text: Another factor limiting the effectiveness of the NSDDB was the often low regard for its leaders at the universities. Many had a reputation of wanting to compensate for their lack of scientific standing and expertise by means of excessive partisan zeal.

text: In An Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Robert Malthus argues that a population will increase exponentially if unchecked, while resources will only increase arithmetically. This is seen graphically in the adjacent image and is commonly referred to as the Malthusian curve. Malthus knew that with limited resources on earth, there would be competition among people to exist and survive. He coined the phrase the Malthusian catastrophe to explain how there were positive checks in human populations like famine and disease that kept the population from rising too quickly. The checks that exist on the human population growth result in a struggle for existence. Malthus also notes that the checks on the human population are more complicated than those on animals and plants. Malthus explains, for example, that a human check on population growth is the conscious decision not to reproduce because of financial burden. Malthus then explains that the main check on population growth is food. In periods of high food availability the population increases, while in periods of food shortages, the population decreases. Thus, "population [growth] tends to oscillate around its means of subsistence." The combination of Malthus' "law of multiplication in geometrical progression" and "the law of limited population" leads to the idea of the struggle for existence. Despite these ideas, Malthus was a religious man and believed in divine laws that governed the natural world.

text: In

entity_name: An Essay on the Principle of Population

text: An Essay on the Principle of Population

entity_name: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: Thomas Robert Malthus

text: argues that a population will increase exponentially if unchecked, while resources will only increase arithmetically. This is seen graphically in the adjacent image and is commonly referred to as the Malthusian curve. Malthus knew that with limited resources on earth, there would be competition among people to exist and survive. He coined the phrase the

entity_name: Malthusian catastrophe

text: Malthusian catastrophe

text: to explain how there were positive checks in human populations like famine and disease that kept the population from rising too quickly. The checks that exist on the human population growth result in a struggle for existence. Malthus also notes that the checks on the human population are more complicated than those on animals and plants. Malthus explains, for example, that a human check on population growth is the conscious decision not to reproduce because of financial burden. Malthus then explains that the main check on population growth is food. In periods of high food availability the population increases, while in periods of food shortages, the population decreases. Thus, "population [growth] tends to oscillate around its means of subsistence." The combination of Malthus' "law of multiplication in geometrical progression" and "the law of limited population" leads to the idea of the struggle for existence. Despite these ideas, Malthus was a religious man and believed in divine laws that governed the natural world.

text: An endomorphism  of a finite dimensional vector space over a field  is diagonalizable if and only if its minimal polynomial factors completely over  into distinct linear factors. The fact that there is only one factor  for every eigenvalue  means that the generalized eigenspace for  is the same as the eigenspace for : every Jordan block has size . More generally, if  satisfies a polynomial equation  0}} where  factors into distinct linear factors over , then it will be diagonalizable: its minimal polynomial is a divisor of  and therefore also factors into distinct linear factors. In particular one has:

text: An

entity_name: Endomorphism

text: endomorphism

text: of a finite dimensional vector space over a field  is

entity_name: Diagonalizable matrix

text: diagonalizable

text: if and only if its minimal polynomial factors completely over  into distinct linear factors. The fact that there is only one factor  for every eigenvalue  means that the

entity_name: Generalized eigenvector

entity_section: Overview and definition

text: generalized eigenspace

text: for  is the same as the

entity_name: Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

entity_section: Overview

text: eigenspace

text: for : every Jordan block has size . More generally, if  satisfies a polynomial equation  0}} where  factors into distinct linear factors over , then it will be diagonalizable: its minimal polynomial is a divisor of  and therefore also factors into distinct linear factors. In particular one has:

text: An important concept in population ecology is the r/K selection theory. The first variable is r (the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size, density independent) and the second variable is K (the carrying capacity of a population, density dependent).An r-selected species (e.g., many kinds of insects, such as aphids) is one that has high rates of fecundity, low levels of parental investment in the young, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favors productivity in r-selected species. In contrast, a K-selected species (such as humans) has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Evolution in K-selected species favors efficiency in the conversion of more resources into fewer offspring.

text: An important concept in population ecology is the

entity_name: R/K selection theory

text: r/K selection

text: theory. The first variable is r (the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size, density independent) and the second variable is K (the carrying capacity of a population, density dependent).An r-selected species (e.g., many kinds of insects, such as aphids) is one that has high rates of fecundity, low levels of parental investment in the young, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favors productivity in r-selected species. In contrast, a K-selected species (such as humans) has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Evolution in K-selected species favors efficiency in the conversion of more

entity_name: Resource (biology)

text: resources

text: into fewer offspring.

text: where N is the number of individuals measured as biomass density, a is the maximum per-capita rate of change, and K is the carrying capacity of the population. The formula states that the rate of change in population size (dN/dT) is equal to growth (aN) that is limited by carrying capacity (1 – N/K).

text: where N is the number of individuals measured as

entity_name: Biomass (ecology)

text: biomass

text: density, a is the maximum per-capita rate of change, and K is the

entity_name: Carrying capacity

text: carrying capacity

text: of the population. The formula states that the rate of change in population size (dN/dT) is equal to growth (aN) that is limited by carrying capacity (1 – N/K).

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Directly related to maintaining the health of the human population is water supply, and it is one of the resources that experience the biggest strain. With the global population at about 7.5 billion, and each human theoretically needing 2 liters of drinking water, there is a demand for 15 billion liters of water each day to meet the minimum requirement for healthy living (United). Weather patterns, elevation, and climate all contribute to uneven distribution of fresh drinking water. Without clean water, good health is not a viable option. Besides drinking, water is used to create sanitary living conditions and is the basis of creating a healthy environment fit to hold human life. In addition to drinking water, water is also used for bathing, washing clothes and dishes, flushing toilets, a variety of cleaning methods, recreation, watering lawns, and farm irrigation.Irrigation poses one of the largest problems, because without sufficient water to irrigate crops, the crops die and then there is the problem of food rations and starvation. In addition to water needed for crops and food, there is limited land area dedicated to food production, and not much more that is suitable to be added. Arable land, needed to sustain the growing population, is also a factor because land being under or over cultivated easily upsets the delicate balance of nutrition supply. There are also problems with location of arable land with regard to proximity to countries and relative population (Bashford 240). Access to nutrition is an important limiting factor in population sustainability and growth. No increase in arable land added to the still increasing human population will eventually pose a serious conflict. Only 38% of the land area of the globe is dedicated to agriculture, and there is not room for much more. Although plants produce 54 billion metric tons of carbohydrates per year, when the population is expected to grow to 9 billion by 2050, the plants may not be able to keep up (Biello). Food supply is a primary example of how a resource reacts when its carrying capacity is exceeded. By trying to grow more and more crops off of the same amount of land, the soil becomes exhausted. Because the soil is exhausted, it is then unable to produce the same amount of food as before, and is overall less productive. Therefore, by using resources beyond a sustainable level, the resource become nullified and ineffective, which further increases the disparity between the demand for a resource and the availability of a resource. There must be a shift to provide adequate recovery time to each one of the supplies in demand to support contemporary human lifestyles.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Population size varies over time.  Suppose there are t non-overlapping generations, then effective population size is given by the harmonic mean of the population sizes:

text: Population size varies over time.  Suppose there are t non-overlapping

entity_name: Generation

text: generation

text: s, then effective population size is given by the

entity_name: Harmonic mean

text: harmonic mean

text: of the population sizes:

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: Demographic analysis includes the sets of methods that allow us to measure the dimensions and dynamics of populations.   These methods have primarily been developed to study human populations, but are extended to a variety of areas where researchers want to know how populations of social actors can change across time through processes of birth, death, and migration.   In the context of human biological populations, demographic analysis uses administrative records to develop an independent estimate of the population. Demographic analysis estimates are often considered a reliable standard for judging the accuracy of the census information gathered at any time.  In the labor force, demographic analysis is used to estimate sizes and flows of populations of workers; in population ecology the focus is on the birth, death, migration and immigration of individuals in a population of living organisms, alternatively, in social human sciences could involve movement of firms and institutional forms. Demographic analysis is used in a wide variety of contexts. For example, it is often used in business plans, to describe the population connected to the geographic location of the business. Demographic analysis is usually abbreviated as DA. For the 2010 U.S. Census, The U.S. Census Bureau has expanded its DA categories. Also as part of the 2010 U.S. Census, DA now also includes comparative analysis between independent housing estimates, and census address lists at different key time points.

text: Demographic analysis includes the sets of methods that allow us to measure the dimensions and

entity_name: Population dynamics

text: dynamics

text: of populations.   These methods have primarily been developed to study human populations, but are extended to a variety of areas where researchers want to know how populations of

entity_name: Social actions

text: social actors

text: can change across time through processes of birth, death, and

entity_name: Human migration

text: migration

text: .   In the context of

entity_name: Human

text: human

text: biological populations, demographic analysis uses

entity_name: Public records

text: administrative records

text: to develop an independent

entity_name: Approximation

text: estimate

text: of the population.

entity_name: Demography

text: Demographic

text: analysis estimates are often considered a reliable standard for judging the accuracy of the

entity_name: Census

text: census

text: information gathered at any time.  In the

entity_name: Workforce

text: labor force

text: , demographic analysis is used to estimate sizes and flows of populations of workers; in

entity_name: Population ecology

text: population ecology

text: the focus is on the birth, death, migration and immigration of individuals in a population of living organisms, alternatively, in social human sciences could involve movement of firms and

entity_name: Institution

text: institution

text: al forms. Demographic analysis is used in a wide variety of contexts. For example, it is often used in business plans, to describe the population connected to the geographic location of the business. Demographic analysis is usually abbreviated as DA. For the 2010 U.S. Census, The

entity_name: United States Census Bureau

text: U.S. Census Bureau

text: has expanded its DA categories. Also as part of the 2010 U.S. Census, DA now also includes comparative analysis between independent housing estimates, and census address lists at different key time points.

method: UNH-ecn

text: This is a consistent estimator (it converges in probability to the population value as the number of samples goes to infinity), and is the maximum-likelihood estimate when the population is normally distributed. However, this is a biased estimator, as the estimates are generally too low. The bias decreases as sample size grows, dropping off as 1/n, and thus is most significant for small or moderate sample sizes; for

text: This is a

entity_name: Consistent estimator

text: consistent estimator

text: (it converges in probability to the population value as the number of samples goes to infinity), and is the

entity_name: Maximum likelihood estimation

text: maximum-likelihood estimate

text: when the population is normally distributed. However, this is a

entity_name: Bias of an estimator

text: biased estimator

text: , as the estimates are generally too low. The bias decreases as sample size grows, dropping off as 1/n, and thus is most significant for small or moderate sample sizes; for

text: Aside from traditional IQ tests like Raven's and WAIS, researchers have also used other tests that tap more into the Cattell-Horn-Caroll theory of intelligence in relation to gender. For example, a 2008 study by researcher Timothy Z. Keith on 25 subtests of Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive abilities, along with a sample of 6,818 adults and children from 6 to 59 found females scoring higher on the latent processing speed (Gs)factor, a small male advantage on the latent comprehension–knowledge (Gc) factor, higher male score on the latent visual–spatial reasoning (Gv)and higher male latent quantitative reasoning (RQ) factor. The study found no difference in latent long-term retrieval (Glr, short-term memory (Gsm), auditory processing (Ga)  and fluid intelligence(Gf) factors. However the sex difference in general intelligence (g-factor) was inconsistent in children with small higher female g factor during adolescence, and consistent higher female latent g factor during adulthood. The finding of the study confirmed Lynn's theory that males develop slower, but did not replicate results that males after 16 years old should have higher g factor. Lead researcher Timothy Keith suggests past researchers like Lynn's had used emergent scores to calculate g factor which is not accurate since most intelligent theories define g factor as a latent variable and not an emergent one. Researcher Timothy Z Keith replicated the same results again in the same year when he conducted a study of 3,025 6-18 year old participants with higher female latent g factor at all ages. In 2006, researchers Stephen Camarata and Richard Woodcock also replicated exactly the same results in sample of 4,253 children and adults but found no sex differences in g factor. In 2011, researcher Timothy Z. Keith also found no significant sex differences in latent g factor among participants of 5- to 17-year-olds on a different IQ test known as the Differential Ability Scales.

text: Aside from traditional IQ tests like

entity_name: Raven's Progressive Matrices

text: Raven's

text: and

entity_name: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

text: WAIS

text: , researchers have also used other tests that tap more into the

entity_name: Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory

text: Cattell-Horn-Caroll theory

text: of intelligence in relation to gender. For example, a 2008 study by researcher

entity_name: Timothy Z. Keith

text: Timothy Z. Keith

text: on 25 subtests of

entity_name: Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities

text: Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive abilities

text: , along with a sample of 6,818 adults and children from 6 to 59 found females scoring higher on the latent

entity_name: Processing fluency

text: processing speed

text: (Gs)factor, a small male advantage on the

entity_name: Latent variable

text: latent

text: comprehension–knowledge (Gc) factor, higher male score on the latent visual–spatial reasoning (Gv)and higher male latent quantitative reasoning (RQ) factor. The study found no difference in latent

entity_name: Long-term memory

text: long-term retrieval

text: (Glr,

entity_name: Short-term memory

text: short-term memory

text: (Gsm), auditory processing (Ga)  and

entity_name: Fluid and crystallized intelligence

text: fluid intelligence

text: (Gf) factors. However the sex difference in

entity_name: G factor (psychometrics)

text: general intelligence

text: (g-factor) was inconsistent in children with small higher female

text: g factor

text: during adolescence, and consistent higher female

text: latent g factor

text: during adulthood. The finding of the study confirmed Lynn's theory that males develop slower, but did not replicate results that males after 16 years old should have higher g factor. Lead researcher

text: Timothy Keith

text: suggests past researchers like Lynn's had used emergent scores to calculate g factor which is not accurate since most intelligent theories define

text: g factor

text: as a

text: latent variable

text: and not an emergent one. Researcher Timothy Z Keith replicated the same results again in the same year when he conducted a study of 3,025 6-18 year old participants with higher female latent g factor at all ages. In 2006, researchers Stephen Camarata and Richard Woodcock also replicated exactly the same results in sample of 4,253 children and adults but found no sex differences in g factor. In 2011, researcher

text: Timothy Z. Keith

text: also found no significant sex differences in latent g factor among participants of 5- to 17-year-olds on a different IQ test known as the

entity_name: Differential Ability Scales

text: Differential Ability Scales

text: Individuals can compete for food, water, space, light, mates or any other resource which is required for survival or reproduction. The resource must be limited for competition to occur; if every member of the species can obtain a sufficient amount of every resource then individuals do not compete and the population grows exponentially. Exponential growth is very rare in nature because resources are finite and so not every individual in a population can survive, leading to intraspecific competition for the scarce resources.

text: Individuals can compete for

text: food, water, space, light, mates or any other resource which is required for survival

text: or reproduction. The resource must be limited for competition to occur; if every member of the species can obtain a sufficient amount of every resource then individuals do not compete and the population grows exponentially.

entity_name: Exponential growth

text: Exponential growth

text: is very rare in nature because resources are finite and so not every individual in a population can survive, leading to intraspecific competition for the scarce resources.

text: In statistics (hypothesis testing), the "size" of the test refers to the rate of false positives, denoted by α. In astronomy, the magnitude of brightness or intensity of a star is measured on a logarithmic scale. Such a scale is also used to measure the intensity of an earthquake, and this intensity is often referred to as the "size" of the event. In computing, file size is a measure of the size of a computer file, typically measured in bytes. The actual amount of disk space consumed by the file depends on the file system. The maximum file size a file system supports depends on the number of bits reserved to store size information and the total size of the file system in terms of its capacity to store bits of information.

text: In

entity_name: Statistics

text: statistics

entity_name: Statistical hypothesis testing

text: hypothesis testing

text: ), the "size" of the test refers to the rate of

entity_name: False positives and false negatives

text: false positives

text: , denoted by α. In

entity_name: Astronomy

text: astronomy

text: , the

entity_name: Magnitude (astronomy)

text: magnitude

text: of brightness or intensity of a star is measured on a

entity_name: Logarithmic scale

text: logarithmic scale

text: . Such a scale is also used to measure the intensity of an

entity_name: Earthquake

text: earthquake

text: , and this intensity is often referred to as the "size" of the event. In computing,

entity_name: File size

text: file size

text: is a measure of the size of a

entity_name: Computer

text: computer

entity_name: Computer file

text: file

text: , typically measured in

entity_name: Byte

text: byte

text: s. The actual amount of

entity_name: Computer data storage

text: disk space

text: consumed by the file depends on the

entity_name: File system

text: file system

text: . The maximum file size a file system supports depends on the number of

entity_name: Bit

text: bit

text: s reserved to store size information and the total size of the file system in terms of its capacity to store bits of information.

text: Overpopulation does not depend only on the size or density of the population, but on the ratio of population to available sustainable resources. It also depends on how resources are managed and distributed throughout the population.

text: In biology five factors are known to contribute to bimodal distributions of population sizes:

text: The University of Essex has made available population reports from the UK, 1801 - 1937. The reports, drawn from census and other related information, includes information on births, deaths, marriages, housing, religion and other social factors relating to the UK population. The resource is freely available.

text: The

entity_name: University of Essex

text: University of Essex

text: has made available population reports from the UK, 1801 - 1937. The reports, drawn from census and other related information, includes information on births, deaths, marriages, housing, religion and other social factors relating to the UK population. The resource is freely available.

text: In 2004, it was proposed that Maximum likelihood or Bayesian approaches that estimate the migration rates and population sizes using coalescent theory can use datasets which contain a population that has no data. This is referred to as a "ghost population". The manipulation allows exploration in the effects of missing populations on the estimation of population sizes and migration rates between two specific populations. The biases of the inferred population parameters depend on the magnitude of the migration rate from the unknown populations. The technique for deriving ghost populations attracted criticism because ghost populations were the result of statistical models, along with their limitations.

text: In 2004, it was proposed that

text: Maximum likelihood

text: or

entity_name: Bayesian inference

text: Bayesian

text: approaches that estimate the migration rates and population sizes using

entity_name: Coalescent theory

text: coalescent theory

text: can use datasets which contain a population that has no data. This is referred to as a "ghost population". The manipulation allows exploration in the effects of missing populations on the estimation of population sizes and migration rates between two specific populations. The biases of the inferred population parameters depend on the magnitude of the migration rate from the unknown populations. The technique for deriving ghost populations attracted criticism because ghost populations were the result of statistical models, along with their limitations.

text: The small size has forced many species to sacrifice some of their anatomy, like the heart, crop and gizzard. While the exoskeleton and respiration system of the insects seems to be the major limiting factors regarding how large they can get, the limit for how small they can become appears to be related to the space required for their nervous and reproductive systems.

text: Most populations do not grow exponentially, rather they follow a logistic model. Once the population has reached its carrying capacity, it will stabilize and the exponential curve will level off towards the carrying capacity, which is usually when a population has depleted most its natural resources.

text: Most populations do not grow exponentially, rather they follow a

entity_name: Logistic model

text: logistic model

text: . Once the population has reached its

text: carrying capacity

text: , it will stabilize and the exponential curve will level off towards the carrying capacity, which is usually when a population has depleted most its

entity_name: Natural resource

text: natural resource

text: s.

text: In some applications, and in particular in Pollard's rho algorithm for integer factorization, the algorithm has much more limited access to  and to . In Pollard's rho algorithm, for instance,  is the set of integers modulo an unknown prime factor of the number to be factorized, so even the size of  is unknown to the algorithm.To allow cycle detection algorithms to be used with such limited knowledge, they may be designed based on the following capabilities. Initially, the algorithm is assumed to have in its memory an object representing a pointer to the starting value . At any step, it may perform one of three actions: it may copy any pointer it has to another object in memory, it may apply  and replace any of its pointers by a pointer to the next object in the sequence, or it may apply a subroutine for determining whether two of its pointers represent equal values in the sequence. The equality test action may involve some nontrivial computation: for instance, in Pollard's rho algorithm, it is implemented by testing whether the difference between two stored values has a nontrivial greatest common divisor with the number to be factored. In this context, by analogy to the pointer machine model of computation, an algorithm that only uses pointer copying, advancement within the sequence, and equality tests may be called a pointer algorithm.

text: In some applications, and in particular in

entity_name: Pollard's rho algorithm

text: Pollard's rho algorithm

text: for

entity_name: Integer factorization

text: integer factorization

text: , the algorithm has much more limited access to  and to . In Pollard's rho algorithm, for instance,  is the set of integers modulo an unknown prime factor of the number to be factorized, so even the size of  is unknown to the algorithm.To allow cycle detection algorithms to be used with such limited knowledge, they may be designed based on the following capabilities. Initially, the algorithm is assumed to have in its memory an object representing a

entity_name: Pointer (computer programming)

text: pointer

text: to the starting value . At any step, it may perform one of three actions: it may copy any pointer it has to another object in memory, it may apply  and replace any of its pointers by a pointer to the next object in the sequence, or it may apply a subroutine for determining whether two of its pointers represent equal values in the sequence. The equality test action may involve some nontrivial computation: for instance, in Pollard's rho algorithm, it is implemented by testing whether the difference between two stored values has a nontrivial

entity_name: Greatest common divisor

text: greatest common divisor

text: with the number to be factored. In this context, by analogy to the

entity_name: Pointer machine

text: pointer machine

text: model of computation, an algorithm that only uses pointer copying, advancement within the sequence, and equality tests may be called a pointer algorithm.

text: Some other limiting factors in biology include temperature and other weather related factors.

text: Some other limiting factors in biology include

text: temperature

text: and other

text: weather

text: related factors.

text: where n is the sample size, N is the population size, m is the mean of the variate x, s and s are the sample variances of the x and y variates respectively and ρ is the sample correlation between the x and y variates.

text: where n is the sample size, N is the population size, m is the mean of the variate x, s and s are the sample

text: variance

text: s of the x and y variates respectively and ρ is the sample correlation between the x and y variates.

text: Flasks are usually (though not always) the property of the foundry making the casting.  The number of available flasks of a given size can be a limiting factor in the overall production rate.

text: , is assumed to be normal. By the central limit theorem, if the sampling of the parent population is independent then the sample means will be approximately normal. (The degree of approximation will depend on how close the parent population is to a normal distribution and the sample size, n.)

text: , is assumed to be normal. By the

text: central limit theorem

text: , if the sampling of the parent population is independent then the sample means will be approximately normal. (The degree of approximation will depend on how close the parent population is to a normal distribution and the sample size, n.)

text: The Exceptional Service Award is presented to Civil Air Patrol members who provide "exceptionally outstanding service to CAP...while serving in any capacity with CAP." The award regulations do make clear that the duty should carry the responsibility for completion of a major project at the region level or wing level. Any CAP member may nominate another cadet or officer for the exceptional service award, but the duty must involve the fulfillment of a duty that greatly benefits the region or wing. All nominations must be approved by the region commander<ref name='CAPR 39-3 Section B Decorations'/> This award does not come with a full-sized medal. It consists of a ribbon and a certificate that accompanies the decoration. A miniature medal is available for senior members to wear on their mess dress uniforms.

text: Selection on development time is often sexually antagonistic. In seed beetles, populations differed in development time and growth rate between sexes. Population fitness is not significant to either body size or growth rate, but variation in development time was significantly related to population fitness. In females, genes associated with long development time lead to high fecundity and mate immediately upon eclosion. Males have shorter development time and emerge early (protandry) resulting in greater fertilization opportunities.

text: Selection on

text: development time

text: is often sexually antagonistic. In seed beetles, populations differed in development time and growth rate between sexes.

text: Population fitness

text: is not significant to either body size or growth rate, but variation in development time was significantly related to population fitness. In females, genes associated with long development time lead to high

text: fecundity

text: and mate immediately upon

text: eclosion

text: . Males have shorter development time and emerge early (

text: protandry

text: ) resulting in greater fertilization opportunities.

text: Because of the readily available trade resources and local merchants in most of the Maya territory, small towns did not need to take part in long-distance trading and limited trade to local exchange. Despite the fact that the area was rich in resources, even the most self-sufficient farm families, which were the vast majority of the population, still had to participate in exchanges in order to obtain the necessities (the necessities would generally include some pottery, bronze or copper tools, salt, and imported fish for inland areas). As craftsmen in small cities began to specialize and the cities began to grow, so did the need for increased trade. Cities such as Tikal and El Mirador are two such examples. Tikal, specifically, had a population somewhere in the range of 60,000–120,000 people, which means it would have needed to get food and other goods from up to 100 km away. Because of the size of these, they would have also needed a larger amount of control from the Rulers to oversee it. Eventually the increased trade, and growing cities gave the Rulers more power over their territory and their subjects.

text: Because of the readily available trade resources and local merchants in most of the Maya territory, small towns did not need to take part in long-distance trading and limited trade to local exchange. Despite the fact that the area was rich in resources, even the most self-sufficient farm families, which were the vast majority of the population, still had to participate in exchanges in order to obtain the necessities (the necessities would generally include some pottery, bronze or copper tools, salt, and imported fish for inland areas). As craftsmen in small cities began to specialize and the cities began to grow, so did the need for increased trade. Cities such as

text: Tikal

text: and

text: El Mirador

text: are two such examples. Tikal, specifically, had a population somewhere in the range of 60,000–120,000 people, which means it would have needed to get food and other goods from up to 100 km away. Because of the size of these, they would have also needed a larger amount of control from the Rulers to oversee it. Eventually the increased trade, and growing cities gave the Rulers more power over their territory and their subjects.

text: Malthus argued in his Essay (1798) that population growth generally expanded in times and in regions of plenty until the size of the population relative to the primary resources caused distress:

text: An alternative framework has more recently been put forward by Wilken and Ma (2004) who suggest that apparent capacity limitations in VSTM are caused by a monotonic decline in the quality of the internal representations stored (i.e., monotonic increase in noise) as a function of set-size. In this conception capacity limitations in memory are not caused by a limit on the number of things that can be encoded, but by a decline in the quality of the representation of each thing as more things are added to memory. In their 2004 experiments, they varied color, spatial frequency, and orientation of objects stored in VSTM using a signal detection theory approach (see also the closely related work by Palmer, 1990). The participants were asked to report differences between the visual stimuli presented to them in consecutive order. The investigators found that different stimuli were encoded independently and in parallel, and that the major factor limiting report performance was neuronal noise (which is a function of visual set-size).

text: An alternative framework has more recently been put forward by

text: Wilken

text: and Ma (2004) who suggest that apparent capacity limitations in VSTM are caused by a monotonic decline in the quality of the internal representations stored (i.e., monotonic increase in noise) as a function of set-size. In this conception capacity limitations in memory are not caused by a limit on the number of things that can be encoded, but by a decline in the quality of the representation of each thing as more things are added to memory. In their 2004 experiments, they varied color, spatial frequency, and orientation of objects stored in VSTM using a signal detection theory approach (see also the closely related work by Palmer, 1990). The participants were asked to report differences between the visual stimuli presented to them in consecutive order. The investigators found that different stimuli were encoded independently and in parallel, and that the major factor limiting report performance was

text: neuronal noise

text: (which is a function of visual set-size).

text: This strategy is effective against a number of retinal diseases that have been studied, including neovascular diseases that are features of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy and retinopathy of prematurity. Since the regulation of vascularization in the mature retina involves a balance between endogenous positive growth factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and inhibitors of angiogenesis, such as pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), rAAV-mediated expression of PEDF, angiostatin, and the soluble VEGF receptor sFlt-1, which are all antiangiogenic proteins, have been shown to reduce aberrant vessel formation in animal models. Since specific gene therapies cannot readily be used to treat a significant fraction of patients with retinal dystrophy, there is a major interest in developing a more generally applicable survival factor therapy. Neurotrophic factors have the ability to modulate neuronal growth during development to maintain existing cells and to allow recovery of injured neuronal populations in the eye. AAV encoding neurotrophic factors such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family members and GDNF either protected photoreceptors from apoptosis or slowed down cell death.

text: This strategy is effective against a number of retinal diseases that have been studied, including neovascular diseases that are features of

text: age-related macular degeneration

text: diabetic retinopathy

text: and

text: retinopathy of prematurity

text: . Since the regulation of vascularization in the mature retina involves a balance between endogenous positive

text: growth factors

text: , such as

text: vascular endothelial growth factor

text: (VEGF) and inhibitors of

text: angiogenesis

text: , such as pigment epithelium-derived factor (

text: PEDF

text: ), rAAV-mediated expression of PEDF, angiostatin, and the soluble VEGF receptor sFlt-1, which are all antiangiogenic proteins, have been shown to reduce aberrant vessel formation in animal models. Since specific gene therapies cannot readily be used to treat a significant fraction of patients with retinal dystrophy, there is a major interest in developing a more generally applicable survival factor therapy.

text: Neurotrophic factors

text: have the ability to modulate neuronal growth during development to maintain existing cells and to allow recovery of injured neuronal populations in the eye. AAV encoding neurotrophic factors such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family members and GDNF either protected photoreceptors from apoptosis or slowed down cell death.

text: Hardee's IcePlex is a 2,200-seat multi-purpose arena in Chesterfield, Missouri. The  facility is the largest ice skating facility in Missouri. Hardee's IcePlex has two regulation National Hockey League size rinks (85’ x 200’) with 600 seat capacities each. The facility's main rink is Olympic regulation size rink (100’ x 200’). The Olympic rink has a seating capacity of 2,200. The IcePlex also has a Total Hockey franchise inside the arena as well as a restauant.

text: Hardee's IcePlex is a 2,200-seat multi-purpose

text: arena

text: in

text: Chesterfield, Missouri

text: . The  facility is the largest ice skating facility in Missouri. Hardee's IcePlex has two regulation

text: National Hockey League

text: size rinks (85’ x 200’) with 600 seat capacities each. The facility's main rink is Olympic regulation size rink (100’ x 200’). The Olympic rink has a

text: seating capacity

text: of 2,200. The IcePlex also has a Total Hockey franchise inside the arena as well as a restauant.

text: Indeed, a thorough reading of historical newspaper articles and historical government reports reveals that the whole history of wild Murray cod between the mid–1800s and the mid–1900s was one of citizen agitation, government inaction, and ongoing stock decline. For decade after decade, riverside residents, commercial fishermen, recreational fishermen, local fisheries inspectors, fish retailers, and others agitated in newspapers and other fora about the evidently, continuously declining Murray cod stocks, to be met in turn either with government denials, or conversely, with various ineffective inquiries into Murray cod stocks and fisheries, and various ineffective control measures. For decade after decade, debate about excessive fishing pressure, number of fishermen, number of nets, net mesh size, bag limits, minimum size limits and take of small cod, closed seasons and the taking of spawning cod full of eggs during spring, and other sundry issues, raged on and on without proper resolution, with fishing regulations either not amended, or amended and largely unenforced and completely ignored, and with heavy commercial, recreational and illegal fishing pressure continuing unrelenting and unabated. The end result was a Murray cod population, initially unimaginably abundant, continually fished down and down and down without pause, until in the early to mid 20th century a number of other factors such as river regulation (listed below) emerged to drive the species even further into decline. All of these drivers of decline have left this iconic Australian fish in a perilous situation. There are now grave concerns for the long-term survival of wild Murray cod populations.

text: The only morphological difference between the three is their size. Body length, wing length and size of beak all increase at higher latitudes. For example, a puffin from northern Iceland (subspecies naumanii) weighs about  and has a wing length of  while one from the Faroes (subspecies grabae) weighs  and has a wing length of . Individuals from southern Iceland (subspecies arctica) are intermediate between the other two in size. Ernst Mayr has argued that the differences in size are clinal and are typical of variations found in peripheral population and that no subspecies should be recognised.

text: The only

text: morphological

text: difference between the three is their size. Body length, wing length and size of beak all increase at higher latitudes. For example, a puffin from northern Iceland (subspecies naumanii) weighs about  and has a wing length of  while one from the

text: Faroes

text: (subspecies grabae) weighs  and has a wing length of . Individuals from southern Iceland (subspecies arctica) are intermediate between the other two in size.

text: Ernst Mayr

text: has argued that the differences in size are

text: clinal

text: and are typical of variations found in peripheral population and that no subspecies should be recognised.

text: In response to the argument that a cell phone has a much larger storage capacity than any item that Diaz could have carried on his person, the Court asserted that there was no evidence that Diaz's phone had a significant storage capacity. Even if it did have a large storage capacity, the Court reasoned, the size of an item shouldn't be relevant in the sense that it would make it increasingly difficult for law enforcement to uphold the law when such distinctions in container size could be made.

text: Consider a community with multiple species.  We will assume that each species competes for a single resource, and ignore the effects of interference or apparent competition.  Each population increases by consuming resources, and declines when resources are too scarce.  For example, we could model their population dynamics as

text: In 1975, Sebastian von Hoerner proposed a formula for population growth which represented hyperbolic growth with an infinite population in 2025. The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the carrying capacity of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity for people, and so on. The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the demographic transition.

text: In 1975,

text: Sebastian von Hoerner

text: proposed a formula for population growth which represented

text: hyperbolic growth

text: with an infinite population in 2025. The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the

text: carrying capacity

text: of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity for people, and so on. The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the

text: demographic transition

text: When choosing file size, the limiting factor is the size of the media to be used (such as 700MB for CD-R). The standards are designed such that a certain amount of content will fit on each piece of media, with the best possible quality in terms of size. If more discs are required for sufficient quality, the standard will define the circumstances where it is acceptable to expand to a second or third disc. Newer video standards moved away from the size constraints and replaced them with a quality based alternative such as the use of CRF.

text: When choosing file size, the limiting factor is the size of the media to be used (such as 700MB for

text: CD-R

text: ). The standards are designed such that a certain amount of content will fit on each piece of media, with the best possible quality in terms of size. If more discs are required for sufficient quality, the standard will define the circumstances where it is acceptable to expand to a second or third disc. Newer video standards moved away from the size constraints and replaced them with a quality based alternative such as the use of

text: CRF

text: In these formulae, N is the population size, t is time, K is the carrying capacity, r is the intrinsic rate of increase and α and β are the relative competition coefficients. The results show the effect that the other species has on the species being calculated. The results can be graphed to show a trend and possible prediction for the future of the species. One problem with this model is that certain assumptions must be made for the calculation to work. These include the lack of migration and constancy of the carrying capacities and competition coefficients of both species. The complex nature of ecology determines that these assumptions are rarely true in the field but the model provides a basis for improved understanding of these important concepts.

text: In these formulae, N is the population size, t is time, K is the carrying capacity, r is the intrinsic rate of increase and α and β are the relative competition coefficients. The results show the effect that the other species has on the species being calculated. The results can be graphed to show a trend and possible prediction for the future of the species. One problem with this model is that certain assumptions must be made for the calculation to work. These include the lack of

text: migration

text: and constancy of the carrying capacities and competition coefficients of both species. The complex nature of ecology determines that these assumptions are rarely true in the field but the model provides a basis for improved understanding of these important concepts.

text: As day length increases the size of the clutch also increase. Generally, a longer day enables parents to find more food per day and thus, sustain more offspring at one time. Several studies have found convincing evidence to support this observation. A study that looked at the geographical trends in breeding parameters of Pied Flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) in the western Palaearctic found that the latitudinal clutch size variation depends on the duration of the working day and the energy requirement of the chicks. However, the energy requirement of the brood and parents could generate the latitudinal clutch size pattern in Ficedula hypoleuca as long as temperature and working day effects were considered. If photoperiod were a factor in the determination of clutch size in every avian species then nocturnal owls should show the opposite trend. Namely, their clutch size should decrease as day length increases. A field study was performed to examine nesting provisioning rates of Tengmalm’s Owls in two populations at different latitudes (Finland 63 degrees N and Czech Republic 50 degrees N) and thus different day lengths. The study suggested that nocturnal owl species clutch size at higher latitudes were constrained by short nights during the breeding season which limited the number of offspring they could raise. Furthermore, owls at northern latitudes were constrained by the yearly fluctuation of resources. Both of these factors are likely to influence the reproductive investment in owl species. However, other studies have not shown that photoperiod is a factor in determining nocturnal avian species clutch size. Therefore, further studies regarding clutch size in nocturnal species are needed as it still remains unclear how latitude is linked with parental investment.

text: As

text: day length

text: increases the size of the clutch also increase. Generally, a longer day enables parents to find more food per day and thus, sustain more offspring at one time. Several studies have found convincing evidence to support this observation. A study that looked at the geographical trends in breeding parameters of Pied Flycatcher (

text: Ficedula hypoleuca

text: ) in the western

text: Palaearctic

text: found that the latitudinal clutch size variation depends on the duration of the working day and the energy requirement of the chicks. However, the energy requirement of the brood and parents could generate the latitudinal clutch size pattern in Ficedula hypoleuca as long as temperature and working day effects were considered. If

text: photoperiod

text: were a factor in the determination of clutch size in every avian species then

text: nocturnal

text: owls should show the opposite trend. Namely, their clutch size should decrease as day length increases. A field study was performed to examine nesting provisioning rates of

text: Tengmalm’s Owls

text: in two populations at different latitudes (Finland 63 degrees N and Czech Republic 50 degrees N) and thus different day lengths. The study suggested that nocturnal owl species clutch size at higher latitudes were constrained by short nights during the breeding season which limited the number of offspring they could raise. Furthermore, owls at northern latitudes were constrained by the yearly fluctuation of resources. Both of these factors are likely to influence the reproductive investment in owl species. However, other studies have not shown that photoperiod is a factor in determining nocturnal avian species clutch size. Therefore, further studies regarding clutch size in nocturnal species are needed as it still remains unclear how latitude is linked with parental investment.

text: The reason for some limits of ext2 are the file format of the data and the operating system's kernel. Mostly these factors will be determined once when the file system is built. They depend on the block size and the ratio of the number of blocks and inodes.In Linux the block size is limited by the architecture page size.

text: The reason for some limits of ext2 are the file format of the data and the operating system's kernel. Mostly these factors will be determined once when the file system is built. They depend on the block size and the ratio of the number of blocks and inodes.In Linux the block size is limited by the architecture

text: page size

text: In the absence of predators, animal species are bound by the resources they can find in their environment, but this does not necessarily control overpopulation. In fact, an abundant supply of resources can produce a population boom that ends up with more individuals than the environment can support. In this case, starvation, thirst, and sometimes violent competition for scarce resources may effect a sharp reduction in population, and in a very short lapse, a population crash. Lemmings, as well as other less popular species of rodents, are known to have such cycles of rapid population growth and subsequent decrease.

text: In the absence of predators, animal species are bound by the resources they can find in their environment, but this does not necessarily control overpopulation. In fact, an abundant supply of resources can produce a population boom that ends up with more individuals than the environment can support. In this case, starvation, thirst, and sometimes violent competition for scarce resources may effect a sharp reduction in population, and in a very short lapse, a population crash.

text: Lemming

text: s, as well as other less popular species of rodents, are known to have such cycles of rapid population growth and subsequent decrease.

text: Depending on the quantity of interest, effective population size can be defined in several ways. Ronald Fisher and Sewall Wright originally defined it as "the number of breeding individuals in an idealised population that would show the same amount of dispersion of allele frequencies under random genetic drift or the same amount of inbreeding as the population under consideration". More generally, an effective population size may be defined as the number of individuals in an idealised population that has a value of any given population genetic quantity that is equal to the value of that quantity in the population of interest. The two population genetic quantities identified by Wright were the one-generation increase in variance across replicate populations (variance effective population size) and the one-generation change in the inbreeding coefficient (inbreeding effective population size). These two are closely linked, and derived from F-statistics, but they are not identical.

text: Depending on the quantity of interest, effective population size can be defined in several ways.

text: Ronald Fisher

text: and

text: Sewall Wright

text: originally defined it as "the number of breeding individuals in an

text: idealised population

text: that would show the same amount of dispersion of

text: allele frequencies

text: under random

text: genetic drift

text: or the same amount of

text: inbreeding

text: as the population under consideration". More generally, an effective population size may be defined as the number of individuals in an idealised population that has a value of any given population genetic quantity that is equal to the value of that quantity in the population of interest. The two population genetic quantities identified by Wright were the one-generation increase in variance across replicate populations (variance effective population size) and the one-generation change in the inbreeding coefficient (inbreeding effective population size). These two are closely linked, and derived from

text: F-statistics

text: , but they are not identical.

text: Such decreases are limited due to the amount of data in the stack or heap.  The stack, for example, is typically limited to  and grows to much less; this allows for at most , although a more conservative estimate would be around 8– corresponding to 4– of stack stuffing.  The heap on the other hand is limited by the behavior of the memory allocator; in the case of glibc, allocations above 128 KB are created using mmap, limiting attackers to 5 bits of reduction.  This is also a limiting factor when brute forcing; although the number of attacks to perform can be reduced, the size of the attacks is increased enough that the behavior could in some circumstances become apparent to intrusion detection systems. attempts on  bits of entropy.

text: Such decreases are limited due to the amount of data in the stack or heap.  The stack, for example, is typically limited to  and grows to much less; this allows for at most , although a more conservative estimate would be around 8– corresponding to 4– of stack stuffing.  The heap on the other hand is limited by the behavior of the memory allocator; in the case of

text: glibc

text: , allocations above 128 KB are created using

text: mmap

text: , limiting attackers to 5 bits of reduction.  This is also a limiting factor when brute forcing; although the number of attacks to perform can be reduced, the size of the attacks is increased enough that the behavior could in some circumstances become apparent to

text: intrusion detection system

text: s. attempts on  bits of entropy.

text: Malthus regarded ideals of future improvement in the lot of humanity with skepticism, considering that throughout history a segment of every human population seemed relegated to poverty. He explained this phenomenon by arguing that population growth generally expanded in times and in regions of plenty until the size of the population relative to the primary resources caused distress:

text: However, larger cranial capacity is not always indicative of a more intelligent organism, since larger capacities are required for controlling a larger body, or in many cases are an adaptive feature for life in a colder environment. For instance, among modern Homo Sapiens, northern populations have a 20% larger visual cortex than those in the southern latitude populations, and this potentially explains the population differences in brain size (and roughly cranial capacity). Neurological functions are determined more by the organization of the brain rather than the volume. Individual variability is also important when considering cranial capacity, for example the average Neanderthal cranial capacity for females was 1300 cm and 1600 cm for males

text: In stable or predictable environments, K-selection predominates as the ability to compete successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant in number and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike r-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly).

text: In stable or predictable environments, K-selection predominates as the ability to

text: compete

text: successfully for limited resources is crucial and populations of K-selected organisms typically are very constant in number and close to the maximum that the environment can bear (unlike r-selected populations, where population sizes can change much more rapidly).

text: For a given species in a given environment, available resources will limit the amount of individuals that can survive indefinitely. This is the carrying capacity. Upon reaching this threshold, individuals may find it easier to gather resources in the poorer yet less exploited peripheral environment than in the preferred habitat. Homo habilis could have developed some baseline behavioural flexibility prior to its expansion into the peripheries (such as encroaching into the predatory guild). This flexibility could then have been positively selected and amplified, leading to Homo erectus’ adaptation to the peripheral open habitats. A new and environmentally flexible hominin population could have come back to the old niche and replace the ancestral population. Moreover, some step-wise shrinking of the woodland and the associated reduction of hominin carrying capacity in the woods around 1.8 Ma, 1.2 Ma, and 0.6 Ma would have stressed the carrying capacity’s pressure for adapting to the open grounds.

text: For a given species in a given environment, available resources will limit the amount of individuals that can survive indefinitely. This is the

text: carrying capacity

text: . Upon reaching this threshold, individuals may find it easier to gather resources in the poorer yet less exploited peripheral environment than in the preferred habitat. Homo habilis could have developed some baseline behavioural flexibility prior to its expansion into the peripheries (such as encroaching into the predatory guild). This flexibility could then have been positively selected and amplified, leading to Homo erectus’ adaptation to the peripheral open habitats. A new and environmentally flexible hominin population could have come back to the old niche and replace the ancestral population. Moreover, some step-wise shrinking of the woodland and the associated reduction of hominin carrying capacity in the woods around 1.8 Ma, 1.2 Ma, and 0.6 Ma would have stressed the carrying capacity’s pressure for adapting to the

text: open grounds

text: However, many-digit numbers that do not have factors in the small primes can require days or months to factor with trial division. In such cases other methods are used such as the quadratic sieve and the general number field sieve (GNFS). Because these methods also have superpolynomial time growth a practical limit of n digits is reached very quickly. For this reason, in public key cryptography, values for a are chosen to have large prime factors of similar size so that they cannot be factored by any publicly known method in a useful time period on any available computer system or computer cluster such as supercomputers and computer grids. The largest cryptography-grade number that has been factored is RSA-768, using the GNFS and a network of hundreds of computers. The running time was approximately 2 years.

text: However, many-digit numbers that do not have factors in the small primes can require days or months to factor with trial division. In such cases other methods are used such as the

text: quadratic sieve

text: and the

text: general number field sieve

text: (GNFS). Because these methods also have superpolynomial time growth a practical limit of n digits is reached very quickly. For this reason, in

text: public key cryptography

text: , values for a are chosen to have large prime factors of similar size so that they cannot be factored by any publicly known method in a useful time period on any available computer system or computer cluster such as

text: supercomputer

text: s and

text: computer grids

text: . The largest cryptography-grade number that has been factored is

text: , using the GNFS and a network of hundreds of computers. The running time was approximately 2 years.

text: A smaller national population can also have geo-strategic effects, but the correlation between population and power is a tenuous one.  Technology and resources often play more significant roles.

text: A smaller national population can also have geo-strategic effects, but the correlation between population and

text: power

text: is a tenuous one.  Technology and resources often play more significant roles.

text: Homo neanderthalensis, alternatively designated as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, lived in Europe and Asia from 400,000 to about 28,000 years ago. There are a number of clear anatomical differences between anatomically modern humans (AMH) and Neanderthal populations.  Many of these relate to the superior adaption to cold environments possessed by the Neanderthal populations.  Their surface to volume ratio is an extreme version of that found amongst Inuit populations, indicating that they were less inclined to lose body heat than were AMH.  From brain Endocasts, Neanderthals also had significantly larger brains.  This would seem to indicate that the intellectual superiority of AMH populations may be questionable.  More recent research by Eiluned Pearce, Chris Stringer, R. I. M. Dunbar, however, have shown important differences in Brain architecture.  For example, in both the orbital chamber size and in the size of the occipital lobe, the larger size suggests that the Neanderthal had a better visual acuity than modern humans.  This would give a superior vision in the inferior light conditions found in Glacial Europe.  It also seems that the higher body mass of Neanderthals had a correspondingly larger brain mass required for body care and control.  The Neanderthal populations seems to have been physically superior to AMH populations.  These differences may have been sufficient to give Neanderthal populations an environmental superiority to AMH populations from 75 to 45,000 years BP.  With these differences, Neanderthal brains show a smaller area was available for social functioning.  Plotting group size possible from endocrainial volume, suggests that AMH populations (minus occipital lobe size), had a Dunbars number of 144 possible relationships.  Neanderthal populations seem to have been limited to about 120 individuals.  This would show up in a larger number of possible mates for AMH humans, with increased risks of inbreeding amongst Neanderthal populations.  It also suggests that humans had larger trade catchment areas than Neanderthals (confirmed in the distribution of stone tools).  With larger populations, social and technological innovations were easier to fix in human populations, which may have all contributed to the fact that modern Homo sapiens replaced the Neanderthal populations by 28,000 BP.

text: Homo neanderthalensis, alternatively designated as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, lived in Europe and Asia from 400,000 to about 28,000 years ago. There are a number of clear anatomical differences between

text: anatomically modern humans

text: (AMH) and Neanderthal populations.  Many of these relate to the superior adaption to cold environments possessed by the Neanderthal populations.  Their

text: surface to volume ratio

text: is an extreme version of that found amongst

text: Inuit

text: populations, indicating that they were less inclined to lose body heat than were AMH.  From brain Endocasts, Neanderthals also had significantly larger brains.  This would seem to indicate that the intellectual superiority of AMH populations may be questionable.  More recent research by Eiluned Pearce, Chris Stringer, R. I. M. Dunbar, however, have shown important differences in Brain architecture.  For example, in both the orbital chamber size and in the size of the

text: occipital lobe

text: , the larger size suggests that the Neanderthal had a better visual acuity than modern humans.  This would give a superior vision in the inferior light conditions found in Glacial Europe.  It also seems that the higher body mass of Neanderthals had a correspondingly larger brain mass required for body care and control.  The Neanderthal populations seems to have been physically superior to AMH populations.  These differences may have been sufficient to give Neanderthal populations an environmental superiority to AMH populations from 75 to 45,000 years BP.  With these differences, Neanderthal brains show a smaller area was available for social functioning.  Plotting group size possible from endocrainial volume, suggests that AMH populations (minus occipital lobe size), had a

text: Dunbars number

text: of 144 possible relationships.  Neanderthal populations seem to have been limited to about 120 individuals.  This would show up in a larger number of possible mates for AMH humans, with increased risks of inbreeding amongst Neanderthal populations.  It also suggests that humans had larger trade catchment areas than Neanderthals (confirmed in the distribution of stone tools).  With larger populations, social and technological innovations were easier to fix in human populations, which may have all contributed to the fact that modern Homo sapiens replaced the Neanderthal populations by 28,000 BP.

text: Guidance for how data should be transformed, or whether a transformation should be applied at all, should come from the particular statistical analysis to be performed.  For example, a simple way to construct an approximate 95% confidence interval for the population mean is to take the sample mean plus or minus  standard error units.  However, the constant factor 2 used here is particular to the normal distribution, and is only applicable if the sample mean varies approximately normally.  The central limit theorem states that in many situations, the sample mean does vary normally if the sample size is reasonably large.  However, if the population is substantially skewed and the sample size is at most moderate, the approximation provided by the central limit theorem can be poor, and the resulting confidence interval will likely have the wrong coverage probability.  Thus, when there is evidence of substantial skew in the data, it is common to transform the data to a symmetric distribution before constructing a confidence interval.  If desired, the confidence interval can then be transformed back to the original scale using the inverse of the transformation that was applied to the data.

text: Guidance for how data should be transformed, or whether a transformation should be applied at all, should come from the particular statistical analysis to be performed.  For example, a simple way to construct an approximate 95%

text: confidence interval

text: for the population mean is to take the

text: sample mean

text: plus or minus

text: standard error

text: units.  However, the constant factor 2 used here is particular to the

text: normal distribution

text: , and is only applicable if the sample mean varies approximately normally.  The

text: central limit theorem

text: states that in many situations, the sample mean does vary normally if the sample size is reasonably large.  However, if the

text: population

text: is substantially

text: skewed

text: and the sample size is at most moderate, the approximation provided by the central limit theorem can be poor, and the resulting confidence interval will likely have the wrong

text: coverage probability

text: .  Thus, when there is evidence of substantial skew in the data, it is common to transform the data to a

text: symmetric

text: distribution

text: before constructing a confidence interval.  If desired, the confidence interval can then be transformed back to the original scale using the inverse of the transformation that was applied to the data.

text: Test locations are randomly selected in each state and each nation, and divided into groups by population size, with each population-based group given equal weighting.

text: This large milkweed bug is a hemimetabolous insect, meaning it grows in stages called instars and goes through incomplete metamorphisis exhibiting small changes throughout development such as coloration changes, development of wings and genitalia. O. fasciatus begins as an egg and experiences 4 nymphal stages over 28–30 days before moulting to adulthood. Females become sexually receptive within a few days of adulthood. Geographic location has a large effect on egg production rate and clutch size, although the intrinsic increase in reproduction depends on what the individual is acclimated to. For example, two close populations (60 km apart) residing on a sharp incline have differing optimal reproduction temperatures where the cooler (higher) adapted populations is at 23 °C and the warmer (lower) population is adapted to 27 °C. Highest clutch size occurs in Puerto Rico, Florida and Texas populations at 30-50 eggs per clutch. Lowest clutch size was found in California at 25-30 eggs per clutch. Iowa and Maryland (northern populations) exhibited a clutch size in between the two extremes from 25-35 eggs per clutch.

text: This large milkweed bug is a

text: hemimetabolous

text: insect, meaning it grows in stages called

text: instar

text: s and goes through incomplete

text: metamorphisis

text: exhibiting small changes throughout development such as coloration changes, development of wings and genitalia. O. fasciatus begins as an egg and experiences 4

text: nymphal

text: stages over 28–30 days before

text: moulting

text: to adulthood. Females become sexually receptive within a few days of adulthood. Geographic location has a large effect on egg production rate and

text: clutch size

text: , although the intrinsic increase in reproduction depends on what the individual is acclimated to. For example, two close populations (60 km apart) residing on a sharp incline have differing optimal reproduction temperatures where the cooler (higher) adapted populations is at 23 °C and the warmer (lower) population is adapted to 27 °C. Highest clutch size occurs in Puerto Rico, Florida and Texas populations at 30-50 eggs per clutch. Lowest clutch size was found in California at 25-30 eggs per clutch. Iowa and Maryland (northern populations) exhibited a clutch size in between the two extremes from 25-35 eggs per clutch.

text: In July 2014, ORBCOMM launched the first 6 OG2 satellites aboard a Spacex Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Each OG2 satellite carries an AIS receiver payload. All 6 OG2 satellites were successfully deployed into orbit and started sending telemetry to ORBCOMM soon after launch. In December 2015, the company launched eleven additional AIS-enabled OG2 satellites aboard the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. This dedicated launch marked ORBCOMM’s second and final OG2 mission to complete its next generation satellite constellation. Compared to its current OG1 satellites, ORBCOMM’s OG2 satellites are designed for faster message delivery, larger message sizes and better coverage at higher latitudes, while increasing network capacity.

text: In July 2014, ORBCOMM launched the first 6 OG2 satellites aboard a Spacex Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral, Florida. Each OG2 satellite carries an AIS receiver payload. All 6 OG2 satellites were successfully deployed into orbit and started sending telemetry to ORBCOMM soon after launch. In December 2015, the company launched eleven additional AIS-enabled

text: OG2 satellites

text: aboard the

text: SpaceX

text: Falcon 9

text: rocket. This dedicated launch marked ORBCOMM’s second and final OG2 mission to complete its next generation satellite constellation. Compared to its current OG1 satellites, ORBCOMM’s OG2 satellites are designed for faster message delivery, larger message sizes and better coverage at higher latitudes, while increasing network capacity.

text: Recruitment is defined as the number of young fish that live to adulthood. Lakes with 20 to 40% coverage of aquatic plants usually have high bass recruitment, whereas lakes with little shoreline cover often have low to intermediate recruitment.If a lake has a high recruitment, this is a good situation for a state to use the slot limit because it will help control the number of small fish in a population. When the recruitment is low, this is where a state would use the minimum-size limit to control the fish population.

text: Recruitment

text: is defined as the number of young fish that live to adulthood. Lakes with 20 to 40% coverage of aquatic plants usually have high bass recruitment, whereas lakes with little shoreline cover often have low to intermediate recruitment.If a lake has a high recruitment, this is a good situation for a state to use the slot limit because it will help control the number of small fish in a population. When the recruitment is low, this is where a state would use the minimum-size limit to control the fish population.

text: As of the 2007 ACS Census Update, the city limits population was estimated at 27,868 people, 7,880 families within the city, and an average citizen age of 33.2 years old. The city limits population density was 1,504.2 people per square mile (29.18 km2), there were 11,218 total available housing units with 10,876 of them occupied (total households). The racial makeup of the city was 82.0% White, 2.8% Black or African American, 1.1% Native American, 2.0% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 12.1% from other races, and 3.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 32.9% of the population.  There were 10,876 households out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were married couples living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.5% were non-families. 20.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 2.96.In the city the population was spread out with 27.7% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 23.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.2 years.The median income for a household in the city was $51,172, and the median income for a family was $57,114. Males had a median income of $42,357 versus $29,311 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,544. About 11.4% of families and 13.5% of the population as a whole were below the poverty line, including 18.2% of those under age 18 and 12.2% of those age 65 or over.

text: As of the 2007 ACS Census Update, the city limits population was estimated at 27,868 people, 7,880 families within the city, and an average citizen age of 33.2 years old. The city limits population density was 1,504.2 people per square mile (29.18 km2), there were 11,218 total available housing units with 10,876 of them occupied (total households). The racial makeup of the city was 82.0%

entity_name: Race and ethnicity in the United States Census

text: White

text: , 2.8%

text: Black

text: or

text: African American

text: , 1.1%

text: Native American

text: , 2.0%

text: Asian

text: , 0.08%

text: Pacific Islander

text: , 12.1% from

text: other races

text: , and 3.5% from two or more races.

text: Hispanic

text: or

text: Latino

text: of any race were 32.9% of the population.  There were 10,876 households out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were

text: married couples

text: living together, 14.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.5% were non-families. 20.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 2.96.In the city the population was spread out with 27.7% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 23.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.2 years.The median

text: income

text: for a household in the city was $51,172, and the median income for a family was $57,114. Males had a median income of $42,357 versus $29,311 for females. The

text: per capita income

text: for the city was $23,544. About 11.4% of families and 13.5% of the population as a whole were below the

text: poverty line

text: , including 18.2% of those under age 18 and 12.2% of those age 65 or over.

text: O. fasciatus can be separated into migrators and non-migrators. Palmer and Dingle showed that northern populations such as the one in Iowa show the greatest tendency for long distance flight and are highly migratory. Oppositely, southern populations such as those in Puerto Rico show the lowest tendency and are sedentary. South populations grow seasonally as migrants first appear in late spring and mid-summer. A migratory syndrome has been described in the northern population, meaning that traits such as wing length, fecundity, developmental time and flight duration are all genetically correlated. Groeters and Dingle suggested that selection is specific to the populations environment due to the small correlations between life history strategies across geographic ranges. A trade-off between migration and life history traits may be the causation of such a wide geological distribution. Attisano suggested that genetic factors as well as environmental cues trigger migration in some individuals. Since long duration flights decrease with decreasing latitude, temperature is a strong factor influencing the migration. Also, this movement correlates with flowering of milkweeds which provides further evidence that environmental triggers relate to migration. Larger females are thought to allocate resources to migration simply because they have more to spare. Smaller individuals are thought to deploy alternative mechanisms; one being the reabsorption of oocytes for energy. The fact that these insects return to northern environments after migration could be the influence of a genetic predisposition or selected for due to crowding and increased intraspecific competition for resources in the southern areas

text: O. fasciatus can be separated into migrators and non-migrators. Palmer and Dingle showed that northern populations such as the one in Iowa show the greatest tendency for long distance flight and are highly

text: migratory

text: . Oppositely, southern populations such as those in Puerto Rico show the lowest tendency and are sedentary. South populations grow seasonally as migrants first appear in late spring and mid-summer. A migratory syndrome has been described in the northern population, meaning that traits such as wing length, fecundity, developmental time and flight duration are all genetically correlated. Groeters and Dingle suggested that selection is specific to the populations environment due to the small correlations between life history strategies across geographic ranges. A

text: trade-off

text: between migration and life history traits may be the causation of such a wide geological distribution. Attisano suggested that genetic factors as well as environmental cues trigger migration in some individuals. Since long duration flights decrease with decreasing latitude, temperature is a strong factor influencing the migration. Also, this movement correlates with

text: flowering

text: of milkweeds which provides further evidence that environmental triggers relate to migration. Larger females are thought to allocate resources to migration simply because they have more to spare. Smaller individuals are thought to deploy alternative mechanisms; one being the reabsorption of oocytes for energy. The fact that these insects return to northern environments after migration could be the influence of a

text: genetic predisposition

text: or selected for due to crowding and increased

text: intraspecific competition

text: for resources in the southern areas

text: The Ten Million Club (Dutch: ‘’De Club van Tien Miljoen’’) wants to match the population size of the Netherlands with the carrying capacity of the area.

text: The Ten Million Club (Dutch: ‘’De Club van Tien Miljoen’’) wants to match the population size of the Netherlands with the

text: carrying capacity

text: of the area.

text: Resources are generally limited. Therefore, investment in one trait (e.g. virulence or immunity) limits investment in other life-history traits (e.g. reproductive rate). Moreoever, genes often have pleiotropic effects. Thus, a change in a pleiotropic immunity or virulence gene may automatically affect other traits. There is thus a trade-off between benefits and costs of the adaptive changes that then may prevent the host population to become fully resistant or the parasite population to express very high pathogenicity.

text: Resources are generally limited. Therefore, investment in one trait (e.g.

text: virulence

text: or

text: immunity

text: ) limits investment in other life-history traits (e.g. reproductive rate). Moreoever, genes often have pleiotropic effects. Thus, a change in a pleiotropic immunity or virulence gene may automatically affect other traits. There is thus a trade-off between benefits and costs of the adaptive changes that then may prevent the host population to become fully resistant or the parasite population to express very high pathogenicity.

text: Sporting success predictions and ratings can be univariate, i.e. based on one independent variable, such as a country's population size and the number of medals is divided by the population of the country, or multivariate, where resources-per-person in the form of GDP per capita and other variables are included.

text: Sporting success predictions and ratings can be

text: univariate

text: , i.e. based on one independent variable, such as a country's population size and the number of medals is divided by the population of the country, or

text: multivariate

text: , where resources-per-person in the form of GDP per capita and other variables are included.

text: In 2006 the system came in tenth place for libraries serving comparably sized populations, according to Hennen's American Public Library Ratings (HAPLR).

text: Many quantitative studies have estimated the world's carrying capacity for humans, that is, a limit to the world population. A meta-analysis of 69 such studies suggests a point estimate of the limit to be 7.7 billion people, while lower and upper meta-bounds for current technology are estimated as 0.65 and 98 billion people, respectively. They conclude: "recent predictions of stabilized world population levels for 2050 exceed several of our meta-estimates of a world population limit".

text: During the last three decades of the twentieth century there was a progressive trend towards large vessels carrying greater numbers of animals. Prior to that, a significant limitation had been fresh water storage capacity on ships.To maintain condition, average-sized cattle require at least forty litres of water per head, per day. Sheep require at least four litres per head - per day.Developments in water production technology (salt water evaporators or reverse-osmosis systems) eventually led to livestock carriers with equipment capable of producing up to 600 tonnes of fresh water per day.Sheep and cattle also require fodder amounting to at least 2% of their body weight per day. Livestock carriers are required to carry sufficient feedstuffs for the maximum length of the voyage plus adequate reserves for emergencies.

text: Populations of some species tend to initially show a lack of response to density-dependent factors that limit population size as it nears carrying capacity. The exhibition of Malthusian growth is dependent on a number of elements including resource availability, degree of both interspecific and intraspecific completion, and strength of predator-prey relationships.

text: Populations of some species tend to initially show a lack of response to density-dependent factors that limit population size as it nears carrying capacity. The exhibition of Malthusian growth is dependent on a number of elements including resource availability, degree of both interspecific and intraspecific completion, and strength of

text: predator-prey

text: relationships.

text: A limiting factor of a system, is an input or variable such that a small change in it from the present value would cause a non-negligible change in an output or other measure of the system. A factor which is not limiting over a certain domain of starting conditions may yet be limiting over another domain of starting conditions, including that of the factor in question. Energy can not be destroyed.

text: A limiting factor of a system, is an input or variable such that a small change in it from the present value would cause a non-negligible change in an output or other measure of the system. A factor which is not limiting over a certain

text: domain

text: of starting conditions may yet be limiting over another domain of starting conditions, including that of the factor in question. Energy can not be destroyed.

text: For terrestrial applications, the principal limiting factors are:

text: Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample. In practice, the sample size used in a study is determined based on the expense of data collection, and the need to have sufficient statistical power. In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes involved in the study: for example, in a stratified survey there would be different sample sizes for each stratum. In a census, data are collected on the entire population, hence the sample size is equal to the population size. In experimental design, where a study may be divided into different treatment groups, there may be different sample sizes for each group.

text: Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or

text: replicates

text: to include in a

text: statistical sample

text: . The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make

text: inferences

text: about a

text: population

text: from a sample. In practice, the sample size used in a study is determined based on the expense of data collection, and the need to have sufficient

text: statistical power

text: . In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes involved in the study: for example, in a

text: stratified

text: survey

text: there would be different sample sizes for each stratum. In a

text: census

text: , data are collected on the entire population, hence the sample size is equal to the population size. In

text: experimental design

text: , where a study may be divided into different

text: treatment group

text: s, there may be different sample sizes for each group.

text: Three areas fall within a race's economic settings: colonist resources, factories, and mines.  Colonist resources determine the pre-factory resources, which are most useful for getting a colony on its feet. Factory settings include resource cost, efficiency, maximum factories per population size, and the "G box".  The "G box" is a checkbox that lowers the germanium cost of factories from four germanium each to three each, and is highly recommended.  Mines settings are also based on resource cost, efficiency, and maximum per population size.  It's recommended to lower racial mine cost from five to three.

text: As in any statistical setting, effect sizes are estimated with sampling error, and may be biased unless the effect size estimator that is used is appropriate for the manner in which the data were sampled and the manner in which the measurements were made.  An example of this is publication bias, which occurs when scientists only report results when the estimated effect sizes are large or are statistically significant.  As a result, if many researchers carry out studies with low statistical power, the reported effect sizes will tend to be larger than the true (population) effects, if any. Another example where effect sizes may be distorted is in a multiple trial experiment, where the effect size calculation is based on the averaged or aggregated response across the trials.

text: As in any statistical setting, effect sizes are estimated with sampling error, and may be biased unless the effect size estimator that is used is appropriate for the manner in which the data were

text: sampled

text: and the manner in which the measurements were made.  An example of this is

text: publication bias

text: , which occurs when scientists only report results when the estimated effect sizes are large or are statistically significant.  As a result, if many researchers carry out studies with low statistical power, the reported effect sizes will tend to be larger than the true (population) effects, if any. Another example where effect sizes may be distorted is in a multiple trial experiment, where the effect size calculation is based on the averaged or aggregated response across the trials.

text: The regulations required a vessel of 10,000 tons or more to carry 16 lifeboats with a total capacity of , sufficient for 960 people. Titanic actually carried four more lifeboats than she needed under the regulations. Her total lifeboat capacity was , which was theoretically capable of taking 1,178 people. The regulations required that lifeboats should measure between  with a minimum capacity of  each. The cubic capacity divided by ten indicated the approximate number of people that could be carried safely in each boat and also dictated the size of the airtight buoyancy tanks incorporated into the boats' hulls, with each person corresponding to  of tank capacity.

text: While the frequency distribution of urban hierarchies is empirically simple, the set of factors that create it are complex and no individual explanation can account for the distribution. The unequal distribution of city sizes and lack of convergence on one equilibrium size are relatively well understood. Henderson's model of urban system relies on three sets of factors that influence the size of cities: land inputs, labor, and capital. The model formally relates the benefits of economies of agglomeration and congestion cost. Cities benefit from economies of scale that attract firms and workers, making them larger. But, the limited supply of land means that the price of locating near the center of production increases as the population size increases. Eventually, the greater costs lead to diminishing returns to scale and cities tend towards an optimal equilibrium size, assuming they all share the same attributes. Henderson relaxed the assumption of identical cities to explore the implications of a diversified economy of traded goods. The extension of the model underlies the urban system literature and gives rise to the finding that cities will differ in size to account for the factor rewards associated with traded goods of varying degrees of return to scale and intensity of land use.

text: While the frequency distribution of urban hierarchies is empirically simple, the set of factors that create it are complex and no individual explanation can account for the distribution. The unequal distribution of city sizes and lack of convergence on one equilibrium size are relatively well understood. Henderson's model of urban system relies on three sets of factors that influence the size of cities: land inputs, labor, and capital. The model formally relates the benefits of

text: economies of agglomeration

text: and congestion cost. Cities benefit from economies of scale that attract firms and workers, making them larger. But, the limited supply of land means that the price of locating near the center of production increases as the population size increases. Eventually, the greater costs lead to diminishing returns to scale and cities tend towards an optimal equilibrium size, assuming they all share the same attributes. Henderson relaxed the assumption of identical cities to explore the implications of a diversified economy of

text: traded goods

text: . The extension of the model underlies the urban system literature and gives rise to the finding that cities will differ in size to account for the factor rewards associated with traded goods of varying degrees of return to scale and intensity of land use.

text: Some newer mosquito traps or known mosquito attractants emit a plume of carbon dioxide together with other mosquito attractants such as sugary scents, lactic acid, octenol, warmth, water vapor and sounds. By mimicking a mammal’s scent and outputs, the trap draws female mosquitoes toward it, where they are typically sucked into a net or holder by an electric fan where they are collected. According to the American Mosquito Control Association, the trap will kill  some mosquitoes, but their effectiveness in any particular case will depend on a number of factors such as the size and species of the mosquito population and the type and location of the breeding habitat.  They are useful in specimen collection studies to determine the types of mosquitoes prevalent in an area but are typically far too inefficient to be useful in reducing mosquito populations.

text: Some newer mosquito traps or known mosquito attractants emit a plume of carbon dioxide together with other mosquito attractants such as sugary scents,

text: lactic acid

text: octenol

text: , warmth, water vapor and sounds. By mimicking a mammal’s scent and outputs, the trap draws female mosquitoes toward it, where they are typically sucked into a net or holder by an electric fan where they are collected. According to the American Mosquito Control Association, the trap will kill  some mosquitoes, but their effectiveness in any particular case will depend on a number of factors such as the size and species of the mosquito population and the type and location of the breeding habitat.  They are useful in specimen collection studies to determine the types of mosquitoes prevalent in an area but are typically far too inefficient to be useful in reducing mosquito populations.

text: Major differences between the eastern coastal populations and the Murray-Darling population are that the eastern coastal populations display a far smaller average and maximum size (15 and 20 cm respectively) and are reported to have one less vertebra than the Murray-Darling species.  Recent evidence suggest the Shoalhaven population is now extinct after a rapid decline due to damming of their habitat and subsequent encroachment of legally and illegally stocked fish species.  The Hawkesbury-Nepean population appears to be threatened by introduced trout and other exotic fish, river damming and regulation, siltation, and urban encroachment, but does not appear to be as threatened as the Murray-Darling species.  Information on this page relates primarily to the Murray-Darling population.

text: The sport is regulated by most natural resource agencies. Management may include the use of quotas and length limits to ensure that populations are not over-exploited.  As one example, in the state of Michigan, walleye of under 15" may not be legally kept, except from Lake St. Clair, Saginaw Bay and the St. Clair River]], where walleye of 13" are legal to take. Many states also issue slot regulations on walleye.  This is where you can keep fish below a certain size and others above.  The slot limit protects the medium-sized fish, which can be considered to be at prime sexual maturity.

text: The sport is regulated by most natural resource agencies.

text: Management

text: may include the use of quotas and length limits to ensure that populations are not

text: over-exploited

text: .  As one example, in the state of

text: Michigan

text: , walleye of under 15" may not be legally kept, except from

text: Lake St. Clair, Saginaw Bay

text: and the St. Clair River]], where walleye of 13" are legal to take. Many states also issue slot regulations on walleye.  This is where you can keep fish below a certain size and others above.  The

text: slot limit

text: protects the medium-sized fish, which can be considered to be at prime sexual maturity.

text: A machine with 10,000 wheels would work as well as a machine with two wheels because each wheel is independent of the other. When it is time to propagate a carry, the sautoir, under the sole influence of gravity, is thrown toward the next wheel without any contact between the wheels. During its free fall the sautoir behaves like an acrobat jumping from one trapeze to the next without the trapezes touching each other ("sautoir" comes from the French verb sauter, which means to jump). All the wheels (including gears and sautoir) have therefore the same size and weight independently of the capacity of the machine.

text: Resource availability is obviously essential for the unimpeded growth of a population. Ideally, when resources in the habitat are unlimited, each species has the ability to realise fully its innate potential to grow in number, as Charles Darwin observed while developing his theory of natural selection.

text: Resource availability is obviously essential for the unimpeded growth of a population. Ideally, when resources in the habitat are unlimited, each species has the ability to realise fully its innate potential to grow in number, as

text: Charles Darwin

text: observed while developing his theory of

text: natural selection

text: Each model of Dell's Optiplex line of computers typically includes an Ultra-Small Form Factor (USFF) chassis option. In the Core 2 era, these machines used 3.5" desktop hard drives and external power supplies, like the Optiplex 745 and 755. More recent units use 2.5" laptop hard drives and have integrated power supplies, like the Optiplex 990 USFF. The compact size comes at the cost of restricted expandability, as USFF models have no PCI or PCIe slots and may have limited CPU and memory options.

text: Each model of Dell's

text: Optiplex

text: line of computers typically includes an Ultra-Small Form Factor (USFF) chassis option. In the

text: Core 2

text: era, these machines used 3.5" desktop hard drives and external power supplies, like the Optiplex 745 and 755. More recent units use 2.5" laptop hard drives and have integrated power supplies, like the Optiplex 990 USFF. The compact size comes at the cost of restricted expandability, as USFF models have no PCI or PCIe slots and may have limited CPU and memory options.

text: This Canary Islands stonechat is now considered Endangered, as construction, mainly tourism-related, encroaches upon the best habitat (Illera et al., 2006). The population is hard to estimate, but most probably between 1300 and 1700 mature birds (BirdLife International 2004), and recognisably in decline. In particular, heavy land clearance on the Jandía peninsula is isolating the local subpopulation and making it vulnerable to adverse effects of small population size.

text: This Canary Islands stonechat is now considered

text: Endangered

text: , as construction, mainly

text: tourism

text: -related, encroaches upon the best habitat (Illera et al., 2006). The population is hard to estimate, but most probably between 1300 and 1700 mature birds (BirdLife International 2004), and recognisably in decline. In particular, heavy land clearance on the

text: Jandía

text: peninsula is isolating the local subpopulation and making it vulnerable to adverse effects of

text: small population size

text: For the human population, more complex variables such as sanitation and medical care are sometimes considered as part of the necessary establishment. As population density increases, birth rate often decreases and death rate typically increases. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate is the "natural increase". The carrying capacity could support a positive natural increase, or could require a negative natural increase. Thus, the carrying capacity is the number of individuals an environment can support without significant negative impacts to the given organism and its environment. Below carrying capacity, populations typically increase, while above, they typically decrease. A factor that keeps population size at equilibrium is known as a regulating factor. Population size decreases above carrying capacity due to a range of factors depending on the species concerned, but can include insufficient space, food supply, or sunlight. The carrying capacity of an environment may vary for different species and may change over time due to a variety of factors, including: food availability, water supply, environmental conditions and living space.The origins of the term "carrying capacity" are uncertain, with researchers variously stating that it was used "in the context of international shipping" or that it was first used during 19th-century laboratory experiments with micro-organisms. A recent review finds the first use of the term in an 1845 report by the US Secretary of State to the US Senate.

text: For the

text: human population

text: , more complex variables such as

text: sanitation

text: and

text: medical care

text: are sometimes considered as part of the necessary establishment. As population density increases,

text: birth rate

text: often decreases and

text: death rate

text: typically increases. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate is the "natural increase". The carrying capacity could support a positive natural increase, or could require a negative natural increase. Thus, the carrying capacity is the number of individuals an environment can support without significant negative impacts to the given organism and its environment. Below carrying capacity, populations typically increase, while above, they typically decrease. A factor that keeps population size at equilibrium is known as a

text: regulating factor

text: Population size decreases

text: above carrying capacity due to a range of factors depending on the

text: species

text: concerned, but can include insufficient

text: space

text: food supply

text: , or

text: sunlight

text: . The carrying capacity of an

text: environment

text: may vary for different species and may change over time due to a variety of factors, including:

text: food availability

text: water supply

text: , environmental conditions and living space.The origins of the term "carrying capacity" are uncertain, with researchers variously stating that it was used "in the context of international

text: shipping

text: " or that it was first used during 19th-century laboratory experiments with micro-organisms. A recent review finds the first use of the term in an 1845 report by the

text: US Secretary of State

text: to the

text: US Senate

text: The size of a population depends on how much and how many resources are able to support it. For the population to remain the same size year after year, there must be an equilibrium, or balance between the population size and available resources. Since organisms produce more offspring than their environment can support, not all individuals can survive out of each generation. There must be a competitive struggle for resources that aid in survival. As a result, Darwin realised that it was not chance alone that determined survival. Instead, survival of an organism depends on the differences of each individual organism, or "traits," that aid or hinder survival and reproduction. Well-adapted individuals are likely to leave more offspring than their less well-adapted competitors. Traits that hinder survival and reproduction would disappear over generations. Traits that help an organism survive and reproduce would accumulate over generations. Darwin realised that the unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce could cause gradual changes in the population and used the term natural selection to describe this process.

text: The HS2000, except for the XD-S variant, is fed by staggered-column (otherwise known as "double-stack") detachable box magazines that are made of polished stainless steel with a polymer basepad. The empty weight of a standard-sized HS2000 box magazine is . The Springfield Armory XDM .45 ACP is offered in three different models with 3.8, 4.5, and 5.25 inch barrels. Each of these models has a 13 + 1 capacity, while the highest capacity is 19 + 1 for the 9mm model. The  model is also available with a compact magazine that holds 9 rounds that reduces grip length by one inch for a more comfortable conceal carry option.

text: The HS2000, except for the XD-S variant, is fed by staggered-column (otherwise known as "double-stack") detachable

text: box magazines

text: that are made of polished stainless steel with a polymer basepad. The empty weight of a standard-sized HS2000 box magazine is . The Springfield Armory XDM .45 ACP is offered in three different models with 3.8, 4.5, and 5.25 inch barrels. Each of these models has a 13 + 1 capacity, while the highest capacity is 19 + 1 for the 9mm model. The  model is also available with a compact magazine that holds 9 rounds that reduces grip length by one inch for a more comfortable conceal carry option.

text: If a population is lognormally distributed then the harmonic mean of the population size (H) is related to the arithmetic mean (m)

text: If a population is

text: lognormally distributed

text: then the

text: harmonic mean

text: of the population size (H) is related to the

text: arithmetic mean

text: (m)

text: As mentioned earlier, the central premise behind the factorization approach is that a measurement matrix P is rank limited. Further, it is possible to factor P into two sub-matrices: a motion and a shape matrix, M and S of size 2F × r and N × r respectively.

text: Many famines are caused by imbalance of food production compared to the large populations of countries whose population exceeds the regional carrying capacity. Historically, famines have occurred from agricultural problems such as drought, crop failure, or pestilence. Changing weather patterns, the ineffectiveness of medieval governments in dealing with crises, wars, and epidemic diseases such as the Black Death helped to cause hundreds of famines in Europe during the Middle Ages, including 95 in Britain and 75 in France. In France, the Hundred Years' War, crop failures and epidemics reduced the population by two-thirds.

text: Many famines are caused by imbalance of food production compared to the large populations of countries whose

text: population exceeds the regional carrying capacity

text: . Historically, famines have occurred from agricultural problems such as

text: drought

text: , crop failure, or

text: pestilence

text: . Changing weather patterns, the ineffectiveness of medieval governments in dealing with crises, wars, and

text: epidemic diseases

text: such as the

text: Black Death

text: helped to cause hundreds of famines in

text: Europe

text: during the

text: Middle Ages

text: , including 95 in Britain and 75 in France. In France, the

text: Hundred Years' War

text: , crop failures and epidemics reduced the population by two-thirds.

text: While the use of advanced molecular analysis techniques within the field of molecular epidemiology is providing the larger field of epidemiology with greater means of analysis, Miquel Porta identified several challenges that the field of molecular epidemiology faces, particularly selecting and incorporating requisite applicable data in an unbiased manner.  Limitations of molecular epidemiological studies are the similar in nature to those of generic epidemiological studies, that is, samples of convenience - both of the target population and genetic information, small sample sizes, inappropriate statistical methods, poor quality control, and poor definition of target populations.

text: While the use of advanced molecular analysis techniques within the field of molecular epidemiology is providing the larger field of epidemiology with greater means of analysis,

text: Miquel Porta

text: identified several challenges that the field of molecular epidemiology faces, particularly selecting and incorporating requisite applicable data in an unbiased manner.  Limitations of molecular epidemiological studies are the similar in nature to those of generic epidemiological studies, that is, samples of convenience - both of the target population and genetic information, small sample sizes, inappropriate statistical methods, poor quality control, and poor definition of target populations.

text: The different needs and abilities of all students were taken into consideration when the building was designed. The building included 39 classrooms, 9 vocational areas, an auditorium that seated 1,242, a gymnasium with a 2,200 seating capacity, cafeteria, band and chorus rooms, and a large modern library. The original building and grounds occupied a  area. The size and capacity of the senior high school were determined by a review of the student population of 1952 and a projected six-year enrollment. The new building accommodated 1,200 pupils. The Board of Education recognized potential growth and included provisions for additions to meet future needs.  Finally, the school opened September 5, 1956, with an enrollment of 1,037 students in grades 10, 11, and 12. Currently there are 3,500 enrolled. Although the entire building was not completed, sufficient sections were available to begin the school year.

text: The different needs and abilities of all

text: student

text: s were taken into consideration when the building was designed. The building included 39

text: classroom

text: s, 9

text: vocational

text: areas, an

text: auditorium

text: that seated 1,242, a

text: gym

text: nasium with a 2,200

text: seating capacity

text: cafeteria

text: band

text: and

text: chorus

text: rooms, and a large modern

text: library

text: . The original building and grounds occupied a  area. The size and capacity of the senior high school were determined by a review of the student

text: population

text: of 1952 and a projected six-year enrollment. The new building accommodated 1,200 pupils. The Board of Education recognized potential growth and included provisions for additions to meet future needs.  Finally, the school opened September 5, 1956, with an enrollment of 1,037 students in grades 10, 11, and 12. Currently there are 3,500 enrolled. Although the entire building was not completed, sufficient sections were available to begin the

text: school year

text: List of medium-sized cities (population between 100,000 and 250,000) with a Cambodian-American population in excess of one percent of the total population.

text: The exponential growth model makes a number of assumptions, many of which often do not hold. For example, many factors affect the intrinsic growth rate and is often not time-invariant. A simple modification of the exponential growth is to assume that the intrinsic growth rate varies with population size. This is reasonable: the larger the population size, the fewer resources available, which can result in a lower birth rate and higher death rate. Hence, we can replace the time-invariant r with r’(t) = (b –a*N(t)) – (d + c*N(t)), where a and c are constants that modulate birth and death rates in a population dependent manner (e.g. intraspecific competition). Both a and c will depend on other environmental factors which, we can for now, assume to be constant in this approximated model. The differential equation is now:

text: The exponential growth model makes a number of assumptions, many of which often do not hold. For example, many factors affect the intrinsic growth rate and is often not time-invariant. A simple modification of the exponential growth is to assume that the intrinsic growth rate varies with population size. This is reasonable: the larger the population size, the fewer resources available, which can result in a lower birth rate and higher death rate. Hence, we can replace the time-invariant r with r’(t) = (b –a*N(t)) – (d + c*N(t)), where a and c are constants that modulate birth and death rates in a population dependent manner (e.g.

text: intraspecific competition

text: ). Both a and c will depend on other environmental factors which, we can for now, assume to be constant in this approximated model. The differential equation is now:

text: Hippocampus capensis is closely related to the Indian Ocean population of the widespread Indo-Pacific seahorse H. kuda. The Knysna seahorse's smaller size, shorter snout, and reduced coronet are likely adaptations to improve manoeuvrability in the dense seagrass habitats typical of South African estuaries.

text: Hippocampus capensis is closely related to the

text: Indian Ocean

text: population of the widespread

text: Indo-Pacific

text: seahorse

text: H. kuda

text: . The Knysna seahorse's smaller size, shorter snout, and reduced

text: coronet

text: are likely adaptations to improve manoeuvrability in the dense seagrass habitats typical of South African estuaries.

text: The rule of thumb to determine the slowest shutter speed possible for hand-holding without noticeable blur due to camera shake is to take the reciprocal of the 35 mm equivalent focal length of the lens, also known as the "1/mm rule". For example, at a focal length of 125 mm on a 35 mm camera, vibration or camera shake could affect sharpness if the shutter speed was slower than 1/125 second. As a result of the 2–4.5 stops slower shutter speeds allowed by IS, an image taken at 1/125 second speed with an ordinary lens could be taken at 1/15 or 1/8 second with an IS-equipped lens and produce almost the same quality. The sharpness obtainable at a given speed can increase dramatically.When calculating the effective focal length, it is important to take into account the image format a camera uses. For example, many digital SLR cameras use an image sensor that is 2/3, 5/8, or 1/2 the size of a 35 mm film frame. This means that the 35 mm frame is 1.5, 1.6, or 2 times the size of the digital sensor. The latter values are referred to as the crop factor, field-of-view crop factor, focal-length multiplier, or format factor. On a 2x crop factor camera, for instance, a 50 mm lens produces the same field of view as a 100 mm lens used on a 35 mm film camera, and can typically be handheld at 1/100 of a second.

text: The

text: rule of thumb

text: to determine the slowest shutter speed possible for hand-holding without noticeable blur due to camera shake is to take the

text: reciprocal

text: of the

text: 35 mm equivalent

text: focal length of the lens, also known as the "1/mm rule". For example, at a focal length of 125 mm on a 35 mm camera, vibration or camera shake could affect sharpness if the shutter speed was slower than 1/125 second. As a result of the 2–4.5 stops slower shutter speeds allowed by IS, an image taken at 1/125 second speed with an ordinary lens could be taken at 1/15 or 1/8 second with an IS-equipped lens and produce almost the same quality. The sharpness obtainable at a given speed can increase dramatically.When calculating the effective focal length, it is important to take into account the image format a camera uses. For example, many digital SLR cameras use an image sensor that is 2/3, 5/8, or 1/2 the size of a 35 mm film frame. This means that the 35 mm frame is 1.5, 1.6, or 2 times the size of the digital sensor. The latter values are referred to as the

text: crop factor

text: , field-of-view crop factor, focal-length multiplier, or format factor. On a 2x crop factor camera, for instance, a 50 mm lens produces the same field of view as a 100 mm lens used on a 35 mm film camera, and can typically be handheld at 1/100 of a second.

text: Suppose we have a random sample of size n from a population,

text: M. arvalis maintains aboveground runways, which expand like a railway-system through the entire home range. Voles are seldom seen outside these runways, which enable a faster and safer locomotion and easier orientation. The climbing ability of the common vole is very poor. Underground nests are dug 30 to 40 cm deep into the ground and are used for food storage, offspring raising, and as a place for rest and sleep. Nests can be shared and defended by up to five females with juveniles that are related in most cases. Females are territorial and an overlap of occupied areas does not occur. Hence, the number of colonies increases with individual number (i.e. population density). As common voles have a polygynous mating system the males do not maintain territories and move as so-called "floaters" between several females’ territories in order to mate as often as possible. They can show overlap in territories. These findings are supported by the different home range sizes of males (1200–1500 m) and females (300–400 m) that can decrease in both males and females as population density rises. Another response to population growth is to leave the original habitat and move towards another one. Males predominantly conduct dispersal, being most often caused by the competition for mates.

text: M. arvalis maintains aboveground runways, which expand like a

text: railway

text: -system through the entire home range. Voles are seldom seen outside these runways, which enable a faster and safer locomotion and easier orientation. The climbing ability of the common vole is very poor. Underground nests are dug 30 to 40 cm deep into the ground and are used for food storage, offspring raising, and as a place for rest and sleep. Nests can be shared and defended by up to five females with juveniles that are related in most cases. Females are territorial and an overlap of occupied areas does not occur. Hence, the number of colonies increases with individual number (i.e. population density). As common voles have a

text: polygynous

text: mating system the males do not maintain territories and move as so-called "floaters" between several females’ territories in order to mate as often as possible. They can show overlap in territories. These findings are supported by the different home range sizes of males (1200–1500 m) and females (300–400 m) that can decrease in both males and females as population density rises. Another response to population growth is to leave the original habitat and move towards another one. Males predominantly conduct dispersal, being most often caused by the competition for mates.

text: On 17 December 2007, Syria and Iraq agreed to rehabilitate the pipeline. The pipeline was to be reconstructed by Stroytransgaz, a subsidiary of Gazprom.  However, Stroytransgaz failed to start the rehabilitation and the contract was nullified in April 2009.  As the rehabilitation of the existing pipeline occurred to be more costly than building a new pipeline, in September 2010 Iraq and Syria agreed to build two new Kirkuk–Baniyas pipelines.  One pipeline with capacity of  would carry heavier crude oil while another pipeline capacity of  would carry lighter crude oil.

text: On 17 December 2007, Syria and Iraq agreed to rehabilitate the pipeline. The pipeline was to be reconstructed by

text: Stroytransgaz

text: , a subsidiary of

text: Gazprom

text: .  However, Stroytransgaz failed to start the rehabilitation and the contract was nullified in April 2009.  As the rehabilitation of the existing pipeline occurred to be more costly than building a new pipeline, in September 2010 Iraq and Syria agreed to build two new Kirkuk–Baniyas pipelines.  One pipeline with capacity of  would carry heavier crude oil while another pipeline capacity of  would carry lighter crude oil.

text: is the population size after a generation, then

text: As already mentioned, both day-length restrictions and the presence of oxalates can also be considered limiting factors. Scientists work with specific breeding, selection, and virus cleaning programs on these purposes.

text: After dividing both sides of the equation by the population size N, in the logistic growth the left hand side of the equation represents the per capita population growth rate, which is dependent on the population size N, and decreases with increasing N throughout the entire range of population sizes. In contrast, when there is an Allee effect the per-capita growth rate increases with increasing N over some range of population sizes [0, N].

text: The term van may also refer to a minivan. However, minivans are usually distinguished by their smaller size and traditionally front wheel drive powertrain, although many now are being equipped with four wheel drive.  Minivans typically offer seven or eight passenger seating capacity (similar to the smallest full-sized vans), and better fuel economy than full-sized vans, at the expense of power, cargo space, and towing capacity. In addition, many new minivans have dual side sliding doors.

text: The term van may also refer to a

text: minivan

text: . However, minivans are usually distinguished by their smaller size and traditionally

text: front wheel drive

text: powertrain, although many now are being equipped with

text: four wheel drive

text: .  Minivans typically offer seven or eight passenger

text: seating capacity

text: (similar to the smallest full-sized vans), and better fuel economy than full-sized vans, at the expense of power, cargo space, and towing capacity. In addition, many new minivans have dual side sliding doors.

text: Economic relations between China and Africa, one part of more general Africa–China relations, began centuries ago and continue through the present day. Nowadays, China seeks resources for its growing population, and African countries seek funds to develop their infrastructures.

text: Economic relations between China and Africa, one part of more general

text: Africa–China relations

text: , began centuries ago and continue through the present day. Nowadays, China seeks resources for its growing population, and African countries seek funds to develop their infrastructures.

text: Despite the fact that Canada's population density is low, many regions in the south such as Southern Ontario, have population densities higher than several European countries. The large size of Canada's north which is not arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, significantly lowers the carrying capacity. Therefore, the population density of the habitable land in Canada can be modest to high depending on the region.

text: Despite the fact that Canada's

entity_name: List of countries and territories by population density

text: population density

text: is low, many regions in the south such as

text: Southern Ontario

text: , have population densities higher than several

entity_name: List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe

text: European countries

text: . The large size of Canada's north which is not

text: arable

text: , and thus cannot support large human populations, significantly lowers the

text: carrying capacity

text: . Therefore, the population density of the habitable land in Canada can be modest to high depending on the region.

text: The rapid increase in the global population of the past century exemplifies Malthus's predicted population patterns, whereby expansion of food supply has encouraged population growth. "Neo-Malthusianism" may be used as a label for those who are concerned that overpopulation may increase resource depletion or environmental degradation to a degree that is not sustainable. Many in environmental movements express concern over the potential dangers of population growth.  In 1968, ecologist Garrett Hardin published an influential essay in Science that drew heavily from Malthusian theory. His essay, "The Tragedy of the Commons," argued that "a finite world can support only a finite population" and that "freedom to breed will bring ruin to all." The Club of Rome published a famous book entitled The Limits to Growth in 1972. Paul R. Ehrlich is a prominent neo-Malthusians who first raised concerns in 1968 with the publication of The Population Bomb.

text: The rapid increase in the global population of the past century exemplifies Malthus's predicted population patterns, whereby expansion of food supply has encouraged population growth. "Neo-Malthusianism" may be used as a label for those who are concerned that

text: overpopulation

text: may increase

text: resource depletion

text: or

text: environmental degradation

text: to a degree that is not

text: sustainable

text: . Many in

text: environmental movements

text: express concern over the potential dangers of population growth.  In 1968, ecologist Garrett Hardin published an influential essay in Science that drew heavily from Malthusian theory. His essay,

text: "The Tragedy of the Commons,"

text: argued that "a finite world can support only a finite population" and that "freedom to breed will bring ruin to all." The

text: Club of Rome

text: published a famous book entitled

text: The Limits to Growth

text: in 1972.

text: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: is a prominent neo-Malthusians who first raised concerns in 1968 with the publication of

text: The Population Bomb

text: List of medium-sized cities (population between 100,000 and 250,000) with a Korean-American population of at least one percent of the total population.

text: An analysis of videos obtained in the Pearl River in Louisiana in 2006 and 2008 during encounters with birds that were identified in the field as ivory-billed woodpeckers was published in 2011 along with comments by independent experts. Bret Tobalske, an ornithologist who specializes in the flight mechanics of woodpeckers, performed an analysis of wing motion and concluded that the bird in the 2008 video is a large woodpecker. Only two large woodpeckers occur north of the Rio Grande, but the flap rate is about ten standard deviations greater than the mean flap rate of the pileated woodpecker. The flight speed, narrow wings, and prominent white patches on the dorsal surfaces of the wings are also consistent with ivory-billed but not pileated woodpecker. Avian artist Julie Zickefoose analyzed the 2006 video and commented on the "rared-back pose, long but fluffy and squared-off crest, and extremely long, erect head and neck" and an unusual short flight that does not seem to be consistent with a pileated woodpecker. A size comparison was carried out using part of the tree in which the bird in the 2006 video was perched. Two prominent forks made it possible to scale frames from the video relative to a photo of a pileated woodpecker specimen that was mounted on the tree. On the basis of the comparison, it is clear that the bird in the video is a large woodpecker, and the size appears to be consistent with an ivory-billed woodpecker. A series of lectures discuss the videos and a set of factors that affect the difficulty of detecting and photographing ivory-billed woodpeckers. Two of the factors, the vast size of the habitats that must be searched and dense vegetation that limits visibility, are evident in video footage that was obtained using a drone over the Pearl, Choctawhatchee, and Apalachicola Rivers.

text: An analysis of videos obtained in the

text: Pearl River

text: The minimum caliber for shotguns are 20 gauge, and starting position is usually with the shotgun in one hand and the butt of the shotgun touching the hip. There is only one power factor of 480 kgr·ft/s, and all targets are scored as major. Different options on shotgun chokes and ammunition (from different pellets sizes and up to slugs) makes for interesting choke and ammunition choices based on the stage at hand. All divisions have limits of the number of shells loaded at the beginning of the stage, but the limits are removed after the start signal. For instance some may choose to run 10 or 11 round tubes in the Standard division which is limited to 8 rounds in the tube at the start signal.

text: The minimum caliber for shotguns are

text: 20 gauge

text: , and starting position is usually with the shotgun in one hand and the butt of the shotgun touching the hip. There is only one power factor of 480 kgr·ft/s, and all targets are scored as major. Different options on

text: shotgun chokes

text: and

text: ammunition

text: (from different

text: pellets

text: sizes and up to

text: slugs

text: ) makes for interesting choke and ammunition choices based on the stage at hand. All divisions have limits of the number of shells loaded at the beginning of the stage, but the limits are removed after the start signal. For instance some may choose to run 10 or 11 round tubes in the Standard division which is limited to 8 rounds in the tube at the start signal.

text: to account for the added precision gained by sampling close to a larger percentage of the population. The effect of the FPC is that the error becomes zero when the sample size n is equal to the population size N.

text: The size and shape of any device is largely driven by the size and shape of the components used to make that device. Traditional HDDs and optical drives are designed around the rotating platter(s) or optical disc along with the spindle motor inside. If an SSD is made up of various interconnected integrated circuits (ICs) and an interface connector, then its shape is no longer limited to the shape of rotating media drives. Some solid state storage solutions come in a larger chassis that may even be a rack-mount form factor with numerous SSDs inside. They would all connect to a common bus inside the chassis and connect outside the box with a single connector.

text: The size and shape of any device is largely driven by the size and shape of the components used to make that device. Traditional HDDs and

text: optical drives

text: are designed around the rotating

text: platter

text: (s) or

text: optical disc

text: along with the

text: spindle motor

text: inside. If an SSD is made up of various interconnected

text: integrated circuit

text: s (ICs) and an interface connector, then its shape is no longer limited to the shape of rotating media drives. Some solid state storage solutions come in a larger chassis that may even be a rack-mount form factor with numerous SSDs inside. They would all connect to a common bus inside the chassis and connect outside the box with a single connector.

text: Thus, carrying capacity interpretations that focus solely on resource-limitations alone (such as food) may neglect wider functional factors.  If the humans neither gain nor lose weight in the long-term, the calculation is fairly accurate. If the quantity of food is invariably equal to the "Y" amount, carrying capacity has been reached. Humans, with the need to enhance their reproductive success (see Richard Dawkins' The Selfish Gene), understand that food supply can vary and also that other factors in the environment can alter humans' need for food. A house, for example, might mean that one does not need to eat as much to stay warm as one otherwise would. Over time, monetary transactions have replaced barter and local production, and consequently modified local human carrying capacity. However, purchases also impact regions thousands of miles away. For example, carbon dioxide from an automobile travels to the upper atmosphere. This led Paul R. Ehrlich to develop the I = PAT equation.

text: Thus, carrying capacity interpretations that focus solely on resource-limitations alone (such as food) may neglect wider functional factors.  If the humans neither gain nor lose weight in the long-term, the calculation is fairly accurate. If the quantity of food is invariably equal to the "Y" amount, carrying capacity has been reached. Humans, with the need to enhance their reproductive success (see Richard Dawkins'

text: The Selfish Gene

text: ), understand that food supply can vary and also that other factors in the environment can alter humans' need for food. A house, for example, might mean that one does not need to eat as much to stay warm as one otherwise would. Over time, monetary transactions have replaced barter and local production, and consequently modified local human carrying capacity. However, purchases also impact regions thousands of miles away. For example,

text: carbon dioxide

text: from an

text: automobile

text: travels to the upper atmosphere. This led

text: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: to develop the

text: I = PAT

text: equation.

text: The golden-crowned sifaka lives in dry deciduous, gallery, and semi-evergreen forests and is found at altitudes up to , though it seems to prefer lower elevations. Surveys have shown it to be limited to highly fragmented forests surrounding the town of Daraina in an area encircled by the Loky and Manambato rivers in northeastern Madagascar.  The golden-crowned sifaka has one of the smallest geographic ranges of all indriid lemur species. Out of 75 forest fragments studied by researchers, its presence could be definitively reported in only 44, totaling . This study, published in 2002, also estimated the total species population and observed population densities. Home range size varied between  per group. With an average group size of five individuals, the population density ranged between 17 and 28 individuals per km. Another home range size estimate of  has also been suggested with a population density range of 10 and 23 individuals per km. The forested area available to the species within its desired elevation range was estimated at , yielding an estimated population of 6,120–10,080 and a breeding population between 2,520 and 3,960 individuals. However, a study published in 2010 using line transect data from 2006 and 2008 in five major forest fragments yielded an estimated population of 18,000 individuals.

text: The golden-crowned sifaka lives in dry

text: deciduous

text: gallery

text: , and semi-evergreen forests and is found at altitudes up to , though it seems to prefer lower elevations. Surveys have shown it to be limited to highly fragmented forests surrounding the town of Daraina in an area encircled by the Loky and Manambato rivers in northeastern Madagascar.  The golden-crowned sifaka has one of the smallest geographic ranges of all

text: indriid

text: lemur species. Out of 75 forest fragments studied by researchers, its presence could be definitively reported in only 44, totaling . This study, published in 2002, also estimated the total species population and observed population densities.

text: Home range

text: size varied between  per group. With an average

text: group size

text: of five individuals, the population density ranged between 17 and 28 individuals per km. Another home range size estimate of  has also been suggested with a population density range of 10 and 23 individuals per km. The forested area available to the species within its desired elevation range was estimated at , yielding an estimated population of 6,120–10,080 and a breeding population between 2,520 and 3,960 individuals. However, a study published in 2010 using

text: line transect

text: data from 2006 and 2008 in five major forest fragments yielded an estimated population of 18,000 individuals.

text: The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can  sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment. In population biology, carrying capacity is defined as the environment's maximal load, which is different from the concept of population equilibrium. Its effect on population dynamics may be approximated in a logistic model, although this simplification ignores the possibility of overshoot which real systems may exhibit.

text: The carrying capacity of a biological

text: species

text: in an

text: environment

text: is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can  sustain indefinitely, given the food,

text: habitat

text: water

text: , and other

text: necessities available

text: in the environment. In

text: population biology

text: , carrying capacity is defined as the

text: environment

text: 's maximal load, which is different from the

text: concept

text: of population equilibrium. Its effect on

text: population dynamics

text: may be approximated in a

text: logistic model

text: , although this simplification ignores the possibility of

text: overshoot

text: which real systems may exhibit.

text: Momentum occurs because older cohorts differ in absolute size from those cohorts currently bearing children, which impacts the immediate birth and death rates in the population that determine the intrinsic rate of growth. Formal demographers refer to population momentum as the size of the resulting stationary-equivalent population relative to the current size of the population. Population momentum has implications for population policy for a number of reasons.

text: Momentum occurs because older cohorts differ in absolute size from those cohorts currently bearing children, which impacts the immediate birth and

text: death rates

text: in the population that determine the intrinsic rate of growth. Formal demographers refer to population momentum as the size of the resulting stationary-equivalent population relative to the current size of the population. Population momentum has implications for population policy for a number of reasons.

text: Migratory patterns and behaviors also influence sexual dimorphisms. This aspect also stems back to the size dimorphism in species. It has been shown that the larger males are better at coping with the difficulties of migration and thusly are more successful in reproducing when reaching the breeding destination. When viewing this in an evolutionary standpoint many theories and explanations come to consideration. If these are the result for every migration and breeding season the expected results should be a shift towards a larger male population through sexual selection. Sexual selection is strong when the factor of environmental selection is also introduced. The environmental selection may support a smaller chick size if those chicks were born in an area that allowed them to grow to a larger size, even though under normal conditions they would not be able to reach this optimal size for migration. When the environment gives advantages and disadvantages of this sort, the strength of selection is weakened and the environmental forces are given greater morphological weight. The sexual dimorphism could also produce a change in timing of migration leading to differences in mating success within the bird population. When the dimorphism produces that large of a variation between the sexes and between the members of the sexes multiple evolutionary effects can take place. This timing could even lead to a speciation phenomenon if the variation becomes strongly drastic and favorable towards two different outcomes.

text: Competition can occur between individuals of the same species, called intraspecific competition, or between different species, called interspecific competition. Studies show that intraspecific competition can regulate population dynamics (changes in population size over time). This occurs because individuals become crowded as a population grows. Since individuals within a population require the same resources, crowding causes resources to become more limited. Some individuals (typically small juveniles) eventually do not acquire enough resources and die or do not reproduce. This reduces population size and slows population growth.Species also interact with other species that require the same resources. Consequently, interspecific competition can alter the sizes of many species' populations at the same time. Experiments demonstrate that when species compete for a limited resource, one species eventually drives the populations of other species extinct. These experiments suggest that competing species cannot coexist (they cannot live together in the same area) because the best competitor will exclude all other competing species. Why then do communities seem to have many competing species that coexist in the same area?

text: A music rehearsal space exists according to the size of the community it serves and how it is financed. Some can be for general purposes, while others may specialise. The cost of running a music rehearsal space is such that its support by any given population is limited. With a smaller population it may be difficult to sustain a space: there may be only two practice rooms or even one, jeopardising its very survival. A music rehearsal space represents a great capital investment in equipment and premises.

text: She served 1989-1999 as the editor of the academic journal Population and Environment. She also served on the editorial board of The Citizen Informer, the newsletter of the Council of Conservative Citizens (CofCC), a neo-Confederate organization. She has also appeared as a guest on the CofCC-affiliated radio show, The Political Cesspool. Abernethy regularly addresses meetings of the CofCC. She is on the editorial advisory board of The Occidental Quarterly, a white nationalist scholarly journal. She serves on the Board of Directors of the Carrying Capacity Network, an immigration-reduction and sustainability organization, and also on the Board of Population-Environment BALANCE, which advocates an immigration moratorium in order to balance population size with resources and the environment's capacity to cope with pollution.

text: She served 1989-1999 as the editor of the academic journal Population and Environment. She also served on the editorial board of The Citizen Informer, the newsletter of the

text: Council of Conservative Citizens

text: (CofCC), a

text: neo-Confederate

text: organization. She has also appeared as a guest on the CofCC-affiliated radio show,

text: The Political Cesspool

text: . Abernethy regularly addresses meetings of the CofCC. She is on the editorial advisory board of

text: The Occidental Quarterly

text: , a

text: white nationalist

text: scholarly journal. She serves on the Board of Directors of the

text: Carrying Capacity Network

text: , an

text: immigration-reduction

text: and

text: sustainability

text: organization, and also on the Board of

text: Population-Environment BALANCE

text: , which advocates an immigration moratorium in order to balance

text: population size

text: with

text: resources

text: and the environment's capacity to cope with

text: pollution

text: Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory- Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network- Paper shredder- Paper towel- Paperless office- Parametrization (climate)- Paraquat- Partial Test Ban Treaty- Partial zero-emissions vehicle- Particle radiation- Particulate- Passenger pigeon- Passive solar- Peak grain- Peak water- Pebble bed reactor- Percy Schmeiser- Periodicals- Permaculture- Permanent crop- Permeable paving- Persistent Organic Pollutant- Persistent organic pollutants- Pest (animal)- Pest control- Pesticide- Pesticide misuse- Pesticide poisoning- Pesticide side effects- Pesticide toxicity to bees- Pesticides- Phagy- Phytotreatment- Pigovian tax- Pioneer plant- Pioneer species- Planetary boundary layer- Planetary ecosynthesis- Planetary engineering- Planetary protection- Planned obsolescence- Plastic- Plastic bullet- Plastic goods- Plastic mulch- Plastic recycling- Plastic shopping bag- Plastic wrap- Poaching- Point of no return- Political ecology- Pollinator decline- Pollutant- Polluter Pays- Polluter pays principle- Pollution- Polychlorinated biphenyl- Polyculture- Polymer chemistry- Polymer clay- Polymer degradation- Polymer solar cells- Polystyrene- Polyvinyl chloride- POP Air Pollution Protocol- Population- Population control- Population decline- Population density- Population growth- Population growth rate- Population process- Population size- Population statistics- Population transfer- Population viability analysis- Post-industrial economy- Post-industrial society- Power station- Precautionary principle- Preservationist- Property and Environment Research Center- Protected area- Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty- Pulpwood- Quality of life

text: Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory

text: Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network

text: Paper shredder

text: Paper towel

text: Paperless office

text: Parametrization (climate)

text: Paraquat

text: Partial Test Ban Treaty

text: Partial zero-emissions vehicle

text: Particle radiation

text: Particulate

text: Passenger pigeon

text: Passive solar

text: Peak grain

text: Peak water

text: Pebble bed reactor

text: Percy Schmeiser

text: Periodicals

text: Permaculture

text: Permanent crop

text: Permeable paving

text: Persistent Organic Pollutant

text: Persistent organic pollutants

text: Pest (animal)

text: Pest control

text: Pesticide

text: Pesticide misuse

text: Pesticide poisoning

text: Pesticide side effects

text: Pesticide toxicity to bees

text: Pesticides

text: Phagy

text: Phytotreatment

text: Pigovian tax

text: Pioneer plant

text: Pioneer species

text: Planetary boundary layer

text: Planetary ecosynthesis

text: Planetary engineering

text: Planetary protection

text: Planned obsolescence

text: Plastic

text: Plastic bullet

text: Plastic goods

text: Plastic mulch

text: Plastic recycling

text: Plastic shopping bag

text: Plastic wrap

text: Poaching

text: Point of no return

text: Political ecology

text: Pollinator decline

text: Pollutant

text: Polluter Pays

text: Polluter pays principle

text: Pollution

text: Polychlorinated biphenyl

text: Polyculture

text: Polymer chemistry

text: Polymer clay

text: Polymer degradation

text: Polymer solar cells

text: Polystyrene

text: Polyvinyl chloride

text: POP Air Pollution Protocol

text: Population

text: Population control

text: Population decline

text: Population density

text: Population growth

text: Population growth rate

text: Population process

text: Population size

text: Population statistics

text: Population transfer

text: Population viability analysis

text: Post-industrial economy

text: Post-industrial society

text: Power station

text: Precautionary principle

text: Preservationist

entity_name: Property and Environment Research Center

text: Property and Environment Research Center

text: Protected area

entity_name: Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

text: Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

text: Pulpwood

text: Quality of life

text: Besides the quality (autofocus speed and noise, optical aberrations and other) of the lens including the way this quality is achieved (used technologies like type of autofocus motor, lens and body design and others), the main functional differences of the lenses in this list are the integration of optical image stabilization ('VR', introduced 2000) and secondly if it fully illuminates a Nikon FX (full-frame, 35mm) image sensor format and smaller sizes or if the specified maximum lens illumination is limited to the Nikon DX format with 1.5x crop factor (by default Nikon FX cameras crop the image automatically).

text: Besides the quality (autofocus speed and noise,

text: optical aberration

text: s and other) of the lens including the way this quality is achieved (used

text: technologies

text: like type of autofocus motor,

text: lens

text: and

text: body design

text: and others), the main functional differences of the lenses in this list are the integration of

text: optical image stabilization

text: ('VR', introduced 2000) and secondly if it fully

text: illuminates

text: a

text: Nikon FX

text: (full-frame,

text: image sensor format

text: and smaller sizes or if the specified maximum lens illumination is limited to the

text: Nikon DX

text: format with 1.5x

text: crop factor

text: (by default Nikon FX cameras crop the image automatically).

text: Neutral mutations are measured in population and evolutionary genetics often by looking at variation in populations. These have been measured historically by gel electrophoresis to determine allozyme frequencies. Statistical analyses of this data is used to compare variation to predicted values based on population size, mutation rates and effective population size. Early observations that indicated higher than expected heterozygosity and overall variation within the protein isoforms studied, drove arguments as to the role of selection in maintaining this variation versus the existence of variation through the effects of neutral mutations arising and their random distribution due to genetic drift. The accumulation of data based on observed polymorphism led to the formation of the neutral theory of evolution. According to the neutral theory of evolution, the rate of fixation in a population of a neutral mutation will be directly related to the rate of formation of the neutral allele.

text: Neutral mutations are measured in population and evolutionary genetics often by looking at variation in populations. These have been measured historically by

text: gel electrophoresis

text: to determine

text: allozyme

text: frequencies. Statistical analyses of this data is used to compare variation to predicted values based on population size, mutation rates and effective population size. Early observations that indicated higher than expected

text: heterozygosity

text: and overall variation within the protein isoforms studied, drove arguments as to the role of selection in maintaining this variation versus the existence of variation through the effects of neutral mutations arising and their random distribution due to genetic drift. The accumulation of data based on observed polymorphism led to the formation of the neutral theory of evolution. According to the neutral theory of evolution, the rate of fixation in a population of a neutral mutation will be directly related to the rate of formation of the neutral allele.

text: Integer factorization is the process of determining which prime numbers divide a given positive integer. Doing this quickly has applications in cryptography. The difficulty depends on both the size and form of the number and its prime factors; it is currently very difficult to factorize large semiprimes (and, indeed, most numbers which have no small factors).

text: Integer factorization

text: is the process of determining which

text: prime number

text: s divide a given positive

text: integer

text: . Doing this quickly has applications in

text: cryptography

text: . The difficulty depends on both the size and form of the number and its

text: prime factor

text: s; it is currently very difficult to factorize large

text: semiprimes

text: (and, indeed, most numbers which have no small factors).

text: In the r/K-selection model, the first variable r is the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size and the second variable K is the carrying capacity of a population. Different species evolve different life-history strategies spanning a continuum between these two selective forces. An r-selected species is one that has high birth rates, low levels of parental investment, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favours high rates of fecundity in r-selected species. Many kinds of insects and invasive species exhibit r-selected characteristics. In contrast, a K-selected species has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Humans and elephants are examples of species exhibiting K-selected characteristics, including longevity and efficiency in the conversion of more resources into fewer offspring.

text: In the r/K-selection model, the first variable r is the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size and the second variable K is the carrying capacity of a population. Different species evolve different life-history strategies spanning a continuum between these two selective forces. An r-selected species is one that has high birth rates, low levels of parental investment, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favours high rates of

text: fecundity

text: in r-selected species. Many kinds of insects and

text: invasive species

text: exhibit r-selected

text: characteristics

text: . In contrast, a K-selected species has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Humans and elephants are examples of species exhibiting K-selected characteristics, including longevity and efficiency in the conversion of more resources into fewer offspring.

text: Motorola released a version of the Droid Razr carrying a higher capacity battery. The Razr Maxx is equipped with a 3300 mAh Li-Ion battery, an 85% increase in capacity over the 1780 mAh battery in the original RAZR. Due to the battery's larger physical size, the Razr Maxx's overall thickness is larger at 8.99 mm.

text: MICP treatment may be limited to deep soil due to limitations of bacterial growth and movement in subsoil. MICP may be limited to the soils containing limited amounts of fines due to the reduction in pore spaces in fine soils. Based on the size of microorganism, the applicability of biocementation is limited to GW, GP, SW, SP, ML, and organic soils. Bacteria are not expected to enter through pore throats smaller than approximately 0.4 µm. In general, the microbial abundance was found to increase with the increase in particle size. On the other hand, the fine particles may provide more favorable nucleation sites for calcium carbonate precipitation because the mineralogy of the grains could directly influence the thermodynamics of the precipitation reaction in the system.  The habitable pores and traversable pore throats were found in coarse sediments and some clayey sediments at shallow depth. In clayey soil, bacteria are capable of reorienting and moving clay particles under low confining stress (at shallow depths). However, inability to make these rearrangements under high confining stresses limits bacterial activity at larger depths. Furthermore, sediment-cell interaction may cause puncture or tensile failure of the cell membrane. Similarly, at larger depths, silt and sand particles may crush and cause a reduction in pore spaces, reducing the biological activity. Bacterial activity is also impacted by challenges such as predation, competition, pH, temperature, and nutrient availability. These factors can contribute to the population decline of bacteria. Many of these limitations can be overcome through the use of MICP through bio-stimulation - a process through which indigenous ureolytic soil bacteria are enriched in situ. This method is not always possible as not all indigenous soils have enough ureolytic bacteria to achieve successful MICP.

text: Gause’s 1930s lab experiments showed logistic growth in microorganisms. Populations of yeast grown in test tubes initially grew exponentially. But as resources became scarcer, their growth rates slowed until reaching the carrying capacity. If the populations were moved to a larger container with more resources they would continue to grow until reaching their new carrying capacity. The shape of their growth can be modeled very effectively with the logistic growth model.

text: Gause’s

text: 1930s lab experiments showed logistic growth in microorganisms. Populations of

text: yeast

text: grown in test tubes initially grew exponentially. But as resources became scarcer, their growth rates slowed until reaching the carrying capacity. If the populations were moved to a larger container with more resources they would continue to grow until reaching their new carrying capacity. The shape of their growth can be modeled very effectively with the logistic growth model.

text: Researchers used a genetic approach to estimate pre-whaling abundance based on samples from 42 California gray whales, and reported DNA variability at 10 genetic loci consistent with a population size of 76,000–118,000 individuals, three to five times larger than the average census size as measured through 2007. NOAA has collected surveys gray whale population since at least the 1960s. They state that "the most recent population estimate [from 2007] was approximately 19,000 whales, with a high probability (88%) that the population is at 'optimum sustainable population' size, as defined by the Marine Mammal Protection Act.  They speculate that the ocean ecosystem has likely changed since the prewhaling era, making a return to prewhaling numbers infeasible.  Factors limiting or threatening current population levels include ship strikes, entanglement in fishing gear, and changes in sea-ice coverage associated with climate change.

text: Researchers used a genetic approach to estimate pre-whaling abundance based on samples from 42 California gray whales, and reported DNA variability at 10 genetic loci consistent with a population size of 76,000–118,000 individuals, three to five times larger than the average census size as measured through 2007. NOAA has collected surveys gray whale population since at least the 1960s. They state that "the most recent population estimate [from 2007] was approximately 19,000 whales, with a high probability (88%) that the population is at 'optimum sustainable population' size, as defined by the

text: Marine Mammal Protection Act

text: .  They speculate that the ocean ecosystem has likely changed since the prewhaling era, making a return to prewhaling numbers infeasible.  Factors limiting or threatening current population levels include ship strikes, entanglement in fishing gear, and changes in sea-ice coverage associated with climate change.

text: It is known that extinction risk is directly correlated to the size of a species population. Small populations tend to go extinct more frequently than large ones (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). As large species require more daily resources they are forced to have low population densities, thereby lowering the size of the population in a given area and allowing each individual to have access to enough resources to survive. In order to increase the population size and avoid extinction, large organisms are constrained to have large ranges (see Range (biology)). Thus, the extinction of large species with small ranges becomes inevitable (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967; Brown and Maurer, 1989; Brown and Nicoletto, 1991). This results in the amount of space limiting the overall number of large animals that can be present on a continent, while range size (and risk of extinction) prevents large animals from inhabiting only a small area. These constraints undoubtedly have implications for the species richness patterns for both large and small-bodied organisms, however the specifics have yet to be elucidated.

text: It is known that extinction risk is directly correlated to the size of a species population. Small populations tend to go extinct more frequently than large ones (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). As large species require more daily resources they are forced to have low

text: population densities

text: , thereby lowering the size of the population in a given area and allowing each individual to have access to enough resources to survive. In order to increase the population size and avoid extinction, large organisms are constrained to have large ranges (see

text: Range (biology)

text: ). Thus, the extinction of large species with small ranges becomes inevitable (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967; Brown and Maurer, 1989; Brown and Nicoletto, 1991). This results in the amount of space limiting the overall number of large animals that can be present on a continent, while range size (and risk of extinction) prevents large animals from inhabiting only a small area. These constraints undoubtedly have implications for the species richness patterns for both large and small-bodied organisms, however the specifics have yet to be elucidated.

text: On the other hand, when less light is available, less energy is available to the plant. Whereas in sunny and dry environments water can be a limiting factor in growth and survival, in shade, energy (in the form of sunlight) is usually the limiting factor.

text: On the other hand, when less light is available, less

text: energy

text: is available to the plant. Whereas in sunny and dry environments water can be a

text: limiting factor

text: in growth and survival, in shade, energy (in the form of sunlight) is usually the limiting factor.

text: In population ecology, a regulating factor is something that keeps a population at equilibrium (neither increasing nor decreasing in size over time).

text: In

text: population ecology

text: , a regulating factor is something that keeps a

text: population

text: at

text: equilibrium

text: (neither increasing nor decreasing in size over time).

text: Hemoglobin (Hb), a globular protein, is the primary vehicle for transporting oxygen in the blood. Oxygen is also carried dissolved in the blood's plasma, but to a much lesser degree. Hemoglobin is contained in erythrocytes, more commonly referred to as red blood cells. Under certain conditions, oxygen bound to the hemoglobin is released into the blood's plasma and absorbed into the tissues. Each hemoglobin molecule has the capacity to carry four oxygen molecules. How much of that capacity is filled by oxygen at any time is called the oxygen saturation. Expressed as a percentage, the oxygen saturation is the ratio of the amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin, to the oxygen-carrying capacity of the hemoglobin. The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin is determined by the type of hemoglobin present in the blood. The amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin at any time is related, in large part, to the partial pressure of oxygen to which the hemoglobin is exposed. In the lungs, at the alveolar–capillary interface, the partial pressure of oxygen is typically high, and therefore the oxygen binds readily to hemoglobin that is present. As the blood circulates to other body tissue in which the partial pressure of oxygen is less, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen into the tissue because the hemoglobin cannot maintain its full bound capacity of oxygen in the presence of lower oxygen partial pressures.

text: Hemoglobin

text: (Hb), a

text: globular protein

text: , is the primary vehicle for transporting

text: oxygen

text: in the

text: blood

text: . Oxygen is also carried dissolved in the blood's

text: plasma

text: , but to a much lesser degree. Hemoglobin is contained in erythrocytes, more commonly referred to as

text: red blood cell

text: s. Under certain conditions, oxygen bound to the hemoglobin is released into the blood's plasma and absorbed into the

text: tissues

text: . Each hemoglobin molecule has the capacity to carry four oxygen molecules. How much of that capacity is filled by oxygen at any time is called the oxygen saturation. Expressed as a percentage, the oxygen saturation is the ratio of the amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin, to the oxygen-carrying capacity of the hemoglobin. The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin is determined by the type of hemoglobin present in the blood. The amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin at any time is related, in large part, to the partial pressure of oxygen to which the hemoglobin is exposed. In the

text: lung

text: s, at the

text: alveolar–capillary interface

text: , the

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen is typically high, and therefore the oxygen binds readily to hemoglobin that is present. As the blood circulates to other body tissue in which the partial pressure of oxygen is less, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen into the tissue because the hemoglobin cannot maintain its full bound capacity of oxygen in the presence of lower oxygen partial pressures.

text: “By the middle of this century, the population of the least developed countries will have doubled in size, adding 14 million young people to the working-age population each year. Creating conditions for decent livelihoods will be an enormous task, especially given that, currently, about 80 per cent of the people who work in these countries are unemployed, underemployed or irregularly employed. Additionally, the shortage of financial resources will make it difficult to maintain, let alone increase, spending on health, education and nutrition.”

text: Population structures and their relationship with social interaction was another primary interest within Blau's work. Blau believed that population structure created guidelines for specific human behaviors, especially intergroup relations. Blau created a number of theories explaining aspects of population structure that increased chances of intergroup relations. Blau viewed social structure as being somewhat stable, but he did identify two phenomena that he believed contributed to structural change within a population: social mobility and conflict. Blau thought social mobility, which he described as "any movement within a population by an individual," was beneficial to intergroup relations within a population structure, and theorized various scenarios involving social relations and mobility. Blau also theorized explanations for structural causes of conflict, focusing on population distribution as a cause of conflict separate from individual or political issues.  According to Blau, structural conflict is linked to the inequality of status of groups, size of group, social mobility between groups, and the probability of social contact between groups. Blau determined that prevention of conflict within a population structure can be achieved through "multigroup affiliations and intersection in complex societies."

text: There are a variety of factors that contribute to the success of reintroductions, several of which involve alleviating the concerns of small population size. For Persian fallow deer, some additional factors include fecundity and reproduction, survivorship, dispersal and movement patterns, population composition, and genetic variation within the population.

text: There are a variety of factors that contribute to the success of reintroductions, several of which involve alleviating the

text: concerns of small population size

text: . For Persian fallow deer, some additional factors include

text: fecundity

text: and

text: reproduction

text: survivorship

text: dispersal and movement patterns

text: , population composition, and

text: genetic variation

text: within the population.

text: depends on the size of the resident population

text: Currently, the brown tree snake population on Guam is declining with an equilibrium population size predicted to be roughly 30 to 50 snakes per hectare (2.5 acres). The decline in snake population may be identified as a result of depleted food resources, adult mortality and/or suppressed reproduction. That is, the brown tree snake population on Guam has exceeded the carrying capacity of the island.

text: Currently, the brown tree snake population on Guam is declining with an equilibrium population size predicted to be roughly 30 to 50 snakes per hectare (2.5 acres). The decline in snake population may be identified as a result of depleted food resources, adult

text: mortality

text: and/or suppressed reproduction. That is, the brown tree snake population on Guam has exceeded the

text: carrying capacity

text: of the island.

text: Allopatric speciation suggests that species with large central populations are stabilized by their large volume and the process of gene flow. New and even beneficial mutations are diluted by the population's large size and are unable to reach fixation, due to such factors as constantly changing environments. If this is the case, then the transformation of whole lineages should be rare, as the fossil record indicates. Smaller populations on the other hand, which are isolated from the parental stock, are decoupled from the homogenizing effects of gene flow. In addition, pressure from natural selection is especially intense, as peripheral isolated populations exist at the outer edges of ecological tolerance. If most evolution happens in these rare instances of allopatric speciation then evidence of gradual evolution in the fossil record should be rare. This hypothesis was alluded to by Mayr in the closing paragraph of his 1954 paper:

text: Allopatric speciation suggests that species with large central populations are stabilized by their large volume and the process of

text: gene flow

text: . New and even

text: beneficial mutations

text: are diluted by the population's large size and are unable to reach fixation, due to such factors as constantly changing environments. If this is the case, then the transformation of whole lineages should be rare, as the fossil record indicates. Smaller populations on the other hand, which are isolated from the parental stock, are decoupled from the

text: homogenizing

text: effects of gene flow. In addition, pressure from

text: natural selection

text: is especially intense, as peripheral isolated populations exist at the outer edges of ecological tolerance. If most evolution happens in these rare instances of allopatric speciation then evidence of gradual evolution in the fossil record should be rare. This

text: hypothesis

text: was alluded to by Mayr in the closing paragraph of his 1954 paper:

text: Population control may involve culling, translocation, or manipulation of the reproductive capability. The growth of a population may be limited by environmental factors such as food supply or predation. The main biotic factors that affect population growth include:

text: Population control may involve

text: culling

text: translocation

text: , or manipulation of the reproductive capability. The growth of a population may be limited by environmental factors such as food supply or

text: predation

text: . The main biotic factors that affect population growth include:

text: The logistic growth curve is initially very similar to the exponential growth curve. When population density is low, individuals are free from competition and can grow rapidly. However, as the population reaches its maximum (the carrying capacity), intraspecific competition becomes fiercer and the per capita growth rate slows until the population reaches a stable size. At the carrying capacity, the rate of change of population density is zero because the population is as large as possible based on the resources available. Experiments on Daphnia growth rates showed a striking adherence to the logistic growth curve. The inflexion point in the Daphnia population density graph occurred at half the carrying capacity, as predicted by the logistic growth model.

text: The logistic growth curve is initially very similar to the exponential growth curve. When population density is low, individuals are free from competition and can grow rapidly. However, as the population reaches its maximum (the carrying capacity), intraspecific competition becomes fiercer and the per capita growth rate slows until the population reaches a stable size. At the carrying capacity, the rate of change of population density is zero because the population is as large as possible based on the resources available. Experiments on

text: Daphnia

text: growth rates showed a striking adherence to the logistic growth curve. The inflexion point in the Daphnia population density graph occurred at half the carrying capacity, as predicted by the logistic growth model.

text: The Nangunhe Nature Reserve in Southwest Yunnan has been the last stronghold of the Yunnan lar gibbon. During a survey from 4 to 18 November 2007, no evidence of the survival of the Yunnan lar gibbon could be found and the scientists of this survey tentatively concluded the lar gibbon has become extinct in China, and globally. The 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species has listed this subspecies as data deficient "as its taxonomic and geographic limits are not well defined, but population sizes are by all accounts critical, and the remaining populations are near extinction."

text: The Nangunhe Nature Reserve in Southwest Yunnan has been the last stronghold of the Yunnan lar gibbon. During a survey from 4 to 18 November 2007, no evidence of the survival of the Yunnan lar gibbon could be found and the scientists of this survey tentatively concluded the lar gibbon has become extinct in China, and globally. The 2008

text: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

text: has listed this subspecies as

text: data deficient

text: "as its taxonomic and geographic limits are not well defined, but population sizes are by all accounts critical, and the remaining populations are near extinction."

text: At the peak of Roman imperial power in the 2nd century, the population of the city numbered some 1.6 million, a size that it never attained again until its becoming the capital of the Republic of Italy in 1946; close to three percent of the population of the empire lived within its limits. Following the Crisis of the Third Century and the transfer of the imperial capital to Constantinople in AD 330, Rome entered a period of gradual decline.

text: At the peak of Roman imperial power in the 2nd century, the population of the city numbered some 1.6 million, a size that it never attained again until its becoming the capital of the

text: Republic of Italy

text: in 1946; close to three percent of the

text: population of the empire

text: lived within its limits. Following the

text: Crisis of the Third Century

text: and the transfer of the imperial capital to

text: Constantinople

text: in AD 330, Rome entered a period of gradual decline.

text: Generally for same size extinguishers (agent capacity)

text: Another assumption of renewable resource harvesting is that populations of organisms do not continue to grow indefinitely; they reach an equilibrium population size, which occurs when the number of individuals matches the resources available to the population (i.e., assume classic logistic growth).  At this equilibrium population size, called the carrying capacity, the population remains at a stable size.

text: Another assumption of renewable resource harvesting is that populations of

text: organisms

text: do not continue to grow indefinitely; they reach an equilibrium population size, which occurs when the number of individuals matches the resources available to the population (i.e., assume classic

text: logistic growth

text: ).  At this equilibrium population size, called the

text: carrying capacity

text: , the population remains at a stable size.

text: There are 34 academic administration units, 287 Faculty Offices, 28 student club rooms, a 3000 m Central Library equipped with computers with internet access and private reading areas, Residence Halls with a capacity for 1400 people, a multipurpose Conference Hall with a 1200-person seating capacity, a Cinema Complex with a 100-person seating capacity each, a Theatre Hall with a 100 seating capacity, a 524 square meter and 384 square meter professionally equipped two television studios and 200 m educational TV studio lab, 150 m educational radio facilities, 550 m indoor basketball court with seating facilities, and  outdoor basketball courts, outdoor volleyball and tennis courts, indoor and outdoor half Olympic sized swimming pools, 300 m fully equipped fitness and aerobics center, 783 m modern shopping complex, and large grassy areas with benches and picnic facilities. Parking is in 400 vehicle capacity indoor lots.

text: There are 34 academic administration units, 287 Faculty Offices, 28 student club rooms, a 3000 m Central Library equipped with computers with internet access and private reading areas, Residence Halls with a capacity for 1400 people, a multipurpose Conference Hall with a 1200-person

text: seating capacity

text: , a Cinema Complex with a 100-person

text: seating capacity

text: each, a Theatre Hall with a 100

text: seating capacity

text: , a 524 square meter and 384 square meter professionally equipped two television studios and 200 m educational TV studio lab, 150 m educational radio facilities, 550 m indoor basketball court with seating facilities, and  outdoor basketball courts, outdoor volleyball and tennis courts, indoor and outdoor half Olympic sized swimming pools, 300 m fully equipped fitness and aerobics center, 783 m modern shopping complex, and large grassy areas with benches and picnic facilities. Parking is in 400 vehicle capacity indoor lots.

text: Access to the electricity grid in Ethiopia currently is very low. Less than 2% of Ethiopia's rural population, which accounts for 85% of the total population, have access to the grid. With the support of the World Bank the government is carrying out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access. In 2003, low generation capacity combined with a severe drought caused power cuts lasting 15 hours twice a week for a period of six months, costing an estimated $200 million in economic output. In 2008 and 2009, Ethiopia again experienced power cuts and brownouts. According to the International Rivers Network the power cuts were caused by drought, since almost all electricity generation in Ethiopia is hydroelectric.According to the same source, despite an increase in access to the electric grid, electricity consumption is likely to remain low for the foreseeable future due to the prevailing level of poverty. Even without the Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source Ethiopia had a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts. Under Ethiopia’s current development plans it is said that the country will be more than 95% dependent on hydroelectric power. Ethiopia also predicted that the electricity power exports can bring about $407 million a year for the country and this amount is well above the country’s most valuable coffee export.

text: Access to the electricity grid in Ethiopia currently is very low. Less than 2% of Ethiopia's rural population, which accounts for 85% of the total population, have access to the grid. With the support of the

text: World Bank

text: the government is carrying out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access. In 2003, low generation capacity combined with a severe drought caused power cuts lasting 15 hours twice a week for a period of six months, costing an estimated $200 million in economic output. In 2008 and 2009, Ethiopia again experienced power cuts and

text: brownout

text: s. According to the

text: International Rivers Network

text: the power cuts were caused by drought, since almost all electricity generation in Ethiopia is hydroelectric.According to the same source, despite an increase in access to the electric grid, electricity consumption is likely to remain low for the foreseeable future due to the prevailing level of poverty. Even without the Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source Ethiopia had a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts. Under Ethiopia’s current development plans it is said that the country will be more than 95% dependent on hydroelectric power. Ethiopia also predicted that the electricity power exports can bring about $407 million a year for the country and this amount is well above the country’s most valuable coffee export.

text: Once safety considerations have been satisfied, determinations of seating capacity turn on the total size of the venue, and its purpose. For sports venues, the "decision on maximum seating capacity is determined by several factors. Chief among these are the primary sports program and the size of the market area". In motion picture venues, the "limit of seating capacity is determined by the maximal viewing distance for a given size of screen", with image quality for closer viewers declining as the screen is expanded to accommodate more distant viewers.

text: One of the more successful features to come out of the LPX specification was its use of more compact power supplies, which later became widely used on Baby AT and even full size AT cases.  Because LPX form factor power supplies became ubiquitous in most computer cases prior to the ATX standard, it was not unusual for manufacturers to refer to them as "AT" power supplies (or occasionally as "PS/2" power supplies due to its use by the IBM PS/2), even though the actual AT and Baby AT power supply form factors were larger in size.  The LPX form factor power supply eventually formed the basis for the ATX form factor power supply, which is the same width and height.

text: One of the more successful features to come out of the LPX specification was its use of more compact power supplies, which later became widely used on Baby AT and even full size AT cases.  Because LPX form factor power supplies became ubiquitous in most computer cases prior to the ATX standard, it was not unusual for manufacturers to refer to them as "AT" power supplies (or occasionally as "PS/2" power supplies due to its use by the

text: IBM PS/2

text: ), even though the actual AT and Baby AT power supply form factors were larger in size.  The LPX form factor power supply eventually formed the basis for the ATX form factor power supply, which is the same width and height.

text: Migration is not limited between rural and urban locations but can also happen between countries, creating issues relating to cultural integration. People will migrate for numerous reasons often linked with finding a better quality of life either through superior employment prospects, escaping war or poverty, or even to enjoy a better climate. This can create problems for locations which become exposed to increases in population, decreases in population, or a shift in the demographic composition of a population. Places subsequently act as focal points for the occurrence of phenomena such as globalisation and the clash of civilisations.

text: Migration is not limited between rural and urban locations but can also happen between countries, creating issues relating to cultural integration. People will migrate for numerous reasons often linked with finding a better quality of life either through superior employment prospects, escaping war or poverty, or even to enjoy a better climate. This can create problems for locations which become exposed to increases in population, decreases in population, or a shift in the demographic composition of a population. Places subsequently act as focal points for the occurrence of phenomena such as

text: globalisation

text: and the

text: clash of civilisations

text: Population projections are produced in advance of the date they are for. They use time series analysis of existing census data and other sources of population information to forecast the size of future populations. Because there are unknown factors that may affect future population changes, population projections often incorporate high and low as well as expected values for future populations. Population projections are often recomputed after a census has been conducted. It depends on how conjusted the area is in the particular demarcation.

text: In order to design to these loads, one would need to convert them to design loads by applying Load factors or, more generally, a form of safety factors to them.  In the case of limit states design, the resulting factored load is then called a Design load.  Note that in this case of Limit states design, we would refer to the factor as a load factor rather than a safety factor to try to eliminate possible confusion between Limit states design and the older Allowable stress design.

text: In order to design to these loads, one would need to convert them to

text: design load

text: s by applying

text: Load factor

text: s or, more generally, a form of

text: safety factor

text: s to them.  In the case of limit states design, the resulting factored load is then called a

text: Design load

text: .  Note that in this case of Limit states design, we would refer to the factor as a load factor rather than a safety factor to try to eliminate possible confusion between

text: Limit states design

text: and the older

text: Allowable stress design

text: An important model related to carrying capacity (K), is the logistic growth curve. The logistic growth curve depicts a more realistic version of how population growth rate, available resources, and the carrying capacity are inter-connected. As illustrated in the logistic growth curve model, when the population size is small and there are many resources available, population overtime increases and so does the growth rate. However, as population size nears the carrying capacity and resources become limited, the growth rate decreases and population starts to level out at K. This model is based on the assumption that carrying capacity does not change. One thing to keep in mind, however, is that carrying capacity of a population can increase or decrease and there are various factors that affect it. For instance, an increase in the population growth can lead to over exploitation of necessary natural resources and therefore decrease the overall carrying capacity of that environment.

text: In his work Das Gesetz der Bevölkerungskonzentration ("The Law of Population Concentration") Auerbach describes a law relating to the wide distribution of city sizes, which is now known as Zipf's law.

text: In his work Das Gesetz der Bevölkerungskonzentration ("The Law of Population Concentration") Auerbach describes a law relating to the wide distribution of city sizes, which is now known as

text: Zipf's law

text: The English army was led by Edward III; it mainly comprised English and Welsh troops along with allied Breton and German mercenaries. The exact size and composition of the English force is not known. Andrew Ayton suggests a figure of around 2,500 men-at-arms: nobles and knights, heavily armoured and armed men, accompanied by their retinues. The army contained around 5,000 longbowmen, 3,000 hobelars (light cavalry and mounted archers) and 3,500 spearmen. Clifford Rodgers suggests 2,500 men-at-arms, 7,000 longbowmen, 3,250 hobelars and 2,300 spearmen. Jonathon Sumption believes the force was somewhat smaller, based on calculations of the carrying capacity of the transport fleet that was assembled to ferry the army to the continent. Based on this, he has put his estimate at around 7,000–10,000.

text: The English army was led by

text: Edward III

text: ; it mainly comprised English and Welsh troops along with allied Breton and German mercenaries. The exact size and composition of the English force is not known. Andrew Ayton suggests a figure of around 2,500

text: men-at-arms

text: : nobles and knights, heavily armoured and armed men, accompanied by their retinues. The army contained around 5,000 longbowmen, 3,000

text: hobelar

text: s (light cavalry and mounted archers) and 3,500 spearmen. Clifford Rodgers suggests 2,500 men-at-arms, 7,000 longbowmen, 3,250 hobelars and 2,300 spearmen. Jonathon Sumption believes the force was somewhat smaller, based on calculations of the carrying capacity of the transport fleet that was assembled to ferry the army to the continent. Based on this, he has put his estimate at around 7,000–10,000.

text: Knowledge of the volume of the cranial cavity can be important information for the study of different populations with various differences like geographical, racial, or ethnic origin. Other things can also affect cranial capacity such as nutrition. It is also used to study correlating between cranial capacity with other cranial measurements and in comparing skulls from different beings. It is commonly used to study abnormalities of cranial size and shape or aspects of growth and development of the volume of the brain.  Cranial capacity is an indirect approach to test the size of the brain. A few studies on cranial capacity have been done on living beings through linear dimensions.

text: There could be various factors limiting movement for a short while, such as:

text: A small form factor (SFF) is a computer form factor designed to minimize the volume of a desktop computer. For comparison purposes, the size of an SFF case is usually measured in litres. SFFs are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, including shoeboxes, cubes, and book-sized PCs. Their smaller and often lighter construction has made them popular as home theater PCs and as gaming computers for attending LAN parties. Manufacturers also emphasize the aesthetic and ergonomic design of SFFs since users are more likely to place them on top of a desk or carry them around. Advancements in component technology together with reductions in size means a powerful computer is no longer restricted to the huge towers of old.

text: A small form factor (SFF) is a

text: computer form factor

text: designed to minimize the

text: volume

text: of a

text: desktop computer

text: . For comparison purposes, the size of an SFF case is usually measured in

text: litre

text: s. SFFs are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, including shoeboxes, cubes, and book-sized PCs. Their smaller and often lighter construction has made them popular as

text: home theater PC

text: s and as

text: gaming computer

text: s for attending

text: LAN parties

text: . Manufacturers also emphasize the

text: aesthetic

text: and

text: ergonomic

text: design of SFFs since users are more likely to place them on top of a desk or carry them around. Advancements in component technology together with reductions in size means a powerful computer is no longer restricted to the huge towers of old.

text: Population ecology or autecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment. It is the study of how the population sizes of species change over time and space. The term population ecology is often used interchangeably with population biology or population dynamics.

text: Population ecology or autecology is a sub-field of

text: ecology

text: that deals with the dynamics of

text: species

text: population

text: s and how these populations interact with the

text: environment

text: . It is the study of how the

text: population size

text: s of species change over time and space. The term population ecology is often used interchangeably with

text: population biology

text: or

text: population dynamics

text: Over the millennia, technology has dramatically increased the distances across which water can be relocated, but the availability of clean and fresh water remains a limiting factor on the size and density of population centers, and is expected to remain so into the foreseeable future.

text: In the context of tourism in wildlife sanctuaries Singh (2013) writes, ‘carrying capacity’ is a concept to be thought about when we intend for ‘sustainable versus full harvest/utilization of resource for a purpose’. In wildlife sanctuaries ‘full utilization of infrastructure or resource for tourism’ is a remote mandate, unthinkable. Hence, instead of ‘carrying capacity’ it is recommended to have a set of guidelines for regulating tourism without much disturbing the wildlife. That will perhaps be sustainable for both wildlife conservation and tourism industry.

text: The effective population size is the number of individuals that an idealised population would need to have, in order for some specified quantity of interest to be the same in the idealised population as in the real population. Idealised populations are based on unrealistic but convenient simplifications such as random mating, simultaneous birth of each new generation, constant population size, and equal numbers of children per parent. While in some simple scenarios, the effective population size can be equal to the number of breeding individuals in the population, for most quantities of interest and most real populations, the census population size N of a real population is usually larger than the effective population size N. The same population may have multiple effective population sizes, for different properties of interest, including for different genetic loci.

text: The effective population size is the number of individuals that an

text: idealised population

text: would need to have, in order for some specified quantity of interest to be the same in the idealised population as in the real population. Idealised populations are based on unrealistic but convenient simplifications such as random mating, simultaneous birth of each new generation, constant population size, and equal numbers of children per parent. While in some simple scenarios, the effective population size can be equal to the number of breeding individuals in the population, for most quantities of interest and most real populations, the

text: census population size

text: N of a real population is usually larger than the effective population size N. The same population may have multiple effective population sizes, for different properties of interest, including for different genetic loci.

text: The Memory Stick Duo was developed in response to Sony's need for a smaller flash memory card for pocket-sized digital cameras, cell phones and the PlayStation Portable. It is slightly smaller than the competing Secure Digital (SD) format and roughly two thirds the length of the standard Memory Stick form factor, but costs more. Memory Stick Duos are available with the same features as the larger standard Memory Stick, available with and without high speed mode, and with and without MagicGate support. The Memory Stick PRO Duo has replaced the Memory Stick Duo due to its 128 MB size limitation, but has kept the same form factor as the Duo.

text: The Memory Stick Duo was developed in response to Sony's need for a smaller flash memory card for pocket-sized digital cameras, cell phones and the

text: PlayStation Portable

text: . It is slightly smaller than the competing

text: Secure Digital

text: (SD) format and roughly two thirds the length of the standard Memory Stick form factor, but costs more. Memory Stick Duos are available with the same features as the larger standard Memory Stick, available with and without high speed mode, and with and without

text: MagicGate

text: support. The Memory Stick PRO Duo has replaced the Memory Stick Duo due to its 128 MB size limitation, but has kept the same form factor as the Duo.

text: Each indicator is assigned a percent corresponding to the percent of time that the resource was available or percent of the target population to which the indicator applied. These measures are then displayed as a line graph, arranged hierarchically with availability of resources at the bottom and effective coverage at the top. By looking at the angle of the line, as it tilts from high levels of availability (lower right) to lower levels of effective coverage (upper right), viewers can determine which components of a service are inhibiting the target population from benefiting.  A problem or "bottleneck" exists when the curve angles steeply to the left (lower percentage) between indicators.  This indicates there has been a drop of coverage. Thus, the use of the Monitoring Curve will help to monitor some proxy indicators of quality of care, alert us to the existence of problems, and pinpoint the problems.

text: The application of the concept of carrying capacity for the human population has been criticized for not successfully capturing the multi-layered processes between humans and the environment, which have a nature of fluidity and non-equilibrium, and for sometimes being employed in a blame-the-victim framework.

text: The application of the concept of carrying capacity for the

text: human population

text: has been criticized for not successfully capturing the multi-layered processes between humans and the environment, which have a nature of fluidity and

text: non-equilibrium

text: , and for sometimes being employed in a

text: blame-the-victim

text: framework.

text: Historical demography is the quantitative study of human population in the past. It is concerned with population size, with the three basic components of population change--fertility, mortality, and  migration, and with population characteristics related to those components, such as marriage, socioeconomic status, and the configuration of families.

text: Historical demography is the

text: quantitative study

text: of

text: human population

text: in the past. It is concerned with population size, with the three basic components of population change--

text: fertility

text: mortality

text: , and

text: migration

text: , and with population characteristics related to those components, such as marriage,

text: socioeconomic status

text: , and the configuration of families.

text: Five regional sub-populations of Ussuri brown bears are now recognized in Hokkaido. Of these, the small size and isolation of the western Ishikari subpopulation has warranted its listing as an endangered species in Japan’s Red Data Book. 90 to 152 brown bears are thought to dwell in the West Ishikari Region and from 84 to 135 in the Teshio-Mashike mountains. Their habitat has been severely limited by human activities, especially forestry practices and road construction. Excessive harvesting is also a major factor in limiting their population.

text: Five regional sub-populations of Ussuri brown bears are now recognized in Hokkaido. Of these, the small size and isolation of the western

text: Ishikari

text: subpopulation has warranted its listing as an

text: endangered species

text: in Japan’s Red Data Book. 90 to 152 brown bears are thought to dwell in the West Ishikari Region and from 84 to 135 in the Teshio-Mashike mountains. Their habitat has been severely limited by human activities, especially forestry practices and road construction. Excessive harvesting is also a major factor in limiting their population.

text: However, there are a number of factors that limit the parcel size :

text: ), which is the population size that produces the maximum growth rate.  With logistic growth, this point, called the maximum sustainable yield, is where the population size is half the carrying capacity (or

text: = carrying capacity of the population; defined by ecologists as the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain.

text: Any conception of an optimum population level must lie between a minimum viable population of the human species and the maximum level of population that can be sustained by the carrying capacity of the planet Earth.

text: Any conception of an optimum population level must lie between a

text: minimum viable population

text: of the human species and the maximum level of population that can be sustained by the

text: carrying capacity

text: of the planet

text: Earth

text: Although only peripherally related to the issue of global labor arbitrage but very much related to the issue of the economic prosperity and well being of non-immigrants, mass immigration can result in a population explosion which can negatively affect the well being of native people.  Logically, after a nation's population has reached a certain size relative to its amount of useful land, an increasing population results in crowding (higher real estate costs and less open-space per person), a greater strain on the environment (increased environmental degradation), and increasing costs of living (fewer natural resources available per capita).  Consequently, when considered in that context, it might be possible to also regard immigration as a form of "environmental arbitrage" where people flow from areas of high population density to areas of lower population density.

text: In combat, a pilot is faced with a variety of limiting factors. Some limitations are constant, such as gravity, structural integrity, and thrust-to-weight ratio. Other limitations vary with speed and altitude, such as turn radius, turn rate, and the specific energy of the aircraft. The fighter pilot uses BFM to turn these limitations into tactical advantages. A faster, heavier aircraft may not be able to evade a more maneuverable aircraft in a turning battle, but can often choose to break off the fight and escape by diving or using its thrust to provide a speed advantage. A lighter, more maneuverable aircraft can not usually choose to escape, but must use its smaller turning radius at higher speeds to evade the attacker's guns, and to try to circle around behind the attacker.

text: In combat, a pilot is faced with a variety of limiting factors. Some limitations are constant, such as

text: gravity

text: structural integrity

text: , and

text: thrust-to-weight ratio

text: . Other limitations vary with speed and altitude, such as

text: turn radius

text: , turn rate, and the specific energy of the aircraft. The fighter pilot uses BFM to turn these limitations into tactical advantages. A faster, heavier aircraft may not be able to evade a more maneuverable aircraft in a turning battle, but can often choose to break off the fight and escape by diving or using its thrust to provide a speed advantage. A lighter, more maneuverable aircraft can not usually choose to escape, but must use its smaller turning radius at higher speeds to evade the attacker's guns, and to try to circle around behind the attacker.

text: As brutal as they were, famines were a frequent occurrence throughout the civilized world from prehistoric times onward. Most famines from the Middle Ages until the 19th century occurred in the following a manner - first, (an) external factor(s) such as a sustained change in weather patterns disrupted food production and reduced the carrying capacity of a particular region to below its then-present population. Then, after whatever (usually meagre) reserve food supplies were consumed, mass starvation would ensue until the population fell to at or below the reduced carrying capacity of the region. Eventually, whatever factor(s) were depressing food production would usually disappear, then, provided the survivors were disproportionately able-bodied adults and adolescents (which was almost always the case), it was usually possible to restore food production to levels comparable to those prior to the famine within a few years of the famine's conclusion. With a relatively abundant supply of food to feed a reduced population, death rates and in particular child mortality rates would plummet, often to levels considerably below those present in the years immediately prior to the famine, while the birth rate would rise to at or above pre-famine levels. Provided most of the survivors lacked the will and the means to leave the affected region, under such conditions its population would rebound quickly and could reach pre-famine levels in less than a generation.

text: As brutal as they were, famines were a frequent occurrence throughout the civilized world from prehistoric times onward. Most famines from the

text: Middle Ages

text: until the 19th century occurred in the following a manner - first, (an) external factor(s) such as a sustained change in weather patterns disrupted food production and reduced the

text: carrying capacity

text: of a particular region to below its then-present population. Then, after whatever (usually meagre) reserve food supplies were consumed, mass starvation would ensue until the population fell to at or below the reduced carrying capacity of the region. Eventually, whatever factor(s) were depressing food production would usually disappear, then, provided the survivors were disproportionately able-bodied adults and adolescents (which was almost always the case), it was usually possible to restore food production to levels comparable to those prior to the famine within a few years of the famine's conclusion. With a relatively abundant supply of food to feed a reduced population, death rates and in particular

text: child mortality

text: rates would plummet, often to levels considerably below those present in the years immediately prior to the famine, while the

text: birth rate

text: would rise to at or above pre-famine levels. Provided most of the survivors lacked the will and the means to leave the affected region, under such conditions its population would rebound quickly and could reach pre-famine levels in less than a generation.

text: What is this Thing Called Carrying Capacity?

text: In the wild, these birds live in the semi-desert and dry regions of eastern Africa They are found in a band between 10°N and 20°N from the western coast to Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia in the East and south 10°N through East Africa and on to the Eastern Zaire borders.This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size has not been quantified, but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern.

text: The timing of the reproductive cycle and the litter size of this species vary according to location: in some parts of Costa Rica, for example, it is more prolific than in others. Reproduction is highly seasonal and in Costa Rica, reproductive cycles are tightly related to rainfall patterns. The timing of breeding differs between populations in the Caribbean and Pacific lowlands. On the Pacific side, mating took place between September and November, with females giving birth between April and June. The average number of offspring was 18.6 (five to 40) in this population. Neonates ranged in total length from  and in weight from . On the Atlantic side, mating was observed in March, and births occurred between September and November. The average number of offspring was 41.1 (14–86), whereas the total length of neonates ranged from , and weighed from . In both populations, gestation time ranged from six to eight months, and the size of a litter correlated significantly with the size of the female. This species is considered to be the most prolific of all snakes in the Americas.

text: Left unfettered, the trend of ever-larger size would produce organisms of gargantuan proportions. Therefore, some factors must limit this process.At one level, it is possible that the clade's increased vulnerability to extinction, as its members become larger, means that no taxon survives long enough for individuals to reach huge sizes. There are probably also physically imposed limits to the size of some organisms; for instance, insects must be small enough for oxygen to diffuse to all parts of their bodies, flying birds must be light enough to fly, and the length of giraffes' necks may be limited by the amount of pressure it is possible for their hearts to generate. Finally, there may be a competitive element, in that changes in size are necessarily accompanied by changes in ecological niche. For example, terrestrial carnivores over 21 kg almost always prey on organisms larger, not smaller, than themselves. If such a niche is already occupied, competitive pressure may oppose the directional selection. The three Canidae clades show a trend towards larger size before becoming extinct.

text: Left unfettered, the trend of ever-larger size would produce organisms of gargantuan proportions. Therefore, some factors must limit this process.At one level, it is possible that the clade's increased vulnerability to extinction, as its members become larger, means that no taxon survives long enough for individuals to reach huge sizes. There are probably also physically imposed limits to the size of some organisms; for instance, insects must be small enough for oxygen to diffuse to all parts of their bodies, flying birds must be light enough to fly, and the length of giraffes' necks may be limited by the amount of pressure it is possible for their hearts to generate. Finally, there may be a competitive element, in that changes in size are necessarily accompanied by changes in ecological niche. For example, terrestrial carnivores over 21 kg almost always prey on organisms larger, not smaller, than themselves. If such a niche is already occupied, competitive pressure may oppose the directional selection. The three

text: Canidae

text: clades show a trend towards larger size before becoming extinct.

text: A fundamental effect of overconsumption is a reduction in the planet's carrying capacity. Excessive unsustainable consumption will exceed the long term carrying capacity of its environment (ecological overshoot) and subsequent resource depletion, environmental degradation and reduced ecological health.

text: A fundamental effect of overconsumption is a reduction in the planet's

text: carrying capacity

text: . Excessive unsustainable consumption will exceed the long term carrying capacity of its environment (

text: ecological overshoot

text: ) and subsequent resource depletion,

text: environmental degradation

text: and reduced

text: ecological health

text: Typical rolling-element bearings range in size from 10 mm diameter to a few metres diameter, and have load-carrying capacity from a few tens of grams to many thousands of tonnes.

text: He studied architecture from 1918 to 1922 at the Academy of San Carlos before it became part of the National Autonomous University, where he eventually chaired the Faculty of Architecture. Villagán García was one of many young architects employed during the presidency of Alvaro Obregón (1920-24), following the Mexican Revolution 1910-1920. Obregón's Minister of Public Education José Vasconcelos, who insisted that Mexican architecture carry meaning. Villagrán García designed the huge National Stadium in Mexico City as a neo-Colonial structure, with a seating capacity of least 30,000. Given the size, it needed to be of concrete. However, the concrete also contained stone and volcanic tezontle, in a revival of the eighteenth-century style.

text: He studied architecture from 1918 to 1922 at the

text: Academy of San Carlos

text: before it became part of the National Autonomous University, where he eventually chaired the Faculty of Architecture. Villagán García was one of many young architects employed during the presidency of

text: Alvaro Obregón

text: (1920-24), following the

text: Mexican Revolution

text: 1910-1920. Obregón's Minister of Public Education

text: José Vasconcelos

text: , who insisted that Mexican architecture carry meaning. Villagrán García designed the huge National Stadium in Mexico City as a neo-Colonial structure, with a seating capacity of least 30,000. Given the size, it needed to be of concrete. However, the concrete also contained stone and volcanic tezontle, in a revival of the eighteenth-century style.

text: .  One then picks many prime numbers q of an appropriate size, usually just above the factor base limit, and proceeds by

text: .  One then picks many prime numbers q of an appropriate size, usually just above the

text: factor base

text: limit, and proceeds by

text: , the harvesting would exceed the population’s capacity to replace itself at any population size (

text: Since the 1960s, the Miskito have used free-diving techniques to harvest lobsters as their primary source of income. In the early years of the lobster boom, large and plentiful lobster were found close to shore in shallow waters, and could be accessed easily by free-diving. Lobster production peaked, however, around 1985, and these resources, were quickly depleted.  Scuba diving techniques were introduced around 1980 to enable the Miskito to expand their area for harvesting into deeper waters . Declining returns have forced divers to dive more often, deeper, and for longer, using pressurized tanks to maintain their income.  In response to declining lobster populations, the governments of Honduras and Nicaragua implemented a fishing season - restricting lobster exploitation to between March 1 and July 30. The goal is to reduce pressure on lobster populations, but the result has also increased pressure on lobster divers. It is not uncommon for divers to make 12-16 dives per day to depths of 100–120 ft. in an effort to maintain their incomes. The result has been an increase in the number of cases of decompression sickness and decompression related deaths. In 2012 Honduras had the highest number of decompression related deaths and sickness in the world.

text: Since the 1960s, the Miskito have used free-diving techniques to

text: harvest

text: lobster

text: s as their primary source of income. In the early years of the lobster boom, large and plentiful lobster were found close to shore in shallow waters, and could be accessed easily by

text: free-diving

text: . Lobster production peaked, however, around 1985, and these resources, were quickly depleted.

text: Scuba diving

text: techniques were introduced around 1980 to enable the Miskito to expand their area for harvesting into deeper waters . Declining returns have forced divers to dive more often, deeper, and for longer, using pressurized tanks to maintain their income.  In response to declining lobster populations, the governments of Honduras and Nicaragua implemented a fishing season - restricting lobster exploitation to between March 1 and July 30. The goal is to reduce pressure on lobster populations, but the result has also increased pressure on lobster divers. It is not uncommon for divers to make 12-16 dives per day to depths of 100–120 ft. in an effort to maintain their incomes. The result has been an increase in the number of cases of

text: decompression sickness

text: and decompression related deaths. In 2012 Honduras had the highest number of decompression related deaths and sickness in the world.

text: A long-term, concurrent confocal microscopy and electrophysiology investigation conducted on cortical rat in-vitro neural networks (age > 3 weeks in-vitro) growing on Multi Electrode Arrays examined the correlation between network activity levels and changes in the sizes of individual synapses. Specifically, long-term fluorescent microscopy was used to track changes in the quantity (fluorescence) of PSD-95 molecules at individual synapses over timescales of several days. Since PSD-95 molecules anchor post-synaptic AMPA and NMDA receptors, they serve as reliable quantitative markers for post-synaptic transmembrane glutamate receptors. This investigation consisted of two sets of experiments. In the first set, synapse-morphology and spontaneous neural activity were monitored for about 90 hours (i.e. no external stimuli or pharmaceutical manipulations were used to perturb the neuronal networks). During this period, the sizes of individual synapses were observed to fluctuate considerably; yet distributions of synaptic sizes as well as average synaptic size values remained remarkably constant. It was found that ongoing activity acted to constrain synaptic sizes by increasing the tendency of large synapses to shrink and increasing the tendency of small synapses to grow. Thus, activity acted to maintain distributions of synaptic sizes (at the population level) within certain limits. In the second set of experiments the same analysis was performed after the addition of TTX to block all spontaneous activity. This led to a broadening of synaptic size distributions and to increases in average synaptic size values. When individual synapses were followed over time, their sizes were still found to fluctuate significantly, however now, no relationships were found between the extent or direction of size changes and initial synaptic size. In particular, no evidence was found that changes in synaptic size scaled with initial synaptic size. This indicated that the homeostatic growth in AMPA receptor content associated with the suppression of activity is a population phenomenon, that results from the loss of activity-dependent constraints, not from the scaling of AMPA receptor content at individual synapses.

text: A long-term, concurrent

text: confocal microscopy

text: and

text: electrophysiology

text: investigation conducted on cortical rat in-vitro neural networks (age > 3 weeks in-vitro) growing on

text: Multi Electrode Arrays

text: examined the correlation between network activity levels and changes in the sizes of individual synapses. Specifically, long-term fluorescent microscopy was used to track changes in the quantity (fluorescence) of

text: molecules at individual synapses over timescales of several days. Since PSD-95 molecules anchor post-synaptic AMPA and NMDA receptors, they serve as reliable quantitative markers for post-synaptic transmembrane glutamate receptors. This investigation consisted of two sets of experiments. In the first set, synapse-morphology and spontaneous neural activity were monitored for about 90 hours (i.e. no external stimuli or pharmaceutical manipulations were used to perturb the neuronal networks). During this period, the sizes of individual synapses were observed to fluctuate considerably; yet distributions of synaptic sizes as well as average synaptic size values remained remarkably constant. It was found that ongoing activity acted to constrain synaptic sizes by increasing the tendency of large synapses to shrink and increasing the tendency of small synapses to grow. Thus, activity acted to maintain distributions of synaptic sizes (at the population level) within certain limits. In the second set of experiments the same analysis was performed after the addition of

text: TTX

text: to block all spontaneous activity. This led to a broadening of synaptic size distributions and to increases in average synaptic size values. When individual synapses were followed over time, their sizes were still found to fluctuate significantly, however now, no relationships were found between the extent or direction of size changes and initial synaptic size. In particular, no evidence was found that changes in synaptic size scaled with initial synaptic size. This indicated that the homeostatic growth in AMPA receptor content associated with the suppression of activity is a population phenomenon, that results from the loss of activity-dependent constraints, not from the scaling of AMPA receptor content at individual synapses.

text: When first constructed, the capacity of the system was 360 TJ/day. A $150m enhancement carried out in 1991 increased the capacity to 450 TJ/day. The current capacity of the pipeline is approximately 785 TJ/day.  The pipeline is currently undergoing a series of significant expansions in its capacity which are intended to increase the maximum throughput of the pipeline to 895 TJ/day. The expansion project consists of two types of upgrade. Several of the pipeline's compressor stations will be upgraded with higher capacity gas turbines, thus increasing the actual pressure of the gas inside the line.  In addition, the expansion involves a process of 'looping' the pipeline. This is the installation of additional lengths of pipe alongside, and connected to, the existing pipeline. The effect of looping is to provide additional capacity at critical sections of the main trunkline, thus increasing the total possible throughput.

text: The size of the Parthian army is unknown, as is the size of the empire's overall population. However, archaeological excavations in former Parthian urban centers reveal settlements which could have sustained large populations and hence a great resource in manpower. Dense population centers in regions like Babylonia were no doubt attractive to the Romans, whose armies could afford to live off the land.

text: 27 cities and 4 counties of Gyeonggi-do. Below are seven of the largest cities, sorted by their population size:

text: In Eurasia, the size of bears roughly increases from the west to the east, with the largest bears there native to eastern Russia. Even in the nominate subspecies size increases in the eastern limits, with mature male bears in Arkhangelsk Oblast and Bashkortostan commonly exceeding . Other bears of intermediate size may occur in inland races of Russia. Much like the grizzly and Eurasian brown bear, populations of the Ussuri brown bear (U. a. lasiotus) and the East Siberian brown bear (U. a. collaris) may vary widely in size. In some cases, the big adult males of these races may have matched the Kodiak bear in size. East Siberian brown bears from outside the sub-Arctic and mainland Ussuri brown bears average about the same size as the largest-bodied populations of grizzly bear, i.e. those of similar latitude in Alaska, and have been credited with weights ranging from  throughout the seasons. On the other hand, the Ussuri brown bears found in the insular population of Hokkaido are usually quite small, usually weighing less than , exactly half the weight reported for male Ussuri brown bears from Khabarovsk Krai. This is due presumably to the enclosed mixed forest habitat of Hokkaido. A similarly diminished size has been reported in east Siberian brown bears from Yakutia, as even adult males average around , thus about 40% less than the average weight of male bears of this race from central Siberia and the Chukchi Peninsula.

text: In

text: Eurasia

text: , the size of bears roughly increases from the west to the east, with the largest bears there native to eastern

text: Russia

text: . Even in the

text: nominate subspecies

text: size increases in the eastern limits, with mature male bears in

text: Arkhangelsk Oblast

text: and

text: Bashkortostan

text: commonly exceeding . Other bears of intermediate size may occur in inland races of

text: Russia

text: . Much like the grizzly and Eurasian brown bear, populations of the

text: Ussuri brown bear

text: (U. a. lasiotus) and the

text: East Siberian brown bear

text: (U. a. collaris) may vary widely in size. In some cases, the big adult males of these races may have matched the Kodiak bear in size.

text: East Siberian brown bear

text: s from outside the sub-Arctic and mainland

text: Ussuri brown bear

text: s average about the same size as the largest-bodied populations of grizzly bear, i.e. those of similar latitude in Alaska, and have been credited with weights ranging from  throughout the seasons. On the other hand, the

text: Ussuri brown bear

text: s found in the insular population of

text: Hokkaido

text: are usually quite small, usually weighing less than , exactly half the weight reported for male Ussuri brown bears from

text: Khabarovsk Krai

text: . This is due presumably to the enclosed mixed forest habitat of

text: Hokkaido

text: . A similarly diminished size has been reported in

text: east Siberian brown bear

text: s from

text: Yakutia

text: , as even adult males average around , thus about 40% less than the average weight of male bears of this race from

text: central Siberia

text: and the

text: Chukchi Peninsula

text: Food distribution, density, and accessibility can determine population density and territory size in blue tangs. Territories with low biogenic structure are larger than those of higher biogenic structure. Since the algal food resources are less dense in low-biogenic structured areas, these territories would have to be larger in order to include the necessary amount of food. This is in accordance with the Ideal free distribution model.  This model states that competitors should adjust their distribution in accordance with habitat quality such that each individual will gain the same amount of resources.

text: Food distribution, density, and accessibility can determine population density and territory size in blue tangs. Territories with low

text: biogenic

text: structure are larger than those of higher biogenic structure. Since the algal food resources are less dense in low-biogenic structured areas, these territories would have to be larger in order to include the necessary amount of food. This is in accordance with the

text: Ideal free distribution

text: model.  This model states that competitors should adjust their distribution in accordance with habitat quality such that each individual will gain the same amount of resources.

text: A population ecology concept is r/K selection theory, one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain life-history evolution. The premise behind the r/K selection model is that natural selection pressures change according to population density. For example, when an island is first colonized, density of individuals is low. The initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available resources for rapid population growth. These early phases of population growth experience density-independent forces of natural selection, which is called r-selection. As the population becomes more crowded, it approaches the island's carrying capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for fewer available resources. Under crowded conditions, the population experiences density-dependent forces of natural selection, called K-selection.

text: A population ecology concept is r/K selection theory, one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain

text: life-history evolution

text: . The premise behind the r/K selection model is that natural selection pressures change according to

text: population density

text: . For example, when an island is first colonized, density of individuals is low. The initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available

text: resources

text: for rapid population growth. These early phases of

text: population growth

text: experience density-independent forces of natural selection, which is called r-selection. As the population becomes more crowded, it approaches the island's carrying capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for fewer available resources. Under crowded conditions, the population experiences density-dependent forces of natural selection, called K-selection.

text: "Tourism Carrying Capacity" is defined by the World Tourism Organisation as “The maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time, without causing destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors' satisfaction”.   Whereas Middleton and Hawkins Chamberlain (1997) define it as “the level of human activity an area can accommodate without the area deteriorating, the resident community being adversely affected or the quality of visitors experience declining” what both these definitions pick up on is carrying capacity is the point at which a destination or attraction starts experiencing adverse as a result of the number of visitors.

text: "Tourism Carrying Capacity" is defined by the

text: World Tourism Organisation

text: as “The maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time, without causing destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors' satisfaction”.   Whereas Middleton and Hawkins Chamberlain (1997) define it as “the level of human activity an area can accommodate without the area deteriorating, the resident community being adversely affected or the quality of visitors experience declining” what both these definitions pick up on is carrying capacity is the point at which a destination or attraction starts experiencing adverse as a result of the number of visitors.

text: Canis mosbachensis lived in the middle to late Pleistocene in Eurasia. The holotype of the Mosbach wolf C. mosbachensis (Soergel, 1925) was found in Jockgrim, (Germany). In 2010, a study found that the diversity of the Canis group decreased by the end of the Early Pleistocene to Middle Pleistocene and was limited in Eurasia to the small wolves of the C. mosbachensis–C. variabilis group that were a comparable size to the extant Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes), and the large hypercarnivorous Canis (Xenocyon) lycaonoides that was comparable in size to extant northern gray wolves. C. mosbachensis occurred between C. etruscus in the Early Pleistocene and the modern C. lupus. C. mosbachensis was smaller than most North American wolf populations and smaller than C. rufus, and has been described by Kurten as being similar in size to Canis papilles. As wolves continue to evolve they become bigger. It was still living in Europe at a time coinciding with the North American Early Rancholabrean and had grown in size by the Late Rancholabrean. Nowak proposed that C. mosbachensis was the ancestor of Eurasian and North American wolves, and that one population of C. mosbachensis invaded North America where it became isolated by the later glaciation and there gave rise to C. rufus. Another population of C. mosbachensis remained in Eurasia and evolved into C. lupus, from where it invaded North America.

text: Canis mosbachensis lived in the middle to late Pleistocene in Eurasia. The

text: holotype

text: of the

text: Mosbach

text: wolf C. mosbachensis (Soergel, 1925) was found in Jockgrim, (Germany). In 2010, a study found that the diversity of the Canis group decreased by the end of the

text: Early Pleistocene

text: to

text: Middle Pleistocene

text: and was limited in Eurasia to the small wolves of the C. mosbachensis–C. variabilis group that were a comparable size to the extant

text: Indian wolf

text: (Canis lupus pallipes), and the large hypercarnivorous

text: Canis (Xenocyon) lycaonoides

text: that was comparable in size to extant northern gray wolves. C. mosbachensis occurred between C. etruscus in the

text: Early Pleistocene

text: and the modern C. lupus. C. mosbachensis was smaller than most North American wolf populations and smaller than C. rufus, and has been described by Kurten as being similar in size to Canis papilles. As wolves continue to evolve they become bigger. It was still living in Europe at a time coinciding with the North American Early Rancholabrean and had grown in size by the Late Rancholabrean. Nowak proposed that C. mosbachensis was the ancestor of Eurasian and North American wolves, and that one population of C. mosbachensis invaded North America where it became isolated by the later glaciation and there gave rise to C. rufus. Another population of C. mosbachensis remained in Eurasia and evolved into C. lupus, from where it invaded North America.

text: A polymer electrolyte must be able to penetrate the anode's finest pores to form a complete, homogeneous layer, because only anode oxide sections covered by the electrolyte contribute to the capacitance. For this the precursors of the polymer has to consist of very small base materials that can penetrate even the smallest pores. The size of this precursors are the limiting factor in the size of the pores in the etched aluminum anode foils or of the size of tantalum powder. The rate of polymerization must be controlled for capacitor manufacturing. Too rapid polymerization does not lead to a complete anode coverage, while too slow polymerization increases production costs. Neither the precursors nor the polymer or its residues may attack the anodes oxide chemically or mechanically. The polymer electrolyte must have high stability over a wide temperature range over long times. The polymer film is not only the counter electrode of the e-cap it also protects the dielectric even against external influences such as the direct contact of graphite in this capacitors, which are provided with a cathode contact via graphite and silver.

text: At one point it is estimated that the Roman Empire had a population of 60 million people, and an estimated one million or more in Rome alone (a population that was not matched in size in Europe until London in the 19th century). With such a large population increase, coupled with an enhancement of exuberant lifestyles and a high standard of living for the urbanized communities of the Roman world, resource consumption became exponentially extensive.

text: At one point it is estimated that the Roman Empire had a population of 60 million people, and an estimated one million or more in Rome alone (a

entity_name: List of largest cities throughout history

text: population that was not matched in size

text: in

text: Europe

text: until

text: London

text: in the 19th century). With such a large population increase, coupled with an enhancement of exuberant lifestyles and a high standard of living for the urbanized communities of the Roman world, resource consumption became exponentially extensive.

text: For example, whether a number is rising or falling may not be the key factor. More important may be the number relative to another number, such as the size of government revenue or spending relative to the size of the economy (GDP) or the amount of cost relative to revenue in corporate financial statements. This numerical technique is referred to as normalization or common-sizing. There are many such techniques employed by analysts, whether adjusting for inflation (i.e., comparing real vs. nominal data) or considering population increases, demographics, etc. Analysts apply a variety of techniques to address the various quantitative messages described in the section above.

text: where n is the sample size, N is the population size and ρ is the correlation coefficient between the x and y variates.

text: For example, it is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007. However, when this storage space is filled and the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of information. When optimally compressed, the resulting carrying capacity approaches Shannon information or information entropy.

text: For example, it is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300

text: exabytes

text: of hardware digits in 2007. However, when this storage space is filled and the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295

text: exabytes

text: of information. When optimally compressed, the resulting carrying capacity approaches

text: Shannon information

text: or

text: information entropy

text: Genetic diversity is often lost within captive populations due to the founder effect and subsequent small population sizes.  Minimizing the loss of genetic diversity within the captive population is an important component of ex situ conservation and is critical for successful reintroductions and the long term success of the species, since more diverse populations have higher adaptive potential. The loss of genetic diversity due to the founder effect can be minimized by ensuring that the founder population is large enough and genetically representative of the wild population.  This is often difficult because removing large numbers of individuals from the wild populations may further reduce the genetic diversity of a  species that is already of conservation concern.  Maximizing the captive population size and the effective population size can decrease the loss of genetic diversity by minimizing the random loss of alleles due to genetic drift .  Minimizing the number of generations in captivity is another effective method for reducing the loss of genetic diversity in captive populations.

text: Genetic diversity is often lost within captive populations due to the

text: founder effect

text: and subsequent small population sizes.  Minimizing the loss of genetic diversity within the captive population is an important component of ex situ conservation and is critical for successful reintroductions and the long term success of the species, since more diverse populations have higher

text: adaptive

text: potential. The loss of genetic diversity due to the founder effect can be minimized by ensuring that the founder population is large enough and genetically representative of the wild population.  This is often difficult because removing large numbers of individuals from the wild populations may further reduce the genetic diversity of a  species that is already of conservation concern.  Maximizing the captive population size and the

text: effective population size

text: can decrease the loss of genetic diversity by minimizing the random loss of alleles due to

text: genetic drift

text: .  Minimizing the number of generations in captivity is another effective method for reducing the loss of genetic diversity in captive populations.

text: In this field she has proposed one of the most convincing mathematical explanations for von Foerster's Doomsday Equation. In collaboration with her colleagues, Artemy Malkov and Andrey Korotayev, she has shown that till the 1970s the hyperbolic growth of the world population was accompanied by quadratic-hyperbolic growth of the world GDP, and developed a number of mathematical models describing both this phenomenon, and the World System withdrawal from the blow-up regime observed in the recent decades. The hyperbolic growth of the world population and quadratic-hyperbolic growth of the world GDP observed till the 1970s have been correlated by him and his colleagues to a non-linear second order positive feedback between the demographic growth and technological development that can be spelled out as follows: technological growth – increase in the carrying capacity of land for people – demographic growth – more people – more potential inventors – acceleration of technological growth – accelerating growth of the carrying capacity – the faster population growth – accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors – faster technological growth – hence, the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity for people, and so on.

text: In this field she has proposed one of the most convincing mathematical explanations for

text: von Foerster's

text: Doomsday Equation

text: . In collaboration with her colleagues, Artemy Malkov and

text: Andrey Korotayev

text: , she has shown that till the 1970s the

text: hyperbolic

text: growth of the

text: world population

text: was accompanied by

text: quadratic

text: -hyperbolic growth of the world

text: GDP

text: , and developed a number of

text: mathematical model

text: s describing both this phenomenon, and the

text: World System

text: withdrawal from the blow-up regime observed in the recent decades. The hyperbolic growth of the

text: world population

text: and quadratic-hyperbolic growth of the world GDP observed till the 1970s have been correlated by him and his colleagues to a non-linear second order

text: positive feedback

text: between the

text: demographic

text: growth and technological development that can be spelled out as follows: technological growth – increase in the

text: carrying capacity

text: of land for people – demographic growth – more people – more potential inventors – acceleration of technological growth – accelerating growth of the carrying capacity – the faster

text: population growth

text: – accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors – faster technological growth – hence, the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity for people, and so on.

text: Wastewater reuse is often used synonymously with the terms wastewater recycling and wastewater reclamation and can be defined as the use of reclaimed water for beneficial purposes, such as agricultural, landscape and field irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, fire protection, and replenishing of surface water and groundwater (the latter referred to as groundwater recharge). Water/wastewater reuse is integral to sustainable water management because it allows water to remain in the environment and be preserved for future uses while meeting the water requirements of the present.Water and wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation especially in arid countries. The World Health Organization  has recognized the principal driving forces for global wastewater reuse as the (i) increasing water scarcity and stress, (ii) increasing populations and related food security issues, (iii) increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and (iv) the increasing recognition of the resource value of wastewater, excreta and greywater.Water is a limiting resource, and the pressure exerted on surface and groundwater resources should be reduced or at best maintained, rather than increased, as the human population and industrial development increase. Water recycling and reuse is thus of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Already, groundwater aquifers used by over half of the world population are being over-drafted. As a result, it is no longer advisable to use water once and dispose of it; it is important to identify ways to reuse water. Reuse will continue to increase as the world’s population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local freshwater supplies are limited or are available only with large capital expenditure. Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by wastewater reuse and recycling, lowering costs, reducing environmental pollution and improving carbon footprint; since reuse is a sustainable and cost-effective alternative water supply.

text: Wastewater

text: reuse is often used synonymously with the terms

text: wastewater recycling

text: and

text: wastewater reclamation

text: and can be defined as the use of

text: reclaimed water

text: for beneficial purposes, such as agricultural, landscape and field irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, fire protection, and replenishing of

text: surface water

text: and

text: groundwater

text: (the latter referred to as

text: groundwater recharge

text: ). Water/wastewater reuse is integral to

text: sustainable

text: water management

text: because it allows water to remain in the environment and be preserved for future uses while meeting the water requirements of the present.

text: Water

text: and wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation especially in

text: arid

text: countries. The

text: World Health Organization

text: has recognized the principal driving forces for global wastewater reuse as the (i) increasing water scarcity and stress, (ii) increasing populations and related food security issues, (iii) increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and (iv) the increasing recognition of the resource value of wastewater, excreta and greywater.Water is a limiting resource, and the pressure exerted on surface and groundwater resources should be reduced or at best maintained, rather than increased, as the

text: human population

text: and industrial development increase. Water recycling and reuse is thus of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Already, groundwater

text: aquifers

text: used by over half of the world population are being over-drafted. As a result, it is no longer advisable to use water once and dispose of it; it is important to identify ways to reuse water. Reuse will continue to increase as the world’s population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local

text: freshwater

text: supplies are limited or are available only with large

text: capital expenditure

text: . Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by wastewater reuse and recycling, lowering costs, reducing

text: environmental pollution

text: and improving

text: carbon footprint

text: ; since reuse is a sustainable and cost-effective alternative

text: water supply

text: The Marine Corps eventually concluded that both the RON, and the competing Hiller ROE were too heavy and too difficult to fly and abandoned the project. The United States Navy, however, had noticed the compact size and high load-carrying capacity of the RON, and in 1960 awarded a contract to Gyrodyne to produce a radio-controlled drone version of the Rotorcycle, to be used as an Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) platform. Using the dynamic components of the RON, this was eventually developed as the Gyrodyne QH-50.

text: The Marine Corps eventually concluded that both the RON, and the competing

text: Hiller ROE

text: were too heavy and too difficult to fly and abandoned the project. The

text: United States Navy

text: , however, had noticed the compact size and high load-carrying capacity of the RON, and in 1960 awarded a contract to Gyrodyne to produce a radio-controlled drone version of the Rotorcycle, to be used as an Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) platform. Using the dynamic components of the RON, this was eventually developed as the

text: Gyrodyne QH-50

text: A minibus, microbus, or minicoach is a passenger carrying motor vehicle that is designed to carry more people than a multi-purpose vehicle or minivan, but fewer people than a full-size bus. In the United Kingdom, the word "minibus" is used to describe any full-sized passenger carrying van. Minibuses have a seating capacity of between 8 and 30 seats. Larger minibuses may be called midibuses. Minibuses are typically front-engined step-entrance vehicles, although low floor minibuses do exist.

text: A minibus, microbus, or minicoach is a passenger carrying

text: motor vehicle

text: that is designed to carry more people than a

text: multi-purpose vehicle or minivan

text: , but fewer people than a

text: full-size bus

text: . In the

text: United Kingdom

text: , the word "minibus" is used to describe any full-sized passenger carrying van. Minibuses have a

text: seating capacity

text: of between 8 and 30 seats. Larger minibuses may be called

text: midibus

text: es. Minibuses are typically

text: front-engined

text: step-entrance vehicles, although

text: low floor

text: minibuses do exist.

text: Analysis of algorithms typically focuses on the asymptotic performance, particularly at the elementary level, but in practical applications constant factors are important, and real-world data is in practice always limited in size. The limit is typically the size of addressable memory, so on 32-bit machines 2 = 4 GiB (greater if segmented memory is used) and on 64-bit machines 2 = 16 EiB. Thus given a limited size, an order of growth (time or space) can be replaced by a constant factor, and in this sense all practical algorithms are O(1) for a large enough constant, or for small enough data.

text: Analysis of algorithms typically focuses on the asymptotic performance, particularly at the elementary level, but in practical applications constant factors are important, and real-world data is in practice always limited in size. The limit is typically the size of addressable memory, so on 32-bit machines 2 = 4 GiB (greater if

text: segmented memory

text: is used) and on 64-bit machines 2 = 16 EiB. Thus given a limited size, an order of growth (time or space) can be replaced by a constant factor, and in this sense all practical algorithms are O(1) for a large enough constant, or for small enough data.

text: Factors that may limit the applicability and effectiveness of the process include:

text: The EAC-SADC-COMESA Summit is considered historic because for the first time, since the birth of the African Union, several key building blocks of the AEC have met on how to integrate territories and moving towards deepening and widening integration within the overall Abuja Treaty for the establishment of the AEC. Further, for the first time a truly transcontinental union came into being, ranging from the north to the south of the continent. The AFTZ (EAC, COMESA and SADC) currently have a combined population of 527 million and combined GDP of US$625 billion. In size and capacity, the AFTZ rivals most trade blocks.

text: The

text: EAC-SADC-COMESA Summit

text: is considered historic because for the first time, since the birth of the

text: African Union

text: , several key building blocks of the AEC have met on how to integrate territories and moving towards deepening and widening integration within the overall

text: Abuja Treaty

text: for the establishment of the AEC. Further, for the first time a truly transcontinental union came into being, ranging from the north to the south of the continent. The AFTZ (EAC, COMESA and SADC) currently have a combined population of 527 million and combined GDP of US$625 billion. In size and capacity, the AFTZ rivals most trade blocks.

text: Fish capacity is a function of aquarium size. Limiting factors include the availability of oxygen in the water and the rate at which the filter can process waste. Aquarists apply rules of thumb estimating appropriate population size; the examples below are for small freshwater fish. Larger freshwater fish and most marine fishes need much more generous allowances. Some aquarists claim that increasing water depth beyond some relatively shallow minimum does not affect capacity.

text: Fish capacity is a function of aquarium size.

text: Limiting factor

text: s include the availability of

text: oxygen

text: in the water and the rate at which the

text: filter

text: can process waste. Aquarists apply rules of thumb estimating appropriate population size; the examples below are for small freshwater fish. Larger freshwater fish and most marine fishes need much more generous allowances. Some aquarists claim that increasing water depth beyond some relatively shallow minimum does not affect capacity.

text: 'Medium'-sized vessels with capacity for about 30,000 to 40,000 sheep (or 3000 to 4000 head of cattle) are a common size for this type of ship. However, during the last two decades of the twentieth century there were a small number of sheep carriers which had capacity for 130,000 sheep. There were at least two other large livestock carriers which specialised in combined cargoes of cattle and sheep. One had capacity for about 7,000 cattle plus 70,000 sheep and the other could carry 14,000 cattle plus 20,000 sheep.In 2007 the livestock carrier Deneb Prima was loading cargoes amounting to 20,000 cattle plus 2000 sheep.

text: The effective population size is most commonly measured with respect to the coalescence time. In an idealised diploid population with no selection at any locus, the expectation of the coalescence time in generations is equal to twice the census population size. The effective population size is measured as within-species genetic diversity divided by four times the mutation rate, because in such an idealised population, the heterozygosity is equal to

text: The effective population size is most commonly measured with respect to the

text: coalescence time

text: . In an idealised diploid population with no selection at any locus, the expectation of the

text: coalescence time

text: in generations is equal to twice the census population size. The effective population size is measured as within-species

text: genetic diversity

text: divided by four times the

text: mutation rate

text: , because in such an idealised population, the

text: heterozygosity

text: is equal to

text: Payload is the carrying capacity of an aircraft or launch vehicle, usually measured in terms of weight. Depending on the nature of the flight or mission, the payload of a vehicle may include cargo, passengers, flight crew, munitions, scientific instruments or experiments, or other equipment. Extra fuel, when optionally carried, is also considered part of the payload. In a commercial context (i.e., an airline or air freight carrier), payload may refer only to revenue-generating cargo or paying passengers.

text: Payload is the carrying capacity of an

text: aircraft

text: or

text: launch vehicle

text: , usually measured in terms of weight. Depending on the nature of the flight or mission, the payload of a vehicle may include

text: cargo

text: passenger

text: s,

text: flight crew

text: munition

text: s, scientific instruments or experiments, or other equipment. Extra fuel, when optionally carried, is also considered part of the payload. In a commercial context (i.e., an

text: airline

text: or

text: air freight carrier

text: ), payload may refer only to revenue-generating cargo or paying passengers.

text: As an example of genetic purging, consider a large population where there are recessive lethal alleles segregating at very low frequency in many loci, so that each individual carries on the average one of these alleles. Although about 63% of the individuals carry at least one of these lethal alleles, almost none carry two copies of the same lethal. Therefore, since lethals are considered completely recessive (i.e., they are harmless in heterozygosis), they cause almost no deaths. Now assume that population size reduces to a small value (say N=10), and remains that small for many generations. As inbreeding increases, the probability of being homozygous for one (or more) of these lethal alleles also increases, causing fitness to decline. However, as those lethals begin to occur in homozygosis, natural selection begins purging them. The figure to the right gives the expected decline of fitness against the number of generations, taking into account just the increase in inbreeding  (red line), or both inbreeding and purging (blue line, computed using the purged inbreeding coefficient ). This example shows that purging can be very efficient preventing inbreeding depression. However, for non-lethal deleterious alleles, the efficiency of purging would be smaller, and it can require larger populations to overcome genetic drift.

text: By the beginning of the reign of James I, the church had become inadequate for the size of its congregation, due to the great increase in population in the area.  In 1606 the king granted an acre of ground to the west of St. Martin's Lane for a new churchyard, and the building was enlarged eastwards over the old burial ground, increasing the length of the church by about half. At the same time the church was, in the phrase of the time, thoroughly "repaired and beautified". Later in the 17th century capacity was further increased with the addition of galleries. The creation of the new parishes of St Anne, Soho, and St James, Piccadilly, and the opening of a chapel in Oxenden Street also relieved some of the pressure on space.

text: By the beginning of the reign of

text: James I

text: , the church had become inadequate for the size of its congregation, due to the great increase in population in the area.  In 1606 the king granted an acre of ground to the west of St. Martin's Lane for a new churchyard, and the building was enlarged eastwards over the old burial ground, increasing the length of the church by about half. At the same time the church was, in the phrase of the time, thoroughly "repaired and beautified". Later in the 17th century capacity was further increased with the addition of galleries. The creation of the new parishes of

entity_name: St Anne Within the Liberty of Westminster

text: St Anne, Soho

text: , and

text: St James, Piccadilly

text: , and the opening of a chapel in Oxenden Street also relieved some of the pressure on space.

text: Inland canals have often had boats specifically built for them. An example of this is the British narrowboat, which is up to  long and  wide and was primarily built for British Midland canals. In this case the limiting factor was the size of the locks. This is also the limiting factor on the Panama canal where Panamax ships are limited to a length of  and a beam of . For the lockless Suez Canal the limiting factor for Suezmax ships is generally draft, which is limited to . At the other end of the scale, tub-boat canals such as the Bude Canal were limited to boats of under 10 tons for much of their length due to the capacity of their inclined planes or boat lifts. Most canals have a limit on height imposed either by bridges or by tunnels.

text: Inland canals have often had boats specifically built for them. An example of this is the British

text: narrowboat

text: , which is up to  long and  wide and was primarily built for British Midland canals. In this case the limiting factor was the size of the locks. This is also the limiting factor on the Panama canal where

text: Panamax

text: ships are limited to a length of  and a beam of . For the lockless Suez Canal the limiting factor for

text: Suezmax

text: ships is generally draft, which is limited to . At the other end of the scale, tub-boat canals such as the

text: Bude Canal

text: were limited to boats of under 10 tons for much of their length due to the capacity of their inclined planes or boat lifts. Most canals have a limit on height imposed either by bridges or by tunnels.

text: Numerous limiting factors influence the population dynamics of the capercaillie throughout its range, including habitat degradation, loss, and fragmentation (Storch 2000, p. 83; 2007, p. 96). Forest structure plays an important role in determining habitat suitability and occupancy. Quevedo et al. (2006) found that open forest structure with well-distributed bilberry shrubs were the preferred habitat type of Cantabrian capercaillie. Management of forest resources for timber production has caused and continues to cause significant changes in forest structure such as: species composition, density and height of trees, forest patch size, and understory vegetation.

text: Population turnover is a related statistic that measures gross moves in relation to the size of the population, for example movement of residents into and out of a geographic location between census counts.

text: Population turnover is a related statistic that measures gross moves in relation to the size of the population, for example movement of residents into and out of a geographic location between

text: census

text: counts.

text: Due to population density, dispersal may relieve pressure for resources in an ecosystem, and competition for these resources may be a selection factor for dispersal mechanisms.

text: DNA barcoding is based on a relatively simple concept. All eukaryote cells contain mitochondria, and animal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has a relatively fast mutation rate, resulting in the generation of diversity within and between populations over relatively short evolutionary timescales (thousands of generations). Typically, in animals, a single mtDNA genome is transmitted to offspring by each breeding female, and the genetic effective population size is proportional to the number of breeding females. This contrasts with the nuclear genome, which is around 100 000 times larger, where males and females each contribute two full genomes to the gene pool and effective size is therefore proportional to twice the total population size. This reduction in effective population size leads to more rapid sorting of mtDNA gene lineages within and among populations through time, due to variance in fecundity among individuals (the principle of coalescence). The combined effect of higher mutation rates and more rapid sorting of variation usually results in divergence of mtDNA sequences among species and a comparatively small variance within species. A 658-bp region (the Folmer region) of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene was proposed as a potential 'barcode'.

text: DNA barcoding is based on a relatively simple concept. All

text: eukaryote

text: cells contain

text: mitochondria

text: , and animal mitochondrial DNA (

text: mtDNA

text: ) has a relatively fast

text: mutation

text: rate, resulting in the generation of diversity within and between populations over relatively short evolutionary timescales (thousands of generations). Typically, in animals, a single mtDNA genome is transmitted to offspring by each breeding female, and the genetic

text: effective population size

text: is

text: proportional

text: to the number of breeding females. This contrasts with the

text: nuclear genome

text: , which is around 100 000 times larger, where males and females each contribute two full genomes to the

text: gene pool

text: and effective size is therefore proportional to twice the total population size. This reduction in

text: effective population size

text: leads to more rapid sorting of mtDNA gene lineages within and among populations through time, due to variance in

text: fecundity

text: among individuals (the principle of

text: coalescence

text: ). The combined effect of higher mutation rates and more rapid sorting of variation usually results in divergence of mtDNA sequences among species and a comparatively small variance within species. A 658-

text: bp

text: region (the Folmer region) of the

text: mitochondrial

text: cytochrome c oxidase

text: subunit I (COI) gene was proposed as a potential 'barcode'.

text: MTE has profound implications for the interpretation of population growth and community diversity.  Classically, species are thought of as being either r selected (where populations tend to grow exponentially, and are ultimately limited by extrinsic factors) or K selected (where population size is limited by density-dependence and carrying capacity).  MTE explains this diversity of reproductive strategies as a consequence of the metabolic constraints of organisms.  Small organisms and organisms that exist at high body temperatures tend to be r selected, which fits with the prediction that r selection is a consequence of metabolic rate.  Conversely, larger and cooler bodied animals tend to be K selected.  The relationship between body size and rate of population growth has been demonstrated empirically, and in fact has been shown to scale to M across taxonomic groups.  The optimal population growth rate for a species is therefore thought to be determined by the allometric constraints outlined by the MTE, rather than strictly as a life history trait that is selected for based on environmental conditions.

text: Population biology is the study of populations of organisms, especially the growth and regulation of population size, population genetics, demography and life history evolution, and interactions among species. A population is a group of individuals of the same species that have a high probability of interacting with each other. A simple example would be trout in a lake, or moose on Isle Royale, although in many cases the boundaries delineating a population are not as clear cut. The term population biology is often used interchangeably with population ecology and population genetics.

text: Population biology is the study of populations of organisms, especially the growth and regulation of population size, population genetics, demography and life history evolution, and interactions among species. A population is a group of individuals of the same species that have a high probability of interacting with each other. A simple example would be trout in a lake, or moose on Isle Royale, although in many cases the boundaries delineating a population are not as clear cut. The term population biology is often used interchangeably with

text: population ecology

text: and population genetics.

text: For many species, interspecific competition is an important limiting factor of population size, biomass, species richness, and home range sizes. Given the limited distribution of P. hubrichti, it is important to recognize how it may be affected by interspecific competition. The red-backed salamander (P. cinereus), a much more widespread Plethodon, surrounds most of the range of P. hubrichti. Interspecific competition between the Peaks of Otter salamander and the red-backed salamander has generally been considered to limit the distribution of P. hubrichti, since the two species are considered to be equal competitors.

text: For many species,

text: interspecific competition

text: is an important limiting factor of population size, biomass, species richness, and home range sizes. Given the limited distribution of P. hubrichti, it is important to recognize how it may be affected by interspecific competition. The red-backed salamander (P. cinereus), a much more widespread Plethodon, surrounds most of the range of P. hubrichti. Interspecific competition between the Peaks of Otter salamander and the red-backed salamander has generally been considered to limit the distribution of P. hubrichti, since the two species are considered to be equal competitors.

text: The ICC is financed by contributions from the states parties. The amount payable by each state party is determined using the same method as the United Nations: each state's contribution is based on the country's capacity to pay, which reflects factors such as a national income and population. The maximum amount a single country can pay in any year is limited to 22% of the Court's budget; Japan paid this amount in 2008.

text: Competition between members of a species ("intraspecific") for resources such as food, water, territory, and sunlight may result in an increase in the frequency of a variant of the species best suited for survival and reproduction until its fixation within a population. However, competition among resources also has a strong tendency for diversification between members of the same species, resulting in coexistence of competitive and non-competitive strategies or cycles between low and high competitiveness. Third parties within a species often favour highly competitive strategies leading to species extinction when environmental conditions are harsh (evolutionary suicide).

text: Competition between members of a species ("intraspecific") for resources such as

text: food

text: water

text: territory

text: , and

text: sunlight

text: may result in an increase in the frequency of a variant of the species best suited for survival and reproduction until its fixation within a population. However, competition among resources also has a strong tendency for diversification between members of the same species, resulting in coexistence of competitive and non-competitive strategies or cycles between low and high

text: competitiveness

text: . Third parties within a species often favour highly competitive strategies leading to species extinction when environmental conditions are harsh (

text: evolutionary suicide

text: Some have argued that the most important human population problem for the world is not the high rate of population increase in certain Third World countries, but rather the "increase in total human impact." The per-capita impact - the resources consumed and the wastes created by each person - is varied globally; the highest in the First World and the lowest in the Third World: inhabitants of the U.S., Western Europe and Japan consume 32 times as many resources and put out 32 times as much waste as those in the Third World.However, China leads the world in total emissions, but its large population skews its per-capita statistic lower than those of more developed nations.

text: Captive populations are subject to problems such as inbreeding depression, loss of genetic diversity and adaptations to captivity.  It is important to manage captive populations in a way that minimizes these issues so that the individuals to be introduced will resemble the original founders as closely as possible, which will increase the chances of successful reintroductions.  During the initial growth phase, the population size is rapidly expanded until a target population size is reached.  The target population size is the number of individuals that are required to maintain appropriate levels of genetic diversity, which is generally considered to by 90% of the current genetic diversity after 100 years. The number of individuals required to meet this goal varies based on potential growth rate, effective size, current genetic diversity, and generation time. Once the target population size is reached, the focus shifts to maintaining the population and avoiding genetic issues within the captive population.

text: Captive populations are subject to problems such as

text: inbreeding depression

text: , loss of

text: genetic diversity

text: and adaptations to captivity.  It is important to manage captive populations in a way that minimizes these issues so that the individuals to be introduced will resemble the original founders as closely as possible, which will increase the chances of successful

text: reintroductions

text: .  During the initial growth phase, the population size is rapidly expanded until a target population size is reached.  The target population size is the number of individuals that are required to maintain appropriate levels of genetic diversity, which is generally considered to by 90% of the current genetic diversity after 100 years. The number of individuals required to meet this goal varies based on potential growth rate, effective size, current genetic diversity, and generation time. Once the target population size is reached, the focus shifts to maintaining the population and avoiding genetic issues within the captive population.

text: When the level of depensation is high enough that the population is no longer able to sustain itself, it is said to be a critical depensation. This occurs when the population size has a tendency to decline when the population drops below a certain level (known as the "Critical depensation level"). Ultimately this may lead to the population or fishery's collapse (resource depletion), or even local extinction.

text: When the level of depensation is high enough that the population is no longer able to sustain itself, it is said to be a critical depensation. This occurs when the population size has a tendency to decline when the population drops below a certain level (known as the "Critical depensation level"). Ultimately this may lead to the population or fishery's collapse (

text: resource depletion

text: ), or even

text: local extinction

text: The population model below can be manipulated to mathematically infer certain properties of geometric populations. A population with a size that increases geometrically is a population where generations of reproduction do not overlap. In each generation there is an effective population size denoted as

text: The population model below can be manipulated to mathematically infer certain properties of

text: geometric

text: populations. A population with a size that increases geometrically is a population where generations of reproduction do not overlap. In each generation there is an

text: effective population size

text: denoted as

text: Genetic distance is a measure used to compare the genetic relationship between populations. It is based on the principle that populations that share similar frequencies of a trait are more closely related than populations that have different frequencies of a trait. The genetic distance between two populations increases linearly with the geographic distance between them, due to isolation by distance and serial founder effects. Genetic admixture increases the genetic diversity of a population. When admixture occurs between populations, the genetic distance between the two populations is reduced.

text: Genetic distance

text: is a measure used to compare the genetic relationship between populations. It is based on the principle that populations that share similar frequencies of a trait are more closely related than populations that have different frequencies of a trait. The genetic distance between two populations increases linearly with the geographic distance between them, due to

text: isolation by distance

text: and serial founder effects.

text: Genetic admixture

text: increases the genetic diversity of a population. When admixture occurs between populations, the genetic distance between the two populations is reduced.

text: TIA also is estimated from population density data by estimating the population in an area of interest and using regression equations to calculate the associated TIA. Population-density data are used because nationally consistent census-block data are available in GIS formats for the entire United States. Population-density methods also can be used for predicting potential effects of future development. Although there may be substantial variation in relations between population density and TIA the accuracy of such estimates tend to improve with increasing drainage area as local variations are averaged out. Granato (2010) provides a table with 8 population-density relations from the literature and a new equation developed by using data from 6,255 stream basins in the USGS GAGESII dataset.  Granato (2010) also provides 4 equations to estimate TIA from housing density, which is related to population density.

text: The accumulation of mutations in small populations can be divided into three phases. In the second phase a population starts in mutation/selection equilibrium, mutations are fixed at a constant rate through time, and the population size is constant because the fecundity exceeds mortality. However, after a sufficient number of mutations have been fixed in the population, the birth rate is slightly less than the death rate, and the population size begins to decrease. The smaller population size allows for a more rapid fixation of deleterious mutations, and a more rapid decline of population size, etc.

text: Microwaves propagate entirely by line of sight; groundwave and skywave ("skip") propagation do not occur.  Although in some cases they can penetrate building walls enough for useful reception, unobstructed rights of way cleared to the first Fresnel zone are usually required.  Wavelengths are small enough that they can be focused into narrow beams by parabolic and horn antennas from a half meter to five meters in diameter.  Therefore, they are used in point-to-point terrestrial communications links limited by the visual horizon (about 40 miles).  Such high gain antennas allow frequency reuse by nearby transmitters.  The size of SHF waves allow large reflections from metal objects the size of automobiles, aircraft, and ships, and other vehicles.  Thus, the narrow beamwidths possible with high gain antennas and the low atmospheric attenuation as compared with higher frequencies make SHF the main frequencies used in radar.  Attenuation and scattering by moisture in the atmosphere is a factor at the high end of the band.

text: Microwaves propagate entirely by

text: line of sight

text: groundwave

text: and

text: skywave

text: ("skip") propagation do not occur.  Although in some cases they can penetrate building walls enough for useful reception, unobstructed rights of way cleared to the first

text: Fresnel zone

text: are usually required.  Wavelengths are small enough that they can be focused into narrow beams by

text: parabolic

text: and

text: horn antenna

text: s from a half meter to five meters in diameter.  Therefore, they are used in

text: point-to-point

text: terrestrial communications links limited by the visual horizon (about 40 miles).  Such

text: high gain antenna

text: s allow

text: frequency reuse

text: by nearby transmitters.  The size of SHF waves allow large reflections from metal objects the size of automobiles, aircraft, and ships, and other vehicles.  Thus, the narrow

text: beamwidth

text: s possible with high gain antennas and the low atmospheric attenuation as compared with higher frequencies make SHF the main frequencies used in

text: radar

text: .  Attenuation and scattering by moisture in the atmosphere is a factor at the high end of the band.

text: Pacific salmon are harvested throughout the world as a source of food in countries ranging from the United States to South Korea. Over the past century, pacific salmon have been extensively fished through both recreational, artisan and commercial fishing. In fact, since the 1970s there has been a nearly threefold increase in catch of pacific salmon. As this catch has increased, a selection of reduced body size has been observed. In Japanese Chum Salmon, for example, between 1970 and 1988 there has been a continuous decrease in body weight averaging between 11 and 32 percent. In part, this decline in body weight has been related to the size selective effect of fishing gear used in the harvesting of salmon populations. Salmon of larger body weight are more apt to be caught during fishing efforts, causing lower body weight to be a beneficial character trait for survival. Thus, pacific salmon have become continuously smaller in body size. However, studies have also shown that for pacific salmon a larger mean size at the time of reproduction increases the survival of offspring. The life history of salmon favors delayed reproduction because fecundity increased with body size. Consequently, the smaller body size of salmon results in a negative impact on population growth by decreasing the survivability of progeny, and thus decreasing the growth rate of populations. This reduction of productivity in pacific salmon is, in part, seeded in the overfishing and has caused a reduction in population sizes throughout pacific salmon species. Today, it seems that population numbers of pacific salmon are on the rise, however the consequences from the overfishing in the 70s and 80s are still being reflected with the average body size of salmon being smaller than before the event of overfishing.

text: Pacific salmon are harvested throughout the world as a source of food in countries ranging from the United States to South Korea. Over the past century, pacific salmon have been extensively fished through both

text: recreational

text: artisan

text: and

text: commercial fishing

text: . In fact, since the 1970s there has been a nearly threefold increase in catch of pacific salmon. As this catch has increased, a selection of reduced body size has been observed. In Japanese

text: Chum Salmon

text: , for example, between 1970 and 1988 there has been a continuous decrease in body weight averaging between 11 and 32 percent. In part, this decline in body weight has been related to the size selective effect of fishing gear used in the harvesting of salmon populations. Salmon of larger body weight are more apt to be caught during fishing efforts, causing lower body weight to be a beneficial character trait for survival. Thus, pacific salmon have become continuously smaller in body size. However, studies have also shown that for pacific salmon a larger mean size at the time of reproduction increases the survival of

text: offspring

text: . The

text: life history

text: of salmon favors delayed reproduction because

text: fecundity

text: increased with body size. Consequently, the smaller body size of salmon results in a negative impact on population growth by decreasing the survivability of progeny, and thus decreasing the growth rate of populations. This reduction of productivity in pacific salmon is, in part, seeded in the overfishing and has caused a reduction in population sizes throughout pacific salmon species. Today, it seems that population numbers of pacific salmon are on the rise, however the consequences from the overfishing in the 70s and 80s are still being reflected with the average body size of salmon being smaller than before the event of overfishing.

text: Globally, the production of food is unequal. This is because there are two main components involved in sustenance production that are also distributed irregularly. These components are the environmental capacity of the area, and the human capacity. Environmental capacity is its ability ‘to accommodate a particular activity or rate of an activity without unacceptable impact’. The climate, soil types, and availability of water affect it. Human capacity, in relation to food production, is the size of the population and the amount of agricultural skill within that population. When these two are at ideal levels and partnered with financial capital, the creation of intense agricultural infrastructure is possible, as the Green Revolution clearly portrays.

text: Globally, the production of food is unequal. This is because there are two main components involved in sustenance production that are also distributed irregularly. These components are the

text: environmental capacity

text: of the area, and the human capacity. Environmental capacity is its ability ‘to accommodate a particular activity or rate of an activity without unacceptable impact’. The climate, soil types, and availability of water affect it. Human capacity, in relation to food production, is the size of the population and the amount of agricultural skill within that population. When these two are at ideal levels and partnered with financial capital, the creation of intense agricultural infrastructure is possible, as the

text: Green Revolution

text: clearly portrays.

text: In biology, common limiting factor resources are environmental conditions that limit the growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism or a population of organisms in an ecosystem. The concept of limiting factors is based on Liebig's Law of the Minimum, which states that growth is controlled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource. In other words, a factor is limiting if a change in the factor produces increased growth, abundance or distribution of an organism, when other factors necessary to the organisms life do not. Limiting factors may be physical or biological.

text: In biology, common limiting factor

text: resources

text: are environmental conditions that limit the growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism or a population of organisms in an ecosystem. The concept of limiting factors is based on

text: Liebig's Law

text: of the Minimum, which states that growth is controlled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource. In other words, a factor is limiting if a change in the factor produces increased growth, abundance or distribution of an organism, when other factors necessary to the organisms life do not. Limiting factors may be physical or biological.

text: Technology can play a role in the dynamics of carrying capacity and while this can sometimes be positive, in other cases its influence can be problematic. For example, it has been suggested that in the past that the Neolithic revolution increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans through the invention of agriculture.  In a similar way, viewed from the perspective of foods, the use of fossil fuels has been alleged to artificially increase the carrying capacity of the world by the use of stored sunlight, even though that food production does not guarantee the capacity of the Earth's climatic and biospheric life-support systems to withstand the damage and wastes arising from such fossil fuels.  Again, however, such interpretations presume the continued and uninterrupted functioning of all other critical components of the global system.  It has also been suggested that other technological advances that have increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans are: polders, fertilizer, composting, greenhouses, land reclamation, and fish farming. In an adverse way, however, many technologies enable economic entities and individual humans to inflict far more damage and eradication, far more quickly, efficiently, and on a wider-scale than ever. (Machine guns, chain saws, earth-movers, and the capacity of industrialized fishing fleets to capture and harvest targeted fish species faster than the fish themselves can reproduce are examples of such problematic outcomes of technology.)

text: Technology can play a role in the dynamics of carrying capacity and while this can sometimes be positive, in other cases its influence can be problematic. For example, it has been suggested that in the past that the

text: Neolithic

text: revolution increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans through the invention of agriculture.  In a similar way, viewed from the perspective of foods, the use of

text: fossil fuel

text: s has been alleged to artificially increase the carrying capacity of the world by the use of stored sunlight, even though that food production does not guarantee the capacity of the Earth's climatic and biospheric life-support systems to withstand the damage and wastes arising from such fossil fuels.  Again, however, such interpretations presume the continued and uninterrupted functioning of all other critical components of the global system.  It has also been suggested that other technological advances that have increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans are:

text: polder

text: s,

text: fertilizer

text: composting

text: greenhouse

text: s,

text: land reclamation

text: , and

text: fish farming

text: . In an adverse way, however, many technologies enable economic entities and individual humans to inflict far more damage and eradication, far more quickly, efficiently, and on a wider-scale than ever. (Machine guns, chain saws, earth-movers, and the capacity of industrialized fishing fleets to capture and harvest targeted fish species faster than the fish themselves can reproduce are examples of such problematic outcomes of technology.)

text: The factors mentioned above may either cause an increase or a decrease in population size, depending on the organism. For example, rainfall may encourage the growth of new plants, but too much of it may cause flooding, which may drastically decrease the population size.

text: There are 481 Beds and has a passenger capacity of 691 persons. There are a combination of interior and exterior cabins of varying sizes and passenger capacities. There are also a small selection of suites available. Each standard cabin (non-suite) is equipped with either two or three single beds (not movable) and a private washroom with shower, sink, and toilet. Suite cabins have a small lounge area with a table, sofa, and chair. They also feature a double or queen-sized bed, a TV, a desk, and a minibar.

text: There are 481 Beds and has a passenger capacity of 691 persons. There are a combination of interior and exterior cabins of varying sizes and passenger capacities. There are also a small selection of suites available. Each standard cabin (non-suite) is equipped with either two or three single beds (not movable) and a private washroom with shower, sink, and toilet. Suite cabins have a small lounge area with a table, sofa, and chair. They also feature a double or queen-sized bed, a TV, a desk, and a

text: minibar

text: logy to estimate an animal population's size. A portion of the population is captured, marked, and released. Later, another portion is captured and the number of marked individuals within the sample is counted. Since the number of marked individuals within the second sample should be proportional to the number of marked individuals in the whole population, an estimate of the total population size can be obtained by dividing the number of marked individuals by the proportion of marked individuals in the second sample. The method is most useful when it is not practical to count all the individuals in the population. Other names for this method, or closely related methods, include capture-recapture, capture-mark-recapture, mark-recapture, sight-resight, mark-release-recapture, multiple systems estimation, band recovery, the Petersen method, and the Lincoln method.

text: l

text: ogy

text: to estimate an animal

text: population

text: 's size. A portion of the population is captured, marked, and released. Later, another portion is captured and the number of marked individuals within the sample is counted. Since the number of marked individuals within the second sample should be proportional to the number of marked individuals in the whole population, an estimate of the total population size can be obtained by dividing the number of marked individuals by the proportion of marked individuals in the second sample. The method is most useful when it is not practical to count all the individuals in the population. Other names for this method, or closely related methods, include capture-recapture, capture-mark-recapture, mark-recapture, sight-resight, mark-release-recapture, multiple systems estimation, band recovery, the Petersen method, and the Lincoln method.

text: Sometimes the term underpopulation is applied to a specific economic system. It does not refer to carrying capacity, and is not a term in opposition to overpopulation, which deals with the total possible population that can be sustained by available food, water, sanitation and other infrastructure.  "Underpopulation" is usually defined as a state in which a country's population has declined too much to support its current economic system. Thus the term has nothing to do with the biological aspects of carrying capacity, but is an economic term employed to imply that the transfer payment schemes of some developed countries might fail once the population declines to a certain point. An example would be if retirees were supported through a social security system which does not invest savings, and then a large emigration movement occurred. In this case, the younger generation may not be able to support the older generation.

text: Sometimes the term underpopulation is applied to a specific economic system. It does not refer to carrying capacity, and is not a term in opposition to

text: overpopulation

text: , which deals with the total possible population that can be sustained by available food, water, sanitation and other infrastructure.  "Underpopulation" is usually defined as a state in which a country's population has declined too much to support its current economic system. Thus the term has nothing to do with the biological aspects of

text: carrying capacity

text: , but is an economic term employed to imply that the

text: transfer payment

text: schemes of some developed countries might fail once the population declines to a certain point. An example would be if retirees were supported through a

text: social security

text: system which does not invest savings, and then a large emigration movement occurred. In this case, the younger generation may not be able to support the older generation.

text: S. gracilis was the smallest species, estimated at  in weight, about the size of a jaguar. It was similar to its predecessor Megantereon of the same size, but its dentition and skull were more advanced, approaching S. fatalis. S. fatalis was intermediate in size between S. gracilis and S. populator. It ranged from . and reached a shoulder height of  and body length of . It was similar to a lion in dimensions, but was more robust and muscular, and therefore had a larger body mass. Its skull was also similar to that of Megantereon, though more massive and with larger canines. S. populator was perhaps the largest known felid, with a body mass range of , and one estimate suggesting up to . It stood at a shoulder height of . Compared to S. fatalis, S. populator was more robust and had a more elongated and narrow skull with a straighter upper profile, higher positioned nasal bones, a more vertical occiput, more massive metapodials and slightly longer forelimbs relative to hindlimbs. Large tracks from Argentina (for which the ichnotaxon name Smilodonichium has been proposed) have been attributed to S. populator, and measure  cm by  cm. This is larger than tracks of the Bengal tiger, to which the footprints have been compared.

text: S. gracilis was the smallest species, estimated at  in weight, about the size of a

text: jaguar

text: . It was similar to its predecessor Megantereon of the same size, but its dentition and skull were more advanced, approaching S. fatalis. S. fatalis was intermediate in size between S. gracilis and S. populator. It ranged from . and reached a shoulder height of  and body length of . It was similar to a

text: lion

text: in dimensions, but was more robust and muscular, and therefore had a larger body mass. Its skull was also similar to that of Megantereon, though more massive and with larger canines. S. populator was perhaps

text: the largest known felid

text: , with a body mass range of , and one estimate suggesting up to . It stood at a shoulder height of . Compared to S. fatalis, S. populator was more robust and had a more elongated and narrow skull with a straighter upper profile, higher positioned

text: nasal bones

text: , a more vertical

text: occiput

text: , more massive

text: metapodials

text: and slightly longer forelimbs relative to hindlimbs. Large tracks from Argentina (for which the

text: ichnotaxon

text: name Smilodonichium has been proposed) have been attributed to S. populator, and measure  cm by  cm. This is larger than tracks of the

text: Bengal tiger

text: , to which the footprints have been compared.

text: 2014 Waste Atlas report is dedicated to the unsound disposal and particular in dumpsites. The 50 biggest dumpsites around the world are listed with their most important information related to their operation and visualized in a unified way. Data related to the amount and the type of waste disposed in place, the size, the waste concentration, the number of informal waste pickers , the population and the natural resources within a radius of 10 km and the distance of the nearest settlements are presented. The research relied on crowd-sourcing 59,000 files from 25 countries. The results of the report highlight the health and environmental impacts of dumpsites  and show that the 50 biggest active dumpsites affect daily lives of 64 million people, a figure almost equal to the population of France, their total waste volume is 0.6-0.8 m almost 200-300 times the volume of the Great Pyramid of Giza. The statistical analysis showed that a typical waste covers an area of 24 ha equal to around 29 big international football fields.

text: 2014 Waste Atlas report is dedicated to the unsound disposal and particular in dumpsites. The 50 biggest dumpsites around the world are listed with their most important information related to their operation and visualized in a unified way. Data related to the amount and the type of waste disposed in place, the size, the waste concentration, the number of

text: informal waste pickers

text: , the population and the natural resources within a radius of 10 km and the distance of the nearest settlements are presented. The research relied on crowd-sourcing 59,000 files from 25 countries. The results of the report highlight the health and environmental impacts of dumpsites  and show that the 50 biggest active dumpsites affect daily lives of 64 million people, a figure almost equal to the

text: population of France

text: , their total waste volume is 0.6-0.8 m almost 200-300 times the volume of the

text: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: . The statistical analysis showed that a typical waste covers an area of 24 ha equal to around 29 big international

text: football fields

text: It does this by supporting a variety of algorithms and choosing the one (a particular decomposition of the transform into smaller transforms) it estimates or measures to be preferable in the particular circumstances. It works best on arrays of sizes with small prime factors, with powers of two being optimal and large primes being worst case (but still O(n log n)). To decompose transforms of composite sizes into smaller transforms, it chooses among several variants of the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm (corresponding to different factorizations and/or different memory-access patterns), while for prime sizes it uses either Rader's or Bluestein's FFT algorithm. Once the transform has been broken up into subtransforms of sufficiently small sizes, FFTW uses hard-coded unrolled FFTs for these small sizes that were produced (at compile time, not at run time) by code generation; these routines use a variety of algorithms including Cooley–Tukey variants, Rader's algorithm, and prime-factor FFT algorithms.

text: It does this by supporting a variety of algorithms and choosing the one (a particular decomposition of the transform into smaller transforms) it

text: estimates

text: or measures to be preferable in the particular circumstances. It works best on arrays of sizes with small

text: prime factor

text: s, with

text: powers of two

text: being optimal and large

text: prime

text: s being worst case (but still

text: O

text: n log n

text: )). To decompose transforms of

text: composite

text: sizes into smaller transforms, it chooses among several variants of the

text: Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm

text: (corresponding to different factorizations and/or different memory-access patterns), while for prime sizes it uses either

text: Rader's

text: or

text: Bluestein's FFT algorithm

text: . Once the transform has been broken up into subtransforms of sufficiently small sizes, FFTW uses

text: hard-coded

text: unrolled

text: FFTs for these small sizes that were produced (at

text: compile time

text: , not at

text: run time

text: ) by

text: code generation

text: ; these routines use a variety of algorithms including Cooley–Tukey variants, Rader's algorithm, and

text: prime-factor FFT algorithm

text: s.

text: These factors are not absolute and other factors that the court may deem necessary may also be taken into account. When the nature of the right is considered, the courts will have to take into account the content of the right, the importance of the right and the interest which is protected. It is, for instance, very difficult to justifiably limit the right to life as the Constitutional Court held in S v Makwanyane where capital punishment was abolished. The promotion and protection of a permissible or lawful public interest will be important when considering the limitation and its purpose. Further, the Constitution requires a less restrictive means to be considered, rather than limiting the rights of an individual, in achieving that purpose.

text: These factors are not absolute and other factors that the court may deem necessary may also be taken into account. When the nature of the right is considered, the courts will have to take into account the content of the right, the importance of the right and the interest which is protected. It is, for instance, very difficult to justifiably limit the right to life as the Constitutional Court held in

text: S v Makwanyane

text: where capital punishment was abolished. The promotion and protection of a permissible or lawful public interest will be important when considering the limitation and its purpose. Further, the Constitution requires a less restrictive means to be considered, rather than limiting the rights of an individual, in achieving that purpose.

text: While the urban population is estimated  to consist of 23.453 citizens, the rural population lives in 77 villages with a total number of 65.046 residents. From the overall population, Albanians are 87.523, Ashkali 680, Roma 75, Bosniaks 33, Serbs 12, Turks 5, Egyptians 2 and the other 43 and not specified.  The city faces a low ratio of internal migration  but a high rate of commuting.  98% of the residents are Muslim. The  illiteracy  ratio is lower than 5%. The average years of schooling is 9.0 to 9.2. Labor force is smaller than 40.1%  and the employment rate is lower than 20.1% while the unemployment rate is between 45 and 51%. The average size of the households is between 6  and 7%. The usage of internet is Between 50.1%  and 57%.

text: Population change is analyzed by measuring the change between one population size to another. Global population continues to rise, which makes population change an essential component to demographics. This is calculated by taking one population size minus the population size in an earlier census.  The best way of measuring population change is using the intercensal percentage change.  The intercensal percentage change is the absolute change in population between the censuses divided by the population size in the earlier census. Next, multiply this a hundredfold to receive a percentage.  When this statistic is achieved, the population growth between two or more nations that differ in size, can be accurately measured and examined.

text: Population change is analyzed by measuring the change between one population size to another.

text: Global population

text: continues to rise, which makes population change an essential component to demographics. This is calculated by taking one population size minus the population size in an earlier

text: census

text: .  The best way of measuring population change is using the intercensal percentage change.  The intercensal percentage change is the

text: absolute change

text: in population between the censuses divided by the population size in the earlier census. Next, multiply this a hundredfold to receive a

text: percentage

text: .  When this statistic is achieved, the

text: population growth

text: between two or more

text: nation

text: s that differ in size, can be accurately measured and examined.

text: There are strong links between weed invasion of natural areas and the proximity and density of housing. The size and duration of the community have a direct relation to the density of weed infestation. Of the various means in which migration of exotic species from gardens take place, such as vegetative dispersal of runners, wind born and fallen seed, garden waste dumping can play a significant role. The results of one North German study found that of the problematic population of Fallopia, app. 29% originated from garden waste. Of a population of Heracleum mantegazzianum, 18% was found by Schepker to be generated by garden waste (as cited by Kowarik & von der Lippe, 2008) pg 24-25.

text: There are strong links between weed invasion of natural areas and the proximity and density of housing. The size and duration of the community have a direct relation to the density of weed infestation. Of the various means in which migration of exotic species from gardens take place, such as vegetative dispersal of runners, wind born and fallen seed, garden waste dumping can play a significant role. The results of one North German study found that of the problematic population of

text: Fallopia

text: , app. 29% originated from garden waste. Of a population of

text: Heracleum mantegazzianum

text: , 18% was found by Schepker to be generated by garden waste (as cited by Kowarik & von der Lippe, 2008) pg 24-25.

text: Heat capacity is an extensive property of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. When expressing the same phenomenon as an intensive property, the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.  The molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per unit amount (SI unit: mole) of a pure substance and the specific heat capacity, often called simply specific heat, is the heat capacity per unit mass of a material. Nonetheless some authors use the term specific heat to refer to the ratio of the specific heat capacity of a substance at any given temperature, to the specific heat capacity of another substance at a reference temperature, much in the fashion of specific gravity. In some engineering contexts, the volumetric heat capacity is used.

text: Heat capacity is an

text: extensive property

text: of matter, meaning it is proportional to the size of the system. When expressing the same phenomenon as an

text: intensive property

text: , the heat capacity is divided by the amount of substance, mass, or volume, thus the quantity is independent of the size or extent of the sample.  The molar heat capacity is the heat capacity per unit amount (SI unit:

text: mole

text: ) of a pure substance and the specific heat capacity, often called simply specific heat, is the heat capacity per unit mass of a material. Nonetheless some authors use the term specific heat to refer to the ratio of the specific heat capacity of a substance at any given temperature, to the specific heat capacity of another substance at a reference temperature, much in the fashion of

text: specific gravity

text: . In some engineering contexts, the

text: volumetric heat capacity

text: is used.

text: Jupiter captures a population of irregular satellites and the relative size of Saturn's population is increased.During gravitational encounters between planets, the hyperbolic orbits of unbound planetesimals around one giant planet are perturbed by the presence of the other. If the geometry and velocities are right, these three-body interactions leave the planetesimal in a bound orbit when planets separate. Although this process is reversible, loosely bound satellites including possible primordial satellites can also escape during these encounters, tightly bound satellites remain and the number of irregular satellites increases over a series of encounters. Following the encounters, the satellites with inclinations between 60° and 130° are lost due the Kozai resonance and the more distant prograde satellites are lost to the evection resonance. Collisions among the satellites result in the formation of families, in a significant loss of mass, and in a shift of their size distribution. The populations and orbits of Jupiter's irregular satellites captured in simulations are largely consistent with observations. Himalia, which has a spectra similar to asteroids in the middle of the asteroid belt, is somewhat larger than the largest captured in simulations. If it was a primordial object its odds of surviving the series of gravitational encounters range from 0.01 - 0.3, with the odds falling as the number increases. Saturn has more frequent encounters with the ice giant in the jumping-Jupiter scenario, and Uranus and Neptune have a reduce number of encounters if that was a fifth giant planet. This increases the size of Saturn's population relative to Uranus and Neptune when compared to the original Nice model, producing a closer match with observations.

text: Jupiter captures a population of irregular satellites and the relative size of Saturn's population is increased.During gravitational encounters between planets, the hyperbolic orbits of unbound planetesimals around one giant planet are perturbed by the presence of the other. If the geometry and velocities are right, these three-body interactions leave the planetesimal in a bound orbit when planets separate. Although this process is reversible, loosely bound satellites including possible primordial satellites can also escape during these encounters, tightly bound satellites remain and the number of irregular satellites increases over a series of encounters. Following the encounters, the satellites with inclinations between 60° and 130° are lost due the Kozai resonance and the more distant prograde satellites are lost to the evection resonance. Collisions among the satellites result in the formation of families, in a significant loss of mass, and in a shift of their size distribution. The populations and orbits of Jupiter's irregular satellites captured in simulations are largely consistent with observations.

text: Himalia

text: , which has a spectra similar to asteroids in the middle of the asteroid belt, is somewhat larger than the largest captured in simulations. If it was a primordial object its odds of surviving the series of gravitational encounters range from 0.01 - 0.3, with the odds falling as the number increases. Saturn has more frequent encounters with the ice giant in the jumping-Jupiter scenario, and Uranus and Neptune have a reduce number of encounters if that was a fifth giant planet. This increases the size of Saturn's population relative to Uranus and Neptune when compared to the original Nice model, producing a closer match with observations.

text: Where other designs emphasised large air groups as the primary means of defence, the Illustrious class relied on their anti-aircraft armament and the passive defence provided by an armoured flight deck for survival; resulting in a reduced aircraft complement. Other carriers had armour carried on lower decks (e.g. the hangar deck or main deck); the unprotected flight deck and the hangar below it formed part of the superstructure, and were unprotected against even small bombs. However, the hangar could be made larger and thus more aircraft could be carried, but the differences in aircraft capacity between these carriers and their United States Navy (USN) counterparts is largely due to the USN's operational doctrine, which allowed for a permanent deck park of aircraft to augment their hangar capacity. Illustrious's hangar was 82% as large as USS Enterprise's but Enterprise typically carried 30% of her aircraft capacity in her deck park. Indomitable's two hangars were actually larger than Enterprise's but she carried fewer aircraft because she did not have a large permanent deck park. In 1944/45 RN carriers began to carry a permanent deck park of similar size to their USN counterparts and this increased their aircraft complement to an eventual 57 aircraft in the single hangar carriers and up to 81 in the double hangar, 23,400 ton Implacable design, compared to 90–110 for the 27,500 ton US Essex class.

text: Where other designs emphasised large air groups as the primary means of defence, the Illustrious class relied on their

text: anti-aircraft armament

text: and the passive defence provided by an

text: armoured

text: flight deck

text: for survival; resulting in a reduced aircraft complement. Other carriers had armour carried on lower decks (e.g. the hangar deck or main deck); the unprotected flight deck and the hangar below it formed part of the

text: superstructure

text: , and were unprotected against even small bombs. However, the hangar could be made larger and thus more aircraft could be carried, but the differences in aircraft capacity between these carriers and their United States Navy (USN) counterparts is largely due to the USN's operational doctrine, which allowed for a permanent deck park of aircraft to augment their hangar capacity. Illustrious's hangar was 82% as large as

text: USS Enterprise

text: 's but Enterprise typically carried 30% of her aircraft capacity in her deck park. Indomitable's two hangars were actually larger than Enterprise's but she carried fewer aircraft because she did not have a large permanent deck park. In 1944/45 RN carriers began to carry a permanent deck park of similar size to their USN counterparts and this increased their aircraft complement to an eventual 57 aircraft in the single hangar carriers and up to 81 in the double hangar, 23,400 ton

text: Implacable

text: design, compared to 90–110 for the 27,500 ton US Essex class.

text: Today, the effective population size is usually estimated empirically with respect to the sojourn or coalescence time, estimated as the within-species genetic diversity divided by the mutation rate, yielding a coalescent effective population size. Another important effective population size is the selection effective population size 1/s, where s is the critical value of the selection coefficient at which selection becomes more important than genetic drift.

text: Today, the effective population size is usually estimated empirically with respect to the

text: sojourn

text: or

text: coalescence time

text: , estimated as the within-species

text: genetic diversity

text: divided by the

text: mutation rate

text: , yielding a coalescent effective population size. Another important effective population size is the selection effective population size 1/s, where s is the critical value of the

text: selection coefficient

text: at which selection becomes more important than

text: genetic drift

text: Tanzania, officially known as the United Republic of Tanzania, is a mid-sized country in southeastern Africa bordering the Indian Ocean. It is home to a population of about 43.1 million people. Since gaining its independence from the United Kingdom in 1961, Tanzania has been continuously developing in terms of its economy and modern industry. However, the country’s economic success has been limited. Environmental obstacles, such as the mismanagement of natural resources and industrial waste, have been contributing factors and results of the relatively low economic status of the country. Tanzania’s annual output still falls below the average world GDP. In 2010, the GDP for Tanzania was US $23.3 billion and the GDP per capita was US $1,515. Comparatively, the GDP for the United States was $15.1 trillion and the GDP per capita was approximately $47,153. Eighty percent of the workers accounting for this annual output in Tanzania work in agriculture, while the remaining 20% work in industry, commerce, and government organizations. Such a heavy reliance on agriculture has placed a huge amount of strain on an already limited supply of viable land.

text: Tanzania, officially known as the

text: United Republic of Tanzania

text: , is a mid-sized country in southeastern

text: Africa

text: bordering the

text: Indian Ocean

text: . It is home to a population of about 43.1 million people. Since gaining its independence from the

text: United Kingdom

text: in 1961, Tanzania has been continuously developing in terms of its economy and modern industry. However, the country’s economic success has been limited. Environmental obstacles, such as the mismanagement of natural resources and industrial waste, have been contributing factors and results of the relatively low economic status of the country. Tanzania’s annual output still falls below the average world

text: GDP

text: . In 2010, the GDP for Tanzania was US $23.3 billion and the GDP per capita was US $1,515. Comparatively, the GDP for the United States was $15.1 trillion and the GDP per capita was approximately $47,153. Eighty percent of the workers accounting for this annual output in Tanzania work in agriculture, while the remaining 20% work in industry, commerce, and government organizations. Such a heavy reliance on agriculture has placed a huge amount of strain on an already limited supply of viable land.

text: Firstly, the formula for the population standard deviation (of a finite population) can be applied to the sample, using the size of the sample as the size of the population (though the actual population size from which the sample is drawn may be much larger). This estimator, denoted by s, is known as the uncorrected sample standard deviation, or sometimes the standard deviation of the sample (considered as the entire population), and is defined as follows:

text: Returning to the concept of residential segregation, it is known that affluence and poverty have become both highly segregated and concentrated in relation to race and location. Residential segregation and poverty concentration is most markedly seen in the comparison between urban and suburban populations in which suburbs consist of majority White populations and inner-cities consist of majority minority populations. According to Barnhouse-Walters (2001), the concentration of poor minority populations in inner-cities and the concentration of affluent White populations in the suburbs, "is the main mechanism by which racial inequality in educational resources is reproduced."

text: Noting that population size is generally inversely proportional to generation time, Tomoko Ohta proposed that if most amino acid substitutions are slightly deleterious, this would increase the rate of effectively neutral mutation rate in small populations, which could offset the effect of long generation times. However, because noncoding DNA substitutions tend to be more neutral, independent of population size, their rate of evolution is correctly predicted to depend on population size / generation time, unlike the rate of non-synonymous changes.

text: Noting that population size is generally inversely proportional to generation time, Tomoko Ohta proposed that if most

text: amino acid

text: substitutions are slightly deleterious, this would increase the rate of effectively neutral mutation rate in small populations, which could offset the effect of long generation times. However, because

text: noncoding DNA

text: substitutions tend to be more neutral, independent of population size, their rate of evolution is correctly predicted to depend on population size / generation time, unlike the rate of non-synonymous changes.

text: Under the system applied in the IUCN Red List database, species are classified in nine categories, set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation.

text: Under the system applied in the

text: IUCN Red List

text: database, species are classified in nine categories, set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation.

text: Stream capacity is often mistaken for the stream competency, which is a measure of  the maximum size of the particles that the stream can transport, or for the total load, which is the load that a stream actually carries.

text: Stream capacity is often mistaken for the

text: stream competency

text: , which is a measure of  the maximum size of the particles that the stream can transport, or for the

text: total load

text: , which is the load that a stream actually carries.

text: Increasingly, exosomes are being recognized as potential therapeutics as they have the ability to elicit potent cellular responses in vitro and in vivo. Exosomes mediate regenerative outcomes in injury and disease that recapitulate observed bioactivity of stem cell populations. Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes were found to activate several signaling pathways important in wound healing (Akt, ERK, and STAT3) and induce the expression of a number of growth factors (hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1), nerve growth factor (NGF), and stromal-derived growth factor-1 (SDF1)). Exosomes secreted by human circulating fibrocytes, a population of mesenchymal progenitors involved in normal wound healing via paracrine signaling, exhibited in-vitro proangiogenic properties, activated diabetic dermal fibroblasts, induced the migration and proliferation of diabetic keratinocytes, and accelerated wound closure in diabetic mice in vivo. Important components of the exosomal cargo were heat shock protein-90α, total and activated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, proangiogenic (miR-126, miR-130a, miR-132) and anti-inflammatory (miR124a, miR-125b) microRNAs, and a microRNA regulating collagen deposition (miR-21).  Exosomes can be considered a promising carrier for effective delivery of small interfering RNA due to their existence in body’s endogenous system and high tolerance. Patient-derived exosomes have been employed as a novel cancer immunotherapy in several clinical trials.

text: Increasingly, exosomes are being recognized as potential therapeutics as they have the ability to elicit potent cellular responses in vitro and in vivo. Exosomes mediate regenerative outcomes in injury and disease that recapitulate observed bioactivity of

text: stem cell

text: populations.

text: Mesenchymal stem cell

text: exosomes were found to activate several

text: signaling pathways

text: important in

text: wound

text: healing (

text: Akt

text: ERK

text: , and

text: ) and induce the expression of a number of growth factors (

text: hepatocyte growth factor

text: (HGF),

text: insulin-like growth factor-1

text: nerve growth factor

text: (NGF), and

text: stromal-derived growth factor-1

text: (SDF1)). Exosomes secreted by human circulating fibrocytes, a population of mesenchymal progenitors involved in normal wound healing via

text: paracrine signaling

text: , exhibited in-vitro proangiogenic properties, activated diabetic dermal fibroblasts, induced the migration and proliferation of diabetic keratinocytes, and accelerated wound closure in diabetic mice in vivo. Important components of the exosomal cargo were

entity_name: Heat shock protein 90kDa alpha (cytosolic), member A1

text: heat shock protein-90α

text: , total and activated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, proangiogenic (miR-126, miR-130a, miR-132) and anti-inflammatory (miR124a, miR-125b)

text: microRNA

text: s, and a microRNA regulating

text: collagen

text: deposition (miR-21).  Exosomes can be considered a promising carrier for effective delivery of

text: small interfering RNA

text: due to their existence in body’s endogenous system and high tolerance. Patient-derived exosomes have been employed as a novel cancer immunotherapy in several clinical trials.

text: The way in which resources are partitioned by organisms also varies and can be split into scramble and contest competition. Scramble competition involves a relatively even distribution of resources among a population as all individuals exploit a common resource pool. In contrast, contest competition is the uneven distribution of resources and occurs when hierarchies in a population influence the amount of resource each individual receives. Organisms in the most prized territories or at the top of the hierarchies obtain a sufficient quantity of the resources, whereas individuals without a territory don’t obtain any of the resource.

text: The way in which resources are partitioned by organisms also varies and can be split into

text: scramble

text: and contest competition. Scramble competition involves a relatively even distribution of resources among a population as all individuals exploit a common resource pool. In contrast, contest competition is the uneven distribution of resources and occurs when

text: hierarchies

text: in a population influence the amount of resource each individual receives. Organisms in the most prized

text: territories

text: or at the top of the hierarchies obtain a sufficient quantity of the resources, whereas individuals without a territory don’t obtain any of the resource.

text: Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in medieval times. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest  height. (See below.)

text: Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a

text: sandspit

text: , it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the

text: high-rise

text: buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's

text: skyline

text: is not substantially different from in

text: medieval times

text: . A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest  height. (See below.)

text: Species can compete with each other for finite resources. It is considered to be an important limiting factor of population size, biomass and species richness. Many types of competition have been described, but proving the existence of these interactions is a matter of debate. Direct competition has been observed between individuals, populations and species, but there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups.

text: Species can

text: compete

text: with each other for finite

text: resources

text: . It is considered to be an important limiting factor of

text: population size

text: biomass

text: and

text: species richness

text: . Many types of competition have been described, but proving the existence of these interactions is a matter of debate. Direct competition has been observed between individuals, populations and species, but there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups.

text: The next stage of EDAs development was the use of multivariate factorizations. In this case, the joint probability distribution is usually factorized in a number of components of limited size

text: The IUCN lists the California sea lion as Least Concern due to "its large and increasing population size." The estimated population is 238,000–241,000 for the U.S. or Pacific Temperate stock, 75,000–85,000 for the Western Baja California or Pacific Tropical stock, and 31,393 for the population in the Gulf of California. Off the Pacific coast of the United States, sea lions are so numerous that they are close to carrying capacity, while the Gulf of California population declined by 20% by 2008. Sea lions may be killed when in conflict with fishermen, by poaching, and by entanglements in man-made garbage. They are also threatened by pollutants like DDT and PCB which accumulate in the marine food chain.

text: The

entity_name: International Union for Conservation of Nature

text: IUCN

text: lists the California sea lion as Least Concern due to "its large and increasing population size." The estimated population is 238,000–241,000 for the U.S. or Pacific Temperate stock, 75,000–85,000 for the Western Baja California or Pacific Tropical stock, and 31,393 for the population in the Gulf of California. Off the

text: Pacific coast of the United States

text: , sea lions are so numerous that they are close to

text: carrying capacity

text: , while the Gulf of California population declined by 20% by 2008. Sea lions may be killed when in conflict with

text: fishermen

text: , by

text: poaching

text: , and by entanglements in man-made garbage. They are also threatened by pollutants like

text: DDT

text: and

text: PCB

text: which accumulate in the marine food chain.

text: The disk's size was stored and calculated as a 16-bit count of sectors, which limited the size to 32 MiB for a logical sector size of 512 bytes. FAT12 was used by several manufacturers with different physical formats, but a typical floppy disk at the time was 5.25-inch (130 mm), single-sided, 40 tracks, with 8 sectors per track, resulting in a capacity of 160 KiB for both the system areas and files. The FAT12 limitations exceeded this capacity by a factor of ten or more. (NB. The 32 MiB limit was later circumvented using logical sectored FATs with logical sector sizes larger than 512 bytes in some OEM versions of MS-DOS 3.x, but this fell into disuse when FAT16B became available with DOS 3.31, which supported 32-bit sector numbers and thereby further lifted the limits.)

text: The disk's size was stored and calculated as a 16-bit count of

text: sectors

text: , which limited the size to 32 MiB for a logical sector size of 512 bytes. FAT12 was used by several manufacturers with different physical formats, but a typical floppy disk at the time was 5.25-inch (130 mm), single-sided, 40

text: tracks

text: , with 8 sectors per track, resulting in a capacity of 160 KiB for both the system areas and files. The FAT12 limitations exceeded this capacity by a factor of ten or more. (NB. The 32 MiB limit was later circumvented using

text: logical sectored FAT

text: s with logical sector sizes larger than 512 bytes in some OEM versions of MS-DOS 3.x, but this fell into disuse when

text: became available with DOS 3.31, which supported

text: sector numbers and thereby further lifted the limits.)

text: Declines in the abundance of wild salmon due to over fishing placed greater pressure on hatcheries to increase production and restore the wild salmon stock to supply fisheries. The problem is that hatcheries can never truly replicate the environment of wild salmon, an issue which often results in physiological and behavioral differences between wild salmon and those reared in hatcheries. These differences are often the product of genetic changes associated with inbreeding, artificial selection, and natural selection as well as different environmental pressures acting on hatchery fish than wild populations. Due to the size selective nature of fishing favoring larger fish, a reduction in average size of the adult salmon has been observed over time. The smaller salmon make a greater proportion of the remaining individuals continuing the population, and problems arise when these hatchery-reared fish are introduced into the wild populations. Unlike wild salmon, larger salmon are selected for in hatcheries and are typically much larger than wild salmon. The result is that hatchery-produced salmon tend to out-compete wild salmon for space, food, and other resources. Some salmon species in hatcheries exhibit predatory behavior toward wild salmon because they grow to be much larger. Regardless of whether predation is observed, natural social interactions are disturbed by the release of large numbers of hatchery-reared salmon where wild populations are low because salmon in hatcheries naturally have a higher propensity towards aggressive behavior. Overall, natural salmon populations are put at risk when hatchery-reared salmon populations are introduced due to competition for resources, predation by larger individuals, and negative social interactions that upset the natural order observed in wild salmon populations. As a result, wild salmon populations are steadily dropping as the pressure to continue breeding salmon in hatcheries increases. Conservation efforts that work to place limitations on hatcheries to increase the wild salmon populations are hindered by financial pressures because hatcheries effectively support many states economically by accounting for over 70% of the salmon harvested for recreational and commercial purposes.

text: Declines in the abundance of wild salmon due to over fishing placed greater pressure on hatcheries to increase production and restore the wild salmon stock to supply fisheries. The problem is that hatcheries can never truly replicate the environment of

text: wild salmon

text: , an issue which often results in physiological and behavioral differences between wild salmon and those reared in hatcheries. These differences are often the product of genetic changes associated with

text: inbreeding

text: artificial selection

text: , and

text: natural selection

text: as well as different environmental pressures acting on hatchery fish than wild populations. Due to the size selective nature of fishing favoring larger fish, a reduction in average size of the adult salmon has been observed over time. The smaller salmon make a greater proportion of the remaining individuals continuing the population, and problems arise when these hatchery-reared fish are introduced into the wild populations. Unlike wild salmon, larger salmon are selected for in hatcheries and are typically much larger than wild salmon. The result is that hatchery-produced salmon tend to out-compete wild salmon for space, food, and other resources. Some salmon species in hatcheries exhibit

text: predatory behavior

text: toward wild salmon because they grow to be much larger. Regardless of whether predation is observed, natural

text: social interactions

text: are disturbed by the release of large numbers of hatchery-reared salmon where wild populations are low because salmon in hatcheries naturally have a higher propensity towards

text: aggressive behavior

text: . Overall, natural salmon populations are put at risk when hatchery-reared salmon populations are introduced due to competition for resources, predation by larger individuals, and negative social interactions that upset the natural order observed in wild salmon populations. As a result, wild salmon populations are steadily dropping as the pressure to continue breeding salmon in hatcheries increases.

text: Conservation efforts

text: that work to place limitations on hatcheries to increase the wild salmon populations are hindered by financial pressures because hatcheries effectively support many states

text: economically

text: by accounting for over 70% of the salmon harvested for

text: recreational

text: and

text: commercial

text: purposes.

text: In 2000, Clemson University Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences conducted a study on mountain biking and the sustainability of the sport as it relates to the natural environment and social confines. Matthew Symmonds and research associates outlines four capacities that must be met in order to sustain a trail or trail system: Physical Capacity, the amount of space a given activity demands, Ecological Capacity, how much damage the environment can withstand before detrimental effect, Facility Capacity, what a given population needs in order to enjoy such recreational areas; and Social Capacity, the point at which one decides how many users the trail can accommodate comfortably at any one time. Mountain biking is a sustainable sport in that once a trail or trail system is made, it can be used for many years, but like accommodating for specific carrying capacities, there are many concerns in maintenance and use. Resource managers, typically employed by private or federal agencies, are in position to make judgment on how and when trail maintenance needs to be done. Resource managers take care of outstanding trail conditions such as the following: erosion control, trail widening and or rutting, shortcuts, soil decomposition, damage to drainage structures, damage to flora, fauna and water structures. In order to preserve the sustainability and progress the mountain biking community has seen in the most recent of years, trail maintenance must be continual, from being proactive in legislation, to environmental awareness in physical maintenance.

text: In 2000,

text: Clemson University

text: The definitions of carrying capacity need to be considered as processes within a planning process for tourism development which involves:

text: In the year 1950,  were approximately 2.5 billion (2,500 million) humans alive in this world. By 1960, the number had reached 3 billion, and by 1975 was at 4 billion. The 5 billion mark was reached around 1987, and in 1993, at the New Delhi meeting, academics estimated the population to be 5.5 billion. For some time, world food production had been able to roughly match population growth, meaning that starvation was a regional and distributional problem, rather than one based on a total shortage of food. The scientists noted that increased food production on land and on sea in the previous decade was less than the population increase over the same period. Moreover, by increased food production and otherwise, the population growth was contributing to a loss of biodiversity, deforestation and loss of topsoil, and shortages of water and fuel. The academics noted that the complex relationships between population size and various environmental effects were not fully understood, but that "there is no doubt that the threat to the ecosystem is linked to population size and resource use". They were aware of the problems with increasing greenhouse emissions and other environmental threats, and found these linked to the population growth.

text: In the year 1950,  were approximately 2.5

text: billion

text: (2,500 million) humans alive in this world. By 1960, the number had reached 3 billion, and by 1975 was at 4 billion. The 5 billion mark was reached around 1987, and in 1993, at the New Delhi meeting, academics estimated the population to be 5.5 billion. For some time, world food production had been able to roughly match population growth, meaning that

text: starvation

text: was a regional and distributional problem, rather than one based on a total shortage of food. The scientists noted that increased food production on land and on sea in the previous decade was less than the population increase over the same period. Moreover, by increased food production and otherwise, the population growth was contributing to a loss of

text: biodiversity

text: deforestation

text: and loss of

text: topsoil

text: , and shortages of

text: water

text: and fuel. The academics noted that the complex relationships between population size and various environmental effects were not fully understood, but that "there is no doubt that the threat to the ecosystem is linked to population size and resource use". They were aware of the problems with increasing

text: greenhouse

text: emissions and other environmental threats, and found these linked to the population growth.

text: The Uyghurs are a Eurasian population with Eastern and Western Eurasian anthropometric and genetic traits. Uyghurs are thus one of the many populations of Central Eurasia that can be considered to be genetically related to European and East Asian populations.  However, various scientific studies differ on the size of each component. One study, using samples from Hetian (Hotan) only, found that Uyghurs have 60% European ancestry and 40% East Asian ancestry.  A further study showed slightly greater European component (52% European) in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang, but slightly greater East Asian component (47% European) in the northern Uyghur population.  Another study used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area, and found only about 30% European component to the admixture.  A study on mitochondrial DNA (therefore the matrilineal genetic contribution) found the frequency of western Eurasian-specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6%, and east-Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%  A further study shows that the western-Eurasian patrilineal Y-DNA haplogroup in Uyghurs is around 65% to 70%, and east-Asian Y-DNA haplogroup around 30% to 35%.

text: The Uyghurs are a

text: Eurasian

text: population with Eastern and Western Eurasian anthropometric and genetic traits. Uyghurs are thus one of the many populations of Central Eurasia that can be considered to be genetically related to European and East Asian populations.  However, various scientific studies differ on the size of each component. One study, using samples from Hetian (

text: Hotan

text: ) only, found that Uyghurs have 60% European ancestry and 40% East Asian ancestry.  A further study showed slightly greater European component (52% European) in the Uyghur population in southern Xinjiang, but slightly greater East Asian component (47% European) in the northern Uyghur population.  Another study used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area, and found only about 30% European component to the admixture.  A study on

text: mitochondrial DNA

text: (therefore the matrilineal genetic contribution) found the frequency of western Eurasian-specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6%, and east-Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%  A further study shows that the western-Eurasian patrilineal Y-DNA haplogroup in Uyghurs is around 65% to 70%, and east-Asian Y-DNA haplogroup around 30% to 35%.

text: This ability to selectively control power factor can be exploited for power factor correction of the power system to which the motor is connected. Since most power systems of any significant size have a net lagging power factor, the presence of overexcited synchronous motors moves the system's net power factor closer to unity, improving efficiency. Such power-factor correction is usually a side effect of motors already present in the system to provide mechanical work, although motors can be run without mechanical load simply to provide power-factor correction. In large industrial plants such as factories the interaction between synchronous motors and other, lagging, loads may be an explicit consideration in the plant's electrical design.

text: This ability to selectively control power factor can be exploited for

entity_section: Power factor correction (PFC) in non-linear loads

text: power factor correction

text: of the power system to which the motor is connected. Since most power systems of any significant size have a net lagging power factor, the presence of overexcited synchronous motors moves the system's net power factor closer to unity, improving efficiency. Such power-factor correction is usually a side effect of motors already present in the system to provide mechanical work, although motors can be run without mechanical load simply to provide power-factor correction. In large industrial plants such as factories the interaction between synchronous motors and other, lagging, loads may be an explicit consideration in the plant's electrical design.

text: In 2001, Helen Newing’s study in West Africa on the interactions of duikers found that body size, “habitat preference, and activity patterns” were the main differentiating factors among the seven species of duikers. These differences specific to each species of duiker allow them to coexist by "limiting niche overlap". However, although some species are yet to be considered ‘endangered’, because of the repeated damage and fragment of their habitat by human activities, such specialization of the niches are gradually becoming impaired and are contributing to the significant decrease in population.

text: In 2001, Helen Newing’s study in

text: West Africa

text: on the interactions of duikers found that body size, “habitat preference, and activity patterns” were the main differentiating factors among the seven species of duikers. These differences specific to each species of duiker allow them to coexist by "limiting niche overlap". However, although some species are yet to be considered ‘endangered’, because of the repeated damage and

text: fragment

text: of their habitat by human activities, such specialization of the niches are gradually becoming impaired and are contributing to the significant decrease in population.

text: One set of characteristics relate to body size and temperature. The metabolic theory of ecology provides a predictive qualitative set of relationships between an organism’s body size and temperature and metabolic processes. In general, smaller, warmer organisms have higher metabolic rates and this results in a variety of predictions regarding individual somatic growth rates, reproduction and population growth rates, population size, and resource uptake rates.

text: One set of characteristics relate to body size and temperature. The

text: metabolic theory of ecology

text: provides a predictive qualitative set of relationships between an organism’s body size and temperature and metabolic processes. In general, smaller, warmer organisms have higher metabolic rates and this results in a variety of predictions regarding individual somatic growth rates, reproduction and population growth rates, population size, and resource uptake rates.

text: The term human overpopulation often refers to the relationship between the entire human population and its environment: the Earth, or to smaller geographical areas such as countries. Overpopulation can result from an increase in births, a decline in mortality rates, an increase in immigration, or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources. It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meagre or non-existent capability to sustain life (e.g. a desert). Advocates of population moderation cite issues like quality of life, carrying capacity and risk of starvation as a basis to argue against continuing high human population growth and for population decline. In either case, a consideration is that any population crash be nonviolent.

text: The term human overpopulation often refers to the relationship between the

text: entire human population

text: and its

text: environment

text: : the Earth, or to smaller geographical areas such as countries. Overpopulation can result from an increase in

entity_name: List of sovereign states and dependent territories by fertility rate

text: births

text: , a decline in

text: mortality rate

text: s, an increase in

text: immigration

text: , or an

text: unsustainable

text: biome

text: and depletion of resources. It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meagre or non-existent capability to sustain life (e.g. a

text: desert

text: ). Advocates of population moderation cite issues like

text: quality of life

text: carrying capacity

text: and risk of

text: starvation

text: as a basis to argue against continuing high human population growth and for

text: population decline

text: . In either case, a consideration is that any

text: population crash

text: be nonviolent.

text: Limiting factors restrict the student acceptance rate due to the following situations:

text: The peak in dog whelk population density is approximately coincidental with the mid-tidal zone.  It lives in the middle shore. In general it can be said that at high vertical heights on the shoreline the dog whelk is most threatened by biotic factors such as predation from birds and interspecific competition for food, but abiotic factors are the primary concern, creating a harsh environment in which it is difficult to survive. At low vertical heights it is biotic factors, such as predation from crabs and intraspecific competition, which cause problems. The upper limit of the range in which the dog whelk is generally found is approximately coincidental with the mean high water neap tide line, and the lower limit of the range is approximately coincidental with the mean low water neap tide line, so that the vast majority of dog whelks are found on the mid-tidal zone.

text: The peak in dog whelk

text: population density

text: is approximately coincidental with the mid-

text: tidal zone

text: .  It lives in the middle shore. In general it can be said that at high vertical heights on the shoreline the dog whelk is most threatened by

text: biotic

text: factors such as predation from birds and

text: interspecific competition

text: for food, but

text: abiotic

text: factors are the primary concern, creating a harsh environment in which it is difficult to survive. At low vertical heights it is biotic factors, such as predation from crabs and

text: intraspecific competition

text: , which cause problems. The upper limit of the range in which the dog whelk is generally found is approximately coincidental with the mean high water

text: neap tide

text: line, and the lower limit of the range is approximately coincidental with the mean low water

text: neap tide

text: line, so that the vast majority of dog whelks are found on the mid-

text: tidal zone

text: This lack of policy direction from the top meant that Nazi politicians concerned with representing Germany's interests and relations with Canada had to resort to an improvised line of policy which they believed to be in accordance with Hitler's wishes. The country was noted for its abundance of natural resources, and because of its great geographic size coupled with a low population density was characterized as "a country without people", in contrast to Germany which was considered "a people without space". In his 1934 travelogue account of Canada, Zwischen USA und dem Pol (Between the USA and the North Pole), German journalist Colin Ross described Canadian society as artificial because it was composed of many different parts that weren't tied together by either blood or long-standing traditions (highlighting the differences between the French and English Canadians in particular), and that for this reason one could not speak of either a Canadian nation or Volk. As a result the country's political system was also considered mechanic and non-organic, and that Ottawa did not constitute "the heart of the nation". Because of both these factors the Canadians were deemed incapable of comprehending "true culture", and German immigration in Canada was considered a mistake because they would be forced to live in an "empty civilization".

text: This lack of policy direction from the top meant that Nazi politicians concerned with representing Germany's interests and relations with Canada had to resort to an improvised line of policy which they believed to be in accordance with Hitler's wishes. The country was noted for its abundance of natural resources, and because of its great geographic size coupled with a low population density was characterized as "a country without people", in contrast to Germany which was considered "

text: a people without space

text: ". In his 1934 travelogue account of Canada, Zwischen USA und dem Pol (Between the USA and the

text: North Pole

text: ), German journalist Colin Ross described Canadian society as artificial because it was composed of many different parts that weren't tied together by either blood or long-standing traditions (highlighting the differences between the

text: French

text: and

text: English Canadians

text: in particular), and that for this reason one could not speak of either a Canadian nation or

text: Volk

text: . As a result the country's political system was also considered mechanic and non-organic, and that Ottawa did not constitute "the heart of the nation". Because of both these factors the Canadians were deemed incapable of comprehending "true culture", and German immigration in Canada was considered a mistake because they would be forced to live in an "empty civilization".

text: The increasing availability of DNA sequencing since the late 1990s has allowed estimates on Paleolithic effective population sizes.Such models suggest a human effective population size of the order of 10,000 individuals for the Late Pleistocene. This includes only the breeding population that produced descendants over the long term, and the actual population may have been substantially larger (in the six digits).Sherry et al. (1997) based on Alu elements estimated a roughly constant effective population size of the order of 18,000 individuals for the population of Homo ancestral to modern humans over the past one to two million years. For the time of speciation of Homo sapiens, ca. 130,000 years ago, Sjödin et al. (2012) estimate an effective population size of the order of 10,000  to 30,000 individuals, and infer an actual "census population"  of early Homo sapiens of roughly 100,000 to 300,000 individuals.The authors also note that their model disfavours the assumption of an early (pre-Out-of-Africa) population bottleneck affecting all of Homo sapiens.

text: The increasing availability of

text: DNA sequencing

text: since the late 1990s has allowed estimates on Paleolithic

text: effective population size

text: s.Such models suggest a human effective population size of the order of 10,000 individuals for the

text: Late Pleistocene

text: . This includes only the breeding population that produced descendants over the long term, and the actual population may have been substantially larger (in the six digits).Sherry et al. (1997) based on

text: Alu element

text: s estimated a roughly constant effective population size of the order of 18,000 individuals for the population of

text: Homo

text: ancestral to modern humans over the past one to two million years. For the time of speciation of

text: Homo sapiens

text: , ca. 130,000 years ago, Sjödin et al. (2012) estimate an effective population size of the order of 10,000  to 30,000 individuals, and infer an actual "census population"  of early Homo sapiens of roughly 100,000 to 300,000 individuals.The authors also note that their model disfavours the assumption of an early (pre-

text: Out-of-Africa

text: ) population bottleneck affecting all of Homo sapiens.

text: For applications of DFS in relation to specific domains, such as searching for solutions in artificial intelligence or web-crawling, the graph to be traversed is often either too large to visit in its entirety or infinite (DFS may suffer from non-termination). In such cases, search is only performed to a limited depth; due to limited resources, such as memory or disk space, one typically does not use data structures to keep track of the set of all previously visited vertices. When search is performed to a limited depth, the time is still linear in terms of the number of expanded vertices and edges (although this number is not the same as the size of the entire graph because some vertices may be searched more than once and others not at all) but the space complexity of this variant of DFS is only proportional to the depth limit, and as a result, is much smaller than the space needed for searching to the same depth using breadth-first search. For such applications, DFS also lends itself much better to heuristic methods for choosing a likely-looking branch. When an appropriate depth limit is not known a priori, iterative deepening depth-first search applies DFS repeatedly with a sequence of increasing limits. In the artificial intelligence mode of analysis, with a branching factor greater than one, iterative deepening increases the running time by only a constant factor over the case in which the correct depth limit is known due to the geometric growth of the number of nodes per level.

text: For applications of DFS in relation to specific domains, such as searching for solutions in

text: artificial intelligence

text: or web-crawling, the graph to be traversed is often either too large to visit in its entirety or infinite (DFS may suffer from

text: non-termination

text: ). In such cases, search is only performed to a

text: limited depth

text: ; due to limited resources, such as memory or disk space, one typically does not use data structures to keep track of the set of all previously visited vertices. When search is performed to a limited depth, the time is still linear in terms of the number of expanded vertices and edges (although this number is not the same as the size of the entire graph because some vertices may be searched more than once and others not at all) but the space complexity of this variant of DFS is only proportional to the depth limit, and as a result, is much smaller than the space needed for searching to the same depth using breadth-first search. For such applications, DFS also lends itself much better to

text: heuristic

text: methods for choosing a likely-looking branch. When an appropriate depth limit is not known a priori,

text: iterative deepening depth-first search

text: applies DFS repeatedly with a sequence of increasing limits. In the artificial intelligence mode of analysis, with a

text: branching factor

text: greater than one, iterative deepening increases the running time by only a constant factor over the case in which the correct depth limit is known due to the geometric growth of the number of nodes per level.

text: Secure Digital includes four card families available in three different sizes. The four families are the original Standard-Capacity (SDSC), the High-Capacity (SDHC), the eXtended-Capacity (SDXC), and the SDIO, which combines input/output functions with data storage. The three form factors are the original size, the mini size, and the micro size. Electrically passive adapters allow a smaller card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card. The SD card's small footprint is an ideal storage medium for smaller, thinner and more portable electronic devices.

text: Secure Digital includes four card families available in three different sizes. The four families are the original Standard-Capacity (SDSC), the High-Capacity (SDHC), the eXtended-Capacity (

text: SDXC

text: ), and the

text: SDIO

text: , which combines

text: input/output

text: functions with data storage. The

text: three form factors

text: are the original size, the mini size, and the micro size. Electrically passive adapters allow a smaller card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card. The SD card's small footprint is an ideal storage medium for smaller, thinner and more portable electronic devices.

text: Murdoch's main research studies focus on understanding what regulates populations in abundance. He is interested in the mechanisms that maintain the stability of interacting consumer and resource populations when the consumer keeps the resource population far below the level set by its resources. His research objective is to develop models of particular systems, do experiments to understand these systems and test these models, as well as to develop more general theory. Two experimental systems are used in Murdoch's research: the Aphytis-California Red Scale and daphnia-algae systems. Murdoch's work in biological control has been instrumental in demonstrating that stability of parasitoid-host interactions in pest control can be achieved by non-equilibrium mechanisms. For example, his examination of the parasitoid-host relationship between Aphytis and the California red scale has elucidated that stability does not arise from metapopulation dynamics and that the regulating mechanism may, instead, lie in size-related interactions, in small-scale spatial heterogeneity, or mixtures of these mechanisms.

text: Murdoch's main research studies focus on understanding what regulates populations in abundance. He is interested in the mechanisms that maintain the stability of interacting consumer and resource populations when the consumer keeps the resource population far below the level set by its resources. His research objective is to develop models of particular systems, do experiments to understand these systems and test these models, as well as to develop more general theory. Two experimental systems are used in Murdoch's research: the Aphytis-California Red Scale and daphnia-algae systems. Murdoch's work in

text: biological control

text: has been instrumental in demonstrating that stability of parasitoid-host interactions in pest control can be achieved by non-equilibrium mechanisms. For example, his examination of the parasitoid-host relationship between

text: Aphytis

text: and the

text: California red scale

text: has elucidated that stability does not arise from

text: metapopulation

text: dynamics and that the regulating mechanism may, instead, lie in size-related interactions, in small-scale spatial heterogeneity, or mixtures of these mechanisms.

text: A pony bottle is a small diving cylinder which is fitted with an independent regulator, and carried by a scuba diver as an extension to the scuba set. In an emergency, such as depletion of the diver's main air supply, it can be used as an alternate air source or bailout bottle to allow a normal ascent in place of a controlled emergency swimming ascent.  The key attribute of a pony bottle is that it provides a totally independent and redundant source of breathing gas for the diver. The name pony is due to the smaller size, often of only a few litres capacity.

text: A pony bottle is a small

text: diving cylinder

text: which is fitted with an independent

text: regulator

text: , and carried by a scuba diver as an extension to the

text: scuba set

text: . In an emergency, such as depletion of the

text: diver's

text: main air supply, it can be used as an

text: alternate air source

text: or

text: bailout bottle

text: to allow a normal ascent in place of a

entity_section: Controlled emergency swimming ascent (CESA)

text: controlled emergency swimming ascent

text: .  The key attribute of a pony bottle is that it provides a totally independent and

text: redundant

text: source of breathing gas for the diver. The name

text: pony

text: is due to the smaller size, often of only a few litres capacity.

text: Limiting factors are things that prevent a population from growing any larger.In the design of chemical reactions to produce a chemical product, one of the reagents may be consumed by the reaction before the others. The amount of product will be limited by the supply of this reagent. The theoretical yield of the reaction is determined by this limiting factor.

text: Limiting factors are things that prevent a population from growing any larger.In the design of

text: chemical reaction

text: s to produce a chemical product, one of the reagents may be consumed by the reaction before the others. The amount of product will be limited by the supply of this reagent. The theoretical yield of the reaction is determined by this limiting factor.

text: Hunting is claimed to give resource managers an important tool in managing populations that might exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety. However, in most circumstances carrying capacity is determined by a combination habitat and food availability, and hunting for 'population control' has no effect on the annual population of species. In some cases, it can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population. Hunting advocates assert that hunting reduces intraspecific competition for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some environmentalists assert that (re)introducing predators would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free lead into the environment and food chain.

text: Hunting is claimed to give

text: resource managers

text: an important tool in managing populations that might exceed the

text: carrying capacity

text: of their

text: habitat

text: and threaten the well-being of other species, or, in some instances, damage human health or safety. However, in most circumstances carrying capacity is determined by a combination habitat and food availability, and hunting for 'population control' has no effect on the annual population of species. In some cases, it can increase the population of predators such as coyotes by removing territorial bounds that would otherwise be established, resulting in excess neighbouring migrations into an area, thus artificially increasing the population. Hunting advocates assert that hunting reduces

text: intraspecific competition

text: for food and shelter, reducing mortality among the remaining animals. Some

text: environmentalist

text: s assert that (re)introducing

text: predator

text: s would achieve the same end with greater efficiency and less negative effect, such as introducing significant amounts of free

text: lead

text: into the environment and

text: food chain

text: The total population is poorly surveyed, and no study has been made of the rate of its decline. This is partly due to the inaccessibility of the region, a factor that may help the preservation of the species. The conservation status of Morelia oenpelliensis is listed by the Northern Territory Government as vulnerable to extinction. This has been evaluated by known threatening factors, such as altered land use and fire regimes, and population inferred from the relative abundance of its prey. This is estimated to be below 10,000, which is inferred from several factors. As a large predator, the species is particularly vulnerable to declines in available prey. These larger mammals are more susceptible to changes in land use and threats such as introduced species. Suitable habitat is also limited in the distribution range of the species. The species is known to be illegally collected for private use, which is likely to impact on some subpopulations. This threat is limited by the inaccessibility of its habitat, the same factor that has restricted study of the species. Variation and decline in subpopulations has not been fully evaluated. It is found within a conservation reserve known as Kakadu National Park.

text: The total population is poorly surveyed, and no study has been made of the rate of its decline. This is partly due to the inaccessibility of the region, a factor that may help the preservation of the species. The conservation status of Morelia oenpelliensis is listed by the Northern Territory Government as vulnerable to extinction. This has been evaluated by known threatening factors, such as altered land use and fire regimes, and population inferred from the relative abundance of its prey. This is estimated to be below 10,000, which is inferred from several factors. As a large predator, the species is particularly vulnerable to declines in available prey. These larger mammals are more susceptible to changes in land use and threats such as introduced species. Suitable habitat is also limited in the distribution range of the species. The species is known to be illegally collected for private use, which is likely to impact on some subpopulations. This threat is limited by the inaccessibility of its habitat, the same factor that has restricted study of the species. Variation and decline in subpopulations has not been fully evaluated. It is found within a conservation reserve known as

text: Kakadu National Park

text: Typically offering a faster and more efficient transportation solution due to their small size, limited carrying capacity, frequency and diverse range of routes, although they are generally slightly more expensive than standard buses, minibuses carry a maximum of 16 seated passengers. Standing passengers are not allowed.

text: Typically offering a faster and more efficient transportation solution due to their small size, limited carrying capacity, frequency and diverse range of routes, although they are generally slightly more expensive than standard buses, minibuses carry a maximum of 16 seated passengers.

text: Standing passenger

text: s are not allowed.

text: The document sought to impose upon UN member states an obligation to consider the impact of their actions on other states with an interest in a water resource and to equitably share the resource, mindful of variant factors such as population size and availability of other resources.

text: The document sought to impose upon

text: UN member states

text: an obligation to consider the impact of their actions on other states with an interest in a water resource and to equitably share the resource, mindful of variant factors such as population size and availability of other resources.

text: Ergonomics and Human Factors concerns are important in the design of modern cockpits. The layout and function of cockpit displays controls are designed to increase pilot situation awareness without causing information overload. In the past, many cockpits, especially in fighter aircraft, limited the size of the pilots that could fit into them. Now, cockpits are being designed to accommodate from the 1st percentile female physical size and the 99th percentile male size.

text: Ergonomics and Human Factors

text: concerns are important in the design of modern cockpits. The layout and function of cockpit displays controls are designed to increase pilot

text: situation awareness

text: without causing information overload. In the past, many cockpits, especially in fighter aircraft, limited the size of the pilots that could fit into them. Now, cockpits are being designed to accommodate from the 1st

text: percentile

text: female physical size and the 99th percentile male size.

text: The A address would be the first word in the buffer for that read or write operation. It was normal to use two buffers for each device so that reading or writing could run in parallel with processing. This is called double-buffering. Buffer size was a limiting factor in the size of “records” (blocks) because core memory was limited.

text: The A address would be the first word in the buffer for that read or write operation. It was normal to use two buffers for each device so that reading or writing could run in parallel with processing. This is called

text: double-buffering

text: . Buffer size was a limiting factor in the size of “records” (blocks) because core memory was limited.

text: Depending on the type and size of independently owned operation, some limiting factors are:

text: Discheramocephalus minutissimus is a species of feather-winged beetle, the smallest beetles on earth, first found in Indonesia. This species' adults have a body length of approximately 400 to 426µm. According to Grebennikov, the main factor limiting miniaturisation of female insects is an egg size significant enough in size to produce viable larvae. This size threshold is sometimes overcome, reaching limits of 180 and 130 µm in females and males, respectively, according to the author. Brain size is possibly the second most important factor limiting miniaturisation in this class.

text: Discheramocephalus minutissimus is a species of

text: feather-winged beetle

text: , the smallest beetles on earth, first found in Indonesia. This species' adults have a body length of approximately 400 to 426

text: µm

text: . According to Grebennikov, the main factor limiting

text: miniaturisation

text: of female insects is an

text: egg

text: size significant enough in size to produce viable

text: larva

text: e. This size threshold is sometimes overcome, reaching limits of 180 and 130 µm in females and males, respectively, according to the author.

text: Brain size

text: is possibly the second most important factor limiting miniaturisation in this

text: class

text: Figure 3 shows how growth rate varies with population density.  For low densities (far from carrying capacity), there is little addition (or "recruitment") to the population, simply because there are few organisms to give birth.  At high densities, though, there is intense competition for resources, and growth rate is again low because the death rate is high.  In between these two extremes, the population growth rate rises to a maximum value (

text: The latitudinal variation in clutch size is influenced by the food abundance per unit area of habitat. More specifically, during the reproductive season, clutch size and food abundance are directly proportional to one another relative to the density of bird populations (abundance per unit area of habitat). If food resources are not abundant during the reproductive season, then natural selection would not favour large clutches since food for the offspring would be a limiting resource. However, if food resources were abundant during the breeding season, and everything else stayed constant, raising a larger clutch would be possible. Clutch size depends on the relative, not absolute, level of resource availability during the breeding season. Since at higher latitudes, there is a large increase in resource productivity during the spring and summer in comparison to the equatorial tropical regions, localities near the poles should theoretically have larger clutch sizes. According to Ashmole’s hypothesis, there should be uniformity of clutch size within a region since the seasonality of resource production should have the same effect on all the bird species in that particular locality. Most importantly, under Ashmole’s hypothesis, average avian clutch size should decrease as resource productivity increases during the non-breeding season. Namely, the higher the productivity during the non-breeding season, the smaller the clutch size. A study by Koenig (1984) supports this observation. The study tabulated the sizes of 411 clutches of Northern Flickers (Colaptes auratus) across a wide range of localities in North America. The study found that as the localities become more resource abundant in the winter, clutch size significantly declines. As predicted by Ashmole’s hypothesis, the study also found that Colaptes auratus clutch size is unaffected by the absolute resource productivity during the breeding season. Avian clutch size should be proportional to breeding season resource productivity per breeding pair of birds. This relationship has been found in a series of studies from Alaska and Costa Rica.

text: The latitudinal variation in clutch size is influenced by the food abundance per unit area of habitat. More specifically, during the reproductive season, clutch size and food abundance are directly proportional to one another relative to the density of bird populations (abundance per unit area of habitat). If food resources are not abundant during the reproductive season, then

text: natural selection

text: would not favour large clutches since food for the offspring would be a

text: limiting resource

text: . However, if food resources were abundant during the breeding season, and everything else stayed constant, raising a larger clutch would be possible. Clutch size depends on the relative, not absolute, level of resource availability during the breeding season. Since at higher latitudes, there is a large increase in resource productivity during the spring and summer in comparison to the equatorial tropical regions, localities near the poles should theoretically have larger clutch sizes. According to Ashmole’s hypothesis, there should be uniformity of clutch size within a region since the seasonality of resource production should have the same effect on all the bird species in that particular locality. Most importantly, under Ashmole’s hypothesis, average avian clutch size should decrease as resource productivity increases during the non-breeding season. Namely, the higher the productivity during the non-breeding season, the smaller the clutch size. A study by Koenig (1984) supports this observation. The study tabulated the sizes of 411 clutches of Northern Flickers (

text: Colaptes auratus

text: ) across a wide range of localities in North America. The study found that as the localities become more resource abundant in the winter, clutch size significantly declines. As predicted by Ashmole’s hypothesis, the study also found that Colaptes auratus clutch size is unaffected by the absolute resource productivity during the breeding season. Avian clutch size should be proportional to breeding season resource productivity per

text: breeding pair

text: of birds. This relationship has been found in a series of studies from Alaska and Costa Rica.

text: Immigration reductionists differ on the ideal level of immigration they would like to see into the United States.  Some believe the numbers should be set each year at whatever level would, in conjunction with the current fertility rate and emigration from the U.S., maintain zero population growth in the country.  The most prominent immigration reductionist in government today is U.S. Congressman Tom Tancredo R-CO. Tancredo has authored a bill that calls for limiting annual immigration to between 30,000 and 300,000. The organization, Population-Environment Balance (PEB), has issued a Immigration Moratorium Action Plan  calling for a "non-piercable" cap of 100,000 persons annually, which would be a 95% cut from current levels. Carrying Capacity Network (CCN), another small reductionist group closely related to PEB, shares that goal while repeating that it is not opposed to immigration.

text: Immigration reductionists differ on the ideal level of immigration they would like to see into the United States.  Some believe the numbers should be set each year at whatever level would, in conjunction with the current

text: fertility rate

text: and emigration from the U.S., maintain zero population growth in the country.  The most prominent immigration reductionist in government today is U.S. Congressman

text: Tom Tancredo

text: R-CO. Tancredo has authored a bill that calls for limiting annual immigration to between 30,000 and 300,000. The organization,

text: Population-Environment Balance

text: (PEB), has issued a Immigration Moratorium Action Plan  calling for a "non-piercable" cap of 100,000 persons annually, which would be a 95% cut from current levels.

text: Carrying Capacity Network

text: (CCN), another small reductionist group closely related to PEB, shares that goal while repeating that it is not opposed to immigration.

text: The carrying capacity of a farm is commonly determined in Australia by expressing the number of stock carried during a period of feed shortage in terms of their DSEs.

text: Recovery objectives include maintaining at least three naturally reproducing populations. When this objective is met, the species will be classified as stable. Actions include seed collection for genetic storage, fencing select patches of plants within populations for short-term protection, surveying for populations in historical sites and suitable habitat, studying D. herbstobatae populations with regard to population size and structure, geographical distribution, flowering cycles, pollination vectors, seed dispersal agents, longevity, specific environmental requirements, limiting factors and threats, and reintroducing individuals into suitable habitat.

text: Recovery objectives include maintaining at least three naturally reproducing populations. When this objective is met, the species will be classified as stable. Actions include seed collection for genetic storage,

text: fencing

text: select patches of plants within populations for short-term protection, surveying for populations in historical sites and suitable habitat, studying D. herbstobatae populations with regard to population size and structure, geographical distribution, flowering cycles,

text: pollination

text: vectors,

text: seed dispersal

text: agents, longevity, specific environmental requirements, limiting factors and threats, and reintroducing individuals into suitable habitat.

text: As a result of a ground sharing agreement, Pittodrie was used by Inverness Caledonian Thistle for their home matches during the early part of the 2004–05 season. This was required because Inverness CT's own Caledonian Stadium did not meet the requirements for entry into the Scottish Premier League until improvements were carried out and the seating capacity increased. In 2005 the stadium size criterion for entry to the SPL was reduced to 6,000, thereby allowing Inverness Caledonian Thistle to return to their home stadium partway during the season.

text: As a result of a

text: ground sharing

text: agreement, Pittodrie was used by

text: Inverness Caledonian Thistle

text: for their home matches during the early part of the

text: 2004–05 season

text: . This was required because Inverness CT's own

text: Caledonian Stadium

text: did not meet the requirements for entry into the

text: Scottish Premier League

text: until improvements were carried out and the

text: seating capacity

text: increased. In 2005 the stadium size criterion for entry to the SPL was reduced to 6,000, thereby allowing Inverness Caledonian Thistle to return to their home stadium partway during the season.

text: Malthus wrote that all life forms, including humans, have a propensity to exponential population growth when resources are abundant but that actual growth is limited by available resources:

text: Marx argued that there are no substantive laws of population that hold good for all time; instead, each specific mode of production has its own specific demographic laws. If there was "overpopulation" in capitalist society, it was overpopulation relative to the requirements of capital accumulation. Consequently, demography could not simply just count people in various ways, it also had to study the social relations between them as well. If there are enough resources on the planet to provide all people with a decent life, the argument that there are "too many people" is rather dubious.

text: Marx argued that there are no substantive laws of population that hold good for all time; instead, each specific

text: mode of production

text: has its own specific demographic laws. If there was "

text: overpopulation

text: " in capitalist society, it was overpopulation relative to the requirements of

text: capital accumulation

text: . Consequently, demography could not simply just count people in various ways, it also had to study the

text: social relations

text: between them as well. If there are enough resources on the planet to provide all people with a decent life, the argument that there are "too many people" is rather dubious.

text: Socioeconomic characteristics and the size of the population of people that make up a municipality can be encouraging factors for local government officials to engage in corrupt practices. Patterns of political corruption can be found in places that have a similar demographic make-up. Demographic factors that have been known to lead to or increase the likelihood of corruption in a local government system are religion, race, class, size of the municipality, local economic conditions, education, political culture, and gender. Some factors are interrelated or can lead to other factors which may cause more corruption.

text: The dust is constantly being removed from the main ring by a combination of Poynting–Robertson drag and electromagnetic forces from the Jovian magnetosphere. Volatile materials, for example ices, evaporate quickly. The lifetime of dust particles in the ring is from 100 to 1000 years, so the dust must be continuously replenished in the collisions between large bodies with sizes from 1 cm to 0.5 km and between the same large bodies and high velocity particles coming from outside the Jovian system. This parent body population is confined to the narrow—about 1000 km—and bright outer part of the main ring, and includes Metis and Adrastea. The largest parent bodies must be less than 0.5 km in size. The upper limit on their size was obtained by New Horizons spacecraft. The previous upper limit, obtained from HST and Cassini observations, was near 4 km. The dust produced in collisions retains approximately the same orbital elements as the parent bodies and slowly spirals in the direction of Jupiter forming the faint (in back-scattered light) innermost part of the main ring and halo ring. The age of the main ring is currently unknown, but it may be the last remnant of a past population of small bodies near Jupiter.

text: The dust is constantly being removed from the main ring by a combination of

text: Poynting–Robertson drag

text: and electromagnetic forces from the

text: Jovian magnetosphere

text: . Volatile materials, for example ices, evaporate quickly. The lifetime of dust particles in the ring is from 100 to 1000 years, so the dust must be continuously replenished in the collisions between large bodies with sizes from 1 cm to 0.5 km and between the same large bodies and high velocity particles coming from outside the Jovian system. This parent body population is confined to the narrow—about 1000 km—and bright outer part of the main ring, and includes Metis and Adrastea. The largest parent bodies must be less than 0.5 km in size. The upper limit on their size was obtained by

text: New Horizons

text: spacecraft. The previous upper limit, obtained from

text: HST

text: and

text: Cassini

text: observations, was near 4 km. The dust produced in collisions retains approximately the same orbital elements as the parent bodies and slowly spirals in the direction of

text: Jupiter

text: forming the faint (in back-scattered light) innermost part of the main ring and halo ring. The age of the main ring is currently unknown, but it may be the last remnant of a past population of small bodies near

text: Jupiter

text: Normal coagulation is initiated by the release of tissue factor from damaged tissue. Tissue factor binds to circulating factor VIIa. The combination activates factor X to factor Xa and factor IX to factor IXa. Factor Xa (in the presence of factor V) activates prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin is a central enzyme in the coagulation process: it generates fibrin from fibrinogen, and activates a number of other enzymes and cofactors (factor XIII, factor XI, factor V and factor VIII, TAFI) that enhance the fibrin clot. The process is inhibited by TFPI (which inactivates the first step catalyzed by factor VIIa/tissue factor), antithrombin (which inactivates thrombin, factor IXa, Xa and XIa), protein C (which inhibits factors Va and VIIIa in the presence of protein S), and protein Z (which inhibits factor Xa).

text: Normal coagulation is initiated by the release of

text: tissue factor

text: from damaged tissue. Tissue factor binds to circulating

text: factor VII

text: a. The combination activates

text: factor X

text: to factor Xa and

text: factor IX

text: to factor IXa. Factor Xa (in the presence of

text: factor V

text: ) activates

text: prothrombin

text: into thrombin. Thrombin is a central enzyme in the coagulation process: it generates fibrin from

text: fibrinogen

text: , and activates a number of other enzymes and cofactors (

text: factor XIII

text: factor XI

text: , factor V and

text: factor VIII

text: , TAFI) that enhance the fibrin clot. The process is inhibited by TFPI (which inactivates the first step catalyzed by factor VIIa/tissue factor), antithrombin (which inactivates thrombin, factor IXa, Xa and XIa), protein C (which inhibits factors Va and VIIIa in the presence of protein S), and

text: protein Z

text: (which inhibits factor Xa).

text: Supporters of the concept argue that the idea of a limited carrying capacity is just as valid when applied to humans as when applied to any other species. Animal population size, living standards, and resource depletion vary, but the concept of carrying capacity still applies. The carrying capacity of Earth has been studied by computer simulation models like World3.

text: Supporters of the concept argue that the idea of a limited carrying capacity is just as valid when applied to humans as when applied to any other species. Animal population size, living standards, and resource depletion vary, but the concept of carrying capacity still applies. The carrying capacity of Earth has been studied by computer simulation models like

text: . This equation shows that the effect of genetic drift is heavily dependent on population size, defined as the actual number of individuals in an idealised population. Genetic draft results in similar behavior to the equation above, but with an effective population size that may have no relationship to the actual number of individuals in the population. Instead, the effective population size may depend on factors such as the recombination rate and the frequency and strength of beneficial mutations. The increase in variance between replicate populations due to drift is independent, whereas with draft it is autocorrelated, i.e. if an allele frequency goes up because of genetic drift, that contains no information about the next generation, whereas if it goes up because of genetic draft, it is more likely to go up than down in the next generation. Genetic draft generates a different allele frequency spectrum to genetic drift.

text: . This equation shows that the effect of genetic drift is heavily dependent on population size, defined as the actual number of individuals in an

text: idealised population

text: . Genetic draft results in similar behavior to the equation above, but with an

text: effective population size

text: that may have no relationship to the actual number of individuals in the population. Instead, the effective population size may depend on factors such as the recombination rate and the frequency and strength of beneficial mutations. The increase in variance between replicate populations due to drift is independent, whereas with draft it is autocorrelated, i.e. if an allele frequency goes up because of genetic drift, that contains no information about the next generation, whereas if it goes up because of genetic draft, it is more likely to go up than down in the next generation. Genetic draft generates a different

text: allele frequency spectrum

text: to genetic drift.

text: Population growth that exceeds the carrying capacity of an area or environment results in overpopulation. Spikes in human population can cause problems such as pollution, water crisis, and poverty. World population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 7 billion in 2011. In Mexico alone, population has grown from 13.6 million in 1900 to 107 million in 2007. Virginia Abernethy notes that immigration is a road that provides a "relief valve" to overpopulation that stops a population from addressing the consequences of its overpopulation and that exports this overpopulation to another location or country.

text: Population growth

text: that exceeds the

text: carrying capacity

text: of an area or environment results in

text: overpopulation

text: . Spikes in human population can cause problems such as

text: pollution

text: water crisis

text: , and

text: poverty

text: World population

text: has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated

text: 7 billion in 2011

text: . In Mexico alone, population has grown from 13.6 million in 1900 to 107 million in 2007. Virginia Abernethy notes that immigration is a road that provides a "relief valve" to overpopulation that stops a population from addressing the consequences of its overpopulation and that exports this overpopulation to another location or country.

text: Climate factors that affect trees include temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind.  To differentiate among these factors, scientists collect information from "limiting stands."  An example of a limiting stand is the upper elevation treeline: here, trees are expected to be more affected by temperature variation (which is "limited") than precipitation variation (which is in excess).  Conversely, lower elevation treelines are expected to be more affected by precipitation changes than temperature variation.  This is not a perfect work-around as multiple factors still impact trees even at the "limiting stand," but it helps.  In theory, collection of samples from nearby limiting stands of different types (e.g. upper and lower treelines on the same mountain) should allow mathematical solution for multiple climate factors.  However, this method is rarely used.

text: The shiner is critically endangered due to its small population size and threats to its habitat from dam construction and pollution. It was first recognized as threatened in 1987. The species has since undergone a successful captive breeding program and its status has been a significant factor in the destruction of a dam that destroyed part of the shiner's habitat. However, the species is still limited to just five populations in the wild and some experts believe that a single toxic chemical spill into the Cape Fear River could wipe out the entire wild population.

text: The shiner is

text: critically endangered

text: due to its small population size and threats to its

text: habitat

text: from

text: dam

text: construction and pollution. It was first recognized as threatened in 1987. The species has since undergone a successful captive breeding program and its status has been a significant factor in the destruction of a dam that destroyed part of the shiner's habitat. However, the species is still limited to just five populations in the wild and some experts believe that a single toxic chemical spill into the Cape Fear River could wipe out the entire wild population.

text: where r is the maximum growth rate of the population (N), K is the carrying capacity of its local environmental setting, and the notation dN/dt stands for the derivative of N with respect to t (time). Thus, the equation relates the rate of change of the population N to the current population size and expresses the effect of the two parameters.

text: where r is the maximum

text: growth rate

text: of the

text: population

text: (N), K is the

text: carrying capacity

text: of its local environmental setting, and the notation dN/dt stands for the

text: derivative

text: of N with respect to t (

text: time

text: ). Thus, the equation relates the rate of change of the population N to the current population size and expresses the effect of the two parameters.

text: is the size of the sample obtained from the population.

text: When resources are limited, an increase in population size reduces the quantity of resources available for each individual, reducing the per capita fitness in the population. As a result, the growth rate of a population slows as intraspecific competition becomes more intense, making it a negatively density dependent process. The falling population growth rate as population increases can be modeled effectively with the logistic growth model. The rate of change of population density eventually falls to zero, the point ecologists have termed the carrying capacity (K). The carrying capacity of a population is the maximum number of individuals that can live in a population stably; numbers larger than this will suffer a negative population growth until eventually reaching the carrying capacity, whereas populations smaller than the carrying capacity will grow until they reach it.

text: When resources are limited, an increase in population size reduces the quantity of resources available for each individual, reducing the per capita fitness in the population. As a result, the growth rate of a population slows as intraspecific competition becomes more intense, making it a

text: negatively density dependent

text: process. The falling population growth rate as population increases can be modeled effectively with the

text: logistic growth model

text: . The rate of change of population density eventually falls to zero, the point ecologists have termed the

text: carrying capacity

text: (K). The carrying capacity of a population is the maximum number of individuals that can live in a population stably; numbers larger than this will suffer a negative population growth until eventually reaching the carrying capacity, whereas populations smaller than the carrying capacity will grow until they reach it.

text: Kin selection (commonly referred to as altruism, even though it is just a sub-type) is an example of an adaptive behavior that directly influences the genetic composition of a population. It involves evolutionary strategies that favour the persistence of an organism's relatives, often at the cost of their own survival and reproduction. This will result in population gene frequency variation over successive generations, based on the interactions between related individuals. The probability of altruism increases when the cost is low for the donor, or when there is a high level of gain for the beneficiary. In addition, individuals often display altruistic behaviors when the relative is genetically similar to them. This means offspring or siblings are more likely to benefit from altruism than someone more distantly related, such as a cousin, aunt, or uncle.Kin selection has played a large role in the evolution of social and adaptive behaviors in chimpanzees. Closely related chimpanzees will form a kin group that cooperates to protect a territory, thereby increasing their access to females and resources. By working together with close relatives, they can ensure that their genes will persist in the next generation, even if circumstances make them unable to reproduce themselves. This behavioral adaptation coincides with chimpanzee's ability to distinguish kin from non-kin (referred to as visual kin selection). This allows chimpanzees to formulate large, complex societies, where they use altruistic methods to ensure their genes persist in future generations.  A wide variety of species have displayed kin selection as an adaptive behavior. Examples include lions, honeybees, and insects.

text: Kin selection

text: (commonly referred to as

text: altruism

text: , even though it is just a sub-type) is an example of an adaptive behavior that directly influences the genetic composition of a population. It involves evolutionary strategies that favour the persistence of an organism's relatives, often at the cost of their own survival and

text: reproduction

text: . This will result in population gene

text: frequency

text: variation over successive generations, based on the interactions between related individuals. The probability of altruism increases when the

text: cost

text: is low for the donor, or when there is a high level of gain for the beneficiary. In addition, individuals often display altruistic behaviors when the relative is genetically similar to them. This means offspring or siblings are more likely to benefit from altruism than someone more distantly related, such as a cousin, aunt, or uncle.Kin selection has played a large role in the evolution of social and adaptive behaviors in chimpanzees. Closely related chimpanzees will form a kin group that cooperates to protect a territory, thereby increasing their access to females and resources. By working together with close relatives, they can ensure that their genes will persist in the next generation, even if circumstances make them unable to reproduce themselves. This behavioral adaptation coincides with chimpanzee's ability to distinguish kin from non-kin (referred to as visual kin selection). This allows chimpanzees to formulate large, complex societies, where they use altruistic methods to ensure their genes persist in future generations.  A wide variety of species have displayed kin selection as an adaptive behavior. Examples include lions, honeybees, and insects.

text: The theory of Durham (1908) and Pickering and Norris (1996) report that the decline of two endemic rats may be attributed to the infection of the Christmas Island shrew, according to local researchers. This forest dwelling mammal was at first thought to have vanished by 1908, probably due to a trypanosoma disease carried by introduced black rats, which is also considered a likely cause of the extinctions of Maclear's rat and the bulldog rat. The initial drop in C. trichura’s population size occurred around the same time as the introduction of the Rattus rattus (the black rat), which carried a murid trypanosome. Evidence of the black rat and/or the parasite causing the Christmas Island shrew’s population decline is not solid.

text: The theory of Durham (1908) and Pickering and Norris (1996) report that the decline of two endemic rats may be attributed to the infection of the Christmas Island shrew, according to local researchers. This forest dwelling mammal was at first thought to have vanished by 1908, probably due to a

text: trypanosoma

text: disease carried by introduced

text: black rat

text: s, which is also considered a likely cause of the extinctions of

text: Maclear's rat

text: and the

text: bulldog rat

text: . The initial drop in C. trichura’s population size occurred around the same time as the introduction of the Rattus rattus (the black rat), which carried a murid trypanosome. Evidence of the black rat and/or the parasite causing the Christmas Island shrew’s population decline is not solid.

text: Tony Naughton made contributions to several areas of finance. Starting with asset pricing, he wrote an article on the Taiwan stock market in which he developed a multifactor asset pricing model incorporating a price limit factor to explain the cross section of asset returns following closely the mimicking portfolio Fama-French methodology. The findings showed that the overall market factor, firm size and price limits capture a cross section of average stock returns in a meaningful manner. In an article on China he compared the performance of the traditional CAPM with the multifactor model of Fama and French for equities listed in the Shanghai Stock Exchange. He also investigated the explanatory power of idiosyncratic volatility and responded to the claim that multifactor model findings can be explained by the turn of the year effect. He conducted  further work on Indonesia, Singapore and Taiwan to examine the proposition that the beta in the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) was lacking in cross-sectional explanatory power. By incorporating the two most commonly used additional explanatory factors (size and book to market equity) he tested for evidence of multifactor risk premia. The results showed that the overall market factor was highly significant in all of the markets and that the magnitude of significance of the other two factors (size and book to market equity) varied across countries. He rejected the claim that the multifactor model findings could be explained by the turn of the year effect.

text: The argument can always be made as to whether siding capacity is the issue or would it be train size. Previously, in some parts of Canada, the trains were made to fit the sidings and the sidings were equidistant from each other. This meant more trains were operated but overall with fewer delays. The increasing length of freight trains resulted in the extending of selected sidings on each subdivision. This could be a tricky exercise in some instances as different barriers would have to be considered. There could be physical barriers such as rock or water which had limited the placement and size of the original siding. There could be population growth or infrastructure projects in place that would impede any alteration to an existing siding.

text: There are two ways of determining the Wyoming Rule size of the House. One is by dividing the total population of the United States by the population of the smallest unit, which is then rounded to the nearest whole number, and this number of seats will be divided proportionally between states. The other method is dividing the populations of individual states by the population of the smallest one and then rounding those numbers to the nearest whole number. In this article, the latter method will be used unless otherwise specified.

text: ). The average pairwise difference within a population can be calculated as the sum of the pairwise differences divided by the number of pairs. However, this estimator is biased when sample sizes are small or if they vary between populations. Therefore, more elaborate methods are used to compute F in practice. Two of the most widely used procedures are the estimator by Weir & Cockerham (1984), or performing an Analysis of molecular variance. A list of implementations is available at the end of this article.

text: ). The average pairwise difference within a population can be calculated as the sum of the pairwise differences divided by the number of pairs. However, this estimator is biased when sample sizes are small or if they vary between populations. Therefore, more elaborate methods are used to compute F in practice. Two of the most widely used procedures are the estimator by Weir & Cockerham (1984), or performing an

text: Analysis of molecular variance

text: . A list of implementations is available at the end of this article.

text: For a single-digit multiply the working variables must be able to hold the value (base-1)² + carry, where the maximum value of the carry is (base-1). Similarly, the variables used to index the digit array are themselves limited in width. A simple way to extend the indices would be to deal with the bignumber's digits in blocks of some convenient size so that the addressing would be via (block i, digit j) where i and j would be small integers, or, one could escalate to employing bignumber techniques for the indexing variables. Ultimately, machine storage capacity and execution time impose limits on the problem size.

text: The problem is to estimate separately the number of numbers ≤ x with no prime divisors ≤ x, that have an even (or an odd) number of prime factors. It can be shown that, no matter what the choice of weights in a Brun- or Selberg-type sieve, the upper bound obtained will be at least (2 + o(1)) x / ln x for both problems. But in fact the set with an even number of factors is empty and so has size 0. The set with an odd number of factors is just the primes between x and x, so by the prime number theorem its size is (1 + o(1)) x / ln x. Thus these sieve methods are unable to give a useful upper bound for the first set, and overestimate the upper bound on the second set by a factor of 2.

text: The problem is to estimate separately the number of numbers ≤ x with no prime divisors ≤ x, that have an even (or an odd) number of

text: prime factors

text: . It can be shown that, no matter what the choice of weights in a

text: Brun

text: - or

text: Selberg

text: -type sieve, the upper bound obtained will be at least (2 + o(1)) x / ln x for both problems. But in fact the set with an even number of factors is empty and so has size 0. The set with an odd number of factors is just the

text: prime

text: s between x and x, so by the

text: prime number theorem

text: its size is (1 + o(1)) x / ln x. Thus these sieve methods are unable to give a useful upper bound for the first set, and overestimate the upper bound on the second set by a factor of 2.

text: GRPs are simply total impressions related to the size of the target population:

text: A basic definition of population ecology is a study of the distribution and abundance of organisms.  As it relates to organizations and demography, organizations go through various liabilities to their continued survival.  Hospitals, like all other large and complex organizations are impacted in the environment they work. For example, a study was done on the closure of acute care hospitals in Florida between a particular time.  The study examined effect size, age, and niche density of these particular hospitals. A population theory says that organizational outcomes are mostly determined by environmental factors.  Among several factors of the theory, there are four that apply to the hospital closure example: size, age, density of niches in which organizations operate, and density of niches in which organizations are established.

text: A basic definition of population ecology is a study of the distribution and abundance of organisms.  As it relates to organizations and demography, organizations go through various

text: liabilities

text: to their continued survival.  Hospitals, like all other large and complex organizations are impacted in the environment they work. For example, a study was done on the closure of acute care hospitals in Florida between a particular time.  The study examined effect size, age, and niche density of these particular hospitals. A population theory says that organizational outcomes are mostly determined by

text: environmental factor

text: s.  Among several factors of the theory, there are four that apply to the hospital closure example: size, age, density of niches in which organizations operate, and density of niches in which organizations are established.

text: Largely due to the loss and degradation of the tallgrass prairie landscape, violet plant density tends to be limited or far reduced in certain areas. This has been shown to have a rather negative impact on regal fritillary populations. A study conducted by Kelly and Debinski (1998) looked at how larval food source limitations may be a factor in the declining regal fritillary populations. In the study, they correlated violet plant density to population size and weights of regal fritillary butterflies. It was found that prairies with significantly lower violet densities had smaller populations of S. idalia. Butterfly weights were also slightly lower in areas with low violet density (Kelly and Debinski 1998). As a result, a number of concerns have been raised regarding the health of the regal fritillary. Areas with few or no violets can be detrimental to female fecundity because there are few suitable places for the eggs to be laid (Kelly and Debinski 1998). Also, smaller fragmented populations are susceptible to restricted gene flow and reduced genetic variability (Williams et al. 2003). This study also showed that habitat quality for the regal fritillary is just as important as the amount of habitat available. Increased violet density and nectar availability are essential to maintaining healthy populations (Kelly and Debinski 1998).

text: Largely due to the loss and degradation of the tallgrass prairie landscape, violet plant density tends to be limited or far reduced in certain areas. This has been shown to have a rather negative impact on regal fritillary populations. A study conducted by Kelly and Debinski (

text: ) looked at how larval food source limitations may be a factor in the declining regal fritillary populations. In the study, they correlated violet plant density to population size and weights of regal fritillary butterflies. It was found that prairies with significantly lower violet densities had smaller populations of S. idalia. Butterfly weights were also slightly lower in areas with low violet density (

text: Kelly and Debinski 1998

text: ). As a result, a number of concerns have been raised regarding the health of the regal fritillary. Areas with few or no violets can be detrimental to female

text: fecundity

text: because there are few suitable places for the eggs to be laid (

text: Kelly and Debinski 1998

text: ). Also, smaller fragmented populations are susceptible to restricted

text: gene flow

text: and reduced

text: genetic variability

text: Williams et al. 2003

text: ). This study also showed that habitat quality for the regal fritillary is just as important as the amount of habitat available. Increased violet density and nectar availability are essential to maintaining healthy populations (

text: Kelly and Debinski 1998

text: Certain factors may affect the confidence interval size including size of sample, level of confidence, and population variability. A larger sample size normally will lead to a better estimate of the population parameter.

text: r-strategist species have variable population sizes and are more likely to exhibit irruptive growth than K-strategist species, whose populations are usually constant and remain at or close to the carrying capacity of the environment. r-selection leads to high productivity, while K-selection leads to high efficiency. Productivity refers to the number of offspring produced, whereas efficiency refers to the quality and the probability of survival of individual offspring.

text: In Kimura’s original calculations, mutations with |2 Ns|<1 or |s|≤1/(2N) are defined as neutral. In this equation, N is the effective population size and is a quantitative measurement of the ideal population size that assumes such constants as equal sex ratios and no emigration, migration, mutation nor selection. Conservatively, it is often assumed that effective population size is approximately one fifth of the total population size. s is the selection coefficient and is a value between 0 and 1.  It is a measurement of the contribution of a genotype to the next generation where a value of 1 would be completely selected against and make no contribution and 0 is not selected against at all. This definition of neutral mutation has been criticized due to the fact that very large effective population sizes can make mutations with small selection coefficients appear non neutral.  Additionally, mutations with high selection coefficients can appear neutral in very small populations.  The testable hypothesis of Kimura and others showed that polymorphism within species are approximately that which would be expected in a neutral evolutionary model.

text: In Kimura’s original calculations, mutations with |2 Ns|<1 or |s|≤1/(2N) are defined as neutral. In this equation, N is the

text: effective population size

text: and is a quantitative measurement of the ideal population size that assumes such constants as equal sex ratios and no emigration, migration, mutation nor selection. Conservatively, it is often assumed that effective population size is approximately one fifth of the total population size. s is the

text: selection coefficient

text: and is a value between 0 and 1.  It is a measurement of the contribution of a genotype to the next generation where a value of 1 would be completely selected against and make no contribution and 0 is not selected against at all. This definition of neutral mutation has been criticized due to the fact that very large effective population sizes can make mutations with small selection coefficients appear non neutral.  Additionally, mutations with high selection coefficients can appear neutral in very small populations.  The testable hypothesis of Kimura and others showed that polymorphism within species are approximately that which would be expected in a neutral evolutionary model.

text: Several estimates of the carrying capacity have been made with a wide range of population numbers. A 2001 UN report said that two-thirds of the estimates fall in the range of 4 billion to 16 billion with unspecified standard errors, with a median of about 10 billion. More recent estimates are much lower, particularly if non-renewable resource depletion and increased consumption are considered.

text: Several estimates of the carrying capacity have been made with a wide range of population numbers. A 2001 UN report said that two-thirds of the estimates fall in the range of 4 billion to 16 billion with unspecified standard errors, with a median of about 10 billion. More recent estimates are much lower, particularly if

text: non-renewable resource depletion

text: and

text: increased consumption

text: are considered.

text: As contest competition allows the monopolization of resources, offspring will typically always be produced and survive until adulthood independent of the population size. This results in stable population dynamics, in stark contrast to scramble competition which can result in periodic or chaotic population dynamics. The Beverton-Holt model is often used to represent population dynamics arising from contest competition. This model, and a few other well-known population models, can be explicitly derived from individual-level processes assuming contest competition and a random distribution of individuals among resources.

text: As contest competition allows the monopolization of resources, offspring will typically always be produced and survive until adulthood independent of the population size. This results in stable

text: population dynamics

text: , in stark contrast to scramble competition which can result in periodic or chaotic population dynamics. The

text: Beverton-Holt model

text: is often used to represent population dynamics arising from contest competition. This model, and a few other well-known population models, can be explicitly derived from individual-level processes assuming contest competition and a

text: random distribution

text: of individuals among resources.

text: Species are classified in four groups, set through criteria such as rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation.

text: The distinction between the two terms lies on the scale of the Allee effect: the presence of a demographic Allee effect suggests the presence of at least one component Allee effect, while the presence of a component Allee effect does not necessarily result in a demographic Allee effect. For example, cooperative hunting and the ability to more easily find mates, both influenced by population density, are component Allee effects, as they influence individual fitness of the population. At low population density, these component Allee effects would add up to produce an overall demographic Allee effect (increased fitness with higher population density). When population density reaches a high number, negative density dependence often offsets the component Allee effects through resource competition, thus erasing the demographic Allee effect. It is important to note that Allee effects might occur even at high population density for some species.

text: The coalescent effective size may have little relationship to the number of individuals physically present in a population. Measured coalescent effective population sizes vary between genes in the same population, being low in genome areas of low recombination and high in genome areas of high recombination. Sojourn times are proportional to N in neutral theory, but for alleles under selection, sojourn times are proportional to log(N). Genetic hitchhiking can cause neutral mutations to have sojourn times proportional to log(N): this may explain the relationship between measured effective population size and the local recombination rate.

text: The coalescent effective size may have little relationship to the number of individuals physically present in a population. Measured coalescent effective population sizes vary between genes in the same population, being low in genome areas of low recombination and high in genome areas of high recombination. Sojourn times are proportional to N in neutral theory, but for alleles under selection, sojourn times are proportional to log(N).

text: Genetic hitchhiking

text: can cause neutral mutations to have sojourn times proportional to log(N): this may explain the relationship between measured effective population size and the local recombination rate.

text: Rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good tradeoff between cost, size, weight, carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on.Other bearing designs are often better on one specific attribute, but worse in most other attributes, although fluid bearings can sometimes simultaneously outperform on carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, rotation rate and sometimes cost. Only plain bearings are used as widely as rolling-element bearings.

text: Rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good tradeoff between cost, size, weight, carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on.Other bearing designs are often better on one specific attribute, but worse in most other attributes, although

text: fluid bearing

text: s can sometimes simultaneously outperform on carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, rotation rate and sometimes cost. Only

text: plain bearing

text: s are used as widely as rolling-element bearings.

text: is the rate of population growth per unit time, r is the maximum per capita growth rate, and N is the population size.

text: The Romans emulated many of the Greek bathing practices. Romans surpassed the Greeks in the size and complexity of their baths.  This came about by many factors: the larger size and population of Roman cities, the availability of running water following the building of aqueducts, and the invention of cement, which made building large edifices easier, safer, and cheaper.  As in Greece, the Roman bath became a focal center for social and recreational activity. As the Roman Empire expanded, the idea of the public bath spread to all parts of the Mediterranean and into regions of Europe and North Africa. With the construction of the aqueducts, the Romans had enough water not only for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, but also for their leisurely pursuits. The aqueducts provided water that was later heated for use in the baths. Today, the extent of the Roman bath is revealed at ruins and in archaeological excavations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.

text: The Romans emulated many of the Greek bathing practices. Romans surpassed the Greeks in the size and complexity of their baths.  This came about by many factors: the larger size and population of Roman cities, the availability of running water following the building of

text: aqueduct

text: s, and the invention of

text: cement

text: , which made building large edifices easier, safer, and cheaper.  As in Greece, the Roman bath became a focal center for social and recreational activity. As the

text: Roman Empire

text: expanded, the idea of the public bath spread to all parts of the Mediterranean and into regions of Europe and North Africa. With the construction of the

text: aqueduct

text: s, the Romans had enough water not only for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, but also for their leisurely pursuits. The aqueducts provided water that was later heated for use in the baths. Today, the extent of the Roman bath is revealed at ruins and in archaeological excavations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.

text: It is  in size, with a population of 558.

text: In winter, seed resources are most likely to be a key limiting factor. At this time of year, individuals in a flock form linear dominance hierarchies, but there is no strong relation between the size of the throat patch and position in that hierarchy. This is in contrast to the house sparrow; in that species, fights to establish dominance are reduced by the display of the throat patch, the size of which acts as a signalling "badge" of fitness.

text: In winter, seed resources are most likely to be a key limiting factor. At this time of year, individuals in a flock form linear

text: dominance hierarchies

text: , but there is no strong relation between the size of the throat patch and position in that hierarchy. This is in contrast to the house sparrow; in that species, fights to establish dominance are reduced by the display of the throat patch, the size of which acts as a

text: signalling

text: "badge" of

text: fitness

text: Plants, like most life forms, require relatively few basic elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur; hence they are known as CHNOPS life forms. There are also lesser elements needed as well, frequently termed micronutrients, such as magnesium and sodium. When plants grow in close proximity, they may deplete supplies of these elements and have a negative impact upon neighbours. Competition for resources vary from complete symmetric (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size) to perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely size-asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities.In many cases (perhaps most) the negative effects upon neighbours arise from size asymmetric competition for light. In other cases, there may be competition below ground for water, nitrogen, or phosphorus. To detect and measure competition, experiments are necessary; these experiments require removing neighbours, and measuring responses in the remaining plants.  Many such studies are required before useful generalizations can be drawn.

text: Plants, like most life forms, require relatively few basic elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur; hence they are known as CHNOPS life forms. There are also lesser elements needed as well, frequently termed micronutrients, such as magnesium and sodium. When plants grow in close proximity, they may deplete supplies of these elements and have a negative impact upon neighbours. Competition for resources vary from

text: complete symmetric

text: (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size) to

text: perfectly size symmetric

text: (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely

text: size-asymmetric

text: (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities.In many cases (perhaps most) the negative effects upon neighbours arise from size asymmetric competition for light. In other cases, there may be competition below ground for water, nitrogen, or phosphorus. To detect and measure competition, experiments are necessary; these experiments require removing neighbours, and measuring responses in the remaining plants.  Many such studies are required before useful generalizations can be drawn.

text: The scrolling screen takes much longer to scroll. The in-game controls were modified. As in the previous SimCity title, there is no SNES Mouse support. Riots and volcanoes were removed. The game has fewer songs than the original PC version. Also, the SNES port omits the cheat codes, limits the city maps to six, has no difficulty setting and only includes five generic scenarios. There is only one newspaper for the whole city, no matter what size that the city is. In addition, the stock photographs were replaced with more Japanese anime/manga-like pictures. This is the only port of the game to feature such pictures. All team names, city names, and mayor names were limited to 8 characters, whereas the PC version allows for up to 32 characters. There are additional gifts: a bigger city hall at 1,000,000 population, a TV station at 2,000,000 population, and a rocket launching pad at 3,000,000 population. The player can see an actual launch of a single launch arco by achieving 5,000,000 population in the last scenario.

text: The work is also important for the early history of perception. Ptolemy combined the mathematical, philosophical and physiological traditions. He held an extramission-intromission theory of vision: the rays (or flux) from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed information back to the observer’s intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. Size and shape were determined by the visual angle subtended at the eye combined with perceived distance and orientation. This was one of the early statements of size-distance invariance as a cause of perceptual size and shape constancy, a view supported by the Stoics. Ptolemy offered explanations for many phenomena concerning illumination and colour, size, shape, movement and binocular vision. He also divided illusions into those caused by physical or optical factors and those caused by judgemental factors. He offered an obscure explanation of the sun or moon illusion (the enlarged apparent size on the horizon) based on the difficulty of looking upwards.

text: The work is also important for the early history of perception. Ptolemy combined the mathematical, philosophical and physiological traditions. He held an extramission-intromission theory of vision: the rays (or flux) from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye, and the base defining the visual field. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed information back to the observer’s intellect about the distance and orientation of surfaces. Size and shape were determined by the visual angle subtended at the eye combined with perceived distance and orientation. This was one of the early statements of size-distance invariance as a cause of perceptual size and shape constancy, a view supported by the Stoics. Ptolemy offered explanations for many phenomena concerning illumination and colour, size, shape, movement and binocular vision. He also divided illusions into those caused by physical or optical factors and those caused by judgemental factors. He offered an obscure explanation of the sun or

text: moon illusion

text: (the enlarged apparent size on the horizon) based on the difficulty of looking upwards.

text: ) is one-fourth the maximum population or carrying capacity (

text: Actigraph units vary widely in size and features and can be expanded to include additional measurements. However, there are a number of limiting factors:

text: Nonetheless, the Mayanist knew the limitations of archaeological research. One of Thompson's later articles Estimates of Maya Population: Deranging Factors is an attempt to identify deranging factors for population estimates of the ancient Maya. Determining population sizes is still an issue that plagues archaeologists (214). He draws attention to the ancient Maya tendency to "abandon" a hut after the death of its owner which may invariably skew population estimates. Additionally, Thompson writes about the mobilizing capabilities of the ancient Maya and their long-standing tradition of moving from site to site in order to exploit local resources. Using the modern Maya as an example, he urged other archaeologists to consider hut-abandonment, and movement as major issues. In fact, determining whether or not a site is continuously occupied is still a huge part of archaeological limits today. Moreover, Thompson contends that house-moving was not a major issues for the Maya since building materials were abundant (215). In his conclusion he feels that mounds also may be an indication of decreased population sizes and a time of "growing unrest."

text: There were internal changers the size of a standard 5.25" drive that carried as few as 6 discs and external changers with capacity ranging from 50 discs to 200.

text: The impact of sensor size on field of view is referred to as the "crop factor" or "focal length multiplier", which is a factor by which a lens focal length can be multiplied to give the full-frame-equivalent focal length for a lens. Typical APS-C sensors have crop factors of 1.5 to 1.7, so a lens with a focal length of 50 mm will give a field of view equal to that of a 75 mm to 85 mm lens on a 35 mm camera. The smaller sensors of Four Thirds System cameras have a crop factor of 2.0.

text: The impact of sensor size on field of view is referred to as the "

text: crop factor

text: " or "focal length multiplier", which is a factor by which a lens focal length can be multiplied to give the full-frame-equivalent focal length for a lens. Typical

text: APS-C

text: sensors have crop factors of 1.5 to 1.7, so a lens with a focal length of 50 mm will give a field of view equal to that of a 75 mm to 85 mm lens on a

text: 35 mm

text: camera. The smaller sensors of Four Thirds System cameras have a crop factor of 2.0.

text: In the study by Herrera, cluster analysis was employed to ascertain relative gene flow and/or differences in effective population size among the four groups of Maya. The Buctzotz and the Campeche reported a higher than average gene flow and/or effective population size. The Cakchiquel and the Quiche indicated by Herrera et al. display a lower than average gene flow and/or effective population size. The Buctzotz and Quiche were listed as being outliers. An AMOVA (Analysis of Molecular Variance) relates a “correlation or parallelism between genetic differentiation on one hand and geographical categories or linguistic types on the other.” The AMOVA compared inter-population and intra-population affinities. The only significant differences among the populations were in linguistics and genetics. "The high allelic frequency levels at or near fixation is the result of genetic drift, bottle neck events and/or the founder effect.” The founder effect was defined for the low heterozygosity amongst the Quiche and Cakchiquel. The Yucatán Mayans exhibited greater heterozygosity. This effect “was due to the extensive commerce and interaction with technologically advanced neighbors and compared with their southern counterparts was the accessibility to travel.” Both instances of variability among the Mayan groups suggest their genetic diversity and uniqueness. All pair-wise combinations display proportionate genetic differences. “The data may be indicative of the lack of genetic homogeneity among the four Mayan groups, especially when comparing the Guatemalan to the Yucatecan.”

text: In the study by Herrera,

text: cluster analysis

text: was employed to ascertain relative

text: gene flow

text: Since the 1960s, the interannual population size has fluctuated from less than 1,000 birds to over 3,000, and appears to be gradually increasing. Biannual surveys conducted by the Hawaiian Department of Land and Natural Resource’s Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) found that between 1998 and 2003 the inter-island coot population averaged 2,100 birds, ranging between 1,500 and 3,000 birds.<ref>United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 2005. Draft Revised Recovery Plan for Hawaiian Waterbirds, Second Draft of Second Revision, Portland, Oregon, 155 pp. Available online at

text: As a result of small population sizes and haplodiploidy, B. muscorum has an increased susceptibility to inbreeding. As sex is determined at a single locus, the overall fitness of a population is directly related to the number of different alleles at the sex locus, which in turn is related to the size and isolation of the population. When drones mate with related queens, diploid males with reduced fertility and immune response are produced. 10 out of 14 B. muscorum populations in the Hebrides showed significant signs of recent bottlenecking. In recent years, diploid males have come to represent a considerable proportion of males within populations in the British Isles, suggesting an increase in inbreeding among populations.

text: As a result of small population sizes and haplodiploidy, B. muscorum has an increased susceptibility to inbreeding. As sex is determined at a single locus, the overall fitness of a population is directly related to the number of different alleles at the sex locus, which in turn is related to the size and isolation of the population. When drones mate with related queens, diploid males with reduced fertility and immune response are produced. 10 out of 14 B. muscorum populations in the

text: Hebrides

text: showed significant signs of recent

text: bottlenecking

text: . In recent years, diploid males have come to represent a considerable proportion of males within populations in the British Isles, suggesting an increase in inbreeding among populations.

text: Here x is the size of the population at a given time, r is inherent per-capita growth rate, and K is the carrying capacity.

text: Here x is the size of the population at a given time, r is inherent per-capita growth rate, and K is the

text: carrying capacity

text: The naval war will take up most of players' time during the game, the explicit idea being that a major Pacific naval battle will take as long to resolve as an armour offensive on the Eastern Front. Players still have generic naval factors as in the European game, but also have separate named aircraft carriers, normally of two (CVL) or three (CV) factors. The former are much easier to sink, and take a year to rebuild (CVs take two years). The US also has some optional four factor carriers (CVB) which did not see service in the actual war. Each carrier factor can base a single Naval Air Squadron (NAS) - one third of the size of an Army Air Factor, but equal for combat strength if fighting "over water" (although, because of the size differential, three losses would need to be inflicted to destroy a single AAF). Naval Air Squadrons may also base at cities, and one squadron and/or 9 naval factors may base on a one-hex island.

text: is defined to be the limit of the partial products aa...a as n increases without bound.  The product is said to converge when the limit exists and is not zero. Otherwise the product is said to diverge.  A limit of zero is treated specially in order to obtain results analogous to those for infinite sums. Some sources allow convergence to 0 if there are only a finite number of zero factors and the product of the non-zero factors is non-zero, but for simplicity we will not allow that here. If the product converges, then the limit of the sequence a as n increases without bound must be 1, while the converse is in general not true.

text: is defined to be the

text: limit

text: of the

text: partial products

text: aa...a as n increases without bound.  The product is said to

text: converge

text: when the limit exists and is not zero. Otherwise the product is said to diverge.  A limit of zero is treated specially in order to obtain results analogous to those for

text: infinite sums

text: . Some sources allow convergence to 0 if there are only a finite number of zero factors and the product of the non-zero factors is non-zero, but for simplicity we will not allow that here. If the product converges, then the limit of the sequence a as n increases without bound must be 1, while the converse is in general not true.

text: The Republic of Poland is predominantly a Roman Catholic state with approximately 89 percent of the population Roman Catholic. Groups that constitute less than 5 percent of the population include Polish Orthodox, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Lutherans, Greek Catholics, Pentecostals, and others. The remainder of the state encompasses more than 151 churches or other religious organizations. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Polish Constitution and major international conventions and agreements related to religion. Most of these have been signed and ratified by Poland. The Constitution provides, without any exception, separation of church and state, freedom of faith and religion, and equal rights for churches and other religious organizations. After registration, churches and other religious organizations may enjoy their rights provided by various laws. The relations between the State and the Roman Catholic Church are determined by the Concordat Between the Holy See and the Republic of Poland and by other laws. The relations between the State and other major churches and religious organizations are determined by laws adopted pursuant to agreements concluded between their appropriate representatives and the Council of Ministers.

text: Bush carried 230 of Texas's 254 counties. He racked up big margins in the Texas Panhandle, East Texas, the Permian Basin, the Texas Hill Country, and the Gulf Coast. He won every major and mid-sized city with the exceptions of El Paso, Laredo, Brownsville, McAllen, and Beaumont, all of which were carried by Vice President Al Gore. Two thinly populated counties, Glasscock and Ochiltree, gave Bush over 90% of the vote, with the former being the strongest Republican voting county in 2000. This marked the first time since the 1956 election that a Republican candidate won any of Texas's counties with over 90% of the vote.

text: Bush carried 230 of Texas's 254 counties. He racked up big margins in the

text: Texas Panhandle

text: , East Texas, the

text: Permian Basin

text: , the

text: Texas Hill Country

text: , and the Gulf Coast. He won every major and mid-sized city with the exceptions of

text: El Paso

text: Laredo

text: Brownsville

text: McAllen

text: , and

text: Beaumont

text: , all of which were carried by Vice President Al Gore. Two thinly populated counties,

text: Glasscock

text: and

text: Ochiltree

text: , gave Bush over 90% of the vote, with the former being the strongest Republican voting county in 2000. This marked the first time since the

entity_name: United States presidential election, 1956

text: 1956 election

text: that a Republican candidate won any of Texas's counties with over 90% of the vote.

text: The genetic population structure and sociogenetic organization of F. truncorum were compared between monogynous and polygynous colonies by using allele frequency differences between the populations and estimates of relatedness between different subsets of the colony population. The allele frequency differences between subpopulations were significant in the polygynous colonies but not detectable between the subpopulations of the monogynous colonies. This makes sense because the polygynous colonies would be expected to have multiple reproducing females from different genetic backgrounds, which would lead to differences in the allele frequencies of the workers that made up the population. Also, the polygynous colonies usually had queens that were related to their male mates, which was not the case in the monogynous colonies, suggesting a difference in dispersal between the two types. Based on this data, polygynous colonies have limited dispersal and will usually mate within the colony, while the monogynous colonies rely on outbreeding and a higher degree of dispersal.

text: The genetic population structure and sociogenetic organization of F. truncorum were compared between monogynous and polygynous colonies by using

text: allele frequency

text: differences between the populations and estimates of relatedness between different subsets of the colony population. The allele frequency differences between subpopulations were significant in the polygynous colonies but not detectable between the subpopulations of the monogynous colonies. This makes sense because the polygynous colonies would be expected to have multiple reproducing females from different genetic backgrounds, which would lead to differences in the allele frequencies of the workers that made up the population. Also, the polygynous colonies usually had queens that were related to their male mates, which was not the case in the monogynous colonies, suggesting a difference in dispersal between the two types. Based on this data, polygynous colonies have limited dispersal and will usually mate within the colony, while the monogynous colonies rely on outbreeding and a higher degree of dispersal.

text: Population Matters, formerly known as the Optimum Population Trust, is a UK-based charity that addresses population size and its effects on environmental sustainability. It considers population growth as a major contributor to environmental degradation, resource depletion, conflict and involuntary migration and societal problems such as housing scarcity and transport congestion.

text: Population Matters, formerly known as the Optimum Population Trust, is a UK-based charity that addresses population size and its effects on

text: environmental sustainability

text: . It considers population growth as a major contributor to

text: environmental degradation

text: resource depletion

text: , conflict and involuntary migration and societal problems such as housing scarcity and transport congestion.

text: The population is over 600. The village is divided between a large Catholic community and an equally sized Muslim community. Relations between the two are incredibly warm and good with both sides interacting without prejudice as far as celebrating each parties religious holidays respectfully and in many cases together. The village remains however geographically segregated in two portions with one being predominantly Catholic whilst the other Muslim. The reasons for this are unsure but due to the pleasant relations between them, it appears to be as a result of the fact that the Muslim quarter is populated by around 5 large family groupings all tracing their descent to a common ancestor of the Cokaj clan hailing from Koplik I Siper with rumoured roots in the town of Kuci, Montenegro (a testament to the various migratory patterns by Alba-phone and Slavonic peoples during times of conflict in this border region). Intermarriage within the village is almost unheard of due to possible patrilinial blood relations within the Muslim community as well as the religious divide exacerbated by the affluence of traditional arranged marriages being conducted that do not favor inter marriage within the same village.

text: Luxembourg also participated in the negotiations for putting the Marshall Plan into effect, through the framework of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC). It was one of the 16 European governments that met in Paris on 12 July 1947 to respond to the American Secretary of State's offer of aid. American aid was granted to the UEBL, within which it was then divided up in proportion to size of population and economic capacity. The Luxembourgish government profited from the OEEC in order to realise several large-scale projects such as the hydroelectric development of the Sûre and the Our.

text: Luxembourg also participated in the negotiations for putting the

text: Marshall Plan

text: into effect, through the framework of the

entity_name: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: Organisation for European Economic Co-operation

text: (OEEC). It was one of the 16 European governments that met in Paris on 12 July 1947 to respond to the American Secretary of State's offer of aid. American aid was granted to the UEBL, within which it was then divided up in proportion to size of population and economic capacity. The Luxembourgish government profited from the OEEC in order to realise several large-scale projects such as the hydroelectric development of the Sûre and the Our.

text: The populations and demographics of male and female inmate populations in the US are very different from one another. These differences factor heavily into theories on prisoner social organization. The most significant difference is in the relative size of  male and female populations; in 2014 there were approximately 1,440,000 male and 112,000 female prisoners in the United States. The much larger size of the male prison population causes major differences in the institutions in which male and female inmates serve their time. Another significant factor in prisoner social structure is the differences in arrest factors for male and female prison populations; higher proportion of female inmates are incarcerated due to a property or drug charge than are their male counterparts, a higher proportion of whom have been arrested for a violent offence.

text: The populations and

text: demographics

text: of male and female inmate populations in the US are very different from one another. These differences factor heavily into theories on prisoner social organization. The most significant difference is in the relative size of  male and female populations; in 2014 there were approximately 1,440,000 male and 112,000 female prisoners in the United States. The much larger size of the male prison population causes major differences in the institutions in which male and female inmates serve their time. Another significant factor in prisoner social structure is the differences in arrest factors for male and female prison populations; higher proportion of female inmates are incarcerated due to a property or drug charge than are their male counterparts, a higher proportion of whom have been arrested for a

text: violent offence

text: Crowdworkers are a nonrandom sample of the population. Many researchers use crowdsourcing to quickly and cheaply conduct studies with larger sample sizes than would be otherwise achievable. However, due to limited access to the Internet, participation in low developed countries is relatively low. Participation in highly developed countries is similarly low, largely because the low amount of pay is not a strong motivation for most users in these countries. These factors lead to a bias in the population pool towards users in medium developed countries, as deemed by the human development index.

text: Crowdworkers are a nonrandom sample of the population. Many researchers use crowdsourcing to quickly and cheaply conduct studies with larger sample sizes than would be otherwise achievable. However, due to limited access to the Internet, participation in low developed countries is relatively low. Participation in highly developed countries is similarly low, largely because the low amount of pay is not a strong motivation for most users in these countries. These factors lead to a bias in the population pool towards users in medium developed countries, as deemed by the

text: human development index

text: Foundry ladles are normally rated by their working capacity rather than by their physical size. Hand-held ladles are typically known as handshank ladles and are fitted with a long handle to keep the heat of the metal away from the person holding it. Their capacity is limited to what a man can safely handle. Larger ladles are usually referred to as geared crane ladles. Their capacity is usually determined by the ladle function. Small hand-held ladles might also be crucibles that are fitted with carrying devices. However, in most foundries, the foundry ladle refers to a steel vessel that has a lifting bail fitted so that the vessel can be carried by an overhead crane or monorail system and is also fitted with a mechanical means for rotating the vessel, usually in the form of a gearbox. The gearbox can either be manually operated or powered operation. (See the paragraph below for further details).

text: Ever since major development occurred in Limón, an undercurrent of political resentment has been felt between limonenses and the central government.  This is especially true for the Afro-Caribbean population, who, until 1948, had to obtain legal permission to leave Limón province, and were not recognized as citizens.  Roads and electricity were slow to come to most of the province (the latter did not arrive to Cahuita until late 1976), and the traditional disparity of resources – along with racism – created resentment among some of the Limón population.  Recent major investment initiatives are a break with the past, and may help to improve relations between the Caribbean district and the central valley (see "Economy").

text: On the far side of the morainic zone is the gravel outwash plain, which was piled up by the meltwaters of the ice mass. Those waters usually came from glacier caves whose former location is still recognisable today from the dips in the level of the terminal moraines. Often the gravel plains are markedly terraced; younger outlets have cut so-called little trumpet-shaped valleys in the older gravel plains. The material of the outwash plans is glacial till. The transport capacity of the meltwater is considerably less than that of the glacier, so that larger rocks cannot be carried out of the Zungenbecken. By contrast, elements with smaller grain size, like clays and sands can be transported much further, which is why they are rarely found in the gravel plains.

text: On the far side of the morainic zone is the gravel

text: outwash plain

text: , which was piled up by the meltwaters of the ice mass. Those waters usually came from

text: glacier cave

text: s whose former location is still recognisable today from the dips in the level of the terminal moraines. Often the gravel plains are markedly terraced; younger outlets have cut so-called little trumpet-shaped valleys in the older gravel plains. The material of the outwash plans is glacial till. The transport capacity of the meltwater is considerably less than that of the glacier, so that larger rocks cannot be carried out of the Zungenbecken. By contrast, elements with smaller

text: grain size

text: , like

text: clay

text: s and

text: sand

text: s can be transported much further, which is why they are rarely found in the gravel plains.

text: After the crash, the goat population once again grew, this time more slowly, until it had reached the new, lower carrying capacity at maybe 10,000–20,000 in modern times. The island had been a nature conservancy area since August 16, 1928, making it one of the oldest reserves in Mexico. Eradication of the goats was long envisioned, but logistical difficulties such as island size and lack of suitable spots for landing and encamping hunters and material prevented this. As of June 2005, after many years of false starts, the Mexican government has almost completed a round-up and evacuation of the remaining goat population and Guadalupe has been designated a biosphere reserve.

text: After the crash, the goat population once again grew, this time more slowly, until it had reached the new, lower

text: carrying capacity

text: at maybe 10,000–20,000 in modern times. The island had been a nature conservancy area since August 16, 1928, making it one of the oldest reserves in Mexico. Eradication of the goats was long envisioned, but logistical difficulties such as island size and lack of suitable spots for landing and encamping hunters and material prevented this. As of June 2005, after many years of false starts, the Mexican government has almost completed a round-up and evacuation of the remaining goat population and Guadalupe has been designated a

text: biosphere

text: reserve

text: Some aspects of a system's carrying capacity may involve matters such as available supplies of food, water, raw materials, and/or other similar "resources". In addition, there are other factors that govern carrying capacity which may be less-instinctive or less-intuitive in nature, such as ever-increasing and/or ever-accumulating levels of wastes, damage, and/or eradication of essential components of any complex functioning system.  Eradication of, for example, large or critical portions of any complex system (envision a space vehicle, for instance, or an airplane, or an automobile, or computer code, or the body components of a living vertebrate) can interrupt essential processes and dynamics in ways that induce systems-failures or unexpected collapse. (As an example of these latter factors, the "carrying capacity" of a complex system such an airplane is more than a matter of available food, or water, or available seating, but also reflects total weight carried and presumes that its passengers do not damage, destroy, or eradicate parts, doors, windows, wings, engine parts, fuel, and oil, and so forth.) Thus, on a global scale, food and similar resources may affect planetary carrying capacity to some extent so long as Earth's human passengers do not dismantle, eradicate, or otherwise destroy critical biospheric life-support capacities for essential processes of self-maintenance, self-perpetuation, and self-repair.

text: Some aspects of a system's carrying capacity may involve matters such as available supplies of

text: food

text: water

text: , raw materials, and/or other similar "resources". In addition, there are other factors that govern carrying capacity which may be less-instinctive or less-intuitive in nature, such as ever-increasing and/or ever-accumulating levels of

text: waste

text: s,

text: damage

text: , and/or eradication of essential components of any complex functioning system.  Eradication of, for example, large or critical portions of any

text: complex system

text: (envision a space vehicle, for instance, or an airplane, or an automobile, or computer code, or the body components of a living vertebrate) can interrupt essential processes and dynamics in ways that induce systems-failures or unexpected collapse. (As an example of these latter factors, the "carrying capacity" of a complex system such an airplane is more than a matter of available food, or water, or available seating, but also reflects total weight carried and presumes that its passengers do not damage, destroy, or eradicate parts,

text: doors

text: , windows, wings, engine parts, fuel, and oil, and so forth.) Thus, on a global scale, food and similar resources may affect planetary carrying capacity to some extent so long as Earth's human passengers do not dismantle, eradicate, or otherwise destroy critical

text: biospheric

text: life-support capacities for essential processes of self-maintenance,

text: self-perpetuation

text: , and

text: self-repair

text: Woolley, Chabris, Pentland, Hashmi, & Malone (2010), the originators of this scientific understanding of collective intelligence, found a single statistical factor for collective intelligence in their research across 192 groups with people randomly recruited from the public. In Woolley et al.'s two initial studies, groups worked together on different tasks from the McGrath Task Circumplex, a well-established taxonomy of group tasks. Tasks were chosen from all four quadrants of the circumplex and included visual puzzles, brainstorming, making collective moral judgments, and negotiating over limited resources. The results in these tasks were taken to conduct a factor analysis. Both studies showed support for a general collective intelligence factor c underlying differences in group performance with an initial eigenvalue accounting for 43% (44% in study 2) of the variance, whereas the next factor accounted for only 18% (20%). That fits the range normally found in research regarding a general individual intelligence factor g typically accounting for 40% to 50% percent of between-individual performance differences on cognitive tests.Afterwards, a more complex criterion task was absolved by each group measuring whether the extracted c factor had predictive power for performance outside the original task batteries. Criterion tasks were playing checkers (draughts) against a standardized computer in the first and a complex architectural design task in the second study. In a regression analysis using both individual intelligence of group members and c to predict performance on the criterion tasks, c had a significant effect, but average and maximum individual intelligence had not. While average (r=0.15, P=0.04) and maximum intelligence (r=0.19, P=0.008) of individual group members were moderately correlated with c, c was still a much better predictor of the criterion tasks. According to Woolley et al., this supports the existence of a collective intelligence factor c, because it demonstrates an effect over and beyond group members' individual intelligence and thus that c is more than just the aggregation of the individual IQs or the influence of the group member with the highest IQ.

text: Woolley, Chabris, Pentland, Hashmi, & Malone (2010), the originators of this scientific understanding of collective intelligence, found a single statistical factor for collective intelligence in their research across 192 groups with people randomly recruited from the public. In Woolley et al.'s two initial studies, groups worked together on different tasks from the

text: McGrath Task Circumplex

text: , a well-established taxonomy of group tasks. Tasks were chosen from all four quadrants of the circumplex and included visual puzzles, brainstorming, making collective moral judgments, and negotiating over limited resources. The results in these tasks were taken to conduct a

text: factor analysis

text: . Both studies showed support for a general collective intelligence factor c underlying differences in group performance with an initial eigenvalue accounting for 43% (44% in study 2) of the variance, whereas the next factor accounted for only 18% (20%). That fits the range normally found in research regarding a

text: general individual intelligence factor g

text: typically accounting for 40% to 50% percent of between-individual performance differences on cognitive tests.Afterwards, a more complex criterion task was absolved by each group measuring whether the extracted c factor had predictive power for performance outside the original task batteries. Criterion tasks were playing

text: checkers (draughts)

text: against a standardized computer in the first and a complex architectural design task in the second study. In a

text: regression analysis

text: using both individual intelligence of group members and c to predict performance on the criterion tasks, c had a significant effect, but average and maximum individual intelligence had not. While average (r=0.15, P=0.04) and maximum intelligence (r=0.19, P=0.008) of individual group members were moderately correlated with c, c was still a much better predictor of the criterion tasks. According to Woolley et al., this supports the existence of a collective intelligence factor c, because it demonstrates an effect over and beyond group members' individual intelligence and thus that c is more than just the aggregation of the individual IQs or the influence of the group member with the highest IQ.

text: In line with widely differing estimates of home range size, population density figures are divergent, from one to 38 bobcats per  in one survey. The average is estimated at one bobcat per . A link has been observed between population density and sex ratio. One study noted a dense, unhunted population in California had a sex ratio of 2.1 males per female. When the density decreased, the sex ratio skewed to 0.86 males per female. Another study observed a similar ratio, and suggested the males may be better able to cope with the increased competition, and this helped limit reproduction until various factors lowered the density.

text: All regulating factors are density-dependent, meaning they keep populations at equilibrium by counteracting fluctuations in population size per unit area (or per unit volume for species living within three dimensional environments, such as water).  Other regulating factors of the human population at present are drinking water supply, amount of arable land (obviously a more fundamental term for food), air pollution and prevalence of communicable disease.  The major regulating factor for the human population in current times is inadequacy of safe drinking water, since waterborne disease is the principal environmental cause of mortality.

text: All regulating factors are

text: density

text: -dependent, meaning they keep populations at equilibrium by counteracting fluctuations in population size per unit area (or per unit volume for species living within three dimensional environments, such as water).  Other regulating factors of the human population at present are

text: drinking water

text: supply, amount of arable land (obviously a more fundamental term for food),

text: air pollution

text: and prevalence of communicable disease.  The major regulating factor for the human population in current times is inadequacy of safe

text: drinking water

text: , since waterborne disease is the principal environmental cause of mortality.

text: The Hupda share the Uaupés river basin with its other inhabitants, as a common environment, living a lifestyle differentiated from others, in its adaptive form, by ideological factors. These ideological factors are dictated by an interpretation of the world, based on a mythological corpus, that assures them a specific role in social and inter-ethnic relations in a hierarchical system. Thus to characterize them simply as hunters, gatherers, nomads, or semi-nomads to differentiate them from other tribes in the region is only relevant at the first level of analysis, where differences between tribes are established, possibly, based on their individual technical-economic systems. In this model are contained the inter-ethnic relations and the use of the land amongst the human resources necessary for the organization of the land and forest resources, the impact of human activities upon these resources and, most importantly, the maintenance of a balance between the various peoples sharing the region.

text: The Hupda share the Uaupés river basin with its other inhabitants, as a common environment, living a lifestyle differentiated from others, in its adaptive form, by ideological factors. These ideological factors are dictated by an interpretation of the world, based on a

text: mythological

text: corpus, that assures them a specific role in social and inter-ethnic relations in a hierarchical system. Thus to characterize them simply as hunters, gatherers, nomads, or semi-nomads to differentiate them from other tribes in the region is only relevant at the first level of analysis, where differences between tribes are established, possibly, based on their individual technical-economic systems. In this model are contained the inter-ethnic relations and the use of the land amongst the human resources necessary for the organization of the land and forest resources, the impact of human activities upon these resources and, most importantly, the maintenance of a balance between the various peoples sharing the region.

text: By the early 20th century, commercial exploitation and unregulated hunting had severely depressed deer populations in much of their range. For example, by about 1930, the U.S. population was thought to number about 300,000. After an outcry by hunters and other conservation ecologists, commercial exploitation of deer became illegal and conservation programs along with regulated hunting were introduced. In 2005, estimates put the deer population in the United States at around 30 million. Conservation practices have proved so successful, in parts of their range, the white-tailed deer populations currently far exceed their cultural carrying capacity and the animal may be considered a nuisance. A reduction in natural predators (which normally cull young, sick, or infirm specimens) has undoubtedly contributed to locally abundant populations.

text: By the early 20th century, commercial exploitation and unregulated

text: hunting

text: had severely depressed deer populations in much of their range. For example, by about 1930, the U.S. population was thought to number about 300,000. After an outcry by hunters and other

text: conservation ecologists

text: , commercial exploitation of deer became illegal and conservation programs along with regulated hunting were introduced. In 2005, estimates put the deer population in the United States at around 30 million. Conservation practices have proved so successful, in parts of their range, the white-tailed deer populations currently far exceed their cultural

text: carrying capacity

text: and the animal may be considered a

text: nuisance

text: . A reduction in natural predators (which normally cull young, sick, or infirm specimens) has undoubtedly contributed to locally abundant populations.

text: Another sociological example of positive feedback is the network effect. When more people are encouraged to join a network this increases the reach of the network therefore the network expands ever more quickly. A viral video is an example of the network effect in which links to a popular video are shared and redistributed, ensuring that more people see the video and then re-publish the links. This is the basis for many social phenomena, including Ponzi schemes and chain letters. In many cases population size is the limiting factor to the feedback effect.

text: Another sociological example of positive feedback is the

text: network effect

text: . When more people are encouraged to join a network this increases the reach of the network therefore the network expands ever more quickly. A

text: viral video

text: is an example of the network effect in which

text: links

text: to a popular video are shared and redistributed, ensuring that more people see the video and then re-publish the links. This is the basis for many social phenomena, including

text: Ponzi scheme

text: s and

text: chain letter

text: s. In many cases population size is the limiting factor to the feedback effect.

text: The drastic climate change of the Pleistocene era forced a separation of the red Apollo butterfly population. This in turn played a role in creating the distinct colour changes seen in the species. The Parnassius apollo became divided and isolated in the Eurasian region during the glacial period. The large glaciers created a physical barrier between the population, barring interaction between the groups. Still within these isolated populations the butterflies migrated westward into portions of southern Europe where they settled and reproduced. Within all of these particular isolated populations there is also variation in the wing colour allele.There is variation in size between the isolated populations. With the larger separated populations of butterflies these habitats are used to sustain populations with larger amount of resources. These larger populations are called metapopulations and with the smaller separated sub-populations they create a mainland-island system. The Parnassius apollo can migrate from habitats and thus create a variation seen in each isolated population.

text: Limiting factors are not all limited to the condition of the species. Some factors may be increased or reduced based on circumstances. An example of a limiting factor is sunlight in the rain forest, where growth is limited to all plants on the forest floor unless more light becomes available. This decreases a number of potential factors that could influence a biological process, but only one is in effect at any one place and time. This recognition that there is always a single limiting factor is vital in ecology; and the concept has parallels in numerous other processes. The limiting factor also causes competition between individuals of a species population. For example, space is a limiting factor. Many predators and prey need a certain amount of space for survival: food, water, and other biological needs. If the population of a species is too high, they start competing for those needs. Thus the limiting factors hold down population in an area by causing some individuals to seek better prospects elsewhere and others to stay and starve.

text: Limiting factors are not all limited to the condition of the species. Some factors may be increased or reduced based on circumstances. An example of a limiting factor is

text: sunlight

text: in the

text: rain forest

text: , where growth is limited to all plants on the

text: forest floor

text: unless more light becomes available. This decreases a number of potential factors that could influence a biological process, but only one is in effect at any one place and time. This recognition that there is always a single limiting factor is vital in

text: ecology

text: ; and the concept has parallels in numerous other processes. The limiting factor also causes

text: competition

text: between individuals of a species population. For example,

text: space

text: is a limiting factor. Many predators and prey need a certain amount of space for survival: food, water, and other biological needs. If the population of a species is too high, they start competing for those needs. Thus the limiting factors hold down population in an area by causing some individuals to seek better prospects elsewhere and others to stay and starve.

text: This form of the formula is limited to between-subjects analysis with equal sample sizes in all cells. Since it is less biased (although not unbiased), ω is preferable to η; however, it can be more inconvenient to calculate for complex analyses. A generalized form of the estimator has been published for between-subjects and within-subjects analysis, repeated measure, mixed design, and randomized block design experiments. In addition, methods to calculate partial Omega for individual factors and combined factors in designs with up to three independent variables have been published.

text: Modern infantry machine guns often have feed systems allowing the use of linked ammunition or other forms of feed like magazines or drums. In some instances—like the FN MINIMI/M249 SAW and the IMI Negev—the feed system requires no modification to fire with either mechanism. Other designs—like the Heckler and Koch HK21-based designs or MG34—require the exchange of modular parts to allow belt or alternate feeding. Due to the lack of protection provided by the belt, belt-fed infantry weapons typically use a flexible or rigid container to retain the belt on the weapon. In some designs—like the MG3—the belt container appears to be a magazine causing some confusion to people unfamiliar with the design. The capacity of belts and carriers is typically a function of weight and bulk. Their size is limited by caliber and the portability of the combined weapon and ammunition. The most common sizes typically carried on a man-portable weapon run from 50 to 300 rounds.

text: Modern infantry machine guns often have feed systems allowing the use of linked ammunition or other forms of feed like magazines or drums. In some instances—like the

text: FN

text: MINIMI

text: M249 SAW

text: and the

text: IMI Negev

text: —the feed system requires no modification to fire with either mechanism. Other designs—like the

text: Heckler and Koch HK21-based designs

text: or

text: —require the exchange of modular parts to allow belt or alternate feeding. Due to the lack of protection provided by the belt, belt-fed infantry weapons typically use a flexible or rigid container to retain the belt on the weapon. In some designs—like the

text: —the belt container appears to be a magazine causing some confusion to people unfamiliar with the design. The capacity of belts and carriers is typically a function of weight and bulk. Their size is limited by caliber and the portability of the combined weapon and ammunition. The most common sizes typically carried on a man-portable weapon run from 50 to 300 rounds.

text: Figure 3 only shows a single E-LAN service and only the tree from one of the members, however very large numbers of E-LAN services with membership from 2 to every node in the network can be supported by advertising the membership, computing the tandem behaviors, manufacturing the known multicast addresses and populating the FIBs. The only real limiting factors are the FIB table sizes and computational power of the individual devices both of which are growing yearly in leaps and bounds.

text: The degree of pathogen removal strongly varies with soil type, aquifer type, distance and other environmental factors. For this reason, it is difficult to estimate the safe distance between a pit latrine or a septic tank and a water source. In any case, such recommendations about the safe distance are mostly ignored by those building pit latrines. In addition, household plots are of a limited size and therefore pit latrines are often built much closer to groundwater wells than what can be regarded as safe. This results in groundwater pollution and household members falling sick when using this groundwater as a source of drinking water.

text: 3. By coercive population control prior to the human population exceeding the carrying capacity of the Earth.

text: Tankers can range in size of capacity from several hundred tons, which includes vessels for servicing small harbours and coastal settlements, to several hundred thousand tons, for long-range haulage. Besides ocean- or seagoing tankers there are also specialized inland-waterway tankers which operate on rivers and canals with an average cargo capacity up to some thousand tons. A wide range of products are carried by tankers, including:

text: Tankers can range in size of capacity from several hundred

text: tons

text: , which includes vessels for servicing small harbours and coastal settlements, to several hundred thousand tons, for long-range haulage. Besides ocean- or seagoing tankers there are also specialized inland-waterway tankers which operate on rivers and canals with an average

text: cargo

text: capacity up to some thousand tons. A wide range of products are carried by tankers, including:

text: Limiting factors include road construction, timber harvest operations, stream gravel removal and chemical treatment of streams. Additional limiting factors and concerns include decreased stream flow, impoundment of water, and interaction with and predation by, introduced exotic fishes. Predation by rainbow trout has been strongly suggested as an important factor in the success and distribution of L. vittata.

text: Limiting factors include road construction, timber harvest operations, stream gravel removal and chemical treatment of streams. Additional limiting factors and concerns include decreased stream flow, impoundment of water, and interaction with and predation by, introduced exotic fishes. Predation by

text: rainbow trout

text: has been strongly suggested as an important factor in the success and distribution of L. vittata.

text: There is limited research on psychopathy in the general work populace, in part because the PCL-R includes antisocial behavior as a significant core factor (obtaining a PCL-R score above the threshold is unlikely without having significant scores on the antisocial-lifestyle factor) and does not include positive adjustment characteristics, and most researchers have studied psychopathy in incarcerated criminals, a relatively accessible population of research subjects. However, psychologists Fritzon and Board, in their study comparing the incidence of personality disorders in business executives against criminals detained in a mental hospital, found that the profiles of some senior business managers contained significant elements of personality disorders, including those referred to as the "emotional components", or interpersonal-affective traits, of psychopathy. Factors such as boldness, low disinhibition, and meanness as defined in the triarchic model, in combination with other advantages such as a favorable upbringing and high intelligence, are thought to correlate with stress immunity and stability, and may contribute to this particular expression. Such individuals are sometimes referred to as "successful psychopaths" or "corporate psychopaths" (among other synonyms), and may not necessarily aways have extensive histories of traditional criminal or antisocial behavior as characteristic of the traditional conceptualization of psychopathy. Robert Hare claims that the prevalence of psychopathic traits is higher in the business world than in the general population, reporting that while about 1% of the general population meet the clinical criteria for psychopathy, figures of around 3-4% have been cited for more senior positions in business.

text: in CS (apart from the population size

text: in CS (apart from the population size

text: The Mauritius kestrel, F. punctatus, is more distantly related to the preceding two, having diverged from ancestral Madagascar region kestrels some time in the Gelasian (Groombridge et al. 2002). It is found only on Mauritius.  It usually snatches arboreal prey, typically geckos or small birds. Habitat loss and DDT poisoning pushed this species to the brink of extinction, down to possibly as few as six individuals (and an even smaller effective population size) in the mid 1970s.  The conservation effort was initially unsuccessful but results improved when new approaches were tried by Carl Jones in 1979.  Chicks hatched at a sanctuary run by Gerald Durrell were released to new areas, and the population has now almost reached the carrying capacity of the island; intensive conservation activity has ceased for some time, with the last captive bred birds released in 1994.

text: The

text: Mauritius kestrel

text: , F. punctatus, is more distantly related to the preceding two, having diverged from ancestral Madagascar region kestrels some time in the

text: Gelasian

text: (Groombridge et al. 2002). It is found only on

text: Mauritius

text: .  It usually snatches arboreal prey, typically

text: gecko

text: s or small birds. Habitat loss and

text: DDT

text: poisoning pushed this species to the brink of extinction, down to possibly as few as six individuals (and an even smaller

text: effective population size

text: ) in the mid 1970s.  The conservation effort was initially unsuccessful but results improved when new approaches were tried by

text: Carl Jones

text: in 1979.  Chicks hatched at a sanctuary run by

text: Gerald Durrell

text: were released to new areas, and the population has now almost reached the

text: carrying capacity

text: of the island; intensive conservation activity has ceased for some time, with the last captive bred birds released in 1994.

text: The effective population size is commonly lower than the actual population size.

text: The

text: effective population size

text: is commonly lower than the actual population size.

text: As a population grows and technology makes it easier to exploit depleting resources, the environment's diminishing returns are hidden from view. Societal complexity is then potentially threatened if it develops beyond what is actually sustainable, and a disorderly reorganization were to follow. The scissors model of Malthusian collapse, where the population grows without limit and resources do not, is the idea of great opposing environmental forces cutting into each other.

text: As a population grows and technology makes it easier to exploit depleting resources, the environment's

text: diminishing returns

text: are hidden from view. Societal

text: complexity

text: is then potentially threatened if it develops beyond what is actually sustainable, and a disorderly reorganization were to follow. The scissors model of

text: Malthusian

text: collapse, where the population grows without limit and resources do not, is the idea of great opposing environmental forces cutting into each other.

text: A distance between populations can be interpreted as measuring the distance between two probability distributions and hence they are essentially measures of distances between probability measures. Where statistical distance measures relate to the differences between random variables, these may have statistical dependence, and hence these distances are not directly related to measures of distances between probability measures.  Again, a measure of distance between random variables may relate to the extent of dependence between them, rather than to their individual values.

text: A distance between populations can be interpreted as measuring the distance between two

text: probability distribution

text: s and hence they are essentially measures of distances between

text: probability measure

text: s. Where statistical distance measures relate to the differences between

text: random variable

text: s, these may have

text: statistical dependence

text: , and hence these distances are not directly related to measures of distances between probability measures.  Again, a measure of distance between random variables may relate to the extent of dependence between them, rather than to their individual values.

text: However, the concept is also applicable to water, soil, and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed—called renewable resources.  The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt) is consumed.

text: However, the concept is also applicable to

text: water

text: soil

text: , and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed—called

text: renewable resource

text: s.  The

text: carrying capacity

text: of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt) is consumed.

text: In biology and ecology a resource is defined as a substance that is required by a living organism for normal growth, maintenance, and reproduction (see biological resource). The main essential resources for animals are food, water, and territory. For plants key resources include light, nutrients, water, and a place to grow. Resources,can be consumed by an organism and, as a result, become unavailable to other organisms. Competition for resources vary from complete symmetric (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size) to perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely size-asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size-asymmetric competition for light has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources.The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities.

text: In biology and ecology a resource is defined as a substance that is required by a living organism for normal

text: growth

text: maintenance

text: , and

text: reproduction

text: (see

text: biological resource

text: ). The main essential resources for animals are food, water, and territory. For plants key resources include light, nutrients, water, and a place to grow. Resources,can be consumed by an organism and, as a result, become unavailable to other organisms. Competition for resources vary from

text: complete symmetric

text: perfectly size symmetric

text: size-asymmetric

text: (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size-asymmetric competition for light has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources.The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities.

text: The issue of protected slot limits, in some cases, is marked in controversy.  The protected slot limit and the angler’s desire to harvest fish can be in conflict.  The main challenge lies in the economic, ecological, and social factors that fisheries managers must consider when implementing harvest regulations such as protected slot limits.  Take, for example, the situation involving Lake Mille Lacs in central Minnesota.  Anglers spend millions of dollars and travel countless miles to fish for Lake Mille Lacs walleye (Sander vitreus) which is highly sought after for its table fare as well as its sporting qualities.  In the case of Lake Mille Lacs there is a protected slot limit for walleye from 20 inches to 28 inches.  State fishing regulations state that on Lake Mille Lacs an angler can keep 4 walleyes with only 1 walleye over 28 inches allowed and all walleyes within the protected slot limit of 20 to 28 inches must be immediately released.  The protected slot limit has worked so well, in a sense, that anglers are finding it difficult to catch harvestable sizes of walleye and they are catching an overabundance of slot sized fish.  Many anglers have become frustrated by the lack of “eater” sized walleye. The intense protection of this size class of fish caused a sharp decline in the natural available forage base for walleyes.  The result was a large number of unhealthy and underweight slot sized walleyes in the fishery.  This case does represent an exception to the outcomes common to the implementation of protected slot limits.  However, it does illustrate the objectives fisheries managers must consider when devising protected slot limits.  Managers must balance the health of the fishery, trophy fish potential, and desired angler harvest.

text: The issue of protected slot limits, in some cases, is marked in controversy.  The protected slot limit and the angler’s desire to harvest fish can be in conflict.  The main challenge lies in the economic, ecological, and social factors that fisheries managers must consider when implementing harvest regulations such as protected slot limits.  Take, for example, the situation involving

text: Lake Mille Lacs

text: in central

text: Minnesota

text: .  Anglers spend millions of dollars and travel countless miles to fish for Lake Mille Lacs

text: walleye

text: (Sander vitreus) which is highly sought after for its table fare as well as its sporting qualities.  In the case of Lake Mille Lacs there is a protected slot limit for walleye from 20 inches to 28 inches.  State fishing regulations state that on Lake Mille Lacs an angler can keep 4 walleyes with only 1 walleye over 28 inches allowed and all walleyes within the protected slot limit of 20 to 28 inches must be immediately released.  The protected slot limit has worked so well, in a sense, that anglers are finding it difficult to catch harvestable sizes of walleye and they are catching an overabundance of slot sized fish.  Many anglers have become frustrated by the lack of “eater” sized walleye. The intense protection of this size class of fish caused a sharp decline in the natural available forage base for walleyes.  The result was a large number of unhealthy and underweight slot sized walleyes in the fishery.  This case does represent an exception to the outcomes common to the implementation of protected slot limits.  However, it does illustrate the objectives fisheries managers must consider when devising protected slot limits.  Managers must balance the health of the fishery, trophy fish potential, and desired angler harvest.

text: The difference between the size of the population to the end and the beginning of a period.The population change refers to change in the number of people during the specific time. The world population has not been stable. It has increased manifold. This subject is very closely related to demographics, the statistics of how many people there are in a given population.

text: The difference between the size of the population to the end and the beginning of a period.The population change refers to change in the number of people during the specific time. The world population has not been stable. It has increased manifold. This subject is very closely related to

text: demographics

text: , the statistics of how many people there are in a given population.

text: Distinguishing a lupus antibody from a specific coagulation factor inhibitor (e.g.: factor VIII) is normally achieved by differentiating the effects of a lupus anticoagulant on factor assays from the effects of a specific coagulation factor antibody.The lupus anticoagulant will inhibit all the contact activation pathway factors (factor VIII, factor IX, factor XI and factor XII). Lupus anticoagulant will also rarely cause a factor assay to give a result lower than 35 iu/dl (35%) whereas a specific factor antibody will rarely give a result higher than 10 iu/dl (10%).Monitoring IV anticoagulant therapy by the APTT ratio is compromised due to the effects of the lupus anticoagulant and in these situations is generally best performed using a chromogenic assay based on the inhibition of factor Xa by antithrombin in the presence of heparin.

text: Distinguishing a lupus antibody from a specific coagulation factor inhibitor (e.g.:

text: factor VIII

text: ) is normally achieved by differentiating the effects of a lupus anticoagulant on factor assays from the effects of a specific coagulation factor antibody.The lupus anticoagulant will inhibit all the contact activation pathway factors (

text: factor VIII

text: factor IX

text: factor XI

text: and

text: factor XII

text: ). Lupus anticoagulant will also rarely cause a factor assay to give a result lower than 35 iu/dl (35%) whereas a specific factor antibody will rarely give a result higher than 10 iu/dl (10%).Monitoring IV anticoagulant therapy by the

text: APTT ratio

text: is compromised due to the effects of the lupus anticoagulant and in these situations is generally best performed using a chromogenic assay based on the inhibition of

text: factor Xa

text: by

text: antithrombin

text: in the presence of

text: heparin

text: Competition vary from complete symmetric (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size) to perfectly size symmetric (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass) to absolutely size-asymmetric (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size-asymmetric competition for light has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources.

text: Competition vary from

text: complete symmetric

text: perfectly size symmetric

text: size-asymmetric

text: (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). The degree of size asymmetry has major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities, e.g. in plant communities size-asymmetric competition for light has stronger effects on diversity compared with competition for soil resources.

text: Surigao Provincial Sports Complex, host to numerous national and regional events, underwent renovation in 2009 at a cost of PP320 million. The complex is situated on the 2-hectare Vasquez field and includes a 3500-person capacity grandstand, a fully air conditioned 3500 seating capacity gymnasium, a brand new amphitheater, an Olympic-size swimming pool and a fully rubberized track and field oval. Surigao Provincial Convention Center, also part of the complex, has a seating capacity of approximately 2500 persons.

text: Surigao Provincial Sports Complex, host to numerous national and regional events, underwent renovation in 2009 at a cost of PP320 million. The complex is situated on the 2-hectare Vasquez field and includes a 3500-person capacity grandstand, a fully air conditioned 3500

text: seating capacity

text: gymnasium, a brand new amphitheater, an Olympic-size swimming pool and a fully rubberized track and field oval. Surigao Provincial Convention Center, also part of the complex, has a seating capacity of approximately 2500 persons.

text: Mixtures of decimal prefixes and binary sector sizes require care to properly calculate total capacity. Whereas semiconductor memory naturally favors powers of two (size doubles each time an address pin is added to the integrated circuit), the capacity of a disk drive is the product of sector size, sectors per track, tracks per side and sides (which in hard disk drives with multiple platters can be greater than 2). Although other sector sizes have been known in the past, formatted sector sizes are now almost always set to powers of two (256 bytes, 512 bytes, etc.), and, in some cases, disk capacity is calculated as multiples of the sector size rather than only in bytes, leading to a combination of decimal multiples of sectors and binary sector sizes. For example, 1.44 MB 3½-inch HD disks have the "M" prefix peculiar to their context, coming from their capacity of 2,880 512-byte sectors (1,440 KiB), inconsistent with either a decimal megabyte nor a binary mebibyte (MiB). Hence, these disks hold 1.47 MB or 1.41 MiB. Usable data capacity is a function of the disk format used, which in turn is determined by the FDD controller and its settings. Differences between such formats can result in capacities ranging from approximately 1300 to 1760 KiB (1.80 MB) on a "standard" 3½-inch high density floppy (and up to nearly 2 MB with utilities such as 2MGUI). The highest capacity techniques require much tighter matching of drive head geometry between drives, something not always possible and unreliable. For example, the LS-240 drive supports a 32 MB capacity on standard 3½-inch HD disks,  but it is, however, a write-once technique, and requires its own drive.

text: Mixtures

text: of decimal prefixes and binary sector sizes require care to properly calculate total capacity. Whereas semiconductor memory naturally favors powers of two (size doubles each time an address pin is added to the integrated circuit), the capacity of a disk drive is the product of sector size, sectors per track, tracks per side and sides (which in hard disk drives with multiple platters can be greater than 2). Although other sector sizes have been known in the past, formatted sector sizes are now almost always set to powers of two (256 bytes, 512 bytes, etc.), and, in some cases, disk capacity is calculated as multiples of the sector size rather than only in bytes, leading to a combination of decimal multiples of sectors and binary sector sizes. For example, 1.44 MB 3½-inch HD disks have the "M" prefix peculiar to their context, coming from their capacity of 2,880 512-byte sectors (1,440 KiB), inconsistent with either a decimal

text: megabyte

text: nor a binary

text: mebibyte

text: (MiB). Hence, these disks hold 1.47 MB or 1.41 MiB. Usable data capacity is a function of the disk format used, which in turn is determined by the FDD controller and its settings. Differences between such formats can result in capacities ranging from approximately 1300 to 1760 KiB (1.80 MB) on a "standard" 3½-inch high density floppy (and up to nearly 2 MB with utilities such as

text: ). The highest capacity techniques require much tighter matching of drive head geometry between drives, something not always possible and unreliable. For example, the

text: drive supports a 32 MB capacity on standard 3½-inch HD disks,  but it is, however, a write-once technique, and requires its own drive.

text: Early cephalopods are thought to have produced jets by drawing their body into their shells, as Nautilus does today. Nautilus is also capable of creating a jet by undulations of its funnel; this slower flow of water is more suited to the extraction of oxygen from the water.  The jet velocity in Nautilus is much slower than in coleoids, but less musculature and energy is involved in its production. Jet thrust in cephalopods is controlled primarily by the maximum diameter of the funnel orifice (or, perhaps, the average diameter of the funnel) and the diameter of the mantle cavity. Changes in the size of the orifice are used most at intermediate velocities. The absolute velocity achieved is limited by the cephalopod's requirement to inhale water for expulsion; this intake limits the maximum velocity to eight body-lengths per second, a speed which most cephalopods can attain after two funnel-blows. Water refills the cavity by entering not only through the orifices, but also through the funnel.  Squid can expel up to 94% of the fluid within their cavity in a single jet thrust. To accommodate the rapid changes in water intake and expulsion, the orifices are highly flexible and can change their size by a factor of twenty; the funnel radius, conversely, changes only by a factor of around 1.5.

text: Early cephalopods are thought to have produced jets by drawing their body into their shells, as Nautilus does today. Nautilus is also capable of creating a jet by undulations of its funnel; this slower flow of water is more suited to the extraction of oxygen from the water.  The jet velocity in Nautilus is much slower than in

text: coleoid

text: s, but less musculature and energy is involved in its production. Jet thrust in cephalopods is controlled primarily by the maximum diameter of the funnel orifice (or, perhaps, the average diameter of the funnel) and the diameter of the mantle cavity. Changes in the size of the orifice are used most at intermediate velocities. The absolute velocity achieved is limited by the cephalopod's requirement to inhale water for expulsion; this intake limits the maximum velocity to eight body-lengths per second, a speed which most cephalopods can attain after two funnel-blows. Water refills the cavity by entering not only through the orifices, but also through the funnel.  Squid can expel up to 94% of the fluid within their cavity in a single jet thrust. To accommodate the rapid changes in water intake and expulsion, the orifices are highly flexible and can change their size by a factor of twenty; the funnel radius, conversely, changes only by a factor of around 1.5.

text: Size-structured cannibalism is cannibalism in which older, larger, more mature individuals consume smaller, younger conspecifics. In size-structured populations, (where populations are made of individuals of various sizes, ages, and maturities), cannibalism can be responsible for 8% (Belding's ground squirrel) to 95% (dragonfly larvae) of the total mortality, making it a significant and important factor for population and community dynamics.

text: Size-structured cannibalism is cannibalism in which older, larger, more mature individuals consume smaller, younger

text: conspecific

text: s. In size-structured populations, (where populations are made of individuals of various sizes, ages, and maturities), cannibalism can be responsible for 8% (

text: Belding's ground squirrel

text: ) to 95% (

text: dragonfly

text: larva

text: e) of the total mortality, making it a significant and important factor for population and community dynamics.

text: If only one OST object is associated with an MDT inode, that object contains all the data in the Lustre file. When more than one object is associated with a file, data in the file is "striped" in chunks in a round-robin manner across the OST objects similar to RAID 0. Striping a file over multiple OST objects provides significant performance benefits if there is a need for high bandwidth access to a single large file. When striping is used, the maximum file size is not limited by the size of a single target. Capacity and aggregate I/O bandwidth scale with the number of OSTs a file is striped over. Also, since the locking of each object is managed independently for each OST, adding more stripes (one per OST) scales the file I/O locking capacity of the file proportionately. Each file created in the filesystem may specify different layout parameters, such as the stripe count (number of OST objects making up that file), stripe size (unit of data stored on each OST before moving to the next), and OST selection, so that performance and capacity can be tuned optimally for each file. When many application threads are reading or writing to separate files in parallel, it is optimal to have a single stripe per file, since the application is providing its own parallelism. When there are many threads reading or writing a single large file concurrently, then it is optimal to have one stripe on each OST to maximize the performance and capacity of that file.

text: If only one OST object is associated with an MDT inode, that object contains all the data in the Lustre file. When more than one object is associated with a file, data in the file is "striped" in chunks in a

text: round-robin

text: manner across the OST objects similar to

text: RAID 0

text: . Striping a file over multiple OST objects provides significant performance benefits if there is a need for high bandwidth access to a single large file. When striping is used, the maximum file size is not limited by the size of a single target. Capacity and aggregate I/O bandwidth scale with the number of OSTs a file is striped over. Also, since the locking of each object is managed independently for each OST, adding more stripes (one per OST) scales the file I/O locking capacity of the file proportionately. Each file created in the filesystem may specify different layout parameters, such as the stripe count (number of OST objects making up that file), stripe size (unit of data stored on each OST before moving to the next), and OST selection, so that performance and capacity can be tuned optimally for each file. When many application threads are reading or writing to separate files in parallel, it is optimal to have a single stripe per file, since the application is providing its own parallelism. When there are many threads reading or writing a single large file concurrently, then it is optimal to have one stripe on each OST to maximize the performance and capacity of that file.

text: First of all, the carrying capacity can be the motivation to attract tourists visit the destination. The tourism industry, especially in national parks and protected areas, is subject to the concept of carrying capacity so as to determine the scale of tourist activities which can be sustained at specific times in different places. Various scholar over the years have developed several arguments developed about the definition of carrying capacity. Middleton and Hawkins defined carrying capacity as a measure of the tolerance of a site or building which is open to tourist activities, and the limit beyond which an area may suffer from the adverse impacts of tourism (Middleton & Hawkins, 1998). Chamberlain defined it as the level of human activity which an area can accommodate without either it deteriorating, the resident community being adversely affected or the quality of visitors' experience declining (Chamberlain, 1997).  Clark defined carrying capacity as a certain threshold (level) of tourism activity, beyond which there will be damage to the environment and its natural inhabitants (Clark, 1997).

text: The ball size increases as the series increases, for any given inner diameter or outer diameter (not both). The larger the ball the greater the load carrying capacity. Series 200 and 300 are the most common.

text: David Pimentel has stated that "With the imbalance growing between population numbers and vital life sustaining resources, humans must actively conserve cropland, freshwater, energy, and biological resources. There is a need to develop renewable energy resources. Humans everywhere must understand that rapid population growth damages the Earth's resources and diminishes human well-being."

text: David Pimentel

text: has stated that "With the imbalance growing between population numbers and vital life sustaining resources, humans must actively conserve cropland, freshwater, energy, and biological resources. There is a need to develop renewable energy resources. Humans everywhere must understand that rapid population growth damages the Earth's resources and diminishes human well-being."

text: When aircraft carriers supplanted battleships as the primary fleet capital ship, there were two schools of thought on the question of armor protection being included into the flight deck. The USN initially favored unarmored flight decks because they maximized aircraft carrier hangar and flight deck size, which in turn maximized aircraft capacity in the hangar, and on the flight deck, in the form of a permanent "deck park" for a large proportion of the aircraft carried. In 1936 the Royal Navy developed the armored flight deck aircraft carrier which also enclosed the hangar sides and ends with armor. The addition of armor to the flight deck offered aircraft below some protection against aerial bombs while the armored hangar sides and ends helped to minimize damage and casualties from explosions or fires within or outside the hangar. The addition of armor to the hangar forced a reduction in top-weight, so the hangar height was reduced, and this restricted the types of aircraft that these ships could carry, although the Royal Navy's armored carriers did carry spare aircraft in the hangar overheads. The armor also reduced the length of the flight deck, reducing the maximum aircraft capacity of the armored flight deck aircraft carrier. Additionally, Royal Navy aircraft carriers did not use a permanent deck park until approximately 1943; before then the aircraft capacity of RN aircraft carriers was limited to their hangar capacity. The 23,000 ton British Illustrious-class had a hangar capacity for 36 Swordfish sized aircraft and a single 458 ft x 62 ft x 16 ft ( 140m x 19m x 4.8m) hangar, but carried up to 57 aircraft with a permanent deck park while the 23,400 ton  featured increased hangar capacity with a 458 ft x 62 ft x 14 ft (140m x 19m x 4.3m) upper hangar and the addition of a 208 ft by 62 ft by 14 ft (63m x 19m x 4.3m) lower hangar, forward of the after elevator, which had a total capacity of 52 Swordfish sized aircraft or a mix of 48 late war aircraft in the hangar plus 24 aircraft in a permanent deck park, but carried up to 81 aircraft with a deck park. The 27,500 ton USN Essex class had a 654 ft x 70 ft x 17.5 ft (198m x 21m x 5.3m) hangar that was designed to handle a mix of 72 prewar USN aircraft. but carried up to 104 late war aircraft using both the hangar and a permanent deck park.  The experience of World War II caused the USN to change their design policy in favor of armored flight decks on much larger ships: "The main armor carried on Enterprise is the heavy armored flight deck. This was to prove a significant factor in the catastrophic fire and explosions that occurred on Enterprises flight deck in 1969. The US Navy learned its lesson the hard way during World War II when all its carriers had only armored hangar decks. All attack carriers built since the Midway class have had armored flight decks."

text: Although angler effects are sometimes disregarded in the overall picture today, recent population studies have shown that while all year classes are well represented up to the minimum legal angling size (now 60 centimetres in most states), above that size, numbers of fish are dramatically reduced almost to the point of non-existence in many waters. Some emphasis has been made of the results of two small surveys which suggested a majority of Murray cod are released by anglers. However, there are valid questions as to the representativeness of these surveys, these surveys do not explain the dramatic disappearance of large numbers of young Murray cod at exactly the minimum size limit, and most importantly, any emphasis on these surveys miss the fundamental point — as a large, long-lived species with relatively low fecundity and delayed sexual maturity wild Murray cod populations are extremely vulnerable to overfishing, even with only modest angler-kill. A tightening of fishing regulations for wild Murray cod, as referred to above, and a switch by fishermen to a largely catch and release approach for wild Murray cod would alleviate this problem. Recognising these issues, in late 2014 the New South Wales and Victorian fishery departments amended their regulations so that a slot limit of 55 to 75 cm now applies in these states. (I.e. Only Murray cod between 55 and 75 cm may be taken; those above and below this size range or "slot" must be released.) This measure should have positive effects for the Murray cod population by protecting and increasing the proportion of large breeding Murray cod.

text: Although angler effects are sometimes disregarded in the overall picture today, recent population studies have shown that while all year classes are well represented up to the minimum legal angling size (now 60 centimetres in most states), above that size, numbers of fish are dramatically reduced almost to the point of non-existence in many waters. Some emphasis has been made of the results of two small surveys which suggested a majority of Murray cod are released by anglers. However, there are valid questions as to the representativeness of these surveys, these surveys do not explain the dramatic disappearance of large numbers of young Murray cod at exactly the minimum size limit, and most importantly, any emphasis on these surveys miss the fundamental point — as a large, long-lived species with relatively low fecundity and delayed sexual maturity wild Murray cod populations are extremely vulnerable to overfishing, even with only modest angler-kill. A tightening of fishing regulations for wild Murray cod, as referred to above, and a switch by fishermen to a largely

text: catch and release

text: approach for wild Murray cod would alleviate this problem. Recognising these issues, in late 2014 the New South Wales and Victorian fishery departments amended their regulations so that a slot limit of 55 to 75 cm now applies in these states. (I.e. Only Murray cod between 55 and 75 cm may be taken; those above and below this size range or "slot" must be released.) This measure should have positive effects for the Murray cod population by protecting and increasing the proportion of large breeding Murray cod.

text: The Allee effect is a phenomenon in biology characterized by a correlation between population size or density and the mean individual fitness (often measured as per capita population growth rate) of a population or species.

text: The Allee effect is a phenomenon in

text: biology

text: characterized by a correlation between population size or density and the mean individual

text: fitness

text: (often measured as

text: per capita

text: population growth rate

text: ) of a population or species.

text: List of medium-sized cities (population between 100,000 and 250,000) with a Japanese American population of at least 2.0% of the total population.

text: A number of factors have contributed to the monkey's endangered status. First, an increase in deforestation has resulted in a significant reduction in resources and habitat; second, it is hunted for meat and pet markets. To counteract the decline in population, various attempts have been made to protect the species. In 1974, specimens were moved to Ngezi Forest on Pemba Island to try to re-establish the monkey's population. It had been found, however, that 20 years after the translocation to the island only one group of Zanzibar red colobus was found and with few sightings and interviews with locals, the population was estimated to be between 15 and 30 individuals. Researchers concluded that the group had certainly survived but did not increase in number possibly due to adverse relations with humans. Some locals in Pemba hold superstitions against the monkey because of the idea that it brings bad luck upon farmers. This may explain the reason that they have not significantly grown in population size.

text: A number of factors have contributed to the monkey's endangered status. First, an increase in

text: deforestation

text: has resulted in a significant reduction in resources and habitat; second, it is hunted for meat and pet markets. To counteract the decline in population, various attempts have been made to protect the species. In 1974, specimens were moved to

text: Ngezi Forest

text: on

text: Pemba Island

text: to try to re-establish the monkey's population. It had been found, however, that 20 years after the translocation to the island only one group of Zanzibar red colobus was found and with few sightings and interviews with locals, the population was estimated to be between 15 and 30 individuals. Researchers concluded that the group had certainly survived but did not increase in number possibly due to adverse relations with humans. Some locals in Pemba hold superstitions against the monkey because of the idea that it brings bad luck upon farmers. This may explain the reason that they have not significantly grown in population size.

text: Size and capacity

text: Size and capacity

text: Each of the current carrying conductors in the "core" is insulated by an individual thermoplastic sheath, coloured to indicate the purpose of the conductor concerned.  The Protective Earth conductor may also be covered with Green/Yellow (or Green only) insulation, although, in some countries, this conductor may be left as bare copper.   With cables where the current carrying conductors are of a large Cross Sectional Area (CSA) and current carrying capacity, the Protective Earth conductor may be found to be of a smaller CSA, with a lower continuous current carrying capacity.  The conductors used may be solid in cross-section or multi-stranded.

text: Each of the current carrying conductors in the "core" is insulated by an individual thermoplastic sheath, coloured to indicate the purpose of the conductor concerned.  The

text: Protective Earth

text: conductor may also be covered with Green/Yellow (or Green only) insulation, although, in some countries, this conductor may be left as bare copper.   With cables where the current carrying conductors are of a large Cross Sectional Area (CSA) and current carrying capacity, the Protective Earth conductor may be found to be of a smaller CSA, with a lower continuous current carrying capacity.  The conductors used may be solid in cross-section or multi-stranded.

text: The system was due to have an initial capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour per direction (pphpd) expandable to 30,000 pphpd. In the opening year, the Jakarta Monorail was planned to carry on average 274,000 people per day with plans to scale up capacity size quickly as the design capacity is set to carry 35,000 passengers per hour per direction.

text: The males do not show discrete size dimorphism unlike other bees and all are able to fly. The females are bigger than the males with a slightly larger head size. There is no correlation of how big the female bee is compared to the amount of pollen that is being transferred. The carrying capacity is about 6.3 to 37.5% of its own body weight.

text: The males do not show discrete

text: size dimorphism

text: unlike other bees and all are able to fly. The females are bigger than the males with a slightly larger head size. There is no correlation of how big the female bee is compared to the amount of pollen that is being transferred. The carrying capacity is about 6.3 to 37.5% of its own body weight.

text: The distinction between the two terms is based on whether or not the population in question exhibits a critical population size or density. A population exhibiting a weak Allee effect will possess a reduced per capita growth rate (directly related to individual fitness of the population) at lower population density or size. However, even at this low population size or density, the population will always exhibit a positive per capita growth rate. Meanwhile, a population exhibiting a strong Allee effect will have a critical population size or density under which the population growth rate becomes negative. Therefore, when the population density or size hits a number below this threshold, the population will be destined for extinction without any further aid. A strong Allee effect is often easier to demonstrate empirically using time series data, as one can pinpoint the population size or density at which per capita growth rate becomes negative.

text: The distinction between the two terms is based on whether or not the population in question exhibits a

text: critical population size or density

text: . A population exhibiting a weak Allee effect will possess a reduced per capita growth rate (directly related to individual fitness of the population) at lower population density or size. However, even at this low population size or density, the population will always exhibit a positive per capita growth rate. Meanwhile, a population exhibiting a strong Allee effect will have a critical population size or density under which the population growth rate becomes negative. Therefore, when the population density or size hits a number below this threshold, the population will be destined for extinction without any further aid. A strong Allee effect is often easier to demonstrate empirically using time series data, as one can pinpoint the population size or density at which per capita growth rate becomes negative.

text: A particularly important case is that of carrying capacity that varies periodically with period T:

text: Stephen Stepanian filed a patent application for the first truck mixer in 1916.  Trucks weigh , and can carry roughly  of concrete although many varying sizes of Mixer Truck are currently in use. The most common truck capacity is .

text: Stephen Stepanian

text: filed a patent application for the first truck mixer in 1916.  Trucks weigh , and can carry roughly  of concrete although many varying sizes of Mixer Truck are currently in use. The most common truck capacity is .

text: The identification of a factor as limiting is of use only in distinction to one or more other factors which is/are non-limiting. Disciplines differ in their use of the term as to whether they allow the simultaneous existence of more than one limiting factor (which may then be called "co-limiting"), but they all require the existence of at least one non-limiting factor when the terms are used. When all factors are limiting.

text: The expected number of generations for fixation to occur is proportional to the population size, such that fixation is predicted to occur much more rapidly in smaller populations. Normally the effective population size, which is smaller than the total population, is used to determine these probabilities. The effective population (N) takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding, the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest, and the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection. The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.

text: The expected number of generations for fixation to occur is

text: proportional

text: to the population size, such that fixation is predicted to occur much more rapidly in smaller populations. Normally the effective population size, which is smaller than the total population, is used to determine these probabilities. The effective population (N) takes into account factors such as the level of

text: inbreeding

text: , the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest, and the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection. The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.

text: The elevation is  above sea level. It is  in size. The population is 104 (INE 2011). The postal code is 33890.

text: The elevation is

text: above sea level

text: . It is  in size. The population is 104 (INE 2011). The postal code is 33890.

text: where u is the mutation rate, and N is the effective population size. The effective number of alleles n maintained in a population is defined as the inverse of the homozygosity, that is

text: where u is the mutation rate, and N is the

text: effective population size

text: . The effective number of alleles n maintained in a population is defined as the inverse of the homozygosity, that is

text: Establishing plausible relatedness between different surnames data-mined from a database is significantly more difficult.  The researcher must establish that the very nearest member of the population in question, chosen purposely from the population for that reason, would be unlikely to match by accident.  This is more than establishing that a randomly selected member of the population is unlikely to have such a close match by accident.  Because of the difficulty, establishing relatedness between different surnames as in such a scenario is likely to be impossible, except in special cases where there is specific information to drastically limit the size of the population of candidates under consideration.

text: Para Wirra Conservation Park is not only important as an educational resource, but also for its conservation and recreation value. The boundary of the conservation park is contiguous with, and forms part of a  block of native vegetation. As only twenty six percent (26%) of the Mount Lofty Ranges remains uncleared, a block of native vegetation of this size is important in terms of its representativeness of vegetation types, for the maintenance of diversity of animal and plant species, maintenance of water quality, and as a valuable recreational resource for the community. Para Wirra Conservation Park also provides a range of recreation opportunities consistent with its conservation significance and its importance and proximity to the expanding population of the northern metropolitan area.

text: SD card speed is customarily rated by its sequential read or write speed. The sequential performance aspect is the most relevant for storing and retrieving large files (relative to block sizes internal to the flash memory), such as images and multimedia. Small data (such as file names, sizes and timestamps) falls under the much lower speed limit of random access, which can be the limiting factor in some use cases.

text: SD card speed is customarily rated by its sequential read or write speed. The sequential performance aspect is the most relevant for storing and retrieving large files (relative to block sizes internal to the

text: flash memory

text: ), such as images and multimedia. Small data (such as file names, sizes and timestamps) falls under the much lower

text: speed limit of random access

text: , which can be the limiting factor in some use cases.

text: Tank trucks are described by their size or volume capacity. Large trucks typically have capacities ranging from . In Australia, road trains up to three cars long (known as A-Triple tankers) carry loads in excess of 100,000 L. Longer road trains transporting liquids are also in use.

text: Tank trucks are described by their size or volume capacity. Large trucks typically have capacities ranging from . In Australia,

text: road train

text: s up to three cars long (known as A-Triple tankers) carry loads in excess of 100,000 L. Longer road trains transporting liquids are also in use.

text: Boeing has proposed that a larger variant of the X-37B, the X-37C could be built to carry up to six passengers up to LEO.  The spaceplane would also be usable for carrying cargo, with both upmass and downmass (return to Earth) cargo capacity.  The ideal size for the proposed derivative "is approximately 165 to 180 percent of the current X-37B."

text: Boeing has proposed that a larger variant of the X-37B, the X-37C could be built to carry up to six passengers up to

text: LEO

text: .  The spaceplane would also be usable for carrying cargo, with both

text: upmass

text: and

text: downmass

text: (return to Earth) cargo capacity.  The ideal size for the proposed derivative "is approximately 165 to 180 percent of the current X-37B."

text: Synchronous motors are available in sub-fractional self-excited sizes to high-horsepower industrial sizes. In the fractional horsepower range, most synchronous motors are used where precise constant speed is required. These machines are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and other devices where correct time is required.In high-horsepower industrial sizes, the synchronous motor provides two important functions. First, it is a highly efficient means of converting AC energy to work. Second, it can operate at leading or unity power factor and thereby provide power-factor correction.

text: Synchronous motors are available in sub-fractional self-excited sizes to high-horsepower industrial sizes. In the fractional horsepower range, most synchronous motors are used where precise constant speed is required. These machines are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and other devices where correct time is required.In high-horsepower industrial sizes, the synchronous motor provides two important functions. First, it is a highly efficient means of converting AC energy to work. Second, it can operate at leading or unity

text: power factor

text: and thereby provide power-factor correction.

text: The neurotrophic theory is the leading hypothesis used to explain the role of programmed cell death in the developing nervous system. It postulates that in order to ensure optimal innervation of targets, a surplus of neurons is first produced which then compete for limited quantities of protective neurotrophic factors and only a fraction survive while others die by programmed cell death. Furthermore, the theory states that predetermined factors regulate the amount of neurons that survive and the size of the innervating neuronal population directly correlates to the influence of their target field.

text: The neurotrophic theory is the leading hypothesis used to explain the role of programmed cell death in the developing nervous system. It postulates that in order to ensure optimal innervation of targets, a surplus of neurons is first produced which then compete for limited quantities of protective

text: neurotrophic factors

text: and only a fraction survive while others die by programmed cell death. Furthermore, the theory states that predetermined factors regulate the amount of neurons that survive and the size of the innervating neuronal population directly correlates to the influence of their target field.

text: There are three widely recognized design philosophies in advanced race design: hyper-growth (HG), hyper-production (HP), and tri-immune-HE.  HG emphasises empire size, with high population growth rate and high rates of planet habitability.  The Claim Adjuster, Hyper Expansion, and War Monger Primary Racial Traits tend toward HG, although other PRTs may also go the HG route.  HP focuses on maximum potential per planet, with very good factory settings, usually sacrificing population-produced resources and small amounts of population growth rate and habitability (relative to HG).  The Super Stealth PRT has the strongest tendency toward HP, although other PRTs may go the HP route.  The Hyper Expansion PRT with immunity to all three environmental factors and very low population growth rate is the original heavy-hitter of advanced play, earning a perpetual mention in race design discussions.  However, modern HG and HP races have surpassed it in performance, and triple immunity is no longer considered the best approach.

text: What-kind of net to-be used, depends upon many factors , (such-as the factors that could determine force of the impact) such as falling-objects's speed and mass.  To encounter more-force, a more total-width of the net, is required. The minimum-distance of the spot on net at which object impacted, and the edge of net (nearest-edge), matters, and to be kept more than certain-limit. There is role of materials  used to make the ropes of net (such-as an iron-rod-grid will-not work as-good-as flexible and extensible ropes), and the tension or stretch used to make the net (stored in the ropes), also have  some roles.  The net is to be set at an appropriate height from the hard-ground, so-that the object, along-with the rope, does not clash with the hard-ground. The mesh-hole size should-not be so-big that falling object/people/part-of-it could pass through the holes.

text: Situated at  above sea level, it is in size, with a population of 6500 (INE 2009).  The postal code is 33430.

text: Situated at

text: above sea level

text: , it is in size, with a population of 6500 (

entity_name: Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)

text: INE

text: 2009).  The postal code is 33430.

text: Little is known about territory size and territorial behavior because observation is difficult in the wild.  Males are thought to have home ranges between  and females between  with ranges of the sexes overlapping.  High numbers of mice are attracted to sudden and temporary food supplies (such as ripened berries) but what appears to be a colony established in the vicinity of the food may only be a temporary camp while the supply lasts. The average population density, in favorable habitat, is 7.5 per ha. Population density estimates range though from 0.64 to 59 per ha.

text: Little is known about territory size and territorial behavior because observation is difficult in the wild.  Males are thought to have home ranges between  and females between  with ranges of the sexes overlapping.  High numbers of mice are attracted to sudden and temporary food supplies (such as ripened berries) but what appears to be a colony established in the vicinity of the food may only be a temporary camp while the supply lasts. The average population density, in favorable habitat, is 7.5 per

text: ha

text: . Population density estimates range though from 0.64 to 59 per ha.

text: In population ecology and economics, maximum sustainable yield or MSY is theoretically, the largest yield (or catch) that can be taken from a species' stock over an indefinite period.  Fundamental to the notion of sustainable harvest, the concept of MSY aims to maintain the population size at the point of maximum growth rate by harvesting the individuals that would normally be added to the population, allowing the population to continue to be productive indefinitely.  Under the assumption of logistic growth, resource limitation does not constrain individuals’ reproductive rates when populations are small, but because there are few individuals, the overall yield is small.  At intermediate population densities, also represented by half the carrying capacity, individuals are able to breed to their maximum rate.  At this point, called the maximum sustainable yield, there is a surplus of individuals that can be harvested because growth of the population is at its maximum point due to the large number of reproducing individuals.  Above this point, density dependent factors increasingly limit breeding until the population reaches carrying capacity.  At this point, there are no surplus individuals to be harvested and yield drops to zero.  The maximum sustainable yield is usually higher than the optimum sustainable yield and maximum economic yield.

text: In

text: population ecology

text: and

text: economics

text: , maximum sustainable yield or MSY is theoretically, the largest yield (or catch) that can be taken from a species' stock over an indefinite period.  Fundamental to the notion of

text: sustainable harvest

text: , the concept of MSY aims to maintain the population size at the point of maximum growth rate by harvesting the individuals that would normally be added to the population, allowing the population to continue to be productive indefinitely.  Under the assumption of

text: logistic growth

text: , resource limitation does not constrain individuals’ reproductive rates when populations are small, but because there are few individuals, the overall yield is small.  At intermediate population densities, also represented by half the

text: carrying capacity

text: , individuals are able to breed to their maximum rate.  At this point, called the maximum sustainable yield, there is a surplus of individuals that can be harvested because growth of the population is at its maximum point due to the large number of reproducing individuals.  Above this point, density dependent factors increasingly limit breeding until the population reaches carrying capacity.  At this point, there are no surplus individuals to be harvested and yield drops to zero.  The maximum sustainable yield is usually higher than the

text: optimum sustainable yield

text: and

text: maximum economic yield

text: -	Contaminants can modify the distribution of individuals in a population, effective population size, mutation rate and migration rate

text: RDBPs may be seen (in a wider sense) as so-called controlled controlled branching processes. They were introduced by F. Thomas Bruss (1983)) with the objective to model different society structures and to compare the advantages and disadvantages of different forms of human societies. In these processes individuals have a means of interaction with the society which determines the rules how the current available resources should be distributed among them. This interaction (as e.g. in form of emigration) changes the effective rate of reproduction of the individuals remaining in the society. In that respect RDBPs have some parts in common with so-called population-size dependent BPs (see Klebaner (1984) and Klebaner & Jagers (2000)) in which the law of individual independent reproduction (see Galton-Watson process) is a function of the current population size.

text: RDBPs may be seen (in a wider sense) as so-called controlled controlled branching processes. They were introduced by

text: F. Thomas Bruss

text: (1983)) with the objective to model different society structures and to compare the advantages and disadvantages of different forms of human societies. In these processes individuals have a means of interaction with the society which determines the rules how the current available resources should be distributed among them. This interaction (as e.g. in form of emigration) changes the effective rate of reproduction of the individuals remaining in the society. In that respect RDBPs have some parts in common with so-called population-size dependent BPs (see Klebaner (1984) and Klebaner & Jagers (2000)) in which the law of individual independent reproduction (see

text: Galton-Watson process

text: ) is a function of the current population size.

text: Five years after the pioneering flight of the Wright brothers on 17 December 1903, Thomas Selfridge became the first fatality of powered flight while flying as a passenger with Orville Wright during a demonstration of the Wright Model A at Fort Myer, Virginia, on 17 September 1908. Eugène Lefebvre was the first pilot killed in a power airplane in 1909, while the first fatal mid-air collision occurred on 19 June 1912, near Douai, France, killing the pilot of each aircraft. Since the deaths of these early aviation pioneers, the scale of fatal aircraft accidents has grown parallel to the size and capacity of airplanes (the highest capacity passenger aircraft currently flying is the Airbus A380 which can carry up to 853 passengers).

text: Five years after the pioneering flight of the

text: Wright brothers

text: on 17 December 1903,

text: Thomas Selfridge

text: became the first fatality of powered flight while flying as a passenger with Orville Wright during a demonstration of the

text: Wright Model A

text: at

text: Fort Myer

text: , Virginia, on 17 September 1908.

text: Eugène Lefebvre

text: was the first pilot killed in a power airplane in 1909, while the first fatal mid-air collision occurred on 19 June 1912, near

text: Douai

text: , France, killing the pilot of each aircraft. Since the deaths of these early aviation pioneers, the scale of fatal aircraft accidents has grown parallel to the size and capacity of airplanes (the highest capacity passenger aircraft currently flying is the

text: Airbus A380

text: which can carry up to 853 passengers).

text: Relations between the two largest groups, Macedonians and Albanians, are sometimes difficult, as in the rest of the country. Each group tolerate the other but they tend to avoid each other and live in what can appear as two parallel worlds. The Roma minority is on its side very deprived. Its exact size is not known because many Macedonian Roma declare themselves as belonging to other ethnic groups or simply avoid censuses. However, even if official figures are underestimated, Skopje is the city in the world with the largest Roma population.

text: Once a city is founded, it will automatically begin extracting resources from surrounding spaces; the amount of spaces it can extract from is determined by the city's population size. The game automatically allocates the spaces a city uses and how its resources are maintained as the city grows, but the player is free to manage the city directly. This feature can be utilized to turn a part of the population into one of several specialized occupations; at the cost of having one less space from the city, these specialists increase gathering and production of the resources of their targeted specializations. If the specialists are assigned to be "idle", they generate the "happiness" resource for a city; a city that is "unhappy" may fall into a brief period of rioting where no production can occur.

text: A (population) effect size θ based on means usually considers the standardized mean difference between two populations

text: The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.

text: Originally a Union Steamship Company of British Columbia vessel, she was the smallest ship ever custom ordered for them. She was built 1937 at A. & J. Inglis in Glasgow and originally christened Lady Sylvia when launched in 1937.  The ship was 104.8 feet long, with a 21.2 foot beam and 14.3 depth of hold.  The ship's overall size was 199 gross tons.  The original engines were built by the National Gas and Oil Company, an English firm, and consisted of the main unit, a 220 horsepower diesel engine with a 28-horsepower reserve unit,  The ship's speed was 11.5 knots.   The ship was licensed to carry 130 people in the summer and 70 in the winter.  Cargo capacity was 25 tons.

text: Originally a

entity_name: Union Steamship Company of British Columbia

text: Union Steamship Company of British Columbia

text: vessel, she was the smallest ship ever custom ordered for them. She was built 1937 at

text: A. & J. Inglis

text: in

text: Glasgow

text: and originally christened Lady Sylvia when launched in 1937.  The ship was 104.8 feet long, with a 21.2 foot beam and 14.3 depth of hold.  The ship's overall size was 199 gross tons.  The original engines were built by the National Gas and Oil Company, an English firm, and consisted of the main unit, a 220

text: horsepower

text: diesel engine with a 28-horsepower reserve unit,  The ship's speed was 11.5 knots.   The ship was licensed to carry 130 people in the summer and 70 in the winter.  Cargo capacity was 25 tons.

text: The Population Council of Japan was a domestic assembly appointed by the Japanese Government that helped to address the imbalance between population and resources that Japan began facing following the post-World War II introduction of Western medicine. Its first major solution was an urging of the Japanese government to make available family size control through contraception, and it emphasized that abortion was not the best solution.

text: The Population Council of Japan was a domestic assembly appointed by the Japanese Government that helped to address the imbalance between population and resources that

text: Japan

text: began facing following the post-World War II introduction of Western medicine. Its first major solution was an urging of the Japanese government to make available family size control through

text: contraception

text: , and it emphasized that

text: abortion

text: was not the best solution.

text: A civil parish can range in size from a large town with a population of around 80,000 to a single village with fewer than a hundred inhabitants.  In a limited number of cases a parish might include a whole city where city status has been granted by the Monarch.  Reflecting this diverse nature, a civil parish may be known as a town, village, neighbourhood or community by resolution of its parish council.  Approximately 35% of the English population live in a civil parish. As of 31 December 2015 there were 10,449 parishes in England.

text: A civil parish can range in size from a large

text: town

text: with a population of around 80,000 to a single

text: village

text: with fewer than a hundred inhabitants.  In a limited number of cases a parish might include a whole city where

text: city status

text: has been granted by the

text: Monarch

text: .  Reflecting this diverse nature, a civil parish may be known as a town, village,

text: neighbourhood

text: or

text: community

text: by resolution of its

text: parish council

text: .  Approximately 35% of the English population live in a civil parish. As of 31 December 2015 there were 10,449 parishes in England.

text: Current estimates expect the world's total fertility rate to fall below replacement levels by 2050,although population momentum will continue to increase global population for several generations beyond that. The development of the world population is linked with concerns of overpopulation, sustainability and exceeding Earth's carrying capacity.

text: Current estimates expect the world's total fertility rate to fall below replacement levels by 2050,although population momentum will continue to increase global population for several generations beyond that. The development of the world population is linked with concerns of

text: overpopulation

text: sustainability

text: and exceeding Earth's

text: carrying capacity

text: In his article, 123 pages long, Jensen insisted on the accuracy and lack of bias in intelligence tests, stating that the absolute quantity g that they measured, the general intelligence factor, first introduced by the English psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904,  "stood like a Rock of Gibraltar in psychometrics". He stressed the importance of biological considerations in intelligence, commenting that "the belief in the almost infinite plasticity of intellect, the ostrich-like denial of biological factors in individual differences, and the slighting of the role of genetics in the study of intelligence can only hinder investigation and understanding of the conditions, processes, and limits through which the social environment influences human behavior."  He argued at length that, contrary to environmentalist orthodoxy, intelligence was partly dependent on the same genetic factors that influence other physical attributes.  More controversially, he briefly speculated that the difference in performance at school between blacks and whites might have a partly genetic explanation, commenting that there were "various lines of evidence, no one of which is definitive alone, but which, viewed all together, make it a not unreasonable hypothesis that genetic factors are strongly implicated in the average Negro-whiteintelligence difference. The preponderance of the evidence is, in my opinion, less consistent with a strictly environmental hypothesis than with a genetic hypothesis, which, of course, does not exclude the influence of environment or its interaction with genetic factors." He advocated the allocation of educational resources according to merit and insisted on the close correlation between intelligence and occupational status, arguing that "in a society that values and rewards individual talent and merit, genetic factors inevitably take on considerable importance."  Concerned that the average IQ in the USA was inadequate to answer the increasing needs of an industrialised society, he predicted that people with lower IQs would become unemployable while at the same time there would be an insufficient number with higher IQs to fill professional posts. He felt that eugenic reform would prevent this more effectively than compensatory education, surmising that "the technique for raising intelligence per se in the sense of g, probably lie more in the province of biological science than in psychology or education". He pointed out that intelligence and family size were inversely correlated, particularly amongst the black population, so that the current trend in average national intelligence was dysgenic rather than eugenic. As he wrote, "Is there a danger that current welfare policies, unaided by eugenic foresight, could lead to the genetic enslavement of a substantial segment of our population? The fuller consequences of our failure seriously to study these questions may well be judged by future generations as our society's greatest injustice to Negro Americans." He concluded by emphasizing the importance of child-centered education. Although a tradition had developed for the exclusive use of cognitive learning in schools, Jensen argued that it was not suited to "these children's genetic and cultural heritage": although capable of associative learning and memorization ("Level I" ability), they had difficulties with abstract  conceptual reasoning ("Level II" ability). He felt that it in these circumstances the success of education depended on exploiting "the actual potential learning that is latent in these children's patterns of abilities". He suggested that, in order to ensure equality of opportunity, "schools and society must provide a range and diversity of educational methods, programs and goals, and of occupational opportunities, just as wide as the range of human abilities."

text: In his article, 123 pages long, Jensen insisted on the accuracy and lack of bias in intelligence tests, stating that the absolute quantity g that they measured, the

text: general intelligence factor

text: , first introduced by the English psychologist

text: Charles Spearman

text: dysgenic

text: rather than eugenic. As he wrote, "Is there a danger that current welfare policies, unaided by eugenic foresight, could lead to the genetic enslavement of a substantial segment of our population? The fuller consequences of our failure seriously to study these questions may well be judged by future generations as our society's greatest injustice to Negro Americans." He concluded by emphasizing the importance of child-centered education. Although a tradition had developed for the exclusive use of cognitive learning in schools, Jensen argued that it was not suited to "these children's genetic and cultural heritage": although capable of associative learning and memorization ("Level I" ability), they had difficulties with abstract  conceptual reasoning ("Level II" ability). He felt that it in these circumstances the success of education depended on exploiting "the actual potential learning that is latent in these children's patterns of abilities". He suggested that, in order to ensure equality of opportunity, "schools and society must provide a range and diversity of educational methods, programs and goals, and of occupational opportunities, just as wide as the range of human abilities."

text: The rate of adaptive evolution in the human genome has often assumed to be constant over time. For example, the 35% estimate for α calculated by Fay et al. (2001) led them to conclude that there was one adaptive substitution in the human lineage every 200 years since human divergence from old-world monkeys. However, even if the original value of α is accurate for a particular time period, this extrapolation is still invalid. This is because there has been a large acceleration in the amount of positive selection in the human lineage over the last 40,000 years, in terms of the number of genes that have undergone adaptive evolution (Hawks et al. 2007). This agrees with simple theoretical predictions, because the human population size has expanded massively in the last 40,000 years, and with more people, there should be more adaptive substitutions. Hawks et al. (2007) argue that demographic changes (particularly population expansion) may greatly facilitate adaptive evolution, an argument that corroborates somewhat with the positive correlation inferred between population size and amount of adaptive evolution occurring mentioned previously.It has been suggested that cultural evolution may have replaced genetic evolution, and hence slowed the rate of adaptive evolution over the past 10,000 years. However, it is possible that cultural evolution could actually increase genetic adaption. Cultural evolution has vastly increased communication and contact between different populations, and this provides much greater opportunities for genetic admixture between the different populations (Hawks et al. 2007). However, recent cultural phenomena, such as modern medicine and the smaller variation in modern family sizes, may reduce genetic adaption as natural selection is relaxed, overriding the increased potential for adaptation due to greater genetic admixture.

text: where N is the biomass density, a is the maximum per-capita rate of change, and K is the carrying capacity of the population. The formula can be read as follows: the rate of change in the population (dN/dT) is equal to growth (aN) that is limited by carrying capacity (1-N/K). From these basic mathematical principles the discipline of population ecology expands into a field of investigation that queries the demographics of real populations and tests these results against the statistical models. The field of population ecology often uses data on life history and matrix algebra to develop projection matrices on fecundity and survivorship. This information is used for managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas

text: where N is the biomass density, a is the maximum per-capita rate of change, and K is the

text: carrying capacity

text: of the population. The formula can be read as follows: the rate of change in the population (dN/dT) is equal to growth (aN) that is limited by carrying capacity (1-N/K). From these basic mathematical principles the discipline of population ecology expands into a field of investigation that queries the

text: demographics

text: of real populations and tests these results against the statistical models. The field of population ecology often uses data on life history and matrix algebra to develop projection matrices on fecundity and survivorship. This information is used for managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas

text: The Antioch ordinance had "a large, but not entirely amorphous class of items that can be paraphernalia, and an intent requirement that differentiates innocent transfers of multi-purpose items from illegal transfers of drug paraphernalia," Cummings noted. "That combination satisfies the fair notice aspect of the vagueness test, even in its strictest form." Despite all the precedent he cited, he felt that conclusion required further elucidation:The ordinance's passages on factors that could be considered indicators of intent to use illegally, Cummings found, went from highly probative (statements of intent to use illegally, illegal drug residue on object) to highly relevant (previous drug convictions of defendant, proximity in time and space to illegal use when found) to somewhat relevant (the scope and size of possible legal uses in the community) to two that were not (national and local advertising concerning use and expert testimony concerning use). "Most of these factors are specific and relevant. They constitute effective directions of enforcement activities, and they limit the possibilities of arbitrary enforcement," he wrote. "To the extent that all the factors are not equally relevant and specific, however, the chance that the weaker ones will be relied on is too remote to sustain a facial vagueness attack."

text: Secondary crater size is dictated by the size of its parent primary crater. Primary craters can vary from microscopic to thousands of kilometers wide. The morphology of primary craters ranges from bowl-shaped to large, wide basins, where multi-ringed structures are observed. Two factors dominate the morphologies of these craters: material strength and gravity. The bowl-shaped morphology suggests that the topography is supported by the strength of the material, while the topography of the basin-shaped craters is overcome by gravitational forces and collapses toward flatness. The morphology, and size, of secondary craters is limited. Secondary craters exhibit a maximum diameter of < 5% of its parent primary crater. The size of a secondary crater is also dependent on its distance from its primary. The morphology of secondaries is simple but distinctive. Secondaries that form closer to their primaries appear more elliptical with shallower depths. These may form rays or crater chains. The more distant secondaries appear similar in circularity to their parent primaries, but these are often seen in an array of clusters.

text: Fenchel's Law is a regularity in population ecology regarding how exponential population growth is related to the body size of the organism. It was first described by the Danish marine ecologist Tom Fenchel. It contends that species with larger body sizes tend to have lower rates of population growth.  More exactly, it states that the maximum rate of reproduction decreases with body size at a power of a quarter of the body mass

text: Fenchel's Law is a regularity in

text: population ecology

text: regarding how exponential population growth is related to the body size of the organism. It was first described by the

text: Danish

text: marine ecologist

text: Tom Fenchel

text: . It contends that species with larger body sizes tend to have lower rates of population growth.  More exactly, it states that the maximum rate of reproduction decreases with body size at a power of a quarter of the body mass

text: is the density dependence, N is the number in the population, K is the set point for homeostasis and the carrying capacity. In this logistic model, population growth rate is highest at 1/2 K and the population growth rate is zero around K. The optimum harvesting rate is a close rate to 1/2 K where population will grow the fastest. Above K, the population growth rate is negative. The logistic models also show density dependence, meaning the per capita population growth rates decline as the population density increases. In the wild, you can't get these patterns to emerge without simplification. Negative density dependence allows for a population that overshoots the carrying capacity to decrease back to the carrying capacity, K.

text: is the density dependence, N is the number in the population, K is the set point for homeostasis and the carrying capacity. In this

text: logistic model

text: , population growth rate is highest at 1/2 K and the population growth rate is zero around K. The optimum harvesting rate is a close rate to 1/2 K where population will grow the fastest. Above K, the population growth rate is negative. The logistic models also show density dependence, meaning the per capita population growth rates decline as the population density increases. In the wild, you can't get these patterns to emerge without simplification. Negative density dependence allows for a population that overshoots the carrying capacity to decrease back to the carrying capacity, K.

text: This separation reduced the size of the population of actual Z. skinneri to fewer than 500.

text: , the (population) average size of a gap between samples; compare

text: A SECU looks like a standard 40-foot ISO Container but is bigger, measuring   and which can carry  of cargo. This is compared to the normal  size and  capacity of an ISO Container.

text: A SECU looks like a standard 40-foot

text: ISO Container

text: but is bigger, measuring   and which can carry  of cargo. This is compared to the normal  size and  capacity of an ISO Container.

text: Accommodation between individual speakers of different dialects takes place with respect to features that are salient, displaying phonetic or surface phonemic contrasts between the dialects. This process is mostly limited to salient features, geographical (distance), and demographic (population size) factors. Accommodation is not the same thing as levelling, but it can be its short-term preamble.

text: The reason for considering carrying capacity as a process, rather than a means of protection of various areas is in spite of the fact that carrying capacity was once a guiding concept in recreation and tourism management literature. Because of its conceptual elusiveness, lack of management utility and inconsistent effectiveness in minimising visitors' impacts, carrying capacity has been largely re-conceptualized into management by objectives approaches, namely: the limits of acceptable change (LAC), and the visitor experience and resource protection (VERP) as the two planning and management decision-making processes based on the new understanding of carrying capacity (Lindberg and McCool, 1998). These two have been deemed more appropriate in the tourism planning processes of protected areas, especially in the United States, and have over the years been adapted and modified for use in sustainable tourism and ecotourism contexts (Wallace, 1993; McCool, 1994; Harroun and Boo, 1995).

text: The reason for considering carrying capacity as a process, rather than a means of protection of various areas is in spite of the fact that carrying capacity was once a guiding concept in recreation and tourism management literature. Because of its conceptual elusiveness, lack of management utility and inconsistent effectiveness in minimising visitors' impacts, carrying capacity has been largely re-conceptualized into management by objectives approaches, namely: the limits of acceptable change (LAC), and the visitor experience and resource protection (VERP) as the two planning and management decision-making processes based on the new understanding of carrying capacity (Lindberg and McCool, 1998). These two have been deemed more appropriate in the tourism planning processes of protected areas, especially in the United States, and have over the years been adapted and modified for use in

text: sustainable tourism

text: and ecotourism contexts (Wallace, 1993; McCool, 1994; Harroun and Boo, 1995).

text: The first generation of Soviet missile tanks started in 1956 when V.A. Malyshev was ordered by Nikita Khrushchev to instill a "new thinking" into the weapons design bureaus. Part of this "new thinking" was the development of missile tanks, including the IT-1 firing the Drakon missile and the Taifun armed Obiekt 297. However, these early tank designs were failures. A purely missile armed tank had a 300-meter deadzone around it, where it could not engage targets—also the size of the early missiles limited the number carried. Hybrid designs compromised both main gun firepower and missile carrying capacity.

text: The first generation of Soviet missile tanks started in 1956 when V.A. Malyshev was ordered by

text: Nikita Khrushchev

text: to instill a "new thinking" into the weapons design bureaus. Part of this "new thinking" was the development of missile tanks, including the

text: firing the Drakon missile and the

text: Taifun

text: armed Obiekt 297. However, these early tank designs were failures. A purely missile armed tank had a 300-meter deadzone around it, where it could not engage targets—also the size of the early missiles limited the number carried. Hybrid designs compromised both main gun firepower and missile carrying capacity.

text: The Steyr M is a series of semi-automatic pistols developed by Steyr Mannlicher GmbH & Co KG of Austria for police services and the civilian shooting market. Design work on the new pistol began in the early 1990s and the final product known as the M9 (adapted to fire the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge) was officially unveiled in the spring of 1999. The M40 version chambered in .40 S&W was developed before the M9, followed later by the M357 (caliber .357 SIG or 9×22mm) and two smaller variants of the M9 and M40 designated the S9 and S40 respectively. These pistols were developed primarily for concealed carry and have a shortened barrel, slide, smaller frame and a reduced magazine capacity. In 2013 the Steyr M (Medium) and S (Small) form factors were complemented by the L (Large) sized series and the C (Compact) sized  series both available in 9×19mm Parabellum and .40 S&W chamberings as the L9-A1, L40-A1, C9-A1 and C40-A1.

text: The Steyr M is a series of

text: semi-automatic pistol

text: s developed by

text: Steyr Mannlicher GmbH & Co KG

text: of

text: Austria

text: for

text: police

text: services and the civilian shooting market. Design work on the new pistol began in the early 1990s and the final product known as the M9 (adapted to fire the

text: 9×19mm Parabellum

text: cartridge

text: ) was officially unveiled in the spring of 1999. The M40 version chambered in

text: .40 S&W

text: was developed before the M9, followed later by the M357 (caliber

text: .357 SIG

text: or 9×22mm) and two smaller variants of the M9 and M40 designated the S9 and S40 respectively. These pistols were developed primarily for concealed carry and have a shortened barrel,

text: slide

text: , smaller frame and a reduced magazine capacity. In 2013 the Steyr M (Medium) and S (Small) form factors were complemented by the L (Large) sized series and the C (Compact) sized  series both available in 9×19mm Parabellum and .40 S&W chamberings as the L9-A1, L40-A1, C9-A1 and C40-A1.

text: The container ship MOL Presence has overall length , beam , depth  and summer draft . The large size and the large capacity of the ship form her efficiency and profitability. The deadweight of MOL Presence is  and the gross tonnage is . With this size the ship can carry total 6,350 TEU (2,912 TEU in the holds and 3,438 TEU on the deck).

text: The Q series small sensor size means that it has a crop factor of 5.6× (or 4.7× for the Q7 and Q-S1) and a short flange focal distance (FFD) of 9.2mm. With the 5.6× crop factor, an adapted 100mm lens has the equivalent field of view (FOV) of a 560mm telephoto in the 35mm full-frame format. An additional implication of the 5.6× crop factor is that depth of field (DOF) is increased proportionally for any given aperture setting. This gives the Pentax Q an advantage over larger formats in some situations that can offset the other limitations that arise from its smaller sensor size.

text: The Q series small sensor size means that it has a

text: crop factor

text: of 5.6× (or 4.7× for the Q7 and Q-S1) and a short

text: flange focal distance

text: (FFD) of 9.2mm. With the 5.6× crop factor, an adapted 100mm lens has the equivalent

text: field of view

text: (FOV) of a 560mm telephoto in the 35mm full-frame format. An additional implication of the 5.6× crop factor is that

text: depth of field

text: (DOF) is increased proportionally for any given aperture setting. This gives the Pentax Q an advantage over larger formats in some situations that can offset the other limitations that arise from its smaller sensor size.

text: The 1920 Census was the first one to show a more specific figure about the size of the Italian population in Brazil (558,405). However, since the 20th century the arrival of new Italian immigrants to Brazil was in full decline. The previous censuses of 1890 and 1900 had limited information (in fact, the 1900 Census never existed). In consequence, there are no official figures about the size of the Italian population in Brazil during the mass immigration period (1880–1900). There are estimates available, and the most reliable is the one done by Giorgio Mortara, even though the figures he found may have underestimated the real size of the Italian population. On the other hand, Angelo Trento believes that the Italian estimates are "certainly exaggerated", and "lacking of any foundation", since they found the figure of 1,837,887 Italians in Brazil as of 1927. Another evaluation conducted by Bruno Zuculin found the presence of 997,887 Italians in Brazil as of 1927. Notice that all these figures only include people born in Italy, and not their Brazilian born descendants.

text: The number of deputies elected is proportional to the size of the population of the respective state (or of the Federal District). However, no delegation can be made up of less than eight or more than seventy seats. Thus the least populous state elects eight Federal Deputies and the most populous elects seventy. These restrictions favour the smaller states at the expense of the more populous states and so the size of the delegations is not exactly proportional to population.

text: In the absence of predators, species are bound by the resources they can find in their environment, but this does not necessarily control overpopulation, at least in the short term. An abundant supply of resources can produce a population boom that ends up with more individuals than the environment can support. In this case, starvation, thirst and sometimes violent competition for scarce resources may affect a sharp reduction in population in a very short lapse (a population crash). Lemmings, as well as other species of rodents, are known to have such cycles of rapid population growth and subsequent decrease.

text: In the absence of predators, species are bound by the resources they can find in their environment, but this does not necessarily control overpopulation, at least in the short term. An abundant supply of resources can produce a population boom that ends up with more individuals than the environment can support. In this case, starvation, thirst and sometimes violent competition for scarce resources may affect a sharp reduction in population in a very short lapse (a population crash).

text: Lemming

text: s, as well as other species of

text: rodent

text: s, are known to have such cycles of rapid population growth and subsequent decrease.

text: where n is the sample size and N is the population size. If the sampling fraction is less than 5% or 0.05, then the finite population multiplier might be ignored.

text: It is  in size, with a population of 226.

text: An example of a regulating factor would be food supply. If the population increases to a certain size, there will be less food for each organism. This will lead to fewer births (a decrease in fecundity) and more deaths, making a negative growth rate. As there are now fewer animals, the amount of food for each organism will increase, meaning the growth rate will become positive. This would lead to a large population size again, and the cycle would start over. Therefore, food is a regulating factor in this scenario, as food supply keeps the population at relative equilibrium.

text: An example of a regulating factor would be

text: food supply

text: . If the population increases to a certain size, there will be less food for each organism. This will lead to fewer

text: births

text: (a decrease in

text: fecundity

text: ) and more

text: deaths

text: , making a negative

text: growth rate

text: . As there are now fewer

text: animal

text: s, the amount of food for each organism will increase, meaning the growth rate will become positive. This would lead to a large population size again, and the cycle would start over. Therefore, food is a regulating factor in this scenario, as food supply keeps the population at relative equilibrium.

text: Tourism carrying capacity  is a now antiquated approach to managing visitors in protected areas and national parks which evolved out of the fields of range, habitat and wildlife management. In these fields, managers attempted to determine the largest population of a particular species that could be supported by a habitat over a long period of time.  Many authors, such as Buckley, Wagar, Washburne, McCool, and Stankey have critiqued the concept as being fatally flawed in both the conceptual assumptions made and its limited practical application. For example, the notion of a carrying capacity assumes the world, such as the social-ecological systems in which protected areas and tourism destinations are situated, are stable. But we know they are dynamically complex and impossible to predict. We know that to implement a carrying capacity on a practical level, assumes a level of control of entries into a destination or protected area not usually found in the real world. We know that a carrying capacity, if one could be determined, requires considerable financial and technical resources to administer; and we know that when demand exceeds a limit, the ways in which scarce opportunities are allocated are contentious.

text: The availability of resources and population size can greatly affect how many matings each individual participates in. Increased population size within a given area with fixed resources can limit how many offspring can survive. Therefore, males must often compete with other males to be the last male that mates with the female, to increase his fertilization rate. By being the last male to mate with a female, it is likely that his ejaculate removed previous ejaculate from previous males, increasing the chances that his sperm fertilizes the female. In fact, in areas with limited resources, higher rates of cannibalism among competitor males can result in an overall decrease in fitness of the population since there is a net decrease in offspring production and survival.

text: The availability of resources and population size can greatly affect how many matings each individual participates in. Increased population size within a given area with fixed resources can limit how many offspring can survive. Therefore, males must often compete with other males to be the last male that mates with the female, to increase his fertilization rate. By being the last male to mate with a female, it is likely that his ejaculate removed previous ejaculate from previous males, increasing the chances that his

text: sperm

text: fertilizes the female. In fact, in areas with limited resources, higher rates of cannibalism among competitor males can result in an overall decrease in fitness of the population since there is a net decrease in offspring production and survival.

text: K = carrying capacity

text: K = carrying capacity

text: There is evidence to support that antler size influences mate selection in the red deer, and has a heritable component.  Despite this, a 30-year study showed no shift in the median size of antlers in a population of red deer. The lack of response could be explained by environmental covariance, meaning that lifetime breeding success is determined by an unmeasured trait which is phenotypically correlated with antler size but for which there is no genetic correlation of antler growth. Alternatively, the lack of response could be explained by the relationship between heterozygosity and antler size, which states that males heterozygous at multiple loci, including MHC loci, have larger antlers. The evolutionary response of traits that depend on heterozygosity is slower than traits that are dependent on additive genetic components and thus the evolutionary change is slower than expected.  A third possibility is that the costs of having larger antlers (resource use, and mobility detriments, for instance) exert enough selective pressure to offset the benefit of attracting mates; thereby stabilizing antler size in the population.

text: There is evidence to support that antler size influences mate selection in the red deer, and has a heritable component.  Despite this, a 30-year study showed no shift in the median size of antlers in a population of red deer. The lack of response could be explained by environmental covariance, meaning that lifetime breeding success is determined by an unmeasured trait which is phenotypically correlated with antler size but for which there is no

text: genetic correlation

text: of antler growth. Alternatively, the lack of response could be explained by the relationship between heterozygosity and antler size, which states that males heterozygous at multiple loci, including MHC loci, have larger antlers. The evolutionary response of traits that depend on heterozygosity is slower than traits that are dependent on additive genetic components and thus the evolutionary change is slower than expected.  A third possibility is that the costs of having larger antlers (resource use, and mobility detriments, for instance) exert enough selective pressure to offset the benefit of attracting mates; thereby stabilizing antler size in the population.

text: Metapopulation structure and the repeated extinctions and recolonizations can significantly affect a population's genetic structure. Recolonization by a few dispersers leads to population bottlenecks which will reduce the effective population size (Ne), accelerate genetic drift, and deplete genetic variation. However, dispersal between populations in the metapopulation can reverse or halt these processes over the long term. Therefore, in order for individual sub-populations to remain healthy, they must either have a large population size or have a relatively high rate of dispersal with other subpopulations. Molecular ecology focuses on using tests to determine the rates of dispersal between populations and can use molecular clocks to determine when historic bottlenecks occurred. As habitat becomes more fragmented, dispersal between populations will become increasingly rare. Therefore, subpopulations that may have historically been preserved by a metapopulation structure may start to decline. Using mitochondrial or nuclear markers to monitor dispersal coupled with population Fst values and allelic richness can provide insight into how well a population is performing and how it will perform into the future.

text: Metapopulation structure and the repeated extinctions and recolonizations can significantly affect a population's genetic structure. Recolonization by a few dispersers leads to

text: population bottlenecks

text: which will reduce the

text: effective population size

text: (Ne), accelerate

text: genetic drift

text: , and deplete genetic variation. However, dispersal between populations in the metapopulation can reverse or halt these processes over the long term. Therefore, in order for individual sub-populations to remain healthy, they must either have a large population size or have a relatively high rate of dispersal with other subpopulations. Molecular ecology focuses on using tests to determine the rates of dispersal between populations and can use

text: molecular clocks

text: to determine when historic bottlenecks occurred. As habitat becomes more fragmented, dispersal between populations will become increasingly rare. Therefore, subpopulations that may have historically been preserved by a metapopulation structure may start to decline. Using mitochondrial or nuclear markers to monitor dispersal coupled with population Fst values and allelic richness can provide insight into how well a population is performing and how it will perform into the future.

text: The simplest ballast for alternating current (AC) use is an inductor placed in series, consisting of a winding on a laminated magnetic core. The inductance of this winding limits the flow of AC current. This type is still used, for example, in 120 volt operated desk lamps using relatively short lamps. Ballasts are rated for the size of lamp and power frequency. Where the AC voltage is insufficient to start long fluorescent lamps, the ballast is often a step-up autotransformer with substantial leakage inductance (so as to limit the current flow). Either form of inductive ballast may also include a capacitor for power factor correction.

text: The simplest ballast for

text: alternating current

text: (AC) use is an

text: inductor

text: placed in series, consisting of a winding on a laminated magnetic core. The

text: inductance

text: of this winding limits the flow of AC current. This type is still used, for example, in 120 volt operated desk lamps using relatively short lamps. Ballasts are rated for the size of lamp and power frequency. Where the AC voltage is insufficient to start long fluorescent lamps, the ballast is often a step-up

text: autotransformer

text: with substantial

text: leakage inductance

text: (so as to limit the current flow). Either form of inductive ballast may also include a

text: capacitor

text: for

text: power factor

text: correction.

text: For DEC, none of the three would be favorably received, and the industry instead standardized on Intel 8088-based IBM PC compatibles which were all binary program compatible with each other. In some ways, the PDP-11 microprocessors were technically superior to the Intel-based chips. While the 8088 was restricted to 1MB of memory because of its 20-bit address bus, DEC microprocessors were capable of accessing 4MB with their 22-bit addressing (although direct addressing of memory was limited in both approaches to 64KB segments, limiting the size of individual code and data objects). But other factors would weigh more heavily in the competition, including DEC's corporate culture and business model, which were ill-suited to the rapidly developing consumer market for computers. BYTE in 1984 reported that Venix on the PC outperformed the same operating system on the DEC Professional and PDP-11/23.

text: For DEC, none of the three would be favorably received, and the industry instead standardized on

text: Intel 8088

text: -based

text: IBM PC compatible

text: s which were all binary program compatible with each other. In some ways, the PDP-11 microprocessors were technically superior to the Intel-based chips. While the 8088 was restricted to 1MB of memory because of its 20-bit address bus, DEC microprocessors were capable of accessing 4MB with their 22-bit addressing (although direct addressing of memory was limited in both approaches to 64KB segments, limiting the size of individual code and data objects). But other factors would weigh more heavily in the competition, including DEC's corporate culture and business model, which were ill-suited to the rapidly developing consumer market for computers. BYTE in 1984 reported that

text: Venix

text: on the PC outperformed the same operating system on the DEC Professional and PDP-11/23.

text: HLA-B46 (B46) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies the gene products of HLA-B*4601 allele.B*4601 resulted from a rare, interlocus, gene conversion between B62, probably B*1501, and a HLA-C allele. B*4601 is the most common HLA-B allele that does not have an origin within Africa, and estimated 400 million people in Eastern Asia carry a B46 allele. When found B*4601 segregates with only 2 HLA-Cw alleles, A limited number of HLA-A and HLA-DRB1 alleles suggesting that the allele recently expanded from a limited sized group within SE Asia. Extremely low frequencies outside of Eastern Asia are indicators of a recent expansion of B46 from a recently small population. The frequency distribution suggests the ancestral B46 population was in SE China, or, potentially Burma (Myanmar or Laos, untested). B46 in Asia correlates with wet-rice farming. The exceptions are notable, it has been found in the Nivkhi on north-eastern Sakalin Island, the Ainu, and the Nivkhi-related (genetically) Tlinglet population of Alaska at trace levels.

text: HLA-B46 (B46) is an

text: HLA

text: B

text: serotype

text: . The serotype identifies the

text: gene product

text: s of HLA-B*4601 allele.B*4601 resulted from a rare, interlocus,

text: gene conversion

text: between

text: , probably B*1501, and a

text: HLA-C

text: allele. B*4601 is the most common HLA-B allele that does not have an origin within Africa, and estimated 400 million people in Eastern Asia carry a B46 allele. When found B*4601 segregates with only 2

text: HLA-C

text: w alleles, A limited number of

text: HLA-A

text: and

text: alleles suggesting that the allele recently expanded from a limited sized group within SE Asia. Extremely low frequencies outside of Eastern Asia are indicators of a recent expansion of B46 from a recently small population. The frequency distribution suggests the ancestral B46 population was in SE China, or, potentially Burma (Myanmar or Laos, untested). B46 in Asia correlates with

text: wet-rice farming

text: . The exceptions are notable, it has been found in the Nivkhi on north-eastern Sakalin Island, the Ainu, and the Nivkhi-related (genetically) Tlinglet population of Alaska at trace levels.

text: Although Mason began life as a physicist studying nuclear fusion, he is best known for his work on cellular immunology. He carried out studies at Oxford University into multiple sclerosis. Mason's most important contributions to immunology are his studies defining the existence, cell surface phenotype and function of regulatory T cells. Mason's studies identified the immuno-regulatory capacity of a population of CD4+ T cells which expressed low levels of OX22 (an isoform of CD45: CD45RC in rats and CD45RB in mice) and their capacity to prevent the pathogenic activity of the OX22hi subset. His work focused mainly on the role of Tregs in the prevention of diabetes and thyroiditis and highlighted the role for the thymus in the development of Tregs,. These were among the earliest demonstrations of the requirement for Treg in restraining the pathogenic activity of CD4+ T cells and prevention of autoimmunity. Prof. Mason retired from research in 1999 and still lives in the Oxford area.

text: Although Mason began life as a physicist studying nuclear fusion, he is best known for his work on cellular immunology. He carried out studies at Oxford University into

text: multiple sclerosis

text: . Mason's most important contributions to immunology are his studies defining the existence, cell surface phenotype and function of

text: regulatory T cell

text: s. Mason's studies identified the immuno-regulatory capacity of a population of CD4+ T cells which expressed low levels of OX22 (an

text: isoform

text: of

text: : CD45RC in rats and CD45RB in mice) and their capacity to prevent the pathogenic activity of the OX22hi subset. His work focused mainly on the role of

text: Tregs

text: in the prevention of diabetes and thyroiditis and highlighted the role for the thymus in the development of

text: Tregs

text: ,. These were among the earliest demonstrations of the requirement for Treg in restraining the pathogenic activity of CD4+ T cells and prevention of

text: autoimmunity

text: . Prof. Mason retired from research in 1999 and still lives in the Oxford area.

text: The formula given above for the standard error assumes that the sample size is much smaller than the population size, so that the population can be considered to be effectively infinite in size.  This is usually the case even with finite populations, because most of the time, people are primarily interested in managing the processes that created the existing finite population;  this is called an analytic study, following W. Edwards Deming.  If people are interested in managing an existing finite population that will not change over time, then it is necessary to adjust for the population size;   this is called an enumerative study.

text: The formula given above for the standard error assumes that the sample size is much smaller than the population size, so that the population can be considered to be effectively infinite in size.  This is usually the case even with finite populations, because most of the time, people are primarily interested in managing the processes that created the existing finite population;  this is called an

entity_name: Analytic and enumerative statistical studies

text: analytic study

text: , following

text: W. Edwards Deming

text: .  If people are interested in managing an existing finite population that will not change over time, then it is necessary to adjust for the population size;   this is called an

text: enumerative study

text: The time for a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population size, with fixation occurring more rapidly in smaller populations. The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size. The effective population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest. The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population.

text: Larger North American pickup trucks are generally the best for carrying a truck camper, although many manufacturers produce units for lighter duty European and Japanese models. The gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of a truck is the figure used to determine what size camper may be carried. The GVWR, minus the weight of the truck with passengers and fuel is the payload that the truck may legally carry. Stability can be improved by the addition of a sway bar, add-on overload springs or inflatable airbags on the rear suspension. Most campers are rated at their "dry weight" which is the weight of the camper less any fluids like fresh water or sewage, and any possessions or add-ons that may add to the total weight. These need to be taken into account when determining the maximum size camper a truck may carry. Tires and braking capacity are also two important factors when determining maximum payload. It should be noted that the total axle capacity is always higher than the GVWR. Tires and braking are frequently the rate determining factor, from a safety point of view.

text: Larger North American pickup trucks are generally the best for carrying a truck camper, although many manufacturers produce units for lighter duty European and Japanese models. The

text: gross vehicle weight rating

text: (GVWR) of a truck is the figure used to determine what size camper may be carried. The GVWR, minus the weight of the truck with passengers and fuel is the payload that the truck may legally carry. Stability can be improved by the addition of a

text: sway bar

text: , add-on overload springs or inflatable airbags on the rear suspension. Most campers are rated at their "dry weight" which is the weight of the camper less any fluids like fresh water or sewage, and any possessions or add-ons that may add to the total weight. These need to be taken into account when determining the maximum size camper a truck may carry. Tires and braking capacity are also two important factors when determining maximum payload. It should be noted that the total axle capacity is always higher than the GVWR. Tires and braking are frequently the rate determining factor, from a safety point of view.

text: This effectively doubles the number of banks and reduces the minimum data access size by a factor of 4, albeit with the limitation that accesses must be spread uniformly across all 4 quadrants.

text: The AllBusiness.com Business Glossary defines a limiting (constraining) factor as an "item that restricts or limits production or sale of a given product." The examples provided include: "limited machine hours and labor-hours and shortage of materials and skilled labor. Other limiting factors may be cubic feet of display or warehouse space, or working capital." The term is also frequently used in technology literature.

text: For a single group, M denotes the sample mean, μ the population mean, SD the sample's standard deviation, σ the population's standard deviation, and n is the sample size of the group. The t value is used to test the hypothesis on the difference between the mean and a baseline μ. Usually, μ is zero. In the case of two related groups, the single group is constructed by the differences in pair of samples, while SD and σ denote the sample's and population's standard deviations of differences rather than within original two groups.

text: Starting to harvest a previously unharvested population will always lead to a decrease in the population size.   That is, it is impossible for a harvested population to remain at its original carrying capacity.  Instead, the population will either stabilize at a new lower equilibrium size or, if the harvesting rate is too high, decline to zero.

text: In population dynamics, Nurgaliev's law is an equation that describes the rate of change of the size of a population at a given time, in terms of the current population size. It is a deterministic ordinary differential equation in which the rate of change is expressed as a quadratic function of the population size.

text: In

text: population dynamics

text: , Nurgaliev's law is an equation that describes the rate of change of the size of a population at a given time, in terms of the current population size. It is a deterministic

text: ordinary differential equation

text: in which the rate of change is expressed as a

text: quadratic function

text: of the population size.

text: The design of a system is governed by multiple criteria, one being cost. If the benefit is fixed, the least cost design results in maximum benefit. However, the least cost approach normally results in a minimum capacity for a water supply network. A minimum cost model usually searches for the least cost solution (in pipe sizes), while satisfying the hydraulic constraints such as: required output pressures, maximum pipe flow rate and pipe flow velocities. The cost is a function of pipe diameters; therefore the optimization problem consists of finding a minimum cost solution by optimising pipe sizes to provide the minimum acceptable capacity.

text: The design of a system is governed by multiple criteria, one being cost. If the benefit is fixed, the

text: least cost

text: design results in maximum benefit. However, the least cost approach normally results in a minimum capacity for a water supply network. A minimum cost model usually searches for the least cost solution (in pipe sizes), while satisfying the hydraulic constraints such as: required output pressures, maximum

text: pipe flow

text: rate and pipe flow velocities. The cost is a function of pipe diameters; therefore the

text: optimization

text: problem consists of finding a minimum cost solution by optimising pipe sizes to provide the minimum acceptable capacity.

text: In population genetics an idealised population is one that can be described using a number of simplifying assumptions. Models of idealised populations are either used to make a general point, or they are fit to data on real populations for which the assumptions may not hold true. For example, coalescent theory is used to fit data to models of idealised populations. The most common idealized population in population genetics is the Fisher-Wright population after R.A. Fisher and Sewall Wright. Wright-Fisher populations have constant size, and their members can mate and reproduce with any other member. Another example is a Moran model, which has overlapping generations, rather than the non-overlapping generations of the Wright-Fisher model. The complexities of real populations can cause their behavior to match an idealised population with an effective population size that is very different from the census population size of the real population. For sexual diploids, idealized populations will have genotype frequencies related to the allele frequencies according to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

text: In

text: population genetics

text: an idealised population is one that can be described using a number of simplifying assumptions. Models of idealised populations are either used to make a general point, or they are fit to data on real populations for which the assumptions may not hold true. For example,

text: coalescent theory

text: is used to fit data to models of idealised populations. The most common idealized population in population genetics is the

text: Fisher-Wright population

text: after

text: R.A. Fisher

text: and

text: Sewall Wright

text: . Wright-Fisher

text: population

text: s have constant size, and their members can

text: mate

text: and

text: reproduce

text: with any other member. Another example is a

text: Moran model

text: , which has overlapping

text: generation

text: s, rather than the non-overlapping generations of the Wright-Fisher model. The complexities of real populations can cause their behavior to match an idealised population with an

text: effective population size

text: that is very different from the census population size of the real population. For sexual diploids, idealized populations will have genotype frequencies related to the allele frequencies according to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.

text: Irruptive growth, sometimes called Malthusian growth, is a growth pattern over time, defined by population explosions and subsequent sharp population crashes, or diebacks. It is an extension of the Malthusian growth model, specifically the growth pattern that causes a Malthusian catastrophe, and can occur when populations overshoot their carrying capacity, a phenomenon typically associated with r-strategists. Populations which exhibit irruptive growth do not stabilize around their carrying capacity, a feature of logistic growth. Irruptive growth occurs when a species reproduces more rapidly than the environment is capable of supporting with the available resources.  Irruptive growth is studied in population ecology.

text: Irruptive growth, sometimes called Malthusian growth, is a growth pattern over time, defined by

text: population explosions

text: and subsequent sharp population crashes, or diebacks. It is an extension of the

text: Malthusian growth model

text: , specifically the growth pattern that causes a

text: Malthusian catastrophe

text: , and can occur when populations overshoot their

text: carrying capacity

text: , a phenomenon typically associated with

text: r-strategists

text: . Populations which exhibit irruptive growth do not stabilize around their carrying capacity, a feature of

text: logistic growth

text: . Irruptive growth occurs when a species reproduces more rapidly than the environment is capable of supporting with the available resources.  Irruptive growth is studied in

text: population ecology

text: The law of large numbers predicts that when the absolute number of copies of the allele is small (e.g., in small populations), the magnitude of drift on allele frequencies per generation is larger. The magnitude of drift is large enough to overwhelm selection at any allele frequency when the selection coefficient is less than 1 divided by the effective population size. Non-adaptive evolution resulting from the product of mutation and genetic drift is therefore considered to be a consequential mechanism of evolutionary change primarily within small, isolated populations. The mathematics of genetic drift depend on the effective population size, but it is not clear how this is related to the actual number of individuals in a population. Genetic linkage to other genes that are under selection can reduce the effective population size experienced by a neutral allele. With a higher recombination rate, linkage decreases and with it this local effect on effective population size. This effect is visible in molecular data as a correlation between local recombination rate and genetic diversity, and negative correlation between gene density and diversity at noncoding DNA regions. Stochasticity associated with linkage to other genes that are under selection is not the same as sampling error, and is sometimes known as genetic draft in order to distinguish it from genetic drift.

text: The

text: law of large numbers

text: predicts that when the absolute number of copies of the allele is small (e.g., in small populations), the magnitude of drift on allele frequencies per generation is larger. The magnitude of drift is large enough to overwhelm selection at any allele frequency when the

text: selection coefficient

text: is less than 1 divided by the effective population size. Non-adaptive evolution resulting from the product of mutation and genetic drift is therefore considered to be a consequential mechanism of evolutionary change primarily within small, isolated populations. The mathematics of genetic drift depend on the effective population size, but it is not clear how this is related to the actual number of individuals in a population.

text: Genetic linkage

text: to other genes that are under selection can reduce the effective population size experienced by a neutral allele. With a higher

text: recombination

text: rate, linkage decreases and with it this local effect on effective population size. This effect is visible in molecular data as a correlation between local recombination rate and

text: genetic diversity

text: , and negative correlation between gene density and diversity at

text: noncoding DNA

text: regions. Stochasticity associated with linkage to other genes that are under selection is not the same as sampling error, and is sometimes known as

text: genetic draft

text: in order to distinguish it from genetic drift.

text: Section 36 provides certain factors that must be taken into account by the courts when determining if a limitation is reasonable and justifiable:

text: A population is a group of individuals which either do or can interbreed or, if incapable of interbreeding, then are recently derived from a single individual (a clonal population). Population ecology considers characteristics that are apparent in populations of individuals but either are not apparent or are much less apparent among individuals. These characteristics include so-called intraspecific interactions, that is between individuals making up the same population, and can include competition as well as cooperation. Competition can be either in terms of rates of population growth (as seen especially at lower population densities in resource-rich environments) or in terms of retention of population sizes (seen especially at higher population densities where individuals are directly competing over limited resources). Respectively, these are population-density independent and dependent effects.

text: A

text: population

text: is a group of

text: individuals

text: which either do or can

text: interbreed

text: or, if incapable of interbreeding, then are recently derived from a single individual (a

text: clonal population

text: Population ecology

text: considers characteristics that are apparent in populations of individuals but either are not apparent or are much less apparent among individuals. These characteristics include so-called intraspecific interactions, that is between individuals making up the same population, and can include

text: competition

text: as well as

text: cooperation

text: . Competition can be either in terms of rates of

text: population growth

text: (as seen especially at lower population densities in resource-rich environments) or in terms of retention of

text: population size

text: s (seen especially at higher population densities where individuals are directly competing over

text: limited resources

text: ). Respectively, these are

text: population-density

text: independent and dependent effects.

text: Although their numbers were small, a considerable amount of industry in Southern Ireland had been developed indigenously by Southern Unionist supporters. These included Jacob's Biscuits, Bewley's, Beamish and Crawford, Brown Thomas, Cantrell & Cochrane, Jameson's Whiskey, W.P. & R. Odlum, Cleeve's, R&H Hall, Dockrell's, Arnott's, Elverys, Goulding Chemicals, the Irish Times and notably the Guinness brewery, then Ireland's largest company. They controlled financial entities such as the Bank of Ireland and Goodbody Stockbrokers. They were concerned that a new home rule state might create new taxes between them and their markets in Britain and the Empire, that would add to their costs and probably reduce sales and therefore employment. They were all considered to be good employers by contemporary standards.

text: Although their numbers were small, a considerable amount of industry in Southern Ireland had been developed indigenously by Southern Unionist supporters. These included

text: Jacob's Biscuits

text: Bewley's

text: Beamish and Crawford

text: Brown Thomas

text: Cantrell & Cochrane

text: Jameson's Whiskey

text: W.P. & R. Odlum

text: Cleeve's

text: R&H Hall

text: Dockrell's

text: Arnott's

text: Elverys

text: Goulding Chemicals

text: , the

text: Irish Times

text: and notably the

text: Guinness brewery

text: , then Ireland's largest company. They controlled financial entities such as the

text: Bank of Ireland

text: and

text: Goodbody Stockbrokers

text: . They were concerned that a new home rule state might create new taxes between them and their markets in Britain and the Empire, that would add to their costs and probably reduce sales and therefore employment. They were all considered to be good employers by contemporary standards.

text: The quality factor Q of the cavity, as well as the time duration of the measurement, determines the achievable frequency resolution of a ring to a large extent. The quality factor depends largely on the reflection properties of the mirrors. For high quality rings, reflectivities larger than 99.999% (R = 1-10 ppm) are indispensable.  At this time, the main limitation of mirrors is the extinction coefficient of the evaporated high-index material TiO.  The size and shape of the cavity as well as the presence of interfaces also influence the quality factor.

text: In June Harrity was reprimanded by the ECB for an incident in a second XI match,and this provided the final indignity to a generally miserable couple of seasons in England. Indeed, Harrity has not played top-level cricket since that time.

text: In June Harrity was reprimanded by the

text: ECB

text: for an incident in a second XI match,and this provided the final indignity to a generally miserable couple of seasons in England. Indeed, Harrity has not played top-level cricket since that time.

text: The shorter internodal time span (T) the more common are incongruent gene trees. The effective population size (N) of the internodal population determines how long genetic lineages are preserved in the population. A higher effective population size causes more incongruent gene trees. Therefore, if the internodal time span is known, the ancestral effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees can be calculated.

text: Rankin's Pass is situated in the Limpopo Province on the road between Thabazimbi and Modimolle (South Africa).

text: Rankin's Pass is situated in the

text: Limpopo

text: Province on the road between

text: Thabazimbi

text: and

text: Modimolle

text: South Africa

text: At the Mainichi Film Awards, Spirited Away won the Animation Film Award and Kujira Tori won the Ōfuji Noburō Award. Internationally, Blood: The Last Vampire was nominated for the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature.

text: At the

text: Mainichi Film Awards

text: Spirited Away

text: won the

entity_name: Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film

text: Animation Film Award

text: and Kujira Tori won the

text: Ōfuji Noburō Award

text: . Internationally,

text: Blood: The Last Vampire

text: was nominated for the

text: Annie Award for Best Animated Feature

text: It is also used in flea and tick products for pets.

text: Albuquerque, New Mexico, is home to the National Hispanic Cultural Center which was originally chosen to be built in Washington, DC. The state of New Mexico itself has the highest percentage of Hispanic or Latinos by population in the United States, who in 2013, made up 47.3% of the state's total population.

text: Albuquerque, New Mexico

text: , is home to the

text: National Hispanic Cultural Center

text: which was originally chosen to be built in Washington, DC. The state of

text: New Mexico

text: itself has the highest percentage of Hispanic or Latinos by population in the United States, who in 2013, made up 47.3% of the state's total population.

text: In the 1980s, Nespolo made ceramics and blown glass objects, created over fifty posters for exhibitions and other events, did advertising campaigns - the ones for Campari and Azzurra are the most famous - and realised title sequences for shows on the Italian television RAI. In 2002, Nespolo was appointed artistic coordinator for the Metropolitana di Torino, with the aim of realising the first "underground museum of modern art". Several underground stations are decorated with his glass etchings and images.

text: In the 1980s, Nespolo made ceramics and blown glass objects, created over fifty posters for exhibitions and other events, did advertising campaigns - the ones for

text: Campari

text: and

text: Azzurra

text: are the most famous - and realised title sequences for shows on the Italian television

text: RAI

text: . In 2002, Nespolo was appointed artistic coordinator for the

text: Metropolitana di Torino

text: , with the aim of realising the first "underground museum of modern art". Several underground stations are decorated with his glass etchings and images.

text: In 1565 when Vijaynagar Empire fell, Kandavara was apparently a hamlet of a score of dwellings, probably with a population of 150 (household size assumed to be 7). By 1815 it was a village with 80 dwellings, probably with a population of about 600. In 2013 the population was estimated to be 4,400.

text: Any species growing exponentially under unlimited resource conditions can reach enormous population densities in a short time. Darwin showed how even a slow growing animal like the elephant could reach an enormous population if there were unlimited resources for its growth in its habitat.

text: Any species growing exponentially under unlimited resource conditions can reach enormous

text: population densities

text: in a short time. Darwin showed how even a slow growing animal like the

text: elephant

text: could reach an enormous population if there were unlimited resources for its growth in its habitat.

text: Prey switching is the concept that predators sometimes switch from primary prey to an alternative food source for various reasons. This is related to apostatic selection because when a rare morph is being selected for, it is going to increase in abundance in a specific population until it becomes recognized by a predator. Prey switching, therefore, seems to be a result of apostatic selection. Prey switching is related to prey preference as well as the abundance of the prey.

text: Prey switching

text: is the concept that predators sometimes switch from primary prey to an alternative food source for various reasons. This is related to apostatic selection because when a rare morph is being selected for, it is going to increase in abundance in a specific population until it becomes recognized by a predator. Prey switching, therefore, seems to be a result of apostatic selection. Prey switching is related to prey preference as well as the abundance of the prey.

text: where I is the indicator function.  The population analogue of this expression is

text: where I is the

text: indicator function

text: .  The population analogue of this expression is