.  An anonymous worker on the drill rig telephoned the

text: Santa Barbara News-Press

text: regarding the blowout, and the newspaper immediately obtained confirmation from Union Oil's headquarters in Los Angeles.  The story was out.  Union Oil Vice President, John Fraser, assured reporters and local officials that the spill was small, with a diameter of , and the well would be quickly controlled; additionally, he gave an estimated spill rate of  per day.  Later estimates put the spill rate in the first days at about .

text: Many officials and scientists said at first the tar balls appearance might be a coincidence unrelated to the spill. Coal Oil Point is very close and well known for the offshore seepage of oil at about  a day. Tar balls continued to show up on beaches farther down the coast in Los Angeles County including Malibu and the South Bay beaches on Santa Monica Bay.  When tested, a tar ball recovered in the South Bay at Manhattan Beach matched the chemical signature of the spilled oil. Cleanup crews responded even farther south to beaches in Orange County.

text: Many officials and scientists said at first the tar balls appearance might be a coincidence unrelated to the spill.

text: Coal Oil Point

text: is very close and well known for the offshore

text: seepage of oil

text: at about  a day. Tar balls continued to show up on beaches farther down the coast in

text: Los Angeles County

text: including

text: Malibu

text: and the

text: South Bay

text: beaches on

text: Santa Monica Bay

text: .  When tested, a tar ball recovered in the South Bay at

text: Manhattan Beach

text: matched the chemical signature of the spilled oil. Cleanup crews responded even farther south to beaches in

text: Orange County

text: All normal projectiles arrive at the weapon with a plug in the fuze well on the nose of the projectile. Using a special fuze wrench, the plug is unscrewed and a fuze is screwed in. The decision as to which type of fuze to use is made by the fire direction center and carried out by the gun crew.

text: All normal projectiles arrive at the weapon with a plug in the

text: fuze

text: well on the nose of the projectile. Using a special fuze wrench, the plug is unscrewed and a fuze is screwed in. The decision as to which type of fuze to use is made by the fire direction center and carried out by the gun crew.

text: After April 20, 2010, when an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon Macondo oil drilling platform triggered the largest oil spill in US history, another opportunity for oil toxicity research was presented. Approximately 171 million gallons of crude oil flowed from the seafloor into the Gulf of Mexico, exposing the majority of surrounding biota. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill also coincided directly with spawning window of various ecologically and commercially important fish species, including yellowfin and Atlantic bluefin tuna. The oil spill directly affected Atlantic bluefin tuna, as approximately 12% of larval tuna were located in oil contaminated waters, and Gulf of Mexico is the only known spawning grounds for the western population of bluefin tuna.

text: After April 20, 2010, when an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon Macondo oil drilling platform triggered the largest

text: oil spill

text: in US history, another opportunity for oil toxicity research was presented. Approximately 171 million gallons of crude oil flowed from the seafloor into the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , exposing the majority of surrounding

text: biota

text: . The

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: also coincided directly with spawning window of various ecologically and commercially important fish species, including yellowfin and Atlantic bluefin tuna. The oil spill directly affected Atlantic bluefin tuna, as approximately 12% of larval tuna were located in oil contaminated waters, and Gulf of Mexico is the only known spawning grounds for the western population of bluefin tuna.

text: On December 7, 2007, Greka spilled over  of oil at their Bell Lease in the Cat Canyon Field along Palmer Road southwest of Santa Maria.  Greka's attorney, however, claimed that some of the recent spills were the work of an eco-terrorist at large.  Pipes and wires were cut, valves were opened, and alarms disabled.  Some of the wires had been cut with a crimping device.  Attorney Robert O'Brien also emphasized that Greka is meticulous in its reporting of the exact amount spilled, unlike other operators in the county.  Yet another spill occurred on January 5, 2008, this one at the Zaca-Davis tank battery in the Zaca Oil Field, along Zaca Station Road.  Approximately  of oil and produced water overflowed the containment area – escaping the large secondary containment through an open  drainage pipe – and contaminated about one mile (1.6 km) of Zaca Creek.  Greka claimed that this spill was the result of sabotage as well.

text: On December 7, 2007, Greka spilled over  of oil at their Bell Lease in the

text: Cat Canyon Field

text: along Palmer Road southwest of Santa Maria.  Greka's attorney, however, claimed that some of the recent spills were the work of an eco-terrorist at large.  Pipes and wires were cut, valves were opened, and alarms disabled.  Some of the wires had been cut with a crimping device.  Attorney Robert O'Brien also emphasized that Greka is meticulous in its reporting of the exact amount spilled, unlike other operators in the county.  Yet another spill occurred on January 5, 2008, this one at the Zaca-Davis tank battery in the Zaca Oil Field, along Zaca Station Road.  Approximately  of oil and produced water overflowed the containment area – escaping the large secondary containment through an open  drainage pipe – and contaminated about one mile (1.6 km) of Zaca Creek.  Greka claimed that this spill was the result of sabotage as well.

text: After the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion, the Obama Administration ordered the EPA, the Department of Homeland Security and the Department of Interior to coordinate federal emergency response efforts. Jackson's agency oversaw environmental and public health concerns during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, including air and water monitoring and assessing aquatic life and other environmental destruction. Jackson authorized and defended BP's choice to use the dispersant Corexit to combat the 210 million gallons of oil spilled in the Gulf of Mexico. The use of Corexit was criticized because it's more toxic and less effective than other EPA approved dispersants, which later studies showed that Corexit had major effects on the aquatic life's food chain in the Gulf of Mexico. While testifying before the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee, Jackson called the use of dispersants an "environmental tradeoff", and that "We know dispersants are generally less toxic than the oils they break down." Jackson's agency is facing a lawsuit in response of the spill from health and environmental groups for not setting adequate guidelines on how and where dispersants can be used safely. Jackson was designated by President Obama to serve as Chair on the Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force, a federal effort to restore damages and preserve the ecosystem in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: After the

text: , the

text: Obama Administration

text: ordered the EPA, the

entity_name: United States Department of Homeland Security

text: Department of Homeland Security

text: and the

text: Department of Interior

text: to coordinate federal emergency response efforts. Jackson's agency oversaw environmental and public health concerns during the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: , including air and water monitoring and assessing aquatic life and other environmental destruction. Jackson authorized and defended

text: BP

text: 's choice to use the dispersant

text: Corexit

text: to combat the 210 million gallons of oil spilled in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . The use of Corexit was criticized because it's more toxic and less effective than other EPA approved dispersants, which later studies showed that Corexit had major effects on the aquatic life's food chain in the Gulf of Mexico. While testifying before the

entity_name: United States Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies

text: Senate Appropriations Subcommittee

text: , Jackson called the use of dispersants an "environmental tradeoff", and that "We know dispersants are generally less toxic than the oils they break down." Jackson's agency is facing a lawsuit in response of the spill from health and environmental groups for not setting adequate guidelines on how and where dispersants can be used safely. Jackson was designated by President Obama to serve as Chair on the

entity_name: Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force

text: Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force

text: , a federal effort to restore damages and preserve the ecosystem in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: On 15 April 2014, BP claimed that cleanup along the coast was substantially complete, but the United States Coast Guard responded that a lot of work remained. Using physical barriers such as floating booms, cleanup workers’ objective was to keep the oil from spreading any further. They used skimmer boats to remove a majority of the oil and they used sorbents to absorb any remnant of oil like a sponge. Although that method did not remove the oil completely, chemicals called dispersants are used to hasten the oil’s degradation to prevent the oil from doing further damage to the marine habitats below the surface water. For the Deep Horizon oil spill, cleanup workers used 1.4 million gallons of various chemical dispersants to further breakdown the oil.

text: On 15 April 2014, BP claimed that cleanup along the coast was substantially complete, but the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: responded that a lot of work remained. Using physical barriers such as floating booms, cleanup workers’ objective was to keep the oil from spreading any further. They used skimmer boats to remove a majority of the oil and they used

text: sorbent

text: s to absorb any remnant of oil like a sponge. Although that method did not remove the oil completely, chemicals called

text: dispersant

text: s are used to hasten the oil’s degradation to prevent the oil from doing further damage to the marine habitats below the surface water. For the Deep Horizon oil spill, cleanup workers used 1.4 million gallons of various chemical dispersants to further breakdown the oil.

text: Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

text: Carbon dioxide

text: , while vital for

text: photosynthesis

text: , is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical

text: increases in the acidity of ocean waters

text: , and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

text: One of the first of these mixtures was produced by Rawlplug and was composed of dry white asbestos fibres, sold loose in a tin. The user wetted some into a ball (usually by spitting on them) and pushed this plug of putty into the hole. A small tamper and spike was supplied with the kit. This putty worked very well, but the hazard of the asbestos fibres means that the product is no longer available. However, another way to fix wall plugs is accomplished by the application of a cotton weaved pad which has been impregnated with a special formulated gypsum to bond into the wall. The pad is wetted and wrapped around the wall plug, and the two are inserted into the hole; after a short time it hardens and a strong bond is achieved and the wall fitting can be applied. It is used in combination with wall plugs in masonry, ceramic, wood and plasterboard walls.

text: One of the first of these mixtures was produced by Rawlplug and was composed of dry

text: white asbestos

text: fibres, sold loose in a tin. The user wetted some into a ball (usually by spitting on them) and pushed this plug of putty into the hole. A small tamper and spike was supplied with the kit. This putty worked very well, but the

text: hazard of the asbestos fibres

text: means that the product is no longer available. However, another way to fix wall plugs is accomplished by the application of a cotton weaved pad which has been impregnated with a special formulated

text: gypsum

text: to bond into the wall. The pad is wetted and wrapped around the wall plug, and the two are inserted into the hole; after a short time it hardens and a strong bond is achieved and the wall fitting can be applied. It is used in combination with wall plugs in

text: masonry

text: ceramic

text: , wood and

text: plasterboard

text: walls.

text: The Environmental Protection Agency reports that the full extent of wildlife affected by the spill has yet to be realised. "The flow-on effects of oil spills can be substantive," according to a spokesperson for the agency. "The longer-term impacts are yet to be realised." Several birds have been found covered with oil. By 17 March, about 30 animals had been recovered after being covered with oil. All of the animals were immediately treated and cleaned. Oiled animals included pelicans, ghost crabs and sea snakes.

text: The

entity_name: Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland)

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: reports that the full extent of wildlife affected by the spill has yet to be realised. "The flow-on effects of oil spills can be substantive," according to a spokesperson for the agency. "The longer-term impacts are yet to be realised." Several birds have been found covered with oil. By 17 March, about 30 animals had been recovered after being covered with oil. All of the animals were immediately treated and cleaned. Oiled animals included pelicans, ghost crabs and sea snakes.

text: Bronwen Manby, then researcher in the Africa Division of Human Rights Watch, documented in July 1997 that "according to the official estimates of the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), based on the quantities reported by the operating companies, approximately 2,300 cubic meters of oil are spilled in 300 separate incidents annually. It can be safely assumed that, due to under-reporting, the real figure is substantially higher: conservative estimates place it at up to ten times higher. Statistics from the Department of Petroleum Resources indicate that between 1976 and 1996 a total of 4,835 incidents resulted in the spillage of at least 2,446,322 barrels (102.7 million U.S. gallons), of which an estimated 1,896,930 barrels (79.7 million U.S. gallons; 77 percent) were lost to the environment. Another calculation, based on oil industry sources, estimates that more than 1.07 million barrels (45 million U.S. gallons) of oil were spilled in Nigeria from 1960 to 1997. Nigeria's largest spill was an offshore well blowout (well drilling) in January 1980, when at least 200,000 barrels of oil (8.4 million U.S. gallons), according to oil industry sources, spewed into the Atlantic Ocean from a Texaco facility and destroyed 340 hectares of mangroves. DPR estimates were that more than 400,000 barrels (16.8 million U.S. gallons) were spilled in this incident."

text: Bronwen Manby, then researcher in the Africa Division of Human Rights Watch, documented in July 1997 that "according to the official estimates of the

text: Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation

text: (NNPC), based on the quantities reported by the operating companies, approximately 2,300 cubic meters of oil are spilled in 300 separate incidents annually. It can be safely assumed that, due to under-reporting, the real figure is substantially higher: conservative estimates place it at up to ten times higher. Statistics from the Department of Petroleum Resources indicate that between 1976 and 1996 a total of 4,835 incidents resulted in the spillage of at least 2,446,322 barrels (102.7 million U.S. gallons), of which an estimated 1,896,930 barrels (79.7 million U.S. gallons; 77 percent) were lost to the environment. Another calculation, based on oil industry sources, estimates that more than 1.07 million barrels (45 million U.S. gallons) of oil were spilled in Nigeria from 1960 to 1997. Nigeria's largest spill was an offshore well

text: blowout (well drilling)

text: in January 1980, when at least 200,000 barrels of oil (8.4 million U.S. gallons), according to oil industry sources, spewed into the Atlantic Ocean from a Texaco facility and destroyed 340 hectares of mangroves. DPR estimates were that more than 400,000 barrels (16.8 million U.S. gallons) were spilled in this incident."

text: Oil spills are known to cause both immediate and long-term harm to human health and ecosystems. Research into the impacts of this spill is ongoing. Studies in 2013 suggested that as much as one-third of the released oil remains in the gulf. Further research suggested that the oil on the bottom of the seafloor was not degrading. Oil in affected coastal areas increased erosion due to the death of mangrove trees and marsh grass. Researchers say the oil and dispersant mixture, including PAHs, permeated the food chain through zooplankton. In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate, and half the dolphins examined in a December 2013 study were seriously ill or dying. BP said the report was “inconclusive as to any causation associated with the spill."

text: Oil spills are known to cause both immediate and long-term harm to human health and ecosystems. Research into the impacts of this spill is ongoing. Studies in 2013 suggested that as much as one-third of the released oil remains in the gulf. Further research suggested that the oil on the bottom of the seafloor was not degrading. Oil in affected coastal areas increased erosion due to the death of mangrove trees and marsh grass. Researchers say the oil and dispersant mixture, including

text: PAHs

text: , permeated the

text: food chain

text: through

text: zooplankton

text: . In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate, and half the

text: dolphin

text: s examined in a December 2013 study were seriously ill or dying. BP said the report was “inconclusive as to any causation associated with the spill."

text: For the Deepwater Horizon oil spill that began in April 2010 in the Gulf of Mexico, HeiQ, TWE Group and Beyond Surface Technologies jointly developed an oil-absorbing, water-repelling, nonwoven fabric, in the name Oilguard  for oil relief efforts. The product was intended for beach protection against oil spills and was applied to the shoreline. This allows for the fabric to absorb crude oil while repelling the seawater. This innovation was rewarded the Swiss Technology Award (2010) and the Swiss Award (2013). The water-repelling property of Oilguard is achieved with a textile finishing that creates the Lotus Effect on the surface of the non-woven fabric. The non-fluorinated finishing makes the fabric only water repellent but not oil repellent, therefore the fabric absorbs oil crudes but not the seawater.

text: For the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: that began in April 2010 in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , HeiQ, TWE Group and Beyond Surface Technologies jointly developed an oil-absorbing, water-repelling, nonwoven fabric, in the name Oilguard  for oil relief efforts. The product was intended for beach protection against oil spills and was applied to the shoreline. This allows for the fabric to absorb crude oil while repelling the seawater. This innovation was rewarded the Swiss Technology Award (2010) and the Swiss Award (2013). The water-repelling property of Oilguard is achieved with a textile finishing that creates the

text: Lotus Effect

text: on the surface of the

text: non-woven

text: fabric. The

text: non-fluorinated

text: finishing makes the fabric only water repellent but not oil repellent, therefore the fabric absorbs oil crudes but not the seawater.

text: 2010 – Helix ESG deploys multiple assets and resources to contain the 2010 Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill.

text: 2010 – Helix ESG deploys multiple assets and resources to contain the 2010

text: Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill

text: Royal commission in Jubail has established a new program to monitor oil spill or any other chemical materials .In addition, it study the possibility of oil leakage and how can be stopped in an emergency situation . Also, Aramco makes a plan by storage additional antipollution equipment’s and ships. Moreover, Aramco always takes care about training their employees to face similar problems by using same machines that will be used in case of oil spill.

text: Royal commission in

text: Jubail

text: has established a new program to monitor

text: oil spill

text: or any other

text: chemical

text: materials .In addition, it study the possibility of oil leakage and how can be stopped in an emergency situation . Also,

text: Aramco

text: makes a plan by storage additional antipollution equipment’s and ships. Moreover, Aramco always takes care about training their employees to face similar problems by using same machines that will be used in case of

text: oil spill

text: Every method of transporting this petroleum have the potential for a major oil spill. However, the amount of oil spilt while it is in transport is a surprisingly small percentage of the total oil spilled. Most oil is spilt during loading and unloading and industrial plants accidentally spilling the oil into the ground. Regulations are created to help prevent oil from spilling everywhere. Some of these regulations include forcing marine tankers to have double hulls, and making a minimum of two man crew on trains that are carrying crude oil. Even though the least amount of oil spills happens when the oil is in transit, regulations are still put in. if the oil was spilt while it is in a ship, tank truck, pipeline or rail car, it can result in fire, poising of plants, injuries and fatalities of the crew and citizens. There are also regulations put in place to prevent the spilling of oil and petroleum vapors while loading and unloading these fuels as well as processing the oil. The goal of these regulations is to make sure that all the oil is delivered or processed equals the amount of oil that was received.  A simple example of this is the vapor guard on the nozzle of the gas pump at the gas stations. These regulations make sure that the companies watch to see that they do not have leaks in any pipes or equipment. When the oil is being processed is when it has a great potential of being leaked, so constant watch is required. These regulations are constantly changing as more discoveries on how to better control oil spills are being found.

text: Every method of transporting this petroleum have the potential for a major

text: oil spill

text: The Financial Times, in reference to the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, cited the 1993 optimistic assessment of the Gulf War oil spill as evidence that "Initial warnings of catastrophic environmental damage from oil spills can turn out to be overdone".

text: The

text: Financial Times

text: , in reference to the April 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the Gulf of Mexico, cited the 1993 optimistic assessment of the Gulf War oil spill as evidence that "Initial warnings of catastrophic environmental damage from oil spills can turn out to be overdone".

text: The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9,351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974. According to this study, most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo, discharging cargo, and taking on fuel oil.  91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. On the other hand, spills resulting from accidents like collisions, groundings, hull failures, and explosions are much larger, with 84% of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons.

text: Two years after the spill, a study initiated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health found biomarkers matching the oil from the spill in the bodies of cleanup workers.  Other studies have reported a variety of mental health issues, skin problems, breathing issues, coughing, and headaches. In 2013, during the three-day "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill & Ecosystem Science Conference", findings discussed included a '"significant percentage" of Gulf residents reporting mental health problems like anxiety, depression and PTSD. These studies also showed that the bodies of former spill cleanup workers carry biomarkers of "many chemicals contained in the oil".

text: Two years after the spill, a study initiated by the

entity_name: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

text: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

text: found

text: biomarkers

text: matching the oil from the spill in the bodies of cleanup workers.  Other studies have reported a variety of mental health issues, skin problems, breathing issues, coughing, and headaches. In 2013, during the three-day "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill & Ecosystem Science Conference", findings discussed included a '"significant percentage" of Gulf residents reporting mental health problems like anxiety, depression and

text: PTSD

text: . These studies also showed that the bodies of former spill cleanup workers carry biomarkers of "many chemicals contained in the oil".

text: After the seventh effort to plug the leak with slurry starting December 22 had created a 25-feet-deep crater around the wellhead, the danger of a blow out increased. The well needed to be stabilized with tension cables and further attempts to plug the well from above were halted. State regulators became more concerned about the wellhead's stability.

text: After the seventh effort to plug the leak with slurry starting December 22 had created a 25-feet-deep crater around the wellhead, the danger of a

text: blow out

text: increased. The well needed to be stabilized with tension cables and further attempts to plug the well from above were halted. State regulators became more concerned about the wellhead's stability.

text: Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening.

text: Oil well fires are oil or gas wells that have caught on fire and burn. Oil well fires can be the result of human actions, such as accidents or arson, or natural events, such as lightning. They can exist on a small scale, such as an oil field spill catching fire, or on a huge scale, as in geyser-like jets of flames from ignited high pressure wells. A frequent cause of a well fire is a high-pressure blowout during drilling operations.

text: Oil well fires are

text: oil or gas wells

text: that have caught on

text: fire

text: and

text: burn

text: . Oil well fires can be the result of human actions, such as accidents or

text: arson

text: , or natural events, such as

text: lightning

text: . They can exist on a small scale, such as an oil field spill catching fire, or on a huge scale, as in

text: geyser

text: -like jets of flames from ignited high

text: pressure

text: wells. A frequent cause of a well fire is a high-pressure

text: blowout

text: during drilling operations.

text: On August 22, 2013, the Canadian Transportation Agency ordered CPR to reinstate delivery to MMA, a move CPR (as one of multiple firms ordered by Quebec's government to pay for the costly cleanup of oil spilled by MMA at Lac-Mégantic) considered an unacceptable safety risk. Canadian Pacific chief executive officer Hunter Harrison stated that, "While we disagree with this order, we have taken immediate steps to comply. The CTA, as federal regulator, has satisfied itself that MMA is fit to operate and has adequate insurance to do so. We will review our legal options." The CTA also found that "the balance of inconvenience clearly favours MMA as the refusal to grant the interim order would result in the virtual cessation of MMA's operations." The CTA also held that issues regarding public safety were none of its concern.

text: On August 22, 2013, the Canadian Transportation Agency ordered

text: CPR

text: to reinstate delivery to MMA, a move CPR (as one of multiple firms ordered by Quebec's government to pay for the costly cleanup of oil spilled by MMA at Lac-Mégantic) considered an unacceptable safety risk. Canadian Pacific chief executive officer Hunter Harrison stated that, "While we disagree with this order, we have taken immediate steps to comply. The CTA, as federal regulator, has satisfied itself that MMA is fit to operate and has adequate insurance to do so. We will review our legal options." The CTA also found that "the balance of inconvenience clearly favours MMA as the refusal to grant the interim order would result in the virtual cessation of MMA's operations." The CTA also held that issues regarding public safety were none of its concern.

text: Manomet is also known for its long-term shorebird research in the Arctic.  In September 2010, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service selected Manomet to lead a $3 million, seven-month study to assess the impact on shorebirds from the massive Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: Manomet is also known for its long-term shorebird research in the Arctic.  In September 2010, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service selected Manomet to lead a $3 million, seven-month study to assess the impact on shorebirds from the massive

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: Reports on the extent of the oil spills vary. The Department of Petroleum Resources estimated 1.89 million barrels of petroleum were spilled into the Niger Delta between 1976 and 1996 out of a total of 2.4 million barrels spilled in 4,835 incidents. (approximately 220 thousand cubic metres). A UNDP report states that there have been a total of 6,817 oil spills between 1976 and 2001, which account for a loss of three million barrels of oil, of which more than 70% was not recovered. 69% of these spills occurred off-shore, a quarter was in swamps and 6% spilled on land.

text: Reports on the extent of the oil spills vary. The

text: Department of Petroleum Resources

text: estimated 1.89 million barrels of

text: petroleum

text: were spilled into the

text: Niger Delta

text: between 1976 and 1996 out of a total of 2.4 million barrels spilled in 4,835 incidents. (approximately 220 thousand cubic metres). A

text: UNDP

text: report states that there have been a total of 6,817 oil spills between 1976 and 2001, which account for a loss of three million barrels of oil, of which more than 70% was not recovered. 69% of these spills occurred off-shore, a quarter was in swamps and 6% spilled on land.

text: The ship had been carrying a significant amount of fuel, so there were fears that Selendang Ayu could create the worst Alaskan oil spill since Exxon Valdez. One tank containing  of fuel ruptured when the ship broke apart. It is estimated that  of heavy bunker C fuel oil and  of diesel fuel was on board when she grounded. Ultimately,  of bunker oil and diesel spilled, which is about 2.9% of the volume of crude oil spilled from Exxon Valdez. The crew had transferred the fuel internal tanks when the ship foundered, and heaters were turned off so that the fuel would thicken in the cold waters. However, environmental officials estimate that up to 1.28 million liters of thick fuel oil () leaked from the freighter.

text: The ship had been carrying a significant amount of fuel, so there were fears that Selendang Ayu could create the worst Alaskan

text: oil spill

text: since

text: Exxon Valdez

text: . One tank containing  of fuel ruptured when the ship broke apart. It is estimated that  of heavy bunker C

text: fuel oil

text: and  of

text: diesel fuel

text: was on board when she grounded. Ultimately,  of bunker oil and diesel spilled, which is about 2.9% of the volume of crude oil spilled from Exxon Valdez. The crew had transferred the fuel internal tanks when the ship foundered, and heaters were turned off so that the fuel would thicken in the cold waters. However, environmental officials estimate that up to 1.28 million liters of thick fuel oil () leaked from the freighter.

text: By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated.

text: On 20 April 2010, an explosion occurred on the Deepwater Horizon oil rig, operated by BP.  Eleven people were killed in the blast and oil began to leak from the ocean floor at a rate variously estimated to be between  and  per day. Hayward, and BP in general, initially downplayed the spill, stating on 17 May 2010 that the environmental impact of the Gulf spill would likely be "very very modest" and calling the spill "relatively tiny" in comparison with the size of the ocean. By 27 May, Hayward changed his assessment, calling the spill an "environmental catastrophe" in an interview with CNN.

text: On 20 April 2010, an explosion occurred on the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil rig

text: , operated by BP.  Eleven people were killed in the blast and oil began to leak from the ocean floor at a rate variously estimated to be between  and  per day. Hayward, and BP in general, initially downplayed the spill, stating on 17 May 2010 that the environmental impact of the Gulf spill would likely be "very very modest" and calling the spill "relatively tiny" in comparison with the size of the ocean. By 27 May, Hayward changed his assessment, calling the spill an "environmental catastrophe" in an interview with

text: CNN

text: In 2010 it was the target of a protest against BP’s handling of an oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: In 2010 it was the target of a protest against

text: BP

text: ’s handling of an oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: Transporting oil and oil products by tankers with a capacity of 5,000 tons along the Manych Ship Canal and Volga-Don Waterway could lead to potentially large petroleum spills.  Such spills would be difficult to localize and could negatively influence the unique natural features of the Volga-Akhtuba inter-river area if transported by strong currents along the navigation channel into numerous shoals and ducts.  A shipwreck of a tanker spilling 5,000 tons of oil near Volgograd could damage the whole lower part of the Volga, including protected areas and nature reserves.  The same might happen to the lower part of the Don.  Such a shipwreck on the Manych Ship Canal might restrict the extent pollution between shipping locks. Locks could control flow velocity to reduce the speed of spreading oil, and contain an oil spill for removal and cleanup.

text: Transporting oil and oil products by tankers with a capacity of 5,000 tons along the Manych Ship Canal and Volga-Don Waterway could lead to potentially large petroleum spills.  Such spills would be difficult to localize and could negatively influence the unique natural features of the Volga-

text: Akhtuba

text: inter-river area if transported by strong currents along the navigation channel into numerous

text: shoal

text: s and ducts.  A shipwreck of a tanker spilling 5,000 tons of oil near Volgograd could damage the whole lower part of the Volga, including protected areas and nature reserves.  The same might happen to the lower part of the Don.  Such a shipwreck on the Manych Ship Canal might restrict the extent pollution between shipping locks. Locks could control flow velocity to reduce the speed of spreading oil, and contain an oil spill for removal and cleanup.

text: A massive response ensued to protect beaches, wetlands and estuaries from the spreading oil utilizing skimmer ships, floating booms, controlled burns and  of Corexit oil dispersant. Due to the months-long spill, along with adverse effects from the response and cleanup activities, extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats and fishing and tourism industries was reported.   In Louisiana, 4.6 million pounds (2.09 million kg) of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013, over double the amount collected in 2012. Oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 miles of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013. Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the waters off the Florida Panhandle and Tampa Bay, where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand.  In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six  times the normal rate.  One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs that would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening and another study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill.

text: A massive response ensued to protect beaches,

text: wetlands

text: and

text: estuaries

text: from the spreading oil utilizing skimmer ships, floating

text: booms

text: , controlled burns and  of

text: Corexit

text: oil dispersant

text: . Due to the months-long spill, along with adverse effects from the response and cleanup activities, extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats and fishing and tourism industries was reported.   In Louisiana, 4.6 million pounds (2.09 million kg) of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013, over double the amount collected in 2012. Oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 miles of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013. Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the waters off the Florida Panhandle and Tampa Bay, where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand.  In 2013 it was reported that

text: dolphin

text: s and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six  times the normal rate.  One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and

text: amberjack

text: that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs that would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening and another study found that

text: cardiotoxicity

text: might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill.

text: Bunga Kelana 3 collided with the bulk freighter, , in the Singapore Strait, 13 km southeast of Changi Air Base (East) on May 25, 2010 at 6:10. No injuries were reported among the crew. The tanker captain said 2.000 tonnes of crude oil may have spilled into the sea. MV Waily was anchored in the Straits of Singapore. Traffic in the Straits of Singapore was not affected.The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore (MPA) directed three ships full of oil cleaning equipment to clean up the spilled oil. Stuart Traver of Gaffney, Cline & Associates in Singapore, said the effects were minimal, and would have a different impact than the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: Bunga Kelana 3 collided with the bulk freighter, , in the

text: Singapore Strait

text: , 13 km southeast of

text: Changi Air Base (East)

text: on May 25, 2010 at 6:10. No injuries were reported among the crew. The tanker captain said 2.000 tonnes of crude oil may have

text: spilled

text: into the sea. MV Waily was anchored in the Straits of Singapore. Traffic in the Straits of Singapore was not affected.The

entity_name: Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore

text: Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore

text: (MPA) directed three ships full of oil cleaning equipment to clean up the spilled oil. Stuart Traver of

text: Gaffney, Cline & Associates

text: in Singapore, said the effects were minimal, and would have a different impact than the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: Some  of floating containment boom had been deployed to contain the oil by the next day. Boats and helicopters identified patches of slick in the ocean so cleanup vessels could mop up the oil. More than a dozen vessels corralling and skimming the oil from the water were working in the days immediately following the spill. Three days after the spill more than 650 workers and 17 boats were cleaning the shoreline, gathering up an oily water mixture from the ocean, and hauling away more than  of oil-contaminated soil, sand and vegetation from the coastal bluff. A month after the spill, efforts continued to clean the   portion of shoreline that was most heavily damaged. The sandstone cliff face along with large boulders that were splashed by the oil coming out of the culvert were difficult to clean. While sandy beaches farther south were inundated with tar balls, the beaches and rocky shoreline south of the spill had been drenched with a slick of fresh crude oil that had not been in the ocean long enough to be altered into tar balls by the wind and waves.

text: Some  of floating

text: containment boom

text: had been deployed to contain the oil by the next day. Boats and

text: helicopter

text: s identified patches of slick in the ocean so cleanup vessels could mop up the oil. More than a dozen vessels corralling and skimming the oil from the water were working in the days immediately following the spill. Three days after the spill more than 650 workers and 17 boats were cleaning the shoreline, gathering up an oily water mixture from the ocean, and hauling away more than  of oil-contaminated soil, sand and vegetation from the coastal bluff. A month after the spill, efforts continued to clean the   portion of shoreline that was most heavily damaged. The

text: sandstone

text: cliff face along with large boulders that were splashed by the oil coming out of the culvert were difficult to clean. While sandy beaches farther south were inundated with tar balls, the beaches and rocky shoreline south of the spill had been drenched with a slick of fresh crude oil that had not been in the ocean long enough to be altered into tar balls by the wind and waves.

text: In 2010 roughly 170 million gallons of oil was dumped into the Gulf of Mexico when BP's Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded. The effects of the BP oil spill are still being felt today, more than 8,000 marine birds, sea turtles and marine mammals were found dead or injured within months of the clean up effort. The impact of this disaster has unbalanced the food web of the environment. The oil spill occurred at the height of breeding season and as result affected egg and larval animals to the worst extent wiping entire age classes. This loss of a generation down the line will prove dire for future predators of the ecosystem.

text: A set of plugs can be used to locate the total station set up in a drift or tunnel by processing measurements to the plugs by intersection and resection.

text: A set of plugs can be used to locate the total station set up in a drift or tunnel by processing measurements to the plugs by intersection and

text: resection

text: Acute toxicity symptoms have been reported and the study of long-term medical and psychological effects is ongoing.  As the largest marine oil spill in history, the  potential for physical, psychological, and socioeconomic difficulties remains unknown.  Considering the number of residents and clean-up workers exposed, it has been seen as the most demanding on-water response in U.S. history.  Only a few studies have looked at long-term health consequences, but judging from what is known, it is assumed that the spill's impacts are wide-reaching and will have long-lasting effects.

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill has had a significant impact on the Gulf of Mexico economy and ecosystem, as well as a continuing financial, legal, and public relations burden for BP, whose conduct was found to be "reckless" in a court ruling in September 2014. BP had expended $28 billion because of the spill by September 2014 and faced $18 billion in additional penalties, which, The New York Times reported, "casts a cloud over BP’s future." On 20 April 2010, the semi-submersible exploratory offshore drilling rig Deepwater Horizon located in the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico exploded after a blowout, killing 11 people, injuring 16 others. After burning for two days, the rig sank and caused the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, estimated to be between 8% and 31% larger in volume than the earlier Ixtoc I oil spill. Before the well was capped on 15 July 2010, an estimated  of oil was leaked with plus or minus 10% uncertainty.   of oil was collected or burned while  entered the Gulf waters.   of Corexit dispersant was applied.

text: The

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: has had a significant impact on the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: economy and

text: ecosystem

text: , as well as a continuing financial, legal, and public relations burden for BP, whose conduct was found to be "reckless" in a court ruling in September 2014. BP had expended $28 billion because of the spill by September 2014 and faced $18 billion in additional penalties, which,

text: The New York Times

text: reported, "casts a cloud over BP’s future." On 20 April 2010, the semi-submersible exploratory offshore drilling rig

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: located in the

text: Macondo Prospect

text: in the Gulf of Mexico

text: exploded

text: after a

text: blowout

text: , killing 11 people, injuring 16 others. After burning for two days, the rig sank and caused the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, estimated to be between 8% and 31% larger in volume than the earlier

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: . Before the well was capped on 15 July 2010, an estimated  of oil was leaked with plus or minus 10% uncertainty.   of oil was collected or burned while  entered the Gulf waters.   of

text: Corexit

text: dispersant was applied.

text: While drilling an oil or gas well, the top of the wellbore is lined with a casing. The drill string runs through the casing. The annular (ring-shaped) region between the casing and the drill stem is filled with drilling mud which provides hydrostatic pressure to keep the formation fluid from coming up the wellbore. If the pressure of the formation fluid exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling mud, the oil or gas can blow out of the wellbore. This has caused spills of large quantities of oil and fires on drilling rigs. The blowout of the Lucas well at the Spindletop field in 1901 lasted for over nine days and spilled over  of oil.

text: While drilling an oil or gas well, the top of the

text: wellbore

text: is lined with a

text: casing

text: . The

text: drill string

text: runs through the casing. The annular (ring-shaped) region between the casing and the drill stem is filled with

text: drilling mud

text: which provides hydrostatic pressure to keep the

text: formation fluid

text: from coming up the wellbore. If the pressure of the formation fluid exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling mud, the oil or gas can

text: blow out

text: of the wellbore. This has caused spills of large quantities of oil and fires on drilling rigs. The blowout of the Lucas well at the

text: Spindletop

text: field in 1901 lasted for over nine days and spilled over  of oil.

text: Although some researchers thought that the damage from the spill would rapidly resolve, three years into the recovery  dolphins continue to die, fish are showing strange lesions, corals in the gulf have died and oil still remains in some marsh areas. Due to both its size and the way it was handled, there is little previous research to predict long-term effects.  At the 2013 "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference", oceanographer David Hollander presented data that showed as much as one-third of the oil released during the spill may still be in the gulf. Researchers described a phenomenon called "dirty blizzard": oil caused deep ocean sediments to clumped together, falling to the ocean floor at ten times the normal rate in an "underwater rain of oily particles". The result could have long-term effects on both humans and marine life. Commercially fished species feed on sediment creatures, meaning oil could remain in the food chain for generations. Concern was expressed for commercially fished species such as tilefish which burrow in the sediment and feed on sediment dwelling creatures.  In 2013 researchers found that a tiny amoeba-like creatures, foraminifera, that live in sediment and form the bottom of the gulf food chain, have died off in the areas that were affected by the underwater plumes that stretched out miles beyond the spill site. The foraminifera have returned in some areas but in other areas they have burrowed into the sediments, stirring them up all over again. Noting that it took several years for the herring population to crash following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the researchers expressed concerns that it may also take years for long-terms effects to become apparent in the gulf.

text: Although some researchers thought that the damage from the spill would rapidly resolve, three years into the recovery  dolphins continue to die, fish are showing strange lesions, corals in the gulf have died and oil still remains in some marsh areas. Due to both its size and the way it was handled, there is little previous research to predict long-term effects.  At the 2013 "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference", oceanographer David Hollander presented data that showed as much as one-third of the oil released during the spill may still be in the gulf. Researchers described a phenomenon called "dirty blizzard": oil caused deep ocean sediments to clumped together, falling to the ocean floor at ten times the normal rate in an "underwater rain of oily particles". The result could have long-term effects on both humans and marine life. Commercially fished species feed on

text: sediment

text: creatures, meaning oil could remain in the food chain for generations. Concern was expressed for commercially fished species such as

text: tilefish

text: which burrow in the sediment and feed on sediment dwelling creatures.  In 2013 researchers found that a tiny amoeba-like creatures,

text: foraminifera

text: , that live in sediment and form the bottom of the gulf

text: food chain

text: , have died off in the areas that were affected by the underwater plumes that stretched out miles beyond the spill site. The foraminifera have returned in some areas but in other areas they have burrowed into the sediments, stirring them up all over again. Noting that it took several years for the herring population to crash following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the researchers expressed concerns that it may also take years for long-terms effects to become apparent in the gulf.

text: The following year, McMenamy modeled for the fall/winter 2010 Viktor & Rolf fashion show, in which she was a "Matryoshka doll", where the designers put several layers of clothing on her, similar to how the dolls have several layers. She also walked the runway for Klein's fall/winter 2010 fashion show. In August 2010, McMenamy graced the cover of Vogue Italia. The cover image and the accompanying 24-page photo spread, which was titled "Water & Oil", were said to be inspired by that year's Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. A controversy arose over the photo spread, particularly because in some of the pictures, McMenamy seemed to be emulating a bird covered in oil. Though, according to Franca Sozzani, Vogue Italias editor-in-chief, the message of the photo spread was "to be careful about nature".

text: The following year, McMenamy modeled for the fall/winter 2010

text: Viktor & Rolf

text: fashion show, in which she was a "

text: Matryoshka doll

text: ", where the designers put several layers of clothing on her, similar to how the dolls have several layers. She also walked the runway for Klein's fall/winter 2010 fashion show. In August 2010, McMenamy graced the cover of Vogue Italia. The cover image and the accompanying 24-page photo spread, which was titled "Water & Oil", were said to be inspired by that year's

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . A controversy arose over the photo spread, particularly because in some of the pictures, McMenamy seemed to be emulating a bird covered in oil. Though, according to

text: Franca Sozzani

text: , Vogue Italias editor-in-chief, the message of the photo spread was "to be careful about nature".

text: In late 2012, a study from Georgia Tech and Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes in Environmental Pollution journal reported that Corexit used during the BP oil spill had increased the toxicity of the oil by up to 52 times. The study looked at the effects of the oil-Corexit combination on rotifers, which form the base of the food chain. Georgia Tech lab professor Terry Snell said, "There is a synergistic interaction between crude oil and the dispersant that makes it more toxic". He said the addition of Corexit to the gulf spill "probably put a big dent in the planktonic food web for some extended period of time, but nobody really made the measurements to figure out the impact." The leader of the study, Roberto Rico-Martinez (UAA), said "Dispersants are pre-approved to help clean up oil spills and are widely used during disasters....but we have a poor understanding of their toxicity. Our study indicates the increase in toxicity may have been greatly underestimated following the Macondo well explosion." Snell commented: "What remains to be determined is whether the benefits of dispersing the oil by using Corexit are outweighed by the substantial increase in toxicity of the mixture...Perhaps we should allow the oil to naturally disperse. It might take longer, but it would have less toxic impact on marine ecosystems." On their own, oil and Corexit were found to be equally toxic.

text: In late 2012, a study from

text: Georgia Tech

text: and

text: Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes

text: in Environmental Pollution journal reported that Corexit used during the BP oil spill had increased the

text: toxicity

text: of the oil by up to 52 times. The study looked at the effects of the oil-Corexit combination on

text: rotifers

text: , which form the base of the food chain. Georgia Tech lab professor Terry Snell said, "There is a synergistic interaction between crude oil and the dispersant that makes it more toxic". He said the addition of Corexit to the gulf spill "probably put a big dent in the planktonic food web for some extended period of time, but nobody really made the measurements to figure out the impact." The leader of the study, Roberto Rico-Martinez (UAA), said "Dispersants are pre-approved to help clean up oil spills and are widely used during disasters....but we have a poor understanding of their toxicity. Our study indicates the increase in toxicity may have been greatly underestimated following the Macondo well explosion." Snell commented: "What remains to be determined is whether the benefits of dispersing the oil by using Corexit are outweighed by the substantial increase in toxicity of the mixture...Perhaps we should allow the oil to naturally disperse. It might take longer, but it would have less toxic impact on marine ecosystems." On their own, oil and Corexit were found to be equally toxic.

text: On November 7, 2007, there was a large oil spill in the San Francisco Bay. This Cosco Busan oil spill was found to be lethal to herring fry in oiled versus non-oiled sites in Richardson Bay. This spill has greatly affected the organisms in the bay.

text: On November 7, 2007, there was a large

text: oil spill

text: in the

text: San Francisco Bay

text: . This Cosco Busan oil spill was found to be lethal to herring fry in oiled versus non-oiled sites in Richardson Bay. This spill has greatly affected the

text: organisms

text: in the

text: bay

text: On June 3, 1979, Ixtoc I, an exploratory oil well located in the bay, suffered a blowout that caused a catastrophic explosion, resulting in what has been ranked as the third largest unintentional oil spill in history.

text: On June 3, 1979,

text: Ixtoc I

text: , an exploratory oil well located in the bay,

text: suffered a blowout

text: that caused a catastrophic explosion, resulting in what has been ranked as the third largest unintentional oil spill in history.

text: MMS's regulatory decisions contributing to the 2010 oil spill included, in negligence, the decision that an acoustically controlled shut-off valve (BOP) would not be required as a last resort against underwater spills at the site, MMS's failure to suggest other “fail-safe” mechanisms after a 2004 report raised questions about the reliability of the electrical remote-control devices., and the fact that MMS gave permission to dozens of oil companies to drill in the Gulf of Mexico without first getting required permits from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that assess threats to endangered species and to assess the impact the drilling was likely to have on the gulf.

text: MMS's regulatory decisions contributing to the 2010 oil spill included, in negligence, the decision that an acoustically controlled shut-off valve (

text: BOP

text: ) would not be required as a last resort against underwater spills at the site, MMS's failure to suggest other “fail-safe” mechanisms after a 2004 report raised questions about the reliability of the electrical remote-control devices., and the fact that MMS gave permission to dozens of oil companies to drill in the Gulf of Mexico without first getting required permits from the

text: that assess threats to endangered species and to assess the impact the drilling was likely to have on the gulf.

text: In 2005, there were explosions at a CNPC owned petrochemical plant causing six deaths, a mass evacuation, and a massive oil spill over the Songhua River.

text: In 2005, there were explosions at a CNPC owned petrochemical plant causing six deaths, a mass evacuation, and a massive oil spill over the

text: Songhua River

text: A double-hulled tanker refers to an oil tanker which has a double hull. They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring than in single-hulled tankers, and their ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for oil tankers and other types of ships including by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention.  After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster in Alaska in 1989, the US Government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.

text: A double-hulled tanker refers to an

text: oil tanker

text: which has a

text: double hull

text: . They reduce the likelihood of leaks occurring than in single-hulled tankers, and their ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for oil tankers and other types of ships including by the

text: or MARPOL Convention.  After the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: disaster in

text: Alaska

text: in 1989, the US Government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.

text: Following the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, Shaheen proposed abolishing the Minerals Management Service, the U.S. government agency tasked with regulating offshore drilling, arguing that reform had been insufficient and that a new agency was needed. Shaheen also proposed legislation giving the President's bipartisan BP Oil Spill Commission subpoena power in their investigation. She has argued that subpoena power is necessary to avoid another such disaster, emphasizing the spill's economic costs to the Gulf Coast region and the economy as a whole.

text: Following the

text: BP oil spill

text: in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, Shaheen proposed abolishing the

text: Minerals Management Service

text: , the U.S. government agency tasked with regulating offshore drilling, arguing that reform had been insufficient and that a new agency was needed. Shaheen also proposed legislation giving the President's bipartisan

text: BP Oil Spill Commission

text: subpoena power in their investigation. She has argued that subpoena power is necessary to avoid another such disaster, emphasizing the spill's economic costs to the Gulf Coast region and the economy as a whole.

text: On June 3, 2016, a 96-car oil train derailed in the Columbia River Gorge near Mosier, Oregon. 11 cars derailed and at least one caught on fire. 42,000 gallons of Bakken crude oil spilled of which 10,000 gallons was recovered. Some oil went into the Colombia River. Cleanup and investigations continue as of June 6.

text: On June 3, 2016,

text: a 96-car oil train derailed

text: in the

text: Columbia River Gorge

text: near

text: Mosier, Oregon

text: . 11 cars derailed and at least one caught on fire. 42,000 gallons of Bakken crude oil spilled of which 10,000 gallons was recovered. Some oil went into the Colombia River. Cleanup and investigations continue as of June 6.

text: SRM is temporary in its effect, and thus and long-term restoration of the climate would rely on long-term SRM, unless carbon dioxide removal was subsequently used. However, short-term SRM programs are potentially beneficial.

text: SRM is temporary in its effect, and thus and long-term restoration of the climate would rely on long-term SRM, unless

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: was subsequently used. However, short-term SRM programs are potentially beneficial.

text: Following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill (called the "Gulf oil spill"), the entrance to Pensacola Pass was closed,with a floating barrier system in June 2010, to control tidal flow of oil entering from the Gulf of Mexico. The daily high tide was causing oil-contaminated water to enter Pensacola Bay. The barrier system was to be  designed to allow boats to travel through Pensacola Pass during the ebb tide, but to close during the rising tide.

text: Following the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: (called the "Gulf oil spill"), the entrance to Pensacola Pass was closed,with a floating barrier system in June 2010, to control tidal flow of oil entering from the Gulf of Mexico. The daily

text: high tide

text: was causing oil-contaminated water to enter

text: Pensacola Bay

text: . The barrier system was to be  designed to allow boats to travel through Pensacola Pass during the ebb tide, but to close during the rising tide.

text: Offshore facilities pose an environmental risk of oil spills.  On April 20, 2010, an underwater blowout and subsequent explosion and fire destroyed the Deepwater Horizon rig owned by Transocean Ltd. and operating in the Gulf of Mexico under lease to energy giant BP, resulting in the largest oil spill in United States history.

text: Offshore facilities pose an environmental risk of

text: oil spills

text: .  On April 20, 2010, an underwater blowout and subsequent explosion and fire

text: destroyed

text: the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: rig owned by

text: Transocean Ltd.

text: and operating in the Gulf of Mexico under lease to energy giant

text: BP

text: , resulting in the largest oil spill in United States history.

text: On 26 July 2010, the Chinese local government announced the spill had been contained and that the spill had failed to reach open waters. Cleanup efforts continued two weeks after the original explosion began, with operations to remove the oil performed at night when the oil is most viscous.

text: Moore was the President and CEO of the company already in 2010 when a BP oil rig exploded (called the Deepwater Horizon oil spill). It killed eleven workers and spilled millions of gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. This caused one of the worst environmental disasters in US history. The company paid BP over $80 million in a negotiated settlement.

text: Moore was the President and CEO of the company already in 2010 when a BP oil rig exploded (called the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: ). It killed eleven workers and spilled millions of gallons of oil into the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . This caused one of the worst environmental disasters in US history. The company paid BP over $80 million in a negotiated settlement.

text: To clean up the oil spill, Petrotrin has opted to use the Corexit 9500 dispersant that was employed BP in the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The purpose of oil dispersants is to accelerate the process of degrading oil. Oil that is spilled into a body of water will eventually break down naturally but it is a long process. The way that this dispersant functions is by breaking down oil into tiny droplets that are faster for nature to degrade.  This allows two liquids that do not go well together, such as oil and water, to be able to mix. The use of this dispersant has proved to be a controversial decision because in a recent story conducted in 2012, scientists discovered that Corexit actually increases the toxicity of oil and is detrimental to the livelihood of the marine animals.

text: To clean up the oil spill, Petrotrin has opted to use the

text: Corexit 9500

text: dispersant that was employed

text: BP

text: in the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The purpose of oil dispersants is to accelerate the process of degrading oil. Oil that is spilled into a body of water will eventually break down naturally but it is a long process. The way that this dispersant functions is by breaking down oil into tiny droplets that are faster for nature to degrade.  This allows two liquids that do not go well together, such as oil and water, to be able to mix. The use of this dispersant has proved to be a controversial decision because in a recent story conducted in 2012, scientists discovered that Corexit actually increases the toxicity of oil and is detrimental to the livelihood of the marine animals.

text: In January 2011, a spill commissioner reported that tar balls continue to wash up, oil sheen trails are seen in the wake of fishing boats, wetlands marsh grass remains fouled and dying, and crude oil lies offshore in deep water and in fine silts and sands onshore. On 26 May 2011, the Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality extended the state of emergency related to the spill. In April 2012, oil was found dotting  of Louisiana's coast.  As of December 2012,  of coastline remain subject to evaluation and/or cleanup operations.

text: The oil slick from the explosion of Deepwater Horizon reached the reserve. The spill was larger in size than the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: The

text: oil slick

text: from the explosion of

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: reached the reserve. The spill was larger in size than the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: Oil and gas developments in Arctic waters must address environmental concerns through proper contingency plans. Parts of the Arctic are covered with ice most of the year. During the winter months, darkness prevails. If an oil spill occurs, it may go undetected for several months. Assuming this spill is located, clean-up procedures are likely to be impeded by ice cover. Furthermore, these are remote locations, such that logistical issues would come into play. Arctic ecosystems are sensitive – a timely response is required to mitigate the consequences of an oil spill.

text: Oil and gas developments in Arctic waters must address environmental concerns through proper contingency plans. Parts of the Arctic are covered with ice most of the year. During the winter months, darkness prevails. If an

text: oil spill

text: occurs, it may go undetected for several months. Assuming this spill is located, clean-up procedures are likely to be impeded by ice cover. Furthermore, these are remote locations, such that logistical issues would come into play.

text: Arctic ecosystems

text: are sensitive – a timely response is required to mitigate the consequences of an oil spill.

text: Due to its chemical composition, world-wide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil is considered a serious environmental problem. Most current motor oil lubricants contain petroleum base stocks, which are toxic to the environment and difficult to dispose of after use. Over 40% of the pollution in America's waterways is from used motor oil. Used oil is considered the largest source of oil pollution in the U.S. harbor and waterways, at 385 million gallons per year, mostly from improper disposal. By far, the greatest cause of motor oil pollution in our oceans comes from drains and urban street runoff, much of which is from improper disposal of engine oil. One gallon of used oil can create an eight-acre slick on surface water, threatening fish, waterfowl and other aquatic life. According to the U.S. EPA, films of oil on the surface of water prevent the replenishment of dissolved oxygen, impair photosynthetic processes, and block sunlight. Toxic effects of used oil on freshwater and marine organisms vary, but significant long-term effects have been found at concentrations of 310 ppm in several freshwater fish species and as low as 1 ppm in marine life forms. Motor oil can have an incredibly detrimental effect on the environment, particularly to plants that depend on healthy soil to grow. There are three main ways that motor oil affects plants: contaminating water supplies, contaminating soil, and poisoning plants. Used motor oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity. Improperly disposed used oil ends up in landfills, sewers, backyards, or storm drains where soil, groundwater and drinking water may be contaminated.

text: Research on the environmental impact of the petroleum industry began in earnest, during the mid to late 20th century, as the oil industry developed and expanded. Large scale transport of crude oil increased as a result of the increasing worldwide demand for oil, subsequently increasing the number of oil spills. Oil spills provided perfect opportunities for scientists to examine the in situ effects of crude oil exposure to marine ecosystems, and collaborative efforts between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard resulted in improved response efforts and detailed research on oil pollution's effects. The Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, both resulted in increased scientific knowledge on the specific effects of oil pollution toxicity to marine fish.

text: Research on the

entity_name: Environmental impact of the petroleum industry

text: environmental impact of the petroleum industry

text: began in earnest, during the mid to late 20th century, as the oil industry developed and expanded. Large scale transport of crude oil increased as a result of the increasing worldwide demand for oil, subsequently increasing the number of oil spills. Oil spills provided perfect opportunities for scientists to examine the

text: in situ

text: effects of crude oil exposure to marine ecosystems, and collaborative efforts between the

text: (NOAA) and the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: resulted in improved response efforts and detailed research on oil pollution's effects. The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: in 1989, and the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010, both resulted in increased scientific knowledge on the specific effects of oil pollution toxicity to marine fish.

text: Oil spills have a major impact on the ecosystem. Large tracts of mangrove forests have been desroyed. They are especially susceptible to oil spills because the oil is stored in the soil and re-released annually with each inundation. An estimated 5–10% of Nigerian mangrove ecosystems have been wiped out either by settlement or by oil. Spills also take out crops and aquacultures through contamination of groundwater and soils. Drinking water is frequently contaminated, and a sheen of oil is visible in many localised bodies of water. If the drinking water is contaminated, even if no immediate health effects are apparent, the numerous hydrocarbons and other chemicals present in oil represent a carcinogenic risk. Offshore spills, which are usually much greater in scale, contaminate coastal environments and cause a decline in local fishing production.

text: Oil spills have a major impact on the ecosystem. Large tracts of

text: mangrove forest

text: s have been desroyed. They are especially susceptible to oil spills because the oil is stored in the

text: soil

text: and re-released annually with each inundation. An estimated 5–10% of Nigerian mangrove ecosystems have been wiped out either by settlement or by oil. Spills also take out crops and

text: aquaculture

text: s through contamination of

text: groundwater

text: and soils.

text: Drinking water

text: is frequently contaminated, and a sheen of oil is visible in many localised bodies of water. If the drinking water is contaminated, even if no immediate health effects are apparent, the numerous

text: hydrocarbons

text: and other chemicals present in oil represent a

text: carcinogenic

text: risk. Offshore spills, which are usually much greater in scale, contaminate coastal environments and cause a decline in local fishing production.

text: The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska, on Good Friday, March 24, 1989, when Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef at 12:04 am local time and spilled  of crude oil over the next few days. It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters. The Valdez spill was the largest in US waters until the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms of volume released. However, Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field, eventually covered  of coastline, and  of ocean.

text: The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in

text: Prince William Sound

text: Alaska

text: , on Good Friday, March 24, 1989, when

text: Exxon Valdez

text: , an

text: oil tanker

text: bound for

text: Long Beach

text: , California, struck

text: Prince William Sound

text: 's

text: Bligh Reef

text: at 12:04 am local time and

text: spilled

text: of

text: crude oil

text: over the next few days. It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused

text: environmental disaster

text: s. The Valdez spill was the largest in US waters until the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: , in terms of volume released. However, Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a

text: habitat

text: for

text: salmon

text: sea otter

text: s,

text: seals

text: and

text: seabird

text: s. The oil, originally extracted at the

text: Prudhoe Bay oil field

text: , eventually covered  of coastline, and  of ocean.

text: This spill is the third largest oil spill in the United States, only surpassed by the Deepwater Horizon and the Exxon Valdez oil spills. It resulted in a  expansion of the Department of the Interior buffer zone in the channel and contributed to the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency.

text: This spill is the third largest oil spill in the United States, only surpassed by the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: and the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil spills. It resulted in a  expansion of the

text: Department of the Interior

text: buffer zone in the channel and contributed to the formation of the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: The location of the Oil spill determines which authority responds. Oil spills that occur in coastal waters are the responsibility of the United States Coast Guard (USCG) while the Environmental Protection Agency covers inland oil spills. It is required by US federal law that any discharge of oil that creates a film or sheen on the water surface be reported to the National Response Centre. The National Response Centre then dissipates information to the USCG who acts as the federal on-scene coordinator.

text: The location of the Oil spill determines which authority responds. Oil spills that occur in coastal waters are the responsibility of the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: (USCG) while the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: covers inland oil spills. It is required by US federal law that any discharge of oil that creates a film or sheen on the water surface be reported to the National Response Centre. The National Response Centre then dissipates information to the USCG who acts as the federal on-scene coordinator.

text: The Aegean Sea tanker oil spill was a spill that occurred on 3 December 1992 when the double-bottom Greek-flagged oil tanker, Aegean Sea, en route to Repsol refinery in A Coruña, Spain, suffered an accident off the Galician coast.  The ship had successfully passed all required tests and revisions. The accident occurred during extreme weather conditions and affected the Galician coast resulting in ecosystem damage, as well as damage to the fishing and tourist industries in A Coruña. The captain and pilot were found to be criminally liable and the shipowner took on much of the monetary liability.

text: The Aegean Sea tanker oil spill was a

text: spill

text: that occurred on 3 December 1992 when the double-bottom Greek-flagged

text: oil tanker

text: , Aegean Sea, en route to

text: Repsol

text: refinery in

text: A Coruña

text: , Spain, suffered an accident off the

text: Galician

text: coast.  The ship had successfully passed all required tests and revisions. The accident occurred during extreme weather conditions and affected the Galician coast resulting in ecosystem damage, as well as damage to the fishing and tourist industries in A Coruña. The captain and pilot were found to be criminally liable and the shipowner took on much of the monetary liability.

text: In C++, code cleanup involves deallocating previously allocated dynamic memory.

text: In

text: C++

text: , code cleanup involves deallocating previously allocated

text: dynamic memory

text: Code cleanup refers to the act of writing code so that it cleans up leftover data structures and other unwanted materials from memory and the filesystem. It is not the same as refactoring code, which involves making the source code itself easier to understand, maintain, and modify.

text: Code cleanup refers to the act of writing

text: code

text: so that it cleans up leftover

text: data structure

text: s and other unwanted materials from memory and the filesystem. It is not the same as

text: refactoring

text: code, which involves making the source code itself easier to understand, maintain, and modify.

text: When BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil drilling rig exploded on April 20, 2010 and began to leak oil into the Gulf of Mexico, the PWSRCAC was kept very busy responding to calls for assistance and information. Following this spill President Barack Obama’s Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Commission recommended establishing similar citizens’ councils there and in the Arctic. The PWSRCAC expressed its willingness to help establish similar councils.<ref>McBride, Rhonda. “ Prince William Sound council could be first of many,”

text: When BP’s

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: oil drilling rig exploded on April 20, 2010 and began to leak oil into the Gulf of Mexico, the PWSRCAC was kept very busy responding to calls for assistance and information. Following this spill President

text: Barack Obama

text: ’s Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Commission recommended establishing similar citizens’ councils there and in the Arctic. The PWSRCAC expressed its willingness to help establish similar councils.<ref>McBride, Rhonda. “ Prince William Sound council could be first of many,”

text: On February 11, 2016, the relief well intercepted the base of the leaking well and the company began pumping heavy fluids to control the flow of gas out of the leaking well. On February 18, 2016, state officials announced that the leak was permanently plugged.

text: International Bird Rescue is a non-profit organization that rehabilitates injured aquatic birds, most notably seabirds affected by oil spills. Founded by Alice Berkner in 1971 and based in Cordelia, California, the group has developed scientifically-based bird rehabilitation techniques and has led oiled wildlife rescue efforts in more than 200 oil spills worldwide, including the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska, and the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, where International Bird Rescue co-managed oiled bird rehabilitation efforts in four states with Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research.

text: International Bird Rescue is a

text: non-profit organization

text: that rehabilitates injured

text: aquatic bird

text: s, most notably seabirds affected by

text: oil spills

text: . Founded by Alice Berkner in 1971 and based in

text: Cordelia, California

text: , the group has developed scientifically-based bird rehabilitation techniques and has led oiled wildlife rescue efforts in more than 200 oil spills worldwide, including the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: in Prince William Sound, Alaska, and the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the Gulf of Mexico, where International Bird Rescue co-managed oiled bird rehabilitation efforts in four states with

text: Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research

text: In Japan and South Korea,  the third, fourth, and fifth batters in a lineup are referred to as "cleanup" (also "cleanup trio").

text: Drilling for oil and gas has been going on in Pennsylvania since 1859, and there are an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 wells drilled before the state kept track of the wells, or required them to be properly plugged. The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) has a program to locate and plug old wells. A 2014 study examined 19 abandoned wells, 14 of which had never been plugged, and only one of which was known to the state. Methane leakage rates were measured, and extrapolations  over all the expected orphaned wells in the state indicated that the old wells made up a significant source of methane.

text: The start of the 1950s went as well as the 1940s had. The club won Division 4 in 1950 and when they won Division 3 in 1951 they went from a local club to be known as a "comet team" in the national media. The club fought for a place in Allsvenskan in 1953 but saw themselves defeated by Kalmar FF, and in 1954 the club was relegated from Division 2. In 1955 the club set the record for the most spectators during a Division 3 game against IK Oddevold, when 18,229 people showed up for the game. BK Häcken eventually won the league but returned soon again and played in Division 3 for the rest of the decade.

text: The start of the 1950s went as well as the 1940s had. The club won Division 4 in 1950 and when they won Division 3 in 1951 they went from a local club to be known as a "comet team" in the national media. The club fought for a place in

text: Allsvenskan

text: in 1953 but saw themselves defeated by

text: Kalmar FF

text: , and in 1954 the club was relegated from Division 2. In 1955 the club set the record for the most spectators during a Division 3 game against

text: IK Oddevold

text: , when 18,229 people showed up for the game. BK Häcken eventually won the league but returned soon again and played in Division 3 for the rest of the decade.

text: One of the more publicized cases of this type was the 1994 Chester and Patti Szuber transplant.  This was the first time that a parent had received a heart donated by one of their own children.  Although the decision to accept the heart from his recently killed child was not an easy decision, the Szuber family agreed that giving Patti's heart to her father would have been something that she would have wanted.

text: The county contains three areas of unorganized territory:

text: There have been varying estimates of how much crude spilled. Initially ExxonMobil did not state an exact amount. On March 30, the company reported that  of oil and water mix had been recovered. The following day the company said   of oil and water had been recovered. The company was unable to estimate how much of the total was oil and how much water. On April 10, UPI reported that around  of oil were spilled but quoted Exxon as saying that the final volume would not be known until after the pipeline was repaired and refilled. Before determination of the penalties for the violations of federal and state environmental laws, the estimated amount was corrected to .

text: There have been varying estimates of how much crude spilled. Initially ExxonMobil did not state an exact amount. On March 30, the company reported that  of oil and water mix had been recovered. The following day the company said   of oil and water had been recovered. The company was unable to estimate how much of the total was oil and how much water. On April 10,

text: UPI

text: reported that around  of oil were spilled but quoted Exxon as saying that the final volume would not be known until after the pipeline was repaired and refilled. Before determination of the penalties for the violations of federal and state environmental laws, the estimated amount was corrected to .

text: 'When your father lived in China, he refused to eat pastries because he didn’t want to eat the dirt the women kneaded from between their fingers.’

text: Airlines: EVA Air (Chongqing), China Airlines (Chongqing), TransAsia Airways (Chongqing), Mandarin Airlines (Chengdu)

text: Airlines:

text: EVA Air

text: (Chongqing),

text: China Airlines

text: (Chongqing),

text: TransAsia Airways

text: (Chongqing),

text: Mandarin Airlines

text: (Chengdu)

text: The Ferraris map or map of the Austrian Netherlands is a historical map created between 1770 and 1778 by the count Joseph de Ferraris in response to a request by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine. It is the first systematic, large scale mapping in Belgium and Western Europe.

text: The Ferraris map or map of the

text: Austrian Netherlands

text: is a

text: historical map

text: created between 1770 and 1778 by the

text: count

text: Joseph de Ferraris

text: in response to a request by

text: Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine

text: . It is the first systematic, large scale mapping in Belgium and Western Europe.

text: The Engagements on Lake Ontario encompass the prolonged naval contest for control of the lake during the War of 1812. Few actions were fought, none of which had decisive results, and the contest essentially became a naval building race, sometimes referred to sarcastically as the "Battle of the Carpenters".

text: The Engagements on Lake Ontario encompass the prolonged naval contest for control of the lake during the

text: War of 1812

text: . Few actions were fought, none of which had decisive results, and the contest essentially became a naval building race, sometimes referred to sarcastically as the "Battle of the Carpenters".

text: He was born in St. John's and was educated at the General Protestant Academy. He first worked as a draper, later working as a bookkeeper for several firms. He became manager at J. & W. Stewart's; when that company ceased to operate in Newfoundland, Cowan took over the business.

text: He was born in

text: St. John's

text: and was educated at the General Protestant Academy. He first worked as a

text: draper

text: , later working as a bookkeeper for several firms. He became manager at J. & W. Stewart's; when that company ceased to operate in Newfoundland, Cowan took over the business.

text: Vehicle Technical SpecificationsLength: 16 feetWidth:	6.1 feetHeight: 3.3 feetWeight: 360 pounds (without driver and batteries)Structure: Welded aluminum space frame with carbon fiber composite battery box and underneath pan to provide shear and torsional strength.Body: Carbon fiber skin with Rohacell structural foam core.Solar power system: 754	single crystal BP Saturn cells (3.7" x 3/8") on top; 824 quarter-size cut cells on vehicle sides. Cerium doped and antireflective

text: Alexey Dmitriev (born 24 December 1985) is a Belarusian-born German professional ice hockey player currently playing for the Düsseldorfer EG of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL).

text: Alexey Dmitriev (born 24 December 1985) is a

text: Belarusian

text: -born

text: German

text: professional

text: ice hockey

text: player currently playing for the

text: Düsseldorfer EG

text: of the

text: Deutsche Eishockey Liga

text: (DEL).

text: The following is a synopsis of the story behind their work from their official website:

text: On September 9, 2001, two days before the September 11 attacks in the United States, Massoud was assassinated in Takhar Province of Afghanistan by suspected al-Qaeda agents. The funeral, although taking place in a rather rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of mourning people. The following year, he was named "National Hero" by the order of Afghan President Hamid Karzai. The date of his death, September 9, is observed as a national holiday in Afghanistan, known as "Massoud Day". The year following his assassination, in 2002, Massoud was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize (which, incidentally, is never awarded posthumously).

text: On September 9, 2001, two days before the

text: September 11 attacks

text: in the United States, Massoud was assassinated in

text: Takhar Province

text: of Afghanistan by suspected

text: al-Qaeda

text: agents. The funeral, although taking place in a rather rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of mourning people. The following year, he was named "National Hero" by the order of Afghan President

text: Hamid Karzai

text: . The date of his death, September 9, is observed as a national holiday in Afghanistan, known as "Massoud Day". The year following his assassination, in 2002, Massoud was nominated for the

text: Nobel Peace Prize

text: (which, incidentally, is never awarded posthumously).

text: Aloeswood, also known as agarwood (沈香 jinkō), is produced in certain parts of southeast Asia such as Vietnam. The trees secrete an aromatic resin, which over time then turns into kōboku (香木). One particular grade of kōboku with a high oil content and superior fragrance is called kyara　(伽羅).

text: Aloeswood, also known as

text: agarwood

text: (沈香 jinkō), is produced in certain parts of southeast Asia such as Vietnam. The trees secrete an aromatic resin, which over time then turns into kōboku (香木). One particular grade of kōboku with a high oil content and superior fragrance is called kyara　(伽羅).

text: The diet consists of small mammals, such as mouse opossums (Marmosa), mice, birds, lizards, and frogs. Juveniles tend to remain closer to the ground to feed on small frogs and lizards.

text: The diet consists of small mammals, such as mouse opossums (

text: Marmosa

text: ), mice, birds, lizards, and frogs. Juveniles tend to remain closer to the ground to feed on small frogs and lizards.

text: Hemingford House is a 19th-century house in Alveston near Stratford on Avon in Warwickshire, England.  It is a Grade II listed building.

text: Hemingford House is a 19th-century house in

text: Alveston

text: near

text: Stratford on Avon

text: in

text: Warwickshire

text: , England.  It is a

text: Grade II listed building

text: Constantin Film bought the rights to make a movie on his novel Er ist wieder da.

text: Constantin Film

text: bought the rights to make a movie on his novel

text: Er ist wieder da

text: On June 15, 2005, in a provisional ruling, the Constitutional Court considered the end of the hearings of evidence, as mentioned above on June 2, as unconstitutional and ordered the Commission of Inquiry to continue with its timetable as planned as long as the Federal Diet isn't dissolved due to the expected call for a snap election later this summer. This would mean the cancelled hearings of ministers like Schily (Minister of the Interior) and Steinmeier (Minister of State of the Federal Chancellory) will most likely take place after all.

text: On June 15, 2005, in a provisional ruling, the

text: Constitutional Court

text: considered the end of the hearings of evidence, as mentioned above on June 2, as unconstitutional and ordered the Commission of Inquiry to continue with its timetable as planned as long as the Federal Diet isn't dissolved due to the expected call for a snap election later this summer. This would mean the cancelled hearings of ministers like

text: Schily

text: (Minister of the Interior) and Steinmeier (Minister of State of the Federal Chancellory) will most likely take place after all.

text: Consider a bipartite graph

text: Consider a

text: bipartite graph

text: Paul's campaign got off to a rough start after his comments on the Civil Rights Act of 1964 stirred controversy. Paul stated that he favored 9 out of 10 titles of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, but that had he been a senator during the 1960s, he would have raised some questions on the constitutionality of Title II of the Act. Paul said that he abhors racism, and that he would have marched with Martin Luther King Jr. to repeal Jim Crow Laws. He later released a statement declaring that he would have voted for the Act and stated "unequivocally ... that I will not support any efforts to repeal the Civil Rights Act of 1964". Later he generated more controversy by characterizing statements made by Obama Administration officials regarding the BP oil spill cleanup as sounding "un-American".

text: Paul's campaign got off to a rough start after his comments on the

text: Civil Rights Act of 1964

text: stirred controversy. Paul stated that he favored 9 out of 10 titles of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, but that had he been a senator during the 1960s, he would have raised some questions on the constitutionality of

text: Title II

text: of the Act. Paul said that he abhors racism, and that he would have marched with

text: Martin Luther King Jr.

text: to repeal

text: Jim Crow Laws

text: . He later released a statement declaring that he would have voted for the Act and stated "unequivocally ... that I will not support any efforts to repeal the Civil Rights Act of 1964". Later he generated more controversy by characterizing statements made by

text: Obama Administration

text: officials regarding the

text: BP oil spill

text: cleanup as sounding "un-American".

text: Pederick has advocated for the seal culling in South Australia. Arctocephalus forsteri, which is native to South Australia is protected as a marine mammal listed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1973. In 2012 he called for the animals to be sterilised on Kangaroo Island, where he believed that they were impacting little penguin populations. In 2015 he claimed that the animals were in Lake Albert, Lake Alexandrina and the Coorong, where they were causing "distress in the environment but also major distress to the fishing industry." He has suggested a "sustainable harvest" of the species, with potential opportunities for the complementary use of scare tactics. He has also suggested that local abattoirs could potentially process seal meat. He has referred the species as "rats of the sea" and claimed that the animals have attacked fishermen's nets and damaged them. He told The Victor Harbor Times that "they kill fish, and cost thousands of dollars in lost production of fish and in lost sales due to damage."

text: Pederick has advocated for the

text: seal culling in South Australia

text: . Arctocephalus forsteri, which is native to South Australia is protected as a marine mammal listed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1973. In 2012 he called for the animals to be sterilised on Kangaroo Island, where he believed that they were impacting

text: little penguin

text: populations. In 2015 he claimed that the animals were in Lake Albert, Lake Alexandrina and the Coorong, where they were causing "distress in the environment but also major distress to the fishing industry." He has suggested a "sustainable harvest" of the species, with potential opportunities for the complementary use of scare tactics. He has also suggested that local abattoirs could potentially process seal meat. He has referred the species as "rats of the sea" and claimed that the animals have attacked fishermen's nets and damaged them. He told The Victor Harbor Times that "they kill fish, and cost thousands of dollars in lost production of fish and in lost sales due to damage."

text: George's second cousin once removed, Queen Anne, ascended the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1702. She had no surviving children, and by the Act of Settlement 1701 the English Parliament designated Anne's closest Protestant blood relations, George's grandmother Sophia and her descendants, as Anne's heirs in England and Ireland. Consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. He was naturalized as an English subject in 1705 by the Sophia Naturalization Act, and in 1706 he was made a Knight of the Garter and created Duke and Marquess of Cambridge, Earl of Milford Haven, Viscount Northallerton and Baron Tewkesbury in the Peerage of England. England and Scotland united in 1707 to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, and jointly accepted the succession as laid down by the English Act of Settlement.

text: George's

text: second cousin once removed

text: Queen Anne

text: , ascended the thrones of

text: England

text: Scotland

text: and

text: Ireland

text: in 1702. She had no surviving children, and by the

text: Act of Settlement 1701

text: the

text: English Parliament

text: designated Anne's closest Protestant

text: blood relations

text: , George's grandmother

text: Sophia

text: and her descendants, as Anne's heirs in England and Ireland. Consequently, after his grandmother and father, George was third in line to succeed Anne in two of her three realms. He was naturalized as an English subject in 1705 by the

text: Sophia Naturalization Act

text: , and in 1706 he was made a

text: Knight of the Garter

text: and created

text: Duke and Marquess of Cambridge

text: , Earl of Milford Haven, Viscount Northallerton and Baron Tewkesbury in the

text: Peerage of England

text: . England and Scotland

text: united in 1707

text: to form the

text: Kingdom of Great Britain

text: , and jointly accepted the succession as laid down by the English Act of Settlement.

text: It seems that a significant part of the Jemez Pueblo population originates from the surviving remnant of the Pecos Pueblo population who fled to Jemez Pueblo in 1838.

text: The larvae feed on Acer argutum, Acer distylum, Acer ginnala, Acer micranthum, Acer mono, Acer pentaphyllum, Acer rufinerve, Acer semenovii, Acer tschonoskii and Acer ukurunduense. They probably mine the leaves of their host plant.

text: The

text: larva

text: e feed on

text: Acer argutum

text: Acer distylum

text: Acer ginnala

text: Acer micranthum

text: Acer mono

text: Acer pentaphyllum

text: Acer rufinerve

text: Acer semenovii

text: Acer tschonoskii

text: and

text: Acer ukurunduense

text: . They probably

text: mine

text: the leaves of their host plant.

text: , there were 11 students in Bière who came from another municipality, while 173 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

text: The dimwitted and insane Julius, showing werewolf-like behavior, finds Mickey's wallet and notices a photo of Minnie, whom he instantly becomes smitten with. He escapes from the laboratory and finds Minnie while she is shopping for swimsuits; Minnie immediately mistakes Julius for Mickey. Mickey arrives in Julius' body to save Minnie, but Minnie mistakes Mickey for a monster (due to his looks) and screams for help until Mickey convinces her of who he is. Julius continues to pursue Minnie, leading to a battle between Mickey and Julius during which they land on a telephone line and are nearly electrocuted. However, this also causes their minds to switch back to their original bodies. Mickey continues to fight Julius, the two of them reaching the top of a skyscraper, and he manages to rescue Minnie as well as tie Julius down with rope. Mickey uses a massive billboard for a Hawaiian vacation getaway to suspend Julius over the city streets, the creature ending up flying up and down like a yo-yo. Finally, the two travel to Hawaii together on an inflatable boat pulled by Julius as he swims after the photo of Minnie in Mickey's wallet, which is attached to a fishing line manned by Mickey.

text: The dimwitted and insane Julius, showing

text: werewolf

text: -like behavior, finds Mickey's wallet and notices a photo of Minnie, whom he instantly becomes smitten with. He escapes from the laboratory and finds Minnie while she is shopping for swimsuits; Minnie immediately mistakes Julius for Mickey. Mickey arrives in Julius' body to save Minnie, but Minnie mistakes Mickey for a monster (due to his looks) and screams for help until Mickey convinces her of who he is. Julius continues to pursue Minnie, leading to a battle between Mickey and Julius during which they land on a

text: telephone line

text: and are nearly electrocuted. However, this also causes their minds to switch back to their original bodies. Mickey continues to fight Julius, the two of them reaching the top of a skyscraper, and he manages to rescue Minnie as well as tie Julius down with rope. Mickey uses a massive

text: billboard

text: for a Hawaiian vacation getaway to suspend Julius over the city streets, the creature ending up flying up and down like a

text: yo-yo

text: . Finally, the two travel to Hawaii together on an

text: inflatable boat

text: pulled by Julius as he swims after the photo of Minnie in Mickey's wallet, which is attached to a

text: fishing line

text: manned by Mickey.

text: On April 20, 2010 when the BP’s Deepwater Horizon rig exploded and oil began spilling into the Gulf of Mexico the entire nation watched, transfixed. Around the Gulf coast the issues were both personal and complex: economic, environmental, political and people.

text: On April 20, 2010 when the

text: BP’s Deepwater Horizon rig exploded

text: and oil began spilling into the Gulf of Mexico the entire nation watched, transfixed. Around the Gulf coast the issues were both personal and complex: economic, environmental, political and people.

text: He was married to the actress Annekathrin Bürger, appearing with her in the 1972 Red Western Tecumseh. He also starred in other westerns including The Sons of Great Bear (1966) and Chingachgook (1967).

text: He was married to the actress

text: Annekathrin Bürger

text: , appearing with her in the 1972

text: Red Western

text: Tecumseh

text: . He also starred in other westerns including

text: The Sons of Great Bear

text: (1966) and

text: Chingachgook

text: The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill served as a major focal point in oil spill governance and reform. Prior to the Exxon Valdez incident a number of laws were in place to prevent and respond to oil spills. These include:

text: (L. Coubash)

text: (L. Coubash)

text: The first Daniel Award for Courageous Public Faith was presented to President George W. Bush on March 16, 2011 at a dinner celebrating ACU’s 50th anniversary celebration at the Phoenix Convention Center, with 1,260 in attendance and raising $1.5 million in scholarships for ACU students. On February 9, 2012, the second award was presented to the Rev. Franklin Graham, president and CEO of the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association as well as the international aid organization Samaritan’s Purse. The third annual Daniel Award was presented to Christian recording artist and three-time Grammy Award winner Michael W. Smith, who performed for ACU students, faculty and supporters in a concert at the Phoenix Convention Center on April 5, 2013.

text: The first Daniel Award for Courageous Public Faith was presented to President

text: George W. Bush

text: on March 16, 2011 at a dinner celebrating ACU’s 50th anniversary celebration at the Phoenix Convention Center, with 1,260 in attendance and raising $1.5 million in scholarships for ACU students. On February 9, 2012, the second award was presented to the

text: Rev. Franklin Graham

text: , president and CEO of the

text: Billy Graham Evangelistic Association

text: as well as the international aid organization

text: Samaritan’s Purse

text: . The third annual Daniel Award was presented to Christian recording artist and three-time Grammy Award winner

text: Michael W. Smith

text: , who performed for ACU students, faculty and supporters in a concert at the

text: Phoenix Convention Center

text: on April 5, 2013.

text: Transnistria may refer to:

text: Transnistria may refer to:

text: The Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC), encompassing the Emirates Institution for Advanced Science and Technology (EIAST) is a Dubai government organisation working on the UAE space program which includes various space satellite projects and the Emirates Mars Mission. The centre is also actively working to promote space science and research in the region.

text: The Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC), encompassing the Emirates Institution for Advanced Science and Technology (EIAST) is a

text: Dubai government

text: organisation working on the UAE space program which includes various

text: space satellite

text: projects and the Emirates Mars Mission. The centre is also actively working to promote

text: space science

text: and

text: research

text: in the region.

text: In June 1979, the Ixtoc I oil platform in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout leading to a catastrophic explosion, which resulted in a massive oil spill that continued for nine months before the well was finally capped. This was ranked as the largest oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.

text: In June 1979, the

text: Ixtoc I

text: oil platform

text: in the Bay of Campeche suffered a

text: blowout

text: leading to a catastrophic explosion, which resulted in a

text: massive oil spill

text: that continued for nine months before the well was finally capped. This was ranked as the largest oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.

text: He animated some of the sketches in Cartoon Network's Mad.

text: He animated some of the sketches in Cartoon Network's

text: Mad

text: ICP-MS is a method of choice for the determination of cadmium in biological samples.

text: ICP-MS is a method of choice for the determination of

text: cadmium

text: in biological samples.

text: Repaired and with a lengthened and glazed cockpit, the Fafnir was flown on some notable flights in 1933, including one of over  from Darmstadt to France and others above Berlin. In 1934 it was taken to South America and flown for over seven hours over Buenos Aires.  On return it continued to fly from its Darnstadt home until retired to a Berlin museum, where it was destroyed by bombing in World War II.

text: Repaired and with a lengthened and glazed cockpit, the Fafnir was flown on some notable flights in 1933, including one of over  from

text: Darmstadt

text: to

text: France

text: and others above

text: Berlin

text: . In 1934 it was taken to

text: South America

text: and flown for over seven hours over

text: Buenos Aires

text: .  On return it continued to fly from its Darnstadt home until retired to a Berlin museum, where it was destroyed by bombing in

text: World War II

text: Internationally, the program is screened in New Zealand on TV2, Denmark on Canal 9, Norway on Canal 9 and the United Kingdom on ITV4 and Pick.

text: Internationally, the program is screened in New Zealand on

text: , Denmark on

entity_name: List of programs broadcast by Canal 9 Denmark

text: Canal 9

text: , Norway on

entity_name: List of programs broadcast by Canal 9 Norway

text: Canal 9

text: and the United Kingdom on

text: and

text: Pick

text: On June 27, 2008, recovery efforts ceased due to the discovery that 10,000 kilos of the dangerous pesticide endosulfan were on board. The government announced that they were considering filing charges, as it is illegal to transport dangerous goods on passenger vessels in the Philippines.

text: On June 27, 2008, recovery efforts ceased due to the discovery that 10,000 kilos of the dangerous pesticide

text: endosulfan

text: were on board. The government announced that they were considering filing charges, as it is illegal to transport dangerous goods on passenger vessels in the Philippines.

text: Penguin sweaters were hand knitted by volunteers for the rehabilitation of penguins contaminated by exposure to oil slicks.  The project is now complete.

text: Penguin sweater

text: s were

text: hand knitted

text: by volunteers for the rehabilitation of penguins contaminated by exposure to oil slicks.  The project is now complete.

text: In 2010, the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill released 779 million liters of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. This was the largest oil spill of all time and indigenous petroleum microorganisms played a major role in petroleum degradation and cleanup.

text: In 2010, the BP

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: oil spill released 779 million liters of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. This was the largest oil spill of all time and

text: indigenous

text: petroleum microorganisms played a major role in petroleum degradation and cleanup.

text: On 15 June Obama made his first speech from the Oval Office, addressing the BP oil spill crisis, saying, "This oil spill is the worst environmental disaster America has ever faced... Make no mistake: we will fight this spill with everything we've got for as long as it takes. We will make BP pay for the damage their company has caused. And we will do whatever's necessary to help the Gulf Coast and its people recover from this tragedy."  Obama was later reported to have said that "his frustration over the mammoth oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is not an attack on Britain" and that he had "no interest in undermining BP's value", as the two leaders tried to soothe trans-Atlantic tensions over the disaster.

text: On 15 June Obama made his first speech from the

text: Oval Office

text: , addressing the BP oil spill crisis, saying, "This oil spill is the worst environmental disaster America has ever faced... Make no mistake: we will fight this spill with everything we've got for as long as it takes. We will make BP pay for the damage their company has caused. And we will do whatever's necessary to help the Gulf Coast and its people recover from this tragedy."  Obama was later reported to have said that "his frustration over the mammoth oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is not an attack on Britain" and that he had "no interest in undermining BP's value", as the two leaders tried to soothe trans-Atlantic tensions over the disaster.

text: On September 6, 1967, Standard Oil of California's 18,000-ton tanker SS R. C. Stoner was driven onto the reef at Wake Island by a strong southwesterly wind after the ship failed to moor to the two buoys near the harbor entrance. An estimated 6 million gallons of refined fuel oil, including 5.7 million gallons of aviation fuel, 168,000 gallons of diesel oil and 138,600 gallons of bunker C fuel spilled into the small boat harbor and along the southwestern coast of Wake Island to Peacock Point. Large numbers of fish were stranded and killed by the oil spill, and personnel from the FAA and crewman from the ship cleared the area closest to the spill of dead fish. The U.S. Navy salvage team Harbor Clearance Unit Two and Pacific Fleet Salvage Officer, Commander John B. Orem flew to Wake to assess the situation and by September 13, Navy tugs USS Mataco and USS Wandank, salvage ships USS Conserver and USS Grapple, tanker USS Noxubee, and USCGC Mallow, arrived from Honolulu, Guam and Subic Bay in the Philippines, to assist in the cleanup and removal of the vessel. At the boat harbor, the salvage team pumped and skimmed oil which they burned each evening in nearby pits. Recovery by the Navy salvage team of the R. C. Stoner and its remaining cargo, however, was hampered by strong winds and heavy seas. On September 16, Super Typhoon Sarah made landfall on Wake Island at peak intensity with winds up to 145-knots, causing widespread damage. The intensity of the storm had the beneficial effect of greatly accelerating the cleanup effort by clearing the harbor and scouring the coast. Oil did remain, however, embedded in the reef's flat crevices and impregnated in the coral. The storm also had broken the wrecked vessel into three sections and, although delayed by rough seas and harassment by blacktip reef sharks, the salvage team used explosives to flatten and sink the remaining portions of the ship that were still above water.

text: On September 6, 1967,

text: Standard Oil of California

text: 's 18,000-ton

text: tanker

text: SS R. C. Stoner was driven onto the reef at Wake Island by a strong southwesterly wind after the ship failed to

text: moor

text: to the two

text: buoy

text: s near the harbor entrance. An estimated 6 million gallons of refined

text: fuel oil

text: , including 5.7 million gallons of

text: aviation fuel

text: , 168,000 gallons of

text: diesel oil

text: and 138,600 gallons of bunker C fuel spilled into the small boat harbor and along the southwestern coast of Wake Island to Peacock Point. Large numbers of fish were stranded and killed by the oil spill, and personnel from the FAA and crewman from the ship cleared the area closest to the spill of dead fish. The U.S. Navy

text: salvage

text: team Harbor Clearance Unit Two and Pacific Fleet Salvage Officer, Commander John B. Orem flew to Wake to assess the situation and by September 13, Navy tugs

text: USS Mataco

text: and

text: USS Wandank

text: , salvage ships

text: USS Conserver

text: and

text: USS Grapple

text: , tanker

text: USS Noxubee

text: , and

text: USCGC Mallow

text: , arrived from

text: Honolulu

text: Guam

text: and

text: Subic Bay

text: in the

text: Philippines

text: , to assist in the cleanup and removal of the vessel. At the boat harbor, the salvage team pumped and skimmed oil which they burned each evening in nearby pits. Recovery by the Navy salvage team of the R. C. Stoner and its remaining cargo, however, was hampered by strong winds and heavy seas. On September 16,

text: Super Typhoon Sarah

text: made landfall on Wake Island at peak intensity with winds up to 145-

text: knots

text: , causing widespread damage. The intensity of the storm had the beneficial effect of greatly accelerating the cleanup effort by clearing the harbor and scouring the coast. Oil did remain, however, embedded in the reef's flat crevices and impregnated in the coral. The storm also had broken the wrecked vessel into three sections and, although delayed by rough seas and harassment by

text: blacktip reef shark

text: s, the salvage team used explosives to flatten and sink the remaining portions of the ship that were still above water.

text: Two former employees and one former contractor were indicted for statements made in multiple documents and one videotape, over several years, for hiding evidence that the reactor pressure vessel was being corroded by boric acid.  The maximum penalty for the three is 25 years in prison.  The indictment mentions that other employees also provided false information to inspectors, but does not name them.

text: Before the investigation could reach conclude both Moragoda and Jayasriya crossed over to the government. Reporting on the privatisation of Lanka Marine Service COPE stated that by his actions Moragoda had at the very least incurred a loss of 1.7 Bn rupees for the government.

text: In the summer 2010, one researcher specialist from VTT expressed his/her critics about the reliability of the electricity market report for the parliament. VTT gave him/her a warning since according to VTT the statement was given in the name of VTT and she/he was not qualified for it. This special researcher claims that he acted privately and revealed in general the contradictions of the electricity market report.

text: In the summer 2010, one researcher specialist from

entity_name: VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

text: VTT

text: expressed his/her critics about the reliability of the electricity market report for the parliament. VTT gave him/her a warning since according to VTT the statement was given in the name of VTT and she/he was not qualified for it. This special researcher claims that he acted privately and revealed in general the contradictions of the electricity market report.

text: The Jebel al Zayt oil spill occurred north of the Red Sea on June 16, 2010. It is considered to be the largest offshore spill in Egyptian history. The spill polluted around 100 miles (160 km) of coastline including tourist beach resorts. Oil company officials in the port city of Suez said the spill was caused by a leak from an offshore oil platform in Jebel al-Zayt north of Hurghada owned by the Egyptian government's state-owned oil company, Geisum Oil.

text: The Jebel al Zayt oil spill occurred north of the

text: Red Sea

text: on June 16, 2010. It is considered to be the largest offshore spill in Egyptian history. The spill polluted around 100 miles (160 km) of coastline including tourist beach resorts. Oil company officials in the port city of

text: Suez

text: said the spill was caused by a leak from an offshore oil platform in Jebel al-Zayt north of Hurghada owned by the Egyptian government's state-owned oil company, Geisum Oil.

text: The cleanup was hampered by two significant factors: the unexpected base surge and the lack of a viable cleanup plan.  It was understood that if the water column fell back into the lagoon, which it did, any ships that were drenched by falling water might be contaminated beyond redemption. Nobody expected that to happen to almost the entire target fleet.  No decontamination procedures had been tested in advance to see if they would work and to measure the potential risk to personnel.  In the absence of a decontamination protocol, the ships were cleaned using traditional deck-scrubbing methods: hoses, mops, and brushes, with water, soap, and lye. The sailors had no protective clothing.