text: Cumberland lies at the beginning of the transition from a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa) to a humid subtropical climate (Cfa), although bearing far more characteristics of the former, with a range of temperatures significantly lower than those in the central and eastern part of Maryland, mostly in the form of depressed nighttime lows. Cumberland is the only major city in Maryland to fall within the humid continental (Dfa) climate. Hagerstown lies in the middle of the transition zone.

text: Cumberland lies at the beginning of the transition from a

entity_name: Humid continental climate

text: humid continental climate

entity_name: Köppen climate classification

text: Köppen

text: Dfa) to a

entity_name: Humid subtropical climate

text: humid subtropical climate

text: (Cfa), although bearing far more characteristics of the former, with a range of temperatures significantly lower than those in the central and eastern part of Maryland, mostly in the form of depressed nighttime lows. Cumberland is the only major city in Maryland to fall within the humid continental (Dfa) climate. Hagerstown lies in the middle of the transition zone.

text: The development of ETRS89 is related to the global ITRS geodetic datum, in which the representation of the continental drift is balanced in such a way that the total apparent angular momentum of continental plates is about 0.  ETRS89 was officially born at the 1990 Florence meeting of EUREF, following its Resolution 1, which recommends that the terrestrial reference system to be adopted by EUREF will be coincident with ITRS at the epoch 1989.0 and fixed to the stable part of the Eurasian Plate. According to the resolution, this system was named European Terrestrial Reference System 89 (ETRS89). Since then ETRS89 and ITRS diverge due to the continental drift at a speed about  2.5 cm per year. By the year 2000 the two coordinate systems differed by about 25 cm.

text: The development of ETRS89 is related to the global

entity_name: International Terrestrial Reference System

text: ITRS

entity_name: Geodetic datum

text: geodetic datum

text: , in which the representation of the continental drift is balanced in such a way that the total apparent

entity_name: Angular momentum

text: angular momentum

text: of

entity_name: Plate tectonics

text: continental plate

text: s is about 0.  ETRS89 was officially born at the 1990

entity_name: Florence

text: Florence

text: meeting of

entity_name: Regional Reference Frame Sub-Commission for Europe

text: EUREF

text: , following its Resolution 1, which recommends that the terrestrial reference system to be adopted by EUREF will be coincident with ITRS at the epoch 1989.0 and fixed to the stable part of the Eurasian Plate. According to the resolution, this system was named European Terrestrial Reference System 89 (ETRS89). Since then ETRS89 and ITRS diverge due to the continental drift at a speed about  2.5 cm per year. By the year 2000 the two coordinate systems differed by about 25 cm.

text: Forensics uses a variety of different tools and techniques. Fingerprint collection through the use of grey or black magnetic powder. DNA and other bodily fluids are collected and, whether it is hair or fluid, for further examination in a lab. Shoe and tire prints can be collected using dental stone. Electronics are taken for examination by a technical expert to search for further evidence. Documents from the area are also taken for further examination. Ammunition and weapons are taken for matching to wounds and ballistics. Photographs of tool marks are taken because they can be matched to a weapon at a later time. Any other trace evidence is also collected. Trace evidence is anything left behind by a perpetrator or could have been transferred to the perpetrator. Interviews of both witnesses and victims of the crime are taken by law enforcement officials in order to gain knowledge and creating a timeline of events.

text: Forensics uses a variety of different tools and techniques. Fingerprint collection through the use of grey or black magnetic powder. DNA and other bodily fluids are collected and, whether it is hair or fluid, for further examination in a lab. Shoe and tire prints can be collected using dental stone. Electronics are taken for examination by a technical expert to search for further evidence. Documents from the area are also taken for further examination. Ammunition and weapons are taken for matching to wounds and ballistics. Photographs of tool marks are taken because they can be matched to a weapon at a later time. Any other

entity_name: Trace evidence

text: trace evidence

text: is also collected. Trace evidence is anything left behind by a perpetrator or could have been transferred to the perpetrator. Interviews of both witnesses and victims of the crime are taken by law enforcement officials in order to gain knowledge and creating a timeline of events.

text: Reconstructions of tectonic plate movement in the past 250 million years (the Cenozoic and Mesozoic eras) can be made reliably using fitting of continental margins, ocean floor magnetic anomalies and paleomagnetic poles. No ocean crust dates back further than that, so earlier reconstructions are more difficult. Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as orogenic belts, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna. The further back in time, the scarcer and harder to interpret the data get and the more diverse the reconstructions.

text: Reconstructions of tectonic plate movement in the past 250 million years (the Cenozoic and Mesozoic eras) can be made reliably using fitting of continental margins, ocean floor magnetic anomalies and paleomagnetic poles. No ocean crust dates back further than that, so earlier reconstructions are more difficult. Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as

entity_name: Orogeny

text: orogenic belt

text: s, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna. The further back in time, the scarcer and harder to interpret the data get and the more diverse the reconstructions.

text: As a result of a new emphasis on observing, classifying, and cataloging nature, 16th century natural philosophers in Europe began to establish extensive collections of fossil objects (as well as collections of plant and animal specimens), which were often stored in specially built cabinets to help organize them. Conrad Gesner published a 1565 work on fossils that contained one of the first detailed descriptions of such a cabinet and collection. The collection belonged to a member of the extensive network of correspondents that Gesner drew on for his works. Such informal correspondence networks among natural philosophers and collectors became increasingly important during the course of the 16th century and were direct forerunners of the scientific societies that would begin to form in the 17th century. These cabinet collections and correspondence networks played an important role in the development of natural philosophy.

text: As a result of a new emphasis on observing, classifying, and cataloging nature, 16th century natural philosophers in Europe began to establish extensive

entity_name: Collecting

text: collections

text: of fossil objects (as well as collections of plant and animal specimens), which were often stored in specially built cabinets to help organize them.

entity_name: Conrad Gessner

text: Conrad Gesner

text: published a 1565 work on fossils that contained one of the first detailed descriptions of such a cabinet and collection. The collection belonged to a member of the extensive network of correspondents that Gesner drew on for his works. Such informal correspondence networks among natural philosophers and collectors became increasingly important during the course of the 16th century and were direct forerunners of the scientific societies that would begin to form in the 17th century. These cabinet collections and correspondence networks played an important role in the development of natural philosophy.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cwc" (Oceanic Subtropical Highland Climate).

text: The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

entity_name: Oceanic climate

text: Cwc

text: " (Oceanic Subtropical Highland Climate).

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Glaciation took place repeatedly during the Quaternary Ice Age – a term coined by Schimper in 1839 that began with the start of the Quaternary about 2.58 Mya and continues to the present-day.

text: Glaciation took place repeatedly during the Quaternary

entity_name: Ice age

text: Ice Age

text: – a term coined by Schimper in 1839 that began with the start of the Quaternary about 2.58 Mya and continues to the present-day.

text: In Ice Age: Continental Drift, she is an understanding wife and a mother. Ellie supports Peaches, when she had an argument with Manny. When the Ice Age: Continental Drift happens she aids the herd to the Land Bridge. In the end she also fights with the Pirates.

text: In

entity_name: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , she is an understanding wife and a mother. Ellie supports Peaches, when she had an argument with Manny. When the Ice Age: Continental Drift happens she aids the herd to the Land Bridge. In the end she also fights with the Pirates.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot summers and cold winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Essex Junction has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: This

entity_name: Climate

text: climatic

text: region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot summers and cold winters.  According to the

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: system, Essex Junction has a

text: humid continental climate

text: , abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: Granite has a felsic composition and is more common in recent geologic time in contrast to Earth's ultramafic ancient igneous history. Felsic rocks are less dense than mafic and ultramafic rocks, and thus they tend to escape subduction, whereas basaltic or gabbroic rocks tend to sink into the mantle beneath the granitic rocks of the continental cratons. Therefore, granitic rocks form the basement of all land continents.

text: Granite has a felsic composition and is more common in recent

entity_name: Geologic time scale

text: geologic time

text: in contrast to Earth's

entity_name: Ultramafic rock

text: ultramafic

text: ancient igneous history. Felsic rocks are less dense than

entity_name: Mafic

text: mafic

text: and ultramafic rocks, and thus they tend to escape

entity_name: Subduction

text: subduction

text: , whereas basaltic or gabbroic rocks tend to sink into the mantle beneath the granitic rocks of the continental

entity_name: Craton

text: cratons

text: . Therefore, granitic rocks form the basement of all land

entity_name: Continent

text: continents

text: Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a supercontinent. Geologists can determine the movement of continental plates by examining the orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks; when rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic properties of the Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie relative to the rock. Since the magnetic poles drift about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand years, measurements from numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an apparent mean polar position. Samples of sedimentary rock and intrusive igneous rock have magnetic orientations that are typically an average of the "secular variation" in the orientation of magnetic north because their remanent magnetizations are not acquired instantaneously. Magnetic differences between sample groups whose age varies by millions of years is due to a combination of true polar wander and the drifting of continents. The true polar wander component is identical for all samples, and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion of this motion that shows continental drift and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental positions.

entity_name: Paleomagnetism

text: Paleomagnetic

text: study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a supercontinent. Geologists can determine the movement of continental plates by examining the orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks; when rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic properties of the Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie relative to the rock. Since the magnetic poles

entity_name: Polar drift

text: drift

text: about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand years, measurements from numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an apparent mean polar position. Samples of

entity_name: Sedimentary rock

text: sedimentary rock

text: and

entity_name: Intrusive rock

text: intrusive igneous rock

text: have magnetic orientations that are typically an average of the "secular variation" in the orientation of

entity_name: Magnetic declination

text: magnetic north

text: because their

entity_name: Remanence

text: remanent

text: magnetizations are not acquired instantaneously. Magnetic differences between sample groups whose age varies by millions of years is due to a combination of

entity_name: True polar wander

text: true polar wander

text: and the drifting of continents. The true polar wander component is identical for all samples, and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion of this motion that shows continental drift and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental positions.

text: Some geologists assert that, as the island moved north due to the effects of continental drift, it submerged at various intervals, extinguishing its terrestrial flora and fauna. Botanists counter that some areas must have remained above sea-level, serving as refugia. Many members of the late Cretaceous - early Tertiary Gondwanan flora survived in New Caledonia's equable climate but were eliminated in Australia due to increasingly dry conditions. The isolation of New Caledonia was not absolute, given the rise and fall of sea level caused by the ebb and flow of ice ages. Land bridges or islands formed between New Caledonia and its neighbours, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Australia. Thus new species came to New Caledonia while Gondwanan species were able to penetrate the Pacific Islands region. Plants have limited seed dispersal mobility away from the parent plant and consequently rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic and biotic vectors.

text: Some

entity_name: Geologist

text: geologist

text: s assert that, as the island moved north due to the effects of

entity_name: Continental drift

text: continental drift

text: , it submerged at various intervals, extinguishing its terrestrial flora and fauna.

entity_name: Botany

text: Botanist

text: s counter that some areas must have remained above sea-level, serving as

entity_name: Refugium (population biology)

text: refugia

text: . Many members of the late Cretaceous - early Tertiary Gondwanan flora survived in New Caledonia's equable climate but were eliminated in Australia due to increasingly dry conditions. The isolation of New Caledonia was not absolute, given the rise and fall of

entity_name: Sea level

text: sea level

text: caused by the ebb and flow of

text: ice age

text: s. Land bridges or islands formed between New Caledonia and its neighbours, the

entity_name: Solomon Islands

text: Solomon Islands

entity_name: Vanuatu

text: Vanuatu

text: , and Australia. Thus new species came to New Caledonia while Gondwanan species were able to penetrate the Pacific Islands region. Plants have limited

entity_name: Seed dispersal

text: seed dispersal

text: mobility away from the parent plant and consequently rely upon a variety of

entity_name: Dispersal vector

text: dispersal vector

text: s to transport their propagules, including both

entity_name: Abiotic component

text: abiotic

text: and

entity_name: Biotic component

text: biotic

text: vectors.

text: Moving on to the 20th century, Alfred Wegener introduced the Theory of Continental Drift in 1912, though it was not widely accepted until the 1960s. This theory was revolutionary because it changed the way that everyone thought about species and their distribution around the globe. The theory explained how continents were formerly joined together in one large landmass, Pangea, and slowly drifted apart due to the movement of the plates below Earth’s surface. The evidence for this theory is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, fossil comparisons from different continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth. Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on the importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet.

text: Moving on to the 20th century,

entity_name: Alfred Wegener

text: Alfred Wegener

text: introduced the Theory of

text: Continental Drift

text: in 1912, though it was not widely accepted until the 1960s. This theory was revolutionary because it changed the way that everyone thought about species and their distribution around the globe. The theory explained how continents were formerly joined together in one large landmass,

entity_name: Pangaea

text: Pangea

text: , and slowly drifted apart due to the movement of the plates below Earth’s surface. The evidence for this theory is in the geological similarities between varying locations around the globe, fossil comparisons from different continents, and the jigsaw puzzle shape of the landmasses on Earth. Though Wegener did not know the mechanism of this concept of Continental Drift, this contribution to the study of biogeography was significant in the way that it shed light on the importance of environmental and geographic similarities or differences as a result of climate and other pressures on the planet.

text: In specified intervals, a sample of the ions is let into the drift chamber; the gating mechanism is based on a charged electrode working in a similar way as the control grid in triodes works for electrons. For precise control of the ion pulse width admitted to the drift tube, more complex gating systems such as a Bradbury-Nielsen design are employed.  Once in the drift tube, ions are subjected to a homogeneous electric field ranging from a few volts per centimeter up to many hundreds of volts per centimeter.  This electric field then drives the ions through the drift tube where they interact with the neutral drift molecules contained within the system.

text: In specified intervals, a sample of the ions is let into the drift chamber; the gating mechanism is based on a charged electrode working in a similar way as the

entity_name: Control grid

text: control grid

text: in

entity_name: Triode

text: triode

text: s works for electrons. For precise control of the ion pulse width admitted to the drift tube, more complex gating systems such as a

entity_name: Bradbury–Nielsen shutter

text: Bradbury-Nielsen

text: design are employed.  Once in the drift tube, ions are subjected to a homogeneous electric field ranging from a few volts per centimeter up to many hundreds of volts per centimeter.  This electric field then drives the ions through the drift tube where they interact with the neutral drift molecules contained within the system.

text: In Andrews' 1926 book On the Trail of the Ancient Man, Henry Fairfield Osborn noted in the preface that the birthplace of modern humans would be found in Asia and that he had predicted it decades earlier even before the Asiatic expeditions were carried out. Another key proponent of the out of Asia theory of this era was William Diller Matthew who also took part in the Central Asiatic expeditions; Matthew was well known for his deeply influential 1915 article "Climate and evolution". Matthews theory was that climate change was how organisms came to live where we find them today in opposition to the theory of continental drift. His basic premise was that cyclical changes in global climate along with the prevailing tendency for mammals to disperse from north to south account for the odd geographic patterns of living mammals, he believed that humans and many other groups of modern mammals first evolved in the northern areas of the globe, especially central Asia because of the shifting climatic circumstances, Matthew firmly placed hominid origins in central Asia as he claimed that the high plateaux of Tibet was the forcing ground of mammalian evolution.

text: In Andrews' 1926 book On the Trail of the Ancient Man, Henry Fairfield Osborn noted in the preface that the birthplace of modern humans would be found in Asia and that he had predicted it decades earlier even before the Asiatic expeditions were carried out. Another key proponent of the out of Asia theory of this era was

entity_name: William Diller Matthew

text: William Diller Matthew

text: who also took part in the Central Asiatic expeditions; Matthew was well known for his deeply influential 1915 article "Climate and evolution". Matthews theory was that climate change was how organisms came to live where we find them today in opposition to the theory of

text: continental drift

text: . His basic premise was that cyclical changes in global climate along with the prevailing tendency for mammals to disperse from north to south account for the odd geographic patterns of living mammals, he believed that humans and many other groups of modern mammals first evolved in the northern areas of the globe, especially central Asia because of the shifting climatic circumstances, Matthew firmly placed hominid origins in central Asia as he claimed that the high plateaux of

entity_name: Tibet

text: Tibet

text: was the forcing ground of mammalian evolution.

text: Geological formations near the lake have been studied by scientists researching continental drift.

text: Climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year.  The coldest month is usually quite mild, although frosts are not uncommon, and winter precipitation is derived primarily from frontal cyclones along the polar front.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa". (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: Climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year.  The coldest month is usually quite mild, although frosts are not uncommon, and winter precipitation is derived primarily from frontal cyclones along the polar front.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Cfa

text: ". (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: An early attempt to build a magnetic confinement system was the stellarator, introduced by Lyman Spitzer in 1951. Essentially the stellarator consists of a torus that has been cut in half and then attached back together with straight "crossover" sections to form a figure-8. This has the effect of propagating the nuclei from the inside to outside as it orbits the device, thereby canceling out the drift across the axis, at least if the nuclei orbit fast enough. Newer versions of the stellarator design have replaced the "mechanical" drift cancellation with additional magnets that "wind" the field lines into a helix to cause the same effect.

text: An early attempt to build a magnetic confinement system was the

entity_name: Stellarator

text: stellarator

text: , introduced by

entity_name: Lyman Spitzer

text: Lyman Spitzer

text: in 1951. Essentially the stellarator consists of a torus that has been cut in half and then attached back together with straight "crossover" sections to form a figure-8. This has the effect of propagating the nuclei from the inside to outside as it orbits the device, thereby canceling out the drift across the axis, at least if the nuclei orbit fast enough. Newer versions of the stellarator design have replaced the "mechanical" drift cancellation with additional magnets that "wind" the field lines into a helix to cause the same effect.

text: All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible and the theory of plate tectonics, which was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967, was born, with all its extraordinary explanatory and predictive power. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as paleogeography and paleobiology.

text: All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible and the theory of plate tectonics, which was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967, was born, with all its extraordinary explanatory and predictive power. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as

entity_name: Palaeogeography

text: paleogeography

text: and

entity_name: Paleobiology

text: paleobiology

text: As late as 1953 – just five years before Carey introduced the theory of plate tectonics – the theory of continental drift was rejected by the physicist Scheidegger on the following grounds.

text: As late as 1953 – just five years before

entity_name: Samuel Warren Carey

text: Carey

text: introduced the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: – the theory of continental drift was rejected by the physicist Scheidegger on the following grounds.

method: UNH-ecn

text: The Omega Anti-Magnetic Seamasterwas announced 17 January 2013.  According to the press release, the OMEGA movement does not rely on a protective container inside the watchcase but on the use of selected non-ferrous materials in the movement itself. The OMEGA prototype was subjected to 1.5 Tesla (15,000 gauss) and continued to perform. Testing showed that the watch was as accurate after its magnetic exposure as it had been before. A live demonstration was then made that offered compelling and conclusive evidence that OMEGA’s new >15,000 gauss movement is a landmark development in watchmaking. OMEGA expects to present the technology at the Baselworld trade fair in April. The new movement, the OMEGA Co-Axial calibre 8508, should be introduced to the market in 2013.

text: For the purposes of physiographic mapping, landforms are classified according to both their geologic structures and histories. Distinctions based on geologic age also correspond to physiographic distinctions where the forms are so recent as to be in their first erosion cycle, as is generally the case with sheets of glacial drift. Generally, forms which result from similar histories are characterized by certain similar features, and differences in history result in corresponding differences of form, usually resulting in distinctive features which are obvious to the casual observer, but this is not always the case. A maturely dissected plateau may grade without a break from rugged mountains on the one hand to mildly rolling farm lands on the other. So also, forms which are not classified together may be superficially similar; for example, a young coastal plain and a peneplain. In a large number of cases, the boundary lines are also geologic lines, due to differences in the nature or structure of the underlying rocks.

text: For the purposes of physiographic mapping, landforms are classified according to both their geologic structures and histories. Distinctions based on geologic age also correspond to physiographic distinctions where the forms are so recent as to be in their first

entity_name: Cycle of erosion

text: erosion cycle

text: , as is generally the case with sheets of

text: glacial drift

text: . Generally, forms which result from similar histories are characterized by certain similar features, and differences in history result in corresponding differences of form, usually resulting in distinctive features which are obvious to the casual observer, but this is not always the case. A maturely

text: dissected plateau

text: may grade without a break from rugged mountains on the one hand to mildly rolling farm lands on the other. So also, forms which are not classified together may be superficially similar; for example, a young

text: coastal plain

text: and a

text: peneplain

text: . In a large number of cases, the boundary lines are also geologic lines, due to differences in the nature or structure of the underlying rocks.

text: The subarctic climate (also called subpolar climate, subalpine climate, or boreal climate) is a climate characterised by long, usually very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from the moderating effects of an ocean, generally at latitudes from 50° to 70°N poleward of the humid continental climates. These climates represent Köppen climate classification Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd and  Dsd. In very small areas at high altitudes around the Mediterranean Basin, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Alaska and other parts of the northwestern United States (Eastern Washington, Eastern Oregon and Idaho) the climate is classified as Dsc with a dry summer climate, such as in Seneca, Oregon.

text: The subarctic climate (also called subpolar climate, subalpine climate, or boreal climate) is a

text: climate

text: characterised by long, usually very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from the moderating effects of an ocean, generally at

text: latitude

text: s from 50° to 70°N poleward of the

text: humid continental climate

text: s. These climates represent

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd and  Dsd. In very small areas at high altitudes around the Mediterranean Basin,

text: Iran

text: Kyrgyzstan

text: Tajikistan

text: Turkey

text: Alaska

text: and other parts of the

text: northwestern United States

text: Eastern Washington

text: Eastern Oregon

text: and

text: Idaho

text: ) the climate is classified as Dsc with a dry summer climate, such as in

text: Seneca, Oregon

text: North Korea experiences a combination of continental climate and an oceanic climate, but most of the country experiences a humid continental climate within the Köppen climate classification scheme. Winters bring clear weather interspersed with snow storms as a result of northern and northwestern winds that blow from Siberia. Summer tends to be by far the hottest, most humid, and rainiest time of year because of the southern and southeastern monsoon winds that carry moist air from the Pacific Ocean. Approximately 60 percent of all precipitation occurs from June to September. Spring and autumn are transitional seasons between summer and winter. The daily average high and low temperatures for Pyongyang are  in January and  in August.

text: North Korea experiences a combination of

text: continental climate

text: and an

text: oceanic climate

text: , but most of the country experiences a

text: humid continental climate

text: within the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: scheme. Winters bring clear weather interspersed with snow storms as a result of northern and northwestern winds that blow from

text: Siberia

text: . Summer tends to be by far the hottest, most humid, and rainiest time of year because of the southern and southeastern

text: monsoon

text: winds that carry moist air from the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . Approximately 60 percent of all precipitation occurs from June to September. Spring and autumn are transitional seasons between summer and winter. The daily average high and low temperatures for

text: Pyongyang

text: are  in January and  in August.

text: The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Dfc/Dfb (continental subarctic climate), bordering extremely closely on a humid continental climate.

text: The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is Dfc/Dfb (

text: continental subarctic climate

text: ), bordering extremely closely on a

text: humid continental climate

text: The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb" (Cool Summer Continental Climate).

text: The

text: Köppen climate classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfb

text: " (Cool Summer Continental Climate).

text: The formation of the Intermontane Belt is complex. It began forming during the early Jurassic period when an island arc  called the Intermontane Islands collided against a pre-existing continental margin. This island arc is believed to have formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Intermontane Plate about 245 million years ago by subduction of the former Insular Plate during the Triassic period. This subduction zone records another subduction zone called the Intermontane Trench under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the Slide Mountain Ocean. This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual because very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the eastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Intermontane Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Intermontane Plate drifted east to the ancient continental margin of western North America, the Slide Mountain Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean. The subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the volcanic arc on the ancient continental margin of western North America and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming the Intermontane Belt. This collision crushed and folded sedimentary and igneous rocks, creating a mountain range called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern Washington State and British Columbia.

text: The formation of the Intermontane Belt is complex. It began forming during the early

text: Jurassic

text: period when an

text: island arc

text: called the

text: Intermontane Islands

text: collided against a pre-existing

text: continental margin

text: . This island arc is believed to have formed on a pre-existing

text: tectonic plate

text: called the

text: Intermontane Plate

text: about 245 million years ago by

text: subduction

text: of the former

text: Insular Plate

text: during the

text: Triassic

text: period. This subduction zone records another subduction zone called the

text: Intermontane Trench

text: under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the

text: Slide Mountain Ocean

text: . This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual because very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the

text: Philippine Mobile Belt

text: off the eastern coast of

text: Asia

text: is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Intermontane Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing

text: subduction

text: under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America. As the

text: North American Plate

text: drifted west and the Intermontane Plate drifted east to the ancient continental margin of western North America, the Slide Mountain Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean. The subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the volcanic arc on the ancient continental margin of western North America and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming the Intermontane Belt. This collision crushed and

text: fold

text: ed

text: sedimentary

text: and

text: igneous rock

text: s, creating a

text: mountain range

text: called the

text: Kootenay Fold Belt

text: which existed in far eastern

text: Washington

text: State and British Columbia.

text: In conjunction with a Nuwaubian Nation parade held in Augusta, Georgia in February 2001, the office of Augusta mayor Bob Young (1999–2005) published a proclamation written by the Nuwaubian organization, stating the group's beliefs. Quotes include "the Nuwbuns were the dark, brown-to-black-skin, wooly-hair original Eygyptians." "[T]he Black race's greatness has been accepted in America and many books as people of Timbuktu Africa or the Olmecians from Uganda, Africa, who migrated and walked here to North and South America to set up colonies way before the continental drift."

text: In conjunction with a Nuwaubian Nation parade held in

text: Augusta, Georgia

text: in February 2001, the office of Augusta mayor

text: Bob Young

text: (1999–2005) published a proclamation written by the Nuwaubian organization, stating the group's beliefs. Quotes include "the Nuwbuns were the dark, brown-to-black-skin, wooly-hair original Eygyptians." "[T]he Black race's greatness has been accepted in America and many books as people of Timbuktu Africa or the Olmecians from Uganda, Africa, who migrated and walked here to North and South America to set up colonies way before the continental drift."

text: In the 1950s, mapping of the Earth's ocean floors by Bruce Heezen, Maurice Ewing, Marie Tharp and others revealed that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge had a strange bathymetry of valleys and ridges, with its central valley being seismologically active and the epicenter of many earthquakes. Ewing, Heezen and Tharp discovered that the ridge is part of a 40,000-km-long essentially continuous system of mid-ocean ridges on the floors of all the Earth’s oceans. The discovery of this worldwide ridge system led to the theory of seafloor spreading and general acceptance of Wegener's theory of continental drift and expansion in the modified form of plate tectonics. The ridge is central to the breakup of the hypothetical supercontinent of Pangaea that began some 180 million years ago.

text: In the 1950s, mapping of the

text: Earth

text: 's ocean floors by

text: Bruce Heezen

text: Maurice Ewing

text: Marie Tharp

text: and others revealed that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge had a strange

text: bathymetry

text: of valleys and ridges, with its central valley being

text: seismologically

text: active and the

text: epicenter

text: of many

text: earthquake

text: s. Ewing, Heezen and Tharp discovered that the ridge is part of a 40,000-km-long essentially continuous system of

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s on the floors of all the Earth’s oceans. The discovery of this worldwide ridge system led to the

text: theory

text: of

text: seafloor spreading

text: and general acceptance of

text: Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: and expansion in the modified form of

text: plate tectonics

text: . The ridge is central to the breakup of the

text: hypothetical

text: supercontinent

text: of

text: Pangaea

text: that began some 180 million years ago.

text: With the advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS), it became possible to measure continental drift directly.

text: With the advent of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS), it became possible to measure continental drift directly.

text: Wegener obtained a position as a meteorologist at the German Naval Observatory (Deutsche Seewarte) and moved to Hamburg with his wife and their two daughters. In 1921 he was appointed senior lecturer at the new University of Hamburg. From 1919 to 1923 Wegener did pioneering work on reconstructing the climate of past eras (now known as "paleoclimatology"), closely in collaboration with Milutin Milanković, publishing Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit (“The Climates of the Geological Past”) together with his father-in-law, Wladimir Köppen, in 1924. In 1922 the third, fully revised edition of “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” appeared, and discussion began on his theory of continental drift, first in the German language area and later internationally. Withering criticism was the response of most experts.

text: Wegener obtained a position as a meteorologist at the German Naval Observatory (Deutsche Seewarte) and moved to

text: Hamburg

text: with his wife and their two daughters. In 1921 he was appointed senior lecturer at the new

text: University of Hamburg

text: . From 1919 to 1923 Wegener did pioneering work on reconstructing the climate of past eras (now known as "

text: paleoclimatology

text: "), closely in collaboration with

text: Milutin Milanković

text: , publishing Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit (“The Climates of the Geological Past”) together with his father-in-law, Wladimir Köppen, in 1924. In 1922 the third, fully revised edition of “The Origin of Continents and Oceans” appeared, and discussion began on his theory of continental drift, first in the German language area and later internationally. Withering criticism was the response of most experts.

text: Microfossil is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye. A commonly applied cutoff point between "micro" and "macro" fossils is 1 mm. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters foraminifera and coccolithophores) or component parts (such as small teeth or spores) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of paleoclimate information, and are also commonly used by biostratigraphers to assist in the correlation of rock units.

text: Microfossil is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye. A commonly applied cutoff point between "micro" and

text: "macro" fossils

text: is 1 mm. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters

text: foraminifera

text: and

text: coccolithophore

text: s) or component parts (such as small teeth or

text: spores

text: ) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of

text: paleoclimate

text: information, and are also commonly used by

text: biostratigraphers

text: to assist in the correlation of rock units.

text: Grabau and Garretson believed in and studied the theory of horizontal displacement, and was considered to be a mobilist. The theory of horizontal displacement was first proposed by Alfred Wegner in 1912 and, due to popular belief at that time, was not widely accepted, especially in North America and Europe. The theory starting gaining traction when the model of plate tectonics and continental drift were first introduced. With these models in place, geologists began searching for fossil evidence that could prove that organisms, that can be found all over the globe now, once existed in the same location. Professor Grabau and Mrs. Garretson were among the scientist who took interest to Wegner's claim, and began looking for fossil evidence in North America. During her tenure at Columbia University, Mrs. Garretson assisted Professor Grabau in his book titled "North American Index Fossils." The goal of this paper was to study the various index fossils found in North America and try to compile evidence that supported the theory that a single, great continent was existed on Earth called Pangaea. The book goes into tremendous detail regarding information on each class of fossils found, and each class having its separate structural descriptions and general description of key characteristics tying it to a family, or, genus. A few examples of evidence from Grabau's book are provided:

text: Mid-Ocean ridges are active volcanic mountain ranges snaking through the depths of the Earth’s oceans. They occur where the edges of the Earth’s tectonic plates are separating, allowing mantle rock to rise to the seafloor and harden, creating new crust. The addition of this crust can cause ocean basins to widen perpendicular to the ridge. This seafloor spreading is the engine of continental drift. At intervals along the mid-ocean ridges super-heated mineral-rich fluids are vented from the seabed. These hydrothermal vents are populated by animal and bacterial species not found elsewhere on Earth.

text: Mid-Ocean ridges are active volcanic mountain ranges snaking through the depths of the Earth’s oceans. They occur where the edges of the Earth’s

text: tectonic plates

text: are separating, allowing

text: mantle

text: rock to rise to the seafloor and harden, creating new

text: crust

text: . The addition of this crust can cause ocean basins to widen perpendicular to the ridge. This

text: seafloor spreading

text: is the engine of

text: continental drift

text: . At intervals along the mid-ocean ridges super-heated mineral-rich fluids are vented from the seabed. These

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s are populated by animal and bacterial species not found elsewhere on Earth.

text: The climate of Bathurst is classified as humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfb).

text: The

text: climate

text: of Bathurst is classified as

text: humid continental

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfb).

text: During reconstruction of the original runway 12/30, the runway was renumbered to the current 13/31 designation.  The Earth's magnetic north pole moves continuously, and when the original runway was constructed the magnetic headings were approximately 120 and 300.  Magnetic north drifted over the life of the runway, such that by the time it was due for reconstruction, the magnetic headings were closer to 130 and 310.

text: During reconstruction of the original runway 12/30, the runway was renumbered to the current 13/31 designation.  The

text: Earth's magnetic north pole

text: moves continuously, and when the original runway was constructed the magnetic headings were approximately 120 and 300.

text: Magnetic north

text: drifted over the life of the runway, such that by the time it was due for reconstruction, the magnetic headings were closer to 130 and 310.

text: Recordings of Richards playing other instruments besides guitar are not unusual. He has played bass guitar on several Rolling Stones' studio recordings, including "Sympathy for the Devil" (1968) and "Happy" (1972). Richards also played bass guitar for the supergroup The Dirty Mac. Richards regards keyboards as a songwriting tool and has played them on several Rolling Stones recordings and played them live for two Ronnie Wood concerts and during The New Barbarians' 1979 tour. Richards has also played percussion on select Rolling Stones tracks, such as the floor tom on "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (1968), tambourine on "Infamy" (2005) and bicycle spokes on "Continental Drift" (1989).

text: Recordings of Richards playing other instruments besides guitar are not unusual. He has played bass guitar on several Rolling Stones' studio recordings, including "

text: Sympathy for the Devil

text: " (1968) and "

text: Happy

text: " (1972). Richards also played bass guitar for the supergroup The Dirty Mac. Richards regards keyboards as a songwriting tool and has played them on several Rolling Stones recordings and played them live for two Ronnie Wood concerts and during

text: The New Barbarians

text: ' 1979 tour. Richards has also played percussion on select Rolling Stones tracks, such as the floor tom on "Jumpin' Jack Flash" (1968), tambourine on "Infamy" (2005) and bicycle spokes on "Continental Drift" (1989).

text: A useful approach to considering Britain's geological structure is to examine the various terranes from which it is composed. These are essentially continental fragments whose boundaries are generally defined by faults. Individual terranes typically contain suites of structures, the histories and form of which differ from those of neighbouring terranes.

text: A useful approach to considering Britain's geological structure is to examine the various

text: terrane

text: s from which it is composed. These are essentially continental fragments whose boundaries are generally defined by faults. Individual terranes typically contain suites of structures, the histories and form of which differ from those of neighbouring terranes.

text: A 3D short-film entitled The Longest Daycare, focusing on Maggie, was shown in theaters before the 2012 film Ice Age: Continental Drift. It received an Academy Award nomination in the category of best animated short film.

text: A 3D short-film entitled

text: The Longest Daycare

text: , focusing on

text: Maggie

text: , was shown in theaters before the 2012 film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: . It received an

text: Academy Award

text: nomination in the category of

entity_name: Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film

text: best animated short film

text: In North America, microthermal climates commence north of Boston along the Atlantic seaboard, this line drifting gradually southward further inland, reaching approximately 38° at the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains, then curving dramatically northward near the Pacific coast, reaching the Pacific Ocean just south of Juneau, Alaska.  In Asia, the latitude at which these climates begin is several degrees lower due to the pervasive influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone, or high-pressure system, and in continental Europe the line actually runs longitudinally rather than latitudinally, cutting through central Poland after beginning north of the Arctic Circle along the Norwegian coast, thereafter moving diagonally across Scandinavia.

text: In

text: North America

text: , microthermal climates commence north of Boston along the Atlantic seaboard, this line drifting gradually southward further inland, reaching approximately 38° at the eastern edge of the

text: Rocky Mountains

text: , then curving dramatically northward near the

text: Pacific

text: coast, reaching the Pacific Ocean just south of

text: Juneau, Alaska

text: .  In

text: Asia

text: , the latitude at which these climates begin is several degrees lower due to the pervasive influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone, or high-pressure system, and in continental

text: Europe

text: the line actually runs longitudinally rather than latitudinally, cutting through central

text: Poland

text: after beginning north of the

text: Arctic Circle

text: along the Norwegian coast, thereafter moving diagonally across

text: Scandinavia

text: Systematic errors which change during an experiment (drift) are easier to detect. Measurements indicate trends with time rather than varying randomly about a mean. Drift is evident if a measurement of a constant quantity is repeated several times and the measurements drift one way during the experiment. If the next measurement is higher than the previous measurement as may occur if an instrument becomes warmer during the experiment then the measured quantity is variable and it is possible to detect a drift by checking the zero reading during the experiment as well as at the start of the experiment (indeed, the zero reading is a measurement of a constant quantity). If the zero reading is consistently above or below zero, a systematic error is present. If this cannot be eliminated, potentially by resetting the instrument immediately before the experiment then it needs to be allowed by subtracting its (possibly time-varying) value from the readings, and by taking it into account while assessing the accuracy of the measurement.

text: Systematic errors which change during an experiment (

text: drift

text: ) are easier to detect. Measurements indicate trends with time rather than varying randomly about a

text: mean

text: . Drift is evident if a measurement of a

text: constant

text: quantity is repeated several times and the measurements drift one way during the experiment. If the next measurement is higher than the previous measurement as may occur if an instrument becomes warmer during the experiment then the measured quantity is variable and it is possible to detect a drift by checking the zero reading during the experiment as well as at the start of the experiment (indeed, the

text: zero reading

text: is a measurement of a constant quantity). If the zero reading is consistently above or below zero, a systematic error is present. If this cannot be eliminated, potentially by resetting the instrument immediately before the experiment then it needs to be allowed by subtracting its (possibly time-varying) value from the readings, and by taking it into account while assessing the accuracy of the measurement.

text: In 1578 he laid the basis of a critical treatment of ancient geography by his Synonymia geographica (issued by the Plantin press at Antwerp and republished in expanded form as Thesaurus geographicus in 1587 and again expanded in 1596. In this last edition, Ortelius considers the possibility of continental drift, a hypothesis proved correct only centuries later).

text: In 1578 he laid the basis of a critical treatment of ancient geography by his Synonymia geographica (issued by the

text: Plantin press

text: at Antwerp and republished in expanded form as Thesaurus geographicus in 1587 and again expanded in 1596. In this last edition, Ortelius considers the possibility of

text: continental drift

text: , a hypothesis proved correct only centuries later).

text: Manfred "Manny", is a woolly mammoth, in all five Ice Age films. His personality is shown to be aloof and stand-offish, but is otherwise loving and courageous. In the first film, while passing through the icy cave, the herd discovers cave paintings of Manny with his wife and child, who were killed by humans; this is a very sentimental moment for Manny, since he failed to protect them. At the end of the film, Manny and Sid return Roshan to the neanderthals with an injured Diego trailing behind them. He finds love with Ellie in Ice Age: The Meltdown. In Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs, he is anxious when Ellie is pregnant. At the end of the film, he becomes the proud father of a baby daughter named Peaches. In Ice Age: Continental Drift, he gets into an argument with his teenage daughter before being pulled away in by the drift with Diego, Sid and Granny. He and the team later encounter a group of pirates led by Captain Gutt. When the team escaped they destroy the ship and take Shira with them. This enrages the Captain who hunts them down. Later on, he is almost manipulated by sirens.

text: Manfred "Manny", is a

text: woolly mammoth

text: , in all five

text: Ice Age

text: films. His personality is shown to be aloof and stand-offish, but is otherwise loving and courageous. In the first film, while passing through the icy cave, the herd discovers

text: cave painting

text: s of Manny with his wife and child, who were killed by

text: human

text: s; this is a very sentimental moment for Manny, since he failed to protect them. At the end of the film, Manny and Sid return Roshan to the

text: neanderthal

text: s with an injured Diego trailing behind them. He finds love with Ellie in

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: . In

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: , he is anxious when Ellie is pregnant. At the end of the film, he becomes the proud father of a baby daughter named Peaches. In

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , he gets into an argument with his teenage daughter before being pulled away in by the drift with Diego, Sid and Granny. He and the team later encounter a group of pirates led by Captain Gutt. When the team escaped they destroy the ship and take Shira with them. This enrages the Captain who hunts them down. Later on, he is almost manipulated by

text: sirens

text: Southwestern Wisconsin and parts of the adjacent states of Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota are known as the driftless zone, because, although bordered by drift sheets and moraines, it is free from glacial deposits. It must therefore have been a sort of oasis, when the ice sheets from the north advanced past it on the east and west and joined around its southern border. The reason for this exemption from glaciation is the converse of that for the southward convexity of the morainic loops. For while they mark the paths of greatest glacial advance along lowland troughs (lake basins), the driftless zone is a district protected from ice invasion by reason of the obstruction which the highlands of northern Wisconsin and Michigan (part of the Superior upland) offered to glacial advance.

text: Southwestern

text: Wisconsin

text: and parts of the adjacent states of

text: Illinois

text: Iowa

text: and

text: Minnesota

text: are known as the

text: driftless zone

text: , because, although bordered by drift sheets and moraines, it is free from glacial deposits. It must therefore have been a sort of oasis, when the ice sheets from the north advanced past it on the east and west and joined around its southern border. The reason for this exemption from glaciation is the converse of that for the southward convexity of the morainic loops. For while they mark the paths of greatest glacial advance along lowland troughs (lake basins), the driftless zone is a district protected from ice invasion by reason of the obstruction which the highlands of northern Wisconsin and Michigan (part of the Superior upland) offered to glacial advance.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus phyla of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by

text: erosion

text: or

text: metamorphism

text: before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already

text: mineralised

text: are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus

text: phyla

text: of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: Other proffered explanations are the possible appearance of a displaced iceberg; the fear of running aground while becalmed, and a sudden seaquake. Hydrographical evidence suggests that an iceberg drifting so far south was improbable, and had it done so other ships would have seen it. Begg gives more consideration to a theory that Mary Celeste, while becalmed, began drifting towards the Dollabarat reef off Santa Maria Island. The theory supposes that Briggs, fearing his ship would run aground, launched the yawl in the hope of reaching land. The wind could then have picked up and blown Mary Celeste away from the reef, while the rising seas swamped and sank the yawl. The weakness of this theory is that if the ship had been becalmed, all sails would have been set to catch any available breeze, yet the ship was found with many of its sails furled.

text: Other proffered explanations are the possible appearance of a displaced iceberg; the fear of running aground while becalmed, and a sudden

text: seaquake

text: . Hydrographical evidence suggests that an iceberg drifting so far south was improbable, and had it done so other ships would have seen it. Begg gives more consideration to a theory that Mary Celeste, while becalmed, began drifting towards the

text: Dollabarat reef

text: off Santa Maria Island. The theory supposes that Briggs, fearing his ship would run aground, launched the yawl in the hope of reaching land. The wind could then have picked up and blown Mary Celeste away from the reef, while the rising seas swamped and sank the yawl. The weakness of this theory is that if the ship had been becalmed, all sails would have been set to catch any available breeze, yet the ship was found with many of its sails furled.

text: The area experiences a cold, continental climate with extreme temperature differences. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Allakaket has a continental subarctic climate (Dfc). The average high temperature during July is . The average low temperature during January is well below zero and extended periods of  are common. The highest temperature ever recorded was  and the lowest was . Average precipitation is  and annual snowfall is . The Koyukuk River is ice-free from June through October.

text: The area experiences a cold, continental climate with extreme temperature differences. According to the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: system, Allakaket has a continental

text: subarctic climate

text: (Dfc). The average high temperature during July is . The average low temperature during January is well below zero and extended periods of  are common. The highest temperature ever recorded was  and the lowest was . Average

text: precipitation

text: is  and annual snowfall is . The Koyukuk River is ice-free from June through October.

text: One of the most important radiations for land plants occurred in the early Devonian (Pragian), when the first certain rhyniophytes appear in the fossil record, making this rich fossil discovery of major importance to paleobotany. It has been suggested that the poorly preserved Eohostimella, found in deposits of Early Silurian age (Llandovery, around ), may be a rhyniophyte.

text: One of the most important radiations for land plants occurred in the early

text: Devonian

text: (Pragian), when the first certain rhyniophytes appear in the fossil record, making this rich fossil discovery of major importance to

text: paleobotany

text: . It has been suggested that the poorly preserved

text: Eohostimella

text: , found in deposits of

text: Early Silurian

text: age (Llandovery, around ), may be a rhyniophyte.

text: The analysis of structures is often accomplished by plotting the orientations of various features onto stereonets. A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are projected as lines and lines are projected as points. These can be used to find the locations of fold axes, relationships between faults, and relationships between other geologic structures.

text: The analysis of structures is often accomplished by plotting the orientations of various features onto

text: stereonets

text: . A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are projected as lines and lines are projected as points. These can be used to find the locations of fold axes, relationships between faults, and relationships between other geologic structures.

text: Canada's tundra runs more or less over all physiographic divisions except the Appalachian Orogen. As these formations are of deep tectonic nature they do not necessarily constitute the structure and material found on the surface, are observable elevated mountain ranges or orogenic belts. Large areas of the Canadian Shield - the ancient geological core of the North American continental plate are buried under sedimentary rocks of the Interior Platform. Repeated glaciations have had a profound impact on shaping land forms and determining drainage patterns.

text: Canada's tundra runs more or less over all physiographic divisions except the

text: Appalachian Orogen

text: . As these formations are of deep

text: tectonic

text: nature they do not necessarily constitute the structure and material found on the surface, are observable elevated mountain ranges or orogenic belts. Large areas of the

text: Canadian Shield

text: - the ancient geological core of the North American continental plate are buried under sedimentary rocks of the

text: Interior Platform

text: . Repeated glaciations have had a profound impact on shaping land forms and determining drainage patterns.

text: Permo-Carboniferous time, about 300 million years ago, was a period of significant glaciation.  The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift, and led ultimately to the concept of a super-continent, Pangaea. Glacial activity spanned virtually the whole of Carboniferous and Early Permian time. Toward the end of the Carboniferous, around 290 million years ago, Gondwana, the southern part of Pangaea, was located near the south pole. Glacial centres expanded across the continents, producing glacial tillites and striations in pre-existing rocks. A complex centre of glaciation migrated across South America, Antarctica and South Africa between about 350 and 240 Ma. Chronological difficulties complicate the task of charting the evolution of the ice sheet over this interval. The Permo-Carboniferous ice sheet was so extensive that it would occupy a circle spanning 50 degrees of latitude centered on the pole.

text: Permo-Carboniferous time, about 300 million years ago, was a period of significant

text: glaciation

text: .  The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of

text: continental drift

text: , and led ultimately to the concept of a super-continent,

text: Pangaea

text: . Glacial activity spanned virtually the whole of Carboniferous and Early Permian time. Toward the end of the Carboniferous, around 290 million years ago,

text: Gondwana

text: , the southern part of Pangaea, was located near the south pole. Glacial centres expanded across the continents, producing glacial

text: tillite

text: s and striations in pre-existing rocks. A complex centre of glaciation migrated across South America, Antarctica and South Africa between about 350 and 240 Ma. Chronological difficulties complicate the task of charting the evolution of the ice sheet over this interval. The Permo-Carboniferous ice sheet was so extensive that it would occupy a circle spanning 50 degrees of latitude centered on the pole.

text: The climate is moderately continental, with a Köppen climate classification of Dfb (humid continental climate). The average annual temperature is .

text: The climate is moderately continental, with a

text: Köppen climate classification

text: of Dfb (

text: humid continental climate

text: ). The average annual temperature is .

text: From the Köppen climate classification, Bar has a soft humid continental climate (see the Climate chart). Bar's district is historically known as an apple tree growing region , with the presence of both a soft humid continental climate and appropriate soil.

text: From the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: , Bar has a soft

text: humid continental climate

text: (see the Climate chart). Bar's district is historically known as an apple tree growing region , with the presence of both a soft

text: humid continental climate

text: and appropriate soil.

text: Although most fringe science is rejected, the scientific community has come to accept some portions of it. One example of such is plate tectonics, an idea which had its origin in the fringe science of continental drift and was rejected for decades.

text: Although most fringe science is rejected, the scientific community has come to accept some portions of it. One example of such is

text: plate tectonics

text: , an idea which had its origin in the fringe science of

text: continental drift

text: and was rejected for decades.

text: Pangaea has tremendously affected the setup of the world now. We live in a post Pangaea time period where the reconfiguration of continents and oceans has changed the climate of many areas. There is scientific evidence that proves that climate was drastically altered. When the continents separated and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific reasoning behind all of the changes is Continental Drift. The theory of Continental Drift, created by Alfred Wegener, explained how the continents shifted Earth’s surface and how that affected many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and animal fossils. Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of Svalbard, Norway. He determined that such plants were not meant to adapt to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from tropical plants that were meant to adapt and thrive in warmer and tropical climate. Because we would not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place we suspect that Svalbard possibly had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.

text: Pangaea has tremendously affected the setup of the world now. We live in a post Pangaea time period where the reconfiguration of continents and oceans has changed the climate of many areas. There is scientific evidence that proves that climate was drastically altered. When the continents separated and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific reasoning behind all of the changes is

text: Continental Drift

text: . The theory of Continental Drift, created by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: , explained how the continents shifted Earth’s surface and how that affected many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and animal fossils. Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of

text: Svalbard

text: Norway

text: . He determined that such plants were not meant to adapt to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from tropical plants that were meant to adapt and thrive in warmer and tropical climate. Because we would not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place we suspect that Svalbard possibly had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.

text: In other regions the glaciations of the last glacial period are given other names: for example that in the Alpine region is called the Würm glaciation, in the British Isles it is the Devensian glaciation and in North America, the Wisconsin glaciation.

text: In other regions the glaciations of the last glacial period are given other names: for example that in the

text: Alpine region

text: is called the

text: Würm glaciation

text: , in the

text: British Isles

text: it is the

text: Devensian glaciation

text: and in North America, the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification. Mean monthly temperature ranges between  (in January) and  (in July). The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar where snowy forested climate is found at elevations above . The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by the Mediterranean climate, as the temperature highs are moderated by the sea. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas—the lowest temperature of  was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec, and the highest temperature of  was recorded on 5 July 1950 in Karlovac.

text: Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy

text: continental climate

text: as defined by the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: . Mean monthly temperature ranges between  (in January) and  (in July). The coldest parts of the country are

text: Lika

text: and

text: Gorski Kotar

text: where snowy forested climate is found at elevations above . The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by the

text: Mediterranean climate

text: , as the temperature highs are moderated by the sea. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas—the lowest temperature of  was recorded on 3 February 1919 in

text: Čakovec

text: , and the highest temperature of  was recorded on 5 July 1950 in

text: Karlovac

text: The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth's crust is extensive (73% of the Earth's current land surface), but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8% of the total volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding. The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering, for example in the construction of roads, houses, tunnels, canals or other structures. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels, drinking water or ores.

text: The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the

text: Earth's crust

text: is extensive (73% of the Earth's current land surface), but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8% of the total volume of the crust. Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of

text: igneous

text: and

text: metamorphic rock

text: s. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as

text: strata

text: , forming a structure called

text: bedding

text: . The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for

text: civil engineering

text: , for example in the construction of

text: road

text: s,

text: house

text: s,

text: tunnel

text: s,

text: canal

text: s or other structures. Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of

text: natural resource

text: s like

text: coal

text: fossil fuel

text: s,

text: drinking water

text: or

text: ore

text: s.

text: Sites such as the Wopmay Orogen provide evidence for early and ongoing plate tectonics. Traces of old oceanic crust, island arcs, and colliding continents indicate that the same forces at work today have been at work in the early Proterozoic and probably earlier. Alignments of magnetic particles in rocks demonstrate that continents were drifting across the surface of the Earth relative to the magnetic poles then as now, and that the ocean floor was rifting and subducting, all at least 1.5 billion years ago. This crust cycling is referred to as the supercontinent cycle.

text: Sites such as the Wopmay Orogen provide evidence for early and ongoing

text: plate tectonics

text: . Traces of old

text: oceanic crust

text: island arcs

text: , and

text: colliding continents

text: indicate that the same forces at work today have been at work in the early Proterozoic and probably earlier. Alignments of magnetic particles in rocks demonstrate that continents were drifting across the surface of the Earth relative to the magnetic poles then as now, and that the ocean floor was rifting and subducting, all at least 1.5 billion years ago. This crust cycling is referred to as the

text: supercontinent cycle

text: Earlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit) of continental drift were that continents "ploughed" through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and also carries the continents with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s. The theory is well accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere, which is ductile, or  plastic, and the brittle lithosphere.

text: Earlier theories (e.g. by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: and

text: Alexander du Toit

text: ) of continental drift were that

text: continent

text: s "ploughed" through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and also carries the continents with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by

text: Harry Hess

text: from

text: Princeton University

text: in the 1960s. The theory is well accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by

text: convection

text: currents in the

text: asthenosphere

text: , which is ductile, or

text: plastic

text: , and the brittle

text: lithosphere

text: The Pit Pony Stables were built in 2013/14, and house the museum's pit ponies. They replace a wooden stable a few metres away in the field opposite the school (the wooden structure remaining). It represents the sort of stables that  were used in drift mines (ponies in deep mines living their whole lives underground), pit ponies having been in use in the north east as late as 1994, in Ellington Colliery. The structure is a recreation of an original building that stood at Rickless Drift Mine, between High Spen and Greenside; it was built using a yellow brick that was common across the Durham coalfield.

text: The Pit Pony Stables were built in 2013/14, and house the museum's

text: pit ponies

text: . They replace a wooden stable a few metres away in the field opposite the school (the wooden structure remaining). It represents the sort of stables that  were used in drift mines (ponies in deep mines living their whole lives underground), pit ponies having been in use in the north east as late as 1994, in

text: Ellington Colliery

text: . The structure is a recreation of an original building that stood at Rickless Drift Mine, between

text: High Spen

text: and

text: Greenside

text: ; it was built using a yellow brick that was common across the Durham coalfield.

text: The docks received a total renovation in 1992 for NOK 18 million, allowing cruise ships to dock in port. The following year a 60-person café was completed. The Norwegian Mapping Authority completed its continental drift station in 1994, at the same time as a satellite communication link opened on Zeppelinfjellet. By 1996 there were over one hundred research projects in Ny-Ålesund, and the town reaches a capacity for 200 people two years later. On 6 May 1998, Kings Bay Kull. Comp A/S changes its name to Kings Bay AS. The same summer the North Pole Hotel was finished refurbished and opened as the world's northern-most hotel. That year also saw the annual number of researcher-days exceed 15,000. In March 1999 the Norwegian Polar Institute opened its new  Sverdrup Station. The original building on Zeppelinfjellet was demolished and replaced with a new facility.

text: The patterns of species distribution across geographical areas can usually be explained through a combination of historical factors such as: speciation, extinction, continental drift, and glaciation. Through observing the geographic distribution of species, we can see associated variations in sea level, river routes, habitat, and river capture. Additionally, this science considers the geographic constraints of landmass areas and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies.

text: The patterns of species distribution across geographical areas can usually be explained through a combination of historical factors such as:

text: speciation

text: extinction

text: continental drift

text: , and

text: glaciation

text: . Through observing the geographic distribution of species, we can see associated variations in

text: sea level

text: , river routes, habitat, and

text: river capture

text: . Additionally, this science considers the geographic constraints of

text: landmass

text: areas and isolation, as well as the available ecosystem energy supplies.

text: No completely satisfactory theory has been proposed to account for Earth's history of glaciation. The cause of glaciation may be related to several simultaneous factors, such as astronomical cycles, atmospheric composition, plate tectonics, and ocean currents.

text: No completely satisfactory theory has been proposed to account for Earth's history of glaciation. The cause of glaciation may be related to several simultaneous factors, such as

text: astronomical cycles

text: , atmospheric composition,

text: plate tectonics

text: , and

text: ocean current

text: s.

text: In reality, the relative polar movement can either be polar wandering or continental drift (or a combination of both).  Data from around the globe are needed in order to isolate or distinguish between the two. Nevertheless, the magnetic poles rarely stray far from the geographic poles of the planet. Therefore, the concept of apparent polar wander is very useful in plate tectonics, since it can retrace the relative motion of continents, as well as the formation and break-up of supercontinents.

text: Michael "Mike" Thurmeier is a Canadian animator and director at Blue Sky Studios. He is most famous for co-directing Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs and Ice Age: Continental Drift.

text: Michael "Mike" Thurmeier is a Canadian animator and director at

text: Blue Sky Studios

text: . He is most famous for co-directing

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: and

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: In the important limit of stationary magnetic field and weak electric field, the inertial drift is dominated by the curvature drift term.

text: The rising temperatures, and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation.

text: The rising temperatures, and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of

text: precipitation

text: The granite outcrops of the Seychelles Islands in the central Indian Ocean were amongst the earliest examples cited by Alfred Wegener as evidence for his continental drift theory. Ridge–plume interactions have been responsible for separating a thinned continental sliver from a large continent (i.e. India).

text: The granite outcrops of the

text: Seychelles Islands

text: in the central Indian Ocean were amongst the earliest examples cited by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: as evidence for his

text: continental drift

text: theory. Ridge–plume interactions have been responsible for separating a thinned continental sliver from a large continent (i.e. India).

text: The Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, has done some work on the plant fossils of Mandla, though the study is yet in a preliminary stage. In Ghuguwa and Umaria the standing, petrified trunks of trees have been identified as Gymnosperms and Angiosperms- Monocotyledons and palms. There are certain Bryophytes also. There is some question about whether the fossils are from the late Jurassic or the early and mid Cretaceous age. This is because when the breakup of the single land mass, Pangaea occurred, it was split by the continental drift into Laurasia and Gondwana somewhere between the Jurassic and Cretaceous ages. India formed a part of Gondwana. Depending on the age in which the split occurred, the fossils are either Jurassic or Cretaceous.

text: The

text: Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany

text: Lucknow

text: , has done some work on the plant fossils of Mandla, though the study is yet in a preliminary stage. In Ghuguwa and Umaria the standing, petrified trunks of

text: trees

text: have been identified as

text: Gymnosperms

text: and

text: Angiosperms

text: Monocotyledons

text: and

text: palms

text: . There are certain

text: Bryophytes

text: also. There is some question about whether the fossils are from the late

text: Jurassic

text: or the early and mid

text: Cretaceous

text: age. This is because when the breakup of the single land mass,

text: Pangaea

text: occurred, it was split by the continental drift into

text: Laurasia

text: and

text: Gondwana

text: somewhere between the Jurassic and Cretaceous ages. India formed a part of Gondwana. Depending on the age in which the split occurred, the fossils are either Jurassic or Cretaceous.

text: The Sallandse heuvelrug is a moraine, created in the one but last glaciation, Saalien, 150.000 years ago. During the Holocene forests started to develop, but after the growth of the human population, these forests had been cut. From the Middle Ages onwards the area was used for grazing by sheep and goat, and the upper layer of the soil was removed to use it as fertilizer for the crop fields. In this period, the area became a heathland because of sand-drifting. In the beginning of the 20th century the state started forestry programms, to prevent this erosion and to produce pine wood.The area is well known for its scenery because of its relatively large heathlands.

text: The Sallandse heuvelrug is a

text: moraine

text: , created in the one but last

text: glaciation

text: Saalien

text: , 150.000 years ago. During the

text: Holocene

text: forests started to develop, but after the growth of the human population, these forests had been cut. From the Middle Ages onwards the area was used for grazing by sheep and goat, and the upper layer of the soil was removed to use it as fertilizer for the crop fields. In this period, the area became a heathland because of sand-drifting. In the beginning of the 20th century the state started forestry programms, to prevent this erosion and to produce pine wood.The area is well known for its scenery because of its relatively large heathlands.

text: See drift–diffusion equation for the way that the drift current, diffusion current, and carrier generation and recombination are combined into a single equation.

text: See

text: drift–diffusion equation

text: for the way that the drift current,

text: diffusion current

text: , and

text: carrier generation and recombination

text: are combined into a single equation.

text: The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries. Mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another. Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, in which the continents move across the surface of the Earth over geologic time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.

text: The development of plate tectonics provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries.

text: Mid-ocean ridge

text: s, high regions on the seafloor where

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s and volcanoes exist, were explained as

text: divergent boundaries

text: , where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as

text: convergent boundaries

text: , where one plate

text: subducts

text: under another.

text: Transform boundaries

text: , such as the

text: San Andreas Fault

text: system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: , in which the

text: continents

text: move across the surface of the Earth over geologic time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.

text: After publishing Continental Drift, Banks won the Dos Passos Prize for Literature.

text: After publishing Continental Drift, Banks won the

text: Dos Passos Prize for Literature

text: The oldest rocks in the group are in the north west of Scotland, Ireland and North Wales and are 2,700 million years old. During the Silurian period the north-western regions collided with the south-east, which had been part of a separate continental landmass. The topography of the islands is modest in scale by global standards. Ben Nevis rises to an elevation of only , and Lough Neagh, which is notably larger than other lakes on the isles, covers . The climate is temperate marine, with mild winters and warm summers. The North Atlantic Drift brings significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C (20 °F) above the global average for the latitude. This led to a landscape which was long dominated by temperate rainforest, although human activity has since cleared the vast majority of forest cover. The region was re-inhabited after the last glacial period of Quaternary glaciation, by 12,000 BC when Great Britain was still a peninsula of the European continent.  Ireland, which became an island by 12,000 BC, was not inhabited until after 8000 BC. Great Britain became an island by 5600 BC.

text: The oldest rocks in the group are in the north west of

text: Scotland

text: , Ireland and North Wales and are 2,700

text: million years old

text: . During the

text: Silurian

text: period the north-western regions

text: collided

text: with the south-east, which had been part of a separate continental landmass. The topography of the islands is modest in scale by global standards.

text: Ben Nevis

text: rises to an

text: elevation

text: of only , and

text: Lough Neagh

text: , which is notably larger than other lakes on the isles, covers . The climate is

text: temperate

text: marine

text: , with mild winters and warm summers. The

text: North Atlantic Drift

text: brings significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C (20 °F) above the global average for the latitude. This led to a landscape which was long dominated by

text: temperate rainforest

text: , although human activity has since cleared the vast majority of forest cover. The region was re-inhabited after the

text: last glacial period

text: of

text: Quaternary glaciation

text: , by 12,000 BC when Great Britain was still a

text: peninsula of the European continent

text: .  Ireland, which became an island by 12,000 BC, was not inhabited until after 8000 BC. Great Britain became an island by 5600 BC.

text: Subtropical highland variety of the oceanic climate exists in elevated portions of the world that are within either the tropics or subtropics, though it is typically found in mountainous locations in some tropical countries.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cwb" (Oceanic Subtropical Highland Climate).

text: Subtropical highland variety of the oceanic climate exists in elevated portions of the world that are within either the tropics or subtropics, though it is typically found in mountainous locations in some tropical countries.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Cwb

text: There is little documentary evidence about the nature of trade in Æthelberht's Kent. It is known that the kings of Kent had established royal control of trade by the late seventh century, but it is not known how early this control began. There is archaeological evidence suggesting that the royal influence predates any of the written sources. It has been suggested that one of Æthelberht's achievements was to take control of trade away from the aristocracy and to make it a royal monopoly. The continental trade provided Kent access to luxury goods which gave it an advantage in trading with the other Anglo-Saxon nations, and the revenue from trade was important in itself.

text: Glaciation has been a rare event in Earth's history, but there is evidence of widespread glaciation during the late Paleozoic Era (200 to 300 Ma) and during late Precambrian (i.e. in the Neoproterozoic Era, 600 to 800 Ma). Before the current ice age, which began 2 to 3 Ma, Earth's climate was typically mild and uniform for long periods of time. This climatic history is implied by the types of fossil plants and animals and by the characteristics of sediments preserved in the stratigraphic record. There are, however, widespread glacial deposits, recording several major periods of ancient glaciation in various parts of the geologic record. Such evidence suggests major periods of glaciation prior to the current Quaternary glaciation.

text: Glaciation has been a rare event in Earth's history, but there is evidence of widespread glaciation during the late

text: Paleozoic

text: Era (200 to 300 Ma) and during late Precambrian (i.e. in the

text: Neoproterozoic

text: Era, 600 to 800 Ma). Before the current

text: ice age

text: , which began 2 to 3 Ma, Earth's climate was typically mild and uniform for long periods of time. This climatic history is implied by the types of

text: fossil

text: plants and animals and by the characteristics of sediments preserved in the

text: stratigraphic

text: record. There are, however, widespread glacial deposits, recording several major periods of ancient glaciation in various parts of the geologic record. Such evidence suggests major periods of glaciation prior to the current Quaternary glaciation.

text: An important difference between the paleopedological record and the fossil record of plants and animals is that very few of the soils found are extinct types. Despite the difficulties of identification mentioned earlier, this makes paleopedology (the study of fossil soils) potentially very useful to understanding the ecological relationships in past ecosystems.

text: An important difference between the paleopedological record and the fossil record of

text: plant

text: s and

text: animal

text: s is that very few of the soils found are extinct types. Despite the difficulties of identification mentioned earlier, this makes

text: paleopedology

text: (the study of fossil soils) potentially very useful to understanding the ecological relationships in past ecosystems.

text: Neil D. Opdyke is Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, USA.  He was previously with Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia University, including a stint as Director.  He is well known for his groundbreaking research in the 1950s on paleoclimate and continental drift, with Keith Runcorn, and later in Africa and Australia with Mike McElhinny and others.  Back the US in the mid-1960s he worked on the documentation of magnetic reversals in deep-sea sediments, which led to proof of the Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis the governing paradigm for marine magnetic anomalies.

text: Neil D. Opdyke is Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Florida in Gainesville, Florida, USA.  He was previously with

text: Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

text: of Columbia University, including a stint as Director.  He is well known for his groundbreaking research in the 1950s on paleoclimate and continental drift, with

text: Keith Runcorn

text: , and later in Africa and Australia with

text: Mike McElhinny

text: and others.  Back the US in the mid-1960s he worked on the documentation of

text: magnetic reversals

text: in deep-sea sediments, which led to proof of the

text: Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis

text: the governing paradigm for marine magnetic anomalies.

text: These animals are commonly found in Wyoming fossil beds primarily as fossilized teeth. From all of the species of this animal, it is concluded that P. major was the largest, reaching the size of a tapir. Its describer, Joseph Leidy, erroneously thought that Palaeosyops consumed both plants and animals after examining the fang-like canines.  However, it is now known that all brontotheres were strict herbivores, and that many, if not most genera of hornless brontotheres had fang-like canines, possibly for both defense from predators, and intraspecific competition.

text: These animals are commonly found in

text: Wyoming

text: fossil beds primarily as fossilized teeth. From all of the species of this animal, it is concluded that P. major was the largest, reaching the size of a tapir. Its describer,

text: Joseph Leidy

text: , erroneously thought that Palaeosyops consumed both plants and animals after examining the fang-like canines.  However, it is now known that all brontotheres were strict herbivores, and that many, if not most genera of hornless brontotheres had fang-like canines, possibly for both defense from predators, and intraspecific competition.

text: In 1889 and 1909 Roberto Mantovani published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth. Thermal expansion led to volcanic activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although Alfred Wegener noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of continental drift, he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis.

text: In 1889 and 1909

text: Roberto Mantovani

text: published a hypothesis of Earth expansion and continental drift. He assumed that a closed continent covered the entire surface of a smaller Earth.

text: Thermal expansion

text: led to

text: volcanic

text: activity, which broke the land mass into smaller continents. These continents drifted away from each other because of further expansion at the rip-zones, where oceans currently lie. Although

text: Alfred Wegener

text: noticed some similarities to his own hypothesis of

text: continental drift

text: , he did not mention Earth expansion as the cause of drift in Mantovani's hypothesis.

text: Buck and Rudy made a brief cameo in the following film Ice Age: Continental Drift.

text: Buck and Rudy made a brief cameo in the following film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: The bedrock consists of many layers formed over vast periods of time. These were laid down in various climates as the global climate changed, the landmasses moved due to continental drift, and the land and sea levels rose or fell. From time to time horizontal forces caused the rock to undergo considerable deformation, folding the layers of rock to form mountains which have since been eroded and overlain with other layers. To further complicate the geology, the land has also been subject to periods of earthquakes and volcanic activity.

text: The

text: bedrock

text: consists of many layers formed over vast periods of time. These were laid down in various

text: climate

text: s as the global climate changed, the landmasses moved due to

text: continental drift

text: , and the land and sea levels rose or fell. From time to time horizontal forces caused the rock to undergo considerable

text: deformation

text: , folding the layers of rock to form mountains which have since been

text: eroded

text: and overlain with other layers. To further complicate the geology, the land has also been subject to periods of

text: earthquake

text: s and

text: volcanic

text: activity.

text: In 1904 he was hired by the Brazilian government as head of the "Comissão de Estudos das Minas de Carvão de Pedra do Brasil" (Commission for Studies on Brazilian Coal Mines), whose aim was to identify the potential of Brazilian coal, and whose report, published in 1908, was a milestone for understanding the geology of the Paraná Basin in Southern Brazil. One of the main results of these studies, besides the reconnaissance for coal, was the discovery of Mesosaurus fossils within Permian black shales (Irati Formation), and the Glossopteris flora within the Permian coals. White was one of the first to propose the  equivalence between the South American Permian strata and similar rocks of the Karoo Basin in South Africa. This report had an important contribution to the development of Continental Drift Theory, published by Alfred Wegener in 1912.

text: In 1904 he was hired by the

text: Brazil

text: ian government as head of the "Comissão de Estudos das Minas de Carvão de Pedra do Brasil" (Commission for Studies on Brazilian Coal Mines), whose aim was to identify the potential of Brazilian coal, and whose report, published in 1908, was a milestone for understanding the geology of the

text: Paraná Basin

text: in

text: Southern Brazil

text: . One of the main results of these studies, besides the reconnaissance for coal, was the discovery of

text: Mesosaurus

text: fossil

text: s within

text: Permian

text: black

text: shale

text: s (

text: Irati Formation

text: ), and the

text: Glossopteris

text: flora

text: within the Permian coals. White was one of the first to propose the  equivalence between the

text: South American

text: Permian strata and similar rocks of the

text: Karoo Basin

text: in

text: South Africa

text: . This report had an important contribution to the development of

text: Continental Drift Theory

text: , published by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: in 1912.

text: In 1920 Epstein calculated the effect of Polflucht as a possible causing force of Wegener's continental drift. His value was about 10^-6 of the gravitational force. Some years later other geophysicists could show that the Polflucht force is far too weak to cause plate tectonics. The toughness of the sublayers of the Earth's crust is much more stronger than assumed by Epstein.

text: In 1920 Epstein calculated the effect of

text: Polflucht

text: as a possible causing force of

text: Wegener

text: 's

text: continental drift

text: . His value was about 10^-6 of the gravitational force. Some years later other geophysicists could show that the Polflucht force is far too weak to cause

text: plate tectonics

text: . The toughness of the sublayers of the

text: Earth's crust

text: is much more stronger than assumed by Epstein.

text: The Park both below and above the Great Escarpment is situated on the Beaufort group of rocks, which form part of the Karoo geological system of deposits. The Beaufort sediments were laid down on a vast alluvial plain covering much of what was to become Southern Africa, when it was still part of Gondwana, beginning about 280 million years ago, and ending about 240 million years ago. These 6 km thick sediments were deposited by rivers similar in size and number to the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Indus rivers which drain the Himalaya mountains on the Indian subcontinent today. In Gondwana, when the Beaufort sediments were being laid down, the Himalaya-sized mountains were to the south of the present South African coastline, on what is geologically known as the “Falklands Plateau”, now separated from South Africa by continental drift, and lying as severely eroded islands in the south western Atlantic Ocean. A large variety of amphibians and reptiles lived on the lush vegetation of  these well-watered plains, the most interesting of which were the mammal-like reptiles, which have made the Karoo paleontologically famous. Their fossils have been found all over the Karoo. Some of these fossils are on display in the Park, though none of them have been found there.

text: The Park both below and above the Great Escarpment is situated on the

text: Beaufort group

text: of rocks, which form part of the

text: Karoo geological system of deposits

text: . The Beaufort sediments were laid down on a vast alluvial plain covering much of what was to become Southern Africa, when it was still part of

text: Gondwana

text: , beginning about 280 million years ago, and ending about 240 million years ago. These 6 km thick sediments were deposited by rivers similar in size and number to the

text: Ganges

text: Brahmaputra

text: , and

text: Indus

text: rivers which drain the

text: Himalaya

text: mountains on the Indian subcontinent today. In Gondwana, when the Beaufort sediments were being laid down, the Himalaya-sized mountains were to the south of the present South African coastline, on what is geologically known as the “Falklands Plateau”, now separated from South Africa by

text: continental drift

text: , and lying as severely eroded islands in the south western Atlantic Ocean. A large variety of amphibians and reptiles lived on the lush vegetation of  these well-watered plains, the most interesting of which were the

text: mammal-like reptiles

text: , which have made the Karoo paleontologically famous. Their fossils have been found all over the Karoo. Some of these fossils are on display in the Park, though none of them have been found there.

text: In the early 1940s, he took a position at the University of Alberta. While there he hypothesized that coral reefs had once lived in what is now the Arctic. He further hypothesized that this would mean there would be oil there now. There has been speculation that his hypothesis was not a stretch given the fact that the Norman Wells had been discovered in the early 1920s and oil seeps had been reported along the river for centuries. The explanation was not yet clear, however, since the theory of continental drift had yet to be proposed.

text: In the early 1940s, he took a position at the University of Alberta. While there he hypothesized that

text: coral reef

text: s had once lived in what is now the

text: Arctic

text: . He further hypothesized that this would mean there would be oil there now. There has been speculation that his hypothesis was not a stretch given the fact that the Norman Wells had been discovered in the early 1920s and oil seeps had been reported along the river for centuries. The explanation was not yet clear, however, since the theory of

text: continental drift

text: had yet to be proposed.

text: Old and Young Drift are geographic names given to the morainic landscapes that were formed in Central Europe; the Old Drift during the older ice ages and the Young Drift during the latest glaciations – the Weichselian in North Germany and the Würm in the Alps. Their landforms are quite different. Areas of Old Drift have been heavily flattened and transformed as a result of geomorphic processes such as denudation and erosion, whilst areas of Young Drift have largely retained their original shape. Whilst the majority of Old Drift moraines were formed during the Saale glaciation about 130,000 to 140,000 years ago, the Young Drift moraines in Central Europe are only about 15,000 to 20,000 years old. The terms Old and Young Drift are used for all elements of the glacial series even though the meltwater deposits and landforms are not strictly moraines.

text: Old and Young Drift are geographic names given to the

text: morainic

text: landscapes that were formed in Central Europe; the Old Drift during the older

text: ice age

text: s and the Young Drift during the latest

text: glaciation

text: s – the

text: Weichselian

text: in North Germany and the

text: Würm

text: in the

text: Alps

text: . Their

text: landform

text: s are quite different. Areas of Old Drift have been heavily flattened and transformed as a result of geomorphic processes such as

text: denudation

text: and

text: erosion

text: , whilst areas of Young Drift have largely retained their original shape. Whilst the majority of Old Drift moraines were formed during the

text: Saale glaciation

text: about 130,000 to 140,000 years ago, the Young Drift moraines in Central Europe are only about 15,000 to 20,000 years old. The terms Old and Young Drift are used for all elements of the

text: glacial series

text: even though the meltwater deposits and landforms are not strictly moraines.

text: Although this was long before general acceptance of 'continental-drift', plate tectonics and sea-floor spreading, some saw the Antarctic fossil plants as compelling evidence for the existence of the former 'super-continent', Gondwana. Some five years after the palaeobotanical evidence was announced to the world, James Kitching added the evidence of vertebrate fossils to this debate when he joined the United States Antarctic Research Group on a visit in 1970, and collected vertebrate fossils identical to those he was accustomed to finding in the Karoo.

text: Although this was long before general acceptance of 'continental-drift',

text: plate tectonics

text: and

text: sea-floor spreading

text: , some saw the Antarctic fossil plants as compelling evidence for the existence of the former 'super-continent',

text: Gondwana

text: . Some five years after the palaeobotanical evidence was announced to the world,

text: James Kitching

text: added the evidence of vertebrate fossils to this debate when he joined the

text: United States Antarctic Research Group

text: on a visit in 1970, and collected vertebrate fossils identical to those he was accustomed to finding in the

text: Karoo

text: As early as the 18th century, it was noticed that compass needles deviated near strongly magnetized outcrops. In 1797, Von Humboldt attributed this magnetization to lightning strikes (and lightning strikes do often magnetize surface rocks).  In the 19th century studies of the direction of magnetization in rocks showed that some recent lavas were magnetized parallel to the Earth's magnetic field. Early in the 20th century, work by David, Brunhes and Mercanton showed that many rocks were magnetized antiparallel to the field. Japanese geophysicist Motonori Matuyama showed that the Earth's magnetic field reversed in the  mid-Quaternary, a reversal now known as the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal.

text: As early as the 18th century, it was noticed that compass needles deviated near strongly magnetized outcrops. In 1797, Von Humboldt attributed this magnetization to lightning strikes (and lightning strikes do often magnetize surface rocks).  In the 19th century studies of the direction of magnetization in rocks showed that some recent lavas were magnetized parallel to the Earth's magnetic field. Early in the 20th century, work by David, Brunhes and Mercanton showed that many rocks were magnetized antiparallel to the field. Japanese geophysicist

text: Motonori Matuyama

text: showed that the Earth's magnetic field reversed in the  mid-

text: Quaternary

text: , a reversal now known as the

text: Brunhes-Matuyama reversal

text: Identification of the 'Atlantic' and 'Pacific' trilobite faunas in North America and Europe implied the closure of the Iapetus Ocean (producing the Iapetus suture), thus providing important supporting evidence for the theory of continental drift.

text: Identification of the 'Atlantic' and 'Pacific' trilobite faunas in North America and Europe implied the closure of the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: (producing the

text: Iapetus suture

text: ), thus providing important supporting evidence for the theory of

text: continental drift

text: In the Himalaya, the Indian continental plate is crashing into the Eurasian continental plate with nearly north-south motion. Therefore, the compression of the rocks in the Himalaya is in the north-south direction.  So, folding should occur trending east-west, as is observed. However, it has also been noted that folding occurs in the north-south direction.  It was noted that these folds follow the traces of the major rivers, such as the Arun and the Indus. Originally these folds were explained by assuming that the rivers did not form these anticlines, instead the river's course was by coincidence on top of these geologic features, forming by differential erosion. The idea of isostatic rebound was suggested as the best fit mechanism for these north-south trending folds and is now widely accepted.

text: In the Himalaya, the

text: Indian continental plate

text: is crashing into the

text: Eurasian continental plate

text: with nearly north-south motion. Therefore, the compression of the rocks in the Himalaya is in the north-south direction.  So, folding should occur trending east-west, as is observed. However, it has also been noted that folding occurs in the north-south direction.  It was noted that these folds follow the traces of the major rivers, such as the Arun and the Indus. Originally these folds were explained by assuming that the rivers did not form these anticlines, instead the river's course was by coincidence on top of these geologic features, forming by differential erosion. The idea of

text: isostatic rebound

text: was suggested as the best fit mechanism for these north-south trending folds and is now widely accepted.

text: The village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire is the site of an important sedimentary deposit - Rhynie chert. The bulk of this fossil bed consists of primitive plants that had water-conducting cells and sporangia but no leaves, along with arthropods: Collembola, Opiliones (harvestmen), pseudoscorpions and the extinct, spider-like Trigonotarbids. This fossil bed is remarkable for two reasons. Firstly, the age of the find (early Devonian circa 410 Ma) makes this one of the earliest sites anywhere containing terrestrial fossils, coinciding with the first stages of the colonisation of land by plants and animals. Secondly, these cherts are famous for their exceptional state of ultrastructural preservation, with individual cell walls easily visible in polished specimens. For example, stomata have been counted and lignin remnants detected in the plant material.

text: The village of

text: Rhynie

text: in

text: Aberdeenshire

text: is the site of an important sedimentary deposit -

text: Rhynie chert

text: . The bulk of this fossil bed consists of primitive

text: plant

text: s that had

text: water-conducting cells

text: and

text: sporangia

text: but no

text: leaves

text: , along with

text: arthropod

text: s:

text: Collembola

text: Opiliones

text: harvestmen

text: pseudoscorpion

text: s and the extinct, spider-like

text: Trigonotarbid

text: s. This fossil bed is remarkable for two reasons. Firstly, the age of the find (

text: early Devonian

text: circa 410 Ma) makes this one of the earliest sites anywhere containing terrestrial fossils, coinciding with the first stages of the colonisation of land by plants and

text: animal

text: s. Secondly, these

text: chert

text: s are famous for their exceptional state of

text: ultrastructural

text: preservation, with individual cell walls easily visible in polished specimens. For example,

text: stomata

text: have been counted and

text: lignin

text: remnants detected in the plant material.

text: Historical evidence of shallow coal drift-mining of the Ringinglow seam which lies on top of the Chatsworth Grit has been found in the Barber Fields area. The workings extended beneath the watercourse. Stratigraphically this was the lowest coal seams ever worked in the Sheffield area. The mine was served by a short railway which, along with the mine is no more. All that remains is a spoil-heap on the North bank of the brook. The mine is one of the few known examples of a shallow drift to have been worked by a small number of men in the Sheffield area.

text: In 2002, Romano voiced Manfred aka Manny, a woolly mammoth in the first film Ice Age, then in 2006, Romano returned to voice Manny in the second film Ice Age: The Meltdown, next in 2009, Romano voiced the role of Manny in the third film Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs then in 2012, Romano voiced Manny in the fourth film Ice Age: Continental Drift, then in 2016, Romano voiced Manny in the fifth film Ice Age: Collision Course from the Blue Sky Studios' Ice Age film series.

text: In 2002, Romano voiced Manfred aka Manny, a woolly mammoth in the first film

text: Ice Age

text: , then in 2006, Romano returned to voice Manny in the second film

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: , next in 2009, Romano voiced the role of Manny in the third film

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: then in 2012, Romano voiced Manny in the fourth film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , then in 2016, Romano voiced Manny in the fifth film

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: from the Blue Sky Studios' Ice Age film series.

text: Shira appears in Ice Age: Continental Drift as part of Gutt's crew, and is Captain Gutt's pawn. She is a dazzlingly beautiful, female saber-toothed cat and Diego's lover resembling a snow leopard. She makes her first appearance in Scrat's Continental Crack-up: Part 2 standing next to Captain Gutt, who is holding Scrat.

text: Shira appears in

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: as part of Gutt's crew, and is Captain Gutt's pawn. She is a dazzlingly beautiful, female saber-toothed cat and Diego's lover resembling a

text: snow leopard

text: . She makes her first appearance in

text: Scrat's Continental Crack-up: Part 2

text: standing next to Captain Gutt, who is holding Scrat.

text: In 1957 Blackett gave the presidential address (Technology and World Advancement) to the British Association meeting in Dublin. In 1965 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject "Continental Drift".

text: In 1957 Blackett gave the presidential address (Technology and World Advancement) to the

text: British Association

text: meeting in Dublin. In 1965 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the

entity_name: Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland

text: Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland

text: . He chose the subject "Continental Drift".

text: Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The Continental shelf of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fitted next to the tip of Southern Africa. But Wegener only took action after reading a paper in 1911 and seeing that a flooded land-bridge contradicts isostasy. Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. He analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially in fossil plants.

text: Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The

text: Continental shelf

text: of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fitted next to the tip of Southern Africa. But Wegener only took action after reading a paper in 1911 and seeing that a flooded land-bridge contradicts

text: isostasy

text: . Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. He analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially in

text: fossil plants

text: The company was created in 2003 when the construction division of Statens Vegvesen was demerged to become a separate limited company that has to compete for each contract. During the summer of 2008 the company experienced a restructuring of the entire organizational structure. The company now consists of eight fully owned subsidiaries: Geo Survey, Eiendom (Property), Entreprenør (Entrepreneur), Asfalt (Asphalt), Stein (Rock), Elektro (Electro), Drift (Operation), and Verksted (Maintenance). The corporate HQ is positioned in Oslo. The subsidiaries are structured as own entities and  are limited companies.

text: The company was created in 2003 when the construction division of

text: Statens Vegvesen

text: was

text: demerged

text: to become a separate

text: limited company

text: that has to compete for each contract. During the summer of 2008 the company experienced a restructuring of the entire organizational structure. The company now consists of eight fully owned subsidiaries: Geo Survey, Eiendom (Property), Entreprenør (Entrepreneur), Asfalt (Asphalt), Stein (Rock), Elektro (Electro), Drift (Operation), and Verksted (Maintenance). The corporate HQ is positioned in Oslo. The subsidiaries are structured as own entities and  are limited companies.

text: Many aspects of Gaga's career are referenced in the episode. "You're All My Little Monsters", a musical number specifically created for the episode, is a parody of Gaga's relationship with her devout "Little Monsters"—a phrase Gaga uses to refer to her fans. To Spin columnist Devon Maloney, the song was ultimately an overtly cartoonized version of her single "Born This Way" (2011) that embraces the "freakiness" of Springfield. Several of Gaga's outfits and looks emulate several iconic costumes the singer had previously worn, such as the "Living Dress" and pyrotechnic leotard she wore during her endeavors on The Monster Ball Tour, as well as her wardrobe at the 53rd Grammy Awards. One in particular, a dress consisting of pork chops, is a parody of the singer's meat dress, which she wore at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. During the credits of "Lisa Goes Gaga", main character Homer Simpson performs a rendition of "Poker Face" (2009). At the end of the episode, a title card promotes the Maggie-starring short film The Longest Daycare, which showed before the animated film Ice Age: Continental Drift (2012).

text: Many aspects of Gaga's career are referenced in the episode. "You're All My Little Monsters", a musical number specifically created for the episode, is a parody of Gaga's relationship with her devout "Little Monsters"—a phrase Gaga uses to refer to her fans. To

text: Spin

text: columnist Devon Maloney, the song was ultimately an overtly cartoonized version of her single "

text: Born This Way

text: " (2011) that embraces the "freakiness" of Springfield. Several of Gaga's outfits and looks emulate several iconic costumes the singer had previously worn, such as the "Living Dress" and pyrotechnic leotard she wore during her endeavors on

text: The Monster Ball Tour

text: , as well as her wardrobe at the

text: 53rd Grammy Awards

text: . One in particular, a dress consisting of

text: pork chops

text: , is a parody of the singer's meat dress, which she wore at the

text: 2010 MTV Video Music Awards

text: . During the credits of "Lisa Goes Gaga", main character

text: Homer Simpson

text: performs a rendition of "

text: Poker Face

text: " (2009). At the end of the episode, a title card promotes the

text: Maggie

text: -starring short film

text: The Longest Daycare

text: , which showed before the animated film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: In October 2012, it was announced that a 3D computer-animated feature film titled The Peanuts Movie was released on November 6, 2015, coinciding with the 65th anniversary of the debut of the comic strip and the 50th anniversary of the television special, A Charlie Brown Christmas. Written by Charles Schulz's son, Craig, his grandson, Bryan, and Cornelius Uliano—who are also producing the film alongside Paul Feig—it was animated by 20th Century Fox's Blue Sky Studios, and directed by Steve Martino, the director of Horton Hears a Who! and Ice Age: Continental Drift. A trailer for the film was released on March 18, 2014. The same day, it was also announced that archive recordings of Bill Melendez would be used to make up Snoopy and Woodstock's dialogue.

text: In October 2012, it was announced that a 3D computer-animated feature film titled

text: The Peanuts Movie

text: was released on November 6, 2015, coinciding with the 65th anniversary of the debut of the comic strip and the 50th anniversary of the television special,

text: A Charlie Brown Christmas

text: . Written by Charles Schulz's son, Craig, his grandson, Bryan, and Cornelius Uliano—who are also producing the film alongside

text: Paul Feig

text: —it was animated by

text: 20th Century Fox

text: 's

text: Blue Sky Studios

text: , and directed by

text: Steve Martino

text: , the director of

text: Horton Hears a Who!

text: and

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: . A trailer for the film was released on March 18, 2014. The same day, it was also announced that archive recordings of

text: Bill Melendez

text: would be used to make up Snoopy and Woodstock's dialogue.

text: In 2004, an exhibition of Central European Mesosoic reptiles—DinoPark—was opened in the central area of the zoo, becoming a major attraction for ZOO Bratislava. At the area of almost  DinoPark features life-sized sculptures of dinosaurs that are animated during the summer season. It also features a 3D cinema, educational trails and a paleontological playground with fake fossils for children. Since 2006, the area also features a specimen of the rare plant Wollemia.

text: In 2004, an exhibition of Central European Mesosoic reptiles—DinoPark—was opened in the central area of the zoo, becoming a major attraction for ZOO Bratislava. At the area of almost  DinoPark features life-sized sculptures of dinosaurs that are animated during the summer season. It also features a 3D cinema,

text: educational trail

text: s and a paleontological playground with fake fossils for children. Since 2006, the area also features a specimen of the rare plant

text: Wollemia

text: The course of the upper Mississippi River is largely consequent upon glacial deposits. Its sources are in the morainic lakes in northern Minnesota. The drift deposits thereabouts are so heavy that the present divides between the drainage basins of Hudson Bay, Lake Superior and the Gulf of Mexico evidently stand in no very definite relation to the preglacial divides. The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota is largely guided by the form of the drift cover. Several rapids and the Saint Anthony Falls (determining the site of Minneapolis) are signs of immaturity, resulting from superposition through the drift on the under rock. Farther south, as far as the entrance of the Ohio River, the Mississippi follows a rock-walled valley 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m) deep, with a flood-plain 2 to 4 mi (3 to 7 km) wide. This valley seems to represent the path of an enlarged early-glacial Mississippi, when much precipitation that is today discharged to Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St Lawrence was delivered to the Gulf of Mexico, for the curves of the present river are of distinctly smaller radii than the curves of the valley. Lake Pepin (30 mi [50 km] below St. Paul), a picturesque expansion of the river across its flood-plain, is due to the aggradation of the valley floor where the Chippewa River, coming from the northeast, brought an overload of fluvio-glacial drift. Hence even the father of waters, like so many other rivers in the Northern states, owes many of its features more or less directly to glacial action.

text: The course of the upper

text: Mississippi River

text: is largely consequent upon glacial deposits. Its sources are in the morainic lakes in northern

text: Minnesota

text: . The drift deposits thereabouts are so heavy that the present divides between the drainage basins of

text: Hudson Bay

text: Lake Superior

text: and the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: evidently stand in no very definite relation to the preglacial divides. The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota is largely guided by the form of the drift cover. Several rapids and the

text: Saint Anthony Falls

text: (determining the site of

text: Minneapolis

text: ) are signs of immaturity, resulting from superposition through the drift on the under rock. Farther south, as far as the entrance of the

text: Ohio River

text: , the Mississippi follows a rock-walled valley 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m) deep, with a flood-plain 2 to 4 mi (3 to 7 km) wide. This valley seems to represent the path of an enlarged early-glacial Mississippi, when much precipitation that is today discharged to Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St Lawrence was delivered to the Gulf of Mexico, for the curves of the present river are of distinctly smaller

text: radii

text: than the curves of the valley.

text: Lake Pepin

text: (30 mi [50 km] below

text: St. Paul

text: ), a picturesque expansion of the river across its flood-plain, is due to the aggradation of the valley floor where the

text: Chippewa River

text: , coming from the northeast, brought an overload of fluvio-glacial drift. Hence even the father of waters, like so many other rivers in the Northern states, owes many of its features more or less directly to glacial action.

text: Wine regions with continental climates are characterised by the very marked seasonal changes that occur throughout the growing season, with hot temperatures during the summer season and winters cold enough for periodic ice and snow. This is generally described as having a high degree of continentality. Regions with this type of climate are often found inland on continents without a significant body of water, such as an inland sea, that can moderate their temperatures. Often during the growing season, continental climates will have wide diurnal temperature variations with very warm temperatures during the day that drop drastically at night. During the winter and early spring months, frost and hail can be viticultural hazards. Depending on the particular macroclimate of the region, irrigation may be needed to supplement seasonal rainfall. These many climatic influences contribute to the wide vintage variation that is often typical of continental climates such as Burgundy.

text: Wine regions with

text: continental climate

text: s are characterised by the very marked seasonal changes that occur throughout the growing season, with hot temperatures during the summer season and winters cold enough for periodic ice and snow. This is generally described as having a high degree of

text: continentality

text: . Regions with this type of climate are often found inland on

text: continents

text: without a significant body of water, such as an

text: inland sea

text: , that can moderate their temperatures. Often during the growing season, continental climates will have wide

text: diurnal temperature variations

text: with very warm temperatures during the day that drop drastically at night. During the winter and early spring months,

text: frost

text: and

text: hail

text: can be viticultural hazards. Depending on the particular macroclimate of the region, irrigation may be needed to supplement seasonal rainfall. These many climatic influences contribute to the wide

text: vintage

text: variation that is often typical of continental climates such as

text: Burgundy

text: The input offset voltage of amplifiers becomes important when trying to amplify small signals with very high gain. Because this technique creates a very low input offset voltage amplifier, and because this input offset voltage does not change much with time and temperature, these techniques are also called "zero-drift" amplifiers (because there is no drift in input offset voltage with time and temperature). Related techniques that also give these zero-drift advantages are auto-zero and chopper-stabilized amplifiers.

text: The

text: input offset voltage

text: of amplifiers becomes important when trying to amplify small signals with very high gain. Because this technique creates a very low input offset voltage amplifier, and because this input offset voltage does not change much with time and temperature, these techniques are also called "zero-drift" amplifiers (because there is no drift in input offset voltage with time and temperature). Related techniques that also give these zero-drift advantages are auto-zero and chopper-stabilized amplifiers.

text: Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution—the hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species—were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes, e.g., quartz feldspars, olivine, akermannite, Feldspathoids, magnetite, corundum, and so on, and the rocks are divided into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these minerals to one another.

text: Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution—the hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species—were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes, e.g., quartz feldspars,

text: olivine

text: , akermannite,

text: Feldspathoid

text: s,

text: magnetite

text: corundum

text: , and so on, and the rocks are divided into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these minerals to one another.

text: The Continental Can Company, founded in 1904, was taking bids for a new addition on their factory in 1913. The new structure was two-stories and measured  by . In 1976, CCC changed its name to the Continental Group, a conglomerate with operations in many countries, but kept Continental Can as its packaging unit within Continental Group. In 1987, the remnants of Continental Can Company became part of the United States Can Company, a subsidiary of Inter-American Packaging. Continental Group was dismantled in 1991.

text: The

text: Continental Can Company

text: , founded in 1904, was taking bids for a new addition on their factory in 1913. The new structure was two-stories and measured  by . In 1976, CCC changed its name to the Continental Group, a conglomerate with operations in many countries, but kept Continental Can as its packaging unit within Continental Group. In 1987, the remnants of Continental Can Company became part of the United States Can Company, a subsidiary of Inter-American Packaging. Continental Group was dismantled in 1991.

text: Climate: Tianjin Port is at the northern limit of the continental monsoon climate area. Specifically, it belongs to the temperate semi-humid continental climate type (Köppen Dwa), with a short rainy season in the summer, large seasonal differences in temperature, and large variation in weather year to year. Annual average temperature is . The hottest months are July and August (maximum temperature recorded was  on 24 July 1955), and the coldest is January (minimum temperature recorded was  on 17 January 1953). The average relative humidity is 65%, with a maximum of 100% recorded in summer, and a minimum of 3% recorded in winter.

text: Climate: Tianjin Port is at the northern limit of the continental monsoon climate area. Specifically, it belongs to the

text: temperate semi-humid continental

text: climate type (

text: Köppen

text: Dwa), with a short rainy season in the summer, large seasonal differences in temperature, and large variation in weather year to year. Annual average temperature is . The hottest months are July and August (maximum temperature recorded was  on 24 July 1955), and the coldest is January (minimum temperature recorded was  on 17 January 1953). The average relative humidity is 65%, with a maximum of 100% recorded in summer, and a minimum of 3% recorded in winter.

text: The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb"  (Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfb

text: "  (Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: Mawson's ideas of global glaciation, however, were based on the mistaken assumption that the geographic position of Australia, and that of other continents where low-latitude glacial deposits are found, has remained constant through time. With the advancement of the continental drift hypothesis, and eventually plate tectonic theory, came an easier explanation for the glaciogenic sediments — they were deposited at a point in time when the continents were at higher latitudes.

text: Mawson's ideas of global glaciation, however, were based on the mistaken assumption that the geographic position of Australia, and that of other continents where low-latitude glacial deposits are found, has remained constant through time. With the advancement of the

text: continental drift

text: hypothesis, and eventually

text: plate tectonic

text: theory, came an easier explanation for the glaciogenic sediments — they were deposited at a point in time when the continents were at higher latitudes.

text: Humid continental climates tend to be found between latitudes 37° N and 60° N, within the central and northeastern portions of North America, Europe, and Asia. They are much less commonly found in the Southern Hemisphere due to the larger ocean area at that latitude and the consequent greater maritime moderation. In the Northern Hemisphere some of the humid continental climates, typically in Scandinavia, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland are heavily maritime-influenced, with relatively cool summers and winters being just below the freezing mark. More extreme humid continental climates found in southern Siberia and the American Midwest combine hotter summer maxima and colder winters than the marine-based variety. In some areas there are both strong subtropical and subarctic air mass influences depending on season, like the humid and hot summers and the frigid winters of Milwaukee, Wisconsin in the Upper Midwest of the United States.

text: Humid continental climates tend to be found between latitudes 37° N and 60° N, within the central and northeastern portions of

text: North America

text: Europe

text: , and

text: Asia

text: . They are much less commonly found in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: due to the larger ocean area at that latitude and the consequent greater maritime moderation. In the Northern Hemisphere some of the humid continental climates, typically in

text: Scandinavia

text: Nova Scotia

text: , and

text: Newfoundland

text: are heavily maritime-influenced, with relatively cool summers and winters being just below the freezing mark. More extreme humid continental climates found in southern

text: Siberia

text: and the

text: American Midwest

text: combine hotter summer maxima and colder winters than the marine-based variety. In some areas there are both strong subtropical and subarctic air mass influences depending on season, like the humid and hot summers and the frigid winters of

text: Milwaukee

text: Wisconsin

text: in the Upper Midwest of the United States.

text: The Mark I Ford Escort was introduced in the United Kingdom at the end of 1967, making its show debut at Brussels Motor Show in January 1968. It replaced the successful, long-running Anglia. The car was presented in continental Europe as a product of Ford's European operation. Escort production commenced at the Halewood plant in England during the closing months of 1967, and for left hand drive markets during September 1968 at the Ford plant in Genk. Initially the continental Escorts differed slightly from the UK built ones under the skin. The front suspension and steering gear were differently configured and the brakes were fitted with dual hydraulic circuits; also the wheels fitted on the Genk-built Escorts had wider rims. At the beginning of 1970, continental European production transferred to a new plant on the edge of Saarlouis, West Germany.

text: The Mark I Ford Escort was introduced in the United Kingdom at the end of 1967, making its show debut at

text: Brussels Motor Show

text: in January 1968. It replaced the successful, long-running

text: Anglia

text: . The car was presented in continental Europe as a product of Ford's European operation. Escort production commenced at the

text: Halewood plant

text: in England during the closing months of 1967, and for left hand drive markets during September 1968 at the Ford plant in

text: Genk

text: . Initially the continental Escorts differed slightly from the UK built ones under the skin. The front suspension and steering gear were differently configured and the brakes were fitted with dual hydraulic circuits; also the wheels fitted on the Genk-built Escorts had wider rims. At the beginning of 1970, continental European production transferred to a

text: new plant

text: on the edge of

text: Saarlouis

text: , West Germany.

text: Later, in 1940, the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology collaborated with National Geographic on an expedition into the badlands. They uncovered tons of fossils from at least 175 different species of Oligocene life. The fossils were taken to the South Dakota School of Mines in Rapid City. Among the mammal discoveries were the remains of rhinoceroses, tapirs, three-toed horses, pig-like animals, and rodents. The team also uncovered some bird fossils, which are very rare. One of these was a fossil egg, which author Marian Murray has called "[t]he best find" of the entire expedition. Only a few plant specimens were discovered, but these included fossil hackberry seeds and petrified wood. Some of the fossils were so precariously located that the excavators had to use block and tackle to lower the fossils down from the tops of "slender pinnacles". The fossils were preserved in channel sandstones that had received little scientific attention prior to the expedition. In June 1947 the South Dakota School of mines sent another expedition into the Badlands. They uncovered a wide variety of fossils preserved in the Oligocene White River Formation. Among the creatures discovered were rhinoceroses, saber teeth, giant pig-like animals, Protoceros, tapirs, horses and more. In 1990, Sue Hendrickson discovered a new specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex that would later be nicknamed in her honor. The specimen made headlines when a dispute over ownership rights raged for more than five years. "Sue" was determined to rightfully belong to the owner of the property it was found on. The rancher put the specimen up for auction and was purchased by the Chicago Field Museum for 8.36 million dollars.

text: Later, in 1940, the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology collaborated with

text: National Geographic

text: on an expedition into the badlands. They uncovered tons of fossils from at least 175 different species of Oligocene life. The fossils were taken to the South Dakota School of Mines in

text: Rapid City

text: . Among the mammal discoveries were the remains of

text: rhinoceroses

text: tapirs

text: , three-toed

text: horses

text: , pig-like animals, and

text: rodents

text: . The team also uncovered some

text: bird

text: fossils, which are very rare. One of these was a

text: fossil egg

text: , which author Marian Murray has called "[t]he best find" of the entire expedition. Only a few plant specimens were discovered, but these included fossil

text: hackberry

text: seeds and

text: petrified wood

text: . Some of the fossils were so precariously located that the excavators had to use block and tackle to lower the fossils down from the tops of "slender pinnacles". The fossils were preserved in channel sandstones that had received little scientific attention prior to the expedition. In June 1947 the South Dakota School of mines sent another expedition into the Badlands. They uncovered a wide variety of fossils preserved in the Oligocene White River Formation. Among the creatures discovered were rhinoceroses,

text: saber teeth

text: , giant pig-like animals,

text: Protoceros

text: , tapirs, horses and more. In 1990, Sue Hendrickson discovered a new specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex that would later be nicknamed in her honor. The specimen made headlines when a dispute over ownership rights raged for more than five years. "Sue" was determined to rightfully belong to the owner of the property it was found on. The rancher put the specimen up for auction and was purchased by the Chicago Field Museum for 8.36 million dollars.

text: Under recent renovation, the Conservatory currently houses an exhibit on Living Fossils showing many types of prehistoric plant life, fossilized foliage, mosses, and ferns. Known mostly for its remarkable glass dome, the conservatory also boasts a tropical rainforest supported by a climate control system and a waterfall and cave system that house some animals indigenous to more tropical areas of the world. The Botanical Garden is currently securing funding to expand the Conservatory and ad d additional exhibits and planting space such as a desert exhibit, a mountain exhibit, and a section to showcase the garden’s orchids.

text: Bauschinger was dissertation advisor for Alfred Wegener's 1905 doctral thesis in astronomy. Wegener, in 1910, proposed a system of continental drift which was eventually modified and generally accepted as plate tectonics.

text: Bauschinger was dissertation advisor for

text: Alfred Wegener's

text: 1905 doctral thesis in astronomy. Wegener, in 1910, proposed a system of

text: continental drift

text: which was eventually modified and generally accepted as

text: plate tectonics

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and Blu-ray 3D on December 11, 2012.

text: The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago. The same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by a continental ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes, and damming others with debris. Scientists argue there is an old valley, buried by glacial drift, at the approximate location of the present Welland Canal.

text: The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: about 10,000 years ago. The same forces also created the North American

text: Great Lakes

text: and the Niagara River. All were dug by a continental

text: ice sheet

text: that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes, and damming others with debris. Scientists argue there is an old valley, buried by

text: glacial drift

text: , at the approximate location of the present

text: Welland Canal

text: Gordon James Fraser MacDonald (July 30, 1929 – May 14, 2002) was an American geophysicist and environmental scientist, best known for his principled skepticism regarding continental drift (now called plate tectonics), involvement in the development of the McNamara Line electronic defense barrier during the Vietnam War, and early research and advocacy on manmade global climate change.  MacDonald was admired for his creative mind, and his ability to connect scientific issues and matters of public policy.

text: Gordon James Fraser MacDonald (July 30, 1929 – May 14, 2002) was an American geophysicist and environmental scientist, best known for his principled skepticism regarding

text: continental drift

text: (now called

text: plate tectonics

text: ), involvement in the development of the

text: McNamara Line

text: electronic defense barrier during the

text: Vietnam War

text: , and early research and advocacy on manmade

text: global climate change

text: .  MacDonald was admired for his creative mind, and his ability to connect scientific issues and matters of public policy.

text: La Siberia lies between two climate zones - a continental climate to the north and a Mediterranean climate to the south - making this area a transition zone. Most of the area lies in the Mediterranean zone, but the far north has a continental climate. Summers are long and hot while winters are short and moderately cold.

text: La Siberia lies between two climate zones - a

text: continental climate

text: to the north and a

text: Mediterranean climate

text: to the south - making this area a transition zone. Most of the area lies in the Mediterranean zone, but the far north has a continental climate. Summers are long and hot while winters are short and moderately cold.

text: Sea level can also change (primarily due to the formation or melting of continental ice sheets), and raise or lower the final base level for coastal rivers. Along the east coast of North America, river valleys extend out onto the continental shelf, indicating a time when erosion was possible due to the lower base level of a lower sea level in the past. Today many of these same rivers end in bays, indicating that sea level has risen in recent geologic time. This is referred to as a drowned coastline.

text: Sea level can also change (primarily due to the formation or melting of continental ice sheets), and raise or lower the final base level for coastal rivers. Along the east coast of

text: North America

text: , river valleys extend out onto the

text: continental shelf

text: , indicating a time when erosion was possible due to the lower base level of a lower sea level in the past. Today many of these same rivers end in

text: bay

text: s, indicating that sea level has risen in recent geologic time. This is referred to as a

text: drowned coastline

text: Many drift drivers will utilise the feint or weight transfer drift on track, in order to send the rear of their car into a more accentuated drift where the track width allows them. In most situations, this is preferable to drivers of lower powered cars, who cannot induce a drift with engine power alone, but it is also useful to drivers of turbo charged cars, when they find that their car is not "on boost". Many Japanese based vehicles use smaller capacity engines with larger turbos, so can "fall" off the power band created by the forced induction. The alternative methods to create power pre-corner include the feint drift incorporated with a "clutch kick", which starts the weight transfer, but allow the engine to free-rev and create boost pressure in the turbo to create more power to break the traction of the rear wheels when the clutch re-engages on the drivetrain with the car unsettled.

text: The genus was present until at least about 50,000 years ago before going extinct, although there is some evidence they may have survived to as recently as 18,000 years ago. Its extinction may have been due to climate shifts during the Pleistocene, or to human hunting. Those who support the hypothesis of a human-mediated extinction process cite the fact that the arrival of humans to continental Australia occurred at approximately the same time as the disappearance of this species. More evidence that this extinction was facilitated by human interaction is present in the fact that the time period in which the extinction occurred was characterised by a relatively stable climate. However, there is no evidence of predation on or consumption of P. goliah by humans in the fossil record.

text: The geologic history of the Australian continental mass is extremely prolonged and involved, continuing from the Archaean to the recent. In a gross pattern, continental Australia grew from west to east, with Archean rocks mostly in the west, Proterozoic rocks in the centre, and Phanerozoic rocks in the east. Recent geologic events are confined to intraplate earthquakes, as the continent of Australia sits distant from the plate boundary.

text: The geologic history of the Australian continental mass is extremely prolonged and involved, continuing from the

text: Archaean

text: to the recent. In a gross pattern, continental Australia grew from west to east, with Archean rocks mostly in the west, Proterozoic rocks in the centre, and Phanerozoic rocks in the east. Recent geologic events are confined to intraplate earthquakes, as the continent of Australia sits distant from the plate boundary.

text: In line with other previous and contemporaneous proposals, in 1912 the meteorologist Alfred Wegener amply described what he called continental drift, expanded in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans and the scientific debate started that would end up fifty years later in the theory of plate tectonics. Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (which was called Pangea later on) that drifted apart, thus releasing the continents from the Earth's mantle and likening them to "icebergs" of low density granite floating on a sea of denser basalt. Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove-tailing outlines of South America's east coast and Africa's west coast, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, and the therapsid or mammal-like reptile Lystrosaurus, all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African Alex du Toit put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication Our Wandering Continents, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the Gondwana fragments.

text: In line with other previous and contemporaneous proposals, in 1912 the meteorologist

text: Alfred Wegener

text: amply described what he called continental drift, expanded in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans and the scientific debate started that would end up fifty years later in the theory of plate tectonics. Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (which was called

text: Pangea

text: later on) that drifted apart, thus releasing the continents from the Earth's mantle and likening them to "icebergs" of low density

text: granite

text: floating on a sea of denser

text: basalt

text: . Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove-tailing outlines of South America's east coast and Africa's west coast, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants

text: Glossopteris

text: and

text: Gangamopteris

text: , and the

text: therapsid

text: or

text: mammal-like reptile

text: Lystrosaurus

text: , all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African

text: Alex du Toit

text: put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication Our Wandering Continents, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the

text: Gondwana

text: fragments.

text: Alternative names include: Weichsel glaciation or Vistulian glaciation (referring to the Polish river Vistula or its German name Weichsel). Evidence suggests that the ice sheets were at their maximum size for only a short period, between 25,000 and 13,000 BP. Eight interstadials have been recognized in the Weichselian, including: the Oerel, Glinde, Moershoofd, Hengelo and Denekamp; however correlation with isotope stages is still in process. During the glacial maximum in Scandinavia, only the western parts of Jutland were ice-free, and a large part of what is today the North Sea was dry land connecting Jutland with Britain (see Doggerland). It is also in Denmark that the only Scandinavian ice-age animals older than 13,000 BC are found.

text: Alternative names include: Weichsel glaciation or Vistulian glaciation (referring to the Polish river

text: Vistula

text: or its German name Weichsel). Evidence suggests that the ice sheets were at their

text: maximum size

text: for only a short period, between 25,000 and 13,000

text: BP

text: . Eight

text: interstadial

text: s have been recognized in the Weichselian, including: the Oerel, Glinde, Moershoofd, Hengelo and Denekamp; however correlation with

text: isotope stages

text: is still in process. During the

text: glacial maximum

text: in Scandinavia, only the western parts of

text: Jutland

text: were ice-free, and a large part of what is today the

text: North Sea

text: was dry land connecting Jutland with Britain (see

text: Doggerland

text: ). It is also in Denmark that the only Scandinavian ice-age animals older than 13,000 BC are found.

text: During the Permian, all the Earth's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

text: During the Permian, all the

text: Earth

text: 's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as

text: Pangaea

text: . Pangaea straddled the

text: equator

text: and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("

text: Panthalassa

text: ", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The

text: Cimmeria

text: continent

text: rift

text: ed away from

text: Gondwana

text: and drifted north to

text: Laurasia

text: , causing the

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: , an ocean that would dominate much of the

text: Mesozoic

text: Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("

text: continental climate

text: ") and

text: monsoon

text: conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns.

text: Desert

text: s seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored

text: gymnosperm

text: s, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as

text: fern

text: s that disperse

text: spore

text: s in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (

text: conifers

text: ginkgo

text: s and

text: cycad

text: s) appeared in the Permian.

text: The film earned an estimated $4.5 million on its opening day. During its opening weekend it earned $12.7 million from 3,168 theaters – an average of $4,025 per theater – ranking third behind Ice Age: Continental Drift ($13.3 million) and The Dark Knight Rises ($62.1 million). The largest segments of the opening-weekend audience were over age 25 (59%) and male (60%). The film left theaters on October 18, 2012 (after 12 weeks) with a total gross of $35.3 million.

text: The film earned an estimated $4.5 million on its opening day. During its opening weekend it earned $12.7 million from 3,168 theaters – an average of $4,025 per theater – ranking third behind

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: ($13.3 million) and

text: The Dark Knight Rises

text: ($62.1 million). The largest segments of the opening-weekend audience were over age 25 (59%) and male (60%). The film left theaters on October 18, 2012 (after 12 weeks) with a total gross of $35.3 million.

text: At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered:

text: The British geologist Arthur Holmes championed the theory of continental drift at a time when it was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earth's mantle contained convection cells that dissipated radioactive heat and moved the crust at the surface. His Principles of Physical Geology, ending with a chapter on continental drift, was published in 1944.

text: The British geologist

text: Arthur Holmes

text: championed the theory of continental drift at a time when it was deeply unfashionable. He proposed in 1931 that the Earth's mantle contained convection cells that dissipated radioactive heat and moved the crust at the surface. His Principles of Physical Geology, ending with a chapter on continental drift, was published in 1944.

text: The climatic conditions that cause glaciation had an indirect effect on arid and semiarid regions far removed from the large ice sheets. The increased precipitation that fed the glaciers also increased the runoff of major rivers and intermittent streams, resulting in the growth and development of large pluvial lakes. Most pluvial lakes developed in relatively arid regions where there typically was insufficient rain to establish a drainage system to the sea. Instead, stream runoff in those areas flowed into closed basins and formed playa lakes. With increased rainfall, the playa lakes enlarged and overflowed. Pluvial lakes were most extensive during glacial periods. During interglacial stages, when less precipitation fell, the pluvial lakes shrank to form small salt flats.

text: The climatic conditions that cause glaciation had an indirect effect on arid and semiarid regions far removed from the large

text: ice sheet

text: s. The increased precipitation that fed the

text: glacier

text: s also increased the runoff of major rivers and intermittent streams, resulting in the growth and development of large pluvial lakes. Most pluvial lakes developed in relatively arid regions where there typically was insufficient rain to establish a drainage system to the sea. Instead, stream runoff in those areas flowed into closed basins and formed

text: playa lake

text: s. With increased rainfall, the playa lakes enlarged and overflowed. Pluvial lakes were most extensive during glacial periods. During interglacial stages, when less precipitation fell, the pluvial lakes shrank to form small salt flats.

text: New Caledonia and New Zealand ecoregions became separated  from Australia by continental drift 85 million years ago. The islands still retain plants that originated in Gondwana and spread to the Southern Hemisphere continents later. However, strong evidence exists of glaciation during the Carboniferous to Permian time, especially in South Africa.

text: New Caledonia and New Zealand ecoregions became separated  from Australia by

text: continental drift

text: 85 million years ago. The islands still retain plants that originated in Gondwana and spread to the Southern Hemisphere continents later. However, strong evidence exists of

text: glaciation

text: during the

text: Carboniferous

text: to

text: Permian

text: time, especially in South Africa.

text: The first event began 130 million years ago when a group of active volcanic islands approached a pre-existing continental margin and coastline of North America. These volcanic islands, known as the Insular Islands by geoscientists, were formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Insular Plate by subduction of the former Farallon Plate to the west during the early Paleozoic era. This subduction zone records another subduction zone to the east under an ancient ocean basin between the Insular Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the Bridge River Ocean. This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual in that very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the southeastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Insular Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean, the Insular Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America called the Omineca Arc. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the old continental margin of western North America, the Bridge River Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc and the Insular Islands collided, forming the Insular Belt. Compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and folded rocks along the old continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the pre-existing continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of igneous rock, creating a new continental margin. This large mass of igneous rock is the largest granite outcropping in North America.

text: The first event began 130 million years ago when a group of active volcanic islands approached a pre-existing

text: continental margin

text: and coastline of North America. These volcanic islands, known as the

text: Insular Islands

text: by geoscientists, were formed on a pre-existing

text: tectonic plate

text: called the

text: Insular Plate

text: by

text: subduction

text: of the former

text: Farallon Plate

text: to the west during the early

text: Paleozoic

text: era. This subduction zone records another subduction zone to the east under an ancient

text: ocean basin

text: between the Insular Islands and the former continental margin of North America called the

text: Bridge River Ocean

text: . This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual in that very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the

text: Philippine Mobile Belt

text: off the southeastern coast of

text: Asia

text: is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Insular Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean, the Insular Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of western North America, supporting a pre-existing volcanic arc on the former continental margin of North America called the

text: Omineca Arc

text: . As the

text: North American Plate

text: drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the old continental margin of western North America, the Bridge River Ocean eventually closed by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc and the Insular Islands collided, forming the

text: Insular Belt

text: . Compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and

text: folded

text: rocks along the old continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the pre-existing continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of

text: igneous rock

text: , creating a new continental margin. This large mass of igneous rock is the largest

text: granite

text: outcropping in North America.

text: In February 2008, UAL Corporation and Continental Airlines began the advanced stages of merger talks and were expected to announce their decision in the immediate aftermath of a definitive merger agreement between rival Delta Air Lines and Northwest Airlines. The timing of the events was notable because Northwest's golden shares in Continental (that gave Northwest veto authority against any merger involving Continental) could be redeemed, freeing Continental to pursue a marriage with United. On April 27, 2008, Continental broke off merger negotiations with United and stated it was going to stand alone. Despite ending merger talks, Continental announced that it will join United in the Star Alliance.

text: In February 2008,

text: UAL Corporation

text: and Continental Airlines began the advanced stages of merger talks and were expected to announce their decision in the immediate aftermath of a definitive merger agreement between rival

text: Delta Air Lines

text: and

text: Northwest Airlines

text: . The timing of the events was notable because Northwest's golden shares in Continental (that gave Northwest veto authority against any merger involving Continental) could be redeemed, freeing Continental to pursue a marriage with United. On April 27, 2008, Continental broke off merger negotiations with United and stated it was going to stand alone. Despite ending merger talks, Continental announced that it will join United in the Star Alliance.

text: If the sample is cooled below T in the absence of an external magnetic field and a magnetic field is applied after the transition to the spin glass phase, there is a rapid initial increase to a value called the zero-field-cooled magnetization. A slow upward drift then occurs toward the field-cooled magnetization.

text: The Canadian portion of the Pacific Northwest began forming during the early Jurassic period when a group of active volcanic islands collided against a pre-existing continental margin and coastline of Western Canada. These volcanic islands, known as the Intermontane Islands by geoscientists, were formed on a pre-existing tectonic plate called the Intermontane Plate about 245 million years ago by subduction of the former Insular Plate to its west during the Triassic period. This subduction zone records another subduction zone called the Intermontane Trench under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of Western Canada called the Slide Mountain Ocean. This arrangement of two parallel subduction zones is unusual in that very few twin subduction zones exist on Earth; the Philippine Mobile Belt off the eastern coast of Asia is an example of a modern twin subduction zone. As the Intermontane Plate drew closer to the pre-existing continental margin by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of Western Canada, supporting a volcanic arc on the former continental margin of Western Canada. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Intermontane Plate continued to drift east to the ancient continental margin of Western Canada, the Slide Mountain Ocean began to close by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the arc volcanism on the ancient continental margin of Western Canada and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming a long chain of deformed volcanic and sedimentary rock called the Intermontane Belt, which consists of deeply cut valleys, high plateaus, and rolling uplands. This collision also crushed and folded sedimentary and igneous rocks, creating a mountain range called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern British Columbia.

text: The Canadian portion of the

text: Pacific Northwest

text: began forming during the early

text: Jurassic

text: period when a group of active volcanic islands collided against a pre-existing

text: continental margin

text: and coastline of Western Canada. These volcanic islands, known as the

text: Intermontane Islands

text: tectonic plate

text: called the

text: Intermontane Plate

text: about 245 million years ago by

text: subduction

text: of the former

text: Insular Plate

text: to its west during the

text: Triassic

text: Intermontane Trench

text: under an ancient ocean between the Intermontane Islands and the former continental margin of Western Canada called the

text: Slide Mountain Ocean

text: Philippine Mobile Belt

text: off the eastern coast of

text: Asia

text: subduction

text: under the Slide Mountain Ocean, the Intermontane Islands drew closer to the former continental margin and coastline of Western Canada, supporting a volcanic arc on the former continental margin of Western Canada. As the

text: North American Plate

text: drifted west and the Intermontane Plate continued to drift east to the ancient continental margin of Western Canada, the Slide Mountain Ocean began to close by ongoing subduction under the Slide Mountain Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely about 180 million years ago, ending the arc volcanism on the ancient continental margin of Western Canada and the Intermontane Islands collided, forming a long chain of deformed volcanic and sedimentary rock called the

text: Intermontane Belt

text: , which consists of deeply cut valleys, high plateaus, and rolling uplands. This collision also crushed and

text: fold

text: ed

text: sedimentary

text: and

text: igneous rock

text: s, creating a

text: mountain range

text: called the Kootenay Fold Belt which existed in far eastern British Columbia.

text: As a promotion for Ice Age: Continental Drift, Fox released two 3-minute short segments from the film, titled Scrat's Continental Crack-up and Scrat's Continental Crack-up: Part 2. The first part premiered as a theatrical release attached to Gulliver's Travels in 2010, and it was released on-line on January 6, 2011, on iTunes Movie Trailers. The second part was released on November 16, 2011, on iTunes, and debuted in theatres with Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked. The first part shows how the Scrat's actions lead to split of the continents, while in the second part, Scrat's underwater pursuit of acorns leads him to a pirate ship.

text: As a promotion for Ice Age: Continental Drift, Fox released two 3-minute short segments from the film, titled Scrat's Continental Crack-up and Scrat's Continental Crack-up: Part 2. The first part premiered as a theatrical release attached to

text: Gulliver's Travels

text: in 2010, and it was released on-line on January 6, 2011, on

text: iTunes Movie Trailers

text: . The second part was released on November 16, 2011, on iTunes, and debuted in theatres with

text: Alvin and the Chipmunks: Chipwrecked

text: . The first part shows how the Scrat's actions lead to split of the continents, while in the second part, Scrat's underwater pursuit of acorns leads him to a pirate ship.

text: A team from the Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS) of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchi led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy in 2003 said "the land/beaches were formed between Ramanathapuram and Pamban because of the long shore drifting currents which moved in an anti-clockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar about 3,500 years ago," and, "as the carbon dating of the beaches roughly matches the dates of Ramayana, its link to the epic needs to be explored". A former director of the Geological Survey of India, S. Badrinarayanan, claims that such a natural formation would be impossible. He justifies the same by the presence of a loose sand layer under corals for the entire stretch. Corals normally form above rocks. He feels that a thorough analysis was not conducted by the Geological Survey of India before undertaking the SSCP project. The Government of India, in an affidavit in the Supreme Court of India, said that there is no historical proof of the bridge being built by Rama. In connection with the canal project, the Madras High Court in its verdict stated that the Rama Sethu is a man-made structure.

text: A team from the Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS) of

text: Bharathidasan University

text: , Tiruchi led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy in 2003 said "the land/beaches were formed between Ramanathapuram and Pamban because of the long shore drifting currents which moved in an anti-clockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar about 3,500 years ago," and, "as the

text: carbon dating

text: of the beaches roughly matches the dates of Ramayana, its link to the epic needs to be explored". A former director of the

text: Geological Survey of India

text: , S. Badrinarayanan, claims that such a natural formation would be impossible. He justifies the same by the presence of a loose sand layer under corals for the entire stretch. Corals normally form above rocks. He feels that a thorough analysis was not conducted by the Geological Survey of India before undertaking the SSCP project. The Government of India, in an affidavit in the

text: Supreme Court of India

text: , said that there is no historical proof of the bridge being built by Rama. In connection with the canal project, the

text: Madras High Court

text: in its verdict stated that the Rama Sethu is a man-made structure.

text: The intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitats. However the vast bulk of the ocean is unhospitable to air-breathing humans, with scuba divers limited to the upper  or so. The lower limit for photosynthesis is  and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness, high pressure, little oxygen (in some places), scarce food resources and extreme cold. This habitat is very challenging to research, and as well as being little studied, it is vast, with 79% of the Earth's biosphere being at depths greater than . With no plant life, the animals in this zone are either detritivores, reliant on food drifting down from surface layers, or they are predators, feeding on each other. Some organisms are pelagic, swimming or drifting in mid-ocean, while others are benthic, living on or near the seabed. Their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow, their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is, or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs. A number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent; this serves a variety of functions including predation, protection and social recognition. In general, the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure-resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells know as piezolytes, which give the proteins the flexibility they need. There are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures.

text: The

text: intertidal zone

text: and the

text: photic zone

text: in the oceans are relatively familiar habitats. However the vast bulk of the ocean is unhospitable to air-breathing humans, with

text: scuba divers

text: limited to the upper  or so. The lower limit for photosynthesis is  and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness, high pressure, little oxygen (in some places), scarce food resources and extreme cold. This habitat is very challenging to research, and as well as being little studied, it is vast, with 79% of the Earth's

text: biosphere

text: being at depths greater than . With no plant life, the animals in this zone are either

text: detritivore

text: s, reliant on food drifting down from surface layers, or they are

text: predators

text: , feeding on each other. Some organisms are

text: pelagic

text: , swimming or drifting in mid-ocean, while others are benthic, living on or near the seabed. Their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow, their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is, or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs. A number of deep sea creatures are

text: bioluminescent

text: ; this serves a variety of functions including predation, protection and social recognition. In general, the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure-resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells know as

text: piezolyte

text: s, which give the proteins the flexibility they need. There are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures.

text: Fossil plants, and in particular their leaves, have been the most useful sources of information of paleoclimate during the time of deposition of the Florissant Formation. Plants have a smaller tolerance on average to climatic changes, whereas many animals can be mobile and respond to rapid seasonal or daily changes.

text: IOTs have been described as a cross between a klystron and a triode, hence Eimac's trade name for them, Klystrode.  They have an electron gun like a klystron, but with a control grid in front of it like a triode, with a very close spacing of around 0.1 mm. The high frequency RF voltage on the grid allows the electrons through in bunches.    High voltage DC on a cylindrical anode accelerates the modulated electron beam through a small drift tube like a klystron. This drift tube prevents backflow of electromagnetic radiation. The bunched electron beam passes through the hollow anode into a resonant cavity, similar to the output cavity of a klystron, and strikes a collector electrode.  As in a klystron, each bunch passes into the cavity at a time when the electric field decelerates it, transforming the kinetic energy of the beam into potential energy of the RF field, amplifying the signal.  The oscillating electromagnetic energy in the cavity is extracted by a coaxial transmission line.  An axial magnetic field prevents space charge spreading of the beam.  The collector electrode is at a lower potential than the anode (depressed collector) which recovers some of the energy from the beam, increasing efficiency.

text: IOTs have been described as a cross between a klystron and a

text: triode

text: , hence

text: Eimac

text: 's trade name for them, Klystrode.  They have an

text: electron gun

text: like a klystron, but with a

text: control grid

text: in front of it like a triode, with a very close spacing of around 0.1 mm. The high frequency RF voltage on the grid allows the electrons through in bunches.    High voltage

text: DC

text: on a cylindrical anode accelerates the modulated electron beam through a small drift tube like a klystron. This drift tube prevents backflow of electromagnetic radiation. The bunched electron beam passes through the hollow anode into a resonant cavity, similar to the output cavity of a klystron, and strikes a collector electrode.  As in a klystron, each bunch passes into the cavity at a time when the electric field decelerates it, transforming the kinetic energy of the beam into potential energy of the RF field, amplifying the signal.  The oscillating electromagnetic energy in the cavity is extracted by a coaxial transmission line.  An axial

text: magnetic field

text: prevents space charge spreading of the beam.  The collector electrode is at a lower potential than the anode (depressed collector) which recovers some of the energy from the beam, increasing efficiency.

text: The reasons for voyaging vary from recreation to one way trips for colonization.  Some of these were accidental and achieved by drifting rather than sailing. Many canoes which storm-drifted to the Philippines from the Yap region made successful returns home. But because of prevailing winds, westerly drifts are far more common than easterly. Tahiti to Hawaii, 2000 miles across the prevailing winds is impossible to drift but fine for sailing. Arriving at Easter Island must have been fortuitous. Raiding and conquest were a traditional motive.

text: The reasons for voyaging vary from recreation to one way trips for colonization.  Some of these were accidental and achieved by drifting rather than sailing. Many canoes which storm-drifted to the

text: Philippines

text: from the

text: Yap

text: region made successful returns home. But because of prevailing winds, westerly drifts are far more common than easterly.

text: Tahiti

text: to

text: Hawaii

text: , 2000 miles across the prevailing winds is impossible to drift but fine for sailing. Arriving at

text: Easter Island

text: must have been fortuitous. Raiding and conquest were a traditional motive.

text: Designated as having a humid continental climate, this region typically has a large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Designated as having a humid continental climate, this region typically has a large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: ". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: The perspective returns to Earth and the film continuity, where Bumblebee and Drift work their way through canyons which lead to Lockdown's stronghold. Drift is captured, and Bumblebee is left to rescue him. The two battle insurmountable forces, and at their most desperate moment Grimlock bursts into the stronghold and comes to their rescue. Lockdown escapes, fleeing to a second site where he intends to open a time bridge and begin the Autobot and Decepticon war anew. Grimlock, Bumblebee, Drift and Optimus work their way through the city to the entrance of Lockdown's base. Optimus bests Lockdown in combat, and the final shard of the Dark Spark is ejected from Lockdown's body by Drift's sword. Optimus uses a beam from the Matrix of Leadership stored within his chest to destroy the Dark Spark shard.

text: The geology of the UK is complex and diverse, a result of it being subject to a variety of plate tectonic processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, whilst successive continental collisions have affected its geological structure with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each orogeny (mountain-building period), often associated with volcanic activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences. As a result of this eventful geological history, the UK shows a rich variety of landscapes.

text: The geology of the UK is complex and diverse, a result of it being subject to a variety of

text: plate tectonic

text: processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, whilst successive continental collisions have affected its

text: geological structure

text: with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each

text: orogeny

text: (mountain-building period), often associated with

text: volcanic

text: activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences. As a result of this eventful geological history, the UK shows a rich variety of

text: landscape

text: s.

text: The glacial history of Minnesota is most defined since the onset of the last glacial period, which ended some 10,000 years ago. Within the last million years, most of the Midwestern United States and much of Canada were covered at one time or another with an ice sheet. This continental glacier had a profound effect on the surface features of the area over which it moved. Vast quantities of rock and soil were scraped from the glacial centers to its margins by slowly moving ice and redeposited as drift or till. Much of this drift was dumped into old preglacial river valleys, while some of it was heaped into belts of hills (terminal moraines) at the margin of the glacier. The chief result of glaciation has been the modification of the preglacial topography by the deposition of drift over the countryside. However, continental glaciers possess great power of erosion and may actually modify the preglacial land surface by scouring and abrading rather than by the deposition of the drift.

text: The glacial history of

text: Minnesota

text: is most defined since the onset of the

text: last glacial period

text: , which ended some 10,000 years ago. Within the last million years, most of the

text: Midwestern United States

text: and much of

text: Canada

text: were covered at one time or another with an

text: ice sheet

text: . This continental

text: glacier

text: had a profound effect on the surface features of the area over which it moved. Vast quantities of rock and soil were scraped from the glacial centers to its margins by slowly moving ice and redeposited as

text: drift

text: or

text: till

text: . Much of this drift was dumped into old preglacial river valleys, while some of it was heaped into belts of hills (

text: terminal moraine

text: s) at the margin of the glacier. The chief result of glaciation has been the modification of the preglacial

text: topography

text: by the deposition of drift over the countryside. However, continental glaciers possess great power of erosion and may actually modify the preglacial land surface by scouring and abrading rather than by the deposition of the drift.

text: Also called range fragmentation, disjunct distributions may be caused by changes in the environment, such as mountain building and continental drift or rising sea levels; it may also be due to an organism expanding its range into new areas, by such means as rafting, or other animals transporting an organism to a new location (plant seeds consumed by birds and animals, can be moved to new locations during bird or animals migrations, and those seeds can be deposited in new locations in fecal matter). Other conditions that can produce disjunct distributions include: flooding, or changes in wind, stream, and current flows, plus others such as anthropogenic introduction of alien introduced species either accidentally or deliberately (agriculture and horticulture).

text: Also called range fragmentation, disjunct distributions may be caused by changes in the environment, such as

text: mountain building

text: and

text: continental drift

text: or rising

text: sea level

text: s; it may also be due to an

text: organism

text: expanding its range into new areas, by such means as

text: rafting

text: , or other animals transporting an organism to a new location (plant seeds consumed by birds and animals, can be moved to new locations during bird or animals migrations, and those seeds can be deposited in new locations in fecal matter). Other conditions that can produce disjunct distributions include: flooding, or changes in wind, stream, and current flows, plus others such as anthropogenic introduction of alien

text: introduced species

text: either accidentally or deliberately (agriculture and horticulture).

text: Magnet therapy has been promoted as a treatment for cancer and other diseases; the American Cancer Society states that "available scientific evidence does not support these claims". According to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, studies of magnetic jewelry haven’t shown demonstrable effects on pain, nerve function, cell growth or blood flow.

text: Magnet therapy has been promoted as a treatment for cancer and other diseases; the

text: American Cancer Society

text: states that "available scientific evidence does not support these claims". According to the

entity_name: National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health

text: National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health

text: , studies of magnetic jewelry haven’t shown demonstrable effects on pain, nerve function, cell growth or blood flow.

text: This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.

text: This was immediately followed by a symposium in

text: Tasmania

text: in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an

text: expansion of the global crust

text: . In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.

text: Granitic rocks represent the roots of ancient continental-margin volcanic systems. Most of the granitic rock in the Mojave Desert is late Mesozoic in age (80 to 180 million years old). The granites formed at depth within a volcanically active mountain range comparable in geologic setting to the Andes chain in South America.

text: Granitic rocks represent the roots of ancient

text: continental-margin

text: volcanic systems. Most of the granitic rock in the Mojave Desert is late

text: Mesozoic

text: in age (80 to 180 million years old). The granites formed at depth within a volcanically active mountain range comparable in geologic setting to the

text: Andes

text: chain in

text: South America

text: The Dutch version of the DVD produced by Evangelische Omroep removed all references to (amongst others) evolution, fossils, and continental drift. The narration by David Attenborough has been replaced by a not always accurate Dutch translation, and cuts were made to the episodes. The tenth episode was not broadcast at all on Evangelische Omroep, and is not included on the EO DVD of the series. The Dutch version of the book includes the full text of the original book, as did the Dutch language version of the programme broadcast on the Belgian broadcaster Canvas.

text: The Dutch version of the DVD produced by

text: Evangelische Omroep

text: removed all references to (amongst others) evolution, fossils, and continental drift. The narration by David Attenborough has been replaced by a not always accurate Dutch translation, and cuts were made to the episodes. The tenth episode was not broadcast at all on

text: Evangelische Omroep

text: , and is not included on the EO DVD of the series. The Dutch version of the book includes the full text of the original book, as did the

text: Dutch language

text: version of the programme broadcast on the Belgian broadcaster

text: Canvas

text: Tropical savanna climates have monthly mean temperature above 18 °C (64 °F) in every month of the year and typically a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60mm (2.36 in) of precipitation. In essence, a tropical savanna climate tends to either see less rainfall than a tropical monsoon climate or have more pronounced dry seasons than a tropical monsoon climate.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "As". (Tropical Savanna Climate).

text: Tropical savanna climates have monthly mean temperature above 18 °C (64 °F) in every month of the year and typically a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60mm (2.36 in) of precipitation. In essence, a tropical savanna climate tends to either see less rainfall than a tropical monsoon climate or have more pronounced dry seasons than a tropical monsoon climate.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: As

text: ". (Tropical Savanna Climate).

text: Peaches is the daughter of Manny and Ellie, born in the Dinosaurs' world whilst they were under attack by a pack of Guanlong. She appeared close to end of Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs and was named after the code-word that was thought up to say that Ellie was going into labour. Manny also claims that peaches are sweet, round and fuzzy, just like Peaches and Ellie. She looks exactly like her mother, Ellie (which Sid thinks is very lucky). At the end of the film, she returned to the surface with her parents and the rest of the group. She is voiced by Ciara Bravo in Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas and Keke Palmer in Ice Age: Continental Drift.

text: Peaches is the daughter of

text: Manny

text: and

text: Ellie

text: , born in the Dinosaurs' world whilst they were under attack by a pack of Guanlong. She appeared close to end of Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs and was named after the code-word that was thought up to say that Ellie was going into labour. Manny also claims that

text: peach

text: es are sweet, round and fuzzy, just like Peaches and Ellie. She looks exactly like her mother, Ellie (which Sid thinks is very lucky). At the end of the film, she returned to the surface with her parents and the rest of the group. She is voiced by

text: Ciara Bravo

text: in

text: Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas

text: and

text: Keke Palmer

text: in

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: Jack Wills’s researches started with the plant and animal fossils of the Keuper sediments exposed in quarries around Bromsgrove, and he retained a lifelong interest in the continental deposits and fossils of the Upper Paleozoic and Triassic.

text: Jack Wills’s researches started with the plant and animal fossils of the

text: Keuper sediment

text: s exposed in quarries around

text: Bromsgrove

text: , and he retained a lifelong interest in the continental deposits and fossils of the

text: Upper Paleozoic

text: and

text: Triassic

text: Fossils of plant leaves, shoots, seeds, flowers and cones are abundant and well preserved, and include up to 76 genera of plants. Fossil plants described from the fossil beds include rare flowers such as Dipteronia, a genus of trees related to maples (Acer. spp.) that today grows in eastern Asia, extinct members of the birch family (Betulaceae) such as Palaeocarpinus, maple seeds (Acer rousei), and fruits and leaves of a beech (''Fagus langevinii'') and an elm (''Ulmus okanaganensis'').

text: Fossils of plant leaves, shoots, seeds, flowers and cones are abundant and well preserved, and include up to 76

text: genera

text: of plants. Fossil plants described from the fossil beds include rare flowers such as

text: Dipteronia

text: , a genus of trees related to maples (

text: Acer

text: . spp.) that today grows in eastern Asia, extinct members of the birch family (

text: Betulaceae

text: ) such as Palaeocarpinus, maple seeds (

text: Acer rousei

text: ), and fruits and leaves of a

text: beech

text: (''Fagus langevinii'') and an elm (''Ulmus okanaganensis'').

text: The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep ocean floors and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of marine geology which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the mid-oceanic ridges and magnetic field reversals, published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley.

text: The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep

text: ocean floor

text: s and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of

text: marine geology

text: which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: s and

text: magnetic field reversals

text: , published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley.

text: The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. Because Wegener's publications were widely available in German and English and because he adduced geological support for the idea, he is credited by most geologists as the first to recognize the possibility of continental drift. During the 1960s geophysical and geological evidence for seafloor spreading at mid-oceanic ridges established continental drift as the standard theory or continental origin and an ongoing global mechanism.

text: The speculation that

text: continent

text: s might have 'drifted' was first put forward by

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: in 1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: in 1912. Because Wegener's publications were widely available in German and English and because he adduced geological support for the idea, he is credited by most geologists as the first to recognize the possibility of

text: continental drift

text: . During the 1960s geophysical and geological evidence for seafloor spreading at mid-oceanic ridges established continental drift as the standard theory or continental origin and an ongoing global mechanism.

text: Ari Brynjolfsson was born in Akureyri, Iceland, one of the seven children of Brynjólf Sigtryggsson and Guðrún Rósinkarsdóttir from Hörgárdalur. He lived in  Krossanes, Eyjafjörður and graduated from Menntaskólinn á Akureyri in 1948, then studied nuclear physics at the Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark, from 1948 to 1954, gaining his PhD, with a thesis which dealt with a device he had constructed for accurately measuring magnetism in rocks. Following this he became a special research fellow of the University of Iceland from 1954 to 1955, then an Alexander von Humboldt fellow of the University of Göttingen, Germany, from 1955 to 1957. While at Göttingen he contributed important work in magnetic moments, using a self-devised instrument with which he and others provided the strongest evidence to that date for magnetic field reversals.

text: Ari Brynjolfsson was born in

text: Akureyri, Iceland

text: , one of the seven children of Brynjólf Sigtryggsson and Guðrún Rósinkarsdóttir from Hörgárdalur. He lived in  Krossanes,

text: Eyjafjörður

text: and graduated from

text: Menntaskólinn á Akureyri

text: in 1948, then studied

text: nuclear physics

text: at the

text: Niels Bohr Institute

text: University of Copenhagen

text: , Denmark, from 1948 to 1954, gaining his PhD, with a thesis which dealt with a device he had constructed for accurately measuring magnetism in rocks. Following this he became a special research fellow of the

text: University of Iceland

text: from 1954 to 1955, then an

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: fellow of the

text: University of Göttingen

text: , Germany, from 1955 to 1957. While at Göttingen he contributed important work in

text: magnetic moment

text: s, using a self-devised instrument with which he and others provided the strongest evidence to that date for

text: magnetic field reversal

text: s.

text: The Tienen Formation consists of clay with thin lignite layers and lithified wood, sand (sometimes with shells) and marl. It has a continental to lagoonal sedimentary facies. The formation is a lagerstätte for fossils of vertebrate animals.

text: The Tienen Formation consists of

text: clay

text: with thin

text: lignite

text: layers and

text: lithified

text: wood,

text: sand

text: (sometimes with shells) and

text: marl

text: . It has a

text: continental

text: to

text: lagoon

text: al

text: sedimentary facies

text: . The formation is a

text: lagerstätte

text: for

text: fossil

text: s of

text: vertebrate

text: animals.

text: The Ouachita Mountains are fold mountains like the Appalachian Mountains to the east, and were originally part of that range. During the Pennsylvanian period, roughly 300 million years ago, the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico ran through the central parts of Arkansas. The South American Plate drifted northward, riding up over the denser North American continental crust. Geologists call this collision the Ouachita orogeny. The collision buckled the overriding plate, producing the fold mountains we call the Ouachitas. At one time the Ouachita Mountains were very similar in height to the current elevations of the Rocky Mountains. Because of the Ouachitas' age, the craggy tops have eroded away, leaving the low formations that used to be the heart of the mountains.

text: The Ouachita Mountains are

text: fold mountain

text: s like the Appalachian Mountains to the east, and were originally part of that range. During the

text: Pennsylvanian

text: period, roughly 300 million years ago, the coastline of the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: ran through the central parts of Arkansas. The

text: South American Plate

text: drifted northward, riding up over the denser North American

text: continental crust

text: . Geologists call this collision the

text: Ouachita orogeny

text: . The collision buckled the overriding plate, producing the fold mountains we call the Ouachitas. At one time the Ouachita Mountains were very similar in height to the current elevations of the Rocky Mountains. Because of the Ouachitas' age, the craggy tops have eroded away, leaving the low formations that used to be the heart of the mountains.

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc.

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody

text: tissue

text: of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called

text: trace fossil

text: s, examples of which are

text: burrow

text: s,

text: footprint

text: s, etc.

text: The Museum am Löwentor exhibition focuses mainly on fossils from its home state of Baden-Württemberg in southwestern Germany, and other localities in Germany. The state is rich in fossils, including several famous classical localities. Especially well exposed are terrestrial and marine Triassic, marine Jurassic and terrestrial Cenozoic sediments. Therefore, the museum exhibits the early prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus and other terrestrial animals from the Lower and Upper Triassic (Buntsandstein and Keuper, respectively), a wide range of marine fossils, mainly invertebrates, from the Muschelkalk, and a plethora of ichthyosaurs, pliosaurs and plesiosaurs, as well as sharks from the Posidonia Shale and other Lower Jurassic formations. Furthermore, exquisite Jurassic ammonites and other invertebrates are shown in large numbers.The Cenozoic is represented by invertebrates and mainly vertebrates from various German localities, including a pleistocene elephant and a copy of a mammuth mummy. Also on exhibit is the skull of the prehistoric man of Steinheim (Homo steinheimensis).The museum also houses a spectacular collection of plant and animal fossils in amber.

text: The Museum am Löwentor exhibition focuses mainly on fossils from its home state of

text: Baden-Württemberg

text: in southwestern Germany, and other localities in Germany. The state is rich in fossils, including several famous classical localities. Especially well exposed are terrestrial and marine

text: Triassic

text: , marine

text: Jurassic

text: and terrestrial

text: Cenozoic

text: sediments. Therefore, the museum exhibits the early

text: prosauropod

text: dinosaur

text: Plateosaurus

text: and other terrestrial animals from the Lower and Upper Triassic (

text: Buntsandstein

text: and

text: Keuper

text: , respectively), a wide range of marine fossils, mainly invertebrates, from the

text: Muschelkalk

text: , and a plethora of

text: ichthyosaur

text: s,

text: pliosaur

text: s and

text: plesiosaur

text: s, as well as

text: shark

text: s from the

text: Posidonia Shale

text: and other

text: Lower Jurassic

text: formations. Furthermore, exquisite Jurassic ammonites and other invertebrates are shown in large numbers.The Cenozoic is represented by invertebrates and mainly vertebrates from various German localities, including a pleistocene elephant and a copy of a mammuth mummy. Also on exhibit is the skull of the prehistoric man of Steinheim (

text: Homo steinheimensis

text: ).The museum also houses a spectacular collection of plant and animal fossils in amber.

text: Vértes is a mountain range in north-western Hungary, in the Central Transdanubian region, between the ranges Bakony and Gerecse. The Vértes Mountains are part of the Transdanubian Mountains. Area of the Vértes occupies 314 km. It is about 30 km long and 11c12 km wide. The average altitude is above sea level is 350 meters, in highest points are 487 m (Nagy-Csákány), 480 m (Körtvélyes) and 479 m (Csóka-hegy). Geologically the Vértes constitute a fairlyuniform structure. On the surface of the eptire mountain there are no older rocks than those of the mid-Triassic. The main rock is dolomite—CaMg(CO)—from the upper Triassic. All the layers are ancient marine deposits.

text: Vértes is a

text: mountain range

text: in north-western

text: Hungary

text: , in the Central Transdanubian region, between the ranges

text: Bakony

text: and

text: Gerecse

text: . The Vértes Mountains are part of the

text: Transdanubian Mountains

text: . Area of the Vértes occupies 314 km. It is about 30 km long and 11c12 km wide. The average altitude is above sea level is 350 meters, in highest points are 487 m (Nagy-Csákány), 480 m (Körtvélyes) and 479 m (Csóka-hegy). Geologically the Vértes constitute a fairlyuniform structure. On the surface of the eptire mountain there are no older rocks than those of the mid-Triassic. The main rock is dolomite—CaMg(CO)—from the upper Triassic. All the layers are ancient marine deposits.

text: Much of the national park is covered by tropical forest.  The Greater Daintree Rainforest has existed continuously for more than 110 million years, making it possibly the oldest existing tropical forest. The persistence of this forest is believed to be a product of a fortuitous continental drift; after the breakup of its parent supercontinent a portion drifted toward the pole to become Antarctica, disturbing ocean currents and becoming quite chilly, while other portions were moved to hotter and drier locations. The rainforests of the parent continent preserved its climate, and so also its original trees. Tree species, once thought to be long extinct, have only relatively recently been discovered here.

text: Much of the national park is covered by

entity_name: Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

text: tropical forest

text: .  The

text: Greater Daintree Rainforest

text: has existed continuously for more than 110 million years, making it possibly the oldest existing tropical forest. The persistence of this forest is believed to be a product of a fortuitous

text: continental drift

text: ; after the breakup of its parent supercontinent a portion drifted toward the pole to become

text: Antarctica

text: , disturbing ocean currents and becoming quite chilly, while other portions were moved to hotter and drier locations. The rainforests of the parent continent preserved its climate, and so also its original trees. Tree species, once thought to be long extinct, have only relatively recently been discovered here.

text: Alfred Wegener, being a meteorologist, had proposed tidal forces and pole flight force as the main driving mechanisms behind continental drift; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept then was of continents plowing through oceanic crust. Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929.

text: Alfred Wegener

text: , being a

text: meteorologist

text: , had proposed

text: tidal force

text: s and pole flight force as the main driving mechanisms behind

text: continental drift

text: ; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept then was of continents plowing through oceanic crust. Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929.

text: Glaciation following the Namurian phase facilitated greater denudation. The result is that Inisheer is one of the finest examples of a Glacio-Karst landscape in the world. The effects of the last glacial period (the Midlandian) are most in evidence, with the island overrun by ice during this glaciation. The impact of earlier Karstification (solutional erosion) has been eliminated by the last glacial period, so any Karstification now seen dates from approximately 10,000 years ago and the island Karst is thus recent.

text: Glaciation following the

text: Namurian

text: phase facilitated greater denudation. The result is that Inisheer is one of the finest examples of a Glacio-

text: Karst

text: landscape in the world. The effects of the

text: last glacial period

text: (the Midlandian) are most in evidence, with the island overrun by ice during this glaciation. The impact of earlier

text: Karstification

text: (solutional erosion) has been eliminated by the

text: last glacial period

text: , so any Karstification now seen dates from approximately 10,000 years ago and the island Karst is thus recent.

text: For the most part Europe lies in the northern temperate climate zone. Much of far western Europe is classified as a Temperate Oceanic climate, while far southern Europe is a Mediterranean climate in the south.  The climate is strongly conditioned by the Gulf Stream, which keeps mild air (for the latitude) over Northwestern Europe in the winter months, especially in Ireland, the UK and coastal Norway.  While Western Europe has an oceanic climate, Eastern Europe has a drier, continental climate. Parts of the Central European plains have a hybrid oceanic/continental climate. Four seasons occur in Eastern Europe, while southern Europe experiences distinct wet season and dry seasons, with prevailing hot and dry conditions during the summer months.  The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing westerlies, with higher amounts also seen in the Alps. Tornadoes occur within Europe, with most but not all occurrences being weak.

text: For the most part

text: Europe

text: lies in the northern

text: temperate

text: climate zone. Much of far western Europe is classified as a Temperate Oceanic climate, while far southern Europe is a

text: Mediterranean climate

text: in the south.  The climate is strongly conditioned by the

text: Gulf Stream

text: , which keeps mild air (for the latitude) over Northwestern Europe in the winter months, especially in Ireland, the UK and coastal Norway.  While Western Europe has an oceanic climate, Eastern Europe has a drier, continental climate. Parts of the Central European plains have a hybrid oceanic/continental climate. Four seasons occur in Eastern Europe, while southern Europe experiences distinct

text: wet season

text: and

text: dry season

text: s, with prevailing hot and dry conditions during the summer months.  The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing

text: westerlies

text: , with higher amounts also seen in the

text: Alps

text: Tornado

text: es occur within Europe, with most but not all occurrences being weak.

text: Mesosaurus was significant in providing evidence for the theory of continental drift, because its remains were found in southern Africa and eastern South America, two widely separated regions. As Mesosaurus was a coastal animal, and therefore could not have crossed the Atlantic Ocean, this distribution indicated that the two continents used to be joined together.

text: Mesosaurus was significant in providing evidence for the

text: theory

text: of

text: continental drift

text: , because its remains were found in southern Africa and eastern South America, two widely separated regions. As Mesosaurus was a coastal animal, and therefore could not have crossed the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , this distribution indicated that the two continents used to be joined together.

text: Before the theory of continental drift, glacial deposits in Carboniferous strata in tropical continents areas such as India and South America led to speculation that the Karoo Ice Age glaciation reached into the tropics. However, a continental reconstruction shows that ice was in fact constrained to the polar parts of the supercontinent Gondwana.

text: Before the theory of continental drift, glacial deposits in

text: Carboniferous

text: strata in tropical continents areas such as India and South America led to speculation that the

text: Karoo Ice Age

text: glaciation reached into the tropics. However, a continental reconstruction shows that ice was in fact constrained to the polar parts of the

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: But without detailed evidence and a force sufficient to drive the movement, the theory was not generally accepted: the Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around. Distinguished scientists, such as Harold Jeffreys and Charles Schuchert, were outspoken critics of continental drift.

text: But without detailed evidence and a force sufficient to drive the movement, the theory was not generally accepted: the Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around. Distinguished scientists, such as

text: Harold Jeffreys

text: and

text: Charles Schuchert

text: , were outspoken critics of continental drift.

text: The first evidence that a capacitor and inductor could produce electrical oscillations was discovered in 1826 by French scientist Felix Savary. He found that when a Leyden jar was discharged through a wire wound around an iron needle, sometimes the needle was left magnetized in one direction and sometimes in the opposite direction. He correctly deduced that this was caused by a damped oscillating discharge current in the wire, which reversed the magnetization of the needle back and forth until it was too small to have an effect, leaving the needle magnetized in a random direction. American physicist Joseph Henry repeated Savary's experiment in 1842 and came to the same conclusion, apparently independently. British scientist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in 1853 showed mathematically that the discharge of a Leyden jar through an inductance should be oscillatory, and derived its resonant frequency. British radio researcher Oliver Lodge, by discharging a large battery of Leyden jars through a long wire, created a tuned circuit with its resonant frequency in the audio range, which produced a musical tone from the spark when it was discharged. In 1857, German physicist Berend Wilhelm Feddersen photographed the spark produced by a resonant Leyden jar circuit in a rotating mirror, providing visible evidence of the oscillations. In 1868, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell calculated the effect of applying an alternating current to a circuit with inductance and capacitance, showing that the response is maximum at the resonant frequency. The first example of an electrical resonance curve was published in 1887 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering paper on the discovery of radio waves, showing the length of spark obtainable from his spark-gap LC resonator detectors as a function of frequency.

text: The first evidence that a capacitor and inductor could produce electrical oscillations was discovered in 1826 by French scientist

text: Felix Savary

text: . He found that when a

text: Leyden jar

text: was discharged through a wire wound around an iron needle, sometimes the needle was left magnetized in one direction and sometimes in the opposite direction. He correctly deduced that this was caused by a damped oscillating discharge current in the wire, which reversed the magnetization of the needle back and forth until it was too small to have an effect, leaving the needle magnetized in a random direction. American physicist

text: Joseph Henry

text: repeated Savary's experiment in 1842 and came to the same conclusion, apparently independently. British scientist

text: William Thomson

text: (Lord Kelvin) in 1853 showed mathematically that the discharge of a Leyden jar through an inductance should be oscillatory, and derived its resonant frequency. British radio researcher

text: Oliver Lodge

text: , by discharging a large battery of Leyden jars through a long wire, created a tuned circuit with its resonant frequency in the audio range, which produced a musical tone from the spark when it was discharged. In 1857, German physicist

text: Berend Wilhelm Feddersen

text: photographed the spark produced by a resonant Leyden jar circuit in a rotating mirror, providing visible evidence of the oscillations. In 1868, Scottish physicist

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: calculated the effect of applying an alternating current to a circuit with inductance and capacitance, showing that the response is maximum at the resonant frequency. The first example of an electrical

text: resonance

text: curve was published in 1887 by German physicist

text: Heinrich Hertz

text: in his pioneering paper on the discovery of radio waves, showing the length of spark obtainable from his spark-gap LC resonator detectors as a function of frequency.

text: Drifting station North Pole-38 was established in October 2010. In July 2011 the icebreaker Rossiya and the research ship Akademik Fyodorov began conducting seismic studies north of Franz Josef Land to find evidence to back up Russia's territorial claims in the Arctic. The Akademik Fyodorov and the icebreaker Yamal went on a similar mission the year before. The Lena-2011 expedition, a joint Russian-German project headed by Jörn Thiede, left for the Laptev Sea and the Lena River in the summer of 2011. It was to study Siberian climate and climate change, as well as gather information about the Russian continental shelf. The head of the expedition, who is also the chairman of the European Arctic Commission, expressed confidence that Russia will gather the evidence needed to confirm its claim to additional parts of the Arctic shelf.

text: Drifting station

text: North Pole-38

text: was established in October 2010. In July 2011 the icebreaker Rossiya and the research ship

text: Akademik Fyodorov

text: began conducting seismic studies north of

text: Franz Josef Land

text: to find evidence to back up Russia's territorial claims in the Arctic. The Akademik Fyodorov and the icebreaker

text: Yamal

text: went on a similar mission the year before. The Lena-2011 expedition, a joint Russian-German project headed by

text: Jörn Thiede

text: , left for the

text: Laptev Sea

text: and the

text: Lena River

text: in the summer of 2011. It was to study Siberian climate and climate change, as well as gather information about the Russian continental shelf. The head of the expedition, who is also the chairman of the

text: European Arctic Commission

text: , expressed confidence that Russia will gather the evidence needed to confirm its claim to additional parts of the Arctic shelf.

text: This region has also seen its landscape altered by glaciation and the fluvial processes of the Susquehanna River. Most of the ridges in this region are parallel to the streams that drain the area. The Susquehanna also cuts through many of the mountain ridges leading some to believe that the Susquehanna is an ancient river system that existed even before the recent continental glaciation. (Some speculate as far back as the Jurassic Period) None of the mountains in this section rise above  and the river valley is as low as .

text: This region has also seen its landscape altered by glaciation and the

text: fluvial

text: processes of the Susquehanna River. Most of the ridges in this region are parallel to the streams that drain the area. The Susquehanna also cuts through many of the mountain ridges leading some to believe that the Susquehanna is an ancient river system that existed even before the recent continental glaciation. (Some speculate as far back as the

text: Jurassic

text: Period) None of the mountains in this section rise above  and the river valley is as low as .

text: The publication of Alfred Wegener's (1880–1930) theory of continental drift 1912 gave additional impetus to comparative physiology and the study of biogeography while ecology in the 1930s contributed the important ideas of plant community, succession, community change, and energy flows. From 1940 to 1950 ecology matured to become an independent discipline as Eugene Odum (1913–2002) formulated many of the concepts of ecosystem ecology, emphasising relationships between groups of organisms (especially material and energy relationships) as key factors in the field. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) from 1914 to 1940 produced accounts of the geography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.

text: The publication of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's (1880–1930) theory of

text: continental drift

text: 1912 gave additional impetus to comparative physiology and the study of

text: biogeography

text: while ecology in the 1930s contributed the important ideas of plant community,

text: succession

text: , community change, and energy flows. From 1940 to 1950 ecology matured to become an independent discipline as

text: Eugene Odum

text: (1913–2002) formulated many of the concepts of

text: ecosystem ecology

text: , emphasising relationships between groups of organisms (especially material and energy relationships) as key factors in the field. Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle,

text: Nikolai Vavilov

text: (1887–1943) from 1914 to 1940 produced accounts of the geography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.

text: At perhaps the most fundamental level, distinction can be made between mineral soil horizons and organic soil horizons. The primary difference between the two classes of horizon is in the nature of their soil material: perhaps obviously, mineral soil horizons are dominated by mineral soil material whereas organic soil horizons are dominated by organic soil material. Mineral soil material is a product of the weathering of parent material such as bedrock or glacial drift whereas organic soil material is the product of decomposition of organic matter such as plants and animals.

text: At perhaps the most fundamental level, distinction can be made between mineral soil horizons and organic soil horizons. The primary difference between the two classes of horizon is in the nature of their soil material: perhaps obviously, mineral soil horizons are dominated by mineral soil material whereas organic soil horizons are dominated by organic soil material. Mineral soil material is a product of the

text: weathering

text: of

text: parent material

text: such as bedrock or glacial drift whereas organic soil material is the product of

text: decomposition

text: of organic matter such as plants and animals.

text: The Newcomen family, from nearby Kirkleatham, opened an ironstone mine in Dunsdale, in 1872. It exploited two pockets of ironstone left by glaciation. The two rows of cottages forming the village of Dunsdale were part of the mine property and form the major part of the village as it is today. Traces of the drift and buildings remain with parts of the railbed in the Dunsdale area leading to the top of the incline. Unfortunately, the mine was not a particular success and was abandoned on 31 December 1886, but the village still remains.

text: The Newcomen family, from nearby

text: Kirkleatham

text: , opened an ironstone mine in Dunsdale, in 1872. It exploited two pockets of ironstone left by glaciation. The two rows of cottages forming the village of Dunsdale were part of the mine property and form the major part of the village as it is today. Traces of the drift and buildings remain with parts of the railbed in the Dunsdale area leading to the top of the incline. Unfortunately, the mine was not a particular success and was abandoned on 31 December 1886, but the village still remains.

text: The climate of Lazovski is Humid continental climate, cool summer (Köppen climate classification (Dwb)). This climate is characterized by high variation in temperature, both daily and seasonally; with dry winters and cool summers.  The Zapovedny Ridge runs across the middle; the northern extent of the reserve has a more continental climate, the southern extent more maritime.

text: The climate of Lazovski is

text: Humid continental climate, cool summer

text: Köppen climate classification

text: (Dwb)

text: ). This climate is characterized by high variation in temperature, both daily and seasonally; with dry winters and cool summers.  The Zapovedny Ridge runs across the middle; the northern extent of the reserve has a more continental climate, the southern extent more maritime.

text: Sedimentary structures such as cross bedding, graded bedding and ripple marks are utilized in stratigraphic studies to indicate original position of strata in geologically complex terrains and understand the depositional environment of the sediment.

text: Sedimentary structures such as

text: cross bedding

text: graded bedding

text: and

text: ripple marks

text: are utilized in

text: stratigraphic

text: studies to indicate

text: original position

text: of

text: strata

text: in geologically complex terrains and understand the

text: depositional environment

text: of the sediment.

text: This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with hot and humid summers and cold and dry winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Belfast has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: This

text: climatic

text: region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with hot and humid summers and cold and dry winters.  According to the

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: system, Belfast has a

text: humid continental climate

text: , abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: Due to the chaotic nature of trace fossil classification, several ichnogenera hold names normally affiliated with animal body fossils or plant fossils. For example, many ichnogenera are named with the suffix -phycus due to misidentification as algae.

text: The flora of Australia comprises a vast assemblage of plant species estimated to over 20,000 vascular and 14,000 non-vascular plants, 250,000 species of fungi and over 3,000 lichens. The flora has strong affinities with the flora of Gondwana, and below the family level has a highly endemic angiosperm flora whose diversity was shaped by the effects of continental drift and climate change since the Cretaceous. Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to aridity and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families Proteaceae (Banksia), Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus - gum trees), and Fabaceae (Acacia - wattle).

text: The flora of

text: Australia

text: comprises a vast assemblage of plant species estimated to over 20,000

text: vascular

text: and 14,000

text: non-vascular plant

text: s, 250,000 species of

text: fungi

text: and over 3,000

text: lichen

text: s. The flora has strong affinities with the flora of

text: Gondwana

text: , and below the

text: family

text: level has a highly

text: endemic

text: angiosperm flora whose diversity was shaped by the effects of

text: continental drift

text: and climate change since the

text: Cretaceous

text: . Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to

text: aridity

text: and fire which include

text: scleromorphy

text: and

text: serotiny

text: . These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families

text: Proteaceae

text: Banksia

text: Myrtaceae

text: Eucalyptus

text: - gum trees), and

text: Fabaceae

text: Acacia

text: - wattle).

text: Ortelius was the first to underline the geometrical similarity between the coasts of America and Europe-Africa, and to propose continental drift as an explanation. Kious described Ortelius' thoughts in this way:Ortelius's observations of continental juxtaposition and his proposal of rupture and separation were repeated by Alfred Wegener who published his hypothesis of continental drift in 1912 and in following years.  Because his publications were widely available in German and English, and because he adduced geological support for the idea, Wegener is credited by most geologists as the first to recognize the possibility of continental drift. During the 1960s geophysical and geological evidence for seafloor spreading at mid-oceanic ridges became increasingly compelling to geologists (e.g. Hess, 1960,) and finally established continental drift as an ongoing global mechanism. After more than three centuries, Ortelius's supposition of continental drift was proven correct.

text: Ortelius was the first to underline the geometrical similarity between the coasts of America and Europe-Africa, and to propose

text: continental drift

text: as an explanation. Kious described Ortelius' thoughts in this way:Ortelius's observations of continental juxtaposition and his proposal of rupture and separation were repeated by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: who published his hypothesis of continental drift in 1912 and in following years.  Because his publications were widely available in German and English, and because he adduced geological support for the idea, Wegener is credited by most geologists as the first to recognize the possibility of continental drift. During the 1960s geophysical and geological evidence for

text: seafloor spreading

text: at

text: mid-oceanic ridge

text: s became increasingly compelling to geologists (e.g. Hess, 1960,) and finally established continental drift as an ongoing global mechanism. After more than three centuries, Ortelius's supposition of continental drift was proven correct.

text: As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique fauna, flora and mycobiota developed. Marsupials and monotremes also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the placental mammals and come to dominate. Bird life also flourished — in particular, the songbirds (order Passeriformes, suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of Gondwana that later became Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and Antarctica, before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.  Among the fungi, the remarkable association between Cyttaria gunnii (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus Nothofagus is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are New Zealand and southern Argentina and Chile.

text: As the continent drifted north from Antarctica, a unique

text: fauna

text: flora

text: and

text: mycobiota

text: developed.

text: Marsupial

text: s and

text: monotreme

text: s also existed on other continents, but only in Australia–New Guinea did they out-compete the

text: placental

text: mammals

text: and come to dominate.

text: Bird

text: life also flourished — in particular, the

text: songbird

text: s (order

text: Passeriformes

text: , suborder Passeri) are thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in the part of

text: Gondwana

text: that later became

text: Australia

text: , New Zealand,

text: New Guinea

text: , and

text: Antarctica

text: , before radiating into a great number of different forms and then spreading around the globe.  Among the fungi, the remarkable association between

text: Cyttaria

text: gunnii (one of the "golf-ball" fungi) and its associated trees in the genus

text: Nothofagus

text: is evidence of that drift: the only other places where this association is known are

text: New Zealand

text: and southern

text: Argentina

text: and

text: Chile

text: Detailed studies of the paleontology, sedimentology, and stratigraphy of glacial and nonglacial deposits within the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent parts of the Weddell Sea and its Pacific continental shelf have found that it has become progressively glaciated as the climate of Antarctica dramatically and progressively cooled during the last 37 million years. This progressive cooling was contemporaneous with a reduction in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. During this climatic cooling, the Antarctic Peninsula was probably the last region of Antarctica to have been fully glaciated. Within the Antarctic Peninsula, mountain glaciation was initiated during the latest Eocene, about 37–34 Ma. The transition from temperate, alpine glaciation to a dynamic ice sheet occurred about 12.8 Ma. At this time, the Antarctic Peninsula formed as the bedrock islands underlying it were overridden and joined together by an ice sheet in the early Pliocene about 5.3–3.6 Ma. During the Quaternary Period, the size of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet has fluctuated in response to glacial - interglacial cycles. During glacial epochs, this ice sheet was significantly thicker than it is currently is and extended to the edge of the continental shelves. During interglacial epochs, the West Antarctica Ice Sheet was thinner than during glacial epochs and its margins lay significantly inland of the continental margins.

text: Detailed studies of the paleontology, sedimentology, and stratigraphy of glacial and nonglacial deposits within the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent parts of the Weddell Sea and its Pacific continental shelf have found that it has become progressively glaciated as the climate of Antarctica dramatically and progressively cooled during the last 37 million years. This progressive cooling was contemporaneous with a reduction in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. During this climatic cooling, the Antarctic Peninsula was probably the last region of Antarctica to have been fully glaciated. Within the Antarctic Peninsula, mountain glaciation was initiated during the latest Eocene, about 37–34 Ma. The transition from temperate, alpine glaciation to a dynamic ice sheet occurred about 12.8 Ma. At this time, the Antarctic Peninsula formed as the bedrock islands underlying it were overridden and joined together by an ice sheet in the early

text: Pliocene

text: about 5.3–3.6 Ma. During the

text: Quaternary

text: Period, the size of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet has fluctuated in response to glacial - interglacial cycles. During glacial epochs, this ice sheet was significantly thicker than it is currently is and extended to the edge of the continental shelves. During interglacial epochs, the West Antarctica Ice Sheet was thinner than during glacial epochs and its margins lay significantly inland of the continental margins.

text: The Silurian Lagerstätte preserved in the limestone Wenlock Series of Herefordshire, England, offers paleontologists a rare snapshot of a moment in time, about 420 Mya. In the formation, layers of fine-grained volcanic ash punctuate a sequence of carbonate muds that were accumulating in a marine environment on the outer continental shelf. In this fine-grained matrix, soft-bodied animals and delicate, lightly sclerotized chitinous shells are often preserved in three dimensions, as calcitic fossilizations within calcareous nodules. Calcitic fossilization is an unusual feature.

text: The

text: Silurian

text: Lagerstätte

text: preserved in the

text: limestone

text: Wenlock Series of

text: Herefordshire

text: England

text: , offers paleontologists a rare snapshot of a moment in time, about 420 Mya. In the formation, layers of fine-grained volcanic ash punctuate a sequence of carbonate muds that were accumulating in a marine environment on the outer

text: continental shelf

text: . In this fine-grained matrix,

text: soft-bodied animals

text: and delicate, lightly sclerotized

text: chitin

text: ous shells are often preserved in three dimensions, as calcitic fossilizations within calcareous nodules. Calcitic fossilization is an unusual feature.

text: Another effect of glaciation can be seen on East Falkland in the basins called glacial cirques that were created on Mount Usborne.  On West Falkland there are glacial cirques on Mount Adam and on the Hornby mountains.  Several of these hold tarns, or small cirque ponds.

text: Another effect of glaciation can be seen on East Falkland in the basins called glacial

text: cirques

text: that were created on

text: Mount Usborne

text: .  On West Falkland there are glacial cirques on

text: Mount Adam

text: and on the Hornby mountains.  Several of these hold

text: tarns

text: , or small cirque ponds.

text: Factors in mass extinctions include continental drift, changes in atmospheric and marine chemistry, volcanism and other aspects of mountain formation, changes in glaciation, changes in sea level, and impact events.

text: Factors in mass extinctions include

text: continental drift

text: , changes in atmospheric and marine

text: chemistry

text: volcanism

text: and other aspects of

text: mountain formation

text: , changes in

text: glaciation

text: , changes in

text: sea level

text: , and

text: impact event

text: s.

text: The villa has been designated by UNESCO as part of the World Heritage Site "City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto".The villa and extensive gardens are open to the public in the afternoon, year round. The building also houses a museum of archeology in the basement, with hundreds of fossils of plant and animal life in the region. Its large park was laid out in the 19th century and was used as a film location for Senso.

text: The villa has been designated by

text: UNESCO

text: as part of the

text: World Heritage Site

text: "City of Vicenza and the

text: Palladian Villas of the Veneto

text: ".The villa and extensive gardens are open to the public in the afternoon, year round. The building also houses a museum of archeology in the basement, with hundreds of fossils of plant and animal life in the region. Its large park was laid out in the 19th century and was used as a film location for

text: Senso

text: To gain better research and knowledge about these climate changes, buoys are cast out to sea where they are located by satellite.  The satellite pics up these frequencies sent out by the buoys drifting in the ocean off the continental coast, producing much needed data to increase predictability. Original technology of the buoy can date back thirty years, but with advancements in technology, the data collected nowadays do not just focus on the oceanic currents.  Information gathered can reflect the wind patterns, temperatures, and certain densities of the ocean in specific areas, as all these factors are constantly fluctuating.  These buoys are located all over the world, oceans and great lakes.  The data collected goes to the National Data Buoy Center, where experts record and analyze the feedback.  With relation to wave currents, the buoys use accelerometers that can identify the directional vector of the waves.  They also record the special distance between the trough and crest of each wave.  This information that is constantly used by sailors, can be life saving and result in a more efficient trip across the sea.

text: Early plants were small, unicellular or filamentous, composed mostly of soft body tissues, with simple branching.  The identification of plant tissues in Cambrian strata is an uncertain area in the evolutionary history of plants because of the small and soft-bodied nature of these plants.  It is also difficult in a fossil of this age to distinguish among various similar appearing groups with simple branching patterns, and not all of these groups are plants.  One exception to the uncertainty of fossils from this age is the group of calcareous green algae, Dasycladales found in the fossil record since the middle Cambrian.  These algae do not belong to the lineage that is ancestral to the land plants.  Other major groups of green algae had been established by this time, but there were no land plants with vascular tissues until the mid-Silurian.

text: Early plants were small, unicellular or filamentous, composed mostly of soft body tissues, with simple branching.  The identification of plant tissues in Cambrian strata is an uncertain area in the evolutionary history of plants because of the small and soft-bodied nature of these plants.  It is also difficult in a fossil of this age to distinguish among various similar appearing groups with simple branching patterns, and not all of these groups are plants.  One exception to the uncertainty of fossils from this age is the group of calcareous green algae,

text: Dasycladales

text: found in the fossil record since the middle Cambrian.  These algae do not belong to the lineage that is ancestral to the land plants.  Other major groups of green algae had been established by this time, but there were no

text: land plants

text: with vascular tissues until the mid-

text: Silurian

text: The hypothesis that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Flemish cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius in 1596.

text: The

text: hypothesis

text: that

text: continents might have 'drifted'

text: was first put forward by Flemish cartographer and geographer

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: in 1596.

text: As with the Oregon Coast Range as a whole, the Southern Oregon Coast Range likely began as an ocean island chain that collided with the continental tectonic plate of North America more than 60 million years ago. In the Southern Range the 64‑million-year-old Roseburg volcanics that formed this section are the oldest portions of the entire range. The range is part of a forearc basin that has slowly rotated about 51 degrees since the Eocene period. Much of the mountain structures are pillow basalt formations created during the volcanic period and then uplifted with the collision into the continental plate. Other geologic features are mainly the result of erosion and weather forces carving steam beds and valleys out of the rock formations.

text: As with the Oregon Coast Range as a whole, the Southern Oregon Coast Range likely began as an ocean island chain that collided with the continental

text: tectonic plate

text: of

text: North America

text: more than 60 million years ago. In the Southern Range the 64‑million-year-old

text: Roseburg volcanics

text: that formed this section are the oldest portions of the entire range. The range is part of a forearc basin that has slowly rotated about 51 degrees since the Eocene period. Much of the mountain structures are

text: pillow basalt

text: formations created during the volcanic period and then uplifted with the collision into the continental plate. Other geologic features are mainly the result of

text: erosion

text: and weather forces carving steam beds and valleys out of the rock formations.

text: Geophysicists and exploration geologists who look for oil and gas fields classify the subsurface characteristics, or tectonic setting, of geological structures that contain hydrocarbons. Any one oil and gas field may reflect influences from multiple geological periods and events, but geoscientists often attempt to characterize a field based on the dominant geological event that influenced the structure's ability to trap and contain oil and gas in recoverable quantities.

text: Geophysicists

text: and exploration

text: geologists

text: who look for oil and gas fields classify the subsurface characteristics, or tectonic setting, of geological structures that contain hydrocarbons. Any one oil and gas field may reflect influences from multiple geological periods and events, but geoscientists often attempt to characterize a field based on the dominant geological event that influenced the structure's ability to trap and contain oil and gas in recoverable quantities.

text: Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms". These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond more quickly.  There are also key threshold factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change.

text: Factors that can shape climate are called

text: climate forcing

text: s or "forcing mechanisms". These include processes such as variations in

text: solar radiation

text: , variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the

text: albedo

text: or reflectivity of the continents and oceans,

text: mountain-building

text: and

text: continental drift

text: and changes in

text: greenhouse gas

text: concentrations. There are a variety of

text: climate change feedbacks

text: that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond more quickly.  There are also key

text: threshold factors

text: which when exceeded can produce rapid change.

text: According to the Köppen climate classification, Västerås experiences a humid continental climate with cold winters and warm summers.

text: According to the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: , Västerås experiences a

text: humid continental climate

text: with cold winters and warm summers.

text: One famous example is the coelacanth, which was thought to have become extinct in the very late Cretaceous – until a live specimen was caught in 1938.  The animals known as "Burgess Shale type fauna" are best known from rocks of the Early and Middle Cambrian periods. Since 2006, though, a few fossils of similar animals have been found in rocks from the Ordovician, Silurian, and Early Devonian periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale. The particular way in which such animals have been fossilized may depend on types of ocean chemistry that were present for limited periods of time.

text: One famous example is the

text: coelacanth

text: , which was thought to have become extinct in the very late

text: Cretaceous

text: – until a live specimen was caught in 1938.  The animals known as "

text: Burgess Shale type fauna

text: " are best known from rocks of the Early and Middle

text: Cambrian

text: periods. Since 2006, though, a few fossils of similar animals have been found in rocks from the

text: Ordovician

text: Silurian

text: , and Early

text: Devonian

text: periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale. The

text: particular way

text: in which such animals have been fossilized may depend on types of ocean chemistry that were present for limited periods of time.

text: According to satellite measurements, the total area of the glaciation in the Tavan Bogd massif area amounted to 204 km in 2009. The glaciates area was 213 km in 1989; in other words, the glaciers lost 4.2% of their area over the 20 years.

text: The site of the Princeton Chert (Ashnola in older sources) and its fossils have been known since the 1950s, but have recently attracted increased attention. This may be due to the rare type of silica permineralized fossil Lagerstätten found, which has preserved plants and animals in minute 3D detail, with exceptional internal cellular detail. This has meant anatomical descriptions and reconstruction of whole plants from isolated parts has been possible in many species. Few plant fossils elsewhere in the world exhibit such excellence in both preservation and diversity. Similar aged fossil beds in Eocene lake sediments are found elsewhere in British Columbia, including in Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park near Smithers in northern British Columbia, and the McAbee Fossil Beds west of Kamloops, about  NNW of the Princeton Chert beds.

text: The site of the Princeton Chert (Ashnola in older sources) and its fossils have been known since the 1950s, but have recently attracted increased attention. This may be due to the rare type of silica permineralized fossil

text: Lagerstätten

text: found, which has preserved plants and animals in minute 3D detail, with exceptional internal cellular detail. This has meant anatomical descriptions and reconstruction of whole plants from isolated parts has been possible in many species. Few plant fossils elsewhere in the world exhibit such excellence in both preservation and diversity. Similar aged fossil beds in

text: Eocene

text: lake sediments are found elsewhere in

text: British Columbia

text: , including in

text: Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park

text: near

text: Smithers

text: in northern British Columbia, and the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: west of

text: Kamloops

text: , about  NNW of the Princeton Chert beds.

text: A plant fossil is any preserved part of a plant that has long since died. Such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of charcoal that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded history (before about 3500 BC).

text: A

text: plant

text: fossil

text: is any preserved part of a

text: plant

text: that has long since died. Such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of

text: charcoal

text: that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded

text: history

text: (before about

text: 3500 BC

text: The group's performance was used on the Rolling Stones' song "Continental Drift" on their 1989 Steel Wheels album, whose recording was documented in author Paul Bowles' Tangier journal, Days and in journalist Stephen Davis's history of the Rolling Stones, Old Gods Almost Dead. An online African Music Encyclopedia quoted Mick Jagger as calling the group "one of the most musically inspiring groups still left on the planet". Also in 1989, they toured a couple of dates with Ornette Coleman. In 1992, Axiom released the album Apocalypse Across the Sky, recorded in 1991 and produced by Bill Laswell. A track from the 1991 sessions also was featured on the 1994 Bill Laswell-produced Lost in the Translation: Axiom Ambient various artists compilation.

text: The group's performance was used on the Rolling Stones' song "Continental Drift" on their 1989 Steel Wheels album, whose recording was documented in author

text: Paul Bowles

text: ' Tangier journal, Days and in journalist

text: Stephen Davis

text: 's history of the Rolling Stones, Old Gods Almost Dead. An online African Music Encyclopedia quoted

text: Mick Jagger

text: as calling the group "one of the most musically inspiring groups still left on the planet". Also in 1989, they toured a couple of dates with Ornette Coleman. In 1992,

text: Axiom

text: released the album Apocalypse Across the Sky, recorded in 1991 and produced by

text: Bill Laswell

text: . A track from the 1991 sessions also was featured on the 1994 Bill Laswell-produced Lost in the Translation: Axiom Ambient various artists compilation.

text: The Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society  was founded in 1821 to promote the scientific study of animals, plants, fossils, rocks and minerals.

text: The Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society  was founded in 1821 to promote the scientific study of

text: animal

text: s,

text: plants

text: fossils

text: rocks

text: and

text: minerals

text: The Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago. As it cooled the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle solidified. The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere, which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates, which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100 mm annually, colliding, combining into continents, splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.

text: The Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago. As it cooled the

text: lithosphere

text: , consisting of the

text: crust

text: and the rigid uppermost part of the

text: mantle

text: solidified. The lithosphere rides on the

text: asthenosphere

text: , which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into

text: tectonic plates

text: , which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100 mm annually, colliding, combining into

text: continents

text: , splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.

text: Chinese pottery can also classified as being either northern or southern.  China comprises two separate and geologically different land masses, brought together by the action of continental drift and forming a junction that lies between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, sometimes known as the Nanshan-Qinling divide. The contrasting geology of the north and south led to differences in the raw materials available for making ceramics; in particular the north lacks petunse or "porcelain stone", needed for porcelain on the strict definition.  Ware-types can be from very widespread kiln-sites in either north or south China, but the two can nearly always be distinguished, and influences across this divide may affect shape and decoration, but will be based on very different clay bodies, with fundamental effects.  The kiln types were also different. Southern materials have high silica, low alumina and high potassium oxide, the reverse of northern materials in each case.  The northern materials are often very suitable for stoneware, while in the south there are also areas highly suitable for porcelain.

text: Chinese pottery can also classified as being either northern or southern.  China comprises two separate and geologically different land masses, brought together by the action of

text: continental drift

text: and forming a junction that lies between the

text: Yellow

text: and

text: Yangtze

text: rivers, sometimes known as the Nanshan-Qinling divide. The contrasting geology of the north and south led to differences in the raw materials available for making ceramics; in particular the north lacks

text: petunse

text: or "porcelain stone", needed for porcelain on the strict definition.  Ware-types can be from very widespread kiln-sites in either north or south China, but the two can nearly always be distinguished, and influences across this divide may affect shape and decoration, but will be based on very different clay bodies, with fundamental effects.  The kiln types were also different. Southern materials have high

text: silica

text: , low

text: alumina

text: and high

text: potassium oxide

text: , the reverse of northern materials in each case.  The northern materials are often very suitable for stoneware, while in the south there are also areas highly suitable for porcelain.

text: Continental Drifts, 16 July, at Rough Trade East, Tower Hamlets

text: Continental Drifts, 16 July, at

text: Rough Trade East

text: Tower Hamlets

text: The area is characterized by humid continental climate which typically has a large seasonal temperature difference, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate, while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation and even a wintertime drought.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa" (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: The area is characterized by humid continental climate which typically has a large seasonal temperature difference, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate, while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation and even a wintertime drought.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: " (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: In 1906 he became professor at Delft University and this time he got enough resources and students to make his work successful. The same year he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1910-1911 he led a geological expedition to Timor. His research at Delft was mainly on the material collected during that expedition, and (together with W.A.J.M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht) on the geology of the Netherlands. In 1927 he was a guide of the Shaler Memorial Expedition to South Africa, organized by Harvard University. On the expedition he met Alexander Du Toit, both geologists were among the (at that time rare) supporters of Alfred Wegeners' continental drift theory.

text: In 1906 he became professor at

text: Delft University

text: and this time he got enough resources and students to make his work successful. The same year he became member of the

entity_name: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: . In 1910-1911 he led a geological expedition to

text: Timor

text: . His research at

text: Delft

text: was mainly on the material collected during that expedition, and (together with

text: W.A.J.M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht

text: ) on the geology of the Netherlands. In 1927 he was a guide of the

text: Shaler Memorial Expedition

text: to South Africa, organized by

text: Harvard University

text: . On the expedition he met

text: Alexander Du Toit

text: , both geologists were among the (at that time rare) supporters of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: s'

text: continental drift

text: theory.

text: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old.

text: Fossils are the preserved remains or

text: traces

text: of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing

text: rock

text: formations and

text: sedimentary

text: layers (

text: strata

text: ) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the

text: Holocene

text: Epoch to the oldest from the

text: Archaean

text: Eon, up to 3.4

text: billion

text: years old.

text: Isostatic depression is the sinking of large parts of the Earth's crust into the asthenosphere. The sinking is caused by a heavy  weight placed on the Earth's surface. Often this is caused by the heavy weight of glacial ice due to continental glaciation. This is a process in which permanent ice places pressure on the Earth's crust, thereby depressing it with its weight. After continental glaciation has receded,  it is common for isostatic rebound to occur.

text: Isostatic depression is the sinking of large parts of the Earth's

text: crust

text: into the

text: asthenosphere

text: . The sinking is caused by a heavy  weight placed on the Earth's surface. Often this is caused by the heavy weight of

text: glacial ice

text: due to

text: continent

text: al

text: glaciation

text: . This is a process in which permanent ice places pressure on the Earth's crust, thereby depressing it with its weight. After continental glaciation has receded,  it is common for

text: isostatic rebound

text: to occur.

text: Generally, products made from fossilized or decomposed animals, such as petroleum formed from the ancient remains of marine animals, are not considered animal products. Crops grown in soil fertilized with animal remains are rarely characterized as animal products.

text: Generally, products made from fossilized or decomposed animals, such as

text: petroleum

text: formed

text: from the ancient remains of marine animals, are not considered animal products. Crops grown in soil

text: fertilized

text: with animal remains are rarely characterized as animal products.

text: Fossil plants from the same area as the McAbee fossil beds (Cache Creek and Kamloops B.C.) were first reported by G.M. Dawson. Palaeontological and geological studies of the McAbee Fossil Beds are more recent, however, going back at least to research in the 1960s and early 1970s by Dr. Len Hills of the University of Calgary and his students on the fossil spores and pollen (palynology) and the leaf fossils, and research on the fossil fish from the fossil beds by Dr. Mark Wilson of the University of Alberta. Thomas Ewing provided a detailed analysis of the geology of the Kamloops Group, including the McAbee beds.  Significant research on the fossil plants and insects has only occurred since the late 1980s.<ref name="Greenwood1995">{{cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=D.R. |last2=Wing |first2=S.L. |year=1995 |title=Eocene continental climates and latitudinal temperature gradients |journal=Geology |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=1044–1048 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023

text: Fossil plants from the same area as the McAbee fossil beds (

text: Cache Creek

text: and

text: Kamloops

text: B.C.) were first reported by G.M.

text: Dawson

text: . Palaeontological and geological studies of the McAbee Fossil Beds are more recent, however, going back at least to research in the 1960s and early 1970s by Dr. Len Hills of the

text: University of Calgary

text: and his students on the fossil spores and pollen (

text: palynology

text: ) and the leaf fossils, and research on the

text: fossil fish

text: from the fossil beds by Dr. Mark Wilson of the

text: University of Alberta

text: . Thomas Ewing provided a detailed analysis of the geology of the Kamloops Group, including the McAbee beds.  Significant research on the fossil plants and insects has only occurred since the late 1980s.<ref name="Greenwood1995">{{cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=D.R. |last2=Wing |first2=S.L. |year=1995 |title=Eocene continental climates and latitudinal temperature gradients |journal=Geology |volume=23 |issue=11 |pages=1044–1048 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023

text: When Irving started his graduate studies, the history of the Earth's magnetic field was known for the few centuries since the first magnetic observatories had been established. With fellow students Ken Creer and Jan Hospers, he looked to extend this record back in time. Irving used a magnetometer, recently designed by Patrick Blackett, to analyze the magnetic directions imparted to rocks by their iron minerals. He found large discrepancies between the directions of the present magnetic field direction and those recorded in Precambrian rock in the highlands of Scotland. He surmised the only explanation could be that Scotland had shifted relative to the geomagnetic pole. Irving also determined that India had moved northward by 6000 km and rotated by more than . These results confirmed the predictions Alfred Wegener had put forth in his theory of continental drift in 1912.

text: When Irving started his graduate studies, the history of the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: was known for the few centuries since the first magnetic observatories had been established. With fellow students Ken Creer and Jan Hospers, he looked to extend this record back in time. Irving used a

text: magnetometer

text: , recently designed by

text: Patrick Blackett

text: , to analyze the magnetic directions imparted to rocks by their

text: iron

text: minerals. He found large discrepancies between the directions of the present magnetic field direction and those recorded in

text: Precambrian

text: rock in the highlands of

text: Scotland

text: . He surmised the only explanation could be that Scotland had shifted relative to the

text: geomagnetic pole

text: . Irving also determined that

text: India

text: had moved northward by 6000 km and rotated by more than . These results confirmed the predictions

text: Alfred Wegener

text: had put forth in his theory of

text: continental drift

text: in 1912.

text: Distinct island flora and fauna have evolved over thousands of years.  Species here often differ from those found on the mainland.  Many common continental species are not found on the islands, or have evolved into unique subspecies such as the black bear which is larger than its mainland cousin.  Other species have been introduced relatively recently, such as the Sitka deer, ermine, raccoon, squirrel and beaver. Introduced species now exist in large numbers, much to the detriment of native plants and animals.

text: Distinct island flora and fauna have evolved over thousands of years.  Species here often differ from those found on the mainland.  Many common continental species are not found on the islands, or have evolved into unique subspecies such as the

text: black bear

text: which is larger than its mainland cousin.  Other species have been introduced relatively recently, such as the

text: Sitka deer

text: ermine

text: raccoon

text: squirrel

text: and

text: beaver

text: . Introduced species now exist in large numbers, much to the detriment of native plants and animals.

text: The Acadian orogeny is a long-lasting mountain building event which began in the Middle Devonian, reaching a climax in the early Late Devonian.  It was active for approximately 50 million years, beginning roughly around 375 million years ago, with deformational, plutonic, and metamorphic events extending into the Early Mississippian.  The Acadian orogeny is the third of the four orogenies that created the Appalachian orogen and subsequent basin.  The preceding orogenies consisted of the Potomac and Taconic orogeny, which followed a rift/drift stage in the Late Neoproterozoic.  The Acadian orogeny involved the collision of a series of Avalonian continental fragments with the Laurasian continent.  Geographically, the Acadian orogen extended from the Canadian Maritime provinces migrating in a southwesterly direction toward Alabama.  However, the Northern Appalachian region, from New England northeastern ward into Gaspé region of Canada, was the most greatly affected region by the collision.

text: The Acadian orogeny is a long-lasting

text: mountain

text: building event which began in the Middle

text: Devonian

text: , reaching a climax in the early Late

text: Devonian

text: .  It was active for approximately 50 million years, beginning roughly around 375 million years ago, with deformational,

text: plutonic

text: , and

text: metamorphic

text: events extending into the Early

text: Mississippian

text: .  The Acadian orogeny is the third of the four orogenies that created the

text: Appalachian

text: orogen

text: and subsequent basin.  The preceding orogenies consisted of the Potomac and

text: Taconic orogeny

text: , which followed a rift/drift stage in the Late

text: Neoproterozoic

text: .  The Acadian orogeny involved the collision of a series of

text: Avalonia

text: n continental fragments with the

text: Laurasia

text: n continent.  Geographically, the Acadian orogen extended from the Canadian Maritime provinces migrating in a southwesterly direction toward Alabama.  However, the Northern Appalachian region, from New England northeastern ward into

text: Gaspé

text: region of Canada, was the most greatly affected region by the collision.

text: Nothing compels citizens to experience time at such a high rate; they can equally choose to "rush", meaning to experience consciousness at a speed slower than the maximum the polis hardware can maintain. Hence citizens could experience consciousness at the same speed as a human flesher would, or slower, or even freeze their conscious state for a set time or until a previously determined event occurs. Citizens in Lokhande Polis have opted to experience consciousness so slowly that they can witness continental drift and geological erosion.

text: Nothing compels citizens to experience time at such a high rate; they can equally choose to "rush", meaning to experience consciousness at a speed slower than the maximum the polis hardware can maintain. Hence citizens could experience consciousness at the same speed as a human flesher would, or slower, or even freeze their conscious state for a set time or until a previously determined event occurs. Citizens in Lokhande Polis have opted to experience consciousness so slowly that they can witness

text: continental drift

text: and geological

text: erosion

text: This climatic region has large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa"(Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: This climatic region has large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: "(Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Fossil fuels such as coal and oil are made primarily of plant material that was deposited millions of years ago. This period of time equates to thousands of half-lives of C, so essentially all of the C in fossil fuels has decayed. Fossil fuels also are depleted in C relative to the atmosphere, because they were originally formed from living organisms. Therefore, the carbon from fossil fuels that is returned to the atmosphere through combustion is depleted in both C and C compared to atmospheric carbon dioxide.

text: Fossil fuels such as

text: coal

text: and

text: oil

text: are made primarily of plant material that was deposited millions of years ago. This period of time equates to thousands of half-lives of C, so essentially all of the C in fossil fuels has decayed. Fossil fuels also are depleted in C relative to the atmosphere, because they were originally formed from living organisms. Therefore, the carbon from fossil fuels that is returned to the atmosphere through combustion is depleted in both C and C compared to atmospheric carbon dioxide.

text: The climate of Quebec City is classified as humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfb).

text: The

text: climate

text: of Quebec City is classified as

text: humid continental

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfb).

text: Geologic formations are usually sedimentary rock layers, but may also be metamorphic rocks and volcanic flows.  Igneous intrusive rocks are generally not divided into formations.

text: Geologic formations are usually

text: sedimentary rock

text: layers, but may also be

text: metamorphic rocks

text: and

text: volcanic

text: flows.  Igneous intrusive rocks are generally not divided into formations.

text: Plate tectonics and as a result continental drift and the creation of separate land masses would create diversified ecosystems which is thought to have promoted the diversification of species, and that diversity is one of the strongest defences against extinction.

text: Plate tectonics and as a result

text: continental drift

text: and the creation of separate land masses would create diversified

text: ecosystem

text: s which is thought to have promoted the diversification of species, and that diversity is one of the strongest defences against extinction.

text: Plate tectonics and the chemical composition of the atmosphere (specifically greenhouse gases) are the two most prevailing factors present within the geologic time scale. Continental drift influences both cold and warm climatic episodes. Atmospheric circulation and climate are strongly influenced by the location and formation of continents and megacontinents. Therefore, continental drift influences mean global temperature.

text: Plate tectonics and the chemical composition of the atmosphere (specifically

text: greenhouse gas

text: es) are the two most prevailing factors present within the

text: geologic time scale

text: Continental drift

text: influences both cold and warm climatic episodes. Atmospheric circulation and climate are strongly influenced by the location and formation of continents and megacontinents. Therefore, continental drift influences mean global temperature.

text: The rocks of the mountains originated about two billion years ago as 50,000 feet (15,000 m) deep sediments at the bottom of a sea near the equator. Because of continental drift these collided with Laurentia (precursor of modern North America) in a mountain building episode known as the Grenville orogeny. During this time the sedimentary rock was changed into metamorphic rock. It is these Proterozoic minerals and lithologies that make up the core of the massif. Such minerals of interest include:

text: The rocks of the mountains originated about two billion years ago as 50,000 feet (15,000 m) deep

text: sediments

text: at the bottom of a sea near the

text: equator

text: . Because of

text: continental drift

text: these collided with

text: Laurentia

text: (precursor of modern North America) in a mountain building episode known as the

text: Grenville orogeny

text: . During this time the

text: sedimentary rock

text: was changed into

text: metamorphic rock

text: . It is these

text: Proterozoic

text: minerals

text: and

text: lithologies

text: that make up the core of the massif. Such minerals of interest include:

text: Many fossil tree species have been found in the intertrappean beds  including Grewioxylon from the Eocene and Heritieroxylon keralensis from the middle Miocene in Kerala and Heritieroxylon arunachalensis from the Mio-Pliocene of Arunachal Pradesh and at many other places. The discovery of Glossopteris fern fossils from India and Antarctica led to the discovery of Gondwanaland and led to the greater understanding of continental drift. Fossil Cycads are known from India while seven Cycad species continue to survive in India.

text: Many fossil tree species have been found in the intertrappean beds  including Grewioxylon from the Eocene and Heritieroxylon keralensis from the middle

text: Miocene

text: in Kerala and Heritieroxylon arunachalensis from the Mio-

text: Pliocene

text: of Arunachal Pradesh and at many other places. The discovery of

text: Glossopteris

text: fern fossils from India and Antarctica led to the discovery of Gondwanaland and led to the greater understanding of

text: continental drift

text: . Fossil

text: Cycads

text: are known from India while seven Cycad species continue to survive in India.

text: The vertical line on the sight was relatively short, and could not be used directly to measure drift – unlike the long drift wires of the CSBS it replaced. To address this, the collimator handle could be used to manually rotate the sighting assembly forward, allowing the bomb aimer to point the sight further in front of the aircraft's location. This allowed the bomb aimer to select any convenient object on the ground for drift measurements, including the target itself, long before the aircraft reached it. Through periodic movements of the handle, the bomb aimer could ensure the drift line continued to pass through the target. When the handle was returned to the resting position and released, the shaft to the computor automatically re-engaged and started tracking the proper range angle again. The handle was also used to rotate the collimator forward for storage.

text: Rożyńsk has a humid continental climate. It is characterized by cold winters and fairly warm summers. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb". (Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: Rożyńsk has a

text: humid continental climate

text: . It is characterized by cold winters and fairly warm summers. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb". (Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: A conceptual model of early behavior and migration of green sturgeon early life intervals based on the Kynard et al. 2005 study follows:  Females deposit eggs at sites with large rocks and moderate or eddy water flow that keeps the large, dense, poorly adhesive eggs from drifting, so eggs sink deep within the rocks.  CH2M Hill (2002) assumed that hatchling green sturgeon embryos drift downstream like hatchling white sturgeon embryos.  This was incorrect.  Hatchling green sturgeon embryos seek nearby cover, and remain under rocks, unlike white sturgeon which drift downstream as embryos (i.e. newly hatched green sturgeon do not exhibit pelagic behavior like newly hatched white sturgeon) (Deng et al. 2002).  After about 9 days fish develop into larvae and initiate exogenous foraging up- and downstream on the bottom (they do not swim up into the water column, unlike white sturgeon).  After a day or so, larvae initiate a downstream dispersion migration that lasts about 12 days (peak, 5 days).  At the age of ten days, when exogenous foraging begins, green sturgeons are 19 to 29 mm in length (mean 24 mm) (Deng et al. 2002).  At the age of 15 to 21 days, green sturgeon are 30 mm or greater in length (Deng et al. 2002).  At the age of 45 days, metamorphosis is complete and green sturgeon are 70 to 80 mm in length (Deng et al. 2002).  All migration and foraging during the migration period is nocturnal, unlike white sturgeon.  During the first 10 months of life, green sturgeon are the most nocturnal of any North American sturgeon yet studied, and this was the case for all life intervals during any activity (migration, foraging, or wintering).  Post-migrant larvae are benthic, foraging up- and downstream diurnally with a nocturnal activity peak.  Foraging larvae select open habitat, not structure habitat, but continue to use cover in the day.  When larvae develop into juveniles, there is no change in response to bright habitat, and no preference or avoidance of bright habitat.  In the fall, juveniles migrate downstream mostly at night to wintering sites, ceasing migration at 7–8 °C.  During winter, juveniles select low light habitat, likely deep pools with some rock structure.  Wintering juveniles forage actively at night between dusk and dawn and are inactive during the day, seeking the darkest available habitat.

text: The film premiered in Belgium on March 1, 2006. It was eventually released in 70 countries, with the last release being in China, on June 9, 2006. The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $660 million. Three more sequels were released — Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009, Ice Age: Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age: Collision Course in 2016.

text: The film premiered in

text: Belgium

text: on March 1, 2006. It was eventually released in 70 countries, with the last release being in

text: China

text: , on June 9, 2006. The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $660 million. Three more sequels were released —

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: in 2009,

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: in 2012 and

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: in 2016.

text: Dinklage provided the voice of Captain Gutt in the 2012 computer-animated comedy Ice Age: Continental Drift (2012), which earned over $877 million to become his highest-grossing release. In 2014, he played Bolivar Trask in the superhero film X-Men: Days of Future Past. The same year, he voiced Ghost in the video game Destiny. He then starred in the comedy Pixels (2015), The Boss (2016) and the computer-animated comedy The Angry Birds Movie (2016).

text: Dinklage provided the voice of

text: Captain Gutt

text: in the 2012 computer-animated comedy

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: (2012), which earned over $877 million to become his highest-grossing release. In 2014, he played

text: Bolivar Trask

text: in the

text: superhero film

text: X-Men: Days of Future Past

text: . The same year, he voiced Ghost in the video game

text: Destiny

text: . He then starred in the comedy

text: Pixels

text: The Boss

text: (2016) and the computer-animated comedy

text: The Angry Birds Movie

text: Another method used to deduce the climate of the time is to use the types of plants found in the fossil record. The fossil record shows a floral community dominated by conifers, ginkgoes, ferns, cycads, bryophytes, horsetails and a few flowering plants. The plants indicated, through structural adaptations, a seasonal cold period and a mean annual temperature around  (higher than found by the oxygen isotope data) and the presence of ferns and bryophytes indicates rainy conditions. A large inland sea that extended into central Australia modified its continental climate.

text: Another method used to deduce the climate of the time is to use the types of

text: plant

text: s found in the fossil record. The fossil record shows a floral community dominated by

text: conifer

text: s,

text: ginkgo

text: es,

text: fern

text: s,

text: cycad

text: s,

text: bryophyte

text: s,

text: horsetail

text: s and a few

text: flowering plant

text: s. The plants indicated, through structural adaptations, a seasonal cold period and a mean annual temperature around  (higher than found by the oxygen isotope data) and the presence of ferns and bryophytes indicates rainy conditions. A large inland sea that extended into central Australia modified its continental climate.

text: However, recent research shows that the hotspot itself may have moved with time. Some evidence comes from analysis of the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite in ancient lava flows sampled at four seamounts (Tarduno et al., 2003): this evidence from paleomagnetism shows a more complex history than the commonly accepted view of a stationary hotspot. If the hotspot had remained above a fixed mantle plume during the past 80 million years, the latitude as recorded by the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite (paleolatitude) should be constant for each sample; this should also signify original cooling at the same latitude as the current location of the Hawaiian hotspot. Instead of remaining constant, the paleolatitudes of the Emperor Seamounts show a change from north to south, with decreasing age. The paleomagnetic data from the seamounts of the Emperor chain suggest motion of the Hawaiian hotspot in Earth's mantle. Tarduno et al. (2009) have summarized evidence that the bend in the seamount chain may be caused by circulation patterns in the flowing solid mantle (mantle "wind") rather than a change in plate motion.

text: However, recent research shows that the hotspot itself may have moved with time. Some evidence comes from analysis of the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by

text: magnetite

text: in ancient lava flows sampled at four seamounts (Tarduno et al., 2003): this evidence from

text: paleomagnetism

text: shows a more complex history than the commonly accepted view of a stationary hotspot. If the hotspot had remained above a fixed

text: mantle plume

text: during the past 80 million years, the latitude as recorded by the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite (paleolatitude) should be constant for each sample; this should also signify original cooling at the same latitude as the current location of the Hawaiian hotspot. Instead of remaining constant, the paleolatitudes of the Emperor Seamounts show a change from north to south, with decreasing age. The paleomagnetic data from the seamounts of the Emperor chain suggest motion of the Hawaiian hotspot in Earth's mantle. Tarduno et al. (2009) have summarized evidence that the bend in the seamount chain may be caused by circulation patterns in the flowing solid mantle (mantle "wind") rather than a change in plate motion.

text: The Cobequid Mountains trace their geologic history to the Precambrian and Devonian ages; consequently the mountains are composed of a combination of sediments, granites, and volcanic rock all of which has been crushed and folded by continental drift when this part of Nova Scotia was located at the centre of the Pangea supercontinent. Subsequent erosion over millions of years has resulted in the present-day low range of mountains and rolling hills.

text: The Cobequid Mountains trace their geologic history to the

text: Precambrian

text: and

text: Devonian

text: ages; consequently the mountains are composed of a combination of sediments, granites, and volcanic rock all of which has been crushed and folded by

text: continental drift

text: when this part of Nova Scotia was located at the centre of the

text: Pangea

text: supercontinent. Subsequent erosion over millions of years has resulted in the present-day low range of mountains and rolling hills.

text: Castilla-La Mancha has a continentalized Mediterranean climate: a Mediterranean climate with a marked character of a continental climate. The continentalized Mediterranean climate is similar to a typical Mediterranean climate, but with more extreme temperatures typical of a continental climate. Lack of a marine influence leads to much more extreme temperatures: hotter summers and quite cold winters, with a daily oscillation of 18.5 °C (33.3 °F).  Summer is the driest season, with temperatures often exceeding , sometimes reaching and exceeding . In winter, temperatures often drop below , producing frosts on clear nights, and occasional snow on cloudy nights.

text: Castilla-La Mancha has a

text: continentalized Mediterranean climate

text: : a

text: Mediterranean climate

text: with a marked character of a

text: continental climate

text: . The continentalized Mediterranean climate is similar to a

text: typical Mediterranean climate

text: , but with more extreme temperatures typical of a continental climate. Lack of a marine influence leads to much more extreme temperatures: hotter summers and quite cold winters, with a daily oscillation of 18.5 °C (33.3 °F).  Summer is the driest season, with temperatures often exceeding , sometimes reaching and exceeding . In winter, temperatures often drop below , producing frosts on clear nights, and occasional snow on cloudy nights.

text: This was in the days before general acceptance of the theory of 'continental-drift', plate-tectonics and sea-floor spreading, but the Antarctic fossil plants were seen by a few bold souls as powerful palaeontological evidence for the objective reality of the hypothetical former 'super-continent', Gondwana.

text: This was in the days before general acceptance of the theory of 'continental-drift', plate-tectonics and sea-floor spreading, but the Antarctic fossil plants were seen by a few bold souls as powerful palaeontological evidence for the objective reality of the hypothetical former 'super-continent',

text: Gondwana

text: The structure's walls are made of local desert rocks, stacked within wood forms, filled with concrete. Wright always favored using the materials readily available rather than those that must be transported to the site. In Wright’s own words: “There were simple characteristic silhouettes to go by, tremendous drifts and heaps of sunburned desert rocks were nearby to be used. We got it all together with the landscape…” The flat surfaces of the rocks were placed outward facing and large boulders filled the interior space so concrete could be conserved.

text: The structure's walls are made of local desert rocks, stacked within wood forms, filled with

text: concrete

text: . Wright always favored using the materials readily available rather than those that must be transported to the site. In Wright’s own words: “There were simple characteristic silhouettes to go by, tremendous drifts and heaps of sunburned desert rocks were nearby to be used. We got it all together with the landscape…” The flat surfaces of the rocks were placed outward facing and large boulders filled the interior space so concrete could be conserved.

text: Pentecost often engages in collaborations with groups and individuals including Critical Art Ensemble, Beatriz da Costa, 16Beaver, Compass, Continental Drift, and Brian Holmes.

text: Pentecost often engages in collaborations with groups and individuals including

text: Critical Art Ensemble

text: Beatriz da Costa

text: , 16Beaver, Compass, Continental Drift, and

text: Brian Holmes

text: There is conflicting evidence for magnetoreception in cattle. One study reported that resting and grazing cattle tend to align their body axes in the geomagnetic North-South (N-S) direction.  In a follow-up study, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment. However, in 2011, a group of Czech researchers reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using Google Earth images.

text: There is conflicting evidence for magnetoreception in cattle. One study reported that resting and grazing cattle tend to align their body axes in the geomagnetic North-South (N-S) direction.  In a follow-up study, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment. However, in 2011, a group of

text: Czech

text: researchers reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using

text: Google Earth

text: images.

text: Prevailing westerlies generally create much of the prevailing weather across much of Europe. The Siberian High brings colder, drier weather from the east. Away from the sea,  parts of Central and Eastern Europe have a borderline Oceanic/Continental Climate as they are milder than they would otherwise be due to the open ice-free waters of the North/Baltic Seas and lack of mountain barriers, but are not as mild as the Western coasts, and are subject to more frequent snowfalls. The Danube region through the Balkans, Ukraine and Southern Russia have a continental climate with cold winters and hotter summers, some areas bordering on a dry steppe climate with only certain months of higher precipitation, often due to thunderstorms.Some coastal regions of the Black Sea have micro-climates that are borderline humid continental/humid subtropical (or sometimes just the latter) due to the winters being mild enough and summer precipitation being high enough to preclude them as being Mediterranean, for example in Sochi, Russia. On the plains of Northern European Russia up to the Ural Mountains, the winter climate is much harsher than elsewhere in Europe with many months of below freezing average temperatures but with periods of hot summer weather. Nevertheless, year-to-year variations can produce different climates such as temperate in the winter, and tropical in the summer.

text: Prevailing westerlies

text: generally create much of the prevailing weather across much of Europe. The

text: Siberian High

text: brings colder, drier weather from the east. Away from the sea,  parts of Central and Eastern Europe have a borderline Oceanic/Continental Climate as they are milder than they would otherwise be due to the open ice-free waters of the North/Baltic Seas and lack of mountain barriers, but are not as mild as the Western coasts, and are subject to more frequent snowfalls. The Danube region through the Balkans, Ukraine and Southern Russia have a continental climate with cold winters and hotter summers, some areas bordering on a dry steppe climate with only certain months of higher precipitation, often due to thunderstorms.Some coastal regions of the Black Sea have micro-climates that are borderline humid continental/humid subtropical (or sometimes just the latter) due to the winters being mild enough and summer precipitation being high enough to preclude them as being Mediterranean, for example in

text: Sochi

text: Russia

text: . On the plains of Northern European Russia up to the Ural Mountains, the winter climate is much harsher than elsewhere in Europe with many months of below freezing average temperatures but with periods of hot summer weather. Nevertheless, year-to-year variations can produce different climates such as temperate in the winter, and tropical in the summer.

text: The climate is a typically arid continental climate.

text: The climate is a typically arid

text: continental climate

text: Frakes researches the relationship between continental drift and climate change.  He has written a number of papers about glaciation and plate tectonics.  His studies of ocean sediments helped to determine the history of glaciation, and have been published in well-respected journals, including Nature.

text: Frakes researches the relationship between

text: continental drift

text: and

text: climate change

text: .  He has written a number of papers about glaciation and plate tectonics.  His studies of ocean sediments helped to determine the history of glaciation, and have been published in well-respected journals, including Nature.

text: As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. The strata have been detected in late Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time. Glaciation locks up water from the world-ocean, and the interglacials free it, causing sea levels repeatedly to drop and rise; the vast shallow intra-continental Ordovician seas withdrew, which eliminated many ecological niches, then returned, carrying diminished founder populations lacking many whole families of organisms. Then they withdrew again with the next pulse of glaciation, eliminating biological diversity at each change (Emiliani 1992 p. 491). In the North African strata, Julien Moreau reported five pulses of glaciation from seismic sections.

text: As the southern

text: supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: drifted over the

text: South Pole

text: ice cap

text: s formed on it. The strata have been detected in late Ordovician

text: rock strata

text: of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time.

text: Glaciation

text: locks up water from the world-ocean, and the

text: interglacial

text: s free it, causing

text: sea levels repeatedly to drop and rise

text: ; the vast shallow intra-continental Ordovician seas withdrew, which eliminated many

text: ecological niche

text: s, then returned, carrying diminished

text: founder population

text: s lacking many whole families of organisms. Then they withdrew again with the next pulse of glaciation, eliminating biological diversity at each change (Emiliani 1992 p. 491). In the North African strata, Julien Moreau reported five pulses of glaciation from

text: seismic

text: sections.

text: The surrounding Great Lakes greatly influence the climatic region of southern Ontario. During the fall and winter months, heat stored from the lakes is released, moderating the climate near the shores of the lakes. This gives some parts of southern Ontario milder winters than mid-continental areas at lower latitudes. Parts of Southwestern Ontario (generally south of a line from Sarnia-Toronto) have a moderate humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa), similar to that of the inland Mid-Atlantic states and the Great Lakes portion of the Midwestern United States. The region has warm to hot, humid summers and cold winters. Annual precipitation ranges from  and is well distributed throughout the year. Most of this region lies in the lee of the Great Lakes, making for abundant snow in some areas. In December 2010, the snowbelt set a new record when it was hit by more than a metre of snow within 48 hours. The next climatic region is Central and Eastern Ontario which has a moderate humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). This region has warm and sometimes hot summers with colder, longer winters, ample snowfall (even in regions not directly in the snowbelts) and annual precipitation similar to the rest of Southern Ontario.

text: The surrounding Great Lakes greatly influence the climatic region of southern Ontario. During the fall and winter months, heat stored from the lakes is released, moderating the climate near the shores of the lakes. This gives some parts of southern Ontario milder winters than mid-continental areas at lower latitudes. Parts of Southwestern Ontario (generally south of a line from Sarnia-Toronto) have a moderate

text: humid continental climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfa), similar to that of the inland

text: Mid-Atlantic states

text: and the

text: Great Lakes

text: portion of the

text: Midwestern United States

text: . The region has warm to hot, humid summers and cold winters. Annual precipitation ranges from  and is well distributed throughout the year. Most of this region lies in the lee of the Great Lakes, making for abundant snow in some areas. In December 2010, the

text: snowbelt

text: set a new record when it was hit by more than a metre of snow within 48 hours. The next climatic region is Central and Eastern Ontario which has a moderate

text: humid continental climate

text: (Köppen Dfb). This region has warm and sometimes hot summers with colder, longer winters, ample snowfall (even in regions not directly in the snowbelts) and annual precipitation similar to the rest of Southern Ontario.

text: Like most of his contemporaries, Jeffreys was a strong opponent of continental drift as proposed by Alfred Wegener. For him, continental drift was "out of the question" because no force even remotely strong enough to move the continents across the Earth's surface was evident. As geological and geophysical evidence for continental drift and plate tectonics mounted in the 1960s and after, to the point where it became the unifying concept of modern geology, Jeffreys remained a stubborn opponent of the theory to his death.

text: Like most of his contemporaries, Jeffreys was a strong opponent of

text: continental drift

text: as proposed by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: . For him, continental drift was "out of the question" because no force even remotely strong enough to move the continents across the Earth's surface was evident. As geological and geophysical evidence for continental drift and

text: plate tectonics

text: mounted in the 1960s and after, to the point where it became the unifying concept of modern geology, Jeffreys remained a stubborn opponent of the theory to his death.

text: Within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical Atlantic.Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate (f), while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation, which increases the chances of a wintertime drought (w).  Snowfall occurs in all areas with a humid continental climate and in many such places is more common than rain during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the snow cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms, and in North America and Asia an occasionally tropical system. Though humidity levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the "humid" designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as semi-arid or arid.

text: Within North America, moisture within this climate regime is supplied by the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent western subtropical Atlantic.

text: Precipitation

text: is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate (f), while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation, which increases the chances of a wintertime

text: drought

text: (w).

text: Snow

text: fall occurs in all areas with a humid continental climate and in many such places is more common than

text: rain

text: during the height of winter. In places with sufficient wintertime precipitation, the snow cover is often deep. Most summer rainfall occurs during

text: thunderstorm

text: s, and in North America and Asia an occasionally

text: tropical system

text: . Though

text: humidity

text: levels are often high in locations with humid continental climates, the "humid" designation means that the climate is not dry enough to be classified as

text: semi-arid

text: or

text: arid

text: Fossils of seed ferns such as Glossopteris are widely distributed throughout several continents of the Southern Hemisphere, a fact that gave support to Alfred Wegener's early ideas regarding Continental drift theory.

text: Fossils of seed ferns such as

text: Glossopteris

text: are widely distributed throughout several continents of the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: , a fact that gave support to

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's early ideas regarding

text: Continental drift

text: theory.

text: All Working Groups of the Project have contributed to a completely new geological mapping of the Majella anticline. Each single outcrop was separately mapped and all data relative to the mapping are stored in the digital data base system G-MAP, especially designed for the Project.The working group 'Stratigraphy' coordinated the stratigraphic aspects of the mapping, whereas the working group 'Structure' coordinated the collection of structural data. The working group 'Fracture' provided the structural field data collected, integrating them with other structural geological data.

text: All Working Groups of the Project have contributed to a completely new

text: geological mapping

text: of the Majella anticline. Each single outcrop was separately mapped and all data relative to the mapping are stored in the

text: digital data base system G-MAP

text: , especially designed for the Project.The working group 'Stratigraphy' coordinated the stratigraphic aspects of the mapping, whereas the working group 'Structure' coordinated the collection of structural data. The working group 'Fracture' provided the structural field data collected, integrating them with other structural geological data.

text: Moslavačka Gora has very interesting geological features and rich geological heritage. Characteristic is the appearance of various igneous and metamorphic rocks in interesting structural relationships.

text: Moslavačka Gora has very interesting geological features and rich geological heritage. Characteristic is the appearance of various

text: igneous

text: and

text: metamorphic rock

text: s in interesting structural relationships.

text: Rocks are geologically classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, the texture of the constituent particles, and particle size. These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce three general classes of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

text: Rocks are geologically classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition,

text: permeability

text: , the

text: texture

text: of the constituent particles, and

text: particle size

text: . These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks. Over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by the geological model called the

text: rock cycle

text: . These events produce three general classes of rock:

text: igneous

text: sedimentary

text: , and

text: metamorphic

text: These drifts, in contrast to the mirror effect and the non-uniform B drifts, do not depend on finite Larmor radius, but are also present in cold plasmas. This may seem counterintuitive. If a particle is stationary when a force is turned on, where does the motion perpendicular to the force come from and why doesn't the force produce a motion parallel to itself? The answer is the interaction with the magnetic field. The force initially results in an acceleration parallel to itself, but the magnetic field deflects the resulting motion in the drift direction. Once the particle is moving in the drift direction, the magnetic field deflects it back against the external force, so that the average acceleration in the direction of the force is zero. There is, however, a one-time displacement in the direction of the force equal to (f/m)ω, which should be considered a consequence of the polarization drift (see below) while the force is being turned on. The resulting motion is a cycloid. More generally, the superposition of a gyration and a uniform perpendicular drift is a trochoid.

text: These drifts, in contrast to the mirror effect and the non-uniform B drifts, do not depend on finite Larmor radius, but are also present in cold plasmas. This may seem counterintuitive. If a particle is stationary when a force is turned on, where does the motion perpendicular to the force come from and why doesn't the force produce a motion parallel to itself? The answer is the interaction with the magnetic field. The force initially results in an acceleration parallel to itself, but the magnetic field deflects the resulting motion in the drift direction. Once the particle is moving in the drift direction, the magnetic field deflects it back against the external force, so that the average acceleration in the direction of the force is zero. There is, however, a one-time displacement in the direction of the force equal to (f/m)ω, which should be considered a consequence of the polarization drift (see below) while the force is being turned on. The resulting motion is a

text: cycloid

text: . More generally, the superposition of a gyration and a uniform perpendicular drift is a

text: trochoid

text: Humid continental climate is a climatic region typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa"(Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Humid continental climate is a climatic region typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: "(Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: The Longest Daycare has received critical acclaim. Many film critics have said that the short was better than Ice Age: Continental Drift. Claudia Puig of USA Today argued that "the brief tale is far more clever and whimsical than any sequence in Ice Age." Similarly, Sun Herald critic Leigh Paatsch said the short "displays all the wit and creativity missing from Continental Drift." San Francisco Chronicle writer Amy Biancolli commented that the short is "only a few minutes long, but those few minutes boast more imagination, pathos and suspense than the entire film that follows." Joe Williams of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch wrote that while the short takes place in a daycare, it ironically features more "artistic maturity" than Continental Drift.

text: The Longest Daycare has received critical acclaim. Many film critics have said that the short was better than Ice Age: Continental Drift. Claudia Puig of

text: USA Today

text: argued that "the brief tale is far more clever and whimsical than any sequence in Ice Age." Similarly,

text: Sun Herald

text: critic Leigh Paatsch said the short "displays all the wit and creativity missing from Continental Drift."

text: San Francisco Chronicle

text: writer Amy Biancolli commented that the short is "only a few minutes long, but those few minutes boast more imagination, pathos and suspense than the entire film that follows." Joe Williams of the

text: St. Louis Post-Dispatch

text: wrote that while the short takes place in a daycare, it ironically features more "artistic maturity" than Continental Drift.

text: Evidence for the orientation of buildings by the means of a magnetic compass can be found in 12th-century Denmark: one fourth of its 570 Romanesque churches are rotated by 5–15 degrees clockwise from true east-west, thus corresponding to the predominant magnetic declination of the time of their construction. Most of these churches were built in the 12th century, indicating a fairly common usage of magnetic compasses in Europe by then.

text: Evidence for the orientation of buildings by the means of a magnetic compass can be found in 12th-century

text: Denmark

text: : one fourth of its 570

text: Romanesque churches

text: are rotated by 5–15 degrees clockwise from true east-west, thus corresponding to the predominant magnetic declination of the time of their construction. Most of these churches were built in the 12th century, indicating a fairly common usage of magnetic compasses in

text: Europe

text: by then.

text: On 6 January 1912 he publicized his first thoughts about continental drift in a lecture at a session of the Geologischen Vereinigung at the Senckenberg-Museum, Frankfurt am Main and in three articles in the journal Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen.

text: On 6 January 1912 he publicized his first thoughts about continental drift in a lecture at a session of the Geologischen Vereinigung at the Senckenberg-Museum,

text: Frankfurt am Main

text: and in three articles in the journal Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen.

text: Severe storms and flooding from the Stevenston Burn are two of the factors that periodically have a more or less dramatic effect upon the dune system and beach structure. The storms of the winter of 2014 resulted in the linear loss of several metres of the sea facing fore dunes, exposing previously buried old fencing and also eroding the coal mine spoil heap section with concomitant release of rocks and smaller shingle that was moved by long shore drift and covered relatively large areas of the previously sandy upper beach.

text: The increasing attention being paid to fossil plants in the first decades of the 19th century would trigger a significant change in the terminology for the study of past life. The editor of the influential French scientific journal, Journal de Physique, a student of Cuvier's named Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, coined the term "paleozoologie" in 1817 to refer to the work Cuvier and others were doing to reconstruct extinct animals from fossil bones. However, Blainville began looking for a term that could refer to the study of both fossil animal and plant remains. After trying some unsuccessful alternatives, he hit on "palaeontologie" in 1822. Blainville's term for the study of the fossilized organisms quickly became popular and was anglicized into "paleontology".

text: The last glacial period and its associated glaciation is known in southern Chile as the Llanquihue glaciation (). Its type area lies west of Llanquihue Lake where various drifts or end moraine systems belonging to the last glacial period have been identified. The glaciation is the last episode of existence of the Patagonian Ice Sheet.

text: The

text: last glacial period

text: and its associated

text: glaciation

text: is known in southern

text: Chile

text: as the Llanquihue glaciation (). Its type area lies west of

text: Llanquihue Lake

text: where various

text: drift

text: s or

text: end moraine systems

text: belonging to the last glacial period have been identified. The glaciation is the last episode of existence of the

text: Patagonian Ice Sheet

text: In the anime series, Chimera Anima also infect plants, human spirits, a fossil, and Mew Aqua.

text: The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles  (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics.  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity.  When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s  (

text: Terra Cimmeria

text: and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered 100 km wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to 2000 km. These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down. When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: .  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity.  When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The former site of ARGUS in DORIS is now the location of the OLYMPUS experiment, which began installation in 2010. OLYMPUS uses the toroidal magnet and pair of drift chambers from the MIT-Bates BLAST experiment along with refurbished time-of-flight detectors and multiple luminosity monitoring systems. OLYMPUS measures the positron-proton to electron-proton cross section ratio to precisely determine the size of two-photon exchange in elastic ep scattering. This may help resolve the proton form factor discrepancy between recent measurements made using polarization techniques and ones using the Rosenbluth separation method. OLYMPUS took data in 2012 and 2013.

text: The former site of

text: ARGUS

text: in DORIS is now the location of the OLYMPUS experiment, which began installation in 2010. OLYMPUS uses the toroidal magnet and pair of

text: drift chambers

text: from the MIT-Bates BLAST experiment along with refurbished time-of-flight detectors and multiple luminosity monitoring systems. OLYMPUS measures the positron-proton to electron-proton cross section ratio to precisely determine the size of two-photon exchange in elastic ep scattering. This may help resolve the proton form factor discrepancy between recent measurements made using polarization techniques and ones using the Rosenbluth separation method. OLYMPUS took data in 2012 and 2013.

text: Climate in Tecuci is defined as Dfb (Humid continental climate with warm summers), bordering a Dfa (Humid continental climate with hot summers).

text: Climate in Tecuci is defined as

text: Dfb

text: (Humid continental climate with warm summers), bordering a

text: Dfa

text: (Humid continental climate with hot summers).

text: Nick Eyles suggest that the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth was in fact no different from any other glaciation in Earth's history, and that efforts to find a single cause are likely to end in failure. The "Zipper rift" hypothesis proposes two pulses of continental "unzipping" — first, the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, forming the proto-Pacific Ocean; then the splitting of the continent Baltica from Laurentia, forming the proto-Atlantic — coincided with the glaciated periods.The associated tectonic uplift would form high plateaus, just as the East African Rift is responsible for high topography; this high ground could then host glaciers.

text: Nick Eyles suggest that the Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth was in fact no different from any other glaciation in Earth's history, and that efforts to find a single cause are likely to end in failure. The "Zipper rift" hypothesis proposes two pulses of continental "unzipping" — first, the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia, forming the proto-Pacific Ocean; then the splitting of the continent

text: Baltica

text: from

text: Laurentia

text: , forming the proto-Atlantic — coincided with the glaciated periods.The associated tectonic uplift would form high plateaus, just as the

text: East African Rift

text: is responsible for high topography; this high ground could then host glaciers.

text: Suryanarayan Sastri, in 1903, described the antediluvian Tamils as expert cultivators, fine poets and far-traveling merchants, who lived in an egalitarian and democratic society. Savariroyan Pillai, writing a few years later, described Kumari Kandam as a seat of learning and culture. Sivagnana Yogi (1840-1924) stated that this ancient society was free of any caste system. Kandiah Pillai, in a 1945 work for children, wrote that Kumarikandam was ruled by a strong and just emperor called Sengon, who organized the sangams. In 1981, the Government of Tamil Nadu funded a documentary film on Kumari Kandam. The film, personally backed by the Chief Minister M. G. Ramachandran and directed by P. Neelakantan, was screened at the Fifth International Conference of Tamil Studies in Madurai. It combined the continental drift theory with the submerged continent theory to present Lemuria as a scientifically valid concept. It depicted Kumari Kandam cities resplendent with mansions, gardens, arts, crafts, music and dance.

text: Suryanarayan Sastri

text: , in 1903, described the antediluvian Tamils as expert cultivators, fine poets and far-traveling merchants, who lived in an egalitarian and democratic society. Savariroyan Pillai, writing a few years later, described Kumari Kandam as a seat of learning and culture. Sivagnana Yogi (1840-1924) stated that this ancient society was free of any

text: caste system

text: . Kandiah Pillai, in a 1945 work for children, wrote that Kumarikandam was ruled by a strong and just emperor called Sengon, who organized the sangams. In 1981, the Government of Tamil Nadu funded a documentary film on Kumari Kandam. The film, personally backed by the Chief Minister

text: M. G. Ramachandran

text: and directed by

text: P. Neelakantan

text: , was screened at the Fifth International Conference of Tamil Studies in Madurai. It combined the continental drift theory with the submerged continent theory to present Lemuria as a scientifically valid concept. It depicted Kumari Kandam cities resplendent with mansions, gardens, arts, crafts, music and dance.

text: Minaj takes jabs at her rival Lil' Kim and at Miami Heat player Chris Bosh crying in the locker room after his team lost to the Dallas Mavericks in the 2011 NBA Finals. Additionally, Minaj drops references to former NBA player Eric Williams who is featured on VH1's Basketball Wives, the Columbine High School massacre, the Nicki Minaj Barbie doll created and auctioned by Mattel in December 2011, and to her role in the 2012 computer-animated film Ice Age: Continental Drift.

text: Minaj takes jabs at her rival

text: Lil' Kim

text: and at

text: Miami Heat

text: player

text: Chris Bosh

text: crying in the locker room after his team lost to the

text: Dallas Mavericks

text: in the 2011

text: NBA

text: Finals. Additionally, Minaj drops references to former NBA player

text: Eric Williams

text: who is featured on

text: 's

text: Basketball Wives

text: , the

text: Columbine High School massacre

text: , the Nicki Minaj

text: Barbie

text: doll created and auctioned by

text: Mattel

text: in December 2011, and to her role in the 2012 computer-animated film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: The Massive Australian Precambrian/Cambrian Impact Structure also known as MAPCIS is a proposed impact structure based upon arguments presented by Daniel P. Connelly at Geological Society of America meetings. Its center is located approximately equidistant between Uluru (Ayers Rock) and Mount Conner in Australia's Northern Territory. The crater is approximately  in diameter. However, a hypothetical outermost ring is  in diameter is claimed to be the result of undefined far field stresses.  Connelly argues that the age of this hypothetical impact is approximately 545 mya which puts it just before the Cambrian explosion (542 mya) of the current Phanerozoic eon (541 mya). If confirmed as an impact crater, it would be the largest on earth.

text: The Massive Australian Precambrian/Cambrian Impact Structure also known as MAPCIS is a proposed

text: impact structure

text: based upon arguments presented by Daniel P. Connelly at Geological Society of America meetings. Its center is located approximately equidistant between

text: Uluru

text: (Ayers Rock) and

text: Mount Conner

text: in Australia's

text: Northern Territory

text: . The crater is approximately  in

text: diameter

text: . However, a hypothetical outermost ring is  in diameter is claimed to be the result of undefined far field stresses.  Connelly argues that the age of this hypothetical impact is approximately 545

text: mya

text: which puts it just before the

text: Cambrian explosion

text: (542 mya) of the current

text: Phanerozoic eon

text: (541 mya). If confirmed as an impact crater, it would be the largest on earth.

text: North Dakota's climate is typical of a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers. The state's location in the Upper Midwest allows it to experience some of the widest variety of weather in the United States, and each of the four seasons has its own distinct characteristics. The eastern half of the state has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm to hot, somewhat humid summers and cold, windy winters, while the western half has a semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSk) with less precipitation and less humidity but similar temperature profiles. The areas east of the Missouri River get slightly colder winters, while those west of the stream get higher summer daytime temperatures. In general, the diurnal temperature difference is prone to be more significant in the west due to higher elevation and less humidity.

text: North Dakota

text: 's climate is typical of a

text: continental climate

text: with cold winters and hot summers. The state's location in the

text: Upper Midwest

text: allows it to experience some of the widest variety of weather in the United States, and each of the four seasons has its own distinct characteristics. The eastern half of the state has a

text: humid continental climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfb

text: ) with warm to hot, somewhat humid summers and cold, windy winters, while the western half has a

text: semi-arid climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: BSk

text: ) with less

text: precipitation

text: and less

text: humidity

text: but similar temperature profiles. The areas east of the

text: Missouri River

text: get slightly colder winters, while those west of the stream get higher summer daytime temperatures. In general, the diurnal temperature difference is prone to be more significant in the west due to higher elevation and less humidity.

text: The definition and recognition of formations allow geologists to correlate geologic strata across wide distances between outcrops and exposures of rock strata.

text: The definition and recognition of formations allow

text: geologist

text: s to correlate geologic strata across wide distances between

text: outcrop

text: s and exposures of rock

text: strata

text: The recent influx of commercial and institutional funds into microfinance has reduced the industry's reliance on subsidized donor funding and moved more into the commercial mainstream. This evolution has raised concerns about a drift away from many of the original tenets of microfinance – a focus on lending to the poorest segments of society in general and poor women in particular. In 2008, WWB conducted research to assess the degree to which pressure to generate profits dilutes the aim of poverty alleviation. The study, Stemming the Tide of Mission Drift: Microfinance Transitions and the Double Bottom Line, found that after transformation, the proportion of women served by formalized institutions dropped dramatically, from 88 percent to 60 percent. It also found that average loan sizes were two to three times greater than those of non-commercialized organizations.  These results may serve as evidence that a lower percentage of loans are going to women, because they tend to borrow smaller sums. A Financial Times article quoted Mary Ellen Iskenderian on the risks of mission drift: "Ensuring that women do not lose out in access to microfinance as institutions grow is vital. There are 30 years of data showing that women put more of their loans than men do into education, healthcare and nutrition, that their children stay in school longer and have longer life expectancy."

text: The recent influx of commercial and institutional funds into microfinance has reduced the industry's reliance on subsidized donor funding and moved more into the commercial mainstream. This evolution has raised concerns about a drift away from many of the original tenets of microfinance – a focus on lending to the poorest segments of society in general and poor women in particular. In 2008, WWB conducted research to assess the degree to which pressure to generate profits dilutes the aim of poverty alleviation. The study, Stemming the Tide of Mission Drift: Microfinance Transitions and the Double Bottom Line, found that after transformation, the proportion of women served by formalized institutions dropped dramatically, from 88 percent to 60 percent. It also found that average loan sizes were two to three times greater than those of non-commercialized organizations.  These results may serve as evidence that a lower percentage of loans are going to women, because they tend to borrow smaller sums. A

text: Financial Times

text: article quoted Mary Ellen Iskenderian on the risks of mission drift: "Ensuring that women do not lose out in access to microfinance as institutions grow is vital. There are 30 years of data showing that women put more of their loans than men do into education, healthcare and nutrition, that their children stay in school longer and have longer life expectancy."

text: This area has a continental climate which is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa" (Hot Summer Continental Climate).<div style="width:75%;">

text: This area has a continental climate which is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: " (Hot Summer Continental Climate).<div style="width:75%;">

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 37% of critics have given the film positive reviews, with a rating average of 5.1/10 based on 131 reviews. The consensus statement reads, "Ice Age: Continental Drift 3D has moments of charm and witty slapstick, but it often seems content to recycle ideas from the previous films." Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 49 based on 29 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.

text: Review aggregator

text: Rotten Tomatoes

text: reports that 37% of critics have given the film positive reviews, with a rating average of 5.1/10 based on 131 reviews. The consensus statement reads, "Ice Age: Continental Drift 3D has moments of charm and witty slapstick, but it often seems content to recycle ideas from the previous films." Another review aggregator,

text: Metacritic

text: , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics, calculated a score of 49 based on 29 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Audiences polled by

text: CinemaScore

text: gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.

text: This climatic region has large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa" (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: " (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: The British physicist P.M.S. Blackett provided a major impetus to paleomagnetism by inventing a sensitive astatic magnetometer in 1956. His intent was to test his theory that the geomagnetic field was related to the Earth's rotation, a theory that he ultimately rejected; but the astatic magnetometer became the basic tool of paleomagnetism and led to a revival of the theory of continental drift. Alfred Wegener first proposed in 1915 that continents had once been joined together and had since moved apart. Although he produced an abundance of circumstantial evidence, his theory met with little acceptance for two reasons: (1) no mechanism for continental drift was known, and (2) there was no way to reconstruct the movements of the continents over time. Keith Runcorn and Edward A. Irving constructed apparent polar wander paths for Europe and North America. These curves diverged, but could be reconciled if it was assumed that the continents had been in contact up to 200 million years ago. This provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift. Then in 1963, Morley, Vine and Matthews showed that marine magnetic anomalies provided evidence for seafloor spreading.

text: The British physicist

text: P.M.S. Blackett

text: provided a major impetus to paleomagnetism by inventing a sensitive astatic

text: magnetometer

text: in 1956. His intent was to test his theory that the

text: geomagnetic field

text: was related to the Earth's rotation, a theory that he ultimately rejected; but the astatic magnetometer became the basic tool of paleomagnetism and led to a revival of the theory of

text: continental drift

text: Alfred Wegener

text: first proposed in 1915 that continents had once been joined together and had since moved apart. Although he produced an abundance of circumstantial evidence, his theory met with little acceptance for two reasons: (1) no mechanism for

text: continental drift

text: was known, and (2) there was no way to reconstruct the movements of the continents over time.

text: Keith Runcorn

text: and

text: Edward A. Irving

text: constructed

text: apparent polar wander

text: paths for Europe and North America. These curves diverged, but could be reconciled if it was assumed that the continents had been in contact up to 200 million years ago. This provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift. Then in 1963,

text: Morley, Vine and Matthews

text: showed that marine

text: magnetic anomalies

text: provided evidence for

text: seafloor spreading

text: Marine fossils are more common than fossils of land animals in New Zealand because dead animals and plants are easily preserved in sand and mud. Therefore, some fossils of large marine reptiles are nearly complete, and so can be identified to species.

text: The formation of Pangaea resulted in extensive glaciation over much of Australia during the Carboniferous and Permian. It is believed that by 270 Ma Australia was part of a superconinent called Gondwanaland. Crescent shaped cracks in the glaciated pavements at Hallett Cove show that the ice flowed N/NW towards what is now the center of Australia. The ice thus originated in the uplands of land to the south. If current theories of continental drift are correct, this land was Antarctica. The Permian record at Hallett Cove not only records the passage of glaciers but their retreat.

text: The formation of

text: Pangaea

text: resulted in extensive glaciation over much of Australia during the

text: Carboniferous

text: and Permian. It is believed that by 270 Ma Australia was part of a superconinent called

text: Gondwanaland

text: . Crescent shaped cracks in the glaciated pavements at Hallett Cove show that the ice flowed N/NW towards what is now the center of Australia. The ice thus originated in the uplands of land to the south. If current theories of

text: continental drift

text: are correct, this land was

text: Antarctica

text: . The Permian record at Hallett Cove not only records the passage of glaciers but their retreat.

text: One cause for forebulge formation is loading of the continental lithosphere by ice sheets during continental glaciations. Because of the removal of the ice sheets, the formerly-glaciated areas are currently rising in a phenomenon known as post-glacial rebound. Because of the coupling of the mantle with the plates, data from post-glacial rebound are used as a direct probe of the viscosity of the upper mantle. As the ice melts and the land under it rises by isostatic recovery, the forebulge also subsides. Forebulge subsidence is the reason why the Netherlands and parts of southern England are still slowly sinking. One estimate is that the centre of the North Sea rose by about 170 m (558 ft) during the Ice Age because of forebulging.

text: One cause for forebulge formation is loading of the continental lithosphere by

text: ice sheet

text: s during continental

text: glaciation

text: s. Because of the removal of the ice sheets, the formerly-glaciated areas are currently rising in a phenomenon known as

text: post-glacial rebound

text: . Because of the coupling of the mantle with the plates, data from

text: post-glacial rebound

text: are used as a direct probe of the viscosity of the upper mantle. As the ice melts and the land under it rises by isostatic recovery, the forebulge also subsides. Forebulge subsidence is the reason why the

text: Netherlands

text: and parts of southern England are still slowly sinking. One estimate is that the centre of the

text: North Sea

text: rose by about 170 m (558 ft) during the

text: Ice Age

text: because of forebulging.

text: In areas that are more geologically complex, such as those that contain intrusive rocks, faults, and/or metamorphism, stratigraphic columns can still indicate the relative locations of these units with respect to one another. However, in these cases, the stratigraphic column must either be a structural column, in which the units are stacked with respect to how they are observed in the field to have been moved by the faults, or a time column, in which the units are stacked in the order in which they were formed. They also show the lithology of the rock units.

text: In areas that are more geologically complex, such as those that contain

text: intrusive rock

text: s,

text: fault

text: s, and/or

text: metamorphism

text: , stratigraphic columns can still indicate the relative locations of these units with respect to one another. However, in these cases, the stratigraphic column must either be a structural column, in which the units are stacked with respect to how they are observed in the field to have been moved by the faults, or a time column, in which the units are stacked in the order in which they were formed. They also show the lithology of the rock units.

text: Tyson then explains on the nature of plate tectonics that would shape the landmasses of the world. Tyson explains how scientists like Abraham Ortelius hypothesized the idea that land masses may have been connected in the past, Alfred Wegener who hypothesized the idea of a super-continent Pangaea and continental drift despite the prevailing idea of flooded land-bridges at the time, and Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp who discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge that supported the theory of plate tectonics. Tyson describes how the landmasses of the earth lay atop the mantle, which moves due to the motion and heat of the earth's outer and inner core.

text: Tyson then explains on the nature of

text: plate tectonics

text: that would shape the landmasses of the world. Tyson explains how scientists like

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: hypothesized the idea that land masses may have been connected in the past,

text: Alfred Wegener

text: who hypothesized the idea of a super-continent

text: Pangaea

text: and

text: continental drift

text: despite the prevailing idea of flooded land-bridges at the time, and

text: Bruce C. Heezen

text: and

text: Marie Tharp

text: who discovered the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: that supported the theory of plate tectonics. Tyson describes how the landmasses of the earth lay atop the

text: mantle

text: , which moves due to the motion and heat of the earth's

text: outer

text: and

text: inner core

text: Ribbed bog moss occurs in arctic, subarctic, boreal, and subboreal zones with cold meso-thermal, oceanic, continental, or cold-humid climates. It is more common in arctic, subarctic, and boreal than subboreal zones. A survey of bryophytes on peatlands across Alberta's Mackenzie River basin found optimal ribbed bog moss growth occurred on sites with annual temperatures ranging from 20 to 32 °F (-4 to 0 °C). In interior arctic, subarctic, and boreal zones, climate is strongly continental in the west, becoming more humid to the east. Climate shift from continental to humid generally occurs near Hudson Bay and Lake Superior. In a study of moss habitats across British Columbia, Alberta, and Manitoba, ribbed bog moss was an indicator species for continentality of climate: it was the only moss common to all continental peatlands surveyed. On sites from coastal British Columbia to central Alberta, ribbed bog moss was most common on subcontinental sites (intermediate between coastal and continental climates). Ribbed bog moss was intermediate on gradients ranking breadth of moss habitat niches. Climate factors evaluated included length of growing season, amount of precipitation during the growing season, temperature, and aridity. Feather mosses (Hylocomiaceae) and sphagnum mosses generally had wider niches and dominated more sites than ribbed bog moss. Ribbed bog moss's rarity on all but cold sites in the lower 48 states suggests that ribbed bog moss does not tolerate long periods of warm weather. In a geothermal meadow on Queen Charlotte Island, British Columbia, ribbed bog moss was absent from sites where nearby thermal pools raised local soil temperatures above 86 °F (30 °C).

text: Ribbed bog moss occurs in arctic, subarctic, boreal, and subboreal zones with cold meso-thermal,

text: oceanic

text: continental

text: , or cold-humid climates. It is more common in arctic, subarctic, and boreal than subboreal zones. A survey of bryophytes on peatlands across Alberta's Mackenzie River basin found optimal ribbed bog moss growth occurred on sites with annual temperatures ranging from 20 to 32 °F (-4 to 0 °C). In interior arctic, subarctic, and boreal zones, climate is strongly continental in the west, becoming more humid to the east. Climate shift from continental to humid generally occurs near

text: Hudson Bay

text: and

text: Lake Superior

text: . In a study of moss habitats across British Columbia, Alberta, and Manitoba, ribbed bog moss was an indicator species for continentality of climate: it was the only moss common to all continental peatlands surveyed. On sites from coastal British Columbia to central Alberta, ribbed bog moss was most common on subcontinental sites (intermediate between coastal and continental climates). Ribbed bog moss was intermediate on gradients ranking breadth of moss habitat

text: niche

text: s. Climate factors evaluated included length of growing season, amount of precipitation during the growing season, temperature, and aridity.

text: Feather mosses

text: (Hylocomiaceae) and sphagnum mosses generally had wider niches and dominated more sites than ribbed bog moss. Ribbed bog moss's rarity on all but cold sites in the lower 48 states suggests that ribbed bog moss does not tolerate long periods of warm weather. In a geothermal meadow on Queen Charlotte Island, British Columbia, ribbed bog moss was absent from sites where nearby thermal pools raised local soil temperatures above 86 °F (30 °C).

text: The area was occupied by Pleistocene glaciation, and a thick mantle of glacial drift covers bedrock over a large part of it.The Pleistocene ended with a gradual stagnation and a wasting of the ice in place. As a consequence, on many slopes a series of channels was formed at successive levels as ice surfaces wasted.

text: The area was occupied by

text: Pleistocene

text: glaciation, and a thick mantle of

text: glacial drift

text: covers bedrock over a large part of it.The Pleistocene ended with a gradual stagnation and a wasting of the ice in place. As a consequence, on many slopes a series of channels was formed at successive levels as ice surfaces wasted.

text: The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) discovered magnetic stripes in the crust of Mars, especially in the Phaethontis and Eridania quadrangles  (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum). The magnetometer on MGS discovered  wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to . These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down.  When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of plate tectonics.  Researchers believe these magnetic stripes on Mars are evidence for a short, early period of plate tectonic activity. When the rocks became solid they retained the magnetism that existed at the time.  A magnetic field of a planet is believed to be caused by fluid motions under the surface.  The initial data was obtained when MGS traveled close to the planet during aerobraking.  However, later measurements, collected over a 2-year period from an altitude of , revealed that the magnetic features even matched up with known features on the surface. However, there are some differences, between the magnetic stripes on Earth and those on Mars. The Martian stripes are wider, much more strongly magnetized, and do not appear to spread out from a middle crustal spreading zone. Because the area containing the magnetic stripes is about 4 billion years old, it is believed that the global magnetic field probably lasted for only the first few hundred million years of Mars' life, when the temperature of the molten iron in the planet's core might have been high enough to mix it into a magnetic dynamo.  There are no magnetic fields near large impact basins like Hellas.  The shock of the impact may have erased the remnant magnetization in the rock.  So, magnetism produced by early fluid motion in the core would not have existed after the impacts.

text: The

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: Eridania quadrangle

text: s  (Terra Cimmeria and

text: Terra Sirenum

text: ). The magnetometer on MGS discovered  wide stripes of magnetized crust running roughly parallel for up to . These stripes alternate in polarity with the north magnetic pole of one pointing up from the surface and the north magnetic pole of the next pointing down.  When similar stripes were discovered on Earth in the 1960s, they were taken as evidence of

text: plate tectonics

text: The reef is that part of a carbonate platform created by essentially in-place, sessile organisms. Today’s reefs are built by hermatypic organisms. The reef is the rigid structure of carbonate platforms and is located between the internal lagoon and the slope. Survival of the platform depends on the existence of the reef, because only this part of the platform can build a rigid, wave-resistant structure. Two reef types are distinguished: isolated (as Maldives atolls) or epicontinental (as the Belize reefs or the Florida Keys). Geologically speaking, reef rocks can be classified as massive boundstones.

text: The reef is that part of a carbonate platform created by essentially in-place, sessile organisms. Today’s reefs are built by

text: hermatypic

text: organisms. The reef is the rigid structure of carbonate platforms and is located between the internal

text: lagoon

text: and the slope. Survival of the platform depends on the existence of the reef, because only this part of the platform can build a rigid, wave-resistant structure. Two reef types are distinguished: isolated (as Maldives atolls) or epicontinental (as the

text: Belize

text: reefs or the

text: Florida Keys

text: ). Geologically speaking, reef rocks can be classified as massive

text: boundstones

text: Nubian sandstone ranges in age from the Cambrian to Upper Cretaceous eras. Positioning of the paleoequator and paleolatitude at 20° S was derived from paleomagnetic data showing Nubian sandstone was originally deposited in the paleoequatorial to subequatorial zone. These paleomagnetic results corroborated previous studies suggesting there was no polar wandering and continental drift in Africa during 210 to 110 million years and extended this period to 85 million years. Nubian sandstone is deposited under a tropical to subtropical climate and is formed under a variety of continental conditions, excluding eolian merging intermittently into shallow marine.

text: Nubian sandstone ranges in age from the Cambrian to Upper Cretaceous eras. Positioning of the

text: paleoequator

text: and

text: paleolatitude

text: at 20° S was derived from

text: paleomagnetic

text: data showing Nubian sandstone was originally deposited in the paleoequatorial to subequatorial zone. These paleomagnetic results corroborated previous studies suggesting there was no polar wandering and

text: continental drift

text: in Africa during 210 to 110 million years and extended this period to 85 million years. Nubian sandstone is deposited under a

text: tropical

text: to subtropical climate and is formed under a variety of continental conditions, excluding

text: eolian

text: merging intermittently into shallow marine.

text: The Drenthe Stage corresponds to the maximum extent of glaciation during the Saale complex. During the last stage, the Warthe Stage, glaciers only covered northeast Lower Saxony (parts of the Lüneburg Heath), the Altmark, the Elbe valley downstream of Magdeburg and the region east of it (c.f. Südlicher Landrücken), so that these areas are  geomorphologically younger than the Northwest German Plain, but older and exhibiting more surface weathering than the much later Young Drift areas of the Weichselian glaciation in northeast Germany. The areas last covered by the Saale cold period, roughly the Westphalian Bight, a large part of Lower Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt, south Brandenburg, or the Leipzig Bay and Lusatia in Saxony, are called the Old Drift Landscapes (Altmoränenlandschaften). They were further shaped and changed during the later Weichselian cold period by periglacial processes such as wind-borne sand and loess. The major urstromtal associated with the Saale glacial stage is the Breslau-Magdeburg-Bremen Urstromtal, which was not subsequently covered by ice.

text: The Drenthe Stage corresponds to the maximum extent of glaciation during the Saale complex. During the last stage, the Warthe Stage, glaciers only covered northeast

text: Lower Saxony

text: (parts of the

text: Lüneburg Heath

text: ), the

text: Altmark

text: , the

text: Elbe

text: valley downstream of

text: Magdeburg

text: and the region east of it (c.f.

text: Südlicher Landrücken

text: ), so that these areas are

text: geomorphologically

text: younger than the

text: Northwest German Plain

text: , but older and exhibiting more surface weathering than the much later

text: Young Drift

text: areas of the

text: Weichselian glaciation

text: in northeast Germany. The areas last covered by the Saale cold period, roughly the

text: Westphalian Bight

text: , a large part of

text: Lower Saxony

text: and

text: Saxony-Anhalt

text: , south

text: Brandenburg

text: , or the

text: Leipzig Bay

text: and

text: Lusatia

text: in Saxony, are called the Old Drift Landscapes (Altmoränenlandschaften). They were further shaped and changed during the later Weichselian cold period by

text: periglacial

text: processes such as wind-borne

text: sand

text: and

text: loess

text: . The major

text: urstromtal

text: associated with the Saale glacial stage is the

text: Breslau-Magdeburg-Bremen Urstromtal

text: , which was not subsequently covered by ice.

text: Movement of the continents into some configurations can cause or contribute to extinctions in several ways: by initiating or ending ice ages; by changing ocean and wind currents and thus altering climate; by opening seaways or land bridges which expose previously isolated species to competition for which they are poorly adapted (for example, the extinction of most of South America's native ungulates and all of its large metatherians after the creation of a land bridge between North and South America). Occasionally continental drift creates a super-continent which includes the vast majority of Earth's land area, which in addition to the effects listed above is likely to reduce the total area of continental shelf (the most species-rich part of the ocean) and produce a vast, arid continental interior which may have extreme seasonal variations.

text: Movement of the continents into some configurations can cause or contribute to extinctions in several ways: by initiating or ending

text: ice age

text: s; by changing ocean and wind currents and thus altering climate; by opening seaways or land bridges which expose previously isolated species to competition for which they are poorly adapted (for example, the extinction of most of South America's

text: native ungulates

text: and all of its

text: large metatherians

text: after the

text: creation of a land bridge between North and South America

text: ). Occasionally continental drift creates a super-continent which includes the vast majority of Earth's land area, which in addition to the effects listed above is likely to reduce the total area of

text: continental shelf

text: (the most species-rich part of the ocean) and produce a vast, arid continental interior which may have extreme seasonal variations.

text: Some of the most significant advances in 20th-century geology have been the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s and the refinement of estimates of the planet's age. Plate tectonics theory arose from two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences. Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old.

text: Some of the most significant advances in 20th-century geology have been the development of the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: in the 1960s and the refinement of estimates of the planet's age. Plate tectonics theory arose from two separate geological observations:

text: seafloor spreading

text: and

text: continental drift

text: . The theory revolutionized the

text: Earth sciences

text: . Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old.

text: On 19 August 2011, Borys Kit of The Hollywood Reporter reported that Wilson had replaced Casey Wilson in Bachelorette. In 2012, Wilson voiced a character in Ice Age: Continental Drift and played Fat Amy in Pitch Perfect. For the latter role, she received critical acclaim and earned various award nominations, including Best Supporting Actress from the San Diego Film Critics Society and Best Actress in a Comedy from the Broadcast Film Critics Association. She won the MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance and shared the Best Musical Moment award with her Pitch Perfect co-stars. Wilson was also nominated for Best Female Performance. Wilson later won the Choice Movie Actress: Comedy award for Pitch Perfect at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards. She had also been nominated for Choice Comedian at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards.

text: On 19 August 2011, Borys Kit of

text: The Hollywood Reporter

text: reported that Wilson had replaced

text: Casey Wilson

text: in

text: Bachelorette

text: . In 2012, Wilson voiced a character in

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: and played Fat Amy in

text: Pitch Perfect

text: . For the latter role, she received critical acclaim and earned various award nominations, including Best Supporting Actress from the

text: San Diego Film Critics Society

text: and

text: Best Actress in a Comedy

text: from the

text: Broadcast Film Critics Association

text: . She won the

entity_name: MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance

text: MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance

text: and shared the Best Musical Moment award with her Pitch Perfect co-stars. Wilson was also nominated for

text: Best Female Performance

text: . Wilson later won the Choice Movie Actress: Comedy award for Pitch Perfect at the

text: 2013 Teen Choice Awards

text: . She had also been nominated for Choice Comedian at the 2013 Teen Choice Awards.

text: The whole north western corner of Ardnamurchan contains a complex of underground volcanic structures, often described, perhaps inaccurately, as a caldera. It is in fact known that the structure of the north-western corner of the Ardnamurchan peninsula is due to a lopolith (previously interpreted as a ring dyke) which has been exposed at the surface. Evidence for a lopolith is seen in rock exposures in the area which show plagioclase crystals aligned towards the centre of the complex, an alignment caused by magmatic flow within a lopolith. Relatively small areas of lava that were ejected onto the surface are found in some parts of the peninsula. At least seven other similar complexes of the same tectonic episode are dotted up the west coast of Britain, and these are popular sites for many university geological training courses. Geological research is continuing in the area. The sub-concentric rings of the volcanic complex can easily be seen in satellite photographs and topographic maps, though they are less obvious on the ground.

text: The whole north western corner of Ardnamurchan contains a complex of underground volcanic structures, often described, perhaps inaccurately, as a

text: caldera

text: . It is in fact known that the structure of the north-western corner of the Ardnamurchan peninsula is due to a

text: lopolith

text: (previously interpreted as a ring dyke) which has been exposed at the surface. Evidence for a lopolith is seen in rock exposures in the area which show plagioclase crystals aligned towards the centre of the complex, an alignment caused by magmatic flow within a lopolith. Relatively small areas of lava that were ejected onto the surface are found in some parts of the peninsula. At least seven other similar complexes of the same tectonic episode are dotted up the west coast of Britain, and these are popular sites for many university geological training courses. Geological research is continuing in the area. The sub-concentric rings of the volcanic complex can easily be seen in satellite photographs and topographic maps, though they are less obvious on the ground.

text: All of Maria Gordon's geological research was carried out in the South Tyrol, an area of the Italian Alps close to the border with Austria. This area of the Alps is part of the geologically-complex Dolomites. The Dolomites  are a very distinct range of mountains, characterised by high, dramatic peaks, which were thought to have been formed from the remains of coral atolls in an ancient sea. Gordon challenged this idea with her theory of 'crust-torsion', the notion that the mountains had been formed by the pushing, twisting and folding of the earth's crust. Through observation and measurement of the geological structures in the Dolomites, she was able to determine that there were two phases of folding and structural deformation, leading to a new interpretation of the tectonic structure of the Alps.

text: All of Maria Gordon's geological research was carried out in the South Tyrol, an area of the Italian Alps close to the border with Austria. This area of the Alps is part of the geologically-complex

text: Dolomites

text: . The Dolomites  are a very distinct range of mountains, characterised by high, dramatic peaks, which were thought to have been formed from the remains of

text: coral atolls

text: in an ancient sea. Gordon challenged this idea with her theory of 'crust-torsion', the notion that the mountains had been formed by the pushing, twisting and folding of the earth's crust. Through observation and measurement of the geological structures in the Dolomites, she was able to determine that there were two phases of folding and structural deformation, leading to a new interpretation of the tectonic structure of the Alps.

text: There is evidence that the first known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic. The first began shortly after the beginning of the Proterozoic Eon, and evidence of at least four during the Neoproterozoic Era at the end of the Proterozoic Eon, possibly climaxing with the hypothesized Snowball Earth of the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations.

text: There is evidence that the first known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic. The first began shortly after the beginning of the Proterozoic Eon, and evidence of at least four during the Neoproterozoic Era at the end of the Proterozoic Eon, possibly climaxing with the hypothesized

text: Snowball Earth

text: of the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations.

text: There are established biological effects for acute high level exposure to magnetic fields well above 100 µT (1 G). In a residential setting, there is "limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3 µT (3 mG) to 0.4 µT (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 µT (0.7 mG) in Europe and 0.11 µT (1.1 mG) in North America.

text: There are established biological effects for

text: acute

text: high level exposure to magnetic fields well above 100

text: µT

text: G

text: ). In a residential setting, there is "limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals", in particular, childhood leukemia, associated with average exposure to residential power-frequency magnetic field above 0.3 µT (3 mG) to 0.4 µT (4 mG). These levels exceed average residential power-frequency magnetic fields in homes, which are about 0.07 µT (0.7 mG) in Europe and 0.11 µT (1.1 mG) in North America.

text: The game starts from basal tetrapods, the very first land dwellers, amphibians.  At the gain of the game, each player starts with one population of a species of prehistoric amphibian—e.g. Ichthyostega, Tulerpeton, and Acanthostega.  Gradually, if the player monitors the species progress, moves them to more appropriate habitats and climate zones, the selected species will feed, breed, and prosper. From that secure population, who can then evolve more advanced and adaptable creatures, along with continental drift and climate change, will render the other, older, and more-primitive species obsolete, and those creatures will die out.

text: The game starts from basal

text: tetrapods

text: , the very first land dwellers, amphibians.  At the gain of the game, each player starts with one population of a species of prehistoric amphibian—e.g.

text: Ichthyostega

text: Tulerpeton

text: , and

text: Acanthostega

text: .  Gradually, if the player monitors the species progress, moves them to more appropriate habitats and climate zones, the selected species will feed, breed, and prosper. From that secure population, who can then evolve more advanced and adaptable creatures, along with continental drift and climate change, will render the other, older, and more-primitive species obsolete, and those creatures will die out.

text: After school he returned to the Geological Survey of Canada full-time. He concentrated his research on the structure, stratigraphy and palaeontology of the Lower Carboniferous Horton and Windsor groups of Nova Scotia. Bell was not a believer in the theory of continental drift, but his findings of the fossil plants proved to be well-known European species, thus becoming the foundation for the modern plate tectonics framework of the Maritimes.

text: After school he returned to the Geological Survey of Canada full-time. He concentrated his research on the structure, stratigraphy and palaeontology of the Lower Carboniferous

text: Horton and Windsor groups

text: of

text: Nova Scotia

text: . Bell was not a believer in the theory of continental drift, but his findings of the fossil plants proved to be well-known European species, thus becoming the foundation for the modern

text: plate tectonics

text: framework of the

text: Maritimes

text: In an interview with radio continental drift in 2012, Moyo emphasises how what became known as DTR or Development Through Radio grew from the seed of a collaboration and exchange between urban and rural women, initially between the Jamuranai Women's Club in the Harare township of Highfield and rural women from Seke district South of Harare.It was this relation between women across urban-rural divides, which developed into an early precedence of participatory radio in Africa to an unprecedented scale. It is thanks to the leadership of Mavis Moyo, the eager persistence of her and some of her colleagues at ZBC Radio 4, carried on and further by FAMWZ members through persistent outreach training, as much as the very eagerness of the rural women groups themselves, that radio listening clubs could be established all over the country.Support from UNESCO and the Friedrich Ebert Foundation helped to run and maintain the project,which had the backing of the Ministries of Information, Post and Telecommunications, and Community- and Cooperative Development and Women's Affairs.

text: In an interview with radio continental drift in 2012, Moyo emphasises how what became known as DTR or Development Through Radio grew from the seed of a collaboration and exchange between urban and rural women, initially between the Jamuranai Women's Club in the

text: Harare

text: township of

text: Highfield

text: and rural women from

text: Sek

text: e district South of Harare.It was this relation between women across urban-rural divides, which developed into an early precedence of participatory radio in Africa to an unprecedented scale. It is thanks to the leadership of Mavis Moyo, the eager persistence of her and some of her colleagues at ZBC Radio 4, carried on and further by FAMWZ members through persistent outreach training, as much as the very eagerness of the rural women groups themselves, that radio listening clubs could be established all over the country.Support from

text: UNESCO

text: and the

text: Friedrich Ebert Foundation

text: helped to run and maintain the project,which had the backing of the Ministries of Information, Post and Telecommunications, and Community- and Cooperative Development and Women's Affairs.

text: The Ashfall deposit preserves the fossilized remains of ancient animals that perished in a dense volcanic ash fall which occurred during the late Miocene, approximately 12 million years ago; the animals had come to a waterhole seeking relief.  The fall of ash drifted downwind from the Bruneau-Jarbidge supervolcano eruption (in present-day Idaho), nearly  west of the Ashfall site.  A large number of very well preserved fossil Teleoceras (extinct hippo-like relatives of rhinos), small three-toed and one-toed horses, camels, and birds have been excavated.  Many animals were preserved with their bones articulated; one rhino still bears her unborn fetus, while others retain the contents of their last meal.

text: The Ashfall deposit preserves the fossilized remains of ancient animals that perished in a dense volcanic ash fall which occurred during the late

text: Miocene

text: , approximately 12 million years ago; the animals had come to a waterhole seeking relief.  The fall of ash drifted downwind from the

text: Bruneau-Jarbidge supervolcano

text: eruption (in present-day

text: Idaho

text: ), nearly  west of the Ashfall site.  A large number of very well preserved fossil

text: Teleoceras

text: (extinct hippo-like relatives of

text: rhinos

text: ), small three-toed and one-toed

text: horse

text: s,

text: camel

text: s, and birds have been excavated.  Many animals were preserved with their bones articulated; one rhino still bears her unborn

text: fetus

text: , while others retain the contents of their last meal.

text: The bedrock geology consists of a complex mix of generally older metamorphic rocks overlain by varying sequences of sedimentary rocks, into both of which igneous rocks have been intruded at different times. The complexity of Great Britain's geology is due ultimately to its being subject to a variety of plate tectonic processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, while successive continental collisions have affected its geological structure with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each orogeny (mountain-building period), often associated with volcanic activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences.

text: The

text: bedrock

text: geology consists of a complex mix of generally older

text: metamorphic

text: rocks overlain by varying sequences of

text: sedimentary

text: rocks, into both of which

text: igneous

text: rocks have been intruded at different times. The complexity of Great Britain's geology is due ultimately to its being subject to a variety of

text: plate tectonic

text: processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, while successive continental collisions have affected its

text: geological structure

text: orogeny

text: volcanic

text: activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences.

text: Banks was the 1985 recipient of the John Dos Passos Prize for fiction. Continental Drift and Cloudsplitter were finalists for the 1986 and 1999 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction respectively. Banks was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1996.

text: Banks was the 1985 recipient of the

text: John Dos Passos Prize

text: for fiction. Continental Drift and Cloudsplitter were finalists for the 1986 and 1999

text: Pulitzer Prize for Fiction

text: respectively. Banks was elected a Fellow of the

text: American Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: in 1996.

text: The mountain ranges in this region were formed over a period of 45 million years by the folding of the Indian Plate into the stationary landmass of Asia. While the Himalayas were formed from the base material of the Indian plate, the Zanskar Range consists of layers of sediment from the ocean floor, and the Ladakh Range of granite was born of the immense heat generated by the friction between the two plates. In Ladakh, the suture zone between the continental masses runs a little to the south of the Indus Valley. The drift continues and is the cause of the frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. Crossing the Himalayas by the dip of the Zoji-la, the crest-line of the range remains at a relatively modest level, the highest peaks near the pass being little more than 5000–5500 m above sea level. South-east of Zoji-la the scale increases, reaching a climax in the mighty massif of Nun-Kun, with two summits over 7000 m.

text: The mountain ranges in this region were formed over a period of 45 million years by the folding of the

text: Indian Plate

text: into the stationary landmass of Asia. While the Himalayas were formed from the base material of the Indian plate, the

text: Zanskar Range

text: consists of layers of sediment from the ocean floor, and the

text: Ladakh Range

text: of

text: granite

text: was born of the immense heat generated by the friction between the two plates. In Ladakh, the suture zone between the continental masses runs a little to the south of the

text: Indus Valley

text: . The drift continues and is the cause of the frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. Crossing the Himalayas by the dip of the

text: Zoji-la

text: , the crest-line of the range remains at a relatively modest level, the highest peaks near the pass being little more than 5000–5500 m above sea level. South-east of Zoji-la the scale increases, reaching a climax in the mighty massif of

text: Nun-Kun

text: , with two summits over 7000 m.

text: Climate type is dominated by the winter season, a long, bitterly cold period with short, clear days, relatively little precipitation mostly in the form of snow, and low humidity.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfc"(Continental Subarctic Climate).

text: Climate type is dominated by the winter season, a long, bitterly cold period with short, clear days, relatively little precipitation mostly in the form of snow, and low humidity.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfc

text: "(Continental Subarctic Climate).

text: During the Silurian, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian icecaps were less extensive than those of the late Ordovician glaciation. The southern continents remained united during this period. The melting of icecaps and glaciers contributed to a rise in sea level, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an unconformity. The continents of Avalonia, Baltica, and Laurentia drifted together near the equator, starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Euramerica.

text: During the Silurian,

text: Gondwana

text: continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian icecaps were less extensive than those of the late Ordovician glaciation. The southern continents remained united during this period. The melting of icecaps and

text: glacier

text: s contributed to a rise in sea level, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an

text: unconformity

text: . The continents of

text: Avalonia

text: Baltica

text: , and

text: Laurentia

text: drifted

text: together near the

text: equator

text: , starting the formation of a second

text: supercontinent

text: known as

text: Euramerica

text: Pennsylvania has three general climate regions, which are determined by altitude more than latitude or distance from the oceans. Most of the state falls in the humid continental climate zone. The lower elevations, including most of the major cities, has a moderate continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa), with cool to cold winters and hot, humid summers. Highland areas have a more severe continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm, humid summers and cold, more severe and snowy winters. Extreme southeastern Pennsylvania, around Philadelphia borders into a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with milder winters and hot, humid summers.

text: Pennsylvania has three general climate regions, which are determined by altitude more than latitude or distance from the oceans. Most of the state falls in the

text: humid continental climate

text: zone. The lower elevations, including most of the major cities, has a moderate continental climate (

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfa), with cool to cold winters and hot, humid summers. Highland areas have a more severe continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm, humid summers and cold, more severe and snowy winters. Extreme southeastern Pennsylvania, around

text: Philadelphia

text: borders into a

text: humid subtropical climate

text: (Köppen Cfa), with milder winters and hot, humid summers.

text: From antiquity, fossils of large animals were often quoted as having lived together with the giants from the Book of Genesis: e.g. the Tannin or "great sea monsters" of Gen. 1:21. They are often described in later books of the Bible, especially by God Himself in the Book of Job: e.g. Re'em in verse 39:9, Behemoth in chapter 40 and Leviathan in chapter 41. With the advent of geological mapping in the early 19th century, it became increasingly obvious that much of the fossils associated with the "secondary" (sedimentary) rock, notably large animals like Ichthyosaurs, Mosasaurs, Pliosaurs and the various giant mammals found when excavating the Catacombs of Paris, were neither those of giant humans nor of any extant animals. The geologists of the day increasingly came to use the term Antediluvian only for the younger strata containing fossils of animals resembling those alive today.

text: From antiquity,

text: fossil

text: s of large animals were often quoted as having lived together with the

text: giants

text: from the

text: Book of Genesis

text: : e.g. the

text: Tannin

text: or "great

text: sea monster

text: s" of Gen. 1:21. They are often described in later books of the

text: Bible

text: , especially by God Himself in the

text: Book of Job

text: : e.g.

text: Re'em

text: in verse 39:9,

text: Behemoth

text: in chapter 40 and

text: Leviathan

text: in chapter 41. With the advent of

text: geological mapping

text: in the early 19th century, it became increasingly obvious that much of the

text: fossil

text: s associated with the "secondary" (sedimentary) rock, notably large animals like

text: Ichthyosaur

text: s,

text: Mosasaur

text: s,

text: Pliosaur

text: s and the various giant

text: mammal

text: s found when excavating the

text: Catacombs of Paris

text: , were neither those of giant humans nor of any

text: extant

text: animals. The geologists of the day increasingly came to use the term Antediluvian only for the younger strata containing fossils of animals resembling those alive today.

text: Ulan-Ude can be described as possessing a very continental steppe climate (Köppen climate classification BSk), bordering on a humid continental climate (Dwb). The climate is characterised by long, dry, cold winters and short but very warm summers. Precipitation is low and heavily concentrated in the warmer months.

text: Ulan-Ude can be described as possessing a very continental

text: steppe climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: BSk), bordering on a

text: humid continental climate

text: (Dwb). The climate is characterised by long, dry, cold winters and short but very warm summers. Precipitation is low and heavily concentrated in the warmer months.

text: This popular climbing destination rises  above the fertile valley just east of the city of Heber Springs. It formed as an erosional remnant by the Little Red River (Arkansas).  It stands as a monument to the eons of time when the river was patiently carving out the valley from the surrounding hills.  Why the sandstone formation has held firm on top of the long familiar landmark is a question that geologists can explain.  Because the huge rocks at the top of the formation lie in flat layers and were not folded by continental drift, they cap the mountain on which they lie.  Through the centuries, less resistant units of sandstone, silt stone and shale eroded away, leaving the atoka formation which the white man called Sugar Loaf.

text: This popular climbing destination rises  above the fertile valley just east of the city of Heber Springs. It formed as an erosional remnant by the

text: Little Red River (Arkansas)

text: .  It stands as a monument to the eons of time when the river was patiently carving out the valley from the surrounding hills.  Why the

text: sandstone

text: formation has held firm on top of the long familiar landmark is a question that geologists can explain.  Because the huge rocks at the top of the formation lie in flat layers and were not folded by continental drift, they cap the mountain on which they lie.  Through the centuries, less resistant units of sandstone, silt stone and shale eroded away, leaving the atoka formation which the white man called Sugar Loaf.

text: Plant fossils almost always represent disarticulated parts of plants; even small herbaceous plants are rarely preserved whole.  Those few examples of plant fossils that appear to be the remains of whole plants in fact are incomplete as the internal cellular tissue and fine micromorphological detail is normally lost during fossilisation.  Plant remains can be preserved in a variety of ways, each revealing different features of the original parent plant.

text: Wall rock is the rock that constitutes the wall of an area undergoing geologic activity. Examples are the rock along the neck of a volcano, on the edge of a pluton that is being emplaced, along a fault plane, enclosing a mineral deposit, or where a vein or dike is being emplaced.

text: Wall rock is the rock that constitutes the wall of an area undergoing geologic activity. Examples are the rock along the neck of a

text: volcano

text: , on the edge of a

text: pluton

text: that is being emplaced, along a fault plane, enclosing a mineral deposit, or where a

text: vein

text: or

text: dike

text: is being emplaced.

text: Interstate 90 drops through the Thorp Drift, which marks the oldest and furthest reaching known glacial moraine in the Kittitas Valley. Changes in the types of vegetation become more evident in this area. The changes are the result of a drop in elevation of about 1,400 feet from the summit of Snoqualmie Pass to Thorp, and a significant drop in precipitation of about 107 inches average a year at the summit of Snoqualmie Pass, to 42.94 inches average a year at Thorp.

text: Interstate 90 drops through the Thorp Drift, which marks the oldest and furthest reaching known glacial moraine in the Kittitas Valley. Changes in the types of

text: vegetation

text: become more evident in this area. The changes are the result of a drop in elevation of about 1,400 feet from the summit of

text: Snoqualmie Pass

text: to Thorp, and a significant drop in

text: precipitation

text: of about 107 inches average a year at the

text: summit

text: of Snoqualmie Pass, to 42.94 inches average a year at Thorp.

text: Formula Drift has increased its international presence every year since 2008 with the addition of demonstration and sister series in other countries.  "Taking the Formula Drift brand internationally is a huge milestone. Our priority is to continue to build the Series here while growing the sport of drifting as a whole," said Jim Liaw, president and co-founder of Formula Drift. "We are very careful in choosing our event partners and take careful consideration of the boundaries of our international affiliates such as Drift Australia, MSC, and Pro Drift."

text: 's pre-production expertise has helped to shape projects such as Peanuts, The Book of Life, Rio, Rio 2, Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs, Ice Age: Continental Drift, Despicable Me, Hugo, Angry Birds and Ice Age: Collision Course.  Their clients' projects have grossed over $5 billion worldwide to date.

text: 's pre-production expertise has helped to shape projects such as

text: Peanuts

text: The Book of Life

text: Rio

text: Rio 2

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: Despicable Me

text: Hugo

text: Angry Birds

text: and

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: .  Their clients' projects have grossed over $5 billion worldwide to date.

text: Unearthed at a few vineyards in Rehborn have been plant and animal fossils from Rotliegend times in the Permian, some 290,000,000 years ago. Among the animal fossils that have been found are fishes, amphibians and reptiles.

text: Unearthed at a few

text: vineyard

text: s in Rehborn have been plant and animal

text: fossil

text: s from

text: Rotliegend

text: times in the

text: Permian

text: , some 290,000,000 years ago. Among the animal fossils that have been found are

text: fish

text: es,

text: amphibian

text: s and

text: reptile

text: s.

text: Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth."<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9

text: Alfred Wegener

text: proposed the theory of

text: continental drift

text: in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot

text: sima

text: [rising] from depth."<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9

text: A derived, reworked or remanié fossil is a fossil found in rock that accumulated significantly later than when the fossilized animal or plant died: Reworked fossils are created by erosion exhuming (freeing) fossils from the rock formation in which they were originally deposited and their redeposition in an younger sedimentary deposit.

text: Holmes championed the theory of continental drift promoted by Alfred Wegener at a time when it was deeply unfashionable with his more conservative peers. One problem with the theory lay in the mechanism of movement, and Holmes proposed that Earth's mantle contained convection cells that dissipated radioactive heat and moved the crust at the surface. His  Principles of Physical Geology ended with a chapter on continental drift. Part of the model was the origin of the seafloor spreading concept.

text: Holmes championed the theory of

text: continental drift

text: promoted by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: at a time when it was deeply unfashionable with his more conservative peers. One problem with the theory lay in the mechanism of movement, and Holmes proposed that Earth's

text: mantle

text: contained

text: convection cell

text: s that dissipated

text: radioactive

text: heat and moved the crust at the surface. His  Principles of Physical Geology ended with a chapter on continental drift. Part of the model was the origin of the

text: seafloor spreading

text: concept.

text: Recent work suggests that the area of Older Drift outside the South Ireland End Moraine was inundated by Irish Ice during and after the LGM.  At the same time the area of Older Drift on the Welsh side of St George's Channel (outside the South Wales End Moraine) must also have been inundated by ice.  However, the glacial deposits relating to this episode of glaciation remain to be discovered.

text: Recent work suggests that the area of

text: Older Drift

text: outside the South Ireland End Moraine was inundated by Irish Ice during and after the LGM.  At the same time the area of Older Drift on the Welsh side of St George's Channel (outside the South Wales End Moraine) must also have been inundated by ice.  However, the glacial deposits relating to this episode of glaciation remain to be discovered.

text: According to scientists, if people can stick objects to their body, not only metal but also other materials, it has actually nothing to do with magnetism. Skeptic Benjamin Radford has used a compass to check the magnetic field of a person that claimed to be a human magnet. He claims that person didn't actually produce magnetic fields. It shows that human magnetism uses different kinds of physical effects. Many scientists and proponents of science, including James Randi, claim that this ability is caused by sticky skin.

text: According to scientists, if people can stick objects to their body, not only metal but also other materials, it has actually nothing to do with

text: magnetism

text: . Skeptic

text: Benjamin Radford

text: has used a

text: compass

text: to check the

text: magnetic field

text: of a person that claimed to be a human magnet. He claims that person didn't actually produce magnetic fields. It shows that human magnetism uses different kinds of physical effects. Many scientists and proponents of science, including

text: James Randi

text: , claim that this ability is caused by sticky skin.

text: In September 2011, it was announced that English singer/rapper Example had written a track for The Wanted. In an interview with the Daily Record, Example said, "I wrote a song for them called "Chasing the Sun" and it's great. They went into the studio yesterday and Max even cryptically tweeted that it was a tune...I thought a few people might want it at first, including Enrique Iglesias and Kylie because both have asked me to write songs for them. But as soon as someone mentioned The Wanted, I thought it was right." "Chasing the Sun" was released in the UK as the album's lead single on 20 May 2012. It was also released as the third single from the band's self-titled EP in the United States on 17 April, and was included as one of the two theme songs for the 2012 animated film Ice Age: Continental Drift. It peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, giving the band their sixth UK top ten hit.

text: In September 2011, it was announced that English singer/rapper

text: Example

text: had written a track for The Wanted. In an interview with the

text: Daily Record

text: , Example said, "I wrote a song for them called "

text: Chasing the Sun

text: " and it's great. They went into the studio yesterday and

text: Max

text: even cryptically tweeted that it was a tune...I thought a few people might want it at first, including

text: Enrique Iglesias

text: and

text: Kylie

text: because both have asked me to write songs for them. But as soon as someone mentioned The Wanted, I thought it was right." "Chasing the Sun" was released in the UK as the album's lead single on 20 May 2012. It was also released as the third single from the band's

text: self-titled EP

text: in the

text: United States

text: on 17 April, and was included as one of the two theme songs for the 2012 animated film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: . It peaked at number two on the

text: UK Singles Chart

text: , giving the band their sixth UK top ten hit.

text: Glaciation following the Namurian phase facilitated greater denudation. The result is that Inishmaan is one of the finest examples of a Glacio-Karst landscape in the world. The effects of the last glacial period (the Midlandian) are most in evidence, with the island overrun by ice during this glaciation. The impact of earlier Karstification (solutional erosion) has been eliminated by the last glacial period. So any Karstification now seen dates from approximately 10,000 years ago and the island Karst is thus recent.

text: Glaciation following the

text: Namurian

text: phase facilitated greater denudation. The result is that Inishmaan is one of the finest examples of a Glacio-

text: Karst

text: last glacial period

text: Karstification

text: last glacial period

text: . So any Karstification now seen dates from approximately 10,000 years ago and the island Karst is thus recent.

text: In the narrow valley stretch of the Vacha River where the project is located, the geological formation consists of sound granites and gneissic formations except for a small patch of about , which is the fractured zone of mylonites, which was filled up with concrete. The dam’s rock foundation has seven types of rocks with elastic modules values varying from 12,000 MPa to 72,000 MPa and a Poisson’s ratio varying between 0.24 and 0.27. The damping ratio of 10% for this foundation has been adopted in the dynamic analysis. The intake structure and the pressure tunnel pass through difficult geological formations. Due to this geological feature, particularly at the intake structure, an area of about  was required to be plugged in the Gashnia Valley.

text: In the narrow valley stretch of the Vacha River where the project is located, the geological formation consists of sound

text: granite

text: s and

text: gneiss

text: ic formations except for a small patch of about , which is the fractured zone of

text: mylonite

text: s, which was filled up with concrete. The dam’s rock foundation has seven types of rocks with

text: elastic modules

text: values varying from 12,000 MPa to 72,000 MPa and a

text: Poisson’s ratio

text: varying between 0.24 and 0.27. The damping ratio of 10% for this foundation has been adopted in the dynamic analysis. The intake structure and the pressure tunnel pass through difficult geological formations. Due to this geological feature, particularly at the intake structure, an area of about  was required to be plugged in the Gashnia Valley.

text: In 2012, Sykes role the voice of Granny in Ice Age: Continental Drift, and In 2016, she was returned voice of Granny in Ice Age: Collision Course from the Blue Sky Studios' "Ice Age movies".

text: In 2012, Sykes role the voice of Granny in

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , and In 2016, she was returned voice of Granny in

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: from the Blue Sky Studios' "Ice Age movies".

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Orofino has a dry-summer continental climate (Köppen Dsb). Due to the warm summers, it nearly qualifies as a continental Mediterranean climate Köppen Dsa).

text: According to the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: system, Orofino has a dry-summer

text: continental climate

text: Köppen

text: Dsb). Due to the warm summers, it nearly qualifies as a

text: continental Mediterranean climate

text: Köppen

text: Dsa).

text: In his work, Wegener presented a large amount of observational evidence in support of continental drift, but the mechanism remained a problem, partly because Wegener's estimate of the velocity of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was too high. (The currently accepted rate for the separation of the Americas from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year).

text: In his work, Wegener presented a large amount of observational evidence in support of continental drift, but the

text: mechanism

text: remained a problem, partly because Wegener's estimate of the velocity of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was too high. (The currently accepted rate for the separation of the Americas from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year).

text: The same kinds of fossils are found from areas known to be adjacent to one another in the past but that, through the process of continental drift, are now in widely divergent geographic locations. For example, fossils of the same types of ancient amphibians, arthropods and ferns are found in South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica, which can be dated to the Paleozoic Era, when these regions were united as a single landmass called Gondwana. Sometimes the descendants of these organisms can be identified and show unmistakable similarity to each other, even though they now inhabit very different regions and climates.

text: The same kinds of fossils are found from areas known to be adjacent to one another in the past but that, through the process of

text: continental drift

text: , are now in widely divergent geographic locations. For example, fossils of the same types of ancient amphibians, arthropods and ferns are found in South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica, which can be dated to the

text: Paleozoic

text: Era, when these regions were united as a single landmass called

text: Gondwana

text: . Sometimes the descendants of these organisms can be identified and show unmistakable similarity to each other, even though they now inhabit very different regions and climates.

text: The mechanism may be internal to the Earth system. The Earth's climate system may have a natural resonance frequency of 100ka; that is to say, feedback processes within the climate automatically produce a 100ka effect, much as a bell naturally rings at a certain pitch. Opponents to this claim point out that the resonance would have to have developed 1 million years ago, as a 100ka periodicity was weak to non-existent for the preceding 2 million years. This is feasible — continental drift and sea floor spreading rate change have been postulated as possible causes of such a change. Free oscillations of components of the Earth system have been considered as a cause,<ref name=Saltzman1984>{{cite journal|author=Saltzman, B.|year=1984|title=The late Quaternary glaciations as the response of a three-component feedback system to Earth-orbital forcing|journal=Journal of Atmospheric Sciences|volume=41|issue=23|pages=3380–3389|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041

text: The mechanism may be internal to the Earth system. The Earth's climate system may have a natural

text: resonance frequency

text: of 100ka; that is to say, feedback processes within the climate automatically produce a 100ka effect, much as a bell naturally rings at a certain pitch. Opponents to this claim point out that the resonance would have to have developed 1 million years ago, as a 100ka periodicity was weak to non-existent for the preceding 2 million years. This is feasible —

text: continental drift

text: and

text: sea floor spreading

text: rate change have been postulated as possible causes of such a change. Free oscillations of components of the Earth system have been considered as a cause,<ref name=Saltzman1984>{{cite journal|author=Saltzman, B.|year=1984|title=The late Quaternary glaciations as the response of a three-component feedback system to Earth-orbital forcing|journal=Journal of Atmospheric Sciences|volume=41|issue=23|pages=3380–3389|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1984)041

text: Estuaries are an example of a coastal sink in that they tend to trap sediment which can be due to tidal circulations and the mixing of fresh and salt water, the injection of river sediment and the presence of mangroves. As the tide rises and falls water and sediment is pumped into the estuary. Because salt water and sediment particles are heavier than fresh water they tend to be carried  the bottom until the sediment sinks to the floor and is trapped within the estuary. The movement of sands and offshore material into an estuary generally depends on the direction of longshore drift and the movement of bottom waters across the continental shelf. Estuaries can often trap a lot of coarse bedload sediments that are fed down rivers, intercepting them before they reach the coast. The North Island of New Zealand experiences sediment sinks into estuaries often, enhanced by the presence of mangroves. Mangroves are sediment hungry and trap a lot of suspended sediment with their complex aerial root structure, thus functioning as land builders.

text: Estuaries are an example of a coastal sink in that they tend to trap sediment which can be due to tidal circulations and the mixing of fresh and salt water, the injection of river sediment and the presence of

text: mangrove

text: s. As the tide rises and falls water and sediment is pumped into the estuary. Because salt water and sediment particles are heavier than fresh water they tend to be carried  the bottom until the sediment sinks to the floor and is trapped within the estuary. The movement of sands and offshore material into an estuary generally depends on the direction of longshore drift and the movement of bottom waters across the

text: continental shelf

text: . Estuaries can often trap a lot of coarse bedload sediments that are fed down rivers, intercepting them before they reach the coast. The

text: North Island

text: of New Zealand experiences sediment sinks into estuaries often, enhanced by the presence of mangroves. Mangroves are sediment hungry and trap a lot of suspended sediment with their complex aerial

text: root

text: structure, thus functioning as land builders.

text: In 2002 he voiced Sid the Sloth for the film Ice Age, reprising the role for the sequels Ice Age: The Meltdown, Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs, Ice Age: Continental Drift and Ice Age: Collision Course. The game versions of the films also used his voice. In 2003, he voice-acted Globox from Rayman 3: Hoodlum Havoc. Leguizamo portrayed Paul in the Brad Anderson thriller film Vanishing on 7th Street.In 2007 he played Michael Beltran in the movie The Babysitters. In 2008 he co-starred in the movie The Happening, written and directed by M. Night Shyamalan.In 2014 Leguizamo starred alongside Jon Favreau in Chef

text: In 2002 he voiced

text: Sid the Sloth

text: for the film

text: Ice Age

text: , reprising the role for the sequels

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: and

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: . The game versions of the films also used his voice. In 2003, he voice-acted

text: Globox

text: from

text: Rayman 3: Hoodlum Havoc

text: . Leguizamo portrayed Paul in the

text: Brad Anderson

text: thriller film

text: Vanishing on 7th Street

text: .In 2007 he played Michael Beltran in the movie

text: The Babysitters

text: . In 2008 he co-starred in the movie

text: The Happening

text: , written and directed by

text: M. Night Shyamalan

text: .In 2014 Leguizamo starred alongside

text: Jon Favreau

text: in

text: Chef

text: Climate is designated as Humid continental, and this region typically has large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Climate is designated as Humid continental, and this region typically has large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: ". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Structural geologists study the results of deformation, using observations of rock, especially the mode and geometry of deformation to reconstruct the stress field that affected the rock over time. Structural geology is an important complement to geodynamics because it provides the most direct source of data about the movements of the Earth. Different modes of deformation result in distinct geological structures. Figures 3 shows the appearance of brittle fracture in rocks while figure 4 shows the appearance of ductile folding.

text: Structural geologists study the results of deformation, using observations of rock, especially the mode and geometry of deformation to reconstruct the stress field that affected the rock over time.

text: Structural geology

text: is an important complement to geodynamics because it provides the most direct source of data about the movements of the Earth. Different modes of deformation result in distinct geological structures. Figures 3 shows the appearance of brittle fracture in rocks while figure 4 shows the appearance of ductile folding.

text: Sri Lanka is a continental island, separated from the Asian continent only by shallow Palk Strait. Sri Lanka was once a part of Gondwanaland, until the Cretaceous Period. Then as a part of the Indian Plate, it detached and drifted northward. The Indian Plate collided with the Asian mainland about 55 million years later. Therefore there are many ancient Gondwana taxonomic groups present in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka first became separated from the mainland Indian subcontinent during the late Miocene Epoch. Due to climatic changes, an intermittent drier region emerged between the moist forests in southwest Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats in India, the closest other moist forests. Although the island has been connected with the mainland repeatedly by land bridges since the initial separation, Sri Lanka's moist forests and its wet forest-adapted biota have been identified as being ecologically isolated.

text: Sri Lanka is a

text: continental island

text: , separated from the

text: Asia

text: n continent only by shallow

text: Palk Strait

text: . Sri Lanka was once a part of

text: Gondwanaland

text: , until the

text: Cretaceous Period

text: . Then as a part of the

text: Indian Plate

text: , it detached and drifted northward. The Indian Plate collided with the

text: Asian mainland

text: about 55 million years later. Therefore there are many ancient Gondwana

text: taxonomic groups

text: present in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka first became separated from the mainland Indian subcontinent during the late

text: Miocene Epoch

text: . Due to climatic changes, an intermittent drier region emerged between the moist forests in southwest Sri Lanka and the

text: Western Ghats

text: in India, the closest other moist forests. Although the island has been connected with the mainland repeatedly by land bridges since the initial separation, Sri Lanka's moist forests and its wet forest-adapted

text: biota

text: have been identified as being ecologically isolated.

text: An important early land plant fossil locality is the Rhynie Chert, found outside the village of Rhynie in Scotland.  The Rhynie chert is an Early Devonian sinter (hot spring) deposit composed primarily of silica. It is exceptional due to its preservation of several different clades of plants, from mosses and lycopods to more unusual, problematic forms. Many fossil animals, including arthropods and arachnids, are also found in the Rhynie Chert, and it offers a unique window on the history of early terrestrial life.

text: An important early land plant fossil locality is the

text: Rhynie Chert

text: , found outside the village of

text: Rhynie

text: in

text: Scotland

text: .  The Rhynie chert is an Early

text: Devonian

text: sinter (

text: hot spring

text: ) deposit composed primarily of

text: silica

text: . It is exceptional due to its preservation of several different

text: clade

text: s of plants, from

text: mosses

text: and

text: lycopods

text: to more unusual, problematic forms. Many fossil animals, including

text: arthropods

text: and

text: arachnids

text: , are also found in the Rhynie Chert, and it offers a unique window on the history of early terrestrial life.

text: Professor S. Warren Carey established the Department of Geology at the University of Tasmania on 27 October 1946. He was an early proponent of continental drift and the unauthodox expanding earth theory. He had become the Government Geologist of Tasmania in 1944 where he organised the understanding of Paleozoic formations in the west coast mineral fields, and introduced the Cenozoic rift valley idea, and the policy of publishing the results of the Geologic Survey. Carey introduced terms such as orocline and sphenochasm and the concept of the hotspot. The University of Tasmania building for Geology and Geography was constructed in 1962. It had exhibitions of a Foucault pendulum, a seismometer recording drum, a mosaic illustrating crystal symmetry, and a large terrestrial globe. Carey organised and hosted the Continental Drift Symposium in 1956.

text: Professor

text: S. Warren Carey

text: established the Department of Geology at the

text: University of Tasmania

text: on 27 October 1946. He was an early proponent of continental drift and the unauthodox

text: expanding earth theory

text: . He had become the Government Geologist of Tasmania in 1944 where he organised the understanding of Paleozoic formations in the west coast mineral fields, and introduced the Cenozoic rift valley idea, and the policy of publishing the results of the Geologic Survey. Carey introduced terms such as

text: orocline

text: and

text: sphenochasm

text: and the concept of the

text: hotspot

text: . The University of Tasmania building for Geology and Geography was constructed in 1962. It had exhibitions of a

text: Foucault pendulum

text: , a

text: seismometer

text: recording drum, a mosaic illustrating crystal symmetry, and a large terrestrial globe. Carey organised and hosted the Continental Drift Symposium in 1956.

text: Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915) (in German "die Verschiebung der Kontinente" – translated into English in 1922) and formally publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow "drifted" apart. Although he presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. His suggestion that the continents had been pulled apart by the centrifugal pseudoforce (Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component of astronomical precession was rejected as calculations showed that the force was not sufficient. The Polflucht hypothesis was also studied by Paul Sophus Epstein in 1920 and found to be implausible.

text: Wegener was the first to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915) (in German "die Verschiebung der Kontinente" – translated into English in 1922) and formally publish the hypothesis that the continents had somehow "drifted" apart. Although he presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. His suggestion that the continents had been pulled apart by the

text: centrifugal pseudoforce

text: (Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component of astronomical

text: precession

text: was rejected as calculations showed that the force was not sufficient. The

text: Polflucht

text: hypothesis was also studied by

text: Paul Sophus Epstein

text: in 1920 and found to be implausible.

text: It was  thick which advanced and receded several times across the prairies. There were multiple glaciations affecting the Saskatchewan area during the Pre-Illinoian, Illinioan, and Wisconsin stages of the last Ice Age. These glaciations occurred during the Quaternary period which comprises the last two million years.  Northern Saskatchewan and the shield area shows the effects of glacial erosion and scour; the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is a location of glacial deposition and collection. In southern Saskatchewan there are late Pliocene, pre-Illinoian continental glaciation sand and gravel deposits left behind from water deposition (alluvial) and glacial edge deposits (colluvial).  By the study of till, terrain, the limits of the Illinoian glaciation are evidenced around Willow Bunch Lake, Wood Mountain, Cypress Hills area.

text: It was  thick which advanced and receded several times across the prairies. There were multiple glaciations affecting the Saskatchewan area during the

text: Pre-Illinoian

text: Illinioan

text: , and

text: Wisconsin

text: stages of the last

text: Ice Age

text: . These glaciations occurred during the

text: Quaternary period

text: which comprises the last two million years.  Northern Saskatchewan and the shield area shows the effects of glacial erosion and scour; the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is a location of glacial deposition and collection. In southern Saskatchewan there are late Pliocene, pre-Illinoian continental glaciation sand and gravel deposits left behind from water deposition (

text: alluvial

text: ) and glacial edge deposits (

text: colluvial

text: ).  By the study of till, terrain, the limits of the Illinoian glaciation are evidenced around Willow Bunch Lake, Wood Mountain, Cypress Hills area.

text: It could have been possible for glaciation to initiate with high levels of CO, but it would have depended highly on continental configuration.

text: The evolution of tectonophysics is closely linked to the history of the continental drift and plate tectonics hypotheses. The continental drift/ Airy-Heiskanen isostasy hypothesis had many flaws and scarce data. The fixist/ Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the contracting Earth and the expanding Earth concepts had many flaws as well.

text: The evolution of

text: tectonophysics

text: is closely linked to the history of the

text: continental drift

text: and

text: plate tectonics

text: hypotheses

text: . The continental drift/ Airy-Heiskanen

text: isostasy

text: hypothesis had many flaws and scarce data. The fixist/ Pratt-Hayford isostasy, the contracting Earth and the expanding Earth concepts had many flaws as well.

text: After receiving degrees in mining engineering and civil engineering, Willis worked from 1881 to 1884 as a survey geologist for Northern Pacific Railroad.  From 1884 to 1915, he worked for the USGS, being named director of the Appalachian division in 1889.  In 1893 he published "The Mechanics of Appalachian Structure" in the Report of the United States Geological Survey.  From 1895 to 1902 he lectured on geology at Johns Hopkins University.  In 1900 he was appointed as head of the Division of Areal Geology of the USGS.  In 1903 he accepted the invitation of the newly established Carnegie Institution of Washington to lead an expedition to northern China, an experience which was later described in his book Friendly China.  From 1910 until 1914 he consulted for the government of Argentina an experience later recorded in his book a Yanqui in Patagonia.  He led a vigorous public campaign in the 1920s to raise awareness of earthquake hazards and safe building practices. After finishing his work with the USGS, he was appointed as a professor and chairman of the geology department at Stanford University, where he served until 1922.  In 1920, he was elected to the National Academy of the Sciences.  He was president of the Seismological Society of America from 1921 to 1926, during which time he published his Geologic Structures.  In 1928, he published "Continental Drift" in the SP 2: Theory of Continental Drift, by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, where he rejects the theory. Stating "After considering the theory of continental drift with avowed impartiality, the author concludes by means of geophysical, geological and paleontologic reasoning that it should be rejected, because the original suggestion of the idea sprang from a similarity of form (coast lines of Africa and South America) which in itself constitutes no demonstration, because such a drift would have destroyed the similarity by faulting, and because other contradictions destroy the necessary consequences of the hypothesis."  In 1932, he  published "Isthmian Links" in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America.

text: After receiving degrees in mining engineering and civil engineering, Willis worked from 1881 to 1884 as a survey geologist for

text: Northern Pacific Railroad

text: .  From 1884 to 1915, he worked for the USGS, being named director of the

text: Appalachian

text: division in 1889.  In 1893 he published "The Mechanics of Appalachian Structure" in the Report of the United States Geological Survey.  From 1895 to 1902 he lectured on geology at

text: Johns Hopkins University

text: .  In 1900 he was appointed as head of the Division of Areal Geology of the USGS.  In 1903 he accepted the invitation of the newly established

text: Carnegie Institution

text: of Washington to lead an expedition to northern China, an experience which was later described in his book Friendly China.  From 1910 until 1914 he consulted for the government of

text: Argentina

text: an experience later recorded in his book a Yanqui in Patagonia.  He led a vigorous public campaign in the 1920s to raise awareness of earthquake hazards and safe building practices. After finishing his work with the USGS, he was appointed as a professor and chairman of the geology department at

text: Stanford University

text: , where he served until 1922.  In 1920, he was elected to the

text: National Academy of the Sciences

text: .  He was president of the

text: Seismological Society of America

text: from 1921 to 1926, during which time he published his Geologic Structures.  In 1928, he published "Continental Drift" in the SP 2: Theory of Continental Drift, by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, where he rejects the theory. Stating "After considering the theory of continental drift with avowed impartiality, the author concludes by means of geophysical, geological and paleontologic reasoning that it should be rejected, because the original suggestion of the idea sprang from a similarity of form (coast lines of Africa and South America) which in itself constitutes no demonstration, because such a drift would have destroyed the similarity by faulting, and because other contradictions destroy the necessary consequences of the hypothesis."  In 1932, he  published "Isthmian Links" in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America.

text: The fossils found in abundance along this coastline provide evidence of how animals and plants evolved in this region. During the Triassic this area was a desert, while in the Jurassic it was part of a tropical sea, and in the Cretaceous it was covered by swamps. The fossilised remains of the animals and plants that lived in those periods are very well preserved, providing a wealth of information on their body shapes, the way they died and even the fossilised remains of their last meals. Fossil groups found here include crustaceans, insects, molluscs, echinoderms, fish, amphibians, reptiles and a few mammals. At Lulworth Cove there is a fossil forest of conifers, tree-ferns and cycads.

text: The fossils found in abundance along this coastline provide evidence of how animals and plants evolved in this region. During the Triassic this area was a desert, while in the Jurassic it was part of a tropical sea, and in the Cretaceous it was covered by swamps. The fossilised remains of the animals and plants that lived in those periods are very well preserved, providing a wealth of information on their body shapes, the way they died and even the fossilised remains of their last meals. Fossil groups found here include

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: insect

text: s,

text: molluscs

text: echinoderm

text: s,

text: fish

text: amphibian

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s and a few

text: mammal

text: s. At

text: Lulworth Cove

text: there is a fossil forest of

text: conifers

text: tree-ferns

text: and

text: cycad

text: s.

text: Lillooet experiences a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) that falls near the borderline with both the hot summer humid continental climate type (Köppen Dfa) and the semi-arid climate type  (Köppen BSk).

text: Lillooet experiences a warm-summer

text: humid continental climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfb

text: ) that falls near the borderline with both the hot summer humid continental climate type (Köppen

entity_section: Dfa/Dwa/Dsa: Hot (or very warm) summer subtype

text: Dfa

text: ) and the semi-arid climate type  (Köppen

text: BSk

text: ETRS89 is a Cartesian ECEF geodetic datum, in which Eurasian Plate as a whole is static. Within Europe, coordinates and maps based on ETRS89 are stable because temporal variations due to the continental drift are minimized. ETRS89 coincided with the global ITRS datum in 1989, hence the name. ETRS89 and ITRS diverge due to the continental drift at a speed about  2.5 cm per year.

entity_name: European Terrestrial Reference System 1989

text: is a Cartesian

text: ECEF

text: geodetic datum

text: , in which

text: Eurasian Plate

text: as a whole is static. Within

text: Europe

text: coordinate

text: s and

text: map

text: s based on

text: are stable because temporal variations due to the

text: continental drift

text: are minimized.

text: coincided with the global

text: ITRS

text: datum in 1989, hence the name.

text: and

text: ITRS

text: diverge due to the

text: continental drift

text: at a speed about  2.5 cm per year.

text: Paleomagnetic evidence, both reversals and polar wandering data, was instrumental in verifying the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics in the 1960s and 1970s. Some applications of paleomagnetic evidence to reconstruct histories of terranes have continued to arouse controversies. Paleomagnetic evidence is also used in constraining possible ages for rocks and processes and in reconstructions of the deformational histories of parts of the crust.

text: Paleomagnetic evidence, both reversals and polar wandering data, was instrumental in verifying the theories of

text: continental drift

text: and

text: plate tectonics

text: in the 1960s and 1970s. Some applications of paleomagnetic evidence to reconstruct histories of

text: terrane

text: s have continued to arouse controversies. Paleomagnetic evidence is also used in constraining possible ages for rocks and processes and in reconstructions of the deformational histories of parts of the crust.

text: The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb" (Warm Summer Continental Climate).climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).

text: The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfb

text: " (Warm Summer Continental Climate).climate is "

text: Cfb

text: " (Marine West Coast Climate/

text: Oceanic climate

text: Comparative study of the anatomy of groups of animals or plants reveals that certain structural features are basically similar. For example, the basic structure of all flowers consists of sepals, petals, stigma, style and ovary; yet the size, colour, number of parts and specific structure are different for each individual species. The neural anatomy of fossilized remains may also be compared using advanced imaging techniques.

text: Comparative study of the anatomy

text: of groups of animals or plants reveals that certain structural features are basically similar. For example, the basic structure of all

text: flower

text: s consists of

text: sepal

text: s,

text: petal

text: s,

text: stigma, style and ovary

text: ; yet the size,

text: colour

text: number

text: of parts and specific structure are different for each individual species. The neural anatomy of fossilized remains may also be compared using advanced imaging techniques.

text: Continental Drift is a 1985 novel by Russell Banks. Set in the early 1980s, it follows two plots, through which Banks explores the relationship between apparently distant people drawn together in the world under globalization, which Banks compares to the geologic phenomena of continental drift. The first plot features Bob DuBois, a working class New Englander who heads to Florida in the hopes of striking it rich; the second plot traces the journey of Vanise Dorsinville from Haiti to Florida. It is an avowedly political work, whose stated aim is to "destroy the world as it is." Despite its scope, it is according to critic Michiko Kakutani "somehow, acutely personal."

text: Continental Drift is a 1985 novel by

text: Russell Banks

text: . Set in the early 1980s, it follows two plots, through which Banks explores the relationship between apparently distant people drawn together in the world under

text: globalization

text: , which Banks compares to the geologic phenomena of

text: continental drift

text: . The first plot features Bob DuBois, a working class

text: New England

text: er who heads to

text: Florida

text: in the hopes of striking it rich; the second plot traces the journey of Vanise Dorsinville from

text: Haiti

text: to Florida. It is an avowedly political work, whose stated aim is to "destroy the world as it is." Despite its scope, it is according to critic Michiko Kakutani "somehow, acutely personal."

text: The family Stangeriaceae (named for Dr. William Stanger, 1811–1854), consisting of only three extant species, is thought to be of Gondwanan origin, as fossils have been found in Lower Cretaceous deposits in Argentina, dating to 70–135 mya. The family Zamiaceae is more diverse, with a fossil record extending from the middle Triassic to the Eocene (54–200 mya) in North and South America, Europe, Australia, and Antarctica, implying the family was present before the break-up of Pangea. The family Cycadaceae is thought to be an early offshoot, with fossils from Eocene deposits (38–54 mya) in Japan, China, and North America, indicating this family originated in Laurasia. Cycas is the only genus in the family and contains 99 species, the most of any cycad genus. Molecular data have recently shown Cycas species in Australasia and the east coast of Africa are recent arrivals, suggesting adaptive radiation may have occurred. The current distribution of cycads may be due to radiations from a few ancestral types sequestered on Laurasia and Gondwana, or could be explained by genetic drift following the separation of already evolved genera. Both explanations account for the strict endemism across present continental lines.

text: The

text: family

text: Stangeriaceae

text: (named for Dr.

text: William Stanger

text: , 1811–1854), consisting of only three

text: extant

text: species

text: , is thought to be of Gondwanan origin, as fossils have been found in

text: Lower Cretaceous

text: deposits in

text: Argentina

text: , dating to 70–135 mya. The family

text: Zamiaceae

text: is more diverse, with a fossil record extending from the middle

text: Triassic

text: to the

text: Eocene

text: (54–200 mya) in

text: North

text: and South America,

text: Europe

text: , Australia, and

text: Antarctic

text: a, implying the family was present before the break-up of Pangea. The family

text: Cycadaceae

text: is thought to be an early offshoot, with fossils from

text: Eocene

text: deposits (38–54 mya) in

text: Japan

text: China

text: , and

text: North America

text: , indicating this family originated in Laurasia.

text: Cycas

text: is the only

text: genus

text: in the family and contains 99 species, the most of any cycad genus.

text: Molecular

text: data have recently shown Cycas species in

text: Australasia

text: and the east coast of Africa are recent arrivals, suggesting

text: adaptive radiation

text: may have occurred. The current distribution of cycads may be due to radiations from a few ancestral types sequestered on Laurasia and Gondwana, or could be explained by

text: genetic drift

text: following the separation of already evolved genera. Both explanations account for the strict

text: endemism

text: across present continental lines.

text: Most organisms are not preserved as fossils. Unless covered quickly after death, their bodies are consumed by other animals and plants or destroyed by weather. Even the bones and shells of animals which were quickly buried after death may be later dissolved by groundwater. The clay in the sediment at Coon Creek sealed off the fragile fossils from the corrosive action of water and the hard parts of the clams, snails, crabs, and shrimps were well preserved.  Occasionally the bones of vertebrates are found, as well as the cartilaginous vertebrae of sharks. Fish scales and plant leaves are sometimes found as well (Wade 1926). The Coon Creek Formation has one of the highest densities of fossil in Eastern North America. Crustacean fossils have also been unearthed in the Coon Creek Formation as well.

text: Most organisms are not preserved as fossils. Unless covered quickly after death, their bodies are consumed by other animals and plants or destroyed by weather. Even the bones and shells of animals which were quickly buried after death may be later dissolved by groundwater. The clay in the sediment at Coon Creek sealed off the fragile fossils from the corrosive action of water and the hard parts of the clams, snails, crabs, and shrimps were well preserved.  Occasionally the bones of vertebrates are found, as well as the cartilaginous vertebrae of sharks. Fish scales and plant leaves are sometimes found as well (Wade 1926). The Coon Creek Formation has one of the highest densities of fossil in Eastern North America.

text: Crustacean

text: fossils have also been unearthed in the Coon Creek Formation as well.

text: With the retreat of the Patrician ice, the stage was set for the final phase of the Wisconsin Episode glaciation in Minnesota. The last major advance of the continental glacier in Minnesota culminated in a lobe that reached as far south as Des Moines, Iowa. The glacial movement from the northwest was from a more distant source than ice from the northwest. The subsequent glacier that moved into Minnesota was quite thin and unable to cause much erosion. The Des Moines lobe produced a northeast-moving projection known as the Grantsburg sublobe. Also protruding from the main Keewatin ice sheet was the St. Louis sublobe. The drift of these ice lobes is generally in late Wisconsin time. The sediment transported by the Mankato glacier is colored tan to buff and is clay-rich and calcareous because of shale and limestone source rocks to the northwest. The Superior lobe also developed during Mankato time and advanced as far west as Aitkin County, Minnesota.

text: With the retreat of the Patrician ice, the stage was set for the final phase of the Wisconsin Episode glaciation in Minnesota. The last major advance of the continental glacier in Minnesota culminated in a lobe that reached as far south as

text: Des Moines, Iowa

text: . The glacial movement from the northwest was from a more distant source than ice from the northwest. The subsequent glacier that moved into Minnesota was quite thin and unable to cause much erosion. The Des Moines lobe produced a northeast-moving projection known as the Grantsburg sublobe. Also protruding from the main Keewatin ice sheet was the St. Louis sublobe. The drift of these ice lobes is generally in late Wisconsin time. The

text: sediment transport

text: ed by the Mankato glacier is colored tan to buff and is clay-rich and calcareous because of shale and limestone source rocks to the northwest. The

text: Superior lobe

text: also developed during Mankato time and advanced as far west as

text: Aitkin County, Minnesota

text: Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable Precambrian "shield", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a craton. The craton itself is an accretionary complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of subduction, continental collision and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed sedimentary rock covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or deltaic sediments. Beyond the margin, there is either a continental shelf and drop off to the basaltic ocean basin or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity.

text: Geologists use the term continent in a different manner from geographers, where a continent is defined by continental crust: a platform of

text: metamorphic

text: and

text: igneous rock

text: , largely of

text: granitic

text: composition. Some geologists restrict the term 'continent' to portions of the crust built around stable

text: Precambrian

text: "shield", typically 1.5 to 3.8 billion years old, called a

text: craton

text: . The craton itself is an

text: accretionary

text: complex of ancient mobile belts (mountain belts) from earlier cycles of

text: subduction

text: continental collision

text: and break-up from plate tectonic activity. An outward-thickening veneer of younger, minimally deformed

text: sedimentary rock

text: covers much of the craton. The margins of geologic continents are characterized by currently active or relatively recently active mobile belts and deep troughs of accumulated marine or

text: deltaic

text: sediment

text: s. Beyond the margin, there is either a

text: continental shelf

text: and drop off to the

text: basalt

text: ic

text: ocean basin

text: or the margin of another continent, depending on the current plate-tectonic setting of the continent. A continental boundary does not have to be a body of water. Over geologic time, continents are periodically submerged under large epicontinental seas, and continental collisions result in a continent becoming attached to another continent. The current geologic era is relatively anomalous in that so much of the continental areas are "high and dry"; that is, many parts of the continents that were once below sea level are now elevated well above it due to changes in sea levels and the subsequent uplifting of those continental areas from tectonic activity.

text: Widespread evidence of glaciation may be seen in the U-shaped form of various notches, or mountain passes. Glacial cirques form the heads of Tuckerman Ravine on Mt. Washington and King Ravine on Mt. Adams. Glacial striations are visible at numerous locations, including on the exposed rocks at the summit of Pine Mountain in Gorham.

text: Widespread evidence of

text: glaciation

text: may be seen in the

text: U-shaped

text: form of various notches, or

text: mountain pass

text: es. Glacial

text: cirque

text: s form the heads of

text: Tuckerman Ravine

text: on Mt. Washington and King Ravine on

text: Mt. Adams

text: Glacial striation

text: s are visible at numerous locations, including on the exposed rocks at the summit of Pine Mountain in

text: Gorham

text: The effects of glaciation were global. Antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap. There were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The current decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Ruwenzori Range in east and central Africa were larger. Glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains.

text: The effects of glaciation were global.

text: Antarctica

text: was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The

text: Andes

text: were covered in the south by the

text: Patagonia

text: n ice cap. There were glaciers in

text: New Zealand

text: and

text: Tasmania

text: . The current decaying glaciers of

text: Mount Kenya

text: Mount Kilimanjaro

text: , and the

text: Ruwenzori Range

text: in east and central Africa were larger. Glaciers existed in the mountains of

text: Ethiopia

text: and to the west in the

text: Atlas mountains

text: The Pleistocene ice age glaciation of Puget Sound created many of the geographical features of the region, including Puget Sound itself, and the erratics are one of the remnants of that age. According to Nick Zentner of Central Washington University Department of Geological Sciences, "Canadian rocks [are] strewn all over the Puget lowland, stretching from the Olympic Peninsula clear over to the Cascade Range." Erratics can be found at altitudes up to about  in the Enumclaw area, along with kames, drumlins, and perhaps also the unique Mima mounds. The soil of Seattle, the county's (and state's) largest city, is approximately 80% glacial drift, most of which is Vashon glacial deposits (till), and nearly all of the city's major named hills are characterized as drumlins (Beacon Hill, First Hill, Capitol Hill, Queen Anne Hill) or drift uplands (Magnolia, West Seattle). Boulders greater than 3 meters in diameter are "rare" in the Vashon till, but can be found, as seen in the table below.

text: The

text: Pleistocene ice age

text: glaciation of

text: Puget Sound

text: created many of the geographical features of the region, including Puget Sound itself, and the erratics are one of the remnants of that age. According to Nick Zentner of

text: Central Washington University

text: Department of Geological Sciences, "Canadian rocks [are] strewn all over the Puget lowland, stretching from the Olympic Peninsula clear over to the Cascade Range." Erratics can be found at altitudes up to about  in the

text: Enumclaw

text: area, along with kames,

text: drumlin

text: s, and perhaps also the unique

text: Mima mounds

text: . The soil of Seattle, the county's (and state's) largest city, is approximately 80%

text: glacial drift

text: , most of which is Vashon glacial deposits (

text: till

text: ), and nearly all of the city's

text: major named hills

text: are characterized as drumlins (Beacon Hill, First Hill, Capitol Hill, Queen Anne Hill) or drift uplands (Magnolia, West Seattle). Boulders greater than 3 meters in diameter are "rare" in the Vashon till, but can be found, as seen in the table below.

text: The boats cruise along the edge of the continental shelf where billfish can be found down to 200 metres (600 ft), sometimes near weed lines at the surface and submarine canyons and ridges deeper down. Commercial fishermen usually use drift nets or longlines to catch billfish, but recreational fishermen usually drift with bait fish or troll a bait or lure. Billfish are caught deeper down the water column by drifting with live bait fish such as ballyhoo, striped mullet or bonito. Alternatively, they can be caught by trolling at the surface with dead bait or trolling lures designed to imitate bait fish.

text: The boats cruise along the edge of the continental shelf where billfish can be found down to 200 metres (600 ft), sometimes near weed lines at the surface and submarine canyons and ridges deeper down. Commercial fishermen usually use drift nets or longlines to catch billfish, but recreational fishermen usually drift with bait fish or troll a bait or lure. Billfish are caught deeper down the

text: water column

text: by drifting with live

text: bait fish

text: such as

text: ballyhoo

text: striped mullet

text: or

text: bonito

text: . Alternatively, they can be caught by

text: trolling

text: at the surface with dead bait or

text: trolling lures

text: designed to imitate bait fish.

text: Attar and the group recorded under the shorter and correct pronunciation of the Moghrebi name The Master Musicians of Jajouka on soundtracks for films including The Cell; The Hand of Fatima in 2009 by director Augusta Palmer; William S. Burroughs: A Man Within; directed by Yoni Leyser (2010); and Nicolas Roeg's Bad Timing (1980). Albums with the group and Attar include Apocalypse Across the Sky (Axiom, 1992), Jajouka Between the Mountains (WOMAD, 1996), appearances with the Rolling Stones on "Continental Drift" from the album Steel Wheels in 1989, the second album of the group from 1974, produced by Joel Rubiner, entitled The Master Musicians of Jajouka, and the 1995 reissue of Brian Jones Presents The Pipes of Pan at Jajouka on Point (Polygram) records. The spelling of "Jajouka" in the 1995 reissue title was corrected from "Joujouka" in the initial release's title for consistency with the band name spelling on the second album from 1974.

text: Attar and the group recorded under the shorter and correct pronunciation of the Moghrebi name The Master Musicians of Jajouka on soundtracks for films including The Cell; The Hand of Fatima in 2009 by director Augusta Palmer; William S. Burroughs: A Man Within; directed by Yoni Leyser (2010); and Nicolas Roeg's Bad Timing (1980). Albums with the group and Attar include Apocalypse Across the Sky (

text: Axiom

text: , 1992), Jajouka Between the Mountains (

text: WOMAD

text: , 1996), appearances with the

text: Rolling Stones

text: on "Continental Drift" from the album

text: Steel Wheels

text: in 1989, the second album of the group from 1974, produced by Joel Rubiner, entitled The Master Musicians of Jajouka, and the 1995 reissue of

entity_name: Brian Jones Presents the Pipes of Pan at Joujouka

text: Brian Jones Presents The Pipes of Pan at Jajouka

text: on Point (Polygram) records. The spelling of "Jajouka" in the 1995 reissue title was corrected from "Joujouka" in the initial release's title for consistency with the band name spelling on the second album from 1974.

text: The problem too, was the specialisation. Arthur Holmes and Alfred Rittmann saw it right . Only an outsider can have the overview, only an outsider sees the forest, not only the trees . But A. Wegener did not have the specialisation to correctly weight the quality of the geophysical data and the paleontologic data, and its conclusions. Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid 1912. So he hurried up to present his Continental Drift hypothesis.

text: The problem too, was the specialisation.

text: Arthur Holmes

text: and

text: Alfred Rittmann

text: saw it right . Only an outsider can have the overview, only an outsider sees the forest, not only the trees . But A. Wegener did not have the specialisation to correctly weight the quality of the geophysical data and the paleontologic data, and its conclusions. Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid 1912. So he hurried up to present his Continental Drift hypothesis.

text: Observations show that the figure axis exhibits an annual wobble forced by surface mass displacement via atmospheric and/or ocean dynamics, while the free nutation is much larger than the Euler period and of the order of 435 to 445 sidereal days. This observed free nutation is called Chandler wobble. There exist, in addition, polar motions with smaller periods of the order of decades. Finally, a secular polar drift of about 0.10 m per year in the direction of 80° west has been observed which is due to mass redistribution within the Earth's interior by continental drift, and/or slow motions within mantle and core which gives rise to changes of the moment of inertia.

text: Observations show that the figure axis exhibits an annual wobble forced by surface mass displacement via atmospheric and/or ocean dynamics, while the free nutation is much larger than the Euler period and of the order of 435 to 445 sidereal days. This observed free nutation is called

text: Chandler wobble

text: . There exist, in addition, polar motions with smaller periods of the order of decades. Finally, a secular polar drift of about 0.10 m per year in the direction of 80° west has been observed which is due to mass redistribution within the Earth's interior by continental drift, and/or slow motions within mantle and core which gives rise to changes of the moment of inertia.

text: The region is also heavily influenced by summer monsoons that cause major seasonal changes in vegetation and habitat. India forms a large part of the Indomalayan biogeographical zone and many of the floral and faunal forms show Malayan affinities with only a few taxa being unique to the Indian region. The unique forms includes the snake family Uropeltidae found only in the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka. Fossil taxa from the Cretaceous show links to the Seychelles and Madagascar chain of islands. The Cretaceous fauna include reptiles, amphibians and fishes and an extant species demonstrating this phylogeographical link is the purple frog. The separation of India and Madagascar is traditionally estimated to have taken place about 88 million years ago. However, there are suggestions that the links to Madagascar and Africa were present even at the time when the Indian subcontinent met Eurasia. India has been suggested as a ship for the movement of several African taxa into Asia. These taxa include five frog families (including the Myobatrachidae), three caecilian families, a lacertid lizard and freshwater snails of the family Potamiopsidae. A thirty million year old Ologocene era fossil tooth from the Bugti Hills of central Pakistan has been identified as from a lemur-like primate, prompting controversial suggestions that the lemurs may have originated in Asia. Lemur fossils from India in the past led to theories of a lost continent called Lemuria. This theory however was dismissed when continental drift and plate tectonics became well established.

text: The region is also heavily influenced by

text: summer monsoon

text: s that cause major seasonal changes in vegetation and habitat. India forms a large part of the

text: Indomalaya

text: n biogeographical zone and many of the floral and faunal forms show Malayan affinities with only a few

text: taxa

text: being unique to the Indian region. The unique forms includes the snake family

text: Uropeltidae

text: found only in the

text: Western Ghats

text: and

text: Sri Lanka

text: . Fossil taxa from the

text: Cretaceous

text: show links to the

text: Seychelles

text: and Madagascar chain of islands. The Cretaceous fauna include reptiles, amphibians and fishes and an extant species demonstrating this

text: phylogeographical

text: link is the

text: purple frog

text: . The separation of India and Madagascar is traditionally estimated to have taken place about 88 million years ago. However, there are suggestions that the links to Madagascar and Africa were present even at the time when the Indian subcontinent met Eurasia. India has been suggested as a ship for the movement of several African taxa into Asia. These taxa include five frog families (including the

text: Myobatrachidae

text: ), three

text: caecilian

text: families, a

text: lacertid

text: lizard and freshwater snails of the family

text: Potamiopsidae

text: . A thirty million year old

text: Ologocene

text: era fossil tooth from the

text: Bugti Hill

text: s of central Pakistan has been identified as from a lemur-like primate, prompting controversial suggestions that the lemurs may have originated in Asia. Lemur fossils from India in the past led to theories of a lost continent called

text: Lemuria

text: . This theory however was dismissed when

text: continental drift

text: and

text: plate tectonic

text: s became well established.

text: A compression fossil is a fossil preserved in sedimentary rock that has undergone physical compression.  While it is uncommon to find animals preserved as good compression fossils, it is very common to find plants preserved this way.  The reason for this is that physical compression of the rock often leads to distortion of the fossil.

text: A compression fossil is a

text: fossil

text: preserved in

text: sedimentary rock

text: that has undergone

text: physical compression

text: .  While it is uncommon to find

text: animal

text: s preserved as good compression fossils, it is very common to find

text: plant

text: s preserved this way.  The reason for this is that physical compression of the rock often leads to

text: distortion

text: of the fossil.

text: GPS stations measure the slow movements due to continental drift and tectonic movements:

text: Some data streams, especially high-speed serial data streams (such as the raw stream of data from the magnetic head of a disk drive), are sent without an accompanying clock.  The receiver generates a clock from an approximate frequency reference, and then phase-aligns to the transitions in the data stream with a PLL. This process is referred to as clock recovery. In order for this scheme to work, the data stream must have a transition frequently enough to correct any drift in the PLL's oscillator. Typically, some sort of line code, such as 8b/10b encoding, is used to put a hard upper bound on the maximum time between transitions.

text: Some data streams, especially high-speed serial data streams (such as the raw stream of data from the magnetic head of a disk drive), are sent without an accompanying clock.  The receiver generates a clock from an approximate frequency reference, and then phase-aligns to the transitions in the data stream with a PLL. This process is referred to as

text: clock recovery

text: . In order for this scheme to work, the data stream must have a transition frequently enough to correct any drift in the PLL's oscillator. Typically, some sort of

text: line code

text: , such as

text: 8b/10b encoding

text: , is used to put a hard upper bound on the maximum time between transitions.

text: The geology of Palawan is, in many ways, unlike other parts of the Philippines. The crust of northeast Palawan was derived from the southeast edge of the continental crust of China, part of the Eurasian Plate. It is the exposed portion of a microcontinent that drifted southward with the opening of the South China Sea. This microcontinent also forms the shallow water north of Palawan in the Reed Bank-Dangerous Ground area of the southern South China Sea. Some of the oldest rocks of the Philippines are found in northeast Palawan (Permian-Carboniferous age). Southwest Palawan exposes primarily ophiolitic material (rocks derived from uplifted oceanic crust and mantle). This 34 Myr old oceanic material appears to have been thrust upon the continental crust. The transition from "oceanic" ophiolite in the southwest to "continental"-type rocks in the northeast occurs in the area of central Palawan around Ulugan Bay and the Sabang area. In the southern coasts of Ulugan Bay and Sabang Beach, are several exposures showing that the Palawan ophiolite has been thrust on to the continent-derived clastic rocks ("Sabang thrust").

text: The geology of Palawan is, in many ways, unlike other parts of the Philippines. The crust of northeast Palawan was derived from the southeast edge of the continental crust of China, part of the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: . It is the exposed portion of a microcontinent that drifted southward with the opening of the South China Sea. This microcontinent also forms the shallow water north of Palawan in the Reed Bank-

text: Dangerous Ground

text: area of the southern South China Sea. Some of the oldest rocks of the Philippines are found in northeast Palawan (Permian-Carboniferous age). Southwest Palawan exposes primarily ophiolitic material (rocks derived from uplifted oceanic crust and mantle). This 34 Myr old oceanic material appears to have been

text: thrust upon the continental crust

text: . The transition from "oceanic"

text: ophiolite

text: in the southwest to "continental"-type rocks in the northeast occurs in the area of central Palawan around Ulugan Bay and the Sabang area. In the southern coasts of Ulugan Bay and Sabang Beach, are several exposures showing that the Palawan ophiolite has been thrust on to the continent-derived clastic rocks ("Sabang thrust").

text: During the last ice age, continental ice sheets repeatedly covered eastern Nebraska. The exact timing that these glaciations occurred remain uncertain. Likely, they occurred between two million to 600,000 years ago. During the last two million years, the climate alternated between cold and warm phases, respectively called "glacial" and "interglacial" periods instead of a continuous ice age. Clayey tills and large boulders, called "glacial erratics", were left on the hillsides during the period when ice sheets covered eastern Nebraska two or three times. During various periods of the remainder of the Pleistocene and into the Holocene, the glacial drift was buried by silty, wind-blown sediment called "loess".

text: During the last

text: ice age

text: , continental ice sheets repeatedly covered eastern Nebraska. The exact timing that these glaciations occurred remain uncertain. Likely, they occurred between two million to 600,000 years ago. During the last two million years, the climate alternated between

text: cold and warm phases

text: , respectively called "

text: glacial

text: " and "

text: interglacial

text: " periods instead of a continuous ice age.

text: Clay

text: ey tills and large

text: boulder

text: s, called "

text: glacial erratic

text: s", were left on the hillsides during the period when ice sheets covered eastern Nebraska two or three times. During various periods of the remainder of the Pleistocene and into the Holocene, the glacial drift was buried by silty, wind-blown sediment called "

text: loess

text: This glaciation has drastically remodeled most of Minnesota, and all but two of the state's regions are covered with deep layers of glacial till.  The driftless area of Southeastern Minnesota was untouched by the most recent glaciation.  In the absence of glacial scouring and drift, this region presents a widespread highly dissected aspect absent from other parts of the state.  Northeastern Minnesota was subject to glaciation and its effects, but its hard Archaen and Proterozoic rocks were more resistant to glacial erosion than the sedimentary bedrock first encountered in many other regions, and glacial till is relatively sparse.  While the effects of glacial erosion are clearly present and there are some areas of glacial till, older rocks and landforms remain unburied and exposed across much of the region.

text: This glaciation has drastically remodeled most of Minnesota, and all but two of the state's regions are covered with deep layers of glacial till.  The

text: driftless area

text: of Southeastern Minnesota was untouched by the most recent glaciation.  In the absence of

text: glacial scouring

text: and

text: drift

text: , this region presents a widespread highly dissected aspect absent from other parts of the state.  Northeastern Minnesota was subject to glaciation and its effects, but its hard

text: Archaen

text: and

text: Proterozoic

text: rocks were more resistant to glacial erosion than the sedimentary bedrock first encountered in many other regions, and glacial till is relatively sparse.  While the effects of glacial erosion are clearly present and there are some areas of glacial till, older rocks and landforms remain unburied and exposed across much of the region.

text: The nearby fossil locality, the McAbee fossil beds, is noted for the wide diversity of Eocene plants and animals preserved in the shale, including the extinct plants Dillhoffia and Trochodendron drachuckii.

text: The nearby fossil locality, the

text: McAbee fossil beds

text: , is noted for the wide diversity of

text: Eocene

text: plants and animals preserved in the shale, including the extinct plants

text: Dillhoffia

text: and

text: Trochodendron drachuckii

text: The theory of continental drift was not accepted for many years. One problem was that a plausible driving force was missing.  A second problem was that Wegener's estimate of the velocity of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was implausibly high. (The currently accepted rate for the separation of the Americas from Europe and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year).  And it did not help that Wegener was not a geologist. Other geologists also believed that the evidence that Wegener had provided was not sufficient. It is now accepted that the plates carrying the continents do move across the Earth's surface, although not as fast as Wegener believed; ironically one of the chief outstanding questions is the one Wegener failed to resolve: what is the nature of the forces propelling the plates?

text: "It is unfortunate that these drifts add. This means that if one bends a magnetic field into a torus for the purpose of confining a thermonuclear plasma, the particles will drift out of the torous no matter how one juggles the temperature and magnetic fields" –Francis F. Chen

text: "It is unfortunate that these drifts add. This means that if one bends a magnetic field into a torus for the purpose of confining a thermonuclear plasma, the particles will drift out of the torous no matter how one juggles the temperature and magnetic fields" –

text: Francis F. Chen

text: Hyraxes have only been seen in Ice Age: Continental Drift and Ice Age: Collision Course.

text: On  17 August 1915 Sir Ernest Shackleton's ship Endurance, trapped in the ice like Deutschland three years earlier, drifted to a point 10 miles west of Morrell's sighting. Here, a depth sounding recorded 1,676 fathoms (10,060 feet, 3,065 m), leading Shackleton to write: "I decided that Morrell Land must be added to the long list of Antarctic islands and continental coasts that have resolved themselves into icebergs". On  a further sounding of 1,900 fathoms (11,400 feet, 3,500 m) gave Shackleton additional evidence of the non-existence of New South Greenland.

text: There is also evidence that magnetite exists in the human brain. It is proposed that this could allow certain individuals to use magnetoreception for navigation. More generally, magnetite in the brain is theorized to affect long-term memory, and some researchers suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense. It has not been understood up to now due to a lag in applying more modern research techniques to the study of magnetic phenomena in biological contexts.

text: Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing and grinding. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill prey and to tear meat.

text: Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of

text: mammal

text: species.

text: Paleontologists

text: use teeth to identify

text: fossil

text: species and determine their relationships. The shape of the

text: animal

text: 's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so

text: herbivore

text: s have many

text: molars

text: for

text: chewing

text: and grinding.

text: Carnivore

text: s, on the other hand, need

text: canines

text: to kill prey and to tear meat.

text: Upstream, the river runs through horizontal dolomite strata; these metamorphic rocks formed part of the canyon. About 650 million years ago (Mya), plate movement formed a north-south graben, or lowered area, along which the ancient Fish River could flow and eventually erode a flat plain, which is today's upper canyon. Glaciation at around 300 Mya, part of the Dyka glaciation during the Karoo Ice Age, further deepened the canyon. About 60 Mya, South America and Africa separated (due to continental drift) and Africa rose significantly; the consequentially increased gradient of the Fish River enabled it to erode the lower canyon into the hard gneisses, forming the current deeply twisting, meandering system of the lower canyon.

text: Upstream, the river runs through horizontal dolomite strata; these

text: metamorphic rock

text: s formed part of the canyon. About 650 million years ago (Mya), plate movement formed a north-south

text: graben

text: , or lowered area, along which the ancient Fish River could flow and eventually erode a flat plain, which is today's upper canyon. Glaciation at around 300 Mya, part of the Dyka glaciation during the

text: Karoo Ice Age

text: , further deepened the canyon. About 60 Mya, South America and Africa separated (due to

text: continental drift

text: ) and Africa rose significantly; the consequentially increased gradient of the Fish River enabled it to erode the lower canyon into the hard gneisses, forming the current deeply twisting, meandering system of the lower canyon.

text: Evidence of lightning activity can often be found in the paleomagnetic record.  Lightning strikes are the result of tremendous charge buildup in clouds.  This excess charge is transferred to the ground via lightning channels, which carry a strong electric current.  Because of the intensity of this electric current, when lightning hits the ground, it can produce a strong, albeit brief, magnetic field.  Thus, as the electric current travels through soils, rocks, plant roots, etc., it locks a unique magnetic signature within these materials through a process known as lightning-induced remanent magnetization (LIRM).  Evidence of LIRM is manifested in concentric magnetic field lines surrounding the location of the lightning strike point.  LIRM anomalies normally occur close to the location of the lightning strike, usually encapsulated within several meters of the point of contact.  The anomalies are generally linear or radial, which, just like actual lightning channels, branch out from a central point.  It is possible to determine the intensity of the electric current from a lightning strike by examining the LIRM signatures.  Since rocks and soils already have some preexisting magnetic field, the intensity of the electric current can be determined by examining the change between the "natural" magnetic field and the magnetic field induced by the lightning current, which generally acts parallel to the direction of the lightning channel.  Another characteristic feature of an LIRM anomaly compared to other magnetic anomalies is that the electric current intensity is generally stronger.  However, some have suggested that the anomalies, like other characteristics in the geologic record, might fade over time as the magnetic field redistributes.

text: Evidence of lightning activity can often be found in the

text: paleomagnetic

text: record.  Lightning strikes are the result of tremendous charge buildup in clouds.  This excess charge is transferred to the ground via lightning channels, which carry a strong

text: electric current

text: Soils in the river and its basin reflect past glaciation in the area. Glacial till covers much of the river bottom in its headwaters. Further downstream there is stratified drift and alluvium in the sediments.

text: Soils in the river and its basin reflect past

text: glaciation

text: in the area.

text: Glacial till

text: covers much of the river bottom in its headwaters. Further downstream there is stratified

text: drift

text: and

text: alluvium

text: in the sediments.

text: The set of rocks (sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic) that formed during a geologic period is known as a system, so for example the 'Jurassic System' of rocks was formed during the 'Jurassic Period' (between 201 and 145 million years ago).

text: The set of rocks (

text: sedimentary

text: igneous

text: or

text: metamorphic

text: ) that formed during a geologic period is known as a system, so for example the 'Jurassic System' of rocks was formed during the 'Jurassic Period' (between 201 and 145 million years ago).

text: Anthropologist William Henry Holmes of the Smithsonian Institution investigated around the turn of the century. He determined that the plant and animal fossils that had been discovered near the skull were indeed genuine, but the skull was too modern, and concluded that "to suppose that man could have remained unchanged... for a million years, roughly speaking... is to suppose a miracle." Likewise, J. M. Boutwell, investigating in 1911, was told by one of the participants in the discovery that the whole thing was indeed a hoax. The miners of the Sierra Nevada apparently did not greatly like Whitney ("being an Easterner of very reserved demeanor") and were "delighted" to have played such a joke on him. Furthermore, John C. Scribner, a local shopkeeper, claimed to have planted it, and the story was revealed by his sister after his death. Radiocarbon dating in 1992 established the age of the skull at about 1,000 years, placing it in the late Holocene age.

text: Anthropologist

text: William Henry Holmes

text: of the

text: Smithsonian Institution

text: investigated around the turn of the century. He determined that the plant and animal

text: fossil

text: s that had been discovered near the skull were indeed genuine, but the skull was too modern, and concluded that "to suppose that man could have remained unchanged... for a million years, roughly speaking... is to suppose a miracle." Likewise, J. M. Boutwell, investigating in 1911, was told by one of the participants in the discovery that the whole thing was indeed a hoax. The miners of the

text: Sierra Nevada

text: apparently did not greatly like Whitney ("being an Easterner of very reserved demeanor") and were "delighted" to have played such a joke on him. Furthermore, John C. Scribner, a local shopkeeper, claimed to have planted it, and the story was revealed by his sister after his death.

text: Radiocarbon dating

text: in 1992 established the age of the skull at about 1,000 years, placing it in the late

text: Holocene

text: age.

text: During the Permian all the Earth's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (Panthalassa, the universal sea), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.

text: During the

text: Permian

text: all the Earth's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as

text: Pangaea

text: . Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (

text: Panthalassa

text: , the universal sea), and the

text: Paleo-Tethys Ocean

text: , a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns.

text: Desert

text: s seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.

text: A relict (or relic) plant or animal is a taxon that persists as a remnant of what was once a diverse and widespread population. Relictualism occurs when a widespread habitat or range changes and a small area becomes cut off from the whole. A subset of the population is then confined to the available hospitable area, and survives there while the broader population either shrinks or evolves divergently. This phenomenon differs from endemism in that the range of the population was not always restricted to the local region. In other words, the species or group did not necessarily arise in that small area, but rather was stranded, or insularized, by changes over time. The agent of change could be anything from competition from other organisms, continental drift, or climate change such as an ice age.

text: A relict (or relic) plant or animal is a

text: taxon

text: that persists as a remnant of what was once a diverse and widespread population. Relictualism occurs when a widespread habitat or range changes and a small area becomes cut off from the whole. A subset of the population is then confined to the available hospitable area, and survives there while the broader population either shrinks or

text: evolves divergently

text: . This phenomenon differs from

text: endemism

text: in that the range of the population was not always restricted to the local region. In other words, the species or group did not necessarily arise in that small area, but rather was stranded, or insularized, by changes over time. The agent of change could be anything from

text: competition

text: from other organisms,

text: continental drift

text: , or

text: climate change

text: such as an

text: ice age

text: Considering its relatively small area, Bulgaria has variable and complex climate. The country occupies the southernmost part of the continental climatic zone, with small areas in the south falling within the Mediterranean climatic zone. The continental zone is predominant, because continental air masses flow easily into the unobstructed Danubian Plain. The continental influence, stronger during the winter, produces abundant snowfall; the Mediterranean influence increases during the second half of summer and produces hot and dry weather. Bulgaria is subdivided into five climatic zones: continental zone (Danubian Plain, Pre-Balkan and the higher valleys of the Transitional geomorphological region); transitional zone (Upper Thracian Plain, most of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the lower Sub-Balkan valleys); continental-Mediterranean zone (the southernmost areas of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the eastern Rhodope Mountains, Sakar and Strandzha); Black Sea zone along the coastline with an average length of 30–40 km inland; and alpine zone in the mountains above 1000 m altitude (central Balkan Mountains, Rila, Pirin, Vitosha, western Rhodope Mountains, etc.).

text: Considering its relatively small area, Bulgaria has variable and complex climate. The country occupies the southernmost part of the

text: continental climatic zone

text: , with small areas in the south falling within the

text: Mediterranean climatic zone

text: . The continental zone is predominant, because continental air masses flow easily into the unobstructed

text: Danubian Plain

text: . The continental influence, stronger during the winter, produces abundant snowfall; the Mediterranean influence increases during the second half of summer and produces hot and dry weather. Bulgaria is subdivided into five climatic zones: continental zone (Danubian Plain, Pre-Balkan and the higher valleys of the Transitional geomorphological region); transitional zone (Upper Thracian Plain, most of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the lower Sub-Balkan valleys); continental-Mediterranean zone (the southernmost areas of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the eastern Rhodope Mountains, Sakar and Strandzha); Black Sea zone along the coastline with an average length of 30–40 km inland; and alpine zone in the mountains above 1000 m altitude (central Balkan Mountains, Rila, Pirin, Vitosha, western Rhodope Mountains, etc.).

text: Continental climates are defined in the Koppen climate classification has having a coldest month mean temperature below -3 C (26.6 F) or  0 °C depending on which isotherm used for the coldest month and four months above 10 °C. In the Koppen climate system, Continental climates were bordered to the south by Temperate climates or C climates (coldest month above 0 C, but below 18 C) and to the north by Boreal climate or E climates (only 1 to 3 months with a mean temperature of 50 F). Koppen also defined continental climates as having more than 30 days with continuous snowcover on the ground.

text: Continental climates are defined in the

text: Koppen climate classification

text: has having a coldest month mean temperature below -3 C (26.6 F) or  0 °C depending on which isotherm used for the coldest month and four months above 10 °C. In the Koppen climate system, Continental climates were bordered to the south by

text: Temperate climates

text: or C climates (coldest month above 0 C, but below 18 C) and to the north by

text: Boreal climate

text: or E climates (only 1 to 3 months with a mean temperature of 50 F). Koppen also defined continental climates as having more than 30 days with continuous snowcover on the ground.

text: As mentioned before, B. occidentalis has been previously used to help in greenhouses. They have been used for a variety of crops, but have played an especially important role with tomatoes. A problem with the use of these bumble bees was the drifting effect. Due to the close aggregation of colonies within the greenhouse habitats, they found that some bees developed a behavior of drifting into foreign colonies. These drifting bees were essentially social parasites, as they give up their roles in their colonies and introduce their mature ovaries to foreign colonies.

text: Geode (Greek γεώδης - ge-ōdēs, "earthlike") are geological secondary structures which occur in certain sedimentary and volcanic rocks. They are themselves of sedimentary origin formed by chemical precipitation. Geodes are essentially hollow, vaguely spheroid to oblate masses of mineral matter that form via either of two processes:

text: Geode (

text: Greek

text: γεώδης - ge-ōdēs, "earthlike") are

text: geological

text: secondary structures which occur in certain

text: sedimentary

text: and

text: volcanic rock

text: s. They are themselves of sedimentary origin formed by chemical precipitation. Geodes are essentially hollow, vaguely spheroid to oblate masses of mineral matter that form via either of two processes:

text: Kenora has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm summers and cold, dry winters. Its climate is influenced by continental air masses. Winters are cold with a January high of  and a low of . Temperatures below  occur on 45 days. The average annual snowfall is , which is lower than places to the east as it is influenced by the dry air of continental high pressure zones, resulting in relatively dry winters. Summers are warm with a July high of  and a low of  and temperatures above  occur on 5.3 days. The average annual precipitation is , with most of it being concentrated in the summer months with June being the wettest month and February the driest.

text: Kenora has a

text: humid continental climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfb) with warm summers and cold, dry winters. Its climate is influenced by continental air masses. Winters are cold with a January high of  and a low of . Temperatures below  occur on 45 days. The average annual snowfall is , which is lower than places to the east as it is influenced by the dry air of continental high pressure zones, resulting in relatively dry winters. Summers are warm with a July high of  and a low of  and temperatures above  occur on 5.3 days. The average annual precipitation is , with most of it being concentrated in the summer months with June being the wettest month and February the driest.

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, Stouffville has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm, humid summers and cold winters.

text: Under the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: , Stouffville has a

text: humid continental climate

text: Köppen

text: Dfb) with warm, humid summers and cold winters.

text: This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot summers and cold winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Barnet has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: This

text: climatic

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: system, Barnet has a

text: humid continental climate

text: , abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: It is a matter of debate whether the amount of continental crust has been increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant over geological time. One model indicates that at prior to 3.7 Ga ago continental crust constituted less than 10% of the present amount.By 3.0 Ga ago the amount was about 25%, and following a period of rapid crustal evolution it was about 60% of the current amount by 2.6 Ga ago. The growth of continental crust appears to have occurred in spurts of increased activity corresponding to five episodes of increased production through geologic time.

text: Alumni in the field of arts include classical composer Robert Schumann, philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach and Edmund Montgomery, poet Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff and writers Christian Friedrich Hebbel, Gottfried Keller, Irene Frisch, Heinrich Hoffmann, Sir Muhammad Iqbal, José Rizal, W. Somerset Maugham, Jean Paul, Literature Nobel Laureate Carl Spitteler, and novelist Jagoda Marinić. Amongst Heidelberg alumni in other disciplines are the "Father of Psychology" Wilhelm Wundt, the "Father of Physical Chemistry" J. Willard Gibbs, the "Father of American Anthropology" Franz Boas, Dmitri Mendeleev, who created the periodic table of elements, inventor of the two-wheeler principle Karl Drais, Alfred Wegener, who discovered the continental drift, as well as political theorist Hannah Arendt, gender theorist Judith Butler, political scientist Carl Joachim Friedrich, and sociologists Karl Mannheim, Robert E. Park and Talcott Parsons.

text: Alumni in the field of arts include classical composer

text: Robert Schumann

text: , philosophers

text: Ludwig Feuerbach

text: and

text: Edmund Montgomery

text: , poet

text: Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff

text: and writers

text: Christian Friedrich Hebbel

text: Gottfried Keller

text: Irene Frisch

text: Heinrich Hoffmann

text: Sir Muhammad Iqbal

text: José Rizal

text: W. Somerset Maugham

text: Jean Paul

text: Literature Nobel Laureate

text: Carl Spitteler

text: , and novelist

text: Jagoda Marinić

text: . Amongst Heidelberg alumni in other disciplines are the "Father of Psychology"

text: Wilhelm Wundt

text: , the "Father of Physical Chemistry"

text: J. Willard Gibbs

text: , the "Father of American Anthropology"

text: Franz Boas

text: Dmitri Mendeleev

text: , who created the

text: periodic table

text: of elements, inventor of the

text: two-wheeler principle

text: Karl Drais

text: Alfred Wegener

text: , who discovered the

text: continental drift

text: , as well as political theorist

text: Hannah Arendt

text: , gender theorist

text: Judith Butler

text: , political scientist

text: Carl Joachim Friedrich

text: , and sociologists

text: Karl Mannheim

text: Robert E. Park

text: and

text: Talcott Parsons

text: At the time, hadrosaurids were thought to have been aquatic animals, and Kräusel made a point of stating that the specimen did not rule out hadrosaurids eating water plants. The discovery of possible gut contents made little impact in English-speaking circles, except for another brief mention of the aquatic-terrestrial dichotomy, until it was brought up by John Ostrom in the course of an article reassessing the old interpretation of hadrosaurids as water-bound. Instead of trying to adapt the discovery to the aquatic model, he used it as a line of evidence that hadrosaurids were terrestrial herbivores. While his interpretation of hadrosaurids as terrestrial animals has been generally accepted, the Senckenberg plant fossils remain equivocal. Kenneth Carpenter has suggested that they may actually represent the gut contents of a starving animal, instead of a typical diet. Other authors have noted that because the plant fossils were removed from their original context in the specimen and were heavily prepared, it is no longer possible to follow up on the original work, leaving open the possibility that the plants were washed-in debris.

text: At the time, hadrosaurids were thought to have been aquatic animals, and Kräusel made a point of stating that the specimen did not rule out hadrosaurids eating water plants. The discovery of possible gut contents made little impact in English-speaking circles, except for another brief mention of the aquatic-terrestrial dichotomy, until it was brought up by

text: John Ostrom

text: in the course of an article reassessing the old interpretation of hadrosaurids as water-bound. Instead of trying to adapt the discovery to the aquatic model, he used it as a line of evidence that hadrosaurids were terrestrial herbivores. While his interpretation of hadrosaurids as terrestrial animals has been generally accepted, the Senckenberg plant fossils remain equivocal.

text: Kenneth Carpenter

text: has suggested that they may actually represent the gut contents of a starving animal, instead of a typical diet. Other authors have noted that because the plant fossils were removed from their original context in the specimen and were heavily prepared, it is no longer possible to follow up on the original work, leaving open the possibility that the plants were washed-in debris.

text: Because the Zenith Plateau has not been studied in any detail, its internal structure and origin has largely been a matter of speculation and indirect inference from magnetic and satellite gravity studies and research involving adjacent bathymetric highs. It is generally inferred to be of the same geologic structure and origin as the adjacent and better studied Quokka Rise. Initially, the Zenith Plateau, along with the adjacent Wallaby Plateau, was thought to be part of a short-lived hotspot. As the result of detailed studies of the Wallaby Plateau, this hypothesis has been largely abandoned. Later, it was proposed that the Zenith Plateau, like the adjacent Wallaby Plateau, consists of a continental fragment of highly attenuated, stretched, and faulted continental crust that has been extensively intruded by magmatic rocks and deeply buried by volcanic rocks during the initial breakup of East Gondwana. More recently, the Zenith Plateau is inferred to be a volcanic plateau that consists of a thick sequence of highly attenuated, stretched, and faulted volcanic margin crust formed during the time of the  continental break-up of Gondwana. This crust is inferred to be buried by voluminous volcanic deposits that immediately followed its formation. Later on, complicated tectonic activity that was associated with local rifting and sea floor spreading separated the Wallaby and Zenith plateaus from Australia and each other.

text: Because the Zenith Plateau has not been studied in any detail, its internal structure and origin has largely been a matter of speculation and indirect inference from magnetic and satellite gravity studies and research involving adjacent bathymetric highs. It is generally inferred to be of the same geologic structure and origin as the adjacent and better studied Quokka Rise. Initially, the Zenith Plateau, along with the adjacent Wallaby Plateau, was thought to be part of a short-lived

text: hotspot

text: . As the result of detailed studies of the Wallaby Plateau, this hypothesis has been largely abandoned. Later, it was proposed that the Zenith Plateau, like the adjacent Wallaby Plateau, consists of a

text: continental fragment

text: of highly attenuated, stretched, and

text: faulted

text: continental crust

text: that has been extensively intruded by

text: magmatic rocks

text: and deeply buried by

text: volcanic rock

text: s during the initial breakup of East

text: Gondwana

text: . More recently, the Zenith Plateau is inferred to be a volcanic plateau that consists of a thick sequence of highly attenuated, stretched, and faulted volcanic margin crust formed during the time of the  continental break-up of Gondwana. This crust is inferred to be buried by voluminous volcanic deposits that immediately followed its formation. Later on, complicated tectonic activity that was associated with local

text: rifting

text: and

text: sea floor spreading

text: separated the Wallaby and Zenith plateaus from Australia and each other.

text: The climate of the region ranges from a subpolar climate in the north to a polar climate in the south. The region has an extremely cold climate with mean temperatures below  with frost and snowfall occurring throughout the year. In general, there are two different climatic zones found within the region: a glacial climate in the interior and an oceanic one in the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands. The glacial climate found in the interior is dominated by continental ice sheets and glaciers while in the Antarctic Peninsula and its adjacent islands, the climate is characterized by very strong winds, particularly in winter. In particular, the Antarctic Peninsula experiences strong cold winds and blizzards. In the interior of the continent, the climate is colder and drier due to the higher latitude, altitude, and strong continental influences.  Mean annual temperatures range from between  in the Antarctic Peninsula to  in the interior. Temperatures are always low in the region; during the polar night in winter, temperatures drop down to . In the warmest month, mean temperatures are usually below . Coastal areas have mean temperatures in the warmest month at around freezing. Precipitation mainly falls as snow. Due to the ice sheets and glaciers covering most of the region and the severity of the climate, the flora is sparse and limited only to coastal areas.

text: The climate of the region ranges from a

text: subpolar climate

text: in the north to a

text: polar climate

text: in the south. The region has an extremely cold climate with mean temperatures below  with frost and snowfall occurring throughout the year. In general, there are two different climatic zones found within the region: a glacial climate in the interior and an oceanic one in the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands. The glacial climate found in the interior is dominated by continental ice sheets and

text: glaciers

text: while in the Antarctic Peninsula and its adjacent islands, the climate is characterized by very strong winds, particularly in winter. In particular, the Antarctic Peninsula experiences strong cold winds and blizzards. In the interior of the continent, the climate is colder and drier due to the higher latitude, altitude, and strong continental influences.  Mean annual temperatures range from between  in the Antarctic Peninsula to  in the interior. Temperatures are always low in the region; during the

text: polar night

text: in winter, temperatures drop down to . In the warmest month, mean temperatures are usually below . Coastal areas have mean temperatures in the warmest month at around freezing. Precipitation mainly falls as snow. Due to the ice sheets and glaciers covering most of the region and the severity of the climate, the flora is sparse and limited only to coastal areas.

text: The area around Oak Lake is dominated by the Assiniboine River, the nearby lake by the same name, areas of flat farm land, and to the north, large, rolling hills left by receding glaciers. Oak Lake's location in the middle of the Canadian prairies means that Oak Lake experiences an extreme continental climate. The area is known for its long, cold winters owing to its northerly location. There is often much snowfall during the winter, with the possibility for blizzards that can drop in excess of 35 cm (~14 inches) of snow at once, which can be blown into drifts that are much deeper. The community can be cut off for a day or more while snow is cleared from the highways.

text: The area around Oak Lake is dominated by the

text: Assiniboine River

text: , the nearby lake by the same name, areas of flat farm land, and to the north, large, rolling hills left by receding

text: glaciers

text: . Oak Lake's location in the middle of the

text: Canadian prairies

text: means that Oak Lake experiences an extreme

text: continental climate

text: . The area is known for its long, cold winters owing to its northerly location. There is often much snowfall during the winter, with the possibility for

text: blizzard

text: s that can drop in excess of 35 cm (~14 inches) of snow at once, which can be blown into drifts that are much deeper. The community can be cut off for a day or more while snow is cleared from the highways.

text: There is also evidence for magnetoreception in large mammals.  Resting and grazing cattle as well as roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) tend to align their body axes in the geomagnetic north-south direction.  Because wind, sunshine, and slope could be excluded as common ubiquitous factors in this study, alignment toward the vector of the magnetic field provided the most likely explanation for the observed behaviour. However, because of the descriptive nature of this study, alternative explanations (e.g., the sun compass) could not be excluded.  In a follow-up study, researchers analyzed body orientations of ruminants in localities where the geomagnetic field is disturbed by high-voltage power lines to determine how local variation in magnetic fields may affect orientation behaviour.  This was done by using satellite and aerial images of herds of cattle and field observations of grazing roe deer.  Body orientation of both species was random on pastures under or near power lines.  Moreover, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment.  The disturbing effect of the power lines on body alignment diminished with the distance from the conductors. In 2011 a group of Czech researchers, however, reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using different Google Earth images.

text: There is also evidence for magnetoreception in large mammals.  Resting and grazing cattle as well as

text: roe deer

text: (Capreolus capreolus) and

text: red deer

text: Czech

text: researchers, however, reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using different

text: Google Earth

text: images.

text: The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance. It was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of various basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the "Greater India" once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia along with the Indian subcontinent basin. As a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Palaeocene.

text: The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance. It was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of

text: Gondwana

text: . A series of tectonic splits caused formation of various basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the "Greater India" once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia along with the Indian subcontinent basin. As a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of

text: Palaeocene

text: Humid continental climate is a climatic region typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate, while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation and even a wintertime drought.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Humid continental climate is a climatic region typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate, while others may see a marked reduction in wintry precipitation and even a wintertime drought.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: ". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: In association with the names of continental drift scientists grouped in this area, the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names named the glacier after Keith Runcorn in 1998. Runcorn was an English geophysicist whose paleomagnetic reconstruction of the relative motions of Europe and America revived the theory of continental drift and was a major contribution to plate tectonics.

text: In association with the names of

text: continental drift

text: scientists grouped in this area, the

text: Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names

text: named the glacier after

text: Keith Runcorn

text: in 1998. Runcorn was an English geophysicist whose

text: paleomagnetic

text: reconstruction of the relative motions of Europe and America revived the theory of continental drift and was a major contribution to

text: plate tectonics

text: Climate type occurs primarily on the periphery of the true deserts in low-latitude semiarid steppe regions.   The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is BSk (Tropical and Subtropical Steppe Climate).

text: Climate type occurs primarily on the periphery of the true deserts in low-latitude

text: semiarid steppe

text: regions.   The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is BSk (Tropical and Subtropical Steppe Climate).

text: Minaj's first and second studio albums, Pink Friday (2010) and Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded (2012), both peaked at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 and produced the successful singles "Super Bass" and "Starships", respectively. In 2010, Minaj became the first female solo artist to have seven singles simultaneously charting on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100. Her third studio album, The Pinkprint (2014), was preceded by its second single, "Anaconda", which peaked at number two on the Hot 100 and is her highest-charting single in the U.S. to date. Minaj made her film debut in the 2012 animated film Ice Age: Continental Drift, followed by supporting roles in The Other Woman (2014) and Barbershop: The Next Cut (2016). In 2013, she was a judge on the twelfth season of American Idol.

text: Minaj's first and second studio albums,

text: Pink Friday

text: (2010) and

text: Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded

text: (2012), both peaked at number one on the U.S.

text: Billboard 200

text: and produced the successful singles "

text: Super Bass

text: " and "

text: Starships

text: ", respectively. In 2010, Minaj became the first female solo artist to have seven singles simultaneously charting on the U.S.

text: Billboard Hot 100

text: . Her third studio album,

text: The Pinkprint

text: (2014), was preceded by its second single, "

text: Anaconda

text: ", which peaked at number two on the Hot 100 and is her highest-charting single in the U.S. to date. Minaj made her film debut in the 2012 animated film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , followed by supporting roles in

text: The Other Woman

text: (2014) and

text: Barbershop: The Next Cut

text: (2016). In 2013, she was a judge on the

text: twelfth season

text: of

text: American Idol

text: The DRIFT detector's target material is a 1 m cubical drift chamber filled with a low pressure mixture of carbon disulfide (CS) and carbon tetrafluoride (CF) gases (, respectively). It is predicted that WIMPs will occasionally collide with the nucleus of a sulfur or carbon atom in the carbon disulfide gas causing the nucleus to recoil. An energetic recoiling nucleus will ionise gas particles creating a path of free electrons. These free electrons readily attach to the electronegative CS molecules creating a track of  ions.  The gas volume is divided in half by a cathode at , which produces a static electric field that causes these negative ions to drift, whilst maintaining the track structure, to the MWPC planes at two ends of the detector. Addition of  of oxygen to the gas mixture has been the key to full fiducialisation of sensitive volume of the DRIFT detector.

text: The DRIFT detector's target material is a 1 m cubical

text: drift chamber

text: filled with a low pressure mixture of

text: carbon disulfide

text: (CS) and

text: carbon tetrafluoride

text: (CF) gases (, respectively). It is predicted that WIMPs will occasionally collide with the nucleus of a sulfur or carbon atom in the carbon disulfide gas causing the nucleus to recoil. An energetic recoiling nucleus will ionise gas particles creating a path of free electrons. These free electrons readily attach to the

text: electronegative

text: CS molecules creating a track of  ions.  The gas volume is divided in half by a

text: cathode

text: at , which produces a static electric field that causes these negative ions to drift, whilst maintaining the track structure, to the

text: MWPC

text: planes at two ends of the detector. Addition of  of oxygen to the gas mixture has been the key to full fiducialisation of sensitive volume of the DRIFT detector.

text: At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other areas), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new crust as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When Alfred Wegener first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that  continents ploughed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States.

text: At the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: (and in other areas), material from the upper

text: mantle

text: rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new

text: crust

text: as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as

text: continental drift

text: . When

text: Alfred Wegener

text: first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that  continents ploughed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States.

text: Tabular or sheet-like deposits of metalliferous ores often contain areas of enhanced metal content that are larger in one dimension than another. A structure may contain multiple ore shoots. A "vein," "lode" or other mineral-bearing structure could be  thick, steeply inclined within the host rock, persisting for hundreds or thousands of feet horizontally and vertically. Such a structure could contain an area of enhanced metal content extending  horizontally and  vertically. This would be termed an "ore shoot." The existence of the ore shoot could be recognized visually in a tunnel or "drift" excavated along the structure, or by the assaying of rock samples cut from the walls and roof of the tunnel.

text: In the White Sea region of Russia, all three assemblage types have been found in close proximity. This, and the faunas' considerable temporal overlap, makes it unlikely that they represent evolutionary stages or temporally distinct communities. Since they are globally distributed – described on all continents except Antarctica – geographical boundaries do not appear to be a factor; the same fossils are found at all palaeolatitudes (the latitude where the fossil was created, accounting for continental drift) and in separate sedimentary basins.

text: In the

text: White Sea

text: region of Russia, all three assemblage types have been found in close proximity. This, and the faunas' considerable temporal overlap, makes it unlikely that they represent evolutionary stages or temporally distinct

text: communities

text: . Since they are globally distributed – described on all continents except

text: Antarctica

text: – geographical boundaries do not appear to be a factor; the same fossils are found at all

text: palaeolatitude

text: s (the latitude where the fossil was created, accounting for

text: continental drift

text: ) and in separate

text: sedimentary basin

text: s.

text: By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani and Frank Bursley Taylor preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant fossil and paleo-topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as Alex du Toit). Furthermore, when the rock strata of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of Scotland and Ireland contain rocks very similar to those found in Newfoundland and New Brunswick. Furthermore, the Caledonian Mountains of Europe and parts of the Appalachian Mountains of North America are very similar in structure and lithology.

text: By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of

text: South America

text: and the west coast of

text: Africa

text: looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: Antonio Snider-Pellegrini

text: Eduard Suess

text: Roberto Mantovani

text: and

text: Frank Bursley Taylor

text: preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant

text: fossil

text: and paleo-topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as

text: Alex du Toit

text: ). Furthermore, when the rock

text: strata

text: of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of

text: Scotland

text: and

text: Ireland

text: contain rocks very similar to those found in

text: Newfoundland

text: and

text: New Brunswick

text: . Furthermore, the

text: Caledonian Mountains

text: of Europe and parts of the

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: of North America are very similar in

text: structure

text: and

text: lithology

text: Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other, thus appearing to "drift" across the ocean bed.  The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by Abraham Ortelius in 1596. The concept was independently and more fully developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected by some for lack of a mechanism (though this was supplied later by Arthur Holmes) and others because of prior theoretical commitments. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how the continents move.

text: Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's

text: continent

text: s relative to each other, thus appearing to "drift" across the ocean bed.  The speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by

text: Abraham Ortelius

text: Alfred Wegener

text: in 1912, but his theory was rejected by some for lack of a mechanism (though this was supplied later by

text: Arthur Holmes

text: ) and others because of prior theoretical commitments. The idea of continental drift has been subsumed by the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: , which explains how the continents move.

text: This film was met with mostly positive reviews and was nominated at the 75th Academy Awards for Best Animated Feature. It was a box office success by grossing over $383 million, starting the Ice Age franchise. It was followed by four sequels, Ice Age: The Meltdown in 2006, Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009, Ice Age: Continental Drift in 2012, and Ice Age: Collision Course in 2016.

text: This film was met with mostly positive reviews and was nominated at the

text: 75th Academy Awards

text: for Best Animated Feature. It was a

text: box office

text: success by grossing over $383 million, starting the

text: Ice Age franchise

text: . It was followed by four sequels,

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: in 2006,

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: in 2009,

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: in 2012, and

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: in 2016.

text: The Smestow itself created neither of these features: it simply flows through a landscape opened up by glaciation in the last Ice Age. A thin mantle of glacial drift covers the bedrock and consists of patches of clay, silt and pebble beds. Also present are scattered granite boulders originating either in Southern Scotland or North Wales.

text: The Smestow itself created neither of these features: it simply flows through a landscape opened up by glaciation in the last

text: Ice Age

text: . A thin mantle of

text: glacial drift

text: covers the

text: bedrock

text: and consists of patches of

text: clay

text: silt

text: and

text: pebble

text: beds. Also present are scattered

text: granite

text: boulders originating either in Southern Scotland or North Wales.

text: The port of Vardø, on the Barents Sea, remains ice-free all year round thanks to the effect of the warm North Atlantic drift. Vardø has a Continental Subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) which comes close to being classified as a Subpolar Oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfc). The January average is just cold enough for this at . In July, the 24-hr average temperature is , which prevents the climate from being polar (Köppen: ET).

text: The port of Vardø, on the

text: Barents Sea

text: , remains ice-free all year round thanks to the effect of the warm

text: North Atlantic drift

text: . Vardø has a Continental

text: Subarctic climate

text: Köppen

text: : Dfc) which comes close to being classified as a

text: Subpolar Oceanic climate

text: (Köppen: Cfc). The January average is just cold enough for this at . In July, the 24-hr average temperature is , which prevents the climate from being polar (Köppen: ET).

text: The climate is Humid Continental in the Köppen Climate System, abbreviated as Dfb.

text: The climate is

text: Humid Continental

text: in the

text: Köppen Climate System

text: , abbreviated as Dfb.

text: Frank Bursley Taylor (1860 – 1938) was an American geologist, the son of a lawyer in Fort Wayne, Indiana. He was a Harvard dropout who studied privately financed in large part by his wealthy father. He became a specialist in the glacial geology of the Great Lakes, and proposed to the Geological Society of America on December 29, 1908 that the continents moved on the Earth's surface, that a shallow region in the Atlantic marks where Africa and South America were once joined, and that the collisions of continents could uplift mountains. His ideas were based on his studies on mountain ranges as the Andes, Rockies, Alps and Himalayas, concluding that these mountains could have been formed only as a result of titanic lateral pressures that thrust the earth's surface upward.  His theory was either ignored or opposed by other scientists of his time. He wrote a total ten papers on the subject of continental drift  Taylor's ideas about continental drift were independently discovered by Alfred Wegener in Germany three years later, in January 1912, and the theory of continental drift is historically often referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis," although Taylor himself disapproved of the hyphenated name. But even with Wegener's extensive extra research the idea did not achieve acceptance until the 1960s when a vast weight of evidence had accrued via Harry Hess, Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews.

text: Frank Bursley Taylor (1860 – 1938) was an American

text: geologist

text: , the son of a lawyer in

text: Fort Wayne

text: Indiana

text: . He was a Harvard dropout who studied privately financed in large part by his wealthy father. He became a specialist in the

text: glacial geology

text: of the

text: Great Lakes

text: , and proposed to the

text: Geological Society of America

text: on December 29, 1908 that the

text: continents moved on the Earth's surface

text: , that a shallow region in the Atlantic marks where Africa and South America were once joined, and that the collisions of continents could

text: uplift

text: mountains. His ideas were based on his studies on mountain ranges as the Andes, Rockies, Alps and Himalayas, concluding that these mountains could have been formed only as a result of titanic lateral pressures that thrust the earth's surface upward.  His theory was either ignored or opposed by other scientists of his time. He wrote a total ten papers on the subject of continental drift  Taylor's ideas about

text: continental drift

text: were independently discovered by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: in Germany three years later, in January 1912, and the theory of continental drift is historically often referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis," although Taylor himself disapproved of the hyphenated name. But even with Wegener's extensive extra research the idea did not achieve acceptance until the 1960s when a vast weight of evidence had accrued via

text: Harry Hess

text: Fred Vine

text: and

text: Drummond Matthews

text: Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.

text: Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes.

text: Louis Agassiz

text: and others established the reality of continent-covering

text: ice age

text: s, and "fluvialists" like

text: Andrew Crombie Ramsay

text: argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of

text: radioactivity

text: radiometric dating

text: methods were developed, starting in the 20th century.

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: , which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.

text: As continental drift became widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past, most "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity.

text: As

text: continental drift

text: became widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of

text: plate tectonics

text: demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past, most "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity.

text: The Longest Daycare is a 3D, short film starring Maggie Simpson, which was shown prior to screenings of Ice Age: Continental Drift, on July 13, 2012, in the United States.

text: The Longest Daycare

text: is a

text: short film

text: starring

text: Maggie Simpson

text: , which was shown prior to screenings of

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , on July 13, 2012, in the United States.

text: He was an early proponent of Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, viewing plate tectonics and continental collisions as the best explanation for the formation of the Alps. He is also noted for his application of the theory of tectonics to the continent of Asia.

text: He was an early proponent of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: , viewing plate tectonics and continental collisions as the best explanation for the formation of the

text: Alps

text: . He is also noted for his application of the theory of

text: tectonic

text: s to the continent of

text: Asia

text: Minerals are naturally occurring solids formed through various geological processes under high pressures. To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must have a crystal structure with uniform physical properties throughout. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a rock sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and has no specific chemical composition. The vast majority of the rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz (crystalline SiO), feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only a few locations worldwide. The largest group of minerals by far is the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions of aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium and other metals.

text: Mineral

text: s are naturally occurring solids formed through various

text: geological

text: processes under high pressures. To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must have a

text: crystal structure

text: with uniform physical properties throughout. Minerals range in composition from pure

text: elements

text: and simple

text: salt

text: s to very complex

text: silicate

text: s with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a

text: rock

text: sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or

text: mineraloid

text: s, and has no specific chemical composition. The vast majority of the rocks of the

text: Earth's crust

text: consist of quartz (crystalline SiO), feldspar, mica,

text: chlorite

text: kaolin

text: , calcite,

text: epidote

text: olivine

text: augite

text: hornblende

text: magnetite

text: hematite

text: limonite

text: and a few other minerals. Some minerals, like

text: quartz

text: mica

text: or

text: feldspar

text: are common, while others have been found in only a few locations worldwide. The largest group of minerals by far is the

text: silicates

text: (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of

text: silicon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: , with the addition of ions of

text: aluminium

text: magnesium

text: iron

text: calcium

text: and other metals.

text: As with much of rural Nova Scotia, the primary industry in Parrsboro is tourism.  The town is known for its seasonal theatre productions, fossil and rockhounding attractions, museums, high tides and heritage buildings.  The cliffs to the east and west of Parrsboro contain fossils of prehistoric animals and plants. Many fossils are on display in local museums.

text: The chances of this near-term collapse of the circulation are unclear; there is some evidence for the short-term stability of the Gulf Stream and possible weakening of the North Atlantic drift. However, the degree of weakening, and whether it will be sufficient to shut down the circulation, is under debate. As yet, no cooling has been found in northern Europe or nearby seas.  Lenton et al. found that "simulations clearly pass a THC tipping point this century".

text: The continental ice sheet scraped off an average of 65 feet (20 m) of surface material from the New England landscape, then deposited the material (known as drift) from the Connecticut coast into the Sound, creating what is now Long Island (the terminal moraine). When the ice sheet stopped advancing 18,000 years ago (as addition of snow at the origin was in equilibrium with the melting at the southern edge), a large amount of drift was deposited, known as the Ronkonkoma Moraine, which stretches along much of southern Long Island. Later, another period of equilibrium resulted in the Harbor Hill Moraine along most of northern Long Island. The next moraines (recessional moraines) to the north were created just on and off the Connecticut coast. These moraines, created by much smaller deposits (probably from equilibrium states that were much shorter in time) are discontinuous and much smaller than those to the south.The Connecticut coast moraines are in two groups: the Norwalk area and the Madison-Old Saybrook area. Sandy plains and beaches resulted from the erosion of moraines and redeposition in these areas, and to the east of each, where the drift cover is thinnest, exposed bedrock creates rocky headlands, often with marshlands behind them.

text: The continental ice sheet scraped off an average of 65 feet (20 m) of surface material from the New England landscape, then deposited the material (known as

text: drift

text: ) from the Connecticut coast into the Sound, creating what is now Long Island (the

text: terminal moraine

text: ). When the ice sheet stopped advancing 18,000 years ago (as addition of snow at the origin was in equilibrium with the melting at the southern edge), a large amount of drift was deposited, known as the Ronkonkoma Moraine, which stretches along much of southern Long Island. Later, another period of equilibrium resulted in the

text: Harbor Hill Moraine

text: along most of

text: northern Long Island

text: . The next moraines (

text: recessional moraines

text: ) to the north were created just on and off the Connecticut coast. These moraines, created by much smaller deposits (probably from equilibrium states that were much shorter in time) are discontinuous and much smaller than those to the south.The Connecticut coast moraines are in two groups: the

text: Norwalk

text: area and the

text: Madison

text: Old Saybrook

text: area. Sandy plains and beaches resulted from the erosion of moraines and redeposition in these areas, and to the east of each, where the drift cover is thinnest, exposed bedrock creates rocky headlands, often with marshlands behind them.

text: The Drift Sight was introduced in 1916, and the simplicity of the device in terms of manufacture and mounting to the aircraft allowed it to quickly equip RNAS forces. By 1917 it was in widespread use in the RNAS, and was selected for the Handley Page O/400 bomber in RFC service as well. However, Wimperis was well aware of the shortcomings of the Drift Sight in terms of flying along the wind line, and was already testing his solution, the Course Setting Bomb Sight. The CSBS was only slightly more complex than the Drift Sight to build, adding a compass and another adjustment to the sights to account for cross-drift. Hundreds were in use by 1918, and had supplanted the Drift Sight by the war's end.

text: The Drift Sight was introduced in 1916, and the simplicity of the device in terms of manufacture and mounting to the aircraft allowed it to quickly equip RNAS forces. By 1917 it was in widespread use in the RNAS, and was selected for the

text: Handley Page O/400

text: bomber in RFC service as well. However, Wimperis was well aware of the shortcomings of the Drift Sight in terms of flying along the wind line, and was already testing his solution, the

text: Course Setting Bomb Sight

text: . The CSBS was only slightly more complex than the Drift Sight to build, adding a compass and another adjustment to the sights to account for cross-drift. Hundreds were in use by 1918, and had supplanted the Drift Sight by the war's end.

text: There are multiple processes that can lead to the development of high pressure terranes. First, upper crustal rocks have to be carried to great depths, nearing the mantle boundary. This could be accomplished by continental margin subduction, microcontinent subduction, sediment subduction, intracontinental subduction, subduction erosion, or foundering of a crustal root.After burial at depth, these continental rocks can then return to the surface through:

text: There are multiple processes that can lead to the development of

text: high pressure terranes

text: . First, upper crustal rocks have to be carried to great depths, nearing the mantle boundary. This could be accomplished by continental margin subduction, microcontinent subduction, sediment subduction, intracontinental subduction, subduction erosion, or foundering of a crustal root.After burial at depth, these continental rocks can then return to the surface through:

text: Three decades later, when Earth's magnetic field was better understood, theories were advanced suggesting that the Earth's field might have reversed in the remote past. Most paleomagnetic research in the late 1950s included an examination of the wandering of the poles and continental drift. Although it was discovered that some rocks would reverse their magnetic field while cooling, it became apparent that most magnetized volcanic rocks preserved traces of the Earth's magnetic field at the time the rocks had cooled. In the absence of reliable methods for obtaining absolute ages for rocks, it was thought that reversals occurred approximately every million years.

text: Three decades later, when Earth's magnetic field was better understood, theories were advanced suggesting that the Earth's field might have reversed in the remote past. Most paleomagnetic research in the late 1950s included an examination of the wandering of the poles and

text: continental drift

text: . Although it was discovered that some rocks would reverse their magnetic field while cooling, it became apparent that most magnetized volcanic rocks preserved traces of the Earth's magnetic field at the time the rocks had cooled. In the absence of reliable methods for obtaining absolute ages for rocks, it was thought that reversals occurred approximately every million years.

text: Most land bridges became obsolete with the gradual acceptance of continental drift and the development of plate tectonics by the mid-20th century.

text: Most land bridges became obsolete with the gradual acceptance of

text: continental drift

text: and the development of

text: plate tectonics

text: by the mid-20th century.

text: Brave earned $237,283,207 in North America, and $303,153,856 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $540,437,063. It was the 13th highest-grossing film of 2012, the eighth highest-grossing Pixar film, and the third highest-grossing animated film that year behind Ice Age: Continental Drift ($875.3 million) and Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted ($746.9 million).

text: Brave earned $237,283,207 in North America, and $303,153,856 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $540,437,063. It was the 13th highest-grossing film of 2012, the eighth highest-grossing Pixar film, and the third highest-grossing animated film that year behind

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: ($875.3 million) and

text: Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted

text: ($746.9 million).

text: Tropical monsoon climate, occasionally also known as a tropical wet climate or tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate in climate classification, is a relatively rare type of climate.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Am". (Tropical Monsoon Climate).

text: Tropical monsoon climate, occasionally also known as a tropical wet climate or tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate in climate classification, is a relatively rare type of climate.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "

text: Am

text: ". (Tropical Monsoon Climate).

text: Most regions of Japan, such as much of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, belong to the temperate zone with humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) characterized by four distinct seasons. However, its climate varies from cool humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) in the north such as northern Hokkaido, to warm tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification Af) in the south such as Ishigaki in the Yaeyama Islands.

text: Most regions of Japan, such as much of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, belong to the temperate zone with

text: humid subtropical climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Cfa) characterized by four distinct seasons. However, its climate varies from cool

text: humid continental climate

text: (Köppen climate classification Dfb) in the north such as northern Hokkaido, to warm

text: tropical rainforest climate

text: (Köppen climate classification Af) in the south such as

text: Ishigaki

text: in the

text: Yaeyama Islands

text: Due to its great age, the geographical distribution of the Magnoliaceae has become disjunct or fragmented as a result of major geologic events such as ice ages, continental drift, and mountain formation. This distribution pattern has isolated some species, while keeping others in close contact.Extant species of the Magnoliaceae are widely distributed in temperate and tropical Asia from the Himalayas to Japan and southwest through Malaysia and New Guinea.  Asia is home to about two-thirds of the species in Magnoliaceae, with the remainder of the family spread across the Americas with temperate species extending into southern Canada and tropical elements extending into Brazil and the West Indies.

text: Due to its great age, the geographical distribution of the Magnoliaceae has become

text: disjunct

text: or fragmented as a result of major geologic events such as

text: ice age

text: s,

text: continental drift

text: , and

text: mountain formation

text: . This distribution pattern has isolated some species, while keeping others in close contact.Extant species of the Magnoliaceae are widely distributed in temperate and tropical Asia from the

text: Himalayas

text: to Japan and southwest through Malaysia and New Guinea.  Asia is home to about two-thirds of the species in Magnoliaceae, with the remainder of the family spread across the Americas with temperate species extending into southern Canada and tropical elements extending into Brazil and the West Indies.

text: The climate of this region is essentially oceanic (Cfb in Köppen classification), with a continental influence (sometimes called a "half-continental climate").

text: The climate of this region is essentially oceanic (Cfb in

text: Köppen classification

text: ), with a continental influence (sometimes called a "half-continental climate").

text: From the 1960s Holmes had been collecting fossils from every site in Australia that he had been able to access, and particularly Glossopteris specimens from the Dunedoo formation in the western part of the Sydney Basin. When his farming operations moved to Wellington in New South Wales to start a beef herd of Aberdeen Angus cattle, he finally managed to put together his first paper for publication. The South African palaeobotanist, Dr. Edna P. Plumstead of the Bernard Price Institute for Palaeontological Research, who had focused world attention on the glossopterids of the Permian and Triassic as supporting evidence for continental drift, acted as referee for this first paper - Holmes had met Dr. Plumstead at the Conference on Stratigraphy and Palaeontology in Canberra in I973.

text: From the 1960s Holmes had been collecting fossils from every site in Australia that he had been able to access, and particularly Glossopteris specimens from the

text: Dunedoo

text: formation in the western part of the

text: Sydney Basin

text: . When his farming operations moved to

text: Wellington

text: in

text: New South Wales

text: to start a beef herd of

text: Aberdeen Angus

text: cattle, he finally managed to put together his first paper for publication. The South African palaeobotanist, Dr.

text: Edna P. Plumstead

text: of the

entity_name: Bernard Price Institute for Palaeontological Research

text: Bernard Price Institute for Palaeontological Research

text: , who had focused world attention on the glossopterids of the

text: Permian

text: and

text: Triassic

text: as supporting evidence for continental drift, acted as referee for this first paper - Holmes had met Dr. Plumstead at the Conference on Stratigraphy and Palaeontology in

text: Canberra

text: in I973.

text: The Nardevitz Erratic (), also called the Great Rock of Nardewitz (Großer Stein von Nardevitz), is one of the largest glacial erratics in North Germany. It lies about 400 metres north of Nardevitz, a village in the parish of Lohme on the island of Rügen. Surrounded by trees and bushes as well as other drift material that was in the way of farming, it lies in the middle of a field. Its volume is estimated at 104 m³, which gives it a mass of 281 tonnes. The above-ground portion has a volume of 71 m³. It is therefore, apart from Buskam which lies in the Baltic Sea off Göhren, the largest erratic on Rügen and an important geological sight.

text: The Nardevitz Erratic (), also called the Great Rock of Nardewitz (Großer Stein von Nardevitz), is one of the largest

text: glacial erratic

text: s in North Germany. It lies about 400 metres north of Nardevitz, a village in the parish of

text: Lohme

text: on the island of

text: Rügen

text: . Surrounded by trees and bushes as well as other

text: drift material

text: that was in the way of farming, it lies in the middle of a field. Its volume is estimated at 104 m³, which gives it a mass of 281 tonnes. The above-ground portion has a volume of 71 m³. It is therefore, apart from

text: Buskam

text: which lies in the

text: Baltic Sea

text: off

text: Göhren

text: , the largest erratic on Rügen and an important geological sight.

text: The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.

text: The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as

text: rain forest

text: monsoon

entity_name: Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

text: tropical savanna

text: humid subtropical

text: humid continental

text: oceanic climate

text: Mediterranean climate

text: steppe

text: subarctic climate

text: tundra

text: polar ice cap

text: , and

text: desert

text: The Lemuria theory disappeared completely from conventional scientific consideration after the theories of plate tectonics and continental drift were accepted by the larger scientific community. According to the theory of plate tectonics (the current accepted paradigm in geology), Madagascar and India were indeed once part of the same landmass (thus accounting for geological resemblances), but plate movement caused India to break away millions of years ago, and move to its present location. The original landmass, the supercontinent Gondwana, broke apart; it did not sink beneath sea level.

text: The Lemuria theory disappeared completely from conventional scientific consideration after the theories of plate tectonics and continental drift were accepted by the larger scientific community. According to the theory of plate tectonics (the current accepted paradigm in geology), Madagascar and India were indeed once part of the same landmass (thus accounting for geological resemblances), but plate movement caused India to break away millions of years ago, and move to its present location. The original landmass, the supercontinent

text: Gondwana

text: , broke apart; it did not sink beneath sea level.

text: North Korea has a combination of a continental climate and an oceanic climate, with four distinct seasons. Most of North Korea is classified as being of a humid continental climate within the Köppen climate classification scheme, with warm summers and cold, dry winters. In summer, there is a short rainy season called changma.

text: North Korea has a combination of a

text: continental climate

text: and an

text: oceanic climate

text: , with four distinct seasons. Most of North Korea is classified as being of a

text: humid continental climate

text: within the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: scheme, with warm summers and cold, dry winters. In summer, there is a short rainy season called changma.

text: Oblivious to continental drift (not a commonly accepted theory at the time), Heribert-Nilsson invokes tremendous tsunamis for the fact that many fossil floras, such as that of the London Clay, consist of species whose modern relatives live in tropical countries far removed from the site of deposition, as G. Ledyard Stebbins writes in an article for The Quarterly Review of Biology in 1955.

text: Oblivious to

text: continental drift

text: (not a commonly accepted theory at the time), Heribert-Nilsson invokes tremendous

text: tsunami

text: s for the fact that many fossil floras, such as that of the

text: London Clay

text: , consist of species whose modern relatives live in tropical countries far removed from the site of deposition, as

text: G. Ledyard Stebbins

text: writes in an article for

text: The Quarterly Review of Biology

text: in 1955.

text: The phrase acid rain was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852. The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0-5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8-4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0. Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids, sulfuric acid (HSO) and nitric acid (HNO). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where HS is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a buffer in acid rain and raises the pH.

text: The phrase acid rain was first used by Scottish chemist Robert Augus Smith in 1852. The pH of rain varies, especially due to its origin. On America's East Coast, rain that is derived from the Atlantic Ocean typically has a pH of 5.0-5.6; rain that comes across the continental from the west has a pH of 3.8-4.8; and local thunderstorms can have a pH as low as 2.0. Rain becomes acidic primarily due to the presence of two strong acids,

text: sulfuric acid

text: (HSO) and

text: nitric acid

text: (HNO). Sulfuric acid is derived from natural sources such as volcanoes, and wetlands (sulfate reducing bacteria); and anthropogenic sources such as the combustion of fossil fuels, and mining where HS is present. Nitric acid is produced by natural sources such as lightning, soil bacteria, and natural fires; while also produced anthropogenically by the combustion of fossil fuels and from power plants. In the past 20 years the concentrations of nitric and sulfuric acid has decreased in presence of rainwater, which may be due to the significant increase in ammonium (most likely as ammonia from livestock production), which acts as a

text: buffer

text: in acid rain and raises the pH.

text: Historical evidence of shallow coal drift-mining of the Ringinglow seam has been found in the nearby Barber Fields, adjacent to Sheephill Road. This was served by an industrial railway which ran from a location near to Furnace Farm to Copperas Farm. Neither of the farm names appear on the modern Ordnance Survey maps although evidence of a ballasted footpath from the Limb Brook to Smeltings Farm can still be found. The railway is known to have existed in the late 1940s but, like the mines is no more. Other mines in the area were the Deep Sick Coal Pits.

text: Historical evidence of shallow coal drift-mining of the Ringinglow seam has been found in the nearby Barber Fields, adjacent to Sheephill Road. This was served by an

text: industrial railway

text: which ran from a location near to Furnace Farm to Copperas Farm. Neither of the farm names appear on the modern Ordnance Survey maps although evidence of a ballasted footpath from the Limb Brook to Smeltings Farm can still be found. The railway is known to have existed in the late 1940s but, like the mines is no more. Other mines in the area were the Deep Sick Coal Pits.

text: In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Compression fossils are studied by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.

text: In contrast to

text: plants

text: and

text: animals

text: , the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal

text: fruiting bodies

text: , which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble

text: extant

text: fungi. Often recovered from a

text: permineralized

text: plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with

text: light microscopy

text: or

text: transmission electron microscopy

text: Compression fossil

text: s are studied by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or

text: scanning electron microscopy

text: to examine surface details.

text: In natural populations, genetic drift and natural selection do not act in isolation; both forces are always at play, together with mutation and migration. Neutral evolution is the product of both mutation and drift, not of drift alone. Similarly, even when selection overwhelms genetic drift, it can only act on variation that mutation provides.

text: The Du Toit Mountains () are a group of mountains about  long and  wide, to the south-west of the Wilson Mountains in southeastern Palmer Land, Antarctica. The mountains have peaks rising to  and are bounded by Beaumont Glacier, Maury Glacier and Defant Glacier. They were first photographed from the air by the U.S. Antarctic Service in 1940; rephotographed by the U.S. Navy, 1966–69, and mapped from the photographs by the U.S. Geological Survey. In association with the names of continental drift scientists grouped in this area, they were named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names after Alexander du Toit, a South African geologist who was an early proponent of the theory of continental drift.

text: The Du Toit Mountains () are a group of mountains about  long and  wide, to the south-west of the

text: Wilson Mountains

text: in southeastern

text: Palmer Land

text: , Antarctica. The mountains have peaks rising to  and are bounded by

text: Beaumont Glacier

text: Maury Glacier

text: and

text: Defant Glacier

text: . They were first photographed from the air by the

text: U.S. Antarctic Service

text: in 1940; rephotographed by the U.S. Navy, 1966–69, and mapped from the photographs by the

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: . In association with the names of

text: continental drift

text: scientists grouped in this area, they were named by the

text: Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names

text: after

text: Alexander du Toit

text: , a South African geologist who was an early proponent of the theory of continental drift.

text: Winters tend to be cold in the city, though by Russian standards, Astrakhan features relatively balmy winters. Summers in the city can be hot, with high temperatures in excess of . The mean annual temperature amplitude (difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the hottest and coldest months) is thus equal to  ( in July and  in January), so the climate is truly continental (amplitudes superior or equal to  determines continental climates, while in semi-continental climates amplitudes vary between  and ). Spring and fall are basically transitional seasons between summer and winter. The summers are much hotter than found further west on similar parallels in Europe and worldwide for the 46th parallel.

text: Winters tend to be cold in the city, though by Russian standards, Astrakhan features relatively balmy winters. Summers in the city can be hot, with high temperatures in excess of . The mean annual temperature amplitude (difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the hottest and coldest months) is thus equal to  ( in July and  in January), so the climate is truly continental (amplitudes superior or equal to  determines continental climates, while in semi-continental climates amplitudes vary between  and ). Spring and fall are basically transitional seasons between summer and winter. The summers are much hotter than found further west on similar parallels in Europe and worldwide for the

text: 46th parallel

text: Albeit the big seafaring nations enlarged the postwar marine research, especially the United States strongly reengaged, other expeditions of two smaller countries were vitally important. The Swedish "Albatross" expedition of 1947/48 crossed eighteen times the equator and covered 45,000 nautical miles (83,000 km). Over 200 cores, fastened on a perpendicular, were dragged 1.5 km over the seabed. The Danish "Galathea" expedition from 1950 to 1951 under Bruun concentrated on studies about the living conditions in great depth and succeeded in catching fish in a depth of 10,190 meters (3,106 m).Already in the 1930s, American scientist began to use seismic measuring methods in flat waters and during the war, physicist Maurice Ewing carried the first seismic refraction measurements out. The introduction of this geophysical method as well as the simultaneously beginning palaeomagnetic researches (studying the Earth's magnetic field preserved in magnetic iron bearing minerals) led to a reinvigoration of Alfred Wegener's continental drift theory and subsequent development of plate tectonics.

text: Albeit the big seafaring nations enlarged the postwar marine research, especially the United States strongly reengaged, other expeditions of two smaller countries were vitally important. The Swedish "Albatross" expedition of 1947/48 crossed eighteen times the equator and covered 45,000 nautical miles (83,000 km). Over 200 cores, fastened on a perpendicular, were dragged 1.5 km over the seabed. The Danish "Galathea" expedition from 1950 to 1951 under Bruun concentrated on studies about the living conditions in great depth and succeeded in catching fish in a depth of 10,190 meters (3,106 m).Already in the 1930s, American scientist began to use seismic measuring methods in flat waters and during the war, physicist

text: Maurice Ewing

text: carried the first

text: seismic refraction

text: measurements out. The introduction of this geophysical method as well as the simultaneously beginning

text: palaeomagnetic

text: researches (studying the Earth's magnetic field preserved in magnetic iron bearing minerals) led to a reinvigoration of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's

text: continental drift

text: theory and subsequent development of

text: plate tectonics

text: The New York City area is part of the geologically complex structure of the northern Appalachian Mountains. This complex structure was formed during the past half billion years when the Earth's crust underlying the Northern Appalachians was the site of two major geological episodes, each of which has left its imprint on the area's bedrock. Between about 450 million years ago and about 250 million years ago, the Northern Appalachian region was affected by a continental collision, in which the ancient African continent collided with the ancient North American continent to form the supercontinent Pangaea. Beginning about 200 million years ago, the present-day Atlantic Ocean began to form as plate tectonic forces began to rift apart the continent of Pangaea. The last major episode of geological activity to affect the bedrock in the New York area occurred about 100 million years ago, during the Mesozoic era, when continental rifting that led to the opening of the present-day Atlantic Ocean formed the Hartford and Newark Mesozoic rift basins.

text: The New York City area is part of the geologically complex structure of the northern

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: . This complex structure was formed during the past half billion years when the Earth's crust underlying the Northern Appalachians was the site of two major geological episodes, each of which has left its imprint on the area's

text: bedrock

text: . Between about 450 million years ago and about 250 million years ago, the Northern Appalachian region was affected by a

text: continental collision

text: , in which the ancient African continent collided with the ancient North American continent to form the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: . Beginning about 200 million years ago, the present-day Atlantic Ocean began to form as plate tectonic forces began to

text: rift

text: apart the continent of

text: Pangaea

text: . The last major episode of geological activity to affect the

text: bedrock

text: in the New York area occurred about 100 million years ago, during the

text: Mesozoic era

text: , when continental rifting that led to the opening of the present-day

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: formed the Hartford and

text: Newark

text: Mesozoic rift basins.

text: These biogeographic elements are result of geological evolution of Himalaya which continues today from the action of plate tectonics and continental drift. Over 100 million years ago, the Indian sub-continent broke off from the large, southern landmass, Gondwanaland and moved north. It eventually slammed into the northern land mass, Laurasia, and formed the gigantic folded mountains of the Himalaya. Due to this union of Gondwanaland and Asiatic landmasses, exchange of flora and fauna was possible and this ultimately led to the unique biogeographical features in the region.

text: These biogeographic elements are result of geological evolution of Himalaya which continues today from the action of

text: plate tectonics

text: and

text: continental drift

text: . Over 100 million years ago, the Indian sub-continent broke off from the large, southern landmass,

text: Gondwanaland

text: and moved north. It eventually slammed into the northern land mass,

text: Laurasia

text: , and formed the gigantic folded mountains of the Himalaya. Due to this union of Gondwanaland and Asiatic landmasses, exchange of flora and fauna was possible and this ultimately led to the unique biogeographical features in the region.

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift earned $161,321,843 in North America, and $715,922,939 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $877,244,782. Its worldwide opening weekend totaled $126.9 million. Worldwide, it is the thirty-ninth highest-grossing film, the fifth highest-grossing film of 2012 (also, the highest-grossing animated film of that year), and the second highest-grossing film in the Ice Age series. Overall, it is the eighth highest-grossing animated film.

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift earned $161,321,843 in North America, and $715,922,939 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $877,244,782. Its worldwide opening weekend totaled $126.9 million. Worldwide, it is the

text: thirty-ninth highest-grossing film

text: , the fifth highest-grossing film of

text: (also, the highest-grossing animated film of that year), and the second highest-grossing film in the

text: Ice Age series

text: . Overall, it is the

text: eighth highest-grossing animated film

text: The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon in the geologic timescale. It covers roughly 541 million years. During this period continents drifted about, eventually collected into a single landmass known as Pangea and then split up into the current continental landmasses.

text: The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon in the geologic timescale. It covers roughly 541 million years. During this period continents drifted about, eventually collected into a single landmass known as

text: Pangea

text: and then split up into the current continental landmasses.

text: The climate of Western Europe varies from subtropical and desertic in the southern coast of Spain to polar in the Pyrenees. The Mediterranean climate of the south is dry and warm. The western and northwestern parts have a mild, generally humid climate, influenced by the North Atlantic Drift. In central and eastern Europe the climate is of the humid continental-type with warm summers.

text: The climate of Western Europe varies from

text: subtropical

text: and

text: desertic

text: in the southern coast of

text: Spain

text: to

text: polar

text: in the

text: Pyrenees

text: . The

text: Mediterranean climate

text: of the south is dry and warm. The western and northwestern parts have a mild, generally humid climate, influenced by the North Atlantic Drift. In central and eastern Europe the climate is of the humid continental-type with warm summers.

text: While his ideas attracted a few early supporters such as Alexander Du Toit from South Africa, Arthur Holmes in England  and Milutin Milanković in Serbia for whom continental drift theory was the premise in investigating polar wandering, the hypothesis was initially met with skepticism from geologists who viewed Wegener as an outsider, and were resistant to change. The one American edition of Wegener's work, published in 1925, which was written in "a dogmatic style that often results from German translations", was received so poorly that the American Association of Petroleum Geologists organized a symposium specifically in opposition to the continental drift hypothesis. The opponents argued, as did the Leipziger geologist Franz Kossmat, that the oceanic crust was too firm for the continents to "simply plough through".

text: While his ideas attracted a few early supporters such as

text: Alexander Du Toit

text: from South Africa,

text: Arthur Holmes

text: in England  and

text: Milutin Milanković

text: in Serbia for whom

text: continental drift

text: theory was the premise in investigating polar wandering, the hypothesis was initially met with skepticism from geologists who viewed Wegener as an outsider, and were resistant to change. The one American edition of Wegener's work, published in 1925, which was written in "a dogmatic style that often results from German translations", was received so poorly that the

entity_name: American Association of Petroleum Geologists

text: American Association of Petroleum Geologists

text: organized a symposium specifically in opposition to the continental drift hypothesis. The opponents argued, as did the

text: Leipzig

text: er geologist

text: Franz Kossmat

text: , that the oceanic crust was too firm for the continents to "simply plough through".

text: Characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. This climate type is found on the eastern sides of the continents between 20° and 35° N and S latitude.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa" (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: Characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. This climate type is found on the eastern sides of the continents between 20° and 35° N and S latitude.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Cfa

text: " (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: In the next few months of the flood, the dead animals and plants were buried, and became oil, coal, and fossils. The last months of the flood included geological instability, when the plates shifted, forming ocean basins and mountain ranges. The Grand Canyon was formed in a couple of weeks during this time due to erosion from the floodwaters receding. After a few hundred years, the ice caps melted and the ocean levels increased, creating the continental shelves, and the deeper oceans absorbed carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere allowing greater amounts of radiation to reach the Earth's surface. As a result, Hovind believes human lifespans were shortened considerably in the days of Peleg.

text: In the next few months of the

text: flood

text: , the dead animals and plants were buried, and became

text: oil

text: coal

text: , and fossils. The last months of the flood included geological instability, when the

text: plates

text: shifted, forming

text: ocean basins

text: and

text: mountain range

text: s. The

text: Grand Canyon

text: was formed in a couple of weeks during this time due to

text: erosion

text: from the floodwaters receding. After a few hundred years, the

text: ice caps

text: melted and the ocean levels increased, creating the

text: continental shelves

text: , and the deeper oceans absorbed

text: carbon dioxide

text: in

text: Earth’s atmosphere

text: allowing greater amounts of

text: radiation

text: to reach the Earth's surface. As a result, Hovind believes human lifespans were shortened considerably in the days of

text: Peleg

text: It is composed of fossilized bones recovered by the German paleontologist Werner Janensch from the fossil-rich Tendaguru beds of Tanzania between 1909 and 1913. The remains are primarily from one gigantic animal, except for a few tail bones (caudal vertebrae), which belong to another animal of the same size and species.

text: It is composed of fossilized bones recovered by the German

text: paleontologist

text: Werner Janensch

text: from the fossil-rich Tendaguru beds of

text: Tanzania

text: between 1909 and 1913. The remains are primarily from one gigantic animal, except for a few tail bones (caudal

text: vertebra

text: e), which belong to another animal of the same size and species.

text: Outside North America, Europe's Most Wanted out-grossed Shrek Forever After to become DreamWorks Animation's highest-grossing film. On its opening weekend, it topped the box office with $77.3 million from 28 countries. It hold that position for three consecutive weekends. Its three highest-grossing openings occurred in Russia and the CIS ($15.7 million), China ($10.4 million), and Brazil ($10.1 million in 5 days). It set an opening-day record for animated films in Russia with $3.7 million (since surpassed by Ice Age: Continental Drift) and became the highest-grossing animated film (surpassed by Ice Age: Continental Drift) and the third highest-grossing film ever (at the time), earning $49.4 million. It also set an opening weekend record for any film in Argentina with $3.80 million (first surpassed by Ice Age: Continental Drift) and it set opening weekend records for animated films in Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, and the United Arab Emirates.

text: Outside North America, Europe's Most Wanted out-grossed

text: Shrek Forever After

text: to become DreamWorks Animation's highest-grossing film. On its opening weekend, it topped the box office with $77.3 million from 28 countries. It hold that position for three consecutive weekends. Its three highest-grossing openings occurred in Russia and the CIS ($15.7 million), China ($10.4 million), and Brazil ($10.1 million in 5 days). It set an opening-day record for animated films in Russia with $3.7 million (since surpassed by

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: ) and became the highest-grossing animated film (surpassed by

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: ) and the third highest-grossing film ever (at the time), earning $49.4 million. It also set an opening weekend record for any film in Argentina with $3.80 million (first surpassed by Ice Age: Continental Drift) and it set opening weekend records for animated films in Brazil, Venezuela, Trinidad, and the United Arab Emirates.

text: Disher graduated from Tisch School of the Arts. After graduation she joined MTV, where she designed the main characters and was the supervising director on an animated television series Daria. Meanwhile, she directed two TV feature-length instalments in the series, Is It Fall Yet? in 2000 and the follow-up Is It College Yet? in 2002. She then joined Blue Sky Studios, where she worked as story artist on many animated films, including Robots, Ice Age: The Meltdown, Horton Hears a Who!, Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs, Ice Age: Continental Drift, and Epic. She was also the head of story on Rio, and directed a short animated film Surviving Sid and a television special Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas, both part of the Ice Age franchise. In addition to story boarding and directing, she lent her voice to some minor characters in the films she worked on, most notably to Scratte in Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs.

text: Disher graduated from

text: Tisch School of the Arts

text: . After graduation she joined

text: MTV

text: , where she designed the main characters and was the supervising director on an animated television series

text: Daria

text: . Meanwhile, she directed two TV feature-length instalments in the series,

text: Is It Fall Yet?

text: in 2000 and the follow-up

text: Is It College Yet?

text: in 2002. She then joined

text: Blue Sky Studios

text: , where she worked as story artist on many animated films, including

text: Robots

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: Horton Hears a Who!

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , and

text: Epic

text: . She was also the head of story on

text: Rio

text: , and directed a short animated film

text: Surviving Sid

text: and a television special

text: Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas

text: , both part of the

text: Ice Age

text: franchise. In addition to story boarding and directing, she lent her voice to some minor characters in the films she worked on, most notably to Scratte in Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs.

text: The southern shore is hilly with the northern shore having a sloping lowland extending to a low rise along the centre of the eastern part of the peninsula.  The geological structure is complex with the peninsula's soils dating to the middle Cambrian to early Ordovician continental margin, creating a carbonate platform of limestone, shale, and sandstone.  The heavily folded geological structure in the area has been identified as having an unknown amount of petroleum reserves.

text: The southern shore is hilly with the northern shore having a sloping lowland extending to a low rise along the centre of the eastern part of the peninsula.  The

text: geological

text: structure is complex with the peninsula's soils dating to the middle

text: Cambrian

text: to early

text: Ordovician

text: continental margin

text: , creating a

text: carbonate

text: platform of

text: limestone

text: shale

text: , and

text: sandstone

text: .  The heavily folded geological structure in the area has been identified as having an unknown amount of

text: petroleum

text: reserves.

text: Wham!'s recording of "Where Did Your Heart Go?", while structurally similar to the Was (Not Was) original, leans toward to a soft rock ballad due to changes to the tempo and vocal inflection. Michael's arrangement is more spare and reliant on synthesizers and saxophone to convey the melody. Michael's vocals are less immersed in the backing arrangement in which the bass guitar and drums are markedly quieter in the mix. His vocal is more low-key than Sweet Pea Atkinson's, except for the final line of the third verse, "and drifted out of sight", which is accentuated.

text: Wham!'s recording of "Where Did Your Heart Go?", while structurally similar to the

text: Was (Not Was)

text: original, leans toward to a

text: soft rock

text: ballad

text: due to changes to the tempo and vocal inflection. Michael's arrangement is more spare and reliant on synthesizers and saxophone to convey the melody. Michael's vocals are less immersed in the backing arrangement in which the bass guitar and drums are markedly quieter in the mix. His vocal is more low-key than Sweet Pea Atkinson's, except for the final line of the third verse, "and drifted out of sight", which is accentuated.

text: Meanwhile, in The Origin of Continents and Oceans (1915 / 1929), Alfred Wegener outlined his heretical theory of continental drift. Although he cited invertebrate fossils and continental geography in support of his idea, another half-century would pass before Wegener's theory would be vindicated by findings in geophysics and plate tectonics.

text: Meanwhile, in

text: The Origin of Continents and Oceans

text: (1915 / 1929),

text: Alfred Wegener

text: outlined his

text: heretical

text: theory

text: of

text: continental drift

text: . Although he cited invertebrate fossils and

text: continent

text: al

text: geography

text: in support of his idea, another half-century would pass before Wegener's theory would be vindicated by findings in

text: geophysics

text: and

text: plate tectonics

text: Stukeley noticed that the Heel Stone was not precisely aligned on the sunrise. The drifting of the position of the sunrise due to the precession of the equinoxes since the monument’s erection does not account for this imprecision. Recently, evidence has been found for a neighbour to the Heel Stone, no longer extant. The second stone may have instead been one side of a ‘solar corridor’ used to frame the sunrise.

text: Stukeley noticed that the Heel Stone was not precisely aligned on the sunrise. The drifting of the position of the sunrise due to the

text: precession of the equinoxes

text: since the monument’s erection does not account for this imprecision. Recently, evidence has been found for a neighbour to the

text: Heel Stone

text: , no longer extant. The second stone may have instead been one side of a ‘solar corridor’ used to frame the sunrise.

text: The film was released on July 1, 2009 by 20th Century Fox. Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics, it ranked at the time as the second-highest-grossing animated film of all time, earning $886.7 million worldwide. A sequel, titled Ice Age: Continental Drift, was released in 2012, and another film, titled Ice Age: Collision Course, was released in 2016.

text: The film was released on July 1, 2009 by

text: 20th Century Fox

text: . Despite receiving mixed reviews from critics, it ranked at the time as the second-highest-grossing animated film of all time, earning $886.7 million worldwide. A sequel, titled

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , was released in 2012, and another film, titled

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: , was released in 2016.

text: Nazarlu has a Continental Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csb), a variant of the Continental climate and Mediterranean climate. It is cold and snowy in winter and hot and dry in summer.

text: Nazarlu has a

text: Continental Mediterranean climate

text: (Köppen: Csb), a variant of the

text: Continental climate

text: and

text: Mediterranean climate

text: . It is cold and snowy in winter and hot and dry in summer.

text: The climate of Oral is continental with long cold winters and warm, often hot summers. Under the Köppen climate classification, Oral has a hot summer humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa). Summers are extremely hot considering its position north of the 51st parallel, but winters are more reminiscent of continental climates further east rather than Europe.

text: The climate of Oral is

text: continental

text: with long cold winters and warm, often hot summers. Under the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: , Oral has a hot summer

text: humid continental climate

text: (Köppen Dfa). Summers are extremely hot considering its position north of the

text: 51st parallel

text: , but winters are more reminiscent of continental climates further east rather than Europe.

text: Millions of years ago, Antarctica was warmer and much wetter, and supported the Antarctic flora, including forests of podocarps and southern beech. Antarctica was also part of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwanaland, which gradually broke up by continental drift starting 110 million years ago. The separation of South America from Antarctica 30-35 million years ago allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to form, which isolated Antarctica climatically and caused it to become much colder. The Antarctic flora subsequently died out in Antarctica, but is still an important component of the flora of southern Neotropic (South America) and Australasia, which were also former parts of Gondwana.

text: Millions of years ago,

text: Antarctica

text: was warmer and much wetter, and supported the Antarctic flora, including forests of

text: podocarps

text: and

text: southern beech

text: . Antarctica was also part of the ancient supercontinent of

text: Gondwanaland

text: , which gradually broke up by

text: continental drift

text: starting 110 million years ago. The separation of

text: South America

text: from Antarctica 30-35 million years ago allowed the

text: Antarctic Circumpolar Current

text: to form, which isolated Antarctica climatically and caused it to become much colder. The Antarctic flora subsequently died out in Antarctica, but is still an important component of the flora of southern

text: Neotropic

text: South America

text: ) and

text: Australasia

text: , which were also former parts of Gondwana.

text: Dr McLoughlin is a palaeobotanist with the Department of Palaeobiology, Swedish Museum of Natural History who has carried out research on the fossil floras of the Winton Formation since the mid-1990s. In recent years he has studied bennettitalean, conifer and horsetail fossils from Belmont Station held in the AAOD Museum collection. The significance of the Winton Formation fossil flora is that it represents the youngest major assemblage of plant fossils from the Cretaceous of Australia. Stratigraphically, the next major plant assemblage on the continent is from the late Paleocene – some 35 million years later. The Winton Formation plant assemblage marks the transition from gymnosperm to angiosperm dominance in the Australian floras. The Winton Formation flora is now known to contain over 50 macrofossil plant taxa. Significantly, this assemblage contains the youngest Australian fossils of equisetaleans, pentoxylaleans, and possibly bennettitaleans – all groups that appear to have succumbed to competition from the rapidly diversifying angiosperms of this time. One of the youngest records of Ginkgo leaves from Australia also comes from the Winton Formation. Araucarian, cupressacean and podocarp conifers are all well represented in the fossil flora. The flowering plants represented in this flora have mostly toothed or lobed leaf types and are of possible fagaceous or betulaceous affinities but their precise relationships remain unclear. The oldest Australian monocot angiosperms are also known from this formation. The composition of the flora and morphological characters of the leaves and woods attest to growth in a cool seasonal climate without extremes of precipitation.

text: Dr McLoughlin is a palaeobotanist with the Department of

text: Palaeobiology

text: Swedish Museum of Natural History

text: Saltonstall captained the Alfred on the Continental Navy's maiden voyage in March 1776, an expedition to Nassau in the Bahamas whose objective was arms and critically needed gunpowder.  The expedition was somewhat successful, as Nassau was taken, but its governor had managed to remove much of the gunpowder before the takeover was completed.  The return voyage was uneventful, although smallpox was spreading through the ships' crews, until the fleet neared Block Island.  On April 4 and 5, the fleet captured British ships.  On the morning of April 6, the  was spotted, and was brought to action.  In the ensuing battle, Alfred steering controls were damaged by cannon fire, and she drifted out of the action.  Glasgow was able to escape to Newport outrunning the heavily laden fleet.

text: Saltonstall captained the Alfred on the Continental Navy's maiden voyage in March 1776, an expedition to

text: Nassau

text: in

text: the Bahamas

text: whose objective was arms and critically needed

text: gunpowder

text: .  The expedition was somewhat successful, as

text: Nassau was taken

text: , but its governor had managed to remove much of the gunpowder before the takeover was completed.  The return voyage was uneventful, although

text: smallpox

text: was spreading through the ships' crews, until the fleet neared

text: Block Island

text: .  On April 4 and 5, the fleet captured British ships.  On the morning of April 6, the  was spotted, and was brought to action.  In

text: the ensuing battle

text: , Alfred steering controls were damaged by cannon fire, and she drifted out of the action.  Glasgow was able to escape to

text: Newport

text: outrunning the heavily laden fleet.

text: The convection of the Earth's mantle is a chaotic process (in the sense of fluid dynamics), which is thought to be an integral part of the motion of plates. Plate motion should not be confused with continental drift which applies purely to the movement of the crustal components of the continents. The movements of the lithosphere and the underlying mantle are coupled since descending lithosphere is an essential component of convection in the mantle. The observed continental drift is a complicated relationship between the forces causing oceanic lithosphere to sink and the movements within Earth's mantle.

text: The

text: convection

text: of the Earth's mantle is a

text: chaotic

text: process (in the sense of fluid dynamics), which is thought to be an integral part of the motion of plates. Plate motion should not be confused with

text: continental drift

text: which applies purely to the movement of the crustal components of the continents. The movements of the lithosphere and the underlying mantle are coupled since descending lithosphere is an essential component of convection in the mantle. The observed continental drift is a complicated relationship between the forces causing oceanic lithosphere to sink and the movements within Earth's mantle.

text: The dwelling's walls were constructed from thin, flat blocks of the local Moenkopi sandstone giving the pueblos their distinct red color. Held together with mortar, many of the walls still stand. Each settlement was constructed as a single building, sometimes with scores of rooms. The largest settlement on monument territory is the Wupatki Ruin, built around a natural rock outcropping. With over 100 rooms, this ruin is believed to be the area's tallest and largest structure for its time period. The monument also contains ruins identified as a ball court, similar to those found in Mesoamerica and in the Hohokam ruins of southern Arizona; this is the northernmost example of this kind of structure. This site also contains a geological blowhole. Other major sites are Wukoki and The Citadel.

text: The dwelling's walls were constructed from thin, flat blocks of the local Moenkopi sandstone giving the pueblos their distinct red color. Held together with mortar, many of the walls still stand. Each settlement was constructed as a single building, sometimes with scores of rooms. The largest settlement on monument territory is the Wupatki Ruin, built around a natural rock outcropping. With over 100 rooms, this ruin is believed to be the area's tallest and largest structure for its time period. The monument also contains ruins identified as a

text: ball court

text: , similar to those found in

text: Mesoamerica

text: and in the

text: Hohokam

text: ruins of southern Arizona; this is the northernmost example of this kind of structure. This site also contains a

text: geological blowhole

text: . Other major sites are Wukoki and The Citadel.

text: Earth’s magnetic field: A number of moths use the Earth's magnetic field to navigate, as a study of the stray Heart and Dart suggests. Another study, this time of the migratory behaviour of the Silver Y, showed that this species, even at high altitudes, can correct its course with changing winds, and prefers flying with favourable winds, which suggests a great sense of direction. Aphrissa statira in Panama loses its navigational capacity when exposed to a magnetic field, suggesting it uses the Earth’s magnetic field.

text: Earth’s magnetic field: A number of moths use the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: to navigate, as a study of the stray

text: Heart and Dart

text: suggests. Another study, this time of the migratory behaviour of the

text: Silver Y

text: , showed that this species, even at high altitudes, can correct its course with changing winds, and prefers flying with favourable winds, which suggests a great sense of direction.

text: Aphrissa statira

text: in

text: Panama

text: loses its navigational capacity when exposed to a magnetic field, suggesting it uses the Earth’s magnetic field.

text: Beneath Point Roberts, the bedrock of the Chuckanut Formation was deposited as an alluvial plain containing layers of sediments consisting of silt, sand, sand and gravel, and peat.  During the last 60 million years the sediments were compacted and folded by mountain building forces resulting from continental drift to form strata of siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate and coal.  During recent geologic history, the Chuckanut formation was overridden by four or more glaciations.

text: Beneath Point Roberts, the bedrock of the

text: Chuckanut Formation

text: was deposited as an alluvial plain containing layers of sediments consisting of silt, sand, sand and gravel, and peat.  During the last 60 million years the sediments were compacted and folded by mountain building forces resulting from continental drift to form strata of siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate and coal.  During recent geologic history, the Chuckanut formation was overridden by four or more glaciations.

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift is the soundtrack of the film scored by John Powell and was released on July 10, 2012.

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift is the

text: soundtrack

text: of the film scored by

text: John Powell

text: and was released on July 10, 2012.

text: Campaign packs produced were Terror of the Lichemaster, Bloodbath at Orcs' Drift (1985, referring to Rorke's Drift) and Tragedy of McDeath (1986, referring to Macbeth). The pack Blood on the Streets was card buildings for terrain.

text: Campaign packs produced were Terror of the Lichemaster, Bloodbath at Orcs' Drift (1985, referring to

text: Rorke's Drift

text: ) and Tragedy of McDeath (1986, referring to

text: Macbeth

text: ). The pack Blood on the Streets was card buildings for terrain.

text: He has repeatedly criticized "science by consensus," arguing that the scientific community is too quick to reject certain kinds of ideas. "Anything goes among the physics community – cosmic wormholes, time travel," he argues, "just so long as it keeps its distance from anything mystical or New Age-ish." Referring to this position as "pathological disbelief," he holds it responsible for the rejection by academic journals of papers on the paranormal. He has compared parapsychology to the theory of continental drift, proposed in 1912 by Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) to explain observations that were otherwise inexplicable, which was resisted and ridiculed until evidence led to its acceptance after Wegener's death.

text: He has repeatedly criticized "science by consensus," arguing that the scientific community is too quick to reject certain kinds of ideas. "Anything goes among the physics community – cosmic wormholes, time travel," he argues, "just so long as it keeps its distance from anything mystical or New Age-ish." Referring to this position as "pathological disbelief," he holds it responsible for the rejection by academic journals of papers on the paranormal. He has compared parapsychology to the theory of

text: continental drift

text: , proposed in 1912 by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: (1880–1930) to explain observations that were otherwise inexplicable, which was resisted and ridiculed until evidence led to its acceptance after Wegener's death.

text: The mollusc Tochuina tetraquetra (formerly Tritonia diomedea or Tritonia gigantea) has been studied for clues as to the neural mechanism behind magnetoreception in a species. Some of the earliest work with Tochuina showed that prior to a full moon Tochuina would orient their bodies between magnetic north and east. A Y-maze was established with a right turn equal to geomagnetic south and a left turn equal to geomagnetic east. Within this geomagnetic field 80% of Tochuina made a turn to the left or magnetic east. However, when a reversed magnetic field was applied that rotated magnetic north 180° there was no significant preference for either turn, which now corresponded with magnetic north and magnetic west. These results, though interesting, do not conclusively establish that Tochuina uses magnetic fields in magnetoreception. These experiments do not include a control for the activation of the Rubens’ coil in the reversed magnetic field experiments. Therefore, it is possible that heat or noise generated by the coil was responsible for the loss of choice preference.  Further work with Tochuina was unable to identify any neurons that showed rapid changes in firing as a result of magnetic fields. However, pedal 5 neurons, two bisymmetric neurons located within the Tochuina pedal ganglion, exhibited gradual changes in firing over time following 30 minutes of magnetic stimulation provided by a Rubens’ coil.  Further studies showed that pedal 7 neurons in the pedal ganglion were inhibited when exposed to magnetic fields over the course of 30 minutes. The function of both pedal 5 neurons and pedal 7 neurons is currently unknown.

text: The mollusc

text: Tochuina tetraquetra

text: The newer Wendelstein 7-X in Germany was designed to be close to omnigeneity (a property of the magnetic field such that the mean radial drift is zero), which is a necessary but not sufficient condition for quasisymmetry; that is, all quasisymmetric magnetic fields are omnigenous, but not all omnigenous magnetic fields are quasisymmetric.

text: The newer

text: Wendelstein 7-X

text: in Germany was designed to be close to omnigeneity (a property of the magnetic field such that the mean radial drift is zero), which is a necessary but not sufficient condition for

text: quasisymmetry

text: ; that is, all

text: quasisymmetric

text: magnetic fields are omnigenous, but not all omnigenous magnetic fields are

text: quasisymmetric

text: From an early age he was into motorbikes as his father was, and got his motorcycle license at 16. One night when he was out riding with his friends they stumbled upon a drift meeting in the hills of Karuizawa, there he saw a white Mercedes-Benz saloon drifting. From then on he wanted to drift himself and he wanted to drift a saloon. As soon as he was 18 he got his drivers license, his father did not want him to drift so bought him a Mini Cooper as his first car. At this time he did not know that it would not be a good car to drift so he tried, and ended up writing it off. He then bought a Nissan Silvia S13 without asking his parents and set about practicing, his first practice session lasted 36 hours only stopping for food and fuel. He learned a lot from this first practice session though he totalled the Nissan Silvia S13 a couple of weeks later.

text: From an early age he was into motorbikes as his father was, and got his

text: motorcycle

text: license at 16. One night when he was out riding with his friends they stumbled upon a drift meeting in the hills of

text: Karuizawa

text: , there he saw a white

text: Mercedes-Benz

text: saloon drifting. From then on he wanted to drift himself and he wanted to drift a saloon. As soon as he was 18 he got his drivers license, his father did not want him to drift so bought him a

text: Mini Cooper

text: as his first car. At this time he did not know that it would not be a good car to drift so he tried, and ended up writing it off. He then bought a

text: Nissan Silvia S13

text: without asking his parents and set about practicing, his first practice session lasted 36 hours only stopping for food and fuel. He learned a lot from this first practice session though he totalled the

text: Nissan Silvia S13

text: a couple of weeks later.

text: Natural gas  is a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame. Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly includes varying amounts of other higher alkanes and even a lesser percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide.  Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.

text: Natural gas  is a

text: fossil fuel

text: formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame. Natural gas is a

text: hydrocarbon

text: gas

text: mixture consisting primarily of

text: methane

text: , but commonly includes varying amounts of other higher

text: alkanes

text: and even a lesser percentage of

text: carbon dioxide

text: nitrogen

text: , and

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: .  Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of

text: plastics

text: and other commercially important

text: organic chemicals

text: Biogeography is the study of the distribution of biodiversity over space and time. It is very useful in understanding species distribution through factors such as speciation, extinction, continental drift, glaciation, variation of sea levels, river capture and available resources. This branch of study not only gives a description of the species distribution, but also a geographical explanation for the distribution of particular species. The traditional biogeographic regions were first modeled by Alfred Wallace in The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876). These were based on the work of Sclater's terrestrial biogeographic regions. Wallace's system was based on both birds and vertebrates, including non-flying mammals, which better reflect the natural divisions of the Earth due to their limited dispersal abilities.

text: Biogeography

text: is the study of the distribution of

text: biodiversity

text: over space and time. It is very useful in understanding species distribution through factors such as

text: speciation

text: extinction

text: continental drift

text: glaciation

text: , variation of sea levels, river capture and available resources. This branch of study not only gives a description of the species distribution, but also a geographical explanation for the distribution of particular species. The traditional biogeographic regions were first modeled by

text: Alfred Wallace

text: in The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876). These were based on the work of Sclater's terrestrial biogeographic regions. Wallace's system was based on both birds and vertebrates, including non-flying mammals, which better reflect the natural divisions of the Earth due to their limited dispersal abilities.

text: Humid subtropical climates are located in the transitional area between the oceanic, Mediterranean and continental climates in southern Europe, in the areas where summer precipitation and winter temperatures are hard for inclusion in the Mediterranean climate schema. Inland from these areas there are isolated pockets where the climate is borderline subtropical but these zones are usually classed as oceanic or humid continental. Average summer temperatures in areas of Europe with this climate are generally not as hot as most other subtropical zones around the world, but the growing season can be adequately long.

text: Humid subtropical climates are located in the transitional area between the oceanic, Mediterranean and continental climates in

text: southern Europe

text: , in the areas where summer precipitation and winter temperatures are hard for inclusion in the Mediterranean climate schema. Inland from these areas there are isolated pockets where the climate is borderline subtropical but these zones are usually classed as oceanic or humid continental. Average summer temperatures in areas of

text: Europe

text: with this climate are generally not as hot as most other subtropical zones around the world, but the growing season can be adequately long.

text: Until recently, it was thought that all species lived in the sediment deep in the ocean, subsisting as deposit feeders or suspension feeders. However, the last decade has seen the description of a new family, the Torquaratoridae, evidently limited to the deep sea, in which most of the species crawl on the surface of the ocean bottom and alternatively rise into the water column, evidently to drift to new foraging sites. Some of these worms may grow to be very long; one particular species may reach a length of 2.5 metres (8.2 ft), although most acorn worms are much smaller.

text: Until recently, it was thought that all species

text: lived in the sediment

text: deep in the ocean

text: , subsisting as

text: deposit feeder

text: s or

text: suspension feeder

text: s. However, the last decade has seen the description of a new family, the Torquaratoridae, evidently limited to the deep sea, in which most of the species crawl on the surface of the ocean bottom and alternatively rise into the water column, evidently to drift to new foraging sites. Some of these worms may grow to be very long; one particular species may reach a length of 2.5 metres (8.2 ft), although most acorn worms are much smaller.

text: Nantucket was formed by the outermost reach of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the recent Wisconsin Glaciation, shaped by the subsequent rise in sea level. The low ridge across the northern section of the island was deposited as glacial moraine during a period of glacial standstill, a period during which till continued to arrive and was deposited as the glacier melted at a stationary front. The southern part of the island is an outwash plain, sloping away from the arc of the moraine and shaped at its margins by the sorting actions and transport of longshore drift. Nantucket became an island when rising sea levels re-flooded Buzzards Bay about 5,000–6,000 years ago.

text: Nantucket was formed by the outermost reach of the

text: Laurentide Ice Sheet

text: during the recent

text: Wisconsin Glaciation

text: , shaped by the subsequent rise in sea level. The low ridge across the northern section of the island was deposited as

text: glacial moraine

text: during a period of glacial standstill, a period during which

text: till

text: continued to arrive and was deposited as the glacier melted at a stationary front. The southern part of the island is an

text: outwash plain

text: , sloping away from the arc of the moraine and shaped at its margins by the sorting actions and transport of

text: longshore drift

text: . Nantucket became an island when rising sea levels re-flooded

text: Buzzards Bay

text: about 5,000–6,000 years ago.

text: Soil fossils, whether buried or exposed, suffer from alteration. This occurs largely because almost all past soils have lost their former vegetative covering and the organic matter they once supported has been used up by plants since the soil was buried. However, if remains of plants can be found, the nature of the soil fossil can be made a great deal clearer than if no flora can be found because roots can nowadays be identified with respect to the plant group from which they come. Patterns of root traces including their shape and size, is good evidence for the vegetation type the former soil supported. Bluish colours in the soil tend to indicate the plants have mobilized nutrients within the soil.

text: Soil fossils, whether buried or exposed, suffer from alteration. This occurs largely because almost all past soils have lost their former vegetative covering and the organic matter they once supported has been used up by plants since the soil was buried. However, if remains of plants can be found, the nature of the soil fossil can be made a great deal clearer than if no flora can be found because roots can nowadays be identified with respect to the

text: plant

text: group from which they come. Patterns of root traces including their shape and size, is good evidence for the vegetation type the former soil supported. Bluish colours in the soil tend to indicate the plants have mobilized nutrients within the soil.

text: The 1970 edition was updated to reflect the rehabilitation of Alfred Wegener's continental drift theory and investigation of the ancient volcanic eruption of the Aegean island of Thera. This eruption is considered by many who think that Plato's account of Atlantis' destruction had an underlying historical basis, to be that basis.

text: The 1970 edition was updated to reflect the rehabilitation of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's

text: continental drift

text: theory and investigation of the ancient

text: volcanic eruption

text: of the

text: Aegean

text: island of

text: Thera

text: . This eruption is considered by many who think that Plato's account of Atlantis' destruction had an underlying historical basis, to be that basis.

text: Taylor wrote many books about the effects of the environment in shaping race.  He also wrote extensively about migration of the races.  Taylor saw theories that explained the genealogy of races as beginning in Africa and then expanding out through the world and evolving in positive ways as antiquated thinking from the 19th century.  In his 1937 book Environment, Race, and Migration, Taylor outlines a theory that the "Mongolian" race is the race truest to their past in the hearth of modern humans: Central Asia.  Australoid and Negroid races were the first to branch off during humanity's evolution from the Neanderthal and were racially adapted to live in the world's margins. The Negrito race was never related to Neanderthals, and were thus likely developed more directly from apes.  "During the million years of Post-Pliocene" time, humans were forced to migrate during four major migrations related to the expansion of the "Great Ice Sheet."  As humans moved to different areas of the world they adapted to the environment they encountered. Taylor openly disagrees with Wegener's theory of Continental Drift, writing that the human races evidently migrated into world's regions separately and over time.  They moved out over the world, the world didn't move them.  (Note: this was written in a period before knowledge of plate tectonics).  Taylor links skin pigment to temperature and collects extensive data from the period on geology, topology, meteorology, and anthropology.  Taylor saw geography in a synthesising role between explanations of the physical world and the diffusion and evolution of the human species.

text: Taylor wrote many books about the effects of the environment in shaping race.  He also wrote extensively about migration of the races.  Taylor saw theories that explained the genealogy of races as beginning in Africa and then expanding out through the world and evolving in positive ways as antiquated thinking from the 19th century.  In his 1937 book Environment, Race, and Migration, Taylor outlines a theory that the "

text: Mongolian

text: " race is the race truest to their past in the hearth of modern humans: Central Asia.

text: Australoid

text: and

text: Negroid

text: races were the first to branch off during humanity's evolution from the Neanderthal and were racially adapted to live in the world's margins. The

text: Negrito

text: race was never related to Neanderthals, and were thus likely developed more directly from apes.  "During the million years of Post-Pliocene" time, humans were forced to migrate during four major migrations related to the expansion of the "Great Ice Sheet."  As humans moved to different areas of the world they adapted to the environment they encountered. Taylor openly disagrees with

text: Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: Continental Drift

text: , writing that the human races evidently migrated into world's regions separately and over time.  They moved out over the world, the world didn't move them.  (Note: this was written in a period before knowledge of

text: plate tectonics

text: ).  Taylor links skin pigment to temperature and collects extensive data from the period on geology, topology, meteorology, and anthropology.  Taylor saw geography in a synthesising role between explanations of the physical world and the diffusion and evolution of the human species.

text: Euclidean geometry is an abstract structure, but the theory of continental drift is not, because it depends on the geology of the Earth.

text: Euclidean geometry

text: is an abstract structure, but the theory of

text: continental drift

text: is not, because it depends on the geology of the

text: Earth

text: Mars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early Earth. This is especially so since Mars has a cold climate, and lacks plate tectonics or continental drift, so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the Hesperian period. At least two thirds of Mars's surface is more than 3.5 billion years old, and Mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to abiogenesis, even if life does not or has never existed there.

text: Mars is of particular interest for the study of the origins of life because of its similarity to the early Earth. This is especially so since Mars has a cold climate, and lacks

text: plate tectonics

text: or

text: continental drift

text: , so it has remained almost unchanged since the end of the

text: Hesperian

text: period. At least two thirds of Mars's surface is more than 3.5 billion years old, and Mars may thus hold the best record of the prebiotic conditions leading to

text: abiogenesis

text: , even if life does not or has never existed there.

text: One theory holds that decreases in atmospheric , an important greenhouse gas, started the long-term cooling trend that eventually led to glaciation. Recent studies of the  content of gas bubbles preserved in the Greenland ice cores lend support to this idea. The geochemical cycle of carbon indicates more than a 90% decrease in atmospheric  since the middle of the Mesozoic Era. An analysis of  reconstructions from alkenone records shows that  in the atmosphere declined before and during Antarctic glaciation and supports a substantial  decrease as the primary cause of Antarctic glaciation.

text: One theory holds that decreases in atmospheric , an important

text: greenhouse gas

text: , started the long-term cooling trend that eventually led to glaciation. Recent studies of the  content of gas bubbles preserved in the Greenland

text: ice core

text: s lend support to this idea. The

text: geochemical cycle

text: of carbon indicates more than a 90% decrease in atmospheric  since the middle of the

text: Mesozoic Era

text: . An analysis of  reconstructions from

text: alkenone

text: records shows that  in the atmosphere declined before and during Antarctic glaciation and supports a substantial  decrease as the primary cause of Antarctic glaciation.

text: During the beginning of the Triassic Era, the earth consisted of a giant landmass known as Pangea, which covered about a quarter of earth's surface.  Towards the end of the era, continental drift occurred which separated Pangea.  At this time, polar ice was not present because of the large differences between the equator and the poles.  A single, large landmass similar to Pangea would be expected to have extreme seasons; however, evidence offers contradictions. Evidence suggests that there is arid climate as well as proof of strong precipitation. The planet's atmosphere and temperature components were mainly warm and dry, with other seasonal changes in certain ranges.

text: When the ice sheets extended to the land sloping southward to the Ohio River, Mississippi River and Missouri River, the drift-laden streams flowed freely away from the ice border. As the streams escaped from their subglacial channels, they spread into broader channels and deposited some of their load and thus aggraded their courses. Local sheets or aprons of gravel and sand are spread more or less abundantly along the outer side of the morainic belts. Long trains of gravel and sands clog the valleys that lead southward from the glaciated to the non-glaciated area. Later, when the ice retreated farther and the unloaded streams returned to their earlier degrading habit, they more or less completely scoured out the valley deposits, the remains of which are now seen in terraces on either side of the present flood plains.

text: When the ice sheets extended to the land sloping southward to the Ohio River,

text: Mississippi River

text: and Missouri River, the drift-laden streams flowed freely away from the ice border. As the streams escaped from their subglacial channels, they spread into broader channels and deposited some of their load and thus aggraded their courses. Local sheets or aprons of gravel and sand are spread more or less abundantly along the outer side of the morainic belts. Long trains of gravel and sands clog the valleys that lead southward from the glaciated to the non-glaciated area. Later, when the ice retreated farther and the unloaded streams returned to their earlier degrading habit, they more or less completely scoured out the valley deposits, the remains of which are now seen in terraces on either side of the present flood plains.

text: Great Britain has been subject to a variety of plate tectonic processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, whilst successive continental collisions have affected its geological structure with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each orogeny (mountain-building period), often associated with volcanic activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences. As a result of this eventful geological history, the island shows a rich variety of landscapes.

text: Great Britain has been subject to a variety of

text: plate tectonic

text: processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, whilst successive continental collisions have affected

text: its geological structure

text: orogeny

text: volcanic

text: activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences. As a result of this eventful geological history, the island shows a rich variety of

text: landscape

text: s.

text: On 22 April 1779, Gist's Regiment absorbed Grayson's Additional Continental Regiment and Thruston's Additional Continental Regiment. The consolidated regiment reformed in the strength of eight companies. The unit was assigned to the 1st Virginia Brigade on 12 May. Gist preferred charges against Light Horse Harry Lee after the latter's capture of British prisoners at the Battle of Paulus Hook on 19 August 1779. Brigadier General George Weedon, who evidently disagreed with the charges, called Gist "the head of the Wrongheads". On 4 December, the regiment was ordered to march to Charleston, South Carolina. On 6 April 1780, William Woodford's contingent of 750 Virginia Continentals arrived, having marched . Gist and his regiment were captured on 12 May 1780 at the Siege of Charleston. He retired from the army on 1 January 1783.

text: On 22 April 1779, Gist's Regiment absorbed

entity_name: Grayson's Additional Continental Regiment

text: Grayson's Additional Continental Regiment

text: and

entity_name: Thruston's Additional Continental Regiment

text: Thruston's Additional Continental Regiment

text: . The consolidated regiment reformed in the strength of eight companies. The unit was assigned to the 1st Virginia Brigade on 12 May. Gist preferred charges against

text: Light Horse Harry Lee

text: after the latter's capture of British prisoners at the

text: Battle of Paulus Hook

text: on 19 August 1779.

text: Brigadier General

text: George Weedon

text: , who evidently disagreed with the charges, called Gist "the head of the Wrongheads". On 4 December, the regiment was ordered to march to

text: Charleston, South Carolina

text: . On 6 April 1780,

text: William Woodford

text: 's contingent of 750 Virginia Continentals arrived, having marched . Gist and his regiment were captured on 12 May 1780 at the

text: Siege of Charleston

text: . He retired from the army on 1 January 1783.

text: The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb"(Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfb

text: "(Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. These primary types are A) tropical, B) dry, C) mild mid-latitude, D) cold mid-latitude, and E) polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, desert, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, and polar ice cap.

text: The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. These primary types are A) tropical, B) dry, C) mild mid-latitude, D) cold mid-latitude, and E) polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as

text: rain forest

text: monsoon

text: tropical savanna

text: humid subtropical

text: humid continental

text: oceanic climate

text: Mediterranean climate

text: desert

text: steppe

text: subarctic climate

text: tundra

text: , and

text: polar ice cap

text: The climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. Temperatures are high and can lead to warm, humid nights. Summers are usually somewhat wetter than winters, with much of the rainfall coming from convectional thunderstorm activity. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa" (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: The climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. Temperatures are high and can lead to warm, humid nights. Summers are usually somewhat wetter than winters, with much of the rainfall coming from

text: convectional thunderstorm

text: activity. The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Cfa

text: " (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: When paleomagnetic work in the 1950s lent support to the theory of continental drift, skeptics were quick to question whether rocks could carry a stable remanence for geological ages.Rock magnetists were able to show that rocks could have more than one component of remanence, some soft (easily removed) and some very stable. To get at the stable part, they took to "cleaning" samples by heating them or exposing them to an alternating field. However, later events, particularly the recognition that many North American rocks had been pervasively remagnetized in the Paleozoic, showed that a single cleaning step was inadequate, and paleomagnetists began to routinely use stepwise demagnetization to strip away the remanence in small bits.

text: When paleomagnetic work in the 1950s lent support to the theory of

text: continental drift

text: , skeptics were quick to question whether rocks could carry a stable remanence for geological ages.Rock magnetists were able to show that rocks could have more than one component of remanence, some soft (easily removed) and some very stable. To get at the stable part, they took to "cleaning" samples by heating them or exposing them to an alternating field. However, later events, particularly the recognition that many North American rocks had been pervasively remagnetized in the

text: Paleozoic

text: , showed that a single cleaning step was inadequate, and paleomagnetists began to routinely use stepwise demagnetization to strip away the remanence in small bits.

text: Other current programming includes news, Continental Drift, Streetbeat, folk, WNUR Jazz Show, Hip-Hop, WNUR Rock Show, Classical & Beyond, and This is Hell.

text: Other current programming includes news, Continental Drift, Streetbeat, folk, WNUR Jazz Show,

text: Hip-Hop

text: , WNUR Rock Show, Classical & Beyond, and

text: This is Hell

text: The Prehistoric Trackways National Monument site includes a major deposit of Paleozoic Era fossilized footprints in fossil mega-trackways of land animals, sea creatures, and insects. These are known as trace fossils or ichnofossils. There are also fossilized plants and petrified wood present.  Much of the fossilized material originated during the Permian Period and is around 280 million years old.

text: The Prehistoric Trackways National Monument site includes a major deposit of

text: Paleozoic Era

text: fossil

text: ized footprints in

text: fossil mega-trackway

text: s of land animals, sea creatures, and insects. These are known as trace fossils or ichnofossils. There are also fossilized plants and petrified wood present.  Much of the fossilized material originated during the Permian Period and is around 280 million years old.

text: The Drifting-2 (漂-2, or Piao-2) drifting mine is a small drifting mine jointly developed by the 710th Research Institute and Dalian Crane Factory.  This drifting mine system is the first in Chinese service to be able to be taken apart for easier transportation, and then assembled just before being planted, and it is designed to float just below the surface of the water to avoid being visually detected.  This mine is mainly for riverine and coastal use and can also be used as part of the moored mine system.

text: The Drifting-2 (漂-2, or Piao-2)

text: drifting mine

text: is a small drifting mine jointly developed by the 710th Research Institute and Dalian Crane Factory.  This drifting mine system is the first in Chinese service to be able to be taken apart for easier transportation, and then assembled just before being planted, and it is designed to float just below the surface of the water to avoid being visually detected.  This mine is mainly for riverine and coastal use and can also be used as part of the moored mine system.

text: Being located in extreme southern Ohio, approximately  from the Ohio River and Ohio-Kentucky border, the climate of Minford lies in the transitional/borderline region of two climate zones, the humid continental climate and the humid subtropical climate. However, the climate is closer to the humid continental climate.

text: Being located in extreme southern Ohio, approximately  from the Ohio River and Ohio-

text: Kentucky

text: border, the climate of Minford lies in the transitional/borderline region of two climate zones, the

text: humid continental climate

text: and the

text: humid subtropical climate

text: . However, the climate is closer to the

text: humid continental climate

text: The section about glaciation integrated continental ice ages into the larger picture of the  Quaternary Period that Lyell had built up in his earlier works.

text: The section about glaciation integrated continental ice ages into the larger picture of the

text: Quaternary Period

text: that Lyell had built up in his earlier works.

text: From 1912, Wegener publicly advocated the existence of "continental drift", arguing that all the continents were once joined together in a single landmass and had since drifted apart. He supposed that the mechanisms causing the drift might be the centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation ("Polflucht") or the astronomical precession. Wegener also speculated on sea-floor spreading and the role of the mid-ocean ridges, stating: the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9

text: From 1912, Wegener publicly advocated the existence of "

text: continental drift

text: ", arguing that all the continents were once joined together in a single landmass and had since drifted apart. He supposed that the mechanisms causing the drift might be the centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation ("

text: Polflucht

text: ") or the astronomical

text: precession

text: . Wegener also speculated on

text: sea-floor spreading

text: and the role of the

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s, stating: the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9

text: Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate (Dfb) as defined by the Köppen climate classification. Mean monthly temperatures range between  (in January) and  (in July). The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar where a snowy forested climate is found at elevations above . The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland, which are characterized by a Mediterranean climate since temperatures are moderated by the sea. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas: the lowest temperature of  was recorded on 4 February 1929 in Gospić, and the highest temperature of  was recorded on 5 August 1981 in Ploče.

text: continental climate (Dfb)

text: as defined by the

text: Köppen climate classification

text: . Mean monthly temperatures range between  (in January) and  (in July). The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar where a snowy forested climate is found at elevations above . The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland, which are characterized by a

text: Mediterranean climate

text: since temperatures are moderated by the sea. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas: the lowest temperature of  was recorded on 4 February 1929 in

text: Gospić

text: , and the highest temperature of  was recorded on 5 August 1981 in

text: Ploče

text: In 2012, Silverman directed the theatrical short The Longest Daycare starring Maggie Simpson, released in front of Ice Age: Continental Drift. The short was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.  On March 31, 2014 David Silverman is about to direct a Live Action/animated film featuring The Pink Panther being made by Metro Goldwyn Mayer.

text: In 2012, Silverman directed the theatrical short

text: The Longest Daycare

text: starring

text: Maggie Simpson

text: , released in front of

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: . The short was nominated for the

text: Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film

text: .  On March 31, 2014 David Silverman is about to direct a Live Action/animated film featuring The Pink Panther being made by Metro Goldwyn Mayer.

text: Polflucht (from German, flight from the poles) is a geophysical concept invoked in 1915 by Alfred Wegener to explain his ideas of Continental drift. He suggested that a differential gravitational force (horizontal component of centrifugal or Eötvös force) and the Earth's flattening would cause continental masses to drift slowly towards the equator.

text: Polflucht (from German, flight from the poles) is a geophysical concept invoked in 1915 by

text: Alfred Wegener

text: to explain his ideas of

text: Continental drift

text: . He suggested that a differential gravitational force (horizontal component of centrifugal or

text: Eötvös force

text: ) and the Earth's

text: flattening

text: would cause continental masses to drift slowly towards the

text: equator

text: Glossopteris leaves are morphologically simple so there are few characters that can be used to differentiate species. Consequently, many past researchers have considered the Permian Glossopteris flora to be rather homogeneous with the same species distributed throughout the Southern Hemisphere. However, more recent studies of the more morphologically diverse fertile organs have shown that taxa had more restricted regional distributions and several intra-gondwanan floristic provinces are recognizable. Seeds, much too large to be wind-borne, could not have blown across thousands of miles of open sea, nor is it likely they have floated across vast oceans. Observations such as these led the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess to deduce that there had once been a land bridge between these areas. He named this large land mass Gondwanaland (named after the district in India where the plant Glossopteris was found). These same observations would also lend support to Alfred Wegener's Continental drift theory.

text: Glossopteris leaves are morphologically simple so there are few characters that can be used to differentiate species. Consequently, many past researchers have considered the Permian Glossopteris flora to be rather homogeneous with the same species distributed throughout the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: . However, more recent studies of the more morphologically diverse fertile organs have shown that taxa had more restricted regional distributions and several intra-gondwanan floristic provinces are recognizable. Seeds, much too large to be wind-borne, could not have blown across thousands of miles of open sea, nor is it likely they have floated across vast oceans. Observations such as these led the

text: Austria

text: n geologist

text: Eduard Suess

text: to deduce that there had once been a land bridge between these areas. He named this large land mass

text: Gondwanaland

text: (named after the district in India where the plant Glossopteris was found). These same observations would also lend support to Alfred Wegener's

text: Continental drift

text: theory.

text: Bad Sobernheim is also known as the discovery site for a number of fossils. Named after its main discovery site, a sand quarry in the outlying centre of Steinhardt, are Steinhardter Erbsen, or “Steinhardt Peas”, sandstone concretions containing fossils, mostly plants. These ball-shaped sandstones contain plant and animal remnants that are roughly 30,000,000 years old, from the Oligocene. Wrapping the fossils inside one of these “peas” is baryte. The peas presumably formed inside hot springs that apparently were linked with a geological remoulding near Steinhardt and bore barium chloride. When plants and animals decay in an oxidizing environment, hydrogen sulphide forms, which reacts with barium chloride to form baryte. In the process, sand is locked around the fossils. Plant remnants like wood and conifer cones are mostly converted into baryte, and only leaves show up as imprints. In the pit of a former Bad Sobernheim brickworks, superb fossils of plants from Rotliegend times (Permian) some 290,000,000 years ago have been unearthed. The name of one of these species, Sobernheimia, recalls its discovery site. At times, whole phyla of horsetails and sequoias have come to light there. Fossil plants from Sobernheim are presented at the Palaeontological Museum in Nierstein. Moreover, small agate druses are now and then found within the town’s limits. Other fossils have been found at a basalt quarry near Langenthal.

text: Bad Sobernheim is also known as the discovery site for a number of

text: fossil

text: s. Named after its main discovery site, a sand quarry in the outlying centre of Steinhardt, are Steinhardter Erbsen, or “Steinhardt Peas”,

text: sandstone

text: concretions containing fossils, mostly plants. These ball-shaped sandstones contain plant and animal remnants that are roughly 30,000,000 years old, from the

text: Oligocene

text: . Wrapping the fossils inside one of these “peas” is

text: baryte

text: . The peas presumably formed inside

text: hot spring

text: s that apparently were linked with a geological remoulding near Steinhardt and bore

text: barium chloride

text: . When plants and animals decay in an oxidizing environment,

text: hydrogen sulphide

text: forms, which

text: reacts

text: with barium chloride to form baryte. In the process, sand is locked around the fossils. Plant remnants like wood and

text: conifer cone

text: s are mostly converted into baryte, and only leaves show up as imprints. In the pit of a former Bad Sobernheim brickworks, superb fossils of plants from

text: Rotliegend

text: times (

text: Permian

text: ) some 290,000,000 years ago have been unearthed. The name of one of these species, Sobernheimia, recalls its discovery site. At times, whole

text: phyla

text: of

text: horsetails

text: and

text: sequoias

text: have come to light there. Fossil plants from Sobernheim are presented at the Palaeontological Museum in

text: Nierstein

text: . Moreover, small

text: agate

text: druses

text: are now and then found within the town’s limits. Other fossils have been found at a

text: basalt

text: quarry near

text: Langenthal

text: The Ice Age franchise is produced by Blue Sky Studios, a division of 20th Century Fox, and featuring the voices of Ray Romano, John Leguizamo, Denis Leary, and Chris Wedge. Five films have been released in the series thus far with Ice Age in 2002, Ice Age: The Meltdown in 2006, Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009, Ice Age: Continental Drift in 2012, and Ice Age: Collision Course in 2016. The series follows a group of mammals surviving the Paleolithic ice age. It has received some criticism for making no attempt to be scientifically accurate.

text: The Ice Age franchise is produced by

text: Blue Sky Studios

text: , a division of

text: 20th Century Fox

text: , and featuring the voices of

text: Ray Romano

text: John Leguizamo

text: Denis Leary

text: , and

text: Chris Wedge

text: . Five films have been released in the series thus far with

text: Ice Age

text: in 2002,

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: in 2006,

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: in 2009,

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: in 2012, and

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: in 2016. The series follows a group of

text: mammal

text: s surviving the

text: Paleolithic

text: ice age

text: . It has received some criticism for making no attempt to be scientifically accurate.

text: The north eastern part of the plain (Young Drift) is geomorphologically distinct and contains a multitude of lakes (e.g. the Mueritz lake in the Mecklenburg Lake Plateau) which are vestiges of the last ice age. The retreating glaciers left this landscape behind around 16,000 to 13,000 years ago. In comparison, the dry plains of northwestern Germany (Lower Saxony, western Schleswig-Holstein and the Bochum area of North Rhine Westphalia) are more heavily weathered and levelled (Old Drift) as the last large scale glaciations here occurred at least 130,000 years ago.

text: The north eastern part of the plain (Young Drift) is geomorphologically distinct and contains a multitude of lakes (e.g. the Mueritz lake in the

text: Mecklenburg Lake Plateau

text: ) which are vestiges of the last ice age. The retreating glaciers left this landscape behind around 16,000 to 13,000 years ago. In comparison, the dry plains of northwestern Germany (Lower Saxony, western Schleswig-Holstein and the Bochum area of North Rhine Westphalia) are more heavily weathered and levelled (

text: Old Drift

text: ) as the last large scale glaciations here occurred at least 130,000 years ago.

text: In 1963, Frederick Vine and Drummond Matthews provided a simple explanation by combining the seafloor spreading theory of Harry Hess with the known time scale of reversals: new sea floor is magnetized in the direction of the then-current field. Thus, sea floor spreading from a central ridge will produce pairs of magnetic stripes parallel to the ridge. Canadian L. W. Morley independently proposed a similar explanation in January 1963, but his work was rejected by the scientific journals Nature and Journal of Geophysical Research, and remained unpublished until 1967, when it appeared in the literary magazine Saturday Review. The Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis was the first key scientific test of the seafloor spreading theory of continental drift.

text: In 1963,

text: Frederick Vine

text: and

text: Drummond Matthews

text: provided a simple explanation by combining the

text: seafloor spreading

text: theory of

text: Harry Hess

text: with the known time scale of reversals: new sea floor is magnetized in the direction of the then-current field. Thus, sea floor spreading from a central ridge will produce pairs of magnetic stripes parallel to the ridge. Canadian

text: L. W. Morley

text: independently proposed a similar explanation in January 1963, but his work was rejected by the scientific journals

text: Nature

text: and

text: Journal of Geophysical Research

text: , and remained unpublished until 1967, when it appeared in the literary magazine

text: Saturday Review

text: . The

text: Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis

text: was the first key scientific test of the seafloor spreading theory of continental drift.

text: The "vertical" dimension concerns the fossil record. Fossil species are frequently remarkably stable over extremely long periods of geological time, despite continental drift, major climate changes, and mass extinctions. When a change in form occurs, it tends to be abrupt in geological terms, again producing phenotypic gaps (i.e. an absence of intermediate forms), but now between successive species, which then often co-exist for long periods of time. Thus the fossil record suggests that evolution occurs in bursts, interspersed by long periods of evolutionary stagnation in so-called punctuated equilibria. Why this is so has been an evolutionary enigma ever since Darwin first recognized the problem.

text: The "vertical" dimension concerns the fossil record. Fossil species are frequently remarkably stable over extremely long periods of geological time, despite continental drift, major climate changes, and mass extinctions. When a change in form occurs, it tends to be abrupt in geological terms, again producing phenotypic gaps (i.e. an absence of intermediate forms), but now between successive species, which then often co-exist for long periods of time. Thus the fossil record suggests that evolution occurs in bursts, interspersed by long periods of evolutionary stagnation in so-called

text: punctuated equilibria

text: . Why this is so has been an evolutionary enigma ever since

text: Darwin first recognized the problem

text: The first-known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic, one began shortly after the beginning of the eon, while there were at least four during the Neoproterozoic, climaxing with the Snowball Earth of the Varangian glaciation.

text: The first-known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic, one began shortly after the beginning of the eon, while there were at least four during the Neoproterozoic, climaxing with the

text: Snowball Earth

text: of the Varangian glaciation.

text: Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the  "pertaining to building") is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth's lithosphere, over the last hundreds of millions of years. The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

text: Plate tectonics (from the

text: Late Latin

text: tectonicus, from the  "pertaining to building") is a

text: scientific theory

text: describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: lithosphere

text: , over the last hundreds of millions of years. The theoretical model builds on the concept of

text: continental drift

text: developed during the first few decades of the 20th century. The

text: geoscientific

text: community accepted plate-tectonic theory after

text: seafloor spreading

text: was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

text: Kossmat was professor of Mineralogy and Geology at the Graz University of Technology. From 1913 to 1934 Kossmat was the director of the Geological Survey of Saxony and director of the Geological-Paleontological Institute of the University of Leipzig.  In 1920 he presented the first gravity measures for middle Europe. It was published in 1921. In his life he published over twenty books himself, and collaborated on numerous others. He is most known for his work on isostasy and his opposition to Wegener's theories of continental drift.

text: Kossmat was professor of Mineralogy and Geology at the

text: Graz University of Technology

text: . From 1913 to 1934 Kossmat was the director of the Geological Survey of Saxony and director of the Geological-Paleontological Institute of the

text: University of Leipzig

text: .  In 1920 he presented the first

text: gravity measures

text: for middle Europe. It was published in 1921. In his life he published over twenty books himself, and collaborated on numerous others. He is most known for his work on

text: isostasy

text: and his opposition to

text: Wegener

text: 's theories of

text: continental drift

text: The fossils were found in the "Fram Formation", deposits of meandering stream systems near the Devonian equator, suggesting a benthic animal that lived on the bottom of shallow waters and perhaps even out of the water for short periods, with a skeleton indicating that it could support its body under the force of gravity whether in very shallow water or on land. At that period, for the first time, deciduous plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water, attracting small prey into warm oxygen-poor shallows that were difficult for larger fish to swim in. The discoverers said that in all likelihood, Tiktaalik flexed its proto-limbs primarily on the floor of streams and may have pulled itself onto the shore for brief periods. In 2014, the discovery of the animal's pelvic girdle was announced; it was strongly built, indicating the animal could have used them for moving in shallow water and across mudflats. Neil Shubin and Ted Daeschler, the leaders of the team, have been searching Ellesmere Island for fossils since 2000

text: The fossils were found in the "

text: Fram Formation

text: ", deposits of meandering stream systems near the Devonian equator, suggesting a

text: benthic

text: animal that lived on the bottom of shallow waters and perhaps even out of the water for short periods, with a skeleton indicating that it could support its body under the force of gravity whether in very shallow water or on land. At that period, for the first time,

text: deciduous

text: plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water, attracting small prey into warm oxygen-poor shallows that were difficult for larger fish to swim in. The discoverers said that in all likelihood, Tiktaalik flexed its proto-limbs primarily on the floor of streams and may have pulled itself onto the shore for brief periods. In 2014, the discovery of the animal's pelvic girdle was announced; it was strongly built, indicating the animal could have used them for moving in shallow water and across mudflats.

text: Neil Shubin

text: and

text: Ted Daeschler

text: , the leaders of the team, have been searching Ellesmere Island for fossils since 2000

text: Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human-induced, is an ongoing issue. Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests.

text: Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human-induced, is an ongoing issue. Deforestation causes

text: extinction

text: , changes to climatic conditions,

text: desertification

text: , and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. Fossilization is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence, the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so as earlier times are considered. Despite this, they are often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. Also, biases exist in the fossil record: different environments are more favourable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although 30-plus phyla of living animals are known, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. Fossilization is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by

text: erosion

text: or

text: metamorphism

text: before they can be observed. Hence, the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so as earlier times are considered. Despite this, they are often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. Also, biases exist in the fossil record: different environments are more favourable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already

text: mineralised

text: are usually preserved, such as the shells of

text: molluscs

text: . Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although 30-plus phyla of living animals are known, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: There are many different ways insects can be fossilized and preserved, one which includes compressions and impressions, concretions, mineral replication, charcoalified (fusainized) remains, and their trace remains. Compressions and Impressions are the most extensive types of insect fossils, occurring in rocks from the Carboniferous to Recent. Impressions are like a cast or mold of a fossil insect, showing its form and even some relief, like pleating in the wings, but usually little or no color from the cuticle. Compressions preserve remains of the cuticle, so color distinguishes structure. In exceptional situations, microscopic features such as microtrichia on sclerites and wing membranes are even visible, but preservation of this scale also requires a matrix of exceptionally fine grain, such as in micritic muds and volcanic tuffs. Because arthropod sclerites are held together by membranes, which readily decompose, many fossil arthropods are known only by isolated sclerites. Far more desirable are complete fossils. Concretions are stones with a fossil at the core whose chemical composition differs from that of the surrounding matrix, usually formed as a result of mineral precipitation from decaying organisms. The most significant deposit consists of various localities of the Late Carboniferous Francis Creek Shale of the Carbondale Formation at Mazon Creek, Illinois, which are composed of shales and coal seams yielding oblong concretions. Within most concretions is a mold of an animal and sometimes a plant that is usually marine in origin.

text: Pitman Fracture Zone is an undersea fracture zone named for Dr. Walter C. Pitman II, a geophysicist and pioneer in studies of continental drift and seafloor spreading. Name proposed by Drs. Cande, Haxby and Raymond, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory [now Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]. Name approved 3/93 (ACUF 256).

text: Pitman Fracture Zone is an undersea fracture zone named for Dr.

text: Walter C. Pitman II

text: , a geophysicist and pioneer in studies of continental drift and seafloor spreading. Name proposed by Drs. Cande, Haxby and Raymond,

text: Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

text: [now

text: Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory

text: ]. Name approved 3/93 (ACUF 256).

text: The Shiva Crater is a geologic structure, which is hypothesized by Sankar Chatterjee and colleagues to be a 500-km-diameter impact structure. This geologic structure consists of the  Bombay High and Surat Depression. They lie beneath the Indian continental shelf and the Indian Ocean west of Mumbai, India. Chatterjee named this structure after Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction and renewal.

text: The Shiva Crater is a geologic structure, which is hypothesized by

text: Sankar Chatterjee

text: and colleagues to be a 500-km-diameter impact structure. This geologic structure consists of the

text: Bombay High

text: and

text: Surat

text: Depression. They lie beneath the Indian continental shelf and the

text: Indian Ocean

text: west of

text: Mumbai

text: India

text: . Chatterjee named this structure after

text: Shiva

text: , the

text: Hindu

text: god of destruction and renewal.

text: Matthew believed that the first humans had originated in Asia, he visited Asia by taking part in the Central Asiatic expeditions. Matthew was also well known for his deeply influential 1915 article "Climate and evolution”, Matthews theory was that climate change was how organisms came to live where we find them today in opposition to the theory of continental drift. His basic premise was that cyclical changes in global climate along with the prevailing tendency for mammals to disperse from north to south account for the odd geographic patterns of living mammals, he believed that humans and many other groups of modern mammals first evolved in the northern areas of the globe, especially central Asia because of the shifting climatic circumstances, Matthew firmly placed hominid origins in central Asia as he claimed that the high plateaux of Tibet was the forcing ground of mammalian evolution.

text: Matthew believed that the first humans had originated in

text: Asia

text: , he visited Asia by taking part in the Central Asiatic expeditions. Matthew was also well known for his deeply influential 1915 article "Climate and evolution”, Matthews theory was that

text: climate change

text: was how organisms came to live where we find them today in opposition to the theory of

text: continental drift

text: . His basic premise was that cyclical changes in global climate along with the prevailing tendency for

text: mammals

text: to disperse from north to south account for the odd geographic patterns of living mammals, he believed that humans and many other groups of modern mammals first evolved in the northern areas of the globe, especially central Asia because of the shifting climatic circumstances, Matthew firmly placed

text: hominid

text: origins in central Asia as he claimed that the high plateaux of

text: Tibet

text: There are two general categories of glaciation which glaciologists distinguish: alpine glaciation, accumulations or "rivers of ice" confined to valleys; and continental glaciation, unrestricted accumulations which once covered much of the northern continents.

text: Percé Rock's huge limestone formation is geologically dated to the Devonian period of more than 400 million years ago (375 million years is also mentioned). However, Percé Rock is only a small component of the large areas of Devonian rocks that occupy the interior that were first mapped in 1844 by Sir William Edmond Logan, known as the father of Canadian geology. Fossils in such rocks show a variety of animal and plant communities from both terrestrial and marine habitats from the Devonian period. The Percé Rock contains 150 species of different fossils such as brachiopod, trilobites, dalmanites, corals and marine worms from the Devonian period.

text: Percé Rock's huge limestone formation is geologically dated to the

text: Devonian period

text: of more than 400 million years ago (375 million years is also mentioned). However, Percé Rock is only a small component of the large areas of Devonian rocks that occupy the interior that were first mapped in 1844 by

text: Sir William Edmond Logan

text: , known as the father of

text: Canadian geology

text: . Fossils in such rocks show a variety of animal and plant communities from both terrestrial and marine habitats from the Devonian period. The Percé Rock contains 150 species of different fossils such as

text: brachiopod

text: trilobite

text: s,

text: dalmanites

text: coral

text: s and

text: marine worm

text: s from the

text: Devonian

text: period.

text: Despite the large shift, the change in direction was never recorded by magnetic declinations, fracture zone orientations or plate reconstructions; nor could a continental collision have occurred fast enough to produce such a pronounced bend in the chain. To test whether or not the bend was a result of a change in direction of the Pacific Plate, scientists analyzed the lava samples' geochemistry to determine where and when they formed. Age was determined by the radiometric dating of radioactive isotopes of potassium and argon. Researchers estimated that the volcanoes formed during a period 81 million to 45 million years ago. Tarduno and his team determined where the volcanoes formed by analyzing the rock for the magnetic mineral magnetite. While hot lava from a volcanic eruption cools, tiny grains within the magnetite align with the Earth's magnetic field, and lock in place once the rock solidifies. Researchers were able to verify the latitudes at which the volcanoes formed by measuring the grains' orientation within the magnetite. Paleomagnetists concluded that the Hawaiian hotspot had drifted southward sometime in its history, and that, 47 million years ago, the hotspot's southward motion greatly slowed, perhaps even stopping entirely.

text: Despite the large shift, the change in direction was never recorded by

text: magnetic declination

text: s,

text: fracture zone

text: orientations or

text: plate reconstruction

text: s; nor could a

text: continental collision

text: have occurred fast enough to produce such a pronounced bend in the chain. To test whether or not the bend was a result of a change in direction of the Pacific Plate, scientists analyzed the lava samples' geochemistry to determine where and when they formed. Age was determined by the

text: radiometric dating

text: of radioactive isotopes of

text: potassium

text: and

text: argon

text: . Researchers estimated that the volcanoes formed during a period 81 million to 45 million years ago. Tarduno and his team determined where the volcanoes formed by analyzing the rock for the magnetic mineral

text: magnetite

text: . While hot lava from a volcanic eruption cools, tiny grains within the magnetite align with the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , and lock in place once the rock solidifies. Researchers were able to verify the latitudes at which the volcanoes formed by measuring the grains' orientation within the magnetite.

text: Paleomagnetist

text: s concluded that the Hawaiian hotspot had drifted southward sometime in its history, and that, 47 million years ago, the hotspot's southward motion greatly slowed, perhaps even stopping entirely.

text: Pole shift hypotheses are not connected with plate tectonics, the well-accepted geological theory that the Earth's surface consists of solid plates which shift over a viscous, or semifluid asthenosphere; nor with continental drift, the corollary to plate tectonics which maintains that locations of the continents have moved slowly over the face of the Earth, resulting in the gradual emerging and breakup of continents and oceans over hundreds of millions of years.

text: Pole shift hypotheses are not connected with

text: plate tectonics

text: , the well-accepted geological theory that the Earth's surface consists of solid plates which shift over a viscous, or semifluid

text: asthenosphere

text: ; nor with

text: continental drift

text: , the corollary to plate tectonics which maintains that locations of the continents have moved slowly over the face of the Earth, resulting in the gradual emerging and breakup of continents and oceans over hundreds of millions of years.

text: In 1947, Blackett introduced a theory to account for the Earth's magnetic field as a function of its rotation, with the hope that it would unify both the electromagnetic force and the force of gravity. He spent a number of years developing high-quality magnetometers to test his theory, and eventually found it to be without merit. His work on the subject, however, led him into the field of geophysics, where he eventually helped process data relating to paleomagnetism and helped to provide strong evidence for continental drift.

text: In 1947, Blackett introduced a theory to account for the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: as a function of its rotation, with the hope that it would unify both the

text: electromagnetic force

text: and the force of

text: gravity

text: . He spent a number of years developing high-quality

text: magnetometer

text: s to test his theory, and eventually found it to be without merit. His work on the subject, however, led him into the field of

text: geophysics

text: , where he eventually helped process data relating to

text: paleomagnetism

text: and helped to provide strong evidence for

text: continental drift

text: Wine regions with maritime climates are characterised by their close proximity to large bodies of water (such as oceans, estuaries and inland seas) that moderate their temperatures. Maritime climates share many characteristics with both Mediterranean and continental climates and are often described as a "middle ground" between the two extremes. Like Mediterranean climates, maritime climates have a long growing season, with water currents moderating the region's temperatures. However, while Mediterranean climates are usually very dry during the growing season, maritime climates are often subject to the viticultural hazards of excessive rain and humidity which may promote various grape diseases, such as mold and mildew. Like continental climates, maritime climates will have distinct seasonal changes, but they are usually not as drastic, with warm, rather than hot, summers and cool, rather than cold, winters. Maritime climates also exist in some wine-growing areas of highlands of subtropical and tropical latitudes, including the southern Appalachian Mountains in the USA, eastern Australian highlands, and central highlands of Mexico.

text: Wine regions with

text: maritime climates

text: are characterised by their close proximity to large bodies of water (such as

text: oceans

text: estuaries

text: and inland seas) that moderate their temperatures. Maritime climates share many characteristics with both Mediterranean and continental climates and are often described as a "middle ground" between the two extremes. Like Mediterranean climates, maritime climates have a long growing season, with

text: water current

text: s moderating the region's temperatures. However, while Mediterranean climates are usually very dry during the growing season, maritime climates are often subject to the viticultural hazards of excessive rain and

text: humidity

text: which may promote various

text: grape diseases

text: , such as

text: mold

text: and

text: mildew

text: . Like continental climates, maritime climates will have distinct seasonal changes, but they are usually not as drastic, with warm, rather than hot, summers and cool, rather than cold, winters. Maritime climates also exist in some wine-growing areas of highlands of subtropical and tropical latitudes, including the southern

text: Appalachian Mountains

text: in the USA, eastern Australian highlands, and central highlands of Mexico.

text: In marine systems, ocean currents have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life. Plankton are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called phytoplankton. These tiny plants are the primary producers in the ocean, at the start of the food chain. In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for zooplankton, which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the forage fish that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger predatory fish and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.

text: In marine systems,

text: ocean current

text: s have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life.

text: Plankton

text: are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called

text: phytoplankton

text: . These tiny plants are the

text: primary producers

text: in the ocean, at the start of the

text: food chain

text: . In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for

text: zooplankton

text: , which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the

text: larvae

text: of

text: fish

text: and

text: marine invertebrate

text: s. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the

text: forage fish

text: that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger

text: predatory fish

text: and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.

text: Widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented glacial striations and deposits called tillites, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of Gondwana, which became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow away from the equator and toward the poles, based on continents' current positions and orientations, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in dramatically different locations, as well as being contiguous with each other.

text: Widespread distribution of

text: Permo-Carboniferous

text: glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. The continuity of glaciers, inferred from oriented

text: glacial striation

text: s and deposits called

text: tillite

text: s, suggested the existence of the supercontinent of

text: Gondwana

text: , which became a central element of the concept of continental drift. Striations indicated glacial flow away from the equator and toward the poles, based on continents' current positions and orientations, and supported the idea that the southern continents had previously been in dramatically different locations, as well as being contiguous with each other.

text: Analyzing the feat of healing the Blind man of Bethsaida (Mark 8: 22-26), Allan Kardec explains that it was evident the effect of animal magnetism where the cure was not instantaneous, but gradual and consequent to prolonged and repeated action, however, in a much faster process than the ordinary magnetization.

text: Analyzing the feat of healing the

text: Blind man of Bethsaida

text: (Mark 8: 22-26),

text: Allan Kardec

text: explains that it was evident the effect of animal magnetism where the cure was not instantaneous, but gradual and consequent to prolonged and repeated action, however, in a much faster process than the ordinary magnetization.

text: Sark is made up mainly of amphibolite and granite gneiss rocks, intruded by igneous magma sheets called quartz diorite. Recent (1990–2000) geological studies and rock age dating by geologists from Oxford Brookes University shows that the gneisses probably formed around 620–600 million years ago during the Late Pre-Cambrian Age Cadomian Orogeny. The quartz diorite sheets were intruded during this Cadomian deformation and metamorphic event. All the Sark rocks (and those of the nearby Channel Islands of Guernsey and Alderney) formed during geological activity in the continental crust above an ancient subduction zone. This geological setting would have been analogous to the modern-day subduction zone of the Pacific Ocean plate colliding and subducting beneath the North and South American continental plate.

text: Sark is made up mainly of

text: amphibolite

text: and

text: granite

text: gneiss

text: rocks, intruded by igneous magma sheets called

text: quartz diorite

text: . Recent (1990–2000) geological studies and rock age dating by geologists from

text: Oxford Brookes University

text: shows that the gneisses probably formed around 620–600 million years ago during the Late Pre-Cambrian Age

text: Cadomian Orogeny

text: . The quartz diorite sheets were intruded during this Cadomian deformation and metamorphic event. All the Sark rocks (and those of the nearby Channel Islands of

text: Guernsey

text: and

text: Alderney

text: ) formed during geological activity in the continental crust above an ancient

text: subduction

text: zone. This geological setting would have been analogous to the modern-day subduction zone of the Pacific Ocean plate colliding and subducting beneath the North and South American continental plate.

text: Some of Eltanins research cruises collected magnetic profiles of the sea floor that proved to be pivotal evidence in the acceptance of the continental drift theory, by proving the existence of sea floor spreading.  These key profiles, which show symmetric bands of alternating magnetic orientation (corresponding to magnetic pole reversals) around various undersea ridges, are known by the ship's name and cruise number (ex. Eltanin-19).

text: "Drift & Die" is a song by Puddle of Mudd, released as the third single from their album Come Clean in 2001. The song previously appeared on their 1994 EP, Stuck, released as a single locally. Although less popular than the crossover hits "Blurry" and "She Hates Me", "Drift & Die" still receives regular airplay on rock radio stations today, as well as being the band's sixth best-selling single in the United States. The song spent six weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart during the summer of 2002. The song is featured on the Muchmusic compilation album, Big Shiny Tunes 7.

text: "Drift & Die" is a song by

text: Puddle of Mudd

text: , released as the third single from their album

text: Come Clean

text: in 2001. The song previously appeared on their 1994 EP,

text: Stuck

text: , released as a single locally. Although less popular than the crossover hits "

text: Blurry

text: " and "

text: She Hates Me

text: ", "Drift & Die" still receives regular airplay on rock radio stations today, as well as being the band's sixth best-selling single in the United States. The song spent six weeks at number one on the Billboard

text: Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks

text: chart during the summer of 2002. The song is featured on the

text: Muchmusic

text: compilation album,

text: Big Shiny Tunes 7

text: The most severe glaciation known in the geologic record occurred during the Cryogenian, when ice sheets reached the equator and formed a possible "Snowball Earth".

text: The most severe

text: glaciation

text: known in the geologic record occurred during the Cryogenian, when

text: ice sheet

text: s reached the

text: equator

text: and formed a possible "

text: Snowball Earth

text: The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year. This is expected to continue, causing the plates to relocate and collide. Continental drift is facilitated by two factors: the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a hydrosphere. With the loss of either of these, continental drift will come to a halt. The production of heat through radiogenic processes is sufficient to maintain mantle convection and plate subduction for at least the next 1.1 billion years.

text: The theory of plate tectonics demonstrates that the continents of the Earth are moving across the surface at the rate of a few centimeters per year. This is expected to continue, causing the plates to relocate and collide.

text: Continental drift

text: is facilitated by two factors: the energy generation within the planet and the presence of a

text: hydrosphere

text: . With the loss of either of these, continental drift will come to a halt. The production of

text: heat through radiogenic processes

text: is sufficient to maintain

text: mantle convection

text: and plate

text: subduction

text: for at least the next 1.1 billion years.

text: Phosphorus is essential for life. Phosphates (compounds containing the phosphate ion, PO) are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, which form all cell membranes. Demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is formed from the deposits of animal remains and excreta. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in some aquatic systems. The vast majority of phosphorus compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. Other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents.

text: Phosphorus is essential for life.

text: Phosphate

text: s (compounds containing the phosphate ion, PO) are a component of

text: DNA

text: RNA

text: ATP

text: , and the

text: phospholipid

text: s, which form all cell membranes. Demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human

text: urine

text: , and

text: bone ash

text: was an important early phosphate source.

text: Phosphate

text: mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is formed from the deposits of animal remains and excreta. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in some aquatic systems. The vast majority of phosphorus compounds produced are consumed as

text: fertiliser

text: s. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. Other applications include the role of

text: organophosphorus compound

text: s in

text: detergent

text: s,

text: pesticide

text: s, and

text: nerve agent

text: s.

text: He graduated from special school No. 49 in Moscow in 1970, the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University in 1975, and received Ph.D.  from the Institute of Geography of the Soviet Academy of Sciences in 1979, (the thesis is devoted to the ancient continental glaciations).

text: He graduated from special school No. 49 in Moscow in 1970, the Faculty of Geography of

text: Moscow State University

text: in 1975, and received Ph.D.  from the Institute of Geography of the

text: Soviet Academy of Sciences

text: in 1979, (the thesis is devoted to the ancient continental glaciations).

text: Paleomagnetists led the revival of the continental drift hypothesis and its transformation into plate tectonics. Apparent polar wander paths provided the first clear geophysical evidence for continental drift, while marine magnetic anomalies did the same for seafloor spreading. Paleomagnetism continues to extend the history of plate tectonics back in time and are applied to the movement of continental fragments, or terranes.

text: Paleomagnetists led the revival of the

text: continental drift

text: hypothesis and its transformation into

text: plate tectonics

text: Apparent polar wander

text: paths provided the first clear geophysical evidence for

text: continental drift

text: , while marine

text: magnetic anomalies

text: did the same for

text: seafloor spreading

text: . Paleomagnetism continues to extend the history of

text: plate tectonics

text: back in time and are applied to the movement of continental fragments, or

text: terranes

text: The region through which the river flows is underlaid by an extensive water-bearing porous rock structure called the Magnesian Limestone aquifer, which is near the surface in the west and dips downwards to the east. Magnesian Limestone is so called because it contains quantities of the mineral Dolomite, which is rich in Magnesium. The Triassic Sherwood Sandstone aquifer is another porous rock layer which covers this to the east, and is the major geological component of the area. Further east, they are both covered by a layer of Mercia Mudstone. Where these aquifers reach the surface, they often supply water to the river system, but can also take water from it. This is affected by the extraction of groundwater, particularly for public water supply, and by fracturing of the aquifers as a result of subsidence caused by deep coal mining.

text: The region through which the river flows is underlaid by an extensive water-bearing porous rock structure called the Magnesian

text: Limestone

text: aquifer

text: , which is near the surface in the west and dips downwards to the east. Magnesian Limestone is so called because it contains quantities of the mineral

text: Dolomite

text: , which is rich in

text: Magnesium

text: . The

text: Triassic

text: Sherwood

text: Sandstone

text: aquifer is another porous rock layer which covers this to the east, and is the major geological component of the area. Further east, they are both covered by a layer of Mercia

text: Mudstone

text: . Where these aquifers reach the surface, they often supply water to the river system, but can also take water from it. This is affected by the extraction of groundwater, particularly for public water supply, and by fracturing of the aquifers as a result of subsidence caused by deep coal mining.

text: Ankang is the subtropics continental monsoon climate with assembled biological resources. known as "the mountain of treasure in Qinba area", Ankang has more than 3300 kinds of biological species. There are 2157 kinds of trees, among which katsura tree, horse chestnut, Liriodendron, yew, ginkgo, Cephalotaxus, camphor, nanmu, wingceltis and so on are rare or unique in China, especially Davidia involucrata Baill (Also known as Chinese dove tree) growing in Zhenping County is called as living fossil 250 million years ago which is a rare species in the world. Ankang has a total of 430 kinds of wild animals, of which 34 were classified as national protective rare animals. Ankang is rich in Chinese herbal medicines, with more than 1290 kinds of species. The output of cocoon, Codonopsis pilosula, tea, raw Chinese lacquer, musk tops Shaanxi and the output of raw Chinese lacquer is well known in China. The development of Chinese herbal medicines mainly on Gynostemma pentaphylla, saponin and puerarin has formed industrial groups with certain size. Ankang's tea has a long production history, which is one of seven major tea-planted areas in China. There are 9 counties or districts produce tea, among which Ziyang, Liping, Hanbin, Langao, Han Yin and Shiquan are the main tea-producing areas. In 2006, the tea garden covered an area of 34.52 million mu in Ankang, with a total output of 4735 tons. Ankang is also the largest silkworm and silk production base in Shaanxi, even in the northwest of China whose cocoon output accounts for more than 80% of Shaanxi Province. Ankang is an important base for forest and animal husbandry. The grassland covers an area of 3,130,000 mu and the theoretical animal number of the grasslands is 3,120,000. The forest area is 1,993 mu and the forest coverage of Ankang is 56.5%. The stumpage has reached 55,540,000 cubic meters, accounting for 20.6% of Shaanxi's.

text: Edward A. "Ted" Irving,  (27 May 1927 – 25 February 2014) was a geologist and scientist with the Geological Survey of Canada. His studies of paleomagnetism provided the first physical evidence of the theory of continental drift. His efforts contributed to our understanding of how mountain ranges, climate, and life have changed over the past millions of years.

text: Edward A. "Ted" Irving,  (27 May 1927 – 25 February 2014) was a

text: geologist

text: and scientist with the

text: Geological Survey of Canada

text: . His studies of

text: paleomagnetism

text: provided the first physical evidence of the theory of

text: continental drift

text: . His efforts contributed to our understanding of how mountain ranges, climate, and life have changed over the past millions of years.

text: She has been also a prolific voice actress for many French-dubbed versions of foreign films and TV series, including 101 Dalmatians: The Series (as Spot, Princess and Nanny), Alfred J. Kwak (as Kwak), The Animals of Farthing Wood (as Adder the Snake), Around the World in Eighty Dreams (as Grandma Tadpole), Babar (as Celeste), A Bug's Life (as Dr. Flora), The Cat Returns (as Natoru), Chicken Run (as Bunty), Cinderella II: Dreams Come True (as Fairy Godmother), Cutey Honey (as Sister Jill), Dr. Slump (as Arale Norimaki), Elvira, Mistress of the Dark (as Elvira), The Flintstones (as Wilma Flintstone), Grey's Anatomy (as Ellis Grey), Ice Age: Continental Drift (as Granny), James and the Giant Peach (as Sponge and Ladybug), The Jetsons (as Jane and Rosie), Maple Town (as Patty Rabbit), Monsters, Inc. (as Ms. Flint), Muppet Treasure Island (as Mrs. Bluberidge), Princess Gwenevere and the Jewel Riders (as Lady Kale), and Princess Knight (as Heckett the witch).

text: She has been also a prolific voice actress for many French-dubbed versions of foreign films and TV series, including

text: 101 Dalmatians: The Series

text: (as Spot, Princess and Nanny),

text: Alfred J. Kwak

text: (as Kwak),

entity_name: The Animals of Farthing Wood (TV series)

text: The Animals of Farthing Wood

text: (as Adder the Snake),

text: Around the World in Eighty Dreams

text: (as Grandma Tadpole),

text: Babar

text: (as Celeste),

text: A Bug's Life

text: (as Dr. Flora),

text: The Cat Returns

text: (as Natoru),

text: Chicken Run

text: (as Bunty),

text: Cinderella II: Dreams Come True

text: (as Fairy Godmother),

text: Cutey Honey

text: (as Sister Jill),

text: Dr. Slump

text: (as Arale Norimaki),

text: Elvira, Mistress of the Dark

text: (as Elvira),

text: The Flintstones

text: (as Wilma Flintstone),

text: Grey's Anatomy

text: (as Ellis Grey),

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: (as Granny),

text: James and the Giant Peach

text: (as Sponge and Ladybug),

text: The Jetsons

text: (as Jane and Rosie),

text: Maple Town

text: (as Patty Rabbit),

text: Monsters, Inc.

text: (as Ms. Flint),

text: Muppet Treasure Island

text: (as Mrs. Bluberidge),

text: Princess Gwenevere and the Jewel Riders

text: (as Lady Kale), and

text: Princess Knight

text: (as Heckett the witch).

text: Doushantuo fossils are all aquatic, microscopic, and preserved to a great degree of detail. The latter two characteristics mean that the structure of the organisms that made them can be studied at the cellular level, and considerable insight has been gained into the embryonic and larval stages of many early creatures. One contentious claim is that many of the fossils show signs of bilateral symmetry, a common feature in many modern-day animals which is usually assumed to have evolved later, during the Cambrian Explosion. A nearly microscopic fossil animal, Vernanimalcula ("springtime micro-animal") was announced in October 2005, with the claim that it was the oldest known bilateral animal. However, the absence of adult forms of almost all animal types in the Doushantuo (there are microscopic adult sponges and corals) makes these claims difficult to prove: some argue that their lack suggests these finds are not larval and embryonic forms at all; supporters contend that some unidentified process "filtered out" all but the smallest forms from fossilization. An alternative interpretation suggests that it was created by non-biological rock-forming processes. The team that discovered Vernanimalcula have defended their conclusion that it was an animal, pointing out that they found ten  specimens (not illustrated) of the same size and configuration, and stating that non-biological processes would be very unlikely to produce so many specimens that were so alike.

text: Doushantuo fossils are all aquatic, microscopic, and preserved to a great degree of detail. The latter two characteristics mean that the structure of the organisms that made them can be studied at the cellular level, and considerable insight has been gained into the embryonic and larval stages of many early creatures. One contentious claim is that many of the fossils show signs of

text: bilateral symmetry

text: , a common feature in many modern-day animals which is usually assumed to have evolved later, during the Cambrian Explosion. A nearly microscopic fossil animal,

text: Vernanimalcula

text: ("springtime micro-animal") was announced in October 2005, with the claim that it was the oldest known bilateral animal. However, the absence of adult forms of almost all animal types in the Doushantuo (there are microscopic adult

text: sponge

text: s and

text: coral

text: s) makes these claims difficult to prove: some argue that their lack suggests these finds are not larval and embryonic forms at all; supporters contend that some unidentified process "filtered out" all but the smallest forms from fossilization. An alternative interpretation suggests that it was created by non-biological

text: rock-forming processes

text: . The team that discovered Vernanimalcula have defended their conclusion that it was an animal, pointing out that they found ten  specimens (not illustrated) of the same size and configuration, and stating that non-biological processes would be very unlikely to produce so many specimens that were so alike.

text: This perhaps represents the biggest source of bias in the fossil record. First and foremost, organisms that contain hard parts have a far greater chance of being represented in the fossil record than organisms consisting of soft tissue only. As a result, animals with bones or shells are overrepresented in the fossil record, and many plants are only represented by pollen or spores that have hard walls. Soft bodied organisms may form 30% to 100% of the biota, but most fossil assemblages preserve none of this unseen diversity, which may exclude groups such as fungi and entire animal phyla from the fossil record. Many animals that moult, on the other hand, are overrepresented, as one animal may leave multiple fossils due to its discarded body parts. Among plants, wind-pollinated species produce so much more pollen than animal-pollinated species, that the former are much overrepresented relative to the latter.

text: This perhaps represents the biggest source of bias in the fossil record. First and foremost, organisms that

text: contain hard parts

text: have a far greater chance of being represented in the fossil record than organisms consisting of soft tissue only. As a result, animals with bones or shells are overrepresented in the fossil record, and many plants are only represented by

text: pollen

text: or

text: spore

text: s that have hard walls. Soft bodied organisms may form 30% to 100% of the biota, but most fossil assemblages preserve none of this unseen diversity, which may exclude groups such as

text: fungi

text: and entire animal

text: phyla

text: from the fossil record. Many animals that

text: moult

text: , on the other hand, are overrepresented, as one animal may leave multiple fossils due to its discarded body parts. Among plants,

text: wind-pollinated

text: species produce so much more pollen than

text: animal-pollinated

text: species, that the former are much overrepresented relative to the latter.

text: Brooks co-produced and co-wrote the 2007 feature-length film adaptation of The Simpsons, The Simpsons Movie. He directed the voice cast for the first time since the television show's early seasons. Dan Castellaneta found the recording sessions "more intense" than recording the television series, and "more emotionally dramatic". Some scenes, such as Marge's video message to Homer, were recorded over one hundred times, leaving the voice cast exhausted. Brooks conceived the idea for, co-produced and co-wrote the Maggie-centric short film The Longest Daycare, which played in front of Ice Age: Continental Drift in 2012. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 2013.

text: Brooks co-produced and co-wrote the 2007 feature-length film adaptation of The Simpsons,

text: The Simpsons Movie

text: . He directed the voice cast for the first time since the television show's early seasons.

text: Dan Castellaneta

text: found the recording sessions "more intense" than recording the television series, and "more emotionally dramatic". Some scenes, such as Marge's video message to Homer, were recorded over one hundred times, leaving the voice cast exhausted. Brooks conceived the idea for, co-produced and co-wrote the

text: Maggie

text: -centric short film

text: The Longest Daycare

text: , which played in front of

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: in 2012. It was nominated for the

text: in

text: The geological structure of the park consists of ultra basic rocks and volcanic-sedimentary formations (diabase cheart) of Jurassic Era and the carbonates from the lower and upper Cretaceous. The geological structure of Mirusha canyon mainly compose Mesozoic limestone cliffs with tendency to drop in the direction of the water flow. Extension of these rocks in the direction northwest - southeast, and dropping to the southeast, presents geological extension of rocks.

text: The

text: geological

text: structure of the park consists of ultra basic rocks and

text: volcanic

text: sedimentary

text: formations (diabase cheart) of

text: Jurassic Era

text: and the carbonates from the lower and upper

text: Cretaceous

text: . The geological structure of Mirusha canyon mainly compose

text: Mesozoic

text: limestone

text: cliffs

text: with tendency to drop in the direction of the water flow. Extension of these rocks in the direction northwest - southeast, and dropping to the southeast, presents geological extension of rocks.

text: Different rocks, sediments and geological structures have a wide range of different electrical conductivities.  Measuring electrical resistivity allows different materials and structures to be distinguished from one another and can improve knowledge of tectonic processes and geologic structures.

text: Different rocks, sediments and geological structures have a wide range of different

text: electrical conductivities

text: .  Measuring electrical resistivity allows different materials and structures to be distinguished from one another and can improve knowledge of

text: tectonic

text: processes and

text: geologic

text: structures.

text: British paleobotanists Dunkinfield Henry Scott and William Crawford Williamson described the structures of fossilized plants at the end of the Nineteenth Century. Scott's Studies in Fossil Botany was published in 1900.

text: British paleobotanists

text: Dunkinfield Henry Scott

text: and

text: William Crawford Williamson

text: described the structures of fossilized plants at the end of the Nineteenth Century. Scott's Studies in Fossil Botany was published in 1900.

text: New Caledonia is one of the northernmost parts of an almost entirely (93%) submerged continent called Zealandia which rifted away from Antarctica between 130 and 85 million years ago (mya), and from Australia 85–60 mya.  (Most of the elongated triangular continental mass of Zealandia is a subsurface plateau.  New Zealand is a mountainous above-water promontory in its center, and New Caledonia is a promontory ridge on the continent's northern edge.)  New Caledonia itself drifted away from Australia 66 mya, and subsequently drifted in a north-easterly direction, reaching its present position about 50 mya.  Given its long stability and isolation, New Caledonia serves as a unique island refugium — a sort of biological 'ark' — hosting a unique ecosystem and preserving Gondwanan plant and animal lineages no longer found elsewhere.

text: New Caledonia is one of the northernmost parts of an almost entirely (93%) submerged

text: continent

text: called

text: Zealandia

text: which

text: rift

text: ed away from Antarctica between 130 and 85 million years ago (mya), and from Australia 85–60 mya.  (Most of the elongated triangular continental mass of Zealandia is a subsurface plateau.  New Zealand is a mountainous above-water promontory in its center, and New Caledonia is a promontory ridge on the continent's northern edge.)  New Caledonia itself drifted away from Australia 66 mya, and subsequently drifted in a north-easterly direction, reaching its present position about 50 mya.  Given its long stability and isolation, New Caledonia serves as a unique island

text: refugium

text: — a sort of biological 'ark' — hosting a unique ecosystem and preserving

text: Gondwanan

text: plant and animal lineages no longer found elsewhere.

text: He drew the right conclusion that orogenic uplift volcanism (igneous rocks of the calc series), lacks alkaline basalts (igneous rocks of the sodic series). At the annual meeting of the German Geological Society in January 1939, he was right opposing the idea that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was an orogenic uplift by compression, and his opposition to disregard the Continental drift theory raised doubts. The work "Über den Zustand des Erdinnern und seine Entstehung aus einem homogenen Urzustand" (Kuhn and Rittmann, 1941) defended the non existence of an iron-nickel Earth core. His work "Orogénèse et volcanisme" (Rittmann, 1951) with collaboration of W. Kuhn demonstrated that crystalline mantle is able to creep under its pressure and temperature. His book "Vulkane und ihre Tätigkeit" was translated in five languages (2 ed.) and it was a standard work on volcanism.

text: He drew the right conclusion that orogenic uplift volcanism (igneous rocks of the calc series), lacks alkaline basalts (igneous rocks of the sodic series). At the annual meeting of the German Geological Society in January 1939, he was right opposing the idea that the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: was an

text: orogenic uplift

text: by compression, and his opposition to disregard the

text: Continental drift

text: theory raised doubts. The work "Über den Zustand des Erdinnern und seine Entstehung aus einem homogenen Urzustand" (Kuhn and Rittmann, 1941) defended the non existence of an iron-nickel

text: Earth core

text: . His work "Orogénèse et volcanisme" (Rittmann, 1951) with collaboration of W. Kuhn demonstrated that crystalline

text: mantle

text: is able to creep under its pressure and temperature. His book "Vulkane und ihre Tätigkeit" was translated in five languages (2 ed.) and it was a standard work on volcanism.

text: Thus, as the continental ice sheets of Quaternary glaciations advanced south according to each Milankovitch cycle, their northern edges were starved and it is believed that starvation caused them to retreat substantially southward by the time the southern limits of maximum glaciation were approached. Of course, in areas such as the Russian Far East, eastern Siberia and Beringia, glaciers were, in effect, starved before they could form at all.

text: Thus, as the continental ice sheets of

text: Quaternary

text: glaciations

text: advanced south according to each

text: Milankovitch cycle

text: , their northern edges were starved and it is believed that starvation caused them to retreat substantially southward by the time the southern limits of maximum glaciation were approached. Of course, in areas such as the

text: Russian Far East

text: , eastern Siberia and

text: Beringia

text: , glaciers were, in effect, starved before they could form at all.

text: A succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries. By studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different stratigraphic levels, it has been shown that older fossil-bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures.

text: A succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries. By studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different

text: stratigraphic

text: levels, it has been shown that older fossil-bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures.

text: Crustal movements (such as continental drift) or polar cap melting are slow secular events. The characteristic coupling time between core and mantle has been estimated to be on the order of ten years, and the so-called 'decade fluctuations' of Earth's rotation rate are thought to result from fluctuations within the core, transferred to the mantle. The length of day (LOD) varies significantly even for time scales from a few years down to weeks (Figure), and the observed fluctuations in the LOD - after eliminating the effects of external torques - are  a direct consequence of the action of internal torques. These short term fluctuations are very probably generated by the interaction between the solid Earth and the atmosphere.

text: Crustal movements (such as

text: continental drift

text: ) or polar cap melting are slow secular events. The characteristic coupling time between core and mantle has been estimated to be on the order of ten years, and the so-called 'decade fluctuations' of

text: Earth's rotation

text: rate are thought to result from fluctuations within the core, transferred to the mantle. The length of day (LOD) varies significantly even for time scales from a few years down to weeks (Figure), and the observed fluctuations in the LOD - after eliminating the effects of external torques - are  a direct consequence of the action of internal torques. These short term fluctuations are very probably generated by the interaction between the solid Earth and the atmosphere.

text: Osmium (Os) has seven naturally occurring isotopes, 6 of which are stable: Os, Os, Os, Os, Os, and (most abundant) Os. The other natural isotope, Os, has an extremely long half-life (2×10 years) and for practical purposes can be considered to be stable as well. Os is the daughter of Re (half-life 4.56×10 years) and is most often measured in an Os/Os ratio. This ratio, as well as the Re/Os ratio, have been used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as meteoric rocks. It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the mantle roots of continental cratons. However, the most notable application of Os in dating has been in conjunction with iridium, to analyze the layer of shocked quartz along the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary that marks the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago.

text: Osmium

text: (Os) has seven naturally occurring

text: isotope

text: s, 6 of which are stable: Os, Os, Os, Os, Os, and (most abundant) Os. The other natural isotope, Os, has an extremely long

text: half-life

text: (2×10 years) and for practical purposes can be considered to be stable as well. Os is the daughter of

text: Re

text: half-life

text: 4.56×10 years) and is most often measured in an Os/Os ratio. This ratio, as well as the Re/Os ratio, have been used extensively in dating terrestrial as well as

text: meteoric

text: rock

text: s. It has also been used to measure the intensity of continental weathering over geologic time and to fix minimum ages for stabilization of the

text: mantle

text: roots of continental

text: craton

text: s. However, the most notable application of Os in dating has been in conjunction with

text: iridium

text: , to analyze the layer of

text: shocked quartz

text: along the

text: Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary

text: that marks the extinction of the

text: dinosaur

text: s 66 million years ago.

text: Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, two key figures in microbiology, were from Germany. Alexander von Humboldt's (1769–1859) work as a natural scientist and explorer was foundational to biogeography. Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) was an eclectic Russian-born botanist and climatologist who synthesized global relationships between climate, vegetation and soil types into a classification system that is used, with some modifications, to this day. Alfred Wegener (1880–1930), a similarly interdisciplinary scientist, was one of the first people to hypothesize the theory of continental drift which was later developed into the overarching geological theory of plate tectonics.

text: Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch, two key figures in microbiology, were from Germany.

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: 's (1769–1859) work as a natural scientist and explorer was foundational to

text: biogeography

text: Wladimir Köppen

text: (1846–1940) was an eclectic Russian-born

text: botanist

text: and

text: climatologist

text: who synthesized global relationships between

text: climate

text: vegetation

text: and

text: soil

text: types into a classification system that is used, with some modifications, to this day.

text: Alfred Wegener

text: (1880–1930), a similarly interdisciplinary scientist, was one of the first people to hypothesize the theory of

text: continental drift

text: which was later developed into the overarching geological theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: The Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky metropolitan area is located within a climatic transition zone. The southern area of the region, from roughly about the Ohio River, is at the extreme northern limit of the humid subtropical climate; the north part of the region is on the extreme southern cusp of the humid continental climate. Evidence of both humid subtropical climate and humid continental climate can be found here, particularly noticeable by the presence of plants indicative of each climatic region. Within the area, the USDA climate zone rating can vary from as warm as zone 6b  to as cool as zone 5b, with the warmest areas tending to be found closest to the Ohio River; individual microclimates of even cooler and warmer temperature may occur in the area but are too small to be considered in the overall climate zone rating. The common wall lizard, introduced from Italy in the 1950s, is an example of fauna in the area that lends a subtropical ambiance to the urban core (near downtown Cincinnati) area of the region.

text: The Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky metropolitan area is located within a climatic transition zone. The southern area of the region, from roughly about the Ohio River, is at the extreme northern limit of the

text: humid subtropical climate

text: ; the north part of the region is on the extreme southern cusp of the

text: humid continental climate

text: . Evidence of both humid subtropical climate and humid continental climate can be found here, particularly noticeable by the presence of plants indicative of each climatic region. Within the area, the USDA climate zone rating can vary from as warm as zone 6b  to as cool as zone 5b, with the warmest areas tending to be found closest to the

text: Ohio River

text: ; individual

text: microclimate

text: s of even cooler and warmer temperature may occur in the area but are too small to be considered in the overall climate zone rating. The

text: common wall lizard

text: , introduced from Italy in the 1950s, is an example of fauna in the area that lends a subtropical ambiance to the urban core (near downtown Cincinnati) area of the region.

text: A 2008 systematic review of magnet therapy for all indications found insufficient evidence to determine whether magnet therapy is effective for pain relief, as did a 2012 review focused on osteoarthritis.  Both reviews reported that small sample sizes, inadequate randomization, and difficulty with allocation concealment all tend to bias studies positively and limit the strength of any conclusions.

text: A 2008

text: systematic review

text: of magnet therapy for all indications found insufficient evidence to determine whether magnet therapy is effective for pain relief, as did a 2012 review focused on

text: osteoarthritis

text: .  Both reviews reported that small sample sizes, inadequate randomization, and difficulty with allocation concealment all tend to bias studies positively and limit the strength of any conclusions.

text: Because of its distinctive nature, pebble- to boulder-size fragments of jasper conglomerate can be recognized as glacial erratics in Pleistocene glacial tills and drift within large parts of the glaciated Midwestern United States. Fragments of jasper conglomerate were eroded by continental ice-sheets from Northern Ontario and spread across all of Michigan and as far south as Ohio and Kentucky during repeated glacial advances and retreats. For example, pebble to boudler-size fragments of jasper conglomerate are quite common on Drummond Island, Michigan where it is called Drummond Island puddingstone.

text: Because of its distinctive nature, pebble- to

text: boulder

text: -size fragments of jasper conglomerate can be recognized as

text: glacial erratic

text: s in

text: Pleistocene

text: glacial

text: till

text: s and

text: drift

text: within large parts of the

text: glaciated

text: Midwestern United States. Fragments of jasper conglomerate were eroded by continental

text: ice-sheet

text: s from Northern Ontario and spread across all of Michigan and as far south as Ohio and Kentucky during repeated glacial advances and retreats. For example, pebble to boudler-size fragments of jasper conglomerate are quite common on

text: Drummond Island, Michigan

text: where it is called Drummond Island puddingstone.

text: The scientific study of water and Earth's water cycle is hydrology; hydrodynamics studies the physics of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is oceanography. This began as the study of the shape of the ocean's currents but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary field: it examines the properties of seawater; studies waves, tides, and currents; charts coastlines and maps the seabeds; and studies marine life. The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as physical oceanography. Marine biology (biological oceanography) studies the plants, animals, and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems. Both are informed by chemical oceanography, which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide's role in the increasing acidification of seawater. Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while marine geology (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of continental drift and the composition and structure of the Earth, clarified the process of sedimentation, and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes.

text: The

text: scientific study

text: of

text: water

text: and Earth's

text: water cycle

text: is

text: hydrology

text: hydrodynamics

text: studies the

text: physics

text: of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is

text: oceanography

text: . This began as the study of the shape of the ocean's

text: currents

text: but has since expanded into a large and

text: multidisciplinary

text: field: it examines the properties of

text: seawater

text: ; studies

text: waves

text: tides

text: , and

text: currents

text: ; charts

text: coastlines

text: and maps the

text: seabeds

text: ; and studies

text: marine life

text: . The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as

text: physical oceanography

text: Marine biology

text: (biological oceanography) studies the

text: plants

text: animals

text: , and other organisms inhabiting

text: marine ecosystems

text: . Both are informed by

text: chemical oceanography

text: , which studies the behavior of

text: elements

text: and

text: molecules

text: within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the

text: carbon cycle

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: 's role in the

text: increasing acidification

text: of seawater. Marine and maritime

text: geography

text: charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while

text: marine geology

text: (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of

text: continental drift

text: and the

text: composition

text: and

text: structure of the Earth

text: , clarified the process of

text: sedimentation

text: , and assisted the study of

text: volcanism

text: and

text: earthquakes

text: Some of the oldest and most highly deformed ultramafic rocks which underwent laterization are found in the complex Precambrian shields in Brazil and Australia. Smaller highly deformed Alpine-type intrusives have formed laterite profiles in Guatemala, Colombia, Central Europe, India and Burma. Large thrust sheets of Mesozoic to Tertiary 251- to 65-million-year-old island arcs and continental collision zones underwent laterization in New Caledonia, Cuba, Indonesia and the Philippines. Laterites reflect past weathering conditions; laterites which are found in present-day non-tropical areas are products of former geological epochs, when that area was near the equator. Present-day laterite occurring outside the humid tropics are considered to be indicators of climatic change, continental drift or a combination of both.

text: Some of the oldest and most highly deformed ultramafic rocks which underwent laterization are found in the complex

text: Precambrian

text: shields in Brazil and Australia. Smaller highly deformed

text: Alpine-type

text: intrusives have formed laterite profiles in Guatemala, Colombia, Central Europe, India and Burma. Large thrust sheets of

text: Mesozoic

text: to Tertiary 251- to 65-million-year-old

text: island arc

text: s and

text: continental collision

text: zones underwent laterization in New Caledonia, Cuba, Indonesia and the Philippines. Laterites reflect past weathering conditions; laterites which are found in present-day non-tropical areas are products of former

text: geological epochs

text: , when that area was near the equator. Present-day laterite occurring outside the humid tropics are considered to be indicators of climatic change, continental drift or a combination of both.

text: His first directing job was in 2006 when he co-directed a short animated film, No Time for Nuts, starring Scrat. Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009) was his feature directing debut, followed in 2012 by Ice Age: Continental Drift. Thurmeier returned to direct Ice Age: Collision Course along with Galen T. Chu. It is the fifth film in the franchise, and was released to theaters on July 22, 2016.

text: His first directing job was in 2006 when he co-directed a short animated film,

text: No Time for Nuts

text: , starring

text: Scrat

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: (2009) was his feature directing debut, followed in 2012 by

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: . Thurmeier returned to direct

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: along with Galen T. Chu. It is the fifth film in the franchise, and was released to theaters on July 22, 2016.

text: During the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time. Sea levels were lower and Ireland, like Great Britain, formed part of continental Europe. By 12,000 BC, rising sea levels due to ice melting caused Ireland to become separated from Great Britain. Later, around 5600 BC, Great Britain itself became separated from continental Europe. The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Until recently the earliest evidence of humans in Ireland were Mesolithic people who arrived by boat from Britain between 8000 BC and 7000 BC.

text: During the

text: last glacial period

text: , and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time.

text: Sea levels

text: were lower and Ireland, like

text: Great Britain

text: , formed part of

text: continental Europe

text: . By 12,000 BC, rising sea levels due to ice melting caused Ireland to become separated from Great Britain. Later, around 5600 BC, Great Britain itself became separated from continental

text: Europe

text: . The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Until recently the earliest evidence of humans in Ireland were

text: Mesolithic

text: people who arrived by boat from Britain between 8000 BC and 7000 BC.

text: Earth's continents are compositionally distinct from the oceanic crust. The continents record four billion years of geologic history, while the oceanic crust gets recycled about every 180 million years. Because of the age of continental crusts, the ancient structural evolution of the continents can be studied. Data from EarthScope will be used to find the mean seismic structure of the continental crust, associated mantle, and crust-mantle transition. Variability in that structure will also be studied. EarthScope will attempt to define continental lithosphere formation and continent structure and to identify the relationship between continental structure and deformation.

text: The Schwarza valley () parallels the axis of the Schwarzburg anticline (Schwarzburger Sattel), a structure that divides the Thuringian forest to the northwest from the Thuringian Highland to the southeast.  The Schwarzburg Anticline was created by the collision between Laurentia and Gondwana around 350 million years ago. The rock of the Schwarzburg Anticline is metamorphic, with a core of ordovician rock, largely quartzite. The river is geologically unusual for the large number of kolks in its lower course.

text: The Schwarza valley () parallels the axis of the Schwarzburg

text: anticline

text: (Schwarzburger Sattel), a structure that divides the

text: Thuringian forest

text: to the northwest from the

text: Thuringian Highland

text: to the southeast.  The Schwarzburg Anticline was created by the collision between

text: Laurentia

text: and

text: Gondwana

text: around 350 million years ago. The rock of the Schwarzburg Anticline is metamorphic, with a core of

text: ordovician

text: rock, largely

text: quartzite

text: . The river is geologically unusual for the large number of

text: kolk

text: s in its lower course.

text: The typical, present-day, escarpments have emerged since the Neogene geological period, after the Upper Rhine Rift Valley was formed as a result of plate tectonic processes about 30 million years ago. The regions either side of the rift valley were violently uplifted, producing the Black Forest on the German side and the  Vosges on the French side. This uplifting had the consequence that in the entire South German scarpland region the strata no longer lay horizontally, but were tilted away from the Rhine rift descending from west to east. As a result of the lifting and tilting of these sedimentary layers, weathering set in, which the more resistant layers of rock withstood for longer than the softer layers. For example, the clays were relatively easily eroded and formed gentler gradients, whilst the harder sandstones or limestones were less susceptible to weathering and formed the steeper scarps. The resulting geological structures brought the various geological strata to the earth's surface where they could be easily observed and assessed.

text: The typical, present-day, escarpments have emerged since the

text: Neogene

text: geological period, after the

text: Upper Rhine Rift Valley

text: was formed as a result of plate tectonic processes about 30 million years ago. The regions either side of the rift valley were violently uplifted, producing the

text: Black Forest

text: on the German side and the

text: Vosges

text: on the French side. This uplifting had the consequence that in the entire South German scarpland region the strata no longer lay horizontally, but were tilted away from the Rhine rift descending from west to east. As a result of the lifting and tilting of these sedimentary layers, weathering set in, which the more resistant layers of rock withstood for longer than the softer layers. For example, the clays were relatively easily eroded and formed gentler gradients, whilst the harder sandstones or limestones were less susceptible to weathering and formed the steeper scarps. The resulting geological structures brought the various geological strata to the earth's surface where they could be easily observed and assessed.

text: Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift had never gained much scientific support due to its lack of any satisfactory mechanism to drive the process. During the 1950s, however, extensive surveys of the ocean floor revealed a global, linked system of mid-ocean ridges, all of which exhibited high thermal flow and considerable seismic activity. Hess hypothesized that new ocean crust was being formed at the ocean ridges by extrusions of magma from the Earth's mantle, and that convection currents within the mantle were continuously carrying the newly formed crust away from the ridge, widening the ocean basin and pushing the continents apart.

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: had never gained much scientific support due to its lack of any satisfactory mechanism to drive the process. During the 1950s, however, extensive surveys of the ocean floor revealed a global, linked system of mid-ocean ridges, all of which exhibited high thermal flow and considerable seismic activity. Hess hypothesized that new ocean crust was being formed at the ocean ridges by extrusions of magma from the Earth's mantle, and that convection currents within the mantle were continuously carrying the newly formed crust away from the ridge, widening the ocean basin and pushing the continents apart.

text: This record of changing environments and habitats includes over 550 types of fossil plants and animals, ranging from preserved microscopic plant pollen and algal spores to baleen whale bones and mammoth skeletons. Many of the species are extinct and some are known only from fossil remains recovered from this park. Combined with a long and complete sedimentary depositional sequence, these diverse fossil assemblages are an unparalleled paleontologic resource of international importance. Both the Pliocene-Pleistocene epoch boundary and the Blancan-Irvingtonian North American land mammal ages boundary fall within the long geological record from the Anza-Borrego region. Environmental changes associated with these geological time divisions are probably better tracked by fossils from the Anza-Borrego region than in any other North American continental platform stratum. These changes herald the beginning of the Ice Ages, and the strata contain fossil clues to the origin and development of modern southwestern desert landscapes.

text: This record of changing environments and habitats includes over 550 types of fossil plants and animals, ranging from preserved microscopic plant

text: pollen

text: and

text: algal

text: spore

text: s to

text: baleen whale

text: bones and

text: mammoth

text: skeleton

text: s. Many of the species are extinct and some are known only from fossil remains recovered from this park. Combined with a long and complete sedimentary depositional sequence, these diverse fossil assemblages are an unparalleled paleontologic resource of international importance. Both the

text: Pliocene

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch boundary and the

text: Blancan

text: Irvingtonian

text: North American land mammal age

text: s boundary fall within the long geological record from the Anza-Borrego region. Environmental changes associated with these geological time divisions are probably better tracked by fossils from the Anza-Borrego region than in any other North American continental

text: platform stratum

text: . These changes herald the beginning of the

text: Ice Ages

text: , and the strata contain fossil clues to the origin and development of modern southwestern desert landscapes.

text: A fourth Ice Age short, Scrat's Continental Crack-up, was released with the film's theatrical release. The short is a parody of continental drift, and centers on a humorous alternative explanation for the creation of the continents (rather similar to the ending of the earlier Ice Age short, Gone Nutty, where the continents split up into their modern-day forms). It also hints at the next Ice Age  film which was released in 2012.

text: A fourth

text: Ice Age

text: short,

text: Scrat's Continental Crack-up

text: , was released with the film's theatrical release. The short is a parody of

text: continental drift

text: , and centers on a humorous alternative explanation for the creation of the continents (rather similar to the ending of the earlier Ice Age short,

text: Gone Nutty

text: , where the continents split up into their modern-day forms). It also hints at the

text: next Ice Age  film

text: which was released in 2012.

text: Continental drift without expansion was proposed by Frank Bursley Taylor, who suggested in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of "continental creep".  In a later paper he proposed that this occurred by their being dragged towards the equator by tidal forces during the hypothesized capture of the moon in the Cretaceous, resulting in "general crustal creep" toward the equator. Although his proposed mechanism was wrong, he was the first to realize the insight that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains, and attributed the formation of the Himalayas to the collision between the Indian subcontinent with Asia. Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's, although not fully developed, had the most similarities to his own. In the mid-20th century, the theory of continental drift was referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis", although this terminology eventually fell out of common use.

text: Continental drift without expansion was proposed by

text: Frank Bursley Taylor

text: , who suggested in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were moved into their present positions by a process of "continental creep".  In a later paper he proposed that this occurred by their being dragged towards the equator by tidal forces during the hypothesized capture of the moon in the

text: Cretaceous

text: , resulting in "general crustal creep" toward the equator. Although his proposed mechanism was wrong, he was the first to realize the insight that one of the effects of continental motion would be the formation of mountains, and attributed the formation of the Himalayas to the collision between the Indian subcontinent with Asia. Wegener said that of all those theories, Taylor's, although not fully developed, had the most similarities to his own. In the mid-20th century, the theory of continental drift was referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis", although this terminology eventually fell out of common use.

text: Samokov has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with an average annual temperature of approximately 9 °C (48 °F). The altitude of 950 metres, in the skirts of Rila mountain, and the mitigating proximity to the continental mediterranean climate zone, are both strong factors in forming the climate.

text: Samokov has a

text: humid continental climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfb) with an average annual temperature of approximately 9 °C (48 °F). The altitude of 950 metres, in the skirts of

text: Rila

text: mountain, and the mitigating proximity to the continental

text: mediterranean climate

text: zone, are both strong factors in forming the climate.

text: More recently, it has been deduced from DNA sequence comparisons that the closest living relatives of elephant birds are New Zealand kiwis. Elephant birds are actually part of the mid-Cenozoic Australian ratite radiation; their ancestors flew across the Indian Ocean well after Gondwana broke apart. The existence of possible flying palaeognaths in the Miocene such as Proapteryx further supports the view that ratites did not diversify in response to vicariance. Gondwana broke apart in the Cretaceous and their phylogenetic tree does not match the process of continental drift.

text: More recently, it has been deduced from DNA sequence comparisons that the closest living relatives of elephant birds are

text: New Zealand

text: kiwis

text: . Elephant birds are actually part of the mid-Cenozoic Australian ratite radiation; their ancestors flew across the Indian Ocean well after

text: Gondwana

text: broke apart. The existence of possible flying palaeognaths in the Miocene such as

text: Proapteryx

text: further supports the view that ratites did not diversify in response to

text: vicariance

text: . Gondwana broke apart in the Cretaceous and their phylogenetic tree does not match the process of

text: continental drift

text: The fossil record of herbivorous lepidosaurs extends into the Late Triassic period, nearly 227 million years ago. A recently described sphenodontian reptile is one of the oldest known herbivorous lepidosaurs. This animal possesses a number of features that demonstrate an herbivorous lifestyle, such as a specialized jaw movement (propalinal) and closely packed teeth that appear to be useful in the shearing of plant material. Phylogenetic analysis shows that herbivory likely evolved in the sphenodontian clade once, specifically within in a group called the Opisthodontia. This group of herbivorous sphenodonts possessed wide, shredding teeth and became extinct during the Late Cretaceous (approximately 65 million years ago). These ancient herbivorous animals clearly demonstrate that the ability to consume plant material evolved very early in the history of lepidosaurs.

text: The fossil record of herbivorous lepidosaurs extends into the Late

text: Triassic

text: period, nearly 227 million years ago. A recently described sphenodontian reptile is one of the oldest known herbivorous lepidosaurs. This animal possesses a number of features that demonstrate an herbivorous lifestyle, such as a specialized jaw movement (propalinal) and closely packed teeth that appear to be useful in the shearing of plant material.

text: Phylogenetic

text: analysis shows that herbivory likely evolved in the sphenodontian

text: clade

text: once, specifically within in a group called the Opisthodontia. This group of herbivorous

text: sphenodonts

text: possessed wide, shredding teeth and became extinct during the Late

text: Cretaceous

text: (approximately 65 million years ago). These ancient herbivorous animals clearly demonstrate that the ability to consume plant material evolved very early in the history of lepidosaurs.

text: The park sits on limestone laid down on the floor of a shallow sea 500 million years ago.  Torrents of runoff at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation 10,000 years ago carved the bed of the Mississippi River down into this limestone, leaving high bluffs along its banks.  The park is situated in the Driftless Area, an atypically rugged region of the Upper Midwest because it was never glaciated and covered with a layer of glacial till, or drift.

text: The park sits on

text: limestone

text: laid down on the floor of a shallow sea 500 million years ago.  Torrents of runoff at the end of the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: 10,000 years ago carved the bed of the Mississippi River down into this limestone, leaving high bluffs along its banks.  The park is situated in the

text: Driftless Area

text: , an atypically rugged region of the Upper

text: Midwest

text: because it was never glaciated and covered with a layer of glacial

text: till

text: , or drift.

text: Drift is a more general mining term, meaning a near-horizontal passageway in a mine, following the bed (of coal, for instance) or vein of ore.  A drift may or may not intersect the ground surface. A drift follows the vein, as distinguished from a crosscut that intersects it, or a level or gallery, which may do either.<ref>"Glossary of Mining Terms." Kentucky Foundation, Coal and Energy Education Project. 1996. Accessed December 28, 2015.

text: Anina represents one of the most important localities in the South Carpathians for Jurassic fossils, both plants and animals, as the geological heritage here is particularly diverse and well preserved (Popa, 2001, 2005). Anina is a fossile-Lagerstatte for Early Jurassic biota, the Hettangian-Sinemurian terrestrial Steierdorf Formation recording an extremely rich floral association, vertebrate and invertebrate tracks, traces and burrows. This paleontological heritage was uncovered also by significant mining works, such as underground mines and open cast mines, such works permitting the three-dimensional studies of the continental deposits, a unique opportunity in Europe and in the world, until the unfortunate closing of the last major mine in 2006. Still, the sterile dumps of the former mines and the former open cast mines of Ponor and Colonia Ceha very are rich in plant material, and they represent the subject of local conservation, as preserved sites or Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI).

text: The absence of glaciation could be linked to the intensity of cosmic ray flux, and it is believed that periods of glaciation may be linked to periods with low cosmic ray flux due fluctuations in solar wind variations. Another possible cause is the rate of star formation in the Milky Way. The reduced rate in star formation may be linked to diminished glaciations from 1 to 2 Ga.

text: The absence of glaciation could be linked to the intensity of

text: cosmic ray

text: flux, and it is believed that periods of glaciation may be linked to periods with low cosmic ray flux due fluctuations in

text: solar wind

text: variations. Another possible cause is the rate of

text: star formation

text: in the

text: Milky Way

text: . The reduced rate in star formation may be linked to diminished glaciations from 1 to 2 Ga.

text: The town is one of the few to have a geological attraction, namely the trilobite fossil beds along the Manuels River Linear Park. The fossils found here are similar to those found in southern Spain and Portugal and northern Africa, but different from those found in western Newfoundland. This was a key in establishing the theory of plate tectonics, or continental drift.

text: The town is one of the few to have a geological attraction, namely the trilobite fossil beds along the

text: Manuels River

text: Linear Park. The fossils found here are similar to those found in southern Spain and Portugal and northern Africa, but different from those found in western Newfoundland. This was a key in establishing the theory of plate tectonics, or continental drift.

text: Throughout the interview with radio continental drift, Moyo emphasises on the segregation of women out off a patriarchal society, their exclusion from any posts of influence, and from the Media in particular.As she talks, the response of her life's work seems to be the active call for women to unite: for the media women to unite across specialisation and professions; for the women of Zimbabwe to come together across urban and rural divides; for women across Southern Africa to unite across national differences and join hands and voices for media participation of women across their continent and societies.

text: The area is also historically important geologically, and featured in one of the most contentious disputes of the 19th century, between the 'Diluvialists' who believed in the Biblical flood, and the ‘Glacialists’, who supported the Glacial Theory, which was substantially established by studies of the drift sediments on Moel Tryfan.

text: The area is also historically important geologically, and featured in one of the most contentious disputes of the 19th century, between the '

text: Diluvialist

text: s' who believed in the Biblical flood, and the ‘Glacialists’, who supported the Glacial Theory, which was substantially established by studies of the drift sediments on Moel Tryfan.

text: In 2012, Dinklage voiced Captain Gutt in Ice Age: Continental Drift. In 2014, he starred in the comedy horror film Knights of Badassdom and portrayed Bolivar Trask in the superhero film X-Men: Days of Future Past. He also voiced Ghost in the 2014 video game Destiny, but was replaced by Nolan North in August 2015 Dinklage and writer-director Sacha Gervasi spent several years writing and producing a film based on the final days of actor Hervé Villechaize, who committed suicide shortly after his 1993 interview with Gervasi. Dinklage will star and play the title role in My Dinner with Hervé. He will also star in O Lucky Day, which is to be directed by Adam Shankman and is said to be a "leprechaun comedy". In 2015, Dinklage starred in the movie Pixels as a former arcade champion named Eddie Plant. In 2016, Dinklage provided the voice of The Mighty Eagle in The Angry Birds Movie.

text: In 2012, Dinklage voiced Captain Gutt in

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: . In 2014, he starred in the

text: comedy horror

text: film

text: Knights of Badassdom

text: and portrayed

text: Bolivar Trask

text: in the superhero film

text: X-Men: Days of Future Past

text: . He also voiced Ghost in the 2014

text: video game

text: Destiny

text: , but was replaced by

text: Nolan North

text: in August 2015 Dinklage and writer-director

text: Sacha Gervasi

text: spent several years writing and producing a film based on the final days of actor

text: Hervé Villechaize

text: , who committed suicide shortly after his 1993 interview with Gervasi. Dinklage will star and play the title role in My Dinner with Hervé. He will also star in O Lucky Day, which is to be directed by

text: Adam Shankman

text: and is said to be a "leprechaun comedy". In 2015, Dinklage starred in the movie

text: Pixels

text: as a former arcade champion named Eddie Plant. In 2016, Dinklage provided the voice of The Mighty Eagle in

text: The Angry Birds Movie

text: Privatised in 1993, by 2001 seven men including the mine owner were working the drift, producing 200 tonnes/week. However, geological problems had resulted in the development of a deep and extensive sump system to remove water ingress, and frequent problems with gas.

text: Privatised in 1993, by 2001 seven men including the mine owner were working the drift, producing 200 tonnes/week. However, geological problems had resulted in the development of a deep and extensive

text: sump system

text: to remove water ingress, and frequent problems with gas.

text: Einstein showed how Lorentz's equations could be derived as the logical outcome of a set of two simple starting postulates. In addition Einstein recognized that the stationary aether concept has no place in special relativity, and that the Lorentz transformation concerns the nature of space and time. Together with the moving magnet and conductor problem, the negative aether drift experiments, and the aberration of light, the Fizeau experiment was one of the key experimental results that shaped Einstein's thinking about relativity. Robert S. Shankland reported some conversations with Einstein, in which Einstein emphasized the importance of the Fizeau experiment:

text: Einstein showed how Lorentz's equations could be derived as the logical outcome of a set of two simple starting postulates. In addition Einstein recognized that the stationary aether concept has no place in special relativity, and that the Lorentz transformation concerns the nature of space and time. Together with the

text: moving magnet and conductor problem

text: , the

text: negative aether drift experiments

text: , and the

text: aberration of light

text: , the Fizeau experiment was one of the key experimental results that shaped Einstein's thinking about relativity.

text: Robert S. Shankland

text: reported some conversations with Einstein, in which Einstein emphasized the importance of the Fizeau experiment:

text: The Paleobiology Database is an online resource for information on the distribution and classification of fossil animals, plants, and microorganisms.

text: The Paleobiology Database is an online resource for information on the distribution and classification of

text: fossil

text: animals, plants, and microorganisms.

text: Scottish immigrants to the area found it familiar. The rocks in the Miramichi are similar to those of Scotland, being a part of the same formation before continental drift separated them. Seabirds and fish are often the same or similar. The Atlantic salmon, the herring gull and the common tern were found in both areas. The Scots had the technology and know-how to cut lumber, fish, farm and build ships. The Irish immigrants did not bring the same skills, as their forests had long been cut down and they did not have such a well-developed fishing industry. They picked up skills from their neighbours. As urban English immigrants did not have these skills, and farmers were used to a more moderate climate, they tended to settle elsewhere.

text: Scottish

text: immigrants to the area found it familiar. The rocks in the Miramichi are similar to those of Scotland, being a part of the same formation before

text: continental drift

text: separated them. Seabirds and fish are often the same or similar. The Atlantic salmon, the herring gull and the common tern were found in both areas. The Scots had the technology and know-how to cut lumber, fish, farm and build ships. The

text: Irish

text: immigrants did not bring the same skills, as their forests had long been cut down and they did not have such a well-developed fishing industry. They picked up skills from their neighbours. As urban English immigrants did not have these skills, and farmers were used to a more moderate climate, they tended to settle elsewhere.

text: Çankırı has a dry summer continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dsa and Dsb) with humid continental climate (Dfa and Dfb) characteristics, since the wettest part of the year is spring and early summer. The province displays all four of these continental climate subtypes depending on location and elevation. The city is located in a transitional region of the province. Summers are usually hot and dry and winters are cold and snowy.

text: Çankırı has a dry summer

text: continental climate

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dsa and Dsb) with

text: humid continental climate

text: (Dfa and Dfb) characteristics, since the wettest part of the year is spring and early summer. The province displays all four of these continental climate subtypes depending on location and elevation. The city is located in a transitional region of the province. Summers are usually hot and dry and winters are cold and snowy.

text: LIRM anomalies can often be problematic when examining the magnetic characteristics of rock types.  LIRM anomalies can disguise the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) of the rocks in question because the subsequent magnetization caused by the lightning strike reconfigures the magnetic record.   While investigating the soil attributes at the 30-30 Winchester archeological site in northeastern Wyoming to discern the daily activities of prehistoric people that had once occupied that region, David Maki noticed peculiar anomalies in the magnetic record that did not match the circular magnetic remnant features of the ovens used by these prehistoric groups for cooking and pottery.  The LIRM anomaly was significantly bigger than the other magnetic anomalies and formed a dendritic structure.  To test the validity of the assertion that the magnetic anomaly was indeed the result of lightning and not another process, Maki (2005) tested the soil samples against known standards indicative of LIRM anomalies developed by Dunlop et al. (1984), Wasilewski and Kletetschka (1999), and Verrier and Rochette (2002).  These standards include, but are not limited to: 1) Average REM (ratio between natural remanent magnetization to a laboratory standard value) greater than 0.2, and 2) Average Koenigsberger ratio (ratio between natural remanent magnetization and the natural field created by Earth's magnetic field).  The findings indicated the evidence of LIRM at the archaeological site.  LIRM anomalies also complicated the determination of the relative location of the poles during the late Cretaceous from the magnetic field record of basaltic lava flows in Mongolia.  The presence of LIRM-affected rocks was determined when calculated Koenigsberger ratios were drastically higher than other magnetic signatures in the region.

text: LIRM anomalies can often be problematic when examining the magnetic characteristics of rock types.  LIRM anomalies can disguise the

text: natural remanent magnetization

text: Cretaceous

text: from the magnetic field record of basaltic lava flows in

text: Mongolia

text: .  The presence of LIRM-affected rocks was determined when calculated Koenigsberger ratios were drastically higher than other magnetic signatures in the region.

text: The conifers are an ancient group, with a fossil record extending back about 300 million years to the Paleozoic in the late Carboniferous period; even many of the modern genera are recognizable from fossils 60–120 million years old. Other classes and orders, now long extinct, also occur as fossils, particularly from the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. Fossil conifers included many diverse forms, the most dramatically distinct from modern conifers being some herbaceous conifers with no woody stems. Major fossil orders of conifers or conifer-like plants include the Cordaitales, Vojnovskyales, Voltziales and perhaps also the Czekanowskiales (possibly more closely related to the Ginkgophyta).

text: The conifers are an ancient group, with a

text: fossil

text: record extending back about 300 million years to the

text: Paleozoic

text: in the late

text: Carboniferous

text: period; even many of the modern genera are recognizable from fossils 60–120 million years old. Other classes and orders, now long extinct, also occur as fossils, particularly from the late Paleozoic and

text: Mesozoic

text: eras. Fossil conifers included many diverse forms, the most dramatically distinct from modern conifers being some

text: herb

text: aceous conifers with no woody stems. Major fossil orders of conifers or conifer-like plants include the

text: Cordaitales

text: Vojnovskyales

text: Voltziales

text: and perhaps also the

text: Czekanowskiales

text: (possibly more closely related to the

text: Ginkgo

text: phyta).

text: It occurs in collisional plasma with neutral component, and is driven by drift currents. It can be thought of as a modified two-stream instability arising from the difference in drifts of electrons and ions exceeding the ion acoustic speed.

text: It occurs in collisional

text: plasma

text: with neutral component, and is driven by

text: drift currents

text: . It can be thought of as a modified

text: two-stream instability

text: arising from the difference in drifts of

text: electron

text: s and

text: ion

text: s exceeding the ion acoustic speed.

text: Density contrasts can also cause small-scale faulting, even while sedimentation progresses (synchronous-sedimentary faulting). Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front side of a delta or the continental slope. Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to slump, producing fissures and folding. The resulting structures in the rock are syn-sedimentary folds and faults, which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by tectonic forces acting on lithified rocks.

text: Density contrasts can also cause small-scale

text: fault

text: ing, even while sedimentation progresses (synchronous-sedimentary faulting). Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front side of a

text: delta

text: or the

text: continental slope

text: . Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to

text: slump

text: , producing fissures and folding. The resulting structures in the rock are syn-sedimentary

text: fold

text: s and faults, which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by

text: tectonic

text: forces acting on lithified rocks.

text: In 2012, Fuchs made his feature screenwriting debut with the animated sequel, Ice Age: Continental Drift. Despite receiving generally mixed reviews from critics, the film became a box office success. As of August, 2016 it was the 11th highest-grossing animated feature, the 44th highest grossing film internationally, and the third highest-grossing film of 2012, with a worldwide gross of over $877 million. As a result, at age 26, Fuchs became the youngest writer in film history to pen a film that grossed over $226 million, the worldwide global box office mark set in 1997 by then 24-year-old Matt Damon and then 26-year-old Ben Affleck with their screenplay for Good Will Hunting.

text: In 2012, Fuchs made his feature screenwriting debut with the animated sequel,

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: . Despite receiving generally mixed reviews from critics, the film became a box office success. As of August, 2016 it was the 11th highest-grossing animated feature, the 44th highest grossing film internationally, and the third highest-grossing film of

text: , with a worldwide gross of over $877 million. As a result, at age 26, Fuchs became the youngest writer in film history to pen a film that grossed over $226 million, the worldwide global box office mark set in 1997 by then 24-year-old

text: Matt Damon

text: and then 26-year-old

text: Ben Affleck

text: with their screenplay for

text: Good Will Hunting

text: A new drift chamber, DR2, was built to replace the original drift chamber. The new drift chamber had the same outer radius as the original one so that it could be installed before the rest of the CLEO II upgrades were ready. DR2 was a 51 layer detector, with a 000+000- axial/stereo layer arrangement. DR2 had only one layer of field wires between each layer of sense wires, allowing many more layers to fit in the allotted space. The axial sense wires had a half-cell stagger to help resolve the left-right ambiguity of the original drift chamber. The inner and outer field layers of the chamber were cathode strips to make measurements of the longitudinal coordinate of tracks. DR2 was also designed to make dE/dx measurements in addition to tracking measurements.

text: About ten days after the project was completed, about  of the  headrace tunnel collapsed. The collapse may have been attributed it to structural failure caused by expedited construction and a lack of proper studies. The official statement of the construction firm Salini Costruttori, released two weeks after the official inauguration was that "an unforeseen geological event provoked a 'cave in' and a huge rock fall involving about 15m of the 26km headrace tunnel." The tunnel was repaired and the station operational again on December 26, 2010.

text: On a large scale, structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional interaction and relationships of stratigraphic units within terranes of rock or geological regions.

text: On a large scale, structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional interaction and relationships of stratigraphic units within

text: terrane

text: s of rock or geological regions.

text: The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology. Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids such as petroleum and natural gas. Similarly, faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids, resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal ore deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with intrusive igneous rocks. They often also occur around geologic reef complexes and collapse features such as ancient sinkholes. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead,  zinc, and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.

text: The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in

text: economic geology

text: , both

text: petroleum geology

text: and

text: mining geology

text: . Folded and faulted rock

text: strata

text: commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids such as

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: . Similarly, faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for

text: hydrothermal

text: fluids, resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal

text: ore

text: deposits. Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and faulted zones often occur in association with

text: intrusive

text: igneous rock

text: s. They often also occur around geologic

text: reef

text: complexes and collapse features such as ancient

text: sinkhole

text: s. Deposits of

text: gold

text: silver

text: copper

text: lead

text: zinc

text: , and other metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.

text: The Adeje massif (Macizo de Adeje) is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde ("Count's Rock"), with an elevation of . This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent.

text: In Cambridge, Harland was instrumental in the establishment of the Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme (CASP). He played an early role in the avocation of the theory of continental drift and making the first observations of the global occurrence of glaciation, which were to form the foundations of Snowball Earth theory. He was also a figure in the ongoing maintenance of the International Geologic timescale.

text: In Cambridge, Harland was instrumental in the establishment of the Cambridge

text: Arctic Shelf

text: Programme (CASP). He played an early role in the avocation of the theory of

text: continental drift

text: and making the first observations of the global occurrence of

text: glaciation

text: , which were to form the foundations of

text: Snowball Earth

text: theory. He was also a figure in the ongoing maintenance of the International

text: Geologic timescale

text: Continental Drift, Museum of Contemporary Art Denver and Aspen Art Museum, CO

text: Continental Drift,

text: Museum of Contemporary Art Denver

text: and

text: Aspen Art Museum

text: , CO

text: Climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year.  Temperatures are high and can lead to warm, oppressive nights. Summers are usually somewhat wetter than winters, with much of the rainfall coming from convectional thunderstorm activity.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa" (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: Climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year.  Temperatures are high and can lead to warm, oppressive nights. Summers are usually somewhat wetter than winters, with much of the rainfall coming from convectional thunderstorm activity.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Cfa

text: " (Humid Subtropical Climate).

text: The combination of continental drift and evolution can sometimes be used to predict what will be found in the fossil record. Glossopteris is an extinct species of seed fern plants from the Permian. Glossopteris appears in the fossil record around the beginning of the Permian on the ancient continent of Gondwana. Continental drift explains the current biogeography of the tree. Present day Glossopteris fossils are found in Permian strata in southeast South America, southeast Africa, all of Madagascar, northern India, all of Australia, all of New Zealand, and scattered on the southern and northern edges of Antarctica. During the Permian, these continents were connected as Gondwana (see figure 4c) in agreement with magnetic striping, other fossil distributions, and glacial scratches pointing away from the temperate climate of the South Pole during the Permian.

text: The combination of continental drift and evolution can sometimes be used to predict what will be found in the fossil record.

text: Glossopteris

text: is an extinct species of

text: seed fern

text: plants from the

text: Permian

text: . Glossopteris appears in the fossil record around the beginning of the Permian on the ancient continent of

text: Gondwana

text: . Continental drift explains the current biogeography of the tree. Present day Glossopteris fossils are found in Permian strata in southeast South America, southeast Africa, all of Madagascar, northern India, all of Australia, all of New Zealand, and scattered on the southern and northern edges of Antarctica. During the Permian, these continents were connected as Gondwana (see figure 4c) in agreement with magnetic striping, other fossil distributions, and glacial scratches pointing away from the temperate climate of the South Pole during the Permian.

text: Rocks often contain small-scale structures (smaller than the scale of an individual outcrop). In sedimentary rocks this may include sole markings, ripple marks, mudcracks and cross-bedding. These are recorded as they are generally characteristic of a particular depositional environment and may provide information on paleocurrent directions. In metamorphic rocks associated with the deeper levels of fault zones, small scale structures such as asymmetric boudins and microfolds are used to determine the sense of displacement across the zone. In igneous rocks, small-scale structures are mostly observed in lavas such as pahoehoe versus ʻAʻā basaltic flows, and pillows showing eruption within a body of water or beneath ice.

text: Rocks often contain small-scale structures (smaller than the scale of an individual outcrop). In

text: sedimentary rocks

text: this may include

text: sole marking

text: s,

text: ripple mark

text: s,

text: mudcrack

text: s and

text: cross-bedding

text: . These are recorded as they are generally characteristic of a particular

text: depositional environment

text: and may provide information on paleocurrent directions. In metamorphic rocks associated with the deeper levels of

text: fault zones

text: , small scale structures such as asymmetric

text: boudins

text: and

text: microfolds

text: are used to determine the sense of displacement across the zone. In igneous rocks, small-scale structures are mostly observed in

text: lava

text: s such as

text: pahoehoe

text: versus

text: ʻAʻā

text: basalt

text: ic flows, and

text: pillows

text: showing eruption within a body of water or beneath ice.

text: In cases where till has been indurated or lithified by subsequent burial into solid rock, it is known as the sedimentary rock tillite. Matching beds of ancient tillites on opposite sides of the south Atlantic Ocean provided early evidence for continental drift. The same tillites also provide some support to the Precambrian Snowball Earth glaciation event hypothesis.

text: In cases where till has been indurated or

text: lithified

text: by subsequent burial into solid rock, it is known as the

text: sedimentary rock

text: tillite. Matching beds of ancient tillites on opposite sides of the south

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: provided early evidence for

text: continental drift

text: . The same tillites also provide some support to the

text: Precambrian

text: Snowball Earth

text: glaciation event hypothesis.

text: A small area of the Allegheny Plateau was glaciated during the Wisconsin Stage, the late Illinoian Stage, and Pre-Illinoian B and G glaciations of the Pre-Illinoian Stage. This area – only a few hundred square kilometers owing to the blockage the steep relief of the mountains provides at the edge of the ice sheet – contains only old drift now buried by long periods of soil development.

text: A small area of the Allegheny Plateau was glaciated during the

text: Wisconsin Stage

text: , the late

text: Illinoian Stage

text: , and Pre-Illinoian B and G glaciations of the

text: Pre-Illinoian Stage

text: . This area – only a few hundred square kilometers owing to the blockage the steep relief of the mountains provides at the edge of the

text: ice sheet

text: – contains only

text: old drift

text: now buried by long periods of

text: soil

text: development.

text: In early 1989, the Rolling Stones, including Mick Taylor and Ronnie Wood as well as Brian Jones and Ian Stewart (posthumously), were inducted into the American Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Jagger and Richards set aside animosities and went to work on a new Rolling Stones album that would be called Steel Wheels (UK 2; US 3). Heralded as a return to form, it included the singles "Mixed Emotions" (US No. 5), "Rock and a Hard Place" (US No. 23) and "Almost Hear You Sigh". The album also included "Continental Drift", which the Rolling Stones recorded in Tangier, Morocco in 1989 with The Master Musicians of Jajouka led by Bachir Attar, coordinated by Tony King and Cherie Nutting. A BBC documentary film, The Rolling Stones in Morocco, was produced by Nigel Finch.

text: In early 1989, the Rolling Stones, including Mick Taylor and Ronnie Wood as well as Brian Jones and Ian Stewart (posthumously), were inducted into the American

text: Rock and Roll Hall of Fame

text: . Jagger and Richards set aside animosities and went to work on a new Rolling Stones album that would be called

text: Steel Wheels

text: (UK 2; US 3). Heralded as a return to form, it included the singles "

entity_name: Mixed Emotions (The Rolling Stones song)

text: Mixed Emotions

text: " (US No. 5), "

text: Rock and a Hard Place

text: " (US No. 23) and "

text: Almost Hear You Sigh

text: ". The album also included "Continental Drift", which the Rolling Stones recorded in Tangier, Morocco in 1989 with

entity_name: The Master Musicians of Jajouka led by Bachir Attar

text: The Master Musicians of Jajouka led by Bachir Attar

text: , coordinated by Tony King and Cherie Nutting. A BBC documentary film, The Rolling Stones in Morocco, was produced by

text: Nigel Finch

text: Typical collection objects biology are fossils of organisms, in particular plants and animals, plants, and animals killed, and be protected from decay, for example, by drying or preparation, but also live plants, animals, bacteria and viruses.

text: Typical collection objects biology are

text: fossil

text: s of organisms, in particular plants and animals, plants, and animals killed, and be protected from decay, for example, by drying or preparation, but also live plants, animals, bacteria and viruses.

text: It is true that continental drift and seafloor spreading can change the shape and position of continents and occasionally break a continent into two or more pieces (as happened to Pangaea). However, these are very slow processes that occur in geological time scales (hundreds of millions of years). Over the scale of history (tens of thousands of years), the sima under the continental crust can be considered solid, and the continents are basically anchored on it. It is almost certain that the continents and ocean floors have retained their present position and shape for the whole span of human existence.

text: It is true that

text: continental drift

text: and

text: seafloor spreading

text: can change the shape and position of continents and occasionally break a continent into two or more pieces (as happened to

text: Pangaea

text: ). However, these are very slow processes that occur in

text: geological time scale

text: s (hundreds of millions of years). Over the scale of history (tens of thousands of years), the sima under the continental crust can be considered solid, and the continents are basically anchored on it. It is almost certain that the continents and ocean floors have retained their present position and shape for the whole span of human existence.

text: Drosophila melanogaster is another invertebrate which may be able to orient to magnetic fields. Experimental techniques such as gene knockouts have allowed a closer examination of possible magnetoreception in these fruit flies. Various Drosophila strains have been trained to respond to magnetic fields. In a choice test flies were loaded into an apparatus with two arms that were surrounded by electric coils. Current was run through each of the coils, but only one was configured to produce a 5-Gauss magnetic field at a time. The flies in this T-maze were tested on their native ability to recognize the presence of the magnetic field in an arm and on their response following training where the magnetic field was paired with a sucrose reward. Many of the strains of flies showed a learned preference for the magnetic field following training. However, when the only cryptochrome found in Drosophila, type 1 Cry, is altered, either through a missense mutation or replacement of the Cry gene, the flies exhibit a loss of magnetosensitivity. Furthermore, when light is filtered to only allow wavelengths greater than 420 nm through, Drosophila loses its trained response to magnetic fields. This response to filtered light is likely linked to the action spectrum of fly-cryptochrome which has a range from 350 nm – 400 nm and plateaus from 430-450 nm.   Although researchers had believed that a tryptophan triad in cryptochrome was responsible for the free radicals on which magnetic fields could act, recent work with Drosophila has shown that tryptophan might not be behind cryptochrome dependent magnetoreception. Alteration of the tryptophan protein does not result in the loss of magnetosensitivity of a fly expressing either type 1 Cry or the cryptochrome found in vertebrates, type 2 Cry. Therefore, it remains unclear exactly how cryptochrome mediates magnetoreception. These experiments used a 5 gauss magnetic field, 10 times the strength of the Earth's magnetic field).  Drosophila has not been shown to be able to respond to the Earth’s weaker magnetic field.

text: Drosophila melanogaster

text: is another invertebrate which may be able to orient to magnetic fields. Experimental techniques such as gene knockouts have allowed a closer examination of possible magnetoreception in these fruit flies. Various Drosophila strains have been trained to respond to magnetic fields. In a

text: choice test

text: tryptophan

text: might not be behind cryptochrome dependent magnetoreception. Alteration of the tryptophan protein does not result in the loss of magnetosensitivity of a fly expressing either type 1 Cry or the cryptochrome found in vertebrates, type 2 Cry. Therefore, it remains unclear exactly how cryptochrome mediates magnetoreception. These experiments used a 5 gauss magnetic field, 10 times the strength of the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: ).  Drosophila has not been shown to be able to respond to the Earth’s weaker magnetic field.

text: In their work The Life and Death of Planet Earth, authors Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee have argued that some form of animal life may continue even after most of the Earth's plant life has disappeared. Ward and Brownlee use fossil evidence from the Burgess Shale in British Columbia, Canada, to determine the climate of the Cambrian Explosion, and use it to predict the climate of the future when rising global temperatures caused by a warming Sun and declining oxygen levels result in the final extinction of animal life. Initially, they expect that some insects, lizards, birds and small mammals may persist, along with sea life. However, without oxygen replenishment by plant life, they believe that animals would probably die off from asphyxiation within a few million years. Even if sufficient oxygen were to remain in the atmosphere through the persistence of some form of photosynthesis, the steady rise in global temperature would result in a gradual loss of biodiversity.

text: In their work The Life and Death of Planet Earth, authors

text: Peter D. Ward

text: and

text: Donald Brownlee

text: have argued that some form of animal life may continue even after most of the Earth's plant life has disappeared. Ward and Brownlee use fossil evidence from the Burgess Shale in British Columbia, Canada, to determine the climate of the Cambrian Explosion, and use it to predict the climate of the future when rising global temperatures caused by a warming Sun and declining oxygen levels result in the final extinction of animal life. Initially, they expect that some insects, lizards, birds and small mammals may persist, along with sea life. However, without oxygen replenishment by plant life, they believe that animals would probably die off from asphyxiation within a few million years. Even if sufficient oxygen were to remain in the atmosphere through the persistence of some form of photosynthesis, the steady rise in global temperature would result in a gradual loss of biodiversity.

text: Shira is voiced by Jennifer Lopez in Ice Age: Continental Drift.

text: Shira is voiced by

text: Jennifer Lopez

text: in

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: The cycles of glaciation involve the growth and retreat of continental ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere and involve fluctuations on a number of time scales, notably on the 21 ky, 41 ky and 100 ky scales. Such cycles are usually interpreted as being driven by predictable changes in the Earth orbit known as Milankovitch cycles.  At the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene (0.8 million years ago, close to the Brunhes–Matuyama geomagnetic reversal) there has been a largely unexplained switch in the dominant periodicity of glaciations from the 41 ky to the 100 ky cycle.

text: The cycles of glaciation involve the growth and retreat of continental ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere and involve fluctuations on a number of time scales, notably on the 21 ky, 41 ky and 100 ky scales. Such cycles are usually interpreted as being

text: driven by

text: predictable changes in the Earth orbit known as

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: .  At the beginning of the

text: Middle Pleistocene

text: (0.8 million years ago, close to the

text: Brunhes–Matuyama

text: geomagnetic reversal

text: ) there has been a

text: largely unexplained

text: switch in the dominant periodicity of glaciations from the 41 ky to the 100 ky cycle.

text: Periods of glaciation occurred from the Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 million–70,000 years ago) to the Holocene Epoch (fewer than 11,000 years ago). The ice ages left their mark on the Rockies, forming extensive glacial landforms, such as U-shaped valleys and cirques. Recent glacial episodes included the Bull Lake Glaciation that began about 150,000 years ago and the Pinedale Glaciation that probably remained at full glaciation until 15,000–20,000 years ago. Ninety percent of Yellowstone National Park was covered by ice during the Pinedale Glaciation. The little ice age was a period of glacial advance that lasted a few centuries from about 1550 to 1860. For example, the Agassiz and Jackson Glaciers in Glacier National Park reached their most forward positions about 1860 during the Little Ice Age.

text: Periods of glaciation occurred from the

text: Pleistocene

text: Epoch (1.8 million–70,000 years ago) to the

text: Holocene

text: Epoch (fewer than 11,000 years ago). The

text: ice age

text: s left their mark on the Rockies, forming extensive

text: glacial

text: landforms, such as U-shaped valleys and

text: cirque

text: s. Recent glacial episodes included the

text: Bull Lake Glaciation

text: that began about 150,000 years ago and the

text: Pinedale Glaciation

text: that probably remained at full glaciation until 15,000–20,000 years ago. Ninety percent of Yellowstone National Park was covered by ice during the Pinedale Glaciation. The

text: little ice age

text: was a period of glacial advance that lasted a few centuries from about 1550 to 1860. For example, the

text: Agassiz

text: and

text: Jackson Glacier

text: s in

text: Glacier National Park

text: reached their most forward positions about 1860 during the

text: Little Ice Age

text: Tradition attributes the island's conversion to Christianity to St Maughold (Maccul), an Irish missionary who gives his name to a parish. There are the remains of around 200 tiny early chapels called keeils scattered across the Island. Evidence such as radiocarbon dating and magnetic drift points to many of these being built around 550-600AD.

text: Tradition attributes the island's conversion to Christianity to

text: St Maughold

text: (Maccul), an Irish missionary who gives his name to a parish. There are the remains of around 200 tiny early chapels called keeils scattered across the Island. Evidence such as radiocarbon dating and magnetic drift points to many of these being built around 550-600AD.

text: The diet and physiology of Edmontosaurus have been probed by using stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen as recorded in tooth enamel. When feeding, drinking, and breathing, animals take in carbon and oxygen, which become incorporated into bone. The isotopes of these two elements are determined by various internal and external factors, such as the type of plants being eaten, the physiology of the animal, salinity, and climate. If isotope ratios in fossils are not altered by fossilization and later changes, they can be studied for information about the original factors; warmblooded animals will have certain isotopic compositions compared to their surroundings, animals that eat certain types of plants or use certain digestive processes will have distinct isotopic compositions, and so on. Enamel is typically used because the structure of the mineral that forms enamel makes it the most resistant material to chemical change in the skeleton.

text: The diet and

text: physiology

text: of Edmontosaurus have been probed by using

text: stable isotope

text: s of

text: carbon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: as recorded in

text: tooth enamel

text: . When feeding, drinking, and breathing, animals take in carbon and oxygen, which become incorporated into bone. The isotopes of these two elements are determined by various internal and external factors, such as the type of plants being eaten, the physiology of the animal,

text: salinity

text: , and climate. If isotope ratios in fossils are not altered by fossilization and later

text: changes

text: , they can be studied for information about the original factors;

text: warmblooded

text: animals will have certain isotopic compositions compared to their surroundings, animals that eat certain types of plants or use certain digestive processes will have distinct isotopic compositions, and so on. Enamel is typically used because the structure of the mineral that forms enamel makes it the most resistant material to chemical change in the skeleton.

text: This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Driggs has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: This

text: climatic

text: region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: system, Driggs has a

text: humid continental climate

text: , abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: A number of plant, animal and fungal species have been named to his honour, e.g. Saxifraga nathorstii (Dusén) Hayek (East Greenland saxifrage) and a suite of fossil plant species, Williamsonia nathorstii Carruthers (a fossil dragonfly) and Laestadites nathorstii Mesch. (a fossil fungus).

text: A number of plant, animal and fungal species have been named to his honour, e.g.

text: Saxifraga nathorstii

text: Dusén

text: Hayek

text: (East Greenland saxifrage) and a suite of fossil plant species,

text: Williamsonia nathorstii

text: Carruthers (a fossil

text: dragonfly

text: ) and

text: Laestadites

text: nathorstii

text: Mesch.

text: (a fossil fungus).

text: A widely known example is Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift, which eventually served as the basis for the accepted model of plate tectonics. Other ideas which have made the transition include the germ theory of disease, Birkeland's explanation of the aurora, prions, and complexity theory in project management. Behavioral finance was described in a 2002 journal article as "at the fringe of ... modern financial theory", but it has since been widely applied in many fields of business.

text: A widely known example is

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: , which eventually served as the basis for the accepted model of

text: plate tectonics

text: . Other ideas which have made the transition include the

text: germ theory of disease

text: Birkeland's

text: explanation of the

text: aurora

text: prion

text: s, and

text: complexity theory

text: in

text: project management

text: Behavioral finance

text: was described in a 2002 journal article as "at the fringe of ... modern financial theory", but it has since been widely applied in many fields of business.

text: The Köppen climate classification subtype for the climate of Marshfield is "Dfb". (Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: The

text: Köppen climate classification

text: subtype for the climate of Marshfield is "

text: Dfb

text: ". (Warm Summer Continental Climate).

text: During the early part of the Cenozoic, central and eastern South Dakota was still covered by the sea. The uplift responsible for the Black Hills continued to elevate their topography. As the Cenozoic continued the sea shrank away from the state. In its place, grasslands formed and were roamed by herds of grazing mammals. Later, during the Oligocene, at least part of South Dakota was covered in seawater. The White River Formation was being deposited in the White River badlands as the sea gradually receded. The Oligocene flora left behind few fossils, but among them were hackberry seeds and petrified wood. Although plant fossils are scarce, these deposits preserve one of the best Tertiary mammal faunas in the world. More than 175 different kinds of animals were preserved from this time. The local mammals included the three-toed horses, pig-like animals, the camel Poebrotherium, Protoceras, rhinoceroses, rodents, saber teeth, tapirs, and titanotheres. Contemporary birds also left behind bones and even an egg. These are significant because bird fossils are very rare. Many streams carried even more sediment into the region from the young Rocky Mountains and Black Hills. At the time South Dakota consisted of plains dotted with marshes and shallow lakes and split by wide streams. Some of the local Oligocene wildlife left behind footprints that would later fossilize. The Brule Formation preserves one of only seven Oligocene fossil tracksites in the western United States.  Volcanic activity sporadically showered the state with ash. During the Ice Age, glaciers scoured the state. As they melted, they deposited sediments that would preserve the fossil remains of creatures like bison, horses, mammoths, and mastodons.

text: During the early part of the

text: Cenozoic

text: , central and eastern South Dakota was still covered by the sea. The uplift responsible for the Black Hills continued to elevate their topography. As the Cenozoic continued the sea shrank away from the state. In its place, grasslands formed and were roamed by herds of grazing mammals. Later, during the

text: Oligocene

text: , at least part of South Dakota was covered in seawater. The

text: White River Formation

text: was being deposited in the

text: White River

text: badlands

text: as the

text: sea

text: gradually receded. The Oligocene flora left behind few fossils, but among them were

text: hackberry

text: seeds and

text: petrified wood

text: . Although plant fossils are scarce, these deposits preserve one of the best

text: Tertiary

text: mammal

text: faunas in the world. More than 175 different kinds of animals were preserved from this time. The local mammals included the three-toed

text: horses

text: , pig-like animals, the camel

text: Poebrotherium

text: Protoceras

text: rhinoceros

text: es,

text: rodent

text: s,

text: saber teeth

text: tapir

text: s, and

text: titanothere

text: s. Contemporary birds also left behind bones and even an egg. These are significant because bird fossils are very rare. Many

text: streams

text: carried even more sediment into the region from the young

text: Rocky Mountains

text: and

text: Black Hills

text: . At the time South Dakota consisted of plains dotted with

text: marsh

text: es and shallow lakes and split by wide streams. Some of the local Oligocene wildlife left behind

text: footprints

text: that would later fossilize. The

text: Brule Formation

text: preserves one of only seven Oligocene fossil tracksites in the western United States.

text: Volcanic activity

text: sporadically showered the state with ash. During the

text: Ice Age

text: glacier

text: s scoured the state. As they melted, they deposited sediments that would preserve the fossil remains of creatures like

text: bison

text: horse

text: s,

text: mammoth

text: s, and

text: mastodon

text: s.

text: The climate of the European Union is of a temperate, continental nature, with a maritime climate prevailing on the western coasts and a mediterranean climate in the south.  The climate is strongly conditioned by the Gulf Stream, which warms the western region to levels unattainable at similar latitudes on other continents.  Western Europe is oceanic, while eastern Europe is continental and dry.  Four seasons occur in western Europe, while southern Europe experiences a wet season and a dry season.  Southern Europe is hot and dry during the summer months.  The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing westerlies, with higher amounts also seen in the Alps.  Tornadoes occur within Europe, but tend to be weak.  The Netherlands and United Kingdom experience a disproportionately high number of tornadic events.

text: The climate of the European Union is of a

text: temperate

text: continental

text: nature, with a

text: maritime climate

text: prevailing on the western coasts and a

text: mediterranean climate

text: Gulf Stream

text: , which warms the western region to levels unattainable at similar latitudes on other continents.  Western Europe is oceanic, while eastern Europe is continental and dry.  Four seasons occur in western Europe, while southern Europe experiences a

text: wet season

text: and a

text: dry season

text: .  Southern Europe is hot and dry during the summer months.  The heaviest precipitation occurs downwind of water bodies due to the prevailing

text: westerlies

text: , with higher amounts also seen in the

text: Alps

text: .  Tornadoes occur within Europe, but tend to be weak.  The Netherlands and United Kingdom experience a disproportionately high number of tornadic events.

text: Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters" or "mobilists" (proponents of the theory) and "fixists" (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that convection currents might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements now incorporated in plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening-Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove.

text: Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters" or "mobilists" (proponents of the theory) and "fixists" (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that

text: convection current

text: s might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements now incorporated in plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening-Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove.

text: Most animals indirectly use the energy of sunlight by eating plants or plant-eating animals. Most plants use light to convert inorganic molecules in their environment into carbohydrates, :fats, proteins and other biomolecules, characteristically containing reduced carbon in the form of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Starting with carbon dioxide (CO) and water (HO), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of simple sugars (e.g., glucose), with the release of molecular oxygen. These sugars are then used as the building blocks for plant growth, including the production of other biomolecules. When an animal eats plants (or eats other animals which have eaten plants), the reduced carbon compounds in the food become a source of energy and building materials for the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion.

text: Most animals indirectly use the energy of

text: sunlight

text: by eating plants or plant-eating animals. Most plants use light to convert

text: inorganic

text: molecules in their environment into

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: :fat

text: s,

text: protein

text: s and other biomolecules, characteristically containing

text: reduced

text: carbon in the form of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Starting with

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) and water (HO), photosynthesis converts the energy of sunlight into chemical energy in the form of simple sugars (e.g.,

text: glucose

text: ), with the release of molecular

text: oxygen

text: . These sugars are then used as the building blocks for plant growth, including the production of other biomolecules. When an animal eats plants (or eats other animals which have eaten plants), the reduced carbon compounds in the food become a source of energy and building materials for the animal. They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion.

text: Connected to and extending from the front of the main bombsight housing is the drift bar, normally forming over ½ of the overall length of the device. The drift bar is pivoted at its base, just in front of the compass area, allowing it to rotate to the left or right. On top of the wind bar, connecting the wind bar to the drift bar, is the ground speed slider. A pin passing vertically through the wind bar's internal slider to slotted plates in the drift bar and ground speed slider translate the motion of the wind bar into components along and across the axis of the drift bar. Motion across the axis pushes the entire wind bar to the left or right, indicating the proper heading to fly to cancel out the wind drift. Motion along the axis pushes the ground speed slider fore or aft, accounting for the difference between air and ground speed. The ground speed slider also carries the pin-shaped foresights, so as they move they adjust the sighting angle in order to drop the bombs early or late to account for the ground speed.

text: Watson developed the Durbin–Watson statistic for detecting autocorrelation with James Durbin of the London School of Economics in 1950.Watson was especially interested in applications of statistics. He used statistical methods to support the theory of continental drift. He estimated the size of the penguin population in Antarctica, and the effect of repealing the motorcycle helmet law in the United States.

text: Watson developed the

text: Durbin–Watson statistic

text: for detecting

text: autocorrelation

text: with

text: James Durbin

text: of the

text: London School of Economics

text: in 1950.Watson was especially interested in applications of statistics. He used statistical methods to support the theory of

text: continental drift

text: . He estimated the size of the

text: penguin

text: population in

text: Antarctica

text: , and the effect of repealing the

text: motorcycle helmet

text: law in the United States.

text: Seann appeared in Kevin Smith's Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back as a guitar-playing animal rights activist and had a starring part as a police officer in Southland Tales, where he reunited with Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson, with whom he had previously worked in The Rundown. Seann hosted the MTV Movie Awards 2003 with Justin Timberlake. The two performed several skits, including scenes from The Matrix Reloaded, which are on The Matrix Reloaded DVD. He has also hosted Saturday Night Live and appeared as a guest co-host on Live with Regis and Kelly.He voiced the character Crash in Ice Age: The Meltdown and reprised his role in its sequel Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs (2009) and Ice Age: Continental Drift (2012). He co-starred in the action comedy Cop Out. In 2011 he starred in the sports comedy film Goon as Doug 'The Thug' Glatt.  In 2012, he starred in Movie 43 in the segment 'Happy Birthday. He reprised his role as 'Steve Stifler in 2012 American Reunion. On October 2, 2013, Seann guest-starred in Episode 5, Season 9 (entitled "Mac Day") of the FX television series It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, playing Mac's cousin, "Country Mac." In 2014 he starred in the comedy-drama film, Just Before I Go as Ted Morgan. He reprises his role as Doug 'The Thug' Glatt in Goon: Last of the Enforcers and Crash in Ice Age: Collision Course.

text: Seann appeared in

text: Kevin Smith

text: 's

text: Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back

text: as a guitar-playing animal rights activist and had a starring part as a police officer in

text: Southland Tales

text: , where he reunited with

text: Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson

text: , with whom he had previously worked in

text: The Rundown

text: . Seann hosted the

text: MTV Movie Awards 2003

text: with

text: Justin Timberlake

text: . The two performed several skits, including scenes from The Matrix Reloaded, which are on The Matrix Reloaded DVD. He has also hosted

text: Saturday Night Live

text: and appeared as a guest co-host on

text: Live with Regis and Kelly

text: .He voiced the character Crash in

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: and reprised his role in its sequel

text: Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs

text: (2009) and

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: (2012). He co-starred in the action comedy

text: Cop Out

text: . In 2011 he starred in the

text: sports

text: comedy film

text: Goon

text: as Doug 'The Thug' Glatt.  In 2012, he starred in

text: Movie 43

text: in the segment 'Happy Birthday. He reprised his role as 'Steve Stifler in 2012

text: American Reunion

text: . On October 2, 2013, Seann guest-starred in Episode 5, Season 9 (entitled "Mac Day") of the

text: FX

text: television series

text: It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia

text: , playing Mac's cousin, "Country Mac." In 2014 he starred in the

text: comedy-drama film

text: Just Before I Go

text: as Ted Morgan. He reprises his role as Doug 'The Thug' Glatt in

text: Goon: Last of the Enforcers

text: and Crash in

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: Maggie has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons. She is a character in every one of The Simpsons video games, including the most recent, The Simpsons Game. Alongside the television series, Maggie regularly appears in issues of the Simpsons comics, which were first published on November 29, 1993 and are still issued monthly. Maggie also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride, launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood. Maggie starred in the 3D short-film The Longest Daycare, which was shown in theaters before Ice Age: Continental Drift in 2012.

text: Maggie has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons. She is a character in every one of

text: The Simpsons video games

text: , including the most recent,

text: The Simpsons Game

text: . Alongside the television series, Maggie regularly appears in issues of the

text: Simpsons comics

text: , which were first published on November 29, 1993 and are still issued monthly. Maggie also plays a role in

text: The Simpsons Ride

text: , launched in 2008 at

text: Universal Studios Florida

text: and

text: Hollywood

text: . Maggie starred in the 3D short-film

text: The Longest Daycare

text: , which was shown in theaters before

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: in 2012.

text: Many behavioral effects at different intensities have been reported from exposure to magnetic fields, particularly with pulsed magnetic fields. The specific pulseform used appears to be an important factor for the behavioural effect seen; for example, a pulsed magnetic field originally designed for spectroscopic MRI, referred to as Low Field Magnetic Stimulation, was found to alleviate symptoms in bipolar patients, while another MRI pulse had no effect. A whole-body exposure to a pulsed magnetic field was found to alter standing balance and pain perception in other studies.

text: Many behavioral effects at different intensities have been reported from exposure to magnetic fields, particularly with pulsed magnetic fields. The specific pulseform used appears to be an important factor for the behavioural effect seen; for example, a pulsed magnetic field originally designed for spectroscopic

text: MRI

text: , referred to as

text: Low Field Magnetic Stimulation

text: , was found to alleviate symptoms in bipolar patients, while another MRI pulse had no effect. A whole-body exposure to a pulsed magnetic field was found to alter standing balance and pain perception in other studies.

text: Emerging evidence suggests that the Earth underwent a number of glaciations during the Neoproterozoic era. There were three (or possibly four) significant ice ages during the late Neoproterozoic. These periods of nearly complete glaciation of Earth are often referred to as "Snowball Earth", where it is hypothesized that at times the planet was covered by ice  thick.  Of these glaciations, the Marinoan was the most significant, whereas the Sturtian glaciation was a shorter, but still worldwide glaciation.  The Kaigas glaciation is considered the earliest of Cryogenian glaciations. Other Cryogenian glaciations were probably small and not global as compared to the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations.

text: Emerging evidence suggests that the Earth underwent a number of glaciations during the Neoproterozoic

text: era

text: . There were three (or possibly four) significant ice ages during the late Neoproterozoic. These periods of nearly complete glaciation of Earth are often referred to as "Snowball Earth", where it is hypothesized that at times the planet was covered by ice  thick.  Of these glaciations, the Marinoan was the most significant, whereas the

text: Sturtian glaciation

text: was a shorter, but still worldwide glaciation.  The

text: Kaigas glaciation

text: is considered the earliest of Cryogenian glaciations. Other Cryogenian glaciations were probably small and not global as compared to the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations.

text: Humid continental climate is a climatic region typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Humid continental climate is a climatic region typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Precipitation is relatively well distributed year-round in many areas with this climate.  The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: ". (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: He wrote his early novels while working as the bass player for the group Joe Hall and the Continental Drift and as the guitar accompanist for Cathy Stewart, a Canadian singer who was popular at the time. One of his novels, Whale Music, was called "the greatest rock'n'roll novel ever written" by Penthouse magazine.  His non-fiction books and journalism were also highly regarded – he earned or co-earned more than 20 gold awards for his magazine articles alone.

text: He wrote his early novels while working as the bass player for the group Joe Hall and the Continental Drift and as the guitar accompanist for Cathy Stewart, a Canadian singer who was popular at the time. One of his novels,

text: Whale Music

text: , was called "the greatest rock'n'roll novel ever written" by

text: Penthouse

text: magazine.  His non-fiction books and journalism were also highly regarded – he earned or co-earned more than 20 gold awards for his magazine articles alone.

text: This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot summers and cold winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Danville has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: This

text: climatic

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: system, Danville has a

text: humid continental climate

text: , abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: Alexander du Toit did extensive mapping of the Karoo System geology and other areas western areas of South Africa.  From the detailed maps he and others created of this region for the Survey, and from later mapping in southern South America du Toit published literature in support of  Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift.

text: Alexander du Toit

text: did extensive mapping of the

text: Karoo System

text: geology and other areas western areas of South Africa.  From the detailed maps he and others created of this region for the Survey, and from later mapping in southern

text: South America

text: du Toit published literature in support of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's theory of

text: continental drift

text: Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal fossils are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in Brazil and South Africa, are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land reptile Lystrosaurus in rocks of the same age at locations in Africa, India, and Antarctica. There is also living evidence—the same animals being found on two continents. Some earthworm families (e.g. Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa, for instance.

text: Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal

text: fossil

text: s are found around the shores of different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of

text: Mesosaurus

text: , a freshwater reptile rather like a small crocodile, found both in

text: Brazil

text: and

text: South Africa

text: , are one example; another is the discovery of fossils of the land

text: reptile

text: Lystrosaurus

text: in

text: rock

text: s of the same age at locations in

text: Africa

text: India

text: , and

text: Antarctica

text: . There is also living evidence—the same animals being found on two continents. Some

text: earthworm

text: families (e.g. Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South America and Africa, for instance.

text: This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot summers and cold winters.  According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Carson has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: This

text: climatic

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: system, Carson has a

text: humid continental climate

text: , abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

text: Macedonia has unique climate explained by its location and topography. The climate of the plains is extraordinary - Mediterranean climate combined with the influence of the Black Sea. The country also holds continental characteristics, which are accentuated by the mountains in the south which prevent hot air from the south to move to the north. Conversely, the Šar Mountains, which are located in the northwestern part, block cold northern winds. In whole, the northern and western parts of the country are relatively close to Continental climate and the southern and eastern to Mediterranean climate.

text: Macedonia has unique climate explained by its location and topography. The climate of the plains is extraordinary -

text: Mediterranean climate

text: combined with the influence of the

text: Black Sea

text: . The country also holds continental characteristics, which are accentuated by the mountains in the south which prevent hot air from the south to move to the north. Conversely, the

text: Šar Mountains

text: , which are located in the northwestern part, block cold northern winds. In whole, the northern and western parts of the country are relatively close to

text: Continental climate

text: and the southern and eastern to Mediterranean climate.

text: There are various ways from which bays can be created. The largest bays have developed as a result of continental drift. As the super-continent Gondwana broke up along curved and indented fault lines, the continents moved apart and the world's largest bays formed.  These include the Gulf of Guinea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Alaska, Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Bengal, which is the largest bay in the world.

text: There are various ways from which bays can be created. The largest bays have developed as a result of

text: continental drift

text: . As the super-continent

text: Gondwana

text: broke up along curved and indented fault lines, the continents moved apart and the world's largest bays formed.  These include the

text: Gulf of Guinea

text: Persian Gulf

text: Gulf of Alaska

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: and the

text: Bay of Bengal

text: , which is the largest bay in the world.

text: The mountain is composed mostly of Metavolcanic rock and Metasedimentary rock from the Hozameen Group. Most predominate is Greenstone from the Jurassic to Permian periods. Most surface material is heavily eroded, by water Glacier ice. The lower flanks of the mountain in the Devils creek basin Maine sedimentary rock from the lower Cretaceous period, part of the Harts Pass Formation. The lower flanks of the mountain on the Ross lake side are composed of many diffent rock types including Orthogneiss, Ultramafic rock, low grade Phyllite, Tonalite, Continental glacier drift, Diorite, and Schist.

text: The mountain is composed mostly of

text: Metavolcanic rock

text: and

text: Metasedimentary rock

text: from the

text: Hozameen Group

text: . Most predominate is

text: Greenstone

text: from the

text: Jurassic

text: to

text: Permian

text: periods. Most surface material is heavily eroded, by water Glacier ice. The lower flanks of the mountain in the Devils creek basin Maine sedimentary rock from the lower

text: Cretaceous period

text: , part of the

text: Harts Pass Formation

text: . The lower flanks of the mountain on the Ross lake side are composed of many diffent rock types including

text: Orthogneiss

text: Ultramafic rock

text: , low grade

text: Phyllite

text: Tonalite

text: Continental glacier drift

text: Diorite

text: , and

text: Schist

text: The first fossil records of vascular plants, that is, land plants with tissues that carry water and  food, appeared in the second half of the Silurian period. The earliest known representatives of this group are Cooksonia. Most of the sediments containing Cooksonia are marine in nature. Preferred habitats were likely along rivers and streams. Baragwanathia, appears to be almost as old dating to the Early Ludlow (420 million years) and has branching stems and needle-like leaves of 10–20 cm. The plant shows a high degree of development in relation to the age of its fossil remains. Fossils of this plant have been recorded in Australia, Canada and China. Eohostimella heathana is an early, probably terrestrial, "plant" known from compression fossils of early Silurian (Llandovery) age. The chemistry of its fossils is similar to that of fossilised vascular plants, rather than algae.

text: The first fossil records of

text: vascular plant

text: s, that is, land plants with tissues that carry water and  food, appeared in the second half of the Silurian period. The earliest known representatives of this group are

text: Cooksonia

text: . Most of the sediments containing Cooksonia are marine in nature. Preferred habitats were likely along rivers and streams. Baragwanathia, appears to be almost as old dating to the Early Ludlow (420 million years) and has branching stems and needle-like leaves of 10–20 cm. The plant shows a high degree of development in relation to the age of its fossil remains. Fossils of this plant have been recorded in Australia, Canada and China.

text: Eohostimella

text: heathana is an early, probably terrestrial, "plant" known from compression fossils of early Silurian (Llandovery) age. The chemistry of its fossils is similar to that of fossilised vascular plants, rather than algae.

text: On the Adriatic and Aegean coasts the climate is Mediterranean, on the Black Sea coast the climate is humid subtropical and oceanic, and inland it is humid continental. In the northern part of the peninsula and on the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry. In the southern part winters are milder. The humid continental climate is predominant in Bosnia and Herzegovina, northern Croatia, Bulgaria, Kosovo, Macedonia, northern Montenegro, the interior of Albania and Serbia, while the other, less common climates, the humid subtropical and oceanic climates, are seen on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and Turkey; and the Mediterranean climate is seen on the coast of Albania, the coast of Croatia, Greece, southern Montenegro and the Aegean coast of Turkey.

text: On the

text: Adriatic

text: and

text: Aegean

text: coasts the climate is

text: Mediterranean

text: , on the Black Sea coast the climate is

text: humid subtropical

text: and

text: oceanic

text: , and inland it is

text: humid continental

text: . In the northern part of the peninsula and on the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry. In the southern part winters are milder. The humid continental climate is predominant in Bosnia and Herzegovina, northern Croatia, Bulgaria,

text: Kosovo

text: , Macedonia, northern Montenegro, the interior of Albania and

text: Serbia

text: , while the other, less common climates, the humid subtropical and oceanic climates, are seen on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and

text: Turkey

text: ; and the Mediterranean climate is seen on the coast of Albania, the coast of Croatia, Greece, southern Montenegro and the Aegean coast of Turkey.

text: The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Dfa (Humid Continental Climate).

text: The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is

entity_section: GROUP D: Mild Temperate/mesothermal climates

text: Dfa

text: (Humid Continental Climate).

text: Because of its geographical position, Kosovo has both a Mediterranean-Continental climate and European-Continental climate. Vučitrn has cold winters and hot summers. The city doesn't have a climate station with full data and observations of meteorological conditions, so the main information comes from the nearest stations in Mitrovica and Prishtina. Vučitrn has approximately 2,140 hours of sun during the year.

text: Because of its geographical position, Kosovo has both a Mediterranean-Continental climate and European-Continental climate. Vučitrn has cold winters and hot summers. The city doesn't have a climate station with full data and observations of meteorological conditions, so the main information comes from the nearest stations in

text: Mitrovica

text: and

text: Prishtina

text: . Vučitrn has approximately 2,140 hours of sun during the year.

text: However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust. Wegener could not explain the force that drove continental drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930.

text: The British Isles have few endemic species due to past frequent glaciations and because of the proximity to Continental Europe and former land bridges which enabled species to re-colonise the islands from the continent following glaciations.

text: The British Isles have few endemic species due to past frequent glaciations and because of the proximity to

text: Continental Europe

text: and former

text: land bridge

text: s which enabled species to re-colonise the islands from the continent following glaciations.

text: As for the purpose of the scientific exploration, one of the most important discoveries was made when the crew drilled 17 holes at 10 different locations along an oceanic ridge between South America and Africa. The retrieved core samples provided strong proof for continental drift and seafloor renewal at rift zones. This confirmation of Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift strengthened the proposal of a single, ancient land mass, which is called Pangaea. The samples gave further evidence to support the plate tectonics theory, which at the time attempted to explain the formation of mountain ranges, earthquakes, and oceanic trenches. Another discovery was how youthful the ocean floor is in comparison to Earth's geologic history. After analysis of samples, scientists concluded that the ocean floor is probably no older than 200 million years. This is in comparison with the 4.5 billion-year age of the Earth.

text: As for the purpose of the scientific exploration, one of the most important discoveries was made when the crew drilled 17 holes at 10 different locations along an

text: oceanic ridge

text: between

text: South America

text: and

text: Africa

text: . The retrieved core samples provided strong proof for

text: continental drift

text: and

text: seafloor

text: renewal at

text: rift zones

text: . This confirmation of

text: Alfred Wegener

text: 's

text: theory of continental drift

text: strengthened the proposal of a single, ancient land mass, which is called

text: Pangaea

text: . The samples gave further evidence to support the

text: plate tectonics theory

text: , which at the time attempted to explain the formation of mountain ranges, earthquakes, and

text: oceanic trenches

text: . Another discovery was how youthful the

text: ocean floor

text: is in comparison to Earth's geologic history. After analysis of samples, scientists concluded that the ocean floor is probably no older than 200 million years. This is in comparison with the 4.5 billion-year age of the Earth.

text: To form the ice sheets of the last Ice Age, water from the oceans evaporated, condensed as snow and was deposited as ice in high latitudes. Thus global sea level fell during glaciation.

text: After the sedimentary and igneous rocks were folded and crushed, it resulted in the creation of a new continental shelf and coastline. The Insular Plate continued to subduct under the new continental shelf and coastline about 130 million years ago during the mid Cretaceous period after the formation of the Intermontane Belt, supporting a new continental volcanic arc called the Omineca Arc. Magma rising from the Omineca Arc successfully connected the Intermontane Belt to the mainland of Western Canada, forming a chain of volcanoes in British Columbia that existed discontinuously for about 60 million years. The ocean lying offshore during this period is called the Bridge River Ocean. It was also during this period when another group of active volcanic islands existed along the newly built continental shelf and coastline. These volcanic islands, known as the Insular Islands, were formed on the Insular Plate by subduction of the former Farallon Plate to its west during the early Paleozoic era. As the North American Plate drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the continental margin of Western Canada, the Bridge River Ocean began to close by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc volcanism and the Insular Islands collided, forming the Insular Belt. Compression resulting from this collision crushed, fractured and folded rocks along the continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of igneous rock, creating a new continental margin. This large mass of igneous rock is the largest granite outcropping in North America.

text: After the sedimentary and igneous rocks were folded and crushed, it resulted in the creation of a new continental shelf and coastline. The Insular Plate continued to subduct under the new continental shelf and coastline about 130 million years ago during the mid

text: Cretaceous

text: period after the formation of the Intermontane Belt, supporting a new continental volcanic arc called the

text: Omineca Arc

text: . Magma rising from the Omineca Arc successfully connected the Intermontane Belt to the mainland of Western Canada, forming a chain of volcanoes in British Columbia that existed discontinuously for about 60 million years. The ocean lying offshore during this period is called the

text: Bridge River Ocean

text: . It was also during this period when another group of active volcanic islands existed along the newly built continental shelf and coastline. These volcanic islands, known as the

text: Insular Islands

text: , were formed on the Insular Plate by subduction of the former

text: Farallon Plate

text: to its west during the early

text: Paleozoic

text: era. As the

text: North American Plate

text: drifted west and the Insular Plate drifted east to the continental margin of Western Canada, the Bridge River Ocean began to close by ongoing subduction under the Bridge River Ocean. This subduction zone eventually jammed and shut down completely 115 million years ago, ending the Omineca Arc volcanism and the Insular Islands collided, forming the

text: Insular Belt

text: folded

text: rocks along the continental margin. The Insular Belt then welded onto the continental margin by magma that eventually cooled to create a large mass of

text: igneous rock

text: granite

text: outcropping in North America.

text: Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geologic samples to observe the fabric within the rocks which gives information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks. They also plot and combine measurements of geological structures in order to better understand the orientations of faults and folds in order to reconstruct the history of rock deformation in the area. In addition, they perform analog and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.

text: Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geologic samples to observe the

text: fabric

text: within the rocks which gives information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks. They also plot and combine measurements of geological structures in order to better understand the orientations of faults and folds in order to reconstruct the history of rock deformation in the area. In addition, they perform

text: analog

text: and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.

text: Geologically, the rocks of Bodega Head differ greatly from those on the mainland just to the east. Whereas the rocks of Bodega Head are exposed continental granite, the mainland rocks are of oceanic origin from the Franciscan Complex.  Bodega Head is the northern tip of a vast geologic province known as the Salinian Block whose core is of the same origins as the core of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.  The block was torn off the continent as the San Andreas Fault came into existence about 20 million years ago, and was transported northward hundreds of miles.  Other nearby examples of the Salinian Block are the Point Reyes Peninsula and the Farallon Islands.

text: Geologically

text: , the rocks of Bodega Head differ greatly from those on the mainland just to the east. Whereas the rocks of Bodega Head are exposed continental

text: granite

text: , the mainland rocks are of oceanic origin from the

text: Franciscan Complex

text: .  Bodega Head is the northern tip of a vast geologic province known as the

text: Salinian Block

text: whose core is of the same origins as the core of the

text: Sierra Nevada Mountains

text: .  The block was torn off the continent as the San Andreas Fault came into existence about 20 million years ago, and was transported northward hundreds of miles.  Other nearby examples of the Salinian Block are the

text: Point Reyes Peninsula

text: and the

text: Farallon Islands

text: Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomena of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by Keith Runcorn in 1956, and successive papers by him and his students Ted Irving (who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer.

text: Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomena of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by

text: Keith Runcorn

text: in 1956, and successive papers by him and his students

text: Ted Irving

text: (who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer.

text: Although herbivory was long thought to be a Mesozoic phenomenon, fossils have shown that within less than 20 million years after the first land plants evolved, plants were being consumed by arthropods. Insects fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique.

text: Although herbivory was long thought to be a

text: Mesozoic

text: phenomenon, fossils have shown that within less than 20 million years after the first land plants evolved, plants were being consumed by arthropods. Insects fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the

text: Rhynie chert

text: also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique.

text: At the same time, Milanković wrote four sections of Beno Gutenberg's "Handbook of Geophysics" (Handbuch der Geophysik) – "The Earth's Position and Movement in Space", "Rotational Movement of the Earth", "Secular shift of the Poles", and "Astronomic Means for Climate Study during the Earth's history" – published by Wegener's father-in-law Köppen on 1933. The lecture on the apparent shift of poles was held at a congress of Balkan mathematicians in Athens in 1934 (True polar wander). Milankovitch work on the trajectory of poles will be well accepted only by Köppen’s associates, because most of the scientific community was skeptical as to Wegener and towards Milankovic the old and the new theory. Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, following the development of new scientific discipline in geophysics known as palaeomagnetism led to the key evidence on the basis of studying the records of Earth's magnetic field in rocks over geological time. Paleomagnetic evidence, both reversals and polar wandering data, led the revival of the theories of continental drift  and its transformation into plate tectonics in the 1960s and 1970s. Unlike of Milankovic’s linear trajectory of poles,  palaeomagnetism will be reconstructed path of the poles during geological history, which shows the nonlinear trajectory.

text: At the same time, Milanković wrote four sections of

text: Beno Gutenberg

text: 's "Handbook of Geophysics" (Handbuch der Geophysik) – "The Earth's Position and Movement in Space", "Rotational Movement of the Earth", "Secular shift of the Poles", and "Astronomic Means for Climate Study during the Earth's history" – published by Wegener's father-in-law

text: Köppen

text: on 1933. The lecture on the apparent shift of poles was held at a congress of Balkan mathematicians in

text: Athens

text: in 1934 (

text: True polar wander

text: ). Milankovitch work on the trajectory of poles will be well accepted only by Köppen’s associates, because most of the scientific community was skeptical as to Wegener and towards Milankovic the old and the new theory. Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, following the development of new scientific discipline in

text: geophysics

text: known as

text: palaeomagnetism

text: led to the key evidence on the basis of studying the records of

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: in rocks over geological time. Paleomagnetic evidence, both

text: reversals

text: and polar wandering data, led the revival of the theories of

text: continental drift

text: and its transformation into

text: plate tectonics

text: in the 1960s and 1970s. Unlike of Milankovic’s

text: linear

text: trajectory of poles,  palaeomagnetism will be reconstructed path of the poles during geological history, which shows the

text: nonlinear

text: trajectory.

text: After a period in radar research during the World War II, he joined the Physics Department at the University of Manchester where he did research on aspects of the Earth's magnetic field, taking his Ph.D. under Patrick Blackett in 1949. This led to his interest in palaeomagnetism, the study of the magnetism of rocks, which he pursued first at the Geophysics Department at the University of Cambridge and later at Newcastle University, where he was appointed to the chair of Physics in 1956. At Newcastle Runcorn developed a strong research group in geophysics, and made substantial contributions to various fields, including convection in the Earth and Moon, the shape and magnetic fields of the Moon and planets, magnetohydrodynamics of the Earth's core, changes in the length of the day, polar wandering, continental drift and plate tectonics.

text: After a period in

text: radar

text: research during the World War II, he joined the Physics Department at the

text: University of Manchester

text: where he did research on aspects of the Earth's

text: magnetic field

text: , taking his

text: Ph.D.

text: under

text: Patrick Blackett

text: in 1949. This led to his interest in

text: palaeomagnetism

text: , the study of the magnetism of rocks, which he pursued first at the Geophysics Department at the

text: University of Cambridge

text: and later at

text: Newcastle University

text: , where he was appointed to the chair of Physics in 1956. At Newcastle Runcorn developed a strong research group in

text: geophysics

text: , and made substantial contributions to various fields, including convection in the Earth and Moon, the shape and magnetic fields of the Moon and planets,

text: magnetohydrodynamics

text: of the

text: Earth's core

text: , changes in the length of the day,

text: polar wandering

text: continental drift

text: and

text: plate tectonics

text: Humid continental climate is a climatic region typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters.  The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfa" (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Dfa

text: " (Hot Summer Continental Climate).

text: The degree of composition drift is directly affected by the reactivity ratios of each monomer in the copolymer system.  Both the Mayo-Lewis equation and plot of the equation make evident that as monomer conversion increases, the copolymer composition will drift as the preferences for monomers change due to the interaction between reactivity ratios and the instantaneous concentration of each monomer.

text: The degree of composition drift is directly affected by the reactivity ratios of each monomer in the copolymer system.  Both the

text: Mayo-Lewis equation

text: and plot of the equation make evident that as monomer conversion increases, the copolymer composition will drift as the preferences for monomers change due to the interaction between reactivity ratios and the instantaneous concentration of each monomer.

text: Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate dominated by humid westerly winds. The country is situated in between the oceanic Western European and the continental Eastern European climate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the northwest and the north the climate is oceanic. Germany gets an average of  of precipitation per year; there is no consistent dry season. Winters are cool and summers tend to be warm: temperatures can exceed .

text: Most of Germany has a

text: temperate seasonal climate

text: dominated by humid westerly winds. The country is situated in between the

text: oceanic

text: Western European and the

text: continental

text: Eastern European climate. The climate is moderated by the

text: North Atlantic Drift

text: , the northern extension of the

text: Gulf Stream

text: . This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the northwest and the north the climate is oceanic. Germany gets an average of  of

text: precipitation

text: per year; there is no consistent dry season. Winters are cool and summers tend to be warm: temperatures can exceed .

text: All of these processes do not necessarily occur in a single environment, and do not necessarily occur in a single order. The Hawaiian Islands, for example, consist almost entirely of layered basaltic lava flows. The sedimentary sequences of the mid-continental United States and the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States contain almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rocks that have remained in place since Cambrian time. Other areas are much more geologically complex. In the southwestern United States, sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks have been metamorphosed, faulted, foliated, and folded. Even older rocks, such as the Acasta gneiss of the Slave craton in northwestern Canada, the oldest known rock in the world have been metamorphosed to the point where their origin is undiscernable without laboratory analysis. In addition, these processes can occur in stages. In many places, the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States being a very visible example, the lower rock units were metamorphosed and deformed, and then deformation ended and the upper, undeformed units were deposited. Although any amount of rock emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the geological history of an area.

text: All of these processes do not necessarily occur in a single environment, and do not necessarily occur in a single order. The

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: , for example, consist almost entirely of layered

text: basalt

text: ic lava flows. The sedimentary sequences of the mid-continental United States and the

text: Grand Canyon

text: in the southwestern United States contain almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rocks that have remained in place since

text: Cambrian

text: time. Other areas are much more geologically complex. In the southwestern United States, sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks have been metamorphosed, faulted, foliated, and folded. Even older rocks, such as the

text: Acasta gneiss

text: of the

text: Slave craton

text: in northwestern

text: Canada

text: , the

text: oldest known rock in the world

text: have been metamorphosed to the point where their origin is undiscernable without laboratory analysis. In addition, these processes can occur in stages. In many places, the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States being a very visible example, the lower rock units were metamorphosed and deformed, and then deformation ended and the upper, undeformed units were deposited. Although any amount of rock emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the

text: geological history

text: of an area.

text: By 1915 German Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) had proposed in his continental drift theory that land masses moved great distances over the Earth's history. Wegener was also at first met with hostile reactions.By the mid-1920s Holmes had developed theories on what could cause the drift.The plate tectonics theory is now generally accepted to explain the dynamic nature of the Earth's surface; the tetrahedral shape plays no special role in modern theories.Explanations of details such as water to land ratios, the precise shape of continents and their sizes continue to be developed.

text: By 1915 German

text: Alfred Wegener

text: (1880–1930) had proposed in his

text: continental drift

text: theory that land masses moved great distances over the Earth's history. Wegener was also at first met with hostile reactions.By the mid-1920s Holmes had developed theories on what could cause the drift.The

text: plate tectonics

text: theory is now generally accepted to explain the dynamic nature of the Earth's surface; the tetrahedral shape plays no special role in modern theories.Explanations of details such as water to land ratios, the precise shape of continents and their sizes continue to be developed.

text: The summit is marked by a U.S. Geological Survey benchmark with the  elevation set in a rock at the west edge of the ridge where the road ends. The old relay station, a one-story cinderblock structure with no remaining roof and the three steel supports that can be seen from various viewpoints in the area near the mountain, is at the center of a large clearing. An informal poll of 3500 Club members has found Graham ranks with nearby Eagle as their least favorite summit among the Catskill High Peaks.

text: The summit is marked by a

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: benchmark

text: with the  elevation set in a rock at the west edge of the ridge where the road ends. The old relay station, a one-story

text: cinderblock

text: structure with no remaining roof and the three steel supports that can be seen from various viewpoints in the area near the mountain, is at the center of a large clearing. An informal poll of 3500 Club members has found Graham ranks with nearby

entity_name: Eagle Mountain (Ulster County, New York)

text: Eagle

text: as their least favorite summit among the Catskill High Peaks.

text: Buck and Rudy make brief cameos in Scrat's Continental Crack-up and Ice Age: Continental Drift when Scrat falls through the Earth and passes them.

text: Buck and Rudy make brief cameos in

text: Scrat's Continental Crack-up

text: and

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: when Scrat falls through the Earth and passes them.

text: Tad, the Lost Explorer was made on a budget of €8 million. It earned €45 million ($60.8 million) worldwide. In Spain, where it was released by Paramount Pictures in 500 theaters, the film held number one spot at the box office for five weeks in a row, and earned a total of €18.0 million ($24,4 million), breaking domestic box office record for a Spanish-animated feature. It became the highest-grossing film of the year in Spain, outgrossing other animated features, including Ice Age: Continental Drift, Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted, and Brave. In other countries, the film earned over $36 million, topping box office charts in multiple South American territories.

text: Tad, the Lost Explorer was made on a budget of €8 million. It earned €45 million ($60.8 million) worldwide. In Spain, where it was released by

text: Paramount Pictures

text: in 500 theaters, the film held number one spot at the box office for five weeks in a row, and earned a total of €18.0 million ($24,4 million), breaking domestic box office record for a Spanish-animated feature. It became the highest-grossing film of the year in Spain, outgrossing other animated features, including

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted

text: , and

text: Brave

text: . In other countries, the film earned over $36 million, topping box office charts in multiple South American territories.

text: Joints are among the most universal geologic structures as they are found in most every exposure of rock. They vary greatly in appearance, dimensions, and arrangement, and occur in quite different tectonic environments. Often, the specific origin of the stresses that created certain joints and associated joint sets can be quite ambiguous, unclear, and sometimes controversial. The most prominent joints occur in the most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, quartzite, and granite. Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials. Joints, which are infilled by precipitated minerals are called veins and joints filled by solidified magma are called dikes.

text: Joints are among the most universal geologic structures as they are found in most every exposure of rock. They vary greatly in appearance, dimensions, and arrangement, and occur in quite different

text: tectonic

text: environments. Often, the specific origin of the stresses that created certain joints and associated joint sets can be quite ambiguous, unclear, and sometimes controversial. The most prominent joints occur in the most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks, such as

text: sandstone

text: limestone

text: quartzite

text: , and

text: granite

text: . Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials. Joints, which are infilled by precipitated

text: minerals

text: are called

text: veins

text: and joints filled by solidified

text: magma

text: are called

text: dikes

text: 4. Computer-analysis of 934 species of Indian grasses (Clayton & Panigrahi, 1974) established as many as seven endemic centres in the Indian Region, with 41% of species endemics; by the methods of cluster analysis and with the aid of 13 maps and a diagram based on Peter's ranking method, floristic relationships of the Indian grass flora with one or the other of 25 floristic regions delimited in the Old World, excluding the 14 areas in the Indian Region, were worked out. New evidence from computer studies was utilised to support Wagner's 'Theory of Continental Drift' and to include the Khasi-Nagaland-Manipur hill ranges and the Himalayas in the Holarctic Kingdom, although Good (1974) included these areas in the Palaeotropical Kingdom (cf. Takhtajan, 1986, Panigrahi, 1994).

text: This climate type occurs mostly on the outsides of the true deserts, in low-latitude semi-arid steppe regions. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "BSk". (Tropical and Subtropical Steppe Climate).

text: This climate type occurs mostly on the outsides of the true deserts, in low-latitude

text: semi-arid

text: steppe

text: regions. The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: BSk

text: ". (Tropical and Subtropical Steppe Climate).

text: Geophysicist Jack Oliver is credited with providing seismologic evidence supporting plate tectonics which encompassed and superseded continental drift with the article "Seismology and the New Global Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from seismologic stations, including those he set up in the South Pacific.

text: Geophysicist

text: Jack Oliver

text: is credited with providing seismologic evidence supporting plate tectonics which encompassed and superseded continental drift with the article "Seismology and the New Global Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from seismologic stations, including those he set up in the South Pacific.

text: A locally notable feature that crosses the zone of the OWL is the west-east Seattle Fault.  This is not a strike-slip fault, but a thrust fault, where a relatively shallow slab of rock from the south is being pushed against and over the northern part. (And over the OWL.) One model has the slab of rock being forced up by some structure about 8 km deep.  Another model has the base of the slab (again, about 8 km deep) catching on something, which causes the leading edge to roll. The nature of the underlying structure is not known; geophysical data does not indicate a major fault nor any kind of crustal boundary along the front of the Seattle Fault, nor along the OWL, but this could be due to the limited reach of geophysical methods.  Recent geological mapping at the eastern side of the Seattle Fault suggests a decollement (horizontal plane) about 18 km deep.

text: A locally notable feature that crosses the zone of the OWL is the west-east

text: Seattle Fault

text: .  This is not a strike-slip fault, but a

text: thrust fault

text: , where a relatively shallow slab of rock from the south is being pushed against and over the northern part. (And over the OWL.) One model has the slab of rock being forced up by some structure about 8 km deep.  Another model has the base of the slab (again, about 8 km deep) catching on something, which causes the leading edge to roll. The nature of the underlying structure is not known; geophysical data does not indicate a major fault nor any kind of crustal boundary along the front of the Seattle Fault, nor along the OWL, but this could be due to the limited reach of geophysical methods.  Recent geological mapping at the eastern side of the Seattle Fault suggests a

text: decollement

text: (horizontal plane) about 18 km deep.

text: The local climate is mild with few extremes of temperature and ample precipitation in all months. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate). Many areas have rainfall more than 150 days per year, although the precipitation is often of low intensity. Fog is common in autumn and winter, but thunderstorms are infrequent. Strong gales with high winds may be encountered in winter. Temperatures in the winter tend to be mild, while summer temperatures are moderate.

text: The local climate is mild with few extremes of temperature and ample precipitation in all months. The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: Cfb

text: " (Marine West Coast Climate). Many areas have rainfall more than 150 days per year, although the precipitation is often of low intensity. Fog is common in autumn and winter, but thunderstorms are infrequent. Strong gales with high winds may be encountered in winter. Temperatures in the winter tend to be mild, while summer temperatures are moderate.

text: The climate of Dolly Sods is classified as humid continental, similar to portions of Canada.  Daily weather can vary greatly with large extremes in temperature occurring dangerously fast.  Fog can form/roll in extremely quickly, dropping visibility to dangerous, disorienting near-zero conditions.  Access roads can quickly become blocked by dense fog, downed trees from high wind, and snow/snow drifts.

text: The climate of Dolly Sods is classified as

text: humid continental

text: , similar to portions of Canada.  Daily weather can vary greatly with large extremes in temperature occurring dangerously fast.  Fog can form/roll in extremely quickly, dropping visibility to dangerous, disorienting near-zero conditions.  Access roads can quickly become blocked by dense fog, downed trees from high wind, and snow/snow drifts.

text: Plant fossils include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit, pollen, spores, phytoliths, and amber (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments. Pollen, spores and algae (dinoflagellates and acritarchs) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide.

text: Plant

text: fossil

text: s include roots, wood, leaves, seeds, fruit,

text: pollen

text: spore

text: s,

text: phytolith

text: s, and

text: amber

text: (the fossilized resin produced by some plants). Fossil land plants are recorded in terrestrial, lacustrine, fluvial and nearshore marine sediments.

text: Pollen

text: spores

text: and algae (

text: dinoflagellate

text: s and

text: acritarch

text: s) are used for dating sedimentary rock sequences. The remains of fossil plants are not as common as fossil animals, although plant fossils are locally abundant in many regions worldwide.

text: In November 2009, Sykes debuted in her own late-night talk show, The Wanda Sykes Show, which aired Saturday evenings on Fox. The series was cancelled after one season in April 2010. Sykes has also had a successful career in film, appearing in Monster-in-Law, My Super Ex-Girlfriend, Evan Almighty and License to Wed, as well as voiced characters in Over the Hedge, Barnyard, Brother Bear 2, Rio, Ice Age: Continental Drift and Ice Age: Collision Course.

text: In November 2009, Sykes debuted in her own

text: late-night talk show

text: The Wanda Sykes Show

text: , which aired Saturday evenings on

text: Fox

text: . The series was cancelled after one season in April 2010. Sykes has also had a successful career in film, appearing in

text: Monster-in-Law

text: My Super Ex-Girlfriend

text: Evan Almighty

text: and

text: License to Wed

text: , as well as voiced characters in

text: Over the Hedge

text: Barnyard

text: Brother Bear 2

text: Rio

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: and

text: Ice Age: Collision Course

text: Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health effect associated with exposure to static fields. Dynamic magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between electromagnetic radiation and cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations (see Electromagnetic radiation and health).

text: Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health effect associated with exposure to static fields. Dynamic magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between electromagnetic radiation and cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations (see

text: Electromagnetic radiation and health

text: In 1912 Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of Continental Drift.  This theory suggests that the shapes of continents and matching coastline geology between some continents indicates they were joined together in the past and formed a single landmass known as Pangaea; thereafter they separated and drifted like rafts over the ocean floor, currently reaching their present position. Additionally, the theory of continental drift offered a possible explanation as to the formation of mountains; Plate Tectonics built on the theory of continental drift.

text: In 1912

text: Alfred Wegener

text: proposed the theory of

text: Continental Drift

text: .  This theory suggests that the shapes of continents and matching coastline geology between some continents indicates they were joined together in the past and formed a single landmass known as Pangaea; thereafter they separated and drifted like rafts over the ocean floor, currently reaching their present position. Additionally, the theory of continental drift offered a possible explanation as to the formation of mountains;

text: Plate Tectonics

text: built on the theory of continental drift.

text: Continental Charters Flight 44-2 left Pittsburgh at 9:47 pm.   The direct course to Buffalo (heading 018 degrees true) would take the flight slightly east of Jamestown, New York and into Buffalo.  Reports of witnesses on the ground located by accident investigators after the crash indicated that the aircraft began drifting east of the direct route soon after takeoff.  The plane was also reported to have been flying very low and that the weather was very poor, with zero ceiling and visibility along the route.  The plane's flight path, miles east of the direct course, resulted in the aircraft flying over significantly higher terrain, the foothills of the Allegheny Mountains, than the flight would have encountered on the direct route.

text: Continental Charters Flight 44-2 left Pittsburgh at 9:47 pm.   The direct course to Buffalo (heading 018 degrees true) would take the flight slightly east of

text: Jamestown, New York

text: and into Buffalo.  Reports of witnesses on the ground located by accident investigators after the crash indicated that the aircraft began drifting east of the direct route soon after takeoff.  The plane was also reported to have been flying very low and that the weather was very poor, with zero ceiling and visibility along the route.  The plane's flight path, miles east of the direct course, resulted in the aircraft flying over significantly higher terrain, the foothills of the

text: Allegheny Mountains

text: , than the flight would have encountered on the direct route.

text: William Hyde Wollaston, a chemist from Norfolk, discovered palladium in 1802 and rhodium in 1804, and in 1802 discoveredthe features of the Sun's electromagnetic spectrum, known as Fraunhofer lines, allowing the chemical composition of theSun to be determined. In 1938 at Cambridge, Mary Cartwright developed chaos theory with John Edensor Littlewood; Edward Norton Lorenz, a meteorologist from the USA, would mainly develop chaos theory in 1963, and the butterfly effect in 1969. In the 1960s at Cambridge, the scanning electron microscope was developed by Sir Charles Oatley, and first made by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company in 1965. In 1966, Cambridge geophysicists Frederick Vine and Drummond Matthews proved the theory of plate tectonics and continental drift; plate tectonics was first suggested at Cambridge by Dan McKenzie; continental drift had first been proposed, though not extensively proved, by the German Alfred Wegener in 1912.  In 1985, Norwich's Joe Farman discovered the hole in the Ozone layer, when part of Cambridge's British Antarctic Survey.

text: William Hyde Wollaston

text: , a chemist from Norfolk, discovered

text: palladium

text: in 1802 and

text: rhodium

text: in 1804, and in 1802 discoveredthe features of the

text: Sun

text: 's electromagnetic spectrum, known as

text: Fraunhofer lines

text: , allowing the chemical composition of theSun to be determined. In 1938 at Cambridge,

text: Mary Cartwright

text: developed

text: chaos theory

text: with

text: John Edensor Littlewood

text: Edward Norton Lorenz

text: , a

text: meteorologist

text: from the USA, would mainly develop chaos theory in 1963, and the

text: butterfly effect

text: in 1969. In the 1960s at Cambridge, the

text: scanning electron microscope

text: was developed by Sir

text: Charles Oatley

text: , and first made by the

text: Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company

text: in 1965. In 1966, Cambridge geophysicists

text: Frederick Vine

text: and

text: Drummond Matthews

text: proved the theory of

text: plate tectonics

text: and

text: continental drift

text: ; plate tectonics was first suggested at Cambridge by

text: Dan McKenzie

text: ; continental drift had first been proposed, though not extensively proved, by the German

text: Alfred Wegener

text: in 1912.  In 1985, Norwich's

text: Joe Farman

text: discovered the

text: hole

text: in the

text: Ozone layer

text: , when part of Cambridge's

text: British Antarctic Survey

text: The themes of Continental Drift (1985) include globalization and unrest in Haiti. His 2004 novel The Darling (novel) is largely set in Liberia and deals with the racial and political experience of the white American narrator.

text: The themes of

text: Continental Drift

text: (1985) include globalization and unrest in

text: Haiti

text: . His 2004 novel

text: The Darling (novel)

text: is largely set in

text: Liberia

text: and deals with the racial and political experience of the white American narrator.

text: Thunderegg is not synonymous with either geode or agate.  A geode is a simple term for a rock with a hollow in it, often with crystal formation/growth.  A thunderegg on the other hand is a specific geological structure.  A thunderegg may be referred to as a geode if it has a hollow in it (see illustration of Gehlberg specimen), but not all geodes are thundereggs because there are many different ways for a hollow to form.  Similarly, a thunderegg is just one of the forms that agate can assume.

text: Thunderegg is not synonymous with either

text: geode

text: or

text: agate

text: .  A geode is a simple term for a rock with a hollow in it, often with crystal formation/growth.  A thunderegg on the other hand is a specific

text: geological structure

text: .  A thunderegg may be referred to as a geode if it has a hollow in it (see illustration of Gehlberg specimen), but not all geodes are thundereggs because there are many different ways for a hollow to form.  Similarly, a thunderegg is just one of the forms that

text: agate

text: can assume.

text: During the 1920s Continental expanded rapidly, purchasing almost twenty competing companies. It opened its first West Coast plant in 1926. In 1928 Continental acquired the third-largest can company in the country, the United States Can Company. By 1934 Continental and its rival, American Can, were producing approximately two-thirds of the 10 million cans made annually in the country. At this time, the company was operating thirty-eight plants in the United States and Cuba. Continental suffered a drop in its income during the Depression; even so, by 1932 the company had never reported a money-losing year.

text: During the 1920s Continental expanded rapidly, purchasing almost twenty competing companies. It opened its first West Coast plant in 1926. In 1928 Continental acquired the third-largest can company in the country, the

text: United States Can Company

text: . By 1934 Continental and its rival, American Can, were producing approximately two-thirds of the 10 million cans made annually in the country. At this time, the company was operating thirty-eight plants in the United States and

text: Cuba

text: . Continental suffered a drop in its income during

text: the Depression

text: ; even so, by 1932 the company had never reported a money-losing year.

text: Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Homes accepted Wegener’s theory and provided a mechanism: mantle convection, to cause the continents to move.  However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 extremely exciting years where the Theory of Continental Drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern Geology. Beginning in 1947 research  found new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960 Bruce C. Heezen published the concept of mid-ocean ridges.Soon after this, Robert S. Dietz and Harry H. Hess proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in seafloor spreading. This was seen as confirmation of mantle convection and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that oceanic crust is younger than continental crust. This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of paleomagnetism, the record of the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist S. K. Runcorn suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth’s magnetic poles. Tuzo Wilson, who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of transform faults to the model, completing the classes of fault types necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift  was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965  must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community.The abstracts from the symposium are issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn;1965.In this symposium, Edward Bullard and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw Continental Drift as the generally accepted theory.

text: Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Homes accepted Wegener’s theory and provided a mechanism:

text: mantle convection

text: , to cause the continents to move.  However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 extremely exciting years where the Theory of Continental Drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern Geology. Beginning in 1947 research  found new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960

text: Bruce C. Heezen

text: published the concept of

text: mid-ocean ridges.

text: Soon after this,

text: Robert S. Dietz

text: and

text: Harry H. Hess

text: proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in

text: seafloor spreading

text: . This was seen as confirmation of

text: mantle convection

text: and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that

text: oceanic crust

text: is younger than

text: continental crust

text: . This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of

text: paleomagnetism

text: , the record of the orientation of the

text: Earth’s magnetic field

text: recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist

text: S. K. Runcorn

text: suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth’s magnetic poles.

text: Tuzo Wilson,

text: who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of

text: transform faults

text: to the model, completing the classes of

text: fault types

text: necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift  was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965  must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community.The abstracts from the symposium are issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn;1965.In this symposium,

text: Edward Bullard

text: and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw Continental Drift as the generally accepted theory.

text: The first excavation officially began on November 2, 2010. It involved 67 workers from the Denver Museum of Nature & Science working for a total of 18 days. The dig itself only lasted 12 days, ending on November 14, 2010 when the arrival of winter precluded any further efforts. The site and fossils left in situ were protected with frost-free barrier and the recovered fossils taken to the conservation laboratory of the DMNS. More than 600 bones and 130 plant, rock, and invertebrate samples were recovered, including the first mastodon skull ever recovered in Colorado (unearthed a mere day after the beginning of the excavation) and the first remains of a Jefferson's ground sloth (Megalonyx jeffersonii) to be found in the state. Other megafauna recovered included giant bisons (Bison latifrons), two deer-like animals, and more mammoths.

text: The first excavation officially began on November 2, 2010. It involved 67 workers from the Denver Museum of Nature & Science working for a total of 18 days. The dig itself only lasted 12 days, ending on November 14, 2010 when the arrival of winter precluded any further efforts. The site and fossils left in situ were protected with frost-free barrier and the recovered fossils taken to the conservation laboratory of the DMNS. More than 600 bones and 130 plant, rock, and invertebrate samples were recovered, including the first mastodon skull ever recovered in Colorado (unearthed a mere day after the beginning of the excavation) and the first remains of a Jefferson's ground sloth (

text: Megalonyx jeffersonii

text: ) to be found in the state. Other

text: megafauna

text: recovered included

text: giant bison

text: s (

text: Bison latifrons

text: ), two

text: deer

text: -like animals, and more mammoths.

text: One solution to that problem is to simply bend the solenoid around into a ring, closing the ends. However, in this case the magnetic field is no longer uniform. The electrical windings on the inside edge of the toroid are closer together, and further apart on the outside edge. This leads to a weaker field on the outside than the inside. A particle's orbit will have larger curvature on the inner limb of the orbit than on the outer, leading to a net migration away from the center of the torus. These particles will eventually drift out of the confinement area.

text: After confirming their position and planting their flag, Scott's party turned homewards. During the next three weeks they made good progress, Scott's diary recording several "excellent marches". Nevertheless, Scott began to worry about the physical condition of his party, particularly of Edgar Evans who was suffering from severe frostbite and was, Scott records, "a good deal run down." The condition of Oates's feet became an increasing anxiety, as the group approached the summit of the Beardmore Glacier and prepared for the descent to the Barrier. On , they began their descent and had serious difficulty locating a depot. In a brief spell of good weather, Scott ordered a half-day's rest, allowing Wilson to "geologise";   of fossil-bearing samples were added to the sledges. These plant fossils are now known to prove the theory of continental drift.   Edgar Evans's health was deteriorating; a hand injury was failing to heal, he was badly frostbitten, and is thought to have injured his head after several falls on the ice. "He is absolutely changed from his normal self-reliant self", wrote Scott. Near the bottom of the glacier he collapsed, and died on .

text: Spores of land plants, possibly rather like liverworts, have been found in Middle Ordovician rocks dated to about . In Middle Silurian rocks , there are fossils of actual plants including clubmosses such as Baragwanathia; most were under  high, and some appear closely related to vascular plants, the group that includes trees.

text: Spores of land plants, possibly rather like

text: liverworts

text: , have been found in Middle Ordovician rocks dated to about . In

text: Middle Silurian

text: rocks , there are fossils of actual plants including

text: clubmoss

text: es such as

text: Baragwanathia

text: ; most were under  high, and some appear closely related to

text: vascular plant

text: s, the group that includes

text: tree

text: s.

text: Hamilton led a two-man field party in Antarctica (October 1958–January 1959) for the International Geophysical Year, and launched a new understanding of Antarctica. He was the first to apply the name trans-Antarctic Mountains (two years later, formalized as Transantarctic Mountains) to that 3,500 km range. Hamilton recognized that a large sector of this range contained distinctive granitic rocks like South Australia’s Adelaide orogenic belt. Associated fossils of diverse ages in Antarctica, Australia, and southernmost Africa further linked these continents, and supported then-radical explanations of continental drift. Before traveling to Antarctica, Hamilton was what he later described as a “closet drifter,” aware that Southern Hemisphere geology provided powerful evidence favoring continental drift. He returned to Antarctica for fieldwork in 1963 and 1964 in other parts of the Transantarctic Mountains, including those once continuous with other Australian tracts. He also investigated in the field evidence for drift in Australia and South Africa, integrating his work with that of other researchers to show how Antarctica and other Gondwana continents had drifted apart.

text: Hamilton led a two-man field party in Antarctica (October 1958–January 1959) for the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: , and launched a new understanding of Antarctica. He was the first to apply the name trans-Antarctic Mountains (two years later, formalized as

text: Transantarctic Mountains

text: ) to that 3,500 km range. Hamilton recognized that a large sector of this range contained distinctive granitic rocks like South Australia’s

text: Adelaide orogenic belt

text: . Associated fossils of diverse ages in Antarctica, Australia, and southernmost Africa further linked these continents, and supported then-radical explanations of

text: continental drift

text: . Before traveling to Antarctica, Hamilton was what he later described as a “closet drifter,” aware that Southern Hemisphere geology provided powerful evidence favoring

text: continental drift

text: . He returned to Antarctica for fieldwork in 1963 and 1964 in other parts of the Transantarctic Mountains, including those once continuous with other Australian tracts. He also investigated in the field evidence for drift in Australia and South Africa, integrating his work with that of other researchers to show how Antarctica and other

text: Gondwana

text: continents had drifted apart.

text: Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earth's surface and the magnetic bearing will change. Depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, this will affect some runways more than others. For example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, the Runway would still be Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226 (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is quite slow, runway designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an accompanying change in aeronautical charts and descriptive documents. When runway designations do change, especially at major airports, it is often changed at night as taxiway signs need to be changed and the huge numbers at each end of the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for example, London Stansted Airport in the United Kingdom changed its runway designations from 05/23 to 04/22 during the night.

text: Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earth's surface and the

text: magnetic bearing

text: will change. Depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, this will affect some runways more than others. For example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, the Runway would still be Runway 23. If on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226 (Runway 23), and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is quite slow, runway designation changes are uncommon, and not welcomed, as they require an accompanying change in

text: aeronautical chart

text: s and descriptive documents. When runway designations do change, especially at major airports, it is often changed at night as

text: taxiway

text: signs need to be changed and the huge numbers at each end of the runway need to be repainted to the new runway designators. In July 2009 for example,

text: London Stansted Airport

text: in the United Kingdom changed its runway designations from 05/23 to 04/22 during the night.

text: ('the percentage drift') and

text: ('the percentage drift') and

text: The cause of this event was probably a combination of the geological and climatic circumstances. The heavily fissured, more or less porous, rock strata of the so-called Luxembourg Sandstone (geologically part of the Lower Jurassic or German Lias) are laid over keuper beds that tend towards being impervious. As weathering progresses, the structure becomes unstable as a result of the undercutting of the sandstone base. Towards the end of the last glaciation period this undercutting, in combination with extensive frost shattering, reached the point where it caused the aforementioned rock collapse.

text: The cause of this event was probably a combination of the geological and climatic circumstances. The heavily fissured, more or less porous, rock strata of the so-called

text: Luxembourg Sandstone

text: (geologically part of the

text: Lower Jurassic

text: or

text: German Lias

text: ) are laid over

text: keuper

text: beds that tend towards being impervious. As weathering progresses, the structure becomes unstable as a result of the undercutting of the sandstone base. Towards the end of the last glaciation period this undercutting, in combination with extensive

text: frost shattering

text: , reached the point where it caused the aforementioned rock collapse.

text: The effects of repeated glaciation have left their mark on the Superior Upland. The present glacial topography is the product of the most recent glaciation that ended just 10,000 years ago. During the Late Wisconsin, the last glaciation of the Pleistocene Epoch, a massive continental ice sheet grew first in the north, then gradually expanded southward. Several thick finger-like lobes of glacial ice engulfed the region as they moved through the Superior basin. Rocks of all sizes were plucked and scoured from farther north and carried along by the icy mass. When the continental ice sheets melt, they left behind an assortment of rock called glacial drift that covers much of the Superior Upland landscape.

text: The effects of repeated

text: glaciation

text: have left their mark on the Superior Upland. The present glacial topography is the product of the most recent glaciation that ended just 10,000 years ago. During the

text: Late Wisconsin

text: , the last glaciation of the Pleistocene Epoch, a massive continental ice sheet grew first in the north, then gradually expanded southward. Several thick finger-like lobes of glacial ice engulfed the region as they moved through the Superior basin. Rocks of all sizes were plucked and scoured from farther north and carried along by the icy mass. When the continental ice sheets melt, they left behind an assortment of rock called

text: glacial drift

text: that covers much of the Superior Upland landscape.

text: Black Lake is of glacial origin, having been formed by the melting of continental glaciation in the state around 12,000 years ago.

text: Black Lake is of

text: glacial

text: origin, having been formed by the melting of continental glaciation in the state around 12,000 years ago.

text: The immediate ancestry of the cultivated olive is unknown. It is assumed that Olea europaea may have arisen from O. chrysophylla in northern tropical Africa and that it was introduced into the countries of the Mediterranean Basin via Egypt and then Crete or the Levant, Tunisia and Asia Minor. Fossil Olea pollen has been found in Macedonia, and other places around the Mediterranean, indicating that this genus is an original element of the Mediterranean flora. Fossilized leaves of Olea were found in the palaeosols of the volcanic Greek island of Santorini (Thera) and were dated about 37,000 BP. Imprints of larvae of olive whitefly Aleurolobus (Aleurodes) olivinus were found on the leaves. The same insect is commonly found today on olive leaves, showing that the plant-animal co-evolutionary relations have not changed since that time. Other leaves found on the same island are dated back to 60,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean.

text: The immediate ancestry of the cultivated olive is unknown. It is assumed that Olea europaea may have arisen from O. chrysophylla in northern tropical Africa and that it was introduced into the countries of the

text: Mediterranean Basin

text: via

text: Egypt

text: and then

text: Crete

text: or the

text: Levant

text: Tunisia

text: and

text: Asia Minor

text: . Fossil

text: Olea

text: pollen has been found in

text: Macedonia

text: , and other places around the Mediterranean, indicating that this genus is an original element of the Mediterranean flora. Fossilized leaves of Olea were found in the

text: palaeosols

text: of the volcanic Greek island of

text: Santorini

text: Thera

text: ) and were dated about 37,000

text: BP

text: . Imprints of larvae of olive whitefly Aleurolobus (Aleurodes) olivinus were found on the leaves. The same insect is commonly found today on olive leaves, showing that the plant-animal co-evolutionary relations have not changed since that time. Other leaves found on the same island are dated back to 60,000 BP, making them the oldest known olives from the Mediterranean.

text: The larvae feed on Uapaca nitida, Uapaca kirkiana and Uapaca sansibarica.

text: The larvae feed on

text: Uapaca nitida

text: Uapaca kirkiana

text: and

text: Uapaca sansibarica

text: In the adjacent glaciated regions, the glacial retreat left behind drift, which buried all former topographical features.  Surface water was forced to carve out new stream beds.

text: The construction was funded by:

text: The construction was funded by:

text: Namibia won the tournament (its fifth overall, and third consecutive) on points from Uganda, thus qualifying directly for the 2016 ICC Under-19 World Cup in Bangladesh. As runner-up, Uganda qualified for the 2015 Under-19 World Cup Qualifier, along with runners-up at other regional tournaments, with the winner of the World Cup Qualifier securing the final place at the World Cup. Two African under-19 sides, South Africa and Zimbabwe, are ICC full members, and thus qualify directly for the World Cup.

text: Namibia

text: won the tournament (its fifth overall, and third consecutive) on points from

text: Uganda

text: , thus qualifying directly for the

text: 2016 ICC Under-19 World Cup

text: in Bangladesh. As runner-up, Uganda qualified for the

entity_name: 2015 Under-19 Cricket World Cup Qualifier

text: 2015 Under-19 World Cup Qualifier

text: , along with runners-up at other regional tournaments, with the winner of the World Cup Qualifier securing the final place at the World Cup. Two African under-19 sides,

entity_name: South Africa national under-19 cricket team

text: South Africa

text: and

text: Zimbabwe

text: , are ICC full members, and thus qualify directly for the World Cup.

text: That night, Sigi returned home and claimed that Breði had ridden out into the forest, that he had lost sight of Breði, and that he furthermore did not know what became of the thrall. Skaði doubted Sigi's explanation, suspected that Sigi was lying, and that Sigi had instead killed Breði. Skaði gathered men together to look for Breði and the group eventually found the corpse of Breði in a snowdrift. Skaði declared that henceforth the snowdrift should be called "Breði's drift," and ever since then people have referred to large snow drifts by that name. The fact that Sigi murdered Breði was evident, and so Sigi was considered an outlaw. Led by Odin, Sigi leaves the land, and Skaði is not mentioned again in the saga.

text: When Henry Clay Frick died in 1919, he bequeathed  of undeveloped land to the City of Pittsburgh for use as a public park. He provided a $2 million trust fund to assist with the maintenance of the park. Frick Park on the eastern border of the Squirrel Hill neighborhood opened in 1927. Between 1919 and 1942, money from the trust fund was used to enlarge the park, increasing its size to almost . In February 2004, Frick Park grew with the addition of the Nine Mile Run stream restoration area which flows to the Monongahela River. The United States Army Corps of Engineers managed the restoration funded with $5 million in federal money and $2.7 million raised by the city. The restoration was completed in 2006.

text: When

text: Henry Clay Frick

text: died in 1919, he bequeathed  of undeveloped land to the City of Pittsburgh for use as a public park. He provided a $2 million trust fund to assist with the maintenance of the park.

text: Frick Park

text: on the eastern border of the Squirrel Hill neighborhood opened in 1927. Between 1919 and 1942, money from the trust fund was used to enlarge the park, increasing its size to almost . In February 2004, Frick Park grew with the addition of the Nine Mile Run stream restoration area which flows to the

text: Monongahela River

text: . The

text: United States Army Corps of Engineers

text: managed the restoration funded with $5 million in federal money and $2.7 million raised by the city. The restoration was completed in 2006.

text: Bill Peet's original story for the film did not feature King Louie, but did feature a larger monkey without a tail, who was perhaps meant to be their king. Peet left the Disney company due to a dispute he had with Walt Disney regarding the contents of his script, so his ultimate vision for the king of the Bandar-log remains unknown. Development of the story continued following Peet's departure, with his darker story giving way to a new emphasis on lightheartedness and jazzy tunes. It was in this company milieu that King Louie eventually came into being, given life through the voice and personality of popular performer Louis Prima. Personality was also given to Louie by Milt Kahl, Frank Thomas, and John Lounsbery, three of Disney's Nine Old Men who animated the character. Kahl animated Louie's interaction with Mowgli, Thomas his solo song and dance portions, while Lounsbery animated his memorable scat duet with a disguised Baloo.

text: Bill Peet

text: 's original story for the film did not feature King Louie, but did feature a larger monkey without a tail, who was perhaps meant to be their king. Peet left the Disney company due to a dispute he had with

text: Walt Disney

text: regarding the contents of his script, so his ultimate vision for the king of the Bandar-log remains unknown. Development of the story continued following Peet's departure, with his darker story giving way to a new emphasis on lightheartedness and jazzy tunes. It was in this company milieu that King Louie eventually came into being, given life through the voice and personality of popular performer

text: Louis Prima

text: . Personality was also given to Louie by

text: Milt Kahl

text: Frank Thomas

text: , and

text: John Lounsbery

text: , three of

text: Disney's Nine Old Men

text: who animated the character. Kahl animated Louie's interaction with Mowgli, Thomas his solo song and dance portions, while Lounsbery animated his memorable scat duet with a disguised

text: Baloo

text: In stratigraphy and geology, an eonothem is the totality of rock strata laid down in the stratigraphic record deposited during a certain eon of the continuous geologic timescale. The eonothem is not to be confused with the eon itself, which is a corresponding division of geologic time spanning a specific amount of (millions of) years, during which rocks were formed that are classified within the eonothem. In practice, the rock column is discontinuous:

text: In

text: stratigraphy

text: and

text: geology

text: , an eonothem is the totality of

text: rock strata

text: laid down in the

text: stratigraphic

text: record

text: deposited during a certain

text: eon

text: of the

text: continuous

text: geologic timescale

text: . The eonothem is not to be confused with the eon itself, which is a corresponding division of geologic time spanning a specific amount of (millions of) years, during which rocks were formed that are classified within the eonothem. In practice, the rock column is discontinuous:

text: is the unit vector in the direction of the magnetic field. This drift can be decomposed into the sum of the curvature drift and the term

text: In the United States the episode aired on BBC America on the same day it was released in the United Kingdom, as was the case in Canada for Space. 1.3 million viewers saw "The Impossible Astronaut" on BBC America, making it the highest rated telecast in the history of the channel. It was reportedly up by 71,000 from "The Eleventh Hour". When Live + 7 day DVR ratings were added, the total rose to 1.8 million. In Canada, the episode was seen by 538,000, making it the most watched Who episode for the channel, and its most watched telecast in 2011. It was shown on ABC1 in Australia on 30 April 2011, and was viewed by 860,000 from the five capital cities, matching the ratings from "A Christmas Carol" on Boxing Day 2010.

text: In the United States the episode aired on

text: BBC America

text: on the same day it was released in the United Kingdom, as was the case in Canada for

text: Space

text: . 1.3 million viewers saw "The Impossible Astronaut" on BBC America, making it the highest rated telecast in the history of the channel. It was reportedly up by 71,000 from "The Eleventh Hour". When Live + 7 day DVR ratings were added, the total rose to 1.8 million. In Canada, the episode was seen by 538,000, making it the most watched Who episode for the channel, and its most watched telecast in 2011. It was shown on

text: in Australia on 30 April 2011, and was viewed by 860,000 from the five capital cities, matching the ratings from "

text: A Christmas Carol

text: " on

text: Boxing Day

text: In October 2014, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) awarded Kokabee its 2014 Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award "for his courageous stand and willingness to endure imprisonment rather than violate his moral stance that his scientific expertise not be used for destructive purposes and for his efforts to provide hope and education to fellow prisoners".

text: In October 2014, the

entity_name: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

text: awarded Kokabee its 2014 Scientific Freedom and Responsibility Award "for his courageous stand and willingness to endure imprisonment rather than violate his moral stance that his scientific expertise not be used for destructive purposes and for his efforts to provide hope and education to fellow prisoners".

text: From an educator's perspective, most recently, it has been noted that providing effective feedback is more time-consuming (and therefore more expensive) when electronic media are used, in comparison to traditional (e.g. paper-based) assessments. Using e-learning platforms can be more time consuming that traditional methods and can also come with new costs as e-learning platforms and service providers may charge user fees to educators.

text: The geologic record in stratigraphy, paleontology and other natural sciences refers to the entirety of the layers of rock strata — deposits laid down by volcanism or by deposition of sediment derived from weathering detritus (clays, sands etc.) including all its fossil content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth: its past climate, geography, geology and the evolution of life on its surface. According to the law of superposition, sedimentary and volcanic rock layers are deposited on top of each other. They harden over time to become a solidified (competent) rock column, that may be intruded by igneous rocks and disrupted by tectonic events.

text: The geologic record in

text: stratigraphy

text: paleontology

text: and other

text: natural sciences

text: refers to the entirety of the layers of rock

text: strata

text: — deposits laid down by

text: volcanism

text: or by

text: deposition of sediment

text: derived from

text: weathering

text: detritus (

text: clay

text: s,

text: sand

text: s etc.) including all its

text: fossil

text: content and the information it yields about the history of the Earth: its past

text: climate

text: , geography, geology and the

text: evolution

text: of life on its surface. According to the

text: law of superposition

text: sedimentary

text: and

text: volcanic

text: rock layers are deposited on top of each other. They harden over time to become a solidified (

text: competent

text: ) rock column, that may be intruded by

text: igneous rock

text: s and disrupted by

text: tectonic

text: events.

text: Compsoptesis is a genus of flies in the family Tachinidae.

text: Compsoptesis is a genus of

text: flies

text: in the family

text: Tachinidae

text: Climate in Posušje differs from the parts of the community. While in the city of Posušje and Vir in the south is sub-Mediterranean climate (with a continental influence), in the northern part of the municipality, in areas Rakitno, Tribistovo and Blidinje is dominating continental and mountain climate . Therefore, it might have been told Posušje on natural boundary between the sub-Mediterranean and continental climate.

text: The immediate closeness of the ocean makes the climate mild. April to June have the least precipitation, while the wet months are the autumn months. The dominating winds are the southwest winds (mild and moist) and the northeast winds (cold and dry). The North Atlantic Drift (extension of the Gulf Stream) is the reason for the mild climate. The continental shelf rises close to shore outside Vesterålen and have an insignificant impact on the life in the sea.

text: The immediate closeness of the

text: ocean

text: makes the climate mild. April to June have the least precipitation, while the wet months are the autumn months. The dominating winds are the southwest winds (mild and moist) and the northeast winds (cold and dry). The

text: North Atlantic Drift

text: (extension of the

text: Gulf Stream

text: ) is the reason for the mild climate. The

text: continental shelf

text: rises close to shore outside Vesterålen and have an insignificant impact on the life in the sea.

text: Although it is possible to predict the drift, there will be minor variations from this basic model, accounted for by gimbal error (operating the aircraft away from the local horizontal), among others. A common source of error here is the improper setting of the latitude nut (to the opposite hemisphere for example). The table however allows one to gauge whether an indicator is behaving as expected, and as such, is compared with the realignment corrections made with reference to the magnetic compass. Transport wander is an undesirable consequence of apparent drift.

text: Jonathan Chimier (born 6 August 1982) is a Mauritian long jumper who won the 2004 African Championships in Athletics.

text: Jonathan Chimier (born 6 August 1982) is a

text: Mauritian

text: long jump

text: er who won the

text: 2004 African Championships in Athletics

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift had its premiere on June 20, 2012, at the CineEurope film distributors' trade fair in Barcelona. It publicly premiered on June 27, 2012, in Belgium, Egypt, France, Switzerland, and Trinidad, and was released on July 13, 2012, in the USA. The film is accompanied by the short animated film The Longest Daycare featuring Maggie Simpson.

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift had its premiere on June 20, 2012, at the

text: CineEurope

text: film distributors' trade fair in Barcelona. It publicly premiered on June 27, 2012, in Belgium, Egypt, France, Switzerland, and Trinidad, and was released on July 13, 2012, in the USA. The film is accompanied by the short animated film

text: The Longest Daycare

text: featuring

text: Maggie Simpson

text: Balance of plant (BOP) is a term generally used in the context of power engineering to refer to all the supporting components and auxiliary systems of a power plant needed to deliver the energy, other than the generating unit itself. These may include transformers, inverters, supporting structures etc., depending on the type of plant.

text: Balance of plant (BOP) is a term generally used in the context of

text: power engineering

text: to refer to all the supporting components and auxiliary systems of a power plant needed to deliver the energy, other than the generating unit itself. These may include

text: transformer

text: s,

text: inverter

text: s, supporting structures etc., depending on the type of plant.

text: Wujiquan (Chinese (無極拳): Pinyin: Wujiquan; Wade-Giles: Wu Chi Chuan ): ‘Ultimate Void Boxing’: A Rare and Secret Ultimate Void Boxing Skill, and Mother Art of Taijiquan; from Wuji comes Tai-ji The Wujiquan System is composed of 36 ‘Characters’: 18 kinds of natural climatic phenomena, and 18 of Qi applications.

text: Wujiquan (Chinese (無極拳):

text: Pinyin

text: : Wujiquan;

text: Wade-Giles

text: : Wu Chi Chuan ): ‘Ultimate Void Boxing’: A Rare and Secret Ultimate Void Boxing Skill, and Mother Art of Taijiquan; from Wuji comes Tai-ji The Wujiquan System is composed of 36 ‘Characters’: 18 kinds of natural climatic phenomena, and 18 of Qi applications.

text: Title 54 of the United States Code (54 U.S.C.), entitled National Park Service and Related Programs, is the compilation of the general laws regarding the National Park Service. It is the newest title in the United States Code, added on December 19, 2014, when U.S. President Barack Obama signed  into law. It has three subtitles:

text: Title 54 of the United States Code (54 U.S.C.), entitled National Park Service and Related Programs, is the compilation of the general laws regarding the

text: National Park Service

text: . It is the newest title in the

text: United States Code

text: , added on December 19, 2014, when

text: U.S. President

text: Barack Obama

text: signed  into law. It has three subtitles:

text: The Longest Daycare was first announced to the public in a title card at the end of the series' twenty-third season finale "Lisa Goes Gaga" that aired on May 20, 2012. It was revealed that the short would be shown in theaters in the United States prior to screenings of the film Ice Age: Continental Drift, starting on July 13, 2012. Like The Simpsons, Ice Age: Continental Drift was produced by 20th Century Fox. A teaser trailer for The Longest Daycare, lasting approximately five seconds, was released on July 3, 2012. This was the second time that characters from The Simpsons appeared on the big screen, as The Simpsons Movie was released in 2007. Coincidentally, the trailer for that film was first attached to screenings of the Continental Drift predecessor Ice Age: The Meltdown.

text: The Longest Daycare was first announced to the public in a title card at the end of the series' twenty-third season finale "

text: Lisa Goes Gaga

text: " that aired on May 20, 2012. It was revealed that the short would be shown in theaters in the United States prior to screenings of the film

text: Ice Age: Continental Drift

text: , starting on July 13, 2012. Like The Simpsons, Ice Age: Continental Drift was produced by

text: 20th Century Fox

text: . A teaser trailer for The Longest Daycare, lasting approximately five seconds, was released on July 3, 2012. This was the second time that characters from The Simpsons appeared on the big screen, as

text: The Simpsons Movie

text: was released in 2007. Coincidentally, the trailer for that film was first attached to screenings of the Continental Drift predecessor

text: Ice Age: The Meltdown

text: This climate type is usually found in the outskirts of true deserts in low-latitude, semiarid regions.  It has a cooler, wetter winter resulting from the higher latitude and mid-latitude frontal cyclone activity. Annual precipitation totals are greater than in tropical and subtropical desert climates. Yearly variations in amount are not as extreme as in the true deserts but are nevertheless large. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "BSk". (Tropical and Subtropical Steppe Climate).

text: This climate type is usually found in the outskirts of true deserts in low-latitude,

text: semiarid

text: regions.  It has a cooler, wetter winter resulting from the higher latitude and mid-latitude frontal cyclone activity. Annual precipitation totals are greater than in tropical and subtropical desert climates. Yearly variations in amount are not as extreme as in the true deserts but are nevertheless large. The

text: Köppen Climate Classification

text: subtype for this climate is "

text: BSk