text: In comparison to European powers such as Britain and France which had managed to colonize almost all of the Middle East region after defeating the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the United States was "popular and respected throughout the Middle East". Indeed, "Americans were seen as good people, untainted by the selfishness and duplicity associated with the Europeans." American missionaries had brought modern medicine and set up educational institutions all over the Middle East. Moreover, the United States had provided the Middle East with highly skilled petroleum engineers. Thus, there were some connections made between the United States and the Middle East before the Second World War. Other examples of cooperations between the U.S. and the Middle East are the Red Line Agreement signed in 1928 and the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement signed in 1944. Both of these agreements were legally binding and reflected an American interest in control of Middle Eastern energy resources, namely oil, and moreover reflected an American "security imperative to prevent the (re)emergence of a powerful regional rival". The Red Line Agreement had been "part of a network of agreements made in the 1920s to restrict supply of petroleum and ensure that the major [mostly American] companies … could control oil prices on world markets". The Red Line agreement governed the development of Middle East oil for the next two decades. The Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944 was based on negotiations between the United States and Britain over the control of Middle Eastern oil. Below is shown what the American President Franklin D. Roosevelt had in mind for to a British Ambassador in 1944:

text: In comparison to European powers such as Britain and France which had managed to colonize almost all of the Middle East region after defeating the

entity_name: Ottoman Empire

text: Ottoman Empire

text: in 1918, the United States was "popular and respected throughout the Middle East". Indeed, "Americans were seen as good people, untainted by the selfishness and duplicity associated with the Europeans." American missionaries had brought modern medicine and set up educational institutions all over the Middle East. Moreover, the United States had provided the Middle East with highly skilled petroleum engineers. Thus, there were some connections made between the United States and the Middle East before the Second World War. Other examples of cooperations between the U.S. and the Middle East are the

entity_name: Red Line Agreement

text: Red Line Agreement

text: signed in 1928 and the

entity_name: Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement

text: Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement

text: signed in 1944. Both of these agreements were legally binding and reflected an American interest in control of Middle Eastern energy resources, namely oil, and moreover reflected an American "security imperative to prevent the (re)emergence of a powerful regional rival". The Red Line Agreement had been "part of a network of agreements made in the 1920s to restrict supply of petroleum and ensure that the major [mostly American] companies … could control oil prices on world markets". The Red Line agreement governed the development of Middle East oil for the next two decades. The Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944 was based on negotiations between the United States and Britain over the control of Middle Eastern oil. Below is shown what the American President

entity_name: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt

text: had in mind for to a British Ambassador in 1944:

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: IndianOil accounts for nearly half of India's petroleum products market share, 35% national refining capacity (together with its subsidiary Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd., or CPCL), and 71% downstream sector pipelines through capacity.The IndianOil Group owns and operates 11 of India's 23 refineries with a combined refining capacity of 80.7 MMTPA (million metric tonnes per annum).IndianOil's cross-country pipeline network, for transportation of crude oil to refineries and finished products to high-demand centres, spans over 11,220 km. With a throughput capacity of 80.49 MMTPA for crude oil and petroleum products and 9.5 MMSCMD for gas, this network meets the vital energy needs of the consumers in an efficient, economical and environment-friendly manner.With a portfolio that is bedecked with leading energy brands like XTRAPREMIUM petrol, XTRAMILE diesel and PROPEL petrochemicals, IndianOil's SERVO lubricants and Indane LPG have earned the coveted Superbrand status.

text: Net imports of oil and products account for nearly half of the US trade deficit. Because of declining production and increasing demand, net US imports of oil and petroleum products increased from  in 1970 to  in 2007, before declining. Its largest net suppliers of petroleum products in 2007 were Canada and Mexico, which supplied , respectively. As of 2011, the US consumed 18.8 million barrels of petroleum products per day, and imported a net 8.4 million barrels per day; the EIA reported the United States "Dependence on Net Petroleum Imports" in 2011 as 45%. During 2008-2009 the USA became a net exporter of refined oil products; before the US bought gasoline, diesel and kerosene in Europe, and smaller amounts from other countries.

text: Net imports of oil and products account for nearly half of the US trade deficit. Because of declining production and increasing demand, net US imports of oil and

entity_name: Petroleum product

text: petroleum product

text: s increased from  in 1970 to  in 2007, before declining. Its largest net suppliers of petroleum products in 2007 were Canada and Mexico, which supplied , respectively. As of 2011, the US consumed 18.8 million barrels of petroleum products per day, and imported a net 8.4 million barrels per day; the EIA reported the United States "Dependence on Net Petroleum Imports" in 2011 as 45%. During 2008-2009 the USA became a net exporter of refined oil products; before the US bought gasoline, diesel and kerosene in Europe, and smaller amounts from other countries.

method: UNH-qee

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: The three fossil fuel types are coal, petroleum and natural gas. It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2006 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.8%, coal 26.6%, natural gas 22.9%, amounting to an 86% share for fossil fuels in primary energy production in the world.

text: The three

entity_name: Fossil fuel

text: fossil fuel

text: types are

entity_name: Coal

text: coal

entity_name: Petroleum

text: petroleum

text: and

entity_name: Natural gas

text: natural gas

text: . It was estimated by the

entity_name: Energy Information Administration

text: Energy Information Administration

text: that in 2006 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.8%, coal 26.6%, natural gas 22.9%, amounting to an 86% share for fossil fuels in primary energy production in the world.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The Strategic Petroleum Reserve is primarily a crude petroleum reserve, not a stockpile of refined petroleum fuels such as gasoline, diesel and kerosene. Although the United States maintains some extra supply of refined petroleum fuels, e.g., the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve and Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve under the aegis of the Department of Energy (DOE), the government does not maintain gasoline reserves on anything like the scale of the SPR. The SPR is intended to give the United States protection from disruptions in oil supplies. In the event of a major disruption to refinery operations, the U.S. would have to call on members of the International Energy Agency that stockpile refined products, and use refining capacities outside of the continental United States for relief.

text: The Strategic Petroleum Reserve is primarily a

text: crude petroleum

text: reserve, not a stockpile of

entity_name: Oil refinery

text: refined petroleum fuel

text: s such as

entity_name: Gasoline

text: gasoline

entity_name: Diesel fuel

text: diesel

text: and

entity_name: Kerosene

text: kerosene

text: . Although the United States maintains some extra supply of refined petroleum fuels, e.g., the

entity_name: Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve

text: Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve

text: and

text: Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve

text: under the

text: aegis

text: of the Department of Energy (DOE), the government does not maintain gasoline reserves on anything like the scale of the SPR. The SPR is intended to give the United States protection from disruptions in oil supplies. In the event of a major disruption to

entity_name: Refinery

text: refinery

text: operations, the U.S. would have to call on members of the

entity_name: International Energy Agency

text: International Energy Agency

text: that stockpile refined products, and use refining capacities outside of the continental United States for relief.

text: Crude oils are compounds that mainly consist of many different hydrocarbon compounds that vary in appearance and composition. Average crude oil composition is 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-3% sulphur, and less than 1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals and salts.

text: Singapore Petroleum Company Limited (SPC，a PetroChina company) is a Singaporean oil company. SPC is involved in the exploration and production of petroleum, refining, trading and petroleum product distribution.

text: Singapore Petroleum Company Limited (SPC，a

entity_name: PetroChina

text: PetroChina

text: company) is a

entity_name: Singapore

text: Singapore

text: an

entity_name: Oil

text: oil

text: company. SPC is involved in the exploration and production of

text: petroleum

entity_name: Refining

text: refining

entity_name: Trade

text: trading

text: and petroleum product distribution.

text: UACCM offers the only associate of applied science degrees in Arkansas in the areas of surveying and petroleum technology. The Petroleum Technology Program was created in 2006 in response to growth and development in the Fayetteville Shale Play, an area of natural gas exploration in Arkansas.

text: UACCM offers the only associate of applied science degrees in Arkansas in the areas of surveying and petroleum technology. The Petroleum Technology Program was created in 2006 in response to growth and development in the

entity_name: Shale gas in the United States

entity_section: Fayetteville Shale, Arkansas

text: Fayetteville Shale Play

text: , an area of natural gas exploration in Arkansas.

text: Crude oil can be refined into a wide variety of component hydrocarbons. Petrochemicals are the refined components of crude oil and the chemical products made from them. They are used as detergents, fertilizers, medicines, paints, plastics, synthetic fibers, and synthetic rubber.

text: Crude oil can be refined into a wide variety of component

entity_name: Hydrocarbon

text: hydrocarbons

entity_name: Petrochemical

text: Petrochemicals

text: are the refined

entity_name: Components of crude oil

text: components of crude oil

text: and the chemical products made from them. They are used as

entity_name: Detergent

text: detergents

entity_name: Fertilizer

text: fertilizers

entity_name: Pharmaceutical drug

text: medicines

entity_name: Paint

text: paints

entity_name: Plastic

text: plastics

entity_name: Synthetic fiber

text: synthetic fiber

text: s, and

entity_name: Synthetic rubber

text: synthetic rubber

text: Some energy producers, e.g., electric utilities, may have margins protected by regulation that allows them to price on a ‘cost-plus’ basis. Such factors allow energy producers to pass on cost increases to consumers. Energy-producing industries also generally tend to be capital intensive. This capital-intensity could create entry barriers, giving them greater pricing power. For all these reasons, the net impact of fossil fuel price increases on energy producers is to maintain or increase margins, and thereby, their stock prices. Finally, many energy producers own fossil fuel reserves. Higher fossil fuel prices will have a direct positive impact  on their share prices by increasing the market value of reserve assets.

text: Some energy producers, e.g., electric utilities, may have margins protected by regulation that allows them to price on a ‘cost-plus’ basis. Such factors allow energy producers to pass on cost increases to consumers. Energy-producing industries also generally tend to be capital intensive. This capital-intensity could create entry barriers, giving them greater

entity_name: Market power

text: pricing power

text: . For all these reasons, the net impact of fossil fuel price increases on energy producers is to maintain or increase margins, and thereby, their stock prices. Finally, many energy producers own fossil fuel reserves. Higher fossil fuel prices will have a direct positive impact  on their share prices by increasing the market value of reserve assets.

text: Plants grown as industrial crops are the source of a wide range of products used in manufacturing, sometimes so intensively as to risk harm to the environment. Nonfood products include essential oils, natural dyes, pigments, waxes, resins, tannins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, paint, varnish, turpentine, rubber, latex, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, and gums. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and other biofuels. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are derived from the remains of aquatic organisms including phytoplankton in geological time.

text: Plants grown as

entity_name: Industrial crop

text: industrial crop

text: s are the source of a wide range of products used in manufacturing, sometimes so intensively as to risk harm to the environment. Nonfood products include

entity_name: Essential oil

text: essential oil

text: s,

entity_name: Natural dye

text: natural dye

text: s, pigments, waxes,

entity_name: Resin

text: resin

text: s,

entity_name: Tannin

text: tannin

text: s, alkaloids, amber and

entity_name: Cork (material)

text: cork

text: . Products derived from plants include soaps, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, paint, varnish, turpentine, rubber,

entity_name: Latex

text: latex

text: , lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, and

entity_name: Gum (botany)

text: gums

text: . Renewable fuels from plants include

entity_name: Firewood

text: firewood

entity_name: Peat

text: peat

text: and other

entity_name: Biofuel

text: biofuel

text: s. The

text: fossil fuel

text: s

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: are derived from the remains of aquatic organisms including

entity_name: Phytoplankton

text: phytoplankton

text: in

entity_name: Geologic time scale

text: geological time

text: The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons, while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria. The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:

text: The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly

entity_name: Alkane

text: alkane

text: s,

entity_name: Cycloalkane

text: cycloalkane

text: s and various

entity_name: Aromatic hydrocarbon

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s, while the other organic compounds contain

entity_name: Nitrogen

text: nitrogen

entity_name: Oxygen

text: oxygen

text: and

entity_name: Sulfur

text: sulfur

text: , and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and

entity_name: Vanadium

text: vanadium

text: . Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria. The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of

entity_name: Chemical element

text: chemical element

text: s varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:

text: The Chevron Richmond Refinery is a  petroleum refinery in Richmond, California, on San Francisco Bay. It is owned and operated by Chevron Corporation and employs more than 1,200 workers, making it the city's largest employer. The refinery processes approximately  of crude oil a day in the manufacture of petroleum products and other chemicals. The refinery's primary products are motor gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel and lubricants.

text: The Chevron Richmond Refinery is a  petroleum refinery in

entity_name: Richmond, California

text: Richmond, California

text: , on

entity_name: San Francisco Bay

text: San Francisco Bay

text: . It is owned and operated by

entity_name: Chevron Corporation

text: Chevron Corporation

text: and employs more than 1,200 workers, making it the city's largest employer. The refinery processes approximately  of crude oil a day in the manufacture of

text: petroleum

text: products and other

text: chemicals

text: . The refinery's primary products are

text: motor gasoline

entity_name: Jet fuel

text: jet fuel

text: diesel fuel

text: and

entity_name: Lubricant

text: lubricant

text: s.

text: In 2012, the GoT was considering using the oil terminal as part of its national strategic petroleum reserve.

text: In 2012, the GoT was considering using the oil terminal as part of its national

entity_name: Global strategic petroleum reserves

text: strategic petroleum reserve

text: In Kenya, a number of cases have been reported in the 2010s of thieves selling transformer oil, stolen from electric transformers, to the operators of roadside food stalls for use in deep frying. When used for frying, it is reported that transformer oil lasts  much longer than regular cooking oil. The downside of this misuse of the transformer oil is the threat to the health of the consumers, due to the presence of PCBs.

text: In Kenya, a number of cases have been reported in the 2010s of thieves selling

entity_name: Transformer oil

text: transformer oil

text: , stolen from electric

entity_name: Transformer

text: transformer

text: s, to the operators of roadside

entity_name: Food booth

text: food stall

text: s for use in

entity_name: Deep frying

text: deep frying

text: . When used for frying, it is reported that transformer oil lasts  much longer than regular

text: cooking oil

text: . The downside of this misuse of the transformer oil is the threat to the health of the consumers, due to the presence of PCBs.

text: The use of fossil fuels allows humans to participate in takedown, which is the consumption of energy at a greater rate than it is being replaced. The industrial economy is currently heavily dependent on oil as a fuel and chemical feedstock.  For example, over 90% of transportation in the United States relies on oil.

text: It is estimated that demand and consumption of petroleum in Nigeria grows at a rate of 12.8% annually. However, petroleum products are unavailable to most Nigerians and are quite costly, because almost all of the oil extracted by the multinational oil companies is refined overseas, while only a limited quantity is supplied to Nigerians themselves.

text: Prior to the oil crisis of 1973, the members of the Seven Sisters controlled around 85 percent of the world's petroleum reserves; but since then, industry dominance has shifted to the OPEC cartel and state-owned oil companies in emerging-market economies, such as Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia), China National Petroleum Corporation (China), Rosneft (Russia), National Iranian Oil Company (Iran), Petrobras (Brazil), PDVSA (Venezuela), and Petronas (Malaysia).

text: Prior to the

text: oil crisis of 1973

text: , the members of the Seven Sisters controlled around 85 percent of the world's

text: petroleum

text: reserves; but since then, industry dominance has shifted to the

text: OPEC

text: cartel and state-owned oil companies in emerging-market economies, such as

text: Saudi Aramco

text: (Saudi Arabia),

text: China National Petroleum Corporation

text: (China),

text: Rosneft

text: (Russia),

text: National Iranian Oil Company

text: (Iran),

text: Petrobras

text: (Brazil),

text: PDVSA

text: (Venezuela), and

text: Petronas

text: (Malaysia).

text: The non drying types contain anti-rust chemicals similar to those in anti-rust waxes. Petroleum-based rust-inhibitors provide several benefits, including the ability to creep over metal, covering missed areas. Additionally, a petroleum, solvent-free rust inhibitor remains on the metal surface, sealing it from rust-accelerating water and oxygen. Other benefits of petroleum-based rust protection include the self-healing properties that come naturally to oils, which helps undercoatings to resist abrasion caused by road sand and other debris. The disadvantage of using a petroleum-based coating is the film left over on surfaces, rendering these products too messy for top side exterior application, and unsafe in areas where it can be slipped on. They also cannot be painted.

text: A contract is a written agreement between buyers and sellers that defines the measurement requirements. These are large-volume sales between operating companies where refined products and crude oils are transported by marine, pipeline or rail. Custody transfer measurement must be at the highest level of accuracy possible because a small error in measurement can amount to a large financial difference. Due to these critical natures of measurements, petroleum companies around the world have developed and adopted standards to meet the industry's needs.

text: A

text: contract

text: is a written agreement between buyers and sellers that defines the measurement requirements. These are large-volume sales between operating companies where refined products and

text: crude oils

text: are transported by

text: marine

text: pipeline

text: or

text: rail

text: . Custody transfer measurement must be at the highest level of accuracy possible because a small error in measurement can amount to a large financial difference. Due to these critical natures of measurements,

text: petroleum companies

text: around the world have developed and adopted standards to meet the industry's needs.

text: The United States is the second largest energy consumer in total use.  The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per-capita after Canada and a number of other countries. The majority of this energy is derived from fossil fuels: in 2005, it was estimated that 40% of the nation's energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 23% from natural gas. Nuclear power supplied 8.4% and renewable energy supplied 6.8%, which was mainly from hydroelectric dams although other renewables are included.

text: The United States is the second largest

text: energy

text: consumer in total use.  The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per-capita after Canada and a number of other countries. The majority of this energy is derived from

text: fossil fuel

text: s: in 2005, it was estimated that 40% of the nation's energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 23% from natural gas.

text: Nuclear power

text: supplied 8.4% and

text: renewable energy

text: supplied 6.8%, which was mainly from hydroelectric dams although other renewables are included.

text: In 2011 Iran’s refineries had a combined capacity of . The largest refineries have the following capacities: Abadan, ; Esfahan, ; Bandar-e Abbas, ; Tehran, ; Arak, ; and Tabriz, . In 2004 pipelines conveyed 69 percent of total refined products; trucks, 20 percent; rail, 7 percent; and tankers, 4 percent. Oil refining produces a wide range of oil products, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, and lubricants.  Iran is a net exporter of petroleum products thanks to large exports of residual fuel oil, but the refineries cannot meet domestic demand for lighter distillates such as gasoline.

text: In 2011

entity_name: National Iranian Oil Refining and Distribution Company

text: Iran’s refineries

text: had a combined capacity of . The largest refineries have the following capacities: Abadan, ; Esfahan, ; Bandar-e Abbas, ; Tehran, ; Arak, ; and Tabriz, . In 2004 pipelines conveyed 69 percent of total refined products; trucks, 20 percent; rail, 7 percent; and tankers, 4 percent. Oil refining produces a wide range of oil products, such as

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: (LPG),

text: gasoline

text: kerosene

text: fuel oil

text: , and

text: lubricants

text: .  Iran is a net exporter of petroleum products thanks to large exports of residual fuel oil, but the refineries cannot meet domestic demand for lighter distillates such as gasoline.

text: While he served as GED Exploration and Production, Engr. Chris Ogiemwonyi was in charge of seven NNPC Companies and Subsidiaries which included National Petroleum Investment Management Services NAPIMS), Nigerian Gas Company (NGC), LNG & Power Division, Integrated Data Services Limited (IDSL), Nigerian Petroleum Development Company (NPDC) Crude Oil, Marketing Division and Local Content Division.

text: The main industries in and around Hardisty are petroleum and farming. There is a large petroleum "tank farm" near Hardisty, which is also a nexus of oil pipelines. The oil industry in Hardisty focuses primarily on transport rather than oil processing or collection. Some of the petroleum companies are, Gibson Energy, Enbridge, EnCana Corporation, and many others.

text: The main industries in and around Hardisty are

text: petroleum

text: and

text: farming

text: . There is a large

text: petroleum

text: tank farm

text: " near Hardisty, which is also a nexus of oil

text: pipelines

text: . The oil industry in Hardisty focuses primarily on transport rather than oil processing or collection. Some of the

text: petroleum

text: companies are,

text: Gibson Energy

text: Enbridge

text: EnCana Corporation

text: , and many others.

text: An important concept with regard to declining "easy oil" is energy returned on energy invested, also referred to as EROEI. A 2008 Journal of Energy Security analysis of the energy return on drilling effort in the United States concluded that there was extremely limited potential to increase production of both gas and (especially) oil. By looking at the historical response of production to variation in drilling effort, the analysis showed very little increase of production attributable to increased drilling. This was because of a tight quantitative relationship of diminishing returns with increasing drilling effort: as drilling effort increased, the energy obtained per active drill rig was reduced according to a severely diminishing power law. The study concluded that even an enormous increase of drilling effort was unlikely to significantly increase oil and gas production in a mature petroleum region such as the United States. However, contrary to the study's conclusion, since the analysis was published in 2008, US production of crude oil has increased 74%, and production of dry natural gas has increased 28% (2014 compared to 2008).

text: An important concept with regard to declining "easy oil" is

text: energy returned on energy invested

text: , also referred to as EROEI. A 2008 Journal of Energy Security analysis of the energy return on drilling effort in the United States concluded that there was extremely limited potential to increase production of both gas and (especially) oil. By looking at the historical response of production to variation in drilling effort, the analysis showed very little increase of production attributable to increased drilling. This was because of a tight quantitative relationship of diminishing returns with increasing drilling effort: as drilling effort increased, the energy obtained per active

text: drill rig

text: was reduced according to a severely diminishing

text: power law

text: . The study concluded that even an enormous increase of drilling effort was unlikely to significantly increase oil and gas production in a mature petroleum region such as the United States. However, contrary to the study's conclusion, since the analysis was published in 2008, US production of crude oil has increased 74%, and production of dry natural gas has increased 28% (2014 compared to 2008).

text: Biomarkers are any of a suite of complex organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, which are found in crude oils, bitumens, petroleum source rock and eventually show simplification in molecular structure from the parent organic molecules found in all living organisms.  Essentially, they are complex carbon-based molecules derived from formerly living organisms. Biomarker compounds are typically analyzed using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.  Some examples of biomarkers found in petroleum are pristane, phytane, steranes, triterpanes and porphyrin.   Geologists and Geochemists use biomarkers traces found in crude oils and their related source rock to unravel the stratigraphic  origin and migration pathways of presently existing petroleum deposits.

text: Biomarkers are any of a suite of complex organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and other elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, which are found in

text: crude oils

text: , bitumens,

text: petroleum

text: source rock

text: and eventually show simplification in molecular structure from the parent organic molecules found in all living organisms.  Essentially, they are complex carbon-based molecules derived from formerly living organisms. Biomarker compounds are typically analyzed using

text: gas chromatography

text: and

text: mass spectrometry

text: .  Some examples of biomarkers found in petroleum are

text: pristane

text: phytane

text: sterane

text: s,

text: triterpanes

text: and

text: porphyrin

text: .   Geologists and Geochemists use biomarkers traces found in crude oils and their related

text: source rock

text: to unravel the stratigraphic  origin and migration pathways of presently existing

text: petroleum

text: deposits.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a synthetic fuel – such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel – produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue-gas emissions, recovered from automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.Such fuels are produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in turn in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a

text: synthetic fuel

text: – such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: – produced from renewable or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

entity_name: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: power plant flue-gas emissions

text: , recovered from automotive

text: exhaust gas

text: , or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: .Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: s, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to

text: carbon capture

text: at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: .Such fuels are produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in turn in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: to make traditional transportation or heating

text: fuel

text: s.

text: The United States is divided into five Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts, or PADDs.  These were created during World War II under the Petroleum Administration for War to help organize the allocation of fuels derived from petroleum products, including gasoline and diesel (or "distillate") fuel.  Today, these regions are still used for data collection purposes.

text: The

text: United States

text: is divided into five Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts, or PADDs.  These were created during

text: World War II

text: under the Petroleum Administration for War to help organize the allocation of fuels derived from

text: petroleum

text: products, including

text: gasoline

text: and

text: diesel

text: (or "distillate") fuel.  Today, these regions are still used for data collection purposes.

text: Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for ships, automobiles, aircraft engines, lawn mowers, dirt bikes, and other machines. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation. Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher value products.

text: Petroleum

text: fossil fuels

text: are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for

text: ships

text: automobiles

text: aircraft engine

text: s,

text: lawn mower

text: s,

text: dirt bikes

text: , and other machines. Different

text: boiling point

text: s allow the

text: hydrocarbon

text: s to be separated by

text: distillation

text: . Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher value products.

text: The Eastern Refinery in Chittagong is the country's largest oil refinery. The Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation is the state-owned holding company which regulates the market for petroleum products through its subsidiaries: the Jamuna Oil Company which is the country's largest distributor and was established in 1964 as Pakistan National Oil Limited; the Padma Oil Company which was formerly known as Burmah Eastern Limited, a subsidiary of Burmah Oil until 1977; and Meghna Petroleum.

text: The

text: Eastern Refinery

text: in Chittagong is the country's largest

text: oil refinery

text: . The

text: Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation

text: is the

text: state-owned

text: holding company

text: which regulates the market for

text: petroleum products

text: through its subsidiaries: the

text: Jamuna Oil Company

text: which is the country's largest distributor and was established in 1964 as Pakistan National Oil Limited; the

text: Padma Oil Company

text: which was formerly known as Burmah Eastern Limited, a subsidiary of

text: Burmah Oil

text: until 1977; and Meghna Petroleum.

text: Members of the WSPA include Aera Energy LLC, Alaska Tanker Company, Berry Petroleum, BP, Big West of California LLC, Chevron Corporation, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, Lloyd Properties, Navajo Refining Co., Noble Energy, Olympic Pipeline Company, Occidental Petroleum, Pacific Operators Offshore, Plains All American, SeaRiver Maritime, Seneca Resources Corp., Shell, Tesoro, U.S. Oil and Refining, Valero Energy Corporation, Venoco, and Western Refining.

text: Members of the WSPA include

text: Aera Energy LLC

text: Alaska Tanker Company

text: Berry Petroleum

text: BP

text: , Big West of California LLC,

text: Chevron Corporation

text: ConocoPhillips

text: ExxonMobil

text: Lloyd Properties

text: Navajo Refining Co.

text: Noble Energy

text: Olympic Pipeline Company

text: Occidental Petroleum

text: Pacific Operators Offshore

text: Plains All American

text: SeaRiver Maritime

text: Seneca Resources Corp.

text: Shell

text: Tesoro

text: U.S. Oil and Refining

text: Valero Energy Corporation

text: Venoco

text: , and

text: Western Refining

text: On 28 August 1859, Edwin Drake discovered oil in a well 70 feet deep along Oil Creek, south of Titusville, Pennsylvania. The well made only 12 to 20 barrels per day, but the discovery set off a boom in oil drilling up and down Oil Creek, and then all down the Ohio valley, to Ohio, Kentucky, and Virginia, the same area where many shale oil retorts were located. In 1861, petroleum flooding onto the market drove the price down to US$0.52 per barrel, and lamp oil refiners switched over to petroleum as a much cheaper raw material. Refining petroleum had the further advantage that the process was not patented, allowing refiners to produce lamp oil without paying royalties. The existing shale oil refineries were forced by price-cutting competition to adapt their operations to use petroleum instead, and the American oil shale industry, booming just the previous year was suddenly abandoned. Cheap petroleum prices had driven oil shale out of business.

text: On 28 August 1859,

text: Edwin Drake

text: discovered oil in a well 70 feet deep along Oil Creek, south of

text: Titusville, Pennsylvania

text: . The well made only 12 to 20 barrels per day, but the discovery set off a boom in oil drilling up and down Oil Creek, and then all down the Ohio valley, to Ohio, Kentucky, and Virginia, the same area where many shale oil retorts were located. In 1861, petroleum flooding onto the market drove the price down to US$0.52 per barrel, and lamp oil refiners switched over to petroleum as a much cheaper raw material. Refining petroleum had the further advantage that the process was not patented, allowing refiners to produce lamp oil without paying royalties. The existing shale oil refineries were forced by price-cutting competition to adapt their operations to use petroleum instead, and the American oil shale industry, booming just the previous year was suddenly abandoned. Cheap petroleum prices had driven oil shale out of business.

text: The oil crisis, the Chernobyl disaster and the worldwide need for more power and consequently more power stations have raised energy conservation awareness.

text: The

text: oil crisis

text: , the

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: and the worldwide need for more power and consequently more

text: power station

text: s have raised

text: energy conservation

text: awareness.

text: Crude oil was Vietnam’s leading export until the late 2000s, when high-tech electrical manufactures emerged to become the biggest export market (by 2014, crude oil comprised only 5% of Vietnamese exports, compared to 20% of all exports in 1996). This is because Vietnamese crude oil is estimated to have peaked in 2004, when crude oil represented 22 percent of all export earnings. Petroleum exports are in the form of crude petroleum because Vietnam has a very limited refining capacity. Vietnam’s only operational refinery, a facility at Cat Hai near Ho Chi Minh City, has a capacity of only . Several consortia have abandoned commitments to finance a  facility at Dung Quat in central Vietnam. Refined petroleum accounted for 10.2 percent of total imports in 2002.

text: Crude oil

text: was Vietnam’s leading export until the late 2000s, when high-tech electrical manufactures emerged to become the biggest export market (by 2014, crude oil comprised only 5% of Vietnamese exports, compared to 20% of all exports in 1996). This is because Vietnamese crude oil is estimated to have peaked in 2004, when crude oil represented 22 percent of all export earnings. Petroleum exports are in the form of crude petroleum because Vietnam has a very limited refining capacity. Vietnam’s only operational refinery, a facility at Cat Hai near

text: Ho Chi Minh City

text: , has a capacity of only . Several consortia have abandoned commitments to finance a  facility at Dung Quat in central Vietnam. Refined petroleum accounted for 10.2 percent of total imports in 2002.

text: Kuwait Petroleum Corp., the state-run oil company, will sell its crude oil at $3.95 a barrel below the regional benchmarks, the biggest discount since December 2008, Bloomberg reported Dec. 11, 2014. Saudi Arabia and Iraq also cut oil prices for Asia following the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries' decision to maintain production levels, which ensured that global oil prices would stay low. It is likely that Middle Eastern countries are lowering prices to defend their market shares. Kuwait has sold crude oil to Asia at a discount since at least 2000.

text: The Aden Refinery Company is located at the oil harbor at Aden port; its operations include transshipment of petroleum products, oil refining and marine fuel station.

text: The Aden Refinery Company is located at the oil harbor at Aden port; its operations include transshipment of

text: petroleum product

text: s,

text: oil refining

text: and marine fuel station.

text: On 25 March 2010, an A-10 conducted the first flight of an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend. The flight, performed at Eglin Air Force Base, used a 1:1 blend of JP-8 and Camelina-based fuel. On 28 June 2012, the A-10 became the first aircraft to fly using a new fuel blend derived from alcohol; known as ATJ (Alcohol-to-Jet), the fuel is cellulosic-based that can be derived using wood, paper, grass, or any cellulose based material, and are fermented into alcohols before being hydro-processed into aviation fuel. ATJ is the third alternative fuel to be evaluated by the Air Force as a replacement for petroleum-derived JP-8 fuel. Previous types were a synthetic paraffinic kerosene derived from coal and natural gas and a bio-mass fuel derived from plant-oils and animal fats known as Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet.

text: On 25 March 2010, an A-10 conducted the first flight of an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend. The flight, performed at

text: Eglin Air Force Base

text: , used a 1:1 blend of

text: and

text: Camelina

text: -based fuel. On 28 June 2012, the A-10 became the first aircraft to fly using a new fuel blend derived from alcohol; known as ATJ (Alcohol-to-Jet), the fuel is

text: cellulosic

text: -based that can be derived using wood, paper, grass, or any cellulose based material, and are fermented into alcohols before being hydro-processed into aviation fuel. ATJ is the third alternative fuel to be evaluated by the Air Force as a replacement for petroleum-derived JP-8 fuel. Previous types were a synthetic paraffinic kerosene derived from coal and natural gas and a bio-mass fuel derived from plant-oils and animal fats known as Hydroprocessed Renewable Jet.

text: The origin of the village's name is unknown. Local lore is that the name "Roxana" was chosen to honor a "Queen Roxanne" of the Netherlands, inasmuch as the village owed its very existence to state-owned Royal Dutch Shell.  However, there has never been a Queen Roxanne of the Netherlands.  The Dutch monarch at the time was Wilhelmina of the Netherlands. Starting with the formation of the Seattle-based American Gasoline Company, Royal Dutch/Shell Group also founded Roxana Petroleum Company in 1912 in Oklahoma to locate and produce crude oil. This was followed by the opening of refineries in New Orleans in 1916 and at Wood River in 1918.

text: The origin of the village's name is unknown. Local lore is that the name "Roxana" was chosen to honor a "Queen Roxanne" of the Netherlands, inasmuch as the village owed its very existence to state-owned

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: .  However, there has never been a Queen Roxanne of the Netherlands.  The Dutch monarch at the time was

text: Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

text: . Starting with the formation of the Seattle-based American Gasoline Company, Royal Dutch/Shell Group also founded Roxana Petroleum Company in 1912 in

text: Oklahoma

text: to locate and produce

text: crude oil

text: . This was followed by the opening of refineries in

text: New Orleans

text: in 1916 and at Wood River in 1918.

text: The storm interrupted oil production, importation, and refining in the Gulf eden, thus having a major effect on fuel prices. Before the storm, one-tenth of all the crude oil consumed in the United States and almost half of the gasoline produced in the country came from refineries in the states along the Gulf's shores. An additional 24% of the natural gas supply is extracted or imported in the region. Furthermore, the nation's Strategic Petroleum Reserve is also stored in this region.

text: The storm interrupted oil production, importation, and refining in the Gulf eden, thus having a major effect on fuel prices. Before the storm, one-tenth of all the

text: crude oil

text: consumed in the United States and almost half of the gasoline produced in the country came from refineries in the states along the Gulf's shores. An additional 24% of the

text: natural gas

text: supply is extracted or imported in the region. Furthermore, the nation's

entity_name: Strategic Petroleum Reserve (United States)

text: Strategic Petroleum Reserve

text: is also stored in this region.

text: PTTGC's refined petroleum products has a capacity of 280,000 barrels per day of crude oil and condensate intake, with various high-quality petroleum products with total capacity of 228,000 barrels per day. The products are classified in three groups:

text: A stationary source in air quality terminology is any fixed emitter of air pollutants, such as fossil fuel burning power plants, petroleum refineries, petrochemical plants, food processing plants and other heavy industrial sources.

text: A stationary source in air quality terminology is any fixed emitter of air pollutants, such as

text: fossil fuel

text: burning

text: power plant

text: s,

text: petroleum refineries

text: petrochemical plants

text: food processing plants

text: and other heavy industrial sources.

text: The predecessor company of Marathon Petroleum Corporation, Marathon Petroleum Company LLC, formerly known as Marathon Ashland Petroleum LLC, was formed by the merger of the refining operations of Marathon Oil and Ashland Inc. in 1998. In 2005, the company became a 100% owned subsidiary of Marathon Oil.

text: The predecessor company of Marathon Petroleum Corporation, Marathon Petroleum Company LLC, formerly known as Marathon Ashland Petroleum LLC, was formed by the merger of the refining operations of

text: Marathon Oil

text: and

text: Ashland Inc.

text: in 1998. In 2005, the company became a 100% owned subsidiary of

text: Marathon Oil

text: The power station is owned and operated by Electro-Maxx Limited, a private energy provider in Uganda, who built the power plant at an estimated cost of US$60 million.  The plant uses heavy fuel oil (HFO), a byproduct of petroleum distillation.  The plant currently imports HFO but in the future, it will leverage the country's natural assets and obtain domestically produced HFO or crude oil. The initial power station was fully commissioned in September 2010.

text: The power station is owned and operated by Electro-Maxx Limited, a private energy provider in Uganda, who built the power plant at an estimated cost of US$60 million.  The plant uses

text: heavy fuel oil

text: (HFO), a byproduct of petroleum distillation.  The plant currently imports HFO but in the future, it will leverage the country's natural assets and obtain domestically produced HFO or crude oil. The initial power station was fully commissioned in September 2010.

text: Refined petroleum products - production:

text: The Age of Oil, also known as the Oil Age or the Petroleum Age, refers to the era in human history characterised by an increased use of petroleum in products and as fuel. Though unrefined petroleum has been used for various purposes since ancient times, it was during the 19th century that refinement techniques were developed and gasoline engines were created.

text: The Age of Oil, also known as the Oil Age or the Petroleum Age, refers to the era in human history characterised by an increased use of

text: petroleum

text: in products and as fuel. Though unrefined petroleum has been used for various purposes since ancient times, it was during the 19th century that refinement techniques were developed and gasoline engines were created.

text: The most effective method of mitigating peak oil is to use renewable or alternative energy sources in place of petroleum.

text: The most effective method of mitigating peak oil is to use

text: renewable

text: or

text: alternative energy

text: sources in place of petroleum.

text: The services of EAPC are: transporting crude oil and refined products, long term storage, crude oil blending, processing of liquefied petroleum gas, fuel oil, destillates and gas.

text: Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in a semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow. Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called extra heavy oil. These oil sands resources are called unconventional oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated  of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.

text: Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum, and

text: saline water

text: which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in a semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the

text: Athabasca oil sands

text: in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude

text: bitumen

text: . In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow. Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the

text: Orinoco oil sands

text: , although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called

text: extra heavy oil

text: . These oil sands resources are called

text: unconventional oil

text: to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and

text: Venezuela

text: contain an estimated  of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.

text: An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution.  The term is usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land.  Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, pipelines, railcars, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

text: An oil spill is the release of a

text: liquid

text: petroleum

text: hydrocarbon

text: into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution.  The term is usually applied to

text: marine

text: oil spills, where oil is released into the

text: ocean

text: or

text: coastal waters

text: , but spills may also occur on land.  Oil spills may be due to releases of

text: crude oil

text: from

text: tankers

text: , pipelines, railcars,

text: offshore platforms

text: drilling rig

text: s and

text: wells

text: , as well as spills of

text: refined petroleum products

text: (such as

text: gasoline

text: diesel

text: ) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as

text: bunker fuel

text: , or the spill of any oily refuse or

text: waste oil

text: Although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were consequently not the primary ingredient. Most modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on petroleum, either crude or refined; comparable to modern napalm. The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the Black Sea (e.g., the wells around Tmutorakan noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East. An alternate name for Greek fire was "Median fire" (μηδικὸν πῦρ), and the 6th-century historian Procopius, records that crude oil, called "naphtha" (in Greek: νάφθα naphtha, from Old Persian 𐎴𐎳𐎫 naft) by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as "Median oil" (μηδικὸν ἔλαιον). This seems to corroborate the use of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire. Naphtha was also used by the Abbasids in the 9th century, with special troops, the naffāṭūn, who wore thick protective suits and used small copper vessels containing burning oil, which they threw onto the enemy troops. There is also a surviving 9th Century Latin text, preserved at Wolfenbüttel in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the siphōns used to project it. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha. Resins were probably added as a thickener (the Praecepta Militaria refer to the substance as πῦρ κολλητικόν, "sticky fire"), and to increase the duration and intensity of the flame. A modern theoretical concoction included the use of pine tar and animal fat along with other ingredients.

text: Although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were consequently not the primary ingredient. Most modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on

text: petroleum

text: , either crude or refined; comparable to modern

text: napalm

text: . The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the

text: Black Sea

text: (e.g., the wells around

text: Tmutorakan

text: noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East. An alternate name for Greek fire was "

text: Median

text: fire" (μηδικὸν πῦρ), and the 6th-century historian

text: Procopius

text: , records that crude oil, called "

text: naphtha

text: " (in Greek: νάφθα naphtha, from

text: Old Persian

text: 𐎴𐎳𐎫 naft) by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as "Median oil" (μηδικὸν ἔλαιον). This seems to corroborate the use of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire. Naphtha was also used by the

text: Abbasids

text: in the 9th century, with special troops, the naffāṭūn, who wore thick protective suits and used small copper vessels containing burning oil, which they threw onto the enemy troops. There is also a surviving 9th Century

text: Latin

text: text, preserved at

text: Wolfenbüttel

text: in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the siphōns used to project it. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha. Resins were probably added as a thickener (the

text: Praecepta Militaria

text: refer to the substance as πῦρ κολλητικόν, "sticky fire"), and to increase the duration and intensity of the flame. A modern theoretical concoction included the use of

text: pine tar

text: and animal fat along with other ingredients.

text: Seminole County has been an important part of the Oklahoma and United States petroleum industry for over 80 years. The Greater Seminole Field was one of the most important oil fields ever found and is still producing. Discovered one field after another in 1926, it contained an estimated  of oil. To group the fields together, the oil companies decided to come up with a name, and this was suggested by Paul Hedrick, oil editor of the Tulsa World. Other important oil fields in the area were the Cromwell oil field, discovered in 1923, and the Maud oil field. The Maud field, discovered in 1927 by Amerada Petroleum, was the first discovery using reflection seismology. This marked the beginning of the use of modern geophysical methods in the petroleum industry.

text: Seminole County has been an important part of the Oklahoma and United States petroleum industry for over 80 years. The

text: Greater Seminole Field

text: was one of the most important oil fields ever found and is still producing. Discovered one field after another in 1926, it contained an estimated  of oil. To group the fields together, the oil companies decided to come up with a name, and this was suggested by Paul Hedrick, oil editor of the

text: Tulsa World

text: . Other important oil fields in the area were the Cromwell oil field, discovered in 1923, and the Maud oil field. The Maud field, discovered in 1927 by Amerada Petroleum, was the first discovery using

text: reflection seismology

text: . This marked the beginning of the use of modern geophysical methods in the petroleum industry.

text: The term "Oil Field Engine" can refer to any sort of internal combustion engine used as a power source in the production of crude petroleum, but most commonly refers to a class of reciprocating engines built in the mid to late 19th and early 20th centuries, which is the focus of this article.

text: The term "Oil Field Engine" can refer to any sort of

text: internal combustion engine

text: used as a power source in the production of crude

text: petroleum

text: , but most commonly refers to a class of reciprocating engines built in the mid to late 19th and early 20th centuries, which is the focus of this article.

text: Setting fuel aflame releases usable energy. Wood was a prehistoric fuel, and is still viable today. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal, in power plants supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today; the International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power comes from these sources. The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce electricity. Fire is also used to provide mechanical work directly, in both external and internal combustion engines.

text: Setting

text: fuel

text: aflame releases usable energy.

text: Wood

text: was a

text: prehistoric

text: fuel, and is still viable today. The use of

text: fossil fuel

text: s, such as

text: petroleum

text: natural gas

text: , and

text: coal

text: , in

text: power plants

text: supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today; the

text: International Energy Agency

text: states that nearly 80% of the world's power comes from these sources. The fire in a

text: power station

text: is used to heat water, creating steam that drives

text: turbine

text: s. The turbines then spin an

text: electric generator

text: to produce electricity. Fire is also used to provide

text: mechanical work

text: directly, in both

text: external

text: and

text: internal combustion engine

text: s.

text: In 1953, British Petroleum Company (BP) entered the Canadian market through the purchase of a minority stake in Calgary-based Triad Oil Company. In the early 1950s, the power struggle between oil companies and host governments in Middle East started, which hampered operations of  British Petroleum in the region, and prompted it to diversify its operations beyond the heavily Middle East dependent oil production. The Canadian holding company of British Petroleum was renamed BP Canada in 1969; and in 1971, it acquired 97.8% stake of Supertest.

text: In 1953,

text: British Petroleum Company

text: (BP) entered the Canadian market through the purchase of a minority stake in Calgary-based Triad Oil Company. In the early 1950s, the power struggle between oil companies and host governments in Middle East started, which hampered operations of  British Petroleum in the region, and prompted it to diversify its operations beyond the heavily Middle East dependent oil production. The Canadian

text: holding company

text: of British Petroleum was renamed BP Canada in 1969; and in 1971, it acquired 97.8% stake of Supertest.

text: In recent years, a significant amount of foreign-based oil drilling has begun in South Sudan, raising the land's geopolitical profile. Oil and other mineral resources can be found throughout South Sudan, but the area around Bentiu is commonly known as being especially rich in oil, while Jonglei, Warrap, and Lakes have potential reserves. During the autonomy years from 2005 to 2011, Khartoum partitioned much of Sudan into blocks, with about 85% of the oil coming from the South. Blocks 1, 2, and 4 are controlled by the largest overseas consortium, the Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company (GNPOC). GNPOC is composed of the following players: China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC, People's Republic of China), with a 40% stake; Petronas (Malaysia), with 30%; Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (India), with 25%; and Sudapet of the central Sudan government with 5%.

text: In recent years, a significant amount of foreign-based oil drilling has begun in South Sudan, raising the land's geopolitical profile. Oil and other mineral resources can be found throughout South Sudan, but the area around

text: Bentiu

text: is commonly known as being especially rich in oil, while

text: Jonglei

text: Warrap

text: , and

text: Lakes

text: have potential reserves. During the

entity_name: Southern Sudan Autonomous Region (2005–11)

text: autonomy years

text: from 2005 to 2011, Khartoum partitioned much of Sudan into blocks, with about 85% of the oil coming from the South. Blocks 1, 2, and 4 are controlled by the largest overseas consortium, the

entity_name: Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company

text: Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company

text: (GNPOC). GNPOC is composed of the following players:

text: China National Petroleum Corporation

text: (CNPC,

text: People's Republic of China

text: ), with a 40% stake;

text: Petronas

text: Malaysia

text: ), with 30%;

text: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation

text: India

text: ), with 25%; and

text: Sudapet

text: of the central Sudan government with 5%.

text: The ballpark was located on the south side of Beverly Boulevard between Genesee Avenue and The Grove Drive, just east of where CBS Television City is currently located. A couple hundred meters to the west was Gilmore Stadium, an oval-shaped venue built several years earlier, which was used for football games and midget auto racing. To the east was the famous Pan-Pacific Auditorium. Both facilities were built by Earl Gilmore, son of Arthur F. Gilmore and president of A. F. Gilmore Oil, a California-based petroleum company which was developed after Arthur struck oil on the family property. The area was rich in petroleum, which was the source of the "tar" in the nearby La Brea Tar Pits.

text: The ballpark was located on the south side of

text: Beverly Boulevard

text: between Genesee Avenue and The Grove Drive, just east of where

text: CBS

text: Television City is currently located. A couple hundred meters to the west was

text: Gilmore Stadium

text: , an oval-shaped venue built several years earlier, which was used for football games and midget auto racing. To the east was the famous

text: Pan-Pacific Auditorium

text: . Both facilities were built by Earl Gilmore, son of Arthur F. Gilmore and president of A. F. Gilmore Oil, a California-based petroleum company which was developed after Arthur struck oil on the family property. The area was rich in petroleum, which was the source of the "tar" in the nearby

text: La Brea Tar Pits

text: Petrochemicals, also called petroleum distillates, are chemical products derived from petroleum. Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sources such as corn or sugar cane.

text: Petrochemicals, also called petroleum distillates, are

text: chemical products

text: derived from

text: petroleum

text: . Some

text: chemical compound

text: s made from petroleum are also obtained from other

text: fossil fuel

text: s, such as

text: coal

text: or

text: natural gas

text: , or renewable sources such as

text: corn

text: or

text: sugar cane

text: Petroleum exploration activities have been conducted in Ghana since the late nineteenth century; and commercially sustainable deposits of petroleum or natural gas was discovered in 2008 by Kosmos. The total crude oil found is estimated to be about 6.5 million barrels. Production started in early 2010 in the Jubilee Field and as at 21 April 2011, Kosmos alone has lifted 1.9 million barrels from the Jubilee Field. The Saltpond oilfield, which produced a total of 294,430 barrels when it reopened in 2002 to its closing in 2004. Gas flared at Saltpond averaged 2 million cubic feet per day. The Tema Oil Refinery refined all the crude petroleum imported into the country, with the exception of consignments going to the Takoradi thermal powerplant.

text: Petroleum exploration activities have been conducted in Ghana since the late nineteenth century; and commercially sustainable deposits of petroleum or natural gas was discovered in 2008 by Kosmos. The total crude oil found is estimated to be about 6.5 million barrels. Production started in early 2010 in the Jubilee Field and as at 21 April 2011, Kosmos alone has lifted 1.9 million barrels from the Jubilee Field. The

text: Saltpond

text: oilfield, which produced a total of 294,430 barrels when it reopened in 2002 to its closing in 2004. Gas flared at Saltpond averaged 2 million cubic feet per day. The

text: Tema

text: Oil Refinery refined all the crude petroleum imported into the country, with the exception of consignments going to the

text: Takoradi

text: thermal powerplant.

text: There are great differences between the first small suction caissons that were installed for Shell at the Gorm field in the North Sea in 1981 and the large suction caissons that were installed for the Diana platform in the Gulf of Mexico in 1999. The twelve suction caissons on the Gorm field were intended to secure a simple loading buoy device at a depth of 40 metres, while the installation of suction anchors for the Diana platform was a world record in itself at that time, concerning water depth and size of anchors. The height of the Diana suction caissons is 30 metres, their diameter 6.5 metres, and they were installed at a depth of about 1500 m on soft clay deposits. Since then, suction caissons have been installed at even larger depths, but the Diana installation was a technology breakthrough for the 20th century.An important development step for the suction caisson technology emerged from cooperation between the former operator in the North Sea, Saga Petroleum AS, and Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI). Saga Petroleum’s oil-producing Snorre A platform was a tension-leg platform of a type that in other parts of the world would have been founded with up to 90 metres long piles. Unfortunately on the Snorre oil field, it was difficult to use long piles due to the presence of huge pebbles at 60 m depth under the seabed. Saga Petroleum decided therefore to use suction caissons, which were analysed by NGI. These analyses were verified from extensive model tests. The calculations showed that the platform could be safely secured by suction caissons of only 12 m in length. Snorre A started to produce oil in 1992 and is now operated by the Norwegian oil company Statoil.

text: There are great differences between the first small suction caissons that were installed for

text: Shell

text: at the

text: Gorm field

text: in the North Sea in 1981 and the large suction caissons that were installed for the Diana platform in the Gulf of Mexico in 1999. The twelve suction caissons on the Gorm field were intended to secure a simple loading buoy device at a depth of 40 metres, while the installation of suction anchors for the Diana platform was a world record in itself at that time, concerning water depth and size of anchors. The height of the Diana suction caissons is 30 metres, their diameter 6.5 metres, and they were installed at a depth of about 1500 m on soft clay deposits. Since then, suction caissons have been installed at even larger depths, but the Diana installation was a technology breakthrough for the 20th century.An important development step for the suction caisson technology emerged from cooperation between the former operator in the North Sea,

text: Saga Petroleum AS

text: , and

text: Norwegian Geotechnical Institute

text: (NGI). Saga Petroleum’s oil-producing

text: Snorre A platform

text: was a

text: tension-leg platform

text: of a type that in other parts of the world would have been founded with up to 90 metres long piles. Unfortunately on the

text: Snorre oil field

text: , it was difficult to use long piles due to the presence of huge pebbles at 60 m depth under the seabed. Saga Petroleum decided therefore to use suction caissons, which were analysed by NGI. These analyses were verified from extensive model tests. The calculations showed that the platform could be safely secured by suction caissons of only 12 m in length. Snorre A started to produce oil in 1992 and is now operated by the Norwegian oil company

text: Statoil

text: The population () uses 3.76 Tonne of oil equivalent per person per year, of which 43.7% comes from petroleum and 19% from nuclear power.

text: The population () uses 3.76

text: Tonne of oil equivalent

text: per person per year, of which 43.7% comes from

text: petroleum

text: and 19% from

text: nuclear power

text: Petrotest products are used for the quality control of petroleum products including crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas, motor fuel, aviation fuel, lubricating oil, grease and bitumen.

text: Many man-made chemicals are derived from fossil fuels (such as petroleum or coal) in which C is greatly depleted. CO--or rather, its relative absence—is therefore used to determine the relative contribution (or mixing ratio) of fossil fuel oxidation to the total carbon dioxide in a given region of the Earth's atmosphere.

text: Many man-made chemicals are derived from

text: fossil fuel

text: s (such as

text: petroleum

text: or

text: coal

text: ) in which C is greatly depleted. CO--or rather, its relative absence—is therefore used to determine the relative contribution (or

text: mixing ratio

text: ) of fossil fuel oxidation to the total

text: carbon dioxide

text: in a given region of the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: Co-processing is the use of waste as raw material, or as a source of energy, or both to replace natural mineral resources (material recycling) and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and gas (energy recovery) in industrial processes, mainly in energy intensive industries (EII) such as cement, lime, steel, glass, and power generation. Waste materials used for Co-processing are referred to as alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR).

text: Co-processing is the use of

text: waste

text: as raw material, or as a source of energy, or both to replace natural mineral resources (material recycling) and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and gas (energy recovery) in industrial processes, mainly in energy intensive industries (EII) such as

text: cement

text: lime

text: steel

text: glass

text: , and

text: power generation

text: . Waste materials used for Co-processing are referred to as alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR).

text: The Chicontepec Basin (Chicontepec Formation) is a petroleum system in Mexico north-east of Mexico City, covering an area of around  in the states of Veracruz, Puebla and Hidalgo.  Several oil fields have been discovered in that area since 1926.  A major field was discovered in 1973 but contains extra heavy crude, which due to special refining needs is considered unviable at this time.  Since that time, tiny amounts of oil have been produced. While the reserves are overwhelmingly extra heavy crude, pockets of lighter tight oil, as well as natural gas, are also found in the basin.

text: The Chicontepec Basin (Chicontepec Formation) is a petroleum system in

text: Mexico

text: north-east of

text: Mexico City

text: , covering an area of around  in the states of

text: Veracruz

text: Puebla

text: and

text: Hidalgo

text: .  Several oil fields have been discovered in that area since 1926.  A major field was discovered in 1973 but contains

text: extra heavy crude

text: , which due to special refining needs is considered unviable at this time.  Since that time, tiny amounts of oil have been produced. While the reserves are overwhelmingly extra heavy crude, pockets of lighter

text: tight oil

text: , as well as

text: natural gas

text: , are also found in the basin.

text: Preem is the largest supplier of petroleum products in Sweden and its two refieneries, Preemraff Göteborg in Gothenburg, and Preemraff Lysekil in Lysekil represent 80 percent of Sweden's refining capacity. The annual capacity of Preemraff Lysekil is around 11 million metric tons of crude oil.

text: Preem

text: is the largest supplier of

text: petroleum product

text: s in

text: Sweden

text: and its two refieneries, Preemraff Göteborg in Gothenburg, and Preemraff Lysekil in

text: Lysekil

text: represent 80 percent of Sweden's refining capacity. The annual capacity of Preemraff Lysekil is around 11 million metric tons of crude oil.

text: The Port Harcourt Refining Company, (abbreviated PHRC), is a Port Harcourt-based oil and gas company primarily specializing in the refining of crude oil into petroleum products. The company is a subsidiary of the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC).

text: The Port Harcourt Refining Company, (

text: abbreviated

text: PHRC), is a

text: Port Harcourt

text: -based

text: oil

text: and

text: gas

text: company primarily specializing in the refining of

text: crude oil

text: into

text: petroleum product

text: s. The company is a subsidiary of the

text: Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation

text: (NNPC).

text: Frigerio also promulgated large petroleum exploration and drilling contracts with foreign oil companies.  These gave interested participants a generous share of the profits from such activities, provided these were carried out in conjunction with the Argentine state oil concern, YPF.  As a consequence of investments initiated during the next four years, the profile of a number of sectors in the Argentine economy were revolutionized by the early 1960s:

text: Frigerio also promulgated large

text: petroleum

text: exploration and drilling contracts with foreign oil companies.  These gave interested participants a generous share of the profits from such activities, provided these were carried out in conjunction with the Argentine state oil concern,

text: YPF

text: .  As a consequence of investments initiated during the next four years, the profile of a number of sectors in the Argentine economy were revolutionized by the early 1960s:

text: In distilling the crude oil, it is important not to subject the crude oil to temperatures above 370 to 380 °C because the high molecular weight components in the crude oil will undergo thermal cracking and form petroleum coke at temperatures above that. Formation of coke would result in plugging the tubes in the furnace that heats the feed stream to the crude oil distillation column. Plugging would also occur in the piping from the furnace to the distillation column as well as in the column itself.

text: In distilling the crude oil, it is important not to subject the crude oil to temperatures above 370 to 380 °C because the high

text: molecular weight

text: components in the crude oil will undergo

text: thermal cracking

text: and form

text: petroleum coke

text: at temperatures above that. Formation of coke would result in plugging the tubes in the

text: furnace

text: that heats the feed stream to the crude oil distillation column. Plugging would also occur in the

text: piping

text: from the furnace to the distillation column as well as in the column itself.

text: Texas has known petroleum deposits of about , which makes up about one-fourth of the known U.S. reserves. The state's refineries can process  of oil a day. The Baytown Refinery in the Houston area is the largest refinery in America. Texas also leads in natural gas production, producing one-fourth of the nation's supply. Several petroleum companies are based in Texas such as: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, Conoco-Phillips, Exxon-Mobil, Halliburton, Marathon Oil, Tesoro, and Valero, Western Refining.

text: Texas has known petroleum deposits of about , which makes up about one-fourth of the known U.S. reserves. The state's

text: refineries

text: can process  of oil a day. The

text: Baytown Refinery

text: in the Houston area is the largest refinery in America. Texas also leads in natural gas production, producing one-fourth of the nation's supply. Several

entity_name: List of oil exploration and production companies

text: petroleum companies

text: are based in Texas such as:

text: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation

text: Conoco-Phillips

text: Exxon-Mobil

text: Halliburton

text: Marathon Oil

text: Tesoro

text: , and

text: Valero

text: Western Refining

text: Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) is a term used for any mixture of hydrocarbons that are found in crude oil. There are several hundred of these compounds, but not all occur in any one sample. Crude oil is used to make petroleum products which can contaminate the environment. Because there are so many different chemicals in crude oil and in other petroleum products, it is not practical to measure each one separately. However, it is useful to measure the total amount of TPH at a site.  Chemicals that occur in TPH include hexane, benzene, toluene, xylenes, naphthalene, and fluorene, other constituents of gasoline, of jet fuels, of mineral oils, and of other petroleum products. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Ranges are monitored at various levels depending on the state and testing site. TPH is the sum of VPH and EPH. VPH refers to volatile petroleum hydrocarbons (VPH) also known as petrol range organics (PRO) and includes hydrocarbons from C2-C5. Diesel range organics (DRO) includes hydrocarbons from C10-C28.Various methods to analyze the components of TPH are introduced in a Nordic report. The report evaluates critically various new methods replacing the old ones using banned ozone depleting substances.

text: Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) is a term used for any mixture of

text: hydrocarbons

text: that are found in

text: crude oil

text: . There are several hundred of these compounds, but not all occur in any one sample. Crude oil is used to make

text: petroleum

text: products which can

text: contaminate

text: the

text: environment

text: . Because there are so many different chemicals in crude oil and in other petroleum products, it is not practical to measure each one separately. However, it is useful to measure the total amount of TPH at a site.  Chemicals that occur in TPH include

text: hexane

text: benzene

text: toluene

text: xylenes

text: naphthalene

text: , and

text: fluorene

text: , other constituents of

text: gasoline

text: , of

text: jet fuel

text: s, of

text: mineral oil

text: s, and of other petroleum products. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Ranges are monitored at various levels depending on the state and testing site. TPH is the sum of VPH and EPH. VPH refers to volatile petroleum hydrocarbons (VPH) also known as petrol range organics (PRO) and includes hydrocarbons from C2-C5. Diesel range organics (DRO) includes hydrocarbons from C10-C28.Various methods to analyze the components of TPH are introduced in a Nordic report. The report evaluates critically various new methods replacing the old ones using banned

text: ozone depleting substances

text: The more recent discoveries of coal, petroleum and natural gas are modern extensions of this trend. These fossil fuels are the remnants of ancient plant and animal matter, formed using energy from sunlight and then trapped within Earth for millions of years. Because the stored energy in these fossil fuels has accumulated over many millions of years, they have allowed modern humans to massively increase the production and consumption of primary energy. As the amount of fossil fuel is large but finite, this cannot continue indefinitely, and various theories exist as to what will follow this stage of human civilization (e.g., alternative fuels, Malthusian catastrophe, new urbanism, peak oil).

text: The more recent discoveries of

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: are modern extensions of this trend. These

text: fossil fuel

text: s are the remnants of ancient plant and animal matter, formed using energy from sunlight and then trapped within Earth for millions of years. Because the stored energy in these fossil fuels has accumulated over many millions of years, they have allowed modern humans to massively increase the production and consumption of

text: primary energy

text: . As the amount of fossil fuel is large but finite, this cannot continue indefinitely, and various theories exist as to what will follow this stage of human civilization (e.g.,

text: alternative fuels

text: Malthusian catastrophe

text: new urbanism

text: peak oil

text: An oil field is a region with an abundance of oil wells extracting petroleum (crude oil) from below ground. Because the oil reservoirs typically extend over a large area, possibly several hundred kilometres across, full exploitation entails multiple wells scattered across the area. In addition, there may be exploratory wells probing the edges, pipelines to transport the oil elsewhere, and support facilities.

text: An oil field is a region with an abundance of

text: oil well

text: s extracting

text: petroleum

text: (crude oil) from below ground. Because the

text: oil reservoir

text: s typically extend over a large area, possibly several hundred kilometres across, full exploitation entails multiple wells scattered across the area. In addition, there may be exploratory wells probing the edges, pipelines to transport the oil elsewhere, and support facilities.

text: Another type of solid fuel is nuclear power, which uses uranium ore. The use of fossil fuels has been declining throughout the decades; this brings the issue of creating a source that has zero-carbon. An option for this source that has zero-carbon includes nuclear power. Nature does not provide nuclear power from its origin form so it is extracted from uranium ore. A rock that has a content of more than 0.1% is considered to be workable. A problem with mining uranium ore is that it creates large amounts of waste that contain a lot of radioactive residues and additionally some non-toxic substances. Another problem with using uranium ore is that the earth only has a limited amount of it and if the earth were to switch entirely onto nuclear power, the source would be depleted in a relatively short amount of time. France currently uses nuclear power for the majority of their electricity supply, while countries like Australia, Austria, Denmark, Norway, and Portugal do not use any nuclear power at all.

text: Another type of solid fuel is nuclear power, which uses

text: uranium ore

text: . The use of

text: fossil fuels

text: has been declining throughout the decades; this brings the issue of creating a source that has zero-carbon. An option for this source that has zero-carbon includes nuclear power. Nature does not provide nuclear power from its origin form so it is extracted from uranium ore. A rock that has a content of more than 0.1% is considered to be workable. A problem with mining uranium ore is that it creates large amounts of waste that contain a lot of radioactive residues and additionally some non-toxic substances. Another problem with using uranium ore is that the earth only has a limited amount of it and if the earth were to switch entirely onto nuclear power, the source would be depleted in a relatively short amount of time. France currently uses nuclear power for the majority of their electricity supply, while countries like Australia, Austria, Denmark, Norway, and Portugal do not use any nuclear power at all.

text: Better lubrication, such as from petroleum oils, reduced friction losses in mills and factories.  Anti-friction bearings were developed using alloy steels and precision machining techniques available in the last quarter of the 19th century.  Anti-friction bearings were widely used on bicycles by the 1880s.  Bearings began being used on line shafts in the decades before factory electrification and it was the pre-bearing shafts that were largely responsible for their high power losses, which were commonly 25 to 30% and often as much as 50%.

text: Better lubrication, such as from petroleum oils, reduced friction losses in mills and factories.  Anti-friction bearings were developed using alloy steels and precision machining techniques available in the last quarter of the 19th century.  Anti-friction bearings were widely used on bicycles by the 1880s.  Bearings began being used on

text: line shaft

text: s in the decades before factory electrification and it was the pre-bearing shafts that were largely responsible for their high power losses, which were commonly 25 to 30% and often as much as 50%.

text: The burning of coal and/or petroleum by industry and power plants generates sulfur dioxide (SO) that reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric acid (HSO) and sulfurous acid (HSO). These acids are components of acid rain, lowering the pH of soil and freshwater bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the environment and chemical weathering of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require that fuel producers extract sulfur from fossil fuels to prevent acid rain formation. This extracted and refined sulfur represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal-fired power plants, flue gases are sometimes purified. More modern power plants that use synthesis gas extract the sulfur before they burn the gas.

text: The burning of

text: coal

text: and/or

text: petroleum

text: by industry and

text: power plants

text: generates sulfur dioxide (SO) that reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfuric acid (HSO) and

text: sulfurous acid

text: (HSO). These acids are components of

text: acid rain

text: , lowering the

text: pH

text: of

text: soil

text: and freshwater bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the

text: environment

text: and

text: chemical weathering

text: of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require that fuel producers extract sulfur from

text: fossil fuel

text: s to prevent acid rain formation. This extracted and refined sulfur represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal-fired power plants,

text: flue gases

text: are sometimes purified. More modern power plants that use

text: synthesis gas

text: extract the sulfur before they burn the gas.

text: Petroleum or crude oil began to significantly contribute to the Malaysian economy in the 1970s, as new oil rigs and refineries were set up. By 1975, total production of crude oil stood at , most of it produced by Shell. In 1974, the exclusive right to own, explore and exploit petroleum in Malaysia was vested in the government enterprise of Petronas. The following year, Petronas was granted sole rights over the marketing and distribution of all petroleum products and a provision to control other companies without taking an ownership stake in them, through the issuance of management shares to Petronas.

text: Petroleum

text: or

text: crude oil

text: began to significantly contribute to the Malaysian economy in the 1970s, as new

text: oil rigs

text: and

text: refineries

text: were set up. By 1975, total production of crude oil stood at , most of it produced by

text: Shell

text: . In 1974, the exclusive right to own, explore and exploit petroleum in Malaysia was vested in the government enterprise of

text: Petronas

text: . The following year, Petronas was granted sole rights over the marketing and distribution of all petroleum products and a provision to control other companies without taking an ownership stake in them, through the issuance of management shares to Petronas.

text: Many African countries are highly and dangerously dependent on mineral exports. Mineral fuels (coal, petroleum) account for more than 90% of the export earnings for Algeria, Equatorial Guinea, Libya, and Nigeria. Minerals account for 80% for Botswana (led by, in order of value, diamond, copper, nickel, soda ash, and gold), Congo (Brazzaville) (petroleum), Congo (Kinshasa) (diamond, petroleum, cobalt, and copper), Gabon (petroleum and manganese), Guinea (bauxite, alumina, gold, and diamond), Sierra Leone (diamond), and Sudan (petroleum and gold). Minerals and mineral fuels accounted for more than 50% of the export earnings of Mali (gold), Mauritania (iron ore), Mozambique (aluminium), Namibia (diamond, uranium, gold, and zinc), and Zambia (copper and cobalt).

text: Many African countries are highly and dangerously dependent on mineral exports. Mineral fuels (coal, petroleum) account for more than 90% of the export earnings for Algeria,

text: Equatorial Guinea

text: , Libya, and Nigeria. Minerals account for 80% for

text: Botswana

text: (led by, in order of value, diamond, copper, nickel, soda ash, and gold),

text: Congo (Brazzaville)

text: (petroleum),

text: Congo (Kinshasa)

text: (diamond, petroleum, cobalt, and copper),

text: Gabon

text: (petroleum and manganese),

text: Guinea

text: (bauxite, alumina, gold, and diamond),

text: Sierra Leone

text: (diamond), and

text: Sudan

text: (petroleum and gold). Minerals and mineral fuels accounted for more than 50% of the export earnings of

text: Mali

text: (gold),

text: Mauritania

text: (iron ore),

text: Mozambique

text: (aluminium),

text: Namibia

text: (diamond, uranium, gold, and zinc), and

text: Zambia

text: (copper and cobalt).

text: National Iranian Oil Refining and Distribution Company (NIORDC) is part of the Ministry of Petroleum of Iran. NIORDC was established on 8 March 1991 and undertook to perform all operations relating to refining and distribution of oil products.

text: National Iranian Oil Refining and Distribution Company (NIORDC) is part of the

text: Ministry of Petroleum of Iran

text: . NIORDC was established on 8 March 1991 and undertook to perform all operations relating to

text: refining

text: and distribution of oil products.

text: The oil and gas industry is seen as distinct. So, whilst it is true that natural gas is a "gas" used in "industry" - often as a fuel, sometimes as a feedstock, and in this generic sense is an "industrial gas"; this term is not generally used by industrial enterprises for hydrocarbons produced by the petroleum industry directly from natural resources or in an oil refinery. Materials such as LPG and LNG are complex mixtures often without precise chemical composition that often also changes whilst stored.

text: The

text: oil and gas

text: industry is seen as distinct. So, whilst it is true that natural gas is a "gas" used in "industry" - often as a fuel, sometimes as a feedstock, and in this generic sense is an "industrial gas"; this term is not generally used by industrial enterprises for

text: hydrocarbons

text: produced by the

text: petroleum industry

text: directly from

text: natural resources

text: or in an

text: oil refinery

text: . Materials such as LPG and LNG are complex mixtures often without precise chemical composition that often also changes whilst stored.

text: The largest industry in Jingmen is petroleum refining. The Jingmen Branch of Sinopec is a main producer of oil products in central China, refining crude oil extracted from Nanyang Oilfield in Henan province and the Jianghan Oilfield in Hubei province.

text: The largest industry in Jingmen is

text: petroleum refining

text: . The Jingmen Branch of

text: Sinopec

text: is a main producer of oil products in central China, refining

text: crude oil

text: extracted from

text: Nanyang

text: Oilfield in

text: Henan

text: province and the Jianghan Oilfield in

text: Hubei

text: province.

text: A petroleum reservoir or oil and gas reservoir is a subsurface pool of hydrocarbons contained in porous or fractured rock formations. Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as conventional and unconventional reservoirs. In case of conventional reservoirs, the naturally occurring hydrocarbons, such as crude oil or natural gas, are trapped by overlying rock formations with lower permeability. While in unconventional reservoirs the rocks have high porosity and low permeability which keeps the hydrocarbons trapped in place, therefore not requiring a cap rock. Reservoirs are found using hydrocarbon exploration methods.

text: A petroleum reservoir or oil and gas reservoir is a subsurface pool of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s contained in

text: porous

text: or fractured

text: rock formation

text: s. Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as conventional and

text: unconventional

text: reservoirs. In case of conventional reservoirs, the naturally occurring hydrocarbons, such as

text: crude oil

text: or

text: natural gas

text: , are trapped by overlying rock formations with lower

text: permeability

text: . While in unconventional reservoirs the rocks have high

text: porosity

text: and low permeability which keeps the hydrocarbons trapped in place, therefore not requiring a

text: cap rock

text: . Reservoirs are found using

text: hydrocarbon exploration

text: methods.

text: :For another use of the term "shale oil", meaning synthetic crude oil derived from oil shale, see shale oilTight oil (also known as shale oil or light tight oil, abbreviated LTO) is petroleum that consists of light crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low permeability, often shale or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same hydraulic fracturing and often uses the same horizontal well technology used in the production of shale gas. It should not be confused with oil shale, which is shale rich in kerogen, or shale oil, which is oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the International Energy Agency recommends to use the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the term "tight oil".

text: :For another use of the term "shale oil", meaning synthetic crude oil derived from

text: oil shale

text: , see

text: shale oil

text: Tight oil (also known as shale oil or light tight oil, abbreviated LTO) is petroleum that consists of light

text: crude oil

text: contained in

text: petroleum

text: -bearing formations of low

text: permeability

text: , often

text: shale

text: or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: and often uses the same

text: horizontal well

text: technology used in the production of

text: shale gas

text: . It should not be confused with

text: oil shale

text: , which is shale rich in

text: kerogen

text: , or

text: shale oil

text: , which is oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the

text: International Energy Agency

text: recommends to use the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while World Energy Resources 2013 report by the

text: World Energy Council

text: uses the term "tight oil".

text: (a) regulate fossil fuel activities, i.e. the petroleum industry, which includes but is not limited to petroleum licensing, regulating hydrocarbon exploration, oil and gas well drilling, shale oil extraction, natural gas processing, oil pipeline in British Columbia in a manner that

text: (a) regulate

text: fossil fuel

text: activities, i.e. the

text: petroleum industry

text: , which includes but is not limited to

text: petroleum licensing

text: , regulating

text: hydrocarbon exploration

text: oil and gas well drilling

text: shale oil extraction

text: natural gas processing

text: oil pipeline

text: in British Columbia in a manner that

text: The Australian economy is dependent on imported crude oil and petroleum products, the economy's petroleum import dependency is around 80% – crude oil + petroleum products. Despite that Australian oil exports are very high and comprise a relatively big part of its GDP.

text: Nearly all commercial motor oils contain additives, whether the oils are synthetic or petroleum based. Essentially, only the American Petroleum Institute (API) Service SA motor oils have no additives, and they are therefore incapable of protecting modern engines. The choice of additives is determined by the application, e.g. the oil for a diesel engine with direct injection in a pickup truck (API Service CJ-4) has different additives than the oil used in a small gasoline-powered outboard motor on a boat (2-cycle engine oil).

text: Nearly all commercial

text: motor oil

text: s contain additives, whether the oils are

text: synthetic

text: or

text: petroleum

text: based. Essentially, only the

text: American Petroleum Institute

text: (API) Service SA motor oils have no additives, and they are therefore incapable of protecting modern

text: engine

text: s. The choice of additives is determined by the application, e.g. the oil for a

text: diesel engine

text: with

text: direct injection

text: in a

text: pickup truck

text: (API Service CJ-4) has different additives than the oil used in a small

text: gasoline

text: -powered

text: outboard motor

text: on a boat (2-cycle engine oil).

text: The previous year, oil was discovered in Corsicana, Texas by accident when a water-well company encountered the resource while attempting to establish a water source for the city. By 1897, the production was so great that this prompted the mayor of the town to invite Cullinan to advise on the development of the oil production facilities there. The lack of refining facilities often resulted in the dumping of the crude oil. The wasteful and polluting practices of some irresponsible prospectors prompted Texas legislators to enforce regulations on the industry. Cullinan (who was also against this wasteful practice and was a key person in the development of the state's first petroleum-conservation statute) took such an interest in the potential of refining there that he agreed to build a refinery. Using out of state funds for backing, the J. S. Cullinan Company was established which would have a facility online by 1900, processing . His refinery there was the first of its type west of the Mississippi. This company later became part of the Magnolia Petroleum Company.

text: The previous year, oil was discovered in

text: Corsicana, Texas

text: by accident when a water-well company encountered the resource while attempting to establish a water source for the city. By 1897, the production was so great that this prompted the mayor of the town to invite Cullinan to advise on the development of the oil production facilities there. The lack of refining facilities often resulted in the dumping of the crude oil. The wasteful and polluting practices of some irresponsible prospectors prompted Texas legislators to enforce regulations on the industry. Cullinan (who was also against this wasteful practice and was a key person in the development of the state's first petroleum-conservation statute) took such an interest in the potential of refining there that he agreed to build a refinery. Using out of state funds for backing, the J. S. Cullinan Company was established which would have a facility online by 1900, processing . His refinery there was the first of its type west of the

text: Mississippi

text: . This company later became part of the

text: Magnolia Petroleum Company

text: Petroleum refining in the United Kingdom produced around 61 million tonnes of petroleum products in 2015, down 19% from 2011. There are six main petroleum refineries in the UK, in the downstream sector of the UK oil industry.

text: Petroleum refining in the United Kingdom produced around 61 million tonnes of petroleum products in 2015, down 19% from 2011. There are six main

text: petroleum refineries

text: in the UK, in the

text: downstream

text: sector of the

entity_name: Oil and gas industry in the United Kingdom

text: UK oil industry

text: Crude oil found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the remains of once-living things. Crude oil is properly known as petroleum, and is used as fossil fuel.  Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.

text: Crude oil

text: found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's

text: crust

text: from the remains of once-living things. Crude oil is properly known as petroleum, and is used as fossil fuel.  Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and

text: pressure

text: changed the remains of

text: microscopic

text: plant

text: and

text: animal

text: into oil and

text: natural gas

text: In a fossil fuel power plant the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas or oil shale and oxygen of the air is converted successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. Each fossil fuel power plant is a complex, custom-designed system. Construction costs, , run to US$1,300 per kilowatt, or $650 million for a 500 MWe unit. Multiple generating units may be built at a single site for more efficient use of land, natural resources and labor. Most thermal power stations in the world use fossil fuel, outnumbering nuclear, geothermal, biomass, or solar thermal plants.

text: In a fossil fuel power plant the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels such as

text: coal

text: fuel oil

text: natural gas

text: or

text: oil shale

text: and

text: oxygen

text: of the

text: air

text: is converted successively into

text: thermal energy

text: mechanical energy

text: and, finally,

text: electrical energy

text: . Each fossil fuel power plant is a complex, custom-designed system. Construction costs, , run to

text: US$

text: 1,300 per

text: kilowatt

text: , or $650 million for a 500

text: MWe

text: unit. Multiple generating units may be built at a single site for more efficient use of

text: land

text: natural resource

text: s and

text: labor

text: . Most

text: thermal power station

text: s in the world use fossil fuel, outnumbering

text: nuclear

text: geothermal

text: biomass

text: , or

text: solar thermal

text: plants.

text: In the 1820s and 1830s Europe experienced fats and oils shortages due to rapid population expansion during the Industrial Revolution and the after-effects of the British blockade during the Napoleonic Wars. The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply. Consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting. Many United States entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils and America’s increasingly large supply of cottonseed by crushing the seed for oil. But separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years. This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee invented a huller, which effectively separated the tough hulls from the meats of cottonseed. With this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive whale oil and lard. But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged.

text: In the 1820s and 1830s Europe experienced fats and oils shortages due to rapid population expansion during the Industrial Revolution and the after-effects of the British blockade during the

text: Napoleonic Wars

text: . The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply. Consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting. Many United States entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils and America’s increasingly large supply of cottonseed by crushing the seed for oil. But separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years. This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee invented a huller, which effectively separated the tough hulls from the meats of cottonseed. With this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive whale oil and lard. But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged.

text: In 2014, students from Fossil Free ANU organised the first student-initatied referendum at the ANU and in elections in September more than 82 per cent of students voted in favour of the ANU divesting from fossil fuels in what was the highest turnout in a student election at the university in more than a decade. In October 2014, the ANU Council announced that it would divest from seven companies, two of which, Santos and Oil Search, performed poorly in an independent review undertaken by the Centre for Australian Ethical Research. This decision provoked a month-long controversy with the Australian Financial Review publishing over 53 stories criticising the decision including 12 front pages attacking the ANU, with its editor-in-chief, Michael Stutchbury, prouncing the decision to be as "disingenuous" as banning the burqa. These attacks, which The Canberra Times editorial described as "verging on hysterical" was joined by members of the cabinet of the Abbott Government, with the Treasurer Joe Hockey stating that the ANU Council is "removed from the reality of what is helping to drive the Australian economy and create more employment," Education Minister Christopher Pyne calling it "bizarre" and Prime Minister Tony Abbott calling it "stupid." In response, Louis Klee, an activist from Fossil Free ANU, wrote in The Age that the reaction demonstrated not just "the complicity of state power with the mining industry," but also

text: In 2014, students from Fossil Free ANU organised the first student-initatied referendum at the ANU and in elections in September more than 82 per cent of students voted in favour of the ANU divesting from fossil fuels in what was the highest turnout in a student election at the university in more than a decade. In October 2014, the ANU Council announced that it would divest from seven companies, two of which, Santos and Oil Search, performed poorly in an independent review undertaken by the Centre for Australian Ethical Research. This decision provoked a month-long controversy with the

text: Australian Financial Review

text: publishing over 53 stories criticising the decision including 12 front pages attacking the ANU, with its editor-in-chief, Michael Stutchbury, prouncing the decision to be as "disingenuous" as banning the burqa. These attacks, which

text: The Canberra Times

text: editorial described as "verging on hysterical" was joined by members of the cabinet of the

text: Abbott Government

text: , with the Treasurer

text: Joe Hockey

text: stating that the ANU Council is "removed from the reality of what is helping to drive the Australian economy and create more employment," Education Minister Christopher Pyne calling it "bizarre" and Prime Minister

text: Tony Abbott

text: calling it "stupid." In response, Louis Klee, an activist from Fossil Free ANU, wrote in The Age that the reaction demonstrated not just "the complicity of state power with the mining industry," but also

text: Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands.  These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, primarily

text: coal

text: and

text: petroleum

text: liquid petroleum

text: or

text: natural gas

text: ), formed from the

text: fossilized remains

text: of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing

text: natural resource

text: s that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as

text: tar sands

text: .  These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels.

text: Possessing substantial oil refining capacities, Romania is particularly interested in the Central Asia-Europe pipelines and seeks to strengthen its relations with some Arab States of the Persian Gulf. With 10 refineries and an overall refining capacity of approximately , Romania has the largest refining industry in the region. Romania's refining capacity far exceeds domestic demand for refined petroleum products, allowing the country to export a wide range of oil products and petrochemicals — such as lubricants, bitumen, and fertilizers — throughout the region.

text: Possessing substantial oil refining capacities, Romania is particularly interested in the Central Asia-Europe pipelines and seeks to strengthen its relations with some

text: Arab States of the Persian Gulf

text: . With 10 refineries and an overall refining capacity of approximately , Romania has the largest refining industry in the region. Romania's refining capacity far exceeds domestic demand for refined petroleum products, allowing the country to export a wide range of oil products and petrochemicals — such as lubricants, bitumen, and fertilizers — throughout the region.

text: The North lighthouse is  tall, slightly taller than the south one, and has a focal plane of . It produces a quick white flash every 15 seconds, and was originally lit by a  petroleum vapour burner. Oil was lifted up from a small quay using a sled and winch, and then transported using a small railway (again winch-powered). The remains of this can be still seen, but it was abandoned in 1971 and the lighthouse now uses a discharge bulb fed from the island's main supply. The northern light was modernised in 1991 and converted to solar power, since when the light has been mounted on top of the old fog horn building rather than in the tower.

text: Magnetic bearings are used in several industrial applications such as electrical power generation, petroleum refinement, machine tool operation and natural gas handling.  They are also used in the Zippe-type centrifuge, for uranium enrichment and in turbomolecular pumps, where oil-lubricated bearings would be a source of contamination.

text: Magnetic bearings are used in several industrial applications such as electrical power generation, petroleum refinement, machine tool operation and natural gas handling.  They are also used in the

text: Zippe-type centrifuge

text: , for

text: uranium enrichment

text: and in

text: turbomolecular pump

text: s, where oil-lubricated bearings would be a source of contamination.

text: Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned (oxidized to carbon dioxide and water), producing significant amounts of energy per unit weight. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, but these materials were mostly used for waterproofing and embalming.

text: Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned (

text: oxidized

text: to

text: carbon dioxide

text: and water), producing significant amounts of energy per unit weight. The use of

text: coal

text: as a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of

text: metal ore

text: . Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, but these materials were mostly used for waterproofing and

text: embalming

text: The term "oilfield" is also used as a shorthand to refer to the entire petroleum industry. However, it is more accurate to divide the oil industry into three sectors:  upstream (crude production from wells and separation of water from oil), midstream (pipeline and tanker transport of crude) and downstream (refining and marketing of refined products).

text: The term "oilfield" is also used as a shorthand to refer to the entire

text: petroleum industry

text: . However, it is more accurate to divide the oil industry into three sectors:  upstream (crude production from wells and separation of water from oil), midstream (pipeline and tanker transport of crude) and downstream (refining and marketing of refined products).

text: Refined Petroleum products — consumption:

text: Propene is produced from fossil fuels—petroleum, natural gas, and, to a much lesser extent, coal. Propene is a byproduct of oil refining and natural gas processing. During oil refining, ethylene, propene, and other compounds are produced as a result of cracking larger hydrocarbon molecules to produce hydrocarbons more in demand. A major source of propene is naphtha cracking intended to produce ethylene, but it also results from refinery cracking producing other products.  Propene can be separated by fractional distillation from hydrocarbon mixtures obtained from cracking and other refining processes; refinery-grade propene is about 50 to 70%.

text: Propene is produced from

text: fossil fuels

text: petroleum

text: natural gas

text: , and, to a much lesser extent,

text: coal

text: . Propene is a byproduct of

text: oil refining

text: and

text: natural gas processing

text: . During oil refining,

text: ethylene

text: , propene, and other compounds are produced as a result of

text: cracking

text: larger hydrocarbon molecules to produce hydrocarbons more in demand. A major source of propene is

text: naphtha

text: cracking

text: intended to produce ethylene, but it also results from refinery cracking producing other products.  Propene can be separated by

text: fractional distillation

text: from hydrocarbon mixtures obtained from cracking and other refining processes; refinery-grade propene is about 50 to 70%.

text: Diesel engines are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased fuel efficiency over gasoline engines), ships, railway locomotives, and light aircraft. Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars, motorcycles, and mopeds. Note that in Europe, sophisticated diesel-engined cars have taken over about 45% of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biodiesel, paraffin and tractor vaporizing oil (TVO).

text: Diesel engine

text: s are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than

text: gasoline engine

text: s. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased

text: fuel efficiency

text: over gasoline engines), ships,

text: railway

text: locomotive

text: s, and light

text: aircraft

text: . Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars,

text: motorcycle

text: s, and

text: moped

text: s. Note that in

text: Europe

text: , sophisticated diesel-engined cars have taken over about 45% of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on

text: hydrogen

text: methanol

text: ethanol

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: (LPG),

text: biodiesel

text: paraffin

text: and

text: tractor vaporizing oil

text: (TVO).

text: The BP Oil Terminal at Hamble, linked to Fawley by pipeline, provides storage and distribution facilities for crude oil and refined petroleum products. The crude oil arrives by pipeline, and leaves in sea tankers, destined for refineries; refined products reach the terminal by ship and pipeline and are then distributed to customers by road tanker, ship and pipeline. Heathrow Airport is one example of a major customer that is connected to Hamble by direct pipeline.

text: The BP Oil Terminal at

text: Hamble

text: , linked to Fawley by pipeline, provides storage and distribution facilities for crude oil and refined petroleum products. The crude oil arrives by pipeline, and leaves in sea tankers, destined for refineries; refined products reach the terminal by ship and pipeline and are then distributed to customers by road tanker, ship and pipeline. Heathrow Airport is one example of a major customer that is connected to Hamble by direct pipeline.

text: Refining is the processing of one complex mixture of hydrocarbons into a number of other complex mixtures of hydrocarbons. Refining is where the job of oil industry stops and that of petrochemical industry starts. The raw materials used in the petrochemistry industry are known as feedstocks. These are obtained from the refinery:naphtha, components of natural gas such as butane, and some of the by-products of oil refining processes, such as ethane and propane. These feedstocks then undergo processing through an operation called cracking.Cracking is defined as the process of breaking down heavy oil molecules into lighter, more valuable fractions. There are two kinds: steam cracking and catalytic cracking. In steam cracking, high temperatures are used. Catalytic cracking is when a catalyst is being used. The plant where these operations are conducted is called a 'cracker'.Once these operations complete, new products are obtained that serve as building blocks of the petrochemical industry: olefins, i.e., mainly ethylene, propylene, and the so-called C4 derivatives, including butadiene—and aromatics, so called because of their distinctive perfumed smell, i.e., mainly benzene, toluene and the xylenes.

text: Crude oil is the greatest contributing factor when it comes to the price of gasoline. This includes the resources it takes for exploration, to remove it from the ground, and transport it. Between 2004 and 2008, there was an increase in fuel costs due in large part to a worldwide increase in demand for crude oil. Prices leapt from , causing a corresponding increase in gas prices. On the supply side, OPEC (or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has a great deal to do with the price of gasoline, both in the United States and around the world. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market.

text: Crude oil

text: is the greatest contributing factor when it comes to the price of gasoline. This includes the resources it takes for exploration, to remove it from the ground, and transport it. Between 2004 and 2008, there was an increase in fuel costs due in large part to a worldwide increase in demand for crude oil. Prices leapt from , causing a corresponding increase in gas prices. On the supply side,

text: OPEC

text: (or the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) has a great deal to do with the price of gasoline, both in the United States and around the world. The speculation of oil commodities can also affect the gasoline market.

text: OIL is engaged in the business of exploration, development and production of crude oil and natural gas, transportation of crude oil and production of liquid petroleum gas. The company's history spans the discovery of crude oil in the far east of India at Digboi, Assam in 1889 to its present status as a fully integrated upstream petroleum company.

text: OIL is engaged in the business of exploration, development and production of

text: crude oil

text: and natural gas, transportation of crude oil and production of

text: liquid petroleum gas

text: . The company's history spans the discovery of crude oil in the far east of India at

text: Digboi

text: , Assam in 1889 to its present status as a fully integrated upstream petroleum company.

text: In modern times, many different types of oil, chemicals, and other products are transported in steel drums. In the United States, these commonly have a capacity of 55 US gallons and are referred to as such. They are called 210-litre or 200-kg drums outside the United States. In the United Kingdom and its former dependencies, a 44-imperial gallon drum is used, even though all those countries now officially use the metric system and the drums are filled to 200 litres. Thus, the 42-US-gallon oil barrel is a unit of measure, and is no longer a physical container used to transport crude oil, as most petroleum is moved in pipelines or oil tankers. In the United States, the 55-US-gallon size of barrel as a unit of measure is largely confined to the oil industry, while different sizes of barrel are used in other industries. Nearly all other countries use the metric system. Many oil-producing countries still use the American oil barrel.

text: In modern times, many different types of oil, chemicals, and other products are transported in steel

text: drums

text: . In the United States, these commonly have a capacity of 55

text: US gallons

text: and are referred to as such. They are called 210-litre or 200-kg drums outside the United States. In the United Kingdom and its former dependencies, a 44-

text: imperial gallon

text: drum is used, even though all those countries now officially use the metric system and the drums are filled to 200 litres. Thus, the 42-US-gallon oil barrel is a unit of measure, and is no longer a physical container used to transport crude oil, as most petroleum is moved in

text: pipelines

text: or

text: oil tanker

text: s. In the United States, the 55-US-gallon size of barrel as a unit of measure is largely confined to the oil industry, while different sizes of barrel are used in other industries. Nearly all other countries use the

text: metric system

text: . Many oil-producing countries still use the American oil barrel.

text: The Sidney Powers Memorial Award  is a gold medal awarded by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in recognition of distinguished and outstanding contributions to, or achievements in, petroleum geology.

text: The Sidney Powers Memorial Award  is a gold medal awarded by the

entity_name: American Association of Petroleum Geologists

text: American Association of Petroleum Geologists

text: in recognition of distinguished and outstanding contributions to, or achievements in, petroleum geology.

text: The gas plant is licensed under the WA Petroleum Pipelines Act 1969. Safety and health regulation under this Act is the responsibility of the Department of Mines and Petroleum (DMP), which engaged National Offshore Petroleum Safety Authority (NOPSA) to provide inspections and reporting.

text: The gas plant is licensed under the WA Petroleum Pipelines Act 1969. Safety and health regulation under this Act is the responsibility of the Department of Mines and Petroleum (DMP), which engaged

entity_name: National Offshore Petroleum Safety Authority

text: National Offshore Petroleum Safety Authority

text: (NOPSA) to provide inspections and reporting.

text: Oil was discovered at the Cat Creek Oil Field on February 18, 1920, at the southeast corner of the county. Petroleum found in the Cat Creek was of high grade and extraction of crude oil started soon. In 1922, the crude oil extracted was 2.2 million barrels.

text: Oil was discovered at the

text: Cat Creek Oil Field

text: on February 18, 1920, at the southeast corner of the county. Petroleum found in the Cat Creek was of high grade and extraction of crude oil started soon. In 1922, the crude oil extracted was 2.2 million barrels.

text: Fuel oil, (also known as heavy oil, marine fuel or furnace oil) is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue. Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid fuel that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point of approximately  and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense, diesel is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, i.e., heavier than gasoline and naphtha.

text: Fuel oil, (also known as heavy oil, marine fuel or furnace oil) is a

text: fraction

text: obtained from

text: petroleum

text: distillation

text: , either as a distillate or a residue. Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid fuel that is burned in a

text: furnace

text: or

text: boiler

text: for the generation of heat or used in an

text: engine

text: for the generation of power, except oils having a

text: flash point

text: of approximately  and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense,

text: diesel

text: is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long

text: hydrocarbon

text: chains, particularly

text: alkane

text: s,

text: cycloalkane

text: s and

text: aromatic

text: s. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from

text: crude oil

text: , i.e., heavier than

text: gasoline

text: and

text: naphtha

text: Crescent Petroleum began its activities in the early 1970s and is the first regional, independent, privately owned Middle Eastern petroleum company to engage in the acquisition, exploration and development of petroleum concessions; and the production and sale of crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas. Together, Crescent Petroleum and Dana Gas have invested over $1bn in the oil and gas sector in Iraq's Kurdistan region, producing over 340 million cubic feet of gas and 15,000 barrels of condensate per day, enabling almost continuous electricity in the main cities in Iraq's Kurdistan region.

text: In addition, there is no consensus on what sort of value to give the rest of the corn (such as the stalk), commonly known as the 'coproduct.'  Some studies leave it on the field to protect the soil from erosion and to add organic matter, while others take and burn the coproduct to power the ethanol plant, but do not address the resulting soil erosion (which would require energy in the form of fertilizer to replace).  Depending on the ethanol study you read, net energy returns vary from .7-1.5 units of ethanol per unit of fossil fuel energy consumed.  For comparison, that same one unit of fossil fuel invested in oil and gas extraction (in the lower 48 States) will yield 15 units of gasoline, a yield an order of magnitude better than current ethanol production technologies, ignoring the energy quality arguments above and the fact that the gain (14 units) is both declining and not carbon neutral.

text: Analysis of the samples collected from the mounds suggest that they required several decades, even centuries, to build up their current bulk, and that the volcanoes last erupted around 35,000 years ago. In addition they may account for a mysterious spike in oceanic methane concentrations around 35,000 years ago. Methane forms naturally alongside the petroleum underneath the structure, and while petroleum flows have long abated, some residual methane continues to bubble up. This burst of methane would have caused a rapid increase in the population of methane-eating bacteria, which in turn caused a decrease in oxygen in the water, possibly causing a dead zone, in addition to the large amounts of crude oil released into the environment.

text: Analysis of the samples collected from the mounds suggest that they required several decades, even centuries, to build up their current bulk, and that the volcanoes last erupted around 35,000 years ago. In addition they may account for a mysterious spike in oceanic

text: methane

text: concentrations around 35,000 years ago. Methane forms naturally alongside the petroleum underneath the structure, and while petroleum flows have long abated, some residual methane continues to bubble up. This burst of methane would have caused a rapid increase in the population of methane-eating bacteria, which in turn caused a decrease in oxygen in the water, possibly causing a

text: dead zone

text: , in addition to the large amounts of crude oil released into the environment.

text: In 1852, the lighthouse board established and published first Light List and Notice to Mariners. In 1854, Andrew Furuseth was born in Norway, and Western river engineers form a "fraternal organization" that is a precursor to the Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association. Also, Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry established trade relations with Japan with the signing of the Convention of Kanagawa. In 1857, New Bedford had 329 registered whaling ships. The discovery of petroleum in Titusville, Pennsylvania, on August 27, 1859, by Edwin L. Drake was the beginning of the end of commercial whaling in the United States as kerosene, distilled from crude oil, replaced whale oil in lamps. Later, electricity gradually replaced oil lamps, and by the 1920s, the demand for whale oil had disappeared entirely.

text: In 1852, the lighthouse board established and published first

text: Light List

text: and

text: Notice to Mariners

text: . In 1854,

text: Andrew Furuseth

text: was born in Norway, and Western river engineers form a "fraternal organization" that is a precursor to the

entity_name: Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association

text: Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association

text: . Also, Commodore

text: Matthew Calbraith Perry

text: established trade relations with Japan with the signing of the

text: Convention of Kanagawa

text: . In 1857, New Bedford had 329 registered

text: whaling

text: ships. The discovery of

text: petroleum

text: in

text: Titusville

text: Pennsylvania

text: , on August 27, 1859, by

text: Edwin L. Drake

text: was the beginning of the end of commercial whaling in the United States as

text: kerosene

text: , distilled from crude oil, replaced whale oil in lamps. Later, electricity gradually replaced oil lamps, and by the 1920s, the demand for whale oil had disappeared entirely.

text: Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) is a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulfur (S) from natural gas and from refined petroleum products, such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel oils.  The purpose of removing the sulfur, and creating products such as ultra-low-sulfur diesel, is to reduce the sulfur dioxide () emissions that result from using those fuels in automotive vehicles, aircraft, railroad locomotives, ships, gas or oil burning power plants, residential and industrial furnaces, and other forms of fuel combustion.

text: Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) is a

text: catalytic

text: chemical process widely used to remove

text: sulfur

text: (S) from

text: natural gas

text: and from

text: refined petroleum products

text: , such as

text: gasoline or petrol

text: jet fuel

text: kerosene

text: diesel fuel

text: , and

text: fuel oil

text: s.  The purpose of removing the sulfur, and creating products such as

text: ultra-low-sulfur diesel

text: , is to reduce the

text: sulfur dioxide

text: () emissions that result from using those fuels in automotive

text: vehicles

text: aircraft

text: , railroad

text: locomotives

text: ships

text: , gas or oil burning

text: power plants

text: , residential and industrial

text: furnaces

text: , and other forms of fuel

text: combustion

text: The drop in oil price, and the increased production from new fields, put a damper on speculation that the US was about to run out of oil. Oil shale could not economically compete with petroleum priced below US$2 per barrel, especially given that the productive shale areas were far from major petroleum markets. Cheap petroleum prices had driven oil shale out of business.

text: In 1956 Flanigen began working on molecular sieves. Molecular sieves are crystal compounds with molecular sized pores that can filter or separate very complex substances. Edith Flanigen is best known as the inventor of zeolite Y, a specific molecular sieve. Zeolite Y was a certain type of molecular sieve that could refine petroleum. Zeolite Y surpassed Zeolite X before it. When refining "crude oil", or petroleum, it must be separated into all of its different parts, or fractions. Gasoline is one of the many fractions that come from refining petroleum. Flanigen's zeolites are used as catalysts, or a substance that enhances chemical reactions. Zeolite Y is a catalyst that enhances the amount of gasoline fractioned from petroleum, making refining petroleum safer and more productive.

text: In 1956 Flanigen began working on

text: molecular sieves

text: Molecular sieves

text: are crystal compounds with molecular sized pores that can filter or separate very complex substances. Edith Flanigen is best known as the inventor of

text: zeolite Y

text: , a specific molecular sieve.

text: Zeolite Y

text: was a certain type of molecular sieve that could refine petroleum.

text: Zeolite Y

text: surpassed

text: Zeolite X

text: before it. When refining "

text: crude oil

text: ", or petroleum, it must be separated into all of its different parts, or

text: fractions

text: . Gasoline is one of the many fractions that come from

text: refining petroleum

text: . Flanigen's

text: zeolites

text: are used as

text: catalysts

text: , or a substance that enhances chemical reactions.

text: Zeolite Y

text: is a catalyst that enhances the amount of gasoline fractioned from petroleum, making refining petroleum safer and more productive.

text: Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Because most hydrocarbons are lighter than rock or water, they often migrate upward and occasionally laterally through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping. The down hole pressure in the rock structures changes depending upon the depth and the characteristic of the source rock. Natural gas (mostly methane) may be present also, usually above the oil within the reservoir, but sometimes dissolved in the oil at reservoir pressure and temperature.  This dissolved gas often evolves as free gas as the pressure is reduced either under controlled production operations or in a kick or in an uncontrolled blowout.  The hydrocarbon in some reservoirs may be essentially all natural gas.

text: Petroleum

text: or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of

text: hydrocarbons

text: of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, that are found in

text: geologic formation

text: s beneath the Earth's surface. Because most hydrocarbons are lighter than rock or water, they often migrate upward and occasionally laterally through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping. The down hole pressure in the rock structures changes depending upon the depth and the characteristic of the

text: source rock

text: Natural gas

text: (mostly

text: methane

text: ) may be present also, usually above the oil within the reservoir, but sometimes dissolved in the oil at reservoir pressure and temperature.  This dissolved gas often evolves as free gas as the pressure is reduced either under controlled production operations or in a kick or in an uncontrolled blowout.  The hydrocarbon in some reservoirs may be essentially all natural gas.

text: Another major factor in petroleum demand is the widespread use of petroleum products such as plastic.  These could be partially replaced by bioplastics, which are derived from renewable plant feedstocks such as vegetable oil, corn starch, hemp plants, pea starch, or microbiota. They are used either as a direct replacement for traditional plastics or as blends with traditional plastics. The most common end use market is for packaging materials. Japan has also been a pioneer in bioplastics, incorporating them into electronics and automobiles.

text: Another major factor in petroleum demand is the widespread use of petroleum products such as

text: plastic

text: .  These could be partially replaced by bioplastics, which are derived from renewable plant feedstocks such as vegetable oil,

text: corn starch

text: , hemp plants, pea starch, or

text: microbiota

text: . They are used either as a direct replacement for traditional plastics or as blends with traditional plastics. The most common end use market is for packaging materials. Japan has also been a pioneer in bioplastics, incorporating them into electronics and automobiles.

text: Canada's oil sands for example are landlocked and it is crucial to the petroleum industry that transportation of petroleum products keep pace with production. Currently landlocked Canadian oil sands petroleum products suffer huge losses on price differentials. Until Canadian crude oil, Western Canadian Select, accesses international prices like LLS or Maya crude oil by getting to tidewater (south to the US Gulf ports via Keystone XL for example, west to the BC Pacific coast via the proposed Northern Gateway line to ports at Kitimat, BC or north via the northern hamlet of Tuktoyaktuk, near the Beaufort Sea., the Alberta government (and to some extent, the Canadian government) loses from $4 billion to $30 billion  in tax and royalty revenues, because the primary product of the oil sands, Western Canadian Select (WCS), the bitumen crude oil basket, is discounted so heavily against West Texas Intermediate (WTI) while Maya crude oil, a similar product close to tidewater, is reaching peak prices. Calgary-based Canada West Foundation warned in April 2013, that Alberta is "running up against a [pipeline capacity] wall around 2016, when we will have barrels of oil we can’t move."

text: Canada's oil sands for example are landlocked and it is crucial to the petroleum industry that transportation of petroleum products keep pace with production. Currently landlocked Canadian oil sands petroleum products suffer huge losses on price differentials. Until Canadian crude oil,

text: Western Canadian Select

text: , accesses international prices like LLS or Maya crude oil by

text: getting to tidewater

text: (south to the US Gulf ports via

text: Keystone XL

text: for example, west to the BC Pacific coast via the proposed Northern Gateway line to ports at

text: Kitimat

text: , BC or north via the northern hamlet of

text: Tuktoyaktuk

text: , near the

text: Beaufort Sea

text: ., the Alberta government (and to some extent, the Canadian government) loses from $4 billion to $30 billion  in tax and royalty revenues, because the primary product of the oil sands, Western Canadian Select (WCS), the bitumen crude oil basket, is discounted so heavily against

text: West Texas Intermediate

text: (WTI) while

text: Maya crude oil

text: , a similar product close to tidewater, is reaching peak prices. Calgary-based

text: Canada West Foundation

text: warned in April 2013, that Alberta is "running up against a [pipeline capacity] wall around 2016, when we will have barrels of oil we can’t move."

text: Most motor oils are made from a heavier, thicker petroleum hydrocarbon base stock derived from crude oil, with additives to improve certain properties. The bulk of a typical motor oil consists of hydrocarbons with between 18 and 34 carbon atoms per molecule. One of the most important properties of motor oil in maintaining a lubricating film between moving parts is its viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid can be thought of as its "thickness" or a measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity must be high enough to maintain a lubricating film, but low enough that the oil can flow around the engine parts under all conditions. The viscosity index is a measure of how much the oil's viscosity changes as temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the viscosity changes less with temperature than a lower viscosity index.

text: Most motor oils are made from a heavier, thicker

text: petroleum

text: hydrocarbon

text: base stock derived from

text: crude oil

text: , with additives to improve certain properties. The bulk of a typical motor oil consists of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s with between 18 and 34

text: carbon

text: atom

text: s per

text: molecule

text: . One of the most important properties of motor oil in maintaining a lubricating film between moving parts is its

text: viscosity

text: . The viscosity of a liquid can be thought of as its "thickness" or a measure of its resistance to flow. The viscosity must be high enough to maintain a lubricating film, but low enough that the oil can flow around the engine parts under all conditions. The

text: viscosity index

text: is a measure of how much the oil's viscosity changes as temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the viscosity changes less with temperature than a lower viscosity index.

text: There are two refineries in British Columbia with a combined refining capacity of 67,000 b/d. Those refineries utilize domestically produced crude that travels from Edmonton to Vancouver via Kinder Morgan’s 300,000 b/d Trans Mountain pipeline. The only petroleum pipeline that crosses the Rocky Mountains, the Trans Mountain is also the only North American line capable of moving both crude and refined product. Edmonton refiners supply 50 to 60 percent of product consumed in the greater Vancouver, B.C. market with the remainder sourced from the 55,000 b/d Burnaby refinery in Vancouver. Washington's refineries provide the marginal refined product after refiners in British Columbia and Alberta, acting as a supply cushion to cover shut-in capacity or demand fluctuations. Canada is a net exporter of refined product with 92 percent of those exports consumed in the U.S.

text: Industrial agriculture also produces undesirable environmental effects. Large scale growing operations of commodity crops rely on the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers. Modified corn is a greedy plant that consumes more fertilizer that any other crop. Without either of these, the soil alone could not have supported the large number of hybrid corn plants that helped America’s food industry explode. The production of both synthetic pesticides and fertilizers requires the use of natural gas and petroleum. Currently, it is relatively inexpensive to produce fertilizers and pesticides in this fashion, since the product is efficient and can be produced in huge quantities. Petrochemical fertilizers are preferred over sustainable options (manure) for these reasons. Fossil fuels are also crucial for transportation of product, manufacturing, and for running tractors and harvesting equipment. It is estimated that every bushel of corn requires the equivalent of between one quarter and one third of a U.S. gallon of petroleum to grow (37 to 50 liters per metric ton). For every acre of corn, about 50 U.S. gallons of petroleum are needed (470 L/ha). The use of fossil fuel in farming is standard; without this relatively affordable and convenient fuel source aiding in the fertilization, pest resistance, harvesting and manufacturing corn crops would not meet a high enough yield to satisfy the needs of the farmer or the demands of the consumer.

text: Industrial agriculture also produces undesirable environmental effects. Large scale growing operations of commodity crops rely on the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic

text: fertilizers

text: . Modified corn is a greedy plant that consumes more fertilizer that any other crop. Without either of these, the soil alone could not have supported the large number of

text: hybrid

text: corn plants that helped America’s food industry explode. The production of both synthetic

text: pesticides

text: and fertilizers requires the use of

text: natural gas

text: and

text: petroleum

text: . Currently, it is relatively inexpensive to produce fertilizers and pesticides in this fashion, since the product is efficient and can be produced in huge quantities. Petrochemical fertilizers are preferred over sustainable options (

text: manure

text: ) for these reasons. Fossil fuels are also crucial for transportation of product, manufacturing, and for running tractors and harvesting equipment. It is estimated that every bushel of corn requires the equivalent of between one quarter and one third of a U.S. gallon of petroleum to grow (37 to 50 liters per metric ton). For every acre of corn, about 50 U.S. gallons of petroleum are needed (470 L/ha). The use of fossil fuel in farming is standard; without this relatively affordable and convenient fuel source aiding in the fertilization, pest resistance, harvesting and manufacturing corn crops would not meet a high enough yield to satisfy the needs of the farmer or the demands of the

text: consumer

text: Soon, after the formation of the Oil and Natural Gas Directorate, it became apparent that it would not be possible for the Directorate with its limited financial and administrative powers as subordinate office of the Government, to function efficiently. So in August, 1956, the Directorate was raised to the status of a commission with enhanced powers, although it continued to be under the government. In October 1959, the Commission was converted into a statutory body by an act of the Indian Parliament, which enhanced powers of the commission further. The main functions of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission subject to the provisions of the Act, were "to plan, promote, organize and implement programs for development of Petroleum Resources and the production and sale of petroleum and petroleum products produced by it, and to perform such other functions as the Central Government may, from time to time, assign to it ". The act further outlined the activities and steps to be taken by ONGC in fulfilling its mandate.

text: The problem with oil and the wealth it generates is that the states' rulers have the wealth to remain in power, as they can pay off or repress most potential opponents. Brian Whitaker argues that as there is no need for taxation there is less pressure for representation. Furthermore, Western governments require a stable source of oil and are therefore more prone to maintain the status quo, rather than push for reforms which may lead to periods of instability. This can be linked into political economy explanations for the occurrence of authoritarian regimes and lack of democracy in the Middle East, particularly the prevalence of rentier states in the Middle East. A consequence of the lack of taxation that Whitaker talks of in such rentier economies is an inactive civil society. As civil society is seen to be an integral part of democracy it raises doubts over the feasibility of democracy developing in the Middle East in such situations.

text: The problem with

text: oil

text: and the wealth it generates is that the states' rulers have the wealth to remain in power, as they can pay off or repress most potential opponents. Brian Whitaker argues that as there is no need for taxation there is less pressure for representation. Furthermore, Western governments require a stable source of oil and are therefore more prone to maintain the status quo, rather than push for reforms which may lead to periods of instability. This can be linked into

text: political economy

text: explanations for the occurrence of

text: authoritarian

text: regimes and lack of democracy in the Middle East, particularly the prevalence of

text: rentier state

text: s in the Middle East. A consequence of the lack of taxation that Whitaker talks of in such rentier economies is an inactive

text: civil society

text: . As civil society is seen to be an integral part of democracy it raises doubts over the feasibility of democracy developing in the Middle East in such situations.

text: To extract the oil, the seeds are roasted, then mashed, and the oil extracted. The oil serves several purposes, and can be used to soften leather, oiling bowstrings, or as a general ointment. Alternatively, the oil can be used cosmetically for the hair or for the skin to soothe chafing. The oil can also be used as fuel for lamps.

text: To extract the oil, the seeds are roasted, then mashed, and the oil extracted. The oil serves several purposes, and can be used to soften leather, oiling bowstrings, or as a general

text: ointment

text: . Alternatively, the oil can be used cosmetically for the hair or for the skin to soothe

text: chafing

text: . The oil can also be used as fuel for lamps.

text: Refined Petroleum products — exports:

text: Refined Petroleum products — exports:

text: The petroleum industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. The midstream sector involves the transportation (by pipeline, rail, barge, oil tanker or truck), storage, and wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from production sites to refineries and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors. Natural gas pipeline networks aggregate gas from natural gas purification plants and deliver it to downstream customers, such as local utilities.

text: The

text: petroleum industry

text: is usually divided into three major components:

text: upstream

text: , midstream and

text: downstream

text: . The midstream sector involves the transportation (by

text: pipeline

text: , rail, barge,

text: oil tanker

text: or truck), storage, and wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from production sites to

text: refineries

text: and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors. Natural gas pipeline networks aggregate gas from

text: natural gas purification

text: plants and deliver it to downstream customers, such as local utilities.

text: As a consequence, OMV Petrom has a de facto monopoly on the oil production of Romania. Moreover, the state did not impose price controlling clauses in the privatization contract, so that Romanian-produced petroleum is sold in Romania at the same price as imported petroleum.

text: Several oil companies explored for petroleum since 1992 in the Djado plateau in north-eastern Niger and the Agadem basin, north of Lake Chad but made no discoveries worth developing at the time. In June 2007, however, China National Petroleum Corporation (state-owned by the People's Republic of China) signed a US$5 billion agreement to extract oil in the Agadem block, as well as build a  per day oil refinery and a 2,000 km oil pipeline in the country; production is expected to start in 2009.

text: Several oil companies explored for petroleum since 1992 in the Djado plateau in north-eastern Niger and the Agadem basin, north of Lake Chad but made no discoveries worth developing at the time. In June 2007, however,

text: China National Petroleum Corporation

text: (state-owned by the People's Republic of China) signed a

text: US$

text: 5 billion agreement to extract oil in the Agadem block, as well as build a  per day

text: oil refinery

text: and a 2,000 km

text: oil pipeline

text: in the country; production is expected to start in 2009.

text: Comprehensive analysis of the production from the majority of the world's giant oil fields has shown their enormous importance for global oil production. For instance, the 20 largest oil fields in the world alone account for roughly 25% of the total oil production. The majority of the world's giants are already in decline and this will have dramatic consequences for future oil supply.

text: This spinning reserve is a significant expense to the power utilities as often fuel must be burned or potential power sales lost to maintain it. The kind of generation used for fast response is usually fossil fuel powered which produces emissions of between 0.48 and 1.3 tonnes of CO equivalent for every megawatt hour (MWh) generated. Thus a significant environmental burden, in the form of increased greenhouse gas emissions, is associated with this imbalance.

text: This

text: spinning reserve

text: is a significant expense to the power utilities as often

text: fuel

text: must be burned or potential power sales lost to maintain it. The kind of generation used for fast response is usually

text: fossil fuel

text: powered which produces emissions of between 0.48 and 1.3 tonnes of CO equivalent for every

text: megawatt hour

text: (MWh) generated. Thus a significant environmental burden, in the form of increased

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions, is associated with this imbalance.

text: All of Chad's power plants are thermal. The two at N'Djamena provide most of the national output. As of 2002, only around 2 percent of the households in Chad had access to electricity and the majority of the country's population must rely upon wood for fuel. Production of electricity rose from about 31 GWh in 1968 to 92 GWh in 2000, and 101 GWh in 2002, all generated by fossil fuels. In 2002, consumption of electricity in Chad totalled 94 GWh. Installed capacity in 2002 was 29 MW.

text: All of Chad's power plants are

text: thermal

text: . The two at N'Djamena provide most of the national output. As of 2002, only around 2 percent of the households in Chad had access to electricity and the majority of the country's population must rely upon

text: wood

text: for fuel. Production of

text: electricity

text: rose from about 31 GWh in 1968 to 92 GWh in 2000, and 101 GWh in 2002, all generated by

text: fossil fuel

text: s. In 2002, consumption of electricity in Chad totalled 94 GWh. Installed capacity in 2002 was 29 MW.

text: Natural gas that comes from crude oil wells is typically called associated gas. This gas can have existed as a gas cap above the crude oil in the underground formation, or could have been dissolved in the crude oil.

text: During the presidency of revolutionary general Lázaro Cárdenas del Río, the controversy over petroleum again flared. Standard Oil had major investments in Mexico and a dispute between the oil workers and the company was to be resolved via the Mexican court system. The dispute, however, escalated, and on March 18, 1938, President Cárdenas used constitutional powers to expropriate foreign oil interests in Mexico and created the government-owned Petroleos Mexicanos or PEMEX.  Although the United States had had a long history of interventions in Latin America, the expropriation did not result in that.  U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was implementing the Good Neighbor Policy, in which the U.S. eschewed the role of intervention and courted better relations with the region, which would be vital if another major conflict broke out in Europe. However, with the Great Depression, the United States implemented a program of expelling Mexicans from the U.S. in what was known as Mexican Repatriation.

text: During the presidency of revolutionary general

text: Lázaro Cárdenas del Río

text: , the controversy over petroleum again flared.

text: Standard Oil

text: had major investments in Mexico and a dispute between the oil workers and the company was to be resolved via the Mexican court system. The dispute, however, escalated, and on March 18, 1938, President Cárdenas used constitutional powers to expropriate foreign oil interests in Mexico and created the government-owned Petroleos Mexicanos or

text: PEMEX

text: .  Although the United States had had a long history of interventions in Latin America, the expropriation did not result in that.  U.S. President

text: Franklin Delano Roosevelt

text: was implementing the

text: Good Neighbor Policy

text: , in which the U.S. eschewed the role of intervention and courted better relations with the region, which would be vital if another major conflict broke out in Europe. However, with the

text: Great Depression

text: , the United States implemented a program of expelling Mexicans from the U.S. in what was known as

text: Mexican Repatriation

text: The term basement is used mostly in disciplines of geology like basin geology, sedimentology and petroleum geology in which the (typically Precambrian) crystalline basement is not of interest as it rarely contains petroleum or natural gas.

text: The term basement is used mostly in disciplines of geology like

text: basin geology

text: sedimentology

text: and

text: petroleum geology

text: in which the (typically

text: Precambrian

text: ) crystalline basement is not of interest as it rarely contains

text: petroleum

text: or

text: natural gas

text: An ISO 9001 certified institute, IIP develops processes and products for petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, training of personnel in oil and petrochemical industries, and assisting in formulation of standards for petroleum products. The institute acquired the ISO 9001 certification in 1998.

text: An

text: ISO 9001

text: certified institute, IIP develops processes and products for petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, training of personnel in oil and petrochemical industries, and assisting in formulation of standards for petroleum products. The institute acquired the

text: ISO 9001

text: certification in 1998.

text: Crude oil (petroleum) fluoresces in a range of colors, from dull-brown for heavy oils and tars through to bright-yellowish and bluish-white for very light oils and condensates. This phenomenon is used in oil exploration drilling to identify very small amounts of oil in drill cuttings and core samples.

text: Crude oil (

text: petroleum

text: ) fluoresces in a range of colors, from dull-brown for heavy oils and tars through to bright-yellowish and bluish-white for very light oils and condensates. This phenomenon is used in

text: oil exploration

text: drilling to identify very small amounts of oil in drill cuttings and core samples.

text: Because Cape Verde has no known crude oil reserves, or oil refining capacity as of January 1, 2003, the country must import all of its petroleum products. In 2002, petroleum imports and consumption both totalled 8,870 barrels per day. The country has no known production or consumption of natural gas, as of 2001, and as of January 1, 2003, there are no known natural gas reserves.

text: Because Cape Verde has no known crude oil reserves, or oil refining capacity as of January 1, 2003, the country

text: must import

text: all of its petroleum products. In 2002, petroleum imports and consumption both totalled 8,870 barrels per day. The country has no known production or consumption of natural gas, as of 2001, and as of January 1, 2003, there are no known natural gas reserves.

text: Oman has several different industries, including crude oil production and refining, natural and liquefied natural gas (LNG) production; construction, cement, copper, steel, chemicals and optic fiber. Oman also has substantial trade and budget surpluses. 55% of Oman's government revenues comes from the non-oil industry. Petroleum accounts for 64% of total export earnings, 45% of government revenues and 50% of GDP. By 2020 Oman hopes to reduce oil revenue to just 9% of its income.  Along with that plan the country hopes to move away from rentier economics and employ its citizens in the labor market and reduce reliance on expatriate labor.  To take its first steps in economic independence it has signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States and is seeking to do the same with the European Union, China, and Japan.  It is currently maneuvering itself into the re-export and heavy manufacturing markets.

text: Oman has several different industries, including crude oil production and refining, natural and liquefied natural gas (LNG) production; construction, cement, copper, steel, chemicals and optic fiber. Oman also has substantial trade and budget surpluses. 55% of Oman's government revenues comes from the non-oil industry. Petroleum accounts for 64% of total export earnings, 45% of government revenues and 50% of GDP. By 2020 Oman hopes to reduce oil revenue to just 9% of its income.  Along with that plan the country hopes to move away from

text: rentier economics

text: and employ its citizens in the labor market and reduce reliance on expatriate labor.  To take its first steps in economic independence it has signed a

text: Free Trade Agreement with the United States

text: and is seeking to do the same with the

text: European Union

text: China

text: , and

text: Japan

text: .  It is currently maneuvering itself into the

text: re-export

text: and heavy manufacturing markets.

text: As the oil field is in the center of a large flat alluvial floodplain, there is no surface expression of any anticlinal structure capable of holding oil.  Under the surface alluvium, a series relatively impermeable sedimentary units cap the petroleum-bearing formation.  On top are the Pleistocene San Pedro and Pleistocene-upper Pliocene Santa Barbara formations; under that the Pico Sands, of Pliocene age, which contain areas of tar sands; under that, separated by an unconformity, the Monterey Formation, of Miocene age, which also contains tar sands (the Vaca Tar Sand); under that, again separated by an unconformity, the relatively impermeable Conejo-Topanga Formation, which caps the faulted anticlinal structure containing medium-grade oil about  below ground surface.  This producing horizon is named the "McInnes" pool, and is in the Oligocene-age Sespe Formation.

text: As the oil field is in the center of a large flat

text: alluvial

text: floodplain, there is no surface expression of any anticlinal structure capable of holding oil.  Under the surface alluvium, a series relatively impermeable sedimentary units cap the petroleum-bearing formation.  On top are the

text: Pleistocene

text: San Pedro and Pleistocene-upper

text: Pliocene

text: Santa Barbara formations; under that the Pico Sands, of Pliocene age, which contain areas of

text: tar sand

text: s; under that, separated by an unconformity, the

text: Monterey Formation

text: , of

text: Miocene

text: age, which also contains tar sands (the Vaca Tar Sand); under that, again separated by an unconformity, the relatively impermeable Conejo-Topanga Formation, which caps the faulted anticlinal structure containing medium-grade oil about  below ground surface.  This producing horizon is named the "McInnes" pool, and is in the

text: Oligocene

text: -age

text: Sespe Formation

text: Natural gas originates by the same geological thermal cracking process that converts kerogen to petroleum.  As a consequence, oil and natural gas are often found together.  In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as oil fields, and deposits rich in natural gas are called natural gas fields.

text: Natural gas

text: originates by the same geological

text: thermal cracking

text: process that converts

text: kerogen

text: to

text: petroleum

text: .  As a consequence, oil and natural gas are often found together.  In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as

text: oil field

text: s, and deposits rich in natural gas are called natural gas fields.

text: Fossil-fuel companies currently have about 2,795 gigatons of carbon already contained in their proven coal and oil and gas reserves, and is the amount of fossil fuels they are currently planning to burn. 2,795 gigatons is five times higher than the limit of 565 gigatons that would keep Earth under a global temperature increase of 2 degrees Celsius.

text: ExxonMobil is the largest of the world's Big Oil companies, or supermajors, with daily production of 3.921 million BOE (barrels of oil equivalent). In 2008, this was approximately 3 percent of world production, which is less than several of the largest state-owned petroleum companies. When ranked by oil and gas reserves, it is 14th in the world—with less than 1 percent of the total. ExxonMobil's reserves were 25.2 billion BOE at the end of 2013 and the 2007 rates of production were expected to last more than 14 years. With 37 oil refineries in 21 countries constituting a combined daily refining capacity of , ExxonMobil is the largest refiner in the world, a title that was also associated with Standard Oil since its incorporation in 1870.

text: ExxonMobil is the largest of the world's

text: Big Oil companies,

text: or supermajors, with daily production of 3.921 million BOE (

text: barrels of oil equivalent

text: ). In 2008, this was approximately 3 percent of world production, which is less than several of the largest state-owned petroleum companies. When ranked by oil and gas reserves, it is 14th in the world—with less than 1 percent of the total. ExxonMobil's reserves were 25.2 billion BOE at the end of 2013 and the 2007 rates of production were expected to last more than 14 years. With 37

text: oil refineries

text: in 21 countries constituting a combined daily refining capacity of , ExxonMobil is the largest refiner in the world, a title that was also associated with Standard Oil since its incorporation in 1870.

text: The HECA project will be an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) facility using Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.’s oxygen–blown gasifier technology.  IGCC technology allows for highly efficient power generation with minimal emissions.  IGGC facilities, including HECA, are different from conventional fossil fueled power generation plants in that there is no combustion of the actual fossil fuels.  Instead, HECA converts, through gasification, a blend of recycled petroleum coke, a low value by-product that comes from oil refining, and coal to manufacture hydrogen fuel.

text: The HECA project will be an

text: Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

text: (IGCC) facility using

text: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

text: , Ltd.’s oxygen–blown gasifier technology.  IGCC technology allows for highly efficient power generation with minimal emissions.  IGGC facilities, including HECA, are different from conventional fossil fueled power generation plants in that there is no combustion of the actual fossil fuels.  Instead, HECA converts, through gasification, a blend of recycled petroleum coke, a low value by-product that comes from oil refining, and coal to manufacture hydrogen fuel.

text: In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous and solid hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.

text: In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous and solid

text: hydrocarbon

text: s. Under surface

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: pressure and temperature conditions

text: , lighter hydrocarbons

text: methane

text: ethane

text: propane

text: and

text: butane

text: occur as gases, while

text: pentane

text: and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground

text: oil reservoir

text: the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the

text: phase diagram

text: of the petroleum mixture.

text: The corporation was established to replace the Petroleum Department which was an agency under the Ministry of Fuel and Power. The department was responsible for the importation of crude oil and petroleum products for the Ghanaian economy. The mandate for oil exploration was held to be the Technical Directorate of the Ministry of Fuel and Power and the Geological Survey Department. The corporation was created to promote the Government of Ghana's objective of supplying adequate and reliable petroleum for the country and the discovery of crude oil in the country's territories.

text: The corporation was established to replace the Petroleum Department which was an agency under the Ministry of Fuel and Power. The department was responsible for the importation of crude oil and

text: petroleum products

text: for the Ghanaian economy. The mandate for oil exploration was held to be the Technical Directorate of the Ministry of Fuel and Power and the Geological Survey Department. The corporation was created to promote the Government of Ghana's objective of supplying adequate and reliable petroleum for the country and the discovery of crude oil in the country's territories.

text: Mauritania began producing its first petroleum from the Chinguetti oilfield in February 2006. the Chinguetti oilfield was owned by a consortium of companies that included Bg group plc, Hardman resources Ltd., Premier Oil plc, roc Oil Ltd., government-owned Société Mauritanienne de Hydrocarbures, and Woodside Petroleum Ltd. Petroleum production from the Chinguetti field was expected to average . the first  produced were shipped to international united Petroleum & Chemicals Co. Ltd. of the People's Republic of China, which was the trading arm of China Petroleum and Chemical Corp. Petroleum reserves at Chinguetti were estimated to be . Companies exploring for petroleum in the country during 2006 included Baraka Petroleum Ltd. of Australia in joint venture with CnPC international Ltd. of China, which planned to drill the Heron-1 well, and dana Petroleum plc of the United Kingdom, which on December 5 announced the discovery of petroleum at its offshore aigrette-1 exploration well in Block 7.

text: Mauritania began producing its first

text: petroleum

text: from the Chinguetti

text: oilfield

text: in February 2006. the Chinguetti oilfield was owned by a consortium of companies that included Bg group plc, Hardman resources Ltd., Premier Oil plc, roc Oil Ltd., government-owned Société Mauritanienne de Hydrocarbures, and Woodside Petroleum Ltd. Petroleum production from the Chinguetti field was expected to average . the first  produced were shipped to international united Petroleum & Chemicals Co. Ltd. of the

text: People's Republic of China

text: , which was the trading arm of China Petroleum and Chemical Corp. Petroleum reserves at Chinguetti were estimated to be . Companies exploring for petroleum in the country during 2006 included Baraka Petroleum Ltd. of

text: Australia

text: in joint venture with CnPC international Ltd. of China, which planned to drill the Heron-1 well, and dana Petroleum plc of the

text: United Kingdom

text: , which on December 5 announced the discovery of petroleum at its offshore aigrette-1 exploration well in Block 7.

text: However, there is a way to harness fossil fuels while significantly reducing CO2 emissions.The answer lies in the capture and storage of carbon dioxide and other climate influencing greenhouse gases.

text: Petroleum crude oil is a complex mixture of hundreds of different hydrocarbon compounds generally having from 3 to 60 carbon atoms per molecule, although there may be small amounts of hydrocarbons outside that range. The refining of crude oil begins with distilling the incoming crude oil in a so-called atmospheric distillation column operating at pressures slightly above atmospheric pressure.

text: Petroleum

text: crude oil

text: is a complex mixture of hundreds of different

text: hydrocarbon

text: compounds generally having from 3 to 60

text: carbon

text: atom

text: s per

text: molecule

text: , although there may be small amounts of hydrocarbons outside that range. The refining of crude oil begins with distilling the incoming crude oil in a so-called

text: atmospheric distillation column

text: operating at pressures slightly above atmospheric pressure.

text: To avoid the serious social and economic implications a global decline in oil production could entail, the 2005 Hirsch report emphasized the need to find alternatives, at least ten to twenty years before the peak, and to phase out the use of petroleum over that time. This was similar to a plan proposed for Sweden that same year. Such mitigation could include energy conservation, fuel substitution, and the use of unconventional oil. Because mitigation can reduce the use of traditional petroleum sources, it can also affect the timing of peak oil and the shape of the Hubbert curve.

text: To avoid the serious

text: social

text: and

text: economic

text: implications a global decline in oil production could entail, the 2005 Hirsch report emphasized the need to find alternatives, at least ten to twenty years before the peak, and to phase out the use of petroleum over that time. This was similar to

text: a plan proposed for Sweden

text: that same year. Such

text: mitigation

text: could include energy conservation, fuel substitution, and the use of unconventional oil. Because mitigation can reduce the use of traditional petroleum sources, it can also affect the timing of peak oil and the shape of the

text: Hubbert curve

text: Cogeneration is generating excess heat and electricity generation from a single process. Cogeneration can provide usable heat for desalination in an integrated, or "dual-purpose", facility where a power plant provides the energy for desalination. Alternatively, the facility's energy production may be dedicated to the production of potable water (a stand-alone facility), or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the energy grid. Cogeneration takes various forms, and theoretically any form of energy production could be used. However, the majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination plants use either fossil fuels or nuclear power as their source of energy. Most plants are located in the Middle East or North Africa, which use their petroleum resources to offset limited water resources. The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is they can be more efficient in energy consumption, thus making desalination more viable.

text: Cogeneration

text: is generating excess heat and electricity generation from a single process. Cogeneration can provide usable heat for desalination in an integrated, or "dual-purpose", facility where a power plant provides the energy for desalination. Alternatively, the facility's energy production may be dedicated to the production of potable water (a stand-alone facility), or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the energy grid. Cogeneration takes various forms, and theoretically any form of energy production could be used. However, the majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination plants use either

text: fossil fuels

text: or

text: nuclear power

text: as their source of energy. Most plants are located in the

text: Middle East

text: or

text: North Africa

text: , which use their petroleum resources to offset limited water resources. The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is they can be more efficient in energy consumption, thus making desalination more viable.

text: In the SAGD process, two parallel horizontal oil wells are drilled in the formation, one about 4 to 6 metres above the other. The upper well injects steam, and the lower one collects the heated crude oil or bitumen that flows out of the formation with associated water and gas, plus recovered water from the condensation of the injected steam. The basis of the SAGD process is that thermal communication is established with the reservoir so that the injected steam forms a "steam chamber" that grows substantially vertically via conduction in the formation. The heat from the steam reduces the viscosity of the heavy crude oil or bitumen which allows it to flow down into the lower wellbore. The steam and gases rise because of their low density compared to the heavy crude oil below, ensuring that steam is not produced at the lower production well, tend to rise in the steam chamber, filling the void space left by the oil and, to a certain extent, forming an insulating heat blanket above the steam. Oil and water flow is by a countercurrent, gravity driven drainage into the lower well bore. The condensed water and crude oil or bitumen is recovered to the surface by pumps such as progressive cavity pumps that work well for moving high-viscosity fluids with suspended solids.

text: In the SAGD process, two parallel horizontal

text: oil well

text: s are drilled in the

text: formation

text: , one about 4 to 6 metres above the other. The upper well injects steam, and the lower one collects the heated

text: crude oil

text: or bitumen that flows out of the formation with associated water and gas, plus recovered water from the condensation of the injected steam. The basis of the SAGD process is that thermal communication is established with the reservoir so that the injected steam forms a "steam chamber" that grows substantially vertically via conduction in the formation. The heat from the steam reduces the

text: viscosity

text: of the heavy crude oil or bitumen which allows it to flow down into the lower wellbore. The steam and gases rise because of their low density compared to the heavy crude oil below, ensuring that steam is not produced at the lower production well, tend to rise in the steam chamber, filling the void space left by the oil and, to a certain extent, forming an insulating heat blanket above the steam. Oil and water flow is by a countercurrent, gravity driven drainage into the lower well bore. The condensed water and

text: crude oil

text: or bitumen is recovered to the surface by pumps such as progressive cavity pumps that work well for moving high-viscosity fluids with suspended solids.

text: Conventional bioproducts and emerging bioproducts are two broad categories used to categorize bioproducts.Examples of conventional bio-based products include building materials, pulp and paper, and forest products. Examples of emerging bioproducts or biobased products include biofuels, bioenergy, starch-based and cellulose-based ethanol, bio-based adhesives, biochemicals, bioplastics, etc. Emerging bioproducts are active subjects of research and development, and these efforts have developed significantly since the turn of the 20/21st century, in part driven by the price of traditional petroleum-based products, by the environmental impact of petroleum use, and by an interest in many countries to become independent from foreign sources of oil. Bioproducts derived from bioresources can replace much of the fuels, chemicals, plastics etc. that are currently derived from petroleum

text: Conventional bioproducts and emerging bioproducts are two broad categories used to categorize bioproducts.Examples of conventional bio-based products include building materials,

text: pulp and paper

text: , and

text: forest products

text: . Examples of emerging bioproducts or

text: biobased product

text: s include

text: biofuels

text: bioenergy

text: , starch-based and cellulose-based

text: ethanol

text: , bio-based adhesives, biochemicals, bioplastics, etc. Emerging bioproducts are active subjects of research and development, and these efforts have developed significantly since the turn of the 20/21st century, in part driven by the price of traditional petroleum-based products, by the environmental impact of petroleum use, and by an interest in many countries to become independent from foreign sources of oil. Bioproducts derived from bioresources can replace much of the fuels, chemicals, plastics etc. that are currently derived from petroleum

text: Oil is the fuel extracted from oil rigs.  There are two forms of oil:  crude and refined.  Crude oil is the base form of oil extracted from oil rigs.  Refined oil is obtained by constructing an Oil Refinery.  Refined oil is the final type of fuel used to power and produce certain units.  75 crude oil converts to 1 refined oil. The oil extraction rate per hour is currently up to 120 crude oil.

text: As written and passed, H. R. 2264 states the following:"Amends the Sherman Act to declare it to be illegal and a violation of the Act for any foreign state or instrumentality thereof to act collectively or in combination with any other foreign state or any other person, whether by cartel or any other association or form of cooperation or joint action, to limit the production or distribution of oil, natural gas, or any other petroleum product (petroleum), to set or maintain the price of petroleum, or to otherwise take any action in restraint of trade for petroleum, when such action has a direct, substantial, and reasonably foreseeable effect on the market, supply, price, or distribution of petroleum in the United States."

text: After returning to private practice he appeared in many important commercial cases for Pakistan International Airlines, Pakistan Petroleum Limited, PTCL, Jang Group of Newspapers, Reckitt Benckiser, OMV, BHP Billiton, Petronas, MacDonald's, Citibank, Unilever, Occidental Petroleum, British Petroleum, the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan, the Oil and Gas Regulatory Authority, Oil and Gas Development Company limited, Habib Bank Limited, Cinepax, Royal Palm Golf & Country Club, The Colony Group, IGI Insurance, The Hub Power Company Ltd., Government of Sindh, Ericsson Pakistan (Pvt.) Ltd, Engro Fertilizers, General Electric, Huawei Technologies, MCB Bank Ltd, Exide Pakistan Limited, Honda Atlas Motors, Indus Motors, Gatron-Novatex, Geo Television Network, Mobilink, Telenor, Roche Pakistan Limited, Attock Oil and Pakistan Oil Fields amongst other clients in the Sindh High Court, Islamabad High Court, Lahore High Court and the Supreme Court of Pakistan. He is also sitting as an arbitrator in a number of important commercial matters both internationally and in Pakistan. His predominant place of practice is the Sindh High Court in Karachi, however, he also frequently appears for clients in the Islamabad High Court and the Supreme Court of Pakistan and his firm Fazleghani Advocates has offices in both Karachi and Islamabad.

text: Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The most notable of these is gasoline. Scientists generally accept that petroleum formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust.

text: Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The most notable of these is

text: gasoline

text: . Scientists generally accept that petroleum formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust.

text: Colonel Virgilio Barco was granted the concession on 16 October 1905 in the Catatumbo region of the Norte de Santander department.Colonel Barco had led victorious forces in the recent Thousand Days civil war, and was given the concession in return. He planned to use it for cattle, until he found that oil was seeping out of the ground.World War I caused delays in developing the field. In 1918 Barco sold the concession to the Carib Syndicate, a concern owned by Americans, who sold 75% of their interest to the Colombian Petroleum Company the next year.This was a subsidiary of Edward L. Doheny's Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company. Doheny was also interested in plans to develop the oil industry in Venezuela, and in building a pipeline from Colombia to Venezuela to make it more economical to export the Barco oil.

text: Colonel Virgilio Barco was granted the concession on 16 October 1905 in the Catatumbo region of the Norte de Santander department.Colonel Barco had led victorious forces in the recent

text: Thousand Days civil war

text: , and was given the concession in return. He planned to use it for cattle, until he found that oil was seeping out of the ground.

text: World War I

text: caused delays in developing the field. In 1918 Barco sold the concession to the Carib Syndicate, a concern owned by Americans, who sold 75% of their interest to the Colombian Petroleum Company the next year.This was a subsidiary of

text: Edward L. Doheny

text: 's

entity_name: Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company

text: Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company

text: . Doheny was also interested in plans to develop the oil industry in Venezuela, and in building a pipeline from Colombia to Venezuela to make it more economical to export the Barco oil.

text: Post-Independence, the development of the port gained momentum. In 1959, a passenger station on the first floor of the transit shed at north quay was commissioned. In 1961, construction of signal station at north quay was completed. In the same year, the port's Jawahar Dock was inaugurated by the then prime minister of India, Lal Bahadur Shastri. In 1964, the Jawahar dock with capacity to berth 6 vessels to handle dry bulk cargoes such as coal, iron ore, fertiliser and non-hazardous liquid cargoes was created on the southern side changing the topography of the port. To handle vessels with as much as  draft, the port developed the outer harbour, named Bharathi Dock, for handling petroleum in 1972 and for mechanised handling of iron ore in 1974. In 1972, the first oil jetty was constructed at Bharathi Dock-I capable of handling tankers up to 100,000 DWT to handle imports of crude oil destined for the Manali Oil Refinery (later named the Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited). In 1974, the iron ore berth was added to the port for exports to Japan and other countries in the Far East. The second oil jetty was added at Bharathi Dock-III in 1986 capable of handling tankers up to 140,000 DWT to meet increasing demands for crude oil and petroleum products. The iron ore terminal is equipped with mechanised ore-handling plant commissioned in 1977 at Bharathi Dock-II capable of handling ore carriers of maximum size 1,45,000 DWT, one of the three such facility in the country, with a capacity of handling 8 million tonnes and a loading rate of 6,000 tonnes per hour. The port's share of iron ore export from India is 12 per cent. The dedicated facility for oil led to the development of oil refinery in the hinterland. This oil terminal is capable of handling Suezmax vessels.

text: Post-

text: Independence

text: , the development of the port gained momentum. In 1959, a passenger station on the first floor of the transit shed at north quay was commissioned. In 1961, construction of signal station at north quay was completed. In the same year, the port's Jawahar Dock was inaugurated by the then prime minister of India,

text: Lal Bahadur Shastri

text: . In 1964, the Jawahar dock with capacity to berth 6 vessels to handle dry bulk cargoes such as coal, iron ore, fertiliser and non-hazardous liquid cargoes was created on the southern side changing the topography of the port. To handle vessels with as much as  draft, the port developed the outer harbour, named Bharathi Dock, for handling petroleum in 1972 and for mechanised handling of iron ore in 1974. In 1972, the first oil jetty was constructed at Bharathi Dock-I capable of handling tankers up to 100,000 DWT to handle imports of crude oil destined for the Manali Oil Refinery (later named the

text: Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited

text: ). In 1974, the iron ore berth was added to the port for exports to Japan and other countries in the Far East. The second oil jetty was added at Bharathi Dock-III in 1986 capable of handling tankers up to 140,000 DWT to meet increasing demands for crude oil and petroleum products. The iron ore terminal is equipped with mechanised ore-handling plant commissioned in 1977 at Bharathi Dock-II capable of handling ore carriers of maximum size 1,45,000 DWT, one of the three such facility in the country, with a capacity of handling 8 million tonnes and a loading rate of 6,000 tonnes per hour. The port's share of iron ore export from India is 12 per cent. The dedicated facility for oil led to the development of oil refinery in the hinterland. This oil terminal is capable of handling

text: Suezmax

text: vessels.

text: A petroleum refinery includes many unit operations and unit processes. The first unit operation in a refinery is the continuous distillation of the petroleum crude oil being refined. The overhead liquid distillate is called naphtha and will become a major component of the refinery's gasoline (petrol) product after it is further processed through a catalytic hydrodesulfurizer to remove sulfur-containing hydrocarbons and a catalytic reformer to reform its hydrocarbon molecules into more complex molecules with a higher octane rating value. The naphtha is a mixture of very many different hydrocarbon compounds. It has an initial boiling point of about 35 °C and a final boiling point of about 200 °C, and it contains paraffin, naphthene (cyclic paraffins) and aromatic hydrocarbons ranging from those containing 4 carbon atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 carbon atoms.

text: A petroleum refinery includes many

text: unit operations

text: and

text: unit processes

text: . The first unit operation in a refinery is the

text: continuous distillation

text: of the

text: petroleum crude oil

text: being refined. The overhead liquid distillate is called naphtha and will become a major component of the refinery's gasoline (petrol) product after it is further processed through a

text: catalytic hydrodesulfurizer

text: to remove

text: sulfur

text: -containing hydrocarbons and a catalytic reformer to reform its hydrocarbon molecules into more complex molecules with a higher octane rating value. The naphtha is a mixture of very many different hydrocarbon compounds. It has an initial

text: boiling point

text: of about 35 °C and a final boiling point of about 200 °C, and it contains

text: paraffin

text: naphthene

text: (cyclic paraffins) and

text: aromatic

text: hydrocarbons ranging from those containing 4

text: carbon

text: atoms to those containing about 10 or 11 carbon atoms.

text: Possessing substantial oil refining capacities, Romania is particularly interested in the Central Asia-Europe pipelines and seeks to strengthen its relations with some Persian Gulf states. With 10 refineries and an overall refining capacity of approximately , Romania has the largest refining industry in the region. Romania's refining capacity far exceeds domestic demand for refined petroleum products, allowing the country to export a wide range of oil products and petrochemicals, -- such as lubricants, bitumen, and fertilizers—throughout the region.

text: Persian Gulf states

text: . With 10 refineries and an overall refining capacity of approximately , Romania has the largest refining industry in the region. Romania's refining capacity far exceeds domestic demand for refined petroleum products, allowing the country to export a wide range of oil products and petrochemicals, -- such as lubricants, bitumen, and fertilizers—throughout the region.

text: The first oil "well" in North America was in Oil Springs, Ontario, Canada in 1858, dug by James Miller Williams. The US petroleum industry began with Edwin Drake's drilling of a  oil well in 1859 on Oil Creek near Titusville, Pennsylvania, both named for their petroleum seeps.

text: The first oil "well" in North America was in

text: Oil Springs, Ontario

text: , Canada in 1858, dug by

text: James Miller Williams

text: . The US petroleum

text: industry

text: began with

text: Edwin Drake

text: 's drilling of a  oil well in 1859 on

text: Oil Creek

text: near

text: Titusville, Pennsylvania

text: , both named for their petroleum seeps.

text: The Ponca City Refinery processes a mixture of light, medium and heavy crude oils. Most of the crude oil processed is received by pipeline from Oklahoma, Texas and Canada. Infrastructure improvements have enabled the delivery of increased volumes of locally produced advantaged crude oil by pipeline and truck.  The refinery is a high-conversion facility that produces a full range of products, including gasoline, diesel and aviation fuels; liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); and anode-grade petroleum coke. Its facilities include two fluid catalytic cracking units, alkylation, delayed coking, naphtha reforming and hydrodesulfurization units. Finished petroleum products are shipped by truck, railcar and pipelines to markets throughout the Midcontinent region.

text: In spite of the above noted study, numerous studies have shown biomass fuels have significantly less impact on the environment than fossil based fuels. Of note is the US Department of Energy Laboratory, operated by Midwest Research Institute Biomass Power and Conventional Fossil Systems with and without CO2 Sequestration – Comparing the Energy Balance, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economics Study. Power generation emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs), mainly carbon dioxide (). Sequestering  from the power plant flue gas can significantly reduce the GHGs from the power plant itself, but this is not the total picture.  capture and sequestration consumes additional energy, thus lowering the plant's fuel-to-electricity efficiency. To compensate for this, more fossil fuel must be procured and consumed to make up for lost capacity.

text: In spite of the above noted study, numerous studies have shown biomass fuels have significantly less impact on the environment than fossil based fuels. Of note is the US Department of Energy Laboratory, operated by Midwest Research Institute Biomass Power and Conventional Fossil Systems with and without CO2 Sequestration – Comparing the

text: Energy Balance

text: Greenhouse Gas

text: Emissions and Economics Study. Power generation emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs), mainly

text: carbon dioxide

text: Sequestering

text: from the power plant

text: flue gas

text: can significantly reduce the GHGs from the power plant itself, but this is not the total picture.  capture and sequestration consumes additional energy, thus lowering the plant's

text: fuel-to-electricity efficiency

text: . To compensate for this, more fossil fuel must be procured and consumed to make up for lost capacity.

text: In contrast, Equatorial Guinea is the fourth leading exporter of petroleum in Africa, which contributes significantly to the country's GDP. The country is also seventh in Africa for production of crude oil and the ninth largest producer of natural gas. The reserves are estimated at 150 Mt and 36.81 billion m, respectively. An increase of production of crude oil has had a significant positive impact on Equatorial Guinea's economy. Since Equatorial Guinea relies so heavily on crude oil, the crude oil price drops in 2009 and 2014 had a measurable effect on the economy.

text: In 1970, US oil production unexpectedly peaked and started to decline, causing global oil markets to tighten rapidly as the US started to import more and more Arab oil. As the decade continued, global demand caught up with global supply, and there were two major oil price shocks: the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 oil crisis. The first occurred when the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) (whose membership consists of the Arab members of the similarly-named Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), plus Egypt, Syria, and Tunisia) imposed an embargo on oil exports to the US, the UK, the Netherlands, Japan, and Canada in retaliation for those countries' support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War. US producers had been able to defeat the previous 1967 oil embargo by ramping up domestic production, flooding the world market with additional product at cut-rate prices, but declining domestic production combined with the ongoing rise in global demand made a similar response to the 1973 Arab embargo impossible. The result was immediate shortages and lineups for gasoline in the importing countries, particularly the US, signaling the end of decades of cheap oil and a change in the balance of power from the consuming countries (which now included the United states) to the producing countries. On October 16, 1973, the Ministerial Committee of the Persian Gulf OPEC membership announced an immediate rise in their posted price from $2.18 to $5.12 per barrel of oil. "Thus for the first time in oil history, the producing countries assumed power to consider and set the oil price unilaterally, and independently of the" Seven Sisters.

text: In 1970, US oil production unexpectedly peaked and started to decline, causing global oil markets to tighten rapidly as the US started to import more and more Arab oil. As the decade continued, global demand caught up with global supply, and there were two major oil price shocks: the

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: and the

text: 1979 oil crisis

text: . The first occurred when the

entity_name: Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries

text: Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries

text: (OAPEC) (whose membership consists of the Arab members of the similarly-named

text: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

text: (OPEC), plus Egypt, Syria, and Tunisia) imposed an

text: embargo

text: on oil exports to the US, the UK, the Netherlands, Japan, and Canada in retaliation for those countries' support for Israel during the

text: Yom Kippur War

text: . US producers had been able to defeat the previous

text: 1967 oil embargo

text: by ramping up domestic production, flooding the world market with additional product at cut-rate prices, but declining domestic production combined with the ongoing rise in global demand made a similar response to the 1973 Arab embargo impossible. The result was immediate shortages and lineups for gasoline in the importing countries, particularly the US, signaling the end of decades of cheap oil and a change in the balance of power from the consuming countries (which now included the United states) to the producing countries. On October 16, 1973, the Ministerial Committee of the Persian Gulf OPEC membership announced an immediate rise in their posted price from $2.18 to $5.12 per

text: barrel of oil

text: . "Thus for the first time in oil history, the producing countries assumed power to consider and set the oil price unilaterally, and independently of the" Seven Sisters.

text: Oil well control is one of the most important aspects of drilling operations. Improper handling of kicks in oil well control can result in blowouts with very grave consequences, including the loss of valuable resources. Even though the cost of a blowout (as a result of improper/no oil well control) can easily reach several millions of US dollars, the monetary loss is not as serious as the other damages that can occur: irreparable damage to the environment, waste of valuable resources, ruined equipment, and most importantly, the safety and lives of personnel on the drilling rig.

text: Oil well control is one of the most important aspects of drilling operations. Improper handling of

text: kicks

text: in oil well control can result in blowouts with very grave consequences, including the loss of valuable resources. Even though the cost of a blowout (as a result of improper/no oil well control) can easily reach several millions of US dollars, the monetary loss is not as serious as the other damages that can occur: irreparable damage to the environment, waste of valuable resources, ruined equipment, and most importantly, the safety and lives of personnel on the drilling rig.

text: Other terms are used when discussing only oil. These terms can refer to either the production of crude oil at an oil well, the conversion of crude oil to other products at an oil refinery, or the overall consumption of oil by a region or country. One common term is barrels per day (BPD, BOPD, bbl/d, bpd, bd, or b/d) where 1 BPD is equivalent to 0.0292 gallons per minute. One BPD also becomes 49.8 tonnes per year. At an oil refinery, production is sometimes reported as barrels per calendar day (bc/d or bcd), which is total production in a year divided by the days in that year. Likewise, barrels per stream day (BSD or BPSD) is the quantity of oil product produced by a single refining unit during continuous operation for 24 hours. Lastly, the terms mbd and mmbd are sometimes used to denote one thousand or one million barrels per day, respectively. These abbreviations use the Roman numeral "M", which means one thousand, but write it as a lower-cased "m". This is in direct contrast with SI prefixes, where "m" means one-thousandth, "k" means one thousand, and "M" means one million.

text: Other terms are used when discussing only oil. These terms can refer to either the production of

text: crude oil

text: at an oil well, the conversion of crude oil to other products at an

text: oil refinery

text: , or the overall consumption of oil by a region or country. One common term is barrels per day (BPD, BOPD, bbl/d, bpd, bd, or b/d) where 1 BPD is equivalent to 0.0292

text: gallons per minute

text: . One BPD also becomes 49.8 tonnes per year. At an oil refinery, production is sometimes reported as barrels per calendar day (bc/d or bcd), which is total production in a year divided by the days in that year. Likewise, barrels per stream day (BSD or BPSD) is the quantity of oil product produced by a single refining unit during continuous operation for 24 hours. Lastly, the terms mbd and mmbd are sometimes used to denote one thousand or one million barrels per day, respectively. These abbreviations use the

text: Roman numeral

text: "M", which means one thousand, but write it as a lower-cased "m". This is in direct contrast with

text: SI prefixes

text: , where "m" means one-thousandth, "k" means one thousand, and "M" means one million.

text: Lufkin is a portrait of an oil-pump discovered by Gerrard during his travels. It is significant in the light of the foregoing Animated Scene works that the pigs in Grow Finish Unit and Sow Farm are exclusively raised on corn which is in turn grown using nitrogen derived from oil and gas, thus rendering the occupants of these sheds, in essence, oil-derived animals. In turn, the depleted landscape of the Dust Storm works was the result of the use of mechanised petroleum-powered ploughing and intensive nitrogen-enabled agriculture.

text: The intensified power struggle between oil companies and host governments in Middle East, along with the oil price shocks that followed the 1973 oil crisis meant British Petroleum lost most of its direct access to crude oil supplies produced in countries that belonged to the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and prompted it to diversify its operations beyond the heavily Middle East dependent oil production. In 1976, BP and Shell de-merged their marketing operations in the United Kingdom by dividing Shell-Mex and BP. In 1978 the company acquired a controlling interest in Standard Oil of Ohio (Sohio).

text: The intensified power struggle between oil companies and host governments in Middle East, along with the oil price shocks that followed the

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: meant British Petroleum lost most of its direct access to crude oil supplies produced in countries that belonged to the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (

text: OPEC

text: ), and prompted it to diversify its operations beyond the heavily Middle East dependent oil production. In 1976, BP and Shell de-merged their marketing operations in the United Kingdom by dividing Shell-Mex and BP. In 1978 the company acquired a controlling interest in

text: Standard Oil of Ohio

text: (Sohio).

text: Gulf Keystone's initial operations in Algeria were rather less successful than had been hoped, and the share price weakened as a consequence. RAK Petroleum PCL announced an agreement in April 2007 to acquire Gulf Keystone Petroleum, but the transaction was not completed. The company continued as an independent and altered its strategy, working with the American company Texas Keystone International to complete the acquisition of exploration acreage in Kurdistan. A small American company called Excalibur Ventures had initially drawn the attention of Texas Keystone to the possibility of acquiring exploration acreage in Kurdistan. This initially included a majority position in the Shaikan block, for which Gulf Keystone would be the operator, and a minority position in the Akri-Bijeel block, for which MOL would be the operator (op. cit). In the summer of 2009 the Shaikan wildcat well was a success, and it was realized that the volume of oil in Shaikan was much greater than had been expected from the pre-drill assessments made by the company's geophysicists. The share price strengthened considerably as a consequence, moving beyond its previous high levels. As time passed and more wells were drilled, the volume of oil judged to be in Shaikan continued to rise.

text: All petroleum products are imported. In 2002, imports of refined petroleum products totaled , with consumption placed at . There were no natural gas imports for that year. The port in Djibouti's capital city is an important oil shipment and storage site.

text: Wigham made many other inventions, largely in the area of maritime safety. He invented new oil-lamps, gas-lights and electric-lights, gas-powered fog signals, buoys, petroleum-fuelled buoy lights and acetylene lighting equipment. He was working on new electric illumination systems at the time of his death in 1906. Lights supplied by Edmundson & Co were used in lighthouses all over the globe; the firm still exists today as F. Barrett & Co, of Dublin.

text: Wigham made many other inventions, largely in the area of maritime safety. He invented new oil-lamps, gas-lights and electric-lights, gas-powered

text: fog signal

text: s, buoys, petroleum-fuelled buoy lights and

text: acetylene lighting

text: equipment. He was working on new electric illumination systems at the time of his death in 1906. Lights supplied by Edmundson & Co were used in lighthouses all over the globe; the firm still exists today as F. Barrett & Co, of

text: Dublin

text: The majority of this energy is derived from fossil fuels: in 2010, data showed 25% of the nation's energy came from petroleum, 22% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. Nuclear power supplied 8.4% and renewable energy supplied 8%, which was mainly from hydroelectric dams and biomass but also included other renewable sources such as wind power, geothermal and solar energy. Energy consumption has increased at a faster rate than domestic energy production over the last fifty years in the U.S. (when they were roughly equal). This difference is now largely met through imports.

text: The majority of this energy is derived from

text: fossil fuel

text: s: in 2010, data showed 25% of the nation's energy came from

text: petroleum

text: , 22% from

text: coal

text: , and 22% from

text: natural gas

text: Nuclear power

text: supplied 8.4% and

text: renewable energy

text: supplied 8%, which was mainly from

text: hydroelectric dam

text: s and

text: biomass

text: but also included other renewable sources such as

text: wind power

text: geothermal

text: and

text: solar energy

text: . Energy consumption has increased at a faster rate than domestic energy production over the last fifty years in the U.S. (when they were roughly equal). This difference is now largely met through imports.

text: There is a limited amount of fossil fuel inside the Earth.  Since the current world energy resources and consumption is mainly fossil fuels, we are very dependent on them for both transportation and electric power generation.  The Hubbert peak theory predicts that oil depletion will result in oil production dropping off in the not too distant future.  As time goes on our economy will have to transition to some alternative fuels. Fossil fuels have solved two problems which could be separately solved in the future: the problem of a source of primary energy and of energy storage.  Along with straight vegetable oil and biodiesel, some energy technologies that could play an important part in the future include:

text: There is a limited amount of

text: fossil fuel

text: inside the

text: Earth

text: .  Since the current

text: world energy resources and consumption

text: is mainly fossil fuels, we are very dependent on them for both

text: transportation

text: and

text: electric power generation

text: .  The

text: Hubbert peak theory

text: predicts that

text: oil depletion

text: will result in oil production dropping off in the not too distant future.  As time goes on our economy will have to transition to some

text: alternative fuels

text: . Fossil fuels have solved two problems which could be separately solved in the future: the problem of a source of

text: primary energy

text: and of

text: energy storage

text: .  Along with

text: straight vegetable oil

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: , some energy technologies that could play an important part in the future include:

text: - Power station, Petroleum and Fertilizer Manpower

text: Given that they are non-polar, oils do not easily adhere to other substances. This makes them useful as lubricants for various engineering purposes. Mineral oils are more commonly used as machine lubricants than biological oils are. Whale oil is preferred for lubricating clocks, because it does not evaporate, leaving dust, although its use was banned in 1980.

text: Given that they are non-polar, oils do not easily adhere to other substances. This makes them useful as

text: lubricants

text: for various engineering purposes. Mineral oils are more commonly used as machine lubricants than biological oils are.

text: Whale oil

text: is preferred for lubricating clocks, because it does not evaporate, leaving dust, although its use was banned in 1980.

text: Wilton Power Station is a 197 megawatt (MW) fossil fuel power station, which is currently in constant operation. Over the years, nine boilers have been in operation at the station. In the 1970s the station had a generating capacity of 300 MW and produced 1,200 tonnes of steam per hour. In this period the station was burning waste from the chemical site, byproducts such as: liquid petroleum gas, tars, waste lubricating oils, emulsion residues, waste from aromatic and olefin plants and hydrogen gas from the nylon plant. There are currently three generating sets in operation at the station, two of which are fired by coal, the other of which is a gas turbine fuelled by natural gas. Each of the two coal-fired generating sets are powered by a high pressure boiler, which are each capable of producing a continuous maximum rate of 280 tonnes per hour of steam, at 1,700 psig. Each boiler is then connected to a 33 MW turbine generator. Intermediate pressure steam is then either diverted and fed to other plants in the complex, or sent to three secondary generating sets. After the secondary generating sets, low pressure steam can then be distributed to plants in the complex. Boiler Number 6, one of the coal boilers, was mothballed in 1997, however in 2001 it was refurbished and restored to operation. In 2002, one of the secondary turbines was replaced by a newer unit. In the same year, an automation project involving the boilers, turbines and ancillary equipment was completed.

text: Wilton Power Station is a 197

text: megawatt

text: (MW)

text: fossil fuel power station

text: , which is currently in constant operation. Over the years, nine

text: boiler

text: s have been in operation at the station. In the 1970s the station had a generating capacity of 300 MW and produced 1,200 tonnes of steam per hour. In this period the station was burning waste from the chemical site, byproducts such as: liquid petroleum gas, tars, waste lubricating oils, emulsion residues, waste from aromatic and olefin plants and hydrogen gas from the nylon plant. There are currently three generating sets in operation at the station, two of which are fired by

text: coal

text: , the other of which is a

text: gas turbine

text: fuelled by

text: natural gas

text: . Each of the two coal-fired generating sets are powered by a high pressure boiler, which are each capable of producing a continuous maximum rate of 280 tonnes per hour of steam, at 1,700

text: psig

text: . Each boiler is then connected to a 33 MW turbine generator. Intermediate pressure steam is then either diverted and fed to other plants in the complex, or sent to three secondary generating sets. After the secondary generating sets, low pressure steam can then be distributed to plants in the complex. Boiler Number 6, one of the coal boilers, was mothballed in 1997, however in 2001 it was refurbished and restored to operation. In 2002, one of the secondary turbines was replaced by a newer unit. In the same year, an automation project involving the boilers, turbines and ancillary equipment was completed.

text: Electric power is generated by fossil fuels and nuclear power plants.  Fossil fuel (oil, natural gas, coal) are mostly imported from other regions of Russia (mostly from Komi Republic, Povolzhye, and West Siberia).

text: Electric power

text: is generated by

text: fossil fuel

text: s and

text: nuclear power plant

text: s.  Fossil fuel (

text: oil

text: natural gas

text: , coal) are mostly imported from other regions of Russia (mostly from

text: Komi Republic

text: Povolzhye

text: , and

text: West Siberia

text: Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low sulfur) crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous, especially in warships. Instead, the hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components which can be used as fuels, lubricants, and as feedstocks in petrochemical processes that manufacture such products as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers and fibers such as nylon and polyesters.

text: Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low

text: sulfur

text: ) crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous, especially in

text: warships

text: . Instead, the hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components which can be used as

text: fuels

text: lubricants

text: , and as feedstocks in

text: petrochemical

text: processes that manufacture such products as

text: plastic

text: s,

text: detergent

text: s,

text: solvent

text: s,

text: elastomer

text: s and

text: fiber

text: s such as

text: nylon

text: and

text: polyesters

text: Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.Fuels are a source of energy.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: non-renewable resources

text: because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of

text: renewable energy

text: is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion

text: tonnes

text: gigatonne

text: s) of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es that enhances

text: radiative forcing

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: , causing the

text: average surface temperature

text: of the Earth to rise in response, which

text: the vast majority of climate scientists

text: agree will cause major

text: adverse effects

text: .Fuels are a source of energy.

text: The petroleum discovery at the Drake Well in western Pennsylvania in 1859 caused a great deal of public excitement and investment drilling in new wells, not only in Pennsylvania, but also in Canada, where petroleum had been discovered at Oil Springs, Ontario in 1858, and southern Poland, where Ignacy Łukasiewicz had been distilling lamp oil from petroleum seeps since 1852. The increased supply of petroleum allowed oil refiners to entirely side-step the oil-from-coal patents of both Young and Gesner, and produce illuminating oil from petroleum without paying royalties to anyone. As a result, the illuminating oil industry in the United States completely switched over to petroleum in the 1860s. The petroleum-based illuminating oil was widely sold as Kerosene, and the trade name soon lost its proprietary status, and became the lower-case generic product “kerosene”. Because Gesner’s original Kerosene had been also known as “coal oil,” generic kerosene from petroleum was commonly called “coal oil” in some parts of the United States well into the 20th century.

text: The petroleum discovery at the

text: Drake Well

text: in western Pennsylvania in 1859 caused a great deal of public excitement and investment drilling in new wells, not only in Pennsylvania, but also in Canada, where petroleum had been discovered at

text: Oil Springs, Ontario

text: in 1858, and southern Poland, where Ignacy Łukasiewicz had been distilling lamp oil from petroleum seeps since 1852. The increased supply of petroleum allowed oil refiners to entirely side-step the oil-from-coal patents of both Young and Gesner, and produce illuminating oil from petroleum without paying royalties to anyone. As a result, the illuminating oil industry in the United States completely switched over to petroleum in the 1860s. The petroleum-based illuminating oil was widely sold as Kerosene, and the trade name soon lost its proprietary status, and became the lower-case generic product “kerosene”. Because Gesner’s original Kerosene had been also known as “coal oil,” generic kerosene from petroleum was commonly called “coal oil” in some parts of the United States well into the 20th century.

text: A great deal of gas flaring at many oil and gas production sites has to do with protection against the dangers of over-pressuring industrial plant equipment. When petroleum crude oil is extracted and produced from onshore or offshore oil wells, raw natural gas associated with the oil is brought to the surface as well. Especially in areas of the world lacking pipelines and other gas transportation infrastructure, vast amounts of such associated gas are commonly flared as waste or unusable gas. The flaring of associated gas may occur at the top of a vertical flare stack (as in the adjacent photo) or it may occur in a ground-level flare in an earthen pit. Preferably, associated gas is reinjected into the reservoir, which saves it for future use while maintaining higher well pressure and crude oil producibility.

text: A great deal of gas flaring at many oil and gas production sites has to do with protection against the dangers of over-pressuring industrial plant equipment. When

text: petroleum crude oil

text: is extracted and produced from onshore or offshore

text: oil well

text: s,

text: raw natural gas

text: associated with the oil is brought to the surface as well. Especially in areas of the world lacking

text: pipelines

text: and other gas transportation infrastructure, vast amounts of such

text: associated gas

text: are commonly flared as waste or unusable gas. The flaring of associated gas may occur at the top of a vertical flare stack (as in the adjacent photo) or it may occur in a ground-level flare in an earthen pit. Preferably, associated gas is reinjected into the reservoir, which saves it for future use while maintaining higher well pressure and crude oil producibility.

text: By 2008, BP's branding campaign had succeeded with the culmination of a 2007 Effie Award from by the American Marketing Association, and consumers had the impression that BP was one of the greenest petroleum companies in the world. BP was criticised by environmentalists and marketing experts, who stated that the company's alternative energy activities were only a fraction of the company's business at the time. According to Democracy Now, BP's marketing campaign amounted to a deceptive greenwashing public-relations spin campaign given that BP's 2008 budget included more than $20 billion for fossil fuel investment and less than $1.5 billion for all alternative forms of energy. Oil and energy analyst Antonia Juhasz notes BP's investment in green technologies peaked at 4% of its exploratory budget prior to cutbacks, including the discontinuation of BP Solar and the closure of its alternative energy headquarters in London.  According to Juhasz, "four percent...hardly qualifies the company to be Beyond Petroleum", citing BP's "aggressive modes of production, whether it’s the tar sands [or] offshore".

text: By 2008, BP's branding campaign had succeeded with the culmination of a 2007

text: Effie Award

text: from by the

text: American Marketing Association

text: , and consumers had the impression that BP was one of the greenest petroleum companies in the world. BP was criticised by environmentalists and marketing experts, who stated that the company's alternative energy activities were only a fraction of the company's business at the time. According to

text: Democracy Now

text: , BP's marketing campaign amounted to a deceptive

text: greenwashing

text: public-relations

text: spin campaign

text: given that BP's 2008 budget included more than $20 billion for fossil fuel investment and less than $1.5 billion for all alternative forms of energy. Oil and energy analyst

text: Antonia Juhasz

text: notes BP's investment in green technologies peaked at 4% of its exploratory budget prior to cutbacks, including the discontinuation of

text: BP Solar

text: and the closure of its alternative energy headquarters in London.  According to Juhasz, "four percent...hardly qualifies the company to be Beyond Petroleum", citing BP's "aggressive modes of production, whether it’s the tar sands [or] offshore".

text: Occidental Petroleum’s spinoff company California Resources Corp. created the group Powering California, which teamed up with the Los Angeles Times' “content solutions” team to promote oil-industry messaging. (The Times’ "content solutions" department is wholly independent from its reporting and editorial staff.).

text: The engine's cycle of operations including sectional drawings and indicator diagrams for both gas and petroleum fueled versions. Details of the way the liquid fuel was introduced are described over 11 pages of Dugald Clerk's book Gas and Oil Engines. The petroleum engine in these tests was made by the "New York and New Jersey Ready Motor Company". This is followed by a similar analysis of Simon's engine which was an adaptation of the Brayton engine made by Louis Simon & Sons, in Nottingham, UK and marketed as The Eclipse Silent Gas Engine. The Simon engine had an added complexity in that it injected some of the water/steam heated by the engine/exhaust into the engine. The indicator diagrams for this engine are also reported by Dugald Clerk and show that the addition of the water has little merit in terms of power production, the cooling of the gases and expansion of the steam compensating for each other.

text: The engine's cycle of operations including sectional drawings and indicator diagrams for both gas and petroleum fueled versions. Details of the way the liquid fuel was introduced are described over 11 pages of

text: Dugald Clerk

text: 's book Gas and Oil Engines. The petroleum engine in these tests was made by the "New York and New Jersey Ready Motor Company". This is followed by a similar analysis of Simon's engine which was an adaptation of the Brayton engine made by Louis Simon & Sons, in Nottingham, UK and marketed as The Eclipse Silent Gas Engine. The Simon engine had an added complexity in that it injected some of the water/steam heated by the engine/exhaust into the engine. The indicator diagrams for this engine are also reported by

text: Dugald Clerk

text: and show that the addition of the water has little merit in terms of power production, the cooling of the gases and expansion of the steam compensating for each other.

text: In spite of the few major operations, the first decade of the boom was dominated by numerous small producers. As production expanded and new companies were formed, consolidation occurred. By the late 1920s, ten companies produced more than half of the oil in the state: Gulf Production Company, Humble Oil and Refining Company, Southern Crude Oil Purchasing Company (later absorbed by Amoco which was later absorbed by BP), the Texas Company, Shell Petroleum Corporation, Yount-Lee Oil Company, Magnolia Petroleum Company, J. K. Hughes Oil Company, Pure Oil Company, and Mid-Kansas Oil and Gas Company (later Marathon Oil).

text: In spite of the few major operations, the first decade of the boom was dominated by numerous small producers. As production expanded and new companies were formed, consolidation occurred. By the late 1920s, ten companies produced more than half of the oil in the state: Gulf Production Company, Humble Oil and Refining Company, Southern Crude Oil Purchasing Company (later absorbed by

text: Amoco

text: which was later absorbed by

text: BP

text: ), the Texas Company,

text: Shell Petroleum Corporation

text: Yount-Lee Oil Company

text: , Magnolia Petroleum Company, J. K. Hughes Oil Company,

text: Pure Oil Company

text: , and Mid-Kansas Oil and Gas Company (later

text: Marathon Oil

text: Production from the Sémé off shore oil field began in October 1982 by Saga Petroleum, a Norwegian company working under a service contract. The field yielded  of oil in 1991. In 1990, Benin exported an estimated  of crude oil. In 1986, the contract was transferred to Pan Ocean Oil (Panoco), a Swiss-based US company, but loans to Benin from international development agencies were frozen because the company could not furnish satisfactory financial and capability statements; it withdrew, forcing Benin to take over oil production. Reserves, which were estimated at , were considered sufficient to meet domestic needs, but there is currently no refinery in Benin; consequently, refined petroleum products have to be re-imported. In 2002, imports of refined petroleum products amounted to . The company responsible for petroleum products import is Société Nationale de Commercialisation des Produits Pétroliers (SONACOP).

text: Production from the Sémé off shore oil field began in October 1982 by

text: Saga Petroleum

text: , a

text: Norwegian

text: company working under a service contract. The field yielded  of oil in 1991. In 1990,

text: Benin

text: exported an estimated  of

text: crude oil

text: . In 1986, the contract was transferred to

text: Pan Ocean Oil

text: (Panoco), a

text: Swiss

text: -based US company, but loans to Benin from international development agencies were frozen because the company could not furnish satisfactory financial and capability statements; it withdrew, forcing Benin to take over oil production.

text: Reserves

text: , which were estimated at , were considered sufficient to meet domestic needs, but there is currently no

text: refinery

text: in Benin; consequently, refined

text: petroleum

text: products have to be re-imported. In 2002, imports of refined petroleum products amounted to . The company responsible for petroleum products import is

entity_name: Société Nationale de Commercialisation des Produits Pétroliers

text: Société Nationale de Commercialisation des Produits Pétroliers

text: (SONACOP).

text: Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.They range from volatile  materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This biogenic theory was first introduced by German scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

text: Fossil fuels contain high percentages of

text: carbon

text: and include

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: .They range from

text: volatile

text: materials with low

text: carbon

text: hydrogen

text: ratios like

text: methane

text: , to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like

text: anthracite

text: coal. Methane can be found in

text: hydrocarbon

text: fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of

text: methane clathrates

text: . Fossil fuels formed from the

text: fossilized remains

text: of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This

text: biogenic theory

text: was first introduced by German scholar

text: Georg Agricola

text: in 1556 and later by

text: Mikhail Lomonosov

text: in the 18th century.

text: As the Red Line Agreement defined the company's sphere of operations well beyond the boundaries of Iraq, IPC's shareholders were keen to look for oil elsewhere in the Middle East. They created associated companies, one for each territory to be explored. These companies were collectively known as "The IPC Group". They would obtain from the sovereign power an exploration licence covering simple exploration over a defined geographical area, or a concession permitting exploration and the production of oil. By 1948, the Company had created 12 companies with concessions or exploration licences: Petroleum Development (Cyprus Ltd), Lebanon Petroleum Company Ltd, Petroleum Development (Palestine) Ltd, Syrian Petroleum Company Ltd, Trans-Jordan Petroleum Company Ltd, Mosul Petroleum Company Ltd, Basrah Petroleum Company Ltd, Petroleum Development (Qatar) Ltd, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd, Petroleum Development (Oman and Dhofar) Ltd, Petroleum Concessions Ltd (for the Aden Protectorates), Petroleum Development (Western Arabia) Ltd.

text: With the constant advancements in alternative ambulatory power by engineers such as Angelo Di Pietro of Engineair in Australia and Guy Negre of MDI in France, crude petroleum can be refashioned to be mainly used for industrial products such as plastics.To date no vehicles powered by this or by other models of compressed air engines have ever reached the "working prototype" status (excepting compressed-air powered fireless locomotives).

text: With the constant advancements in alternative ambulatory power by engineers such as Angelo Di Pietro of Engineair in Australia and Guy Negre of MDI in France, crude petroleum can be refashioned to be mainly used for industrial products such as plastics.To date no vehicles powered by this or by other models of compressed air engines have ever reached the "working prototype" status (excepting compressed-air powered

text: fireless locomotive

text: s).

text: Motivation for introducing special taxes on petroleum production is rooted in rent theory and the assumption that oil and gas resources provide an extraordinary rate of resource rent (economic rent). The term "resource rent" expresses the difference between the values of hydrocarbons extracted from a deposit and the total costs of exploring and producing the hydrocarbons, synonymous with excess profit. Resource rents will be distributed among the state and the oil companies engaged in extracting hydrocarbons in a license. The rents must recover costs undertaken by the companies, give some company profit and give income for the state (in US the landowner) to compensate for the takeout of natural resources.  Income tax and special petroleum tax to the state may also apply and carried by the resource rents.

text: Motivation for introducing special taxes on petroleum production is rooted in rent theory and the assumption that oil and gas resources provide an extraordinary rate of

text: resource rent

text: economic rent

text: ). The term "resource rent" expresses the difference between the values of hydrocarbons extracted from a deposit and the total costs of exploring and producing the hydrocarbons, synonymous with

text: excess profit

text: . Resource rents will be distributed among the state and the oil companies engaged in extracting hydrocarbons in a license. The rents must recover costs undertaken by the companies, give some company profit and give income for the state (in US the landowner) to compensate for the takeout of natural resources.  Income tax and special petroleum tax to the state may also apply and carried by the resource rents.

text: The Security Council was concerned about the humanitarian consequences for the Iraqi people after the shortfall in the revenue from the sale of petroleum and petroleum products during the first 90-day period of implementation of Resolution 1143, due to a fall in oil prices and delayed resumption of oil sales by Iraq. It was determined to avoid the further deterioration of the humanitarian situation.

text: After an initial period of disagreement between the Government of Uganda and the petroleum exploration companies, the two sides agreed in April 2013 to simultaneously build a crude oil pipeline to the Kenyan coast (Uganda–Kenya Crude Oil Pipeline) and an oil refinery in Uganda (Uganda Oil Refinery).

text: After an initial period of disagreement between the

text: Government of Uganda

text: and the petroleum exploration companies, the two sides agreed in April 2013 to simultaneously build a crude oil pipeline to the

text: Kenya

text: n coast (

text: Uganda–Kenya Crude Oil Pipeline

text: ) and an oil refinery in Uganda (

text: Uganda Oil Refinery

text: Fossil fuels are the most common common source of electrical energy in Italy, accounting for 72.7% of the total production in 2012. Of these, natural gas is the predominant source; it accounts for 59.5% of the total power produced using fossil fuels. the total electricity produced by natural gas was 173 TWh in 2008. Coal (21.6%), petroleum, (4.3%), other gases (2%), and other solid combustibles (biomass, waste, bitumen, and others, 12.2%), contribute smaller percentages to the total production.

text: Fossil fuels are the most common common source of electrical energy in Italy, accounting for 72.7% of the total production in 2012. Of these,

text: natural gas

text: is the predominant source; it accounts for 59.5% of the total power produced using fossil fuels. the total electricity produced by natural gas was 173 TWh in 2008.

text: Coal

text: petroleum

text: , (4.3%), other gases (2%), and other solid combustibles (

text: biomass

text: , waste,

text: bitumen

text: , and others, 12.2%), contribute smaller percentages to the total production.

text: Downstream activity involves the supply and trading of crude and products, oil refining, petroleum product marketing (Marketing), distribution and marketing of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), production and marketing of chemicals and the development of new energies.

text: Between 1971 and 1981, Seatrain Lines operated a scheduled container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in northwest Europe across the North Atlantic with four container ships of 26,000 tonnes DWT. Those ships were powered by twin Pratt & Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named Euroliner, Eurofreighter, Asialiner and Asiafreighter. Following the dramatic Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) price increases of the mid-1970s, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i.e., marine diesel). Reduction of fuel costs was successful using a different untested fuel in a marine gas turbine but maintenance costs increased with the fuel change. After 1981 the ships were sold and refitted with, what at the time, was more economical diesel-fueled engines but the increased engine size reduced cargo space.

text: Between 1971 and 1981,

text: Seatrain Lines

text: operated a scheduled

text: container

text: service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in northwest Europe across the North Atlantic with four container ships of 26,000 tonnes DWT. Those ships were powered by twin

text: Pratt & Whitney

text: gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named Euroliner, Eurofreighter, Asialiner and Asiafreighter. Following the dramatic

text: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

text: (OPEC) price increases of the mid-1970s, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i.e.,

text: marine diesel

text: ). Reduction of fuel costs was successful using a different untested fuel in a marine gas turbine but maintenance costs increased with the fuel change. After 1981 the ships were sold and refitted with, what at the time, was more economical diesel-fueled engines but the increased engine size reduced cargo space.

text: To cope with the increasing electricity demand and generation, a petroleum transmission trestle was built in 2002 nearby the power plant for the transportation of the diesel oil for the plant. This reduce the risk of having lack of fuel oil.

text: In late 2014, as the global demand for oil slows down, and production of crude oil remains high in the United States, Canada and in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the oil market collapsed into a bear market. While the decision by OPEC to "hold their production steady at 30 million bpd" contributed to the continued price decline of oil, there was a rebound in oil futures on 1 December 2014. The price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI), the benchmark for North American crude dropped to $US68.93 and to the decline in the price of Western Canadian Select, which is the benchmark for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes to US$51.93. By early December 2014, Connacher was one of several oilsands bitumen-focused producers to struggle financially due to the drop in the price of oil and a tightening of capital markets. Others include  OPTI Canada Inc., Southern Pacific Resources Corp., and Sunshine Oilsands Ltd..  On 1 December Connacher which is $1.05 billion in debt hired BMO Capital Markets advisors to undertake a review process of its “liquidity and capital structure." If the price of WTI per barrel was US$75, the Connacher could generate $C70 million of EBITDA in 2015, but it has $90 million in debt payments.

text: In late 2014, as the global demand for oil slows down, and production of crude oil remains high in the United States, Canada and in

text: , the oil market collapsed into a

text: bear market

text: . While the decision by OPEC to "hold their production steady at 30 million bpd" contributed to the continued price decline of oil, there was a rebound in

text: oil futures

text: on 1 December 2014. The price of

text: West Texas Intermediate

text: (WTI), the

text: benchmark

text: for North American crude dropped to $US68.93 and to the decline in the price of

text: Western Canadian Select

text: , which is the benchmark for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes to US$51.93. By early December 2014, Connacher was one of several oilsands bitumen-focused producers to struggle financially due to the drop in the price of oil and a tightening of capital markets. Others include

text: OPTI Canada Inc.

text: Southern Pacific Resources Corp.

text: , and

text: Sunshine Oilsands Ltd.

text: .  On 1 December Connacher which is $1.05 billion in debt hired BMO Capital Markets advisors to undertake a review process of its “liquidity and capital structure." If the price of WTI per barrel was US$75, the Connacher could generate $C70 million of

entity_name: Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization

text: EBITDA

text: in 2015, but it has $90 million in debt payments.

text: Fossil fuels such as coal and oil are made primarily of plant material that was deposited millions of years ago. This period of time equates to thousands of half-lives of C, so essentially all of the C in fossil fuels has decayed. Fossil fuels also are depleted in C relative to the atmosphere, because they were originally formed from living organisms. Therefore, the carbon from fossil fuels that is returned to the atmosphere through combustion is depleted in both C and C compared to atmospheric carbon dioxide.

text: Fossil fuels such as

text: coal

text: and

text: oil

text: are made primarily of plant material that was deposited millions of years ago. This period of time equates to thousands of half-lives of C, so essentially all of the C in fossil fuels has decayed. Fossil fuels also are depleted in C relative to the atmosphere, because they were originally formed from living organisms. Therefore, the carbon from fossil fuels that is returned to the atmosphere through combustion is depleted in both C and C compared to atmospheric carbon dioxide.

text: Maharashtra contributes 25% of the country's industrial output and is the most indebted state in the country. Industrial activity in state is concentrated in four districts: Mumbai city, Mumbai suburban district, Thane and Pune districts. Mumbai has the largest share in GSDP (21.5 per cent), both Thane and Pune districts contribute about same in the Industry sector, Pune district contributes more in the agriculture and allied activities sector, whereas Thane district contributes more in the Services sector. Nashik district shares highest in the agricultural and allied activities sector, but is far behind in the Industry and Services sectors as compared to Thane and Pune districts. Industries in Maharashtra include chemical and chemical products (17.6%), food and food products (16.1%), refined petroleum products (12.9%), machinery and equipment (8%), textiles (6.9%), basic metals (5.8%), motor vehicles (4.7%) and furniture (4.3%). Maharashtra is the manufacturing hub for some of the largest public sector industries in India, including Hindustan Petroleum Corporation, Tata Petrodyne and Oil India Ltd.

text: Maharashtra contributes 25% of the country's industrial output and is the most indebted state in the country. Industrial activity in state is concentrated in four districts: Mumbai city, Mumbai suburban district, Thane and Pune districts. Mumbai has the largest share in GSDP (21.5 per cent), both Thane and Pune districts contribute about same in the Industry sector, Pune district contributes more in the agriculture and allied activities sector, whereas Thane district contributes more in the Services sector. Nashik district shares highest in the agricultural and allied activities sector, but is far behind in the Industry and Services sectors as compared to Thane and Pune districts. Industries in Maharashtra include chemical and chemical products (17.6%), food and food products (16.1%), refined petroleum products (12.9%), machinery and equipment (8%), textiles (6.9%), basic metals (5.8%), motor vehicles (4.7%) and furniture (4.3%). Maharashtra is the manufacturing hub for some of the largest public sector industries in India, including

text: Hindustan Petroleum Corporation

text: Tata Petrodyne

text: and

text: Oil India Ltd

text: The steady run-up in oil prices after 2003 led to increasing fears that peak oil was imminent, further increasing interest in commercial wind power. Even though wind power generates electricity rather than liquid fuels, and thus is not an immediate substitute for petroleum in most applications (especially transport), fears over petroleum shortages only added to the urgency to expand wind power. Earlier oil crises had already caused many utility and industrial users of petroleum to shift to coal or natural gas. Wind power showed potential for replacing natural gas in electricity generation on a cost basis.

text: The steady run-up in

text: oil prices after 2003

text: led to increasing fears that

text: peak oil

text: was imminent, further increasing interest in commercial wind power. Even though wind power generates electricity rather than liquid fuels, and thus is not an immediate substitute for petroleum in most applications (especially transport), fears over petroleum shortages only added to the urgency to expand wind power. Earlier oil crises had already caused many utility and industrial users of petroleum to shift to

text: coal

text: or

text: natural gas

text: . Wind power showed potential for replacing natural gas in electricity generation on a cost basis.

text: BP's major subsidiary in the United States is BP America, Inc. based in Houston, Texas, which is the parent company for the BP's operations in the country.  BP Exploration & Production Inc., a 1996 established Houston-based subsidiary, is dealing with oil exploration and production, including Gulf of Mexico activities. BP Corporation North America, Inc., provides petroleum refining services as also transportation fuel, heat and light energy, and petrochemical products. BP Products North America, Inc., a 1954 established Houston-based subsidiary, is engaged in the exploration, development, production, refining, and marketing of oil and natural gas. BP America Production Company, a New Mexico-based subsidiary, engages in oil and gas exploration and development. BP Energy Company, a Houston-based subsidiary, is a provider of natural gas, power, and risk management services to the industrial and utility sectors and a retail electric provider in Texas.

text: BP's major subsidiary in the United States is BP America, Inc. based in

text: Houston, Texas

text: , which is the parent company for the BP's operations in the country.  BP Exploration & Production Inc., a 1996 established Houston-based subsidiary, is dealing with oil exploration and production, including Gulf of Mexico activities. BP Corporation North America, Inc., provides petroleum refining services as also transportation fuel, heat and light energy, and petrochemical products. BP Products North America, Inc., a 1954 established Houston-based subsidiary, is engaged in the exploration, development, production, refining, and marketing of oil and natural gas. BP America Production Company, a

text: New Mexico

text: -based subsidiary, engages in oil and gas exploration and development. BP Energy Company, a Houston-based subsidiary, is a provider of natural gas, power, and risk management services to the industrial and utility sectors and a retail electric provider in Texas.

text: The chairman of the Knesset Environment and Health Committee urged the government to adopt his recommendation for a revised Petroleum Law and radically alter its approach to fossil fuel-related environmental protection.

text: The chairman of the

text: Knesset

text: Environment and Health Committee urged the government to adopt his recommendation for a revised Petroleum Law and radically alter its approach to fossil fuel-related environmental protection.

text: Sri Lanka has 62 km of pipelines for crude oil and petroleum products (1987 figures).

text: Sri Lanka has 62 km of pipelines for

text: crude oil

text: and

text: petroleum

text: products (1987 figures).

text: The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (EPCA) () is a United States Act of Congress that responded to the 1973 oil crisis by creating a comprehensive approach to federal energy policy. The primary goals of EPCA are to increase energy production and supply, reduce energy demand, provide energy efficiency, and give the executive branch additional powers to respond to disruptions in energy supply.  Most notably, EPCA established the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, the Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products, and Corporate Average Fuel Economy regulations.

text: The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (EPCA) () is a

text: United States

text: Act of Congress

text: that responded to the

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: by creating a comprehensive approach to federal energy policy. The primary goals of EPCA are to increase energy production and supply, reduce energy demand, provide energy efficiency, and give the executive branch additional powers to respond to disruptions in energy supply.  Most notably, EPCA established the

text: Strategic Petroleum Reserve

text: , the

entity_name: Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products

text: Energy Conservation Program for Consumer Products

text: , and

text: Corporate Average Fuel Economy

text: regulations.

text: Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogeneration, gas turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load power stations functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generators use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released.  For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning coal for power. The US Energy Information Administration reports the following emissions in million metric tons of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012:

text: Natural gas is a major source of

text: electricity generation

text: through the use of

text: cogeneration

text: gas turbine

text: s and

text: steam turbine

text: s. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with

text: renewable energy

text: sources such as wind or

text: solar

text: and for alimenting

text: peak-load

text: power stations functioning in tandem with

text: hydroelectric

text: plants. Most grid

text: peaking power plant

text: s and some off-grid

text: engine-generator

text: s use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in

text: combined cycle

text: mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other

text: hydrocarbon fuel

text: s, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released.  For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less

text: carbon dioxide

text: than burning

text: petroleum

text: . For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning

text: coal

text: for power. The US

text: Energy Information Administration

text: reports the following emissions in million

text: metric tons

text: of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012:

text: Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation.

text: Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn

text: coal

text: or

text: hydrocarbon

text: fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal,

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: . Another fossil fuel,

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles,

text: industrial process

text: es, or

text: electrical power generation

text: Orange oil tyres are rubber tyres manufactured by the Yokohama Rubber Company.  The manufacturer claims that the tyres use orange oil in place of part of the petroleum usually used.Yokohama called the compound "Super Nano-Power Rubber Compound (SNPR)".

text: Orange oil tyres are rubber tyres manufactured by the

text: Yokohama Rubber Company

text: .  The manufacturer claims that the tyres use

text: orange oil

text: in place of part of the

text: petroleum

text: usually used.Yokohama called the compound "Super Nano-Power Rubber Compound (SNPR)".

text: Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities.

text: Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important

text: commodities

text: Automobile production exploded in the U.S. and in other nations during the 1920s. This, and the increasing use of petroleum derivatives to power factories and industrial equipment, substantially increased worldwide demand for oil.

text: In May 2006, with the growing evidence of climate change and rising fossil fuel prices, the Government called for a new in-depth study into the potential for tidal power from the Severn. The Sustainable Development Commission (SDC), the Government’s independent advisory body on sustainable development, was commissioned to look at the issues arising around tidal power, with a particular focus on the Severn Estuary. Their study, 'Turning the Tide: Tidal Power in the UK', concluded that:

text: In May 2006, with the growing evidence of climate change and rising fossil fuel prices, the Government called for a new in-depth study into the potential for tidal power from the Severn. The

text: Sustainable Development Commission

text: (SDC), the Government’s independent advisory body on

text: sustainable development

text: , was commissioned to look at the issues arising around tidal power, with a particular focus on the Severn Estuary. Their study, 'Turning the Tide: Tidal Power in the UK', concluded that:

text: According to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market, refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e.  various grades of fuel oil and gasoline.  These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil, and heavier fuel oils.  Heavier (less volatile) fractions can also be used to produce asphalt, tar, paraffin wax, lubricating and other heavy oils.  Refineries also produce other chemicals, some of which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics and other useful materials.  Since petroleum often contains a few percent sulfur-containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum product.  Carbon, in the form of petroleum coke, and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products.  The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization.

text: According to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market, refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e.  various grades of

text: fuel oil

text: and

text: gasoline

text: .  These

text: fuel

text: s include or can be blended to give gasoline,

text: jet fuel

text: diesel fuel

text: heating oil

text: , and heavier fuel oils.  Heavier (less

text: volatile

text: ) fractions can also be used to produce

text: asphalt

text: tar

text: paraffin wax

text: lubricating

text: and other heavy oils.  Refineries also produce other

text: chemicals

text: , some of which are used in

text: chemical process

text: es to produce

text: plastics

text: and other useful materials.  Since petroleum often contains a few percent

text: sulfur

text: -containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum product.

text: Carbon

text: , in the form of

text: petroleum coke

text: , and

text: hydrogen

text: may also be produced as petroleum products.  The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as

text: hydrocracking

text: and

text: hydrodesulfurization

text: Carbon neutral fuel is synthetic fuel—such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel—produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater. Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation. Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: Carbon neutral fuel

text: is

text: synthetic fuel

text: —such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: —produced from

text: renewable

text: or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

text: power plant flue

text: exhaust gas

text: or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: . Such fuels are potentially

text: carbon neutral

text: because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: carbon capture

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: . Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be

text: stored

text: to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: fuel

text: s.

text: was the fourth nuclear-powered cruiser in the US Navy; the previous three were the ,  and . The second California class cruiser, , was the fifth nuclear-powered cruiser in the US Navy. Other than the four ships of the Soviet Navy's Kirov class, which were actually built with a combination of nuclear and fossil-fuel propulsion, no other country has launched nuclear-powered cruisers.

text: was the fourth

entity_name: Nuclear powered cruisers of the United States Navy

text: nuclear-powered cruiser in the US Navy

text: ; the previous three were the ,  and . The second California class cruiser, , was the fifth nuclear-powered cruiser in the US Navy. Other than the four ships of the

text: Soviet Navy

text: 's

text: Kirov

text: class, which were actually built with a combination of nuclear and fossil-fuel propulsion, no other country has launched nuclear-powered cruisers.

text: In 1935, he left government service to become the special counsel to the president (Kenneth R. Kingsbury) of Standard Oil of California (now Chevron) in San Francisco, and began his long career as an oilman. Another two years later he became a partner at the firm Pillsbury Madison Sutro (now known as Pillsbury Winthrop Shaw Pittman), which was the company's outside counsel. It was at Standard Oil of California that he began a lifelong business association and friendship with his mentor Ralph K. Davies. In 1941, he was called back to Washington, D.C. during the war as Solicitor of the Petroleum Administration for War, helping develop America's energy policy during the war including the Cole Pipeline Act of 1941, and later as a member of the Committee on Reparations, the National Petroleum Council and the American Petroleum Institute. In 1944, after developing a relationship with Paul G. Blazer, he became Vice Chairman and President of Ashland Oil and Refining Co.. (now Ashland Inc.). Later positions included Executive Vice President at Signal Oil & Gas under Samuel B. Mosher (1952), President of Union Texas Petroleum (1960) and Executive Vice President of Allied Signal (all now Honeywell (1967), Union Texas Petroleum Holdings was later sold by Allied Signal to ARCO and merged into BP),until his semi-retirement in 1969.

text: In 1935, he left government service to become the special

text: counsel

text: to the president (

text: Kenneth R. Kingsbury

text: ) of

text: Standard Oil

text: of California (now

text: Chevron

text: ) in San Francisco, and began his long career as an oilman. Another two years later he became a partner at the firm Pillsbury Madison Sutro (now known as

text: Pillsbury Winthrop Shaw Pittman

text: ), which was the company's outside counsel. It was at Standard Oil of California that he began a lifelong business association and friendship with his mentor

text: Ralph K. Davies

text: . In 1941, he was called back to Washington, D.C. during the

text: war

text: as Solicitor of the

entity_name: Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts

text: Petroleum Administration for War

text: , helping develop

text: America

text: 's

text: energy policy

text: during the war including the

text: Cole Pipeline Act of 1941

text: , and later as a member of the

text: Committee on Reparations

text: , the

text: National Petroleum Council

text: and the

text: American Petroleum Institute

text: . In 1944, after developing a relationship with

text: Paul G. Blazer

text: , he became Vice Chairman and President of

text: Ashland Oil and Refining Co.

text: . (now

text: Ashland Inc.

text: ). Later positions included Executive Vice President at Signal Oil & Gas under

text: Samuel B. Mosher

text: (1952), President of Union Texas Petroleum (1960) and Executive Vice President of

text: Allied Signal

text: (all now

text: Honeywell

text: (1967), Union Texas Petroleum Holdings was later sold by Allied Signal to

text: ARCO

text: and merged into

text: BP

text: ),until his semi-retirement in 1969.

text: Oil companies, both multinational (such as ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell, ConocoPhillips or BP) and national (e.g., Petronas) often adopt a vertically integrated structure, meaning that they are active along the entire supply chain from locating deposits, drilling and extracting crude oil, transporting it around the world, refining it into petroleum products such as petrol/gasoline, to distributing the fuel to company-owned retail stations, for sale to consumers.

text: Oil companies

text: , both multinational (such as

text: ExxonMobil

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: ConocoPhillips

text: or

text: BP

text: ) and national (e.g.,

text: Petronas

text: ) often adopt a vertically integrated structure, meaning that they are active along the entire supply chain from

text: locating deposits

text: , drilling and extracting

text: crude oil

text: , transporting it around the world,

text: refining

text: it into petroleum products such as

text: petrol/gasoline

text: , to distributing the fuel to company-owned retail stations, for sale to consumers.

text: It is important to predict demand as precisely as possible as electricity grids are not capable of storing electricity in large quantities and all power stations have a lead-in time before generation can begin.  Balancing teams attempt to meet short term fluctuations with "fast reserves" that are quick to come online, backed up with longer term fossil fuel-based "balance mechanism units".  The shortest lead-in times are on pumped storage reservoirs, such as the Dinorwig power station that has the fastest response time of any pumped storage station in the world at just 12 seconds to produce 1320 MW.  Once the longer term fossil fuel stations, which have response times around half an hour, and nuclear power stations, which can take even longer, come online then pumped storage stations can be turned off and the water returned to the reservoir.

text: It is important to predict demand as precisely as possible as electricity grids are not capable of storing electricity in large quantities and all power stations have a lead-in time before generation can begin.  Balancing teams attempt to meet short term fluctuations with "fast reserves" that are quick to come online, backed up with longer term

text: fossil fuel

text: -based "balance mechanism units".  The shortest lead-in times are on

text: pumped storage reservoirs

text: , such as the

text: Dinorwig power station

text: that has the fastest response time of any pumped storage station in the world at just 12 seconds to produce 1320 MW.  Once the longer term fossil fuel stations, which have response times around half an hour, and nuclear power stations, which can take even longer, come online then pumped storage stations can be turned off and the water returned to the reservoir.

text: Crack spread is a term used on the oil industry and futures trading for the differential between the price of crude oil and petroleum products extracted from it. The spread approximates the profit margin that an oil refinery can expect to make by "cracking" the long-chain hydrocarbons of crude oil into useful shorter-chain petroleum products.

text: Crack spread is a term used on the

text: oil industry

text: and

text: futures trading

text: for the differential between the price of

text: crude oil

text: and

text: petroleum product

text: s extracted from it. The spread approximates the profit margin that an

text: oil refinery

text: can expect to make by "

text: cracking

text: " the long-chain hydrocarbons of crude oil into useful shorter-chain petroleum products.

text: It is also used in the petroleum industry as a cross-linking agent to prepare gels for fracturing fluids, fluids whichare pumped into an oil-bearing rock formation to cause cracks in the rock and so to allow the oil to be extracted. It may be prepared by treating zirconium oxide with lactic acid.

text: It is also used in the

text: petroleum industry

text: as a

text: cross-linking agent

text: to prepare

text: gel

text: s for

text: fracturing

text: fluids, fluids whichare pumped into an

text: oil-bearing rock formation

text: to cause cracks in the rock and so to allow the oil to be extracted. It may be prepared by treating

text: zirconium oxide

text: with lactic acid.

text: In some African countries, it is not uncommon for thieves to break electric transformers to steal transformer oil, which is then sold to the operators of roadside food stalls to be used for deep frying. When used for frying, it is reported that transformer oil lasts  much longer than regular cooking oil. The downside of this misuse of the transformer oil is the threat to the health of the consumers, due to the presence of PCBs.

text: In some African countries, it is not uncommon for thieves to break electric

text: transformer

text: s to steal

text: transformer oil

text: , which is then sold to the operators of roadside

text: food stall

text: s to be used for

text: deep frying

text: cooking oil

text: If energy for hydrogen production were available (from wind, solar, fission or fusion nuclear power etc.), use of the substance for hydrocarbon synfuel production could expand captive use of hydrogen by a factor of 5 to 10. Present U.S. use of hydrogen for hydrocracking is roughly 4 Mt per year. It is estimated that 37.7 Mt/yr of hydrogen would be sufficient to convert enough domestic coal to liquid fuels to end U.S. dependence on foreign oil importation, and less than half this figure to end dependence on Middle East oil. Coal liquefaction would present significantly worse emissions of carbon dioxide than does the current system of burning fossil petroleum, but it would eliminate the political and economic vulnerabilities inherent in US oil importation before the commercialization of tight oil in North America.

text: If energy for hydrogen production were available (from

text: wind

text: solar

text: fission

text: or

text: fusion nuclear power

text: etc.), use of the substance for hydrocarbon

text: synfuel

text: production could expand captive use of hydrogen by a factor of 5 to 10. Present U.S. use of hydrogen for hydrocracking is roughly 4 Mt per year. It is estimated that 37.7 Mt/yr of hydrogen would be sufficient to convert enough domestic coal to liquid fuels to end U.S. dependence on foreign oil importation, and less than half this figure to end dependence on Middle East oil.

text: Coal liquefaction

text: would present significantly worse emissions of carbon dioxide than does the current system of burning fossil petroleum, but it would eliminate the political and economic vulnerabilities inherent in US oil importation before the commercialization of

text: tight oil

text: in North America.

text: In 2007, the DROC produced 836,000 metric tons of crude petroleum, exported 836,000 metric tons and had a reserve of 25,000,000 metric tons. The DROC had no refining capacity as of January 1, 2005, and must import refined petroleum products. In 2002, imports of refined petroleum products totaled .

text: LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution. LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline). However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower (about 0.5–0.58 kg/L, compared to 0.71–0.77 kg/L for gasoline).

text: LPG is prepared by

text: refining

text: petroleum

text: or "wet"

text: natural gas

text: , and is almost entirely derived from

text: fossil fuel

text: sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by

text: Dr. Walter Snelling

text: , and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no

text: soot

text: and very few

text: sulfur

text: emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or

text: water pollution

text: hazards, but it can cause

text: air pollution

text: . LPG has a typical specific

text: calorific value

text: of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for

text: fuel oil

text: and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade

text: petrol

text: (gasoline). However, its

text: energy density

text: per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its

text: relative density

text: is lower (about 0.5–0.58 kg/L, compared to 0.71–0.77 kg/L for

text: gasoline

text: Groups:Lubricant base stocks are categorized into five groups by the API. Group I base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum which is further refined with solvent extraction processes to improve certain properties such as oxidation resistance and to remove wax. Group II base stocks are composed of fractionally distilled petroleum that has been hydrocracked to further refine and purify it. Group III base stocks have similar characteristics to Group II base stocks, except that Group III base stocks have higher viscosity indexes. Group III base stocks are produced by further hydrocracking of either Group II base stocks or hydroisomerized slack wax (a Group I and II dewaxing process by-product). Group IV base stock are polyalphaolefins (PAOs). Group V is a catch-all group for any base stock not described by Groups I to IV. Examples of group V base stocks include polyolesters (POE), polyalkylene glycols (PAG), and perfluoropolyalkylethers (PFPAEs). Groups I and II are commonly referred to as mineral oils, group III is typically referred to as synthetic (except in Germany and Japan, where they must not be called synthetic) and group IV is a synthetic oil. Group V base oils are so diverse that there is no catch-all description.

text: Groups:Lubricant base stocks are categorized into five groups by the API. Group I base stocks are composed of

text: fractionally distilled

text: petroleum

text: which is further refined with solvent extraction processes to improve certain properties such as oxidation resistance and to remove wax. Group II base stocks are composed of

text: fractionally distilled

text: petroleum

text: that has been

text: hydrocracked

text: to further refine and purify it. Group III base stocks have similar characteristics to Group II base stocks, except that Group III base stocks have higher viscosity indexes. Group III base stocks are produced by further hydrocracking of either Group II base stocks or hydroisomerized

text: slack wax

text: (a Group I and II dewaxing process by-product). Group IV base stock are

text: polyalphaolefin

text: s (PAOs). Group V is a catch-all group for any base stock not described by Groups I to IV. Examples of group V base stocks include

text: polyolester

text: s (POE),

text: polyalkylene glycol

text: s (PAG), and

text: perfluoropolyalkylether

text: s (PFPAEs). Groups I and II are commonly referred to as

text: mineral oil

text: s, group III is typically referred to as synthetic (except in Germany and Japan, where they must not be called synthetic) and group IV is a synthetic oil. Group V base oils are so diverse that there is no catch-all description.

text: In 1969, the Phillips Petroleum Company discovered petroleum resources at the Ekofisk field west of Norway. In 1973, the Norwegian government founded the State oil company, Statoil. Oil production did not provide net income until the early 1980s because of the large capital investment that was required to establish the country's petroleum industry. Around 1975, both the proportion and absolute number of workers in industry peaked. Since then labour-intensive industries and services like factory mass production and shipping have largely been outsourced.

text: In 1969, the

text: Phillips Petroleum Company

text: discovered

text: petroleum

text: resources at the

text: Ekofisk

text: field west of Norway. In 1973, the Norwegian government founded the State oil company,

text: Statoil

text: . Oil production did not provide net income until the early 1980s because of the large capital investment that was required to establish the country's petroleum industry. Around 1975, both the proportion and absolute number of workers in industry peaked. Since then labour-intensive industries and services like factory mass production and shipping have largely been outsourced.

text: |industry         = Oil and gas|products         = Petroleum, natural gas and other petrochemicals, See Chevron products|revenue          = |operating_income =  US$ 158 million

text: |industry         =

text: Oil and gas

text: |products         =

text: Petroleum

text: natural gas

text: and other

text: petrochemical

text: s,

text: See Chevron products

text: |revenue          = |operating_income =  US$ 158 million

text: In Africa, women have used stripping naked on purpose as a curse, both historically, and in modern times. The idea is that women give life and they can take it away. The curse initiates an extreme form of ostracism, which anthropologist Terisa Turner has likened to "social execution".  The curse extends to foreign men as well, and is believed to cause impotence, madness or other similar harm. The threat has been used successfully in mass protests against the petroleum industry in Nigeria, by Leymah Gbowee and Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace during the Second Liberian Civil War, and against President Laurent Gbagbo of the Ivory Coast. In 2002 in Nigeria, members of the Niger Delta Women for Justice occupied a platform for oil extraction run by Chevron-Texaco in order to protest against negative consequences of oil extraction and missing labor rights. When the military arrived to remove the protestors, the women threatened the soldiers to naked curse them. The soldiers did not touch the women.

text: In Africa, women have used stripping naked on purpose as a curse, both historically, and in modern times. The idea is that women give life and they can take it away. The curse initiates an extreme form of

text: ostracism

text: , which anthropologist

text: Terisa Turner

text: has likened to "

text: social execution

text: ".  The curse extends to foreign men as well, and is believed to cause impotence, madness or other similar harm. The threat has been used successfully in mass protests against the

text: petroleum industry in Nigeria

text: , by

text: Leymah Gbowee

text: and

text: Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace

text: during the

text: Second Liberian Civil War

text: , and against President

text: Laurent Gbagbo

text: of the

text: Ivory Coast

text: . In 2002 in Nigeria, members of the Niger Delta Women for Justice occupied a platform for oil extraction run by Chevron-Texaco in order to protest against negative consequences of oil extraction and missing labor rights. When the military arrived to remove the protestors, the women threatened the soldiers to naked curse them. The soldiers did not touch the women.

text: Oils, such as linseed oil, other vegetable oils and marine oils, used to be used as a binder, however due to their increasing cost, they have been mostly phased out. The oil also required careful baking at  to cure (if overheated the oil becomes brittle, wasting the mold).

text: Oils, such as

text: linseed oil

text: , other

text: vegetable oil

text: s and

text: marine oil

text: s, used to be used as a binder, however due to their increasing cost, they have been mostly phased out. The oil also required careful baking at  to cure (if overheated the oil becomes brittle, wasting the mold).

text: Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions using a substance such as cetearyl alcohol to keep the emulsion together, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the aqueous and oily phases, an emulgent to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. A wide variety of other ingredients such as fragrances, glycerol, petroleum jelly, dyes, preservatives, proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.

text: Most lotions are oil-in-water

text: emulsion

text: s using a substance such as

text: cetearyl alcohol

text: to keep the emulsion together, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the

text: aqueous

text: and oily phases, an

text: emulgent

text: to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the

text: drug

text: substance or substances. A wide variety of other ingredients such as

text: fragrance

text: s,

text: glycerol

text: petroleum jelly

text: dye

text: s,

text: preservative

text: s,

text: protein

text: s and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.

text: Joseph Jacob Simmons, Jr. (January 17, 1901 – March 24, 1981) was a prominent African-American oilman. He "rose above humble beginnings to become the most successful and most recognizable black entrepreneur in the history of the petroleum industry."As an internationally known oil broker he partnered with Phillips Petroleum Company and Signal Oil and Gas Company to open up African oil fields in Liberia, Nigeria and Ghana.In 1969, he became the first black person to be appointed to the National Petroleum Council.

text: Joseph Jacob Simmons, Jr. (January 17, 1901 – March 24, 1981) was a prominent

text: African-American

text: oilman

text: . He "rose above humble beginnings to become the most successful and most recognizable black entrepreneur in the history of the petroleum industry."As an internationally known oil

text: broker

text: he partnered with

text: Phillips Petroleum Company

text: and

text: Signal Oil and Gas Company

text: to open up

text: Africa

text: n oil fields in

text: Liberia

text: Nigeria

text: and

text: Ghana

text: .In 1969, he became the first black person to be appointed to the

text: National Petroleum Council

text: Fair Air Association of Canada- Fair trade- Fallout shelter- Fauna and Flora Preservation Society- FernGully: The Last Rainforest- Fertilizer- Fire-stick farming- Fish farming- Fish ladder- Fisheries management- Flatulence- Flexible-fuel vehicle- Flotsam and jetsam- Fluorescent lamp recycling- Food miles- Forest gardening- Forest Principles- Forestry- Fossil fuel- Fossil fuel power plant- Fossil water- Founder effect- Founder population- Four-minute warning- Free range- Free run- Freecycle Network- Free-market environmentalism- Free-range eggs- Fresh Air Fund- Fresh Kills Landfill- Friends of the Earth International- Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.- Frontier Organic Research Farm Botanical Garden- Fuel cell- Fuel Cell Bus Club- Fuel cell bus trial- Fuel cell vehicle- Fuel efficiency- Fuel tax- Fuel-efficient- Full Belly Project- Full cost accounting- Full Depth Recycling- Furan- Futurama (New York World's Fair)- Future energy development- FutureGen- Futurewise.org

text: Fair Air Association of Canada

text: Fair trade

text: Fallout shelter

text: Fauna and Flora Preservation Society

text: FernGully: The Last Rainforest

text: Fertilizer

text: Fire-stick farming

text: Fish farming

text: Fish ladder

text: Fisheries management

text: Flatulence

text: Flexible-fuel vehicle

text: Flotsam and jetsam

text: Fluorescent lamp recycling

text: Food miles

text: Forest gardening

text: Forest Principles

text: Forestry

text: Fossil fuel

text: Fossil fuel power plant

text: Fossil water

text: Founder effect

text: Founder population

text: Four-minute warning

text: Free range

text: Free run

text: Freecycle Network

text: Free-market environmentalism

text: Free-range eggs

text: Fresh Air Fund

text: Fresh Kills Landfill

text: Friends of the Earth International

entity_name: Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.

text: Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.

entity_name: Frontier Organic Research Farm Botanical Garden

text: Frontier Organic Research Farm Botanical Garden

text: Fuel cell

text: Fuel Cell Bus Club

text: Fuel cell bus trial

text: Fuel cell vehicle

text: Fuel efficiency

text: Fuel tax

text: Fuel-efficient

text: Full Belly Project

text: Full cost accounting

text: Full Depth Recycling

text: Furan

text: Futurama (New York World's Fair)

text: Future energy development

text: FutureGen

text: Futurewise.org

text: The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g. West Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman), its API gravity (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered light if it has low density or heavy if it has high density; and it may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.

text: The

text: petroleum industry

text: generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g.

text: West Texas Intermediate

text: Brent

text: , or

text: Oman

text: ), its

text: API gravity

text: (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered

text: light

text: if it has low density or

text: heavy

text: if it has high density; and it may be referred to as

text: sweet

text: if it contains relatively little sulfur or

text: sour

text: if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.

text: Although crude petroleum oil has been used for a variety of purposes for thousands of years, the Oil Age is considered to have started in the 1800s with the advance of drilling techniques, as well as the processing of products made use in internal combustion engines. Alternatively, the age of oil can be placed in the first period until the early 1900s, when oil consumption and combustion engines utilization increased. Contemporary industrial society is built largely on petroleum resources, but the future of the Oil Age has become increasingly controversial.

text: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have been used as sources of energy. Coal began to be widely used after 1800 and would continue to be the dominant source of energy into the twentieth century. However, two events set the stage for the Age of Oil: The first was in 1846, when Abraham Gesner invented kerosene making coal and petroleum practical raw materials for lighting fuel. The second was in 1859, when Edwin Drake invented the first modern drilling process for deep oil wells. John Davison Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company, which dominated the oil industry and was the first great U.S. business trust. In 1870, he founded Standard Oil Company and aggressively ran it until he officially retired in 1897. Karl Friedrich Benz developed a petrol-powered automobiles by 1878 and, in 1879, obtained a patent for the practical automobile. The invention of the internal combustion engine was the major influence in the rise in the importance of petroleum.

text: Since the beginning of the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: fossil fuel

text: s have been used as sources of energy.

text: Coal

text: began to be widely used after 1800 and would continue to be the dominant source of energy into the twentieth century. However, two events set the stage for the Age of Oil: The first was in 1846, when

text: Abraham Gesner

text: invented

text: kerosene

text: making coal and petroleum practical raw materials for lighting fuel. The second was in 1859, when

text: Edwin Drake

text: invented the first modern drilling process for deep oil wells.

text: John Davison Rockefeller

text: founded the

text: Standard Oil

text: Company, which dominated the oil industry and was the first great U.S. business trust. In 1870, he founded Standard Oil Company and aggressively ran it until he officially retired in 1897.

text: Karl Friedrich Benz

text: developed a

text: petrol

text: -powered

text: automobile

text: s by 1878 and, in 1879, obtained a patent for the practical automobile. The invention of the internal combustion engine was the major influence in the rise in the importance of petroleum.

text: China was self-sufficient in nearly all energy forms. Coal and petroleum were exported since the early 1970s. Its coal reserves were among the world's largest, and mining technology was inadequately developed but steadily improved in the late 1980s. Petroleum reserves were very large at the time but of varying quality and in disparate locations. Suspected oil deposits in the northwest and offshore tracts were believed to be among the world's largest. Exploration and extraction was limited by scarcity of equipment and trained personnel. Twenty-seven contracts for joint offshore exploration and production by Japanese and Western oil companies were signed by 1982, but by the late 1980s only a handful of wells were producing oil. Substantial natural gas reserves were in the north, northwest, and offshore. The hydroelectric potential of the country was the greatest in the world and sixth largest in capacity, and very large hydroelectric projects were under construction, with others were in the planning stage. Thermal power, mostly coal fired, produced approximately 68 percent of generating capacity in 1985, and was increased to 72 percent by 1990. Emphasis on thermal power in the late 1980s was seen by policy makers as a quick, shortterm solution to energy needs, and hydroelectric and nuclear power was seen as a long-term solution. Petroleum production growth continued in order to meet the needs of nationwide mechanization and provided important foreign exchange but domestic use was restricted as much as possible until the end of the decade.

text: China was self-sufficient in nearly all

text: energy

text: forms.

text: Coal

text: and

text: petroleum

text: were exported since the early 1970s. Its coal reserves were among the world's largest, and

text: mining

text: technology was inadequately developed but steadily improved in the late 1980s. Petroleum reserves were very large at the time but of varying quality and in disparate locations. Suspected oil deposits in the northwest and offshore tracts were believed to be among the world's largest. Exploration and extraction was limited by scarcity of equipment and trained personnel. Twenty-seven contracts for joint offshore exploration and production by Japanese and Western oil companies were signed by 1982, but by the late 1980s only a handful of wells were producing oil. Substantial

text: natural gas

text: reserves were in the north, northwest, and offshore. The

text: hydroelectric

text: potential of the country was the greatest in the world and sixth largest in capacity, and very large hydroelectric projects were under construction, with others were in the planning stage. Thermal power, mostly coal fired, produced approximately 68 percent of generating capacity in 1985, and was increased to 72 percent by 1990. Emphasis on thermal power in the late 1980s was seen by policy makers as a quick, shortterm solution to energy needs, and hydroelectric and

text: nuclear power

text: was seen as a long-term solution. Petroleum production growth continued in order to meet the needs of nationwide

text: mechanization

text: and provided important

text: foreign exchange

text: but domestic use was restricted as much as possible until the end of the decade.

text: The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum fuel oil, but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as biodiesel, biomass to liquid (BTL) or gas to liquid (GTL) diesel, are increasingly being developed and adopted. To distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents. As of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for on-road use is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle, which carries a tax premium over equivalent fuel for non-road use (see ). In Australia diesel fuel is also known as distillate, and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar, a trademarked name by the local oil company Pertamina.

text: The most common type of diesel fuel is a specific

text: fractional distillate

text: of petroleum

text: fuel oil

text: , but alternatives that are not derived from petroleum, such as

text: biodiesel

text: biomass to liquid

text: (BTL) or

text: gas to liquid

text: (GTL) diesel, are increasingly being developed and adopted. To distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel.

text: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel

text: (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered

text: sulfur

text: contents. As of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for on-road use is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle, which carries a tax premium over equivalent fuel for

text: non-road use

text: (see ). In

text: Australia

text: diesel fuel is also known as distillate, and in

text: Indonesia

text: , it is known as Solar, a trademarked name by the local oil company

text: Pertamina

text: Fossil fuels are nonrenewable energy like burning coal, oil and others that will eventually run out. A large reason that humans are so inclined to use fossil fuels is because of the cost.  It is generally found in massive quantities which makes it much and apart from extraction, there are not many other costs associated with it.  Coal is the largest source of energy for electricity production in the world.  These are the primary factors that lead to the use of coal and other fossil fuels.  Cost is the most important factor to so many people that nothing matters.

text: Indian Oil Corporation has two major domestic competitors, Bharat Petroleum and Hindustan Petroleum. Both are state-controlled, like Indian Oil Corporation. There are two private competitors: Reliance Industries and Essar Oil.

text: Indian Oil Corporation has two major domestic competitors,

text: Bharat Petroleum

text: and

text: Hindustan Petroleum

text: . Both are state-controlled, like Indian Oil Corporation. There are two private competitors:

text: Reliance Industries

text: and

text: Essar Oil

text: The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent ICE, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis Crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus and Western Canadian Select (WCS). There is a differential in the price of a barrel of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or API and its sulphur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to tidewater and/or refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils lacking in tidewater access—such as Western Canadian Select— are less expensive than lighter, sweeter oil—such as WTI.

text: The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the

text: spot price

text: of a

text: barrel

text: of

text: benchmark crude oil

text: —a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as

text: West Texas Intermediate

text: (WTI),

text: Brent

text: ICE

text: Dubai Crude

text: OPEC Reference Basket

text: Tapis Crude

text: Bonny Light

text: Urals oil

text: Isthmus

text: and

text: Western Canadian Select

text: (WCS). There is a differential in the price of a

text: barrel

text: of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or

text: API

text: and its sulphur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to

text: tidewater

text: and/or refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils lacking in tidewater access—such as Western Canadian Select— are less expensive than lighter, sweeter oil—such as WTI.

text: United Nations Security Council resolution 1281, adopted unanimously on 10 December 1999, after recalling all previous resolutions on Iraq, including resolutions 986 (1995), 1111 (1997),  1129 (1997), 1143 (1997), 1153 (1998), 1175 (1998), 1210 (1998), 1242 (1999), 1266 (1999), 1275 (1999) and 1280 (1999) concerning the Oil-for-Food Programme, the Council extended provisions relating to the export of Iraqi petroleum or petroleum products sufficient to produce up to US$5.256 billion worth of oil for a further 180 days.

text: United Nations Security Council resolution 1281, adopted unanimously on 10 December 1999, after recalling all previous

entity_name: United Nations Security Council resolution

text: resolutions

text: on

text: Iraq

text: , including resolutions

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 986

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1111

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1129

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1143

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1153

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1175

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1210

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1242

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1266

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1275

text: (1999) and

entity_name: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1280

text: (1999) concerning the

text: Oil-for-Food Programme

text: , the Council extended provisions relating to the export of Iraqi petroleum or petroleum products sufficient to produce up to US$5.256 billion worth of oil for a further 180 days.

text: All petroleum products are imported since the country has no known crude oil reserves or refining capacity . Imports and consumption of petroleum in 2002 amounted to 8,870 barrels per day. As for natural gas, Burkina Faso is known to have no natural gas production, consumption, or reserves.

text: All

text: petroleum

text: products are imported since the country has no known crude oil reserves or refining capacity . Imports and consumption of petroleum in 2002 amounted to 8,870 barrels per day. As for natural gas, Burkina Faso is known to have no natural gas production, consumption, or reserves.

text: Despite the widespread use of petroleum-derived diesel fuels, interest in vegetable oils as fuels for internal combustion engines was reported in several countries during the 1920s and 1930s and later during World War II. Belgium, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, Portugal, Germany, Brazil, Argentina, Japan and China were reported to have tested and used vegetable oils as diesel fuels during this time. Some operational problems were reported due to the high viscosity of vegetable oils compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which results in poor atomization of the fuel in the fuel spray and often leads to deposits and coking of the injectors, combustion chamber and valves. Attempts to overcome these problems included heating of the vegetable oil, blending it with petroleum-derived diesel fuel or ethanol, pyrolysis and cracking of the oils.

text: Despite the widespread use of petroleum-derived diesel fuels, interest in vegetable oils as fuels for internal combustion engines was reported in several countries during the 1920s and 1930s and later during

text: World War II

text: Belgium

text: , France,

text: Italy

text: , the

text: United Kingdom

text: Portugal

text: , Germany,

text: Brazil

text: Argentina

text: Japan

text: and

text: China

text: were reported to have tested and used vegetable oils as diesel fuels during this time. Some operational problems were reported due to the high viscosity of vegetable oils compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which results in poor

text: atomization

text: of the fuel in the fuel spray and often leads to deposits and coking of the injectors, combustion chamber and valves. Attempts to overcome these problems included heating of the vegetable oil, blending it with petroleum-derived diesel fuel or ethanol,

text: pyrolysis

text: and

text: cracking

text: of the oils.

text: Power by the increased use of petroleum, the post–World War II economic expansion was a period of economic prosperity in the mid-20th century which occurred, following the end of World War II in 1945, and lasted until the early 1970s. It ended with the 1973 oil crisis. In 1956, Geophysicist M. King Hubbert deduces that U.S. oil production will peak between 1965 and 1970 (peaked in 1971) and that oil production will peak "within half a century" on the basis of 1956 data. In 1989, another  predicted peak was by Colin Campbell

text: Power by the increased use of petroleum, the

text: post–World War II economic expansion

text: was a period of economic prosperity in the mid-20th century which occurred, following the end of

text: World War II

text: in 1945, and lasted until the early 1970s. It ended with the

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: . In 1956, Geophysicist

text: M. King Hubbert

text: deduces that U.S. oil production will peak between 1965 and 1970 (peaked in 1971) and that oil production will peak "within half a century" on the basis of 1956 data. In 1989, another  predicted peak was by

text: Colin Campbell

text: In the event of a petroleum shortage (see peak oil for global concerns), organic agriculture can be more attractive than conventional practices that use petroleum-based pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers. Some studies using modern organic-farming methods have reported yields equal to or higher than those available from conventional farming. In the aftermath of the fall of the Soviet Union, with shortages of conventional petroleum-based inputs, Cuba made use of mostly organic practices, including biopesticides, plant-based pesticides and sustainable cropping practices, to feed its populace. However, organic farming may be more labor-intensive and would require a shift of the workforce from urban to rural areas. The reconditioning of soil to restore organic matter lost during the use of monoculture agriculture techniques is important to provide a reservoir of plant-available nutrients, to maintain texture, and to minimize erosion.

text: In the event of a petroleum shortage (see

text: peak oil

text: for global concerns), organic agriculture can be more attractive than conventional practices that use petroleum-based pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers. Some studies using modern organic-farming methods have reported yields equal to or higher than those available from conventional farming. In the aftermath of the

text: fall of the Soviet Union

text: , with shortages of conventional petroleum-based inputs, Cuba made use of mostly organic practices, including

text: biopesticides

text: , plant-based pesticides and sustainable cropping practices, to feed its populace. However, organic farming may be more

text: labor

text: -intensive and would require a shift of the workforce from urban to rural areas. The

text: reconditioning of soil

text: to restore organic matter lost during the use of monoculture agriculture techniques is important to provide a reservoir of plant-available nutrients, to maintain texture, and to minimize erosion.

text: The costs of production and transportation of saleable petroleum from oil sands is typically significantly higher than from conventional global sources. Hence the economic viability of oil sands production is more vulnerable to the price of oil. The price of benchmark West Texas Intermediate (WTI) oil at Cushing, Oklahoma above US$100/bbl that prevailed until late 2014 was sufficient to promote active growth in oil sands production. Major Canadian oil companies had announced expansion plans and foreign companies were investing significant amounts of capital, in many cases forming partnerships with Canadian companies. Investment had been shifting towards in-situ steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) projects and away from mining and upgrading projects, as oil sands operators foresee better opportunities from selling bitumen and heavy oil directly to refineries than from upgrading it to synthetic crude oil. Cost estimates for Canada include the effects of the mining when the mines are returned to the environment in "as good as or better than original condition". Cleanup of the end products of consumption are the responsibility of the consuming jurisdictions, which are mostly in provinces or countries other than the producing one.

text: The costs of production and transportation of saleable petroleum from oil sands is typically significantly higher than from conventional global sources. Hence the economic viability of oil sands production is more vulnerable to the price of oil. The price of

text: benchmark

text: West Texas Intermediate

text: (WTI) oil at

text: Cushing, Oklahoma

text: above US$100/bbl that prevailed until late 2014 was sufficient to promote active growth in oil sands production. Major Canadian oil companies had announced expansion plans and foreign companies were investing significant amounts of capital, in many cases forming partnerships with Canadian companies. Investment had been shifting towards

text: in-situ

text: steam assisted gravity drainage

text: (SAGD) projects and away from mining and upgrading projects, as oil sands operators foresee better opportunities from selling bitumen and heavy oil directly to refineries than from upgrading it to

text: synthetic crude oil

text: Cost estimates

text: for Canada include the effects of the mining when the mines are returned to the environment in "as good as or better than original condition". Cleanup of the end products of consumption are the responsibility of the consuming jurisdictions, which are mostly in provinces or countries other than the producing one.

text: Renewable energy consumption more than quadrupled from 48 PJ in 1990 to 203 PJ in 2015. Whilst renewable energy consumption was rising between 1990 and 2013 gross energy consumption actually fell by 7%. Most of the fall can be attributed to a great increase in combined power and heat generation (CHP) and the growth in wind power. This has increased energy conversion efficiency, reducing conversion losses by 28% or 7% relative to gross energy consumption. Put simply smaller and decentralised CHP plants use fuels far more efficiently than older centralised power plants, and wind power has no fossil fuel to waste. Thus the growth of these two sources (10% during the period) has displaced fossil fuels by more than a one-to-one ratio. The use of Biofuels in local CHP plants has further displaced fossil fuel consumption. The figures in the table above show that whilst the reduction in fossil fuel use has been most pronounced in coal use, there has also been a significant reduction in oil and natural gas usage since 2000.  Oil has fared better than the other fuels because it still dominates usage in the transport sector and alternative fuels and transport solutions are not yet widely deployed. The Danish Government has introduced the following targets for national energy policy:

text: OPEC holds meetings with its members in March and September of every year. During these meetings, the members examine the oil market conditions and fix quotas for themselves. The members divide the shares of oil production among the nation states. Based on the quota system, the percentages of oil production are divided according to the stated reserves of each country. Consequently, in order to obtain larger percentage share, member nations often overstate their reserves. Following this system, OPEC endeavours to change the market. This is an indication that the OPEC petroleum traders exercise enough market power to fix the oil prices around the world. They might increase oil prices much higher than the true economic price of the resources and reshape the Megacorpstate .

text: With  of proven oil reserves in 2004, Venezuela has the largest proven oil reserves in South America and the sixth largest in the world—more than Canada, Mexico, and the United States combined. Venezuela’s 2002 production of  (bbl/d) of crude was a drop of 8.3 percent over 2001 and the country’s lowest production figure since 1994. In 2003, a year in which production was halted for a couple of months by a general strike and further disrupted by the firing of nearly half of the state oil company’s work force, Venezuela's total oil production was an estimated . In 2004 oil production totaled about , according to the government’s estimate. Prior to President Chávez's December 1998 election, Venezuela regularly exceeded its Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)-agreed oil production targets. Hugo Chávez maintained a policy of strict adherence to OPEC quotas and played a leading role in shifting OPEC from a volume-oriented strategy to one of controlling prices. With planned investments of US$26 billion in oil and natural gas exploration and production between 2004 and 2009, Venezuelan Petroleum expects oil production to reach  by 2009.

text: With  of proven

text: oil

text: reserves in 2004, Venezuela has the largest proven oil reserves in South America and the sixth largest in the world—more than

text: Canada

text: Mexico

text: , and the

text: United States

text: combined. Venezuela’s 2002 production of  (bbl/d) of crude was a drop of 8.3 percent over 2001 and the country’s lowest production figure since 1994. In 2003, a year in which production was halted for a couple of months by a general strike and further disrupted by the firing of nearly half of the state oil company’s work force, Venezuela's total oil production was an estimated . In 2004 oil production totaled about , according to the government’s estimate. Prior to President Chávez's December 1998 election, Venezuela regularly exceeded its

text: (OPEC)-agreed oil production targets.

text: Hugo Chávez

text: maintained a policy of strict adherence to OPEC quotas and played a leading role in shifting OPEC from a volume-oriented strategy to one of controlling prices. With planned investments of US$26 billion in oil and natural gas exploration and production between 2004 and 2009, Venezuelan Petroleum expects oil production to reach  by 2009.

text: This is a list of selected petroleum (crude oil) exploration and production companies (petroleum industry) in alphabetical order.  This list does not include companies involved in refining and marketing only.

text: This is a list of selected

text: petroleum

text: (crude oil) exploration and production companies (

text: petroleum industry

text: ) in alphabetical order.  This list does not include companies involved in refining and marketing only.

text: The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation. Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes. In the chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals.

text: The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and

text: bioremediation

text: . Bacteria capable of digesting the

text: hydrocarbon

text: s in

text: petroleum

text: are often used to clean up

text: oil spill

text: s. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in

text: Prince William Sound

text: in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: . These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the

text: bioremediation

text: of industrial

text: toxic waste

text: s. In the

text: chemical industry

text: , bacteria are most important in the production of

text: enantiomer

text: ically pure chemicals for use as

text: pharmaceuticals

text: or

text: agrichemical

text: s.

text: ORION GROUP SA, founded by Lucien Ebata, is an international investment and petroleum-trading company. Its core business is the marketing of crude oil and refined oil products.

text: ORION GROUP SA, founded by

text: Lucien Ebata

text: , is an international investment and petroleum-trading company. Its core business is the marketing of crude oil and refined oil products.

text: Exports - commodities:mostly transshipments of refined petroleum products, construction materials, fish, food and beverage products

text: Indian Oil Corporation Ltd, Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd and Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd are progressively using solar energy for lighting their retail outlets. So far, 2140 of their retail outlets have been powered by solar energy resulting in estimated savings of Rs. 1.92 crore. The target is to increase the number to 7200 retail outlets by 31 March 2017.

text: Lago Colony was a community located on the east end of the island of Aruba, in the area presently known as Seroe Colorado. This town consisted of about 700 homes, a hospital, club house, bowing alley, and an American School, with first through twelfth grades and approximately 180 students. The population of Lago Colony was primarily from the United States, although there was a large population from England, Ireland, and Scotland who were primarily officers on the lake tanker fleet. In addition there were Dutch, Danish, Spanish and other nationalities represented in the community.  This town was supported by a large oil refinery in the world, which at that time was owned by a subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey, known as Lago Oil and Transport Company. Lago had its beginning in 1924 as a trans-shipping facility for crude oil extracted by the Lago Petroleum Corporation operating in Lake Maracaibo. The crude oil was transported to Aruba in flat bottom, shallow draft, tanker ships, known as lake tankers.  This trans-shipping of the crude oil continued until 1928 when a refinery was built and the crude oil was then refined on the island and shipped all over the world as finished petroleum products. The refinery operated until 1985 when it was shut down. The refinery, now owned by Valero, was later purchased, reopened, then shut down again; in December 2010, Valero announced that the refinery was reopening. , only a few houses of the former Lago Colony remain. Those that remain have been handed over to the Aruban Government or sold to individuals.

text: Lago Colony was a community located on the east end of the island of

text: Aruba

text: , in the area presently known as Seroe Colorado. This town consisted of about 700 homes, a hospital, club house, bowing alley, and an American School, with first through twelfth grades and approximately 180 students. The population of Lago Colony was primarily from the United States, although there was a large population from England, Ireland, and Scotland who were primarily officers on the

text: lake tanker

text: fleet. In addition there were Dutch, Danish, Spanish and other nationalities represented in the community.  This town was supported by a large

text: oil refinery

text: in the world, which at that time was owned by a subsidiary of

text: Standard Oil of New Jersey

text: , known as

text: Lago Oil and Transport Company

text: . Lago had its beginning in 1924 as a trans-shipping facility for crude oil extracted by the

text: Lago Petroleum Corporation

text: operating in

text: Lake Maracaibo

text: . The crude oil was transported to Aruba in flat bottom, shallow draft, tanker ships, known as lake tankers.  This trans-shipping of the crude oil continued until 1928 when a

text: refinery

text: was built and the

text: crude oil

text: was then refined on the island and shipped all over the world as finished

text: petroleum

text: products. The refinery operated until 1985 when it was shut down. The refinery, now owned by

text: Valero

text: , was later purchased, reopened, then shut down again; in December 2010, Valero announced that the refinery was reopening. , only a few houses of the former Lago Colony remain. Those that remain have been handed over to the Aruban Government or sold to individuals.

text: Consumption of petroleum products account for about half of Taiwan’s energy supply equivalent of 4.5 million kiloliters of oil. Demand for diesel declined 21 percent, while that for gasoline dropped 8.7 percent. Monthly Power consumption is around  20.9 billion kilowatt-hours. Formosa Petrochemical Corp. and CPC Corp are Taiwan’s only oil refiners.

text: Consumption of petroleum products account for about half of Taiwan’s energy supply equivalent of 4.5 million kiloliters of oil. Demand for diesel declined 21 percent, while that for gasoline dropped 8.7 percent. Monthly Power consumption is around  20.9 billion kilowatt-hours.

text: Formosa Petrochemical Corp

text: . and

text: CPC Corp

text: are Taiwan’s only oil refiners.

text: During his tenure, Galbraith conducted successful negotiations with Australia to produce a new treaty governing the exploitation of oil and gas in the Timor Sea. The resulting Timor Sea Treaty gave East Timor the preponderance of control over the oil and gas resources and 90% of the petroleum, an "enormously favorable" share. Under the previous Timor Gap Treaty—considered illegal by East Timor and the United Nations—Indonesia and Australia had jointly controlled the resources and shared equally the revenues. According to United States Ambassador to the United Nations Samantha Power, "Galbraith secured a deal by which the Timorese and the Australians would create a Joint Petroleum Development Area from which the Timorese would receive 90% of the revenue and the Australians 10%, a dramatic improvement over the unfair 50-50 split that predated UN negotiations. [...] The Galbraith-led negotiations would quadruple the oil available to East Timor for sale." The negotiations are believed to be the first time the United Nations has a negotiated a bilateral treaty on behalf of a state.

text: During his tenure, Galbraith conducted successful negotiations with

text: Australia

text: to produce a new treaty governing the exploitation of oil and gas in the

text: Timor Sea

text: . The resulting

text: Timor Sea Treaty

text: gave East Timor the preponderance of control over the oil and gas resources and 90% of the petroleum, an "enormously favorable" share. Under the previous Timor Gap Treaty—considered illegal by East Timor and the United Nations—

text: Indonesia

text: and

text: Australia

text: had jointly controlled the resources and shared equally the revenues. According to

entity_name: United States Ambassador to the United Nations

text: United States Ambassador to the United Nations

text: Samantha Power

text: , "Galbraith secured a deal by which the Timorese and the Australians would create a Joint Petroleum Development Area from which the Timorese would receive 90% of the revenue and the Australians 10%, a dramatic improvement over the unfair 50-50 split that predated UN negotiations. [...] The Galbraith-led negotiations would quadruple the oil available to East Timor for sale." The negotiations are believed to be the first time the United Nations has a negotiated a bilateral treaty on behalf of a state.

text: However, The American Petroleum Institute (API), representing over 500 oil companies, opposed the program because it feared many of its affiliated oil corporations would go out of business. Ultimately, through API’s resistance, Coolidge’s program never gained sufficient power.

text: However,

text: The American Petroleum Institute

text: (API), representing over 500 oil companies, opposed the program because it feared many of its affiliated oil corporations would go out of business. Ultimately, through API’s resistance, Coolidge’s program never gained sufficient power.

text: Fossil energy is from recovered fossils (like brown coal, hard coal, peat, natural gas and crude oil) and are originated in degradated products of dead plants and animals. These fossil fuels are based on the carbon cycle and thus allow stored (historic solar) energy to be recycled today. In 2005, 81% were of the world's energy needs met from fossil sources. Biomass is also derived from wood and other organic wastes and modern remains. The technical development of fossil fuels in the 18th and 19th Century set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.

text: Fossil energy is from recovered fossils (like

text: brown coal

text: hard coal

text: peat

text: natural gas

text: and

text: crude oil

text: ) and are originated in degradated products of dead plants and animals. These fossil fuels are based on the

text: carbon cycle

text: and thus allow stored (historic solar) energy to be recycled today. In 2005, 81% were of the world's energy needs met from fossil sources.

text: Biomass

text: is also derived from wood and other organic wastes and modern remains. The technical development of fossil fuels in the 18th and 19th Century set the stage for the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: Brent Crude is a major trading classification of sweet light crude oil that serves as a major benchmark price for purchases of oil worldwide. This grade is described as light because of its relatively low density, and sweet because of its low sulfur content. Brent Crude is extracted from the North Sea and comprises Brent Blend, Forties Blend, Oseberg and Ekofisk crudes (also known as the BFOE Quotation). The Brent Crude oil marker is also known as Brent Blend, London Brent and Brent petroleum.

text: Brent Crude is a major trading classification of

text: sweet

text: light

text: crude oil

text: that serves as a major

text: benchmark

text: price for purchases of oil worldwide. This grade is described as light because of its relatively low density, and sweet because of its low sulfur content. Brent Crude is extracted from the

text: North Sea

text: and comprises Brent Blend,

text: Forties Blend

text: Oseberg

text: and

text: Ekofisk

text: crudes (also known as the

text: BFOE Quotation

text: ). The Brent Crude

text: oil marker

text: is also known as Brent Blend, London Brent and Brent petroleum.

text: Some economic historians have observed that Standard Oil was in the process of losing its monopoly at the time of its breakup in 1911. Although Standard had 90 percent of American refining capacity in 1880, by 1911 that had shrunk to between 60 and 65 percent, due to the expansion in capacity by competitors.  Numerous regional competitors (such as Pure Oil in the East, Texaco and Gulf Oil in the Gulf Coast, Cities Service and Sun in the Midcontinent, Union in California, and Shell overseas) had organized themselves into competitive vertically integrated oil companies, the industry structure pioneered years earlier by Standard itself. In addition, demand for petroleum products was increasing more rapidly than the ability of Standard to expand. The result was that although in 1911 Standard still controlled most production in the older regions of the Appalachian Basin (78 percent share, down from 92 percent in 1880), Lima-Indiana (90 percent, down from 95 percent in 1906), and the Illinois Basin (83 percent, down from 100 percent in 1906), its share was much lower in the rapidly expanding new regions that would dominate U.S. oil production in the 20th century. In 1911 Standard controlled only 44 percent of production in the Midcontinent, 29 percent in California, and 10 percent on the Gulf Coast.

text: Some economic historians have observed that Standard Oil was in the process of losing its monopoly at the time of its breakup in 1911. Although Standard had 90 percent of American refining capacity in 1880, by 1911 that had shrunk to between 60 and 65 percent, due to the expansion in capacity by competitors.  Numerous regional competitors (such as

text: Pure Oil

text: in the East,

text: Texaco

text: and

text: Gulf Oil

text: in the Gulf Coast,

text: Cities Service

text: and

text: Sun

text: in the Midcontinent,

text: Union

text: in California, and

text: Shell

text: overseas) had organized themselves into competitive vertically integrated oil companies, the industry structure pioneered years earlier by Standard itself. In addition, demand for petroleum products was increasing more rapidly than the ability of Standard to expand. The result was that although in 1911 Standard still controlled most production in the older regions of the Appalachian Basin (78 percent share, down from 92 percent in 1880), Lima-Indiana (90 percent, down from 95 percent in 1906), and the

text: Illinois Basin

text: (83 percent, down from 100 percent in 1906), its share was much lower in the rapidly expanding new regions that would dominate U.S. oil production in the 20th century. In 1911 Standard controlled only 44 percent of production in the Midcontinent, 29 percent in California, and 10 percent on the Gulf Coast.

text: While petroleum is also used as a source for plastics and other chemicals, and powers various industrial processes, today two-thirds of oil consumption in the U.S. is in the form of its derived transportation fuels. Oil's unique qualities for transportation fuels in terms of energy content, cost of production, and speed of refueling all contributed to it being used over other fuels.

text: While petroleum is also used as a source for plastics and other

text: chemicals

text: , and powers various industrial processes, today two-thirds of oil consumption in the U.S. is in the form of its derived transportation fuels. Oil's unique qualities for transportation fuels in terms of energy content, cost of production, and speed of refueling all contributed to it being used over other fuels.

text: The United States petroleum refining industry, the world’s largest, is most heavily concentrated along the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana. In 2012, US refiners produced 18.5 million barrels per day of refined petroleum products. Of this amount, 15 percent was exported. As of 2012 the US was the world’s second largest net exporter of refined petroleum products.

text: Most petroleum waxes are derived from the by-products of lubricant oils.  Specifically, Group I motor oils result in a waxy distillate formed during the separation and refining of crude oils.  This by-product will typically have a 5-20% oil content.  IGI maintains "de-oiling" refining facilities that are able to remove the oil and be left with a finished wax product.  Trends in industries such as automotive have put increased demand on lubrication oils and thus a trend towards using Group II and III has been seen in recent years.  These types of oils do not contain a waxy by-product and also are not as crude oil dependent as Group I oils.  This has resulted in an overall decrease in the diversity of North American feedstocks suitable for the manufacture of petroleum waxes.

text: Most petroleum waxes are derived from the by-products of lubricant oils.  Specifically, Group I motor oils result in a waxy distillate formed during the separation and refining of crude oils.  This by-product will typically have a 5-20% oil content.  IGI maintains "de-oiling" refining facilities that are able to remove the oil and be left with a finished wax product.  Trends in industries such as automotive have put increased demand on lubrication oils and thus a trend towards using Group II and III has been seen in recent years.  These types of oils do not contain a waxy by-product and also are not as crude oil dependent as Group I oils.  This has resulted in an overall decrease in the diversity of North American

text: feedstock

text: s suitable for the manufacture of petroleum waxes.

text: The most promising industries are oil production, oil processing, oil and gas chemistry and chemical manufacturing, mechanical engineering and metal working, power industry, forest and timber-processing industry, construction supplies manufacturing, ACI and food industry, shipbuilding and pharmaceuticals industry. The development and building of commercial property is in progress in the region. Over recent years a lot of new investment projects have been implemented; the foundation for creation and development of new industries has been laid, such as oil refining, light hydrocarbons (LPG) advanced refining, metallurgy, glass industry, production of construction materials, oil and gas mechanical engineering, timber processing.

text: The Ministry of Power (then named Ministry of Fuel and Power) was created on 11 June 1942 from functions separated from the Board of Trade.  It took charge of coal production, allocation of fuel supplies, control of energy prices and petrol rationing.  These had previously been dealt with by the Secretary for Mines and in the case of petroleum since 1940 by the Secretary for Petroleum.  It also took over responsibility for electricity from the Ministry of War Transport.

text: The Ministry of Power (then named Ministry of Fuel and Power) was created on 11 June 1942 from functions separated from the

text: Board of Trade

text: .  It took charge of coal production, allocation of fuel supplies, control of energy prices and petrol rationing.  These had previously been dealt with by the

text: Secretary for Mines

text: and in the case of petroleum since 1940 by the

text: Secretary for Petroleum

text: .  It also took over responsibility for electricity from the

text: Ministry of War Transport

text: The oil has many non-food uses and, like soybean oil, is often used interchangeably with non-renewable petroleum-based oils in products, including industrial lubricants, biodiesel, candles, lipsticks, and newspaper inks, depending on the price on the spot market.

text: The oil has many non-food uses and, like soybean oil, is often used interchangeably with

text: non-renewable

text: petroleum-based oils in products, including industrial

text: lubricant

text: s,

text: biodiesel

text: candle

text: s,

text: lipstick

text: s, and

text: newspaper

text: ink

text: s, depending on the price on the spot market.

text: Biodiesel (Fatty acid methyl ester), is commercially available in most oilseed-producing states in the United States. As of 2005, it is somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel, though it is still commonly produced in relatively small quantities (in comparison to petroleum products and ethanol). Many farmers who raise oilseeds use a biodiesel blend in tractors and equipment as a matter of policy, to foster production of biodiesel and raise public awareness. It is sometimes easier to find biodiesel in rural areas than in cities. Biodiesel has lower Energy Density than fossil diesel fuel, so biodiesel vehicles are not quite able to keep up with the fuel economy of a fossil fuelled diesel vehicle, if the diesel injection system is not reset for the new fuel. If the injection timing is changed to take account of the higher Cetane value of biodiesel, the difference in economy is negligible. Because biodiesel contains more oxygen than diesel or vegetable oil fuel, it produces the lowest emissions from diesel engines, and is lower in most emissions than gasoline engines. Biodiesel has a higher lubricity than mineral diesel and is an additive in European pump diesel for lubricity and emissions reduction.

text: Biodiesel

text: (Fatty acid methyl ester), is commercially available in most oilseed-producing states in the United States. As of 2005, it is somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel, though it is still commonly produced in relatively small quantities (in comparison to petroleum products and ethanol). Many farmers who raise oilseeds use a biodiesel blend in tractors and equipment as a matter of policy, to foster production of biodiesel and raise public awareness. It is sometimes easier to find biodiesel in rural areas than in cities. Biodiesel has lower

text: Energy Density

text: than fossil diesel fuel, so biodiesel vehicles are not quite able to keep up with the fuel economy of a fossil fuelled diesel vehicle, if the diesel injection system is not reset for the new fuel. If the injection timing is changed to take account of the higher Cetane value of biodiesel, the difference in economy is negligible. Because biodiesel contains more oxygen than diesel or

text: vegetable oil fuel

text: , it produces the lowest emissions from diesel engines, and is lower in most emissions than gasoline engines. Biodiesel has a higher lubricity than mineral diesel and is an additive in European pump diesel for lubricity and emissions reduction.

text: Since the industrial revolution, the burning of coal, oil, natural gas or products derived from them has been a socially significant transformation of chemical energy into other forms of energy. the energy "consumption" (one should really speak of "energy transformation") of a society or country is often quoted in reference to the average energy released by the combustion of these fossil fuels:

text: Since the

text: industrial revolution

text: , the

text: burning

text: of

text: coal

text: oil

text: natural gas

text: or products derived from them has been a socially significant transformation of chemical energy into other forms of energy. the energy "consumption" (one should really speak of "energy transformation") of a society or country is often quoted in reference to the average energy released by the

text: combustion

text: of these

text: fossil fuel

text: s:

text: Latterly, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration has acknowledged that"hydrogen sulfide in the air is an irritant and a chemical asphyxiant that can alter both oxygen utilization and the (human) central nervous system".  In 2013, Enbridge won the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission's permission to refuse delivery of any oil with hydrogen sulfide that exceeded 5 parts per million, half the maximum exposure recommended by federal regulators, finding levels as high as 1,200 parts per million in some crude oil shipments from Bakken formation crude oil.

text: Latterly, the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration has acknowledged that"hydrogen sulfide in the air is an irritant and a chemical asphyxiant that can alter both oxygen utilization and the (human) central nervous system".  In 2013,

text: Enbridge

text: won the US

text: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

text: 's permission to refuse delivery of any oil with hydrogen sulfide that exceeded 5 parts per million, half the maximum exposure recommended by federal regulators, finding levels as high as 1,200 parts per million in some crude oil shipments from

text: Bakken formation

text: crude oil.

text: Sweet crude oil is a type of petroleum. The New York Mercantile Exchange designates petroleum with less than 0.42% sulfur as sweet. Petroleum containing higher levels of sulfur is called sour crude oil.

text: Sweet crude oil is a type of

text: petroleum

text: . The

text: New York Mercantile Exchange

text: designates petroleum with less than 0.42%

text: sulfur

text: as sweet. Petroleum containing higher levels of sulfur is called

text: sour crude oil

text: According to the Dutch disease theory, the sudden discovery of oil may cause a decline in the manufacturing sector. The consequences will vary from country to country, depending on the country's economic structure and stage of development. For example, after the oil boom in Gabon, the country showed symptoms of the Dutch disease, while oil-producing Equatorial Guinea did not.

text: According to the

text: Dutch disease

text: theory, the sudden discovery of oil may cause a decline in the manufacturing sector. The consequences will vary from country to country, depending on the country's economic structure and stage of development. For example, after the oil boom in

text: Gabon

text: , the country showed symptoms of the Dutch disease, while oil-producing

text: Equatorial Guinea

text: did not.

text: Petroleum, natural gas, and coal are exported from various source countries to countries reliant on these fossil fuels.

text: Petroleum

text: natural gas

text: , and

text: coal

text: are exported from various source countries to countries reliant on these fossil fuels.

text: The Port of Lagos is Nigeria's leading port and one of the largest and busiest in Africa. It is administered by the Nigerian Ports Authority and it is split into three main sections: Lagos port, in the main channel next to Lagos Island, Apapa Port (site of the container terminal) and Tin Can Port, both located in Badagry Creek, which flows into Lagos Harbour from the west. The port features a railhead. The port has seen growing amounts of crude oil exported, with export figures rising between 1997 and 2000. Oil and petroleum products provide 14% of GDP and 90% of foreign exchange earnings in Nigeria as a whole.

text: The

text: Port of Lagos

text: is Nigeria's leading

text: port

text: and one of the largest and busiest in Africa. It is administered by the

text: Nigerian Ports Authority

text: and it is split into three main sections: Lagos port, in the main channel next to Lagos Island,

text: Apapa Port

text: (site of the container terminal) and Tin Can Port, both located in Badagry Creek, which flows into Lagos Harbour from the west. The port features a

text: railhead

text: . The port has seen growing amounts of

text: crude oil

text: exported, with export figures rising between 1997 and 2000. Oil and

text: petroleum

text: products provide 14% of GDP and 90% of

text: foreign exchange

text: earnings in Nigeria as a whole.

text: The pipeline network in Turkey included  for crude oil,  for petroleum products, and  for natural gas in 1999. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second-longest oil pipeline in the world, was inaugurated on May 10, 2005. The pipeline delivers crude oil from the Caspian Sea basin to the port of Ceyhan on Turkey's Mediterranean coast, from where it is distributed with oil tankers to the world's markets. The planned Nabucco Pipeline will also pass from Turkey and provide the European Union member states with natural gas from the Caspian Sea basin. The Blue Stream, a major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline, is operational since November 17, 2005, and delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey. The Tabriz–Ankara pipeline is a  natural gas pipeline, which runs from Tabriz in northwestern Iran to Ankara in Turkey. The pipeline was commissioned on July 26, 2001. In Erzurum, the South Caucasus Pipeline, which was commissioned on May 21, 2006, is linked to the Iran-Turkey pipeline. In the future, these two pipelines will be among the main supply routes for the planned Nabucco Pipeline from Turkey to Europe.

text: The pipeline network in Turkey included  for crude oil,  for petroleum products, and  for natural gas in 1999. The

text: Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline

text: , the second-longest

text: oil pipeline

text: in the world, was inaugurated on May 10, 2005. The pipeline delivers

text: crude oil

text: from the

text: Caspian Sea

text: basin to the port of

text: Ceyhan

text: on Turkey's

text: Mediterranean

text: coast, from where it is distributed with oil tankers to the world's markets. The planned

text: Nabucco Pipeline

text: will also pass from Turkey and provide the

text: European Union

text: member states with

text: natural gas

text: from the Caspian Sea basin. The

text: Blue Stream

text: , a major trans-

text: Black Sea

text: gas pipeline, is operational since November 17, 2005, and delivers natural gas from

text: Russia

text: to Turkey. The

text: Tabriz–Ankara pipeline

text: is a  natural gas pipeline, which runs from

text: Tabriz

text: in northwestern

text: Iran

text: to

text: Ankara

text: in Turkey. The pipeline was commissioned on July 26, 2001. In

text: Erzurum

text: , the

text: South Caucasus Pipeline

text: , which was commissioned on May 21, 2006, is linked to the Iran-Turkey pipeline. In the future, these two pipelines will be among the main supply routes for the planned

text: Nabucco Pipeline

text: from Turkey to Europe.

text: At Kern River Oil Field, there are no currently active seeps. However, oil-stained formations in the outcrops remain from previously active seeps. Petroleum seeps may be a significant source of pollution.

text: At

text: Kern River Oil Field

text: , there are no currently active seeps. However, oil-stained formations in the outcrops remain from previously active seeps. Petroleum seeps may be a significant source of

text: pollution

text: According to Canada's Energy Outlook, the Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) report, NRCan estimates that Canada's GHG emissions will increase by 139 million tonnes between 2004 and 2020, with more than a third of the total coming from petroleum production and refining. Upstream emissions will decline slightly, primarily from gas field depletion and from increasing production of coalbed methane, which requires less processing than conventional natural gas. Meanwhile, emissions from unconventional resources and refining will soar.

text: According to Canada's Energy Outlook, the

text: Natural Resources Canada

text: (NRCan) report, NRCan estimates that Canada's GHG emissions will increase by 139 million tonnes between 2004 and 2020, with more than a third of the total coming from

text: petroleum

text: production and refining. Upstream emissions will decline slightly, primarily from gas field depletion and from increasing production of

text: coalbed methane

text: , which requires less processing than conventional

text: natural gas

text: . Meanwhile, emissions from unconventional resources and refining will soar.

text: In 1956 crude oil was discovered in commercial quantities at Oloibiri, and Port Harcourt's economy turned to petroleum when the first shipment of Nigerian crude oil was exported through the city in 1958. Through the benefits of the Nigerian petroleum industry, Port Harcourt was further developed, with aspects of modernisation such as overpasses and city blocks. Oil firms that currently have offices in the city include Royal Dutch Shell and Chevron.

text: In 1956

text: crude oil

text: was discovered in commercial quantities at

text: Oloibiri

text: , and Port Harcourt's economy turned to petroleum when the first shipment of Nigerian crude oil was exported through the city in 1958. Through the benefits of the

text: Nigerian petroleum industry

text: , Port Harcourt was further developed, with aspects of modernisation such as

text: overpasses

text: and

text: city blocks

text: . Oil firms that currently have offices in the city include

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: and

text: Chevron

text: In the 19th century, refineries in the U.S. processed crude oil primarily to recover the kerosene. There was no market for the more volatile fraction, including gasoline, which was considered waste and was often dumped directly into the nearest river. The invention of the automobile shifted the demand to gasoline and diesel, which remain the primary refined products today. Today, national and state legislation requires refineries to meet stringent air and water cleanliness standards. In fact, oil companies in the U.S. perceive obtaining a permit to build a modern refinery to be so difficult and costly that no new refineries were built (though many have been expanded) in the U.S. from 1976 until 2014, when the small Dakota Prairie Refinery in North Dakota is set to begin operation. More than half the refineries that existed in 1981 are now closed due to low utilization rates and accelerating mergers. As a result of these closures total US refinery capacity fell between 1981 and 1995, though the operating capacity stayed fairly constant in that time period at around . Increases in facility size and improvements in efficiencies have offset much of the lost physical capacity of the industry. In 1982 (the earliest data provided), the United States operated 301 refineries with a combined capacity of  of crude oil each calendar day. In 2010, there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of  per calendar day. By 2014 the number of refinery had reduced to 140 but the total capacity increased to  per calendar day. Indeed, in order to reduce operating costs and depreciation, refining is operated in less sites but of bigger capacity.

text: In the 19th century, refineries in the U.S. processed crude oil primarily to recover the

text: kerosene

text: Nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day. Therefore, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative. Off-peak wind power prices in high wind penetration areas of the U.S. averaged 1.64 cents per kilowatt-hour in 2009, but only 0.71 cents/kWh during the least expensive six hours of the day. Typically, wholesale electricity costs 2 to 5 cents/kWh during the day. Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce gasoline for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than $55 per barrel.

text: Nighttime

text: wind power

text: is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the

text: load curve

text: for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day. Therefore, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative. Off-peak wind power prices in high wind penetration areas of the U.S. averaged 1.64 cents per

text: kilowatt-hour

text: in 2009, but only 0.71 cents/kWh during the least expensive six hours of the day. Typically,

text: wholesale

text: electricity costs 2 to 5 cents/kWh during the day. Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce gasoline for less than

text: petroleum

text: fuels when oil costs more than $55 per barrel.

text: The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or underwater crude oil and natural gas fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. With the development of methods for extracting methane from coal seams, there has been a significant shift toward including unconventional gas as a part of the upstream sector, and corresponding developments in liquified natural gas (LNG) processing and transport. The upstream sector of the petroleum industry includes Extraction of petroleum, Oil production plant, Oil refinery and Oil well.

text: The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or underwater

text: crude oil

text: and

text: natural gas

text: fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. With the development of methods for extracting

text: methane

text: from

text: coal

text: seams, there has been a significant shift toward including

text: unconventional gas

text: as a part of the upstream sector, and corresponding developments in

text: liquified natural gas (LNG)

text: processing and transport. The upstream sector of the petroleum industry includes

text: Extraction of petroleum

text: Oil production plant

text: Oil refinery

text: and

text: Oil well

text: The origin of American economic involvement in the Middle East, particularly with regards to oil, dates back to 1928 with the singing of the Red Line Agreement. This was preceded by the founding of the Turkish Petroleum Company, which was created with the intention of exploring and extracting oil within the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, after the discovery of a large oil field in Iraq in 1928, the issue of distribution arose. Each of the large powers – France, the United Kingdom, and the United States – worried about being edged out by the other two. The Red Line Agreement was eventually signed, giving the Near East Development Corporation, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Royal Dutch/Shell, and the Compagnie Française des Pétroles each 23.75% of any oil that was produced by the Turkish Petroleum Company. The Near East Development Corporation represented American interests and included Jersey Standard Oil, Socony-Vacuum Oil Company, Gulf Oil, the Pan-American Petroleum and Transport Company, and Atlantic Refining. The remaining 5% share went to an Armenian businessman, Calouste Gulbenkian, who had previously owned shares within TPC. The more important provision of the Red Line Agreement was that none of the four parties could develop any oilfields from the Suez Canal to the Iran, with the exception of Kuwait (the area that the TPC had jurisdiction over), unless that party gained support and approval from the other three. Thus, the United States broke into the oil market in Iraq and later into the rest of the Middle East.Eventually, due to the aligning of Prime Minister Rashid al-Gilani with Germany, the West, particularly Great Britain, gained open access to Iraq. However, WWII left the UK weakened and unable to retain its dominance in the region, and as such the Truman and Roosevelt administrations were able to achieve their top priority, monopolizing oil in the region.

text: The origin of American economic involvement in the Middle East, particularly with regards to oil, dates back to 1928 with the singing of the Red Line Agreement. This was preceded by the founding of the Turkish Petroleum Company, which was created with the intention of exploring and extracting oil within the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, after the discovery of a large oil field in Iraq in 1928, the issue of distribution arose. Each of the large powers – France, the United Kingdom, and the United States – worried about being edged out by the other two. The Red Line Agreement was eventually signed, giving the Near East Development Corporation, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Royal Dutch/Shell, and the Compagnie Française des Pétroles each 23.75% of any oil that was produced by the Turkish Petroleum Company. The Near East Development Corporation represented American interests and included Jersey Standard Oil, Socony-Vacuum Oil Company, Gulf Oil, the

text: Pan-American Petroleum and Transport Company

text: , and Atlantic Refining. The remaining 5% share went to an Armenian businessman, Calouste Gulbenkian, who had previously owned shares within TPC. The more important provision of the Red Line Agreement was that none of the four parties could develop any oilfields from the Suez Canal to the Iran, with the exception of Kuwait (the area that the TPC had jurisdiction over), unless that party gained support and approval from the other three. Thus, the United States broke into the oil market in Iraq and later into the rest of the Middle East.Eventually, due to the aligning of Prime Minister Rashid al-Gilani with Germany, the West, particularly Great Britain, gained open access to Iraq. However, WWII left the UK weakened and unable to retain its dominance in the region, and as such the Truman and Roosevelt administrations were able to achieve their top priority, monopolizing oil in the region.

text: Saudi Arabia covers a large part of the Persian Basin which is the primary producer of oil and gas.The basement structures beneath the Persian Basin have controlled sediment deposition and structural growth of the basin. The main petroleum system of the Safaniya reservoir is the Mesozoic Petroleum System. The Mesozoic Petroleum System can be divided into two smaller petroleum systems, the Jurassic Petroleum System and Cretaceous Petroleum System. These small systems have generated hydrocarbons from the Jurassic to Cretaceous time period and largely contributed to the oil and gas production in the world's largest offshore field in Saudi Arabia the Safaniya Fields. The Jurassic Petroleum System consists of the Tuwaiq Mountain and Hanifa formations which are thick laminated organic rich lime mudstone units from the Jurassic period and contain a type II kerogen that has excellent source rock potential. The carbon isotope ratios between the oils (avg. δ 13C = - 26.6‰) and the kerogen (avg. δ 13C = - 26.4‰) and bitumen (avg. δ 13C = - 27.1‰)  The typical seal rock in the Mesozoic petroleum system that separates the Jurassic oils from mixing with the Cretaceous oils is a permeable evaporites anhydrite with a thickness reaching up to 287 m. The seal is not well developed along the eastern and northeastern part of Saudi Arabia. This allows Jurassic oils to mix with Cretaceous oils and causes the production of Cretaceous oils with a Jurassic oils to be limited to the eastern and northeastern part of Saudi Arabia. The Cretaceous Petroleum System consists of the main reservoir in the Safaniya fields, the Safaniya member. The Safaniya member is a thick sequence of sandstone, siltstone and shale with thin intervals of limestone, coal and varying amounts of ironstone. The Mauddud Formation is intra-formational shales and tight carbonates that seals the reservoirs within the Safaniya Formation.

text: Saudi Arabia covers a large part of the Persian Basin which is the primary producer of oil and gas.The basement structures beneath the Persian Basin have controlled sediment deposition and structural growth of the basin. The main petroleum system of the Safaniya reservoir is the Mesozoic Petroleum System. The

text: Mesozoic Petroleum System

text: Petroleum and gas supermajors are sometimes collectively referred to as "Big oil", a term that emphasizes their economic power and perceived influence on politics, particularly in the United States. Big oil is often associated with the fossil fuels lobby.

text: Petroleum and

text: gas

text: supermajors are sometimes collectively referred to as "Big oil", a term that emphasizes their economic power and perceived influence on politics, particularly in the United States. Big oil is often associated with the

text: fossil fuels lobby

text: The total production from ANWR would be between 0.4 and 1.2 percent of total world oil consumption in 2030. Consequently, ANWR oil production is not projected to have any significant impact on world oil prices. Furthermore, the Energy Information Administration does not feel ANWR will affect the global price of oil when past behaviors of the oil market are considered. "The opening of ANWR is projected to have its largest oil price reduction impacts as follows: a reduction in low-sulfur, light crude oil prices of $0.41 per barrel (2006 dollars) in 2026 for the low oil resource case, $0.75 per barrel in 2025 for the mean oil resource case, and $1.44 per barrel in 2027 for the high oil resource case, relative to the reference case." "Assuming that world oil markets continue to work as they do today, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) could neutralize any potential price impact of ANWR oil production by reducing its oil exports by an equal amount."

text: The total production from ANWR would be between 0.4 and 1.2 percent of total world oil consumption in 2030. Consequently, ANWR oil production is not projected to have any significant impact on world oil prices. Furthermore, the

text: Energy Information Administration

text: does not feel ANWR will affect the global price of oil when past behaviors of the oil market are considered. "The opening of ANWR is projected to have its largest oil price reduction impacts as follows: a reduction in low-sulfur, light crude oil prices of $0.41 per barrel (2006 dollars) in 2026 for the low oil resource case, $0.75 per barrel in 2025 for the mean oil resource case, and $1.44 per barrel in 2027 for the high oil resource case, relative to the reference case." "Assuming that world oil markets continue to work as they do today, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) could neutralize any potential price impact of ANWR oil production by reducing its oil exports by an equal amount."

text: Petroleum is the second largest energy fuel in Nepal after firewood and accounts for 11% of primary energy consumption in the country. All petroleum products are imported from India. At the moment, the import of petroleum products is transacted exclusively between the Nepal Oil Corporation and the Indian Oil Corporation. 75% of the imports are diesel, kerosene and gasoline. Due to the high energy demand in the country, the dependence on petroleum imports is increasing. More than 62% of the petroleum products are used in the transportation sector. Besides that, petroleum products constitute important energy sources for cooking purposes in households.

text: Petroleum

text: is the second largest energy fuel in Nepal after firewood and accounts for 11% of primary energy consumption in the country. All petroleum products are imported from

text: India

text: . At the moment, the import of petroleum products is transacted exclusively between the

text: Nepal Oil Corporation

text: and the

text: Indian Oil Corporation

text: . 75% of the imports are

text: diesel

text: kerosene

text: and

text: gasoline

text: . Due to the high energy demand in the country, the dependence on petroleum imports is increasing. More than 62% of the petroleum products are used in the transportation sector. Besides that, petroleum products constitute important energy sources for cooking purposes in households.

text: Approximately half of the produced associated gas is used for enhanced oil recovery of the field. Another half of natural gas is exported through the West of Shetland pipeline to the Sullom Voe Terminal. Some of the exported gas is used as fuel in the Fortum operated Sullom Voe power station. The remainder is enriched with liquefied petroleum gas and exported to the Magnus platform for enhanced oil recovery in Magnus field.

text: Approximately half of the produced associated gas is used for enhanced oil recovery of the field. Another half of natural gas is exported through the

text: West of Shetland pipeline

text: to the

text: Sullom Voe Terminal

text: . Some of the exported gas is used as fuel in the

text: Fortum

text: operated Sullom Voe power station. The remainder is enriched with

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: and exported to the Magnus platform for enhanced oil recovery in Magnus field.

text: During the financial year 2012–13, the production of crude oil is 37.86 million tons and 40,679 million standard cubic meters (nearly 26.85 million tons) natural gas. The net import of crude oil  & petroleum products is 146.70 million tons worth of Rs 5611.40 billions. This includes 9.534 million tons of LNG imports worth of Rs. 282.15 billions. Internationally, LNG price  (One mmBtu of LNG = 0.1724 barrels of crude oil (boe) = 24.36 cubic meters of natural gas = 29.2 litres diesel) is fixed below crude oil price in terms of heating value. LNG is slowly gaining its role as direct use fuel in road  and marine transport without regasification. By the end of June 2016, LNG price has fallen by nearly 50% below its oil parity price making it more economical fuel than diesel/gas oil in transport sector.  In 2012-13, India consumed 15.744 million tons petrol and 69.179 million tons diesel which are mainly produced from imported crude oil at huge foreign exchange out go. Use of natural gas  for heating, cooking and electricity generation is not economical as more and more locally produced natural gas will be converted into LNG for use in transport sector to reduce crude oil imports. In addition to the conventional natural gas production, coal gasification, coal bed methane, coal mine methane and Biogas digesters / Renewable natural gas will also become source of LNG forming decentralised base for production of LNG to cater to the widely distributed demand. There is possibility to convert most of the heavy duty vehicles  (including diesel driven rail engines) into  LNG fuelled vehicles to reduce diesel consumption drastically with operational cost and least pollution benefits. Also, the break even price at user end for switching from imported coal to LNG in electricity generation is estimated near 6 US$/mmBtu.

text: During the financial year 2012–13, the production of crude oil is 37.86 million tons and 40,679 million standard cubic meters (nearly 26.85 million tons)

text: natural gas

text: . The net import of crude oil  & petroleum products is 146.70 million tons worth of Rs 5611.40 billions. This includes 9.534 million tons of

text: LNG

text: imports worth of Rs. 282.15 billions. Internationally, LNG price  (One

text: mmBtu

text: of LNG = 0.1724 barrels of crude oil (boe) = 24.36 cubic meters of natural gas = 29.2 litres

text: diesel

text: ) is fixed below crude oil price in terms of heating value. LNG is slowly gaining its role as direct use fuel in road  and marine transport without

text: regasification

text: . By the end of June 2016, LNG price has fallen by nearly 50% below its

text: oil parity

text: price making it more economical fuel than diesel/gas oil in transport sector.  In 2012-13, India consumed 15.744 million tons petrol and 69.179 million tons diesel which are mainly produced from imported crude oil at huge foreign exchange out go. Use of natural gas  for heating, cooking and electricity generation is not economical as more and more locally produced natural gas will be converted into LNG for use in transport sector to reduce crude oil imports. In addition to the conventional natural gas production,

text: coal gasification

text: coal bed methane

text: coal mine methane

text: and

text: Biogas digesters

text: Renewable natural gas

text: will also become source of LNG forming decentralised base for production of LNG to cater to the widely distributed demand. There is possibility to convert most of the heavy duty vehicles  (including diesel driven rail engines) into

text: LNG fuelled vehicles

text: to reduce diesel consumption drastically with operational cost and least pollution benefits. Also, the break even price at user end for switching from imported coal to LNG in electricity generation is estimated near 6 US$/mmBtu.

text: Fossil fuels include natural gas and propane.

text: Waste oil is defined as any petroleum-based or synthetic oil that, through contamination,actually use or has become unsuitable for its original purpose due to the presence of impurities or loss of original properties.

text: Waste oil is defined as any

text: petroleum

text: -based or

text: synthetic oil

text: that, through contamination,actually use or has become unsuitable for its original purpose due to the presence of impurities or loss of original properties.

text: In 1970, responding to concern about oil spills such as the Torrey Canyon, two Royal Commissions were ordered "into exploratory and production drilling for petroleum in the area of the Great Barrier Reef".  After the Royal Commissions, the federal and state governments ceased allowing petroleum drilling on the Great Barrier Reef. A study in 1990 concluded that the reef is too young to contain oil reserves. Oil drilling remains prohibited on the Great Barrier Reef, yet oil spills due to shipping routes are still a threat to the reef system, with a total of 282 oil spills between 1987-2002.

text: In 1970, responding to concern about

text: oil spill

text: s such as the

text: Torrey Canyon

text: , two

text: Royal Commission

text: s were ordered "into exploratory and production drilling for petroleum in the area of the Great Barrier Reef".  After the Royal Commissions, the federal and state governments ceased allowing petroleum drilling on the Great Barrier Reef. A study in 1990 concluded that the reef is too young to contain

text: oil reserves

text: . Oil drilling remains prohibited on the Great Barrier Reef, yet oil spills due to shipping routes are still a threat to the reef system, with a total of 282 oil spills between 1987-2002.

text: Crude oil 666 km; petroleum products 596 km; natural gas 460 km

text: Crude oil

text: 666 km;

text: petroleum

text: products 596 km;

text: natural gas

text: 460 km

text: crude oil 5,432 km; natural gas 2,455 km; refined products 1,637 km; liquid petroleum gas 913 km

text: "Prime neatsfoot oil" or "neatsfoot oil compound" are terms used for a blend of pure neatsfoot oil and non-animal oils, generally mineral or other petroleum-based oils.

text: England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy. Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, cars (although many English marques are now foreign-owned, such as Land Rover, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.

text: England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and

text: manufacturing

text: industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more

text: service industry

text: oriented economy. Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by

text: pharmaceuticals

text: , cars (although many English

text: marque

text: s are now foreign-owned, such as

text: Land Rover

text: Lotus

text: Jaguar

text: and

text: Bentley

text: crude oil

text: and

text: petroleum

text: from the English parts of

text: North Sea oil

text: along with

text: Wytch Farm

text: aircraft engine

text: s and alcoholic beverages.

text: Studies have determined that replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, such as biofuels, have the capability of reducing  emissions by up to 80%.  An algae-based system could capture approximately 80% of the  emitted from a power plant when sunlight is available.  Although this  will later be released into the atmosphere when the fuel is burned, this  would have entered the atmosphere regardless.  The possibility of reducing total  emissions therefore lies in the prevention of the release of  from fossil fuels.  Furthermore, compared to fuels like diesel and petroleum, and even compared to other sources of biofuels, the production and combustion of algal biofuel does not produce any sulfur oxides or nitrous oxides, and produces a reduced amount of carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and reduced emission of other harmful pollutants. Since terrestrial plant sources of biofuel production simply do not have the production capacity to meet current energy requirements, microalgae may be one of the only options to approach complete replacement of fossil fuels.

text: NASA Climate scientist James Hansen discusses the problem with rapid phase out of fossil fuels and said that while it is conceivable in places such as New Zealand and Norway, "suggesting that renewables will let us phase rapidly off fossil fuels in the United States, China, India, or the world as a whole is almost the equivalent of believing in the Easter Bunny and Tooth Fairy." In 2013, Smil analyzed proposals to depend on wind and solar-generated electricity including the proposals of Jacobson and colleagues, and writing in an issue of Spectrum prepared by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, he identified numerous points of concern, such as cost, intermittent power supply, growing NIMBYism, and a lack of infrastructure as negative factors and said that "History and a consideration of the technical requirements show that the problem is much greater than these advocates have supposed." Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, but many other scientists and engineers have analysed this situation and said that the electricity grid can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.

text: NASA

text: Climate scientist

text: James Hansen

text: discusses the problem with rapid

text: phase out of fossil fuels

text: and said that while it is conceivable in places such as New Zealand and Norway, "suggesting that renewables will let us phase rapidly off fossil fuels in the United States, China, India, or the world as a whole is almost the equivalent of believing in the

text: Easter Bunny

text: and

text: Tooth Fairy

text: ." In 2013, Smil analyzed proposals to depend on wind and solar-generated electricity including the proposals of Jacobson and colleagues, and writing in an issue of Spectrum prepared by the

entity_name: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

text: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

text: , he identified numerous points of concern, such as cost, intermittent power supply, growing

text: NIMBY

text: ism, and a lack of infrastructure as negative factors and said that "History and a consideration of the technical requirements show that the problem is much greater than these advocates have supposed." Smil and Hansen are concerned about the

text: variable output

text: of solar and wind power, but many other scientists and engineers have analysed this situation and said that the

text: electricity grid

text: can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.

text: Unconventional oil is petroleum produced or extracted using techniques other than the conventional (oil well) method. Oil industries and governments across the globe are investing in unconventional oil sources due to the increasing scarcity of conventional oil reserves.

text: Unconventional oil is

text: petroleum

text: produced or extracted using techniques other than the conventional (

text: oil well

text: ) method. Oil industries and governments across the globe are investing in unconventional oil sources due to the increasing scarcity of conventional

text: oil reserves

text: On August 8, 1944, the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement was signed, dividing Middle Eastern oil between the United States and Britain. Consequently, political scholar Fred H. Lawson remarks, that by the mid-1944, U.S. officials had buttressed their country's position on the peninsula by concluding an Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement that protected "all valid concession contracts and lawfully acquired rights" belonging to the signatories and established a principle of "equal opportunity" in those areas where no concession had yet been assigned. Furthermore, political scholar Irvine Anderson summarises American interests in the Middle East in the late 19th century and the early 20th century noting that, "the most significant event of the period was the transition of the United States from the position of net exporter to one of net importer of petroleum."

text: Mineral oil term is used to encompass lubricating base oil derived from crude oil. The American Petroleum Institute (API) designates several types of lubricant base oil:

text: Mineral oil term is used to encompass lubricating base oil derived from

text: crude oil

text: . The

text: American Petroleum Institute

text: (API) designates several types of lubricant base oil:

text: Some oils burn in liquid or aerosol form, generating light, and heat which can be used directly or converted into other forms of energy such as electricity or mechanical work. To obtain many fuel oils, crude oil is pumped from the ground and is shipped via oil tanker or a pipeline to an oil refinery. There, it is converted from crude oil to diesel fuel (petrodiesel), ethane (and other short-chain alkanes), fuel oils (heaviest of commercial fuels, used in ships/furnaces), gasoline (petrol), jet fuel, kerosene, benzene (historically), and liquefied petroleum gas. A 42-gallon barrel (U.S.) of crude oil produces approximately 10 gallons of diesel, 4 gallons of jet fuel, 19 gallons of gasoline, 7 gallons of other products, 3 gallons split between heavy fuel oil and liquified petroleum gases, and 2 gallons of heating oil. The total production of a barrel of crude into various products results in an increase to 45 gallons. Not all oils used as fuels are mineral oils, see biodiesel and vegetable oil fuel.

text: Some oils

text: burn

text: in liquid or

text: aerosol

text: form, generating

text: light

text: , and

text: heat

text: which can be used directly or converted into other forms of energy such as electricity or mechanical work. To obtain many fuel oils,

text: crude oil

text: is pumped from the ground and is shipped via

text: oil tanker

text: or a

text: pipeline

text: to an

text: oil refinery

text: . There, it is converted from crude oil to

text: diesel fuel

text: (petrodiesel),

text: ethane

text: (and other short-chain

text: alkanes

text: fuel oil

text: s (heaviest of commercial fuels, used in ships/furnaces),

text: gasoline

text: (petrol),

text: jet fuel

text: kerosene

text: benzene

text: (historically), and

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: . A 42-gallon barrel (U.S.) of crude oil produces approximately 10 gallons of diesel, 4 gallons of jet fuel, 19 gallons of gasoline, 7 gallons of other products, 3 gallons split between heavy fuel oil and liquified petroleum gases, and 2 gallons of heating oil. The total production of a barrel of crude into various products results in an increase to 45 gallons. Not all oils used as fuels are mineral oils, see

text: biodiesel

text: and

text: vegetable oil fuel

text: Oil prices have now passed the previous peak in 1980, and 95% of all energy used in transport is oil.  Vehicle travel in the United States, which has been rising steadily since records began, started to level out before the fuel price increases and is now in decline.  Part of this decline is likely to be people making fewer trips, with potentially far-reaching economic and social consequences.  Countries and cities where the car is one of many travel choices are more likely to prosper, as people can choose to drive less but are still able to travel by transit, cycle safely, walk to local shops and facilities, or choose to work or study from home.

text: Oil prices

text: have now passed the previous peak in 1980, and 95% of all energy used in transport is oil.  Vehicle travel in the United States, which has been rising steadily since records began, started to level out before the fuel price increases and is now in decline.  Part of this decline is likely to be people making fewer trips, with potentially far-reaching economic and social consequences.  Countries and cities where the car is one of many travel choices are more likely to prosper, as people can choose to drive less but are still able to travel by transit, cycle safely, walk to local shops and facilities, or choose to work or study from home.

text: The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while sweet oil commands a higher price than sour oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are revealed by the use of Crude oil assay analysis in petroleum laboratories.

text: The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while sweet oil commands a higher price than sour oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are revealed by the use of

text: Crude oil assay

text: analysis in petroleum laboratories.

text: Although petroleum, oil and gas, and hydrocarbons are not technically mineral resources, the term mineral rights is used to denote rights to exploit oil and gas resources from the underground. Onshore, in United States, the landowner possesses exclusive rights for mineral rights, elsewhere generally the state does. For this reason, the fiscal regime of US is divergent from that  of other countries.The petroleum licensing system of a country may be considered interwoven with the fiscal regime,  however, a licensing system has its distinct function: to grant rights for petroleum exploration and production to commercial entities.

text: Although

text: petroleum

text: oil and gas

text: , and

text: hydrocarbons

text: are not technically

text: mineral

text: resources, the term

text: mineral rights

text: is used to denote rights to exploit oil and gas resources from the underground. Onshore, in

text: United States

text: , the landowner possesses exclusive rights for mineral rights, elsewhere generally the state does. For this reason,

text: the fiscal regime of US

text: is divergent from that  of other countries.The

text: petroleum licensing system

text: of a country may be considered interwoven with the fiscal regime,  however, a licensing system has its distinct function: to grant rights for petroleum exploration and production to commercial entities.

text: China and Syria have significant trade relations. In 2009, mutual trade between the two countries was worth nearly $2.2 billion according to figures from the International Monetary Fund, and similar trade volumes were expected by the Syrian Ministry of Economy for 2010. The trade, however, is almost entirely one way. Exports from Syria to China made up less than 1 percent of the total trade volume at $5.6 million, while exports from China to Syria were worth $2.2 billion making China Syria's main importer. China is actively involved in Syria's oil industry. China National Petroleum Corporation is a joint venture partner with Syria's national oil company and Royal Dutch Shell in the Al-Furat Petroleum Company, the main oil producing consortium in the country. The Al-Furat consortium produces some 100,000 barrels per day (bpd). Sinochem is another Chinese oil company that has been very active in recent oil exploration tenders. China's CNPC and Sinopec are helping to revive output under rehabilitation contracts for small mature oil fields in Syria.

text: China and Syria have significant trade relations. In 2009, mutual trade between the two countries was worth nearly $2.2 billion according to figures from the

text: International Monetary Fund

text: , and similar trade volumes were expected by the Syrian Ministry of Economy for 2010. The trade, however, is almost entirely one way. Exports from Syria to China made up less than 1 percent of the total trade volume at $5.6 million, while exports from China to Syria were worth $2.2 billion making China Syria's main importer. China is actively involved in Syria's oil industry.

text: China National Petroleum Corporation

text: is a joint venture partner with

text: Syria's national oil company

text: and

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: in the Al-Furat Petroleum Company, the main oil producing consortium in the country. The Al-Furat consortium produces some 100,000 barrels per day (bpd).

text: Sinochem

text: is another Chinese oil company that has been very active in recent oil exploration tenders. China's CNPC and Sinopec are helping to revive output under rehabilitation contracts for small mature oil fields in Syria.

text: Commercial exploitation of petroleum, largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources (notably whale oil), for use in oil lamps began in the 19th century.

text: Commercial exploitation of

text: petroleum

text: , largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources (notably

text: whale oil

text: ), for use in

text: oil lamp

text: s began in the 19th century.

text: Oil is refined into fuel oil, diesel and gasoline. The refined products are primarily consumed by cars, trucks, trains, planes and ships for transportation. Popular alternatives are public transport or electric vehicles, which use electricity that may be sourced from renewables or fossil fuels. Biofuels produce similar air pollution to fossil fuels and may increase atmospheric methane, a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

text: Oil is refined into

text: fuel oil

text: diesel

text: and

text: gasoline

text: . The refined products are primarily consumed by cars, trucks, trains, planes and ships for transportation. Popular alternatives are

text: public transport

text: or

text: electric vehicle

text: s, which use electricity that may be sourced from renewables or fossil fuels.

text: Biofuels

text: produce similar air pollution to fossil fuels and may increase atmospheric

text: methane

text: , a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

text: Bypassing the petroleum era and embracing new technologies: No fossil fuels will be used for normal operations of the new "Matthew Turner”. Wind Power will provide basic propulsion.  Wind Power will also generate power for the DC electric motors to be used when winds are insufficient. The new "Matthew Turner" will be the "greenest" wooden tall ship ever built.  Every aspect of construction, from the FSC certified lumber to the latest non-toxic paints, has been scrutinized to minimize negative environmental impacts.

text: James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling.

text: James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from

text: extinction

text: by providing an inexpensive substitute for

text: whale oil

text: , thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat

text: whaling

text: Tengchong's industry and handicraft work were fostered during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, nearly 400 years ago. Factories and workshops were set up first by importing equipment from abroad. Earlier products included textile goods, leather, soaps, battery, cigarettes, matches, etc. They found market in West Yunnan and Burma and Southeast Asian countries. Since the founding of the People's Republic, a more complete industrial system was formed, comprising 32 departments like power generating, metallurgy, machinery, paper making, textile industry, matches production, pharmacy, tanning, chemical industry, sugar refining, tea leaves refining, food processing, etc. The major products include refined tin, pig iron, crude lead, timber, plywood, cement, refractory, diatomite filtration promoter, sulphuric acid, caustic soda, hydrochlorite potassium chlorate, calcium phdrogen phosphate, paper, canesugar, refined tea leaves, preserved fruits, edible oil, matches, Chinese medicine, etc. The matches, Chinese medicine, refined tin, refined tea leaves and the "xuanzhi" (a high quality writing paper originally produced in Xuancheng) enjoy high reputation abroad.

text: Tengchong's industry and handicraft work were fostered during the

text: Ming

text: and

text: Qing

text: Dynasties, nearly 400 years ago. Factories and workshops were set up first by importing equipment from abroad. Earlier products included textile goods, leather, soaps, battery, cigarettes, matches, etc. They found market in West Yunnan and Burma and Southeast Asian countries. Since the founding of the People's Republic, a more complete industrial system was formed, comprising 32 departments like power generating, metallurgy, machinery, paper making, textile industry, matches production, pharmacy, tanning, chemical industry, sugar refining, tea leaves refining, food processing, etc. The major products include refined tin, pig iron, crude lead, timber, plywood, cement, refractory, diatomite filtration promoter, sulphuric acid, caustic soda, hydrochlorite potassium chlorate, calcium phdrogen phosphate, paper, canesugar, refined tea leaves, preserved fruits, edible oil, matches, Chinese medicine, etc. The matches, Chinese medicine, refined tin, refined tea leaves and the "xuanzhi" (a high quality writing paper originally produced in Xuancheng) enjoy high reputation abroad.

text: Aiteo owns and operates petroleum storage facilities in Lagos and Port Harcourt., including the Abonnema Storage Terminal (“Port Harcourt Tank Farm”), with total capacity of over 110 Million Liters. It constructed a jetty to accommodate growing vessel traffic to the Port Harcourt Terminal, which accommodates up to 30,000 metric tons dead weight. in the first quarter of 2011, Aiteo was one of the 32 companies issued permits to import petrol, under the Refined Products Exchange Agreement. Aiteo Group was among the Nigerian companies awarded oil lifting contracts, in the Federal Government's bid, through the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation, to award nearly half of 2012/2013 oil lifting contracts worth $40 billion  to indigenous companies and in the process, promoting local content on one hand and "downsizing contracts awarded to international oil traders. In its own right and also at the request of Duke Oil, the company entered into a Management and Operation Agreement with Duke Oil ”to operate and manage its Crude and Product Exchange Agreement" with NNPC and Pipelines Product Marketing Company (PPMC) from February 2011; an operation which lasted until December 2014. These were landmark transactions in the Nigerian Oil sector.

text: Aiteo owns and operates petroleum storage facilities in

text: Lagos

text: and

text: Port Harcourt

text: ., including the Abonnema Storage Terminal (“Port Harcourt Tank Farm”), with total capacity of over 110 Million Liters. It constructed a jetty to accommodate growing vessel traffic to the Port Harcourt Terminal, which accommodates up to 30,000 metric tons dead weight. in the first quarter of 2011, Aiteo was one of the 32 companies issued permits to import petrol, under the Refined Products Exchange Agreement. Aiteo Group was among the Nigerian companies awarded oil lifting contracts, in the Federal Government's bid, through the

text: Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation

text: , to award nearly half of 2012/2013 oil lifting contracts worth $40 billion  to indigenous companies and in the process, promoting local content on one hand and "downsizing contracts awarded to international oil traders. In its own right and also at the request of Duke Oil, the company entered into a Management and Operation Agreement with Duke Oil ”to operate and manage its Crude and Product Exchange Agreement" with NNPC and Pipelines Product Marketing Company (PPMC) from February 2011; an operation which lasted until December 2014. These were landmark transactions in the Nigerian Oil sector.

text: Another option to handle the increase in domestic oil consumption besides increasing oil production is to switch power stations from oil-fired to natural gas-fired. Proven natural gas reserves, approximately three-quarters of which are owned by the Syrian Petroleum Company, were estimated at 2.6 trillion cubic meters (9.1 trillion cubic feet) in 2010. A major challenge for the natural gas industry is logistics: reserves are located mainly in northeastern Syria, whereas the population is concentrated in the west and south.

text: Another option to handle the increase in domestic oil consumption besides increasing oil production is to switch

text: power station

text: s from oil-fired to

text: natural gas

text: -fired. Proven natural gas reserves, approximately three-quarters of which are owned by the Syrian Petroleum Company, were estimated at 2.6 trillion cubic meters (9.1 trillion cubic feet) in 2010. A major challenge for the natural gas industry is logistics: reserves are located mainly in northeastern Syria, whereas the population is concentrated in the west and south.

text: Crude oil is composed of more than 17,000 compounds. Among these 17,000 compounds are PAHs, which are considered the most toxic components of oil. PAHs are formed by pyrogenic and petrogenic processes. Petrogenic PAHs are formed by the elevated pressure of organic material. In contrast, pyrogenic PAHs are formed through the incomplete combustion of organic material. Crude oil naturally contains petrogenic PAHs and these PAH levels are increased significantly through the burning of oil which creates pyrogenic PAHs. The level of PAHs found in crude oil differs with the type of crude oil. For example, crude oil from the Exxon Valdez oil spill had PAH concentrations of 1.47%, while PAH concentrations from the North Sea have much lower PAH concentrations of 0.83%.

text: Crude oil

text: is composed of more than 17,000 compounds. Among these 17,000 compounds are PAHs, which are considered the most toxic components of oil. PAHs are formed by

text: pyrogenic

text: and petrogenic processes. Petrogenic PAHs are formed by the elevated pressure of organic material. In contrast, pyrogenic PAHs are formed through the incomplete combustion of organic material. Crude oil naturally contains petrogenic PAHs and these PAH levels are increased significantly through the burning of oil which creates pyrogenic PAHs. The level of PAHs found in crude oil differs with the type of crude oil. For example, crude oil from the Exxon Valdez oil spill had PAH concentrations of 1.47%, while PAH concentrations from the North Sea have much lower PAH concentrations of 0.83%.

text: Offshore petroleum activity included exploration on Block 1711 by the joint venture of Z.A.O. Sintezneftegas of Russia (70%), Petroleum, Oil & Gas Corp. of South Africa (PetroSA) (10%), EnerGulf Resources Inc. of the United States (10%), and the National Petroleum Corporation of Namibia (NAMCOR) (7%). Onshore exploration included that of the joint venture of Circle Oil Namibia Ltd. (90%) and NAMCOR (10%). In 2006, Mitusi Atlantic Energy BV (15%) joined the joint venture of BHP Billiton Ltd. of Australia (75%) and PetroSA (10%), which held Blocks 2813A, 2814B, and 2914.

text: Offshore petroleum activity included exploration on Block 1711 by the joint venture of Z.A.O.

text: Sintezneftegas

text: of Russia (70%), Petroleum, Oil & Gas Corp. of South Africa (

text: PetroSA

text: ) (10%),

text: EnerGulf

text: Resources Inc. of the United States (10%), and the

text: National Petroleum Corporation of Namibia

text: (NAMCOR) (7%). Onshore exploration included that of the joint venture of Circle Oil Namibia Ltd. (90%) and NAMCOR (10%). In 2006, Mitusi Atlantic Energy BV (15%) joined the joint venture of

text: BHP Billiton

text: Ltd. of Australia (75%) and PetroSA (10%), which held Blocks 2813A, 2814B, and 2914.

text: Recharging with non-fossil fuel electricity sources such as hydroelectric, solar power, wind or nuclear, the petroleum equivalent efficiency can be even higher as fossil fuel is not directly used in refueling.

text: Recharging with non-fossil fuel electricity sources such as

text: hydroelectric

text: solar power

text: wind

text: or

text: nuclear

text: , the petroleum equivalent efficiency can be even higher as fossil fuel is not directly used in refueling.

text: The total consumption of crude oil in India rose from 130.11 MMT in 2005-06 to 223.24 MMT in 2014-15 with a CAGR of 5.55%. High speed diesel oil accounted for 37.99% of total consumption of all types of petroleum products in 2014-15, followed by Petrol (10.44%),  LPG (9.86%), Refinery (9.67), Petroleum Coke (7.88%) and Naphtha (5.98%). The two largest consumers of natural gas are the fertilizer industry  (29.71%) and power generation (20.97%). Use of natural gas as a domestic fuel accounted for 0.07% of total consumption.

text: SOCAR has two oil refineries and one gas processing plant. Azerneftyagh Oil Refinery specializes in the production of fuels and oils, producing gasoline, kerosene and diesel distillates, various oils (industrial, motor, transformer etc.) and asphalt. All fuel distillates produced there are sent to Heydar Aliyev Baku Oil Refinery for redistillation. The refinery processes 21 out of 24 grades of the Azerbaijani crude. It meets the country's entire demand for petroleum products and 45% of its petroleum products are exported. The Gas Processing Plant produces processed gas, liquefied gas and natural gasoline. In 2010, the plant produced 4 bcm of processed gas, 24,800 tons of liquefied gas and 26,700 tons of natural gasoline.

text: Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas.  Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane. Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: fuel

text: s formed by natural processes such as

text: anaerobic decomposition

text: of buried dead

text: organism

text: s, containing energy originating in ancient

text: photosynthesis

text: . The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of

text: carbon

text: and include

text: petroleum

text: coal

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: .  Other commonly used derivatives include

text: kerosene

text: and

text: propane

text: . Fossil fuels range from

text: volatile

text: materials with low

text: carbon

text: hydrogen

text: ratios like

text: methane

text: , to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like

text: anthracite

text: coal. Methane can be found in

text: hydrocarbon

text: fields either alone, associated with

text: oil

text: , or in the form of

text: methane clathrates

text: Under Section 9601(14) of CERCLA, hazardous waste definitions exclude crude petroleum, including crude oil, natural gas liquids, and any of their component fractions. Included in the exemption are refined petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel fuel, insofar as their content of naturally occurring petroleum compounds. If any spills that would be otherwise classified under the Superfund contain only petroleum compounds, they are exempt from the cleanup process associated with CERCLA. The petroleum exemption does not extend to hazardous contaminants such as PCBs or pesticides, which are sometimes mixed with petroleum product. “Moreover, if the petroleum product and an added hazardous substance are so commingled that, as a practical matter, they cannot be separated, then the entire oil spill is subject to CERCLA response authority.” As of 1987, there were at least 153 CERCLA Superfund sites that included waste oil.

text: Unlike navies, whose ships can berth for extended periods at their bases, merchant ships have shorter port stays, during which they sustain electrical loads through on-board fossil fuel powered electrical generators (auxiliary engines).  Oceangoing ships have generally not been subject to emissions controls, so merchant vessels throughout the world have been using Bunker Fuel or HFO – which is residual petroleum – as the optimal choice of fuel. This fuel has high particulate matter. Studies show that a single ship can produce particulate emissions equal to the same amount as 50 million cars annually.

text: Unlike navies, whose ships can berth for extended periods at their bases,

text: merchant ships

text: have shorter port stays, during which they sustain electrical loads through on-board fossil fuel powered electrical generators (auxiliary engines).  Oceangoing ships have generally not been subject to emissions controls, so

text: merchant vessel

text: s throughout the world have been using

text: Bunker Fuel or HFO

text: – which is residual petroleum – as the optimal choice of fuel. This fuel has high

text: particulate matter

text: . Studies show that a single ship can produce particulate emissions equal to the same amount as 50 million cars annually.

text: Phillips Petroleum rapidly became a fully integrated oil company that included oil and gas production, crude oil pipelines and refineries, and marketing of petroleum products.

text: After his graduate studies, he was hired in 1920 as a geologist for the American Oil Engineering Corporation, and in 1921 he conducted the first surveys of the potential for oil exploration in eastern Ecuador with Joseph Sinclair, a consulting geologist. He was hired as the chief geologist with the Pure Oil Company in 1922, a position he held until 1952, when he became a senior geologist for that company. He worked for Pure Oil in Tulsa, OK, Columbus, OH, and finally in Chicago, IL. He excelled at finding new oil and gas fields—he was called "Pure's top oil hunter"—and was one of the first petroleum geologists to use geophysical survey data. He was credited with finding major oil fields in Venezuela in 1922, in Michigan in 1927, in southern Illinois in 1936, and the Cumberland Field in Oklahoma in 1940. In 1927, he and his staff used geophysical data to find the large Van oil field in Texas, and in 1937 it was also used by him and his staff (working with Superior Oil) to find the Creole field in Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico, which was the first offshore oil well in the world in tidal waters; see also Offshore oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico and Oil platform history. He was profiled in National Petroleum News in 1929, was called "one of the leading geologists of the world" in a 1940 article about oil reserves, and was quoted as an "authority on oil reserves" in Popular Mechanics in 1944. He spoke regularly at regional and national conferences about oil discoveries.

text: After his graduate studies, he was hired in 1920 as a geologist for the American Oil Engineering Corporation, and in 1921 he conducted the first surveys of the potential for oil exploration in eastern Ecuador with Joseph Sinclair, a consulting geologist. He was hired as the chief geologist with the

text: Pure Oil Company

text: in 1922, a position he held until 1952, when he became a senior geologist for that company. He worked for Pure Oil in Tulsa, OK, Columbus, OH, and finally in Chicago, IL. He excelled at finding new oil and gas fields—he was called "Pure's top oil hunter"—and was one of the first petroleum geologists to use geophysical survey data. He was credited with finding major oil fields in Venezuela in 1922, in Michigan in 1927, in southern Illinois in 1936, and the Cumberland Field in Oklahoma in 1940. In 1927, he and his staff used geophysical data to find the large Van oil field in Texas, and in 1937 it was also used by him and his staff (working with Superior Oil) to find the Creole field in Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico, which was the first offshore oil well in the world in tidal waters; see also

entity_name: Offshore oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico (United States)

text: Offshore oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico

text: and

text: Oil platform history

text: . He was profiled in National Petroleum News in 1929, was called "one of the leading geologists of the world" in a 1940 article about oil reserves, and was quoted as an "authority on oil reserves" in Popular Mechanics in 1944. He spoke regularly at regional and national conferences about oil discoveries.

text: The concept of constructing such a pipeline was first proposed in 1940 by the Secretary of the Interior, Harold Ickes, who argued that "the building of a crude oil pipeline from Texas to the East might not be economically sound; but that in the event of an emergency it might be absolutely necessary". A consortium led by Standard Oil put forward a bid to build one in spring 1941, but the plan failed, due to concerns over the amount of steel that would be required for such a project. In May 1941, Ickes was appointed as the Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense, and in December 1942 became the administrator of the Petroleum Administration for War. New laws were passed to enable the building of pipelines necessary for the war effort, including the compulsory purchasing of land under the right of eminent domain.

text: The concept of constructing such a pipeline was first proposed in 1940 by the

text: Secretary of the Interior

text: Harold Ickes

text: , who argued that "the building of a crude oil pipeline from Texas to the East might not be economically sound; but that in the event of an emergency it might be absolutely necessary". A consortium led by

text: Standard Oil

text: put forward a bid to build one in spring 1941, but the plan failed, due to concerns over the amount of steel that would be required for such a project. In May 1941, Ickes was appointed as the Petroleum Coordinator for National Defense, and in December 1942 became the administrator of the Petroleum Administration for War. New laws were passed to enable the building of pipelines necessary for the war effort, including the compulsory purchasing of land under the right of

text: eminent domain

text: 3.)  U.S. electric generation capacity (only fossil fuels): Natural gas = 415 GW, Coal= 318 GW & Petroleum = 51 GW

text: The economy of Hirono was formerly heavily dependent on agriculture. The fossil-fuel powered Hirono Power Station located directly at the Pacific Ocean about 3 km north of the town was also a major employer. Although damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami Tepco managed to return the power station to operation four months later.

text: The economy of Hirono was formerly heavily dependent on agriculture. The

text: fossil-fuel powered

text: Hirono Power Station

text: located directly at the Pacific Ocean about 3 km north of the town was also a major employer. Although damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

text: Tepco

text: managed to return the power station to operation four months later.

text: crude oil 2,042 km; petroleum products 3,000 km; natural gas 500 km

text: crude oil

text: 2,042 km;

text: petroleum

text: products 3,000 km;

text: natural gas

text: 500 km

text: The company operated on a cooperative basis.  The member/owners shared numerous commercial and financial benefits, including the sharing of costs for the processing and marketing of goods, competitive prices, and better supply and delivery capabilities.  Embracing a farm-to-table mission, the cooperative essentially divided its activities between "inputs" and "outputs."  On the input side, Farmland and its joint venture partners helped farmers in their production efforts by providing such items as fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides, animal feeds, and petroleum products.  On the output side, Farmland added value to members' food and fiber products and marketed them throughout the world.  A major part of the output strategy was to enhance the "Farmland" name and its trademarked phrase, "Proud to be farmer-owned."  The cooperative also employed vertical integration as much as possible.  With petroleum products, for instance, Farmland pumped crude oil from its own wells, refined it in its own facilities, and marketed the resulting products through its Ampride service stations.  With hogs and beef, the cooperative was involved in the raising of the animals through feed, the slaughtering and packaging process, as well as marketing the meats under the "Farmland" brand.

text: The company operated on a cooperative basis.  The member/owners shared numerous commercial and financial benefits, including the sharing of costs for the processing and marketing of goods, competitive prices, and better supply and delivery capabilities.  Embracing a

text: farm-to-table

text: mission, the cooperative essentially divided its activities between "inputs" and "outputs."  On the input side, Farmland and its joint venture partners helped farmers in their production efforts by providing such items as fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides, animal feeds, and petroleum products.  On the output side, Farmland added value to members' food and fiber products and marketed them throughout the world.  A major part of the output strategy was to enhance the "Farmland" name and its trademarked phrase, "Proud to be farmer-owned."  The cooperative also employed vertical integration as much as possible.  With petroleum products, for instance, Farmland pumped crude oil from its own wells, refined it in its own facilities, and marketed the resulting products through its Ampride service stations.  With hogs and beef, the cooperative was involved in the raising of the animals through feed, the slaughtering and packaging process, as well as marketing the meats under the "Farmland" brand.

text: The first energy derivatives covered petroleum products and emerged after the 1970s energy crisis and the fundamental restructuring of the world petroleum market that followed. At roughly the same time, energy products began trading on derivatives exchange with crude oil, heating oil, and gasoline futures on NYMEX and gas oil and Brent Crude on the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE).

text: The first energy derivatives covered petroleum products and emerged after the

text: 1970s energy crisis

text: and the fundamental restructuring of the world petroleum market that followed. At roughly the same time, energy products began trading on derivatives exchange with crude oil, heating oil, and gasoline futures on NYMEX and gas oil and

text: Brent Crude

text: on the

text: International Petroleum Exchange

text: (IPE).

text: Before petroleum was used as a fuel, oil had many uses. In Pennsylvania, the Native American tribes had been using oil from seeps for several centuries. Early European explorers discovered evidence of troughs dug alongside the creek where Native American tribes had collected oil for use as ointment, insect repellant, skin coloring and in religious ceremonies. These oil seeps, which are areas where oil spontaneously escapes the earth in gas or liquid form, were common across northern Pennsylvania. As the frontier expanded into Western Pennsylvania during the 18th century, the region became known for the oil beneath its surface, and maps of the era displayed the label “Petroleum.” With few uses for crude oil, the label served primarily to deter farmers who found the black soil inhospitable to their crops.Later, other uses became known. Crude oil began to be used as an alternative to whale oil for lamps, and inventors and scientists began to test oil for other uses, including energy.

text: Before petroleum was used as a fuel, oil had many uses. In Pennsylvania, the

text: Native American

text: tribes had been using oil from seeps for several centuries. Early European explorers discovered evidence of troughs dug alongside the creek where Native American tribes had collected oil for use as ointment, insect repellant, skin coloring and in religious ceremonies. These

text: oil seep

text: s, which are areas where oil spontaneously escapes the earth in gas or liquid form, were common across northern Pennsylvania. As the frontier expanded into Western Pennsylvania during the 18th century, the region became known for the oil beneath its surface, and maps of the era displayed the label “Petroleum.” With few uses for

text: crude oil

text: , the label served primarily to deter farmers who found the black soil inhospitable to their crops.Later, other uses became known. Crude oil began to be used as an alternative to

text: whale oil

text: for lamps, and inventors and scientists began to test oil for other uses, including energy.

text: The Indigenous peoples in Venezuela, like many ancient societies already utilized crude oils and asphalts from petroleum seeps, which ooze through the ground to the surface, in the years before the Spanish conquistadors.  The thick black liquid, known to the locals as mene, was primarily used for medical purposes, as an illumination source, and for the caulking of canoes.

text: The

text: Indigenous peoples in Venezuela

text: , like many ancient societies already utilized crude

text: oil

text: s and asphalts from

text: petroleum seep

text: s, which ooze through the ground to the surface, in the years before the Spanish conquistadors.  The thick black liquid, known to the locals as mene, was primarily used for medical purposes, as an illumination source, and for the caulking of canoes.

text: Petroleum is often still used as a source of materials and energy in the production of bioplastic. Petroleum is required to power farm machinery, to irrigate crops, to produce fertilisers and pesticides, to transport crops and crop products to processing plants, to process raw materials, and ultimately to produce the bioplastic. However, it is possible to produce bioplastic using renewable energy sources and avoid the use of petroleum.

text: Addicted to Oil (2006) premiered at the Silverdocs Documentary Festival at 5:30 PM on June 16, 2006, and aired on June 24, 2006, on the Discovery Times Channel.  In it he examined the geopolitical, economic, and environmental consequences of petroleum use and ways that green technologies such as alternative fuels and energy efficiency and conservation can reduce oil dependence.

text: Addicted to Oil (2006)

text: premiered

text: at the

text: Silverdocs Documentary Festival

text: at 5:30 PM on June 16, 2006, and aired on June 24, 2006, on the Discovery Times Channel.  In it he examined the geopolitical, economic, and environmental consequences of petroleum use and ways that green technologies such as alternative fuels and

text: energy efficiency

text: and conservation can reduce

text: oil dependence

text: The plan also would require cars to become more fuel efficient and would provide research funds for improved batteries to move away from petroleum-products in cars. The proposal calls for 85 percent of vehicles to run on non-petroleum-based fuel in 20 years.

text: In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated, nuclear power has caused fewer accidental deaths per unit of energy generated than all other major sources of energy generation. Energy produced by coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydropower has caused more deaths per unit of energy generated, from air pollution and energy accidents. This is found in the following comparisons, when the immediate nuclear related deaths from accidents are compared to the immediate deaths from these other energy sources, when the latent, or predicted, indirect cancer deaths from nuclear energy accidents are compared to the immediate deaths from the above energy sources, and when the combined immediate and indirect fatalities from nuclear power and all fossil fuels are compared, fatalities resulting from the mining of the necessary natural resources to power generation and to air pollution. With these data, the use of nuclear power has been calculated to have prevented in the region of 1.8 million deaths between 1971 and 2009, by reducing the proportion of energy that would otherwise have been generated by fossil fuels, and is projected to continue to do so.

text: In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated, nuclear power has caused fewer accidental deaths per unit of energy generated than all other major sources of energy generation. Energy produced by coal, petroleum, natural gas and

text: hydropower

text: has caused more deaths per unit of energy generated, from air pollution and

text: energy accidents

text: . This is found in the following comparisons, when the immediate nuclear related deaths from accidents are compared to the immediate deaths from these other energy sources, when the latent, or predicted, indirect cancer deaths from nuclear

text: energy accidents

text: are compared to the immediate deaths from the above energy sources, and when the combined immediate and indirect fatalities from nuclear power and all fossil fuels are compared, fatalities resulting from the mining of the necessary natural resources to power generation and to air pollution. With these data, the use of nuclear power has been calculated to have prevented in the region of 1.8 million deaths between 1971 and 2009, by reducing the proportion of energy that would otherwise have been generated by fossil fuels, and is projected to continue to do so.

text: In 1974, Canada inaugurated its first system for pricing oil, with three objectives: to regulate prices of domestic crude oil through federal-provincial agreements, to subsidize imported oil so that consumers in eastern Canada would enjoy lower prices, and to control prices and quantities of crude oil and products in the export market. Synthetic crude oil (upgraded petroleum from oil sands) was exempted from this policy and sold at the world price. The federal government levied a tax on all oil refined in Canada to pay for the difference between the prices of synthetic and conventional crude oil.

text: It was not until the sixteenth century that the maintenance of a light, wherever the Blessed Sacrament was reserved, was recognized as a matter of strict obligation. At present the official "Rituale Romanum" (Tit. IV, cap. 1) prescribes that "both by day and night two or more lamps or at least one [lampades plures vel saltem una] must burn continually before the Blessed Sacrament", and the responsibility of seeing that this is carried out rests with the priest in charge of the parish. It is further directed that the oil used should be vegetable oil, by preference that of the olive on account of its symbolism; but exceptionally, in consequence of poverty or some other reason, a mineral oil, like petroleum, may be employed with the bishop's permission. The language of the Caeremoniale Episcoporum (I, xii, 17) might easily suggest that at least in the larger churches more lamps than one should be lit, but always an odd number, that is to say, three at least before the high altar, and five before the altar of the Blessed Sacrament. It seems, however, that this direction of the "Caeremoniale" is to be understood as applying only to greater festivals.

text: It was not until the sixteenth century that the maintenance of a light, wherever the Blessed Sacrament was reserved, was recognized as a matter of strict obligation. At present the official "Rituale Romanum" (Tit. IV, cap. 1) prescribes that "both by day and night two or more lamps or at least one [lampades plures vel saltem una] must burn continually before the Blessed Sacrament", and the responsibility of seeing that this is carried out rests with the priest in charge of the parish. It is further directed that the oil used should be vegetable oil, by preference that of the olive on account of its symbolism; but exceptionally, in consequence of poverty or some other reason, a mineral oil, like petroleum, may be employed with the bishop's permission. The language of the

text: Caeremoniale Episcoporum

text: (I, xii, 17) might easily suggest that at least in the larger churches more lamps than one should be lit, but always an odd number, that is to say, three at least before the high altar, and five before the altar of the Blessed Sacrament. It seems, however, that this direction of the "Caeremoniale" is to be understood as applying only to greater festivals.

text: Zavod Slantsy was reorganization from Slantsepererabatyvayushiy zavod Slantsy in 1993.  In 1998, the 75 MW thermal power plant was converted from oil shale to natural gas. The company continued produce shale oil until June 2003.  As of today, the company produces polymeric petroleum resin and distillates, petroleum coke tempering and gas condensate refining.

text: Zavod Slantsy was reorganization from Slantsepererabatyvayushiy zavod Slantsy in 1993.  In 1998, the 75 MW thermal power plant was converted from oil shale to

text: natural gas

text: . The company continued produce shale oil until June 2003.  As of today, the company produces polymeric

text: petroleum resin

text: and distillates, petroleum coke tempering and gas condensate refining.

text: Nuclear power may be uncompetitive compared with fossil fuel energy sources in countries without a carbon tax program, and in comparison to a fossil fuel plant of the same power output, nuclear power plants take a longer amount of time to construct.

text: Nuclear power may be uncompetitive compared with fossil fuel energy sources in countries without a

text: carbon tax

text: program, and in comparison to a fossil fuel plant of the same power output, nuclear power plants take a longer amount of time to construct.

text: Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas is the leading cause of increased anthropogenic ; deforestation is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (GtC, equivalent to 33.5 gigatonnes of  or about 4.3 ppm in earth's atmosphere) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 GtC in 1990. In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 GtC in 2010, compared to 1.45 GtC in 1990. In 1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year. In the period 1751 to 1900, about 12 GtC were released as  to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2013 the figure was about 380 GtC.

text: Burning fossil fuels such as

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: is the leading cause of increased

text: anthropogenic

text: deforestation

text: is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (GtC, equivalent to 33.5

text: gigatonne

text: s of  or about 4.3 ppm in earth's atmosphere) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 GtC in 1990. In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 GtC in 2010, compared to 1.45 GtC in 1990. In

text: 1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires

text: were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of

text: fossil fuels

text: around the world in a single year. In the period 1751 to 1900, about 12 GtC were released as  to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2013 the figure was about 380 GtC.

text: An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum naphtha,  gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas.  Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units.  In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology of, and can be thought of, as types of chemical plants.  The crude oil feed stock has typically been processed by an oil production plant.  There is usually an oil depot (tank farm) at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products.

text: An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an

text: industrial process

text: plant

text: where

text: crude oil

text: is processed and refined into more useful products such as

text: petroleum naphtha

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: asphalt base

text: heating oil

text: kerosene

text: , and

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: .  Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling

text: industrial

text: complexes with extensive

text: piping

text: running throughout, carrying streams of

text: fluid

text: s between large

text: chemical process

text: ing units.  In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology of, and can be thought of, as types of

text: chemical plant

text: s.  The crude oil feed stock has typically been processed by an

text: oil production plant

text: .  There is usually an

text: oil depot

text: (tank farm) at or near an oil

text: refinery

text: for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products.

text: In 1988 Iraq's Oil Minister, Issam al-Chalabi, stressed a further reduction in the crude oil production quota of Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) members so as to end the 1980s oil glut. Chalabi argued that higher oil prices would help Iraq increase its revenues and pay back its US$60 billion debt. However, given its large downstream petroleum industry, Kuwait was less concerned about the prices of crude oil and in 1989, Kuwait requested OPEC to increase the country's total oil production ceiling by 50% to 1.35 million bpd. Throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait's oil production was considerably above its mandatory OPEC quota and this had prevented a further increase in crude oil prices. A lack of consensus among OPEC members undermined Iraq's efforts to end the oil glut and consequently prevented the recovery of its war-crippled economy. According to former Iraqi Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz, "every US$1 drop in the price of a barrel of oil caused a US$1 billion drop in Iraq's annual revenues triggering an acute financial crisis in Baghdad". It was estimated that between 1985 and 1989, Iraq lost US$14 billion a year due to Kuwait's oil price strategy. Kuwait's refusal to decrease its oil production was viewed by Iraq as an act of aggression against it.

text: In 1988 Iraq's Oil Minister, Issam al-Chalabi, stressed a further reduction in the crude oil production quota of

text: (OPEC) members so as to end the

text: 1980s oil glut

text: . Chalabi argued that higher oil prices would help Iraq increase its revenues and pay back its US$60 billion debt. However, given its large

text: downstream petroleum industry

text: , Kuwait was less concerned about the prices of

text: crude oil

text: and in 1989, Kuwait requested OPEC to increase the country's total oil production ceiling by 50% to 1.35 million bpd. Throughout much of the 1980s, Kuwait's oil production was considerably above its mandatory OPEC quota and this had prevented a further increase in crude oil prices. A lack of consensus among OPEC members undermined Iraq's efforts to end the oil glut and consequently prevented the recovery of its war-crippled economy. According to former Iraqi Foreign Minister

text: Tariq Aziz

text: , "every US$1 drop in the price of a barrel of oil caused a US$1 billion drop in Iraq's annual revenues triggering an acute financial crisis in Baghdad". It was estimated that between 1985 and 1989, Iraq lost US$14 billion a year due to Kuwait's oil price strategy. Kuwait's refusal to decrease its oil production was viewed by Iraq as an act of aggression against it.

text: A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, heat, and value-added chemicals from biomass. The biorefinery concept is analogous to today's petroleum refinery, which produce multiple fuels and products from petroleum.

text: A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, heat, and value-added chemicals from

text: biomass

text: . The biorefinery concept is analogous to today's

text: petroleum refinery

text: , which produce multiple fuels and products from

text: petroleum

text: Some examples of types of products that after use, can be labeled as used oil are: hydraulic oil, transmission oil, brake fluids, motor oil, crankcase oil, gear box oil, synthetic oil, and grades 1, 2, 3 and 4 fuel oil.

text: Some examples of types of products that after use, can be labeled as used oil are:

text: hydraulic oil

text: , transmission oil, brake fluids,

text: motor oil

text: crankcase

text: oil,

text: gear box

text: oil,

text: synthetic oil

text: , and grades 1, 2, 3 and 4

text: fuel oil

text: The highest density sources of energy aside from antimatter are fusion and fission. Fusion includes energy from the sun which will be available for billions of years (in the form of sunlight) but so far (2016), sustained fusion power production continues to be elusive. Power from fission of uranium and thorium in nuclear power plants will be available for many decades or even centuries because of the plentiful supply of the elements on earth, though the full potential of this source can only be realised through breeder reactors, which are, apart from the BN-600 reactor, not yet used commercially. Coal, gas, and petroleum are the current primary energy sources in the U.S. but have a much lower energy density. Burning local biomass fuels supplies household energy needs (cooking fires, oil lamps, etc.) worldwide.

text: The highest density sources of energy aside from antimatter are

text: fusion

text: and

text: fission

text: . Fusion includes energy from the sun which will be available for billions of years (in the form of sunlight) but so far (2016), sustained

text: fusion power

text: production continues to be elusive. Power from fission of uranium and thorium in

text: nuclear power

text: plants will be available for many decades or even centuries because of the plentiful supply of the elements on earth, though the full potential of this source can only be realised through

text: breeder reactor

text: s, which are, apart from the

text: BN-600 reactor

text: , not yet used commercially.

text: Coal

text: gas

text: , and

text: petroleum

text: are the current primary energy sources in the U.S. but have a much lower energy density. Burning local

text: biomass

text: fuels supplies household energy needs (

text: cooking fires

text: oil lamp

text: s, etc.) worldwide.

text: Tank trucks are used a lot like rail cars are, but they will usually transport refined fuel to a fuel station, like a gas station. Trucks are usually used to carry smaller capacities of oil short distances. Like railcars these trucks can carry a whole bunch of different forms of this petroleum, but they do not really carry the petroleum in its crude oil form because it would take a lot of trucks to deliver the volume of crude that the refineries demand. These trucks can deliver this fuel to gas stations, or deliver the fuel straight to the consumer. These trucks are used in situations where it would be illogical to use railcars, pipelines and tanker ships. Places like gas stations; that are not able to be accessed by marine vessels, and do not demand the volume that is delivered by pipelines or trains, would get their fuel from tanker trucks. This allows a rational and cost effective way to deliver the fuel to the consumers.

text: Tank truck

text: s are used a lot like rail cars are, but they will usually transport refined fuel to a fuel station, like a gas station. Trucks are usually used to carry smaller capacities of oil short distances. Like railcars these trucks can carry a whole bunch of different forms of this petroleum, but they do not really carry the petroleum in its crude oil form because it would take a lot of trucks to deliver the volume of crude that the refineries demand. These trucks can deliver this fuel to gas stations, or deliver the fuel straight to the consumer. These trucks are used in situations where it would be illogical to use railcars, pipelines and tanker ships. Places like gas stations; that are not able to be accessed by marine vessels, and do not demand the volume that is delivered by pipelines or trains, would get their fuel from tanker trucks. This allows a rational and cost effective way to deliver the fuel to the consumers.

text: Since the release of the Oil Royalty Review Panel Final Report the Alberta Alliance have come out strongly onside of the petroleum producers. Including releasing a new website called, Protect Our Prosperity, which seeks to inform Albertans about the possible consequences for oil royalty increases.

text: The bilateral relations between the two countries also enhance in the sector of economic. In 2012, a memorandum of understanding (MoU) has been signed by both countries for collaboration in the construction of the Padma Bridge which has been consider as the largest bridge in Bangladesh once it finished. Much more, a free trade agreement also has been proposed for both countries to boost the pharmaceutical, garment and tourism sector of Bangladesh, while Malaysia would benefit immensely from future infrastructure projects dished out by the Bangladeshi government. Malaysia also consider as the third largest investment partner in Bangladesh after India and Pakistan with the Malaysian companies invests in the sectors of telecommunications, power generation, textile and financial sectors which worth around MYR558.86 million. Since 2010, all the Bangladesh workers in Malaysia had sent home a total of MYR3 billion, which is the highest compared with other workers from Indonesia (MYR2.9 billion), Nepal (MYR1.9 billion), India (MYR625 million) and the Philippines (MYR561 million). The top 5 exports of Malaysia's products to Bangladesh are such as refined petroleum products, palm oil, chemicals products, iron and steel and electrical and electronics products while the major import of Bangladeshi's are textiles and apparel, refined petroleum products, vegetables, processed food, seafood and also electrical and electronics products.

text: The bilateral relations between the two countries also enhance in the sector of economic. In 2012, a

text: memorandum of understanding

text: (MoU) has been signed by both countries for collaboration in the construction of the

text: Padma Bridge

text: which has been consider as the largest bridge in Bangladesh once it finished. Much more, a

text: free trade agreement

text: also has been proposed for both countries to boost the pharmaceutical, garment and tourism sector of Bangladesh, while Malaysia would benefit immensely from future infrastructure projects dished out by the Bangladeshi government. Malaysia also consider as the third largest investment partner in Bangladesh after

text: India

text: and

text: Pakistan

text: with the Malaysian companies invests in the sectors of telecommunications, power generation, textile and financial sectors which worth around

text: MYR

text: 558.86 million. Since 2010, all the Bangladesh workers in Malaysia had sent home a total of MYR3 billion, which is the highest compared with other workers from

text: Indonesia

text: (MYR2.9 billion),

text: Nepal

text: (MYR1.9 billion),

text: India

text: (MYR625 million) and the

text: Philippines

text: (MYR561 million). The top 5 exports of Malaysia's products to Bangladesh are such as refined petroleum products,

text: palm oil

text: , chemicals products, iron and steel and electrical and electronics products while the major import of Bangladeshi's are textiles and apparel, refined petroleum products, vegetables, processed food,

text: seafood

text: and also electrical and electronics products.

text: Most  of Qatar's surface lies on Cenozoic strata. These strata have an abundance of mineral resources, most of which have not yet been exploited, such as limestone and clay. The Upper Dammam Formation in the Middle Eocene period is the most predominant surface layer. It is constituted by limestone and dolomite. The northern zone of Qatar, which comprises the most significant source of fresh groundwater in the peninsula, primarily draws its water from the Umm Err Radhuma Formation and Rus Formation dating to the Paleocene and Lower Eocene periods, respectively. The Mesozoic strata are the most important layers as they contain petroleum. The first substantial deposit of crude oil was discovered in 1940 in the Jurassic period Arab Formation.

text: Most  of Qatar's surface lies on

text: Cenozoic

text: strata

text: . These strata have an abundance of mineral resources, most of which have not yet been exploited, such as

text: limestone

text: and

text: clay

text: . The Upper Dammam Formation in the

text: Middle Eocene

text: period is the most predominant surface layer. It is constituted by

text: limestone

text: and

text: dolomite

text: . The northern zone of Qatar, which comprises the most significant source of fresh groundwater in the peninsula, primarily draws its water from the Umm Err Radhuma Formation and Rus Formation dating to the

text: Paleocene

text: and

text: Lower Eocene

text: periods, respectively. The

text: Mesozoic

text: strata are the most important layers as they contain

text: petroleum

text: . The first substantial deposit of crude oil was discovered in 1940 in the

text: Jurassic

text: period Arab Formation.

text: Petroleum engineering is a field of engineering concerned with the activities related to the production of hydrocarbons, which can be either crude oil or natural gas. Exploration and Production are deemed to fall within the upstream sector of the oil and gas industry. Exploration, by earth scientists, and petroleum engineering are the oil and gas industry's two main subsurface disciplines, which focus on maximizing economic recovery of hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs. Petroleum geology and geophysics focus on provision of a static description of the hydrocarbon reservoir rock, while petroleum engineering focuses on estimation of the recoverable volume of this resource using a detailed understanding of the physical behavior of oil, water and gas within porous rock at very high pressure.

text: Petroleum engineering is a field of

text: engineering

text: concerned with the activities related to the production of

text: hydrocarbons

text: , which can be either

text: crude oil

text: or

text: natural gas

text: . Exploration and Production are deemed to fall within the

text: upstream

text: sector of the oil and gas industry.

text: Exploration

text: , by earth scientists, and petroleum engineering are the oil and gas industry's two main subsurface disciplines, which focus on maximizing economic recovery of hydrocarbons from subsurface reservoirs.

text: Petroleum geology

text: and

text: geophysics

text: focus on provision of a static description of the hydrocarbon reservoir rock, while petroleum engineering focuses on estimation of the recoverable volume of this resource using a detailed understanding of the physical behavior of oil, water and gas within porous rock at very high pressure.

text: This seep also releases on the order of  of liquid petroleum per day.  The field produces about 9 cubic meters of natural gas per barrel of petroleum.

text: In 2011, a provision was added to the LCFS that allows refiners to receive credits for the deployment of innovative crude production technologies, such as carbon capture and sequestration or solar steam generation. Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery is a form of enhanced oil recovery (EOR), which is key to harvesting California’s heavy crude. Currently, California uses EOR to help produce about 60% of its crude output. By using solar power instead of natural gas to create steam for EOR, solar steam generation reduces the amount of emissions produced during oil extraction, thus lowering the overall carbon intensity of crude. California currently has two solar EOR projects in operation, one in McKittrick, operated by LINN Energy (formerly Berry Petroleum) using enclosed trough technology from GlassPoint Solar, and another in Coalinga operated by Chevron Corporation using BrightSource Energy power tower technology. CARB is currently considering an amendment to allow upstream operators to receive credits for deploying innovative crude production technologies.

text: In 2011, a provision was added to the LCFS that allows refiners to receive credits for the deployment of innovative crude production technologies, such as carbon capture and sequestration or solar steam generation.

text: Solar thermal enhanced oil recovery

text: is a form of

text: enhanced oil recovery

text: (EOR), which is key to harvesting California’s heavy crude. Currently, California uses EOR to help produce about 60% of its crude output. By using solar power instead of natural gas to create steam for EOR, solar steam generation reduces the amount of emissions produced during oil extraction, thus lowering the overall carbon intensity of crude. California currently has two solar EOR projects in operation, one in McKittrick, operated by LINN Energy (formerly Berry Petroleum) using enclosed trough technology from

text: GlassPoint Solar

text: , and another in Coalinga operated by

text: Chevron Corporation

text: using

text: BrightSource Energy

text: power tower technology. CARB is currently considering an amendment to allow upstream operators to receive credits for deploying innovative crude production technologies.

text: The carbon lock-in concept has gained more attention as China’s rapid industrial economic development has progressed. The concern is that if China pursues the same fossil-fuel driven economic development models of established industrial counties, building out extensive automobile-based infrastructures and fossil-fuel powered energy systems, they will lock-in persistent and growing greenhouse gas emissions well into the future. The same arguments can be extended to all rapidly industrializing countries including India. This concern is arising as scientific evidence is indicating that current emission growth must be stopped and global emissions reduced by upwards of 60% if humanity is to prevent substantial unwanted climate disruption.

text: The carbon lock-in concept has gained more attention as China’s rapid

text: industrial economic development

text: has progressed. The concern is that if China pursues the same fossil-fuel driven economic development models of established industrial counties, building out extensive automobile-based infrastructures and fossil-fuel powered energy systems, they will lock-in persistent and growing

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: well into the future. The same arguments can be extended to all rapidly

text: industrializing

text: countries including India. This concern is arising as

text: scientific evidence

text: is indicating that current emission growth must be stopped and global emissions reduced by upwards of 60% if humanity is to prevent substantial unwanted climate disruption.

text: Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Though wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special low-cost electric interties) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (<$0.50/Gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population.  The cost of a US gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually $0.30–$0.60 higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.

text: Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Though wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special

text: low-cost electric interties

text: ) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (<$0.50/Gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population.  The cost of a US gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually $0.30–$0.60 higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.

text: Kick is the entry of formation fluid into the wellbore during drilling operations. It occurs because the pressure exerted by the column of drilling fluid is not great enough to overcome the pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation drilled. The whole essence of oil well control is to prevent kick from occurring and if it happens to prevent it from developing into blowout. An uncontrolled kick usually results from not deploying the proper equipment, using poor practices, or a lack of training of the rig crews. Loss of oil well control may lead into blowout, which represents one of the most severe threats associated with the exploration of petroleum resources involving the risk of lives and environmental and economic consequences.

text: Kick is the entry of

text: formation fluid

text: into the wellbore during drilling operations. It occurs because the pressure exerted by the column of

text: drilling fluid

text: is not great enough to overcome the pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation drilled. The whole essence of oil well control is to prevent kick from occurring and if it happens to prevent it from developing into

text: blowout

text: . An uncontrolled kick usually results from not deploying the proper equipment, using poor practices, or a lack of training of the rig crews. Loss of oil well control may lead into blowout, which represents one of the most severe threats associated with the exploration of petroleum resources involving the risk of lives and environmental and economic consequences.

text: One of the widely disputed aspects of the proposed National Energy Policy is the how the plan suggests balancing needs for future sources of renewable energy with the immediate reliance on petroleum. In Chapter Six of the policy, titled "Nature’s Power: Increasing America’s Use of Renewable and Alternative Energy", domestic energy sources such as wind, geothermal, solar and bio-fuel are cited as necessary to stabilize and protect the United States' interests. Future energy sources such as hydrogen and fusion are also cited as long term projects. However, the Policy also states the necessity for plans to improve and expand the current pipeline systems within the US, implying that reliance on oil and natural gas will exist for years to come. The plan then goes on to detail American interests in foreign energy resources. In a section titled "Diversity of Supply", the policy explains why diversifying dependence on foreign oil is a key factor in securing short term stability. Canada, South America and the Caribbean, Africa, Russia and Asia were all detailed as having supplies of oil that could add to the supply of resources available to US consumption.

text: Fossil fuel -Fossil fuel divestment -Fossil fuel phase out -Fossil fuel power plant -Freon -Food security

text: Fossil fuel

text: Fossil fuel divestment

text: Fossil fuel phase out

text: Fossil fuel power plant

text: Freon

text: Food security

text: In 2006, crude oil production increased to  from  in 2005, an increase of almost 3%. Production of petroleum derivatives decreased to  from  in 2005, a decrease of more than 6%. Peru imported an average of  crude oil and petroleum products to satisfy its internal consumption of . Peru’s total crude oil production of  in 2006 came from Pluspetrol S.A. (59.6%), Petrobrás (16.7%), Petrotech (14.2%), and others (9.5%) (table 1; Ministerio de Energía y Minas, 2007b). Almost 60% of the country’s crude oil production came from the jungle blocks in the Loreto and the Ucayali Regions; the remainder was produced at the coastal and offshore fields in Talara. The country’s proven petroleum reserves were estimated to be about .

text: In 2006, crude oil production increased to  from  in 2005, an increase of almost 3%. Production of petroleum derivatives decreased to  from  in 2005, a decrease of more than 6%. Peru imported an average of  crude oil and petroleum products to satisfy its internal consumption of . Peru’s total crude oil production of  in 2006 came from Pluspetrol S.A. (59.6%), Petrobrás (16.7%), Petrotech (14.2%), and others (9.5%) (table 1; Ministerio de Energía y Minas, 2007b). Almost 60% of the country’s crude oil production came from the jungle blocks in the Loreto and the Ucayali Regions; the remainder was produced at the coastal and offshore fields in

text: Talara

text: . The country’s proven petroleum reserves were estimated to be about .

text: Taleveras Petroleum Trading BV, an arm of Taleveras was one of Nigerian companies, whose services were enlisted by Duke Oil, an international oil trading company wholly owned by the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC). The arrangement is "crude for product exchange process barter arrangement, which simply means you load the crude and you deliver refined petroleum products mainly gasoline based on crude lifted." In February 2011, Taleveras Petroleum Trading BV entered into a Management and Operation Agreement with Duke Oil "to operate and manage its Crude and Product Exchange Agreement" with NNPC and Pipelines and Product Marketing Company (PPMC) from February 2011 until December 2014. At the height of the fuel subsidy crises in Nigeria, which culminated in the Nigeria Extractive Industries  Transparency Initiative (NEITI) probing the downstream sector of Nigerian petroleum industry in 2012 and its subsequent verification exercise, Taleveras was considered to have implemented its side of the deal to the letter.

text: Taleveras Petroleum Trading BV, an arm of Taleveras was one of Nigerian companies, whose services were enlisted by Duke Oil, an international oil trading company wholly owned by the

text: Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation

text: (NNPC). The arrangement is "crude for product exchange process barter arrangement, which simply means you load the crude and you deliver refined petroleum products mainly gasoline based on crude lifted." In February 2011, Taleveras Petroleum Trading BV entered into a Management and Operation Agreement with Duke Oil "to operate and manage its Crude and Product Exchange Agreement" with NNPC and Pipelines and Product Marketing Company (PPMC) from February 2011 until December 2014. At the height of the fuel subsidy crises in Nigeria, which culminated in the Nigeria Extractive Industries  Transparency Initiative (NEITI) probing the downstream sector of Nigerian petroleum industry in 2012 and its subsequent verification exercise, Taleveras was considered to have implemented its side of the deal to the letter.

text: All power systems have one or more sources of power. For some power systems, the source of power is external to the system but for others it is part of the system itself—it is these internal power sources that are discussed in the remainder of this section. Direct current power can be supplied by batteries, fuel cells or photovoltaic cells. Alternating current power is typically supplied by a rotor that spins in a magnetic field in a device known as a turbo generator.  There have been a wide range of techniques used to spin a turbine's rotor, from steam heated using fossil fuel (including coal, gas and oil) or nuclear energy, falling water (hydroelectric power) and wind (wind power).

text: All power systems have one or more sources of power. For some power systems, the source of power is external to the system but for others it is part of the system itself—it is these internal power sources that are discussed in the remainder of this section. Direct current power can be supplied by

text: batteries

text: fuel cell

text: s or

text: photovoltaic cell

text: s. Alternating current power is typically supplied by a rotor that spins in a magnetic field in a device known as a

text: turbo generator

text: .  There have been a wide range of techniques used to spin a turbine's rotor, from steam heated using

text: fossil fuel

text: (including coal, gas and oil) or

text: nuclear energy

text: , falling water (

text: hydroelectric power

text: ) and wind (

text: wind power

text: The mix of refined products is also affected by the particular blend of crude oil feedstock processed by a refinery, and by the capabilities of the refinery. Heavier crude oils contain a higher proportion of heavy hydrocarbons composed of longer carbon chains. As a result, heavy crude oil is more difficult to refine into lighter products such as gasoline. A refinery using less sophisticated processes will be constrained in its ability to optimize its mix of refined products when processing heavy oil.

text: The mix of refined products is also affected by the particular blend of crude oil feedstock processed by a refinery, and by the capabilities of the refinery. Heavier crude oils contain a higher proportion of heavy

text: hydrocarbon

text: s composed of longer carbon chains. As a result,

text: heavy crude oil

text: is more difficult to refine into lighter products such as gasoline. A refinery using less sophisticated processes will be constrained in its ability to optimize its mix of refined products when processing heavy oil.

text: In 2006, more than  of crude and refined petroleum products were handled in these downstream product channels. Of this volume, slightly more than  were products sourced directly from SRC with the balance of more than  sourced from the Group’s extensive network of oil majors, multinational oil traders and national oil companies.

text: Petroleum oil is toxic for most life forms and pollution of the environment by oil causes major ecological problems. A considerable amount of petroleum oil entering the sea is eliminated by the microbial biodegradation activities of microbial communities. A. borkumensis is a recently discovered hydrocarbonoclastic bacterium and is probably the most important global oil degrader.  A. borkumensis is capable of degrading oil in seawater environments.  It is known as a hydrocarbonoclastic organism, with the root ‘clastic’ meaning it can divide something into parts (in this case hydrocarbons).  Crude oil, or petroleum, is predominantly made up of hydrocarbons, a product that consists of a long chain of carbon atoms attached to hydrogen atoms.  Whereas most organisms use sugars or amino acids for their source of carbon/energy, A. borkumensis uses alkanes, a type of hydrocarbon, in its metabolic process.  This diet allows A. borkumensis to flourish in marine environments that have been affected by oil spills.  Through its metabolism, A. borkumensis can break down oil into harmless compounds.  This ability makes this particular species a major potential source for bioremediation of oil-polluted marine environments.

text: Petroleum

text: oil is toxic for most life forms and

text: pollution

text: of the

text: environment

text: by oil causes major ecological problems. A considerable amount of petroleum oil entering the sea is eliminated by the

text: microbial biodegradation

text: activities of microbial communities. A. borkumensis is a recently discovered hydrocarbonoclastic bacterium and is probably the most important global oil degrader.  A. borkumensis is capable of degrading oil in seawater environments.  It is known as a hydrocarbonoclastic organism, with the root ‘clastic’ meaning it can divide something into parts (in this case hydrocarbons).  Crude oil, or petroleum, is predominantly made up of hydrocarbons, a product that consists of a long chain of carbon atoms attached to hydrogen atoms.  Whereas most organisms use sugars or amino acids for their source of carbon/energy, A. borkumensis uses alkanes, a type of hydrocarbon, in its metabolic process.  This diet allows A. borkumensis to flourish in marine environments that have been affected by

text: oil spills

text: .  Through its metabolism, A. borkumensis can break down oil into harmless compounds.  This ability makes this particular species a major potential source for bioremediation of oil-polluted marine environments.

text: The USDA National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research developed an Estolide lubricant technology made from vegetable and animal oils. Estolides have shown great promise in a wide range of applications, including engine lubricants. Working with the USDA, a California-based company Biosynthetic Technologies has developed a high-performance “drop-in” biosynthetic oil using Estolide technology for use in motor oils and industrial lubricants. This biosynthetic oil American Petroleum Institute (API) has the potential to greatly reduce environmental challenges associated with petroleum. Independent testing not only shows biosynthetic oils to be among the highest-rated products for protecting engines and machinery; they are also bio-based, biodegradable, non-toxic and do not bioaccumulate in marine organisms. Also, motor oils and lubricants formulated with biosynthetic base oils can be recycled and re-refined with petroleum-based oils. The U.S.-based company Green Earth Technologies manufactures a bio-based motor oil, called G-Oil, made from animal oils.

text: The price of petroleum as quoted in news in North America generally refers to the WTI Cushing Crude Oil Spot Price per barrel (159 liters) of either WTI/light crude as traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) for delivery at Cushing, Oklahoma, or of Brent as traded on the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE, into which the International Petroleum Exchange has been incorporated) for delivery at Sullom Voe. West Texas Intermediate (WTI), also known as Texas Light Sweet, is a type of crude oil used as a benchmark in oil pricing and the underlying commodity of New York Mercantile Exchange's oil futures contracts. WTI is a light crude oil, lighter than Brent Crude oil. It contains about 0.24% sulfur, rating it a sweet crude, sweeter than Brent. Its properties and production site make it ideal for being refined in the United States, mostly in the Midwest and Gulf Coast (USGC) regions. WTI has an API gravity of around 39.6 (specific gravity approx. 0.827). Cushing, Oklahoma, a major oil supply hub connecting oil suppliers to the Gulf Coast, has become the most significant trading hub for crude oil in North America.

text: The price of petroleum as quoted in news in North America generally refers to the

text: WTI Cushing Crude Oil Spot Price

text: per barrel (159 liters) of either

text: WTI

text: light crude

text: as traded on the

text: New York Mercantile Exchange

text: (NYMEX) for delivery at

text: Cushing, Oklahoma

text: , or of

text: Brent

text: as traded on the

text: Intercontinental Exchange

text: (ICE, into which the

text: International Petroleum Exchange

text: has been incorporated) for delivery at

text: Sullom Voe

text: . West Texas Intermediate (WTI), also known as Texas Light Sweet, is a type of crude oil used as a benchmark in oil pricing and the underlying commodity of New York Mercantile Exchange's oil futures contracts. WTI is a light crude oil, lighter than Brent Crude oil. It contains about 0.24% sulfur, rating it a sweet crude, sweeter than Brent. Its properties and production site make it ideal for being refined in the United States, mostly in the Midwest and

text: Gulf Coast

text: (USGC) regions. WTI has an API gravity of around 39.6 (specific gravity approx. 0.827).

text: Cushing, Oklahoma

text: , a major oil supply hub connecting oil suppliers to the Gulf Coast, has become the most significant trading hub for crude oil in North America.

text: Tight oil, including light tight oil (sometimes confusingly the term 'shale oil' is used instead of 'light tight oil') is crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low permeability, often shale or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same hydraulic fracturing and often uses the same horizontal well technology used in the production of shale gas. It should not be confused with oil shale, which is shale rich in kerogen, or shale oil, which is synthetic oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the International Energy Agency recommends to use the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the term "tight oil".

text: Tight oil, including light tight oil (sometimes confusingly the term 'shale oil' is used instead of 'light tight oil') is crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low

text: permeability

text: , often

text: shale

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: and often uses the same

text: horizontal well

text: technology used in the production of

text: shale gas

text: . It should not be confused with

text: oil shale

text: , which is shale rich in

text: kerogen

text: , or

text: shale oil

text: , which is synthetic oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the

text: International Energy Agency

text: World Energy Council

text: uses the term "tight oil".

text: When the potato ban came into effect, NYMEX's platinum, palladium and heating oil markets were not significantly affected. However, NYMEX's reputation suffered in Washington, D.C., especially with the regulations in the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), the President of the Exchange, Richard Leone brought in John Elting Treat, White House energy adviser to Presidents Carter and Reagan to help restore the credibility of NYMEX and to help the Exchange explore the possibility of entering the petroleum market recognizing the great potential for moving well beyond the limited size of the New York Heating Oil market.  When Leone left NYMEX in 1981 as a result of a strong disagreement with the NYMEX Board, John Elting Treat was asked to replace him as President.  The launching of the WTI crude oil contract was championed by Treat, who, with difficulty, convinced the Board and the two Marks family members, veteran and highly respected floor trader Francis Marks and his son, Michael, who had just become Chairman of the Board, to take a chance on trading crude oil. Arnold Safir was one of the members of an advisory committee formed by Treat to help design the new contract. Treat, with Board Chairman Marks and the support of the rest of the NYMEX Board, eventually chose West Texas Intermediate (WTI) as the traded product and Cushing, Oklahoma, as the delivery point. Robin Woodhead, who later became the first Chairman of the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE) in London started an active dialogue with Treat about whether they could start a Brent Crude oil contracts. Treat was very supportive and  gave  Woodhead strong support and a lot of advice. Shortly thereafter, after substantial conversations, The IPE was formally launched and started trading Brent.

text: Cushing

text: Oklahoma

text: , as the delivery point. Robin Woodhead, who later became the first Chairman of the International Petroleum Exchange (IPE) in London started an active dialogue with Treat about whether they could start a Brent Crude oil contracts. Treat was very supportive and  gave  Woodhead strong support and a lot of advice. Shortly thereafter, after substantial conversations, The IPE was formally launched and started trading Brent.

text: Goals for biofuel policy have usually been led or motivated by orders and recommendations from those in power. During his term as president George W. Bush discussed specific goals for biofuels in his State of the Union address in 2006 and 2007. In his 2006 speech he called for cellulosic ethanol to be cost competitive and on the market with corn based ethanol by the year 2012. A year later President Bush called for a complete reduction of 20% in U.S. gasoline consumption in 10 years. This goal was to be met by setting a Renewable Fuel Standard of  by 2017 and by reforming and modernizing Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards. President Bush also called for increased investment in hydrogen fuels, advanced batteries, biodiesel fuels, and new fuel production methods. Recently Barack Obama has also echoed these sentiments, calling for a reduction in petroleum usage and an increase in biofuel production.

text: Goals for biofuel policy have usually been led or motivated by orders and recommendations from those in power. During his term as president

text: George W. Bush

text: discussed specific goals for biofuels in his State of the Union address in 2006 and 2007. In his 2006 speech he called for

text: cellulosic ethanol

text: to be cost competitive and on the market with

text: corn based ethanol

text: by the year 2012. A year later President Bush called for a complete reduction of 20% in U.S. gasoline consumption in 10 years. This goal was to be met by setting a Renewable Fuel Standard of  by 2017 and by reforming and modernizing

text: Corporate Average Fuel Economy

text: (CAFE) standards. President Bush also called for increased investment in

text: hydrogen fuel

text: s, advanced batteries,

text: biodiesel fuels

text: , and new fuel production methods. Recently

text: Barack Obama

text: has also echoed these sentiments, calling for a reduction in petroleum usage and an increase in biofuel production.

text: Life on our planet is an endless exchange of energies among living things and the environment. Most of the energy resources we currently use, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.Renewable energy resources such as Solar energy, wind energy, small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant), geothermal energy and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar, Photovoltaics, water and wind energy do not send pollutants into the air as occurs with coal and petroleum energy.

text: Life on our planet is an endless exchange of energies among living things and the environment. Most of the energy resources we currently use, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.Renewable energy resources such as

text: Solar energy

text: wind energy

text: , small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant),

text: geothermal energy

text: and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar,

text: Photovoltaics

text: , water and wind energy do not send pollutants into the air as occurs with coal and petroleum energy.

text: Van's first settlers in the area had arrived by the time of the Civil War. By 1874, the town was named Swindall for George Swindall, who donated land for a school west of the present business district and land north of that site in 1891 to the Methodist Church. In 1894 schoolteacher Henry Vance, the town's namesake, established a post office, and the name Van was chosen when the post office renamed the community. A Pure Oil company survey near the town in 1927 led to the discovery of oil at the property on October 13, 1929. Consequently, Van experienced an overnight boom, growing from a rural farming community with a school, and post office to an oil boomtown where thirty buildings, including hotels and stores, had been constructed in only ten days. That November Sun Oil, Shell Petroleum, the Texas Company, Pure Oil, and Humble became co-owners of the field, with Pure Oil as chief operator, and in 1930 the Texas Short Line Railway was extended from Grand Saline. The population numbered 894 throughout the 1930s. The population declined to 620 during World War II, as workers moved away to jobs in war-related industry, but increased steadily thereafter. Businesses in the community fluctuated from a high of fifty in 1934 to a low of fifteen in 1945, but remained between thirty and forty throughout most of the town's history. Mechanization of the oilfield occurred in the 1940s, and by the 1950s Van had a Humble Oil refinery, five churches, and a consolidated independent school district. A total of 591 wells made up the Van field when Pure Oil became a division of Union Oil in 1965. The population of Van grew from 1,103 in 1962 to 1,820 by 1974. The population reached just over 2,600 residents in 2013.

text: One major predecessor of the company traces to the Supertest Petroleum Corporation, founded in 1923 and headquartered in London, Ontario. In 1953, British Petroleum Company (BP) entered the Canadian market through the purchase of a minority stake in Calgary-based Triad Oil Company. In the early 1950s, the power struggle between oil companies and host governments in Middle East started, which hampered operations of  British Petroleum in the region, and prompted it to diversify its operations beyond the heavily Middle East dependent oil production. The Canadian holding company of British Petroleum was renamed BP Canada in 1969; and in 1971, it acquired 97.8% stake of Supertest. Subsequently, Supertest was renamed to BP Canada Ltd, and other Canadian interests of British Petroleum amalgamated to the new company.

text: One major predecessor of the company traces to the

text: Supertest Petroleum Corporation

text: , founded in 1923 and headquartered in

text: London, Ontario

text: . In 1953, British Petroleum Company (BP) entered the Canadian market through the purchase of a minority stake in Calgary-based Triad Oil Company. In the early 1950s, the power struggle between oil companies and host governments in Middle East started, which hampered operations of  British Petroleum in the region, and prompted it to diversify its operations beyond the heavily Middle East dependent oil production. The Canadian

text: holding company

text: of British Petroleum was renamed BP Canada in 1969; and in 1971, it acquired 97.8% stake of Supertest. Subsequently, Supertest was renamed to BP Canada Ltd, and other Canadian interests of British Petroleum amalgamated to the new company.

text: The plant will primarily use natural gas to heat water and produce steam that will turn the turbines to produce electricity. If need be, the plant will also be designed to use heavy fuel oil, a byproduct of petroleum distillation, as an alternative fuel. The Nzizi Natural Gas & Oil Field, from which the power station will draw its fuel, has confirmed natural gas reserves of at least . The power generated will be evacuated along a 132 kilovolt transmission line to a substation in Hoima, where the power will be integrated into the national power grid. According to Ugandas government officials, construction is expected to commence in 2016 and last 10 months, with commissioning in 2017.

text: The plant will primarily use natural gas to heat water and produce steam that will turn the turbines to produce electricity. If need be, the plant will also be designed to use

text: heavy fuel oil

text: , a byproduct of petroleum distillation, as an alternative fuel. The Nzizi Natural Gas & Oil Field, from which the power station will draw its fuel, has confirmed natural gas reserves of at least . The power generated will be evacuated along a 132 kilovolt transmission line to a substation in

text: Hoima

text: , where the power will be integrated into the national power grid. According to Ugandas government officials, construction is expected to commence in 2016 and last 10 months, with commissioning in 2017.

text: The first known US petroleum refiner was Samuel Kier of Pittsburgh, who in the 1850s produced an illuminating oil for miners' lamps.

text: The first known US petroleum refiner was

text: Samuel Kier

text: of Pittsburgh, who in the 1850s produced an illuminating oil for miners' lamps.

text: An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A gas well produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. At surface conditions these will condense out of the gas to form natural gas condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatile light crude oils.

text: An

text: oil well

text: produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas

text: dissolved

text: in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of

text: solution

text: and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A

text: gas well

text: produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane,

text: hexane

text: , and

text: heptane

text: in the

text: gaseous state

text: . At surface conditions these will

text: condense

text: out of the gas to form

text: natural gas condensate

text: , often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some

text: volatile

text: light crude oil

text: s.

text: Starting in 2007, the prices of fertilizers of all kinds increased dramatically, peaking around the summer of 2008 (see graphs by the International Fertilizer Industry Association). Prices approximately tripled for ammonia, urea, diammonium phosphate, muriate of potash (KCl), and sulfuric acid (used for making phosphate fertilizer), and then fell just as dramatically in the latter part of 2008. Some prices doubled within the six months before April 2008. Part of the cause for these price rises was the rise in the price of oil, since the most fertilizers require petroleum or natural gas to manufacture. Although the main fossil fuel input for fertilizer comes from natural gas to generate hydrogen for the Haber–Bosch process (see: Ammonia production), natural gas has its own supply problems similar to those for oil. Because natural gas can substitute for petroleum in some uses (for example, natural gas liquids and electricity generation), increasing prices for petroleum lead to increasing prices for natural gas, and thus for fertilizer.

text: Starting in 2007, the prices of fertilizers of all kinds increased dramatically, peaking around the summer of 2008 (see graphs by the

entity_name: International Fertilizer Industry Association

text: International Fertilizer Industry Association

text: ). Prices approximately tripled for

text: ammonia

text: urea

text: diammonium phosphate

text: muriate of potash

text: (KCl), and

text: sulfuric acid

text: (used for making phosphate fertilizer), and then fell just as dramatically in the latter part of 2008. Some prices doubled within the six months before April 2008. Part of the cause for these price rises was the

text: rise in the price of oil

text: , since the most fertilizers require petroleum or natural gas to manufacture. Although the main fossil fuel input for fertilizer comes from natural gas to generate hydrogen for the

text: Haber–Bosch process

text: (see:

text: Ammonia production

text: ), natural gas has its own supply problems similar to those for oil. Because natural gas can substitute for petroleum in some uses (for example,

text: natural gas liquids

text: and

text: electricity generation

text: ), increasing prices for petroleum lead to increasing prices for natural gas, and thus for fertilizer.

text: In the late 1990s, NB Power signed a supply contract with PDVSA for Orimulsion, a cheap bitumen-based fuel, for its Coleson Cove and Belledune facilities. The utility then converted one of three units at the 978 MW Coleson Cove plant, in Saint John, to burn the heavier grade while burning Orimulsion at Belledune.  After investing hundreds of million dollars at Coleson Cove, NB Power learned that the Venezuelan supplier's decision to stop making the fuel, thus breaking the contract. After mixed success litigating the case and winning a settlement estimated at more than $200 million, the utility turned to a mix of petroleum coke, an oil refinery  byproduct, and heavy oil, drawing opposition from environmentalists.

text: In the late 1990s, NB Power signed a supply contract with

text: PDVSA

text: for

text: Orimulsion

text: , a cheap bitumen-based fuel, for its

text: Coleson Cove

text: and

text: Belledune

text: facilities. The utility then converted one of three units at the 978 MW Coleson Cove plant, in Saint John, to burn the heavier grade while burning Orimulsion at Belledune.  After investing hundreds of million dollars at Coleson Cove, NB Power learned that the

text: Venezuela

text: n supplier's decision to stop making the fuel, thus breaking the contract. After mixed success

text: litigating

text: the case and winning a settlement estimated at more than $200 million, the utility turned to a mix of

text: petroleum coke

text: , an oil refinery  byproduct, and heavy oil, drawing opposition from environmentalists.

text: To avoid the serious social and economic implications a global decline in oil production could entail, the Hirsch report emphasized the need to find alternatives, at least ten to twenty years before the peak, and to phase out the use of petroleum over that time. This was similar to a plan proposed for Sweden that same year. Such mitigation could include energy conservation, fuel substitution, and the use of unconventional oil. The timing of mitigation responses is critical. Premature initiation would be undesirable, but if initiated too late could be more costly and have more negative economic consequences.

text: To avoid the serious

text: social

text: and

text: economic

text: implications a global decline in oil production could entail, the

text: Hirsch report

text: emphasized the need to find alternatives, at least ten to twenty years before the peak, and to phase out the use of petroleum over that time. This was similar to

text: a plan proposed for Sweden

text: that same year. Such

text: mitigation

text: could include energy conservation, fuel substitution, and the use of unconventional oil. The timing of mitigation responses is critical. Premature initiation would be undesirable, but if initiated too late could be more costly and have more negative economic consequences.

text: ANR Pipeline Company; ANR Alliance Pipeline Company U.S., Inc.; ANR Independence Pipeline Company; ANR Storage Company; Colorado Interstate Gas Company; Wyoming Interstate Company, Ltd.; Coastal Field Services Company; Coastal Gas International Company; Coastal Gas Marketing Company; Coastal Gas Services Company; Coastal Aux Sable Products Company; Coastal Gas Australia Pty Ltd.; Engage Energy US, L.P. (50%); Engage Energy Canada, L.P. (50%); Blue Lake Gas Storage Company (75%); Empire State Pipeline (50%); Great Lakes Gas Transmission Limited Partnership (50%); Coastal Aruba Refining Company N.V.; Coastal Refining & Marketing, Inc.; Coastal Eagle Point Oil Company; Coastal Mobile Refining Company; Coastal Refining & Marketing, Inc.; Coastal States Trading, Inc.; Coastal Canada Petroleum, Inc.; Coastal Oil & Gas Corporation; ANR Production Company; Coastal Oil & Gas USA, L.P.; CIG Exploration, Inc.; Coastal Oil & Gas Australia Pty Ltd.; Coastal Power Company; Coastal Technology, Inc.; Coastal Coal Company, LLC.

text: U.S.-based refineries have gained a competitive edge with their access to relatively inexpensive shale oil and Canadian crude. The U.S. is exporting more refined petroleum products, and also more liquified petroleum gas (LP gas).  LP gas is produced from hydrocarbons called natural gas liquids, released by the hydraulic fracturing of  petroliferous shale, in a variety of shale gas that's relatively easy to export. Propane, for example, costs around $620 a ton in the U.S. compared with more than $1,000 a ton in China, as of early 2014. Japan, for instance, is importing extra LP gas to fuel power plants, replacing idled nuclear plants.  Trafigura Beheer BV, the third-largest independent trader of crude oil and refined products, said at the start of 2014 that "growth in U.S. shale production has turned the distillates market on its head."

text: U.S.-based refineries have gained a competitive edge with their access to relatively inexpensive

text: shale oil

text: and Canadian crude. The U.S. is exporting more refined petroleum products, and also more

text: liquified petroleum gas

text: (LP gas).  LP gas is produced from hydrocarbons called

text: natural gas liquids

text: , released by the hydraulic fracturing of  petroliferous shale, in a variety of

text: shale gas

text: that's relatively easy to export.

text: Propane

text: , for example, costs around $620 a ton in the U.S. compared with more than $1,000 a ton in China, as of early 2014. Japan, for instance, is importing extra LP gas to fuel power plants, replacing idled nuclear plants.

text: Trafigura Beheer BV

text: , the third-largest independent trader of crude oil and refined products, said at the start of 2014 that "growth in U.S. shale production has turned the distillates market on its head."

text: India is highly dependent on import of crude oil. Net imports of crude oil rose from from 99.41 MTs during 2005-06 to 189.43 MTs during 2014-15. Although more than 70% of its crude oil requirements and part of the petroleum product requirement is met from imports, India has developed sufficient processing capacity over the years to produce different petroleum products. As result, India is now a net exporter of petroleum products. The export of petroleum products increased from 23.46 MT in 2005-06 to 63.93 MT during 2014-15.

text: The demand for petroleum products increased rapidly after the turn of the century as families relied upon kerosene to heat and light their houses, industries relied upon lubricants for machinery, and the ever-more prevalent internal combustion engine demanded gasoline fuel. Between 1880 and 1920, the amount of oil refined annually jumped from  to 442 million. The discovery of large oil fields in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and California in the early 20th century touched off "oil crazes" and contributed to these states' rapid industrialization. Because these previously agrarian western states lay outside of the various Standard Oil's production and refining networks, cities like Long Beach, California, Dallas, Texas, and Houston, Texas emerged as major centers for refining and managing these new fields under companies like Sunoco, Texaco, and Gulf Oil.

text: The demand for petroleum products increased rapidly after the turn of the century as families relied upon

text: kerosene

text: to heat and light their houses, industries relied upon

text: lubricant

text: s for machinery, and the ever-more prevalent

text: internal combustion engine

text: demanded

text: gasoline

text: fuel. Between 1880 and 1920, the amount of oil refined annually jumped from  to 442 million. The discovery of large oil fields in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and California in the early 20th century touched off "oil crazes" and contributed to these states' rapid industrialization. Because these previously agrarian western states lay outside of the various Standard Oil's production and refining networks, cities like

text: Long Beach, California

text: Dallas, Texas

text: , and

text: Houston, Texas

text: emerged as major centers for refining and managing these new fields under companies like

text: Sunoco

text: Texaco

text: , and

text: Gulf Oil

text: In the wake of the two oil crises of the 1970s (1973 and 1979), Japan made efforts to diversify energy resources in order to increase security. Japan's domestic oil consumption dropped slightly, from around  of oil per day in the late 1970s to  per day in 1990. While the country's use of oil declined, its consumption of nuclear power and Natural gas rose substantially. Several Japanese industries, including electric power companies and steelmakers, switched from petroleum to coal, most of which is imported.

text: In the wake of the two oil crises of the 1970s (

text: and

text: ), Japan made efforts to diversify energy resources in order to increase

text: security

text: . Japan's domestic oil consumption dropped slightly, from around  of oil per day in the late 1970s to  per day in 1990. While the country's use of oil declined, its consumption of nuclear power and

text: Natural gas

text: rose substantially. Several Japanese industries, including electric power companies and

text: steelmakers

text: , switched from

text: petroleum

text: to coal, most of which is imported.

text: The formation is an unconventional oil reservoir, meaning that a majority of the petroleum hydrocarbons (crude oil and natural gas) originating in the source rock formations have not migrated out of the source rock, requiring advanced horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking) technologies to reach economic viability for extraction. The potential reserve is currently estimated at 7 billion barrels of oil.

text: The formation is an

text: unconventional oil reservoir

text: , meaning that a majority of the

text: petroleum hydrocarbons

text: crude oil

text: and

text: natural gas

text: ) originating in the source rock formations have not migrated out of the source rock, requiring advanced

text: horizontal drilling

text: and

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: (fracking) technologies to reach economic viability for extraction. The potential reserve is currently estimated at 7 billion

text: barrels

text: of oil.

text: Gradually, products become more effective and cheaper until they are highly effective and almost free to buy. Some of the products that have followed this example include AIDS medications (which are now affordable to the majority of AIDS sufferers), text-to-speech programs, and digital cameras. However, products that rely primarily on paper (e.g., newspapers and toilet paper) and/or fossil fuels (e.g., electricity in most countries and petroleum gasoline for automobiles) have only increased in price.

text: Gradually, products become more effective and cheaper until they are highly effective and almost free to buy. Some of the products that have followed this example include

text: AIDS

text: medications (which are now affordable to the majority of AIDS sufferers),

text: text-to-speech

text: programs, and

text: digital camera

text: s. However, products that rely primarily on paper (e.g., newspapers and toilet paper) and/or fossil fuels (e.g., electricity in most countries and petroleum gasoline for automobiles) have only increased in price.

text: Carbon-neutral fuels might lead to greenhouse gas remediation because carbon dioxide gas would be reused to produce fuel instead of being released into the atmosphere. Capturing the carbon dioxide in flue gas emissions from power plants would eliminate their greenhouse gas emissions, although burning the fuel in vehicles would release that carbon because there is no economical way to capture those emissions. This approach would reduce net carbon dioxide emission by about 50% if it were used on all fossil fuel power plants. Most coal and natural gas power plants have been predicted to be economically retrofittable with carbon dioxide scrubbers for carbon capture to recycle flue exhaust or for carbon sequestration. Such recycling is expected to not only cost less than the excess economic impacts of climate change if it were not done, but also to pay for itself as global fuel demand growth and peak oil shortages increase the price of petroleum and fungible natural gas.

text: Carbon-neutral fuels might lead to greenhouse gas remediation because carbon dioxide gas would be reused to produce fuel instead of being released into the atmosphere. Capturing the carbon dioxide in flue gas emissions from power plants would eliminate their greenhouse gas emissions, although burning the fuel in vehicles would release that carbon because there is no economical way to capture those emissions. This approach would reduce net carbon dioxide emission by about 50% if it were used on all fossil fuel power plants. Most

text: coal

text: and

text: natural gas power plant

text: s have been predicted to be economically retrofittable with

text: carbon dioxide scrubber

text: s for

text: carbon capture

text: to recycle flue exhaust or for

text: carbon sequestration

text: . Such recycling is expected to not only cost less than the excess

text: economic impacts of climate change

text: if it were not done, but also to pay for itself as global fuel

text: demand

text: growth and

text: peak oil

text: shortages increase the price of

text: petroleum

text: and

text: fungible

text: natural gas

text: In British English, the word 'asphalt' is used to refer to a mixture of mineral aggregate and asphalt/bitumen (also called tarmac in common parlance). When bitumen is mixed with clay it is usually called asphaltum. The earlier word 'asphaltum' is now archaic and not commonly used.  In American English, 'asphalt' is equivalent to the British 'bitumen'. However, 'asphalt' is also commonly used as a shortened form of 'asphalt concrete' (therefore equivalent to the British 'asphalt' or 'tarmac'). In Australian English, bitumen is often used as the generic term for road surfaces. In Canadian English, the word bitumen is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy crude oil, while asphalt is used for the oil refinery product used to pave roads and manufacture roof shingles and various waterproofing products. Diluted bitumen (diluted with naphtha to make it flow in pipelines) is known as dilbit in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "upgraded" to synthetic crude oil is known as syncrude and syncrude blended with bitumen as synbit.Bitumen is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. Bituminous rock is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen. The tar sands of Alberta, Canada are a similar material.

text: In

text: British English

text: , the word 'asphalt' is used to refer to a mixture of mineral aggregate and asphalt/bitumen (also called

text: tarmac

text: in common parlance). When bitumen is mixed with clay it is usually called asphaltum. The earlier word 'asphaltum' is now archaic and not commonly used.  In

text: American English

text: , 'asphalt' is equivalent to the British 'bitumen'. However, 'asphalt' is also commonly used as a shortened form of '

text: asphalt concrete

text: ' (therefore equivalent to the British 'asphalt' or 'tarmac'). In

text: Australian English

text: , bitumen is often used as the generic term for road surfaces. In

text: Canadian English

text: , the word bitumen is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy

text: crude oil

text: , while asphalt is used for the

text: oil refinery

text: product used to pave roads and manufacture

text: roof shingle

text: s and various waterproofing products. Diluted bitumen (diluted with

text: naphtha

text: to make it flow in pipelines) is known as

text: dilbit

text: in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "

text: upgraded

text: " to

text: synthetic crude

text: oil is known as syncrude and syncrude blended with bitumen as synbit.Bitumen is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. Bituminous rock is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen. The

text: tar sands

text: of

text: Alberta, Canada

text: are a similar material.

text: The history of oil exploration in Nigeria dates back to 1907 when Nigerian Bitumen Corporation conducted exploratory work in the country; however, the firm left the country at the onset of World War I. Thereafter, licenses were given to D'Arcy Exploration Company and Whitehall Petroleum. However, neither company found oil of commercial value and they returned their licenses in 1923. A new license covering  was given to a new firm called Shell D'arcy Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria. The new firm was a consortium of Shell and British Petroleum (then known as Anglo-Iranian). The company began exploratory work in 1937. The consortium was granted license to explore oil all over the territory of Nigeria but in 1951 and then between 1955 and 1957, the acreage allotted to the company in the original license was reduced. Drilling activities started in 1951 and the first test well was drilled in Owerri area. Oil was discovered in non-commercial quantities at Akata, near Eket in 1953. Prior to the Akata find, the company had spent around 6 million pounds in exploratory activities in the country. Shell-BP in the pursuit  of commercially available petroleum found oil in Oloibiri, Nigeria in 1956. Other important oil wells discovered during the period were Afam and Bomu in Ogoni territory. Production of crude oil began in 1957 and in 1960, a total of 847,000 tonnes of crude oil was exported. Towards the end of the 1950s, non-British firms were granted license to explore for oil: Mobil in 1955, Tenneco in 1960, Gulf Oil and later Chevron in 1961, Agip in 1962, and Elf in 1962.Prior to the discovery of oil, Nigeria (like many other African countries) strongly relied on agricultural exports to other countries to supply their economy. Many Nigerians thought the developers were looking for palm oil. But after nearly 50 years searching for oil in the country, Shell-BP discovered the oil at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta. The first oil field began production in 1958.

text: The history of oil exploration in Nigeria dates back to 1907 when Nigerian Bitumen Corporation conducted exploratory work in the country; however, the firm left the country at the onset of World War I. Thereafter, licenses were given to

text: D'Arcy Exploration Company

text: and Whitehall Petroleum. However, neither company found oil of commercial value and they returned their licenses in 1923. A new license covering  was given to a new firm called Shell D'arcy Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria. The new firm was a consortium of

text: Shell

text: and

text: British Petroleum

text: (then known as

text: Anglo-Iranian

text: ). The company began exploratory work in 1937. The consortium was granted license to explore oil all over the territory of Nigeria but in 1951 and then between 1955 and 1957, the acreage allotted to the company in the original license was reduced. Drilling activities started in 1951 and the first test well was drilled in

text: Owerri

text: area. Oil was discovered in non-commercial quantities at

text: Akata

text: , near

text: Eket

text: in 1953. Prior to the Akata find, the company had spent around 6 million pounds in exploratory activities in the country. Shell-BP in the pursuit  of commercially available petroleum found oil in

text: Oloibiri

text: , Nigeria in 1956. Other important oil wells discovered during the period were Afam and Bomu in

text: Ogoni

text: territory. Production of crude oil began in 1957 and in 1960, a total of 847,000 tonnes of crude oil was exported. Towards the end of the 1950s, non-British firms were granted license to explore for oil:

text: Mobil

text: in 1955,

text: Tenneco

text: in 1960,

text: Gulf Oil

text: and later

text: Chevron

text: in 1961,

text: Agip

text: in 1962, and

text: Elf

text: in 1962.Prior to the discovery of oil, Nigeria (like many other African countries) strongly relied on agricultural exports to other countries to supply their economy. Many Nigerians thought the developers were looking for

text: palm oil

text: . But after nearly 50 years searching for oil in the country, Shell-BP discovered the oil at

text: Oloibiri

text: in the

text: Niger Delta

text: . The first oil field began production in 1958.

text: Fossil fuels (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, oil), or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water. These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that, in turn, heats water. Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source, such as nuclear power or renewable energy. Alternative energy such as solar energy, heat pumps, hot water heat recycling, and geothermal heating can also heat water, often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity.

text: Fossil fuels (

text: natural gas

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: oil

text: ), or

text: solid fuel

text: s are commonly used for heating water. These may be consumed directly or may produce

text: electricity

text: that, in turn, heats water. Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source, such as

text: nuclear power

text: or

text: renewable energy

text: Alternative energy

text: such as

text: solar energy

text: heat pumps

text: hot water heat recycling

text: , and

text: geothermal heating

text: can also heat water, often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity.

text: Most transport media in use today are generally fossil fuel powered. The reason for this is the ease of use and the existence of mature technologies harnessing this fuel source. Fossil fuels represent a concentrated, relatively compact source of energy. The drawbacks of such transportation media are that they are heavily polluting, and rely on limited energy sources.Many ideas exist which try to either harness renewable forms of energy, more efficiently use fossil fuel, or use human power, or some hybrid of these, to move people and things.

text: Most

text: transport

text: media in use today are generally fossil fuel powered. The reason for this is the ease of use and the existence of mature technologies harnessing this fuel source. Fossil fuels represent a concentrated, relatively compact source of energy. The drawbacks of such transportation media are that they are heavily polluting, and rely on limited energy sources.Many ideas exist which try to either harness renewable forms of energy, more efficiently use fossil fuel, or use human power, or some hybrid of these, to move people and things.

text: Petroleum products  are materials derived from crude oil (petroleum) as it is processed in oil refineries.  Unlike petrochemicals, which are a collection of well-defined usually pure chemical compounds, petroleum products are complex mixtures.  The majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels.

text: Petroleum products  are materials derived from crude oil (

text: petroleum

text: ) as it is processed in

text: oil refineries

text: .  Unlike

text: petrochemical

text: s, which are a collection of well-defined usually pure chemical compounds, petroleum products are complex mixtures.  The majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels.

text: Most often, mineral oil is a liquid by-product of refining crude oil to make gasoline and other petroleum products. This type of mineral oil is a transparent, colorless oil composed mainly of alkanes and cycloalkanes, related to petroleum jelly. It has a density of around 0.8 g/cm.

text: Most often, mineral oil is a liquid

text: by-product

text: of

text: refining

text: crude oil to make

text: gasoline

text: and other

text: petroleum product

text: s. This type of mineral oil is a

text: transparent

text: , colorless oil composed mainly of

text: alkane

text: s and

text: cycloalkane

text: s, related to

text: petroleum jelly

text: . It has a

text: density

text: of around 0.8 g/cm.

text: The word petroleum comes from  for rocks and  for oil. The term was found (in the spelling "petraoleum") in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola. In the 19th century, the term petroleum was often used to refer to mineral oils produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as cannel coal (and later oil shale), and refined oils produced from them; in the United Kingdom, storage (and later transport) of these oils were regulated by a series of Petroleum Acts, from the Petroleum Act 1863 onwards.

text: The word petroleum comes from  for rocks and  for oil. The term was found (in the spelling "petraoleum") in 10th-century Old English sources. It was used in the treatise

text: De Natura Fossilium

text: , published in 1546 by the German mineralogist

text: Georg Bauer

text: , also known as Georgius Agricola. In the 19th century, the term petroleum was often used to refer to mineral oils produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as

text: cannel coal

text: (and later

text: oil shale

text: ), and refined oils produced from them; in the United Kingdom, storage (and later transport) of these oils were regulated by a series of Petroleum Acts, from the Petroleum Act 1863 onwards.

text: Oil war is a term used to describe a conflict about petroleum resources, or their transportation, consumption, or regulation. It may also refer generally to any conflict in a region that contains oil reserves or is geographically positioned in a location where an entity has or may wish to develop production or transportation infrastructure for petroleum products. It is also used to refer to any of a number of specific oil wars.

text: Oil war is a term used to describe a conflict about

text: petroleum resources

text: , or their transportation, consumption, or regulation. It may also refer generally to any conflict in a region that contains

text: oil reserves

text: or is geographically positioned in a location where an entity has or may wish to develop

text: production

text: or

text: transportation

text: infrastructure for

text: petroleum products

text: . It is also used to refer to any of a number of specific oil wars.

text: The company, specializing in the exploration, production, refining and commercialisation of petroleum, had its origin in 1907, when oil was discovered near the city of Comodoro Rivadavia in Chubut. Following World War I, oil had become an important resource, leading to struggles between rival powers to gain control of it.

text: The company, specializing in the exploration, production, refining and commercialisation of petroleum, had its origin in 1907, when oil was discovered near the city of

text: Comodoro Rivadavia

text: in

text: Chubut

text: . Following

text: World War I

text: , oil had become an important resource, leading to

text: struggles between rival powers

text: to gain control of it.

text: Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources.  Examples include: biofuels (e.g. Vegetable oil used as fuel, ethanol, methanol from clean energy and carbon dioxide or biomass, and biodiesel) and Hydrogen fuel (when produced with renewable processes).  This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas, LPG (propane), petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy.  Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar.  Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability, low contributions to the carbon cycle, and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases.  The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil.

text: Renewable fuels are

text: fuel

text: s produced from renewable resources.  Examples include:

text: biofuels

text: (e.g.

text: Vegetable oil used as fuel

text: ethanol

text: methanol

text: from

text: clean energy and carbon dioxide

text: or biomass, and biodiesel) and

text: Hydrogen

text: fuel (when produced with renewable processes).  This is in contrast to

text: non-renewable

text: fuels such as

text: natural gas

text: LPG

text: propane

text: petroleum

text: and other

text: fossil fuels

text: and

text: nuclear energy

text: .  Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from

text: renewable energy

text: sources, such as wind and solar.  Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their

text: sustainability

text: low contributions

text: to the

text: carbon cycle

text: , and in some cases lower amounts of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.  The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire

text: independence

text: from

text: Middle Eastern

text: oil.

text: The interests in the Lucas operation at Spindletop were purchased by J. M. Guffey and his associates, creating the Guffey Petroleum Company and Gulf Refining Company of Texas. These companies later became Gulf Oil Corporation, which in turn was bought by Chevron. Guffey's company became the largest oil producer in the state during the boom period.Standard Oil initially chose not to become directly involved in oil production in Texas, and instead formed Security Oil Company as a refining operation utilizing Guffey-Gulf and Texas Company as suppliers. Following state lawsuits related to anti-trust statutes, Security Oil was reorganized into Magnolia Petroleum Company in 1911. That same year, the Humble Oil Company (today Exxon Corporation) was formed by Ross Sterling and Walter William Fondren in Humble, Texas. The headquarters were moved to Houston, and the company eventually sold half of its shares to Standard Oil of New Jersey, establishing a long-term partnership that lasted for decades. The company built the Baytown Refinery, which became Texas' largest refining operation. In the post-World War II period, Humble became the largest crude oil transporter in the United States, and built pipelines connecting Baytown to Dallas-Fort Worth and West Texas to the Gulf of Mexico.

text: The interests in the Lucas operation at Spindletop were purchased by J. M. Guffey and his associates, creating the Guffey Petroleum Company and Gulf Refining Company of Texas. These companies later became

text: Gulf Oil Corporation

text: , which in turn was bought by

text: Chevron

text: . Guffey's company became the largest oil producer in the state during the boom period.Standard Oil initially chose not to become directly involved in oil production in Texas, and instead formed Security Oil Company as a refining operation utilizing Guffey-Gulf and Texas Company as suppliers. Following state lawsuits related to

text: anti-trust statutes

text: , Security Oil was reorganized into

text: Magnolia Petroleum Company

text: in 1911. That same year, the Humble Oil Company (today

text: Exxon Corporation

text: ) was formed by Ross Sterling and

text: Walter William Fondren

text: in

text: Humble, Texas

text: . The headquarters were moved to Houston, and the company eventually sold half of its shares to Standard Oil of New Jersey, establishing a long-term partnership that lasted for decades. The company built the

text: Baytown Refinery

text: , which became Texas' largest refining operation. In the post-World War II period, Humble became the largest

text: crude oil

text: transporter in the United States, and built pipelines connecting Baytown to Dallas-Fort Worth and West Texas to the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: Saudi Arabia's first two development plans, covering the 1970s, emphasized infrastructure. The results were impressive—the total length of paved highways tripled, power generation increased by a multiple of 28, and the capacity of the seaports grew tenfold. For the third plan (1980–85), the emphasis changed. Spending on infrastructure declined, but it rose markedly on education, health, and social services. The share for diversifying and expanding productive sectors of the economy (primarily industry) did not rise as planned, but the two industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu—built around the use of the country's oil and gas to produce steel, petrochemicals, fertilizer, and refined oil products—were largely completed.

text: Saudi Arabia's first two development plans, covering the 1970s, emphasized infrastructure. The results were impressive—the total length of paved highways tripled, power generation increased by a multiple of 28, and the capacity of the seaports grew tenfold. For the third plan (1980–85), the emphasis changed. Spending on infrastructure declined, but it rose markedly on education, health, and social services. The share for diversifying and expanding productive sectors of the economy (primarily industry) did not rise as planned, but the two industrial cities of

text: Jubail

text: and

text: Yanbu

text: —built around the use of the country's oil and gas to produce steel,

text: petrochemicals

text: , fertilizer, and refined oil products—were largely completed.

text: Petroleum refining is another important component of the South Bay's economy. Major South Bay refiners include BP (ARCO facility in Carson), Chevron (El Segundo), Phillips 66 (Wilmington), ExxonMobil (Torrance), Tesoro (Wilmington), and Valero (Wilmington).  These refiners supply the lion's share of petroleum products for Southern California, as well as for Nevada and Arizona.  As the Los Angeles region's oil fields are mostly exhausted, most of the crude oil that feeds the refineries is brought in from terminals at the port.

text: Petroleum

text: refining is another important component of the South Bay's economy. Major South Bay refiners include

text: BP

text: ARCO

text: facility in Carson),

text: Chevron

text: (El Segundo),

text: Phillips 66

text: (Wilmington),

text: ExxonMobil

text: (Torrance),

text: Tesoro

text: (Wilmington), and

text: Valero

text: (Wilmington).  These refiners supply the lion's share of petroleum products for Southern California, as well as for

text: Nevada

text: and

text: Arizona

text: .  As the Los Angeles region's oil fields are mostly exhausted, most of the crude oil that feeds the refineries is brought in from terminals at the port.

text: The Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure Rule applies to all facilities that store, handle, process, gather, transfer, store, refine, distribute, use or consume oil or oil products. Oil products includes petroleum and non-petroleum oils as well as: animal fats, oils and greases; fish and marine mammal oils; and vegetable oils, (including oils from seeds, nuts, fruits, and kernels). Mandates that a written plan is required for facilities that store more than 1,320 gallons of fuel above ground or more than 42,000 gallons below-ground, and may reasonably be expected to discharge to navigable waters(as defined in the Clean Water Act)or adjoining shorelines. Secondary Containment mandated at oil storage facilities. Oil release containment is required at oil development sites.

text: The

text: Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure

text: Rule applies to all facilities that store, handle, process, gather, transfer, store, refine, distribute, use or consume oil or oil products. Oil products includes petroleum and non-petroleum oils as well as: animal fats, oils and greases; fish and marine mammal oils; and vegetable oils, (including oils from seeds, nuts, fruits, and kernels). Mandates that a written plan is required for facilities that store more than 1,320 gallons of fuel above ground or more than 42,000 gallons below-ground, and may reasonably be expected to discharge to navigable waters(as defined in the Clean Water Act)or adjoining shorelines. Secondary Containment mandated at oil storage facilities. Oil release containment is required at oil development sites.

text: Hellenic Petroleum operates three refineries in Greece, in Thessaloniki, Elefsina and Aspropyrgos, which account for 57% of the refining capacity of the country (the remaining 43% belongs to Motor Oil Hellas), and one in Skopje, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the OKTA refinery, which is supplied by crude oil through pipelines from Thessaloniki and covers approximately 85% of the country's needs. Crude oil for the refineries is supplied from Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Libya and Russia.  The company also operates over 1400 gas stations in Greece and about 350 gas stations in Albania, Georgia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Montenegro and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.  It also has a network which sells LPG, jet fuel, naval fuels and lubricants.

text: Hellenic Petroleum operates three refineries in Greece, in

text: Thessaloniki

text: Elefsina

text: and

text: Aspropyrgos

text: , which account for 57% of the refining capacity of the country (the remaining 43% belongs to

text: Motor Oil Hellas

text: ), and one in

text: Skopje

text: , Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the

text: OKTA

text: refinery, which is supplied by crude oil through pipelines from Thessaloniki and covers approximately 85% of the country's needs. Crude oil for the refineries is supplied from

text: Saudi Arabia

text: Iraq

text: Iran

text: Libya

text: and

text: Russia

text: .  The company also operates over 1400 gas stations in Greece and about 350 gas stations in

text: Albania

text: Georgia

text: , Serbia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Montenegro and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.  It also has a network which sells

text: LPG

text: jet fuel

text: , naval fuels and

text: lubricants

text: The Syrian Petroleum Company owns 50% stake in Syria's main oil producer—Al-Furat Petroleum Company. Other shareholders of the Al-Furat Petroleum Company are Royal Dutch Shell, India's Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, and the China National Petroleum Corporation.

text: The Syrian Petroleum Company owns 50% stake in Syria's main oil producer—Al-Furat Petroleum Company. Other shareholders of the Al-Furat Petroleum Company are

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: , India's

text: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation

text: , and the

text: China National Petroleum Corporation

text: In 2006 White Nile Petroleum Operating Co started production at the Thar Jath field in Block 5A.The company was jointly owned by Petronas of Malaysia (68.9%), ONGC Videsh of India (24.1%) and Sudapet of Sudan (7%).The initial rate of production was 40,000 bbl/day, expected to rise to 54,000 bbl/day by 2009 and then to decline to 39,000 bbl/day in 2011.Crude oil from the field is treated at a new central processing facility, then transported via a new 172-kilometer pipeline to a pump station in Heglig owned and operated by Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company (GNPOC).From there it is carried by GNPOC's  pipeline to Port Sudan on the Red Sea.

text: In 2006 White Nile Petroleum Operating Co started production at the Thar Jath field in Block 5A.The company was jointly owned by

text: Petronas

text: of

text: Malaysia

text: (68.9%), ONGC Videsh of India (24.1%) and

text: Sudapet

text: of Sudan (7%).The initial rate of production was 40,000 bbl/day, expected to rise to 54,000 bbl/day by 2009 and then to decline to 39,000 bbl/day in 2011.Crude oil from the field is treated at a new central processing facility, then transported via a new 172-kilometer pipeline to a pump station in

text: Heglig

text: owned and operated by

text: (GNPOC).From there it is carried by GNPOC's  pipeline to

text: Port Sudan

text: on the

text: Red Sea

text: In eastern Utah petroleum production is a major industry. Near Salt Lake City, petroleum refining is done by a number of oil companies. In central Utah, coal production accounts for much of the mining activity.

text: Produced natural gas is partly used to power the vessel. The rest of the gas is exported through the West of Shetland pipeline to the Sullom Voe Terminal. Some of the exported gas is used as fuel in the Fortum operated Sullom Voe power station. The remainder is enriched with liquefied petroleum gas and exported to the Magnus platform for enhanced oil recovery in Magnus field.

text: Produced natural gas is partly used to power the vessel. The rest of the gas is exported through the

text: West of Shetland pipeline

text: to the

text: Sullom Voe Terminal

text: Fortum

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: and exported to the Magnus platform for enhanced oil recovery in

text: Magnus field

text: Oil provide 85% of government income. The oil reserves of Iraq are the third biggest in the world after Saudi Arabia and Iran. In 2009 Iraq government had the target to increase oil production from  to  in six years. In June 2009 oil production rights were sold for BP and China National Petroleum of Rumaila oil field for 20 years contract. Investments are estimated as $10–20 billion. Field reserves is . In October 2009 Rumaila’s capacity was . Iraq's total oil production was .

text: Oil provide 85% of government income. The oil reserves of Iraq are the third biggest in the world after Saudi Arabia and Iran. In 2009 Iraq government had the target to increase oil production from  to  in six years. In June 2009 oil production rights were sold for

text: BP

text: and

text: China National Petroleum

text: of

text: Rumaila oil field

text: for 20 years contract. Investments are estimated as $10–20 billion. Field reserves is . In October 2009 Rumaila’s capacity was . Iraq's total oil production was .

text: In the US peaker plants are generally gas turbines that burn natural gas. A few burn petroleum-derived liquids, such as diesel oil and jet fuel, but they are usually more expensive than natural gas, so their use is limited. However, many peaker plants are able to use petroleum as a backup fuel. The thermodynamic efficiency of simple-cycle gas turbine power plants ranges from 20 to 42%, with between 30 to 42% being average for a new plant.

text: In the US peaker plants are generally

text: gas turbine

text: s that burn

text: natural gas

text: . A few burn

text: petroleum

text: -derived liquids, such as

text: diesel

text: oil and

text: jet fuel

text: , but they are usually more expensive than natural gas, so their use is limited. However, many peaker plants are able to use petroleum as a backup fuel. The

text: thermodynamic efficiency

text: of simple-cycle gas turbine power plants ranges from 20 to 42%, with between 30 to 42% being average for a new plant.

text: Arkansas produced  in 2007, mostly from coal, petroleum, nuclear, and renewable energy sources. In 2007, 46.2% of Arkansas's energy production was from natural gas, 27.6% from nuclear power, 19.9% from renewable sources, 6.2% from fossil fuels. Arkansas imports petroleum for use in the transportation sector but is a net exporter of electric power, selling  to the national electric grid in 2007. The rural nature of Arkansas causes Arkansans to spend more on energy than the national average. Due to transmission, 65% of electricity was lost on its way to consumers in 2007. The state's low population density results in higher electricity costs and more gallons of fuel used per vehicle. Arkansas consumes more natural gas and renewable energy and less fossil fuels than the national average.

text: While many of the costs of fossil fuels are well known, others (pollution related health problems, environmental degradation, the impact on national security from relying on foreign energy sources) are indirect and difficult to calculate. These are traditionally external to the pricing system, and are thus often referred to as externalities. A corrective pricing mechanism, such as a carbon tax, could lead to renewable energy, such as solar thermal power, becoming cheaper to the consumer than fossil fuel based energy.

text: While many of the costs of fossil fuels are well known, others (pollution related health problems, environmental degradation, the impact on

text: national security

text: from relying on foreign energy sources) are indirect and difficult to calculate. These are traditionally external to the pricing system, and are thus often referred to as

text: externalities

text: . A corrective pricing mechanism, such as a

text: carbon tax

text: , could lead to

text: renewable energy

text: , such as solar thermal power, becoming cheaper to the consumer than fossil fuel based energy.

text: Province started producing in 1960, and by 1963 was producing nearly 2.3 million tons of oil. Production from Daqing declined, but in 1965, oil fields in Shengli, Shandong, Dagang, and Tianjin yielded enough oil to nearly eliminate the need of importing crude oil. In 2002, annual crude petroleum production was 1,298,000,000 barrels, and annual crude petroleum consumption was 1,670,000,000 barrels.

text: Province started producing in 1960, and by 1963 was producing nearly 2.3 million tons of oil. Production from

text: Daqing

text: declined, but in 1965,

text: oil field

text: s in Shengli,

text: Shandong

text: , Dagang, and

text: Tianjin

text: yielded enough oil to nearly eliminate the need of importing

text: crude oil

text: . In 2002, annual crude petroleum production was 1,298,000,000 barrels, and annual crude petroleum consumption was 1,670,000,000 barrels.

text: To be thorough, a comparison must also consider the energy costs of producing, transporting and packaging of fuel (food or fossil fuel), the energy incurred in disposing of exhaust waste, and the energy costs of manufacturing the vehicle. This last can be significant given that walking requires little or no special equipment, while automobiles, for example, require a great deal of energy to produce and have relatively short lifespans. In addition, any comparison of electric vehicles and liquid-fuelled vehicles must include the fuel consumed in the power station to generate the electricity. In the UK for instance the efficiency of the electricity generation and distribution system is around 0.40.

text: Tarata (P. eugenioides) and Kohuhu (P. tenuifolium) – both from New Zealand – and the Japanese cheesewood (P. tobira) from southern Japan are widely cultivated as ornamental plants in subtropical regions; pittosporums can also be grown indoors as bonsai. The petroleum nut (P. resiniferum) yields petroleum nut oil, which is sometimes proposed as biofuel; due to its excessive n-heptane content and consequent low octane rating, it is better suited as a source of n-heptane, which is otherwise produced from crude oil.

text: Tarata

text: (P. eugenioides) and

text: Kohuhu

text: (P. tenuifolium) – both from

text: New Zealand

text: – and the

text: Japanese cheesewood

text: (P. tobira) from southern

text: Japan

text: are widely cultivated as

text: ornamental plant

text: s in

text: subtropical

text: regions; pittosporums can also be grown indoors as

text: bonsai

text: . The

text: petroleum nut

text: (P. resiniferum) yields

text: petroleum nut oil

text: , which is sometimes proposed as

text: biofuel

text: ; due to its excessive n-

text: heptane

text: content and consequent low

text: octane rating

text: , it is better suited as a source of n-heptane, which is otherwise produced from

text: crude oil

text: Petroleum jelly is a useful material when incorporated into candle wax formulas. The petroleum jelly softens the overall blend, allows the candle to incorporate additional fragrance oil, and facilitates adhesion to the sidewall of the glass. Petroleum jelly is used to moisten nondrying modelling clay such as plasticine, as part of a mix of hydrocarbons including those with greater (paraffin wax) and lesser (mineral oil) molecular weights. It is used as a tack reducer additive to printing inks to reduce paper lint "picking" from uncalendered paper stocks. It can be used as a release agent for plaster molds and castings. It is used in the leather industry as a waterproofing cream. It can be used for tinder, lightly coated on a cotton ball. It has been used as a secondary ingredient in a Molotov cocktail, to make the flames stick to any surface they touch and to make large amounts of smoke. It is used as a multifunctional product.

text: Petroleum jelly is a useful material when incorporated into candle wax formulas. The petroleum jelly softens the overall blend, allows the candle to incorporate additional fragrance oil, and facilitates adhesion to the sidewall of the glass. Petroleum jelly is used to moisten nondrying modelling clay such as

text: plasticine

text: , as part of a mix of hydrocarbons including those with greater (

text: paraffin wax

text: ) and lesser (

text: mineral oil

text: ) molecular weights. It is used as a tack reducer additive to printing inks to reduce paper lint "picking" from uncalendered paper stocks. It can be used as a release agent for plaster molds and castings. It is used in the leather industry as a waterproofing cream. It can be used for

text: tinder

text: , lightly coated on a cotton ball. It has been used as a secondary ingredient in a

text: Molotov cocktail

text: , to make the flames stick to any surface they touch and to make large amounts of smoke. It is used as a multifunctional product.

text: Petroleum crude oil consists primarily of a mixture of hydrocarbons with small amounts of other organic compounds containing sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen. The crude oil also contains small amounts of metals such as copper, iron, nickel and  vanadium.

text: Petroleum crude oil consists primarily of a mixture of hydrocarbons with small amounts of other

text: organic compound

text: s containing sulfur,

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: oxygen

text: . The crude oil also contains small amounts of metals such as

text: copper

text: iron

text: nickel

text: and

text: vanadium

text: In the early 1930s the Texas Company developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the brackish coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico. In 1937 Pure Oil Company (now part of Chevron Corporation) and its partner Superior Oil Company (now part of ExxonMobil Corporation) used a fixed platform to develop a field in  of water, one mile (1.6 km) offshore of Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana. In early 1947 Superior Oil erected a drilling/production oil platform in  of water some 18 miles off Vermilion Parish, Louisiana.  It was Kerr-McGee Oil Industries (now Anadarko Petroleum Corporation), as operator for partners Phillips Petroleum (ConocoPhillips) and Stanolind Oil & Gas (BP), that completed its historic Ship Shoal Block 32 well in November 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their Vermilion platform farther offshore. In any case, that made Kerr-McGee's Gulf of Mexico well, Kermac No. 16, the first oil discovery drilled out of sight of land. Forty-four Gulf of Mexico exploratory wells discovered 11 oil and natural gas fields by the end of 1949.During World War II (1939-1945) - control of oil supply from Baku and Middle East played a huge role in the events of the war and the ultimate victory of the allies. Cutting off the oil supply considerably weakened Japan in the latter part of the war.After World War II ended, the countries of the Middle East took the lead in oil production from the United States. Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the introduction of the Drillship, and the growth of a global shipping network for petroleum relying upon oil tankers and pipelines. In 1949, first offshore oil drilling at Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari) in the Caspian Sea off Azerbaijan eventually resulted in a city built on pylons. In the 1960s and 1970s, multi-governmental organizations of oil–producing nations OPEC and OAPEC played a major role in setting petroleum prices and policy. Oil spills and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental, and economic importance.

text: In the early 1930s

text: the Texas Company

text: developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the brackish coastal areas of the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . In 1937

text: Pure Oil Company

text: (now part of

text: Chevron Corporation

text: ) and its partner

text: Superior Oil Company

text: (now part of

text: ExxonMobil Corporation

text: ) used a fixed platform to develop a field in  of water, one mile (1.6 km) offshore of

text: Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana

text: . In early 1947 Superior Oil erected a drilling/production

text: oil platform

text: in  of water some 18 miles off

text: Vermilion Parish, Louisiana

text: .  It was

text: Kerr-McGee

text: Oil Industries (now

text: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation

text: ), as operator for partners

text: Phillips Petroleum

text: ConocoPhillips

text: ) and

text: Stanolind Oil & Gas

text: BP

text: ), that completed its historic Ship Shoal Block 32 well in November 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their Vermilion platform farther offshore. In any case, that made Kerr-McGee's Gulf of Mexico well, Kermac No. 16, the first oil discovery drilled out of sight of land. Forty-four Gulf of Mexico exploratory wells discovered 11 oil and natural gas fields by the end of 1949.During World War II (1939-1945) - control of oil supply from Baku and Middle East played a huge role in the events of the war and the ultimate victory of the allies. Cutting off the oil supply considerably weakened Japan in the latter part of the war.After

text: World War II

text: ended, the countries of the

text: Middle East

text: took the lead in oil production from the United States. Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the introduction of the

text: Drillship

text: , and the growth of a global shipping network for petroleum relying upon oil tankers and pipelines. In 1949, first offshore oil drilling at Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari) in the Caspian Sea off Azerbaijan eventually resulted in a city built on pylons. In the 1960s and 1970s, multi-governmental organizations of oil–producing nations

text: OPEC

text: and

text: OAPEC

text: played a major role in setting petroleum prices and policy.

text: Oil spill

text: s and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental, and economic importance.

text: In the 1800s, the principal refined product was kerosene for illuminating oil. The heaviest fraction was used as lubricating oil. A market developed for fuel oil as it was discovered that petroleum was superior to coal in powering the large engines of ships and railroad locomotives.

text: Overall primary energy consumption in the U.S. in 2015 relied most on petroleum (), natural gas () and coal (). Renewables contributed  and nuclear power .In the same year, about 4 million GWh of electricity were generated in the U.S., 67% of which was generated from fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and < 1% petroleum), 20% from nuclear power, 6% hydropower and 7% other renewables.

text: Overall primary energy consumption in the U.S. in 2015 relied most on

text: petroleum

text: ), natural gas () and coal (). Renewables contributed  and nuclear power .In the same year, about 4 million GWh of

text: electricity were generated

text: in the U.S., 67% of which was generated from fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and < 1% petroleum), 20% from nuclear power, 6%

text: hydropower

text: and 7% other renewables.

text: The 2010s oil glut  is a serious surplus of crude oil that started in 2014–2015 and accelerated in 2016, with multiple causes. They include general oversupply as US and Canadian shale oil production reached critical volumes, geopolitical rivalries amongst oil-producing nations, falling demand across commodities markets due to the deceleration of the Chinese economy, and possible restraint of long-term demand as environmental concerns steer an increasing share of energy consumption away from fossil fuels.

text: The 2010s oil glut  is a serious surplus of

text: crude oil

text: that started in 2014–2015 and accelerated in 2016, with multiple causes. They include general oversupply as US and Canadian

text: shale oil

text: production reached critical volumes,

text: geopolitical

text: rivalries amongst oil-producing nations, falling demand across

text: commodities market

text: s due to the deceleration of the Chinese economy, and possible restraint of long-term demand as

text: environmental

text: concerns steer an increasing share of energy consumption away from

text: fossil fuel

text: s.

text: The field is near the northern edge of the Los Angeles Basin, about two miles (3 km) south of the Hollywood Hills, the nearest portion of the Santa Monica Mountains. The Santa Monica Fault, not known to be active, demarcates the boundary between the basin and the mountains. Several other faults cut through the field, including the 3rd Street Fault and the 6th Street Fault; the latter of these is presumed to be the conduit through which crude oil has emerged on the surface as the La Brea Tar Pits, which are at Hancock Park at the southern boundary of the oil field, near Wilshire Boulevard.  A layer of sediments of Quaternary age, both alluvial and shallow marine, forms a cap of approximately  thickness on the underlying formations, several of which are oil-bearing. First is the Upper Pliocene Pico Formation, which is not petroleum-bearing in the Salt Lake field. Underneath the Pico are the late Miocene and Pliocene Repetto and Puente Formations. The Repetto Formation is a sandstone and conglomerate unit probably deposited in a submarine fan environment, and is a prolific petroleum reservoir throughout the Los Angeles Basin. Underneath the Repetto is the late Miocene Puente Formation. All of these rock units are faulted and folded, forming structural traps, with oil trapped in anticlinal folds and along fault blocks.

text: The field is near the northern edge of the

text: Los Angeles Basin

text: , about two miles (3 km) south of the

text: Hollywood Hills

text: , the nearest portion of the

text: Santa Monica Mountains

text: . The Santa Monica Fault, not known to be active, demarcates the boundary between the basin and the mountains. Several other faults cut through the field, including the 3rd Street Fault and the 6th Street Fault; the latter of these is presumed to be the conduit through which crude oil has emerged on the surface as the

text: La Brea Tar Pits

text: , which are at

text: Hancock Park

text: at the southern boundary of the oil field, near

text: Wilshire Boulevard

text: .  A layer of sediments of

text: Quaternary

text: age, both alluvial and shallow marine, forms a cap of approximately  thickness on the underlying formations, several of which are oil-bearing. First is the Upper Pliocene Pico Formation, which is not petroleum-bearing in the Salt Lake field. Underneath the Pico are the late

text: Miocene

text: and

text: Pliocene

text: Repetto and Puente Formations. The

text: Repetto Formation

text: is a

text: sandstone

text: and

text: conglomerate

text: unit probably deposited in a

text: submarine fan

text: environment, and is a prolific

text: petroleum reservoir

text: throughout the Los Angeles Basin. Underneath the Repetto is the late

text: Miocene

text: Puente Formation. All of these rock units are faulted and folded, forming structural traps, with oil trapped in

text: anticlinal

text: folds and along fault blocks.

text: In the Yates Field, the two richest oil-bearing rocks are the Grayburg Dolomite and San Andres Formation.  The Grayburg is cavernous, having once been a tropical island with fresh water carving holes in the limestone, creating a karst terrain; the San Andres consists of fractured, dolomitized carbonates, and like the Grayburg contains copious free space in which petroleum accumulated over the eons.  Some of these oil-filled caverns are as high as .  In addition to these two units, the Queen Formation, which contains interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and dolomite, and the complex Seven Rivers Formation, contain recoverable quantities of oil.  Capping all four units is a salt layer in the Seven Rivers Formation.

text: In the Yates Field, the two richest oil-bearing rocks are the Grayburg Dolomite and San Andres Formation.  The Grayburg is cavernous, having once been a tropical island with fresh water carving holes in the limestone, creating a

text: karst

text: terrain; the San Andres consists of fractured,

text: dolomitized

text: carbonates, and like the Grayburg contains copious free space in which petroleum accumulated over the eons.  Some of these oil-filled caverns are as high as .  In addition to these two units, the Queen Formation, which contains interbedded sandstone, siltstone, and dolomite, and the complex Seven Rivers Formation, contain recoverable quantities of oil.  Capping all four units is a salt layer in the Seven Rivers Formation.

text: Overall, the total pipeline capacity for the movement of crude oil from Edmonton and Hardisty to the rest of North America is about . However, other substances such as conventional crude oil and refined petroleum products also share this pipeline network. The rapidly increasing tight oil production from the Bakken formation of North Dakota also competes for space on the Canadian export pipeline system. North Dakota oil producers are using the Canadian pipelines to deliver their oil to US refineries.

text: Overall, the total pipeline capacity for the movement of crude oil from Edmonton and Hardisty to the rest of North America is about . However, other substances such as conventional crude oil and refined petroleum products also share this pipeline network. The rapidly increasing

text: tight oil

text: production from the

text: Bakken formation

text: of

text: North Dakota

text: also competes for space on the Canadian export pipeline system. North Dakota oil producers are using the Canadian pipelines to deliver their oil to US refineries.

text: Crude Oil Data Exchange (CODE) is an electronic business standard sanctioned by the American Petroleum Institute.  CODE was initially implemented as the standard in 1978.  It provides field formats and record layouts to facilitate the transmission of crude oil run tickets between oil producers and oil transporters.  Oil statement records were added to the system in January 1986.  In 1989, tank increment records were added to the standard.

text: Crude Oil Data Exchange (CODE) is an electronic business standard sanctioned by the

text: American Petroleum Institute

text: .  CODE was initially implemented as the standard in 1978.  It provides field formats and record layouts to facilitate the transmission of

text: crude oil

text: run tickets between oil producers and oil transporters.  Oil statement records were added to the system in January 1986.  In 1989, tank increment records were added to the standard.

text: IPC has ceased operations, but the company "Iraq Petroleum Company" still remains extant as a name on paper, and one of its surviving associated companies – Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company (ADPC), formerly Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd – continued with the original shareholding intact until January 2014. ADPC still holds 40% of the onshore concession in Abu Dhabi, with the majority 60% held by the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) on behalf of the Abu Dhabi Government. Operations are carried out by the local operating company - The Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO) – jointly owned by ADNOC, and the ADPC shareholders : BP, Royal Dutch Shell, ExxonMobil, Total S.A. and Partex; reflecting the historical make-up of the Iraq Petroleum Company. The Abu Dhabi onshore oil concession expired in January 2014.

text: IPC has ceased operations, but the company "Iraq Petroleum Company" still remains

text: extant

text: as a name on paper, and one of its surviving associated companies –

text: Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company

text: (ADPC), formerly Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd – continued with the original shareholding intact until January 2014. ADPC still holds 40% of the onshore concession in Abu Dhabi, with the majority 60% held by the

text: Abu Dhabi National Oil Company

text: (ADNOC) on behalf of the Abu Dhabi Government. Operations are carried out by the local operating company - The

entity_name: Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations

text: Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Oil Operations

text: (ADCO) – jointly owned by ADNOC, and the ADPC shareholders :

text: BP

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: ExxonMobil

text: Total S.A.

text: and

text: Partex

text: ; reflecting the historical make-up of the Iraq Petroleum Company. The Abu Dhabi onshore oil concession expired in January 2014.

text: Petroleum transport is the transportation of petroleum and derivatives such as petrol (gasoline).  Petroleum is transported via rail cars, trucks, tanker vessels, and through pipelines. Which method is used to move this oil depends on the amount that is being moved and where it is being moved to. The biggest problems with moving this oil are pollution and the chance that the oil can spill. Petroleum oil is very hard to clean up and is very toxic to living animals.

text: Petroleum transport is the transportation of

text: petroleum

text: and derivatives such as

text: petrol

text: (gasoline).  Petroleum is transported via rail cars, trucks, tanker vessels, and through pipelines. Which method is used to move this oil depends on the amount that is being moved and where it is being moved to. The biggest problems with moving this oil are pollution and the chance that the oil can spill. Petroleum oil is very hard to clean up and is very toxic to living animals.

text: The project aims to reduce India’s dependence on import of petroleum products, promote the use of diverse, domestic, and sustainable new and renewable energy sources; to provide electricity to remote, far‐flung, rural and other electricity deficient areas and promote use of hydrogen as a fuel for transport and power generation; to reduce carbon emissions from energy production and consumption, to increase reliability and efficiency of electricity generation; to generate 1000 MW electricity using fuel cells by 2020 and 1 Million vehicles running on Hydrogen based IC Engines and fuel cells by 2020.

text: Fossil fuel phase out is the proposed energy transition beyond fossil fuels through multiple means, including transport electrification, fossil fuel divestment, decommissioning of operating fossil fuel-fired power plants and prevention of the construction of new fossil fuel-fired power stations. Its purpose is to reduce air pollution, mining tragedies, and greenhouse gas emissions which cause climate change. A move to the many forms of renewable energy or nuclear energy is involved in shifting away from fossil fuels.

text: Fossil fuel phase out is the proposed

text: energy transition

text: beyond

text: fossil fuels

text: through multiple means, including

text: transport electrification

text: fossil fuel divestment

text: , decommissioning of operating

text: fossil fuel-fired power plants

text: and prevention of the construction of new fossil fuel-fired power stations. Its purpose is to reduce

text: air pollution

text: mining tragedies

text: , and

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: which cause

text: climate change

text: . A move to the many forms of

text: renewable energy

text: or nuclear energy is involved in shifting away from fossil fuels.

text: Kenya's main imports from Liberia include; Petroleum oils and oils obtained from bituminous minerals other than crude.

text: The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG) is a ministry of the Government of India. It is responsible for the exploration, production,  refining, distribution, marketing, import, export, and conservation of petroleum, natural gas, petroleum products, and liquefied natural gas in India.

text: The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG) is a

text: ministry

text: of the

text: Government of India

text: . It is responsible for the exploration, production,  refining, distribution, marketing, import, export, and conservation of

text: petroleum

text: natural gas

text: petroleum product

text: s, and

text: liquefied natural gas

text: in

text: India

text: Natural gas  is a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame. Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly includes varying amounts of other higher alkanes and even a lesser percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide.  Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.

text: Natural gas  is a

text: fossil fuel

text: formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame. Natural gas is a

text: hydrocarbon

text: gas

text: mixture consisting primarily of

text: methane

text: , but commonly includes varying amounts of other higher

text: alkanes

text: and even a lesser percentage of

text: carbon dioxide

text: nitrogen

text: , and

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: .  Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of

text: plastics

text: and other commercially important

text: organic chemicals

text: Although China is still a major crude oil producer, it became an oil importer in the 1990s. China became dependent on imported oil for the first time in its history in 1993 due to demand rising faster than domestic production. In 2002, annual crude petroleum production was 1,298,000,000 barrels, and annual crude petroleum consumption was 1,670,000,000 barrels.

text: Essar Energy Plc is an Indian-focused energy company with assets in the existing power and oil and gas businesses. Headquartered in Port Louis, Mauritius and subsidiary of Essar Group, the firm has interests in both the power generation and petroleum industries. In May 2014 the company was acquired by its majority shareholder.

text: Essar Energy Plc is an Indian-focused

text: energy

text: company with assets in the existing power and oil and gas businesses. Headquartered in Port Louis, Mauritius and subsidiary of

text: Essar Group

text: , the firm has interests in both the

text: power generation

text: and

text: petroleum

text: industries. In May 2014 the company was acquired by its majority shareholder.

text: The town has several oil wells that are run by Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) and Italy Eni Agip. The presence of crude oil pipelines across the region and frequent crude oil spills have been largely responsible for soil damage. This has led to large-scale frustrations with the oil companies, and has resulted in skirmishes and kidnappings for ransom in some neighboring communities. Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) responds by sponsoring projects such as clean water supply in Idheze Irri town.

text: The town has several

text: oil wells

text: that are run by

text: Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC)

text: and

text: Italy Eni Agip

text: . The presence of crude oil pipelines across the region and frequent crude oil spills have been largely responsible for soil damage. This has led to large-scale frustrations with the oil companies, and has resulted in skirmishes and kidnappings for ransom in some neighboring communities.

text: responds by sponsoring projects such as clean water supply in Idheze Irri town.

text: There are hundreds of different petroleum crude oil sources worldwide and each crude oil has its own unique composition or assay. There are also hundreds of petroleum refineries worldwide and each of them is designed to process either a specific crude oil or specific types of crude oils. Naphtha is a general term as each refinery produces its own naphthas with their own unique initial and final boiling points and other physical and compositional characteristics.

text: There are hundreds of different petroleum crude oil sources worldwide and each crude oil has its own unique composition or

text: assay

text: . There are also hundreds of petroleum refineries worldwide and each of them is designed to process either a specific crude oil or specific types of crude oils. Naphtha is a general term as each refinery produces its own naphthas with their own unique initial and final boiling points and other physical and compositional characteristics.

text: The Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology (RGIPT) in Jais, Raebareli was established by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG) of the Government of India through an act of Parliament. RGIPT has been designated an Institute of National Importance, along with the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and Indian Institute of Management (IIM). With deemed university status, the institute awards degrees in its own right.RGIPT is co-sponsored as an energy-domain-specific institute by six oil public-sector units (ONGC, IOCL, OIL, GAIL, BPCL and HPCL), in association with the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB). The institute is associated with international universities and institutions specialising in petroleum technology.

text: The

entity_name: Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology

text: Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology

text: (RGIPT) in

text: Jais

text: , Raebareli was established by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MOP&NG) of the Government of India through an act of Parliament. RGIPT has been designated an

entity_name: List of Institutes of National Importance

text: Institute of National Importance

text: , along with the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and Indian Institute of Management (IIM). With

text: deemed university

text: status, the institute awards degrees in its own right.RGIPT is co-sponsored as an energy-domain-specific institute by six oil public-sector units (

text: ONGC

text: IOCL

text: OIL

text: GAIL

text: BPCL

text: and

text: HPCL

text: ), in association with the Oil Industry Development Board (OIDB). The institute is associated with international universities and institutions specialising in petroleum technology.

text: In the North Atlantic off the coast of Greenland, a highly advanced deep sea oil rig has been recently constructed by the company Nexecon Petroleum, and named "Colossus" for its immense size. This "new" type of oil rig can dig deeper and extract more oil than any other in the world. The fact that this huge rig has been built on fault lines alarms geologists, who are concerned that the delicate ocean floor fault lines in that region might be disturbed through deep drilling, with catastrophic consequences. A reporter, Christen Giddings, has been invited by the CEO of Nexecon, Peter Brazier, to the oil rig in an attempt to address the concerns of the geologists. Christen is accompanied by a trusted cameraman Jake Thompson, who will record their findings. The oil rig's crew seem to be convinced that nothing bad will happen, and are skeptical of the geologists. Brazier hopes that a documented report on "Colossus" will reveal that his rig has all the necessary safety arrangements and that the region is stable enough for a drilling operation. As the drilling commences, a rich oil deposit is discovered. However, further drilling is not stopped and an "ocean floor fault line" gets ruptured, which opens a portal to a "mirror" ocean, hidden under the normal ocean for millions of years and containing prehistoric life. An explosion occurs and the drilling system collapses. A team of engineers descend through a glass elevator to assess the situation. A giant animal is spotted approaching, which turns out to be the most powerful and fearsome oceanic predator that ever lived, Carcharodon megalodon. A struggle for survival ensues as the crew and geologists attempt to escape from "Colossus", during which several people fall victim to the beast. In a desperate move to stop the monster shark, one of the crew members, Ross, lures it to an open space with his small submarine and overloads the fuel tanks of the machine, resulting in a gigantic explosion that kills both him and the beast. The ordeal is not over yet as another Megalodon ventures into open waters, passing below a boat with Christen Giddings on board. However she is unaware of its presence.

text: In the

text: North Atlantic

text: off the coast of

text: Greenland

text: , a highly advanced deep sea

text: oil rig

text: has been recently constructed by the company Nexecon Petroleum, and named "Colossus" for its immense size. This "new" type of oil rig can dig deeper and extract more

text: oil

text: than any other in the world. The fact that this huge rig has been built on fault lines alarms

text: geologists

text: , who are concerned that the delicate ocean floor fault lines in that region might be disturbed through deep drilling, with catastrophic consequences. A

text: reporter

text: , Christen Giddings, has been invited by the

text: CEO

text: of Nexecon, Peter Brazier, to the oil rig in an attempt to address the concerns of the geologists. Christen is accompanied by a trusted

text: cameraman

text: Jake Thompson, who will record their findings. The oil rig's crew seem to be convinced that nothing bad will happen, and are skeptical of the geologists. Brazier hopes that a documented report on "Colossus" will reveal that his rig has all the necessary safety arrangements and that the region is stable enough for a drilling operation. As the drilling commences, a rich oil deposit is discovered. However, further drilling is not stopped and an "ocean floor fault line" gets ruptured, which opens a portal to a "mirror" ocean, hidden under the normal ocean for millions of years and containing

text: prehistoric

text: life. An

text: explosion

text: occurs and the drilling system collapses. A team of

text: engineer

text: s descend through a glass

text: elevator

text: to assess the situation. A giant animal is spotted approaching, which turns out to be the most powerful and fearsome oceanic predator that ever lived, Carcharodon megalodon. A struggle for survival ensues as the crew and geologists attempt to escape from "Colossus", during which several people fall victim to the beast. In a desperate move to stop the monster shark, one of the crew members, Ross, lures it to an open space with his small

text: submarine

text: and overloads the fuel tanks of the machine, resulting in a gigantic explosion that kills both him and the beast. The ordeal is not over yet as another Megalodon ventures into open waters, passing below a boat with Christen Giddings on board. However she is unaware of its presence.

text: Petroleum & Natural Resources Division was created in April 1977. Prior to that Petroleum and Natural Resources was part of the Ministry of Fuel, Power and Natural Resources.

text: After the 1973 oil crisis, the energy politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, electricity has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. Sweden wants to be independent of petroleum use by 2020. The Three Mile Island accident (United States) prompted the Swedish parliament in 1980 after a referendum to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. , the use of renewables amounted to 26% of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 2003, electricity from hydropower accounted for 53 TWh and 40% of the country's production of electricity with nuclear power delivering 65 TWh (49%).  At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh of electricity. Sweden is the highest ranked country in the Climate Change Performance Index.

text: After the

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: , the

text: energy

text: politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of

text: petroleum

text: . Since then, electricity has been generated mostly from

text: hydropower

text: and nuclear power. Sweden wants to be independent of petroleum use by 2020. The

text: Three Mile Island accident

text: (United States) prompted the

text: Swedish parliament

text: in 1980 after a

text: referendum

text: to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a

text: nuclear power phase-out

text: should be completed by 2010. , the use of

text: renewables

text: amounted to 26% of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being

text: hydropower

text: and

text: biomass

text: . In 2003, electricity from hydropower accounted for 53

text: TWh

text: and 40% of the country's production of

text: electricity

text: with nuclear power delivering 65 TWh (49%).  At the same time, the use of

text: biofuel

text: s,

text: peat

text: etc. produced 13 TWh of electricity. Sweden is the highest ranked country in the Climate Change Performance Index.

text: The petroleum-fueled accessory factor, AF, is equal to 1 if the electric drive vehicle does not have petroleum-powered accessories installed, and 0.90 if it does.

text: Dutch explorers noted oil seepages in 1863.  Oil extraction began in 1906.  Tarakan oil field produced a light, sour crude oil with an unusually low pour point.  By 1940 the island had an oil refinery with four petroleum loading piers, and was one of the five largest petroleum processing centers in the East Indies.

text: Dutch

text: explorers noted

text: oil seepages

text: in 1863.  Oil extraction began in 1906.  Tarakan

text: oil field

text: produced a

text: light

text: sour crude oil

text: with an unusually low

text: pour point

text: .  By 1940 the island had an

text: oil refinery

text: with four petroleum loading piers, and was one of the five largest petroleum processing centers in the

text: East Indies

text: During the 1960s, along socialist lines, the government nationalized most major enterprises and adopted economic policies designed to address regional and class disparities. This legacy of state intervention and price, trade, and foreign exchange controls may have hampered economic growth. Syria also has low investment levels, and relatively low industrial and agricultural productivity. Economic reform has been incremental and gradual. In 2001, Syria legalized private banking. In 2004, four private banks began operations. In August 2004, a committee was formed to supervise the establishment of a stock market. Beyond the financial sector, the Syrian Government has enacted major changes to rental and tax laws, and is reportedly considering similar changes to the commercial code and to other laws, which impact property rights.(Ohachq)Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields inside in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Deir ez-Zor in eastern Syria. This discovery relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic heavy crude in refineries. Recently, Syrian oil production has been about 379,000 barrels per day (bpd). Syria's oil reserves are being gradually depleted and reached 2.5 billion barrels in January 2009. Experts generally agree that Syria will become a net importer of petroleum by the end of the next decade. Recent developments have helped revitalize the energy sector, including new discoveries and the successful development of its hydrocarbon reserves. According to the 2009 Syria Report of the Oxford Business Group, the oil sector accounted for 23% of government revenues, 20% of exports, and 22% of GDP in 2008. Syria exported roughly 150,000 bpd in 2008, and oil accounted for a majority of the country's export income.

text: During the 1960s, along socialist lines, the government

text: nationalized

text: most major enterprises and adopted economic policies designed to address regional and

text: class

text: disparities. This legacy of state intervention and

text: price

text: , trade, and

text: foreign exchange controls

text: may have hampered economic growth. Syria also has low investment levels, and relatively low industrial and agricultural

text: productivity

text: . Economic reform has been incremental and gradual. In 2001, Syria legalized

text: private banking

text: . In 2004, four private banks began operations. In August 2004, a committee was formed to supervise the establishment of a

text: stock market

text: . Beyond the financial sector, the Syrian Government has enacted major changes to rental and tax laws, and is reportedly considering similar changes to the commercial code and to other laws, which impact property rights.(Ohachq)Syria has produced

text: heavy-grade oil

text: from fields inside in the

text: northeast

text: since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s,

text: light-grade

text: low-sulphur oil

text: was discovered near

text: Deir ez-Zor

text: in eastern Syria. This discovery relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic heavy crude in

text: refineries

text: . Recently, Syrian oil production has been about 379,000 barrels per day (bpd). Syria's

text: oil reserve

text: s are being gradually depleted and reached 2.5 billion barrels in January 2009. Experts generally agree that Syria will become a net importer of

text: petroleum

text: by the end of the next decade. Recent developments have helped revitalize the energy sector, including new discoveries and the successful development of its hydrocarbon reserves. According to the 2009 Syria Report of the Oxford Business Group, the oil sector accounted for 23% of

text: government revenue

text: s, 20% of exports, and 22% of GDP in 2008. Syria exported roughly 150,000 bpd in 2008, and oil accounted for a majority of the country's export income.

text: An oil clique is a social clique or a network of powerful individuals and institutions that are involved in the petroleum industry. Important examples include China's oil clique and Texas' oil clique.

text: An oil clique is a social

text: clique

text: or a network of powerful individuals and institutions that are involved in the

text: petroleum industry

text: . Important examples include China's oil clique and Texas' oil clique.

text: In some cases operators deliberately produce less power for economic reasons.The cost of fuel to run a load following power plant may be relatively high, and the cost of fuel to run a peaking power plant is even higher—they have relatively high marginal costs.Operators keep power plants turned off ("operational reserve") or running at minimum fuel consumption ("spinning reserve") most of the time.Operators feed more fuel into load following power plants only when the demand rises above what lower-cost plants (i.e., intermittent and base load plants) can produce, and then feed more fuel into peaking power plants only when the demand rises faster than the load following power plants can follow.

text: In some cases operators deliberately produce less power for economic reasons.The cost of fuel to run a

text: load following power plant

text: may be relatively high, and the cost of fuel to run a

text: peaking power plant

text: is even higher—they have relatively high marginal costs.Operators keep power plants turned off ("operational reserve") or running at minimum fuel consumption ("spinning reserve") most of the time.Operators feed more fuel into load following power plants only when the demand rises above what lower-cost plants (i.e., intermittent and base load plants) can produce, and then feed more fuel into peaking power plants only when the demand rises faster than the load following power plants can follow.

text: , the United States was producing in excess of 11 billion liters (2.9 billion U.S. gallons) of recycled vegetable oil annually, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants.  If all those 11 billion liters could be recycled and used to replace the energy equivalent amount of petroleum (an ideal case), almost 1% of US oil consumption could be offset. Use of used vegetable oil as a direct fuel competes with some other uses of the commodity, which has effects on its price as a fuel and increases its cost as an input to the other uses as well.

text: , the

text: United States

text: was producing in excess of 11 billion liters (2.9 billion U.S. gallons) of recycled vegetable oil annually, mainly from industrial

text: deep fryer

text: s in

text: potato

text: processing plants,

text: snack food

text: factories and

text: fast food restaurant

text: s.  If all those 11 billion liters could be

text: recycled

text: and used to replace the energy equivalent amount of petroleum (an ideal case), almost 1% of US oil consumption could be offset. Use of used vegetable oil as a direct fuel competes with some

text: other uses

text: of the

text: commodity

text: , which has effects on its price as a fuel and increases its cost as an input to the other uses as well.

text: The substitution of oil with other fossil fuels is theoretically relatively easy when static installations are concerned, as in the case for electricity generation. Reserves of coal are substantial, and the technology to use it is well established. Increasing the use of coal, however, would lead to higher carbon emissions which is likely to be politically unacceptable in many countries due to the implications of global warming, although carbon capture and storage may provide a solution. Natural gas is another alternative, and combined cycle power generation using natural gas is the cleanest source of power available using fossil fuels, producing about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than burning coal. The major difficulty in the  use of natural gas is transportation and storage because of its low density. Natural gas pipelines are economical, but are impractical across oceans.

text: The substitution of oil with other

text: fossil fuel

text: s is theoretically relatively easy when static installations are concerned, as in the case for

text: electricity generation

text: . Reserves of

text: coal

text: are substantial, and the technology to use it is well established. Increasing the use of coal, however, would lead to higher

text: carbon emissions

text: which is likely to be politically unacceptable in many countries due to the implications of

text: global warming

text: , although

text: carbon capture and storage

text: may provide a solution.

text: Natural gas

text: is another alternative, and

text: combined cycle

text: power generation using natural gas is the cleanest source of power available using fossil fuels, producing about 30% less

text: carbon dioxide

text: than burning

text: petroleum

text: and about 45% less than burning

text: coal

text: . The major difficulty in the  use of natural gas is

text: transport

text: ation and

text: storage

text: because of its low density. Natural gas

text: pipelines

text: are economical, but are impractical across

text: ocean

text: s.

text: An economically significant consequence of oceanic anoxic events is the fact that the prevailing conditions in so many Mesozoic oceans has helped produce most of the world's petroleum and natural gas reserves. During an oceanic anoxic event, the accumulation and preservation of organic matter was much greater than normal, allowing the generation of potential petroleum source rocks in many environments across the globe. Consequently, some 70 percent of oil source rocks are Mesozoic in age, and another 15 percent date from the warm Paleogene: only rarely in colder periods were conditions favorable for the production of source rocks on anything other than a local scale.

text: An economically significant consequence of oceanic anoxic events is the fact that the prevailing conditions in so many Mesozoic oceans has helped produce most of the world's

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: reserves. During an oceanic anoxic event, the accumulation and preservation of organic matter was much greater than normal, allowing the generation of potential petroleum

text: source rock

text: s in many environments across the globe. Consequently, some 70 percent of oil source rocks are Mesozoic in age, and another 15 percent date from the warm Paleogene: only rarely in colder periods were conditions favorable for the production of source rocks on anything other than a local scale.

text: Since the resettlement of Svalbard in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity. Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani, a subsidiary of the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry, operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 3.4 million tonnes in 2008, while the latter uses 35% of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station. Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg. There have previously been performed test drilling for petroleum on land, but these did not give satisfactory results for permanent operation. The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled on has been protected as natural reserves or national parks. In 2011, a 20-year plan to develop offshore oil and gas resources around Svalbard was announced.

text: Since the resettlement of Svalbard in the early 20th century, coal mining has been the dominant commercial activity.

text: Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani

text: , a subsidiary of the

text: Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry

text: , operates Svea Nord in Sveagruva and Mine 7 in Longyearbyen. The former produced 3.4 million tonnes in 2008, while the latter uses 35% of its output to Longyearbyen Power Station. Since 2007, there has not been any significant mining by the Russian state-owned Arktikugol in Barentsburg. There have previously been performed test drilling for petroleum on land, but these did not give satisfactory results for permanent operation. The Norwegian authorities do not allow offshore petroleum activities for environmental reasons, and the land formerly test-drilled on has been protected as natural reserves or national parks. In 2011, a 20-year plan to develop offshore oil and gas resources around Svalbard was announced.

text: The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often by oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol). Petroleum (oil) is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.

text: The petroleum industry includes the global processes of

text: exploration

text: extraction

text: refining

text: , transporting (often by

text: oil tanker

text: s and

text: pipelines

text: ), and marketing

text: petroleum

text: products

text: . The largest volume products of the industry are

text: fuel oil

text: and

text: gasoline

text: (petrol). Petroleum (oil) is also the raw material for many

text: chemical products

text: , including

text: pharmaceutical

text: s,

text: solvent

text: s,

text: fertilizer

text: s,

text: pesticide

text: s, and

text: plastics

text: . The industry is usually divided into three major components:

text: upstream

text: midstream

text: and

text: downstream

text: . Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.

text: In 1998, the petroleum division merged with Marathon Oil to form Marathon Ashland Petroleum, LLC (MAP). Following that in 1999, Ashland agreed to sell its Scurlock Permian subsidiary to Plains All American Pipeline and the headquarters were moved from Russell, Kentucky, to Covington, Kentucky, although the company maintains an office in Russell. A monumental change came in 2005, when Ashland sold its shares of the Marathon Ashland Petroleum joint venture to Marathon Oil, effectively dissolving the remnants of their petroleum division. After the sale, the company was no longer involved in the refining or marketing of fuels. The original oil refinery in Catlettsburg, Kentucky, is still in operation today and is owned and operated by Marathon. In 2006, Ashland sold APAC (the paving and construction division) to the Oldcastle Materials subsidiary of Oldcastle Inc. of Dublin, Ireland.

text: In 1998, the petroleum division merged with

text: Marathon Oil

text: to form

text: Marathon Ashland Petroleum, LLC

text: (MAP). Following that in 1999, Ashland agreed to sell its Scurlock Permian subsidiary to

text: Plains All American Pipeline

text: and the headquarters were moved from

text: Russell, Kentucky

text: , to

text: Covington, Kentucky

text: , although the company maintains an office in Russell. A monumental change came in 2005, when Ashland sold its shares of the Marathon Ashland Petroleum joint venture to Marathon Oil, effectively dissolving the remnants of their petroleum division. After the sale, the company was no longer involved in the refining or marketing of fuels. The

text: original oil refinery

text: in

text: Catlettsburg, Kentucky

text: , is still in operation today and is owned and operated by Marathon. In 2006, Ashland sold APAC (the paving and construction division) to the Oldcastle Materials subsidiary of

text: Oldcastle Inc.

text: of

text: Dublin

text: Ireland

text: For most of the twentieth century and the early part of the twenty-first century, the majority of energy consumed has been from oil - fossil fuel provided 81% of the world's energy in 2009, with oil the largest contribution. The United States became a world power in the early 20th century as they increased development of oil production and influenced world oil reserves for growth and development. As the 20th century developed, petroleum gained increasing importance by providing heating and power to the commercial and industrial sectors. Oil was also used in transportation; first for railroads and later for motor vehicles.

text: For most of the twentieth century and the early part of the twenty-first century, the majority of energy consumed has been from oil -

text: fossil fuel

text: provided 81% of the world's energy in 2009, with oil the largest contribution. The

text: United States

text: became a world power in the early 20th century as they increased development of oil production and influenced world oil reserves for growth and development. As the 20th century developed,

text: petroleum

text: gained increasing importance by providing heating and power to the commercial and industrial sectors. Oil was also used in transportation; first for

text: railroads

text: and later for motor vehicles.

text: The OPEC Reference Basket (ORB), also referred to as the OPEC Basket, is a weighted average of prices for petroleum blends produced by OPEC members. It is used as an important benchmark for crude oil prices. OPEC has often attempted to keep the price of the OPEC Basket between upper and lower limits, by decreasing and increasing production. This makes the measure important for market analysts. The OPEC Basket, including a mix of light and heavy crude oil products, is heavier than both Brent crude oil, and West Texas Intermediate crude oil.

text: The OPEC Reference Basket (ORB), also referred to as the OPEC Basket, is a

text: weighted average

text: of prices for

text: petroleum

text: blends produced by

text: OPEC

text: members. It is used as an important

text: benchmark for crude oil prices

text: . OPEC has often attempted to keep the price of the OPEC Basket between upper and lower limits, by decreasing and increasing production. This makes the measure important for market analysts. The OPEC Basket, including a mix of light and heavy

text: crude oil products

text: , is heavier than both

text: Brent crude

text: oil, and

text: West Texas Intermediate

text: crude oil.

text: Thermal power from petroleum fired power plants, activated during peak demand, provide the remaining installed production capacity. Thermal power from biomass also provides additional power generation capacity.

text: Thermal power

text: from petroleum fired power plants, activated during peak demand, provide the remaining installed production capacity. Thermal power from biomass also provides additional power generation capacity.

text: In cocurrent systems, the purge gas is 50 °F to 100 °F hotter than the soil discharge temperature. The result is that the purge gas exit temperature may range from 400 °F to 1,000 °F and cannot go directly to the baghouse. Purge gas first enters an afterburner to decontaminate the fine particles, then goes into a cooling unit prior to introduction into the baghouse. Because of the higher temperature and volume of the purge gas, the baghouse and all other downstream processing equipment must be larger than in a countercurrent system. Cocurrent systems do have several advantages over countercurrent systems: The afterburner is located upstream of the baghouse ensuring that fine particles are decontaminated; and because the heated purge gas is introduced at the same end of the drum as the feed soil, the soil is heated faster, resulting in a longer residence time. Higher temperatures and longer residence time mean that cocurrent systems can be used to treat soils contaminated with heavier petroleum products. Cocurrent systems are effective for light and heavy petroleum products including No. 6 fuel oil, crude oil, motor oil, and lubricating oil.

text: In cocurrent systems, the purge gas is 50 °F to 100 °F hotter than the soil discharge temperature. The result is that the purge gas exit temperature may range from 400 °F to 1,000 °F and cannot go directly to the baghouse. Purge gas first enters an afterburner to decontaminate the fine particles, then goes into a cooling unit prior to introduction into the baghouse. Because of the higher temperature and volume of the purge gas, the baghouse and all other

text: downstream processing

text: equipment must be larger than in a countercurrent system. Cocurrent systems do have several advantages over countercurrent systems: The afterburner is located upstream of the baghouse ensuring that fine particles are decontaminated; and because the heated purge gas is introduced at the same end of the drum as the feed soil, the soil is heated faster, resulting in a longer residence time. Higher temperatures and longer residence time mean that cocurrent systems can be used to treat soils contaminated with heavier petroleum products. Cocurrent systems are effective for light and heavy petroleum products including No. 6 fuel oil, crude oil, motor oil, and lubricating oil.

text: The town's major industries include cotton ginning and pressing, flour milling, jute textile production, oil milling, paper production, petroleum production, including refining, electrical power production, solvent extraction, and textile spinning.

text: A Biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, heat, and value-added chemicals from biomass. The biorefinery concept is analogous to today's petroleum refinery, which produce multiple fuels and products from petroleum.

text: A

text: Biorefinery

text: is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, heat, and value-added chemicals from

text: biomass

text: petroleum refinery

text: petroleum

text: Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil is a type of sweet crude oil (sweet crude oil), found primarily in the Appalachian basin in the Marcellus Formation in the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia, and takes its name for the state of Pennsylvania, where it was first extracted in 1859 from the Drake Well. The area's Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil has superior qualities and is free of asphaltic constituents, contains only trace amounts of sulfur and nitrogen, and has excellent characteristics for refining into lubricants. The success of drilling for oil at this well led to "an international search for petroleum, and in many ways eventually changed the way we live." There is archaeological evidence that Native Americans harvested "the oil for medicinal purposes by digging small pits around active seeps and lining them with wood" at least as far back as 1410 AD. European settlers skimmed the "oil from the seeps and using the petroleum as a source of lamp fuel and machinery lubrication."

text: Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil is a type of sweet

text: crude oil

text: sweet crude oil

text: ), found primarily in the

text: Appalachian basin

text: in the

text: Marcellus Formation

text: in the states of

text: New York

text: Pennsylvania

text: Ohio

text: , and

text: West Virginia

text: , and takes its name for the state of Pennsylvania, where it was first extracted in 1859 from the

text: Drake Well

text: . The area's Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil has superior qualities and is free of

text: asphalt

text: ic constituents, contains only trace amounts of

text: sulfur

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: , and has excellent characteristics for refining into lubricants. The success of drilling for oil at this well led to "an international search for petroleum, and in many ways eventually changed the way we live." There is archaeological evidence that Native Americans harvested "the oil for medicinal purposes by digging small pits around active seeps and lining them with wood" at least as far back as 1410 AD. European settlers skimmed the "oil from the seeps and using the petroleum as a source of lamp fuel and machinery lubrication."

text: Petroleum refining processes are the chemical engineering processes and other facilities used in petroleum refineries (also referred to as oil refineries) to transform crude oil into useful products such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils.

text: Petroleum refining processes are the

text: chemical engineering

text: processes and other facilities used in petroleum refineries (also referred to as oil refineries) to transform

text: crude oil

text: into useful products such as

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: (LPG),

text: gasoline or petrol

text: kerosene

text: jet fuel

text: diesel oil

text: and

text: fuel oil

text: s.

text: There are two primary uses for hydrogen today. About half is used in the Haber process to produce ammonia (NH), which is then used directly or indirectly as fertilizer. Because both the world population and the intensive agriculture used to support it are growing, ammonia demand is growing. The other half of current hydrogen production is used to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as fuels. This latter process is known as hydrocracking. Hydrocracking represents an even larger growth area, since rising oil prices encourage oil companies to extract poorer source material, such as tar sands and oil shale. The scale economies inherent in large-scale oil refining and fertilizer manufacture make possible on-site production and "captive" use. Smaller quantities of "merchant" hydrogen are manufactured and delivered to end users as well.

text: There are two primary uses for hydrogen today. About half is used in the

text: Haber process

text: to produce

text: ammonia

text: (NH), which is then used directly or indirectly as

text: fertilizer

text: . Because both the

text: world population

text: and the

text: intensive agriculture

text: used to support it are growing, ammonia demand is growing. The other half of current hydrogen production is used to convert heavy

text: petroleum

text: sources into lighter

text: fractions

text: suitable for use as fuels. This latter process is known as

text: hydrocracking

text: . Hydrocracking represents an even larger growth area, since rising oil prices encourage oil companies to extract poorer source material, such as

text: tar sand

text: s and

text: oil shale

text: . The scale economies inherent in large-scale oil refining and fertilizer manufacture make possible on-site production and "captive" use. Smaller quantities of "merchant" hydrogen are manufactured and delivered to end users as well.

text: In response, the United Nations began to pass a series of resolutions demanding the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Afraid that Saudi Arabia would be invaded next, the Saudi government requested immediate military aid. As a result, the United States began marshalling forces from a variety of nations, styled the Coalition, on the Arabian peninsula. Initially, Saddam Hussein attempted to deter Coalition military action by threatening Kuwait's and Iraq's petroleum production and export. In December 1990, Iraq experimented with the use of explosives to destroy wellheads in the area of the Ahmadi loading complex, developing their capability to destroy Kuwait's petroleum infrastructure on a large scale. On 16 January, Iraqi artillery destroyed an oil storage tank in Khafji, Saudi Arabia, and on 19 January the pumps at the Ahmadi loading complex were opened, pouring crude oil into the Persian Gulf. The oil flowed into the sea at a rate of 200,000 barrels a day, becoming one of the worst ecological disasters to that date.

text: In response, the United Nations began to pass a series of resolutions demanding the withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Afraid that

text: Saudi Arabia

text: would be invaded next, the Saudi government requested immediate military aid. As a result, the United States began marshalling forces from a variety of nations, styled the

text: Coalition

text: , on the

text: Arabian peninsula

text: . Initially, Saddam Hussein attempted to deter Coalition military action by threatening Kuwait's and Iraq's petroleum production and export. In December 1990, Iraq experimented with the use of explosives to destroy wellheads in the area of the Ahmadi loading complex, developing their capability to destroy Kuwait's petroleum infrastructure on a large scale. On 16 January, Iraqi artillery destroyed an oil storage tank in Khafji, Saudi Arabia, and on 19 January the pumps at the Ahmadi loading complex were opened, pouring crude oil into the

text: Persian Gulf

text: . The oil flowed into the sea at a rate of 200,000 barrels a day, becoming one of the worst ecological disasters to that date.

text: The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often with oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.

text: The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of

text: exploration

text: extraction

text: refining

text: transporting

text: (often with

text: oil tanker

text: s and

text: pipelines

text: ), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are

text: fuel oil

text: and gasoline. Petroleum is also the raw material for many

text: chemical products

text: , including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components:

text: upstream

text: midstream

text: and

text: downstream

text: The U.S. EPA defines the term "used oil" as any petroleum or synthetic oil that has been used, and as a result of such use is contaminated by physical or chemical properties. "Used oil" is a precise regulatory term.  "Waste oil" is a more  generic term for oil that has been contaminated with substances that may or may not be hazardous.  Any oil contaminated with hazardous waste may itself be a hazardous waste, and if so, must be managed subject to hazardous waste management standards. Both used oil and waste oil require proper recycling or disposal to avoid creating an environmental problem.

text: The U.S.

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: EPA

text: defines the term "used oil" as any petroleum or synthetic oil that has been used, and as a result of such use is contaminated by physical or chemical properties. "Used oil" is a precise regulatory term.  "Waste oil" is a more  generic term for oil that has been contaminated with substances that may or may not be hazardous.  Any oil contaminated with hazardous waste may itself be a hazardous waste, and if so, must be managed subject to hazardous waste management standards. Both used oil and waste oil require proper recycling or disposal to avoid creating an environmental problem.

text: The largest consumer of fossil fuels in modern agriculture is ammonia production (for fertilizer) via the Haber process, which is essential to high-yielding intensive agriculture. The specific fossil fuel input to fertilizer production is primarily natural gas, to provide hydrogen via steam reforming. Given sufficient supplies of renewable electricity, hydrogen can be generated without fossil fuels using methods such as electrolysis. For example, the Vemork hydroelectric plant in Norway used its surplus electricity output to generate renewable ammonia from 1911 to 1971.

text: The largest consumer of fossil fuels in modern agriculture is

text: ammonia production

text: (for

entity_section: Inorganic fertilizer (synthetic fertilizer)

text: fertilizer

text: ) via the

text: Haber process

text: , which is essential to high-yielding

text: intensive agriculture

text: . The specific fossil fuel input to fertilizer production is primarily

text: natural gas

text: , to provide

text: hydrogen

text: via

text: steam reforming

text: . Given sufficient supplies of

text: renewable electricity

text: , hydrogen can be generated without fossil fuels using methods such as

text: electrolysis

text: . For example, the

text: Vemork

text: hydroelectric plant in Norway used its surplus electricity output to generate

text: renewable ammonia

text: from 1911 to 1971.

text: Over the counter veterinarian use mineral oil is intended as a mild laxative for pets and livestock. Certain mineral oils are used in livestock vaccines, as an adjuvant to stimulate a cell-mediated immune response to the vaccinating agent. In the poultry industry, plain mineral oil can also be swabbed onto the feet of chickens infected with scaly mites on the shank, toes, and webs. Mineral oil suffocates these tiny parasites. In beekeeping, food grade mineral oil-saturated paper napkins placed in hives are used as a treatment for tracheal and other mites. It is also used along with a cotton swab to remove un-shed skin on reptiles such as lizards and snakes.

text: Over the counter veterinarian use mineral oil is intended as a mild laxative for pets and livestock. Certain mineral oils are used in livestock vaccines, as an

text: adjuvant

text: to stimulate a cell-mediated immune response to the vaccinating agent. In the poultry industry, plain mineral oil can also be swabbed onto the feet of chickens infected with scaly mites on the shank, toes, and webs. Mineral oil suffocates these tiny parasites. In beekeeping, food grade mineral oil-saturated paper napkins placed in hives are used as a treatment for tracheal and other mites. It is also used along with a cotton swab to remove un-shed skin on reptiles such as lizards and snakes.

text: Refined Petroleum products — imports:

text: Refined Petroleum products — imports:

text: Natural resources:hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum, arable land

text: Natural resources:

text: hydropower

text: geothermal power

text: petroleum

text: arable land

text: The oil and gas industry is one of the leading industries in Louisiana in the terms of economic impact, taxes paid and people employed.  The Louisiana oil and gas industry is really four industries in one. There is the familiar exploration and production segment, which is responsible for finding and producing oil and natural gas. Next there is the refining section, which takes crude oil and turns it into useful products like gasoline, diesel and chemical feed stock. Next comes the marketing section, which includes the gasoline stations. Finally, there is the transportation section, which includes pipelines carrying crude oil, natural gas and refined products.

text: The economic base for Libya's revolution has been its oil revenues. However, Libya's petroleum reserves were small compared with those of other major Arab petroleum-producing states. As a consequence, Libya was more ready to ration output in order to conserve its natural wealth and less responsive to moderating its price-rise demands than the other countries. Petroleum was seen both as a means of financing the economic and social development of a woefully underdeveloped country and as a political weapon to brandish in the Arab struggle against Israel.

text: An oil can (oilcan or oiler) is a can that holds oil (usually motor oil) for lubricating machines. An oil can can also be used to fill oil-based lanterns. An occupation, referred to as an oiler, can use an oil can (among other tools) to lubricate machinery.

text: An oil can (oilcan or oiler) is a

text: can

text: that holds oil (usually

text: motor oil

text: ) for

text: lubricating

text: machines. An oil can can also be used to fill

text: oil-based lanterns

text: . An occupation, referred to as an

text: oiler

text: , can use an oil can (among other tools) to lubricate machinery.

text: Essar Oil is an India-based company engaged in the exploration and production of oil and natural gas, refining of crude oil, and marketing of petroleum products. It is a part of the Essar Group based in Mumbai. It operates a major refinery in Vadinar, Gujarat, India, which made it the second largest non-state refiner in India in 2009.

text: Essar Oil is an

text: India

text: -based company engaged in the exploration and production of oil and natural gas, refining of

text: crude oil

text: , and marketing of petroleum products. It is a part of the

text: Essar Group

text: based in

text: Mumbai

text: . It operates a

text: major refinery

text: in

text: Vadinar

text: , Gujarat, India, which made it the second largest non-state refiner in India in 2009.

text: The Humboldt Bay Power Plant is located about  north of the collapsed highway overpass and operated fossil-fuel and nuclear units in the 1960s and 1970s. The nuclear unit was cancelled in 1976 because of seismic safety concerns, but the two fossil-fuel units remained in operation. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission performed a post-event survey of the facility's systems in late 1980, but inspectors found only minor effects to the plant's structure, piping, tanks, and other mechanical equipment. It was found that the two units were automatically shut down at the time of the shock for various protective concerns and that there were minor cracks in masonry and concrete, sheared bolts, pipe leaks, and slight movement of water tanks. The deformation of a reinforced masonry wall that resulted in a variable-width gap was the only structural issue.

text: The Humboldt Bay Power Plant is located about  north of the collapsed highway overpass and operated

text: fossil-fuel

text: and nuclear units in the 1960s and 1970s. The nuclear unit was cancelled in 1976 because of seismic safety concerns, but the two fossil-fuel units remained in operation. The

text: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

text: performed a post-event survey of the facility's systems in late 1980, but inspectors found only minor effects to the plant's structure, piping, tanks, and other mechanical equipment. It was found that the two units were automatically shut down at the time of the shock for various protective concerns and that there were minor cracks in masonry and concrete, sheared bolts, pipe leaks, and slight movement of water tanks. The deformation of a reinforced masonry wall that resulted in a variable-width gap was the only structural issue.

text: Crude oil was Vietnam’s leading export until the late 2000s, when high-tech electrical manufactures emerged to become the biggest export market (by 2014, crude oil comprised only 5% of Vietnamese exports, compared to 20% of all exports in 1996). This is in part because Vietnam crude oil peaked in 2004, when crude oil represented 22% of all export earnings. Petroleum exports are in the form of crude petroleum because Vietnam has a very limited refining capacity. Vietnam’s only operational refinery, a facility at Cat Hai near Ho Chi Minh City, has a capacity of only . Refined petroleum accounted for 10.2% of total imports in 2002. As of 2012, Vietnam had only one refinery, the Dung Quat refinery, but a second one, the Nghi Son Refinery was planned and was scheduled for construction in May 2013.

text: Crude oil was Vietnam’s leading export until the late 2000s, when high-tech electrical manufactures emerged to become the biggest export market (by 2014, crude oil comprised only 5% of Vietnamese exports, compared to 20% of all exports in 1996). This is in part because Vietnam crude oil peaked in 2004, when crude oil represented 22% of all export earnings. Petroleum exports are in the form of crude petroleum because Vietnam has a very limited refining capacity. Vietnam’s only operational refinery, a facility at Cat Hai near Ho Chi Minh City, has a capacity of only . Refined petroleum accounted for 10.2% of total imports in 2002. As of 2012, Vietnam had only one refinery, the

text: Dung Quat refinery

text: , but a second one, the

text: Nghi Son Refinery

text: was planned and was scheduled for construction in May 2013.

text: Petroleum Production; Petrochemical Processes; Petroleum Refining

text: The downstream sector commonly refers to the refining of petroleum crude oil and the processing and purifying of raw natural gas, as well as the marketing and distribution of products derived from crude oil and natural gas. The downstream sector touches consumers through products such as gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil, heating oil, fuel oils, lubricants, waxes, asphalt, natural gas, and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) as well as hundreds of petrochemicals. Midstream operations are often included in the downstream category and considered to be a part of the downstream sector.

text: The downstream sector commonly refers to the

text: refining of petroleum crude oil

text: and the

text: processing and purifying of raw natural gas

text: , as well as the marketing and distribution of

text: products derived from crude oil

text: and

text: natural gas

text: . The downstream sector touches consumers through products such as

text: gasoline or petrol

text: kerosene

text: jet fuel

text: diesel oil

text: heating oil

text: fuel oil

text: s,

text: lubricants

text: waxes

text: asphalt

text: natural gas

text: , and

text: liquified petroleum gas (LPG)

text: as well as hundreds of

text: petrochemical

text: s. Midstream operations are often included in the downstream category and considered to be a part of the downstream sector.

text: Subsequent wells expanding outwards from the discovery well delineated the limits of the main productive area by the late 1930s.  In 1936, Mohawk Petroleum discovered the DiGiorgio Area by hitting oil in the Santa Margarita Formation.  The West Arvin area was discovered in 1937, with a well drilled into the Cattani pool of the Chanac Formation.  Also in 1937, General Petroleum Corp. of California discovered the Vaccaro Area.  Each of these areas yielded subsequent discoveries in other deeper pools throughout the 1940s and 1950s.  In 1986, a new discovery was made in the Kern River Formation in the Arvin Area, and smaller pools continue to be found in the widely dispersed oil field – for example, in 2006 Vaquero Energy, one of the field's current operators, found a new pool in the once-abandoned DiGiorgio area in the underlying schist basement rock.

text: India ranks third in oil consumption with 195.5 million tons in 2015 after USA and China. During the calendar year 2015, India imported 195.1 million tons crude oil and 23.3 million tons refined petroleum products and exported 55 million tons refined petroleum products. India has built surplus world class refining capacity using imported crude oil for exporting refined petroleum products. The net imports of crude oil is lesser by one fourth after accounting exports and imports of refined petroleum products. Natural gas production was 29.2 billion cubic meters and consumption 50.6 billion cubic meters during the calendar year 2015.

text: The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) is the oil corporation through which the federal government of Nigeria regulates and participates in the country's petroleum industry.

text: The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) is the oil corporation through which the federal government of

text: Nigeria

text: regulates and participates in the country's

text: petroleum industry

text: Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on the planet. It is a relatively cheap fuel, with some of the largest deposits in regions that are relatively stable politically, such as China, India and the United States. This contrasts with natural gas and petroleum, the largest deposits of which are located in the politically volatile Persian Gulf. Solid coal cannot directly replace natural gas or petroleum in most applications, petroleum is mostly used for transportation and the natural gas not used for electricity generation is used for space, water and industrial heating. Coal can be converted to gas or liquid fuel, but the efficiencies and economics of such processes can make them unfeasible. Vehicles or heaters may require modification to use coal-derived fuels. Coal can produce more pollution than petroleum or natural gas.

text: Coal is the most abundant

text: fossil fuel

text: on the planet. It is a relatively cheap fuel, with some of the largest deposits in regions that are relatively stable politically, such as

text: China

text: India

text: and the

text: United States

text: . This contrasts with

text: natural gas

text: and

text: petroleum

text: , the largest deposits of which are located in the politically volatile

text: Persian Gulf

text: . Solid coal cannot directly replace natural gas or petroleum in most applications, petroleum is mostly used for

text: transportation

text: and the natural gas not used for

text: electricity generation

text: is used for

text: space

text: water

text: and industrial heating. Coal can be converted to gas or liquid fuel, but the efficiencies and economics of such processes can make them unfeasible. Vehicles or heaters may require modification to use coal-derived fuels. Coal can produce more

text: pollution

text: than petroleum or natural gas.

text: Alan Stanley Kornacki (born May 4, 1952, in Bayonne, New Jersey) is an American geologist and retired Army colonel, currently the Senior Staff Geochemist at Shell International Exploration and Production Inc. He received a B.S. in Geology from University of Missouri–Rolla in 1974, before completing his M.S. and Ph.D. in Geology at Harvard University in 1984, on a Graduate Research Fellowship. His dissertation focused on refractory inclusions in Carbonaceous Chondrites. He began a career in the petroleum industry in 1985 when he joined Shell USA. In 1981, he was awarded the Nininger Meteorite Award, and in 2008 he was awarded a professional degree by University of Missouri–Rolla. Alan Kornacki is most known for his characterization of wax from deep water crude oil, an important obstacle in modern drilling and refining technology, and his research on new sources of hydrocarbons such as oil shale.

text: Alan Stanley Kornacki (born May 4, 1952, in

text: Bayonne

text: New Jersey

text: ) is an

text: American

text: geologist

text: and retired

text: Army

text: colonel

text: , currently the Senior Staff Geochemist at

text: Shell International Exploration and Production Inc

text: . He received a B.S. in Geology from

entity_name: Missouri University of Science and Technology

text: University of Missouri–Rolla

text: in 1974, before completing his M.S. and Ph.D. in Geology at

entity_name: Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: Harvard University

text: in 1984, on a

text: Graduate Research Fellowship

text: . His dissertation focused on refractory inclusions in

text: Carbonaceous Chondrites

text: . He began a career in the petroleum industry in 1985 when he joined

text: Shell USA

text: . In 1981, he was awarded the

text: Nininger Meteorite Award

text: , and in 2008 he was awarded a

text: professional degree

text: by

text: University of Missouri–Rolla

text: . Alan Kornacki is most known for his characterization of

text: wax

text: from deep water

text: crude oil

text: , an important obstacle in modern drilling and refining technology, and his research on new sources of hydrocarbons such as

text: oil shale

text: When Squire was 15 years old, he left school to work in a local paper mill, but left soon afterward to work at the Alexander, Scofield & Company oil refinery. The petroleum refining industry was relatively new, having been founded in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1850 by Samuel Kier. The first production oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859, and by the 1860s crude petroleum was being extensively refined into kerosene for lighting purposes (supplanting whale oil). Alexander, Scofield & Company formed in 1863, and was itself a new business. Continuing his education at night with private tutors, Squire worked his way up from refinery worker to kerosene dealer and then bookkeeper. Alexander, Scofield & Company was one of the four largest petroleum refineries in the Cleveland area, and in 1872 it merged with John D. Rockefeller Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler (the precursor to Standard Oil). On April 29, 1872, Squire and fellow bookkeeper John Teagle formed Squire & Teagle, a firm which bought and sold petroleum products. The following year, the two men allowed one of their former employers, William C. Scofield, to purchase an interest in the business. The agreement forming Squire & Teagle ran for only two years, and in 1875 Squire sold his portion of the business to Daniel Shurmer.

text: When Squire was 15 years old, he left school to work in a local paper mill, but left soon afterward to work at the Alexander, Scofield & Company oil refinery. The petroleum refining industry was relatively new, having been founded in

text: Pittsburgh

text: Pennsylvania

text: , in 1850 by

text: Samuel Kier

text: . The first production

text: oil well

text: was drilled in Pennsylvania in 1859, and by the 1860s crude

text: petroleum

text: was being extensively refined into

text: kerosene

text: for lighting purposes (supplanting

text: whale oil

text: ). Alexander, Scofield & Company formed in 1863, and was itself a new business. Continuing his education at night with private tutors, Squire worked his way up from refinery worker to kerosene dealer and then

text: bookkeeper

text: . Alexander, Scofield & Company was one of the four largest petroleum refineries in the Cleveland area, and in 1872 it merged with

text: John D. Rockefeller

text: Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler

text: (the precursor to

text: Standard Oil

text: ). On April 29, 1872, Squire and fellow bookkeeper John Teagle formed Squire & Teagle, a firm which bought and sold petroleum products. The following year, the two men allowed one of their former employers, William C. Scofield, to purchase an interest in the business. The agreement forming Squire & Teagle ran for only two years, and in 1875 Squire sold his portion of the business to Daniel Shurmer.

text: Kenya Pipeline Company operates a pipeline system for transportation of refined petroleum products from Mombasa to Nairobi and western Kenya towns of Nakuru, Kisumu and Eldoret. Working closely with the National Oil Corporation of Kenya, KPC operates 5 storage and distribution depots for conventional petroleum products, located in Eldoret, Kisumu, Mombasa, Nairobi and Nakuru. Depots are fed by domestic-manufactured product from the Kenya Petroleum Refinery near Nairobi and imported, refined petroleum product from the Kipevu Oil Storage Facility near Mombasa. The company operates two aviation fuel depots at Jomo Kenyatta Airport, Nairobi, and Moi International Airport, Mombasa

text: Kenya Pipeline Company operates a pipeline system for transportation of refined petroleum products from

text: Mombasa

text: to

text: Nairobi

text: and western Kenya towns of

text: Nakuru

text: Kisumu

text: and

text: Eldoret

text: . Working closely with the

text: National Oil Corporation of Kenya

text: , KPC operates 5 storage and distribution depots for conventional petroleum products, located in Eldoret,

text: Kisumu

text: , Mombasa, Nairobi and Nakuru. Depots are fed by domestic-manufactured product from the Kenya Petroleum Refinery near Nairobi and imported, refined petroleum product from the Kipevu Oil Storage Facility near Mombasa. The company operates two aviation fuel depots at

text: Jomo Kenyatta Airport

text: Nairobi

text: , and

text: Moi International Airport

text: Mombasa

text: SK Energy and SK Innovation (Korean: SK 에너지 or 에스케이 에너지 and SK 이노베이션 or 에스케이 이노베이션, ) is a South Korean enterprise formed as part of the July 1, 2007, reorganization of SK Corporation into a holding company and operating company, SK Holdings and SK Energy, respectively. In 2011, the petroleum business was spun off to become SK Energy. Simultaneously the chemical business was spun off to become SK Innovation. SK Energy was founded in 1962 as Korea’s first oil refiner-. In 1982, changed company name toYukong.SK Energy is an energy and petrochemical company with 5,000 employees, KRW 23.65 trillion in sales and 26 offices spanning the globe. The company is Korea’s largest (and Asia’s fourth largest) refiner with a refining capacity of 1.15 million barrels per day, as of 2006. SK Energy is engaged in exploration and development activities in 26 oil / gas blocks in 14 nations worldwide.

text: In 1954 Bryan Todd entered into an arrangement with Gulf Oil to acquire petroleum products. That company did not give Europa any reduction on "posted prices". However, an arrangement was entered into under which the two companies established a refining company in The Bahamas known as Pan Eastern Refining Company. It purchased crude oil from Gulf at the standard posted price, arranged to have the oil refined by Gulf at one of its refineries, for a fee of 47.5c per barrel, and sold the refined petrol to Europa and the other products ("heavy ends") to Gulf, all at the posted prices. Depending on various factors, Pan Eastern made a profit of 50c for every barrel of crude oil refined, or about 5c for every gallon of petrol Europa purchased. This profit was shared between Gulf and Europa.

text: In 1954 Bryan Todd entered into an arrangement with

text: Gulf Oil

text: to acquire petroleum products. That company did not give Europa any reduction on "

text: posted prices

text: ". However, an arrangement was entered into under which the two companies established a refining company in

text: The Bahamas

text: known as Pan Eastern Refining Company. It purchased crude oil from Gulf at the standard posted price, arranged to have the oil refined by Gulf at one of its refineries, for a fee of 47.5c per barrel, and sold the refined petrol to Europa and the other products ("heavy ends") to Gulf, all at the posted prices. Depending on various factors, Pan Eastern made a profit of 50c for every barrel of crude oil refined, or about 5c for every gallon of petrol Europa purchased. This profit was shared between Gulf and Europa.

text: The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of  in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of  in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of  throughout the biosphere (reservoir effects).  Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its  to decay below detectable levels, they contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of  in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of  in the atmosphere, which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began.

text: The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of  in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of  in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of  throughout the

text: biosphere

text: (reservoir effects).  Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to

text: fossil fuels

text: is substantially longer than the time it takes for its  to decay below detectable levels, they contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of  in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of  in the atmosphere, which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began.

text: The energy sector in Zanzibar consists of unreliable electric power, petroleum and petroleum products; it is also supplemented by firewood and its related products. Coal and gas are rarely used for either domestic and industrial purposes.

text: In ancient China, the use of petroleum in warfare was the most effective during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period and the following four major dynasties and powers from Song through to Yuan, including the Jin Dynasty and Liao Dynasty. During this time a small dynasty in Vietnam paid tribute to the Chinese emperor with petroleum. Before this time, fire attacks were limited to burning wood or animal fat; using petroleum greatly increased the potency of fire attacks, and the fact that trying to douse the burning petroleum with water will only spread the fire more rapidly made burning oil an ideal weapon for destroying cities filled with wooden structures.

text: In ancient China, the use of petroleum in warfare was the most effective during the

text: Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period

text: and the following four major dynasties and powers from

text: Song

text: through to

text: Yuan

text: , including the

text: Jin Dynasty

text: and

text: Liao Dynasty

text: . During this time a small dynasty in

text: Vietnam

text: paid tribute to the Chinese emperor with petroleum. Before this time, fire attacks were limited to burning wood or animal fat; using petroleum greatly increased the potency of fire attacks, and the fact that trying to douse the burning petroleum with water will only spread the fire more rapidly made burning oil an ideal weapon for destroying cities filled with wooden structures.

text: Petroecuador is engaged in the exploration, production, storage, refining of crude oil, and retailing petroleum products. It operates through subsidiaries, such as Petroproduccion (exploration and production), Petroindustrial (refining), and Petrocomercial (transportation and marketing of refined products). The company operates several oil fields, including Shushufindi, Sacha, Auca, Lago Agrio, and Libertador. It also operates the Trans-Ecuadorian oil pipeline network, Sistema de Oleoducto Transecuatoriano (SOTE), built in 1972 for Texaco-Gulf. Ecuador is the fifth largest oil producer in the Latin American region.

text: Petroecuador is engaged in the exploration, production, storage, refining of

text: crude oil

text: , and retailing petroleum products. It operates through subsidiaries, such as Petroproduccion (exploration and production), Petroindustrial (refining), and Petrocomercial (transportation and marketing of refined products). The company operates several oil fields, including Shushufindi, Sacha, Auca,

text: Lago Agrio

text: , and Libertador. It also operates the Trans-Ecuadorian oil pipeline network, Sistema de Oleoducto Transecuatoriano (SOTE), built in 1972 for Texaco-Gulf. Ecuador is the fifth largest oil producer in the Latin American region.

text: Canadian economist Jeff Rubin has stated that high oil prices are likely to result in increased consumption in developed countries through partial manufacturing de-globalisation of trade. Manufacturing production would move closer to the end consumer to minimise transportation network costs, and therefore a demand decoupling from gross domestic product would occur. Higher oil prices would lead to increased freighting costs and consequently, the manufacturing industry would move back to the developed countries since freight costs would outweigh the current economic wage advantage of developing countries. Economic research carried out by the International Monetary Fund puts overall price elasticity of demand for oil at −0.025 short-term and −0.093 long term.

text: Canadian economist Jeff Rubin has stated that high oil prices are likely to result in increased consumption in developed countries through partial manufacturing de-globalisation of trade. Manufacturing production would move closer to the end consumer to minimise transportation network costs, and therefore a demand decoupling from gross domestic product would occur. Higher oil prices would lead to increased freighting costs and consequently, the manufacturing industry would move back to the developed countries since freight costs would outweigh the current economic wage advantage of developing countries. Economic research carried out by the

text: International Monetary Fund

text: puts overall

text: price elasticity of demand

text: for oil at −0.025 short-term and −0.093 long term.

text: Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock, partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils.

text: Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as

text: biodiesel

text: , straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel

text: diesel

text: in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock, partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower

text: gel point

text: than most other vegetable oils.

text: crude oil 1,997 km; petroleum products 3,161 km (2010)

text: Fossil-fuel consumption subsidies were $409 billion in 2010, oil products being half of it. Renewable-energy subsidies were $66 billion in 2010 and will reach $250 billion by 2035, according to IEA. Renewable energy is subsidized in order to compete in the market, increase their volume and develop the technology so that the subsidies become unnecessary with the development. Eliminating fossil-fuel subsidies could bring economic and environmental benefits. Phasing out fossil-fuel subsidies by 2020 would cut primary energy demand 5%. Since the start of 2010, at least 15 countries have taken steps to phase out fossil-fuel subsidies.  According to IEA onshore wind may become competitive around 2020 in the European Union.

text: Crude oil 270 km; petroleum products 14 km

text: The taxation of petroleum activities is based on the rules governing ordinary business taxation. There is considerable excess return (resource rent) associated with the extraction of oil and gas. Therefore, a special tax of 51% on income from petroleum extraction has been introduced, in addition to the ordinary income tax of 27%. Consequently, the marginal tax rate on the excess return within the petroleum sector is 78%.

text: During the last few decades, environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil, has led to renewed interest in an electric transportation infrastructure. EVs differ from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable sources such as tidal power, solar power, and wind power or any combination of those. The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles varies depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. The electricity may then be stored on board the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors. Vehicles making use of engines working on the principle of combustion can usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of hybrid or plug-in electric vehicles is regenerative braking due to their capability to recover energy normally lost during braking as electricity is stored in the on-board battery.

text: During the last few decades,

entity_name: Environmental impact of the petroleum industry

text: environmental impact

text: of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of

text: peak oil

text: , has led to renewed interest in an electric transportation infrastructure. EVs differ from

text: fossil fuel

text: -powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels,

text: nuclear power

text: , and

text: renewable

text: sources such as

text: tidal power

text: solar power

text: , and

text: wind power

text: or any combination of those. The

text: carbon footprint

text: and other emissions of electric vehicles varies depending on the fuel and technology used for

text: electricity generation

text: . The electricity may then be stored on board the vehicle using a

text: battery

text: flywheel

text: , or

text: supercapacitor

text: s. Vehicles making use of engines working on the principle of

text: combustion

text: can usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of hybrid or plug-in electric vehicles is

text: regenerative braking

text: due to their capability to recover energy normally lost during braking as electricity is stored in the on-board battery.

text: Production of gasoline is achieved by distillation of crude oil. The desirable liquid is separated from the crude oil in refineries. Crude oil is extracted from the ground in several processes, the most commonly seen may be beam pumps. To create gasoline, petroleum must first be removed from crude oil.

text: Production of gasoline is achieved by

text: distillation

text: of

text: crude oil

text: . The desirable liquid is separated from the crude oil in

text: refineries

text: . Crude oil is extracted from the ground in several processes, the most commonly seen may be

text: beam pump

text: s. To create gasoline,

text: petroleum

text: must first be removed from crude oil.

text: Nigeria's petroleum is classified mostly as "light" and "sweet", as the oil is largely free of sulphur. Nigeria is the largest producer of sweet oil in OPEC. This sweet oil is similar in composition to petroleum extracted from the North Sea. This crude oil is known as "Bonny light". Names of other Nigerian crudes, all of which are named according to export terminal, are Qua Ibo, Escravos blend, Brass River, Forcados, and Pennington Anfan.

text: Nigeria's petroleum is classified mostly as "light" and "sweet", as the oil is largely free of

text: sulphur

text: . Nigeria is the largest producer of

text: sweet oil

text: in OPEC. This sweet oil is similar in composition to petroleum extracted from the

text: North Sea

text: . This crude oil is known as "Bonny light". Names of other Nigerian crudes, all of which are named according to export terminal, are Qua Ibo, Escravos blend,

text: Brass River

text: , Forcados, and Pennington Anfan.

text: The first major test of New Deal legislation came in Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, announced January 7, 1935. Contested in this case was the National Industrial Recovery Act, Section 9(c), in which Congress had delegated to the President authority "to prohibit the transportation in interstate and foreign commerce of petroleum ... produced or withdrawn from storage in excess of the amount permitted ... by any State law". The NIRA passed in June 1933, and Roosevelt moved quickly to file executive orders to regulate the oil industry. Two small, independent oil producers, Panama Refining Co. and Amazon Petroleum Co. filed suit seeking an injunction to halt enforcement, arguing that the law exceeded Congress's interstate commerce power and improperly delegated authority to the President.

text: The first major test of New Deal legislation came in

text: Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan

text: , announced January 7, 1935. Contested in this case was the

text: National Industrial Recovery Act

text: , Section 9(c), in which Congress had delegated to the President authority "to prohibit the transportation in interstate and foreign commerce of petroleum ... produced or withdrawn from storage in excess of the amount permitted ... by any State law". The NIRA passed in June 1933, and Roosevelt moved quickly to file executive orders to regulate the oil industry. Two small, independent oil producers, Panama Refining Co. and Amazon Petroleum Co. filed suit seeking an injunction to halt enforcement, arguing that the law exceeded Congress's interstate commerce power and improperly delegated authority to the President.

text: The United States' relationship with the Arab World prior to the Second World War was limited. Moreover, in comparison to European powers such as Britain and France which had managed to colonize almost all of the Arab World after defeating the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the United States was popular and respected among the Arabs, for having brought modern medicine, and setting up educational institutions in several Arab nations. The US had also provided the Arab World with highly skilled petroleum engineers. Thus, there were some connections which were made between the United States and the Arab World, before the Second World War. Other examples of corporations between the US and the Arab World are the Red Line Agreement signed in 1928 and the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement signed in 1944. Both of these agreements were legally binding and reflected an American interest in control of Arab and Middle Eastern energy resources, namely oil, and moreover reflected an American security imperative to prevent the (re)emergence of a powerful regional rival. The Red Line Agreement had been part of a network of agreements made in the 1920s to restrict supply of petroleum and ensure that the major [mostly American] companies...could control oil prices on world markets. The Red Line agreement governed the development of Arab oil for the next two decades. The Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944 was based on negotiations between the United States and Britain over the control of Arab and Middle Eastern oil.

text: The

text: United States

text: ' relationship with the

text: Arab World

text: prior to the Second World War was limited. Moreover, in comparison to

text: European powers

text: such as

text: Britain

text: and

text: France

text: which had managed to colonize almost all of the Arab World after defeating the

text: Ottoman Empire

text: in 1918, the United States was popular and respected among the Arabs, for having brought modern medicine, and setting up educational institutions in several Arab nations. The US had also provided the Arab World with highly skilled petroleum engineers. Thus, there were some connections which were made between the United States and the Arab World, before the Second World War. Other examples of corporations between the US and the Arab World are the Red Line Agreement signed in 1928 and the

text: Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement

text: signed in 1944. Both of these agreements were legally binding and reflected an American interest in control of Arab and Middle Eastern energy resources, namely

text: oil

text: , and moreover reflected an American security imperative to prevent the (re)emergence of a powerful regional rival. The

text: Red Line Agreement

text: had been part of a network of agreements made in the 1920s to restrict supply of petroleum and ensure that the major [mostly American] companies...could control oil prices on world markets. The Red Line agreement governed the development of Arab oil for the next two decades. The Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944 was based on negotiations between the United States and Britain over the control of Arab and Middle Eastern oil.

text: Between 2018 and 2030, cumulative additional oil production is projected to be  for the mean oil resource case, while the low and high resource cases project a cumulative additional oil production of 1.9 and , respectively. In 2007, the United States consumed 20.68 m bbls of petroleum products per day. It produced roughly  of crude oil, and imported  of crude and  of petroleum products.

text: While there is a general consensus among the scientific community that anthropogenic GHG emissions are forcing changes in the global climate system, there is much less agreement about what should be done to address the problem because both the causes and potential solutions involve significant economic, political, and as Ingrid Kelley points out, social and cultural issues. Addressing climate change has been, and will continue to be particularly difficult for the United States because the U.S. was born during the Industrial Revolution and its growth has been powered by fossil fuels. Coal, for example, was first commercially mined in the United States in 1748, and within a few years after the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, Pittsburgh became the first industrial center in the country to use coal-fired steam power in its manufacturing operations. Electric generating plants first used pulverized coal in 1918, and that same basic method of generation is still in use today. In 2009, coal was used to produce 45% of electricity in the U.S. and that proportion is projected to remain more or less constant through 2035. Largely because of the Country's reliance on coal, electricity generation accounted for 34% of U.S. GHG emissions in 2007, followed by transportation sources (28%) and other industrial sources (19%). In 2005, the United States emitted 18% of the world's total GHG emissions, making it the second largest emitter after China. While the technology that powers our "fossil fuel culture" is part of the climate change problem, and more sustainable technologies will undoubtedly be part of the solution, another important factor in our efforts to stop climate change is the "blindness" that our economic system exhibits toward environmental degradation.

text: Crude oil is essentially a mixture of many different hydrocarbons, all of varying lengths and complexities. In order to separate the individual components that make up the raw natural resource, the crude oil must be fractionally distilled so that chemical components can be removed one at a time according to their boiling points.

text: Crude oil is essentially a mixture of many different hydrocarbons, all of varying lengths and complexities. In order to separate the individual components that make up the raw natural resource, the crude oil must be

text: fractionally distilled

text: so that chemical components can be removed one at a time according to their boiling points.

text: Petroleum refining in the United States in 2013 produced 18.9 million barrels per day of refined petroleum products, more than any other country. Although the US was the world's largest net importer of refined petroleum products as recently as 2008, the US became a net exporter in 2010, and in 2014 was the largest exporter and the largest net exporter of refined petroleum. As of January 2015, there were 137 operating refineries in the US, distributed among 30 states.

text: An oil filtration system, chemical treatment, or diatomaceous earth powder all help remove tiny food particles that are not always visible.  Using these systems doubles the life of the oil.  Oil filtration systems can sometimes be purchased as an enclosed part of the fryer to avoid involving employees in the somewhat dangerous process of filtering the oil with an exterior system.  Many restaurants use a portable oil filtration system to transport waste oil to a disposal area.  However, even old oil is not completely useless.  There are ways (involving other chemicals and machinery) to “recycle” old oil as biodiesel that can power diesel vehicles.

text: An oil filtration system, chemical treatment, or

text: diatomaceous earth

text: powder all help remove tiny food particles that are not always visible.  Using these systems doubles the life of the oil.  Oil filtration systems can sometimes be purchased as an enclosed part of the fryer to avoid involving employees in the somewhat dangerous process of filtering the oil with an exterior system.  Many restaurants use a portable oil filtration system to transport waste oil to a disposal area.  However, even old oil is not completely useless.  There are ways (involving other chemicals and machinery) to “

text: recycle

text: ” old oil as

text: biodiesel

text: that can power diesel vehicles.

text: The primary end-products produced in petroleum refining may be grouped into four categories: light distillates, middle distillates, heavy distillates and others.

text: Kuo Kuang Power Corporation is a company owned by China National Petroleum Corporation [CPC] (45%), CTCI Taiwan (20%) and Meiya Power Company (35%)

text: Nigeria was the world's tenth largest oil exporter. The abundant oil reserves resulted in widespread exploitation. The Niger Delta region encompasses about 8% of Nigeria’s landmass and is the largest wetlands region on the African continent. Oil drilling in the region began in the 1950s. In the beginning, the oil drilling in the region really stimulated Nigeria’s economy and was extremely beneficial to the country. Numerous multinational corporations established oil operations in the region and made a conscious effort to not violate any environmental or human rights regulations. Shell began drilling in the Niger Delta region in 1956. Over time, Shell’s presence in Nigeria has been very detrimental.These negative consequence are the result of thousands of oil spills, human rights violations, environmental destruction, and corruption. Over the past half century, Nigeria has become a plutocracy; political power is concentrated solely in the hands of the socioeconomic elite. Shell’s strong presence has played a major role in the absence of democracy in Nigeria. According to the documentary Poison Fire, one and a half million tons of oil have been discharged into the Delta's farms, forests, and rivers since oil drilling began in 1956. This is equivalent to 50 Exxon Valdez disasters. Hundreds of kilometers of rain forest have been destroyed by the oil spills. When petroleum is discharged into the soil, the soil becomes acidic, which disrupts photosynthesis and kills trees because their roots are not able to get oxygen. Moreover, the fish population has also been negatively affected by oil drilling. The region is home to over 250 different fish species, and 20 of these species are found nowhere else in the world. If oil spills continue at this rate entire species will become extinct and the entire Nigerian fishing industry will be decimated.

text: Nigeria was the world's tenth

text: largest oil exporter

text: Exxon Valdez

text: disasters. Hundreds of kilometers of

text: rain forest

text: have been destroyed by the oil spills. When petroleum is discharged into the soil, the soil becomes acidic, which disrupts

text: photosynthesis

text: and kills trees because their roots are not able to get oxygen. Moreover, the fish population has also been negatively affected by oil drilling. The region is home to over 250 different fish species, and 20 of these species are found nowhere else in the world. If oil spills continue at this rate entire species will become extinct and the entire Nigerian fishing industry will be decimated.

text: In government, Huhne maintained a flexible approach on the subject of nuclear energy, advocating the three-pronged portfolio approach to energy: a commitment to nuclear energy; the development of more renewable energy, such as wind and sea power; and new carbon-capture technology to mitigate the damaging environmental effects of fossil fuel-fired power plants and industrial facilities. In an interview with The Observer in March 2011, after the Fukushima disaster in Japan, Huhne stated that: "there are a lot of issues outside of the realm of nuclear safety, which we will have to assess. One is what the economics of nuclear power post-Fukushima will be, if there is an increase in the cost in capital to nuclear operators." This represents an evolution of his approach to the nuclear issue. In 2007, Huhne was quoted as saying: "Nuclear is a tried, tested and failed technology and the government must stop putting time, effort and subsidies into this outdated industry."

text: In government, Huhne maintained a flexible approach on the subject of nuclear energy, advocating the three-pronged portfolio approach to energy: a commitment to nuclear energy; the development of more renewable energy, such as wind and sea power; and new carbon-capture technology to mitigate the damaging environmental effects of fossil fuel-fired power plants and industrial facilities. In an interview with

text: The Observer

text: in March 2011, after the

text: Fukushima disaster

text: in Japan, Huhne stated that: "there are a lot of issues outside of the realm of nuclear safety, which we will have to assess. One is what the economics of nuclear power post-Fukushima will be, if there is an increase in the cost in capital to nuclear operators." This represents an evolution of his approach to the nuclear issue. In 2007, Huhne was quoted as saying: "Nuclear is a tried, tested and failed technology and the government must stop putting time, effort and subsidies into this outdated industry."

text: In the 1930s, as a consequence of worldwide economic depression, the lack of new oil discoveries, increased taxation, political instability, and Venezuela's emergence as a more attractive source of petroleum, output fell to just 20% of its 1921 level. Production began to recover with the 1932 discovery of the Poza Rica field near Veracruz, which would become Mexico's main source of petroleum for the next several decades.

text: In the 1930s, as a consequence of worldwide economic depression, the lack of new oil discoveries, increased taxation, political instability, and

text: Venezuela

text: 's emergence as a more attractive source of petroleum, output fell to just 20% of its 1921 level. Production began to recover with the 1932 discovery of the

text: Poza Rica

text: field near

text: Veracruz

text: , which would become Mexico's main source of petroleum for the next several decades.

text: The Uganda National Oil Company (UNOC), also known as the National Oil Company of Uganda, is a limited liability petroleum company in Uganda and owned by the Ugandan government. The 2013 Petroleum (Exploration, Development and Production) Act of Uganda provides for the establishment of the national oil company. UNOC's board of directors was inaugurated on 23 October 2015 by the president of Uganda.

text: The Uganda National Oil Company (UNOC), also known as the National Oil Company of Uganda, is a limited liability

text: petroleum

text: company in

text: Uganda

text: and owned by the

text: Ugandan government

text: . The 2013 Petroleum (Exploration, Development and Production) Act of Uganda provides for the establishment of the national oil company. UNOC's board of directors was inaugurated on 23 October 2015 by the president of Uganda.

text: There is a great deal more leeway and variety among the oils used. Different mineral oils, linseed oil, castor oil, eucalyptus oil, lanolin, and oil of turpentine can be found most frequently among the many formulas. Sesame oil is also commonly used.

text: There is a great deal more leeway and variety among the oils used. Different mineral oils,

text: linseed

text: oil,

text: castor oil

text: eucalyptus

text: oil,

text: lanolin

text: , and oil of

text: turpentine

text: can be found most frequently among the many formulas.

text: Sesame

text: oil is also commonly used.

text: The Lac-Mégantic rail disaster occurred in the town of Lac-Mégantic, in the Eastern Townships of the Canadian province of Quebec, at approximately 01:15 EDT, on July 6, 2013, when an unattended 74-car freight train carrying Bakken Formation crude oil rolled down a 1.2% grade from Nantes and derailed downtown, resulting in the fire and explosion of multiple tank cars. Forty-two people were confirmed dead, with five more missing and presumed dead. More than 30 buildings in the town's centre, roughly half of the downtown area, were destroyed, and all but three of the thirty-nine remaining downtown buildings are to be demolished due to petroleum contamination of the townsite. Initial newspaper reports described a  blast radius.

text: The Lac-Mégantic rail disaster occurred in the town of

text: Lac-Mégantic

text: , in the

text: Eastern Townships

text: of the

text: Canadian

text: province of

text: Quebec

text: , at approximately 01:15

text: EDT

text: , on July 6, 2013, when an unattended 74-car

text: freight train

text: carrying

text: Bakken Formation

text: crude oil

text: rolled down a 1.2% grade from

text: Nantes

text: and

text: derailed

text: downtown, resulting in the fire and explosion of multiple

text: tank car

text: s. Forty-two people were confirmed dead, with five more missing and presumed dead. More than 30 buildings in the town's centre, roughly half of the downtown area, were destroyed, and all but three of the thirty-nine remaining downtown buildings are to be demolished due to petroleum contamination of the townsite. Initial newspaper reports described a  blast radius.

text: Caribbean Petroleum was incorporated in 1987 through the merger of Caribbean Gulf Refining Corp., Gulf Petroleum S.A., and Compañía Petrolera Chevron, Inc. The Bayamón refinery was originally built in 1955 to supply the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority Palo Seco and San Juan Power Plant.

text: In the international petroleum industry, crude oil products are traded on various oil bourses based on established chemical profiles, delivery locations, and financial terms. The chemical profiles, or crude oil assays, specify important properties such as the oil's API gravity. The delivery locations are usually sea ports close to the oil fields from which the crude was obtained (and new fields are constantly being explored), and the pricing is usually quoted based on F.O.B. (free on board, without consideration of final delivery costs).

text: In the international

text: petroleum industry

text: , crude oil products are traded on various

text: oil bourse

text: s based on established chemical profiles, delivery locations, and financial terms. The chemical profiles, or

text: crude oil assay

text: s, specify important properties such as the oil's

text: API gravity

text: . The delivery locations are usually sea ports close to the

text: oil field

text: s from which the crude was obtained (and

text: new fields

text: are constantly being explored), and the pricing is usually quoted based on

text: F.O.B.

text: (free on board, without consideration of final delivery costs).

text: Due to increasing concerns about air quality, climate change and fossil fuel shortages, nuclear power has been looked into as an alternative to coal power in China. China has two major nuclear power companies, the China National Nuclear Corporation operating mainly in north-east China, and the China General Nuclear Power Group, - formerly known as China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group, - operating mainly in south-east China. The People's Republic of China is also involved in the development of nuclear fusion reactors through its participation in the ITER project, having constructed an experimental nuclear fusion reactor known as EAST located in Hefei, as well as research and development into the thorium fuel cycle as a potential alternative means of nuclear fission.

text: Due to increasing concerns about air quality, climate change and fossil fuel shortages, nuclear power has been looked into as an alternative to

text: coal power in China

text: . China has two major nuclear power companies, the

text: China National Nuclear Corporation

text: operating mainly in north-east China, and the

text: China General Nuclear Power Group

text: , - formerly known as China Guangdong Nuclear Power Group, - operating mainly in south-east China. The

text: People's Republic of China

text: is also involved in the development of

text: nuclear fusion

text: reactors through its participation in the

text: ITER

text: project, having constructed an experimental nuclear fusion reactor known as

entity_name: Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak

text: EAST

text: located in

text: Hefei

text: , as well as research and development into the

text: thorium fuel cycle

text: as a potential alternative means of

text: nuclear fission

text: Another effect was sharp improvement of Iran's economy; the British-led oil embargo against Iran ended, and oil revenue increased significantly beyond the pre-nationalisation level. Despite Iran not controlling its national oil, the Shah agreed to replacing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company with a consortium—British Petroleum and eight European and American oil companies; in result, oil revenues increased from $34 million in 1954–1955 to $181 million in 1956–1957, and continued increasing, and the United States sent development aid and advisers. The Shah's government attempted to solve the issue of oil nationalization through this method, and Iran began to develop rapidly under his rule. The Shah later in his memoirs declared that Mossadegh was a "dictator" that was "damaging" Iran through his "stubbornness", while he (the Shah) "followed" the smarter option. By the 1970s, Iran was wealthier than all of its surrounding neighbors, and economists frequently predicted that it would become a major global economic power, and a developed country.

text: Another effect was sharp improvement of Iran's economy; the British-led oil embargo against Iran ended, and oil revenue increased significantly beyond the pre-nationalisation level. Despite Iran not controlling its national oil, the Shah agreed to replacing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company with a consortium—British Petroleum and eight European and American oil companies; in result, oil revenues increased from $34 million in 1954–1955 to $181 million in 1956–1957, and continued increasing, and the United States sent development aid and advisers. The Shah's government attempted to solve the issue of oil nationalization through this method, and Iran began to develop rapidly under his rule. The Shah later in his memoirs declared that Mossadegh was a "dictator" that was "damaging" Iran through his "stubbornness", while he (the Shah) "followed" the smarter option. By the 1970s, Iran was wealthier than all of its surrounding neighbors, and economists frequently predicted that it would become a major global economic power, and a

text: developed country

text: The alkanes have two main commercial sources: petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas.

text: The alkanes have two main commercial sources:

text: petroleum

text: (crude oil) and

text: natural gas

text: A low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS) is a rule enacted to reduce carbon intensity in transportation fuels as compared to conventional petroleum fuels, such as gasoline and diesel. The most common low-carbon fuels are alternative fuels and cleaner fossil fuels, such as natural gas (CNG and LPG). The main purpose of a low-carbon fuel standard is to decrease carbon dioxide emissions associated with  vehicles powered by various types of internal combustion engines while also considering the entire life cycle ("well to wheels"), in order to reduce the carbon footprint of transportation.

text: A low-carbon fuel standard (LCFS) is a rule enacted to reduce

text: carbon intensity

text: in transportation fuels as compared to conventional

text: petroleum fuel

text: s, such as

text: gasoline

text: and

text: diesel

text: . The most common low-carbon fuels are

text: alternative fuel

text: s and cleaner

text: fossil fuel

text: s, such as

text: natural gas

text: CNG

text: and

text: LPG

text: ). The main purpose of a low-carbon fuel standard is to decrease

text: carbon dioxide

text: emissions associated with  vehicles powered by various types of internal combustion engines while also considering the entire

text: life cycle

text: ("well to wheels"), in order to reduce the

text: carbon footprint

text: of transportation.

text: The Powers Award, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1951.

text: United States crude oil prices averaged $30 a barrel in 2003 due to political instability within various oil producing nations.It rose 19% from the average in 2002. The 2003 invasion of Iraq marked a significant event for oil markets because Iraq contains a large amount of global oil reserves.  The conflict coincided with an increase in global demand for petroleum, but it also reduced Iraq's current oil production and has been blamed for increasing oil prices.  However, oil company CEO Matthew Simmons emphasizes the peaking and decline of oil-exporting in Mexico, Indonesia and the United Kingdom is the reason for the price gouging. According to Simmons, isolated events, such as the Iraq war, affect short-term prices but do not determine a long-term trend. Simmons cites the use of enhanced oil recovery techniques in large fields such as Mexico's Cantarell, which maintained production for a few years until it eventually declined. Pumping oil out of Iraq may reduce petroleum prices in the short term, but will be unable to perpetually lower the price. From Simmons' point of view, the invasion of Iraq is associated with the start of long-term increase in oil prices, but it may mitigate the decline in oil production by retaining a partial amount of Iraq's oil reserves. As a direct consequence, the oil production capacity was diminished to  per day.

text: United States

text: crude oil prices averaged $30 a barrel in 2003 due to political instability within various oil producing nations.It rose 19% from the average in 2002. The

text: 2003 invasion of Iraq

text: marked a significant event for oil markets because

text: Iraq

text: contains a large amount of global

text: oil reserves

text: .  The conflict coincided with an increase in global demand for petroleum, but it also reduced Iraq's current oil production and has been blamed for increasing oil prices.  However, oil company CEO

text: Matthew Simmons

text: emphasizes the

text: peaking and decline

text: of oil-exporting in

text: Mexico

text: Indonesia

text: and the

text: United Kingdom

text: is the reason for the

text: price gouging

text: . According to Simmons, isolated events, such as the Iraq war, affect short-term prices but do not determine a long-term trend. Simmons cites the use of

text: enhanced oil recovery

text: techniques in large fields such as Mexico's

text: Cantarell

text: , which maintained production for a few years until it eventually declined. Pumping oil out of Iraq may reduce petroleum prices in the short term, but will be unable to perpetually lower the price. From Simmons' point of view, the invasion of Iraq is associated with the start of long-term increase in oil prices, but it may

text: mitigate the decline

text: in oil production by retaining a partial amount of Iraq's oil reserves. As a direct consequence, the oil production capacity was diminished to  per day.

text: The beginning of oil production in Niger was followed with the construction of a refinery in Zinder commonly known as SORAZ. The total petroleum refining capacity is 20,000 barrels per day, which exceeds the 6,050 barrel per day domestic consumption as of 2010. The excess is intended for exports to neighboring countries such as Benin, Burkina Faso and Mali. The refinery can produce up 69,900 tonnes per year of liquified natural gas, 306,200 tonnes per year of gasoline and 505,400 tonnes per year of gas oil. By the first semester of 2013, the refinery was producing 113,524 tonnes of gasoline, 217,222 tonnes of diesel and more than 20,000 tonnes of bottled liquified natural gas for domestic use  per year.

text: The beginning of oil production in Niger was followed with the construction of a refinery in

text: Zinder

text: commonly known as SORAZ. The total petroleum refining capacity is 20,000 barrels per day, which exceeds the 6,050 barrel per day domestic consumption as of 2010. The excess is intended for exports to neighboring countries such as

text: Benin

text: Burkina Faso

text: and

text: Mali

text: . The refinery can produce up 69,900 tonnes per year of liquified natural gas, 306,200 tonnes per year of gasoline and 505,400 tonnes per year of gas oil. By the first semester of 2013, the refinery was producing 113,524 tonnes of gasoline, 217,222 tonnes of diesel and more than 20,000 tonnes of bottled liquified natural gas for domestic use  per year.

text: In 2000 the United States Department of Energy (DOE) established the methodology for calculating the petroleum-equivalent fuel economy of electric vehicles based on the well-to-wheel (WTW) gasoline-equivalent energy content of electricity (Eg). The methodology considers the upstream efficiency of the processes involved in the two fuel cycles, and considers the national average electricity generation and transmission efficiencies because a battery electric vehicle burns its fuel (mainly fossil fuels) off-board at the power generation plant. This methodology is used by carmakers to estimate credits into their overall Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) for manufacturing electric drive vehicles.

text: In 2000 the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: (DOE) established the methodology for calculating the petroleum-equivalent fuel economy of electric vehicles based on the

text: well-to-wheel

text: (WTW) gasoline-equivalent energy content of electricity (Eg). The methodology considers the upstream efficiency of the processes involved in the two fuel cycles, and considers the national average electricity generation and transmission efficiencies because a

text: battery electric vehicle

text: burns its fuel (mainly fossil fuels) off-board at the power generation plant. This methodology is used by carmakers to estimate credits into their overall

text: Corporate Average Fuel Economy

text: (CAFE) for manufacturing

text: electric drive vehicle

text: s.

text: In Southern India, the oil of the seeds of the plant is used specifically for treating skin diseases. It is also applied topically in cases of rheumatism. The oil may have been useful in waterproofing cloth and is used as a varnish. An extract from the fruit was once used to make a brown dye to colour cloth. The oil can also be used to make soap.

text: In

text: Southern India

text: , the oil of the seeds of the plant is used specifically for treating

text: skin diseases

text: . It is also applied topically in cases of

text: rheumatism

text: . The oil may have been useful in waterproofing cloth and is used as a

text: varnish

text: . An extract from the fruit was once used to make a brown dye to colour cloth. The oil can also be used to make

text: soap

text: The oil and gas industry is usually divided into three major sectors: upstream, midstream and downstream. The downstream sector commonly refers to the refining of petroleum crude oil and the processing and purifying of raw natural gas, as well as the marketing and distribution of products derived from crude oil and natural gas. The downstream sector reaches consumers through products such as gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil, heating oil, fuel oils, lubricants, waxes, asphalt, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as well as hundreds of petrochemicals.

text: The

text: oil and gas industry

text: is usually divided into three major sectors:

text: upstream

text: midstream

text: and downstream. The downstream sector commonly refers to the

text: refining of petroleum crude oil

text: and the

text: products

text: derived from

text: crude oil

text: and

text: natural gas

text: . The downstream sector reaches consumers through products such as

text: gasoline or petrol

text: kerosene

text: jet fuel

text: diesel oil

text: heating oil

text: fuel oil

text: s,

text: lubricants

text: waxes

text: asphalt

text: natural gas

text: , and

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: (LPG) as well as hundreds of

text: petrochemical

text: s.

text: Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy production is converted into these other materials.Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth's crust. There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands). Known oil reserves are typically estimated at around 190 km (1.2 trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands, or 595 km (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands. Consumption is currently around  per day, or 4.9 km per year, yielding a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current demand remains static.

text: Due to its high

text: energy density

text: , easy transportability and

text: relative abundance

text: , oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many

text: chemical

text: products, including

text: pharmaceutical

text: s,

text: solvent

text: s,

text: fertilizer

text: s,

text: pesticide

text: s, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy production is converted into these other materials.Petroleum is found in

text: porous

text: rock formations

text: in the upper

text: strata

text: of some areas of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: . There is also petroleum in

text: oil sands (tar sands)

text: . Known

text: oil reserves

text: are typically estimated at around 190 km (1.2

text: trillion

text: (short scale)

text: barrels

text: ) without oil sands, or 595 km (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands. Consumption is currently around  per day, or 4.9 km per year, yielding a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current demand remains static.

text: BP operates Whiting Refinery in Indiana and Cherry Point Refinery in Washington, and has a stake in the Husky Energy-operated Toledo Refinery in Ohio.  Since the early 2000s, the company has been focusing its refining business on processing crude from oil sands and tight oil from shales.  On the US West Coast, BP primarily operates service stations under the ARCO brand.

text: BP operates

text: Whiting Refinery

text: in Indiana and

text: Cherry Point Refinery

text: in Washington, and has a stake in the

text: Husky Energy

text: -operated

text: Toledo Refinery

text: in Ohio.  Since the early 2000s, the company has been focusing its refining business on processing crude from

text: oil sands

text: and

text: tight oil

text: from

text: shale

text: s.  On the US West Coast, BP primarily operates service stations under the ARCO brand.

text: Fossil fuels make up the bulk of the world's current primary energy sources. The technology and infrastructure already exist for the use of fossil fuels. Petroleum energy density in terms of volume (cubic space) and mass (weight) ranks currently above that of  alternative energy sources (or energy storage devices, like a battery). Fossil fuels are currently economical, and suitable for decentralised energy use.

text: Fossil fuels make up the bulk of the world's current

text: primary energy

text: sources. The

text: technology

text: and

text: infrastructure

text: already exist for the use of fossil fuels.

text: Petroleum

text: energy density

text: in terms of volume (cubic space) and mass (weight) ranks currently above that of

text: alternative energy

text: sources (or

text: energy storage

text: devices, like a

text: battery

text: ). Fossil fuels are currently economical, and suitable for decentralised energy use.

text: The National Energy Board also has jurisdiction over the construction and operation of international power lines, defined as lines built "for the purpose of transmitting electricity from or to a place in Canada from or to a place outside of Canada". The NEB authorizes imports of natural gas, and exports of crude oil, natural gas, oil, natural gas liquids (NGLs), refined petroleum products and electricity.  The NEB also has jurisdiction over designated inter-provincial power lines, by determination of the federal Cabinet, but no such line has been designated, leaving the regulation of existing interties to provincial regulatory bodies. Recent NEB decisions in favour of petroleum-industry interests have led to increasing controversy.

text: The National Energy Board also has jurisdiction over the construction and operation of international

text: power line

text: s, defined as lines built "for the purpose of transmitting electricity from or to a place in Canada from or to a place outside of Canada". The NEB authorizes imports of natural gas, and exports of crude oil, natural gas, oil, natural gas liquids (NGLs), refined petroleum products and electricity.  The NEB also has jurisdiction over designated inter-provincial power lines, by determination of the federal Cabinet, but no such line has been designated, leaving the regulation of existing interties to provincial regulatory bodies. Recent NEB decisions in favour of petroleum-industry interests have led to increasing controversy.

text: Soni Oyekan is the President of Prafis Energy Solutions. Prafis Energy Solutions is an oil refining and energy consulting services company. The company is located in Richmond, Texas. Prior to start of operations of his company in 2013, Dr. Oyekan had contributed significantly to chemical engineering and oil refining with his inventions and studies on catalytic systems and the catalytic naphtha reforming process. His patents have been applied successfully in the efficient use of reactor engineering and catalysis for the processing of crude oil to meet consumer demands for transportation fuels, heating oil, propane and butane gases,. Dr Soni Oyekan has been recognized for his contributions in oil refining, and for his extensive volunteer and leadership roles in the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). Soni has held a variety of positions in AIChE. The positions include chair of Fuels and Petrochemicals Division (F&PD), chair of the Minority Affairs Committee (MAC) and a director of the AIChE Executive Board. He is currently a member of the Foundation Board of Trustees of AIChE. Soni has contributed over the years in numerous technical discussions on petroleum refining at the annual National Petroleum Refiners Association (NPRA) Q&A conferences. NPRA is now the American Fuels and Petrochemicals Manufacturers (AFPM). Dr. Oyekan retired in December 2012 from Marathon Petroleum Company after fourteen years as the Reforming and Isomerization Technologist of the company.

text: Soni Oyekan is the President of Prafis Energy Solutions. Prafis Energy Solutions is an oil refining and energy consulting services company. The company is located in Richmond, Texas. Prior to start of operations of his company in 2013, Dr. Oyekan had contributed significantly to chemical engineering and oil refining with his inventions and studies on catalytic systems and the catalytic naphtha reforming process. His patents have been applied successfully in the efficient use of reactor engineering and catalysis for the processing of

text: crude oil

text: to meet consumer demands for transportation fuels,

text: heating oil

text: propane

text: and

text: butane

text: gases,. Dr Soni Oyekan has been recognized for his contributions in oil refining, and for his extensive volunteer and leadership roles in the

entity_name: American Institute of Chemical Engineers

text: American Institute of Chemical Engineers

text: (AIChE). Soni has held a variety of positions in AIChE. The positions include chair of Fuels and Petrochemicals Division (F&PD), chair of the Minority Affairs Committee (MAC) and a director of the AIChE Executive Board. He is currently a member of the Foundation Board of Trustees of AIChE. Soni has contributed over the years in numerous technical discussions on petroleum refining at the annual National Petroleum Refiners Association (NPRA) Q&A conferences. NPRA is now the

text: American Fuels and Petrochemicals Manufacturers

text: (AFPM). Dr. Oyekan retired in December 2012 from Marathon Petroleum Company after fourteen years as the Reforming and Isomerization Technologist of the company.

text: Koch Supply & Trading companies around the world trade crude oil, refined petroleum products, gas liquids, natural gas, liquefied natural gas, power, renewables, emissions, and metals.

text: Koch Supply & Trading companies around the world trade

text: crude oil

text: refined petroleum

text: products, gas liquids,

text: natural gas

text: liquefied natural gas

text: , power,

text: renewables

text: , emissions, and metals.

text: The city's surrounding fields are rich in crude petroleum and are dotted by a series of oil wells established during the communist dictatorship. Only a fraction of these wells are operating today, but the city includes a working refinery, and outputs of naphthas are significant.

text: The city's surrounding fields are rich in crude

text: petroleum

text: and are dotted by a series of

text: oil well

text: s established during the

text: communist

text: dictatorship

text: . Only a fraction of these wells are operating today, but the city includes a working

text: refinery

text: , and outputs of

text: naphtha

text: s are significant.

text: According to a report by The Institute for Sustainable Futures (ISF)  at University of Technology Sydney, titled: "Energy and Transport Subsidies in Australia", roughly 70% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions are caused by the energy and transport industries. The uptake of renewable energy  in these sectors is slow because of subsidies to fossil fuels and the high cost of acquiring the sophisticated technology required to produce cleaner fuels.  Furthermore, fossil fuels are easier to transport and use, compared to renewable energy, which often require sophisticated instruments to acquire and store. The report revealed that for the 2005–2006 financial year, transport subsidies were measured to reach up to $10.1 billion, of which 74% related to transport, 18% to electricity and 4% to renewable and efficient energy. These subsidies help energy generation companies increase their profits, therefore encouraging the building of additional coal-fuel power plants. Investing in other, more sustainable, types of electricity generation plants would have cost less than continuing to subsidize the building of these power plants. On a positive note, alternative transport fuels such as natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are excused from fuel excise/tax.

text: According to a report by The Institute for Sustainable Futures (ISF)  at

text: University of Technology Sydney

text: , titled: "Energy and Transport Subsidies in Australia", roughly 70% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions are caused by the energy and transport industries. The uptake of renewable energy  in these sectors is slow because of subsidies to fossil fuels and the high cost of acquiring the sophisticated technology required to produce cleaner fuels.  Furthermore, fossil fuels are easier to transport and use, compared to renewable energy, which often require sophisticated instruments to acquire and store. The report revealed that for the 2005–2006 financial year, transport subsidies were measured to reach up to $10.1 billion, of which 74% related to transport, 18% to electricity and 4% to renewable and efficient energy. These subsidies help energy generation companies increase their profits, therefore encouraging the building of additional coal-fuel power plants. Investing in other, more sustainable, types of electricity generation plants would have cost less than continuing to subsidize the building of these power plants. On a positive note, alternative transport fuels such as

text: natural gas

text: and

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: are excused from fuel excise/tax.

text: The total cost of the project (all paid by U.S. taxpayers) was $134 million, in 1943 U.S. dollars. Total crude production was 315,000 m³ (2.7 million barrels) of which 7,313 m³ (63,000 barrels) were spilled. The cost of the crude oil was $426 per cubic metre ($67.77 per barrel). Refined petroleum product output was just 138,000 m³ (1.2 million barrels). Cost per barrel of refined product was thus $975 per cubic metre, or 97.5 cents per litre ($3.69 a gallon). Adjusted to current dollars using the U.S. consumer price index, in 2000 dollars the oil would have cost $4,214 per cubic metre ($670 a barrel), while the refined product would have been worth an astonishing $9.62 a litre ($36.42 a gallon).

text: The total cost of the project (all paid by U.S. taxpayers) was $134 million, in 1943 U.S. dollars. Total crude production was 315,000 m³ (2.7 million barrels) of which 7,313 m³ (63,000 barrels) were spilled. The cost of the crude oil was $426 per cubic metre ($67.77 per barrel). Refined petroleum product output was just 138,000 m³ (1.2 million barrels). Cost per barrel of refined product was thus $975 per cubic metre, or 97.5 cents per

text: litre

text: ($3.69 a gallon). Adjusted to current dollars using the U.S.

text: consumer price index

text: , in 2000 dollars the oil would have cost $4,214 per cubic metre ($670 a barrel), while the refined product would have been worth an astonishing $9.62 a litre ($36.42 a gallon).

text: Algae fuel or algal biofuel is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to common known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable. Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases  when burnt, but unlike fossil fuel, algae fuel and other biofuels only release  recently removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the algae or plant grew. The energy crisis and the world food crisis have ignited interest in algaculture (farming algae) for making biodiesel and other biofuels using land unsuitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics are that they can be grown with minimal impact on fresh water resources, can be produced using saline and wastewater, have a high flash point, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass than other second-generation biofuel crops due to high capital and operating costs, but are claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit area. The United States Department of Energy estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require , which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map, or about half of the land area of Maine. This is less than  the area of corn harvested in the United States in 2000.

text: Algae fuel or algal biofuel is an

text: alternative to liquid fossil fuels

text: that uses

text: algae

text: as its source of energy-rich oils. Also, algae fuels are an alternative to common known biofuel sources, such as corn and sugarcane. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable. Like fossil fuel, algae fuel releases  when burnt, but unlike fossil fuel, algae fuel and other biofuels only release  recently removed from the atmosphere via photosynthesis as the algae or plant grew. The energy crisis and the

text: world food crisis

text: have ignited interest in

text: algaculture

text: (farming algae) for making

text: biodiesel

text: and other

text: biofuel

text: s using land unsuitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics are that they can be grown with minimal impact on

text: fresh water

text: resources, can be produced using saline and

text: wastewater

text: , have a high

text: flash point

text: , and are

text: biodegradable

text: and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass than other second-generation biofuel crops due to high capital and operating costs, but are claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit area. The

text: United States Department of Energy

text: estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require , which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map, or about half of the land area of

text: Maine

text: . This is less than  the area of

text: corn

text: harvested in the United States in 2000.

text: The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases  and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so-called producer gas made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium injection cycle.

text: The most common modern fuels are made up of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and are derived mostly from

text: fossil fuel

text: s (

text: petroleum

text: ). Fossil fuels include

text: diesel fuel

text: gasoline

text: and

text: petroleum gas

text: , and the rarer use of

text: propane

text: . Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on

text: natural gas

text: or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases  and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous

text: biofuel

text: s, such as

text: ethanol

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield

text: triglyceride

text: s such as

text: soybean

text: oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on

text: hydrogen

text: gas,

text: wood gas

text: , or

text: charcoal gas

text: , as well as from so-called

text: producer gas

text: made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the

text: magnesium injection cycle

text: Total S.A. (;  or ) is a French multinational integrated oil and gas company and one of the seven "Supermajor" oil companies in the world. Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from crude oil and natural gas exploration and production to power generation, transportation, refining, petroleum product marketing, and international crude oil and product trading.

text: Total S.A. (;  or ) is a French

text: multinational

text: integrated

text: oil

text: and

text: gas

text: company and one of the seven "

text: Supermajor

text: " oil companies in the world. Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from

text: crude oil

text: and natural gas exploration and production to

text: power generation

text: , transportation,

text: refining

text: , petroleum product marketing, and international crude oil and product trading.

text: By contrast, Fossil-fuel consumption subsidies were $409 billion in 2010, oil products ca half of it. Renewable-energy subsidies were $66 billion in 2010 and will reach according to IEA $250 billion by 2035. Renewable energy is subsidized in order to compete in the market, increase their volume and develop the technology so that the subsidies become unnecessary with the development. Eliminating fossil-fuel subsidies could bring economic and environmental benefits. Phasing out fossil-fuel subsidies by 2020 would cut primary energy demand 5%. Since the start of 2010, at least 15 countries have taken steps to phase out fossil-fuel subsidies.  According to IEA onshore wind may become competitive around 2020 in the European Union.

text: The majority of electrical power generation, in the United States, comes from combustion of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere.  45% of power generation comes from coal, 23% from natural gas, and 1% from petroleum. This totals to about 70% of American electrical consumption being produced from fossil fuels.  In the previous section it was discussed that in 2010 3.6 quadrillion BTU's were saved by from the implementation of energy standards.  This equates to about 2.52 quadrillion BTU's of energy produced from fossil fuels being abated every year because of these performance standards, or  750,000,000,000 kWh.  Production of electricity from coal creates 2.095 pounds of carbon dioxide per kWh, from natural gas 1.321 pounds of carbon dioxide per kWh, and from petroleum 1.969 pounds of carbon dioxide per kWh. This equates to about 500 million tons of carbon dioxide from coal, 160 million tons of carbon dioxide from natural gas, and 10 million tons of carbon dioxide from petroleum.  For a total of about 670 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions abated in 2010 alone because of these energy performance standards.  Other environmentally degrading emission include sulfur and nitrogen oxides which contribute to acid rain. These emissions are mitigated by energy standards the same way carbon dioxide is as previously shown.

text: The majority of electrical power generation, in the United States, comes from combustion of

text: fossil fuel

text: s, which releases carbon dioxide and other pollutants into the atmosphere.  45% of power generation comes from coal, 23% from natural gas, and 1% from petroleum. This totals to about 70% of American electrical consumption being produced from fossil fuels.  In the previous section it was discussed that in 2010 3.6 quadrillion BTU's were saved by from the implementation of energy standards.  This equates to about 2.52 quadrillion BTU's of energy produced from fossil fuels being abated every year because of these performance standards, or  750,000,000,000 kWh.  Production of electricity from coal creates 2.095 pounds of carbon dioxide per kWh, from natural gas 1.321 pounds of carbon dioxide per kWh, and from petroleum 1.969 pounds of carbon dioxide per kWh. This equates to about 500 million tons of carbon dioxide from coal, 160 million tons of carbon dioxide from natural gas, and 10 million tons of carbon dioxide from petroleum.  For a total of about 670 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions abated in 2010 alone because of these energy performance standards.  Other environmentally degrading emission include sulfur and nitrogen oxides which contribute to

text: acid rain

text: . These emissions are mitigated by energy standards the same way carbon dioxide is as previously shown.

text: The useful life of a transformer is determined partially by the ability of transformer to dissipate the internally generated heat to its surroundings [3]. The comparison of actual and predicted operating temperatures can provide a sensitive diagnosis of the transformer condition and might indicate abnormal operation. The consequences of temperature rise may not be sudden, but gradual as long as it is within break down limit. Among these consequences, insulation deterioration is economically important. Insulation being very costly, its deterioration is undesirable. Thermal modeling is the development of a mathematical model that predicts the temperature profile of the power transformer using the principle of thermal analysis. The thermal model is used to determine the top oil temperature and hot spot temperature(maximum temperature occurring in the winding insulation system) temperature rise

text: The useful life of a transformer is determined partially by the ability of transformer to dissipate the internally generated heat to its surroundings [3]. The comparison of actual and predicted operating temperatures can provide a sensitive diagnosis of the transformer condition and might indicate abnormal operation. The consequences of temperature rise may not be sudden, but gradual as long as it is within break down limit. Among these consequences,

text: insulation deterioration

text: is economically important. Insulation being very costly, its deterioration is undesirable. Thermal modeling is the development of a mathematical model that predicts the temperature profile of the power transformer using the principle of thermal analysis. The thermal model is used to determine the top oil temperature and hot spot temperature(maximum temperature occurring in the winding insulation system) temperature rise

text: Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocylic compounds, such as pyridine, picoline, and quinoline are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy wood treatment sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as Micrococcus, Arthrobacter, and Rhodococcus have been shown to degrade these contaminants.

text: Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocylic compounds, such as

text: pyridine

text: picoline

text: , and

text: quinoline

text: are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy

text: wood treatment

text: sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as

text: Micrococcus

text: Arthrobacter

text: , and

text: Rhodococcus

text: have been shown to degrade these contaminants.

text: In 1847, the government of the Cape Colony agreed to fund the construction at a cost of £15,871; building work began in April of that year and was completed in December 1848, and the light was first lit on 1 March 1849. Originally, it was fuelled by the tail-fat of sheep, but in 1905 an oil-burning lantern was installed. In March 1910, the lens was replaced with a first-order Fresnel lens. In 1929, the oil burner was replaced by a petroleum vapour burner, which was in turn replaced in 1936 by a four-kilowatt electric lamp powered by a diesel generator.

text: In 1847, the government of the

text: Cape Colony

text: agreed to fund the construction at a cost of £15,871; building work began in April of that year and was completed in December 1848, and the light was first lit on 1 March 1849. Originally, it was fuelled by the tail-fat of sheep, but in 1905 an oil-burning lantern was installed. In March 1910, the lens was replaced with a first-order

text: Fresnel lens

text: . In 1929, the oil burner was replaced by a petroleum vapour burner, which was in turn replaced in 1936 by a four-kilowatt electric lamp powered by a diesel generator.

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example, TREC has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example,

text: TREC

text: has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up  of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to both intense heat and pressure.

text: It consists of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s of various molecular weights and other

text: organic compound

text: s. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and

text: petroleum product

text: s that are made up  of refined crude oil. A

text: fossil fuel

text: , petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually

text: zooplankton

text: and

text: algae

text: , are buried underneath

text: sedimentary rock

text: and subjected to both intense heat and pressure.

text: A tax credit created by the U.S. Congress in 2005 as part of the 2005 Highway Bill to reward and support the use of liquid alternative fuel derived from hydrocarbons in the transportation sector was expanded in 2007 to include non-mobile uses of liquid alternative fuel derived from biomass.  This change meant that, in addition to fish processors, animal renderers and meat packers, kraft pulp producers became eligible for the tax credit as a result of their generation and use of black liquor to make energy.  For one large company (International Paper) this could amount to as much as $3.7 billion in benefits.  Weyerhaeuser announced in May 2009 that it was also pursuing the tax credit. While some have criticized the paper industry's eligibility for the alternative fuel mix tax credit on the grounds that it is increasing fossil fuel use, the industry has countered that adding a fossil fuel is actually a requirement of the law and that, regardless, this does not result in a net increase in fossil fuel use since companies are merely replacing the existing fossil fuel they already mix with black liquor—natural gas—with one of the three fuels specified by the law: gasoline, kerosene or diesel. The bio-fuel credit for Black Liquor ended on Jan 1, 2010.

text: A tax credit created by the U.S. Congress in 2005 as part of the

entity_name: Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users

text: 2005 Highway Bill

text: to reward and support the use of liquid

text: alternative fuel

text: derived from hydrocarbons in the transportation sector was expanded in 2007 to include non-mobile uses of liquid alternative fuel derived from biomass.  This change meant that, in addition to fish processors, animal renderers and meat packers, kraft pulp producers became eligible for the tax credit as a result of their generation and use of black liquor to make energy.  For one large company (

text: International Paper

text: ) this could amount to as much as $3.7 billion in benefits.

text: Weyerhaeuser

text: announced in May 2009 that it was also pursuing the tax credit. While some have criticized the paper industry's eligibility for the alternative fuel mix tax credit on the grounds that it is increasing fossil fuel use, the industry has countered that adding a fossil fuel is actually a requirement of the law and that, regardless, this does not result in a net increase in fossil fuel use since companies are merely replacing the existing fossil fuel they already mix with black liquor—natural gas—with one of the three fuels specified by the law: gasoline, kerosene or diesel. The bio-fuel credit for Black Liquor ended on Jan 1, 2010.

text: Directly from the well, raw or unprocessed ("crude") oil is not useful. Though light sweet oil has been used directly as a burner fuel, these lighter fragments form explosive vapors in fuel tanks, and thus are dangerous. The oil must be separated into various parts and refined before used in fuels and lubricants, and before some of the byproducts form materials such as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers, and fibers such as nylon and polyesters.

text: Hydrogen Energy California (HECA) will be a 300MW net, coal and petroleum coke-fueled IGCC polygeneration plant (producing hydrogen for both power generation and fertilizer manufacture). Ninety percent of the CO produced will be captured (using Rectisol) and transported to Elk Hills Oil Field for EOR, enabling recovery of 5 million additional barrels of domestic oil per year.

text: Hydrogen Energy California

text: (HECA) will be a 300MW net, coal and petroleum coke-fueled IGCC polygeneration plant (producing hydrogen for both power generation and fertilizer manufacture). Ninety percent of the CO produced will be captured (using

text: Rectisol

text: ) and transported to Elk Hills Oil Field for EOR, enabling recovery of 5 million additional barrels of domestic oil per year.

text: Refined Petroleum products — production:

text: Another major factor in petroleum demand is the widespread use of petroleum products such as plastic. These could be partially replaced by bioplastics, which are derived from renewable plant feedstocks such as vegetable oil, cornstarch, pea starch, or microbiota. They are used either as a direct replacement for traditional plastics or as blends with traditional plastics. The most common end use market is for packaging materials. Japan has also been a pioneer in bioplastics, incorporating them into electronics and automobiles.

text: Another major factor in petroleum demand is the widespread use of petroleum products such as plastic. These could be partially replaced by bioplastics, which are derived from renewable plant feedstocks such as vegetable oil,

text: cornstarch

text: , pea starch, or

text: microbiota

text: The crude oil produced had an API gravity of 38-39 and a sulfur content of 0.17% mass.  The formation water had a high salt content with dissolved NaCl of 190.000 ppm.  And there was a high asphaltene content in the crude oil.

text: The crude oil produced had an

text: API gravity

text: of 38-39 and a sulfur content of 0.17% mass.  The

text: formation water

text: had a high salt content with dissolved

text: NaCl

text: of 190.000

text: ppm

text: .  And there was a high

text: asphaltene

text: content in the crude oil.

text: 1936: Treibs isolates chlorophyl derivatives from crude oil, explaining the biological origin of petroleum.

text: Treibs

text: isolates chlorophyl derivatives from crude oil, explaining the biological origin of petroleum.

text: Residual fuel's use in electrical generation has also decreased. In 1973, residual fuel oil produced 16.8% of the electricity in the US. By 1983, it had fallen to 6.2%, and , electricity production from all forms of petroleum, including diesel and residual fuel, is only 3% of total production. The decline is the result of price competition with natural gas and environmental restrictions on emissions. For power plants, the costs of heating the oil, extra pollution control and additional maintenance required after burning it often outweigh the low cost of the fuel. Burning fuel oil, particularly residual fuel oil, produces uniformly higher carbon dioxide emissions than natural gas.

text: Residual fuel's use in electrical generation has also decreased. In 1973, residual fuel oil produced 16.8% of the electricity in the US. By 1983, it had fallen to 6.2%, and , electricity production from all forms of petroleum, including diesel and residual fuel, is only 3% of total production. The decline is the result of price competition with natural gas and environmental restrictions on emissions. For power plants, the costs of heating the oil, extra pollution control and additional maintenance required after burning it often outweigh the low cost of the fuel. Burning fuel oil, particularly residual fuel oil, produces uniformly higher

text: carbon dioxide

text: emissions than natural gas.

text: Other instruments such as gravimeters and magnetometers are also used in the search for petroleum. Extracting crude oil normally starts with drilling wells into an underground reservoir. When an oil well has been tapped, a geologist (known on the rig as the "mudlogger") will note its presence. Such a "mudlogger" is known to be sitting on the rig.  Historically in the United States, some oil fields existed where the oil rose naturally to the surface, but most of these fields have long since been used up, except in certain places in Alaska. Often many wells (called multilateral wells) are drilled into the same reservoir, to ensure that the extraction rate will be economically viable. And some wells (secondary wells) may be used to pump water, steam, acids or various gas mixtures into the reservoir to raise or maintain the reservoir pressure so as to maintain an economic extraction rate.

text: Other instruments such as

text: gravimeter

text: s and

text: magnetometer

text: s are also used in the search for petroleum. Extracting crude oil normally starts with drilling wells into an underground reservoir. When an oil well has been tapped, a geologist (known on the rig as the "mudlogger") will note its presence. Such a "mudlogger" is known to be sitting on the rig.  Historically in the United States, some

text: oil field

text: s existed where the oil rose naturally to the surface, but most of these fields have long since been used up, except in certain places in Alaska. Often many wells (called multilateral wells) are drilled into the same reservoir, to ensure that the extraction rate will be economically viable. And some wells (secondary wells) may be used to pump

text: water

text: steam

text: acid

text: s or various gas mixtures into the reservoir to raise or maintain the reservoir pressure so as to maintain an economic extraction rate.

text: NEMS includes a variety of energy sources used for fuel purposes (heat and power) and feedstock purposes.  The primary energy sources of NEMS are Coal, Natural Gas, Distillate Oil (Diesel), Residual Oil, Liquid Petroleum Gases, Coke, Renewables (primarily biomass and wind), Motor Gasoline, Electricity, Petrochemical Feedstocks/Intermediates, Steam, and Asphalt/Road Oil.

text: NEMS includes a variety of energy sources used for fuel purposes (heat and power) and feedstock purposes.  The primary energy sources of NEMS are

text: Coal

text: Natural Gas

text: , Distillate Oil (

text: Diesel

text: ), Residual

text: Oil

text: , Liquid Petroleum Gases,

text: Coke

text: Renewable

text: s (primarily

text: biomass

text: and wind), Motor Gasoline,

text: Electricity

text: Petrochemical

text: Feedstocks/Intermediates, Steam, and Asphalt/Road Oil.

text: The United States was for decades, through 2008, the world's largest net importer of refined petroleum products. But the situation quickly changed in 2008 as American refineries became much more cost-competitive due to large increases in US production of oil, natural gas, and natural gas liquids. The US became a net exporter of refined petroleum in 2010, and since 2013 has been the world's largest net exporter of refined petroleum. In 2014, the US exported 3.83 million barrels per day and imported 1.35 million barrels per day of refined petroleum, for net exports of 2.48 million barrels per day.

text: The history of oil exploration and discovery in Niger goes back to the 1970s. The first tangible discovery occurred in 1975 at the Tintouma field near Madama. However, it was in the Agadem Basin, located in the north-east of the Niger, that exploration began in 1970 with first Texaco then Esso prospecting until 1980. Ten wells will be drilled in Agadem block which covers an area of . In 1980, Elf Aquitaine held the permit on the Agadem block followed in 1985 by Esso and Elf, operating in a joint venture. Between 1990 and 1994, Esso and Elf dug five wells of which four resulted in discoveries. Esso dug three other wells between 1997 and 1998. Elf withdraw from the venture in 1998 and Esso was joined by Petronas in 2002.After more than four years of exploration, Esso and Petronas abandoned the Agadem permit in 2006, judging it economically unprofitable. The block thus fell back in the public domain of the State with an estimated 324 million barrels of oil reserves and nearly  of gas. Unfortunately for the Esso and Petronas venture, the oil prices skyrocketed starting 2007 going from $30 to $147 in 2008. The reserves considered meager became more attractive and in 2008, China National Petroleum Corporation through its exploration and development company (CNODC) acquired the permit on the Agadem block. As part of the agreement with the government of Niger, CNODC created national branch in Niger (CNPC-NIGER-PETROLEUM SA) and carried out further exploration. Between 2008 and 2012, 76 exploration wells were completed of which 62 have resulted in discoveries. This led to an increase of the previous estimates from 324 million to 744 million barrels of oil and  to  of natural gas reserves. In 2013, a second exploration permit was awarded to CNODC with the reserves now estimated as high as 1 billion barrels. Since 2012, exploration has intensified with production-sharing contracts signed with international firms from Nigeria, Australia, UK and Bermuda.In addition to the Agadem block, the Tenere block, licensed to CNPC, has potential reserves near 1 to 3 billion barrels of resources.

text: The history of oil exploration and discovery in Niger goes back to the 1970s. The first tangible discovery occurred in 1975 at the Tintouma field near Madama. However, it was in the Agadem Basin, located in the north-east of the Niger, that exploration began in 1970 with first

text: Texaco

text: then

text: Esso

text: prospecting until 1980. Ten wells will be drilled in Agadem block which covers an area of . In 1980,

text: Elf Aquitaine

text: held the permit on the Agadem block followed in 1985 by Esso and Elf, operating in a joint venture. Between 1990 and 1994, Esso and Elf dug five wells of which four resulted in discoveries. Esso dug three other wells between 1997 and 1998. Elf withdraw from the venture in 1998 and Esso was joined by

text: Petronas

text: in 2002.After more than four years of exploration, Esso and Petronas abandoned the Agadem permit in 2006, judging it economically unprofitable. The block thus fell back in the public domain of the State with an estimated 324 million barrels of oil reserves and nearly  of gas. Unfortunately for the Esso and Petronas venture, the oil prices skyrocketed starting 2007 going from $30 to $147 in 2008. The reserves considered meager became more attractive and in 2008,

text: China National Petroleum Corporation

text: through its

text: exploration and development company (CNODC)

text: acquired the permit on the Agadem block. As part of the agreement with the government of Niger, CNODC created national branch in Niger (CNPC-NIGER-PETROLEUM SA) and carried out further exploration. Between 2008 and 2012, 76 exploration wells were completed of which 62 have resulted in discoveries. This led to an increase of the previous estimates from 324 million to 744 million barrels of oil and  to  of natural gas reserves. In 2013, a second exploration permit was awarded to CNODC with the reserves now estimated as high as 1 billion barrels. Since 2012, exploration has intensified with production-sharing contracts signed with international firms from Nigeria, Australia, UK and Bermuda.In addition to the Agadem block, the Tenere block, licensed to CNPC, has potential reserves near 1 to 3 billion barrels of resources.

text: Documents obtained by Greenpeace under the US Freedom of Information Act show that the Charles G. Koch Foundation gave climate change writer Willie Soon two grants totaling $175,000 in 2005/6 and again in 2010. Multiple grants to Soon from the American Petroleum Institute between 2001 and 2007 totalled $274,000, and from ExxonMobil totalled $335,000 between 2005 and 2010. Other coal and oil industry sources which funded him include the Mobil Foundation, the Texaco Foundation and the Electric Power Research Institute. Soon, acknowledging that he received this money, stated unequivocally that he has "never been motivated by financial reward in any of my scientific research". In February 2015, Greenpeace disclosed papers documenting that Soon failed to disclose to academic journals funding including more than $1.2 million from fossil fuel industry related interests including ExxonMobil, the American Petroleum Institute, the Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation and the Southern Company. To investigate how widespread such hidden funding was, senators Barbara Boxer, Edward Markey and Sheldon Whitehouse wrote to a number of companies. Koch general counsel refused the request and said it would infringe the company's first amendment rights.

text: Documents obtained by

text: Greenpeace

text: under the US

entity_name: Freedom of Information Act (United States)

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: show that the

text: Charles G. Koch Foundation

text: gave climate change writer

text: Willie Soon

text: two grants totaling $175,000 in 2005/6 and again in 2010. Multiple grants to Soon from the

text: American Petroleum Institute

text: between 2001 and 2007 totalled $274,000, and from

text: ExxonMobil

text: totalled $335,000 between 2005 and 2010. Other coal and oil industry sources which funded him include the Mobil Foundation, the Texaco Foundation and the

text: Electric Power Research Institute

text: . Soon, acknowledging that he received this money, stated unequivocally that he has "never been motivated by financial reward in any of my scientific research". In February 2015, Greenpeace disclosed papers documenting that Soon failed to disclose to academic journals funding including more than $1.2 million from fossil fuel industry related interests including ExxonMobil, the American Petroleum Institute, the

text: Charles G. Koch Charitable Foundation

text: and the Southern Company. To investigate how widespread such hidden funding was, senators

text: Barbara Boxer

text: Edward Markey

text: and

text: Sheldon Whitehouse

text: wrote to a number of companies. Koch general counsel refused the request and said it would infringe the company's first amendment rights.

text: Any combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be used in different vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power, emissions, weight and cost profiles. The ICE in an HEV can be smaller, lighter, and more efficient than the one in a conventional vehicle, because the combustion engine can be sized for slightly above average power demand rather than peak power demand. The drive system in a vehicle is required to operate over a range of speed and power, but an ICE's highest efficiency is in a narrow range of operation, making conventional vehicles inefficient. On the contrary, in most HEV designs, the ICE operates closer to its range of highest efficiency more frequently. The power curve of electric motors is better suited to variable speeds and can provide substantially greater torque at low speeds compared with internal-combustion engines. The greater fuel economy of HEVs has implication for reduced petroleum consumption and vehicle air pollution emissions worldwide

text: Any combination of these three primary hybrid advantages may be used in different vehicles to realize different fuel usage, power, emissions, weight and cost profiles. The

text: ICE

text: in an HEV can be smaller, lighter, and more efficient than the one in a conventional vehicle, because the combustion engine can be sized for slightly above average power demand rather than peak power demand. The drive system in a vehicle is required to operate over a range of speed and power, but an

text: ICE

text: 's highest efficiency is in a narrow range of operation, making conventional vehicles inefficient. On the contrary, in most HEV designs, the

text: ICE

text: operates closer to its range of highest efficiency more frequently. The power curve of electric motors is better suited to variable speeds and can provide substantially greater torque at low speeds compared with internal-combustion engines. The greater

text: fuel economy

text: of HEVs has implication for reduced petroleum consumption and

text: vehicle air pollution emissions

text: worldwide

text: Some analysts have interpreted recent events such as the 2010 rapprochement of Greece, Israel and Cyprusand the 2014 Saudi-Qatari rift as tangible geopolitical signs  of a nascent rivalry between oil and natural gas producers, which could "have deep and long-lasting consequences".

text: Kenule Beeson "Ken" Saro-Wiwa (10 October 1941 – 10 November 1995) was a Nigerian writer, television producer, environmental activist, and winner of the Right Livelihood Award and the Goldman Environmental Prize. Saro-Wiwa was a member of the Ogoni people, an ethnic minority in Nigeria whose homeland, Ogoniland, in the Niger Delta has been targeted for crude oil extraction since the 1950s and which has suffered extreme environmental damage from decades of indiscriminate petroleum waste dumping. Initially as spokesperson, and then as president, of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), Saro-Wiwa led a nonviolent campaign against environmental degradation of the land and waters of Ogoniland by the operations of the multinational petroleum industry, especially the Royal Dutch Shell company. He was also an outspoken critic of the Nigerian government, which he viewed as reluctant to enforce environmental regulations on the foreign petroleum companies operating in the area.

text: Kenule Beeson "Ken" Saro-Wiwa (10 October 1941 – 10 November 1995) was a Nigerian writer, television producer, environmental activist, and winner of the

text: Right Livelihood Award

text: and the

text: Goldman Environmental Prize

text: . Saro-Wiwa was a member of the

text: Ogoni people

text: , an ethnic minority in Nigeria whose homeland,

text: Ogoniland

text: , in the

text: Niger Delta

text: has been targeted for

text: crude oil extraction

text: since the 1950s and which has suffered extreme

text: environmental damage

text: from decades of indiscriminate petroleum waste dumping. Initially as spokesperson, and then as president, of the

entity_name: Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People

text: Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People

text: (MOSOP), Saro-Wiwa led a

text: nonviolent campaign

text: against

text: environmental degradation

text: of the land and waters of Ogoniland by the operations of the

text: multinational

text: petroleum industry

text: , especially the

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: company. He was also an outspoken critic of the

text: Nigerian government

text: , which he viewed as reluctant to enforce environmental regulations on the foreign petroleum companies operating in the area.

text: A crude oil assay is essentially the chemical evaluation of crude oil feedstocks by petroleum testing laboratories. Each crude oil type has unique molecular, chemical characteristics. No two crude oil types are identical and there are crucial differences in crude oil quality. The results of crude oil assay testing provide extensive detailed hydrocarbon analysis data for refiners, oil traders and producers. Assay data help refineries determine if a crude oil feedstock is compatible for a particular petroleum refinery or if the crude oil could cause yield, quality, production, environmental and other problems.

text: A crude oil assay is essentially the chemical evaluation of

text: crude oil

text: feedstocks

text: by

text: petroleum

text: testing laboratories. Each crude oil type has unique

text: molecular

text: chemical

text: characteristics. No two crude oil types are identical and there are crucial differences in crude oil quality. The results of crude oil assay testing provide extensive detailed

text: hydrocarbon

text: analysis data for refiners, oil traders and producers. Assay data help refineries determine if a crude oil feedstock is compatible for a particular petroleum refinery or if the crude oil could cause yield, quality, production, environmental and other problems.

text: Although China is still a major crude oil producer, it became an oil importer in the 1990s. China became dependent on imported oil for the first time in its history in 1993 due to demand rising faster than domestic production. In 2002, annual crude petroleum production was 1,298,000,000 barrels, and annual crude petroleum consumption was 1,670,000,000 barrels. In 2006, it imported 145 million tons of crude oil, accounting for 47% of its total oil consumption. By 2014 China was importing approximately 7 mil. barrels of oil per day. Three state-owned oil companies – Sinopec, CNPC, and CNOOC – dominate its domestic market.

text: Although China is still a major crude oil producer, it became an oil importer in the 1990s. China became dependent on imported oil for the first time in its history in 1993 due to demand rising faster than domestic production. In 2002, annual crude petroleum production was 1,298,000,000 barrels, and annual crude petroleum consumption was 1,670,000,000 barrels. In 2006, it imported 145 million tons of crude oil, accounting for 47% of its total oil consumption. By 2014 China was importing approximately 7 mil. barrels of oil per day. Three state-owned oil companies –

text: Sinopec

text: CNPC

text: , and

text: CNOOC

text: – dominate its domestic market.

text: Another influential factor is oil revenues. Historically, in periods of high oil prices and the consequent petrodollar windfall, imports accelerate rapidly in virtually all consumption categories including agricultural products. This, in turn, results in crowding out domestic production and damage to the agriculture sector. After the oil price spikes following 1973, agricultural imports also increased dramatically and caused significant damage to domestic production. Between 1970 and 1976, agricultural imports grew at the staggering annual rate of 35%. This experience was repeated in the past couple of years when oil prices were at or over $100 per barrel; the result is that agricultural imports have increased at a rapid pace and foreign products now form a sizeable chunk of the household consumption basket. Over the past few years, there have been significant price increases in agricultural products in Iran. This is due both to rising domestic demand and to rising global commodity prices.

text: Another influential factor is

text: oil revenues

text: . Historically, in periods of high

text: oil price

text: s and the consequent petrodollar windfall, imports accelerate rapidly in virtually all consumption categories including agricultural products. This, in turn, results in crowding out domestic production and damage to the agriculture sector. After the oil price spikes following 1973, agricultural imports also increased dramatically and caused significant damage to domestic production. Between 1970 and 1976, agricultural imports grew at the staggering annual rate of 35%. This experience was repeated in the past couple of years when oil prices were at or over $100 per barrel; the result is that agricultural imports have increased at a rapid pace and foreign products now form a sizeable chunk of the household consumption basket. Over the past few years, there have been significant price increases in agricultural products in Iran. This is due both to rising domestic demand and to rising global commodity prices.

text: Petroleum, mainly for transportation, represented 11% of Rwanda's power in 2014. Although Rwanda is thought to have crude oil and natural gas reserves near Lake Kivu, as of 2014, there was no production of these resources and demand was met by imports. KivuWatt project is an energy project to extract natural gas dissolved in Lake Kivu and use the extracted gas to generate electricity. In 2016, the operational 25MW power plant is able to provide enough energy for 45,000 people in Rwanda. The ongoing expansion project is expected to add 26MW of generating capacity in its first phase, and eventually scale up to 100MW in the coming years. The Kenya–Uganda–Rwanda Petroleum Products Pipeline would transport oil between these countries if it is built.

text: Petroleum

text: , mainly for transportation, represented 11% of Rwanda's power in 2014. Although Rwanda is thought to have

text: crude oil

text: and

text: natural gas

text: reserves near

text: Lake Kivu

text: , as of 2014, there was no production of these resources and demand was met by imports.

text: KivuWatt project

text: is an energy project to extract natural gas dissolved in Lake Kivu and use the extracted gas to generate electricity. In 2016, the operational 25MW power plant is able to provide enough energy for 45,000 people in Rwanda. The ongoing expansion project is expected to add 26MW of generating capacity in its first phase, and eventually scale up to 100MW in the coming years. The

entity_name: Kenya–Uganda–Rwanda Petroleum Products Pipeline

text: Kenya–Uganda–Rwanda Petroleum Products Pipeline

text: would transport oil between these countries if it is built.

text: Companies involved in the extraction of the fossil fuel petroleum are given special deductions as follows:

text: Petroleum production in Canada is a major industry which is important to the economy of North America. Canada has the third largest oil reserves  in the world and is the world's fifth largest oil producer and fourth largest oil exporter. In 2015 it produced an average of  of crude oil and equivalent. Of that amount, 61% was upgraded and non-upgraded bitumen from oil sands, and the remainder light crude oil, heavy crude oil and natural-gas condensate. Most of Canadian petroleum production is exported, approximately  in 2015, with almost all of the exports going to the United States. Canada is by far the largest single source of oil imports to the United States, providing 43% of US crude oil imports in 2015.

text: Petroleum production in Canada is a

text: major industry

text: which is important to the

text: economy of North America

text: Canada

text: has the third largest

entity_name: List of countries by proven oil reserves

text: oil reserves

text: in the world and is the world's fifth largest

text: oil producer

text: and fourth largest

text: oil exporter

text: . In 2015 it produced an average of  of

text: crude oil

text: and equivalent. Of that amount, 61% was upgraded and non-upgraded bitumen from

text: oil sands

text: , and the remainder

text: light crude oil

text: heavy crude oil

text: and

text: natural-gas condensate

text: . Most of Canadian petroleum production is exported, approximately  in 2015, with almost all of the exports going to the United States. Canada is by far the largest single source of oil imports to the United States, providing 43% of US crude oil imports in 2015.

text: is a Japanese petroleum company. It owns and operates oil platforms, refineries and produces and sells petroleum, oils and petrochemical products.

text: is a Japanese petroleum company. It owns and operates

text: oil platform

text: s,

text: refineries

text: and produces and sells petroleum, oils and

text: petrochemical

text: products.

text: A Ghanaian oilfield which is reported to contain up to  of crude oil was discovered in 2007, and according to the Ghanaian government, the country could expand its petroleum reserves up to  of crude oil in reserves within a few years.

text: A Ghanaian

text: oilfield

text: which is reported to contain up to  of

text: crude oil

text: was discovered in 2007, and according to the Ghanaian government, the country could expand its

text: petroleum

text: reserves up to  of

text: crude oil

text: in

text: reserves

text: within a few years.

text: These contracts created a controversy referred to by Frondizi himself as the "oil battle," and were ultimately cancelled by President Arturo Illia in 1963 over concerns that YPF would be deprived of adequate returns for its exploration investments; of the foreign firms which had taken part in the 1958 bids, only Amoco remained. The cancellations cost US$50 million in indemnity payments, though they proved fortuitous after the company's discovery of the Puesto Hernández field in 1965. Puesto Hernández, near Rincón de los Sauces, Neuquén Province, was later declared the "national energy capital" due to its having at the time around half of Argentina's reserves of oil and natural gas. This discovery allowed YPF output to rise by 50% between 1965 and 1968 to 95 million barrels, its share of the nation's oil output growing from two-thirds to three-fourths. New oil field rental contracts were signed following a 1967 policy change enacted by President Juan Carlos Onganía which had the goal of achieving self-sufficiency in oil by 1975. Regaining its monopoly on oil imports in 1971 (which still averaged around 15 million barrels), YPF retained a majority of production (75%), as well as refining and distribution (60%), of petroleum in Argentina. The firm operated 7 refineries and 3,000 service stations by 1977, while production reached 118 million barrels.

text: These contracts created a controversy referred to by Frondizi himself as the "

text: oil battle

text: ," and were ultimately cancelled by President

text: Arturo Illia

text: in 1963 over concerns that YPF would be deprived of adequate returns for its exploration investments; of the foreign firms which had taken part in the 1958 bids, only

text: Amoco

text: remained. The cancellations cost US$50 million in indemnity payments, though they proved fortuitous after the company's discovery of the Puesto Hernández field in 1965. Puesto Hernández, near

text: Rincón de los Sauces

text: Neuquén Province

text: , was later declared the "national energy capital" due to its having at the time around half of Argentina's reserves of oil and natural gas. This discovery allowed YPF output to rise by 50% between 1965 and 1968 to 95 million barrels, its share of the nation's oil output growing from two-thirds to three-fourths. New oil field rental contracts were signed following a 1967 policy change enacted by President

text: Juan Carlos Onganía

text: which had the goal of achieving self-sufficiency in oil by 1975. Regaining its monopoly on oil imports in 1971 (which still averaged around 15 million barrels), YPF retained a majority of production (75%), as well as refining and distribution (60%), of petroleum in Argentina. The firm operated 7 refineries and 3,000 service stations by 1977, while production reached 118 million barrels.

text: At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels.  Since the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand.  As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe.  The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase global warming and cause more severe climate change.

text: At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable

text: fossil fuels

text: .  Since the dawn of

text: internal combustion engine

text: technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand.  As a result, conventional

text: infrastructure

text: and

text: transport

text: systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe.  The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase

text: global warming

text: and cause more severe

text: climate change

text: Chubut's economy, for a long time one of the most prosperous in Argentina, is one of the country's least diversified. Nearly one-quarter of its 2006 output, estimated at US$4.652 billion (or a per capita income of US$11,256), is generated by mining and petroleum.  This sector's contribution (mostly centered around Comodoro Rivadavia) helped give Chubut the nation's fourth-highest per capita output in 2011, US$25,250. Petroleum refining is the main economic activity of the province; it generates 13% of Argentine oil production (mostly off-shore).  On May 21, 2014, Miguel Galuccio of YPF and Chubut Governor Martin Buzzi announced the first unconventional oil and gas discovery in Chubut from a fracked well in the Early Cretaceous D-129 formation of the Golfo San Jorge basin.  Chubut produces 21% of the nation's fish catch.

text: Chubut's economy, for a long time one of the most prosperous in Argentina, is one of the country's least diversified. Nearly one-quarter of its 2006 output, estimated at US$4.652 billion (or a per capita income of US$11,256), is generated by mining and petroleum.  This sector's contribution (mostly centered around

text: Comodoro Rivadavia

text: ) helped give Chubut the nation's fourth-highest per capita output in 2011, US$25,250.

text: Petroleum

text: refining is the main economic activity of the province; it generates 13% of Argentine oil production (mostly off-shore).  On May 21, 2014, Miguel Galuccio of

text: YPF

text: and Chubut Governor Martin Buzzi announced the first unconventional oil and gas discovery in Chubut from a fracked well in the Early

text: Cretaceous

text: D-129 formation of the Golfo San Jorge basin.  Chubut produces 21% of the nation's fish catch.

text: The use of hydrogen fuel is another alternative under development in various countries, alongside, hydrogen vehicles though hydrogen is actually an energy storage medium, not a primary energy source, and consequently the use of a non-petroleum source would be required to extract the hydrogen for use. Though hydrogen is quite clearly outclassed in areas of cost and efficiency by battery powered vehicles, there are applications where it would come in useful. Short haul ferries and very cold climates are two examples. Hydrogen fuel cells are about a third as efficient as batteries and double the efficiency of gasoline vehicles.

text: The use of

text: hydrogen fuel

text: is another alternative under development in various countries, alongside,

text: hydrogen vehicle

text: s though hydrogen is actually an energy storage medium, not a

text: primary energy

text: source, and consequently the use of a non-petroleum source would be required to extract the hydrogen for use. Though hydrogen is quite clearly outclassed in areas of cost and efficiency by battery powered vehicles, there are applications where it would come in useful. Short haul ferries and very cold climates are two examples. Hydrogen fuel cells are about a third as efficient as batteries and double the efficiency of gasoline vehicles.

text: The refinery is in Tema, the most industrialized city in Ghana. It is  from Accra, the capital of Ghana. The refinery was first named the Ghanaian Italian Petroleum Company (GHAIP). It was licensed as a private limited liability company in 1960 as a fully owned Italian company – ANIC Societa per Azioni and AGIP Societa per Azioni of Italy were its major shareholders. In 1977, the Government of Ghana became the sole shareholder. The name of the refinery was changed to the Tema Oil Refinery in 1991. TOR is authorized by law to operate both as a refiner of crude oil and seller of petroleum products.

text: The refinery is in

text: Tema

text: , the most industrialized city in Ghana. It is  from

text: Accra

text: , the capital of Ghana. The refinery was first named the Ghanaian Italian Petroleum Company (GHAIP). It was licensed as a private limited liability company in 1960 as a fully owned

text: Italian

text: company – ANIC Societa per Azioni and AGIP Societa per Azioni of Italy were its major shareholders. In 1977, the Government of Ghana became the sole shareholder. The name of the refinery was changed to the Tema Oil Refinery in 1991. TOR is authorized by law to operate both as a refiner of crude oil and seller of petroleum products.

text: Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening.

text: OPEC's stated mission is "to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets, in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry." The organization is also a significant provider of information about the international oil market. As of December 2016, OPEC's members are Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia (the de facto leader), United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Two-thirds of OPEC's oil production and reserves are in its six Middle Eastern countries that surround the oil-rich Persian Gulf.

text: OPEC's stated mission is "to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets, in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry." The organization is also a significant provider of information about the international oil market. As of December 2016, OPEC's members are

text: Algeria

text: Angola

text: Ecuador

text: Gabon

text: Iran

text: Iraq

text: Kuwait

text: Libya

text: Nigeria

text: Qatar

text: Saudi Arabia

text: (the

text: de facto

text: leader),

text: United Arab Emirates

text: , and

text: Venezuela

text: . Two-thirds of OPEC's oil production and reserves are in its six

text: Middle East

text: ern countries that surround the oil-rich

text: Persian Gulf

text: The Syrian Petroleum Company (SPC) is a state-owned oil company established in 1974.

text: The

text: Syrian Petroleum Company

text: (SPC) is a state-owned oil company established in 1974.

text: Tamoil is the trading name of the Oilinvest Group, a fuel energy provider within the European downstream oil and gas sector. The Oilinvest Group refines crude oil and markets refined oil products primarily under the Tamoil and the HEM brands in Europe. The Oilinvest Group is involved in supplying, trading, refining and selling petroleum products in Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and the Netherlands and carries out its trading activities from Cyprus.

text: Tamoil is the

text: trading name

text: of the Oilinvest Group, a fuel energy provider within the European downstream oil and gas sector. The Oilinvest Group refines crude oil and markets refined oil products primarily under the Tamoil and the HEM brands in Europe. The Oilinvest Group is involved in supplying, trading, refining and selling petroleum products in Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Spain and the Netherlands and carries out its trading activities from Cyprus.

text: Heating oil, or oil heat, is a low viscosity, liquid petroleum product used as a fuel oil for furnaces or boilers in buildings.  Home heating oil is often abbreviated as HHO.

text: Heating oil, or oil heat, is a low

text: viscosity

text: , liquid

text: petroleum product

text: used as a

text: fuel oil

text: for

text: furnace

text: s or

text: boiler

text: s in buildings.  Home heating oil is often abbreviated as HHO.

text: Like Houston, New Orleans is located in proximity to the Gulf of Mexico and the many oil rigs that lie just offshore. Louisiana ranks fifth among states in oil production and eighth in reserves in the United States. It has two of the four Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) storage facilities: West Hackberry in Cameron Parish and Bayou Choctaw in Iberville Parish. Other infrastructure includes 17 petroleum refineries, with a combined crude oil distillation capacity of nearly , the second highest in the nation after Texas. Louisiana's numerous ports include the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), which is capable of receiving ultra large oil tankers. Given the quantity of oil importing, Louisiana is home to many major pipelines supplying the nation: Crude Oil (Exxon, Chevron, BP, Texaco, Shell, Scurloch-Permian, Mid-Valley, Calumet, Conoco, Koch Industries, Unocal, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Locap); Product (TEPPCO Partners, Colonial, Plantation, Explorer, Texaco, Collins); and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (Dixie, TEPPCO, Black Lake, Koch, Chevron, Dynegy, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, Dow Chemical Company, Bridgeline, FMP, Tejas, Texaco, UTP). Several major energy companies have regional headquarters in the city or its suburbs, including Royal Dutch Shell, Eni and Chevron. Numerous other energy producers and oilfield services companies are also headquartered in the city or region, and the sector supports a large professional services base of specialized engineering and design firms, as well as a term office for the federal government's Minerals Management Service.

text: Like

text: Houston

text: , New Orleans is located in proximity to the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: and the many oil rigs that lie just offshore. Louisiana ranks fifth among states in oil production and eighth in

text: reserves

text: in the United States. It has two of the four

text: Strategic Petroleum Reserve

text: (SPR) storage facilities: West Hackberry in

text: Cameron Parish

text: and Bayou Choctaw in

text: Iberville Parish

text: . Other infrastructure includes 17 petroleum refineries, with a combined crude oil distillation capacity of nearly , the second highest in the nation after Texas. Louisiana's numerous ports include the

text: Louisiana Offshore Oil Port

text: (LOOP), which is capable of receiving ultra large oil tankers. Given the quantity of oil importing, Louisiana is home to many major pipelines supplying the nation:

text: Crude Oil

text: Exxon

text: Chevron

text: BP

text: Texaco

text: Shell

text: , Scurloch-Permian, Mid-Valley, Calumet,

text: Conoco

text: Koch Industries

text: Unocal

text: U.S. Dept. of Energy

text: , Locap); Product (

text: TEPPCO Partners

text: , Colonial, Plantation, Explorer, Texaco, Collins); and

text: Liquefied Petroleum Gas

text: (Dixie, TEPPCO, Black Lake, Koch, Chevron,

text: Dynegy

text: Kinder Morgan Energy Partners

text: Dow Chemical Company

text: , Bridgeline, FMP, Tejas, Texaco, UTP). Several major energy companies have regional headquarters in the city or its suburbs, including

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: Eni

text: and

text: Chevron

text: . Numerous other energy producers and oilfield services companies are also headquartered in the city or region, and the sector supports a large professional services base of specialized engineering and design firms, as well as a term office for the federal government's

text: Minerals Management Service

text: Besides the works already mentioned he wrote: 1. ‘The Russians at Merv and Herat, and their Power of Invading India,’ 1883. 2. ‘The Petroleum of the Future; Baku, the Petrolia of Europe,’ 1883. 3. ‘Reconnoitering Central Asia, Pioneering Adventures in the Region lying between Russia and India,’ 1884. 4. ‘The Railway Race to Herat. An Account of the Russian Railway to Herat and India,’ 1885. 5. ‘Shall Russia have Penjdeh?’ 1885. 6. ‘Russia's Power of Attacking India;’ tenth thousand, 1886. 7. ‘The Petroleum Question. The Coming Deluge of Russian Petroleum,’ 1886. 8. ‘The Petroleum Question. England as a Petroleum Power,’ 1887. 9. ‘The Petroleum Question. Our unappreciated Petroleum Empire,’ 1889. Marvin translated Colonel Grodekoff's ‘Ride from Samarcand to Herat,’ 1880.

text: The Allegheny Valley has been one of the most productive areas of fossil fuel extraction in U.S. history, with its extensive deposits of coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

text: The Allegheny Valley has been one of the most productive areas of

text: fossil fuel

text: extraction in U.S. history, with its extensive deposits of

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: Other than contributing to acid rain and high levels of metals in water, sites of oil production can also cause significant damage by human error and runoff. A prominent example is the 2007 case involving the Athabasca River. Due to human error, energy magnate Suncor spilled 9.8 million liters of oil sands waste water into the river causing adverse effects for people and wildlife in the area. The Athabasca River can also be used as an example of oil sands runoff. It was found that the Athabasca's waters, which are downstream from the oil sands, had higher concentrations of pollutants as a result of runoff. High concentrations of pollutants can have serious consequences for wildlife and humans. Recently, it was reported that there were significant increases in fish deformities as well as an increase in cancer rates in a Native community downstream from the Athabasca.

text: Other than contributing to acid rain and high levels of metals in water, sites of oil production can also cause significant damage by human error and runoff. A prominent example is the 2007 case involving the

text: Athabasca River

text: . Due to human error, energy magnate

text: Suncor

text: spilled 9.8 million liters of oil sands waste water into the river causing adverse effects for people and wildlife in the area. The Athabasca River can also be used as an example of oil sands runoff. It was found that the Athabasca's waters, which are downstream from the oil sands, had higher concentrations of pollutants as a result of runoff. High concentrations of pollutants can have serious consequences for wildlife and humans. Recently, it was reported that there were significant increases in fish deformities as well as an increase in cancer rates in a Native community downstream from the Athabasca.

text: Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil,  poppy seed oil, walnut oil, and safflower oil. The choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are also visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use several different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium. The oil may be boiled with a resin, such as pine resin or frankincense, to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss.

text: Oil painting is the process of

text: painting

text: with

text: pigments

text: with a medium of

text: drying oil

text: as the

text: binder

text: . Commonly used drying oils include

text: linseed oil

text: poppy seed oil

text: walnut oil

text: , and

text: safflower oil

text: . The choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the

text: oil paint

text: , such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are also visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use several different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium. The oil may be boiled with a

text: resin

text: , such as pine resin or

text: frankincense

text: , to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss.

text: Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining or from flue gases from power generation.  sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced  using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks.

text: Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to

text: petroleum refining

text: or from flue gases from

text: power generation

text: .  sequestration includes the storage part of carbon capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced  using subsurface

text: saline

text: aquifers

text: , reservoirs,

text: ocean water

text: , aging

text: oil field

text: s, or other

text: carbon sink

text: s.

text: Synthetic oil is used as a substitute for petroleum-refined oils when operating in extreme temperature.. Aircraft jet engines, for example, require the use of synthetic oils, whereas aircraft piston engines do not. Synthetic oils are also used in metal stamping to provide environmental and other benefits  when compared to conventional petroleum and animal-fat based products. These products are also referred to as "non-oil" or "oil free".

text: Synthetic oil is used as a substitute for petroleum-refined oils when operating in extreme temperature.. Aircraft

text: jet engine

text: s, for example, require the use of synthetic oils, whereas aircraft

text: piston engines

text: do not. Synthetic oils are also used in

text: metal stamping

text: to provide environmental and other benefits  when compared to conventional petroleum and animal-fat based products. These products are also referred to as "non-oil" or "oil free".

text: Namanve Power Station is owned and operated by Jacobsen Electricity Company (Uganda) Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Jacobsen Elektro, an independent  Norwegian power production company. The plant cost US$92 million (€66 million) to build. Funding was provided by several sources including: (a) The Government of Norway, through a NORAD grant (b) Nordea Bank of Norway (c) Stanbic Bank Uganda and (d) Jacobsen Elektro. The plant uses heavy fuel oil, a byproduct of petroleum distillation. Construction of Namanve Power Station started in January 2008 and was completed in July 2008. Power production began in August 2008 on a trial basis, with commercial production commencing in September 2008. The power station was commissioned in November 2008. Jacobsen Elektro, the company that built the station, also owns it.

text: Namanve Power Station is owned and operated by Jacobsen Electricity Company (Uganda) Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Jacobsen Elektro, an independent

text: Norwegian

text: power production company. The plant cost US$92 million (€66 million) to build. Funding was provided by several sources including: (a) The

text: Government of Norway

text: , through a

entity_name: North American Aerospace Defense Command

text: NORAD

text: grant (b)

text: Nordea Bank

text: of

text: Norway

text: (c)

text: Stanbic Bank Uganda

text: and (d) Jacobsen Elektro. The plant uses heavy fuel oil, a byproduct of petroleum distillation. Construction of Namanve Power Station started in January 2008 and was completed in July 2008. Power production began in August 2008 on a trial basis, with commercial production commencing in September 2008. The power station was commissioned in November 2008. Jacobsen Elektro, the company that built the station, also owns it.

text: Beginning in June 2014 the record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage—referred to as a global oil glut—caused crude oil prices to collapse at near ten-year low prices. By 2016 West Texas Intermediate (WTI)—the benchmark light, sweet crude oil—reached its lowest price in ten years—US$26.55. In 2012 the price of WTI had reached US$125 and in 2014 the price was $100. By February 2016 the price of Western Canadian Select WCS—the Alberta benchmark heavy crude oil—was US$14.10—the cheapest oil in the world. Alberta's economy suffered with over 100,000 oil patch jobs lost. In spite of the surplus with the low price of WCS in 2015—99% of Canada's oil exports went to the United States and in 2015 Canada was still their largest exporter of total petroleum—3,789 thousand bpd in September, 3,401 thousand bpd in October up from 3,026 thousand bpd in September 2014.

text: Beginning in June 2014 the record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage—referred to as a global

text: oil glut

text: —caused crude oil prices to collapse at near ten-year low prices. By 2016

text: West Texas Intermediate

text: (WTI)—the benchmark light, sweet crude oil—reached its lowest price in ten years—US$26.55. In 2012 the price of WTI had reached US$125 and in 2014 the price was $100. By February 2016 the price of

text: Western Canadian Select

text: WCS—the Alberta benchmark heavy crude oil—was US$14.10—the cheapest oil in the world. Alberta's economy suffered with over 100,000 oil patch jobs lost. In spite of the surplus with the low price of WCS in 2015—99% of Canada's oil exports went to the United States and in 2015 Canada was still their largest exporter of total petroleum—3,789 thousand bpd in September, 3,401 thousand bpd in October up from 3,026 thousand bpd in September 2014.

text: Ethiopia has small reserves of oil and natural gas. As of January 2003, the country's crude oil and natural gas reserves were placed at  and , respectively. Ethiopia has no crude oil refining capacity and must import all refined petroleum products. Imports of refined petroleum products totaled , with consumption was an estimated  in 2001. In 1997, due to high maintenance and operating costs, Eritrea and Ethiopia agreed to shut down their joint operations at the petroleum refinery at Assab and import refined petroleum products. In 2001, Ethiopia signed an agreement to import petroleum products from Sudan, which began in January 2003. Although Ethiopia has few proven hydrocarbon reserves, it is estimated to have considerable potential for oil and gas exploration.

text: Ethiopia has small reserves of

text: oil

text: and

text: natural gas

text: . As of January 2003, the country's crude oil and natural gas reserves were placed at  and , respectively. Ethiopia has no crude oil refining capacity and must import all refined petroleum products. Imports of refined petroleum products totaled , with consumption was an estimated  in 2001. In 1997, due to high maintenance and operating costs,

text: Eritrea

text: and Ethiopia agreed to shut down their joint operations at the petroleum refinery at

text: Assab

text: and import refined petroleum products. In 2001, Ethiopia signed an agreement to import petroleum products from

text: Sudan

text: , which began in January 2003. Although Ethiopia has few proven

text: hydrocarbon

text: reserves, it is estimated to have considerable potential for oil and gas exploration.

text: American petroleum refining largely grew out of oil shale refining.  When the Drake Well started producing in in 1859, the oil shale industry was growing rapidly, and establishing refineries near cannel coal deposits along the Ohio River Valley. As oil production increased, the oil shale refiners discovered that their refining process worked just as well with petroleum, and that petroleum was a cheaper raw material than shale oil. In 1861, the existing oil shale refiners switched to petroleum feedstock, and the oil shale mines shut down.

text: American petroleum refining largely grew out of oil shale refining.  When the

text: Drake Well

text: started producing in in 1859, the oil shale industry was growing rapidly, and establishing refineries near

text: cannel coal

text: deposits along the Ohio River Valley. As oil production increased, the oil shale refiners discovered that their refining process worked just as well with petroleum, and that petroleum was a cheaper raw material than shale oil. In 1861, the existing oil shale refiners switched to petroleum feedstock, and the oil shale mines shut down.

text: A jobber, or petroleum marketer, is a person or company that purchases quantities of refined fuel from refining companies (e.g. BP, Shell, Exxon), either for sale to retailers (e.g., gasoline stations), or to sell directly to the users of those products (e.g., home heating oil to homeowners, lubricating oils to industrial operations or repair shops, jet fuel to FBOs, etc.). In essence, the jobber acts as the "middleman" between the company that refines the petroleum products and those that either use them or market them at retail prices.  The jobber often owns the gasoline being sold, and the station it is being sold to, but allows an operator to lease the store.

text: A jobber, or

text: petroleum

text: marketer, is a person or company that purchases quantities of refined fuel from refining companies (e.g.

text: BP

text: Shell

text: Exxon

text: ), either for sale to retailers (e.g.,

text: gasoline stations

text: ), or to sell directly to the users of those products (e.g., home

text: heating oil

text: to homeowners, lubricating oils to industrial operations or repair shops,

text: jet fuel

text: to

text: FBO

text: s, etc.). In essence, the jobber acts as the "middleman" between the company that refines the petroleum products and those that either use them or market them at retail prices.  The jobber often owns the gasoline being sold, and the station it is being sold to, but allows an operator to lease the store.

text: The Argonne study found that PHEVs offered reductions in petroleum energy use as compared with regular hybrid electric vehicles. More petroleum energy savings and also more GHG emissions reductions were realized as the all-electric range increased, except when electricity used to recharged was dominated by coal or oil-fired power generation. As expected, electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as the all-electric range increased. The study also concluded that plug-in vehicles that employ biomass-based fuels (biomass-E85 and -hydrogen) may not realize GHG emissions benefits over regular hybrids if power generation is dominated by fossil sources.

text: The company has trading offices for crude oil, refined petroleum products, and natural gas liquids in London, Stamford, Connecticut, and Singapore.

text: The company has trading offices for

text: crude oil

text: refined petroleum products

text: , and

text: natural gas liquids

text: in

text: London

text: Stamford, Connecticut

text: , and

text: Singapore

text: The primary energy consumption in India is the third biggest after China and USA with 5.3% global share in the year 2015. Coal and crude oil together account for 85% of the primary energy consumption of India. India's oil reserves meet 25% of the country's domestic oil demand. As of April 2015, India's total proven crude oil reserves is  763.476 million metric tons, while gas reserves stood at . Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at Bombay High, Krishna Godavari Basin and the Cauvery Delta, and onshore mainly in the states of Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan. India is the fourth largest consumer of oil in the world and net oil imports are nearly  worth of oil in 2014-15, which had an adverse effect on its current account deficit. The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC), Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL), Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as Reliance Industries Limited (RIL) which operates the world's largest oil refining complex.

text: The

text: primary energy

text: consumption in India is the third biggest after China and USA with 5.3% global share in the year 2015. Coal and crude oil together account for 85% of the primary energy consumption of India. India's

text: oil reserves

text: meet 25% of the country's domestic oil demand. As of April 2015, India's total proven crude oil reserves is  763.476 million metric tons, while gas reserves stood at . Oil and natural gas fields are located offshore at

text: Bombay High

text: Krishna Godavari Basin

text: and the

text: Cauvery Delta

text: , and onshore mainly in the states of

text: Assam

text: , Gujarat and

text: Rajasthan

text: . India is the fourth largest consumer of oil in the world and net oil imports are nearly  worth of oil in 2014-15, which had an adverse effect on its

text: current account deficit

text: . The petroleum industry in India mostly consists of public sector companies such as

text: Oil and Natural Gas Corporation

text: (ONGC),

text: Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited

text: (HPCL),

text: Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited

text: (BPCL) and Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL). There are some major private Indian companies in the oil sector such as

text: Reliance Industries Limited

text: (RIL) which operates the world's largest oil refining complex.

text: A net energy importer until 1987, Argentina's fuel exports began increasing rapidly in the early 1990s and today account for about an eighth of the total; refined fuels make up about half of that. Exports of crude petroleum and natural gas have recently been around US$3 billion a year. Rapidly growing domestic energy demand and a gradual decline in oil production, resulted in a US$3 billion energy trade deficit in 2011 (the first in 17 years) and a US$6 billion energy deficit in 2013.

text: Razaleigh was President of Malay Chamber of Commerce and Industry, President of Malaysian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and consequently the President of ASEAN Chamber of Commerce and Industry.  He played a major role in the strategic restructuring of the Malaysian economy.  The Malaysian Chamber of Commerce acknowledged his expertise in the petroleum business and once called him the "Malaysian Oil Prince".  In the 1975 Malaysian Chamber of Commerce resolution, Razaleigh was named "Father of Malaysian Economic Development".

text: Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Though wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special low-cost electric interties) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30–60¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.

text: low-cost electric interties

text: ) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30–60¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.

text: The alkanes from pentane (CH) to octane (CH) are refined into gasoline, the ones from nonane (CH) to hexadecane (CH) into diesel fuel, kerosene and jet fuel. Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either flared off, sold as liquefied petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (CH), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

text: The alkanes from

text: pentane

text: (CH) to

text: octane

text: (CH) are

text: refined

text: into gasoline, the ones from

text: nonane

text: (CH) to

text: hexadecane

text: (CH) into

text: diesel fuel

text: kerosene

text: and

text: jet fuel

text: . Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into

text: fuel oil

text: and

text: lubricating oil

text: . At the heavier end of the range,

text: paraffin wax

text: is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while

text: asphalt

text: has 35 and up, although these are usually

text: cracked

text: by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either

text: flared off

text: , sold as

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (CH), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

text: In the context of hydrocarbon accounting, an oil field is an area developed for exploration of hydrocarbons from one or more reservoirs in the underground. Sometimes one well extracts hydrocarbons from more than one geologic formation or reservoir, hence it may be useful to divide the oil field and its well streams by formations or layers. More than one oil field may share infrastructure like oil processing units and pipelines. The field activities are regulated by a jurisdiction of a state and a contract of the licence. The contract is a business arrangement for exploration of the oil field between the licensor, (the mineral rights owner, onshore in United States often the land owner, elsewhere often the state possesses the ownership of mineral rights including petroleum reservoirs) and a licensee to share investment costs, operational costs, and income from the oil field. In case of a production sharing agreement, PSA, the licensee will take all development costs and have this capital recovered by "cost oil". "Profit oil" will be shared by licensee and the state. The licensee may be one oil company, or often a group of companies sharing the risks, costs and profit in a partnership, consortium or joint venture. When more than one company is involved, the term "group ownership members" is used, and the business arrangement for petroleum extraction specifies the equity of cost and income for each member company. Where a petroleum concessionary licence system is in use rather than contractual type of petroleum fiscal regime, ownership of extracted hydrocarbons are shared according to fixed equities of each member company.

text: In the context of hydrocarbon accounting, an

text: oil field

text: is an area developed for exploration of hydrocarbons from one or more reservoirs in the underground. Sometimes one well extracts hydrocarbons from more than one

text: geologic formation

text: or reservoir, hence it may be useful to divide the oil field and its well streams by formations or layers. More than one oil field may share infrastructure like oil processing units and pipelines. The field activities are regulated by a jurisdiction of a state and a contract of the licence. The contract is a business arrangement for exploration of the oil field between the licensor, (the

text: mineral rights

text: owner, onshore in United States often the land owner, elsewhere often the state possesses the ownership of mineral rights including petroleum reservoirs) and a licensee to share investment costs, operational costs, and income from the oil field. In case of a

text: production sharing agreement

text: , PSA, the licensee will take all development costs and have this capital recovered by "cost oil". "Profit oil" will be shared by licensee and the state. The licensee may be one oil company, or often a group of companies sharing the risks, costs and profit in a partnership, consortium or joint venture. When more than one company is involved, the term "group ownership members" is used, and the business arrangement for petroleum extraction specifies the equity of cost and income for each member company. Where a

text: petroleum concessionary licence system

text: is in use rather than

text: contractual type

text: of

text: petroleum fiscal regime

text: , ownership of extracted hydrocarbons are shared according to fixed equities of each member company.

text: Regardless of the conversion, a truly low-carbon fossil fuel power plant implements carbon capture and storage, which means that the exhaust CO is not released into the environment and the fossil fuel power plant becomes an emissionless power plant. A 2006 example of a carbon capture and storage fossil fuel power plant is the pilot Elsam power station near Esbjerg, Denmark.

text: Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and gasoline, both important "primary energy" sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas. The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.

text: Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing

text: fuel oil

text: and gasoline, both important "

text: primary energy

text: " sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: . The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted,

text: oil refineries

text: are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using

text: fluid catalytic cracking

text: to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.

text: Part of Lyondell's strategy from the start was to operate as a merchant refiner. This meant that even as a wholly owned subsidiary the company was not obligated to purchase crude oil from the Arco parent, nor was it required to sell product to Arco's refined products marketing organization. However, the lack of long-term crude supply contracts meant that the company was subject to dramatic swings in the cost of raw materials and refined products. Initially the company tried to manage this risk through a hedging strategy based on crude and refined product derivatives contracts, but when this proved to be unsuccessful company planners began to investigate the sale of the Houston refinery.

text: With a few exceptions, elements or compounds are naturally found in an impure state. Often these impure raw materials must be separated into their purified components before they can be put to productive use, making separation techniques essential for the modern industrial economy. In some cases, these separations require total purification, as in the electrolysis refining of bauxite ore for aluminum metal, but a good example of an incomplete separation technique is oil refining. Crude oil occurs naturally as a mixture of various hydrocarbons and impurities. The refining process splits this mixture into other, more valuable mixtures such as natural gas, gasoline and chemical feedstocks, none of which are pure substances, but each of which must be separated from the raw crude. In both of these cases, a series of separations is necessary to obtain the desired end products. In the case of oil refining, crude is subjected to a long series of individual distillation steps, each of which produces a different product or intermediate.

text: With a few exceptions,

text: element

text: s or

text: compound

text: s are naturally found in an impure state. Often these impure raw materials must be separated into their purified components before they can be put to productive use, making separation techniques essential for the modern industrial economy. In some cases, these separations require total purification, as in the

text: electrolysis refining

text: of

text: bauxite

text: ore for

text: aluminum

text: metal, but a good example of an incomplete separation technique is

text: oil

text: refining. Crude oil occurs naturally as a mixture of various

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and impurities. The refining process splits this mixture into other, more valuable mixtures such as

text: natural gas

text: gasoline

text: and

text: chemical feedstocks

text: , none of which are pure substances, but each of which must be separated from the raw crude. In both of these cases, a series of separations is necessary to obtain the desired end products. In the case of oil refining, crude is subjected to a long series of individual

text: distillation

text: steps, each of which produces a different product or intermediate.

text: BP P.L.C., also referred to by its former name, British Petroleum, is a British multinational oil and gas company headquartered in London, England. It is one of the world's seven oil and gas "supermajors", whose performance in 2012 made it the world's sixth-largest oil and gas company, the sixth-largest energy company by market capitalization and the company with the world's fifth-largest revenue (turnover).  It is a vertically integrated company operating in all areas of the oil and gas industry, including exploration and production, refining, distribution and marketing, petrochemicals, power generation and trading. It also has renewable energy interests in biofuels and wind power.

text: BP P.L.C., also referred to by its former name, British Petroleum, is a British

text: multinational

text: oil

text: and

text: gas

text: company headquartered in

text: London

text: , England. It is one of the world's seven oil and gas "

text: supermajors

text: ", whose performance in 2012 made it the world's sixth-largest oil and gas company, the sixth-largest energy company by

text: market capitalization

text: and the

text: company with the world's fifth-largest revenue (turnover)

text: .  It is a

text: vertically integrated

text: company operating in all areas of the oil and gas industry, including

text: exploration

text: and

text: production

text: refining

text: distribution and marketing

text: petrochemical

text: s,

text: power generation

text: and

text: trading

text: . It also has

text: renewable energy

text: interests in

text: biofuel

text: s and

text: wind power

text: Inland Petroleum Distribution System (IPDS) a rapid deployment, general support, bulk fuel storage and pipeline system designed to move bulk fuel forward in a theater of operations. The system has a design throughput of  per day based on  per minute at 20 hours per operational day.  The IPDS system has three primary subsystems: tactical petroleum terminal, pipeline segments, and pump stations. The IPDS was designed by and for the U.S. Army and Marine Corps for use with the U.S. Navy offshore Petroleum Distribution System (OPDS). OPDS tankers are the SS MOUNT WASHINGTON, SS American Osprey, SS Petersburg, and the SS CHESAPEAKE.

text: Inland Petroleum Distribution System (IPDS) a rapid deployment, general support, bulk

text: fuel

text: storage and

text: pipeline

text: system designed to move bulk fuel forward in a

text: theater of operations

text: . The system has a design throughput of  per day based on  per minute at 20 hours per operational day.  The IPDS system has three primary subsystems: tactical petroleum terminal, pipeline segments, and

text: pump station

text: s. The IPDS was designed by and for the

text: U.S. Army

text: and

text: Marine Corps

text: for use with the

text: U.S. Navy

text: offshore Petroleum Distribution System (OPDS). OPDS tankers are the

text: SS MOUNT WASHINGTON

text: SS American Osprey

text: SS Petersburg

text: , and the

text: SS CHESAPEAKE

text: It has also been theorized that governments that rely to a significant extent on revenues from non-market sources are not compelled to apply free market principles to create an environment conducive to economic growth.  Oil is in such demand that it does not require adherence to free market principles and economic freedom based on rule of law, security, a fair and transparent judiciary and property rights does not have to be nurtured.  As a consequence, political freedom does not develop and efforts aimed at democratization are undermined.

text: It has also been theorized that governments that rely to a significant extent on revenues from non-market sources are not compelled to apply free market principles to create an environment conducive to economic growth.  Oil is in such demand that it does not require adherence to free market principles and economic freedom based on rule of law, security, a fair and transparent judiciary and property rights does not have to be nurtured.  As a consequence, political freedom does not develop and efforts aimed at

text: democratization

text: are undermined.

text: A fossil fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuel such as coal, natural gas or petroleum to produce electricity.  Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation. In many countries, such plants provide most of the electrical energy used.  Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy, which then operates an electrical generator. The prime mover may be a steam turbine, a gas turbine or, in small plants, a reciprocating internal combustion engine. All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas, either steam or combustion gases. Very few MHD generators have been built which directly convert the energy of moving hot gas into electricity.

text: A fossil fuel power station is a

text: power station

text: which burns

text: fossil fuel

text: such as

text: coal

text: natural gas

text: or

text: petroleum

text: to produce

text: electricity

text: .  Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation. In many countries, such plants provide most of the electrical energy used.  Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of

text: combustion

text: into

text: mechanical energy

text: , which then operates an

text: electrical generator

text: . The

text: prime mover

text: may be a

text: steam turbine

text: , a

text: gas turbine

text: or, in small plants, a reciprocating

text: internal combustion

text: engine. All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas, either steam or combustion gases. Very few

text: MHD generator

text: s have been built which directly convert the energy of moving hot gas into electricity.

text: An alternative fuel vehicle is a vehicle that runs on a fuel other than traditional petroleum fuels (petrol or Diesel fuel); and also refers to any technology of powering an engine that does not involve solely petroleum (e.g. electric car, hybrid electric vehicles, solar powered).  Because of a combination of factors, such as environmental concerns, high oil prices and the potential for peak oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.

text: An alternative fuel vehicle is a vehicle that runs on a fuel other than traditional

text: petroleum fuel

text: s (

text: petrol

text: or

text: Diesel fuel

text: ); and also refers to any technology of powering an engine that does not involve solely

text: petroleum

text: (e.g.

text: electric car

text: hybrid electric vehicle

text: s, solar powered).  Because of a combination of factors, such as environmental concerns, high oil prices and the potential for

text: peak oil

text: , development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.

text: Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional and  advanced fuels , are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels like; fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, and natural gas), as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium, as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors.

text: Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional and  advanced

text: fuel

text: s , are any materials or

text: substance

text: s that can be used as

text: fuel

text: s, other than conventional fuels like;

text: fossil fuel

text: s (

text: petroleum

text: (oil),

text: coal

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: ), as well as nuclear materials such as

text: uranium

text: and

text: thorium

text: , as well as artificial

text: radioisotope

text: fuels that are made in nuclear reactors.

text: Hubbert's peak oil theory suggests that petroleum is a finite resource that is rapidly depleting. Of the worldwide total remaining petroleum reserves of approximately  (about one half of the original virgin reserves) and a worldwide usage rate of  per year, only about 50 years worth of petroleum is predicted to remain at the current depletion rate. Petroleum is imperative for the following industries: fuel (home heating, jet fuel, gasoline, diesel, etc.) transportation, agriculture, pharmaceutical, plastics/resins, man-made fibers, synthetic rubber, and explosives. If the modern world remains reliant on petroleum as a source of energy, the price of crude oil could increase markedly, destabilizing economies worldwide. Consequently, renewable fuel drivers include: high oil prices, imbalance of trade, instability in oil exporting regions of the world, the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the potential for windfall profits for American farmers and industries, avoidance of economic depression, avoidance of scarcity of products due to a volatile ‘peak oil’ scenario expected to begin as early as 2021, (though peak oil is not a new idea) and a slowing of global warming that may usher in unprecedented climate change.

text: Hubbert's

text: peak oil theory

text: suggests that petroleum is a finite resource that is rapidly depleting. Of the worldwide total remaining petroleum reserves of approximately  (about one half of the original virgin reserves) and a worldwide usage rate of  per year, only about 50 years worth of

text: petroleum

text: is predicted to remain at the current depletion rate. Petroleum is imperative for the following industries:

text: fuel

text: (home heating, jet fuel, gasoline, diesel, etc.) transportation, agriculture, pharmaceutical, plastics/resins, man-made fibers, synthetic rubber, and explosives. If the modern world remains reliant on petroleum as a source of energy, the price of crude oil could increase markedly, destabilizing economies worldwide. Consequently, renewable fuel drivers include: high oil prices, imbalance of trade, instability in oil exporting regions of the world, the

text: Energy Policy Act of 2005

text: , the potential for windfall profits for American farmers and industries, avoidance of economic depression, avoidance of scarcity of products due to a volatile ‘

text: peak oil

text: ’ scenario expected to begin as early as 2021, (though peak oil is not a new idea) and a slowing of

text: global warming

text: that may usher in unprecedented

text: climate change

text: Due to its chemical composition, world-wide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil is considered a serious environmental problem. Most current motor oil lubricants contain petroleum base stocks, which are toxic to the environment and difficult to dispose of after use. Over 40% of the pollution in America's waterways is from used motor oil. Used oil is considered the largest source of oil pollution in the U.S. harbor and waterways, at 385 million gallons per year, mostly from improper disposal. By far, the greatest cause of motor oil pollution in our oceans comes from drains and urban street runoff, much of which is from improper disposal of engine oil. One gallon of used oil can create an eight-acre slick on surface water, threatening fish, waterfowl and other aquatic life. According to the U.S. EPA, films of oil on the surface of water prevent the replenishment of dissolved oxygen, impair photosynthetic processes, and block sunlight. Toxic effects of used oil on freshwater and marine organisms vary, but significant long-term effects have been found at concentrations of 310 ppm in several freshwater fish species and as low as 1 ppm in marine life forms. Motor oil can have an incredibly detrimental effect on the environment, particularly to plants that depend on healthy soil to grow. There are three main ways that motor oil affects plants: contaminating water supplies, contaminating soil, and poisoning plants. Used motor oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity. Improperly disposed used oil ends up in landfills, sewers, backyards, or storm drains where soil, groundwater and drinking water may be contaminated.

text: The refinery HDS feedstocks (naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and heavier oils) contain a wide range of organic sulfur compounds, including thiols, thiophenes, organic sulfides and disulfides, and many others. These organic sulfur compounds are products of the degradation of sulfur containing biological components, present during the natural formation of the fossil fuel, petroleum crude oil.

text: The refinery HDS feedstocks (naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and heavier oils) contain a wide range of

text: organic

text: sulfur compounds, including

text: thiols

text: thiophenes

text: , organic

text: sulfides

text: and

text: disulfides

text: , and many others. These organic sulfur compounds are products of the degradation of sulfur containing biological components, present during the natural formation of the

text: fossil fuel

text: , petroleum crude oil.

text: Nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel, because the load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day, but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day. Therefore, the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative. Off-peak wind power prices in high wind penetration areas of the U.S. averaged 1.64 cents per kilowatt-hour in 2009, but only 0.71 cents/kWh during the least expensive six hours of the day. Typically, wholesale electricity costs 2 to 5 cents/kWh during the day. Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce fuel for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than $55 per barrel. The U.S. Navy estimates that shipboard production of jet fuel from nuclear power would cost about $6 per gallon. While that was about twice the petroleum fuel cost in 2010, it is expected to be much less than the market price in less than five years if recent trends continue. Moreover, since the delivery of fuel to a carrier battle group costs about $8 per gallon, shipboard production is already much less expensive. However, U.S. civilian nuclear power is considerably more expensive than wind power. The Navy's estimate that 100 megawatts can produce 41,000 gallons of fuel per day indicates that terrestrial production from wind power would cost less than $1 per gallon.

text: Nighttime

text: wind power

text: load curve

text: kilowatt-hour

text: wholesale

text: electricity costs 2 to 5 cents/kWh during the day. Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce fuel for less than

text: petroleum

text: fuels when oil costs more than $55 per barrel. The U.S. Navy estimates that shipboard production of jet fuel from nuclear power would cost about $6 per gallon. While that was about twice the petroleum fuel cost in 2010, it is expected to be much less than the market price in less than five years if recent trends continue. Moreover, since the delivery of fuel to a

text: carrier battle group

text: costs about $8 per gallon, shipboard production is already much less expensive. However, U.S. civilian nuclear power is considerably more expensive than wind power. The Navy's estimate that 100 megawatts can produce 41,000 gallons of fuel per day indicates that terrestrial production from wind power would cost less than $1 per gallon.

text: There were three petroleum companies in 1900: the Sumatra-Palembang Petroleum Company (Sumpal); the French-owned Muara Enim Petroleum Company; and the Musi Ilir Petroleum Company. The Sumpal was soon assimilated into the Royal Dutch, and the Muara Enim Co. and the Musi Ilir Co. were also assimilated into the Royal Dutch, in 1904 and in 1906, respectively. Based on this assimilation, Royal Dutch and Shell established the BPM, the operating company of Royal Dutch Shell, and opened an oil refinery at Plaju, on the shore of the Musi River in Palembang, in 1907. While BPM was the only operating company in this area until the 1910s, American oil companies launched their business in the Palembang region from the 1920s. Standard Oil of New Jersey established a subsidiary, the American Petroleum Company, and, to prevent Dutch laws to restrict the activities of foreign firms, the American Petroleum Company established its own subsidiary, the Netherlands Colonial Oil Company (Nederlandche Koloniale Petroleum Maatschapij, NKPM). The NKPM began to establish itself in Sungai Gerong area in the early 1920s, and completed the construction of pipelines to send 3,500 barrels per day from their oilfields to the refinery at Sungai Gerong. The two refinery complexes were like enclaves, separate urban centers with houses, hospitals, and other cultural facilities built by the Dutch and Americans. In 1933, Standard Oil incorporated the NKPM holdings into the Standard Vacuum Company, a new joint venture corporation, which was renamed the Standard Vacuum Petroleum Maatschappij (SVPM). Caltex (a subsidiary of the Standard Oil California and Texas Company) secured extensive exploration concessions in Central Sumatra (Jambi) in 1931. By 1938, the production of crude oil in the Netherlands East Indies totaled 7,398,000 metric tons, and the shares of the BPM reached seventy two percent, while the NKPM (StandardVacuum)’s share was twenty eight percent. Whereas the most prolific area in crude oil production was East Kalimantan until the late 1930s, since then Palembang and Jambi took over the position. All crude oil production in the NEI was processed at seven refineries at this time, especially at three large export refineries: the NKPM plant at Sungai Gerong, the BPM refineries at Plaju, and the one in Balikpapan. Thus Palembang held two of the three biggest oil refineries in the archipelago.

text: There were three petroleum companies in 1900: the Sumatra-Palembang Petroleum Company (Sumpal); the French-owned Muara Enim Petroleum Company; and the Musi Ilir Petroleum Company. The Sumpal was soon assimilated into the Royal Dutch, and the Muara Enim Co. and the Musi Ilir Co. were also assimilated into the Royal Dutch, in 1904 and in 1906, respectively. Based on this assimilation, Royal Dutch and Shell established the BPM, the operating company of

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: , and opened an oil refinery at Plaju, on the shore of the Musi River in Palembang, in 1907. While BPM was the only operating company in this area until the 1910s, American oil companies launched their business in the Palembang region from the 1920s.

text: Standard Oil of New Jersey

text: established a subsidiary, the American Petroleum Company, and, to prevent Dutch laws to restrict the activities of foreign firms, the American Petroleum Company established its own subsidiary, the Netherlands Colonial Oil Company (Nederlandche Koloniale Petroleum Maatschapij, NKPM). The NKPM began to establish itself in Sungai Gerong area in the early 1920s, and completed the construction of pipelines to send 3,500 barrels per day from their oilfields to the refinery at Sungai Gerong. The two refinery complexes were like enclaves, separate urban centers with houses, hospitals, and other cultural facilities built by the Dutch and Americans. In 1933, Standard Oil incorporated the NKPM holdings into the Standard Vacuum Company, a new joint venture corporation, which was renamed the Standard Vacuum Petroleum Maatschappij (SVPM).

text: Caltex

text: (a subsidiary of the Standard Oil California and Texas Company) secured extensive exploration concessions in Central Sumatra (Jambi) in 1931. By 1938, the production of crude oil in the Netherlands East Indies totaled 7,398,000 metric tons, and the shares of the BPM reached seventy two percent, while the NKPM (StandardVacuum)’s share was twenty eight percent. Whereas the most prolific area in crude oil production was

text: East Kalimantan

text: until the late 1930s, since then Palembang and

text: Jambi

text: took over the position. All crude oil production in the NEI was processed at seven refineries at this time, especially at three large export refineries: the NKPM plant at Sungai Gerong, the BPM refineries at Plaju, and the one in

text: Balikpapan

text: . Thus Palembang held two of the three biggest oil refineries in the archipelago.

text: Avin International S.A. is active in the transportation of crude oil, gas and petroleum products. Avin is one of the world's leading independent shipment oil operators owned by the Vardinoyannis family.

text: In 1955, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry began its policy to transition Japan's primary fossil fuel source from coal to petroleum. To accomplish that goal, construction of the Daichi Petrochemical Complex was begun in 1956. The complex contained an oil refinery, a petrochemical plant, and a power station. This was the first petrochemical complex constructed in Japan.

text: In 1955, the

entity_name: Ministry of International Trade and Industry

text: Ministry of International Trade and Industry

text: began its policy to transition Japan's primary fossil fuel source from

text: coal

text: to

text: petroleum

text: . To accomplish that goal, construction of the Daichi Petrochemical Complex was begun in 1956. The complex contained an

text: oil refinery

text: , a

text: petrochemical

text: plant, and a

text: power station

text: . This was the first petrochemical complex constructed in Japan.

text: Pipelines are part of the energy extraction and transportation network of Canada and are used to transport natural gas, natural gas liquids, crude oil, synthetic crude and other petroleum based products. Canada has  of pipeline for transportation of crude and refined oil, and  for liquefied petroleum gas.

text: Pipelines are part of the energy

text: extraction

text: and transportation network of Canada and are used to transport

text: natural gas

text: natural gas liquids

text: crude oil

text: synthetic crude

text: and other

text: petroleum based products

text: . Canada has  of pipeline for transportation of crude and refined oil, and  for

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities. Viability of the oil commodity is controlled by several key parameters, number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel, quantity of oil exported to the world market (Export Land Model), Net Energy Gain (economically useful energy provided minus energy consumed), political stability of oil exporting nations and ability to defend oil supply lines.

text: Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important

text: commodities

text: . Viability of the oil commodity is controlled by several key parameters, number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel, quantity of oil exported to the world market (

text: Export Land Model

text: Net Energy Gain

text: (economically useful energy provided minus energy consumed), political stability of oil exporting nations and ability to defend oil supply lines.

text: On one hand, due to increased refining costs and high sulfur content for some sources, heavy crudes are often priced at a discount to lighter ones.  The increased viscosity and density also makes production more difficult (see reservoir engineering).  On the other hand, large quantities of heavy crudes have been discovered in the Americas, including Canada, Venezuela and California. The relatively shallow depth of heavy oil fields (often less than 3000 feet) can contribute to lower production costs; however, these are offset by the difficulties of production and transport that render conventional production methods ineffective. Specialized techniques are being developed for exploration and production of heavy oil.

text: On one hand, due to increased

text: refining

text: costs and high sulfur content for some sources, heavy crudes are often priced at a discount to lighter ones.  The increased viscosity and density also makes production more difficult (see

text: reservoir engineering

text: ).  On the other hand, large quantities of heavy crudes have been discovered in the Americas, including

text: Canada

text: Venezuela

text: and

text: California

text: . The relatively shallow depth of heavy oil fields (often less than 3000 feet) can contribute to lower production costs; however, these are offset by the difficulties of production and transport that render

text: conventional production

text: methods ineffective. Specialized techniques are being developed for exploration and production of heavy oil.

text: The general definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and uses. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin, and may be volatile or non-volatile. They are used for food (e.g., olive oil), fuel (e.g., heating oil),  medical purposes (e.g., mineral oil), lubrication (e.g. motor oil), and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in some religious ceremonies and ritluals as purifying agents.

text: The general definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and uses. Oils may be

text: animal

text: vegetable

text: , or

text: petrochemical

text: in origin, and may be

text: volatile

text: or non-volatile. They are used for food (e.g.,

text: olive oil

text: ), fuel (e.g.,

text: heating oil

text: ),  medical purposes (e.g.,

text: mineral oil

text: lubrication

text: (e.g.

text: motor oil

text: ), and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in some religious ceremonies and ritluals as purifying agents.

text: Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided the energy needed for industry such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping water, and burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The widescale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, to fire steam engines enabled the Industrial Revolution. At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal gas were coming into wide use. The invention of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation, railways and aircraft, also required fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the petrochemical industry. Tar, a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of roads.

text: Prior to the latter half of the 18th century,

text: windmill

text: s and

text: watermill

text: s provided the energy needed for industry such as milling

text: flour

text: sawing wood

text: or pumping water, and burning wood or

text: peat

text: provided domestic heat. The widescale use of fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, to fire

text: steam engine

text: s enabled the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: . At the same time,

text: gas lights

text: using natural gas or

text: coal gas

text: were coming into wide use. The invention of the

text: internal combustion engine

text: and its use in

text: automobile

text: s and

text: truck

text: s greatly increased the demand for

text: gasoline

text: and

text: diesel oil

text: , both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation,

text: railways

text: and

text: aircraft

text: , also required fossil fuels. The other major use for fossil fuels is in

text: generating electricity

text: and as

text: feedstock

text: for the

text: petrochemical industry

text: Tar

text: , a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in

text: construction of roads

text: During the First World War, Port Harcourt was used as a point for military operations against the Central Powers in German Kamerun. After the discovery of crude oil in Oloibiri in 1956, Port Harcourt exported the first shipload from Nigeria in 1958.  Port Harcourt became the centre of the Nigerian oil economy and it subsequently reaped benefits of its associations with the petroleum industry by undergoing modernisation and urbanisation. Port Harcourt's growth is further due to its position as the commercial centre and foremost industrial city of the former Eastern Region; its position in the Niger Delta; and its importance as the centre of social and economic life in Rivers State. After the Republic of Biafra seceded from Nigeria in 1967 Port Harcourt fell to Nigerian forces on 19 May 1968. From an area of 15.54 km in 1914, Port Harcourt grew uncontrolled to an area of 360 km in the 1980s.

text: During the

text: First World War

text: , Port Harcourt was used as a point for military operations against the

text: Central Powers

text: in

text: German Kamerun

text: . After the discovery of crude oil in

text: Oloibiri

text: in 1956, Port Harcourt exported the first shipload from Nigeria in 1958.  Port Harcourt became the centre of the Nigerian oil economy and it subsequently reaped benefits of its associations with the petroleum industry by undergoing

text: modernisation

text: and

text: urbanisation

text: . Port Harcourt's growth is further due to its position as the commercial centre and foremost industrial city of the former

text: Eastern Region

text: ; its position in the Niger Delta; and its importance as the centre of social and economic life in Rivers State. After the Republic of

text: Biafra

text: seceded from Nigeria in 1967 Port Harcourt fell to Nigerian forces on 19 May 1968. From an area of 15.54 km in 1914, Port Harcourt grew uncontrolled to an area of 360 km in the 1980s.

text: Liquid bulk: Crude oil, Edible oil, petroleum, oils & lubricants

text: Petroleum crude oils contain hundreds of different hydrocarbon compounds: paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics  as well as organic sulfur compounds, organic nitrogen compounds and some oxygen containing hydrocarbons  such as phenols.  Although crude oils generally do not contain olefins, they are formed in many of the processes used in a petroleum refinery.

text: Petroleum

text: crude oils contain hundreds of different

text: hydrocarbon

text: compounds:

text: paraffin

text: s,

text: naphthene

text: s and

text: aromatic

text: s  as well as

text: organic sulfur compounds

text: organic nitrogen compounds

text: and some

text: oxygen

text: containing hydrocarbons  such as

text: phenols

text: .  Although crude oils generally do not contain

text: olefin

text: s, they are formed in many of the processes used in a petroleum refinery.

text: Various stages of converting renewable hydrocarbon fuels produced by hydrotreating is done throughout energy industry. Some commercial examples of vegetable oil refining are NExBTL, H-Bio, the ConocoPhilips process, and the UOP/Eni Ecofining process. Neste Oil is the largest manufacturer, producing 2 million tons annually (2013).  Neste Oil completed their first NExBTL plant in the summer 2007 and the second one in 2009. Petrobras planned to use  of vegetable oils in the production of H-Bio fuel in 2007.  ConocoPhilips is processing  of vegetable oil.Othercompanies working on the commercialization and industrialization of renewable hydrocarbons and biofuels include Neste, REG Synthetic Fuels, LLC, ENI, UPM Biofuels, Diamond Green Diesel partnered with countries across the globe.In practice, these renewable diesels lower greenhouse gas emissions by 40-90%, have higher energy per content yields than petroleum-based diesels, and better cold-flow properties to work in colder climates. In addition, all of these green diesels can be introduced into any diesel engine or infrastructure without many mechanical modifications at any ratio with petroleum-based diesels.

text: Various stages of converting renewable hydrocarbon fuels produced by hydrotreating is done throughout energy industry. Some commercial examples of vegetable oil refining are

text: NExBTL

text: H-Bio

text: , the ConocoPhilips process, and the

text: UOP

text: Eni

text: Ecofining

text: process.

text: Neste Oil

text: is the largest manufacturer, producing 2 million tons annually (2013).  Neste Oil completed their first

text: NExBTL

text: plant in the summer 2007 and the second one in 2009. Petrobras planned to use  of vegetable oils in the production of H-Bio fuel in 2007.  ConocoPhilips is processing  of vegetable oil.Othercompanies working on the commercialization and industrialization of renewable hydrocarbons and biofuels include Neste, REG Synthetic Fuels, LLC, ENI, UPM Biofuels, Diamond Green Diesel partnered with countries across the globe.In practice, these renewable diesels lower greenhouse gas emissions by 40-90%, have higher energy per content yields than petroleum-based diesels, and better cold-flow properties to work in colder climates. In addition, all of these green diesels can be introduced into any diesel engine or infrastructure without many mechanical modifications at any ratio with petroleum-based diesels.

text: Iran states that the purpose of its nuclear program is the generation of power and that any other use would be a violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which it is a signatory, as well as being against Islamic religious principles. Iran claims that nuclear power is necessary for a booming population and rapidly industrialising nation. It points to the fact that Iran's population has more than doubled in 20 years, the country regularly imports gasoline and electricity, and that burning fossil fuel in large amounts harms Iran's environment drastically. Additionally, Iran questions why it shouldn't be allowed to diversify its sources of energy, especially when there are fears of its oil fields eventually being depleted. It continues to argue that its valuable oil should be used for high value products and export, not simple electricity generation. Furthermore, Iran argues that nuclear power makes fairly good economic sense. Building reactors is expensive, but subsequent operating costs are low and stable, and increasingly competitive as fossil-fuel prices rise. Iran also raises funding questions, claiming that developing the excess capacity in its oil industry would cost it $40 billion, not to speak of paying for the power plants. Harnessing nuclear power costs a fraction of this, considering Iran has abundant supplies of accessible uranium ore. These claims have been echoed by Scott Ritter, the former UN weapons inspector in Iraq. Roger Stern, of Johns Hopkins Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, agrees "Iran's claims to need nuclear power could be genuine".

text: Iran states that the purpose of its nuclear program is the generation of power and that any other use would be a violation of the

entity_name: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

text: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

text: , of which it is a signatory, as well as being against Islamic religious principles. Iran claims that nuclear power is necessary for a booming population and rapidly industrialising nation. It points to the fact that Iran's population has more than doubled in 20 years, the country regularly imports gasoline and electricity, and that burning fossil fuel in large amounts harms Iran's environment drastically. Additionally, Iran questions why it shouldn't be allowed to diversify its sources of energy, especially when there are fears of its oil fields eventually being depleted. It continues to argue that its valuable oil should be used for high value products and export, not simple electricity generation. Furthermore, Iran argues that nuclear power makes fairly good economic sense. Building reactors is expensive, but subsequent operating costs are low and stable, and increasingly competitive as fossil-fuel prices rise. Iran also raises funding questions, claiming that developing the excess capacity in its oil industry would cost it $40 billion, not to speak of paying for the power plants. Harnessing nuclear power costs a fraction of this, considering Iran has abundant supplies of accessible

text: uranium

text: ore. These claims have been echoed by

text: Scott Ritter

text: , the former UN weapons inspector in Iraq. Roger Stern, of Johns Hopkins Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, agrees "Iran's claims to need nuclear power could be genuine".

text: Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There's a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

text: Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like

text: natural gas

text: or

text: petroleum

text: products such as

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: fuel oil

text: . There's a growing usage of

text: renewable fuels

text: like

text: biodiesel

text: for compression ignition engines and

text: bioethanol

text: or

text: methanol

text: for spark ignition engines.

text: Hydrogen

text: is sometimes used, and can be made from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

text: Petroleum jelly is also soluble in lower molecular weight oils. Using an oil to dissolve the petroleum jelly first can render it more soluble to solvents and soaps that would not dissolve pure petroleum jelly. Vegetable oils such as canola and olive oil are commonly used to aid in the removal of petroleum jelly from hair and skin.

text: In the petroleum industry cycle oil is an unwanted liquid residue produced when using catalytic cracking to convert heavy hydrocarbon fractions from earlier stages of refining into more valuable lighter products. Catalytic cracking produces petrol (gasoline), liquid petroleum gas (LPG), unsaturated olefin compounds, cracked gas oils, cycle oil, light gases and a solid coke residue. Cycle oil may be processed further to break it down into more useful products; in particular it may be mixed with heavier products and put through the refining process again (recycled).

text: In the

text: petroleum industry

text: cycle oil is an unwanted liquid

text: residue

text: produced when using

text: catalytic cracking

text: to convert heavy

text: hydrocarbon

text: fractions from earlier stages of

text: refining

text: into more valuable lighter products. Catalytic cracking produces

text: petrol

text: (gasoline),

text: liquid petroleum gas

text: (LPG), unsaturated

text: olefin

text: compounds, cracked

text: gas oil

text: s, cycle oil, light gases and a solid

text: coke

text: residue. Cycle oil may be processed further to break it down into more useful products; in particular it may be mixed with heavier products and put through the refining process again (recycled).

text: Concern over the depletion of the earth's finite reserves of oil, and the effect this would have on a society dependent on it, is a concept known as peak oil. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum will have a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, damaging ecosystems through events such as oil spills and releasing a range of pollutants into the air including ground-level ozone and sulfur dioxide from sulfur impurities in fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming.

text: Concern over the

text: depletion

text: of the earth's

text: finite reserves

text: of oil, and the effect this would have on a society dependent on it, is a concept known as

text: peak oil

text: . The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum will have a negative impact on Earth's biosphere, damaging

text: ecosystems

text: through events such as

text: oil spill

text: s and releasing a range of pollutants into the air including

text: ground-level ozone

text: and

text: sulfur dioxide

text: from sulfur impurities in fossil fuels. The burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the

text: current episode of global warming

text: Conventional crude oil is normally extracted from the ground by drilling oil wells into a petroleum reservoir, allowing oil to flow into them under natural reservoir pressures, although artificial lift and techniques such as horizontal drilling, water flooding and gas injection are often required to maintain production. When primary production is used in the Venezuelan oil sands, where the extra-heavy oil is about 50 degrees Celsius, the typical oil recovery rates are about 8-12%. Canadian oil sands are much colder and more biodegraded, so bitumen recovery rates are usually only about 5-6%. Historically, primary recovery was used in the more fluid areas of Canadian oil sands. However, it recovered only a small fraction of the oil in place, so it not often used today.

text: Conventional crude oil is normally extracted from the ground by drilling

text: oil well

text: s into a

text: petroleum reservoir

text: , allowing oil to flow into them under natural reservoir pressures, although

text: artificial lift

text: and techniques such as

text: horizontal drilling

text: water flooding

text: and gas injection are often required to maintain production. When primary production is used in the Venezuelan oil sands, where the extra-heavy oil is about 50 degrees

text: Celsius

text: , the typical oil recovery rates are about 8-12%. Canadian oil sands are much colder and more biodegraded, so bitumen recovery rates are usually only about 5-6%. Historically, primary recovery was used in the more fluid areas of Canadian oil sands. However, it recovered only a small fraction of the

text: oil in place

text: , so it not often used today.

text: With the discovery of vast amount of crude oil under Lake Maracaibo, but unable to send it to market because the channel into Lake Maracaibo was too shallow to allow oceangoing oil tankers to enter the lake, Pan American Petroleum and Transport Company, who held the lease on a large area of Lake Maracaibo, incorporated Lago Oil & Tr Lake tankers to bring the crude oil from Lake Maracaibo to Aruba, where it was stored ashore in large tanks; and then later loaded onto larger oceangoing tankers and taken to the United States for refining into finished petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, Bunker C and heating oil.

text: With the discovery of vast amount of crude oil under Lake Maracaibo, but unable to send it to market because the channel into Lake Maracaibo was too shallow to allow oceangoing

text: oil tanker

text: s to enter the lake,

text: , who held the lease on a large area of Lake Maracaibo, incorporated Lago Oil & Tr

text: Lake tanker

text: s to bring the crude oil from Lake Maracaibo to Aruba, where it was stored ashore in large tanks; and then later loaded onto larger oceangoing tankers and taken to the

text: United States

text: for refining into finished petroleum products such as

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: Bunker C

text: and

text: heating oil

text: Phoenix is engaged in the business of trading refined petroleum products and lubricants, operation of oil depots and storage facilities, and allied services.

text: Hydrogen sulfide (HS, also known as sour gas), is found to varying degrees in crude petroleum. The gas is flammable, corrosive, poisonous, and explosive; thus, oil with higher levels of HS presents challenges such as "health and environmental risks, corrosion of wellbore, added expense with regard to materials handling and pipeline equipment, and additional refinement requirements". Bakken oil has historically been characterized as "sweet," meaning that it has little or no HS. However, increased concentration of HS over time has been observed in some Bakken wells, believed to be due to certain completion practices, such as hydraulic fracturing into neighboring formations, and may contain high levels of HS. Some other formations in the Williston Basin have always produced "sour" (high HS) crude oil, and because sweet oil brings a higher price, oil transporters suspect that some sour oil is being blended into sweet Bakken crude. HS in crude oil is being investigated as a possible cause of the explosive nature of the Lac-Mégantic rail disaster. Pipeline operators Tesoro and Enbridge no longer accept crude with more than five parts per million HS, citing safety concerns.

text: Hydrogen sulfide

text: (HS, also known as

text: sour gas

text: ), is found to varying degrees in

text: crude petroleum

text: . The gas is flammable, corrosive, poisonous, and explosive; thus, oil with higher levels of HS presents challenges such as "health and environmental risks, corrosion of wellbore, added expense with regard to materials handling and pipeline equipment, and additional refinement requirements". Bakken oil has historically been characterized as "sweet," meaning that it has little or no HS. However, increased concentration of HS over time has been observed in some Bakken wells, believed to be due to certain completion practices, such as hydraulic fracturing into neighboring formations, and may contain high levels of HS. Some other formations in the Williston Basin have always produced "sour" (high HS) crude oil, and because sweet oil brings a higher price, oil transporters suspect that some sour oil is being blended into sweet Bakken crude. HS in crude oil is being investigated as a possible cause of the explosive nature of the Lac-Mégantic rail disaster.

text: Pipeline

text: operators

text: Tesoro

text: and

text: Enbridge

text: no longer accept crude with more than five parts per million HS, citing safety concerns.

text: As to the issue whether Kelantan has the right to claim oil royalties from federal government as enumerated in the Assignment Deed. The question arises put so much legal complication and it is trans-border many relevant statues namely Petroleum Development Act 1974, Petroleum Mining Act 1966 and requires legal interpretation on some provisions in Federal Constitution. Being the supreme law of the land, any law or any agreements enacted inconsistent with Federal Constitution is void. Since, Malaysia is a federation of 13 states, the division of powers between two level of governments (central government and state government) are the most important feature in the federal constitution. Relevant with the issue, Article 76 gives powers to two level of governments accordingly set out in Schedule Ninth. In Schedule 9, List I of the Federal Constitution, the following topics are assigned to the Federal Government:

text: Riyaz Kharat (born in Karbala) is one of the eminent Iranian Scientists in the field of Chemical engineering and Petroleum engineering. He is the full professor of Petroleum University of Technology and now he is the dean of Tehran Faculty of Petroleum (Petroleum School of Accounting and Financial Sciences).

text: Riyaz Kharat (born in

text: Karbala

text: ) is one of the eminent Iranian Scientists in the field of

text: Chemical engineering

text: and

text: Petroleum engineering

text: . He is the full professor of

text: Petroleum University of Technology

text: and now he is the dean of

text: Tehran Faculty of Petroleum

entity_name: Petroleum School of Accounting and Financial Sciences

text: Petroleum School of Accounting and Financial Sciences

text: The position of Minister of Petroleum and Energy was central in the first cabinet Stoltenberg, partly because the first cabinet Bondevik lost the motion of confidence because of unwillingness to build fossil fuel power plants. The parliamentary opposition, including the Labour Party, held this to be necessary, and Akselsen had marked himself as a strong supporter of natural gas power plants. He views the power plant at Mongstad as especially important.

text: The position of Minister of Petroleum and Energy was central in the first cabinet Stoltenberg, partly because the first cabinet Bondevik lost the motion of confidence because of unwillingness to build

text: fossil fuel power plant

text: s. The

text: parliamentary opposition

text: , including the Labour Party, held this to be necessary, and Akselsen had marked himself as a strong supporter of

text: natural gas

text: power plants. He views the power plant at

text: Mongstad

text: as especially important.

text: State-owned Petróleos Paraguayos (Petropar) has a monopoly on all crude oil and petroleum product sales and imports in Paraguay. Petropar operates the country’s sole refinery, the  Villa Elisa facility. In 2006, Paraguay’s petroleum consumption amounted to . In September 2005, Paraguay and Venezuela discussed the possibility of building an oil refinery in Paraguay that could process Venezuela’s heavy crude. This effort could help satisfy Paraguay’s crude demand and Venezuela’s supply to Paraguay could reach  of crude in the form of gasoil.

text: State-owned

text: Petróleos Paraguayos

text: (Petropar) has a monopoly on all crude oil and petroleum product sales and imports in Paraguay. Petropar operates the country’s sole refinery, the  Villa Elisa facility. In 2006, Paraguay’s petroleum consumption amounted to . In September 2005, Paraguay and Venezuela discussed the possibility of building an oil refinery in Paraguay that could process

text: Venezuela’s

text: heavy crude. This effort could help satisfy Paraguay’s crude demand and Venezuela’s supply to Paraguay could reach  of crude in the form of gasoil.

text: In December 2008, PG&E finished moving the spent nuclear fuel into dry cask storage on site. The next step is the decommissioning of the plant, planned to begin in 2010 along with the two original fossil-fuel-powered steam-turbine generators on site. The plant began being powered by an array of modern, multi-fuel Wärtsilä reciprocating engine-generators in late 2010. The work to dismantle the older turbine generators and continued dismantling of the nuclear side of the operations is scheduled to finish by April 2013.

text: In December 2008, PG&E finished moving the spent nuclear fuel into dry cask storage on site. The next step is the decommissioning of the plant, planned to begin in 2010 along with the two original fossil-fuel-powered steam-turbine generators on site. The plant began being powered by an array of modern, multi-fuel

text: Wärtsilä

text: reciprocating engine-generators in late 2010. The work to dismantle the older turbine generators and continued dismantling of the nuclear side of the operations is scheduled to finish by April 2013.

text: Motor oils are derived from petroleum-based and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds. Motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO), and polyinternal olefins (PIO), organic compounds consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen. The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20% by weight of esters.

text: Motor oils are derived from

text: petroleum-based

text: and non-petroleum-synthesized chemical compounds. Motor oils today are mainly blended by using base oils composed of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, polyalphaolefins (PAO), and polyinternal olefins (PIO),

text: organic compound

text: s consisting entirely of

text: carbon

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: . The base oils of some high-performance motor oils contain up to 20% by weight of

text: ester

text: s.

text: In 1995, they again changed their name for "On Thorns I Lay" in reference to Shakespeare(The name was suggested by their friend, Nightfall's vocalist/bassist Efthimis Karadimas) and their style got closer to Death/doom style, under the influence of bands like Paradise Lost and Anathema. Little by little, it evolved towards gothic metal, emphasizing melancolic themes, in the way of the band Theatre of Tragedy, having cavernous masculine voices and soprano feminine voices.

text: In 1995, they again changed their name for "On Thorns I Lay" in reference to

text: Shakespeare

text: (The name was suggested by their friend,

text: Nightfall

text: 's vocalist/bassist Efthimis Karadimas) and their style got closer to

text: Death/doom

text: style, under the influence of bands like Paradise Lost and Anathema. Little by little, it evolved towards gothic metal, emphasizing melancolic themes, in the way of the band

text: Theatre of Tragedy

text: , having cavernous masculine voices and soprano feminine voices.

text: The 185th Brigade went on to fight at Bourguebus Ridge, Mont Pincon, the Nederrijn, the Rhineland, and across the Rhine River. By the end of the war the 185th Brigade had been awarded both the VCs awarded to the 3rd Division and had suffered more casualties than the other two infantry brigades.

text: The 185th Brigade went on to fight at

text: Bourguebus Ridge

text: Mont Pincon

text: , the

text: Nederrijn

text: , the

text: Rhineland

text: , and

text: across the Rhine River

text: . By the end of the war the 185th Brigade had been awarded both the

text: VCs

text: awarded to the 3rd Division and had suffered more casualties than the other two infantry brigades.

text: Ill-fated French ocean liner MS Georges Philippar was named after him.

text: Ill-fated French

text: ocean liner

text: MS Georges Philippar

text: was named after him.

text: Unlike other snakes of the family Elapidae, its venom does not contain a neurotoxin. The toxic element is a cytotoxin that leads to the destruction of muscle tissue. Phosphodiesterases promote the release of adenosine, which causes hypotension, inflammation, and neurotransmitter blockade in prey items and other bite victims.

text: Unlike other snakes of the family Elapidae, its venom does not contain a

text: neurotoxin

text: . The toxic element is a

text: cytotoxin

text: that leads to the destruction of muscle tissue.

text: Phosphodiesterase

text: s promote the release of

text: adenosine

text: , which causes

text: hypotension

text: inflammation

text: , and

text: neurotransmitter

text: blockade in prey items and other bite victims.

text: The WCSB is considered a mature area for exploration of petroleum and recent development has tended toward natural gas and oil sands rather than conventional oil. In the WCSB, conventional oil is of two different types: light crude oil and heavy crude oil, each with different costs, prices, and development strategies. Conventional light oil is a mature industry with most of the recoverable oil reserves already produced and production declining by three to four percent per year. Conventional heavy oil is also past its production peak with a future of long-term decline. Alberta, which contains most of the reserves, expects its light-medium crude oil production to decline by 42% from 2006 to 2016, while it expects heavy crude production to decrease by 35% over the same period. However, it also expects bitumen and synthetic crude oil from oil sands will considerably more than offset the decline in conventional crude oil and account for 87% of Alberta oil production by 2016.

text: The WCSB is considered a mature area for exploration of

text: petroleum

text: and recent development has tended toward natural gas and oil sands rather than conventional oil. In the WCSB, conventional oil is of two different types:

text: light crude oil

text: and

text: heavy crude oil

text: , each with different costs, prices, and development strategies. Conventional light oil is a mature industry with most of the recoverable

text: oil reserves

text: already produced and

text: production declining

text: by three to four percent per year. Conventional heavy oil is also past its production peak with a future of

text: long-term decline

text: . Alberta, which contains most of the reserves, expects its light-medium crude oil production to decline by 42% from 2006 to 2016, while it expects heavy crude production to decrease by 35% over the same period. However, it also expects bitumen and synthetic crude oil from oil sands will considerably more than offset the decline in conventional crude oil and account for 87% of Alberta oil production by 2016.

text: There has been some controversy over the possibility of a wind farm on the Mount Redington area. Numerous positive environmental effects of wind power have been cited, including pollution avoided from electricity generation from fossil fuels as well as the fact that unlike electricity production from fossil fuel power plants such as coal or petroleum, wind power does not need to use water for cooling.A survey by the Potholm group in 2006 showed 9:1 statewide public support for a wind farm on Redington Mountain (with a margin of error of 5%). The same survey found that 74% of dues paying members of environmental groups in the state were also in favor.

text: There has been some controversy over the possibility of a wind farm on the

text: Mount Redington

text: area. Numerous positive

text: environmental effects of wind power

text: have been cited, including pollution avoided from electricity generation from

text: fossil fuel

text: s as well as the fact that unlike electricity production from

text: fossil fuel power plant

text: s such as

text: coal

text: or

text: petroleum

text: wind power

text: does not need to use water for cooling.A survey by the Potholm group in 2006 showed 9:1 statewide public support for a wind farm on Redington Mountain (with a margin of error of 5%). The same survey found that 74% of dues paying members of environmental groups in the state were also in favor.

text: In the United States  of track had been completed by 1840, by 1860 all major eastern US cities were linked by rail, and by 1869 the first trans-American railroad link was completed. Yosemite Park was developed as a tourist attraction in the late 1850s and early 1860s for an audience who wanted a national icon and place to symbolize exotic wonder of its region. Photography played an important role for the first time in the development of tourist attractions, making it possible to distribute hundreds of images showing various places of interest.

text: In the United States  of track had been completed by 1840, by 1860 all major eastern US cities were linked by rail, and by 1869 the first trans-American railroad link was completed.

text: Yosemite Park

text: was developed as a tourist attraction in the late 1850s and early 1860s for an audience who wanted a national icon and place to symbolize exotic wonder of its region. Photography played an important role for the first time in the development of tourist attractions, making it possible to distribute hundreds of images showing various places of interest.

text: where: C is the price of microalgal oil in dollars per gallon and C is the price of crude oil in dollars per barrel. This equation assumes that algal oil has roughly 80% of the caloric energy value of crude petroleum.

text: When oil production first began in the mid-nineteenth century, the largest oil fields recovered fifty barrels of oil for every barrel used in the extraction, transportation and refining. This ratio is often referred to as the Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROI or EROEI).  Currently, between one and five barrels of oil are recovered for each barrel-equivalent of energy used in the recovery process.  As the EROEI drops to one, or equivalently the Net energy gain falls to zero, the oil production is no longer a net energy source.  This happens long before the resource is physically exhausted.

text: When oil production first began in the mid-nineteenth century, the largest oil fields recovered fifty barrels of oil for every barrel used in the extraction, transportation and refining. This ratio is often referred to as the Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROI or

text: EROEI

text: ).  Currently, between one and five barrels of oil are recovered for each barrel-equivalent of energy used in the recovery process.  As the EROEI drops to one, or equivalently the

text: Net energy gain

text: falls to zero, the oil production is no longer a net energy source.  This happens long before the resource is physically exhausted.

text: The relative concentration of laurel oil (typically from 2–30%) determines the quality and cost of the soap.

text: Plants are the source of many natural products such as essential oils, natural dyes, pigments, waxes, resins, tannins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, paint, varnish, turpentine, rubber, latex, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, and gums. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and many other biofuels. Coal and petroleum are fossil fuels derived from the remains of plants. Olive oil has been used in lamps for centuries to provide illumination.

text: Plants are the source of many natural products such as

text: essential oil

text: s,

text: natural dye

text: s, pigments, waxes,

text: resin

text: s,

text: tannin

text: s, alkaloids, amber and

text: cork

text: latex

text: gums

text: . Renewable fuels from plants include

text: firewood

text: peat

text: and many other

text: biofuel

text: s.

text: Coal

text: and

text: petroleum

text: are fossil fuels derived from the remains of plants.

text: Olive oil

text: has been used in lamps for centuries to provide illumination.

text: Oil may come from conventional or unconventional sources. The terms are not strictly defined, and vary within the literature as definitions based on new technologies tend to change over time. As a result, different oil forecasting studies have included different classes of liquid fuels. Some use the terms "conventional" oil for what is included in the model, and "unconventional" oil for classes excluded.

text: Due to its unique structure and faulting, the area within and around the aulacogen developed very deep basins (such as the Anadarko Basin), forming excellent petroleum sources. Igneous rock deposits often form the hanging walls of anticline reverse faults in this area, leading to an unusual number of petroleum wells drilled into them in order to access the petroleum-bearing rock layers below. A graph of the geothermal history of the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen suggests that sections of rock in the area may have been, at one point, in the temperature range of the "liquid window," the range of temperatures that are ideal for oil formation. The isotherms of this window range from 65 °C to 150 °C. This further suggests that the area may have served as an oil formation bed before a late Ordovician fluid migration pulse.

text: Due to its unique structure and faulting, the area within and around the aulacogen developed very deep basins (such as the

text: Anadarko Basin

text: ), forming excellent petroleum sources.

text: Igneous

text: rock deposits often form the hanging walls of anticline reverse faults in this area, leading to an unusual number of petroleum wells drilled into them in order to access the petroleum-bearing rock layers below. A graph of the geothermal history of the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen suggests that sections of rock in the area may have been, at one point, in the temperature range of the "liquid window," the range of temperatures that are ideal for oil formation. The isotherms of this window range from 65 °C to 150 °C. This further suggests that the area may have served as an oil formation bed before a late

text: Ordovician

text: fluid migration pulse.

text: The process and waste waters used in shale oil extraction contain phenols, tar, and several other environmentally toxic products. Power stations use water as a coolant and for hydraulic transportation of oil shale ash to the ash heaps. Narva power stations use  of water from the Narva River annually for cooling. For ash transportation, generated oil shale ash is mixed with water at a ratio of 1:20 and the resulted mixture, known as "ash pulp", is pumped to the heaps. Consequently, the transportation water becomes highly alkaline. The total volume of formed alkaline water is .

text: The process and waste waters used in shale oil extraction contain

text: phenols

text: tar

text: , and several other environmentally toxic products. Power stations use water as a coolant and for hydraulic transportation of oil shale ash to the ash heaps. Narva power stations use  of water from the

text: Narva River

text: annually for cooling. For ash transportation, generated oil shale ash is mixed with water at a ratio of 1:20 and the resulted mixture, known as "ash pulp", is pumped to the heaps. Consequently, the transportation water becomes highly

text: alkaline

text: . The total volume of formed alkaline water is .