text: However, the difference in economic growth is offset by a difference in energy intensity. Some say these two opposite effects fully cancel, some say this is only partial. Overall, the effect of a switch from MER to PPP is likely to have a minimal effect on carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Castles and Henderson later accepted this and acknowledged that they were mistaken that future greenhouse gas emissions had been significantly overestimated.

text: Fungi are not plants, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through photosynthesis, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, especially cellulose. While sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition processes. This does not mean that light is an unnecessary requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal to induce fruiting. However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce sexually during underground growth, and asexually through spores. Either of these can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop. Mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on growth substrate to seed or introduce mushrooms to grow on a substrate. This is also known as inoculation, spawning or adding spawn. Its main advantages are to reduce chances of contamination while giving mushrooms a firm beginning.

entity_name: Fungus

text: Fungi

text: are not plants, and require different conditions for optimal growth. Plants develop through

entity_name: Photosynthesis

text: photosynthesis

text: , a process that converts atmospheric

entity_name: Carbon dioxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: into

entity_name: Carbohydrate

text: carbohydrate

text: s, especially

entity_name: Cellulose

text: cellulose

text: . While sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their

entity_name: Growth medium

text: growth medium

text: , through biochemical

entity_name: Decomposition

text: decomposition

text: processes. This does not mean that light is an unnecessary requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal to induce fruiting. However, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. Instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce sexually during underground growth, and asexually through

entity_name: Spore

text: spore

text: s. Either of these can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop.

entity_name: Mycelium

text: Mycelium

text: , or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on growth substrate to seed or introduce mushrooms to grow on a

entity_name: Substrate (biology)

text: substrate

text: . This is also known as inoculation, spawning or adding spawn. Its main advantages are to reduce chances of contamination while giving mushrooms a firm beginning.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Kepler-26e is a Super-Earth 1573 light years away. It orbits a K or M type star. Its orbital period is 46.8279 days long and orbits at 0.218 AU, placing it on the inner edge of the habitable zone. Because of its proximity to its star, it's probably tidally locked. There would be a small sliver of habitability. Because of its high radius, it probably also has high mass, making it more likely to possess a thick atmosphere, thus making more of the planet habitable due to the greenhouse effect. There are other planets in this system, but none are likely to be habitable.

text: e is a

entity_name: Super‐Earth

text: Super-Earth

entity_name: Light-year

text: light years

text: away. It orbits a

entity_name: K-type main-sequence star

text: K

text: or

entity_name: Red dwarf

text: M

text: type

entity_name: Star

text: star

text: . Its

entity_name: Orbital period

text: orbital period

text: is 46.8279

entity_name: Day

text: day

text: s long and orbits at 0.218 AU, placing it on the inner edge of the

entity_name: Circumstellar habitable zone

text: habitable zone

text: . Because of its proximity to its star, it's probably

entity_name: Tidal locking

text: tidally locked

text: . There would be a small sliver of habitability. Because of its high

entity_name: Radius

text: radius

text: , it probably also has high

entity_name: Mass

text: mass

text: , making it more likely to possess a thick

entity_name: Atmosphere

text: atmosphere

text: , thus making more of the planet habitable due to the

entity_name: Greenhouse effect

text: greenhouse effect

text: . There are other

entity_name: Planet

text: planet

text: s in this system, but none are likely to be habitable.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they are also important factors in the precipitation regimes of areas they affect. They bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage. Tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere.

text: Although

entity_name: Cyclone

text: cyclone

text: s take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they are also important factors in the precipitation regimes of areas they affect. They bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage. Tropical cyclones can also relieve

entity_name: Drought

text: drought

text: conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward

entity_name: Temperate climate

text: temperate

entity_name: Latitude

text: latitudes

text: , which makes them an important part of the global

entity_name: Atmospheric circulation

text: atmospheric circulation

text: mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's

entity_name: Troposphere

text: troposphere

text: The most common of these dating techniques is Cosmogenic radionuclide dating.Earth is constantly bombarded with primary cosmic rays, high energy charged particles — mostly protons and alpha particles. These particles interact with atoms in atmospheric gases, producing a cascade of secondary particles that may in turn interact and reduce their energies in many reactions as they pass through the atmosphere. By the time the cosmic ray cascade reaches the surface of Earth it is primarily composed of neutrons. When one of these particles strikes an atom it can dislodge one or more protons and/or neutrons from that atom, producing a different element or a different isotope of the original element. In rock and other materials of similar density, most of the cosmic ray flux is absorbed within the first meter of exposed material in reactions that produce new isotopes called cosmogenic nuclides. At Earth's surface most of these nuclides are produced by neutron spallation. Using certain cosmogenic radionuclides, scientists can date how long a particular surface has been exposed, how long a certain piece of material has been buried, or how quickly a location or drainage basin is eroding. The basic principle is that these radionuclides are produced at a known rate, and also decay at a known rate. Accordingly, by measuring the concentration of these cosmogenic nuclides in a rock sample, and accounting for the flux of the cosmic rays and the half-life of the nuclide, it is possible to estimate how long the sample has been exposed to the cosmic rays.The cumulative flux of cosmic rays at a particular location can be affected by several factors, including elevation, geomagnetic latitude, the varying intensity of the Earth's magnetic field, solar winds, and atmospheric shielding due to air pressure variations.Rates of nuclide production must be estimated in order to date a rock sample. These rates are usually estimated empirically by comparing the concentration of nuclides produced in samples whose ages have been dated by other means, such as radiocarbon dating, thermoluminescence, or optically stimulated luminescence.

text: The most common of these dating techniques is Cosmogenic radionuclide dating.Earth is constantly bombarded with primary

entity_name: Cosmic ray

text: cosmic ray

text: s, high energy charged particles — mostly

entity_name: Proton

text: proton

text: s and

entity_name: Alpha particle

text: alpha particle

text: s. These particles interact with atoms in atmospheric gases, producing a cascade of secondary particles that may in turn interact and reduce their energies in many reactions as they pass through the atmosphere. By the time the cosmic ray cascade reaches the surface of Earth it is primarily composed of neutrons. When one of these particles strikes an atom it can dislodge one or more protons and/or neutrons from that atom, producing a different element or a different

entity_name: Isotope

text: isotope

text: of the original element. In rock and other materials of similar density, most of the cosmic ray flux is absorbed within the first meter of exposed material in reactions that produce new isotopes called

entity_name: Cosmogenic nuclide

text: cosmogenic nuclide

text: s. At Earth's surface most of these nuclides are produced by neutron

entity_name: Cosmic ray spallation

text: spallation

text: . Using certain cosmogenic

entity_name: Radionuclide

text: radionuclide

text: s, scientists can date how long a particular surface has been exposed, how long a certain piece of material has been buried, or how quickly a location or

entity_name: Drainage basin

text: drainage basin

text: is eroding. The basic principle is that these radionuclides are produced at a known rate, and also decay at a known rate. Accordingly, by measuring the concentration of these cosmogenic nuclides in a rock sample, and accounting for the flux of the cosmic rays and the half-life of the nuclide, it is possible to estimate how long the sample has been exposed to the cosmic rays.The cumulative flux of cosmic rays at a particular location can be affected by several factors, including elevation, geomagnetic latitude, the varying intensity of the

entity_name: Earth's magnetic field

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , solar winds, and atmospheric shielding due to air pressure variations.Rates of nuclide production must be estimated in order to date a rock sample. These rates are usually estimated empirically by comparing the concentration of nuclides produced in samples whose ages have been dated by other means, such as

entity_name: Radiocarbon dating

text: radiocarbon dating

entity_name: Thermoluminescence

text: thermoluminescence

text: , or

entity_name: Optically stimulated luminescence

text: optically stimulated luminescence

method: UNH-qee

text: Solar power forecasting involves knowledge of the Sun´s path, the atmosphere's condition, the scattering processes and the characteristics of a solar energy plant which utilizes the Sun's energy to create solar power. Solar photovoltaic systems transform solar energy into electric power. The power output depends on the incoming radiation and on the solar panel characteristics. Photovoltaic power production is increasing nowadays. Forecast information is essential for an efficient use, the management of the electricity grid and for solar energy trading. Common solar forecasting method include stochastic learning method, local and remote sensing method, and hybrid method (Chu et al. 2016).

text: Solar power forecasting involves knowledge of the

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: ´s path, the

text: atmosphere

text: 's condition, the scattering processes and the characteristics of a

entity_name: Solar energy

text: solar energy

text: plant which utilizes the Sun's energy to create

entity_name: Solar power

text: solar power

text: . Solar

entity_name: Photovoltaic system

text: photovoltaic system

text: s transform solar energy into electric power. The power output depends on the incoming radiation and on the solar panel characteristics. Photovoltaic power production is increasing nowadays. Forecast information is essential for an efficient use, the management of the electricity grid and for solar energy trading. Common solar forecasting method include stochastic learning method, local and remote sensing method, and hybrid method (Chu et al. 2016).

text: |Tokai, Japan Kamioka, Japan|2011-||-| UNO| Underground Nucleon decay and neutrino Observatory| S, ATM, GSN, RSN| | | ES| Water ( HO)| Cherenkov| | Henderson Mine, Colorado| future| |-|} Accelerator neutrino (AC), Active galactic nuclei neutrino (AGN), Atmospheric neutrino (ATM), Cosmic ray neutrino (CR), Low-energy solar neutrino (LS), Low-energy supernova neutrino (LSN), Pulsar neutrino (PUL), Reactor neutrino (R), Solar neutrino (S), Supernova neutrino (SN), Terrestrial neutrino (T)<br> Double beta decay (BB), Charged current (CC), Elastic scattering (ES), Neutral current (NC)

entity_name: Tōkai, Ibaraki

text: Tokai, Japan Kamioka, Japan

text: UNO

text: | Underground Nucleon decay and neutrino Observatory| S, ATM, GSN, RSN| | | ES|

entity_name: Water

text: Water

text: ( HO)|

entity_name: Cherenkov detector

text: Cherenkov

text: Henderson Mine

entity_name: Colorado

text: Colorado

text: | future| |-|} Accelerator neutrino (AC), Active galactic nuclei neutrino (AGN), Atmospheric neutrino (ATM), Cosmic ray neutrino (CR), Low-energy solar neutrino (LS), Low-energy supernova neutrino (LSN), Pulsar neutrino (PUL), Reactor neutrino (R), Solar neutrino (S), Supernova neutrino (SN), Terrestrial neutrino (T)<br>

entity_name: Double beta decay

text: Double beta decay

text: (BB),

entity_name: Charged current

text: Charged current

text: (CC),

entity_name: Elastic scattering

text: Elastic scattering

text: (ES),

entity_name: Neutral current

text: Neutral current

text: (NC)

text: An enhanced greenhouse effect is expected to cause cooling in higher parts of the atmosphere. Cooling of the lower stratosphere (about 49,000-79,500 ft.) since 1979 is shown by both satellite Microwave sounding unit and radiosonde data, but is larger in the radiosonde data likely due to uncorrected errors in the radiosonde data (see figure opposite).

text: An enhanced

text: greenhouse effect

text: is expected to cause cooling in higher parts of the atmosphere. Cooling of the lower

entity_name: Stratosphere

text: stratosphere

text: (about 49,000-79,500 ft.) since 1979 is shown by both satellite

entity_name: Microwave sounding unit

text: Microwave sounding unit

text: and

entity_name: Radiosonde

text: radiosonde

text: data, but is larger in the radiosonde data likely due to uncorrected errors in the radiosonde data (see figure opposite).

text: Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem by using one of the methods previously described to reduce the peak radiated energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations.

text: Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem by using one of the methods previously described to reduce the peak radiated energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with

entity_name: Electromagnetic compatibility

text: electromagnetic compatibility

text: (EMC) regulations.

text: Cosmic rays attract great interest practically, due to the damage they inflict on microelectronics and life outside the protection of an atmosphere and magnetic field, and scientifically, because the energies of the most energetic ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) have been observed to approach 3 × 10 eV, about 40 million times the energy of particles accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider. One can show that such enormous energies might be achieved by means of the Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration in Active galactic nuclei. At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a  baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies; the energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at .

text: Cosmic rays attract great interest practically, due to the damage they inflict on microelectronics and life outside the protection of an atmosphere and magnetic field, and scientifically, because the energies of the most energetic

entity_name: Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: s (UHECRs) have been observed to approach 3 × 10 eV, about 40 million times the energy of particles accelerated by the

entity_name: Large Hadron Collider

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: . One can show that such enormous energies might be achieved by means of the

entity_name: Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration

text: Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration

text: in

entity_name: Active galactic nucleus

text: Active galactic nuclei

text: . At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a  baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies; the energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at .

text: Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.

entity_name: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with

entity_name: Wind power

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: , and

entity_name: Hydropower

text: hydropower

text: by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.

text: N is the most abundant element within the atmosphere. However, nitrogen packed in this form is not usable for most biological processes. Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting inert atmospheric N into biologically usable forms of nitrogen such as ammonium and nitrogen oxides. This process requires a substantial amount of energy (in the form of ATP) in order to break the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms.

text: N is the most abundant element within the atmosphere. However, nitrogen packed in this form is not usable for most biological processes.

entity_name: Nitrogen fixation

text: Nitrogen fixation

text: is the process of converting inert atmospheric N into biologically usable forms of nitrogen such as

entity_name: Ammonium

text: ammonium

text: and

entity_name: Nitrogen oxide

text: nitrogen oxides

text: . This process requires a substantial amount of energy (in the form of

entity_name: Adenosine triphosphate

text: ATP

text: ) in order to break the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms.

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The

text: spectral wave transport equation

text: is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid),

entity_name: Wave shoaling

text: wave shoaling

entity_name: Refraction

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through

entity_name: Wind wave

text: whitecaps

text: and

entity_name: Resonance

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=

entity_name: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: A macroscopic body that is stationary (i.e. a reference frame has been chosen to correspond to the body's center of momentum) may have various kinds of internal energy at the molecular or atomic level, which may be regarded as kinetic energy, due to molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. These all contribute to the body's mass, as provided by the special theory of relativity. When discussing movements of a macroscopic body, the kinetic energy referred to is usually that of the macroscopic movement only. However all internal energies of all types contribute to body's mass, inertia, and total energy.

text: A macroscopic body that is stationary (i.e. a reference frame has been chosen to correspond to the body's

entity_name: Center-of-momentum frame

text: center of momentum

text: ) may have various kinds of

entity_name: Internal energy

text: internal energy

text: at the molecular or atomic level, which may be regarded as kinetic energy, due to molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. These all contribute to the body's mass, as provided by the special theory of relativity. When discussing movements of a macroscopic body, the kinetic energy referred to is usually that of the macroscopic movement only. However all internal energies of all types contribute to body's mass, inertia, and total energy.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The Lord was surrounded by His personal associates Nanda and Sunanda, and the personified Sudarsana disc was also standing by Him. As is stated in the Vedas, the Lord has innumerable energies, and they were also standing there personified. The most important among them were as follows: Pusti, the energy for nourishment, Sri, the energy of beauty, Kirti, the energy of reputation, and Aja, the energy of material creation. All these energies are invested in the administrators of the material world, namely Lord Brahma, Lord Siva and Lord Maha-Vishnu, and in the kings of the heavenly planets, Indra, Chandra, Varuna and Surya,the sun-god. In other words, all these demigods, being empowered by the Lord with certain energies, engage in the transcendental loving service of the Supreme Personality of Godhead. The Maha-Visnu feature is an expansion of Krsna's body. It is also confirmed in the Brahma-samhita that Lord Maha-Vishnu is a portion of a plenary expansion of Krsna. All such expansions are nondifferent from the Personality of Godhead, but since Krsna appeared within this material world to manifest His pastimes as a human being, He and Arjuna immediately offered their respects to Lord Maha-Vishnu by bowing down before Him. It is stated in the Srimad-Bhagavatam that Lord Krsna offered respect to Lord Maha-Vishnu; this means that He offered obeisances unto Him only because Lord Maha-Vishnu is nondifferent from He Himself. This offering of obeisances by Krsna to Maha-Visnu is not, however, the form of worship known as ahangraha-upasana, which is sometimes recommended for persons who are trying to elevate themselves to the spiritual world by performing the sacrifice of knowledge. This is also stated in the Bhagavad-gita: jnana-yajnena capy anye yajanto mam upasate.

text: Because living systems involve net movement in terms of chemical movement or body movement, and lose energy in those movements through entropy, energy is required for a living system to exist. The main source of energy on Earth is the sun, but other sources of energy exist for life on Earth, such as hydrogen gas or methane, used in chemosynthesis.

text: Because living systems involve net movement in terms of chemical movement or body movement, and lose energy in those movements through

entity_name: Entropy

text: entropy

entity_name: Energy

text: energy

text: is required for a living system to exist. The main source of energy on Earth is the sun, but other sources of energy exist for life on Earth, such as hydrogen gas or methane, used in

entity_name: Chemosynthesis

text: chemosynthesis

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Rapper Shyne recently released a new song entitled “Solar Energy”. Shyne premiered the song on June 5, 2011, at the Ketura Sun launch.

text: Rapper

entity_name: Shyne

text: Shyne

text: recently released a new song entitled “Solar Energy”. Shyne premiered the song on June 5, 2011, at the Ketura Sun launch.

text: When the beam electrons (and scattered electrons from the sample) interact with bound electrons in the innermost electron shells of the atoms of the various elements in the sample, they can scatter the bound electrons from the electron shell producing a vacancy in that shell (ionization of the atom). This vacancy is unstable and must be filled by an electron from either a higher energy bound shell in the atom (producing another vacancy which is in turn filled by electrons from yet higher energy bound shells) or by unbound electrons of low energy. The difference in binding energy between the electron shell in which the vacancy was produced and the shell from which the electron comes to fill the vacancy is emitted as a photon. The energy of the photon is in the X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As the electron structure of each element is unique, the series X-ray line energies produced by vacancies in the innermost shells is characteristic of that element, although lines from different elements may overlap. As the innermost shells are involved, the X-ray line energies are generally not affected by chemical effects produced by bonding between elements in compounds except in low atomic number (Z) elements ( B, C, N, O and F for K and Al to Cl for K) where line energies may be shifted as a result of the involvement of the electron shell from which vacancies are filled in chemical bonding.

text: When the beam electrons (and scattered electrons from the sample) interact with bound electrons in the innermost electron shells of the atoms of the various elements in the sample, they can scatter the bound electrons from the electron shell producing a vacancy in that shell (ionization of the atom). This vacancy is unstable and must be filled by an electron from either a higher energy bound shell in the atom (producing another vacancy which is in turn filled by electrons from yet higher energy bound shells) or by unbound electrons of low energy. The difference in binding energy between the electron shell in which the vacancy was produced and the shell from which the electron comes to fill the vacancy is emitted as a photon. The energy of the photon is in the X-ray region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . As the electron structure of each element is unique, the series X-ray line energies produced by vacancies in the innermost shells is characteristic of that element, although lines from different elements may overlap. As the innermost shells are involved, the X-ray line energies are generally not affected by chemical effects produced by bonding between elements in compounds except in low atomic number (Z) elements ( B, C, N, O and F for K and Al to Cl for K) where line energies may be shifted as a result of the involvement of the electron shell from which vacancies are filled in chemical bonding.

text: It plays a critical role in preventing release of a potent greenhouse gas into the atmosphere.

text: Beryllium-10 (Be) is a radioactive isotope of beryllium. It is formed mainly by the cosmic ray spallation of oxygen. Beryllium-10 has a half-life of 1.39 × 10 years, and decays by beta decay to stable boron-10 with a maximum energy of 556.2 keV. It decays through the reaction Be→B+e. Light elements in the atmosphere react with high energy galactic cosmic ray particles. The spallation of the reaction products is the source of Be (t, u particles like n or p):

text: Beryllium-10 (Be) is a

text: radioactive

text: isotope

text: of

text: beryllium

text: . It is formed mainly by the

text: cosmic ray spallation

text: of oxygen. Beryllium-10 has a

text: half-life

text: of 1.39 × 10 years, and decays by

text: beta decay

text: to stable

text: with a maximum energy of 556.2 keV. It decays through the reaction Be→B+e. Light elements in the atmosphere react with high energy

text: galactic cosmic ray

text: particles. The

text: spallation

text: of the reaction products is the source of Be (t, u particles like n or p):

text: Carbon dioxide () is an important trace gas in Earth's atmosphere currently constituting about 0.04%, i.e. 400 parts per million (ppm), of the atmosphere. Despite its relatively small concentration,  is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect. Reconstructions show that concentrations of  in the atmosphere have varied, ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period  about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.

text: Carbon dioxide

text: () is an important trace gas in

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: currently constituting about 0.04%, i.e. 400 parts per million (ppm), of the atmosphere. Despite its relatively small concentration,  is a potent

text: greenhouse gas

text: and plays a vital role in regulating

text: Earth

text: 's surface temperature through

text: radiative forcing

text: and the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Reconstructions show that concentrations of  in the atmosphere have varied, ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the

text: Cambrian period

text: about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the

text: Quaternary glaciation

text: of the last two million years.

text: The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere is 100 to 1,000,000  nanometer (nm). This can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths:

text: The spectrum of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: striking the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is 100 to 1,000,000

text: nanometer (nm)

text: . This can be divided into five regions in increasing order of

text: wavelength

text: s:

text: Two  kinds of large-scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward; and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths which cannot transport wave energy. Atmospheric gravity waves and most of the atmospheric tides generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height, so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250 K in eq.(2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labelled (1, −2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq-current within the ionospheric dynamo region between about 100 and 200 km height.

text: Two  kinds of large-scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward; and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths which cannot transport wave energy.

text: Atmospheric gravity wave

text: s and most of the

text: atmospheric tides

text: generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height, so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250 K in eq.(2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labelled (1, −2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq-current within the

text: ionospheric dynamo region

text: between about 100 and 200 km height.

text: Umov was the first who introduced in physics such basic concepts as speed and direction of movement of energy, which are now associated with Umov-Poynting vector, and density of energy in a given point of space. During his work in Odessa in 1873—1874, Umov published first papers containing the major ideas of energy movement. In his first works of this period, Umov considered potential energy as kinetic energy of some environments "imperceptible for us". From this hypothesis, he made a conclusion: it is always possible to specify a place where the energy is in. Therefore, it is natural to raise the question about movement of energy. In his following works, Umov did not bind himself to this hypothesis about the nature of potential energy, but was guided by the principle of energy conservation only. After formulating the concept of density and movement of energy, he wrote differential equations for energy movement in the elastic media and in the fluid. The authoritative Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften states: "N. Umov in 1874 had already solved a problem of the movement of energy in liquid and elastic media in completely generalized view. However, the intense attention to this view has been attracted only after Poynting had presented a stream of electromagnetic energy based on Maxwell equations" ten years later than Umov's publications.

text: Umov was the first who introduced in physics such basic concepts as speed and direction of movement of

text: energy

text: , which are now associated with

text: Umov-Poynting vector

text: , and density of energy in a given point of space. During his work in

text: Odessa

text: in 1873—1874, Umov published first papers containing the major ideas of energy movement. In his first works of this period, Umov considered

text: potential energy

text: as

text: kinetic energy

text: of some environments "imperceptible for us". From this hypothesis, he made a conclusion: it is always possible to specify a place where the energy is in. Therefore, it is natural to raise the question about movement of energy. In his following works, Umov did not bind himself to this hypothesis about the nature of potential energy, but was guided by the principle of energy conservation only. After formulating the concept of density and movement of energy, he wrote differential equations for energy movement in the elastic media and in the fluid. The authoritative

text: Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften

text: states: "N. Umov in 1874 had already solved a problem of the movement of energy in liquid and elastic media in completely generalized view. However, the intense attention to this view has been attracted only after

text: Poynting

text: had presented a stream of electromagnetic energy based on

text: Maxwell equations

text: " ten years later than Umov's publications.

text: Photovoltaics is a variable renewable energy (VRE), unlike hydroelectricity or geothermal, and much of the output must be buffered or stored for when it can be used. During an overcast day, the peak output never reaches a level close to what is reached on a clear day. On a partly cloudy day, output varies dramatically as clouds cover the array, and each time the sun shines through the output jumps up to what it would have been on a clear day. Latitude dramatically affects the annual output, with output dropping to zero in winter north and south of the arctic circles. At other latitudes lower sun angles reduce output in winter.

text: Photovoltaics

text: is a variable renewable energy (VRE), unlike hydroelectricity or geothermal, and much of the output must be buffered or stored for when it can be used. During an overcast day, the peak output never reaches a level close to what is reached on a clear day. On a partly cloudy day, output varies dramatically as clouds cover the array, and each time the sun shines through the output jumps up to what it would have been on a clear day. Latitude dramatically affects the annual output, with output dropping to zero in winter north and south of the arctic circles. At other latitudes lower sun angles reduce output in winter.

text: Low-mass planets are poor candidates for life for two reasons. First, their lesser gravity makes atmosphere retention difficult. Constituent molecules are more likely to reach escape velocity and be lost to space when buffeted by solar wind or stirred by collision. Planets without a thick atmosphere lack the matter necessary for primal biochemistry, have little insulation and poor heat transfer across their surfaces (for example, Mars, with its thin atmosphere, is colder than the Earth would be if it were at a similar distance from the Sun), and provide less protection against meteoroids and high-frequency radiation. Further, where an atmosphere is less dense than 0.006 Earth atmospheres, water cannot exist in liquid form as the required atmospheric pressure, 4.56 mm Hg (608 Pa) (0.18 inch Hg), does not occur. The temperature range at which water is liquid is smaller at low pressures generally.

text: Low-mass planets are poor candidates for life for two reasons. First, their lesser

text: gravity

text: makes

text: atmosphere

text: retention difficult. Constituent

text: molecule

text: s are more likely to reach

text: escape velocity

text: and be lost to space when buffeted by

text: solar wind

text: or stirred by collision. Planets without a thick atmosphere lack the matter necessary for primal

text: biochemistry

text: , have little insulation and poor

text: heat transfer

text: across their surfaces (for example,

text: Mars

text: , with its thin atmosphere, is colder than the Earth would be if it were at a similar distance from the Sun), and provide less protection against

text: meteoroid

text: s and high-frequency

text: radiation

text: . Further, where an atmosphere is less dense than 0.006 Earth atmospheres, water cannot exist in liquid form as the required

text: atmospheric pressure

text: , 4.56

text: mm Hg

text: (608 Pa) (0.18

text: inch Hg

text: ), does not occur. The temperature range at which water is liquid is smaller at low pressures generally.

text: Allen Taflove is a full professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science of Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering, since 1988.  Since 1972, he has pioneered basic theoretical approaches, numerical algorithms, and applications of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) computational solutions of Maxwell's equations.  He coined the descriptors "finite difference time domain" and "FDTD" in the 1980 paper, "Application of the finite-difference time-domain method to sinusoidal steady-state electromagnetic penetration problems," IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 22, pp. 191–202, Aug. 1980 .  In 1990, he was the first person to be named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in the FDTD area.  Prof. Taflove is the recipient of the 2014 IEEE Electromagnetics Award with the following citation: "For contributions to the development and application of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) solutions of Maxwell's equations across the electromagnetic spectrum."

text: Allen Taflove is a full professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science of Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering, since 1988.  Since 1972, he has pioneered basic theoretical approaches, numerical algorithms, and applications of

text: finite-difference time-domain

text: FDTD

text: ) computational solutions of

text: Maxwell's equations

text: .  He coined the descriptors "finite difference time domain" and "FDTD" in the 1980 paper, "Application of the finite-difference time-domain method to sinusoidal steady-state electromagnetic penetration problems," IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. 22, pp. 191–202, Aug. 1980 .  In 1990, he was the first person to be named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (

entity_name: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

text: IEEE

text: ) in the FDTD area.  Prof. Taflove is the recipient of the 2014

text: IEEE Electromagnetics Award

text: with the following citation: "For contributions to the development and application of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) solutions of Maxwell's equations across the electromagnetic spectrum."

text: Krating Daeng (, , literally "red bull" or "red gaur") is a sweetened, non-carbonated energy drink developed by Chaleo Yoovidhya. The drink is sold in Southeast Asia, China, and 165 other countries. Chaleo took the name from the gaur (Thai: กระทิง ''krathing'') a large wild bovine of Southeast Asia. The Krating Daeng logo underlies its branding, with two charging bulls representing power, red signifying perseverance, and the backdrop of the sun symbolising energy. Krating Daeng became the basis for the creation of the best selling energy drink in the world, Red Bull. When he died in 2012 at age 88,  Chaleo was a multi-billionaire.

text: Krating Daeng (, , literally "red bull" or "red

text: gaur

text: ") is a sweetened, non-

text: carbonated

text: energy drink

text: developed by

text: Chaleo Yoovidhya

text: . The drink is sold in

text: Southeast Asia

text: , China, and 165 other countries. Chaleo took the name from the

text: gaur

text: (Thai: กระทิง ''krathing'') a large wild

text: bovine

text: of Southeast Asia. The Krating Daeng logo underlies its branding, with two charging bulls representing power, red signifying perseverance, and the backdrop of the sun symbolising energy. Krating Daeng became the basis for the creation of the best selling energy drink in the world,

text: Red Bull

text: . When he died in 2012 at age 88,  Chaleo was a multi-

text: billionaire

text: The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

text: The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy

text: quanta

text: emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the

text: phonons

text: responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than

text: photons

text: invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

text: Climate engineering consists of carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Since the amount of carbon dioxide determines the radiative balance of Earth atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be applied to reduce the radiative forcing. Solar radiation management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of greenhouse gases.

text: Climate engineering

text: consists of

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: and

text: solar radiation management

text: . Since the amount of

text: carbon dioxide

text: determines the

text: radiative balance

text: of Earth atmosphere, carbon dioxide removal techniques can be applied to reduce the

text: radiative forcing

text: . Solar radiation management is the attempt to absorb less solar radiation to offset the effects of

text: greenhouse gases

text: The SNO experiment was also able to observe atmospheric neutrinos produced by cosmic ray interactions in the atmosphere. Due to the limited size of the SNO detector in comparison with Super-K the low cosmic ray neutrino signal is not statistically significant at neutrino energies below 1 GeV.

text: The SNO experiment was also able to observe atmospheric neutrinos produced by

text: cosmic ray

text: interactions in the atmosphere. Due to the limited size of the SNO detector in comparison with Super-K the low cosmic ray neutrino signal is not statistically significant at neutrino energies below 1

text: GeV

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a synthetic fuel – such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel – produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue-gas emissions, recovered from automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.Such fuels are produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in turn in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a

text: synthetic fuel

text: – such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: – produced from renewable or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

entity_name: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: power plant flue-gas emissions

text: , recovered from automotive

text: exhaust gas

text: , or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: .Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: s, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to

text: carbon capture

text: at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: .Such fuels are produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in turn in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: to make traditional transportation or heating

text: fuel

text: s.

text: HAWC detects electromagnetic radiation from air showers produced by high energy cosmic rays which hit the Earth's atmosphere. HAWC is sensitive to showers produced by primary cosmic rays with energies between 100 GeV and 50 TeV.

text: HAWC detects

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: from

text: air showers

text: produced by high energy cosmic rays which hit the Earth's atmosphere. HAWC is sensitive to showers produced by primary cosmic rays with energies between 100 GeV and 50 TeV.

text: The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

text: The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion

text: tonnes

text: gigatonne

text: s) of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es that enhances

text: radiative forcing

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: , causing the

text: average surface temperature

text: of the Earth to rise in response, which

text: the vast majority of climate scientists

text: agree will cause major

text: adverse effects

text: . A global movement towards the generation of

text: renewable energy

text: is therefore under way to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

text: One of the major issues that this engine encountered while being developed was that the efficiency of this model was extremely poor in real applications. Because the heat source is not contained to a specific area, only a small portion of the potential fuel is being consumed to power the engine. Because Engine efficiency is defined by the relationship between the amount of work done and the potential energy in the fuel consumed, it can be seen that in the vacuum engine only a small amount of the burning fuel is being used to power the engine. The rest of the fuel energy is lost to the surrounding atmosphere.

text: One of the major issues that this engine encountered while being developed was that the efficiency of this model was extremely poor in real applications. Because the heat source is not contained to a specific area, only a small portion of the potential fuel is being consumed to power the engine. Because

text: Engine efficiency

text: is defined by the relationship between the amount of work done and the potential energy in the fuel consumed, it can be seen that in the vacuum engine only a small amount of the burning fuel is being used to power the engine. The rest of the fuel energy is lost to the surrounding atmosphere.

text: A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:

text: A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the

text: wavelength

text: . Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:

text: Even though many studies have been undertaken in this area, neither position has yet claimed a consensus view in the academic literature. Recent studies have demonstrated that direct rebound effects are significant (about 30% for energy), but that there is not enough information about indirect effects to know whether or how often back-fire occurs. Economists tend to the first position, but most governments, businesses, and environmental groups adhere to the second. Governments and environmental groups often advocate further research into fuel efficiency and radical increases in the efficient use of energy as the primary means for reducing energy use and reducing greenhouse gas emissions (to alleviate the impacts of climate change). However, if the first position more accurately reflects economic reality, current efforts to invent fuel-efficient technologies may not much reduce energy use, and may in fact paradoxically increase oil and coal consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions, over the long run.

text: Even though many studies have been undertaken in this area, neither position has yet claimed a consensus view in the academic literature. Recent studies have demonstrated that direct rebound effects are significant (about 30% for energy), but that there is not enough information about indirect effects to know whether or how often back-fire occurs. Economists tend to the first position, but most governments, businesses, and environmental groups adhere to the second. Governments and environmental groups often advocate further research into fuel efficiency and radical increases in the efficient use of energy as the primary means for reducing energy use and reducing

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions (to alleviate the impacts of

text: climate change

text: ). However, if the first position more accurately reflects economic reality, current efforts to invent fuel-efficient technologies may not much reduce energy use, and may in fact paradoxically increase

text: oil

text: and

text: coal

text: consumption, and

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions, over the long run.

text: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.

text: An Atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere, such as the Earth's.

text: An Atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates

text: radiative transfer

text: of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere, such as the Earth's.

text: The major atmospheric constituents, nitrogen (), oxygen (), and argon (Ar), are not greenhouse gases because molecules containing two atoms of the same element such as  and  and monatomic molecules such as argon (Ar) have no net change in the distribution of their electrical charges when they vibrate and hence are almost totally unaffected by infrared radiation. Although molecules containing two atoms of different elements such as carbon monoxide (CO) or hydrogen chloride (HCl) absorb infrared radiation, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. Therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and usually are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases.

text: The major atmospheric constituents,

text: nitrogen

text: oxygen

text: (), and

text: argon

text: (Ar), are not greenhouse gases because

text: molecules containing two atoms of the same element

text: such as  and  and

text: monatomic

text: molecules such as argon (Ar) have no net change in the

text: distribution of their electrical charges

text: when they vibrate and hence are almost totally unaffected by

text: infrared radiation

text: . Although molecules containing two atoms of different elements such as

text: carbon monoxide

text: (CO) or

text: hydrogen chloride

text: (HCl) absorb infrared radiation, these molecules are short-lived in the atmosphere owing to their reactivity and solubility. Therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and usually are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases.

text: When a high-energy (TeV) gamma photon or cosmic ray interacts with the Earth's atmosphere, it may produce an electron-positron pair with enormous velocities. The Cherenkov radiation emitted in the atmosphere by these charged particles is used to determine the direction and energy of the cosmic ray or gamma ray, which is used for example in the Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Technique (IACT), by experiments such as VERITAS, H.E.S.S., MAGIC. Cherenkov radiation emitted in tanks filled with water by those charged particles reaching earth is used for the same goal by the Extensive Air Shower experiment HAWC, the Pierre Auger Observatory and other projects. Similar methods are used in very large neutrino detectors, such as the Super-Kamiokande, the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) and IceCube. Other projects operated in the past applying related techniques, such as STACEE, a former solar tower refurbished to work as a non-imaging Cherenkov observatory, which was located in New Mexico.

text: When a high-energy (

text: TeV

text: gamma photon

text: or

text: cosmic ray

text: interacts with the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , it may produce an electron-

text: positron

text: pair

text: with enormous velocities. The Cherenkov radiation emitted in the atmosphere by these charged particles is used to determine the direction and energy of the cosmic ray or gamma ray, which is used for example in the

text: Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Technique

text: IACT

text: ), by experiments such as

text: VERITAS

text: H.E.S.S.

text: MAGIC

text: . Cherenkov radiation emitted in tanks filled with water by those charged particles reaching earth is used for the same goal by the Extensive Air Shower experiment

entity_name: High Altitude Water Cherenkov Experiment

text: HAWC

text: , the

text: Pierre Auger Observatory

text: and other projects. Similar methods are used in very large

text: neutrino

text: detectors, such as the

text: Super-Kamiokande

text: , the

text: Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO)

text: and

text: IceCube

text: . Other projects operated in the past applying related techniques, such as

text: STACEE

text: , a former solar tower refurbished to work as a non-imaging Cherenkov observatory, which was located in

text: New Mexico

text: The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by George Simpson in 1928, based on G. Hettner's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor. In those days, computers were not available, and Simpson notes that he used approximations; he writes: "There is no hope of getting an exact solution; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions . . . ." Nowadays, accurate line-by-line computations are possible, and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published.

text: The importance of the infrared atmospheric window in the atmospheric energy balance was discovered by

text: George Simpson

text: in 1928, based on G. Hettner's 1918 laboratory studies of the gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor. In those days, computers were not available, and Simpson notes that he used approximations; he writes: "There is no hope of getting an exact solution; but by making suitable simplifying assumptions . . . ." Nowadays, accurate line-by-line computations are possible, and careful studies of the infrared atmospheric window have been published.

text: The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency and intensity of the fields. For more information on the health effects due to specific parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, see the following articles:

text: The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency and intensity of the fields. For more information on the health effects due to specific parts of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , see the following articles:

text: A Microwave radiometer (MWR) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths (at frequencies of 1–1000 GHz) known as microwaves. Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by material media like the atmosphere. They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects. Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications, including weather forecasting, climate monitoring, radio astronomy and radio propagation studies.

text: A Microwave radiometer (MWR) is a

text: radiometer

text: that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths (at frequencies of 1–1000

text: GHz

text: ) known as

text: microwaves

text: . Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by material media like the atmosphere. They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects. Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications, including

text: weather forecasting

text: , climate monitoring,

text: radio astronomy

text: and radio propagation studies.

text: Greenhouse is an American hip hop group from Columbus, Ohio. Originally formed as Greenhouse Effect by Blueprint, Inkwel, and Manifest, it consists of Blueprint and Illogic.

text: Greenhouse is an American hip hop group from

text: Columbus, Ohio

text: . Originally formed as Greenhouse Effect by

text: Blueprint

text: , Inkwel, and Manifest, it consists of Blueprint and

text: Illogic

text: In contrast to the previously bleak picture for life, 1997 studies by Robert Haberle and Manoj Joshi of NASA's Ames Research Center in California have shown that a planet's atmosphere (assuming it included greenhouse gases CO and HO) need only be 100 millibar, or 10% of Earth's atmosphere, for the star's heat to be effectively carried to the night side, a figure well within the bounds of photosynthesis. Research two years later by Martin Heath of Greenwich Community College has shown that seawater, too, could effectively circulate without freezing solid if the ocean basins were deep enough to allow free flow beneath the night side's ice cap. Additionally, a 2010 study concluded that Earth-like water worlds tidally locked to their stars would still have temperatures above  on the night side. Climate models constructed in 2013 indicate that cloud formation on tidally locked planets would minimize the temperature difference between the day and the night side, greatly improving habitability prospects for red dwarf planets. Further research, including a consideration of the amount of photosynthetically active radiation, has suggested that tidally locked planets in red dwarf systems might at least be habitable for higher plants.

text: In contrast to the previously bleak picture for life, 1997 studies by Robert Haberle and Manoj Joshi of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Ames Research Center

text: in California have shown that a planet's atmosphere (assuming it included greenhouse gases

text: CO

text: and

text: HO

text: ) need only be 100 milli

text: bar

text: , or 10% of Earth's atmosphere, for the star's heat to be effectively carried to the night side, a figure well within the bounds of photosynthesis. Research two years later by Martin Heath of

text: Greenwich Community College

text: has shown that seawater, too, could effectively circulate without freezing solid if the ocean basins were deep enough to allow free flow beneath the night side's ice cap. Additionally, a 2010 study concluded that Earth-like

text: water worlds

text: tidally locked to their stars would still have temperatures above  on the night side. Climate models constructed in 2013 indicate that cloud formation on tidally locked planets would minimize the temperature difference between the day and the night side, greatly improving habitability prospects for red dwarf planets. Further research, including a consideration of the amount of photosynthetically active radiation, has suggested that tidally locked planets in red dwarf systems might at least be habitable for higher plants.

text: Energy in many of its forms may be used in natural processes, or to provide some service to society such  as heating, refrigeration, light, or performing mechanical energy to operate machines. For example, an internal combustion engine converts the potential chemical energy in gasoline and oxygen into thermal energy which, by causing pressure and performing work on the pistons, is transformed into the mechanical energy that accelerates the vehicle (increasing its kinetic energy). A thermal or heat energy converts the chemical energy into mechanical energy that can then be used in a party.

text: Energy in many of its forms may be used in natural processes, or to provide some service to society such  as heating, refrigeration,

text: light

text: , or performing mechanical energy to operate machines. For example, an

text: internal combustion engine

text: converts the potential

text: chemical energy

text: in gasoline and oxygen into thermal energy which, by causing pressure and performing work on the pistons, is transformed into the mechanical energy that accelerates the vehicle (increasing its

text: kinetic energy

text: ). A

text: thermal or heat energy

text: converts the chemical energy into mechanical energy that can then be used in a party.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in ice ages. There have been at least five such ice ages in the Earth's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is currently in an ice age, in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in

text: ice ages

text: . There have been at least five such ice ages in the

text: Earth

text: 's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is

text: currently in an ice age

text: , in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (photosphere, chromosphere, and corona), when the plasma medium is heated to tens of millions of Kelvin, while the cosmic-ray-like electrons, protons, and heavier ions are accelerated to near the speed of light. They produce radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum at all wavelengths, from radio waves to gamma rays, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around sunspots, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the photosphere to link the corona to the solar interior.Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce coronal mass ejections (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.

text: Solar flares affect all layers of the solar atmosphere (

text: photosphere

text: chromosphere

text: , and

text: corona

text: ), when the

text: plasma

text: medium is heated to tens of millions of

text: Kelvin

text: , while the

text: cosmic-ray

text: -like

text: electron

text: s,

text: proton

text: s, and heavier

text: ion

text: s are accelerated to near the

text: speed of light

text: . They produce

text: radiation

text: across the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: at all

text: wavelength

text: s, from

text: radio waves

text: to

text: gamma ray

text: s, although most of the energy is spread over frequencies outside the visual range and for this reason the majority of the flares are not visible to the naked eye and must be observed with special instruments. Flares occur in active regions around

text: sunspot

text: s, where intense magnetic fields penetrate the

text: photosphere

text: to link the

text: corona

text: to the solar interior.Flares are powered by the sudden (timescales of minutes to tens of minutes) release of magnetic energy stored in the corona. The same energy releases may produce

text: coronal mass ejections

text: (CME), although the relation between CMEs and flares is still not well established.

text: Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.

text: Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady

text: loss of the atmosphere into space

text: . Because unfixed

text: hydrogen

text: has a low

text: molecular mass

text: , it can achieve

text: escape velocity

text: more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially

text: reducing

text: state to its current

text: oxidizing

text: one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere.

text: is less than one, a greater proportion of the available energy at the surface is passed to the atmosphere as latent heat than as sensible heat, and the converse is true for values of

text: Energy in fluid is contained in four different forms: gravitational potential energy, thermodynamic pressure, kinetic energy from the velocity and finally thermal energy. Gravitational and thermal energy have a negligible effect on the energy extraction process. From a macroscopic point of view, the air flow about the wind turbine is at atmospheric pressure. If pressure is constant then only kinetic energy is extracted. However up close near the rotor itself the air velocity is constant as it passes through the rotor plane. This is because of conservation of mass. The air that passes through the rotor cannot slow down because it needs to stay out of the way of the air behind it. So at the rotor the energy is extracted by a pressure drop. The air directly behind the wind turbine is at sub-atmospheric pressure; the air in front is under greater than atmospheric pressure. It is this high pressure in front of the wind turbine that deflects some of the upstream air around the turbine.

text: Energy in fluid is contained in four different forms:

text: gravitational potential energy

text: thermodynamic pressure

text: kinetic energy

text: from the velocity and finally

text: thermal energy

text: . Gravitational and thermal energy have a negligible effect on the energy extraction process. From a macroscopic point of view, the air flow about the wind turbine is at atmospheric pressure. If pressure is constant then only kinetic energy is extracted. However up close near the rotor itself the air velocity is constant as it passes through the rotor plane. This is because of

text: conservation of mass

text: . The air that passes through the rotor cannot slow down because it needs to stay out of the way of the air behind it. So at the rotor the energy is extracted by a pressure drop. The air directly behind the wind turbine is at sub-

text: atmospheric pressure

text: ; the air in front is under greater than atmospheric pressure. It is this high pressure in front of the wind turbine that deflects some of the upstream air around the turbine.

text: Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years—a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior, released via eruptions from cryovolcanoes.

text: Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years—a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. The ultimate origin of the methane in its atmosphere may be its interior, released via eruptions from

text: cryovolcanoes

text: is latitude, and z is the geometric elevation. Thus geopotential is the gravitational potential energy per unit mass at that elevation h.

text: Climate sensitivity is often evaluated in terms of the change in equilibrium temperature due to radiative forcing due to the greenhouse effect.  According to the Arrhenius relation, the radiative forcing (and hence the change in temperature) is proportional to the logarithm of the concentration of infrared-absorbing gasses in the atmosphere.  Thus, the sensitivity of temperature to gasses in the atmosphere (most notably carbon dioxide) is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

text: Climate sensitivity is often evaluated in terms of the change in equilibrium temperature due to radiative forcing due to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: .  According to the

text: Arrhenius

text: relation, the radiative forcing (and hence the change in temperature) is proportional to the

text: logarithm

text: of the concentration of

text: infrared

text: -absorbing gasses in the atmosphere.  Thus, the sensitivity of temperature to gasses in the atmosphere (most notably

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) is often expressed in terms of the change in temperature per doubling of the concentration of the gas.

text: The world's oceans are warming due to climate change. Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect, variation in the sun's energy that reaches Earth, and changes in reflectivity within Earth's atmosphere and its surface. The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight. Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space. Greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth. Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect.

text: This low mass star has a stellar classification of M4 V, which places it among a category of stars known as red dwarfs. It has 15% of the mass of the Sun and 21% of the Sun's radius, but generates energy so slowly that it has only 0.036% of the Sun's visible luminosity. However, most of the energy being radiated by the star is in the infrared band, with the bolometric luminosity being equal to 0.35% of solar. This energy is being radiated from the star's outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 3,180 K. This gives it the cool orange-red glow of an M-type star.

text: This low mass star has a

text: stellar classification

text: of M4 V, which places it among a category of stars known as

text: red dwarf

text: s. It has 15% of the mass of the Sun and 21% of the Sun's radius, but generates energy so slowly that it has only 0.036% of the Sun's visible luminosity. However, most of the energy being radiated by the star is in the

text: infrared band

text: , with the

text: bolometric luminosity

text: being equal to 0.35% of solar. This energy is being radiated from the star's

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 3,180 K. This gives it the cool orange-red glow of an

text: M-type star

text: From outer space, ultra-high-energy cosmic rays reach Earth. These consist of single sub-atomic particles (protons or atomic nuclei), each with energy levels beyond 10 eV. When such a single particle reaches Earth atmosphere, it has its energy dissipated by creating billions of other particles: electrons, photons and muons, all near the speed of light. These particles spread longitudinal (perpendicular to the single particle incoming route), creating a forward moving plane of particles, with higher intensities near the axis. Such an incident is called an "air shower". Passing through the atmosphere, this plane of particles creates UV light, invisible to the human eye, called the fluorescing effect, more or less in the pattern of straight lightning traces. These traces can be photographed at high speed by specialised telescopes, called Fluorescence Detectors, overlooking an area with at a slight elevation. Then, when the particles reach the Earth surface, they can be detected when they arrive in a water tank, where they cause visible blue light due to the Cherenkov effect. A sensitive photoelectric tube can catch these impacts. Such a station is called a water Cherenkov Detector or 'tank'. The Auger Observatory has both types of detectors covering the same area, which allows for very precise measurements.

text: From outer space, ultra-high-energy cosmic rays reach Earth. These consist of single

text: sub-atomic particle

text: s (

text: proton

text: s or

text: atomic nuclei

text: ), each with energy levels beyond 10

text: eV

text: . When such a single particle reaches Earth atmosphere, it has its energy dissipated by creating billions of other particles:

text: electron

text: s,

text: photon

text: s and

text: muon

text: s, all near the speed of light. These particles spread longitudinal (perpendicular to the single particle incoming route), creating a forward moving plane of particles, with higher intensities near the axis. Such an incident is called an "

text: air shower

text: ". Passing through the atmosphere, this plane of particles creates UV light, invisible to the human eye, called the fluorescing effect, more or less in the pattern of straight lightning traces. These traces can be photographed at high speed by specialised telescopes, called Fluorescence Detectors, overlooking an area with at a slight elevation. Then, when the particles reach the Earth surface, they can be detected when they arrive in a water tank, where they cause visible blue light due to the

text: Cherenkov effect

text: . A sensitive photoelectric tube can catch these impacts. Such a station is called a water Cherenkov Detector or 'tank'. The Auger Observatory has both types of detectors covering the same area, which allows for very precise measurements.

text: The core produces almost all of the Sun's heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by neutrinos, must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight or kinetic energy of particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active compost heap, and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume.

text: The core produces almost all of the Sun's

text: heat

text: via

text: fusion

text: : the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by

text: neutrinos

text: , must travel through many successive layers to the

text: solar photosphere

text: before it escapes into space as

text: sunlight

text: or

text: kinetic energy

text: of particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active

text: compost heap

text: , and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume.

text: In the video game Chrono Trigger (1995), the giant alien creature Lavos collides with the earth in prehistoric times, subsequently hibernating beneath the earth. As millions of years pass, the monster feeds on the energy of the earth, eventually surfacing in 1999 to wreak complete destruction of the human race, atmosphere, and general life on the planet in the form of a rain of destruction fired from its outer shell, known as the 'Day of Lavos'.

text: In the video game

text: Chrono Trigger

text: (1995), the giant alien creature Lavos collides with the earth in prehistoric times, subsequently hibernating beneath the earth. As millions of years pass, the monster feeds on the energy of the earth, eventually surfacing in 1999 to wreak complete destruction of the human race, atmosphere, and general life on the planet in the form of a rain of destruction fired from its outer shell, known as the 'Day of Lavos'.

text: Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively warm temperature that the planet enjoys. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's temperature would be about −18 °C (-0.4 °F) . The surface temperature would be 33 °C below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57.2 °F).

text: Earth’s natural

text: greenhouse effect

text: makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively warm temperature that the planet enjoys. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's temperature would be about −18 °C (-0.4 °F) . The surface temperature would be 33 °C below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57.2 °F).

text: Because the energy levels of molecular vibration and rotation are similar, the photons emitted due to transition between these levels have comparatively low energy, and longer wavelength, than visible and near-infrared light. The 9-12 μm wavelength of CO lasers is useful because it falls into an important window for atmospheric transmission (up to 80% atmospheric transmission at this wavelength), and because many natural and synthetic materials have strong characteristic absorptions in this range.

text: When greenhouse gas molecules absorb thermal infrared energy, their temperature rises. Those gases then radiate an increased amount of thermal infrared energy in all directions. Heat radiated upward continues to encounter greenhouse gas molecules; those molecules also absorb the heat, and their temperature rises and the amount of heat they radiate increases. The atmosphere thins with altitude, and at roughly 5–6 kilometres, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the overlying atmosphere is so thin that heat can escape to space.

text: When greenhouse gas molecules absorb thermal infrared energy, their temperature rises. Those gases then radiate an increased amount of thermal infrared energy in all directions. Heat radiated upward continues to encounter greenhouse gas molecules; those molecules also absorb the heat, and their temperature rises and the amount of heat they radiate increases. The atmosphere thins with

text: altitude

text: , and at roughly 5–6

text: kilometre

text: s, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the overlying atmosphere is so thin that heat can escape to space.

text: The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height. As tides or waves propagate upwards, they move into regions of lower and lower density. If the tide or wave is not dissipating, then its kinetic energy density must be conserved. Since the density is decreasing, the amplitude of the tide or wave increases correspondingly so that energy is conserved.

text: The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height. As tides or waves propagate upwards, they move into regions of lower and lower density. If the tide or wave is not dissipating, then its

text: kinetic energy

text: density must be conserved. Since the density is decreasing, the amplitude of the tide or wave increases correspondingly so that

text: energy is conserved

text: A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight, usually glass, or plastic. It mainly warms up because the sun warms the ground and contents inside, which then warms the air in the greenhouse. The air continues to heat up because it is confined within the greenhouse, unlike the environment outside the greenhouse where warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that a "greenhouse" with a cover of rock salt (which is transparent to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing convective cooling.

text: A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight, usually glass, or plastic. It mainly warms up because the sun warms the ground and contents inside, which then warms the air in the greenhouse. The air continues to heat up because it is confined within the greenhouse, unlike the environment outside the greenhouse where warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated experimentally (

text: R. W. Wood

text: , 1909) that a "greenhouse" with a cover of

text: rock salt

text: (which is transparent to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing

text: convective

text: cooling.

text: Many of these problems are related to failures in classical electrodynamics that were identified but unsolved in the 19th century, and they basically stem from the fact that many of the supposedly "intrinsic" properties of an electron are tied to the electromagnetic field that it carries around with it. The energy carried by a single electron—its self-energy—is not simply the bare value, but also includes the energy contained in its electromagnetic field, its attendant cloud of photons. The energy in a field of a spherical source diverges in both classical and quantum mechanics, but as discovered by Weisskopf with help from Furry, in quantum mechanics the divergence is much milder, going only as the logarithm of the radius of the sphere.

text: Many of these problems are related to failures in

text: classical electrodynamics

text: that were identified but unsolved in the 19th century, and they basically stem from the fact that many of the supposedly "intrinsic" properties of an electron are tied to the electromagnetic field that it carries around with it. The energy carried by a single electron—its

text: self-energy

text: —is not simply the bare value, but also includes the energy contained in its electromagnetic field, its attendant cloud of photons. The energy in a field of a spherical source diverges in both classical and quantum mechanics, but as discovered by

text: Weisskopf

text: with help from

text: Furry

text: , in quantum mechanics the divergence is much milder, going only as the logarithm of the radius of the sphere.

text: Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important effect in the Earth's energy budget. In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.

text: Radiative cooling

text: is the process by which a body loses heat by radiation.

text: Outgoing

text: energy is an important effect in the

text: Earth's energy budget

text: . In the case of the Earth-atmosphere system, it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute it in the atmosphere.

text: A vertical scan of the atmosphere was obtained by tracking the sun during occultation. The scan will measure the amount of solar energy absorbed by gases in the atmosphere.

text: The entire electromagnetic spectrum highlighting the infrared part located between the visible and the radio waves, is depicted in the figure. The IR spectrum can be subdivided into 5 regions, although this definition is somehow arbitrary and it differs from one author to another. The subdivision presented here is based on a combination of the atmospheric transmittance windows, i.e. the wavelengths regions in which infrared radiation is better transmitted through the atmosphere, the detector materials used to build the infrared sensors and the main applications. In this way, the Near Infrared (NIR) band is mostly used in fiber optic telecommunication systems since silica (SiO) provides a low attenuation losses medium for the infrared, whilst the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) band allows to work on long-distance telecommunications (remote sensing) using a combinations of detector materials. The Medium Wavelength Infrared (MWIR) and the Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR) bands find applications in Infrared Thermography for military or civil applications, e.g. target signature identification, surveillance, NonDestructive Evaluation, etc. The Very Long Wavelength Infrared (VLIR) band is used in spectroscopy and astronomy.

text: The entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: highlighting the infrared part located between the visible and the radio waves, is depicted in the figure. The IR spectrum can be subdivided into 5 regions, although this definition is somehow arbitrary and it differs from one author to another. The subdivision presented here is based on a combination of the atmospheric transmittance windows, i.e. the wavelengths regions in which

text: infrared radiation

text: is better transmitted through the atmosphere, the detector materials used to build the infrared sensors and the main applications. In this way, the Near Infrared (NIR) band is mostly used in fiber optic telecommunication systems since silica (SiO) provides a low attenuation losses medium for the infrared, whilst the Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) band allows to work on long-distance telecommunications (remote sensing) using a combinations of detector materials. The Medium Wavelength Infrared (MWIR) and the Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR) bands find applications in Infrared Thermography for military or civil applications, e.g. target signature identification, surveillance, NonDestructive Evaluation, etc. The Very Long Wavelength Infrared (VLIR) band is used in spectroscopy and astronomy.

text: The Seawater greenhouse uses natural evaporation and condensation processes inside a greenhouse powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid coastal land.

text: The

text: Seawater greenhouse

text: uses natural evaporation and condensation processes inside a

text: greenhouse

text: powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid coastal land.

text: The 21 cm spectral line appears within the radio spectrum (in the L band of the UHF band of the microwave window to be exact). Electromagnetic energy in this range can easily pass through the Earth's atmosphere and be observed from the Earth with little interference.

text: The 21 cm spectral line appears within the

text: radio spectrum

text: (in the

text: L band

text: of the

text: UHF band

text: of the

text: microwave window

text: to be exact). Electromagnetic energy in this range can easily pass through the Earth's atmosphere and be observed from the Earth with little interference.

text: This is a G-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of G1 V. In terms of composition it is similar to the Sun, while the mass and radius are slightly larger. It is 73% more luminous than the Sun and radiates this energy from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of . At this heat, the star glows with the yellow hue of a G-type star. It has a low level of surface activity and is a candidate Maunder minimum analog.

text: This is a

text: G-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of G1 V. In terms of composition it is similar to the

text: Sun

text: , while the mass and radius are slightly larger. It is 73% more luminous than the Sun and radiates this energy from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of . At this heat, the star glows with the yellow hue of a

text: G-type star

text: . It has a low level of surface activity and is a candidate

text: Maunder minimum

text: analog.

text: CenterPoint Energy is a Fortune 500 electric and natural gas utility serving several markets in the U.S. states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Texas. It was formerly known as Reliant Energy (from which it is now separated), NorAm Energy, Houston Industries, and HL&P. The company is headquartered in the CenterPoint Energy Tower at 1111 Louisiana Street in Downtown Houston. Some of its notable subscribers include Retail Electric Providers (REPs), such as NRG Energy, Champion Energy, Dynowatt, Ambit Energy, Texas Power, Bounce Energy, MXenergy, Direct Energy, Stream Energy, First Texas Energy Corporation, Gexa Energy, Cirro Energy, and Kona Energy.

text: CenterPoint Energy is a Fortune 500

text: electric

text: and

text: natural gas utility

text: serving several markets in the

text: U.S. states

text: of

text: Arkansas

text: Louisiana

text: Minnesota

text: Mississippi

text: Oklahoma

text: , and

text: Texas

text: . It was formerly known as

text: Reliant Energy

text: (from which it is now separated), NorAm Energy, Houston Industries, and HL&P. The company is headquartered in the

text: CenterPoint Energy Tower

text: at 1111 Louisiana Street in

text: Downtown Houston

text: . Some of its notable subscribers include Retail Electric Providers (REPs), such as

text: NRG Energy

text: Champion Energy

text: Dynowatt

text: Ambit Energy

text: Texas Power

text: Bounce Energy

text: MXenergy

text: Direct Energy

text: Stream Energy

text: First Texas Energy Corporation

text: Gexa Energy

text: Cirro Energy

text: , and

text: Kona Energy

text: It is not possible to determine delta-v requirements from conservation of energy by considering only the total energy of the vehicle in the initial and final orbits since energy is carried away in the exhaust (see also below). For example, most spacecraft are launched in an orbit with inclination fairly near to the latitude at the launch site, to take advantage of the Earth's rotational surface speed. If it is necessary, for mission-based reasons, to put the spacecraft in an orbit of different inclination, a substantial delta-v is required, though the specific kinetic and potential energies in the final orbit and the initial orbit are equal.

text: It is not possible to determine delta-v requirements from

text: conservation of energy

text: by considering only the total energy of the vehicle in the initial and final orbits since energy is carried away in the exhaust (see also below). For example, most spacecraft are launched in an orbit with inclination fairly near to the latitude at the launch site, to take advantage of the Earth's rotational surface speed. If it is necessary, for mission-based reasons, to put the spacecraft in an orbit of different

text: inclination

text: , a substantial delta-v is required, though the

text: specific kinetic

text: and potential energies in the final orbit and the initial orbit are equal.

text: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing and emitting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies (see Structure and bonding above). This process causes carbon dioxide to warm the surface and lower atmosphere, while cooling the upper atmosphere. The increase in atmospheric concentration of , and thus in the -induced greenhouse effect, is the reason for the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century. Although carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas primarily responsible for the rise, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and various other long-lived greenhouse gases also contribute. Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because it exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of those other gases combined, and because it has a long atmospheric lifetime.

text: Carbon dioxide is a

text: greenhouse gas

text: , absorbing and emitting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibrational frequencies (see Structure and bonding above). This process causes carbon dioxide to warm the surface and lower atmosphere, while cooling the upper atmosphere. The increase in atmospheric concentration of , and thus in the -induced greenhouse effect, is the reason for the rise in average global temperature since the mid-20th century. Although carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas primarily responsible for the rise, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and various other long-lived greenhouse gases also contribute. Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern because it exerts a larger overall warming influence than all of those other gases combined, and because it has a long atmospheric lifetime.

text: Atmospheric tides are global-scale periodic oscillations of the atmosphere. In many ways they are analogous to ocean tides. Atmospheric tides form an important mechanism for transporting energy input into the lower atmosphere from the upper atmosphere, while dominating the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere.  Therefore, learning about atmospheric tides is essential in understanding the atmosphere as a whole.  Modeling and observations of atmospheric tides are needed in order to monitor and predict changes in the Earth's atmosphere.

text: Atmospheric tide

text: s are global-scale periodic oscillations of the

text: atmosphere

text: . In many ways they are analogous to ocean

text: tides

text: . Atmospheric tides form an important mechanism for transporting energy input into the lower atmosphere from the upper atmosphere, while dominating the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere.  Therefore, learning about atmospheric tides is essential in understanding the atmosphere as a whole.  Modeling and observations of atmospheric tides are needed in order to monitor and predict changes in the Earth's atmosphere.

text: of minus one is significant in the design of gliders because this indicates a perfect location for a "Total energy" port for supply of signal pressure to the Variometer, a special Vertical Speed Indicator which reacts to vertical movements of the atmosphere but does not react to vertical maneuvering of the glider.

text: of minus one is significant in the design of

text: gliders

text: because this indicates a perfect location for a "Total energy" port for supply of signal pressure to the

text: Variometer

text: , a special Vertical Speed Indicator which reacts to vertical movements of the atmosphere but does not react to vertical maneuvering of the glider.

text: The experimental results allowed meaningful modeling of the seasonal heat budget processes occurring through the Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere. The scope of the model was the column from below the ice pack through the top of the atmosphere. The scientists realized that key to the model was correctly characterizing the changing reflectivity or albedo of the ice surface, owing to changes in snow pack and ice melting. Cloud cover was key to describing how much energy reached or escaped the ocean surface.

text: The experimental results allowed meaningful modeling of the seasonal heat budget processes occurring through the Arctic Ocean sea ice and atmosphere. The scope of the model was the column from below the ice pack through the top of the atmosphere. The scientists realized that key to the model was correctly characterizing the changing reflectivity or

text: albedo

text: of the ice surface, owing to changes in snow pack and ice melting. Cloud cover was key to describing how much energy reached or escaped the ocean surface.

text: A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection  of food chains and a graphical representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community.  Another name for food web is a consumer-resource system. Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs. To maintain their bodies, grow, develop, and to reproduce, autotrophs produce organic matter  from inorganic substances, including both minerals and gases such as carbon dioxide. These chemical reactions require energy, which mainly comes from the sun and largely by photosynthesis, although a very small amount comes from hydrothermal vents and hot springs.  A gradient exists between trophic levels running from complete autotrophs that obtain their sole source of carbon from the atmosphere, to mixotrophs (such as carnivorous plants) that are autotrophic organisms that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than the atmosphere, and complete heterotrophs that must feed to obtain organic matter. The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange. There are different kinds of feeding relations that can be roughly divided into herbivory, carnivory, scavenging and parasitism. Some of the organic matter eaten by heterotrophs, such as sugars, provides energy. Autotrophs and heterotrophs come in all sizes, from microscopic to many tonnes - from cyanobacteria to giant redwoods, and from viruses and bdellovibrio to blue whales.

text: A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection  of

text: food chain

text: s and a graphical representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an

text: ecological community

text: .  Another name for food web is a

text: consumer-resource system

text: . Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called

text: trophic level

text: s: 1) the

text: autotroph

text: s, and 2) the

text: heterotrophs

text: . To

text: maintain

text: their bodies, grow, develop, and to

text: reproduce

text: , autotrophs produce

text: organic

text: matter  from

text: inorganic

text: substances, including both

text: mineral

text: s and

text: gas

text: es such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: . These

text: chemical reaction

text: s require

text: energy

text: , which mainly comes from the

text: sun

text: and largely by

text: photosynthesis

text: , although a very small amount comes from

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s and

text: hot spring

text: s.  A gradient exists between trophic levels running from complete autotrophs that obtain their sole source of carbon from the atmosphere, to

text: mixotrophs

text: (such as

text: carnivorous plants

text: ) that are autotrophic organisms that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than the atmosphere, and complete

text: heterotrophs

text: that must feed to obtain organic matter. The linkages in a food web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange. There are different kinds of feeding relations that can be roughly divided into

text: herbivory

text: carnivory

text: scavenging

text: and

text: parasitism

text: . Some of the organic matter eaten by heterotrophs, such as

text: sugar

text: s, provides energy. Autotrophs and heterotrophs come in all sizes, from

text: microscopic

text: to many

text: tonne

text: s - from

text: cyanobacteria

text: to

text: giant redwood

text: s, and from

text: virus

text: es and

text: bdellovibrio

text: to

text: blue whale

text: s.

text: The Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine, or SMARTS for short, is a computer program designed to evaluate the surface solar irradiance components in the shortwave spectrum (spectral range 280 to 4000 nm) under cloudless conditions. The program, written in FORTRAN, relies on simplifications of the equation of radiative transfer to allow extremely fast calculations of the surface irradiance. The irradiance components can be incident on a horizontal, a fixed-tilt or a 2-axis tracking surface. SMARTS can be used for example to evaluate the energy production of solar panels under variable atmospheric conditions. Many other applications are possible.

text: The Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine, or SMARTS for short, is a computer program designed to evaluate the surface solar

text: irradiance

text: components in the shortwave spectrum (spectral range 280 to 4000 nm) under cloudless conditions. The program, written in

text: FORTRAN

text: , relies on simplifications of the equation of

text: radiative transfer

text: to allow extremely fast calculations of the surface irradiance. The irradiance components can be incident on a horizontal, a fixed-tilt or a 2-axis tracking surface. SMARTS can be used for example to evaluate the energy production of

text: solar panel

text: s under variable atmospheric conditions. Many other applications are possible.

text: Non-window radiation is by definition absorbed by the atmosphere, and its energy is thereby transduced into kinetic energy of atmospheric molecules. That kinetic energy is then transferred according to the usual dynamics of atmospheric energy transfer.

text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.

text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid),

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through

text: whitecaps

text: and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.

text: This star has the stellar classification of a K2 dwarf, with approximately 77% of the mass of the Sun and about 72% of the Sun's diameter. While they are on the main sequence, lower mass stars like this generate energy much more slowly than the Sun. As a result, this star is radiating only 23% of the Sun's bolometric luminosity. HD 156668 is emitting this energy from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of around 4850 K, giving it the cool orange glow of a K-type star. It is slightly more enriched in iron compared to the Sun and is rotating at a leisurely rate of once every 51.5 days. Although much older than the Sun, this star is only middle-aged at about 8.6 billion years.

text: This star has the

text: stellar classification

text: of a

text: K2 dwarf

text: , with approximately 77% of the mass of the Sun and about 72% of the Sun's diameter. While they are on the

text: main sequence

text: , lower mass stars like this generate energy much more slowly than the Sun. As a result, this star is radiating only 23% of the Sun's bolometric luminosity. HD 156668 is emitting this energy from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of around 4850 K, giving it the cool orange glow of a

text: K-type star

text: . It is slightly more enriched in

text: iron

text: compared to the Sun and is rotating at a leisurely rate of once every 51.5 days. Although much older than the Sun, this star is only middle-aged at about 8.6 billion years.

text: The dryness of the air around and above Mt. Graham is particularly vital for EHF (extremely short wavelength radio) and far-infrared observations - a region of the spectrum where the electromagnetic waves are strongly attenuated by any water vapor or clouds in the air.

text: The dryness of the air around and above Mt. Graham is particularly vital for

text: EHF

text: (extremely short wavelength radio) and far-

text: infrared

text: observations - a region of the

text: spectrum

text: where the

text: electromagnetic wave

text: s are strongly

text: attenuated

text: by any

text: water vapor

text: or clouds in the air.

text: Bio-energy is derived from biomass which is a renewable energy source and serves as a carbon sink during its growth. During industrial processes, the biomass combusted or processed re-releases the CO into the atmosphere. The process thus results in a net zero emission of CO, though this may be positively or negatively altered depending on the carbon emissions associated with biomass growth, transport and processing, see below under environmental considerations.  Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology serves to intercept the release of CO into the atmosphere and redirect it into geological storage locations. CO with a biomass origin is not only released from biomass fuelled power plants, but also during the production of pulp used to make paper and in the production of biofuels such as biogas and bioethanol. The BECCS technology can also be employed on such industrial processes.

text: Bio-energy is derived from biomass which is a

text: renewable energy source

text: and serves as a carbon sink during its growth. During industrial processes, the biomass combusted or processed re-releases the CO into the atmosphere. The process thus results in a net zero emission of CO, though this may be positively or negatively altered depending on the carbon emissions associated with biomass growth, transport and processing, see below under environmental considerations.

text: Carbon capture and storage

text: (CCS) technology serves to intercept the release of CO into the atmosphere and redirect it into geological storage locations. CO with a biomass origin is not only released from biomass fuelled power plants, but also during the production of

text: pulp

text: used to make paper and in the production of biofuels such as

text: biogas

text: and

text: bioethanol

text: . The BECCS technology can also be employed on such industrial processes.

text: Solar radiation management (SRM) projects (proposed and theoretical) are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming. Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols. Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active, their potential low financial cost, and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects. Solar radiation management projects could, for example, be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by greenhouse gas remediation techniques. They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide (CO). By comparison, other climate engineering techniques based on greenhouse gas remediation, such as ocean iron fertilization, need to sequester the anthropogenic carbon excess before any reversal of global warming would occur.

text: Solar radiation management (SRM) projects (proposed and theoretical) are a type of

text: climate engineering

text: which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce

text: global warming

text: . Proposed examples include the creation of

entity_name: Stratospheric sulfate aerosols (geoengineering)

text: stratospheric sulfate aerosols

text: . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active, their potential low financial cost, and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects. Solar radiation management projects could, for example, be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by greenhouse gas remediation techniques. They would not reduce

text: greenhouse gas

text: concentrations in the

text: atmosphere

text: , and thus do not address problems such as

text: ocean acidification

text: caused by excess

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO). By comparison, other climate engineering techniques based on

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: , such as ocean

text: iron fertilization

text: , need to

text: sequester

text: the anthropogenic carbon excess before any reversal of global warming would occur.

text: The radiation is not the only mechanism of energy loss in the corona: since the plasma is highly ionized and the magnetic field is well organized, the thermal conduction is a competitive process.The energy losses due to the thermal conduction are of the same order of coronal radiative losses. The energy released in the corona which is not radiated externally is conducted back towards the chromosphere along the arcs.In the transition region where the temperature is about 10 -10 K, radiative losses are too high to be balanced by any form of mechanical heating.The very high temperature gradient observed in this range of temperatures increases the conductive flux in order to supply for the irradiated power.In other words, the transition region is so steep (the temperature increases from 10kK to 1MK in a distance of the order of 100 km) because the thermal conduction from the superior hotter atmosphere must balance the high radiative losses, as indicated to the numerous emission lines, which are formed from ionized atoms (oxygen, carbon, iron and so on).

text: The radiation is not the only mechanism of energy loss in the corona: since the

text: plasma

text: is highly ionized and the magnetic field is well organized, the thermal conduction is a competitive process.The energy losses due to the thermal conduction are of the same order of coronal radiative losses. The energy released in the corona which is not radiated externally is conducted back towards the

text: chromosphere

text: along the arcs.In the

text: transition region

text: where the temperature is about 10 -10 K, radiative losses are too high to be balanced by any form of mechanical heating.The very high temperature gradient observed in this range of temperatures increases the conductive flux in order to supply for the irradiated power.In other words, the transition region is so steep (the temperature increases from 10kK to 1MK in a distance of the order of 100 km) because the thermal conduction from the superior hotter atmosphere must balance the high radiative losses, as indicated to the numerous

text: emission lines

text: , which are formed from ionized atoms (oxygen, carbon, iron and so on).

text: Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its periapsis speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish aerobraking.  There have also been theoretical proposals to use aerodynamic lift as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an aerogravity assist, could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.

text: Another limitation is the atmosphere, if any, of the available planet. The closer the spacecraft can approach, the faster its

text: periapsis

text: speed as gravity accelerates the spacecraft, allowing for more kinetic energy to be gained from a rocket burn. However, if a spacecraft gets too deep into the atmosphere, the energy lost to drag can exceed that gained from the planet's gravity. On the other hand, the atmosphere can be used to accomplish

text: aerobraking

text: .  There have also been theoretical proposals to use

text: aerodynamic lift

text: as the spacecraft flies through the atmosphere. This maneuver, called an

text: aerogravity assist

text: , could bend the trajectory through a larger angle than gravity alone, and hence increase the gain in energy.

text: The infrared atmospheric window is the overall dynamic property of the earth's atmosphere, taken as a whole at each place and occasion of interest, that lets some infrared radiation from the cloud tops and land-sea surface pass directly to space without intermediate absorption and re-emission, and thus without heating the atmosphere. It cannot be defined simply as a part or set of parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, because the spectral composition of window radiation varies greatly with varying local environmental conditions, such as water vapour content and land-sea surface temperature, and because few or no parts of the spectrum are simply not absorbed at all, and because some of the diffuse radiation is passing nearly vertically upwards and some is passing nearly horizontally. A large gap in the absorption spectrum of water vapor, the main greenhouse gas, is most important in the dynamics of the window. Other gases, especially carbon dioxide and ozone, partly block transmission.

text: The infrared atmospheric window is the overall dynamic property of the

text: earth's atmosphere

text: , taken as a whole at each place and occasion of interest, that lets some

text: infrared radiation

text: from the cloud tops and land-sea surface pass directly to space without intermediate absorption and re-emission, and thus without heating the atmosphere. It cannot be defined simply as a part or set of parts of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , because the spectral composition of window radiation varies greatly with varying local environmental conditions, such as water vapour content and land-sea surface temperature, and because few or no parts of the spectrum are simply not absorbed at all, and because some of the diffuse radiation is passing nearly vertically upwards and some is passing nearly horizontally. A large gap in the

text: absorption

text: spectrum of water vapor, the main greenhouse gas, is most important in the dynamics of the window. Other gases, especially

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: ozone

text: , partly block transmission.

text: The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun's potential well becomes kinetic energy; requiring another large delta-v change to do anything other than rapidly pass by Mercury. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the Solar System completely. As a result, only two space probes have visited it so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.

text: The

text: potential energy

text: liberated by moving down the Sun's

text: potential well

text: becomes

text: kinetic energy

text: ; requiring another large delta-v change to do anything other than rapidly pass by Mercury. To land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors.

text: Aerobraking

text: is ruled out because Mercury has a negligible atmosphere. A trip to Mercury requires more rocket fuel than that required to

text: escape

text: the Solar System completely. As a result, only two space probes have visited it so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a

text: solar sail

text: to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun.

text: Photoacoustic spectroscopy is the measurement of the effect of absorbed electromagnetic energy (particularly of light) on matter by means of acoustic detection. The discovery of the photoacoustic effect dates to 1880 when Alexander Graham Bell showed that thin discs emitted sound when exposed to a beam of sunlight that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted disk. The absorbed energy from the light causes local heating and through thermal expansion a pressure wave or sound. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible portions of the solar spectrum (i.e., the infrared and the ultraviolet) can also produce sounds.

text: Photoacoustic spectroscopy is the measurement of the effect of absorbed

text: electromagnetic energy

text: (particularly of

text: light

text: ) on

text: matter

text: by means of

text: acoustic

text: detection. The discovery of the

text: photoacoustic effect

text: dates to 1880 when

text: Alexander Graham Bell

text: showed that thin discs emitted

text: sound

text: when exposed to a

text: beam

text: of

text: sunlight

text: that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted disk. The

text: absorbed

text: energy

text: from the light causes local

text: heat

text: ing and through

text: thermal expansion

text: a

text: pressure

text: wave or sound. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible portions of the solar

text: spectrum

text: (i.e., the

text: infrared

text: and the

text: ultraviolet

text: ) can also produce sounds.

text: World Energy Outlook 2008, mentioned above, also describes a "450 Policy Scenario", in which extra energy investments to 2030 amount to $9.3 trillion over the Reference Scenario. The scenario also features, after 2020, the participation of major economies such as China and India in a global cap-and-trade scheme initially operating in OECD and European Union countries. Also the less conservative 450 ppm scenario calls for extensive deployment of negative emissions, i.e. the removal of CO from the atmosphere. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) and OECD, "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of BECCS".

text: World Energy Outlook 2008, mentioned above, also describes a "450 Policy Scenario", in which extra energy investments to 2030 amount to

text: 9.3 trillion over the Reference Scenario. The scenario also features, after 2020, the participation of major economies such as

text: China

text: and

text: India

text: in a global cap-and-trade scheme initially operating in

entity_name: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: OECD

text: and

text: European Union

text: countries. Also the less conservative 450 ppm scenario calls for extensive deployment of

text: negative emissions

text: , i.e. the removal of CO from the atmosphere. According to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) and OECD, "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of

entity_name: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage

text: BECCS

text: Hadley cells exist on either side of the equator. Each cell encircles the globe and acts to transport energy from the equator to 30th latitude. This is the result of the buoyancy of warm air rising from the equator to the tropopause; its movement as it is pushed poleward by air rising from below; its cooling as it moves poleward at high altitude; its sinking near subtropics (30th parallels); and finally its equatorward return near the surface, completing the loop. In higher latitudes, the energy transport is also accomplished by cyclones and anticyclones that cause relatively warm air to move polewards and cold air to move equatorwards. The large scale tropical overturning cell is referred to as the Hadley cell. Why it extends only to 30 degrees latitude and what determines its strength are questions addressed by dynamical meteorology.

text: Hadley cells exist on either side of the equator. Each cell encircles the globe and acts to transport energy from the equator to 30th latitude. This is the result of the buoyancy of warm air rising from the equator to the

text: tropopause

text: ; its movement as it is pushed poleward by air rising from below; its cooling as it moves poleward at high altitude; its sinking near subtropics (30th parallels); and finally its equatorward return near the surface, completing the loop. In higher latitudes, the energy transport is also accomplished by cyclones and anticyclones that cause relatively warm air to move polewards and cold air to move equatorwards. The large scale tropical overturning cell is referred to as the Hadley cell. Why it extends only to 30 degrees latitude and what determines its strength are questions addressed by dynamical

text: meteorology

text: Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength λ, or photon energy E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from  (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, where as wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:

text: Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the

text: frequency

text: f,

text: wavelength

text: λ

text: , or

text: photon

text: energy

text: E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from  (1

text: GeV

text: gamma rays) down to the local

text: plasma frequency

text: of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of

text: atom

text: s, where as wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the

text: universe

text: Photon energy

text: is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion

text: electron volt

text: s), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a

text: femto

text: electronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:

text: Worldwide there are broader packaging scoring systems that address the full environmental impact of packaging. Recycling being one factor, other vital considerations include the use of recycled materials in the package, avoidance of toxic substances, minimization of packaging, effects on atmosphere (greenhouse gas, VOC, etc.), use of renewable resources, etc.   Efforts involve methodologies such as life cycle assessment to inventory the all environmental impacts and factors.There are many Sustainability metrics and indices, some specifically for packaging.

text: Worldwide there are broader packaging scoring systems that address the full environmental impact of packaging. Recycling being one factor, other vital considerations include the use of recycled materials in the package, avoidance of toxic substances, minimization of packaging, effects on atmosphere (greenhouse gas, VOC, etc.), use of

text: renewable resource

text: s, etc.   Efforts involve methodologies such as

text: life cycle assessment

text: to inventory the all environmental impacts and factors.There are many

text: Sustainability metrics and indices

text: , some specifically for packaging.

text: After the war many of the facilities continued to be utilized or were converted to different uses, for example the Denver Ordnance Plant was converted into the Denver Federal Center. More federal agencies began to come to the area which already had a large federal footprint and a well trained work force. The Atomic Energy Commission, National Center for Atmospheric Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and National Institute of Standards and Technology all opened offices in the Denver area. From 1953 to 1989, the Rocky Flats Plant, a Department of Energy nuclear weapon facility formerly located about  from Denver, produced fissile plutonium "pits" for nuclear warheads. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from nuclear waste stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the contamination of some parts of Denver, to varying degrees, with plutonium-239, a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years. Studies have linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. With the large military and federal presence in the area the aerospace industry followed. Large corporations such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, Honeywell, Ball Aerospace, and Lockheed-Martin came to Denver. These businesses brought jobs and money with them and began to influence the city displacing the wealthy entrepreneurs and pioneer families that had previously dominated political life.

text: After the war many of the facilities continued to be utilized or were converted to different uses, for example the Denver Ordnance Plant was converted into the

text: Denver Federal Center

text: . More federal agencies began to come to the area which already had a large federal footprint and a well trained work force. The

text: Atomic Energy Commission

entity_name: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: National Center for Atmospheric Research

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: , and

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: all opened offices in the Denver area. From 1953 to 1989, the

text: Rocky Flats Plant

text: , a

text: Department of Energy

text: nuclear weapon facility formerly located about  from Denver, produced

text: fissile

text: plutonium "

text: pits

text: " for

text: nuclear warhead

text: s. A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from

text: nuclear waste

text: stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the

entity_name: Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant

text: contamination of some parts of Denver

text: , to varying degrees, with

text: , a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years. Studies have linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats. With the large military and federal presence in the area the aerospace industry followed. Large corporations such as

text: IBM

text: Hewlett-Packard

text: Honeywell

text: Ball Aerospace

text: , and

text: Lockheed-Martin

text: came to Denver. These businesses brought jobs and money with them and began to influence the city displacing the wealthy entrepreneurs and pioneer families that had previously dominated political life.

text: Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere comes from the sun in the form of solar radiation (light from the sun, including invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).  Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate.  Averaged over a year, latitude is the most important factor determining the amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles.  This variation leads to the most obvious observation of regional climate: temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.

text: Almost all of the energy available to the Earth's surface and atmosphere comes from the sun in the form of

text: solar radiation

text: (light from the sun, including invisible ultraviolet and infrared light).  Variations in the amount of solar radiation reaching different parts of the Earth are a principal driver of global and regional climate.  Averaged over a year,

text: latitude

text: is the most important factor determining the amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere; the incident solar radiation decreases smoothly from the Equator to the poles.  This variation leads to the most obvious observation of regional climate: temperature tends to decrease with increasing latitude.

text: Very energetic gamma rays, with photon energies over ~30 GeV, can also be detected by ground based experiments. The extremely low photon fluxes at such high energies require detector effective areas that are impractically large for current space-based instruments. Fortunately, such high-energy photons produce extensive showers of secondary particles in the atmosphere that can be observed on the ground, both directly by radiation counters and optically via the Cherenkov light which the ultra-relativistic shower particles emit. The Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescope technique currently achieves the highest sensitivity.

text: Very energetic gamma rays, with photon energies over ~30 GeV, can also be detected by ground based experiments. The extremely low photon fluxes at such high energies require detector effective areas that are impractically large for current space-based instruments. Fortunately, such high-energy photons produce extensive showers of secondary particles in the atmosphere that can be observed on the ground, both directly by radiation counters and optically via the

text: Cherenkov light

text: which the ultra-relativistic shower particles emit. The

text: Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescope

text: technique currently achieves the highest sensitivity.

text: Using the measured stellar luminosity of Gliese 581 is of 0.013 times that of our Sun, it is possible to calculate Gliese 581 c's effective temperature a.k.a. black body temperature. (note: this probably differs from its surface temperature). According to Udry's team, the effective temperature for Gliese 581 c, assuming an albedo (reflectivity) such as Venus' (0.64), would be , and assuming an Earth-like albedo (0.296), then it would be , a range of temperatures which overlaps with the range that water would be liquid at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. However, the effective temperature and actual surface temperature can be very different due to the greenhouse properties of the planetary atmosphere: for example, Venus has an effective temperature of , but a surface temperature of  (mainly due to a 96.5% carbon dioxide atmosphere), a difference of about . Studies of the habitability (i.e. liquid water for extremophile forms of life) conclude that Gliese 581 c is likely to suffer from a runaway greenhouse effect similar to that found on Venus, as such, is highly unlikely to be habitable. Nevertheless, this runaway greenhouse effect could be prevented by the presence of sufficient reflective cloud cover on the planet's day side. Alternatively, if the surface were covered in ice, it would have a high albedo (reflectivity), and thus could reflect enough of the incident sunlight back into space to render the planet too cold for habitability, although this situation is expected to be very unstable except for very high albedos greater than about 0.95 (i.e. ice): release of carbon dioxide by volcanic activity or of water vapor due to heating at the substellar point would trigger a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: Using the measured stellar luminosity of Gliese 581 is of 0.013 times that of our Sun, it is possible to calculate Gliese 581 c's

text: effective temperature

text: a.k.a.

text: black body

text: temperature. (note: this probably differs from its

text: surface temperature

text: ). According to Udry's team, the effective temperature for Gliese 581 c, assuming an

text: albedo

text: (reflectivity) such as Venus' (0.64), would be , and assuming an Earth-like albedo (0.296), then it would be , a range of temperatures which overlaps with the

text: range that water would be liquid at a pressure of 1 atmosphere

text: . However, the effective temperature and actual surface temperature can be very different due to the greenhouse properties of the planetary atmosphere: for example, Venus has an effective temperature of , but a surface temperature of  (mainly due to a 96.5%

text: carbon dioxide atmosphere

text: ), a difference of about . Studies of the habitability (i.e. liquid water for extremophile forms of life) conclude that Gliese 581 c is likely to suffer from a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: similar to that found on

text: Venus

text: , as such, is highly unlikely to be habitable. Nevertheless, this runaway greenhouse effect could be prevented by the presence of sufficient reflective cloud cover on the planet's day side. Alternatively, if the surface were covered in ice, it would have a high

text: albedo

text: (reflectivity), and thus could reflect enough of the incident sunlight back into space to render the planet too cold for habitability, although this situation is expected to be very unstable except for very high albedos greater than about 0.95 (i.e. ice): release of

text: carbon dioxide

text: by volcanic activity or of water vapor due to heating at the substellar point would trigger a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing infrared energy leaving the planet. However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere, transported via evapotranspiration and latent heat fluxes or conduction/convection processes.  Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave infrared radiation back into space.

text: Longwave radiation is usually defined as outgoing

text: infrared

text: energy leaving the planet. However, the atmosphere absorbs parts initially, or cloud cover can reflect radiation. Generally, heat energy is transported between the planet's surface layers (land and ocean) to the atmosphere, transported via

text: evapotranspiration

text: and

text: latent heat

text: fluxes or

text: conduction

text: convection

text: processes.  Ultimately, energy is radiated in the form of longwave

text: infrared radiation

text: back into space.

text: Infrared (IR) is an invisible radiant energy, electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible light, extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (frequency 430 THz) to 1000000 nm (300 GHz) (although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments). Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared.

text: Infrared (IR) is an invisible radiant energy,

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: with longer

text: wavelength

text: s than those of

text: visible light

text: , extending from the nominal

text: red

text: edge of the

text: visible spectrum

text: at 700

text: nanometers

text: frequency

text: THz

text: ) to 1000000 nm (300

text: GHz

text: ) (although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments). Most of the

text: thermal radiation

text: emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared.

text: Nitrogen directly affects soil respiration in several ways. Nitrogen must be taken in by roots in order to promote plant growth and life. Most available nitrogen is in the form of NO, which costs 0.4 units of CO to enter the root because energy must be used to move it up a concentration gradient. Once inside the root the NO must be reduced to NH. This step requires more energy, which equals 2 units of CO per molecule reduced. In plants with mycorrhizal symbionts, which fix atmospheric nitrogen, the energetic cost to the plant to acquire one molecule of  NH  from atmospheric N is 2.36 CO. It is essential that plants uptake nitrogen from the soil or rely on symbionts to fix it from the atmosphere in order to assure growth, reproduction and long-term survival.

text: Nitrogen

text: directly affects soil respiration in several ways. Nitrogen must be taken in by roots in order to promote plant growth and life. Most available nitrogen is in the form of NO, which costs 0.4 units of CO to enter the root because energy must be used to move it up a concentration gradient. Once inside the root the NO must be reduced to NH. This step requires more energy, which equals 2 units of CO per molecule reduced. In plants with

text: mycorrhiza

text: l symbionts, which fix atmospheric nitrogen, the energetic cost to the plant to acquire one molecule of  NH  from atmospheric N is 2.36 CO. It is essential that plants uptake nitrogen from the soil or rely on symbionts to fix it from the atmosphere in order to assure growth,

text: reproduction

text: and long-term survival.

text: The Greenhouse Effect is a theory of Supreme Court justices' behavior, first proposed by Hoover Institution economist Thomas Sowell and popularized by D.C. Court of Appeals Senior Judge Laurence Silberman in a speech to The Federalist Society in 1992. Here, the word "Greenhouse" refers to Linda Greenhouse, a Pulitzer Prize winning reporter who covered the Supreme Court for the New York Times for 40 years. Silberman used the term to postulate a tendency of conservative Supreme Court Justices to vote with the liberals more often as their careers progress due to a desire for favorable press coverage. He said "It seems that the primary objective of The Times's legal reporters is to put activist heat on recently appointed Supreme Court justices."

text: The Greenhouse Effect is a theory of

text: Supreme Court

text: justices' behavior, first proposed by

text: Hoover Institution

text: economist

text: Thomas Sowell

text: and popularized by

entity_name: United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit

text: D.C. Court of Appeals

text: Senior Judge

text: Laurence Silberman

text: in a speech to

text: The Federalist Society

text: in 1992. Here, the word "Greenhouse" refers to

text: Linda Greenhouse

text: , a

text: Pulitzer Prize

text: winning reporter who covered the Supreme Court for the

text: New York Times

text: for 40 years. Silberman used the term to postulate a tendency of conservative

text: Supreme Court

text: Justices to vote with the liberals more often as their careers progress due to a desire for favorable press coverage. He said "It seems that the primary objective of The Times's legal reporters is to put activist heat on recently appointed Supreme Court justices."

text: Anisotropic energy is energy that is directionally specific. The word anisotropy means "directionally dependent", hence the definition. The most common form of anisotropic energy is magnetocrystalline anisotropy, which is commonly studied in ferrimagnets. In ferrimagnets, there are islands or domains of atoms that are all coordinated in a certain direction; this spontaneous positioning is often called the "easy" direction, indicating that this is the lowest energy state for these atoms. In order to study magnetocrystalline anisotropy, energy (usually in the form of an electric current) is applied to the domain, which causes the crystals to deflect from the "easy" to "hard" positions. The energy required to do this is defined as the anisotropic energy. The easy and hard alignments and their relative energies are due to the interaction between spin magnetic moment of each atom and the crystal lattice of the compound being studied. One of the many projects currently researching this phenomenon is directed by Stefan Krause and Roland Wiesendanger of the University of Hamburg. Using spin-polarized scanning tunnelling microscopes they are observing the effect upon the macrospin states of domains by passing a spin-polarized current through the atoms, and observing their alignment and how long they maintain their spin state.

text: Anisotropic energy is energy that is directionally specific. The word

text: anisotropy

text: means "directionally dependent", hence the definition. The most common form of anisotropic energy is

text: magnetocrystalline anisotropy

text: , which is commonly studied in

text: ferrimagnets

text: . In ferrimagnets, there are islands or domains of atoms that are all coordinated in a certain direction; this spontaneous positioning is often called the "easy" direction, indicating that this is the lowest energy state for these atoms. In order to study magnetocrystalline anisotropy, energy (usually in the form of an

text: electric current

text: ) is applied to the domain, which causes the crystals to deflect from the "easy" to "hard" positions. The energy required to do this is defined as the anisotropic energy. The easy and hard alignments and their relative energies are due to the interaction between spin magnetic moment of each atom and the

text: crystal lattice

text: of the compound being studied. One of the many projects currently researching this phenomenon is directed by Stefan Krause and Roland Wiesendanger of the

text: University of Hamburg

text: . Using spin-polarized

text: scanning tunnelling microscope

text: s they are observing the effect upon the macrospin states of domains by passing a spin-polarized current through the atoms, and observing their alignment and how long they maintain their

text: spin state

text: As noted, the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells somewhat resembles that of a broader spectrum of molecularly damaging radiation, which overlaps ionizing radiation and extends beyond, to somewhat lower energies into all regions of UV and sometimes visible light in some systems (such as photosynthetic systems in leaves). Although DNA is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain molecular bonds to form thymine dimers. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause sunburn to unprotected skin, as a result of photoreactions in collagen and (in the UV-B range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of reactive oxygen species in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

text: As noted, the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells somewhat resembles that of a broader spectrum of molecularly damaging radiation, which overlaps ionizing radiation and extends beyond, to somewhat lower energies into all regions of UV and sometimes visible light in some systems (such as photosynthetic systems in leaves). Although

text: DNA

text: is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain

text: molecular bond

text: s to form

text: thymine dimer

text: s. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause

text: sunburn

text: to unprotected skin, as a result of

text: photoreactions

text: in

text: collagen

text: and (in the

text: UV-B

text: range) also damage in DNA (for example,

text: pyrimidine dimers

text: ). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of

text: reactive oxygen species

text: in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.

text: In 2002 Dwyer, along with colleagues from Florida Institute of Technology and the University of Florida, launched rockets during thunderstorms at a facility now known as the UF/Florida Tech International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida. Using a heavily shielded instrument containing a scintillation detector, built by Dwyer and his students, they found that lightning does indeed produce x-rays and that x-ray emission is common for lightning. This research was published in Science (journal) (Dwyer et al. 2003). Since that time, Dwyer and his collaborators have established many key properties of the x-ray emissions from lightning, including the fact that the x-ray emission is produced during the lightning stepping process, has energies up to approximately 1 MeV and the x-rays are produced in the high field regions generated by the leader as it propagates. In 2005 TERA (Thunderstorm Energetic Radiation Array), a 24 detector array, was built to continue measuring x-rays and gamma-rays from lightning and to further study the x-ray characteristics that are associated with thunderstorms. Also, in 2005, Dwyer and collaborators made the surprising discovery that long laboratory sparks in air also generate x-rays similar to lightning, which has since motivated many groups around the world to study the x-ray emissions from sparks.  Most recently, Dwyer and his team have built and deployed an x-ray camera at the ICLRT and have made the world’s first x-ray images of lightning. Dwyer also has made several important theoretical contributions to the newly developing field of High Energy Atmospheric Physics, including work on runaway electron or runaway breakdown physics, gamma-ray and radio frequency emissions or atmospheric noise, and lightning initiation. In 2003, he introduced the Relativistic Feedback Mechanism of relativistic-runaway-electron avalanches, a new discharge mechanism in air, which explains how thunderclouds may generate very large flashes of gamma-rays called terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs).  This work also showed the importance of positrons (anti-electrons) for thundercloud electrodynamics.  Working with David Smith from UCSC he also helped establish that TGFs originate from deep within our atmosphere and not at high altitudes as had been previously assumed.  Indeed, Dwyer and his team observed a ground level TGF at Camp Blanding in 2004.  Finally, using BATSE data form the Compton Gamma-ray Observatory, Dwyer and collaborators discovered Terrestrial Electron Beams (TEBs)  in the inner magnetosphere, which are generated by the high energy emissions from thunderstorms.

text: In 2002 Dwyer, along with colleagues from Florida Institute of Technology and the

text: University of Florida

text: , launched rockets during thunderstorms at a facility now known as the UF/Florida Tech International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at

text: Camp Blanding, Florida

text: . Using a heavily shielded instrument containing a

text: scintillation detector

text: , built by Dwyer and his students, they found that lightning does indeed produce x-rays and that x-ray emission is common for lightning. This research was published in

text: Science (journal)

text: (Dwyer et al. 2003). Since that time, Dwyer and his collaborators have established many key properties of the x-ray emissions from lightning, including the fact that the x-ray emission is produced during the lightning stepping process, has energies up to approximately 1

text: MeV

text: and the x-rays are produced in the high field regions generated by the leader as it propagates. In 2005 TERA (Thunderstorm Energetic Radiation Array), a 24 detector array, was built to continue measuring x-rays and gamma-rays from lightning and to further study the x-ray characteristics that are associated with thunderstorms. Also, in 2005, Dwyer and collaborators made the surprising discovery that long laboratory sparks in air also generate x-rays similar to lightning, which has since motivated many groups around the world to study the x-ray emissions from sparks.  Most recently, Dwyer and his team have built and deployed an x-ray camera at the ICLRT and have made the world’s first x-ray images of lightning. Dwyer also has made several important theoretical contributions to the newly developing field of High Energy Atmospheric Physics, including work on runaway electron or

text: runaway breakdown

text: physics, gamma-ray and radio frequency emissions or atmospheric noise, and lightning initiation. In 2003, he introduced the Relativistic Feedback Mechanism of

text: relativistic-runaway-electron avalanche

text: s, a new discharge mechanism in air, which explains how thunderclouds may generate very large flashes of gamma-rays called

text: terrestrial gamma-ray flashes

text: (TGFs).  This work also showed the importance of

text: positrons

text: (anti-electrons) for thundercloud electrodynamics.  Working with David Smith from UCSC he also helped establish that TGFs originate from deep within our atmosphere and not at high altitudes as had been previously assumed.  Indeed, Dwyer and his team observed a ground level TGF at Camp Blanding in 2004.  Finally, using BATSE data form the Compton Gamma-ray Observatory, Dwyer and collaborators discovered Terrestrial Electron Beams (TEBs)  in the inner magnetosphere, which are generated by the high energy emissions from thunderstorms.

text: Voltage drop describes how energy is supplied of a voltage source that is reduced as electric current moves through the passive elements (elements that do not supply voltage) of an electrical circuit. Voltage drops across internal resistances of the source, across conductors, across contacts, and across connectors are undesired as the supplied energy is lost (dissipated). Voltage drops across loads and across other active circuit elements are desired as the supplied energy performs useful work.

text: Voltage drop describes how

text: energy

text: is supplied of a

text: voltage

text: source that is reduced as

text: electric current

text: moves through the passive elements (elements that do not supply voltage) of an

text: electrical

text: circuit

text: . Voltage drops across

text: internal resistance

text: s of the source, across

text: conductors

text: , across

text: contacts

text: , and across

text: connectors

text: are undesired as the supplied energy is lost (dissipated). Voltage drops across

text: loads

text: and across other active circuit elements are desired as the supplied energy performs useful work.

text: X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with photon energies above those of visible (and ultraviolet) light. X-rays are distinguished from gamma rays in that they are produced not by transitions within the atomic nucleus, but either by deceleration of a charged particle or by the transition of state of orbital electrons. Diagnostic X-rays are produced using X-ray tubes. The radio waves portion of the electromagnetic spectrum represents much lower energy/frequency photons than visible light. Thus, referring to the property of X-ray density as radiodensity appears contradictory by current knowledge, but is still used as a historical artifact.

text: X-rays are part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , with photon energies above those of

text: visible

text: (and

text: ultraviolet

text: ) light. X-rays are distinguished from

text: gamma ray

text: s in that they are produced not by transitions within the

text: atomic nucleus

text: , but either by deceleration of a

text: charged particle

text: or by the transition of state of

text: orbital

text: electron

text: s. Diagnostic X-rays are produced using

text: X-ray tube

text: s. The

text: radio waves

text: portion of the electromagnetic spectrum represents much lower energy/frequency photons than visible light. Thus, referring to the property of X-ray density as radiodensity appears contradictory by current knowledge, but is still used as a historical artifact.

text: Solar energy in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an inverse-square law. So the solar energy available at distance d from the Sun is E = 1367/d W/m, where d is measured in astronomical units (AU) and 1367 watts/m is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.

text: Solar energy

text: in orbit is abundant, reliable, and is commonly used to power satellites today. There is no night in free space, and no clouds or atmosphere to block sunlight. Light intensity obeys an

text: inverse-square law

text: . So the solar energy available at distance d from the Sun is E = 1367/d W/m, where d is measured in

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU) and 1367 watts/m is the energy available at the distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun, 1 AU.

text: Building upon John Tyndall's research on greenhouse gases, Hunt first proposed the theory which linked climate change from the Carboniferous to the modern age to concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in an 1863 submission to the American Journal of Science and Arts. He further explored at a meeting for the British Society for the Advancement of Science in the fall of 1878. This was well before Arrhenius established the theory of the greenhouse effect. Hunt later hypothesized that the high concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the geologic past was of cosmic, rather than volcanic, origin.

text: Building upon

text: John Tyndall

text: 's research on

text: greenhouse gases

text: , Hunt first proposed the theory which linked

text: climate change

text: from the

text: Carboniferous

text: to the modern age to concentrations of

text: carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

text: in an 1863 submission to the

text: American Journal of Science and Arts

text: . He further explored at a meeting for the British Society for the Advancement of Science in the fall of 1878. This was well before

text: Arrhenius

text: established the theory of the greenhouse effect. Hunt later hypothesized that the high concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the geologic past was of cosmic, rather than volcanic, origin.

text: VIRTIS: The "Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer" (VIRTIS) is an imaging spectrometer that observes in the near-ultraviolet, visible, and infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. It analyzed all layers of the atmosphere, surface temperature and surface/atmosphere interaction phenomena.

text: VIRTIS: The "Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer" (VIRTIS) is an imaging

text: spectrometer

text: that observes in the near-ultraviolet, visible, and

text: infrared

text: parts of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . It analyzed all layers of the atmosphere, surface temperature and surface/atmosphere interaction phenomena.

text:
|- style="background:#fcc;"| 1| October 29| @Portland| | Russell Westbrook (38)| Ibaka & Perkins (8)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Moda Center
19,411| 0–1|-style="background:#fcc;"|2|October 30| @ L.A.Clippers| | Perry Jones (32)| Steven Adams (7)| Sebastian Telfair (7)| Staples Center
19,060| 0–2|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3| November 1| Denver| | Jones & Ibaka (23)| Roberson & Thomas (8)| Sebastian Telfair (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 4| November 3| @ Brooklyn|  | Reggie Jackson (23)| Ibaka & Adams (9)| Sebastian Telfair (6)| Barclays Center
17,732| 1–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 4| @ Toronto|  | Serge Ibaka (25)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Reggie Jackson (14)| Air Canada Centre
18,877| 1–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 6| November 7| Memphis| | Reggie Jackson (22)| Steven Adams (11)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7| November 9| Sacramento|  | Reggie Jackson (22)| Ibaka & Lamb (9)| Reggie Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 2–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8| November 11|  @Milwaukee| | Reggie Jackson (29)| Steven Adams (10)| Reggie Jackson (4)| BMO Harris Bradley Center
12,390| 2–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9| November 12| @ Boston| | Jackson & Morrow (28)| Lance Thomas (13)| Reggie Jackson (8)| TD Garden
17,043| 3–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 14| Detroit| | Jeremy Lamb (24)| Ibaka & Lamb (10)| Reggie Jackson (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–7|- style="background:#fcc;"|11| November 16| Houston| | Thomas & Jackson (15)| Reggie Jackson (11)| Reggie Jackson (4)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 12| November 18| @ Utah| | Jeremy Lamb (19)| Thomas & Adams (8)| Reggie Jackson (7)| Energy Solutions Arena
17,190| 3–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 13| November 19| @ Denver| | Serge Ibaka (22)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Reggie Jackson (9)| Pepsi Center
14,140| 3–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 14| November 21| Brooklyn| | Reggie Jackson (21)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 15| November 23| Golden State| | Reggie Jackson (22)| Anthony Morrow (12)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16| November 26| Utah|  | Reggie Jackson (22)| Steven Adams (11)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 4–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 28| New York| | Russell Westbrook (32)| Steven Adams (13)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 5–12|- style="background:#fcc;"| 18| December 2| @ New Orleans|  | Kevin Durant (27)| Andre Roberson (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Smoothie King Center
13,903| 5–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19| December 5| @ Philadelphia|  | Russell Westbrook (27)| Kendrick Perkins (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Wells Fargo Center
15,092| 6–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| December 7| @ Detroit|  | Kevin Durant (28)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Palace of Auburn Hills
13,090| 7–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 9| Milwaukee|  | Russell Westbrook (28)| Durant & Perkins (9)| Durant & Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 11| Cleveland|  | Russell Westbrook (26)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 9–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23| December 12| @ Minnesota|  | Russell Westbrook (34)| Steven Adams (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Target Center
13,557| 10–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 14| Phoenix|  | Russell Westbrook (28)| Kendrick Perkins (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 11–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25| December 16| @ Sacramento|  | Russell Westbrook (32)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Sleep Train Arena
17,317| 12–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 18| @ Golden State|  | Russell Westbrook (33)| Andre Roberson (12)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 12–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 19| @ L.A.Lakers|  | Russell Westbrook (31)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Staples Center
18,997| 13–14|- style="background:#fcc;"| 28| December 21| New Orleans| | Russell Westbrook (29)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 13–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 29| December 23| Portland| | Russell Westbrook (40)| Steven Adams (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 13–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 30| December 25| @ San Antonio| | Russell Westbrook (34)| Steven Adams (15)| Russell Westbrook (11)| AT&T Center
18,581| 14–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 31| December 26| Charlotte|  | Russell Westbrook (29)| Serge Ibaka (14)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 15–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 32| December 28| @Dallas|  | Serge Ibaka (26)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| American Airlines Center
20,417| 15–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33| December 31| Phoenix|  | Kevin Durant (44)| Kevin Durant (10)| Kevin Durant (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 16–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34| January 2| Washington| | Kevin Durant (34)| Kevin Durant (8)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 17–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35| January 5| @Golden State| | Russell Westbrook (22)| Durant & Morrow(10)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 17–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 36| January 7| @ Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (24)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Westbrook & Jackson (4)| Sleep Train Arena
16,037| 17–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37| January 9| Utah| | Kevin Durant (32)| Ibaka & Perkins (7)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 18–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38| January 15| @ Houston|  | Kevin Durant (24)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Toyota Center
18,315| 18–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39| January 16| Golden State|  | Kevin Durant (36)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 19–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40| January 18| @ Orlando|  | Kevin Durant (21)| Kevin Durant (11)| Kevin Durant (8)| Amway Center
16,128| 20–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41| January 20| @ Miami|  | Durant & Westbrook (19)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Kevin Durant (8)| American Airlines Arena
19,735| 21–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42| January 21| @ Washington| | Kevin Durant (34)| Steven Adams (20)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Verizon Center
20,356| 22–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 43| January 23| @ Atlanta|  | Russell Westbrook (22)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Philips Arena
19,203| 22–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 44| January 25| @ Cleveland|  | Kevin Durant (32)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Quicken Loans Arena
20,562| 22–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45| January 26| Minnesota| | Russell Westbrook (18)| Serge Ibaka (19)| Westbrook & Waiters (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 23–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 46| January 28| @ New York| | Russell Westbrook (40)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Westbrook & Jackson (4)| Madison Square Garden
19,812|23–23|-style="background:#fcc;"|47|January 31|@ Memphis|| Kevin Durant (15)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (5)| FedEx Forum
18,119|23–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 48| February 2| Orlando| | Russell Westbrook (25)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 24–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 49| February 4| @ New Orleans| | Russell Westbrook (45)| Steven Adams (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Smoothie King Center
17,156| 25–24|- style="background:#fcc;"| 50| February 6| New Orleans|  | Russell Westbrook (48)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 25–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51| February 8| L.A.Clippers| | Kevin Durant (29)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Durant & Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 26–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 52| February 9| @ Denver|  | Kevin Durant (40)| Mitch McGary (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Pepsi Center
16,511| 27–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53| February 11| Memphis| | Kevin Durant (26)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 28–25|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break|- style="background:#cfc;"| 54| February 19| Dallas|  | Russell Westbrook (34)| Serge Ibaka (22)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 29–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 55| February 21| @ Charlotte| | Russell Westbrook (33)| Enes Kanter (13)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Time Warner Cable Arena
19,303| 30–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 56| February 22| Denver|  | Russell Westbrook (21)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 31–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 57| February 24| Indiana|  | Serge Ibaka (23)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 32–25|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58| February 26| @ Phoenix| | Russell Westbrook (39)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (11)| US Airways Center
17,514| 32–26|- style="background:#fcc;"| 59| February 27| @ Portland|  | Russell Westbrook (40)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Moda Center
19,962| 32–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60| March 1| @ L.A. Lakers| | Ibaka & Augustin (18)| Enes Kanter (15)| Kanter & Augustin (5)| Staples Center
18,997| 33–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 61| March 4| Philadelphia| | Russell Westbrook (49)| Russell Westbrook (16)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 34–27|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62| March 5| @ Chicago|  | Russell Westbrook (43)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| United Center
21,696| 34–28|- style="background:#cfc;"| 63| March 8| Toronto| | Russell Westbrook (30)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 35–28|- style="background:#fcc;"| 64| March 11| L.A. Clippers| | Anthony Morrow (26)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 35–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 65| March 13| Minnesota| | Russell Westbrook (29)| Enes Kanter (15)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 36–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 66| March 15| Chicago|  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Enes Kanter (18)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 37–29|- style="background:#fcc;"| 67| March 16| @ Dallas|  | Russell Westbrook (24)| Kanter & McGary (13)| Russell Westbrook (12)| American Airlines Center
20,231| 37–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68| March 18| Boston|  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Steven Adams (13)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 38–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69| March 20| Atlanta| | Russell Westbrook (36)| Steven Adams (16)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 39–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70| March 22| Miami|  | Enes Kanter (27)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 71| March 24| L.A. Lakers|  | Russell Westbrook (27)| Enes Kanter (16)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 41–30|- style="background:#fcc;"| 72| March 25| @ San Antonio| | Kanter, Westbrook (16)| Enes Kanter (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| AT&T Center
18,581| 41–31|- style="background:#fcc;"| 73| March 28| @ Utah| | Russell Westbrook (37)| Steven Adams (14)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Energy Solutions Arena
19,911| 41–32|-style="background:#cfc;"|74|March 29| @ Phoenix|| Russell Westbrook (33)| Steven Adams (16)| Russell Westbrook (7)| US Airways Center
17,538| 42–32|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75| April 1| Dallas| | Anthony Morrow (32)| Enes Kanter (16)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42–33|- style="background:#fcc;"| 76| April 3| @ Memphis|  | Enes Kanter (24)| Enes Kanter (17)| Russell Westbrook (7)| FedExForum
18,119| 42–34|- style="background:#fcc;"| 77| April 5| Houston| | Russell Westbrook (40)| Enes Kanter (17)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42–35|- style="background:#fcc;"| 78| April 7| San Antonio| | Russell Westbrook (17)| Mitch McGary (9)| DJ Augustin (4)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42–36|- style="background:#cfc;"| 79| April 10| Sacramento| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Steven Adams (11)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 43–36|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80| April 12| @ Indiana|  | Russell Westbrook (54)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Bankers Life Fieldhouse
18,165| 43–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 81| April 13| Portland|  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Enes Kanter (13)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 44–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 82| April 15| @ Minnesota|  | Russell Westbrook (37)| Enes Kanter (15)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Target Center
18,250| 45–37

text: |- style="background:#fcc;"| 1| October 29| @

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Ibaka

text: Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Moda Center

text: <br>19,411| 0–1|-style="background:#fcc;"|2|October 30| @

text: L.A.Clippers

text: Perry Jones

text: Steven Adams

text: Sebastian Telfair

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,060| 0–2|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3| November 1|

text: Denver

text: Jones

text: Ibaka

text: Roberson

text: Thomas

text: Sebastian Telfair

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 4| November 3| @

text: Brooklyn

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Ibaka

text: Adams

text: Sebastian Telfair

text: Barclays Center

text: <br>17,732| 1–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 4| @

text: Toronto

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Air Canada Centre

text: <br>18,877| 1–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 6| November 7|

text: Memphis

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Steven Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7| November 9|

text: Sacramento

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Ibaka

text: Lamb

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 2–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8| November 11|  @

text: Milwaukee

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Steven Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: BMO Harris Bradley Center

text: <br>12,390| 2–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9| November 12| @

text: Boston

text: Jackson

text: Morrow

text: Lance Thomas

text: Reggie Jackson

text: TD Garden

text: <br>17,043| 3–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 14|

text: Detroit

text: Jeremy Lamb

text: Ibaka

text: Lamb

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–7|- style="background:#fcc;"|11| November 16|

text: Houston

text: Thomas

text: Jackson

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 12| November 18| @

text: Utah

text: Jeremy Lamb

text: Thomas

text: Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Energy Solutions Arena

text: <br>17,190| 3–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 13| November 19| @

text: Denver

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>14,140| 3–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 14| November 21|

text: Brooklyn

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 15| November 23|

text: Golden State

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Anthony Morrow

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16| November 26|

text: Utah

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Steven Adams

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 4–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 28|

text: New York

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 5–12|- style="background:#fcc;"| 18| December 2| @

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Andre Roberson

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>13,903| 5–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19| December 5| @

text: Philadelphia

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Wells Fargo Center

text: <br>15,092| 6–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| December 7| @

text: Detroit

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Palace of Auburn Hills

text: <br>13,090| 7–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 9|

text: Milwaukee

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Perkins

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 11|

text: Cleveland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 9–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23| December 12| @

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>13,557| 10–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 14|

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 11–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25| December 16| @

text: Sacramento

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>17,317| 12–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 18| @

text: Golden State

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Andre Roberson

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 12–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 19| @

text: L.A.Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 13–14|- style="background:#fcc;"| 28| December 21|

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 13–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 29| December 23|

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 13–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 30| December 25| @

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 14–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 31| December 26|

text: Charlotte

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 15–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 32| December 28| @

text: Dallas

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,417| 15–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33| December 31|

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 16–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34| January 2|

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 17–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35| January 5| @

text: Golden State

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Morrow

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 17–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 36| January 7| @

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>16,037| 17–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37| January 9|

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 18–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38| January 15| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,315| 18–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39| January 16|

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 19–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40| January 18| @

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Amway Center

text: <br>16,128| 20–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41| January 20| @

text: Miami

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: American Airlines Arena

text: <br>19,735| 21–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42| January 21| @

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Verizon Center

text: <br>20,356| 22–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 43| January 23| @

text: Atlanta

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Philips Arena

text: <br>19,203| 22–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 44| January 25| @

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Quicken Loans Arena

text: <br>20,562| 22–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45| January 26|

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Waiters

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 23–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 46| January 28| @

text: New York

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: Madison Square Garden

text: <br>19,812|23–23|-style="background:#fcc;"|47|January 31|@

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedEx Forum

text: <br>18,119|23–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 48| February 2|

text: Orlando

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 24–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 49| February 4| @

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>17,156| 25–24|- style="background:#fcc;"| 50| February 6|

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 25–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51| February 8|

text: L.A.Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 26–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 52| February 9| @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Mitch McGary

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>16,511| 27–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53| February 11|

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 28–25|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|

text: All-Star Break

text: |- style="background:#cfc;"| 54| February 19|

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 29–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 55| February 21| @

text: Charlotte

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Time Warner Cable Arena

text: <br>19,303| 30–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 56| February 22|

text: Denver

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 31–25|- style="background:#cfc;"| 57| February 24|

text: Indiana

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 32–25|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58| February 26| @

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>17,514| 32–26|- style="background:#fcc;"| 59| February 27| @

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Moda Center

text: <br>19,962| 32–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60| March 1| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Ibaka

text: Augustin

text: Enes Kanter

text: Kanter

text: Augustin

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 33–27|- style="background:#cfc;"| 61| March 4|

text: Philadelphia

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 34–27|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62| March 5| @

text: Chicago

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: United Center

text: <br>21,696| 34–28|- style="background:#cfc;"| 63| March 8|

text: Toronto

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 35–28|- style="background:#fcc;"| 64| March 11|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Anthony Morrow

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 35–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 65| March 13|

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 36–29|- style="background:#cfc;"| 66| March 15|

text: Chicago

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 37–29|- style="background:#fcc;"| 67| March 16| @

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kanter

text: McGary

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,231| 37–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68| March 18|

text: Boston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 38–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69| March 20|

text: Atlanta

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 39–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70| March 22|

text: Miami

text: Enes Kanter

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–30|- style="background:#cfc;"| 71| March 24|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 41–30|- style="background:#fcc;"| 72| March 25| @

text: San Antonio

text: Kanter

text: Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 41–31|- style="background:#fcc;"| 73| March 28| @

text: Utah

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Energy Solutions Arena

text: <br>19,911| 41–32|-style="background:#cfc;"|74|March 29| @

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>17,538| 42–32|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75| April 1|

text: Dallas

text: Anthony Morrow

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42–33|- style="background:#fcc;"| 76| April 3| @

text: Memphis

text: Enes Kanter

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedExForum

text: <br>18,119| 42–34|- style="background:#fcc;"| 77| April 5|

text: Houston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42–35|- style="background:#fcc;"| 78| April 7|

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Mitch McGary

text: DJ Augustin

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42–36|- style="background:#cfc;"| 79| April 10|

text: Sacramento

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 43–36|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80| April 12| @

text: Indiana

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Bankers Life Fieldhouse

text: <br>18,165| 43–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 81| April 13|

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 44–37|- style="background:#cfc;"| 82| April 15| @

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>18,250| 45–37

text: Over land, intense, rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum.  The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air.  This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area.  Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude.   Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body.  Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to  in height.  Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America, northern Africa, and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions.  Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes.  Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality.

text: Over land, intense, rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum.  The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air.  This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area.  Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude.   Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body.  Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to  in height.  Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America, northern Africa, and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer

text: monsoon

text: conditions.  Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of

text: sea breeze

text: s.  Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality.

text: The movement of wind waves can be captured by wave energy devices. The energy density (per unit area) of regular sinusoidal waves depends on the water density

text: The movement of wind waves can be captured by

text: wave energy devices

text: . The energy density (per unit area) of regular sinusoidal waves depends on the water

text: density

text: The  Cherenkov Array at Themis (CAT) imager is an atmospheric Cherenkov imaging telescope for detection of high-energy gamma rays (>200 GeV), sited in the French Pyrenees.

text: The  Cherenkov Array at Themis (CAT) imager is an atmospheric Cherenkov imaging

text: telescope

text: for detection of high-energy

text: gamma ray

text: s (>200 GeV), sited in the French Pyrenees.

text: TXU continued to own transmission and distribution facilities, but was required to open retail sales to competition. Competitors during this time period included Champion Energy, Dynowatt, Texas Power, Reliant Energy, Bounce Energy, Direct Energy, Stream Energy, Gexa Energy, Green Mountain Energy, Cirro Energy, and Commerce Energy. Surprisingly, many utility customers opted to remain with TXU despite active retail competition. [See "Power to Choose: An Analysis of Consumer Behavior in the Texas Retail Electricity Market" with Ali Hortacsu and Seyed Ali Madanizadeh]

text: TXU continued to own transmission and distribution facilities, but was required to open retail sales to competition. Competitors during this time period included

text: Champion Energy

text: Dynowatt

text: Texas Power

text: Reliant Energy

text: Bounce Energy

text: Direct Energy

text: Stream Energy

text: Gexa Energy

text: Green Mountain Energy

text: Cirro Energy

text: , and

text: Commerce Energy

text: . Surprisingly, many utility customers opted to remain with TXU despite active retail competition. [See "Power to Choose: An Analysis of Consumer Behavior in the Texas Retail Electricity Market" with Ali Hortacsu and Seyed Ali Madanizadeh]

text: Singlet oxygen is a high energy form of oxygen.  A gas with the formula O, its physical properties differ only subtly from those of the more prevalent triplet ground state of O.  In terms of its chemical reactivity, however, singlet oxygen is far more reactive toward organic compounds.  It is responsible for the photodegradation of many materials but can be put to constructive use in preparative organic chemistry and photodynamic therapy. Trace amounts of singlet oxygen are found in the upper atmosphere and also in polluted urban atmospheres where it contributes to the formation of lung damaging nitrogen dioxide. It often appears and coexists confounded in environments that also generate ozone, such as pine forests with photodegradation of turpentine.

text: Singlet oxygen is a high energy form of oxygen.  A gas with the formula O, its physical properties differ only subtly from those of the more prevalent

text: triplet

text: ground state

text: of O.  In terms of its chemical reactivity, however, singlet oxygen is far more reactive toward organic compounds.  It is responsible for the

text: photodegradation

text: of many materials but can be put to constructive use in

text: preparative organic chemistry

text: and

text: photodynamic therapy

text: . Trace amounts of singlet oxygen are found in the upper atmosphere and also in polluted urban atmospheres where it contributes to the formation of lung damaging

text: nitrogen dioxide

text: . It often appears and coexists confounded in environments that also generate

text: ozone

text: , such as pine forests with photodegradation of

text: turpentine

text: Abdussamatov holds that Earth's atmosphere does not produce a greenhouse effect, stating "Ascribing 'greenhouse' effect properties to the Earth's atmosphere is not scientifically substantiated." He further states that  "Heated greenhouse gases, which become lighter as a result of expansion, ascend to the atmosphere only to give the absorbed heat away."  However, this effect cannot happen because the mean free path of molecules in the atmosphere is very short, transferring energy by collisions and preventing greenhouse gases from retaining the excess energy they absorb.

text: Abdussamatov holds that Earth's atmosphere does not produce a

text: greenhouse effect

text: , stating "Ascribing 'greenhouse' effect properties to the Earth's atmosphere is not scientifically substantiated." He further states that  "Heated greenhouse gases, which become lighter as a result of expansion, ascend to the atmosphere only to give the absorbed heat away."  However, this effect cannot happen because the

text: mean free path

text: of molecules in the atmosphere is very short, transferring energy by collisions and preventing greenhouse gases from retaining the excess energy they absorb.

text: With all photosynthetic organisms gone, atmospheric oxygen can no longer be replenished, and is eventually removed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, perhaps from volcanic eruptions. Eventually the loss of oxygen will cause all remaining aerobic life to die out via asphyxiation, leaving behind only simple anaerobic prokaryotes. When the Sun becomes 10% brighter in about a billion years, Earth will suffer a moist greenhouse effect resulting in its oceans boiling away, while the Earth's liquid outer core freezes due to the inner core's expansion and causes the Earth's magnetic field to shut down. In the absence of a magnetic field, charged particles from the Sun will deplete the atmosphere and further increase the Earth's temperature to an average of ~420 K (147 °C, 296 °F) in 2.8 billion years, causing the last remaining life on Earth to die out. This is the most extreme instance of a climate-caused extinction event. Since this will only happen late in the Sun's life, such will cause the final mass extinction in Earth's history (albeit a very long extinction event).

text: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases. Clouds are water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.<ref name="kiehl197">{{cite journal| url=http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| title=Earth's annual global mean energy budget| first=J.T.| last=Kiehl|author2=Kevin E. Trenberth| format=PDF|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society| pages=197–208| volume=78| issue=2| year=1997| accessdate=1 May 2006| doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078

text: The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect,

text: clouds

text: , also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on radiative properties of the greenhouse gases. Clouds are water droplets or

text: ice crystal

text: s suspended in the atmosphere.<ref name="kiehl197">{{cite journal| url=http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| title=Earth's annual global mean energy budget| first=J.T.| last=Kiehl|author2=Kevin E. Trenberth| format=PDF|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society| pages=197–208| volume=78| issue=2| year=1997| accessdate=1 May 2006| doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078

text: Infrared absorption bands trap heat from escaping earth's atmosphere. In the case of CFCs, the strongest of these bands are located in the spectral region 7.8–15.3 µm  – referred to as an atmospheric window due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region. The strength of CFC bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere, at which the compound absorbs and emits radiation, are two factors that contribute to CFCs' "super" greenhouse effect. Another such factor is the low concentration of the compound. Because CO is close to saturation with high concentrations, it takes more of the substance to enhance the greenhouse effect. Conversely, the low concentration of CFCs allow their effects to increase linearly with mass.

text: Infrared absorption bands trap heat from escaping earth's atmosphere. In the case of CFCs, the strongest of these bands are located in the spectral region 7.8–15.3

text: µm

text: – referred to as an atmospheric window due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region. The strength of CFC bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere, at which the compound absorbs and emits radiation, are two factors that contribute to CFCs' "super" greenhouse effect. Another such factor is the low concentration of the compound. Because CO is close to saturation with high concentrations, it takes more of the substance to enhance the greenhouse effect. Conversely, the low concentration of CFCs allow their effects to increase linearly with mass.

text: The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms.  For example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top.  The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill.  Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it never regains all of its speed without additional pedaling. The energy is not destroyed; it has only been converted to another form by friction. Alternatively the cyclist could connect a dynamo to one of the wheels and generate some electrical energy on the descent.  The bicycle would be traveling slower at the bottom of the hill than without the generator because some of the energy has been diverted into electrical energy.  Another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic energy would be dissipated through friction as heat.

text: The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms.  For example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top.  The kinetic energy has now largely been converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill.  Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it never regains all of its speed without additional pedaling. The energy is not destroyed; it has only been converted to another form by friction. Alternatively the cyclist could connect a

text: dynamo

text: to one of the wheels and generate some electrical energy on the descent.  The bicycle would be traveling slower at the bottom of the hill than without the generator because some of the energy has been diverted into electrical energy.  Another possibility would be for the cyclist to apply the brakes, in which case the kinetic energy would be dissipated through friction as

text: heat

text: Carbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. Although individual CO molecules have a short residence time in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.Since the industrial revolution, the CO concentration in the atmosphere has risen from about 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm. Although the amount of CO introduced makes up only a small portion of the global carbon cycle, carbon dioxide's long residence time makes these emissions relevant for the total carbon balance. The increased carbon dioxide concentration strengthens the greenhouse effect, causing changes to the global climate. Of the increased amounts of carbon dioxide that are introduced to the atmosphere each year, approximately 80% are from the combustion of fossil fuels and cement production. The other ~20% originate from land use change and deforestation. Because gaseous carbon dioxide does not react quickly with other chemicals, the main processes that change the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere involve exchanges with the earth's other carbon reservoirs, as explained in the following sections.

text: Carbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Although individual CO molecules have a short

text: residence time

text: in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.Since the

text: industrial revolution

text: , the CO concentration in the atmosphere has risen from about 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm. Although the amount of CO introduced makes up only a small portion of the global carbon cycle, carbon dioxide's long residence time makes these emissions relevant for the total carbon balance. The increased carbon dioxide concentration strengthens the greenhouse effect, causing changes to the global

text: climate

text: . Of the increased amounts of carbon dioxide that are introduced to the atmosphere each year, approximately 80% are from the combustion of fossil fuels and cement production. The other ~20% originate from land use change and deforestation. Because gaseous carbon dioxide does not react quickly with other chemicals, the main processes that change the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere involve exchanges with the earth's other carbon reservoirs, as explained in the following sections.

text: The game's environment is displayed in first person view with the player seeing the world through the suit's helmet. A targeting crosshair displayed in the helmet's HUD allowing the player to fire the suit's weapon at specific locations. The player can move in all directions by walking or activating the jetpack. The suit is powered by an energy source that gets depleted with every movement and it is allocated between "shields" and "fuel". When the shields charge is depleted, the player is vulnerable to enemy fire and simply bumping into walls can end the game. Fuel is vital for horizontal and vertical movement and the game ends as soon as its depleted. There are a number of "recharge" points (in the form of columns) hidden in the game where the player can replenish the suit's energy supply. There are also a number of energy conversion devices that allow transforming shield energy to fuel and vice versa.

text: The game's environment is displayed in

text: first person view

text: with the player seeing the world through the suit's helmet. A targeting crosshair displayed in the helmet's

text: HUD

text: allowing the player to fire the suit's weapon at specific locations. The player can move in all directions by walking or activating the jetpack. The suit is powered by an energy source that gets depleted with every movement and it is allocated between "shields" and "fuel". When the shields charge is depleted, the player is vulnerable to enemy fire and simply bumping into walls can end the game. Fuel is vital for horizontal and vertical movement and the game ends as soon as its depleted. There are a number of "recharge" points (in the form of columns) hidden in the game where the player can replenish the suit's energy supply. There are also a number of energy conversion devices that allow transforming shield energy to fuel and vice versa.

text: After Inkwel's leaving the group, Blueprint and Manifest released the album, Columbus or Bust, in 2005. In 2009, it was announced that Illogic replaced Manifest and that Greenhouse Effect changed the name to Greenhouse.

text: After Inkwel's leaving the group, Blueprint and Manifest released the album, Columbus or Bust, in 2005. In 2009, it was announced that

text: Illogic

text: replaced Manifest and that Greenhouse Effect changed the name to Greenhouse.

text: Furthermore, electromagnetic energy is light energy, but only a small part of it is visible light. This energy travels in waves. Shorter wavelengths, such as visible light and infrared, carry more energy per photon than longer waves, such as microwaves and radio waves. For the sciences, the light spectrum is known as the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: Furthermore, electromagnetic energy is light energy, but only a small part of it is

text: visible light

text: . This energy travels in waves. Shorter wavelengths, such as visible light and

text: infrared

text: , carry more energy per

text: photon

text: than longer waves, such as

text: microwave

text: s and

text: radio waves

text: . For the

text: science

text: s, the light spectrum is known as the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1 amu protons (about 85% of it) to 26 amu iron nuclei and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called HZE ions.) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest particle accelerators (see ultra-high-energy cosmic ray). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including x-rays, muons, protons, antiprotons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, positrons, and neutrons.

text: The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system. This cosmic radiation consists of relativistic particles: positively charged nuclei (ions) from 1

text: amu

text: proton

text: s (about 85% of it) to 26 amu

text: iron

text: nuclei

text: and even beyond. (The high-atomic number particles are called

text: HZE ions

text: .) The energy of this radiation can far exceed that which humans can create, even in the largest

text: particle accelerator

text: s (see

text: ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: ). This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including

text: x-rays

text: muon

text: s,

text: proton

text: s,

text: antiproton

text: s,

text: alpha particle

text: s,

text: pion

text: s,

text: electron

text: s,

text: positron

text: s, and

text: neutron

text: s.

text: The dominant loss process for Venus' atmosphere is through electric force field acceleration. As electrons are less massive than other particles, they are more likely to escape from the top of Venus's ionosphere. As a result, a minor net positive charge develops. That net positive charge, in turn, creates an electric field that can accelerate other positive charges out of the atmosphere. As a result, H ions are accelerated beyond escape velocity. Other important loss processes on Venus are photochemical reactions driven by Venus's proximity to the Sun. Photochemical reactions rely on the splitting of molecules into constituent atoms, often with a significant portion of the kinetic energy carried off in the less massive particle with sufficiently high kinetic energy to escape. Oxygen, relative to hydrogen, is not of sufficiently low mass to escape through this mechanism.

text: The dominant loss process for Venus' atmosphere is through electric force field acceleration. As electrons are less massive than other particles, they are more likely to escape from the top of Venus's ionosphere. As a result, a minor net positive charge develops. That net positive charge, in turn, creates an electric field that can accelerate other positive charges out of the atmosphere. As a result, H ions are accelerated beyond escape velocity. Other important loss processes on Venus are

text: photochemical

text: reactions driven by Venus's proximity to the Sun. Photochemical reactions rely on the splitting of molecules into constituent atoms, often with a significant portion of the kinetic energy carried off in the less massive particle with sufficiently high kinetic energy to escape. Oxygen, relative to hydrogen, is not of sufficiently low mass to escape through this mechanism.

text: Space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope has signified a new era of detailed observations of faint objects from afar in all of the electromagnetic spectrum. This includes faint objects in the Solar system, such as Neptune. Adaptive optics technology has also allowed for detailed observations of faint objects from ground-based telescopes and this technology has been used since 1997 to obtain scientific information on Neptune and its atmosphere. These image recordings now exceed the capability of HST by far and in some instances even the Voyager images, such as Uranus. Ground-based observations are however always limited in their registration of electromagnetic waves of certain wavelengths, due to the inevitable atmospheric absorption, in particular of high energy waves.

text: Space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope has signified a new era of detailed observations of faint objects from afar in all of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . This includes faint objects in the Solar system, such as Neptune.

text: Adaptive optics

text: technology has also allowed for detailed observations of faint objects from ground-based telescopes and this technology has been used since 1997 to obtain scientific information on Neptune and its atmosphere. These image recordings now exceed the capability of HST by far and in some instances even the Voyager images, such as Uranus. Ground-based observations are however always limited in their registration of electromagnetic waves of certain wavelengths, due to the inevitable

text: atmospheric absorption

text: , in particular of high energy waves.

text: As the hot gases that comprise Jupiter's atmosphere rise from lower levels to higher levels, eddies form and converge. As cooler gas falls back, the Coriolis force causes swirling motion across a region that may be many kilometers in diameter. These eddies can last for a long time, because there is no solid surface to provide friction and because colder cloud tops above the eddy allow little energy to escape by radiation. Once formed, such eddies are free to move, merging with or affecting the behavior of other storm systems in the atmosphere. It is theorized that this mechanism formed the Great Red Spot. According to this theory, many adjacent eddies are engulfed and merge with the spot, adding to the energy of the storm and contributing to its longevity.

text: As the hot gases that comprise Jupiter's

text: atmosphere

text: rise from lower levels to higher levels,

text: eddies

text: form and converge. As cooler gas falls back, the

text: Coriolis force

text: causes swirling motion across a region that may be many kilometers in diameter. These eddies can last for a long time, because there is no solid surface to provide

text: friction

text: and because colder cloud tops above the eddy allow little energy to escape by

text: radiation

text: . Once formed, such eddies are free to move, merging with or affecting the behavior of other storm systems in the atmosphere. It is theorized that this mechanism formed the Great Red Spot. According to this theory, many adjacent eddies are engulfed and merge with the spot, adding to the energy of the storm and contributing to its longevity.

text: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light.  Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves, or include waves of any lower frequency. At 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is , and at 3 kHz is . Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed  of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning, or by astronomical objects.

text: Radio waves are a type of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: with

text: wavelength

text: s in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: longer than

text: infrared

text: light.  Radio waves have

text: frequencies

text: as high as 300

text: GHz

text: to as low as 3

text: kHz

text: , though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as

text: microwaves

text: , or include waves of any lower frequency. At 300 GHz, the corresponding wavelength is , and at 3 kHz is . Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the

text: speed  of light

text: . Naturally occurring radio waves are generated by

text: lightning

text: , or by

text: astronomical objects

text: The loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by solar wind, which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures. A part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest becametrapped in a subsurface ice layer.

text: The loss of the Martian

text: magnetic field

text: strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by

text: solar wind

text: , which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures. A part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest becametrapped in a subsurface ice layer.

text: The Q band is a range of frequencies contained in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Common usage places this range between 33 to 50 GHz, but may vary depending on the source using the term. The foregoing range corresponds to the recommended frequency band of operation of WR22 waveguides. These frequencies are equivalent to wavelengths between 9 mm and 6 mm. The Q band is in the EHF range of the radio spectrum.

text: The Q band is a range of frequencies contained in the

text: microwave

text: region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Common usage places this range between 33 to 50

text: GHz

text: , but may vary depending on the source using the term. The foregoing range corresponds to the recommended frequency band of operation of

text: waveguides. These frequencies are equivalent to

text: wavelength

text: s between 9 mm and 6 mm. The Q band is in the

text: EHF

text: range of the

text: radio spectrum

text: The ability of the Nimbus satellites to detect electromagnetic energy in multiple wavelengths (multi-spectral data), in particular the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum, made it possible for scientists to look into the atmosphere and tell the difference between water vapor and liquid water in clouds. In addition, they were able to measure atmospheric temperature even in the presence of clouds, a capability that allowed scientists to take the temperature in the "warm core" of hurricanes.

text: The ability of the Nimbus satellites to detect

text: electromagnetic energy

text: in multiple

text: wavelength

text: s (multi-spectral data), in particular the

text: microwave

text: region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , made it possible for scientists to look into the atmosphere and tell the difference between

text: water vapor

text: and liquid water in clouds. In addition, they were able to measure atmospheric temperature even in the presence of clouds, a capability that allowed scientists to take the temperature in the "warm core" of

text: hurricane

text: s.

text: The situation in which convective inhibition is measured is when layers of warmer air are above a particular region of air. The effect of having warm air above a cooler air parcel is to prevent the cooler air parcel from rising into the atmosphere. This creates a stable region of air. Convective inhibition indicates the amount of energy that will be required to force the cooler packet of air to rise. This energy comes from fronts, heating, moistening, or mesoscale convergence boundaries such as outflow and sea breeze boundaries, or orographic lift.

text: The situation in which convective inhibition is measured is when layers of warmer air are above a particular region of air. The effect of having warm air above a cooler air parcel is to prevent the cooler air parcel from rising into the atmosphere. This creates a stable region of air. Convective inhibition indicates the amount of energy that will be required to force the cooler packet of air to rise. This energy comes from

text: fronts

text: , heating, moistening, or

text: mesoscale

text: convergence boundaries such as outflow and sea breeze boundaries, or

text: orographic lift

text: The magnetic field of a star can be measured by means of the Zeeman effect. Normally the atoms in a star's atmosphere will absorb certain frequencies of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum, producing characteristic dark absorption lines in the spectrum. When the atoms are within a magnetic field, however, these lines become split into multiple, closely spaced lines. The energy also becomes polarized with an orientation that depends on orientation of the magnetic field. Thus the strength and direction of the star's magnetic field can be determined by examination of the Zeeman effect lines.

text: The magnetic field of a star can be measured by means of the

text: Zeeman effect

text: . Normally the atoms in a star's atmosphere will absorb certain frequencies of energy in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , producing characteristic dark

text: absorption line

text: s in the spectrum. When the atoms are within a magnetic field, however, these lines become split into multiple, closely spaced lines. The energy also becomes

text: polarized

text: with an orientation that depends on orientation of the magnetic field. Thus the strength and direction of the star's magnetic field can be determined by examination of the Zeeman effect lines.

text: Solar energy is absorbed throughout the atmosphere some of the most significant in this context are water vapor at (~0–15 km) in the troposphere, ozone at (~30 to 60 km) in the stratosphere and molecular oxygen and molecular nitrogen at (~120 to 170 km) in the thermosphere. Variations in the global distribution and density of these species result in changes in the amplitude of the solar tides. The tides are also affected by the environment through which they travel.

text: Solar energy is absorbed throughout the atmosphere some of the most significant in this context are

text: water vapor

text: at (~0–15 km) in the

text: troposphere

text: ozone

text: at (~30 to 60 km) in the

text: stratosphere

text: and molecular oxygen and molecular nitrogen at (~120 to 170 km) in the

text: thermosphere

text: . Variations in the global distribution and density of these species result in changes in the amplitude of the solar tides. The tides are also affected by the environment through which they travel.

text: Since the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near-infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to astronomical seeing.

text: Since the atmosphere is opaque for most of the electromagnetic spectrum, only a few bands can be observed from the Earth's surface. These bands are visible – near-infrared and a portion of the radio-wave part of the spectrum. For this reason there are no X-ray or far-infrared ground-based telescopes as these have to be observed from orbit. Even if a wavelength is observable from the ground, it might still be advantageous to place a telescope on a satellite due to

text: astronomical seeing

text: Knowing the approximate area covered by starspots from the size of the variations, and the field strength estimated from the chromospheric activity, allows an estimate of the total energy stored in the magnetic field; in all cases there was enough energy stored in the field to account for even the largest superflares. Both the photometric and the spectroscopic observations are consistent with the theory that superflares are different only in scale from solar flares, and can be accounted for by the release of magnetic energy in active regions very much larger than those on the Sun. Nevertheless, these regions can appear on stars with masses, temperatures, compositions, rotation speeds and ages similar to the Sun.

text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres. These include all the gas giants, as well as Mars, Venus, and Pluto. Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do comets and the Sun. There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect, aerosol and cloud physics, and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics.

text: The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other

text: astronomical object

text: s in the

text: Solar System

text: have

text: atmosphere

text: s. These include all the

text: gas giants

text: , as well as

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Pluto

text: . Several

text: moons

text: and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do

text: comet

text: s and the

text: Sun

text: . There is evidence that

text: extrasolar planet

text: s can have an atmosphere. Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: aerosol

text: and cloud physics, and

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: and dynamics.

text: Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere, and, in a process informally described as Earth's heat engine, the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean circulation. When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition, global temperatures will be stable.

text: Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet, because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions. Energy is absorbed by the

text: atmosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: , and

text: lithosphere

text: , and, in a process informally described as Earth's heat engine, the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and

text: ocean circulation

text: . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space, the Earth is said to be in

text: radiative equilibrium

text: and under that condition, global temperatures will be stable.

text: When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes the surrounding air outward, transferring energy in the form of work from that parcel to the atmosphere. As energy transfer to a parcel of air by way of heat is very slow, it is assumed to not exchange energy by way of heat with the environment. Such a process is called an adiabatic process (no energy transfer by way of heat). Since the rising parcel of air is losing energy as it does work on the surrounding atmosphere and no energy is transferred into it as heat from the atmosphere to make up for the loss, the parcel of air is losing energy, which manifests itself as a decrease in the temperature of the air parcel. The reverse, of course, will be true for a parcel of air that is sinking and is being compressed.

text: When a parcel of air rises, it expands, because the pressure is lower at higher altitudes. As the air parcel expands, it pushes the surrounding air outward, transferring energy in the form of

text: work

text: from that parcel to the atmosphere. As energy transfer to a parcel of air by way of heat is very slow, it is assumed to not exchange energy by way of

text: heat

text: with the environment. Such a process is called an

text: adiabatic

text: process (no energy transfer by way of heat). Since the rising parcel of air is losing energy as it does work on the surrounding atmosphere and no energy is transferred into it as heat from the atmosphere to make up for the loss, the parcel of air is losing energy, which manifests itself as a decrease in the temperature of the air parcel. The reverse, of course, will be true for a parcel of air that is sinking and is being compressed.

text: This is a massive supergiant star with a stellar classification of M0 I. It is a slow irregular variable of the LC type, with its brightness varying in magnitude by 0.44. The star is more than 14 times as massive as the Sun and is blazing with 63,579 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 3,750 K, giving it the orange-red hue of a cool M-type star.

text: This is a massive

text: supergiant

text: star with a

text: stellar classification

text: of M0 I. It is a

text: slow irregular variable

text: of the LC type, with its brightness varying in magnitude by 0.44. The star is more than 14 times as massive as the Sun and is blazing with 63,579 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 3,750 K, giving it the orange-red hue of a cool

text: M-type star

text: The conglomerate operates with considerable latitude which the Irving family's wealth permits—operating somewhat as a maverick to the consternation of many of Central and Western Canada's business leaders. Irving Oil, J.D. Irving and all subsidiary companies are actively supporting Canada's ratification and implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, since the family has invested considerable funds into environmental controls and alternative energy for its operations and wishes to capitalize on these investments at the expense of its slow-to-respond publicly traded competitors.  J.D. Irving's food processing plants in Prince Edward Island are looking to build one of the largest wind farms in Canada in that province to completely power their operations, and many Irving-owned sawmills and factories in the rest of northeastern North America are rapidly adopting co-generation, bio-gas and solar/wind power to complement current energy usage.

text: The conglomerate operates with considerable latitude which the Irving family's wealth permits—operating somewhat as a maverick to the consternation of many of Central and Western Canada's business leaders. Irving Oil, J.D. Irving and all subsidiary companies are actively supporting Canada's ratification and implementation of the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: , since the family has invested considerable funds into environmental controls and alternative energy for its operations and wishes to capitalize on these investments at the expense of its slow-to-respond publicly traded competitors.  J.D. Irving's food processing plants in

text: Prince Edward Island

text: are looking to build one of the largest

text: wind farm

text: s in Canada in that province to completely power their operations, and many Irving-owned sawmills and factories in the rest of northeastern North America are rapidly adopting co-generation, bio-gas and solar/wind power to complement current energy usage.

text: In the late 1960s and early 1970s, following his Ph.D. dissertation, Hansen published several papers on the planet Venus. Venus has a high brightness temperature in the radio frequencies compared to the infrared. Hansen proposed that the hot surface was the result of aerosols trapping the internal energy of the planet. More recent studies have suggested that several billion years ago, Venus's atmosphere was much more like Earth's than it is now, and that there were probably substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere.

text: In the late 1960s and early 1970s, following his Ph.D. dissertation, Hansen published several papers on the planet

text: Venus

text: . Venus has a high

text: brightness temperature

text: in the radio frequencies compared to the infrared. Hansen proposed that the hot surface was the result of aerosols trapping the internal energy of the planet. More recent studies have suggested that several billion years ago,

text: Venus's atmosphere

text: was much more like Earth's than it is now, and that there were probably substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface, but a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: was caused by the evaporation of that original water, which generated a critical level of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es in its atmosphere.

text: Schaefer helped found ASRC in 1960 and served as its Director of Research until 1966 when he became Director. Schaefer brought highly qualified atmospheric science researchers to ASRC, many of whom he had met through his work at GE and Munitalp. Bernard Vonnegut, Raymond Falconer and Duncan Blanchard were all veterans of Project Cirrus who joined Schaefer at ASRC. During his years at ASRC, in addition to the NSI summer programs, Schaefer led annual research expeditions to Yellowstone National Park for atmospheric scientists to work in the outdoor laboratory it provided each January. In the 1970s Schaefer's own research interests focused on solar energy, aerosols, gases, air quality, and pollution particles in the atmosphere. His work in some of these areas culminated in a three-part report on Air Quality on the Global Scale in 1978. In addition, during the 1970s Schaefer was an instructor in the American Association for the Advancement of Science Chautauqua short courses for science teachers.

text: Schaefer helped found ASRC in 1960 and served as its Director of Research until 1966 when he became Director. Schaefer brought highly qualified atmospheric science researchers to ASRC, many of whom he had met through his work at GE and Munitalp.

text: Bernard Vonnegut

text: , Raymond Falconer and Duncan Blanchard were all veterans of Project Cirrus who joined Schaefer at ASRC. During his years at ASRC, in addition to the NSI summer programs, Schaefer led annual research expeditions to Yellowstone National Park for atmospheric scientists to work in the outdoor laboratory it provided each January. In the 1970s Schaefer's own research interests focused on

text: solar energy

text: , aerosols, gases, air quality, and pollution particles in the atmosphere. His work in some of these areas culminated in a three-part report on Air Quality on the Global Scale in 1978. In addition, during the 1970s Schaefer was an instructor in the American Association for the Advancement of Science Chautauqua short courses for science teachers.

text: A simple general circulation model (SGCM) consists of a dynamic core that relates properties such as temperature to others such as pressure and velocity. Examples are programs that solve the primitive equations, given energy input and energy dissipation in the form of scale-dependent friction, so that atmospheric waves with the highest wavenumbers are most attenuated. Such models may be used to study atmospheric processes, but are not suitable for climate projections.

text: A simple general circulation model (SGCM) consists of a dynamic core that relates properties such as temperature to others such as pressure and velocity. Examples are programs that solve the

text: primitive equations

text: , given energy input and energy

text: dissipation

text: in the form of scale-dependent

text: friction

text: , so that

text: atmospheric wave

text: s with the highest

text: wavenumber

text: s are most attenuated. Such models may be used to study atmospheric processes, but are not suitable for climate projections.

text: An emissions tax on greenhouse gas emissions requires individual emitters to pay a fee, charge or tax for every tonne of greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere. Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles, rather than on CO emissions directly.

text: The table below shows the total cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW), of a photovoltaic installation. Photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 1389/kW by the end of 2014. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon. Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar declination. Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output.

text: The table below shows the total cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW), of a photovoltaic installation. Photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 1389/kW by the end of 2014. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW. This varies by geographic region because the average

text: insolation

text: depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon. Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar

text: declination

text: Solar tracking

text: can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output.

text: Since a high-angle boundary is imperfectly packed compared to the normal lattice it has some amount of free space or free volume where solute atoms may possess a lower energy. As a result, a boundary may be associated with a solute atmosphere that will retard its movement. Only at higher velocities will the boundary be able to break free of its atmosphere and resume normal motion.

text: Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere. Atmospheric physicists attempt to model Earth's atmosphere and the atmospheres of the other planets using fluid flow equations, chemical models, radiation budget, and energy transfer processes in the atmosphere (as well as how these tie into other systems such as the oceans). In order to model weather systems, atmospheric physicists employ elements of scattering theory, wave propagation models, cloud physics, statistical mechanics and spatial statistics which are highly mathematical and related to physics. It has close links to meteorology and climatology and also covers the design and construction of instruments for studying the atmosphere and the interpretation of the data they provide, including remote sensing instruments. At the dawn of the space age and the introduction of sounding rockets, aeronomy became a subdiscipline concerning the upper layers of the atmosphere, where dissociation and ionization are important.

text: Atmospheric physics is the application of

text: physics

text: to the study of the

text: atmosphere

text: . Atmospheric physicists attempt to model

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: and the atmospheres of the other

text: planet

text: s using

text: fluid flow

text: equations,

text: chemical

text: models,

text: radiation budget

text: , and energy transfer processes in the atmosphere (as well as how these tie into other systems such as the oceans). In order to model weather systems, atmospheric physicists employ elements of

text: scattering theory

text: , wave propagation models,

text: cloud physics

text: statistical mechanics

text: and

text: spatial statistics

text: which are highly mathematical and related to physics. It has close links to

text: meteorology

text: and

text: climatology

text: and also covers the design and construction of instruments for studying the atmosphere and the interpretation of the data they provide, including

text: remote sensing

text: instruments. At the dawn of the space age and the introduction of sounding rockets,

text: aeronomy

text: became a subdiscipline concerning the upper layers of the atmosphere, where dissociation and ionization are important.

text: Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before and after the solstice, the heating and cooling requirements before and after the solstice are significantly different. Heat storage on the Earth's surface causes "thermal lag." Variable cloud cover influences solar gain potential. This means that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete seasonal solar gain control solution.

text: The puma model was proposed by Diaz and Kostelecky in 2010 as a three-parameter model that exhibits consistency with all the established neutrino data (accelerator, atmospheric, reactor, and solar) and naturally describes the anomalous low-energy excess observed in MiniBooNE that is inconsistent with the conventional massive model. This is a hybrid model that includes Lorentz violation and neutrino masses. One of the main differences between this model and the bicycle and tandem models described above is the incorporation of nonrenormalizable terms in the theory, which lead to powers of the energy greater than one. Nonetheless, all these models share the characteristic of having a mixed energy dependence that leads to energy-dependent mixing angles, a feature absent in the conventional massive model. At low energies, the mass term dominates and the mixing takes the tribimaximal form, a widely used matrix postulated to describe neutrino mixing. This mixing added to the 1/E dependence of the mass term guarantees agreement with solar and KamLAND data. At high energies, Lorentz-violating contributions take over making the contribution of neutrino masses negligible. A seesaw mechanism is triggered, similar to that in the bicycle model, making one of the eigenvalues proportional to 1/E, which usually come with neutrino masses. This feature lets the model mimic the effects of a mass term at high energies despite the fact that there are only non-negative powers of the energy. The energy dependence of the Lorentz-violating terms produce maximal

text: The puma model was proposed by Diaz and Kostelecky in 2010 as a three-parameter model that exhibits consistency with all the established neutrino data (accelerator, atmospheric, reactor, and solar) and naturally describes the anomalous low-energy excess observed in

text: MiniBooNE

text: that is inconsistent with the conventional massive model. This is a hybrid model that includes Lorentz violation and neutrino masses. One of the main differences between this model and the bicycle and tandem models described above is the incorporation of nonrenormalizable terms in the theory, which lead to powers of the energy greater than one. Nonetheless, all these models share the characteristic of having a mixed energy dependence that leads to energy-dependent mixing angles, a feature absent in the conventional massive model. At low energies, the mass term dominates and the mixing takes the

text: tribimaximal

text: form, a widely used matrix postulated to describe neutrino mixing. This mixing added to the 1/E dependence of the mass term guarantees agreement with

text: solar

text: and

entity_name: Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Antineutrino Detector

text: KamLAND

text: data. At high energies, Lorentz-violating contributions take over making the contribution of neutrino masses negligible. A seesaw mechanism is triggered, similar to that in the bicycle model, making one of the eigenvalues proportional to 1/E, which usually come with neutrino masses. This feature lets the model mimic the effects of a mass term at high energies despite the fact that there are only non-negative powers of the energy. The energy dependence of the Lorentz-violating terms produce maximal

text: Exposure to energy from the star Vega granted Doctor Light photokinesis: control over all forms of light sources, without relying on equipment. She can absorb all forms of illumination as energy, which allowed her to survive Starbreaker's attack, as well as absorb the energy of the sun to attack the Anti-Monitor. She can project energy, allowing her to shoot destructive laser beams and other blasts of destructive energy, blind her opponents with blinding flashes of light (capable of dispersing Shadow Thief's shadow constructs), and create protective barriers. She can focus photons into "hard light" (a fictional form of energy which acts like a solid object). She can refract lightwaves to create holographic images. She can turn into light, rendering her invisible to the naked eye. Her abilities also allow her to disperse radiation and holographic illusions, scan and "see" the electromagnetic spectrum, track ionized molecules, and convert her body to near light to minimize her mass and escape gravitational pull. She can sense the light around her, which she describes as a "sixth sense" allowing her to know when somebody enters the room. She can ride lightwaves in order to fly, capable of reaching the speed of light, and outrunning the Superman of Earth-1. She has used her powers to generate sunlight from a yellow sun to heal injured Kryptonians and Daxamites. Her light abilities appear to have granted her enhanced durability, as she has survived attacks that have knocked out Power Girl and other enhanced metahumans. She can also teleport, from Earth to the Watchtower.

text: Exposure to energy from the star Vega granted Doctor Light photokinesis: control over all forms of light sources, without relying on equipment. She can absorb all forms of illumination as energy, which allowed her to survive Starbreaker's attack, as well as absorb the energy of the sun to attack the Anti-Monitor. She can project energy, allowing her to shoot destructive laser beams and other blasts of destructive energy, blind her opponents with blinding flashes of light (capable of dispersing Shadow Thief's shadow constructs), and create protective barriers. She can focus photons into "hard light" (a fictional form of energy which acts like a solid object). She can refract lightwaves to create

text: holograph

text: ic images. She can turn into light, rendering her invisible to the naked eye. Her abilities also allow her to disperse radiation and holographic illusions, scan and "see" the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , track ionized molecules, and convert her body to near light to minimize her mass and escape gravitational pull. She can sense the light around her, which she describes as a "

text: sixth sense

text: " allowing her to know when somebody enters the room. She can ride lightwaves in order to fly, capable of reaching the speed of light, and outrunning the Superman of Earth-1. She has used her powers to generate sunlight from a yellow sun to heal injured Kryptonians and

text: Daxamites

text: . Her light abilities appear to have granted her enhanced durability, as she has survived attacks that have knocked out

text: Power Girl

text: and other enhanced metahumans. She can also teleport, from Earth to the Watchtower.

text: The Sun is the Solar System's star and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its core high enough to sustain nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium, making it a main-sequence star. This releases an enormous amount of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation peaking in visible light.

text: The Sun is the Solar System's

text: star

text: and by far its most massive component. Its large mass (332,900 Earth masses) produces temperatures and densities in its

text: core

text: high enough to sustain

text: nuclear fusion

text: of

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: , making it a

text: main-sequence

text: star. This releases an enormous amount of

text: energy

text: , mostly

text: radiated

text: into

text: space

text: as

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: peaking in

text: visible light

text: In meteorology, convective available potential energy (CAPE), sometimes, simply, available potential energy (APE), is the amount of energy a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere. CAPE is effectively the positive buoyancy of an air parcel and is an indicator of atmospheric instability, which makes it very valuable in predicting severe weather. It is a form of fluid instability found in thermally stratified atmospheres in which a colder fluid overlies a warmer one. As explained below, when an air mass is unstable, the element of the air mass that is displaced upwards is accelerated by the pressure differential between the displaced air and the ambient air at the (higher) altitude to which it was displaced. This usually creates vertically developed clouds from convection, due to the rising motion, which can eventually lead to thunderstorms. It could also be created by other phenomena, such as a cold front. Even if the air is cooler on the surface, there is still warmer air in the mid-levels, that can rise into the upper-levels. However, if there is not enough water vapor present, there is no ability for condensation, thus storms, clouds, and rain will not form.

text: In

text: meteorology

text: , convective available potential energy (CAPE), sometimes, simply, available potential energy (APE), is the amount of

text: energy

text: a

text: parcel

text: of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere. CAPE is effectively the positive

text: buoyancy

text: of an air parcel and is an indicator of

text: atmospheric instability

text: , which makes it very valuable in predicting

text: severe weather

text: . It is a form of fluid instability found in thermally stratified atmospheres in which a colder fluid overlies a warmer one. As explained below, when an air mass is unstable, the element of the air mass that is displaced upwards is accelerated by the pressure differential between the displaced air and the ambient air at the (higher) altitude to which it was displaced. This usually creates vertically developed clouds from

text: convection

text: , due to the rising motion, which can eventually lead to thunderstorms. It could also be created by other phenomena, such as a cold front. Even if the air is cooler on the surface, there is still warmer air in the mid-levels, that can rise into the upper-levels. However, if there is not enough water vapor present, there is no ability for condensation, thus storms, clouds, and rain will not form.

text: Depending on the method of electricity generation used, regular greenhouse produce can create more greenhouse gases than field produce, largely due to higher energy use per kilogram of produce. With vertical farms requiring much greater energy per kilogram of produce, mainly through increased lighting, than regular greenhouses, the amount of pollution created will be much higher than that from field produce. The amount of pollution produced is dependent on how the energy used in the process is generated.

text: Depending on the method of electricity generation used, regular greenhouse

text: produce

text: can create more greenhouse gases than field produce, largely due to higher energy use per kilogram of produce. With vertical farms requiring much greater energy per kilogram of produce, mainly through increased lighting, than regular greenhouses, the amount of pollution created will be much higher than that from field produce. The amount of pollution produced is dependent on how the energy used in the process is generated.

text: The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3% higher than average in January and 3.3% lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1050 W/m, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared (above 700 nm), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm). At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8% ultraviolet (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet.

text: The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3% higher than average in January and 3.3% lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1

text: astronomical unit

text: ), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the

text: zenith

text: is about 1050 W/m, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W/m. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared (above 700

text: nm

text: ), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm). At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8%

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short-wave ultraviolet.

text: Like other molecules, the CrH molecule can store energy in several ways. Firstly, the molecule can spin with the hydrogen atom seeming to orbit the chromium atom. Secondly, it can vibrate with the two atoms bouncing towards and away from each other. Thirdly, electrons can change from one atomic orbital to another in the chromium atom. All of these can happen at the same time.  All the numerous combinations of changes result in many different possible energy changes. Each of these changes will match a frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum which is absorbed. When many of these frequencies cluster together in a group, an absorption band results.

text: Like other molecules, the CrH molecule can store energy in several ways. Firstly, the molecule can spin with the hydrogen atom seeming to orbit the chromium atom. Secondly, it can vibrate with the two atoms bouncing towards and away from each other. Thirdly, electrons can change from one

text: atomic orbital

text: to another in the chromium atom. All of these can happen at the same time.  All the numerous combinations of changes result in many different possible energy changes. Each of these changes will match a frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum which is absorbed. When many of these frequencies cluster together in a group, an absorption band results.

text: Climate engineering is a technogaian method that uses two categories of technologies- carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Carbon dioxide removal addresses a cause of climate change by removing one of the greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation.

text: Climate engineering is a technogaian method that uses two categories of technologies-

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: and

text: solar radiation management

text: . Carbon dioxide removal addresses a cause of climate change by removing one of the

text: greenhouse gases

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the

text: Earth

text: to absorb less

text: solar radiation

text: Beneath the sun's photosphere lies the convection zone. The rotation of the sun, as well as varying pressure gradients beneath the surface, produces the periodic electromagnetism in the convection zone which can be observed on the sun's surface. This random motion of the surface gives rise to Alfvén waves.  The waves travel through the chromosphere and transition zone and interact with much of the ionized plasma. The wave itself carries energy as well as some of the electrically charged plasma.  De Pontieu  and Haerendel  suggested in the early 1990s that Alfven waves may also be associated with the plasma jets known as spicules. It was theorized these brief spurts of superheated gas were carried by the combined energy and momentum of their own upward velocity, as well as the oscillating transverse motion of the Alfven waves. In 2007, Alfven waves were reportedly observed for the first time traveling towards the corona by Tomcyzk et al., but their predictions could not conclude that the energy carried by the Alfven waves were sufficient to heat the corona to its enormous temperatures, for the observed amplitudes of the waves were not high enough. However, in 2011, McIntosh et al. reported the observation of highly energetic Alfven waves combined with energetic spicules which could sustain heating the corona to its million Kelvin temperature.  These observed amplitudes (20.0 km/s against 2007's observed 0.5 km/s) contained over one hundred times more energy than the ones observed in 2007. The short period of the waves also allowed more energy transfer into the coronal atmosphere. The 50,000 km long spicules may also play a part in accelerating the solar wind past the corona.

text: Beneath the sun's photosphere lies the convection zone. The rotation of the sun, as well as varying pressure gradients beneath the surface, produces the periodic electromagnetism in the convection zone which can be observed on the sun's surface. This random motion of the surface gives rise to Alfvén waves.  The waves travel through the chromosphere and transition zone and interact with much of the ionized plasma. The wave itself carries energy as well as some of the electrically charged plasma.  De Pontieu  and Haerendel  suggested in the early 1990s that Alfven waves may also be associated with the plasma jets known as

text: spicule

text: s. It was theorized these brief spurts of superheated gas were carried by the combined energy and momentum of their own upward velocity, as well as the oscillating transverse motion of the Alfven waves. In 2007, Alfven waves were reportedly observed for the first time traveling towards the corona by Tomcyzk et al., but their predictions could not conclude that the energy carried by the Alfven waves were sufficient to heat the corona to its enormous temperatures, for the observed amplitudes of the waves were not high enough. However, in 2011, McIntosh et al. reported the observation of highly energetic Alfven waves combined with energetic spicules which could sustain heating the corona to its million Kelvin temperature.  These observed amplitudes (20.0 km/s against 2007's observed 0.5 km/s) contained over one hundred times more energy than the ones observed in 2007. The short period of the waves also allowed more energy transfer into the coronal atmosphere. The 50,000 km long spicules may also play a part in accelerating the solar wind past the corona.

text: Spherical energy shields were first seen on film within atmospheric conditions in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. A main distinguishable feature of one of the energy shields used in the Star Wars prequel trilogy is their ability to deflect energy bolts on their external side, while passing through lasers from their internal side as seen on the Droideka which was also introduced in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. Such energy shields are possibly implied as vector or tensor effect and/or other possibilities.

text: Spherical energy shields were first seen on film within atmospheric conditions in

entity_name: Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace

text: Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace

text: . A main distinguishable feature of one of the energy shields used in the

text: Star Wars prequel trilogy

text: is their ability to deflect energy bolts on their external side, while passing through lasers from their internal side as seen on the

text: Droideka

text: which was also introduced in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. Such energy shields are possibly implied as vector or tensor effect and/or other possibilities.

text: Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during the Last Ice Age a c.  ice sheet covered the plateau. Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element of radiative forcing. With a much lower latitude, the ice in Tibet reflected at least 4 times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher latitudes. Thus, while the modern plateau heats the overlying atmosphere, during the Last Ice Age it helped to cool it.

text: Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during the Last

text: Ice Age

text: a c.  ice sheet covered the plateau. Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element of

text: radiative forcing

text: . With a much lower latitude, the ice in Tibet reflected at least 4 times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher

text: latitude

text: s. Thus, while the modern plateau heats the overlying atmosphere, during the Last Ice Age it helped to cool it.

text: Recently, the term "Atkinson cycle" has been used to describe a modified Otto-cycle engine in which the intake valve is held open longer than normal to allow a reverse flow of intake air into the intake manifold, this simulated Atkinson cycle is most notably used in the widespread Toyota 1NZ-FXE engine. The effective compression ratio is reduced (for a time the air is escaping the cylinder freely rather than being compressed), but the expansion ratio is unchanged. This means the compression ratio is smaller than the expansion ratio. Heat gained from burning fuel increases the pressure, thereby forcing the piston to move, expanding the air volume beyond the volume when compression began. The goal of the modern Atkinson cycle is to allow the pressure in the combustion chamber at the end of the power stroke to be equal to atmospheric pressure; when this occurs, all the available energy has been obtained from the combustion process. For any given portion of air, the greater expansion ratio allows more energy to be converted from heat to useful mechanical energy, meaning the engine is more efficient.

text: Recently, the term "Atkinson cycle" has been used to describe a modified

text: Otto-cycle

text: engine in which the intake valve is held open longer than normal to allow a reverse flow of intake air into the intake manifold, this simulated Atkinson cycle is most notably used in the widespread

text: Toyota 1NZ-FXE

text: engine. The effective compression ratio is reduced (for a time the air is escaping the cylinder freely rather than being compressed), but the expansion ratio is unchanged. This means the compression ratio is smaller than the expansion ratio. Heat gained from burning fuel increases the pressure, thereby forcing the piston to move, expanding the air volume beyond the volume when compression began. The goal of the modern Atkinson cycle is to allow the pressure in the combustion chamber at the end of the power stroke to be equal to atmospheric pressure; when this occurs, all the available energy has been obtained from the combustion process. For any given portion of air, the greater expansion ratio allows more energy to be converted from heat to useful mechanical energy, meaning the engine is more efficient.

text: Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is directly detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

text: Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a

text: wavelength

text: between approximately 400

text: nm

text: and 700 nm is directly detected by the

text: human eye

text: and perceived as visible

text: light

text: . Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.

text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less carbon fixation. Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less

text: carbon fixation

text: . Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.

text: Solar

text: radiation

text: (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the

text: Sun

text: . Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere.

text: Drastic increases in atmospheric CO2 caused by the burning of fossil fuels, has led to the search for alternative energy sources like biofuels and renewable energy sources. To analyze whether or not these alternative sources have overall less environmental impact then conventional energy sources, life-cycle analysis is needed. Life-cycle thinking is an intricate part of finding new energy sources that have an overall smaller impact on the environment.

text: Drastic increases in atmospheric CO2 caused by the burning of

text: fossil fuels

text: , has led to the search for alternative energy sources like

text: biofuels

text: and

text: renewable energy sources

text: . To analyze whether or not these alternative sources have overall less environmental impact then conventional energy sources, life-cycle analysis is needed. Life-cycle thinking is an intricate part of finding new energy sources that have an overall smaller impact on the environment.

text: Energy for the ocean circulation (and for the atmospheric circulation) comes from solar radiation and gravitational energy from the sun and moon.  The amount of sunlight absorbed at the surface varies strongly with latitude, being greater at the equator than at the poles, and this engenders fluid motion in both the atmosphere and ocean that acts to redistribute heat from the equator towards the poles, thereby reducing the temperature gradients that would exist in the absence of fluid motion. Perhaps three quarters of this heat is carried in the atmosphere; the rest is carried in the ocean.

text: Public sentiment toward the suffrage movement improved dramatically during this period. Working for suffrage came to be seen as a respectable activity for middle class women. By 1910, NAWSA membership had jumped to 117,000.The NAWSA established its first permanent headquarters that year in New York City, previously having operated mainly out of the homes of its officers.Maud Wood Park, who had been away in Europe for two years, received a letter that year from one of her co-workers in the College Equal Suffrage League who described the new atmosphere by saying, "the movement which when we got into it had about as much energy as a dying kitten, is now a big, virile, threatening thing" and is "actually fashionable now".

text: The retailers are: Contact Energy, Ecotricity, Electra Energy, Electric Kiwi, Energy Direct, Energy Online, Flick Electric, Genesis Energy, Giving Energy, GLOBUG, King Country Energy, megaEnergy, Mercury Energy, Meridian Energy, Nova Energy, Opunake Hydro, Paua to the People, Payless Energy, Powershop, Pulse Energy, Tiny Mighty Power and Trustpower.

text: The retailers are:

text: Contact Energy

text: , Ecotricity, Electra Energy, Electric Kiwi,

text: Energy Direct

text: Energy Online

text: , Flick Electric,

text: Genesis Energy

text: , Giving Energy,

text: GLOBUG

text: King Country Energy

text: , megaEnergy,

text: Mercury Energy

text: Meridian Energy

text: Nova Energy

text: , Opunake Hydro, Paua to the People, Payless Energy,

text: Powershop

text: , Pulse Energy,

text: Tiny Mighty Power

text: and

text: Trustpower

text: Direct solar radiation has a value, for the studied territory, of 110-115 kcal/cm²/year, characteristic to the latitude, covering energy needs.

text: The pulsations result from a process called the κ-mechanism. A part of the star's outer atmosphere becomes optically thick due to partial ionization of certain elements. When these atoms lose an electron, the likelihood that they will absorb energy increases. This results in an increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand. The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized and loses energy, causing it to cool and shrink back down again. The result of this cycle is a periodic pulsation of the atmosphere and a matching variation of the luminosity.

text: The pulsations result from a process called the

text: κ-mechanism

text: . A part of the star's outer

text: atmosphere

text: becomes

text: optically thick

text: due to partial

text: ionization

text: of certain elements. When these atoms lose an

text: electron

text: , the likelihood that they will absorb energy increases. This results in an increase in temperature that causes the atmosphere to expand. The inflated atmosphere becomes less ionized and loses energy, causing it to cool and shrink back down again. The result of this cycle is a periodic pulsation of the atmosphere and a matching variation of the luminosity.

text: The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's atmosphere (TOA) is measured in watts and is given by the solar constant times the cross-sectional area of the Earth. Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements.

text: The total amount of energy received per second at the top of

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: (TOA) is measured in

text: watt

text: s and is given by the

text: solar constant

text: times the cross-sectional area of the Earth. Because the surface area of a sphere is four times the cross-sectional surface area of a sphere (i.e. the area of a circle), the average TOA flux is one quarter of the solar constant and so is approximately 340 W/m². Since the absorption varies with location as well as with diurnal, seasonal and annual variations, the numbers quoted are long-term averages, typically averaged from multiple satellite measurements.

text: Based upon the spectrum of light emitted by the primary, it has a stellar classification of G2 V. This indicates that it is a G-type main sequence star that is generating energy through the process of thermonuclear fusion in its core region. It has an estimated mass of 1.097 times the mass of the Sun, but a measured radius that is 1.867 times as large. As a result, it shines with 2.705 times the luminosity of the Sun. The abundance of elements in this star is similar to that in the Sun, although it is an older star with an age of around 8.2 billion years. The effective temperature of the stellar atmosphere is 5,421 K, giving it the yellow-hued glow of an ordinary K-type star.

text: Based upon the

text: spectrum

text: of light emitted by the primary, it has a

text: stellar classification

text: of G2 V. This indicates that it is a

text: G-type main sequence star

text: that is generating energy through the process of

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: in its core region. It has an estimated mass of 1.097 times the mass of the Sun, but a measured radius that is 1.867 times as large. As a result, it shines with 2.705 times the luminosity of the Sun. The abundance of elements in this star is similar to that in the Sun, although it is an older star with an age of around 8.2 billion years. The

text: effective temperature

text: of the

text: stellar atmosphere

text: is 5,421 K, giving it the yellow-hued glow of an ordinary

text: K-type star

text: A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor is thought to have occurred on Venus.

text: A

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: occurs if

text: positive feedback

text: s lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor is thought to have occurred on Venus.

text: Decorative fountain systems employ fluid amplifiers to generate their decorative displays and effects. Fluid amplifiers rely on a fluid control stream to switch a fluid power stream. Fluid amplifiers are so named because a low-energy fluid control signal can control and switch a high-energy fluid power stream to produce an output signal of higher energy level than the fluid control signal. In fluid amplifiers, a fluid power stream, after leaving a nozzle, is switched selectively to one or more of a plurality of outlet passages. This may be done by supplying fluid control pressure continuously, or as a pulse, to one of the control ports at the exit end of the nozzle until the high-energy power stream is diverted. Alternatively, switching may be effected by closing the other control port so that the fluid that is flowing in through one control port from the atmosphere or some other source will create a sufficient fluid pressure imbalance adjacent the exit end of the nozzle to effect switching of the fluid power stream.

text: He has also investigated the role played by water vapour in the Earth's energy budget, which considers the energy flows both into and away from the Earth in the form of shortwave radiation from the Sun and outgoing longwave radiation from the Earth and its atmosphere, respectively.

text: He has also investigated the role played by

text: water vapour

text: in the

text: Earth's energy budget

text: , which considers the energy flows both into and away from the

text: Earth

text: in the form of

text: shortwave radiation

text: from the

text: Sun

text: and

text: outgoing longwave radiation

text: from the Earth and its

text: atmosphere

text: , respectively.

text: Gamma rays from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material. The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the inelastic collisions of the high speed fission and fusion products.  It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of kinetic energy.  This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of blackbody radiation emitting in the soft X-ray region. As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 10 degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to kinetic energy.

text: Gamma rays

text: from the nuclear processes preceding the true explosion may be partially responsible for the following fireball, as they may superheat nearby air and/or other material. The vast majority of the energy that goes on to form the fireball is in the soft

text: X-ray

text: region of the electromagnetic spectrum, with these X-rays being produced by the

text: inelastic collisions

text: of the high speed fission and fusion products.  It is these reaction products and not the gamma rays which contain most of the energy of the nuclear reactions in the form of

text: kinetic energy

text: .  This kinetic energy of the fission and fusion fragments is converted into internal and then radiation energy by approximately following the process of

text: blackbody radiation

text: emitting in the soft X-ray region. As a result of numerous inelastic collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the fission fragments is converted into internal and radiation energy. Some of the electrons are removed entirely from the atoms, thus causing ionization, others are raised to higher energy (or excited) states while still remaining attached to the nuclei. Within an extremely short time, perhaps a hundredth of a microsecond or so, the weapon residues consist essentially of completely and partially stripped (ionized) atoms, many of the latter being in excited states, together with the corresponding free electrons. The system then immediately emits electromagnetic (thermal) radiation, the nature of which is determined by the temperature. Since this is of the order of 10 degrees, most of the energy emitted within a microsecond or so is in the soft X-ray region. To understand this one must remember that temperature depends on the average internal energy/heat of the particles in a certain volume, and internal energy or heat is due to

text: kinetic energy

text: Second, the atmosphere may cause an otherwise tightly collimated energy beam to spread.

text: The IPCC defines "climate change" as "a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity." In its latest assessment on climate change, the IPCC found that "warming of the climate system is unequivocal" and that the anthropogenic component of this warming over the last thirty years has likely had a discernible influence on observed changes in many physical and biological systems. The properties of greenhouse gases are such that they retain heat in the atmosphere, which would otherwise escape to space. GHGs accumulate in the atmosphere when they are emitted faster than they can be naturally removed, and that accumulation prompts changes in the climate system. Once emitted into the atmosphere, GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries. Consistent with their long-lasting impacts, the IPCC found that even if the concentrations of all GHGs had been kept constant at year 2000 levels, a further warming of approximately 0.1C per decade would be expected. The fact that GHGs are long-lived in the atmosphere also means that they become well mixed across the globe – hence the global nature of the problem.

text: This Building is going to be constructed using a concrete manufactured with slag, a byproduct of blast furnaces. The mixture used in the tower concrete is 55% cement and 45% slag. The use of slag cement reduces damage to the environment by decreasing the amount of cement needed for the building, which in turn lowers the amount of carbon dioxide greenhouse gas produced through the normal cement manufacturing process. Each ton of regular cement produced creates about one ton of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Temperature control and the production of some of its energy are accomplished in an environmentally friendly manner for the tower. Insulated glazing reduces thermal loss, lowering energy consumption and increasing transparency. Carbon dioxide sensors signal increased fresh air ventilation when elevated levels of carbon dioxide are detected in the building. Conditioned air for the occupants is provided by multiple air column units located in the tenant space that deliver  air into a raised access floor plenum. This underfloor air system provides users with the ability to control their own space temperature as well as improving the ventilation effectiveness. When building churn occurs, workstation moves can be performed more easily with lower cost and less product waste. The cooling system produces and stores ice during off-peak hours, and allows the ice to melt to help cool the building during peak load, similar to the ice batteries in the 1995 Hotel New Otani Tokyo in Japan. Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb.

text: Hotel New Otani Tokyo

text: in Japan. Ice batteries have been used since absorption chillers first made ice commercially available 150 years ago, before the invention of the electric light bulb.

text: All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation, chiefly visible and short-wave (near) infrared, as well as outgoing long wave (far) infrared electromagnetic. Any imbalance results in a change in temperature.

text: All climate models take account of incoming

text: energy

text: from the sun as short wave

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: , chiefly

text: visible

text: and short-wave (near)

text: infrared

text: , as well as outgoing long wave (far)

text: infrared

text: electromagnetic. Any imbalance results in a

text: change in temperature

text: Neutron monitors on the ground indirectly monitor cosmic rays from the Sun and galactic sources. When cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere, atomic interactions occur that cause a shower of lower energy particles to descend into the atmosphere and to ground level. The presence of cosmic rays in the near-Earth space environment can be detected by monitoring high energy neutrons at ground level. Small fluxes of cosmic rays are present continuously. Large fluxes are produced by the Sun during events related to energetic solar flares.

text: Neutron monitor

text: s on the ground indirectly monitor cosmic rays from the Sun and galactic sources. When cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere, atomic interactions occur that cause a shower of lower energy particles to descend into the atmosphere and to ground level. The presence of cosmic rays in the near-Earth space environment can be detected by monitoring high energy neutrons at ground level. Small fluxes of cosmic rays are present continuously. Large fluxes are produced by the Sun during events related to energetic solar flares.

text: Electromagnetic spectrum refers to the full range of all frequencies of electromagnetic radiation and also to the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Devices used to measure an electromagnetic spectrum are called spectrograph or spectrometer. The visible spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human eye. The wavelength of visible light ranges from 390 to 700 nm. The absorption spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies or wavelengths of incident radiation. The emission spectrum refers to the spectrum of radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a transition from a higher to a lower energy state.

text: Electromagnetic spectrum refers to the full range of all frequencies of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: and also to the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Devices used to measure an electromagnetic spectrum are called

text: spectrograph

text: or

text: spectrometer

text: . The

text: visible spectrum

text: is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the

text: human eye

text: . The wavelength of visible light ranges from

text: 390 to 700 nm

text: . The

text: absorption spectrum

text: of a

text: chemical element

text: or

text: chemical compound

text: is the spectrum of frequencies or wavelengths of incident radiation. The

text: emission spectrum

text: refers to the spectrum of radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a

text: transition

text: from a higher to a lower energy state.

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of magnetic reconnection, the physical process that drives solar flares by releasing energy stored in the Sun’s magnetic field. Reconnection reconfigures the local magnetic field surrounding the flare site from a higher-energy (non-potential, stressed) state to a lower-energy (potential) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a current sheet, often preceded by or in tandem with a coronal mass ejection. As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed magnetic field lines are swept away from the reconnection site, producing outflows both toward and away from the solar surface, respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to reconnection downflows that perturb the hot, dense plasma that collects above flare arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

text: SADs are widely accepted to be byproducts of

text: magnetic reconnection

text: , the physical process that drives

text: solar flare

text: s by releasing energy stored in the

text: Sun’s magnetic field

text: Reconnection

text: reconfigures the local

text: magnetic field

text: surrounding the

text: flare

text: site from a higher-energy (non-potential,

text: stressed

text: ) state to a lower-energy (

text: potential

text: ) state. This process is facilitated by the development of a

text: current sheet

text: , often preceded by or in tandem with a

text: coronal mass ejection

text: . As the field is being reconfigured, newly formed

text: magnetic field lines

text: are swept away from the

text: reconnection

text: site, producing outflows both toward and away from the

text: solar surface

text: , respectively referred to as downflows and upflows. SADs are believed to be related to

text: reconnection

text: downflows that perturb the hot, dense

text: plasma

text: that collects above

text: flare

text: arcades, but precisely how SADs form is uncertain and is an area of active research.

text: Using a Peltier electrometer, Luigi Palmieri researched atmospheric electricity. Nikola Tesla and Hermann Plauson investigated the production of energy and power via atmospheric electricity. Tesla also proposed to use the atmospheric electrical circuit to transceive wireless energy over large distances.  The Polish Polar Station, Hornsund, has researched the magnitude of the Earth's electric field and recorded its vertical component. Discoveries about the electrification of the atmosphere via sensitive electrical instruments and ideas on how the Earth’s negative charge is maintained were developed mainly in the 20th century. Whilst a certain amount of observational work has been done in the branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has not developed to a considerable extent. Up to the contemporary day, apparatus which extract industrial energy from atmospheric electricity have not been built and maintained.

text: Using a Peltier

text: electrometer

text: Luigi Palmieri

text: researched atmospheric electricity.

text: Nikola Tesla

text: and

text: Hermann Plauson

text: investigated the production of

text: energy

text: and

text: power

text: via atmospheric electricity. Tesla also proposed to use the atmospheric electrical circuit to transceive wireless energy over large distances.  The

text: Polish Polar Station, Hornsund

text: , has researched the

text: magnitude

text: of the Earth's

text: electric field

text: and recorded its vertical component. Discoveries about the electrification of the atmosphere via sensitive electrical instruments and ideas on how the Earth’s negative charge is maintained were developed mainly in the 20th century. Whilst a certain amount of observational work has been done in the branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has not developed to a considerable extent. Up to the contemporary day, apparatus which extract industrial energy from atmospheric electricity have not been built and maintained.

text: French environmentalist Bruno Comby started the group Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy in 1996, and said in 2005, "If well-managed, nuclear energy is very clean, does not create polluting gases in the atmosphere, produces very little waste and does not contribute to the greenhouse effect".

text: French environmentalist

text: Bruno Comby

text: started the group

text: Environmentalists For Nuclear Energy

text: in 1996, and said in 2005, "If well-managed, nuclear energy is very clean, does not create polluting gases in the atmosphere, produces very little waste and does not contribute to the greenhouse effect".

text: Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore, when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric arc they emit energy in the form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of a spectroscope gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line spectrum. This line spectrum is called an atomic spectrum when it originates from an atom in elemental form. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that bound electrons cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.

text: Light consists of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Therefore, when the elements or their compounds are heated either on a flame or by an electric arc they emit energy in the form of light. Analysis of this light, with the help of a

text: spectroscope

text: gives us a discontinuous spectrum. A spectroscope or a spectrometer is an instrument which is used for separating the components of light, which have different wavelengths. The spectrum appears in a series of lines called the line spectrum. This line spectrum is called an atomic spectrum when it originates from an atom in elemental form. Each element has a different atomic spectrum. The production of line spectra by the atoms of an element indicate that an atom can radiate only a certain amount of energy. This leads to the conclusion that bound electrons cannot have just any amount of energy but only a certain amount of energy.

text: The emission spectra of a chemical element or chemical compound is the spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted due to an atom or molecule making a transition from a high energy state to a lower energy state. The photon energy of the emitted photon is equal to the energy difference between the two states. There are many possible electron transitions for each atom, and each transition has a specific energy difference. This collection of different transitions, leading to different radiated wavelengths, make up an emission spectrum. Each element's emission spectrum is unique. Therefore, spectroscopy can be used to identify the elements in matter of unknown composition. Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical analysis of substances.

text: The emission spectra of a

text: chemical element

text: or

text: chemical compound

text: is the spectrum of

text: frequencies

text: of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: emitted due to an

text: atom

text: or molecule making a

text: transition

text: from a high energy state to a lower energy state. The

text: photon energy

text: of the emitted

text: photon

text: is equal to the energy difference between the two states. There are many possible electron transitions for each atom, and each transition has a specific energy difference. This collection of different transitions, leading to different radiated

text: wavelengths

text: , make up an emission spectrum. Each element's emission spectrum is unique. Therefore,

text: spectroscopy

text: can be used to identify the elements in matter of unknown composition. Similarly, the emission spectra of molecules can be used in chemical analysis of substances.

text: If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The downward component of this radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.

text: If a planet's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases (i.e.,

text: greenhouse gas

text: es) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The downward component of this radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.

text: The coronal heating problem is a longstanding question in heliophysics. It is unknown why the sun's corona lives in a temperature range higher than one million degrees while the sun's surface (photosphere) is only a few thousand degrees in temperature. Natural intuition would predict a decrease in temperature while getting farther away from a heat source, but it is theorized that the photosphere, influenced by the sun's magnetic fields, emits certain waves which carry energy (i.e. heat) to the corona and solar wind. It is important to note that because the density of the corona is quite a bit smaller than the photosphere, the heat and energy level of the photosphere is much higher than the corona. Temperature depends only on the average speed of a species, and less energy is required to heat fewer particles to higher temperatures in the coronal atmosphere. Alfvén first proposed the existence of an electromagnetic-hydrodynamic wave in 1942 in Nature. He claimed the sun had all necessary criteria to support these waves and that they may in turn be responsible for sun spots. From his paper:

text: The

text: coronal heating problem

text: is a longstanding question in heliophysics. It is unknown why the sun's corona lives in a temperature range higher than one million degrees while the sun's surface (photosphere) is only a few thousand degrees in temperature. Natural intuition would predict a decrease in temperature while getting farther away from a heat source, but it is theorized that the photosphere, influenced by the sun's magnetic fields, emits certain waves which carry energy (i.e. heat) to the corona and solar wind. It is important to note that because the density of the corona is quite a bit smaller than the photosphere, the heat and energy level of the photosphere is much higher than the corona. Temperature depends only on the average speed of a species, and less energy is required to heat fewer particles to higher temperatures in the coronal atmosphere. Alfvén first proposed the existence of an electromagnetic-hydrodynamic wave in 1942 in Nature. He claimed the sun had all necessary criteria to support these waves and that they may in turn be responsible for sun spots. From his paper:

text: Asimov described how energy flows through a life-support system from a low entropic state from which it moves all material resources, such as air, water, and food with the rejection of low-grade heat as the final energy output.  The concept reflects the dynamics of ecosystem ecology as described by Howard T. Odum.

text: Asimov described how energy flows through a life-support system from a low

text: entropic

text: state from which it moves all material resources, such as air, water, and food with the rejection of low-grade heat as the final energy output.  The concept reflects the dynamics of

text: ecosystem ecology

text: as described by

text: Howard T. Odum

text: Since 2007, Cool the Earth has been responsible for motivating over 45,000 energy-saving actions to be taken by over 27,000 school children and family members—eliminating 37 million pounds of carbon from the atmosphere—with positive environmental benefits for the region.

text: The retirement life of the wing spar of a transport category aeroplane type-certificated to the safe-life principle is based on a safety factor applied to data obtained from flight tests and information about properties of the spar material.  The life of 11,400 flights for the Viscount inner lower boom was based on safety factors of 3.5 for the ground-air-ground cycle and 5.0 for fatigue damage due to atmospheric gusts. These safety factors were typical for this class of aeroplane.  A 50% reduction of mean time to failure does not adequately explain why the inner lower boom in VH-RMQ should have failed before reaching its retirement life. In anticipation that the atmospheric gust spectrum in Australia may be more severe on the Viscount than the spectrum in some other climatic zones the gust spectrum was measured during 14,000 Viscount flights in Australia before 1961.  The Department of Civil Aviation accepted the Viscount retirement lives as compatible with the atmospheric gust spectrum these aircraft would encounter during operations in Australia.

text: The retirement life of the wing spar of a

text: transport category

text: aeroplane type-certificated to the safe-life principle is based on a

text: safety factor

text: applied to data obtained from flight tests and information about properties of the spar material.  The life of 11,400 flights for the Viscount inner lower boom was based on safety factors of 3.5 for the ground-air-ground cycle and 5.0 for fatigue damage due to atmospheric gusts. These safety factors were typical for this class of aeroplane.  A 50% reduction of mean time to failure does not adequately explain why the inner lower boom in VH-RMQ should have failed before reaching its retirement life. In anticipation that the atmospheric gust spectrum in Australia may be more severe on the Viscount than the spectrum in some other

text: climatic zone

text: s the gust spectrum was measured during 14,000 Viscount flights in Australia before 1961.  The Department of Civil Aviation accepted the Viscount retirement lives as compatible with the atmospheric gust spectrum these aircraft would encounter during operations in Australia.

text: Discovering that the amplification caused a build-up of energy in his body that is reaching a critical - and potentially fatal - level, the Laser seeks the aid of East German scientists, who offer to help by draining off the excess energy and using it to power a network of weapons satellites. The plan, however, is stopped by Iron Man and in battle with the hero, the Laser's energy levels build to critical mass. Although the Laser begs for help, Iron Man has no choice but to hurl the character into the atmosphere where he detonates and apparently dies. Eventually revived, the Laser battles Iron Man once again; and during the    Acts of Vengeance storyline battles the hero Quasar.

text: Discovering that the amplification caused a build-up of energy in his body that is reaching a critical - and potentially fatal - level, the Laser seeks the aid of

text: East German

text: scientists, who offer to help by draining off the excess energy and using it to power a network of weapons

text: satellite

text: s. The plan, however, is stopped by

text: Iron Man

text: and in battle with the hero, the Laser's energy levels build to critical mass. Although the Laser begs for help, Iron Man has no choice but to hurl the character into the

text: atmosphere

text: where he

text: detonate

text: s and apparently dies. Eventually revived, the Laser battles Iron Man once again; and during the

text: Acts of Vengeance

text: storyline battles the hero

text: Quasar

text: Atomic line filters may operate in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In absorption-re-emission ALFs, the frequency of light must be shifted in order for the filter to operate, and in a passive device, this shift must be to a lower frequency (i.e. red shifted) simply because of energy conservation. This means that passive filters are rarely able to work with infrared light, because the output frequency would be impractically low. If photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are used then the "output wavelength of the ARF should lie in a spectral region in which commercial, large-area, long-lived PMT's [sic] possess maximum sensitivity". In such a case, active ALFs would have the advantage over passive ALFs as they would more readily, "generate output wavelengths in the near UV, the spectral region in which well-developed photocathodes possess their highest sensitivity".

text: Atomic line filters may operate in the

text: ultraviolet

text: visible

text: and infrared regions of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . In absorption-re-emission ALFs, the frequency of light must be shifted in order for the filter to operate, and in a passive device, this shift must be to a lower frequency (i.e. red shifted) simply because of energy conservation. This means that passive filters are rarely able to work with infrared light, because the output frequency would be impractically low. If

text: photomultiplier tubes

text: (PMTs) are used then the "output wavelength of the ARF should lie in a spectral region in which commercial, large-area, long-lived PMT's [sic] possess maximum sensitivity". In such a case, active ALFs would have the advantage over passive ALFs as they would more readily, "generate output wavelengths in the near UV, the spectral region in which well-developed

text: photocathode

text: s possess their highest sensitivity".

text: The main mission is carried out by the primary payload instruments, the Imager and the Sounder. The Imager is a multichannel instrument that senses infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy from the Earth's surface and atmosphere. The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles, surface and cloud top temperature, and ozone distribution.

text: The main mission is carried out by the primary payload instruments, the Imager and the Sounder. The Imager is a multichannel instrument that senses infrared

text: radiant energy

text: and visible

text: reflected solar energy

text: from the Earth's surface and

text: atmosphere

text: . The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles,

text: surface

text: and cloud top temperature, and

text: ozone

text: distribution.

text: Waves or oscillations, lose energy over time, typically from friction or turbulence. In many cases the "lost" energy raises the temperature of the system. For example, a wave that loses amplitude is said to dissipate. The precise nature of the effects depends on the nature of the wave: an atmospheric wave, for instance, may dissipate close to the surface due to friction with the land mass, and at higher levels due to radiative cooling.

text: Wave

text: s or

text: oscillation

text: s, lose

text: energy

text: over

text: time

text: , typically from

text: friction

text: or

text: turbulence

text: . In many cases the "lost" energy raises the

text: temperature

text: of the system. For example, a

text: wave

text: that loses

text: amplitude

text: is said to dissipate. The precise nature of the effects depends on the nature of the wave: an

text: atmospheric wave

text: , for instance, may dissipate close to the surface due to

text: friction

text: with the land mass, and at higher levels due to

text: radiative cooling

text: The Sun's energy, stored by plants (primary producers) during photosynthesis, passes through the food chain to other organisms to ultimately power all living processes. Since the industrial revolution the concentrated energy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as fossil fuels has been a major driver of technology which, in turn, has been the source of both economic and political power. In 2007 climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that atmospheric increase in CO was human-induced, mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use. Stabilizing the world’s climate will require high-income countries to reduce their emissions by 60–90% over 2006 levels by 2050 which should hold CO levels at 450–650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm. Above this level, temperatures could rise by more than 2 °C to produce “catastrophic” climate change. Reduction of current CO levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy-intensive high consumption Western lifestyles.

text: The Sun's energy, stored by plants (

text: primary producer

text: s) during

text: photosynthesis

text: , passes through the

text: food chain

text: to other organisms to ultimately power all living processes. Since the

text: industrial revolution

text: the concentrated energy of the

text: Sun

text: stored in fossilized plants as

text: fossil fuel

text: s has been a major driver of

text: technology

text: which, in turn, has been the source of both economic and political power. In 2007 climate scientists of the

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: IPCC

text: concluded that there was at least a 90% probability that atmospheric increase in CO was human-induced, mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use. Stabilizing the world’s climate will require high-income countries to reduce their emissions by 60–90% over 2006 levels by 2050 which should hold CO levels at 450–650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm. Above this level, temperatures could rise by more than 2 °C to produce “catastrophic”

text: climate change

text: . Reduction of current CO levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy-intensive high consumption Western lifestyles.

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their declination or motion; for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the diurnal energy represents the planet in direct motion, while the nocturnal energy refers to the retrograde motion of the planets.  For the Moon, this was illustrated by the waxing or waning periods of the Moon, respectively; the Sun's figures were based on the Sun during the day (or northern declination) or during the night (southern declination).  The zodiacal rulerships followed from the diurnal or nocturnal planetary rulership: nocturnal figures are assigned earth and water signs, while diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs.  The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo (for the sake of finding the ascendant in astrological traditions of geomancy).  Once the zodiacal rulerships were agreed upon, all the following correspondences followed upon the geomantic figures, including what part of the body they each ruled over, different countries, planetary hours, body and character types, and so on.

text: Traditionally, the energies and manifestations of the planets were different based on their

text: declination

text: or

text: motion

text: ; for the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, the diurnal energy represents the planet in direct motion, while the nocturnal energy refers to the retrograde motion of the planets.  For the Moon, this was illustrated by the waxing or waning periods of the Moon, respectively; the Sun's figures were based on the Sun during the day (or northern declination) or during the night (southern declination).  The zodiacal rulerships followed from the diurnal or nocturnal planetary rulership: nocturnal figures are assigned earth and water signs, while diurnal figures are assigned fire and air signs.  The North Node is assigned, by Gerard of Cremona, to Sagittarius and the South Node to Virgo (for the sake of finding the ascendant in astrological traditions of geomancy).  Once the zodiacal rulerships were agreed upon, all the following correspondences followed upon the geomantic figures, including what part of the body they each ruled over, different countries,

text: planetary hours

text: , body and character types, and so on.

text: This is an evolved K-type giant star with a stellar classification of K0 III. It is a red clump giant on the horizontal branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, indicating that is it now generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of helium at its core. The star has more than twice the mass of the Sun and has expanded to 10 times the Sun's radius. As such, it is radiating nearly 47 times the solar luminosity from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,710 K.

text: This is an

text: evolved

text: K-type

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 III. It is a

text: red clump

text: giant on the

text: horizontal branch

text: of the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: , indicating that is it now generating energy through the

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of helium at its core. The star has more than twice the

text: mass of the Sun

text: and has expanded to 10 times the

text: Sun's radius

text: . As such, it is radiating nearly 47 times the

text: solar luminosity

text: from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,710 K.

text: Specific energy is energy per unit mass. (It is also sometimes called "energy density," though "energy density" more precisely means energy per unit volume.) It is used to quantify, for example, stored heat or other thermodynamic properties of substances such as specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, specific Gibbs free energy, and specific Helmholtz free energy.  It may also be used for the kinetic energy or potential energy of a body.  Specific energy is an intensive property, whereas energy and mass are extensive properties.

text: Specific energy is

text: energy

text: per unit

text: mass

text: . (It is also sometimes called "energy density," though "energy density" more precisely means

text: energy per unit volume

text: .) It is used to quantify, for example, stored

text: heat

text: or other

text: thermodynamic properties

text: of substances such as

text: specific internal energy

text: specific enthalpy

text: , specific

text: Gibbs free energy

text: , and specific

text: Helmholtz free energy

text: .  It may also be used for the

text: kinetic energy

text: or

text: potential energy

text: of a body.  Specific energy is an

text: intensive property

text: , whereas energy and mass are

text: extensive properties

text: Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate.  A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum.  In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency (the desired clock frequency) and its harmonics.  Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).

text: Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some

text: synchronous digital systems

text: , especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the

text: electromagnetic interference

text: (EMI) that these systems generate.  A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a

text: clock signal

text: and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum.  In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency (the desired clock frequency) and its harmonics.  Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the

text: FCC

text: in the United States,

entity_name: Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association

text: JEITA

text: in Japan and the

text: IEC

text: in Europe).

text: Research on the effect of  on the climate began in the 19th century; Joseph Fourier discovered the atmospheric "greenhouse effect" in 1824, and in 1860 John Tyndall quantified the effect of each gas. This potential explanation of ice ages was investigated by Svante Arrhenius, who published research in 1896 showing that a geometric increase in  would cause an arithmetical increase in temperatures. He suggested that coal burning could cause the effect, and in a 1938 article Guy Stewart Callendar presented evidence that it was already happening. Both viewed this as a benign possibility.

text: Research on the effect of  on the climate began in the 19th century;

text: Joseph Fourier

text: discovered the atmospheric "

text: greenhouse effect

text: " in 1824, and in 1860

text: John Tyndall

text: quantified the effect of each gas. This potential explanation of

text: ice age

text: s was investigated by

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: , who published research in 1896 showing that a

text: geometric increase

text: in  would cause an

text: arithmetical increase

text: in temperatures. He suggested that coal burning could cause the effect, and in a 1938 article

text: Guy Stewart Callendar

text: presented evidence that it was already happening. Both viewed this as a benign possibility.

text: The Sun's electromagnetic radiation which is received at the Earth's surface is predominantly light that falls within the range of wavelengths to which the visual systems of the animals that inhabit Earth's surface are sensitive. The Sun may therefore be said to illuminate, which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have a sensitivity range of approximately 400–700 nm, and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates an equal-energy illuminant for most of this range. The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450–650 nm. Aside from effects that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is indirect, Rayleigh scattering in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb selective wavelengths.

text: The Sun's electromagnetic radiation which is received at the Earth's surface is predominantly light that falls within the range of wavelengths to which the visual systems of the animals that inhabit Earth's surface are sensitive. The Sun may therefore be said to

text: illuminate

text: , which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have a sensitivity range of approximately 400–700 nm, and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates an

text: equal-energy illuminant

text: for most of this range. The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450–650 nm. Aside from effects that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is indirect,

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb selective wavelengths.

text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called ozone layer, starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called

text: ozone layer

text: , starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of

text: pyrimidine dimer

text: s in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

text: International energy statistics are typically broken down by carrier, sector and sub-sector, and country.  Energy carriers ( energy products) are further classified as primary energy and secondary (or intermediate) energy and sometimes final (or end-use) energy.  Published energy datasets are normally adjusted so that they are internally consistent, meaning that all energy stocks and flows must balance.  The IEA regularly publishes energy statistics and energy balances with varying levels of detail and cost and also offers mid-term projections based on this data.  The notion of an energy carrier, as used in energy economics, is distinct and different from the definition of energy used in physics.

text: International

text: energy statistics

text: are typically broken down by carrier, sector and sub-sector, and country.  Energy carriers ( energy products) are further classified as

text: primary energy

text: and

entity_section: Conversion to energy carriers (or secondary energy)

text: secondary

text: (or intermediate) energy and sometimes final (or end-use) energy.  Published energy datasets are normally adjusted so that they are internally consistent, meaning that all energy stocks and flows must

text: balance

text: .  The IEA regularly publishes energy statistics and energy balances with varying levels of detail and cost and also offers mid-term projections based on this data.  The notion of an energy carrier, as used in

text: energy economics

text: , is distinct and different from the definition of

text: energy

text: used in physics.

text: The waterhole, or water hole, is an especially quiet band of the electromagnetic spectrum between 1,420 and 1,666 megahertz, corresponding to wavelengths of 21 and 18 centimeters respectively.  It is a popular observing frequency used by radio telescopes in radio astronomy.   The term was coined by Bernard Oliver in 1971. The strongest hydroxyl radical spectral line radiates at 18 centimeters, and hydrogen at 21 centimeters. These two molecules, which combined form water, are widespread in interstellar gas, and their presence radiates radio noise at these frequencies.  Therefore, the spectrum between these frequencies form a "quiet" channel in the interstellar radio noise background.  Bernard M. Oliver theorized that the waterhole would be an obvious band for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence, hence the name, which is a form of pun: in English, a watering hole is a vernacular reference to a common place to meet and talk. Several programs involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, including SETI@home, search in the waterhole radio frequencies.

text: The waterhole, or water hole, is an especially quiet

text: band

text: of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: between 1,420 and 1,666

text: megahertz

text: , corresponding to wavelengths of 21 and 18 centimeters respectively.  It is a popular observing frequency used by

text: radio telescope

text: s in

text: radio astronomy

text: .   The term was coined by

text: Bernard Oliver

text: in 1971. The strongest

text: hydroxyl radical

text: spectral line

text: radiates at 18 centimeters, and

text: hydrogen

text: at 21 centimeters. These two molecules, which combined form

text: water

text: , are widespread in interstellar gas, and their presence radiates radio noise at these frequencies.  Therefore, the spectrum between these frequencies form a "quiet" channel in the interstellar

text: radio noise

text: background.  Bernard M. Oliver theorized that the waterhole would be an obvious band for

entity_name: Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence

text: communication with extraterrestrial intelligence

text: , hence the name, which is a form of pun: in English, a watering hole is a

text: vernacular

text: reference to a common place to meet and talk. Several programs involved in the

entity_name: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: , including

text: SETI@home

text: , search in the waterhole radio frequencies.

text: Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.Fuels are a source of energy.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: non-renewable resources

text: because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of

text: renewable energy

text: is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion

text: tonnes

text: gigatonne

text: s) of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es that enhances

text: radiative forcing

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: , causing the

text: average surface temperature

text: of the Earth to rise in response, which

text: the vast majority of climate scientists

text: agree will cause major

text: adverse effects

text: .Fuels are a source of energy.

text: Austrian-American psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich designed a "cloudbuster" in the United States with which he said he could manipulate streams of "orgone energy" (which he claimed was a primordial cosmic energy) in the atmosphere to induce rain by forcing clouds to form and disperse. It was a set of hollow metal pipes and cables inserted into water, which Reich argued created a stronger orgone energy field than was in the atmosphere, the water drawing the atmospheric orgone through the pipes. Reich called his research "Cosmic Orgone Engineering".

text: Austrian-American psychoanalyst

text: Wilhelm Reich

text: designed a "

text: cloudbuster

text: " in the

text: United States

text: with which he said he could manipulate streams of "

text: orgone energy

text: " (which he claimed was a primordial cosmic energy) in the atmosphere to induce rain by forcing clouds to form and disperse. It was a set of hollow metal pipes and cables inserted into water, which Reich argued created a stronger orgone energy field than was in the atmosphere, the water drawing the atmospheric orgone through the pipes. Reich called his research "Cosmic Orgone Engineering".

text: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes.

text: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: carbon dioxide

text: by biological processes.

text: As astronomer Phil Plait has pointed out, the amount of energy necessary to shatter an Earth-sized planet is extremely large: "about 2 x 10 Joules.... about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

text: As astronomer

text: Phil Plait

text: has pointed out, the amount of energy necessary to shatter an Earth-sized planet is extremely large: "about 2 x 10 Joules.... about as much energy as the sun puts out in a week."

text: Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

text: Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through

text: photosynthesis

text: , a process that also captures

text: carbon

text: from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another,

text: animal

text: s play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and

text: microbial

text: biomass

text: present. By breaking down dead organic matter,

text: decomposer

text: s release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate

text: nutrient cycling

text: by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

text: LOFAR offers a unique possibility in particle physics for studying the origin of high-energy and ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (HECRs and UHECRs) at energies between } eV. Both the sites and processes for accelerating particles are unknown. Possible candidate sources of these HECRs are shocks in radio lobes of powerful radio galaxies, intergalactic shocks created during the epoch of galaxy formation, so-called Hyper-novae, gamma-ray bursts, or decay products of super-massive particles from topological defects, left over from phase transitions in the early Universe. The primary observable is the intense radio pulse that is produced when a primary CR hits the atmosphere and produces an extensive air shower (EAS). An EAS is aligned along the direction of motion of the primary particle, and a substantial part of its component consists of electron-positron pairs which emit radio emission in the terrestrial magnetosphere (e.g., geo-synchrotron emission).

text: LOFAR offers a unique possibility in

text: particle physics

text: for studying the origin of high-energy and

text: ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: s (HECRs and UHECRs) at energies between } eV. Both the sites and processes for accelerating particles are unknown. Possible candidate sources of these HECRs are shocks in radio lobes of powerful radio galaxies, intergalactic shocks created during the epoch of galaxy formation, so-called Hyper-novae,

text: gamma-ray burst

text: s, or decay products of super-massive particles from topological defects, left over from phase transitions in the early Universe. The primary observable is the intense radio pulse that is produced when a primary CR hits the atmosphere and produces an extensive air shower (EAS). An EAS is aligned along the direction of motion of the primary particle, and a substantial part of its component consists of

text: electron-positron pairs

text: which emit radio emission in the terrestrial magnetosphere (e.g., geo-synchrotron emission).

text: Well known for closing the gay/straight clubbing divide, Ariel doesn’t just play records; he creates a unique atmosphere with them, bringing together different styles of music by accentuating the African and Latin polyrhythm’s that are the trademark of his sound. From the beginning Ariel always forged his own path as a DJ. He did not follow any mainstream music current and stayed intact with passing trends. Furthermore, he managed to create his own personal sound by choosing the records he played according to his taste, not with regards to the artist’s or label's popularity and success status.However, Ariel’s sound has progressed through the last 3 decades beginning as disco and new wave music throughout the '80s, hard house and trance in the '90s and Latin tech house in the '00s.Ariel DJ sets and track selection are always performed live, guide solely by instinct and consist of various mood changes and techniques aimed to create energy flow and atmosphere on the dance floor.

text: Well known for closing the gay/straight clubbing divide, Ariel doesn’t just play records; he creates a unique atmosphere with them, bringing together different styles of music by accentuating the African and Latin polyrhythm’s that are the trademark of his sound. From the beginning Ariel always forged his own path as a DJ. He did not follow any mainstream music current and stayed intact with passing trends. Furthermore, he managed to create his own personal sound by choosing the records he played according to his taste, not with regards to the artist’s or label's popularity and success status.However, Ariel’s sound has progressed through the last 3 decades beginning as

text: disco

text: and

text: new wave music

text: throughout the '80s,

text: hard house

text: and

text: trance

text: in the '90s and

text: Latin tech house

text: in the '00s.Ariel DJ sets and track selection are always performed live, guide solely by instinct and consist of various mood changes and techniques aimed to create energy flow and atmosphere on the dance floor.

text: produces a "gray" absorption in the atmosphere of a star, that is, it is independent of any specific wavelength and absorbs along the entire electromagnetic spectrum.  In that case,

text: Solar heating systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pool water, or for space heating. The heat can also be used for industrial applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment. In many climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy.Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation. Light ranges of visible, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves received by the earth through solar energy. The highest power of radiation comes from visible light. Solar power is complicated due to changes in seasons and from day to night. Cloud cover can also add to complications of solar energy, and not all radiation from the sun reaches earth because it is absorbed and dispersed due to clouds and gases within the earth's atmospheres.

text: Solar heating

text: systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pool water, or for space heating. The heat can also be used for industrial applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment. In many climates, a solar heating system can provide a very high percentage (50 to 75%) of domestic hot water energy.Energy received from the sun by the earth is that of electromagnetic radiation. Light ranges of visible, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, and radio waves received by the earth through solar energy. The highest power of radiation comes from visible light. Solar power is complicated due to changes in seasons and from day to night. Cloud cover can also add to complications of solar energy, and not all radiation from the sun reaches earth because it is absorbed and dispersed due to clouds and gases within the earth's atmospheres.

text: Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum. Other types of electromagnetic radiation, with frequencies above the RF range, are infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. Since the energy of an individual photon of radio frequency is too low to remove an electron from an atom, radio waves are classified as non-ionizing radiation.

text: Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz, although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum. Other types of electromagnetic radiation, with frequencies above the RF range, are

text: infrared

text: , visible

text: light

text: ultraviolet

text: X-ray

text: s and

text: gamma ray

text: s. Since the energy of an individual

text: photon

text: of radio frequency is too low to remove an

text: electron

text: from an

text: atom

text: , radio waves are classified as

text: non-ionizing radiation

text: The Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) region of the atmosphere to be studied by TIMED is located between 60–180 km above the Earth's surface where energy from solar radiation is first deposited into the atmosphere. This can have profound effects on Earth's upper atmospheric regions, particularly during the peak of the Sun's 11-year solar cycle when the greatest amounts of its energy are being released. Understanding these interactions is also important for our understanding of various subjects in geophysics, meteorology, and atmospheric science, as solar radiation is one of the primary driving forces behind atmospheric tides. Changes in the MLT can also affect modern satellite and radio telecommunications.

text: The

text: Mesosphere

text: and Lower

text: Thermosphere

text: (MLT) region of the atmosphere to be studied by TIMED is located between 60–180 km above the Earth's surface where energy from solar radiation is first deposited into the atmosphere. This can have profound effects on Earth's upper atmospheric regions, particularly during the peak of the Sun's 11-year solar cycle when the greatest amounts of its energy are being released. Understanding these interactions is also important for our understanding of various subjects in

text: geophysics

text: meteorology

text: , and

text: atmospheric science

text: , as solar radiation is one of the primary driving forces behind

text: atmospheric tides

text: . Changes in the MLT can also affect modern

text: satellite

text: and

text: radio

text: telecommunications

text: The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen (~73%); the rest is mostly helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.

text: The Sun is the

text: star

text: at the center of the

text: Solar System

text: . It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot

text: plasma

text: , with internal

text: convective

text: motion that generates a

text: magnetic field

text: via a

text: dynamo process

text: . It is by far the most important source of

text: energy

text: for

text: life

text: on

text: Earth

text: . Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and

text: its mass

text: is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of

text: hydrogen

text: (~73%); the rest is mostly

text: helium

text: (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including

text: oxygen

text: carbon

text: neon

text: , and

text: iron

text: With the pressure term neglected, energy exists in two forms, potential and kinetic.  Assuming all the fluid particles are moving at the same velocity, the general expression for kinetic energy applies (

text: With the pressure term neglected, energy exists in two forms,

text: potential

text: and

text: kinetic

text: .  Assuming all the fluid particles are moving at the same velocity, the general expression for kinetic energy applies (

text: A large amount of air pollution in the world is caused by carbon dioxide emissions from cars. Many of these emissions come from large freight trucks carrying food and other cargo. If installed on a large scale in the UK, Foodtubes would reduce carbon dioxide levels added to the atmosphere by 8%, and save 17 billion liters of diesel per year. According to estimations by the company, in large cities such as Croydon, London, the project would save 90% of fuel and energy. Presently, 92% of energy for moving freight is used to move the vehicle, and only 8% used to transport the cargo itself. A more efficient system such as Foodtubes would save both energy and money by saving fuel and time spent transporting food in traffic.

text: A large amount of air pollution in the world is caused by carbon dioxide emissions from cars. Many of these emissions come from large freight trucks carrying food and other cargo. If installed on a large scale in the UK, Foodtubes would reduce carbon dioxide levels added to the atmosphere by 8%, and save 17 billion liters of diesel per year. According to estimations by the company, in large cities such as

text: Croydon, London

text: , the project would save 90% of fuel and energy. Presently, 92% of energy for moving freight is used to move the vehicle, and only 8% used to transport the cargo itself. A more efficient system such as Foodtubes would save both energy and money by saving fuel and time spent transporting food in traffic.

text: On Earth, the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface, absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun, and convective heat fluxes from the surface. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy, some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect.

text: On Earth, the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of

text: infrared

text: thermal radiation from the underlying surface, absorption of shorter wavelength

text: radiant energy

text: from the sun, and

text: convective

text: heat fluxes from the surface. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy, some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect.

text: Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth, affected by areas of high pressure and of low pressure. The global wind kinetic energy averaged approximately 1.50 MJ/m over the period from 1979 to 2010, 1.31 MJ/m in the Northern Hemisphere with 1.70 MJ/m in the Southern Hemisphere. The atmosphere acts as a thermal engine, absorbing heat at higher temperatures, releasing heat at lower temperatures. The process is responsible for production of wind kinetic energy at a rate of 2.46 W/m sustaining thus the circulation of the atmosphere against frictional dissipation. A global 1 km map of wind resources is housed at http://irena.masdar.ac.ae/?map=103 , based on calculations by the Technical University of Denmark.

text: Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth, affected by areas of high pressure and of low pressure. The global wind kinetic energy averaged approximately 1.50 MJ/m over the period from 1979 to 2010, 1.31 MJ/m in the Northern Hemisphere with 1.70 MJ/m in the Southern Hemisphere. The atmosphere acts as a thermal engine, absorbing heat at higher temperatures, releasing heat at lower temperatures. The process is responsible for production of wind kinetic energy at a rate of 2.46 W/m sustaining thus the circulation of the atmosphere against frictional dissipation. A global 1 km map of wind resources is housed at http://irena.masdar.ac.ae/?map=103 , based on calculations by the

text: Technical University of Denmark

text: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged particles in matter. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. When the temperature of a body is greater than absolute zero, inter-atomic collisions cause the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules to change. This results in charge-acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation, and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations that occur even at a single temperature.

text: Thermal radiation is

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: generated by the

text: thermal motion

text: of

text: charged particles

text: in

text: matter

text: . All matter with a

text: temperature

text: greater than

text: absolute zero

text: emits thermal radiation. When the temperature of a body is greater than absolute zero, inter-atomic collisions cause the

text: kinetic energy

text: of the atoms or molecules to change. This results in charge-acceleration and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation, and the wide spectrum of radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations that occur even at a single temperature.

text: A planet's atmospheric conditions influence its ability to retain heat, so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out.

text: A planet's atmospheric conditions influence its ability to retain heat, so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet:

text: desert planet

text: s (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced

text: greenhouse effect

text: , meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out.

text: NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) mission was launched in 2010 and is currently studying solar activity and how it causes space weather. Space weather affects not only our lives on Earth, but Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (astronauts and satellites out in space and even the other planets). SDO is helping us understand where the sun's energy comes from, how the inside of the sun works, and how energy is stored and released in the sun's atmosphere. By better understanding the sun and how it works, we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events.

text: NASA’s

text: Solar Dynamics Observatory

text: (SDO) mission was launched in 2010 and is currently studying solar activity and how it causes

text: space weather

text: . Space weather affects not only our lives on Earth, but Earth itself, and everything outside its atmosphere (

text: astronaut

text: s and

text: satellite

text: s out in space and even the other

text: planet

text: s). SDO is helping us understand where the sun's energy comes from, how the inside of the sun works, and how energy is stored and released in the sun's atmosphere. By better understanding the sun and how it works, we will be able to better predict and better forecast space weather events.

text: Such fuels are considered carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. To the extent that synthetic fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.

text: Such fuels are considered

text: carbon-neutral

text: because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. To the extent that synthetic fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: carbon capture

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet. This is a common "textbook model": the planet will have a constant surface temperature T and an atmosphere with constant temperature T.  For diagrammatic clarity, a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface. Alternatively, T could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere, and T could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere.  In order to justify that T and T remain constant over the planet, strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing.  Furthermore, any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant.

text: The

text: greenhouse effect

text: can be illustrated with an idealized planet. This is a common "textbook model": the planet will have a constant surface temperature T and an atmosphere with constant temperature T.  For diagrammatic clarity, a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface. Alternatively, T could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere, and T could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere.  In order to justify that T and T remain constant over the planet, strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing.  Furthermore, any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant.

text: As plants acquire nearly all their carbon from the atmosphere, greenhouse growers commonly supplement CO levels to 3–4 times the rate normally found in the atmosphere. This increase in CO, which has been shown to increase photosynthesis rates by 50%, contributes to the higher yields expected in vertical farming. It is not uncommon to find greenhouses burning fossil fuels purely for this purpose, as other CO sources, like from furnaces, contain pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and ethylene which significantly damage plants.  This means a vertical farm will require a CO source, most likely from combustion, even if the rest of the farm is powered by "green" energy. Also, through necessary ventilation, much CO will be leaked into the city's atmosphere.

text: As plants acquire nearly all their carbon from the atmosphere, greenhouse growers commonly supplement

text: CO

text: levels to 3–4 times the rate normally found in the atmosphere. This increase in CO, which has been shown to increase photosynthesis rates by 50%, contributes to the higher yields expected in vertical farming. It is not uncommon to find greenhouses burning fossil fuels purely for this purpose, as other CO sources, like from furnaces, contain pollutants such as

text: sulphur dioxide

text: and

text: ethylene

text: which significantly damage plants.  This means a vertical farm will require a CO source, most likely from

text: combustion

text: , even if the rest of the farm is powered by "green" energy. Also, through necessary ventilation, much CO will be leaked into the city's atmosphere.

text: Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying degrees of energy received from either the Sun or their interiors, leading to the formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms (on Mars), an Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune). At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to possess such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.

text: Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying degrees of energy received from either the Sun or their interiors, leading to the formation of dynamic

text: weather system

text: s such as

text: hurricane

text: s, (on Earth), planet-wide

text: dust storm

text: s (on Mars), an Earth-sized

text: anticyclone

text: on Jupiter (called the

text: Great Red Spot

text: ), and

text: holes in the atmosphere

text: (on Neptune). At least one extrasolar planet,

text: HD 189733 b

text: , has been claimed to possess such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.

text: In 1994 the LAJUB laboratory for greenhouse effect research was installed in collaboration with the Institute of Atmospheric Physics (IFA), Italy.

text: In 1994 the LAJUB laboratory for

text: greenhouse effect

text: research was installed in collaboration with the

text: Institute of Atmospheric Physics

text: (IFA),

text: Italy

text: It is then that the Spectre explains to Jordan the truth about Parallax, while simultaneously on the Moon, Rayner does so to Queen. Rayner explains that he journeyed to the edge of the universe within Sector 3599, and on the tenth planet from the star Pagallus, the inhabitants told him that Parallax was actually a yellow demonic parasitic entity that was born at the beginning of sentience, feeding on fear, creating terror in anything it came into contact with, and causing entire civilizations to destroy themselves out of paranoia. It was this creature that the Guardians of the Universe imprisoned within the Central Power Battery on Oa, using fear's opposite energy, willpower. Rayner explains that there is an emotional electromagnetic spectrum into which the collective willpower of the universe is collected by the Central Power Battery, and that green willpower is the most pure. Parallax had lain dormant for billions of years, his true nature covered up by the Guardians to prevent anyone from trying to free it, and thus, it had eventually come to be referred to as simply "the yellow impurity". This was the reason why the rings were useless against the color yellow: Parallax weakened its power over the corresponding spectrum, and hence only someone capable of overcoming great fear could master the power ring. The Guardians, therefore, selected only such persons to become Green Lanterns.

text: It is then that the Spectre explains to Jordan the truth about Parallax, while simultaneously on the Moon, Rayner does so to Queen. Rayner explains that he journeyed to the edge of the universe within Sector 3599, and on the tenth planet from the star Pagallus, the inhabitants told him that Parallax was actually a yellow demonic parasitic entity that was born at the beginning of sentience, feeding on fear, creating terror in anything it came into contact with, and causing entire civilizations to destroy themselves out of paranoia. It was this creature that the Guardians of the Universe imprisoned within the Central Power Battery on Oa, using fear's opposite energy, willpower. Rayner explains that there is an emotional

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: into which the collective willpower of the universe is collected by the Central Power Battery, and that green willpower is the most pure. Parallax had lain dormant for billions of years, his true nature covered up by the Guardians to prevent anyone from trying to free it, and thus, it had eventually come to be referred to as simply "the yellow impurity". This was the reason why the rings were useless against the color yellow: Parallax weakened its power over the corresponding spectrum, and hence only someone capable of overcoming great fear could master the power ring. The Guardians, therefore, selected only such persons to become Green Lanterns.

text: The mass of the Sun has decreased since the time it formed. This has occurred through two processes in nearly equal amounts. First, in the Sun's core, hydrogen is converted into helium through nuclear fusion, in particular the p–p chain, and this reaction converts some mass into energy in the form of gamma ray photons. Most of this energy eventually radiates away from the Sun. Second, high-energy protons and electrons in the atmosphere of the Sun are ejected directly into outer space as a solar wind.

text: The mass of the Sun has decreased since the time it formed. This has occurred through two processes in nearly equal amounts. First, in the

text: Sun's core

text: , hydrogen is converted into helium through

text: nuclear fusion

text: , in particular the

text: p–p chain

text: , and this reaction converts some mass into energy in the form of

text: gamma ray

text: photons. Most of this energy eventually

text: radiates away

text: from the Sun. Second, high-energy protons and electrons in the atmosphere of the Sun are ejected directly into outer space as a

text: solar wind

text: Earth's magnetosphere is shaped by the impact of the solar wind on the Earth's magnetic field. This forms an obstacle to the flow, diverting it, at an average distance of about 70,000 km (11 Earth radii or Re), producing a bow shock 12,000 km to 15,000 km (1.9 to 2.4 Re) further upstream. The width of the magnetosphere abreast of Earth, is typically 190,000 km (30 Re), and on the night side a long "magnetotail" of stretched field lines extends to great distances (> 200 Re).The high latitude magnetosphere is filled with plasma as the solar wind passes the Earth. The flow of plasma into the magnetosphere increases with additional turbulence, density and speed in the solar wind. This flow is favoured by a southward component of the IMF, which can then directly connect to the high latitude geomagnetic field lines. The flow pattern of magnetospheric plasma is mainly from the magnetotail toward the Earth, around the Earth and back into the solar wind through the magnetopause on the day-side. In addition to moving perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic field, some magnetospheric plasma travels down along the Earth's magnetic field lines, gains additional energy and loses it to the atmosphere in the auroral zones. The cusps of the magnetosphere, separating geomagnetic field lines that close through the Earth from those that close remotely allow a small amount of solar wind to directly reach the top of the atmosphere, producing an auroral glow.On 26 February 2008, THEMIS probes were able to determine, for the first time, the triggering event for the onset of magnetospheric substorms. Two of the five probes, positioned approximately one third the distance to the moon, measured events suggesting a magnetic reconnection event 96 seconds prior to auroral intensification.

text: Earth's

text: magnetosphere

text: is shaped by the impact of the solar wind on the Earth's magnetic field. This forms an obstacle to the flow, diverting it, at an average distance of about 70,000 km (11 Earth radii or Re), producing a

text: bow shock

text: 12,000 km to 15,000 km (1.9 to 2.4 Re) further upstream. The width of the magnetosphere abreast of Earth, is typically 190,000 km (30 Re), and on the night side a long "magnetotail" of stretched field lines extends to great distances (> 200 Re).The high latitude magnetosphere is filled with plasma as the solar wind passes the Earth. The flow of plasma into the magnetosphere increases with additional turbulence, density and speed in the solar wind. This flow is favoured by a southward component of the IMF, which can then directly connect to the high latitude geomagnetic field lines. The flow pattern of magnetospheric plasma is mainly from the magnetotail toward the Earth, around the Earth and back into the solar wind through the

text: magnetopause

text: on the day-side. In addition to moving perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic field, some magnetospheric plasma travels down along the Earth's magnetic field lines, gains additional energy and loses it to the atmosphere in the auroral zones. The cusps of the magnetosphere, separating geomagnetic field lines that close through the Earth from those that close remotely allow a small amount of solar wind to directly reach the top of the atmosphere, producing an auroral glow.On 26 February 2008,

text: THEMIS

text: probes were able to determine, for the first time, the triggering event for the onset of

text: magnetospheric substorm

text: s. Two of the five probes, positioned approximately one third the distance to the moon, measured events suggesting a

text: magnetic reconnection

text: event 96 seconds prior to auroral intensification.

text: The electromagnetic radiation emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially () is called synchrotron radiation. It is produced, for example, in synchrotrons using bending magnets, undulators and/or wigglers. It is similar to cyclotron radiation except that synchrotron radiation is generated by the acceleration of ultrarelativistic charged particles through magnetic fields. Synchrotron radiation may be achieved artificially in synchrotrons or storage rings, or naturally by fast electrons moving through magnetic fields. The radiation produced in this way has a characteristic polarization and the frequencies generated can range over the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

text: The

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: emitted when charged particles are accelerated radially () is called synchrotron radiation. It is produced, for example, in

text: synchrotron

text: s using bending magnets,

text: undulator

text: s and/or

text: wiggler

text: s. It is similar to

text: cyclotron radiation

text: except that synchrotron radiation is generated by the acceleration of

text: ultrarelativistic

text: charged particles through magnetic fields. Synchrotron radiation may be achieved artificially in synchrotrons or

text: storage ring

text: s, or naturally by fast electrons moving through magnetic fields. The radiation produced in this way has a characteristic

text: polarization

text: and the frequencies generated can range over the entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: In April 2007, a team headed by Stéphane Udry based in Switzerland announced the discovery of two new super-Earths around Gliese 581, both on the edge of the habitable zone around the star where liquid water may be possible on the surface. With Gliese 581 c having a mass of at least 5 Earth masses and a distance from Gliese 581 of 0.073 astronomical units  (AU; 6.8 million mi, 11 million km), it is on the "warm" edge of the habitable zone around Gliese 581 with an estimated mean temperature (without taking into consideration effects from an atmosphere) of −3 degrees Celsius with an albedo comparable to Venus and 40 degrees Celsius with an albedo comparable to Earth. Subsequent research suggested Gliese 581 c had likely suffered a runaway greenhouse effect like Venus.

text: In April 2007, a team headed by

text: Stéphane Udry

text: based in

text: Switzerland

text: announced the discovery of two new super-Earths around

text: Gliese 581

text: , both on the edge of the

text: habitable zone

text: around the star where liquid water may be possible on the surface. With

text: Gliese 581 c

text: having a mass of at least 5 Earth masses and a distance from Gliese 581 of 0.073

text: astronomical unit

text: s  (AU; 6.8 million mi, 11 million km), it is on the "warm" edge of the habitable zone around Gliese 581 with an estimated mean temperature (without taking into consideration effects from an atmosphere) of −3 degrees Celsius with an

text: albedo

text: comparable to

text: Venus

text: and 40 degrees Celsius with an albedo comparable to Earth. Subsequent research suggested Gliese 581 c had likely suffered a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: like Venus.

text: The International Energy Agency (IEA) publication, World Energy Outlook 2010, contains a scenario that is based on the voluntary pledges made in the Copenhagen Accord.In the IEA scenario, it is assumed that these pledges are acted on cautiously, reflecting their non-binding nature. In the scenario, GHG emission trends follow a path that is consistent with a stabilization of GHGs at 650 parts per million (ppm) CO-equivalent in the atmosphere. In the long-term, a 650 ppm concentration could lead to global warming of 3.5 °C above the pre-industrial global average temperature level.

text: The

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) publication,

text: World Energy Outlook

text: 2010, contains a

text: scenario

text: that is based on the voluntary pledges made in the Copenhagen Accord.In the IEA scenario, it is assumed that these pledges are acted on cautiously, reflecting their non-binding nature. In the scenario, GHG emission trends follow a path that is consistent with a stabilization of GHGs at 650

text: parts per million

text: (ppm)

text: CO-equivalent

text: in the atmosphere. In the long-term, a 650 ppm concentration could lead to global warming of 3.5 °C above the pre-industrial global average temperature level.

text: If an electron of the special pair in the reaction center becomes excited, it cannot transfer this energy to another pigment using resonance energy transfer. In normal circumstances, the electron should return to the ground state, but, because the reaction center is arranged so that a suitable electron acceptor is nearby, the excited electron can move from the initial molecule to the acceptor. This process results in the formation of a positive charge on the special pair (due to the loss of an electron) and a negative charge on the acceptor and is, hence, referred to as photoinduced charge separation. In other words, electrons in pigment molecules can exist at specific energy levels. Under normal circumstances, they exist at the lowest possible energy level they can. However, if there is enough energy to move them into the next energy level, they can absorb that energy and occupy that higher energy level. The light they absorb contains the necessary amount of energy needed to push them into the next level. Any light that does not have enough or has too much energy cannot be absorbed and is reflected. The electron in the higher energy level, however, does not want to be there; the electron is unstable and must return to its normal lower energy level. To do this, it must release the energy that has put it into the higher energy state to begin with. This can happen various ways. The extra energy can be converted into molecular motion and lost as heat. Some of the extra energy can be lost as heat energy, while the rest is lost as light. This re-emission of light energy is called fluorescence. The energy, but not the e- itself, can be passed onto another molecule. This is called resonance. The energy and the e- can be transferred to another molecule. Plant pigments usually utilize the last two of these reactions to convert the sun's energy into their own.

text: If an

text: electron

text: of the special pair in the reaction center becomes excited, it cannot transfer this energy to another pigment using

text: resonance energy transfer

text: . In normal circumstances, the electron should return to the ground state, but, because the reaction center is arranged so that a suitable electron acceptor is nearby, the excited electron can move from the initial molecule to the acceptor. This process results in the formation of a positive charge on the special pair (due to the loss of an electron) and a negative charge on the acceptor and is, hence, referred to as

text: photoinduced charge separation

text: . In other words, electrons in pigment molecules can exist at specific energy levels. Under normal circumstances, they exist at the lowest possible energy level they can. However, if there is enough energy to move them into the next energy level, they can absorb that energy and occupy that higher energy level. The light they absorb contains the necessary amount of energy needed to push them into the next level. Any light that does not have enough or has too much energy cannot be absorbed and is reflected. The electron in the higher energy level, however, does not want to be there; the electron is unstable and must return to its normal lower energy level. To do this, it must release the energy that has put it into the higher energy state to begin with. This can happen various ways. The extra energy can be converted into molecular motion and lost as heat. Some of the extra energy can be lost as heat energy, while the rest is lost as light. This re-emission of light energy is called fluorescence. The energy, but not the e- itself, can be passed onto another molecule. This is called resonance. The energy and the e- can be transferred to another molecule. Plant pigments usually utilize the last two of these reactions to convert the sun's energy into their own.

text: Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat. Ocean currents are another important factor in determining climate, particularly the major underwater thermohaline circulation which distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. These currents help to moderate the differences in temperature between winter and summer in the temperate zones. Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder.

text: Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the

text: lower part of the atmosphere

text: , and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat.

text: Ocean current

text: s are another important factor in determining climate, particularly the major underwater

text: thermohaline circulation

text: which distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. These currents help to moderate the differences in temperature between winter and summer in the temperate zones. Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the

text: polar region

text: s much colder.

text: Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes. In principle, black holes could be formed in high-energy collisions that achieve sufficient density. As of 2002, no such events have been detected, either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in particle accelerator experiments. This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes. Theoretically, this boundary is expected to lie around the Planck mass (m =  ≈  ≈ ), where quantum effects are expected to invalidate the predictions of general relativity. This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high-energy process occurring on or near the Earth. However, certain developments in quantum gravity suggest that the Planck mass could be much lower: some braneworld scenarios for example put the boundary as low as . This would make it conceivable for micro black holes to be created in the high-energy collisions that occur when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere, or possibly in the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. These theories are very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists. Even if micro black holes could be formed, it is expected that they would evaporate in about 10 seconds, posing no threat to the Earth.

text: Gravitational collapse is not the only process that could create black holes. In principle, black holes could be formed in

text: high-energy

text: collisions that achieve sufficient density. As of 2002, no such events have been detected, either directly or indirectly as a deficiency of the mass balance in

text: particle accelerator

text: experiments. This suggests that there must be a lower limit for the mass of black holes. Theoretically, this boundary is expected to lie around the

text: Planck mass

text: (m =  ≈  ≈ ), where quantum effects are expected to invalidate the predictions of general relativity. This would put the creation of black holes firmly out of reach of any high-energy process occurring on or near the Earth. However, certain developments in quantum gravity suggest that the Planck mass could be much lower: some

text: braneworld

text: scenarios for example put the boundary as low as . This would make it conceivable for

text: micro black hole

text: s to be created in the high-energy collisions that occur when

text: cosmic ray

text: s hit the Earth's atmosphere, or possibly in the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: at

text: CERN

text: . These theories are very speculative, and the creation of black holes in these processes is deemed unlikely by many specialists. Even if micro black holes could be formed, it is expected that they would

text: evaporate

text: in about 10 seconds, posing no threat to the Earth.

text: Thermal radiation is a byproduct of the collisions arising from various vibrational motions of atoms. These collisions cause the electrons of the atoms to emit thermal photons (known as black-body radiation). Photons are emitted anytime an electric charge is accelerated (as happens when electron clouds of two atoms collide). Even individual molecules with internal temperatures greater than absolute zero also emit black-body radiation from their atoms. In any bulk quantity of a substance at equilibrium, black-body photons are emitted across a range of wavelengths in a spectrum that has a bell curve-like shape called a Planck curve (see graph in Fig. 5 at right). The top of a Planck curve (the peak emittance wavelength) is located in a particular part of the electromagnetic spectrum depending on the temperature of the black-body. Substances at extreme cryogenic temperatures emit at long radio wavelengths whereas extremely hot temperatures produce short gamma rays (see Table of common temperatures).

text: Thermal radiation

text: is a byproduct of the collisions arising from various vibrational motions of atoms. These collisions cause the electrons of the atoms to emit thermal

text: photon

text: s (known as

text: black-body

text: radiation). Photons are emitted anytime an electric charge is accelerated (as happens when electron clouds of two atoms collide). Even individual molecules with internal temperatures greater than absolute zero also emit black-body radiation from their atoms. In any bulk quantity of a substance at equilibrium, black-body photons are emitted across a range of

text: wavelength

text: s in a spectrum that has a bell curve-like shape called a

text: Planck curve

text: (see graph in Fig. 5 at right). The top of a Planck curve (

text: the peak emittance wavelength

text: ) is located in a particular part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: depending on the temperature of the black-body. Substances at extreme

text: cryogenic

text: temperatures emit at long radio wavelengths whereas extremely hot temperatures produce short

text: gamma ray

text: s (see

text: Table of common temperatures

text: Spoiled (stylized as spOILed) is a 2011 documentary film about energy myths, environmental issues with energy, the problems with alternative energy, and the global warming controversy associated with energy. Spoiled also discusses wind energy, solar energy, fossil fuels, green energy, alternative energy, and sustainable energy as a part of its renewable energy documentary scope.

text: Spoiled (stylized as spOILed) is a 2011 documentary film about energy

text: myths

entity_name: Environmental impact of the energy industry

text: environmental issues with energy

text: , the problems with

text: alternative energy

text: , and the

text: global warming controversy

text: associated with energy. Spoiled also discusses

text: wind energy

text: solar energy

text: fossil fuels

text: green energy

text: alternative energy

text: , and

text: sustainable energy

text: as a part of its

text: renewable energy

text: documentary scope.

text: Depending on the size, type, and application of the flashtube, gas fill pressures may range from a few kilopascals to hundreds of kilopascals (0.01–4.0 atmospheres or tens to thousands of torr). Generally, the higher the pressure, the greater the output efficiency. Xenon is used mostly because of its good efficiency, converting nearly 50% of electrical energy into light. Krypton, on the other hand, is only about 40% efficient, but at low currents is a better match to the absorption spectrum of Nd:YAG lasers. A major factor affecting efficiency is the amount of gas behind the electrodes, or the "dead volume". A higher dead volume leads to a lower pressure increase during operation.

text: Depending on the size, type, and application of the flashtube, gas fill pressures may range from a few

text: kilopascal

text: s to hundreds of kilopascals (0.01–4.0

text: atmospheres

text: or tens to thousands of

text: torr

text: ). Generally, the higher the pressure, the greater the output efficiency. Xenon is used mostly because of its good efficiency, converting nearly 50% of electrical energy into light. Krypton, on the other hand, is only about 40% efficient, but at low currents is a better match to the absorption spectrum of

text: Nd:YAG laser

text: s. A major factor affecting efficiency is the amount of gas behind the electrodes, or the "dead volume". A higher dead volume leads to a lower pressure increase during operation.

text: The amount of heat delivered by a solar water heating system depends primarily on the amount of heat delivered by the sun at a particular place (the insolation). In tropical places the insolation can be relatively high, e.g. 7 kW.h/m2 per day, whereas the insolation can be much lower in temperate areas where the days are shorter in winter, e.g. 3.2 kW.h/m2 per day. Even at the same latitude the average insolation can vary a great deal from location to location due to differences in local weather patterns and the amount of overcast. Useful calculators for estimating insolation at a site can be found with the Joint Research Laboratory of the European Commission and the American National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

text: The amount of heat delivered by a solar water heating system depends primarily on the amount of heat delivered by the sun at a particular place (the

text: insolation

text: ). In tropical places the insolation can be relatively high, e.g. 7 kW.h/m2 per day, whereas the insolation can be much lower in

text: temperate

text: areas where the days are shorter in winter, e.g. 3.2 kW.h/m2 per day. Even at the same latitude the average insolation can vary a great deal from location to location due to differences in local weather patterns and the amount of overcast. Useful calculators for estimating

text: insolation

text: at a site can be found with the Joint Research Laboratory of the European Commission and the American National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

text: Professor Crutzen has proposed a method of artificially cooling the global climate by releasing particles of sulphur in the upper atmosphere, along with other particles at lower atmospheric levels, which would reflect sunlight and heat back into space. The controversial proposal is being taken seriously by scientists, because Professor Crutzen has a proven track record in atmospheric research. If this artificial cooling method actually were to work, then we would be able to help reverse some of the effects of the emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels, buying us time to find a permanent energy replacement.  This could be crucial in helping maintain the planet's integrity and livability.

text: Professor Crutzen has proposed a method of artificially cooling the global climate by releasing particles of

text: sulphur

text: in the upper atmosphere, along with other particles at lower atmospheric levels, which would reflect sunlight and heat back into space. The controversial proposal is being taken seriously by scientists, because Professor Crutzen has a proven track record in atmospheric research. If this artificial cooling method actually were to work, then we would be able to help reverse some of the effects of the emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels, buying us time to find a permanent energy replacement.  This could be crucial in helping maintain the planet's integrity and livability.

text: Remote sensing depends on the interaction of a source of energy with a target, and energy measured from the target. In the "Remote Sensing" diagram, Source 1a is an independent natural source such as the Sun.  Source 1b is a source, perhaps manmade, that illuminates the target, such as a searchlight or ground radar transmitter. Source 1c is a natural source, such as the heat of the Earth, with which the Target interferes.

text: The chemical energy as defined above is also referred to by chemists as the internal energy, U: technically, this is measured by keeping the volume of the system constant. Most practical chemistry is performed at constant pressure and, if the volume changes during the reaction (e.g. a gas is given off), a correction must be applied to take account of the work done by or on the atmosphere to obtain the enthalpy, H, this correction is the work done by an expanding gas,

text: The chemical energy as defined above is also referred to by

text: chemists

text: as the

text: internal energy

text: , U: technically, this is measured by keeping the

text: volume

text: of the system constant. Most practical chemistry is performed at constant pressure and, if the volume changes during the reaction (e.g. a gas is given off), a correction must be applied to take account of the work done by or on the atmosphere to obtain the

text: enthalpy

text: , H, this correction is the work done by an expanding gas,

text: A transmissometer is an instrument for measuring the extinction coefficient of the atmosphere, and for the determination of visual range.  It operates by sending a narrow, collimated beam of energy (usually a laser) through the propagation medium. A narrow field of view receiver at the designated measurement distance determines how much energy is arriving at the detector, and determines the path transmission and/or extinction coefficient. Atmospheric extinction is wavelength dependent phenomenon, but the most common wavelength in use for transmissometers is 550 nm, which is in the middle of the visible waveband, and allows a good approximation of visual range.

text: A transmissometer is an instrument for measuring the

text: extinction coefficient

text: of the

text: atmosphere

text: , and for the determination of

text: visual range

text: .  It operates by sending a narrow,

text: collimated

text: beam of energy (usually a

text: laser

text: ) through the propagation medium. A narrow

text: field of view

text: receiver at the designated measurement distance determines how much energy is arriving at the

text: detector

text: , and determines the path

text: transmission

text: and/or extinction coefficient. Atmospheric extinction is

text: wavelength

text: dependent phenomenon, but the most common wavelength in use for transmissometers is 550

text: nm

text: , which is in the middle of the visible waveband, and allows a good approximation of visual range.

text: A study conducted in 2013 concluded that hot desert planets without runaway greenhouse effect can exist in 0.5 AU around Sun-like stars. In that study, it was concluded that a minimum humidity of 1% is needed to wash off carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but too much water can act as a greenhouse gas itself. Higher atmospheric pressures increase the range in which the water can remain liquid.

text: A study conducted in 2013 concluded that hot desert planets without runaway greenhouse effect can exist in 0.5

text: AU

text: around Sun-like stars. In that study, it was concluded that a minimum humidity of 1% is needed to wash off carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but too much water can act as a greenhouse gas itself. Higher atmospheric pressures increase the range in which the water can remain liquid.

text: The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy to greenhouses which become warmer in sunlight. The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in an actual greenhouse is that incident solar radiation in the visible, long-wavelength ultraviolet and short-wavelength infrared range of the spectrum passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via convection, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "greenhouse gases" including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects Earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling because no significant amount of air escapes from Earth.

text: The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy to

text: greenhouse

text: s which become warmer in sunlight. The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in an actual greenhouse is that incident

text: solar radiation

text: in the visible, long-wavelength

text: ultraviolet

text: and short-wavelength

text: infrared

text: range of the spectrum passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via

text: radiative transfer

text: . As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via

text: convection

text: , so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "

text: greenhouse gases

text: " including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects Earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling because no significant amount of air escapes from Earth.

text: At an estimated age of a half billion years, 24 Aquilae is a giant star with a stellar classification of K0 IIIa. It has more than double the mass of the Sun and shines with 63 times the Sun's luminosity. It is radiating this energy into space from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,810 K. This heat is what gives it the cool orange hue characteristic of a K-type star.

text: At an estimated age of a half billion years, 24 Aquilae is a

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 IIIa. It has more than double the mass of the Sun and shines with 63 times the Sun's luminosity. It is radiating this energy into space from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,810 K. This heat is what gives it the cool orange hue characteristic of a

text: K-type star

text: There are many sources of light. The most common light sources are thermal: a body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation. A simple thermal source is sunlight, the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around   peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames, but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum. The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10 micrometre wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one, and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white thermal emission is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or a welder's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals (emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm, and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation).

text: There are many sources of light. The most common light sources are thermal: a body at a given

text: temperature

text: emits a characteristic spectrum of

text: black-body

text: radiation. A simple thermal source is

text: sunlight

text: , the radiation emitted by the

text: chromosphere

text: of the

text: Sun

text: at around   peaks in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units and roughly 44% of sunlight energy that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is

text: incandescent light bulb

text: s, which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in

text: flames

text: , but these also emit most of their radiation in the infrared, and only a fraction in the visible spectrum. The peak of the blackbody spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10

text: micrometre

text: wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one, and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into the ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is

text: heat

text: ed to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white

text: thermal emission

text: is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a

text: gas

text: flame or a

text: welder's

text: torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals (emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm, and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation).

text: The region at which radiation becomes considered as "ionizing" is not well defined, since different molecules and atoms ionize at different energies. The usual definitions have suggested that radiation with particle or photon energies less than 10 electronvolts (eV) be considered non-ionizing. Another suggested threshold is 33 electronvolts, which is the energy needed to ionize water molecules. The light from the Sun that reaches the earth is largely composed of non-ionizing radiation, since the ionizing far-ultraviolet rays have been filtered out by the gases in the atmosphere, particularly oxygen. The remaining ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is in the non-ionizing band, and causes molecular damage (for example, sunburn) by photochemical and free-radical-producing means that do not ionize.

text: The region at which radiation becomes considered as "ionizing" is not well defined, since different molecules and atoms ionize at

entity_name: Ionization energies of the elements (data page)

text: different energies

text: . The usual definitions have suggested that radiation with particle or photon energies less than 10

text: electronvolt

text: s (eV) be considered non-ionizing. Another suggested threshold is 33 electronvolts, which is the energy needed to ionize water molecules. The light from the

text: Sun

text: that reaches the earth is largely composed of non-ionizing radiation, since the ionizing far-

text: ultraviolet

text: rays have been filtered out by the gases in the atmosphere, particularly oxygen. The remaining ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is in the non-ionizing band, and causes molecular damage (for example, sunburn) by

text: photochemical

text: and free-radical-producing means that do not ionize.

text: A community of organisms and their environment that occurs on the land masses of continents and islands. Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from aquatic ecosystems by the lower availability of water and the consequent importance of water as a limiting factor. Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both a diurnal and seasonal basis than occur in gay ecosystems in similar climates. The availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because the atmosphere is more transparent in land  than in water. Gases are more available in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems. Those gases include carbon dioxide that serves as a substrate for photosynthesis, oxygen that serves as a substrate in aerobic respiration, and nitrogen that serves as a substrate for nitrogen fixation. Terrestrial environments are segmented into a subterranean portion from which most water and ions are obtained, and an atmospheric portion from which gases are obtained and where the physical energy of light is transformed into the organic energy of carboncology|limiting factor]]. Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both a diurnal and seasonal basis than occur in gay ecosystems in similar climates. The availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because the atmosphere is more transparent in land  than in water. Gases are more available in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems. Those gases include carbon dioxide that serves as a substrate for photosynthesis, oxygen that serves as a substrate in aerobic respiration, and nitrogen that serves as a substrate for nitrogen fixation. Terrestrial environments are segmented into a subterranean portion from which most water and ions are obtained, and an atmospheric portion from which gases are obtained and where the physical energy of light is transformed into the organic energy of carbon-carbon bonds through the process of photosynthesis.

text: A

text: community

text: of organisms and their environment that occurs on the land masses of continents and islands. Terrestrial ecosystems are distinguished from

text: aquatic ecosystems

text: by the lower availability of water and the consequent importance of water as a

text: limiting factor

text: . Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both a

text: diurnal

text: and seasonal basis than occur in gay ecosystems in similar climates. The availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because the atmosphere is more transparent in land  than in water. Gases are more available in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems. Those gases include carbon dioxide that serves as a substrate for photosynthesis, oxygen that serves as a substrate in aerobic respiration, and nitrogen that serves as a substrate for nitrogen fixation. Terrestrial environments are segmented into a subterranean portion from which most water and ions are obtained, and an atmospheric portion from which gases are obtained and where the physical energy of light is transformed into the organic energy of carboncology|limiting factor]]. Terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by greater temperature fluctuations on both a

text: diurnal

text: and seasonal basis than occur in gay ecosystems in similar climates. The availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because the atmosphere is more transparent in land  than in water. Gases are more available in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems. Those gases include carbon dioxide that serves as a substrate for photosynthesis, oxygen that serves as a substrate in aerobic respiration, and nitrogen that serves as a substrate for nitrogen fixation. Terrestrial environments are segmented into a subterranean portion from which most water and ions are obtained, and an atmospheric portion from which gases are obtained and where the physical energy of light is transformed into the organic energy of carbon-carbon bonds through the process of photosynthesis.

text: The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is a very energy-intensive process, as it involves breaking the very stable triple bond between the nitrogen atoms. The enzyme nitrogenase is one of the few enzymes that can catalyze the process. The enzyme occurs in Rhizobium bacteria. There are three components to its action: a molybdenum atom at the active site, iron–sulfur clusters that are involved in transporting the electrons needed to reduce the nitrogen, and an abundant energy source in the form of magnesium ATP. This last is provided by a symbiotic relationship between the bacteria and a host plant, often a legume. The relationship is symbiotic because the plant supplies the energy by photosynthesis and benefits by obtaining the fixed nitrogen. The reaction may be written symbolically as

text: The

text: fixation of atmospheric nitrogen

text: is a very energy-intensive process, as it involves breaking the very stable

text: triple bond

text: between the nitrogen atoms. The enzyme

text: nitrogenase

text: is one of the few enzymes that can catalyze the process. The enzyme occurs in

text: Rhizobium

text: bacteria

text: . There are three components to its action: a

text: molybdenum

text: atom at the active site,

text: iron–sulfur clusters

text: that are involved in transporting the electrons needed to reduce the nitrogen, and an abundant energy source in the form of

text: magnesium

text: ATP

text: . This last is provided by a

text: symbiotic

text: relationship between the bacteria and a host plant, often a

text: legume

text: . The relationship is symbiotic because the plant supplies the energy by

text: photosynthesis

text: and benefits by obtaining the fixed nitrogen. The reaction may be written symbolically as

text: Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased. The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, surface, air burst, or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation. In general, denser media around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect.

text: Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased. The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, surface,

text: air burst

text: , or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation. In general, denser media around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect.

text: The system is defined to be the mass of air that is drawn from the atmosphere into the cylinder, compressed by the piston, heated by the spark ignition of the added fuel, allowed to expand as it pushes on the piston, and finally exhausted back into the atmosphere. The mass of air is followed as its volume, pressure and temperature change during the various thermodynamic steps. As the piston is capable of moving along the cylinder, the volume of the air changes with its position in the cylinder. The compression and expansion processes induced on the gas by the movement of the piston are idealized as reversible, i.e., no useful work is lost through turbulence or friction and no heat is transferred to or from the gas during those two processes. Energy is added to the air by the combustion of fuel. Useful work is extracted by the expansion of the gas in the cylinder. After the expansion is completed in the cylinder, the remaining heat is extracted and finally the gas is exhausted to the environment. Useful mechanical work is produced during the expansion process and some of that used to compress the air mass of the next cycle. The useful mechanical work produced minus that used for the compression process is the net work gained and that can be used for propulsion or for driving other machines. Alternatively the useful work gained is the difference between the heat added and the heat removed.

text: Each variable is isolated either by an a priori knowledge or via in-situ measurement. The mass (m) and area (A) are based on the physical parameters that can be measured prior to launch. The Coefficient of Drag is simulated using the external geometry of the spacecraft in its science collection state. Density (ρ), Acceleration (a), and a Wind Vector are sensed by two onboard instruments, the first is a high precision Accelerometer suite (ACC) that amplifies the μg drag signal in the along track axis of the spacecraft. Secondary to that is a Neutral Mass Spectrometer (NMS) that can provide data products relating the wind vector with respect to the spacecraft ram-vector as well as the numerical density of the constituents in the atmosphere. The idea is that at orbital velocities the spacecraft traveling through even a stagnant atmosphere will have collisions with the species present at energies of several Electron-Volts (eV) of which there are still billions per cubic meter.

text: Currently, anthropogenic greenhouse gases are accumulating in the atmosphere, which is the main cause of global warming.

text: Currently,

text: anthropogenic

text: greenhouse gases are accumulating in the atmosphere, which is the main cause of

text: global warming

text: The ionosphere is a layer of partially ionized gases high above the majority of the Earth's atmosphere; these gases are ionized by cosmic rays originating on the sun.  When radio waves travel into this zone, which commences about 80 kilometers above the earth, they experience diffraction in a manner similar to the visible light phenomenon described above. In this case some of the electromagnetic energy is bent in a large arc, such that it can return to the Earth's surface at a very distant point (on the order of hundreds of kilometers from the broadcast source.  More remarkably some of this radio wave energy bounces off the Earth's surface and reaches the ionosphere for a second time, at a distance even farther away than the first time.  Consequently a high powered transmitter can effectively broadcast over 1000 kilometers by using multiple "skips" off of the ionosphere.  And, at times of favorable atmospheric conditions good "skip" occurs, then even a low power transmitter can be heard half way around th world.  This often occurs for "novice" radio amateurs "hams" who are limited by law to transmitters with no more than 65 watts.  The Kon-Tiki expedition communicated regularly with a 6 watt transmitter from the middle of the Pacific. For more details see the "communications" part of the "Kon-Tiki expedition" entry in Wikipedia.

text: The

text: ionosphere

text: is a layer of partially

text: ionized

text: gases

text: high above the majority of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: atmosphere

text: ; these gases are ionized by

text: cosmic rays

text: originating on the sun.  When radio waves travel into this zone, which commences about 80 kilometers above the earth, they experience

text: diffraction

text: in a manner similar to the

text: visible light

text: phenomenon described above. In this case some of the electromagnetic energy is bent in a large arc, such that it can return to the Earth's surface at a very distant point (on the order of hundreds of kilometers from the

text: broadcast

text: source.  More remarkably some of this radio wave energy bounces off the Earth's surface and reaches the ionosphere for a second time, at a distance even farther away than the first time.  Consequently a high powered

text: transmitter

text: can effectively broadcast over 1000 kilometers by using multiple "skips" off of the ionosphere.  And, at times of favorable atmospheric conditions good "skip" occurs, then even a low power transmitter can be heard half way around th world.  This often occurs for "novice" radio amateurs "hams" who are limited by law to transmitters with no more than 65 watts.  The Kon-Tiki expedition communicated regularly with a 6 watt transmitter from the middle of the Pacific. For more details see the "communications" part of the "Kon-Tiki expedition" entry in Wikipedia.

text: The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 14000–4000 cm (0.8–2.5 μm wavelength) can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000–400 cm (2.5–25 μm) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm (25–1000 μm), lying adjacent to the microwave region, has low energy and may be used for rotational spectroscopy. The names and classifications of these subregions are conventions, and are only loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties.

text: The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions; the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 14000–4000 cm (0.8–2.5 μm wavelength) can excite

text: overtone

text: or

text: harmonic

text: vibrations. The mid-infrared, approximately 4000–400 cm (2.5–25 μm) may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated

text: rotational-vibrational

text: structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm (25–1000 μm), lying adjacent to the

text: microwave

text: region, has low energy and may be used for

text: rotational spectroscopy

text: . The names and classifications of these subregions are conventions, and are only loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties.

text: The function of a standalone reflector is to redirect electro-magnetic (EM) energy, generally in the radio wavelength range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: The function of a standalone reflector is to redirect

text: electro-magnetic

text: (EM) energy, generally in the radio

text: wavelength

text: range of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: According to Marsden and Ross, "The energy levels of the Sun–Earth  and  points differ from those of the Earth–Moon system by only 50 m/s (as measured by maneuver velocity)."

text: Vulcan is a mutant with the ability to psionically manipulate vast amounts of energy. In addition to traditional energies of the electromagnetic spectrum, Vulcan has displayed control over exotic energies such as Cyclops' optic blasts and magical energy.

text: Vulcan is a

text: mutant

text: with the ability to

text: psionic

text: ally manipulate vast amounts of

text: energy

text: . In addition to traditional energies of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , Vulcan has displayed control over exotic energies such as Cyclops' optic blasts and magical energy.

text: Carbon neutral fuel is synthetic fuel—such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel—produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater. Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation. Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: Carbon neutral fuel

text: is

text: synthetic fuel

text: —such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: —produced from

text: renewable

text: or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

text: power plant flue

text: exhaust gas

text: or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: . Such fuels are potentially

text: carbon neutral

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: carbon capture

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: . Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be

text: stored

text: to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: fuel

text: s.

text: In the U.S., Waste Management uses landfill gas as an energy source. Their landfill gas-to-energy projects create sufficient energy to power four hundred thousand homes every day. This energy production offsets almost two million tons of coal per year. These projects also reduce greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Waste Management currently has 110 landfill gas-to-energy facilities.  This gas is equivalent to natural gas.

text: In the U.S.,

text: Waste Management

text: uses landfill gas as an energy source. Their landfill gas-to-energy projects create sufficient energy to power four hundred thousand homes every day. This energy production offsets almost two million tons of coal per year. These projects also reduce greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Waste Management currently has 110 landfill gas-to-energy facilities.  This gas is equivalent to natural gas.

text: Tetrafluoromethane is a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect. It is very stable, has an atmospheric lifetime of 50,000 years, and a high greenhouse warming potential of 6500 (which is given for the first 100 years thereof, CO has a factor of 1); however, the low amount in the atmosphere restricts the overall radiative forcing effect.

text: Tetrafluoromethane is a potent

text: greenhouse gas

text: that contributes to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . It is very stable, has an

text: atmospheric lifetime

text: of 50,000 years, and a high

text: greenhouse warming potential

text: of 6500 (which is given for the first 100 years thereof,

text: CO

text: has a factor of 1); however, the low amount in the atmosphere restricts the overall

text: radiative forcing

text: effect.

text: The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are  and HO.

text: The

text: greenhouse effect

text: is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are  and HO.

text: The Greenhouse Effect refers to Linda Greenhouse, a Pulitzer Prize winning New York Times Supreme Court reporter for over three decades, currently a Senior Fellow at Yale Law School. Greenhouse came under fire from conservatives for publicly espousing liberal viewpoints by participating in a 1989 pro-choice march and in remarks at the Radcliffe Institute in 2006.

text: The Greenhouse Effect refers to

text: Linda Greenhouse

text: , a

text: Pulitzer Prize

text: winning

text: New York Times

text: Supreme Court reporter for over three decades, currently a Senior Fellow at

text: Yale Law School

text: . Greenhouse came under fire from conservatives for publicly espousing liberal viewpoints by participating in a 1989 pro-choice march and in remarks at the

text: Radcliffe Institute

text: in 2006.

text: Greenhouses allow for greater control over the growing environment of plants. Depending upon the technical specification of a greenhouse, key factors which may be controlled include temperature, levels of light and shade, irrigation, fertilizer application, and atmospheric humidity. Greenhouses may be used to overcome shortcomings in the growing qualities of a piece of land, such as a short growing season or poor light levels, and they can thereby improve food production in marginal environments.  Greenhouses in hot, dry climates used specifically to provide shade are sometimes called "shadehouses".

text: Greenhouses allow for greater control over the growing environment of plants. Depending upon the technical specification of a greenhouse, key factors which may be controlled include temperature, levels of light and shade,

text: irrigation

text: fertilizer

text: application, and atmospheric

text: humidity

text: . Greenhouses may be used to overcome shortcomings in the growing qualities of a piece of land, such as a short growing season or poor light levels, and they can thereby improve food production in marginal environments.  Greenhouses in hot, dry climates used specifically to provide shade are sometimes called "shadehouses".

text: A greenhouse gas (abbrev. GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about , rather than the present average of .  In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect.

text: A greenhouse gas (abbrev. GHG) is a

text: gas

text: in an atmosphere that

text: absorbs

text: and

text: emits

text: radiation within the

text: thermal infrared

text: range. This process is the fundamental cause of the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . The primary greenhouse gases in

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: are

text: water vapor

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: nitrous oxide

text: , and

text: ozone

text: . Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of

text: Earth's surface

text: would be about , rather than the present average of .  In the

text: Solar System

text: , the atmospheres of

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: and

text: Titan

text: also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect.

text: Common energy forms include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field (gravitational, electric or magnetic), the elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, the chemical energy released when a fuel burns, the radiant energy carried by light, and the thermal energy due to an object's temperature. All of the many forms of energy are convertible to other kinds of energy. In Newtonian physics, there is a universal law of conservation of energy which says that energy can be neither created nor be destroyed; however, it can change from one form to another.

text: Common energy forms include the

text: kinetic energy

text: of a moving object, the

text: potential energy

text: stored by an object's position in a force

text: field

text: gravitational

text: electric

text: or

text: magnetic

text: ), the

text: elastic energy

text: stored by stretching solid objects, the

text: chemical energy

text: released when a fuel burns, the

text: radiant energy

text: carried by light, and the

text: thermal energy

text: due to an object's

text: temperature

text: . All of the many

text: forms of energy

text: are convertible to other kinds of energy. In

text: Newtonian physics

text: , there is a universal law of

text: conservation of energy

text: which says that energy can be neither created nor be destroyed; however, it can change from one form to another.

text: The electrons responsible for the brightest forms of aurora are well accounted for by their acceleration in the dynamic electric fields of plasma turbulence encountered during precipitation from the magnetosphere into the auroral atmosphere. In contrast, static electric fields are unable to transfer energy to the electrons due to their conservative nature. The electrons and ions that cause the diffuse aurora appear not to be accelerated during precipitation.The increase in strength of magnetic field lines towards the Earth creates a ‘magnetic mirror’ that turns back many of the downward flowing electrons. The bright forms of auroras are produced when downward acceleration not only increases the energy of precipitating electrons but also reduces their pitch angles (angle between electron velocity and the local magnetic field vector). This greatly increases the rate of deposition of energy into the atmosphere, and thereby the rates of ionisation, excitation and consequent emission of auroral light. Acceleration also increases the electron current flowing between the atmosphere and magnetosphere.

text: The Mahakam catchment is around the equator. According to Köppen climate classification, this area belongs to type Af (tropical rainforest) that has a minimum temperature ≥18 °C and precipitation of the driest month in normal year ≥60 mm Transfer of mass and energy in the tropical zone occurred through general air circulation known as the Hadley cell. According to Seidel et al. (2008) the precipitation pattern in this area is largely determined by this large-scale atmospheric wind patterns, which is observable in several ways throughout the atmosphere. This circulation carries moisture into the air, generating rainfall in equatorial regions, whereas at the edges of the tropical belt are drier. Within this circulation, evaporation occurs intensively around the equator on the centre of low pressure called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), characterized by accumulation of cloud in the area. The ITCZ moves following the pseudo-motion of the sun within 23.5°N and 23.5°S zone, therefore its position always changes according to this motion.

text: The Mahakam catchment is around the equator. According to

text: Köppen climate classification

text: , this area belongs to type Af (tropical rainforest) that has a minimum temperature ≥18 °C and precipitation of the driest month in normal year ≥60 mm Transfer of mass and energy in the tropical zone occurred through general air circulation known as the

text: Hadley cell

text: . According to Seidel et al. (2008) the

text: precipitation

text: pattern in this area is largely determined by this large-scale atmospheric wind patterns, which is observable in several ways throughout the atmosphere. This circulation carries moisture into the air, generating rainfall in equatorial regions, whereas at the edges of the tropical belt are drier. Within this circulation, evaporation occurs intensively around the equator on the centre of low pressure called the

text: Intertropical Convergence Zone

text: (ITCZ), characterized by accumulation of cloud in the area. The ITCZ moves following the pseudo-motion of the sun within 23.5°N and 23.5°S zone, therefore its position always changes according to this motion.

text: Lajkonik has been involved in every PolArt Festival since 1991, and is a regular attendee of the Triennial International Rzeszow Festival in Poland Since 1996. Lajkonik performs not only within the Polish Community, but also strives to promote the beautiful and rich Polish culture and traditions to the non-Polish community through its folkloric performances, with in excess of 30 performances and events annually at a range of multicultural, religious  and dance-based events and festivals.  Lajkonik is regularly booked for weddings and special events, and has gained quite a reputation for the special atmosphere which its performances contribute to such occasions through the energy, joy and colour of its performances.

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators, oscillating water columns, and overtopping devices.

text: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common approaches:

text: point absorber buoy

text: s,

text: surface attenuator

text: s,

text: oscillating water column

text: s, and

text: overtopping devices

text: This is an evolved K-type giant star with a stellar classification of K0 III. It is a red clump giant on the horizontal branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, indicating that is it now generating energy through the thermonuclear fusion of helium at its core. The star has 2.5 times the mass of the Sun and has expanded to 9 times the Sun's radius. As such, it is radiating nearly 46 times the solar luminosity from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,864 K.

text: This is an

text: evolved

text: K-type

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 III. It is a

text: red clump

text: giant on the

text: horizontal branch

text: of the

text: Hertzsprung–Russell diagram

text: thermonuclear fusion

text: of helium at its core. The star has 2.5 times the

text: mass of the Sun

text: and has expanded to 9 times the

text: Sun's radius

text: . As such, it is radiating nearly 46 times the

text: solar luminosity

text: from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,864 K.

text: An afterglow is a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light appearing in the sky due to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions of the atmosphere. An afterglow may appear above the highest clouds in the hour of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snowfields in mountain regions long after sunset. The particles produce a scattering effect upon the component parts of white light. The true alpenglow, which occurs long after sunset or long before sunrise, is caused by the backscattering of red sunlight by aerosols and fine dust particles low in the atmosphere. It is an afterglow caused by direct illumination of atmospheric particles by sunlight as it refracts and gets scattered through the Earth's atmosphere. The high-energy and high-frequency light is scattered out the most and the remaining low-energy, low-frequency reaches the observer in the horizon at twilight. The backscattering of this light further turns it pinkish-red. This period of time is referred to as the blue hour and is widely treasured by photographers and painters as it offers breathtaking imagery.The afterglow persists till the Earth's shadow (terminator line) takes over the sky of the observer as nightfall and the stars appear, with planet Venus being the brightest star visible in the night sky just opposite to the Belt of Venus at the anti-solar point.

text: An afterglow is a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light appearing in the

text: sky

text: due to very fine particles of

text: dust

text: suspended in the high regions of the

text: atmosphere

text: . An afterglow may appear above the highest

text: cloud

text: s in the hour of deepening

text: twilight

text: , or

text: reflected

text: from the high

text: snow

text: fields in

text: mountain

text: regions long after

text: sunset

text: . The particles produce a

text: scattering

text: effect upon the component parts of

text: white

text: light

text: . The true

text: alpenglow

text: , which occurs long after sunset or long before sunrise, is caused by the

text: backscattering

text: of red sunlight by

text: aerosols

text: and fine dust particles low in the atmosphere. It is an afterglow caused by

text: direct illumination

text: of atmospheric particles by sunlight as it

text: refracts

text: and gets

text: scattered

text: through the Earth's atmosphere. The

text: high-energy

text: and

text: high-frequency

text: light is

text: scattered

text: out the most and the remaining low-energy, low-frequency reaches the observer in the

text: horizon

text: at

text: twilight

text: . The backscattering of this light further turns it pinkish-red. This period of time is referred to as the

text: blue hour

text: and is widely treasured by

text: photographers

text: and

text: painters

text: as it offers breathtaking imagery.The afterglow persists till the

text: Earth's shadow

text: (terminator line) takes over the

text: sky

text: of the observer as nightfall and the stars appear, with planet

text: Venus

text: being the brightest star visible in the

text: night sky

text: just opposite to the

text: Belt of Venus

text: at the

text: anti-solar point

text: Sea ice is important to the climate and the ocean in a variety of ways.  It reduces the transfer of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere; it causes less solar energy to be absorbed at the surface, and provides a surface on which snow can accumulate, which further decreases the absorption of solar energy; since salt is rejected from the ice as it forms, the ice increases the salinity of the ocean's surface water where it forms and decreases the salinity where it melts, both of which can affect the ocean's circulation (NSIDC).

text: , is known as the effective temperature.  The actual temperature of the planet will likely be different, depending on its surface and atmospheric properties. Ignoring the atmosphere and greenhouse effect, the planet, since it is at a much lower temperature than the Sun, emits mostly in the infrared (IR) portion of the spectrum. In this frequency range, it emits

text: , is known as the

text: effective temperature

text: .  The actual temperature of the planet will likely be different, depending on its surface and atmospheric properties. Ignoring the atmosphere and greenhouse effect, the planet, since it is at a much lower temperature than the Sun, emits mostly in the infrared (IR) portion of the spectrum. In this frequency range, it emits

text: The reason for this is that in this definition, electromagnetic radiation (such as light) as well as the energy of electromagnetic fields contributes to the mass of systems, and therefore appears to add matter to them. For example, light radiation (or thermal radiation) trapped inside a box would contribute to the mass of the box, as would any kind of energy inside the box, including the kinetic energy of particles held by the box. Nevertheless, isolated individual particles of light (photons) and the isolated kinetic energy of massive particles, are normally not considered to be matter.

text: The reason for this is that in this definition,

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: (such as light) as well as the energy of

text: electromagnetic field

text: s contributes to the mass of systems, and therefore appears to add matter to them. For example, light radiation (or

text: thermal radiation

text: ) trapped inside a box would contribute to the mass of the box, as would any kind of energy inside the box, including the kinetic energy of particles held by the box. Nevertheless, isolated individual particles of light (

text: photon

text: s) and the isolated kinetic energy of massive particles, are normally not considered to be matter.

text: The energy generation of the Sun is based upon thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. This occurs in the core region of the star using the proton–proton chain reaction process. Because there is no convection in the solar core, the helium concentration builds up in that region without being distributed throughout the star. The temperature at the core of the Sun is too low for nuclear fusion of helium atoms through the triple-alpha process, so these atoms do not contribute to the net energy generation that is needed to maintain hydrostatic equilibrium of the Sun.

text: The energy generation of the

text: Sun

text: is based upon thermonuclear fusion of

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: . This occurs in the core region of the star using the

text: proton–proton chain reaction

text: process. Because there is no

text: convection

text: in the

text: solar core

text: , the helium concentration builds up in that region without being distributed throughout the star. The temperature at the core of the Sun is too low for nuclear fusion of helium atoms through the

text: triple-alpha process

text: , so these atoms do not contribute to the net energy generation that is needed to maintain

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: of the Sun.

text: Active sensors emit radiation in the direction of the object they are observing causing it to light up. To get a reading, it measures how much energy is reflected back at the sensor. Most active sensors are in the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum. This means that they are able to pass through almost any atmospheric condition.

text: Through the study of moist static energy profiles, Herbert Riehl and Joanne Malkus determined in 1958 that hot towers, small cores of convection approximately  wide that extend from the planetary boundary layer to the tropopause, were the primary mechanism that transported energy out of the tropics to the middle latitudes. More recently, idealized model simulations of the tropics indicate that the moist static energy budget is dominated by advection, with shallow inflow in the lowest  of the atmosphere with outflow concentrated about  above the surface. Moist static energy has also been used to study the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). As with the tropics as a whole, the budget of moist static energy in the MJO is dominated by advection, but also is influenced by the wind-driven component of the surface latent heat ﬂux. The relationship between the advection component and the latent heat component influence the timing of the MJO.

text: Through the study of moist static energy profiles,

text: Herbert Riehl

text: and

text: Joanne Malkus

text: determined in 1958 that

text: hot tower

text: s, small cores of

text: convection

text: approximately  wide that extend from the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: to the

text: tropopause

text: , were the primary mechanism that transported energy out of the tropics to the middle latitudes. More recently, idealized model simulations of the tropics indicate that the moist static energy budget is dominated by

text: advection

text: , with shallow inflow in the lowest  of the atmosphere with outflow concentrated about  above the surface. Moist static energy has also been used to study the

text: Madden–Julian oscillation

text: (MJO). As with the tropics as a whole, the budget of moist static energy in the MJO is dominated by advection, but also is influenced by the wind-driven component of the surface latent heat ﬂux. The relationship between the advection component and the latent heat component influence the timing of the MJO.

text: Pressure is a force that can be measured absolutely, because the natural minimum of pressure is total vacuum. Pressure is frequently measured with reference to atmospheric pressure rather than on any absolute scale, relative to complete and perfect vacuum; it is technologically simpler and cheaper. It may also be more convenient to use relative scales, because, with things like pneumatics and hydraulics, the amount of energy transferred is reduced by the relative "backpressure" of the atmosphere. (e.g.: 15 psi of air in a tank at sea level will become 30 psi in the vacuum of space.) Therefore, with measurements of things like blood pressure or tire pressure, a measurement relative to air pressure is a better indication of "burst pressure" (damage threshold) than an absolute scale. Absolute scales are typically used in science, deep vacuum measurements (where the fluctuating pressure of the atmosphere becomes a nuisance), aeronautics (where precise measurements of the atmosphere are needed to determine altitude), or lighting construction (where the relative pressure of the atmosphere is inconsequential), and are measured in units of "atmospheres" or torr. Barometers do measure absolute pressure by holding a vacuum at the top of the mercury column or one side of a diaphragm, but that vacuum is awkward to achieve and maintain. Thus, while the general public may be familiar with measurements of absolute pressure from weather forecasts, most pressures such as tire pressures and water pressures are measured relative to atmospheric pressure using cheaper and simpler pressure gauges. For this reason, the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure is called gauge pressure and measurements given in units like pounds per square inch (abbreviated lbf/in or psi) are often shown as psig (the "g" standing for gauge) or psia ("a" for absolute).

text: Pressure

text: is a force that can be measured absolutely, because the natural minimum of pressure is total

text: vacuum

text: . Pressure is frequently measured with reference to

text: atmospheric pressure

text: rather than on any absolute scale, relative to complete and perfect

text: vacuum

text: ; it is technologically simpler and cheaper. It may also be more convenient to use relative scales, because, with things like pneumatics and hydraulics, the amount of energy transferred is reduced by the relative "backpressure" of the atmosphere. (e.g.: 15 psi of air in a tank at sea level will become 30 psi in the vacuum of space.) Therefore, with measurements of things like

text: blood pressure

text: or

text: tire pressure

text: , a measurement relative to air pressure is a better indication of "burst pressure" (damage threshold) than an absolute scale. Absolute scales are typically used in science, deep vacuum measurements (where the fluctuating pressure of the atmosphere becomes a nuisance), aeronautics (where precise measurements of the atmosphere are needed to determine altitude), or lighting construction (where the relative pressure of the atmosphere is inconsequential), and are measured in units of "atmospheres" or

text: torr

text: Barometer

text: s do measure

text: absolute pressure

text: by holding a vacuum at the top of the mercury column or one side of a diaphragm, but that vacuum is awkward to achieve and maintain. Thus, while the general public may be familiar with measurements of absolute pressure from weather forecasts, most pressures such as tire pressures and water pressures are measured relative to atmospheric pressure using cheaper and simpler pressure gauges. For this reason, the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure is called

text: gauge pressure

text: and measurements given in units like

text: pounds per square inch

text: (abbreviated lbf/in or psi) are often shown as psig (the "g" standing for gauge) or psia ("a" for absolute).

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of A7 III-IV, with the luminosity class of III-IV indicating it shows traits part way between the subgiant and giant star stages of its evolution. It is a Delta Scuti variable with a period of 0.0355 days (51 minutes) and a magnitude change of 0.040. This star is larger than the Sun, with more than double the Sun's radius and 11 times the luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space from the atmosphere at an effective temperature of 7,638 K, giving it the white-hued glow of an A-type star.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of A7 III-IV, with the

text: luminosity class

text: of III-IV indicating it shows traits part way between the

text: subgiant

text: and

text: giant star

text: stages of its

text: evolution

text: . It is a

text: Delta Scuti variable

text: with a period of 0.0355 days (51 minutes) and a magnitude change of 0.040. This star is larger than the Sun, with more than double the Sun's radius and 11 times the luminosity. This energy is being radiated into outer space from the

text: atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 7,638 K, giving it the white-hued glow of an

text: A-type star

text: Rotational–vibrational spectroscopy is a branch of molecular spectroscopy concerned with infrared and Raman spectra of molecules in the gas phase. Transitions involving changes in both vibrational and rotational states can be abbreviated as rovibrational (or ro-vibrational) transitions. When such transitions emit or absorb photons (electromagnetic radiation), the frequency is proportional to the difference in energy levels and can be detected by certain kinds of spectroscopy. Since changes in rotational energy levels are typically much smaller than changes in vibrational energy levels, changes in rotational state are said to give fine structure to the vibrational spectrum. For a given vibrational transition, the same theoretical treatment as for pure rotational spectroscopy gives the rotational quantum numbers, energy levels, and selection rules. In linear and spherical top molecules, rotational lines are found as simple progressions at both higher and lower frequencies relative to the pure vibration frequency. In symmetric top molecules the transitions are classified as parallel when the dipole moment change is parallel to the principal axis of rotation, and perpendicular when the change is perpendicular to that axis. The ro-vibrational spectrum of the asymmetric rotor water is important because of the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: Rotational–vibrational spectroscopy is a branch of molecular

text: spectroscopy

text: concerned with

text: infrared

text: and

text: Raman spectra

text: of

text: molecule

text: s in the

text: gas phase

text: . Transitions involving changes in both

text: vibrational

text: and

text: rotational

text: states

text: can be abbreviated as rovibrational (or ro-vibrational) transitions. When such transitions emit or absorb

text: photon

text: s (

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: ), the

text: frequency

text: is proportional to the difference in energy levels and can be detected by certain kinds of

text: spectroscopy

text: . Since changes in rotational

text: energy level

text: s are typically much smaller than changes in vibrational energy levels, changes in rotational state are said to give fine structure to the vibrational spectrum. For a given vibrational transition, the same theoretical treatment as for pure

text: rotational spectroscopy

text: gives the rotational

text: quantum number

text: s, energy levels, and

text: selection rule

text: s. In linear and spherical top molecules, rotational lines are found as simple progressions at both higher and lower frequencies relative to the pure vibration frequency. In symmetric top molecules the transitions are classified as parallel when the

text: dipole moment

text: change is parallel to the principal axis of rotation, and perpendicular when the change is perpendicular to that axis. The ro-vibrational spectrum of the asymmetric rotor

text: water

text: is important because of the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: The digital dividend refers to the radio spectrum which is released in the process of digital television transition.  When television broadcasters switch from analog TV to digital-only platforms, part of the electromagnetic spectrum that has been used for broadcasting will be freed-up because digital television needs less spectrum than analog television. One reason is that new digital video compression technology can transmit numerous digital subchannels using the same amount of spectrum used to transmit one analogue TV channel.  However, the primary reason is that digital transmissions require much less of a guard band on either side, since they are not nearly as prone to RF interference from adjacent channels.  Because of this, there is no longer any need to leave empty channels to protect stations from each other,  in turn allowing stations to be repacked into fewer channels, leaving more contiguous spectrum to be allocated for other wireless services.

text: The digital dividend refers to the

text: radio spectrum

text: which is released in the process of

text: digital television transition

text: .  When

text: television broadcast

text: ers switch from

text: analog TV

text: to digital-only platforms, part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: that has been used for broadcasting will be freed-up because

text: digital television

text: needs less spectrum than analog television. One reason is that new

text: digital video compression

text: technology can transmit numerous

text: digital subchannel

text: s using the same amount of spectrum used to transmit one analogue

text: TV channel

text: .  However, the primary reason is that digital transmissions require much less of a

text: guard band

text: on

text: either side

text: , since they are not nearly as prone to

text: RF interference

text: from

text: adjacent channel

text: s.  Because of this, there is no longer any need to leave

text: empty channels

text: to protect stations from each other,  in turn allowing stations to be repacked into fewer channels, leaving more contiguous spectrum to be

text: allocated

text: for other

text: wireless

text: services.

text: As reported by Pat Michaels on his World Climate Report website, MacCracken said during the hearing that "the last decade is the warmest since 1400", implying that the warming had been caused by the greenhouse effect, and replied to Walker's question about whether thermometers had then existed by explaining the use of biological materials as temperature proxies. Michaels showed a version of the graph based on  with the instrumental temperature record curve removed, and argued on the basis of the "raw data" that the large rise in temperatures occurring in the 1920s, "before the greenhouse effect had changed very much", and "there’s actually been a decline since then". He said the Science Committee had been told of this, and of comments by one IPCC reviewer that this was misleading and the text should say "Composite indicators of summer temperature show that a rapid rise occurred around 1920, this rise was prior to the major greenhouse emissions. Since then, composite temperatures have dropped slightly on a decadal scale." Michaels said that the IPCC had not noted this in the agreed text, "instead leaving most readers with the impression that the trees of the Northern Hemisphere had changed their growth rates in response to man’s impact on the atmosphere." He questioned the consensus, as only one reviewer out of 2,500 scientists had noticed this problem.

text: As reported by

text: Pat Michaels

text: on his

text: World Climate Report

text: website, MacCracken said during the hearing that "the last decade is the warmest since 1400", implying that the warming had been caused by the

text: greenhouse effect

text: , and replied to Walker's question about whether thermometers had then existed by explaining the use of biological materials as

text: temperature proxies

text: . Michaels showed a version of the graph based on  with the

text: instrumental temperature record

text: curve removed, and argued on the basis of the "raw data" that the large rise in temperatures occurring in the 1920s, "before the greenhouse effect had changed very much", and "there’s actually been a decline since then". He said the Science Committee had been told of this, and of comments by one IPCC reviewer that this was misleading and the text should say "Composite indicators of summer temperature show that a rapid rise occurred around 1920, this rise was prior to the major greenhouse emissions. Since then, composite temperatures have dropped slightly on a decadal scale." Michaels said that the IPCC had not noted this in the agreed text, "instead leaving most readers with the impression that the trees of the Northern Hemisphere had changed their growth rates in response to man’s impact on the atmosphere." He questioned the consensus, as only one reviewer out of 2,500 scientists had noticed this problem.

text: The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources. Axel Kleidon of the Max Planck Institute in Germany, carried out a "top down" calculation on how much wind energy there is, starting with the incoming solar radiation that drives the winds by creating temperature differences in the atmosphere. He concluded that somewhere between 18 TW and 68 TW could be extracted.

text: The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources. Axel Kleidon of the

text: Max Planck Institute

text: in Germany, carried out a "top down" calculation on how much wind energy there is, starting with the incoming solar radiation that drives the winds by creating temperature differences in the atmosphere. He concluded that somewhere between 18 TW and 68 TW could be extracted.

text: Cosmic rays hit earth's atmosphere on a regular basis, and they produce showers as they proceed through the atmosphere.  It was from these air showers that the first muons and pions were detected experimentally, and they are used today by a number of experiments as a means of observing ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.  Some experiments, like Fly's Eye, have observed the visible atmospheric fluorescence produced at the peak intensity of the shower; others, like Haverah Park experiment, have detected the remains of a shower by sampling the energy deposited over a large area on the ground.

text: Cosmic ray

text: s hit earth's atmosphere on a regular basis, and they produce showers as they proceed through the atmosphere.  It was from these

text: air showers

text: that the first

text: muon

text: s and

text: pion

text: s were detected experimentally, and they are used today by a number of experiments as a means of observing

text: ultra-high-energy cosmic ray

text: s.  Some experiments, like

entity_name: High Resolution Fly's Eye Cosmic Ray Detector

text: Fly's Eye

text: , have observed the visible atmospheric

text: fluorescence

text: produced at the peak intensity of the shower; others, like

text: Haverah Park experiment

text: , have detected the remains of a shower by sampling the energy deposited over a large area on the ground.

text: The method of using incineration to convert municipal solid waste (MSW) to energy is a relatively old method of WtE production. Incineration generally entails burning waste (residual MSW, commercial, industrial and RDF) to boil water which powers steam generators that make electric energy and heat to be used in homes, businesses, institutions and industries. One problem associated with incinerating MSW to make electrical energy is the potential for pollutants to enter the atmosphere with the flue gases from the boiler.  These pollutants can be acidic and in the 1980s were reported to cause environmental damage by turning rain into acid rain.  Since then, the industry has removed this problem by the use of lime scrubbers and electro-static precipitators on smokestacks.  By passing the smoke through the basic lime scrubbers, any acids that might be in the smoke are neutralized which prevents the acid from reaching the atmosphere and hurting the environment. Many other devices, such as fabric filters, reactors, and catalysts destroy or capture other regulated pollutants. According to the New York Times, modern incineration plants are so clean that "many times more dioxin is now released from home fireplaces and backyard barbecues than from incineration. " According to the German Environmental Ministry, "because of stringent regulations, waste incineration plants are no longer significant in terms of emissions of dioxins, dust, and heavy metals".

text: The method of using incineration to convert municipal solid waste (MSW) to energy is a relatively old method of WtE production. Incineration generally entails burning waste (residual MSW, commercial, industrial and RDF) to boil water which powers

text: steam generator

text: s that make electric energy and heat to be used in homes, businesses, institutions and industries. One problem associated with incinerating MSW to make electrical energy is the potential for pollutants to enter the atmosphere with the flue gases from the boiler.  These pollutants can be acidic and in the 1980s were reported to cause environmental damage by turning rain into

text: acid rain

text: .  Since then, the industry has removed this problem by the use of

text: lime scrubber

text: s and electro-static precipitators on smokestacks.  By passing the smoke through the basic lime scrubbers, any acids that might be in the smoke are neutralized which prevents the acid from reaching the atmosphere and hurting the environment. Many other devices, such as fabric filters, reactors, and catalysts destroy or capture other regulated pollutants. According to the New York Times, modern incineration plants are so clean that "many times more dioxin is now released from home fireplaces and backyard barbecues than from incineration. " According to the German Environmental Ministry, "because of stringent regulations, waste incineration plants are no longer significant in terms of emissions of dioxins, dust, and heavy metals".

text: A spectrum (plural spectra or spectrums) is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary infinitely within a continuum. The word was first used scientifically within the field of optics to describe the rainbow of colors in visible light when separated using a prism. As scientific understanding of light advanced, it came to apply to the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

text: A spectrum (plural spectra or spectrums) is a condition that is not limited to a specific set of values but can vary infinitely within a

text: continuum

text: . The word was first used scientifically within the field of

text: optics

text: to describe the

text: rainbow

text: of colors in

text: visible light

text: when separated using a

text: prism

text: . As scientific understanding of light advanced, it came to apply to the entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: In addition to the grave effects on human health, these toxins also affect our planet.  These harmful substances have been directly linked to the Earths overall increase in temperature over recent decade’s, which is also referred to as climate change, or global warming.  The emissions that vehicles release are known as fossil fuels that produce greenhouse gases.  These gases build up in the atmosphere and act as a blanket preventing the energy from the sun to reflect back into space.  Instead, this energy is getting trapped within our atmosphere increasing the overall temperature of the planet.  This may seem like an insignificant issue, but these small increases continuously offset the natural balance of Earth.  For example, as Tzamkiozis, Ntziachristos, and Samaras wrote about in their article in ‘The Atmospheric Environment’ , PM10 is known to be an absorbing aerosol.  This means that it warms air offsetting atmospheric stability and leading to larger fluctuations in the hydraulic cycle resulting in unnatural climate effects. Even the smallest increases in temperature intensify natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, or hurricanes.  Furthermore, these increasing temperatures have consequential effects on sea levels as the warmer temperatures have been directly correlated with the increased melting of the polar ice caps as well as expansion of seawater from higher temperatures, thus generating an influx of environmental migrants.

text: In addition to the grave effects on human health, these toxins also affect our planet.  These harmful substances have been directly linked to the Earths overall increase in temperature over recent decade’s, which is also referred to as climate change, or global warming.  The emissions that vehicles release are known as

text: fossil fuels

text: that produce

text: greenhouse gases

text: .  These gases build up in the atmosphere and act as a blanket preventing the energy from the sun to reflect back into space.  Instead, this energy is getting trapped within our atmosphere increasing the overall temperature of the planet.  This may seem like an insignificant issue, but these small increases continuously offset the natural balance of Earth.  For example, as Tzamkiozis, Ntziachristos, and Samaras wrote about in their article in

text: ‘The Atmospheric Environment’

text: , PM10 is known to be an absorbing aerosol.  This means that it warms air offsetting atmospheric stability and leading to larger fluctuations in the hydraulic cycle resulting in unnatural climate effects. Even the smallest increases in temperature intensify natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, or hurricanes.  Furthermore, these increasing temperatures have consequential effects on sea levels as the warmer temperatures have been directly correlated with the increased melting of the polar ice caps as well as expansion of seawater from higher temperatures, thus generating an influx of

text: environmental migrants

text: Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure. When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds. On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect, except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns (the atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas.  A new, controversial theory suggests atmospheric gradients are caused by forest induced water condensation resulting in a positive feedback cycle of forests drawing moist air from the coastline.

text: Wind is caused by differences in the

text: atmospheric pressure

text: . When a

text: difference in atmospheric pressure

text: exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds. On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the

text: Coriolis effect

text: , except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns (the

text: atmospheric circulation

text: ) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of

text: solar energy

text: leading to

text: buoyancy force

text: s) and the

text: rotation of the planet

text: . Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach

text: geostrophic balance

text: . Near the Earth's surface,

text: friction

text: causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas.  A new, controversial theory suggests atmospheric gradients are caused by forest induced water condensation resulting in a positive feedback cycle of forests drawing moist air from the coastline.

text: In atmospheric plasma channel coupling, energy is transferred between two electrodes by electrical conduction through ionized air. When an electric field gradient exists between the two electrodes, exceeding 34 kilovolts per centimeter at sea level atmospheric pressure, an electric arc occurs. This atmospheric dielectric breakdown results in the flow of electric current along a random trajectory through an ionized plasma channel between the two electrodes. An example of this is natural lightning, where one electrode is a virtual point in a cloud and the other is a point on Earth. Laser Induced Plasma Channel (LIPC) research is presently underway using ultrafast lasers to artificially promote development of the plasma channel through the air, directing the electric arc, and guiding the current across a specific path in a controllable manner. The laser energy reduces the atmospheric dielectric breakdown voltage and the air is made less insulating by superheating, which lowers the density (

text: In atmospheric plasma channel coupling, energy is transferred between two electrodes by electrical conduction through ionized air. When an electric field gradient exists between the two electrodes, exceeding 34 kilovolts per centimeter at sea level atmospheric pressure, an electric arc occurs. This atmospheric

text: dielectric breakdown

text: results in the flow of electric current along a random trajectory through an ionized

text: plasma channel

text: between the two electrodes. An example of this is natural lightning, where one electrode is a virtual point in a cloud and the other is a point on Earth. Laser Induced Plasma Channel (LIPC) research is presently underway using ultrafast lasers to artificially promote development of the plasma channel through the air, directing the electric arc, and guiding the current across a specific path in a controllable manner. The laser energy reduces the atmospheric dielectric breakdown voltage and the air is made less insulating by superheating, which lowers the density (

text: The three  cells model of the atmosphere attempts to describe the actual flow of the Earth's atmosphere as a whole. It divides the Earth into  the tropical (Hadley cell), mid latitude (Ferrel cell), and polar (polar cell) regions, to describe energy flow and global atmospheric circulation (mass flow). Its fundamental principle is that of balance - the energy that the Earth absorbs from the sun each year is equal to that which it loses to space by radiation. This overall Earth energy balance, however, does not apply in each latitude due to the varying strength of the sun in each "cell" as a result of the tilt of the Earth's axis in relation to its orbit. The result is a circulation of the atmosphere that transports warm air poleward from the tropics and cold air equatorward from the poles. The effect of the three cells is the tendency to even out the heat and moisture in the Earth's atmosphere  around the planet.

text: The three  cells model of the atmosphere attempts to describe the actual flow of the Earth's atmosphere as a whole. It divides the Earth into  the tropical (

text: Hadley cell

text: ), mid latitude (

text: Ferrel cell

text: ), and polar (

text: polar cell

text: ) regions, to describe energy flow and global atmospheric circulation (mass flow). Its fundamental principle is that of balance - the energy that the Earth absorbs from the sun each year is equal to that which it loses to space by radiation. This overall Earth energy balance, however, does not apply in each latitude due to the varying strength of the sun in each "cell" as a result of the tilt of the Earth's axis in relation to its orbit. The result is a circulation of the atmosphere that transports warm air poleward from the tropics and cold air equatorward from the poles. The effect of the three cells is the tendency to even out the heat and moisture in the Earth's atmosphere  around the planet.

text: Introduced at the same time as the CCL, CCAs are “negotiated agreements between sector industry organisations and the government” whereby “energy-intensive industries can obtain a 65% discount from the CCL, provided they meet challenging targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions”. This is an interesting example of governing carbon behaviour in a more indirect fashion. The DECC is still the authoritative body, but these voluntary agreements represent their attempt to create an atmosphere where it seen as advantageous to business to manage carbon emissions. They have not done this through traditional regulatory controls, in that they have not imposed this rule upon industry. By instead offering businesses incentives to reduce carbon emissions through a tax reduction, they are enhancing the desire of business sectors to make the choice to become more carbon efficient. The DECC asserts its authority over the process by the imposition of penalties if participating industries do not comply with their agreed targets. It represents the government concerning itself with the outcome of the policy, rather than regulating the entire process.

text: SAFIR will study the earliest phases of forming galaxies, stars, and planetary systems at wavelengths where these objects are brightest and which contain a wealth of unique information: from 20 micrometers to one millimeter. Most of this portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is not accessible from the ground because it is absorbed by moisture in Earth's atmosphere.

text: SAFIR will study the earliest phases of forming galaxies, stars, and planetary systems at

text: wavelength

text: s where these objects are brightest and which contain a wealth of unique information: from 20

text: micrometers

text: to one

text: millimeter

text: . Most of this portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is not accessible from the ground because it is absorbed by moisture in

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is the virtual temperature of the environment. In many cases, the z-bottom value is the ground and the z-top value is the LFC. CIN is an energy per unit mass and the units of measurement are joules per kilogram (J/kg). CIN is expressed as a negative energy value. CIN values greater than 200 J/kg are sufficient to prevent convection in the atmosphere.

text: is the virtual temperature of the environment. In many cases, the z-bottom value is the ground and the z-top value is the LFC. CIN is an energy per unit mass and the units of measurement are

text: joule

text: s per kilogram (J/kg). CIN is expressed as a negative energy value. CIN values greater than 200 J/kg are sufficient to prevent

text: convection

text: in the atmosphere.

text: Energising India (2004) is a short documentary on how India can have energy without polluting the atmosphere. Although about India, this is a German film (since the producers are German, GTZ) and directed by the National Award winning Indian director Jyoti Sarup. This film was premiered in the World Energy Conservation Conference, Germany, in 2004.

text: Energising India (2004) is a

text: short

text: documentary

text: on how

text: India

text: can have energy without

text: polluting

text: the

text: atmosphere

text: . Although about

text: India

text: , this is a

text: German film

text: (since the producers are

text: German

entity_name: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit

text: GTZ

text: ) and

text: directed

text: by the

text: National Award

text: winning

text: Indian director

text: Jyoti Sarup

text: . This

text: film

text: was

text: premiered

text: in the

text: World Energy Conservation Conference

text: Germany

text: , in 2004.

text: In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's interior, while meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes are all a result of energy transformations brought about by solar energy on the atmosphere of the planet Earth.

text: In

text: geology

text: continental drift

text: mountain range

text: s,

text: volcano

text: es, and

text: earthquake

text: s are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's interior, while

text: meteorological

text: phenomena like wind, rain,

text: hail

text: , snow, lightning,

text: tornado

text: es and

text: hurricanes

text: are all a result of energy transformations brought about by

text: solar energy

text: on the

text: atmosphere

text: of the planet Earth.

text: The primary component is an evolved giant star with a stellar classification of K3 III. It has expanded to 19 times the radius of the Sun, from which it is radiating 120 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being emitted into outer space from the outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,406 K, giving it the cool orange glow of a K-type star. At an angular separation of 0.53 arcseconds is a magnitude 8.50 companion.

text: The primary component is an

text: evolved

text: giant star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of K3 III. It has expanded to 19 times the radius of the Sun, from which it is radiating 120 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being emitted into outer space from the

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,406 K, giving it the cool orange glow of a

text: K-type star

text: . At an

text: angular separation

text: of 0.53

text: arcsecond

text: s is a magnitude 8.50 companion.

text: Carbon dioxide is one of the major greenhouse gases. Although the burning of biodiesel produces carbon dioxide emissions similar to those from ordinary fossil fuels, the plant feedstock used in the production absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere when it grows. Plants absorb carbon dioxide through a process known as photosynthesis which allows it to store energy from sunlight in the form of sugars and starches. After the biomass is converted into biodiesel and burned as fuel the energy and carbon is released again. Some of that energy can be used to power an engine while the carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere.

text: Carbon dioxide

text: is one of the major

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. Although the burning of biodiesel produces carbon dioxide emissions similar to those from ordinary fossil fuels, the

text: plant

text: feedstock used in the production absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere when it grows. Plants absorb carbon dioxide through a process known as

text: photosynthesis

text: which allows it to store energy from sunlight in the form of sugars and starches. After the

text: biomass

text: is converted into biodiesel and burned as fuel the energy and carbon is released again. Some of that energy can be used to power an engine while the carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere.

text: In February 2001, Neeson performed at the Tour of Duty Encore! concert at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. In August that year the Australian Broadcasting Corporation had featured Doc Neeson and The Angels in episode 4, "Berserk Warriors 1973-1981", of the TV music series, Long Way to the Top, which was an insight into Australian rock 'n' roll. Neeson was interviewed, together with Angus Young (of AC/DC), on starting their careers at pub rock venues. Neeson recalled "[t]he stench would just hit you and the atmosphere was overwhelming, like a real energy built out of the claustrophobia" while Young related "[t]hey would be throwing beer cans and I thought 'just keep moving' and that's how it all started".

text: In February 2001, Neeson performed at the Tour of Duty Encore! concert at the

text: Australian War Memorial

text: in

text: Canberra

text: . In August that year the

text: Australian Broadcasting Corporation

text: had featured Doc Neeson and The Angels in episode 4, "Berserk Warriors 1973-1981", of the TV music series,

text: Long Way to the Top

text: , which was an insight into Australian rock 'n' roll. Neeson was interviewed, together with

text: Angus Young

text: (of AC/DC), on starting their careers at

text: pub rock

text: venues. Neeson recalled "[t]he stench would just hit you and the atmosphere was overwhelming, like a real energy built out of the claustrophobia" while Young related "[t]hey would be throwing beer cans and I thought 'just keep moving' and that's how it all started".

text: Due to the extremely large value of the speed of light, c, a small decrease in mass is associated with a tremendous release of active energy (for example, the kinetic energy of the fission fragments). This energy (in the form of radiation and heat) carries the missing mass, when it leaves the reaction system (total mass, like total energy, is always conserved). While typical chemical reactions release energies on the order of a few eVs (e.g. the binding energy of the electron to hydrogen is 13.6 eV), nuclear fission reactions typically release energies on the order of hundreds of millions of eVs.

text: Due to the extremely large value of the

text: speed of light

text: , c, a small decrease in mass is associated with a tremendous release of active energy (for example, the kinetic energy of the fission fragments). This energy (in the form of radiation and heat) carries the missing mass, when it leaves the reaction system (total mass, like total energy, is always

text: conserved

text: ). While typical chemical reactions release energies on the order of a few

text: eV

text: s (e.g. the binding energy of the electron to hydrogen is 13.6 eV), nuclear fission reactions typically release energies on the order of hundreds of millions of eVs.

text: By the definition of electric potential energy, the potential energy associated with the singled out ion in the ion atmosphere is

text: By the definition of

text: electric potential energy

text: , the potential energy associated with the singled out ion in the ion atmosphere is

text: Atmospheric physicists typically divide radiation into solar radiation (emitted by the sun) and terrestrial radiation (emitted by Earth's surface and atmosphere).

text: This sets sustainable energy apart from other renewable energy terminology such as alternative energy by focusing on the ability of an energy source to continue providing energy. Sustainable energy can produce some pollution of the environment, as long as it is not sufficient to prohibit heavy use of the source for an indefinite amount of time. Sustainable energy is also distinct from low-carbon energy, which is sustainable only in the sense that it does not add to the CO in the atmosphere.

text: This sets sustainable energy apart from other

text: renewable energy

text: terminology such as

text: alternative energy

text: by focusing on the ability of an energy source to continue providing energy. Sustainable energy can produce some pollution of the environment, as long as it is not sufficient to prohibit heavy use of the source for an indefinite amount of time. Sustainable energy is also distinct from

text: low-carbon energy

text: , which is sustainable only in the sense that it does not add to the CO in the atmosphere.

text: Increase in population, Economic issues are the some factors which have escalated the energy demand across the world. In developed countries, the growth rate of energy consumption rate is 1.1%/year while in developing countries the energy consumption growth rate approximately 3 time to that of developed countries. Beside this high growth in energy consumption it also causes to increase the production of green house gases to the atmosphere. The increase in demand of energy, limited resource of convention energy sources, hike in conventional fuel prices, global warming are some important factors which Impetus us to adopt energy saving techniques and alternative sources of energy. Building sector consumes one third of world's resources. Building currently shares approximately 40% of energy in most of the countries and are considered among the largest end-use sector. As per International energy agency (IEA) world energy consumption and green house gases level is going to increase rapidly every year. IEA recognize the building sector as one of the most cost effective sector where energy consumption can be reduced . It is estimated that the energy consumption can be reduced to 1509 million tonnes of equivalent (Mtoe) and at the same time it will cause to reduce the green house gases production up to 12.6 gigatonnes(Gt) by 2050. The international energy outlook report reveals that the energy consumption is increasing in each year and the energy increment trends are shown in fig. 1

text: Increase in

text: population

text: Economic issues

text: are the some factors which have escalated the energy demand across the world. In

text: developed countries

text: , the growth rate of energy consumption rate is 1.1%/year while in

text: developing countries

text: the energy consumption growth rate approximately 3 time to that of developed countries. Beside this high growth in energy consumption it also causes to increase the production of

text: green house gases

text: to the

text: atmosphere

text: . The increase in demand of energy, limited resource of convention energy sources, hike in conventional fuel prices,

text: global warming

text: are some important factors which Impetus us to adopt energy saving techniques and alternative sources of energy. Building sector consumes one third of world's resources. Building currently shares approximately 40% of energy in most of the countries and are considered among the largest end-use sector. As per

text: International energy agency

text: (IEA) world energy consumption and green house gases level is going to increase rapidly every year. IEA recognize the building sector as one of the most cost effective sector where energy consumption can be reduced . It is estimated that the energy consumption can be reduced to 1509 million tonnes of equivalent (Mtoe) and at the same time it will cause to reduce the green house gases production up to 12.6 gigatonnes(Gt) by 2050. The international energy outlook report reveals that the energy consumption is increasing in each year and the energy increment trends are shown in fig. 1

text: Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in outer space, many in orbit around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays and is partially opaque to infrared radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the angular resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.

text: Space-based observatories are telescopes or other instruments that are located in

text: outer space

text: , many in

text: orbit

text: around the Earth. Space telescopes can be used to observe astronomical objects at wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere is

text: opaque

text: to

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation,

text: X-rays

text: , and

text: gamma rays

text: and is partially opaque to

text: infrared

text: radiation so observations in these portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are best carried out from a location above the atmosphere of our planet. Another advantage of space-based telescopes is that, because of their location above the Earth's atmosphere, their images are free from the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground-based observations. As a result, the

text: angular resolution

text: of space telescopes such as the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar

text: aperture

text: . However, all these advantages do come with a price. Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also extremely difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the

text: Space Shuttle

text: while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all.

text: In the Solar System, there are also greenhouse effects on Mars, Venus, and Titan. The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large because its dense atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide. Titan has an anti-greenhouse effect, in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively transparent to infrared radiation. Pluto is also colder than would be expected because evaporation of nitrogen cools it.

text: In the

text: Solar System

text: , there are also greenhouse effects on

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Titan

text: . The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large because its dense atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide. Titan has an

text: anti-greenhouse effect

text: , in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively transparent to infrared radiation.

text: Pluto

text: is also colder than would be expected because evaporation of nitrogen cools it.

text: Almost all of the energy that affects Earth's climate is received as radiant energy from the Sun. The planet and its atmosphere absorb and reflect some of the energy, while long-wave energy is radiated back into space. The balance between absorbed and radiated energy determines the average global temperature. Because the atmosphere absorbs some of the re-radiated long-wave energy, the planet is warmer than it would be in the absence of the atmosphere: see greenhouse effect.

text: Almost all of the energy that affects

text: Earth's climate

text: is received as radiant energy from the

text: Sun

text: . The planet and its atmosphere absorb and reflect some of the energy, while

text: long-wave energy is radiated back

text: into space. The balance between absorbed and radiated energy determines the average global temperature. Because the

text: atmosphere

text: absorbs some of the re-radiated long-wave energy, the

text: planet

text: is warmer than it would be in the absence of the

text: atmosphere

text: : see

text: greenhouse effect

text: Because Callisto and Ganymede are structurally similar to Titan, it is unclear why their atmospheres are insignificant relative to Titan's. Nevertheless, the origin of Titan's N via geologically ancient photolysis of accreted and degassed NH, as opposed to degassing of N from accretionary clathrates, may be the key to a correct inference. Had N been released from clathrates, Ar and Ar that are inert primordial isotopes of the Solar System should also be present in the atmosphere, but neither has been detected in significant quantities. The insignificant concentration of Ar and Ar also indicates that the ~40 K temperature required to trap them and N in clathrates did not exist in the Saturnian subnebula. Instead, the temperature may have been higher than 75 K, limiting even the accumulation of NH as hydrates. Temperatures would have been even higher in the Jovian subnebula due to the greater gravitational potential energy release, mass, and proximity to the Sun, greatly reducing the NH inventory accreted by Callisto and Ganymede. The resulting N atmospheres may have been too thin to survive the atmospheric erosion effects that Titan has withstood.

text: Because

text: Callisto

text: and

text: Ganymede

text: are structurally similar to Titan, it is unclear why their atmospheres are insignificant relative to Titan's. Nevertheless, the origin of Titan's N via geologically ancient photolysis of

text: accreted

text: and

text: degassed

text: NH, as opposed to degassing of N from accretionary

text: clathrate

text: s, may be the key to a correct inference. Had N been released from clathrates, Ar and Ar that are

text: inert

text: primordial isotope

text: s of the Solar System should also be present in the atmosphere, but neither has been detected in significant quantities. The insignificant concentration of Ar and Ar also indicates that the ~40 K temperature required to trap them and N in clathrates did not exist in the

text: Saturnian subnebula

text: . Instead, the temperature may have been higher than 75 K, limiting even the accumulation of NH as

text: hydrate

text: s. Temperatures would have been even higher in the

text: Jovian subnebula

text: due to the greater gravitational potential energy release, mass, and proximity to the Sun, greatly reducing the NH inventory accreted by Callisto and Ganymede. The resulting N atmospheres may have been too thin to survive the atmospheric erosion effects that Titan has withstood.

text: An aurora, sometimes referred to as a polar light or northern light, is a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the magnetosphere is sufficiently disturbed by the solar wind that  the trajectories of charged particles in both solar wind and magnetospheric plasma, mainly in the form of electrons and protons,  precipitate them  into the upper atmosphere (thermosphere/exosphere), where their energy is lost.  The resulting ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents emits light of varying colour and complexity.   The form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles.  Precipitating protons generally produce optical emissions as incident hydrogen atoms after gaining electrons from the atmosphere.   Proton auroras are usually observed at lower latitudes. Different aspects of an aurora are elaborated in various sections below.

text: An aurora, sometimes referred to as a polar light or northern light, is a natural

text: light

text: display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (

text: Arctic

text: and

text: Antarctic

text: ) regions. Auroras are produced when the

text: magnetosphere

text: is sufficiently disturbed by the

text: solar wind

text: that  the trajectories of charged particles in both solar wind and

text: magnetospheric plasma

text: , mainly in the form of electrons and protons,  precipitate them  into the upper atmosphere (

text: thermosphere

text: exosphere

text: ), where their energy is lost.  The resulting ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents emits light of varying colour and complexity.   The form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles.  Precipitating protons generally produce optical emissions as incident hydrogen atoms after gaining electrons from the atmosphere.   Proton auroras are usually observed at lower latitudes. Different aspects of an aurora are elaborated in various sections below.

text: Mean temperatures have increased by  from 1901–2012, which is slightly lower than the global average. Temperatures in the Andean part of Patagonia have increased by more than , which has caused the retreat of almost all of the glaciers. This affects water availability to arid areas of the country that depend on it. Higher temperatures can reduce winter snowfall, causing river flow to decrease (less water available), which can reduce hydroelectric energy production; losses of up to 40% had been observed. In the last half of the 20th century, the lack of snow at the highest peaks in the Cuyo region has impacted agriculture and viticulture production due to less water available in the rivers (a reduction in 50% of river flow). Outside of Patagonia, mean temperatures have increased at a smaller rate since the increase in minimum temperatures is counteracted by the decrease in maximum temperatures. The increase in minimum temperatures in much of Argentina outside of Patagonia is attributed to the increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere while the decrease in maximum temperatures is a consequence of higher precipitation, which is associated with higher cloud coverage and evaporation, processes that tend to reduce maximum temperatures north of 40S. In Patagonia, the increase in mean temperatures is higher than the increase in minimum temperatures and is due to the change in atmospheric circulation, not just only the increase in greenhouse effect. Ozone depletion has played a major role in changing the atmospheric circulation patterns. There has been a decrease in the days with frost, and increases in the number of hot nights throughout the country. Heat waves, which is defined as 3 consecutive days in which the temperature exceeds the 90th percentile with respect to the 1961–1990 period have become more common and intense between 1961–2010.

text: Mean temperatures have increased by  from 1901–2012, which is slightly lower than the global average. Temperatures in the Andean part of

text: Patagonia

text: have increased by more than , which has caused the retreat of almost all of the

text: glaciers

text: . This affects water availability to

text: arid

text: areas of the country that depend on it. Higher temperatures can reduce winter snowfall, causing river flow to decrease (less water available), which can reduce hydroelectric energy production; losses of up to 40% had been observed. In the last half of the 20th century, the lack of snow at the highest peaks in the Cuyo region has impacted agriculture and

text: viticulture

text: production due to less water available in the rivers (a reduction in 50% of river flow). Outside of Patagonia, mean temperatures have increased at a smaller rate since the increase in minimum temperatures is counteracted by the decrease in maximum temperatures. The increase in minimum temperatures in much of Argentina outside of Patagonia is attributed to the increase in the concentration of

text: greenhouse gases

text: in the atmosphere while the decrease in maximum temperatures is a consequence of higher precipitation, which is associated with higher cloud coverage and evaporation, processes that tend to reduce maximum temperatures north of 40S. In Patagonia, the increase in mean temperatures is higher than the increase in minimum temperatures and is due to the change in atmospheric circulation, not just only the increase in

text: greenhouse effect

text: Ozone depletion

text: has played a major role in changing the atmospheric circulation patterns. There has been a decrease in the days with frost, and increases in the number of hot nights throughout the country.

text: Heat waves

text: , which is defined as 3 consecutive days in which the temperature exceeds the 90th

text: percentile

text: with respect to the 1961–1990 period have become more common and intense between 1961–2010.

text: Haze in Titan's atmosphere contributes to an anti-greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight back into space, making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere. This partially compensates for the greenhouse warming, and keeps the surface somewhat cooler than would otherwise be expected from the greenhouse effect alone. According to McKay et al., "the anti-greenhouse effect on Titan reduces the surface temperature by 9 K whereas the greenhouse effect increases it by 21 K. The net effect is that the surface temperature (94 K) is 12 K warmer than the effective temperature 82 K. [i.e., the equilibrium that would be reached in the absence of any atmosphere]"

text: Haze

text: in Titan's atmosphere contributes to an

text: anti-greenhouse effect

text: by reflecting sunlight back into space, making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere. This partially compensates for the greenhouse warming, and keeps the surface somewhat cooler than would otherwise be expected from the greenhouse effect alone. According to McKay et al., "the anti-greenhouse effect on Titan reduces the surface temperature by 9 K whereas the greenhouse effect increases it by 21 K. The net effect is that the surface temperature (94 K) is 12 K warmer than the

text: effective temperature

text: 82 K. [i.e., the equilibrium that would be reached in the absence of any atmosphere]"

text: Energy equilibrium of the atmosphere can be either derived from the two above equilibrium conditions, or independently deduced:

text: Due to bombardment by extra-dimensional energies, Rambeau can transform herself into any form of energy within the electromagnetic spectrum. Among the many energy forms she has assumed and is able to control are cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, electricity, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves, and neutrinos. By assuming an energy-form, she gains all of that energy's properties.

text: Due to bombardment by extra-dimensional energies, Rambeau can transform herself into any form of energy within the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Among the many energy forms she has assumed and is able to control are

text: cosmic ray

text: s,

text: gamma ray

text: s,

text: X-ray

text: s,

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation, visible light, electricity,

text: infrared

text: radiation,

text: microwave

text: s,

text: radio waves

text: , and

text: neutrino

text: s. By assuming an energy-form, she gains all of that energy's properties.

text: Electronic Warfare supports any military action using electromagnetic energy to control the electromagnetic spectrum or attack an adversary

text: The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation frequencies. The electromagnetic spectrum (usually just spectrum) of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by, or absorbed by, that particular object.

text: The

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation frequencies. The electromagnetic spectrum (usually just spectrum) of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by, or absorbed by, that particular object.

text: The proton–proton chain occurs around  times each second in the core, converting about 3.7 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2 kg/s. Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nuclei) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second, for 384.6 yottawatts (), or 9.192 megatons of TNT per second. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a power density of approximately 276.5 W/m,<ref>

text: The

text: proton–proton chain

text: occurs around  times each second in the core, converting about 3.7 protons into

text: alpha particle

text: s (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2 kg/s. Fusing four free

text: proton

text: s (hydrogen nuclei) into a single

text: alpha particle

text: (helium nuclei) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second, for 384.6

text: yottawatts

text: (), or 9.192

text: megatons

text: of

text: TNT

text: per second. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a power density of approximately 276.5 W/m,<ref>

text: r.sun computes direct (beam), diffuse and reflected solar irradiation raster maps for given day, latitude, surface and atmospheric conditions. This is useful in several areas of solar energy including solar thermal heating and photovoltaics. Several solar parameters are saved in the map history file including:

text: r.sun computes direct (

text: beam

text: diffuse

text: and

text: reflect

text: ed solar irradiation raster maps for given day,

text: latitude

text: , surface and atmospheric conditions. This is useful in several areas of

text: solar energy

text: including

text: solar thermal heating

text: and

text: photovoltaics

text: . Several solar parameters are saved in the map history file including:

text: Similarly, carbon dioxide absorption bands occur around 1400, 1600 and 2000 nm, but its presence in the Earth's atmosphere accounts for just 26% of the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide gas absorbs energy in some small segments of the thermal infrared spectrum that water vapor misses. This extra absorption within the atmosphere causes the air to warm just a bit more and the warmer the atmosphere the greater its capacity to hold more water vapor. This extra water vapor absorption further enhances the Earth’s greenhouse effect.

text: Similarly,

text: carbon dioxide

text: absorption bands occur around 1400, 1600 and 2000 nm, but its presence in the Earth's atmosphere accounts for just 26% of the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide gas absorbs energy in some small segments of the thermal infrared spectrum that water vapor misses. This extra absorption within the atmosphere causes the air to warm just a bit more and the warmer the atmosphere the greater its capacity to hold more water vapor. This extra water vapor absorption further enhances the Earth’s greenhouse effect.

text: Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the stratosphere). Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. The stratosphere has a reverse temperature gradient than the troposphere so as the temperature of the troposphere cools with altitude, the stratosphere rises with altitude. Hadley cells are the mechanism by which equatorial generated ozone in the tropics (highest area of UV irradiance in the stratosphere) is moved poleward. Global climate models suggest that climate change may widen the Hadley cells and push the jetstream northward thereby expanding the tropics region and resulting in warmer, dryer conditions in those areas overall.

text: Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the

text: troposphere

text: ) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the

text: stratosphere

text: Depletion

text: of the

text: ozone layer

text: by chemical

text: refrigerant

text: s has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. The stratosphere has a reverse temperature gradient than the troposphere so as the temperature of the troposphere cools with altitude, the stratosphere rises with altitude.

text: Hadley cells

text: are the mechanism by which equatorial generated ozone in the tropics (highest area of UV irradiance in the stratosphere) is moved poleward. Global climate models suggest that climate change may widen the Hadley cells and push the jetstream northward thereby expanding the tropics region and resulting in warmer, dryer conditions in those areas overall.

text: An additional difficulty is that red dwarfs radiate most of their electromagnetic energy as infrared light, whereas plants on Earth capture most of their energy from the visible spectrum. Red dwarfs emit almost no ultraviolet light, which would be a problem, should this kind of light be required for life to exist. Variability in stellar energy output may also have negative impacts on the development of life. Red dwarfs are often covered by starspots, reducing stellar output by as much as 40% for months at a time. At other times, some red dwarfs, called flare stars, can emit gigantic flares, doubling their brightness in minutes. This variability may also make it difficult for life to develop and persist near a red dwarf. It may be possible for a planet orbiting close to a red dwarf to keep its atmosphere even if the star flares. However, more-recent research suggests that these stars may be the source of constant high energy flares and very large magnetic fields, diminishing the possibility of life as we know it. Whether this is a peculiarity of the star under examination or a feature of the entire class remains to be determined.

text: An additional difficulty is that red dwarfs radiate most of their electromagnetic energy as

text: infrared

text: light, whereas plants on Earth capture most of their energy from the visible spectrum. Red dwarfs emit almost no

text: ultraviolet light

text: , which would be a problem, should this kind of light be required for life to exist. Variability in stellar energy output may also have negative impacts on the development of life. Red dwarfs are often covered by

text: starspot

text: s, reducing stellar output by as much as 40% for months at a time. At other times, some red dwarfs, called

text: flare star

text: s, can emit gigantic flares, doubling their brightness in minutes. This variability may also make it difficult for life to develop and persist near a red dwarf. It may be possible for a planet orbiting close to a red dwarf to keep its atmosphere even if the star flares. However, more-recent research suggests that these stars may be the source of constant high energy flares and very large magnetic fields, diminishing the possibility of life as we know it. Whether this is a peculiarity of the star under examination or a feature of the entire class remains to be determined.

text: The main difference between how high-pressure and low-pressure steam engines work is the source of the force that moves the piston. In Newcomen's and Watt's engines, it is the condensation of the steam that creates most of the pressure difference, causing atmospheric pressure (Newcomen) or low-pressure steam (Watt) to push the piston; the internal pressures never greatly exceed atmospheric pressure. In a high-pressure engine, most of the pressure difference is provided by the high-pressure steam from the boiler; the low-pressure side of the piston may be at atmospheric pressure or, if it is connected to a condenser, this only provides a small proportion of the pressure difference.

text: The energy from the Sun, also called solar energy, is an example of this form of energy conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of solar "matter" per second into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process, although protons change into neutrons, the number of total protons-plus-neutrons does not change. In this system, the radiated light itself (as a system) retains the "missing" mass, which represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic radiation, moving into space. Each of the helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive than the four protons from they were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles are destroyed in the process of turning the Sun's nuclear potential energy into light. Instead, the four nucleons in a helium nucleus in the Sun have an average mass that is less than the protons which formed them, and this mass difference (4 million tons/second) is the mass that moves off as sunlight.

text: The energy from the

text: Sun

text: , also called

text: solar energy

text: , is an example of this form of energy conversion. In the

text: Sun

text: , the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of solar "matter" per second into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process, although protons change into neutrons, the number of total protons-plus-neutrons does not change. In this system, the radiated light itself (as a system) retains the "missing" mass, which represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic radiation, moving into space. Each of the helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive than the four protons from they were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles are destroyed in the process of turning the Sun's nuclear potential energy into light. Instead, the four nucleons in a helium nucleus in the Sun have an average mass that is less than the protons which formed them, and this mass difference (4 million tons/second) is the mass that moves off as sunlight.

text: The combat is similar to Heavy Nova: the player's C.A.M. has an energy level that depletes with every sustained hit. However, the energy level rapidly grows back once the player stops moving and energy level depletion would not result in an inability to move. However, using the C.A.M.'s special attacks or abilities drains the robot's energy level. A unique feature to the game's combat is the Field Trap, an option that allows the player and enemy to be affected by atmospheric conditions in each level; elements such as gravity, fire and ice, when the Field Trap option is on, can slow or stall player/enemy movement.

text: The combat is similar to

text: Heavy Nova

text: : the player's C.A.M. has an energy level that depletes with every sustained hit. However, the energy level rapidly grows back once the player stops moving and energy level depletion would not result in an inability to move. However, using the C.A.M.'s special attacks or abilities drains the robot's energy level. A unique feature to the game's combat is the Field Trap, an option that allows the player and enemy to be affected by atmospheric conditions in each level; elements such as gravity, fire and ice, when the Field Trap option is on, can slow or stall player/enemy movement.

text: Radiant energy is one of the mechanisms by which energy can enter or leave an open system. Such a system can be man-made, such as a solar energy collector, or natural, such as the Earth's atmosphere. In geophysics, most atmospheric gases, including the greenhouse gases, allow the Sun's short-wavelength radiant energy to pass through to the Earth's surface, heating the ground and oceans. The absorbed solar energy is partly re-emitted as longer wavelength radiation (chiefly infrared radiation), some of which is absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases. Radiant energy is produced in the sun as a result of nuclear fusion.

text: Radiant energy is one of the mechanisms by which energy can enter or leave an

text: open system

text: . Such a system can be man-made, such as a

text: solar energy

text: collector, or natural, such as the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . In

text: geophysics

text: , most atmospheric gases, including the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, allow the Sun's short-wavelength radiant energy to pass through to the Earth's surface, heating the ground and oceans. The absorbed solar energy is partly re-emitted as longer wavelength radiation (chiefly infrared radiation), some of which is absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases. Radiant energy is produced in the sun as a result of

text: nuclear fusion

text: Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks when they are subducted into the earth's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through volcanoes and hotspots. It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of fossil fuels. After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the atmosphere.

text: Carbon can leave the geosphere in several ways. Carbon dioxide is released during the

text: metamorphosis

text: of carbonate rocks when they are

text: subducted

text: into the earth's mantle. This carbon dioxide can be released into the atmosphere and ocean through

text: volcanoes

text: and

text: hotspots

text: . It can also be removed by humans through the direct extraction of kerogens in the form of

text: fossil fuels

text: . After extraction, fossil fuels are burned to release energy, thus emitting the carbon they store into the atmosphere.

text: In 1494, Christopher Columbus experienced a tropical cyclone, which led to the first written European account of a hurricane. In 1686, Edmund Halley presented a systematic study of the trade winds and monsoons and identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. In 1735, an ideal explanation of global circulation through study of the trade winds was written by George Hadley. In 1743, when Benjamin Franklin was prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a hurricane, he decided that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery. Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes, and the air within deflected by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds. Late in the 19th century, the motion of air masses along isobars was understood to be the result of the large-scale interaction of the pressure gradient force and the deflecting force. By 1912, this deflecting force was named the Coriolis effect. Just after World War I, a group of meteorologists in Norway led by Vilhelm Bjerknes developed the Norwegian cyclone model that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of mid-latitude cyclones, and introduced the idea of fronts, that is, sharply defined boundaries between air masses. The group included Carl-Gustaf Rossby (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics), Tor Bergeron (who first determined how rain forms) and Jacob Bjerknes.

text: In 1494,

text: Christopher Columbus

text: experienced a tropical cyclone, which led to the first written European account of a hurricane. In 1686,

text: Edmund Halley

text: presented a systematic study of the

text: trade winds

text: and

text: monsoon

text: s and identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. In 1735, an ideal explanation of

text: global circulation

text: through study of the

text: trade winds

text: was written by

text: George Hadley

text: . In 1743, when

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: was prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse by a

text: hurricane

text: , he decided that cyclones move in a contrary manner to the winds at their periphery. Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first. Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels. In 1856,

text: William Ferrel

text: proposed the existence of a

text: circulation cell

text: in the mid-latitudes, and the air within deflected by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds. Late in the 19th century, the motion of air masses along

text: isobar

text: s was understood to be the result of the large-scale interaction of the

text: pressure gradient force

text: and the deflecting force. By 1912, this deflecting force was named the Coriolis effect. Just after World War I, a group of meteorologists in Norway led by

text: Vilhelm Bjerknes

text: developed the

text: Norwegian cyclone model

text: that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of

text: mid-latitude cyclones

text: , and introduced the idea of

text: fronts

text: , that is, sharply defined boundaries between

text: air mass

text: es. The group included

text: Carl-Gustaf Rossby

text: (who was the first to explain the large scale atmospheric flow in terms of

text: fluid dynamics

text: Tor Bergeron

text: (who first determined how rain forms) and

text: Jacob Bjerknes

text: The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately  (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to ) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere.

text: The

text: solar constant

text: is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately  (watts per square meter) at a distance of one

text: astronomical unit

text: (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is

text: attenuated

text: by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to ) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the

text: zenith

text: . Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting

text: ionosphere

text: These are treated as being inexhaustible because most derive ultimately from energy emanating from the sun, which has an estimated life of 6.5 billion years.

text: Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources, such as renewable and nuclear energy, and expanding forests and other "sinks" to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Energy efficiency may also play a role, for example, through improving the insulation of buildings. Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering.

text: Examples of mitigation include

text: phasing out fossil fuels

text: by switching to

text: low-carbon energy

text: sources, such as

text: renewable

text: and

text: nuclear energy

text: , and expanding forests and other "sinks" to remove greater amounts of

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the atmosphere.

text: Energy efficiency

text: may also play a role, for example, through improving the

text: insulation of buildings

text: . Another approach to climate change mitigation is

text: climate engineering

text: The atmosphere's temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. Since emission of infrared radiation varies with temperature, longwave radiation escaping to space from the relatively cold upper atmosphere is less than that emitted toward the ground from the lower atmosphere. Thus, the strength of the greenhouse effect depends on the atmosphere's rate of temperature decrease with height. Both theory and climate models indicate that global warming will reduce the rate of temperature decrease with height, producing a negative lapse rate feedback that weakens the greenhouse effect. Measurements of the rate of temperature change with height are very sensitive to small errors in observations, making it difficult to establish whether the models agree with observations.

text: The atmosphere's temperature decreases with height in the

text: troposphere

text: . Since emission of infrared radiation varies with temperature,

text: longwave radiation

text: escaping to space from the relatively cold upper atmosphere is less than that emitted toward the ground from the lower atmosphere. Thus, the strength of the greenhouse effect depends on the atmosphere's rate of temperature decrease with height. Both theory and climate models indicate that global warming will reduce the rate of temperature decrease with height, producing a negative lapse rate feedback that weakens the greenhouse effect. Measurements of the rate of temperature change with height are very sensitive to small errors in observations, making it difficult to establish whether the models agree with observations.

text: Though not fully elaborated, Triumph's powers were said to be control over the electromagnetic spectrum. This power gives Triumph what he calls "360 degree hyper senses," or what could be described as a form of electromagnetic psychometry, which allowed him to perceive and to interpret the entire electromagnetic spectrum. With this ability Triumph could "hear" TV and radio signals and decode satellite transmissions. Triumph also displayed advanced electromagnetic energy manipulation; Superman even remarked that Triumph could kill Superman himself by cutting off the solar energy from Superman's cells to the rest of his body.

text: Though not fully elaborated, Triumph's powers were said to be control over the

text: electromagnetic

text: spectrum. This power gives Triumph what he calls "360 degree hyper senses," or what could be described as a form of electromagnetic

text: psychometry

text: , which allowed him to perceive and to interpret the entire electromagnetic spectrum. With this ability Triumph could "hear"

text: TV

text: and

text: radio

text: signals and decode satellite transmissions. Triumph also displayed advanced electromagnetic energy manipulation;

text: Superman

text: even remarked that Triumph could kill Superman himself by cutting off the

text: solar energy

text: from Superman's

text: cells

text: to the rest of his body.

text: There are several reasons to expect that climate changes, from whatever cause, may be enhanced in the Arctic, relative to the mid-latitudes and tropics. First, is the ice-albedo feedback, whereby an initial warming causes snow and ice to melt, exposing darker surfaces that absorb more sunlight, leading to more warming. Second, because colder air holds less water vapour than warmer air, in the Arctic, a greater fraction of any increase in radiation absorbed by the surface goes directly into warming the atmosphere, whereas in the tropics, a greater fraction goes into evaporation. Third, because the Arctic temperature structure inhibits vertical air motions, the depth of the atmospheric layer that has to warm in order to cause warming of near-surface air is much shallower in the Arctic than in the tropics. Fourth, a reduction in sea-ice extent will lead to more energy being transferred from the warm ocean to the atmosphere, enhancing the warming. Finally, changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns caused by a global temperature change may cause more heat to be transferred to the Arctic, enhancing Arctic warming (ACIA 2004).

text: Carbon dioxide is one of several heat-trapping greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by humans (anthropogenic GHGs). The scientific consensus is that human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are the primary cause of global warming, and that carbon dioxide is the most important of the anthropogenic GHGs. Worldwide, 27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide are produced by human activity annually. The physical effect of CO in the atmosphere can be measured as a change in the Earth-atmosphere system's energy balance – the radiative forcing of CO. Carbon taxes are one of the policies available to governments to reduce GHG emissions.

text: Carbon dioxide is one of several heat-trapping

text: greenhouse gas

text: es (GHGs) emitted by humans (anthropogenic GHGs). The

text: scientific consensus

text: is that human-induced greenhouse gas emissions are the primary

text: cause of global warming

text: , and that carbon dioxide is the most important of the anthropogenic GHGs. Worldwide, 27 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide are produced by human activity annually. The physical effect of CO in the atmosphere can be measured as a change in the Earth-atmosphere system's energy balance – the

text: radiative forcing

text: of CO. Carbon taxes are one of the policies available to governments to reduce GHG emissions.

text: Without the inclusion of clouds, water vapor alone contributes 36% to 70% of the greenhouse effect on Earth.  When water vapor and clouds are considered together, the contribution is 66% to 85%. The ranges come about because there are two ways to compute the influence of water vapor and clouds: the lower bounds are the reduction in the greenhouse effect if water vapor and clouds are removed from the atmosphere leaving all other greenhouse gases unchanged, while the upper bounds are the greenhouse effect introduced if water vapor and clouds are added to an atmosphere with no other greenhouse gases. The two values differ because of overlap in the absorption and emission by the various greenhouse gases.  Trapping of the long-wave radiation due to the presence of clouds reduces the radiative forcing of the greenhouse gases compared to the clear-sky forcing. However, the magnitude of the effect due to clouds varies for different greenhouse gases. Relative to clear skies, clouds reduce the global mean radiative forcing due to CO by about 15%, that due to CH and NO by about 20%, and that due to the halocarbons by up to 30%. Clouds remain one of the largest uncertainties in future projections of climate change by global climate models, owing to the physical complexity of cloud processes and the small scale of individual clouds relative to the size of the model computational grid.

text: Without the inclusion of clouds, water vapor alone contributes 36% to 70% of the greenhouse effect on Earth.  When water vapor and clouds are considered together, the contribution is 66% to 85%. The ranges come about because there are two ways to compute the influence of water vapor and clouds: the lower bounds are the reduction in the greenhouse effect if water vapor and clouds are removed from the atmosphere leaving all other greenhouse gases unchanged, while the upper bounds are the greenhouse effect introduced if water vapor and clouds are added to an atmosphere with no other greenhouse gases. The two values differ because of overlap in the absorption and emission by the various greenhouse gases.  Trapping of the long-wave radiation due to the presence of clouds reduces the radiative forcing of the greenhouse gases compared to the clear-sky forcing. However, the magnitude of the effect due to clouds varies for different greenhouse gases. Relative to clear

text: skies

text: , clouds reduce the global mean radiative forcing due to

text: CO

text: by about 15%, that due to

text: CH

text: and

text: NO

text: by about 20%, and that due to the

text: halocarbon

text: s by up to 30%. Clouds remain one of the largest uncertainties in future projections of climate change by global climate models, owing to the physical complexity of cloud processes and the small scale of individual clouds relative to the size of the model computational grid.

text: The fourth section, Climate and Carbon, lays out in six chapters the history of climate science from the “discovery” of the atmosphere in the late 18th Century and of the “ice age” in the early 19th century to its current central role in energy policy and debate. New Energies, the fifth section, focuses on the “rebirth of renewables” and the role of energy efficiency. The final section, The Road to the Future describes the evolution of personal mobility and the growing global demand for automobiles. Yergin covers the topics of 3rd and 4th generation biofuels, hydrogen fuel cells, natural gas vehicles, and what he calls “round two in the race between gasoline and the electric car.” The book concludes with a discussion of the impact of the “globalization of innovation” on future energy supplies.

text: The fourth section, Climate and Carbon, lays out in six chapters the history of climate science from the “discovery” of the

text: atmosphere

text: in the late 18th Century and of the “ice age” in the early 19th century to its current central role in

text: energy policy

text: and debate. New Energies, the fifth section, focuses on the “rebirth of

text: renewables

text: ” and the role of

text: energy efficiency

text: . The final section, The Road to the Future describes the evolution of personal mobility and the growing global demand for

text: automobiles

text: . Yergin covers the topics of 3rd and 4th generation

text: biofuels

text: hydrogen fuel cells

text: natural gas vehicles

text: , and what he calls “round two in the race between

text: gasoline

text: and the

text: electric car

text: .” The book concludes with a discussion of the impact of the “

text: globalization

text: of innovation” on future energy supplies.

text: Channels are available in several frequency ranges to suit the users' requirements for propagation and protection from interference. The electromagnetic spectrum between approximately 450 and 470 MHz is used largely for UHF business communications, although this spectrum is not exclusively for business use. In some large metropolitan areas, such as New York, the UHF-T band (between 470 and 512 MHz) is also used, due to congestion on the standard VHF or UHF bands. There are also a number of specific frequencies, in both the VHF and UHF spectrum, that are for business use; some of these have color-coded names, such as Blue Dot or Red Star.

text: Channels are available in several frequency ranges to suit the users' requirements for

text: propagation

text: and protection from interference. The

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: between approximately 450 and 470

text: MHz

text: is used largely for UHF business communications, although this spectrum is not exclusively for business use. In some large metropolitan areas, such as New York, the UHF-T band (between 470 and 512 MHz) is also used, due to congestion on the standard VHF or UHF bands. There are also a number of specific frequencies, in both the VHF and UHF spectrum, that are for business use; some of these have color-coded names, such as Blue Dot or Red Star.

text: . When the adsorbate sticks to a metal surface imaginary dipoles occur as shown in the figure on the right. Hence for an adsorbed dipole normal to the surface the dipole moment “seen” from the vacuum doubles. Whereas the dipole moment of a parallel to the surface adsorbed dipole vanishes. Hence an incident electron can excite the adsorbed dipole only when it is adsorbed normal to the surface and the vibrational mode can be detected in the energy loss spectrum. If the dipole is adsorbed parallel then no energy losses will be detected and the vibrational modes of the dipole are missing in the energy loss spectrum.

text: Other familiar types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is mechanical energy which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them. .

text: Other familiar types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is

text: mechanical energy

text: which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them. .

text: Low-boiling perfluoroalkanes are potent greenhouse gases, in part due to their very long atmospheric lifetime. Their use is covered by the Kyoto Protocol.

text: Low-boiling perfluoroalkanes are potent

text: greenhouse gases

text: , in part due to their very long atmospheric lifetime. Their use is covered by the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water (hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

text: The renewable energy from the

text: sun

text: wind

text: wave

text: biomass

text: and

text: geothermal

text: energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of

text: water

text: hydropower

text: tidal power

text: and

text: wave power

text: wind

text: and

text: radiant energy

text: from geothermal heat (used for

text: geothermal power

text: ) and solar energy (used for

text: solar power

text: ) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

text: The energy policy of the United Kingdom has achieved success in reducing energy intensity (but still really high), reducing energy poverty, and maintaining energy supply reliability to date.  The United Kingdom has an ambitious goal to reduce carbon dioxide emissions for future years, but it is unclear whether the programs in place are sufficient to achieve this objective (the way to be so efficient as France is still hard).  Regarding energy self sufficiency, the United Kingdom policy does not address this issue, other than to concede historic energy self sufficiency is currently ceasing to exist (due to the decline of the North Sea oil production).  With regard to transport, the United Kingdom historically has a good policy record encouraging public transport links with cities, despite encountering problems with high speed trains, which have the potential to reduce dramatically domestic and short-haul European flights. The policy does not, however, significantly encourage hybrid vehicle use or ethanol fuel use, options which represent viable short term means to moderate rising transport fuel consumption.  Regarding renewable energy, the United Kingdom has goals for wind and tidal energy.  The White Paper on Energy, 2007, set the target that 20% of the UK's energy must come from renewable sources by 2020.

text: The

text: energy policy of the United Kingdom

text: has achieved success in reducing

text: energy intensity

text: (but still really high), reducing energy poverty, and maintaining energy supply reliability to date.  The United Kingdom has an ambitious goal to reduce

entity_name: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions

text: carbon dioxide emissions

text: for future years, but it is unclear whether the programs in place are sufficient to achieve this objective (the way to be so efficient as France is still hard).  Regarding energy self sufficiency, the United Kingdom policy does not address this issue, other than to concede historic

text: energy self sufficiency

text: is currently ceasing to exist (due to the decline of the

text: North Sea oil

text: production).  With regard to transport, the United Kingdom historically has a good policy record encouraging

text: public transport

text: links with cities, despite encountering problems with high speed trains, which have the potential to reduce dramatically domestic and short-haul European flights. The policy does not, however, significantly encourage

text: hybrid vehicle

text: use or

text: ethanol fuel

text: use, options which represent viable short term means to moderate rising transport fuel consumption.  Regarding

text: renewable energy

text: , the United Kingdom has goals for

text: wind

text: and

text: tidal energy

text: .  The White Paper on Energy, 2007, set the target that 20% of the UK's energy must come from renewable sources by 2020.

text: As with all carbon based fossil fuels, burning coalbed methane releases carbon dioxide (CO) into the atmosphere. Its effect as greenhouse gas was firstly analyzed by chemist and physicist Svante Arrhenius. CBM production also entails leaks of fugitive methane into the atmosphere. Methane is rated as having 72 times the effect on global warming per unit of mass than CO over 20 years, reducing to 25 times over 100 years and 7.5 times over 500 years. Analysis of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources indicates that generating electricity from CBM, as with conventional natural gas, has less than half the greenhouse gas effect of coal.

text: As with all carbon based fossil fuels, burning coalbed methane releases carbon dioxide (CO) into the atmosphere. Its effect as greenhouse gas was firstly analyzed by chemist and physicist

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: . CBM production also entails leaks of fugitive methane into the atmosphere. Methane is rated as having 72 times the effect on global warming per unit of mass than CO over 20 years, reducing to 25 times over 100 years and 7.5 times over 500 years. Analysis of

entity_name: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources

text: life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources

text: indicates that generating electricity from CBM, as with conventional natural gas, has less than half the greenhouse gas effect of coal.

text: Cherenkov radiation occurs when charged particles travel through a medium at a speed faster than the speed of light in that medium.  High-energy gamma rays, upon striking the upper atmosphere, can create positron-electron pairs that move at great speeds.  The residual effect of these particles traveling through the atmosphere can result in a cascading shower of particles and photons that are aimed towards the surface at predictable angles.

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: occurs when charged particles travel through a medium at a speed faster than the

text: speed of light

text: in that medium.  High-energy gamma rays, upon striking the upper atmosphere, can create

text: positron

text: electron

text: pairs

text: that move at great speeds.  The residual effect of these particles traveling through the atmosphere can result in a cascading shower of particles and photons that are aimed towards the surface at predictable angles.

text: The major driving force of atmospheric circulation is solar heating, which is greatest near the equator and lesser at the poles. The atmospheric circulation transports energy polewards, thus reducing the resulting equator-to-pole temperature gradient. The mechanisms by which this is accomplished differs in tropical and extratropical latitudes.

text: The major driving force of

text: atmospheric circulation

text: is solar heating, which is greatest near the equator and lesser at the poles. The atmospheric circulation transports energy polewards, thus reducing the resulting equator-to-pole temperature gradient. The mechanisms by which this is accomplished differs in tropical and extratropical latitudes.

text: There are several energy fluxes involved in the melting of snow. These fluxes can act in opposing directions, that is either delivering heat to or removing heat from the snowpack. Ground heat flux is the energy delivered to the snowpack from the soil below by conduction. Radiation inputs to the snowpack include net shortwave (solar radiation including visible and ultraviolet light) and longwave  (infrared) radiation.  Net shortwave radiation is the difference in energy received from the sun and that reflected by the snowpack because of the snowpack albedo. Longwave radiation is received by the snowpack from many sources, including ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapor present in all levels of the atmosphere. Longwave radiation is also emitted by the snowpack in the form near-Black-body radiation, where snow has an emissivity between 0.97 and 1.0. Generally the net longwave radiation term is negative, meaning a net loss of energy from the snowpack. Latent heat flux is the energy removed from or delivered to the snowpack which accompanies the mass transfers of evaporation, sublimation, or condensation. Sensible heat flux is the heat flux due to convection between the air and snowpack.

text: There are several energy fluxes involved in the melting of snow. These fluxes can act in opposing directions, that is either delivering heat to or removing heat from the

text: snowpack

text: . Ground heat flux is the energy delivered to the snowpack from the soil below by conduction. Radiation inputs to the snowpack include net

text: shortwave

text: (solar radiation including visible and ultraviolet light) and longwave  (

text: infrared

text: ) radiation.  Net shortwave radiation is the difference in energy received from the sun and that reflected by the snowpack because of the snowpack

text: albedo

text: . Longwave radiation is received by the snowpack from many sources, including ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapor present in all levels of the atmosphere. Longwave radiation is also emitted by the snowpack in the form near-

text: Black-body radiation

text: , where snow has an emissivity between 0.97 and 1.0. Generally the net longwave radiation term is negative, meaning a net loss of energy from the snowpack. Latent heat flux is the energy removed from or delivered to the snowpack which accompanies the mass transfers of

text: evaporation

text: sublimation

text: , or

text: condensation

text: . Sensible heat flux is the heat flux due to

text: convection

text: between the air and snowpack.

text: Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of the atmosphere. The percentage water vapor in surface air varies from 0.01% at -42 °C (-44 °F) to 4.24% when the dew point is 30 °C (86 °F). Approximately 99.13% of it is contained in the troposphere. The condensation of water vapor to the liquid or ice phase is responsible for clouds, rain, snow, and other precipitation, all of which count among the most significant elements of what we experience as weather. Less obviously, the latent heat of vaporization, which is released to the atmosphere whenever condensation occurs, is one of the most important terms in the atmospheric energy budget on both local and global scales. For example, latent heat release in atmospheric convection is directly responsible for powering destructive storms such as tropical cyclones and severe thunderstorms. Water vapor is also the most potent greenhouse gas owing to the presence of the hydroxyl bond which strongly absorbs in the infra-red region of the light spectrum.

text: Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of the

text: atmosphere

text: . The percentage water vapor in surface air varies from 0.01% at -42 °C (-44 °F) to 4.24% when the dew point is 30 °C (86 °F). Approximately 99.13% of it is contained in the

text: troposphere

text: . The

text: condensation

text: of water vapor to the liquid or ice phase is responsible for

text: clouds

text: , rain, snow, and other

text: precipitation

text: , all of which count among the most significant elements of what we experience as weather. Less obviously, the

text: latent heat of vaporization

text: , which is released to the atmosphere whenever condensation occurs, is one of the most important terms in the atmospheric energy budget on both local and global scales. For example, latent heat release in atmospheric

text: convection

text: is directly responsible for powering destructive storms such as

text: tropical cyclones

text: and severe

text: thunderstorms

text: . Water vapor is also the most potent

text: greenhouse gas

text: owing to the presence of the

text: hydroxyl

text: bond which strongly absorbs in the

text: infra-red

text: region of the

text: light spectrum

text: Since 2002, approximately 85% of commercial and industrial consumers have switched power providers at least once. Approximately 40% of residential consumers in deregulated areas have switched from the former incumbent provider to a competitive REP. REPs providing service in the state include NEC Retail Co-op Electricity, Acacia Energy, Now Power, Snap Energy, Clearview Electric, Green Mountain Energy, Iluminar Energy, Conservice Energy, Ambit Energy, Entrust Energy, Bounce Energy, Champion Energy,  Shnye Energy, Cirro Energy, Direct Energy, Dynowatt, First Texas Energy Corporation, Gexa Energy, Glacial Energy, Just Energy, Kinetic Energy, Mega Energy, APG&E, Adjacent Energy, Spark Energy, StarTex Power, Stream Energy, Tech Electricity, Texas Power,  TXU Energy, XOOM Energy and 4Change Energy.

text: Since 2002, approximately 85% of commercial and industrial consumers have switched power providers at least once. Approximately 40% of residential consumers in deregulated areas have switched from the former incumbent provider to a competitive REP. REPs providing service in the state include NEC Retail Co-op Electricity,

text: Acacia Energy

text: Now Power

text: Snap Energy

text: , Clearview Electric, Green Mountain Energy, Iluminar Energy, Conservice Energy,

text: Ambit Energy

text: , Entrust Energy, Bounce Energy,

text: Champion Energy

text: ,  Shnye Energy, Cirro Energy,

text: Direct Energy

text: Dynowatt

text: First Texas Energy Corporation

text: , Gexa Energy,

text: Glacial Energy

text: Just Energy

text: , Kinetic Energy, Mega Energy, APG&E,

text: Adjacent Energy

text: , Spark Energy, StarTex Power,

text: Stream Energy

text: , Tech Electricity,

text: Texas Power

text: TXU Energy

text: XOOM Energy

text: and

text: 4Change Energy

text: In its simplest form an IMS system measures how fast a given ion moves in a uniform electric field through a given atmosphere.

text: In its simplest form an IMS system measures how fast a given ion moves in a uniform

text: electric field

text: through a given atmosphere.

text: Geo-engineering is referred as "the artificial modification of Earth's climate systems through two primary ideologies, Solar Radiation Management (SRM) and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)"  Different schemes, projects and technologies have been designed to tackle the effects of climate change, usually by removing CO2 from the air as seen by Klaus Lackner's invention of a Co2 prototype, or by limiting the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, by space mirrors. However, "critics by contrast claim that geoengineering isn't realistic – and may be a distraction from reducing emissions." It has been argued that geo-engineering is an adaptation to global warming. It allows TNC's, humans and governments to avoid facing the facts that global warming is a crisis that needs to be dealt with head-on by reducing emissions and implementing green technologies, rather than developing ways to control the environment and ultimately allow Greenhouse Gases to continue to be released into the atmosphere.

text: Geo-engineering

text: is referred as "the artificial modification of Earth's

text: climate

text: systems through two primary ideologies,

text: Solar Radiation Management

text: (SRM) and

text: Carbon Dioxide Removal

text: (CDR)"  Different schemes, projects and technologies have been designed to tackle the effects of climate change, usually by removing CO2 from the air as seen by

text: Klaus Lackner

text: 's invention of a Co2 prototype, or by limiting the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, by

text: space mirrors

text: . However, "critics by contrast claim that geoengineering isn't realistic – and may be a distraction from reducing emissions." It has been argued that geo-engineering is an adaptation to global warming. It allows TNC's, humans and governments to avoid facing the facts that global warming is a crisis that needs to be dealt with head-on by reducing emissions and implementing

text: green technologies

text: , rather than developing ways to control the environment and ultimately allow

text: Greenhouse Gases

text: to continue to be released into the atmosphere.

text: The solar envelope is a space-time construct. Its spatial limits are defined by the characteristics of land size, shape, orientation, topography, latitude, and its surroundings. Its time limits are defined by the hours of the day, season of the year, and the time interval. In 1976, solar envelope was first proposed by Ralph L. Knowles as a zoning device. It guarantees solar access to properties by regulating construction limits derived from the sun’s relative motion. Buildings within the solar envelope would not shadow adjacent properties during a predefined period of time, usually critical energy-receiving periods during the year. The solar envelope presents the maximum heights of buildings that do not violate the solar access of any existing buildings during a given period of the year. The solar envelope is a way to assure urban solar access for both energy and life quality.

text: The solar envelope is a space-time construct. Its spatial limits are defined by the characteristics of land size, shape, orientation,

text: topography

text: latitude

text: , and its surroundings. Its time limits are defined by the hours of the day, season of the year, and the time interval. In 1976, solar envelope was first proposed by Ralph L. Knowles as a zoning device. It guarantees solar access to properties by regulating construction limits derived from the sun’s relative motion. Buildings within the solar envelope would not shadow adjacent properties during a predefined period of time, usually critical energy-receiving periods during the year. The solar envelope presents the maximum heights of buildings that do not violate the solar access of any existing buildings during a given period of the year. The solar envelope is a way to assure urban solar access for both energy and life quality.

text: The large frame - old frame system of training consists of two forms. They are known simply as the First form (Yi Lu) and the Second Form (Er Lu) also known as  the Cannon Fist (Pao Chui). This system was first taught by Chen Fake in Beijing in 1928.  There are 72 moves in the First Form and 42 moves in the Second Form. The historical roots can be traced back to Chen Fake's great grandfather,  Chen Changxing (陳長興 Chén Chángxīng, Ch'en Chang-hsing, 1771–1853) who was also the teacher of Yang Luchan.  Due to this common lineage, there are similarities on stances even though more than fifty years separates the Yang training traditions and the form revealed by Chen Fake in Beijing.  The description of Yilu in Chen style parlance are: Movements are large and stretching, Footwork is brisk and steady, the body is naturally straight, the entire body controlled by internal energy.  (拳架舒展大方，步法轻灵稳健，身法中正自然，内劲统领全身。) The exercise requires the close coordination between mind-intent, internal energy, and the body; the outer appearance is an arc and the internal energy travels along the path of a spiral;  the energy winds around so that the external action appears soft but corresponding internal action is hard. (练习时，要求意、气、身密切配合，外形走弧线，内劲走螺旋，缠绕圆转，外柔内刚。)

text: The large frame - old frame system of training consists of two forms. They are known simply as the First form (

entity_name: Chen (Old Frame, First Routine, Lao Jia Yi Lu)

text: Yi Lu

text: ) and the Second Form (Er Lu) also known as  the Cannon Fist (Pao Chui). This system was first taught by Chen Fake in Beijing in 1928.  There are 72 moves in the First Form and 42 moves in the Second Form. The historical roots can be traced back to Chen Fake's great grandfather,  Chen Changxing (陳長興 Chén Chángxīng, Ch'en Chang-hsing, 1771–1853) who was also the teacher of Yang Luchan.  Due to this common lineage, there are similarities on stances even though more than fifty years separates the Yang training traditions and the form revealed by Chen Fake in Beijing.  The description of Yilu in Chen style parlance are: Movements are large and stretching, Footwork is brisk and steady, the body is naturally straight, the entire body controlled by internal energy.  (拳架舒展大方，步法轻灵稳健，身法中正自然，内劲统领全身。) The exercise requires the close coordination between mind-intent, internal energy, and the body; the outer appearance is an arc and the internal energy travels along the path of a spiral;  the energy winds around so that the external action appears soft but corresponding internal action is hard. (练习时，要求意、气、身密切配合，外形走弧线，内劲走螺旋，缠绕圆转，外柔内刚。)

text: In the case of the earth-atmosphere system it refers to the process by which long-wave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the sun.

text: In the case of the earth-atmosphere system it refers to the process by which long-wave (

text: infrared

text: ) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the sun.

text: The ratio of the surface velocity at two given latitudes is equal to the ratio of the cosine for the two given latitudes.

text: A convection cell is most notable in the formation of clouds with its release and transportation of energy. As air moves along the ground it absorbs heat, loses density and moves up into the atmosphere. when it is forced into the atmosphere, which has a lower air pressure, it cannot contain as much fluid as at a lower altitude, so it releases its moist air, producing rain. In this process the warm air is cooled; it gains density and falls towards the earth and the cell repeats the cycle.

text: First, the atmosphere may absorb part of the energy passing through it. This is bad enough for sensing if all wavelengths are affected evenly, but it becomes much more complex when the radiation is of multiple wavelengths, and the attenuation differs among wavelengths.

text: eons, leading to what is known as the faint young Sun paradox. Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of the Sun increased and atmospheric composition changed. The Great Oxygenation Event – oxygenation of the atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a red giant and then a white dwarf will have large effects on climate, with the red giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.

text: eons, leading to what is known as the

text: faint young Sun paradox

text: . Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of the Sun increased and atmospheric composition changed. The

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: – oxygenation of the atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years, the Sun's ultimate death as it becomes a

text: red giant

text: and then a

text: white dwarf

text: will have large effects on climate, with the red giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.

text: As with the pyrotechnic payloads these will also give either graybody radiation or selective emissions.In contrast to pyrotechnic payloads, pyrophoric substances use the oxygen from the environment for oxidation. Hence specific energy density of pyrophorics is always higher as compared to any pyrotechnic; however, pyrophorics suffer from low oxygen partial pressure at greater heights.A typical liquid pyrophoric fuel is triethylaluminium. Upon combustion of triethylaluminium, a selective IR spectrum is obtained, which is mainly determined from carbon dioxide and water vapour. Any transient or permanent combustion product of aluminium are not IR-active in this region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: As with the pyrotechnic payloads these will also give either graybody radiation or selective emissions.In contrast to pyrotechnic payloads, pyrophoric substances use the oxygen from the environment for oxidation. Hence specific energy density of pyrophorics is always higher as compared to any pyrotechnic; however, pyrophorics suffer from low oxygen partial pressure at greater heights.A typical liquid pyrophoric fuel is

text: triethylaluminium

text: . Upon combustion of triethylaluminium, a selective IR spectrum is obtained, which is mainly determined from carbon dioxide and water vapour. Any transient or permanent combustion product of aluminium are not IR-active in this region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: Stephen E. Schwartz (born 1941) is an atmospheric scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory.  He served from 2004 to 2009 as the Chief Scientist of the Atmospheric Science Program of the United States Department of Energy.  The program is charged with developing a comprehensive understanding of how the atmosphere processes energy related trace chemicals, such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur, aerosols and carbon dioxide.  The current focus is on aerosols and carbon dioxide.

text: Stephen E. Schwartz (born 1941) is an atmospheric scientist at

text: Brookhaven National Laboratory

text: .  He served from 2004 to 2009 as the Chief Scientist of the Atmospheric Science Program of the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: .  The program is charged with developing a comprehensive understanding of how the

text: atmosphere

text: processes energy related trace

text: chemicals

text: , such as

text: nitrogen oxides

text: sulfur

text: aerosols

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: .  The current focus is on aerosols and carbon dioxide.

text: The C center corresponds to electrically neutral single substitutional nitrogen atoms in the diamond lattice. These are easily seen in electron paramagnetic resonance spectra (in which they are confusingly called P1 centers). C centers impart a deep yellow to brown color; these diamonds are classed as type Ib and are commonly known as "canary diamonds", which are rare in gem form. Most synthetic diamonds produced by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) technique contain a high level of nitrogen in the C form; nitrogen impurity originates from the atmosphere or from the graphite source. One nitrogen atom per 100,000 carbon atoms will produce yellow color. Because the nitrogen atoms have five available electrons (one more than the carbon atoms they replace), they act as "deep donors"; that is, each substituting nitrogen has an extra electron to donate and forms a donor energy level within the band gap. Light with energy above ~2.2 eV can excite the donor electrons into the conduction band, resulting in the yellow color.

text: The C center corresponds to electrically neutral single substitutional nitrogen

text: atom

text: s in the diamond lattice. These are easily seen in

text: electron paramagnetic resonance

text: spectra (in which they are confusingly called P1 centers). C centers impart a deep yellow to brown color; these diamonds are classed as type Ib and are commonly known as "canary diamonds", which are rare in

text: gem

text: form. Most synthetic diamonds produced by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) technique contain a high level of nitrogen in the C form; nitrogen impurity originates from the atmosphere or from the graphite source. One nitrogen atom per 100,000 carbon atoms will produce yellow color. Because the nitrogen atoms have five available

text: electron

text: s (one more than the

text: carbon

text: atoms they replace), they act as "deep

text: donor

text: s"; that is, each substituting nitrogen has an extra electron to donate and forms a donor

text: energy level

text: within the

text: band gap

text: . Light with energy above ~2.2

text: eV

text: can excite the donor electrons into the

text: conduction band

text: , resulting in the yellow color.

text: The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in a greenhouse is that incident solar radiation (the visible and adjacent portions of the infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum) passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via radiative transfer. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via convection, so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. This is known as the "greenhouse effect". The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "greenhouse gases", including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects the earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling as air does not escape from the earth.

text: The explanation given in most sources for the warmer temperature in a greenhouse is that incident

text: solar radiation

text: (the visible and adjacent portions of the

text: infrared

text: and

text: ultraviolet

text: ranges of the spectrum) passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re-emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation. Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape via

text: radiative transfer

text: convection

text: , so the temperature inside the greenhouse rises. This is known as the "

text: greenhouse effect

text: ". The greenhouse effect, due to infrared-opaque "

text: greenhouse gases

text: ", including carbon dioxide and methane instead of glass, also affects the earth as a whole; there is no convective cooling as air does not escape from the earth.

text: The spectrum of the primary component matches a stellar classification of K0 IV, with the luminosity class of IV indicating this is a subgiant star. It has 6 times the radius of the Sun and shines with 18 times the Sun's energy. This energy is radiated from the outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,864 K, giving it the cool orange-hued glow of a K-type star.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of the primary component matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 IV, with the

text: luminosity class

text: of IV indicating this is a

text: subgiant star

text: . It has 6 times the radius of the Sun and shines with 18 times the Sun's energy. This energy is radiated from the

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,864 K, giving it the cool orange-hued glow of a

text: K-type star

text:
|- style="background:#cfc;"| 1| October 26| @ Philadelphia |   | Russell Westbrook (32)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Wells Fargo Center
 20,487| 1–0|-style="background:#cfc;"| 2| October 28| Phoenix| | Russell Westbrook (51)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
 18,203| 2–0|-style="background:#cfc;"| 3| October 30| L. A. Lakers |  | Russell Westbrook (33)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (16)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–0|- style="background:#cfc;"| 4| November 2| @ L. A. Clippers |   | Russell Westbrook (35)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Staples Center
19,060| 4–0|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 3| @ Golden State |   | Victor Oladipo (21)| Joffrey Lauvergne (7)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 4–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 6| November 5| Minnesota |  | Russell Westbrook (28)| Enes Kanter (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 5–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7 | November 7| Miami |  | Enes Kanter (24)| Kanter & Sabonis (10)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6–1|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8| November 9| Toronto |  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Steven Adams (12)| Russell Westbrook (7) | Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 9| November 11|  L. A. Clippers |   | Russell Westbrook (29)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 13| Orlando |   | Russell Westbrook (41)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (16)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 11| November 14| @ Detroit |  | Russell Westbrook (33)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Palace of Auburn Hills
14,172| 6–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 12| November 16| Houston |  | Russell Westbrook (30)| Victor Oladipo (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 7–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 13| November 18| Brooklyn | | Russell Westbrook (30)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 14| November 20| Indiana|  | Russell Westbrook (31)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 15| November 22| @ L. A. Lakers | | Russell Westbrook (34)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Staples Center
18,997| 8–7|- style="background:#fcc;"| 16| November 23| @ Sacramento |   | Russell Westbrook (31)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Golden 1 Center
17,608| 8–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 25| @ Denver |   | Russell Westbrook (36)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (18)| Pepsi Center
14,327| 9–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 18| November 26| Detroit|   | Anthony Morrow (21)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 10–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19| November 28| @New York|   | Russell Westbrook (27)| Russell Westbrook (18)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Madison Square Garden
19,812| 11–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| November 30| Washington |   | Russell Westbrook (35)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 12–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 4|  New Orleans | | Russell Westbrook (28)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 13–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 5| @ Atlanta | | Russell Westbrook (32)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Philips Arena
14,654| 14–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 23| December 9| Houston|   | Russell Westbrook (27)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 14–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 11| Boston | | Russell Westbrook (37)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 15–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 25| December 13| @ Portland | | Russell Westbrook (20)| Domantas Sabonis (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Moda Center
19,505| 15–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 14| @ Utah| | Russell Westbrook (25)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Vivint Smart Home Arena
19,911| 15–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 17| Phoenix | | Russell Westbrook (26)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (22)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 16–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 28| December 19| Atlanta | | Russell Westbrook (46)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 16–12|- style="background:#;"| 29| December 21| @ New Orleans | | | | | Smoothie King Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 30| December 23| @ Boston | | | | | TD Garden
| |- style="background:#;"| 31| December 25| Minnesota | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 32| December 27| @ Miami | | | | | American Airlines Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 33| December 29| @ Memphis | | | | | FedEx Forum
| |- style="background:#;"| 34| December 31| L. A. Clippers| | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 35| January 2| @ Milwaukee | | | | | BMO Harris Bradley Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 36| January 4| @ Charlotte | | | | | Time Warner Cable Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 37| January 5| @ Houston | | | | | Toyota Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 38| January 7| Denver | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 39| January 9 | @ Chicago| | | | | United Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 40| January 11| Memphis| | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 41| January 13| @ Minnesota | | | | | Target Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 42| January 15| @ Sacramento| | | | | Golden 1 Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 43| January 16| @ L.A. Clippers | | | | | Staples Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 44| January 18| @ Golden State | | | | | Oracle Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 45| January 23| @ Utah | | | | | Vivint Smart Home Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 46| January 25| @ New Orleans | | | | | Smoothie King Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 47| January 26| Dallas | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
||-style="background:#;"|48|January 29|@ Cleveland ||||| Chesapeake Energy Arena
||-style="background:#;"|49|January 31|@ San Antonio ||||| AT&T Center
||- style="background:#;"| 50| February 1|  Chicago | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 51| February 3| Memphis | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 52| February 5| Portland| | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 53| February 6| @ Indiana | | | | | Bankers Life Fieldhouse
| |- style="background:#;"| 54| February 9| Cleveland| | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 55| February 11| Golden State | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 56| February 13| @ Washington | | | | | Verizon Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 57| February 15| New York | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break|- style="background:#;"| 58| February 24|  L.A. Lakers | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 59| February 26| New Orleans | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 60| February 28| Utah| | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 61| March 2| @ Portland | | | | | Moda Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 62| March 3| @ Phoenix | | | | | Talking Stick Resort Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 63| March 5| @ Dallas | | | | | American Airlines Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 64| March 7| Portland | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 65| March 9| San Antonio | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 66| March 11| Utah | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 67| March 14| @ Brooklyn | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 68| March 16| @ Toronto | | | | | Air Canada Centre
| |- style="background:#;"| 69| March 18| Sacramento | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 70| March 20| Denver | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 71| March 22| Philadelphia| | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 72| March 26| @ Houston | | | | | Toyota Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 73| March 27| @ Dallas | | | | | American Airlines Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 74| March 29| @ Orlando | | | | | Amway Center
| |-style="background:#;"|75|March 31| San Antonio||||| Chesapeake Energy Arena
||- style="background:#;"| 76| April 2| Charlotte | | | | | Charlotte Hornets
| |- style="background:#;"| 77| April 4| Milwaukee | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
| |- style="background:#;"| 78| April 5| @ Memphis | | | | | FedEx Forum
| |- style="background:#;"| 79| April 7| @ Phoenix | | | | | Talking Stick Resort
| |- style="background:#;"| 80| April 9|  @ Denver | | | | | Pepsi Center
| |- style="background:#;"| 81| April 11| @ Minnesota | | | | | Target Center
||- style="background:#;"| 82| April 12| Denver | | | | | Chesapeake Energy Arena
|

text: |- style="background:#cfc;"| 1| October 26| @

text: Philadelphia

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Wells Fargo Center

text: <br> 20,487| 1–0|-style="background:#cfc;"| 2| October 28|

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br> 18,203| 2–0|-style="background:#cfc;"| 3| October 30|

text: L. A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–0|- style="background:#cfc;"| 4| November 2| @

text: L. A. Clippers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,060| 4–0|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 3| @

text: Golden State

text: Victor Oladipo

text: Joffrey Lauvergne

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 4–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 6| November 5|

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 5–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7 | November 7|

text: Miami

text: Enes Kanter

text: Kanter

text: Sabonis

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6–1|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8| November 9|

text: Toronto

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: (7) |

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 9| November 11|

text: L. A. Clippers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 13|

text: Orlando

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 11| November 14| @

text: Detroit

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Palace of Auburn Hills

text: <br>14,172| 6–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 12| November 16|

text: Houston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Victor Oladipo

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 7–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 13| November 18|

text: Brooklyn

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 14| November 20|

text: Indiana

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 15| November 22| @

text: L. A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 8–7|- style="background:#fcc;"| 16| November 23| @

text: Sacramento

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Golden 1 Center

text: <br>17,608| 8–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 25| @

text: Denver

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>14,327| 9–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 18| November 26|

text: Detroit

text: Anthony Morrow

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 10–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19| November 28| @

text: New York

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Madison Square Garden

text: <br>19,812| 11–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| November 30|

text: Washington

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 12–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 4|

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 13–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 5| @

text: Atlanta

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Philips Arena

text: <br>14,654| 14–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 23| December 9|

text: Houston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 14–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 11|

text: Boston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 15–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 25| December 13| @

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Domantas Sabonis

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Moda Center

text: <br>19,505| 15–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 14| @

text: Utah

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Vivint Smart Home Arena

text: <br>19,911| 15–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 17|

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 16–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 28| December 19|

text: Atlanta

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 16–12|- style="background:#;"| 29| December 21| @

text: New Orleans

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 30| December 23| @

text: Boston

text: TD Garden

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 31| December 25|

text: Minnesota

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 32| December 27| @

text: Miami

text: American Airlines Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 33| December 29| @

text: Memphis

text: FedEx Forum

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 34| December 31|

text: L. A. Clippers

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 35| January 2| @

text: Milwaukee

text: BMO Harris Bradley Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 36| January 4| @

text: Charlotte

text: Time Warner Cable Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 37| January 5| @

text: Houston

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 38| January 7|

text: Denver

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 39| January 9 | @

text: Chicago

text: United Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 40| January 11|

text: Memphis

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 41| January 13| @

text: Minnesota

text: Target Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 42| January 15| @

text: Sacramento

text: Golden 1 Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 43| January 16| @

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Staples Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 44| January 18| @

text: Golden State

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 45| January 23| @

text: Utah

text: Vivint Smart Home Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 46| January 25| @

text: New Orleans

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 47| January 26|

text: Dallas

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>||-style="background:#;"|48|January 29|@

text: Cleveland

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>||-style="background:#;"|49|January 31|@

text: San Antonio

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>||- style="background:#;"| 50| February 1|

text: Chicago

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 51| February 3|

text: Memphis

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 52| February 5|

text: Portland

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 53| February 6| @

text: Indiana

text: Bankers Life Fieldhouse

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 54| February 9|

text: Cleveland

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 55| February 11|

text: Golden State

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 56| February 13| @

text: Washington

text: Verizon Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 57| February 15|

text: New York

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|

text: All-Star Break

text: |- style="background:#;"| 58| February 24|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 59| February 26|

text: New Orleans

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 60| February 28|

text: Utah

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 61| March 2| @

text: Portland

text: Moda Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 62| March 3| @

text: Phoenix

text: Talking Stick Resort Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 63| March 5| @

text: Dallas

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 64| March 7|

text: Portland

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 65| March 9|

text: San Antonio

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 66| March 11|

text: Utah

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 67| March 14| @

text: Brooklyn

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 68| March 16| @

text: Toronto

text: Air Canada Centre

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 69| March 18|

text: Sacramento

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 70| March 20|

text: Denver

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 71| March 22|

text: Philadelphia

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 72| March 26| @

text: Houston

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 73| March 27| @

text: Dallas

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 74| March 29| @

text: Orlando

text: Amway Center

text: <br>| |-style="background:#;"|75|March 31|

text: San Antonio

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>||- style="background:#;"| 76| April 2|

text: Charlotte

text: Charlotte Hornets

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 77| April 4|

text: Milwaukee

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 78| April 5| @

text: Memphis

text: FedEx Forum

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 79| April 7| @

text: Phoenix

text: Talking Stick Resort

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 80| April 9|  @

text: Denver

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>| |- style="background:#;"| 81| April 11| @

text: Minnesota

text: Target Center

text: <br>||- style="background:#;"| 82| April 12|

text: Denver

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>|

text: Climate engineering, commonly referred to as geoengineering, also known as climate intervention, is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth’s climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse climate change. Climate engineering is an umbrella term for two types of measures: carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of climate change by removing one of the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere. Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation.

text: Climate engineering, commonly referred to as geoengineering, also known as climate intervention, is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth’s

text: climatic system

text: with the aim of limiting adverse

text: climate change

text: . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for two types of measures:

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: and

text: solar radiation management

text: . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of

text: climate change

text: by removing one of the

text: greenhouse gases

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) from the

text: atmosphere

text: Earth

text: to absorb less

text: solar radiation

text: The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.

text: The

text: greenhouse effect

text: is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.

text: The terms ″sensible heat″ and ″latent heat″ are specific forms of energy;  they are two properties of a material or in a thermodynamic system. ″Sensible heat″ is a body's internal energy that may be ″sensed″ or felt. ″Latent heat″ is internal energy concerning the phase ( solid / liquid / gas ) of a material and does not affect the temperature.

text: The terms ″sensible heat″ and ″latent heat″ are specific forms of energy;  they are two properties of a material or in a thermodynamic system. ″Sensible heat″ is a body's

text: internal energy

text: that may be ″sensed″ or felt. ″Latent heat″ is internal energy concerning the phase ( solid / liquid / gas ) of a material and does not affect the temperature.

text: A Swedish scientist, Svante Arrhenius, used Langley's observations of increased infrared absorption where Moon rays pass through the atmosphere at a low angle, encountering more carbon dioxide (), to estimate an atmospheric cooling effect from a future decrease of .  He realized that the cooler atmosphere would hold less water vapor (another greenhouse gas) and calculated the additional cooling effect. He also realized the cooling would increase snow and ice cover at high latitudes, making the planet reflect more sunlight and thus further cool down, as James Croll had hypothesized. Overall Arrhenius calculated that cutting  in half would suffice to produce an ice age. He further calculated that a doubling of atmospheric  would give a total warming of 5-6 degrees Celsius.

text: A Swedish scientist,

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: , used Langley's observations of increased infrared absorption where Moon rays pass through the atmosphere at a low angle, encountering more

text: carbon dioxide

text: (), to estimate an atmospheric cooling effect from a future decrease of .  He realized that the cooler atmosphere would hold less water vapor (another

text: greenhouse gas

text: ) and calculated the additional cooling effect. He also realized the cooling would increase snow and ice cover at high latitudes, making the planet reflect more sunlight and thus further cool down, as

text: James Croll

text: had hypothesized. Overall Arrhenius calculated that cutting  in half would suffice to produce an ice age. He further calculated that a doubling of atmospheric  would give a total warming of 5-6 degrees Celsius.

text: The DF-21D reentry vehicle appears to bear similarities to the American Pershing II missile's RV, which was withdrawn from service in 1988. The Pershing II's RV weighed  and was fitted with four control fins to perform a 25-G pull-up after reentering the atmosphere, traveling at Mach 8 and then gliding  to the target to pitch into a terminal dive. Army training manuals about the missile are available on the internet and public open-source literature extensively describes it; the DF-21 has a comparable range and payload. Though much is made of the DF-21D's damage infliction ability based solely on velocity and kinetic energy, the Australian Strategic Policy Institute has calculated that the energy of an inert  RV impacting at Mach 6 had similar energy to the combined kinetic and explosive power of the American subsonic Harpoon anti-ship missile, which is one-quarter the energy of the Russian supersonic  Kh-22 missile traveling at Mach 4 with a  warhead.

text: The DF-21D reentry vehicle appears to bear similarities to the American

text: Pershing II

text: missile's RV, which was withdrawn from service in 1988. The Pershing II's RV weighed  and was fitted with four control fins to perform a 25-G pull-up after reentering the atmosphere, traveling at Mach 8 and then gliding  to the target to pitch into a terminal dive. Army training manuals about the missile are available on the internet and

text: public open-source literature

text: extensively describes it; the DF-21 has a comparable range and payload. Though much is made of the DF-21D's damage infliction ability based solely on velocity and kinetic energy, the

text: Australian Strategic Policy Institute

text: has calculated that the energy of an inert  RV impacting at Mach 6 had similar energy to the combined kinetic and explosive power of the American subsonic

text: Harpoon

text: anti-ship missile, which is one-quarter the energy of the Russian supersonic

text: missile traveling at Mach 4 with a  warhead.

text: The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.

text: The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over

text: historical

text: time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including

text: latitude

text: , altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as

text: plate tectonics

text: . Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the

text: thermohaline circulation

text: of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: compared to other ocean basins. Other

text: ocean current

text: s redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to

text: global warming

text: or

text: global cooling

text: . The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.

text: The tides form an important mechanism for transporting energy from the lower atmosphere into the upper atmosphere, while dominating the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere. Therefore, understanding the atmospheric tides is essential in understanding the atmosphere as a whole. Modeling and observations of atmospheric tides are needed in order to monitor and predict changes in the Earth's atmosphere (see ).

text: Anaerobic glycolysis is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen was at high concentration in the atmosphere and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production in cells.

text: When a high-energy particle from outer space ("primary" cosmic ray) encounters Earth, its first interaction is usually with an air molecule at an altitude of 30 km or so. This encounter causes the air molecule to split into smaller pieces, each having high energy. The smaller pieces are called "secondary" cosmic rays, and they in turn hit other air molecules resulting in more secondary cosmic rays. The process continues and is termed an "atmospheric cascade". If the primary cosmic ray that started the cascade has energy over 500 MeV, some of its secondary byproducts (including neutrons) will reach ground level where they can be detected by neutron monitors.

text: When a high-energy particle from outer space ("primary" cosmic ray) encounters Earth, its first interaction is usually with an air molecule at an altitude of 30 km or so. This encounter causes the air molecule to split into smaller pieces, each having high energy. The smaller pieces are called "secondary" cosmic rays, and they in turn hit other air molecules resulting in more secondary cosmic rays. The process continues and is termed an "atmospheric cascade". If the primary cosmic ray that started the cascade has energy over 500 MeV, some of its secondary byproducts (including

text: neutron

text: s) will reach ground level where they can be detected by neutron monitors.

text: Methane can be removed from the atmosphere through a reaction of the photochemically produced hydroxyl free radical (OH). It can also leave the atmosphere by entering the stratosphere, where it is destroyed, or by being absorbed into soil sinks. Because methane reacts fairly quickly with other compounds, it does not stay in the atmosphere as long as many other greenhouse gases, e.g. carbon dioxide. It has an atmospheric lifetime of about eight years. This keeps the concentration of methane in the atmosphere relatively low and is the reason that it currently plays a secondary role in the greenhouse effect to carbon dioxide, despite the fact that it produces a much more powerful greenhouse effect per volume.

text: Methane can be removed from the atmosphere through a reaction of the photochemically produced

text: hydroxyl

text: free radical (OH). It can also leave the atmosphere by entering the stratosphere, where it is destroyed, or by being absorbed into soil sinks. Because methane reacts fairly quickly with other compounds, it does not stay in the atmosphere as long as many other greenhouse gases, e.g. carbon dioxide. It has an atmospheric lifetime of about eight years. This keeps the concentration of methane in the atmosphere relatively low and is the reason that it currently plays a secondary role in the greenhouse effect to carbon dioxide, despite the fact that it produces a much more powerful greenhouse effect per volume.

text: Earth's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun.  Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space, and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth's climate system.  This system is made up of earth's water, ice, atmosphere, rocky crust, and all living things.

text: Earth's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun.  Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into

text: outer space

text: , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth's

text: climate system

text: .  This system is made up of earth's

text: water

text: ice

text: atmosphere

text: rocky crust

text: , and all

text: living things

text: Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.

text: Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is

text: atmospheric circulation

text: that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.

text: Full-spectrum light is light that covers the electromagnetic spectrum from infrared to near-ultraviolet, or all wavelengths that are useful to plant or animal life; in particular, sunlight is considered full spectrum, even though the solar spectral distribution reaching Earth changes with time of day, latitude, and atmospheric conditions.

text: Full-spectrum light is light that covers the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: from

text: infrared

text: to near-

text: ultraviolet

text: , or all wavelengths that are useful to plant or animal life; in particular,

text: sunlight

text: is considered full spectrum, even though the solar spectral distribution reaching Earth changes with time of day, latitude, and atmospheric conditions.

text: Delta Scuti stars exhibit both radial and non-radial luminosity pulsations. Non-radial pulsations are when some parts of the surface move inwards and some outward at the same time. Radial pulsations are a special case, where the star expands and contracts around its equilibrium state by altering the radius to maintain its spherical shape. The variations are due to the swelling and shrinking of the star through the Eddington Valve (or Kappa) Mechanism. The stars have a helium rich atmosphere. As helium is heated it becomes more ionised, which is more opaque.  So at the dimmest part in the cycle the star has highly ionised opaque helium in its atmosphere blocking part of the light from escaping. The energy from this “blocked light” causes the helium to heat up, expand, ionise, become more transparent and therefore allow more light through. As more light is let through the star appears brighter and, with the expansion, the helium begins to cool down. Hence the helium contracts and heats up again and the cyclical process continues.  Throughout their lifetime Delta Scuti stars exhibit pulsation when they are situated on the classical Cepheid instability strip. They then move across from the main sequence into the giant branch.

text: AIRS measures the infrared brightness coming up from Earth's surface and from the atmosphere. Its scan mirror rotates around an axis along the line of flight and directs infrared energy from the Earth into the instrument. As the spacecraft moves along, this mirror sweeps the ground creating a scan swath that extends roughly 800 kilometers on either side of the ground track. Within the instrument, an advanced, high-resolution spectrometer separates the infrared energy into wavelengths.

text: AIRS measures the

text: infrared

text: brightness coming up from Earth's surface and from the atmosphere. Its scan mirror rotates around an axis along the line of flight and directs infrared energy from the Earth into the instrument. As the spacecraft moves along, this mirror sweeps the ground creating a scan swath that extends roughly 800 kilometers on either side of the

text: ground track

text: . Within the instrument, an advanced, high-resolution

text: spectrometer

text: separates the

text: infrared

text: energy into

text: wavelength

text: s.

text: Both sensible and latent heats are observed in many processes of transport of energy in nature. changes of Latent heat is associated with the change of phase of atmospheric water,  vaporization and condensation, whereas sensible heat is energy that reflects the temperature of the atmosphere or ocean, or ice.

text: Both sensible and latent heats are observed in many processes of transport of energy in nature. changes of Latent heat is associated with the change of phase of atmospheric water,

text: vaporization

text: and

text: condensation

text: , whereas sensible heat is energy that reflects the temperature of the atmosphere or ocean, or ice.

text: Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved , forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O into O. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C, in contrast to the current +15 °C, and life would likely not exist.

text: Earth's

text: biosphere

text: has significantly altered its

text: atmosphere

text: Oxygenic photosynthesis

text: evolved ,

text: forming

text: the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the proliferation of

text: aerobic organisms

text: and, indirectly, the formation of the

text: ozone layer

text: due to the subsequent

text: conversion of atmospheric O into O

text: . The ozone layer blocks

text: ultraviolet

text: solar radiation

text: , permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small

text: meteor

text: s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is known as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: : trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture

text: thermal energy

text: emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide,

text: methane

text: , and

text: ozone

text: are the primary

text: greenhouse gas

text: es in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C, in contrast to the current +15 °C, and life would likely not exist.

text: Ecological energetics- Electric potential energy- Electrochemical energy conversion- Embodied energy- Encircled energy- Energy- Energy accidents- Energy accounting- Energy amplifier- Energy analyser- Energy applications of nanotechnology- Energy balance (biology)- Energy bar- Energy barrier- Energy being- Energy carrier- Energy Catalyzer- Energy cell- Energy charge- Energy conservation- Energy conversion efficiency- Energy crop- Energy current- Energy density- Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel- Energy development- Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy- Energy distance- Energy drift- Energy drink- Energy efficiency gap- Energy-Efficient Ethernet- Energy-efficient landscaping- Energy elasticity- Energy engineering- Energy (esotericism)- Energy expenditure- Energy factor- Energy field disturbance- Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy- Energy transfer- Energy flow (ecology)- Energy flux- Energy forestry- Energy functional- Energy gel- Energy harvesting- Energy input labeling- Energy landscape- Energy level- Energy level splitting- Energy management software- Energy management system- Energy–maneuverability theory- Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc- Energy medicine- Energy–momentum relation- Energy monitoring and targeting- Energy Probe- Energy profile (chemistry)- Energy quality- Energy recovery ventilation- Energy security- Energy (signal processing)- Energy Slave- Energy Star- Energy statistics- Energy Storage Challenge- Energy storage- Energy system- Energy technology- Energy tower (downdraft)- Energy transfer- Energy transfer upconversion- Energy transformation- Energy value of coal- Energy vortex (stargate)- Enthalpy- Entropy- Equipartition theorem- E-statistic- Exertion

text: Ecological energetics

text: Electric potential energy

text: Electrochemical energy conversion

text: Embodied energy

text: Encircled energy

text: Energy

text: Energy accidents

text: Energy accounting

text: Energy amplifier

text: Energy analyser

text: Energy applications of nanotechnology

text: Energy balance (biology)

text: Energy bar

text: Energy barrier

text: Energy being

text: Energy carrier

text: Energy Catalyzer

text: Energy cell

text: Energy charge

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy conversion efficiency

text: Energy crop

text: Energy current

text: Energy density

entity_name: Energy–depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy development

text: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Energy distance

text: Energy drift

text: Energy drink

text: Energy efficiency gap

text: Energy-Efficient Ethernet

text: Energy-efficient landscaping

text: Energy elasticity

text: Energy engineering

text: Energy (esotericism)

text: Energy expenditure

text: Energy factor

text: Energy field disturbance

entity_name: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Energy flux

text: Energy forestry

text: Energy functional

text: Energy gel

text: Energy harvesting

text: Energy input labeling

text: Energy landscape

text: Energy level

text: Energy level splitting

text: Energy management software

text: Energy management system

text: Energy–maneuverability theory

text: Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc

text: Energy medicine

text: Energy–momentum relation

text: Energy monitoring and targeting

text: Energy Probe

text: Energy profile (chemistry)

text: Energy quality

text: Energy recovery ventilation

text: Energy security

text: Energy (signal processing)

text: Energy Slave

text: Energy Star

text: Energy statistics

text: Energy Storage Challenge

text: Energy storage

text: Energy system

text: Energy technology

text: Energy tower (downdraft)

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy transfer upconversion

text: Energy transformation

text: Energy value of coal

text: Energy vortex (stargate)

text: Enthalpy

text: Entropy

text: Equipartition theorem

text: E-statistic

text: Exertion

text: Absorption bands in the infrared are due to modes of vibrational excitation in water vapor. However, at energies too low to excite water vapor, the atmosphere becomes transparent again, allowing free transmission of most microwave and radio waves.

text: All forms of energy are either potential energy (e.g. Chemical, gravitational, electrical energy, temperature differential, latent heat, etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. momentum). Some technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others can be very long-term such as power to gas using hydrogen or methane and the storage of heat or cold between opposing seasons in deep aquifers or bedrock.  A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Ice storage tanks store ice (thermal energy in the form of latent heat) at night to meet peak demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Even food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.

text: All forms of energy are either

text: potential energy

text: (e.g.

text: Chemical

text: gravitation

text: al,

text: electrical energy

text: , temperature differential,

text: latent heat

text: , etc.) or

text: kinetic energy

text: (e.g.

text: momentum

text: ). Some technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others can be very long-term such as

text: power to gas

text: using

text: hydrogen

text: or

text: methane

text: and the

text: storage of heat or cold between opposing seasons

text: in deep aquifers or bedrock.  A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a

text: battery

text: stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a

text: hydroelectric

text: dam stores

text: energy

text: in a

text: reservoir

text: as gravitational

text: potential energy

text: Ice storage

text: tanks store ice (

text: thermal energy

text: in the form of latent heat) at night to meet peak demand for cooling.

text: Fossil fuel

text: s such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Even

text: food

text: (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in

text: chemical

text: form.

text: This is an F-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of F2 V, where the luminosity class V indicates that it is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of hydrogen at its core. It is slightly larger than the Sun, with 108% of the Sun's mass and 139% of the Sun's radius. HD 49933 emits 3.47 times as much energy as the Sun from its outer atmosphere at a higher effective temperature of about 6,598 K, giving it the yellow-white hue of an F-type star. It is estimated to be 2.4 billion years old.

text: This is an

text: F-type main sequence star

text: with a

text: stellar classification

text: of F2 V, where the

text: luminosity class

text: V indicates that it is generating energy through the

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen at its core. It is slightly larger than the Sun, with 108% of the

text: Sun's mass

text: and 139% of the

text: Sun's radius

text: . HD 49933 emits 3.47 times as much

text: energy

text: as the Sun from its

text: outer atmosphere

text: at a higher

text: effective temperature

text: of about 6,598 K, giving it the yellow-white hue of an

text: F-type star

text: . It is estimated to be 2.4 billion years old.

text: Hansen was invited to testify before the United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources on June 23, 1988. Hansen testified that "Global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and observed warming...It is already happening now" and "The greenhouse effect has been detected and it is changing our climate now...We already reached the point where the greenhouse effect is important." Hansen said that NASA was 99% confident that the warming was caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and not a random fluctuation.

text: Hansen was invited to testify before the

entity_name: United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

text: United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

text: on June 23, 1988. Hansen testified that "Global warming has reached a level such that we can ascribe with a high degree of confidence a cause and effect relationship between the greenhouse effect and observed warming...It is already happening now" and "The greenhouse effect has been detected and it is changing our climate now...We already reached the point where the greenhouse effect is important." Hansen said that NASA was 99% confident that the warming was caused by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and not a random fluctuation.

text: Thomson scattering is the result of a collision between a photon (an electromagnetic wave) and a charged particle, such as an electron. When an electron and photon "collide" the electron feels a Lorentz force from the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of the photon and is accelerated. This acceleration causes the electron to emit a different photon in a different direction. This emitted photon has a wavelength shifted from that of the incident photon by an amount dependent on the electron energy. Another way of looking at this is that the electron absorbs the energy of the photon and re emits the energy in the form of a different electromagnetic wave. This scattering of a photon by an electron is called Thomson Scattering.

text: Mechanical resonators work by transferring energy repeatedly from kinetic to potential form and back again. In the pendulum, for example, all the energy is stored as gravitational energy (a form of potential energy) when the bob is instantaneously motionless at the top of its swing. This energy is proportional to both the mass of the bob and its height above the lowest point. As the bob descends and picks up speed, its potential energy is gradually converted to kinetic energy (energy of movement), which is proportional to the bob's mass and to the square of its speed. When the bob is at the bottom of its travel, it has maximum kinetic energy and minimum potential energy. The same process then happens in reverse as the bob climbs towards the top of its swing.

text: Mechanical resonators work by transferring energy repeatedly from

text: kinetic

text: to

text: potential

text: form and back again. In the pendulum, for example, all the energy is stored as

text: gravitational

text: energy (a form of potential energy) when the bob is instantaneously motionless at the top of its swing. This energy is proportional to both the mass of the

text: bob

text: and its height above the lowest point. As the bob descends and picks up speed, its potential energy is gradually converted to kinetic energy (energy of movement), which is proportional to the bob's mass and to the square of its speed. When the bob is at the bottom of its travel, it has maximum kinetic energy and minimum potential energy. The same process then happens in reverse as the bob climbs towards the top of its swing.

text: The Ultra beings' main weakness is that they can only stay on Earth in giant form for a limited span of time, usually not longer than three minutes, owing to a limited supply of energy (Earth's atmosphere filters out solar energy). This is marked by a light on the character's body usually called the Color Timer, or "warning light," which eventually begins to blink with increasing frequency as his energy supply dwindles (and turns from blue to red). At this stage, the Ultra beings must either find a way to recharge or finish the fight as soon as possible, or involuntarily revert to human form, or worse, risk certain death. Some say another reason for Ultraman to recharge is because the Earth is badly polluted by humans, so Ultraman only has three minutes on Earth, but can survive long enough in outer space. The time limit only happens inside the Earth's atmosphere but they have none of those setbacks outside. To counter this, Ultramen almost always merge with a human host or create a human form for themselves in order to survive on Earth, more often than not reviving a recently dead person with their own lifeforce. In other cases a large enough amount of energy can be utilized to bring them back to life, usually provided by their human allies, even after being completely destroyed, as was the case with Mebius' death at the hands of Empira, only to be revived shortly thereafter by the life energy of his allies.

text: Another type of indirect WIMP signal could come from the Sun. Halo WIMPs may, as they pass through the Sun, interact with solar protons, helium nuclei as well as heavier elements. If a WIMP loses enough energy in such an interaction to fall below the local escape velocity, it would not have enough energy to escape the gravitational pull of the Sun and would remain gravitationally bound. As more and more WIMPs thermalize inside the Sun, they begin to annihilate with each other, forming a variety of particles, including high-energy neutrinos.These neutrinos may then travel to the Earth to be detected in one of the many neutrino telescopes, such as the Super-Kamiokande detector in Japan. The number of neutrino events detected per day at these detectors depends on the properties of the WIMP, as well as on the mass of the Higgs boson. Similar experiments are underway to detect neutrinos from WIMP annihilations within the Earth and from within the galactic center.

text: Another type of indirect WIMP signal could come from the Sun. Halo WIMPs may, as they pass through the Sun, interact with solar protons, helium nuclei as well as heavier elements. If a WIMP loses enough energy in such an interaction to fall below the local

text: escape velocity

text: , it would not have enough energy to escape the gravitational pull of the Sun and would remain gravitationally bound. As more and more WIMPs thermalize inside the Sun, they begin to

text: annihilate

text: with each other, forming a variety of particles, including high-energy

text: neutrino

text: s.These neutrinos may then travel to the Earth to be detected in one of the many neutrino telescopes, such as the

text: Super-Kamiokande

text: detector in Japan. The number of neutrino events detected per day at these detectors depends on the properties of the WIMP, as well as on the mass of the

text: Higgs boson

text: . Similar experiments are underway to detect neutrinos from WIMP annihilations within the Earth and from within the galactic center.

text: Longwave radiation typically refers to radiation in the spectral region from 3 to 100 microns.  In the Earth’s climate system, longwave radiation involves processes of absorption, scattering, and emissions from atmospheric gases, aerosols, clouds and the surface.   Measuring outgoing longwave radiation at the top of atmosphere and downwelling longwave radiation at the surface are important for understanding how much radiative energy is kept in our climate system, how much reaches and warms the surface, and how the energy in the atmosphere is distributed to affect developments of clouds.

text: The major atmospheric gases (oxygen and nitrogen) are transparent to incoming sunlight but are also transparent to outgoing thermal (infrared) radiation. However, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and other trace gases are opaque to many wavelengths of thermal radiation. The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent of the incoming solar energy in the form of thermal infrared. However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12 percent of incoming solar energy. The remaining fraction, 5 to 6 percent, is absorbed by the atmosphere by greenhouse gas molecules.

text: The major

text: atmospheric

text: gases (

text: oxygen

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: ) are transparent to incoming sunlight but are also transparent to outgoing thermal (

text: infrared

text: ) radiation. However,

text: water vapor

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: and other trace gases are opaque to many

text: wavelength

text: s of thermal radiation. The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent of the incoming

text: solar energy

text: in the form of thermal infrared. However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12 percent of incoming solar energy. The remaining fraction, 5 to 6 percent, is absorbed by the atmosphere by

text: greenhouse gas

text: molecule

text: s.

text: Water vapor is a greenhouse gas in the Earth's atmosphere, responsible for 70% of the known absorption of incoming sunlight, particularly in the infrared region, and about 60% of the atmospheric absorption of thermal radiation by the Earth known as the greenhouse effect. It is also an important factor in multispectral imaging and hyperspectral imaging used in remote sensing because water vapor absorbs radiation differently in different spectral bands. Its effects are also an important consideration in infrared astronomy and radio astronomy in the microwave or millimeter wave bands. The South Pole Telescope was constructed in Antarctica in part because the elevation and low temperatures there mean there is very little water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: Water vapor is a

text: greenhouse gas

text: in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , responsible for 70% of the known absorption of incoming

text: sunlight

text: , particularly in the infrared region, and about 60% of the atmospheric absorption of

text: thermal radiation

text: by the Earth known as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . It is also an important factor in

text: multispectral imaging

text: and

text: hyperspectral imaging

text: used in

text: remote sensing

text: because water vapor absorbs radiation differently in different spectral bands. Its effects are also an important consideration in

text: infrared astronomy

text: and

text: radio astronomy

text: in the

text: microwave

text: or

text: millimeter wave

text: bands. The

text: South Pole Telescope

text: was constructed in

text: Antarctica

text: in part because the elevation and low temperatures there mean there is very little water vapor in the atmosphere.

text: The Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Sciences – 3 (ATLAS-03) was the primary payload aboard STS-66. It continued the series of Spacelab flights to study the energy of the sun and how it affects the Earth's climate and environment. The ATLAS-03 mission made the first detailed measurements from the Shuttle of the Northern Hemisphere's middle atmosphere in late fall. The timing of the flight, when the Antarctic ozone hole is diminishing, allowed scientists to study possible effects of the ozone hole on mid-latitudes, the way Antarctic air recovers, and how the northern atmosphere changes as the winter season approaches.

text: The Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Sciences – 3 (ATLAS-03) was the primary payload aboard STS-66. It continued the series of Spacelab flights to study the energy of the sun and how it affects the Earth's climate and environment. The ATLAS-03 mission made the first detailed measurements from the Shuttle of the Northern Hemisphere's middle atmosphere in late fall. The timing of the flight, when the

text: Antarctic

text: ozone

text: hole is diminishing, allowed scientists to study possible effects of the ozone hole on mid-latitudes, the way

text: Antarctic

text: air recovers, and how the northern atmosphere changes as the winter season approaches.

text: There are 4 states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Plasmas make up more than 99% of the visible universe. In general, when energy is applied to a gas, internal electrons of gas molecules (atoms) are excited and  move up to higher energy levels. If the energy applied is high enough, outermost electron(s) can even be stripped off the molecules (atoms), forming ions. Electrons, molecules (atoms), excited species and ions form a soup of species which involves many interactions between species and demonstrate collective behavior under the influence of external electric and magnetic fields. Light always accompanies plasmas: as the excited species relax and move to lower energy levels, energy is released in the form of light. Microplasma is a subdivision of plasma in which the dimensions of the plasma can range between tens, hundreds, or even thousands of micrometers in size. The majority of microplasmas that are employed in commercial applications are cold plasmas. In a cold plasma, electrons have much higher energy than the accompanying ions and neutrals. Microplasmas are typically generated at elevated pressure to atmospheric pressure or higher.

text: There are 4 states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and

text: plasma

text: . Plasmas make up more than 99% of the visible universe. In general, when energy is applied to a gas, internal electrons of gas molecules (atoms) are excited and  move up to higher energy levels. If the energy applied is high enough, outermost electron(s) can even be stripped off the molecules (atoms), forming ions. Electrons, molecules (atoms), excited species and ions form a soup of species which involves many interactions between species and demonstrate collective behavior under the influence of external electric and magnetic fields. Light always accompanies plasmas: as the excited species relax and move to lower energy levels, energy is released in the form of light. Microplasma is a subdivision of plasma in which the dimensions of the plasma can range between tens, hundreds, or even thousands of micrometers in size. The majority of microplasmas that are employed in commercial applications are

text: cold plasma

text: s. In a cold plasma, electrons have much higher energy than the accompanying ions and neutrals. Microplasmas are typically generated at elevated pressure to atmospheric pressure or higher.

text: Within this third generation of models, the spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean.  Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: whitecaps

text: and

text: resonance

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: The solar wind is a stream of plasma released from the Sun's upper atmosphere. It consists of mostly electrons and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10 keV. The stream of particles varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar longitude. These particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy.

text: The solar wind is a stream of plasma released from the Sun's

text: upper atmosphere

text: . It consists of mostly

text: electron

text: s and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10

text: keV

text: . The stream of particles varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar longitude. These particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy.

text: Quasars show a very high redshift, which is an effect of the metric expansion of space between the quasar and the Earth. When the observed redshift of quasars is interpreted in terms of Hubble's law, it is inferred that quasars are very distant objects. Quasars inhabit the very center of active, young galaxies, and are among the most luminous, powerful, and energetic objects known in the universe, emitting up to a thousand times the energy output of the Milky Way, which contains 200–400 billion stars. This radiation is emitted across the electromagnetic spectrum, almost uniformly, from X-rays to the far-infrared with a peak in the ultraviolet-optical bands, with some quasars also being strong sources of radio emission and of gamma-rays.

text: Quasars show a very high

text: redshift

text: , which is an effect of the

text: metric expansion of space

text: between the quasar and the

text: Earth

text: . When the observed redshift of quasars is interpreted in terms of

text: Hubble's law

text: , it is inferred that quasars are very distant objects. Quasars inhabit the very center of active, young galaxies, and are among the most luminous, powerful, and energetic objects known in the universe, emitting up to a thousand times the energy output of the

text: Milky Way

text: , which contains 200–400 billion stars. This radiation is emitted across the electromagnetic spectrum, almost uniformly, from X-rays to the far-infrared with a peak in the ultraviolet-optical bands, with some quasars also being strong sources of radio emission and of gamma-rays.

text: The word Agni is used in many contexts, ranging from the fire in stomach, the cooking fire in a home, the sacrificial fire in an altar, the fire of cremation, the fire of rebirth, the fire in the energetic saps concealed within plants, the atmospheric fire in lightning and the celestial fire in the sun. In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, all concepts of spiritual energy that permeates everything in the universe. In the Upanishads and post-Vedic literature, Agni additionally became a metaphor for immortal principle in man, and any energy or knowledge that consumes and dispels a state of darkness, transforms and procreates an enlightened state of existence.

text: The word Agni is used in many contexts, ranging from the fire in stomach, the cooking fire in a home, the sacrificial fire in an altar, the fire of cremation, the fire of rebirth, the fire in the energetic saps concealed within plants, the atmospheric fire in lightning and the celestial fire in the sun. In the

text: Brahmana

text: s layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, all concepts of spiritual energy that permeates everything in the universe. In the Upanishads and post-Vedic literature, Agni additionally became a metaphor for immortal principle in man, and any energy or knowledge that consumes and dispels a state of darkness, transforms and procreates an enlightened state of existence.

text: has been detected in two types of celestial environments: Jovian planets and interstellar clouds. In Jovian planets, it has been detected in the planet’s ionospheres, the region where the Sun’s high energy radiation ionizes the particles in the atmosphere. Since there is a high level of H in these atmospheres, this radiation can produce a significant amount of . Also, with a broadband source like the Sun, there is plenty of radiation to pump the  to higher energy states from which it can relax by stimulated and spontaneous emission.

text: Lambda Serpentis (λ Ser, λ Serpentis) is a star in the constellation Serpens, in its head (Serpens Caput). It has an apparent visual magnitude of 4.43, making it visible to the naked eye. Based upon parallax measurements from the Hipparcos satellite, this star lies at a distance of about  from Earth. This star is larger and more massive than the Sun, although it has a similar stellar classification. It is shining with nearly double the Sun's luminosity and this energy is being radiated from the star's outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 5,884 K.

text: Lambda Serpentis (λ Ser, λ Serpentis) is a

text: star

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Serpens

text: , in its head (Serpens Caput). It has an

text: apparent visual magnitude

text: of 4.43, making it visible to the naked eye. Based upon

text: parallax

text: measurements from the

text: Hipparcos

text: satellite, this star lies at a distance of about  from

text: Earth

text: . This star is larger and more massive than the Sun, although it has a similar

text: stellar classification

text: . It is shining with nearly double the Sun's luminosity and this energy is being radiated from the star's outer atmosphere at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5,884 K.

text: The efficiency of the solar cells used in a photovoltaic system, in combination with latitude and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m will produce 200 W at Standard Test Conditions, but it can produce more when the sun is high in the sky and will produce less in cloudy conditions and when the sun is low in the sky. In central Colorado, which receives annual insolation of 5.5 kWh/m/day, such a panel can be expected to produce 440 kWh of energy per year. However, in Michigan, which receives only 3.8 kWh/m/day, annual energy yield will drop to 280 kWh for the same panel. At more northerly European latitudes, yields are significantly lower: 175 kWh annual energy yield in southern England.

text: The efficiency of the solar cells used in a

text: photovoltaic system

text: , in combination with latitude and climate, determines the annual energy output of the system. For example, a solar panel with 20% efficiency and an area of 1 m will produce 200 W at Standard Test Conditions, but it can produce more when the sun is high in the sky and will produce less in cloudy conditions and when the sun is low in the sky. In central Colorado, which receives annual

text: insolation

text: of 5.5 kWh/m/day, such a panel can be expected to produce 440

text: kWh

text: of energy per year. However, in Michigan, which receives only 3.8 kWh/m/day, annual energy yield will drop to 280 kWh for the same panel. At more northerly European latitudes, yields are significantly lower: 175 kWh annual energy yield in southern England.

text: Our main source of information about celestial bodies and other objects is visible light more generally electromagnetic radiation. Observational astronomy may be divided according to the observed region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere. Specific information on these subfields is given below.

text: Our main source of information about

text: celestial bodies

text: and other objects is visible

text: light

text: more generally

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: . Observational astronomy may be divided according to the observed region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the

text: Earth

text: 's surface, while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth's atmosphere. Specific information on these subfields is given below.

text: Education for Sustainable Development- Effective Cycling- Effective population size- Effects of global warming- Effects of the automobile on societies- Efficient energy use- Effluent- Electric bicycle laws- Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms- Electricity meter- Electromagnetic environment- Electromagnetic interference control- Electromagnetic radiation- Electronic pest control- Electronic Road Pricing- Electronic waste- Electronic Waste Recycling Act- Electronic Waste Recycling Fee- Electrosmog- Electrostatic precipitator- Elephant Sanctuary, Hohenwald- Emission factor- Emission Reduction Unit- Emission standard- Emission trading- Emissions trading- Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential- Endangered Australian fauna- Endangered species- Endangered Species Act- Energy Action Coalition- Energy and Environmental Research Center- Energy conservation- Energy conversion- Energy demand management- Energy economics- Energy-efficient landscaping- Efficient energy use- Energy harvesting- Energy Hog- Energy Information Administration- Energy intensity- Energy management system- Energy Star- Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom- English Nature

text: Education for Sustainable Development

text: Effective Cycling

text: Effective population size

text: Effects of global warming

text: Effects of the automobile on societies

text: Efficient energy use

text: Effluent

text: Electric bicycle laws

entity_name: Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms

text: Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms

text: Electricity meter

text: Electromagnetic environment

text: Electromagnetic interference control

text: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Electronic pest control

text: Electronic Road Pricing

text: Electronic waste

text: Electronic Waste Recycling Act

text: Electronic Waste Recycling Fee

text: Electrosmog

text: Electrostatic precipitator

text: Elephant Sanctuary, Hohenwald

text: Emission factor

text: Emission Reduction Unit

text: Emission standard

text: Emission trading

text: Emissions trading

entity_name: Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential

text: Encyclopedia of World Problems and Human Potential

text: Endangered Australian fauna

text: Endangered species

text: Endangered Species Act

text: Energy Action Coalition

entity_name: Energy and Environmental Research Center

text: Energy and Environmental Research Center

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy conversion

text: Energy demand management

text: Energy economics

text: Energy-efficient landscaping

text: Efficient energy use

text: Energy harvesting

text: Energy Hog

text: Energy Information Administration

text: Energy intensity

text: Energy management system

text: Energy Star

text: Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom

text: English Nature

text: The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.

text: The

text: Earth

text: has a limited though renewable

text: supply of fresh water

text: , stored in

text: aquifer

text: s,

text: surface water

text: s and the

text: atmosphere

text: Ocean

text: s are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert

text: saline water

text: to

text: potable water

text: is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from

text: desalination

text: . However, modern technologies, such as the

text: Seawater Greenhouse

text: , use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.

text: Terraforming Mars would entail three major interlaced changes: building up the magnetosphere, building up the atmosphere, and raising the temperature. The atmosphere of Mars is relatively thin and has a very low surface pressure. Because its atmosphere consists mainly of , a known greenhouse gas, once Mars begins to heat, the  may help to keep thermal energy near the surface. Moreover, as it heats, more  should enter the atmosphere from the frozen reserves on the poles, enhancing the greenhouse effect. This means that the two processes of building the atmosphere and heating it would augment one another, favoring terraforming. It will be difficult keeping the atmosphere together, due to lack of a global magnetic field.

text: Terraforming Mars would entail three major interlaced changes: building up the magnetosphere, building up the atmosphere, and raising the temperature. The atmosphere of Mars is relatively thin and has a very low surface pressure. Because its atmosphere consists mainly of , a known

text: greenhouse gas

text: , once Mars begins to heat, the  may help to keep

text: thermal energy

text: near the surface. Moreover, as it heats, more  should enter the atmosphere from the frozen reserves on the poles, enhancing the greenhouse effect. This means that the two processes of building the atmosphere and heating it would augment one another, favoring terraforming. It will be difficult keeping the atmosphere together, due to lack of a global magnetic field.

text: Gamma rays, X-rays, and the higher ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing, whereas the lower ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and also the lower part of the spectrum below UV, including visible light (including nearly all types of laser light), infrared, microwaves, and radio waves are all considered non-ionizing radiation. The boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation that occurs in the ultraviolet is not sharply defined, since different molecules and atoms ionize at different energies. Conventional definition places the boundary at a photon energy between 10 eV and 33 eV in the ultraviolet (see definition boundary section below).

text: Gamma ray

text: s,

text: X-rays

text: , and the higher

text: ultraviolet

text: part of the electromagnetic spectrum are ionizing, whereas the lower

text: ultraviolet

text: part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and also the lower part of the spectrum below UV, including visible

text: light

text: (including nearly all types of

text: laser

text: light),

text: infrared

text: microwave

text: s, and

text: radio wave

text: s are all considered

text: non-ionizing radiation

text: . The boundary between ionizing and non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation that occurs in the ultraviolet is not sharply defined, since different molecules and atoms ionize at

text: different energies

text: . Conventional definition places the boundary at a

text: photon energy

text: between 10

text: eV

text: and 33 eV in the ultraviolet (see

entity_section: Definition boundary for lower-energy photons

text: definition boundary

text: section below).

text: After a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor acts as a substance (or insulator) that decreases the ability of the cloud to discharge its electrical energy. Over a certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store more static electricity, the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down from the stored electrical potential energy. This energy will be released to a locally, oppositely charged region in the form of lightning. The strength of each discharge is directly related to the atmospheric permittivity, capacitance, and the source's charge generating ability.

text: After a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor acts as a substance (or

text: insulator

text: ) that decreases the ability of the cloud to

text: discharge

text: its electrical energy. Over a certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store more

text: static electricity

text: , the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down from the stored electrical potential energy. This energy will be released to a locally, oppositely charged region in the form of lightning. The strength of each discharge is directly related to the atmospheric permittivity, capacitance, and the source's charge generating ability.

text: The exuding energy of the sun brings life and growth, radiating with integrity, courage and steadfastness.

text: Customers such as Bill Bean are well aware of when the energy in a business is negative. In an article, he wrote for “The Recorder” he talked about how when he usually visits Ontario Ministry of Health the atmosphere is very dark and cold. On his last visit, the team excitedly welcomed him into the office to renew his Ontario Health Card. The sudden change in the attitude of the staff was all thanks to the implementation of the fish philosophy in day-to-day operations of the business.

text: The guardian of the UK's electromagnetic spectrum is the communications regulator, Ofcom.

text: The guardian of the UK's

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: is the communications regulator,

text: Ofcom

text: The energy of the nucleus is negative with regard to the energy of the particles pulled apart to infinite distance (just like the gravitational energy of planets of the solar system), because energy must be utilized to split a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons. Mass spectrometers have measured the masses of nuclei, which are always less than the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons that form them, and the difference—by the formula E = m c—gives the binding energy of the nucleus.

text: The energy of the nucleus is negative with regard to the energy of the particles pulled apart to infinite distance (just like the gravitational energy of planets of the solar system), because energy must be utilized to split a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons.

text: Mass spectrometers

text: have measured the masses of nuclei, which are always less than the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons that form them, and the difference—by the formula E = m c—gives the binding energy of the nucleus.

text: Significantly, it also carried Verner Suomi's flat-plate radiometer, improved with the help of Robert Parent, that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate. Using both satellite observations of the Earth's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes, Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.  These observations established that Earth’s energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds, the surface albedo, and other absorbing constituents.  Using these instruments, Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget.

text: Significantly, it also carried

text: Verner Suomi

text: 's flat-plate

text: radiometer

text: , improved with the help of

text: Robert Parent

text: , that took the first

text: Earth radiation budget

text: measurements from

text: space

text: and initiated the era of

text: satellite

text: studies of the

text: climate

text: . Using both satellite observations of the Earth's heat balance and

text: atmospheric

text: cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes, Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy.  These observations established that Earth’s energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds, the surface albedo, and other absorbing constituents.  Using these instruments, Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget.

text: Early anthropocene -Earth Hour -Earth's atmosphere -Earth's energy budget -EarthLab -Earthshine -East Antarctic Ice Sheet -Eco-efficiency -Ecological Forecasting -Ecotax -Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity -Effects of climate change on marine mammals -Effects of global warming on oceans -Effects of global warming - Effects of global warming on Australia - Effects of global warming on India -Efficient energy use -El Niño (ENSO) -Emission inventory -Emission Reduction Unit -Emission standards -Emissions trading -Energie-Cités -Energy Autonomy -Energy conservation -Energy forestry -Energy poverty -Enteric fermentation -Environmental crime -Environmental impact of aviation -Environmental skepticism -European Climate Forum -Evidence of global warming - Externality

text: Early anthropocene

text: Earth Hour

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: Earth's energy budget

text: EarthLab

text: Earthshine

text: East Antarctic Ice Sheet

text: Eco-efficiency

text: Ecological Forecasting

text: Ecotax

entity_name: Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity

text: Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity

entity_name: Effects of global warming on marine mammals

text: Effects of climate change on marine mammals

text: Effects of global warming on oceans

text: Effects of global warming

text: Effects of global warming on Australia

text: Effects of global warming on India

text: Efficient energy use

text: El Niño

text: (ENSO) -

text: Emission inventory

text: Emission Reduction Unit

text: Emission standards

text: Emissions trading

text: Energie-Cités

entity_name: Energy Autonomy: The Economic, Social & Technological Case for Renewable Energy

text: Energy Autonomy

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy forestry

text: Energy poverty

text: Enteric fermentation

text: Environmental crime

text: Environmental impact of aviation

text: Environmental skepticism

text: European Climate Forum

text: Evidence of global warming

text: Externality

text: Primary energy is the amount of extractable energy present in fuels as they are found in nature. It is often expressed in tonnes of oil equivalent (toe) or watt-hour (Wh). Unless stated otherwise the lower heating value is used in the remainder of this text. A portion of primary energy is converted into other forms before it is used, depending on the energy conversion efficiency of the installation and method employed this number differs significantly from the final energy as consumed by end users.

text: Primary energy

text: is the amount of extractable energy present in fuels as they are found in nature. It is often expressed in

text: tonnes of oil equivalent

text: (toe) or

text: watt-hour

text: (Wh). Unless stated otherwise the

text: lower heating value

text: is used in the remainder of this text. A portion of primary energy is converted into other forms before it is used, depending on the

text: energy conversion efficiency

text: of the installation and method employed this number differs significantly from the final energy as consumed by end users.

text: Although the solar corona is a source of extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, these rays make up only a very small amount of the power output of the Sun (see spectrum at right). The spectrum of nearly all solar electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere spans a range of 100 nm to about 1 mm (1,000,000 nm). This band of significant radiation power can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths:

text: Although the solar

text: corona

text: is a source of

text: extreme ultraviolet

text: and X-ray radiation, these rays make up only a very small amount of the power output of the Sun (see spectrum at right). The spectrum of nearly all solar

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: striking the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: spans a range of 100

text: nm

text: to about 1

text: mm

text: (1,000,000 nm). This band of significant radiation power can be divided into five regions in increasing order of

text: wavelength

text: s:

text: Tesla's top priority at Colorado Springs was the development of a wireless system that could transmit electrical energy over great distances, as proposed in his 1900 Century magazine article.  He claimed that it is possible to transmit energy on a worldwide scale, applying a method that involves electrical conduction through the earth and the periodic alteration of Earth's electrostatic charge.  In 1900 he received the patents SYSTEM OF TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY and APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY.  They describe two hypothetical wireless stations, one consisting of a large Tesla coil magnifying transmitter and the other a similar Tesla coil receiver, each with an elevated air terminal electrode suspended by balloon at an altitude of , where the atmospheric pressure is lower.  Tesla believed atmospheric ionization would allow energy to be transmitted at high voltages (millions of volts) over long distances by electrical conduction.  Another claim was that such a high elevation of the air terminal electrodes is not absolutely necessary.  By 1901 Tesla had come to believe the entire planet could be made to act as a giant electrical resonator and that by driving sufficiently powerful current pulses into Earth at a harmonic of its fundamental resonant frequency using a grounded Tesla coil transmitter working against a relatively short elevated capacitive air terminal electrode, its natural electrostatic potential could be made to oscillate, and this alternating current could be received at any location with a Tesla coil receiver and similar capacitive air terminal electrode arrangement tuned to resonance with the transmitter.  Tesla demonstrated the coupling of a Tesla coil transmitter and a Tesla coil receiver in an experiment at his Experimental Station in Colorado Springs, transmitting enough electrical energy to power a 10-watt incandescent lamp at a distance of 1,938 feet (591 m) from the station's magnifying transmitter.

text: Experimental Station

text: in Colorado Springs, transmitting enough electrical energy to power a 10-watt incandescent lamp at a distance of 1,938 feet (591 m) from the station's magnifying transmitter.

text: Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying insolation or internal energy, leading to the formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms (on Mars), a greater-than-Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune). At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to have such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.

text: Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying

text: insolation

text: or internal energy, leading to the formation of dynamic

text: weather system

text: s such as

text: hurricane

text: s, (on Earth), planet-wide

text: dust storm

text: s (on Mars), a greater-than-Earth-sized

text: anticyclone

text: on Jupiter (called the

text: Great Red Spot

text: ), and

text: holes in the atmosphere

text: HD 189733 b

text: , has been claimed to have such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.

text: The Microwave Theory and Techniques Society focuses on the theory and applications of radio-frequency (HF, VHF/UHF, microwave, millimeter-wave and terahertz), guided-wave and wireless technologies, as they relate to nanostructures, devices, integrated circuits, multi-circuit assemblies, components, packages, transmission lines, sub-systems, and systems involving the generation, amplification, processing, modulation, control, transmission, reception, detection and demodulation, and effects of electromagnetic energy transport. It also includes the interaction & interface of microwave signals with digital & optical circuitry & interconnecting transmission media. Examples include optical waves in suitably confined structures, as well as the applications of acoustic, magnetic, & plasmonic waves to microwave systems.Radio frequency (RF) is a term that refers to signals and associated currents having characteristics such that, if the current is input to an antenna, an electromagnetic (EM) field is generated suitable for wireless broadcasting and/or communications, radar, etc. These frequencies cover a significant portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, extending from about 9 kHz, the lowest allocated wireless communications frequency (if it were audible it would be within the range of human hearing), to thousands of gigahertz (GHz). The discipline of microwave theory & techniques applies physical and mathematical principles to analyze devices, components and structures that interact with electromagnetic fields and often have dimensions representing a significant fraction of a wavelength, or when in-circuit wave propagation effects need to be considered.The Society's focus shall include scientific, technical, and industrial activities, subject to timely modifications approved by the IEEE Technical Advisory Board. Technical Committee focus areas of interest include microwave and millimeter-wave materials, solid state devices and integrated circuits, filters, passive components and packaging, microwave acoustics and photonics, high power and low noise techniques, frequency conversion, field theory, and computer aided design and measurements. In addition, the Society is involved in terahertz technology, ultra-wide band and microwave systems, and multidisciplinary activities such as RF microelectromechanical (RFMEMS) devices, radio frequency identification devices (RFIDs), digital signal processing, biological effects and medical applications, and business issues.

text: Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways across the spectrum. These types of interaction are so different that historically different names have been applied to different parts of the spectrum, as though these were different types of radiation. Thus, although these "different kinds" of electromagnetic radiation form a quantitatively continuous spectrum of frequencies and wavelengths, the spectrum remains divided for practical reasons related to these qualitative interaction differences.

text: The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.

text: The energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its

text: frequency

text: , so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.

text: Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years — a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be somehow replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. That Titan's atmosphere contains over a thousand times more methane than carbon monoxide would appear to rule out significant contributions from cometary impacts, because comets are composed of more carbon monoxide than methane. That Titan might have accreted an atmosphere from the early Saturnian nebula at the time of formation also seems unlikely; in such a case, it ought to have atmospheric abundances similar to the solar nebula, including hydrogen and neon. Many astronomers have suggested that the ultimate origin for the methane in Titan's atmosphere is from within Titan itself, released via eruptions from cryovolcanoes. A possible biological origin for the methane has not been discounted (see Life on Titan).

text: Energy from the Sun should have converted all traces of methane in Titan's atmosphere into more complex hydrocarbons within 50 million years — a short time compared to the age of the Solar System. This suggests that methane must be somehow replenished by a reservoir on or within Titan itself. That Titan's atmosphere contains over a thousand times more methane than

text: carbon monoxide

text: would appear to rule out significant contributions from cometary impacts, because comets are composed of more carbon monoxide than methane. That Titan might have accreted an atmosphere from the early Saturnian nebula at the time of formation also seems unlikely; in such a case, it ought to have atmospheric abundances similar to the solar nebula, including

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: neon

text: . Many astronomers have suggested that the ultimate origin for the methane in Titan's atmosphere is from within Titan itself, released via eruptions from

text: cryovolcanoes

text: . A possible biological origin for the methane has not been discounted (see

text: Life on Titan

text: On April 10, 2015, the Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (SMN) issued its first outlook for the Pacific hurricane season, forecasting 19 named storms, 11 hurricanes, and 4 major hurricanes. The organization listed a set of seasons with similar atmospheric and oceanic conditions, including 1982, 1986, 1991, 1994, 2002, and 2014. On May 27, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Climate Prediction Center (CPC) released its forecast for the year, highlighting a 70% chance of an above-average season with 15–22 named storms, 7–12 hurricanes, 5–8 major hurricanes, and an Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE) index range of 110–190% of the median. While both organizations cited an intensifying El Niño as a cause of increased activity, the CPC also highlighted the difference in global sea surface temperature patterns in 2015 versus the 1995–2014 period. The season ended up exceeding all of these forecasts with 26 named storms, 16 hurricanes, 11 major hurricanes, and an ACE index at more than 200% of the median.

text: On April 10, 2015, the

entity_name: Servicio Meteorológico Nacional (Mexico)

text: Servicio Meteorológico Nacional

text: (SMN) issued its first outlook for the Pacific hurricane season, forecasting 19 named storms, 11 hurricanes, and 4 major hurricanes. The organization listed a set of seasons with similar atmospheric and oceanic conditions, including

text: , and

text: . On May 27, the

text: 's

text: Climate Prediction Center

text: (CPC) released its forecast for the year, highlighting a 70% chance of an above-average season with 15–22 named storms, 7–12 hurricanes, 5–8 major hurricanes, and an

text: Accumulated Cyclone Energy

text: (ACE) index range of 110–190% of the median. While both organizations cited an intensifying

text: El Niño

text: as a cause of increased activity, the CPC also highlighted the difference in global sea surface temperature patterns in 2015 versus the 1995–2014 period. The season ended up exceeding all of these forecasts with 26 named storms, 16 hurricanes, 11 major hurricanes, and an ACE index at more than 200% of the median.

text: The act goes on to state that the Administrator of the EPA may take no action involving the consideration of Greenhouse gases as pollutants or contributing factors to climate change.  It also states that, “[nothing] shall cause a greenhouse gas to be subject to part C of title I …or considered an air pollutant for purposes of title V...” This means that, as greenhouse gases would no longer be considered to degrade the quality of air, sources would not be required to ascertain a permit to emit.  These permits require sources of pollution to complete a registration process in order to lawfully be able to emit anything considered to be a pollutant.  Going along with this, it would no longer be required to report emissions of greenhouse gases." The Energy Tax Prevention act of 2011 also lists a number of prior agency actions that would be, "...repealed and shall have no legal effect."." Essentially this Act would reverse the decision rendered in Massachusetts, et al., v. Environmental Protection Agency, et al..

text: The act goes on to state that the Administrator of the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: EPA

text: may take no action involving the consideration of

text: Greenhouse gas

text: es as pollutants or contributing factors to climate change.  It also states that, “[nothing] shall cause a greenhouse gas to be subject to part C of title I …or considered an air pollutant for purposes of title V...” This means that, as greenhouse gases would no longer be considered to degrade the quality of air, sources would not be required to ascertain a permit to emit.  These permits require sources of pollution to complete a registration process in order to lawfully be able to emit anything considered to be a pollutant.  Going along with this, it would no longer be required to report emissions of greenhouse gases." The Energy Tax Prevention act of 2011 also lists a number of prior agency actions that would be, "...repealed and shall have no legal effect."." Essentially this Act would reverse the decision rendered in

entity_name: Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency

text: Massachusetts, et al., v. Environmental Protection Agency, et al.

text: In the atmosphere, where vertical variation in pressure is much larger than in a room, the situation is complicated by adiabatic temperature change: as a parcel of air moves upward, the ambient pressure drops, causing the parcel to expand.  Some of the internal energy of the parcel is used up in doing the work required to expand against the atmospheric pressure, so the temperature of the parcel drops, even though it has not lost any heat.  Conversely, a sinking parcel is compressed and becomes warmer even though no heat is added.

text: In the atmosphere, where vertical variation in pressure is much larger than in a room, the situation is complicated by adiabatic temperature change: as a parcel of air moves upward, the ambient pressure drops, causing the parcel to expand.  Some of the

text: internal energy

text: of the parcel is used up in doing the

text: work

text: required to expand against the atmospheric pressure, so the temperature of the parcel drops, even though it has not lost any heat.  Conversely, a sinking parcel is compressed and becomes warmer even though no heat is added.

text: IACT stands for Imaging Atmospheric (or Air) Cherenkov Telescope or Technique. It is a device or method to detect very-high-energy gamma-ray photons, in the photon energy range of 50 GeV to 50 TeV. There are currently three operating IACT systems: H.E.S.S., MAGIC and VERITAS. Set to be the world's largest telescope at the highest altitude, the Major Atmospheric Cerenkov Experiment Telescope (MACE) is currently being established at Hanle, Ladakh, India. Also, currently under design is the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA).

text: IACT stands for Imaging Atmospheric (or Air) Cherenkov Telescope or Technique. It is a device or method to detect

text: very-high-energy

text: gamma-ray

text: photon

text: s, in the

text: photon energy

text: range of 50

text: GeV

text: to 50

text: TeV

text: . There are currently three operating IACT systems:

text: H.E.S.S.

text: MAGIC

text: and

text: VERITAS

text: . Set to be the world's largest telescope at the highest altitude, the

entity_name: Major Atmospheric Cerenkov Experiment Telescope

text: Major Atmospheric Cerenkov Experiment Telescope

text: (MACE) is currently being established at Hanle, Ladakh, India. Also, currently under design is the

text: Cherenkov Telescope Array

text: (CTA).

text: Greenhouse gases can be removed from the atmosphere by various processes, as a consequence of:

text: Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth are observed in the gamma decay of radionuclides and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with cosmic ray particles. There are rare terrestrial natural sources, such as lightning strikes and terrestrial gamma-ray flashes, that produce gamma rays not of a nuclear origin. Additionally, gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced, that in turn cause secondary gamma rays via bremsstrahlung, inverse Compton scattering, and synchrotron radiation. However, a large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's atmosphere and can only be detected by spacecraft. Gamma rays are produced by nuclear fusion in stars including the Sun (such as the CNO cycle), but are absorbed or inelastically scattered by the stellar material, reducing their energy, before escaping and are not observable from Earth as gamma rays.

text: Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth are observed in the gamma decay of

text: radionuclide

text: s and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with

text: cosmic ray

text: particles. There are rare terrestrial natural sources, such as

text: lightning strike

text: s and

text: terrestrial gamma-ray flash

text: es, that produce gamma rays not of a nuclear origin. Additionally, gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced, that in turn cause secondary gamma rays via

text: bremsstrahlung

text: , inverse

text: Compton scattering

text: , and

text: synchrotron radiation

text: . However, a large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's atmosphere and can only be detected by spacecraft. Gamma rays are produced by nuclear fusion in

text: stars

text: including the Sun (such as the

text: CNO cycle

text: ), but are absorbed or inelastically scattered by the stellar material, reducing their energy, before escaping and are not observable from Earth as gamma rays.

text: The advantages of a ground effect train over a maglev are lower cost due to simpler construction. Disadvantages include either constant input of energy to keep the train hovering (in the case of hovercraft-like vehicles) or the necessity to keep the vehicle moving for it to remain off the ground (in the case of Wing In Ground effect vehicles). Furthermore, these vehicles may be very drastically affected by wind, air turbulence, and weather. Whereas the magnetic levitation train can be built to operate in a vacuum to minimise air resistance, the ground effect train must operate in an atmosphere in order for the air cushion to exist.

text: The advantages of a ground effect train over a maglev are lower cost due to simpler construction. Disadvantages include either constant input of energy to keep the train hovering (in the case of hovercraft-like vehicles) or the necessity to keep the vehicle moving for it to remain off the ground (in the case of Wing In Ground effect vehicles). Furthermore, these vehicles may be very drastically affected by wind, air

text: turbulence

text: , and weather. Whereas the magnetic levitation train can be built to operate in a vacuum to minimise air resistance, the ground effect train must operate in an atmosphere in order for the air cushion to exist.

text: In the classic analysis by Edward Lorenz (the Lorenz Energy Cycle), extratropical cyclones (so-called atmospheric transients) acts as a mechanism in converting potential energy that is created by pole to equator temperature gradients to eddy kinetic energy. In the process, the pole-equator temperature gradient is reduced (i.e. energy is transported poleward to warm up the higher latitudes).

text: In the classic analysis by

text: Edward Lorenz

text: (the Lorenz Energy Cycle), extratropical cyclones (so-called atmospheric transients) acts as a mechanism in converting potential energy that is created by pole to equator temperature gradients to eddy kinetic energy. In the process, the pole-equator temperature gradient is reduced (i.e. energy is transported poleward to warm up the higher latitudes).

text: Convective available potential energy (CAPE) is the amount of energy a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere. The higher the CAPE, the more likely there will be convection. If areas of high CAPE exist in the β-skirt, the deep convection that forms would act as a source of vorticity and turbulence kinetic energy. This small-scale energy will upscale into a jet around the storm. The low-level jet focuses the stochastic energy a nearly axisymmetric ring around the eye. Once this low-level jet forms, a positive feedback cycle such as WISHE can amplify the initial perturbations into a secondary eyewall.

text: Convective available potential energy

text: (CAPE) is the amount of energy a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere. The higher the CAPE, the more likely there will be convection. If areas of high CAPE exist in the β-skirt, the deep convection that forms would act as a source of vorticity and

text: turbulence kinetic energy

text: . This small-scale energy will upscale into a jet around the storm. The low-level jet focuses the stochastic energy a nearly axisymmetric ring around the eye. Once this low-level jet forms, a positive feedback cycle such as

text: WISHE

text: can amplify the initial perturbations into a secondary eyewall.

text: Though, conversion of thermal energy to other forms, thus reducing the temperature of a system, has strict limitations, often keeping its efficiency much less than 100% (even when energy is not allowed to escape from the system).  This is because thermal energy has already been partly spread out among many available states of a collection of microscopic particles constituting the system, which can have enormous numbers of possible combinations of momentum and position (these combinations are said to form a phase space). In such circumstances, a measure called entropy, or evening-out of energy distributions, dictates that future states of an isolated system must be of at least equal evenness in energy distribution. In other words, there is no way to concentrate energy without spreading out energy somewhere else.

text: Though, conversion of thermal energy to other forms, thus reducing the temperature of a system, has strict limitations, often keeping its efficiency much less than 100% (even when energy is not allowed to escape from the system).  This is because thermal energy has already been partly spread out among many available states of a collection of microscopic particles constituting the system, which can have enormous numbers of possible combinations of momentum and position (these combinations are said to form a

text: phase space

text: ). In such circumstances, a measure called

text: entropy

text: , or evening-out of energy distributions, dictates that future states of an isolated system must be of at least equal evenness in energy distribution. In other words, there is no way to concentrate energy without spreading out energy somewhere else.

text: The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in a planet's atmosphere warm its lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824, discovered in 1860 by John Tyndall,  was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, and was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by Guy Stewart Callendar.

text: The greenhouse effect is the process by which

text: absorption

text: and

text: emission

text: of

text: infrared

text: radiation by gases in a planet's

text: atmosphere

text: warm its lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by

text: Joseph Fourier

text: in 1824, discovered in 1860 by

text: John Tyndall

text: ,  was first investigated quantitatively by

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: in 1896, and was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by

text: Guy Stewart Callendar

text: The contribution of each gas to the greenhouse effect is affected by the characteristics of that gas, its abundance, and any indirect effects it may cause. For example, the direct radiative effect of a mass of methane is about 72 times stronger than the same mass of carbon dioxide over a 20-year time frame but it is present in much smaller concentrations so that its total direct radiative effect is smaller, in part due to its shorter atmospheric lifetime. On the other hand, in addition to its direct radiative impact, methane has a large, indirect radiative effect because it contributes to ozone formation. Shindell et al. (2005) argue that the contribution to climate change from methane is at least double previous estimates as a result of this effect.

text: Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the greenhouse effect. Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.

text: Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms:

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: methane

text: . Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.

text: In the Arctic, during the winter months of November through February, the sun remains very low in the sky or does not rise at all.  Where it does rise, the days are short, and the sun's low position in the sky means that, even at noon, not much energy is reaching the surface.  Furthermore, most of the small amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface is reflected away by the bright snow cover.  Cold snow reflects between 70% and 90% of the solar radiation that reaches it (Serreze and Barry, 2005), and most of the Arctic, with the exception of the ice-free parts of the sea, have snow covering the land or ice surface in winter.  These factors result in a negligible input of solar energy to the Arctic in winter; the only things keeping the Arctic from continuously cooling all winter are the transport of warmer air and ocean water into the Arctic from the south and the transfer of heat from the subsurface land and ocean (both of which gain heat in summer and release it in winter) to the surface and atmosphere.

text: When sunlight shines on the earth at a lower angle (Sun closer to the horizon), the energy of the sunlight is spread over a larger area, and is therefore weaker than if the Sun is higher overhead and the energy is concentrated on a smaller area.

text: When sunlight shines on the earth at a lower

text: angle

text: (Sun closer to the horizon), the energy of the sunlight is spread over a larger area, and is therefore weaker than if the Sun is higher overhead and the energy is concentrated on a smaller area.

text: Amory Lovins advocates "soft energy paths" involving efficient energy use, diverse and renewable energy sources, and special reliance on "soft energy technologies". Soft energy technologies are those based on solar, wind, biofuels, geothermal, etc. which are matched in scale and quality to their task.  Residential solar energy technologies are prime examples of soft energy technologies and rapid deployment of simple, energy conserving, residential solar energy technologies is fundamental to a soft energy strategy.

text: Amory Lovins advocates "

text: soft energy path

text: s" involving

text: efficient energy use

text: , diverse and

text: renewable energy

text: sources, and special reliance on "

text: soft energy technologies

text: ". Soft energy technologies are those based on

text: solar

text: wind

text: biofuel

text: s,

text: geothermal

text: , etc. which are matched in scale and quality to their task.  Residential solar energy technologies are prime examples of soft energy technologies and rapid deployment of simple, energy conserving, residential solar energy technologies is fundamental to a soft energy strategy.

text: New physical phenomena appear in consideration of the integral systems which absorb radiation. For example, EPS is based on the regularities of the correlation of physico-chemical properties and integral spectral characteristics for UV or (and) visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum (so-called law spectrum-properties). Color is also an integral characteristic of a visible spectrum. Therefore, the consequence of this is so-called law color-properties.  All this allow the use of EPS methods for studying individual and complex multicomponent substances.

text: Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as  have been recorded. When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions. More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.

text: Cosmic ray

text: s are particles traveling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as  have been recorded. When these particles collide with nucleons in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , a shower of particles is generated, including

text: pion

text: s. More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of

text: muon

text: s. The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion.

text: The telescope is named after the Soviet scientist Pavel Cherenkov, who predicted that charged particles moving at high speeds in a medium emit light. The high-energy gamma rays emitted from black holes, centers of galaxies and pulsars do not reach the land as they get absorbed in the atmosphere. Upon interaction with the atmosphere, these photons produce electron–positron pairs, leading to a cascade of particles which while moving at very high speed give rise to Cerenkov radiation.

text: The telescope is named after the Soviet scientist

text: Pavel Cherenkov

text: , who predicted that charged particles moving at high speeds in a medium emit light. The high-energy gamma rays emitted from black holes, centers of galaxies and pulsars do not reach the land as they get absorbed in the atmosphere. Upon interaction with the atmosphere, these photons produce electron–positron pairs, leading to a cascade of particles which while moving at very high speed give rise to

text: Cerenkov radiation

text: The electromagnetic spectrum is the collective term for all known frequencies and their linked wavelengths of the known photons ( electromagnetic radiation ). The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object has a different meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object.

text: The electromagnetic spectrum is the collective term for all known frequencies and their linked wavelengths of the known

text: photons

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: ). The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object has a different meaning, and is instead the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object.

text: The energy of Sun comes from the nuclear fusion in its core where a helium atom and an electron neutrino are generated by 4 protons. These neutrinos emitted from this reaction are called solar neutrinos. Photons, created by the nuclear fusion in the center of the Sun, take millions of years to reach the surface; on the other hand, solar neutrinos arrive at the earth in eight minutes due to their lack of interactions with matter. Hence, solar neutrinos make it possible for us to observe the inner Sun in "real-time" that takes millions of years for visible light.

text: Drought is an anomaly within the atmospheric, surface and sub-surface cycling of water and energy, usually initiated through large to regional scale atmospheric processes, and enhanced and maintained through regional to local atmospheric, surface hydrology, land surface and groundwater feedbacks that operate throughout the annual cycle. Droughts are a distinctive feature of the Canadian Prairies where the large scale atmospheric circulations are influenced by blocking from intense orography to the west and long distances from all warm ocean-derived atmospheric water sources.

text: Drought

text: is an anomaly within the atmospheric, surface and sub-surface cycling of water and energy, usually initiated through large to regional scale atmospheric processes, and enhanced and maintained through regional to local

text: atmospheric

text: surface hydrology

text: land surface

text: and

text: groundwater

text: feedbacks that operate throughout the annual cycle. Droughts are a distinctive feature of the

text: Canadian Prairies

text: where the large scale

text: atmospheric circulation

text: s are influenced by

text: blocking

text: from intense

text: orography

text: to the west and long distances from all warm ocean-derived atmospheric water sources.

text: The density changes from 3.3 to 2.7 g/cm with a concurrent volume increase on the order of 30-40%. The reaction is highly exothermic and rock temperatures can be raised by about , providing an energy source for formation of non-volcanic hydrothermal vents. The magnetite-forming chemical reactions produce hydrogen gas under anaerobic conditions prevailing deep in the mantle, far from the Earth's atmosphere. Carbonates and sulfates are subsequently reduced by hydrogen and form methane and hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide provide energy sources for deep sea chemotroph microorganisms.

text: The density changes from 3.3 to 2.7 g/cm with a concurrent volume increase on the order of 30-40%. The reaction is highly

text: exothermic

text: and rock temperatures can be raised by about , providing an energy source for formation of non-volcanic

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s. The magnetite-forming chemical reactions produce

text: hydrogen

text: gas under anaerobic conditions prevailing deep in the

text: mantle

text: , far from the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: Carbonate

text: s and

text: sulfate

text: s are subsequently reduced by hydrogen and form

text: methane

text: and

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: . The hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide provide energy sources for deep sea

text: chemotroph

text: microorganism

text: s.

text: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light. Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by certain astronomical objects. Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication, computer networks and innumerable other applications. In addition, almost any wire carrying alternating current will radiate some of the energy away as radio waves; these are mostly termed interference. Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's atmosphere; long waves may bend at the rate of the curvature of the Earth and may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves travel around the world by multiple reflections off the ionosphere and the Earth. Much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel along the line of sight.

text: Greenhouse gases trap outgoing radiation warming the atmosphere which in turn warms the land.

text: Greenhouse gas

text: es trap outgoing radiation warming the atmosphere which in turn warms the land.

text: In 1917 Alexander Graham Bell wrote "[The unchecked burning of fossil fuels] would have a sort of greenhouse effect", and "The net result is the greenhouse becomes a sort of hot-house." Bell went on to also advocate the use of alternate energy sources, such as solar energy.

text: In 1917

text: Alexander Graham Bell

text: wrote "[The unchecked burning of fossil fuels] would have a sort of greenhouse effect", and "The net result is the greenhouse becomes a sort of hot-house." Bell went on to also advocate the use of alternate energy sources, such as

text: solar energy

text: When combined with a white roof (the fastest growing segment of the commercial roof industry with over 1 billion square feet installed in 2008 and required for any new commercial construction in California), the company claimed that systems that employ the panels on a given rooftop could produce significantly more electricity in a given year. It was thought that on a white roof, the panels can capture up to 20% more light than a black roof. (Note: it is difficult to cite a specific reference for this because the exact gain depends on the latitude of the installation (i.e. sun angle). Solyndra's on-line energy modeling tool allowed designers to specify the roof albedo, and energy output varied as a function of albedo. Twenty percent is cited as typical figure and was validated by careful testing and modeling by the Fraunhofer Institute, among others. However, this report is not available on-line.)

text: The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838 and reasoned from experimental observations by John Tyndall in 1859. The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. However, the term "greenhouse" was not used to refer to this effect by any of these scientists; the term was first used in this way by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.

text: The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by

text: Joseph Fourier

text: in 1824. The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by

text: Claude Pouillet

text: in 1827 and 1838 and reasoned from experimental observations by

text: John Tyndall

text: in 1859. The effect was more fully quantified by

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: in 1896. However, the term "greenhouse" was not used to refer to this effect by any of these scientists; the term was first used in this way by

text: Nils Gustaf Ekholm

text: in 1901.

text: Another difference concerns the movement of the centre of mass of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the centre of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the centre of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.

text: Another difference concerns the movement of the

text: centre of mass

text: of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the centre of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially

text: kinetic energy

text: of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in

text: potential energy

text: . This is reversed in running where the centre of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in

text: muscles

text: and

text: tendons

text: . In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and

text: elastic energy

text: Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object due to the object's internal energy. If an object is heated sufficiently, it starts to emit light at the red end of the spectrum, as it becomes red hot.

text: Thermal radiation

text: is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object due to the object's internal energy. If an object is heated sufficiently, it starts to emit light at the red end of the

text: spectrum

text: , as it becomes

text: red hot

text: Schlieren is the German plural of schliere, which is German for the English word streak. Schlieren are visible streaks produced in a transparent medium as a result of variations in the medium's density leading to variations in refractive index.  Anything that disturbs the atmosphere may be detected (Schlieren Photography) because of the Schlieren effect caused by that atmospheric disturbance.  This type of Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) detection falls under the category of Electro-optical MASINT.  A telephoto or telescopic picture of a jet passing between the photographer and a full moon will sometimes show the outline of the aircraft as well as the atmospheric distortions of the exhaust plumes.  This passive principle can be used at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Passive signature intelligence has captured stealth aircraft in flight by accident, when such aircraft fly between Earth imaging satellites and ground (can be seen in products like Google Earth).  Once a stealth signature has been captured, it may be loaded into a database library for an active and live satellite search at any point in the future.  Ground at past versus ground at present differential comparisons can be made to determine flight paths and altitudes of stealth aircraft.  This disturbance and disturbing influence method has been used for finding ships at sea through wake generation tracking and even in Wilson cloud chambers for particle discovery and tracking. The key principle is that the disturbance is much more visible in area and volume than the disturbing point source and converges attention to the much smaller disturbing source.

text: Schlieren is the German plural of schliere, which is German for the English word streak. Schlieren are visible streaks produced in a transparent medium as a result of variations in the medium's density leading to variations in refractive index.  Anything that disturbs the atmosphere may be detected (

text: Schlieren Photography

text: ) because of the

text: Schlieren effect

text: caused by that

text: atmospheric disturbance

text: .  This type of

text: Measurement and signature intelligence

text: (MASINT) detection falls under the category of

text: Electro-optical MASINT

text: .  A telephoto or telescopic picture of a jet passing between the photographer and a full moon will sometimes show the outline of the aircraft as well as the atmospheric distortions of the exhaust plumes.  This passive principle can be used at all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Passive signature intelligence has captured stealth aircraft in flight by accident, when such aircraft fly between Earth imaging satellites and ground (can be seen in products like

text: Google Earth

text: ).  Once a stealth signature has been captured, it may be loaded into a database library for an active and live satellite search at any point in the future.  Ground at past versus ground at present differential comparisons can be made to determine flight paths and altitudes of stealth aircraft.  This disturbance and disturbing influence method has been used for finding ships at sea through wake generation tracking and even in

text: Wilson cloud chamber

text: s for particle discovery and tracking. The key principle is that the disturbance is much more visible in area and volume than the disturbing point source and converges attention to the much smaller disturbing source.

text: In the North American Deserts there are emerging natural resources within the ecosystem. A few natural resources within the desert consist of oil, sunlight, copper, zinc, and water. Some of these resources are renewable and some are non-renewable. Most of these resources are being exploited by humans and most actions are not sustainable.Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations. Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels, so they can reuse the sun as energy. Areas such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and the Great Basin area, put up fields for green energy. We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals; we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us. Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations.

text: Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and together with ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth.

text: Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and together with

text: ocean circulation

text: is the means by which

text: thermal energy

text: is redistributed on the surface of the

text: Earth

text: Reported details about the event, such as water boiling in the muddy crater for ten minutes from the heat of the impact, presented a problem for experts. Because the impact site is at a high altitude of more than , the meteoroid may not have been slowed down as much as it ordinarily would have been by passage through the Earth’s denser lower atmosphere, and kinetic energy at impact may have been unusually high for a terrestrial impact of an object of this size and mass. Most larger meteorites are cold in their bulk mass when they land on Earth, since their heated outer layers ablate from the objects before impacting. It was later confirmed that the meteorite contained a large amount of iron and possessed magnetic properties common to similar metallic objects, which contributed to its capacity to retain heat during atmospheric entry.

text: Reported details about the event, such as water boiling in the muddy crater for ten minutes from the heat of the impact, presented a problem for experts. Because the impact site is at a high altitude of more than , the meteoroid may not have been slowed down as much as it ordinarily would have been by passage through the Earth’s denser lower atmosphere, and kinetic energy at impact may have been unusually high for a terrestrial impact of an object of this size and mass. Most larger meteorites are cold in their bulk mass when they land on Earth, since their heated outer layers

text: ablate

text: from the objects before impacting. It was later confirmed that the meteorite contained a large amount of

text: iron

text: and possessed magnetic properties common to similar metallic objects, which contributed to its capacity to retain heat during

text: atmospheric entry

text: More tangible cost savings are defined when comparing the energy efficiencies of gas heaters with low NO emissions with conventional flued types. Gas heaters with emission problems are flued and inherently lose substantial energies in the form of hot flue gases to the atmosphere. In addition, the choice of placement of flued heaters is greatly impaired due to flue installation restrictions.

text: More tangible cost savings are defined when comparing the energy efficiencies of gas heaters with low NO emissions with conventional flued types. Gas heaters with emission problems are flued and inherently lose substantial energies in the form of hot

text: flue gases

text: to the atmosphere. In addition, the choice of placement of flued heaters is greatly impaired due to flue installation restrictions.

text: Mario Molina joined the lab of Professor F. Sherwood Rowland in 1973 as a postdoctoral fellow. Here, Molina continued Rowland's pioneering research into "hot atom" chemistry, which is the study of chemical properties of atoms with, and only with, excess translational energy owing to radioactive processes. This study soon led to research into chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which had been accumulating in the atmosphere. Rowland and Molina had investigated other compounds similar to CFCs before, and together they developed the CFC ozone depletion theory. Molina tried to figure out how CFCs might be destroyed in the lower atmosphere, but nothing seemed to work. He and Rowland knew that if CFCs released into the atmosphere do not decay by other processes, they continually rise to higher altitudes until they are destroyed by solar radiation. They discovered that chlorine atoms, produced by the decomposition of CFCs, catalytically destroy ozone. Rowland and Molina published their findings in Nature on June 28, 1974, and also made an effort to announce their findings outside of the scientific community, informing policy makers and the news media of their work. Attesting to the continuing importance of their discovery, to this day there are still laws that protect the ozone layer by regulating the use of CFCs.

text: Mario Molina joined the lab of Professor F. Sherwood Rowland in 1973 as a postdoctoral fellow. Here, Molina continued Rowland's pioneering research into "hot atom" chemistry, which is the study of chemical properties of atoms with, and only with, excess translational energy owing to radioactive processes. This study soon led to research into chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which had been accumulating in the atmosphere. Rowland and Molina had investigated other compounds similar to CFCs before, and together they developed the CFC ozone depletion theory. Molina tried to figure out how CFCs might be destroyed in the lower atmosphere, but nothing seemed to work. He and Rowland knew that if CFCs released into the atmosphere do not decay by other processes, they continually rise to higher altitudes until they are destroyed by solar radiation. They discovered that chlorine atoms, produced by the decomposition of CFCs, catalytically destroy ozone. Rowland and Molina published their findings in

text: Nature

text: on June 28, 1974, and also made an effort to announce their findings outside of the scientific community, informing policy makers and the news media of their work. Attesting to the continuing importance of their discovery, to this day there are still laws that protect the ozone layer by regulating the use of CFCs.

text: Natural neutron background. A small natural background flux of free neutrons exists everywhere on Earth. In the atmosphere and deep into the ocean, the "neutron background" is caused by muons produced by cosmic ray interaction with the atmosphere. These high energy muons are capable of penetration to considerable depths in water and soil. There, in striking atomic nuclei, among other reactions they induce spallation reactions in which a neutron is liberated from the nucleus. Within the Earth's crust a second source is neutrons produced primarily by spontaneous fission of uranium and thorium present in crustal minerals. The neutron background is not strong enough to be a biological hazard, but it is of importance to very high resolution particle detectors that are looking for very rare events, such as (hypothesized) interactions that might be caused by particles of dark matter. Recent research has shown that even thunderstorms can produce neutrons with energies of up to several tens of MeV.

text: Natural neutron background. A small natural background flux of free neutrons exists everywhere on Earth. In the atmosphere and deep into the ocean, the "neutron background" is caused by

text: muon

text: s produced by

text: cosmic ray

text: interaction with the atmosphere. These high energy muons are capable of penetration to considerable depths in water and soil. There, in striking atomic nuclei, among other reactions they induce spallation reactions in which a neutron is liberated from the nucleus. Within the Earth's crust a second source is neutrons produced primarily by spontaneous fission of uranium and thorium present in crustal minerals. The neutron background is not strong enough to be a biological hazard, but it is of importance to very high resolution particle detectors that are looking for very rare events, such as (hypothesized) interactions that might be caused by particles of

text: dark matter

text: . Recent research has shown that even thunderstorms can produce neutrons with energies of up to several tens of MeV.

text: When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion may be the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO. Atmospheric CO has risen over the last 150 years to current levels of over 390 ppmv, from the 180 – 300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years This rise in temperature may have reduced the Arctic ice cap to , smaller than ever recorded. Because of this melt, more oil reserves have been revealed. It is estimated by the International Energy Agency that about 13 percent of the world's undiscovered oil resides in the Arctic.<ref>"Arctic Sea Ice Reaches New Low, Shattering Record Set Just 3 Weeks Ago." NBCNews.com, 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 1 Oct. 2012.

text: When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide, a

text: greenhouse gas

text: . Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion may be the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO. Atmospheric CO has risen over the last 150 years to current levels of over 390

text: ppmv

text: , from the

text: 180 – 300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years

text: This rise in temperature may have reduced the

text: Arctic ice cap

text: to , smaller than ever recorded. Because of this melt, more oil reserves have been revealed. It is estimated by the International Energy Agency that about 13 percent of the world's undiscovered oil resides in the Arctic.<ref>"Arctic Sea Ice Reaches New Low, Shattering Record Set Just 3 Weeks Ago." NBCNews.com, 19 Sept. 2012. Web. 1 Oct. 2012.

text: ) and are therefore weak.  A series of such double layers would tend to merge, much like a string of bar magnets, and dissipate, even within a rarefied  plasma.  It has yet to be explained how any overall localised charge distribution in the form of double layers might provide a source of energy for auroral electrons precipitated into the atmosphere.

text: On Earth, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases cause air temperature near the surface to be about  warmer than it would be in their absence. Without the Earth's atmosphere, the Earth's average temperature would be well below the freezing temperature of water. The major greenhouse gases are water vapour, which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO), which causes 9–26%; methane (CH), which causes 4–9%; and ozone (O), which causes 3–7%.<ref>{{Cite journal| url = http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080624223905/http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| archivedate = 24 June 2008 | title = Earth's Annual Global Mean Energy Budget|first=J.T. | last=Kiehl | first2=K.E. | last2=Trenberth | authorlink2=Kevin Trenberth |format=PDF|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society| pages =197–208|volume=78|issue=2|year=1997|accessdate =21 April 2009|doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078

text: On Earth, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases cause air temperature near the surface to be about  warmer than it would be in their absence. Without the Earth's atmosphere, the Earth's average temperature would be well below the freezing temperature of water. The major greenhouse gases are

text: water vapour

text: , which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect;

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO), which causes 9–26%;

text: methane

text: (CH), which causes 4–9%; and

text: ozone

text: (O), which causes 3–7%.<ref>{{Cite journal| url = http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080624223905/http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/spring04/atmo451b/pdf/RadiationBudget.pdf| archivedate = 24 June 2008 | title = Earth's Annual Global Mean Energy Budget|first=J.T. | last=Kiehl | first2=K.E. | last2=Trenberth | authorlink2=Kevin Trenberth |format=PDF|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society| pages =197–208|volume=78|issue=2|year=1997|accessdate =21 April 2009|doi=10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078

text: By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the formula:

text: By transferring matter, energy—including thermal energy—is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is

text: thermal hydraulics

text: . This can be described by the formula:

text: The role of the oceans in global warming is complex. The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but increased levels of  have led to ocean acidification. Furthermore, as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess . The ocean have also acted as a sink in absorbing extra heat from the atmosphere. The increase in ocean heat content is much larger than any other store of energy in the Earth’s heat balance over the two periods 1961 to 2003 and 1993 to 2003, and accounts for more than 90% of the possible increase in heat content of the Earth system during these periods.

text: The role of the oceans in global warming is complex. The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but increased levels of  have led to

text: ocean acidification

text: . Furthermore, as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess . The ocean have also acted as a sink in absorbing extra heat from the atmosphere. The increase in ocean

text: heat content

text: is much larger than any other store of

text: energy

text: in the Earth’s heat balance over the two periods 1961 to 2003 and 1993 to 2003, and accounts for more than 90% of the possible increase in heat content of the Earth system during these periods.

text: There are two sources of high energy particles entering the Earth's atmosphere from outer space: the sun and deep space.  The sun continuously emits particles, primarily free protons, in the solar wind, and occasionally augments the flow hugely with coronal mass ejections (CME).

text: There are two sources of high energy particles entering the Earth's atmosphere from outer space: the sun and deep space.  The sun continuously emits particles, primarily free protons, in the solar wind, and occasionally augments the flow hugely with

text: coronal mass ejection

text: s (CME).

text: Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics.

text: Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric

text: dynamics

text: Maxwell's equations predicted an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

text: Maxwell's equations

text: predicted an infinite number of frequencies of

text: electromagnetic waves

text: , all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic

text: spectrum

text: Using GCIB a surface is bombarded by a beam of high energy nanoscale cluster ions. The clusters are formed when a high pressure gas (approximately 10 atmospheres pressure) expands into a vacuum (1e-5 atmospheres).  The gas expands adiabatically and cools then condenses into clusters.  The clusters are nano sized bits of crystalline matter with unique properties intermediate between the realms of atomic physics and those of solid state physics.  The expansion takes place inside of a nozzle that shapes the gas flow and facilitates the formation of a jet of clusters.  The jet of clusters passes through differential pumping apertures into a region of high vacuum (1e-8 atmospheres) where the clusters are ionized by collisions with energetic electrons.  The ionized clusters are accelerated electrostatically to very high velocities, and they are focused into a tight beam.

text: Using GCIB a surface is bombarded by a beam of high energy nanoscale

text: cluster

text: ion

text: s. The clusters are formed when a high pressure gas (approximately 10

text: atmospheres

text: pressure) expands into a

text: vacuum

text: (1e-5 atmospheres).  The gas expands

text: adiabatically

text: and cools then

text: condenses

text: into clusters.  The

text: cluster

text: s are nano sized bits of crystalline matter with unique properties intermediate between the realms of atomic physics and those of solid state physics.  The expansion takes place inside of a nozzle that shapes the gas flow and facilitates the formation of a jet of clusters.  The jet of clusters passes through differential pumping apertures into a region of high vacuum (1e-8 atmospheres) where the clusters are ionized by collisions with energetic

text: electron

text: s.  The ionized clusters are accelerated electrostatically to very high velocities, and they are focused into a tight beam.

text: This yields an apparent effective average earth temperature of . This is because the above equation represents the effective radiative temperature of the Earth (including the clouds and atmosphere). The use of effective emissivity and albedo account for the greenhouse effect.

text: This yields an apparent effective average earth temperature of . This is because the above equation represents the effective radiative temperature of the Earth (including the clouds and atmosphere). The use of effective emissivity and albedo account for the

text: greenhouse effect

text: Convective available potential energy (CAPE), sometimes, simply, available potential energy (APE), is the amount of energy a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere.  CAPE is effectively the positive buoyancy of an air parcel and is an indicator of atmospheric instability, which makes it valuable in predicting severe weather.  CIN, convective inhibition, is effectively negative buoyancy, expressed B-; the opposite of convective available potential energy (CAPE), which is expressed as B+ or simply B. As with CAPE, CIN is usually expressed in J/kg but may also be expressed as m/s, as the values are equivalent. In fact, CIN is sometimes referred to as negative buoyant energy (NBE).

text: Convective available potential energy (CAPE), sometimes, simply, available potential energy (APE), is the amount of

text: energy

text: a parcel of air would have if lifted a certain distance vertically through the atmosphere.  CAPE is effectively the positive

text: buoyancy

text: of an air parcel and is an indicator of atmospheric instability, which makes it valuable in predicting severe weather.  CIN,

text: convective inhibition

text: , is effectively negative buoyancy, expressed B-; the opposite of

text: convective available potential energy (CAPE)

text: , which is expressed as B+ or simply B. As with CAPE, CIN is usually expressed in J/kg but may also be expressed as m/s, as the values are equivalent. In fact, CIN is sometimes referred to as negative buoyant energy (NBE).

text: Atmospheric methane is an important greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 25 times greater than carbon dioxide (averaged over 100 years), and methanogenesis in livestock and the decay of organic material is thus a considerable contributor to global warming. It may not be a net contributor in the sense that it works on organic material which used up atmospheric carbon dioxide when it was created, but its overall effect is to convert the carbon dioxide into methane which is a much more potent greenhouse gas.

text: Atmospheric methane

text: is an important

text: greenhouse gas

text: with a

text: global warming potential

text: 25 times greater than carbon dioxide (averaged over 100 years), and methanogenesis in livestock and the decay of organic material is thus a considerable contributor to global warming. It may not be a net contributor in the sense that it works on organic material which used up atmospheric carbon dioxide when it was created, but its overall effect is to convert the carbon dioxide into methane which is a much more potent greenhouse gas.

text: The mesosphere (middle atmosphere)  is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located about 50-80/85 km above Earth's surface. The stratosphere (middle atmosphere) is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10 km and 50 km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above the troposphere and directly below the mesosphere. The troposphere (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

text: The

text: mesosphere

text: (middle atmosphere)  is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located about 50-80/85 km above Earth's surface. The

text: stratosphere

text: (middle atmosphere) is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10 km and 50 km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above the troposphere and directly below the mesosphere. The

text: troposphere

text: (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

text: Earphone –Earpiece –Earth's magnetic field –EDIF –EEPROM –Effective antenna gain contour –Effective boresight area –Effective data transfer rate –Effective Earth radius –Effective height –Effective input noise temperature –Effective isotropically radiated power –Effective monopole radiated power –Effective radiated power –Effective transmission rate –Efficiency factor –E-layer –Electric charge –Electric current –Electric field –Electric motor –Electric power transmission –Electric power –Electrical conduction –Electrical conductivity –Electrical connector –Electrical current –Electrical efficiency –Element –Electrical engineering –Electrical generator –Impedance –Insulation –Electrical length –Load –Electrical network –Circuit –Electrical resistance –Electrical room –Electrical signal –Electricity distribution –Electricity –Electrochemical cell –Electrochemistry –Electrode –Electrodynamics –Electrolytic capacitor –Electromagnetic environment –Electromagnetic induction –Electromagnetic interference control –Electromagnetic pulse –Electromagnetic radiation and health –Electromagnetic radiation –Electromagnetic spectrum –Electromagnetic survivability –Electromagnetism –Electrometer –Electron hole –Electron –Electronic amplifier –Electronic color code –Color code –Electronic data processing –Electronic deception –Electronic design automation –Electronic filter –Filter –Electronic imager –Electronic mixer –Electronic musical instrument –Electronic oscillator –Electronic power supply –Electronic switching system –Electronic tagging –Electronic test equipment –Electronic warfare support measures –Electronics –Electro-optic effect –Electro-optic modulator –Electro-optics –Electrostatic discharge –Electrostatics –Emergency Locator Transmitter –Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon –Emitter coupled logic –End distortion –Endurability –Enhanced service –Entropy encoding –Equilibrium length –Equivalent impedance transforms -Equivalent noise resistance –Equivalent pulse code modulation noise –Error burst –Error ratio –Error-correcting code –E-skip –Examples of electrical phenomena –Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) –Eye pattern

text: Earphone

text: Earpiece

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: EDIF

text: EEPROM

text: Effective antenna gain contour

text: Effective boresight area

text: Effective data transfer rate

text: Effective Earth radius

text: Effective height

text: Effective input noise temperature

text: Effective isotropically radiated power

text: Effective monopole radiated power

text: Effective radiated power

text: Effective transmission rate

text: Efficiency factor

text: E-layer

text: Electric charge

text: Electric current

text: Electric field

text: Electric motor

text: Electric power transmission

text: Electric power

text: Electrical conduction

text: Electrical conductivity

text: Electrical connector

text: Electrical current

text: Electrical efficiency

text: Element

text: Electrical engineering

text: Electrical generator

text: Impedance

text: Insulation

text: Electrical length

text: Load

text: Electrical network

text: Circuit

text: Electrical resistance

text: Electrical room

text: Electrical signal

text: Electricity distribution

text: Electricity

text: Electrochemical cell

text: Electrochemistry

text: Electrode

text: Electrodynamics

text: Electrolytic capacitor

text: Electromagnetic environment

text: Electromagnetic induction

text: Electromagnetic interference control

text: Electromagnetic pulse

text: Electromagnetic radiation and health

text: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: Electromagnetic survivability

text: Electromagnetism

text: Electrometer

text: Electron hole

text: Electron

text: Electronic amplifier

text: Electronic color code

text: Color code

text: Electronic data processing

text: Electronic deception

text: Electronic design automation

text: Electronic filter

text: Filter

text: Electronic imager

text: Electronic mixer

text: Electronic musical instrument

text: Electronic oscillator

text: Electronic power supply

text: Electronic switching system

text: Electronic tagging

text: Electronic test equipment

text: Electronic warfare support measures

text: Electronics

text: Electro-optic effect

text: Electro-optic modulator

text: Electro-optics

text: Electrostatic discharge

text: Electrostatics

entity_name: Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon station

text: Emergency Locator Transmitter

text: Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon

text: Emitter coupled logic

text: End distortion

text: Endurability

text: Enhanced service

text: Entropy encoding

text: Equilibrium length

text: Equivalent impedance transforms

text: Equivalent noise resistance

text: Equivalent pulse code modulation noise

text: Error burst

text: Error ratio

text: Error-correcting code

text: E-skip

text: Examples of electrical phenomena

text: Extremely Low Frequency

text: (ELF) –

text: Eye pattern

text: The magnetosphere guides cosmic ray and solar energetic particles to polar latitudes, while high energy charged particles enter the mesosphere, stratosphere and troposphere. These energetic particles at the top of the atmosphere shatter atmospheric atoms and molecules, creating harmful lower energy particles that penetrate deep into the atmosphere and create measurable radiation. All aircraft flying above 8 km (26,200 feet) altitude are exposed to these particles. The dose exposure is greater in polar regions than at mid-latitude and equatorial regions. Many commercial aircraft fly over the polar region. When a space weather event causes radiation exposure to exceed the safe level set by aviation authorities, the aircraft's flight path is diverted.

text: The magnetosphere guides cosmic ray and

text: solar energetic particles

text: to polar latitudes, while high energy charged particles enter the mesosphere, stratosphere and troposphere. These energetic particles at the top of the atmosphere shatter atmospheric atoms and molecules, creating harmful lower energy particles that penetrate deep into the atmosphere and create measurable radiation. All aircraft flying above 8 km (26,200 feet) altitude are exposed to these particles. The dose exposure is greater in polar regions than at mid-latitude and equatorial regions. Many commercial aircraft fly over the polar region. When a space weather event causes radiation exposure to exceed the safe level set by aviation authorities, the aircraft's flight path is diverted.

text: In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.

text: In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its

text: atomic

text: molecular

text: or aggregate

text: structure

text: . Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an

text: increase

text: or

text: decrease

text: of

text: energy

text: of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or

text: light

text: ; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants.

text: where A and B are tabulated constants for various gases. In the diagram supplied, we plot the gain characteristics for nitrogen with A=9.0 and B=256.5 valid in the range 75–450 V/(Pa·m) for the ratio E/p. We should note that in ESEM work the product pd<3 Pa·m, since at higher values no useful beam is transmitted through the gas layer to the specimen surface. The gray-shaded area shows the region of GDD operation provided also that the γ processes are very low and do not trigger a breakdown of the proportional amplification. This area contains the maxima of the gain curves, which further re-enforces the successful application of this technology to ESEM. The curves outside the shaded area can be used with beam energy greater than 30 kV, and in future development of environmental or atmospheric transmission scanning electron microscopes employing very high beam energy.

text: where A and B are tabulated constants for various gases. In the diagram supplied, we plot the

text: gain characteristics

text: for nitrogen with A=9.0 and B=256.5 valid in the range 75–450 V/(Pa·m) for the ratio E/p. We should note that in ESEM work the product pd<3 Pa·m, since at higher values no useful beam is transmitted through the gas layer to the specimen surface. The gray-shaded area shows the region of GDD operation provided also that the γ processes are very low and do not trigger a breakdown of the proportional amplification. This area contains the maxima of the gain curves, which further re-enforces the successful application of this technology to ESEM. The curves outside the shaded area can be used with beam energy greater than 30 kV, and in future development of environmental or atmospheric transmission scanning electron microscopes employing very high beam energy.

text: The phenomenon of s-p mixing occurs when molecular orbitals of the same symmetry formed from the combination of 2s and 2p atomic orbitals are close enough in energy to further interact, which can lead to a change in the expected order of orbital energies.When molecular orbitals are formed, they are mathematically obtained from linear combinations of the starting atomic orbitals. Generally, in order to predict their relative energies, it is sufficient to consider only one atomic orbital from each atom to form a pair of molecular orbitals, as the contributions from the others are negligible. For instance, in dioxygen the 3σ MO can be roughly considered to be formed from interaction of oxygen 2p AOs only. It is found to be lower in energy than the 1π MO, both experimentally and from more sophisticated computational models, so that the expected order of filling is the 3σ before the 1π. Hence the approximation to ignore the effects of further interactions is valid. However, experimental and computational results for homonuclear diatomics from Li to N and certain heteronuclear combinations such as CO and NO show that the 3σ MO is higher in energy than (and therefore filled after) the 1π MO. This can be rationalised as the first-approximation 3σ has a suitable symmetry to interact with the 2σ bonding MO formed from the 2s AOs. As a result, the 2σ is lowered in energy, whilst the 3σ is raised. For the aforementioned molecules this results in the 3σ being higher in energy than the 1π MO, which is where s-p mixing is most evident. Likewise, interaction between the 2σ* and 3σ* MOs leads to a lowering in energy of the former and a raising in energy of the latter. However this is of less significance than the interaction of the bonding MOs.

text: Kinetic energy can be passed from one object to another. In the game of billiards, the player imposes kinetic energy on the cue ball by striking it with the cue stick. If the cue ball collides with another ball, it slows down dramatically and the ball it collided with accelerates to a speed as the kinetic energy is passed on to it. Collisions in billiards are effectively elastic collisions, in which kinetic energy is preserved. In inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is dissipated in various forms of energy, such as heat, sound, binding energy (breaking bound structures).

text: Kinetic energy can be passed from one object to another. In the game of

text: billiards

text: , the player imposes kinetic energy on the cue ball by striking it with the cue stick. If the cue ball collides with another ball, it slows down dramatically and the ball it collided with accelerates to a speed as the kinetic energy is passed on to it.

text: Collisions

text: in billiards are effectively

text: elastic collision

text: s, in which kinetic energy is preserved. In

text: inelastic collision

text: s, kinetic energy is dissipated in various forms of energy, such as heat, sound, binding energy (breaking bound structures).

text: Whenever any type of energy is removed from a system, the mass associated with the energy is also removed, and the system therefore loses mass. This mass defect in the system may be simply calculated as , and this was the form of the equation historically first presented by Einstein in 1905. However, use of this formula in such circumstances has led to the false idea that mass has been "converted" to energy. This may be particularly the case when the energy (and mass) removed from the system is associated with the binding energy of the system. In such cases, the binding energy is observed as a "mass defect" or deficit in the new system.

text: The study of the functioning of Continental surfaces requires the understanding of the various energetic and physiologic mechanisms that influence these surfaces. For example, the radiation absorbed in the visible spectral domain is the major energy source for vegetation photosynthesis. Moreover, energy and mass fluxes at the "Earth - Atmosphere" interface affect surface functioning, and consequently climatology.

text: At the start of the 19th century the idea that plants could synthesise almost all their tissues from atmospheric gases had not yet emerged. The energy component of photosynthesis, the capture and storage of the Sun's radiant energy in carbon bonds (a process on which all life depends) was first elucidated in 1847 by Mayer, but the details of how this was done would take many more years. Chlorophyll was named in 1818 and its chemistry gradually determined, to be finally resolved in the early 20th century. The mechanism of photosynthesis remained a mystery until the mid-19th century when Sachs, in 1862, noted that starch was formed in green cells only in the presence of light and in 1882 he confirmed carbohydrates as the starting point for all other organic compounds in plants. The connection between the pigment chlorophyll and starch production was finally made in 1864 but tracing the precise biochemical pathway of starch formation did not begin until about 1915.

text: At the start of the 19th century the idea that plants could synthesise almost all their tissues from atmospheric gases had not yet emerged. The energy component of photosynthesis, the capture and storage of the Sun's radiant energy in carbon bonds (a process on which all life depends) was first elucidated in 1847 by

text: Mayer

text: , but the details of how this was done would take many more years. Chlorophyll was named in 1818 and its chemistry gradually determined, to be finally resolved in the early 20th century. The mechanism of photosynthesis remained a mystery until the mid-19th century when Sachs, in 1862, noted that starch was formed in green cells only in the presence of light and in 1882 he confirmed carbohydrates as the starting point for all other organic compounds in plants. The connection between the pigment chlorophyll and starch production was finally made in 1864 but tracing the precise biochemical pathway of starch formation did not begin until about 1915.

text: A thermal plasma can deliver the energy to vaporize small micrometer-size particles. The thermal plasma temperatures are in the order of 10,000 K, so that solid powder easily evaporates. Nanoparticles are formed upon cooling while exiting the plasma region. The main types of the thermal plasma torches used to produce nanoparticles are dc plasma jet, dc arc plasma, and radio frequency (RF) induction plasmas. In the arc plasma reactors, the energy necessary for evaporation and reaction is provided by an electric arc formed between the anode and the cathode. For example, silica sand can be vaporized with an arc plasma at atmospheric pressure, or thin aluminum wires can be vaporized by exploding wire method. The resulting mixture of plasma gas and silica vapour can be rapidly cooled by quenching with oxygen, thus ensuring the quality of the fumed silica produced.

text: A

text: thermal plasma

text: can deliver the energy to vaporize small micrometer-size particles. The thermal plasma temperatures are in the order of 10,000 K, so that solid powder easily evaporates. Nanoparticles are formed upon cooling while exiting the plasma region. The main types of the thermal plasma torches used to produce nanoparticles are dc plasma jet, dc arc plasma, and radio frequency (RF) induction plasmas. In the arc plasma reactors, the energy necessary for evaporation and reaction is provided by an electric arc formed between the anode and the cathode. For example, silica sand can be vaporized with an arc plasma at atmospheric pressure, or thin aluminum wires can be vaporized by

text: exploding wire method

text: . The resulting mixture of plasma gas and silica vapour can be rapidly cooled by quenching with oxygen, thus ensuring the quality of the fumed silica produced.

text: On the other hand, for systems which are unbound, the "closure" of the system may be enforced by an idealized surface, inasmuch as no mass-energy can be allowed into or out of the test-volume over time, if conservation of system invariant mass is to hold during that time. If a force is allowed to act on (do work on) only one part of such an unbound system, this is equivalent to allowing energy into or out of the system, and the condition of "closure" to mass-energy (total isolation) is violated. In this case, conservation of invariant mass of the system also will no longer hold. Such a loss of rest mass in systems when energy is removed, according to E=mc where E is the energy removed, and m is the change in rest mass, reflect changes of mass associated with movement of energy, not "conversion" of mass to energy.

text: The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the low frequencies used for modern radio communication to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength (high-frequency) end, thereby covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom.  Visible light lies toward the shorter end, with wavelengths from 400 to 700 nanometres.  The limit for long wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length. Until the middle of the 20th century it was believed by most physicists that this spectrum was infinite and continuous.

text: The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the low frequencies used for modern

text: radio

text: communication to

text: gamma radiation

text: at the short-

text: wavelength

text: (high-frequency) end, thereby covering wavelengths from thousands of

text: kilometer

text: s down to a

text: fraction

text: of the size of an

text: atom

text: Visible light

text: lies toward the shorter end, with wavelengths from 400 to 700

text: nanometre

text: s.  The limit for long wavelengths is the size of the

text: universe

text: itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the

text: Planck length

text: . Until the middle of the 20th century it was believed by most physicists that this spectrum was

text: infinite

text: and

text: continuous

text: The waveguide E band is the range of radio frequencies from 60 GHz to 90 GHz in the electromagnetic spectrum, corresponding to the recommended frequency band of operation of WR12 waveguides. These frequencies are equivalent to wave lengths between 5 mm and 3.333 mm. The E band is in the EHF range of the radio spectrum.

text: The

text: waveguide

text: E band is the range of

text: radio frequencies

text: from 60 GHz to 90 GHz in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , corresponding to the recommended frequency band of operation of

text: wave length

text: s between 5 mm and 3.333 mm. The E band is in the

text: EHF

text: range of the

text: radio spectrum

text: Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle and the heat energy instead ends up in the atmosphere.

text: Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against

text: aerodynamic heating

text: . The theory behind reentry was developed by

text: Harry Julian Allen

text: . Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle and the heat energy instead ends up in the atmosphere.

text: Many tropical cyclones develop when the atmospheric conditions around a weak disturbance in the atmosphere are favorable. Others form when other types of cyclones acquire tropical characteristics. Tropical systems are then moved by steering winds in the troposphere; if the conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensifies, and can even develop an eye. On the other end of the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system weakens and eventually dissipates.    A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses;  From an operational standpoint, a tropical cyclone is usually not considered to become a subtropical cyclone during its extratropical transition.

text: Many tropical cyclones

text: develop

text: when the atmospheric conditions around a weak disturbance in the atmosphere are favorable. Others form when

text: other types of cyclones

text: acquire tropical characteristics. Tropical systems are then moved by steering winds in the

text: troposphere

text: ; if the conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensifies, and can even develop an

text: eye

text: . On the other end of the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system weakens and eventually dissipates.    A tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air masses;  From an operational standpoint, a tropical cyclone is usually not considered to become a

text: subtropical cyclone

text: during its extratropical transition.

text: Indeed, a very carefully designed and durable, energy-efficient and energy-capturing building has the potential to sequester (in its carbon-rich construction materials), as much as or more carbon than was released by the acquisition and incorporation of all its materials and than will be released by building-function "energy-imports" during the structure's (potentially multi-century) existence.  Such a structure might be termed "carbon neutral" or even "carbon negative". Building construction and operation (electricity usage, heating, etc.) are estimated to contribute nearly half of the annual human-caused carbon additions to the atmosphere.

text: Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The lower-energy, longer-wavelength part of the spectrum including visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves is non-ionizing; its main effect when interacting with tissue is heating. This type of radiation only damages cells if the intensity is high enough to cause excessive heating. Ultraviolet radiation has some features of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. While the part of the ultraviolet spectrum that penetrates the Earth's atmosphere is non-ionizing, this radiation does far more damage to many molecules in biological systems than can be accounted for by heating effects, sunburn being a well-known example. These properties derive from ultraviolet's power to alter chemical bonds, even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms.

text: Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of

text: ultraviolet light

text: constitute the ionizing part of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . The lower-energy, longer-wavelength part of the spectrum including visible light,

text: infrared light

text: microwaves

text: , and radio waves is non-ionizing; its main effect when interacting with tissue is heating. This type of radiation only damages cells if the intensity is high enough to cause excessive heating. Ultraviolet radiation has some features of both ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. While the part of the ultraviolet spectrum that penetrates the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is non-ionizing, this radiation does far more damage to many molecules in biological systems than can be accounted for by heating effects,

text: sunburn

text: being a well-known example. These properties derive from ultraviolet's power to alter chemical bonds, even without having quite enough energy to ionize atoms.

text: An object's or space's temperature increases when heat energy moves into it, increasing the average kinetic energy of its atoms, e.g., of things and air in a room.  Heat energy leaving an object or space lowers its temperature.  Heat flows from one place to another (always from a higher temperature to a lower one) by one or more of three processes: conduction, convection and radiation. In conduction, energy is passed from one atom to another by direct contact. In convection, heat energy moves by conduction into some movable fluid (such as air or water) and the fluid moves from one place to another, carrying the heat with it.  At some point the heat energy in the fluid is usually transferred to some other object by means conduction again.  The movement of the fluid can be driven by negative-buoyancy, as when cooler (and therefore denser) air drops and thus upwardly displaces warmer (less-dense) air (natural convection), or by fans or pumps (forced convection).  In radiation, the heated atoms make electromagnetic emissions absorbed by remote other atoms, whether nearby or at astronomical distance. For example, the Sun radiates heat as both invisible and visible electromagnetic energy. What we know as "light" is but a narrow region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: An object's or space's temperature increases when heat energy moves into it, increasing the average kinetic energy of its atoms, e.g., of things and air in a room.  Heat energy leaving an object or space lowers its temperature.  Heat flows from one place to another (always from a higher temperature to a lower one) by one or more of three processes:

text: conduction

text: convection

text: and

text: radiation

text: . In conduction, energy is passed from one atom to another by direct contact. In convection, heat energy moves by conduction into some movable fluid (such as air or water) and the fluid moves from one place to another, carrying the heat with it.  At some point the heat energy in the fluid is usually transferred to some other object by means conduction again.  The movement of the fluid can be driven by negative-buoyancy, as when cooler (and therefore denser) air drops and thus upwardly displaces warmer (less-dense) air (

text: natural convection

text: ), or by fans or pumps (

text: forced convection

text: ).  In radiation, the heated atoms make electromagnetic emissions absorbed by remote other atoms, whether nearby or at astronomical distance. For example, the Sun radiates heat as both invisible and visible electromagnetic energy. What we know as "light" is but a narrow region of the electromagnetic spectrum.

text: In the Earth's atmosphere, water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy, while others are not absorbed. Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb, are like windows in the atmosphere, allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system. Like a window, that allows light to enter and leave.  Originally discovered by John Tyndall, most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked, absorbed by water vapor (and other greenhouse gases)in the Earth's atmosphere. Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface, are coming through what is called 'water vapor windows'.   These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes, called Infrared astronomy. These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet, the SSTs and other important matters.  See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water

text: In the Earth's atmosphere,

text: water vapor

text: absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy, while others are not absorbed. Those sections of the

text: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: that it does not absorb, are like windows in the atmosphere, allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system. Like a window, that allows light to enter and leave.  Originally discovered by

text: John Tyndall

text: , most of the

text: infrared

text: coming from the Universe is blocked, absorbed by water vapor (and other

text: greenhouse gases

text: )in the Earth's atmosphere. Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface, are coming through what is called 'water vapor windows'.   These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes, called

text: Infrared astronomy

text: . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet, the SSTs and other important matters.  See

text: The Sun emits energy across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Solar energy strikes the surface of objects. Some of that energy is absorbed and stored as heat (thermal energy). After sunset, this thermal energy remains and is emitted in the form of IR radiation.

text: The Sun emits energy across the entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . Solar energy strikes the surface of objects. Some of that energy is absorbed and stored as heat (

text: thermal energy

text: ). After sunset, this thermal energy remains and is emitted in the form of IR radiation.

text: The sun is the primary source of energy for living organisms. Some living organisms like plants need sunlight directly while other organisms like humans can acquire energy from the sun indirectly. There is however evidence that some bacteria can thrive in harsh environments like Antarctica as evidence by the blue-green algae beneath thick layers of ice in the lakes. No matter what the type of living species, all living organisms must capture, transduce, store, and use energy to live.

text: The Anvil is the second studio album by the British rock/pop band Visage, released in March 1982 by Polydor Records. The album reached No. 6 in the UK and was certified "Silver" by the British Phonographic Industry in April 1982.  The Anvil was a legendary Gay after hours club where famous Danceteria DJ Bill Bahlman created the extremely popular "New Wave Nights at the Anvil"  One night Bahlman invited Visage lead singer Steve Strange.  So impressed with the power and fun of the energy charged, steamy atmosphere, he named his second album "The Anvil"  Several of the tracks are his attempt to capture that energy on vinyl.

text: The Anvil is the second studio album by the British rock/pop band

text: Visage

text: , released in March 1982 by

text: Polydor Records

text: . The album reached No. 6 in the UK and was certified "Silver" by the British Phonographic Industry in April 1982.  The Anvil was a legendary Gay after hours club where famous Danceteria DJ Bill Bahlman created the extremely popular "New Wave Nights at the Anvil"  One night Bahlman invited Visage lead singer Steve Strange.  So impressed with the power and fun of the energy charged, steamy atmosphere, he named his second album "The Anvil"  Several of the tracks are his attempt to capture that energy on vinyl.

text: Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation. The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. Dark bands in the absorption spectrum are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer. The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the beam. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. A similar phenomenon occurs for emission, which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat. As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation. An example is the emission spectrum of nebulae. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature.

text: Together, wave and particle effects fully explain the emission and absorption spectra of EM radiation. The matter-composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption and emission spectrum. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. Dark bands in the

text: absorption spectrum

text: are due to the atoms in an intervening medium between source and observer. The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the beam. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant

text: star

text: are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere. A similar phenomenon occurs for

text: emission

text: , which is seen when an emitting gas glows due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat. As electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum is emitted that represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons, but lines are seen because again emission happens only at particular energies after excitation. An example is the

text: emission

text: spectrum of

text: nebula

text: e. Rapidly moving electrons are most sharply accelerated when they encounter a region of force, so they are responsible for producing much of the highest frequency electromagnetic radiation observed in nature.

text: The Sun delivers almost 4 million exajoules (EJ) of energy to the Earth. Various technologies are being developed to exploit this huge energy source.

text: The

text: Sun

text: delivers almost 4 million

text: exajoules

text: (EJ) of energy to the Earth. Various technologies are being developed to exploit this huge energy source.

text:
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 36| March 1| @ Orlando| | Kevin Durant (38)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Amway Center
18,846| 29–7|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 37| March 3| @ Atlanta| | Kevin Durant (35)| Kevin Durant (8)| Russell Westbrook (4)| Philips Arena
18,087| 29–8|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 38| March 5| Dallas| | Russell Westbrook (24)| Kendrick Perkins (14)| James Harden (4)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 30–8|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 39| March 7| Phoenix| | Russell Westbrook (31)| Serge Ibaka (20)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 31–8|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 40| March 9| Cleveland| | Kevin Durant (23)| Kevin Durant (8)| Kevin Durant (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 31–9|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 41| March 10| Charlotte| | James Harden (33)| Kevin Durant (7)| Reggie Jackson (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 32–9|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 42| March 13| Houston| | Kevin Durant (28)| Kevin Durant (12)| James Harden (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 32–10|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 43| March 15| @ Denver| | Kevin Durant (24)| Kevin Durant (8)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Pepsi Center
18,458| 33–10|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 44| March 16| San Antonio| | Russell Westbrook (36)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 33–11|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 45| March 18| Portland| | Russell Westbrook (28)| Serge Ibaka (8)| James Harden (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 34–11|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 46| March 20| @ Utah| | Russell Westbrook (23)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (3)| EnergySolutions Arena
18,138| 34–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 47| March 21| L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (9)| Kevin Durant
James Harden (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 35–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 48| March 23| Minnesota| | Russell Westbrook (45)| Kevin Durant (17)| James Harden
Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 36–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 49| March 25| Miami| | Kevin Durant (28)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Kevin Durant (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 37–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 50| March 27| @ Portland| | Russell Westbrook (32)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Rose Garden
20,626| 38–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 51| March 29| @ L.A. Lakers| | Russell Westbrook (36)| Kevin Durant (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Staples Center
18,997| 39–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 52| April 1| Chicago| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook  (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–12|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 53| April 2| Memphis| | Kevin Durant (21)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| James Harden (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–13|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 54| April 4| @ Miami| | Kevin Durant (30)| Serge Ibaka
Kendrick Perkins
Nick Collison (7)| James Harden (5)| American Airlines Arena
20,104| 40–14|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 55| April 6| @ Indiana| | Kevin Durant (44)| Russell Westbrook  (11)| Russell Westbrook  (9)| Bankers Life Fieldhouse
18,165| 40–15|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 56| April 8| Toronto| | Kevin Durant (23)| Nick Collison (9)| Russell Westbrook  (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 41–15|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 57| April 9| @ Milwaukee| | Russell Westbrook  (26)| Kendrick Perkins
Russell Westbrook
Nick Collison (7)| Kevin Durant (8)| Bradley Center
14,111| 42–15|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 58| April 11| L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (22)| Kevin Durant (9)| Russell Westbrook  (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42–16|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 59| April 13| Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (29)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| Russell Westbrook  (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 43–16|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 60| April 14| @ Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (43)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Russell Westbrook  (8)| Target Center
19,552| 44–16|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 61| April 16| @ L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (24)| Kendrick Perkins (9)| James Harden
Russell Westbrook (3)| Staples Center
19,516| 44–17|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 62| April 18| @ Phoenix| | James Harden (40)| Kevin Durant (11)| | Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook (5)| US Airways Center
14,873| 45–17|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 63| April 20| @ Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (29)| Kevin Durant (14)| Kevin Durant (7)| Power Balance Pavilion
16,882| 46–17|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 64| April 22| @ L.A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (35)| Serge Ibaka (14)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Staples Center
18,997| 46–18|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 65| April 24| Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 47–18|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 66| April 25| Denver| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kendrick Perkins
Russell Westbrook (6)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 47–19

text: |- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 36| March 1| @

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Amway Center

text: <br>18,846| 29–7|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 37| March 3| @

text: Atlanta

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Philips Arena

text: <br>18,087| 29–8|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 38| March 5|

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 30–8|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 39| March 7|

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 31–8|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 40| March 9|

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 31–9|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 41| March 10|

text: Charlotte

text: James Harden

text: Kevin Durant

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 32–9|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 42| March 13|

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 32–10|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 43| March 15| @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>18,458| 33–10|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 44| March 16|

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 33–11|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 45| March 18|

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 34–11|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 46| March 20| @

text: Utah

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: EnergySolutions Arena

text: <br>18,138| 34–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 47| March 21|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 35–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 48| March 23|

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: James Harden

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 36–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 49| March 25|

text: Miami

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 37–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 50| March 27| @

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Rose Garden

text: <br>20,626| 38–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 51| March 29| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 39–12|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 52| April 1|

text: Chicago

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–12|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 53| April 2|

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–13|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 54| April 4| @

text: Miami

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: <br>

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: <br>

text: Nick Collison

text: James Harden

text: American Airlines Arena

text: <br>20,104| 40–14|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 55| April 6| @

text: Indiana

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Bankers Life Fieldhouse

text: <br>18,165| 40–15|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 56| April 8|

text: Toronto

text: Kevin Durant

text: Nick Collison

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 41–15|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 57| April 9| @

text: Milwaukee

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: Nick Collison

text: Kevin Durant

text: Bradley Center

text: <br>14,111| 42–15|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 58| April 11|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42–16|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 59| April 13|

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 43–16|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 60| April 14| @

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>19,552| 44–16|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 61| April 16| @

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: James Harden

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,516| 44–17|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 62| April 18| @

text: Phoenix

text: James Harden

text: Kevin Durant

text: (11)| |

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>14,873| 45–17|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 63| April 20| @

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Power Balance Pavilion

text: <br>16,882| 46–17|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 64| April 22| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 46–18|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 65| April 24|

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 47–18|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 66| April 25|

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 47–19

text: Prisms, mirrors, and lenses have a long history of altering the diffracted visible light that surrounds all. However, the control exhibited by these ordinary materials is limited. Moreover, the one material which is common among these three types of directors of light is conventional glass. Hence, these familiar technologies are constrained by the fundamental, physical laws of optics. With metamaterials in general, and the cloaking technology in particular, it appears these barriers disintegrate with advancements in materials and technologies never before realized in the natural physical sciences. These unique materials became notable because electromagnetic radiation can be bent, reflected, or skewed in new ways. The radiated light could even be slowed or captured before transmission. In other words, new ways to focus and project light and other radiation are being developed. Furthermore, the expanded optical powers presented in the science of cloaking objects appear to be technologically beneficial across a wide spectrum of devices already in use. This means that every device with basic functions that rely on interaction with the radiated electromagnetic spectrum could technologically advance. With these beginning steps a whole new class of optics has been established.

text: Prism

text: s,

text: mirror

text: s, and

text: lens

text: es have a long history of altering the diffracted visible light that surrounds all. However, the control exhibited by these ordinary materials is limited. Moreover, the one material which is common among these three types of directors of light is conventional

text: glass

text: . Hence, these familiar

text: technologies

text: are constrained by the fundamental, physical

text: laws of optics

text: . With metamaterials in general, and the cloaking technology in particular, it appears these barriers disintegrate with advancements in materials and technologies never before realized in the

text: natural physical sciences

text: . These unique materials became notable because electromagnetic radiation can be bent, reflected, or skewed in new ways. The radiated light could even be slowed or captured before transmission. In other words, new ways to focus and project light and other radiation are being developed. Furthermore, the expanded optical powers presented in the science of cloaking objects appear to be technologically beneficial across a wide spectrum of devices already in use. This means that every device with basic functions that rely on interaction with the radiated

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: could technologically advance. With these beginning steps a whole new class of optics has been established.

text: The NWSC data center is funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the State of Wyoming, and is operated by the National Center for Atmospheric Research. It was created through a partnership between the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR), the State of Wyoming, the University of Wyoming, Cheyenne LEADS, the Wyoming Business Council, and Cheyenne Light Fuel and Power Company. Consistent with NCAR’s mission, the center is a leader in energy efficiency, incorporating the newest and most efficient designs and technologies available. Planning for this data center began in 2003, groundbreaking at the North Range Business Park in Cheyenne took place in June 2010, and computing operations began in October 2012.

text: The NWSC

text: data center

text: is funded by the

text: National Science Foundation

text: (NSF) and the

text: State of Wyoming

text: , and is operated by the

text: . It was created through a partnership between the

entity_name: University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

text: University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

text: (UCAR), the State of Wyoming, the

text: University of Wyoming

text: , Cheyenne LEADS, the

text: Wyoming Business Council

text: , and

text: Cheyenne Light Fuel and Power Company

text: . Consistent with NCAR’s mission, the center is a leader in

text: energy efficiency

text: , incorporating the newest and most efficient designs and technologies available. Planning for this data center began in 2003, groundbreaking at the North Range Business Park in Cheyenne took place in June 2010, and computing operations began in October 2012.

text: A couple of decades ahead of Newton's publication of a particle theory of light, the Dutch Christiaan Huygens [1629–1695] developed the wave theory of light, published in 1690.  By 1804, Thomas Young's double-slit experiment revealed an interference pattern as though light were a wave, and thus Huygens's wave theory of light, as well as Huygens's inference that light waves were vibrations of the luminiferous aether was accepted.  Jean-Augustin Fresnel modeled hypothetical behavior of the aether.  Michael Faraday introduced the theoretical concept of a field—not action at a distance.  Mid-19th century, the Scottish James Clerk Maxwell [1831–1879] reduced electricity and magnetism to Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory, whittled down by others to the four Maxwell's equations.  Initially, optics was found consequent of Maxwell's field.  Later, radiation and then today's known electromagnetic spectrum were found also consequent of this electromagnetic field.

text: A couple of decades ahead of Newton's publication of a particle theory of light, the Dutch

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: [1629–1695] developed the wave theory of light, published in 1690.  By 1804,

text: Thomas Young

text: 's double-slit experiment revealed an interference pattern as though light were a wave, and thus Huygens's wave theory of light, as well as Huygens's inference that light waves were vibrations of the

text: luminiferous aether

text: was accepted.

text: Jean-Augustin Fresnel

text: modeled hypothetical behavior of the aether.

text: Michael Faraday

text: introduced the theoretical concept of a field—not action at a distance.  Mid-19th century, the Scottish

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: [1831–1879] reduced electricity and magnetism to Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory, whittled down by others to the four

text: Maxwell's equations

text: .  Initially, optics was found consequent of Maxwell's field.  Later, radiation and then today's known

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: were found also consequent of this electromagnetic field.

text: A Bonner sphere is a device used to determine the energy spectrum of a neutron beam.  The method was first described in 1960 by Rice University's Bramblett, Ewing and Tom W. Bonner and employs thermal neutron detectors embedded in moderating spheres of different sizes.  Comparison of the neutrons detected by each sphere allows accurate determination of the neutron energy.  This detector system utilizes a few channel unfolding technique to determine the coarse, few group neutron spectrum.  The original detector system was capable of measuring neutrons between thermal energies up to ~20 MeV.  These detectors have been modified to provide additional resolution above 20 MeV to energies up to 1 GeV.

text: A Bonner sphere is a device used to determine the energy spectrum of a

text: neutron

text: beam.  The method was first described in 1960 by

text: Rice University

text: 's Bramblett, Ewing and

text: Tom W. Bonner

text: and employs thermal

text: neutron detectors

text: embedded in moderating spheres of different sizes.  Comparison of the neutrons detected by each sphere allows accurate determination of the

text: neutron energy

text: .  This detector system utilizes a few channel unfolding technique to determine the coarse, few group neutron spectrum.  The original detector system was capable of measuring neutrons between thermal energies up to ~20 MeV.  These detectors have been modified to provide additional resolution above 20 MeV to energies up to 1 GeV.

text: Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating. Although Neptune lies over 50% further from the Sun than Uranus, and receives only 40% its amount of sunlight, the two planets' surface temperatures are roughly equal. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of . At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals , the temperature is . Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is sufficient to drive the fastest planetary winds seen in the Solar System. Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is more difficult to simultaneously explain Uranus's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets.

text: Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher

text: internal heating

text: . Although Neptune lies over 50% further from the Sun than Uranus, and receives only 40% its amount of sunlight, the two planets' surface temperatures are roughly equal. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of . At a depth where the

text: atmospheric pressure

text: equals , the temperature is . Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun, yet its internal energy is sufficient to drive the fastest planetary winds seen in the Solar System. Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is more difficult to simultaneously explain

text: Uranus

text: 's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets.

text: As a result, the energy input of GCRs to the atmosphere is negligible – about 10 of solar radiation – roughly the same as starlight.

text: As a result, the energy input of GCRs to the atmosphere is negligible – about 10 of

text: solar radiation

text: – roughly the same as starlight.

text: A number of natural and man-made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force changes in Earth's climate. Greenhouse gases are one such mechanism. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb and re-emit some of the outgoing energy radiated from Earth's surface, causing that heat to be retained in the lower atmosphere. As explained above, some greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for decades or even centuries, and therefore can affect Earth's energy balance over a long time period. Factors that influence Earth's energy balance can be quantified in terms of "radiative climate forcing." Positive radiative forcing indicates warming (for example, by increasing incoming energy or decreasing the amount of energy that escapes to space), whereas negative forcing is associated with cooling.

text: A number of natural and man-made mechanisms can affect the global energy balance and force changes in Earth's climate. Greenhouse gases are one such mechanism. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb and re-emit some of the outgoing energy radiated from Earth's surface, causing that heat to be retained in the lower atmosphere. As

text: explained above

text: , some greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for decades or even centuries, and therefore can affect Earth's energy balance over a long time period. Factors that influence Earth's energy balance can be quantified in terms of "

text: radiative climate forcing

text: ." Positive radiative forcing indicates warming (for example, by increasing incoming energy or decreasing the amount of energy that escapes to space), whereas negative forcing is associated with cooling.

text: Color and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of fuel involved in the combustion, as, for example, when a lighter is held to a candle. The applied heat causes the fuel molecules in the candle wax to vaporize. In this state they can then readily react with oxygen in the air, which gives off enough heat in the subsequent exothermic reaction to vaporize yet more fuel, thus sustaining a consistent flame. The high temperature of the flame causes the vaporized fuel molecules to decompose, forming various incomplete combustion products and free radicals, and these products then react with each other and with the oxidizer involved in the reaction. Sufficient energy in the flame will excite the electrons in some of the transient reaction intermediates such as the Methylidyne radical (CH) and Diatomic carbon (C), which results in the emission of visible light as these substances release their excess energy (see spectrum below for an explanation of which specific radical species produce which specific colors). As the combustion temperature of a flame increases (if the flame contains small particles of unburnt carbon or other material), so does the average energy of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the flame (see Black body).

text: Color

text: and

text: temperature

text: of a flame are dependent on the type of

text: fuel

text: involved in the combustion, as, for example, when a

text: lighter

text: is held to a

text: candle

text: . The applied heat causes the fuel

text: molecules

text: in the

text: candle wax

text: to

text: vaporize

text: . In this state they can then readily react with

text: oxygen

text: in the

text: air

text: , which gives off enough

text: heat

text: in the subsequent exothermic reaction to vaporize yet more fuel, thus sustaining a consistent flame. The high temperature of the flame causes the vaporized fuel molecules to

text: decompose

text: , forming various incomplete combustion products and

text: free radicals

text: , and these products then react with each other and with the oxidizer involved in the reaction. Sufficient

text: energy

text: in the flame will

text: excite

text: the

text: electron

text: s in some of the transient reaction intermediates such as the

text: Methylidyne radical

text: (CH) and

text: Diatomic carbon

text: (C), which results in the emission of visible

text: light

text: as these substances release their excess energy (see spectrum below for an explanation of which specific radical species produce which specific colors). As the combustion temperature of a flame increases (if the flame contains small particles of

text: unburnt carbon

text: or other material), so does the average energy of the

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: given off by the flame (see

text: Black body

text: Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and GWP relative to  for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:

text: Examples of the atmospheric lifetime and

text: GWP

text: relative to  for several greenhouse gases are given in the following table:

text: 2050, Sweden will no longer contribute to the greenhouse effect. The vision is that net greenhouse gas emissions should be zero. The overall objective is that the increase in global temperature should be limited to two degrees, and that the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere stabilizes at a maximum of 400 ppm.

text: Sweden

text: will no longer contribute to the greenhouse effect. The vision is that net greenhouse gas emissions should be zero. The overall objective is that the increase in global temperature should be limited to two degrees, and that the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere stabilizes at a maximum of 400 ppm.

text: Many places on Mars show dark streaks on steep slopes like crater walls.  It seems that the youngest streaks are dark; then they become lighter with age.  Often they begin as a small narrow spot then widen and extend downhill for hundreds of meters.  They have been seen to travel around obstacles, like boulders. Several ideas have been advanced to explain the streaks.  Some involve water or even the growth of organisms.   It is most generally accepted that they represent avalanches of dust.  The streaks appear in areas covered with dust.  When a thin layer of dust is removed, the underlying surface is dark.  Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust.  Fine dust settles out of the atmosphere covering everything.  We know a lot about this dust because the solar panels of the Mars Rovers get covered with dust, thus reducing the electrical energy.  The power of the Rovers has been restored many times by the wind, in the form of dust devils, cleaning the panels and boosting the power.  So we know that dust falls from the atmosphere and is returned by dust devils over and over. Dust storms are frequent, especially when the spring season begins in the southern hemisphere.  At that time, Mars is 40% closer to the sun.  The orbit of Mars is much more elliptical then the Earth's.  That is the difference between the farthest point from the sun and the closest point to the sun is very great for Mars, but only a slight amount for the Earth.  Also, every few years, the entire planet is engulfed in a global dust storm.  When NASA's Mariner 9 craft arrived there, nothing could be seen through the dust storm. Other global dust storms have also been observed, since that time.

text: Mariner 9

text: craft arrived there, nothing could be seen through the dust storm. Other global dust storms have also been observed, since that time.

text: On one hand, some argue that it is better to use the energy stored in a tire than to put it in a landfill, in line with the waste hierarchy. On the other, it is difficult to justify introducing toxins into the atmosphere, and much energy can be saved by recycling the tires so that new ones do not need to be remanufactured from raw materials.

text: Multi-spectral camouflage is the use of counter-surveillance techniques to conceal objects from detection across several parts of the electromagnetic spectrum at the same time. While traditional military camouflage attempts to hide an object in the visible spectrum, multi-spectral camouflage also tries to simultaneously hide objects from detection methods such as infrared, radar, and millimetre-wave radar imaging.

text: Multi-spectral

text: camouflage

text: is the use of

text: counter-surveillance

text: techniques to

text: conceal objects from detection across several parts

text: of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: at the same time. While traditional

text: military camouflage

text: attempts to hide an object in the

text: visible spectrum

text: , multi-spectral camouflage also tries to simultaneously hide objects from detection methods such as

text: infrared

text: radar

text: , and

text: millimetre-wave

text: radar imaging

text: Woven fiberglass coated with PTFE (Teflon or silicone) is also a widely used base material. Glass fibers are drawn into continuous filaments, which are then bundled into yarns. The yarns are woven to form a substrate. The fiberglass carries a high ultimate tensile strength, behaves elastically, and does not suffer from significant stress relaxation or creep. The PTFE coating is chemically inert, can withstand temperatures from 100 °F upwards to 450 °F+. It is also immune to radiation and can be cleaned with water. PTFE fiberglass is additionally Energy Star and Cool Roof Rating Council certified. During scientific tests of its solar properties, it was discovered that PTFE fiberglass membranes reflect as much as 73 percent of the sun’s energy while holding just seven percent on its exterior surface. Certain grades of PTFE fiberglass can absorb 14 percent of the sun’s energy while allowing 13 percent of natural daylight and seven percent of re-radiated energy (solar heat) to transmit through.

text: Woven fiberglass coated with PTFE (

text: Teflon

text: or

text: silicone

text: ) is also a widely used base material. Glass fibers are drawn into continuous filaments, which are then bundled into yarns. The yarns are woven to form a substrate. The fiberglass carries a high ultimate tensile strength, behaves elastically, and does not suffer from significant

text: stress relaxation

text: or creep. The PTFE coating is

text: chemically inert

text: , can withstand temperatures from 100 °F upwards to 450 °F+. It is also immune to radiation and can be cleaned with water. PTFE fiberglass is additionally

text: Energy Star

text: and Cool Roof Rating Council certified. During scientific tests of its solar properties, it was discovered that PTFE fiberglass membranes reflect as much as 73 percent of the sun’s energy while holding just seven percent on its exterior surface. Certain grades of PTFE fiberglass can absorb 14 percent of the sun’s energy while allowing 13 percent of natural daylight and seven percent of re-radiated energy (solar heat) to transmit through.

text: Voyager 1 found that about 7 percent of the volume of Saturn's upper atmosphere is helium (compared with 11 percent of Jupiter's atmosphere), while almost all the rest is hydrogen. Since Saturn's internal helium abundance was expected to be the same as Jupiter's and the Sun's, the lower abundance of helium in the upper atmosphere may imply that the heavier helium may be slowly sinking through Saturn's hydrogen; that might explain the excess heat that Saturn radiates over energy it receives from the Sun. Winds blow at high speeds in Saturn. Near the equator, the Voyagers measured winds about 500 m/s (1,100 mph). The wind blows mostly in an easterly direction.

text: Voyager 1 found that about 7 percent of the volume of

text: Saturn

text: 's upper atmosphere is

text: helium

text: (compared with 11 percent of Jupiter's atmosphere), while almost all the rest is

text: hydrogen

text: . Since Saturn's internal helium abundance was expected to be the same as Jupiter's and the Sun's, the lower abundance of helium in the upper atmosphere may imply that the heavier helium may be slowly sinking through Saturn's hydrogen; that might explain the excess heat that Saturn radiates over energy it receives from the Sun. Winds blow at high speeds in

text: Saturn

text: . Near the equator, the Voyagers measured winds about 500 m/s (1,100

text: mph

text: ). The wind blows mostly in an easterly direction.

text: Pressure differences depend, in turn, the average temperature in the air column. As the sun does not heat the Earth evenly, there is a temperature difference between the poles and the equator, creating air masses with more or less homogeneous temperature with latitude. Differences in atmospheric pressure are also at the origin of the general atmospheric circulation while the air masses are separated by ribbons where temperature changes rapidly. These are the fronts. Along these areas, higher winds aloft form. These horizontal jets (jet streams) that can reach speeds of several hundred kilometers per hour, which can span thousands of kilometers in length, but can have only a few tens or hundreds of kilometers of width.

text: Pressure differences depend, in turn, the average temperature in the air column. As the sun does not heat the Earth evenly, there is a temperature difference between the poles and the equator, creating air masses with more or less homogeneous temperature with latitude. Differences in atmospheric pressure are also at the origin of the general

text: atmospheric circulation

text: while the air masses are separated by ribbons where temperature changes rapidly. These are the fronts. Along these areas, higher winds aloft form. These horizontal jets (jet streams) that can reach speeds of several hundred kilometers per hour, which can span thousands of kilometers in length, but can have only a few tens or hundreds of kilometers of width.

text: The electromagnetic spectrum is a plot of the field magnitudes (or energies) as a function of wavelength.

text: The

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: is a plot of the field magnitudes (or energies) as a function of wavelength.

text: Like the author’s bestseller A Thousand Barrels a Second: The Coming Oil Break Point and the Challenges Facing an Energy Dependent World (2006), The End of Energy Obesity examines the energy industry by tracing the historical relationship between technological innovation and societal response. Tertzakian coined the term "break point" to describe both the pressures that force the displacement of an incumbent energy source and the subsequent “rebalancing” around a new energy paradigm. An important catalyst for The End of Energy Obesity appears to be the author’s conviction that the world is currently in the midst of a break point of prodigious significance where oil, "the gold standard of energy utility" (p. 101), will see its market preeminence undermined. Signs of break point pressures are legion and include: the triple digit crude oil prices reached in 2008, accelerated economic growth in the populous BRIC countries, widening prevalence of legislative and fiscal measures to address assumed anthropogenic climate change, energy independence policymaking in support of renewable energy and the energy-price influenced global recession. Historical analogues to the current break point are the shift from wood to coal with the industrial revolution and from coal to oil during the World War I. The current rebalancing of the energy mix is substantively different from historical precedents. With the possible exception of natural gas, there are still no other energy sources with adequate utility to take significant market share from oil, let alone supplant it. The rebalancing underway will be effected only in part by an increase of supply from alternative sources. Tertzakian believes that the cross-fertilization of information, communication and energy technologies promises dramatic improvement in conservation practices and energy efficiency. He cites telepresence technology,  smart grid networks, Skype telephony and virtualization software as potential "break point innovations" that could dramatically change energy needs by reconfiguring the ways people live, work and play.

text: Like the author’s bestseller A Thousand Barrels a Second: The Coming Oil Break Point and the Challenges Facing an Energy Dependent World (2006), The End of Energy Obesity examines the

text: energy industry

text: by tracing the historical relationship between

text: technological innovation

text: and societal response. Tertzakian coined the term "break point" to describe both the pressures that force the displacement of an incumbent

text: energy source

text: and the subsequent “rebalancing” around a new energy paradigm. An important catalyst for The End of Energy Obesity appears to be the author’s conviction that the world is currently in the midst of a break point of prodigious significance where

text: oil

text: , "the gold standard of energy utility" (p. 101), will see its market preeminence undermined. Signs of break point pressures are legion and include: the triple digit crude oil prices reached in 2008, accelerated economic growth in the populous

text: BRIC countries

text: , widening prevalence of legislative and fiscal measures to address assumed anthropogenic

text: climate change

text: energy independence

text: policymaking in support of

text: renewable energy

text: and the energy-price influenced

text: global recession

text: . Historical analogues to the current break point are the shift from

text: wood

text: to

text: coal

text: with the

text: industrial revolution

text: and from coal to oil during the

text: World War I

text: . The current rebalancing of the energy mix is substantively different from historical precedents. With the possible exception of

text: natural gas

text: , there are still no other energy sources with adequate utility to take significant

text: market share

text: from oil, let alone supplant it. The rebalancing underway will be effected only in part by an increase of supply from

text: alternative sources

text: . Tertzakian believes that the cross-fertilization of

text: information

text: communication

text: and energy technologies promises dramatic improvement in

text: conservation practices

text: and

text: energy efficiency

text: . He cites

text: telepresence

text: technology,

text: smart grid networks

text: Skype

text: telephony and

text: virtualization

text: software as potential "break point innovations" that could dramatically change energy needs by reconfiguring the ways people live, work and play.

text: The hypothesis describes a feedback loop that begins with an increase in the available energy from the sun acting to increase the growth rates of phytoplankton by either a physiological effect (due to elevated temperature) or enhanced photosynthesis (due to increased irradiance).  Certain phytoplankton, such as coccolithophorids, synthesise dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP), and their enhanced growth increases the production of this osmolyte.  In turn, this leads to an increase in the concentration of its breakdown product, dimethyl sulfide (DMS), first in seawater, and then in the atmosphere.  DMS is oxidised in the atmosphere to form sulfur dioxide, and this leads to the production of sulfate aerosols.  These aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and increase cloud droplet number, which in turn elevate the liquid water content of clouds and cloud area.  This acts to increase cloud albedo, leading to greater reflection of incident sunlight, and a decrease in the forcing that initiated this chain of events.  The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram.  Note that the feedback loop can operate in the reverse direction, such that a decline in solar energy leads to reduced cloud cover and thus to an increase in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface.

text: The hypothesis describes a feedback loop that begins with an increase in the available

text: energy

text: from the sun acting to increase the growth rates of phytoplankton by either a

text: physiological effect

text: (due to elevated temperature) or enhanced

text: photosynthesis

text: (due to increased

text: irradiance

text: ).  Certain phytoplankton, such as

text: coccolithophorids

text: , synthesise

text: dimethylsulfoniopropionate

text: (DMSP), and their enhanced growth increases the production of this

text: osmolyte

text: .  In turn, this leads to an increase in the concentration of its breakdown product,

text: dimethyl sulfide

text: (DMS), first in seawater, and then in the atmosphere.  DMS is

text: oxidised

text: in the atmosphere to form

text: sulfur dioxide

text: , and this leads to the production of

text: sulfate aerosols

text: .  These aerosols act as

text: cloud condensation nuclei

text: and increase cloud droplet number, which in turn elevate the liquid water content of clouds and cloud area.  This acts to increase

text: cloud albedo

text: , leading to greater

text: reflection

text: of incident

text: sunlight

text: , and a decrease in the forcing that initiated this chain of events.  The figure to the right shows a summarising

text: schematic diagram

text: .  Note that the feedback loop can operate in the reverse direction, such that a decline in solar energy leads to reduced cloud cover and thus to an increase in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth's surface.

text: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 °C. The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths, mostly in the infrared range. The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, including carbon dioxide and water vapour, are transparent to the high-frequency, high-energy solar radiation, but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth. Thus heat is easily let in, but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave. Rather than get hotter and hotter, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb, and they do so, also at long infrared wavelengths, both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth's surface. In the long-term, thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate. In this idealized model, the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them, in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere.

text: The surface of the

text: Sun

text: radiates

text: light and heat

text: at approximately 5,500 °C. The

text: Earth

text: is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths, mostly in the

text: infrared

text: range. The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere, including

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: water vapour

text: , are transparent to the high-frequency, high-energy solar radiation, but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth. Thus heat is easily let in, but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave. Rather than get hotter and hotter,

text: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation

text: says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb, and they do so, also at long infrared wavelengths, both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth's surface. In the long-term, thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate. In this idealized model, the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them, in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere.

text: Most climate models simulate a region of the Earth's atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause. There also exist numerical models which simulate the wind, temperature and composition of the Earth's tenuous upper atmosphere, from the mesosphere to the exosphere, including the ionosphere. This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and aurora. It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere, and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change. For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create "whole atmosphere" models to investigate whether or not this is the case.

text: Most

text: climate models

text: simulate a region of the Earth's atmosphere from the surface to the

text: stratopause

text: . There also exist numerical models which simulate the wind, temperature and composition of the Earth's tenuous upper

text: atmosphere

text: , from the

text: mesosphere

text: to the

text: exosphere

text: , including the

text: ionosphere

text: . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year

text: Solar cycle

text: through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and

text: solar wind

text: leading to high latitude particle precipitation and

text: aurora

text: . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere, and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change. For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create "whole atmosphere" models to investigate whether or not this is the case.

text: However, simulations indicate that no plausible human-made greenhouse gas (GHG) forcing can cause an instability and baked-crust runaway greenhouse effect.

text: However, simulations indicate that no plausible human-made

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) forcing can cause an instability and baked-crust runaway greenhouse effect.

text: As the Jordanian government moves closer to the development of nuclear power plants, the anti-nuclear movement has picked up. The movement is spearheaded by Basel Burgan, an environmentalist and activist who leads the National Campaign, which strives to protect the people of Jordan from the dangers of nuclear energy. Burgan is one of the largest advocates for a nuclear free Jordan. The National Campaign stresses the idea that the nuclear power plants would contaminate Jordan's scarce water supply. Greenpeace Jordan has also made numerous contributions to the movement against nuclear energy in Jordan. Greenpeace Jordan has encouraged the Jordanian government to entertain the idea of creating an energy policy based on renewable resources. Greenpeace Jordan created the "Future of Energy of Jordan" report to introduce the possibility for wind and solar energy. The report brings to light some of the major issues that would occur from Jordan becoming a nuclear energy using nation and proposes a way for Jordan to thrive as a nuclear free nation. The deprivation of water in Jordan combined with heavy seismic activity. Greenpeace Jordan believes that by 2050 they will be able to attain 100% renewable energy. A possible site would be placed above the Azraq Aquifer, which provides one of the largest sources of freshwater to Amman. Environmentalists suggest that one minor accident at the plant could poison up to 1/3 of the water in the country. Jordan is already facing a high paced depletion of water resources, calling into question if the country can actually afford to take the risk of building these power plants. Jordan's Federation for Environmental Societies has used Jordan's lack of water resources as a platform for their anti-nuclear views. Jordan is ranked as the fourth water-poorest country in the world and falls 15% below the water poverty line set by the United Nations. The lack of water has also contributed to concerns about the cooling of the reactors. In cooling the reactors, Jordan would need to use approximately 500 million cubic meters of water annually. Many proponents against nuclear energy in Jordan cite water resource issues at the forefront of their protests; many believe that Jordan does not have room for water to spare.

text: As the Jordanian government moves closer to the development of nuclear power plants, the

text: anti-nuclear movement

text: has picked up. The movement is spearheaded by Basel Burgan, an environmentalist and activist who leads the National Campaign, which strives to protect the people of Jordan from the dangers of nuclear energy. Burgan is one of the largest advocates for a nuclear free Jordan. The National Campaign stresses the idea that the nuclear power plants would contaminate Jordan's scarce water supply. Greenpeace Jordan has also made numerous contributions to the movement against nuclear energy in Jordan. Greenpeace Jordan has encouraged the Jordanian government to entertain the idea of creating an energy policy based on renewable resources. Greenpeace Jordan created the "Future of Energy of Jordan" report to introduce the possibility for wind and solar energy. The report brings to light some of the major issues that would occur from Jordan becoming a nuclear energy using nation and proposes a way for Jordan to thrive as a nuclear free nation. The deprivation of water in Jordan combined with heavy seismic activity. Greenpeace Jordan believes that by 2050 they will be able to attain 100% renewable energy. A possible site would be placed above the Azraq Aquifer, which provides one of the largest sources of freshwater to

text: Amman

text: . Environmentalists suggest that one minor accident at the plant could poison up to 1/3 of the water in the country. Jordan is already facing a high paced depletion of water resources, calling into question if the country can actually afford to take the risk of building these power plants. Jordan's Federation for Environmental Societies has used Jordan's lack of water resources as a platform for their anti-nuclear views. Jordan is ranked as the fourth water-poorest country in the world and falls 15% below the water poverty line set by the United Nations. The lack of water has also contributed to concerns about the cooling of the reactors. In cooling the reactors, Jordan would need to use approximately 500 million cubic meters of water annually. Many proponents against nuclear energy in Jordan cite water resource issues at the forefront of their protests; many believe that Jordan does not have room for water to spare.

text: Instruments to detect this radiation commonly measure the Cherenkov radiation produced by secondary particles generated from an energetic photon entering the Earth's atmosphere. This method is called imaging atmospheric Cherenkov technique or IACT. A high-energy photon produces a cone of light confined to 1° of the original photon direction. About 10,000 m of the earth's surface is lit by each cone of light. A flux of 10 photons per square meter per second can be detected with current technology, provided the energy is above 0.1 TeV. Instruments include the planned Cherenkov Telescope Array, GT-48 in Crimea, MAGIC on La Palma, High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) in Namibia VERITAS and Chicago Air Shower Array which closed in 2001. Cosmic rays also produce similar flashes of light, but can be distinguished based on the shape of the light flash. Also having more than one telescope simultaneously observing the same spot can help exclude cosmic rays. Extensive air showers of particles can be detected for gamma rays above 100 TeV. Water scintillation detectors or dense arrays of particle detectors can be used to detect these particle showers.

text: Instruments to detect this radiation commonly measure the

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: produced by secondary particles generated from an energetic photon entering the Earth's atmosphere. This method is called imaging atmospheric Cherenkov technique or

text: IACT

text: . A high-energy photon produces a cone of light confined to 1° of the original photon direction. About 10,000 m of the earth's surface is lit by each cone of light. A flux of 10 photons per square meter per second can be detected with current technology, provided the energy is above 0.1 TeV. Instruments include the planned

text: Cherenkov Telescope Array

text: in Crimea,

text: MAGIC

text: on

text: La Palma

text: High Energy Stereoscopic System

text: (HESS) in Namibia

text: VERITAS

text: and

text: Chicago Air Shower Array

text: which closed in 2001. Cosmic rays also produce similar flashes of light, but can be distinguished based on the shape of the light flash. Also having more than one telescope simultaneously observing the same spot can help exclude cosmic rays.

text: Extensive air shower

text: s of particles can be detected for gamma rays above 100 TeV. Water scintillation detectors or dense arrays of particle detectors can be used to detect these particle showers.

text: With the Earth's atmosphere full of dust and other material, radiation from the sun would be refracted and scattered back into space, and absorbed by this debris. The first effect on the Earth, after the blast wave and  potential multiple fire storms, would be the death of most, if not all, of the photosynthetic life forms on Earth. Those in the ocean that survive would possibly become dormant until the sun came out again. Those on land could possibly be kept alive in underground microclimates, with one such example being the Zbrašov aragonite caves, greenhouses in such underground complexes with fossil or nuclear energy power stations could keep artificial sunlight growing lamps on until the atmosphere began to clear. Those outside that were not killed by the lack of sunlight would most likely be killed or kept dormant by the extreme cold of the impact winter. This death of plants might lead to a long period of famine if enough people survived the initial blast wave and would result in increased food costs in undeveloped countries only a few months after the first crop failures. Developed countries wouldn't encounter famine unless the cooling event was to last longer than a year, due to larger canned food and grain stockpiles in these countries. However, if the impactor was similar in size to the K/T boundary impactor, agricultural losses might not be compensated with imports to the northern hemisphere from the southern hemisphere or vice versa. The only way to keep from starving would be for each country to amass at least a year's worth of food for their people. Not many countries have this; the world's average cereal stock levels are only about 30% of the yearly production.

text: With the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: full of dust and other material,

text: radiation from the sun

text: would be refracted and scattered back into space, and absorbed by this debris. The first effect on the Earth, after the

text: blast wave

text: and  potential multiple

text: fire storm

text: s, would be the death of most, if not all, of the

text: photosynthetic life forms

text: on Earth. Those in the ocean that survive would possibly become dormant until the sun came out again. Those on land could possibly be kept alive in underground

text: microclimate

text: s, with one such example being the

text: Zbrašov aragonite caves

text: , greenhouses in such underground complexes with fossil or nuclear energy power stations could keep artificial sunlight

text: growing lamp

text: s on until the atmosphere began to clear. Those outside that were not killed by the lack of sunlight would most likely be killed or kept dormant by the extreme cold of the impact winter. This death of plants might lead to a long period of

text: famine

text: if enough people survived the initial blast wave and would result in increased food costs in undeveloped countries only a few months after the first crop failures. Developed countries wouldn't encounter

text: famine

text: unless the cooling event was to last longer than a year, due to larger

text: canned food

text: and

text: grain

text: stockpiles in these countries. However, if the impactor was similar in size to the K/T boundary impactor, agricultural losses might not be compensated with imports to the northern hemisphere from the southern hemisphere or vice versa. The only way to keep from starving would be for each country to amass at least a year's worth of food for their people. Not many countries have this; the world's average cereal stock levels are only about 30% of the yearly production.

text: A gravity assist around a planet changes a spacecraft's velocity (relative to the Sun) by entering and leaving the gravitational field of a planet. The spacecraft's speed increases as it approaches the planet and decreases while escaping its gravitational pull (which is approximately the same). Because the planet orbits the sun, the spacecraft is affected by this motion during the maneuver. To increase speed, the spacecraft flies with the movement of the planet (taking a small amount of the planet's orbital energy); to decrease speed, the spacecraft flies against the movement of the planet. The sum of the kinetic energies of both bodies remains constant (see elastic collision). A slingshot maneuver can therefore be used to change the spaceship's trajectory and speed relative to the Sun.

text: A gravity assist around a planet changes a spacecraft's

text: velocity

text: (relative to the

text: Sun

text: ) by entering and leaving the gravitational field of a planet. The spacecraft's speed increases as it approaches the planet and decreases while escaping its gravitational pull (which is approximately the same). Because the planet orbits the sun, the spacecraft is affected by this motion during the maneuver. To increase speed, the spacecraft flies with the movement of the planet (taking a small amount of the planet's orbital energy); to decrease speed, the spacecraft flies against the movement of the planet. The sum of the kinetic energies of both bodies remains constant (see

text: elastic collision

text: ). A slingshot maneuver can therefore be used to change the spaceship's trajectory and speed relative to the Sun.

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of K0 III, with the luminosity class of III indicating that this is a giant star that has evolved away from the main sequence after exhausting the supply of hydrogen at its core. It belongs to a population known as clump giants and hence is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of helium at the core. The outer envelope has expanded to 11 times the radius of the Sun and it is radiating 54 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being emitted from the stellar atmosphere at an effective temperature of 4,721 K, causing it to glow with the orange hue of a K-type star.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of K0 III, with the

text: luminosity class

text: of III indicating that this is a

text: giant star

text: that has

text: evolved

text: away from the

text: main sequence

text: after exhausting the supply of hydrogen at its core. It belongs to a population known as

text: clump giants

text: and hence is generating energy through the nuclear fusion of helium at the core. The outer envelope has expanded to 11 times the radius of the Sun and it is radiating 54 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being emitted from the

text: stellar atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4,721 K, causing it to glow with the orange hue of a

text: K-type star

text: An atmospheric window is a dynamic property of the atmosphere, while the spectral window is a static characteristic of the electromagnetic radiative absorption spectra of many greenhouse gases, including water vapour. The atmospheric window tells what actually happens in the atmosphere, while the spectral window tells of one of the several abstract factors that potentially contribute to the actual concrete happenings in the atmosphere. Window radiation is radiation that actually passes through the atmospheric window. Non-window radiation is radiation that actually does not pass through the atmospheric window. Window wavelength radiation is radiation that, judging only from its wavelength, potentially might or might not, but is likely to pass through the atmospheric window. Non-window wavelength radiation is radiation that, judging only from its wavelength, is unlikely to pass through the atmospheric window. The difference between window radiation and window wavelength radiation is that window radiation is an actual component of the radiation, determined by the full dynamics of the atmosphere, taking in all determining factors, while window wavelength radiation is merely theoretically potential, defined only by one factor, the wavelength.

text: An atmospheric window is a dynamic property of the atmosphere, while the spectral window is a static characteristic of the electromagnetic radiative absorption spectra of many

text: greenhouse gases

text: , including water vapour. The atmospheric window tells what actually happens in the atmosphere, while the spectral window tells of one of the several abstract factors that potentially contribute to the actual concrete happenings in the atmosphere. Window radiation is radiation that actually passes through the atmospheric window. Non-window radiation is radiation that actually does not pass through the atmospheric window. Window wavelength radiation is radiation that, judging only from its wavelength, potentially might or might not, but is likely to pass through the atmospheric window. Non-window wavelength radiation is radiation that, judging only from its wavelength, is unlikely to pass through the atmospheric window. The difference between window radiation and window wavelength radiation is that window radiation is an actual component of the radiation, determined by the full dynamics of the atmosphere, taking in all determining factors, while window wavelength radiation is merely theoretically potential, defined only by one factor, the wavelength.

text: The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.

text: The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to

text: gamma radiation

text: at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.

text: The large-scale circulation of the Earth's atmosphere is driven by the difference in absorbed solar radiation per square meter, as the sun heats the Earth more in the Tropics, mostly because of geometrical factors. The atmospheric and oceanic circulation redistributes some of this energy as sensible heat and latent heat partly via the mean flow and partly via eddies, known as cyclones in the atmosphere. Thus the tropics radiate less to space than they would if there were no circulation, and the poles radiate more; however in absolute terms the tropics radiate more energy to space.

text: The large-scale circulation of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is driven by the difference in absorbed solar radiation per square meter, as the sun heats the Earth more in the

text: Tropics

text: , mostly because of geometrical factors. The atmospheric and oceanic circulation redistributes some of this energy as

text: sensible heat

text: and

text: latent heat

text: partly via the mean flow and partly via eddies, known as

text: cyclone

text: s in the atmosphere. Thus the tropics radiate less to space than they would if there were no circulation, and the poles radiate more; however in absolute terms the tropics radiate more energy to space.

text: The currents in the world’s oceans are a result of varying temperatures associated with the changing latitudes of our planet. As the atmosphere is warmed nearest the equator, the hot air at the surface of our planet is heated, causing it to rise and draw in cooler air to take its place, creating what is known as circulation cells. This ultimately causes the air to be significantly colder near the poles than at the equator.

text: The

text: currents

text: in the world’s oceans are a result of varying temperatures associated with the changing latitudes of our planet. As the atmosphere is warmed nearest the equator, the hot air at the surface of our planet is heated, causing it to rise and draw in cooler air to take its place, creating what is known as circulation cells. This ultimately causes the air to be significantly colder near the poles than at the equator.

text: Nuclear gamma rays were observed from the solar flares of August 4 and 7, 1972, and November 22, 1977.A solar flare is an explosion in a solar atmosphere and was originally detected visually in our own sun. Solar flares create massive amounts of radiation across the full electromagnetic spectrum from the longest wavelength, radio waves, to high energy gamma rays. The correlations of the high energy electrons energized during the flare and the gamma rays are mostly caused by nuclear combinations of high energy protons and other heavier ions. These gamma rays can be observed and allow scientists to determine the major results of the energy released, which is not provided by the emissions from other wavelengths.

text: Nuclear

text: gamma ray

text: s were observed from the

text: solar flare

text: s of August 4 and 7, 1972, and November 22, 1977.A

text: solar flare

text: is an explosion in a solar atmosphere and was originally detected visually in our own sun. Solar flares create massive amounts of radiation across the full electromagnetic spectrum from the longest wavelength,

text: radio waves

text: , to high energy gamma rays. The correlations of the high energy electrons energized during the flare and the gamma rays are mostly caused by nuclear combinations of high energy protons and other heavier ions. These gamma rays can be observed and allow scientists to determine the major results of the energy released, which is not provided by the emissions from other wavelengths.

text: Biofluorescence is the absorption of electromagnetic wavelengths from the visible light spectrum by fluorescent proteins in a living organism, and the reemission of that light at a lower energy level. This causes the light that is re-emitted to be a different color than the light that is absorbed. Stimulating light excites an electron, raising energy to an unstable level. This instability is unfavorable, so the energized electron is returned to a stable state almost as immediately as it becomes unstable. This return to stability corresponds with the release of excess energy in the form of fluorescent light. This emission of light is only observable when the stimulant light is still providing light to the organism/object and is typically yellow, pink, orange, red, green, or purple. Biofluorescence is often confused with the following forms of biotic light, bioluminescence and biophosphorescence.

text: Biofluorescence is the absorption of

text: electromagnetic

text: wavelengths from the

text: visible light

text: spectrum by fluorescent proteins in a living organism, and the reemission of that light at a lower energy level. This causes the light that is re-emitted to be a different color than the light that is absorbed. Stimulating light excites an

text: electron

text: , raising energy to an unstable level. This instability is unfavorable, so the energized electron is returned to a stable state almost as immediately as it becomes unstable. This return to stability corresponds with the release of excess energy in the form of fluorescent light. This emission of light is only observable when the stimulant light is still providing light to the organism/object and is typically yellow, pink, orange, red, green, or purple. Biofluorescence is often confused with the following forms of biotic light, bioluminescence and biophosphorescence.

text: On account of its high velocity and shallow angle of atmospheric entry, the object exploded in an air burst over Chelyabinsk Oblast, at a height of around . The explosion generated a bright flash, producing a hot cloud of dust and gas that penetrated to , and many surviving small fragmentary meteorites, as well as a large shock wave. The bulk of the object's energy was absorbed by the atmosphere, with a total kinetic energy before atmospheric impact equivalent to approximately 500 kilotons of TNT  about 29 times the energy released from the atomic bomb detonated at Hiroshima.

text: On account of its high velocity and shallow angle of

text: atmospheric entry

text: , the object exploded in an

text: air burst

text: over

text: Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: , at a height of around . The explosion generated a bright flash, producing a hot cloud of dust and gas that penetrated to , and many surviving small fragmentary

text: meteorite

text: s, as well as a large

text: shock wave

text: . The bulk of the object's energy was absorbed by the atmosphere, with a total

text: kinetic energy

text: before atmospheric impact equivalent to approximately 500

text: kilotons of TNT

text: about 29 times the

text: energy

text: released from the

text: atomic bomb detonated at Hiroshima

text: The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about  per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates.

text: The amount of solar energy reaching Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about  per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the

text: tropical

text: (or equatorial),

text: subtropical

text: temperate

text: and

text: polar

text: climates.

text: Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and is a means by which thermal energy is distributed on the surface of the Earth, together with the much slower (lagged) ocean circulation system. The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic climatological structure remains fairly constant.

text: In physics, energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms. The "ability of a system to perform work" is a common description, but it is misleading because energy is not necessarily available to  do work. For instance, in SI units, energy is measured in joules, and one joule is defined "mechanically", being the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton. However, there are many other definitions of energy, depending on the context, such as thermal energy, radiant energy, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc., where definitions are derived that are the most convenient.

text: In

text: physics

text: , energy is a

text: property

text: of

text: objects

text: which can be

text: transferred

text: to other objects or

text: converted

text: into

text: different forms

text: . The "ability of a system to perform work" is a common description, but it is misleading because energy is not necessarily available to  do work. For instance, in

text: SI units

text: , energy is measured in

text: joule

text: s, and one joule is defined "mechanically", being the energy transferred to an object by the

text: mechanical work

text: of moving it a distance of 1

text: metre

text: against a

text: force

text: of 1

text: newton

text: . However, there are many other definitions of energy, depending on the context, such as thermal energy, radiant energy, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc., where definitions are derived that are the most convenient.

text: The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°. Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.

text: The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the

text: trade winds

text: in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the

text: westerlies

text: in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°.

text: Ocean current

text: s are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the

text: thermohaline circulation

text: that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions.

text: Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power,  and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies. The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will.

text: Mark Z. Jacobson

text: , professor of civil and environmental engineering at

text: Stanford University

text: and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program says producing all new energy with

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: ,  and

text: hydropower

text: by 2030 is feasible and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that

text: energy costs

text: today with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies. The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will.

text: The performance of an updraft tower may be degraded by factors such as atmospheric winds, by drag induced by the bracings used for supporting the chimney, and by reflection off the top of the greenhouse canopy.

text: Rho Arae has more than three times the mass of the Sun and shines with 238 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into space from the outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 10,520 K, giving it the blue-white hue of a B-type star. It is spinning rapidly with a projected rotational velocity of 302 km/s.

text: Rho Arae has more than three times the mass of the Sun and shines with 238 times the Sun's luminosity. This energy is being radiated into space from the

text: outer atmosphere

text: at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 10,520 K, giving it the blue-white hue of a

text: B-type star

text: . It is spinning rapidly with a

text: projected rotational velocity

text: of 302 km/s.

text: Tritium occurs naturally due to cosmic rays interacting with atmospheric gases. In the most important reaction for natural production, a fast neutron (which must have energy greater than 4.0 MeV) interacts with atmospheric nitrogen:

text: Tritium occurs naturally due to

text: cosmic ray

text: s interacting with atmospheric gases. In the most important reaction for natural production, a

text: fast neutron

text: (which must have energy greater than 4.0

text: MeV

text: ) interacts with atmospheric

text: nitrogen

text: Existing ground-based telescopes, and various proposed Extremely Large Telescopes, can exceed the HST in terms of sheer light-gathering power and diffraction limit due to larger mirrors, but other factors affect telescopes. In some cases, they may be able to match or beat Hubble in resolution by using adaptive optics. However, AO on large ground-based reflectors will not make Hubble and other space telescopes obsolete. Most AO systems sharpen the view over a very narrow field—Lucky Cam, for example, produces crisp images just 10" to 20" wide, whereas Hubble's cameras are super sharp across a 2½' (150") field. Furthermore, space telescopes can study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, most of which is blocked by Earth's atmosphere. Finally, the background sky is darker in space than on the ground, because air absorbs solar energy during the day and then releases it at night, producing a faint—but nevertheless discernible—airglow that washes out low-contrast astronomical objects.

text: Existing ground-based telescopes, and various proposed

text: Extremely Large Telescopes

text: , can exceed the HST in terms of sheer light-gathering power and diffraction limit due to larger mirrors, but other factors affect telescopes. In some cases, they may be able to match or beat Hubble in resolution by using adaptive optics. However, AO on large ground-based reflectors will not make Hubble and other space telescopes obsolete. Most AO systems sharpen the view over a very narrow field—

text: Lucky Cam

text: , for example, produces crisp images just 10" to 20" wide, whereas Hubble's cameras are super sharp across a 2½' (150") field. Furthermore, space telescopes can study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, most of which is blocked by Earth's atmosphere. Finally, the background sky is darker in space than on the ground, because air absorbs solar energy during the day and then releases it at night, producing a faint—but nevertheless discernible—

text: airglow

text: that washes out low-contrast astronomical objects.

text: It is not possible to state that a certain gas causes an exact percentage of the greenhouse effect. This is because some of the gases absorb and emit radiation at the same frequencies as others, so that the total greenhouse effect is not simply the sum of the influence of each gas. The higher ends of the ranges quoted are for each gas alone; the lower ends account for overlaps with the other gases. In addition, some gases such as methane are known to have large indirect effects that are still being quantified.

text: In 2002, Texas deregulated the electricity market and in 2005, Texas Power joined in. They now compete against other energy companies like Glacial Energy, Champion Energy, TXU, Bounce Energy, Reliant Energy, MXenergy, Direct Energy, Stream Energy, Gexa Energy, Cirro Energy. Jon Fearing, of the company's risk management department, played an integral role in the company's growth over the years.

text: In 2002, Texas

entity_name: Deregulation of the Texas electricity market

text: deregulated the electricity market

text: and in 2005, Texas Power joined in. They now compete against other energy companies like Glacial Energy,

text: Champion Energy

text: TXU

text: Bounce Energy

text: Reliant Energy

text: MXenergy

text: Direct Energy

text: Stream Energy

text: Gexa Energy

text: Cirro Energy

text: . Jon Fearing, of the company's risk management department, played an integral role in the company's growth over the years.

text: Owing to its location  north of the Arctic Circle, Barrow's climate is cold and dry, classified as a polar climate (Köppen ET). Winter weather can be extremely dangerous because of the combination of cold and wind, while summers are cool even at their warmest. Weather observations are available for Barrow dating back to the late 19th century. A National Weather Service (NWS) Office and a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Climate Monitoring Lab operate in Barrow. The United States Department of Energy (DOE) has a climate observation site in Barrow as part of its Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Climate Research Facility.

text: Owing to its location  north of the

text: Arctic Circle

text: , Barrow's climate is cold and dry, classified as a

text: polar climate

text: Köppen

text: ET). Winter weather can be extremely dangerous because of the combination of cold and wind, while summers are cool even at their warmest. Weather observations are available for Barrow dating back to the late 19th century. A

text: National Weather Service

text: (NWS) Office and a

text: (NOAA) Climate Monitoring Lab operate in Barrow. The

text: United States Department of Energy

text: (DOE) has a climate observation site in Barrow as part of its

entity_name: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility

text: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement

text: (ARM) Climate Research Facility.

text: According to this explanation, redshift periodicity arises from the interaction between cosmic atomic hydrogen and electromagnetic radiation in the spectrum of visible light. As atomic hydrogen absorbs and emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, it oscillates between higher and lower states of excitation. This transfer of energy redshifts the radiation it emits. Because the states of excitation are quantized in accordance with the Lyman series, the redshift is also quantized.

text: According to this explanation, redshift periodicity arises from the interaction between cosmic atomic hydrogen and

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: in the spectrum of visible light. As atomic hydrogen absorbs and emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, it oscillates between higher and lower

text: states of excitation

text: . This transfer of energy redshifts the radiation it emits. Because the states of excitation are quantized in accordance with the Lyman series, the redshift is also quantized.

text: Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation. Of the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the photosphere of the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, thereby warming it. In addition to the absorption of solar and thermal radiation, the atmosphere further gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

text: Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of

text: ultraviolet

text: visible

text: , and

text: near-infrared

text: radiation. Of the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the photosphere of the Sun, it radiates at

text: wavelengths that are much longer

text: than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, thereby warming it. In addition to the absorption of solar and thermal radiation, the atmosphere further gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

text: On 3 June 1984, Hamaker appeared on Ted Turner's Atlanta Superstation declaring that increased high-latitude albedo is what initiates glacial advances/retreats. He was citing Sir George Simpson's 1938 analysis on ice ages and later commentary by Richard Somerville and Lorraine Remer of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in their article in the Journal of Geophysical Research: "It's that cloud that you have to worry about because it's reflecting 80% of the sun's energy back into space and it's never becoming effective in warming the Earth. So we're getting cooling as the result of the carbon dioxide buildup."  Around this time, Scientific American summarized: "They (Somerville & Remer) suggest the global warming might be lessened by concurrent changes in the properties of clouds... Denser clouds will reflect a larger proportion of incoming solar radiation; the reduction in the energy reaching the surface will counteract the greenhouse effect."

text: On 3 June 1984, Hamaker appeared on

text: Ted Turner

text: 's

text: Atlanta

text: Superstation

text: declaring that increased high-latitude

text: albedo

text: is what initiates glacial advances/retreats. He was citing

text: Sir George Simpson

text: 's 1938 analysis on ice ages and later commentary by

text: Richard Somerville

text: and Lorraine Remer of the

text: Scripps Institution of Oceanography

text: in their article in the Journal of Geophysical Research: "It's that cloud that you have to worry about because it's reflecting 80% of the sun's energy back into space and it's never becoming effective in warming the Earth. So we're getting cooling as the result of the carbon dioxide buildup."  Around this time,

text: Scientific American

text: summarized: "They (Somerville & Remer) suggest the global warming might be lessened by concurrent changes in the properties of clouds... Denser clouds will reflect a larger proportion of incoming solar radiation; the reduction in the energy reaching the surface will counteract the greenhouse effect."

text: The anti-greenhouse effect is a term used to refer to two different effects that describe a cooling effect an atmosphere has on the ambient temperature of a planet. Unlike the greenhouse effect, which is common, an anti-greenhouse effect is only known to exist in one situation in the Solar System. The conventional greenhouse effect occurs because an atmosphere is largely transparent to optical solar radiation, but largely opaque to outgoing infrared radiation. In an anti-greenhouse effect, an atmosphere is opaque to solar, but releases infrared.

text: The anti-greenhouse effect is a term used to refer to two different effects that describe a cooling effect an atmosphere has on the ambient temperature of a planet. Unlike the

text: greenhouse effect

text: , which is common, an anti-greenhouse effect is only known to exist in one situation in the

text: Solar System

text: . The conventional greenhouse effect occurs because an atmosphere is largely transparent to optical solar radiation, but largely opaque to outgoing infrared radiation. In an anti-greenhouse effect, an atmosphere is opaque to solar, but releases infrared.

text: Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

text: Geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the

text: equator

text: have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of

text: photovoltaics

text: that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for

text: solar panels

text: to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day.

text: Cloud cover

text: can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

text: The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate. The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, there are variations due to the diurnal cycle as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.

text: The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by

text: sensible heat

text: and

text: latent heat

text: transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-

text: troposphere

text: , which is effectively coupled to the surface by a

text: lapse rate

text: . The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, there are variations due to the

text: diurnal cycle

text: as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low.

text: Diurnal temperature changes

text: decrease with height in the atmosphere.

text: The flux of incoming cosmic rays at the upper atmosphere is dependent on the solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field, and the energy of the cosmic rays. At distances of ~94 AU from the Sun, the solar wind undergoes a transition, called the termination shock, from supersonic to subsonic speeds. The region between the termination shock and the heliopause acts as a barrier to cosmic rays, decreasing the flux at lower energies (≤ 1 GeV) by about 90%. However, the strength of the solar wind is not constant, and hence it has been observed that cosmic ray flux is correlated with solar activity.

text: The

text: flux

text: of incoming cosmic rays at the upper atmosphere is dependent on the

text: solar wind

text: , the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , and the energy of the cosmic rays. At distances of ~94

text: AU

text: from the Sun, the solar wind undergoes a transition, called the

text: termination shock

text: , from supersonic to subsonic speeds. The region between the termination shock and the

text: heliopause

text: acts as a barrier to cosmic rays, decreasing the flux at lower energies (≤ 1 GeV) by about 90%. However, the strength of the solar wind is not constant, and hence it has been observed that cosmic ray flux is correlated with solar activity.

text: In partner dancing, dancers seek to work together to create synchronized or complementary movements. The Lead is largely responsible for initiating movement, whereas the Follow's role is to maintain this movement (though they may choose not to). This process can be described as involving the initiation of momentum or 'energy' (by the Lead) and then the subsequent maintenance, exaggeration, decreasing or dissolving of this momentum by both partners.This momentum or energy may be manifested as movement (in its most obvious form), or in a range of more complex interactions between partners:

text: Two National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Research planes conducted experiments into Caroline. The experiments were to study and measure the wind velocity and the environment inside and around the eye as well as the boundary layer of the hurricane. The results of the experiments concluded that Caroline had a higher dissipation rate than normal hurricanes, with the dissipating rate averaging at 30%. This conclusion suggested that energy in a hurricane dissipating internally above the surface layer is two times higher than energy dissipating at the surface.

text: Two

text: (NOAA) Research planes conducted experiments into Caroline. The experiments were to study and measure the wind velocity and the environment inside and around the eye as well as the boundary layer of the hurricane. The results of the experiments concluded that Caroline had a higher dissipation rate than normal hurricanes, with the dissipating rate averaging at 30%. This conclusion suggested that energy in a hurricane dissipating internally above the surface layer is two times higher than energy dissipating at the surface.

text: The energetics of movement are typically measured indirectly through oxygen consumption.  Most of the energy for walking is produced through the combustion of nutrients in the presence of oxygen (as opposed to anaerobic or high-intensity exercise which relies increasingly on energy that does not require oxygen for breakdown). Oxygen consumption increases when transitioning from walking to running, despite Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) decreasing. Therefore people feel that they are not working as hard by switching from walking to running, even though their energy expenditure has increased. Humans would have to transition to running at much faster speeds than 2.0 m/s (4.5 mph) in order for the transition to represent a decrease in energy consumption.

text: The energetics of movement are typically measured indirectly through oxygen consumption.  Most of the energy for walking is produced through the

text: combustion of nutrients

text: in the presence of oxygen (as opposed to

text: anaerobic

text: or high-intensity exercise which relies increasingly on energy that does not require oxygen for breakdown). Oxygen consumption increases when transitioning from walking to running, despite

text: Ratings of Perceived Exertion

text: (RPE) decreasing. Therefore people feel that they are not working as hard by switching from walking to running, even though their energy expenditure has increased. Humans would have to transition to running at much faster speeds than 2.0 m/s (4.5 mph) in order for the transition to represent a decrease in energy consumption.

text: At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation.For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending on temperature and other parameters). In addition, models may consider scattering from molecules or particles, as well as polarisation; however, not all models do so.

text: At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the

text: radiative transfer equation

text: that is numerically solved using a

text: solver

text: such as a

text: discrete ordinate method

text: or a

text: Monte Carlo method

text: . The radiative transfer equation is a

text: monochromatic

text: equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to

text: integrate

text: this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each

text: spectral line

text: for all

text: molecule

text: s in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation.For an instrument response, this is then

text: convolved

text: with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending on

text: temperature

text: and other parameters). In addition, models may consider

text: scattering

text: from molecules or particles, as well as

text: polarisation

text: ; however, not all models do so.

text: The optical spectrum is part of the electromagnetic energy spectrum which consists of ultraviolet, visible, and near, middle, and far-infrared energy. Only a small part of the optical spectrum is visible to the unaided eye.

text: The

text: optical spectrum

text: is part of the electromagnetic energy spectrum which consists of

text: ultraviolet

text: , visible, and near, middle, and

text: far-infrared

text: energy. Only a small part of the optical spectrum is visible to the unaided eye.

text: In spite of the second law of thermodynamics, crystallization of pure liquids usually begins at a lower temperature than the melting point, due to high activation energy of homogeneous nucleation. The creation of a nucleus implies the formation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase.  Some energy is expended to form this interface, based on the surface energy of each phase. If a hypothetical nucleus is too small, the energy that would be released by forming its volume is not enough to create its surface, and nucleation does not proceed. Freezing does not start until the temperature is low enough to provide enough energy to form stable nuclei. In presence of irregularities on the surface of the containing vessel, solid or gaseous impurities, pre-formed solid crystals, or other nucleators, heterogeneous nucleation may occur, where some energy is released by the partial destruction of the previous interface, raising the supercooling point to be near or equal to the melting point. The melting point of water at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close to 0 °C (32 °F, 273.15 K), and in the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is close to the melting point, but in the absence of nucleators water can super cool to −40 °C (−40 °F, 233 K) before freezing. Under high pressure (2,000 atmospheres) water will super cool to as low as −70 °C (−94 °F, 203 K) before freezing.

text: In spite of the

text: second law of thermodynamics

text: , crystallization of pure liquids usually begins at a lower temperature than the

text: melting point

text: , due to high

text: activation energy

text: of

text: homogeneous nucleation

text: . The creation of a nucleus implies the formation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase.  Some energy is expended to form this interface, based on the

text: surface energy

text: of each phase. If a hypothetical nucleus is too small, the energy that would be released by forming its volume is not enough to create its surface, and nucleation does not proceed. Freezing does not start until the temperature is low enough to provide enough energy to form stable nuclei. In presence of irregularities on the surface of the containing vessel, solid or gaseous impurities, pre-formed solid crystals, or other nucleators,

text: heterogeneous nucleation

text: may occur, where some energy is released by the partial destruction of the previous interface, raising the supercooling point to be near or equal to the melting point. The melting point of

text: water

text: at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close to 0 °C (32 °F, 273.15 K), and in the presence of

text: nucleating substances

text: the freezing point of water is close to the melting point, but in the absence of nucleators water can

text: super cool

text: to −40 °C (−40 °F, 233 K) before freezing. Under high pressure (2,000

text: atmosphere

text: s) water will super cool to as low as −70 °C (−94 °F, 203 K) before freezing.

text: Approximately 78% of earth's atmosphere is N gas (N), which is an inert compound and biologically unavailable to most organisms. In order to be utilized in most biological processes, N must be converted to reactive N (Nr), which includes inorganic reduced forms (NH and NH), inorganic oxidized forms (NO, NO, HNO, NO, and NO), and organic compounds (urea, amines, and proteins). N has a strong triple bond, and so a significant amount of energy (226 kcal mol-1) is required to convert N to Nr. Prior to industrial processes, the only sources of such energy were solar radiation and electrical discharges. Utilizing a large amount of metabolic energy and the enzyme nitrogenase, some bacteria and cyanobacteria convert atmospheric N to NH, a process known as biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). The anthropogenic analogue to BNF is the Haber-Bosch process, in which fossil fuel H is reacted with atmospheric N at high temperatures and pressures to produce NH. Lastly, N is converted to NO by energy from lightning, which is negligible in current temperate ecosystems, or by fossil fuel combustion.

text: Approximately 78% of earth's atmosphere is N gas (N), which is an inert compound and biologically unavailable to most organisms. In order to be utilized in most biological processes, N must be converted to reactive N (Nr), which includes inorganic reduced forms (NH and NH), inorganic oxidized forms (NO, NO, HNO, NO, and NO), and organic compounds (

text: urea

text: amine

text: s, and

text: protein

text: s). N has a strong triple bond, and so a significant amount of energy (226 kcal mol-1) is required to convert N to Nr. Prior to industrial processes, the only sources of such energy were solar radiation and electrical discharges. Utilizing a large amount of metabolic energy and the enzyme

text: nitrogenase

text: , some

text: bacteria

text: and

text: cyanobacteria

text: convert atmospheric N to NH, a process known as biological

text: nitrogen fixation

text: (BNF). The anthropogenic analogue to BNF is the

text: Haber-Bosch

text: process, in which

text: fossil fuel

text: H is reacted with atmospheric N at high temperatures and pressures to produce NH. Lastly, N is converted to NO by energy from

text: lightning

text: , which is negligible in current temperate ecosystems, or by

text: fossil fuel

text: combustion.

text: As a result of the programs that were initiated in the Green Energy Hub, the air has become cleaner between the years 2000 and 2010. However, increasing levels of greenhouse gases from automobiles have ruined the balance caused by the overall cooling of the Earth's atmosphere in 2011. Simcoe, an important community located in the Green Energy Hub, is 25 times less likely to face a major smog disaster when compared to major metropolitan cities like London, Windsor, and Sarnia due to embracing environmental programs in their area.

text: As a result of the programs that were initiated in the Green Energy Hub, the air has become cleaner between the years 2000 and 2010. However, increasing levels of greenhouse gases from automobiles have ruined the balance caused by the overall cooling of the Earth's atmosphere in 2011.

text: Simcoe

text: , an important community located in the Green Energy Hub, is 25 times less likely to face a major smog disaster when compared to major metropolitan cities like

text: London

text: Windsor

text: , and

text: Sarnia

text: due to embracing environmental programs in their area.

text: Major functions of the crown include light energy assimilation, carbon dioxide absorption and release of oxygen via photosynthesis, energy release by respiration, and movement of water to the atmosphere by transpiration. These functions are performed by the leaves. Branches of the crown provide mechanical support to distribute the leaves efficiently and serve as conduits for resources (water, nutrients, photosynthates) to perform these functions.

text: Major functions of the crown include light energy assimilation, carbon dioxide absorption and release of oxygen via

text: photosynthesis

text: , energy release by

text: respiration

text: , and movement of water to the atmosphere by

text: transpiration

text: . These functions are performed by the leaves. Branches of the crown provide mechanical support to distribute the leaves efficiently and serve as conduits for resources (

text: water

text: nutrients

text: photosynthates

text: ) to perform these functions.

text: With his law Stefan also determined the temperature of the Sun's surface. He learned from the data of Charles Soret (1854–1904) that the energy flux density from the Sun is 29 times greater than the energy flux density of a certain warmed metal lamella (a thin plate). A round lamella was placed at such a distance from the measuring device that it would be seen at the same angle as the Sun. Soret estimated the temperature of the lamella to be approximately 1900 °C to 2000 °C. Stefan surmised that ⅓ of the energy flux from the Sun is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so he took for the correct Sun's energy flux a value 3/2 times greater than Soret's value, namely 29 × 3/2 = 43.5.

text: With his law Stefan also determined the temperature of the

text: Sun

text: 's surface. He learned from the data of

text: Charles Soret

text: (1854–1904) that the energy flux density from the Sun is 29 times greater than the energy flux density of a certain warmed metal

text: lamella

text: (a thin plate). A round lamella was placed at such a distance from the measuring device that it would be seen at the same angle as the Sun. Soret estimated the temperature of the lamella to be approximately 1900

text: °C

text: to 2000 °C. Stefan surmised that ⅓ of the energy flux from the Sun is absorbed by the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , so he took for the correct Sun's energy flux a value 3/2 times greater than Soret's value, namely 29 × 3/2 = 43.5.

text: Calculation for binary van der Waals helium molecules include HeNe, LiHe binding energy 0.008 cm, the He is not stable.NaHe binding energy 0.03 cm, the He is not stable.CuHe binding energy 0.90 cm, OHe binding energy 5.83 cm, SHe binding energy 6.34 cm, SeHe binding energy 6.50 cm, FHe binding energy 3.85 cm, ClHe binding energy 7.48 cm, BrHe binding energy 7.75 cm, IHe binding energy 8.40 cm, NHe binding energy 2.85 cm, PHe binding energy 3.42 cm, AsHe binding energy 3.49 cm, BiHe binding energy 33.26 cm, SiHe binding energy 1.95 cm, GeHe binding energy 2.08 cm, CaHHe binding energy 0.96 cm, NHHe binding energy 4.42 cm, MnHHe binding energy 1.01 cm, YbFHe binding energy 5.57 cmIHe or IHe,

text: A second type of indirect effect happens when chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving these gases change the concentrations of greenhouse gases. For example, the destruction of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) in the atmosphere can produce ozone. The size of the indirect effect can depend strongly on where and when the gas is emitted.

text: A second type of indirect effect happens when chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving these gases change the concentrations of greenhouse gases. For example, the destruction of

text: non-methane volatile organic compound

text: s (NMVOCs) in the atmosphere can produce ozone. The size of the indirect effect can depend strongly on where and when the gas is emitted.

text: 3. The capture device.  Once the observables associated with the subject are characterized, designers can then identify and integrate the technologies needed to capture those observables.  For example, in the case of consumer digital cameras, those technologies include optics for collecting energy in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and electronic detectors for converting the electromagnetic energy into an electronic signal.

text: 3. The capture device.  Once the observables associated with the subject are characterized, designers can then identify and integrate the technologies needed to capture those observables.  For example, in the case of consumer

text: digital cameras

text: , those technologies include optics for collecting energy in the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and electronic detectors for converting the electromagnetic energy into an electronic signal.

text: Energy occurs in many forms, including chemical energy, thermal energy, electromagnetic radiation, gravitational energy, electric energy, elastic energy, nuclear energy, and rest energy. These can be categorized in two main classes: potential energy and kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the movement energy of an object. Kinetic energy can be transferred between objects and transformed into other kinds of energy.

text: Energy

text: occurs in many forms, including

text: chemical energy

text: thermal energy

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: gravitational energy

text: electric energy

text: elastic energy

text: nuclear energy

text: , and

text: rest energy

text: . These can be categorized in two main classes:

text: potential energy

text: and kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the movement energy of an object. Kinetic energy can be transferred between objects and transformed into other kinds of energy.

text: Not all lichens are equally sensitive to air pollutants, so different lichen species show different levels of sensitivity to specific atmospheric pollutants. The sensitivity of a lichen to air pollution is directly related to the energy needs of the mycobiont, so that the stronger the dependency of the mycobiont on the photobiont, the more sensitive the lichen is to air pollution. Upon exposure to air pollution, the photobiont may use metabolic energy for repair of its cellular structures that would otherwise be used for maintenance of its photosynthetic activity, therefore leaving less metabolic energy available for the mycobiont. The alteration of the balance between the photobiont and mycobiont can lead to the breakdown of the symbiotic association. Therefore, lichen decline may result not only from the accumulation of toxic substances, but also from altered nutrient supplies that favor one symbiont over the other.

text: Not all lichens are equally sensitive to

text: air pollutants

text: , so different lichen species show different levels of sensitivity to specific atmospheric pollutants. The sensitivity of a lichen to air pollution is directly related to the energy needs of the mycobiont, so that the stronger the dependency of the mycobiont on the photobiont, the more sensitive the lichen is to air pollution. Upon exposure to air pollution, the photobiont may use metabolic energy for repair of its cellular structures that would otherwise be used for maintenance of its photosynthetic activity, therefore leaving less metabolic energy available for the mycobiont. The alteration of the balance between the photobiont and mycobiont can lead to the breakdown of the symbiotic association. Therefore, lichen decline may result not only from the accumulation of toxic substances, but also from altered nutrient supplies that favor one symbiont over the other.

text: AMANDA's goal was an attempt at neutrino astronomy, identifying and characterizing extra-solar sources of neutrinos. Compared to underground detectors like Super-Kamiokande in Japan, AMANDA was capable of looking at higher energy neutrinos because it is not limited in volume to a manmade tank; however, it had much less accuracy because of the less controlled conditions and wider spacing of photomultipliers. Super-Kamiokande can look at much greater detail at neutrinos from the Sun and those generated in the Earth's atmosphere; however, at higher energies, the spectrum should include neutrinos dominated by those from sources outside the solar system. Such a new view into the cosmos could give important clues in the search for Dark Matter and other astrophysical phenomena.

text: AMANDA's goal was an attempt at

text: neutrino astronomy

text: , identifying and characterizing extra-solar sources of neutrinos. Compared to underground detectors like

text: Super-Kamiokande

text: in Japan, AMANDA was capable of looking at higher energy neutrinos because it is not limited in volume to a manmade tank; however, it had much less accuracy because of the less controlled conditions and wider spacing of

text: photomultiplier

text: s. Super-Kamiokande can look at much greater detail at neutrinos from the Sun and those generated in the Earth's atmosphere; however, at higher energies, the spectrum should include neutrinos dominated by those from sources outside the solar system. Such a new view into the cosmos could give important clues in the search for

text: Dark Matter

text: and other astrophysical phenomena.

text: The energy source for baroclinic instability is the potential energy in the environmental flow.  As the instability grows, the center of mass of the fluid is lowered.  In growing waves in the atmosphere, cold air moving downwards and equatorwards displaces the warmer air moving polewards and upwards.

text: The energy source for baroclinic instability is the

text: potential energy

text: in the environmental flow.  As the instability grows, the

text: center of mass

text: of the fluid is lowered.  In growing waves in the atmosphere, cold air moving downwards and equatorwards displaces the warmer air moving polewards and upwards.

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of M3 III, which places it among the category of evolved stars called red giants. Indeed, the outer atmosphere of this star has expanded to around 48 times the radius of the Sun. Even though it has just 1.4 times the mass of the Sun, this wide envelope gives it a luminosity of roughly 468 times the Sun's. This energy is being radiated from a relatively cool outer atmosphere that has an effective temperature of nearly 4,000 K. It is this cool temperature that gives it the orange-red glow of an M-type star.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of M3 III, which places it among the category of

text: evolved

text: stars called

text: red giant

text: s. Indeed, the outer atmosphere of this star has expanded to around 48 times the radius of the Sun. Even though it has just 1.4 times the mass of the Sun, this wide envelope gives it a luminosity of roughly 468 times the Sun's. This energy is being radiated from a relatively cool outer atmosphere that has an

text: effective temperature

text: of nearly 4,000 K. It is this cool temperature that gives it the orange-red glow of an M-type star.

text: At the moment of the explosion, the fireball is formed. The ascending, roughly spherical mass of hot, incandescent gases changes shape due to atmospheric friction and cools its surface by energy radiation, turning from a sphere to a violently rotating spheroidal vortex. A Rayleigh–Taylor instability is formed as the underneath cool air initially pushes the bottom fireball gases into an inverted cup shape. This causes turbulence and a vortex that sucks more air into its center, creating external afterwinds and cooling itself. The speed of its rotating slows down as it cools, and may stop entirely during later phases. The vaporized parts of the weapon and ionized air cool into visible gases, forming the early cloud; the white-hot vortex core becomes yellow, then dark red, then loses visible incandescence. With further cooling, the bulk of the cloud fills in as atmospheric moisture condenses. As the cloud ascends and cools, its buoyancy lessens, and its ascent slows.

text: At the moment of the explosion, the fireball is formed. The ascending, roughly spherical mass of hot,

text: incandescent

text: gases changes shape due to atmospheric friction and cools its surface by energy radiation, turning from a sphere to a violently rotating spheroidal vortex. A

text: Rayleigh–Taylor instability

text: is formed as the underneath cool air initially pushes the bottom fireball gases into an inverted cup shape. This causes turbulence and a vortex that sucks more air into its center, creating external afterwinds and cooling itself. The speed of its rotating slows down as it cools, and may stop entirely during later phases. The vaporized parts of the weapon and ionized air cool into visible gases, forming the early cloud; the

text: white-hot

text: vortex core becomes yellow, then dark red, then loses visible incandescence. With further cooling, the bulk of the cloud fills in as atmospheric moisture condenses. As the cloud ascends and cools, its

text: buoyancy

text: lessens, and its ascent slows.

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.  In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100% renewable energy in the future. For example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply (electricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable energy by 2050.

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to

text: other energy sources

text: , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: is resulting in significant

entity_name: Energy security and renewable technology

text: energy security

text: climate change mitigation

text: , and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.  In international

text: public opinion surveys

text: there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach

text: 100% renewable energy

text: in the future. For example, in

text: Denmark

text: the government decided to

text: switch the total energy supply

text: (electricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable energy by 2050.

text: BECCS was pointed out in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets.  The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency, the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO emissions per year with BECCS in 2050. According to the OECD, "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of BECCS".

text: BECCS was pointed out in the

text: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

text: by the

text: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: (IPCC) as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets.  The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the

text: Royal Society

text: to be equivalent to a 50 to 150

text: ppm

text: decrease in

text: global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations

text: and according to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: , the BLUE map

text: climate change mitigation scenario

text: calls for more than 2

text: giga

text: tonnes

text: of negative CO emissions per year with BECCS in 2050. According to the

text: OECD

text: , "Achieving lower concentration targets (450 ppm) depends significantly on the use of

text: BECCS

text: where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. A key to understanding the greenhouse effect is Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation. At any given wavelength the absorptivity of the atmosphere will be equal to the emissivity. Radiation from the surface could be in a slightly different portion of the infrared spectrum than the radiation emitted by the atmosphere.  The model assumes that the average emissivity (absorptivity) is identical for either of these streams of infrared radiation, as they interact with the atmosphere.  Thus, for longwave radiation, one symbol ε denotes both the emissivity and absorptivity of the atmosphere, for any stream of infrared radiation.

text: where σ is the

text: Stefan-Boltzmann constant

text: . A key to understanding the greenhouse effect is

text: Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation

text: . At any given wavelength the absorptivity of the atmosphere will be equal to the emissivity. Radiation from the surface could be in a slightly different portion of the infrared spectrum than the radiation emitted by the atmosphere.  The model assumes that the average emissivity (absorptivity) is identical for either of these streams of infrared radiation, as they interact with the atmosphere.  Thus, for longwave radiation, one symbol ε denotes both the emissivity and absorptivity of the atmosphere, for any stream of infrared radiation.

text: Millimeter wavelength radiation is a subset of the microwave radio frequency spectrum. Even at its high-energy end, it is still more than 3 orders of magnitude lower in energy than its nearest radiotoxic neighbour (ultraviolet) in the electromagnetic spectrum. As such, millimeter wave radiation is non-ionizing and incapable of causing cancers by radiolytic DNA bond cleavage. Yet, the WHO (World Health Organization) IARC (International Agency for Research in Cancer) in 2011 classified non-ionizing radiation such as millimeter waves or microwaves, as 2B, which means possibly carcinogenic to humans. Due to the shallow penetration depth of millimeter waves into tissue (typically less than 1 mm), acute biological effects of irradiation are localized in epidermal and dermal layers and manifest primarily as thermal effects. There is no clear evidence to date of harmful effects other than those caused by localised heating and ensuing chemical changes (expression of heat shock proteins, denaturation, proteolysis, and inflammatory response, see also mobile phone radiation and health). It should be noted however that the energy density required to produce thermal injury in skin is much higher than that typically delivered in an active millimeter wave scanner.

text: Millimeter

text: wavelength

text: radiation is a subset of the

text: microwave

text: radio frequency

text: spectrum. Even at its high-energy end, it is still more than 3

text: orders of magnitude

text: lower in energy than its nearest

text: radiotoxic

text: neighbour (

text: ultraviolet

text: ) in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . As such, millimeter wave radiation is

text: non-ionizing

text: and incapable of causing cancers by

text: radiolytic

text: DNA bond cleavage

text: . Yet, the WHO (World Health Organization) IARC (International Agency for Research in Cancer) in 2011 classified non-ionizing radiation such as millimeter waves or microwaves, as 2B, which means possibly carcinogenic to humans. Due to the shallow penetration depth of millimeter waves into tissue (typically less than 1 mm), acute biological effects of irradiation are localized in epidermal and dermal layers and manifest primarily as

text: thermal effects

text: . There is no clear evidence to date of harmful effects other than those caused by localised heating and ensuing chemical changes (expression of

text: heat shock protein

text: s,

text: denaturation

text: proteolysis

text: , and

text: inflammatory response

text: , see also

text: mobile phone radiation and health

text: ). It should be noted however that the

text: energy density

text: required to produce thermal injury in skin is much higher than that typically delivered in an active millimeter wave scanner.

text: Chlorophyll (also chlorophyl) is a term used for several closely related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of algae and plants. Its name is derived from the Greek words χλωρός, chloros ("green") and φύλλον, phyllon ("leaf"). Chlorophyll is essential in photosynthesis, allowing plants to absorb energy from light. Chlorophyll absorbs light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, followed by the red portion. Conversely, it is a poor absorber of green and near-green portions of the spectrum, which it reflects, producing the green color of chlorophyll-containing tissues. Chlorophyll molecules are specifically arranged in and around photosystems that are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. Two types of chlorophyll exist in the photosystems of green plants: chlorophyll a and b. Chlorophyll was first isolated and named by Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre Joseph Pelletier in 1817.<ref>See:

text: Chlorophyll (also chlorophyl) is a term used for several closely related green

text: pigment

text: s found in

text: cyanobacteria

text: and the

text: chloroplast

text: s of

text: alga

text: e and

text: plant

text: s. Its name is derived from the

text: Greek

text: words χλωρός, chloros ("green") and φύλλον, phyllon ("leaf"). Chlorophyll is essential in

text: photosynthesis

text: , allowing plants to absorb

text: energy

text: from light. Chlorophyll absorbs light most strongly in the

text: blue portion

text: of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , followed by the red portion. Conversely, it is a poor absorber of green and near-green portions of the spectrum, which it reflects, producing the green color of chlorophyll-containing tissues. Chlorophyll molecules are specifically arranged in and around photosystems that are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. Two types of chlorophyll exist in the photosystems of green plants: chlorophyll a and b. Chlorophyll was first isolated and named by

text: Joseph Bienaimé Caventou

text: and

text: Pierre Joseph Pelletier

text: in 1817.<ref>See:

text: Against the background of its long experience with ocean engineering and the development of renewable energy sources, DEME established a fully owned new company in early 2010 which is called DEME Blue Energy. DBE focuses on wave energy and tidal energy, including the development of appropriate technology and prototype equipment that could be used to generate electricity. In 2010 a consortium of industrial partners, named Flanders Electricity from the Sea (FlanSea), submitted a research project for developing a wave energy converter (WEC) which will undergo an instrumented test in the summer of 2012. DEME Blue Energy is a member of the FlanSea consortium, together with Ghent University, the port of Oostende, and others. If successful, the new technology could be installed in between the offshore wind turbines of the Thorntonbank Wind Farm, creating a synergy between two different sources of renewable energy. In September 2010 the Flemish Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT) granted a €2.4 million subsidy for the FlanSea project. The FlanSea wave energy converter will be a so-called point absorber, modelled after the B1-device off Southeast Norway which was developed under the European funded SEEWEC project, co-ordinated by Prof. dr. ir. Julien De Rouck of the Department of Coastal Engineering at Ghent University, Belgium. Besides the FlanSea project, DEME Blue Energy is also involved in other initiatives. DEME Blue Energy is a founding member of Friends of the Supergrid, established in London on 8 March 2010 with the objective to help develop a pan-European offshore super grid for renewable energy. DEME Blue Energy is also a partner and shareholder in Renewable Energy Base Oostende (REBO), founded on 28 October 2010 for servicing offshore wind farms in Northwest Europe.

text: Against the background of its long experience with

text: ocean engineering

text: and the development of

text: renewable energy sources

text: , DEME established a fully owned new company in early 2010 which is called DEME Blue Energy. DBE focuses on

text: wave energy

text: and

text: tidal energy

text: , including the development of appropriate technology and prototype equipment that could be used to generate electricity. In 2010 a consortium of industrial partners, named Flanders Electricity from the Sea (FlanSea), submitted a

text: research project

text: for developing a

text: wave energy converter

text: (WEC) which will undergo an

text: instrumented

text: test in the summer of 2012. DEME Blue Energy is a member of the FlanSea consortium, together with

text: Ghent University

text: , the port of

text: Oostende

text: , and others. If successful, the new technology could be installed in between the

text: offshore wind turbine

text: s of the

text: Thorntonbank Wind Farm

text: , creating a synergy between two different sources of

text: renewable energy

text: . In September 2010 the

text: Flemish

text: Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT) granted a €2.4 million subsidy for the FlanSea project. The FlanSea

text: wave energy converter

text: will be a so-called point absorber, modelled after the B1-device off Southeast Norway which was developed under the European funded SEEWEC project, co-ordinated by Prof. dr. ir. Julien De Rouck of the Department of Coastal Engineering at

text: Ghent University

text: , Belgium. Besides the FlanSea project, DEME Blue Energy is also involved in other initiatives. DEME Blue Energy is a founding member of Friends of the Supergrid, established in London on 8 March 2010 with the objective to help develop a pan-European offshore

text: super grid

text: for

text: renewable energy

text: . DEME Blue Energy is also a partner and shareholder in Renewable Energy Base Oostende (REBO), founded on 28 October 2010 for servicing

text: offshore wind farm

text: s in Northwest Europe.

text: The spectrum of this star matches a stellar classification of F4 V, which places it among the category of F-type main sequence stars. It shines with 4.6 times the luminosity of the Sun. The outer atmosphere is radiating this energy at an effective temperature of 6,725 K, giving it the yellow-white hue of an F-type star. There is some evidence that this may be a binary star system consisting of two stars with identical masses.

text: The

text: spectrum

text: of this star matches a

text: stellar classification

text: of F4 V, which places it among the category of

text: F-type main sequence star

text: s. It shines with 4.6 times the luminosity of the Sun. The

text: outer atmosphere

text: is radiating this energy at an

text: effective temperature

text: of 6,725 K, giving it the yellow-white hue of an

text: F-type star

text: . There is some evidence that this may be a

text: binary star

text: system consisting of two stars with identical masses.

text: Another way to create a Martian atmosphere would be to import methane or other hydrocarbons, which are common in Titan's atmosphere and on its surface; the methane could be vented into the atmosphere where it would act to compound the greenhouse effect.

text: Another way to create a Martian atmosphere would be to import

text: methane

text: or other

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, which are common in

text: Titan's

text: atmosphere and on its

text: surface

text: ; the methane could be vented into the atmosphere where it would act to compound the greenhouse effect.

text: Ashot Chilingarian (; born 18 May 1949) is an Armenian physicist known for his contributions to the fields of high-energy astrophysics, space weather, and high-energy atmospheric physics. He is the head of the Cosmic Ray Division (CRD) and the director of the Alikhanyan Physics Institute in Armenia.

text: Ashot Chilingarian (; born 18 May 1949) is an Armenian physicist known for his contributions to the fields of

text: high-energy astrophysics

text: space weather

text: , and

text: high-energy atmospheric physics

text: . He is the head of the Cosmic Ray Division (CRD) and the director of the

text: Alikhanyan Physics Institute

text: in Armenia.

text: An astrophysical maser is a naturally occurring source of stimulated spectral line emission, typically in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This emission may arise in molecular clouds, comets, planetary atmospheres, stellar atmospheres, or  various other conditions in interstellar space.

text: An astrophysical maser is a naturally occurring source of

text: stimulated

text: spectral line

text: emission, typically in the

text: microwave

text: portion of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . This emission may arise in

text: molecular cloud

text: s,

text: comet

text: s,

text: planet

text: ary

text: atmosphere

text: s,

text: stellar atmosphere

text: s, or  various other conditions in

text: interstellar space

text: Intentional aerobraking is achieved by orienting the returning space craft so as to present the heat shields forward toward the atmosphere to protect against the high temperatures generated by atmospheric compression and friction caused by passing through the atmosphere at hypersonic speeds.  The thermal energy is dissipated mainly by compression heating the air in a shockwave ahead of the vehicle using a blunt heat shield shape, with the aim of minimising the heat entering the vehicle.

text: Intentional aerobraking is achieved by orienting the returning space craft so as to present the heat shields forward toward the atmosphere to protect against the high temperatures generated by atmospheric compression and friction caused by passing through the atmosphere at

text: hypersonic

text: speeds.  The thermal energy is dissipated mainly by compression heating the air in a shockwave ahead of the vehicle using a blunt heat shield shape, with the aim of minimising the heat entering the vehicle.

text: Electrons can move (slowly) through an insulator by the following method. The electrons are generally trapped in localized states (loosely speaking, they are "stuck" to a single atom, and not free to move around the crystal). Occasionally, random thermal fluctuations will give that electron enough energy to get out of its localized state, and move to the conduction band. Once there, the electron can move through the crystal, for a brief amount of time, before relaxing into another localized state (in other words, "sticking" to a different atom). The Poole–Frenkel effect describes how, in a large electric field, the electron doesn't need as much thermal energy to get into the conduction band (because part of this energy comes from being pulled by the electric field), so it does not need as large a thermal fluctuation and will be able to move more frequently.

text: Electrons can move (slowly) through an insulator by the following method. The electrons are generally trapped in localized states (loosely speaking, they are "stuck" to a single atom, and not free to move around the crystal). Occasionally, random thermal fluctuations will give that electron enough energy to get out of its localized state, and move to the

text: conduction band

text: . Once there, the electron can move through the crystal, for a brief amount of time, before relaxing into another localized state (in other words, "sticking" to a different atom). The Poole–Frenkel effect describes how, in a large

text: electric field

text: , the electron doesn't need as much thermal energy to get into the conduction band (because part of this energy comes from being pulled by the electric field), so it does not need as large a thermal fluctuation and will be able to move more frequently.

text: There are other forms of internal energy besides the kinetic energy of translational motion. As can be seen in the animation at right, molecules are complex objects; they are a population of atoms and thermal agitation can strain their internal chemical bonds in three different ways: via rotation, bond length, and bond angle movements. These are all types of internal degrees of freedom. This makes molecules distinct from monatomic substances (consisting of individual atoms) like the noble gases helium and argon, which have only the three translational degrees of freedom. Kinetic energy is stored in molecules' internal degrees of freedom, which gives them an internal temperature. Even though these motions are called internal, the external portions of molecules still move—rather like the jiggling of a stationary water balloon. This permits the two-way exchange of kinetic energy between internal motions and translational motions with each molecular collision. Accordingly, as energy is removed from molecules, both their kinetic temperature (the temperature derived from the kinetic energy of translational motion) and their internal temperature simultaneously diminish in equal proportions. This phenomenon is described by the equipartition theorem, which states that for any bulk quantity of a substance in equilibrium, the kinetic energy of particle motion is evenly distributed among all the active (i.e. unfrozen) degrees of freedom available to the particles. Since the internal temperature of molecules are usually equal to their kinetic temperature, the distinction is usually of interest only in the detailed study of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) phenomena such as combustion, the sublimation of solids, and the diffusion of hot gases in a partial vacuum.

text: There are other forms of internal energy besides the kinetic energy of translational motion. As can be seen in the animation at right,

text: molecule

text: s are complex objects; they are a population of atoms and thermal agitation can strain their internal

text: chemical bond

text: s in three different ways: via rotation, bond length, and bond angle movements. These are all types of internal degrees of freedom. This makes molecules distinct from

text: monatomic

text: substances (consisting of individual atoms) like the

text: noble gas

text: es

text: helium

text: and

text: argon

text: , which have only the three translational degrees of freedom. Kinetic energy is stored in molecules' internal degrees of freedom, which gives them an internal temperature. Even though these motions are called internal, the external portions of molecules still move—rather like the jiggling of a stationary

text: water balloon

text: . This permits the two-way exchange of kinetic energy between internal motions and translational motions with each molecular collision. Accordingly, as energy is removed from molecules, both their kinetic temperature (the temperature derived from the kinetic energy of translational motion) and their internal temperature simultaneously diminish in equal proportions. This phenomenon is described by the

text: equipartition theorem

text: , which states that for any bulk quantity of a substance in equilibrium, the kinetic energy of particle motion is evenly distributed among all the active (i.e. unfrozen) degrees of freedom available to the particles. Since the internal temperature of molecules are usually equal to their kinetic temperature, the distinction is usually of interest only in the detailed study of non-

text: local thermodynamic equilibrium

text: (LTE) phenomena such as

text: combustion

text: , the

text: sublimation

text: of solids, and the

text: diffusion

text: of hot gases in a partial vacuum.

text: OLR is a critical component of the Earth's energy budget, and represents the total radiation going to space emitted by the atmosphere.   Earth's radiation balance is quite closely achieved since the OLR very nearly equals the Shortwave Absorbed Radiation received at high energy from the sun. Thus, the Earth's average temperature is very nearly stable. The OLR is affected by clouds and dust in the atmosphere, which tend to reduce it to below clear sky values.

text: OLR is a critical component of the

text: Earth's energy budget

text: , and represents the total radiation going to space emitted by the atmosphere.   Earth's radiation balance is quite closely achieved since the OLR very nearly equals the Shortwave Absorbed Radiation received at high energy from the sun. Thus, the Earth's average temperature is very nearly stable. The OLR is affected by clouds and dust in the atmosphere, which tend to reduce it to below clear sky values.

text: In Eureka Seven, as a result of the Scub Coral covering the planet, the atmosphere is permeated by an enigmatic energy known as , dubbed  waves for short. Norbu, the Vodarac leader, states that all thought carries with it energy. As a result, a sentient life form on the scale of the Scub Coral produces a tremendous amount of energy. The most important use of Trapar energy is its use as a method of propulsion for flight-capable vehicles.

text: The Earth's magnetic field and the solar wind interact with the atmosphere, creating the ionosphere, Van Allen radiation belts, telluric currents, and radiant energy.

text: The

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: and the

text: solar wind

text: interact with the atmosphere, creating the

text: ionosphere

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s,

text: telluric current

text: s, and

text: radiant energy

text: The theory of operation on which Hieronymus Machines are based is that all matter emits a kind of "radiation" that is not electromagnetic, but exhibits some of the characteristics of both light and electricity. The quality of this emanation is unique to every kind of matter, and therefore can be utilized for detection and analysis. Hieronymus coined the term "eloptic energy" to describe this radiation (from the words "electrical" and "optical".) All of his machines were designed to detect and manipulate this eloptic energy. Eloptic emanations have never been detected by instruments designed to measure electromagnetic energies, and no other evidence or mathematical proof for their existence have been produced, so the theory is considered pseudoscientific and is not accepted by mainstream science.

text: The theory of operation on which Hieronymus Machines are based is that all matter emits a kind of "radiation" that is not

text: electromagnetic

text: , but exhibits some of the characteristics of both light and electricity. The quality of this emanation is unique to every kind of matter, and therefore can be utilized for detection and analysis. Hieronymus coined the term "eloptic energy" to describe this radiation (from the words "electrical" and "optical".) All of his machines were designed to detect and manipulate this eloptic energy. Eloptic emanations have never been detected by instruments designed to measure electromagnetic energies, and no other evidence or mathematical proof for their existence have been produced, so the theory is considered pseudoscientific and is not accepted by mainstream science.

text: Specifically, it states that the kinetic energy of a system of particles is the sum of the kinetic energy associated to the movement of the center of mass and the kinetic energy associated to the movement of the particles relative to the center of mass.

text: Specifically, it states that the kinetic energy of a system of particles is the sum of the

text: kinetic energy

text: associated to the movement of the

text: center of mass

text: and the kinetic energy associated to the movement of the particles relative to the center of mass.

text: When the solar wind is perturbed, it easily transfers energy and material into the magnetosphere.  The electrons and ions in the magnetosphere that are thus energized move along the magnetic field lines to the polar regions of the atmosphere.

text: Wilmot N. Hess (October 16, 1926 – April 16, 2004) was an American physicist.  He was involved with many ambitious scientific projects of the 20th century including the Plowshares project, the NASA Apollo moon missions, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) hurricane research and oil spill cleanup research, the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) weather modification research, and the US Department of Energy Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) project.  Dr. Hess retired Associate Director of the US Department of Energy, first elected in 1976. Hess lived in California, and died on April 16, 2004 at the age of 77, of leukemia.

text: Wilmot N. Hess (October 16, 1926 – April 16, 2004) was an American physicist.  He was involved with many ambitious scientific projects of the 20th century including the Plowshares project, the

text: NASA

text: Apollo moon missions, the

text: (NOAA) hurricane research and oil spill cleanup research, the

text: (NCAR) weather modification research, and the US Department of Energy Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) project.  Dr. Hess retired Associate Director of the

text: US Department of Energy

text: , first elected in 1976. Hess lived in

text: California

text: , and died on April 16, 2004 at the age of 77, of leukemia.

text: A wide variety of radiation sources are employed in order to cover the electromagnetic spectrum. For spectroscopy, it is generally desirable for a source to cover a broad swath of wavelengths in order to measure a broad region of the absorption spectrum. Some sources inherently emit a broad spectrum. Examples of these include globars or other black body sources in the infrared, mercury lamps in the visible and ultraviolet and x-ray tubes. One recently developed, novel source of broad spectrum radiation is synchrotron radiation which covers all of these spectral regions. Other radiation sources generate a narrow spectrum but the emission wavelength can be tuned to cover a spectral range. Examples of these include klystrons in the microwave region and lasers across the infrared, visible and ultraviolet region (though not all lasers have tunable wavelengths).

text: A wide variety of radiation sources are employed in order to cover the electromagnetic spectrum. For spectroscopy, it is generally desirable for a source to cover a broad swath of wavelengths in order to measure a broad region of the absorption spectrum. Some sources inherently emit a broad spectrum. Examples of these include

text: globar

text: s or other

text: black body

text: sources in the infrared,

text: mercury lamp

text: s in the visible and ultraviolet and

text: x-ray tube

text: s. One recently developed, novel source of broad spectrum radiation is

text: synchrotron radiation

text: which covers all of these spectral regions. Other radiation sources generate a narrow spectrum but the emission wavelength can be tuned to cover a spectral range. Examples of these include

text: klystron

text: s in the microwave region and

text: laser

text: s across the infrared, visible and ultraviolet region (though not all lasers have tunable wavelengths).

text: In order for a solar map to be made, two main types of data must be collected. Those two types of data include Meteorological Data and Topographical Data. The Meteorological data is used in calculations pertaining to Solar Energy. Such measurements of this type of data include the measurements of the position of the sun, overall atmospheric conditions, latitude, and shading. Topographical data on the other hand, is used in illustrating the amount of area exposed to a certain degree of radiation from the sun or in calculations that present how much area of a physical object is experiencing direct contact with the sun's rays. In some cases, Financial Data may also be collected to be presented on a solar map. When this happens, that means that the solar map would appear online for a certain city. The reasons why financial data is collected and presented on these solar maps is to encourage a certain productive behavior among citizens.

text:
|- style="background:#cfc;"| 1| October 28| San Antonio|  | Russell Westbrook (33)| Enes Kanter (16)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–0|-style="background:#cfc;"|2|October 30| @ Orlando |  | Russell Westbrook (48)| Durant & Ibaka (12)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Amway Center
18,846| 2–0|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3| November 1|  Denver|   | Kevin Durant (25)| Enes Kanter (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–0|- style="background:#fcc;"| 4| November 2| @ Houston|  | Kevin Durant (29)| Serge Ibaka (14)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Toyota Center
17,224| 3–1|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 4|  Toronto| | Kevin Durant (27)| Durant & Adams (7)| Russell Westbrook (16)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 6| November 5|@ Chicago| | Kevin Durant (33)| Enes Kanter (8)| Russell Westbrook (10)| United Center
21,861| 3–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7| November 8| Phoenix| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (11)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 4–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 8| November 10|  @Washington|   | Dion Waiters (25)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Verizon Center
20,356| 5–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9| November 13| Philadelphia|  | Russell Westbrook (21)| Russell Westbrook (17)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 15| Boston|   | Russell Westbrook (27)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6–4|- style="background:#fcc;"|11| November 16| @ Memphis|  | Russell Westbrook (40)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (14)| FedEx Forum
17,270| 6–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 12| November 18|  New Orleans|  | Russell Westbrook (43)| Enes Kanter (11)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 7–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 13| November 20| New York| | Russell Westbrook (34)| Enes Kanter (13)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 7–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 14| November 22| Dallas|   | Russell Westbrook (31)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 15| November 23| @ Utah| | Kevin Durant (27)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Vivint Smart Home Arena
19,911| 9–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16| November 25| Brooklyn| | Kevin Durant (30)| Enes Kanter (9)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 10–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 27| Detroit|  | Kevin Durant (34)| Durant & Adams (13)| Kevin Durant (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 11–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 18| November 30| @Atlanta| | Russell Westbrook (34)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Philips Arena
17,768| 11–7|- style="background:#fcc;"| 19| December 3| @Miami|   | Durant & Westbrook (25)| Durant & Roberson (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| American Airlines Arena
19,600| 11–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| December 6| Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (20)| Steven Adams (12)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 12–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 8| @ Memphis|   | Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (16)| FedEx Forum
16,415| 13–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 10| Atlanta|   | Kevin Durant (25)| Kevin Durant (12)| Durant & Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 14–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23| December 11| @Utah|   | Russell Westbrook (24)| Durant & Ibaka (8)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Energy Solutions Arena
19,911| 15–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 13| Utah|   | Kevin Durant (31)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Kevin Durant (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 16–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25| December 16| Portland|   | Kevin Durant (24)| Enes Kanter (13)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 17–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 17| @ Cleveland|  | Kevin Durant (27)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Quicken Loans Arena
20,562| 17–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 19|  L.A. Lakers|   | Kevin Durant (22)| Enes Kanter (14)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 18–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 28| December 21| @ L.A. Clippers| | Russell Westbrook (33)| Steven Adams (11)| Durant, Westbrook (7)| Staples Center
19,415| 19–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 29| December 23| @ L.A. Lakers|   | Russell Westbrook (23)| Enes Kanter (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Staples Center
18,997| 20–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 30| December 25| Chicago|   | Kevin Durant (29)| Enes Kanter (11)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 20–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 31| December 27| Denver| | Russell Westbrook (30)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 21–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 32| December 29| Milwaukee| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Enes Kanter (8)| Kevin Durant (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 22–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33| December 31| Phoenix|   | Russell Westbrook (36)| Steven Adams (8)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 23–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34| January 2| @ Charlotte|   | Kevin Durant (29)| Kevin Durant (11)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Time Warner Cable Arena
19,387| 24–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35| January 4| Sacramento| | Serge Ibaka (25)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (15) | Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 24–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 36| January 6| Memphis|  | Kevin Durant (26)| Kevin Durant (17)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 25–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37| January 8| @ L.A. Lakers|  | Russell Westbrook (36)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Staples Center
18,997| 26–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38| January 10| @ Portland|   | Kevin Durant (28)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Moda Center
19,393| 26–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39| January 12| @ Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (30)| Serge Ibaka (8)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Target Center
14,791| 27–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40| January 13| Dallas|  | Kevin Durant (29)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 28–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41| January 15| Minnesota|   | Kevin Durant (21)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 29–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42| January 17| Miami|   | Kevin Durant (24)| Kevin Durant & Russell Westbrook (10)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 30–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 43| January 19| @ Denver|  | Kevin Durant (30)| Kevin Durant (12)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Pepsi Center
12,844| 31–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 44| January 20| Charlotte|  | Kevin Durant (26)| Steven Adams (10)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 32–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45| January 22| @ Dallas|   | Kevin Durant (24)| Nick Collison (11)|Kevin Durant & Russell Westbrook (7)| American Airlines Center
20,284| 33–12|- style="background:#fcc;"| 46| January 24| @ Brooklyn|  | Kevin Durant (32)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Kevin Durant & Russell Westbrook (7)| Barclays Center
16,019| 33–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 47| January 26| @ New York| | Kevin Durant (44)| Serge Ibaka (17)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Madison Square Garden
19,812| 34–13|-style="background:#cfc;"|48|January 27|@ Minnesota|| Kevin Durant (27)| Enes Kanter (10)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Target Center
13,337|35–13|-style="background:#cfc;"|49|January 29| Houston|| Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant (12)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
 18,203|36–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 50| February 1|  Washington|  | Kevin Durant (28)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 37–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51| February 3| Orlando|   | Kevin Durant (37)| Russell Westbrook (19)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 38–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 52| February 6| @ Golden State|   | Kevin Durant (40)| Enes Kanter (15)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 38–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53| February 8| @ Phoenix|  | Kevin Durant (32)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Talking Stick Resort Arena
16,316| 39–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 54| February 11| New Orleans|   | Durant & Westbrook (23)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–14|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break|- style="background:#fcc;"| 55| February 19|  Indiana|  | Kevin Durant (31)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Russell Westbrook (18)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 56| February 21| Cleveland|   | Kevin Durant (26)| Adams & Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 57| February 24| @ Dallas|  | Durant & Westbrook (24)| Enes Kanter (9)| Russell Westbrook (13)| American Airlines Center
19,805| 41–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58| February 25| @ New Orleans|   | Russell Westbrook (44)| Kevin Durant (14)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Smoothie King Center
16,974| 41–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 59| February 27| Golden State|  | Kevin Durant (37)| Serge Ibaka (20)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 41–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60| February 29| @ Sacramento|  | Kevin Durant (27)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Sleep Train Arena
17,317| 42–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 61| March 2| @ L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (30)| Durant & Ibaka (11)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Staples Center
19,304| 42–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62| March 3| @ Golden State| | Kevin Durant (32)| André Roberson (11)| Kevin Durant (9)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 42–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 63| March 6| @ Milwaukee|   | Kevin Durant (32)| Enes Kanter (12)| Russell Westbrook (11)| BMO Harris Bradley Center
16,565| 43–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 64| March 9| L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (30)| Kevin Durant (12)| Russell Westbrook (20)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 44–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 65| March 11| Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (28)| Steven Adams (13)| Russell Westbrook (8) | Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 44–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 66| March 12| @ San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (28)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Kevin Durant (8)| AT&T Center
18,418| 44–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 67| March 14| Portland|   | Enes Kanter (26)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Russell Westbrook (16)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 45–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68| March 16| @ Boston| | Kevin Durant (28)| Enes Kanter (12)| Kevin Durant (9)| TD Garden
18,624| 46–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69| March 18| @ Philadelphia| | Kevin Durant (26)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Wells Fargo Center
20,388| 47–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70| March 19| @ Indiana|  | Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant (12)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Bankers Life Fieldhouse
18,165| 48–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 71| March 22| Houston|  | Kevin Durant (23)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (15)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 49–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 72| March 24| Utah| | Kevin Durant (20)| Kevin Durant (8)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 50–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 73| March 26| San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (31)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 51–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 74| March 28| @ Toronto| | Kevin Durant (34)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Air Canada Centre
19,800| 52–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75| March 29| @ Detroit| | Russell Westbrook (24)| Enes Kanter (14)| Russell Westbrook (6)| The Palace of Auburn Hills
18,201| 52–23|- style="background:#cfc;"| 76| March 31| L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (31)| Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 53–23|- style="background:#fcc;"| 77| April 3| @ Houston|   | Kevin Durant (33)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Toyota Center
18,462| 53–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 78| April 5| @ Denver|  | Kevin Durant (26)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Pepsi Center
12,611| 54–24|- style="background:#fcc;"| 79| April 6| @ Portland|  | Enes Kanter (33)| Enes Kanter (20)| Cameron Payne (6)| Moda Center
19,399| 54–25|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80| April 9| @ Sacramento|  | Kevin Durant (31)| Ibaka & Adams (8)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Sleep Train Arena
17,317| 54–26|- style="background:#cfc;"| 81| April 11| L.A. Lakers|  | Kevin Durant (34)| Steven Adams (15)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 55–26|- style="background:#fcc;"| 82| April 12| @ San Antonio|   | Adams, Waiters, Payne & Kanter (17)| Enes Kanter (16)| Cameron Payne (7)| AT&T Center
18,765|55–27

text: |- style="background:#cfc;"| 1| October 28|

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–0|-style="background:#cfc;"|2|October 30| @

text: Orlando

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Amway Center

text: <br>18,846| 2–0|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3| November 1|

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–0|- style="background:#fcc;"| 4| November 2| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>17,224| 3–1|- style="background:#fcc;"| 5| November 4|

text: Toronto

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 6| November 5|@

text: Chicago

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: United Center

text: <br>21,861| 3–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 7| November 8|

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 4–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 8| November 10|  @

text: Washington

text: Dion Waiters

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Verizon Center

text: <br>20,356| 5–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9| November 13|

text: Philadelphia

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 10| November 15|

text: Boston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6–4|- style="background:#fcc;"|11| November 16| @

text: Memphis

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedEx Forum

text: <br>17,270| 6–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 12| November 18|

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 7–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 13| November 20|

text: New York

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 7–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 14| November 22|

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 15| November 23| @

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Vivint Smart Home Arena

text: <br>19,911| 9–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16| November 25|

text: Brooklyn

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 10–6|- style="background:#cfc;"| 17| November 27|

text: Detroit

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Adams

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 11–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 18| November 30| @

text: Atlanta

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Philips Arena

text: <br>17,768| 11–7|- style="background:#fcc;"| 19| December 3| @

text: Miami

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Roberson

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Arena

text: <br>19,600| 11–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20| December 6|

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 12–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21| December 8| @

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedEx Forum

text: <br>16,415| 13–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22| December 10|

text: Atlanta

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 14–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23| December 11| @

text: Utah

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Energy Solutions Arena

text: <br>19,911| 15–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24| December 13|

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 16–8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25| December 16|

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 17–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 26| December 17| @

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Quicken Loans Arena

text: <br>20,562| 17–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 27| December 19|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 18–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 28| December 21| @

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,415| 19–9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 29| December 23| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 20–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 30| December 25|

text: Chicago

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 20–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 31| December 27|

text: Denver

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 21–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 32| December 29|

text: Milwaukee

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 22–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33| December 31|

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 23–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34| January 2| @

text: Charlotte

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Time Warner Cable Arena

text: <br>19,387| 24–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35| January 4|

text: Sacramento

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: (15) |

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 24–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 36| January 6|

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 25–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37| January 8| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 26–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38| January 10| @

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Moda Center

text: <br>19,393| 26–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39| January 12| @

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>14,791| 27–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40| January 13|

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 28–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41| January 15|

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 29–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42| January 17|

text: Miami

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 30–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 43| January 19| @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>12,844| 31–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 44| January 20|

text: Charlotte

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 32–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45| January 22| @

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Nick Collison

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,284| 33–12|- style="background:#fcc;"| 46| January 24| @

text: Brooklyn

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Barclays Center

text: <br>16,019| 33–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 47| January 26| @

text: New York

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Madison Square Garden

text: <br>19,812| 34–13|-style="background:#cfc;"|48|January 27|@

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>13,337|35–13|-style="background:#cfc;"|49|January 29|

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br> 18,203|36–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 50| February 1|

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 37–13|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51| February 3|

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 38–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 52| February 6| @

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 38–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53| February 8| @

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Talking Stick Resort Arena

text: <br>16,316| 39–14|- style="background:#cfc;"| 54| February 11|

text: New Orleans

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–14|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|

text: All-Star Break

text: |- style="background:#fcc;"| 55| February 19|

text: Indiana

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 56| February 21|

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Adams

text: Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–16|- style="background:#cfc;"| 57| February 24| @

text: Dallas

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>19,805| 41–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58| February 25| @

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>16,974| 41–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 59| February 27|

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 41–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60| February 29| @

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>17,317| 42–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 61| March 2| @

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,304| 42–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62| March 3| @

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: André Roberson

text: Kevin Durant

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 42–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 63| March 6| @

text: Milwaukee

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: BMO Harris Bradley Center

text: <br>16,565| 43–20|- style="background:#cfc;"| 64| March 9|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 44–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 65| March 11|

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: (8) |

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 44–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 66| March 12| @

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,418| 44–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 67| March 14|

text: Portland

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 45–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68| March 16| @

text: Boston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Enes Kanter

text: Kevin Durant

text: TD Garden

text: <br>18,624| 46–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69| March 18| @

text: Philadelphia

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Wells Fargo Center

text: <br>20,388| 47–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70| March 19| @

text: Indiana

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Bankers Life Fieldhouse

text: <br>18,165| 48–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 71| March 22|

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 49–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 72| March 24|

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 50–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 73| March 26|

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 51–22|- style="background:#cfc;"| 74| March 28| @

text: Toronto

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Air Canada Centre

text: <br>19,800| 52–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75| March 29| @

text: Detroit

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Enes Kanter

text: Russell Westbrook

text: The Palace of Auburn Hills

text: <br>18,201| 52–23|- style="background:#cfc;"| 76| March 31|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 53–23|- style="background:#fcc;"| 77| April 3| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,462| 53–24|- style="background:#cfc;"| 78| April 5| @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>12,611| 54–24|- style="background:#fcc;"| 79| April 6| @

text: Portland

text: Enes Kanter

text: Enes Kanter

text: Cameron Payne

text: Moda Center

text: <br>19,399| 54–25|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80| April 9| @

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>17,317| 54–26|- style="background:#cfc;"| 81| April 11|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 55–26|- style="background:#fcc;"| 82| April 12| @

text: San Antonio

text: Adams

text: Waiters

text: Payne

text: Kanter

text: Enes Kanter

text: Cameron Payne

text: AT&T Center

text: Freelance photographer Ken Russell in his pre-film director days, captured the 'energy and excitement' of this night life in Soho for Picture Post and these atmospheric images resurfaced in the Soho Nights exhibition by The Photographers' Gallery, London, December 2008 – February 2009. Russell recalls: "I remember the atmosphere was very jolly. So I made a number of visits to the Cat's Whisker. Cliff Richard used to appear there. I used to join in the hand-jiving."

text: Freelance photographer

text: Ken Russell

text: in his pre-film director days, captured the 'energy and excitement' of this night life in Soho for

text: Picture Post

text: and these atmospheric images resurfaced in the

text: Soho Nights

text: exhibition by The

text: Photographers' Gallery

text: , London, December 2008 – February 2009. Russell recalls: "I remember the atmosphere was very jolly. So I made a number of visits to the Cat's Whisker. Cliff Richard used to appear there. I used to join in the hand-jiving."

text: In the Post-Crisis DC Comics Universe, Captain Atom's Dilustel skin is tied into the Quantum Field, which enables him to absorb and manipulate theoretically infinite amounts of energy, limited by his willpower and imagination. This energy can be used for flight (which is generally faster than the speed of sound in Earth's atmosphere and up to half-light speed in the vacuum of space), super strength (shown at times to be on par with Martian Manhunter, though another sourcethe DC Heroes Roleplaying Gamedefines his level of strength second only to Superman's among the heroes of the DC universe, though as Monarch he was capable of effortlessly overwhelming three versions of Superman), durability (he has survived exploding nuclear weapons, and even energy sufficient to wipe out all life within the Universe of Earth 51although this was his own energy) self sustenance and life support (allowing him to live and even speak in space), and controlling energy of any form. In addition to high speed flight he has been shown to possess enhanced reflexes. Atom's abilities stem from his link to the Quantum Field, which provides a virtually infinite source of Quantum Energy, which can be used for a vast number of effects. He commonly manipulates his energy into force field bubbles, or explosive "bombs", but the most common form is a simple energy blast. Atom has been shown to be capable of manipulating even exotic energies such as magic, and has a high degree of resistance to such attacks.

text: In the Post-Crisis DC Comics Universe, Captain Atom's Dilustel skin is tied into the Quantum Field, which enables him to absorb and manipulate theoretically infinite amounts of energy, limited by his willpower and imagination. This energy can be used for flight (which is generally faster than the speed of sound in Earth's atmosphere and up to half-light speed in the vacuum of space), super strength (shown at times to be on par with

text: Martian Manhunter

text: , though another source

text: the DC Heroes Roleplaying Game

text: defines his level of strength second only to Superman's among the heroes of the DC universe, though as Monarch he was capable of effortlessly overwhelming three versions of Superman), durability (he has survived exploding nuclear weapons, and even energy sufficient to wipe out all life within the Universe of Earth 51although this was his own energy) self sustenance and life support (allowing him to live and even speak in space), and controlling energy of any form. In addition to high speed flight he has been shown to possess enhanced reflexes. Atom's abilities stem from his link to the Quantum Field, which provides a virtually infinite source of Quantum Energy, which can be used for a vast number of effects. He commonly manipulates his energy into force field bubbles, or explosive "bombs", but the most common form is a simple energy blast. Atom has been shown to be capable of manipulating even exotic energies such as magic, and has a high degree of resistance to such attacks.

text: The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere and ozone layer before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV") are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic oxygen in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200–315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary dioxygen in air to absorb. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV-A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See ultraviolet for more information.

text: The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere and

text: ozone layer

text: before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV") are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic

text: oxygen

text: in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200–315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary

text: dioxygen

text: in air to absorb. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV-A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See

text: ultraviolet

text: for more information.

text: The earth receives one billion dollars of solar energy from the Sun every second when the rate is $0.02 per kilowatt-hour. The earth receives only one two-billionth of the total energy output by the Sun, which is about 500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 horsepower. The Sun generates this energy through thermonuclear reactions roughly equal to 10,000 hydrogen bombs going off every second and has been doing so for the last 4 billion years. Dr. Hans Bethe, in 1938, was the first to determine this fact. Every second, the sun converts 564 million tons of hydrogen into 560 million tons of helium with the remaining 4 million tons being converted into energy in the form of light, heat and radiation.

text: The earth receives one billion dollars of

text: solar energy

text: from the Sun every second when the rate is $0.02 per kilowatt-hour. The earth receives only one two-billionth of the total energy output by the Sun, which is about 500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000

text: horsepower

text: . The Sun generates this energy through

text: thermonuclear reaction

text: s roughly equal to 10,000

text: hydrogen bombs

text: going off every second and has been doing so for the last 4 billion years.

text: Dr. Hans Bethe

text: , in 1938, was the first to determine this fact. Every second, the sun converts 564 million tons of hydrogen into 560 million tons of helium with the remaining 4 million tons being converted into energy in the form of

text: light

text: heat

text: and

text: radiation

text: The SRB project under NASA/GEWEX took global radiation measurements to determine radiative energy fluxes. The energy that comes from the sun strikes the atmosphere and scatters, clouds and is reflected, the earth or water where heat and light are radiated back into the atmosphere or space. When water is struck heated surface water can evaporate carrying energy back into space through cloud formation and rain. The SRB project measured these processes by measuring fluxes at the Earths surface,   top-of-atmosphere with shortwave (SW) and longwave (LW) radiation.

text: The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to  (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of steps called the p–p (proton–proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.

text: The

text: core

text: of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius. It has a density of up to  (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million

text: kelvin

text: s (K). By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of

text: SOHO

text: mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun's life, energy is produced by

text: nuclear fusion

text: in the core region through a series of steps called the

text: p–p (proton–proton) chain

text: ; this process converts

text: hydrogen

text: into

text: helium

text: . Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the

text: CNO cycle

text: , though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.

text: The concept of hexagonal water clashes with several established scientific ideas. Although water clusters have been observed experimentally, they have a very short lifetime: the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at timescales shorter than 200 femtoseconds.This contradicts the hexagonal water model's claim that the particular structure of water consumed is the same structure used by the body. Similarly, the hexagonal water model claims that this particular structure of water "resonates with energetic vibrations of the body to amplify life force". Although water molecules strongly absorb energy in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum, there is no scientific evidence that supports the theory that hexagon-shaped water polymers would be created through bombardment of energy of these frequencies.

text: The concept of hexagonal water clashes with several established scientific ideas. Although

text: water cluster

text: s have been observed experimentally, they have a very short lifetime: the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming at timescales shorter than 200

text: femtosecond

text: s.This contradicts the hexagonal water model's claim that the particular structure of water consumed is the same structure used by the body. Similarly, the hexagonal water model claims that this particular structure of water "resonates with energetic vibrations of the body to amplify life force". Although water molecules strongly absorb energy in the

text: infrared

text: range of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , there is no scientific evidence that supports the theory that hexagon-shaped water polymers would be created through bombardment of energy of these frequencies.

text: Additional atmospheric information can be deduced from microbarom amplitude if the source intensity is known. Microbaroms are produced by upward directed energy transmitted from the ocean surface through the atmosphere. The downward directed energy is transmitted through the ocean to the sea floor, where it is coupled to the Earth's crust and transmitted as microseisms with the same frequency spectrum. However, unlike microbaroms, where the near vertical rays are not returned to the surface, only the near vertical rays in the ocean are coupled to the sea floor. By monitoring the amplitude of received microseisms from the same source using seismographs, information on the source amplitude can be derived. Because the solid earth provides a fixed reference frame,the transit time of the microseisms from the source is constant, and this provides a control for the variable transit time of the microbaroms through the moving atmosphere.

text: Even though a fixed flat-panel can be set to collect a high proportion of available noon-time energy, significant power is also available in the early mornings and late afternoons when the misalignment with a fixed panel becomes excessive to collect a reasonable proportion of the available energy. For example, even when the Sun is only 10° above the horizon the available energy can be around half the noon-time energy levels (or even greater depending on latitude, season, and atmospheric conditions).

text: The Earth's weather is a consequence of its illumination by the Sun, and the laws of thermodynamics. The atmospheric circulation can be viewed, from that standpoint, as a heat engine driven by the Sun's energy, and whose energy sink, ultimately, is the blackness of space. The work produced by that engine causes the motion of the masses of air and in that process it redistributes the energy absorbed by the Earth's surface near the tropics to space and incidentally to the latitudes nearer the poles.

text: Five spaceplanes have successfully flown to date, having reentered Earth's atmosphere, returned to Earth, and safely landed — the North American X-15, Space Shuttle, Buran, SpaceShipOne, and Boeing X-37.  All five are considered rocket gliders. , only these aircraft and rockets have succeeded in reaching space.  Two of these five (X-15 and SpaceShipOne) are rocket-powered aircraft, having been carried up to an altitude of several tens of thousands of feet by an atmospheric mother ship before being released, and then flying beyond the boundaries of the earth's atmosphere under their own power.  Three (Space Shuttle, Buran, and X-37) are vertical takeoff horizontal landing (VTHL) vehicles relying upon rocket lift for the ascent phase in reaching space and atmospheric lift for reentry, descent and landing. The three VTHL spaceplanes flew much further than the aircraft launched ones, not merely leaving the earth's atmosphere but also entering orbit around it, which requires at least 50 times more energy on the way up and heavy heat shielding for the trip back. Of the five vehicles, three have been piloted by astronauts, with the Buran and X-37 flying unmanned missions.

text: Five spaceplanes have successfully flown to date, having

text: reentered Earth's atmosphere

text: returned

text: to

text: Earth

text: , and

text: safely landed

text: — the

text: North American X-15

text: Space Shuttle

text: Buran

text: SpaceShipOne

text: , and

text: Boeing X-37

text: .  All five are considered rocket gliders. , only these aircraft and

text: rocket

text: s have succeeded in reaching

text: space

text: .  Two of these five (X-15 and SpaceShipOne) are

text: rocket-powered aircraft

text: , having been carried up to an altitude of several tens of thousands of feet by an atmospheric

text: mother ship

text: before being released, and then flying beyond the

text: boundaries of the earth's atmosphere

text: under their own power.  Three (Space Shuttle, Buran, and X-37) are

text: vertical takeoff horizontal landing

text: (VTHL) vehicles relying upon

text: rocket lift

text: for the ascent phase in reaching space and

text: atmospheric lift

text: for

text: reentry

text: descent

text: and

text: landing

text: . The three VTHL spaceplanes flew much further than the aircraft launched ones, not merely leaving the earth's atmosphere but also entering orbit around it, which requires at least 50 times more energy on the way up and heavy heat shielding for the trip back. Of the five vehicles, three have been piloted by astronauts, with the Buran and X-37 flying unmanned missions.

text: At a given latitude the surface velocity is equal to pi times the chord length parallel to the equator per 24 hours. This is equivalent to the cosine of the latitude × 1 EVU. At the poles the surface velocity is zero since zero distance is traveled. For a given longitude the surface velocity varies from 1 EVU at the equator to zero at the pole even though the angular velocities are all the same.

text: Energy may be transformed between different forms at various efficiencies. Items that transform between these forms are called transducers. Examples of transducers include a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy; a dam: gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an electric generator; or a heat engine, from heat to work.

text: Energy may be

text: transformed

text: between different forms at various

text: efficiencies

text: . Items that transform between these forms are called

text: transducer

text: s. Examples of transducers include a battery, from

text: chemical energy

text: to

text: electric energy

text: ; a dam:

text: gravitational potential energy

text: to

text: kinetic energy

text: of moving water (and the blades of a

text: turbine

text: ) and ultimately to

text: electric energy

text: through an

text: electric generator

text: ; or a

text: heat engine

text: , from heat to work.

text: Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It is radically different from Earth in other respects. It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96% carbon dioxide. The atmospheric pressure at the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found  underwater on Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a mean surface temperature of , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid, preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light. It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect. The water has probably photodissociated, and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field. Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism.

text: Venus is a

text: terrestrial planet

text: and is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet" because of their similar size, mass, proximity to the Sun, and bulk composition. It is radically different from Earth in other respects. It has the densest

text: atmosphere

text: of the four terrestrial planets, consisting of more than 96%

text: carbon dioxide

text: . The

text: atmospheric pressure

text: at the planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found  underwater on Earth. Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, with a mean surface temperature of , even though

text: Mercury

text: is closer to the Sun. Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of

text: sulfuric acid

text: , preventing its surface from being seen from space in

text: visible light

text: . It may have had water oceans in the past, but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: . The water has probably

text: photodissociated

text: , and the free hydrogen has been

text: swept into interplanetary space

text: by the

text: solar wind

text: because of the lack of a

text: planetary magnetic field

text: . Venus's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by

text: volcanism

text: After the pre-bonding in air, in a special gaseous atmosphere or vacuum, the wafers have to pass an annealing process for increasing the bonding strength. The annealing therefore provides a certain amount of thermal energy which forces more silanol groups to react among each other and new, highly stable chemical bindings are formed. The kind of binding which forms directly depends on the amount of energy which has been delivered or the applied temperature respectively. In consequence the bonding strength rises with increasing annealing temperatures.

text: The positioning of the characteristic CT bands in the electromagnetic spectrum is directly related to this energy difference and the balance of resonance contributions of non-bonded and dative states in the resonance equilibrium.

text: The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.

text: The

text: scientific consensus

text: is that the

text: anthropogenic

text: greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of

text: global warming

text: The above considerations are important because, in many global warming simulations, high latitude temperatures increase much more at the poles through an ice-albedo feedback. It may be the case, however, that during the PETM, this feedback was largely absent because of limited polar ice, so temperatures on the Equator and at the poles increased similarly.

text: The above considerations are important because, in many global warming simulations, high latitude temperatures increase much more at the poles through an

text: ice-albedo feedback

text: . It may be the case, however, that during the PETM, this feedback was largely absent because of limited polar ice, so temperatures on the Equator and at the poles increased similarly.

text: Adequate cooling of the surface typically takes place when it loses more energy by infrared radiation than it receives as solar radiation from the sun, which is especially the case on clear nights. Poor thermal conductivity restricts the replacement of such losses from deeper ground layers, which are typically warmer at night.Preferred objects of dew formation are thus poor conducting or well isolated from the ground, and non-metallic, while shiny metal coated surfaces are poor infrared radiators. Preferred weather conditions include the absence of clouds and little water vapor in the higher atmosphere to minimize greenhouse effects and sufficient humidity of the air near the ground. Typical dew nights are classically considered calm, because the wind transports (nocturnally) warmer air from higher levels to the cold surface. However, if the atmosphere is the major source of moisture (this type is called dewfall), a certain amount of ventilation is needed to replace the vapor that is already condensed. The highest optimum wind speeds could be found on arid islands. If the wet soil beneath is the major source of vapor, however (this type of dew formation is called distillation), wind always seems adverse.

text: Adequate cooling of the surface typically takes place when it loses more energy by

text: infrared

text: radiation

text: than it receives as

text: solar radiation

text: from the sun, which is especially the case on clear nights. Poor

text: thermal conductivity

text: restricts the replacement of such losses from deeper ground layers, which are typically warmer at night.Preferred objects of dew formation are thus poor conducting or well isolated from the ground, and non-metallic, while shiny metal coated surfaces are poor infrared radiators. Preferred weather conditions include the absence of clouds and little water vapor in the higher atmosphere to minimize greenhouse effects and sufficient humidity of the air near the ground. Typical dew nights are classically considered calm, because the wind transports (nocturnally) warmer air from higher levels to the cold surface. However, if the atmosphere is the major source of moisture (this type is called dewfall), a certain amount of ventilation is needed to replace the vapor that is already condensed. The highest optimum wind speeds could be found on arid islands. If the wet soil beneath is the major source of vapor, however (this type of dew formation is called

text: distillation

text: ), wind always seems adverse.

text:
|- style="background:#cfc;"| 1 | October 30| @ Utah| | Kevin Durant (42)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Reggie Jackson (3)| EnergySolutions Arena
19,911| 1–0|- style="background:#fcc;"| 2 | November 1| @ Minnesota| | Jeremy Lamb (16)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Jackson & Fisher (4)| Target Center
17,433| 1–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3 | November 3| Phoenix| | Kevin Durant (33)| Durant & Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 2–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 4 | November 6| Dallas| | Kevin Durant (23)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Kevin Durant (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 3–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 5 | November 8| @ Detroit| | Kevin Durant (37)| Steven Adams (10)| Kevin Durant (7)| Palace of Auburn Hills
15,624| 4–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 6 | November 10| Washington| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant (13)| Kevin Durant (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 5–1|- style="background:#fcc;"| 7 | November 13| @ L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant (6)| Durant & Westbrook (10)| Staples Center
19,273| 5–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8 | November 14| @ Golden State| | Russell Westbrook (31)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Kevin Durant (8)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 5–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9 | November 16| @ Milwaukee| | Russell Westbrook (26)| Serge Ibaka (20)| Russell Westbrook (4)| BMO Harris Bradley Center
15,984| 6–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 10 | November 18| Denver| | Kevin Durant (38)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 7–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 11 | November 21| L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (28)| Steven Adams (7)| Kevin Durant (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 12 | November 24| Utah| | Kevin Durant (19)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Reggie Jackson (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 9–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 13 | November 27| San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (24)| Kevin Durant (13)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 10–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 14 | November 29| Golden State| | Russell Westbrook (34)| Durant & Ibaka (13)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 11–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 15 | December 1| Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (10)| Kevin Durant (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 12–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16 | December 3| @ Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (27)| Kevin Durant (11)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Sleep Train Arena
15,089| 13–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 17 | December 4| @ Portland| |Kevin Durant (33)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Moda Center
18,950| 13–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 18 | December 6| @ New Orleans| | Kevin Durant (29)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Durant, Westbrook &Jackson(4)| New Orleans Arena
17,694| 14–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19 | December 8| Indiana| | Kevin Durant (36)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 15–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20 | December 10| @ Atlanta| | Kevin Durant (30)| Durant & Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Philips Arena
12,503| 16–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21 | December 11| @ Memphis| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Serge Ibaka (7)| Russell Westbrook (9)| FedExForum
16,345| 17–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22 | December 13| L.A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (31)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 18–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23 | December 15| Orlando| | Kevin Durant (28)| Russell Westbrook (12)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 19–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24 | December 17| @ Denver| | Kevin Durant (30)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Pepsi Center
17,035| 20–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25 | December 19| Chicago| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (9)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 21–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 26 | December 21| @ San Antonio| | Russell Westbrook (31)| Serge Ibaka (14)| Russell Westbrook (4)| AT&T Center
18,581| 22–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 27 | December 22| Toronto| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Westbrook &Jackson (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 22–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 28 | December 25| @ New York| | Kevin Durant (29)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Madison Square Garden
19,812| 23–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 29 | December 27| @ Charlotte| | Kevin Durant (34)| Kevin Durant (12)| Kevin Durant (6) | Time Warner Cable Arena
18,129| 24–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 30 | December 29| Houston| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant (13)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 25–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 31 | December 31| Portland| | Kevin Durant (37)| Kevin Durant (14)| Reggie Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 25–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 32 | January 2| Brooklyn| | Kevin Durant (24)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Reggie Jackson (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 25–7|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33 | January 4| @ Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (48)| Steven Adams (9)| Kevin Durant (7)| Target Center
18,065| 26–7|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34 | January 5| Boston| | Reggie Jackson (27)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Kevin Durant (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 27–7|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35 | January 7| @ Utah| | Kevin Durant (48)| Kevin Durant (7)| Reggie Jackson (6)| EnergySolutions Arena
18,547| 27–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 36 | January 9| @ Denver| | Kevin Durant (30)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Reggie Jackson (5)| Pepsi Center
17,315| 27−9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37 | January 11| Milwaukee| | Kevin Durant (33)| Serge Ibaka (17)| Kevin Durant (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 28–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38 | January 14| @ Memphis| | Kevin Durant (37)| Ibaka & Adams (9)| Kevin Durant (4)| FedExForum
17,177| 28–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39 | January 16| @ Houston| | Kevin Durant (36)| Serge Ibaka (15)| Kevin Durant (7)| Toyota Center
18,231| 29–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40 | January 17| Golden State| | Kevin Durant (54)|Kendrick Perkins (12) | Durant &Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 30–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41 | January 19| Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (30)| Adams & Collison (7)| Kevin Durant (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 31–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42 | January 21| Portland| | Kevin Durant (46)| Kendrick Perkins (8)| Reggie Jackson (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 32–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 43 | January 22| @ San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (36)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Reggie Jackson (8)| AT&T Center
18,581| 33–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 44 | January 24| @ Boston| | Serge Ibaka (21)| Kendrick Perkins (9)| Reggie Jackson (8)| TD Garden
18,624| 34–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45 | January 25| @ Philadelphia| |Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (14)| Kevin Durant (10)| Wells Fargo Center
19,217| 35–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 46 | January 27| Atlanta| | Kevin Durant (41)| Kendrick Perkins (7)| Durant, Jackson & Collison (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 36–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 47 | January 29| @ Miami| | Kevin Durant (33)| Serge Ibaka (8)| Kevin Durant (5)| American Airlines Arena
19,673| 37–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 48 | January 31| @ Brooklyn| | Kevin Durant (26)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Durant & Jackson (7)| Barclays Center
17,732| 38–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 49 | February 1| @ Washington| | Kevin Durant (26)| Ibaka & Jackson (8)| Kevin Durant (7)| Verizon Center
20,356| 38–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 50 | February 3| Memphis| | Kevin Durant (31)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Kevin Durant (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 39–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51 | February 5| Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (26)| Kendrick Perkins (12)| Reggie Jackson (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 52 | February 7| @ Orlando| | Kevin Durant (29)| Serge Ibaka (6)| Kevin Durant (12)| Amway Center
15,599| 40–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53 | February 9| New York| | Kevin Durant (41)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| Kevin Durant (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 41–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 54 | February 11| @ Portland| | Kevin Durant (36)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Reggie Jackson (5)| Moda Center
20,018| 42–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 55 | February 13| @ L.A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (43)| Kevin Durant (12)| Kevin Durant (7)| Staples Center
18,997| 43–12|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break|- style="background:#fcc;"| 56 | February 20| Miami| | Kevin Durant (28)| Durant & Ibaka (8)| Reggie Jackson (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 43–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 57 | February 23| L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (42)| Ibaka, Collison & Adams (6)| Kevin Durant (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 43–14|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58 | February 26| Cleveland| | Kevin Durant (28)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Durant & Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 43–15|- style="background:#cfc;"| 59 | February 28| Memphis| | Kevin Durant (37)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 44–15|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60 | March 2| Charlotte| | Kevin Durant (28)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Durant & Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 45–15|- style="background:#cfc;"| 61 | March 4| Philadelphia| | Kevin Durant (42)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 46–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62 | March 6| @ Phoenix| | Russell Westbrook (36)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (9)| US Airways Center
17,816| 46–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 63 | March 9| @ L.A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (27)| Serge Ibaka  (15)| Kevin Durant (12)| Staples Center
18,997| 46–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 64 | March 11| Houston| | Kevin Durant (40)| Serge Ibaka (16)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 47–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 65 | March 13| L.A. Lakers| | Durant & Westbrook (29)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 48–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 66 | March 16| Dallas| | Kevin Durant (30)| Nick Collison (7)| Kevin Durant (4)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 48–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 67 | March 17| @ Chicago| | Kevin Durant (35)| Kevin Durant (12)| Russell Westbrook (9)| United Center
22,261| 49–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68 | March 20| @ Cleveland| | Kevin Durant (35)| Durant & Ibaka (11)| Durant & Jackson (6)| Quicken Loans Arena
18,246| 50–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69 | March 21| @ Toronto| | Kevin Durant (51)| Durant & Jackson (12)| Kevin Durant (7)| Air Canada Centre
19,800| 51–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70 | March 24| Denver| | Kevin Durant (27)| Serge Ibaka (7)| Reggie Jackson (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 52–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 71 | March 25| @ Dallas| | Kevin Durant (43)| Westbrook & Collison (7)| Westbrook & Jackson (8)| American Airlines Center
19,607| 52–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 72 | March 28| Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (29)| Serge Ibaka (8)| Durant &Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 53–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 73 | March 30| Utah| | Kevin Durant (31)| Steven Adams (8)| Kevin Durant (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 54–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 74 | April 3| San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (28)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 55–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75 | April 4| @ Houston| | Kevin Durant (28)| Kevin Durant (12)| Reggie Jackson (7)| Toyota Center
18,407| 55–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 76 | April 6| @ Phoenix| | Kevin Durant (38)| Kevin Durant (11)| Russell Westbrook (8)| US Airways Center
18,422| 55–21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 77 | April 8| @ Sacramento| | Durant & Butler (23)| Nick Collison (7)| Jackson & Fisher (5)| Sleep Train Arena
16,696| 56–21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 78 | April 9| @ L.A. Clippers| | Russell Westbrook (30)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Staples Center
19,459| 57–21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 79 | April 11| New Orleans| | Kevin Durant (27)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Westbrook & Jackson (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 58–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80 | April 13| @ Indiana| | Kevin Durant (38)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Bankers Life Fieldhouse
18,165| 58–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 81 | April 14| @ New Orleans| | Kevin Durant (25)| Serge Ibaka (16)| Kevin Durant (6)| Smoothie King Center
17,024| 58–23|- style="background:#cfc;"| 82 | April 16| Detroit| | Kevin Durant (42)| Serge Ibaka (15)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 59–23

text: |- style="background:#cfc;"| 1 | October 30| @

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: EnergySolutions Arena

text: <br>19,911| 1–0|- style="background:#fcc;"| 2 | November 1| @

text: Minnesota

text: Jeremy Lamb

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Jackson

text: Fisher

text: Target Center

text: <br>17,433| 1–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 3 | November 3|

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 2–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 4 | November 6|

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 3–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 5 | November 8| @

text: Detroit

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Kevin Durant

text: Palace of Auburn Hills

text: <br>15,624| 4–1|- style="background:#cfc;"| 6 | November 10|

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 5–1|- style="background:#fcc;"| 7 | November 13| @

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,273| 5–2|- style="background:#fcc;"| 8 | November 14| @

text: Golden State

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 5–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 9 | November 16| @

text: Milwaukee

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: BMO Harris Bradley Center

text: <br>15,984| 6–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 10 | November 18|

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 7–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 11 | November 21|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 12 | November 24|

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 9–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 13 | November 27|

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 10–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 14 | November 29|

text: Golden State

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 11–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 15 | December 1|

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 12–3|- style="background:#cfc;"| 16 | December 3| @

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>15,089| 13–3|- style="background:#fcc;"| 17 | December 4| @

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Moda Center

text: <br>18,950| 13–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 18 | December 6| @

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: New Orleans Arena

text: <br>17,694| 14–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 19 | December 8|

text: Indiana

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 15–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 20 | December 10| @

text: Atlanta

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Philips Arena

text: <br>12,503| 16–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 21 | December 11| @

text: Memphis

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedExForum

text: <br>16,345| 17–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22 | December 13|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 18–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23 | December 15|

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 19–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 24 | December 17| @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>17,035| 20–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 25 | December 19|

text: Chicago

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 21–4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 26 | December 21| @

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 22–4|- style="background:#fcc;"| 27 | December 22|

text: Toronto

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 22–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 28 | December 25| @

text: New York

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Madison Square Garden

text: <br>19,812| 23–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 29 | December 27| @

text: Charlotte

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: (6) |

text: Time Warner Cable Arena

text: <br>18,129| 24–5|- style="background:#cfc;"| 30 | December 29|

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 25–5|- style="background:#fcc;"| 31 | December 31|

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 25–6|- style="background:#fcc;"| 32 | January 2|

text: Brooklyn

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 25–7|- style="background:#cfc;"| 33 | January 4| @

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Kevin Durant

text: Target Center

text: <br>18,065| 26–7|- style="background:#cfc;"| 34 | January 5|

text: Boston

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 27–7|- style="background:#fcc;"| 35 | January 7| @

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Reggie Jackson

text: EnergySolutions Arena

text: <br>18,547| 27–8|- style="background:#fcc;"| 36 | January 9| @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>17,315| 27−9|- style="background:#cfc;"| 37 | January 11|

text: Milwaukee

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 28–9|- style="background:#fcc;"| 38 | January 14| @

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Adams

text: Kevin Durant

text: FedExForum

text: <br>17,177| 28–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 39 | January 16| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,231| 29–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 40 | January 17|

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: (12) |

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 30–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 41 | January 19|

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Adams

text: Collison

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 31–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 42 | January 21|

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 32–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 43 | January 22| @

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 33–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 44 | January 24| @

text: Boston

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Reggie Jackson

text: TD Garden

text: <br>18,624| 34–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 45 | January 25| @

text: Philadelphia

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Wells Fargo Center

text: <br>19,217| 35–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 46 | January 27|

text: Atlanta

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Collison

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 36–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 47 | January 29| @

text: Miami

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: American Airlines Arena

text: <br>19,673| 37–10|- style="background:#cfc;"| 48 | January 31| @

text: Brooklyn

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Barclays Center

text: <br>17,732| 38–10|- style="background:#fcc;"| 49 | February 1| @

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Jackson

text: Kevin Durant

text: Verizon Center

text: <br>20,356| 38–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 50 | February 3|

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 39–11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 51 | February 5|

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40–11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 52 | February 7| @

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Amway Center

text: <br>15,599| 40–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 53 | February 9|

text: New York

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 41–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 54 | February 11| @

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Moda Center

text: <br>20,018| 42–12|- style="background:#cfc;"| 55 | February 13| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 43–12|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|

text: All-Star Break

text: |- style="background:#fcc;"| 56 | February 20|

text: Miami

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 43–13|- style="background:#fcc;"| 57 | February 23|

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Collison

text: Adams

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 43–14|- style="background:#fcc;"| 58 | February 26|

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 43–15|- style="background:#cfc;"| 59 | February 28|

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 44–15|- style="background:#cfc;"| 60 | March 2|

text: Charlotte

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 45–15|- style="background:#cfc;"| 61 | March 4|

text: Philadelphia

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 46–15|- style="background:#fcc;"| 62 | March 6| @

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>17,816| 46–16|- style="background:#fcc;"| 63 | March 9| @

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 46–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 64 | March 11|

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 47–17|- style="background:#cfc;"| 65 | March 13|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 48–17|- style="background:#fcc;"| 66 | March 16|

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Nick Collison

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 48–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 67 | March 17| @

text: Chicago

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: United Center

text: <br>22,261| 49–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 68 | March 20| @

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Quicken Loans Arena

text: <br>18,246| 50–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 69 | March 21| @

text: Toronto

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Kevin Durant

text: Air Canada Centre

text: <br>19,800| 51–18|- style="background:#cfc;"| 70 | March 24|

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 52–18|- style="background:#fcc;"| 71 | March 25| @

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Collison

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>19,607| 52–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 72 | March 28|

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 53–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 73 | March 30|

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Steven Adams

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 54–19|- style="background:#cfc;"| 74 | April 3|

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 55–19|- style="background:#fcc;"| 75 | April 4| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,407| 55–20|- style="background:#fcc;"| 76 | April 6| @

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>18,422| 55–21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 77 | April 8| @

text: Sacramento

text: Durant

text: Butler

text: Nick Collison

text: Jackson

text: Fisher

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>16,696| 56–21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 78 | April 9| @

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,459| 57–21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 79 | April 11|

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 58–21|- style="background:#fcc;"| 80 | April 13| @

text: Indiana

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Bankers Life Fieldhouse

text: <br>18,165| 58–22|- style="background:#fcc;"| 81 | April 14| @

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Smoothie King Center

text: <br>17,024| 58–23|- style="background:#cfc;"| 82 | April 16|

text: Detroit

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 59–23

text: The distribution of power that a black body emits with varying frequency is described by Planck's law. At any given temperature, there is a frequency f at which the power emitted is a maximum. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength, indicates that the peak frequency f is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the black body. The photosphere of the sun, at a temperature of approximately 6000 K, emits radiation principally in the (humanly) visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Earth's atmosphere is partly transparent to visible light, and the light reaching the surface is absorbed or reflected. Earth's surface emits the absorbed radiation, approximating the behavior of a black body at 300 K with spectral peak at f. At these lower frequencies, the atmosphere is largely opaque and radiation from Earth's surface is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. Though some radiation escapes into space, most is absorbed and then re-emitted by atmospheric gases. It is this spectral selectivity of the atmosphere that is responsible for the planetary greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming and climate change in general (but also critically contributing to climate stability when the composition and properties of the atmosphere are not changing).

text: The distribution of power that a black body emits with varying frequency is described by

text: Planck's law

text: . At any given temperature, there is a frequency f at which the power emitted is a maximum. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength, indicates that the peak frequency f is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the black body. The photosphere of the sun, at a temperature of approximately 6000 K, emits radiation principally in the (humanly) visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Earth's atmosphere is partly transparent to visible light, and the light reaching the surface is absorbed or reflected. Earth's surface emits the absorbed radiation, approximating the behavior of a black body at 300 K with spectral peak at f. At these lower frequencies, the atmosphere is largely opaque and radiation from Earth's surface is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. Though some radiation escapes into space, most is absorbed and then re-emitted by atmospheric gases. It is this spectral selectivity of the atmosphere that is responsible for the planetary

text: greenhouse effect

text: , contributing to

text: global warming

text: and

text: climate change

text: in general (but also critically contributing to climate stability when the composition and properties of the atmosphere are not changing).

text: Bearded magazine wrote that "this is a debut album that will leave you dumbfounded, reeling, exhausted and inspired". The Quietus praised the "sense of perspiring, physical energy that pulses through almost everything" and the "outrageous, head-snapping riff and hip-snapping beat[s]" as well as the "echoes...of Space Invaders, 70s sci-fi films, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, post-punk, Fela Kuti, and 80s dance and electronica as well as...Sun Ra, Parliament, and Funkadelic". Penny Black Music called the album "engaging, atmospheric and intoxicating...one of the more forward-thinking and groundbreaking albums you will hear this year...not to be missed".

text: Bearded

text: magazine wrote that "this is a debut album that will leave you dumbfounded, reeling, exhausted and inspired".

text: The Quietus

text: praised the "sense of perspiring, physical energy that pulses through almost everything" and the "outrageous, head-snapping riff and hip-snapping beat[s]" as well as the "echoes...of Space Invaders, 70s sci-fi films, the

text: BBC Radiophonic Workshop

text: , post-punk,

text: Fela Kuti

text: , and 80s dance and electronica as well as...

text: Sun Ra

text: , Parliament, and Funkadelic". Penny Black Music called the album "engaging, atmospheric and intoxicating...one of the more forward-thinking and groundbreaking albums you will hear this year...not to be missed".

text: Alternative forms of energy are being explored in depth in a number of unique areas. Tidal energy harnesses the movement of ocean water to generate electricity through a number of mechanisms. Currently a process of gathering tidal energy called "In-stream turbine technology" is being tested in the Minas Passage, Nova Scotia. This project is being spearheaded by the Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy or FORCE.

text: The electromagnetic spectrum has rigid definitions for "super low frequency", "extremely low frequency", "low frequency" and "medium frequency". Acoustics does not have a similar standard. The terms "low" and "mid" have roughly-defined historical meanings in sonar, because not many frequencies have been used over the decades. However, as more experimental sonars have been introduced, the terms have become muddled.

text: The

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: has rigid definitions for "super low frequency", "extremely low frequency", "low frequency" and "medium frequency".

text: Acoustics

text: does not have a similar standard. The terms "low" and "mid" have roughly-defined historical meanings in sonar, because not many frequencies have been used over the decades. However, as more experimental sonars have been introduced, the terms have become muddled.

text: The origin of the Martian moons is still controversial. Phobos and Deimos both have much in common with carbonaceous C-type asteroids, with spectra, albedo, and density very similar to those of C- or D-type asteroids. Based on their similarity, one hypothesis is that both moons may be captured main-belt asteroids. Both moons have very circular orbits which lie almost exactly in Mars's equatorial plane, and hence a capture origin requires a mechanism for circularizing the initially highly eccentric orbit, and adjusting its inclination into the equatorial plane, most probably by a combination of atmospheric drag and tidal forces, although it is not clear that sufficient time is available for this to occur for Deimos. Capture also requires dissipation of energy. The current atmosphere of Mars is too thin to capture a Phobos-sized object by atmospheric braking. Geoffrey Landis has pointed out that the capture could have occurred if the original body was a binary asteroid that separated under tidal forces.

text: The origin of the Martian moons is still controversial. Phobos and Deimos both have much in common with carbonaceous

text: C-type asteroid

text: s, with

text: spectra

text: albedo

text: , and

text: density

text: very similar to those of C- or D-type asteroids. Based on their similarity, one hypothesis is that both moons may be captured

text: main-belt asteroids

text: . Both moons have very circular orbits which lie almost exactly in Mars's

text: equatorial plane

text: , and hence a capture origin requires a mechanism for

text: circularizing

text: the initially highly eccentric orbit, and adjusting its inclination into the equatorial plane, most probably by a combination of atmospheric drag and

text: tidal force

text: s, although it is not clear that sufficient time is available for this to occur for Deimos. Capture also requires dissipation of energy. The current

text: atmosphere of Mars

text: is too thin to capture a Phobos-sized object by atmospheric braking.

text: Geoffrey Landis

text: has pointed out that the capture could have occurred if the original body was a

text: binary asteroid

text: that separated under tidal forces.

text: Due to the high energy of C-F bonds, it is very inert and thus acts as an extremely stable greenhouse gas, with an atmospheric lifetime of 10,000 years (other sources: 500 years) and a global warming potential (GWP) of 9200. A calculated atmospheric lifetime range of 500 to 10,000 years has been reported.Atmospheric concentration of tetrafluoroethane is 3 pptv (increase by 3 pptv since 1750). However, it has a strong absorption potential in the infrared part of the spectrum. Radiative forcing is 0.001 W/m. Its ozone depletion potential (ODP) is 0.

text: Due to the high energy of C-F bonds, it is very inert and thus acts as an extremely stable

text: greenhouse gas

text: , with an atmospheric

text: lifetime

text: of 10,000 years (other sources: 500 years) and a

text: global warming potential

text: (GWP) of 9200. A calculated atmospheric lifetime range of 500 to 10,000 years has been reported.Atmospheric concentration of tetrafluoroethane is 3 pptv (increase by 3 pptv since 1750). However, it has a strong absorption potential in the infrared part of the spectrum.

text: Radiative forcing

text: is 0.001 W/m. Its

text: ozone depletion potential

text: (ODP) is 0.

text:
|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 1| December 25| Orlando| | Kevin Durant (30)| Russell Westbrook
Nazr Mohammed (7)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 2| December 26| @ Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kendrick Perkins (8)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Target Center
19,406| 2–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 3| December 28| @ Memphis| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kevin Durant (8)| Russell Westbrook (6)| FedExForum
18,119| 3–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 4| December 29| Dallas| | Kevin Durant (30)| Kevin Durant (11)| Kevin Durant (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 4–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 5| December 31| Phoenix| | Russell Westbrook (18)| Kendrick Perkins (8)| James Harden (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 5–0|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 6| January 2| @ Dallas| | Kevin Durant (27)| Serge Ibaka
Russell Westbrook (8)| Russell Westbrook
James Harden (3)| American Airlines Center
20,108| 5–1|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 7| January 3| Portland| | James Harden (23)| Nick Collison (6)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 5–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 8| January 6| Houston| | Kevin Durant (26)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 9| January 7| @ Houston| | Kevin Durant (27)| Kendrick Perkins (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Toyota Center
14,327| 7–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 10| January 8| San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (21)| Nick Collison
Kevin Durant (10)| Kevin Durant (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 11| January 10| @ Memphis| | Russell Westbrook (30)| Kendrick Perkins (13)| Kevin Durant (5)| FedExForum
13,601| 9–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 12| January 11| @ New Orleans| | Kevin Durant (29)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| New Orleans Arena
13,565| 10–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 13| January 14| New York| | Kevin Durant (28)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 11–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 14| January 16| @ Boston| | Kevin Durant (28)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook (7)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook (4)| TD Garden
18,624| 12–2|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 15| January 18| @ Washington| | Russell Westbrook (36)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Verizon Center
15,075| 12–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 16| January 21| @ New Jersey| | Russell Westbrook (21)| Kevin Durant (15)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Prudential Center
15,201| 13–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 17| January 23| Detroit| | Russell Westbrook
James Harden (24)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 14–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 18| January 25| New Orleans| | Kevin Durant (25)| Kevin Durant
Serge Ibaka (7)| James Harden (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 15–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 19| January 27| @ Golden State| | Kevin Durant (37)| Kevin Durant (13)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 16–3|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 20| January 30| @ L.A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (36)| Kevin Durant (13)| James Harden (5)| Staples Center
19,404| 16–4|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 21| February 1| @ Dallas| | Russell Westbrook (33)| Kevin Durant (13)| James Harden (9)| American Airlines Center
20,316| 17–4|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 22| February 3| Memphis| | Kevin Durant (36)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 18–4|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 23| February 4| @ San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (22)| Kevin Durant (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| AT&T Center
18,581| 18–5|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 24| February 6| @ Portland| | Kevin Durant (33)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Rose Garden
20,559| 19–5|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 25| February 7| @ Golden State| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant (10)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook
James Harden (7)| Oracle Arena
17,971| 20–5|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 26| February 9| @ Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (27)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook
James Harden
Nick Collison (3)| Power Balance Pavilion
17,317| 20–6|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 27| February 10| @ Utah| | Russell Westbrook (28)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Russell Westbrook (3)| EnergySolutions Arena
19,911| 21–6|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 28| February 14| Utah| | James Harden (22)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Reggie Jackson (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 22–6|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 29| February 15| @ Houston| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook (8)| Russell Westbrook
James Harden (4)| Toyota Center
18,274| 22–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 30| February 17| Golden State| | James Harden (25)| Kevin Durant (10)| Kevin Durant (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 23–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 31| February 19| Denver| | Kevin Durant (51)| Serge Ibaka (15)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 24–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 32| February 20| New Orleans| | Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook (31)| Kendrick Perkins (10)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook
Reggie Jackson (4)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203|  25–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 33| February 22| Boston| | Russell Westbrook (31)| Kendrick Perkins (10)| James Harden (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 26–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 34| February 23| L.A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (33)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Kevin Durant
Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 27–7|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 35| February 29| @ Philadelphia| | Kevin Durant (23)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook
James Harden (4)| Wells Fargo Center
19,746| 28–7

text: |- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 1| December 25|

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: Nazr Mohammed

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 2| December 26| @

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>19,406| 2–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 3| December 28| @

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: FedExForum

text: <br>18,119| 3–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 4| December 29|

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 4–0|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 5| December 31|

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 5–0|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 6| January 2| @

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: James Harden

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,108| 5–1|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 7| January 3|

text: Portland

text: James Harden

text: Nick Collison

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 5–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 8| January 6|

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 9| January 7| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>14,327| 7–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 10| January 8|

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Nick Collison

text: <br>

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 11| January 10| @

text: Memphis

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Kevin Durant

text: FedExForum

text: <br>13,601| 9–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 12| January 11| @

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: New Orleans Arena

text: <br>13,565| 10–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 13| January 14|

text: New York

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 11–2|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 14| January 16| @

text: Boston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: TD Garden

text: <br>18,624| 12–2|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 15| January 18| @

text: Washington

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Verizon Center

text: <br>15,075| 12–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 16| January 21| @

text: New Jersey

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Prudential Center

text: <br>15,201| 13–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 17| January 23|

text: Detroit

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: James Harden

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 14–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 18| January 25|

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Serge Ibaka

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 15–3|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 19| January 27| @

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 16–3|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 20| January 30| @

text: L.A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: James Harden

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,404| 16–4|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 21| February 1| @

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: James Harden

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,316| 17–4|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 22| February 3|

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 18–4|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 23| February 4| @

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 18–5|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 24| February 6| @

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Rose Garden

text: <br>20,559| 19–5|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 25| February 7| @

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: James Harden

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>17,971| 20–5|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 26| February 9| @

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: James Harden

text: <br>

text: Nick Collison

text: Power Balance Pavilion

text: <br>17,317| 20–6|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 27| February 10| @

text: Utah

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: EnergySolutions Arena

text: <br>19,911| 21–6|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 28| February 14|

text: Utah

text: James Harden

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 22–6|- bgcolor="#ffcccc"| 29| February 15| @

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: James Harden

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,274| 22–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 30| February 17|

text: Golden State

text: James Harden

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 23–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 31| February 19|

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 24–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 32| February 20|

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203|  25–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 33| February 22|

text: Boston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: James Harden

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 26–7|- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 34| February 23|

text: L.A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: <br>

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 27–7|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|

text: All-Star Break

text: |- bgcolor="#ccffcc"| 35| February 29| @

text: Philadelphia

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: <br>

text: James Harden

text: Wells Fargo Center

text: <br>19,746| 28–7

text: As an illustration, consider two objects attracting each other in space through their gravitational field. The attraction force accelerates the objects and they gain some speed toward each other converting the potential (gravity) energy into kinetic (movement) energy. When either the particles 1) pass through each other without interaction or 2) elastically repel during the collision, the gained kinetic energy (related to speed), starts to revert into potential form driving the collided particles apart. The decelerating particles will return to the initial distance and beyond into infinity or stop and repeat the collision (oscillation takes place). This shows that the system, which loses no energy, does not combine (bind) into a solid object, parts of which oscillate at short distances. Therefore, in order to bind the particles, the kinetic energy gained due to the attraction must be dissipated (by resistive force). Complex objects in collision ordinarily undergo inelastic collision, transforming some kinetic energy into internal energy (heat content, which is atomic movement), which is further radiated in the form of photons—the light and heat. Once the energy to escape the gravity is dissipated in the collision, the parts will oscillate at closer, possibly atomic, distance, thus looking like one solid object. This lost energy, necessary to overcome the potential barrier in order to separate the objects, is the binding energy. If this binding energy were retained in the system as heat, its mass would not decrease. However, binding energy lost from the system (as heat radiation) would itself have mass. It directly represents the "mass deficit" of the cold, bound system.

text: As an illustration, consider two objects attracting each other in space through their

text: gravitational field

text: . The attraction force accelerates the objects and they gain some speed toward each other converting the potential (gravity) energy into kinetic (movement) energy. When either the particles 1) pass through each other without interaction or 2) elastically repel during the collision, the gained kinetic energy (related to speed), starts to revert into potential form driving the collided particles apart. The decelerating particles will return to the initial distance and beyond into infinity or stop and repeat the collision (oscillation takes place). This shows that the system, which loses no energy, does not combine (bind) into a solid object, parts of which oscillate at short distances. Therefore, in order to bind the particles, the kinetic energy gained due to the attraction must be dissipated (by resistive force). Complex objects in collision ordinarily undergo

text: inelastic collision

text: , transforming some kinetic energy into internal energy (heat content, which is atomic movement), which is further radiated in the form of photons—the light and heat. Once the energy to escape the gravity is dissipated in the collision, the parts will oscillate at closer, possibly atomic, distance, thus looking like one solid object. This lost energy, necessary to overcome the potential barrier in order to separate the objects, is the binding energy. If this binding energy were retained in the system as heat, its mass would not decrease. However, binding energy lost from the system (as heat radiation) would itself have mass. It directly represents the "mass deficit" of the cold, bound system.

text: The existence of a continuous stream of particles flowing outward from the Sun was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a solar flare. This is a sudden outburst of energy from the Sun's atmosphere. On the following day, a geomagnetic storm was observed and Carrington suspected that there might be a connection. George FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun and was reaching the Earth after several days.

text: The existence of a continuous stream of particles flowing outward from the Sun was first suggested by British astronomer

text: Richard C. Carrington

text: . In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observation of what would later be called a

text: solar flare

text: . This is a sudden outburst of energy from the Sun's atmosphere. On the following day, a

text: geomagnetic storm

text: was observed and Carrington suspected that there might be a connection.

text: George FitzGerald

text: later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the

text: Sun

text: and was reaching the Earth after several days.

text: In addition, if the density of the atmosphere (and corresponding greenhouse effect) were dramatically reduced, the surface temperature (now effectively constant) would probably vary widely between dayside and nightside. Another side effect to atmospheric-density reduction could be the creation of zones of dramatic weather activity or storms at the terminator because large volumes of atmosphere underwent rapid heating or cooling.

text: The circulation of the atmosphere occurs due to thermal differences when convection becomes a more efficient transporter of heat than thermal radiation. On planets where the primary heat source is solar radiation, excess heat in the tropics is transported to higher latitudes. When a planet generates a significant amount of heat internally, such as is the case for Jupiter, convection in the atmosphere can transport thermal energy from the higher temperature interior up to the surface.

text: The circulation of the atmosphere occurs due to thermal differences when

text: convection

text: becomes a more efficient transporter of heat than

text: thermal radiation

text: . On planets where the primary heat source is solar radiation, excess heat in the tropics is transported to higher latitudes. When a planet generates a significant amount of heat internally, such as is the case for

text: Jupiter

text: , convection in the atmosphere can transport thermal energy from the higher temperature interior up to the surface.

text: Some types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is mechanical energy which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them. .The list is also not necessarily complete. Whenever physical scientists discover that a certain phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation, new forms are typically added that account for the discrepancy.

text: Some types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is

text: mechanical energy

text: which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among

text: atom

text: s and

text: molecule

text: s), as is

text: chemical energy

text: , which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between

text: electron

text: s, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them. .The list is also not necessarily complete. Whenever physical scientists discover that a certain phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation, new forms are typically added that account for the discrepancy.

text: Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is a surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb's matter). This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion. Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave. When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level, much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the hypocenter. Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball and if the burst is low enough, it is often associated with a mushroom cloud. In a burst at high altitude, where the air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere-displacing shockwave.

text: Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is a surrounding material such as air, rock, or water, this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature (i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb's matter). This causes

text: vaporization

text: of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion.

text: Kinetic energy

text: created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave. When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level, much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the

text: hypocenter

text: . Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a

text: nuclear fireball

text: and if the burst is low enough, it is often associated with a

text: mushroom cloud

text: . In a burst at high altitude, where the air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere-displacing shockwave.

text: Another example is [Co(HO)]. Note that the ligand is the same as the last example. Here the cobalt ion has the oxidation state of +2, and it is a d ion. From the high-spin (left) side of the d Tanabe–Sugano diagram,  the ground state is T(F), and the spin multiplicity is a quartet. The diagram shows that there are three quartet excited states: T, A, and T(P). From the diagram one can predict that there are three spin-allowed transitions. However, the spectra of [Co(HO)] does not show three distinct peaks that correspond to the three predicted excited states. Instead, the spectrum has a broad peak (spectrum shown below). Based on the T-S diagram, the lowest energy transition is T to T, which is seen in the near IR and is not observed in the visible spectrum. The main peak is the energy transition T(F) to T(P), and the slightly higher energy transition (the shoulder) is predicted to be T to A. The small energy difference leads to the overlap of the two peaks, which explains the broad peak observed in the visible spectrum.

text: In almost all cases, a wave is mainly a movement of energy through a medium. Most often, the group velocity is the velocity at which the energy moves through this medium.

text: Madanjeet Singh became known internationally with his first book, Indian Sculpture in Bronze and Stone , which was published in Rome by the Institute of the Middle and Far East in 1952. At that time he was a student of the eminent orientalist, Prof. Giuseppe Tucci, and also studied European art history with the late Prof. Lionelllo Venturi at Rome University.  Indian Sculpture in Bronze and Stone> was followed in 1954 by  India, the first volume in the UNESCO world art series published by New York Graphic Society. He want on to write several more books including AJANTA, Paintings of the Sacred and the Secular (1964); Himalayan Art (1968); The White Horse (1976); This, My People (1989); The Sun in Myth and Art (1993); Renewable Energy of the Sun (1996); The Time-less Energy of the Sun (1998); The Time-less Energy of the Sun (1998); The Sasia Story (2005); The Oral and Intangible Heritage of South Asia (2007); Kashmiriyat (2009) ( List of publications  )

text: Madanjeet Singh became known internationally with his first book, Indian Sculpture in Bronze and Stone , which was published in Rome by the Institute of the Middle and Far East in 1952. At that time he was a student of the eminent orientalist, Prof. Giuseppe Tucci, and also studied European art history with the late Prof. Lionelllo Venturi at Rome University.  Indian Sculpture in Bronze and Stone> was followed in 1954 by  India, the first volume in the UNESCO world art series published by New York Graphic Society. He want on to write several more books including

text: AJANTA

text: , Paintings of the Sacred and the Secular (1964); Himalayan Art (1968); The White Horse (1976); This, My People (1989); The Sun in Myth and Art (1993); Renewable Energy of the Sun (1996); The Time-less Energy of the Sun (1998); The Time-less Energy of the Sun (1998); The Sasia Story (2005); The Oral and Intangible Heritage of South Asia (2007); Kashmiriyat (2009) ( List of publications  )

text: For example, a bicycle dynamo turns in part from the kinetic energy (speed energy) of the movement of the cyclist and converting it into electrical energy will transfer in particular to its lights producing light, that is to say light energy, via the heating of the filament of the bulb and therefore heat (thermal energy). But the kinetic energy of the rider is itself biochemical energy (the ATP muscle cells) derived from the chemical energy of sugars synthesized by plants who use light energy from the sun, which runs from the nuclear energy produced by fusion of atoms of hydrogen. This material itself constitutes a form of energy, called "mass energy."

text: For example, a

text: bicycle dynamo

text: turns in part from the

text: kinetic energy

text: (speed energy) of the movement of the cyclist and converting it into electrical energy will transfer in particular to its lights producing light, that is to say light energy, via the heating of the filament of the bulb and therefore heat (

text: thermal energy

text: ). But the kinetic energy of the rider is itself biochemical energy (the

text: ATP muscle cell

text: s) derived from the

text: chemical energy

text: of sugars synthesized by plants who use light energy from the sun, which runs from the nuclear energy produced by fusion of atoms of hydrogen. This material itself constitutes a form of energy, called "mass energy."

text: Sustainable energy is energy obtained from non-exhaustible resources, serving the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs as well. Technologies that promote sustainable energy include renewable energy sources and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency. Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Sustainable energy is energy obtained from non-exhaustible resources, serving the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs as well. Technologies that promote

text: sustainable

text: energy include renewable energy sources and also technologies designed to improve

text: energy efficiency

text: . Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from

text: resources

text: which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas:

text: electricity generation

text: , air and water heating/cooling,

text: transportation

text: , and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: An audience is likely to distort incoming information to fit into their unique latitudes.  If something falls within the latitude of acceptance, the subject tends to assimilate the information and consider it closer to his anchor point than it really is.  Inversely, if something falls within the latitude of rejection, the subject tends to contrast the information and convince himself the information is farther away from his anchor point than it really is.

text: In 2008, a group proposed "dark fluid", a modification of large-scale gravity. It hypothesized that attractive gravitational effects are instead a side-effect of dark energy. Dark fluid combines dark matter and dark energy in a single energy field that produces different effects at different scales. This treatment is a simplification of a previous fluid-like model called the generalized Chaplygin gas model in which the whole of spacetime is a compressible gas. Dark fluid can be compared to an atmospheric system. Atmospheric pressure causes air to expand and air regions can collapse to form clouds. In the same way, the dark fluid might generally disperse, while collecting around galaxies.

text: In 2008, a group proposed "

text: dark fluid

text: ", a modification of large-scale gravity. It hypothesized that attractive gravitational effects are instead a side-effect of dark energy. Dark fluid combines dark matter and

text: dark energy

text: in a single energy field that produces different effects at different scales. This treatment is a simplification of a previous fluid-like model called the generalized

text: Chaplygin gas

text: model in which the whole of spacetime is a compressible gas. Dark fluid can be compared to an atmospheric system. Atmospheric pressure causes air to expand and air regions can collapse to form clouds. In the same way, the dark fluid might generally disperse, while collecting around galaxies.

text: Atmospheric Composition, Greenhouse Gases, and Air Quality

text: To stimulate the emission of characteristic X-rays from a specimen, a high-energy beam of charged particles such as electrons or protons (see PIXE), or a beam of X-rays, is focused into the sample being studied. At rest, an atom within the sample contains ground state (or unexcited) electrons in discrete energy levels or electron shells bound to the nucleus. The incident beam may excite an electron in an inner shell, ejecting it from the shell while creating an electron hole where the electron was. An electron from an outer, higher-energy shell then fills the hole, and the difference in energy between the higher-energy shell and the lower energy shell may be released in the form of an X-ray. The number and energy of the X-rays emitted from a specimen can be measured by an energy-dispersive spectrometer. As the energies of the X-rays are characteristic of the difference in energy between the two shells and of the atomic structure of the emitting element, EDS allows the elemental composition of the specimen to be measured.

text: To stimulate the emission of characteristic X-rays from a specimen, a high-energy beam of charged particles such as

text: electron

text: s or

text: proton

text: s (see

text: PIXE

text: ), or a beam of X-rays, is focused into the sample being studied. At rest, an atom within the sample contains

text: ground state

text: (or unexcited) electrons in discrete energy levels or

text: electron shell

text: s bound to the nucleus. The incident beam may excite an electron in an inner shell, ejecting it from the shell while creating an

text: electron hole

text: where the electron was. An electron from an outer, higher-energy shell then fills the hole, and the difference in energy between the higher-energy shell and the lower energy shell may be released in the form of an X-ray. The number and energy of the X-rays emitted from a specimen can be measured by an energy-dispersive spectrometer. As the energies of the X-rays are characteristic of the difference in energy between the two shells and of the atomic structure of the emitting element, EDS allows the elemental composition of the specimen to be measured.

text: The waveguide F band is the range of radio frequencies from 90 GHz to 140 GHz in the electromagnetic spectrum, corresponding to the recommended frequency band of operation of WR8 waveguides. These frequencies are equivalent to wave lengths between 3.33 mm and 2.14 mm. The E band is in the EHF range of the radio spectrum.

text: The

text: waveguide

text: F band is the range of

text: radio frequencies

text: from 90 GHz to 140 GHz in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: wave length

text: s between 3.33 mm and 2.14 mm. The E band is in the

text: EHF

text: range of the

text: radio spectrum

text: However, the mechanism by which the atmosphere retains heat—the "greenhouse effect"—is different; a greenhouse is not primarily warmed by the "greenhouse effect".A greenhouse works primarily by allowing sunlight to warm surfaces inside the structure, but then preventing absorbed heat from leaving the structure through convection. The "greenhouse effect" heats Earth because greenhouse gases absorb outgoing radiative energy, heating the atmosphere which then emits radiative energy with some of it going back towards Earth.

text: Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation from the sun and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to atmosphere. Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and water vapor, but also carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons, absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the greenhouse effect keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

text: Earth

text: 's surface and the clouds

text: absorb

text: visible and invisible radiation from the

text: sun

text: and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to

text: atmosphere

text: . Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and

text: water

text: vapor, but also

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: nitrous oxide

text: sulfur hexafluoride

text: , and

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: , absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the

text: greenhouse effect

text: keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

text: Haiti is working to implement a biofuel solution to its energy problems. Meanwhile, environmental organizations such as the Peasant Movement of Papaye (formed by Jean-Baptiste Chavannes) are trying to find solutions for Haiti's other environmental problems.

text: Haiti is working to implement a

text: biofuel

text: solution to its energy problems. Meanwhile, environmental organizations such as the

text: Peasant Movement of Papaye

text: (formed by

text: Jean-Baptiste Chavannes

text: ) are trying to find solutions for Haiti's other environmental problems.

text: Much of the low luminosity of a red dwarf falls in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with lower energy than the visible light in which the Sun peaks. As a result, photosynthesis on a red dwarf planet would require additional photons to achieve excitation potentials comparable to those needed in Earth photosynthesis for electron transfers, due to the lower average energy level of near-infrared photons compared to visible. Having to adapt to a far wider spectrum to gain the maximum amount of energy, foliage on a habitable red dwarf planet would probably appear black if viewed in visible light.

text: Much of the low luminosity of a red dwarf falls in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with lower energy than the visible light in which the Sun peaks. As a result,

text: photosynthesis

text: on a red dwarf planet would require additional photons to achieve excitation potentials comparable to those needed in Earth photosynthesis for electron transfers, due to the lower average energy level of near-infrared photons compared to visible. Having to adapt to a far wider spectrum to gain the maximum amount of energy, foliage on a habitable red dwarf planet would probably appear black if viewed in visible light.

text: Earth's climate has swung repeatedly between warm periods and ice ages during its history.  In the current climate the gain of the positive feedback effect from increased atmospheric water vapor, as well as Earth being too far away from the Sun at its current luminosity for such to occur is well below that which is required to boil away the oceans. Climate scientist John Houghton has written that "[there] is no possibility of [Venus's] runaway greenhouse conditions occurring on the Earth". However, climatologist James Hansen disagrees. In his Storms of My Grandchildren he says that burning coal and mining shale oil will result in runaway greenhouse on Earth. A re-evaluation in 2013 of the effect of water vapor in the climate models showed that James Hansen's outcome might be possible, but requires ten times the amount of CO we could release from burning all the oil, coal, and natural gas in Earth's crust.  Further, Benton and Twitchett have a different definition of a runaway greenhouse; events meeting this definition have been suggested as a cause for the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum and the great dying.

text: Earth's climate has swung repeatedly between warm periods and

text: ice age

text: s during its history.  In the current climate the gain of the positive feedback effect from increased atmospheric water vapor, as well as Earth being too far away from the Sun at its current luminosity for such to occur is well below that which is required to boil away the oceans. Climate scientist

text: John Houghton

text: has written that "[there] is no possibility of [Venus's] runaway greenhouse conditions occurring on the Earth". However, climatologist

text: James Hansen

text: disagrees. In his

text: Storms of My Grandchildren

text: he says that burning coal and mining

text: shale oil

text: will result in runaway greenhouse on Earth. A re-evaluation in 2013 of the effect of water vapor in the climate models showed that James Hansen's outcome might be possible, but requires ten times the amount of CO we could release from burning all the oil, coal, and natural gas in Earth's crust.  Further, Benton and Twitchett have a different definition of a runaway greenhouse; events meeting this definition have been suggested as a cause for the

text: Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum

text: and the

text: great dying

text: An ice divide is the boundary on an ice sheet, ice cap or glacier separating opposing flow directions of ice, analogous to a water divide. Such ice divides are important for geochronology investigations using ice cores, because such coring is typically made on top of a dome of an ice sheet to avoid interference caused by horizontal ice movement. Ice divides are used for looking at what the atmosphere was like in history. The ice is very accurate because instead of shifting horizontally like normal ice, it moves vertically downward with time trapping gases into its layers. Scientist find these ice divides and take ice cores from them, which are typically long cylinder poles of ice, and evaluate them. Once they have these ice cores, they are able to look through it and find elements that the snow and ice carried down with it during that time period such as sulfate, nitrate, and other ions. These ice cores are important in determining how our atmosphere has changed for the better or worse, and how we can fix it such as the greenhouse effect which discovered when scientist found how much more greenhouse gasses was in our atmosphere than there was in the past.

text: An ice divide is the boundary on an

text: ice sheet

text: ice cap

text: or

text: glacier

text: separating opposing flow directions of

text: ice

text: , analogous to a

text: water divide

text: . Such ice divides are important for

text: geochronology

text: investigations using

text: ice core

text: s, because such coring is typically made on top of a dome of an ice sheet to avoid interference caused by horizontal ice movement. Ice divides are used for looking at what the atmosphere was like in history. The ice is very accurate because instead of shifting horizontally like normal ice, it moves vertically downward with time trapping gases into its layers. Scientist find these ice divides and take ice cores from them, which are typically long cylinder poles of ice, and evaluate them. Once they have these ice cores, they are able to look through it and find elements that the snow and ice carried down with it during that time period such as sulfate, nitrate, and other ions. These ice cores are important in determining how our atmosphere has changed for the better or worse, and how we can fix it such as the greenhouse effect which discovered when scientist found how much more greenhouse gasses was in our atmosphere than there was in the past.

text: Atmospheric methane creates a greenhouse effect on Titan's surface, without which Titan would be far colder.  Conversely, haze in Titan's atmosphere contributes to an anti-greenhouse effect by reflecting sunlight back into space, cancelling a portion of the greenhouse effect and making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere.

text: Atmospheric methane creates a

text: greenhouse effect

text: on Titan's surface, without which Titan would be far colder.  Conversely,

text: haze

text: in Titan's atmosphere contributes to an

text: anti-greenhouse effect

text: by reflecting sunlight back into space, cancelling a portion of the greenhouse effect and making its surface significantly colder than its upper atmosphere.

text:
|- style="background:#fcc;"| 1 || November 1 || @ San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (23)| Kevin Durant (14)| Durant, Westbrook & Martin (5)| AT&T Center
18,581| 0–1|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 2 || November 2 || Portland| | Russell Westbrook (32)| Kevin Durant (17)| Kevin Durant (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–1|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 3 || November 4 || Atlanta| | Kevin Martin (28)| Kevin Durant (12)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 1–2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 4 || November 6 || Toronto| | Russell Westbrook (19)| Kendrick Perkins (9)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 2–2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 5 || November 8 || @ Chicago| | Kevin Durant (24)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (12)| United Center
21,737| 3–2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 6 || November 9 || Detroit| | Durant & Ibaka (24)| Kevin Durant (13)| Westbrook & Perkins (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 4-2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 7 || November 11 || Cleveland| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Kevin Durant (8)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 5-2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 8 || November 12 || @ Detroit| | Russell Westbrook (33)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Russell Westbrook (4)| The Palace of Auburn Hills
12,784| 6-2|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 9 || November 14 || Memphis| | Kevin Durant (34)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 6-3|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 10 || November 16 || @ New Orleans| | Durant & Martin (27)| Durant & Thabeet (9)| Russell Westbrook (12)| New Orleans Arena
15,458| 7-3|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 11 || November 18 || Golden State| | Russell Westbrook (30)| Kevin Durant (13)| Kevin Durant (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 8-3|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 12 || November 21 || L. A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (35)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 9-3|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 13 || November 23 || @ Boston| | Kevin Durant (29)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Russell Westbrook (8)| TD Garden
18,624| 9-4|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 14 || November 24 || @ Philadelphia| | Kevin Durant (37)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Wells Fargo Center
19,611| 10-4|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 15 || November 26 || Charlotte| | Kevin Durant (18)| Hasheem Thabeet (10)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 11-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 16 || November 28 || Houston| | Kevin Durant (37)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 12-4|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 17 || November 30 || Utah| | Kevin Durant (25)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 13-4|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 18 || December 1 || @ New Orleans| | Kevin Durant (20)| Kevin Durant (8)| Russell Westbrook (10)| New Orleans Arena
14,547| 14-4|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 19 || December 4 || @ Brooklyn| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kendrick Perkins (7)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Barclays Center
17,732| 15-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 20 || December 7 || L. A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (36)| Kevin Durant (9)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 16-4|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 21 || December 9 || Indiana| | Kevin Durant (27)| Ibaka & Perkins (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 17-4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22 || December 12 || New Orleans| | Kevin Durant (35)| Kevin Durant (9)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 18-4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23 || December 14 || Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (31)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 19-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 24 || December 17 || San Antonio| | Serge Ibaka (25)| Serge Ibaka (17)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 20-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 25 || December 19 || @ Atlanta| | Kevin Durant (41)| Serge Ibaka (14)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Philips Arena
16,284| 21-4|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 26 || December 20 || @ Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (33)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Target Center
17,114| 21-5|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 27 || December 25 || @ Miami| | Kevin Durant (33)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Durant & Westbrook (3)| American Airlines Arena
20,300| 21-6|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 28 || December 27 || Dallas| | Kevin Durant (40)| Serge Ibaka (17)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 22-6|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 29 || December 29 || @ Houston| | Russell Westbrook (28)| Ibaka & Collison (10)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Toyota Center
18,460| 23-6|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 30 || December 31 || Phoenix| | Kevin Durant (30)| Nick Collison (9)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 24-6|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 31 || January 2 || Brooklyn| | Kevin Durant (27)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 24-7|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 32 || January 4 || Philadelphia| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Serge Ibaka (10)| Russell Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 25-7|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 33 || January 6 || @ Toronto| | Russell Westbrook (23)| Ibaka & Collison (8)| Durant & Westbrook (7)| Air Canada Centre
17,634| 26-7|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 34 || January 7 || @ Washington| | Kevin Durant (29)| Ibaka & Perkins (11)| Durant & Westbrook (8)| Verizon Center
16,917| 26-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 35 || January 9 || Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (26)| Durant & Westbrook (8)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 27-8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 36 || January 11 || @ L. A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (42)| Perkins & Collison (9)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Staples Center
 18,997| 28-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 37 || January 13 || @ Portland| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kendrick Perkins (12)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Rose Garden
20,423| 29-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 38 || January 14 || @ Phoenix| | Kevin Durant (41)| Kendrick Perkins (13)| Russell Westbrook (5)| US Airways Center
14,951| 30-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 39 || January 16 || Denver| | Russell Westbrook (32)| Ibaka & Jackson (6)| Reggie Jackson (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 31-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 40 || January 18 || @ Dallas| | Kevin Durant (52)| Serge Ibaka (14)| Russell Westbrook (6)| American Airlines Center
20,434| 32-8|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 41 || January 20 || @ Denver| | Kevin Durant (37)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Pepsi Center
19,155| 32-9|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 42 || January 22 || @ L. A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (32)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Kevin Durant (7)| Staples Center
19,451| 33-9|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 43 || January 23 || @ Golden State| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kendrick Perkins (6)| Kevin Durant (9)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 33-10|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 44 || January 25 || @ Sacramento| | Durant & Martin (24)| Kevin Durant (11)| Russell Westbrook (14)| Sleep Train Arena
15,022| 34-10|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 45 || January 27 || @ L. A. Lakers| | Kevin Durant (35)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Staples Center
18,997| 34-11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 46 || January 31 || Memphis| | Kevin Durant (27)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Durant & Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 35-11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 47 || February 2 || @ Cleveland| | Kevin Durant (32)| Serge Ibaka (12)| Westbrook & Perkins (5)| Quicken Loans Arena
20,562| 35-12|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 48 || February 4 || Dallas| | Russell Westbrook (24)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 36-12|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 49 || February 6 || Golden State| | Kevin Durant (25)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| Reggie Jackson (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 37-12|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 50 || February 8 || Phoenix| | Kevin Durant (21)| Kendrick Perkins (9)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 38-12|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 51 || February 10 || @ Phoenix| | Russell Westbrook (24)| Durant & Jackson (7)| Russell Westbrook (6)| US Airways Center
16,773| 39-12|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 52 || February 12 || @ Utah| | Kevin Durant (33)| Kevin Durant (6)| Durant & Westbrook (5)| EnergySolutions Arena
18,552| 39-13|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 53 || February 14 || Miami| | Kevin Durant (40)| Kevin Durant (8)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 39-14|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|All-Star Break|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 54 || February 20 || @ Houston| | Westbrook & Sefolosha (28)| Kevin Durant (12)| Kevin Durant (11)| Toyota Center
18,224| 39-15|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 55 || February 22 || Minnesota| | Russell Westbrook (37)| Durant, Ibaka, Perkins & Westbrook (7)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 40-15|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 56 || February 24 || Chicago| | Russell Westbrook (23)| Kevin Durant (16)| Kevin Durant (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 41-15|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 57 || February 27 || New Orleans| | Russell Westbrook (29)| Kevin Durant (11)| Kevin Durant (10)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 42-15|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 58 || March 1 || @ Denver| | Russell Westbrook (38)| Kevin Durant (14)| Thabo Sefolosha (5)| Pepsi Center
19,521| 42-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 59 || March 3 || @ L. A. Clippers| | Kevin Durant (35)| Kevin Durant (9)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Staples Center
19,371| 43-16|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 60 || March 5 || L. A. Lakers| | Russell Westbrook (37)| Russell Westbrook (10)| Durant, Martin, & Westbrook (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 44-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 61 || March 7 || @ New York| | Kevin Durant (34)| Serge Ibaka (9)| Kevin Durant (6)| Madison Square Garden
19,033| 45-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 62 || March 8 || @ Charlotte| | Kevin Durant (19)| Hasheem Thabeet (8)| Kevin Durant (7)| Time Warner Cable Arena
18,870| 46-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 63 || March 10 || Boston| | Kevin Durant (23)| Kevin Durant (11)| Kendrick Perkins (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 47-16|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 64 || March 11 || @ San Antonio| | Kevin Durant (26)| Serge Ibaka (16)| Russell Westbrook (6)| AT&T Center
18,581| 47-17|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 65 || March 13 || Utah| | Kevin Durant (23)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 48-17|- style="background:#cfc;"     | 66 || March 15 || Orlando| | Kevin Durant (26)| Kendrick Perkins (12)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,046| 49-17|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 67 || March 17 || @ Dallas| | Russell Westbrook (35)| Serge Ibaka (16)| Russell Westbrook (6)| American Airlines Center
20,284| 50-17|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 68 || March 19 || Denver| | Kevin Durant (34)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| Russell Westbrook (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 50-18|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 69 || March 20 || @ Memphis| | Kevin Durant (32)| Kendrick Perkins (16)| Durant & Westbrook (4)| FedExForum
18,119| 50-19|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 70 || March 22 || @ Orlando| | Kevin Durant (25)| Serge Ibaka (13)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Amway Center
17,429| 51-19|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 71 || March 24 || Portland| | Kevin Durant (24)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 52-19|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 72 || March 27 || Washington| | Russell Westbrook (21)| Kendrick Perkins (11)| Kevin Durant (6)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 53-19|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 73 || March 29 || @ Minnesota| | Kevin Durant (36)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Target Center
 18,121| 53-20|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 74 || March 30 || @ Milwaukee| | Kevin Durant (30)| Russell Westbrook (13)| Russell Westbrook (10)| BMO Harris Bradley Center
17,578| 54-20|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 75 || April 4 || San Antonio| | Russell Westbrook (27)| Serge Ibaka (11)| Russell Westbrook (7)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 55-20|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 76 || April 5 || @ Indiana| | Kevin Durant (34)| Kevin Durant (9)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Bankers Life Fieldhouse
18,165| 56-20|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 77 || April 7 || New York| | Russell Westbrook (37)| Russell Westbrook (11)| Russell Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 56-21|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 78 || April 9 || @ Utah| | Russell Westbrook (25)| Kevin Durant (12)| Kevin Durant (9)| EnergySolutions Arena
19,610| 57-21|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 79 || April 11 || @ Golden State| | Kevin Durant (31)| Kevin Durant (10)| Russell Westbrook (9)| Oracle Arena
19,596| 58-21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 80 || April 12 || @ Portland| | Russell Westbrook (33)| Ronnie Brewer (7)| Kevin Durant (6)| Rose Garden
20,577| 59-21|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 81 || April 15 || Sacramento| | Kevin Durant (29)| Ronnie Brewer (13)| Durant & Westbrook (8)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 60-21|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 82 || April 17 || Milwaukee| | Reggie Jackson (23)| Perry Jones III (9)| Reggie Jackson (5)| Chesapeake Energy Arena
18,203| 60-22

text: |- style="background:#fcc;"| 1 || November 1 || @

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Martin

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 0–1|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 2 || November 2 ||

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–1|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 3 || November 4 ||

text: Atlanta

text: Kevin Martin

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 1–2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 4 || November 6 ||

text: Toronto

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 2–2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 5 || November 8 || @

text: Chicago

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: United Center

text: <br>21,737| 3–2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 6 || November 9 ||

text: Detroit

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Perkins

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 4-2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 7 || November 11 ||

text: Cleveland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 5-2|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 8 || November 12 || @

text: Detroit

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: The Palace of Auburn Hills

text: <br>12,784| 6-2|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 9 || November 14 ||

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 6-3|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 10 || November 16 || @

text: New Orleans

text: Durant

text: Martin

text: Durant

text: Thabeet

text: Russell Westbrook

text: New Orleans Arena

text: <br>15,458| 7-3|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 11 || November 18 ||

text: Golden State

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 8-3|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 12 || November 21 ||

text: L. A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 9-3|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 13 || November 23 || @

text: Boston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: TD Garden

text: <br>18,624| 9-4|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 14 || November 24 || @

text: Philadelphia

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Wells Fargo Center

text: <br>19,611| 10-4|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 15 || November 26 ||

text: Charlotte

text: Kevin Durant

text: Hasheem Thabeet

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 11-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 16 || November 28 ||

text: Houston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 12-4|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 17 || November 30 ||

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 13-4|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 18 || December 1 || @

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: New Orleans Arena

text: <br>14,547| 14-4|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 19 || December 4 || @

text: Brooklyn

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Barclays Center

text: <br>17,732| 15-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 20 || December 7 ||

text: L. A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 16-4|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 21 || December 9 ||

text: Indiana

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 17-4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 22 || December 12 ||

text: New Orleans

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 18-4|- style="background:#cfc;"| 23 || December 14 ||

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 19-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 24 || December 17 ||

text: San Antonio

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 20-4|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 25 || December 19 || @

text: Atlanta

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Philips Arena

text: <br>16,284| 21-4|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 26 || December 20 || @

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br>17,114| 21-5|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 27 || December 25 || @

text: Miami

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: American Airlines Arena

text: <br>20,300| 21-6|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 28 || December 27 ||

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 22-6|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 29 || December 29 || @

text: Houston

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Ibaka

text: Collison

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,460| 23-6|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 30 || December 31 ||

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Nick Collison

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 24-6|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 31 || January 2 ||

text: Brooklyn

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 24-7|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 32 || January 4 ||

text: Philadelphia

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 25-7|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 33 || January 6 || @

text: Toronto

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Ibaka

text: Collison

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Air Canada Centre

text: <br>17,634| 26-7|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 34 || January 7 || @

text: Washington

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Perkins

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Verizon Center

text: <br>16,917| 26-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 35 || January 9 ||

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 27-8|- style="background:#cfc;"| 36 || January 11 || @

text: L. A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Perkins

text: Collison

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br> 18,997| 28-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 37 || January 13 || @

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Rose Garden

text: <br>20,423| 29-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 38 || January 14 || @

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>14,951| 30-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 39 || January 16 ||

text: Denver

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Ibaka

text: Jackson

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 31-8|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 40 || January 18 || @

text: Dallas

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,434| 32-8|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 41 || January 20 || @

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>19,155| 32-9|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 42 || January 22 || @

text: L. A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,451| 33-9|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 43 || January 23 || @

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Kevin Durant

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 33-10|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 44 || January 25 || @

text: Sacramento

text: Durant

text: Martin

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Sleep Train Arena

text: <br>15,022| 34-10|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 45 || January 27 || @

text: L. A. Lakers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>18,997| 34-11|- style="background:#cfc;"| 46 || January 31 ||

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 35-11|- style="background:#fcc;"| 47 || February 2 || @

text: Cleveland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Westbrook

text: Perkins

text: Quicken Loans Arena

text: <br>20,562| 35-12|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 48 || February 4 ||

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 36-12|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 49 || February 6 ||

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 37-12|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 50 || February 8 ||

text: Phoenix

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 38-12|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 51 || February 10 || @

text: Phoenix

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Jackson

text: Russell Westbrook

text: US Airways Center

text: <br>16,773| 39-12|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 52 || February 12 || @

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: EnergySolutions Arena

text: <br>18,552| 39-13|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 53 || February 14 ||

text: Miami

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 39-14|- align="center"|colspan="9" bgcolor="#bbcaff"|

text: All-Star Break

text: |- style="background:#fcc;"      | 54 || February 20 || @

text: Houston

text: Westbrook

text: Sefolosha

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Toyota Center

text: <br>18,224| 39-15|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 55 || February 22 ||

text: Minnesota

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Ibaka

text: Perkins

text: Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 40-15|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 56 || February 24 ||

text: Chicago

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 41-15|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 57 || February 27 ||

text: New Orleans

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 42-15|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 58 || March 1 || @

text: Denver

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Thabo Sefolosha

text: Pepsi Center

text: <br>19,521| 42-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 59 || March 3 || @

text: L. A. Clippers

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Staples Center

text: <br>19,371| 43-16|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 60 || March 5 ||

text: L. A. Lakers

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Durant

text: Martin

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 44-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 61 || March 7 || @

text: New York

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Kevin Durant

text: Madison Square Garden

text: <br>19,033| 45-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 62 || March 8 || @

text: Charlotte

text: Kevin Durant

text: Hasheem Thabeet

text: Kevin Durant

text: Time Warner Cable Arena

text: <br>18,870| 46-16|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 63 || March 10 ||

text: Boston

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 47-16|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 64 || March 11 || @

text: San Antonio

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: AT&T Center

text: <br>18,581| 47-17|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 65 || March 13 ||

text: Utah

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 48-17|- style="background:#cfc;"     | 66 || March 15 ||

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,046| 49-17|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 67 || March 17 || @

text: Dallas

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: American Airlines Center

text: <br>20,284| 50-17|- style="background:#fcc;"      | 68 || March 19 ||

text: Denver

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 50-18|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 69 || March 20 || @

text: Memphis

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: FedExForum

text: <br>18,119| 50-19|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 70 || March 22 || @

text: Orlando

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Amway Center

text: <br>17,429| 51-19|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 71 || March 24 ||

text: Portland

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 52-19|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 72 || March 27 ||

text: Washington

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kendrick Perkins

text: Kevin Durant

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 53-19|- style="background:#fcc;"       | 73 || March 29 || @

text: Minnesota

text: Kevin Durant

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Target Center

text: <br> 18,121| 53-20|- style="background:#cfc;"      | 74 || March 30 || @

text: Milwaukee

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: BMO Harris Bradley Center

text: <br>17,578| 54-20|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 75 || April 4 ||

text: San Antonio

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Serge Ibaka

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 55-20|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 76 || April 5 || @

text: Indiana

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Bankers Life Fieldhouse

text: <br>18,165| 56-20|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 77 || April 7 ||

text: New York

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 56-21|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 78 || April 9 || @

text: Utah

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: EnergySolutions Arena

text: <br>19,610| 57-21|- style="background:#cfc;"       | 79 || April 11 || @

text: Golden State

text: Kevin Durant

text: Kevin Durant

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Oracle Arena

text: <br>19,596| 58-21|- style="background:#cfc;"| 80 || April 12 || @

text: Portland

text: Russell Westbrook

text: Ronnie Brewer

text: Kevin Durant

text: Rose Garden

text: <br>20,577| 59-21|- style="background:#cfc;"        | 81 || April 15 ||

text: Sacramento

text: Kevin Durant

text: Ronnie Brewer

text: Durant

text: Westbrook

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 60-21|- style="background:#fcc;"        | 82 || April 17 ||

text: Milwaukee

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Perry Jones III

text: Reggie Jackson

text: Chesapeake Energy Arena

text: <br>18,203| 60-22

text: Dragoness is a mutant with the power to generate high levels of bioelectric energy in the form of disruptive blasts that can incapacitate or kill others. She can also use her bioelectric energies to induce combustion in the atmosphere around her, creating powerful pyrotechnic flares that she can direct. Her costume possesses a set of bionic wings and a jet pack that allow her to fly at high speeds.

text: Dragoness is a mutant with the power to generate high levels of bioelectric energy in the form of disruptive blasts that can incapacitate or kill others. She can also use her bioelectric energies to induce combustion in the atmosphere around her, creating powerful pyrotechnic flares that she can direct. Her costume possesses a set of bionic wings and a

text: jet pack

text: that allow her to fly at high speeds.

text: Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century. At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by gravitational contraction. In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both Hermann von Helmholtz and Lord Kelvin, who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. However, the Sun only has enough gravitational potential energy to power its luminosity by this mechanism for about 30 million years—far less than the age of the Earth. (This collapse time is known as the Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale.)

text: Attempts to isolate the physical source of the Sun's energy, and thus determine when and how it might ultimately run out, began in the 19th century. At that time, the prevailing scientific view on the source of the Sun's heat was that it was generated by

text: gravitational contraction

text: . In the 1840s, astronomers J. R. Mayer and J. J. Waterson first proposed that the Sun's massive weight causes it to collapse in on itself, generating heat, an idea expounded upon in 1854 by both

text: Hermann von Helmholtz

text: and

text: Lord Kelvin

text: , who further elaborated on the idea by suggesting that heat may also be produced by the impact of meteors onto the Sun's surface. However, the Sun only has enough

text: gravitational potential energy

text: to power its

text: luminosity

text: by this mechanism for about 30 million years—far less than the age of the Earth. (This collapse time is known as the

text: Kelvin–Helmholtz timescale

text: Paleoclimatology influenced the 19th century physicists John Tyndall and Svante Arrhenius who found the greenhouse gas effect of carbon dioxide () in the atmosphere to explain how past ice ages had ended. From 1919 to 1923, Alfred Wegener did pioneering work on reconstructing the climate of past eras in collaboration with Milutin Milanković, publishing Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit (“The Climates of the Geological Past”) together with Wladimir Köppen, in 1924.  In the 1930s Guy Stewart Callendar compiled temperature records to look for changes. Wilmot H. Bradley showed that annual varves in lake beds showed climate cycles, and A. E. Douglass found that tree rings could track past climatic changes but these were thought to only show random variations in the local region. It was only in the 1960s that accurate use of tree rings as climate proxies for reconstructions was pioneered by Harold C. Fritts.

text: Paleoclimatology

text: influenced the 19th century physicists

text: John Tyndall

text: and

text: Svante Arrhenius

text: who found the

text: greenhouse gas

text: effect of

text: carbon dioxide

text: () in the atmosphere to explain how past

text: ice age

text: s had ended. From 1919 to 1923,

text: Alfred Wegener

text: did pioneering work on reconstructing the climate of past eras in collaboration with

text: Milutin Milanković

text: , publishing Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit (“The Climates of the Geological Past”) together with Wladimir Köppen, in 1924.  In the 1930s

text: Guy Stewart Callendar

text: compiled temperature records to look for changes.

text: Wilmot H. Bradley

text: showed that annual

text: varve

text: s in lake beds showed climate cycles, and

text: A. E. Douglass

text: found that tree rings could track past climatic changes but these were thought to only show random variations in the local region. It was only in the 1960s that accurate use of tree rings as

text: climate proxies

text: for reconstructions was pioneered by

text: Harold C. Fritts

text: The species energy hypothesis suggests the amount of available energy sets limits to the richness of the system. Thus, increased solar energy (with an abundance of water) at low latitudes causes increased net primary productivity (or photosynthesis).  This hypothesis proposes the higher the net primary productivity the more individuals can be supported, and the more species there will be in an area.  Put another way, this hypothesis suggests that extinction rates are reduced towards the equator as a result of the higher populations sustainable by the greater amount of available energy in the tropics.  Lower extinction rates lead to more species in the tropics.

text: Gaia Movement- Gaia philosophy- Gaia theory (science)- Gaian Greens- Garbology- Garden city movement- Gas-guzzler- Genetic engineering- Genetically modified food- Genetically modified organism- Geneva Protocol- Genotoxic- Genuine Progress Indicator- George W. Bush- Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite- German nuclear energy project- Ghost net- Give-away shop- Glass Recycling- Glassphalt- Gleaning- Gley soil- Global 200- Global 2000- Global 500 Roll of Honour- Global alert- Global Atmosphere Watch- Global Biodiversity Information Facility- Global change- Global Change Research Act- Global climate- Global Climate and Energy Project- Global Climate Coalition- Global climate model- Global cooling- Global dimming- Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS)- Global Ecolabelling Network- Global economic monoculture- Global Ecovillage Network- Global Energy Network Institute- Global Environment Facility- Global Environment Outlook- Global Greens- Global Greens Charter- Global health- Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project- Global political monoculture- Global strategic petroleum reserves- Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program- Global warming- Global warming and agriculture- Global warming controversy- Global warming potential- GLOBCOVER- GLOBE Program- Glossary of climate change- Gobi Desert- Goldman Environmental Prize- Great Lakes Commission- Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory- Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal- Great Smog of 1952- Green accounting- Green Alliance- Green ban- Green belt- Green belt (United Kingdom)- Green Belt Movement- Green building- Green Building (MIT)- Green certificate- Green chemistry- Green computing- Green consumerism- Green design- Green economics- Green energy- Green fertilizer- Green Gross Domestic Product- Green lane- Green lending- Green manure- Green money- Green painting- Green politics- Green Revolution- Green roof- Green syndicalism- Green tags- Green tax shift- Green technology- Green vehicle- Green Zionism- Green Zionist Alliance- GreenFacts- Greenguard Environmental Institute- Greenhouse effect- Greenhouse gas- Greening Australia- Greening Earth Society- Greenland ice core project- Greenpeace- Greenwash- Grey goo- Greywater- Gulf War oil spill

text: Gaia Movement

text: Gaia philosophy

text: Gaia theory (science)

text: Gaian Greens

text: Garbology

text: Garden city movement

text: Gas-guzzler

text: Genetic engineering

text: Genetically modified food

text: Genetically modified organism

text: Geneva Protocol

text: Genotoxic

text: Genuine Progress Indicator

text: George W. Bush

entity_name: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: German nuclear energy project

text: Ghost net

text: Give-away shop

text: Glass Recycling

text: Glassphalt

text: Gleaning

text: Gley soil

text: Global 200

text: Global 2000

text: Global 500 Roll of Honour

text: Global alert

text: Global Atmosphere Watch

entity_name: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

text: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

text: Global change

text: Global Change Research Act

text: Global climate

text: Global Climate and Energy Project

text: Global Climate Coalition

text: Global climate model

text: Global cooling

text: Global dimming

entity_name: Global Earth Observation System of Systems

text: Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS)

text: Global Ecolabelling Network

text: Global economic monoculture

text: Global Ecovillage Network

text: Global Energy Network Institute

text: Global Environment Facility

text: Global Environment Outlook

text: Global Greens

text: Global Greens Charter

text: Global health

entity_name: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project

text: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project

text: Global political monoculture

text: Global strategic petroleum reserves

text: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program

text: Global warming

text: Global warming and agriculture

text: Global warming controversy

text: Global warming potential

text: GLOBCOVER

text: GLOBE Program

text: Glossary of climate change

text: Gobi Desert

text: Goldman Environmental Prize

text: Great Lakes Commission

entity_name: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

text: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

entity_name: Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal

text: Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal

text: Great Smog of 1952

text: Green accounting

text: Green Alliance

text: Green ban

text: Green belt

text: Green belt (United Kingdom)

text: Green Belt Movement

text: Green building

text: Green Building (MIT)

text: Green certificate

text: Green chemistry

text: Green computing

text: Green consumerism

text: Green design

text: Green economics

text: Green energy

text: Green fertilizer

text: Green Gross Domestic Product

text: Green lane

text: Green lending

text: Green manure

text: Green money

text: Green painting

text: Green politics

text: Green Revolution

text: Green roof

text: Green syndicalism

entity_name: Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)

text: Green tags

text: Green tax shift

text: Green technology

text: Green vehicle

text: Green Zionism

text: Green Zionist Alliance

text: GreenFacts

text: Greenguard Environmental Institute

text: Greenhouse effect

text: Greenhouse gas

text: Greening Australia

text: Greening Earth Society

text: Greenland ice core project

text: Greenpeace

text: Greenwash

text: Grey goo

text: Greywater

text: Gulf War oil spill

text: Ahead of and during the season, several national meteorological services and scientific agencies forecast how many named storms, hurricanes and major hurricanes will form during a season and/or how many tropical cyclones will affect a particular country. These agencies include the Tropical Storm Risk (TSR) Consortium of the University College London, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Colorado State University (CSU). The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes within a particular year. Some of these forecasts also take into consideration what happened in previous seasons and the predicted weakening of the 2014–16 El Niño event. On average, an Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 and 2010 contained twelve tropical storms, six hurricanes, and two major hurricanes, with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index of between 66 and 103 units.

text: Ahead of and during the season, several national meteorological services and scientific agencies forecast how many named storms, hurricanes and major hurricanes will form during a season and/or how many tropical cyclones will affect a particular country. These agencies include the Tropical Storm Risk (TSR) Consortium of the University College London, the

text: (NOAA) and

text: Colorado State University

text: (CSU). The forecasts include weekly and monthly changes in significant factors that help determine the number of tropical storms, hurricanes, and major hurricanes within a particular year. Some of these forecasts also take into consideration what happened in previous seasons and the predicted weakening of the

text: 2014–16 El Niño event

text: . On average, an Atlantic hurricane season between 1981 and 2010 contained twelve tropical storms, six hurricanes, and two major hurricanes, with an

text: accumulated cyclone energy

text: (ACE) index of between 66 and 103 units.

text: Weapon systems that fall under this category include lasers, linear particle accelerators or particle-beam based weaponry, microwaves and plasma-based weaponry. Particle beams involve the acceleration of charged or neutral particles in a stream towards a target at extremely high velocities, the impact of which creates a reaction causing immense damage. Most of these weapons are theoretical or impractical to implement currently, aside from lasers which are starting to be used in terrestrial warfare. That said, directed-energy weapons are more practical and more effective in a vacuum (i.e. space) than in the Earth's atmosphere, as in the atmosphere the particles of air interfere with and disperse the directed energy.

text: Weapon systems that fall under this category include

text: laser

text: s,

text: linear particle accelerator

text: s or

text: particle-beam based weaponry

text: microwave

text: s and

text: plasma-based weaponry

text: Particle beam

text: s involve the acceleration of charged or neutral particles in a stream towards a target at extremely high velocities, the impact of which creates a reaction causing immense damage. Most of these weapons are theoretical or impractical to implement currently, aside from lasers which are starting to be used in terrestrial warfare. That said, directed-energy weapons are more practical and more effective in a vacuum (i.e. space) than in the Earth's atmosphere, as in the atmosphere the particles of air interfere with and disperse the directed energy.

text: In terms of energy, all systems have two types of energy, potential energy and kinetic energy. When a spring is stretched or compressed, it stores elastic potential energy, which then is transferred into kinetic energy. The potential energy within a spring is determined by the equation

text: In terms of energy, all systems have two types of energy,

text: potential energy

text: and

text: kinetic energy

text: . When a spring is stretched or compressed, it stores elastic potential energy, which then is transferred into kinetic energy. The potential energy within a spring is determined by the equation

text: The potential energy is useful, for example, in understanding the concavity of the water surface in a rotating bucket. Notice that at equilibrium the surface adopts a shape such that an element of volume at any location on its surface has the same potential energy as at any other. That being so, no element of water on the surface has any incentive to move position, because all positions are equivalent in energy. That is, equilibrium is attained. On the other hand, were surface regions with lower energy available, the water occupying surface locations of higher potential energy would move to occupy these positions of lower energy, inasmuch as there is no barrier to lateral movement in an ideal liquid.

text: The potential energy is useful, for example, in understanding the concavity of the water surface in a rotating bucket. Notice that at

text: equilibrium

text: the surface adopts a shape such that an element of volume at any location on its surface has the same potential energy as at any other. That being so, no element of water on the surface has any incentive to move position, because all positions are equivalent in energy. That is, equilibrium is attained. On the other hand, were surface regions with lower energy available, the water occupying surface locations of higher potential energy would move to occupy these positions of lower energy, inasmuch as there is no barrier to lateral movement in an ideal liquid.

text: The prevailing winds of the atmospheric circulation arise because of the difference in pressure at various latitudes and act as means for distribution of thermal energy on the planet. This pressure difference is because of the differences in solar insolation received at different latitudes and the resulting uneven heating of the planet. Alternating belts of high pressure and low pressure develop along the equator, the two tropics, the Arctic and Antarctic circles, and the two polar regions, giving rise to the trade winds, the westerlies, and the polar easterlies. However, geophysical factors like Earth's orbit, its rotation, and its axial tilt cause these belts to shift gradually north and south, following the Sun's seasonal shifts.

text: The

text: prevailing winds

text: of the

text: atmospheric circulation

text: arise because of the difference in pressure at various

text: latitudes

text: and act as means for distribution of

text: thermal energy

text: on the planet. This pressure difference is because of the differences in

text: solar insolation

text: received at different latitudes and the resulting uneven heating of the

text: planet

text: . Alternating belts of high pressure and low pressure develop along the

text: equator

text: , the two

text: tropics

text: , the

text: Arctic

text: and

text: Antarctic

text: circles, and the two

text: polar region

text: s, giving rise to the

text: trade wind

text: s, the

text: westerlies

text: , and the

text: polar easterlies

text: . However, geophysical factors like

text: Earth's orbit

text: , its rotation, and its

text: axial tilt

text: cause these belts to shift gradually north and south, following the

text: Sun

text: 's seasonal shifts.

text: Second, it is assumed that while faster than light starships produce prodigious amounts of energy just for the needs of propulsion, there is not enough energy available to perform every possible function simultaneously. Therefore, each ship has to fill out an Energy Allocation form at the beginning of a turn, and 'pay' for all the functions (such as movement, shields and weapons) that it can then use during the turn.

text: Second, it is assumed that while

text: faster than light

text: starships produce prodigious amounts of energy just for the needs of propulsion, there is not enough energy available to perform every possible function simultaneously. Therefore, each ship has to fill out an Energy Allocation form at the beginning of a turn, and 'pay' for all the functions (such as movement, shields and weapons) that it can then use during the turn.

text: Light, colors, AM and FM radio, and electronic devices make use of the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequencies of the radio spectrum that are available for use for communication are treated as a public resource and are regulated by national organizations such as the Federal Communications Commission in the USA, or Ofcom in the United Kingdom, or “international as ITU-R”, or European as ETSI. This determines which frequency ranges can be used for what purpose and by whom. In the absence of such control or alternative arrangements such as a privatized electromagnetic spectrum, chaos might result if, for example, airlines did not have specific frequencies to work under and an amateur radio operator were interfering with the pilot's ability to land an aircraft. Wireless communication spans the spectrum from 9 kHz to 300 GHz.

text: Light, colors, AM and FM radio, and electronic devices make use of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . The frequencies of the

text: radio spectrum

text: that are available for use for communication are treated as a public resource and are regulated by national organizations such as the

text: Federal Communications Commission

text: in the USA, or

text: Ofcom

text: in the United Kingdom, or “international as

text: ITU-R

text: ”, or European as

text: ETSI

text: . This determines which frequency ranges can be used for what purpose and by whom. In the absence of such control or alternative arrangements such as a privatized electromagnetic spectrum, chaos might result if, for example, airlines did not have specific frequencies to work under and an

text: amateur radio

text: operator were interfering with the pilot's ability to land an

text: aircraft

text: . Wireless communication spans the spectrum from 9 kHz to 300 GHz.

text: Over the course of a year the average solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is roughly 1,366 watts per square meter (see solar constant). The radiant power is distributed across the entire electromagnetic spectrum, although most of the power is in the visible light portion of the spectrum. The Sun's rays are attenuated as they pass though the atmosphere, thus reducing the insolation at the Earth's surface to approximately 1,000 watts per square meter for a surface perpendicular to the Sun's rays at sea level on a clear day.

text: Over the course of a year the average solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is roughly 1,366

text: watt

text: s per

text: square meter

text: (see

text: solar constant

text: ). The radiant power is distributed across the entire

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , although most of the power is in the

text: visible light

text: portion of the spectrum. The Sun's rays are

text: attenuated

text: as they pass though the

text: atmosphere

text: , thus reducing the insolation at the Earth's surface to approximately 1,000 watts per square meter for a surface perpendicular to the Sun's rays at sea level on a clear day.

text: In 2007, the Association brought a lawsuit against the state of California, attempting to establish that the state had no authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. The Association's argument was that the only method to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide, is by improving fuel economy and only the U.S. Department of Transportation has authority to establish a fuel economy standard, under federal energy legislation from 1975. As such, California's standards are preempted by federal law. California is able to set its own standards for tailpipe emissions, if it is granted a waiver by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) from preemption under the Clean Air Act, as it had begun regulation of air pollution before the EPA was established. The Association also argued that if California and other states did have authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, that would force manufacturers to make vehicles using too many different standards, effectively raising the cost of cars and eliminating model choices. In December 2007, a district court judge ruled against the Association's suit. The Association appealed this decision. In February 2008, the Association issued a statement supporting the EPA's decision not to issue the waiver that would be required for California to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles. The Association's president, Michael Stanton, stated that its interest was not in resisting such regulation, but ensuring that uniform standards are set by the federal government. In 2009, the Association stated its support for an agreement reached by the Obama administration to adopt a single national standard for fuel economy, which led to outstanding lawsuits being dropped.

text: In 2007, the Association brought a lawsuit against the state of California, attempting to establish that the state had no authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions. The Association's argument was that the only method to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, primarily carbon dioxide, is by improving fuel economy and only the U.S. Department of Transportation has authority to establish a fuel economy standard, under federal energy legislation from 1975. As such, California's standards are preempted by federal law. California is able to set its own standards for tailpipe emissions, if it is granted a waiver by the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) from preemption under the Clean Air Act, as it had begun regulation of air pollution before the EPA was established. The Association also argued that if California and other states did have authority to regulate greenhouse gas emissions, that would force manufacturers to make vehicles using too many different standards, effectively raising the cost of cars and eliminating model choices. In December 2007, a district court judge ruled against the Association's suit. The Association appealed this decision. In February 2008, the Association issued a statement supporting the EPA's decision not to issue the waiver that would be required for California to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles. The Association's president, Michael Stanton, stated that its interest was not in resisting such regulation, but ensuring that uniform standards are set by the federal government. In 2009, the Association stated its support for an agreement reached by the Obama administration to adopt a single national standard for fuel economy, which led to outstanding lawsuits being dropped.

text: Obligate anaerobes are microorganisms killed by normal atmospheric concentrations of oxygen (20.95% O).  Oxygen tolerance varies between species, some capable of surviving in up to 8% oxygen, others losing viability unless the oxygen concentration is less than 0.5%. An important distinction needs to be made here between the obligate anaerobes and the microaerophiles. Microaerophiles, like the obligate anaerobes, are damaged by normal atmospheric concentrations of oxygen. However, microaerophiles metabolise energy aerobically, and obligate anaerobes metabolise energy anaerobically. Microaerophiles therefore require oxygen (typically 2-10% O) for growth. Obligate anaerobes do not.

text: Obligate anaerobes are

text: microorganism

text: s killed by normal

text: atmospheric

text: concentrations of

text: oxygen

text: (20.95% O).  Oxygen tolerance varies between species, some capable of surviving in up to 8% oxygen, others losing viability unless the oxygen concentration is less than 0.5%. An important distinction needs to be made here between the obligate anaerobes and the

text: microaerophile

text: s. Microaerophiles, like the obligate anaerobes, are damaged by normal atmospheric concentrations of oxygen. However, microaerophiles metabolise energy aerobically, and obligate anaerobes metabolise energy anaerobically. Microaerophiles therefore require oxygen (typically 2-10% O) for growth. Obligate anaerobes do not.

text: A discussion of the regions (or bands or types) of the electromagnetic spectrum is given below. Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.

text: A discussion of the regions (or bands or types) of the electromagnetic spectrum is given below. Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some

text: chemical bond

text: s and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for

text: photosynthesis

text: and the working of the

text: visual system

text: The haze containing organic molecules in Titan's upper atmosphere absorbs 90% of the solar radiation reaching Titan, but is inefficient at trapping infrared radiation generated by the surface.  Although a large greenhouse effect does keep Titan at a much higher temperature than the thermal equilibrium,  according to McKay et al., "the anti-greenhouse effect on Titan reduces the surface temperature by 9 K whereas the greenhouse effect increases it by 21 K. The net effect is that the surface temperature (94 K) is 12 K warmer than the effective temperature 82 K.  [i.e., the equilibrium that would be reached in the absence of any atmosphere]"

text: The

text: haze

text: containing organic molecules in

text: Titan's

text: upper atmosphere absorbs 90% of the solar radiation reaching Titan, but is inefficient at trapping infrared radiation generated by the surface.  Although a large greenhouse effect does keep Titan at a much higher temperature than the thermal equilibrium,  according to McKay et al., "the anti-greenhouse effect on Titan reduces the surface temperature by 9 K whereas the greenhouse effect increases it by 21 K. The net effect is that the surface temperature (94 K) is 12 K warmer than the

text: effective temperature

text: 82 K.  [i.e., the equilibrium that would be reached in the absence of any atmosphere]"

text: The land of the Earth interacts with and influences climate heavily since the surface of the land heats up and cools down faster than air or water. Latitude, elevation, topography, reflectivity, and land use all have varying effects. The latitude of the land will influence how much solar radiation reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes. The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and precipitation on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect causes condensation and precipitation. Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary albedo and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun affects the amount of energy that is reflected or transferred to Earth. Vegetation has a relatively low albedo meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun’s energy. Forests have an albedo of 10-15% while grasslands have an albedo of 15-20%. In comparison, sandy deserts have an albedo of 25-40%. Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region.

text: The land of the Earth interacts with and influences

text: climate

text: heavily since the surface of the land heats up and cools down faster than air or water.

text: Latitude

text: elevation

text: topography

text: reflectivity

text: , and

text: land use

text: all have varying effects. The latitude of the land will influence how much

text: solar radiation

text: reaches the surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes. The height of the land is important in creating and transforming airflow and

text: precipitation

text: on Earth. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, divert wind energy and make the air parcel less dense and able to hold less heat. As air rises, this cooling effect causes

text: condensation

text: and

text: precipitation

text: . Reflectivity of the earth is called planetary

text: albedo

text: and the type of land cover that receives energy from the sun affects the amount of energy that is reflected or transferred to Earth.

text: Vegetation

text: has a relatively low albedo meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun’s energy.

text: Forests

text: have an albedo of 10-15% while

text: grasslands

text: have an albedo of 15-20%. In comparison, sandy

text: deserts

text: have an albedo of 25-40%. Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create

text: urban heat islands

text: that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature of the region.

text: MODTRAN (MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission) is a computer program designed to model atmospheric propagation of electromagnetic radiation for the 100-50,000 cm (0.2 to 100 um) spectral range.  This covers the spectrum from middle ultraviolet to visible light to far infrared.

text: MODTRAN (MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission) is a computer program designed to model

text: atmospheric

text: propagation of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: for the 100-50,000 cm (0.2 to 100 um) spectral range.  This covers the spectrum from middle

text: ultraviolet

text: to

text: visible light

text: to

text: far infrared

text: OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation. The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m².

text: OLR is

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of

text: thermal radiation

text: . The

text: flux

text: of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in

text: A testing facility that relies on rapid release of stored energy to generate a short period of high enthalpy test conditions for testing of aerodynamic flow, aerodynamic heating and atmospheric reentry, combustion, chemical kinetics, ballistics, and other effects.  The rapid release of energy can result in very high instantaneous energy release rates even though the total energy released is modest.  This effect also produces short test times, however, with some types of tests in these facilities lasting less than 100 microseconds.  Impulse facilities are a special case of blow down facilities where an energy storage mechanism is charged over a period of time and then released to initiate a test and must be charged again before the next test.  This contrasts with continuous facilities such as wind tunnels that may run continuously.  Examples of impulse facilities are the shock tube, the shock tunnel, the expansion tube, the expansion tunnel, and the Ludwieg tube.

text: A testing facility that relies on rapid release of stored

text: energy

text: to generate a short period of high

text: enthalpy

text: test conditions for testing of

text: aerodynamic

text: flow, aerodynamic heating and

text: atmospheric reentry

text: combustion

text: chemical kinetics

text: ballistics

text: , and other effects.  The rapid release of energy can result in very high instantaneous energy release rates even though the total energy released is modest.  This effect also produces short test times, however, with some types of tests in these facilities lasting less than 100

text: microsecond

text: s.  Impulse facilities are a special case of

text: blow down facilities

text: where an energy storage mechanism is charged over a period of time and then released to initiate a test and must be charged again before the next test.  This contrasts with

text: continuous facilities

text: such as

text: wind tunnel

text: s that may run continuously.  Examples of impulse facilities are the

text: shock tube

text: , the

text: shock tunnel

text: , the

text: expansion tube

text: , the

text: expansion tunnel

text: , and the

text: Ludwieg tube

text: Part of the air rising at 60° latitude diverges at high altitude toward the poles and creates the polar cell. The rest moves toward the equator where it collides at 30° latitude with the high level air of the Hadley cell. There it subsides and strengthens the high pressure ridges beneath. A large part of the energy that drives the Ferrel cell is provided by the Polar and Hadley cells circulating on either side and that drag the Ferrel cell with it. The Ferrel cell, theorized by William Ferrel (1817–1891), is therefore a secondary circulation feature, whose existence depends upon the Hadley and Polar cells on either side of it; it behaves much as an atmospheric ball bearing between the two. It might be thought of as an eddy created by the Hadley and Polar cells. The Ferrel cell is weak and the air flow and temperatures within are variable. For this reason, the mid latitudes are sometimes known as the "zone of mixing." At high altitudes, the Ferrel cell overrides the Hadley and Polar cells. The air of the Ferrel cell that descends at 30° latitude returns poleward at the ground level and as it does so it deviates toward the east. In the upper atmosphere of the Ferrel cell the air moving equatorward, deviates toward the west. Both of those deviations, as in the case of the Hadley and Polar cells, are driven by conservation of energy. As a result, just as the Easterly Trade Winds are found below the Hadley cell, the Westerlies are found beneath the Ferrel cell. The forces driving the flow in the Ferrel cell are weak and so the weather in that zone is variable. Thus, strong high-pressure areas which divert the prevailing westerlies, such as a Siberian high, can override the Ferrel cell, making it discontinuous.

text: Part of the air rising at 60° latitude diverges at high altitude toward the poles and creates the polar cell. The rest moves toward the equator where it collides at 30° latitude with the high level air of the Hadley cell. There it subsides and strengthens the high pressure ridges beneath. A large part of the energy that drives the Ferrel cell is provided by the Polar and Hadley cells circulating on either side and that drag the Ferrel cell with it. The Ferrel cell, theorized by

text: William Ferrel

text: (1817–1891), is therefore a secondary circulation feature, whose existence depends upon the Hadley and Polar cells on either side of it; it behaves much as an atmospheric ball bearing between the two. It might be thought of as an

text: eddy

text: created by the Hadley and Polar cells. The Ferrel cell is weak and the air flow and temperatures within are variable. For this reason, the mid latitudes are sometimes known as the "zone of mixing." At high altitudes, the Ferrel cell overrides the Hadley and Polar cells. The air of the Ferrel cell that descends at 30° latitude returns poleward at the ground level and as it does so it deviates toward the east. In the upper atmosphere of the Ferrel cell the air moving equatorward, deviates toward the west. Both of those deviations, as in the case of the Hadley and Polar cells, are driven by conservation of energy. As a result, just as the Easterly Trade Winds are found below the Hadley cell, the

text: Westerlies

text: are found beneath the Ferrel cell. The forces driving the flow in the Ferrel cell are weak and so the weather in that zone is variable. Thus, strong high-pressure areas which divert the prevailing westerlies, such as a

text: Siberian high

text: , can override the Ferrel cell, making it discontinuous.

text: Following the defeat of Norman Osborn and his Dark Avengers, Noh-Varr locates a secret A.I.M. base. The Avengers take out the base and arrest Monica Rappaccini and the rest of the A.I.M. scientists that escaped following Osborn's defeat. After the battle, Noh-Varr checks in with the Supreme Intelligence of the Kree Empire who informs him of the coming Phoenix force and orders him to intercept and contain it at all cost... even if it means eliminating his Avenger teammates. In space, after the Avengers fail to stop the Phoenix, Noh-Varr analyzes the reason for their failure and discovers that Thor's hammer can injure and absorb the Phoenix's essence. Thor (equipped with Beast's device to contain the Phoenix) is able to force it away from Earth. Before the team can celebrate, Noh-Varr declares that he will take the collected energy back to the Kree. While the Avengers wake up in their spaceship heading to a sun and try to escape death, Noh-Varr takes the Phoenix energy to the Supreme Intelligence; however, after the Intelligence declares that the energy will not be used to save Earth, Noh-Varr turns against it and escapes with the energy. The Avengers meet him, take the energy, and declare him an enemy of the team telling him never to return to Earth. Noh-Varr is left in Hala running for his life from the Kree.

text: Following the defeat of Norman Osborn and his

text: Dark Avengers

text: Noh-Varr

text: locates a secret A.I.M. base. The Avengers take out the base and arrest

text: Monica Rappaccini

text: and the rest of the A.I.M. scientists that escaped following Osborn's defeat. After the battle, Noh-Varr checks in with the

text: Supreme Intelligence

text: of the

text: Kree Empire

text: who informs him of the coming Phoenix force and orders him to intercept and contain it at all cost... even if it means eliminating his Avenger teammates. In space, after the Avengers fail to stop the Phoenix, Noh-Varr analyzes the reason for their failure and discovers that Thor's

text: hammer

text: can injure and absorb the Phoenix's essence. Thor (equipped with Beast's device to contain the Phoenix) is able to force it away from Earth. Before the team can celebrate, Noh-Varr declares that he will take the collected energy back to the Kree. While the Avengers wake up in their spaceship heading to a sun and try to escape death, Noh-Varr takes the Phoenix energy to the Supreme Intelligence; however, after the Intelligence declares that the energy will not be used to save Earth, Noh-Varr turns against it and escapes with the energy. The Avengers meet him, take the energy, and declare him an enemy of the team telling him never to return to Earth. Noh-Varr is left in Hala running for his life from the Kree.

text: Nothing categorically distinguishes the visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from invisible portions of the broader spectrum.  In this sense, color is not a property of electromagnetic radiation, but a feature of visual perception by an observer.  Furthermore, there is an arbitrary mapping between wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color.  Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher John Locke recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "inverted spectrum" thought experiment.  For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing 'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light.  Synesthesia (or ideasthesia) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes.  The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon.

text: Nothing categorically distinguishes the visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from invisible portions of the broader spectrum.  In this sense, color is not a property of electromagnetic radiation, but a feature of visual perception by an observer.  Furthermore, there is an arbitrary mapping between wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color.  Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher

text: John Locke

text: recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "inverted spectrum" thought experiment.  For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing 'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light.

text: Synesthesia

text: (or

text: ideasthesia

text: ) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes.  The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon.

text: Radiative forcing is a measure of how various factors alter the energy balance of the Earth's atmosphere. A positive radiative forcing will tend to increase the energy of the Earth-atmosphere system, leading to a warming of the system. Between the start of the Industrial Revolution in 1750, and the year 2005, the increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (chemical formula: CO) led to a positive radiative forcing, averaged over the Earth's surface area, of about 1.66 watts per square metre (abbreviated W m).

text: Radiative forcing

text: is a measure of how various factors alter the

text: energy balance

text: of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . A positive radiative forcing will tend to increase the energy of the Earth-atmosphere system, leading to a warming of the system. Between the start of the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: in 1750, and the year 2005, the increase in the atmospheric concentration of

text: carbon dioxide

text: chemical formula

text: : CO) led to a positive radiative forcing, averaged over the Earth's

text: surface area

text: , of about 1.66

text: watt

text: s per square metre (abbreviated W m).

text: Auroras are a product of the sun's activity; therefore the beautiful colorful lights seen at night are often caused by activities by the sun 150 kilometers away. The sun sends out a constant flow of charged particles known as solar wind, when these winds or eruptions are pointed or directed at the Earth, they can spark up sun-induced auroras. The greater the activity of the sun, the brighter the auroras we see.The colors of the aurora are determined by four elements which are; the density of the atmosphere, the composition of gases in the Earth's atmosphere, the altitude where aurora occurs and the level energy involved. The most common color seem is green, which is caused when the charged particles collide with oxygen at lower altitudes between 100-300kilometers. Occasionally, the ends or tips of the aurora have a pink or crimson fringe, this is caused by the presence of nitrogen molecules. In the upper atmosphere between 300-400kilometers, red instead of green is caused by the collision with atomic oxygen. It takes longer for the lights to be produced at higher altitudes because the atmosphere is less dense so it takes more energy and more time for the red lights to be produced. Blue and purple lights are also produced by the collision with hydrogen and helium but they are difficult for the eyes to see against the night sky.

text: Israel has embraced solar energy; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology and its solar companies work on projects around the world. Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita in the world. According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating. The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert. Israel had a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of recharging stations to facilitate the charging and exchange of car batteries. It was thought that this would have lowered Israel's oil dependency and lowered the fuel costs of hundreds of Israel's motorists that use cars powered only by electric batteries. The Israeli model was being studied by several countries and being implemented in Denmark and Australia. However, Israel's trailblazing electric car company Better Place shut down in 2013.

text: Israel has embraced

text: solar energy

text: ; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology and its solar companies work on projects around the world. Over 90% of

text: Israeli homes use solar energy

text: for hot water, the highest per capita in the world. According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating. The high annual incident

text: solar irradiance

text: at its geographic

text: latitude

text: creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the

text: Negev Desert

text: . Israel had a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of recharging stations to facilitate the charging and exchange of car batteries. It was thought that this would have lowered Israel's oil dependency and lowered the fuel costs of hundreds of Israel's motorists that use cars powered only by electric batteries. The Israeli model was being studied by several countries and being implemented in Denmark and Australia. However, Israel's trailblazing electric car company

text: Better Place

text: shut down in 2013.

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal|author=Leslie C. Bender|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|page=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: spectral wave transport equation

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal|author=Leslie C. Bender|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|page=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: If an orbit is about a planetary body with significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at each periapsis, the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric (more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower. With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and intersect the central body.

text: If an orbit is about a planetary body with significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of

text: drag

text: . Particularly at each

text: periapsis

text: , the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric (more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower. With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and intersect the central body.

text: The energy in a lightning strike is typically in the range of 1 to 10 billion joules.  This energy is released usually in a small number of separate strokes, each with duration of a few tens of microseconds (typically 30 to 50 microseconds), over a period of about one fifth of a second. The great majority of the energy is dissipated as heat, light and sound in the atmosphere.

text: The energy in a lightning strike is typically in the range of 1 to 10 billion

text: joule

text: s.  This energy is released usually in a small number of separate strokes, each with duration of a few tens of microseconds (typically 30 to 50 microseconds), over a period of about one fifth of a second. The great majority of the energy is dissipated as heat, light and sound in the atmosphere.

text: Gamma ray telescopes collect and measure individual, high energy gamma rays from astrophysical sources. These are absorbed by the atmosphere, requiring that observations are done by high-altitude balloons or space missions. Gamma rays can be generated by supernovae, neutron stars, pulsars and black holes. Gamma ray bursts, with extremely high energies, have also been detected but have yet to be identified.

text: Gamma ray telescopes collect and measure individual, high energy

text: gamma ray

text: s from astrophysical sources. These are absorbed by the atmosphere, requiring that observations are done by high-altitude

text: balloon

text: s or space missions. Gamma rays can be generated by

text: supernova

text: e,

text: neutron star

text: s,

text: pulsar

text: s and

text: black hole

text: s.

text: Gamma ray burst

text: s, with extremely high energies, have also been detected but have yet to be identified.

text: The existence of the Earth's galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars, was only proved in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies. The observed recession of those galaxies led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe. Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars, which have be used to explain such observed phenomena such as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and radio galaxies. Physical cosmology made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the Big Bang, which is heavily supported by evidence provided by cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law, and the cosmological abundances of elements. Space telescopes have enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally blocked or blurred by the atmosphere. Recently, in February 2016, it was revealed that the LIGO project had detected evidence of gravitational waves, in September 2015.

text: The existence of the Earth's galaxy, the

text: Milky Way

text: , as a separate group of stars, was only proved in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies. The observed recession of those galaxies led to the discovery of the expansion of the

text: Universe

text: . Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as

text: black hole

text: s and

text: neutron star

text: s, which have be used to explain such observed phenomena such as

text: quasar

text: s,

text: pulsar

text: s,

text: blazar

text: s, and

text: radio galaxies

text: Physical cosmology

text: made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the

text: Big Bang

text: , which is heavily supported by evidence provided by

text: cosmic microwave background radiation

text: Hubble's law

text: , and the

text: cosmological abundances of elements

text: Space telescope

text: s have enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally blocked or blurred by the atmosphere. Recently, in February 2016, it was revealed that the

text: LIGO

text: project had detected evidence of

text: gravitational waves

text: , in September 2015.

text: The κ–mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of pulsating variable stars. Here, the Greek letter kappa (κ) is used to indicate the radiative opacity at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere. In a normal star, an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere, allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly. The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance. However, in cases where the opacity increases with temperature, the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations. If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward, it becomes denser and more opaque, causing heat flow to be checked. In return, this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again. The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again.

text: The κ–mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of

text: pulsating variable

text: stars. Here, the

text: Greek letter

text: kappa

text: (κ) is used to indicate the radiative

text: opacity

text: at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere. In a normal star, an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere, allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly. The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance. However, in cases where the opacity increases with temperature, the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations. If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward, it becomes denser and more opaque, causing heat flow to be checked. In return, this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again. The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again.

text: The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance. Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.

text: The

text: habitable zone

text: around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet:

text: desert planet

text: s (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance. Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.

text: By assuming the energy amount due to solar radiation it is possible to predict the 2 m (6.6 ft) temperature, humidity, and wind during the day, the development of the boundary layer of the atmosphere, the occurrence and development of clouds and the conditions for soaring flight during the day.

text: By assuming the

text: energy

text: amount due to

text: solar radiation

text: it is possible to predict the 2

text: m

text: ft

text: ) temperature, humidity, and wind during the day, the development of the

text: boundary layer

text: of the atmosphere, the occurrence and development of clouds and the conditions for soaring flight during the day.

text: , is called the environmental lapse rate (ELR). The ELR is nothing more than the difference in temperature between the surface and the tropopause divided by the height. The ELR assumes that the air is perfectly still, i.e. that there is no mixing of the layers of air from vertical convection, nor winds that would create turbulence and hence mixing of the layers of air. The reason for this temperature difference is that the ground absorbs most of the sun's energy, which then heats the lower levels of the atmosphere with which it is in contact. Meanwhile, the radiation of heat at the top of the atmosphere results in the cooling of that part of the atmosphere.

text: The Wraith dart is a small, one-man attack craft capable of fitting through a Stargate, first seen in . They generate a loud, distinctive sound when flying in an atmosphere. Darts lack hyperdrives and rely on Stargates or larger vessels to travel around the galaxy. The dart's main role is to capture humans for feeding, dematerializing them using a culling beam mounted on its underside. Large numbers of darts are carried by Wraith hive ships and cruisers. In ship-to-ship combat, they are deployed as dogfighters and as point defense against missiles. If a dart's mothership is destroyed, they will perform kamikaze attacks on nearby enemy targets. Like other Wraith ships, darts are partially organic. The canopy of a Wraith dart is composed of energy and is opaque when active, functioning as a giant HUD. Darts are armed with a pair of forward-firing energy weapons, capable of destroying a puddle jumper with a direct hit. Sustained machine gun fire is sufficient to bring down a dart. John Sheppard learns how to fly a dart in the season 2 episode . He later pilots one in "The Hive", "Vengeance" and "Search and Rescue" as a way to escape Wraith ships.

text: The Wraith dart is a small, one-man attack craft capable of fitting through a

text: Stargate

text: , first seen in . They generate a loud, distinctive sound when flying in an atmosphere. Darts lack hyperdrives and rely on Stargates or larger vessels to travel around the galaxy. The dart's main role is to capture humans for feeding, dematerializing them using a

text: culling beam

text: mounted on its underside. Large numbers of darts are carried by Wraith hive ships and cruisers. In ship-to-ship combat, they are deployed as dogfighters and as point defense against missiles. If a dart's mothership is destroyed, they will perform kamikaze attacks on nearby enemy targets. Like other Wraith ships, darts are partially organic. The canopy of a Wraith dart is composed of energy and is opaque when active, functioning as a giant

text: HUD

text: . Darts are armed with a pair of forward-firing energy weapons, capable of destroying a

text: puddle jumper

text: with a direct hit. Sustained

text: machine gun

text: fire is sufficient to bring down a dart.

text: John Sheppard

text: learns how to fly a dart in the season 2 episode . He later pilots one in "The Hive", "Vengeance" and "Search and Rescue" as a way to escape Wraith ships.

text: The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section (π·R²), but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire surface area (4·π·R²). Hence the average incoming solar radiation, taking into account the angle at which the rays strike and that at any one moment half the planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant (approximately 340 W/m²). The amount reaching the Earth's surface (as insolation) is further reduced by atmospheric attenutation, which varies.  At any given moment, the amount of solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface depends on the state of the atmosphere, the location's latitude, and the time of day.

text: The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section (π·R²), but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire

text: surface area

text: (4·π·R²). Hence the average incoming solar radiation, taking into account the angle at which the rays strike and that at any one moment half the planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant (approximately 340 W/m²). The amount reaching the Earth's surface (as

text: insolation

text: ) is further reduced by atmospheric attenutation, which varies.  At any given moment, the amount of solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface depends on the state of the atmosphere, the location's

text: latitude

text: , and the time of day.

text: When the Superman character was revised by John Byrne shortly after Crisis on Infinite Earths, it was decided to place restrictions on his abilities. This was designed to make it easier for writers to come up with suitable challenges for the hero, and to eliminate or reduce those powers that had become too sensational or unbelievable for modern audiences. Emphasis was placed on yellow sun energy as a source for the character's powers. Superman's origin story was altered so that his powers developed gradually as his body absorbed yellow sunlight, and stories such as the Final Night series depicted the character gradually losing his powers when deprived of the sun's energy. When Superman's reserves of solar energy were depleted, as in Infinite Crisis or the Death of Superman story arcs, he required an extended period of time under a yellow sun, or some type of artificial solar enhancement in order to recharge.

text: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) designed the Scanning ARM Cloud Radar (SACR) to monitor clouds overhead at various testing sites of the U.S. Department of Energy's atmospheric radiation measurement program. The radars operate continuously at these sites in Oklahoma, Alaska and the tropical western Pacific Ocean, and are designed to function for at least ten years with minimal manned attention. The SACR s operate at a frequency of 35 and 94 GHz, being designated as KaSACR and WSACR respectively.

text: The

text: NOAA

text: ) designed the Scanning ARM Cloud Radar (SACR) to monitor clouds overhead at various testing sites of the

text: U.S. Department of Energy's

text: atmospheric radiation measurement program. The radars operate continuously at these sites in

text: Oklahoma

text: Alaska

text: and the tropical western

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , and are designed to function for at least ten years with minimal manned attention. The SACR s operate at a frequency of 35 and 94 GHz, being designated as KaSACR and WSACR respectively.

text: A geological event such as massive flood basalt, volcanism, or the eruption of a supervolcano could lead to a so-called volcanic winter, similar to a nuclear winter. One such event, the Toba eruption, occurred in Indonesia about 71,500 years ago. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, the event may have reduced human populations to only a few tens of thousands of individuals. Yellowstone Caldera is another such supervolcano, having undergone 142 or more caldera-forming eruptions in the past 17 million years.A massive volcano eruption would eject extraordinary volumes of volcanic dust, toxic and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere with serious effects on global climate (towards extreme global cooling;  volcanic winter if short term, and ice age if long term) or global warming (if greenhouse gases were to prevail).

text: A geological event such as massive

text: flood basalt

text: , volcanism, or the eruption of a supervolcano could lead to a so-called volcanic winter, similar to a

text: nuclear winter

text: . One such event, the

text: Toba eruption

text: , occurred in Indonesia about 71,500 years ago. According to the

text: Toba catastrophe theory

text: , the event may have reduced human populations to only a few tens of thousands of individuals.

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: is another such supervolcano, having undergone 142 or more

text: caldera

text: -forming eruptions in the past 17 million years.A massive volcano eruption would eject extraordinary volumes of volcanic dust, toxic and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere with serious effects on global climate (towards extreme global cooling;

text: volcanic winter

text: if short term, and ice age if long term) or

text: global warming

text: (if greenhouse gases were to prevail).

text: Earth Charter -Earth observation satellite -Earthscan -Eco hotels -Eco-cities -Eco-efficiency -Eco-industrial park -Eco-sufficiency -Ecoforestry -Ecolabel -Ecological deficit -Ecological economics -Ecological footprint -Ecological humanities -Ecological literacy -Ecological sanitation -Ecological threshold -Ecologically sustainable development -Ecosharing -Ecosystem -Ecotax -Ecotechnology -Ecotourism -Ecovillages -Electric vehicle -Emissions trading -Energy conservation -Energy content of biofuel -Energy crop -Energy density -Energy descent -Energy development -Energy economics -Efficient energy use -Energy Globe Award -Energy Policy Act of 2005 -Energy saving modules -Energy security -Environmental accounting -Environmental and social studies -Environmental archaeology -Environmental audits -Environmental benefits of vegetarianism -Environmental biotechnology -Environmental Change Network -Environmental chemistry -Environmental concerns with electricity generation -Environmental consulting -Environmental control system -Environmental defense -Environmental design -Environmental design and planning -Environmental disaster -Environmental determinism -Environmental economics -Environmental effects of fishing -Environmental effects on physiology -Environmental engineering -Environmental enterprise -Environmental ethics -Environmental factor -Environmental finance -Environmental geography -Environmental geology -Environmental gradient -Environmental hazard -Environmental health -Environmental impact assessment -Environmental impact report -Environmental Information Regulations 2004 -Environmental journalism -Environmental justice -Environmental law -Environmental Law Service -Environmental Life Force -Environmental management -Environmental management scheme -Environmental Measurements Laboratory -Environmental medicine -Environmental microbiology -Environmental Modeling Center -Environmental movement -Environmental movement in New Zealand -Environmental movement in the United States -Environmental planning -Environmental preservation -Environmental pricing reform -Environmental protection in Japan -Environmental psychology -Environmental Quality Improvement Act -Environmental racism -Environmental remediation -Environmental Research Letters -Environmental restoration -Environmental Risk Management Authority -Environmental science -Environmental security -Environmental skepticism -Environmental sociology -Environmental standard -Environmental studies -Environmental suit -Environmental Sustainability Index -Environmental technology -Environmental Technology Laboratory -Environmental Technology Verification Program -Environmental toxins and fetal development -Environmental transport association -Environmental vandalism -Environmental vegetarianism -Environmental, Safety and Health Communication -Environmentalism -EPA Sustainability -Epidemics -Ethanol fuel -Ethical consumerism -Eugenics -European Biofuels Technology Platform -

text: Earth Charter

text: Earth observation satellite

text: Earthscan

text: Eco hotels

text: Eco-cities

text: Eco-efficiency

text: Eco-industrial park

text: Eco-sufficiency

text: Ecoforestry

text: Ecolabel

text: Ecological deficit

text: Ecological economics

text: Ecological footprint

text: Ecological humanities

text: Ecological literacy

text: Ecological sanitation

text: Ecological threshold

text: Ecologically sustainable development

text: Ecosharing

text: Ecosystem

text: Ecotax

text: Ecotechnology

text: Ecotourism

text: Ecovillages

text: Electric vehicle

text: Emissions trading

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy content of biofuel

text: Energy crop

text: Energy density

text: Energy descent

text: Energy development

text: Energy economics

text: Efficient energy use

text: Energy Globe Award

text: Energy Policy Act of 2005

text: Energy saving modules

text: Energy security

text: Environmental accounting

text: Environmental and social studies

text: Environmental archaeology

text: Environmental audits

text: Environmental benefits of vegetarianism

text: Environmental biotechnology

text: Environmental Change Network

text: Environmental chemistry

entity_name: Environmental impact of electricity generation

text: Environmental concerns with electricity generation

text: Environmental consulting

text: Environmental control system

text: Environmental defense

text: Environmental design

text: Environmental design and planning

text: Environmental disaster

text: Environmental determinism

text: Environmental economics

text: Environmental effects of fishing

text: Environmental effects on physiology

text: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental enterprise

text: Environmental ethics

text: Environmental factor

text: Environmental finance

text: Environmental geography

text: Environmental geology

text: Environmental gradient

text: Environmental hazard

text: Environmental health

text: Environmental impact assessment

text: Environmental impact report

entity_name: Environmental Information Regulations 2004

text: Environmental Information Regulations 2004

text: Environmental journalism

text: Environmental justice

text: Environmental law

text: Environmental Law Service

text: Environmental Life Force

text: Environmental management

text: Environmental management scheme

text: Environmental Measurements Laboratory

text: Environmental medicine

text: Environmental microbiology

text: Environmental Modeling Center

text: Environmental movement

text: Environmental movement in New Zealand

entity_name: Environmental movement in the United States

text: Environmental movement in the United States

text: Environmental planning

text: Environmental preservation

text: Environmental pricing reform

text: Environmental protection in Japan

text: Environmental psychology

text: Environmental Quality Improvement Act

text: Environmental racism

text: Environmental remediation

text: Environmental Research Letters

text: Environmental restoration

text: Environmental Risk Management Authority

text: Environmental science

text: Environmental security

text: Environmental skepticism

text: Environmental sociology

text: Environmental standard

text: Environmental studies

text: Environmental suit

text: Environmental Sustainability Index

text: Environmental technology

text: Environmental Technology Laboratory

entity_name: Environmental Technology Verification Program

text: Environmental Technology Verification Program

entity_name: Environmental toxicants and fetal development

text: Environmental toxins and fetal development

text: Environmental transport association

text: Environmental vandalism

text: Environmental vegetarianism

text: Environmental, Safety and Health Communication

text: Environmentalism

text: EPA Sustainability

text: Epidemics

text: Ethanol fuel

text: Ethical consumerism

text: Eugenics

text: European Biofuels Technology Platform

text: Wind turbines draw energy from atmospheric currents and are designed using aerodynamics along with knowledge taken from mechanical and electrical engineering.

text: Wind turbine

text: s draw energy from atmospheric currents and are designed using

text: aerodynamics

text: along with knowledge taken from mechanical and electrical engineering.

text: There is broad absorption from water vapor from several hundred MHz, increasing in frequency to 40 GHz. Beginning at about 40 GHz, even dry atmosphere becomes less transparent to microwaves, at higher frequencies due to absorption from oxygen. A spectral band structure at even higher frequencies causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effect opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.

text: There is broad

text: absorption

text: from water vapor from several hundred MHz, increasing in frequency to 40 GHz. Beginning at about 40 GHz, even dry atmosphere becomes less transparent to microwaves, at higher frequencies due to absorption from oxygen. A spectral band structure at even higher frequencies causes absorption peaks at specific frequencies (see graph at right). Above 100 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is in effect

text: opaque

text: , until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called

text: infrared

text: and

text: optical window

text: frequency ranges.

text: The waveguide D band is the range of radio frequencies from 110 GHz to 170 GHz in the electromagnetic spectrum, corresponding to the recommended frequency band of operation of the WR6 and WR7 waveguides. These frequencies are equivalent to wave lengths between 2.7 mm and 1.8 mm. The D band is in the EHF range of the radio spectrum.

text: The

text: waveguide

text: D band is the range of

text: radio frequencies

text: from 110 GHz to 170 GHz in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , corresponding to the recommended frequency band of operation of the

text: WR6 and WR7

text: wave length

text: s between 2.7 mm and 1.8 mm. The D band is in the

text: EHF

text: range of the

text: radio spectrum

text: Electromagnetic transitions in atoms, molecules and condensed matter mainly take place at energies corresponding to the UV and visible part of the spectrum. Core electrons in atoms, and a lot of other phenomena, are observed with different brands of XAS in the X-ray energy range. Electromagnetic transitions in atomic nuclei, as observed in Mössbauer spectroscopy, take place in the gamma ray part of the spectrum. The main factors that cause broadening of the spectral line into an absorption band of a molecular solid are the distributions of vibrational and rotational energies of the molecules in the sample (and also those of their excited states). In solid crystals the shape of absorption bands are determined by the density of states of initial and final states of electronic states or lattice vibrations, called phonons, in the crystal structure. In gas phase spectroscopy, the fine structure afforded by these factors can be discerned, but in solution-state spectroscopy, the differences in molecular micro environments further broaden the structure to give smooth bands. Electronic transition bands of molecules may be from tens to several hundred nanometers in breadth.

text: Electromagnetic transitions

text: in atoms, molecules and condensed matter mainly take place at energies corresponding to the

text: UV

text: and

text: visible

text: part of the spectrum.

text: Core electron

text: s in atoms, and a lot of other phenomena, are observed with different brands of

text: XAS

text: in the

text: X-ray

text: energy range. Electromagnetic transitions in

text: atomic nuclei

text: , as observed in

text: Mössbauer spectroscopy

text: , take place in the

text: gamma ray

text: part of the spectrum. The main factors that cause

text: broadening

text: of the spectral line into an absorption band of a molecular solid are the distributions of vibrational and rotational energies of the molecules in the sample (and also those of their excited states). In solid crystals the shape of absorption bands are determined by the

text: density of states

text: of initial and final states of electronic states or lattice vibrations, called

text: phonon

text: s, in the

text: crystal structure

text: . In gas phase spectroscopy, the

text: fine structure

text: afforded by these factors can be discerned, but in solution-state spectroscopy, the differences in molecular micro environments further broaden the structure to give smooth bands. Electronic transition bands of molecules may be from tens to several hundred nanometers in breadth.

text: In the quantum theory of electromagnetism, EMR consists of photons, the elementary particles responsible for all electromagnetic interactions. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation. The energy of an individual photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency. This relationship is given by Planck's equation E = hν, where E is the energy per photon, ν is the frequency of the photon, and h is Planck's constant. A single gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light.

text: In the

text: quantum theory of electromagnetism

text: , EMR consists of

text: photon

text: s, the

text: elementary particle

text: s responsible for all electromagnetic interactions. Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR, such as the

text: transition of electrons

text: to lower

text: energy level

text: s in an atom and

text: black-body radiation

text: . The energy of an individual photon is

text: quantized

text: and is greater for photons of higher frequency. This relationship is given by

text: Planck's equation

text: E = hν, where E is the energy per photon, ν is the frequency of the photon, and h is

text: Planck's constant

text: . A single gamma ray photon, for example, might carry ~100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light.

text: Electromagnetic field densitometers measure the exposure to electromagnetic radiation in certain ranges of theelectromagnetic spectrum. This article concentrates on densitometers used in the telecommunication industry, which measure exposure to radio spectrum radiation. Other densitometers, like extremely low frequency densitometers which measure exposure to radiation from electric power lines, also exist. The major difference between a "Densitometer" and a "Dosimeter" is that a Dosimeter can measure the absorbed dose, which does not exist for RF Monitors. Monitors are also separated by "RF Monitors" that simply measure fields and "RF Personal Monitors" that are designed to function while mounted on the human body.

text: Electromagnetic field densitometers measure the exposure to

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: in certain ranges of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . This article concentrates on densitometers used in the

text: telecommunication

text: industry, which measure exposure to

text: radio spectrum

text: radiation. Other densitometers, like

text: extremely low frequency

text: densitometers which measure exposure to radiation from

text: electric power

text: lines, also exist. The major difference between a "Densitometer" and a "Dosimeter" is that a Dosimeter can measure the absorbed dose, which does not exist for RF Monitors. Monitors are also separated by "RF Monitors" that simply measure fields and "RF Personal Monitors" that are designed to function while mounted on the human body.

text: In spite of the enormous transfers of energy into and from the Earth, it maintains a constant temperature because, as a whole, there is no net gain or loss: Earth receives the same amount of energy via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation) as it emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space.

text: Energetic protons that are guided into the polar regions collide with atmospheric constituents and release their energy through the process of ionization. The majority of the energy is extinguished in the extreme lower region of the ionosphere (around 50–80 km in altitude). This area is particularly important to ionospheric radio communications because this is the area where most of the absorption of radio signal energy occurs. The enhanced ionization produced by incoming energetic protons increases the absorption levels in the lower ionosphere and can have the effect of completely blocking all ionospheric radio communications through the polar regions. Such events are known as Polar Cap Absorption events (or PCAs). These events commence and last as long as the energy of incoming protons at approximately greater than 10 MeV (million electron volts) exceeds roughly 10 pfu (particle flux units or ) at geosynchronous satellite altitudes.

text: Energetic protons that are guided into the polar regions collide with atmospheric constituents and release their energy through the process of ionization. The majority of the energy is extinguished in the extreme lower region of the ionosphere (around 50–80 km in altitude). This area is particularly important to

text: ionospheric radio communications

text: because this is the area where most of the absorption of radio signal energy occurs. The enhanced ionization produced by incoming energetic protons increases the absorption levels in the lower ionosphere and can have the effect of completely blocking all ionospheric radio communications through the polar regions. Such events are known as Polar Cap Absorption events (or PCAs). These events commence and last as long as the energy of incoming protons at approximately greater than 10

text: MeV

text: (million electron volts) exceeds roughly 10

text: pfu

text: (particle flux units or ) at

text: geosynchronous

text: satellite altitudes.

text: At Stanford, Piscotty majored in atmospheric and energy engineering.  He completed his bachelor's degree during the 2014–15 off-season.

text: At Stanford, Piscotty majored in

text: atmospheric

text: and

text: energy

text: engineering

text: .  He completed his

text: bachelor's degree

text: during the 2014–15 off-season.

text: ) is the energy length, or head, relative to the channel bottom.  Specific energy is expressed in terms of kinetic energy, and potential energy, and internal energy.  The Bernoulli equation, which originates from a control volume analysis, is used to describe specific energy relationships in fluid dynamics.  The form of Bernoulli’s equation discussed here assumes the flow is incompressible and steady.  The three energy components in Bernoulli's equation are elevation, pressure and velocity.  However, since with open channel flow, the water surface is open to the atmosphere, the pressure term between two points has the same value and is therefore ignored. Thus, if the specific energy and the velocity of the flow in the channel are known, the depth of flow can be determined. This relationship can be used to calculate changes in depth upstream or downstream of changes in the channel such as steps, constrictions, or control structures. It is also the fundamental relationship used in the Standard Step Method to calculate how the depth of a flow changes over a reach from the energy gained or lost due to the slope of the channel.

text: ) is the energy length, or head, relative to the channel bottom.  Specific energy is expressed in terms of

text: kinetic energy

text: , and

text: potential energy

text: , and

text: internal energy

text: .  The

text: Bernoulli equation

text: , which originates from a control volume analysis, is used to describe specific energy relationships in

text: fluid dynamics

text: .  The form of Bernoulli’s equation discussed here assumes the flow is incompressible and steady.  The three energy components in Bernoulli's equation are elevation,

text: pressure

text: and

text: velocity

text: .  However, since with open channel flow, the water surface is open to the

text: atmosphere

text: , the pressure term between two points has the same value and is therefore ignored. Thus, if the specific energy and the velocity of the flow in the channel are known, the depth of flow can be determined. This relationship can be used to calculate changes in depth upstream or downstream of changes in the channel such as steps, constrictions, or control structures. It is also the fundamental relationship used in the

text: Standard Step Method

text: to calculate how the depth of a flow changes over a reach from the energy gained or lost due to the slope of the channel.

text: Absorption spectroscopy – Anders Jonas Ångström – Astronomical spectroscopy – Astronomy – Black body – Blazar – Bremsstrahlung – Caesium – Cherenkov radiation – Color – Diffraction – Digital signal processing – Direct-sequence spread spectrum – Dispersion (optics) – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Electromagnetic radiation – Electromagnetic spectroscopy – Electromagnetic spectrum – Electromagnetism – Emission line – Emission spectrum – FM broadcasting – Frequency domain – Frequency hopping – Frequency spectrum – Gamma-ray burst – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – History of radio – Hue – Isotope – Light – Optical brightener – Particle in a spherically symmetric potential – Piezoelectricity – Power spectrum – RADAR – Radio frequency – Radio – Radiocommunications Agency – Redshift – SETI – Spectrogram – Spectrometer – Spectroscopy – Spectrum analyzer – Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect – Supernova – Telecommunication – Timbre – Very high frequency – Visible light – Visible spectrum – White noise

text: Absorption spectroscopy

text: Anders Jonas Ångström

text: Astronomical spectroscopy

text: Astronomy

text: Black body

text: Blazar

text: Bremsstrahlung

text: Caesium

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: Color

text: Diffraction

text: Digital signal processing

text: Direct-sequence spread spectrum

text: Dispersion (optics)

text: Eigenstate

text: Eigenvalue

text: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Electromagnetic spectroscopy

text: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: Electromagnetism

text: Emission line

text: Emission spectrum

text: FM broadcasting

text: Frequency domain

text: Frequency hopping

text: Frequency spectrum

text: Gamma-ray burst

text: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: History of radio

text: Hue

text: Isotope

text: Light

text: Optical brightener

entity_name: Particle in a spherically symmetric potential

text: Particle in a spherically symmetric potential

text: Piezoelectricity

text: Power spectrum

text: RADAR

text: Radio frequency

text: Radio

text: Radiocommunications Agency

text: Redshift

text: SETI

text: Spectrogram

text: Spectrometer

text: Spectroscopy

text: Spectrum analyzer

text: Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect

text: Supernova

text: Telecommunication

text: Timbre

text: Very high frequency

text: Visible light

text: Visible spectrum

text: White noise

text: A stellar classification of G0 V indicates this is a main sequence star that is generating energy by fusing hydrogen into helium at its core. It has about 110% of the Sun's mass and shines with 3.72 times the luminosity of the Sun. The stellar atmosphere has an effective temperature of 5,846 K, giving it the yellow hue of a G-type star. It appears to be older than the Sun, with an estimated age of 6.45 billion years.

text: A

text: stellar classification

text: of G0 V indicates this is a

text: main sequence star

text: that is generating energy by

text: fusing

text: hydrogen into helium at its core. It has about 110% of the

text: Sun's mass

text: and shines with 3.72 times the luminosity of the Sun. The

text: stellar atmosphere

text: has an

text: effective temperature

text: of 5,846 K, giving it the yellow hue of a

text: G-type star

text: . It appears to be older than the Sun, with an estimated age of 6.45 billion years.

text: Muons have a mass of , which is about 207 times that of the electron. Due to their greater mass, muons are not as sharply accelerated when they encounter electromagnetic fields, and do not emit as much bremsstrahlung (deceleration radiation). This allows muons of a given energy to penetrate far more deeply into matter than electrons since the deceleration of electrons and muons is primarily due to energy loss by the bremsstrahlung mechanism. As an example, so-called "secondary muons", generated by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere, can penetrate to the Earth's surface, and even into deep mines.

text: Muons have a

text: mass

text: of , which is about 207 times that of the electron. Due to their greater mass, muons are not as sharply accelerated when they encounter electromagnetic fields, and do not emit as much

text: bremsstrahlung

text: (deceleration radiation). This allows muons of a given energy to penetrate far more deeply into matter than electrons since the deceleration of electrons and muons is primarily due to energy loss by the bremsstrahlung mechanism. As an example, so-called "secondary muons", generated by

text: cosmic rays

text: hitting the atmosphere, can penetrate to the Earth's surface, and even into deep mines.

text: In this system the ring of particle accelerators would not be in orbit, instead depending on the outward force of the magnetic field itself for support against the star's gravity. To inject energy into the star's atmosphere the ring current would first be temporarily shut down, allowing the particle accelerator stations to begin falling freely toward the star's surface. Once the stations had developed sufficient inward velocity the ring current would be reactivated and the resulting magnetic field would be used to reverse the stations' fall. This would "squeeze" the star, propelling stellar atmosphere through the polar magnetic nozzles. The ring current would be shut down again before the ring stations achieved enough outward velocity to throw them too far away from the star, and the star's gravity would be allowed to pull them back inward to repeat the cycle.

text: X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or high-flying balloons since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, high energy X-rays and gamma-rays do not form an image in the same way as telescopes at visible wavelengths. An example of this type of telescope is the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope.

text: X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting

text: satellite

text: s or high-flying balloons since the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, high energy X-rays and gamma-rays do not form an image in the same way as telescopes at visible wavelengths. An example of this type of telescope is the

text: Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope

text: is independent of z (and similarly for the other pairs), hence:

text: One final mission was that XIX TAC pilots performed several special air operations in the form of leaflet-dropping sorties.  During August and September, XIX TAC was involved in seven different missions––close air support, battlefield and deep interdiction, dive bombing, counterair, aerial reconnaissance, and special operations.

text: He has published papers in journals like International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Implant Dentistry, Journal of Maxillofacial and Oral Surgery, Scandinavian Journal of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Hand Surgery and Indian Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. He recently organised the Indian dental conference in chennai and was the organising chairman of the conference.

text: In June 2010, Manomet published the Biomass Sustainability and Carbon Policy Study. The study, which was commissioned by the Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources, investigated questions about generating electricity from biomass fuel, including the net effect of biomass energy on atmospheric carbon balance. The study concluded that greenhouse gas emissions from burning wood are initially higher than from fossil fuels, but the carbon sequestered by regrowing forests can yield lower greenhouse gas levels over time.

text: In June 2010, Manomet published the Biomass Sustainability and Carbon Policy Study. The study, which was commissioned by the Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources, investigated questions about generating electricity from biomass fuel, including the net effect of biomass energy on atmospheric carbon balance. The study concluded that

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions from

text: burning wood

text: are initially higher than from fossil fuels, but the carbon sequestered by regrowing forests can yield lower greenhouse gas levels over time.

text: 1995 - 99	:	Got elected as Shiv Sena Legislative Assembly member from Chiplun Legislative Assembly Voters Association.

text: Taloja is a railway station on the Vasai Road - Diva - Panvel route of the Central Line, of the Mumbai Suburban Railway network.

text: Taloja is a railway station on the Vasai Road - Diva - Panvel route of the Central Line, of the

text: Mumbai Suburban Railway

text: network.

text: It is a combination of the literary devices of irony and precisionism, an artistic movement prominent in the early to mid-20th century.

text: It is a combination of the literary devices of

text: irony

text: and

text: precisionism

text: , an artistic movement prominent in the early to mid-20th century.

text: He was beatified by Pope Pius XI in 1929.

text: He was

text: beatified

text: by

text: Pope Pius XI

text: in 1929.

text: •VEMULAPALLE

text: •VEMULAPALLE

text: According to quantum mechanics, atoms and molecules can only hold certain defined quantities of energy, or exist in specific states. When such quanta of  electromagnetic radiation are emitted or absorbed by an atom or molecule, the energy of the radiation changes the state of the atom or molecule from an initial state to a final state. An absorption band is a range of wavelengths, frequencies or energies in the electromagnetic spectrum which are characteristic of a particular transition from initial to final state in a substance.

text: According to

text: quantum mechanics

text: atom

text: s and

text: molecule

text: s can only hold certain defined quantities of

text: energy

text: , or exist in specific

text: states

text: . When such

text: quanta

text: of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: are emitted or absorbed by an atom or molecule, the energy of the radiation changes the state of the atom or molecule from an

text: initial state

text: to a

text: final state

text: . An absorption band is a range of

text: wavelength

text: s,

text: frequencies

text: or energies in the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: which are characteristic of a particular transition from initial to final state in a substance.

text: There is a saying in Telugu. Brahmam Gari lanti Guruvu Ledu. Siddayya lanti Shishundu ledu.The meaning of this saying is that,No Guru exists like Veerabrahmendra,and no student like Siddayya.

text: There are 19 ethnic groups officially recognized as national minorities in Serbia. Vojvodina is an autonomous province of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country.  It has a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity; there are more than 26 ethnic groups in the province, which has six official languages.

text: There are 19 ethnic groups officially recognized as national minorities in Serbia.

text: Vojvodina

text: is an

text: autonomous province

text: of

text: Serbia

text: , located in the northern part of the country.  It has a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity; there are more than 26

text: ethnic groups

text: in the province, which has six official languages.

text: It is now overwhelmingly accepted that the release of GHG, predominantly from the anthropogenic burning of fossil fuels, is accelerating the growth of these gases in the atmosphere resulting in climate change. Over the last few decades emissions have grown at an increasing rate from 1.0% yr throughout the 1990s to 3.4% yr between 2000 and 2008. These increases have been driven not only by a growing global population and per-capita GDP, but also by global increases in the energy intensity of GDP (energy per unit GDP) and the carbon intensity of energy (emissions per unit energy). These drivers are most apparent in developing markets (Kyoto non-Annex B countries), but what is less apparent is that a substantial fraction of the growth in these countries is to satisfy the demand of consumers in developed countries (Kyoto Annex B countries). This is exaggerated by a process known as Carbon Leakage whereby Annex B countries decrease domestic production in place of increased importation of products from non-Annex B countries where emission policies are less strict. Although this may seem the rational choice for consumers when considering local pollutants, consumers are inescapably affected by global pollutants such as GHG, irrespective of where production occurs.  Although emissions have slowed since 2007 as a result of the global financial crisis, the longer term trend of increased emissions is likely to resume.

text: It is now overwhelmingly accepted that the release of GHG, predominantly from the

text: anthropogenic

text: burning of

text: fossil fuels

text: , is accelerating the growth of these gases in the atmosphere resulting in

text: climate change

text: . Over the last few decades emissions have grown at an increasing rate from 1.0% yr throughout the 1990s to 3.4% yr between 2000 and 2008. These increases have been driven not only by a growing

text: global population

text: and

text: per-capita GDP

text: , but also by global increases in the

text: energy intensity

text: of GDP (energy per unit GDP) and the

text: carbon intensity

text: of energy (emissions per unit energy). These drivers are most apparent in

text: developing markets

text: (Kyoto non-Annex B countries), but what is less apparent is that a substantial fraction of the growth in these countries is to satisfy the demand of consumers in

text: developed countries

text: (Kyoto Annex B countries). This is exaggerated by a process known as

text: Carbon Leakage

text: whereby Annex B countries decrease domestic production in place of increased importation of products from non-Annex B countries where emission policies are less strict. Although this may seem the rational choice for consumers when considering local pollutants, consumers are inescapably affected by global pollutants such as GHG, irrespective of where production occurs.  Although emissions have slowed since 2007 as a result of the global financial crisis, the longer term trend of increased emissions is likely to resume.

text: Following the success of Carey's self-titled debut album, critics wondered whether or not she would tour in order to promote the album in the major worldwide music markets. However, Carey expressed in several interviews that due to the strenuous nature and the sheer difficulty of her songs, she feared a tour with back-to-back shows would not be possible, aside from the long travel times and constant travel. With the extra time, Carey began writing and producing material for Emotions around the same time that her debut's third single, "Someday", was released in December 1990. During this time period in music, it was traditional for an artist to release a studio album every two years in their prime, allowing the singles to fully promote the album through airwaves, as well as television appearances. Additionally, after a tour that would usually follow, as the next album would be released and would gain new fans, they would search the artist's catalog, and purchase the previous album in hopes of learning of their older work. Sony, however, chose to market Carey in a different fashion, leaning towards the traditional form in the 1960s, where acts would release an LP every year. They felt that Carey's reputation of being a "studio worm" and a songwriter from a young age would be captivating enough to deliver a new album more often than most.

text: Following the success of Carey's

text: self-titled

text: debut album, critics wondered whether or not she would tour in order to promote the album in the major worldwide music markets. However, Carey expressed in several interviews that due to the strenuous nature and the sheer difficulty of her songs, she feared a tour with back-to-back shows would not be possible, aside from the long travel times and constant travel. With the extra time, Carey began writing and producing material for Emotions around the same time that her debut's third single, "

text: Someday

text: ", was released in December 1990. During this time period in music, it was traditional for an artist to release a

text: studio album

text: every two years in their prime, allowing the singles to fully promote the album through airwaves, as well as television appearances. Additionally, after a tour that would usually follow, as the next album would be released and would gain new fans, they would search the artist's catalog, and purchase the previous album in hopes of learning of their older work.

text: Sony

text: , however, chose to market Carey in a different fashion, leaning towards the traditional form in the 1960s, where acts would release an LP every year. They felt that Carey's reputation of being a "studio worm" and a songwriter from a young age would be captivating enough to deliver a new album more often than most.

text: attempting to reconcile Islamic faith with modern Western values such as nationalism, democracy, civil rights, rationality, equality, and progress. It featured a "critical reexamination of the classical conceptions and methods of jurisprudence" and a new approach to Islamic theology and Quranic exegesis (Tafsir).

text: attempting to reconcile Islamic faith with modern Western values such as

text: nationalism

text: democracy

text: civil rights

text: rationality

text: equality

text: , and

text: progress

text: . It featured a "critical reexamination of the classical conceptions and methods of jurisprudence" and a new approach to Islamic theology and Quranic exegesis (

text: Tafsir

text: After nearly a decade of research, Supervasi was founded in June 2012 by Glenn Fernandes, a visionary technologist who worked in Siemens India for 20 years before he quit his job to dedicate his life to social work. The organization was registered as a non-profit private company, "Creative Responsible Integrated Systems Foundation" (then known as "CriSys Foundation").

text: After nearly a decade of research, Supervasi was founded in June 2012 by Glenn Fernandes, a visionary technologist who worked in

text: Siemens India

text: for 20 years before he quit his job to dedicate his life to social work. The organization was registered as a

text: non-profit

text: private company

text: , "Creative Responsible Integrated Systems Foundation" (then known as "CriSys Foundation").

text: This effect gets its name from NASA solar physicist and spectroscopist Werner Neupert, who first documented a related correlation (the integral form) between microwave (gyrosynchrotron) and soft X-ray emissions in 1968. The standard interpretation is that the accumulated energy injection associated with the acceleration of non-thermal electrons (which produce the hard X-rays via non-thermal bremsstrahlung) release energy in the lower solar atmosphere (the chromosphere); this energy then leads to thermal (soft X-ray) emission as the chromospheric plasma heats and expands into the corona. The effect is very common, but does not represent an exact relationship and is not observed in all solar flares.

text: This effect gets its name from NASA solar physicist and spectroscopist Werner Neupert, who first documented a related correlation (the integral form) between microwave (

text: gyrosynchrotron

text: ) and soft X-ray emissions in 1968. The standard interpretation is that the accumulated energy injection associated with the acceleration of non-thermal electrons (which produce the hard X-rays via non-thermal

text: bremsstrahlung

text: ) release energy in the lower solar atmosphere (the

text: chromosphere

text: ); this energy then leads to

text: thermal

text: (soft X-ray) emission as the chromospheric plasma heats and expands into the corona. The effect is very common, but does not represent an exact relationship and is not observed in all solar flares.

text: To ensure the skills are passed on to new generation, Henån is home to one of the most reputable boat building schools in Scandinavia. Orust Båtbyggarskola is a college program with a focus on boat building. To the right you can see some of the students rowing one of the main school projects.

text: On 27 March 2006, the five Grand Prix Manufacturers Association-backed teams submitted their applications for the 2008 season. On 14 May 2006, the five GPMA-backed teams signed a memorandum of understanding with the commercial rightsholders (CVC/Ecclestone) which formed the basis of the next Concorde Agreement. As such, a full Concorde Agreement was not in place for the  season, with the Memorandum and other individual teams acting as a stop-gap solution.

text: On 27 March 2006, the five

text: Grand Prix Manufacturers Association

text: -backed teams submitted their applications for the 2008 season. On 14 May 2006, the five GPMA-backed teams signed a

text: memorandum of understanding

text: with the commercial rightsholders (CVC/Ecclestone) which formed the basis of the next Concorde Agreement. As such, a full Concorde Agreement was not in place for the  season, with the Memorandum and other individual teams acting as a stop-gap solution.

text: In physics, for example, the space-time continuum model describes space and time as part of the same continuum rather than as separate entities. A spectrum in physics, such as the electromagnetic spectrum, is often termed as either continuous (with energy at all wavelengths) or discrete (energy at only certain wavelengths).

text: In physics, for example, the

text: space-time continuum model

text: describes space and time as part of the same continuum rather than as separate entities. A

text: spectrum

text: in physics, such as the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , is often termed as either continuous (with energy at all wavelengths) or discrete (energy at only certain wavelengths).

text: Laboratory experiments follow complicated trajectories as the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun. Since the fixed SME background fields are coupled with the particle fields, periodic variations associated with these motions would be one of the signatures of Lorentz violation.

text: Laboratory experiments follow complicated trajectories as the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the Sun. Since the fixed

text: SME

text: background fields are coupled with the particle fields, periodic variations associated with these motions would be one of the signatures of Lorentz violation.

text: The earth’ surface and the atmosphere are complex buildings several compartments have to be considered for a comprehensive ecological evaluation. The SPI includes natural renewable rates, absorption rates and natural exchange rates of substances within and between the compartments air, soil and water. Practically this is defined with maximal rates of material and energy flows which can be absorbed by natural sinks of biosphere.

text: Energy expenditure is correlated to a number of factors, listed in alphabetical order.

text: The earth’s atmosphere currently contains about 459 ppm CO2 equivalent greenhouse gases. At that elevated level we are now into the danger zone. It is well understood that as the concentrations of CO2 approach 550 ppm there is near certainty that the earth will warm 2 degrees, and will probably warm 3 degrees, an amount of warming that would be fully catastrophic. Over the next 30 years as the tar sands are exploited under current plans, this one source alone will add about 65 ppm of carbon dioxide to earth’s atmosphere. Even if nobody else on earth created carbon dioxide over the next 30 years, exploitation of the tar sands will push the level of CO2 in our atmosphere to 525 ppm. This one source will single-handedly cancel out all worldwide efforts to control climate change. All the good effects of conservation, conversion to solar, wind, tidal, geothermal and other expensive unconventional energy sources will be for nothing, because this one industrial project will continue pushing up the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and equivalent greenhouse gases. All the planning and sacrifice by the rest of the world will be cancelled out by this one industry.

text: Part of the solar energy (55–60%) is lost on its way through the atmosphere by the effects of reflection and absorption. Space-based solar power systems convert sunlight to microwaves outside the atmosphere, avoiding these losses, and the downtime (and cosine losses, for fixed flat-plate collectors) due to the Earth's rotation.

text: Part of the

text: solar energy

text: (55–60%) is lost on its way through the atmosphere by the effects of

text: reflection

text: and absorption. Space-based solar power systems convert

text: sunlight

text: to microwaves outside the atmosphere, avoiding these losses, and the downtime (and

text: cosine losses

text: , for fixed flat-plate collectors) due to the

text: Earth's rotation

text: The leaders soon discover the reason for Guilala's appearance on Earth was due to a Chinese satellite that fell out of orbit and was the crashed "meteorite" in Sapporo. Assisting the leaders is Dr. Sano, a Japanese scientist who discovers that Guilala is actually a cosmic spore attached to the Probe that was exposed to the Earth's atmosphere, causing it to grow into the monster. He also figures out that the crash caused Guilala to lose a lot of energy and it's searching for "high temperature" energy to recharge. The doctor doesn't think the monster will leave Japan until it finds the energy it needs. Meanwhile, Guilala arrives at the Noboribetsu Power Planet and sucks all of the energy out of the plant.

text: The leaders soon discover the reason for Guilala's appearance on Earth was due to a

text: Chinese

text: satellite that fell out of orbit and was the crashed "meteorite" in Sapporo. Assisting the leaders is Dr. Sano, a Japanese scientist who discovers that Guilala is actually a cosmic spore attached to the Probe that was exposed to the Earth's atmosphere, causing it to grow into the monster. He also figures out that the crash caused Guilala to lose a lot of energy and it's searching for "high temperature" energy to recharge. The doctor doesn't think the monster will leave Japan until it finds the energy it needs. Meanwhile, Guilala arrives at the

text: Noboribetsu

text: Power Planet and sucks all of the energy out of the plant.