text: of, on average, 45 mmHg (6 kPa), while the pressure in the alveolar air is 105 mmHg, there will be a net diffusion of oxygen into the capillary blood, changing the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air slightly. Similarly, since the blood arriving in the pulmonary capillaries has a

method: dangnt-nlp

text: An arterial blood gas (ABG) test is a blood gas test of blood from an artery; it is thus a blood test that measures the amounts of certain gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) dissolved in arterial blood. An ABG test involves puncturing an artery with a thin needle and syringe and drawing a small volume of blood. The most common puncture site is the radial artery at the wrist, but sometimes the femoral artery in the groin or other sites are used. The blood can also be drawn from an arterial catheter. An ABG test measures the blood gas tension values of arterial oxygen tension (Pa

text: An arterial blood gas (ABG) test is a

entity_name: Blood gas

text: blood gas

text: test of

entity_name: Blood

text: blood

text: from an

entity_name: Artery

text: artery

text: ; it is thus a

entity_name: Blood test

text: blood test

text: that measures the amounts of certain

entity_name: Gas

text: gas

text: es (such as

entity_name: Oxygen

text: oxygen

text: and

entity_name: Carbon dioxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) dissolved in arterial blood. An ABG test involves puncturing an artery with a thin

entity_name: Hypodermic needle

text: needle

text: and

entity_name: Syringe

text: syringe

text: and drawing a small volume of blood. The most common puncture site is the

entity_name: Radial artery

text: radial artery

text: at the

entity_name: Wrist

text: wrist

text: , but sometimes the

entity_name: Femoral artery

text: femoral artery

text: in the

entity_name: Groin

text: groin

text: or other sites are used. The blood can also be drawn from an

entity_name: Arterial line

text: arterial catheter

text: . An ABG test measures the

entity_name: Blood gas tension

text: blood gas tension

text: values of arterial oxygen tension (Pa

method: UNH-ecn

text: Cholinergic nerves play an important role in the normal function of the central nervous, endrocrine, neuromuscular, immunological, and respiratory system. As all cholinergic fibers contain high concentrations of ACh and AChE at their terminals, inhibition of AChE can impair their function. So exposure to azinphosmethyl, whereas it inhibits AChEs, may disturb a lot of important systems and may have various effects.In the autonomic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine leads to the overstimulation of muscarinic receptors of the parasympathetic nervous system. This can affect exocrine glands (increased salivation, perspiration, lacrimation), the respiratory system (excessive bronchial secretions, tightness of the chest, and wheezing), the gastrointestinal tract (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), the eyes (miosis, blurred vision) and the cardiovascular system (decrease in blood pressure, and bradycardia). Overstimulation of the nicotinic receptors in the para- or sympathic nervous system may also cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, such as pallor, tachycardia and increased blood pressure. In the somatic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine may cause muscle fasciculation, paralysis, cramps, and flaccig or rigid tone. Overstimulation of the nerves in the central nervous system, specifically in the brain, may result in drowsiness, mental confusion and lethargy. More severe effects on the central nervous system include a state of coma without reflexes, cyanosis and depression of the respiratory centers. Thus the inhibition of the enzyme AChE may have a lot of different effects.

text: Cholinergic nerves play an important role in the normal function of the central nervous, endrocrine, neuromuscular, immunological, and respiratory system. As all cholinergic fibers contain high concentrations of ACh and AChE at their terminals, inhibition of AChE can impair their function. So exposure to azinphosmethyl, whereas it inhibits AChEs, may disturb a lot of important systems and may have various effects.In the autonomic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine leads to the overstimulation of muscarinic receptors of the parasympathetic nervous system. This can affect exocrine glands (increased

entity_name: Saliva

text: salivation

entity_name: Perspiration

text: perspiration

entity_name: Tears

text: lacrimation

text: ), the respiratory system (excessive

entity_name: Bronchus

text: bronchial

text: secretions, tightness of the chest, and wheezing), the gastrointestinal tract (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), the eyes (

entity_name: Miosis

text: miosis

text: , blurred vision) and the cardiovascular system (decrease in blood pressure, and

entity_name: Bradycardia

text: bradycardia

text: ). Overstimulation of the nicotinic receptors in the para- or sympathic nervous system may also cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, such as pallor, tachycardia and increased blood pressure. In the somatic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine may cause muscle fasciculation, paralysis, cramps, and

text: flaccig

text: or rigid tone. Overstimulation of the nerves in the central nervous system, specifically in the brain, may result in drowsiness, mental confusion and lethargy. More severe effects on the central nervous system include a state of coma without reflexes, cyanosis and depression of the respiratory centers. Thus the inhibition of the enzyme AChE may have a lot of different effects.

method: UNH-qee

text: The term myeloid (myelo- + -oid) is an adjective that in its broadest sense means either "resembling bone marrow" or "pertaining to bone marrow", and the related adjective myelogenous (myelo- + -genous) means "arising from bone marrow". In hematopoiesis, both terms refer to blood cells that arise from a progenitor cell for granulocytes, monocytes, erythrocytes, or platelets (the common myeloid progenitor or CMP) and often even more specifically to the lineage of the myeloblast (the myelocytes, monocytes, and their daughter types); thus, although all blood cells, even lymphocytes, are born in the bone marrow, myeloid cells in the narrowest sense of the term can be distinguished from lymphoid cells, that is, lymphocytes, which come from common lymphoid progenitor cells (CLPs) that give rise to B cells and T cells. Those cells' differentiation (that is, lymphopoiesis) is not complete until they migrate to lymphatic organs such as the spleen and thymus for programming by antigen challenge. Thus, among leukocytes, the term myeloid is associated with the innate immune system, in contrast to lymphoid, which is associated with the adaptive immune system. Similarly, myelogenous usually refers to nonlymphocytic white blood cells, and erythroid can often be used to distinguish "erythrocyte-related" from that sense of myeloid and from lymphoid. The word myelopoiesis has several senses in a way that parallels those of myeloid, and myelopoiesis in the narrower sense is the regulated formation specifically of myeloid leukocytes (myelocytes), allowing that sense of myelopoiesis to be contradistinguished from erythropoiesis and lymphopoiesis (even though all blood cells are produced in the marrow).

text: The term myeloid (

text: myelo-

text: -oid

text: ) is an adjective that in its broadest

entity_name: Word sense

text: sense

text: means either "resembling

entity_name: Bone marrow

text: bone marrow

text: " or "pertaining to bone marrow", and the related adjective myelogenous (myelo- +

text: -genous

text: ) means "arising from bone marrow". In

entity_name: Haematopoiesis

text: hematopoiesis

text: , both terms refer to

entity_name: Blood cell

text: blood cell

text: s that arise from a

entity_name: Progenitor cell

text: progenitor cell

text: for

entity_name: Granulocyte

text: granulocyte

text: s,

entity_name: Monocyte

text: monocyte

text: s,

text: erythrocyte

text: s, or

entity_name: Platelet

text: platelet

text: s (the

entity_name: CFU-GEMM

text: common myeloid progenitor

text: or CMP) and often even more specifically to the lineage of the

entity_name: Myeloblast

text: myeloblast

text: (the

entity_name: Myelocyte

text: myelocyte

text: s,

text: monocyte

text: s, and their daughter types); thus, although all blood cells, even

entity_name: Lymphocyte

text: lymphocyte

text: s, are born in the bone marrow, myeloid cells in the narrowest sense of the term can be distinguished from

text: lymphoid

text: cells, that is, lymphocytes, which come from common lymphoid progenitor cells (CLPs) that give rise to

entity_name: B cell

text: B cell

text: s and

entity_name: T cell

text: T cell

text: s. Those cells'

entity_name: Cellular differentiation

text: differentiation

text: (that is,

entity_name: Lymphopoiesis

text: lymphopoiesis

text: ) is not complete until they migrate to

entity_name: Lymphatic system

text: lymphatic

text: organs such as the

entity_name: Spleen

text: spleen

text: and

entity_name: Thymus

text: thymus

text: for programming by

entity_name: Antigen

text: antigen

text: challenge. Thus, among

entity_name: White blood cell

text: leukocytes

text: , the term myeloid is associated with the

entity_name: Innate immune system

text: innate immune system

text: , in contrast to lymphoid, which is associated with the

entity_name: Adaptive immune system

text: adaptive immune system

text: . Similarly, myelogenous usually refers to nonlymphocytic white blood cells, and erythroid can often be used to distinguish "erythrocyte-related" from that sense of myeloid and from lymphoid. The word

entity_name: Myelopoiesis

text: myelopoiesis

text: has several senses in a way that parallels those of myeloid, and myelopoiesis in the narrower sense is the regulated formation specifically of myeloid leukocytes (myelocytes), allowing that sense of myelopoiesis to be contradistinguished from

entity_name: Erythropoiesis

text: erythropoiesis

text: and lymphopoiesis (even though all blood cells are produced in the marrow).

text: The fitting characteristic of a respirator tight fitting face-piece is the ability of respirator's mask to separate a worker's respiratory system from polluted surrounding air. This is achieved through tightly pressing the mask flush against the face (without gaps) to ensure an efficient seal on the perimeter of their contact. Because the workers cannot be protected if there are gaps, it is necessary to test the efficiency of the mask before any employees enter into contaminated workplace air. Such gap, or leakage, search (fit test) may be performed in different ways.

text: The fitting characteristic of a

entity_name: Respirator

text: respirator

text: tight fitting face-piece is the ability of respirator's mask to separate a worker's

entity_name: Respiratory system

text: respiratory system

text: from polluted surrounding air. This is achieved through tightly pressing the mask flush against the face (without gaps) to ensure an efficient seal on the perimeter of their contact. Because the workers cannot be protected if there are gaps, it is necessary to test the efficiency of the mask before any employees enter into contaminated workplace air. Such gap, or leakage, search (fit test) may be performed in different ways.

text: Radon has a short half-life (3.8 days) and decays into other solid particulate radium-series radioactive nuclides.Two of these decay products, polonium-218 and 214, present a significant radiologic hazard.If the gas is inhaled, the radon atoms decay in the airways or the lungs, resulting in radioactive polonium and ultimately lead atoms attaching to the nearest tissue. If dust or aerosol is inhaled that already carries radon decay products, the deposition pattern of the decay products in the respiratory tract depends on the behaviour of the particles in the lungs. Smaller diameter particles diffuse further into the respiratory system, whereas the larger — tens to hundreds of micron-sized — particles often deposit higher in the airways and are cleared by the body's mucociliary staircase. Deposited radioactive atoms or dust or aerosol particles continue to decay, causing continued exposure by emitting energetic alpha radiation with some associated gamma radiation too, that can damage vital molecules in lung cells,by either creating free radicals or causing DNA breaks or damage,perhaps causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous. In addition, through ingestion and blood transport, following crossing of the lung membrane by radon, radioactive progeny may also be transported to other parts of the body.

text: Radon has a short half-life (3.8 days) and decays into other solid particulate

entity_name: Decay chain

entity_section: Radium series

text: radium-series

text: radioactive nuclides.Two of these decay products, polonium-218 and 214, present a significant radiologic hazard.If the gas is inhaled, the radon atoms decay in the airways or the lungs, resulting in radioactive polonium and ultimately lead atoms attaching to the nearest tissue. If dust or aerosol is inhaled that already carries radon decay products, the deposition pattern of the decay products in the respiratory tract depends on the behaviour of the particles in the lungs. Smaller diameter particles diffuse further into the respiratory system, whereas the larger — tens to hundreds of micron-sized — particles often deposit higher in the airways and are cleared by the body's mucociliary staircase. Deposited radioactive atoms or dust or aerosol particles continue to decay, causing continued exposure by emitting energetic

entity_name: Alpha decay

text: alpha radiation

text: with some associated gamma radiation too, that can damage vital molecules in lung cells,by either creating

entity_name: Radical (chemistry)

text: free radical

text: s or causing

entity_name: DNA

text: DNA

text: breaks or damage,perhaps causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous. In addition, through ingestion and blood transport, following crossing of the lung membrane by radon, radioactive progeny may also be transported to other parts of the body.

text: Marine arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus to the Japanese spider crab. Arthropods' primary internal cavity is a hemocoel, which accommodates their internal organs, and through which their haemolymph - analogue of blood - circulates; they have open circulatory systems. Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their nervous system is "ladder-like", with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and forming paired ganglia in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus. The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong.

text: Marine arthropods range in size from the microscopic

entity_name: Crustacean

text: crustacean

entity_name: Stygotantulus

text: Stygotantulus

text: to the

entity_name: Japanese spider crab

text: Japanese spider crab

text: . Arthropods' primary internal cavity is a

entity_name: Circulatory system

entity_section: Open circulatory system

text: hemocoel

text: , which accommodates their internal

entity_name: Organ (anatomy)

text: organs

text: , and through which their

entity_name: Hemolymph

text: haemolymph

text: - analogue of

text: blood

text: - circulates; they have

text: open circulatory systems

text: . Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their

entity_name: Nervous system

text: nervous system

text: is "ladder-like", with paired

entity_name: Anatomical terms of location

entity_section: Dorsal and ventral

text: ventral

entity_name: Ventral nerve cord

text: nerve cords

text: running through all segments and forming paired

entity_name: Ganglion

text: ganglia

text: in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their

entity_name: Brain

text: brain

text: s are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the

entity_name: Esophagus

text: esophagus

text: . The

text: respiratory

text: and

entity_name: Excretion

text: excretory

text: systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the

entity_name: Subphylum

text: subphylum

text: to which they belong.

text: Morphology of the ostrich lung indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other avian species, but still retains parts of its primitive avian species, ratite, structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the laryngeal cavity lying posterior to the choanae within the buccal cavity. The tip of the tongue then lies anterior to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies ventrally to the cervical vertebrae extending from the larynx to the syrinx, where the trachea enters the thorax, dividing into two primary bronchi, one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi. Ten different air sacs attach to the lungs to form areas for respiration. The most posterior air sacs (abdominal and post-thoracic) differ in that the right abdominal air sac is relatively small, lying to the right of the mesentery, and dorsally to the liver. While the left abdominal air sac is large and lies to the left of the mesentery. The connection from the main mesobronchi to the more anterior air sacs including the interclavicular, lateral clavicular, and pre-thoracic sacs known as the ventrobronchi region. While the caudal end of the mesobronchus branches into several dorsobronchi. Together, the ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi are connected by intra-pulmonary airways, the parabronchi, which form an arcade structure within the lung called the paleopulmo. It is the only structure found in primitive birds such as ratites. The largest air sacs found within the respiratory system are those of the post-thoracic region, while the others decrease in size respectively, the interclavicular (unpaired), abdominal, pre-thoracic, and lateral clavicular sacs. The adult ostrich lung lacks connective tissue known as interparabronchial septa, which render strength to the non-compliant avian lung in other bird species. Due to this the lack of connective tissue surrounding the parabronchi and adjacent parabronchial lumen, they exchange blood capillaries or avascular epithelial plates. Like mammals, ostrich lungs contain an abundance of type II cells at gas exchange sites; an adaptation for preventing lung collapse during slight volume changes.

text: Morphology of the ostrich

entity_name: Lung

text: lung

text: indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other

entity_name: Bird anatomy

text: avian species

text: , but still retains parts of its primitive avian species,

entity_name: Ratite

text: ratite

text: , structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the

entity_name: Larynx

text: laryngeal

text: cavity lying posterior to the

entity_name: Posterior nasal apertures

text: choanae

text: within the

entity_name: Mouth

text: buccal cavity

text: . The tip of the tongue then lies

text: anterior

text: to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies

text: ventrally

text: to the cervical vertebrae extending from the

text: larynx

text: to the

entity_name: Syrinx (bird anatomy)

text: syrinx

text: , where the trachea enters the

entity_name: Thorax

text: thorax

text: , dividing into two primary

text: bronchi

text: , one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi. Ten different air sacs attach to the lungs to form areas for respiration. The most

text: posterior

entity_name: Air sacs

text: air sacs

text: (abdominal and post-thoracic) differ in that the right abdominal air sac is relatively small, lying to the right of the

entity_name: Mesentery

text: mesentery

text: , and

text: dorsally

text: to the liver. While the left abdominal air sac is large and lies to the left of the mesentery. The connection from the main mesobronchi to the more

text: anterior

text: air sacs including the

text: interclavicular

text: , lateral clavicular, and pre-thoracic sacs known as the ventrobronchi region. While the

text: caudal

text: end of the mesobronchus branches into several dorsobronchi. Together, the ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi are connected by intra-pulmonary airways, the

text: parabronchi

text: , which form an arcade structure within the lung called the paleopulmo. It is the only structure found in primitive birds such as ratites. The largest air sacs found within the respiratory system are those of the post-thoracic region, while the others decrease in size respectively, the

text: interclavicular

text: (unpaired), abdominal, pre-thoracic, and lateral clavicular sacs. The adult ostrich lung lacks connective tissue known as interparabronchial septa, which render strength to the non-compliant avian lung in other bird species. Due to this the lack of connective tissue surrounding the parabronchi and adjacent parabronchial lumen, they exchange blood capillaries or

text: avascular

text: epithelial plates. Like mammals, ostrich lungs contain an abundance of type II cells at gas exchange sites; an adaptation for preventing lung collapse during slight volume changes.

text: The act of taking a breath is controlled by the respiratory center of the brain, which decides the characteristics of each breath, timing and size. The respiratory center sends a signal along the phrenic nerve, excites the diaphragm muscle cells, leading to muscle contraction and descent of the diaphragm dome. As a result, the pressure in the airway drops, causing an inflow of air into the lungs.

text: The National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC) Inc. is a non-profit organization formed in 1960 with the purpose of awarding and maintaining credentialing for Respiratory Therapists in the United States.  The NBRC is the only organization in the United States which develops certification examinations for Registered Respiratory Therapists (RRTs) and Certified Respiratory Therapists (CRTs).  The NBRC also offers additional specialization credentialing for respiratory practitioners that hold its certifications.  The CRT and RRT designations are the standard credential in respiratory care for licensure requirements in the portions of the United States that have enacted a Respiratory Care Act.  States that license respiratory therapists sometimes require the practitioner to maintain their NBRC credentialing to maintain their license to practice.  The NBRC is headquartered in Olathe, Kansas.  It has been in the Kansas City metropolitan area since 1974.  Both the NBRC and Applied Measurement Professionals, Inc. (AMP), are located at 18000 W. 105th St., Olathe, Kansas 66061-7543.

text: The National Board for Respiratory Care (NBRC) Inc. is a

text: non-profit

text: organization formed in 1960 with the purpose of awarding and maintaining credentialing for

text: Respiratory Therapist

text: s in the

text: United States

text: .  The NBRC is the only organization in the United States which develops certification examinations for

text: Registered Respiratory Therapist

text: s (RRTs) and

text: Certified Respiratory Therapist

text: s (CRTs).  The NBRC also offers additional specialization credentialing for

text: respiratory practitioner

text: s that hold its certifications.  The CRT and RRT designations are the standard credential in respiratory care for licensure requirements in the portions of the

text: United States

text: that have enacted a

text: Respiratory Care Act

text: .  States that license

text: respiratory therapist

text: s sometimes require the practitioner to maintain their NBRC credentialing to maintain their license to practice.  The NBRC is headquartered in

text: Olathe, Kansas

text: .  It has been in the

text: Kansas City metropolitan area

text: since 1974.  Both the NBRC and

text: Applied Measurement Professionals

text: , Inc. (AMP), are located at 18000 W. 105th St., Olathe, Kansas 66061-7543.

text: The main consequence of impaired ciliary function is reduced or absent mucus clearance from the lungs, and susceptibility to chronic recurrent respiratory infections, including sinusitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, and otitis media.  Progressive damage to the respiratory system is common, including progressive bronchiectasis beginning in early childhood, and sinus disease (sometimes becoming severe in adults).  However, diagnosis is often missed early in life despite the characteristic signs and symptoms. In males, immotility of sperm can lead to infertility, although conception remains possible through the use of in vitro fertilization and, as well as this, there have been reported cases where sperm were able to move. Trials have also shown that there is a marked reduction in fertility in female sufferers of Kartagener's Syndrome due to dysfunction of the oviductal cilia.

text: The main consequence of impaired ciliary function is reduced or absent

text: mucus

text: clearance from the

text: lung

text: s, and susceptibility to chronic recurrent respiratory infections, including

text: sinusitis

text: bronchitis

text: pneumonia

text: , and

text: otitis media

text: .  Progressive damage to the respiratory system is common, including progressive bronchiectasis beginning in early childhood, and sinus disease (sometimes becoming severe in adults).  However, diagnosis is often missed early in life despite the characteristic signs and symptoms. In males, immotility of sperm can lead to

text: infertility

text: , although conception remains possible through the use of

text: in vitro fertilization

text: and, as well as this, there have been reported cases where sperm were able to move. Trials have also shown that there is a marked reduction in fertility in female sufferers of Kartagener's Syndrome due to dysfunction of the oviductal cilia.

text: Complex I () (also referred to as NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase or, especially in the context of the human protein, NADH dehydrogenase) is an enzyme of the respiratory chains of myriad organisms from bacteria to humans that falls under the H or Na-translocating NADH Dehydrogenase (NDH) Family (TC# 3.D.1), a member of the Na transporting Mrp superfamily. It catalyzes the transfer of electrons from NADH to coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) and, in eukaryotes, it is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductases type I of bacteria and of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts couple electron transfer to the electrogenic transport of protons or Na. It is one of the "entry enzymes" of cellular respiration or oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria.

text: Complex I () (also referred to as NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase or, especially in the context of the human protein, NADH dehydrogenase) is an

text: enzyme

text: of the

text: respiratory chain

text: s of myriad organisms from bacteria to humans that falls under the H or Na-translocating NADH Dehydrogenase (NDH) Family (TC# 3.D.1), a member of the

text: Na transporting Mrp superfamily

text: . It catalyzes the transfer of

text: electron

text: s from

text: NADH

text: to

text: coenzyme Q10

text: (CoQ10) and, in eukaryotes, it is located in the inner

text: mitochondria

text: l membrane. NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductases type I of bacteria and of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts couple electron transfer to the electrogenic transport of protons or Na. It is one of the "entry enzymes" of

text: cellular respiration

text: or

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: in the mitochondria.

text: A severe case of an allergic reaction, caused by symptoms affecting the respiratory tract and blood circulation, is called anaphylaxis.  When symptoms are related to a drop in blood pressure, the person is said to be in anaphylactic shock. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show symptoms.  This occurs because no nutrients are circulated throughout the body, causing the widening of blood vessels.  This vasodilation causes blood pressure to decrease, which leads to the loss of consciousness.    Those with asthma or an allergy to peanuts, tree nuts, or seafood are at greater risk for anaphylaxis.

text: A severe case of an allergic reaction, caused by symptoms affecting the respiratory tract and blood circulation, is called

text: anaphylaxis

text: .  When symptoms are related to a drop in blood pressure, the person is said to be in

text: anaphylactic shock

text: . Anaphylaxis occurs when

text: IgE antibodies

text: are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show symptoms.  This occurs because no nutrients are circulated throughout the body, causing the widening of

text: blood vessels

text: .  This vasodilation causes

text: blood pressure

text: to decrease, which leads to the loss of

text: consciousness

text: .    Those with

text: asthma

text: or an allergy to peanuts, tree nuts, or seafood are at greater risk for anaphylaxis.

text: The exchange is performed manually. It refers to manually phlebotomizing a percentage of the patient’s blood prior to or concomitantly with giving a red cell transfusion.

text: Comparing distinctions between immune cells’ overall transcriptional program can generate plots that position each cell type to best reflect its expression profile relative to all other cells and can reveal interesting relationships between cell types. For example, the transcriptional profiles from thymic medullary epithelial immune cells mapped closer to lymphocytes than to other epithelia. This can suggest that a functional interaction exists between these two cells type and requires the sharing of particular transcripts and proteins.  When comparing gene expression profiles from cells of the blood system, T-cell and B-cell subsets tightly group with their respective cell types.

text: Many infants are infected by older siblings or caregivers that don't even know they have the disease. The bacteria is spread through respiratory secretions, often through coughing or sneezing, or just from breathing in the bacteria while around someone who is infected. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of the Pertussis vaccine is dependent on herd immunity, if pertussis is circulating in the community it is still possible for a vaccinated individual, of any age, to become ill. However, those that are vaccinated may have a less severe infection.

text: Many infants are infected by older siblings or caregivers that don't even know they have the disease. The bacteria is spread through respiratory secretions, often through coughing or sneezing, or just from breathing in the bacteria while around someone who is infected. Unfortunately, the effectiveness of the Pertussis vaccine is dependent on

text: herd immunity

text: , if pertussis is circulating in the community it is still possible for a vaccinated individual, of any age, to become ill. However, those that are vaccinated may have a less severe infection.

text: Heat recovery ventilation (HRV), also known as mechanical ventilation heat recovery (MVHR), is an energy recovery ventilation system using equipment known as a heat recovery ventilator, heat exchanger, air exchanger, or air-to-air heat exchanger which employs a cross flow or counter-flow heat exchanger (countercurrent heat exchange) between the inbound and outbound air flow.<ref>Most HRVs are balanced ventilators in which heat is transferred from one airstream to another. These balanced HRVs are often called air-to-air heat exchangers (AAHXs). Central-exhaust heat-pump water heaters are HRVs but they are not AAHXs because they transfer heat from one airstream into water, not between two airstreams. Another term often used is energy recovery ventilator (ERV). All HRVs transfer sensible heat from one airstream to another or to water. If latent heat is also transferred, then an HRV can be called an ERV. While there are specific differences between these different terms, many people use HRV, AAHX, and ERV interchangeably.  The Healthy House Institute. Staff. "ERV". Understanding Ventilation: How to Design, Select, and Install Residential Ventilation Systems. June 4, 2009. December 9, 2009.

text: Heat recovery ventilation (HRV), also known as mechanical ventilation heat recovery (MVHR), is an

text: energy recovery

text: ventilation

text: system using equipment known as a heat recovery ventilator,

text: heat exchanger

text: , air exchanger, or

text: air-to-air heat exchanger

text: which employs a cross flow or

text: counter-flow

text: heat exchanger (countercurrent heat exchange) between the inbound and outbound air flow.<ref>Most HRVs are balanced ventilators in which heat is transferred from one airstream to another. These balanced HRVs are often called air-to-air heat exchangers (AAHXs). Central-exhaust heat-pump water heaters are HRVs but they are not AAHXs because they transfer heat from one airstream into water, not between two airstreams. Another term often used is energy recovery ventilator (ERV). All HRVs transfer sensible heat from one airstream to another or to water. If latent heat is also transferred, then an HRV can be called an ERV. While there are specific differences between these different terms, many people use HRV, AAHX, and ERV interchangeably.  The Healthy House Institute. Staff. "ERV". Understanding Ventilation: How to Design, Select, and Install Residential Ventilation Systems. June 4, 2009. December 9, 2009.

text: Cough receptors project to relay neurones in the solitary nucleus, which project to other parts of the respiratory networks. In particular, the pre-Bötzinger complex may act as a pattern generator for the cough response. Parts of the caudal medullary raphe nucleus (nucleus raphe obscurus and nucleus raphe magnus) are known to be essential for the cough response. Other systems that may be involved in pattern generation and regulation are the pontine respiratory group, the lateral tegmental field and the deep cerebellar nuclei. Successful joint models of medullary systems coordinating breathing, coughing and swallowing has been constructed based on this model.

text: Cough receptors project to relay neurones in the

text: solitary nucleus

text: , which project to other parts of the respiratory networks. In particular, the

text: pre-Bötzinger complex

text: may act as a pattern generator for the cough response. Parts of the caudal medullary

text: raphe nucleus

text: nucleus raphe obscurus

text: and

text: nucleus raphe magnus

text: ) are known to be essential for the cough response. Other systems that may be involved in pattern generation and regulation are the

text: pontine respiratory group

text: , the

text: lateral tegmental field

text: and the deep

text: cerebellar nuclei

text: . Successful joint models of medullary systems coordinating breathing, coughing and swallowing has been constructed based on this model.

text: Bjørn Aage Ibsen (1915–2007) graduated in 1940 from medical school at the University of Copenhagen and trained in anesthesiology from 1949 to 1950 at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston.  He became involved in the 1952 poliomyelitis outbreak in Denmark, where 2722 patients developed the illness in a 6-month period, with 316 suffering respiratory or airway paralysis.  Treatment had involved the use of the few negative pressure respirators available, but these devices, while helpful, were limited and did not protect against aspiration of secretions. Ibsen changed management directly, instituting protracted positive pressure ventilation by means of intubation into the trachea, and enlisting 200 medical students to manually pump oxygen and air into the patients' lungs. At this time Carl-Gunnar Engström had developed one of the first positive pressure volume controlled ventilators, which eventually replaced the medical students. In this fashion, mortality declined from 90% to around 25%.  Patients were managed in three special 35-bed areas, which aided charting and other management. In 1953, Ibsen set up what became the world's first Medical/Surgical ICU in a converted student nurse classroom in Kommunehospitalet (The Municipal Hospital) in Copenhagen, and provided one of the first accounts of the management of tetanus with muscle relaxants and controlled ventilation. In 1954 Ibsen was elected Head of the Department of Anaesthesiology at that institution. He jointly authored the first known account of ICU management principles in Nordisk Medicin, 18 September 1958: ‘Arbejdet på en Anæsthesiologisk Observationsafdeling’ (‘The Work in an Anaesthesiologic Observation Unit’) with Tone Dahl Kvittingen from Norway. He died in 2007.

text: Bjørn Aage Ibsen

text: These are practices involving regulation of breath. These enhance the performance of the respiratory and circulatory systems and help to control the mind.

text: Animals with respiratory turbinates can breathe faster without drying out their lungs, and consequently can have a faster metabolism. For example, when the emu exhales, its nasal turbinates condense moisture from the air and absorbs it for reuse. Dogs and other canids possess well-developed nasal turbinates. These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their maxilloturbinate (turbinates positioned on maxilla bone) surfaces in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric gray wolf ancestors) to survive in the harsh Arctic environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.

text: Animals with respiratory turbinates can breathe faster without drying out their lungs, and consequently can have a faster metabolism. For example, when the

text: emu

text: exhales, its nasal turbinates condense moisture from the air and absorbs it for reuse.

text: Dog

text: s and other

text: canid

text: s possess well-developed nasal turbinates. These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their

text: maxilloturbinate

text: (turbinates positioned on

text: maxilla

text: bone) surfaces in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric

text: gray wolf

text: ancestors) to survive in the harsh

text: Arctic

text: environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.

text: This type of rebreather works on the principle of adding fresh gas to compensate for reduced volume in the breathing circuit. A portion of the respired gas is discharged that is in some way proportional to usage. Generally it is a fixed volumetric fraction of the respiratory flow, but more complex systems have been developed which exhaust a close approximation of a ratio to the surface respiratory flow rate. These are described as depth compensated or partially depth compensated systems. Gas addition is triggered by low counterlung volume.

text: Health problems associated with high levels of airborne mold spores include allergic reactions, asthma episodes, irritations of the eye, nose and throat, sinus congestion, and other respiratory problems, although it should be noted that mold spores won't actually cause asthma, just irritate existing conditions.  For example, residents of homes with mold are at an elevated risk for both respiratory infections and bronchitis. When mold spores are inhaled by an immunocompromised individual, some mold spores may begin to grow on living tissue, attaching to cells along the respiratory tract and causing further problems.  Generally, when this occurs, the illness is an epiphenomenon and not the primary pathology. Also, mold may produce mycotoxins, either before or after exposure to humans, potentially causing toxicity.

text: Health problems associated with high levels of airborne

text: mold spore

text: s include

text: allergic reaction

text: s,

text: asthma

text: episodes, irritations of the eye, nose and throat,

text: sinus

text: congestion, and other respiratory problems, although it should be noted that mold spores won't actually cause asthma, just irritate existing conditions.  For example, residents of homes with mold are at an elevated risk for both respiratory infections and bronchitis. When mold spores are inhaled by an

text: immunocompromise

text: d individual, some mold spores may begin to grow on living tissue, attaching to cells along the

text: respiratory tract

text: and causing further problems.  Generally, when this occurs, the illness is an

text: epiphenomenon

text: and not the primary pathology. Also, mold may produce mycotoxins, either before or after exposure to humans, potentially causing toxicity.

text: Blood flow to skin and fat are affected by skin and core temperature, and resting muscle perfusion is controlled by the temperature of the muscle itself. During exercise increased flow to the working muscles is often balanced by reduced flow to other tissues, such as kidneys spleen and liver. Blood flow to the muscles is also lower in cold water, but exercise keeps the muscle warm and flow elevated even when the skin is chilled. Blood flow to fat normally increases during exercise, but this is inhibited by immersion in cold water. Adaptation to cold reduces the extreme vasoconstriction which usually occurs with cold water immersion. Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present. Inert gas exchange is least favourable for the diver who is warm and exercises at depth during the ingassing phase, and rests and is cold during decompression.

text: Demand oxygen delivery systems (DODS) or oxygen resuscitators deliver oxygen only when the person inhales, or, in the case of an non-breathing people, the caregiver presses a button on the mask. These systems greatly conserve oxygen compared to steady-flow masks, which is useful in emergency situations when a limited supply of oxygen is available and there is a delay in transporting the patient to higher care. They are very useful in performing CPR, as the caregiver can deliver rescue breaths composed of 100% oxygen with the press of a button. Care must be taken not to over-inflate the patient's lungs, and some systems employ safety valves to help prevent this. These systems may not be appropriate for unconscious patients or those in respiratory distress, because of the effort required to breathe from them.

text: Demand oxygen delivery systems

text: (DODS) or

text: oxygen resuscitators

text: deliver oxygen only when the person inhales, or, in the case of an non-breathing people, the caregiver presses a button on the mask. These systems greatly conserve oxygen compared to steady-flow masks, which is useful in emergency situations when a limited supply of oxygen is available and there is a delay in transporting the patient to higher care. They are very useful in performing

text: CPR

text: , as the caregiver can deliver rescue breaths composed of 100% oxygen with the press of a button. Care must be taken not to over-inflate the patient's lungs, and some systems employ safety valves to help prevent this. These systems may not be appropriate for unconscious patients or those in respiratory distress, because of the effort required to breathe from them.

text: Turbinates are thin bones or cartilages that come in two types, with two functions. Nasal olfactory turbinates are found in all living tetrapods and function in smell. Respiratory turbinates function to prevent water loss through evaporation and are found only in birds and mammals, modern endotherms (warm-blooded animals) who could lose a great deal of water while breathing because they breathe more often than comparably sized ectotherms (cold-blooded animals) to support their higher metabolism. Ruben and others in 1996 concluded that respiratory turbinates were probably not present in Nanotyrannus, Ornithomimus or Hypacrosaurus based on CT scanning, thus there was no evidence that those animals were warm-blooded.

text: Turbinates are thin bones or

text: cartilage

text: s that come in two types, with two functions. Nasal

text: olfactory

text: turbinates are found in all living

text: tetrapod

text: s and function in smell. Respiratory turbinates function to prevent water loss through evaporation and are found only in

text: bird

text: s and

text: mammal

text: s, modern

text: endotherms

text: (warm-blooded animals) who could lose a great deal of water while breathing because they breathe more often than comparably sized

text: ectotherm

text: s (cold-blooded animals) to support their higher

text: metabolism

text: . Ruben and others in 1996 concluded that respiratory turbinates were probably not present in

text: Nanotyrannus

text: Ornithomimus

text: or Hypacrosaurus based on

text: CT scanning

text: , thus there was no evidence that those animals were warm-blooded.

text: The respiratory tract can also be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone, based on the distinction of transporting gases versus exchanging them.

text: The respiratory tract can also be divided into a

text: conducting zone

text: and a

text: respiratory zone

text: , based on the distinction of transporting gases versus

text: exchanging

text: them.

text: Hypercapnia is generally defined as a blood gas carbon dioxide level over 45 mmHg. Since carbon dioxide is in equilibrium with carbonic acid in the blood, hypercapnia can drive serum pH down, resulting in a respiratory acidosis. Clinically, the effect of hypercapnia on pH is estimated using the ratio of the arterial pressure of carbon dioxide to the concentration of bicarbonate ion, PCO/[HCO].

text: Hypercapnia is generally defined as a

text: blood gas

text: carbon dioxide level over 45 mmHg. Since carbon dioxide is in equilibrium with

text: carbonic acid

text: in the blood, hypercapnia can drive serum pH down, resulting in a

text: respiratory acidosis

text: . Clinically, the effect of hypercapnia on pH is estimated using the ratio of the arterial pressure of carbon dioxide to the concentration of bicarbonate ion, PCO/[HCO].

text: While the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the bloodstream and the pulmonary airspace works by diffusion and requires no external work, air must be moved into and out of the lungs to make it available to the gas exchange process. In spontaneous breathing, a negative pressure is created in the pleural cavity by the muscles of respiration, and the resulting gradient between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside the thorax generates a flow of air.

text: While the exchange of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: between the bloodstream and the pulmonary airspace works by

text: diffusion

text: and requires no external work, air must be moved into and out of the

text: lungs

text: to make it available to the

text: gas exchange

text: process. In spontaneous breathing, a negative pressure is created in the

text: pleural cavity

text: by the muscles of respiration, and the resulting gradient between the

text: atmospheric pressure

text: and the pressure inside the

text: thorax

text: generates a flow of air.

text: Experts believed that the measurement of protection factors in the laboratory allows them to correctly evaluate, predict the RPD efficiency in the workplace conditions. But after the detection of cases of excessive harmful exposure on employees who used high quality respirators with HEPA particle filters in the nuclear industry of the USA, the experts changed their opinion. Studies have been carried out to measure the protection factors for the various types of respirators - not only in the laboratories, but also at the workplaces. Dozens of such field studies have shown that the performance of serviceable respiratory protective equipment at the workplaces may be significantly less than in laboratory conditions. Therefore, the usage of laboratory results to assess the real efficiency is incorrect; and can lead to a wrong choice of such respirators that can not reliably protect workers.

text: Experts believed that the measurement of protection factors in the laboratory allows them to correctly evaluate, predict the RPD efficiency in the workplace conditions. But after the detection of cases of excessive harmful exposure on employees who used high quality respirators with

text: HEPA

text: particle filters in the

text: nuclear industry

text: of the USA, the experts changed their opinion.

text: Studies have been carried out to measure the protection factors for the various types of respirators - not only in the laboratories, but also at the workplaces

text: . Dozens of such field studies have shown that the performance of serviceable respiratory protective equipment at the workplaces may be significantly less than in laboratory conditions. Therefore, the usage of laboratory results to assess the real efficiency is incorrect; and can lead to a wrong choice of such respirators that can not reliably protect workers.

text: If a human's exposure to tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate is acute, then the resulting symptoms can include sweating, dizziness, contracted pupils, headaches, severe weakness, muscle spasms, seizures, and comas. Other possible symptoms from exposure to the chemical include confusion and psychosis, abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and diarrhea and fecal incontinence. Hypotension and hypertension both occur when humans are exposed to tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate. The heart rate decreases when the chemical is exposed to the skin, but increases when exposed orally. Damage to the respiratory system caused by exposure to the chemical includes dyspnea, respiratory depression, pulmonary edema, and respiratory paralysis. However, the effects of tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate poisoning can take up to 12 hours to occur.

text: If a human's exposure to tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate is

text: acute

text: , then the resulting

text: symptom

text: s can include

text: sweating

text: dizziness

text: , contracted

text: pupils

text: headache

text: s, severe

text: weakness

text: muscle spasm

text: s,

text: seizure

text: s, and

text: coma

text: s. Other possible symptoms from exposure to the chemical include

text: confusion

text: and

text: psychosis

text: abdominal pain

text: nausea

text: and

text: vomiting

text: anorexia

text: , and

text: diarrhea

text: and

text: fecal incontinence

text: Hypotension

text: and

text: hypertension

text: both occur when humans are exposed to tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate. The heart rate decreases when the chemical is exposed to the skin, but increases when exposed orally. Damage to the

text: respiratory system

text: caused by exposure to the chemical includes

text: dyspnea

text: respiratory depression

text: pulmonary edema

text: , and

text: respiratory paralysis

text: . However, the effects of tetraethyl dithiopyrophosphate poisoning can take up to 12 hours to occur.

text: Aerobic respiration takes sugars and oxygen to create carbon dioxide, water, and energy.

text: JSD was first presented by Michael A. Jackson in 1982, in a paper called "A System Development Method". and in 1983 in System Development.Jackson System Development (JSD) is a method of system development that covers the software life cycle either directly or, by providing a framework into which more specialized techniques can fit. Jackson System Development can start from the stage in a project when there is only a general statement of requirements. However, many projects that have used Jackson System Development actually started slightly later in the life cycle, doing the first steps largely from existing documents rather than directly with the users. The later steps of JSD produce the code of the final system. Jackson’s first method, Jackson Structured Programming (JSP), is used to produce the final code. The output of the earlier steps of JSD are a set of program design problems, the design of which is the subject matter of JSP. Maintenance is also addressed by reworking whichever of the earlier steps are appropriate.

text: Irregular respirations occur when injury to parts of the brain interfere with the respiratory drive. Biot's respiration, in which breathing is rapid for a period and then absent for a period, occurs because of injury to the cerebral hemispheres or diencephalon. Hyperventilation can occur when the brain stem or tegmentum is damaged.

text: Irregular respirations occur when injury to parts of the brain interfere with the respiratory drive.

text: Biot's respiration

text: , in which breathing is rapid for a period and then absent for a period, occurs because of injury to the

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: s or

text: diencephalon

text: Hyperventilation

text: can occur when the

text: brain stem

text: or

text: tegmentum

text: is damaged.

text: Acid–base imbalance occurs when a significant insult causes the blood pH to shift out of the normal range (7.35 to 7.45).  In the fetus, the normal range differs based on which umbilical vessel is sampled (umbilical vein pH is normally 7.25 to 7.45; umbilical artery pH is normally 7.18 to 7.38).  An excess of acid in the blood is called acidemia and an excess of base is called alkalemia. The process that causes the imbalance is classified based on the etiology of the disturbance (respiratory or metabolic) and the direction of change in pH (acidosis or alkalosis). There are four basic processes: metabolic acidosis, respiratory acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, and respiratory alkalosis. One or a combination may occur at any given time.

text: Acid–base imbalance

text: occurs when a significant insult causes the blood pH to shift out of the normal range (7.35 to 7.45).  In the

text: fetus

text: , the normal range differs based on which umbilical vessel is sampled (

text: umbilical vein

text: pH is normally 7.25 to 7.45;

text: umbilical artery

text: pH is normally 7.18 to 7.38).  An excess of acid in the blood is called

text: acidemia

text: and an excess of base is called

text: alkalemia

text: . The process that causes the imbalance is classified based on the

text: etiology

text: of the disturbance (respiratory or metabolic) and the direction of change in pH (acidosis or alkalosis). There are four basic processes:

text: metabolic acidosis

text: respiratory acidosis

text: metabolic alkalosis

text: , and

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: . One or a combination may occur at any given time.

text: Dominating qi has two aspects: dominating the qi of respiration and dominating the qi of the entire body. Dominating the qi of respiration means the lung is a respiratory organ through which the qi of the exterior and the qi from the interior are able to mingle. Via the lung, the body inhales clear qi from the natural environment and exhales waste qi from the interior of the body. Dominating qi of the entire body means that the function of the lung in respiration greatly influences the functional activities of the body, and is closely related to the formation of pectoral qi, which is formed from the combination of the essential qi of water and food, and the clear qi inhaled by the lung. When the lung’s function of dominating qi is normal, the passage of qi will be unobstructed and respiration will be normal and smooth. Deficiency of lung qi may lead to general fatigue, feeble speech, weak respiration, shortness of breath and excessive perspiration.

text: In adults when 100% Oxygen (O2) (1.00 Fi) is used initially, it is easy to calculate the next Fi to be used and easy to estimate the shunt fraction. The estimated shunt fraction refers to the amount of oxygen not being absorbed into the circulation. In normal physiology, gas exchange (oxygen/carbon dioxide) occurs at the level of the alveoli in the lungs. The existence of a shunt refers to any process that hinders this gas exchange, leading to wasted oxygen inspired and the flow of un-oxygenated blood back to the left heart (which ultimately supplies the rest of the body with unoxygenated blood).

text: In adults when 100% Oxygen (O2) (1.00 Fi) is used initially, it is easy to calculate the next Fi to be used and easy to estimate the shunt fraction. The estimated shunt fraction refers to the amount of oxygen not being absorbed into the circulation. In normal physiology, gas exchange (oxygen/carbon dioxide) occurs at the level of the

text: alveoli

text: in the lungs. The existence of a shunt refers to any process that hinders this gas exchange, leading to wasted oxygen inspired and the flow of un-oxygenated blood back to the left heart (which ultimately supplies the rest of the body with unoxygenated blood).

text: To understand how changes in respiration might affect blood pH, consider the effects of ventilation on P in the lungs. If one were to hold his or her breath (or breathe very slowly, as in the case of respiratory depression), the blood would continue delivering carbon dioxide to the alveoli in the lungs, and the amount of carbon dioxide in the lungs would increase. On the other hand, if one were to hyperventilate, then fresh air would be drawn into the lungs and carbon dioxide would rapidly be blown out. In the first case, because carbon dioxide is accumulating in the lungs, alveolar P would become very high. In the second case, because carbon dioxide is rapidly exiting the lungs, alveolar P would be very low. Note that these two situations, those of respiratory depression and hyperventilation, produce effects that are immediately analogous to the experiment described previously, in which the partial pressures of carbon dioxide were varied and the resulting changes in pH observed. As indicated by the Davenport Diagram, respiratory depression, which results in a high P, will lower blood pH. Hyperventilation will have the opposite effects. A decrease in blood pH due to respiratory depression is called respiratory acidosis. An increase in blood pH due to hyperventilation is called respiratory alkalosis (Fig. 11).

text: To understand how changes in respiration might affect

text: blood pH

text: , consider the effects of

text: ventilation

text: on P in the lungs. If one were to hold his or her breath (or breathe very slowly, as in the case of

text: respiratory depression

text: ), the blood would continue delivering carbon dioxide to the alveoli in the lungs, and the amount of carbon dioxide in the lungs would increase. On the other hand, if one were to

text: hyperventilate

text: , then fresh air would be drawn into the lungs and carbon dioxide would rapidly be blown out. In the first case, because carbon dioxide is accumulating in the lungs, alveolar P would become very high. In the second case, because carbon dioxide is rapidly exiting the lungs, alveolar P would be very low. Note that these two situations, those of respiratory depression and hyperventilation, produce effects that are immediately analogous to the experiment described previously, in which the partial pressures of carbon dioxide were varied and the resulting changes in pH observed. As indicated by the Davenport Diagram, respiratory depression, which results in a high P, will lower blood pH. Hyperventilation will have the opposite effects. A decrease in blood pH due to respiratory depression is called respiratory acidosis. An increase in blood pH due to hyperventilation is called respiratory alkalosis (Fig. 11).

text: The initial stage of research yielded the following results: experts developed a common terminology to describe the protective properties of the respirators; a methodology for measuring protection factors in different conditions of respirators' usage in the workplaces and laboratories; and the realization that national legislation should set limits for the use of all types of respirators based on their performance, measured not in the laboratory, but in the workplaces. The first studies also clearly confirmed that the use of respirators is the most unreliable method of protecting workers from all known methods. Therefore, respirators should be used only when other methods can not be used; or when other methods can not reduce the exposure of air pollution on people to an acceptable safe level.

text: The initial stage of research yielded the following results: experts developed a common terminology to describe the protective properties of the respirators; a methodology for measuring protection factors in different conditions of respirators' usage in the workplaces and laboratories; and the realization that national legislation should set limits for the use of all types of respirators based on their performance, measured not in the laboratory, but in the workplaces. The first studies also clearly confirmed that the use of respirators is

text: the most unreliable method of protecting workers

text: from all known methods. Therefore, respirators should be used only when other methods can not be used; or when other methods can not reduce the exposure of air pollution on people to an acceptable safe level.

text: The upper respiratory tract, can refer to the parts of the respiratory system lying above the sternal angle (outside of the thorax), above the glottis (vocal cords), or above the cricoid cartilage. The larynx is sometimes included in both the upper and lower airways. The larynx is also called the voice box and has the associated cartilage that produces sound. The tract consists of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, the pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx) and sometimes includes the larynx.

text: The upper respiratory tract, can refer to the parts of the

text: respiratory system

text: lying above the

text: sternal angle

text: (outside of the

text: thorax

text: ), above the

text: glottis

text: vocal cord

text: s), or above the

text: cricoid cartilage

text: . The

text: larynx

text: is sometimes included in both the upper and lower airways. The larynx is also called the voice box and has the associated cartilage that produces sound. The tract consists of the

text: nasal cavity

text: and

text: paranasal sinus

text: es, the

text: pharynx

text: nasopharynx

text: oropharynx

text: and

text: laryngopharynx

text: ) and sometimes includes the larynx.

text: A discrete-time random process involves a system which is in a certain state at each step, with the state changing randomly between steps. The steps are often thought of as moments in time, but they can equally well refer to physical distance or any other discrete measurement. Formally, the steps are the integers or natural numbers, and the random process is a mapping of these to states. The Markov property states that the conditional probability distribution for the system at the next step (and in fact at all future steps) depends only on the current state of the system, and not additionally on the state of the system at previous steps.

text: A discrete-time random process involves a system which is in a certain state at each step, with the state changing randomly between steps. The steps are often thought of as moments in time, but they can equally well refer to physical distance or any other discrete measurement. Formally, the steps are the

text: integers

text: or

text: natural numbers

text: , and the random process is a mapping of these to states. The Markov property states that the

text: conditional probability distribution

text: for the system at the next step (and in fact at all future steps) depends only on the current state of the system, and not additionally on the state of the system at previous steps.

text: In aerobic respiration, oxygen serves as the recipient of electrons from the electron transport chain.  Aerobic respiration is thus very efficient because oxygen is a strong oxidant. Aerobic respiration proceeds in a series of steps, which also increases efficiency - since glucose is broken down gradually and ATP is produced as needed, less energy is wasted as heat.  This strategy results in the waste products HO and CO being formed in different amounts at different phases of respiration.  CO is formed in Pyruvate decarboxylation, HO is formed in oxidative phosphorylation, and both are formed in the citric acid cycle. The simple nature of the final products also indicates the efficiency of this method of respiration.  All of the energy stored in the carbon-carbon bonds of glucose is released, leaving CO and HO.  Although there is energy stored in the bonds of these molecules, this energy is not easily accessible by the cell.  All usable energy is efficiently extracted.

text: In aerobic respiration, oxygen serves as the recipient of electrons from the

text: electron transport chain

text: .  Aerobic respiration is thus very efficient because oxygen is a strong

text: oxidant

text: . Aerobic respiration proceeds in a series of steps, which also increases efficiency - since glucose is broken down gradually and ATP is produced as needed, less energy is wasted as heat.  This strategy results in the waste products HO and CO being formed in different amounts at different phases of respiration.  CO is formed in

text: Pyruvate decarboxylation

text: , HO is formed in

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: , and both are formed in the

text: citric acid cycle

text: . The simple nature of the final products also indicates the efficiency of this method of respiration.  All of the energy stored in the carbon-carbon bonds of glucose is released, leaving CO and HO.  Although there is energy stored in the bonds of these molecules, this energy is not easily accessible by the cell.  All usable energy is efficiently extracted.

text: The PRG antagonizes the apneustic center, cyclically inhibiting inhalation.  The PRG limits the burst of action potentials in the phrenic nerve, effectively decreasing the tidal volume and regulating the respiratory rate.  Absence of the PRG results in an increase in depth of respiration and a decrease in respiratory rate.

text: The PRG antagonizes the

text: apneustic center

text: , cyclically inhibiting

text: inhalation

text: .  The PRG limits the burst of action potentials in the

text: phrenic nerve

text: , effectively decreasing the

text: tidal volume

text: and regulating the respiratory rate.  Absence of the PRG results in an increase in depth of respiration and a decrease in respiratory rate.

text: The physiological definition of respiration should not be confused with the biochemical definition, which refers to cellular respiration, a metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy (in the form of ATP) by oxidizing nutrients and releasing waste products. Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place in individual cells of the organism, while physiologic respiration concerns the bulk flow and transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment.

text: The physiological definition of respiration should not be confused with the

text: biochemical

text: definition, which refers to

text: cellular respiration

text: , a

text: metabolic

text: process by which an

text: organism

text: obtains energy (in the form of

text: ATP

text: ) by

text: oxidizing

text: nutrients and releasing waste products. Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place in individual cells of the organism, while physiologic respiration concerns the

text: bulk flow

text: and transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment.

text: ). This information determines the average medium term rate of ventilation of the alveoli of the lungs, to keep the arterial  and  constant. The respiratory center does so via motor neurons which activate the skeletal muscles of respiration (in particular the diaphragm). Sections through the medulla oblongata and pons suggest that the respiratory center consists of a pneumotaxic center, an apneustic center, and a dorsal and ventral respiratory groups . This latter group is especially sensitive during infancy, and the neurons can be destroyed if the infant is dropped and/or shaken violently. The result can be death due to "shaken baby syndrome".

text: ). This information determines the average medium term rate of ventilation of the

text: alveoli

text: of the

text: lungs

text: , to keep the

text: arterial  and  constant

text: . The respiratory center does so via

text: motor neuron

text: s which activate the

text: skeletal muscle

text: s of respiration (in particular the

text: diaphragm

text: ). Sections through the medulla oblongata and pons suggest that the respiratory center consists of a

text: pneumotaxic center

text: , an

text: apneustic center

text: , and a

text: dorsal

text: and

text: ventral respiratory group

text: s . This latter group is especially sensitive during infancy, and the neurons can be destroyed if the infant is dropped and/or shaken violently. The result can be death due to "

text: shaken baby syndrome

text: Malignant tumors of the respiratory system, particularly primary carcinomas of the lung, are a major health problem responsible for 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 30% of all cancer deaths. The majority of respiratory system cancers are attributable to smoking tobacco.

text: Malignant tumors of the respiratory system, particularly

text: primary carcinomas of the lung

text: , are a major health problem responsible for 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 30% of all cancer deaths. The majority of respiratory system cancers are attributable to smoking

text: tobacco

text: Inflammation, such as that caused by sepsis, causes endothelial dysfunction, fluid leakage from the capillaries and impaired drainage of fluid from the lungs. Elevated inspired oxygen concentration often becomes necessary at this stage, and may facilitate a 'respiratory burst' in immune cells. In a secondary phase, endothelial dysfunction causes cells and inflammatory exudate to enter the alveoli. This pulmonary edema increases the thickness of the alveolocapillary space, increasing the distance the oxygen must diffuse to reach the blood, which impairs gas exchange leading to hypoxia, increases the work of breathing and eventually induces fibrosis of the airspace.

text: Inflammation, such as that caused by sepsis, causes endothelial dysfunction, fluid leakage from the capillaries and impaired drainage of fluid from the lungs. Elevated inspired oxygen concentration often becomes necessary at this stage, and may facilitate a '

text: respiratory burst

text: ' in immune cells. In a secondary phase, endothelial dysfunction causes cells and inflammatory exudate to enter the alveoli. This

text: pulmonary edema

text: increases the thickness of the alveolocapillary space, increasing the distance the oxygen must diffuse to reach the blood, which impairs gas exchange leading to hypoxia, increases the work of breathing and eventually induces

text: fibrosis

text: of the airspace.

text: Although some disagreement exists on the exact boundary between the upper and lower respiratory tracts, the upper respiratory tract is generally considered to be the airway above the glottis or vocal cords. This includes the nose, sinuses, pharynx, and larynx.

text: Although some disagreement exists on the exact boundary between the upper and lower respiratory tracts, the

text: upper respiratory tract

text: is generally considered to be the airway above the

text: glottis

text: or vocal cords. This includes the

text: nose

text: sinuses

text: pharynx

text: , and

text: larynx

text: Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea (element 8 in numbered diagram). Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system has no veins or arteries, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube which pulses peristaltically. Toward the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) divides into chambers and acts like the insect's heart. The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the hemolymph, arthropods' fluid analog of blood, inside the body cavity. Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called spiracles.

text: Insect respiration

text: is accomplished without

text: lung

text: s. Instead, the

text: insect respiratory system

text: uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their

text: trachea

text: (element 8 in numbered diagram). Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system has no

text: vein

text: s or

text: arteries

text: , and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube which pulses

text: peristaltically

text: . Toward the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) divides into chambers and acts like the insect's heart. The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the

text: hemolymph

text: , arthropods' fluid analog of

text: blood

text: , inside the body cavity. Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called

text: spiracle

text: s.

text: Some of the automated systems such as the systems from MATLAB allow the cells to be counted without having to stain them. This lets the colonies to be reused for other experiments without the risk of killing the microorganisms with stains. However, a disadvantage to these automated systems is that it is extremely difficult to differentiate between the microorganisms with dust or scratches on blood agar plates because both the dust and scratches can create a highly diverse combination of shapes and appearances.

text: An insect's respiratory system is the biological system with which it introduces respiratory gases to its interior and performs gas exchange.

text: An

text: insect

text: 's

text: respiratory system

text: is the

text: biological system

text: with which it introduces respiratory

text: gas

text: es to its interior and performs

text: gas exchange

text: An alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin alveolus, "little cavity") is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity. Found in the lung parenchyma, the pulmonary alveoli are the terminal ends of the respiratory tree, which outcrop from either alveolar sacs or alveolar ducts, which are both sites of gas exchange with the blood as well. Alveoli are particular to mammalian lungs. Different structures are involved in gas exchange in other vertebrates. The alveolar membrane is the gas-exchange surface. Carbon dioxide rich blood is pumped from the rest of the body into the alveolar blood vessels where, through diffusion, it releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen.

text: An alveolus (plural: alveoli, from Latin alveolus, "little cavity") is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity. Found in the

text: lung parenchyma

text: , the pulmonary alveoli are the terminal ends of the

text: respiratory tree

text: , which outcrop from either

text: alveolar sacs

text: or

text: alveolar ducts

text: , which are both sites of

text: gas exchange

text: with the

text: blood

text: as well. Alveoli are particular to

text: mammal

text: ian

text: lungs

text: . Different structures are involved in gas exchange in other vertebrates. The alveolar membrane is the gas-exchange surface. Carbon dioxide rich blood is pumped from the rest of the body into the

text: alveolar blood vessels

text: where, through

text: diffusion

text: , it releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen.

text: Substantial physiological changes may occur in fish with high tissue concentrations of selenium.  Fish affected by selenium may experience swelling of the gill lamellae, which impedes oxygen diffusion across the gills and blood flow within the gills.  Respiratory capacity is further reduced due to selenium binding to hemoglobin.  Other problems include degeneration of liver tissue, swelling around the heart, damaged egg follicles in ovaries, cataracts, and accumulation of fluid in the body cavity and head.  Selenium often causes a malformed fish fetus which may have problems feeding or respirating, distortion of the fins or spine is also common.  Adult fish may appear healthy despite their inability to produce viable offspring.

text: Substantial physiological changes may occur in fish with high tissue concentrations of selenium.  Fish affected by selenium may experience swelling of the gill

text: lamella

text: e, which impedes oxygen diffusion across the gills and blood flow within the gills.  Respiratory capacity is further reduced due to selenium binding to

text: hemoglobin

text: .  Other problems include degeneration of liver tissue, swelling around the heart, damaged egg follicles in ovaries, cataracts, and accumulation of fluid in the body cavity and head.  Selenium often causes a malformed fish fetus which may have problems feeding or respirating, distortion of the fins or spine is also common.  Adult fish may appear healthy despite their inability to produce viable offspring.

text: Some invertebrates have "lungs" that serve a similar respiratory purpose as, but are not evolutionarily related to, vertebrate lungs. Some arachnids, spiders and scorpions, have structures called "book lungs" used for atmospheric gas exchange. Some species of spider have four pairs of book lungs but most have two pairs. Scorpions have spiracles on their body for the entrance of air to the book lungs.

text: Some

text: invertebrate

text: s have "lungs" that serve a similar respiratory purpose as, but are not evolutionarily related to, vertebrate lungs. Some

text: arachnid

text: s,

text: spider

text: s and

text: scorpion

text: s, have structures called "

text: book lung

text: s" used for atmospheric gas exchange. Some species of spider have four pairs of book lungs but most have two pairs. Scorpions have

text: spiracle

text: s on their body for the entrance of air to the book lungs.

text: Based on the principles of the Fick equation, the rate of the gas diffusion across the gas exchange membrane is directly proportional to the respiratory surface area, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane. Tunas have highly specialized gills, with a surface area 7–9 times larger than that of other aquatic environment organisms. This increased surface area allows more oxygen to be in contact with the respiratory surface and therefore diffusion to take place more quickly (as represented by the direct proportionality in the Fick equation). This massive increase in surface area of the gills of the southern bluefin tuna is due to a higher density of secondary lamella in the gill filaments.

text: Based on the principles of the

text: Fick equation

text: , the rate of the gas diffusion across the gas exchange membrane is directly proportional to the respiratory surface area, and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane. Tunas have highly specialized gills, with a surface area 7–9 times larger than that of other aquatic environment organisms. This increased surface area allows more oxygen to be in contact with the respiratory surface and therefore diffusion to take place more quickly (as represented by the direct proportionality in the Fick equation). This massive increase in surface area of the gills of the southern bluefin tuna is due to a higher density of secondary lamella in the gill filaments.

text: Preparing the breath involves not only stretching the many muscles involved with respiration, but preparing them to sustain exhalation during long singing/speaking passages. Specific training of the respiratory muscles is required for singers to take very quick deep breath and sustain their exhalation over many bars of music. A good vocal warm-up should include exercises such as inhaling for 4 counts, then exhaling for 8 counts (and slowly transitioning until the performer can inhale for 1 count and exhale for as long as possible); panting or puffing air are also used to engage in the intercostal muscles.

text: Preparing the breath involves not only stretching the many muscles involved with

text: respiration

text: , but preparing them to sustain

text: exhalation

text: during long singing/speaking passages. Specific training of the

text: respiratory muscles

text: is required for singers to take very quick deep breath and sustain their exhalation over many bars of music. A good vocal warm-up should include exercises such as inhaling for 4 counts, then exhaling for 8 counts (and slowly transitioning until the performer can inhale for 1 count and exhale for as long as possible); panting or puffing air are also used to engage in the

text: intercostal muscles

text: Demand breathing systems reduce the amount of gas required to adequately ventilate the diver, as it needs only to be supplied when the diver inhales, but the slightly increased work of breathing caused by this system is a disadvantage at extreme levels of exertion, where free-flow systems may be better. The demand system is also quieter than free-flow, particularly during the non-inhalation phase of breathing. This can make voice communication more effective. The breathing of the diver is also audible to the surface team over the communications system, and this helps to monitor the condition of the diver and is a valuable safety feature.

text: The above generic equation starts with two reactants: some piece of organic matter (composed of organic carbon) and an oxidant. Most organic carbon exists in a reduced form which is then oxidized by the oxidant (such as O) into carbon dioxide and energy that can be harnessed by the organism. This process generally produces CO, water and a collection of simple nutrients like nitrate or phosphate that can then be taken up by other organisms. The above general form, when considering O as the oxidant, is the equation for respiration. In this context specifically, the above equation represents bacterial respiration though the reactants and products are essentially analogous to the short-hand equations used for multi-cellular respiration.

text: The above generic equation starts with two reactants: some piece of organic matter (composed of organic carbon) and an oxidant. Most organic carbon exists in a reduced form which is then oxidized by the oxidant (such as O) into

text: carbon

text: dioxide and energy that can be harnessed by the organism. This process generally produces CO, water and a collection of simple nutrients like nitrate or phosphate that can then be taken up by other organisms. The above general form, when considering O as the oxidant, is the equation for respiration. In this context specifically, the above equation represents bacterial

text: respiration

text: though the reactants and products are essentially analogous to the short-hand equations used for multi-cellular respiration.

text: The lymphatic system is part of the immune surveillance system. Blood contains fluid and blood cells. The fluid, which may contain suspended foreign material such as bacteria and viruses, seeps through blood vessel walls into the tissues, where it bathes the body cells and exchanges substances with them. Some of this lymph fluid is then taken up by lymphatic vessels and passed back to the heart, where it is again mixed with the blood. On its way, the fluid passes through the lymph nodes, small nodular organs located throughout the body but concentrated in certain areas such as the armpits or groin. These lymph nodes are also known as glands or lymphoid tissue. If they detect something foreign passing through them, they enlarge. This is called lymphadenopathy or swollen glands. Usually this is localized (for example, an infected spot on the scalp will cause lymph nodes in the neck on that same side to swell). However, when two or more lymph node groups are involved, it is called generalized lymphadenopathy. Usually this is in response to a significant systemic disease and will subside once the person has recovered. Sometimes it can persist long-term, even when no explanation for the lymphadenopathy can be found.

text: The

text: lymphatic system

text: is part of the

text: immune surveillance system

text: Blood

text: contains

text: fluid

text: and blood

text: cell

text: s. The fluid, which may contain suspended foreign material such as

text: bacteria

text: and

text: virus

text: es, seeps through

text: blood vessel

text: walls into the

text: tissues

text: , where it bathes the body cells and exchanges substances with them. Some of this lymph fluid is then taken up by

text: lymphatic vessel

text: s and passed back to the heart, where it is again mixed with the blood. On its way, the fluid passes through the

text: lymph node

text: s, small nodular organs located throughout the body but concentrated in certain areas such as the

text: armpit

text: s or

text: groin

text: . These lymph nodes are also known as glands or lymphoid tissue. If they detect something foreign passing through them, they enlarge. This is called

text: lymphadenopathy

text: or swollen glands. Usually this is localized (for example, an infected spot on the

text: scalp

text: will cause lymph nodes in the neck on that same side to swell). However, when two or more lymph node groups are involved, it is called

text: generalized lymphadenopathy

text: . Usually this is in response to a significant systemic disease and will subside once the person has recovered. Sometimes it can persist long-term, even when no explanation for the lymphadenopathy can be found.

text: Mayow argued that the same particles are consumed in respiration, because he found that when a small animal and a lighted candle were placed in a closed vessel full of air the candle first went out and soon afterwards the animal died.  However, if there was no candle present the animal lived twice as long. He concluded that this constituent of the air is absolutely necessary for life, and supposed that the lungs separate it from the atmosphere and pass it into the blood. It is also necessary, Mayow inferred, for all muscular movements, and he thought there was reason to believe that the sudden contraction of muscle is produced by its combination with other combustible (salino-sulphureous) particles in the body; hence the heart, being a muscle, ceases to beat when respiration is stopped. Animal heat also is due to the union of nitro-aerial particles, breathed in from the air, with the combustible particles in the blood, and is further formed by the combination of these two sets of particles in muscle during violent exertion.

text: Mayow argued that the same particles are consumed in respiration, because he found that when a small animal and a lighted candle were placed in a closed vessel full of air the candle first went out and soon afterwards the animal died.  However, if there was no candle present the animal lived twice as long. He concluded that this constituent of the air is absolutely necessary for life, and supposed that the

text: lungs

text: separate it from the atmosphere and pass it into the

text: blood

text: . It is also necessary, Mayow inferred, for all muscular movements, and he thought there was reason to believe that the sudden contraction of

text: muscle

text: is produced by its combination with other combustible (salino-sulphureous) particles in the body; hence the

text: heart

text: , being a muscle, ceases to beat when respiration is stopped. Animal heat also is due to the union of nitro-aerial particles, breathed in from the air, with the combustible particles in the blood, and is further formed by the combination of these two sets of particles in muscle during violent exertion.

text: Bio-Fluid Dynamics, may be considered as the discipline of biological engineering or biomedical engineering in which the fundamental principles of fluid dynamics are used to explain the mechanisms of biological flows and their interrelationships with physiological processes, in health and in diseases/disorder. It can be considered as the conjuncture of mechanical engineering and biological engineering. It spans from cells to organs, covering diverse aspects of functionality of systemic physiology, including cardiovascular, respiratory, reproductive, urinary, musculoskeletal and neurological systems etc. Bio fluid dynamics and its simulations through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) apply to both internal as well as external flows. Internal flows such as cardiovascular blood flow and respiratory airflow, and external flows such as flying and aquatic locomotion (i.e., swimming). Biological fluid Dynamics (or Bio fluid Dynamics) involves the study of the motion of biological fluids  (e.g. blood flow in arteries, animal flight, fish swimming, etc.). It can be either circulatory system or respiratory systems. Understanding the circulatory system is one of the major areas of research . The respiratory system is very closely linked to the circulatory system and is very complex to study and understand. The study of Bio fluid Dynamics is also directed towards finding solutions to some of the human body related diseases and disorders. The usefulness of the subject can also be understood by seeing the use of Bio fluid Dynamics in the areas of physiology in order to explain how living things work and about their motions, in developing an understanding of the origins and development of various diseases related to human body and diagnosing them, in finding the cure for the diseases related to cardiovascular and pulmonary systems.

text: HFT, a source of oxygen is usually blended with compressed air. Hospitals usually have 50 psi compressed oxygen and air available for therapeutic use. This allows the delivery of air or blends of air and oxygen with the use of an oxygen blender.  The gas is then heated, generally to about 37 °C, and humidified to near 100% RH using a humidifier. The gas is transported to the patient through a heated delivery tube to prevent cooling and condensation of the water vapor that has been added to the respiratory gas(es).

text: HFT, a source of oxygen is usually blended with compressed air. Hospitals usually have 50 psi compressed oxygen and air available for therapeutic use. This allows the delivery of air or blends of air and oxygen with the use of an

text: oxygen blender

text: .  The gas is then heated, generally to about 37 °C, and humidified to near 100%

text: RH

text: using a

text: humidifier

text: . The gas is transported to the patient through a heated delivery tube to prevent cooling and condensation of the

text: water vapor

text: that has been added to the respiratory gas(es).

text: In respiratory physiology, inertance (of air) is measured in cmHO L s.

text: In

text: respiratory physiology

text: , inertance (of air) is measured in cmHO L s.

text: The discovery of the first HLA was very much a mystery. In 1958 Jean Dausset noticed that blood serum from one person could react with the white blood cells of another. He had no idea why, but he named the causative agent MAC. Around the same time other researchers were making similar discoveries. Rose Payne and Jon van Rood made an identical conclusion from observations of interactions between the blood of women who had been pregnant multiple times and the white blood cells of others. They hypothesized that this was because they had been "sensitized" (an immunological term meaning previously exposed to and thus more reactive towards) to the non-self proteins of the father through tissue damage during birth. At this point the researchers all realized that the sheer quantity of data they were capable of obtaining was vastly greater than that of any previous study and so collaboration would be essential. The first international meeting, in 1964, highlighted the difficulties of such massive collaborative work. Different experimental methods and inconsistency in the execution of the same tests and a non-homogeneity of naming systems added together to make collaboration incredibly difficult.

text: The respiratory tract of birds possesses unique air movement properties. Air moves in a unidirectional flow and blood travels in a concurrent direction to air flow. An advantage of this type of system is it minimizes dead space and enables the bird to maintain a highly oxidative, active output. The respiratory system of the common raven is no different.

text: Escape respirator is a portable appliance regenerating breathable air to help provide respiratory protection for emergency escape from zones containing harmful gases. A cross-breed between a gas mask and a respirator, the emergency respirator is used extensively in mining and chemical industries.

text: Escape respirator is a portable appliance regenerating breathable air to help provide

text: respiratory

text: protection for emergency escape from zones containing harmful gases. A cross-breed between a

text: gas mask

text: and a

text: respirator

text: , the emergency respirator is used extensively in

text: mining

text: and

text: chemical

text: industries.

text: There is no known cure to DSMA1, and care is primarily supportive. Patients require respiratory support which may include non-invasive ventilation or tracheal intubation. The child may also undergo additional immunisations and offered antibiotics to prevent respiratory infections. Maintaining a healthy weight is also important. Patients are at risk of undernutrition and weight loss because of the increased energy spent for breathing. Physical and occupational therapy for the child can be very effective in maintaining muscle strength.

text: There is no known cure to DSMA1, and care is primarily supportive. Patients require respiratory support which may include

text: non-invasive ventilation

text: or

text: tracheal intubation

text: . The child may also undergo additional

text: immunisation

text: s and offered antibiotics to prevent respiratory infections. Maintaining a healthy weight is also important. Patients are at risk of undernutrition and weight loss because of the increased energy spent for breathing. Physical and occupational therapy for the child can be very effective in maintaining muscle strength.

text: Snoring is the vibration of respiratory structures and the resulting sound due to obstructed air movement during breathing while sleeping. In some cases, the sound may be soft, but in most cases, it can be loud and unpleasant. Snoring during sleep may be a sign, or first alarm, of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Research suggests that snoring is one of the factors of sleep deprivation.

text: Snoring is the vibration of respiratory structures and the resulting sound due to obstructed air movement during

text: breath

text: ing while

text: sleep

text: ing. In some cases, the sound may be soft, but in most cases, it can be loud and unpleasant. Snoring during sleep may be a sign, or first alarm, of

text: obstructive sleep apnea

text: (OSA). Research suggests that snoring is one of the factors of

text: sleep deprivation

text: The technical development of the Minusheet perfusion culture system was driven by the idea to create under in vitro conditions an environment resembling as near as possible the situation of specialized tissues found within the organism. Basis of this invention is therefore individually selected biomaterials for optimal cell adhesion mounted in Minusheet tissue carriers. Moreover, to always offer fresh nutrition including respiratory gas and to simulate a tissue-specific fluid environment, the tissue carriers can be inserted into compatible perfusion culture containers. As a result, a variety of publications illustrates that tissues generated by this innovative approach exhibit an excellent and stable quality. Thus, on the one hand the system provides a highly adaptable basis for the culture of adherent cells and the generation of specialized tissues. On the other hand the Minusheet perfusion culture system is bridging a methodical gap between the conventional static 24 well culture plate and modern perfusion culture technology.

text: The technical development of the Minusheet perfusion culture system was driven by the idea to create under

text: in vitro

text: conditions an environment resembling as near as possible the situation of specialized tissues found within the

text: organism

text: . Basis of this invention is therefore individually selected biomaterials for optimal cell adhesion mounted in Minusheet tissue carriers. Moreover, to always offer fresh

text: nutrition

text: including respiratory gas and to simulate a tissue-specific fluid environment, the tissue carriers can be inserted into compatible perfusion culture containers. As a result, a variety of publications illustrates that tissues generated by this innovative approach exhibit an excellent and stable quality. Thus, on the one hand the system provides a highly adaptable basis for the culture of adherent cells and the generation of specialized tissues. On the other hand the Minusheet perfusion culture system is bridging a methodical gap between the conventional static 24 well culture plate and modern perfusion culture technology.

text: Examinations of the respiratory systems of Eurypterus have led many paleontologists to conclude that it was capable of breathing air and walking on land for a short amount of time. Eurypterus had two types of respiratory systems. Its main organs for breathing were the book gills inside the segments of the mesosoma. These structures were supported by semicircular 'ribs' and were probably attached near the center of the body, similar to the gills of modern horseshoe crabs. They were protected under platelike appendages (which actually formed the apparent 'belly' of Eurypterus) known as Blatfüsse. These gills may have also played a role in osmoregulation.

text: Examinations of the

text: respiratory system

text: s of Eurypterus have led many paleontologists to conclude that it was capable of breathing air and walking on land for a short amount of time. Eurypterus had two types of respiratory systems. Its main organs for breathing were the book gills inside the segments of the mesosoma. These structures were supported by semicircular 'ribs' and were probably attached near the center of the body, similar to the gills of modern horseshoe crabs. They were protected under platelike appendages (which actually formed the apparent 'belly' of Eurypterus) known as Blatfüsse. These gills may have also played a role in

text: osmoregulation

text: The respiratory system may contribute to oxygen levels through hyperventilation, though a sudden ischaemic episode may also proceed faster than the respiratory system can respond.  These processes cause the typical symptoms of fainting: pale skin,  rapid breathing, nausea and weakness of the limbs, particularly of the legs. If the ischaemia is intense or prolonged, limb weakness progresses to collapse.  An individual with very little skin pigmentation may appear to have all color drained from his or her face at the onset of an episode. This effect combined with the following collapse can make a strong and dramatic impression on bystanders.

text: The respiratory system may contribute to oxygen levels through

text: hyperventilation

text: , though a sudden ischaemic episode may also proceed faster than the respiratory system can respond.  These processes cause the typical symptoms of fainting: pale skin,  rapid breathing, nausea and weakness of the limbs, particularly of the legs. If the ischaemia is intense or prolonged, limb weakness progresses to collapse.  An individual with very little skin pigmentation may appear to have all color drained from his or her face at the onset of an episode. This effect combined with the following collapse can make a strong and dramatic impression on bystanders.

text: Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, a form of artificial ventilation, is the act of assisting or stimulating respiration, a metabolic process referring to the overall exchange of gases in the body, where a rescuer presses his or her mouth against that of the victim and blows air into the person's lungs. Assistance takes many forms, but generally entails providing air for a person who is not breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort on his/her own. It is used on a patient with a beating heart or as part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to achieve the internal respiration).

text: Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation, a form of

text: artificial ventilation

text: , is the act of assisting or stimulating

text: respiration

text: , a metabolic process referring to the overall exchange of gases in the body, where a rescuer presses his or her mouth against that of the victim and blows air into the person's lungs. Assistance takes many forms, but generally entails providing air for a person who is not

text: breath

text: ing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort on his/her own. It is used on a patient with a beating heart or as part of

text: cardiopulmonary resuscitation

text: (CPR) to achieve the internal respiration).

text: The use of diaphragmatic breathing is commonly practiced, especially in those patients with cardiopulmonary disease, to improve a variety of factors such as pulmonary function, cardiorespiratory fitness, posture, respiratory muscle length, and respiratory muscle strength. Specifically, diaphragmatic breathing exercise is essential to asthmatics since breathing in these patients is of the thoracic type in association with decreased chest expansion and chest deformity as a result of a deformed sternum like pectus excavatum (funnel chest) ; a shortened diaphragm, intercostals and accessory muscles from prolonged spasm causing stenosis of the major airways leading to an abnormal respiratory pattern.

text: The use of diaphragmatic breathing is commonly practiced, especially in those patients with cardiopulmonary disease, to improve a variety of factors such as pulmonary function, cardiorespiratory fitness, posture, respiratory muscle length, and respiratory muscle strength. Specifically, diaphragmatic breathing exercise is essential to asthmatics since breathing in these patients is of the thoracic type in association with decreased chest expansion and chest deformity as a result of a deformed sternum like

text: pectus excavatum

text: (funnel chest) ; a shortened diaphragm, intercostals and accessory muscles from prolonged spasm causing stenosis of the major airways leading to an abnormal respiratory pattern.

text: Since the Stirling engine is a closed cycle, it contains a fixed mass of gas called the "working fluid", most commonly air, hydrogen or helium. In normal operation, the engine is sealed and no gas enters or leaves the engine. No valves are required, unlike other types of piston engines. The Stirling engine, like most heat engines, cycles through four main processes: cooling, compression, heating and expansion. This is accomplished by moving the gas back and forth between hot and cold heat exchangers, often with a regenerator between the heater and cooler. The hot heat exchanger is in thermal contact with an external heat source, such as a fuel burner, and the cold heat exchanger being in thermal contact with an external heat sink, such as air fins. A change in gas temperature causes a corresponding change in gas pressure, while the motion of the piston causes the gas to be alternately expanded and compressed.

text: Since the Stirling engine is a closed cycle, it contains a fixed mass of gas called the "working fluid", most commonly

text: air

text: hydrogen

text: or

text: helium

text: . In normal operation, the engine is sealed and no gas enters or leaves the engine. No valves are required, unlike other types of piston engines. The Stirling engine, like most heat engines, cycles through four main processes: cooling, compression, heating and expansion. This is accomplished by moving the gas back and forth between hot and cold

text: heat exchangers

text: , often with a

text: regenerator

text: between the heater and cooler. The hot heat exchanger is in thermal contact with an external heat source, such as a fuel burner, and the cold heat exchanger being in thermal contact with an external heat sink, such as air fins. A change in gas temperature causes a corresponding change in gas pressure, while the motion of the piston causes the gas to be alternately expanded and compressed.

text: Respiratory syncytial virus G protein is a protein produced by respiratory syncytial virus.

text: Respiratory syncytial virus G protein is a protein produced by

text: respiratory syncytial virus

text: Sea cucumbers extract oxygen from water in a pair of "respiratory trees" that branch off the cloaca just inside the anus, so that they "breathe" by drawing water in through the anus and then expelling it. The trees consist of a series of narrow tubules branching from a common duct, and lie on either side of the digestive tract. Gas exchange occurs across the thin walls of the tubules, to and from the fluid of the main body cavity.

text: Sea cucumbers extract oxygen from water in a pair of "respiratory trees" that branch off the

text: cloaca

text: just inside the

text: anus

text: , so that they "breathe" by drawing water in through the anus and then expelling it. The trees consist of a series of narrow tubules branching from a common duct, and lie on either side of the digestive tract. Gas exchange occurs across the thin walls of the tubules, to and from the fluid of the main body cavity.

text: Teleostomes have two major adaptations that relate to aquatic respiration. First, the early teleostomes probably had some type of operculum; however, it was not the one-piece affair of living fish. The development of a single respiratory opening seems to have been an important step. The second adaptation, the teleostomes also developed a primitive lung with the ability to use some atmospheric oxygen.  This developed, in later species, into the lung and (later) the swim bladder, used to keep the fish at neutral buoyancy.

text: Teleostomes have two major adaptations that relate to

text: aquatic respiration

text: . First, the early teleostomes probably had some type of

text: operculum

text: ; however, it was not the one-piece affair of living

text: fish

text: . The development of a single respiratory opening seems to have been an important step. The second adaptation, the teleostomes also developed a primitive lung with the ability to use some atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: .  This developed, in later species, into the lung and (later) the swim bladder, used to keep the fish at neutral buoyancy.

text: The exchange is performed using a machine (pheresis). This method rapidly and substantially reduces the concentration of sickle cells within the blood without increasing the overall hematocrit or blood viscosity.

text: The exchange is performed using a machine (

text: pheresis

text: ). This method rapidly and substantially reduces the concentration of sickle cells within the blood without increasing the overall

text: hematocrit

text: or

text: blood viscosity

text: At the beginning of the Gulf spill, the proprietary composition was not public, but the manufacturer's own safety data sheet identified the main components as 2-butoxyethanol and a proprietary organic sulfonate with a small concentration of propylene glycol. Warnings from the Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet for 2-butoxyethanol include: "Cancer Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may be a carcinogen in humans since it has been shown to cause liver cancer in animals. Many scientists believe there is no safe level of exposure to a carcinogen....Reproductive Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the developing fetus. There is limited evidence that 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the male reproductive system (including decreasing the sperm count) in animals and may affect female fertility in animals". 2-butoxyethanol was identified as a causal agent in the health problems experienced by cleanup workers after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill.  According to the Alaska Community Action on Toxics, the use of Corexit during the spill caused people "respiratory, nervous system, liver, kidney and blood disorders".

text: At the beginning of the Gulf spill, the proprietary composition was not public, but the manufacturer's own

text: safety data sheet

text: identified the main components as

text: and a proprietary

text: organic

text: sulfonate

text: with a small concentration of

text: propylene glycol

text: . Warnings from the Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet for 2-butoxyethanol include: "Cancer Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may be a

text: carcinogen

text: in humans since it has been shown to cause liver cancer in animals. Many scientists believe there is no safe level of exposure to a carcinogen....Reproductive Hazard: 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the developing fetus. There is limited evidence that 2-Butoxy Ethanol may damage the male reproductive system (including decreasing the sperm count) in animals and may affect female fertility in animals". 2-butoxyethanol was identified as a causal agent in the health problems experienced by cleanup workers after the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: .  According to the Alaska Community Action on Toxics, the use of Corexit during the spill caused people "respiratory, nervous system, liver, kidney and blood disorders".

text: Students awarded a Bachelor of Science in Respiratory Care are qualified to sit for the three credentialing examinations NBRC-ELE, NBRC-WRE, and NBRC-CSE and apply for licensure as a Registered Respiratory Therapist.

text: Students awarded a Bachelor of Science in Respiratory Care are qualified to sit for the three credentialing examinations

text: NBRC-ELE

text: NBRC-WRE

text: , and

text: NBRC-CSE

text: and apply for licensure as a

text: Registered Respiratory Therapist

text: It may be caused by damage to respiratory centers, or by physiological abnormalities in chronic heart failure, and is also seen in newborns with immature respiratory systems and in visitors new to high altitudes.

text: It may be caused by damage to

text: respiratory center

text: s, or by physiological abnormalities in

text: chronic heart failure

text: , and is also seen in newborns with immature respiratory systems and in visitors new to high altitudes.

text: Closely related to the gag reflex, in which food or other foreign substances are forced back out of the pharynx, swallowing generally pushes food through the digestive system into the stomach. This reflex in particular functions as a protective system for the upper respiratory tract as it not only forces the glottis to close, thereby preventing any substances getting into the airways, but also clears the pharynx of any residual substances by a swallow.

text: Closely related to the gag reflex, in which food or other foreign substances are forced back out of the

text: pharynx

text: , swallowing generally pushes food through the digestive system into the stomach. This reflex in particular functions as a protective system for the upper respiratory tract as it not only forces the glottis to close, thereby preventing any substances getting into the airways, but also clears the pharynx of any residual substances by a swallow.

text: In the United States a Respiratory Therapist is a clinician who has at a minimum completed an Associate of Science in Respiratory Care degree along with a certification process.   After satisfactorily completing required examinations either administered by the National Board for Respiratory Care or directly by the individual state licensing board (either the medical examiners board or a special state  respiratory care board).

text: In the United States a Respiratory Therapist is a clinician who has at a minimum completed an

entity_name: Associate of Science in Respiratory Care

text: Associate of Science in Respiratory Care

text: degree along with a certification process.   After satisfactorily completing required examinations either administered by the

text: National Board for Respiratory Care

text: or directly by the individual state licensing board (either the medical examiners board or a special state  respiratory care board).

text: Bromoform can be absorbed into the body by inhalation and through the skin.  The substance is irritating to the respiratory tract, the eyes, and the skin, and may cause effects on the central nervous system and liver, resulting in impaired functions. It is soluble in about 800 parts water and is miscible with alcohol, benzene, chloroform, ether, petroleum ether, acetone, and oils. Its LD is 7.2 mmol/kg in mice, or 1.8g/kg. Bromoform is a confirmed animal carcinogen; (ACGIH 2004). Carcinogen category: 3B; (DFG 2004).

text: Bromoform can be absorbed into the body by inhalation and through the skin.  The substance is irritating to the respiratory tract, the eyes, and the skin, and may cause effects on the

text: central nervous system

text: and liver, resulting in impaired functions. It is soluble in about 800 parts water and is miscible with alcohol, benzene, chloroform, ether,

text: petroleum ether

text: acetone

text: , and oils. Its LD is 7.2 mmol/kg in mice, or 1.8g/kg. Bromoform is a confirmed animal

text: carcinogen

text: ; (ACGIH 2004). Carcinogen category: 3B; (DFG 2004).

text: The rule of 80's is a method of interpreting a person's acid-base status using an arterial blood gas.  It is a quick way to determine if a patient has metabolic acidosis, metabolic alkalosis, respiratory acidosis, or respiratory alkalosis.  It does not say anything about the cause of the acid-base disturbance.

text: The rule of 80's is a method of interpreting a person's

text: acid-base status

text: using an

text: arterial blood gas

text: .  It is a quick way to determine if a patient has

text: metabolic acidosis

text: metabolic alkalosis

text: respiratory acidosis

text: , or

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: .  It does not say anything about the cause of the acid-base disturbance.

text: Inhalation begins at the mouth and the nostrils located at the front of the beak. The air then flows through the anatomical dead space of a highly vascular trachea (c. ) and expansive bronchial system, where it is further conducted to the posterior air sacs. Air flow through the parabronchi of the paleopulmo is in the same direction to the dorsobronchi during inspiration and expiration. Inspired air moves into the respiratory system as a result of the expansion of thoraco abdominal cavity; controlled by inspiratory muscles. During expiration, oxygen poor air flows to the anterior air sacs and is expelled by the action of the expiratory muscles. The ostrich air sacs play a key role in respiration since they are capacious, and increase surface area (as described by the Fick Principle). The oxygen rich air flows unidirectionally across the respiratory surface of the lungs; providing the blood that has a crosscurrent flow with a high concentration of oxygen.

text: Inhalation begins at the mouth and the nostrils located at the front of the beak. The air then flows through the anatomical dead space of a highly vascular trachea (c. ) and expansive bronchial system, where it is further conducted to the posterior air sacs. Air flow through the

text: parabronchi

text: of the paleopulmo is in the same direction to the dorsobronchi during inspiration and expiration. Inspired air moves into the respiratory system as a result of the expansion of thoraco abdominal cavity; controlled by

text: inspiratory muscles

text: . During expiration, oxygen poor air flows to the anterior air sacs and is expelled by the action of the

text: expiratory muscles

text: . The ostrich air sacs play a key role in respiration since they are capacious, and increase surface area (as described by the

text: Fick Principle

text: ). The oxygen rich air flows

text: unidirectionally

text: across the respiratory surface of the lungs; providing the blood that has a crosscurrent flow with a high concentration of oxygen.

text: Cheyne–Stokes respirations are not the same as Biot's respirations ("cluster breathing"), in which groups of breaths tend to be similar in size.

text: Cheyne–Stokes respirations are not the same as

text: Biot's respiration

text: s ("cluster breathing"), in which groups of breaths tend to be similar in size.

text: Today the profession hardly resembles what it was in the 1940s.  Respiratory Therapists provide direct care, patient education, and care coordination.   They are academically trained in respiratory nursing and respiratory medicine.   They practice in acute care facilities, long-term acute care facilities, skilled nursing facilities, assisted-living centers, subacute care units, rehabilitation centers, diagnostics units, and in the home.  Respiratory Therapist training has also dramatically changed.  Current accreditation standards require Respiratory Therapists to have, at minimum, an Associate of Science in Respiratory Care degree from an accredited program.  Legal requirements to practice respiratory therapy have also dramatically changed.   49 states now legally recognize Respiratory Therapists.  Limited permits or state licenses are now required in all states except Alaska, which has no statutory authority over the practice of respiratory care.   Most states that have a licensure requirement also require continuing education.

text: Today the profession hardly resembles what it was in the 1940s.  Respiratory Therapists provide direct care, patient education, and care coordination.   They are academically trained in respiratory nursing and respiratory medicine.   They practice in acute care facilities, long-term acute care facilities, skilled nursing facilities, assisted-living centers, subacute care units, rehabilitation centers, diagnostics units, and in the home.  Respiratory Therapist training has also dramatically changed.  Current accreditation standards require Respiratory Therapists to have, at minimum, an

text: degree from an accredited program.  Legal requirements to practice respiratory therapy have also dramatically changed.   49 states now legally recognize Respiratory Therapists.  Limited permits or state licenses are now required in all states except Alaska, which has no statutory authority over the practice of respiratory care.   Most states that have a licensure requirement also require continuing education.

text: Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported around the body in the blood through arteries, veins and capillaries. They bind to haemoglobin in red blood cells, although oxygen does so more effectively. Carbon dioxide also dissolves in the plasma or combines with water to form bicarbonate ions (). This reaction is catalyzed by the carbonic anhydrase enzyme in red blood cells.

text: Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported around the body in the

text: blood

text: through arteries, veins and

text: capillaries

text: . They bind to

text: haemoglobin

text: in red blood cells, although oxygen does so more effectively. Carbon dioxide also dissolves in the

text: plasma

text: or combines with water to form

text: bicarbonate

text: ion

text: s (). This reaction is catalyzed by the

text: carbonic anhydrase

text: enzyme

text: in

text: red blood cell

text: s.

text: There are still other adaptations that enable the newts to survive. T. carnifex have made physiological adaptations that enable them to stay in hypoxic conditions or meet their increased metabolic needs. This compensation is in the larvae as soon as they are born. Spleen size can increase as the temperature declines for adults – in larvae, there is no dramatic change in spleen size. This difference is attributed to the improbability of a larvae newt ending up in a hypoxic environment primarily due to gill movement. The spleen plays a large role in this adaptation; 50% of the blood is redirected into the spleen when the conditions in their habitat are well oxygenated. When the large stores of erythrocytes dips below necessary, the spleen of T. carnifex will release red blood cells into the blood stream, which is caused by hypoxia or increased metabolic needs. This very specific compensatory respiration – the ability to adapt to respiratory conditions – is known as hypoxia, and increases the red blood cells as a method of maintaining oxygen levels in an oxygen-lacking environment. These adaptations have evolved due to both the environment and the physiological conditions the newt finds itself in. This can be seen when the animal releases red blood cells into the bloodstream as a method of maintaining oxygen levels. This feature is commonly shared among amphibians, and it is possible that all ectotherms are capable of this.

text: There are still other adaptations that enable the newts to survive. T. carnifex have made physiological adaptations that enable them to stay in

text: hypoxic

text: conditions or meet their increased metabolic needs. This compensation is in the larvae as soon as they are born. Spleen size can increase as the temperature declines for adults – in larvae, there is no dramatic change in spleen size. This difference is attributed to the improbability of a larvae newt ending up in a hypoxic environment primarily due to gill movement. The spleen plays a large role in this adaptation; 50% of the blood is redirected into the spleen when the conditions in their habitat are well oxygenated. When the large stores of

text: erythrocytes

text: dips below necessary, the spleen of T. carnifex will release red blood cells into the blood stream, which is caused by hypoxia or increased metabolic needs. This very specific

text: compensatory respiration

text: – the ability to adapt to respiratory conditions – is known as hypoxia, and increases the red blood cells as a method of maintaining oxygen levels in an oxygen-lacking environment. These adaptations have evolved due to both the environment and the physiological conditions the newt finds itself in. This can be seen when the animal releases red blood cells into the bloodstream as a method of maintaining oxygen levels. This feature is commonly shared among amphibians, and it is possible that all ectotherms are capable of this.

text: There is an association between pneumococcal pneumonia and influenza. Damage to the lining of the airways (respiratory epithelium) and upper respiratory system caused by influenza may facilitate pneumococcal entry and infection.

text: There is an association between pneumococcal pneumonia and

text: influenza

text: . Damage to the lining of the airways (

text: respiratory epithelium

text: ) and

text: upper respiratory system

text: caused by influenza may facilitate pneumococcal entry and infection.

text: Lightweight diving helmets and bandmasks usually use a demand controlled breathing gas supply as the standard mode, as it is more economical on gas consumption - the amount of gas supplied is the amount needed for the diver's respiratory requirements. However, there may be a freeflow valve to provide gas at a constant flow at a rate determined by the valve which is operated by the diver. One of the functions of freeflow supply is to defog the faceplate. Another is for breathing gas supply in case of demand valve malfunction, and a third is to assist with clearing water from a leaking helmet, or to prevent inflow through a leaking exhaust port or neck seal.The demand valve of a lightweight helmet can also freeflow for some of the same reasons as can happen with a scuba demand valve.

text: The high pressures associated with deep dives cause gases such as nitrogen to build up in tissues which are then released upon surfacing, possibly causing death. One of the ways sea lions deal with the extreme pressures is by limiting the amount of gas exchange that occurs when diving. The sea lion allows the alveoli to be compressed by the increasing water pressure thus forcing the surface air into cartilage lined airway just before the gas exchange surface. This process prevents any further oxygen exchange to the blood for muscles, requiring all muscles to be loaded with enough oxygen to last the duration of the dive. However, this shunt reduces the amount of compressed gases from entering tissues therefore reducing the risk of decompression sickness. The collapse of alveoli does not allow for any oxygen storage in the lungs however, this means that sea lions must mitigate oxygen use in order to extend their dives. Oxygen availability is prolonged by the physiological control of heart rate in the sea lions. By reducing heart rate to well below surface rates, oxygen is saved by reducing gas exchange as well as reducing the energy required for a high heart rate. Bradycardia is a control mechanism to allow a switch from pulmonary oxygen to oxygen stored in the muscles which is needed when the sea lions are diving to depth. Another way sea lions mitigate the oxygen obtained at the surface in dives is to reduce digestion rate. Digestion requires metabolic activity and therefore energy and oxygen are consumed during this process, however sea lions can limit digestion rate and decrease it by at least 54%. This reduction in digestion results in a proportional reduction in oxygen use in the stomach and therefore a correlated oxygen supply for diving. Digestion rate in these sea lions increase back to normal rates immediately upon resurfacing. Oxygen depletion limits dive duration, but carbon dioxide (CO) build up also plays a role in the dive capabilities of many marine mammals. After a sea lion returns from a long dive, CO is not expired as fast as oxygen is replenished in the blood, due to the unloading complications with CO. However, having more than normal levels of CO in the blood does not seem to adversely affect dive behavior. Compared to terrestrial mammals, sea lions have a higher tolerance to storing CO which is what normally tells mammals that they need to breath. This ability to ignore a response to CO is likely brought on by increase carotid bodies which are sensor for oxygen levels which let the animal know its available oxygen supply. Yet, the sea lions cannot avoid the effects of gradual CO build up which eventually causes the sea lions to spend more time at the surface after multiple repeated dives to allow for enough built up CO to be expired.

text: Lancelets have no respiratory system, breathing solely through their skin, which consists of a simple epithelium. Despite the name, little if any respiration occurs in the gill slits, which are solely devoted to feeding. The circulatory system does resemble that of primitive fish in its general layout, but is much simpler, and does not include a heart. There are no blood cells, and no haemoglobin.

text: Lancelets have no respiratory system, breathing solely through their skin, which consists of a simple

text: epithelium

text: . Despite the name, little if any respiration occurs in the gill slits, which are solely devoted to feeding. The circulatory system does resemble that of primitive fish in its general layout, but is much simpler, and does not include a

text: heart

text: . There are no blood cells, and no

text: haemoglobin

text: Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In humans, blood is pumped from the strong left ventricle of the heart through arteries to peripheral tissues and returns to the right atrium of the heart through veins. It then enters the right ventricle and is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism by cells, to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood.

text: Blood is circulated around the body through

text: blood vessel

text: s by the pumping action of the

text: heart

text: . In humans, blood is pumped from the strong

text: left ventricle

text: of the heart through

text: arteries

text: to peripheral

text: tissues

text: and returns to the right

text: atrium of the heart

text: through

text: vein

text: s. It then enters the right

text: ventricle

text: and is pumped through the

text: pulmonary artery

text: to the

text: lung

text: s and returns to the left atrium through the

text: pulmonary vein

text: s. Blood then enters the left ventricle to be circulated again. Arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to all of the cells of the body, and

text: venous blood

text: carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of

text: metabolism

text: by

text: cells

text: , to the lungs to be exhaled. However, one exception includes pulmonary arteries, which contain the most deoxygenated blood in the body, while the pulmonary veins contain oxygenated blood.

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "fight or flight" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness.  This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. the norepinephrine and epinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart in order to feed the heart sympathetic nerve fibers to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction. as a result more blood is being circulated increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. this plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "rest and digest" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "

text: fight or flight

text: The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing unique anatomical features such as air sacs. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli.

text: The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing unique anatomical features such as

text: air sacs

text: . The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a

text: diaphragm

text: and a

text: pleural cavity

text: . Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and

text: blood capillaries

text: , rather than in

text: alveoli

text: Jeff, a well-known cyclist, is cycling in a non-profitable charity race, when he is unable to breathe and taken to the hospital. House finds it surprising that Jeff admitted he is taking illegal enhancement drugs. He agreed to blood doping, which is common among cyclists, to better one's athletic performance. Because red blood cells carry oxygen between the lungs and the muscles, a higher number of red blood cells can increase an athlete’s endurance. While trying to figure out what cause of Jeff’s respiratory distress, they find an embolus in his chest. While Dr. Chase works to remove the air bubble, Jeff begins to feel numbness in his legs, but is told that it might be due to the sedation. While his manager talks to the press, Jeff loses feeling in his legs. Dr. Cameron informs House that Jeff’s red blood count is continually dropping, revealing that his body is no longer able to produce red blood cells on its own. House becomes convinced that Jeff might have lied about a specific drug that could be the cause of all of his symptoms, Erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone produced in the kidney that promotes the formation of red blood cells by the bone marrow. Adding more blood cells increases the oxygen level in the blood, thus presumably causing all of Jeff's symptoms as he fails to produce red blood cells on his own. Which is explanation for him also having anemia, caused by a chronic Acquired Pure Red Cell Aplasia (PRCA), probably resulting from his use of blood doping. After responding to a Prednisone treatment, Jeff began losing more red blood cells to the point of requiring a transfusion. House scans Jeff's neck and a Thymoma is discovered; an extremely rare tumor on the thymus, confirming that he wasn’t taking EPO, but he did have Chronic Acquired Pure Red Cell Aplasia. Due to the diagnosis he can legally blood dope, or get a Thymectomy which could only bring him into a temporary remission, and then after he would have to be on medical steroids.

text: Extracellular fluid, in conjunction with intracellular fluid, helps control the movement of water and electrolytes throughout the body. In order to maintain osmotic balance, the extracellular compartments of a mammal's body must be able to excrete and absorb water to and from the environment. Inorganic ions must also be exchanged between ECF and the external environment to maintain homeostasis. These exchanges occur across specialized epithelial cells and through a filtration process in the kidneys. Extracellular fluid allows a solute balance between the outside and the inside of the cell, or to produce a gradient (which is commonly used to initiate diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, etc.). Blood flow delivers oxygen to arterioles, capillaries, and venules and clears waste products of metabolism. A second flow of fluid important to organ function is filtration of plasma across the microcirculation into the interstitial lymphatic compartment of the ECF. Multiple mechanisms regulate this flow and the distribution of ECF between the plasma volume and interstitial lymphatic fluid compartments.

text: Malaria has several serious complications. Among these is the development of respiratory distress, which occurs in up to 25% of adults and 40% of children with severe P. falciparum malaria. Possible causes include respiratory compensation of metabolic acidosis, noncardiogenic pulmonary oedema, concomitant pneumonia, and severe anaemia. Although rare in young children with severe malaria, acute respiratory distress syndrome occurs in 5–25% of adults and up to 29% of pregnant women. Coinfection of HIV with malaria increases mortality. Renal failure is a feature of blackwater fever, where hemoglobin from lysed red blood cells leaks into the urine.

text: Malaria has several serious

text: complications

text: . Among these is the development of

text: respiratory distress

text: , which occurs in up to 25% of adults and 40% of children with severe P. falciparum malaria. Possible causes include respiratory compensation of

text: metabolic acidosis

text: , noncardiogenic

text: pulmonary oedema

text: , concomitant

text: pneumonia

text: , and severe

text: anaemia

text: . Although rare in young children with severe malaria,

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: occurs in 5–25% of adults and up to 29% of pregnant women.

text: Coinfection

text: of

text: HIV

text: with malaria increases mortality. Renal failure is a feature of

text: blackwater fever

text: , where hemoglobin from

text: lysed

text: red blood cells leaks into the urine.

text: The pontine tegmentum contains nuclei of the cranial nerves (trigeminal (5th), abducens (6th), facial (7th), and vestibulocochlear (8th) cranial nerve nuclei) and their associated fibre tracts, the pontine reticular formation, the mesopontine cholinergic system comprising the pedunculopontine nucleus and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, and the respiritory centres - the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. Nearby important structures include the cranial nerve nuclei of the oculomotor (3rd) and trochlear (4th) nerve nuclei, which are located in the midbrain, the pontine nuclei, which are located within the basilar pons, and the raphe nucleus and the locus ceruleus, nuclei of cranial nerves 9-12, and the dorsal respiratory group, which are located further caudally in the brainstem. The dorsal respiratory group are connected to the pneumotaxic and apneustic centres of the pontine tegmentum.

text: The pontine tegmentum contains

text: nuclei of the cranial nerves

text: (trigeminal (5th), abducens (6th), facial (7th), and vestibulocochlear (8th) cranial nerve nuclei) and their associated fibre tracts, the

text: pontine reticular formation

text: , the mesopontine cholinergic system comprising the

text: pedunculopontine nucleus

text: and the

text: laterodorsal tegmental nucleus

text: , and the respiritory centres - the

text: pneumotaxic centre

text: and the

text: apneustic centre

text: . Nearby important structures include the cranial nerve nuclei of the oculomotor (3rd) and trochlear (4th) nerve nuclei, which are located in the midbrain, the

text: pontine nuclei

text: , which are located within the basilar pons, and the

text: raphe nucleus

text: and the

text: locus ceruleus

text: , nuclei of cranial nerves 9-12, and the

text: dorsal respiratory group

text: , which are located further caudally in the brainstem. The dorsal respiratory group are connected to the pneumotaxic and apneustic centres of the pontine tegmentum.

text: Arthropods have open circulatory systems, although most have a few short, open-ended arteries. In chelicerates and crustaceans, the blood carries oxygen to the tissues, while hexapods use a separate system of tracheae. Many crustaceans, but few chelicerates and tracheates, use respiratory pigments to assist oxygen transport. The most common respiratory pigment in arthropods is copper-based hemocyanin; this is used by many crustaceans and a few centipedes. A few crustaceans and insects use iron-based hemoglobin, the respiratory pigment used by vertebrates. As with other invertebrates the respiratory pigments of those arthropods that have them are generally dissolved in the blood and rarely enclosed in corpuscles as they are in vertebrates.

text: Arthropods have open

text: circulatory system

text: s, although most have a few short, open-ended

text: arteries

text: . In chelicerates and crustaceans, the blood carries

text: oxygen

text: to the tissues, while

text: hexapods

text: use a separate system of

text: tracheae

text: . Many crustaceans, but few chelicerates and

text: tracheates

text: , use

text: respiratory pigment

text: s to assist oxygen transport. The most common respiratory pigment in arthropods is

text: copper

text: -based

text: hemocyanin

text: ; this is used by many crustaceans and a few

text: centipede

text: s. A few crustaceans and insects use iron-based

text: hemoglobin

text: , the respiratory pigment used by

text: vertebrate

text: s. As with other invertebrates the respiratory pigments of those arthropods that have them are generally dissolved in the blood and rarely enclosed in

text: corpuscles

text: as they are in vertebrates.

text: SO: from deuterium loss, we know how much of the tagged water left the body as water. And, since the concentration of O in the body's water is measured after the labeling dose is given, we also know how much of the tagged oxygen left the body in the water. (A simpler view is that the ratio of deuterium to O in body water is fixed, so total loss-rate of deuterium from the body multiplied by this ratio, immediately gives the loss rate of O in water.) Measurement of O dilution with time gives the total loss of this isotope by all routes (by water and respiration). Since the ratio of O to total water oxygen in the body is measured, we can convert O loss in respiration to total oxygen lost from the body's water pool via conversion to carbon dioxide. How much oxygen left the body as CO is the same as the CO  produced by metabolism, since the body only produces CO by this route. The CO loss tells us the energy produced, if we know or can estimate the respiratory quotient (ratio of CO produced to oxygen used).

text: SO: from deuterium loss, we know how much of the tagged water left the body as water. And, since the concentration of O in the body's water is measured after the labeling dose is given, we also know how much of the tagged oxygen left the body in the water. (A simpler view is that the ratio of deuterium to O in body water is fixed, so total loss-rate of deuterium from the body multiplied by this ratio, immediately gives the loss rate of O in water.) Measurement of O dilution with time gives the total loss of this isotope by all routes (by water and respiration). Since the ratio of O to total water oxygen in the body is measured, we can convert O loss in respiration to total oxygen lost from the body's water pool via conversion to carbon dioxide. How much oxygen left the body as CO is the same as the CO  produced by metabolism, since the body only produces CO by this route. The CO loss tells us the energy produced, if we know or can estimate the

text: respiratory quotient

text: (ratio of CO produced to oxygen used).

text: Sniffing is fundamentally controlled by respiratory centers in the brainstem, including the Pre-Botzinger complex which governs inhalation/exhalation patterns.  Activity from respiratory brain stem structures then modulates nervous activity to control lung contraction. To exert changes to respiration, and thereby evoke sniffing behavior, volitional centers in the cerebral cortex must stimulate brain stem structures. It is through this simple pathway that the decision to inhale or sniff may occur.

text: Sniffing is fundamentally controlled by

text: respiratory center

text: s in the

text: brainstem

text: , including the

text: Pre-Botzinger complex

text: which governs inhalation/exhalation patterns.  Activity from respiratory brain stem structures then modulates nervous activity to control lung contraction. To exert changes to respiration, and thereby evoke sniffing behavior, volitional centers in the

text: cerebral cortex

text: must stimulate brain stem structures. It is through this simple pathway that the decision to inhale or sniff may occur.

text: The exchange of dissolved gases between the blood and tissues is controlled by perfusion and to a lesser extent by diffusion, particularly in heterogeneous tissues.The distribution of blood flow to the tissues is variable and subject to a variety of influences. When the flow is locally high, that area is dominated by perfusion, and by diffusion when the flow is low. The distribution of flow is controlled by the mean arterial pressure and the local vascular resistance, and the arterial pressure depends on cardiac output and the total vascular resistance. Basic vascular resistance is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, and metabolites, temperature, and local and systemic hormones have secondary and often localised effects, which can vary considerably with circumstances. Peripheral vasoconstriction in cold water decreases overall heat loss without increasing oxygen consumption until shivering begins, at which point oxygen consumption will rise, though the vasoconstriction can persist.

text: The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transports blood throughout the human body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the tissues; and the veins, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart. The word vascular, meaning relating to the blood vessels, is derived from the Latin vas, meaning vessel. A few structures (such as cartilage and the lens of the eye) do not contain blood vessels and are labeled.

text: The blood vessels are the part of the

text: circulatory system

text: that transports

text: blood

text: throughout the

text: human body

text: . There are three major types of blood vessels: the

text: arteries

text: , which carry the blood away from the

text: heart

text: ; the

text: capillaries

text: , which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and the

text: tissues

text: ; and the

text: vein

text: s, which carry blood from the capillaries back toward the heart. The word vascular, meaning relating to the blood vessels, is derived from the Latin vas, meaning vessel. A few structures (such as

text: cartilage

text: and the

text: lens

text: of the eye) do not contain blood vessels and are labeled.

text: The use of cartridges in the contaminated atmosphere leads to saturation of the sorbent (or the dryer — when using catalysts). The concentration of harmful gases in the purified air gradually increases. The ingress of harmful gases in the inhaled air can lead to the reaction of the employee’s sensory system: odor, taste, irritation of the respiratory system, dizziness, headaches, and other health impairments (up to loss of consciousness).

text: The use of cartridges in the contaminated atmosphere leads to saturation of the sorbent (or the dryer — when using catalysts). The concentration of harmful gases in the purified air gradually increases. The ingress of harmful gases in the inhaled air can lead to the reaction of the employee’s

text: sensory system

text: odor

text: taste

text: irritation

text: of the

text: respiratory system

text: dizziness

text: headaches

text: , and other health impairments (up to loss of

text: consciousness

text: The oxidation potential (Eh, measured in volts) is, as in any reaction system, the thermodynamic driving force of anaerobic respiration, which takes place in oxygen depleted environments. Prokaryotes are among the cells that have anaerobic respiration as metabolic strategy for survival. The electron transport takes place along and across the cellular membrane (prokaryotes lack of mitochondria). Electrons are transferred from an electron donor (molecule to be oxidised anaerobically) to an electron acceptor (NO, SO, MnO, etc.). The net Eh between a given electron donor and acceptor; hydrogen ions and other species in place will determine which reaction will first take place. For instance, nitrification is hierarchically more favoured than sulphate reduction. This allows for enhanced oil recovery by disfavouring biologically produced HS, which derives from reduced SO. In this process, the effects of nitrate reduction on wettability, interfacial tension, viscosity, permeability, biomass and biopolymer production remain unknown.

text: The

text: oxidation potential

text: (Eh, measured in volts) is, as in any reaction system, the

text: thermodynamic

text: driving force of

text: anaerobic respiration

text: , which takes place in oxygen depleted environments.

text: Prokaryotes

text: are among the cells that have anaerobic respiration as metabolic strategy for survival. The

text: electron transport

text: takes place along and across the cellular membrane (prokaryotes lack of mitochondria). Electrons are transferred from an

text: electron donor

text: (molecule to be oxidised anaerobically) to an

text: electron acceptor

text: (NO, SO, MnO, etc.). The net Eh between a given electron donor and acceptor;

text: hydrogen ions

text: and other species in place will determine which reaction will first take place. For instance, nitrification is hierarchically more favoured than sulphate reduction. This allows for enhanced oil recovery by disfavouring biologically produced HS, which derives from reduced SO. In this process, the effects of nitrate reduction on

text: wettability

text: interfacial tension

text: viscosity

text: permeability

text: biomass

text: and

text: biopolymer

text: production remain unknown.

text: Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis is caused by amoeba infection of the central nervous system. It is characterized by neurological symptoms including headache, seizures, and mental status abnormalities. These worsen progressively over weeks to months, leading to death in most patients. Infection is generally associated with underlying conditions such as immunodeficiency, diabetes, malignancies, malnutrition, systemic lupus erythematosus, and alcoholism. The parasite enters the body through cuts in the skin or by being inhaled into the upper respiratory tract. The parasite then spreads through the blood into the central nervous system. Acanthamoeba crosses the blood–brain barrier by means that are not yet understood. Subsequent invasion of the connective tissue and induction of pro-inflammatory responses leads to neuronal damage that can be fatal within days. Pure granulomatous lesions are rare in patients with AIDS and other related immunodeficiency states as the patients do not have adequate numbers of CD+ve T-cells to mount a granulomatous response to Acanthamoeba infection in CNS and other organ and tissues. A perivascular cuffing with amoebae in necrotic tissue is usual finding in the AIDS and related T-cell immunodeficiency conditions.  A post mortem biopsy reveals severe oedema and hemorrhagic necrosis. A patient who has contracted this illness usually displays subacute symptoms, including altered mental status, headaches, fever, neck stiffness, seizures, focal neurological signs (such as cranial nerve palsies and coma), all leading to death within one week to several months. Due to the rarity of this parasite and a lack of knowledge, there are currently no good diagnoses or treatments for Acanthamoeba infection. Acanthamoeba keratitis cases in the past, when were managed by atropine given as an adjuvant therapy without anti-parasitic drugs added to the regime, had been reported to halt the vision loss. Recent publications debate these successes related to an action of Atropine on muscarinic receptors on Acanthamoeba spp.

text: Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis is caused by amoeba infection of the central nervous system. It is characterized by

text: neurological symptoms

text: including headache, seizures, and mental status abnormalities. These worsen progressively over weeks to months, leading to death in most patients. Infection is generally associated with underlying conditions such as

text: immunodeficiency

text: , diabetes, malignancies, malnutrition,

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: , and alcoholism. The parasite enters the body through cuts in the skin or by being inhaled into the upper respiratory tract. The parasite then spreads through the blood into the central nervous system. Acanthamoeba crosses the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: by means that are not yet understood. Subsequent invasion of the connective tissue and induction of pro-inflammatory responses leads to neuronal damage that can be fatal within days. Pure granulomatous lesions are rare in patients with AIDS and other related immunodeficiency states as the patients do not have adequate numbers of CD+ve T-cells to mount a granulomatous response to Acanthamoeba infection in CNS and other organ and tissues. A perivascular cuffing with amoebae in necrotic tissue is usual finding in the AIDS and related T-cell immunodeficiency conditions.  A post mortem

text: biopsy

text: reveals severe

text: oedema

text: and

text: hemorrhagic

text: necrosis

text: . A patient who has contracted this illness usually displays subacute symptoms, including altered mental status, headaches, fever, neck stiffness, seizures, focal neurological signs (such as cranial nerve palsies and coma), all leading to death within one week to several months. Due to the rarity of this parasite and a lack of knowledge, there are currently no good diagnoses or treatments for Acanthamoeba infection. Acanthamoeba keratitis cases in the past, when were managed by atropine given as an adjuvant therapy without anti-parasitic drugs added to the regime, had been reported to halt the vision loss. Recent publications debate these successes related to an action of Atropine on muscarinic receptors on Acanthamoeba spp.

text: The hygric hypothesis was first proposed in 1953, making it the earliest posed hypothesis for the evolution of discontinuous gas exchange. The hygric hypothesis proposes that the discontinuous release of CO is an adaptation that allows terrestrial insects to limit respiratory water loss to the environment. This hypothesis is supported by studies that have demonstrated that respiratory water loss is substantially higher in insects forced to keep their spiracles open, than those of the same species who exhibit discontinuous gas exchange. In addition, laboratory selection experiments on Drosophila melanogaster have shown that more variable gas exchange patterns can emerge in populations of insects artificially selected for tolerance to dry conditions. However, water loss during discontinuous gas exchange is only limited during the flutter phase if gas exchange during the flutter phase is convective (or assisted by muscular contraction). From a water conservation perspective, if ventilation during the flutter phase occurs entirely by simple diffusion, there is no benefit to having a flutter phase. This has led to the belief that some other factor may have contributed to the evolution of discontinuous gas exchange in insects.

text: The hygric hypothesis was first proposed in 1953, making it the earliest posed hypothesis for the evolution of discontinuous gas exchange. The hygric hypothesis proposes that the discontinuous release of

text: CO

text: is an

text: adaptation

text: that allows

text: terrestrial

text: insects

text: to limit respiratory water loss to the environment. This

text: hypothesis

text: is supported by studies that have demonstrated that respiratory water loss is substantially higher in insects forced to keep their

text: spiracle

text: s open, than those of the same species who exhibit discontinuous gas exchange. In addition, laboratory selection experiments on

text: Drosophila melanogaster

text: have shown that more variable

text: gas exchange

text: patterns can emerge in

text: population

text: s of insects

text: artificially selected

text: for tolerance to dry conditions. However,

text: water

text: loss during discontinuous gas exchange is only limited during the flutter phase if gas exchange during the flutter phase is

text: convective

text: (or assisted by

text: muscular contraction

text: ). From a water conservation perspective, if

text: ventilation

text: during the flutter phase occurs entirely by

text: simple diffusion

text: , there is no benefit to having a flutter phase. This has led to the belief that some other factor may have contributed to the

text: evolution

text: of discontinuous gas exchange in

text: insects

text: Morphine is a phenanthrene opioid receptor agonist – its main effect is binding to and activating the μ-opioid receptors in the central nervous system. In clinical settings, morphine exerts its principal pharmacological effect on the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. Its primary actions of therapeutic value are analgesia and sedation. Activation of the μ-opioid receptors is associated with analgesia, sedation, euphoria, physical dependence, and respiratory depression. Morphine is a rapid-acting narcotic, and it is known to bind very strongly to the μ-opioid receptors, and for this reason, it often has a higher incidence of euphoria/dysphoria, respiratory depression, sedation, pruritus, tolerance, and physical and psychological dependence when compared to other opioids at equianalgesic doses. Morphine is also a κ-opioid and δ-opioid receptor agonist, κ-opioid's action is associated with spinal analgesia, miosis (pinpoint pupils) and psychotomimetic effects. δ-Opioid is thought to play a role in analgesia. Although morphine does not bind to the σ-receptor, it has been shown that σ-agonists, such as (+)-pentazocine, inhibit morphine analgesia, and σ-antagonists enhance morphine analgesia, suggesting downstream involvement of the σ-receptor in the actions of morphine.

text: Morphine is a

text: phenanthrene

text: opioid receptor

text: agonist

text: – its main effect is binding to and activating the

text: μ-opioid

text: receptors in the

text: central nervous system

text: . In clinical settings, morphine exerts its principal pharmacological effect on the central nervous system and

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . Its primary actions of therapeutic value are analgesia and sedation. Activation of the

text: μ-opioid

text: receptors is associated with analgesia, sedation,

text: euphoria

text: , physical

text: dependence

text: , and

text: respiratory depression

text: . Morphine is a rapid-acting narcotic, and it is known to bind very strongly to the

text: μ-opioid

text: receptors, and for this reason, it often has a higher incidence of euphoria/dysphoria, respiratory depression, sedation, pruritus, tolerance, and physical and psychological dependence when compared to other opioids at equianalgesic doses. Morphine is also a

text: κ-opioid

text: and

text: δ-opioid

text: receptor agonist, κ-opioid's action is associated with spinal analgesia,

text: miosis

text: (pinpoint pupils) and

text: psychotomimetic

text: effects. δ-Opioid is thought to play a role in analgesia. Although morphine does not bind to the

text: σ-receptor

text: , it has been shown that σ-agonists, such as (+)-

text: pentazocine

text: , inhibit morphine analgesia, and σ-antagonists enhance morphine analgesia, suggesting downstream involvement of the σ-receptor in the actions of morphine.

text: To obtain in a perfusion culture experiment a high saturation of O a selected medium such as IMDM has to be transported through a gas permeable silicone tube. The use of a silicone tube provides a large surface for gas exchange by diffusion due to a thin wall (1 mm), the small inner diameter (1 mm) and its extended length (1 m). For example, analysis of IMDM (3024 mg/l NaHCO, 50 mmol/l HEPES) equilibrated against atmospheric air during a standard perfusion culture experiment shows constant partial pressures of at least 160 mmHg O [7].

text: To obtain in a perfusion culture experiment a high saturation of O a selected medium such as IMDM has to be transported through a gas permeable silicone tube. The use of a silicone tube provides a large surface for

text: gas exchange

text: by diffusion due to a thin wall (1 mm), the small inner diameter (1 mm) and its extended length (1 m). For example, analysis of IMDM (3024 mg/l NaHCO, 50 mmol/l HEPES) equilibrated against atmospheric air during a standard perfusion culture experiment shows constant partial pressures of at least 160 mmHg O [7].

text: A registry of patients that have received ECMO is maintained by the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO).  The last publication of ELSO registry data reported outcomes on nearly 51,000 patients with 75% survival for neonatal respiratory failure, 56% survival for pediatric respiratory failure, and 55% survival for adult respiratory failure.  With acute respiratory failure use of ECMO has been shown to improve survival rates.  Survival rates from 50 to 70 percent have been reported in observational and uncontrolled clinical trials.  The survival rates reported are better than historical survival rates.  In the United Kingdom, respiratory (VV) ECMO is concentrated in designated ECMO centres to ensure top-quality care.

text: A registry of patients that have received ECMO is maintained by the

entity_name: Extracorporeal Life Support Organization

text: Extracorporeal Life Support Organization

text: (ELSO).  The last publication of ELSO registry data reported outcomes on nearly 51,000 patients with 75% survival for neonatal respiratory failure, 56% survival for pediatric respiratory failure, and 55% survival for adult respiratory failure.  With acute respiratory failure use of ECMO has been shown to improve survival rates.  Survival rates from 50 to 70 percent have been reported in observational and uncontrolled clinical trials.  The survival rates reported are better than historical survival rates.  In the

text: United Kingdom

text: , respiratory (VV) ECMO is concentrated in designated ECMO centres to ensure top-quality care.

text: In cholesterol synthesis, the product, farnesyl pyrophosphate, is consumed in a reductive tail-to-tail condensation with another farnesyl pyrophosphate to form a 30-carbon compound called squalene by squalene synthase. Through several more biosynthetic steps, squalene is transformed into lanosterol, a direct precursor for cholesterol. Notably, sterols control FPPS expression through two cis regulatory factors (an inverted CAAT box and SRE-3) in the proximal FPPS promoter. In plants, porphyrin and carotenoids constitute accessory pigments that help capture light in the photosystems. Ubiquinone is a key electron carrier in the electron transport chain of cellular respiration. Isoprenoids are a large group of compounds that serve as biosynthetic precursors for lipids and hormones.

text: In cholesterol synthesis, the product, farnesyl pyrophosphate, is consumed in a reductive tail-to-tail condensation with another farnesyl pyrophosphate to form a 30-carbon compound called

text: squalene

text: by

text: squalene synthase

text: . Through several more biosynthetic steps, squalene is transformed into

text: lanosterol

text: , a direct precursor for cholesterol. Notably,

text: sterols

text: control FPPS expression through two cis regulatory factors (an inverted

text: CAAT box

text: and SRE-3) in the proximal FPPS promoter. In plants, porphyrin and carotenoids constitute accessory pigments that help capture light in the

text: photosystems

text: Ubiquinone

text: is a key electron carrier in the

text: electron transport chain

text: of

text: cellular respiration

text: . Isoprenoids are a large group of compounds that serve as biosynthetic precursors for lipids and

text: hormones

text: In aerobic cells with sufficient oxygen, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to acetyl-CoA, giving off one carbon atom as the waste product carbon dioxide, generating another reducing equivalent as NADH. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the citric acid cycle, producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via FADH as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an electron transport system transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes). Thus, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD and quinone are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an additional 28 molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle). It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.

text: In

text: aerobic

text: cells with sufficient oxygen, as in most human cells, the pyruvate is further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to

text: acetyl-CoA

text: , giving off one carbon atom as the waste product

text: carbon dioxide

text: , generating another reducing equivalent as

text: NADH

text: . The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the

text: citric acid cycle

text: , producing two more molecules of ATP, six more NADH molecules and two reduced (ubi)quinones (via

text: FADH

text: as enzyme-bound cofactor), and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The produced NADH and quinol molecules then feed into the enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain, an

text: electron transport system

text: transferring the electrons ultimately to oxygen and conserving the released energy in the form of a proton gradient over a membrane (

text: inner mitochondrial membrane

text: in eukaryotes). Thus, oxygen is reduced to water and the original electron acceptors NAD and

text: quinone

text: are regenerated. This is why humans breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. The energy released from transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and quinol is conserved first as proton gradient and converted to ATP via ATP synthase. This generates an additional 28 molecules of ATP (24 from the 8 NADH + 4 from the 2 quinols), totaling to 32 molecules of ATP conserved per degraded glucose (two from glycolysis + two from the citrate cycle). It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far more energy than any oxygen-independent metabolic feature, and this is thought to be the reason why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.

text: In the rest of the world, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liquefied natural gas) and LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) are traded in metric tons or MMBTU as spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic metres, and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes (1,000 kg). The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized transport ships, as the gas is liquified at cryogenic temperatures. The specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content, but this information is in general not available to the public.

text: In the rest of the world, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liquefied natural gas) and LPG (

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: ) are traded in metric tons or MMBTU as spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic metres, and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes (1,000 kg). The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized

text: transport ships

text: , as the gas is liquified at

text: cryogenic

text: temperatures. The specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content, but this information is in general not available to the public.

text: In regard to the relationship between atmospheric pressure and breathing, when the atmospheric pressure is lower, the air pressure within the breathing system must be correspondingly lower in order for inhalation to occur i.e. lower than the atmospheric pressure (based upon a pressure gradient being established and in keeping with Boyle’s law). This means that in order to achieve inhalation, the air pressure within the breathing system must be relatively lower at high altitudes (low atmospheric pressure) than at low altitudes (high atmospheric pressure); this typically involves a relatively greater lowering of the thoracic diaphragm. In regard to exhalation, when the atmospheric pressure is lower, the air pressure within the breathing system does not need to be as high in order for exhalation to occur; therefore, the diaphragm does not typically need to raise as high in order to achieve exhalation. At low altitudes where the air pressure is higher, inhalation can be achieved with a relatively smaller reduction of the air pressure within the breathing system, and exhalation requires a relatively greater increase of air pressure within the breathing system. Again, this is based upon a pressure gradient being established between the atmospheric pressure and the air pressure within the breathing system.

text: In regard to the relationship between

text: atmospheric pressure

text: and breathing, when the atmospheric pressure is lower, the air pressure within the breathing system must be correspondingly lower in order for inhalation to occur i.e. lower than the atmospheric pressure (based upon a

text: pressure gradient

text: being established and in keeping with

text: Boyle’s law

text: ). This means that in order to achieve inhalation, the air pressure within the breathing system must be relatively lower at high altitudes (low atmospheric pressure) than at low altitudes (high atmospheric pressure); this typically involves a relatively greater lowering of the thoracic diaphragm. In regard to exhalation, when the atmospheric pressure is lower, the air pressure within the breathing system does not need to be as high in order for exhalation to occur; therefore, the diaphragm does not typically need to raise as high in order to achieve exhalation. At low altitudes where the air pressure is higher, inhalation can be achieved with a relatively smaller reduction of the air pressure within the breathing system, and exhalation requires a relatively greater increase of air pressure within the breathing system. Again, this is based upon a pressure gradient being established between the atmospheric pressure and the air pressure within the breathing system.

text: Respiratory Health Association is a not-for-profit organization located on Chicago’s Near West Side.

text: The most important of Krka’s therapeutic groups include treatments for: cardiovascular diseases, alimentary tract diseases and metabolic disorders, and central nervous system diseases. They are followed by the medicines for the systemic treatment of infections, the medicines for the treatment of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs, and the medicines for urinary tract diseases as well as the medicines for respiratory system diseases.

text: The most important of Krka’s therapeutic groups include treatments for:

text: cardiovascular disease

text: s,

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter XI: Diseases of the digestive system

text: alimentary tract diseases

text: and metabolic disorders, and

text: central nervous system diseases

text: . They are followed by the medicines for the systemic treatment of infections, the medicines for the treatment of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs, and the medicines for

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter XIV: Diseases of the genitourinary system

text: urinary tract diseases

text: as well as the medicines for

text: respiratory system

text: diseases.

text: The passage of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs main bronchi down to the final branchings of the respiratory tree (which act as the primary gas exchange units of the lung) alveoli are lined with a moist lining of the airway respiratory epithelium. On that, cilium is present, bearing hair-shaped structures on its surface (cilia). The cilia are surrounded by mucus, or epithelial lining fluid (ELF), the composition of which is tightly regulated; the mucus helps maintain epithelial moisture and traps particulate material and pathogens moving through the airway. and determines how well mucociliary clearance works.  Within the thin fluid film of mucus the cilia act out movements coordinated in direction towards the pharynx. Thereby the viscous film of mucus including its freight is transported off in direction towards the mouth, where it is either swallowed or expelled via coughing.

text: The passage of airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs

text: main bronchi

text: down to the final branchings of the respiratory tree (which act as the primary gas exchange units of the lung)

text: alveoli

text: are lined with a moist lining of the airway

text: respiratory epithelium

text: . On that, cilium is present, bearing hair-shaped structures on its surface (cilia). The

text: cilia

text: are surrounded by mucus, or epithelial lining fluid (ELF), the composition of which is tightly regulated; the mucus helps maintain epithelial moisture and traps particulate material and pathogens moving through the airway. and determines how well mucociliary clearance works.  Within the thin fluid film of mucus the cilia act out movements coordinated in direction towards the

text: pharynx

text: . Thereby the viscous film of mucus including its freight is transported off in direction towards the mouth, where it is either swallowed or expelled via coughing.

text: A respiratory inductance plethysmograph consists of two sinusoid wire coils insulated and placed within two 2.5 cm (about 1 inch) wide, lightweight elastic and adhesive bands. The transducer bands are placed around the rib cage under the armpits and around the abdomen at the level of the umbilicus (belly button). They are connected to an oscillator and subsequent frequency demodulation electronics to obtain digital waveforms.  During inspiration the cross-sectional area of the rib cage and abdomen increases altering the self-inductance of the coils and the frequency of their oscillation, with the increase in cross-sectional area proportional to lung volumes. The electronics convert this change in frequency to a digital respiration waveform where the amplitude of the waveform is proportional to the inspired breath volume.

text: A respiratory inductance plethysmograph consists of two

text: sinusoid

text: wire coils insulated and placed within two 2.5 cm (about 1 inch) wide, lightweight elastic and adhesive bands. The

text: transducer

text: bands are placed around the rib cage under the armpits and around the abdomen at the level of the

text: umbilicus

text: (belly button). They are connected to an

text: oscillator

text: and subsequent frequency

text: demodulation

text: electronics to obtain digital waveforms.  During inspiration the cross-sectional area of the rib cage and abdomen increases altering the self-inductance of the coils and the frequency of their oscillation, with the increase in cross-sectional area proportional to lung volumes. The electronics convert this change in frequency to a digital respiration waveform where the amplitude of the waveform is proportional to the inspired breath volume.

text: An Associate of Science in Respiratory Care (ASRC) is an entry-level tertiary education respiratory therapy degree.  In the United States, this type of degree is usually awarded by community colleges or similar respiratory schools. Some four year colleges also offer this degree.   Students in the United States awarded an Associate of Science in Respiratory Care are qualified to sit for the NBRC-ELE and then the NBRC-WRE and NBRC-CSE then apply for state licensure as a Registered Respiratory Therapist.

text: An Associate of Science in Respiratory Care (ASRC) is an entry-level

text: tertiary education

text: respiratory therapy

text: degree

text: .  In the

text: United States

text: , this type of degree is usually awarded by

text: community college

text: s or similar

text: respiratory school

text: s. Some four year colleges also offer this degree.   Students in the United States awarded an Associate of Science in Respiratory Care are qualified to sit for the

text: NBRC-ELE

text: and then the

text: NBRC-WRE

text: and

text: NBRC-CSE

text: then apply for state

text: licensure

text: as a

text: Registered Respiratory Therapist

text: The Arc system stands for Anoxic Respiratory Control system.  It is an example of a two-component system, in that it has a sensor molecule and a response regulator.

text: Powders are transported in the atmosphere differently from a coarse granular material. For one thing, tiny particles have little inertia compared to the drag force of the gas that surrounds them, and so they tend to go with the flow instead of traveling in straight lines. For this reason, powders may be an inhalation hazard. Larger particles cannot weave through the body's defenses in the nose and sinus, but will strike and stick to the mucous membranes. The body then moves the mucous out of the body to expel the particles. The smaller particles on the other hand can travel all the way to the lungs from which they cannot be expelled. Serious and sometimes fatal diseases such as silicosis are a result from working with certain powders without adequate respiratory protection.

text: Powders are transported in the atmosphere differently from a coarse granular material. For one thing, tiny particles have little inertia compared to the drag force of the gas that surrounds them, and so they tend to go with the flow instead of traveling in straight lines. For this reason, powders may be an inhalation hazard. Larger particles cannot weave through the body's defenses in the nose and sinus, but will strike and stick to the mucous membranes. The body then moves the mucous out of the body to expel the particles. The smaller particles on the other hand can travel all the way to the lungs from which they cannot be expelled. Serious and sometimes fatal diseases such as

text: silicosis

text: are a result from working with certain powders without adequate respiratory protection.

text: If the use of these methods is impossible, or if their use did not reduce the concentration of harmful substances to a safe value, workers must use respirators. These respirators must be sufficiently effective, and they should correspond to known or expected conditions at the workplace. However, it is the least effective method of protection; and the reasons for the decrease of their efficiency often are: non-usage of the respirators in the contaminated atmosphere; leakage of unfiltered air through the gaps between the mask and face; and delayed replacement of gas cartridges.

text: If the use of these methods is impossible, or if their use did not reduce the concentration of harmful substances to

text: a safe value

text: , workers must use respirators. These respirators must be sufficiently effective, and they should correspond to known or expected conditions at the workplace. However, it is the

text: least effective method of protection

text: ; and the reasons for the decrease of their efficiency often are: non-usage of the respirators in the contaminated atmosphere; leakage of unfiltered air through the gaps between the mask and face; and

entity_name: Cartridges and canisters of air-purifying respirators

text: delayed replacement of gas cartridges

text: Like all avian species, the blood of the common raven transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, metabolic waste products, hormones, and heat. Avian blood possesses a more alkaline pH ranging from 7.5 to 7.6, and blood bicarbonate values are between 16 and 32 mmol/L. In addition, pumping blood has a carbon dioxide partial pressure of about 28 mmHg, which is lower than that of placental mammals. Therefore, bird species, including the common raven, seem to be in an acute state of respiratory alkalosis relative to mammals. It is also important to note that alterations of respiratory patterns in response to changing oxygen needs do not severely affect the pH of arterial blood.

text: Like all avian species, the blood of the common raven transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, metabolic waste products,

text: hormones

text: , and heat. Avian blood possesses a more

text: alkaline

text: pH

text: ranging from 7.5 to 7.6, and blood

text: bicarbonate

text: values are between 16 and 32 mmol/L. In addition, pumping blood has a carbon dioxide partial pressure of about 28 mmHg, which is lower than that of

text: placental mammals

text: . Therefore, bird species, including the common raven, seem to be in an acute state of

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: relative to mammals. It is also important to note that alterations of respiratory patterns in response to changing oxygen needs do not severely affect the pH of arterial blood.

text: Respiratory dysfunction

text: Respiratory dysfunction

text: The circulatory system is often seen to comprise two separate systems: the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph. The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart" and "vessel") system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.

text: The circulatory system is often seen to comprise two separate systems: the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the

text: lymphatic system

text: , which circulates

text: lymph

text: . The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. Blood is a fluid consisting of

text: plasma

text: red blood cell

text: s,

text: white blood cell

text: s, and

text: platelets

text: that is circulated by the

text: heart

text: through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been

text: filtered

text: from the

text: interstitial fluid

text: (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart" and "vessel") system comprises the blood, heart, and

text: blood vessel

text: s. The lymph,

text: lymph node

text: s, and

text: lymph vessels

text: form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.

text: With each suit described here, there is a manufactured device designed to protect the respiratory system of the wearer while the suit/ensemble is used to protect skin exposed to potential, or actual dermal, hazardous agents. That device is a respirator.  A respirator may be something as simple as a headband strap filtering facepiece respirator (FFR), to a headharness negative pressure fullface respirator (air-purifying respirator/APR), to a full face, tight fitting, closed breathing air, or open circuit, self-contained breathing apparatus (CC-SCBA or SCBA).

text: It may be reasonably assumed that in reality, both perfusion transport by blood circulation, and diffusion transport in tissues where there is little or no blood flow occur. The problem with attempts to simultaneously model perfusion and diffusion is that there are large numbers of variables due to interactions between all of the tissue compartments and the problem becomes intractable. A way of simplifying the modelling of gas transfer into and out of tissues is to make assumptions about the limiting mechanism of dissolved gas transport to the tissues which control decompression. Assuming that either perfusion or diffusion has a dominant influence, and the other can be disregarded, can greatly reduce the number of variables.

text: The main respiratory surface in humans is the alveoli, which are small air sacs branching off from the bronchioles in the lungs. They are one cell thick and provide a moist and extremely large surface area for gas exchange to occur. Capillaries carrying deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary artery run across the alveoli. They are also extremely thin, so the total distance gases must diffuse across is only around 2 cells thick. An adult male has about 300 million alveoli, each ranging in diameter from 75 to 300 µm.

text: The main respiratory surface in humans is the

text: alveoli

text: , which are small air sacs branching off from the

text: bronchiole

text: s in the

text: lung

text: s. They are one cell thick and provide a moist and extremely large surface area for gas exchange to occur. Capillaries carrying

text: deoxygenated blood

text: from the

text: pulmonary artery

text: run across the alveoli. They are also extremely thin, so the total distance gases must diffuse across is only around 2 cells thick. An adult male has about 300 million alveoli, each ranging in diameter from 75 to 300

text: µm

text: In a literature review published in the journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, J.T. Zelikoff concludes that there are a wide variety of health risks posed by residential wood combustion. She writes:The Washington Department of Ecology also published a booklet explaining why wood smoke can be dangerous. It explains that human lung and respiratory systems are unable to filter particles emitted by wood combustion, which penetrate deeply into the lungs. For months, cancer causing chemicals can continue to cause changes and structural damage within the respiratory system. Young children, seniors, pregnant women, smokers and individuals with respiratory disorders are most vulnerable. Wood smoke can cause disease and even death in children because it is associated with lower respiratory tract infections. Home fireplaces have caused fatal carbon monoxide poisoning.

text: In a literature review published in the journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, J.T. Zelikoff concludes that there are a wide variety of health risks posed by residential wood combustion. She writes:The

text: Washington Department of Ecology

text: also published a booklet explaining why wood smoke can be dangerous. It explains that human lung and respiratory systems are unable to filter particles emitted by wood combustion, which penetrate deeply into the lungs. For months, cancer causing chemicals can continue to cause changes and structural damage within the respiratory system. Young children, seniors, pregnant women, smokers and individuals with respiratory disorders are most vulnerable. Wood smoke can cause disease and even death in children because it is associated with

text: lower respiratory tract infection

text: s. Home fireplaces have caused fatal

text: carbon monoxide poisoning

text: Molluscs generally possess gills that allow exchange of oxygen from an aqueous environment into the circulatory system. These animals also possess a heart that pumps blood which contains hemocyaninine as its oxygen-capturing molecule. Therefore, this respiratory system is similar to that of vertebrate fish. The respiratory system of gastropods can include either gills or a lung.

text: Molluscs

text: generally possess gills that allow exchange of oxygen from an aqueous environment into the circulatory system. These animals also possess a heart that pumps blood which contains hemocyaninine as its oxygen-capturing molecule. Therefore, this respiratory system is similar to that of vertebrate fish. The

text: respiratory system of gastropods

text: can include either gills or a lung.

text: Cellular respiration, for instance, is the oxidation of glucose (CHO) to CO and the reduction of oxygen to water. The summary equation for cell respiration is:

text: Cellular respiration

text: , for instance, is the oxidation of

text: glucose

text: (CHO) to

text: CO

text: and the reduction of

text: oxygen

text: to

text: water

text: . The summary equation for cell respiration is:

text: In its most basic sense, respiration is the process of moving air in and out of the body — inhalation and exhalation. Breathing for singing and speaking is a more controlled process than is the ordinary breathing used for sustaining life. The controls applied to exhalation are particularly important in good vocal technique.

text: There are several factors which play a role in the respiratory system of Paralithodes Camtschaticus. The diffusion rate needs to be considered which can be seen through Fick's laws of diffusion and through Henry’s Law. Fick's laws of diffusion gives us more insight on the partial pressures of our substance, oxygen and carbon dioxide. This enhances our understanding of the fact that diffusion of gases occurs from an area of high concentration to an area with low concentration. Henry’s Law allows us to understand the different physical environments of the air and water and also states that as temperature increases, the solubility of gas decreases. The red king crab has five sets of gills that are used for respiration which are located in the branchial chamber within the carapace. The carapace is a covering that consists of sheets of exoskeleton that overhang the thorax vertically to fit over the base of the thoracic legs. The carapace encloses two branchial chambers which in turn enclose the gills. The gill surfaces are covered in chitinous cuticle, which is permeable to gases; therefore, allowing gas exchange. Internal gills, like other specialized gills, require metabolic energy to pull water over the respiratory surface. To induce a current into the branchial chamber the crab uses back and forth movements of an appendage called the scaphognathite. The water is drawn in from behind the walking legs then expelled from the branchial chambers through the tubes called prebronchial apertures which are located beside the mouth. To filter the water before entering the branchial chamber crabs have branchiostegal hairs which can collect debris. Due to the environment it is exposed to, the posterior gills of the crab can also be cleared of parasites and sediment by increasing the movement of its fifth set of primitive legs.

text: There are several factors which play a role in the respiratory system of Paralithodes Camtschaticus. The diffusion rate needs to be considered which can be seen through

text: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: and through

text: Henry’s Law

text: . Fick's laws of diffusion gives us more insight on the partial pressures of our substance, oxygen and carbon dioxide. This enhances our understanding of the fact that

text: diffusion

text: of gases occurs from an area of high concentration to an area with low concentration.

text: Henry’s Law

text: allows us to understand the different physical environments of the air and water and also states that as temperature increases, the solubility of gas decreases. The red king crab has five sets of gills that are used for respiration which are located in the branchial chamber within the

text: carapace

text: . The carapace is a covering that consists of sheets of exoskeleton that overhang the

text: thorax

text: vertically to fit over the base of the thoracic legs. The carapace encloses two branchial chambers which in turn enclose the gills. The gill surfaces are covered in chitinous cuticle, which is

text: permeable

text: to gases; therefore, allowing gas exchange. Internal gills, like other specialized gills, require

text: metabolic

text: energy to pull water over the respiratory surface. To induce a current into the branchial chamber the crab uses back and forth movements of an appendage called the scaphognathite. The water is drawn in from behind the walking legs then expelled from the branchial chambers through the tubes called prebronchial apertures which are located beside the mouth. To filter the water before entering the branchial chamber crabs have branchiostegal hairs which can collect debris. Due to the environment it is exposed to, the posterior gills of the crab can also be cleared of parasites and sediment by increasing the movement of its fifth set of primitive legs.

text: Avian lungs do not have alveoli as mammalian lungs do, but instead contain millions of tiny passages known as parabronchi, connected at both ends by the dorsobronchi and ventrobronchi. Air flows interiorly (caudal to cranial) through the parallel, honeycombed walls of the parabronchi into air vesicles, called atria, which project radially through the parabronchi. These atria give rise to air capillaries, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with cross-flowing blood capillaries by diffusion. All species of birds with the exception of the penguin, have neopulmonic parabronchi. These unorganized, unparalleled tubes project between the mesobronchus to the posterior sacs and into the posterior secondary bronchi. Unlike the paleoparabronchi, air traveling through the neopulmonic bronchi travels bidirectionally, compared to the unidirectional flow through the parabronchi. The neopulmonic parabronchi never make up more than 25% of the gas exchange surface.

text: Avian lungs do not have

text: alveoli

text: as mammalian lungs do, but instead contain millions of tiny passages known as parabronchi, connected at both ends by the dorsobronchi and ventrobronchi. Air flows interiorly (caudal to cranial) through the parallel, honeycombed walls of the parabronchi into air vesicles, called atria, which project

text: radially

text: through the parabronchi. These atria give rise to air capillaries, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with cross-flowing blood capillaries by diffusion. All species of birds with the exception of the penguin, have neopulmonic parabronchi. These unorganized, unparalleled tubes project between the mesobronchus to the posterior sacs and into the posterior secondary bronchi. Unlike the paleoparabronchi, air traveling through the neopulmonic bronchi travels bidirectionally, compared to the unidirectional flow through the parabronchi. The neopulmonic parabronchi never make up more than 25% of the gas exchange surface.

text: Because the exchange of gases between the blood and airspace of the lungs is independent of the movement of gas to and from the lungs, enough oxygen can be delivered to the circulation even if a person is apneic. This phenomenon (apneic oxygenation) is explained as follows:

text: As well as the patient's respiratory rate, the pattern of breathing is also noted:

text: The terminal bronchiole is the most distal segment of the conducting zone. It branches off the lesser bronchioles. Each of the terminal bronchioles divides to form respiratory bronchioles which contain a small number of alveoli.  Terminal bronchioles are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium containing club cells.  Terminal bronchioles contain a limited number of ciliated cells and no goblet cells.  Club cells are non-ciliated, rounded protein secreting cells.  Their secretions are a nonsticky, proteinaceous compound to maintain the airway in the smallest bronchioles.  The secretion, called surfactant, reduces surface tension, allowing for bronchioles to expand during inspiration and keeping the bronchioles from collapsing during expiration.  Club cells, a stem cell of the respiratory system, produce enzymes that detoxify substances dissolved in the respiratory fluid.

text: The terminal bronchiole is the most distal segment of the conducting zone. It branches off the lesser bronchioles. Each of the terminal bronchioles divides to form respiratory bronchioles which contain a small number of alveoli.  Terminal bronchioles are lined with simple

text: cuboidal epithelium

text: containing

text: club cell

text: s.  Terminal bronchioles contain a limited number of ciliated cells and no

text: goblet cell

text: s.  Club cells are non-ciliated, rounded protein secreting cells.  Their secretions are a nonsticky, proteinaceous compound to maintain the airway in the smallest bronchioles.  The secretion, called

text: surfactant

text: , reduces

text: surface tension

text: , allowing for bronchioles to expand during inspiration and keeping the bronchioles from collapsing during expiration.  Club cells, a

text: stem cell

text: of the

text: respiratory system

text: , produce

text: enzyme

text: s that detoxify substances dissolved in the respiratory fluid.

text: There is a lack of well-designed clinical trials to support the effectiveness of yoga in improving general health, and anti-gravity yoga is too new to have been studied in this way.  However, anecdotal evidence indicates that by facilitating bending and stretching of the whole body during exercise, muscles and joints will be strengthened and rehabilitated, and the spine decompressed as the body hangs freely.  As with other forms of active exercise, the circulatory, respiratory and digestive systems are improved through increased blood circulation.  Yoga in general, and anti-gravity yoga in particular is promoted as benefiting emotional, psychological and spiritual health.

text: On the southwestern edge of Süddorf, there is the Satteldüne sanitorium, which specialises in the treatment of diseases of the respiratory system of children and adolescents. Moreover, Amrum's school house, the Öömrang Skuul with elementary and secondary divisions, is located in this part of Nebel.

text: On the southwestern edge of Süddorf, there is the Satteldüne

text: sanitorium

text: , which specialises in the treatment of diseases of the

text: respiratory system

text: of children and adolescents. Moreover, Amrum's school house, the Öömrang Skuul with

text: elementary

text: and

text: secondary

text: divisions, is located in this part of Nebel.

text: Physical examination may sometimes reveal low blood pressure, high heart rate, or low oxygen saturation. The respiratory rate may be faster than normal, and this may occur a day or two before other signs. Examination of the chest may be normal, but it may show decreased chest expansion on the affected side. Harsh breath sounds from the larger airways that are transmitted through the inflamed lung are termed bronchial breathing and are heard on auscultation with a stethoscope. Crackles (rales) may be heard over the affected area during inspiration. Percussion may be dulled over the affected lung, and increased, rather than decreased, vocal resonance distinguishes pneumonia from a pleural effusion.

text: Physical examination

text: may sometimes reveal

text: low blood pressure

text: high heart rate

text: , or low

text: oxygen saturation

text: . The respiratory rate may be faster than normal, and this may occur a day or two before other signs. Examination of the chest may be normal, but it may show decreased chest expansion on the affected side. Harsh breath sounds from the larger airways that are transmitted through the inflamed lung are termed

text: bronchial

text: breathing and are heard on

text: auscultation

text: with a

text: stethoscope

text: Crackles

text: (rales) may be heard over the affected area during

text: inspiration

text: Percussion

text: may be dulled over the affected lung, and increased, rather than decreased,

text: vocal resonance

text: distinguishes pneumonia from a

text: pleural effusion

text: In addition to involuntary control of respiration by respiratory neuronal networks in the brainstem, respiration can be affected by higher brain conditions such as emotional state, via input from the limbic system, or temperature, via the hypothalamus, or free will. Voluntary or conscious control of respiration is provided via the cerebral cortex, although chemoreceptor reflexes are capable of overriding it.

text: In addition to involuntary control of respiration by respiratory neuronal networks in the brainstem, respiration can be affected by higher brain conditions such as emotional state, via input from the

text: limbic system

text: , or

text: temperature

text: , via the

text: hypothalamus

text: , or free will. Voluntary or conscious control of respiration is provided via the

text: cerebral cortex

text: , although chemoreceptor reflexes are capable of overriding it.

text: Breath aerosol analysis consists in the sampling and analysis of particles emitted in the respiratory tract and present in exhaled breath. This is a relatively new field that holds great promise for direct diagnostics of pathogens, such as Influenza, and for in-vivo monitoring of the respiratory lining fluid (Respiratory epithelium) components, such as proteins and phospholipids. Various methods are used for sampling exhaled breath aerosols, such as filters, impactors, impingement filter, or electrostatic precipitators.This latter field is related to that of Bioaerosol sampling and analysis.

text: Breath aerosol analysis

text: consists in the sampling and analysis of particles emitted in the respiratory tract and present in exhaled breath. This is a relatively new field that holds great promise for direct diagnostics of pathogens, such as

text: Influenza

text: , and for in-vivo monitoring of the respiratory lining fluid (

text: Respiratory epithelium

text: ) components, such as

text: proteins

text: and

text: phospholipids

text: . Various methods are used for sampling exhaled breath aerosols, such as filters,

text: impactors

text: impingement filter

text: , or

text: electrostatic precipitators

text: .This latter field is related to that of

text: Bioaerosol

text: sampling and analysis.

text: Tunicates have a well-developed heart and circulatory system. The heart is a double U-shaped tube situated just below the gut. The blood vessels are simple connective tissue tubes, and their blood has several types of corpuscle. The blood may appear pale green, but this is not due to any respiratory pigments, and oxygen is transported dissolved in the plasma. Exact details of the circulatory system are unclear, but the gut, pharynx, gills, gonads, and nervous system seem to be arranged in series rather than in parallel, as happens in most other animals. Every few minutes, the heart stops beating and then restarts, pumping fluid in the reverse direction.

text: Tunicates have a well-developed

text: heart

text: and

text: circulatory system

text: . The heart is a double U-shaped tube situated just below the gut. The blood vessels are simple connective tissue tubes, and their blood has several types of

text: corpuscle

text: . The blood may appear pale green, but this is not due to any respiratory pigments, and oxygen is transported dissolved in the

text: plasma

text: . Exact details of the circulatory system are unclear, but the gut, pharynx, gills, gonads, and nervous system seem to be arranged in series rather than in parallel, as happens in most other animals. Every few minutes, the heart stops beating and then restarts, pumping fluid in the reverse direction.

text: However, many instances of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity cannot be ascribed to "fight" or "rest" situations. For example, standing up from a reclining or sitting position would entail an unsustainable drop in blood pressure if not for a compensatory increase in the arterial sympathetic tonus. Another example is the constant, second-to-second, modulation of heart rate by sympathetic and parasympathetic influences, as a function of the respiratory cycles. In general, these two systems should be seen as permanently modulating vital functions, in usually antagonistic fashion, to achieve homeostasis. Some typical actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are listed below.

text: Luminex Corporation currently owns 315 issued patents worldwide, including over 124 issued patents in the United States based on its multiplexing xMAP platform.  Luminex's proprietary multiplex bead-based immunoassay testing platform simultaneously measures multiple analytes by exciting a sample with a laser, and subsequently analyzing the wavelength of emitted light. Luminex's MAGPIX platform utilizes LED technology and digital photography to analyze,"color-coded magnetic microspheres".  In 2008 Luminex received FDA 510(k) clearance for its xTAG Respiratory Viral Panel which allows doctors to test for the presence of 12 respiratory viruses with a very high degree of accuracy in a matter of hours, and has been proven to provide an increase in accuracy over in-house nucleic acid amplification testing in the diagnosis of respiratory virus infections.  Luminex's xTAG Gastrointestinal Pathogen Panel was granted a CE mark by the European Union in 2012 and received FDA and Health Canada clearance in early 2013.  Luminex also has an extensive portfolio of genetics assays focused on cystic fibrosis and pharmacogenetics.

text: Luminex Corporation currently owns 315 issued patents worldwide, including over 124 issued patents in the United States based on its

text: multiplexing

text: xMAP platform.  Luminex's proprietary multiplex bead-based

text: immunoassay

text: testing platform simultaneously measures multiple analytes by exciting a sample with a laser, and subsequently analyzing the wavelength of emitted light. Luminex's MAGPIX platform utilizes

text: LED

text: technology and digital photography to analyze,"color-coded magnetic microspheres".  In 2008 Luminex received FDA 510(k) clearance for its xTAG Respiratory Viral Panel which allows doctors to test for the presence of 12 respiratory viruses with a very high degree of accuracy in a matter of hours, and has been proven to provide an increase in accuracy over in-house nucleic acid amplification testing in the diagnosis of respiratory virus infections.  Luminex's xTAG Gastrointestinal Pathogen Panel was granted a

text: CE mark

text: by the European Union in 2012 and received FDA and Health Canada clearance in early 2013.  Luminex also has an extensive portfolio of genetics assays focused on cystic fibrosis and pharmacogenetics.

text: Subcutaneous emphysema can result from puncture of parts of the respiratory or gastrointestinal systems.  Particularly in the chest and neck, air may become trapped as a result of penetrating trauma (e.g., gunshot wounds or stab wounds) or blunt trauma. Infection  (e.g., gas gangrene) can cause gas to be trapped in the subcutaneous tissues. Subcutaneous emphysema can be caused by medical procedures and medical conditions that cause the pressure in the alveoli of the lung to be higher than that in the tissues outside of them.  Its most common causes are pneumothorax and a chest tube that has become occluded by a blood clot or fibrinous material.  It can also occur spontaneously due to rupture of the alveoli with dramatic presentation.  When the condition is caused by surgery it is called surgical emphysema. The term spontaneous subcutaneous emphysema is used when the cause is not clear. Subcutaneous emphysema is not typically dangerous in and of itself, however it can be a symptom of very dangerous underlying conditions, such as pneumothorax.  Although the underlying conditions require treatment, subcutaneous emphysema usually does not; small amounts of air are reabsorbed by the body.  However, subcutaneous emphysema can be uncomfortable and may interfere with breathing, and is often treated by removing air from the tissues, for example by using large bore needles, skin incisions or subcutaneous catheterization.

text: Subcutaneous emphysema can result from puncture of parts of the

text: respiratory

text: or

text: gastrointestinal system

text: s.  Particularly in the

text: chest

text: and neck, air may become trapped as a result of

text: penetrating trauma

text: (e.g.,

text: gunshot wound

text: s or stab wounds) or

text: blunt trauma

text: Infection

text: (e.g.,

text: gas gangrene

text: ) can cause gas to be trapped in the subcutaneous tissues. Subcutaneous emphysema can be caused by medical procedures and medical conditions that cause the pressure in the

text: alveoli

text: of the lung to be higher than that in the tissues outside of them.  Its most common causes are

text: pneumothorax

text: and a

text: chest tube

text: that has become occluded by a blood clot or fibrinous material.  It can also occur spontaneously due to rupture of the alveoli with dramatic presentation.  When the condition is caused by surgery it is called surgical emphysema. The term spontaneous subcutaneous emphysema is used when the cause is not clear. Subcutaneous emphysema is not typically dangerous in and of itself, however it can be a symptom of very dangerous underlying conditions, such as pneumothorax.  Although the underlying conditions require treatment, subcutaneous emphysema usually does not; small amounts of air are reabsorbed by the body.  However, subcutaneous emphysema can be uncomfortable and may interfere with breathing, and is often treated by removing air from the tissues, for example by using large bore needles, skin incisions or subcutaneous catheterization.

text: The blood pH is regulated by the A and B types of cells located in distal tubule and collecting duct. The A type cells are acid secreting cells that have a proton ATPase in the apical membrane and a Cl-/ HCO3- exchange system in the basolateral membrane whereas, the B type cells are base secreting cells, which secrete bicarbonate into the lumen of the tubule in exchange for chloride ions. The regulation of pH in blood determines whether bicarbonate is reabsorbed or secreted.

text: A typical human breathes between 12 and 20 times per minute at a rate primarily influenced by carbon dioxide concentration, and thus pH, in the blood. With each breath, a volume of about 0.6 litres is exchanged from an active lung volume (tidal volume + functional residual capacity) of about 3 litres. Normal Earth atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon, carbon dioxide, and other gases. After just two or three breaths of nitrogen, the oxygen concentration in the lungs would be low enough for some oxygen already in the bloodstream to exchange back to the lungs and be eliminated by exhalation. Crude simulation of oxygen transport through the lungs and bloodstream suggests that the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood would be about 50% of saturation 1 minute after switching gases and would reach zero within 3 minutes.

text: A typical human

text: breath

text: es between 12 and 20 times per minute at a rate primarily influenced by

text: carbon dioxide

text: concentration, and thus

text: pH

text: , in the

text: blood

text: . With each breath, a volume of about 0.6 litres is exchanged from an active

text: lung volume

text: (tidal volume + functional residual capacity) of about 3 litres. Normal

text: Earth atmosphere

text: is about 78%

text: nitrogen

text: , 21%

text: oxygen

text: , and 1%

text: argon

text: , carbon dioxide, and other gases. After just two or three breaths of nitrogen, the oxygen concentration in the lungs would be low enough for some oxygen already in the bloodstream to exchange back to the lungs and be eliminated by exhalation. Crude simulation of oxygen transport through the lungs and bloodstream suggests that the

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen in arterial blood would be about 50% of saturation 1 minute after switching gases and would reach zero within 3 minutes.

text: Firefighters are at the greatest risk for acute and chronic health effects resulting from wildfire smoke exposure. Due to firefighters' occupational duties, they are frequently exposed to hazardous chemicals at a close proximity for longer periods of time. A case study on the exposure of wildfire smoke among wildland firefighters shows that firefighters are exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants above OSHA-permissible exposure limits (PEL) and ACGIH threshold limit values (TLV). 5–10% are overexposed. The study obtained exposure concentrations for one wildland firefighter over a 10-hour shift spent holding down a fireline. The firefighter was exposed to a wide range of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritant (combination of particulate matter 3.5 µm and smaller, acrolein, and formaldehype) levels. Carbon monoxide levels reached up to 160ppm and the TLV irritant index value reached a high of 10. In contrast, the OSHA PEL for carbon monoxide is 30ppm and for the TLV respiratory irritant index, the calculated threshold limit value is 1; any value above 1 exceeds exposure limits.

text: Firefighters are at the greatest risk for acute and chronic health effects resulting from wildfire smoke exposure. Due to firefighters' occupational duties, they are frequently exposed to

text: hazardous chemicals

text: at a close proximity for longer periods of time. A case study on the exposure of wildfire smoke among wildland firefighters shows that firefighters are exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants above

entity_name: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

text: OSHA

text: -permissible exposure limits (PEL) and ACGIH threshold limit values (TLV). 5–10% are overexposed. The study obtained exposure concentrations for one wildland firefighter over a 10-hour shift spent holding down a fireline. The firefighter was exposed to a wide range of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritant (combination of particulate matter 3.5 µm and smaller, acrolein, and formaldehype) levels. Carbon monoxide levels reached up to 160ppm and the TLV irritant index value reached a high of 10. In contrast, the OSHA PEL for carbon monoxide is 30ppm and for the TLV respiratory irritant index, the calculated threshold limit value is 1; any value above 1 exceeds exposure limits.

text: Workers using respirators partially lose performance. Industrial hygienists know many cases where harmful substances enter the body not through the respiratory system, but in other ways (through skin). Even the timely use of a respirator may not be sufficient for reliable protection of workers.

text: Following work on harvester ants in 1995, doctors John Lighton and David Berrigan proposed the chthonic hypothesis. It was observed that many insects that demonstrate discontinuous gas exchange cycles are exposed to hypoxia (low  O levels) and hypercapnia (high CO levels) by spending at least part of their life cycle in enclosed spaces underground. Lighton and Berrigan hypothesized that discontinuous gas exchange cycles may be an adaptation to maximize partial pressure gradients between an insect’s respiratory system and the environment in which it lives. Alternatively, insects could obtain enough O by opening their spiracles for extended periods of time. However, unless their environment is very humid, water will be lost from the respiratory system to the environment. Discontinuous gas exchange cycles, therefore, may limit water loss while facilitating O consumption and CO removal in such environments. Many researchers describe this theory as the chthonic-hygric hypothesis and consider it to support the hygric hypothesis. However, others emphasize the importance of maximizing partial pressure gradients alone and consider the chthonic hypothesis to be distinct from the hygric hypothesis.

text: Following work on

text: harvester ant

text: s in 1995, doctors John Lighton and David Berrigan proposed the chthonic hypothesis. It was observed that many insects that demonstrate discontinuous gas exchange cycles are exposed to

text: hypoxia

text: (low  O levels) and

text: hypercapnia

text: (high CO levels) by spending at least part of their

text: life cycle

text: in enclosed spaces underground. Lighton and Berrigan hypothesized that discontinuous gas exchange cycles may be an

text: adaptation

text: to maximize

text: partial pressure

text: gradients between an insect’s respiratory system and the environment in which it lives. Alternatively, insects could obtain enough O by opening their spiracles for extended periods of time. However, unless their environment is very

text: humid

text: , water will be lost from the respiratory system to the environment. Discontinuous gas exchange cycles, therefore, may limit water loss while facilitating O consumption and CO removal in such environments. Many researchers describe this theory as the chthonic-hygric hypothesis and consider it to support the hygric hypothesis. However, others emphasize the importance of maximizing

text: partial pressure

text: gradients alone and consider the chthonic hypothesis to be distinct from the hygric hypothesis.

text: The neurological pathway for involuntary respiration is called the bulbospinal pathway. It is also referred to as the descending respiratory pathway.  “The pathway descends along the spinal ventralateral column. The descending tract for autonomic inspiration is located laterally, and the tract for autonomic expiration is located ventrally.”  Autonomic Inspiration is controlled by the pontine respiratory center and both medullary respiratory centers. In our case, the VRG controls autonomic exhalation. Signals from the VRG are sent along the spinal cord to several nerves. These nerves include the intercostals, phrenic, and abdominals.  These nerves lead to the specific muscles they control.  The bulbospinal pathway descending from the VRG allows the respiratory centers to control muscle relaxation, which leads to exhalation.

text: The diagnosis of DPB requires analysis of the lungs and bronchiolar tissues, which can require a lung biopsy, or the more preferred high resolution computed tomography (HRCT) scan of the lungs. The diagnostic criteria include severe inflammation in all layers of the respiratory bronchioles and lung tissue lesions that appear as nodules within the terminal and respiratory bronchioles in both lungs. The nodules in DPB appear as opaque lumps when viewed on X-rays of the lung, and can cause airway obstruction, which is evaluated by a pulmonary function test, or PFT.   Lung X-rays can also reveal dilation of the bronchiolar passages, another sign of DBP. HRCT scans often show blockages of some bronchiolar passages with mucus, which is referred to as the "tree-in-bud" pattern.  Hypoxemia, another sign of breathing difficulty, is revealed by measuring the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the blood, using a blood test called arterial blood gas. Other findings observed with DPB include the proliferation of lymphocytes (white blood cells that fight infection), neutrophils, and foamy histiocytes (tissue macrophages) in the lung lining. Bacteria such as H. influenzae and P. aeruginosa are also detectable, with the latter becoming more prominent as the disease progresses. The white blood, bacterial and other cellular content of the blood can be measured by taking a complete blood count (CBC). Elevated levels of IgG and IgA (classes of immunoglobulins) may be seen, as well as the presence of rheumatoid factor (an indicator of autoimmunity). Hemagglutination, a clumping of red blood cells in response to the presence of antibodies in the blood, may also occur. Neutrophils, beta-defensins, leukotrienes, and chemokines can also be detected in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid injected then removed from the bronchiolar airways of individuals with DPB, for evaluation.

text: The diagnosis of DPB requires

text: analysis

text: of the lungs and bronchiolar tissues, which can require a lung

text: biopsy

text: , or the more preferred

text: high resolution computed tomography

text: (HRCT) scan of the lungs. The diagnostic criteria include severe inflammation in all layers of the respiratory bronchioles and lung tissue lesions that appear as nodules within the

text: terminal

text: and respiratory bronchioles in both lungs. The nodules in DPB appear as

text: opaque

text: lumps when viewed on

text: X-ray

text: s of the lung, and can cause

text: airway obstruction

text: , which is evaluated by a

text: pulmonary function test

text: , or PFT.   Lung X-rays can also reveal dilation of the bronchiolar passages, another sign of DBP. HRCT scans often show blockages of some bronchiolar passages with mucus, which is referred to as the

text: "tree-in-bud"

text: pattern.  Hypoxemia, another sign of breathing difficulty, is revealed by measuring the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the blood, using a blood test called

text: arterial blood gas

text: . Other findings observed with DPB include the proliferation of

text: lymphocyte

text: s (

text: white blood cell

text: s that fight infection), neutrophils, and

text: foamy histiocytes

text: (tissue

text: macrophage

text: s) in the lung

text: lining

text: . Bacteria such as H. influenzae and P. aeruginosa are also detectable, with the latter becoming more prominent as the disease progresses. The white blood, bacterial and other cellular content of the blood can be measured by taking a

text: complete blood count

text: (CBC). Elevated levels of

text: IgG

text: and

text: IgA

text: (classes of

text: immunoglobulin

text: s) may be seen, as well as the presence of

text: rheumatoid factor

text: (an indicator of

text: autoimmunity

text: Hemagglutination

text: , a clumping of red blood cells in response to the presence of

text: antibodies

text: in the blood, may also occur. Neutrophils, beta-defensins, leukotrienes, and chemokines can also be detected in

text: bronchoalveolar lavage

text: fluid injected then removed from the bronchiolar airways of individuals with DPB, for evaluation.

text: Studies have shown that people who are atopic (sensitive), already suffer from allergies, asthma, or compromised immune systems and occupy damp or moldy buildings are at an increased risk of health problems such as inflammatory and toxic responses to mold spores, metabolites and other components. The most common health problem is an allergic reaction. Other problems are respiratory and/or immune system responses including respiratory symptoms, respiratory infections, exacerbation of asthma, and rarely hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic alveolitis, chronic rhinosinusitis and allergic fungal sinusitis. Severe reactions are rare but possible. A person's reaction to mold depends on their sensitivity and other health conditions, the amount of mold present, length of exposure and the type of mold or mold products.

text: Studies have shown that people who are

text: atopic

text: (sensitive), already suffer from

text: allergies

text: asthma

text: , or compromised

text: immune system

text: s and occupy damp or moldy buildings are at an increased risk of health problems such as inflammatory and toxic responses to mold spores, metabolites and other components. The most common health problem is an allergic reaction. Other problems are respiratory and/or immune system responses including respiratory symptoms, respiratory infections, exacerbation of asthma, and rarely hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic alveolitis, chronic rhinosinusitis and allergic fungal sinusitis. Severe reactions are rare but possible. A person's reaction to mold depends on their sensitivity and other health conditions, the amount of mold present, length of exposure and the type of mold or mold products.

text: While rates of paralytic symptoms appear to be correlated with the number of respiratory infections, in initial anecdotal reports the cases are not clustered within a family or school, suggesting that the paralysis per se is not directly contagious, but arises as a very rare complication of the common respiratory infection.

text: The mediator and a micro-organism such as yeast, are mixed together in a solution to which is added a substrate such as glucose. This mixture is placed in a sealed chamber to stop oxygen entering, thus forcing the micro-organism to undertake anaerobic respiration. An electrode is placed in the solution to act as the anode.

text: The mediator and a micro-organism such as yeast, are mixed together in a solution to which is added a substrate such as

text: glucose

text: . This mixture is placed in a sealed chamber to stop oxygen entering, thus forcing the micro-organism to undertake

text: anaerobic respiration

text: . An electrode is placed in the solution to act as the anode.

text: Like other insects, the red imported fire ant breathes through a system of gas-filled tubes called tracheae connected to the external environment through spiracles. The terminal tracheal branches (tracheoles) make direct contact with internal organs and tissue. The transport of oxygen to cells (and carbon dioxide out of cells) occurs through diffusion of gases between the tracheoles and the surrounding tissue and is assisted by a discontinuous gas exchange. As with other insects, the direct communication between the tracheal system and tissues eliminates the need for a circulating fluid network to transport O. Thus, red imported fire ants and other arthropods can have a modest circulatory system though they have highly expensive metabolic demands.

text: Like other insects, the red imported fire ant breathes through a system of gas-filled tubes called

text: tracheae

text: connected to the external environment through

text: spiracles

text: . The terminal tracheal branches (

text: tracheole

text: s) make direct contact with internal organs and tissue. The transport of oxygen to cells (and carbon dioxide out of cells) occurs through

text: diffusion

text: of gases between the tracheoles and the surrounding tissue and is assisted by a

text: discontinuous gas exchange

text: . As with other insects, the direct communication between the tracheal system and tissues eliminates the need for a circulating fluid network to transport O. Thus, red imported fire ants and other arthropods can have a modest circulatory system though they have highly expensive metabolic demands.

text: Respiratory rate is the number of breaths per minute. A non-specific measure of respiratory disorder.

text: While there exists the potential for injury while running (just as there is in any sport), there are many benefits. Some of these benefits include potential weight loss, improved cardiovascular and respiratory health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced total blood cholesterol, strengthening of bones (and potentially increased bone density), possible strengthening of the immune system and an improved self-esteem and emotional state. Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can effectively slow or reverse the effects of aging.

text: While there exists the potential for injury while running (just as there is in any sport), there are many benefits. Some of these benefits include potential

text: weight loss

text: , improved

text: cardiovascular

text: and

text: respiratory

text: health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced total blood

text: cholesterol

text: , strengthening of bones (and potentially increased bone density), possible strengthening of the

text: immune system

text: and an improved self-esteem and emotional state. Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can effectively slow or reverse the effects of aging.

text: Rhizopus nigricans is a fungus commonly known as bread mold and is the most common species of Rhizopus. It is found on spoiled food, in soils, and even in children's sandboxes. The genus contains some 50 species and bread mold is sometimes confused with species of Mucor or other species of ' like Rhizopus oryzae. Dispersed in hot dry weather, the spores contain allergenic proteins with 31 distinct allergens, which can produce respiratory and nasal symptoms in concentration (e.g. chronic cough, shortness of breath, chest tightness, chronic phlegm, snuffle, and allergic rhinitis). Food-handling workers are particularly at risk if they are allergic to mold.

text: Rhizopus nigricans is a

text: fungus

text: commonly known as bread mold and is the most common species of

text: Rhizopus

text: . It is found on

text: spoiled food

text: , in soils, and even in children's sandboxes. The genus contains some 50 species and bread mold is sometimes confused with species of

text: Mucor

text: or other species of ' like

text: Rhizopus oryzae

text: . Dispersed in hot dry weather, the

text: spore

text: s contain

text: allergen

text: ic

text: protein

text: s with 31 distinct allergens, which can produce respiratory and nasal symptoms in concentration (e.g. chronic cough,

text: shortness of breath

text: , chest tightness, chronic phlegm, snuffle, and allergic

text: rhinitis

text: ). Food-handling workers are particularly at risk if they are allergic to

text: mold

text: Clinical trials and post-market safety data indicate that the most common adverse side effect of Aldurazyme is allergic reaction. In order to prevent allergic reaction and respiratory distress, the packet insert of Aldurazyme suggests that patients be administered antihistamines before infusion. Allergic reaction occurs in approximately 1% of patients.  It is recommended that patients who are high-risk for respiratory distress be given their infusion in a facility equipped to deal with an anaphylactic response. (High-risk factors include sleep apnea, respiratory impairment, respiratory illness, or previous experience with allergic reaction to Aldurazyme.  It is noted that risk-benefit must be weighed for patients with history of severe allergic response as to whether the drug should be administered again.) In a 2002 memorandum, Melanie Hartsough, Ph.D., DTP of the FDA's Department of Health and Human Services stated, "Aggregation of product could enhance immune responses, specifically neutralizing antibody, which may limit the response to therapy, whereas highly deaggregated product may induce immune tolerance." It appears that she then went on to ask for further justification of some relevant aspect of the production process, though the majority of this particular memorandum has not been publicly released and it is unclear as to whether this concern is relevant to the high rate of allergic response to this drug.

text: In thermal engineering, an annular fin is a specific type of fin used in heat transfer that varies, radially, in cross-sectional area. Adding an annular fin to an object increases the amount of surface area in contact with the surrounding fluid, which increases the convective heat transfer between the object and surrounding fluid. Because surface area increases as length from the object increases, an annular fin transfers more heat than a similar pin fin at any given length. Annular fins are often used to increase the heat exchange in liquid–gas heat exchanger systems.

text: In

text: thermal engineering

text: , an annular fin is a specific type of

text: fin

text: used in

text: heat transfer

text: that varies, radially, in cross-sectional area. Adding an

text: annular

text: fin to an object increases the amount of surface area in contact with the surrounding

text: fluid

text: , which increases the

text: convective

text: heat transfer between the object and surrounding fluid. Because surface area increases as length from the object increases, an annular fin transfers more heat than a similar pin fin at any given length. Annular fins are often used to increase the heat exchange in liquid–gas

text: heat exchanger

text: systems.

text: Arterial blood for blood gas analysis is usually drawn by a respiratory therapist and sometimes a phlebotomist, nurse, paramedic or doctor. Blood is most commonly drawn from the radial artery because it is easily accessible, can be compressed to control bleeding, and has less risk for occlusion. The selection of which radial artery to draw from is based on the outcome of an Allen's test. The brachial artery (or less often, the femoral artery) is also used, especially during emergency situations or with children. Blood can also be taken from an arterial catheter already placed in one of these arteries.

text: Arterial blood for blood gas analysis is usually drawn by a

text: respiratory therapist

text: and sometimes a

text: phlebotomist

text: nurse

text: paramedic

text: or doctor. Blood is most commonly drawn from the

text: radial artery

text: because it is easily accessible, can be compressed to control bleeding, and has less risk for occlusion. The selection of which radial artery to draw from is based on the outcome of an

text: Allen's test

text: . The

text: brachial artery

text: (or less often, the

text: femoral artery

text: ) is also used, especially during emergency situations or with children. Blood can also be taken from an arterial catheter already placed in one of these arteries.

text: In acute respiratory acidosis, compensation occurs in 2 steps.

text: Gas remains dissolved in the tissues until the partial pressure of that gas in the lungs is reduced sufficiently to cause a concentration gradient with the blood at a lower concentration than the relevant tissues. A lowered partial pressure in the lungs will result in more gas diffusing out of the blood into the lung gas and less from the lung gas into the blood. A similar situation occurs between the blood and each tissue. As the concentration in the blood drops below the concentration in the adjacent tissue, the gas will diffuse out of the tissue into the blood, and will then be transported back to the lungs where it will diffuse into the lung gas and then be eliminated by exhalation. If the ambient pressure reduction is limited, this desaturation will take place in the dissolved phase, but if the ambient pressure is lowered sufficiently, bubbles may form and grow, both in blood and other supersaturated tissues.

text: It has been determined that rate of respiration is affected by the Cushing reflex, though the respiratory changes induced are still an area which can use more research. Some researchers have reported apnea, while others have reported increased respiratory rates. Other researchers have found that increases in respiratory rate follow ICP decreases, while others say it is a response to ICP increase. One must also take into account the use of anesthetics in early experimentation. Research was initially performed on animals or patients under anesthesia. The anesthesia used in experiments have led to respiratory depression, which might have had effect on the results. Early experiments also put animal subjects under artificial ventilation, only allowing for limited conclusions about respiration in the Cushing reflex.  The use of anesthetics proposes ideas for future research, since the creation of the Cushing response has been difficult to create under basal conditions or without anesthesia.

text: It has been determined that rate of

text: respiration

text: is affected by the Cushing reflex, though the respiratory changes induced are still an area which can use more research. Some researchers have reported

text: apnea

text: , while others have reported increased respiratory rates. Other researchers have found that increases in respiratory rate follow ICP decreases, while others say it is a response to ICP increase. One must also take into account the use of

text: anesthetics

text: in early experimentation. Research was initially performed on animals or patients under

text: anesthesia

text: . The anesthesia used in experiments have led to respiratory depression, which might have had effect on the results. Early experiments also put animal subjects under artificial ventilation, only allowing for limited conclusions about respiration in the Cushing reflex.  The use of anesthetics proposes ideas for future research, since the creation of the Cushing response has been difficult to create under basal conditions or without anesthesia.

text: Mediator-free microbial fuel cells use electrochemically active bacteria to transfer electrons to the electrode (electrons are carried directly from the bacterial respiratory enzyme to the electrode). Among the electrochemically active bacteria are Shewanella putrefaciens, Aeromonas hydrophila and others. Some bacteria are able to transfer their electron production via the pili on their external membrane. Mediator-free MFCs are less well-characterized, such as the strain of bacteria used in the system, type of ion-exchange membrane and system conditions (temperature, pH, etc.)

text: Mediator-free microbial fuel cells use electrochemically active bacteria to transfer electrons to the electrode (electrons are carried directly from the bacterial respiratory enzyme to the electrode). Among the electrochemically active bacteria are

text: Shewanella putrefaciens

text: Aeromonas hydrophila

text: and others. Some bacteria are able to transfer their electron production via the

text: pili

text: on their external membrane. Mediator-free MFCs are less well-characterized, such as the

text: strain

text: of bacteria used in the system, type of

text: ion-exchange membrane

text: and system conditions (temperature, pH, etc.)

text: EPO stimulates the bone marrow in order to increase red blood cell production and thus the body's ability to carry oxygen. A study of 15 Swedish athletes by the Stockholm Institute of Gymnastics and Sports found an improvement of nearly 10 percent in aerobic performance. "Average" red blood cell volume of the population at sea level is about 45% red blood cells. About 5% of the population has less than 40% red blood cell, which is defined as "anemia" and 5% of the population, including many world class athletes, have a natural red blood cells volume of 50%... 1% of the population has 54% red blood cell volume.

text: EPO stimulates the

text: bone marrow

text: in order to increase

text: red blood cell

text: production and thus the body's ability to carry

text: oxygen

text: . A study of 15 Swedish athletes by the Stockholm Institute of Gymnastics and Sports found an improvement of nearly 10 percent in

text: aerobic performance

text: . "Average" red blood cell volume of the population at sea level is about 45% red blood cells. About 5% of the population has less than 40% red blood cell, which is defined as "anemia" and 5% of the population, including many world class athletes, have a natural red blood cells volume of 50%... 1% of the population has 54% red blood cell volume.

text: Flumazenil is an imidazobenzodiazepine derivative, and in layman's terms, it is a benzodiazepine overdose antidote that is given intravenously in Intensive Care Units (ICUs) to reverse the effects of benzodiazepine overdoses, as well for overdoses of the non-benzodiazepine "Z-drugs" such as zolpidem. Flumazenil is contraindicated for benzodiazepine-tolerant patients in overdose cases. In such cases, the benefits are far outweighed by the risks, which include potential and severe seizures. The method by which flumazenil acts to prevent non-benzodiazepine tolerant overdose from causing potential harm is via preventing the benzodiazepines and Z-drugs from binding to the GABA receptors via competitive inhibition which the flumazenil creates. Clinical observation notating the patient's oxygen levels, respiratory, heart and blood pressure rates are used, as they are much safer than the potential seizure effects from dlumazenil. Supportive care to mediate any problems resulting from abnormal rates of the pulmonary, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems is typically the only treatment that is required in benzodiazepine-only overdoses. In most cases, activated charcoal/carbon is often used to prevent benzodiazepines from being absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, and the use of stomach-pumping/gastric lavage is no longer commonly used nor suggested by some toxicologists. Even in cases where other central nervous system (CSN) depressants (such as in combined benzodiazepine and tricyclic antidepressant/TCA overdoses) are detected and/or suspected, endotrachial intubation for the airway path and supportive oxygen are typically implemented and are much safer than flumazenil.

text: The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle – or citric acid cycle – is an important step in cellular respiration. In the TCA cycle, a six carbon sugar will be oxidized. This oxidation produces the CO and HO from the sugar. Plants, fungi, animals and bacteria all use this cycle to convert organic compounds to energy. This is how the majority of soil respiration occurs at its most basic level. Since the process relies on oxygen to occur, this is referred to as aerobic respiration.

text: The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle – or

text: citric acid cycle

text: – is an important step in cellular respiration. In the TCA cycle, a six carbon sugar will be

text: oxidized

text: . This oxidation produces the CO and HO from the sugar. Plants, fungi, animals and bacteria all use this cycle to convert organic compounds to energy. This is how the majority of soil respiration occurs at its most basic level. Since the process relies on oxygen to occur, this is referred to as aerobic respiration.

text: Misson et al. found that adaptations to thinning cover a continuous range of different time scales, with long-, medium-, and short-term growth variations being controlled by very different internal factors influenced by the environment. Misson et al. ascribed what they called long- and medium-term radial growth variation of individual trees mainly to structural adaptation, such as enlargement of the crown or the root system. Short-term radial growth variations, on the other hand, were considered to be due mainly to physiological acclimatisation, with response to factors such as stomatal conductance regulation, variation of photosynthetic capacity, and respiration. Nevertheless, it is clear that the adaptations are linked, and that radial growth is the integrative response of this mutual inter-relationship.

text: Misson et al. found that adaptations to thinning cover a continuous range of different time scales, with long-, medium-, and short-term growth variations being controlled by very different internal factors influenced by the environment. Misson et al. ascribed what they called long- and medium-term radial growth variation of individual trees mainly to structural adaptation, such as enlargement of the crown or the root system. Short-term radial growth variations, on the other hand, were considered to be due mainly to physiological

text: acclimatisation

text: , with response to factors such as

text: stoma

text: tal conductance regulation, variation of photosynthetic capacity, and respiration. Nevertheless, it is clear that the adaptations are linked, and that radial growth is the integrative response of this mutual inter-relationship.

text: The study of respiratory disease is known as pulmonology. A doctor who specializes in respiratory disease is known as a pulmonologist, a chest medicine specialist, a respiratory medicine specialist, a respirologist or a thoracic medicine specialist.

text: The study of respiratory disease is known as

text: pulmonology

text: . A doctor who specializes in respiratory disease is known as a pulmonologist, a chest medicine specialist, a respiratory medicine specialist, a respirologist or a thoracic medicine specialist.

text: Like other crustaceans, malacostracans have an open circulatory system in which the heart pumps blood into the hemocoel (body cavity) where it supplies the needs of the organs for oxygen and nutrients before diffusing back to the heart. The typical respiratory pigment in malacostracans is haemocyanin. Structures that function as kidneys are located near the base of the antennae. A brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae, there are ganglia in each segment and a collection of major ganglia below the oesophagus. Sensory organs include compound eyes (often stalked), ocelli (simple eyes), statocysts and sensory bristles. The naupliar eye is a characteristic of the nauplius larva and consists of four cup-shaped ocelli facing in different directions and able to distinguish between light and darkness.

text: Like other crustaceans, malacostracans have an

text: open circulatory system

text: in which the heart pumps blood into the

text: hemocoel

text: (body cavity) where it supplies the needs of the organs for oxygen and nutrients before diffusing back to the heart. The typical

text: respiratory pigment

text: in malacostracans is

text: haemocyanin

text: . Structures that function as kidneys are located near the base of the antennae. A brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae, there are ganglia in each segment and a collection of major ganglia below the oesophagus. Sensory organs include compound eyes (often stalked),

text: ocelli

text: (simple eyes),

text: statocyst

text: s and sensory

text: bristles

text: . The naupliar eye is a characteristic of the

text: nauplius

text: larva and consists of four cup-shaped ocelli facing in different directions and able to distinguish between light and darkness.

text: Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) comprise an antibody, drug and a linker between them. The antibody will be targeted at a preferentially expressed protein in the tumour cells (known as a tumor antigen) or on cells that the tumor can utilise, such as blood vessel endothelial cells. They bind to the tumor antigen and are internalised, where the linker releases the drug into the cell. These specially targeted delivery vehicles vary in their stability, selectivity, and choice of target, but, in essence, they all aim to increase the maximum effective dose that can be delivered to the tumor cells. Reduced systemic toxicity means that they can also be used in sicker patients, and that they can carry new chemotherapeutic agents that would have been far too toxic to deliver via traditional systemic approaches.

text: Antibody-drug conjugate

text: s (ADCs) comprise an

text: antibody

text: , drug and a linker between them. The antibody will be targeted at a preferentially expressed protein in the tumour cells (known as a

text: tumor antigen

text: ) or on cells that the tumor can utilise, such as blood vessel

text: endothelial cells

text: . They bind to the tumor antigen and are internalised, where the linker releases the drug into the cell. These specially targeted delivery vehicles vary in their stability, selectivity, and choice of target, but, in essence, they all aim to increase the maximum effective dose that can be delivered to the tumor cells. Reduced systemic toxicity means that they can also be used in sicker patients, and that they can carry new chemotherapeutic agents that would have been far too toxic to deliver via traditional systemic approaches.

text: Microcirculation has three major sectors: pre-capillary (resistive), capillary (swap) and post-capillary (capacitive). In the pre-capillary sector, arterioles and precapillary sphincters participate. Their function is to regulate blood flow before it enters the capillaries and venules by the contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscle found on their walls. The second sector is the capillary sector, which is represented by the capillaries, where substance and gas exchange between blood and interstitial fluid takes place. Finally, the post-capillary sector is represented by the post-capillary venules, which are formed by a layer of endothelial cells that allow free movement of some substances.

text: Microcirculation has three major sectors: pre-capillary (resistive),

text: capillary

text: (swap) and post-capillary (capacitive). In the pre-capillary sector,

text: arterioles

text: and

text: precapillary sphincter

text: s participate. Their function is to regulate blood flow before it enters the capillaries and

text: venules

text: by the contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscle found on their walls. The second sector is the capillary sector, which is represented by the capillaries, where substance and gas exchange between blood and interstitial fluid takes place. Finally, the post-capillary sector is represented by the post-capillary venules, which are formed by a layer of

text: endothelial cells

text: that allow free movement of some substances.

text: Because PPS can fatigue facial muscles, as well as cause dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), dysarthria (difficulty speaking) or aphonia (inability to produce speech), persons with PPS may become malnourished due to difficulty eating. Compensatory routines can help relieve these symptoms such as eating smaller portions at a time and sitting down whilst eating. PPS with respiratory involvement requires special management such as breathing exercises, chest percussion with a stethoscope on regular occasions for observation of the disease and management of secretions. Failure to properly assess PPS with respiratory involvement can increase the risk of missing aspiration pneumonia (an infection of the lower respiratory tract) in an individual. Severe cases may require permanent ventilation or tracheostomy. Sleep apnoea may also occur. Other management strategies that may lead to improvement include smoking cessation, treatment of other respiratory diseases and vaccination against respiratory infections such as influenza.

text: Because PPS can fatigue facial muscles, as well as cause

text: dysphagia

text: (difficulty swallowing),

text: dysarthria

text: (difficulty speaking) or

text: aphonia

text: (inability to produce speech), persons with PPS may become malnourished due to difficulty eating. Compensatory routines can help relieve these symptoms such as eating smaller portions at a time and sitting down whilst eating. PPS with respiratory involvement requires special management such as breathing exercises, chest percussion with a stethoscope on regular occasions for observation of the disease and management of secretions. Failure to properly assess PPS with respiratory involvement can increase the risk of missing aspiration

text: pneumonia

text: (an infection of the lower respiratory tract) in an individual. Severe cases may require permanent ventilation or

text: tracheostomy

text: Sleep apnoea

text: may also occur. Other management strategies that may lead to improvement include

text: smoking cessation

text: , treatment of other respiratory diseases and

text: vaccination

text: against respiratory infections such as

text: influenza

text: First aid treatment is pressure on the wound and artificial respiration once the paralysis has disabled the victim's respiratory muscles, which often occurs within minutes of being bitten. Because the venom primarily kills through paralysis, victims are frequently saved if artificial respiration is started and maintained before marked cyanosis and hypotension develop. Efforts should be continued even if the victim appears not to be responding. Respiratory support, together with reassurance, until medical assistance arrives ensures the victims will generally recover.

text: First aid

text: treatment is pressure on the wound and

text: artificial respiration

text: once the paralysis has disabled the victim's respiratory muscles, which often occurs within minutes of being bitten. Because the venom primarily kills through paralysis, victims are frequently saved if

text: artificial respiration

text: is started and maintained before marked

text: cyanosis

text: and

text: hypotension

text: develop. Efforts should be continued even if the victim appears not to be responding. Respiratory support, together with reassurance, until medical assistance arrives ensures the victims will generally recover.

text: Even though Guatemala has improved its health care system substantially since the end of the Guatemalan Civil War, mortality rates for communicable diseases still show that considerable progress needs to be made  to remove the burden of infectious diseases on the population. In a country like Guatemala, water is poor and frequently contaminated. In order to decrease common communicable diseases like diarrhea, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and respiratory disease, clean water and sanitation are necessary. With the health care system's provision of both clean water and food, the incidence of infectious and communicable diseases will decrease.

text: Even though Guatemala has improved its health care system substantially since the end of the Guatemalan Civil War, mortality rates for communicable diseases still show that considerable progress needs to be made  to remove the burden of infectious diseases on the population. In a country like Guatemala, water is poor and frequently contaminated. In order to decrease common communicable diseases like diarrhea,

text: tuberculosis

text: pneumonia

text: , and respiratory disease, clean water and sanitation are necessary. With the health care system's provision of both clean water and food, the incidence of infectious and communicable diseases will decrease.

text: During the 2002 Moscow theater hostage crisis, Russian special forces used an unidentified gas (thought to be 3-methylfentanyl or another fentanyl variant dissolved in halothane gas) in an attempt to induce sleep in both hostages and terrorists. Many of the hostages and terrorists (including all of the suicide bombers) were anesthetized, but some terrorists donned gas masks and thus were able to avoid the effects of the gas. Because the agent used was a potent Fentanyl derivative (a synthetic opioid), it causes respiratory depression and ultimately respiratory failure if administered in high enough dosages. The central nervous system effects, such as anesthesia and respiratory depression could have been reversed by an opioid antagonist such as naloxone, which is stocked by hospitals and most ambulances. However, because the Russian authorities did not release any information regarding what type of agent was used, medical professionals were unaware that an opioid had been used during the rescue attempt and thus were unable to administer the antidote which could have saved most hostages. Approximately 700 hostages were rescued, while 130 died from exposure to the gas. All the terrorists were ultimately killed by Russian forces through some combination of gas exposure and gunfire.

text: During the 2002

text: Moscow theater hostage crisis

text: , Russian special forces used an unidentified gas (thought to be

text: or another

text: fentanyl

text: variant dissolved in halothane gas) in an attempt to induce sleep in both hostages and terrorists. Many of the hostages and terrorists (including all of the suicide bombers) were anesthetized, but some terrorists donned gas masks and thus were able to avoid the effects of the gas. Because the agent used was a potent Fentanyl derivative (a synthetic opioid), it causes respiratory depression and ultimately respiratory failure if administered in high enough dosages. The central nervous system effects, such as anesthesia and respiratory depression could have been reversed by an opioid antagonist such as

text: naloxone

text: , which is stocked by hospitals and most ambulances. However, because the Russian authorities did not release any information regarding what type of agent was used, medical professionals were unaware that an opioid had been used during the rescue attempt and thus were unable to administer the antidote which could have saved most hostages. Approximately 700 hostages were rescued, while 130 died from exposure to the gas. All the terrorists were ultimately killed by Russian forces through some combination of gas exposure and gunfire.

text: Utricularia have significantly greater respiration rates than most vegetative tissue, primarily due to their complex energy-dependent traps. Upon triggering, prey is captured through a two-step ATP-driven ion-pumping process where organisms are sucked in by internal negative pressure achieved by pumping water out of the trap and into the external environment. Recent research suggests that COX subunit I (COX1), a rate limiting enzyme in the cellular respiration pathway associated with the synthesis of ATP, has evolved under positive Darwinian selection in the Utricularia–Genlisea clade. There appear to be adaptive substitutions of two contiguous cysteines (C-C motif) at the docking point of COX1 helix 3 and cytochrome c. This C-C motif, absent in ~99.9% of databased Eukaryota, Archaea, and Bacteria, suggests a conformational change that might decouple electron transport from proton pumping. Such decoupling would allow Utricularia to optimize power output (energy × rate) during times of need, albeit with a 20% cost in energy efficiency.

text: Utricularia have significantly greater

text: respiration

text: rates than most vegetative tissue, primarily due to their complex energy-dependent traps. Upon triggering, prey is captured through a two-step

text: ATP

text: -driven

text: ion-pumping

text: process where organisms are sucked in by internal negative pressure achieved by pumping water out of the trap and into the external environment. Recent research suggests that

text: COX subunit I

text: (COX1), a rate limiting enzyme in the

text: cellular respiration

text: pathway associated with the synthesis of ATP, has evolved under positive

text: Darwinian selection

text: in the Utricularia–Genlisea clade. There appear to be adaptive substitutions of two contiguous

text: cysteine

text: s (

text: C-C motif

text: ) at the docking point of COX1 helix 3 and

text: cytochrome c

text: . This C-C motif, absent in ~99.9% of databased

text: Eukaryota

text: Archaea

text: , and

text: Bacteria

text: , suggests a conformational change that might decouple

text: electron transport

text: from proton pumping. Such decoupling would allow Utricularia to optimize power output (energy × rate) during times of need, albeit with a 20% cost in energy efficiency.

text: Aerobic fermentation is a metabolic process by which cells metabolize sugars via fermentation in the presence of oxygen and occurs through the repression of normal respiratory metabolism (also referred to as the crabtree effect in yeast).  This phenomenon is fairly rare and is primarily observed in yeasts.  Aerobic fermentation  evolved independently in at least three yeast lineages (Saccharomyces, Dekkera, Schizosaccharomyces).   It has also been observed in plant pollen, trypanosomatids, mutated E. coli, and tumor cells.  Crabtree-positive yeasts will respire when grown with very low concentrations of glucose or when grown on most other carbohydrate sources.  The Crabtree effect is a regulatory system whereby respiration is repressed by fermentation, except in low sugar conditions.  When Saccharomyces cerevisiae is grown below the sugar threshold and undergoes a respiration metabolism, the fermentation pathway is still fully expressed, while the respiration pathway is only expressed relative to the sugar availability.  This contrasts with the pasteur effect, which is the inhibition of fermentation in the presence of oxygen, and observed in most organisms.

text: Aerobic fermentation is a metabolic process by which cells metabolize sugars via fermentation in the presence of oxygen and occurs through the repression of normal respiratory metabolism (also referred to as the

text: crabtree effect

text: in yeast).  This phenomenon is fairly rare and is primarily observed in yeasts.  Aerobic fermentation  evolved independently in at least three yeast lineages (

text: Saccharomyces

text: Dekkera

text: Schizosaccharomyces

text: ).   It has also been observed in plant pollen, trypanosomatids, mutated E. coli, and tumor cells.  Crabtree-positive yeasts will respire when grown with very low concentrations of glucose or when grown on most other carbohydrate sources.  The Crabtree effect is a regulatory system whereby respiration is repressed by fermentation, except in low sugar conditions.  When

text: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: is grown below the sugar threshold and undergoes a respiration metabolism, the fermentation pathway is still fully expressed, while the respiration pathway is only expressed relative to the sugar availability.  This contrasts with the

text: pasteur effect

text: , which is the inhibition of fermentation in the presence of oxygen, and observed in most organisms.

text: Pulmonary shunting  is minimized by the normal reflex constriction of pulmonary vasculature to hypoxia. Without this hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, shunt and its hypoxic effects would worsen.  For example, when alveoli fill with fluid, they are unable to participate in gas exchange with blood, causing local or regional hypoxia, thus triggering vasoconstriction. Blood is then redirected away from this area, which poorly matches ventilation and perfusion, to areas which are being ventilated.

text: Pulmonary shunting  is minimized by the normal reflex

text: constriction

text: of pulmonary vasculature to hypoxia. Without this hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, shunt and its hypoxic effects would worsen.  For example, when alveoli fill with fluid, they are unable to participate in gas exchange with blood, causing local or regional hypoxia, thus triggering vasoconstriction. Blood is then redirected away from this area, which poorly matches ventilation and perfusion, to areas which are being ventilated.

text: Hemoglobin (Hb), a globular protein, is the primary vehicle for transporting oxygen in the blood. Oxygen is also carried dissolved in the blood's plasma, but to a much lesser degree. Hemoglobin is contained in erythrocytes, more commonly referred to as red blood cells. Under certain conditions, oxygen bound to the hemoglobin is released into the blood's plasma and absorbed into the tissues. Each hemoglobin molecule has the capacity to carry four oxygen molecules. How much of that capacity is filled by oxygen at any time is called the oxygen saturation. Expressed as a percentage, the oxygen saturation is the ratio of the amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin, to the oxygen-carrying capacity of the hemoglobin. The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin is determined by the type of hemoglobin present in the blood. The amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin at any time is related, in large part, to the partial pressure of oxygen to which the hemoglobin is exposed. In the lungs, at the alveolar–capillary interface, the partial pressure of oxygen is typically high, and therefore the oxygen binds readily to hemoglobin that is present. As the blood circulates to other body tissue in which the partial pressure of oxygen is less, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen into the tissue because the hemoglobin cannot maintain its full bound capacity of oxygen in the presence of lower oxygen partial pressures.

text: Hemoglobin

text: (Hb), a

text: globular protein

text: , is the primary vehicle for transporting

text: oxygen

text: in the

text: blood

text: . Oxygen is also carried dissolved in the blood's

text: plasma

text: , but to a much lesser degree. Hemoglobin is contained in erythrocytes, more commonly referred to as

text: red blood cell

text: s. Under certain conditions, oxygen bound to the hemoglobin is released into the blood's plasma and absorbed into the

text: tissues

text: . Each hemoglobin molecule has the capacity to carry four oxygen molecules. How much of that capacity is filled by oxygen at any time is called the oxygen saturation. Expressed as a percentage, the oxygen saturation is the ratio of the amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin, to the oxygen-carrying capacity of the hemoglobin. The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin is determined by the type of hemoglobin present in the blood. The amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin at any time is related, in large part, to the partial pressure of oxygen to which the hemoglobin is exposed. In the

text: lung

text: s, at the

text: alveolar–capillary interface

text: , the

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen is typically high, and therefore the oxygen binds readily to hemoglobin that is present. As the blood circulates to other body tissue in which the partial pressure of oxygen is less, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen into the tissue because the hemoglobin cannot maintain its full bound capacity of oxygen in the presence of lower oxygen partial pressures.

text: Cancellous bones contain bone marrow. Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis. Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. Progenitor cells such as the hematopoietic stem cell divide in a process called mitosis to produce precursor cells. These include precursors which eventually give rise to white blood cells, and erythroblasts which give rise to red blood cells. Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called megakaryocytes. This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow. After the cells are matured, they enter the circulation. Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion granulocytes are produced in this way.

text: Cancellous bones contain

text: bone marrow

text: . Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called

text: hematopoiesis

text: . Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include

text: red blood cell

text: s,

text: platelet

text: s and

text: white blood cell

text: s. Progenitor cells such as the

text: hematopoietic stem cell

text: divide in a process called

text: mitosis

text: to produce precursor cells. These include precursors which eventually give rise to

text: white blood cells

text: , and

text: erythroblast

text: s which give rise to red blood cells. Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called

text: megakaryocyte

text: s. This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow. After the cells are matured, they enter the

text: circulation

text: . Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion

text: granulocyte

text: s are produced in this way.

text: Irregular breathing with sudden changes in both amplitude and frequency at times interrupted by central apneas lasting 10–30 seconds are noted in Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. (These are physiologic changes and are different from abnormal breathing patterns noted in sleep disordered breathing). These breathing irregularities are not random, but correspond to bursts of eye movements. This breathing pattern is not controlled by the chemoreceptors, but is due to the activation of behavioral respiratory control system by REM sleep processes. Quantitative measure of airflow is quite variable in this sleep stage and has been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged. Tidal volume has also been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged by quantitative measures in REM sleep. So breathing during REM sleep is somewhat discordant.

text: Irregular breathing with sudden changes in both amplitude and frequency at times interrupted by central

text: apnea

text: s lasting 10–30 seconds are noted in

text: Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep

text: . (These are physiologic changes and are different from abnormal breathing patterns noted in sleep disordered breathing). These breathing irregularities are not random, but correspond to bursts of eye movements. This breathing pattern is not controlled by the

text: chemoreceptors

text: , but is due to the activation of behavioral

text: respiratory control system

text: by REM sleep processes. Quantitative measure of airflow is quite variable in this sleep stage and has been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged. Tidal volume has also been shown to be increased, decreased or unchanged by quantitative measures in REM sleep. So breathing during REM sleep is somewhat discordant.

text: Lower respiratory tract infections are generally more serious than upper respiratory infections. LRIs are the leading cause of death among all infectious diseases. The two most common LRIs are bronchitis and pneumonia. Influenza affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, but more dangerous strains such as the highly pernicious H5N1 tend to bind to receptors deep in the lungs.

text: Lower respiratory tract infections are generally more serious than upper respiratory infections. LRIs are the leading cause of death among all

text: infectious disease

text: s. The two most common LRIs are

text: bronchitis

text: and

text: pneumonia

text: Influenza

text: affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, but more dangerous strains such as the highly pernicious

text: tend to bind to receptors deep in the lungs.

text: Routes of exposure to crufomate include inhalation, eye contact, skin absorption, and ingestion. Symptoms include eye irritation, loss of appetite, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, perspiration, lacrimation, blurred vision, dyspnea, wheezing, and respiratory and skin irritation. First aid measures include artificial respiration to treat inhalation exposures, eye irrigation for eye exposures, and immediate washing with soap for skin exposure. Immediate medical attention should be sought if crufomate is swallowed.

text: Routes of exposure to crufomate include

text: inhalation

text: , eye contact,

text: skin absorption

text: , and

text: ingestion

text: . Symptoms include eye irritation,

text: loss of appetite

text: nausea

text: diarrhea

text: abdominal cramps

text: perspiration

text: lacrimation

text: blurred vision

text: dyspnea

text: wheezing

text: , and respiratory and skin irritation. First aid measures include artificial respiration to treat inhalation exposures, eye irrigation for eye exposures, and immediate washing with soap for skin exposure. Immediate medical attention should be sought if crufomate is swallowed.

text: The long-term effects regarding respiratory flow resistance are unknown. E-cigarettes could harm the respiratory system. The immediate effects of e-cigarettes after 5 minutes of use on pulmonary function resulted in considerable increases in resistance to lung airflow. A 2013 review found an instant increase in airway resistance after using a single e-cigarette. Any reported harmful effects to cardiovascular and respiratory functions after short-term use of e-cigarettes were appreciably milder in comparison to cigarette smoke. When used in the short-term, an e-cigarette resulted in a rise of respiratory resistance comparatively to traditional cigarettes. E-cigarette use could result in respiratory diseases among youth.

text: The long-term effects regarding respiratory flow resistance are unknown. E-cigarettes could harm the

text: respiratory system

text: . The immediate effects of e-cigarettes after 5 minutes of use on pulmonary function resulted in considerable increases in resistance to lung airflow. A 2013 review found an instant increase in airway resistance after using a single e-cigarette. Any reported harmful effects to cardiovascular and respiratory functions after short-term use of e-cigarettes were appreciably milder in comparison to cigarette smoke. When used in the short-term, an e-cigarette resulted in a rise of respiratory resistance comparatively to traditional cigarettes. E-cigarette use could result in respiratory diseases among youth.

text: The major function of the respiratory system is the equilibration of the blood gases with those in the alveolar air.  The lungs of an average person at rest, and breathing normally contain between about 2.5 and 3 liters of air. This semi-stagnant volume of air that always remains in the lung alveoli after a normal exhalation is termed the functional residual capacity. With each breath only about 350 ml (i.e. less than 15%) of this alveolar air is expelled into the ambient air to be replaced with the same volume of fresh, but moistened, atmospheric air. It is therefore obvious that the composition of the alveolar air (or functional residual capacity) changes very little under normal circumstances: the alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (

text: The major function of the respiratory system is the equilibration of the

text: blood gases

text: with those in the

text: alveolar air

text: .  The lungs of an average person at rest, and breathing normally contain between about 2.5 and 3 liters of air. This semi-stagnant volume of air that always remains in the lung alveoli after a normal exhalation is termed the

text: functional residual capacity

text: . With each breath only about 350 ml (i.e. less than 15%) of this alveolar air is expelled into the ambient air to be replaced with the same volume of fresh, but moistened, atmospheric air. It is therefore obvious that the composition of the alveolar air (or functional residual capacity) changes very little under normal circumstances: the alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (

text: The Bachelor of Science in Respiratory Care (BSRC or BScRC) is a four-year academic degree in the science and principles of respiratory care, granted by a tertiary education university or similarly accredited school.  In the United States one is eligible to sit for the NBRC-WRE licensing examination to become a Registered Respiratory Therapist after graduating from either a two-year program with an associate degree or from a four-year program with a bachelor's degree, the bachelor's degree prepares respiratory practitioners for a professional role away from the bedside with coursework in science, research, leadership, and informatics.

text: The Bachelor of Science in Respiratory Care (BSRC or BScRC) is a four-year

text: academic degree

text: in the science and principles of

text: respiratory care

text: , granted by a

text: tertiary education

text: university

text: or similarly accredited school.  In the United States one is eligible to sit for the

text: NBRC-WRE

text: licensing examination to become a

text: Registered Respiratory Therapist

text: after graduating from either a two-year program with an

text: associate degree

text: or from a four-year program with a bachelor's degree, the bachelor's degree prepares

text: respiratory practitioner

text: s for a professional role away from the bedside with coursework in science, research, leadership, and informatics.

text: Abdullah Quraishi had a mild cardiac attack in 2008, when he was delivering Taraweeh prayers in Masjid Mir Wazeer Ali in Hyderabad.  After that, he was taken to Care hospital and since then, he had trouble in walking due to weakness. He also had a hernia surgery in April 2014 and since then he was having more trouble in walking. Even then he used to deliver all his lectures in Jamia Nizamia and also used to teach Qirat in the morning. Abdullah Quraishi was also suffering from Respiratory problems since 2013 and had trouble breathing in his last days. He was taken to hospital multiple times and breathed his last on 8 December 2015.

text: Abdullah Quraishi had a mild cardiac attack in 2008, when he was delivering Taraweeh prayers in Masjid Mir Wazeer Ali in Hyderabad.  After that, he was taken to Care hospital and since then, he had trouble in walking due to weakness. He also had a hernia surgery in April 2014 and since then he was having more trouble in walking. Even then he used to deliver all his lectures in

text: Jamia Nizamia

text: and also used to teach Qirat in the morning. Abdullah Quraishi was also suffering from Respiratory problems since 2013 and had trouble breathing in his last days. He was taken to hospital multiple times and breathed his last on 8 December 2015.

text: The major part of the approximately 150 cm surface in the human nasal cavity is covered by respiratory epithelium, across which systemic drug absorption can be achieved. The olfactory epithelium is situated in the upper posterior part and covers approximately 10 cm of the human nasal cavity. The nerve cells of the olfactory epithelium project into the olfactory bulb of the brain, which provides a direct connection between the brain and the external environment. The transfer of drugs to the brain from the blood circulation is normally hindered by the blood–brain barrier (BBB), which is virtually impermeable to passive diffusion of all but small, lipophilic substances. However, if drug substances can be transferred along the olfactory nerve cells, they can bypass the BBB and enter the brain directly.,

text: The major part of the approximately 150 cm surface in the human

text: nasal cavity

text: is covered by respiratory epithelium, across which systemic drug absorption can be achieved. The

text: olfactory epithelium

text: is situated in the upper posterior part and covers approximately 10 cm of the human nasal cavity. The nerve cells of the olfactory epithelium project into the olfactory bulb of the brain, which provides a direct connection between the brain and the external environment. The transfer of drugs to the brain from the blood circulation is normally hindered by the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: (BBB), which is virtually impermeable to

text: passive diffusion

text: of all but small, lipophilic substances. However, if drug substances can be transferred along the olfactory nerve cells, they can bypass the BBB and enter the brain directly.,

text: Oxygen saturation is a term referring to the fraction of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin relative to total hemoglobin (unsaturated + saturated) in the blood. The human body requires and regulates a very precise and specific balance of oxygen in the blood.   Normal blood oxygen levels in humans are considered 95-100 percent. If the level is below 90 percent, it is considered low resulting in hypoxemia.  Blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. Continued low oxygen levels may lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest. Oxygen therapy may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels. Oxygenation occurs when oxygen molecules () enter the tissues of the body. For example, blood is oxygenated in the lungs, where oxygen molecules travel from the air and into the blood. Oxygenation is commonly used to refer to medical oxygen saturation.

text: Oxygen saturation is a term referring to the fraction of

text: oxygen

text: -saturated hemoglobin relative to total hemoglobin (unsaturated + saturated) in the

text: blood

text: . The human body requires and regulates a very precise and specific balance of oxygen in the blood.   Normal blood oxygen levels in humans are considered 95-100 percent. If the level is below 90 percent, it is considered low resulting in

text: hypoxemia

text: .  Blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. Continued low oxygen levels may lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest.

text: Oxygen therapy

text: may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels. Oxygenation occurs when

text: oxygen

text: molecules () enter the

text: tissues

text: of the body. For example,

text: blood

text: is oxygenated in the

text: lung

text: s, where oxygen molecules travel from the air and into the blood. Oxygenation is commonly used to refer to medical oxygen saturation.

text: Thogotovirus is a genus of enveloped RNA viruses, one of six genera in the virus family Orthomyxoviridae. Their single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome has six or seven segments. Thogotoviruses are distinguished from most other orthomyxoviruses  by being arboviruses – viruses that are transmitted by arthropods, in this case usually ticks. Thogotoviruses can replicate in both tick cells and vertebrate cells; one subtype has also been isolated from mosquitoes. A consequence of being transmitted by blood-sucking vectors is that the virus must spread systemically in the vertebrate host – unlike influenza viruses, which are transmitted by respiratory droplets and are usually confined to the respiratory system.

text: Thogotovirus is a

text: genus

text: of

text: enveloped

text: RNA virus

text: es, one of six genera in the

text: virus

text: family

text: Orthomyxoviridae

text: . Their

text: single-stranded

text: negative-sense

text: RNA

text: genome

text: has six or seven segments. Thogotoviruses are distinguished from most other orthomyxoviruses  by being

text: arbovirus

text: es – viruses that are transmitted by

text: arthropod

text: s, in this case usually

text: tick

text: s. Thogotoviruses can replicate in both tick cells and

text: vertebrate

text: cells; one subtype has also been isolated from

text: mosquito

text: es. A consequence of being transmitted by blood-sucking

text: vectors

text: is that the virus must spread systemically in the vertebrate host – unlike

text: influenza virus

text: es, which are transmitted by respiratory droplets and are usually confined to the

text: respiratory system

text: Coniine paralyzes muscles by blocking the nicotinic receptor on the post-synaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction causing a flaccid paralysis. This action is similar to that of curare.  Symptoms of paralysis occur within a half-hour, and death may take several hours. As the central nervous system is not affected the person remains conscious and aware until respiratory paralysis results in cessation of breathing. The muscular paralysis is an ascending flaccid paralysis as the lower limbs are affected first. The person may have a hypoxic convulsion just prior to death but this is greatly disguised by the muscular paralysis and the person may just weakly shudder. The cause of death is lack of oxygen to the brain and heart as a consequence of respiratory paralysis. A poisoned person will recover if artificial ventilation (breathing) is maintained until the toxin is removed from the receptor.

text: Coniine paralyzes muscles by blocking the

text: nicotinic receptor

text: on the post-synaptic membrane of the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: causing a

text: flaccid paralysis

text: . This action is similar to that of

text: curare

text: .  Symptoms of paralysis occur within a half-hour, and death may take several hours. As the central nervous system is not affected the person remains conscious and aware until respiratory paralysis results in cessation of breathing. The muscular paralysis is an ascending flaccid paralysis as the lower limbs are affected first. The person may have a

text: hypoxic

text: convulsion just prior to death but this is greatly disguised by the muscular paralysis and the person may just weakly shudder. The cause of death is lack of oxygen to the brain and heart as a consequence of respiratory paralysis. A poisoned person will recover if artificial ventilation (breathing) is maintained until the toxin is removed from the receptor.

text: Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart. In animals with lungs, arterial blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and venous blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.

text: blood vessel

text: s by the pumping action of the

text: heart

text: . In animals with

text: lung

text: s,

text: arterial

text: blood carries oxygen from inhaled air to the tissues of the body, and

text: venous

text: blood carries carbon dioxide, a waste product of

text: metabolism

text: produced by cells, from the tissues to the lungs to be exhaled.

text: The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air.

text: The

text: respiratory system

text: consists of the

text: nose

text: nasopharynx

text: trachea

text: , and

text: lungs

text: . It brings oxygen from the air and excretes

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: water

text: back into the air.

text: A thorough physical examination is regarded as an integral part of a comprehensive psychiatric assessment. This is because physical illnesses are more common in people with mental disorders, because neurological and other medical conditions may be associated with psychiatric symptoms, and to identify side effects of psychiatric medication. The physical examination would include measurement of body mass index, vital signs such as pulse, blood pressure, temperature and respiratory rate, observation for pallor and nutritional deficiencies, palpation for lymph nodes, palpation of the abdomen for organ enlargement, and examination of the cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological systems.

text: A thorough physical examination is regarded as an integral part of a comprehensive psychiatric assessment. This is because physical illnesses are more common in people with mental disorders, because neurological and other medical conditions may be associated with psychiatric symptoms, and to identify side effects of psychiatric medication. The physical examination would include measurement of

text: body mass index

text: vital signs

text: such as pulse, blood pressure, temperature and respiratory rate, observation for

text: pallor

text: and

text: nutritional deficiencies

text: , palpation for

text: lymph nodes

text: , palpation of the

text: abdomen

text: for organ enlargement, and examination of the

text: cardiovascular

text: respiratory

text: and

text: neurological

text: systems.

text: Phocid respiratory and circulatory systems are adapted to allow diving to considerable depths, and they can spend a long time underwater between breaths. Air is forced from the lungs during a dive and into the upper respiratory passages, where gases cannot easily be absorbed into the bloodstream. This helps protect the seal from the bends. The middle ear is also lined with blood sinuses that inflate during diving, helping to maintain a constant pressure.

text: Phocid respiratory and circulatory systems are adapted to allow diving to considerable depths, and they can spend a long time underwater between breaths. Air is forced from the

text: lung

text: s during a dive and into the upper respiratory passages, where gases cannot easily be absorbed into the bloodstream. This helps protect the seal from

text: the bends

text: . The

text: middle ear

text: is also lined with blood sinuses that inflate during diving, helping to maintain a constant pressure.

text: Breathing (which in organisms with lungs is called ventilation and includes inhalation and exhalation) is a part of respiration. The rate at which breaths occur, usually measured in breaths per minute, is called the ventilation rate, or, by long-standing convention, the respiratory rate (despite that in precise usage ventilation is a hyponym, not a synonym, of respiration).

text: Breathing

text: (which in organisms with lungs is called

text: ventilation

text: and includes

text: inhalation

text: and

text: exhalation

text: ) is a part of

text: respiration

text: . The

text: rate

text: at which breaths occur, usually measured in breaths per minute, is called the ventilation rate, or, by long-standing convention, the respiratory rate (despite that in precise

text: usage

text: ventilation is a

text: hyponym

text: , not a

text: synonym

text: , of

text: respiration

text: Trogocytosis has been initially documented in T, B and NK cells both in vivo and in vitro. On T cells and B cells, trogocytosis is triggered when the T cell receptor (TCR) on T cells or B cell receptor (BCR) on B cells interacts with the antigen recognized on antigen-presenting cells. Like in lymphocytes, trogocytosis occurs with PMN (polymorphonuclear leukocytes, also known as granulocytes) and is associated with effective ADCC (Antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity).It was shown that in order to initiate ADCC in vitro, PMN's have to adhere to their target cells and form tight junctions with antibody opsonized tumor cells. This cell clustering precedes mutual membrane lipid exchange between effector and target cell during ADCC and does not happen in the absence of opsonizing antibodies. Trogocytosis also occurs in monocytes, and dendritic cells. Outside the immune system, similar transfer of membrane fragments have been documented between sperm and oocytes, a process thought to contribute to gamete fusion.

text: Trogocytosis has been initially documented in T, B and NK cells both

text: in vivo

text: and

text: in vitro

text: . On T cells and B cells, trogocytosis is triggered when the T cell receptor (TCR) on T cells or B cell receptor (BCR) on B cells interacts with the antigen recognized on antigen-presenting cells. Like in lymphocytes, trogocytosis occurs with

text: PMN

text: (polymorphonuclear

text: leukocytes

text: , also known as granulocytes) and is associated with effective

text: ADCC

text: (Antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity).It was shown that in order to initiate ADCC in vitro, PMN's have to adhere to their target cells and form tight junctions with antibody

text: opsonized

text: tumor cells. This

text: cell clustering

text: precedes mutual membrane lipid exchange between

text: effector

text: and

text: target cell

text: during ADCC and does not happen in the absence of opsonizing antibodies. Trogocytosis also occurs in monocytes, and dendritic cells. Outside the immune system, similar transfer of membrane fragments have been documented between sperm and oocytes, a process thought to contribute to gamete fusion.

text: On August 13, 2007, Adams was found unconscious in his bed by his youngest son (age 7) at their Tampa, Florida home. His son called 911, but Adams was pronounced dead by paramedics when they arrived. The medical examiner concluded that he died as a result of mixing the painkiller buprenorphine with the muscle relaxant carisoprodol and the sedatives chlordiazepoxide and alprazolam. The coroner determined the drugs in his system were individually at therapeutic levels, but their combination impeded his respiratory system enough to kill him. He was 43 years old.

text: On August 13, 2007, Adams was found unconscious in his bed by his youngest son (age 7) at their

text: Tampa, Florida

text: home. His son called 911, but Adams was pronounced dead by paramedics when they arrived. The medical examiner concluded that he died as a result of mixing the painkiller

text: buprenorphine

text: with the muscle relaxant

text: carisoprodol

text: and the sedatives

text: chlordiazepoxide

text: and

text: alprazolam

text: . The coroner determined the drugs in his system were individually at

text: therapeutic levels

text: , but their combination impeded his respiratory system enough to kill him. He was 43 years old.

text: An obligate aerobe is an organism that requires oxygen to grow.  Through cellular respiration, these organisms use oxygen to metabolise substances, like sugars or fats, to obtain energy. In this type of respiration, oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor for the electron transport chain.  Aerobic respiration has the advantage of yielding more energy (adenosine triphosphate or ATP) than fermentation or anaerobic respiration, but obligate aerobes are subject to high levels of oxidative stress.

text: An obligate aerobe is an

text: organism

text: that requires

text: oxygen

text: to grow.  Through

text: cellular respiration

text: , these organisms use oxygen to metabolise substances, like sugars or fats, to obtain energy. In this type of respiration, oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor for the

text: electron transport chain

text: Aerobic respiration

text: has the advantage of yielding more energy (

text: adenosine triphosphate or ATP

text: ) than

text: fermentation

text: or

text: anaerobic respiration

text: , but obligate aerobes are subject to high levels of

text: oxidative stress

text: Respirations shallow/rapid

text: Respirations shallow/rapid

text: Ammonium Bicarbonate is an irritant to the skin, eyes and respiratory system. Short-term health effects may occur immediately or shortly after exposure to Ammonium Bicarbonate. Breathing Ammonium Bicarbonate can irritate the nose, throat and lungs causing coughing, wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Repeated exposure may cause bronchitis to develop with cough, and/or shortness of breath. Health effects can occur some time after exposure to Ammonium Bicarbonate and can last for months or years.

text: Ammonium Bicarbonate is an

text: irritant

text: to the

text: skin

text: eye

text: s and

text: respiratory system

text: . Short-term health effects may occur immediately or shortly after exposure to Ammonium Bicarbonate. Breathing Ammonium Bicarbonate can irritate the nose, throat and lungs causing coughing, wheezing and/or shortness of breath. Repeated exposure may cause bronchitis to develop with cough, and/or shortness of breath. Health effects can occur some time after exposure to Ammonium Bicarbonate and can last for months or years.

text: When the crown is retracted inside the tube, the radioles and operculum cease to function as a respiratory organ. The movement of blood in the capillaries of the thoracic membrane and body wall continues, however. Under these circumstances, respiratory exchange is probably carried out between the blood in these vessels and the surrounding water, which is kept moving through the tube by vigorous pumping movements of the abdomen and also by the activity of the ciliary tracts.

text: To date NIOSH/NPPTL has published six new respirator performance standards based on a tiered approach that relies on traditional industrial respirator certification policy, next-generation emergency response respirator performance requirements, and special live chemical warfare agent testing requirements of the classes of respirators identified to offer respiratory protection against chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) agent inhalation hazards. These CBRN respirators are commonly known as open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus (CBRN SCBA), air-purifying respirator (CBRN APR), air-purifying escape respirator (CBRN APER), self-contained escape respirator (CBRN SCER) and loose- or tight-fitting powered air-purifying respirators (CBRN PAPR).

text: The respiratory System involves:

text: The respiratory System involves:

text: Glutamate is a major constituent of a wide variety of proteins; consequently it is one of the most abundant amino acids in the human body.  Under ordinary conditions enough is obtained from the diet that there is no need for any to be synthesized.  Nevertheless glutamate is formally classified as a non-essential amino acid, because it can be synthesized from alpha-Ketoglutaric acid, which is produced as part of the citric acid cycle by a series of reactions whose starting point is citrate.  Glutamate cannot cross the blood-brain barrier unassisted, but it is actively transported into the nervous system by a high affinity transport system, which maintains its concentration in brain fluids at a fairly constant level.

text: Glutamate is a major constituent of a wide variety of proteins; consequently it is one of the most abundant amino acids in the human body.  Under ordinary conditions enough is obtained from the diet that there is no need for any to be synthesized.  Nevertheless glutamate is formally classified as a

text: non-essential amino acid

text: , because it can be synthesized from

text: alpha-Ketoglutaric acid

text: , which is produced as part of the

text: citric acid cycle

text: by a series of reactions whose starting point is

text: citrate

text: .  Glutamate cannot cross the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: unassisted, but it is actively transported into the nervous system by a high affinity transport system, which maintains its concentration in brain fluids at a fairly constant level.

text: The body maintains a stable level of oxygen saturation for the most part by chemical processes of aerobic metabolism associated with breathing. Using the respiratory system, red blood cells, specifically the hemoglobin, gather oxygen in the lungs and distribute it to the rest of the body. The needs of the body's blood oxygen may fluctuate such as during exercise when more oxygen is required  or when living at higher altitudes. A blood cell is said to be "saturated" when carrying a normal amount of oxygen. Both too high and too low levels can have adverse effects on the body.

text: The body maintains a stable level of oxygen saturation for the most part by chemical processes of

text: aerobic metabolism

text: associated with

text: breathing

text: . Using the

text: respiratory system

text: , red blood cells, specifically the

text: hemoglobin

text: , gather oxygen in the lungs and distribute it to the rest of the body. The needs of the body's blood oxygen may fluctuate such as during exercise when more oxygen is required  or when living at higher altitudes. A blood cell is said to be "saturated" when carrying a normal amount of oxygen. Both too high and too low levels can have adverse effects on the body.

text: The walls of these sacs do not have a good blood supply and so do not play a direct role in gas exchange. They act like a series of bellows to move air unidirectionally through the respiratory system. Birds lack a diaphragm, so rather than the regular expansion and contraction of the respiratory organs as is seen in mammals, the air sacs allow the tract to maintain a fixed volume  with oxygenated air constantly flowing in a single direction through them. The active phase of respiration in birds is exhalation, requiring muscular contraction.

text: The walls of these sacs do not have a good blood supply and so do not play a direct role in

text: gas exchange

text: . They act like a series of

text: bellows

text: to move air unidirectionally through the respiratory system. Birds lack a

text: diaphragm

text: , so rather than the regular expansion and contraction of the respiratory organs as is seen in mammals, the air sacs allow the tract to maintain a fixed volume  with oxygenated air constantly flowing in a single direction through them. The active phase of respiration in birds is exhalation, requiring muscular contraction.

text: Moisture management and humidity control requires operating HVAC systems as designed. Moisture management and humidity control may conflict with efforts to try to optimize the operation to conserve energy. For example, Moisture management and humidity control requires systems to be set to supply Make Up Air at lower temperatures (design levels), instead of the higher temperatures sometimes used to conserve energy in cooling-dominated climate conditions. However, for most of the US and many parts of Europe and Japan, during the majority of hours of the year, outdoor air temperatures are cool enough that the air does not need further cooling to provide thermal comfort indoors. However, high humidity outdoors creates the need for careful attention to humidity levels indoors. High humidities give rise to mold growth and moisture indoors is associated with a higher prevalence of occupant respiratory problems.

text: The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the nose or mouth to the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs, in which branches no longer contain cartilage or glands in their submucosa. They are branches of the bronchi, and are part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system. The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region.

text: The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the

text: nose

text: or

text: mouth

text: to the

text: alveoli

text: (air sacs) of the lungs, in which branches no longer contain

text: cartilage

text: or

text: gland

text: s in their

text: submucosa

text: . They are branches of the

text: bronchi

text: , and are part of the

text: conducting zone

text: of the

text: respiratory system

text: . The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, respiratory and reproductive. Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have ocular hypertelorism, or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the larynx, trachea and esophagus and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial anomalies may occur, such as a prominent forehead, widow’s peak, broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience hypospadias (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and developmental delay, as well.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the

text: nervous

text: digestive

text: cardiovascular

text: respiratory

text: and

text: reproductive

text: . Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have

text: ocular hypertelorism

text: , or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the

text: larynx

text: trachea

text: and

text: esophagus

text: and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial

text: anomalies

text: may occur, such as a prominent forehead,

text: widow’s peak

text: , broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience

text: hypospadias

text: (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and

text: developmental delay

text: , as well.

text: Respiration is the process by which oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled. Respiration is divided into 'inspiration, in which air is taken into the lungs, and expiration, in which it is expelled from them. This gas exchange takes place in the alveoli during breathing.

text: Respiration

text: is the process by which oxygen is taken into the body and carbon dioxide is expelled. Respiration is divided into 'inspiration, in which air is taken into the lungs, and expiration, in which it is expelled from them. This

text: gas exchange

text: takes place in the alveoli during breathing.

text: Gases are often insufflated into a body cavity to inflate the cavity for more workroom, e.g. during laparoscopic surgery. The most common gas used in this manner is carbon dioxide, because it is non-flammable, colorless and dissolves readily in blood. It is, however, not an inert gas.

text: Gases are often insufflated into a body cavity to inflate the cavity for more workroom, e.g. during

text: laparoscopic surgery

text: . The most common gas used in this manner is

text: carbon dioxide

text: , because it is non-flammable, colorless and dissolves readily in blood. It is, however, not an

text: inert gas

text: In 1948, Knox et al. proposed the idea that inhibition of glucose oxidation is a major factor in the bacteriocidal nature of chlorine solutions. He proposed that the active agent or agents diffuse across the cytoplasmic membrane to inactivate key sulfhydryl-containing enzymes in the glycolytic pathway. This group was also the first to note that chlorine solutions (HOCl) inhibit sulfhydryl enzymes. Later studies have shown that, at bacteriocidal levels, the cytosol components do not react with HOCl. In agreement with this, McFeters and Camper found that aldolase, an enzyme that Knox et al. proposes would be inactivated, was unaffected by HOCl in vivo. It has been further shown that loss of sulfhydryls does not correlate with inactivation. That leaves the question concerning what causes inhibition of glucose oxidation. The discovery that HOCl blocks induction of β-galactosidase by added lactose led to a possible answer to this question. The uptake of radiolabeled substrates by both ATP hydrolysis and proton co-transport may be blocked by exposure to HOCl preceding loss of viability. From this observation, it proposed that HOCl blocks uptake of nutrients by inactivating transport proteins. The question of loss of glucose oxidation has been further explored in terms of loss of respiration. Venkobachar et al. found that succinic dehydrogenase was inhibited in vitro by HOCl, which led to the investigation of the possibility that disruption of electron transport could be the cause of bacterial inactivation. Albrich et al. subsequently found that HOCl destroys cytochromes and iron-sulfur clusters and observed that oxygen uptake is abolished by HOCl and adenine nucleotides are lost. It was also observed that irreversible oxidation of cytochromes paralleled the loss of respiratory activity. One way of addressing the loss of oxygen uptake was by studying the effects of HOCl on succinate-dependent electron transport. Rosen et al. found that levels of reductable cytochromes in HOCl-treated cells were normal, and these cells were unable to reduce them. Succinate dehydrogenase was also inhibited by HOCl, stopping the flow of electrons to oxygen. Later studies revealed that Ubiquinol oxidase activity ceases first, and the still-active cytochromes reduce the remaining quinone. The cytochromes then pass the electrons to oxygen, which explains why the cytochromes cannot be reoxidized, as observed by Rosen et al. However, this line of inquiry was ended when Albrich et al. found that cellular inactivation precedes loss of respiration by using a flow mixing system that allowed evaluation of viability on much smaller time scales. This group found that cells capable of respiring could not divide after exposure to HOCl.

text: In 1948, Knox et al. proposed the idea that inhibition of

text: glucose

text: oxidation is a major factor in the bacteriocidal nature of chlorine solutions. He proposed that the active agent or agents diffuse across the cytoplasmic membrane to inactivate key

text: sulfhydryl

text: -containing

text: enzyme

text: s in the

text: glycolytic pathway

text: . This group was also the first to note that chlorine solutions (HOCl) inhibit

text: sulfhydryl

text: enzyme

text: s. Later studies have shown that, at bacteriocidal levels, the

text: cytosol

text: components do not react with HOCl. In agreement with this, McFeters and Camper found that

text: aldolase

text: , an

text: enzyme

text: that Knox et al. proposes would be inactivated, was unaffected by HOCl

text: in vivo

text: . It has been further shown that loss of

text: sulfhydryl

text: s does not correlate with inactivation. That leaves the question concerning what causes inhibition of

text: glucose

text: oxidation. The discovery that HOCl blocks induction of

text: β-galactosidase

text: by added

text: lactose

text: led to a possible answer to this question. The uptake of radiolabeled substrates by both ATP hydrolysis and proton

text: co-transport

text: may be blocked by exposure to HOCl preceding loss of viability. From this observation, it proposed that HOCl blocks uptake of nutrients by inactivating transport proteins. The question of loss of glucose oxidation has been further explored in terms of loss of respiration. Venkobachar et al. found that succinic dehydrogenase was inhibited in vitro by HOCl, which led to the investigation of the possibility that disruption of

text: electron transport

text: could be the cause of bacterial inactivation. Albrich et al. subsequently found that HOCl destroys

text: cytochrome

text: s and

text: iron-sulfur cluster

text: s and observed that oxygen uptake is abolished by HOCl and adenine nucleotides are lost. It was also observed that irreversible oxidation of

text: cytochrome

text: s paralleled the loss of respiratory activity. One way of addressing the loss of oxygen uptake was by studying the effects of HOCl on succinate-dependent

text: electron transport

text: . Rosen et al. found that levels of reductable

text: cytochrome

text: s in HOCl-treated cells were normal, and these cells were unable to reduce them. Succinate dehydrogenase was also inhibited by HOCl, stopping the flow of electrons to oxygen. Later studies revealed that Ubiquinol oxidase activity ceases first, and the still-active

text: cytochrome

text: s reduce the remaining quinone. The

text: cytochrome

text: s then pass the

text: electron

text: s to

text: oxygen

text: , which explains why the

text: cytochrome

text: s cannot be reoxidized, as observed by Rosen et al. However, this line of inquiry was ended when Albrich et al. found that cellular inactivation precedes loss of respiration by using a flow mixing system that allowed evaluation of viability on much smaller time scales. This group found that cells capable of respiring could not divide after exposure to HOCl.

text: Respiration is the physical process of gas exchange between an organism and its environment involving four steps (ventilation, distribution, perfusion and diffusion) and two processes (inspiration and expiration). Respiration can be described as the mechanical process of air flowing into and out of the lungs on the principle of Boyle's law, stating that, as the volume of a container increases, the air pressure will decrease. This relatively negative pressure will cause air to enter the container until the pressure is equalized. During inspiration of air, the diaphragm contracts and the lungs expand drawn by pleurae through surface tension and negative pressure. When the lungs expand, air pressure becomes negative compared to atmospheric pressure and air will flow from the area of higher pressure to fill the lungs. Forced inspiration for speech uses accessory muscles to elevate the rib cage and enlarge the thoracic cavity in the vertical and lateral dimensions. During forced expiration for speech, muscles of the trunk and abdomen reduce the size of the thoracic cavity by compressing the abdomen or pulling the rib cage down forcing air out of the lungs.

text: Respiration is the physical process of gas exchange between an organism and its environment involving four steps (

text: ventilation

text: , distribution,

text: perfusion

text: and diffusion) and two processes (inspiration and expiration).

text: Respiration

text: can be described as the mechanical process of air flowing into and out of the

text: lung

text: s on the principle of

text: Boyle's law

text: , stating that, as the volume of a container increases, the air pressure will decrease. This relatively negative pressure will cause air to enter the container until the pressure is equalized. During

text: inspiration

text: of air, the diaphragm contracts and the lungs expand drawn by

text: pleurae

text: through surface tension and negative pressure. When the lungs expand, air pressure becomes negative compared to atmospheric pressure and air will flow from the area of higher pressure to fill the lungs. Forced inspiration for speech uses accessory muscles to elevate the

text: rib cage

text: and enlarge the

text: thoracic cavity

text: in the vertical and lateral dimensions. During forced expiration for speech, muscles of the

text: trunk

text: and

text: abdomen

text: reduce the size of the thoracic cavity by compressing the abdomen or pulling the rib cage down forcing air out of the lungs.

text: With the knowledge of HERV-W’s highly fusogenic properties and its heightened expression in placental cell a putative role for HERV-W in placental formation was suggested. The cytotrophoblast cells proliferate and invade maternal endometrium, which is key to implantation and placental development. Furthermore, cytotrophoblasts fuse and differentiate into multinucleated synctiotrophoblast cells that are surrounded by maternal blood and cover the embryo. Synctiotrophoblast help with nutrient circulation, ion exchange and hormone synthesis, which are all key to development. These multinucleated cells appear very similar to virally induced syncytia.

text: During the flutter phase of discontinuous gas exchange cycles, spiracles open slightly and close in rapid succession. As a result of the negative pressure within the tracheal system, created during the closed phase, a small amount of air from the environment enters the respiratory system each time the spiracles are opened. However, the negative internal pressure also prevents the liberation of CO from the haemolymph and its exportation through the tracheal system. As a result, during the flutter phase, additional O from the environment is acquired to satisfy cellular O demand, while little to no CO is released. The flutter phase may continue even after tracheal pressure is equal to that of the environment, and the acquisition of O may be assisted in some insects by active ventilatory movements such as contraction of the abdomen. The flutter phase continues until CO production surpasses the buffering capacity of the haemolymph and begins to build up within the tracheal system. CO within the tracheal system has both a direct (acting on the muscle tissue) and indirect (through the nervous system) impact on the spiracle muscles and they are opened widely, initiating the open phase.

text: During the flutter phase of discontinuous gas exchange cycles,

text: spiracle

text: s open slightly and close in rapid succession. As a result of the negative

text: pressure

text: within the tracheal system, created during the closed phase, a small amount of

text: air

text: from the environment enters the

text: respiratory system

text: each time the

text: spiracle

text: s are opened. However, the negative internal

text: pressure

text: also prevents the liberation of CO from the

text: haemolymph

text: and its exportation through the tracheal system. As a result, during the flutter phase, additional O from the environment is acquired to satisfy

text: cellular

text: O demand, while little to no CO is released. The flutter phase may continue even after tracheal

text: pressure

text: is equal to that of the environment, and the acquisition of O may be assisted in some insects by active ventilatory movements such as

text: contraction

text: of the

text: abdomen

text: . The flutter phase continues until CO production surpasses the

text: buffering capacity

text: of the

text: haemolymph

text: and begins to build up within the

text: tracheal system

text: . CO within the

text: tracheal system

text: has both a direct (acting on the

text: muscle tissue

text: ) and indirect (through the

text: nervous system

text: ) impact on the

text: spiracle

text: muscle

text: s and they are opened widely, initiating the open phase.

text: The authors have shown that the average decrease dustiness of inhaled air in coal mining in the UK due to the use of respirators is 41% (1.7 times). Low efficiency respirators due to the fact that the miners used respirators intermittently or not used at all (in the conditions of effective ventilation and low dust concentration). They can not determine when the dust concentration is more than acceptable, and when it is necessary to use a respirator.

text: The authors have shown that the average decrease dustiness of inhaled air in

text: coal mining in the UK

text: due to the use of respirators is 41% (1.7 times). Low efficiency respirators due to the fact that the miners used respirators intermittently or not used at all (in the conditions of effective

text: ventilation

text: and low dust concentration). They can not determine when the dust concentration is more than acceptable, and when it is necessary to use a respirator.

text: Blood pH is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic. Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic. Blood pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO), and HCO are carefully regulated by a number of homeostatic mechanisms, which exert their influence principally through the respiratory system and the urinary system in order to control the acid-base balance and respiration. An arterial blood gas test will measure these. Plasma also circulates hormones transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal reference ranges for various blood electrolytes is extensive.

text: Blood

text: pH

text: is regulated to stay within the narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic. Blood that has a pH below 7.35 is too

text: acidic

text: , whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too

text: basic

text: . Blood pH,

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen (pO), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO), and

text: HCO

text: are carefully regulated by a number of

text: homeostatic mechanisms

text: , which exert their influence principally through the

text: respiratory system

text: and the

text: urinary system

text: in order to control the

text: acid-base balance

text: and respiration. An

text: arterial blood gas

text: test will measure these. Plasma also circulates

text: hormone

text: s transmitting their messages to various tissues. The list of normal

text: reference ranges

text: for various blood electrolytes is extensive.

text: Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones, but is also under the (local) regulation of paracrine communication between neighboring epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP). This locally secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the first round of branching. At the same time, the embryonic mesenchymal cells around the epithelial bud receive secreting factors activated by PTHrP, such as BMP4. These mesenchymal cells can transform into a dense, mammary-specific mesenchyme, which later develop into connective tissue with fibrous threads, forming blood vessels and the lymph system. A basement membrane, mainly containing laminin and collagen, formed afterward by differentiated myoepithelial cells, keeps the polarity of this primary duct tree.

text: Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes during embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage, mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones, but is also under the (local) regulation of

text: paracrine communication

text: between neighboring epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein (

text: PTHrP

text: ). This locally secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the first round of branching. At the same time, the embryonic mesenchymal cells around the epithelial bud receive secreting factors activated by

text: PTHrP

text: , such as

text: . These mesenchymal cells can transform into a dense, mammary-specific mesenchyme, which later develop into connective tissue with fibrous threads, forming blood vessels and the lymph system. A basement membrane, mainly containing

text: laminin

text: and

text: collagen

text: , formed afterward by differentiated myoepithelial cells, keeps the polarity of this primary duct tree.

text: Like ketamine, etoxadrol produces increases in heart rate and respiratory rate. Etoxadrol may also cause vomiting. At high enough doses, etoxadrol also exhibits effects on the muscular system such as convulsions or loss of the righting reflex. When administered in excess, etoxadrol can be lethal on the respiratory system. Monkeys given extremely high (> 20 mg/kg) doses of etoxadrol died of apparent respiratory failure.

text: Like

text: ketamine

text: , etoxadrol produces increases in

text: heart rate

text: and

text: respiratory rate

text: . Etoxadrol may also cause

text: vomiting

text: . At high enough

text: doses

text: , etoxadrol also exhibits effects on the

text: muscular system

text: such as

text: convulsions

text: or loss of the

text: righting reflex

text: . When administered in excess, etoxadrol can be

text: lethal

text: on the

text: respiratory system

text: Monkeys

text: given extremely high (> 20 mg/kg)

text: doses

text: of etoxadrol died of apparent

text: respiratory failure

text: Investigation of the respiratory response to Acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH), repeated episodes of hypoxia, reveals connection to various breathing disorders, such as Rett syndrome and obstructive sleep apnea. AIH leads to persistent increases in respiratory frequency and amplitude of integrated motor neuronal bursts in vivo. These changes lasting for 90 minutes or longer are termed long-term facilitation (LTF). AIH causes homeostatic changes in multiple sites of the respiratory system; the pre-BötC is likely the site for the LTF, since intermittent hypoxia causes an increase in persistent frequency after ongoing hypoxia.The respiratory system is regulated by multiple forms of long-term synaptic plasticity.The role of synaptic inhibition has been proved widespread and critical within the expiratory Botzinger complex respiratory network, through cross-correlation and antidromic mapping techniques. The inhibitory connections discovered indicate their ability to connect different classes of neurons, their importance in regulating the interval of inspiration, and their ability to control driving potential of respiratory neurons. These characteristics show the interaction between the parafacial respiratory group and the pre-Bötzinger complex, which allows for active expiration to be produced by synaptic inhibition within the respiratory network. Synaptic inhibition is critical for allowing the pre-Bötzinger complex to communicate with other respiratory centers in order to generate respiratory activity.

text: Investigation of the respiratory response to Acute intermittent hypoxia (AIH), repeated episodes of

text: hypoxia

text: , reveals connection to various breathing disorders, such as

text: Rett syndrome

text: and

text: obstructive sleep apnea

text: . AIH leads to persistent increases in respiratory frequency and amplitude of integrated motor neuronal bursts in vivo. These changes lasting for 90 minutes or longer are termed long-term facilitation (LTF). AIH causes homeostatic changes in multiple sites of the respiratory system; the pre-BötC is likely the site for the LTF, since intermittent hypoxia causes an increase in persistent frequency after ongoing hypoxia.The respiratory system is regulated by multiple forms of long-term synaptic plasticity.The role of synaptic inhibition has been proved widespread and critical within the expiratory

text: Botzinger complex

text: respiratory network, through

text: cross-correlation

text: and

text: antidromic

text: mapping techniques. The inhibitory connections discovered indicate their ability to connect different classes of neurons, their importance in regulating the interval of inspiration, and their ability to control driving potential of respiratory neurons. These characteristics show the interaction between the

text: parafacial

text: respiratory group and the pre-Bötzinger complex, which allows for active expiration to be produced by synaptic inhibition within the respiratory network. Synaptic inhibition is critical for allowing the pre-Bötzinger complex to communicate with other respiratory centers in order to generate respiratory activity.

text: The sum of partial pressures of the gas that the diver breathes must necessarily balance with the sum of partial pressures in the lung gas. In the alveoli the gas has been humidified and has gained  carbon dioxide from the venous blood. Oxygen has also diffused into the arterial blood, reducing the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli. As the total pressure in the alveoli must balance with the ambient pressure, this dilution results in an effective partial pressure of nitrogen of about 758 mb (569 mmHg) in air at normal atmospheric pressure. At a steady state, when the tissues have been saturated by the inert gases of the breathing mixture, metabolic processes reduce the partial pressure of the less soluble oxygen and replace it with carbon dioxide, which is considerably more soluble in water. In the cells of a typical tissue, the partial pressure of oxygen will drop, while the partial pressure of carbon dioxide will rise. The sum of these partial pressures (water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen) is less than the total pressure of the respiratory gas. This is a significant saturation deficit, and it provides a buffer against supersaturation and a driving force for dissolving bubbles. Experiments suggest that the degree of unsaturation increases linearly with pressure for a breathing mixture of fixed composition, and decreases linearly with fraction of inert gas in the breathing mixture. As a consequence, the conditions for maximising the degree of unsaturation are a breathing gas with the lowest possible fraction of inert gas – i.e. pure oxygen, at the maximum permissible partial pressure. This saturation deficit is also referred to as inherent unsaturation, the "Oxygen window". or partial pressure vacancy.

text: Oxygen window

text: ". or partial pressure vacancy.

text: The physician then auscultates the respiratory sounds over the lung fields, listening to the fields through a stethoscope. This is conducted while the patient is breathing, noting normal breath sounds and any abnormalities including:

text: The physician then

text: auscultates

text: the

text: respiratory sounds

text: over the lung fields, listening to the fields through a

text: stethoscope

text: . This is conducted while the patient is breathing, noting normal

text: breath sounds

text: and any abnormalities including:

text: Effects of nitrogen mustard exposure can be long-term or permanent; it is also a known carcinogen, reprotoxin, and developmental toxin after chronic and acute exposure, causing skin cancer and airway cancers in particular. Blindness from an acute exposure is usually temporary, resolving in days to months depending on severity. Chronic respiratory and eye infections are also common after acute nitrogen mustard exposure. Other consequences of acute exposure include ageusia, anosmia, pulmonary fibrosis, scarring, bronchitis, chronic respiratory disease, mental illness, and central nervous system damage. Consequences of chronic exposure beyond cancer include permanent kidney damage and immunosuppression.

text: Effects of nitrogen mustard exposure can be long-term or permanent; it is also a known

text: carcinogen

text: reprotoxin

text: , and

text: developmental toxin

text: after chronic and acute exposure, causing

text: skin cancer

text: and airway cancers in particular. Blindness from an acute exposure is usually temporary, resolving in days to months depending on severity. Chronic

text: respiratory

text: and

text: eye infections

text: are also common after acute nitrogen mustard exposure. Other consequences of acute exposure include ageusia, anosmia,

text: pulmonary fibrosis

text: , scarring,

text: bronchitis

text: , chronic respiratory disease,

text: mental illness

text: , and

text: central nervous system damage

text: . Consequences of chronic exposure beyond cancer include permanent

text: kidney damage

text: and immunosuppression.

text: Central neurogenic hyperventilation (CNH) is an abnormal pattern of breathing characterized by deep and rapid breaths at a rate of at least 25 breaths per minute. Increasing irregularity of this respiratory rate generally is a sign that the patient will enter into coma. CNH is unrelated to other forms of hyperventilation, like Kussmaul's respirations. CNH is the human body's response to reduced carbon dioxide levels in the blood. This reduction in carbon dioxide is caused by contraction of cranial arteries from damage caused by lesions in the brain stem. However, the mechanism by which CNH arises as a result from these lesions is still very poorly understood. Current research has yet to provide an effective means of treatment for the rare number of patients who are diagnosed with this condition.

text: Central neurogenic hyperventilation (CNH) is an abnormal pattern of breathing characterized by deep and rapid breaths at a rate of at least 25 breaths per minute. Increasing irregularity of this respiratory rate generally is a sign that the patient will enter into coma. CNH is unrelated to other forms of

text: hyperventilation

text: , like

text: Kussmaul's respirations

text: . CNH is the human body's response to reduced carbon dioxide levels in the blood. This reduction in carbon dioxide is caused by contraction of cranial arteries from damage caused by lesions in the

text: brain stem

text: . However, the mechanism by which CNH arises as a result from these lesions is still very poorly understood. Current research has yet to provide an effective means of treatment for the rare number of patients who are diagnosed with this condition.

text: The respiratory system is involved in ventilation (physiology) and cellular respiration. Its functioning during oral procedures and surgery is essential to good patient care. If the patient stops breathing, heart failure will result within four to six minutes. The use of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and rescue breathing may be required to revive the patient.

text: The respiratory system is involved in

text: ventilation (physiology)

text: and

text: cellular respiration

text: . Its functioning during oral procedures and surgery is essential to good patient care. If the patient stops breathing, heart failure will result within four to six minutes. The use of

text: cardiopulmonary resuscitation

text: (CPR) and

text: rescue breathing

text: may be required to revive the patient.

text: Respiratory Health products are designed for airway management and include closed suction catheters, oral care kits, endotracheal tubes and sampling catheters.

text: Respiratory Health products are designed for airway management and include closed suction

text: catheters

text: oral care

text: kits, endotracheal tubes and sampling catheters.

text: Originally named "Clinical Cell Culture" and listed on the ASX under the symbol "C3",  the company restructured under the name "Avita Medical" in June 2008.  In 2015, the company conducted a strategic divestment of its respiratory business, including the Breath-a-Tech and Funhaler products, to support focus on its regenerative products.

text: Originally named "Clinical Cell Culture" and listed on the

text: ASX

text: under the symbol "C3",  the company restructured under the name "Avita Medical" in June 2008.  In 2015, the company conducted a strategic divestment of its respiratory business, including the Breath-a-Tech and Funhaler products, to support focus on its regenerative products.

text: In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains dissipated proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are mainly red blood cells (also called RBCs or erythrocytes), white blood cells (also called WBCs or leukocytes)  and platelets (also called thrombocytes). The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells. These contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this respiratory gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma.

text: In

text: vertebrate

text: s, it is composed of

text: blood cell

text: s suspended in

text: blood plasma

text: . Plasma, which constitutes 55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains dissipated

text: proteins

text: glucose

text: , mineral

text: ions

text: hormone

text: s, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation), and blood cells themselves.

text: Albumin

text: is the main protein in plasma, and it functions to regulate the colloidal

text: osmotic pressure

text: of blood. The blood cells are mainly

text: red blood cell

text: s (also called RBCs or erythrocytes),

text: white blood cell

text: s (also called WBCs or leukocytes)  and

text: platelet

text: s (also called thrombocytes). The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells. These contain

text: hemoglobin

text: , an iron-containing protein, which facilitates oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this

text: respiratory

text: gas and greatly increasing its solubility in blood. In contrast, carbon dioxide is mostly transported extracellularly as

text: bicarbonate

text: ion transported in plasma.

text: Although initially refusing to expose themselves to the risk and expense associated with bringing a step-in system to market, Burton chose to focus primarily on improvements to existing strap-in technology. However, Burton eventually released 2 models of step-in systems, the SI and the PSI, Burton's SI system enjoyed moderate success, yet never matched the performance of the company's strap-in products and was never improved upon. Burton never marketed any improvements to either of their step-in binding systems and eventually discontinued the products.

text: Infections may be asymptomatic, and are strongly associated with the respiratory system. Early symptoms can include fever, chills, headache, shortness of breath, cough, muscle aches and pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, sputum production with presence of blood, nausea, and irritation or inflammation of the nose, throat, or lungs.

text: Infections may be asymptomatic, and are strongly associated with the

text: respiratory system

text: . Early symptoms can include fever, chills, headache, shortness of breath, cough, muscle aches and pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, sputum production with presence of blood, nausea, and irritation or inflammation of the nose, throat, or lungs.

text: The term may be considered a misnomer as it represents neither diffusion nor a capacity (as it is typically measured under submaximal conditions) nor capacitance. In addition, gas transport is only diffusion limited in extreme cases, such as for oxygen uptake at very low ambient oxygen or very high pulmonary blood flow.

text: The term may be considered a misnomer as it represents neither

text: diffusion

text: nor a

text: capacity

text: (as it is typically measured under submaximal conditions) nor

text: capacitance

text: . In addition, gas transport is only diffusion limited in extreme cases, such as for oxygen uptake at very low ambient oxygen or very high pulmonary blood flow.

text: A number of factors influence the rate of breathing. Carbon dioxide levels, particularly the arterial and cerebrospinal fluid levels, detected by medullary central chemoreceptors, cause an increase in the rate of breathing when high and a decrease when low. The acidity of blood, detected by peripheral chemoreceptors, causes an increase in the rate of breathing when low and a decrease when high. Significant hypoxia, primarily detected by peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic body, can cause an increase in the rate of breathing. Factors internal to the lung, including pulmonary stretch or detection of irritants, can also stimulate breathing.

text: A number of factors influence the

text: rate of breathing

text: . Carbon dioxide levels, particularly the arterial and

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: levels, detected by medullary

text: central chemoreceptors

text: , cause an increase in the rate of breathing when high and a decrease when low. The

text: acidity

text: of blood, detected by

text: peripheral chemoreceptors

text: , causes an increase in the rate of breathing when low and a decrease when high. Significant

text: hypoxia

text: , primarily detected by peripheral chemoreceptors in the

text: aortic body

text: , can cause an increase in the rate of breathing. Factors internal to the lung, including pulmonary stretch or detection of irritants, can also stimulate breathing.

text: Respiratory gas humidification is a method of artificially conditioning respiratory gas for the patient during therapy, and involves humidification, warming, and occasionally filtration of the gas being delivered.  If these three measures are not performed to compensate for the natural conditioning of air by the respiratory system, pulmonary infections and lung tissue damage may occur.  This is particularly problematic in high gas-flow therapies such as [mechanical ventilation], in patient populations with highly sensitive respiratory tracts (i.e. asthmatics), or among those requiring ventilation for longer periods of time.  The two methods currently available for this purpose are active or passive respiratory gas humidification.

text: Respiratory gas humidification is a method of artificially conditioning respiratory gas for the patient during therapy, and involves humidification, warming, and occasionally filtration of the gas being delivered.  If these three measures are not performed to compensate for the natural conditioning of air by the respiratory system, pulmonary infections and lung tissue damage may occur.  This is particularly problematic in high gas-flow therapies such as [mechanical ventilation], in patient populations with highly sensitive respiratory tracts (i.e.

text: asthma

text: tics), or among those requiring ventilation for longer periods of time.  The two methods currently available for this purpose are active or passive respiratory gas humidification.

text: The main symptom is usually severe central chest pain. Other symptoms include laboured breathing, voice distortion (as with helium) and subcutaneous emphysema, specifically affecting the face, neck, and chest. Pneumomediastinum can also be characterized by the shortness of breath that is typical of a respiratory system problem. It is often recognized on auscultation by a "crunching" sound timed with the cardiac cycle (Hamman's crunch).Pnemomediastinum may also present with symptoms mimicking cardiac tamponade as a result of the increased intrapulmonary pressure on venous flow to the heart.

text: The main symptom is usually severe central chest pain. Other symptoms include laboured breathing, voice distortion (as with helium) and

text: subcutaneous emphysema

text: , specifically affecting the face, neck, and chest. Pneumomediastinum can also be characterized by the shortness of breath that is typical of a respiratory system problem. It is often recognized on

text: auscultation

text: by a "crunching" sound timed with the cardiac cycle (

text: Hamman's crunch

text: ).Pnemomediastinum may also present with symptoms mimicking cardiac tamponade as a result of the increased intrapulmonary pressure on venous flow to the heart.

text: Personal Respirators (NIOSH Approved): For conditions of use where exposure to dust or mist is apparent and engineering controls are not feasible, a particulate respirator (NIOSH type N95 or better filters) may be worn. If oil particles (e.g. lubricants, cutting fluids, glycerine, etc.) are present, use a NIOSH type R or P filter. For emergencies or instances where the exposure levels are not known, use a full-face positive-pressure, air-supplied respirator.

text: The pneumostome (or breathing pore) is a feature (the respiratory opening) of the external body anatomy of an air-breathing land slug or land snail. It is a part of the respiratory system of gastropods.

text: The pneumostome (or breathing pore) is a feature (the respiratory opening) of the external body anatomy of an air-breathing land

text: slug

text: or

text: land snail

text: . It is a part of the

text: respiratory system of gastropods

text: Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of CO in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.

text: Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of CO in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes

text: respiratory acidosis

text: , while breathing that is too rapid leads to

text: hyperventilation

text: , which can cause

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: Involuntary respiration is controlled by respiratory centers within the medulla oblongata and pons. The medullary respiratory center can be subdivided into anterior and posterior portions. They are called the ventral and dorsal respiratory groups respectively. The pontine respiratory group consists of two parts: the pneumotaxic center and the apneustic center.  All four of these centers are located in the brainstem and work together to control involuntary respiration. In our case, the ventral respiratory group (VRG) controls involuntary exhalation.

text: Involuntary respiration is controlled by respiratory centers within the medulla oblongata and pons. The medullary respiratory center can be subdivided into anterior and posterior portions. They are called the ventral and dorsal respiratory groups respectively. The

text: pontine respiratory group

text: consists of two parts: the

text: pneumotaxic center

text: and the

text: apneustic center

text: .  All four of these centers are located in the brainstem and work together to control involuntary respiration. In our case, the

text: ventral respiratory group

text: (VRG) controls involuntary exhalation.

text: The symptoms of heart failure are largely determined by which side of the heart fails. The left side pumps blood into the systemic circulation, whilst the right side pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation. Whilst left-sided heart failure will reduce cardiac output to the systemic circulation, the initial symptoms often manifest due to effects on the pulmonary circulation. In systolic dysfunction, the ejection fraction is decreased, leaving an abnormally elevated volume of blood in the left ventricle. In diastolic dysfunction, the end-diastolic ventricular pressure will be high. This increase in volume or pressure backs up to the left atrium and then to the pulmonary veins. Increased volume or pressure in the pulmonary veins impairs the normal drainage of the alveoli and favors the flow of fluid from the capillaries to the lung parenchyma, causing pulmonary edema. This impairs gas exchange. Thus, left-sided heart failure often presents with respiratory symptoms: shortness of breath, orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea.

text: The symptoms of heart failure are largely determined by which side of the heart fails. The left side pumps blood into the systemic circulation, whilst the right side pumps blood into the

text: pulmonary circulation

text: . Whilst left-sided heart failure will reduce cardiac output to the systemic circulation, the initial symptoms often manifest due to effects on the pulmonary circulation. In systolic dysfunction, the ejection fraction is decreased, leaving an abnormally elevated volume of blood in the left ventricle. In diastolic dysfunction, the end-diastolic ventricular pressure will be high. This increase in volume or pressure backs up to the left atrium and then to the pulmonary veins. Increased volume or pressure in the pulmonary veins impairs the normal drainage of the alveoli and favors the flow of fluid from the capillaries to the lung parenchyma, causing pulmonary edema. This impairs gas exchange. Thus, left-sided heart failure often presents with respiratory symptoms: shortness of breath, orthopnea and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea.

text: Working with Léger's (see "Occurrence") hordenine sulfate, Camus determined minimum lethal doses for the dog, rabbit, guinea pig and rat (see "Toxicology"). The associated symptoms of toxicity following parenteral doses were: excitation, vomiting, respiratory difficulties, convulsions, and paralysis, with death occurring as a result of respiratory arrest. In a subsequent paper, Camus reported that the i.v. administration of some hundreds of mg of hordenine sulfate to dogs or rabbits caused an increase in blood pressure and changes in the rhythm and force of contraction of the heart, noting also that the drug was not orally active.

text: Along with energy inefficiency, poor air quality has been another side-effect of the post air conditioning building design. Because most modern buildings are temperature controlled, they are designed to be airtight. The lack of ventilation can not only make buildings expensive to cool, it also traps harmful toxins that can do serious damage to people's respiratory systems. Toxins come from a variety of sources. Materials that make up the library, including paints and carpeting, have volatile organic compounds (VOC's), which produce a ground-level ozone after reacting with sunlight and nitrogen. The carbon dioxide that people breathe into the atmosphere is another toxin.  To improve air quality, materials can be bought that have a low VOC content, and CO  monitors can be installed to ensure that  CO  levels remain at a safe level.  On average, people spend about 90% of their time indoors. Therefore, green buildings need to be designed in a way in which the air gets recycled, and does not stay stagnant. A green library is not just about taking care of the environment, it is about taking care of the health and well-being of those who work in it and patronize it.

text: Along with energy inefficiency, poor air quality has been another side-effect of the post air conditioning building design. Because most modern buildings are temperature controlled, they are designed to be airtight. The lack of ventilation can not only make buildings expensive to cool, it also traps harmful toxins that can do serious damage to people's respiratory systems. Toxins come from a variety of sources. Materials that make up the library, including paints and carpeting, have

text: volatile organic compounds

text: (VOC's), which produce a ground-level ozone after reacting with sunlight and nitrogen. The carbon dioxide that people breathe into the atmosphere is another toxin.  To improve air quality, materials can be bought that have a low VOC content, and CO  monitors can be installed to ensure that  CO  levels remain at a safe level.  On average, people spend about 90% of their time indoors. Therefore, green buildings need to be designed in a way in which the air gets recycled, and does not stay stagnant. A green library is not just about taking care of the environment, it is about taking care of the health and well-being of those who work in it and patronize it.

text: Tests measuring VO max can be dangerous in individuals who are not considered normal healthy subjects, as any problems with the respiratory and cardiovascular systems will be greatly exacerbated in clinically ill patients. Thus, many protocols for estimating VO max have been developed for those for whom a traditional VO max test would be too risky. These generally are similar to a VO max test, but do not reach the maximum of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems and are called sub-maximal tests.

text: Tests measuring VO max can be dangerous in individuals who are not considered normal healthy subjects, as any problems with the respiratory and cardiovascular systems will be greatly exacerbated in clinically ill patients. Thus, many protocols for estimating VO max have been developed for those for whom a traditional VO max test would be too risky. These generally are similar to a VO max test, but do not reach the maximum of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems and are called

text: sub-maximal tests

text: In the outskirts of Bobbio there are many water springs rich in sodium chloride, bromine and iodine. When their curative properties were not known these waters were exploited to obtain salt. Indeed, already during the Longobard Age, the army leader Sundrarit enjoyed the income of the salt-works sited on the right side of the river Trebbia. Now in San Martino, 1.5 km. from the centre of the town, the spa building Therm of Bobbio, first opened in July 1904 and is currently undergoing restoration for the creation of a modern health center and a spa where you will be treated diseases of the respiratory system and the skin.

text: In the outskirts of Bobbio there are many water springs rich in sodium chloride, bromine and iodine. When their curative properties were not known these waters were exploited to obtain salt. Indeed, already during the Longobard Age, the army leader Sundrarit enjoyed the income of the salt-works sited on the right side of the river

text: Trebbia

text: . Now in San Martino, 1.5 km. from the centre of the town, the spa building Therm of Bobbio, first opened in July 1904 and is currently undergoing restoration for the creation of a modern health center and a spa where you will be treated diseases of the respiratory system and the skin.

text: Unlike other modes of diving, which rely either on breath-hold or on breathing supplied under pressure from the surface, scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater freedom of movement than with an air line or diver's umbilical and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit; therefore, a smaller cylinder or cylinders, may be used for an equivalent dive duration. They far extend the time spent underwater as compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption. Rebreathers produce fewer bubbles and less noise than scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.

text: Unlike other modes of diving, which rely either on

text: breath-hold

text: or on

text: breathing supplied under pressure from the surface

text: , scuba divers carry their own source of

text: breathing gas

text: , usually

text: compressed air

text: , allowing them greater freedom of movement than with an

text: air line

text: or

text: diver's umbilical

text: and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more

text: diving cylinder

text: s containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a

text: diving regulator

text: . They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit

text: rebreather

text: scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit; therefore, a smaller cylinder or cylinders, may be used for an equivalent dive duration. They far extend the time spent underwater as compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption. Rebreathers produce fewer bubbles and less noise than scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.

text: The handling of compressed asphyxiant gases and the determination of appropriate environment for their use is regulated in the United States by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).  The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has an advisory role. OSHA requires employers who send workers into areas where the oxygen concentration is known or expected to be less than 19.5% to follow the provision of the Respiratory Protection Standard [29 CFR 1910.134]. Generally, work in an oxygen depleted environment requires an SCBA or airline respirator.  The regulation also requires an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel, respirator fit testing, periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator maintenance, inspection, and cleaning."  Containers should be labeled according to OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]. These regulations were developed in accordance with the official recommendations of the Compressed Gas Association (CGA) pamphlet P-1. The specific guidelines for prevention of asphyxiation due to displacement of oxygen by asphyxiant gases is covered under CGA's pamphlet SB-2, Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres. Specific guidelines for use of gases other than air in back-up respirators is covered in pamphlet SB-28, Safety of Instrument Air Systems Backed Up by Gases Other Than Air.

text: The handling of compressed asphyxiant gases and the determination of appropriate environment for their use is regulated in the

text: United States

text: by the

text: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

text: (OSHA).  The

entity_name: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

text: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

text: (NIOSH) has an advisory role. OSHA requires employers who send workers into areas where the oxygen concentration is known or expected to be less than 19.5% to follow the provision of the Respiratory Protection Standard [29 CFR 1910.134]. Generally, work in an oxygen depleted environment requires an

text: SCBA

text: or airline respirator.  The regulation also requires an evaluation of the worker's ability to perform the work while wearing a respirator, the regular training of personnel, respirator

text: fit testing

text: , periodic workplace monitoring, and regular respirator maintenance, inspection, and cleaning."  Containers should be labeled according to OSHA's Hazard Communication Standard [29 CFR 1910.1200]. These regulations were developed in accordance with the official recommendations of the

text: Compressed Gas Association

text: (CGA) pamphlet P-1. The specific guidelines for prevention of asphyxiation due to displacement of oxygen by asphyxiant gases is covered under CGA's pamphlet SB-2, Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres. Specific guidelines for use of gases other than air in back-up respirators is covered in pamphlet SB-28, Safety of Instrument Air Systems Backed Up by Gases Other Than Air.

text: The function of  the right heart, is to collect de-oxygenated blood, in the right atrium, from the body (via the superior and inferior venae cavae and pump it, through the tricuspid valve, via the right ventricle, through the semilunar pulmonary valve  and into the pulmonary artery in the pulmonary circulation where carbon dioxide can be exchanged for oxygen in the lungs.This happens through the passive process of diffusion. In the left heart oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein. It is then pumped into the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve and into the aorta for systemic circulation. Eventually in the systemic capillaries exchange with the tissue fluid and cells of the body occurs; oxygen and nutrients are supplied to the cells for their metabolism and exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste products In this case, oxygen and nutrients exit the systemic capillaries to be used by the cells in their metabolic processes, and carbon dioxide and waste products will enter the blood.

text: The function of  the right heart, is to collect de-oxygenated blood, in the

text: right atrium

text: , from the body (via the

text: superior

text: and

text: inferior venae cava

text: e and pump it, through the tricuspid valve, via the

text: right ventricle

text: , through the semilunar

text: pulmonary valve

text: and into the pulmonary artery in the pulmonary circulation where carbon dioxide can be

text: exchanged

text: for oxygen in the lungs.This happens through the passive process of

text: diffusion

text: . In the left heart oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein. It is then pumped into the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve and into the aorta for systemic circulation. Eventually in the systemic capillaries exchange with the tissue fluid and cells of the body occurs; oxygen and nutrients are supplied to the cells for their metabolism and exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste products In this case, oxygen and nutrients exit the systemic capillaries to be used by the cells in their metabolic processes, and carbon dioxide and waste products will enter the blood.

text: The planning system is critical to the viability and operation of GA aerodromes. With many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them, and with GA access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive, a viable network of aerodromes supporting GA air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue. However, there is no unified national planning policy specific to GA aerodromes, and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact. Because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation, the only recourse for people affected by aircraft noise is through the planning process, and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to GA land use are made. GA is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to Local Planning Authorities, and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission, or grant it with restrictive conditions. Little Gransden is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted, thereby inhibiting further development. Such restrictions, if poorly conceived, can make GA operations unviable or even unsafe.

text: The

text: planning system

text: is critical to the viability and operation of GA aerodromes. With many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them, and with GA access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive, a viable network of aerodromes supporting GA air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue. However, there is no unified national planning policy specific to GA aerodromes, and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact. Because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation, the only recourse for people affected by aircraft noise is through the planning process, and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to GA land use are made. GA is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to

text: Local Planning Authorities

text: , and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission, or grant it with restrictive conditions.

text: Little Gransden

text: is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted, thereby inhibiting further development. Such restrictions, if poorly conceived, can make GA operations unviable or even unsafe.

text: To function in gas exchange, lungs required a blood supply. In cartilaginous fishes and teleosts, the heart lies low in the body and pumps blood forward through the ventral aorta, which splits up in a series of paired aortic arches, each corresponding to a gill arch. The aortic arches then merge above the gills to form a dorsal aorta supplying the body with oxygenated blood. In lungfishes, bowfin and bichirs, the swim bladder is supplied with blood by paired pulmonary arteries branching off from the hindmost (6th) aortic arch. The same basic pattern is found in the lungfish Protopterus and in terrestrial salamanders, and was probably the pattern found in the tetrapods' immediate ancestors as well as the first tetrapods. In most other bony fishes the swim bladder is supplied with blood by the dorsal aorta.

text: To function in gas exchange, lungs required a blood supply. In cartilaginous fishes and

text: teleosts

text: , the

text: heart

text: lies low in the body and pumps blood forward through the

text: ventral aorta

text: , which splits up in a series of paired aortic arches, each corresponding to a

text: gill arch

text: . The aortic arches then merge above the gills to form a

text: dorsal aorta

text: supplying the body with oxygenated blood. In

text: lungfish

text: es,

text: bowfin

text: and

text: bichir

text: s, the swim bladder is supplied with blood by paired

text: pulmonary arteries

text: branching off from the hindmost (6th) aortic arch. The same basic pattern is found in the lungfish

text: Protopterus

text: and in terrestrial

text: salamanders

text: , and was probably the pattern found in the tetrapods' immediate ancestors as well as the first tetrapods. In most other bony fishes the swim bladder is supplied with blood by the dorsal aorta.

text: In 2004, a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide. This organism, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation. While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis (the Calvin cycle), it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals. Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate, an endproduct in glycolysis, to generate the four-carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid, an intermediate in the Krebs cycle. Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle, it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation, the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration.

text: In 2004, a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide. This organism, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, has a unique metabolism involving

text: carbon fixation

text: . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis (the

text: Calvin cycle

text: ), it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals. Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of

text: phosphoenolpyruvate

text: , an endproduct in

text: glycolysis

text: , to generate the four-carbon compound,

text: oxaloacetic acid

text: , an intermediate in the

text: Krebs cycle

text: . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle, it is not capable of

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: , the final step in the

text: electron transport chain

text: that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by

text: aerobic respiration

text: As an example, a patient who has a respiratory rate of 25 breaths/min and an average tidal volume of 250 mL/breath has an RSBI of (25 breaths/min)/(0.25 L) = 100 breaths/min/L

text: Gaseous exchange (which in organisms with lungs is called ventilation and includes inhalation and exhalation) is a part of physiologic respiration. Thus, in precise usage, the words breathing and ventilation are hyponyms, not synonyms, of respiration; but this prescription is not consistently followed, even by most health care providers, because the term respiratory rate (RR) is a well-established term in health care, even though it would need to be consistently replaced with ventilation rate if the precise usage were to be followed.

text: Gaseous exchange

text: ventilation

text: and includes

text: inhalation

text: and

text: exhalation

text: ) is a part of physiologic respiration. Thus, in precise

text: usage

text: , the words breathing and ventilation are

text: hyponyms

text: , not

text: synonym

text: s, of respiration; but this

text: prescription

text: is not consistently followed, even by most

text: health care provider

text: s, because the term

text: respiratory rate

text: (RR) is a well-established term in

text: health care

text: , even though it would need to be consistently replaced with ventilation rate if the precise usage were to be followed.

text: There has been limited research into the impacts of polio in Pakistan in recent years, but a 1988 health survey found that the most common handicaps among polio sufferers were associated with mobility, occupation, and social integration. The survey found differences in participants based on whether they lived in a village or a slum area: there was a higher rate of handicap in the village population, and higher frequencies of infectious, respiratory, and digestive diseases in the slum area. Both areas saw polio victims suffer from a higher incidence of musculoskeletal system diseases, as well as infections of the ear, and respiratory tract. Given 1–2 years with occupational therapists, 80% of patients with handicaps showed improvement in function.

text: To protect workers from air contaminants employers often used respirators. Reliable protection of workers' life and health requires that the effectiveness of the respirator must be consistent with the degree of air pollution. There are respiratory protective equipment RPE (or devices - RPD) of different designs, and their protective properties differ markedly. If employer wish to select the appropriate respirator, he or she need to know in advance what level of protection it will provide.

text: To protect

text: workers

text: from air contaminants employers often used

text: respirator

text: s. Reliable protection of workers' life and health requires that the effectiveness of the respirator must be consistent with the degree of air pollution. There are respiratory protective equipment RPE (or devices - RPD) of different designs, and their protective properties differ markedly. If employer wish to select the appropriate respirator, he or she need to know in advance what

text: level of protection it will provide

text: There are physiological and psychological disorders related to prolonged exposure to hypoxic conditions.  For example, sleep apnea is a condition where there is partial, or complete, blockage of breathing during sleep.  In addition, the respiratory system linked to central nervous system via base of brain.  Thus, prolonged exposure to low oxygen concentration has detrimental effects on the brain.

text: Stage III (stage of surgical anesthesia): from onset of automatic respiration to respiratory paralysis. It is divided into four planes:

text: Cryptosporidiosis, also known as crypto, is a parasitic disease caused by Cryptosporidium, a genus of protozoan parasites in the phylum Apicomplexa. It affects the distal small intestine and can affect the respiratory tract in both immunocompetent (i.e., individuals with a normal functioning immune system) and immunocompromised (e.g., persons with HIV/AIDS or autoimmune disorders) individuals, resulting in watery diarrhea with or without an unexplained cough. In immunocompromised individuals, the symptoms are particularly severe and can be fatal. It is primarily spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water; recent evidence suggests that it can also be transmitted via fomites in respiratory secretions.

text: Cryptosporidiosis, also known as crypto, is a

text: parasitic disease

text: caused by

text: Cryptosporidium

text: , a genus of

text: protozoa

text: n

text: parasite

text: s in the phylum

text: Apicomplexa

text: . It affects the

text: distal small intestine

text: and can affect the

text: respiratory tract

text: in both

text: immunocompetent

text: (i.e., individuals with a normal functioning

text: immune system

text: ) and

text: immunocompromised

text: (e.g., persons with

text: HIV/AIDS

text: or

text: autoimmune disorders

text: ) individuals, resulting in

text: watery diarrhea

text: with or without an unexplained cough. In immunocompromised individuals, the symptoms are particularly severe and can be fatal. It is primarily spread through the

text: fecal-oral route

text: , often through contaminated water; recent evidence suggests that it can also be transmitted via

text: fomite

text: s in respiratory secretions.

text: In addition to their functions in gas exchange, the lungs have a number of metabolic functions. They manufacture surfactant for local use, as noted above. They also contain a fibrinolytic system that lyses clots in the pulmonary vessels. They release a variety of substances that enter the systemic arterial blood and they remove other substances from the systemic venous blood that reach them via the pulmonary artery. Prostaglandins are removed from the circulation, but they are also synthesized in the lungs and released into the blood when lung tissue is stretched.The lungs also activate one hormone; the physiologically inactive decapeptide angiotensin I is converted to the pressor, aldosterone-stimulating octapeptide angiotensin II in the pulmonary circulation. The reaction occurs in other tissues as well, but it is particularly prominent in the lungs. Large amounts of the angiotensin-converting enzyme responsible for this activation are located on the surface of the endothelial cells of the pulmonary capillaries. The converting enzyme also inactivates bradykinin. Circulation time through the pulmonary capillaries is less than one second, yet 70% of the angiotensin I reaching the lungs is converted to angiotensin II in a single trip through the capillaries. Four other peptidases have been identified on the surface of the pulmonary endothelial cells.

text: The last process in aerobic respiration is oxidative phosphorylation, also known as the electron transport chain. Here NADH and FADH, which contain the energy in the form of electrons, deliver their electrons to the inner membranes of the mitochondrion to power the production of ATP.  Oxidative phosphorylation contributes the majority of the ATP produced, compared to glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. While the ATP count is glycolysis and the Krebs cycle is two ATP molecules, the electron transport chain contributes, at most, twenty-eight ATP molecules. A contributing factor is due to the energy potentials of NADH and FADH. As they are brought from the initial process, glycolysis, to the electron transport chain, the energy stored in them are now utilized. A second contributing factor is that cristae, the inner membranes of mitochondria, increase the surface area and therefore the amount of proteins in the membrane that assist in the synthesis of ATP. Along the electron transport chain, there are separate compartments, each with their own concentration gradient of H + ions, which are the power source of ATP synthesis. In order to convert ADP to ATP, energy must be provided. That energy is provided by the H+ gradient. On one side of the membrane compartment, there is a high concentration of H+ ions compared to the other. The shuttling of H+ to one side of the membrane is driven by the exergonic flow of electrons throughout the membrane. These electrons are supplied by NADH and FADH as they transfer their potential energy. Once the H+ concentration gradient is established, a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane will now naturally flow through a membrane protein called ATP synthase, a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions.

text: The last process in aerobic respiration is

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: , also known as the

text: electron transport chain

text: . Here NADH and FADH, which contain the energy in the form of electrons, deliver their electrons to the inner membranes of the mitochondrion to power the production of ATP.  Oxidative phosphorylation contributes the majority of the ATP produced, compared to glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. While the ATP count is glycolysis and the Krebs cycle is two ATP molecules, the electron transport chain contributes, at most, twenty-eight ATP molecules. A contributing factor is due to the energy potentials of NADH and FADH. As they are brought from the initial process, glycolysis, to the electron transport chain, the energy stored in them are now utilized. A second contributing factor is that

text: cristae

text: , the inner membranes of mitochondria, increase the

text: surface area

text: and therefore the amount of proteins in the membrane that assist in the synthesis of ATP. Along the electron transport chain, there are separate compartments, each with their own

text: concentration gradient

text: of H + ions, which are the power source of ATP synthesis. In order to convert ADP to ATP, energy must be provided. That energy is provided by the H+ gradient. On one side of the membrane compartment, there is a high concentration of H+ ions compared to the other. The shuttling of H+ to one side of the membrane is driven by the

text: exergonic

text: flow of electrons throughout the membrane. These electrons are supplied by NADH and FADH as they transfer their potential energy. Once the H+ concentration gradient is established, a proton-motive force is established, which provides the energy to convert ADP to ATP. The H+ ions that were initially forced to one side of the mitochondrion membrane will now naturally flow through a membrane protein called

text: ATP synthase

text: , a protein that converts ADP to ATP with the help of H+ ions.

text: On February 12, it was announced that Dimension W would premiere on February 27, replacing Akame ga Kill. On March 24, it was announced that FLCL would be returning for two more seasons in late 2017 or early 2018, thanks to in part to a co-production between Adult Swim and Production I.G. On April 1, it was announced during Toonami Pre-Flight, that Hunter × Hunter (2011) would premiere on April 16, replacing Parasyte -the maxim-, which moved to the 3:00 AM timeslot in reruns, replacing Kill la Kill. On May 10, it was announced that Dragon Ball Z Kai would air for one hour on May 21 and Samurai Champloo will have a marathon on May 28. On May 12, it was revealed through Turner Broadcasting System that Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans would premiere on June 4, replacing Dimension W. On May 28, it was announced that Toonami would air a half hour earlier at 11:30PM to 3:00AM starting on June 4. On June 22, it was announced that Hunter × Hunter would have a marathon on July 2.

text: On February 12, it was announced that

text: Dimension W

text: would premiere on February 27, replacing Akame ga Kill. On March 24, it was announced that

text: FLCL

text: would be returning for two more seasons in late 2017 or early 2018, thanks to in part to a co-production between Adult Swim and

text: Production I.G

text: . On April 1, it was announced during Toonami Pre-Flight, that

text: Hunter × Hunter (2011)

text: would premiere on April 16, replacing Parasyte -the maxim-, which moved to the 3:00 AM timeslot in reruns, replacing Kill la Kill. On May 10, it was announced that Dragon Ball Z Kai would air for one hour on May 21 and Samurai Champloo will have a marathon on May 28. On May 12, it was revealed through

text: Turner Broadcasting System

text: that

entity_name: Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans

text: Mobile Suit Gundam: Iron-Blooded Orphans

text: would premiere on June 4, replacing Dimension W. On May 28, it was announced that Toonami would air a half hour earlier at 11:30PM to 3:00AM starting on June 4. On June 22, it was announced that Hunter × Hunter would have a marathon on July 2.

text: It has been said that It is being observed that the more time spent for pranayama (and kumbhaka); the more is the concentration and the better is the control over mind. Various ancient yogis (expert in yoga and pranayama) noticed the importance of respiration and its correlation with activities of mind and vital forces. Aging is also seen proportional to frequency of respiration or respiratory rate, i.e., frequency of inhalation and exhalation in one minute. Medical science recorded normal respiratory rate in humans as 12-16 breaths per minute with life span of 70–80 years. These figures may vary due to geographical, communal and other distribution factors.

text: It has been said that It is being observed that the more time spent for pranayama (and kumbhaka); the more is the concentration and the better is the control over mind. Various ancient yogis (expert in yoga and pranayama) noticed the importance of

text: respiration

text: and its

text: correlation

text: with activities of mind and vital forces.

text: Aging

text: is also seen proportional to frequency of respiration or

text: respiratory rate

text: , i.e., frequency of inhalation and exhalation in one minute. Medical science recorded normal respiratory rate in humans as 12-16 breaths per minute with life span of 70–80 years. These figures may vary due to geographical, communal and other distribution factors.

text: In the diving industry the performance of breathing apparatus is often referred to as work of breathing. In this context it generally means the work of an average single breath taken through the specified apparatus for given conditions of ambient pressure, underwater environment, flow rate during the breathing cycle, and gas mixture - underwater divers may breathe oxygen-rich Breathing gas to reduce the risk of decompression sickness, or gases containing helium to reduce narcotic effects. Standards for these conditions exist and to make useful comparisons between breathing apparatus they must be tested to the same standard.

text: In the diving industry the performance of breathing apparatus is often referred to as work of breathing. In this context it generally means the work of an average single breath taken through the specified apparatus for given conditions of ambient pressure, underwater environment, flow rate during the breathing cycle, and gas mixture - underwater divers may breathe oxygen-rich

text: Breathing gas

text: to reduce the risk of

text: decompression sickness

text: , or gases containing

text: helium

text: to reduce

text: narcotic effects

text: . Standards for these conditions exist and to make useful comparisons between breathing apparatus they must be tested to the same standard.

text: The pressure-cycled ventilation includes pressure control ventilation and pressure support ventilation. Both methods offer a set inspiratory pressure. The tidal volume varies depending on the resistance and elastance of the respiratory system. Pressure-cycled ventilation can help alleviate symptoms in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome by limiting the distending pressure of the lungs. The pressure control ventilation is specifically a pressure-cycled form of assist-control ventilators. Assist-control ventilators describe a mode of ventilation that maintains a minimum respiratory rate regardless of whether or not the patient initiates a spontaneous breath. Each inspiratory effort that is beyond the sensitivity threshold delivers full pressures support for a fixed inspiratory time. There is maintenance of a minimum respiratory rate. In the pressure support ventilation, the minimum rate is not set. Instead, all breaths are triggered by the patient. The way that the pressure support ventilation works is by assisting the patient with a constant pressure until the patient’s inspiratory flow fallows below a threshold. The longer, deeper inspiratory flows by the patient will result in a larger tidal volume. This method of mechanical ventilation will help patients assume more work of breathing.

text: The pressure-cycled ventilation includes pressure control ventilation and pressure support ventilation. Both methods offer a set inspiratory pressure. The

text: tidal volume

text: varies depending on the resistance and elastance of the respiratory system. Pressure-cycled ventilation can help alleviate symptoms in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome by limiting the distending pressure of the lungs. The pressure control ventilation is specifically a pressure-cycled form of assist-control ventilators. Assist-control ventilators describe a mode of ventilation that maintains a minimum respiratory rate regardless of whether or not the patient initiates a spontaneous breath. Each inspiratory effort that is beyond the sensitivity threshold delivers full pressures support for a fixed inspiratory time. There is maintenance of a minimum respiratory rate. In the pressure support ventilation, the minimum rate is not set. Instead, all breaths are triggered by the patient. The way that the pressure support ventilation works is by assisting the patient with a constant pressure until the patient’s inspiratory flow fallows below a threshold. The longer, deeper inspiratory flows by the patient will result in a larger tidal volume. This method of mechanical ventilation will help patients assume more work of breathing.

text: Very Calmly Engage the Respiratory System

text: Disorders of the respiratory system are usually treated internally by a pulmonologist and Respiratory Therapist.

text: Disorders of the respiratory system are usually treated internally by a

text: pulmonologist

text: and

text: Respiratory Therapist

text: The failure of the hole between the right and left atrium to close shortly after birth is the cause behind ASD primium. During fetal development blood will pass from the umbilical cord and flow into the left atrium through an hole between the two atria. Once a baby is born and the lungs begin to fill with air, the blood flow of the heart changes; a tissue flap (septum primium) normally closes the hole (foramen ovale) between the two atria and becomes part of the atrial wall. During ASD primium, after birth the hole is not completely closed allowing deoxygenated blood to flow into the left atria from the right atria. With the failure of the blood to pass from the right atrium  into the right ventricle and then into the pulmonary veins, blood will not obtain any oxygen before it is leaves the heart and goes to other parts of the body. Due to the incorrect blood flow, symptoms such as fatigue (from decreased systemic blood flow), palpitations (from blood flowing from left atria to right atria), weight gain, edema, right upper chest pain (all caused from the left to right atria blood flow), and paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (shortness of breath during sleep), orthopnea (difficulty in breathing while lying down), and hemoptysis or coughing up blood (all caused by small ASD that cause blood flow from left to right atria).

text: Respiratory disease is a common and significant cause of illness and death around the world. In the US, approximately 1 billion "common colds" occur each year.  A study found that in 2010, there were approximately 6.8 million emergency department visits for respiratory disorders in the U.S. for patients under the age of 18. In 2012, respiratory conditions were the most frequent reasons for hospital stays among children.

text: An accessory respiration organ, consisting of a double respiratory purse connected to the distal end of the esophagus, is present in a number of species of Loricariichthys.

text: An accessory

text: respiration organ

text: , consisting of a double respiratory purse connected to the

text: distal

text: end of the

text: esophagus

text: , is present in a number of species of Loricariichthys.

text: The critical pathway between the respiratory and digestive systems is the cartilage flap epiglottis which shuts during swallowing to prevent aspiration. The epiglottis is normally open to support respiration and shuts during swallowing to prevent food and fluids from entering the trachea, activating the gag reflex or initiates the choking mechanism.

text: The critical pathway between the respiratory and digestive systems is the cartilage flap epiglottis which shuts during swallowing to prevent

text: aspiration

text: . The epiglottis is normally open to support respiration and shuts during swallowing to prevent food and fluids from entering the trachea, activating the gag reflex or initiates the choking mechanism.

text: In physiology, respiration is defined as the movement of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction.

text: In

text: physiology

text: , respiration is defined as the movement of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within

text: tissue

text: s, and the

text: transport

text: of

text: carbon dioxide

text: in the opposite direction.

text: A patient typically presents a set of complaints (the symptoms) to the physician, who then performs a diagnostic procedure, which generally includes obtaining further information about the patient's symptoms, previous state of health, living conditions, and so forth. The physician then makes a review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry, which is a set of ordered questions about each major body system in order: general (such as weight loss), endocrine, cardio-respiratory, etc. Next comes the actual physical examination and other medical tests; the findings are recorded, leading to a list of possible diagnoses. These will be investigated in order of probability.

text: A patient typically presents a set of complaints (the

text: symptom

text: s) to the physician, who then performs a

text: diagnostic procedure

text: , which generally includes obtaining further information about the patient's symptoms, previous state of health, living conditions, and so forth. The physician then makes a review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry, which is a set of ordered questions about each major body system in order: general (such as weight loss), endocrine, cardio-respiratory, etc. Next comes the actual

text: physical examination

text: and other

text: medical test

text: s; the findings are recorded, leading to a list of possible

text: diagnoses

text: . These will be investigated in order of probability.

text: The blood–thymus barrier regulates exchange of substances between the circulatory system and thymus, providing a sequestered environment for immature T cells to develop. The barrier also prevents the immature T cells from contacting foreign antigens (since contact with antigens at this stage will cause the T cells to die by apoptosis).

text: The blood–thymus barrier regulates exchange of substances between the

text: circulatory system

text: and

text: thymus

text: , providing a sequestered environment for immature

text: T cells

text: to develop. The barrier also prevents the immature T cells from contacting foreign

text: antigens

text: (since contact with antigens at this stage will cause the T cells to die by

text: apoptosis

text: In addition to nuclear machinery equipment, Atommash was capable of producing over 1000 kinds of products. Those types of products included, but were not limited to: non-standard metal equipment of large sizes, various metal containers for energy systems (heat-, hydro-, wind power), metallurgical, mining, oil and gas production and processing systems, including ready for use plants for deep processing of petroleum and its residual fractions on the basis of cleaner technologies and processes, compact mini oil refineries with a capacity of 50 to 500 thousand tons per year, mini-factories for recycling and processing of by-products and waste oil, equipment for the construction industry, including equipment for launch pads for missiles and spacecraft, for sea water desalination plants, containers for transportation and disposal of nuclear waste, railroad tank cars for transportation of liquid gas, biomass energy units for reprocessing of agricultural and animal breeding waste into environmentally clean, high-quality fertilizers and methane, etc.

text: In addition to nuclear machinery equipment, Atommash was capable of producing over 1000 kinds of products. Those types of products included, but were not limited to: non-standard metal equipment of large sizes, various metal containers for energy systems (heat-, hydro-, wind power), metallurgical,

text: mining

text: , oil and gas production and processing systems, including ready for use plants for deep processing of

text: petroleum

text: and its residual fractions on the basis of cleaner technologies and processes, compact mini oil refineries with a capacity of 50 to 500 thousand tons per year, mini-factories for recycling and processing of by-products and

text: waste oil

text: , equipment for the construction industry, including equipment for

text: launch pad

text: s for missiles and

text: spacecraft

text: , for sea water

text: desalination

text: plants, containers for transportation and disposal of

text: nuclear waste

text: , railroad tank cars for transportation of

text: liquid gas

text: biomass energy units

text: for reprocessing of agricultural and animal breeding waste into environmentally clean, high-quality

text: fertilizer

text: s and

text: methane

text: , etc.

text: As tunas migrate to greater depths, often looking for prey, they encounter cooler water temperatures at the gill surface. To maintain normal levels of oxygen transport in these conditions, they have developed unique blood respiratory properties. The oxygen carrying capacity in southern bluefin tuna is high, due to the high hemoglobin (Hb) concentration. The blood affinity for oxygen is also elevated. Normally, blood affinity for oxygen would change with changes in temperature experienced at gills (in comparison to warmer adjacent tissues); however, Hb in southern bluefin tuna shows insensitivity to temperature, and a reverse temperature effect between 10 °C and 23 °C (Hb-O binding is endothermic). Due to their anatomical positioning, the heart and the liver are the coldest organs and significant work needs to be expended for them to serve a regionally warmer body. It is likely that the reversed temperature effect on oxygen binding was developed to ensure adequate unloading of oxygen at the heart and liver, especially in colder waters when the difference in temperature between these organs and the swimming muscle is the greatest.Overall, southern bluefin tuna does not have a set body temperature point, but it maintains its T within a narrow range, with variations of 4-5 °C over time and fromindividual to individual.

text: As tunas migrate to greater depths, often looking for prey, they encounter cooler water temperatures at the gill surface. To maintain normal levels of oxygen transport in these conditions, they have developed unique blood respiratory properties. The oxygen carrying capacity in southern bluefin tuna is high, due to the high

text: hemoglobin

text: (Hb) concentration. The blood affinity for oxygen is also elevated. Normally, blood affinity for oxygen would change with changes in temperature experienced at

text: gills

text: (in comparison to warmer adjacent tissues); however, Hb in southern bluefin tuna shows insensitivity to temperature, and a reverse temperature effect between 10 °C and 23 °C (Hb-O binding is

text: endothermic

text: ). Due to their anatomical positioning, the heart and the liver are the coldest organs and significant work needs to be expended for them to serve a regionally warmer body. It is likely that the reversed temperature effect on oxygen binding was developed to ensure adequate unloading of oxygen at the heart and liver, especially in colder waters when the difference in temperature between these organs and the swimming muscle is the greatest.Overall, southern bluefin tuna does not have a set body temperature point, but it maintains its T within a narrow range, with variations of 4-5 °C over time and fromindividual to individual.

text: Except for the United States and Canada, very few countries have a dedicated professional role for respiratory health. In these countries, respiratory care is provided by physiotherapists, nurses and physicians that have chosen to specialize in this field.  In many countries this recognition is in a transition stage; as an example, in 2011, hospitals in Beijing, China began a recruitment drive to acquire Respiratory Therapists for their intensive care units where previously nurses were the only clinician.

text: Except for the United States and Canada, very few countries have a dedicated professional role for respiratory health. In these countries, respiratory care is provided by physiotherapists, nurses and physicians that have chosen to specialize in this field.  In many countries this recognition is in a transition stage; as an example, in 2011, hospitals in

text: Beijing, China

text: began a recruitment drive to acquire Respiratory Therapists for their intensive care units where previously nurses were the only clinician.

text: The bacteria that causes Diphtheria infects the respiratory system, produces a toxin that, within 2 to 3 days, kills tissue that then builds up over the nasal tissues, tonsils, voicebox and throat, in a thick gray coating called a "pseudomembrane," making it very hard to breathe and swallow. The bacteria's toxin also causes the following symptoms:

text: The preventable disabling disease of silicosis has three main types, chronic, acute and accelerated. Chronic silicosis is the most common occurring after 10–20 years of low to moderate exposure of respirable crystalline silica.  Current studies have shown workers exposed to silica at the current recommend exposure limits (REL) during a lifetime of work develop chronic silicosis. A chest x-ray is used to diagnose chronic silicosis, which has similar symptoms as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). General symptoms are shortness of breath, productive or nonproductive cough, fatigue, and occasionally respiratory failure. ccelerated silicosis has similar symptoms as chronic silicosis, however it develops rapidly in 5–10 years of high exposure to respirable crystalline silica. Lastly, acute silicosis is less prevalent than the other types, however it is a more severe disease with a high occurrence of disability and death. Acute silicosis develops between several months to years with extreme levels of silica exposure, and severe symptoms include shortness of breath, weakness, cough, fever and weight loss. Setting effective control levels and monitoring the adherence to those levels will be crucial in preventing silicosis.

text: The heart of baleen whales functions similarly to other mammals, with the major difference being the size. The heart can reach , but is still proportional to the whale's size. The muscular wall of the ventricle, which is responsible for pumping blood out of the heart, can be  thick. The aorta, an artery, can be  thick. Their resting heart rate is 60 to 140 beats per minute (bpm), as opposed to the 60 to 100 bpm in humans. When diving, their heart rate will drop to 4 to 15 bpm to conserve oxygen. Like toothed whales, they have a dense network of blood vessels (rete mirabile) which prevents heat-loss. Like in most mammals, heat is lost in their extremities, so, in baleen whales, warm blood in the arteries is surrounded by veins to prevent heat loss during transport. As well as this, heat inevitably given off by the arteries warms blood in the surrounding veins as it travels back into the core. This is otherwise known as countercurrent exchange. To counteract overheating while in warmer waters, baleen whales reroute blood to the skin to accelerate heat-loss. They have the largest blood corpuscles (red and white blood cells) of any mammal, measuring  in diameter, as opposed to human's  blood corpuscles.

text: The heart of baleen whales functions similarly to other mammals, with the major difference being the size. The heart can reach , but is still proportional to the whale's size. The

text: muscular wall

text: of the

text: ventricle

text: , which is responsible for pumping blood out of the heart, can be  thick. The aorta, an

text: artery

text: , can be  thick. Their

text: resting heart rate

text: is 60 to 140

text: beats per minute

text: (bpm), as opposed to the 60 to 100 bpm in humans. When diving, their

text: heart rate

text: will drop to 4 to 15 bpm to conserve oxygen. Like toothed whales, they have a dense network of blood vessels (

text: rete mirabile

text: ) which prevents heat-loss. Like in most mammals, heat is lost in their

text: extremities

text: , so, in baleen whales, warm blood in the arteries is surrounded by veins to prevent heat loss during transport. As well as this, heat inevitably given off by the arteries warms blood in the surrounding veins as it travels back into the

text: core

text: . This is otherwise known as

text: countercurrent exchange

text: . To counteract overheating while in warmer waters, baleen whales reroute blood to the skin to accelerate heat-loss. They have the largest

text: blood corpuscle

text: s (

text: red

text: and

text: white

text: blood cell

text: s) of any mammal, measuring  in diameter, as opposed to human's  blood corpuscles.

text: Two dimensional imaging can provide a cross-sectional view along a single plane of all four chambers of the heart, and therefore, unlike Doppler, which assesses blood prior to primary filtration by the lungs, can also assess blood which will be circulated systemically. Echocardiography equipment has developed from bulky laboratory equipment to portable battery-powered with sufficient resolution suitable for field studies. Transthoracic echocardiography is suitable for the sampling used in decompression studies to identify highly reflective gas bubbles. Detection of venous gas bubbles by ultrasound imaging is a sensitive, but not specific, predictor of adverse effects of decompression, similar to the published relationship between Doppler detected bubbles and decompression sickness.

text: The most vulnerable marine organisms were those that produced calcareous hard parts (i.e., from calcium carbonate) and had low metabolic rates and weak respiratory systems—notably calcareous sponges, rugose and tabulate corals, calcite-depositing brachiopods, bryozoans, and echinoderms; about 81% of such genera became extinct. Close relatives without calcareous hard parts suffered only minor losses, for example sea anemones, from which modern corals evolved. Animals with high metabolic rates, well-developed respiratory systems, and non-calcareous hard parts had negligible losses—except for conodonts, in which 33% of genera died out.

text: The most vulnerable marine organisms were those that produced calcareous hard parts (i.e., from

text: calcium carbonate

text: ) and had low

text: metabolic rate

text: s and weak

text: respiratory systems

text: —notably

text: calcareous sponge

text: s,

text: rugose

text: and

text: tabulate coral

text: s,

text: calcite

text: -depositing

text: brachiopod

text: s,

text: bryozoa

text: ns, and

text: echinoderm

text: s; about 81% of such

text: genera

text: became extinct. Close relatives without

text: calcareous

text: hard parts suffered only minor losses, for example

text: sea anemone

text: s, from which modern corals evolved. Animals with high metabolic rates, well-developed respiratory systems, and non-calcareous hard parts had negligible losses—except for

text: conodont

text: s, in which 33% of genera died out.

text: There is just a close line between the plasma concentrations of the therapeutic and toxic effect, therefore a high risk for toxicity. Many symptoms resemble systemic lupus erythematosus because procainamide reactivates hydroxylamine and nitroso metabolites, which bind to histone proteins and are toxic to lymphocytes. The hydroxylamine and nitroso metabolites are also toxic to bone marrow cells and can cause agranulocytosis. These metabolites are formed due to the activation of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. These leukocytes release myeloperoxidase and hydrogen peroxide, which oxidize the primary aromatic amine of procainamide to form procainamide hydroxylamine. The release of hydrogen peroxide is also called a respiratory burst, which occurs for procainamide in monocytes but not in lymphocytes. Furthermore, the metabolites can be formed by activated neutrophils. These metabolites could then bind to their cell membranes and cause a release of autoantibodies which would react with the neutrophils. Procainamide hydroxylamine has more cytotoxicity by hindering the response of lymphocytes to T- and B-cell mitogens. Hydroxylamine can also generate methemoglobin, a protein that could hinder further oxygen exchange.

text: There is just a close line between the plasma concentrations of the therapeutic and toxic effect, therefore a high risk for toxicity. Many symptoms resemble

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: because procainamide reactivates

text: hydroxylamine

text: and

text: nitroso

text: metabolites, which bind to

text: histone proteins

text: and are toxic to

text: lymphocytes

text: . The hydroxylamine and nitroso metabolites are also toxic to bone marrow cells and can cause

text: agranulocytosis

text: . These metabolites are formed due to the activation of

text: polymorphonuclear leukocytes

text: . These leukocytes release

text: myeloperoxidase

text: and

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: , which oxidize the primary aromatic amine of procainamide to form procainamide hydroxylamine. The release of hydrogen peroxide is also called a

text: respiratory burst

text: , which occurs for procainamide in

text: monocytes

text: but not in

text: lymphocytes

text: . Furthermore, the metabolites can be formed by activated

text: neutrophils

text: . These metabolites could then bind to their cell membranes and cause a release of

text: autoantibodies

text: which would react with the neutrophils. Procainamide hydroxylamine has more

text: cytotoxicity

text: by hindering the response of lymphocytes to T- and B-cell

text: mitogens

text: . Hydroxylamine can also generate

text: methemoglobin

text: , a protein that could hinder further oxygen exchange.

text: The German Respiratory Society first issued a resolution to develop the dedicated Respiratory Therapist (RT) role in 2004 as a means to increase the quality of patient care, delegate physician duties and respond to the observed increase in respiratory conditions and diseases. In 2006-2006, a year-long pilot training program was offered to established nurses and physiotherapists.  Researchers report that significantadditional work is necessary to define and position the role of the Respiratory Therapist within the current healthcare system.

text: The

text: German Respiratory Society

text: first issued a resolution to develop the dedicated Respiratory Therapist (RT) role in 2004 as a means to increase the quality of patient care, delegate physician duties and respond to the observed increase in respiratory conditions and diseases. In 2006-2006, a year-long pilot training program was offered to established nurses and physiotherapists.  Researchers report that significantadditional work is necessary to define and position the role of the Respiratory Therapist within the current healthcare system.

text: The Port Jackson shark has five gills, the first supports only a single row of gill filaments, while the remaining four support double rows of filaments. Each of the second to the fifth gill arches supports a sheet of muscular and connective tissue called a septum.  The shark possesses behind each eye an accessory respiratory organ called a spiracle. Along the top and bottom of each gill filament are delicate, closely packed, transverse flaps of gill tissue known as secondary lamellae. It is these lamellae that are the actual sites of gas exchange. Each lamella is equipped with tiny arteries that carry blood in a direction opposite to that of the water flowing over them. To compensate for the relatively low concentration of dissolved oxygen in seawater, water passes over the secondary lamellae of sharks some 5% as fast as air that remains in contact with the equivalent gas exchange sites, such as the alveoli of the lungs found in humans. This delay allows sufficient time for dissolved oxygen to diffuse into a shark's blood.

text: The Port Jackson shark has five gills, the first supports only a single row of gill filaments, while the remaining four support double rows of filaments. Each of the second to the fifth gill arches supports a sheet of muscular and connective tissue called a septum.  The shark possesses behind each eye an accessory respiratory organ called a

text: spiracle

text: . Along the top and bottom of each gill filament are delicate, closely packed, transverse flaps of gill tissue known as secondary lamellae. It is these lamellae that are the actual sites of gas exchange. Each lamella is equipped with tiny

text: arteries

text: that carry blood in a direction opposite to that of the water flowing over them. To compensate for the relatively low concentration of dissolved oxygen in seawater, water passes over the secondary lamellae of sharks some 5% as fast as air that remains in contact with the equivalent gas exchange sites, such as the alveoli of the lungs found in humans. This delay allows sufficient time for dissolved oxygen to diffuse into a shark's blood.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system. Nervous System: An organ system that coordinates the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, skin, digestive system, immune system, hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal, endocrine system, blood and reproductive system. Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system.

text: Nervous System

text: : An

text: organ

text: system that

text: coordinate

text: s the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the

text: cardiovascular system

text: respiratory system

text: skin

text: digestive system

text: immune system

text: , hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal,

text: endocrine system

text: , blood and

text: reproductive system

text: . Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: In addition, ambulatory care include Medicine, Respiratory, GI/GU, Surgery, Diabetes in Pregnancy, Pulmonary Respiratory Exercise Program, Lithotripsy, Pacemaker Clinic, Paediatric Clinic, Geriatric Outpatient Consultation and Geriatric Mental Health.

text: In addition, ambulatory care include Medicine,

text: Respiratory

text: GI

text: GU

text: , Surgery,

text: Diabetes in Pregnancy

text: Pulmonary

text: Respiratory Exercise Program,

text: Lithotripsy

text: , Pacemaker Clinic,

text: Paediatric

text: Clinic, Geriatric Outpatient Consultation and Geriatric Mental Health.

text: Various bird organs function to differentiate avian immune cells: the thymus, Bursa of Fabricius and bone marrow are primary avian lymphoid organs whereas the spleen, mucosal associated lymphoid tissues (MALT), lymph nodes, germinal centers, and diffuse lymphoid tissues are secondary lymphoid organs. The thymus, where T cells develop, is located in the neck of birds. The Bursa of Fabricius is an organ that is unique to birds and is the only site for B cell differentiation and maturation. Located in the rump of birds, this organ is full of stem cells and very active in young birds but atrophies after six months.Bronchial associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) and gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) are found along the bronchus and intestines, respectively. In the avian respiratory system, there are heterophils, which are an important part of bird immunity. Within the head, there is head associated lymphoid tissues (HALT) that contain the Harderian gland, lacrimal gland and other structures in the larynx or nasopharynx. The Harderian gland is located behind the eyeballs and is the major component of HALT. It contains a large number of plasma cells and is the main secretory body of antibodies.Alongside these primary and secondary lymphoid organs, there is also the lymphatic circulatory system of vessels and capillaries that communicate with the blood supply and transport the lymph fluid throughout the bird’s body.

text: Various bird organs function to differentiate avian immune cells: the

text: thymus

text: Bursa of Fabricius

text: and

text: bone marrow

text: are primary avian

text: lymphoid organs

text: whereas the

text: spleen

text: mucosal associated lymphoid tissues

text: (MALT),

text: lymph nodes

text: germinal centers

text: , and diffuse lymphoid tissues are secondary lymphoid organs. The thymus, where T cells develop, is located in the neck of birds. The Bursa of Fabricius is an organ that is unique to birds and is the only site for B cell differentiation and maturation. Located in the rump of birds, this organ is full of stem cells and very active in young birds but atrophies after six months.Bronchial associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) and

text: gut associated lymphoid tissue

text: (GALT) are found along the

text: bronchus

text: and

text: intestines

text: , respectively. In the avian respiratory system, there are heterophils, which are an important part of bird immunity. Within the head, there is head associated lymphoid tissues (HALT) that contain the

text: Harderian gland

text: lacrimal gland

text: and other structures in the

text: larynx

text: or

text: nasopharynx

text: . The

text: Harderian gland

text: is located behind the eyeballs and is the major component of HALT. It contains a large number of plasma cells and is the main secretory body of

text: antibodies

text: .Alongside these primary and secondary lymphoid organs, there is also the lymphatic circulatory system of vessels and capillaries that communicate with the blood supply and transport the

text: lymph fluid

text: throughout the bird’s body.

text: The ectodermal dysplasia associated with EEC syndrome arises from abnormalities in the embryonic ectoderm, as described above. Very early in embryonic development, the embryonic stem cells differentiate into three types of cells: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. It is from these three types of cells that all body organs originate. In general terms, ectodermal cells generate the skin, spinal cord, and teeth (as well as the numerous derivatives mentioned above). Mesodermal cells generate blood vessels, muscle and bone, and endodermal cells generate the lungs, the digestive system and the urinary system.

text: The ectodermal dysplasia associated with EEC syndrome arises from abnormalities in the embryonic ectoderm, as described above. Very early in embryonic development, the embryonic

text: stem cells

text: differentiate into three types of cells: the

text: ectoderm

text: mesoderm

text: , and

text: endoderm

text: . It is from these three types of cells that all body organs originate. In general terms, ectodermal cells generate the

text: skin

text: spinal cord

text: , and

text: teeth

text: (as well as the numerous derivatives mentioned above). Mesodermal cells generate

text: blood

text: vessels,

text: muscle

text: and

text: bone

text: , and endodermal cells generate the

text: lungs

text: , the digestive system and the urinary system.

text: Symptoms of DPB include chronic sinusitis (inflamed paranasal sinuses), wheezing, crackles (respiratory sounds made by obstructions such as phlegm and secretions in the lungs), dyspnea (shortness of breath), and a severe cough that yields large amounts of sputum (coughed-up phlegm). There may be pus in the sputum, and affected individuals may have fever. Typical signs of DPB progression include dilation (enlargement) of the bronchiolar passages and hypoxemia (low levels of oxygen in the blood). If DPB is left untreated, bronchiectasis will occur; it is characterized by dilation and thickening of the walls of the bronchioles, inflammatory damage to respiratory and terminal bronchioles, and pooling of mucus in the lungs. DPB is associated with progressive respiratory failure, hypercapnia (increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood), and can eventually lead to pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure in the pulmonary vein and artery) and cor pulmonale (dilation of the right ventricle of the heart, or "right heart failure").

text: Symptoms of DPB include

text: chronic sinusitis

text: (inflamed

text: paranasal sinus

text: es), wheezing,

text: crackles

text: respiratory sounds

text: made by obstructions such as phlegm and

text: secretion

text: s in the lungs),

text: dyspnea

text: (shortness of breath), and a severe cough that yields large amounts of sputum (coughed-up phlegm). There may be

text: pus

text: in the sputum, and affected individuals may have fever. Typical signs of DPB progression include

text: dilation

text: (enlargement) of the bronchiolar passages and

text: hypoxemia

text: (low levels of oxygen in the blood). If DPB is left untreated, bronchiectasis will occur; it is characterized by dilation and thickening of the walls of the bronchioles, inflammatory damage to respiratory and

text: terminal bronchiole

text: s, and pooling of mucus in the lungs. DPB is associated with progressive

text: respiratory failure

text: hypercapnia

text: (increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood), and can eventually lead to

text: pulmonary hypertension

text: (high blood pressure in the

text: pulmonary vein

text: and

text: artery

text: ) and

text: cor pulmonale

text: (dilation of the

text: right ventricle

text: of the heart, or "right heart failure").

text: Coherent Breathing is designed for balancing the autonomic nervous system and increasing the heart rate variability respiratory sinus arrhythmia. By breathing in a regular sinusoidal rhythm at the nominal rate of 5 breaths per minute, the heart rate synchronizes with diaphragm movement resulting in a blood wave in the circulation that rises with exhalation and falls with inhalation when measured at the capillary circulation, e.g. earlobe.

text: Coherent Breathing is designed for balancing the autonomic nervous system and increasing the heart rate variability

text: respiratory sinus arrhythmia

text: . By breathing in a regular sinusoidal rhythm at the nominal rate of 5 breaths per minute, the heart rate synchronizes with diaphragm movement resulting in a blood wave in the circulation that rises with exhalation and falls with inhalation when measured at the capillary circulation, e.g. earlobe.

text: The lung is part of the respiratory system, and contains the majority of the lower respiratory tract after the trachea. The trachea receives air from the pharynx and travels down to a place where it splits (the carina) into a right and left bronchus. These supply air to the right and left lungs, splitting progressively into the secondary and tertiary bronchi for the lobes of the lungs, and into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become the respiratory bronchioles. These in turn supply air through alveolar ducts into the alveoli, where the exchange of gases take place. Oxygen diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the enveloping capillaries (small blood vessels).

text: The lung is part of the

text: respiratory system

text: , and contains the majority of the

text: lower respiratory tract

text: after the

text: trachea

text: . The

text: trachea

text: receives air from the

text: pharynx

text: and travels down to a place where it splits (the

text: carina

text: ) into a right and left

text: bronchus

text: . These supply air to the right and left lungs, splitting progressively into the secondary and tertiary bronchi for the lobes of the lungs, and into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become the

text: respiratory bronchiole

text: s. These in turn supply air through

text: alveolar duct

text: s into the

text: alveoli

text: , where the exchange of gases take place. Oxygen

text: diffuses

text: through the walls of the alveoli into the enveloping

text: capillaries

text: (small blood vessels).

text: Pulse oximetry is particularly convenient for noninvasive continuous measurement of blood oxygen saturation. In contrast, blood gas levels must otherwise be determined in a laboratory on a drawn blood sample. Pulse oximetry is useful in any setting where a patient's oxygenation is unstable, including intensive care, operating, recovery, emergency and hospital ward settings, pilots in unpressurized aircraft, for assessment of any patient's oxygenation, and determining the effectiveness of or need for supplemental oxygen. Although a pulse oximeter is used to monitor oxygenation, it cannot determine the metabolism of oxygen, or the amount of oxygen being used by a patient. For this purpose, it is necessary to also measure carbon dioxide (CO) levels. It is possible that it can also be used to detect abnormalities in ventilation. However, the use of a pulse oximeter to detect hypoventilation is impaired with the use of supplemental oxygen, as it is only when patients breathe room air that abnormalities in respiratory function can be detected reliably with its use. Therefore, the routine administration of supplemental oxygen may be unwarranted if the patient is able to maintain adequate oxygenation in room air, since it can result in hypoventilation going undetected.

text: Pulse oximetry is particularly convenient for

text: noninvasive

text: continuous measurement of blood oxygen saturation. In contrast, blood gas levels must otherwise be determined in a laboratory on a drawn blood sample. Pulse oximetry is useful in any setting where a patient's

text: oxygenation

text: is unstable, including

text: intensive care

text: , operating, recovery, emergency and hospital ward settings,

text: pilots

text: in unpressurized aircraft, for assessment of any patient's oxygenation, and determining the effectiveness of or need for supplemental

text: oxygen

text: . Although a pulse oximeter is used to monitor oxygenation, it cannot determine the metabolism of oxygen, or the amount of oxygen being used by a patient. For this purpose, it is necessary to also measure

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) levels. It is possible that it can also be used to detect abnormalities in ventilation. However, the use of a pulse oximeter to detect

text: hypoventilation

text: is impaired with the use of supplemental oxygen, as it is only when patients breathe room air that abnormalities in respiratory function can be detected reliably with its use. Therefore, the routine administration of supplemental oxygen may be unwarranted if the patient is able to maintain adequate oxygenation in room air, since it can result in hypoventilation going undetected.

text: In the human respiratory system, mucus aids in the protection  of the lungs by trapping foreign particles that enter them, in particular, through the nose, during normal breathing. "Phlegm" is a specialized term for mucus that is restricted to the respiratory tract, whereas the term "nasal mucus" describes secretions of the nasal passages.

text: In the human

text: respiratory system

text: , mucus aids in the protection  of the

text: lung

text: s by trapping foreign particles that enter them, in particular, through the nose, during normal breathing. "

text: Phlegm

text: " is a specialized term for mucus that is restricted to the respiratory tract, whereas the term "nasal mucus" describes secretions of the

text: nasal

text: passages.

text: Stavudine, zidovudine and indinavir (IDV) cause a decrease in mitochondrial respiration and an increase in mitochondrial mass in fat cells.  Stavudine also causes severe mitochondrial DNA depletion.  Combining zidovudine with stavudine does not increase the mitochondrial toxicity compared to stavudine alone.   Both of these drugs must be phosphorylated by host enzymes before they become active.  Zidovudine inhibits the phosphorylation of stavudine.  This might reduce the toxicity of the combination.  Using indinavir in combination with the other two drugs did not increase the toxicity of the combination.  Indinavir is a protease inhibitor and works by a different mechanism than the other antiviral drugs.  (d4T+AZT+IDV = d4T+AZT = d4T+IDV > AZT+IDV = AZT = IDV).  All three of these drugs inhibit the expression of respiratory chain subunits (cytochrome c oxidase [CytOx]2 and CytOx4) in white fat cells but not brown fat cells. Since stavudine and zidovudine are OAT1 substrates, they may have similar effects on proximal renal tubule cells as they do on fat cells.

text: Stavudine, zidovudine and

text: indinavir

text: (IDV) cause a decrease in mitochondrial

text: respiration

text: and an increase in mitochondrial mass in

text: fat cells

text: .  Stavudine also causes severe mitochondrial DNA depletion.  Combining zidovudine with stavudine does not increase the mitochondrial toxicity compared to stavudine alone.   Both of these drugs must be

text: phosphorylated

text: by host enzymes before they become active.  Zidovudine inhibits the phosphorylation of stavudine.  This might reduce the toxicity of the combination.  Using indinavir in combination with the other two drugs did not increase the toxicity of the combination.  Indinavir is a

text: protease inhibitor

text: and works by a different mechanism than the other antiviral drugs.  (d4T+AZT+IDV = d4T+AZT = d4T+IDV > AZT+IDV = AZT = IDV).  All three of these drugs inhibit the expression of respiratory chain subunits (cytochrome c oxidase [CytOx]2 and CytOx4) in white fat cells but not

text: brown fat

text: cells. Since stavudine and zidovudine are OAT1 substrates, they may have similar effects on proximal renal tubule cells as they do on fat cells.

text: Respiratory sounds, breath sounds, or lung sounds refer to the specific sounds generated by the movement of air through the respiratory system. These may be easily audible or identified through auscultation of the respiratory system through the lung fields with a stethoscope as well as from the spectral chacteristics of lung sounds. These include normal breath sounds and adventitious or "added" sounds such as rales, wheezes, pleural friction rubs, stertor and stridor.

text: Respiratory sounds, breath sounds, or lung sounds refer to the specific sounds generated by the movement of air through the respiratory system. These may be easily audible or identified through

text: auscultation

text: of the

text: respiratory system

text: through the

text: lung fields

text: with a

text: stethoscope

text: as well as from the spectral chacteristics of lung sounds. These include normal breath sounds and adventitious or "added" sounds such as

text: rales

text: wheeze

text: s,

text: pleural friction rub

text: s,

text: stertor

text: and

text: stridor

text: is of great practical importance, being the overall measure of gas transport, the interpretation of this measurement is complicated by the fact that it does not measure any one part of a multi-step process. So as a conceptual aid in interpreting the results of this test, the time needed to transfer CO from the air to the blood can be divided into two parts.  First CO crosses the alveolar capillary membrane (represented by

text: Air passes through the lungs during both exhalation and inspiration, causing little to no mixing of new oxygen-rich air and stale carbon dioxide rich air as in mammalian lungs. Thus, the partial pressure of oxygen in a bird's respiratory tract is the same as the environment, and so birds have more efficient gas exchange than mammals do.

text: Air passes through the lungs during both exhalation and inspiration, causing little to no mixing of new oxygen-rich air and stale carbon dioxide rich air as in mammalian lungs. Thus, the

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen in a bird's respiratory tract is the same as the environment, and so birds have more efficient gas exchange than mammals do.

text: The high-energy acyl phosphate bond of 1,3BPG is important in respiration as it assists in the formation of ATP. The molecule of ATP created during the following reaction is the first molecule produced during respiration. The reaction occurs as follows;

text: The

text: high-energy acyl phosphate

text: bond of 1,3BPG is important in

text: respiration

text: as it assists in the formation of

text: ATP

text: . The molecule of ATP created during the following reaction is the first molecule produced during respiration. The reaction occurs as follows;

text: Orbital cellulitis occurs commonly from bacterial infection spread via the paranasal sinuses. Other ways in which orbital cellulitis may occur is from infection in the blood stream or from an eyelid skin infection. Upper respiratory infection, sinusitis, trauma to the eye, ocular or periocular infection and systemic infection all increase one's risk of orbital cellulitis.

text: Orbital cellulitis occurs commonly from

text: bacteria

text: l infection spread via the

text: paranasal sinuses

text: . Other ways in which orbital cellulitis may occur is from infection in the blood stream or from an eyelid skin infection. Upper respiratory infection,

text: sinusitis

text: , trauma to the eye, ocular or periocular infection and systemic infection all increase one's risk of orbital cellulitis.

text: From Lisbon the Imperial couple went on to Porto. Isabel and her family departed to Spain on a trip. On 24 December, the Imperial Family received official news that they had been banished forever from the country. Up until that point, they had only been requested to leave with no indication as to how long they were to stay away. The "news broke D. Teresa Cristina's will to live." Pedro II wrote in his journal on 28 December 1889: "Hearing the Empress complain I went to see what it was. She is cold with a pain in her sides; but she does not have any fever." As the day passed, Teresa Cristina's breathing became increasingly labored, and the failure of her respiratory system led to cardiac arrest and death at 2:00 pm.

text: From Lisbon the Imperial couple went on to

text: Porto

text: . Isabel and her family departed to Spain on a trip. On 24 December, the Imperial Family received official news that they had been banished forever from the country. Up until that point, they had only been requested to leave with no indication as to how long they were to stay away. The "news broke D. Teresa Cristina's will to live." Pedro II wrote in his journal on 28 December 1889: "Hearing the Empress complain I went to see what it was. She is cold with a pain in her sides; but she does not have any fever." As the day passed, Teresa Cristina's breathing became increasingly labored, and the failure of her respiratory system led to cardiac arrest and death at 2:00 pm.

text: Other types of organ dysfunction can occur in the systems of the body, including the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and urological systems. Implants are used in those and other locations to treat conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, gastroparesis, respiratory failure, sleep apnea, urinary and fecal incontinence, and erectile dysfunction. Examples include the LINX, implantable gastric stimulator, diaphragmatic/phrenic nerve stimulator, neurostimulator, surgical mesh, and penile prosthesis.

text: Other types of

text: organ dysfunction

text: can occur in the systems of the body, including the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and urological systems. Implants are used in those and other locations to treat conditions such as

text: gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: gastroparesis

text: respiratory failure

text: sleep apnea

text: urinary

text: and

text: fecal incontinence

text: , and

text: erectile dysfunction

text: . Examples include the

text: LINX

text: implantable gastric stimulator

text: diaphragmatic/phrenic nerve stimulator

text: , neurostimulator,

text: surgical mesh

text: , and

text: penile prosthesis

text: Scientists have reconstructed the respiratory system of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae (UA 8678) recovered from the Maevarano Formation. Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities (pneumatic foramina) that may have resulted from the infiltration of avian-style lungs and air sacs. In birds, the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac, the upper back vertebrae by the lung, and the lower back and sacral (hip) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac. Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs. These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian-style 'flow-through ventilation,' where air flow through the lungs is one-way, so that oxygen-rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with carbon dioxide. This method of respiration, while complicated, is highly efficient.

text: Scientists have reconstructed the

text: respiratory system

text: of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae (

text: UA

text: 8678) recovered from the Maevarano Formation. Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities (pneumatic

text: foramina

text: ) that may have resulted from the infiltration of

text: avian

text: -style

text: lungs and air sacs

text: . In birds, the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac, the upper back vertebrae by the

text: lung

text: , and the lower back and

text: sacral

text: (hip) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac. Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs. These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian-style 'flow-through ventilation,' where air flow through the lungs is one-way, so that

text: oxygen

text: -rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with

text: carbon dioxide

text: . This method of respiration, while complicated, is highly efficient.

text: Hair inside nostrils filter incoming air, as a first line of defense against dust particles, smoke, and other potential obstructions that would otherwise inhibit respiration, and as a kind of filter against airborne illness. In addition to acting as a filter, mucous produced within the nose supplements the body's effort to maintain temperature, as well as contributes moisture to integral components of the respiratory system. Capillary structures of the nose warm and humidify air entering the body; later, this role in retaining moisture enables conditions for alveoli to properly exchange O2 for CO2 (i.e., respiration) within the lungs. During exhalation, the capillaries then aid recovery of some moisture, mostly as a function of thermal regulation, again.

text: When a human being inhales, air travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and into the lungs.  The entire tract is protected by the rib cage, spinal cord, and sternum bone. In the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air is transferred into the blood and circulated throughout the body. Carbon dioxide (CO) is transferred from returning blood back into gaseous form in the lungs and exhaled through the lower respiratory tract and then the upper, to complete the process of breathing.

text: When a human being inhales, air travels down the trachea, through the bronchial tubes, and into the lungs.  The entire tract is protected by the rib cage, spinal cord, and sternum bone. In the lungs, oxygen from the inhaled air is transferred into the blood and circulated throughout the body. Carbon dioxide (CO) is transferred from returning blood back into gaseous form in the lungs and exhaled through the lower respiratory tract and then the upper, to complete the process of

text: breathing

text: A bronchus, also known as a main or primary bronchus, is an airway in the respiratory tract that conducts air into the lungs. There is a right bronchus and a left bronchus and these bronchi branch into smaller secondary and tertiary bronchi which branch into smaller tubes, known as bronchioles.No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi.

text: A bronchus, also known as a main or primary bronchus, is an airway in the

text: respiratory tract

text: that conducts air into the

text: lung

text: s. There is a right bronchus and a left bronchus and these bronchi branch into smaller secondary and tertiary bronchi which branch into smaller tubes, known as

text: bronchiole

text: s.No

text: gas exchange

text: takes place in the bronchi.

text: Breathe is the fourth studio album by country music recording artist Faith Hill, released November 9, 1999 on Warner Bros. Records. It won a Grammy Award for Best Country Album.  Breathe is one of the most successful country/pop albums to date. It has been certified 8× Platinum by the RIAA, for shipping eight million copies in the US. The album includes the singles "Breathe", "The Way You Love Me", "Let's Make Love", and "If My Heart Had Wings". "Breathe" and "The Way You Love Me" Were both number 1 hits on the Hot Country Songs charts; the former also reached number 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was the top pop song of 2000 according to Billboard Year-End. Several of the album's tracks also charted from unsolicited airplay.

text: Breathe is the fourth

text: studio album

text: by

text: country music

text: recording artist

text: Faith Hill

text: , released November 9, 1999 on

text: Warner Bros. Records

text: . It won a

text: Grammy Award for Best Country Album

text: .  Breathe is one of the most successful country/pop albums to date. It has been certified 8× Platinum by the RIAA, for shipping eight million copies in the US. The album includes the singles "

text: Breathe

text: The Way You Love Me

text: Let's Make Love

text: ", and "

text: If My Heart Had Wings

text: ". "Breathe" and "The Way You Love Me" Were both number 1 hits on the

text: Hot Country Songs

text: charts; the former also reached number 2 on the

text: Billboard Hot 100

text: and was the top pop song of 2000 according to

text: Billboard Year-End

text: . Several of the album's tracks also charted from unsolicited airplay.

text: Sniffing, a high-frequency, highly rhythmic inhalation and exhalation of air through the nose, plays an important role in rodent olfaction. Whisking is thought to be co-ordinated with sniffing and normal respiratory behaviour.  It has been shown that breathing and whisking movements are correlated only when the whisking rhythm is less than 5 Hz. Only 13% of whisking movements occur during high-frequency (greater than 5 Hz) respiration typically associated with sniffing, indicating that high-frequency whisking and sniffing behaviours are not correlated.

text: Sniffing

text: , a high-frequency, highly rhythmic

text: inhalation

text: and

text: exhalation

text: of air through the nose, plays an important role in rodent olfaction. Whisking is thought to be co-ordinated with sniffing and normal respiratory behaviour.  It has been shown that breathing and whisking movements are correlated only when the whisking rhythm is less than 5 Hz. Only 13% of whisking movements occur during high-frequency (greater than 5 Hz) respiration typically associated with sniffing, indicating that high-frequency whisking and sniffing behaviours are not correlated.

text: Diffusing capacity of the lung (D) measures the transfer of gas from air in the lung, to the red blood cells in lung blood vessels.  It is part of a comprehensive series of tests (pulmonary function testing) to determine the overall ability of the lung to transport gas into and out of the blood.  D, especially D, is reduced in certain diseases of the lung and heart.  D measurement has been standardized according to a position paper by a task force of the European Respiratory and American Thoracic Societies.

text: Diffusing capacity of the lung (D) measures the transfer of gas from air in the lung, to the

text: red blood cell

text: s in lung blood vessels.  It is part of a comprehensive series of tests (

text: pulmonary function testing

text: ) to determine the overall ability of the

text: lung

text: to transport gas into and out of the blood.  D, especially

text: D

text: , is reduced in certain diseases of the lung and heart.  D measurement has been standardized according to a position paper by a task force of the

text: European Respiratory

text: and

text: American Thoracic

text: Societies.

text: Bacterial contamination alone in absence of obstruction does not usually result in cholangitis. However increased pressure within the biliary system (above 20 cmHO) resulting from obstruction in the bile duct widens spaces between the cells lining the duct, bringing bacterially contaminated bile in contact with the blood stream. It also adversely affects the function of Kupffer cells, which are specialized macrophage cells that assist in preventing bacteria from entering the biliary system. Finally, increased biliary pressure decreases production of IgA immunoglobulins in the bile. This results in bacteremia (bacteria in the blood stream) and gives rise to the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) comprising fever (often with rigors), tachycardia, increased respiratory rate and increased white blood cell count; SIRS in the presence of suspected or confirmed infection is called sepsis. Biliary obstruction itself disadvantages the immune system and impairs its capability to fight infection, by impairing the function of certain immune system cells (neutrophil granulocytes) and modifying the levels of immune hormones (cytokines).

text: Bacterial contamination alone in absence of obstruction does not usually result in cholangitis. However increased pressure within the biliary system (above 20 cmHO) resulting from obstruction in the bile duct widens spaces between the cells lining the duct, bringing bacterially contaminated bile in contact with the blood stream. It also adversely affects the function of

text: Kupffer cells

text: , which are specialized

text: macrophage

text: cells that assist in preventing bacteria from entering the biliary system. Finally, increased biliary pressure decreases production of

text: IgA

text: immunoglobulins in the bile. This results in

text: bacteremia

text: (bacteria in the blood stream) and gives rise to the

text: systemic inflammatory response syndrome

text: (SIRS) comprising fever (often with

text: rigors

text: tachycardia

text: , increased

text: respiratory rate

text: and increased white blood cell count; SIRS in the presence of suspected or confirmed infection is called

text: sepsis

text: . Biliary obstruction itself disadvantages the

text: immune system

text: and impairs its capability to fight infection, by impairing the function of certain immune system cells (

text: neutrophil granulocyte

text: s) and modifying the levels of immune hormones (

text: cytokine

text: s).

text: The muscles of respiration, from the diaphragm, the intercostals, to the assisting musculature, need to be trained like any other muscle to increase resistance to fatigue and maximize performance. Respiratory Muscle Training (RMT) is a specialized training method developed to condition the muscles of respiration specifically. RMT has been shown to markedly improve strength, speed, power and endurance in athletes.

text: The

text: muscles of respiration

text: , from the diaphragm, the intercostals, to the assisting musculature, need to be trained like any other muscle to increase resistance to fatigue and maximize performance. Respiratory Muscle Training (RMT) is a specialized training method developed to condition the muscles of respiration specifically. RMT has been shown to markedly improve strength, speed, power and endurance in athletes.

text: Ascaris lumbricoides, a roundworm, infects humans when an ingested fertilised egg becomes a larval worm (called rhabditiform larva) that penetrates the  wall of the duodenum and enters the blood stream. From there, it is carried to the liver and heart, and enters pulmonary circulation to break free in the alveoli, where it grows and molts. In three weeks, the larva passes from the respiratory system to be coughed up, swallowed, and thus returned to the small intestine, where it matures to an adult male or female worm. Fertilization can now occur and the female produces as many as 200,000 eggs per day for a year. These fertilized eggs become infectious after two weeks in soil; they can persist in soil for 10 years or more.

text: Ascaris lumbricoides, a roundworm, infects humans when an ingested fertilised egg becomes a

text: larval worm

text: (called

text: rhabditiform larva

text: ) that penetrates the  wall of the

text: duodenum

text: and enters the

text: blood stream

text: . From there, it is carried to the

text: liver

text: and

text: heart

text: , and enters

text: pulmonary circulation

text: to break free in the

text: alveoli

text: , where it grows and

text: molt

text: s. In three weeks, the

text: larva

text: passes from the

text: respiratory system

text: to be coughed up, swallowed, and thus returned to the

text: small intestine

text: , where it matures to an adult male or female worm.

text: Fertilization

text: can now occur and the female produces as many as 200,000 eggs per day for a year. These fertilized eggs become infectious after two weeks in soil; they can persist in soil for 10 years or more.

text: Nasal and oral airflow can be measured using pressure transducers, and/or a thermocouple, fitted in or near the nostrils; the pressure transducer is considered the more sensitive. This allows the clinician/researcher to measure the rate of respiration and identify interruptions in breathing. Respiratory effort is also measured in concert with nasal/oral airflow by the use of belts. These belts expand and contract upon breathing effort. However, this method of respiration may also produce false positives.  Some patients will open and close their mouth while obstructive apneas occur.  This forces air in and out of the mouth while no air enters the airway and lungs.  Thus, the pressure transducer and thermocouple will detect this diminished airflow and the respiratory event may be falsely identified as a hypopnea, or a period of reduced airflow, instead of an obstructive apnea.

text: Pulmonary Function Testing (PFT)  is a complete evaluation of the respiratory system including patient history, physical examinations, chest x-ray examinations, arterial blood gas analysis, and tests of pulmonary function.  The primary purpose of pulmonary function testing is to identify the severity of pulmonary impairment.  Pulmonary function testing has diagnostic and therapeutic roles and helps clinicians answer some general questions about patients with lung disease. PFTs are normally performed by a respiratory therapist.

text: Pulmonary Function Testing (PFT)  is a complete evaluation of the

text: respiratory system

text: including patient history, physical examinations, chest x-ray examinations, arterial blood gas analysis, and tests of pulmonary function.  The primary purpose of pulmonary function testing is to identify the severity of pulmonary impairment.  Pulmonary function testing has diagnostic and therapeutic roles and helps clinicians answer some general questions about patients with lung disease. PFTs are normally performed by a

text: respiratory therapist

text: Clonidine is an alpha receptor agonist that helps reduces sympathetic activity leaving the hypothalamus and reduces circulating catecholamines. It is helpful in lowering blood pressure and heart rate, but it does not show much of an effect on other symptoms. It may also increase sympathetic inhibition in the brain stem. Bromocriptine is a dopamine agonist that helps lower blood pressure. Its effects are modest, but they are not well understood. Baclofen is a GABA agonist that helps control muscle spasms, proving to be helpful in treating dystonia. Benzodiazepines bind to GABA receptors and work as muscle relaxants. Benzodiazepines also combat high blood pressure and respiratory rates; however, they are associated with glaucoma, which is a rather serous side effect. Gabapentin inhibits neurotransmitter release in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and various areas of the central nervous system. It helps treat mild symptoms and can be tolerated for longer periods of time compared to other drug treatments. Dantrolene helps combat dystonia and fever by affecting muscle contraction and relaxation cycles. It hinders the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, inhibiting muscle contraction. It causes decreases in respiration, but it can be very dangerous for the liver. Again, these treatments are seen case by case and treat symptoms well. They do not treat the syndrome as a whole or preventatively. Efficacy varies patient to patient, as symptoms do.

text: Clonidine is an

text: alpha receptor

text: agonist that helps reduces sympathetic activity leaving the

text: hypothalamus

text: and reduces circulating catecholamines. It is helpful in lowering blood pressure and heart rate, but it does not show much of an effect on other symptoms. It may also increase sympathetic inhibition in the brain stem.

text: Bromocriptine

text: is a dopamine agonist that helps lower blood pressure. Its effects are modest, but they are not well understood. Baclofen is a

text: GABA

text: agonist that helps control muscle spasms, proving to be helpful in treating dystonia.

text: Benzodiazepines

text: bind to GABA receptors and work as muscle relaxants. Benzodiazepines also combat high blood pressure and respiratory rates; however, they are associated with glaucoma, which is a rather serous side effect.

text: Gabapentin

text: inhibits neurotransmitter release in the

text: dorsal horn

text: of the spinal cord and various areas of the central nervous system. It helps treat mild symptoms and can be tolerated for longer periods of time compared to other drug treatments.

text: Dantrolene

text: helps combat dystonia and fever by affecting muscle contraction and relaxation cycles. It hinders the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, inhibiting muscle contraction. It causes decreases in respiration, but it can be very dangerous for the liver. Again, these treatments are seen case by case and treat symptoms well. They do not treat the syndrome as a whole or preventatively. Efficacy varies patient to patient, as symptoms do.

text: In pure central sleep apnea, the brain's respiratory control centers, located in the region of the human brain known as the pre-Botzinger complex, are imbalanced during sleep and fail to give the signal to inhale, causing the individual to miss one or more cycles of breathing.  The neurological feedback mechanism that monitors blood levels of carbon dioxide and in turn stimulates respiration fails to react quickly enough to maintain an even respiratory rate, allowing the entire respiratory system to cycle between apnea and hyperpnea, even for a brief time following an awakening during a breathing pause.  The sleeper stops breathing for up to two minutes and then starts again.  There is no effort made to breathe during the pause in breathing: there are no chest movements and no muscular struggling, although when awakening occurs in the middle of a pause, the inability to immediately operate the breathing muscles often results in cognitive struggle accompanied by a feeling of panic exacerbated by the feeling associated with excessive blood CO levels.  Even in severe cases of central sleep apnea, however, the effects almost always result in pauses that make breathing irregular rather than cause the total cessation of breathing over the medium term.  After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster and/or more intense (hyperpnea) for a period of time, a compensatory mechanism to blow off retained waste gases, absorb more oxygen, and, when voluntary, enable a return to normal instinctive breathing patterns by restoring oxygen to the breathing muscles themselves.

text: In pure central

text: sleep apnea

text: , the brain's respiratory control centers, located in the region of the human brain known as the

text: pre-Botzinger complex

text: , are imbalanced during sleep and fail to give the signal to inhale, causing the individual to miss one or more cycles of breathing.  The neurological feedback mechanism that monitors blood levels of

text: carbon dioxide

text: and in turn stimulates respiration fails to react quickly enough to maintain an even respiratory rate, allowing the entire respiratory system to cycle between apnea and hyperpnea, even for a brief time following an awakening during a breathing pause.  The sleeper stops breathing for up to two minutes and then starts again.  There is no effort made to breathe during the pause in breathing: there are no chest movements and no muscular struggling, although when awakening occurs in the middle of a pause, the inability to immediately operate the breathing muscles often results in cognitive struggle accompanied by a feeling of panic exacerbated by the feeling associated with

text: excessive blood CO levels

text: .  Even in severe cases of central sleep apnea, however, the effects almost always result in pauses that make breathing irregular rather than cause the total cessation of breathing over the medium term.  After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster and/or more intense (hyperpnea) for a period of time, a compensatory mechanism to blow off retained waste gases, absorb more oxygen, and, when voluntary, enable a return to normal instinctive breathing patterns by restoring oxygen to the breathing muscles themselves.

text: In any person, hypoxia and hypercapnia have certain common effects on the body. The heart rate will increase, unless there are such severe co-existing problems with the heart muscle itself or the autonomic nervous system that makes this compensatory increase impossible. The more translucent areas of the body will show a bluish or dusky cast from cyanosis, which is the change in hue that occurs owing to lack of oxygen in the blood ("turning blue"). Overdoses of drugs that are respiratory depressants (such as heroin, and other opiates) kill by damping the activity of the brain's respiratory control centers. In central sleep apnea, the effects of sleep alone can remove the brain's mandate for the body to breathe.

text: In any person, hypoxia and hypercapnia have certain common effects on the body. The heart rate will increase, unless there are such severe co-existing problems with the heart muscle itself or the autonomic nervous system that makes this compensatory increase impossible. The more translucent areas of the body will show a bluish or dusky cast from

text: cyanosis

text: , which is the change in hue that occurs owing to lack of oxygen in the blood ("turning blue"). Overdoses of drugs that are respiratory depressants (such as heroin, and other opiates) kill by damping the activity of the brain's respiratory control centers. In central sleep apnea, the effects of sleep alone can remove the brain's mandate for the body to breathe.

text: The ends of breath groups are marked by periods, and are notably lower in relative pitch. Accent phrases towards the end of a breath group follow the same pattern of gradual lengthening and pitch increase, though the relative pitch is lower with respect to the preceding accent phrases. Breath groups end with a general weakening of articulatory force, which is followed by a noticeable interval of silence.

text: A registered respiratory therapist (RRT) is a certification for respiratory practitioners.  In the United States the certificate for the RRT is issued by the National Board for Respiratory Care after passing the NBRC-WRE and NBRC-CSE examinations.  Eligibility for the NBRC RRT examinations are both previously passing the entry-level examination for the certification of Certified Respiratory Therapist, the NBRC-ELE, and holding at least an Associate of Science in Respiratory Care.  In Canada the RRT certification is granted by examination from the Canadian Society of Respiratory Therapists.  Internationally, respiratory care is governed by local governments and certification or license to practice as a respiratory practitioner is managed locally without the use of separate organizations as in the United States and Canada.

text: A registered respiratory therapist (RRT) is a certification for

text: respiratory practitioner

text: s.  In the

text: United States

text: the certificate for the RRT is issued by the

text: National Board for Respiratory Care

text: after passing the

text: NBRC-WRE

text: and

text: NBRC-CSE

text: examinations.  Eligibility for the NBRC RRT examinations are both previously passing the entry-level examination for the certification of

text: Certified Respiratory Therapist

text: , the

text: NBRC-ELE

text: , and holding at least an

text: .  In

text: Canada

text: the RRT certification is granted by examination from the

entity_name: Canadian Society of Respiratory Therapists

text: Canadian Society of Respiratory Therapists

text: .  Internationally,

text: respiratory care

text: is governed by local governments and certification or license to practice as a respiratory practitioner is managed locally without the use of separate organizations as in the United States and Canada.

text: Levels of CO rise in the blood when the metabolic use of O,and the production of CO is increased during, for example, exercise. The CO in the blood is transported largely as bicarbonate (HCO) ions, by conversion first to carbonic acid (HCO), by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, and then by disassociation of this acid to H and HCO. Build-up of CO therefore causes an equivalent build-up of the disassociated hydrogen ions, which, by definition, decreases the pH of  the blood. The pH sensors on the brain stem immediately sense to this fall in pH, causing the respiratory center to increase the rate and depth of breathing. The consequence is that the

text: Levels of CO rise in the blood when the metabolic use of O,and the production of CO is increased during, for example, exercise. The CO in the blood is transported largely as bicarbonate (HCO) ions, by conversion first to carbonic acid (HCO), by the enzyme

text: carbonic anhydrase

text: , and then by disassociation of this acid to H and HCO. Build-up of CO therefore causes an equivalent build-up of the disassociated hydrogen ions, which, by definition, decreases the pH of  the blood. The pH sensors on the brain stem immediately sense to this fall in pH, causing the respiratory center to increase the rate and depth of

text: breathing

text: . The consequence is that the

text: In 1979, Smatresk participated in a research expedition of alpha helix in Micronesia under the auspices of the National Science Foundation.  From 1980 to 1982, Smatresk was a National Institutes of Health trainee at University Pennsylvania School of Medicine in Philadelphia.  From 1982 to 2004, he served on the faculty at The University of Texas at Arlington — from 1982 to 1988, he was Assistant Professor of Biology, from 1988 to 1994, he was Associate Professor of Biology, from 1994 to 1998, he was Chairman of the Biology Department, and from 1998 to 2004, he was Dean of Science.  While at UT Arlington, Smatresk chiefly researched how respiratory neurobiology of vertebrates changes during the evolutionary transition from aquatic breathing to aerial breathing.

text: In 1979, Smatresk participated in a research expedition of

text: alpha helix

text: in

text: Micronesia

text: under the auspices of the

text: National Science Foundation

text: .  From 1980 to 1982, Smatresk was a

text: National Institutes of Health

text: trainee at

entity_name: Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania

text: University Pennsylvania School of Medicine

text: in

text: Philadelphia

text: .  From 1982 to 2004, he served on the faculty at The

text: University of Texas at Arlington

text: — from 1982 to 1988, he was Assistant Professor of Biology, from 1988 to 1994, he was Associate Professor of Biology, from 1994 to 1998, he was Chairman of the Biology Department, and from 1998 to 2004, he was Dean of Science.  While at

text: UT Arlington

text: , Smatresk chiefly researched how respiratory

text: neurobiology

text: of

text: vertebrates

text: changes during the evolutionary transition from

text: aquatic breathing

text: to aerial breathing.

text: Early complications include shock, infection, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, low blood calcium, high blood glucose, and dehydration. Blood loss, dehydration, and fluid leaking into the abdominal cavity (ascites) can lead to kidney failure. Respiratory complications are often severe. Pleural effusion is usually present. Shallow breathing from pain can lead to lung collapse. Pancreatic enzymes may attack the lungs, causing inflammation. Severe inflammation can lead to intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome, further impairing renal and respiratory function and potentially requiring management with an open abdomen to relieve the pressure.

text: Early complications include

text: shock

text: , infection,

text: systemic inflammatory response syndrome

text: , low blood calcium, high blood glucose, and

text: dehydration

text: . Blood loss, dehydration, and

text: fluid leaking

text: into the

text: abdominal cavity

text: ascites

text: ) can lead to

text: kidney failure

text: . Respiratory complications are often

text: severe

text: Pleural effusion

text: is usually present. Shallow breathing from pain can lead to

text: lung collapse

text: . Pancreatic enzymes may attack the lungs, causing

text: inflammation

text: . Severe inflammation can lead to intra-abdominal hypertension and

text: abdominal compartment syndrome

text: , further impairing renal and respiratory function and potentially requiring management with an open abdomen to relieve the pressure.

text: Ecosystem respiration is the sum of all respiration occurring by the living organisms in a specific ecosystem.

text: Ecosystem respiration is the sum of all

text: respiration

text: occurring by the living organisms in a specific

text: ecosystem

text: The mechanism of respiratory alkalosis generally occurs when some stimulus makes a person hyperventilate. The increased breathing produces increased alveolar respiration, expelling CO from the circulation. This alters the dynamic chemical equilibrium of carbon dioxide in the circulatory system. Circulating hydrogen ions and bicarbonate are shifted through the carbonic acid (HCO) intermediate to make more CO via the enzyme carbonic anhydrase according to the following reaction:

text: The mechanism of respiratory alkalosis generally occurs when some stimulus makes a person hyperventilate. The increased breathing produces increased

text: alveolar

text: respiration, expelling

text: CO

text: from the circulation. This alters the dynamic

text: chemical equilibrium

text: of carbon dioxide in the circulatory system. Circulating hydrogen ions and bicarbonate are shifted through the

text: carbonic acid

text: (HCO) intermediate to make more CO via the enzyme

text: carbonic anhydrase

text: according to the following reaction:

text: In addition to symptoms related to the provoking cause, sepsis is frequently associated with either fever or low body temperature, rapid breathing, elevated heart rate, confusion, and edema. Early signs are a fast heart rate, decreased urination, and high blood sugar. Signs of established sepsis include confusion, metabolic acidosis (which may be accompanied by faster breathing leading to a respiratory alkalosis), low blood pressure due to decreased systemic vascular resistance, higher cardiac output, and dysfunctions of blood coagulation (where clotting can lead to organ failure).

text: In addition to symptoms related to the provoking cause, sepsis is frequently associated with either

text: fever

text: or

text: low body temperature

text: rapid breathing

text: elevated heart rate

text: confusion

text: , and

text: edema

text: . Early signs are a fast heart rate,

text: decreased urination

text: , and

text: high blood sugar

text: . Signs of established sepsis include confusion,

text: metabolic acidosis

text: (which may be accompanied by faster breathing leading to a

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: low blood pressure

text: due to decreased systemic

text: vascular resistance

text: , higher

text: cardiac output

text: , and dysfunctions of blood

text: coagulation

text: (where clotting can lead to organ failure).

text: 2. Those who think that the major part of the respiratory changes result from the detection of muscle contraction, and that respiration is adapted as a consequence of muscular contraction and oxygen consumption. This would imply that the brain possesses some kind of detection mechanisms that would trigger a respiratory response when muscular contraction occurs.

text: Laryngeal papillomatosis, also known as recurrent respiratory papillomatosis or glottal papillomatosis or associated with condyloma acuminata, is a rare medical condition (2 per 100,000 adults and 4.5 per 100,000 children), caused by a human papillomavirus (HPV) infection of the throat.  Laryngeal papillomatosis causes assorted tumors or papillomas to develop over a period of time. Without treatment it is potentially fatal as uncontrolled growths could obstruct the airway. Laryngeal papillomatosis is caused by HPV types 6 and 11, in which benign tumors form on the larynx or other areas of the respiratory tract. These tumors can recur frequently, may require repetitive surgery, and may interfere with breathing. The disease can be treated with surgery and antivirals. In addition antiangiogenic therapy shows promising results.

text: Laryngeal papillomatosis, also known as recurrent respiratory papillomatosis or glottal papillomatosis or associated with condyloma acuminata, is a

text: rare medical condition

text: (2 per 100,000 adults and 4.5 per 100,000 children), caused by a

text: human papillomavirus

text: (HPV) infection of the throat.  Laryngeal papillomatosis causes assorted

text: tumor

text: s or

text: papilloma

text: s to develop over a period of time. Without treatment it is potentially fatal as uncontrolled growths could obstruct the

text: airway

text: . Laryngeal papillomatosis is caused by HPV types 6 and 11, in which benign tumors form on the

text: larynx

text: or other areas of the respiratory tract. These tumors can recur frequently, may require repetitive surgery, and may interfere with breathing. The disease can be treated with surgery and antivirals. In addition antiangiogenic therapy shows promising results.

text: There are several ways to classify the physiology of respiration:

text: Still, many simply define dyspnea as difficulty in breathing without further specification, which may confuse it with e.g. labored breathing or tachypnea (rapid breathing). Labored breathing has occasionally been included in the definition of dyspnea as well. However, in the standard definition, these related signs may be present at the same time, but don't necessarily have to be. For instance, in respiratory arrest by a primary failure in respiratory muscles the patient, if conscious, may experience dyspnea, yet without having any labored breathing or tachypnea. The other way around, labored breathing or tachypnea can voluntarily be performed even when there is no dyspnea.

text: Still, many simply define dyspnea as difficulty in breathing without further specification, which may confuse it with e.g. labored breathing or

text: tachypnea

text: (rapid breathing). Labored breathing has occasionally been included in the definition of dyspnea as well. However, in the standard definition, these related signs may be present at the same time, but don't necessarily have to be. For instance, in

text: respiratory arrest

text: by a primary failure in respiratory muscles the patient, if conscious, may experience dyspnea, yet without having any labored breathing or tachypnea. The other way around, labored breathing or tachypnea can voluntarily be performed even when there is no dyspnea.

text: A blood gas test is a blood test that measures blood gas tension values as indicators of ventilation, respiration, and oxygenation. The source of the blood is reflected in the name of each test; arterial blood gases come from arteries, venous blood gases come from veins and capillary blood gases come from capillaries.

text: A blood gas test is a

text: blood test

text: that measures

text: blood gas tension

text: values as indicators of

text: ventilation

text: respiration

text: , and

text: oxygenation

text: . The source of the blood is reflected in the name of each test;

text: arterial blood gas

text: es come from

text: arteries

text: , venous blood gases come from

text: veins

text: and capillary blood gases come from

text: capillaries

text: One type of invertebrate respiriatory system is the open respiratory system composed of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles that terrestrial arthropods have to transport metabolic gases to and from tissues.  The distribution of spiracles can vary greatly among the many orders of insects, but in general each segment of the body can have only one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it. The tracheae are invaginations of the cuticular exoskeleton that branch (anastomose) throughout the body with diameters from only a few micrometres up to 0.8 mm. The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells and serve as sites of diffusion for water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Gas may be conducted through the respiratory system by  means of active ventilation or passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their haemolymph.

text: One type of invertebrate respiriatory system is the open

text: respiratory system

text: composed of

text: spiracle

text: s, tracheae, and

text: tracheole

text: s that

text: terrestrial

text: arthropods have to transport

text: metabolic

text: gases to and from tissues.  The distribution of spiracles can vary greatly among the many

text: orders

text: of insects, but in general each segment of the body can have only one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it. The tracheae are invaginations of the cuticular

text: exoskeleton

text: that branch (

text: anastomose

text: ) throughout the body with diameters from only a few micrometres up to 0.8 mm. The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells and serve as sites of

text: diffusion

text: for

text: water

text: oxygen

text: , and

text: carbon dioxide

text: . Gas may be conducted through the respiratory system by  means of active

text: ventilation

text: or passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their

text: haemolymph

text: P. furiosus is also notable for an unusual and intriguingly simple respiratory system, which obtains energy by reducing protons to hydrogen gas and uses this energy to create an electrochemical gradient across its cell membrane, thereby driving ATP synthesis. Such a system could be a very early evolutionary precursor of respiratory systems in all higher organisms today.

text: P. furiosus is also notable for an unusual and intriguingly simple respiratory system, which obtains energy by reducing protons to hydrogen gas and uses this energy to create an electrochemical gradient across its cell membrane, thereby driving

text: ATP synthesis

text: . Such a system could be a very early evolutionary precursor of respiratory systems in all higher organisms today.

text: This work is a substantial contribution to cardiac physiology, for it introduces into biology the doctrine of circulation of the blood in the seventeenth century. Opposed and obliging work heralding Harvey's discovery go back to the thirteenth century, when the pulmonary circulation and gas exchange was proposed by Ibn Al-Nafis. Both long since proven theories are incomplete when studied separately but together form core knowledge of present-day cardiology. In 1553, Michael Servetus said that blood flows from the heart to the lungs, and that it there mixes with air to form the arterial blood which flows back to the heart. Between 1570 and 1590, Cesalpino suggested, in a controversy with Galenists, that the movement of blood was more like a circulation than an oscillation; but this view lacks clarity. In 1603, Hieronymus Fabricius ab Acquapendente published a work clearly describing the valves in the veins and showing that they hinder the flow of blood away from the heart. From 1597 to 1602, Harvey studied arts and medicine at Padua, and made a careful study of the heart and the movement of blood. By 1616, he was presenting in lectures his case for the circulation of the blood, but it was not until 1628 that he published it in his classic work, De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis. This book is important both for the discovery of the complete circulation and for the experimental, quantitive and mechanistic methodology which Harvey introduced. He looked upon the heart, not as a mystical seat of the spirit and faculties, but as a pump analyzable along mechanical lines. He also measured the amount of blood which it sent out to the body. He observed that with each beat two ounces of blood leave the heart; so that with 72 heart beats per minute, the heart throws into the system 540 pounds of blood every hour. Where could all this blood come from? The answer seems to be that it is the same blood that is always returning. Moreover, the one-way valves in the heart, like those in the veins, indicate that, following the pulmonary circulation, the blood goes out to all parts of the body through the arteries and returns by way of the veins. The blood thus makes a complete closed circuit. As Harvey expressed it, "There must be a motion, as it were, in a circle." There was, however, one stage in the circulation which Harvey was not able to see - that in which the veins and arteries lose themselves by subdivision into the tiny capillary vessels. It was in 1660, three years after Harvey's death, that Marcello Malpighi saw the blood moving in the capillaries of a frog's lung, and thus supplied the missing link in Harvey's proof of the circulation of the blood.

text: This work is a substantial contribution to cardiac physiology, for it introduces into biology the doctrine of circulation of the blood in the seventeenth century. Opposed and obliging work heralding Harvey's discovery go back to the thirteenth century, when the pulmonary circulation and gas exchange was proposed by Ibn

text: Al-Nafis

text: . Both long since proven theories are incomplete when studied separately but together form core knowledge of present-day

text: cardiology

text: . In 1553,

text: Michael Servetus

text: said that blood flows from the heart to the lungs, and that it there mixes with air to form the arterial blood which flows back to the heart. Between 1570 and 1590,

text: Cesalpino

text: suggested, in a controversy with

text: Galenists

text: , that the movement of blood was more like a circulation than an oscillation; but this view lacks clarity. In 1603,

text: Hieronymus Fabricius

text: ab

text: Acquapendente

text: published a work clearly describing the

text: valves

text: in the

text: veins

text: and showing that they hinder the flow of blood away from the

text: heart

text: . From 1597 to 1602, Harvey studied arts and medicine at

text: Padua

text: , and made a careful study of the heart and the movement of blood. By 1616, he was presenting in lectures his case for the

text: circulation of the blood

text: , but it was not until 1628 that he published it in his classic work, De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis. This book is important both for the discovery of the complete circulation and for the experimental, quantitive and mechanistic methodology which Harvey introduced. He looked upon the heart, not as a mystical seat of the spirit and faculties, but as a

text: pump

text: analyzable along mechanical lines. He also measured the amount of blood which it sent out to the body. He observed that with each beat two ounces of blood leave the heart; so that with 72 heart beats per minute, the heart throws into the system 540 pounds of blood every hour. Where could all this blood come from? The answer seems to be that it is the same blood that is always returning. Moreover, the one-way valves in the heart, like those in the veins, indicate that, following the

text: pulmonary circulation

text: , the blood goes out to all parts of the body through the

text: arteries

text: and returns by way of the veins. The blood thus makes a complete

text: closed circuit

text: . As Harvey expressed it, "There must be a motion, as it were, in a circle." There was, however, one stage in the circulation which Harvey was not able to see - that in which the veins and arteries lose themselves by subdivision into the tiny capillary vessels. It was in 1660, three years after Harvey's death, that

text: Marcello Malpighi

text: saw the blood moving in the

text: capillaries

text: of a

text: frog

text: 's lung, and thus supplied the missing link in Harvey's proof of the circulation of the blood.

text: The primary route of entry for human rhinoviruses is the upper respiratory tract (mouth and nose).  Rhinovirus A and B bind to ICAM-1 (Inter-Cellular Adhesion Molecule 1) also known as CD54 (Cluster of Differentiation 54) receptors on respiratory epithelial cells while Rhinovirus C uses Cadherin-related family member 3 (CDHR3) to mediate cellular entry.  As the virus replicates and spreads, infected cells release distress signals known as chemokines and cytokines (which in turn activate inflammatory mediators).  Cell lysis occurs at the upper respiratory epithelium.

text: The primary route of entry for human rhinoviruses is the upper

text: respiratory tract

text: (mouth and nose).  Rhinovirus A and B bind to

text: (Inter-Cellular Adhesion Molecule 1) also known as CD54 (Cluster of Differentiation 54)

text: receptors

text: on respiratory epithelial cells while Rhinovirus C uses Cadherin-related family member 3 (CDHR3) to mediate cellular entry.  As the virus replicates and spreads, infected cells release distress signals known as

text: chemokine

text: s and

text: cytokine

text: s (which in turn activate inflammatory mediators).  Cell lysis occurs at the upper respiratory epithelium.

text: Blood tests are also used in diagnosis. Primary myelofibrosis can begin with a blood picture similar to that found in polycythemia vera or chronic myelogenous leukemia. Most people with myelofibrosis have moderate to severe anemia. Eventually thrombocytopenia, a decrease of blood platelets develops. When viewed through a microscope, a blood smear will appear markedly abnormal, with presentation of pancytopenia, which is a reduction in the number of all blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells may show abnormalities including bizarre shapes, such as teardrop-shaped cells, and nucleated red blood cell precursors may appear in the blood smear. (Normally, mature red blood cells in adults do not have a cell nucleus, and the presence of nucleated red blood cells suggests that immature cells are being released into the bloodstream in response to a very high demand for the bone marrow to produce new red blood cells.) Immature white cells are also seen in blood samples, and basophil counts are increased.

text: Blood tests are also used in diagnosis. Primary myelofibrosis can begin with a blood picture similar to that found in

text: polycythemia vera

text: or

text: chronic myelogenous leukemia

text: . Most people with myelofibrosis have moderate to severe anemia. Eventually

text: thrombocytopenia

text: , a decrease of

text: blood platelets

text: develops. When viewed through a microscope, a

text: blood smear

text: will appear markedly abnormal, with presentation of

text: pancytopenia

text: , which is a reduction in the number of all blood cell types:

text: red blood cell

text: s,

text: white blood cell

text: s, and platelets. Red blood cells may show abnormalities including

text: bizarre shapes

text: , such as

text: teardrop-shaped cells

text: , and

text: nucleated red blood cell

text: precursors may appear in the blood smear. (Normally, mature red blood cells in adults do not have a cell nucleus, and the presence of nucleated red blood cells suggests that immature cells are being released into the bloodstream in response to a very high demand for the bone marrow to produce new red blood cells.) Immature white cells are also seen in blood samples, and

text: basophil

text: counts are increased.

text: 1,4-Butynediol is corrosive and irritates the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract.

text: Gas remains dissolved in the tissues until the partial pressure of that gas in the lungs is reduced sufficiently to cause a concentration gradient with the blood at a lower concentration than the relevant tissues. As the concentration in the blood drops below the concentration in the adjacent tissue, the gas will diffuse out of the tissue into the blood, and will then be transported back to the lungs where it will diffuse into the lung gas and then be eliminated by exhalation. If the ambient pressure reduction is limited, this desaturation will take place in the dissolved phase, but if the ambient pressure is lowered sufficiently, bubbles may form and grow, both in blood and other supersaturated tissues. When the partial pressure of all gas dissolved in a tissue exceeds the total ambient pressure on the tissue it is supersaturated, and there is a possibility of bubble formation.

text: Endothermy demands frequent respiration, which can result in water loss. In living birds and mammals, water loss is limited by pulling moisture out of exhaled air with mucous-covered respiratory turbinates, tissue-covered bony sheets in the nasal cavity. Several dinosaurs have olfactory turbinates, used for smell, but none have yet been identified with respiratory turbinates.

text: The skin of amphibians is a major site of respiration in all species for which measurements are available. Cutaneous respiration is the sole respiratory mode of lungless salamanders (family Plethodontidae) which lack lungs entirely yet constitute the largest family of salamanders. Cutaneous respiration in frogs and other amphibians may be the primary respiratory mode during colder temperatures.

text: The skin of

text: amphibian

text: s is a major site of respiration in all species for which measurements are available. Cutaneous respiration is the sole respiratory mode of

text: lungless salamanders

text: (family Plethodontidae) which lack lungs entirely yet constitute the largest family of salamanders. Cutaneous respiration in frogs and other amphibians may be the primary respiratory mode during colder temperatures.

text: The Ministry of Health (), abbreviated MOH, is a ministry of the Government of Malaysia that is responsible for health system: health behavior, cancer, public health, health management, medical research, health systems research, respiratory medicine, health promotion, healthcare tourism, medical device, blood collection, leprosy control, clinical research, health care, dental care, health institution, laboratory, pharmaceutical, patient safety.

text: The Ministry of Health (), abbreviated MOH, is a

text: ministry

text: of the

text: Government of Malaysia

text: that is responsible for

text: health system

text: health behavior

text: cancer

text: public health

text: health management

text: medical research

text: health systems research

text: respiratory medicine

text: health promotion

text: healthcare tourism

text: medical device

text: blood collection

text: leprosy control

text: clinical research

text: health care

text: dental care

text: health institution

text: laboratory

text: pharmaceutical

text: patient safety

text: It is estimated that 50–80% of fire deaths are the result of smoke inhalation injuries, including burns to the respiratory system. The hot smoke injures or kills by a combination of thermal damage, poisoning and pulmonary irritation and swelling, caused by carbon monoxide, cyanide and other combustion products.

text: It is estimated that 50–80% of fire deaths are the result of

text: smoke

text: inhalation injuries, including burns to the respiratory system. The hot smoke injures or kills by a combination of thermal damage, poisoning and pulmonary irritation and swelling, caused by

text: carbon monoxide

text: cyanide

text: and other combustion products.

text: Common phrases in English relate to breathing e.g. "catch my breath", "took my breath away", "inspiration", "to expire", "get my breath back".

text: Exposure to dalapon affects the eyes, central nervous system, digestive system, respiratory system, and skin. Dalapon can be absorbed through inhalation, eye contact, skin contact, or by ingesting it. The symptoms of dalapon exposure include eye irritation, central nervous system depression, bradycardia, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, fatigue, burn, upper respiratory irritation, and skin irritation. First aid measures for exposure include artificial respiration, immediate eye irrigation, and immediate washing with water. Immediate medical attention should be sought if dalapon is ingested.

text: Exposure to dalapon affects the

text: eyes

text: central nervous system

text: digestive system

text: respiratory system

text: , and

text: skin

text: . Dalapon can be absorbed through

text: inhalation

text: , eye contact, skin contact, or by

text: ingesting

text: it. The symptoms of dalapon exposure include eye irritation,

text: central nervous system depression

text: bradycardia

text: vomiting

text: diarrhea

text: loss of appetite

text: fatigue

text: burn

text: , upper respiratory irritation, and skin irritation. First aid measures for exposure include

text: artificial respiration

text: , immediate eye irrigation, and immediate washing with water. Immediate medical attention should be sought if dalapon is ingested.

text: These pulsating characteristics have been shown to be a result of two pumps. As the primary pump, the heart causes the blood flow and velocity to oscillate from zero to very high rates as the valves at the entrances and exits to the ventricles intermittently close and open with each beat of the heart. The second pump is a result of the respiratory and skeletal systems, which exert their greatest action on venous flow. Specifically pulsation that result from the release of blood from the left ventricle show that they exhibit non-linear, transient pulsations in pressure and flow. These create complex pulse patterns which are further propagated through the rest of the network. This results in variations in the applied shear stress to the layer of endothelial cells covering the vessel wall. Depending upon the amount of stress, the endothelial cells will react releasing chemicals that either induce dilation or constriction of the smooth muscle surrounding the vessel.

text: These pulsating characteristics have been shown to be a result of two

text: pumps

text: . As the primary pump, the

text: heart

text: causes the

text: blood

text: flow and velocity to

text: oscillate

text: from zero to very high rates as the

text: valves

text: at the entrances and exits to the

text: ventricles

text: intermittently close and open with each beat of the heart. The second pump is a result of the

text: respiratory

text: and

text: skeletal systems

text: , which exert their greatest action on venous flow. Specifically pulsation that result from the release of blood from the left ventricle show that they exhibit

text: non-linear

text: transient

text: pulsations in

text: pressure

text: and flow. These create complex pulse patterns which are further propagated through the rest of the network. This results in variations in the applied shear stress to the layer of

text: endothelial cells

text: covering the vessel wall. Depending upon the amount of

text: stress

text: , the endothelial cells will react releasing chemicals that either induce

text: dilation

text: or

text: constriction

text: of the smooth muscle surrounding the vessel.

text: The earliest roots of IBM's development of the IBM 2997 Blood cell Separator lay in the personal tragedy of one of IBM's development engineers, George Judson. In 1962, Judson's son, Tom, was diagnosed with leukemia. His physician was able to have Tom admitted to the Clinical Center of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). On admission, they showed Judson a procedure to remove white blood cells from a patient. It was laborious. They would remove two units (450 ml) of blood, spin them in a bucket centrifuge, express the plasma into a satellite bag, and the white cells into another satellite bag. The packed red cells and the plasma would be recombined and administered to the patient. This would be repeated over and over. Judson, being an engineer, suggested that this could be done on a continuous-flow basis. He was sent to see Dr. Emil J. Freireich who expressed enthusiasm for the project. Judson returned to IBM and asked for a year's leave of absence to work on his ideas. IBM gave him the one year leave with pay and provided engineering assistance. His work led to the development of the NCI Blood Cell Separator and later to the IBM 2990 Blood Cell Separator which could harvest white blood cells from blood donors, to support leukemia patients to keep them alive. The subsequent development of the machine as the IBM 2997, essentially a continuous centrifuge which separated the blood into red blood cells, white blood cells, and blood plasma (used in plasmapheresis), was picked up by IBM's Systems Supplies Division (SSD) which was already ready marketing the IBM 2991 Blood cell Processor. The (disposable) supplies element represented a large part of the revenue stream.The IBM 2997  machine was developed in USA in the 1970s, but the most remarkable applications were in Italy Milan, they were by Girolamo Sirchia, MD and Dr. Marconi in Centro TRasfusionale & Transplant North Italy. In Rome by Dr. Mandelli for children leukemias, in Ancona by Dr. Lucarelli for transplant of the Midollo Osseo (Bone main ) compatible.So today, 2013, in memories of these 1982 procedures for blood, it's necessary to remember the Cuba Havana University and Hospital "Capitan Roberto...." procedure in autotransfusion online patient to manage the blood of mystenia gravis patients with a similar 2997. This blood is prepared with additional Ozone & Oxygen. This procedure is an alternative to the use of steroids, etc.

text: The earliest roots of

text: IBM

text: 's development of the IBM 2997

text: Blood cell

text: Separator lay in the personal

text: tragedy

text: of one of IBM's development

text: engineers

text: , George Judson. In 1962, Judson's son, Tom, was diagnosed with leukemia. His physician was able to have Tom admitted to the Clinical Center of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). On admission, they showed Judson a procedure to remove white blood cells from a patient. It was laborious. They would remove two units (450 ml) of blood, spin them in a bucket centrifuge, express the plasma into a satellite bag, and the white cells into another satellite bag. The packed red cells and the plasma would be recombined and administered to the patient. This would be repeated over and over. Judson, being an engineer, suggested that this could be done on a continuous-flow basis. He was sent to see

text: Dr. Emil J. Freireich

text: who expressed enthusiasm for the project. Judson returned to IBM and asked for a year's leave of absence to work on his ideas. IBM gave him the one year leave with pay and provided engineering assistance. His work led to the development of the NCI Blood Cell Separator and later to the IBM 2990 Blood Cell Separator which could harvest

text: white blood cells

text: from

text: blood donor

text: s, to support leukemia

text: patients

text: to keep them alive. The subsequent development of the machine as the IBM 2997, essentially a continuous

text: centrifuge

text: which separated the

text: blood

text: into

text: red blood cells

text: , white blood cells, and

text: blood plasma

text: (used in

text: plasmapheresis

text: ), was picked up by IBM's Systems Supplies

text: Division

text: (SSD) which was already ready

text: marketing

text: the

text: IBM 2991

text: Blood cell

text: Processor. The (disposable) supplies element represented a large part of the

text: revenue stream

text: .The IBM 2997  machine was developed in USA in the 1970s, but the most remarkable applications were in Italy Milan, they were by Girolamo Sirchia, MD and Dr. Marconi in Centro TRasfusionale & Transplant North Italy. In Rome by Dr. Mandelli for children leukemias, in Ancona by Dr. Lucarelli for transplant of the Midollo Osseo (Bone main ) compatible.So today, 2013, in memories of these 1982 procedures for blood, it's necessary to remember the Cuba Havana University and Hospital "Capitan Roberto...." procedure in autotransfusion online patient to manage the blood of mystenia gravis patients with a similar 2997. This blood is prepared with additional Ozone & Oxygen. This procedure is an alternative to the use of steroids, etc.

text: Affected children may be large at birth and appear normal but may have inguinal (in the groin) or umbilical (where the umbilical cord passes through the abdomen) hernias. Growth in height may be initially faster than normal, then begins to slow before the end of the first year and often ends around age 3. Many children develop a short body trunk and a maximum stature of less than 4 feet. Distinct facial features (including flat face, depressed nasal bridge, and bulging forehead) become more evident in the second year. By age 2, the ribs have widened and are oar-shaped. The liver, spleen and heart are often enlarged. Children may experience noisy breathing and recurring upper respiratory tract and ear infections. Feeding may be difficult for some children, and many experience periodic bowel problems. Children with Hurler syndrome often die before age 10 from obstructive airway disease, respiratory infections, or cardiac complications.

text: Affected children may be large at

text: birth

text: and appear normal but may have inguinal (in the groin) or umbilical (where the

text: umbilical cord

text: passes through the

text: abdomen

text: hernia

text: s. Growth in height may be initially faster than normal, then begins to slow before the end of the first year and often ends around age 3. Many children develop a short body trunk and a maximum stature of less than 4 feet. Distinct facial features (including flat face, depressed nasal bridge, and bulging forehead) become more evident in the second year. By age 2, the ribs have widened and are oar-shaped. The

text: liver

text: spleen

text: and

text: heart

text: are often enlarged. Children may experience noisy breathing and recurring upper respiratory tract and

text: ear

text: infection

text: s. Feeding may be difficult for some children, and many experience periodic bowel problems. Children with Hurler syndrome often die before age 10 from

text: obstructive airway disease

text: respiratory infection

text: s, or cardiac complications.

text: The Applied Respiratory Psychophysiology Section promotes scientific and clinical activities in the area of respiratory retraining for treating psychological and physical symptoms, and the management of respiratory diseases. The section fosters research on the causes and effects of hyperventilation and effects of respiratory rhythms on other physiological systems including the body’s homeostatic reflexes.

text: The Applied Respiratory Psychophysiology Section promotes scientific and clinical activities in the area of respiratory retraining for treating psychological and physical symptoms, and the management of respiratory diseases. The section fosters research on the causes and effects of

text: hyperventilation

text: and effects of respiratory rhythms on other physiological systems including the body’s homeostatic reflexes.

text: The cells employed are allogeneic peripheral blood stem cells. Matched HLA between donor and recipient is not necessary. The stem cells are collected from donor’s blood through a process known as apheresis after a certain period of daily subcutaneous injections of Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, serving to mobilize stem cells from the donor's bone marrow into the peripheral circulation. Fresh cells are infused to recipient for the first time, and then stored in a controlled-rate freezer.

text: The earthworm has a dual circulatory system in which both the coelomic fluid and a closed circulatory system carry the food, waste, and respiratory gases. The closed circulatory system has five main blood vessels: the dorsal (top) vessel, which runs above the digestive tract; the ventral (bottom) vessel, which runs below the digestive tract; the subneural vessel, which runs below the ventral nerve cord; and two lateroneural vessels on either side of the nerve cord. The dorsal vessel moves the blood forward, while the other four longitudinal vessels carry the blood rearward. In segments seven through eleven, a pair of aortic arches rings the coelom and acts as hearts, pumping the blood to the ventral vessel that acts as the aorta. The blood consists of ameboid cells and hemoglobin dissolved in the plasma. The second circulatory system derives from the cells of the digestive system that line the coelom. As the digestive cells become full, they release non-living cells of fat into the fluid-filled coelom, where they float freely but can pass through the walls separating each segment, moving food to other parts and assist in wound healing.

text: First, there is frequently the sudden onset of fear with little provoking stimulus. This leads to a release of adrenaline (epinephrine) which brings about the fight-or-flight response when the body prepares for strenuous physical activity. This leads to an increased heart rate (tachycardia), rapid breathing (hyperventilation) which may be perceived as shortness of breath (dyspnea), and sweating. Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in carbon dioxide levels in the lungs and then in the blood. This leads to shifts in blood pH (respiratory alkalosis or hypocapnia), which can lead to other symptoms, such as tingling or numbness, dizziness, burning and lightheadedness.

text: First, there is frequently the sudden onset of fear with little provoking stimulus. This leads to a release of

text: adrenaline

text: (epinephrine) which brings about the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: when the body prepares for strenuous physical activity. This leads to an increased heart rate (

text: tachycardia

text: ), rapid breathing (

text: hyperventilation

text: ) which may be perceived as shortness of breath (

text: dyspnea

text: ), and sweating. Because strenuous activity rarely ensues, the hyperventilation leads to a drop in

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels in the

text: lung

text: s and then in the

text: blood

text: . This leads to shifts in blood

text: pH

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: or

text: hypocapnia

text: ), which can lead to other symptoms, such as

text: tingling or numbness

text: dizziness

text: burning

text: and

text: lightheadedness

text: The terms aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration and fermentation do not refer to primary nutritional groups, but simply reflect the different use of possible electron acceptors in particular organisms, such as O in aerobic respiration, or NO, SO or fumarate in anaerobic respiration, or various metabolic intermediates in fermentation. Because all ATP-generating steps in fermentation involve modifications of metabolic intermediates instead of the use of an electron transport chain fermentation is often referred to as substrate-level phosphorylation.

text: The terms

text: aerobic respiration

text: anaerobic respiration

text: and

text: fermentation

text: do not refer to primary nutritional groups, but simply reflect the different use of possible electron acceptors in particular organisms, such as O in aerobic respiration, or NO, SO or fumarate in anaerobic respiration, or various metabolic intermediates in fermentation. Because all ATP-generating steps in fermentation involve modifications of metabolic intermediates instead of the use of an

text: electron transport chain

text: fermentation is often referred to as

text: substrate-level phosphorylation

text: If later exposure to the same allergen occurs, the allergen can bind to the IgE molecules held on the surface of the mast cells or basophils. Cross-linking of the IgE and Fc receptors occurs when more than one IgE-receptor complex interacts with the same allergenic molecule, and activates the sensitized cell. Activated mast cells and basophils undergo a process called degranulation, during which they release histamine and other inflammatory chemical mediators (cytokines, interleukins, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) from their granules into the surrounding tissue causing several systemic effects, such as vasodilation, mucous secretion, nerve stimulation, and smooth muscle contraction. This results in rhinorrhea, itchiness, dyspnea, and anaphylaxis. Depending on the individual, allergen, and mode of introduction, the symptoms can be system-wide (classical anaphylaxis), or localized to particular body systems; asthma is localized to the respiratory system and eczema is localized to the dermis.

text: If later exposure to the same allergen occurs, the allergen can bind to the IgE molecules held on the surface of the mast cells or basophils. Cross-linking of the IgE and Fc receptors occurs when more than one IgE-receptor complex interacts with the same allergenic molecule, and activates the sensitized cell. Activated mast cells and basophils undergo a process called

text: degranulation

text: , during which they release

text: histamine

text: and other inflammatory chemical mediators (

text: cytokine

text: s,

text: interleukin

text: s,

text: leukotriene

text: s, and

text: prostaglandin

text: s) from their

text: granules

text: into the surrounding tissue causing several systemic effects, such as

text: vasodilation

text: mucous

text: secretion,

text: nerve

text: stimulation, and

text: smooth muscle

text: contraction. This results in

text: rhinorrhea

text: , itchiness, dyspnea, and

text: anaphylaxis

text: . Depending on the individual, allergen, and mode of introduction, the symptoms can be system-wide (classical anaphylaxis), or localized to particular body systems; asthma is localized to the respiratory system and eczema is localized to the

text: dermis

text: The respiration rate is a parameter which is used in ecological and agronomical modeling.In theoretical production ecology and aquaculture, it typically refers to respiration per unit of time (usually loss of biomass by respiration per unit of weight), also referred to as relative respiration rate. In theoretical production ecology, biomass is expressed as dry weight, in aquaculture as wet fish weight. The respiration rate is dependent of species, type of tissue or organ studied and temperature.

text: The respiration rate is a parameter which is used in ecological and agronomical modeling.In

text: theoretical production ecology

text: and

text: aquaculture

text: , it typically refers to respiration per unit of time (usually loss of biomass by respiration per unit of weight), also referred to as relative respiration rate. In theoretical production ecology, biomass is expressed as dry weight, in aquaculture as wet fish weight. The respiration rate is dependent of species, type of tissue or organ studied and temperature.

text: Health effects occur when urea-formaldehyde based materials and products release formaldehyde into the air. Generally there are no observable health effects from formaldehyde when air concentrations are below 1.0 ppm. The onset of respiratory irritation and other health effects, and even increased cancer risk begins when air concentrations exceed 3.0-5.0 ppm. This triggers watery eyes, nose irritations, wheezing and coughing, fatigue, skin rash, severe allergic reactions, burning sensations in the eyes and throat, nausea, and difficulty in breathing in some humans (usually > 1.0 ppm). Occupants of UFFI insulated homes with elevated formaldehyde levels experienced systemic symptoms such as headache, malaise, insomnia, anorexia, and loss of libido. Irritation of the mucous membranes (specifically the eyes, nose, and throat) was a common upper respiratory tract symptom related to formaldehyde exposure. However, when compared to control groups, the frequency of symptoms did not exceed the controls except when it came to wheezing, difficult breathing, and a burning skin sensation. Controlled studies have suggested that tolerance to formaldehyde's odor and irritating effects can occur over a prolonged exposure.

text: Health effects occur when urea-formaldehyde based materials and products release formaldehyde into the air. Generally there are no observable health effects from formaldehyde when air concentrations are below 1.0 ppm. The onset of respiratory irritation and other health effects, and even increased cancer risk begins when air concentrations exceed 3.0-5.0 ppm. This triggers watery eyes, nose irritations, wheezing and coughing, fatigue, skin rash, severe allergic reactions, burning sensations in the eyes and throat, nausea, and difficulty in breathing in some humans (usually > 1.0 ppm). Occupants of UFFI insulated homes with elevated formaldehyde levels experienced systemic symptoms such as headache, malaise, insomnia, anorexia, and loss of libido. Irritation of the

text: mucous membrane

text: s (specifically the eyes, nose, and throat) was a common upper respiratory tract symptom related to formaldehyde exposure. However, when compared to control groups, the frequency of symptoms did not exceed the controls except when it came to wheezing, difficult breathing, and a burning skin sensation. Controlled studies have suggested that tolerance to formaldehyde's odor and irritating effects can occur over a prolonged exposure.

text: The purpose of mechanical ventilators is to deliver a constant volume, constant pressure, or a combination of both with each breath. Any given volume will correspond to a specific pressure on the pressure-volume curve and vice versa in any case. Settings on each mechanical ventilator may include respiratory rate, tidal volume, trigger sensitivity, flow rate, waveform, and inspiratory/expiratory ratio. The volume-cycled ventilation includes the volume-control function and delivers a set tidal volume. The pressure is not a fixed number but it varies with resistance and capacitance  of the respiratory system. The volume-cycled ventilation is the simplest and most efficient of providing ventilation to a patient’s airway compared to other methods of mechanical ventilation. Each inspiratory effort that is beyond the set sensitivity threshold will be accounted for and fixed to the delivery of the corresponding tidal volume. If the patient does not breathe enough, then the volume-cycled ventilation will initiate a breath for the patient to bring up the breathing rate to the minimum respiratory rate. The synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) is a similar method of mechanical ventilation that also delivers breaths at a fixed rate and volume that corresponds to the patient’s breathing. Unlike the Volume-Cycled Ventilation, patient efforts above the fixed rate are unassisted in the synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV).<ref> Review of Respiratory Arrest. (2016, January 1). Retrieved May 8, 2016, from https://acls-algorithms.com/respiratory-arrest/

text: The purpose of mechanical ventilators is to deliver a constant volume, constant pressure, or a combination of both with each breath. Any given volume will correspond to a specific pressure on the pressure-volume curve and vice versa in any case. Settings on each mechanical ventilator may include respiratory rate, tidal volume, trigger sensitivity, flow rate, waveform, and inspiratory/expiratory ratio. The volume-cycled ventilation includes the volume-control function and delivers a set tidal volume. The pressure is not a fixed number but it varies with resistance and

text: capacitance

text: of the respiratory system. The volume-cycled ventilation is the simplest and most efficient of providing ventilation to a patient’s airway compared to other methods of mechanical ventilation. Each inspiratory effort that is beyond the set sensitivity threshold will be accounted for and fixed to the delivery of the corresponding tidal volume. If the patient does not breathe enough, then the volume-cycled ventilation will initiate a breath for the patient to bring up the breathing rate to the minimum respiratory rate. The synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) is a similar method of mechanical ventilation that also delivers breaths at a fixed rate and volume that corresponds to the patient’s breathing. Unlike the Volume-Cycled Ventilation, patient efforts above the fixed rate are unassisted in the synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV).<ref> Review of Respiratory Arrest. (2016, January 1). Retrieved May 8, 2016, from https://acls-algorithms.com/respiratory-arrest/

text: Human respiration rate is measured when a person is at rest and involves counting the number of breaths for one minute by counting how many times the chest rises.  An optical breath rate sensor can be used for monitoring patients during a magnetic resonance imaging scan. Respiration rates may increase with fever, illness, or other medical conditions. When checking respiration, it is important to also note whether a person has any difficulty breathing.

text: Human respiration rate is measured when a person is at rest and involves counting the number of breaths for one minute by counting how many times the chest rises.  An optical breath rate sensor can be used for monitoring patients during a magnetic resonance imaging scan. Respiration rates may increase with

text: fever

text: , illness, or other medical conditions. When checking respiration, it is important to also note whether a person has any difficulty breathing.

text: If the respiratory system is the main way of receipt of harmful substances in the body, and if the use of other means of protection does not allow to reduce the impact to an acceptable value, employee must use respirators. They should be selected taking into account their effectiveness (it depends on the respirator type); masks should be chosen for employees personally; and workers should be learned, and trained - in accordance with legal requirements. This reduces the risk of occupational diseases as much as possible.

text: The ctenidium (a comblike respiratory apparatus) goes along most of the length of the pallial cavity. This respiratory gill consists of 10 to 200 triangular filaments. The osphradium, the olfactory organ linked with the respiration organ, is usually relatively small.

text: The ctenidium (a comblike respiratory apparatus) goes along most of the length of the pallial cavity. This respiratory gill consists of 10 to 200 triangular filaments. The

text: osphradium

text: , the olfactory organ linked with the respiration organ, is usually relatively small.

text: . The test is performed by having the subject blow out all of the air that he/she can, leaving only the residual lung volume of gas.  The person then inhales a test gas mixture rapidly and completely, reaching the total lung capacity as nearly as possible. This test gas mixture contains a small amount of carbon monoxide (usually 0.3%) and a tracer gas that is freely distributed throughout the alveolar space but which doesn't cross the alveolar-capillary membrane.  Helium and methane are two such gasses.  The test gas is held in the lung for about 10 seconds during which time the CO (but not the tracer gas) continuously moves from the alveoli into the blood.  Then the subject exhales.

text: . The test is performed by having the subject blow out all of the air that he/she can, leaving only the

text: residual lung volume

text: of gas.  The person then inhales a test gas mixture rapidly and completely, reaching the

text: total lung capacity

text: as nearly as possible. This test gas mixture contains a small amount of carbon monoxide (usually 0.3%) and a tracer gas that is freely distributed throughout the alveolar space but which doesn't cross the alveolar-capillary membrane.  Helium and methane are two such gasses.  The test gas is held in the lung for about 10 seconds during which time the CO (but not the tracer gas) continuously moves from the alveoli into the blood.  Then the subject exhales.

text: Trefentanil has very similar effects to alfentanil, much like those of fentanyl itself but more potent and shorter lasting. Side effects of fentanyl analogs are similar to those of fentanyl itself, which include itching, nausea and potentially serious respiratory depression, which can be life-threatening. Fentanyl analogs have killed hundreds of people throughout Europe and the former Soviet republics since the most recent resurgence in use began in Estonia in the early 2000s, and novel derivatives continue to appear. The risk of respiratory depression is especially high with potent fentanyl analogues such as alfentanil and trefentanil, and these drugs pose a significant risk of death if used outside of a hospital setting with appropriate artificial breathing apparatus available.

text: Trefentanil has very similar effects to alfentanil, much like those of fentanyl itself but more potent and shorter lasting. Side effects of

text: fentanyl

text: analogs are similar to those of fentanyl itself, which include

text: itching

text: nausea

text: and potentially serious

text: respiratory depression

text: , which can be life-threatening. Fentanyl analogs have killed hundreds of people throughout Europe and the former Soviet republics since the most recent resurgence in use began in Estonia in the early 2000s, and novel derivatives continue to appear. The risk of respiratory depression is especially high with potent fentanyl analogues such as alfentanil and trefentanil, and these drugs pose a significant risk of death if used outside of a hospital setting with appropriate artificial breathing apparatus available.

text: During each test, workload, heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory gas exchange (O consumption, CO production, and minute volume) measurements were made.  For Apollo 15 to 17 missions, cardiac output measurements were obtained by the single-breath technique.  Arteriovenous oxygen differences were calculated from the measured oxygen consumption and cardiac output data.

text: The pattern of motor stimuli during breathing can be divided into inspiratory and expiratory phases. Inspiration shows a sudden, ramped increase in motor discharge to the inspiratory muscles (including pharyngeal dilator muscles). Before the end of inspiration, there is a decline in motor discharge. Exhalation is usually silent, except at high minute ventilation rates.

text: The pattern of motor stimuli during breathing can be divided into inspiratory and expiratory phases. Inspiration shows a sudden, ramped increase in motor discharge to the inspiratory muscles (including pharyngeal dilator muscles). Before the end of inspiration, there is a decline in motor discharge. Exhalation is usually silent, except at high

text: minute ventilation

text: rates.

text: Passive respiratory gas humidifiers are independent from any external energy source or external water supply. They function as heat and moisture Exchangers (HME) and are placed like an artificial nose between a tube and Y piece. Here they withdraw heat and moisture from expirations, which they resupply to the inspired gas during the following inspiration. As there are significant functional differences among the various HMES on the market, respiratory therapists should test the efficacy of each individual model. The ideal HME has high reversible water retention capacity, small internal volume, and low flow resistance.

text: The respiratory tract is constantly exposed to microbes due to the extensive surface area, which is why the respiratory system includes many mechanisms to defend itself and prevent pathogens from entering the body.

text: The respiratory tract is constantly exposed to

text: microbe

text: s due to the extensive surface area, which is why the respiratory system includes many mechanisms to defend itself and prevent

text: pathogen

text: s from entering the body.

text: The blood–brain barrier is formed by special tight junctions between the epithelial cells that surround the brain tissue. All tissue is separated by this layer of epithelial cells, however only the brain epithelial cells have these tight junctions that do not allow larger molecules to pass between them. The structure of these tight junctions was first determined in the 1960s by Tom Reese, Morris Kranovsky and Milton Brightman. These tight junctions are formed through the tight apposition of the endothelial cells with one another.   Furthermore, astrocytic, "end feet" "the terminal regions of the astrocytic processes  surround  the outside of the capillary endothelial cell".   The astrocytes are glial cells that are restricted to the brain and spinal cord that work to maintain an appropriate environment for neural signaling.   The connection between these glial and endothelial cells is not very well known but it "may reflect an influence of the astrocytes on the formation and the maintenance of the blood–brain barrier.

text: The blood–brain barrier is formed by special

text: tight junctions

text: between the

text: epithelial cells

text: that surround the

text: brain tissue

text: . All tissue is separated by this layer of

text: epithelial cells

text: , however only the brain

text: epithelial cells

text: have these tight junctions that do not allow larger molecules to pass between them. The structure of these tight junctions was first determined in the 1960s by Tom Reese,

text: Morris Kranovsky

text: and

text: Milton Brightman

text: . These tight junctions are formed through the tight apposition of the endothelial cells with one another.   Furthermore,

text: astrocytic

text: , "end feet" "the terminal regions of the astrocytic processes  surround  the outside of the

text: capillary

text: endothelial cell

text: ".   The

text: astrocytes

text: are

text: glial cells

text: that are restricted to the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: that work to maintain an appropriate environment for

text: neural signaling

text: .   The connection between these glial and endothelial cells is not very well known but it "may reflect an influence of the

text: astrocytes

text: on the formation and the maintenance of the blood–brain barrier.

text: The medication should be administered by a physician or nurse and documented (dosage, name, time, etc.). Children should not receive the sedative without supervision of a skilled and knowledgeable medical personnel (at home, technician). Emergency equipment including crash cart must be readily available and respiration monitoring should be done visually or with stethoscope. Family member needs to remain in room with patient, especially if tester steps out. In this scenario, respiration can be monitored acoustically with a talk-back system microphone placed near patient's head. Medical personnel should be notified of slow respiration state.

text: The medication should be administered by a physician or nurse and documented (dosage, name, time, etc.). Children should not receive the sedative without supervision of a skilled and knowledgeable medical personnel (at home, technician). Emergency equipment including

text: crash cart

text: must be readily available and respiration monitoring should be done visually or with stethoscope. Family member needs to remain in room with patient, especially if tester steps out. In this scenario,

text: respiration

text: can be monitored acoustically with a talk-back system microphone placed near patient's head. Medical personnel should be notified of slow respiration state.

text: The lungs of birds are honeycomb-like and contain millions of tiny passages called parabronchi. Small sacs called called atria radiate from the walls of the tiny passages, and are the site of gas exchange. Gas exchange occurs by diffusion in these walls, as gas travels between the blood vessels and the lumen of each parabronchus.

text: The lungs of birds are honeycomb-like and contain millions of tiny passages called parabronchi. Small sacs called called atria radiate from the walls of the tiny passages, and are the site of gas exchange. Gas exchange occurs by

text: diffusion

text: in these walls, as gas travels between the blood vessels and the

text: lumen

text: of each parabronchus.

text: The holotype preserves an exceptionally large set of soft tissues for a fossil dinosaur. Although some muscle tissue (Santanaraptor, Pelecanimimus), cartilage (Juravenator, Aucasaurus), or an intestine (Mirischia) have been reported from other dinosaurs, Scipionyx is unique in preserving in some form examples from most major internal organ groups: blood, blood vessels, cartilage, connective tissues, bone tissue, muscle tissue, horn sheaths, the respiratory system and the digestive system. Nervous tissue and the external skin, including possible scales or feathers, are absent.

text: The holotype preserves an exceptionally large set of soft tissues for a fossil dinosaur. Although some muscle tissue (

text: Santanaraptor

text: Pelecanimimus

text: cartilage

text: Juravenator

text: Aucasaurus

text: ), or an intestine (

text: Mirischia

text: ) have been reported from other dinosaurs, Scipionyx is unique in preserving in some form examples from most major internal organ groups: blood, blood vessels, cartilage, connective tissues, bone tissue, muscle tissue, horn sheaths, the respiratory system and the digestive system. Nervous tissue and the external skin, including possible scales or feathers, are absent.

text: The Red-Tiger Bulldog was developed from a foundation of red-nosed American Bulldogs owned and produced by Rev. Scott L. Amos Sr., also known as “Scott Free” and his then international breeding program “S. Amos American Bulldogs/Free-Style American Bulldogs” with intentions of composing a standout Bulldog of distinct color and beauty, while harboring diverse functional working structure and ability, natural protective prowess, free producing sires, free whelping dams and natural coursing ability, (devoid of congenital breathing issues). In the late 1990s Rev. Amos infused Ca de Bou – Mallorquin bulldogs, Banter Bulldog and pure Old Southern White Bulldog genetics for out-cross vigor; This complex infusion allowed the Red-Tiger Bulldog strain to attain higher levels of health, refined structure; (allowing enhanced endurance) and a more cephalic head, jaw and respiratory system; (which allowed clean breathing, devoid of congenital respiratory issues) rather than the historically poor respiratory system existing in many other bulldog breeds, which stemmed from the more common and extreme brachycephalic jaw and respiratory that bulldogs in general were founded from.

text: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are signaling PRRs, a family of receptors that is capable of recognizing conserved microbial patterns such as components of the bacterial cell wall, microbial nucleic acids, and bacterial motility proteins. Although bacteria have evolved means of evading host defense mechanisms, they express PAMPs, such as lipoglycans and lipoproteins that are recognized by cells of the innate immune system through the TLRs. Upon binding of PAMPs to TLRs, the TLR triggers inflammatory and defensive responses in the host cell, inducing actin polymerization in alveolar macrophages (a crucial component in endocytosis and motility). Actin polymerization in alveolar macrophages causes the suppression of integrin expression, which in turn causes the deactivation of TGF-β and the downregulation of the basal phosphorylation level of SMAD 2/3; subsequently leading to the activation and detachment of alveolar macrophages from the alveolar epithelial cells [15]. Upon activation, macrophages become primed for phagocytosis and begin to secrete proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6).  	The priming of macrophages involves the enhancement of respiratory burst activity by IFN-γ and TNF-α. IFN-γ induces both an increased affinity of the NADPH oxidase for NADPH in macrophages, as well as an increased rate of gene transcription and message expression for gp91phox protein. TNF-α acts as an autocrine stimulus by increasing the expression of both p47phox and p67phox transcripts. The ROIs produced during the respiration burst response, in turn, enhance production of TNF-α by macrophages.

text: Toll-like receptor

text: "Breathe" was one of two songs featuring Caillat that was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 2010, the other being Jason Mraz's "Lucky", the winner of the award. About "Breathe" not winning the award, Caillat said, "I love 'Breathe' with Taylor, but I've been performing 'Lucky' with Jason all around the world the last year, so I'm happy it won."

text: "Breathe" was one of two songs featuring Caillat that was nominated for the

entity_name: Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals

text: Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals

text: in 2010, the other being

text: Jason Mraz

text: 's "

text: Lucky

text: ", the winner of the award. About "Breathe" not winning the award, Caillat said, "I love 'Breathe' with Taylor, but I've been performing 'Lucky' with Jason all around the world the last year, so I'm happy it won."

text: Taylor was known to have had allergies that congested her upper respiratory system.

text: Taylor was known to have had allergies that congested her upper

text: respiratory system

text: The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections. In some species coelomocytes may also contain a respiratory pigment – red hemoglobin in some species, green chlorocruorin in others (dissolved in the plasma) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments. Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the blood plasma. Species with well-developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut, the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards. Networks of capillaries in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients. Both of the major vessels, especially the upper one, can pump blood by contracting. In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart, while in the forward ends of many earthworms some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts. Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen.

text: The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections. In some species coelomocytes may also contain a

text: respiratory pigment

text: – red

text: hemoglobin

text: in some species, green

text: chlorocruorin

text: in others (dissolved in the plasma) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments. Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the

text: blood plasma

text: . Species with well-developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut, the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards. Networks of

text: capillaries

text: in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients. Both of the major vessels, especially the upper one, can pump blood by contracting. In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart, while in the forward ends of many

text: earthworm

text: s some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts. Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen.

text: Like other arthropods, spiders are coelomates in which the coelom is reduced to small areas round the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel, a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows. The heart is a tube in the upper part of the body, with a few ostia that act as non-return valves allowing blood to enter the heart from the hemocoel but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front end. However, in spiders, it occupies only the upper part of the abdomen, and blood is discharged into the hemocoel by one artery that opens at the rear end of the abdomen and by branching arteries that pass through the pedicle and open into several parts of the cephalothorax. Hence spiders have open circulatory systems. The blood of many spiders that have book lungs contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin to make oxygen transport more efficient.

text: Like other arthropods, spiders are

text: coelomate

text: s in which the coelom is reduced to small areas round the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a

text: hemocoel

text: , a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which

text: blood

text: flows. The heart is a tube in the upper part of the body, with a few ostia that act as non-return valves allowing blood to enter the heart from the hemocoel but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front end. However, in spiders, it occupies only the upper part of the abdomen, and blood is discharged into the hemocoel by one artery that opens at the rear end of the abdomen and by branching

text: arteries

text: that pass through the pedicle and open into several parts of the cephalothorax. Hence spiders have open

text: circulatory system

text: s. The blood of many spiders that have

text: book lung

text: s contains the

text: respiratory pigment

text: hemocyanin

text: to make

text: oxygen

text: transport more efficient.

text: A Sleep disorder specialist (SDS) is a Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT-SDS) that has successfully passed the certification examination NBRC-SDS.  The respiratory therapist may also be a Certified Respiratory Therapist (CRT-SDS) under certain conditions.  The sleep disorder specialist scores and performs polysomnography and also assists in diagnosing and preparing a treatment plan for the condition.  Some of the conditions the sleep disorder specialist helps evaluate and treat are; insomnia, sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome, and narcolepsy.

text: A Sleep disorder specialist (SDS) is a

text: Registered Respiratory Therapist

text: (RRT-SDS) that has successfully passed the certification examination

text: NBRC-SDS

text: .  The respiratory therapist may also be a

text: Certified Respiratory Therapist

text: (CRT-SDS) under certain conditions.  The sleep disorder specialist scores and performs

text: polysomnography

text: and also assists in diagnosing and preparing a treatment plan for the condition.  Some of the conditions the sleep disorder specialist helps evaluate and treat are;

text: insomnia

text: sleep apnea

text: restless legs syndrome

text: , and

text: narcolepsy

text: These chemical changes compound the negative mechanical and microbiological effects of alcoholism on the respiratory system.  These include: impaired gag reflex and cilia function and greater likelihood of colonies of pneumococcal bacteria in the upper respiratory system.

text: These chemical changes compound the negative mechanical and microbiological effects of alcoholism on the respiratory system.  These include: impaired

text: gag reflex

text: and

text: cilia

text: function and greater likelihood of colonies of

text: pneumococcal

text: bacteria in the upper respiratory system.

text: An active respiratory gas humidifier ensures that patients on mechanical ventilation are supplied with optimally conditioned respiratory gas. In active humidifying processes, moisture and heat is input to respiratory gas by an electrically powered humidifier. Performance data and safety-related requirements for active respiratory gas humidifiers are specified by the standard ISO 8185. According to that standard, the minimum water content of inspired respiratory gas is ca. 33 mg/dm³ and the maximum respiratory gas temperature is ca. 42 °C.

text: Wood's metal is toxic because it contains lead and cadmium, and therefore contact with the bare skin is thought to be harmful, especially in the molten state.  Vapour from cadmium-containing alloys is also known to pose a danger to humans. Cadmium poisoning carries the risk of cancer, anosmia (loss of sense of smell), and damage to the liver, kidneys, nerves, bones, and respiratory system.  Field's metal is a non-toxic alternative.

text: Wood's metal is toxic because it contains lead and cadmium, and therefore contact with the bare skin is thought to be harmful, especially in the molten state.  Vapour from cadmium-containing alloys is also known to pose a danger to humans.

text: Cadmium poisoning

text: carries the risk of

text: cancer

text: anosmia

text: (loss of sense of smell), and damage to the liver, kidneys, nerves, bones, and respiratory system.

text: Field's metal

text: is a non-toxic alternative.

text: Variations in perfusion distribution do not necessarily affect respiratory inert gas exchange, though some gas may be locally trapped by changes in perfusion. Rest in a cold environment will reduce inert gas exchange from skin, fat and muscle, whereas exercise will increase gas exchange. Exercise during decompression can reduce decompression time and risk, providing bubbles are not present, but can increase risk if bubbles are present.

text: The effectiveness of various types of respirators was measured not only in the laboratories, but also in the workplaces. These numerous measurements have shown that, in practice,the effectiveness of negative pressure tight fitting respiratory protective devices (RPD) depends on leakage between the mask and the face, not on the filters/canisters (if they are correctly chosen). This decrease in efficiency due to leakage had manifested on a large scale during the first world war, when gas masks were used to protect against chemical weapons. If the soldiers wore masks improperly, or if the mask didn't fit their faces, people could die. The Russian army began to use short-term exposure to chlorine at low concentrations to solve this problem in 1917. Such testing also helped to convince the soldiers that their gas masks were reliable - because respirators were a novelty. Later, industrial workers were trained in the gas chambers under the influence of harmful substances in the USSR (in preparation for the Second World War), and late'. German firefighters used a similar test between the First and Second World Wars. Diluted chloropicrin was used to test industrial gas masks, but not often. The Soviet Army used chloropicrin in tents with a floor space of 16 square meters.

text: The effectiveness of various types of respirators was measured not only in the laboratories, but also in the workplaces. These numerous measurements have shown that, in practice,the effectiveness of negative pressure tight fitting respiratory protective devices (RPD) depends on leakage between the mask and the face, not on the filters/canisters (if they are correctly chosen). This decrease in efficiency due to leakage had manifested on a large scale during the

text: first world war

text: , when

text: gas mask

text: s were used to protect against

text: chemical weapon

text: s. If the soldiers wore masks improperly, or if the mask didn't fit their faces, people could die. The Russian army began to use short-term exposure to

text: chlorine

text: at low concentrations to solve this problem in 1917. Such testing also helped to convince the soldiers that their gas masks were reliable - because respirators were a novelty. Later, industrial workers were trained in the gas chambers under the influence of harmful substances in the

text: USSR

text: (in preparation for the

text: Second World War

text: ), and late'. German

text: firefighter

text: s used a similar test between the First and Second World Wars. Diluted

text: chloropicrin

text: was used to test industrial gas masks, but not often. The Soviet Army used chloropicrin in tents with a floor space of 16 square meters.

text: Influenza hemagglutinin (HA) or haemagglutinin (British English) is a glycoprotein found on the surface of influenza viruses. It is responsible for binding the virus to cells with sialic acid on the membranes, such as cells in the upper respiratory tract or erythrocytes. It is also responsible for the fusion of the viral envelope with the endosome membrane, after the pH has been reduced. The name "hemagglutinin" comes from the protein's ability to cause red blood cells (erythrocytes) to clump together ("agglutinate") in vitro.

text: Influenza hemagglutinin (HA) or haemagglutinin (

text: British English

text: ) is a

text: glycoprotein

text: found on the surface of

text: influenza

text: virus

text: es. It is responsible for binding the

text: virus

text: to cells with

text: sialic acid

text: on the

text: membrane

text: s, such as cells in the upper

text: respiratory tract

text: or

text: erythrocytes

text: . It is also responsible for the fusion of the

text: viral envelope

text: with the

text: endosome

text: membrane, after the

text: pH

text: has been reduced. The name "hemagglutinin" comes from the

text: protein

text: 's ability to cause red blood cells (erythrocytes) to clump together ("

text: agglutinate

text: in vitro

text: In acid base physiology, the Davenport Diagram is a graphical tool, developed by Horace W. Davenport, that allows a clinician or investigator to describe blood bicarbonate concentrations and blood pH following a respiratory and/or metabolic acid-base disturbance. The diagram depicts a three-dimensional surface describing all possible states of chemical equilibria between gaseous carbon dioxide, aqueous bicarbonate and aqueous protons at the physiologically complex interface of the alveoli of the lungs and the alveolar capillaries. Although the surface represented in the diagram is experimentally determined, the Davenport Diagram is primarily a conceptual tool, allowing the investigator to envision the effects of physiological changes on blood acid-base chemistry. The Davenport Diagram is rarely used in the clinical setting.

text: In

text: acid base physiology

text: , the Davenport Diagram is a graphical tool, developed by

text: Horace W. Davenport

text: , that allows a clinician or investigator to describe

text: blood

text: bicarbonate

text: concentrations

text: and blood

text: pH

text: following a respiratory and/or metabolic acid-base disturbance. The diagram depicts a three-dimensional surface describing all possible states of

text: chemical equilibria

text: between

text: gaseous

text: carbon dioxide

text: aqueous

text: bicarbonate and aqueous protons at the physiologically complex interface of the

text: alveoli

text: of the

text: lungs

text: and the alveolar

text: capillaries

text: . Although the surface represented in the diagram is experimentally determined, the Davenport Diagram is primarily a conceptual tool, allowing the investigator to envision the effects of physiological changes on blood acid-base chemistry. The Davenport Diagram is rarely used in the clinical setting.

text: The PRG regulates the amount of air a person can take into the body in each breath. The dorsal respiratory group has rhythmic bursts of activity that are constant in duration and interval. When we need to breathe faster, the PRG tells the dorsal respiratory group to speed up.  When we need longer breaths the bursts of activity are elongated.  All the information that our body uses to help us breath happens in the pneumotaxic center.  If this was damaged or in any way harmed it would make breathing on our own almost impossible.  One study on this subject was on anesthetized paralyzed cats before and after bivagotomy.  Ventilation was monitored in awake and anesthetized cats breathing air or CO2. Ventilation was monitored both before and after lesions to the pneumotaxic center region and after subsequent bilateral vagotomy. Cats with pontine lesions had a prolonged inhalation duration. In cats, after anaesthesia and bivagotomy, pontine transection has been described as evoking a long sustained inspiratory discharges interrupted by short expiratory pauses. In rats on the other hand, after anaesthesia, bivagotomy and pontine transection, this breathing pattern was not observed, either in vivo or in vitro. These results suggest interspecies differences between rat and cat in the pontine influences on the medullary respiratory generator.

text: The respiratory system (called also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment.

text: The respiratory system (called also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a

text: biological system

text: consisting of specific

text: organs

text: and structures used for the process of

text: respiration

text: in an

text: organism

text: . The respiratory system is involved in the intake and

text: exchange

text: of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: between an organism and the environment.

text: Ostriches develop via Intussusceptive angiogenesis, a mechanism of blood vessel formation, characterizing many organs. It is not only involved in vasculature expansion, but also in angioadaptation of vessels to meet physiological requirements. The use of such mechanisms demonstrates an increase in the later stages of lung development, along with elaborate parabronchial vasculature, and reorientation of the gas exchange blood capillaries to establish the crosscurrent system at the blood-gas barrier. The blood–gas barrier (BGB) of their lung tissue is thick. The advantage of this thick barrier may be protection from damage by large volumes of blood flow in times of activity, such as running, since air is pumped by the air sacs rather than the lung itself. As a result, the capillaries in the parabronchi have thinner walls, permitting more efficient gaseous exchange. In combination with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, it helps to reduce stress on the BGB.

text: Ostriches develop via

text: Intussusceptive angiogenesis

text: , a mechanism of

text: blood vessel

text: formation, characterizing many organs. It is not only involved in vasculature expansion, but also in angioadaptation of vessels to meet physiological requirements. The use of such mechanisms demonstrates an increase in the later stages of

text: lung

text: development, along with elaborate parabronchial

text: vasculature

text: , and reorientation of the

text: gas exchange

text: blood capillaries to establish the crosscurrent system at the blood-gas barrier. The

text: blood–gas barrier

text: (BGB) of their lung tissue is thick. The advantage of this thick barrier may be protection from damage by large volumes of blood flow in times of activity, such as running, since air is pumped by the air sacs rather than the lung itself. As a result, the

text: capillaries

text: in the parabronchi have thinner walls, permitting more efficient gaseous exchange. In combination with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, it helps to reduce stress on the BGB.

text: The process of breathing occurs because of signals sent along the phrenic nerve in the respiratory centres situated in the medulla of the brainstem. The respiratory centres are situated below the fourth ventricle and contains two main groups of neurons, a ventral respiratory group and a dorsal respiratory group. The ventral respiratory group is responsible for muscle movements associated with respiration (such as of the pharynx, larynx and intercostal muscles) and may contain the "pacemaker" cells responsible for driving the rate of respiration in the pre-Botzinger complex. The dorsal respiratory group seems primarily responsible for control of the diaphragm and integration of signals transmitted back via the vagus nerve that affect the rate of respiration. Within these two groups are mixed groups of nerves, inspiratory neurons, and expiratory neurons. These spontaneously generate signals (action potentials) responsible for inspiration and expiration which are then transmitted to the diaphragm by the phrenic nerve.

text: The process of breathing occurs because of signals sent along the

text: phrenic nerve

text: in the

text: respiratory centre

text: s situated in the

text: medulla

text: of the

text: brainstem

text: . The respiratory centres are situated below the

text: fourth ventricle

text: and contains two main groups of neurons, a

text: ventral respiratory group

text: and a

text: dorsal respiratory group

text: . The ventral respiratory group is responsible for muscle movements associated with respiration (such as of the

text: pharynx

text: larynx

text: and

text: intercostal muscles

text: ) and may contain the "pacemaker" cells responsible for driving the rate of respiration in the

text: pre-Botzinger complex

text: . The dorsal respiratory group seems primarily responsible for control of the

text: diaphragm

text: and integration of signals transmitted back via the vagus nerve that affect the rate of respiration. Within these two groups are mixed groups of nerves, inspiratory neurons, and expiratory neurons. These spontaneously generate signals (

text: action potential

text: s) responsible for inspiration and expiration which are then transmitted to the diaphragm by the phrenic nerve.

text: The game's locations reflect the dark atmosphere of real metro tunnels, with added survival horror elements. Paranormal phenomena, such as shadow figures, hallucinations, and unexplained noises are present, and, for the most part, the player has to rely on their lighter and rechargeable flashlight to navigate the darkness. Locations will often have an intricate layout, and the game lacks any form of map or objective marker, leaving the player to try finding their objectives with only a compass. The surface is more lethal than the metro system. Featuring a day-night cycle, and a dynamic weather system, these sections are severely irradiated and a gas mask must be worn at all times because of the toxic air. The player must collect air filters for the gas mask. These last several minutes each, and are automatically replaced provided the player has more in reserve. Players are also tasked to wipe off the dirt and blood splatter that collects on the gas mark. There is no head up display indicator to tell how long the player has until the gas mask's filters begin to fail — rather, a timer on the character's wristwatch shows how long until the current filter expires. The watch also serves to indicate to a player if they have been exposed to enemy attention. With every weapon, the bullets are (partly) visible, informing the player that their weapon is about to run out of ammunition and they have to reload. Instead of head up display the game makes use of audio and visual cues to present information to players.

text: The game's locations reflect the dark atmosphere of real metro tunnels, with added survival horror elements. Paranormal phenomena, such as shadow figures, hallucinations, and unexplained noises are present, and, for the most part, the player has to rely on their lighter and rechargeable flashlight to navigate the darkness. Locations will often have an intricate layout, and the game lacks any form of map or objective marker, leaving the player to try finding their objectives with only a compass. The surface is more lethal than the metro system. Featuring a day-night cycle, and a dynamic weather system, these sections are severely irradiated and a gas mask must be worn at all times because of the toxic air. The player must collect air filters for the gas mask. These last several minutes each, and are automatically replaced provided the player has more in reserve. Players are also tasked to wipe off the dirt and blood splatter that collects on the gas mark. There is no

text: head up display

text: indicator to tell how long the player has until the gas mask's filters begin to fail — rather, a timer on the character's wristwatch shows how long until the current filter expires. The watch also serves to indicate to a player if they have been exposed to enemy attention. With every weapon, the bullets are (partly) visible, informing the player that their weapon is about to run out of ammunition and they have to reload. Instead of head up display the game makes use of audio and visual cues to present information to players.

text: Synyctin-1 mediated trophoblast fusion is essential for normal placental development. The placenta is composed on two cell layers: cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast layer. Cytotrophoblasts are continually dividing, non-differentiated cells and syncytiotrophoblasts are fully differentiated, non dividing, fused cells.  Syncytin-1 expression on the surface of cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts mediate fusion.  The syncytiotrophoblast layer is the necessary interface between the developing embryo and the maternal blood supply, allowing nutrient and waste exchange and blocking maternal immune cell invasion, preventing immune rejection of the foetus. Syncytiotrophoblasts are forced into senescence by fusion. Therefore, cytotrophoblast proliferation is necessary for growth and maintenance of the syncytiotrophoblast layer. Syncytin-1 expression in cytotrophoblasts promotes G1/S transition and proliferation thereby ensuring continual replenishment of the cytotrophoblast pool.  The name syncytin derives from its involvement in the formation of syncytium, the multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast protoplasm. There is another endogenous retroviral envelope protein expressed in the placenta from a different ERV family: syncytin-2 (of HERV-FRD).

text: Synyctin-1 mediated

text: trophoblast

text: fusion is essential for normal

text: placenta

text: l development. The placenta is composed on two cell layers:

text: cytotrophoblast

text: and

text: syncytiotrophoblast

text: layer. Cytotrophoblasts are continually dividing, non-differentiated cells and syncytiotrophoblasts are fully differentiated, non dividing, fused cells.  Syncytin-1 expression on the surface of cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts mediate fusion.  The syncytiotrophoblast layer is the necessary interface between the developing embryo and the maternal blood supply, allowing nutrient and waste exchange and blocking maternal immune cell invasion, preventing immune rejection of the foetus. Syncytiotrophoblasts are forced into

text: senescence

text: by fusion. Therefore, cytotrophoblast proliferation is necessary for growth and maintenance of the syncytiotrophoblast layer. Syncytin-1 expression in cytotrophoblasts promotes G1/S transition and proliferation thereby ensuring continual replenishment of the cytotrophoblast pool.  The name syncytin derives from its involvement in the formation of

text: syncytium

text: , the multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast protoplasm. There is another endogenous retroviral envelope protein expressed in the placenta from a different ERV family:

text: (of HERV-FRD).

text: The conducting zone of the respiratory system is made up of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles; their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs. It consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs. It is composed of the 1st through the 16th division of the respiratory tract (airway).

text: The conducting zone of the

text: respiratory system

text: is made up of the

text: nose

text: pharynx

text: larynx

text: trachea

text: bronchi

text: bronchiole

text: s, and

text: terminal bronchiole

text: s; their function is to filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the

text: lung

text: s. It consists of a series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs. It is composed of the 1st through the 16th division of the

text: respiratory tract

text: airway

text: Ancients commonly linked the breath to a life force. The Hebrew Bible refers to God breathing the breath of life into clay to make Adam a living soul (nephesh). It also refers to the breath as returning to God when a mortal dies. The terms "spirit," "qi," "prana" and "psyche" are related to the concept of breath. Also cognate are Polynesian Mana and Hebrew ruach.

text: Ancients commonly linked the breath to a life force. The

text: Hebrew Bible

text: refers to God breathing the breath of life into clay to make Adam a living soul (

text: nephesh

text: ). It also refers to the breath as returning to God when a mortal dies. The terms "spirit," "

text: qi

text: prana

text: " and "

text: psyche

text: " are related to the concept of breath. Also cognate are Polynesian

text: Mana

text: and Hebrew

text: ruach

text: People with HVS may feel that they cannot get enough air. In reality, they have about the same oxygenation in the arterial blood (normal values are about 98% for hemoglobin saturation) and too little carbon dioxide (hypocapnia) in their blood and other tissues.  While oxygen is abundant in the bloodstream, HVS reduces effective delivery of that oxygen to vital organs due to low--induced vasoconstriction and the suppressed Bohr effect.

text: People with HVS may feel that they cannot get enough air. In reality, they have about the same oxygenation in the arterial blood (normal values are about 98% for hemoglobin saturation) and too little

text: carbon dioxide

text: hypocapnia

text: ) in their blood and other tissues.  While oxygen is abundant in the bloodstream, HVS reduces effective delivery of that oxygen to vital organs due to low--induced

text: vasoconstriction

text: and the suppressed

text: Bohr effect

text: Respiration altered in

text: Respiration altered in

text: Carbonic acid is an intermediate step on the transport of CO out of the body via respiratory gas exchange. The hydration reaction of CO is generally very slow in the absence of a catalyst, but red blood cells contain carbonic anhydrase, which both increases the reaction rate and dissociates a hydrogen ion (H) from the resulting carbonic acid, leaving bicarbonate (HCO) dissolved in the blood plasma. This catalysed reaction is reversed in the lungs, where it converts the bicarbonate back into CO and allows it to be expelled.  This equilibration plays an important role as a buffer in mammalian blood. A 2016 theoretical report suggests that carbonic acid may have pivotal role in protonating various nitrogen bases in blood serum.

text: Carbonic acid is an intermediate step on the transport of CO out of the body via

text: respiratory gas exchange

text: . The hydration reaction of CO is generally very slow in the absence of a catalyst, but

text: red blood cells

text: contain

text: carbonic anhydrase

text: , which both increases the reaction rate and dissociates a hydrogen ion (H) from the resulting carbonic acid, leaving

text: bicarbonate

text: (HCO) dissolved in the

text: blood plasma

text: . This catalysed reaction is reversed in the lungs, where it converts the bicarbonate back into CO and allows it to be expelled.  This equilibration plays an important role as a

text: buffer

text: in mammalian blood. A 2016 theoretical report suggests that carbonic acid may have pivotal role in protonating various nitrogen bases in blood serum.

text: Respiratory system

text: Respiratory system

text: Most of the respiratory system is lined with mucous membranes that contain mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue, which produces white blood cells such as lymphocytes.

text: Most of the respiratory system is lined with mucous membranes that contain mucosal-associated

text: lymphoid tissue

text: , which produces

text: white blood cell

text: s such as

text: lymphocyte

text: s.

text: Continuing with developmental changes, T. carnifex will undergo a coupling of many processes as it eases into adulthood. Some of these processes include the metabolic needs of different tissues, cardiac activity, and respiratory procedures such as gas exchange. This coupling will be achieved by the autonomous nervous control system. More developmental changes include humoral and nervous control mechanisms, which will actually combine so that response to physiological and environmental changes will be met with a more coordinated reaction. The nervous system assists in development of cardiovascular functions, but this change will occur much later in life. Any time there is a switch from one type of respiration (e.g. cutaneous) to another (e.g. lung) there will be a required alteration and modification of the circulatory system. Another increase that comes with development is that of blood pressure. This is due to both the increase of blood in the organism due to size increasing, and as a response to the enlargement of internal organs.

text: The effects of particles on the respiratory system include de novo causation of clinical disease as well as exacerbation of existing disease. If particulate inhalation is to directly cause disease, the exposure levels typically must be at levels that are encountered in industrial settings. For example, silicosis is a well-known disease of persons working for years in conditions in which dust containing quartz is inhaled. Epidemiological studies show that ambient dust levels such as those that are encountered in some cities can exacerbate respiratory conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. At certain times, sand dust that originates in Asia or Arizona, for example, has been associated with exacerbation of allergenic respiratory inflammation.

text: Lungfish have a highly specialized respiratory system.  They have a distinct feature that their lungs are connected to the larynx and pharynx without a trachea.  While other species of fish can breathe air using modified, vascularized gas bladders, these bladders are usually simple sacs, devoid of complex internal structure.  In contrast, the lungs of lungfish are subdivided into numerous smaller air sacs, maximizing the surface area available for gas exchange.

text: Lungfish have a highly specialized

text: respiratory system

text: .  They have a distinct feature that their lungs are connected to the larynx and pharynx without a trachea.  While other species of fish can breathe air using modified, vascularized

text: gas bladder

text: s, these bladders are usually simple sacs, devoid of complex internal structure.  In contrast, the lungs of lungfish are subdivided into numerous smaller air sacs, maximizing the surface area available for gas exchange.

text: CCRT, earlier known as Scottsdale Education Center, originated in December 1971 and was located in Phoenix, Arizona (AZ). As a vocational-technical school, the college offered multiple allied health and technical programs. A Respiratory Therapy Technician Program was initiated by the college in January 1974 and was continued till 1976, in Phoenix. Scottsdale Education Center became California College for Respiratory Therapy (CCRT) after moving to California, where it operated in San Diego from 1977 to 1980. The college then offered only a Respiratory Therapy Technician program. A distance education model of the Respiratory Therapy Program was launched by CCRT in 1978. In 1983 CCRT renamed itself as California College of Health Sciences (CCHS).

text: General health maintenance should be the therapeutic emphasis in Freeman–Sheldon syndrome. The focus is on limiting exposure to infectious diseases because the musculoskeletal abnormalities make recovery from routine infections much more difficult in FSS. Pneumonitis and bronchitis often follow seemingly mild upper respiratory tract infections. Though respiratory challenges and complications faced by a patient with FSS can be numerous, the syndrome’s primary involvement is limited to the musculoskeletal systems, and satisfactory quality and length of life can be expected with proper care.

text: General health maintenance should be the therapeutic emphasis in Freeman–Sheldon syndrome. The focus is on limiting exposure to

text: infectious disease

text: s because the musculoskeletal abnormalities make recovery from routine infections much more difficult in FSS.

text: Pneumonitis

text: and

text: bronchitis

text: often follow seemingly mild

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: s. Though respiratory challenges and complications faced by a patient with FSS can be numerous, the syndrome’s primary involvement is limited to the musculoskeletal systems, and satisfactory quality and length of life can be expected with proper care.

text: Bronchospasm are caused by a number of reasons. Lower respiratory tract conditions such as pneumonia, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and emphysema can result in contraction of the airways. Other causes are side effects of topical decongestants such as oxymetazoline and phenylephrine. Both of these medications activate alpha-1 adrenergic receptors that result in smooth muscle constriction. Non-selective beta blockers are known to facilitate bronchospasm as well. Beta blockers bind into the β2 receptors and block the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine from binding to its receptors, causing shortness of breath.

text: Bronchospasm are caused by a number of reasons. Lower respiratory tract conditions such as

text: pneumonia

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), and

text: emphysema

text: can result in contraction of the airways. Other causes are side effects of topical decongestants such as

text: oxymetazoline

text: and

text: phenylephrine

text: . Both of these medications activate alpha-1 adrenergic receptors that result in smooth muscle constriction. Non-selective

text: beta blockers

text: are known to facilitate bronchospasm as well. Beta blockers bind into the β2 receptors and block the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine from binding to its receptors, causing shortness of breath.

text: Strongyloides infection occurs in five forms. On acquiring the infection, there may be respiratory symptoms (Löffler's syndrome). The infection may then become chronic with mainly digestive symptoms. On reinfection (when larvae migrate through the body), there may be respiratory, skin and digestive symptoms. Finally, the hyperinfection syndrome causes symptoms in many organ systems, including the central nervous system.

text: Strongyloides infection occurs in five forms. On acquiring the infection, there may be respiratory symptoms (

text: Löffler's syndrome

text: ). The infection may then become chronic with mainly digestive symptoms. On reinfection (when larvae migrate through the body), there may be respiratory, skin and digestive symptoms. Finally, the hyperinfection syndrome causes symptoms in many organ systems, including the

text: central nervous system

text: The Registry Examination System was developed to objectively measure essential knowledge, skills, and abilities required of advanced respiratory therapists, and to set uniform standards for measuring such knowledge. The CRT credential is a prerequisite for admission to the Registry Examination. The RRT Examinations consist of a written portion (WRE)  and a clinical simulation portion (CSE) .  Candidates must schedule separate testing appointments for each of these portions. However, candidates may attempt both parts on the same day, provided testing sessions are available. Individuals who attempt both parts of the examination and achieve passing scores will be awarded the Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT) credential.

text: The Registry Examination System was developed to objectively measure essential knowledge, skills, and abilities required of advanced respiratory therapists, and to set uniform standards for measuring such knowledge. The

text: CRT

text: credential is a prerequisite for admission to the Registry Examination. The

text: RRT

text: Examinations consist of a written portion (WRE)  and a clinical simulation portion (

text: CSE

text: ) .  Candidates must schedule separate testing appointments for each of these portions. However, candidates may attempt both parts on the same day, provided testing sessions are available. Individuals who attempt both parts of the examination and achieve passing scores will be awarded the

text: Registered Respiratory Therapist

text: (RRT) credential.

text: For an open-system, design constraints include washout characteristics of the animal chamber and sensitivity of the gas analyzers.  However, the basic principle remains the same: What goes in must come out. The primary distinction between an open and closed system is that the open system flows air through the chamber (i.e., air is pushed or pulled by pump) at a rate that constantly replenishes the O depleted by the animal while removing the CO and water vapor produced by the animal. The flow rate must be high enough to ensure that the animal never consumes all of the oxygen present in the chamber while at the same time, the rate must be low enough so that the animal consumes enough O for detection. For a 20 g mouse, flow rates of about 200 ml/min through 500 ml containers would provide a good balance. At this flow rate, about 40 ml of O is brought to the chamber and the entire volume of air in the chamber is exchanged within 5 minutes. For other smaller animals, chamber volumes can be much smaller and flow rates would be adjusted down as well. Note that for warm-blooded or endothermic animals (birds and mammals), chamber sizes and or flow rates would be selected to accommodate their higher metabolic rates.

text: For an open-system, design constraints include washout characteristics of the animal chamber and sensitivity of the gas analyzers.  However, the basic principle remains the same: What goes in must come out. The primary distinction between an open and closed system is that the open system flows air through the chamber (i.e., air is pushed or pulled by pump) at a rate that constantly replenishes the O depleted by the animal while removing the CO and water vapor produced by the animal. The

text: flow rate

text: must be high enough to ensure that the animal never consumes all of the oxygen present in the chamber while at the same time, the rate must be low enough so that the animal consumes enough O for detection. For a 20 g

text: mouse

text: , flow rates of about 200 ml/min through 500 ml containers would provide a good balance. At this flow rate, about 40 ml of O is brought to the chamber and the entire volume of air in the chamber is exchanged within 5 minutes. For other smaller animals, chamber volumes can be much smaller and flow rates would be adjusted down as well. Note that for

text: warm-blooded

text: or endothermic animals (

text: birds

text: and

text: mammals

text: ), chamber sizes and or flow rates would be selected to accommodate their higher metabolic rates.

text: Patients with symptoms of CAP require evaluation. Physical examination by a health provider may reveal fever, an increased respiratory rate (tachypnea), low blood pressure (hypotension), a fast heart rate (tachycardia) and changes in the amount of oxygen in the blood. Palpating the chest as it expands and tapping the chest wall (percussion) to identify dull, non-resonant areas can identify stiffness and fluid, signs of CAP.

text: Patients with symptoms of CAP require evaluation.

text: Physical examination

text: by a health provider may reveal fever, an increased

text: respiratory rate

text: tachypnea

text: ), low

text: blood pressure

text: hypotension

text: ), a fast

text: heart rate

text: tachycardia

text: ) and changes in the amount of oxygen in the

text: blood

text: Palpating

text: the chest as it expands and tapping the chest wall (

text: percussion

text: ) to identify dull,

text: non-resonant

text: areas can identify stiffness and fluid, signs of CAP.

text: A predisposing factor to developing DIL is N-acetylation speed, or the rate at which the body can metabolize the drug. This is greatly decreased in patients with a genetic deficiency of the enzyme N-acetyltransferase. A study showed that 29 of 30 patients with DIL were slow acetylators. In addition, these patients had more hydralazine metabolites in their urine than fast acetylators. These metabolites (byproducts of the interactions between the drug and constituents in the body) of hydralazine are said to have been created when white blood cells have been activated, meaning they are stimulated to produce a respiratory burst. Respiratory burst in white blood cells induces an increased production of free radicals and oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide. These oxidants have been found to react with hydralazine to produce a reactive species that is able to bond to protein. Monocytes, one type of white blood cell, detect the antigen and relay the recognition to T helper cells, creating antinuclear antibodies leading to an immune response. Further studies on the interactions between oxidants and hydralazine are necessary to understand the processes involved in DIL.	Of the drugs that cause DIL, hydralazine has been found to cause a higher incidence. Hydralazine is a medication used to treat high blood pressure. Approximately 5% of the patients who have taken hydralazine over long periods of time and in high doses have shown DIL-like symptoms.  Many of the other drugs have a low to very low risk to develop DIL. The following table shows the risk of development of DIL of some of these drugs on a very to high scale.

text: A predisposing factor to developing DIL is N-acetylation speed, or the rate at which the body can metabolize the drug. This is greatly decreased in patients with a genetic deficiency of the enzyme

text: N-acetyltransferase

text: . A study showed that 29 of 30 patients with DIL were slow acetylators. In addition, these patients had more hydralazine

text: metabolites

text: in their urine than fast acetylators. These metabolites (byproducts of the interactions between the drug and constituents in the body) of hydralazine are said to have been created when

text: white blood cells

text: have been activated, meaning they are stimulated to produce a

text: respiratory burst

text: . Respiratory burst in white blood cells induces an increased production of free radicals and oxidants such as

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: . These

text: oxidants

text: have been found to react with hydralazine to produce a reactive species that is able to bond to protein.

text: Monocytes

text: , one type of white blood cell, detect the antigen and relay the recognition to

text: T helper cell

text: s, creating

text: antinuclear antibodies

text: leading to an immune response. Further studies on the interactions between oxidants and hydralazine are necessary to understand the processes involved in DIL.	Of the drugs that cause DIL,

text: hydralazine

text: has been found to cause a higher incidence. Hydralazine is a medication used to treat high blood pressure. Approximately 5% of the patients who have taken hydralazine over long periods of time and in high doses have shown DIL-like symptoms.  Many of the other drugs have a low to very low risk to develop DIL. The following table shows the risk of development of DIL of some of these drugs on a very to high scale.

text: The Eustachian tube also drains mucus from the middle ear. Upper respiratory tract infections or allergies can cause the Eustachian tube, or the membranes surrounding its opening to become swollen, trapping fluid, which serves as a growth medium for bacteria, causing ear infections. This swelling can be reduced through the use of decongestants such as pseudoephedrine, oxymetazoline, and phenylephrine. Ear infections are more common in children because the tube is horizontal and shorter, making bacterial entry easier, and it also has a smaller diameter, making the movement of fluid more difficult. In addition, children's developing immune systems and poor hygiene habits make them more prone to upper respiratory infections.

text: The Eustachian tube also drains mucus from the middle ear. Upper respiratory tract infections or allergies can cause the Eustachian tube, or the membranes surrounding its opening to become swollen, trapping fluid, which serves as a growth medium for bacteria, causing

text: ear infection

text: s. This swelling can be reduced through the use of decongestants such as

text: pseudoephedrine

text: oxymetazoline

text: , and

text: phenylephrine

text: . Ear infections are more common in children because the tube is horizontal and shorter, making bacterial entry easier, and it also has a smaller diameter, making the movement of fluid more difficult. In addition, children's developing immune systems and poor hygiene habits make them more prone to upper respiratory infections.

text: There are almost no symptoms of acute exposure to PAHs, because they cause no acute toxicity. After chronic exposure, PAHs do cause signs and symptoms of toxicity. All health effects associated with chronic exposure to PAHs are in table 4. Exposure to PAHs causes adverse side-effects on skin, eyes, respiratory system, gastrointestinal system, hematopoietic system and genitourinary system.

text: It is irritating to eyes, respiratory system and skin.

text: Poisoning by a nerve agent leads to contraction of pupils, profuse salivation, convulsions, involuntary urination and defecation, and death by asphyxiation due to a loss of control of the respiratory muscles. Some nerve agents are readily vaporized or aerosolized, and the primary portal of entry into the body is the respiratory system. Nerve agents can also be absorbed through the skin, requiring that those likely to be subjected to such agents wear a full body suit in addition to a respirator.

text: Poisoning by a nerve agent leads to contraction of

text: pupil

text: s, profuse

text: salivation

text: convulsion

text: s, involuntary

text: urination

text: and

text: defecation

text: , and death by

text: asphyxiation

text: due to a loss of control of the respiratory muscles. Some nerve agents are readily vaporized or

text: aerosol

text: ized, and the primary portal of entry into the body is the

text: respiratory system

text: . Nerve agents can also be absorbed through the skin, requiring that those likely to be subjected to such agents wear a full body suit in addition to a

text: respirator

text: The human body uses the energy released by respiration for a wide range of purposes: about 20% of the energy is used for brain metabolism, and much of the rest is used for the basal metabolic requirements of other organs and tissues. In cold environments, metabolism may increase simply to produce heat to maintain body temperature. Among the diverse uses for energy, one is the production of mechanical energy by skeletal muscle to maintain posture and produce motion.

text: Although respiratory support can ease problems with breathing and prolong survival, it does not affect the progression of ALS.  Most people with ALS die between 2 and four years after the diagnosis. Around half of people with ALS die within 30 months of their symptoms beginning, and about 20% of people with ALS live between 5 years and 10 years after symptoms begin.  Guitarist Jason Becker has lived since 1989 with the disorder, while physicist Stephen Hawking has survived for more than 50 years, but they are considered unusual cases.

text: Although respiratory support can ease problems with breathing and prolong survival, it does not affect the progression of ALS.  Most people with ALS die between 2 and four years after the diagnosis. Around half of people with ALS die within 30 months of their symptoms beginning, and about 20% of people with ALS live between 5 years and 10 years after symptoms begin.  Guitarist

text: Jason Becker

text: has lived since 1989 with the disorder, while physicist Stephen Hawking has survived for more than 50 years, but they are considered unusual cases.

text: The respiratory tract begins with the trachea and bronchi. These structures are lined with columnar epithelial cells that possess cilia, small frond-like projections. Interspersed with the epithelial cells are goblet cells which produce mucous, and club cells with actions similar to macrophages. Surrounding these in the trachea and bronchi are cartilage rings, which help to maintain stability. Bronchioles possess the same columnar epithelial lining, but are not surrounded by cartilage rings. Instead, they are encircled by a layer of smooth muscle. The respiratory tract ends in lobules. These consist of a respiratory bronchiole, which branches into alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs, which in turn divide into alveoli.

text: The respiratory tract begins with the trachea and bronchi. These structures are lined with

text: columnar epithelial cell

text: s that possess

text: cilia

text: , small frond-like projections. Interspersed with the epithelial cells are

text: goblet cell

text: s which produce mucous, and

text: club cells

text: with actions similar to

text: macrophage

text: s. Surrounding these in the trachea and bronchi are

text: cartilage

text: rings, which help to maintain stability. Bronchioles possess the same columnar epithelial lining, but are not surrounded by cartilage rings. Instead, they are encircled by a layer of

text: smooth muscle

text: . The respiratory tract ends in lobules. These consist of a

text: respiratory bronchiole

text: , which branches into

text: alveolar duct

text: s and

text: alveolar sac

text: s, which in turn divide into

text: alveoli

text: Inside the building, the gas passes through a pressure valve into heat exchanger coils.  There, the hot refrigerant gas condenses back to a liquid and transfers the stored latent heat to the indoor air, water heating or hot water system. The indoor air or heating water is pumped across the heat exchanger by an electric pump or fan.

text: Inside the building, the gas passes through a pressure

text: valve

text: into heat exchanger coils.  There, the hot refrigerant gas condenses back to a liquid and transfers the stored

text: latent heat

text: to the indoor air, water heating or hot water system. The indoor air or heating water is pumped across the heat exchanger by an electric pump or

text: fan

text: Hearing loss, as caused by the 3243 mitochondrial DNA mutation, is seen in the form of progressive cochlear dysfunction. Although the mechanism by which the mutation in the tRNALeu(UUR) causes this dysfunction of the cochlea is still under investivation, it has been hypothesized that it involves the ion pumps required for sound transduction. As the mutation in the tRNALeu(UUR) leads to unbalanced amounts or unstable respiratory chain enzymes, respiration and oxidative phosphorylation are reduced, leading to lower levels of ATP.  Naturally, the most metabolically active organs in the patient will be affected by this ATP deficiency. Included in these metabolically active organs is the cochlear stria vascularis. The stria vascularis and the hair cells, both essential to sound transduction, make use of ion pumps to regulate the concentration of ions including K+, Na+, and Ca2+ using ATP. Without sufficient levels of ATP, these concentration gradients are not maintained and this can lead to cell death in both the stria vascularis and the hair cells, causing hearing loss.

text: Hearing loss

text: , as caused by the 3243

text: mitochondrial DNA

text: mutation, is seen in the form of progressive

text: cochlea

text: r dysfunction. Although the mechanism by which the mutation in the tRNALeu(UUR) causes this dysfunction of the

text: cochlea

text: is still under investivation, it has been hypothesized that it involves the ion pumps required for sound

text: transduction

text: . As the mutation in the tRNALeu(UUR) leads to unbalanced amounts or unstable

text: respiratory chain

text: enzymes

text: respiration

text: and

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: are reduced, leading to lower levels of

text: ATP

text: .  Naturally, the most metabolically active organs in the patient will be affected by this

text: ATP

text: deficiency. Included in these metabolically active organs is the

text: cochlea

text: r

text: stria vascularis

text: . The

text: stria vascularis

text: and the

text: hair cells

text: , both essential to sound transduction, make use of

text: ion pumps

text: to regulate the concentration of ions including K+, Na+, and Ca2+ using

text: ATP

text: . Without sufficient levels of

text: ATP

text: , these concentration gradients are not maintained and this can lead to cell death in both the

text: stria vascularis

text: and the

text: hair cells

text: , causing hearing loss.

text: An analeptic, in medicine, is a central nervous system stimulant.  The term analeptic typically refers to respiratory analeptics (for example, doxapram). Analeptics are central nervous system stimulants that include a wide variety of medications used to treat depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and respiratory depression. Analeptics can also be used as convulsants, with low doses causing  patients to experience heightened awareness, restlessness and rapid breathing.The primary medical use of these drugs is as an anesthetic recovery tool or to treat emergency respiratory depression.Other drugs of this category are prethcamide, pentylenetetrazole, and nikethamide. Nikethamide is now withdrawn due to risk of convulsions.  Analeptics have recently been used to better understand the treatment of a barbiturate overdose. Through the use of agents researchers were able to treat  obtundation and respiratory depression.

text: An analeptic, in

text: medicine

text: , is a

text: central nervous system

text: stimulant

text: .  The term analeptic typically refers to respiratory analeptics (for example,

text: doxapram

text: ). Analeptics are central nervous system stimulants that include a wide variety of medications used to treat depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (

entity_name: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: ADHD

text: ), and

text: respiratory depression

text: . Analeptics can also be used as

text: convulsants

text: , with low doses causing  patients to experience heightened awareness, restlessness and

text: rapid breathing

text: .The primary medical use of these drugs is as an

text: anesthetic

text: recovery tool or to treat emergency

text: respiratory depression

text: .Other drugs of this category are

text: prethcamide

text: pentylenetetrazole

text: , and

text: nikethamide

text: . Nikethamide is now withdrawn due to risk of convulsions.  Analeptics have recently been used to better understand the treatment of a

text: barbiturate

text: overdose. Through the use of agents researchers were able to treat

text: obtundation

text: and respiratory depression.

text: Following cannulation they are connected to the ECMO circuit and the blood flow is increased until respiratory and hemodynamic status is stable.

text: The sperm whale respiratory system has adapted to cope with drastic pressure changes when diving. The flexible ribcage allows lung collapse, reducing nitrogen intake, and metabolism can decrease to conserve oxygen. Between dives, the sperm whale surfaces to breathe for about eight minutes before diving again. Odontoceti (toothed whales) breathe air at the surface through a single, S-shaped blowhole, which is extremely skewed to the left. Sperm whales spout (breathe) 3–5 times per minute at rest, increasing to 6–7 times per minute after a dive. The blow is a noisy, single stream that rises up to  or more above the surface and points forward and left at a 45° angle. On average, females and juveniles blow every 12.5 seconds before dives, while large males blow every 17.5 seconds before dives. A sperm whale killed  south of Durban, South Africa after a 1-hour, 50-minute dive was found with two dogfish (Scymnodon sp.), usually found at the sea floor, in its belly.

text: The sperm whale respiratory system has adapted to cope with drastic pressure changes when diving. The flexible

text: ribcage

text: allows lung collapse, reducing

text: nitrogen

text: intake, and

text: metabolism

text: can decrease to conserve

text: oxygen

text: . Between dives, the sperm whale surfaces to breathe for about eight minutes before diving again. Odontoceti (toothed whales) breathe air at the surface through a single, S-shaped blowhole, which is extremely skewed to the left. Sperm whales spout (breathe) 3–5 times per minute at rest, increasing to 6–7 times per minute after a dive. The blow is a noisy, single stream that rises up to  or more above the surface and points forward and left at a 45° angle. On average, females and juveniles blow every 12.5 seconds before dives, while large males blow every 17.5 seconds before dives. A sperm whale killed  south of Durban, South Africa after a 1-hour, 50-minute dive was found with two dogfish (

text: Scymnodon

text: sp.), usually found at the

text: sea floor

text: , in its belly.

text: Respiratory minute volume (or minute ventilation or minute volume) is the volume of gas inhaled (inhaled minute volume) or exhaled (exhaled minute volume) from a person's lungs per minute. It is an important parameter in respiratory medicine due to its relationship with blood carbon dioxide levels. It can be measured with devices such as a Wright respirometer or can be calculated from other known respiratory parameters. Although minute volume can be viewed as a unit of volume, it is usually treated in practice as a flow rate (given that it represents a volume change over time).

text: Respiratory minute volume (or minute ventilation or minute volume) is the

text: volume

text: of gas

text: inhaled

text: (inhaled minute volume) or

text: exhaled

text: (exhaled minute volume) from a person's

text: lung

text: s per minute. It is an important parameter in

text: respiratory medicine

text: due to its relationship with

text: blood carbon dioxide levels

text: . It can be measured with devices such as a Wright respirometer or can be calculated from other known respiratory parameters. Although minute volume can be viewed as a unit of volume, it is usually treated in practice as a

text: flow rate

text: (given that it represents a volume change over time).

text: PIR insulation can be a mechanical irritant to skin, eyes, and upper respiratory system during fabrication (such as dust).  No statistically significant increased risks of respiratory diseases have been found in studies

text: (2000) The authors studied the filtering half-mask respirators. The workers used different models: part of respirators had forced supply of air from the cleaning unit, and a part was the usual negative pressure half masks. The results showed that if the workers use respirators intermittently, their efficiency are low, and significantly lower than expected: In the first type respirators 85-91% values of protection factors were lower than expected Assigned PF = 50; and the second type of RPE provide protection factor in 82-89% of cases lower than the expected APF = 10.

text: A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing Infant respiratory distress syndrome, gastrointestinal, and hematologic diseases, central nervous system (CNS) problems such as hearing loss, are more prone to infections, and at risk for hearing and vision loss.

text: A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing

text: Infant respiratory distress syndrome

text: , gastrointestinal, and hematologic diseases, central nervous system (CNS) problems such as hearing loss, are more prone to infections, and at risk for hearing and vision loss.

text: Once inside the lungs, bacteria then take advantage of any deficiencies in the immune system (such as due to malnutrition or chemotherapy) and multiply. Patients with VAP demonstrate impaired function of key immune cells, including the neutrophil, both in the blood and in the alveolar space, with this impairment being driven by pro-inflammatory molecules such as C5a.  These defects in immune function appear to be casually linked to the development of VAP, as they are seen before clinical infection develops.  A combination of bacterial damage and consequences of the immune response lead to disruption of gas exchange with resulting symptoms.

text: Once inside the lungs, bacteria then take advantage of any deficiencies in the

text: immune system

text: (such as due to

text: malnutrition

text: or

text: chemotherapy

text: ) and multiply. Patients with VAP demonstrate impaired function of key immune cells, including the

text: neutrophil

text: , both in the blood and in the alveolar space, with this impairment being driven by pro-inflammatory molecules such as

text: .  These defects in immune function appear to be casually linked to the development of VAP, as they are seen before clinical infection develops.  A combination of bacterial damage and consequences of the immune response lead to disruption of

text: gas exchange

text: with resulting symptoms.

text: The effects of oxycodone include pain relief, euphoria, anxiolysis, feelings of relaxation, and respiratory depression. Common side effects of oxycodone include constipation (23%), nausea (23%), vomiting (12%), somnolence (23%), dizziness (13%), itching (13%), dry mouth (6%), and sweating (5%). Less common side effects (experienced by less than 5% of patients) include loss of appetite, nervousness, abdominal pain, diarrhea, urine retention, dyspnea, and hiccups. In high doses, overdoses, or in some persons not tolerant to opioids, oxycodone can cause shallow breathing, bradycardia, cold/clammy skin, apnea, hypotension, miosis, circulatory collapse, respiratory arrest, and death.

text: The effects of oxycodone include

text: pain relief

text: euphoria

text: anxiolysis

text: , feelings of

text: relaxation

text: , and

text: respiratory depression

text: . Common side effects of oxycodone include

text: constipation

text: nausea

text: vomiting

text: somnolence

text: dizziness

text: itching

text: dry mouth

text: (6%), and

text: sweating

text: (5%). Less common side effects (experienced by less than 5% of patients) include

text: loss of appetite

text: nervousness

text: abdominal pain

text: diarrhea

text: urine retention

text: dyspnea

text: , and

text: hiccups

text: . In high doses,

text: overdose

text: s, or in some persons not tolerant to opioids, oxycodone can cause

text: shallow breathing

text: bradycardia

text: , cold/clammy skin,

text: apnea

text: hypotension

text: miosis

text: circulatory collapse

text: respiratory arrest

text: , and

text: death

text: CysLTR1 activation by LTC4 and/or LTD4 in animal models and humans causes: airways Bronchoconstriction and hyper-responsiveness to bronchoconstriction agents such as histamine; increased vascular permeability, edema, influx of eosinophils and neutrophils, smooth muscle proliferation, collagen deposition, and fibrosis it various tissue sites; and mucin secretion by goblet cells, goblet cell metaplasia, and epithelial cell hypertrophy in the membranes of the respiratory system. Animal model and human tissue (preclinical studies) implicate CysLTR1 as having protective/reparative effects in models of brain injury (trauma-, ischemia-, and cold-induced), multiple sclerosis, auto-immune encephalomyelitis, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. CysLTR1 activation is also associated in animal models with decreasing the Blood-brain barrier (i.e. increasing the permeability of brain capillaries to elements of the blood's soluble elements) as well as promoting the movement of leukocytes for the blood to brain tissues; these effects may increase the development and frequency of Epileptic seizure as well as the entry of leucocyte-borne viruses such as HIV-1 into brain tissue.

text: CysLTR1 activation by LTC4 and/or LTD4 in animal models and humans causes: airways

text: Bronchoconstriction

text: and hyper-responsiveness to bronchoconstriction agents such as

text: histamine

text: ; increased vascular permeability, edema, influx of eosinophils and neutrophils, smooth muscle proliferation,

text: collagen

text: deposition, and fibrosis it various tissue sites; and mucin secretion by

text: goblet cell

text: s, goblet cell

text: metaplasia

text: , and epithelial cell hypertrophy in the membranes of the respiratory system. Animal model and human tissue (

text: preclinical studies

text: ) implicate CysLTR1 as having protective/reparative effects in models of brain injury (trauma-,

text: ischemia

text: -, and cold-induced),

text: multiple sclerosis

text: , auto-immune

text: encephalomyelitis

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: , and

text: Parkinson's disease

text: . CysLTR1 activation is also associated in animal models with decreasing the

text: Blood-brain barrier

text: (i.e. increasing the permeability of brain capillaries to elements of the blood's soluble elements) as well as promoting the movement of leukocytes for the blood to brain tissues; these effects may increase the development and frequency of

text: Epileptic seizure

text: as well as the entry of leucocyte-borne viruses such as

text: into brain tissue.

text: Evidence suggests that the decline in lung function observed in chronic bronchitis may be slowed with smoking cessation. Chronic bronchitis is treated symptomatically and may be treated in a nonpharmacologic manner or with pharmacologic therapeutic agents. Typical nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of COPD including bronchitis may include: pulmonary rehabilitation, lung volume reduction surgery, and lung transplantation. Inflammation and edema of the respiratory epithelium may be reduced with inhaled corticosteroids. Wheezing and shortness of breath can be treated by reducing bronchospasm (reversible narrowing of smaller bronchi due to constriction of the smooth muscle)  with bronchodilators such as inhaled long acting β-adrenergic receptor agonists (e.g., salmeterol) and inhaled anticholinergics such as ipratropium bromide or tiotropium bromide. Mucolytics may have a small therapeutic effect on acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Supplemental oxygen is used to treat hypoxemia (too little oxygen in the blood) and has been shown to reduce mortality in chronic bronchitis patients. Oxygen supplementation can result in decreased respiratory drive, leading to increased blood levels of carbon dioxide (hypercapnea) and subsequent respiratory acidosis.

text: Evidence suggests that the decline in lung function observed in chronic bronchitis may be slowed with smoking cessation. Chronic bronchitis is treated symptomatically and may be treated in a nonpharmacologic manner or with pharmacologic therapeutic agents. Typical nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of COPD including bronchitis may include:

text: pulmonary rehabilitation

text: lung volume reduction surgery

text: , and

text: lung transplantation

text: . Inflammation and edema of the respiratory epithelium may be reduced with inhaled

text: corticosteroid

text: s. Wheezing and shortness of breath can be treated by reducing

text: bronchospasm

text: (reversible narrowing of smaller bronchi due to constriction of the

text: smooth muscle

text: )  with

text: bronchodilator

text: s such as inhaled

text: long acting β-adrenergic receptor agonist

text: s (e.g.,

text: salmeterol

text: ) and inhaled

text: anticholinergic

text: s such as

text: ipratropium bromide

text: or

text: tiotropium bromide

text: Mucolytics

text: may have a small therapeutic effect on acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis.

text: Supplemental oxygen

text: is used to treat

text: hypoxemia

text: (too little oxygen in the blood) and has been shown to reduce mortality in chronic bronchitis patients. Oxygen supplementation can result in decreased

text: respiratory drive

text: , leading to increased blood levels of

text: carbon dioxide

text: hypercapnea

text: ) and subsequent

text: respiratory acidosis

text: The respiratory zone is the site of O and CO exchange with the blood.

text: The respiratory zone is the site of O and CO exchange with the

text: blood

text: Work of breathing is the effort required to breathe. Part of the work of breathing is due to inherent physiological factors, part is due to the mechanics of the external breathing apparatus, and part is due to the characteristics of the breathing gas. A high work of breathing may result in carbon dioxide buildup in the diver, and reduces the diver's ability to produce useful physical effort

text: Although the terminology of "adult respiratory distress syndrome" has at times been used to differentiate ARDS from "infant respiratory distress syndrome" in neonates, international consensus is that "acute respiratory distress syndrome" is the best moniker because ARDS can affect those of all ages.

text: Although the terminology of "adult respiratory distress syndrome" has at times been used to differentiate ARDS from "

text: infant respiratory distress syndrome

text: " in neonates, international consensus is that "acute respiratory distress syndrome" is the best moniker because ARDS can affect those of all ages.

text: The lecithin–sphingomyelin ratio is a marker of fetal lung maturity. The outward flow of pulmonary secretions from the fetal lungs into the amniotic fluid maintains the level of lecithin and sphingomyelin equally until 32–33 weeks gestation, when the lecithin concentration begins to increase significantly while sphingomyelin remains nearly the same. As such, if a sample of amniotic fluid has a higher ratio, it indicates that there is more surfactant in the lungs and the baby will have less difficulty breathing at birth. An L–S ratio of 2 or more indicates fetal lung maturity and a relatively low risk of infant respiratory distress syndrome, and an L/S ratio of less than 1.5 is associated with a high risk of infant respiratory distress syndrome.

text: The lecithin–sphingomyelin ratio is a marker of fetal lung maturity. The outward flow of pulmonary secretions from the fetal lungs into the amniotic fluid maintains the level of lecithin and sphingomyelin equally until 32–33 weeks gestation, when the lecithin concentration begins to increase significantly while sphingomyelin remains nearly the same. As such, if a sample of amniotic fluid has a higher ratio, it indicates that there is more surfactant in the lungs and the baby will have less difficulty breathing at birth. An L–S ratio of 2 or more indicates fetal lung maturity and a relatively low risk of

text: infant respiratory distress syndrome

text: , and an L/S ratio of less than 1.5 is associated with a high risk of infant respiratory distress syndrome.

text: The handbook discusses the results of measurements of respirators' performance. The dust concentration was reduced by 92% with the use of half mask respirators while working longwall shearer; and decreased three times (in average). Helmet with forced filtering air supply (PAPR) reduces the concentration of dust in half. The expected decrease in dust concentration of the two types of respirators are 10 and 25 respectively. In subsequent publications of CDC (on the subject of reducing the dust content in underground mining) RPE are not mentioned at all.

text: The handbook discusses the results of measurements of respirators' performance. The dust concentration was reduced by 92% with the use of half mask respirators while working

text: longwall shearer

text: ; and decreased three times (in average). Helmet with forced filtering air supply (

text: PAPR

text: ) reduces the concentration of dust in half. The expected decrease in dust concentration of the two types of respirators are 10 and 25 respectively. In subsequent publications of

text: CDC

text: (on the subject of reducing the dust content in underground mining) RPE are not mentioned at all.

text: In the human respiratory system, eupnea or eupnoea is normal, good, unlabored breathing, sometimes known as quiet breathing or resting respiratory rate. In eupnea, expiration employs only the elastic recoil of the lungs.

text: In the human

text: respiratory system

text: , eupnea or eupnoea is normal, good, unlabored

text: breathing

text: , sometimes known as quiet breathing or resting respiratory rate. In eupnea, expiration employs only the

text: elastic

text: recoil of the

text: lungs

text: Bubbles which are carried back to the heart in the veins will pass into the right side of the heart, and from there they will normally enter the pulmonary circulation and pass through or be trapped in the capillaries of the lungs, which are around the alveoli and very near to the respiratory gas, where the gas will diffuse from the bubbles though the capillary and alveolar walls into the gas in the lung. If the number of lung capillaries blocked by these bubbles is relatively small, the diver will not display symptoms, and no tissue will be damaged (lung tissues are adequately oxygenated by diffusion). The bubbles which are small enough to pass through the lung capillaries may be small enough to be dissolved due to a combination of surface tension and diffusion to a lowered concentration in the surrounding blood, though the Varying Permeability Model nucleation theory implies that most bubbles passing through the pulmonary circulation will lose enough gas to pass through the capillaries and return to the systemic circulation as recycled but stable nuclei. Bubbles which form within the tissues must be eliminated in situ by diffusion, which implies a suitable concentration gradient.

text: Anatomically, a nose is a protuberance in vertebrates that houses the nostrils, or nares, which receive and expel air for respiration alongside the mouth. Behind the nose are the olfactory mucosa and the sinuses. Behind the nasal cavity, air next passes through the pharynx, shared with the digestive system, and then into the rest of the respiratory system. In humans, the nose is located centrally on the face and serves as an alternative respiratory passage especially during suckling for infants. On most other mammals, it is located on the upper tip of the snout.

text: Anatomically, a nose is a protuberance in

text: vertebrate

text: s that houses the

text: nostril

text: s, or nares, which receive and expel air for

text: respiration

text: alongside the

text: mouth

text: . Behind the nose are the

text: olfactory mucosa

text: and the

text: sinuses

text: . Behind the

text: nasal cavity

text: , air next passes through the

text: pharynx

text: , shared with the digestive system, and then into the rest of the

text: respiratory system

text: . In humans, the nose is located centrally on the face and serves as an alternative respiratory passage especially during suckling for

text: infant

text: s. On most other

text: mammal

text: s, it is located on the upper tip of the

text: snout

text: Located within the ventrolateral medulla, the pre-Bötzinger complex contains subnetworks that hold distinct synapses and intrinsic membrane properties. In mammals, the respiratory network system and the nuclei controlling breathing modulation are found along the neuronal axis. The neuronal networks involved in respiratory function are located in the ventral respiratory column (VRC). From rostral to caudal, these networks include the retrotrapezoid nucleus/parafacial respiratory group complex (RTN/pFRG) , the Bötzinger complex, the pre-Bötzinger complex (pre-BötC), the rostral ventral respiratory group (rVRG), and the caudal VRG (cVRG).  The dorsal pons, including the Kolliker-Fuse nucleus and the parabrachial complex, play an important role in respiratory control and rhythm generation. Other areas that aid in breathing control are the cerebellum, neocortex, and the periaqueductal gray (speech and breathing). The generation and modulation of eupnea and the transition between the inspiratory and expiratory phases have also been implicated in respiratory rhythm generation.

text: Located within the ventrolateral

text: medulla

text: , the pre-Bötzinger complex contains subnetworks that hold distinct

text: synapse

text: s and intrinsic membrane properties. In mammals, the respiratory network system and the nuclei controlling breathing modulation are found along the neuronal axis. The

text: neuronal networks

text: involved in respiratory function are located in the ventral respiratory column (VRC). From

text: rostral

text: to

text: caudal

text: , these networks include the retrotrapezoid nucleus/parafacial respiratory group complex (RTN/pFRG) , the Bötzinger complex, the pre-Bötzinger complex (pre-BötC), the rostral

text: ventral respiratory group

text: (rVRG), and the caudal VRG (cVRG).  The dorsal pons, including the

text: Kolliker-Fuse nucleus

text: and the

text: parabrachial complex

text: , play an important role in respiratory control and rhythm generation. Other areas that aid in breathing control are the

text: cerebellum

text: neocortex

text: , and the

text: periaqueductal gray

text: (speech and breathing). The generation and modulation of

text: eupnea

text: and the transition between the inspiratory and expiratory phases have also been implicated in respiratory rhythm generation.

text: A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of blood based on the presence and absence of antibodies and also based on  the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of various tissues. Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one allele (or an alternative version of a gene) and collectively form a blood group system.Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 35 human blood group systems are now recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The two most important ones are ABO and the RhD antigen; they determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with +, − or Null denoting RhD status).

text: A blood type (also called a blood group) is a classification of

text: blood

text: based on the presence and absence of

text: antibodies

text: and also based on  the presence or absence of

text: inherited

text: antigen

text: ic substances on the surface of

text: red blood cell

text: s (RBCs). These antigens may be

text: protein

text: s,

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: glycoprotein

text: s, or

text: glycolipid

text: s, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of

text: cell

text: s of various

text: tissues

text: . Several of these red blood cell surface antigens can stem from one

text: allele

text: (or an alternative version of a gene) and collectively form a blood group system.Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. A total of 35

text: human blood group systems

text: are now recognized by the

entity_name: International Society of Blood Transfusion

text: International Society of Blood Transfusion

text: (ISBT). The two most important ones are

text: ABO

text: and the

text: RhD antigen

text: ; they determine someone's blood type (A, B, AB and O, with +, − or Null denoting RhD status).

text: The southern bluefin tuna, like other tuna species, has a very thin gas-exchange membrane. This means that the oxygen must diffuse a short distance across the respiratory surface to get to the blood. Similarly to the increased surface area, this allows the highly metabolic organism to take oxygenated blood into the circulatory system more quickly. On top of a quicker rate of diffusion in the respiratory system of southern bluefin tuna, there is a significant difference in the efficiency of the oxygen uptake. While other teleost fish typically utilize 27–50% of the oxygen in the water, the tuna’s utilization rates have been observed as high as 50-60%. This overall high oxygen uptake works in close coordination with a well-adapted circulatory system to meet the high metabolic needs of the southern bluefin tuna.

text: Meningococcus if spread from person to person through the exchange of respiratory and throat secretions such as spit. It is not spread by causal contact or by simply breathing the air where a person with the disease has been. People who are in close contact with someone who has the disease are at increased risk of infection. In the case of infection, these people are contacted to receive prophylaxis which is when a person is treated with antibiotics to prevent infection from the disease.

text: Although air-breathing fish can absorb oxygen through their lungs, the lungs tend to be ineffective for discharging carbon dioxide. In tetrapods, the ability of lungs to discharge CO came about gradually, and was not fully attained until the evolution of amniotes. The same limitation applies to gut air breathing (GUT), i.e., breathing with the lining of the digestive tract. Tetrapod skin would have been effective for both absorbing oxygen and discharging CO, but only up to a point. For this reason, early tetrapods may have experienced chronic hypercapnia (high levels of blood CO). This is not uncommon in fish that inhabit waters high in CO.According to one hypothesis, the "sculpted" or "ornamented" dermal skull roof bones found in early tetrapods may have been related to a mechanism for relieving respiratory acidosis (acidic blood caused by excess CO) through compensatory metabolic alkalosis.

text: Although air-breathing fish can absorb oxygen through their lungs, the lungs tend to be ineffective for discharging carbon dioxide. In tetrapods, the ability of lungs to discharge CO came about gradually, and was not fully attained until the evolution of amniotes. The same limitation applies to gut air breathing (GUT), i.e., breathing with the lining of the digestive tract. Tetrapod skin would have been effective for both absorbing oxygen and discharging CO, but only up to a point. For this reason, early tetrapods may have experienced chronic

text: hypercapnia

text: (high levels of blood CO). This is not uncommon in fish that inhabit waters high in CO.According to one hypothesis, the "sculpted" or "ornamented" dermal skull roof bones found in early tetrapods may have been related to a mechanism for relieving

text: respiratory acidosis

text: (acidic blood caused by excess CO) through compensatory

text: metabolic alkalosis

text: The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the carotid bodies, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (hyperpnea). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting the respiratory center from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.

text: The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the

text: carotid bodies

text: , which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (

text: hyperpnea

text: ). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: , inhibiting the

text: respiratory center

text: from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.

text: Before respiratory arrest officially occurs, patients may experience some neurologic dysfunctions, such as feeling agitated, confused, and struggling to breathe. Tachycardia, sweating, intercostal retractions, and sternoclavicular retractions may occur as well. Patients who have an impaired central nervous system or respiratory muscle weakness may experience irregular patterns of respiration and feeble, gasping attempts to breathe. Patients who developed respiratory arrest from the cause of a foreign body in the airway may choke, call the attention of people nearby to their neck, and give out a harsh sound. By monitoring a patient’s oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, practitioners can prepare for ensuing respiratory arrests in patients. Infants that are under three months may develop respiratory arrest without any signs of warning and must be carefully taken care of. The development of respiratory arrest could come from infection, metabolism disorders, or respiratory fatigue. Another group of patients that should be on the watch list are asthmatics or patients with other chronic lung diseases. They can be become hypercarbic or tired after bouts of respiratory distress. These symptoms will lead apnea without any signs of warning.

text: Before respiratory arrest officially occurs, patients may experience some neurologic dysfunctions, such as feeling agitated, confused, and struggling to breathe.

text: Tachycardia

text: , sweating, intercostal retractions, and sternoclavicular retractions may occur as well. Patients who have an impaired central nervous system or respiratory muscle weakness may experience irregular patterns of respiration and feeble, gasping attempts to breathe. Patients who developed respiratory arrest from the cause of a foreign body in the airway may choke, call the attention of people nearby to their neck, and give out a harsh sound. By monitoring a patient’s oxygen and carbon dioxide levels, practitioners can prepare for ensuing respiratory arrests in patients. Infants that are under three months may develop respiratory arrest without any signs of warning and must be carefully taken care of. The development of respiratory arrest could come from infection, metabolism disorders, or respiratory fatigue. Another group of patients that should be on the watch list are asthmatics or patients with other chronic lung diseases. They can be become hypercarbic or tired after bouts of respiratory distress. These symptoms will lead apnea without any signs of warning.

text: The various cell structures in the human body must be vascularized to receive the nutrients and gas exchange help that they need to survive. Similarly, 3D cell cultures in vitro require certain levels of fluid circulation, which can be problematic for dense, 3D cultures where cells may not all have adequate exposure to nutrients. This is particularly important in hepatocyte cultures because the liver is a highly vascularized organ. One study cultured hepatocytes and vascular cells together on a collagen gel scaffold between microfluidic channels, and compared growth of cells in static and flowing environments, and showed the need for models with tissues and a microvascular network.

text: The various cell structures in the human body must be

text: vascularized

text: to receive the nutrients and

text: gas exchange

text: help that they need to survive. Similarly, 3D cell cultures in vitro require certain levels of fluid circulation, which can be problematic for dense, 3D cultures where cells may not all have adequate exposure to nutrients. This is particularly important in

text: hepatocyte

text: cultures because the liver is a highly vascularized organ. One study cultured hepatocytes and vascular cells together on a

text: collagen

text: gel scaffold between

text: microfluidic

text: channels, and compared growth of cells in static and flowing environments, and showed the need for models with tissues and a microvascular network.

text: Similarly, so called fine PM, (often referred to as PM), tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung (alveolus), and very small particles (< 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Penetration of particles is not wholly dependent on their size; shape and chemical composition also play a part. To avoid this complication, simple nomenclature is used to indicate the different degrees of relative penetration of a PM particle into the cardiovascular system. Inhalable particles penetrate no further than the bronchi as they are filtered out by the cilia. Thoracic particles can penetrate right into terminal bronchioles whereas PM which can penetrate to alveoli, the gas exchange area, and hence the circulatory system are termed respirable particles.In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of dust entering nose and mouth which may be deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within the lung's airways. The respirable fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchange regions (alveoli).

text: Similarly, so called fine PM, (often referred to as PM), tend to penetrate into the

text: gas exchange

text: regions of the lung (alveolus), and very small particles (< 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Penetration of particles is not wholly dependent on their size; shape and chemical composition also play a part. To avoid this complication, simple nomenclature is used to indicate the different degrees of relative penetration of a PM particle into the

text: cardiovascular

text: system. Inhalable particles penetrate no further than the

text: bronchi

text: as they are filtered out by the

text: cilia

text: . Thoracic particles can penetrate right into terminal

text: bronchioles

text: whereas PM which can penetrate to

text: alveoli

text: , the gas exchange area, and hence the

text: circulatory system

text: are termed respirable particles.In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of dust entering nose and mouth which may be deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within the lung's airways. The respirable fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchange regions (alveoli).

text: Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen (O) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system.  RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs or gills and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries.

text: Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes, are the most common type of

text: blood cell

text: and the

text: vertebrate

text: organism's principal means of delivering

text: oxygen

text: (O) to the body

text: tissues

text: —via

text: blood

text: flow through the

text: circulatory system

text: .  RBCs take up oxygen in the

text: lung

text: s or

text: gill

text: s and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's

text: capillaries

text: There are a variety of specific-action FATS which have been studied and documented. These include acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, respiratory irritants, respiratory blockers,  dioxin,  central nervous system seizure agents, and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation. Acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme which degrades acetylcholine an important neurotransmitter, has been demonstrated to be inhibited by particular toxicants like organophosphates and carbamates. Respiratory irritants bind to respiratory tissue membranes, which are the first tissue membranes available for exposure. Respiratory blockers are known to affect the electron transport chain in the mitochondria of cells. Central Nervous System seizure agents are associated with effects such as partial or whole body seizures and coughing. Dioxin is recognized as having a different mode of action than the others, but has not been studied by the FATS method.

text: There are a variety of specific-action FATS which have been studied and documented. These include

text: acetylcholinesterase

text: (AChE) inhibitors,

text: respiratory

text: irritants, respiratory blockers,

text: dioxin

text: central nervous system

text: seizure agents, and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation.

text: Acetylcholinesterase

text: , an enzyme which degrades

text: acetylcholine

text: an important

text: neurotransmitter

text: , has been demonstrated to be inhibited by particular toxicants like organophosphates and carbamates. Respiratory irritants bind to respiratory tissue membranes, which are the first tissue membranes available for exposure. Respiratory blockers are known to affect the electron transport chain in the

text: mitochondria

text: of cells. Central Nervous System seizure agents are associated with effects such as partial or whole body seizures and coughing. Dioxin is recognized as having a different mode of action than the others, but has not been studied by the FATS method.

text: VHF isolation guidelines dictate that all VHF patients (with the exception of dengue patients) should be cared for using strict contact precautions, including hand hygiene, double gloves, gowns, shoe and leg coverings, and faceshield or goggles.  Lassa, CCHF, Ebola, and Marburg viruses may be particularly prone to nosocomial (hospital-based) spread. Airborne precautions should be utilized including, at a minimum, a fit-tested, HEPA filter-equipped respirator (such as an N-95 mask), a battery-powered, air-purifying respirator, or a positive pressure supplied air respirator to be worn by personnel coming within 1,8 meter (six feet) of a VHF patient. Multiple patients should be cohorted (sequestered) to a separate building or a ward with an isolated air-handling system. Environmental decontamination is typically accomplished with hypochlorite (e.g. bleach) or phenolic disinfectants.

text: VHF isolation guidelines dictate that all VHF patients (with the exception of dengue patients) should be cared for using strict contact precautions, including hand hygiene, double gloves, gowns, shoe and leg coverings, and faceshield or goggles.  Lassa, CCHF, Ebola, and Marburg viruses may be particularly prone to

text: nosocomial

text: (hospital-based) spread. Airborne precautions should be utilized including, at a minimum, a

text: fit-tested

text: , HEPA filter-equipped respirator (such as an N-95 mask), a battery-powered, air-purifying respirator, or a positive pressure supplied air respirator to be worn by personnel coming within 1,8 meter (six feet) of a VHF patient. Multiple patients should be cohorted (sequestered) to a separate building or a ward with an isolated air-handling system. Environmental decontamination is typically accomplished with hypochlorite (e.g. bleach) or

text: phenolic disinfectants

text: The respiratory groups are clusters of neurons in the brainstem influencing control of respiration, and can refer to:

text: The respiratory groups are clusters of neurons in the

text: brainstem

text: influencing

text: control of respiration

text: , and can refer to:

text: In medicine the FiO is the assumed percentage of oxygen concentration participating in gas exchange in the alveoli.

text: In medicine the FiO is the assumed percentage of oxygen concentration participating in

text: gas exchange

text: in the

text: alveoli

text: The blood may be colourless, or have any of three different respiratory pigments. The most common of these is haemoglobin, but some groups have haemerythrin or the green-coloured chlorocruorin, instead.

text: The blood may be colourless, or have any of three different respiratory pigments. The most common of these is

text: haemoglobin

text: , but some groups have

text: haemerythrin

text: or the green-coloured

text: chlorocruorin

text: , instead.

text: Chest physiotherapy (CPT) is the treatments generally performed by Physical therapists and Respiratory therapists, whereby breathing is improved by the indirect removal of mucus from the breathing passages of a patient.  Other terms used in Australia include respiratory or cardiothoracic physiotherapy.

text: The avian respiratory system is not in direct contact with the osmoregulatory system. However, the respiratory tract participates in osmoregulation through evaporative water loss. Since common ravens are endothermic and have high rates of ventilation, respiratory water loss is inevitable.

text: Regulation of renal blood flow is important to maintaining a stable glomerular filtration rate (GFR) despite changes in systemic blood pressure (within about 80-180 mmHg).  In a mechanism called tubuloglomerular feedback, the kidney changes its own blood flow in response to changes in sodium concentration.  The sodium chloride levels in the urinary filtrate are sensed by the macula densa cells at the end of the ascending limb.  When sodium levels are moderately increased, the macula densa releases ATP and reduces prostaglandin E2 release to the juxtaglomerular cells nearby. The juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent arteriole constrict, and juxtaglomerular cells in both the afferent and efferent arteriole decrease their renin secretion.  These actions function to lower GFR.  Further increase in sodium concentration leads to the release of nitric oxide, a vasodilating substance, to prevent excessive vasoconstriction.  In the opposite case, juxtaglomerular cells are stimulated to release more renin, which stimulates the renin-angiotensin system, producing angiotensin I which is converted by Angio-Tensin Converting Enzyme  (ACE) to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II then causes preferential constriction of the efferent arteriole of the glomerulus and increases the GFR.

text: Regulation of renal blood flow is important to maintaining a stable glomerular filtration rate (GFR) despite changes in systemic blood pressure (within about 80-180 mmHg).  In a mechanism called

text: tubuloglomerular feedback

text: , the kidney changes its own blood flow in response to changes in sodium concentration.  The sodium chloride levels in the urinary filtrate are sensed by the

text: macula densa

text: cells at the end of the

text: ascending limb

text: .  When sodium levels are moderately increased, the macula densa releases

text: ATP

text: and reduces

text: prostaglandin E2

text: release to the

text: juxtaglomerular cells

text: nearby. The juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent arteriole constrict, and juxtaglomerular cells in both the afferent and efferent arteriole decrease their renin secretion.  These actions function to lower GFR.  Further increase in sodium concentration leads to the release of

text: nitric oxide

text: , a vasodilating substance, to prevent excessive vasoconstriction.  In the opposite case, juxtaglomerular cells are stimulated to release more renin, which stimulates the

text: renin-angiotensin system

text: , producing angiotensin I which is converted by Angio-Tensin Converting Enzyme  (ACE) to

text: angiotensin II

text: . Angiotensin II then causes preferential constriction of the efferent arteriole of the glomerulus and increases the GFR.

text: The cycle is what causes the breath to transition from the inspiratory phase to the exhalation phase.  Breaths may be cycled by a mechanical ventilator when a set time has been reached, or when a preset flow or percentage of the maximum flow delivered during a breath is reached depending on the breath type and the settings. Breaths can also be cycled when an alarm condition such as a high pressure limit has been reached, which is a primary strategy in pressure regulated volume control.

text: The cycle is what causes the breath to transition from the inspiratory phase to the exhalation phase.  Breaths may be cycled by a mechanical ventilator when a set time has been reached, or when a preset flow or percentage of the maximum flow delivered during a breath is reached depending on the breath type and the settings. Breaths can also be cycled when an alarm condition such as a high pressure limit has been reached, which is a primary strategy in

text: pressure regulated volume control

text: Respiratory pattern (breathing rhythm) is significant and should be noted in a comatose patient. Certain stereotypical patterns of breathing have been identified including Cheyne–Stokes, a form of breathing in which the patient's breathing pattern is described as alternating episodes of hyperventilation and apnea. This is a dangerous pattern and is often seen in pending herniations, extensive cortical lesions, or brainstem damage. Another pattern of breathing is apneustic breathing, which is characterized by sudden pauses of inspiration and is due to a lesion of the pons. Ataxic breathing is irregular and is due to a lesion (damage) of the medulla.

text: Respiratory pattern (breathing rhythm) is significant and should be noted in a comatose patient. Certain stereotypical patterns of breathing have been identified including

text: Cheyne–Stokes

text: , a form of breathing in which the patient's breathing pattern is described as alternating episodes of

text: hyperventilation

text: and

text: apnea

text: . This is a dangerous pattern and is often seen in pending herniations, extensive cortical lesions, or brainstem damage. Another pattern of breathing is

text: apneustic breathing

text: , which is characterized by sudden pauses of

text: inspiration

text: and is due to a lesion of the

text: pons

text: Ataxic breathing

text: is irregular and is due to a lesion (damage) of the

text: medulla

text: Bordetella trematum and B. holmesii are the only species that do not colonize the respiratory tract.  B. pertussis and B. parapertussis are respiratory pathogens that cause pertussis.  B. bronchiseptica and B. avium are respiratory pathogens of other animals.  B. hinzii is not pathogenic and colonizes the respiratory tract of birds.  B. holmesii has been isolated from human blood.  Members of the Alcaligenes genus colonize humans, but not the respiratory tract, and soil and water.

text: Bordetella trematum and

text: B. holmesii

text: are the only species that do not colonize the respiratory tract.

text: B. pertussis

text: and

text: B. parapertussis

text: are respiratory pathogens that cause

text: pertussis

text: B. bronchiseptica

text: and

text: B. avium

text: are respiratory pathogens of other animals.  B. hinzii is not pathogenic and colonizes the respiratory tract of birds.  B. holmesii has been isolated from human blood.  Members of the Alcaligenes genus colonize humans, but not the respiratory tract, and soil and water.

text: In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs. The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation, and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and diaphragm. Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous external environment and the blood. This exchange process occurs in the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs.

text: In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings, respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called

text: lung

text: s. The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as

text: inhalation

text: , and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as

text: exhalation

text: ; this process is collectively called

text: breathing

text: or

text: ventilation

text: . In

text: human

text: s and other

text: mammal

text: s, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include

text: trachea

text: bronchi

text: bronchiole

text: s, lungs, and

text: diaphragm

text: . Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by

text: diffusion

text: , between the gaseous external environment and the

text: blood

text: . This exchange process occurs in the

text: alveoli

text: (air sacs) in the lungs.

text: "Breathing" achieved commercial success in Europe. It peaked at number one on the Bulgarian Airplay Chart, and number four on the Slovak Airplay Chart. In Austria, "Breathing" debuted at number 43 on February 10, 2012, and peaked at number eight in its fifth week on the chart. It peaked at number five on the German Singles Chart, becoming Derulo's third top-ten single in that country. The song was certified gold by The Federal Association of Music Industry (BVMI), denoting shipments of 150,000 copies. In Switzerland, "Breathing" debuted at number 33 on March 11, 2012. It descended to number 50 in its second week on the chart, but managed to peak at number seven in its seventh week. The song was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), denoting sales of 15,000 copies. "Breathing" peaked at number 19 on the Irish Singles Chart and spent a total of 10 weeks in the chart. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number 101 on January 28, 2012, and ascended to number 49 the following week. It managed to peak at number 25 in its seventh week on the chart. "Breathing" also charted on the UK R&B Singles Chart at number nine.

text: "Breathing" achieved commercial success in Europe. It peaked at number one on the

entity_name: International Federation of the Phonographic Industry

text: Bulgarian Airplay Chart

text: , and number four on the

text: Slovak Airplay Chart

text: . In Austria, "Breathing" debuted at number 43 on February 10, 2012, and peaked at number eight in its fifth week on the chart. It peaked at number five on the

text: German Singles Chart

text: , becoming Derulo's third top-ten single in that country. The song was certified gold by

text: The Federal Association of Music Industry

text: (BVMI), denoting shipments of 150,000 copies. In Switzerland, "Breathing" debuted at number 33 on March 11, 2012. It descended to number 50 in its second week on the chart, but managed to peak at number seven in its seventh week. The song was certified gold by the

text: International Federation of the Phonographic Industry

text: (IFPI), denoting sales of 15,000 copies. "Breathing" peaked at number 19 on the

text: Irish Singles Chart

text: and spent a total of 10 weeks in the chart. In the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number 101 on January 28, 2012, and ascended to number 49 the following week. It managed to peak at number 25 in its seventh week on the chart. "Breathing" also charted on the

text: UK R&B Singles Chart

text: at number nine.

text: Arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system. In this system, deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities (sinuses). This blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one-way channels. The heart then pumps the blood into the hemocoel, a cavity between the organs. The heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body, under the back and from the base of the head. Instead of blood the circulatory fluid is haemolymph which carries the most commonly used respiratory pigment, copper-based haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter; iron-based haemoglobin is used by only a few arthropods.

text: Arthropod

text: s and most

text: mollusk

text: s have an open circulatory system. In this system, deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities (

text: sinuses

text: ). This blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one-way channels. The heart then pumps the blood into the

text: hemocoel

text: , a cavity between the organs. The heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body, under the back and from the base of the head. Instead of blood the circulatory fluid is

text: haemolymph

text: which carries the most commonly used

text: respiratory pigment

text: , copper-based

text: haemocyanin

text: as the oxygen transporter; iron-based haemoglobin is used by only a few arthropods.

text: When the regulatory systems of myosin phosphatase begin to fail, there can be major health consequences.  Since smooth muscle is found in the respiratory, circulatory, and reproductive systems of humans (as well as other places), if the smooth muscle can no longer relax because of faulty regulation, then a wide number of problems ranging from asthma, hypertension, and erectile dysfunction can result.

text: When the regulatory systems of myosin phosphatase begin to fail, there can be major health consequences.  Since smooth muscle is found in the respiratory, circulatory, and reproductive systems of humans (as well as other places), if the smooth muscle can no longer relax because of faulty regulation, then a wide number of problems ranging from

text: asthma

text: hypertension

text: , and

text: erectile dysfunction

text: can result.

text: The alternative concept, developed in roughly the same time frame was closed-circuit scuba. The body consumes and metabolises only a part of the oxygen in the inhaled air at the surface, and an even smaller fraction when the breathing gas is compressed as it is in ambient pressure systems underwater. A rebreather recycles the used breathing gas, while constantly replenishing it from the supply so that the oxygen level does not get dangerously depleted. The apparatus also has to remove the exhaled carbon dioxide, as a buildup of CO levels would result in respiratory distress due to hypercapnia.

text: The alternative concept, developed in roughly the same time frame was closed-circuit scuba. The body consumes and metabolises only a part of the

text: oxygen

text: in the inhaled air at the surface, and an even smaller fraction when the

text: breathing gas

text: is

text: compressed

text: as it is in ambient pressure systems underwater. A

text: rebreather

text: recycles the used breathing gas, while constantly replenishing it from the supply so that the oxygen level does not get dangerously depleted. The apparatus also has to remove the exhaled carbon dioxide, as a buildup of CO levels would result in respiratory distress due to

text: hypercapnia

text: See also reptiles for more detailed descriptions of the respiratory system in these animals.

text: See also

text: reptiles

text: for more detailed descriptions of the respiratory system in these animals.

text: Respiration is a continuing process in a plant and cannot be stopped without damage to the growing plant or harvested produce. It uses stored starch or sugar and stops when reserves of these are exhausted, leading to ageing. Respiration depends on a good air supply. When the air supply is restricted fermentation instead of respiration can occur. Poor ventilation of produce also leads to the accumulation of carbon dioxide. When the concentration of carbon dioxide increases it will quickly ruin produce.

text: Respiration

text: is a continuing process in a plant and cannot be stopped without damage to the growing plant or harvested produce. It uses stored starch or sugar and stops when reserves of these are exhausted, leading to ageing. Respiration depends on a good air supply. When the air supply is restricted

text: fermentation

text: instead of respiration can occur. Poor ventilation of produce also leads to the accumulation of

text: carbon dioxide

text: . When the concentration of carbon dioxide increases it will quickly ruin produce.

text: :For the ancient monasterial worker, see AuscultareAuscultation (based on the Latin verb auscultare "to listen") is listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a stethoscope. Auscultation is performed for the purposes of examining the circulatory and respiratory systems (heart and breath sounds), as well as the gastrointestinal system (bowel sounds).

text: :For the ancient monasterial worker, see

text: Auscultare

text: Auscultation (based on the Latin verb auscultare "to listen") is listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a

text: stethoscope

text: . Auscultation is performed for the purposes of examining the

text: circulatory

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: s (

text: heart

text: and

text: breath sounds

text: ), as well as the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: (bowel sounds).

text: Tracheole (trā'kē-ōl') is a fine respiratory tube of the trachea of an insect or a spider, part of the respiratory system.

text: Tracheole (trā'kē-ōl') is a fine respiratory tube of the

text: trachea

text: of an

text: insect

text: or a

text: spider

text: , part of the

text: respiratory system

text: From this equation, we can measure the levels of each inert gas retained in the blood.  The relationship between retention (R) and VA/Q can be summarized as follows:  As VA/Q for a given λ increases, R decreases; however, this relationship between VA/Q and R is the most obvious at values of VA/Q between ten times higher and lower than a gas's λ.  Beyond this, however, it is possible to measure the concentrations of the inert gases in the expired gas from the subject.  The ratio of the mixed expired concentration to the mixed venous concentration has been termed excretion (E) and describes the ventilation to regions of varying VA/Q.  When taken together:

text: START has also been modified to provide better treatment for children. One such modification is known as JumpSTART. There are several simple modifications to the adult version.  The primary modification for use with pediatric patients is to change the "normal" respiratory rate: since children breathe faster than adults, JumpSTART assigns the immediate classification on the basis of respiratory rate only if the child's respiration is under 15 or over 45 per minute. Another change is in the apneic pediatric patient with a pulse the patient is given 5 breaths. If they resume breathing on their own they are tagged as "immediate". If they do not resume breathing on their own they are tagged deceased. Yet another needed bit of information is to decide who is a pediatric patient and who qualifies as an adult. This can quickly be decided by a rapid check for underarm hair development on boys and breast bud or any breast development on girls. If the age is known the age cut off for child versus adult is 8 years old.

text: Air enters the respiratory systems of insects through a series of external openings called spiracles. These external openings, which act as muscular valves in some insects, lead to the internal respiratory system, a densely networked array of tubes called tracheae. This network of transverse and longitudinal tracheae equalizes pressure throughout the system.

text: Air enters the respiratory systems of insects through a series of external openings called

text: spiracle

text: s. These external openings, which act as muscular valves in some insects, lead to the internal respiratory system, a densely networked array of tubes called

text: tracheae

text: . This network of transverse and longitudinal tracheae equalizes pressure throughout the system.

text: Attention to respiratory issues is critical to the health of all people with NM.  Infants with severe NM frequently experience respiratory distress at or soon after birth.  Many are ventilated via tracheostomy, and with proper breathing assistance they may attain good health.  Though respiratory compromise may not be immediately apparent in people with intermediate or mild NM, it nearly always exists to some extent.  As in many neuromuscular disorders, hypoventilation can begin insidiously, and it may cause serious health problems if not remedied by the use of noninvasive mechanical devices to assist breathing, particularly at night.

text: Attention to respiratory issues is critical to the health of all people with NM.  Infants with severe NM frequently experience respiratory distress at or soon after birth.  Many are

text: ventilated

text: via

text: tracheostomy

text: , and with proper breathing assistance they may attain good health.  Though respiratory compromise may not be immediately apparent in people with intermediate or mild NM, it nearly always exists to some extent.  As in many neuromuscular disorders,

text: hypoventilation

text: can begin insidiously, and it may cause serious health problems if not remedied by the use of

text: noninvasive mechanical devices

text: to assist breathing, particularly at night.

text: is the proportionality factor relating the rate of oxygen uptake into the lung to the oxygen gradient between the capillary blood and the alveoli (per Fick's laws of diffusion). In respiratory physiology, it is convenient to express the transport of gas molecules as changes in volume, since

text: is the proportionality factor relating the rate of oxygen uptake into the lung to the oxygen gradient between the capillary blood and the alveoli (per

text: Fick's laws of diffusion

text: ). In

text: respiratory physiology

text: , it is convenient to express the transport of gas molecules as changes in volume, since

text: Training masks allow athletes to strengthen their respiratory muscle fitness without having to be confined to stationary devices or special facilities. By restricting the user's breathing, these novel devices can improve cardiorespiratory fitness, which leads to better sport performance. This is especially relevant to elite athletes, where the pulmonary system may become a limiting factor.

text: Training masks allow athletes to strengthen their respiratory muscle fitness without having to be confined to

text: stationary devices

text: or special facilities. By restricting the user's breathing, these novel devices can improve cardiorespiratory fitness, which leads to better sport performance. This is especially relevant to elite athletes, where the pulmonary system may become a limiting factor.

text: CO is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood). Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions  by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood cells by the reaction CO + HO → HCO → H + ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds.Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the CO bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels is known as the Haldane effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. A rise in the partial pressure of CO or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.

text: CO is carried in blood in three different ways. (The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood). Most of it (about 70%) is converted to bicarbonate ions  by the enzyme

text: carbonic anhydrase

text: in the red blood cells by the reaction CO + HO → HCO → H + ; about 7% is dissolved in the plasma; and about 23% is bound to hemoglobin as

text: carbamino

text: compounds.Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the CO bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of

text: allosteric

text: effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The decreased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to increased oxygen levels is known as the

text: Haldane effect

text: , and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. A rise in the partial pressure of CO or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the

text: Bohr effect

text: One of the most important features of the Davenport Diagram is its usefulness in depicting movement from one point on the equilibrium surface to another following changes in respiration and/or metabolism. Four fundamental changes may occur that affect acid-base balance in the body: respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis. Additionally, a respiratory and a metabolic disturbance may occur simultaneously, such as respiratory acidosis followed by a compensatory shift towards metabolic alkalosis.

text: One of the most important features of the Davenport Diagram is its usefulness in depicting movement from one point on the equilibrium surface to another following changes in

text: respiration

text: and/or

text: metabolism

text: . Four fundamental changes may occur that affect acid-base balance in the body:

text: respiratory acidosis

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: metabolic acidosis

text: and

text: metabolic alkalosis

text: . Additionally, a respiratory and a metabolic disturbance may occur simultaneously, such as respiratory acidosis followed by a compensatory shift towards metabolic alkalosis.

text: Respiratory adaptation is the specific changes that the respiratory system undergoes in response to the demands of physical exertion. Intense physical exertion, such as that involved in fitness training, places elevated demands on the respiratory system. Over time, this results in respiratory changes as the system adapts to these requirements. These changes ultimately result in an increased exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, which is accompanied by an increase in metabolism. Respiratory adaptation is a physiological determinant of peak endurance performance, and in elite athletes, the pulmonary system is often a limiting factor to exercise under certain conditions.

text: Respiratory adaptation is the specific changes that the

text: respiratory system

text: undergoes in response to the demands of

text: physical exertion

text: . Intense physical exertion, such as that involved in

text: fitness training

text: , places elevated demands on the respiratory system. Over time, this results in respiratory changes as the system adapts to these requirements. These changes ultimately result in an increased exchange of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: , which is accompanied by an increase in

text: metabolism

text: . Respiratory adaptation is a physiological determinant of peak endurance performance, and in elite athletes, the pulmonary system is often a limiting factor to exercise under certain conditions.

text: Jan Weber, Anke Kayser, and Ursula Rinas, performed an experiment to test what happened to the methylglyoxal pathway when E. coli was in the presence of a constantly high concentration of glucose.  The concentration of methylglyoxal increased until it reached 20 μmol.  Methylglyoxal concentration then began to decrease, once it reached this level.  The decrease in the concentration of methylglyoxal was connected to the drop in respiratory activity.  When respiration activity increased the concentration of methylglyoxal increased again, until it reached the 20 μmol concentration (Weber 714-15).

text: Gill remodelling happens in only a few species of fish, and it involves the buildup or removal of an inter-lamellar cell mass (ILCM).  As a long term response to hypoxia, some fish are able to remodel their gills to increase the respiratory surface area.  The increased respiratory surface area comes as a trade-off with increased metabolic costs because the gills are a very important site for many important processes including respiratory gas exchange, acid-base regulation, nitrogen excretion, osmoregulation, hormone regulation, metabolism, and environmental sensing.

text: Gill remodelling happens in only a few species of fish, and it involves the buildup or removal of an inter-lamellar cell mass (ILCM).  As a long term response to hypoxia, some fish are able to remodel their gills to increase the

text: respiratory

text: surface area.  The increased respiratory surface area comes as a trade-off with increased metabolic costs because the

text: gills

text: are a very important site for many important processes including respiratory

text: gas exchange

text: acid-base regulation

text: nitrogen excretion

text: osmoregulation

text: hormone regulation

text: metabolism

text: , and environmental sensing.

text: Due to the respiratory system's limited ability of diffusional delivery there is a need for transporting respiratory gases around the body.Paralithodes camtschaticus have an open circulatory system with a dorsal, ostiate heart. An open circulatory system has circulating fluid which somewhat passes freely among the tissues before being collected and recirculated. The heart lies in a pericardial chamber, and blood passes through this chamber into the lumen of the heart through two pairs of osti Seven arteries conduct blood from the heart to various somatic regions. Each region branches extensively, and smaller arteries ultimately end in the hemocoel. Venous bloods drains into the sternal sinus, where it is conveyed by channels to the gills for aeration and returned again to the pericardial sinus.

text: Due to the respiratory system's limited ability of diffusional delivery there is a need for transporting respiratory gases around the body.Paralithodes camtschaticus have an

text: open circulatory system

text: with a dorsal, ostiate heart. An

text: open circulatory system

text: has circulating fluid which somewhat passes freely among the tissues before being collected and recirculated. The heart lies in a pericardial chamber, and blood passes through this chamber into the lumen of the heart through two pairs of osti Seven arteries conduct blood from the heart to various somatic regions. Each region branches extensively, and smaller arteries ultimately end in the hemocoel. Venous bloods drains into the sternal sinus, where it is conveyed by channels to the gills for aeration and returned again to the

text: pericardial sinus

text: Lipoxins have protective effects in animal models of infection-based inflammation: a) LXA and a LXA analog decreased systemic inflammation and improved survival in rat models of gram-negative bacterial sepsis; b) 15-epi-LXA suppressed the lung injury (i.e., shock lung or Acute respiratory distress syndrome) caused by intraperitoneal injection of Escherichia coli in mice;  c) transgenic mice made deficient in lipoxin synthesis by deletion of their Alox5 gene were more susceptible to the inflammatory and lethal effects of Toxoplasma gondii and were rescued from these defects by LXA4; d)  LXA restored macrophage function caused by respiratory syncytial virus in transgenic mice made deficient of lipoxin synthesis by Alox5 gene deletion; e) LXA ameliorated infectious periodontitis in rabbit and porcine models. f) 15-epi-LXA decreased parasite blood levels, decrease cardiac inflammation, and increase survival in a mouse model of Trypanosoma cruzi-induced Chagas disease; f) 15-epi-LXA prolonged survival in a mouse model of Plasmodium berghei-induced cerebral malaria;  and g) LXA shortens the duration of the allergic response to the parasitic infestation, Angiostrongylus costaricensis.

text: Lipoxins have protective effects in animal models of infection-based inflammation: a) LXA and a LXA analog decreased systemic inflammation and improved survival in rat models of

text: gram-negative bacteria

text: l

text: sepsis

text: ; b) 15-epi-LXA suppressed the lung injury (i.e., shock lung or

text: Acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: ) caused by intraperitoneal injection of

text: Escherichia coli

text: in mice;  c) transgenic mice made deficient in lipoxin synthesis by deletion of their Alox5 gene were more susceptible to the inflammatory and lethal effects of

text: Toxoplasma gondii

text: and were rescued from these defects by LXA4; d)  LXA restored macrophage function caused by

text: respiratory syncytial virus

text: in transgenic mice made deficient of lipoxin synthesis by Alox5 gene deletion; e) LXA ameliorated infectious

text: periodontitis

text: in rabbit and porcine models. f) 15-epi-LXA decreased parasite blood levels, decrease cardiac inflammation, and increase survival in a mouse model of

text: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: -induced

text: Chagas disease

text: ; f) 15-epi-LXA prolonged survival in a mouse model of

text: Plasmodium berghei

text: -induced cerebral malaria;  and g) LXA shortens the duration of the allergic response to the parasitic infestation,

text: Angiostrongylus costaricensis

text: An example of a gaseous biofluids problem is that of human respiration. Recently, respiratory systems in insects have been studied for bioinspiration for designing improved microfluidic devices.

text: A negative pressure ventilator, often referred to colloquially as an iron lung, is a form of medical ventilator that enables a person to breathe when normal muscle control has been lost or the work of breathing exceeds the person's ability. Examples of the device include both the Drinker respirator and the Both respirator. The negative form of pressure ventilation has been almost entirely superseded by positive pressure ventilation or biphasic cuirass ventilation.

text: A negative pressure ventilator, often referred to colloquially as an iron lung, is a form of

text: medical ventilator

text: that enables a person to

text: breathe

text: when normal

text: muscle

text: control has been lost or the work of breathing exceeds the person's ability. Examples of the device include both the Drinker respirator and the Both respirator. The negative form of pressure ventilation has been almost entirely superseded by

text: positive pressure ventilation

text: or

text: biphasic cuirass ventilation

text: Risk factors are similar to those for cognitive impairment following critical illness, and include severe sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, respiratory failure, trauma, hypoglycemia, and hypoxemia. Like ICU-acquired weakness, long-term immobility and deep sedation have been known to play an important part in the development of mental health problems seen in PICS. Sleep pattern disturbance, a common problem in the ICU, is also a likely culprit. Age under 50 years, female gender,  lower education level, pre-existing disability, alcohol abuse, pre-existing anxiety, depression, and PTSD are also risk factors for PICS-related mental health disorders.

text: Risk factors are similar to those for cognitive impairment following critical illness, and include severe

text: sepsis

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: respiratory failure

text: trauma

text: hypoglycemia

text: , and

text: hypoxemia

text: . Like ICU-acquired weakness, long-term immobility and deep sedation have been known to play an important part in the development of mental health problems seen in PICS.

text: Sleep pattern disturbance

text: , a common problem in the ICU, is also a likely culprit. Age under 50 years, female gender,  lower education level, pre-existing disability, alcohol abuse, pre-existing anxiety, depression, and PTSD are also risk factors for PICS-related mental health disorders.

text: Capnography, because it provides a breath by breath measurement of a patient's ventilation, can quickly reveal a worsening trend in a patient's condition by providing paramedics with an early warning system into a patient's respiratory status.  Clinical studies are expected into the uses of capnography in asthma, congestive heart failure, diabetes, circulatory shock, pulmonary embolus, acidosis, and other conditions, with potential implications for the prehospital use of capnography.

text: Capnography, because it provides a breath by breath measurement of a patient's ventilation, can quickly reveal a worsening trend in a patient's condition by providing paramedics with an early warning system into a patient's respiratory status.  Clinical studies are expected into the uses of capnography in

text: asthma

text: congestive heart failure

text: diabetes

text: , circulatory shock,

text: pulmonary embolus

text: acidosis

text: , and other conditions, with potential implications for the prehospital use of capnography.

text: The air arriving in the alveoli has a higher concentration of oxygen than the “stale” air in the alveoli. The increase in oxygen concentration creates a concentration gradient for oxygen between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli. Oxygen then moves by diffusion, down the concentration gradient, into the blood. The other consequence of the air arriving in alveoli is that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli decreases (air has a very low concentration of carbon dioxide compared to the blood in the body). This creates a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli.

text: The air arriving in the alveoli has a higher concentration of oxygen than the “stale” air in the alveoli. The increase in oxygen concentration creates a concentration gradient for oxygen between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the

text: capillaries

text: that surround the alveoli. Oxygen then moves by diffusion, down the concentration gradient, into the blood. The other consequence of the air arriving in alveoli is that the concentration of

text: carbon dioxide

text: in the alveoli decreases (air has a very low concentration of carbon dioxide compared to the

text: blood

text: in the body). This creates a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli.

text: The PediaSim was created for pediatrics in need of critical care. It is a simulation of a six-year-old child. "PediaSim offers the integrated METI physiology in a smaller practice patient with full trauma features for both nursing and emergency response." "PediaSIM HPS is specifically designed for risk-free practice of anesthesia, respiratory and critical care.  With true respiratory gas exchange, PediaSIM HPS inhales oxygen and exhales CO2, interfaces with real clinical monitors and responds to oxygen therapy.  The optional anesthesia delivery system allows the lungs to uptake or excrete nitrous oxide, sevoflurane, isoflurane and other anesthetic gases. PediaSIM HPS also responds to drug administration with a unique Drug Recognition System that uses barcode technology. New Simulated Clinical Experiences (SCEs) are now available for anesthesia, allied health, Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) and PALS Europe."Specifications:

text: Reoviridae is a family of viruses. They have a wide host range, including vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, and fungi. They are unique in that they lack lipid envelopes and package their genomes of discrete double-stranded segments of RNA within multi-layered capsids. Lack of a lipid envelope has allowed three-dimensional structures of these large complex viruses (diameter,∼600–1,000) to be obtained. There are currently 87 species in this family, divided among 30 genera. Reoviruses can affect the gastrointestinal system (such as Rotavirus) and respiratory tract. The name "Reo-" is derived from respiratory enteric orphan viruses. The term "orphan virus" refers to the fact that some of these viruses have been observed not associated with any known disease. Even though viruses in the Reoviridae family have more recently been identified with various diseases, the original name is still used.

text: Reoviridae is a

text: family

text: of

text: virus

text: es. They have a wide host range, including vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, and fungi. They are unique in that they lack lipid envelopes and package their genomes of discrete

text: double-stranded segments of RNA

text: within multi-layered capsids. Lack of a lipid envelope has allowed three-dimensional structures of these large complex viruses (diameter,∼600–1,000) to be obtained. There are currently 87 species in this family, divided among 30 genera. Reoviruses can affect the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: (such as

text: Rotavirus

text: ) and

text: respiratory tract

text: . The name "Reo-" is derived from respiratory

text: enteric

text: orphan viruses. The term "orphan virus" refers to the fact that some of these viruses have been observed not associated with any known disease. Even though viruses in the Reoviridae family have more recently been identified with various diseases, the original name is still used.

text: Administration to opioid-dependent individuals may cause symptoms of opioid withdrawal, including restlessness, agitation, nausea, vomiting, a fast heart rate and sweating. To prevent this, small doses every few minutes can be given until the desired effect is reached. In those with previous heart disease or taking medications that negatively affect the heart, further heart problems have occurred. It appears to be safe in pregnancy, after having been given to a limited number of women. Naloxone is a pure opioid antagonist. It works by reversing the depression of the central nervous system and respiratory system caused by opioids.

text: Administration to opioid-dependent individuals may cause symptoms of

text: opioid withdrawal

text: , including restlessness, agitation, nausea, vomiting, a

text: fast heart rate

text: and sweating. To prevent this, small doses every few minutes can be given until the desired effect is reached. In those with previous heart disease or taking medications that negatively affect the heart, further heart problems have occurred. It appears to be safe in pregnancy, after having been given to a limited number of women. Naloxone is a pure

text: opioid antagonist

text: . It works by reversing the depression of the central nervous system and respiratory system caused by opioids.

text: Earth-air heat exchangers can be analyzed for performance with several software applications using weather gage data. These software applications include GAEA, AWADUKT Thermo, EnergyPlus, L-EWTSim, WKM, and others. However, numerous earth-air heat exchanger systems have been designed and constructed improperly, and failed to meet design expectations. Earth-air heat exchangers appear best suited for air pretreatment rather than for full heating or cooling. Pretreatment of air for an air-source heat pump or ground-source heat pump often provides the best economic return on investment, with simple payback often achieved within one year after installation.

text: Earth-air heat exchangers can be analyzed for performance with several software applications using weather gage data. These software applications include GAEA, AWADUKT Thermo, EnergyPlus, L-EWTSim, WKM, and others. However, numerous earth-air heat exchanger systems have been designed and constructed improperly, and failed to meet design expectations. Earth-air heat exchangers appear best suited for air pretreatment rather than for full heating or cooling. Pretreatment of air for an

text: air-source heat pump

text: or

text: ground-source heat pump

text: often provides the best economic

text: return on investment

text: , with simple payback often achieved within one year after installation.

text: General health hazards associated with solvent exposure include toxicity to the nervous system, reproductive damage, liver and kidney damage, respiratory impairment, cancer, and dermatitis.

text: General health hazards associated with solvent exposure include toxicity to the nervous system, reproductive damage, liver and kidney damage, respiratory impairment, cancer, and

text: dermatitis

text: Scientists have debated as to how sauropods were able to breathe with their large body sizes and long necks, which would have increased the amount of dead space. They likely had an avian respiratory system, which is more efficient than a mammalian and reptilian system. Reconstructions of the neck and thorax of Diplodocus show great pneumaticity, which could have played a role in respiration as it does in birds.

text: Scientists have debated as to how sauropods were able to breathe with their large body sizes and long necks, which would have increased the amount of

text: dead space

text: . They likely had an

text: avian respiratory system

text: , which is more efficient than a mammalian and reptilian system. Reconstructions of the neck and thorax of Diplodocus show great

text: pneumaticity

text: , which could have played a role in respiration as it does in birds.

text: The muscles of respiration are those muscles that contribute to inhalation and exhalation, by aiding in the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm and, to a lesser extent, the intercostal muscles drive respiration during quiet breathing. Additional 'accessory muscles of respiration' are typically only used under conditions of high metabolic demand (e.g. exercise) or respiratory dysfunction (e.g. an asthma attack).

text: The muscles of respiration are those

text: muscle

text: s that contribute to

text: inhalation

text: and

text: exhalation

text: , by aiding in the expansion and contraction of the

text: thoracic cavity

text: . The

text: diaphragm

text: and, to a lesser extent, the

text: intercostal muscle

text: s drive respiration during

text: quiet breathing

text: . Additional 'accessory muscles of respiration' are typically only used under conditions of high metabolic demand (e.g. exercise) or respiratory dysfunction (e.g. an

text: asthma attack

text: j)	Severe bradypnea (respiratory rate<6 breaths per minute)

text: Because A–a gradient is approximated as: (150 − 5/4(pCO)) – Pa at sea level and on room air (0.21x(760-47) = 149.7 mmHg for the alveolar oxygen partial pressure, after accounting for the water vapor), the direct mathematical cause of a large value is that the blood has a low P, a low P, or both. CO2 is very easily exchanged in the lungs and low P directly correlates with high minute ventilation; therefore a low arterial P indicates that extra respiratory effort is being used to oxygenate the blood. A low Pa indicates that the patient's current minute ventilation (whether high or normal) is not enough to allow adequate oxygen diffusion into the blood. Therefore, the A–a gradient essentially demonstrates a high respiratory effort (low arterial P) relative to the achieved level of oxygenation (arterial P). A high A–a gradient could indicate a patient breathing hard to achieve normal oxygenation, a patient breathing normally and attaining low oxygenation, or a patient breathing hard and still failing to achieve normal oxygenation.

text: Because A–a gradient is approximated as: (150 − 5/4(

text: pCO

text: )) – Pa at sea level and on room air (0.21x(760-47) = 149.7 mmHg for the alveolar oxygen partial pressure, after accounting for the water vapor), the direct mathematical cause of a large value is that the blood has a low P, a low P, or both. CO2 is very easily exchanged in the lungs and low P directly correlates with high

text: minute ventilation

text: ; therefore a low arterial P indicates that extra respiratory effort is being used to oxygenate the blood. A low Pa indicates that the patient's current minute ventilation (whether high or normal) is not enough to allow adequate oxygen diffusion into the blood. Therefore, the A–a gradient essentially demonstrates a high respiratory effort (low arterial P) relative to the achieved level of oxygenation (arterial P). A high A–a gradient could indicate a patient breathing hard to achieve normal oxygenation, a patient breathing normally and attaining low oxygenation, or a patient breathing hard and still failing to achieve normal oxygenation.

text: For people whose injuries are high enough to interfere with breathing, there is great emphasis on airway clearance during this stage of recovery. Weakness of respiratory muscles impairs the ability to cough effectively, allowing secretions to accumulate within the lungs.  As SCI patients suffer from reduced total lung capacity and tidal volume, physical therapists teach them accessory breathing techniques (e.g. apical breathing, glossopharyngeal breathing) that typically are not taught to healthy individuals.  Physical therapy treatment for airway clearance may include manual percussions and vibrations, postural drainage, respiratory muscle training, and assisted cough techniques. Patients are taught to increase their intra-abdominal pressure by leaning forward to induce cough and clear mild secretions. The quad cough technique is done lying on the back with the therapist applying pressure on the abdomen in the rhythm of the cough to maximize expiratory flow and mobilize secretions. Manual abdominal compression is another technique used to increase expiratory flow which later improves coughing. Other techniques used to manage respiratory dysfunction  include respiratory muscle pacing, use of a constricting abdominal binder, ventilator-assisted speech, and mechanical ventilation.

text: For people whose injuries are high enough to interfere with breathing, there is great emphasis on airway clearance during this stage of recovery. Weakness of respiratory muscles impairs the ability to cough effectively, allowing secretions to accumulate within the lungs.  As SCI patients suffer from reduced

text: total lung capacity

text: and

text: tidal volume

text: , physical therapists teach them accessory breathing techniques (e.g. apical breathing,

text: glossopharyngeal breathing

text: ) that typically are not taught to healthy individuals.  Physical therapy treatment for airway clearance may include manual percussions and vibrations,

text: postural drainage

text: , respiratory muscle training, and assisted cough techniques. Patients are taught to increase their intra-abdominal pressure by leaning forward to induce cough and clear mild secretions. The quad cough technique is done lying on the back with the therapist applying pressure on the abdomen in the rhythm of the cough to maximize expiratory flow and mobilize secretions. Manual abdominal compression is another technique used to increase expiratory flow which later improves coughing. Other techniques used to manage respiratory dysfunction  include respiratory muscle pacing, use of a constricting abdominal binder, ventilator-assisted speech, and

text: mechanical ventilation

text: Red blood cell membranes are impermeable to hydrogen ions but are able to exchange bicarbonate ions for chloride ions using the anion exchanger protein Band 3. The rise in intracellular bicarbonate leads to bicarbonate export and chloride intake. The term "chloride shift" refers to this exchange. As a result, plasma chloride concentration is lower in systemic venous blood than in systemic arterial blood: high venous pCO leads to bicarbonate production in RBCs, which then leaves the RBC in exchange for chloride coming in.

text: Red blood cell membranes are impermeable to hydrogen ions but are able to exchange bicarbonate ions for chloride ions using the anion exchanger protein

text: Band 3

text: . The rise in intracellular bicarbonate leads to bicarbonate export and chloride intake. The term "chloride shift" refers to this exchange. As a result, plasma chloride concentration is lower in systemic venous blood than in systemic arterial blood: high venous pCO leads to bicarbonate production in RBCs, which then leaves the RBC in exchange for chloride coming in.

text: Humans have two lungs, a right lung and a left lung. They are situated within the thoracic cavity of the chest. The right lung is bigger than the left, which shares space in the chest with the heart. The lungs together weigh approximately , and the right is heavier. The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract that begins at the trachea and branches into the bronchi and bronchioles and which receive air breathed in via the conducting zone. These divide until air reaches microscopic alveoli, where the process of gas exchange takes place. Together, the lungs contain approximately  of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli. The lungs are enclosed within a sac called the pleural sac which allows the inner and outer walls to slide over each other whilst breathing takes place, without much friction. This sac encloses each lung and also divides each lung into sections called lobes. The right lung has three lobes and the left has two. The lobes are further divided into  bronchopulmonary segments and lobules. The lungs have a unique blood supply, receiving deoxygenated blood sent from the heart for the purposes of receiving oxygen (the pulmonary circulation) and a separate supply of oxygenated blood (the bronchial circulation).

text: Humans have two lungs, a right lung and a left lung. They are situated within the

text: thoracic cavity

text: of the

text: chest

text: . The right lung is bigger than the left, which shares space in the chest with the

text: heart

text: . The lungs together weigh approximately , and the right is heavier. The lungs are part of the

text: lower respiratory tract

text: that begins at the

text: trachea

text: and branches into the

text: bronchi

text: and

text: bronchioles

text: and which receive

text: air

text: breathed in

text: via the

text: conducting zone

text: . These divide until air reaches microscopic

text: alveoli

text: , where the process of

text: gas exchange

text: takes place. Together, the lungs contain approximately  of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli. The lungs are enclosed within a sac called the

text: pleural sac

text: which allows the

text: inner and outer walls

text: to slide over each other whilst

text: breathing

text: takes place, without much friction. This sac encloses each lung and also divides each lung into sections called

text: lobes

text: . The right lung has three lobes and the left has two. The lobes are further divided into

text: bronchopulmonary segment

text: s and lobules. The lungs have a unique blood supply, receiving deoxygenated blood sent from the heart for the purposes of receiving oxygen (the

text: pulmonary circulation

text: ) and a separate supply of oxygenated blood (the

text: bronchial circulation

text: Glucose, calcium and proteins are other components of avian blood’s chemical properties. Blood glucose levels range from 200 to 400 mg/dL and can increase with stress. Calcium levels are approximately 8 to 12 mg/dL, and total protein, which consists of albumin and globulins, is between 3 and 5.5 mg/dl. Since the common raven flies at high altitudes, efficient gas exchange between the respiratory and circulatory systems permits this species to tolerate hypoxia. Due to the unidirectional flow of air and the high oxygen affinity of avian hemoglobin, blood leaving the parabronchi has almost equivalent oxygen partial pressure as inhaled air. Avian hearts pump more blood per unit time than mammalian hearts. Cardiac output (mL/minute) can be calculated by multiplying heart rate (beats/minute) by stroke volume (mL/beat).

text: Glucose

text: calcium

text: and

text: proteins

text: are other components of avian blood’s chemical properties. Blood glucose levels range from 200 to 400 mg/dL and can increase with stress. Calcium levels are approximately 8 to 12 mg/dL, and total protein, which consists of

text: albumin

text: and

text: globulins

text: , is between 3 and 5.5 mg/dl. Since the common raven flies at high altitudes, efficient gas exchange between the respiratory and circulatory systems permits this species to tolerate

text: hypoxia

text: . Due to the unidirectional flow of air and the high oxygen affinity of avian hemoglobin, blood leaving the

text: parabronchi

text: has almost equivalent oxygen partial pressure as inhaled air. Avian hearts pump more blood per unit time than mammalian hearts. Cardiac output (mL/minute) can be calculated by multiplying heart rate (beats/minute) by

text: stroke volume

text: (mL/beat).

text: Changes in volume of the thoracic cavity can also be inferred from displacements of the rib cage and diaphragm. Motion of the rib cage can be directly assessed, whereas the motion of the diaphragm is indirectly assessed as the outward movement of the anterolateral abdominal wall. However, accuracy issues arise when trying to assess accurate respiratory volumes from a single respiration band placed either at the thorax, abdomen or midline. Due to differences in posture and thoraco-abdominal respiratory synchronization it is not possible to obtain accurate respiratory volumes with a single band. Furthermore, the shape of the acquired waveform tends to be non-linear due to the non-exact co-ordination of the two respiratory compartments. This further limits quantification of many useful respiratory indices and limits utility to only respiration rates and other basic timing indices.  Therefore, to accurately perform volumetric respiratory measurements, a dual band respiratory sensor system must be required.

text: Changes in volume of the thoracic cavity can also be inferred from displacements of the rib cage and

text: diaphragm

text: . Motion of the rib cage can be directly assessed, whereas the motion of the diaphragm is indirectly assessed as the outward movement of the anterolateral abdominal wall. However, accuracy issues arise when trying to assess accurate respiratory volumes from a single respiration band placed either at the thorax, abdomen or midline. Due to differences in posture and thoraco-abdominal respiratory synchronization it is not possible to obtain accurate respiratory volumes with a single band. Furthermore, the shape of the acquired waveform tends to be non-linear due to the non-exact co-ordination of the two respiratory compartments. This further limits quantification of many useful respiratory indices and limits utility to only respiration rates and other basic timing indices.  Therefore, to accurately perform volumetric respiratory measurements, a dual band respiratory sensor system must be required.

text: Dräger claims to have longstanding experience, especially in the fields of gas management, gas flow control, gas monitoring and gas measurement. The current product range encompasses respiratory protective equipment for firefighters, miners and other industrial personnel as well as complete air filter and air supply systems, portable and fixed gas detection and warning systems, devices for on-site or laboratory contaminant analysis, and instruments to determine a person's breath-alcohol concentration.

text: Dräger claims to have longstanding experience, especially in the fields of gas management,

text: gas flow control

text: , gas monitoring and gas measurement. The current product range encompasses respiratory protective equipment for firefighters, miners and other industrial personnel as well as complete

text: air filter

text: and

text: air supply

text: systems, portable and fixed gas detection and warning systems, devices for on-site or laboratory contaminant analysis, and instruments to determine a person's

text: breath-alcohol concentration

text: If the post-synaptic cell is a sensory neuron, then an increased firing rate in that neuron will transmit the signal to the central nervous system for integration.  Whereas, if the post-synaptic cell is a connective pillar cell or a vascular smooth muscle cell, then the serotonin will cause vasoconstriction and previously unused lamellae will be recruited through recruitment of more capillary beds, and the total surface area for gas exchange per lamella will be increased.

text: If the post-synaptic cell is a sensory neuron, then an increased firing rate in that neuron will transmit the signal to the central nervous system for integration.  Whereas, if the post-synaptic cell is a connective pillar cell or a

text: vascular smooth muscle

text: cell, then the

text: serotonin

text: will cause

text: vasoconstriction

text: and previously unused lamellae will be recruited through recruitment of more

text: capillary

text: beds, and the total surface area for gas exchange per lamella will be increased.

text: Plasma and interstitial fluid are very similar.  This similarity exists because water, ions, and small solutes are continuously exchanged between plasma and interstitial fluids across the walls of capillaries.  Plasma, the major component in blood, communicates freely with interstitial fluid through pores and intercellular clefts in capillary endothelium.

text: Plasma and interstitial fluid are very similar.  This similarity exists because water, ions, and small solutes are continuously exchanged between plasma and interstitial fluids across the walls of capillaries.  Plasma, the major component in blood, communicates freely with interstitial fluid through

text: pore

text: s and intercellular clefts in

text: capillary

text: endothelium

text: The autonomic nervous system is composed of nerves serving the heart, lungs, blood vessels, bone, adipose tissue, sweat glands, gastrointestinal system and genitourinary system. Autonomic neuropathy can affect any of these organ systems. The most commonly recognized autonomic dysfunction in diabetics is orthostatic hypotension, or fainting when standing up. In the case of diabetic autonomic neuropathy, it is due to the failure of the heart and arteries to appropriately adjust heart rate and vascular tone to keep blood continually and fully flowing to the brain.  This symptom is usually accompanied by a loss of respiratory sinus arrhythmia - the usual change in heart rate seen with normal breathing. These two findings suggest autonomic neuropathy.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: is composed of nerves serving the

text: heart

text: lungs

text: blood vessels

text: bone

text: adipose tissue

text: sweat glands

text: gastrointestinal system

text: and

text: genitourinary system

text: Autonomic neuropathy

text: can affect any of these organ systems. The most commonly recognized autonomic dysfunction in diabetics is

text: orthostatic hypotension

text: , or

text: fainting

text: when standing up. In the case of diabetic autonomic neuropathy, it is due to the failure of the heart and arteries to appropriately adjust heart rate and vascular tone to keep blood continually and fully flowing to the

text: brain

text: .  This symptom is usually accompanied by a loss of

text: respiratory sinus arrhythmia

text: - the usual change in heart rate seen with normal breathing. These two findings suggest autonomic neuropathy.

text: Obligate anaerobes metabolise energy by anaerobic respiration or fermentation.  In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate generated from glycolysis is converted to acetyl-CoA.  This is then broken down via the TCA cycle and electron transport chain.  Anaerobic respiration differs from aerobic respiration in that it uses an electron acceptor other than oxygen in the electron transport chain.  Examples of alternative electron acceptors include sulfate, nitrate, iron, manganese, mercury, and carbon monoxide.

text: Obligate anaerobes metabolise energy by

text: anaerobic respiration

text: or

text: fermentation

text: .  In aerobic respiration, the pyruvate generated from

text: glycolysis

text: is converted to

text: acetyl-CoA

text: .  This is then broken down via the

text: TCA cycle

text: and

text: electron transport chain

text: .  Anaerobic respiration differs from

text: aerobic respiration

text: in that it uses an

text: electron acceptor

text: other than oxygen in the electron transport chain.  Examples of alternative electron acceptors include

text: sulfate

text: nitrate

text: iron

text: manganese

text: mercury

text: , and

text: carbon monoxide

text: *Ashaari Mohammad, 73, Malaysian spiritual leader, respiratory infection.

text: Ashaari Mohammad

text: , 73, Malaysian spiritual leader, respiratory infection.

text: Studies have shown that the efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange is improved by RSA, suggesting that RSA may play an active physiological role. The matched timing of alveolar ventilation and its perfusion with RSA within each respiratory cycle could save energy expenditure by suppressing unnecessary heartbeats during expiration and ineffective ventilation during the ebb of perfusion (delivery of blood from arteries to capillaries for oxygenation and nutrition).

text: Studies have shown that the efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange is improved by RSA, suggesting that RSA may play an active physiological role. The matched timing of alveolar ventilation and its perfusion with RSA within each respiratory cycle could save energy expenditure by suppressing unnecessary heartbeats during expiration and ineffective ventilation during the ebb of

text: perfusion

text: (delivery of blood from arteries to capillaries for oxygenation and nutrition).

text: (1974) The researchers studied the effectiveness of respirators used by miners. Scientists simultaneously measured dust concentrations with the personal samplers and two dust collectors - without mask and in the facepiece. Also, they measured the proportion of time, then the respirators were used by miners. For this purpose, two thermistor (one in the facepiece, the other on the belt) were used; over-heating PTC with expired air was a sign of wearing a mask. Because convenience of the respirators affect on the timeliness of its usage, scientists have studied the opinion of the miners on the use of respirators. A detailed report was published before the publication of the article.

text: (1974) The researchers studied the effectiveness of respirators used by

text: miner

text: s. Scientists simultaneously measured dust concentrations with the personal samplers and two dust collectors - without mask and in the facepiece. Also, they measured the proportion of time, then the respirators were used by miners. For this purpose, two

text: thermistor

text: (one in the facepiece, the other on the belt) were used; over-heating PTC with expired air was a sign of wearing a mask. Because convenience of the respirators affect on the timeliness of its usage, scientists have studied the opinion of the miners on the use of respirators. A detailed report was published before the publication of the article.

text: The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in humans and many other animals including a few fish and some snails. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their function in the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas exchange. Respiration is driven by different muscular systems in different species. Mammals, reptiles and birds use their musculoskeletal systems to support and foster breathing. In early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, a mechanism still seen in amphibians. In humans, the primary muscle that drives breathing is the diaphragm. The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human speech possible.

text: The lungs are the primary

text: organs of respiration

text: in humans and many other animals including a few

text: fish

text: and some

text: snail

text: s. In

text: mammal

text: s and most other

text: vertebrate

text: s, two lungs are located near the

text: backbone

text: on either side of the

text: heart

text: . Their function in the

text: respiratory system

text: is to extract

text: oxygen

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: and transfer it into the

text: bloodstream

text: , and to release

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of

text: gas exchange

text: Respiration

text: is driven by different

text: muscular systems

text: in different species. Mammals,

text: reptile

text: s and

text: bird

text: s use their

text: musculoskeletal system

text: s to support and foster

text: breathing

text: . In early

text: tetrapod

text: s, air was driven into the lungs by the

text: pharyngeal muscles

text: via

text: buccal pumping

text: , a mechanism still seen in

text: amphibian

text: s. In humans, the primary muscle that drives breathing is the

text: diaphragm

text: . The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human

text: speech

text: possible.

text: Molluscs' circulatory systems are mainly open. Although molluscs are coelomates, their coeloms are reduced to fairly small spaces enclosing the heart and gonads. The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood and coelomic fluid circulate and which encloses most of the other internal organs. These hemocoelic spaces act as an efficient hydrostatic skeleton. The blood contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin as an oxygen-carrier. The heart consists of one or more pairs of atria (auricles), which receive oxygenated blood from the gills and pump it to the ventricle, which pumps it into the aorta (main artery), which is fairly short and opens into the hemocoel.

text: Molluscs'

text: circulatory system

text: s are mainly

text: open

text: . Although molluscs are

text: coelomate

text: s, their

text: coelom

text: s are reduced to fairly small spaces enclosing the

text: heart

text: and gonads. The main body cavity is a

text: hemocoel

text: through which

text: blood

text: and

text: coelomic fluid

text: circulate and which encloses most of the other internal organs. These hemocoelic spaces act as an efficient

text: hydrostatic skeleton

text: . The blood contains the

text: respiratory pigment

text: hemocyanin

text: as an

text: oxygen

text: -carrier. The heart consists of one or more pairs of atria (

text: auricles

text: ), which receive oxygenated blood from the gills and pump it to the

text: ventricle

text: , which pumps it into the

text: aorta

text: (main

text: artery

text: ), which is fairly short and opens into the hemocoel.

text: Ventilation requires periodic movements of the respiratory muscles. These muscles are controlled by a rhythm generating network in the brain stem. These neurons comprise the ventral respiratory group (VRG). Although this process is not fully understood, it is believed to be governed by a CPG and there have been several models proposed. The classic three phase model of respiration was proposed by D.W. Richter. It contains 2 stages of breathing, inspiratory and expiratory, that are controlled by three neural phases, inspiration, post-inspiration and expiration. Specific neural networks are dedicated to each phase. They are capable of maintaining a sustained level of oxygen in the blood by triggering the lungs to expand and contract at the correct time. This was seen by the measuring of action potentials. It was observed that certain groups of neurons synchronized with certain phases of respiration. The overall behavior was oscillatory in nature. This is an example of how an autonomous biorhythm can control a crucial bodily function.

text: Ventilation requires periodic movements of the respiratory muscles. These muscles are controlled by a rhythm generating network in the brain stem. These neurons comprise the

text: ventral respiratory group

text: (VRG). Although this process is not fully understood, it is believed to be governed by a CPG and there have been several models proposed. The classic three phase model of respiration was proposed by D.W. Richter. It contains 2 stages of breathing, inspiratory and expiratory, that are controlled by three neural phases, inspiration, post-inspiration and expiration. Specific neural networks are dedicated to each phase. They are capable of maintaining a sustained level of oxygen in the blood by triggering the lungs to expand and contract at the correct time. This was seen by the measuring of action potentials. It was observed that certain groups of neurons synchronized with certain phases of respiration. The overall behavior was oscillatory in nature. This is an example of how an autonomous biorhythm can control a crucial bodily function.

text: DSMA1 is usually fatal in early childhood. The patient, normally a child, suffers a progressive degradation of the respiratory system until respiratory failure. There is no consensus on the life expectancy in DSMA1 despite a number of studies being conducted. A small number of patients survive past two years of age but they lack signs of diaphragmatic paralysis or their breathing is dependent on a ventilation system.

text: DSMA1 is usually fatal in early childhood. The patient, normally a child, suffers a progressive degradation of the

text: respiratory system

text: until

text: respiratory failure

text: . There is no consensus on the life expectancy in DSMA1 despite a number of studies being conducted. A small number of patients survive past two years of age but they lack signs of diaphragmatic paralysis or their breathing is dependent on a ventilation system.

text: Toxic effects are characterized by digestive (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain), neurological (obnubilation, convulsions and their complications), and respiratory disorders (polypnea, respiratory problems, apnea, short and superficial respiration) together with myositis of the pupils. Treatment of this poisoning is purely symptomatic. In the case of convulsions, rapid resuscitation in an intensive care unit is necessary. Coriamyrtin also has a pharmacological action.

text: Toxic effects are characterized by digestive (

text: nausea

text: vomiting

text: abdominal pain

text: ), neurological (obnubilation, convulsions and their complications), and respiratory disorders (polypnea, respiratory problems,

text: apnea

text: , short and superficial respiration) together with

text: myositis

text: of the pupils. Treatment of this poisoning is purely symptomatic. In the case of convulsions, rapid

text: resuscitation

text: in an intensive care unit is necessary. Coriamyrtin also has a pharmacological action.

text: has returned to 40 mmHg (5.3 kPa). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide “waste”. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body’s extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and  pH homeostats

text: has returned to 40 mmHg (5.3 kPa). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide “waste”. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body’s extracellular fluid

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: pH homeostats

text: Their respiratory system has adapted to rapidly take up oxygen from water. For example, tunas switched from a buccal-opercular pump system to ram ventilation, which allows them to drive large quantities of water over their gills. Gills have, in turn, become highly specialized to increase the rate of oxygen diffusion. The circulatory system works together with the respiratory system to rapidly transport oxygen to tissues. Due to high hemoglobin levels, the blood of southern bluefin tuna has a high oxygen carrying capacity. Furthermore, their large hearts, with a characteristic organization of muscle fibres, allow for comparatively high cardiac outputs, as well as rapid ejection of stroke volume. This, together with the organization of blood vessels and a countercurrent heat exchange system, allows the southern bluefin tuna to rapidly deliver oxygen to tissue, while preserving energy necessary for their active lifestyle.

text: The Union publishes two scientific journals; the International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IJTLD) and Public Health Action (PHA). The IJTLD is distributed to over 165 countries world-wide and has an impact factor of 2.76. The IJTLD is the reference for clinical research and epidemiological studies on tuberculosis. It is also the only peer-reviewed journal dedicated to lung health, including articles on non-tuberculosis-related respiratory diseases such as asthma, acute respiratory infection, COPD and the hazards of tobacco and pollution. Public Health Action is The Union's open-access online journal which is published quarterly. PHA addresses the need for showcasing operational research that addresses issues in health systems and services and aims to provide new knowledge to improve access, equity, quality and efficiency of health systems and services.

text: The Union publishes two scientific journals; the International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IJTLD) and Public Health Action (PHA). The IJTLD is distributed to over 165 countries world-wide and has an

text: impact factor

text: of 2.76. The IJTLD is the reference for clinical research and epidemiological studies on tuberculosis. It is also the only peer-reviewed journal dedicated to lung health, including articles on non-tuberculosis-related respiratory diseases such as asthma, acute respiratory infection, COPD and the hazards of tobacco and pollution. Public Health Action is The Union's open-access online journal which is published quarterly. PHA addresses the need for showcasing operational research that addresses issues in health systems and services and aims to provide new knowledge to improve access, equity, quality and efficiency of health systems and services.

text: The leading causes of mortality for all age groups are cerebrovascular diseases (11.6%); ischemic heart disease (9.9%); immunity disorders (7.1%); diseases of the respiratory system (6.8%); diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease (6.6%); endocrine and metabolic diseases (5.5%); diseases of other parts of the Digestive System (5.2%); violence (5.1%); certain condition originating in the prenatal period (4.3%); and hypertensive diseases (3.9%). The ten leading causes of morbidity for all age groups are, in decreasing order: malaria; acute respiratory infections; symptoms, signs and ill defined or unknown conditions; hypertension; accident and injuries; acute diarrhoeal disease; diabetes mellitus; worm infestation; rheumatic arthritis; and mental and nervous disorders.

text: These exchanges of substances are regulated by different mechanisms. These mechanisms work together and promote capillary exchange in the following way. First, molecules diffuse that are going to travel a short distance thanks to the capillary wall, the small diameter and the close proximity to each cell having a capillary. The short distance is important because the capillary diffusion rate decreases when the diffusion distance increases. Then, because of its large number (10-14 million capillaries), there is an incredible amount of surface area for exchange. However, this only has 5% of the total blood volume (250 ml 5000 ml). Finally, blood flows more slowly in the capillaries, given the extensive branching.

text: In Australia, "Breathing" debuted at number 36 on the ARIA Singles Chart on November 14, 2011. It peaked at number nine in its fifth week on the chart, becoming Derulo's sixth top-ten single in that country. "Breathing" also charted on the Australian Urban Singles Chart at number four. It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 140,000 copies. "Breathing" debuted at number 37 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on December 12, 2011. It ascended to number 30 in its third week, but descended the chart for the following two weeks. "Breathing" managed to peak at number 28 in its sixth week. In the United States, "Breathing" peaked at number 28 on the Pop Songs chart, but failed to impact the Billboard Hot 100.

text: In Australia, "Breathing" debuted at number 36 on the

text: ARIA Singles Chart

text: on November 14, 2011. It peaked at number nine in its fifth week on the chart, becoming Derulo's sixth top-ten single in that country. "Breathing" also charted on the Australian Urban Singles Chart at number four. It was certified double platinum by the

entity_name: Australian Recording Industry Association

text: Australian Recording Industry Association

text: (ARIA), denoting shipments of 140,000 copies. "Breathing" debuted at number 37 on the

text: New Zealand Singles Chart

text: on December 12, 2011. It ascended to number 30 in its third week, but descended the chart for the following two weeks. "Breathing" managed to peak at number 28 in its sixth week. In the United States, "Breathing" peaked at number 28 on the

text: Pop Songs

text: chart, but failed to impact the

text: Billboard Hot 100

text: Infections of the respiratory tract and middle ear are major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Some respiratory infections of global significance include tuberculosis, measles, influenza, and pneumonias caused by pneumococci and Haemophilus influenzae. The spread of respiratory infections is exacerbated by crowded conditions, and poverty is associated with more than a 20-fold increase in the relative burden of lung infections.

text: Infections of the respiratory tract and middle ear are major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Some respiratory infections of global significance include

text: tuberculosis

text: measles

text: influenza

text: , and

text: pneumonia

text: s caused by

text: pneumococci

text: and

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: . The spread of respiratory infections is exacerbated by crowded conditions, and poverty is associated with more than a 20-fold increase in the relative burden of lung infections.

text: Tuberculosis is a major public health problem in China. China has the world's third largest cases of tuberculosis (after India and Indonesia), but progress in tuberculosis control was slow during the 1990s. Detection of tuberculosis had stagnated at around 30% of the estimated total of new cases, and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis was a major problem. These signs of inadequate tuberculosis control can be linked to a malfunctioning health system. The spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003, brought to light substantial weaknesses in the country's public health system. After the government realized the impact that the SARS outbreak had on the country, they increased leadership in their health department. After the SARS epidemic was brought under control, the government increased its commitment and leadership to tackle public health problems and, among other efforts, increased public health funding, revised laws that concerned the control of infectious diseases, implemented the world's largest internet-based disease reporting system to improve transparency, reach and speed, and started a program to rebuild local public health facilities and national infrastructure.

text: Tuberculosis

text: is a major

text: public health

text: problem in

text: China

text: . China has the world's third largest cases of

text: tuberculosis

text: (after

text: India

text: and

text: Indonesia

text: ), but progress in tuberculosis control was slow during the 1990s. Detection of tuberculosis had stagnated at around 30% of the estimated total of new cases, and

text: multidrug-resistant

text: tuberculosis was a major problem. These signs of inadequate tuberculosis control can be linked to a malfunctioning

text: health system

text: . The spread of

text: severe acute respiratory syndrome

text: (SARS) in 2003, brought to light substantial weaknesses in the country's

text: public health system

text: . After the government realized the impact that the SARS outbreak had on the country, they increased leadership in their health department. After the

text: SARS epidemic

text: was brought under control, the government increased its commitment and leadership to tackle public health problems and, among other efforts, increased public health funding, revised laws that concerned the control of infectious diseases, implemented the world's largest internet-based disease reporting system to improve transparency, reach and speed, and started a program to rebuild local public health facilities and national infrastructure.

text: In some fish, a rete mirabile fills the swim bladder with oxygen.  A countercurrent exchange system is utilized between the venous and arterial capillaries.  By lowering the pH levels in the venous capillaries, oxygen unbinds from blood hemoglobin.  This causes an increase in venous blood oxygen concentration, allowing the oxygen to diffuse through the capillary membrane and into the arterial capillaries, where oxygen is still sequestered to hemoglobin. The cycle of diffusion continues until the concentration of oxygen in the arterial capillaries is supersaturated (larger than the concentration of oxygen in the swim bladder). At this point, the free oxygen in the arterial capillaries diffuses into the swim bladder via the gas gland.

text: In some fish, a rete mirabile fills the swim bladder with oxygen.  A

text: countercurrent exchange system

text: is utilized between the venous and arterial capillaries.  By lowering the

text: pH

text: levels in the venous capillaries, oxygen unbinds from blood

text: hemoglobin

text: .  This causes an increase in venous blood oxygen concentration, allowing the oxygen to diffuse through the capillary membrane and into the arterial capillaries, where oxygen is still sequestered to hemoglobin. The cycle of diffusion continues until the concentration of oxygen in the arterial capillaries is

text: supersaturated

text: (larger than the concentration of oxygen in the swim bladder). At this point, the free oxygen in the arterial capillaries diffuses into the swim bladder via the gas gland.

text: Oxygen is absorbed into the hemolymph in the gills which provide the primary respiratory surface. The gills hang down into the mantle cavity, the wall of which provides a secondary respiratory surface being well supplied with capillaries. In species with no gills, such as the subclass Anomalodesmata, the wall of the mantle cavity is the only organ involved in respiration.  Bivalves adapted to tidal environments can survive for several hours out of water by closing their shells tightly. Some freshwater species, when exposed to the air, can gape the shell slightly and gas exchange can take place.

text: Oxygen is absorbed into the hemolymph in the gills which provide the primary respiratory surface. The gills hang down into the

text: mantle cavity

text: , the wall of which provides a secondary respiratory surface being well supplied with

text: capillaries

text: . In species with no gills, such as the subclass Anomalodesmata, the wall of the mantle cavity is the only organ involved in respiration.  Bivalves adapted to tidal environments can survive for several hours out of water by closing their shells tightly. Some freshwater species, when exposed to the air, can gape the shell slightly and

text: gas exchange

text: can take place.

text: The fnr gene product, a pleiotropic transcriptional activator, is required for expression of the operons that encode nitrate and fumarate reductase complexes. FNR, an efficient respiratory oxidant induces synthesis of nitrate respiratory enzymes and simultaneously represses synthesis of enzymes for respiring the lower-potential acceptors.

text: The fnr gene product, a

text: pleiotropic

text: transcriptional activator

text: , is required for expression of the

text: operons

text: that encode nitrate and fumarate reductase complexes. FNR, an efficient respiratory oxidant induces synthesis of nitrate respiratory enzymes and simultaneously represses synthesis of enzymes for respiring the lower-potential acceptors.

text: Gas exchange is a biological process through which different gases are transferred in opposite directions across a specialized respiratory surface. Gases are constantly required by, and produced as a by-product of, cellular and metabolic reactions, so an efficient system for their exchange is extremely important. It is linked with respiration in animals, and both respiration and photosynthesis in plants.

text: Gas exchange is a biological process through which different gases are transferred in opposite directions across a specialized respiratory surface. Gases are constantly required by, and produced as a by-product of,

text: cellular and metabolic reactions

text: , so an efficient system for their exchange is extremely important. It is linked with

text: respiration

text: in animals, and both respiration and

text: photosynthesis

text: in plants.

text: Having eliminated loss of respiration, Albrich et al. proposes that the cause of death may be due to metabolic dysfunction caused by depletion of adenine nucleotides. Barrette et al. studied the loss of adenine nucleotides by studying the energy charge of HOCl-exposed cells and found that cells exposed to HOCl were unable to step up their energy charge after addition of nutrients. The conclusion was that exposed cells have lost the ability to regulate their adenylate pool, based on the fact that metabolite uptake was only 45% deficient after exposure to HOCl and the observation that HOCl causes intracellular ATP hydrolysis. It was also confirmed that, at bacteriocidal levels of HOCl, cytosolic components are unaffected. So it was proposed that modification of some membrane-bound protein results in extensive ATP hydrolysis, and this, coupled with the cells inability to remove AMP from the cytosol, depresses metabolic function. One protein involved in loss of ability to regenerate ATP has been found to be ATP synthetase. Much of this research on respiration reconfirms the observation that relevant bacteriocidal reactions take place at the cell membrane.

text: Having eliminated loss of respiration, Albrich et al. proposes that the cause of death may be due to metabolic dysfunction caused by depletion of adenine nucleotides. Barrette et al. studied the loss of adenine nucleotides by studying the energy charge of HOCl-exposed cells and found that cells exposed to HOCl were unable to step up their energy charge after addition of nutrients. The conclusion was that exposed cells have lost the ability to regulate their adenylate pool, based on the fact that metabolite uptake was only 45% deficient after exposure to HOCl and the observation that HOCl causes intracellular ATP hydrolysis. It was also confirmed that, at bacteriocidal levels of HOCl, cytosolic components are unaffected. So it was proposed that modification of some membrane-bound protein results in extensive ATP hydrolysis, and this, coupled with the cells inability to remove AMP from the cytosol, depresses metabolic function. One protein involved in loss of ability to regenerate ATP has been found to be

text: ATP synthetase

text: . Much of this research on respiration reconfirms the observation that relevant bacteriocidal reactions take place at the cell membrane.

text: One of the adaptations that allow bluefin tunas to have large migratory patterns is their endothermic nature, whereby they conserve heat in their blood and prevent its loss to the environment. They maintain their body temperature above the ambient water temperature in order to improve their locomotor muscle efficiency, especially at high speeds and when pursuing prey below the thermocline region. It has been hypothesized that tunas can rapidly alter their whole-body thermal conductivity by at least two orders of magnitude. This is done by disengaging the heat exchangers to allow rapid warming as the tuna ascend from cold water into warmer surface waters, and are then reactivated to conserve heat when they return into the depths. Through this unique ability, tunas can reach out into otherwise hazardously cold water in order to hunt for food or escape from predators. Variations in their muscle temperatures are not necessarily influenced by water temperatures or that of swimming speeds, which indicates the ability of the bluefin tuna to control the level of efficiency of their heat exchange system. Relating to the efficiency of oxygen extraction, tuna gill structure maximizes contact between water and the respiratory epithelium, which minimizes anatomical and physiological “dead space” in order to enable more than 50% oxygen-extraction efficiencies. This allows the fish to maintain a high rate of oxygen consumption as it continually swims out to others areas of oceans in search of food and ground for growth and reproduction.

text: One of the adaptations that allow bluefin tunas to have large migratory patterns is their endothermic nature, whereby they conserve heat in their blood and prevent its loss to the environment. They maintain their body temperature above the ambient water temperature in order to improve their locomotor muscle efficiency, especially at high speeds and when pursuing prey below the

text: thermocline

text: region. It has been hypothesized that tunas can rapidly alter their whole-body thermal conductivity by at least two orders of magnitude. This is done by disengaging the heat exchangers to allow rapid warming as the tuna ascend from cold water into warmer surface waters, and are then reactivated to conserve heat when they return into the depths. Through this unique ability, tunas can reach out into otherwise hazardously cold water in order to hunt for food or escape from predators. Variations in their muscle temperatures are not necessarily influenced by water temperatures or that of swimming speeds, which indicates the ability of the bluefin tuna to control the level of efficiency of their heat exchange system. Relating to the efficiency of oxygen extraction, tuna gill structure maximizes contact between water and the respiratory epithelium, which minimizes anatomical and physiological “dead space” in order to enable more than 50% oxygen-extraction efficiencies. This allows the fish to maintain a high rate of oxygen consumption as it continually swims out to others areas of oceans in search of food and ground for growth and reproduction.

text: Sipunclans do not have a vascular blood system. Fluid transport and gas exchange are instead accomplished by the coelom, which contains the respiratory pigment haemerythrin, and the tentacular system. The coelomic fluid contains five types of coelomic cells: haemocytes, granulocytes, large multinuclear cells, ciliated urns and immature cells. The ciliated urn cells may also be attached to the peritoneum and assist in waste filtering from the interstitial fluid. Nitrogenous waste is excreted through a pair of metanephridia opening close to the anus, except in Phascolion and Onchnesoma, which have only a single nephridium. A ciliated funnel, or nephrostome, opens into the coelomic cavity at the anterior end, close to the nephridiopore.

text: Sipunclans do not have a vascular

text: blood

text: system. Fluid transport and gas exchange are instead accomplished by the

text: coelom

text: , which contains the respiratory pigment

text: haemerythrin

text: , and the tentacular system. The

text: coelomic fluid

text: contains five types of coelomic cells: haemocytes, granulocytes, large multinuclear cells, ciliated urns and immature cells. The ciliated urn cells may also be attached to the

text: peritoneum

text: and assist in waste filtering from the interstitial fluid. Nitrogenous waste is excreted through a pair of

text: metanephridia

text: opening close to the anus, except in Phascolion and Onchnesoma, which have only a single nephridium. A ciliated funnel, or nephrostome, opens into the coelomic cavity at the anterior end, close to the nephridiopore.

text: Labored breathing is distinguished from shortness of breath or dyspnea, which is the sensation of respiratory distress rather than a physical presentation.

text: Labored breathing is distinguished from

text: shortness of breath

text: or dyspnea, which is the sensation of respiratory distress rather than a physical presentation.

text: How did photosynthesis arise in bacteria? The answer to this question is complicated by the fact that there are several types of light-harvesting energy capture systems. Chloroflexus aurantiacus has been of interest in the search for origins of the so-called type II photosynthetic reaction center. One idea is that bacteria with respiratory electron transport evolved photosynthesis by coupling a light-harvesting energy capture system to the pre-existing respiratory electron transport chain. Thus, rare organisms like Chloroflexus aurantiacus that can survive using either respiration or photosynthesis are of interest in on-going attempts to trace the evolution of photosynthesis.

text: How did photosynthesis arise in bacteria? The answer to this question is complicated by the fact that there are several types of light-harvesting energy capture systems. Chloroflexus aurantiacus has been of interest in the search for origins of the so-called

text: type II

text: photosynthetic reaction center

text: . One idea is that bacteria with

text: respiratory

text: electron transport

text: evolved photosynthesis by coupling a light-harvesting energy capture system to the pre-existing respiratory electron transport chain. Thus, rare organisms like Chloroflexus aurantiacus that can survive using either respiration or photosynthesis are of interest in on-going attempts to trace the

text: evolution

text: of photosynthesis.

text: Although Murphy is virtually completely reconstructed with a cybernetic body—his face, central nervous systems, circulatory systems and respiratory systems are the largest part of him left intact, and various chips have been implanted into his brain, as well as at least one eye being replaced—he proves to operate at a slower rate than the drone counterparts due to his natural hesitation when making judgements in the field. Attempting to get around this, Dr. Norton—the cyberneticist responsible for creating Murphy's implants—has a new chip installed in Murphy's brain that compensates for this by taking control of his responses in action. When faced with his public debut, he is so overwhelmed by his emotions that Dr. Norton is forced to shut down Murphy's ability to feel emotions to prevent a psychological breakdown.

text: Although Murphy is virtually completely reconstructed with a cybernetic body—his face,

text: central nervous system

text: s,

text: circulatory system

text: s and

text: respiratory system

text: s are the largest part of him left intact, and various chips have been implanted into his brain, as well as at least one eye being replaced—he proves to operate at a slower rate than the drone counterparts due to his natural hesitation when making judgements in the field. Attempting to get around this, Dr. Norton—the cyberneticist responsible for creating Murphy's implants—has a new chip installed in Murphy's brain that compensates for this by taking control of his responses in action. When faced with his public debut, he is so overwhelmed by his emotions that Dr. Norton is forced to shut down Murphy's ability to feel emotions to prevent a psychological breakdown.

text: 2. Respiratory system:

text: Respiratory system

text: As calculated by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, in order to maintain a normal pH of 7.4 in the blood (whereby the pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1 at physiological temperature), a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid must constantly be maintained; this homeostasis is mainly mediated by pH sensors in the medulla oblongata of the brain and probably in the kidneys, linked via negative feedback loops to effectors in the respiratory and renal systems. In the blood of most animals, the bicarbonate buffer system is coupled to the lungs via respiratory compensation, the process by which the rate of breathing changes to compensate for changes in the blood concentration of CO. By Le Chȃtlier’s Principle, the release of CO from the lungs pushes the reaction above to the left, causing carbonic anhydrase to form CO until all excess acid is removed. Bicarbonate concentration is also further regulated by renal compensation, the process by which the kidneys regulate the concentration of bicarbonate ions by excreting H ions into the urine while, at the same time, secreting HCO ions into the blood plasma, or vice versa, depending on whether the plasma pH is falling or rising, respectively.

text: As calculated by the

text: Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

text: , in order to maintain a normal pH of 7.4 in the blood (whereby the pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1 at physiological temperature), a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid must constantly be maintained; this

text: homeostasis

text: is mainly mediated by pH sensors in the

text: medulla oblongata

text: of the brain and probably in the

text: kidney

text: s, linked via negative feedback loops to effectors in the

text: respiratory

text: and

text: renal

text: systems. In the blood of most animals, the bicarbonate buffer system is coupled to the

text: lung

text: s via

text: respiratory compensation

text: , the process by which the rate of breathing changes to compensate for changes in the blood concentration of CO. By

text: Le Chȃtlier’s Principle

text: , the release of CO from the lungs pushes the reaction above to the left, causing carbonic anhydrase to form CO until all excess acid is removed. Bicarbonate concentration is also further regulated by

text: renal compensation

text: , the process by which the kidneys regulate the concentration of bicarbonate ions by excreting H ions into the urine while, at the same time, secreting HCO ions into the blood plasma, or vice versa, depending on whether the plasma pH is falling or rising, respectively.

text: H. littorale can breathe both with gills and through its intestines. However, intestinal respiration is not exhibited upon hatching, and the development of the respiratory intestine occurs throughout the juvenile period (up to 32 days old). Newly hatched larvae do not have the ability to breathe air through their intestines; however, it is possible that they absorb oxygen through their skin at this point, before the armor plates have developed. Soon after, between about 12–23 days of age, young have the capacity to breathe air, but their respiratory intestine has not finished developing. The respiratory intestine is well-developed between days 24 and 32.

text: H. littorale can breathe both with

text: gills

text: and through its intestines. However, intestinal respiration is not exhibited upon hatching, and the development of the respiratory intestine occurs throughout the juvenile period (up to 32 days old). Newly hatched

text: larva

text: e do not have the ability to breathe air through their intestines; however, it is possible that they absorb oxygen through their skin at this point, before the armor plates have developed. Soon after, between about 12–23 days of age, young have the capacity to breathe air, but their respiratory intestine has not finished developing. The respiratory intestine is well-developed between days 24 and 32.

text: Varies with age, but the normal reference range for an adult is 16–20 breaths/minute (RCP 2012).  The value of respiratory rate as an indicator of potential respiratory dysfunction has been investigated but findings suggest it is of limited value. Respiratory rate is a clear indicator of acidotic states, as the main function of respiration is removal of CO leaving bicarbonate base in circulation.

text: Oxygen diffuses through membranes and into red blood cells after inhalation into the lungs. They are bound to dioxygen complexes, which are coordination compounds that contain O as a ligand, providing a more efficient oxygen-loading capacity. In blood, the heme group of hemoglobin binds oxygen when it is present, changing hemoglobin's color from bluish red to bright red. Vertebrate animals use hemoglobin in their blood to transport oxygen from their lungs to their tissues, but other animals use hemocyanin (molluscs and some arthropods) or hemerythrin (spiders and lobsters). A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cc of oxygen gas, which is much more than water can dissolve.

text: Oxygen

text: diffuses

text: through membranes and into

text: red blood cell

text: s after inhalation into the lungs. They are bound to

text: dioxygen complex

text: es, which are

text: coordination compound

text: s that contain O as a

text: ligand

text: , providing a more efficient oxygen-loading capacity. In blood, the

text: heme group

text: of

text: hemoglobin

text: binds oxygen when it is present, changing hemoglobin's color from bluish red to bright red.

text: Vertebrate

text: animals use

text: hemoglobin

text: in their

text: blood

text: to transport oxygen from their

text: lung

text: s to their tissues, but other animals use

text: hemocyanin

text: mollusc

text: s and some

text: arthropod

text: s) or

text: hemerythrin

text: spider

text: s and

text: lobster

text: s). A liter of blood can dissolve 200 cc of oxygen gas, which is much more than water can dissolve.

text: Some amphibians utilizing cutaneous respiration have extensive folds of skin to increase the rate of respiration. Examples include the hellbender salamander and the Lake Titicaca water frog. Cutaneous respiration in hellbenders accounts for more than 90 percent of oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide excretion.

text: Some amphibians utilizing cutaneous respiration have extensive folds of skin to increase the rate of respiration. Examples include the

text: hellbender

text: salamander and the

text: Lake Titicaca water frog

text: . Cutaneous respiration in hellbenders accounts for more than 90 percent of oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide excretion.

text: In humans, the trachea divides into the two main bronchi that enter the roots of the lungs. The bronchi continue to divide within the lung, and after multiple divisions, give rise to bronchioles.  The bronchial tree continues branching until it reaches the level of terminal bronchioles, which lead to respiratory bronchioles and alveolar sacs.  Alveolar sacs, are made up of clusters of alveoli, like individual grapes within a bunch.  The individual alveoli are tightly wrapped in capillaries and it is here that gas exchange actually occurs.  Deoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the hemoglobin of the erythrocytes.  The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins to be pumped back into systemic circulation.

text: In humans, the trachea divides into the two main bronchi that enter the roots of the lungs. The bronchi continue to divide within the lung, and after multiple divisions, give rise to bronchioles.  The bronchial tree continues branching until it reaches the level of terminal bronchioles, which lead to respiratory bronchioles and alveolar sacs.  Alveolar sacs, are made up of clusters of

text: alveoli

text: , like individual grapes within a bunch.  The individual alveoli are tightly wrapped in

text: capillaries

text: and it is here that gas exchange actually occurs.  Deoxygenated blood from the

text: heart

text: is pumped through the

text: pulmonary artery

text: to the lungs, where oxygen

text: diffuses

text: into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the

text: hemoglobin

text: of the

text: erythrocytes

text: .  The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins to be pumped back into systemic circulation.

text: Haemal and perihaemal systems are derived from the coelom and form an open and reduced circulatory system. This usually consists of a central ring and five radial vessels. There is no true heart and the blood often lacks any respiratory pigment. Gaseous exchange occurs via dermal branchae or papulae in starfish, genital bursae in brittle stars, peristominal gills in sea urchins and cloacal trees in sea cucumbers. Exchange of gases also takes place through the tube feet. Echinoderms lack specialized excretory (waste disposal) organs and so nitrogenous waste, chiefly in the form of ammonia, diffuses out through the respiratory surfaces.

text: Haemal and perihaemal systems are derived from the coelom and form an

text: open

text: and reduced circulatory system. This usually consists of a central ring and five radial vessels. There is no true

text: heart

text: and the blood often lacks any respiratory pigment. Gaseous exchange occurs via dermal branchae or papulae in starfish, genital bursae in brittle stars, peristominal gills in sea urchins and cloacal trees in sea cucumbers. Exchange of gases also takes place through the tube feet. Echinoderms lack specialized excretory (waste disposal) organs and so

text: nitrogenous waste

text: , chiefly in the form of

text: ammonia

text: , diffuses out through the respiratory surfaces.

text: Elemental (metallic) mercury primarily causes health effects when it is breathed as a vapor where it can be absorbed through the lungs. These exposures can occur when elemental mercury is spilled or products that contain elemental mercury break and expose mercury to the air, particularly in warm or poorly ventilated indoor spaces. emotional changes (e.g., mood swings, irritability, nervousness, excessive shyness); insomnia; neuromuscular changes (such as weakness, muscle atrophy, twitching); headaches; disturbances in sensations; changes in nerve responses; performance deficits on tests of cognitive function. At higher exposures there may be kidney effects, respiratory failure and death.

text: In respiratory physiology, ventilation is the movement of air between the environment and the lungs via inhalation and exhalation. Thus, for organisms with lungs, it is synonymous with breathing. Ventilation usually happens in a rhythmic pattern, and the frequency of that pattern is called the ventilation rate (or, by long-standing convention, the respiratory rate, although in precise usage ventilation is a hyponym, not a synonym, of respiration).

text: In

text: respiratory physiology

text: , ventilation is the movement of air between the environment and the

text: lung

text: s via

text: inhalation

text: and

text: exhalation

text: . Thus, for organisms with lungs, it is

text: synonym

text: ous with

text: breathing

text: . Ventilation usually happens in a rhythmic pattern, and the

text: frequency

text: of that pattern is called the

text: ventilation rate

text: (or, by long-standing convention, the

text: respiratory rate

text: , although in precise

text: usage

text: ventilation is a

text: hyponym

text: , not a

text: synonym

text: , of

text: respiration

text: The Gills:  Used for breathing under water it consist of small fragment attach to the bony gill arch located just below the eyes.The Blood: Like humans, fish blood contain red blood cells and white bloods cells. However; their red blood cells contain nuclei (a mass of nerve cells in which fibers form connections). These types of cells direct their growth, metabolism, reproductive functions, and also transmits their genic characters.The Brain: All sensory information is processed here such as the higher behaviors (processing of what to eat do or react). The brain also commands the respiratory system differencing when the fish is above or below water. [9]

text: Infections can affect any part of the respiratory system. They are traditionally divided into upper respiratory tract infections and lower respiratory tract infections.

text: The respiratory centers are divided into four major groups, two groups in the medulla and two in the pons. The two groups in the medulla are the dorsal respiratory group and the ventral respiratory group. The two groups in the pons are the pneumotaxic center also known as the pontine respiratory group, and the apneustic center.

text: The respiratory centers are divided into four major groups, two groups in the medulla and two in the pons. The two groups in the medulla are the

text: dorsal respiratory group

text: and the

text: ventral respiratory group

text: . The two groups in the pons are the

text: pneumotaxic center

text: also known as the pontine respiratory group, and the

text: apneustic center

text: The respiratory bud is an embryological structure of endodermal origin that develops into organs of the respiratory system, such as the larynx, trachea and lungs.

text: The respiratory bud is an embryological structure of

text: endoderm

text: al origin that develops into organs of the

text: respiratory system

text: , such as the

text: larynx

text: trachea

text: and

text: lung

text: s.

text: Their neonatal care products include infant warmers to help maintain normal body temperature, infant resuscitators and CPAP systems designed to improve infant respiratory function.

text: Their

text: neonatal

text: care products include infant warmers to help maintain normal body temperature, infant resuscitators and

text: CPAP

text: systems designed to improve infant respiratory function.

text: Knockout mice with the Ctgf gene disrupted die at birth due to respiratory stress as a result of severe chondrodysplasia. Ctgf-null mice also show defects in angiogenesis, with impaired interaction between endothelial cells and pericytes and collagen IV deficiency in the endothelial basement membrane. CTGF is also important for pancreatic beta cell development, and is critical for normal ovarian follicle development and ovulation.

text: Knockout mice with the Ctgf gene disrupted die at birth due to respiratory stress as a result of severe

text: chondrodysplasia

text: . Ctgf-null mice also show defects in angiogenesis, with impaired interaction between endothelial cells and pericytes and collagen IV deficiency in the endothelial basement membrane. CTGF is also important for

text: pancreatic beta cell

text: development, and is critical for normal

text: ovarian follicle

text: development and

text: ovulation

text: Inhalation is a major route of exposure that occurs when an individual breathes in polluted air which enters the respiratory tract.   Identification of the pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can determine how the resulting exposure contributes to the  dose.  In this way, the mechanism of pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can be used to predict potential health impacts within the human population.

text: Inhalation is a major route of exposure that occurs when an individual breathes in polluted air which enters the respiratory tract.   Identification of the pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can determine how the resulting exposure contributes to the

text: dose

text: .  In this way, the mechanism of pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can be used to predict potential health impacts within the human population.

text: Students awarded an Associate of Science in Respiratory Care are qualified to sit for the three credentialing examinations NBRC-ELE, NBRC-WRE, and NBRC-CSE and apply for licensure as a Registered Respiratory Therapist.

text: Students awarded an Associate of Science in Respiratory Care are qualified to sit for the three credentialing examinations

text: NBRC-ELE

text: NBRC-WRE

text: , and

text: NBRC-CSE

text: and apply for licensure as a

text: Registered Respiratory Therapist

text: Osteomyelitis occurs in previously healthy children. The infection rate is poorly documented, thus the illness tends to go underdiagnosed. K. kingae can be transmitted person to person in rare cases.Diagnostic tools include low-grade fever, elevated inflammatory markers (ESR and CRP), but white blood cell counts are generally unreliable since they vary among infected patients.K. kingae infections are generally comcomitant with upper respiratory diseases or stomatitis, since disrupted respiratory or buccal mucosa is likely to facilitate bacterial invasion and hematogenous dissemination.

text: Respiratory health (pulmonary hygiene) depends on consistent clearance of airway secretions. Normal airway clearance is accomplished by 2 important mechanisms: the mucociliary clearance system and the ability to cough. Impaired mucociliary clearance is linked to poor lung function in a broad range of diseases and disabilities.

text: Cutaneous anthrax infection in humans shows up as a boil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center (eschar), often beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot. Cutaneous infections generally form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Without treatment about 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to toxemia and death. Respiratory infection in humans initially presents with cold or flu-like symptoms for several days, followed by severe (and often fatal) respiratory collapse. Historical mortality was 92%. Gastrointestinal infection in humans is most often caused by eating anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious gastrointestinal difficulty, vomiting of blood, severe diarrhea, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. After the bacteria invades the bowel system, it spreads through the bloodstream throughout the body, making more toxins on the way.

text: Cutaneous anthrax infection in humans shows up as a boil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center (

text: eschar

text: ), often beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot. Cutaneous infections generally form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Without treatment about 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to

text: toxemia

text: and death. Respiratory infection in humans initially presents with cold or

text: flu-like symptoms

text: for several days, followed by severe (and often fatal) respiratory collapse. Historical mortality was 92%. Gastrointestinal infection in humans is most often caused by eating anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious gastrointestinal difficulty,

text: vomiting

text: of blood, severe diarrhea, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. After the bacteria invades the bowel system, it spreads through the bloodstream throughout the body, making more toxins on the way.

text: The lower respiratory tract or lower airway is derived from the developing foregut and consists of the trachea, bronchi (primary, secondary and tertiary), bronchioles (including terminal and respiratory), and lungs (including alveoli. It also sometimes includes the larynx.

text: The lower respiratory tract or lower airway is derived from the developing

text: foregut

text: and consists of the

text: trachea

text: bronchi

text: (primary, secondary and tertiary),

text: bronchioles

text: (including terminal and respiratory), and

text: lungs

text: (including

text: alveoli

text: . It also sometimes includes the larynx.

text: Mahmoud died of respiratory failure in Tehran at the age of 71.

text: Mahmoud died of respiratory failure in

text: Tehran

text: at the age of 71.

text: Sereno theorises that this respiratory system may have developed to assist with regulating body temperature and was later co-opted for breathing.

text: Eosinophils compose about 2-4% of the WBC total. This count fluctuates throughout the day, seasonally, and during menstruation. It rises in response to allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, and disease of the spleen and central nervous system. They are rare in the blood, but numerous in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, and lower urinary tracts.

text: Eosinophils compose about 2-4% of the WBC total. This count fluctuates throughout the day, seasonally, and during

text: menstruation

text: . It rises in response to allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, and disease of the spleen and central nervous system. They are rare in the blood, but numerous in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, and lower urinary tracts.

text: To compensate for the large "dead" space, the ostrich trachea lacks valves to allow faster inspiratory air flow. In addition, the total lung capacity of the respiratory system, (including the lungs and ten air sacs) of a  ostrich is about , with a tidal volume ranging from . The tidal volume is seen to double resulting in a 16-fold increase in ventilation. Overall, ostrich respiration can be thought of as a high velocity-low pressure system. At rest, there is small pressure differences between the ostrich air sacs and the atmosphere, suggesting simultaneous filling and emptying of the air sacs.

text: To compensate for the large "dead" space, the ostrich trachea lacks valves to allow faster inspiratory air flow. In addition, the

text: total lung capacity

text: of the respiratory system, (including the lungs and ten air sacs) of a  ostrich is about , with a

text: tidal volume

text: ranging from . The tidal volume is seen to double resulting in a 16-fold increase in ventilation. Overall, ostrich respiration can be thought of as a high velocity-low pressure system. At rest, there is small pressure differences between the ostrich air sacs and the atmosphere, suggesting simultaneous filling and emptying of the air sacs.

text: The venom of the Philippine cobra is a potent postsynaptic neurotoxin which affects respiratory function and can cause neurotoxicity and respiratory paralysis, as the neurotoxins interrupt the transmission of nerve signals by binding to the neuromuscular junctions near the muscles. Research has shown its venom is purely a neurotoxin, with no apparent necrotizing components and no cardiotoxins. These snakes are capable of accurately spitting their venom at a target up to  away. The symptoms of a bite might include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce prominent neurotoxicity with minimal to no local signs. A study of 39 patients envenomed by the Philippine cobra was conducted in 1988. Neurotoxicity occurred in 38 cases and was the predominant clinical feature. Complete Respiratory failure developed in 19 patients, and was often rapid in onset; in three cases, apnea occurred within just 30 minutes of the bite. There were two deaths, both in patients who were moribund upon arrival at the hospital. Three patients developed necrosis, and 14 individuals with systemic symptoms had no local swelling at all. Both cardiotoxicity and reliable nonspecific signs of envenoming were absent. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce a distinctive clinical picture characterized by severe neurotoxicity of rapid onset and minimal local tissue damage.

text: The

text: venom

text: of the Philippine cobra is a potent postsynaptic

text: neurotoxin

text: which affects respiratory function and can cause

text: neurotoxicity

text: and respiratory paralysis, as the neurotoxins interrupt the transmission of nerve signals by binding to the neuromuscular junctions near the muscles. Research has shown its venom is purely a neurotoxin, with no apparent necrotizing components and no

text: cardiotoxins

text: . These snakes are capable of accurately spitting their venom at a target up to  away. The symptoms of a bite might include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce prominent neurotoxicity with minimal to no local signs. A study of 39 patients envenomed by the Philippine cobra was conducted in 1988. Neurotoxicity occurred in 38 cases and was the predominant clinical feature. Complete Respiratory failure developed in 19 patients, and was often rapid in onset; in three cases, apnea occurred within just 30 minutes of the bite. There were two deaths, both in patients who were moribund upon arrival at the hospital. Three patients developed necrosis, and 14 individuals with systemic symptoms had no local swelling at all. Both cardiotoxicity and reliable nonspecific signs of envenoming were absent. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce a distinctive clinical picture characterized by severe neurotoxicity of rapid onset and minimal local tissue damage.

text: Some cells, especially in older men and smokers, lack a Y chromosome. It has been found that men with a higher percentage of hematopoietic stem cells in blood lacking the Y chromosome (and perhaps a higher percentage of other cells lacking it) have a higher risk of certain cancers and have a shorter life expectancy. Men with "loss of Y" (which was defined as no Y in at least 18% of their hematopoietic cells) have been found to die 5.5 years earlier on average than others. This has been interpreted as a sign that the Y chromosome plays a role going beyond sex determination and reproduction (although the loss of Y may be an effect rather than a cause). And yet women, who have no Y chromosome, have lower rates of cancer. Male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers.

text: Some cells, especially in older men and

text: smokers

text: , lack a Y chromosome. It has been found that men with a higher percentage of

text: hematopoietic

text: stem cells

text: in blood lacking the Y chromosome (and perhaps a higher percentage of other cells lacking it) have a higher risk of certain

text: cancer

text: s and have a shorter life expectancy. Men with "loss of Y" (which was defined as no Y in at least 18% of their hematopoietic cells) have been found to die 5.5 years earlier on average than others. This has been interpreted as a sign that the Y chromosome plays a role going beyond sex determination and reproduction (although the loss of Y may be an effect rather than a cause). And yet women, who have no Y chromosome, have lower rates of cancer. Male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers.

text: Most of the respiratory tract exists merely as a piping system for air to travel in the lungs, and alveoli are the only part of the lung that exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the blood.

text: Most of the respiratory tract exists merely as a piping system for air to travel in the lungs, and

text: alveoli

text: are the only part of the lung that exchanges

text: oxygen

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: with the

text: blood

text: The two lineages arising from the EPC and the hematopoietic progenitor cell (HPC) form the blood circulatory system. Hematopoietic stem cells can of course undergo self-renewal, and are multipotent cells that give rise to erythrocytes (red blood cells), megakaryocytes/platelets, mast cells, T-lymphocytes, B-lymphocytes, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, monocyte/macrophage, and granulocytes.  A study found that in the beginning stages of mouse embryogenesis, commencing at embryonic day 7.5, HPCs are produced close to the emerging vascular system. In the yolk sac’s blood islands, HPCs and EC lineages emerge from the extraembryonic mesoderm in near unison. This creates a formation in which early erythrocytes are enveloped by angioblasts, and together they give rise to mature ECs. This observation gave rise to the hypothesis that the two lineages come from the same precursor, termed hemangioblast. Even though there is evidence that corroborates a hemangioblast, the isolation and exact location in the embryo has been difficult to pinpoint. Some researchers have found that cells with hemangioblast properties have been located in the posterior end of the primitive streak during gastrulation.

text: The two lineages arising from the EPC and the

text: hematopoietic progenitor cell

text: (HPC) form the blood circulatory system. Hematopoietic stem cells can of course undergo self-renewal, and are multipotent cells that give rise to

text: erythrocytes

text: (red blood cells),

text: megakaryocytes

text: platelets

text: mast cells

text: T-lymphocytes

text: B-lymphocytes

text: dendritic cells

text: natural killer cells

text: monocyte

text: macrophage

text: , and

text: granulocytes

text: .  A study found that in the beginning stages of mouse embryogenesis, commencing at embryonic day 7.5, HPCs are produced close to the emerging vascular system. In the yolk sac’s blood islands, HPCs and EC lineages emerge from the extraembryonic

text: mesoderm

text: in near unison. This creates a formation in which early erythrocytes are enveloped by

text: angioblasts

text: , and together they give rise to mature ECs. This observation gave rise to the hypothesis that the two lineages come from the same precursor, termed

text: hemangioblast

text: . Even though there is evidence that corroborates a hemangioblast, the isolation and exact location in the embryo has been difficult to pinpoint. Some researchers have found that cells with hemangioblast properties have been located in the posterior end of the

text: primitive streak

text: during

text: gastrulation

text: sensor on the medulla oblongata of the brain stem (as well as by the gas tension sensors in the aortic and carotid bodies). These blood gas chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata and pons in the brain. This, in turn sends nerve impulses through the phrenic nerve and other somatic motor nerves to the diaphragm and accessory muscles of inhalation and exhalation, increasing the rate and depth of breathing (hyperventilation). This keeps the arterial blood

text: sensor on the

text: medulla oblongata

text: of the

text: brain stem

text: (as well as by the gas tension sensors in the

text: aortic

text: and

text: carotid bodies

text: ). These blood gas chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the

text: respiratory center

text: in the

text: medulla oblongata

text: and

text: pons

text: in the brain. This, in turn sends nerve impulses through the

text: phrenic nerve

text: and other

text: somatic motor nerves

text: to the

text: diaphragm

text: and accessory muscles of inhalation and exhalation, increasing the rate and depth of breathing (

text: hyperventilation

text: ). This keeps the arterial blood

text: A percentage of the gas we breathe (air) is always dissolved in our blood, like the gas dissolved in a soda bottle with the lid on. If we move to a higher ambient pressure, then the gas we breathe is at a higher pressure, and more of it dissolves in our blood and body tissues. If we move back to a lower pressure, and we move slowly, then the extra gas comes out slowly until we are back to our normal amount of dissolved gas. But if we move quickly to a lower ambient pressure, then the gas comes out of our blood and tissues violently, in large bubbles, like to the difference between slowly opening a bottle of soda (dropping the pressure in the bottle slowly down to sea level), versus ripping the cap off quickly.

text: A percentage of the gas we breathe (air) is always dissolved in our blood, like the gas dissolved in a soda bottle with the lid on. If we move to a higher ambient pressure, then the gas we breathe is at a higher pressure, and more of it dissolves in our blood and body tissues. If we move back to a lower pressure, and we move slowly, then the extra gas comes out slowly until we are back to our normal amount of dissolved gas. But if we move quickly to a lower ambient pressure, then the gas comes out of our blood and tissues violently, in large bubbles, like to the difference between slowly opening a bottle of

text: soda

text: (dropping the pressure in the bottle slowly down to sea level), versus ripping the cap off quickly.

text: Ignoring other results of respiration, this cycle looks like:

text: Positive-pressure ventilation systems can be combined with a heat exchanger to recover energy in the process of exchanging air with the outside, and simply exhausting basement air to the outside is not necessarily a viable solution as this can actually draw radon gas into a dwelling. Homes built on a crawl space may benefit from a radon collector installed under a "radon barrier" (a sheet of plastic that covers the crawl space).For crawlspaces, the EPA states "An effective method to reduce radon levels in crawlspace homes involves covering the earth floor with a high-density plastic sheet. A vent pipe and fan are used to draw the radon from under the sheet and vent it to the outdoors. This form of soil suction is called submembrane suction, and when properly applied is the most effective way to reduce radon levels in crawlspace homes."

text: If the breathing gas supply is depleted, the dose of fresh breathing gas decreases until the breathing supply is used up. The diver will notice the decreasing volume of gas available which signals the need to switch to an independent open-circuit bailout system, which is integrated into the rebreather mouthpiece as a bailout valve, or to connect another supply cylinder to the rebrether.Water which leaks into, or accumulates in the breathing loop drains into the inner bellows from which it is automatically discharged into the environment along with the discharged air when the inner bellows is emptied during each inhalation.

text: Phlebotomists, laboratory practitioners and nurses are those charged with patient blood extraction. However, in special circumstances, and emergency situations, paramedics and physicians sometimes extract blood. Also, respiratory therapists are trained to extract arterial blood to examine arterial blood gases.

text: Phlebotomist

text: s,

text: laboratory practitioners

text: and

text: nurse

text: s are those charged with patient blood extraction. However, in special circumstances, and emergency situations,

text: paramedic

text: s and

text: physician

text: s sometimes extract blood. Also,

text: respiratory therapist

text: s are trained to extract arterial blood to examine

text: arterial blood gas

text: es.

text: In an acute context, hypoxemia can cause symptoms such as those in respiratory distress. These include breathlessness, an increased rate of breathing, use of the chest and abdominal muscles to breathe, and lip pursing.

text: In an acute context, hypoxemia can cause symptoms such as those in

text: respiratory distress

text: . These include

text: breathlessness

text: , an increased rate of breathing, use of the chest and abdominal muscles to breathe, and lip pursing.

text: Ozone cannot be stored and transported like other industrial gases (because it quickly decays into diatomic oxygen) and must therefore be produced on site. Available ozone generators vary in the arrangement and design of the high-voltage electrodes. At production capacities higher than 20 kg per hour, a gas/water tube heat-exchanger may be utilized as ground electrode and assembled with tubular high-voltage electrodes on the gas-side. The regime of typical gas pressures is around  absolute in oxygen and  absolute in air. Several megawatts of electrical power may be installed in large facilities, applied as one phase AC current at 50 to 8000 Hz and peak voltages between 3,000 and 20,000 volts. Applied voltage is usually inversely related to the applied frequency.

text: Ozone cannot be stored and transported like other industrial gases (because it quickly decays into diatomic oxygen) and must therefore be produced on site. Available ozone generators vary in the arrangement and design of the high-voltage electrodes. At production capacities higher than 20 kg per hour, a gas/water tube heat-exchanger may be utilized as ground electrode and assembled with tubular high-voltage electrodes on the gas-side. The regime of typical gas pressures is around  absolute in oxygen and  absolute in air. Several megawatts of

text: electrical power

text: may be installed in large facilities, applied as one phase AC

text: current

text: at 50 to 8000 Hz and peak

text: voltage

text: s between 3,000 and 20,000 volts. Applied voltage is usually inversely related to the applied frequency.

text: The respiratory bronchioles represent the transition from the conducting portion to the respiratory portion of the respiratory system. The narrow channels are usually less than 2 mm in diameter and they are lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium, consisting of ciliated cells and non-ciliated club cells, which are unique to bronchioles. In addition to being structurally diverse, club cells are also functionally variable. One major function they carry out is the synthesis and secretion of the material lining the bronchiolar lumen. This material includes glycosaminoglycans, proteins such as lysozymes, and conjugation of the secretory portion of IgA antibodies. These play an important defensive role, and they also contribute to the degradation of the mucus produced by the upper airways. The heterogeneous nature of the dense granules within the club cell's cytoplasm suggests that they may not all have a secretory function. Some of them may contain lysosomal enzymes, which carry out a digestive role, either in defense: Club cells engulf airborne toxins and break them down via their cytochrome P-450 enzymes (particularly CYP4B1, which is only present in the club cells) present in their smooth endoplasmic reticulum; or in the recycling of secretory products. Club cells are mitotically active. They divide and differentiate to form both ciliated and non-ciliated epithelial cells.

text: The respiratory bronchioles represent the transition from the conducting portion to the respiratory portion of the respiratory system. The narrow channels are usually less than 2 mm in diameter and they are lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium, consisting of ciliated cells and non-ciliated club cells, which are unique to bronchioles. In addition to being structurally diverse, club cells are also functionally variable. One major function they carry out is the synthesis and secretion of the material lining the bronchiolar

text: lumen

text: . This material includes glycosaminoglycans, proteins such as

text: lysozyme

text: s, and conjugation of the secretory portion of IgA antibodies. These play an important defensive role, and they also contribute to the degradation of the mucus produced by the upper airways. The heterogeneous nature of the dense granules within the club cell's cytoplasm suggests that they may not all have a secretory function. Some of them may contain lysosomal enzymes, which carry out a digestive role, either in defense: Club cells engulf airborne toxins and break them down via their cytochrome P-450 enzymes (particularly CYP4B1, which is only present in the club cells) present in their smooth endoplasmic reticulum; or in the recycling of secretory products. Club cells are mitotically active. They divide and differentiate to form both ciliated and non-ciliated epithelial cells.

text: The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast have been claimed to be healthful. As early as the 19th century, travellers used their stays on the North Sea coast as curative and restorative vacations. The sea air, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are counted among the beneficial conditions that are said to activate the body's defences, improve circulation, strengthen the immune system, and have healing effects on the skin and the respiratory system.

text: Intubation may be necessary for a patient with decreased oxygen content and oxygen saturation of the blood caused when their breathing is inadequate (hypoventilation), suspended (apnea), or when the lungs are unable to sufficiently transfer gasses to the blood. Such patients, who may be awake and alert, are typically critically ill with a multisystem disease or multiple severe injuries. Examples of such conditions include cervical spine injury, multiple rib fractures, severe pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or near-drowning. Specifically, intubation is considered if the arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO) is less than 60 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) while breathing an inspired O concentration (FIO) of 50% or greater. In patients with elevated arterial carbon dioxide, an arterial partial pressure of CO (PaCO) greater than 45 mm Hg in the setting of acidemia would prompt intubation, especially if a series of measurements demonstrate a worsening respiratory acidosis. Regardless of the laboratory values, these guidelines are always interpreted in the clinical context.

text: Intubation may be necessary for a patient with

text: decreased oxygen content

text: and

text: oxygen saturation

text: of the blood caused when their breathing is inadequate (

text: hypoventilation

text: ), suspended (

text: apnea

text: ), or when the lungs are unable to sufficiently

text: transfer gasses to the blood

text: . Such patients, who may be awake and alert, are typically critically ill with a multisystem disease or

text: multiple severe injuries

text: . Examples of such conditions include

text: cervical spine injury

text: multiple rib fractures

text: , severe

text: pneumonia

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS), or near-

text: drowning

text: . Specifically, intubation is considered if the

text: arterial

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen (PaO) is less than 60

text: millimeters of mercury

text: (mm Hg) while breathing an inspired O concentration (

text: FIO

text: ) of 50% or greater. In patients with

text: elevated arterial carbon dioxide

text: , an arterial partial pressure of CO (PaCO) greater than 45 mm Hg in the setting of

text: acidemia

text: would prompt intubation, especially if a series of measurements demonstrate a worsening

text: respiratory acidosis

text: . Regardless of the laboratory values, these guidelines are always interpreted in the clinical context.

text: To enable the absorption of sufficient amounts of water and heat, the expiratory stream of respiratory gas must be fully filtered through the HME. Leakages in the system, such as may be caused by bronchial fistulae, will render this system less effective. Other negative effects of this technology include increased secretions (i.e. mucus) and nosebleeds, either or which may clog an HME. In such cases, the application of active respiratory gas humidifiers is recommended.

text: Lung parenchyma is the substance of the lung outside of the circulation system that is involved with gas exchange and includes the alveoli and respiratory bronchioles.

text: Lung

text: parenchyma is the substance of the lung outside of the

text: circulation system

text: that is involved with

text: gas exchange

text: and includes the

text: alveoli

text: and

text: respiratory bronchiole

text: s.

text: All UK trained Physiotherapists receive advanced training in Respiratory Therapy theory and practice as a core component of their pre-registration Physiotherapy degree programme.  Following qualification and a period of rotations throughout the core areas of Physiotherapy practice, they may then follow a career pathway specialising in Respiratory Physiotherapy.  Areas of practice include Critical Care, respiratory medicine, Cystic Fibrosis, Asthma, Hyperventilation Syndrome, general and specialised surgery, non-invasive ventilation, ventilation weaning, cardiac and pulmonary rehab, respiratory therapy outpatient clinics and community respiratory therapy.  The Association of Chartered Physiotherapists interested in Respiratory Care is the specialist interest group for UK Physiotherapists working within the field of Respiratory Therapy.  All Physiotherapists working within the United kingdom must be registered with the Health and Care Professions Council, regardless of their area of clinical practice, in order to be allowed to work in both the public and private sectors.  Respiratory Physiotherapy postgraduate master's degree and PhD programs exist within the United Kingdom for suitably qualified and experienced therapists.

text: All UK trained

text: Physiotherapists

text: receive advanced training in Respiratory Therapy theory and practice as a core component of their pre-registration Physiotherapy degree programme.  Following qualification and a period of rotations throughout the core areas of Physiotherapy practice, they may then follow a career pathway specialising in Respiratory Physiotherapy.  Areas of practice include Critical Care, respiratory medicine, Cystic Fibrosis, Asthma, Hyperventilation Syndrome, general and specialised surgery, non-invasive ventilation, ventilation weaning, cardiac and pulmonary rehab, respiratory therapy outpatient clinics and community respiratory therapy.  The Association of Chartered Physiotherapists interested in Respiratory Care is the specialist interest group for UK Physiotherapists working within the field of Respiratory Therapy.  All Physiotherapists working within the United kingdom must be registered with the

text: Health and Care Professions Council

text: , regardless of their area of clinical practice, in order to be allowed to work in both the public and private sectors.  Respiratory Physiotherapy postgraduate master's degree and PhD programs exist within the United Kingdom for suitably qualified and experienced therapists.

text: The mechanism of action of flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity is thought to be due to mitochondrial toxicity. Specifically, flutamide and particularly its major metabolite 2-hydroxyflutamide inhibit enzymes in the mitochondrial electron transport chain in hepatocytes, including respiratory complexes I (NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase), II (succinate dehydrogenase), and V (ATP synthase), and thereby reduce cellular respiration via ATP depletion and hence decrease cell survival. Inhibition of taurocholate (a bile acid) efflux has also been implicated in flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity. In contrast to flutamide and 2-hydroxyflutamide, which severely compromise hepatocyte cellular respiration in vitro, bicalutamide does not significantly do so at the same concentrations and is regarded as non-mitotoxic. It is thought that the nitroaromatic group of flutamide and 2-hydroxyflutamide enhance their mitochondrial toxicity; bicalutamide, in contrast, possesses a cyano group in place of the nitro moiety, greatly reducing the potential for such toxicity.

text: The

text: mechanism of action

text: of flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity is thought to be due to

text: mitochondrial toxicity

text: . Specifically, flutamide and particularly its major metabolite 2-hydroxyflutamide inhibit

text: enzyme

text: s in the

text: mitochondria

text: l

text: electron transport chain

text: in

text: hepatocyte

text: s, including

text: respiratory complexes I

text: NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase

text: II

text: succinate dehydrogenase

text: ), and

text: V

text: ATP synthase

text: ), and thereby reduce

text: cellular respiration

text: via

text: ATP

text: depletion and hence decrease cell survival. Inhibition of

text: taurocholate

text: (a

text: bile acid

text: ) efflux has also been implicated in flutamide-induced hepatotoxicity. In contrast to flutamide and 2-hydroxyflutamide, which severely compromise hepatocyte cellular respiration in vitro, bicalutamide does not significantly do so at the same concentrations and is regarded as non-mitotoxic. It is thought that the

text: nitroaromatic

text: group

text: of flutamide and 2-hydroxyflutamide enhance their mitochondrial toxicity; bicalutamide, in contrast, possesses a

text: cyano group

text: in place of the nitro

text: moiety

text: , greatly reducing the potential for such toxicity.

text: The diagnosis of hemolytic anemia can be suspected on the basis of a constellation of symptoms and is largely based on examination of a peripheral blood smear and a number of laboratory studies. Symptoms of hemolytic anemia include those that can occur in all anemias as well as the specific consequences of hemolysis. All anemias can cause fatigue, shortness of breath, decreased ability to exercise when severe. Symptoms specifically related to hemolysis include jaundice and dark colored urine due to the presence of hemoglobin (hemaglobinuria). When restricted to the morning hemaglobinuria may suggest paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria. Direct examination of blood under a microscope in a peripheral blood smear may demonstrate red blood cell fragments called schistocytes, red blood cells that look like spheres (spherocytes), and/or red blood cells missing small pieces (bite cells). An increased number of newly made red blood cells (reticulocytes) may also be a sign of bone marrow compensation for anemia. Laboratory studies commonly used to investigate hemolytic anemia include blood tests for breakdown products of red blood cells, bilirubin and lactate dehydrogenase, a test for the free hemoglobin binding protein haptoglobin, and the direct Coombs test to evaluate antibody binding to red blood cells suggesting autoimmune hemolytic anemia.

text: The diagnosis of hemolytic anemia can be suspected on the basis of a constellation of symptoms and is largely based on examination of a

text: peripheral blood smear

text: and a number of laboratory studies. Symptoms of hemolytic anemia include those that can occur in all anemias as well as the specific consequences of hemolysis. All anemias can cause fatigue, shortness of breath, decreased ability to exercise when severe. Symptoms specifically related to hemolysis include

text: jaundice

text: and dark colored urine due to the presence of

text: hemoglobin

text: (hemaglobinuria). When restricted to the morning hemaglobinuria may suggest

text: paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria

text: . Direct examination of blood under a microscope in a

text: peripheral blood smear

text: may demonstrate red blood cell fragments called

text: schistocytes

text: , red blood cells that look like spheres (

text: spherocytes

text: ), and/or red blood cells missing small pieces (

text: bite cell

text: s). An increased number of newly made red blood cells (

text: reticulocytes

text: ) may also be a sign of

text: bone marrow

text: compensation for anemia. Laboratory studies commonly used to investigate hemolytic anemia include blood tests for breakdown products of red blood cells,

text: bilirubin

text: and

text: lactate dehydrogenase

text: , a test for the free hemoglobin binding protein

text: haptoglobin

text: , and the direct

text: Coombs test

text: to evaluate

text: antibody

text: binding to red blood cells suggesting

text: autoimmune hemolytic anemia

text: HBoV can be detected not only in respiratory samples but also in blood, urine, and stools. The latter two may merely reflect viral shedding, although diarrhoea has been described in animal bocaviral infections, and some patients with HBoV seem to have diarrhoea independent of respiratory symptoms.

text: HBoV can be detected not only in respiratory samples but also in blood, urine, and stools. The latter two may merely reflect viral shedding, although diarrhoea has been described in animal bocaviral infections, and some patients with HBoV seem to have

text: diarrhoea

text: independent of respiratory symptoms.

text: The blood–air barrier (alveolar–capillary barrier or membrane) exists in the gas exchanging region of the lungs. It exists to prevent air bubbles from forming in the blood, and from blood entering the alveoli. It is formed by the type 1 pneumocytes of the alveolar wall, the endothelial cells of the capillaries and the basement membrane between the two cells. The barrier is permeable to molecular oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and many other gases.

text: The blood–air barrier (alveolar–capillary barrier or membrane) exists in the

text: gas exchanging

text: region of the

text: lungs

text: . It exists to prevent air bubbles from forming in the

text: blood

text: , and from blood entering the

text: alveoli

text: . It is formed by the type 1

text: pneumocytes

text: of the alveolar wall, the

text: endothelial

text: cells of the

text: capillaries

text: and the

text: basement membrane

text: between the two cells. The barrier is

text: permeable

text: to molecular

text: oxygen

text: carbon dioxide

text: carbon monoxide

text: and many other gases.

text: CO is excreted from the cell via diffusion into the blood stream, where it binds with hemoglobin in red blood cells, is carried to the lungs, and exhaled.

text: CO is excreted from the cell via

text: diffusion

text: into the blood stream, where it binds with

text: hemoglobin

text: in red blood cells, is carried to the lungs, and exhaled.

text: Droplet precautions are intended to prevent transmission of pathogens spread through close respiratory or mucous membrane contact with respiratory secretions. Because these pathogens do not remain infectious over long distances in a healthcare facility, special air handling and ventilation are not required to prevent droplet transmission. Infectious agents for which droplet precautions are indicated are found in Appendix A and include B. pertussis, influenza virus, adenovirus, rhinovirus, N. meningitides, and group A streptococcus (for the first 24 hours of antimicrobial therapy). A single patient room is preferred for patients who require droplet precautions. When a single-patient room is not available, consultation with infection control personnel is recommended to assess the various risks associated with other patient placement options (e.g., cohorting, keeping the patient with an existing roommate). Spatial separation of > 3 feet and drawing the curtain between patient beds is especially important for patients in multi-bed rooms with infections transmitted by the droplet route. Healthcare personnel wear a mask (a respirator is not necessary) for close contact with infectious patient; the mask is generally donned upon room entry. Patients on droplet precautions who must be transported outside of the room should wear a mask if tolerated and follow Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette.

text: Droplet precautions are intended to prevent transmission of pathogens spread through close respiratory or mucous membrane contact with respiratory secretions. Because these pathogens do not remain infectious over long distances in a healthcare facility, special air handling and ventilation are not required to prevent droplet transmission. Infectious agents for which droplet precautions are indicated are found in Appendix A and include

text: B. pertussis

text: influenza virus

text: adenovirus

text: rhinovirus

text: N. meningitides

text: , and

text: group A streptococcus

text: (for the first 24 hours of antimicrobial therapy). A single patient room is preferred for patients who require droplet precautions. When a single-patient room is not available, consultation with infection control personnel is recommended to assess the various risks associated with other patient placement options (e.g., cohorting, keeping the patient with an existing roommate). Spatial separation of > 3 feet and drawing the curtain between patient beds is especially important for patients in multi-bed rooms with infections transmitted by the droplet route. Healthcare personnel wear a mask (a respirator is not necessary) for close contact with infectious patient; the mask is generally donned upon room entry. Patients on droplet precautions who must be transported outside of the room should wear a mask if tolerated and follow Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette.

text: One of the unique features of Megalops is the swim bladder, which functions as a respiratory pseudo-organ.  These gas structures can be used for buoyancy, as an accessory respiratory organ, or both.  In Megalops, this unpaired air-holding structure arises dorsally from the posterior pharynx.  Megalops uses the swim bladder as a respiratory organ and the respiratory surface is coated with blood capillaries with a thin epithelium over the top.  This is the basis of the alveolar tissue found in the swim bladder, and is believed to be one of the primary methods by which Megalops “breathes”.  These fish are obligate air breathers, and if they are not allowed to access the surface, they will die.  The exchange of gas occurs at the surface through a rolling motion that is commonly associated with Megalops sightings.  This “breathing” is believed to be mediated by visual cues, and the frequency of breathing is inversely correlated to the dissolved  content of the water in which they live.

text: One of the unique features of Megalops is the

text: swim bladder

text: , which functions as a respiratory pseudo-organ.  These gas structures can be used for buoyancy, as an accessory respiratory organ, or both.  In Megalops, this unpaired air-holding structure arises dorsally from the posterior pharynx.  Megalops uses the swim bladder as a respiratory organ and the respiratory surface is coated with blood capillaries with a thin epithelium over the top.  This is the basis of the alveolar tissue found in the swim bladder, and is believed to be one of the primary methods by which Megalops “breathes”.  These fish are obligate air breathers, and if they are not allowed to access the surface, they will die.  The exchange of gas occurs at the surface through a rolling motion that is commonly associated with Megalops sightings.  This “breathing” is believed to be mediated by visual cues, and the frequency of breathing is inversely correlated to the dissolved  content of the water in which they live.

text: Anaerobic respiration is a form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen. Although oxygen is not used as the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain called physolmere; it is respiration without oxygen.

text: Anaerobic respiration is a form of

text: respiration

text: using

text: electron acceptors

text: other than

text: oxygen

text: . Although oxygen is not used as the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain called physolmere; it is respiration without oxygen.

text: Blood plasma has a good many proteins in it and they exert an inward directed force called the colloid osmotic pressure on the water in hypotonic solutions across a membrane, i.e., in the Bowman's capsule.  Because plasma proteins are virtually incapable of escaping the glomerular capillaries, this oncotic pressure is defined, simply, by the ideal gas law:

text: Blood plasma has a good many proteins in it and they exert an inward directed force called the

text: colloid osmotic pressure

text: on the water in hypotonic solutions across a membrane, i.e., in the Bowman's capsule.  Because plasma proteins are virtually incapable of escaping the glomerular capillaries, this oncotic pressure is defined, simply, by the ideal gas law:

text: Tension pneumothorax occurs when the opening that allows air to enter the pleural space functions as a one-way valve, allowing more air to enter with every breath but none to escape. The body compensates by increasing the respiratory rate and tidal volume (size of each breath), worsening the problem. Unless corrected, hypoxia (decreased oxygen levels) and respiratory arrest eventually follow.

text: Tension pneumothorax occurs when the opening that allows air to enter the pleural space functions as a one-way valve, allowing more air to enter with every breath but none to escape. The body compensates by increasing the

text: respiratory rate

text: and

text: tidal volume

text: (size of each breath), worsening the problem. Unless corrected, hypoxia (decreased oxygen levels) and

text: respiratory arrest

text: eventually follow.

text: A hypopnea index (HI) can be calculated by dividing the number of hypopnea events during the sleep period by the number of hours of sleep. The apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) is an index of severity that combines apneas and hypopneas. Combining them both gives an overall severity of sleep apnea including sleep disruptions and desaturations (a low level of oxygen in the blood). The apnea-hypopnea index, like the apnea index and hypopnea index, is calculated by dividing the number of apneas and hypopneas by the number of hours of sleep. Another index that is used to measure sleep apnea is the respiratory disturbance index (RDI). The respiratory disturbance index is similar to the apnea-hypopnea index; however, it also includes respiratory events that do not technically meet the definitions of apneas or hypopneas, such as a Respiratory Effort Related Arousal ( RERA), but do disrupt sleep.

text: A hypopnea index (HI) can be calculated by dividing the number of hypopnea events during the sleep period by the number of hours of sleep. The

text: apnea-hypopnea index

text: (AHI) is an index of severity that combines apneas and hypopneas. Combining them both gives an overall severity of sleep apnea including sleep disruptions and desaturations (a low level of oxygen in the blood). The apnea-hypopnea index, like the apnea index and hypopnea index, is calculated by dividing the number of apneas and hypopneas by the number of hours of sleep. Another index that is used to measure sleep apnea is the

text: respiratory disturbance index

text: (RDI). The respiratory disturbance index is similar to the apnea-hypopnea index; however, it also includes respiratory events that do not technically meet the definitions of apneas or hypopneas, such as a Respiratory Effort Related Arousal ( RERA), but do disrupt sleep.

text: An RSBI score of less than 65 indicating a relatively low respiratory rate compared to tidal volume is generally considered as an indication of weaning readiness.A patient with a rapid shallow breathing index (RSBI) of less than 105 has an approximately 80% chance of being successfully extubated, whereas an RSBI of greater than 105 virtually guarantees weaning failure.Other criteria that have been suggested for a successful weaning trial include (1) the ability to tolerate a weaning trial for 30 minutes (in most patients, SBT failure will occur within approximately 20 minutes), (2) maintain a respiration rate of less than 35/min, and (3) keep an oxygen saturation of 90% without arrhythmias; sudden increases in heart rate and blood pressure; or development of respiratory distress, diaphoresis, or anxiety. Once the SBT is tolerated, the ability to clear secretions, a decreasing secretion burden, and a patent upper airway are other criteria that should be met to increase extubation success.Patients should be assessed daily for their readiness to be weaned from mechanical ventilation by withdrawing sedation and performing a spontaneous breathing trial.

text: Individuals without sleep apnea are sleeping while "at rest" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant:  After exhalation, the blood level of oxygen decreases and that of carbon dioxide increases. Exchange of gases with a lungful of fresh air is necessary to replenish oxygen and rid the bloodstream of built-up carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in the blood stream (called chemoreceptors) send nerve impulses to the brain, which then signals for reflexive opening of the larynx (enlarging the opening between the vocal cords) and movements of the rib cage muscles and diaphragm.  These muscles expand the thorax (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it.  In the absence of central apnea, any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide, even if small, strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe; the respiratory drive is so strong that even conscious efforts to hold one's breath do not overcome it.

text: Individuals without sleep apnea are sleeping while "at rest" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant:  After exhalation, the blood level of oxygen decreases and that of carbon dioxide increases. Exchange of gases with a lungful of fresh air is necessary to replenish oxygen and rid the bloodstream of built-up carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide receptors in the blood stream (called

text: chemoreceptors

text: ) send nerve impulses to the brain, which then signals for reflexive opening of the

text: larynx

text: (enlarging the opening between the vocal cords) and movements of the rib cage muscles and

text: diaphragm

text: .  These muscles expand the

text: thorax

text: (chest cavity) so that a partial vacuum is made within the lungs and air rushes in to fill it.  In the absence of central apnea, any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide, even if small, strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe; the respiratory drive is so strong that even conscious efforts to hold one's breath do not overcome it.

text: Pulmonary edema is fluid accumulation in the tissue and air spaces of the lungs. It leads to impaired gas exchange and may cause respiratory failure. It is due to either failure of the left ventricle of the heart to adequately remove blood from the pulmonary circulation ("cardiogenic pulmonary edema"), or an injury to the lung parenchyma or vasculature of the lung ("noncardiogenic pulmonary edema"). Treatment is focused on three aspects: firstly improving respiratory function, secondly, treating the underlying cause, and thirdly avoiding further damage to the lung. Pulmonary edema, especially acute, can lead to fatal respiratory distress or cardiac arrest due to hypoxia. It is a cardinal feature of congestive heart failure. The term is from the Greek οἴδημα.

text: Pulmonary edema is

text: fluid accumulation

text: in the tissue and air spaces of the

text: lung

text: s. It leads to impaired

text: gas exchange

text: and may cause

text: respiratory failure

text: . It is due to either failure of the

text: left ventricle

text: of the

text: heart

text: to adequately remove blood from the

text: pulmonary

text: circulation ("cardiogenic pulmonary edema"), or an injury to the lung

text: parenchyma

text: or vasculature of the lung ("noncardiogenic pulmonary edema"). Treatment is focused on three aspects: firstly improving respiratory function, secondly, treating the underlying cause, and thirdly avoiding further damage to the lung. Pulmonary edema, especially acute, can lead to fatal

text: respiratory distress

text: or cardiac arrest due to

text: hypoxia

text: . It is a cardinal feature of

text: congestive heart failure

text: . The term is from the

text: Greek

text: οἴδημα.

text: The primary sites of gas exchange in marine teleosts, the gills, are also responsible for osmoregulation. Because gills are designed to increase surface area and minimize diffusion distance for gas exchange between the blood and water, they may contribute to the problem of water loss by osmosis and passive salt gain. This is called the osmo-respiratory compromise. To overcome this, tunas constantly drink seawater to compensate for water loss. They excrete highly concentrated urine which is approximately isosmotic to blood plasma, i.e. urine solute to plasma solute ratio is close to 1 (U/P≅1). Because of this, solely excreting urine is not sufficient to resolve the osmoregulatory problem in tunas. In turn, they excrete only the minimum volume of urine necessary to rid of solutes that are not excreted by other routes, and the salt is mostly excreted via gills. This is why the composition of solutes in urine differs significantly from that of the blood plasma. Urine has a high concentration of divalent ions, such as Mg and SO (U/P>>1), as these ions are mostly excreted by the kidneys keeping their concentration in blood plasma from rising. Monovalent ions (Na, Cl, K) are excreted by the gills, so their U/P ratios in the urine are below 1. The excretion of inorganic ions by structures other than kidneys is called the extrarenal salt excretion.

text: The primary sites of gas exchange in marine teleosts, the

text: gills

text: , are also responsible for

text: osmoregulation

text: . Because gills are designed to increase surface area and minimize diffusion distance for gas exchange between the blood and water, they may contribute to the problem of water loss by

text: osmosis

text: and passive salt gain. This is called the osmo-respiratory compromise. To overcome this, tunas constantly drink seawater to compensate for water loss. They excrete highly concentrated urine which is approximately isosmotic to

text: blood plasma

text: , i.e. urine solute to plasma solute ratio is close to 1 (U/P≅1). Because of this, solely excreting urine is not sufficient to resolve the osmoregulatory problem in tunas. In turn, they excrete only the minimum volume of urine necessary to rid of solutes that are not excreted by other routes, and the salt is mostly excreted via gills. This is why the composition of solutes in urine differs significantly from that of the blood plasma. Urine has a high concentration of divalent ions, such as Mg and SO (U/P>>1), as these ions are mostly excreted by the kidneys keeping their concentration in blood plasma from rising. Monovalent ions (Na, Cl, K) are excreted by the gills, so their U/P ratios in the urine are below 1. The excretion of inorganic ions by structures other than kidneys is called the extrarenal salt excretion.

text: While shortness of breath is generally caused by disorders of the cardiac or respiratory system, other systems such as  neurological, musculoskeletal, endocrine, hematologic, and psychiatric may be the cause. DiagnosisPro, an online medical expert system, listed 497 distinct causes in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure while common pulmonary causes include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumothorax, pulmonary edema and pneumonia. On a pathophysiological basis the causes can be divided into: (1) an increased awareness of normal breathing such as during an anxiety attack, (2) an increase in the work of breathing and (3) an abnormality in the ventilatory system.

text: While shortness of breath is generally caused by disorders of the

text: cardiac

text: or

text: respiratory system

text: , other systems such as

text: neurological

text: musculoskeletal

text: endocrine

text: hematologic

text: , and psychiatric may be the cause.

text: DiagnosisPro

text: , an online medical expert system, listed 497 distinct causes in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are

text: acute myocardial infarction

text: and

text: congestive heart failure

text: while common pulmonary causes include

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: asthma

text: pneumothorax

text: , pulmonary edema and

text: pneumonia

text: . On a pathophysiological basis the causes can be divided into: (1) an increased awareness of normal breathing such as during an anxiety attack, (2) an increase in the work of breathing and (3) an abnormality in the ventilatory system.

text: Pseudohaje goldii venom is one of the most toxic and deadly of all African snakes. Venom of this species is primarily a neurotoxin, like most Elapidae. It is quick acting and extremely potent, easily killing a person. Moreover, there is no known specific antivenom made. Bite symptoms include swelling and stinging pain around the bite wound, numbness of limbs and lip, severe difficulty in breathing, sweating profusely and blurred vision. Victims may die of respiratory failure. A number of people are killed by this species.

text: Pseudohaje goldii venom is one of the most toxic and deadly of all African snakes. Venom of this species is primarily a

text: neurotoxin

text: , like most

text: Elapidae

text: . It is quick acting and extremely potent, easily killing a person. Moreover, there is no known specific

text: antivenom

text: made. Bite symptoms include swelling and stinging pain around the bite wound, numbness of limbs and lip, severe difficulty in breathing, sweating profusely and blurred vision. Victims may die of respiratory failure. A number of people are killed by this species.

text: Vaschillo and colleagues (1983) published the first studies of heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback with cosmonauts and treated patients diagnosed with psychiatric and psychophysiological disorders. Lehrer collaborated with Smetankin and Potapova in treating pediatric asthma patients and published influential articles on HRV asthma treatment in the medical journal Chest. The most direct effect of HRV biofeedback is on the baroreflex, a homeostatic reflex that helps control blood pressure fluctuations. When blood pressure goes up, the baroreflex makes heart rate go down. The opposite happens when blood pressure goes down. Because it takes about 5 seconds for blood pressure to change after changes in heart rate (think of different amounts of blood flowing through the same sized tube), the baroreflex produces a rhythm in heart rate with a period of about 10 seconds. Another rhythm in heart rate is caused by respiration (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), such that heart rate rises during inhalation and falls during exhalation. During HRV biofeedback, these two reflexes stimulate each other, stimulating resonance properties of the cardiovascular system caused by the inherent rhythm in the baroreflex, and thus causing very big oscillations in heart rate and large-amplitude stimulation of the baroreflex. Thus HRV biofeedback exercises the baroreflex, and strengthens it. This apparently has the effect of modulating autonomic reactivity to stimulation. Because the baroreflex is controlled through brain stem mechanisms that communicate directly with the insula and amygdala, which control emotion, HRV biofeedback also appears to modulate emotional reactivity, and to help people suffering from anxiety, stress, and depression

text: Vaschillo and colleagues (1983) published the first studies of heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback with

text: cosmonauts

text: In air conditioning systems, chilled water is typically distributed to heat exchangers, or coils, in air handling units or other types of terminal devices which cool the air in their respective space(s). The water is then re-circulated back to the chiller to be cooled again.  These cooling coils transfer sensible heat and latent heat from the air to the chilled water, thus cooling and usually dehumidifying the air stream. A typical chiller for air conditioning applications is rated between 15 and 2000 tons, and at least one manufacturer can produce chillers capable of up to 5,200 tons of cooling. Chilled water temperatures can range from , depending upon application requirements.

text: In

text: air conditioning

text: systems, chilled water is typically distributed to heat exchangers, or coils, in

text: air handling unit

text: s or other types of terminal devices which cool the air in their respective space(s). The water is then re-circulated back to the chiller to be cooled again.  These cooling coils transfer

text: sensible heat

text: and

text: latent heat

text: from the air to the chilled water, thus cooling and usually dehumidifying the air stream. A typical chiller for air conditioning applications is rated between 15 and 2000

text: tons

text: , and at least one manufacturer can produce chillers capable of up to 5,200 tons of cooling. Chilled water temperatures can range from , depending upon application requirements.

text: Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs, to allow the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the external environment into and out of the blood. "Breathing" sometimes also refers to the equivalent process using other respiratory organs such as gills in fish and spiracles in certain arthropods. For organisms with lungs, breathing is also called pulmonary ventilation, which consists of inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out). Breathing is one part of physiological respiration required to sustain life. Aerobic organisms (all animals, most plants and many micro-organisms) require oxygen at cellular level to release energy by metabolizing energy-rich molecules such as fatty acids and glucose. This is often referred to as cellular respiration. Breathing is only one of the processes that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removes excess carbon dioxide. After breathing, the next process in this chain of events is the transport of these gases throughout the body by the circulatory system, and then their uptake or release from the respiring cells. Breathing fulfills another vital function: that of regulating the pH of the extracellular fluids of the body. It is, in fact, this homeostatic function which determines the rate and depth of breathing. The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is eupnea.

text: Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the

text: lung

text: s, to allow the diffusion of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: to and from the external environment into and out of the blood. "Breathing" sometimes also refers to the equivalent process using other

text: respiratory organ

text: s such as

text: gill

text: s in fish and

text: spiracles

text: in certain

text: arthropods

text: . For organisms with lungs, breathing is also called

text: pulmonary ventilation

text: , which consists of

text: inhalation

text: (breathing in) and

text: exhalation

text: (breathing out). Breathing is one part of

text: physiological respiration

text: required to sustain

text: life

text: Aerobic

text: organism

text: s (all animals, most plants and many micro-organisms) require oxygen at cellular level to release energy by

text: metabolizing

text: energy-rich

text: molecule

text: s such as

text: fatty acids

text: and

text: glucose

text: . This is often referred to as

text: cellular respiration

text: . Breathing is only one of the processes that delivers

text: oxygen

text: to where it is needed in the body and removes excess

text: carbon dioxide

text: . After breathing, the next process in this chain of events is the transport of these gases throughout the body by the circulatory system, and then their uptake or release from the respiring cells. Breathing fulfills another vital function: that of

text: regulating the pH

text: of the

text: extracellular fluids

text: of the body. It is, in fact, this

text: homeostatic

text: function which determines the rate and depth of breathing. The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is

text: eupnea

text: Research has shown that the tongue-tie does not restrict the animal's breathing. However, research has also shown that the tongue-tie does not provide a respiratory benefit in healthy animals (as some trainers believe it prevents the horse's tongue from coming up, and therefore allows for free air intake). Other studies have shown that it does help prevent dorsal displacement of the soft palate, but success rate is low.

text: Research has shown that the tongue-tie does not restrict the animal's breathing. However, research has also shown that the tongue-tie does not provide a respiratory benefit in healthy animals (as some trainers believe it prevents the horse's tongue from coming up, and therefore allows for free air intake). Other studies have shown that it does help prevent dorsal displacement of the

text: soft palate

text: , but success rate is low.

text: Atrial bradycardias are divided into three types. The first, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, is usually found in young and healthy adults. Heart rate increases during inhalation and decreases during exhalation.  This is thought to be caused by changes in the vagal tone during respiration.  If the decrease during exhalation drops the heart rate below 60 bpm on each breath, this type of bradycardia is usually deemed benign and a sign of good autonomic tone.

text: Atrial bradycardias are divided into three types. The first,

text: respiratory sinus arrhythmia

text: , is usually found in young and healthy adults. Heart rate increases during inhalation and decreases during exhalation.  This is thought to be caused by changes in the

text: vagal

text: tone during respiration.  If the decrease during exhalation drops the heart rate below 60 bpm on each breath, this type of bradycardia is usually deemed benign and a sign of good

text: autonomic tone

text: A pulmonary hematoma is a collection of blood within the tissue of the lung.  It may result when a pulmonary laceration fills with blood.  A lung laceration filled with air is called a pneumatocele.  In some cases, both pneumatoceles and hematomas exist in the same injured lung.  Pulmonary hematomas take longer to heal than simple pneumatoceles and commonly leave the lungs scarred.  A pulmonary contusion is another cause of bleeding within the lung tissue, but these result from microhemorrhages, multiple small bleeds, and the bleeding is not a discrete mass but rather occurs within the lung tissue.  An indication of more severe damage to the lung than pulmonary contusion, a hematoma also takes longer to clear. Unlike contusions, hematomas do not usually interfere with gas exchange in the lung, but they do increase the risk of infection and abscess formation.

text: A pulmonary hematoma is a collection of

text: blood

text: within the

text: tissue

text: of the

text: lung

text: .  It may result when a

text: pulmonary laceration

text: fills with blood.  A lung laceration filled with air is called a

text: pneumatocele

text: .  In some cases, both pneumatoceles and hematomas exist in the same injured lung.  Pulmonary hematomas take longer to heal than simple pneumatoceles and commonly leave the lungs scarred.  A

text: pulmonary contusion

text: is another cause of bleeding within the lung tissue, but these result from microhemorrhages, multiple small bleeds, and the bleeding is not a discrete mass but rather occurs within the lung tissue.  An indication of more severe damage to the lung than pulmonary contusion, a hematoma also takes longer to clear. Unlike contusions, hematomas do not usually interfere with

text: gas exchange

text: in the lung, but they do increase the risk of

text: infection

text: and

text: abscess

text: formation.

text: They are about 5–6 ft. long once they reach maturity and they walk and lie horizontally, although they can temporarily stand up on their rearmost four legs, at which point they would be at eye level with average humans. They have four extensible eye-stalks which can turn to give a 360° view of their surroundings.  Their number of legs varies throughout the series, but is generally held to be 12 pairs, or 24 legs. They have no neck or skeleton, due to an immense and highly vulnerable cardiovascular system.  This system is complex, with two hearts and many thin-walled blood vessels near the surface. This, combined with high pressure and a high pulse rate, makes cuts very dangerous; a Kelgian can bleed to death from a minor injury if not controlled. Their skin is thicker than a human's, and they have two mouths, one for their digestive system and one for their respiratory system.  A Kelgian female conceives once in her lifetime, producing two offspring of each gender.  Their speech sounds like a series of hoots and whines to human ears.

text: They are about 5–6 ft. long once they reach maturity and they walk and lie

text: horizontally

text: , although they can temporarily stand up on their rearmost four legs, at which point they would be at eye level with average humans. They have four extensible eye-stalks which can turn to give a 360° view of their surroundings.  Their number of legs varies throughout the series, but is generally held to be 12 pairs, or 24 legs. They have no neck or skeleton, due to an immense and highly vulnerable

text: cardiovascular system

text: .  This system is complex, with two hearts and many thin-walled

text: blood vessels

text: near the surface. This, combined with high pressure and a high pulse rate, makes cuts very dangerous; a Kelgian can bleed to death from a minor injury if not controlled. Their skin is thicker than a human's, and they have two mouths, one for their digestive system and one for their respiratory system.  A Kelgian female conceives once in her lifetime, producing two offspring of each gender.  Their speech sounds like a series of hoots and whines to human ears.

text: The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to hyperthermia. Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in respiration rate however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike other birds, the ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing respiratory alkalosis by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During hyperpnea ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry and moisture lacking properties of the ostrich respiratory medium affects oxygen's diffusion rate (Henry's Law).

text: The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to

text: hyperthermia

text: . Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in

text: respiration rate

text: however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike other birds, the ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During

text: hyperpnea

text: ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry and moisture lacking properties of the ostrich respiratory medium affects oxygen's diffusion rate (

text: Henry's Law

text: The respiratory system is responsible for delivering sufficient oxygen to all cells of the body and for removing carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced as a waste product of cellular respiration.   The respiratory system of insects (and many other arthropods) is separate from the circulatory system.   It is a complex network of tubes (called a tracheal system) that delivers oxygen-containing air to every cell of the body. Air enters the insect's body through valve-like openings in the exoskeleton.   These openings (called spiracles) are located laterally along the thorax and abdomen of most insects—usually one pair of spiracles per body segment.   Air flow is regulated by small muscles that operate one or two flap-like valves within each spiracle—contracting to close the spiracle, or relaxing to open it. After passing through a spiracle, air enters a longitudinal tracheal trunk, eventually diffusing throughout a complex, branching network of tracheal tubes that subdivides into smaller and smaller diameters and reaches every part of the body.   At the end of each tracheal branch, a special cell (the tracheole) provides a thin, moist interface for the exchange of gasses between atmospheric air and a living cell.   Oxygen in the tracheal tube first dissolves in the liquid of the tracheole and then diffuses into the cytoplasm of an adjacent cell.   At the same time, carbon dioxide, produced as a waste product of cellular respiration, diffuses out of the cell and, eventually, out of the body through the tracheal system.

text: The respiratory system is responsible for delivering sufficient oxygen to all cells of the body and for removing carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced as a waste product of cellular respiration.   The respiratory system of insects (and many other arthropods) is separate from the

text: circulatory system

text: .   It is a complex network of tubes (called a tracheal system) that delivers oxygen-containing air to every cell of the body. Air enters the insect's body through valve-like openings in the exoskeleton.   These openings (called spiracles) are located laterally along the thorax and abdomen of most insects—usually one pair of spiracles per body segment.   Air flow is regulated by small muscles that operate one or two flap-like valves within each spiracle—contracting to close the spiracle, or relaxing to open it. After passing through a spiracle, air enters a longitudinal tracheal trunk, eventually diffusing throughout a complex, branching network of tracheal tubes that subdivides into smaller and smaller diameters and reaches every part of the body.   At the end of each tracheal branch, a special cell (the tracheole) provides a thin, moist interface for the exchange of gasses between atmospheric air and a living cell.   Oxygen in the tracheal tube first dissolves in the liquid of the tracheole and then diffuses into the cytoplasm of an adjacent cell.   At the same time, carbon dioxide, produced as a waste product of cellular respiration, diffuses out of the cell and, eventually, out of the body through the tracheal system.

text: Birds have been especially successful at living at high altitudes.  In general, birds have physiological features that are advantageous for high-altitude flight. The respiratory system of birds moves oxygen across the pulmonary surface during both inhalation and exhalation, making it more efficient than that of mammals. In addition, the air circulates in one direction through the parabronchioles in the lungs. Parabronchioles are oriented perpendicularly to the pulmonary arteries, forming a cross-current gas exchanger. This arrangement allows for more oxygen to be extracted compared to mammalian concurrent gas exchange; as oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient and the air gradually becomes more deoxygenated, the pulmonary arteries are still able to extract oxygen. Birds also have a high capacity for oxygen delivery to the tissues because they have larger hearts and cardiac stroke volume compared to mammals of similar body size. Additionally, they have increased vascularization in their flight muscle due to increased branching of the capillaries and small muscle fibres (which increases surface-area-to-volume ratio). These two features facilitate oxygen diffusion from the blood to muscle, allowing flight to be sustained during environmental hypoxia. Birds' hearts and brains, which are very sensitive to arterial hypoxia, are more vascularized compared to those of mammals.  The bar-headed goose (Anser indicus) is an iconic high-flyer that surmounts the Himalayas during migration, and serves as a model system for derived physiological adaptations for high-altitude flight. Rüppell's vultures, whooper swans, alpine chough, and common cranes all have flown more than  above sea level.

text: Birds have been especially successful at living at high altitudes.  In general, birds have physiological features that are advantageous for high-altitude flight. The

text: respiratory system of birds

text: moves oxygen across the pulmonary surface during both inhalation and exhalation, making it more efficient than that of mammals. In addition, the air circulates in one direction through the

text: parabronchi

text: oles in the lungs. Parabronchioles are oriented perpendicularly to the

text: pulmonary arteries

text: , forming a cross-current gas exchanger. This arrangement allows for more oxygen to be extracted compared to mammalian

text: concurrent gas exchange

text: ; as oxygen diffuses down its concentration gradient and the air gradually becomes more deoxygenated, the pulmonary arteries are still able to extract oxygen. Birds also have a high capacity for oxygen delivery to the tissues because they have larger hearts and cardiac

text: stroke volume

text: compared to mammals of similar body size. Additionally, they have increased vascularization in their flight muscle due to increased branching of the

text: capillaries

text: and small muscle fibres (which increases

text: surface-area-to-volume

text: ratio). These two features facilitate oxygen diffusion from the blood to muscle, allowing flight to be sustained during environmental hypoxia. Birds' hearts and brains, which are very sensitive to arterial hypoxia, are more vascularized compared to those of mammals.  The

text: bar-headed goose

text: (Anser indicus) is an iconic high-flyer that surmounts the Himalayas during migration, and serves as a model system for derived physiological adaptations for high-altitude flight.

text: Rüppell's vulture

text: s,

text: whooper swan

text: s,

text: alpine chough

text: , and

text: common crane

text: s all have flown more than  above sea level.

text: Most commonly, femoral and radial artery puncture is performed to obtain arterial blood sampling for gas analysis. The partial pressures of oxygen (PaO2) and carbon dioxide (PaCO2), and the pH of arterial blood are important in assessing pulmonary function. These data indicate the status of gas exchange between lungs and blood.

text: Arterial blood gas sampling is essential for the diagnosis. If the pH is low (under 7.35) and the bicarbonate levels are decreased (<24 mmol/l), metabolic acidemia is present, and metabolic acidosis is presumed. Due to respiratory compensation (hyperventilation), carbon dioxide is decreased and conversely oxygen is increased. An ECG can be useful to anticipate cardiac complications.

text: Arterial blood gas sampling is essential for the diagnosis. If the pH is low (under 7.35) and the bicarbonate levels are decreased (<24 mmol/l), metabolic acidemia is present, and metabolic acidosis is presumed. Due to respiratory compensation (hyperventilation), carbon dioxide is decreased and conversely oxygen is increased. An

text: ECG

text: can be useful to anticipate cardiac complications.

text: CA IV has been identified in pulmonary epithelium of many mammalian species and may be uniquely adaptive for gas exchange necessary for the high metabolic requirements of mammals. A majority of the CO2 produced by metabolism is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-).  At the tissue capillary, CO2 diffuses from tissue to plasma.  Other forms of carbonic anhydrase enzyme are not present in the plasma, restricting the equilibrium reaction of CO2+H2O = H2CO3 = H+  HCO3-. CO2 in the plasma diffuses into the Red Blood Cell.  CA is present within the Red Blood Cell, facilitating the conversion of CO2 to HCO3-. HCO3- so produced is transferred by the HCO3-/Cl- "shuttle" from the interior of the Red Blood Cell to the plasma.  HCO3- doers not diffuse across cell membranes and, in the absence of CA, stays as HCO3- and concentrates in plasma. Up to 80% of metabolically produced CO2 is transported in plasma in the form of HCO3-.  Blood moves from the tissue capillary to the pulmonary capillary where CO2 is exchanged at the lung. In the pulmonary capillary, bicarbonate can not simply diffuse either into the Red Blood Cell or the alvioli.  It is traditionally thought that HCO3- is returned to the interior of the Red Blood Cell by a reversal of the HCO3-/CO2- shuttle, where, in the presence of CA, it is returned to a CO2 form to diffuse from the interior of the Red Blood Cell, to the plasma and then into the alvioli.  Membrane bound CA (CA IV) on the luminal side of the pulmonary membrane would have direct contact with plasma HCO3- and would enzimatically convert HCO3- to CO2 in the area immediately proximal to the exchange membrane, greatly increasing the concentration gradient for exchange. In this way, plasma HCO3- can be converted to CO2 within the plasma compartment and exchanged with the alvioli without the requirement of returning the HCO3- to the interior of the Red Blood Cell.

text: Also, unlike the arterial ultrasound examination, blood velocity in veins has no diagnostic meaning. Veins are a draining system similar to a low pressure hydraulic system, with a laminar flow and a low velocity. This low velocity is responsible for the fact that it can only be detected spontaneously with the Doppler effect on the proximal and larger femoral and iliac veins. Here the flow is either modulated by the respiratory rhythm or is continuous in cases where the flow is high. The thinner veins do not have a spontaneous flow. However, in some circumstances the blood flow is so slow that it can be seen as some echogenic material moving within the vein, in "spontaneous contrast".  This material can easily be mistaken for a thrombus, but can also easily be discounted by testing the vein's compressibility.

text: Also, unlike the arterial ultrasound examination, blood velocity in veins has no diagnostic meaning. Veins are a draining system similar to a low pressure

text: hydraulic system

text: , with a

text: laminar flow

text: and a low velocity. This low velocity is responsible for the fact that it can only be detected spontaneously with the Doppler effect on the

text: proximal

text: and larger

text: femoral

text: and

text: iliac vein

text: s. Here the flow is either modulated by the respiratory rhythm or is continuous in cases where the flow is high. The thinner veins do not have a spontaneous flow. However, in some circumstances the blood flow is so slow that it can be seen as some echogenic material moving within the vein, in "spontaneous contrast".  This material can easily be mistaken for a thrombus, but can also easily be discounted by testing the vein's compressibility.

text: The air sacs, which hold air, do not contribute much to gas exchange, despite being thin-walled, as they are poorly vascularised. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume in the thorax and abdomen. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronised with movement of the flight muscles.

text: Microscopically, a pulmonary surfactant deficient lung is characterized by collapsed air-spaces alternating with hyper-expanded areas, vascular congestion and, in time, hyaline membranes. Hyaline membranes are composed of fibrin, cellular debris, red blood cells, rare neutrophils and macrophages. They appear as an eosinophilic, amorphous material, lining or filling the air spaces and blocking gas exchange. As a result, blood passing through the lungs is unable to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide. Blood oxygen levels fall and carbon dioxide rises, resulting in rising blood acid levels and hypoxia. Structural immaturity, as manifest by decreased number of gas-exchange units and thicker walls, also contributes to the disease process. Therapeutic oxygen and positive-pressure ventilation, while potentially life-saving, can damage the lung.

text: Microscopically, a pulmonary surfactant deficient lung is characterized by collapsed air-spaces alternating with hyper-expanded areas, vascular congestion and, in time,

text: hyaline

text: membranes. Hyaline membranes are composed of

text: fibrin

text: , cellular debris,

text: red blood cell

text: s, rare

text: neutrophil

text: s and

text: macrophage

text: s. They appear as an eosinophilic, amorphous material, lining or filling the air spaces and blocking gas exchange. As a result, blood passing through the lungs is unable to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide. Blood oxygen levels fall and carbon dioxide rises, resulting in rising blood acid levels and

text: hypoxia

text: . Structural immaturity, as manifest by decreased number of gas-exchange units and thicker walls, also contributes to the disease process. Therapeutic oxygen and positive-pressure ventilation, while potentially life-saving, can damage the lung.

text: of the arterial blood, and therefore its pH, remain constant. The equilibration of the gases in the alveolar blood with those in the alveolar air (i.e. the gas exchange between the two) occurs by passive diffusion.

text: of the arterial blood, and therefore its

text: pH

text: remain constant

text: . The equilibration of the gases in the alveolar blood with those in the alveolar air (i.e. the

text: gas exchange

text: between the two) occurs by

text: passive diffusion

text: Respiratory distress is difficulty in breathing, and the psychological experience associated with such difficulty, even if there is no physiological basis for experiencing such distress. The physical presentation of respiratory distress is generally referred to as labored breathing, while the sensation of respiratory distress is called shortness of breath or dyspnea.

text: Respiratory distress is difficulty in breathing, and the psychological experience associated with such difficulty, even if there is no physiological basis for experiencing such distress. The physical presentation of respiratory distress is generally referred to as

text: labored breathing

text: , while the sensation of respiratory distress is called

text: shortness of breath

text: or

text: dyspnea

text: Inhalation (breathing in) is usually an active movement. The contraction of the diaphragm muscles cause a pressure variation, which is equal to the pressures caused by elastic, resistive and inertial components of the respiratory system.  In contrast, expiration (breathing out) is usually a passive process.

text: The respiratory protective devices (RPD) can protect workers only if their protective properties are adequate to the conditions in the workplace. Therefore, specialists have developed criteria for the selection of proper, adequate respirators, including the Assigned Protection Factors (APF) - the decrease of the concentration of harmful substances in the inhaled air, which (is expected) to be provided with timely and proper use of a certified respirator of certain types (design) by taught and trained workers (after individual selection with a tight-fitting mask and fit testing), when the employer performs an effective respiratory protective device programme.

text: The

text: respiratory protective devices (RPD)

text: can protect workers only if their protective properties are adequate to the conditions in the

text: workplace

text: . Therefore, specialists have developed criteria for the selection of proper, adequate respirators, including the Assigned Protection Factors (APF) - the decrease of the concentration of harmful substances in the inhaled air, which (is expected) to be provided with timely and proper use of a certified respirator of certain types (design) by taught and trained

text: workers

text: (after individual selection with a tight-fitting mask and

text: fit testing

text: ), when the

text: employer

text: performs an effective respiratory protective device programme.

text: Although all of the described adaptations in the body to maintain homeostatic balance during exercise are very important, the most essential factor is the involvement of the respiratory system. The respiratory system allows for the proper exchange and transport of gases to and from the lungs while being able to control the ventilation rate through neural and chemical impulses. In addition, the body is able to efficiently use the three energy systems which include the phosphagen system, the glycolytic system, and the oxidative system.

text: Although all of the described adaptations in the body to maintain

text: homeostatic

text: balance during exercise are very important, the most essential factor is the involvement of the

text: respiratory system

text: . The respiratory system allows for the proper exchange and transport of gases to and from the lungs while being able to control the ventilation rate through neural and chemical impulses. In addition, the body is able to efficiently use the three energy systems which include the

text: phosphagen

text: system, the

text: glycolytic

text: system, and the

text: oxidative

text: system.

text: Blood supplies nutrients and important metabolites to the cells of a tissue and collects back the waste products they produce, which requires exchange of respective constituents between the blood and tissue cells. This exchange is not direct, but instead is effected through an intermediary called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid, the fluid that occupies the spaces between the cells and constitutes their immediate environment. As the blood and the surrounding cells continually add and remove substances from the interstitial fluid, its composition continually changes. Water and solutes can pass between the interstitial fluid and blood via diffusion across gaps in capillary walls called intercellular clefts; thus, the blood and interstitial fluid are in dynamic equilibrium with each other.

text: Blood

text: supplies

text: nutrient

text: s and important

text: metabolite

text: s to the

text: cells

text: of a

text: tissue

text: and collects back the waste products they produce, which requires exchange of respective constituents between the blood and tissue cells. This exchange is not direct, but instead is effected through an intermediary called

text: interstitial fluid

text: or tissue fluid, the fluid that occupies the spaces between the cells and constitutes their immediate environment. As the blood and the surrounding cells continually add and remove substances from the interstitial fluid, its composition continually changes. Water and

text: solutes

text: can pass between the interstitial fluid and blood via

text: diffusion

text: across gaps in

text: capillary

text: walls called

text: intercellular cleft

text: s; thus, the blood and interstitial fluid are in

text: dynamic equilibrium

text: with each other.

text: A ground-coupled heat exchanger is an underground heat exchanger that can capture heat from and/or dissipate heat to the ground. They use the Earth's near constant subterranean temperature to warm or cool air or other fluids for residential, agricultural or industrial uses. If building air is blown through the heat exchanger for heat recovery ventilation, they are called earth tubes (also known as earth cooling tubes or earth warming tubes) in Europe or earth-air heat exchangers (EAHE or EAHX) in North America. These systems are known by several other names, including: air-to-soil heat exchanger, earth channels, earth canals, earth-air tunnel systems, ground tube heat exchanger, hypocausts, subsoil heat exchangers, thermal labyrinths, underground air pipes, and others.

text: A ground-coupled heat exchanger is an underground heat exchanger that can capture heat from and/or dissipate heat to the ground. They use the Earth's near constant subterranean temperature to warm or cool air or other fluids for residential,

text: agricultural

text: or industrial uses. If building air is blown through the heat exchanger for

text: heat recovery ventilation

text: , they are called earth tubes (also known as earth cooling tubes or earth warming tubes) in Europe or earth-air heat exchangers (EAHE or EAHX) in North America. These systems are known by several other names, including: air-to-soil heat exchanger, earth channels, earth canals, earth-air tunnel systems, ground tube heat exchanger, hypocausts, subsoil heat exchangers, thermal labyrinths, underground air pipes, and others.

text: The PCO is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO) in the blood. Usually the arterial blood is the relevant context; the symbol for PCO in arterial blood is PaCO. Measurement of PaCO in the systemic circulation indicates the effectiveness of ventilation at the lungs' alveoli, given the diffusing capacity of the gas. It is a good indicator of respiratory function and the closely related factor of acid–base homeostasis, reflecting the amount of acid in the blood (without lactic acid).

text: The PCO is the

text: partial pressure

text: of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) in the

text: blood

text: . Usually the

text: arterial blood

text: is the relevant context; the symbol for PCO in arterial blood is PaCO. Measurement of PaCO in the

text: systemic circulation

text: indicates the effectiveness of

text: ventilation

text: at the lungs'

text: alveoli

text: , given the

text: diffusing capacity

text: of the gas. It is a good indicator of respiratory function and the closely related factor of

text: acid–base homeostasis

text: , reflecting the amount of acid in the blood (without lactic acid).

text: Children and adults with chronic dry cough, increased work of breathing (fast respiratory rate, shortness of breath at rest or with activities) and absence of an infectious process to explain respiratory symptoms should be evaluated for interstitial lung disease or another intrapulmonary process. Evaluation by a Pulmonologist and a CT scan of the chest should be considered in individuals with symptoms of interstitial lung disease or to rule other non-infectious pulmonary processes. People diagnosed with interstitial lung disease may benefit from systemic steroids.

text: Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as hypoxemia; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia. Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II, based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level. The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate, abnormal blood gases (hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or both), and  evidence of increased work of breathing.

text: Respiratory failure results from inadequate

text: gas exchange

text: by the

text: respiratory system

text: , meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as

text: hypoxemia

text: ; a rise in arterial

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels is called

text: hypercapnia

text: . Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II, based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level. The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate, abnormal blood gases (hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or both), and  evidence of increased work of breathing.

text: Practical applications of the respiratory quotient can be found in severe cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, in which patients spend a significant amount of energy on respiratory effort. By increasing the proportion of fats in the diet, the respiratory quotient is driven down, causing a relative decrease in the amount of CO produced. This reduces the respiratory burden to eliminate CO, thereby reducing the amount of energy spent on respirations.

text: Practical applications of the respiratory quotient can be found in severe cases of

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , in which patients spend a significant amount of energy on respiratory effort. By increasing the proportion of fats in the diet, the respiratory quotient is driven down, causing a relative decrease in the amount of CO produced. This reduces the respiratory burden to eliminate CO, thereby reducing the amount of energy spent on respirations.

text: Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases and health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.

text: Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of

text: pollution-related diseases

text: and health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease,

text: COPD

text: , stroke and lung cancer. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing,

text: asthma

text: and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.

text: These systems and tools generate alarms and alerts automatically if significant changes are observed in the user's vital signs (Celler 1999).  These systems are usually fully integrated into a home network and allow health professionals to monitor patients at home.  The system consists of an antenna that a patient holds over their implanted cardiac device to transmit data for downloading over the telephone line and viewing by the patient’s physician.  The collected data can be accessed by the patient or family members.  Another example of this type of system is a Smart Shirt that measures heart rate, electrocardiogram results, respiration, temperature and other vital functions and alerts the patient or physician if there is a problem (Bowie 2000).

text: These systems and tools generate alarms and alerts automatically if significant changes are observed in the user's vital signs (Celler 1999).  These systems are usually fully integrated into a home network and allow health professionals to monitor patients at home.  The system consists of an antenna that a patient holds over their implanted cardiac device to transmit data for downloading over the telephone line and viewing by the patient’s physician.  The collected data can be accessed by the patient or family members.  Another example of this type of system is a

text: Smart Shirt

text: that measures heart rate, electrocardiogram results, respiration, temperature and other vital functions and alerts the patient or physician if there is a problem (Bowie 2000).

text: In April 2011, a review article in the New England Journal of Medicine discussed the health consequences of the spill.  According to the review, at high doses some crude-oil components cause respiratory, hepatic (liver), renal (urinary system), endocrine (hormonal system), neurologic, hematologic (vascular system), and other systemic effects, while even very low doses can cause mutagenic effects, with cancer  of particular concern. The carcinogens of concern in crude oil are benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are present in oil and in the air as a result of offshore controlled burning of crude oil.  During the 2010 BP/Deepwater Horizon Gulf oil spill, an estimated one of every 20 barrels of spilled oil was deliberately burned off.Routes of exposure include contact and inhalation. The EPA obtained hundreds of air samples during the spill and a review showed that none of the samples showed concentrations of benzene or other volatile organic hydrocarbons to be above health-based standards. However, the review noted that "although the monitoring was extensive, no monitoring scheme could cover all potentially affected locales".

text: In April 2011, a

text: review article

text: in the

text: New England Journal of Medicine

text: discussed the health consequences of the spill.  According to the review, at high doses some crude-oil components cause respiratory, hepatic (liver), renal (urinary system), endocrine (hormonal system), neurologic, hematologic (vascular system), and other systemic effects, while even very low doses can cause

text: mutagenic

text: effects, with cancer  of particular concern. The carcinogens of concern in crude oil are benzene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are present in oil and in the air as a result of offshore controlled burning of crude oil.  During the 2010 BP/Deepwater Horizon Gulf oil spill, an estimated one of every 20 barrels of spilled oil was deliberately burned off.Routes of exposure include contact and inhalation. The EPA obtained hundreds of air samples during the spill and a review showed that none of the samples showed concentrations of benzene or other volatile organic hydrocarbons to be above health-based standards. However, the review noted that "although the monitoring was extensive, no monitoring scheme could cover all potentially affected locales".

text: The genus Equus has a unique part of the respiratory system called the guttural pouch, which is thought to equalize air pressure on the tympanic membrane. These (left and right, separated by a narrow septum) is located in "Vyborg's triangle", between the mandibles but below the occiput. With a capacity of 300 to 500 ml, it fills with air when the horse swallows or exhales.

text: The genus

text: Equus

text: has a unique part of the respiratory system called the

text: guttural pouch

text: , which is thought to equalize air pressure on the

text: tympanic membrane

text: . These (left and right, separated by a narrow septum) is located in "Vyborg's triangle", between the

text: mandible

text: s but below the

text: occiput

text: . With a capacity of 300 to 500 ml, it fills with air when the horse swallows or exhales.

text: It has been shown that growing cells and tissues have very individual oxygen requirements. Due to this reason it is important that the content of oxygen can be adapted in individual perfusion culture experiments. The technical solution is a gas exchanger module containing a gas inlet and outlet (Fig. 6a). Further a spiral with a long thin-walled silicon tube for medium transport is mounted inside the module. Since the tube is highly gas-permeable, it guarantees optimal diffusion of gases between culture medium and internal atmosphere of the gas exchange module. In consequence, the desired gas atmosphere can be adjusted by a constant flow of a specific gas mixture through the module. This way the content of oxygen or any other gases can be modulated in the medium by diffusion. Applying this simple protocol it became possible to decrease the oxygen partial pressure within the transported medium during long term culture experiments under absolutely sterile conditions [7].

text: It has been shown that growing cells and tissues have very individual

text: oxygen

text: requirements. Due to this reason it is important that the content of oxygen can be adapted in individual perfusion culture experiments. The technical solution is a gas exchanger module containing a gas inlet and outlet (Fig. 6a). Further a spiral with a long thin-walled silicon tube for medium transport is mounted inside the module. Since the tube is highly gas-permeable, it guarantees optimal diffusion of gases between culture medium and internal atmosphere of the gas exchange module. In consequence, the desired gas atmosphere can be adjusted by a constant flow of a specific gas mixture through the module. This way the content of oxygen or any other gases can be modulated in the medium by diffusion. Applying this simple protocol it became possible to decrease the oxygen partial pressure within the transported medium during long term culture experiments under absolutely sterile conditions [7].

text: Monitoring of biochemical parameters such as electrolytes and solutes, liver and kidney function, urinalysis, and complete blood count is undertaken along with frequent checking of salicylate and blood sugar levels. Arterial blood gas assessments will typically find respiratory alkalosis early in the course of the overdose due to hyperstimulation of the respiratory center, and may be the only finding in a mild overdose. An anion-gap metabolic acidosis occurs later in the course of the overdose especially if it is a moderate to severe overdose, due to the increase in protons (acidic contents) in the blood.

text: Monitoring of biochemical parameters such as electrolytes and solutes, liver and kidney function,

text: urinalysis

text: , and

text: complete blood count

text: is undertaken along with frequent checking of

text: salicylate

text: and

text: blood sugar

text: levels.

text: Arterial blood gas

text: assessments will typically find

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: early in the course of the overdose due to hyperstimulation of the respiratory center, and may be the only finding in a mild overdose. An anion-gap

text: metabolic acidosis

text: occurs later in the course of the overdose especially if it is a moderate to severe overdose, due to the increase in protons (acidic contents) in the blood.

text: It is prevalent in parts of Africa  and Asia  where eating snake meat is common. In Africa it has also been associated with groups who use the snake as a totem . Unlike linguatuliasis, humans are only ever an accidental intermediate host for Armillifer, i.e. the larvae establish themselves in the visceral organs causing human visceral pentastomiasis, but adults do not occur in the human respiratory system. After a while the larvae die within the host and sometimes calcify, leaving characteristic crescent-shaped structures seen in X-ray . In extreme cases a heavy parasite burden can have serious medical consequences  and can even be fatal .

text: Treatment for HN1 exposure is primarily supportive, since there is no antidote. First aid involves decontamination, irrigation, removing the affected person from the source of exposure, immediate medical attention, airway management (in cases of inhalation exposure), and medical monitoring of respiratory and cardiac function. If the affected person has trouble breathing (dyspnea) or stops breathing (apnea), ventilatory support and oxygen therapy can be helpful. If HN1 has been ingested, emetics (agents that induce vomiting) and gastric lavage are contraindicated, and nothing should be consumed by mouth because they could damage the gastrointestinal system.

text: Treatment for HN1 exposure is primarily supportive, since there is no

text: antidote

text: . First aid involves

text: decontamination

text: , irrigation, removing the affected person from the source of exposure, immediate medical attention,

text: airway management

text: (in cases of inhalation exposure), and medical

text: monitoring

text: of respiratory and cardiac function. If the affected person has trouble breathing (

text: dyspnea

text: ) or stops breathing (

text: apnea

text: ), ventilatory support and oxygen therapy can be helpful. If HN1 has been ingested, emetics (agents that induce vomiting) and

text: gastric lavage

text: are contraindicated, and nothing should be consumed by mouth because they could damage the gastrointestinal system.

text: While using a gas stove, it is advised to also use ventilation. Studies show that in homes with gas stoves, if ventilation is used while using gas stoves, then children have lower odds of asthma, wheezing and bronchitis as compared to children in homes that never used ventilation. If venting isn’t possible, then replacing gas stoves with electric stove could be another option. Replacing gas stoves with electric ranges could greatly reduce the exposure to indoor NO2 and improve the respiratory function of children with asthma. It is important to keep gas stoves and heaters in good repair so they are not polluting extra NO2. 2015 International Residential Code that requires that vent hoods are used for all stoves and set standards for residential buildings. This requires that all range hoods have a vent that discharges outside. You can also prevent NO2 exposure by avoiding cigarette smoking and not idling your car whenever possible.

text: Rainbow acoustic monitoring provides noninvasive and continuous measurement of respiration rate using an adhesive sensor with an integrated acoustic transducer that is applied to the patient's neck. Researchers have evaluated acoustic respiration rate (RRa) and found the acceptable accuracy and significantly fewer false alarms than traditional respiration rate monitoring methods, end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO) and impedance pneumography.

text: Rainbow

text: acoustic

text: monitoring provides noninvasive and continuous measurement of

text: respiration rate

text: using an

text: adhesive

text: sensor

text: with an integrated

text: acoustic

text: transducer

text: that is applied to the patient's neck. Researchers have evaluated acoustic

text: respiration rate

text: (RRa) and found the acceptable accuracy and significantly fewer false alarms than traditional

text: respiration rate

text: monitoring methods, end-tidal

text: carbon dioxide

text: (EtCO) and impedance

text: pneumography

text: Calculations of the volumes of various parts of the sauropod Apatosaurus’ respiratory system support the evidence of bird-like air sacs in sauropods:

text: When inhaled or ingested, sufficient quantities of toxaphene can damage the lungs, nervous system, and kidneys, and may cause death. The major health effects of toxaphene involve central nervous system stimulation leading to convulsive seizures.  The dose necessary to induce nonfatal convulsions in humans is about 10 milligrams per kilogram body weight per day. Several deaths linked to toxaphene have been documented in which an unknown quantity of toxaphene was ingested intentionally or accidentally from food contamination.  The deaths are attributed to respiratory failure resulting from seizures. Chronic inhalation exposure in humans results in reversible respiratory toxicity.

text: When inhaled or ingested, sufficient quantities of toxaphene can damage the

text: lungs

text: nervous system

text: , and

text: kidneys

text: , and may cause

text: death

text: . The major health effects of toxaphene involve central nervous system stimulation leading to convulsive

text: seizures

text: .  The dose necessary to induce nonfatal convulsions in humans is about 10 milligrams per kilogram body weight per day. Several deaths linked to toxaphene have been documented in which an unknown quantity of toxaphene was ingested intentionally or accidentally from food contamination.  The deaths are attributed to

text: respiratory

text: failure resulting from seizures. Chronic inhalation exposure in humans results in reversible respiratory toxicity.

text: Roots and tubers such as yam are living organisms. When stored, they continue to respire, which results in the oxidation of the starch (a polymer of glucose) contained in the cells of the tuber, which converts it into water, carbon dioxide, and heat energy. During this transformation of the starch, the dry matter of the tuber is reduced.

text: The haze from Sumatra turned most parts of southern Thailand such as Narathiwat, Pattani, Phuket, Satun, Songkhla, Surat Thani, Trang and Yala provinces unsightly, even reaching hazardous levels on 7 October The Phuket Provincial Health Office (PPHO) issued a health advisory to its residents in August 2015 and in October the province saw a number of flight delays in Phuket Airport. The air quality index in provinces of southern Thailand were increasing with the Regional Environmental Office Director Halem Jehmarikan saying the current air pollution levels were the result of the wind direction and a low pressure area, preventing the haze from being blown away. A number of hospitals saw an increase in child patients with respiratory system related symptoms. Halem also added the pollution was the worst in decades compared to previous smog that faded within four hours.

text: The haze from

text: Sumatra

text: turned most parts of southern Thailand such as

text: Narathiwat

text: Pattani

text: Phuket

text: Satun

text: Songkhla

text: Surat Thani

text: Trang

text: and

text: Yala

text: provinces unsightly, even reaching hazardous levels on 7 October The Phuket Provincial Health Office (PPHO) issued a health advisory to its residents in August 2015 and in October the province saw a number of flight delays in

text: Phuket Airport

text: . The air quality index in provinces of southern Thailand were increasing with the Regional Environmental Office Director Halem Jehmarikan saying the current air pollution levels were the result of the wind direction and a low pressure area, preventing the haze from being blown away. A number of hospitals saw an increase in child patients with respiratory system related symptoms. Halem also added the pollution was the worst in decades compared to previous smog that faded within four hours.

text: For example, consider the overall reaction for aerobic cellular respiration:

text: For example, consider the overall reaction for aerobic

text: cellular respiration

text: Air-to-liquid intercoolers are by far the most common form of intercooler found on marine engines, given that a limitless supply of cooling water is available and most engines are located in closed compartments where obtaining a good flow of cooling air for an air-to-air unit would be difficult. Marine intercoolers take the form of a tubular heat exchanger with the air passing through a series of tubes and cooling water circulating around the tubes within the unit's casing. The source of water for the intercooler depends on the exact cooling system fitted to the engine. Most marine engines have fresh water circulating within them which is passed through a heat exchanger cooled by sea water. In such a system, the intercooler will be attached to the sea water circuit and placed before the engine's own heat exchanger to ensure a supply of cool water.

text: Air-to-liquid intercoolers are by far the most common form of intercooler found on marine engines, given that a limitless supply of cooling water is available and most engines are located in closed compartments where obtaining a good flow of cooling air for an air-to-air unit would be difficult. Marine intercoolers take the form of a tubular

text: heat exchanger

text: with the air passing through a series of tubes and cooling water circulating around the tubes within the unit's casing. The source of water for the intercooler depends on the exact cooling system fitted to the engine. Most marine engines have

text: fresh water

text: circulating within them which is passed through a heat exchanger cooled by

text: sea water

text: . In such a system, the intercooler will be attached to the sea water circuit and placed before the engine's own heat exchanger to ensure a supply of cool water.

text: An important aspect of the bunkers of the Siegfried Line was their ability to operate under gas attack. The bunkers could be hermetically sealed and supplied with purified air from outside. Because of their importance, the B-Werke had the most elaborate filter systems designed and built into the facilities. A constant overpressure prevented the penetration of gases in the event of minor leaks and allowed the removal of stale air and exhaust gases from the battle positions. One or more spaces were combined to form gas-tight cells. Pressure relief valves in the rooms or cells regulated the pressure. The air sucked in from outside was passed through a pre-filter, which cleared the air of dust and water vapour. Then it flowed through four, parallel, room filters, which filtered dangerous gasses out using active carbon inserts. If required, the air for heating the bunker could be warmed using a heat exchanger before being blown into the bunker. The capacity of the central fan was 40 m³ / minute. To ensure the ventilation of the plant even in the event of the central fan failing, individual rooms or cells had hand-operated HES ventilators (army unit protection ventilators) with 1.2 m³ or 2.4 m³ capacity per minute. The central fan and its filters was located above the engine room but is no longer in place.

text: An important aspect of the bunkers of the Siegfried Line was their ability to operate under

text: gas attack

text: . The bunkers could be

text: hermetically sealed

text: and supplied with purified air from outside. Because of their importance, the B-Werke had the most elaborate filter systems designed and built into the facilities. A constant

text: overpressure

text: prevented the penetration of gases in the event of minor leaks and allowed the removal of stale air and exhaust gases from the battle positions. One or more spaces were combined to form gas-tight cells. Pressure relief valves in the rooms or cells regulated the pressure. The air sucked in from outside was passed through a pre-filter, which cleared the air of dust and water vapour. Then it flowed through four, parallel, room filters, which filtered dangerous gasses out using active carbon inserts. If required, the air for heating the bunker could be warmed using a

text: heat exchanger

text: before being blown into the bunker. The capacity of the central fan was 40 m³ / minute. To ensure the ventilation of the plant even in the event of the central fan failing, individual rooms or cells had hand-operated HES ventilators (army unit protection ventilators) with 1.2 m³ or 2.4 m³ capacity per minute. The central fan and its filters was located above the engine room but is no longer in place.

text: Low oxygen levels and, eventually, high carbon dioxide levels in the blood can occur from poor gas exchange due to decreased ventilation from airway obstruction, hyperinflation and a reduced desire to breathe. During exacerbations, airway inflammation is also increased, resulting in increased hyperinflation, reduced expiratory airflow and worsening of gas transfer. This can also lead to insufficient ventilation and, eventually, low blood oxygen levels. Low oxygen levels, if present for a prolonged period, can result in narrowing of the arteries in the lungs, while emphysema leads to breakdown of capillaries in the lungs. Both these changes result in increased blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which may cause cor pulmonale.

text: Low oxygen levels

text: and, eventually,

text: high carbon dioxide levels in the blood

text: can occur from poor

text: gas exchange

text: due to decreased ventilation from airway obstruction, hyperinflation and a reduced desire to breathe. During exacerbations, airway inflammation is also increased, resulting in increased hyperinflation, reduced expiratory airflow and worsening of gas transfer. This can also lead to insufficient

text: ventilation

text: and, eventually, low blood oxygen levels. Low oxygen levels, if present for a prolonged period, can result in

text: narrowing of the arteries

text: in the lungs, while emphysema leads to breakdown of capillaries in the lungs. Both these changes result in increased blood pressure in the

text: pulmonary arteries

text: , which may cause cor pulmonale.

text: Respiratory disease is a medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, and includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism,  acute asthma and lung cancer.

text: Respiratory disease is a medical term that encompasses

text: pathological

text: conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, and includes conditions of the

text: upper respiratory tract

text: trachea

text: bronchi

text: bronchioles

text: alveoli

text: pleura

text: and

text: pleural cavity

text: , and the nerves and muscles of

text: breathing

text: . Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the

text: common cold

text: , to life-threatening entities like

text: bacterial pneumonia

text: pulmonary embolism

text: acute asthma

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: Trophoblasts are specialized cells of the placenta that play an important role in embryo implantation and interaction with the decidualised maternal uterus.  The core of placental villi contain mesenchymal cells and placental blood vessels that are directly connected to the fetal circulation via the umbilical cord.  This core is surrounded by two layers of trophoblast; a single layer of mononuclear cytotrophoblast that fuse together to form the overlying multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast layer that covers the entire surface of the placenta.  It is this syncytiotrophoblast that is in direct contact with the maternal blood that reaches the placental surface, and thus facilitates the exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases between the maternal and fetal systems.

text: Trophoblasts are specialized cells of the placenta that play an important role in embryo implantation and interaction with the

text: decidua

text: lised maternal uterus.  The core of placental villi contain mesenchymal cells and placental blood vessels that are directly connected to the fetal circulation via the umbilical cord.  This core is surrounded by two layers of trophoblast; a single layer of mononuclear cytotrophoblast that fuse together to form the overlying multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast layer that covers the entire surface of the placenta.  It is this syncytiotrophoblast that is in direct contact with the maternal blood that reaches the placental surface, and thus facilitates the exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases between the maternal and fetal systems.

text: Aside from the medicinal properties that this plant offers, this species also contain furocoumarins which increases skin sensitivity to sunlight and may cause dermatitis. Another compound called the angelicotoxin, is an active ingredient within the root. This has an excitatory effect on the respiratory system, central nervous system, and the vasculomotor system of the body. It is known to increase the rate of respiration, blood pressure, decrease pulse rate, increases saliva production and induces vomiting. In large doses, the toxin can induce convulsions and paralysis.

text: Aside from the medicinal properties that this plant offers, this species also contain

text: furocoumarins

text: which increases skin sensitivity to sunlight and may cause dermatitis. Another compound called the angelicotoxin, is an active ingredient within the root. This has an excitatory effect on the respiratory system, central nervous system, and the vasculomotor system of the body. It is known to increase the rate of respiration, blood pressure, decrease pulse rate, increases saliva production and induces vomiting. In large doses, the toxin can induce convulsions and paralysis.

text: Common titles include Cardio-Respiratory Physiotherapist, Clinical Respiratory Physiologist, Respiratory Nurse and Cardio-Respiratory Occupational Therapist.

text: Common titles include Cardio-Respiratory

text: Physiotherapist

text: , Clinical Respiratory

text: Physiologist

text: , Respiratory

text: Nurse

text: and Cardio-Respiratory

text: Occupational Therapist

text: In 1972, with funding from a Regional Medical Program (MRP) grant, a program was initiated at Vanderbilt to provide perinatal consultation, perinatal education programs and to establish a neonatal transport service to its referral area.  During the first year in operation, Angel I transport team served 295 patients from the referral area. The standard transport team consisted of a neonatologist, a neonatal registered nurse, and a driver who could also serve as an assistant to the team. The transport vehicle was equipped with ventilators and monitoring equipment including a blood gas analyzer.   Many of the referring hospitals at the time were unable to measure ABG's using microsampling techniques. Initially, there was not a charge to the patient for the transport service.  2009 marked the 35th anniversary of the neonatal transport program at Vanderbilt.  Currently the Angel Transport team consists of a neonatal nurse practitioner, a neonatal respiratory therapist, a neonatal registered nurse and an emergency medical technician.

text: In 1972, with funding from a Regional Medical Program (MRP) grant, a program was initiated at Vanderbilt to provide perinatal consultation, perinatal education programs and to establish a neonatal transport service to its referral area.  During the first year in operation, Angel I transport team served 295 patients from the referral area. The standard transport team consisted of a

text: neonatologist

text: , a neonatal

text: registered nurse

text: , and a driver who could also serve as an assistant to the team. The transport vehicle was equipped with ventilators and monitoring equipment including a blood gas analyzer.   Many of the referring hospitals at the time were unable to measure ABG's using microsampling techniques. Initially, there was not a charge to the patient for the transport service.  2009 marked the 35th anniversary of the neonatal transport program at Vanderbilt.  Currently the Angel Transport team consists of a neonatal

text: nurse practitioner

text: , a neonatal

text: respiratory therapist

text: , a neonatal

text: registered nurse

text: and an

text: emergency medical technician

text: Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is a syncytial virus that causes respiratory tract infections. It is a major cause of lower respiratory tract infections and hospital visits during infancy and childhood. A prophylactic medication, palivizumab, can be employed to prevent HRSV in preterm (under 35 weeks gestation) infants, infants with certain congenital heart defects (CHD) or bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), and infants with congenital malformations of the airway. Treatment is limited to supportive care (e.g. C-PAP), including oxygen therapy.

text: Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) is a

text: syncytial

text: virus

text: that causes

text: respiratory tract

text: infections. It is a major cause of

text: lower respiratory tract infection

text: s and hospital visits during infancy and childhood. A

text: prophylactic

text: medication,

text: palivizumab

text: , can be employed to prevent HRSV in

text: preterm

text: (under 35 weeks gestation) infants, infants with certain

text: congenital heart defects

text: (CHD) or

text: bronchopulmonary dysplasia

text: (BPD), and infants with

text: congenital

text: malformations of the

text: airway

text: Treatment

text: is limited to supportive care (e.g.

text: C-PAP

text: ), including

text: oxygen therapy

text: Often used in medicine the FiO is used to represent the percentage of oxygen participating in gas-exchange.  If the barometric pressure changes, the FiO may remain constant while the partial pressure of oxygen changes with the change in barometric pressure.

text: Often used in

text: medicine

text: the FiO is used to represent the percentage of oxygen participating in gas-exchange.  If the barometric pressure changes, the FiO may remain constant while the

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen changes with the change in barometric pressure.

text: The intrinsic muscles are divided into respiratory and the phonatory muscles (the muscles of phonation). The respiratory muscles move the vocal cords apart and serve breathing. The phonatory muscles move the vocal cords together and serve the production of voice. The extrinsic, passing between the larynx and parts around; and intrinsic, confined entirely. The main respiratory muscles are the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles. The phonatory muscles are divided into adductors (lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, arytenoid muscles) and tensors (cricothyroid muscles, thyroarytenoid muscles).

text: The intrinsic muscles are divided into respiratory and the phonatory muscles (the muscles of

text: phonation

text: ). The respiratory muscles move the

text: vocal cord

text: s apart and serve breathing. The phonatory muscles move the vocal cords together and serve the production of voice. The extrinsic, passing between the larynx and parts around; and intrinsic, confined entirely. The main respiratory muscles are the

text: posterior cricoarytenoid muscle

text: s. The phonatory muscles are divided into adductors (

text: lateral cricoarytenoid muscle

text: s,

text: arytenoid muscle

text: s) and tensors (

text: cricothyroid muscle

text: s,

text: thyroarytenoid muscle

text: s).

text: The respiratory tract is divided into the upper airways and lower airways. The upper airways or upper respiratory tract includes the nose and nasal passages, paranasal sinuses, the pharynx, and the portion of the larynx above the vocal cords. The lower airways or lower respiratory tract includes the portion of the larynx below the vocal cords, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. The lungs can be included in the lower respiratory tract or as separate entity and include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.

text: The respiratory tract is divided into the upper airways and lower airways. The upper airways or upper respiratory tract includes the

text: nose

text: and nasal passages,

text: paranasal sinus

text: es, the

text: pharynx

text: , and the portion of the

text: larynx

text: above the

text: vocal cords

text: . The lower airways or lower respiratory tract includes the portion of the larynx below the vocal cords,

text: trachea

text: bronchi

text: and

text: bronchiole

text: s. The lungs can be included in the lower respiratory tract or as separate entity and include the respiratory bronchioles,

text: alveolar duct

text: s,

text: alveolar sac

text: s, and

text: alveoli

text: The left side of the heart is responsible for receiving oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumping it forward to the systemic circulation (the rest of the body except for the pulmonary circulation). Failure of the left side of the heart causes blood to back up  (be congested) into the lungs, causing respiratory symptoms as well as fatigue due to insufficient supply of oxygenated blood. Common respiratory signs are increased rate of breathing and increased work of breathing (non-specific signs of respiratory distress). Rales or crackles, heard initially in the lung bases, and when severe, throughout the lung fields suggest the development of pulmonary edema (fluid in the alveoli). Cyanosis which suggests severe low blood oxygen, is a late sign of extremely severe pulmonary edema.

text: The left side of the heart is responsible for receiving oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumping it forward to the

text: systemic circulation

text: (the rest of the body except for the

text: pulmonary circulation

text: ). Failure of the left side of the heart causes blood to back up  (be congested) into the lungs, causing respiratory symptoms as well as fatigue due to insufficient supply of oxygenated blood. Common respiratory signs are

text: increased rate of breathing

text: and increased work of breathing (non-specific signs of respiratory distress).

text: Rales

text: or crackles, heard initially in the lung bases, and when severe, throughout the lung fields suggest the development of

text: pulmonary edema

text: (fluid in the

text: alveoli

text: Cyanosis

text: which suggests severe

text: low blood oxygen

text: , is a late sign of extremely severe pulmonary edema.

text: Critical Care Paramedics (CCPs) are paramedics who generally do not respond to 9-1-1 emergency calls, with the exception of helicopter "scene" calls. Instead they focus on transferring patients from the hospital they are currently in to other hospitals that can provide a higher level of care. CCPs often work in collaboration with registered nurses and respiratory therapists during hospital transfers. This ensures continuity of care. However, when acuity is manageable by a CCP or a registered nurse or respiratory therapist is not available, CCPs will work alone. Providing this care to the patient allows the sending hospital to avoid losing highly trained staff on hospital transfers.CCPs are able to provide all of the care that PCPs and ACPs provide. That being said, CCPs significantly lack practical experience with advanced skills such as IV initiation, peripheral access to cardiovascular system for fluid and drug administration, advanced airway, and many other techniques. Where an PCP and ACP may run 40-50 medical codes per year a CCP may run 1-2 in an entire career. IV/IO starts are nearly non-existent in the field and for this reason CCPs are required to attend nearly double the amount of time in classroom situations or in hospital to keep current. In addition to this they are trained for other skills such as medication infusion pumps, mechanical ventilation and arterial line monitoring.[13]CCPs often work in fixed and rotary wing aircraft when the weather permits and staff are available, but systems such as the Toronto EMS Critical Care Transport Program work in land ambulances. ORNGE Transport operates both land and aircraft in Ontario. In British Columbia, CCP's work primarily in aircraft with a dedicated Critical Care Transport crew in Trail for long-distance transfers and a regular CCP street crew stationed in South Vancouver that often also performs medevacs, when necessary.

text: Diphenylmethanol is an irritant to the eyes, skin and respiratory system.

text: Diphenylmethanol is an

text: irritant

text: to the eyes, skin and respiratory system.

text: Adaptation for flight involves many systems, and specifically cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Bats are considered as mammals adapted to extreme environments where oxygen management is crucial. Respiratory and cardiovascular systems undergo changes that allow the organism to optimize the acquisition and delivery of oxygen to tissues to be able to survive this extreme way of life. Research done on H.macrotus and H.montanus shows that they have the same respiratory strategy as other bats: "narrow-based high-keyed strategy." This strategy includes:

text: The function of the bubble is not so much as to contain a store of air, but to act as a physical gill. The air that it traps is in contact with oxygenated water, so as the animal's consumption depletes the oxygen in the bubble, more oxygen can diffuse in to replenish it. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than either oxygen or nitrogen, so it readily diffuses out faster than in. Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the bubble, and the least soluble, so it constitutes a relatively static component of the bubble and acts as a stable medium for respiratory gases to accumulate in and pass through. Occasional visits to the surface are sufficient for the beetle to re-establish the constitution of the bubble.

text: The function of the bubble is not so much as to contain a store of air, but to act as a

text: physical gill

text: . The air that it traps is in contact with oxygenated water, so as the animal's consumption depletes the oxygen in the bubble, more oxygen can diffuse in to replenish it. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than either oxygen or nitrogen, so it readily diffuses out faster than in. Nitrogen is the most plentiful gas in the bubble, and the least soluble, so it constitutes a relatively static component of the bubble and acts as a stable medium for respiratory gases to accumulate in and pass through. Occasional visits to the surface are sufficient for the beetle to re-establish the constitution of the bubble.

text: Type I alveolar cells are squamous (giving more surface area to each cell) and cover approximately 90–95% of the alveolar surface. Type I cells are involved in the process of gas exchange between the alveoli and blood. These cells are extremely thin (sometimes only 25 nm) – the electron microscope was needed to prove that all alveoli are covered with an epithelial lining. These cells need to be so thin to be readily permeable for enabling an easy gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood.

text: Type I alveolar cells are squamous (giving more surface area to each cell) and cover approximately 90–95% of the alveolar surface. Type I cells are involved in the process of

text: gas exchange

text: between the alveoli and

text: blood

text: . These cells are extremely thin (sometimes only 25 nm) – the

text: electron microscope

text: was needed to prove that all alveoli are covered with an

text: epithelial

text: lining. These cells need to be so thin to be readily permeable for enabling an easy

text: gas exchange

text: between the alveoli and the

text: blood

text: Arthropods have a wide variety of respiratory systems. Small species often do not have any, since their high ratio of surface area to volume enables simple diffusion through the body surface to supply enough oxygen. Crustacea usually have gills that are modified appendages. Many arachnids have book lungs. Tracheae, systems of branching tunnels that run from the openings in the body walls, deliver oxygen directly to individual cells in many insects, myriapods and arachnids.

text: Arthropods have a wide variety of respiratory systems. Small species often do not have any, since their high ratio of surface area to volume enables simple diffusion through the body surface to supply enough oxygen. Crustacea usually have gills that are modified appendages. Many arachnids have

text: book lung

text: s. Tracheae, systems of branching tunnels that run from the openings in the body walls, deliver oxygen directly to individual cells in many insects, myriapods and

text: arachnid

text: s.

text: In acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), decreasing the tidal volume on the ventilator (usually 8-12 mL/kg) to 4-6 mL/kg may decrease barotrauma by decreasing ventilatory peak airway pressures and leads to improved respiratory recovery.  Hypercapnia (increased pCO) sometimes needs to be tolerated in order to achieve these lower tidal volumes. The permissive hypercapnia leads to respiratory acidosis which might have negative side effects, but given that the patient is in ARDS, improving ventilatory function is more important.

text: In

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS), decreasing the tidal volume on the ventilator (usually 8-12 mL/kg) to 4-6 mL/kg may decrease barotrauma by decreasing ventilatory peak airway pressures and leads to improved respiratory recovery.  Hypercapnia (increased pCO) sometimes needs to be tolerated in order to achieve these lower tidal volumes. The permissive hypercapnia leads to respiratory acidosis which might have negative side effects, but given that the patient is in ARDS, improving ventilatory function is more important.

text: Humans, like most mammals, breathe by negative pressure breathing: the rib cage expands and the diaphragm contracts, expanding the chest cavity. This causes the pressure in the chest cavity to decrease, and the lungs expand to fill the space. This, in turn, causes the pressure of the air inside the lungs to decrease (it becomes negative, relative to the atmosphere), and air flows into the lungs from the atmosphere: inhalation. When the diaphragm relaxes, the reverse happens and the person exhales. If a person loses part or all of the ability to control the muscles involved, breathing becomes difficult or impossible.

text: Humans, like most mammals, breathe by negative pressure breathing: the rib cage expands and the

text: diaphragm

text: contracts, expanding the

text: chest cavity

text: . This causes the pressure in the chest cavity to decrease, and the

text: lung

text: s expand to fill the space. This, in turn, causes the pressure of the air inside the lungs to decrease (it becomes negative, relative to the atmosphere), and air flows into the lungs from the atmosphere:

text: inhalation

text: . When the diaphragm relaxes, the reverse happens and the person

text: exhales

text: . If a person loses part or all of the ability to control the muscles involved, breathing becomes difficult or impossible.

text: Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is based on the assumption that autoimmune diseases like systemic sclerosis occur when the white blood cells of the immune system attack the body. In this treatment, stem cells from the patient's blood are extracted and stored to preserve them. The patient's white blood cells are destroyed with cyclophosphamide and rabbit antibodies against the white blood cells. Then the stored blood is returned to the patient's bloodstream to reconstitute a healthy blood and immune system which will not attack the body. The results of a phase 3 trial, the Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation International Scleroderma (ASTIS) trial, with 156 patients were published in 2014. HSCT itself has a high treatment mortality, so in the first year, the survival of patients in the treatment group was lower than the placebo group, but at the end of 10 years, the survival in the treatment group was significantly higher. The authors concluded that HSCT could be effective, if limited to patients who were healthy enough to survive HSCT itself. Therefore, HSCT should be given early in the progression of the disease, before it does damage. Patients with heart disease, and patients who smoked cigarettes, were less likely to survive. Another trial, the Stem Cell Transplant vs. Cyclophosphamide (SCOT) trial, is ongoing.

text: Autologous

text: hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

text: (HSCT) is based on the assumption that autoimmune diseases like systemic sclerosis occur when the white blood cells of the immune system attack the body. In this treatment, stem cells from the patient's blood are extracted and stored to preserve them. The patient's white blood cells are destroyed with cyclophosphamide and rabbit antibodies against the white blood cells. Then the stored blood is returned to the patient's bloodstream to reconstitute a healthy blood and immune system which will not attack the body. The results of a phase 3 trial, the Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation International Scleroderma (ASTIS) trial, with 156 patients were published in 2014. HSCT itself has a high treatment mortality, so in the first year, the survival of patients in the treatment group was lower than the placebo group, but at the end of 10 years, the survival in the treatment group was significantly higher. The authors concluded that HSCT could be effective, if limited to patients who were healthy enough to survive HSCT itself. Therefore, HSCT should be given early in the progression of the disease, before it does damage. Patients with heart disease, and patients who smoked cigarettes, were less likely to survive. Another trial, the Stem Cell Transplant vs. Cyclophosphamide (SCOT) trial, is ongoing.

text: An exoelectrogen normally refers to a microorganism that has the ability to transfer electrons extracellularly. While exoelectrogen is the predominant name, other terms have been used: electrochemically active bacteria, anode respiring bacteria, and electricigens. Electrons exocytosed in this fashion are produced following ATP production using an electron transport chain (ETC) during oxidative phosphorylation. Conventional cellular respiration requires a final electron acceptor to receive these electrons. Cells that use molecular oxygen (O) as their final electron acceptor are described as using aerobic respiration, while cells that use other soluble compounds as their final electron acceptor are described as using anaerobic respiration. However, the final electron acceptor of an exoelectrogen is found extracellularly and can be a strong oxidizing agent in aqueous solution or a solid conductor/electron acceptor. Two commonly observed acceptors are iron compounds (specifically Fe(III) oxides) and manganese compounds (specifically Mn(III/IV) oxides). As oxygen is a strong oxidizer, cells are able to do this strictly in the absence of oxygen.

text: An exoelectrogen normally refers to a

text: microorganism

text: that has the ability to transfer

text: electrons

text: extracellular

text: ly. While exoelectrogen is the predominant name, other terms have been used: electrochemically active bacteria, anode respiring bacteria, and electricigens. Electrons exocytosed in this fashion are produced following ATP production using an

text: electron transport chain

text: (ETC) during

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: . Conventional

text: cellular respiration

text: requires a final electron acceptor to receive these electrons. Cells that use molecular oxygen (O) as their final electron acceptor are described as using

text: aerobic respiration

text: , while cells that use other soluble compounds as their final electron acceptor are described as using

text: anaerobic respiration

text: . However, the final electron acceptor of an exoelectrogen is found extracellularly and can be a strong

text: oxidizing agent

text: in

text: aqueous solution

text: or a solid conductor/

text: electron acceptor

text: . Two commonly observed acceptors are iron compounds (specifically

text: Fe(III) oxides

text: ) and manganese compounds (specifically

text: Mn(III/IV) oxides

text: ). As oxygen is a strong oxidizer, cells are able to do this strictly in the absence of oxygen.

text: The complete breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen is called cellular respiration. The last steps of this process occur in mitochondria. The reduced molecules NADH and FADH are generated by the Krebs cycle, glycolysis, and pyruvate processing. These molecules pass electrons to an electron transport chain, which uses the energy released to create a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase then uses the energy stored in this gradient to make ATP. This process is called oxidative phosphorylation because oxygen is the final electron acceptor and the energy released by reducing oxygen to water is used to phosphorylate ADP and generate ATP.

text: The complete breakdown of

text: glucose

text: in the presence of

text: oxygen

text: is called

text: cellular respiration

text: . The last steps of this process occur in mitochondria. The reduced molecules

text: NADH

text: and

text: FADH

text: are generated by the

text: Krebs cycle

text: glycolysis

text: , and

text: pyruvate

text: processing. These molecules pass electrons to an

text: electron transport chain

text: , which uses the energy released to create a proton gradient across the inner

text: mitochondrial membrane

text: ATP synthase

text: then uses the energy stored in this gradient to make ATP. This process is called

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: because

text: oxygen

text: is the final

text: electron acceptor

text: and the energy released by

text: reducing

text: oxygen to water is used to phosphorylate ADP and generate ATP.

text: In fish and many invertebrates, respiration takes place through the gills. Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange. Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata.

text: In

text: fish

text: and many invertebrates, respiration takes place through the

text: gill

text: s. Other animals, such as

text: insects

text: , have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in

text: amphibians

text: even the

text: skin

text: plays a vital role in gas exchange.

text: Plants

text: also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of

text: leaves

text: known as

text: stomata

text: At each division point or generation, one airway branches into two or more smaller airways. The human respiratory tree may consist on average of 23 generations, while the respiratory tree of the mouse has up to 13 generations.  Proximal divisions (those closest to the top of the tree, such as the bronchi) mainly function to transmit air to the lower airways. Later divisions including the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts and alveoli, are specialized for gas exchange.

text: At each division point or generation, one airway branches into two or more smaller airways. The human respiratory tree may consist on average of 23 generations, while the respiratory tree of the

text: mouse

text: has up to 13 generations.  Proximal divisions (those closest to the top of the tree, such as the bronchi) mainly function to transmit air to the lower airways. Later divisions including the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar ducts and alveoli, are specialized for

text: gas exchange

text: Cardiorespiratory refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen to skeletal muscles during sustained physical activity. Regular exercise makes these systems more efficient by enlarging the heart muscle, enabling more blood to be pumped with each stroke, and increasing the number of small arteries in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. Exercise improves the respiratory system by increasing the amount of oxygen that is inhaled and distributed to body tissue.

text: Cardiorespiratory refers to the ability of the

text: circulatory

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: s to supply

text: oxygen

text: to

text: skeletal muscle

text: s during sustained physical activity. Regular exercise makes these systems more efficient by enlarging the

text: heart

text: muscle, enabling more

text: blood

text: to be pumped with each stroke, and increasing the number of small

text: arteries

text: in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. Exercise improves the respiratory system by increasing the amount of oxygen that is inhaled and distributed to body tissue.

text: K. kingae expresses type IV pili, which allow for enhanced adhesion to respiratory epithelial and synovial cells and thus increased likelihood of colonization. These pili have also been shown to be reduced in number as pathogenesis progresses. σ54 regulates the transcription of pilA1, a major pilus subunit. PilS and PilR, regulatory transcription factors best known from the Pseudomonas aeruginosa pilus system, also may regulate pilA expression. High levels of type IV pili on K.kingae are associated with spreading/corroding colony types, while low levels of type IV pili are associated with nonspreading/noncorroding colony types of K. kingae. The three different types of populations are: spreading/corroding (with high-density pilation), nonspreading/noncorroding colonies (low density pilation), and domed colonies (no pilation, and thus no adherence to epithelium). Generally, respiratory and nonendocarditis infections tend to be highly piliated, while joint fluid, bone, and endocarditis blood isolates are less piliated, if at all.

text: K. kingae expresses

text: type IV pili

text: , which allow for enhanced adhesion to respiratory epithelial and

text: synovial cells

text: and thus increased likelihood of colonization. These pili have also been shown to be reduced in number as pathogenesis progresses. σ54 regulates the transcription of pilA1, a major pilus subunit. PilS and PilR, regulatory transcription factors best known from the

text: Pseudomonas aeruginosa

text: pilus system, also may regulate pilA expression. High levels of type IV pili on K.kingae are associated with spreading/corroding colony types, while low levels of type IV pili are associated with nonspreading/noncorroding colony types of K. kingae. The three different types of populations are: spreading/corroding (with high-density pilation), nonspreading/noncorroding colonies (low density pilation), and domed colonies (no pilation, and thus no adherence to epithelium). Generally, respiratory and nonendocarditis infections tend to be highly piliated, while joint fluid, bone, and endocarditis blood isolates are less piliated, if at all.

text: Prevention of bronchiolitis relies strongly on measures to reduce the spread of the viruses that cause respiratory infections (that is, handwashing, and  avoiding exposure to those symptomatic with respiratory infections).  In addition to good hygiene an improved immune system is a great tool for prevention.  One way to improve the immune system is to feed the infant with breast milk, especially during the first month of life.  Immunizations are available for premature infants who meet certain criteria (some cardiac and respiratory disorders) such as Palivizumab (a monoclonal antibody against RSV).  Passive immunization therapy requires monthly injections every winter.

text: Prevention of bronchiolitis relies strongly on measures to reduce the spread of the viruses that cause respiratory infections (that is, handwashing, and  avoiding exposure to those symptomatic with respiratory infections).  In addition to good hygiene an improved immune system is a great tool for prevention.  One way to improve the immune system is to feed the infant with breast milk, especially during the first month of life.

text: Immunizations

text: are available for premature infants who meet certain criteria (some

text: cardiac

text: and

text: respiratory

text: disorders) such as

text: Palivizumab

text: (a

text: monoclonal antibody

text: against RSV).

text: Passive immunization

text: therapy requires monthly injections every winter.

text: The neurological pathway of voluntary exhalation is complex and not fully understood. However, a few basics are known. The motor cortex within the cerebral cortex of the brain is known to control voluntary respiration because the motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movement. This is referred to as the corticospinal pathway or ascending respiratory pathway. The pathway of the electrical signal starts in the motor cortex, goes to the spinal cord, and then to the respiratory muscles. The spinal neurons connect directly to the respiratory muscles. Initiation of voluntary contraction and relaxation of the internal and external internal costals has been shown to take place in the superior portion of the primary motor cortex. Posterior to the location of thoracic control (within the superior portion of the primary motor cortex) is the center for diaphragm control. Studies indicate that there are numerous other sites within the brain that may be associated with voluntary expiration. The inferior portion of the primary motor cortex may be involved, specifically, in controlled exhalation. Activity has also been seen within the supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex during voluntary respiration. This is most likely due to the focus and mental preparation of the voluntary muscular movement.

text: The neurological pathway of voluntary exhalation is complex and not fully understood. However, a few basics are known. The

text: motor cortex

text: within the cerebral cortex of the brain is known to control voluntary respiration because the motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movement. This is referred to as the corticospinal pathway or ascending respiratory pathway. The pathway of the electrical signal starts in the motor cortex, goes to the spinal cord, and then to the respiratory muscles. The spinal neurons connect directly to the respiratory muscles. Initiation of voluntary contraction and relaxation of the internal and external internal costals has been shown to take place in the superior portion of the primary motor cortex. Posterior to the location of thoracic control (within the superior portion of the primary motor cortex) is the center for diaphragm control. Studies indicate that there are numerous other sites within the brain that may be associated with voluntary expiration. The inferior portion of the

text: primary motor cortex

text: may be involved, specifically, in controlled exhalation. Activity has also been seen within the supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex during voluntary respiration. This is most likely due to the focus and mental preparation of the voluntary muscular movement.

text: Allan Bloxsom was a pediatrician at St. Joseph Hospital and a faculty member at Baylor College of Medicine. In the early 1940s, he noted that babies born by cesarean section required resuscitation at birth more often than those born by vaginal delivery. Writing a 1942 article for The Journal of Pediatrics, Bloxsom hypothesized that the uterus played an important role in the initiation of breathing at birth. He thought that contractions of the uterus stimulated the fetal respiratory center, possibly by "the alternate forcing and drawing of blood from the fetal circulation by compressing the placenta." He also noted that uterine compression of the fetus, followed by the release of that pressure, might promote breathing in the baby born by vaginal delivery.

text: Allan Bloxsom was a pediatrician at St. Joseph Hospital and a faculty member at

text: Baylor College of Medicine

text: . In the early 1940s, he noted that babies born by

text: cesarean section

text: required resuscitation at birth more often than those born by vaginal delivery. Writing a 1942 article for

text: The Journal of Pediatrics

text: , Bloxsom hypothesized that the uterus played an important role in the initiation of breathing at birth. He thought that contractions of the uterus stimulated the fetal

text: respiratory center

text: , possibly by "the alternate forcing and drawing of blood from the fetal circulation by compressing the placenta." He also noted that uterine compression of the fetus, followed by the release of that pressure, might promote breathing in the baby born by vaginal delivery.

text: Given the large body mass and long neck of sauropods like Apatosaurus, physiologists have encountered problems determining how these animals breathed. Beginning with the assumption that like crocodilians, Apatosaurus did not have a diaphragm, the dead-space volume (the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth, trachea and air tubes after each breath) has been estimated at about  for a  specimen. Paladino calculates its tidal volume (the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath) at  with an avian respiratory system,  if mammalian, and  if reptilian.

text: Given the large body mass and long neck of sauropods like Apatosaurus, physiologists have encountered problems determining how these animals breathed. Beginning with the assumption that like

text: crocodilia

text: ns, Apatosaurus did not have a

text: diaphragm

text: , the

text: dead-space volume

text: (the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth, trachea and air tubes after each breath) has been estimated at about  for a  specimen. Paladino calculates its

text: tidal volume

text: (the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath) at  with an avian respiratory system,  if mammalian, and  if reptilian.

text: For venous air embolisms, death may occur if a large bubble of gas becomes lodged in the heart, stopping blood from flowing from the right ventricle to the lungs. However, experiments on animals show that the amount of gas necessary for this to happen is quite variable. Human case reports suggest that injecting more than 100 mL of air into the venous system at rates greater than 100 mL/s can be fatal. Very large and symptomatic amounts of venous air emboli may also occur in rapid decompression in severe diving or decompression accidents, where they may interfere with circulation in the lungs and result in respiratory distress and hypoxia.

text: For venous air embolisms, death may occur if a large bubble of gas becomes lodged in the heart, stopping blood from flowing from the right

text: ventricle

text: to the

text: lungs

text: . However, experiments on animals show that the amount of gas necessary for this to happen is quite variable. Human case reports suggest that injecting more than 100 mL of air into the venous system at rates greater than 100 mL/s can be fatal. Very large and symptomatic amounts of venous air emboli may also occur in rapid decompression in severe diving or decompression accidents, where they may interfere with circulation in the lungs and result in respiratory distress and

text: hypoxia

text: Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive motor neuron disease caused by mutations in the SMN1 gene (Brzustowicz et al., 1990). Symptoms vary greatly with each subset of SMA and the stage of the disease. General symptoms include overall muscle weakness and poor muscle tone including extremities and respiratory muscles leading to difficulty walking, breathing, and feeding. Depending on the type of SMA, the disease can present itself from infancy through adulthood. As SMN protein generally promotes the survival of motor neurons, mutations in SMN1 results in slow degeneration motor neurons leading to progressive system-wide muscle wasting. Specifically, over time, decreased levels of SMN protein results in gradual death of the alpha motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord and brain. Muscles depend on connections to motor neurons and the central nervous system to stimulate muscle maintenance and therefore degeneration of motor neurons and subsequent denervation of muscles lead to loss of muscle control and muscle atrophy. The muscles of the lower extremities are often affected first followed by upper extremities and sometime the muscles of respiration and mastication. In general, proximal muscle are always affected more than distal muscle.

text: Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive motor neuron disease caused by mutations in the

text: gene (Brzustowicz et al., 1990). Symptoms vary greatly with each subset of SMA and the stage of the disease. General symptoms include overall muscle weakness and poor muscle tone including extremities and respiratory muscles leading to difficulty walking, breathing, and feeding. Depending on the type of SMA, the disease can present itself from infancy through adulthood. As SMN protein generally promotes the survival of motor neurons, mutations in SMN1 results in slow degeneration motor neurons leading to progressive system-wide muscle wasting. Specifically, over time, decreased levels of SMN protein results in gradual death of the

text: alpha motor neuron

text: s in the

text: anterior horn of the spinal cord

text: and brain. Muscles depend on connections to motor neurons and the central nervous system to stimulate muscle maintenance and therefore degeneration of motor neurons and subsequent denervation of muscles lead to loss of muscle control and muscle atrophy. The muscles of the lower extremities are often affected first followed by upper extremities and sometime the muscles of respiration and mastication. In general, proximal muscle are always affected more than distal muscle.

text: Particles can deposit in the nose, mouth, pharynx and larynx (the head airways region), deeper within the respiratory tract (from the trachea to the terminal bronchioles), or in the alveolar region. The location of deposition of aerosol particles within the respiratory system strongly determines the health effects of exposure to such aerosols. This phenomenon led people to invent aerosol samplers that select a subset of the aerosol particles that reach certain parts of the respiratory system. Examples of these subsets of the particle-size distribution of an aerosol, important in occupational health, include the inhalable, thoracic, and respirable fractions. The fraction that can enter each part of the respiratory system depends on the deposition of particles in the upper parts of the airway. The inhalable fraction of particles, defined as the proportion of particles originally in the air that can enter the nose or mouth, depends on external wind speed and direction and on the particle-size distribution by aerodynamic diameter. The thoracic fraction is the proportion of the particles in ambient aerosol that can reach the thorax or chest region. The respirable fraction is the proportion of particles in the air that can reach the alveolar region. To measure the respirable fraction of particles in air, a pre-collector is used with a sampling filter. The pre-collector excludes particles as the airways remove particles from inhaled air. The sampling filter collects the particles for measurement. It is common to use cyclonic separation for the pre-collector, but other techniques include impactors, horizontal elutriators, and large pore membrane filters.

text: Particles can deposit in the

text: nose

text: mouth

text: pharynx

text: and

text: larynx

text: (the head airways region), deeper within the respiratory tract (from the

text: trachea

text: to the

text: terminal bronchioles

text: ), or in the

text: alveolar region

text: . The location of deposition of aerosol particles within the respiratory system strongly determines the health effects of exposure to such aerosols. This phenomenon led people to invent aerosol samplers that select a subset of the aerosol particles that reach certain parts of the respiratory system. Examples of these subsets of the particle-size distribution of an aerosol, important in occupational health, include the inhalable, thoracic, and respirable fractions. The fraction that can enter each part of the respiratory system depends on the deposition of particles in the upper parts of the airway. The inhalable fraction of particles, defined as the proportion of particles originally in the air that can enter the nose or mouth, depends on external wind speed and direction and on the particle-size distribution by aerodynamic diameter. The thoracic fraction is the proportion of the particles in ambient aerosol that can reach the thorax or chest region. The respirable fraction is the proportion of particles in the air that can reach the alveolar region. To measure the respirable fraction of particles in air, a pre-collector is used with a sampling filter. The pre-collector excludes particles as the airways remove particles from inhaled air. The sampling filter collects the particles for measurement. It is common to use

text: cyclonic separation

text: for the pre-collector, but other techniques include impactors, horizontal

text: elutriator

text: s, and large pore

text: membrane filter

text: s.

text: In cases where the patient requires a high concentration of up to 100% oxygen, a number of devices are available, with the most common being the non-rebreather mask (or reservoir mask), which is similar to the partial rebreathing mask except it has a series of one-way valves preventing exhaled air from returning to the bag. There should be a minimum flow of 10 L/min. The delivered FIO2 of this system is 60-80%, depending on the oxygen flow and breathing pattern.Another type of device is a humidified high flow nasal cannula which enables flows exceeding a patient's peak inspiratory flow demand to be delivered via nasal cannula, thus providing FiO2 of up to 100%  because there is no entrainment of room air, even with the mouth open.  This also allows the patient to continue to talk, eat and drink while still receiving the therapy. This type of delivery method is associated with greater overall comfort, and improved oxygenation and respiratory rates than with face mask oxygen.

text: In cases where the patient requires a high concentration of up to 100% oxygen, a number of devices are available, with the most common being the

text: non-rebreather mask

text: (or reservoir mask), which is similar to the partial rebreathing mask except it has a series of one-way valves preventing exhaled air from returning to the bag. There should be a minimum flow of 10 L/min. The delivered FIO2 of this system is 60-80%, depending on the oxygen flow and breathing pattern.Another type of device is a humidified high flow

text: nasal cannula

text: which enables flows exceeding a patient's peak inspiratory flow demand to be delivered via nasal cannula, thus providing FiO2 of up to 100%  because there is no entrainment of room air, even with the mouth open.  This also allows the patient to continue to talk, eat and drink while still receiving the therapy. This type of delivery method is associated with greater overall comfort, and improved oxygenation and respiratory rates than with face mask oxygen.

text: In order to have the mass differentiation of cells needed to form the specified cell tissues of different organisms, proliferation and growth of embryonic stem cells must take place. This process is mediated through canonical Wnt signaling, which increases nuclear and cytoplasmic β-catenin. Increased  β-catenin can initiate transcriptional activation of proteins such as cyclin D1 and c-myc, which control the G1 to S phase transition in the cell cycle. Entry into the S phase causes DNA replication and ultimately mitosis, which are responsible for cell proliferation. This proliferation increase is directly paired with cell differentiation because as the stem cells proliferate, they also differentiate. This allows for overall growth and development of specific tissue systems during embryonic development. This is apparent in systems such as the circulatory system where Wnt3a leads to proliferation and expansion of hematopoietic stem cells needed for red blood cell formation.

text: In order to have the mass differentiation of cells needed to form the specified cell tissues of different organisms, proliferation and growth of

text: embryonic stem cell

text: s must take place. This process is mediated through canonical Wnt signaling, which increases nuclear and cytoplasmic β-catenin. Increased  β-catenin can initiate transcriptional activation of proteins such as

text: cyclin D1

text: and

text: c-myc

text: , which control the

text: to

text: S phase

text: transition in the

text: cell cycle

text: . Entry into the S phase causes

text: DNA replication

text: and ultimately

text: mitosis

text: , which are responsible for cell proliferation. This proliferation increase is directly paired with cell differentiation because as the stem cells proliferate, they also differentiate. This allows for overall growth and development of specific tissue systems during embryonic development. This is apparent in systems such as the circulatory system where Wnt3a leads to proliferation and expansion of hematopoietic stem cells needed for red blood cell formation.

text: At atmospheric pressure the body tissues are therefore normally saturated with nitrogen at 0.758 bar (569 mmHg). At increased ambient pressures due to depth or habitat pressurisation, a diver's lungs are filled with breathing gas at the increased pressure, and the partial pressures of the constituent gases will be increased proportionately. The inert gases from the breathing gas in the lungs diffuse into blood in the alveolar capillaries and are distributed around the body by the systemic circulation in the process known as perfusion. Dissolved materials are transported in the blood much faster than they would be distributed by diffusion alone. From the systemic capillaries the dissolved gases diffuse through the cell membranes and into the tissues, where it may eventually reach equilibrium. The greater the blood supply to a tissue, the faster it will reach equilibrium with gas at the new partial pressure. This equilibrium is called saturation. Ingassing appears to follow a simple inverse exponential equation. The time it takes for a tissue to take up or release 50% of the difference in dissolved gas capacity at a changed partial pressure is called the half-time for that tissue and gas.

text: At atmospheric pressure the body

text: tissues

text: are therefore normally saturated with nitrogen at 0.758 bar (569 mmHg). At increased ambient

text: pressures due to depth

text: or

text: habitat pressurisation

text: , a diver's lungs are filled with breathing gas at the increased pressure, and the partial pressures of the constituent gases will be increased proportionately. The inert gases from the breathing gas in the lungs diffuse into blood in the

text: alveolar capillaries

text: and are distributed around the body by the

text: systemic circulation

text: in the process known as

text: perfusion

text: . Dissolved materials are transported in the blood much faster than they would be distributed by diffusion alone. From the systemic capillaries the dissolved gases diffuse through the cell membranes and into the tissues, where it may eventually reach equilibrium. The greater the blood supply to a tissue, the faster it will reach equilibrium with gas at the new partial pressure. This equilibrium is called

text: saturation

text: . Ingassing appears to follow a simple inverse exponential equation. The time it takes for a tissue to take up or release 50% of the difference in dissolved gas capacity at a changed partial pressure is called the half-time for that tissue and gas.

text: In aerobic organisms undergoing respiration, electrons are shuttled to an electron transport chain, and the final electron acceptor is oxygen. Molecular oxygen is a highly oxidizing agent and, therefore, is an excellent acceptor. In anaerobes, other less-oxidizing substances such as sulfate (SO), nitrate (NO), sulphur (S), or fumarate are used. These terminal electron acceptors have smaller reduction potentials than O, meaning that less energy is released per oxidized molecule. Anaerobic respiration is, therefore, in general energetically less efficient than aerobic respiration.

text: In

text: aerobic organisms

text: undergoing respiration, electrons are shuttled to an

text: electron transport chain

text: , and the final electron acceptor is oxygen.

text: Molecular oxygen

text: is a highly

text: oxidizing agent

text: and, therefore, is an excellent acceptor. In

text: anaerobes

text: , other less-oxidizing substances such as

text: sulfate

text: (SO),

text: nitrate

text: (NO),

text: sulphur

text: (S), or

text: fumarate

text: are used. These terminal electron acceptors have smaller

text: reduction potential

text: s than O, meaning that less energy is released per oxidized molecule. Anaerobic respiration is, therefore, in general energetically less efficient than aerobic respiration.

text: In contusions, torn capillaries leak fluid into the tissues around them. The membrane between alveoli and capillaries is torn; damage to this capillary–alveolar membrane and small blood vessels causes blood and fluids to leak into the alveoli and the interstitial space (the space surrounding cells) of the lung.  With more severe trauma, there is a greater amount of edema, bleeding, and tearing of the alveoli.  Pulmonary contusion is characterized by microhemorrhages (tiny bleeds) that occur when the alveoli are traumatically separated from airway structures and blood vessels. Blood initially collects in the interstitial space, and then edema occurs by an hour or two after injury. An area of bleeding in the contused lung is commonly surrounded by an area of edema. In normal gas exchange, carbon dioxide diffuses across the endothelium of the capillaries, the interstitial space, and across the alveolar epithelium; oxygen diffuses in the other direction. Fluid accumulation interferes with gas exchange, and can cause the alveoli to fill with proteins and collapse due to edema and bleeding. The larger the area of the injury, the more severe respiratory compromise will be.

text: In contusions, torn

text: capillaries

text: leak fluid into the tissues around them. The membrane between alveoli and capillaries is torn; damage to this

text: capillary–alveolar membrane

text: and small blood vessels causes blood and fluids to leak into the alveoli and the

text: interstitial space

text: (the space surrounding cells) of the lung.  With more severe trauma, there is a greater amount of edema, bleeding, and tearing of the alveoli.  Pulmonary contusion is characterized by

text: microhemorrhage

text: s (tiny bleeds) that occur when the

text: alveoli

text: are traumatically separated from airway structures and blood vessels. Blood initially collects in the interstitial space, and then edema occurs by an hour or two after injury. An area of bleeding in the contused lung is commonly surrounded by an area of edema. In normal

text: gas exchange

text: carbon dioxide

text: diffuses

text: across the

text: endothelium

text: of the capillaries, the interstitial space, and across the alveolar epithelium; oxygen diffuses in the other direction. Fluid accumulation interferes with gas exchange, and can cause the alveoli to fill with proteins and collapse due to edema and bleeding. The larger the area of the injury, the more severe respiratory compromise will be.

text: The ability of bioaerosols to cause human disease depend not only on their chemical composition and biological characteristics, but also on the quantity of bioaerosol inhaled and their size distribution, which determines the site of bioaerosol deposition to human respiratory systems. Bioaerosols larger than 10 µm in aerodynamic diameter are generally blocked by the nasal region of the respiratory tract, those between 5-10 µm mainly deposit in the upper respiratory system and usually induce symptoms like allergic rhinitis, and particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 5 µm can reach the alveoli and hence lead to serious illnesses such as allergic alveolitis.

text: The ability of bioaerosols to cause human

text: disease

text: depend not only on their

text: chemical composition

text: and biological characteristics, but also on the quantity of bioaerosol inhaled and their size distribution, which determines the site of bioaerosol deposition to human

text: respiratory system

text: s. Bioaerosols larger than 10 µm in aerodynamic diameter are generally blocked by the nasal region of the

text: respiratory tract

text: , those between 5-10 µm mainly deposit in the upper respiratory system and usually induce symptoms like allergic

text: rhinitis

text: , and particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 5 µm can reach the alveoli and hence lead to serious illnesses such as allergic

text: alveolitis

text: Respiratory adaptation begins almost immediately after the initiation of the physical stress associated with exercise. This triggers signals from the motor cortex that stimulate the respiratory center of the brain stem, in conjunction with feedback from the proprioreceptors in the muscles and joints of the active limbs.

text: Respiratory adaptation begins almost immediately after the initiation of the physical

text: stress

text: associated with exercise. This triggers signals from the

text: motor cortex

text: that stimulate the respiratory center of the

text: brain stem

text: , in conjunction with feedback from the

text: proprioreceptors

text: in the muscles and joints of the active limbs.

text: Macrolide antibiotics, such as erythromycin, are an effective treatment for DPB when taken regularly over an extended period of time. Clarithromycin or roxithromycin are also commonly used. The successful results of macrolides in DPB and similar lung diseases stems from managing certain symptoms through immunomodulation (adjusting the immune response), which can be achieved by taking the antibiotics in low doses. Treatment consists of daily oral administration of erythromycin for two to three years, an extended period that has been shown to dramatically improve the effects of DPB. This is apparent when an individual undergoing treatment for DPB, among a number of disease-related remission criteria, has a normal neutrophil count detected in BAL fluid, and blood gas (an arterial blood test that measures the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood) readings show that free oxygen in the blood is within the normal range. Allowing a temporary break from erythromycin therapy in these instances has been suggested, to reduce the formation of macrolide-resistant P. aeruginosa. However, DPB symptoms usually return, and treatment would need to be resumed. Although highly effective, erythromycin may not prove successful in all individuals with the disease, particularly if macrolide-resistant P. aeruginosa is present or previously untreated DPB has progressed to the point where respiratory failure is occurring.

text: Macrolide

text: antibiotics, such as

text: erythromycin

text: , are an effective treatment for DPB when taken regularly over an extended period of time.

text: Clarithromycin

text: or

text: roxithromycin

text: are also commonly used. The successful results of macrolides in DPB and similar lung diseases stems from managing certain symptoms through

text: immunomodulation

text: (adjusting the immune response), which can be achieved by taking the antibiotics in low

text: doses

text: . Treatment consists of daily oral administration of erythromycin for two to three years, an extended period that has been shown to dramatically improve the effects of DPB. This is apparent when an individual undergoing treatment for DPB, among a number of disease-related remission criteria, has a normal neutrophil count detected in BAL fluid, and

text: blood gas

text: (an

text: arterial

text: blood test

text: that measures the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood) readings show that free oxygen in the blood is within the normal range. Allowing a temporary break from erythromycin therapy in these instances has been suggested, to reduce the formation of macrolide-resistant P. aeruginosa. However, DPB symptoms usually return, and treatment would need to be resumed. Although highly effective, erythromycin may not prove successful in all individuals with the disease, particularly if macrolide-resistant P. aeruginosa is present or previously untreated DPB has progressed to the point where respiratory failure is occurring.

text: Diabetic ketoacidosis arises because of a lack of insulin in the body. The lack of insulin and corresponding elevation of glucagon leads to increased release of glucose by the liver (a process that is normally suppressed by insulin) from glycogen via glycogenolysis and  also through gluconeogenesis. High glucose levels spill over into the urine, taking water and solutes (such as sodium and potassium) along with it in a process known as osmotic diuresis. This leads to polyuria, dehydration, and compensatory thirst and polydipsia. The absence of insulin also leads to the release of free fatty acids from adipose tissue (lipolysis), which are converted through a process called beta oxidation, again in the liver, into ketone bodies (acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate). β-Hydroxybutyrate can serve as an energy source in the absence of insulin-mediated glucose delivery, and is a protective mechanism in case of starvation. The ketone bodies, however, have a low pKa and therefore turn the blood acidic (metabolic acidosis). The body initially buffers the change with the bicarbonate buffering system, but this system is quickly overwhelmed and other mechanisms must work to compensate for the acidosis. One such mechanism is hyperventilation to lower the blood carbon dioxide levels (a form of compensatory respiratory alkalosis). This hyperventilation, in its extreme form, may be observed as Kussmaul respiration.

text: Diabetic ketoacidosis arises because of a lack of insulin in the body. The lack of insulin and corresponding elevation of

text: glucagon

text: leads to increased release of glucose by the

text: liver

text: (a process that is normally suppressed by insulin) from

text: glycogen

text: via

text: glycogenolysis

text: and  also through

text: gluconeogenesis

text: . High glucose levels spill over into the urine, taking water and solutes (such as

text: sodium

text: and

text: potassium

text: ) along with it in a process known as

text: osmotic diuresis

text: . This leads to polyuria, dehydration, and compensatory thirst and polydipsia. The absence of insulin also leads to the release of free

text: fatty acid

text: s from

text: adipose tissue

text: lipolysis

text: ), which are converted through a process called

text: beta oxidation

text: , again in the liver, into ketone bodies (

text: acetoacetate

text: and

text: β-hydroxybutyrate

text: ). β-Hydroxybutyrate can serve as an energy source in the absence of insulin-mediated glucose delivery, and is a protective mechanism in case of starvation. The ketone bodies, however, have a low

text: pKa

text: and therefore turn the blood acidic (

text: metabolic acidosis

text: ). The body initially

text: buffers

text: the change with the

text: bicarbonate buffering system

text: , but this system is quickly overwhelmed and other mechanisms must work to compensate for the acidosis. One such mechanism is

text: hyperventilation

text: to lower the blood

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels (a form of compensatory

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: ). This hyperventilation, in its extreme form, may be observed as

text: Kussmaul respiration

text: Through respiratory control reflexes, any small transient fall in ventilation (A) leads to a corresponding small rise (A') in alveolar CO concentration which is sensed by the respiratory control system so that there is a subsequent small compensatory rise in ventilation (B) above its steady state level (S) that helps restore CO back to its steady state value. In general, transient or persistent disturbances in ventilation, CO or oxygen levels can be counteracted by the respiratory control system in this way.

text: Through respiratory control reflexes, any small transient fall in ventilation (A) leads to a corresponding small rise (A') in alveolar CO concentration which is sensed by the respiratory control system so that there is a subsequent small compensatory rise in ventilation (B) above its steady state level (S) that helps restore CO back to its

text: steady state

text: value. In general, transient or persistent disturbances in ventilation, CO or oxygen levels can be counteracted by the respiratory control system in this way.

text: The World Health Organization reports that the clinical picture in severe cases is strikingly different from the disease pattern seen during epidemics of seasonal influenza. While people with certain underlying medical conditions are known to be at increased risk, many severe cases occur in previously healthy people. In severe cases, patients generally begin to deteriorate around three to five days after symptom onset. Deterioration is rapid, with many patients progressing to respiratory failure within 24 hours, requiring immediate admission to an intensive care unit. Upon admission, most patients need immediate respiratory support with mechanical ventilation.

text: The

text: World Health Organization

text: reports that the clinical picture in severe cases is strikingly different from the disease pattern seen during epidemics of seasonal influenza. While people with certain underlying medical conditions are known to be at increased risk, many severe cases occur in previously healthy people. In severe cases, patients generally begin to deteriorate around three to five days after symptom onset. Deterioration is rapid, with many patients progressing to respiratory failure within 24 hours, requiring immediate admission to an intensive care unit. Upon admission, most patients need immediate respiratory support with

text: mechanical ventilation

text: Our respiratory system is very prone to developing infections in the lungs. Infants and older adults are more likely to develop infections in their lungs, because their lungs are not as strong in fighting off these infections. Most of these infections used to be fatal, but with new research and medicine, they are now treatable. With bacterial infections, antibiotics are prescribed, while viral infections are harder to treat, but still curable.

text: Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.

text: Gastrulation takes place after cleavage and the formation of the blastula. Gastrulation is followed by organogenesis, when individual organs develop within the newly formed germ layers. Each layer gives rise to specific tissues and organs in the developing embryo. The ectoderm gives rise to epidermis, and to the neural crest and other tissues that will later form the nervous system. The mesoderm is found between the ectoderm and the endoderm and gives rise to somites, which form muscle; the cartilage of the ribs and vertebrae; the dermis, the notochord, blood and blood vessels, bone, and connective tissue. The endoderm gives rise to the epithelium of the digestive system and respiratory system, and organs associated with the digestive system, such as the liver and pancreas. Following gastrulation, cells in the body are either organized into sheets of connected cells (as in epithelia), or as a mesh of isolated cells, such as mesenchyme.

text: Gastrulation takes place after

text: cleavage

text: and the formation of the

text: blastula

text: . Gastrulation is followed by

text: organogenesis

text: , when individual organs develop within the newly formed germ layers. Each layer gives rise to specific

text: tissues

text: and

text: organs

text: in the developing embryo. The ectoderm gives rise to

text: epidermis

text: , and to the

text: neural crest

text: and other tissues that will later form the

text: nervous system

text: . The mesoderm is found between the ectoderm and the endoderm and gives rise to

text: somites

text: , which form

text: muscle

text: ; the

text: cartilage

text: of the

text: ribs

text: and

text: vertebrae

text: ; the

text: dermis

text: , the

text: notochord

text: blood

text: and

text: blood vessels

text: bone

text: , and

text: connective tissue

text: . The endoderm gives rise to the

text: epithelium

text: of the

text: digestive system

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: , and organs associated with the

text: digestive system

text: , such as the

text: liver

text: and

text: pancreas

text: . Following gastrulation, cells in the body are either organized into sheets of connected cells (as in

text: epithelia

text: ), or as a mesh of isolated cells, such as

text: mesenchyme

text: There are several wearables which measures the breath in order to connect the user back to their body. Wo.Defy is a dress which attempts to reveal the beauty of emotional communication using the common platform of the human breath; proposing the best methods of human to human communication lie within us. Spire measures your breathing patterns to give you insights into your state of mind. Being, the mindfulness tracker from Zensorium, maps user’s emotions  (stressed, excited normal and calm) through heart rate variability. WellBe monitors heart rate levels and then matches them, through a patent pending algorithm, to specific moments and interactions throughout a user’s day. SmartMat is a responsive mat embedded with 21,000 sensors to detect your body’s balance, pressure and alignment. Prana's platform evaluates breath patterns, takes into account the effects of posture on breathing, and differentiates between diaphragmatic and chest breathing, three critical components of assessing the true quality of breathing, previously unaddressed by systems such as spirometers or pulse oximeters.

text: There are several wearables which measures the breath in order to connect the user back to their body. Wo.Defy is a dress which attempts to reveal the beauty of emotional communication using the common platform of the human breath; proposing the best methods of human to human communication lie within us.

text: Spire

text: measures your breathing patterns to give you insights into your state of mind. Being, the mindfulness tracker from Zensorium, maps user’s emotions  (stressed, excited normal and calm) through heart rate variability. WellBe monitors heart rate levels and then matches them, through a patent pending algorithm, to specific moments and interactions throughout a user’s day. SmartMat is a responsive mat embedded with 21,000 sensors to detect your body’s balance, pressure and alignment. Prana's platform evaluates breath patterns, takes into account the effects of posture on breathing, and differentiates between diaphragmatic and chest breathing, three critical components of assessing the true quality of breathing, previously unaddressed by systems such as spirometers or pulse oximeters.

text: Humidity drops to as low as 15%, which can result in spontaneous nosebleeds for some people. Other health effects on humans may include conditions of the skin, eyes, and respiratory system, including aggravation of asthma.

text: Humidity drops to as low as 15%, which can result in spontaneous nosebleeds for some people. Other health effects on humans may include conditions of the skin, eyes, and respiratory system, including aggravation of

text: asthma

text: In order to properly protect workers from inhalation of carbon black, respiratory personal protective equipment is recommended. The type of respiratory protection varies, depending on the concentration of carbon black used.

text: In order to properly protect workers from inhalation of carbon black, respiratory

text: personal protective equipment

text: is recommended. The type of respiratory protection varies, depending on the concentration of carbon black used.

text: Similar to the atrium, the arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur. Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues, it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the left ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body. With respect to thermoregulation, the American flamingo has highly vascularized feet that use a countercurrent exchange system in there legs and feet. This method of thermoregulation keeps a constant gradient between the veins and arteries that are in close proximity in order to maintain heat within the core and minimize heat loss or gain in the extremities. Heat loss is minimized while wading in cold water, while heat gain is minimized in the hot temperatures during rest and flight.

text: Similar to the atrium, the arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo

text: vasoconstriction

text: , and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur. Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues, it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called

text: vasodilation

text: bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the left ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body. With respect to thermoregulation, the American flamingo has highly

text: vascularized

text: feet that use a

text: countercurrent exchange

text: system in there legs and feet. This method of thermoregulation keeps a constant

text: gradient

text: between the veins and arteries that are in close proximity in order to maintain heat within the core and minimize heat loss or gain in the extremities. Heat loss is minimized while wading in cold water, while heat gain is minimized in the hot temperatures during rest and flight.

text: On this basis, its respiratory system would likely have been parabronchi, with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in avian lungs, and a flow-through lung. An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about  compared with a mammalian requirement of , which would exceed the space available. The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at , allowing for a , four-chambered heart and a  lung capacity. That would allow about  for the necessary tissue. Evidence for the avian system in Apatosaurus and other sauropods is also present in the pneumaticity of the vertebrae. Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal, Wedel (2003) states they are also likely connected to air sacs, as in birds.

text: On this basis, its respiratory system would likely have been

text: parabronchi

text: , with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in

text: avian lungs

text: , and a flow-through lung. An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about  compared with a mammalian requirement of , which would exceed the space available. The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at , allowing for a , four-chambered heart and a  lung capacity. That would allow about  for the necessary tissue. Evidence for the avian system in Apatosaurus and other sauropods is also present in the

text: pneumaticity

text: of the vertebrae. Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal, Wedel (2003) states they are also likely connected to air sacs, as in birds.

text: Respiratory system requires utmost attention in SMA as once weakened it never fully recovers. Weakened pulmonary muscles in SMA type I/II patients can make breathing more difficult and pose a risk of hypoxiation, especially in sleep when muscles are more relaxed. Impaired cough reflex poses a constant risk of respiratory infection and pneumonia. Non-invasive ventilation (BiPAP) is frequently used and tracheostomy may be sometimes performed in more severe cases; both methods of ventilation prolong survival in a comparable degree, although tracheostomy prevents speech development.

text: Respiratory system requires utmost attention in SMA as once weakened it never fully recovers. Weakened pulmonary muscles in SMA type I/II patients can make breathing more difficult and pose a risk of

text: hypoxiation

text: , especially in sleep when muscles are more relaxed. Impaired

text: cough reflex

text: poses a constant risk of respiratory infection and

text: pneumonia

text: Non-invasive ventilation

text: BiPAP

text: ) is frequently used and

text: tracheostomy

text: may be sometimes performed in more severe cases; both methods of ventilation prolong survival in a comparable degree, although tracheostomy prevents speech development.

text: It is only as a result of maintaining the composition of the 3 liters alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar

text: It is only as a result of maintaining the composition of the 3 liters alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of

text: hyperventilation

text: , respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar

text: The respiratory tract is covered in  epithelium, which varies down the tract. There are glands and mucus produced by goblet cells in parts, as well as smooth muscle, elastin or cartilage.

text: The respiratory tract is covered in

text: epithelium

text: , which varies down the tract. There are

text: gland

text: s and

text: mucus

text: produced by

text: goblet cell

text: s in parts, as well as

text: smooth muscle

text: elastin

text: or

text: cartilage

text: Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, thus preserving the health of one's respiratory tract. There are two main types of respirators. One type functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, from the air breathed by the user. The filtration may be either passive or active (powered). Gas masks and particulate respirators are examples of this type of respirator. A second type protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source. This type includes airline respirators and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). In work environments, respirators are relied upon when adequate ventilation is not available or other engineering control systems are not feasible or inadequate.

text: Respirators serve to protect the user from breathing in contaminants in the air, thus preserving the health of one's respiratory tract. There are two main types of respirators. One type functions by filtering out chemicals and gases, or airborne particles, from the air breathed by the user. The filtration may be either passive or

text: active (powered)

text: Gas mask

text: s and

text: particulate respirators

text: are examples of this type of respirator. A second type protects users by providing clean, respirable air from another source. This type includes airline respirators and

text: self-contained breathing apparatus

text: (SCBA). In work environments, respirators are relied upon when adequate ventilation is not available or other engineering control systems are not feasible or inadequate.

text: A membrane oxygenator is a device used to add oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from the blood. It can be used in two principal modes: to imitate the function of the lungs in cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), and to oxygenate blood in longer term life support, termed extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, ECMO.  A membrane oxygenator consists of a thin gas permeable membrane separating the blood and gas flows in the CPB circuit; oxygen diffuses from the gas side into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the gas for disposal.

text: A membrane oxygenator is a device used to add

text: oxygen

text: to, and remove

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the

text: blood

text: . It can be used in two principal modes: to imitate the function of the

text: lung

text: s in

text: cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB)

text: , and to oxygenate blood in longer term life support, termed

text: extracorporeal

text: membrane oxygenation,

text: ECMO

text: .  A membrane oxygenator consists of a thin gas permeable membrane separating the blood and gas flows in the CPB circuit; oxygen diffuses from the gas side into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the gas for disposal.

text: In Chinese opera, breath is based in the pubic region and supported by the abdominal muscles. Performers follow the basic principle that "Strong centralized breath moves the melodic-passages" (zhong qi xing xiang). Breath is visualized being drawn up through a central breathing cavity extending from the pubic region to the top of the head. This "cavity" must be under the performer's control at all times, and he or she develops special techniques to control both entering and exiting air. The two major methods of taking in breath are known as "exchanging breath" (huan qi) and "stealing breath" (tou qi). "Exchanging breath" is a slow, unhurried process of breathing out old air and taking in new. It is used at moments when the performer is not under time constraint, such as during a purely instrumental musical passage or when another character is speaking. "Stealing breath" is a sharp intake of air without prior exhalation, and is used during long passages of prose or song when a pause would be undesirable. Both techniques should be invisible to the audience and take in only the precise amount of air required for the intended vocalization. The most important principle in exhalation is "saving the breath" (cun qi). Breath should not be expended all at once at the beginning of a spoken or sung passage, but rather expelled slowly and evenly over its length. Most songs and some prose contain precise written intervals for when breath should be "exchanged" or "stolen". These intervals are often marked by carats.

text: "Work of Breathing" measures respiratory effort and visible signs of respiratory distress.

text: Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and a chest X-ray. However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial origin. The World Health Organization has defined pneumonia in children clinically based on either a cough or difficulty breathing and a rapid respiratory rate, chest indrawing, or a decreased level of consciousness. A rapid respiratory rate is defined as greater than 60 breaths per minute in children under 2 months old, 50 breaths per minute in children 2 months to 1 year old, or greater than 40 breaths per minute in children 1 to 5 years old. In children, increased respiratory rate and lower chest indrawing are more sensitive than hearing chest crackles with a stethoscope. Grunting and nasal flaring may be other useful signs in children less than five.

text: Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and a

text: chest X-ray

text: . However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial origin.

text: The World Health Organization

text: has defined pneumonia in children clinically based on either a

text: cough

text: or difficulty breathing and a rapid respiratory rate, chest indrawing, or a decreased level of consciousness. A rapid respiratory rate is defined as greater than 60 breaths per minute in children under 2 months old, 50 breaths per minute in children 2 months to 1 year old, or greater than 40 breaths per minute in children 1 to 5 years old. In children, increased respiratory rate and lower chest indrawing are more

text: sensitive

text: than hearing chest

text: crackles

text: with a

text: stethoscope

text: . Grunting and nasal flaring may be other useful signs in children less than five.

text: Ideally, the oxygen provided via ventilation would be just enough to saturate the blood fully. In the typical adult, 1 litre of blood can hold about 200 mL of oxygen; 1 litre of dry air has about 210 mL of oxygen. Therefore, under these conditions, the ideal ventilation perfusion ratio would be about 0.95. If one were to consider humidified air (with less oxygen), then the ideal v/q ratio would be in the vicinity of 1.0, thus leading to concept of ventilation-perfusion equality or ventilation-perfusion matching. This matching may be assessed in the lung as a whole, or in individual or in sub-groups of gas-exchanging units in the lung. On the other side Ventilation-perfusion mismatch is the term used when the ventilation and the perfusion of a gas exchanging unit are not matched.

text: Although most of the respiratory system has not been preserved, some far-reaching conclusions have been drawn from the indirect evidence available. In 1999 John Ruben e.a. inferred that Scipionyx had a respiratory system different from birds, and more similar to crocodiles, based on an analysis of pictures of the fossil which seemed to indicate the presence of a diaphragm. The large liver would have completely divided the body cavity into an anterior section for the heart and lungs and a posterior section for the intestines. This would have indicated the presence of septate lungs, ventilated by a hepatic-piston diaphragm, driven by the liver and a Musculus diaphragmaticus, which in the fossil was visibly attached to the pubes. Such a system would be an argument against the idea that birds, whose lungs are ventilated by air-sacs, are coelurosaurian theropods, and an indication theropods were cold-blooded.

text: Although most of the respiratory system has not been preserved, some far-reaching conclusions have been drawn from the indirect evidence available. In 1999

text: John Ruben

text: e.a. inferred that Scipionyx had a

text: respiratory system

text: different from

text: bird

text: s, and more similar to

text: crocodile

text: s, based on an analysis of pictures of the

text: fossil

text: which seemed to indicate the presence of a

text: diaphragm

text: . The large liver would have completely divided the body cavity into an anterior section for the heart and lungs and a posterior section for the intestines. This would have indicated the presence of septate lungs, ventilated by a hepatic-piston diaphragm, driven by the liver and a

text: Musculus diaphragmaticus

text: , which in the fossil was visibly attached to the pubes. Such a system would be an argument against the idea that

text: bird

text: s, whose lungs are ventilated by air-sacs, are

text: coelurosauria

text: n theropods, and an indication theropods were cold-blooded.

text: Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal. The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur. Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues, it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body.

text: Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal. The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo

text: vasoconstriction

text: vasodilation

text: bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body.

text: A pulmonary lobule is the portion of the lung ventilated by one bronchiole. Bronchioles are approximately 1mm or less in diameter and their walls consist of ciliated cuboidal epithelium and a layer of smooth muscle. Bronchioles divide into even smaller bronchioles, called terminal, which are 0.5mm or less in diameter. Terminal bronchioles in turn divide into smaller respiratory bronchioles which divide into alveolar ducts. Terminal bronchioles mark the end of the conducting division of air flow in the respiratory system while respiratory bronchioles are the beginning of the respiratory division where actual gas exchange takes place.

text: A pulmonary lobule is the portion of the

text: lung

text: ventilated by one bronchiole. Bronchioles are approximately 1mm or less in diameter and their walls consist of

text: ciliated

text: cuboidal

text: epithelium

text: and a layer of

text: smooth muscle

text: . Bronchioles divide into even smaller bronchioles, called terminal, which are 0.5mm or less in diameter. Terminal bronchioles in turn divide into smaller respiratory bronchioles which divide into

text: alveolar ducts

text: . Terminal bronchioles mark the end of the conducting division of air flow in the

text: respiratory system

text: while respiratory bronchioles are the beginning of the respiratory division where actual

text: gas exchange

text: takes place.

text: The dissolved gas in the alveolar blood is transported to the body tissues by the blood circulation. There it diffuses through the cell membranes and into the tissues, where it may eventually reach equilibrium. The greater the blood supply to a tissue, the faster it will reach equilibrium with gas at the new partial pressure.

text: CO is an indicator of how well the heart is performing its function of transporting blood to deliver oxygen, nutrients, and chemicals to various cells of the body and to remove the cellular wastes. CO is regulated principally by the demand for oxygen by the cells of the body.

text: The major histological types of respiratory system cancer are:

text: The major

text: histological

text: types of respiratory system cancer are:

text: Heterotrophs, such as animals, use light from the Sun indirectly by consuming the products of autotrophs, either by consuming autotrophs, by consuming their products, or by consuming other heterotrophs. The sugars and other molecular components produced by the autotrophs are then broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the heterotroph the energy required for survival. This process is known as cellular respiration.

text: Heterotroph

text: s, such as animals, use light from the Sun indirectly by consuming the products of autotrophs, either by consuming autotrophs, by consuming their products, or by consuming other heterotrophs. The sugars and other molecular components produced by the autotrophs are then broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the heterotroph the energy required for survival. This process is known as

text: cellular respiration

text: These systems check for large scale changes to the chromosomes and may be used with cell culture or in animal test.  The chromosomes are stained and observed for any changes.  Sister chromatid exchange is a symmetrical exchange of chromosome material between sister chromatids and may be correlated to the mutagenic or carcinogenic potential of a chemical.  In micronucleus Test, cells are examined for micronuclei, which are fragments or chromosomes left behind at anaphase, and is therefore a test for clastogenic agents that cause chromosome breakages.  Other tests may check for various chromosomal aberrations such as chromatid and chromosomal gaps and deletions, translocations, and ploidy.

text: N. meningitidis is a major cause of illness, developmental impairment and death during childhood in industrialized countries and has been responsible for epidemics in Africa and in Asia. Every year, about 2,500 to 3,500 people become infected with N. meningitidis in the US, with a frequency of about 1 in 100,000. Children younger than 5 years are at greatest risk, followed by teenagers of high school age. Rates in the African meningitis belt were as high as 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 100 before introduction of a vaccine in 2010. The incidence of meningococcal disease is highest among infants (children younger than 1-year-old) whose immune system is relatively immature. In industrialized countries there is a second peak of incidence in young adults, who are congregating closely, living in dormitories or smoking. Vaccine development is ongoing.It is spread through saliva and other respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, and chewing on toys. Inhalation of respiratory droplets from a carrier which may be someone who is themselves in the early stages of disease can transmit the bacteria. Close contact with a carrier is the predominant risk factor.  Other risk factors include a weakened general or local immune response, such as a recent upper respiratory infection, smoking, and complement deficiency. The incubation period is short, from 2 to 10 days. In susceptible individuals, N. meningitidis may invade the bloodstream and cause a systemic infection, sepsis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, breakdown of circulation, and septic shock.

text: N. meningitidis is a major cause of illness, developmental impairment and death during childhood in industrialized countries and has been responsible for epidemics in Africa and in Asia. Every year, about 2,500 to 3,500 people become infected with N. meningitidis in the US, with a frequency of about 1 in 100,000. Children younger than 5 years are at greatest risk, followed by teenagers of high school age. Rates in the

text: African meningitis belt

text: were as high as 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 100 before introduction of a vaccine in 2010. The

text: incidence

text: of meningococcal disease is highest among infants (children younger than 1-year-old) whose immune system is relatively immature. In industrialized countries there is a second peak of incidence in young adults, who are congregating closely, living in dormitories or smoking. Vaccine development is ongoing.It is spread through saliva and other respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, and chewing on toys. Inhalation of respiratory droplets from a

text: carrier

text: which may be someone who is themselves in the early stages of disease can

text: transmit

text: the bacteria. Close contact with a carrier is the predominant

text: risk factor

text: .  Other risk factors include a weakened general or local immune response, such as a recent upper respiratory infection, smoking, and

text: complement deficiency

text: . The

text: incubation period

text: is short, from 2 to 10 days. In susceptible individuals, N. meningitidis may invade the bloodstream and cause a

text: systemic infection

text: , sepsis,

text: disseminated intravascular coagulation

text: , breakdown of circulation, and

text: septic shock

text: Henricia sanguinolenta, like all other sea stars, uses water instead of blood. Henricia sanguinolenta pumps filtered seawater in and out of its body. This seawater is transported through a vascular tube system, and delivers nutrients to the different organs and helps in gas exchange. Water enters through the madreporite, a sieve-like structure on the oral side.

text: Henricia sanguinolenta, like all other sea stars, uses water instead of blood. Henricia sanguinolenta pumps filtered seawater in and out of its body. This seawater is transported through a vascular tube system, and delivers nutrients to the different organs and helps in gas exchange. Water enters through the

text: madreporite

text: , a sieve-like structure on the oral side.

text: Respiratory physiology is the branch of human physiology focusing upon respiration.

text: Respiratory physiology is the branch of

text: human physiology

text: focusing upon

text: respiration

text: Much like the oral cavity, the upper and lower respiratory system possess mechanical deterrents to remove microbes.  Goblet cells produce mucous which traps microbes and moves them out of the respiratory system via continuously moving ciliated epithelial cells. In addition, a bactericidal effect is generated by nasal mucus which contains the enzyme lysozyme.

text: Much like the oral cavity, the upper and lower respiratory system possess mechanical deterrents to remove microbes.  Goblet cells produce mucous which traps microbes and moves them out of the respiratory system via continuously moving

text: ciliated

text: epithelial cells. In addition, a bactericidal effect is generated by nasal mucus which contains the enzyme lysozyme.

text: The  respiratory tract antimicrobial defense system is a layered defense mechanism which relies on components of both the innate and adaptive immune systems to protect the lungs and the rest of the respiratory tract against inhaled microorganisms.

text: The  respiratory tract antimicrobial defense system is a layered defense mechanism which relies on components of both the

text: innate

text: and

text: adaptive immune system

text: s to protect the lungs and the rest of the

text: respiratory tract

text: against inhaled

text: microorganism

text: s.

text: "Breathe" is a song by Scottish singer Midge Ure released March 22, 1996, as the first single from his album Breathe.

text: "Breathe" is a song by Scottish singer

text: Midge Ure

text: released March 22, 1996, as the first single from his album

text: Breathe

text: Scientists have investigated what part of the body is responsible for maintaining the respiratory rhythm. They found that neurons located in the brainstem of fish are responsible for the genesis of the respiratory rhythm. The position of these neurons is slightly different from the centers of respiratory genesis in mammals but they are located in the same brain compartment, which has caused debates about the homology of respiratory centers between aquatic and terrestrial species. In both aquatic and terrestrial respiration, the exact mechanisms by which neurons can generate this involuntary rhythm are still not completely understood (see Involuntary control of respiration).

text: Scientists have investigated what part of the body is responsible for maintaining the respiratory rhythm. They found that

text: neuron

text: s located in the

text: brainstem

text: of fish are responsible for the genesis of the respiratory rhythm. The position of these neurons is slightly different from the centers of respiratory genesis in mammals but they are located in the same brain compartment, which has caused debates about the

text: homology

text: of respiratory centers between aquatic and terrestrial species. In both aquatic and terrestrial respiration, the exact mechanisms by which neurons can generate this involuntary rhythm are still not completely understood (see

text: Involuntary control of respiration

text: Rhythmic respiratory breathing continuously adapts to the organism’s posture, activity level, speech, and can reveal whether someone is calm, agitated, or scared. Plasticity of the mechanisms involved in respiratory behavior is modulated in part by the pre-Bötzinger complex. Disruption causes irreversible loss or major disruption of breathing in vivo. The frequency and amplitude change according to the behavioral and metabolic demands of the organism it controls. Breathing is thus extremely sensitive to the internal state of the organism. The pre-Bötzinger complex is a rhythm generating network, which is composed of micro networks that function within larger networks to create characteristic rhythms and breathing patterns, including eupneic, sigh, and gasping activities. This single neuronal network can create multiple respiratory rhythmic patterns and is by itself both necessary and sufficient to generate respiratory rhythms.

text: Rhythmic respiratory breathing continuously adapts to the organism’s posture, activity level, speech, and can reveal whether someone is calm, agitated, or scared. Plasticity of the mechanisms involved in respiratory behavior is modulated in part by the pre-Bötzinger complex. Disruption causes irreversible loss or major disruption of breathing

text: in vivo

text: . The frequency and amplitude change according to the behavioral and metabolic demands of the organism it controls. Breathing is thus extremely sensitive to the internal state of the organism. The pre-Bötzinger complex is a rhythm generating network, which is composed of micro networks that function within larger networks to create characteristic rhythms and breathing patterns, including eupneic, sigh, and gasping activities. This single neuronal network can create multiple respiratory rhythmic patterns and is by itself both necessary and sufficient to generate respiratory rhythms.

text: Respiratory Therapists are sometimes referred to as Respiratory Scientists who are specialists in pulmonary function.  Respiratory Therapists work with Pulmonologists in both clinical and general research of the respiratory system, ranging from the anatomy of the respiratory epithelium to the most effective treatment of pulmonary hypertension in pediatrics.  Scientific research also takes place to look for causes and possible treatment in diseases such as asthma and lung cancer.

text: Respiratory Therapists are sometimes referred to as Respiratory Scientists who are specialists in pulmonary function.  Respiratory Therapists work with

text: Pulmonologist

text: s in both clinical and general research of the

text: respiratory system

text: , ranging from the anatomy of the

text: respiratory epithelium

text: to the most effective treatment of

text: pulmonary hypertension

text: in pediatrics.  Scientific research also takes place to look for causes and possible treatment in diseases such as

text: asthma

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: (1984) Measured respirators' protection factors were very unstable. Scientists have proposed to establish the boundaries of the safe use of respirators based on the results obtained not in the laboratories, but in the workplaces, under application without interruption. This principle, with some variations, is used in developed countries today. Experts proposed to establish the expected protection factors so that the real effectiveness was greater than the expected effectiveness with a probability of 90% and in 95% of cases. The authors analyzed the results, and offered to reduce the permissible usage limits of the half-mask respirators with forced air supply (PAPR) from 500 to 50 PEL.

text: (1984) Measured respirators' protection factors were very unstable. Scientists have proposed to establish the boundaries of the safe use of respirators based on the results obtained not in the laboratories, but in the workplaces, under application without interruption. This principle, with some variations, is used in developed countries today. Experts proposed to establish the

text: expected protection factors

text: so that the real effectiveness was greater than the expected effectiveness with a probability of 90% and in 95% of cases. The authors analyzed the results, and offered to reduce the permissible usage limits of the half-mask respirators with forced air supply (

text: PAPR

text: ) from 500 to 50 PEL.

text: One engineering advance included adding a gas exchange cartridge, which enabled better control of system's pH and oxygen levels. Similar to a mammalian lung, the gas exchange cartridge efficiently oxygenated the culture medium, allowing the bioreactor to support higher numbers of cells. Combined with the ability to add or remove CO for precise pH control, the limitations commonly associated with large-scale cell culture were eliminated, resulting in densely packed cell cultures that could be maintained for several months.

text: The term human blood group systems is defined by International Society of Blood Transfusion as systems in the human species where cell-surface antigens—in particular, those on blood cells—are "controlled at a single gene locus or by two or more very closely linked homologous genes with little or no observable recombination between them", and include the common ABO and Rh- (Rhesus) antigen systems, as well as many others; thirty-five major human systems are identified as of November 2014. In addition to the ABO and Rh systems, the antigens expressed on blood cell membrane surfaces include 346 red blood cell antigens and 33 platelet antigens, as defined serologically. The genetic basis for most of these antigens lie in 45 red blood cell and 6 platelet genes. An individual, for example, can be AB RhD positive, and at the same time M and N positive in the MNS system, K positive in the Kell system, and Le or Le positive in the Lewis system, where these and many of the systems are named for patients in whom the corresponding antibodies were first detected.

text: The term human blood group systems is defined by

text: as systems in the human species where cell-surface

text: antigen

text: s—in particular, those on blood cells—are "controlled at a single gene

text: locus

text: or by two or more very closely linked

text: homologous

text: genes with little or no observable

text: recombination

text: between them", and include the common

text: ABO

text: and

text: Rh-

text: (Rhesus) antigen systems, as well as many others; thirty-five major human systems are identified as of November 2014. In addition to the ABO and Rh systems, the

text: antigen

text: s expressed on blood cell membrane surfaces include 346

text: red blood cell

text: antigens and 33 platelet antigens, as defined serologically. The genetic basis for most of these antigens lie in 45 red blood cell and 6 platelet genes. An individual, for example, can be AB RhD positive, and at the same time M and N positive in the

text: MNS system

text: , K positive in the

text: Kell system

text: , and Le or Le positive in the

text: Lewis system

text: , where these and many of the systems are named for patients in whom the corresponding

text: antibodies

text: were first detected.

text: There is one part of the body fully equipped to deal with cold stress. The respiratory system protects itself against damage by warming the incoming air to 80-90 degrees Fahrenheit before it reaches the bronchi. This means that not even the most frigid of temperatures can damage the respiratory tract.

text: There is one part of the body fully equipped to deal with cold stress. The

text: respiratory system

text: protects itself against damage by warming the incoming air to 80-90 degrees Fahrenheit before it reaches the

text: bronchi

text: . This means that not even the most frigid of temperatures can damage the respiratory tract.

text: The respiratory system lies dormant in the human fetus during pregnancy. At birth, the respiratory system becomes fully functional upon exposure to air, although some lung development and growth continues throughout childhood. Pre-term birth can lead to infants with under-developed lungs. These lungs show incomplete development of the alveolar type II cells, cells that produce surfactant. The lungs of pre-term infants may not function well because the lack of surfactant leads to increased surface tension within the alveoli. Thus, many alveoli collapse such that no gas exchange can occur within some or most regions of an infant's lungs, a condition termed respiratory distress syndrome. Basic scientific experiments, carried out using cells from chicken lungs, support the potential for using steroids as a means of furthering development of type II alveolar cells. In fact, once a pre-mature birth is threatened, every effort is made to delay the birth, and a series of steroid shots is frequently administered to the mother during this delay in an effort to promote lung growth.

text: The respiratory system lies dormant in the human

text: fetus

text: during

text: pregnancy

text: . At birth, the respiratory system becomes fully functional upon exposure to air, although some lung development and growth continues throughout childhood.

text: Pre-term birth

text: can lead to infants with under-developed lungs. These lungs show incomplete development of the

text: alveolar type II cells

text: , cells that produce

text: surfactant

text: . The lungs of pre-term infants may not function well because the lack of surfactant leads to increased surface tension within the alveoli. Thus, many alveoli collapse such that no gas exchange can occur within some or most regions of an infant's lungs, a condition termed

text: respiratory distress syndrome

text: . Basic scientific experiments, carried out using cells from chicken lungs, support the potential for using

text: steroid

text: s as a means of furthering development of type II alveolar cells. In fact, once a pre-mature birth is threatened, every effort is made to delay the birth, and a series of

text: steroid

text: shots is frequently administered to the mother during this delay in an effort to promote lung growth.

text: The respiratory system of birds is vulnerable to impurities in the air, which can cause a bird to choke. Impurities in the air can come from cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide, scented candles, cooking smoke such as burned oil, incense, carpet powders, or household sprays. All these impurities can harm the bird's respiratory system and cause respiratory diseases.

text: The

text: respiratory system

text: of birds is vulnerable to

text: impurities

text: in the air, which can cause a bird to choke. Impurities in the air can come from

text: cigarette smoke

text: carbon monoxide

text: , scented candles, cooking smoke such as burned

text: oil

text: incense

text: , carpet powders, or household sprays. All these impurities can harm the bird's respiratory system and cause respiratory diseases.

text: College of Respiratory Therapists of Ontario (CRTO) regulates the profession of respiratory care by setting out requirements for entry to practice in Ontario, Canada.  Authorized by the legislation "Regulated Health Professionals Act" in Ontario, the role of the College of Respiratory Therapists of Ontario is to regulate the practice of respiratory therapy and govern the registered respiratory therapists.  Respiratory therapy has been an established health care profession in Canada since 1964.

text: College of Respiratory Therapists of Ontario (CRTO) regulates the profession of

text: respiratory care

text: by setting out requirements for entry to practice in

text: Ontario

text: Canada

text: .  Authorized by the legislation "Regulated Health Professionals Act" in Ontario, the role of the College of Respiratory Therapists of Ontario is to regulate the practice of respiratory therapy and govern the registered respiratory therapists.  Respiratory therapy has been an established health care profession in Canada since 1964.

text: In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the anatomy involved with the process of respiration.

text: In humans, the respiratory tract is the part of the

text: anatomy

text: involved with the process of

text: respiration

text: Phosphine can be absorbed into the body by inhalation. Direct contact with phosphine liquid – although unlikely to occur – may cause frostbite, like other cryogenic liquids. The main target organ of phosphine gas is the respiratory tract. According to the 2009 U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) pocket guide, and U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulation, the 8 hour average respiratory exposure should not exceed 0.3 ppm. NIOSH recommends that the short term respiratory exposure to phosphine gas should not exceed 1 ppm. The Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health level is 50 ppm. Overexposure to phosphine gas causes nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea; thirst; chest tightness, dyspnea (breathing difficulty); muscle pain, chills; stupor or syncope; pulmonary edema. Phosphine has been reported to have the odor of decaying fish or garlic at concentrations below 0.3 ppm. The smell is normally restricted to laboratory areas or phosphine processing since the smell comes from the way the phosphine is extracted from the environment. However, it may occur elsewhere, such as in industrial waste landfills. Exposure to higher concentrations may cause olfactory fatigue.

text: Phosphine can be absorbed into the body by inhalation. Direct contact with phosphine liquid – although unlikely to occur – may cause frostbite, like other cryogenic liquids. The main target organ of phosphine gas is the respiratory tract. According to the 2009 U.S.

text: (NIOSH) pocket guide, and U.S.

text: (OSHA) regulation, the 8 hour average respiratory exposure should not exceed 0.3 ppm. NIOSH recommends that the short term respiratory exposure to phosphine gas should not exceed 1 ppm. The

text: Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health

text: level is 50 ppm. Overexposure to phosphine gas causes nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea; thirst; chest tightness,

text: dyspnea

text: (breathing difficulty); muscle pain, chills; stupor or syncope; pulmonary edema. Phosphine has been reported to have the odor of decaying fish or garlic at concentrations below 0.3 ppm. The smell is normally restricted to laboratory areas or phosphine processing since the smell comes from the way the phosphine is extracted from the environment. However, it may occur elsewhere, such as in industrial waste landfills. Exposure to higher concentrations may cause

text: olfactory fatigue

text: Respirocytes are hypothetical, microscopic, artificial red blood cells that are intended to emulate the function of their organic counterparts, so as to supplement or replace the function of much of the human body's normal respiratory system. Respirocytes were proposed by Robert A. Freitas Jr in his 1998 paper "A Mechanical Artificial Red Blood Cell: Exploratory Design in Medical Nanotechnology".

text: Respirocytes are hypothetical, microscopic,

text: artificial

text: red blood cell

text: s that are intended to emulate the function of their organic counterparts, so as to supplement or replace the function of much of the human body's normal

text: respiratory system

text: . Respirocytes were proposed by

text: Robert A. Freitas Jr

text: in his 1998 paper "A Mechanical Artificial Red Blood Cell: Exploratory Design in Medical Nanotechnology".

text: The tissue of the lungs can be affected by a number of diseases, including pneumonia and lung cancer. Chronic diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and emphysema can be related to smoking or exposure to harmful substances. Diseases such as bronchitis can also affect the respiratory tract.

text: The

text: tissue of the lungs

text: can be affected by a

text: number of diseases

text: , including

text: pneumonia

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: . Chronic diseases such as

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: and

text: emphysema

text: can be related to

text: smoking

text: or exposure to harmful substances. Diseases such as

text: bronchitis

text: can also affect the

text: respiratory tract

text: Respiratory Care Clinics of North America (Respir. Care Clin. N. Am.) was a peer-reviewed healthcare journal published from 2000 to 2006 by Elsevier. It was indexed by Pubmed/MEDLINE/Index Medicus.

text: Respiratory Care Clinics of North America (Respir. Care Clin. N. Am.) was a

text: peer-reviewed

text: healthcare journal

text: published from 2000 to 2006 by

text: Elsevier

text: . It was indexed by

text: Pubmed

text: MEDLINE

text: Index Medicus

text: "Accessory muscles" refers to muscles that assist, but do not play a primary role, in breathing. There is some controversy concerning which muscles may be considered accessory muscles of inhalation. However, the sternocleidomastoid and the scalene muscles (anterior, middle and posterior scalene) are typically considered accessory muscles of breathing. Both assist in elevating the rib cage. The involvement of these muscles seems to depend on the degree of respiratory effort. During quiet breathing, the scalenes are consistently phasically active, while the sternocleidomastoids are quiet. With an increase in the respiratory volume, sternocleidomastoids also become active. Both muscles are simultaneously activated when one breathes in at the maximal flow rate. Apart from these neck muscles, the following muscles have also been observed contributing to respiration: serratus anterior, pectoralis major and pectoralis minor, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, iliocostalis lumborum, quadratus lumborum, serratus posterior superior, serratus posterior inferior, levatores costarum, transversus thoracis, subclavius (Kendall et al., 2005).

text: "Accessory muscles" refers to muscles that assist, but do not play a primary role, in breathing. There is some controversy concerning which muscles may be considered accessory muscles of inhalation. However, the

text: sternocleidomastoid

text: and the

text: scalene muscles

text: anterior

text: middle

text: and

text: posterior scalene

text: ) are typically considered accessory muscles of breathing. Both assist in elevating the rib cage. The involvement of these muscles seems to depend on the degree of respiratory effort. During quiet breathing, the scalenes are consistently phasically active, while the sternocleidomastoids are quiet. With an increase in the respiratory volume, sternocleidomastoids also become active. Both muscles are simultaneously activated when one breathes in at the maximal flow rate. Apart from these neck muscles, the following muscles have also been observed contributing to respiration:

text: serratus anterior

text: pectoralis major

text: and

text: pectoralis minor

text: trapezius

text: latissimus dorsi

text: erector spinae

text: iliocostalis lumborum

text: quadratus lumborum

text: serratus posterior superior

text: serratus posterior inferior

text: levatores costarum

text: transversus thoracis

text: subclavius

text: (Kendall et al., 2005).

text: The Heart, arteries and veins (a network of tubes to carry blood) constitutes the cardiovascular system or circulatory system of our body which transports the blood throughout the body. The heart can be thought of as a muscular pump, consisting of four chambers, and pulsatile muscles which pumps and circulates the blood through the vasculature.  Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins make up the vasculature. The cardiovascular system circulates about 5 litres of blood at a rate of approximately 6 l/m. The pulmonary and the systemic circulations are the two parts of the vasculature. The pulmonary circulation system consists of the network of blood vessels from the right heart to the lungs and back to the left heart . The rest of the blood flow loop is called systemic circulation system. The pulmonary and systemic circulations take the blood through large arteries first and then branches into smaller arteries before reaching arterioles and capillaries. After capillaries, the blood enters the venules before joining smaller veins first and then larger veins before reaching the right heart. Thus completing the cycle of blood going to heart and then coming from it and going to all parts of the body.The tricuspid valve, right heart (right ventricle), pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, lungs, pulmonary veins and right heart are the elements of the Pulmonary Circulation System. The process of gas exchange, that is, exchange of carbon dioxide with oxygen in the lungs, is the main function of the pulmonary system . The de-oxygenated blood from the right ventricle is pumped to the lungs where the capillaries surrounding the alveole sacks exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen. The red blood cells and the hemoglobin present in the blood, which is the main carrier of oxygen in the blood are responsible for this exchange of gases, before they are carried to the left ventricle of the heart. The systemic circulation is responsible for taking the oxygenated blood to various organs and tissues via the arterial tree before taking the deoxygenated blood to the right ventricle using the venous system (network of veins). Arteries carry the oxygenated blood while the veins carry the deoxygenated blood.

text: On this basis, Apatosaurus could not have had a reptilian respiratory system, as its tidal volume would have been less than its dead-space volume, so that stale air was not expelled but was sucked back into the lungs. Likewise, a mammalian system would only provide to the lungs about 225 − 184 = 41 liters of fresh, oxygenated air on each breath. Apatosaurus must therefore have had either a system unknown in the modern world or one like birds', with multiple air sacs and a flow-through lung. Furthermore, an avian system would only need a lung volume of about 600 liters while a mammalian one would have required about 2,950 liters, which would exceed the estimated 1,700 liters of space available in a 30-ton Apatosaurus′ chest.

text: On this basis, Apatosaurus could not have had a reptilian respiratory system, as its tidal volume would have been less than its dead-space volume, so that stale air was not expelled but was sucked back into the lungs. Likewise, a mammalian system would only provide to the lungs about 225 − 184 = 41 liters of fresh, oxygenated air on each breath. Apatosaurus must therefore have had either a system unknown in the modern world or one like

text: birds

text: ', with multiple air sacs and a flow-through lung. Furthermore, an avian system would only need a lung volume of about 600 liters while a mammalian one would have required about 2,950 liters, which would exceed the estimated 1,700 liters of space available in a 30-ton Apatosaurus′ chest.

text: Aquatic respiration is the process whereby an aquatic animal obtains oxygen from water.

text: Aquatic respiration is the

text: process

text: whereby an

text: aquatic animal

text: obtains

text: oxygen

text: from

text: water

text: Apnea of prematurity is defined as cessation of breathing by a premature infant that lasts for more than 20 seconds and/or is accompanied by hypoxia or bradycardia. Apnea is traditionally classified as either obstructive, central, or mixed. Obstructive apnea may occur when the infant's neck is hyperflexed or conversely, hyperextended.  It may also occur due to low pharyngeal muscle tone or to inflammation of the soft tissues, which can block the flow of air though the pharynx and vocal cords. Central apnea occurs when there is a lack of respiratory effort. This may result from central nervous system immaturity, or from the effects of medications or illness. Many episodes of apnea of prematurity may start as either obstructive or central, but then involve elements of both, becoming mixed in nature.

text: Apnea of prematurity is defined as cessation of breathing by a

text: premature

text: infant that lasts for more than 20 seconds and/or is accompanied by

text: hypoxia

text: or

text: bradycardia

text: . Apnea is traditionally classified as either obstructive, central, or mixed. Obstructive apnea may occur when the infant's neck is hyperflexed or conversely, hyperextended.  It may also occur due to low pharyngeal muscle tone or to inflammation of the soft tissues, which can block the flow of air though the pharynx and vocal cords. Central apnea occurs when there is a lack of respiratory effort. This may result from central nervous system immaturity, or from the effects of medications or illness. Many episodes of apnea of prematurity may start as either obstructive or central, but then involve elements of both, becoming mixed in nature.

text: Mechanical ventilation is a method to mechanically assist or replace spontaneous breathing. This may involve a machine called a ventilator or the breathing may be assisted by a registered nurse, physician, physician assistant, respiratory therapist, paramedic, or other suitable person compressing a bag valve mask or set of bellows. Mechanical ventilation is termed "invasive" if it involves any instrument penetrating through the mouth (such as an endotracheal tube) or the skin (such as a tracheostomy tube). There are two main modes of mechanical ventilation within the two divisions: positive pressure ventilation, where air (or another gas mix) is pushed into the trachea, and negative pressure ventilation, where air is, in essence, sucked into the lungs.

text: Mechanical ventilation is a method to mechanically assist or replace spontaneous

text: breathing

text: . This may involve a machine called a

text: ventilator

text: or the breathing may be assisted by a

text: registered nurse

text: physician

text: physician assistant

text: respiratory therapist

text: paramedic

text: , or other suitable person compressing a

text: bag valve mask

text: or set of bellows. Mechanical ventilation is termed "invasive" if it involves any instrument penetrating through the mouth (such as an endo

text: tracheal tube

text: ) or the skin (such as a

text: tracheostomy

text: tube). There are two main

text: modes of mechanical ventilation

text: within the two divisions: positive pressure ventilation, where air (or another gas mix) is pushed into the

text: trachea

text: , and negative pressure ventilation, where air is, in essence, sucked into the lungs.

text: The respiratory system begins with the nares, commonly known as the nostrils, which can expand greatly during intense exercise. The nostrils have an outer ring made of cartilage (the alar cartilage), which serves to hold them open during inhalation. Additionally, a small pocket within them, called the nasal diverticulum, filters debris with the help of the hairs lining the inner nostril. The nasal cavity contains the nasolacrimal duct, which drains tears from the eyes and out the nose.

text: The respiratory system begins with the nares, commonly known as the nostrils, which can expand greatly during intense exercise. The nostrils have an outer ring made of cartilage (the

text: alar cartilage

text: ), which serves to hold them open during

text: inhalation

text: . Additionally, a small pocket within them, called the nasal diverticulum, filters debris with the help of the hairs lining the inner nostril. The nasal cavity contains the

text: nasolacrimal duct

text: , which drains tears from the eyes and out the nose.

text: The horse's respiratory system consists of the nostrils, pharynx, larynx, trachea, diaphragm, and lungs. Additionally, the nasolacrimal duct and sinuses are connected to the nasal passage. The horse's respiratory system not only allows the animal to breathe, but also is important in the horse's sense of smell (olfactory ability) as well as in communicating.  The soft palate blocks off the pharynx from the mouth (oral cavity) of the horse, except when swallowing. This helps prevent the horse from inhaling food, but also means that a horse cannot use its mouth to breathe when in respiratory distress—a horse can only breathe through its nostrils, also called obligate nasal breathing.  For this same reason, horses also cannot pant as a method of thermoregulation.  The genus Equus also has a unique part of the respiratory system called the guttural pouch, which is thought to equalize air pressure on the tympanic membrane. Located between the mandibles but below the occiput, it fills with air when the horse swallows or exhales.

text: The horse's respiratory system consists of the nostrils, pharynx, larynx, trachea, diaphragm, and lungs. Additionally, the nasolacrimal duct and sinuses are connected to the nasal passage. The horse's respiratory system not only allows the animal to breathe, but also is important in the horse's sense of smell (olfactory ability) as well as in communicating.  The soft palate blocks off the

text: pharynx

text: from the mouth (oral cavity) of the horse, except when swallowing. This helps prevent the horse from inhaling food, but also means that a horse cannot use its mouth to breathe when in respiratory distress—a horse can only breathe through its nostrils, also called

text: obligate nasal breathing

text: .  For this same reason, horses also cannot

text: pant

text: as a method of

text: thermoregulation

text: .  The genus

text: Equus

text: also has a unique part of the respiratory system called the

text: guttural pouch

text: tympanic membrane

text: . Located between the

text: mandible

text: s but below the

text: occiput

text: , it fills with air when the horse swallows or exhales.

text: 2009 Working with policy leaders in Springfield, Respiratory Health Association secures the inclusion of questions about COPD on the CDC's Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, the state's health survey. The survey gathers critical information about COPD in Illinois, and it provides lawmakers, researchers and public health professionals a more accurate portrayal of the disease, its impacts and how to address it.

text: There is a wide body-cavity, which has no connection with the renal or reproductive organs, so it is not a coelom; it is probably a blood-space or hemocoel. There are no vascular or respiratory systems, but the body cavity does contain phagocytic amoebocytes and cells containing the respiratory pigment haemerythrin.

text: There is a wide body-cavity, which has no connection with the renal or reproductive organs, so it is not a

text: coelom

text: ; it is probably a blood-space or

text: hemocoel

text: . There are no

text: vascular

text: or

text: respiratory

text: systems, but the body cavity does contain

text: phagocytic

text: amoebocytes and cells containing the

text: respiratory pigment

text: haemerythrin

text: The therapeutic consequences of HBOT and recompression result from multiple effects.The increased overall pressure is of therapeutic value in the treatment of decompression sickness and air embolism as it provides a physical means of reducing the volume of inert gas bubbles within the body; Exposure to this increased pressure is maintained for a period long enough to ensure that most of the bubble gas is dissolved back into the tissues, removed by perfusion and eliminated in the lungs.The improved concentration gradient for inert gas elimination (oxygen window) by using a high partial pressure of oxygen increases the rate of inert gas elimination in the treatment of decompression sickness.For many other conditions, the therapeutic principle of HBOT lies in its ability to drastically increase partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues of the body. The oxygen partial pressures achievable using HBOT are much higher than those achievable while breathing pure oxygen under normobaric conditions (i.e. at normal atmospheric pressure);A related effect is the increased oxygen transport capacity of the blood. Under normal atmospheric pressure, oxygen transport is limited by the oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin in red blood cells and very little oxygen is transported by blood plasma. Because the hemoglobin of the red blood cells is almost saturated with oxygen under atmospheric pressure, this route of transport cannot be exploited any further. Oxygen transport by plasma, however is significantly increased using HBOT as the stimulus.Recent evidence suggests that exposure to hyperbaric oxygen (HBOT) mobilizes stem/progenitor cells from the bone marrow by a nitric oxide (NO) -dependent mechanism. This mechanism may account for the patient cases that indicate recovery of damaged organs and tissues with HBOT.

text: The therapeutic consequences of HBOT and recompression result from multiple effects.The increased overall pressure is of therapeutic value in the treatment of

text: decompression sickness

text: and

text: air embolism

text: as it provides a physical means of reducing the volume of inert gas bubbles within the body; Exposure to this increased pressure is maintained for a period long enough to ensure that most of the bubble gas is dissolved back into the tissues, removed by perfusion and eliminated in the lungs.The improved concentration gradient for inert gas elimination (

text: oxygen window

text: ) by using a high partial pressure of oxygen increases the rate of inert gas elimination in the treatment of decompression sickness.For many other conditions, the therapeutic principle of HBOT lies in its ability to drastically increase

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen in the tissues of the body. The oxygen partial pressures achievable using HBOT are much higher than those achievable while breathing pure oxygen under

text: normobaric

text: conditions (i.e. at normal atmospheric pressure);A related effect is the increased oxygen transport capacity of the blood. Under normal atmospheric pressure, oxygen transport is limited by the oxygen binding capacity of hemoglobin in

text: red blood cell

text: s and very little oxygen is transported by

text: blood plasma

text: . Because the

text: hemoglobin

text: of the red blood cells is almost saturated with oxygen under atmospheric pressure, this route of transport cannot be exploited any further. Oxygen transport by plasma, however is significantly increased using HBOT as the stimulus.Recent evidence suggests that exposure to hyperbaric oxygen (HBOT) mobilizes stem/progenitor cells from the bone marrow by a

text: nitric oxide

text: (NO) -dependent mechanism. This mechanism may account for the patient cases that indicate recovery of damaged organs and tissues with HBOT.

text: Both the lungs and the skin serve as respiratory organs in amphibians. The skin of these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of mucus from specialized cells. While the lungs are of primary importance to breathing control, the skin's unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.

text: Both the lungs and the

text: skin

text: serve as respiratory organs in

text: amphibians

text: . The skin of these animals is highly vascularized and moist, with moisture maintained via secretion of

text: mucus

text: from specialized cells. While the lungs are of primary importance to breathing control, the skin's unique properties aid rapid gas exchange when amphibians are submerged in oxygen-rich water.

text: Bubbles in the bloodstream from any source are dangerous as they can form blockages and precipitate stroke or thrombosis.  Pulmonary barotrauma is likely to affect oxygen supply to the brain because bubbles tend to be introduced into the venous system of the lungs where they will not be trapped in the alveolar capillaries, and will consequently be circulated to the rest of the body by the systemic circulation.  Gas bubbles arising from decompression sickness are generally formed in the venous side of the systemic circulation, where inert gas concentrations are highest, the bubbles are smaller at first and they are generally trapped in the capillaries of the lungs where they will usually be  eliminated without causing symptoms. If they are shunted to the systemic circulation through a patent foramen ovale they can travel to and lodge in the brain where they can cause stroke, or the coronary capillaries where they can cause coronary ischaemia. Decompression bubbles may grow in situ from supersaturated gas in local tissues. The first aid treatment for both is to administer oxygen, treat for shock and transport to hospital; at the hospital both may use a hyperbaric chamber, but otherwise different treatment strategies are used for each condition.

text: Bubbles in the bloodstream from any source are dangerous as they can form blockages and precipitate

text: stroke

text: or

text: thrombosis

text: .  Pulmonary barotrauma is likely to affect oxygen supply to the brain because bubbles tend to be introduced into the venous system of the lungs where they will not be trapped in the alveolar capillaries, and will consequently be circulated to the rest of the body by the systemic circulation.  Gas bubbles arising from decompression sickness are generally formed in the venous side of the systemic circulation, where inert gas concentrations are highest, the bubbles are smaller at first and they are generally trapped in the capillaries of the lungs where they will usually be  eliminated without causing symptoms. If they are shunted to the systemic circulation through a patent foramen ovale they can travel to and lodge in the brain where they can cause stroke, or the coronary capillaries where they can cause coronary ischaemia. Decompression bubbles may

text: grow in situ

text: from supersaturated gas in local tissues. The first aid treatment for both is to administer oxygen, treat for shock and transport to hospital; at the hospital both may use a hyperbaric chamber, but otherwise different treatment strategies are used for each condition.

text: Leakage of air or other gas out of hot air balloons, dirigibles, or cabins of airplanes could present dangerous situations.  A leak could even be inside a body, such as a hole in the septum between heart ventricles causing an exchange of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, or a fistula between bodily cavities such as between vagina and rectum.

text: Leakage of air or other gas out of

text: hot air balloon

text: s,

text: dirigible

text: s, or cabins of

text: airplane

text: s could present dangerous situations.  A leak could even be inside a body, such as a hole in the

text: septum

text: between

text: heart

text: ventricles causing an exchange of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, or a

text: fistula

text: between bodily cavities such as between

text: vagina

text: and

text: rectum

text: The experts used the results of measurements at the laboratories and at the workplaces to develop more completely terminology for description of the respirators' performance; and this terminology has been applied officially, and in the preparation of research results for publication. Specialists began to use different terms to describe the protection factors, which were measured at workplaces with continuous use of respirators; and measured in the workplace when the workers used of respirators intermittently; measured not in the workplace while fit testing; measured in the laboratories under the simulation workplace's conditions; and for the protection factors, that can be expected (in most cases) when the workers properly used the respirators at the workplace.

text: The experts used the results of measurements at the laboratories and

text: at the workplaces

text: to develop more completely terminology for description of the respirators' performance; and this terminology has been applied officially, and in the preparation of research results for publication. Specialists began to use different terms to describe the protection factors, which were measured at workplaces with continuous use of respirators; and measured in the workplace when the workers used of respirators intermittently; measured not in the workplace while

text: fit testing

text: ; measured in the laboratories under the simulation workplace's conditions; and for the protection factors, that can be expected (in most cases) when the workers properly used the respirators at the workplace.

text: Natural gas depends on pipelines for economical transport. Without pipeline connections, natural gas must be transported as liquefied natural gas (LNG), an expensive process. For this reason, the price of natural gas tends to differ between regions not connected by gas pipelines. The North American market, consisting of Canada, Mexico, and the United States, all connected by a common pipeline network, has had much lower gas prices in recent years than some other major world gas markets, such as Europe (since 2010), Japan (since 2008), and Korea.

text: In pure central sleep apnea or Cheyne–Stokes respiration, the brain's respiratory control centers are imbalanced during sleep. Blood levels of carbon dioxide, and the neurological feedback mechanism that monitors them, do not react quickly enough to maintain an even respiratory rate, with the entire system cycling between apnea and hyperpnea, even during wakefulness.  The sleeper stops breathing and then starts again. There is no effort made to breathe during the pause in breathing: there are no chest movements and no struggling. After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster (hyperpnea) for a period of time, a compensatory mechanism to blow off retained waste gases and absorb more oxygen.

text: In pure central sleep apnea or

text: Cheyne–Stokes respiration

text: , the brain's respiratory control centers are imbalanced during sleep. Blood levels of carbon dioxide, and the neurological feedback mechanism that monitors them, do not react quickly enough to maintain an even respiratory rate, with the entire system cycling between apnea and hyperpnea, even during wakefulness.  The sleeper stops breathing and then starts again. There is no effort made to breathe during the pause in breathing: there are no chest movements and no struggling. After the episode of apnea, breathing may be faster (hyperpnea) for a period of time, a compensatory mechanism to blow off retained waste gases and absorb more oxygen.

text: Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells.

text: Blood is a

text: body fluid

text: in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as

text: nutrient

text: s and

text: oxygen

text: to the

text: cells

text: and transports

text: metabolic waste

text: products away from those same cells.

text: Since 1981 he is the Medical Director of Clínica Barros Franco – Respiratory Consulting, one of the most prestigious pneumology private clinics in Rio de Janeiro. The clinic is specialized in resolving complex cases in respiratory diseases, respiratory endoscopy, pulmonary effort exams, smoking diagnosis and treatment, respiratory sleep disorders, treatment of cough and dyspnea of unknown origin and respiratory therapy and rehabilitation.

text: Since 1981 he is the Medical Director of Clínica Barros Franco – Respiratory Consulting, one of the most prestigious pneumology private clinics in Rio de Janeiro. The clinic is specialized in resolving complex cases in respiratory diseases, respiratory endoscopy, pulmonary effort exams, smoking diagnosis and treatment, respiratory sleep disorders, treatment of cough and

text: dyspnea

text: of unknown origin and

text: respiratory therapy

text: and rehabilitation.

text: A siphon is a tubular organ of the respiratory system of some insects that spend a significant amount of their time underwater, that serves as a breathing tube.

text: A siphon is a tubular organ of the

text: respiratory system

text: of some

text: insect

text: s that spend a significant amount of their time underwater, that serves as a breathing tube.

text: The Respiratory Scientist is involved in all aspects of respiratory function assessment including patient testing, interpretation of test results, maintenance of equipment, development / evaluation of new methods and quality assurance. The Respiratory Scientist may work unsupervised in core areas and provide training to trainee scientists in these areas under the direction of a senior Respiratory Scientist.  Minimum education requirements for the CRFS credential is a BSc in Respiratory Physiology and Science but more likely a Masters or PhD in Respiratory Science.  Australian credentialing is maintained by the Australian & New Zealand Society of Respiratory Science.  Additionally, Respiratory Scientists in Australia act as consult clinicians for Pharmacists in rural areas to improve respiratory function testing access.

text: The Respiratory Scientist is involved in all aspects of respiratory function assessment including patient testing, interpretation of test results, maintenance of equipment, development / evaluation of new methods and quality assurance. The Respiratory Scientist may work unsupervised in core areas and provide training to trainee scientists in these areas under the direction of a senior Respiratory Scientist.  Minimum education requirements for the CRFS credential is a

text: BSc

text: in Respiratory Physiology and Science but more likely a Masters or PhD in

text: Respiratory Science

text: .  Australian credentialing is maintained by the

text: Australian & New Zealand Society of Respiratory Science

text: .  Additionally, Respiratory Scientists in Australia act as consult clinicians for

text: Pharmacist

text: s in rural areas to improve respiratory function testing access.

text: Muscles involved in respiration, including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, increase in strength and endurance. This results in an improved ability to breathe in more air, for longer amounts of time with less fatigue. Aerobic training typically improves the endurance of respiratory muscles, whereas anaerobic training tends to increase the size and strength of respiratory muscles.

text: Muscles involved in respiration, including the

text: diaphragm

text: and

text: intercostal muscles

text: , increase in strength and endurance. This results in an improved ability to breathe in more air, for longer amounts of time with less fatigue.

text: Aerobic training

text: typically improves the endurance of respiratory muscles, whereas

text: anaerobic training

text: tends to increase the size and strength of respiratory muscles.

text: Decidualization plays an important role in promoting placenta formation between a mother and her fetus by mediating the invasiveness of trophoblast cells. It also triggers the production of cellular and molecular factors that result in structural changes, or remodeling, of maternal spiral arteries. Decidualization is required in some mammalian species where embryo implantation and trophoblast cell invasion of the endometrium occurs, also known as hemochorial placentation. This allows maternal blood to come into direct contact with the fetal chorion, a membrane between the fetal and maternal tissues, and allows for nutrient and gas exchange. However, decidualization-like reactions have also been observed in some species that don't display hemochorial placentation.

text: Decidualization plays an important role in promoting

text: placenta formation

text: between a mother and her fetus by mediating the invasiveness of

text: trophoblast

text: cells. It also triggers the production of cellular and molecular factors that result in structural changes, or remodeling, of maternal

text: spiral arteries

text: . Decidualization is required in some mammalian species where embryo

text: implantation

text: and

text: trophoblast

text: cell invasion of the endometrium occurs, also known as

text: hemochorial placentation

text: . This allows maternal blood to come into direct contact with the fetal

text: chorion

text: , a membrane between the fetal and maternal tissues, and allows for nutrient and gas exchange. However, decidualization-like reactions have also been observed in some species that don't display hemochorial placentation.

text: The respiratory system of birds differs significantly from that found in mammals, containing unique anatomical features such as air sacs. The lungs of birds also do not have the capacity to inflate as birds lack a diaphragm and a pleural cavity. Gas exchange in birds occurs between air capillaries and blood capillaries, rather than in alveoli. See Avian respiratory system for a detailed description of these and other features.

text: air sacs

text: diaphragm

text: and a

text: pleural cavity

text: blood capillaries

text: , rather than in

text: alveoli

text: . See

text: Avian respiratory system

text: for a detailed description of these and other features.

text: The Buteyko method or Buteyko Breathing Technique is a form of complementary or alternative physical therapy that proposes the use of breathing exercises primarily as a treatment for asthma and other respiratory conditions. The method takes its name from Ukrainian doctor Konstantin Pavlovich Buteyko, who first formulated its principles during the 1950s.  This method is based on the assumption that numerous medical conditions, including asthma, are caused by chronically increased respiratory rate or deeper breathing (hyperventilation).  However, this theory is not widely supported in the medical community due to the lack of evidence supporting either the theory behind the method or that it works in practice.  This method purportedly retrains the breathing pattern through chronic repetitive breathing exercises to correct the hyperventilation, which, according to the method's proponents, will therefore treat or cure asthma as well as any other conditions purportedly caused by hyperventilation.  At the core of the Buteyko method is a series of reduced-breathing exercises that focus on nasal-breathing, breath-holding and relaxation.

text: The Buteyko method or Buteyko Breathing Technique is a form of

text: complementary or alternative

text: physical therapy

text: that proposes the use of breathing exercises primarily as a treatment for

text: asthma

text: and other respiratory conditions. The method takes its name from Ukrainian doctor

text: Konstantin Pavlovich Buteyko

text: , who first formulated its principles during the 1950s.  This method is based on the assumption that numerous medical conditions, including asthma, are caused by chronically increased

text: respiratory rate

text: or deeper breathing (

text: hyperventilation

text: ).  However, this theory is not widely supported in the medical community due to the lack of evidence supporting either the theory behind the method or that it works in practice.  This method purportedly retrains the breathing pattern through chronic repetitive breathing exercises to correct the hyperventilation, which, according to the method's proponents, will therefore treat or cure asthma as well as any other conditions purportedly caused by hyperventilation.  At the core of the Buteyko method is a series of reduced-breathing exercises that focus on

text: nasal-breathing

text: breath-holding

text: and

text: relaxation

text: In 2014 she is a consultant GMS / OASYS at Grant Management Solutions Mali25 August [What ?] - November 30, 2013 Mali OASYS / GMS Consultant Technical support for strengthening the CCM- Mali (review and update documents, system Mali CCM governance, role and responsibilities of members of the Technical Secretariat building, training of members on strategic monitoring June 9 -. 10 August 2013 Cote d' Ivoire PEPFAR / USAID Chief Branch Health System Strengthening 've Ensure monitoring and technical and programmatic support SSR activities and ongoing advice and support to start up new activities feed: - Pilot project leadership, decentralized management in two regions of Côte d' Ivoire ( implemented by LMG ) - Draft support decentralization of the pharmaceutical supply chain ( MSH / SCMS ) - February 2, 2013 Consultant UNDP Mali Facilitator workshop Organization Self-Assessment of national systems for monitoring and evaluation of the fight - Projects SHOPS 27 Jan against HIV / AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis July–August 2012 Burkina DAT / UNAIDS. Consultant Development Sector Policy Commitment tripartite between actors in the fight against HIV and AIDS in the workplace in BURKINA FASO December 2011. NA DAT / UNAIDS. Playback quality consultant and interim report analyzing the epidemic, determinants of vulnerability and response to HIV / AIDS in the countries of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) insurance. August to October 2011 Guinea UNAIDS / RST Consultant Strengthening Institutional Capacity of the CCM / Guinea for the governance of the Global Fund Grants to Fight against AIDS, Tuberculosis and lepaludisme. Functional analysis of the CCM - Guinea Supporting development and institutional organization of the CCM - Guinea Development of Governance Manual for Training Guinea CCM CCM and PR in the strategic monitoring of grants FM Abuja in June 2011 UNAIDS / RST Consultant consultations with ComitésJuin 2011 Abuja UNAIDS / RST Consultant consultations with National Committees for the Fight against AIDS ( CNLS) and ECOWAS Forum ECOWAS partners on HIV and AIDS. UNAIDS / ECOWAS. From August 2010 to June 2011 Dakar Abuja UNAIDS / RST Consultant Development of Regional Strategic Plan to fight against HIV and AIDS in ECOWAS. UNAIDS / RST. From February to March 2010 DRC DAT / UNAIDS Consultant Review of institutional and organizational framework for the fight against AIDS in the Democratic Republic of Congo DRC. August to September 2009 Niger DAT / UNAIDS Consultant Technical Assistance Mission to the Programmatic Management Control Unit Health Sector against STI / HIV / AIDS of the Ministry of Health of Niger. From September 2007 to May 2009 gov t Senegal Minister of Health Coordinating the development and validation of the National Health Development Plan of Senegal (PNDS 2009-2018), Evaluation and monitoring of the implementation of the Declaration of Commitment country health ; development of National health Accounts, development and validation of a policy of maintenance of medical equipment ; Evaluation of Hospital Reform after 10 years of development oeuvre.au Senegal ; development of advocacy materials in the promotion of health, the fight against disease and universal coverage of health insurance. Co- Chair of the International Conference on AIDS in Africa ( ICASA) in Dakar in December 2008. Co-organizer of the International Exhibition of health and medical equipment in November 2008 in Dakar. From April to September 2007 UNDP Senegal National Adviser of the UN system on HIV Facilitation and support to riposteconjointe of UN agencies at national HIV Strengthen collaboration between the UN system and the government, civil society, the private sector, development Partners and the National Network of People Living with HIV Support to national efforts in monitoring and evaluation, social mobilization and development of policies and programs against AIDS from September 2003 to March 2007 Senegal national Council fight against AIDS ( CNLS) Officer of the Global Fund Monitoring and evaluation of program implementation grants from the Global Fund Selection and capacity building of sub-recipients, performance evaluation of sub-recipients Coordination of the preparation of technical documents ( Plan supply management, monitoring and evaluation plan ) Preparation of progress reports and requests dedécaissement Support CCM Senegal for the establishment, the definition and development of working documents ( Terms of Reference, Rules of Procedure) from April to September 2006 Senegal SE / CNLS Officer Coordinating the development of the National Strategic Plan for the Fight against AIDS (NSP 2007-2011 ) program. From January 2002 to September 2003 Senegal DLSI / Ministry of Health Head Office Support HIV planning, support for implementation, supervision of activities Coordination of the National Steering Committee of Voluntary Counselling and Testing Coordination Committee drafting standards and Guidelines Centres Coordination Councils and Voluntary Testing the definition and implementation work of the decentralization policy initiative Senegalese antiretroviral access in areas Member of the editorial boards of documents on standards supported with antiretrovirals at health posts, health centers and hospitals member group a number of technical documents : the National Policy on injection Safety in Senegal Senegal 's proposals to the Global Fund to Fight against AIDS, tuberculosis and Malaria ; Guides syndromic management of STIs; Guides counseling and support for HIV strategic Plan 2002-2006 contrele fight AIDS ; strategic Plan to Fight against AIDS 2007-2011.2002 Chad Guinea technical support for the development of AIDS proposal to the Global Fund and the establishment of the CCM for different countries of West Africa and Central Republic of Chad Republic of Guinea Guinea Bissau 2003 technical Assistance for development of the Global Fund to fight against AIDS project in Guinea Bissau as well as for the implementation of the CCM from August 1999 - December Senegal ANRS 2001 / IMEA Physician Clinical Coordination and monitoring test cohort 1st clinical trials of antiretrovirals in Dakar 12-06 ANRS 1999 and ANRS 12-04 Senegal CREMSA Consultant needs assessment in the diagnosis and management of Respiratory infections in Low prescribers in Senegal " with CREMSA ( Rhône Poulenc Centre Médico - social Studies in Francophone Africa) Methodology and data analysis research project OBSAIRV on" antibiotic Lower Respiratory infections in Dakar "with CREMSA ( Rhône Poulenc Centre of social Medicine Studies in Francophone Africa ) 1998 Senegal UNHCR / OFADEC Consultant Physician Consultant UNHCR / OFADEC for refugee Assistance Project Office for Social Orientation urban refugees Dakar January in December 1997 Senegal Senegal NACP research Assistant Coordinator operational research on " intervention strategies among female sex workers in Dakar " supervisions activities support and STI prevention in health districts and centers support TS (IST center ) Training of trainers on the use of guides syndromic management of STIs in the place of doctors, nurses and midwives, 1995-1996 Senegal Ministry of Health epidemiological Investigations Investigator on: diagnostic capability STD health centers in the districts of Rufisque, Tambacounda and Kolda NAP preliminary investigation for the implementation of the program to fight against diabetes in Richard Toll in northern Senegal in 1995 Morbidity and mortality related to malaria in the Thies region with the program against malaria and the infectious diseases in 1994.Since February 19, 2014 due to the favor of a decree of the Prime Minister, she was appointed Executive Secretary of CNLS National Council for the Fight against AIDS Ibra Ndoye succeeding Dr.

text: In 2014 she is a consultant GMS / OASYS at Grant Management Solutions Mali25 August [What ?] - November 30, 2013 Mali OASYS / GMS Consultant Technical support for strengthening the CCM- Mali (review and update documents, system Mali CCM governance, role and responsibilities of members of the Technical Secretariat building, training of members on strategic monitoring June 9 -. 10 August 2013 Cote d' Ivoire PEPFAR / USAID Chief Branch Health System Strengthening 've Ensure monitoring and technical and programmatic support SSR activities and ongoing advice and support to start up new activities feed: - Pilot project leadership, decentralized management in two regions of Côte d' Ivoire ( implemented by LMG ) - Draft support decentralization of the pharmaceutical supply chain ( MSH / SCMS ) - February 2, 2013 Consultant UNDP Mali Facilitator workshop Organization Self-Assessment of national systems for

text: monitoring and evaluation

text: The water supply system or a wastewater system in a house or other building may have a leak in any of numerous locations, causing dripping out or spillage of the water. Gas leaks, e.g. in natural gas lines allow flammable and potentially explosive gas to leak out, resulting in a hazardous situation.  Leaks of refrigerant may occur in refrigerators or air conditioning systems, large and small.  Some industrial plants, especially chemical and power plants, have numerous fluid systems containing many types of liquid or gas chemicals, sometimes at high temperature and/or pressure.  An example of a possible industrial location of a leak between two fluid systems includes a leak between the shell and tube sides in a heat exchanger, potentially contaminating either or both fluid systems with the other fluid.  A system holding a full or partial vacuum may have a leak causing inleakage of air from the outside.  Hazmat procedures and/or teams may become involved when leakage or spillage of hazardous materials occurs.  Leaks while transporting hazardous materials could result in danger; for example, when accidents occur.  However, even leakage of steam can be dangerous because of the high temperature and energy of the steam.

text: The

text: water

text: supply system or a

text: wastewater

text: system in a house or other building may have a leak in any of numerous locations, causing dripping out or spillage of the water.

text: Gas leak

text: s, e.g. in

text: natural gas

text: lines allow

text: flammable

text: and potentially

text: explosive

text: gas to leak out, resulting in a hazardous situation.  Leaks of refrigerant may occur in

text: refrigerator

text: s or air conditioning systems, large and small.  Some industrial plants, especially

text: chemical

text: and

text: power plant

text: s, have numerous fluid systems containing many types of liquid or gas chemicals, sometimes at high

text: temperature

text: and/or

text: pressure

text: .  An example of a possible industrial location of a leak between two fluid systems includes a leak between the shell and tube sides in a

text: heat exchanger

text: , potentially contaminating either or both fluid systems with the other fluid.  A system holding a full or partial

text: vacuum

text: may have a leak causing inleakage of air from the outside.  Hazmat procedures and/or teams may become involved when leakage or spillage of hazardous materials occurs.  Leaks while transporting hazardous materials could result in danger; for example, when accidents occur.  However, even leakage of

text: steam

text: can be dangerous because of the high temperature and energy of the steam.

text: Since both the digestive system and the respiratory system are connected by the pharynx, there are many problems and diseases that occur when the body is unable to regulate passage of food and air into the appropriate tracts. Perhaps the most preventable cause of damage to these reflexes originates from smoking. One study has shown that, when compared to non-smokers, the threshold volumes (in other words the lowest volume at which one of these reflexes is triggered) for both the pharyngo-upper esophageal sphincter contractile reflex and reflexive pharyngeal swallowing is increased.

text: Signs and symptoms vary depending on what part of the tracheobronchial tree is injured and how severely it is damaged. There are no direct signs of TBI, but certain signs suggest the injury and raise a clinician's suspicion that it has occurred. Many of the signs and symptoms are also present in injuries with similar injury mechanisms such as pneumothorax. Dyspnea and respiratory distress are found in 76–100% of people with TBI, and coughing up blood has been found in up to 25%. However, isolated TBI does not usually cause profuse bleeding; if such bleeding is observed it is likely to be due to another injury such as a ruptured large blood vessel. The patient may exhibit dysphonia or have diminished breath sounds, and rapid breathing is common. Coughing may be present, and stridor, an abnormal, high-pitched breath sound indicating obstruction of the upper airway can also occur.

text: Signs and symptoms vary depending on what part of the tracheobronchial tree is injured and how severely it is damaged. There are no direct signs of TBI, but certain signs suggest the injury and raise a clinician's suspicion that it has occurred. Many of the signs and symptoms are also present in injuries with similar injury mechanisms such as pneumothorax. Dyspnea and

text: respiratory distress

text: are found in 76–100% of people with TBI, and

text: coughing up blood

text: has been found in up to 25%. However, isolated TBI does not usually cause profuse bleeding; if such bleeding is observed it is likely to be due to another injury such as a ruptured large

text: blood vessel

text: . The patient may exhibit dysphonia or have diminished breath sounds, and

text: rapid breathing

text: is common. Coughing may be present, and

text: stridor

text: , an abnormal, high-pitched breath sound indicating obstruction of the upper airway can also occur.

text: Mesenchymal stem cells and cord blood CD34+ cells have been proposed to treat autism, but this proposal has not been tested. They may represent a future treatment. Since immune system deregulation has been implicated in autism, mesenchymal stem cells show the greatest promise as treatment for the disorder. Changes in the innate and adaptive immune system have been observed. Those with autism show an imbalance in CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cells, as well as in NK cells. In addition, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) overproduce IL-1β. MSC mediated immune suppressive activity could restore this immune imbalance.

text: Mesenchymal stem cells

text: and

text: cord blood

text: + cells have been proposed to treat autism, but this proposal has not been tested. They may represent a future treatment. Since immune system deregulation has been implicated in autism, mesenchymal stem cells show the greatest promise as treatment for the disorder. Changes in the innate and adaptive immune system have been observed. Those with autism show an imbalance in CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T cells, as well as in NK cells. In addition, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) overproduce IL-1β. MSC mediated immune suppressive activity could restore this immune imbalance.

text: Respiratory distress occurs in connection with various physical ailments, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome, a serious reaction to various forms of injuries to the lung, and infant respiratory distress syndrome, a syndrome in premature infants caused by developmental insufficiency of surfactant production and structural immaturity in the lungs.

text: Respiratory distress occurs in connection with various physical ailments, such as

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: , a serious reaction to various forms of injuries to the lung, and

text: infant respiratory distress syndrome

text: , a syndrome in

text: premature infant

text: s caused by developmental insufficiency of

text: surfactant

text: production and structural immaturity in the lungs.

text: Pulmonary hygiene prevents atelectasis (the collapse of the alveoli of the lungs) and rids the respiratory system of secretions, which could cause respiratory infections.  It can also decrease pulmonary shunting, increase the functional reserve capacity of the lungs, and prevent respiratory infection after chest trauma.  Methods include using suction to remove fluids and placing the patient in a position that allows secretions to drain by gravity.

text: Pulmonary hygiene prevents

text: atelectasis

text: (the collapse of the

text: alveoli

text: of the lungs) and rids the respiratory system of secretions, which could cause

text: respiratory infection

text: s.  It can also decrease

text: pulmonary shunt

text: ing, increase the

text: functional reserve capacity

text: of the lungs, and prevent respiratory infection after

text: chest trauma

text: .  Methods include using suction to remove fluids and placing the patient in a position that allows secretions to drain by gravity.

text: Blood gas tension refers to the partial pressure of gases in blood.  There are several significant purposes for measuring gas tension; the most common gas tensions measured are oxygen tension (PO), the carbon dioxide tension (PCO) and carbon monoxide tension (PCO).  The subscript x in each symbol represents the source of the gas being measured; "a" meaning arterial, "A" being alveolar, "v" being venous, "c" being capillary. Blood gas tests (such as arterial blood gas tests) measure these partial pressures.

text: Blood gas tension refers to the

text: partial pressure

text: of

text: gas

text: es in

text: blood

text: .  There are several significant purposes for measuring gas tension; the most common gas tensions measured are

text: oxygen

text: tension (PO), the

text: carbon dioxide

text: tension (PCO) and

text: carbon monoxide

text: tension (PCO).  The subscript x in each symbol represents the source of the gas being measured; "a" meaning

text: arterial

text: , "A" being

text: alveolar

text: , "v" being

text: venous

text: , "c" being

text: capillary

text: Blood gas

text: tests (such as

text: arterial blood gas

text: tests) measure these partial pressures.

text: Hydraulic fracturing sites have a visible bloom of dust, which causes an occupational health concern of exposure to respirable crystalline silica. Silicosis is an incurable lung disease associated with exposure to respirable crystalline silica or better known as silica dust. In addition to silicosis, exposure to crystalline silica is linked to lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, kidney disease, autoimmune disorders and airway disease such as asthma and bronchitis. Most of these debilitating and potentially fatal diseases are preventable with occupational control measures regarding respirable crystalline exposure.

text: Hypopnea or hypopnoea is overly shallow breathing or an abnormally low respiratory rate. Hypopnea is defined by some to be less severe than apnea (the complete cessation of breathing), while other researchers have discovered hypopnea to have a "similar if not indistinguishable impact" on the negative outcomes of sleep breathing disorders. In sleep clinics, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome or obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea syndrome is normally diagnosed based on the frequent presence of apneas and/or hypopneas rather than differentiating between the two phenomena. Hypopnea is typically defined by a decreased amount of air movement into the lungs and can cause oxygen levels in the blood to drop. It commonly is due to partial obstruction of the upper airway.

text: Hypopnea

text: or

text: hypopnoea is overly shallow

text: breathing

text: or an abnormally low

text: respiratory rate

text: . Hypopnea is defined by some to be less severe than

text: apnea

text: (the complete cessation of breathing), while other researchers have discovered hypopnea to have a "similar if not indistinguishable impact" on the negative outcomes of sleep breathing disorders. In

text: sleep clinic

text: s,

text: obstructive sleep apnea syndrome or obstructive sleep apnea–hypopnea syndrome

text: is normally

text: diagnosed

text: based on the frequent presence of apneas and/or hypopneas rather than differentiating between the two phenomena. Hypopnea is typically defined by a decreased amount of air movement into the lungs and can cause

text: oxygen levels in the blood to drop

text: . It commonly is due to partial obstruction of the upper airway.

text: Disorders of the respiratory system can be classified into four general areas:

text: Disorders of the respiratory system

text: can be classified into four general areas:

text: The "uncombined fatty acids" or "free fatty acids" found in the circulation of animals come from the breakdown (or lipolysis) of stored triglycerides.  Because they are insoluble in water, these fatty acids are transported bound to plasma albumin. The levels of "free fatty acids" in the blood are limited by the availability of albumin binding sites. They can be taken up from the blood by all cells that have mitochondria (with the exception of the cells of the central nervous system). Fatty acids can only be broken down to CO and water in mitochondria, by means of beta-oxidation, followed by further combustion in the citric acid cycle. Cells in the central nervous system, which, although they possess mitochondria, cannot take free fatty acids up from the blood, as the blood-brain barrier is impervious to most free fatty acids, excluding short-chain fatty acids and  medium-chain fatty acids. These cells have to manufacture their own fatty acids from carbohydrates, as described above, in order to produce and maintain the phospholipids of their cell membranes, and those of their organelles.

text: The "uncombined fatty acids" or "free fatty acids" found in the circulation of animals come from the breakdown (or

text: lipolysis

text: ) of stored

text: triglyceride

text: s.  Because they are insoluble in water, these fatty acids are transported bound to plasma

text: albumin

text: . The levels of "free fatty acids" in the blood are limited by the availability of albumin binding sites. They can be taken up from the blood by all cells that have mitochondria (with the exception of the cells of the

text: central nervous system

text: ). Fatty acids can only be broken down to CO and water in mitochondria, by means of

text: beta-oxidation

text: , followed by further combustion in the

text: citric acid cycle

text: . Cells in the central nervous system, which, although they possess mitochondria, cannot take free fatty acids up from the blood, as the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: is impervious to most free fatty acids, excluding

text: short-chain fatty acid

text: s and

text: medium-chain fatty acid

text: s. These cells have to manufacture their own fatty acids from carbohydrates, as described above, in order to produce and maintain the phospholipids of their cell membranes, and those of their organelles.

text: Chronic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and cystic fibrosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide with a considerable human, societal and financial burden. So there is an urgent need for effective cell therapy and lung tissue engineering.Several protocols have been developed for generation of the most cell types of the respiratory system, which may be useful for deriving patient-specific therapeutic cells.

text: Chronic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and cystic fibrosis or

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: and

text: asthma

text: are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide with a considerable human, societal and financial burden. So there is an urgent need for effective cell therapy and

text: lung

text: tissue engineering

text: .Several protocols have been developed for generation of the most cell types of the

text: respiratory system

text: , which may be useful for deriving patient-specific therapeutic cells.

text: The rudiment of the respiratory organs appears as a median longitudinal groove in the ventral wall of the pharynx. The groove deepens and its lips fuse to form a septum which grows from below upward and converts the groove into a tube, the laryngotracheal tube. The cephalic end opens into the pharynx by a slit-like aperture formed by the persistent anterior part of the groove. Initially the cephalic end is in open communication with the foregut but eventually it becomes separated by indentations of mesoderm, the  tracheoesophageal folds. When the tracheoesphageal folds fuse in the midline to form the tracheoesophageal septum, the foregut is divided into trachea ventrally and the esophagus dorsally. The tube is lined by endoderm from which the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract is developed. The cephalic part of the tube becomes the larynx, and its next succeeding part the trachea, while from its caudal end two lateral outgrowths, the right and left lung buds, arise, that branch into main (primary), lobar (secondary), segmental (tertiary), and subsegmental bronchi and lead to development of the lungs.The Hox complex, FGF-10 (fibroblast growth factor), BMP-4 (bone morphogenetic protein), N-myc (a proto-oncogene), syndecan (a proteglycan), tenascin (an extracellular matrix protein) and epimorphin (a protein) appear to play a role in development of the respiratory system.

text: Cellular respiration takes place in the cristae of the mitochondria within cells.  Depending on the pathways followed, the products are dealt with different ways.

text: Cellular respiration takes place in the

text: cristae

text: of the

text: mitochondria

text: within cells.  Depending on the pathways followed, the products are dealt with different ways.

text: The respiratory system is not only important for efficient gas exchange, but for thermoregulation and vocalization. Thermoregulation is important for flamingos as they generally live in warm habitats and their plush plumage increases body temperature. Heat loss is accomplished through thermal polypnea (panting), that is an increase in respiratory rate. It has been seen that the medulla, hypothalamus and mid-brain are involved in the control of panting, as well through the Hering-Breuer reflex that uses stretch receptors in the lungs, and the vagus nerve. This effect of the panting is accelerated by a process called gular fluttering; rapid flapping of membranes in the throat which is synchronized with the movements of the thorax. Both of these mechanisms promote evaporative heat loss, which allows for the bird to push out warm air and water from the body. Increases in respiratory rate would normally cause respiratory alkalosis because carbon dioxide levels are rapidly dropping in the body, but the flamingo is able to bypass this, most likely through a shunt mechanism, which allow it to still maintain a sustainable partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood. Since the avian integument is not equipped with sweat glands, cutaneous cooling is minimal. Because the flamingo's respiratory system is shared with multiple functions, panting must be controlled to prevent hypoxia.

text: The respiratory system is not only important for efficient

text: gas exchange

text: , but for

text: thermoregulation

text: and

text: vocalization

text: . Thermoregulation is important for flamingos as they generally live in warm habitats and their plush plumage increases body temperature. Heat loss is accomplished through thermal polypnea (panting), that is an increase in respiratory rate. It has been seen that the medulla, hypothalamus and mid-brain are involved in the control of panting, as well through the

text: Hering-Breuer reflex

text: that uses stretch receptors in the lungs, and the

text: vagus nerve

text: . This effect of the panting is accelerated by a process called

text: gular

text: fluttering; rapid flapping of membranes in the throat which is synchronized with the movements of the thorax. Both of these mechanisms promote evaporative heat loss, which allows for the bird to push out warm air and water from the body. Increases in respiratory rate would normally cause

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: because carbon dioxide levels are rapidly dropping in the body, but the flamingo is able to bypass this, most likely through a shunt mechanism, which allow it to still maintain a sustainable partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood. Since the avian

text: integument

text: is not equipped with sweat glands, cutaneous cooling is minimal. Because the flamingo's respiratory system is shared with multiple functions, panting must be controlled to prevent

text: hypoxia

text: Carbon dioxide affects the curve in two ways: first, CO accumulation causes carbamino compounds to be generated through chemical interactions, which bind to hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin and second, it influences intracellular pH due to formation of bicarbonate ion. Formation of carbaminohemoglobin stabilizes T state hemoglobin by formation of ion pairs. Only about 5–10% of the total CO content of blood is transported as carbamino compounds, whereas (80–90%) is transported as bicarbonate ions and a small amount is dissolved in the plasma.The formation of a bicarbonate ion will release a proton into the plasma, increasing acidity which also shifts the curve to the right as discussed above.

text: Carbon dioxide

text: affects the curve in two ways: first, CO accumulation causes

text: carbamino

text: compounds to be generated through chemical interactions, which bind to hemoglobin forming

text: carbaminohemoglobin

text: and second, it influences

text: intracellular pH

text: due to formation of bicarbonate ion. Formation of

text: carbaminohemoglobin

text: stabilizes T state hemoglobin by formation of ion pairs. Only about 5–10% of the total CO content of blood is transported as carbamino compounds, whereas (80–90%) is transported as bicarbonate ions and a small amount is dissolved in the plasma.The formation of a bicarbonate ion will release a proton into the plasma, increasing acidity which also shifts the curve to the right as discussed above.

text: The syncytiotrophoblast implants the blastocyst in the decidual epithelium, by projections of chorionic villi forming the embryonic part of the placenta. The placenta develops once the blastocyst is implanted, and forms to connect the embryo to the uterine wall. The decidua here is termed the decidua basalis and lies between the blastocyst and the myometrium and forms the maternal part of the placenta. The implantation is assisted by hydrolytic enzymes that erode the epithelium. The syncytiotrophoblast also produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone that stimulates the release of progesterone from the corpus luteum. Progesterone enriches the uterus with a thick lining of blood vessels and capillaries so that it can oxygenate and sustain the developing embryo. The uterus liberates sugar from stored glycogen from its cells to nourish the embryo. The villi begin to branch and contain blood vessels of the embryo. Other villi, called terminal or free villi, have the role of nutrient exchange. The embryo is joined to the trophoblastic shell by a narrow connecting stalk that develops into the umbilical cord to attach the placenta to the embryo.Arteries in the decidua are remodelled to increase the maternal blood flow into the intervillous spaces of the placenta, allowing gas exchange to take place as well as the transfer of nutrients to the embryo. Waste products from the embryo will diffuse across the placenta.

text: The syncytiotrophoblast implants the blastocyst in the decidual

text: epithelium

text: , by projections of

text: chorionic villi

text: forming the embryonic part of the placenta. The placenta develops once the blastocyst is implanted, and forms to connect the embryo to the uterine wall. The decidua here is termed the decidua basalis and lies between the blastocyst and the

text: myometrium

text: and forms the maternal part of the

text: placenta

text: . The implantation is assisted by

text: hydrolytic

text: enzyme

text: s that erode the

text: epithelium

text: . The

text: syncytiotrophoblast

text: also produces

text: human chorionic gonadotropin

text: (hCG), a

text: hormone

text: that stimulates the release of

text: progesterone

text: from the

text: corpus luteum

text: . Progesterone enriches the uterus with a thick lining of blood vessels and capillaries so that it can oxygenate and sustain the developing embryo. The uterus liberates sugar from stored

text: glycogen

text: from its cells to nourish the

text: embryo

text: . The villi begin to branch and contain blood vessels of the embryo. Other villi, called terminal or free villi, have the role of nutrient exchange. The embryo is joined to the trophoblastic shell by a narrow connecting stalk that develops into the umbilical cord to attach the placenta to the embryo.Arteries in the decidua are remodelled to increase the maternal blood flow into the intervillous spaces of the placenta, allowing

text: gas exchange

text: to take place as well as the transfer of nutrients to the embryo. Waste products from the embryo will diffuse across the placenta.

text: Chronic alcohol ingestion can impair multiple critical cellular functions in the lung. These cellular impairments can lead to increased susceptibility to serious complications from lung disease. Recent research cites alcoholic lung disease as comparable to liver disease in alcohol-related mortality. Alcoholics have a higher risk of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and experience higher rates of mortality from ARDS when compared to non-alcoholics. Despite these effects, a large prospective study has shown a protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on respiratory mortality.

text: Chronic alcohol ingestion can impair multiple critical cellular functions in the lung. These cellular impairments can lead to increased susceptibility to serious complications from lung disease. Recent research cites

text: alcoholic lung disease

text: as comparable to liver disease in alcohol-related mortality. Alcoholics have a higher risk of developing

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS) and experience higher rates of mortality from ARDS when compared to non-alcoholics. Despite these effects, a large prospective study has shown a protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on respiratory mortality.

text: The development of the Assigned PF in the United States and Britain were based on measurements of the effectiveness of respirators in the workplace (after statistical processing). Also used opinions of experts, based on the similarity of the respirators with different designs (for example, powered air purifying filtering respirators (PAPR), and a similar supplied air respirators SAR) - provided that the mode and the quantity of air supply, and the facepieces (masks) were the same. Experts in the two countries often used the results of the same studies of WPF (because of their limited number). For example, British standard had been developed with usage of results of 1897 WPF measurements during 31 studies; and 23 of this 31 studies had been conducted in United States.

text: Thenoyltrifluoroacetone, CHFOS, is a chemical compound used pharmacologically as a chelating agent. It is an inhibitor of cellular respiration by blocking the respiratory chain at complex II.

text: Thenoyltrifluoroacetone, CHFOS, is a

text: chemical compound

text: used

text: pharmacologically

text: as a

text: chelating agent

text: . It is an inhibitor of

text: cellular respiration

text: by blocking the

text: respiratory chain

text: at

text: complex II

text: The blood does not come into direct contact with the parenchymal cells and tissues in the body (except in case of an injury causing rupture of one or more blood vessels), but constituents of the blood first exit the microvascular exchange blood vessels to become interstitial fluid, which comes into contact with the parenchymal cells of the body. Lymph is the fluid that is formed when interstitial fluid enters the initial lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system. The lymph is then moved along the lymphatic vessel network by either intrinsic contractions of the lymphatic passages or by extrinsic compression of the lymphatic vessels via external tissue forces (e.g., the contractions of skeletal muscles), or by lymph hearts in some animals. The organization of lymph nodes and drainage follows the organization of the body into external and internal regions; therefore, the lymphatic drainage of the head, limbs, and body cavity walls follows an external route, and the lymphatic drainage of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvic cavities follows an internal route.  Eventually, the lymph vessels empty into the lymphatic ducts, which drain into one of the two subclavian veins, near their junction with the internal jugular veins.

text: The

text: blood

text: does not come into direct contact with the

text: parenchyma

text: l

text: cells

text: and

text: tissues

text: in the body (except in case of an injury causing rupture of one or more blood vessels), but constituents of the blood first exit the microvascular exchange blood vessels to become

text: interstitial fluid

text: , which comes into contact with the parenchymal cells of the body. Lymph is the fluid that is formed when interstitial fluid enters the initial lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system. The lymph is then moved along the lymphatic vessel network by either intrinsic contractions of the lymphatic passages or by extrinsic compression of the lymphatic vessels via external tissue forces (e.g., the contractions of

text: skeletal muscle

text: s), or by

text: lymph hearts

text: in some animals. The organization of lymph nodes and drainage follows the organization of the body into external and internal regions; therefore, the lymphatic drainage of the head, limbs, and body cavity walls follows an external route, and the lymphatic drainage of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvic cavities follows an internal route.  Eventually, the lymph vessels empty into the

text: lymphatic ducts

text: , which drain into one of the two

text: subclavian vein

text: s, near their junction with the

text: internal jugular veins

text: Elder Branch.

text: Elder Branch.

text: The Government of Jammu-Kashmir in 2010 asked Jim Borst, a Dutch Catholic Missionary, who was at that time one of the two members of the Institute Mill Hill missionary in the Kashmir valley, to leave the valley. Borst was also in charge of two schools there. Nevertheless, the spokesperson for Indian Christians, John Dayal rejected the claim that any forced conversion took place. John Dayal stated, "A fact finding team which went to Srinagar in the wake of the arrest of Rev Khanna, and interviewed Church personnel, Ulema, school authorities and the police, found no evidence of force or fraud in baptisms that have been carried out over a period of time. Each baptism has been proved to be voluntary".

text: The Government of Jammu-Kashmir in 2010 asked Jim Borst, a Dutch Catholic

text: Missionary

text: , who was at that time one of the two members of the Institute Mill Hill missionary in the Kashmir valley, to leave the valley. Borst was also in charge of two schools there. Nevertheless, the spokesperson for Indian Christians, John Dayal rejected the claim that any forced conversion took place. John Dayal stated, "A fact finding team which went to Srinagar in the wake of the arrest of Rev Khanna, and interviewed Church personnel, Ulema, school authorities and the police, found no evidence of force or fraud in baptisms that have been carried out over a period of time. Each baptism has been proved to be voluntary".

text: One study found that only 33% of people presenting to an emergency department with an oxygen saturation below 90% had an increased respiratory rate. An evaluation of respiratory rate for the differentiation of the severity of illness in babies under 6 months found it not to be very useful. Approximately half of the babies had a respiratory rate above 50 breaths per minute, thereby questioning the value of having a "cut-off" at 50 breaths per minute as the indicator of serious respiratory illness.

text: One study found that only 33% of people presenting to an emergency department with an

text: oxygen saturation

text: below 90% had an increased respiratory rate. An evaluation of respiratory rate for the differentiation of the severity of illness in babies under 6 months found it not to be very useful. Approximately half of the babies had a respiratory rate above 50 breaths per minute, thereby questioning the value of having a "cut-off" at 50 breaths per minute as the indicator of serious respiratory illness.

text: Field measurement results showed that the respirators are the most recent and the most unreliable means of protection.The effectiveness of respiratory protective equipment is unstable and unpredictable. Respirators cannot substitute other measures, that reduce the impact of air pollution on the staff (sealing equipment, ventilation and so on), but only supplement them. Respirators are not convenient, they create discomfort and irritation, and prevent communication. The reduction of the field of view leads to an increase in the risk of accidents.

text: Field measurement results showed that the respirators are the most recent and the

text: most unreliable means of protection

text: .The effectiveness of respiratory protective equipment is unstable and unpredictable. Respirators cannot substitute other measures, that reduce the impact of air pollution on the staff (sealing equipment, ventilation and so on), but only supplement them. Respirators are not convenient, they create

text: discomfort

text: and

text: irritation

text: , and prevent

text: communication

text: . The reduction of the

text: field of view

text: leads to an increase in the risk of

text: accident

text: s.

text: The animal is bluish-black, with the foot-sole perhaps a shade lighter in colour. On the head and neck are a few regular rows of rugae, somewhat quadrate in outline; on other parts of the body the rugae appear to be oval-shaped, irregular in size, and not forming continuous rows. The mantle has a sharp even margin, and a deeply incised line or groove rather less than 2 mm from the edge. On the underside of the mantle is the usual prominent lappet which conceals the respiratory and anal pores, and in addition to this is a long narrow fold on the left side.

text: The animal is bluish-black, with the foot-sole perhaps a shade lighter in colour. On the head and neck are a few regular rows of rugae, somewhat quadrate in outline; on other parts of the body the rugae appear to be oval-shaped, irregular in size, and not forming continuous rows. The

text: mantle

text: has a sharp even margin, and a deeply incised line or groove rather less than 2 mm from the edge. On the underside of the mantle is the usual prominent lappet which conceals the respiratory and anal pores, and in addition to this is a long narrow fold on the left side.

text: The name is taken from one of the individual hills in the range, called Campsie; meaning "crooked fairy hill", from the Scottish Gaelic cam, meaning crooked, and sìth meaning fairy. "Fell" originates from the Old Norse word fjal, meaning hill.

text: The name is taken from one of the individual hills in the range, called Campsie; meaning "crooked fairy hill", from the

text: Scottish Gaelic

text: cam, meaning crooked, and sìth meaning fairy. "Fell" originates from the

text: Old Norse

text: word fjal, meaning hill.

text: The respiratory epithelium lining the upper respiratory airways is classified as ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium. This designation is due to the arrangement of the multiple cell types composing the respiratory epithelium. While all cells make contact with the basement membrane and are, therefore, a single layer of cells, the nuclei are not aligned in the same plane. Hence, it appears as though several layers of cells are present and the epithelium is called pseudostratified.

text: The respiratory epithelium lining the upper respiratory airways is classified as ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium. This designation is due to the arrangement of the multiple cell types composing the respiratory epithelium. While all cells make contact with the

text: basement membrane

text: and are, therefore, a single layer of cells, the nuclei are not aligned in the same plane. Hence, it appears as though several layers of cells are present and the epithelium is called

text: pseudostratified

text: To train pilots for the Royal Air Force, there have been many flying training schools, which are listed here.

text: <BR> Busoni: Bach Transcriptions. Holger Groschopp.

text: Damage may be reversible if treated early enough. Respiratory arrest is a life-threatening medical emergency that requires immediate medical attention and management. To save a patient suffering from respiratory arrest, the goal is to restore adequate ventilation and prevent further damage. Management interventions include supplying oxygen, opening the airway, and means of artificial ventilation. In some instances, an impending respiratory arrest could be predetermined by signs the patient is showing, such as the increased work of breathing. Respiratory arrest will ensue once the patient depletes their oxygen reserves and loses the effort to breathe. Respiratory arrest is different from respiratory failure.

text: Damage may be reversible if treated early enough. Respiratory arrest is a life-threatening

text: medical emergency

text: that requires immediate medical attention and management. To save a patient suffering from respiratory arrest, the goal is to restore adequate ventilation and prevent further damage. Management interventions include supplying oxygen, opening the

text: airway

text: , and means of

text: artificial ventilation

text: . In some instances, an impending respiratory arrest could be predetermined by signs the patient is showing, such as the increased work of breathing. Respiratory arrest will ensue once the patient depletes their oxygen reserves and loses the effort to breathe. Respiratory arrest is different from respiratory failure.

text: Choristostigma laetalis is a moth in the Crambidae family. It was described by Hampson in 1900. It is found in Uzbekistan.

text: Choristostigma laetalis is a

text: moth

text: in the

text: Crambidae

text: family. It was described by

text: Hampson

text: in 1900. It is found in

text: Uzbekistan

text: Saint Bartholomew of Grottaferrata () (Rossano, c. 970 – Grottaferrata, November 11, 1055) was an abbot at the monastery at Grottaferrata.

text: Saint Bartholomew of Grottaferrata () (

text: Rossano

text: , c. 970 –

text: Grottaferrata

text: , November 11, 1055) was an

text: abbot

text: at the monastery at

text: Grottaferrata

text: Bouquet chose a spot adjacent to the Juniata River west of a strategic gap in the mountains called "the narrows". Keeping with the overall plan, the new site was about one day's march from the previous fort. After briefly being referred to simply as the "camp at Raystown", the new encampment was dubbed Fort Bedford in honor of the Duke of Bedford.

text: Bouquet chose a spot adjacent to the Juniata River west of a strategic gap in the mountains called "the narrows". Keeping with the overall plan, the new site was about one day's march from the previous fort. After briefly being referred to simply as the "camp at Raystown", the new encampment was dubbed Fort Bedford in honor of the

text: Duke of Bedford

text: BSU’s mascot is Bristaco the Bear, and the school colors are red and white.<ref>Allen, Meg, and Steven M. Face Behind Fur . N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2011

text: These compounds can have health effects on infants or very young children. It has been reported that "respiratory, allergic, or immune effects in infants or children" are associated with indoor VOCs and other indoor air pollutants. It is suggested that VOC particles in an indoor environment can be reduced by 50% when household rugs and carpets are cleaned with efficient vacuum cleaners and hot water.  These chemicals can also cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, permanent blindness, deterioration of the central nervous system, neurological side effects, and in some cases may be cancerous or fatal.

text: These compounds can have health effects on infants or very young children. It has been reported that "respiratory, allergic, or immune effects in infants or children" are associated with indoor

text: VOCs

text: and other indoor air pollutants. It is suggested that VOC particles in an indoor environment can be reduced by 50% when household rugs and carpets are cleaned with efficient vacuum cleaners and hot water.  These chemicals can also cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, permanent blindness, deterioration of the central nervous system, neurological side effects, and in some cases may be cancerous or fatal.

text: Mechanical ventilation is the medical term for artificial ventilation where mechanical means is used to assist or replace spontaneous breathing. This may involve a machine called a ventilator or the breathing may be assisted by an Anesthesiologist, certified registered nurse anesthetist, physician, physician assistant, respiratory therapist, paramedic, or other suitable person compressing a bag or set of bellows. Mechanical ventilation is termed "invasive" if it involves any instrument penetrating through the mouth (such as an endotracheal tube) or the skin (such as a tracheostomy tube). There are two main modes of mechanical ventilation within the two divisions: positive pressure ventilation, where air (or another gas mix) is pushed into the trachea, and negative pressure ventilation, where air is, in essence, sucked into the lungs.

text: Mechanical ventilation is the

text: medical

text: term for

text: artificial ventilation

text: where mechanical means is used to assist or replace spontaneous

text: breathing

text: . This may involve a machine called a

text: ventilator

text: or the breathing may be assisted by an

text: Anesthesiologist

text: certified registered nurse anesthetist

text: physician

text: physician assistant

text: respiratory therapist

text: paramedic

text: bag

text: tracheal tube

text: ) or the skin (such as a

text: tracheostomy

text: tube). There are two main

text: modes of mechanical ventilation

text: trachea

text: Crithe caledonica is a species of very small sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk or micromollusk in the family Cystiscidae.

text: Crithe caledonica is a

text: species

text: of very small

text: sea snail

text: , a marine

text: gastropod

text: mollusk

text: or

text: micromollusk

text: in the

text: family

text: Cystiscidae

text: Bose Acoustimass sound system (1994).

text: Bose Acoustimass sound system (1994).

text: Triosephosphate isomerase deficiency is a disorder characterized by a shortage of red blood cells (anemia), movement problems, increased susceptibility to infection, and muscle weakness that can affect breathing and heart function. The anemia in this condition begins in infancy. Since the anemia results from the premature breakdown of red blood cells (hemolysis), it is known as hemolytic anemia. A shortage of red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout the body leads to extreme tiredness (fatigue), pale skin (pallor), and shortness of breath. When the red cells are broken down, iron and a molecule called bilirubin are released; individuals with triosephosphate isomerase deficiency have an excess of these substances circulating in the blood. Excess bilirubin in the blood causes jaundice, which is a yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes. Movement problems typically become apparent by age 2 in people with triosephosphate isomerase deficiency. The movement problems are caused by impairment of motor neurons, which are specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that control muscle movement. This impairment leads to muscle weakness and wasting (atrophy) and causes the movement problems typical of triosephosphate isomerase deficiency, including involuntary muscle tensing (dystonia), tremors, and weak muscle tone (hypotonia). Affected individuals may also develop seizures. Weakness of other muscles, such as the heart (a condition known as cardiomyopathy) and the muscle that separates the abdomen from the chest cavity (the diaphragm) can also occur in triosephosphate isomerase deficiency. Diaphragm weakness can cause breathing problems and ultimately leads to respiratory failure. Individuals with triosephosphate isomerase deficiency are at increased risk of developing infections because they have poorly functioning white blood cells. These immune system cells normally recognize and attack foreign invaders, such as viruses and bacteria, to prevent infection. The most common infections in people with triosephosphate isomerase deficiency are bacterial infections of the respiratory tract. People with triosephosphate isomerase deficiency often do not survive past childhood due to respiratory failure. In a few rare cases, affected individuals without severe nerve damage or muscle weakness have lived into adulthood. The deficiency is most commonly caused by mutations in TPI1, although mutations in other isoforms have been identified. A common marker for TPI deficiency is the increased accumulation of DHAP in erythrocyte extracts; this is because the defective enzyme no longer has the ability to catalyze the isomerization to GAP. The point mutation does not affect the catalysis rate, but rather, affects the assembly of the enzyme into a homodimer.

text: This is a list of prisons in Jiangsu.

text: This is a list of prisons in Jiangsu.

text: Typically spreads via the fecal-oral route or via the respiratory droplets.

text: Typically spreads via the

text: fecal-oral route

text: or via the

text: respiratory droplets

text: MARTA's bus system serves a wider area than the rail system, serving areas in Fulton and DeKalb counties such as the cities of Roswell and Alpharetta in North Fulton, along with South DeKalb. As of 2010, MARTA has 554 diesel and compressed natural gas buses that cover over 91 bus routes which operated 25.9 million annual vehicle miles (41.7 million kilometers).  Effective November 20, 2006, MARTA now has one bus route providing limited service in Cobb County (Route 12 has been extended to Cobb County's Cumberland Boulevard Transfer Center).  All of the MARTA bus lines feed into or intersect MARTA rail lines as well. MARTA shuttle service is available to Six Flags Over Georgia during the park's summer season.

text: MARTA's bus system serves a wider area than the rail system, serving areas in Fulton and DeKalb counties such as the cities of

text: Roswell

text: and

text: Alpharetta

text: in North Fulton, along with South DeKalb. As of 2010, MARTA has 554 diesel and

text: compressed natural gas

text: buses that cover over 91 bus routes which operated 25.9 million annual vehicle miles (41.7 million kilometers).  Effective November 20, 2006, MARTA now has one bus route providing limited service in Cobb County (Route 12 has been extended to Cobb County's Cumberland Boulevard Transfer Center).  All of the MARTA bus lines feed into or intersect MARTA rail lines as well. MARTA shuttle service is available to

text: Six Flags Over Georgia

text: during the park's summer season.

text: Significant physiologic changes in breathing take place during normal sleep related to alterations in respiratory drive and musculature.

text: Significant physiologic changes in

text: breathing

text: take place during normal

text: sleep

text: related to alterations in respiratory drive and musculature.

text: There is tentative evidence that in those with respiratory failure identified before arrival in hospital, continuous positive airway pressure can be useful when started before conveying to hospital.

text: There is tentative evidence that in those with respiratory failure identified before arrival in hospital,

text: continuous positive airway pressure

text: can be useful when started before conveying to hospital.